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UNIVERSAL 

Pronouncing  Dictionary 


OF 


BIOGRAPHY 


AND 


MYTHOLOGY. 


BY  J.  THOMAS,  A.M.,  M.D., 

AUTHOR  OF 

THE  SYSTEM  OF  PRONUNCIATION  IN  "  LIPPINCOTT'S  PRONOUNCING  GAZETTEER  OF  THE  WORLD," 
AND  OF  THE  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARIES  OF  BIOGRAPHICAL  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL 
NAMES  IN  "WEBSTER'S  UNABRIDGED  DICTIONARY." 


COMPLETE  IN  ONE  VOLUME. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  AND  CO. 
1873. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1870,  by 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  &  CO., 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  Sta^  9  for  the 
Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


I 


PREFACE. 


The  plan  of  the  present  work  differs  in  several  important  respects  from  that  of  any  other 
biographical  dictionary  which  has  yet  been  offered  to  the  public.  In  its  preparation  the  aim 
has  been  to  produce  a  convenient  and  complete  book  of  reference,  both  for  Mythology  and 
Biography, — one  which  in  all  essential  respects  should,  if  possible,  be  fully  equal  to  the  best 
biographical  dictionaries  in  the  language,  and  include,  in  addition,  succinct  notices  of  all  the 
more  important  subjects  of  the  Norse  and  Hindoo,  as  well  as  of  Classic,  Mythology,  with  the 
CORRECT  Pronunciation  of  the  various  names.  In  order  to  accomplish  these  objects,  and 
at  the  same  time  confine  the  work  within  reasonable  limits,  great  attention  has  been  given 
to  the  condensation  as  well  as  to  the  proper  selection  of  the  different  articles.  That  the  work, 
moreover,  may  combine,  as  far  as  practicable,  completeness  with  brevity,  to  the  more  im- 
portant notices  have  been  added  ample  bibliographical  references,*  indicating  to  the  reader 
the  sources  whence  he  can  obtain  the  fullest  information  respecting  any  person  in  whom  he 
may  chance  to  feel  a  particular  interest. 

Among  the  peculiar  features  of  the  present  work,  that  of  the  pronunciation  of  the  names 
may  justly  claim  the  first  place,  both  on  account  of  its  intrinsic  importance,  and  because  (so 
far  as  we  are  aware)  this  is  the  first  time  that  anything  of  the  kind  has  ever  been  attempted 
in  any  work  on  general  biography. 

The  utility  of  such  a  feature  (if  thoroughly  carried  out)  would  seem  to  be  too  obvious 
to  require  any  argument.  Its  great  importance,  however,  can  only  be  fully  appreciated  by 
those  who — like  teachers  or  public  speakers — have  learned  by  large  experience  the  exceeding 
inconvenience  arising  from  the  want  of  a  standard  for  the  pronunciation  of  modern  names. 

In  pronouncing  modern  proper  names  there  are  only  three  courses  which  can  by  any 
possibility  be  pursued  :  ist.  To  blunder  over  or  pronounce  them  at  random,  like  a  barbarian 
who  should  attempt  to  speak  a  language  of  which  he  knows  nothing  ;  2dly.  To  endeavour 
^to  pronounce  all  names,  foreign  as  well  as  English,  according  to  the  principles  of  our  own  lan- 
Ijguage,  giving  each  letter  its  proper  English  sound  ;  or,  lastly.  To  adopt  the  system  of  pronun- 
ciation  now  generally  recognized  by  the  more  highly  educated  classes  not  only  in  England  and 
America,  but  also  in  Germany  and  most  other  parts  of  Europe — that  is,  to  pronounce  all 
.  names,  as  nearly  as  possible,  as  they  are  pronounced  by  the  well-educated  people  of  the  dif- 
ferent  countries  to  which  such  names  belong,  with  the  exception  of  those  very  few  celebrated 
names,  such  as  Calvin,  Cervantes,  Galileo,  Luther,  Napoleon,  Petrarch,  etc., 
which  may  bp  said  to  have  acquired  an  established  English  pronunciation. 

Respecting  the  first  method — if  method  it  can  be  called — we  need  not  waste  our  own  or 
the  reader's  time  in  pointing  out  its  absurdity.    As  to  the  second,  although  at  the  first  glance 
it  may  have  an  appearance  of  plausibility,  we  shall  find,  if  we  scan  it  attentively,  that  for  all 
practical  purposes  it  is  little,  if  any,  better  than  the  first.     A  few  examples  will  suffice 
"fc(jQ  to  show  the  utter  absurdity  of  attempting  to  pronounce  foreign  names  according  to  the 

^         *  The  only  exceptions  to  this  statement,  of  any  consequence,  will  be  found  under  the  notices  of  living  persons, 
^     of  whom,  generally  speaking,  there  are  either  no  published  biographies  or  else  such  only  as  are  very  defective  and 
unsatisfactory. 


111 


PREFACE. 


English  sounds  of  the  letters.*  How,  for  example,  should  we  pronounce  the  name  of  the 
celebrated  German  poet  Heine,  according  to  such  a  system?  Should  the  ei  be  sounded  like 
ee^  as  in  the  English  words  seize.,  ceilings  etc.?  or  like  long  a,  as  in  vein.,  weight.,  inveigh? 
or  like  long  /,  as  in  height.,  sleight.,  etc.?  Should  Heine  then  be  pronounced  heen.,  hdn,  or 
htnP  or  should  we  sound  the  final  ^,  and  make  it  hee'ne.,  hd'ne^  or  hi'ne?  Or  take,  if  you 
choose,  another  name,  equally  well  or  better  known — that  of  Schiller.  Now,  the  proper 
English  sound  of  sch  is  sk.,  as  in  school^  scholar.,  schooner.,  etc.  We  have  no  genuine  English 
word  in  which  sch  has  the  sound  of  sh.,\  although  we  have  some,  as  schism.,  schismatic,  etc., 
in  which  it  sounds  like  simple  s.  Yet  would  any  one  in  his  senses  seriously  advocate 
pronouncing  the  name  of  Germany's  most  popular  poet  either  as  SkiVler  or  Sil'ler  ?  Innu- 
merable instances,  moreover,  occur,  in  which  it  is  very  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  pronoun(  e 
the  names  of  other  countries  according  to  the  English  sounds  of  the  letters,  as  Bjornson, 
CzAjKOWSKi,  etc.,  although  there  is  not  the  slightest  difficulty  in  pronouncing  them  according 
to  the  sounds  of  the  languages  to  which  they  belong.  A  multitude  of  instances  also  occur 
in  which  the  English  mode  of  pronouncing,  though  not  difficult,  would  be  far  less  euphonious 
than  the  native  pronunciation.  Cagliari  (kal'ya-ree)  and  Borgognone,  (boR-gon-yo'na,) 
two  distinguished  painters  of  Italy,  and  Carvalho,  (kaR-val'yo,)  a  Portuguese  bibliographer, 
may  serve  as  examples.  Another  insuperable  difficulty  in  the  way  of  pronouncing  many  for- 
eign names  according  to  the  sounds  of  our  own  tongue  arises  from  the  fact  that  in  some  lan- 
guages the  same  sound  is  often  represented  by  different  letters.  Thus,  oe  and  6  in  German 
are  sounded  precisely  alike ;  hence,  Goethe  and  Gothe  should  clearly  have  the  same 
pronunciation.  Again,  the  Spanish  j  and  x  are,  in  sound,  exactly  equivalent  to  each  other  : 
therefore,  Caravajal  and  Caravaxal  should  be  pronounced  exactly  alike.  So  also  the 
Portuguese  ch  and  ^,  having  the  same  sound  (that  of  our  were  formerly  often  interchanged, 
as  in  the  names  Xaves  or  Chaves, |  Xingu  or  Chingu,  Xoa  or  Choa,  (written  in  English, 
Shoa,  etc.)  Innumerable  examples  of  this  kind  might  be  adduced.  It  must  be  obvious,  even 
to  the  least  intelligent  mind,  that  the  attempt  to  pronounce  names  so  differently  written 
according  to  the  English  sounds  of  the  letters  would  lead  to  endless  confusion. 

The  only  rational  course  then  left  for  us  is  to  adopt  the  third  method  noticed  above,  and  to 
pronounce  modern  names,  as  nearly  as  possible,  as  they  are  pronounced  by  the  inhabitants 
of  the  respective  countries  to  which  such  names  belong.  It  is  admitted  that  cases  not  unfre- 
quently  occur  in  which  it  is  impossible  to  convey,  with  any  great  degree  of  precision,  the 
pronunciation  of  foreign  sounds  by  means  of  English  letters ;  but  something  is  undoubtedly 
gained  by  such  an  approximation  to  the  true  sound  as  would  enable  one  more  readily  to 
understand,  and  to  be  understood  by,  those  who  are  familiar  with  names  as  spoken  in  their 
proper  tongue.  Nor  are  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  acquiring  such  a  pronunciation  nearly 
so  great,  even  for  the  ordinary  English  scholar,  as  at  first  sight  might  appear.  Take,  for 
example,  the  various  names  which  occur  in  the  histories  and  biographies  of  modern  Italy. 
In  all  the  countless  thousands  of  those  names  (whether  of  persons  or  places)  there  is  not  a 
single  vowel  or  consonant  sound  which  has  not  its  exact  equivalent,  or  something  very  near 
it,  in  our  own  language;  and,  consequently,  not  one  which,  if  properly  explained^  an 
Englishman  or  American  could  not  pronounce  with  ease.  Though,  to  one  unacquainted 
with  the  language,  many  of  the  names  may  have,  when  written,  an  uncouth  and  even 
formidable  appearance,  there  is  nothing  uncouth  or  formidable  in  the  sounds  which  they 
represent.  Again,  in  the  fifty  thousand  or  more  names  of  Spain  and  Spanish  America 
there  is  only  one  sound  (that  of  j  or  x)  which  presents  any  real  difficulty  to  the  English 

*  The  celebrated  Charles  James  Fox  is  said  to  have  favoured  such  a  system.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  he 
merely  proposed  to  Anglicize  the  pronunciation  of  well-known  foreign  names  somewhat  more  generally  than  is 
customary.  He  could  hardly  have  intended  to  apply  the  principles  of  English  pronunciation  to  all  foreign  names, 
without  exception. 

t  All  words  of  this  kind,  as  schisi,  schorl,  are  clearly  of  foreign  origin,  and  of  recent  introduction  into  our  language. 

X  In  old  books  instances  of  this  kind  are  very  frequent,  but  at  present  the  Spaniards  nearly  always  use 7,  (not  x,) 
the  Portuguese,  ch,  (not  x,)  except  in  a  few  words  and  names  of  foreign  origin,  and  the  Germans,  0,  (not  oe.) 
But,  as  the  English  and  French  still  very  frequently  employ  x  for  /  in  writing  Spanish,  so  they  generally  make  use 
of  oe  instead  of  0  in  writing  German  names. 

iv 


PREFACE. 


speaker,  and  this  corresponds  almost  exactly  to  the  sound  of  the  German  in  such  words 
as  ach^  nach^  doch^  etc.  For  those,  therefore,  who  may  have  already  acquired  the  elements 
of  German  pronunciation  even  this  difficulty  would  be  wholly  removed.  The  names  of 
Portugal  or  Portuguese  America  (Brazil)  are  scarcely  more  formidable  than  those  of  Italy. 
There  is,  indeed,  only  one  sound  *  (that  of  m  or  ao)  unknown  to  our  language,  and  this  is 
by  no  means  difficult  to  acquire.  So  that  by  learning  two  foreign  sounds  an  Englishman 
or  American  will  be  enabled,  if  the  pronunciation  be  properly  marked,  to  pronounce,  with 
tolerable  correctness,  all  the  myriads  of  names  belonging  to  Italy,  Portugal,  Spain,  Brazil,  i 
and  Spanish  America.  With  regard  to  French,  the  case  is,  we  admit,  very  different ;  but,  as 
an  offset  to  the  inherent  difficulties  of  this  language,  we  have  the  fact  that  it  is  more  univer- 
sally studied  than  any  other  ;  so  that  if  one  is  really  desirous  of  mastering  its  peculiar  sounds 
he  will  at  least  be  pretty  sure  to  find  near  at  hand  ever}'  needful  aid  for  doing  so. 

Persons  who  view  the  different  European  languages  separately  are  apt  to  regard  the 
mastering  of  the  difficult  sounds  in  all  as  a  far  more  formidable  task  than  it  really  is.  They 
forget  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  most  difficult  sounds  are  common  to  several  different 
languages.  For  example,  the  French  and  Dutch  u  is  equivalent  to  the  German  and  Hun- 
garian and  to  the  Danish,  Norwegian,  and  Swedish  Here  it  will  be  seen  that  the  same 
sound  (and  that  one  of  the  most  difficult  for  an  Englishman  to  acquire)  occurs  in  seven  dif- 
ferent languages.  Again,  the  German  6  or  oe  is  found  in  Hungarian,  Danish,  Norwegian, 
and  Swedish,  and  nearly  corresponds  to  one  of  the  most  difficult  of  the  French  and  Dutch 
sounds,  that  of  eu  in  the  Dutch  words  breuk^  reuk^  or  in  the  French  leur^  -peur.,  etc. 
The  German  c/z,  as  already  remarked,  corresponds  almost  exactly  to  the  Spanish  j  or  at, 
and  is  essentially  the  same  as  the  modern  Greek  /,  the  Russian  the  Polish,  Scottish,  and 
Welsh  ch^  and  the  Dutch  g.^ 

The  acquisition  of  ten  or  twelve  new  sounds,  which  might  be  learned  by  persons  of 
ordinary  aptitude  in  a  few  hours,  would  enable  any  one  who  can  read  correctly  the  pro- 
nunciation of  English  words,  as  marked  in  Walker's,  Webster's,  or  Worcester's  Dictionary, 
to  pronounce  with  tolerable  correctness  all  the  names  of  Portugal,  Spain,  Italy,  France, 
Belgium,  Holland,  Germany,  Denmark,  Norway,  and  (we  might  perhaps  add)  of  Sweden, 
Russia,  and  Hungary. 

In  another  part  of  the  work  will  be  given  a  full  and  particular  explanation  of  the  system 
of  orthoepy  which  has  been  adopted,  and  of  the  method  pursued  in  order  to  insure  the 
greatest  attainable  accuracy.  It  may,  however,  be  proper  to  say  here,  that  the  author,  fully 
sensible  that  the  value  of  this  most  important  feature  (the  pronunciation  of  the  names)  must 
depend  almost  entirely  on  the  thoroughness  and  accuracy  with  which  it  is  carried  out,  has 
spared  neither  time,  labour,  nor  expense  in  order  to  render  it  as  perfect  as  possible. 
Particular  attention  has  been  given  to  what  may  be  termed  the  five  principal  languages  of 
Continental  Europe — namely,  the  Italian,  French,  German,  Spanish,  and  Russian.  In  regard 
to  the  French  especially,  this  being  by  far  the  most  important  of  all,  both  on  account  of  its 
being  so  widely  spoken,  and  on  account  of  the  inherent  difficulty  of  the  sounds  to  be  repre- 
sented, the  utmost  pains  have  been  taken  not  only  to  ascertain  the  correct  pronunciation, 
but  to  mark  it  so  fully  and  clearly  that  any  intelligent  person  who  has  once  acquired  the 
elementary  sounds  of  the  language,  and  made  himself  acquainted  with  our  system  of 
notation,  may  pronounce  with  facility  and  with  tolerable  accuracy  whatever  name  he  may 
\  have  occasion  to  speak.  As  already  observed,  the  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese  names 
are  comparatively  easy  for  the  English  or  American  learner.  Those  of  Germany  are  not 
very  formidable,  for  although  the  German  vowel  sounds  are  more  difficult  than  the  Italian, 
the  similarity  of  accent  that  exists  between  the  German  and  our  own  tongue  is  an  important 
help  to  us  in  acquiring  the  correct  German  pronunciation.  Of  the  five  languages  above 
named,  the  Russian  is  undoubtedly  the  most  difficult ;  but  in  overcoming  the  essential  diffi- 

*  There  are  one  or  two  other  sounds,  such  as  the  diphthongs  m  and  ei,  (or  ey^  which,  though  having  no  exact 
equivalent  in  English,  yet  differ  so  slightly  from  some  of  our  sounds,  and,  we  may  add,  are  so  easy  to  acquire,  that 
for  practical  purposes  they  may  be  said  to  form  no  exception  to  the  above  statement. 

t  The  same  sound  occurs  in  Arabic  and  Persian,  besides  many  other  languages. 

V 


PREFACE. 


culties  of  the  language,  the  author  has  had  the  assistance  of  some  of  the  best  Russian  scholars 
'in  Europe  ;  and  he  has  reason  to  hope  that  the  pronunciation  of  the  Russian  names  contained 
in  this  work  will  be  found  not  only  generally  correct  in  regard  to  the  accent,  (perhaps  the 
most  important  point  of  all,)  but  sufficiently  accurate  in  other  respects  for  all  practical 
purposes. 

As  the  Russian  Empire  unites  Asia  with  Europe,  so  the  language  of  Russia  may  be  said 
to  form,  in  one  sense,  the  connecting  link  between  the  Oriental  and  European  tongues.  The 
names  belonging  to  the  other  languages  of  Europe  are  all  written  either  with  Roman  letters, 
or  in  characters,  like  the  German  and  modern  Greek,  which  can  readily  be  converted  into 
corresponding  Roman  letters ;  and  the  mode  of  writing  such  names  is,  with  very  few  excep- 
tions, the  same  in  all  the  various  European  languages ;  for  example,  Mazzini,  the  name  of 
the  renowned  Italian  patriot,  is  not  only  the  Italian,  but  the  English,  French,  German,  Dutch, 
Danish,  Swedish,  and  Spanish  name  of  the  same  person  ;  in  like  manner,  the  name  of  the 
celebrated  French  philosopher,  Descartes,  will  be  found  to  be  invariably  written  with  the 
same  letters  in  all  the  modern  languages  of  Western  and  Southern  Europe  ;  so  also  the 
name  of  Schiller,  the  illustrious  German  poet,  is  spelled  alike  in  Italian,  French,  Spanish, 
German,  etc. ;  for  though  in  the  last-named  language  it  is  usually  (but  by  no  means  univer- 
sally) written  in  German  characters,  (©chiller,)  yet  as  these  exactly  correspond  to  the  Roman 
letters  usually  employed  in  spelling  the  name,  the  difference  is  only  apparent,  not  essential. 
Russian  names,  on  the  contrary — as  they  (like  all  Oriental  names)  are  neither  written  in 
Roman  letters  nor  in  characters  which  can  be  converted  into  corresponding  Roman  letters — 
are  spelled  according  to  the  sound,  the  writers  of  the  different  nations  seeking  to  indicate 
the  pronunciation  of  the  name  in  the  manner  which  to  them  seems  most  proper.  Thus  the 
name  of  one  of  the  most  distinguished  Russian  poets  is  written  in  English  Derzhavin,  in 
French  Derjavine,  and  in  German  Derschawin,  each  spelling  being  intended  to  repre- 
sent the  sound  of  the  name  according  to  the  different  languages  ;  so  likewise  the  name  of 
another  celebrated  Russian  poet  is  written  in  English  Pooshkin  or  Pushkin,  in  French 
Pouchkine  or  Pouchekine,  and  in  German  Puschkin  ;  each  of  these  different  modes  being 
intended  to  represent  exactly  the  same  pronunciation.  It  is  curious  to  observe  that  the 
Russians  adopt  precisely  the  same  rule  in  writing  foreign  names  ;  that  is,  they  spell  them 
(with  a  few  exceptions)  according  to  the  sound,  without  attempting  to  follow  the  letters 
of  the  original  spelling;  thus,  they  would  write  Bordo  for  Bordeaux,  Dzhonson*  for  John- 
son, Davoo  for  Davoust,  Roosso  for  Rousseau,  Chimaroza\  for  Cimarosa,  ChartoriskeeX 
for  Czartoryski,  etc.  ;  in  the  same  manner  as  a  Frenchman  might  write  Ouachintonn 
for  Washington,  (as  Volney§  actually  does,)  Cheqtiespir  for  Shakespeare,  and  so  on. 
(See  "  Reiff's  Russian  Grammar,"  pp.  167,  168.) 

There  is  perhaps  no  branch  of  pronunciation  attended  with  so  many  difficulties  as  that  of 
Oriental  names.  One  great  source  of  perplexity  arises  from  there  being  in  our  language  no 
uniform  and  established  system  for  writing  such  names.  French  and  German  writers,  for  the 
most  part,  adhere  pretty  strictly  to  the  rule  referred  to  above — that  is,  they  try  to  represent 
as  nearly  as  possible  the  sound  of  the  name  in  their  own  language.  The  French  write  the 
name  of  the  celebrated  Mongol  conqueror  of  the  thirteenth  century,  Djenguis,  or  Djenguyz. 
The  Germans  write  it  Dschengis  ;  and  both  give  the  sound  of  the  name,  as  nearly  as  it  can 
be  done,  in  their  own  tongue.  The  French  have  no  other  way  of  representing  the  sound  of 
oury  (a  very  common  sound  in  the  Oriental  languages)  than  by  Dj  or  Dg.  The  Germans 
represent  the  same  sound  in  the  best  way  they  can,  but  very  imperfectly,  by  Dsch,  In  the 
second  syllable  of  the  above  name  the  French  use  u  after  ^,  to  make  this  consonant  hard 
before  ^,     ox  y.   If  the  u  were  omitted,  the^  (being  before  e)  must  necessarily,  according  to 

*  They  have  no  single  letter  to  represent  our /,  but  one  which  is  exactly  equivalent  to  our  zh. 

t  They  represent  the  sound  of  our  ch  by  a  single  character,  H.. 

X  As  we  are  unable  to  give  the  Russian  letters,  we  give  the  nearest  equivalent. 

§  See  Volney's  "  Tableau  du  Climat  et  du  Soldes  fitats-Unis  d'Amerique,"  {2  vols.,  Paris,  1803,)  where  the  reader 
will  also  find  Wayne  spelled  Ouayne ;  Williams  written  Ouilliams ;  Rush,  (Dr.,)  Roche;  Green  Briek,  Grine" 
hreiiar ;  Worcester,  Ouorcester^  etc. 

vi 


PREFACE. 


rules  of  the  French  tongue,  have  the  sound  of  thei!  /  or  our  5:^.  But  in  German,  as^  is 
always  hard,  they  need  use  only  the  simplest  form,  {g'is.)  The  sound  of  the  name,  however, 
is  represented  much  more  simply  and  more  perfectly  in  English  by  Jengis  or  Jengiz.  Again  : 
the  name  of  a  celebrated  Sultan  of  Syria  and  Egypt  is  written  in  French,  Nour-ed-Din 
Mahmoud,  in  German,  Nur-ed-Din-Mahmud,  and  would  be  written  in  English,  Noor* 
ed-Deen-Mahmood.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  French  make  no  attempt  to  conform  to 
the  German  spelling,  nor  the  Germans  to  the  French  ;  but  both  nations  adhere  very  generally 
to  the  principles  of  their  respective  languages.  Unfortunately,  a  large  majority  of  English 
writers,  instead  of  conforming  to  a  rule  which  has  the  double  merit  of  being  (in  most 
instances)  simple  and  easy  for  the  writer  and  perfectly  intelligible  to  the  reader,  by  sometimes 
writing  in  the  French  and  sometimes  in  the  German  or  Italian  mode,  and  not  very  unfre- 
quently  combining  the  two  in  the  same  name,  have  involved  the  department  of  Oriental 
names  in  a  confusion  which  is  most  perplexing  to  all,  and  is  absolutely  inextricable  to  those 
who  have  not  made  it  the  subject  of  long  and  laborious  study.* 

Even  if  the  mode  of  writing  Oriental  names  according  to  the  French  and  German  letters 
were  equally  intelligible  to  ordinary  readers  as  the  English  mode,  there  would  still  be  one 
paramount  argument  in  favour  of  the  last — viz. :  the  letters  of  our  language  are  capable  of 
conveniently  expressing  or  representing  a  greater  variety  of  sounds  than  those  of  any  other 
European  tongue.  There  is  no  sound  much  used  either  in  Oriental  or  Russian  names  which 
we  cannot  express  as  well  as  the  French  ;  while  there  are  several  which  we  can  express  much 
better  than  they  ;  and  there  are  sounds  perfectly  familiar  to  our  tongue  which  they  cannot 
express  at  all.  Take,  for  example,  the  sound  of  our  j\  (which,  as  already  intimated,  is  of  very 
frequent  occurrence  in  Asiatic  names :)  what  we  express  by  a  single  letter  is  indicated  less 
perfectly  in  their  language  by  two — dj.  So  also  the  sound  of  our  ck^  one  of  continual  occur- 
rence both  in  the  names  of  Asia  and  of  Eastern  Europe,  is  indicated  in  French  by  three  letters 
instead  of  our  two,  as  Tchandra  for  Chandra,  etc.  It  may  be  remarked  that  this  sound, 
as  well  as  that  of  y,  is  one  of  the  most  common  and  familiar  to  the  English  tongue,  while 
both  are  foreign  to  the  French  language,  since  neither  of  them  is  to  be  found  in  any  genuine 
French  word.  Again  :  our  w  expresses  a  sound  (common  in  the  Oriental  languages)  which 
is  not  nearly  so  neatly  nor  so  well  expressed  by  the  French  ou.  This  defect  in  their  language 
is  so  obvious  that  some  eminent  French  writers  (Fauthier,  for  example,  in  his  works  on 
China)  often  make  use  of  iv  when  they  wish  to  represent  the  sound  of  our  w  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  name  ;  e.g.^  Wen  Wang — not  Ouen  Ouang,  as  the  strictly  French  mode  of 
writing  would  require.  Lastly,  there  are  sounds  expressed  in  our  language  with  perfect  ease 
which  they  cannot  represent  at  all ;  among  them  are  the  sounds  of  the  Greek  0  (th)  and 
^,  (th  ;)  the  first  of  these  is  of  frequent  occurrence,  not  only  in  modern  Greek,  but  in  Spanish 
names. 

With  respect  to  the  German  language,  there  is,  if  we  mistake  not,  but  one  frequently- 
occurring  sound  in  Oriental  names  (that  of  kh^  indicated  in  German  by  ch)  which  can  be 
better  represented  in  German  than  in  English,  while  there  are  many  which  can  not  only  be 
more  conveniently  expressed  in  English,  but  much  more  correctly  than  in  German.  Thus, 
the  Germans  employ  four  letters  {dsch)  to  indicate  the  sound  of  our  j\  and  after  all  represent 
it  most  imperfectly,  as  in  the  example  of  Dschengis,  (Jengis,)  noticed  above.  Their  four 
letters,  tsch^  do  not  represent  correctly  the  sound  of  our  ch^  nor  does  their  sc7i  convey  even  a 
tolerable  idea  of  our  zk^  (the  sound  of  s  in  pleasure  or  occasion.)  Like  the  French,  they 
have  no  letter  or  combination  of  letters  equivalent  to  our  w,  nor  can  they  in  any  manner 
represent  the  sound  of  the  modern  Greek  6  or  d. 

One  mode  of  writing  Oriental  names,  which  has  been  recommended  by  several  eminent 
scholars,  is  to  employ  English  consonants  in  conjunction  with  German  or  Italian  vowels, 
marked  with  certain  accents  in  order  to  show  their  quantity  or  quality.  Thus,  a  without  the 
accent  represents  the  Italian  a  either  short  or  obscure,  a  ov  d  denotes  the  long  Italian     as  in 

*  One  great  cause  of  this  confusion  undoubtedly  arises  from  the  fact  that  many  English  writers,  in  attempting 
to  translate  works  from  the  German  and  French,  fail  to  translate  the  names.  But  such  an  omission  could  scarcely 
occur  if  there  was  any  generally-recognized  system  of  writing  such  names. 

vii 


PREFACE, 


father^  often  approaching  the  sound  of  a  in  fall;  e  as  in  met  or  her ;  e  or  e  as  in  fete  or 
there;  i  as  in  pin;  i  or  i  as  in  marine;  o  nearly  as  in  opinion;  6  or  6  as  in  ;  u  as  in 
or  full;  u  ox  ti  like  in  moon.  This  method  has  the  merit  of  combining  brevity  with  pre- 
cision, and  is  well  adapted  to  publications  designed  chiefly  for  the  use  of  scholars ;  but  there 
are  serious,  if  not  insuperable,  objections  to  its  general  employment  in  English  works  intended 
for  popular  perusal.  While  such  works  are  printed  under  the  immediate  superintendence 
of  some  competent  linguist,  they  may,  perhaps,  answer  every  needful  purpose ;  but  as  soon 
as  they  get  into  general  and  popular  use,  and  require  to  be  reprinted,  the  accents,  as  all  ex- 
perience proves,  will  be  dropped  either  through  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  printer,  or, 
what  is  more  likely  to  occur,  from  a  want  of  the  proper  kind  of  type.  And  let  it  be  re- 
membered that  the  omission  of  the  proper  accent  in  such  a  case  is  equivalent  to  the  omission 
of  a  letter,  with  this  great  disadvantage,  that  the  former  error  would  be  much  less  likely  to 
attract  attention,  and  would  therefore  be  less  readily  corrected. 

Those  accustomed  to  the  study  of  languages  can  scarcely  conceive  the  difficulty  which 
the  unlearned  experience  in  attempting  to  pronounce  for  the  first  time  the  letters  of  a  foreign 
tongue.  Readers  of  this  class  would  be  almost  sure  to  miscall  such  names  as  Nureddin 
or  NouREDDiN,  Abdul  Mejid  or  Abdoul  Medjid,  and  a  multitude  of  others,  while  they 
could  pronounce  them  without  the  slightest  difficulty  if  written  according  to  the  English 
sounds  of  the  letters — Noor-ed-Deen,  Abdool  Mejeed,  etc.  We  admit  tliat  there  are 
many  names  which,  in  order  to  give  a  correct  idea  of  their  pronunciation,  would  require 
some  additional  explanation  besides  merely  writing  them  with  English  letters.  But  in  a 
realm  where  the  intricacies  are  so  perplexing  and  the  obstacles  so  formidable  as  often  to 
bewilder  and  discourage  the  most  intelligent,  it  is  certainly  no  unworthy  or  useless  task  to 
attempt  to  do  all  that  can  be  done  to  smooth  and  straighten  the  paths  and  to  remove  every 
unnecessary  obstruction. 

The  rule  adopted  in  the  present  work  has  been  to  give  various  spellings  of  every  cele- 
brated Oriental  name,  whenever  these  spellings  appeared  to  be  sanctioned  by  any  good 
authority ;  the  biographical  notice  being  given  under  the  English  spelling,  which  is  placed 
first  in  order.*  Thus,  in  the  name  above  cited,  the  English  Noor-ed-Deen  Mahmood  is 
given  first,  to  which  are  added  the  French  Noureddin  (or  Nour-ed-Dyn)  Mahmoud, 
and  the  German  Nureddin  Mahmud.  So,  also,  the  notice  of  the  great  Mongol  conqueror, 
referred  to  above,  is  given  under  the  English  spelling  Jengis,  this  being  followed  not  only 
by  the  French  and  German  forms,  (Djenguiz  and  Dschengis,)  but  by  many  others,  it 
being  the  rare  fortune  of  this  famous  name  to  be  written  by  respectable  authorities  in  no 
fewer  than  twenty  different  modes.  In  the  proper  alphabetical  place  of  each  of  these 
different  spellings  will  be  found  a  reference  to  that  form  of  the  name  under  which  the 
biographical  notice  is  given.  The  only  exceptions  to  the  rule  above  indicated  are  those 
very  few  names  which  appear  to  have  acquired  by  universal  (or  almost  universal)  usage  an 
established  form  common  to  the  different  European  languages ;  as  Avicenna,  (changed 
from  Ibn-Seend^)  Avenzoar,  {Ibn-Zohr,)  Averroes,  {Ibn-Roshd^)  Elmacin,  {Ml- 
Makeen  or  El-Making  Saladin,  {Sala-ed-Deen  or  Sala-eddtn^)  Solyman,  (of  Turkey, 
Sooleymdn^  etc. 

The  confusion  which  prevails  in  regard  to  the  spelling  of  Oriental  names  is  not,  however, 
the  only  cause  of  the  difficulties  with  which  this  subject  is  surrounded.  The  character  of  the 
Oriental  languages,  so  different  in  many  respects  from  those  with  which  we  are  most  familiar, 
renders  it  often  exceedingly  difficult  to  indicate  the  pronunciation  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to 
the  English  reader.  In  order  that  he  might,  as  far  as  possible,  enjoy  every  needful  facility 
and  aid  in  encountering  the  difficulties  in  question,  the  author  deemed  it  necessary  that  he 

*  The  only  exception  to  this  rule  of  any  importance  will  be  found  in  Mythological  and  other  names  from  the 
Sanscrit,  which,  like  the  Greek  and  Latin,  may  be  regarded  as  a  dead  language ;  the  names  occurring  in  it, 
written  according  to  the  system  established  by  Sir  William  Jones,  (see  page  vii.,  near  the  bottom,)  are  pronounced 
according  to  the  spelling  rather  than  the  (modern)  sound  of  the  letters.  At  the  same  time,  the  modern  Hindoo 
pronunciation,  when  this  appears  to  differ  essentially  from  the  pronunciation  first  given,  has  usually  been  added, 
For  illustration,  see  the  articles  on  Agni,  Brahma,  Garuda,  etc. 

viii 


PREFACE. 


should  have  some  knowledge  of  those  tongues  besides  what  books  alone  could  furnish.  He 
accordingly  spent  nearly  two  years  in  the  East  in  studying  the  rudiments  of  several  Asiatic 
languages,  (with  particular  reference  to  their  pronunciation,)  including  the  Arabic,  Persian, 
Sanscrit,  and  Hindostanee.  The  time  and  labour  thus  bestowed,  he  feels  persuaded,  have  not 
been  spent  in  vain.  He  has,  in  consequence  of  this  preparation,  not  only  been  enabled  to 
proceed  with  a  surer  step  in  representing  the  pronunciation  of  Asiatic  and  African  names, 
but  he  has  also  in  many  instances,  by  referring  to  the  name  as  written  in  Arabic  or  Sanscrit, 
been  enabled  to  correct  errors  of  greater  or  less  importance  in  the  prevalent  European  spell- 
ings of  Oriental  names. 

Respecting  the  bibliographical  references,  it  may  be  proper  to  remark  that  they  are  in 
tended  not  so  much  to  indicate  the  materials  from  which  the  preceding  notice  has  been  pre* 
pared,  as  to  point  out  to  the  reader  the  sources  whence  he  can  obtain  fuller  information. 
The  works  referred  to  will  be  found  generally,  but  not  always,  to  contain  all  the  materials 
used  in  the  composition  of  the  article  to  which  the  references  are  appended.  Occasionally 
an  isolated  fact  or  circumstance  of  minor  importance,  but  yet  of  sufficient  interest  to  make  it 
worth  stating,  may  have  been  obtained  from  some  source  deemed  good  authority,  to  which, 
nevertheless,  our  plan,  requiring  the  utmost  condensation,  would  not  admit  of  a  special  refer- 
ence. Many  of  our  facts,  moreover,  have  been  taken  from  the  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  the 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale,"  Brockhaus's  "  Conversations-Lexikon,"  or  other  similar 
works,  when  the  article  from  which  it  is  taken  was  too  brief  to  make  it  worth  while  to 
refer  to  it  particularly.  As  a  general  rule,  it  has  not  been  deemed  expedient  to  make  a 
special  reference  to  works  like  the  above,  unless  the  notice  referred  to  extended  to  a  page 
or  more.  This  rule  would,  of  course,  preclude  a  reference  in  nearly  all  cases  in  which  the 
subject  of  our  notice  is  of  minor  importance.  It  would,  however,  be  an  error  to  infer  that 
the  omission  of  all  references  is  intended  as  any  indication  of  mediocrity  in  the  subjects  of 
our  articles,  more  especially  in  regard  to  living  characters,  since,  as  has  been  already  inti- 
mated, the  materials  for  the  biographies  of  living  persons,  however  distinguished,  are  often 
extremely  meagre  and  defective.  Nor  would  it  be  just  to  conclude  that  in  all  cases  the 
length  of  the  different  notices  is  designed  to  be  a  measure  of  the  relative  importance  of  the 
individuals  noticed,  since  he  who  has  written  many  passable  works  may  perhaps  require  a 
longer  notice  than  he  who  has  produced  a  single  work  of  superior  merit.  Other  things 
being  equal,  the  man  of  action  will  almost  of  necessity  occupy  much  more  space  than  the 
man  of  thought,  although  the  latter  may  have  perhaps  far  juster  claims  upon  the  esteem 
and  gratitude  of  mankind,  and  his  glory  may  be  as  much  more  permanent  as  it  is  less  daz- 
zling, and  less  fitted  to  win  the  admiration  of  the  unthinking  and  fickle  multitude. 

It  may  be  observed  also  that  considerably  less  space,  relatively  speaking,  has  generally 
been  allotted  to  living  persons  than  to  those  who  are  deceased  ;  not  merely  because  it  is 
often  much  more  difficult  to  obtain  the  necessary  information  in  regard  to  the  living,  but 
more  especially  because  it  behooves  us  to  speak  with  great  circumspection,  whether  in  the 
way  of  praise  or  censure,  of  those  whose  earthly  career  is  still  unfinished,  and  whose  future 
conduct  may  possibly  redeem  the  errors  or  throw  discredit  on  the  virtues  of  their  past  life.* 

The  subjects  of  the  Hindoo  and  Norse  Mythologies  have  been  treated  somewhat  more  fully 
in  proportion  to  their  relative  importance  than  those  of  Classic  Mythology,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  while  one  can  find  almost  everywhere  excellent  works  relating  to  the  last,  there 
exists  scarcely  any  book  of  convenient  reference  to  which  the  ordinary  reader  can  have  re- 
course in  order  to  satisfy  his  curiosity  respecting  the  two  former. 

With  respect  to  the  relative  length  of  the  various  articles  there  will  of  course  be  con- 
siderable diversity  of  opinion  among  different  readers,  according  to  their  respective  pursuits 
and  habits  of  thought.     We  are  not,  however,  without  hopes  that  the  majority  of  candid 

*  Voltaire  has  well  remarked  :  "  On  doit  des  egards  aux  vivants  ;  on  ne  doit  aux  morts  que  la  verite"— ("  We  owe 
consideration  to  the  living  ;  to  the  dead  we  owe  only  truth.")  This  consideration  for  the  living  was,  indeed,  formerly 
deemed  so  important  that,  until  the  last  half  century,  all  works  of  reference  of  this  kind  systematically  excluded  the 
biographies  of  living  persons,  however  illustrious  ;  thus  rejecting  the  very  class  in  which  perhaps  a  large  majority 
of  readers  feel  the  deepest  interest. 

I  ix 


PREFACE. 


critics  will  admit  that  on  the  whole  the  space  allotted  to  each  notice  has  been  apportioned 
with  a  fair  measure  of  justice  and  impartiality.  Those  who  are  familiar  with  works  of  this 
kind  cannot  fail  to  have  remarked  that  certain  principles  of  perspective,  so  to  speak,  prevail 
in  history  and  biography  as  well  as  in  the  arts  of  design.  No  French  historian  or  biographer 
would  treat  the  events  or  the  actors  of  English  history  with  the  same  fulness  or  minuteness 
that  an  English  writer  would  naturally  employ  in  describing  the  same  occurrences  or  per- 
sons. The  same  general  remark,  mutatis  mutandis.,  will  apply  with  equal  truth  to  English, 
German,  or  Italian  writers  of  history  and  biography.  As  events  are  magnified  in  importance 
by  nearness  of  place,  they  are  in  like  manner  modified  by  nearness  of  time.  Although  the 
author  of  the  present  work  has  felt  himself  justified  in  following  principles  so  universally 
recognized,  and  has  accordingly  given  a  greater  prominence  to  the  distinguished  men  of  his 
own  country,  and  to  those  of  recent  times,  than  to  individuals  equally  eminent  among  other 
nations  or  living  in  a  remote  age,  it  has  been  his  earnest  aim  not  to  allow  this  liberty  to 
degenerate  into  license.  In  regard  to  this  and  all  similar  questions  respecting  which  there 
are  no  clearly  defined  rules  or  authoritative  precedents  by  which  his  course  could  be  surely 
guided,  he  feels  that  he  may  safely  rely  on  the  candour  and  intelligence  of  his  critics,  since 
those  whose  opinion  is  most  to  be  valued  or  feared  will  be  most  capable  of  appreciating  the 
inherent  difficulties  as  well  as  the  extraordinary  labour  involved  in  the  preparation  of  such 
a  work. 

To  the  following  works  on  general  biography  we  have  been  under  especial  obligations  in 
the  preparation  of  this  Dictionary  : 

1.  Michaud's  "Biographic  Universelle,"  of  which  the  first  edition,  (the  publication  of 
wlifich  was  begun  in  Paris  in  iSio,)  with  the  supplement,  has  extended  to  nearly  ninety  vol 
umes  8vo,  and  has  included  among  its  contributors  many  of  the  most  distinguished  names  in 
French  literature  and  science ;  e.g.^  those  of  Biot,  Cuvier,  De  Sacy,  Guizot,  Sismondi, 
Madame  de  Stael,  Villemain,  etc. 

2.  The  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale,"  edited  by  Dr.  J.  C.  F.  Hoefer,  and  published 
at  Paris  by  Messrs.  F.  Didot  Freres  in  forty-six  volumes  8vo,  (i 857-1 866.)  This  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable  works  on  general  biography  to  be  found  in  any  language.  That  portion 
embracing  the  first  twelve  letters  of  the  alphabet  (/.^.,  from  A  to  M,  inclusive)  exceeds  in 
completeness  every  other  publication  of  the  kind  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge.  If 
inferior  to  the  "  Biographic  Universelle  '*  in  the  length  and  fulness  of  many  of  the  memoirs, 
it  greatly  surpasses  that  work  in  the  number  of  its  biographical  notices ;  and  it  possesses 
two  important  additional  recommendations — first,  of  including  the  living  as  well  as  the  dead, 
and,  secondly,  of  giving  the  reader  valuable  bibliographic  information  under  almost  every 
article. 

3.  Brockhaus's  Conversations-Lexikon,"  in  16  volumes  large  8vo,  (Leipsic,  1851-1855,) 
which  is  especially  full  in  regard  to  the  distinguished  men  of  the  present  century,  and  par- 
ticularly those  of  Germany  ;  also  the  annual  continuation  of  that  work,  entitled  "  Jahrbuch 
zum  Conversations-Lexikon." 

4.  Pierer's  "  Universal-Lexikon,"  in  19  volumes,  fourth  (last)  edition,  greatly  enlarged, 
(Altenburg,  1857-1865.) 

5.  Vapereau's  "  Dictionnaire  des  Contemporains,"  (1858  et  seq,^  important  for  the 
information  it  gives  respecting  living  persons. 

6.  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyclopadie  der  Wissenschaften  und  Kiinste," 
145  vols.  4to,  (Leipsic,  1818-1869.)  This  great  work  has  numbered  among  its  contributors 
several  of  the  most  eminent  literary  and  scientific  men  of  Germany. 

Nor  must  we  omit  to  notice,  among  the  important  works  of  general  reference,  the  "  Critical 
Dictionary  of  English  Literature  and  British  and  American  Authors,"  by  S.  Austin 
Allibone,  to  be  completed  in  three  volumes  imperial  8vo,  of  which  two  volumes 
(1858-1870,  pp.  2326)  have  already  appeared  ;  and  the  "  Dictionary  of  the  United  States  Con- 
gress and  the  General  Government,  compiled  as  a  Book  of  Reference  for  the  American 
People,"  by  Charles  Lanman,  (6th  edition,  1869.'* 

X 


PREFACE, 


As  this  Dictionary  of  Biography  and  Mytliology,  comprising,  as  it  does,  distinguished  indi- 
viduals of  all  ages  and  countries,  must  of  necessity  be  extremely  brief  in  regard  to  a  large 
majority  of  the  notices,  and  especially  those  of  persons  belonging  to  foreign  countries,  and 
as  our  plan  does  not  admit  of  special  bibliographical  references,  except  under  the  more 
important  articles,  it  may  not  be  without  use  to  refer  the  reader  to  the  following  works  on 
NATIONAL  biography : 

In  relation  to  the  distinguished  men  of  Denmark,  Norway,  etc.,  see  Kraft  og  Nyerup, 
"  Almindeligt  Litteraturlexicon  for  Danmark,  Norge  og  Island,"  (Copenhagen,  2  vols.  4to, 
1820;)  and  T.  H.  Erslew,  Almindeligt  Forfatter-Lexicon  fra  1814  til  user  vaerende  Tid," 
(Copenhagen,  3  vols.  Svo,  1843-1853,)  with  a  supplement  extending  to  1864,  (2  vols.) 

For  Holland. — See  A.J.  van  der  Aa,  ''Biographisch  Woordenboek  der  Nederlanden,** 
(2  vols.,  1852-1855.) 

For  Italy. — G.  M.  Mazzuchelli,  "  Gli  Scrittori  d'  Italia,  cioe  Notizie  storiche  e  critiche 
intorno  afle  Vite  e  agli  Scritti  dei  Letterati  Italiani,"  (6  vols.,  1753-1763;  a  work  of  great 
merit,  but  unfortunately  not  extending  beyond  the  first  two  letters  of  the  alphabet;)  E.  de 
TiPALDO,  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri  nelle  Scienze,  Lettere  ed  Arte  del  Secolo  XVIII.  e 
de'  Contemporanei,"  (10  vols.  8vo,  1 835-1 847  ;)  G.  Tiraboschi  "  Storia  della  Letteratura 
Italiana,"  (20  vols.  8vo,  1805-1813.) 

For  Portugal. — D.  Barbosa  Machado,  "  Bibliotheca  Lusitana  na  qual  se  compre- 
hende  a  Noticia  dos  Authores  Portuguezes  e  das  Obras  que  compuserao,"  (4  vols,  fol.,  1741- 

I759-) 

For  Spain, — N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  sive  Hispanorum  qui  usquam  unquamve 
seu  Latina  seu  populari,  seu  alia  quavis  Lingua  scripto  aliquid  consignaverunt,  Notitia,"  (3 
vols,  fol.,  1672,)  and  ''Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova,"  (2  vols,  fol.,  1783-1788.)  To  which 
may  be  added  Cean-Bermudez*  "  Diccionario  Historico  de  los  mas  ilustres  Professores  de 
las  bellas  Artes  en  Espana,"  (6  vols,  small  8vo,  1800.) 

For  Sweden. — Georg  Gezelius,  "  Forsok  til  et  biographiskt  Lexicon  ofeer  namnkunnige 
och  liirde  Svenska  Man"  (3  vols.  8vo^  1776-1778,)  and  supplement,  (2  vols.  Svo,  1780;)  and 
a  more  recent  work,  of  great  value,  (edited  chiefly  by  W.  F.  Palmblad,)  entitled  "  Biogra- 
phiskt Lexicon  ofver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man,"  extending  to  23  vols.  8vo  ;  the  publica- 
tion of  which  was  begun  at  Upsal  in  1835,  and  was  afterwards  continued  at  Oerebro,  (1856  ;) 
and  a  sequel  to  the  same,  in  5  vols.  (Oerebro,  1857-1864.) 

We  cannot  conclude  without  expressing  our  grateful  acknowledgments  to  our  numerous 
friends,  both  in  this  city  and  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States,  not  merely  for  valuable 
information  of  various  kinds,  but  still  more  for  the  generous  words  of  encouragement  which 
we  have  received  from  them  during  our  long  and  arduous  labours.  We  feel  confident  that 
this  general  expression  of  our  gratitude  will  be  more  acceptable  to  most  of  them  than  a  more 
particular  and  open  acknowledgment  of  their  disinterested  kindness. 

But  there  are  those  whose  claims  are  so  important  that  justice  to  the  public,  if  not  to  them 
and  to  ourselves,  demands  a  more  explicit  statement  of  the  nature  of  our  obligations.  To 
Mr.  William  Jacobs,  our  almost  constant  collaborator  for  more  than  ten  years,  our  acknow- 
ledgments are  pre-eminently  due  for  his  conscientious  fidelity,  no  less  than  for  his  untiring 
diligence  and  well-directed  research,  to  which  must  be  ascribed  in  no  small  measure  what- 
ever of  accuracy  or  thoroughness  our  work  may  possess.  To  his  pen  we  owe  not  only  a 
multitude  of  the  minor  notices,  but  no  inconsiderable  number  of  the  more  important  articles, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  those  on  Cicero,  Milton,  Newton,  La  Fayette,  Hamil- 
ton, (Alexander,)  and  Napoleon  III. 

Justice  and  gratitude  alike  require  that  we  should  acknowledge  our  great  obligations  to 
Professor  Edward  H.  Magill,*  of  Swarthmore  College,  for  ascertaining,  during  his  recent  visit 
to  Europe,  the  correct  pronunciation  of  a  multitude  of  difficult  or  doubtful  names  in  the 
French,  Italian,  and  Russian  languages.  He  performed  this  important  task  not  merely  with 
the  ability  of  a  skilful  linguist,  but  with  a  conscientious  thoroughness  and  accuracy  which  can 

*  Known  to  the  public  as  the  author  of  a  series  of  excellent  elementary  books  on  the  French  language, 

xi 


PREFACE. 


only  be  fully  appreciated  by  those  who  know  by  experience  the  peculiar  difficulties  attending 
researches  of  this  kind. 

We  gladly  avail  ourselves  of  this  opportunity  to  express  our  heartfelt  thanks  to  the  Rev. 
Charles  P.  Krauth,  D.D.,  for  many  important  favours,  the  value  of  which  has  been  trebly 
enhanced  by  the  spirit  of  truest  kindness  and  generosit}^  in  which  they  have  been  bestowed. 
To  cite  one  example  out  of  many,  he  has  placed  at  our  entire  disposal  the  contents  of  a  library 
which,  for  the  number  of  its  volumes,  and  more  especially  for  the  rarity  of  many  of  its  books, 
is  surpassed  by  few,  if  any,  private  libraries  in  the  United  States. 

Nor  must  we  omit  to  mention  our  important  obligations  to  Daniel  B.  Smith,  of  German- 
town,  to  whose  friendly  sympathy  and  encouragement,  enjoyed  through  a  series  of  years,  no 
less  than  to  his  judicious  suggestions  and  valuable  counsel,  which  his  extensive  and  varied 
learning  so  eminently  qualifies  him  to  impart,  we  are  more  deeply  indebted  than  any  words  of 
ours  can  express. 

To  Mr.  James  S.  Lippincott,  of  Haddonfield,  so  well  known  through  his  Important 
contributions  to  climatology  and  other  kindred  branches  of  science,  our  warmest  thanks  are 
due  for  much  accurate  and  valuable  information  relating  to  a  great  variety  of  subjects. 

Justice  requires  that  we  should  not  withhold  the  acknowledgment  of  our  great  obligations 
to  Mr.  Joseph  McCreery,  our  accomplished  proof-reader,  to  whose  intelligence  and  judgment 
as  a  critic  we  are  scarcely  less  indebted  than  to  the  remarkable  fidelity  and  accuracy  with 
which  he  habitually  performs  the  duties  of  his  office. 

Nor  can  we  omit  the  expression  of  our  heartfelt  gratitude  to  Mr.  Rudolf  Blankenburg  for 
the  aid  he  has  rendered  us  in  regard  to  the  pronunciation  of  German  names,  and  for  other 
important  assistance  in  the  prosecution  of  our  arduous  labours. 

With  sincere  pleasure  we  embrace  this  opportunity  to  express  our  cordial  thanks  to 
Mr.  Lloyd  P.  Smith,  the  librarian  of  the  Philadelphia  Library,  to  whose  extensive  knowledge 
of  books,  as  well  as  to  his  unfailing  courtesy  and  kindness  in  aiding  our  researches,  we 
are  under  especial  obligations. 

We  should  do  injustice  to  our  own  feelings  did  we  not  acknowledge  our  great  indebted- 
ness to  Mr.  William  A.  Wheeler,  of  Boston,  for  a  variety  of  interesting  information  in  regard 
to  the  pronunciation  of  difficult  or  doubtful  names,  to  which  his  rare  skill  in  questions  of 
orthoepy  has  added  a  double  value. 

Nor  can  we  withhold  the  acknowledgment  of  our  heartfelt  obligations  to  the  Trustees  and 
Superintendent  of  the  Boston  Public  Library,  for  their  liberality  in  affording  us  every  possible 
facility  for  availing  ourselves  of  the  rich  literary  treasures  of  an  institution,  no  less  remarkable 
for  the  endless  variety  and  value  of  its  works,  than  for  the  liberal  and  enlightened  spirit  which 
presides  over  its  administration. 

J.  JHOMAS. 

Phiiadelphia,  June,  1870. 


INTRODUCTION. 


We  have  already  in  our  Preface  spoken  in  general  terms  of  the  system  of  pronunciation  and 
orthography  adopted  in  the  present  work.  It  is  proposed  in  this  introductory  portion  to  offer, 
in  support  of  the  plan  that  we  have  thought  proper  to  pursue,  some  additional  arguments  and 
observations,  which  will  be  followed  by  an  explanation  of  the  general  principles  of  pronunciation 
of  each  of  the  more  important  European  and  Asiatic  languages. 


It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  the  practice  of  nearly 
all  our  distinguished  poets,  but  more  particularly  of  those 
of  the  present  century,  goes  to  support  the  system  of 
pronunciation  which  we  have  adopted ;  that  is,  they 
almost  invariably  follow  the  native  accentuation  of  proper 
names, — even  where  this  is  very  irregular, — except  in 
the  case  of  those  few  well-known  names  which  have 
acquired  an  established  English  pronunciation,  as  Cal- 
vin, CoRTEZ,  Kosciusko,  etc.  As  the  principles  of 
geographical  pronunciation  are  precisely  the  same  as 
those  of  the  names  of  persons,  and  as  geographical  names 
very  often  form  a  part  either  of  the  surnames  or  titles 
of  distinguished  men,  we  may  without  impropriety  cite, 
in  order  to  prove  our  position,  either  the  names  of  places 
or  of  persons  occurring  in  the  works  of  the  poets.  It  is 
indeed  the  more  necessary  that  we  should  be  allowed  the 
liberty  of  doing  so,  since  names  of  /Vr^o^^/ar  accentuation 
are,  comparatively  speaking,  of  rare  occurrence.  We 
have  spoken  particularly  of  accentuation,  because,  in  a 
large  majority  of  cases,  that  is  all  that  can  be  determined 
from  the  usage  of  the  poets.  It  is  scarcely  necessary 
to  remind  the  classical  reader  that  the  misaccentuation 
of  Latin  or  Greek  names  is  justly  considered  an  inex- 
cusable fault  in  an  educated  poet.  We  will  endeavour 
to  show  that  our  best  poets  are  not  less  punctilious  in 
the  pronunciation  of  modern  names.  That  they  should 
accentuate  correctly  such  names  as  Granada,  Bologna, 
*Ravenna,  etc.  is  nothing  surprising,  since  the  easiest 
and  most  natural  accentuation  is  also  the  correct  one  ; 
but  that  they  should  be  scrupulously  exact  in  the  pro- 
nunciation of  names  in  which  the  accent  is  placed  irregu- 
larly, is  more  remarkable.  It  may  be  affirmed  without 
fear  of  contradiction  that  in  all  the  poetry  of  Byron, 
Moore,  Rogers,  Southey,  Scorr — and,  we  may  per- 
haps add,  of  any  other  distinguished  poet  of  the  present 
century — scarcely  a  solitary  instance  can  be  pointed  out 
of  the  misaccentuation  of  a  name  of  which  the  poet  had 
any  opportunity  of  knowing  the  correct  pronunciation.* 

*  The  only  exception  to  this  rule,  if  we  mistake  not,  occurs  in 
French  names,  which,  as  the  accent  rests  equally  (or  nearly  so)  on 
all  the  syllables,  cannot  readily  be  adjusted  to  the  metre  of  English 
verse,  in  which  case  the  poet  usually  places  the  accent  according 
to  the  general  rule  of  English  pronunciation, — that  is,  on  the  penul- 
tima  or  antepenultima,  very  rarely  on  the  last  syllable.  In  the  pro- 
nunciation of  foreign  names  that  have  become  thoroughly  anglicized, 
it  is  interesting  to  observe  the  tendency  of  our  language  to  throw  the 
Kccnt  as  far  as  possible  from  the  termination:  e.g.  Mil'an,  (It. 


True,  Scorr  says  "  Panama but,  at  the  time  when  he 
wrote,  very  few  persons,  even  in  the  United  States,  were 
acquainted  with  the  correct  accentuation  of  that  name. 
Some  of  our  old  poets  also  mispronounced  Niagara. 
Goldsmith  says, 

"  Where  wild  Oswego  spreads  her  swamps  around, 
And  Niagara  stuns  with  thund'ring  sound."t 

The  Traveller. 

But  this  is  to  be  explained  simply  by  the  fact  that  he  had 
no  means  of  learning  the  true  pronunciation,  and  therefore 
he  accentuated  the  name  in  the  manner  which  appeared 
to  him  the  most  easy  or  most  natural.  It  is  worthy  of 
remark  that  the  only  English  poet  of  note  who  had  an 
opportunity  of  ascertaining  the  true  pronunciation  of  the 
name  of  the  great  cataract  is  the  only  one  (so  far  as  we 
are  aware)  who  has  pronounced  that  name  correctly. 
We  have  heard  it  asserted  that  Moore  also,  using  a 
"poet's  license,"  has  placed  the  accent  on  the  penultima ; 
but  any  one,  we  feel  sure,  who  will  read  his  verse  atten- 
tively, will  see  that  he  always  gives  the  correct  pronuncia- 
tion. The  name  occurs  several  times  in  his  poems,  but 
the  following  passage  shows  his  accentuation  so  clearly 
as  to  leave  no  room  for  doubt  or  equivocation ; 

"  I  could  fancy  almost  he  and  I  were  a  pair 
Of  unhappy  young  lovers,  who  thus,  side  by  side, 
Were  taking,  instead  of  rope,  pistol,  or  dagger,  a 
Desperate  dash  down  the  falls  of  Niagara." 

Fudge  Family  in  Paris,  Letter  V. 

The  following  are  a  few  examples  illustrating  the  usage 
of  eminent  English  poets  respecting  foreign  names  of 
irregular  accentuation : 

"  Lerma  '  the  generous,'  Av'ila  '  the  proud.'  " 

Rogers  :  Voyage  of  Columbus, 

"  So  acted  to  the  life,  as  Maurice  might 
And  Spi'nola  have  blushed  at  the  sight." 

Ben  Jonson:  Underwoods, 
(vol.  viii.  p.  427  of  Gifford's  edition,  London,  1816.) 

MilAno  or  MilXn,)  Tvr'ol,  (Ger.  Tyr6l,)  etc.  Hanover,  which 
might  be  pronounced  with  the  native  accentuation  (Han6ver)  without 
the  slightest  oiTence  to  the  genius  of  our  tongue,  (for  we  have  a 
multitude  of  words  similar  in  accent,  as  devotion,  projnoier,  etc.,) 
has  become  irrecoverably  Han'ovrr.  Thus,  also,  we  pronounce 
Andalu'sia,  (in  Spanish,  ANDALUcf  a,)  Ar'agon,  (in  Spanish,  Ara- 
gon',)  etc. 

t  Many  persons  suppose  that  Niagdra  corresponds  in  accentuation 
with  the  old  Indian  name  :  but  this,  we  have  reason  to  believe,  is  an 
error :  the  Indians  pronounce  the  name  very  much  as  the  French 
pronounce  it,— Ne'i'gS'ri'. 

5 


INTRODUCTION. 


"And  strangers  were  received  by  thee, 
Of  C6kdova  the  chivalry." 

Bykon  :  Translation  of  a  Spanish  Ballad 
on  the  Conquest  of  Alhama. 
"  The  regal  seat 
Of  Abdalazis,  ancient  C6kdoba." 

"  Till  they  saw 
The  temples  and  the  towers  of  C6rdoba 
Shining  majestic  in  the  light  of  eve." 

SouTHEY :  Roderick,  book  v. 
"  How  quick  they  carved  their  victims,  and  how  well. 
Let  Saxony,  let  injured  Genoa  tell." 

Moore. 

'*  Remember  the  moment  when  Prevesa  fell, 
The  shrieks  of  the  conquered,  the  conquerors'  yell." 

Byron  :  Childe  Harold,  canto  ii. 
"Unseen  is  YAnina,  though  not  remote." 

Childe  Harold,  canto  ii. 

There  is,  perhaps,  no  class  of  names  whose  accentua- 
tion seems  more  foreign  to  an  English  ear  than  those 
ending  in  ia  with  the  accent  on  the  penultima.  Yet 
even  in  such  cases  the  poets  conform  to  the  native  pro- 
nunciation : 

"  Sustained  by  thoughts  like  these,  from  morn  till  eve 
He  journeyed,  and  drew  near  LEYRfA's  walls." 

SouTHEY :  Roderick,  book  iii. 
"  And  now  appear,  as  on  a  phosphor  sea. 
Numberless  barks  from  Mil'an,  from  PAvfA." 

Rogers  :  Italy,  Part  i.,  vii. 

Among  the  principal  languages  of  continental  Europe, 
the  German,  in  its  accent  and  in  the  metre  of  its  verse, 
has  perhaps  the  nearest  affinity  to  the  English  ;  and  it 
is  worthy  of  remark  that  precisely  the  same  general 
usage  prevails  with  respect  to  foreign  names  in  German 
poetry  as  in  that  of  our  own  tongue.  Any  one  may 
satisfy  himself  of  the  correctness  of  this  statement  if 
he  will  consult  the  poems  of  Schiller,  who  seems  to  have 
had  occasion  to  use  foreign  names  far  more  frequently 
than  almost  any  other  German  poet.  In  his  drama  of 
"  Don  Carlos,"  Madrid  occurs  nearly  twenty  times,  and 
always  with  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable.  This  one 
fact  (even  were  there  no  other)  may  show  how  sparingly 
the  "poetical  license,"  so  often  alluded  to,  is  used  by 
perhaps  the  most  careless  in  versification  of  all  the  great 
poets  of  Germany.  Mirandola  (a  town  in  Italy)  occurs 
twice,  and  in  both  instances  has  the  accent  on  the  ante- 
penultima  : 

"Zwei  edle  Hauser  in  MirXndola." 
"Eilt  nach  MirXndola  der  Trunkene." 

Act  i.  Scene  3. 

This  is  the  more  remarkable  because  Mirandola  is  an 
exception  to  the  general  rule  of  Italian  pronunciation, 
which  places  the  accent  on  the  penultima  of  words  end- 
ing in  a,  vowel. 

The  name  of  the  famous  Princess  of  Eboli  occurs  a 
great  number  of  times,  and  invariably  with  the  correct 
accentuation, — that  is,  with  the  accent  on  the  antepenul- 
tima,  although,  this  is  contrary  to  the  general  rule  both 
of  Spanish  and  Italian  pronunciation.  The  following 
lines  will  suffice  to  show  Schiller's  accentuation  : 
"  Ich  hoflfe  melne  Eb'oli  denkt  anders." 
"  Prinzessin  Eb'oli,  sie  haben  uns 

Noch  nicht  gesagt  ob  Gomez  hoffen  darf." 
"  Wir  wollen  wissen,  ob  er  lieben  kann, 
Und  Liebe  kann  verdienen, — Eb'oli? 

Don  Carlos,  Act  i.  Scene  3. 
"Der  Fiirstin  Eb'oli  die  Hand  zu  reichen." 

Act  ii.  Scene  8. 

6 


"Das  lang'  entbehrte  Gliick  verscliafft,  der  Fiirstin 
Von  Eb'oli  mich  wiederum  zu  nahern." 

Act  ii.  Scene  11. 

If  our  poet  is  not  equally  correct  in  regard  to  Al- 
calA,  (a  small  town  of  Spain,)  it  was  owing,  doubtless, 
either  to  the  difficulty  of  making  such  a  name  "  lie 
smooth  in  rhyme,"  or  to  his  being  ignorant  of  its  true 
accentuation.  The  latter  is  by  no  means  improbable, 
inasmuch  as  the  Spanish  language  is  far  less  studied  by 
the  generality  of  European  scholars  than  the  Italian. 
That  it  was  not  the  result  of  carelessness  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  Alcala  is  always  pronounced  in  the  poem 
in  the  same  manner,  and  according  to  the  general  rule  of 
Spanish  accentuation;  that  is,  with  the  accent  on  the 
penultima.  It  may  be  remarked,  however,  that  Schiller 
places  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable  of  Paris,  Saint- 
Denis,  and  Saint-Quentin,* — in  all  of  which  he  differs 
from  the  English  and  conforms  to  the  French  accentua- 
tion. (See  "  Remarks  on  the  French  Accent,"  page  13.) 

But  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  illustration  of  this 
tendency  to  adopt  the  native  pronunciation  of  foreign 
names  is  found  in  his  drama  of  "  Mary  Stuart ;"  where 
the  poet,  with  the  obvious  intention  of  obliging  his 
countrymen  to  pronounce  the  English  names  correctly, 
invariably  in  his  verse  spells  Leicester  "  Lester," 
although  in  the  explanatory  (prose)  parts  of  the  play  he 
as  invariably  writes  it  "  Leicester,"  as  we  do  in  English. 
For  the  same  reason,  doubtless,  he  writes  Boleyn 
"  Boulen,"  that  his  countrymen  might  pronounce  the 
name  Boo'len,  nearly  as  it  is  spoken  in  England.  Had 
he  written  it  Boleyn,  the  Germans  might  have  placed 
the  accent  on  the  last  syllable,  as  we  often  hear  it  pro- 
nounced in  the  United  States. 

The  acce7ttuation  of  names  occurring  in  poetry,  as 
already  intimated,  can  readily  be  determined  by  the 
metre  ;  but  the  manner  in  which  the  poets  pronounced 
the  letters  of  a  foreign  name  cannot  be  so  easily  ascer- 
tained, since  it  can  be  known  only  when  the  name  ends 
a  line  in  rhyme  ;  and  even  then  it  is  often  extremely  un- 
certain, as  they  appear  to  consider  themselves  entitled, 
in  such  cases,  to  much  greater  license  than  in  the  ac- 
centuation of  words.  Thus,  we  often  see  associated,  in 
rhyme,  words  which  correspond  very  imperfectly  in 
sound,  as  enemy  and  mourn  and  burn,  etc.  Never- 
theless, by  comparing  a  number  of  passages,  especially 
of  those  poets  who  are  most  remarkable  for  the  cor^ 
rectness  of  their  rhymes,  we  shall  often  be  enabled  to 
ascertain  the  true  pronunciation  of  a  word  or  name. 

Now,  it  will  be  found  that  the  system  which  we  have 
adopted  is  supported  by  the  practice  of  the  poets  in  this 
respect  also.  In  other  words,  it  will  be  found  that,  while 
foreign  names  that  are  very  commonly  used  in  our  lan- 
guage have  an  English  pronunciation,  those  not  very  well 
knoum  are  generally  pronounced  %vith  the  foreign  sound  of 
the  letters,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  passages  ; 

"  '  'Tis  Jacqueline  !  'tis  Jacqueline  V 
Her  little  brother  laughing  cried ; 
'  I  know  her  by  her  kirtle  green. 

She  comes  along  the  mountain  side."* 
"  Not  now  to  while  an  hour  away. 
Gone  to  the  falls  in  Valombri.'* 
"  De  Courcy,  lord  of  A  rgentiire  ! 

Thy  thirst  for  vengeance  sought  the  snarg.*' — Rogers. 


*  The  two  former  names  occur  in  "The  Maid  of  Orleans,"  ("D^ 
Jungfrau  von  Orleans,")  the  last  in  "  Don  Carlos." 


INTR  OD  UCriON. 


"Winding  between  Alpine  trees, 
Spiry  and  dark  around  their  house  of  prayef, 
Below  the  icy  bed  of  bright  ^rg-^«/!i^r^."— Wordsworth. 

"  This  circumstance  may  serve  to  give  a  notion 
Of  the  high  talents  of  this  new  Vauban  * 
But  the  town-ditch  below  was  deep  as  ocean. 
The  rampart  higher  than  you'd  wish  to  hangy — Byron. 

"  For  many  an  age  remember'd  long 
Shall  live  the  towers  of  Hougomont* 

And  fields  of  Waterloa" — Scott. 

On  the  ortier  hand,  we  shall  find  the  poets  pronounce 
foreign  names  of  some  celebrity  with  the  English  sound 
of  the  letters,  as  may  be  seen  from  these  and  similar 
examples : 

"  Gh,  never  talk  again  to  me 

Of  northern  climes  and  British  ladies  ; 
It  has  not  been  your  lot  to  see, 

Like  me,  the  lovely  girl  of  Cadiz.''^ — Byron. 
"  And  Courtenay's  pride  and  Percy's  fame 
Blazed  broader  yet  in  aher-years, 
At  Cressy  red  and  fell  Poitiers.'''' — Scott. 

"  So  the  shaft 

Of  victory  mounts  high,  and  blood  is  quaffd 

In  fields  that  rival  Cressy  and  Poictiers, — 

Pride  to  be  wasli'd  away  by  bitter  tears." — Wordsworth. 

Not  unfrequently  the  poets  will  be  found  to  give  the 
correct  pronunciation  of  names  even  when  this  differs 
essentially  from  the  popular  usage.  Thus,  Halleck  says, 

"  Born  in  a  camp,  its  watchfires  bright 
Alone  illumed  my  cradle-bed, 
And  I  had  borne  with  wild  delight 

My  banner  where  Boli'var  led." — Magdalen. 

The  pronunciation  of  the  name  of  Coke,  the  celebrated 
lawyer  and  statesman,  is  almost  always  given  correctly 
(kook)  by  the  poets,  although  this  does  not  correspond 
with  the  usual  spelling.t  In  proof  of  this  we  may,  out 
of  a  multitude  of  examples,  cite  the  following; 

*'  May  he 

Be  by  his  father  in  his  study  took 

At  Shakespeare's  plays  instead  of  my  Lord  Coke.'''' 

See  "A  Poetical  Revenge,"  in  Cowlkv's  Miscellanies. 

"  And  said  she  must  consult  her  hooks, 
Tlie  lover's  Fletas,  Bractons,  Cokes." 

Swift:  Cadenus  and  Vanessa. 

"Also  observe  that,  like  the  great  Lord  Coke, 
(See  Littleton,)  whene'er  I  have  expressed 
Opinions  two  which  at  first  sight  may  look 
Twin  opposites,  the  second  is  the  best." 

BvRON :  Don  Juan,  canto  xv.  stanza  Ixxxvii. 

The  name  of  Bolingbroke  is  almost  always  pronounced 
correctly  (Bolingbrook)  by  the  poets.  The  following 
example,  out  of  several  occurring  in  the  same  poem, 
may  serve  as  an  illustration  : 

"What  hope  have  you  that  ever  Bolingbrok'e 
Will  live  a  subject  that  hath  tried  his  fate? 
Or  what  good  reconcilement  can  you  look. 

When  he  must  always  fear  and  you  must  hate?" 

Daniel:  History  of  the  Civil  War,  book  ii.  stanza  xxxv. 

*  In  these  names  the  letter  n  is  similar  in  sound  to  ng.  The 
rhymes,  however,  are  not  perfect :  the  o  in  the  last  syllable  o{ Hougo- 
mont should  be  sounded  Kke  o  in  won't,  but  the  final  /  is  silent. 
The  final  syllable  of  Vauban  sounds  almost  like  bing. 

t  We  say  usual  spelling,  because  in  Coke's  own  time  it  was  not 
unfrequently  written  Cook.  "  In  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  James 
I.,  Sir  Edward's  name  was  frequently  spelt  Cook.  Lady  Hatton,  his 
second  wife,  who  would  not  assume  it,  adopted  this  spelling  in  writing 
to  him,  and  according  to  this  spelling  it  has  invariably  been  pro- 
nounced.''' (See  Lord  Campbell's  "  Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices," 
vol.  i.  chap,  vii.) 


There  is  one  difficulty  m  ■  arrying  out  the  system  of 
foreign  pronunciation  adopted  by  us,  which  it  may  be 
proper  to  notice  here,  viz.,  that  of  drawing  the  lines  be- 
tween foreign  names  which  are.,  and  those  which  are  noty 
well  known.  With  respect  to  the  more  obvious  in  each 
division  there  cannot  be  the  slightest  hesitation  ;  but  the 
two  classes  meet  and  pa5s  into  each  other  by  impercepti- 
ble gradations,  so  that  sometimes  the  question  whether 
they  should  be  pronounced  according  to  the  foreign  ot 
the  English  mode  can  be  settled  only  by  arbitrary  decis- 
ion. In  these  doubtful  instances  we  have  spared  no  pains 
to  ascertain  the  prevailing  practice  of  the  best  speakers, 
as  well  as  the  usage  of  the  poets  :  when  these  have  been 
found  unsatisfactory,  nothing  has  remained  for  us  but  to 
decide  according  to  the  best  of  our  ability.  We  have  in 
these  cases  usually  given  both  pronunciations,  placing 
that  first  which,  in  our  judgment,  is  to  be  preferred. 

In  those  cases  where  it  is  impossible  to  express  accu- 
rately the  sounds  of  other  languages  by  English  letters, 
we  have  endeavoured  to  employ  a  mode  of  indicating 
those  sounds  which,  if  it  does  not  afford  any  effectual 
assistance  to  the  mere  English  scholar,  may  at  least  be 
in  no  danger  of  embarrassing  or  leading  him  astray. 
Thus,  we  have  represented  the  sound  of  the  German  ch 
by  K,  distinguished  by  being  a  small  capital.  Perhaps 
a  strongly  aspirated  h — which  might  be  indicated  by  hh 
— would  convey  a  nearer  idea  of  the  German  sound  ; 
but  it  seems  less  eligible  than  the  other  mode,  both  be- 
cause persons  might  differ  in  the  pronunciation  of  it  or 
perhaps  be  at  a  loss  to  pronounce  it  at  all,  and  because 
the  established  mode  of  anglicizing  the  German  r/z  seems 
to  be  to  change  its  sound  to  that  of  k,  as  in  the  instances 
BLUCHER,t  Blumenbach,  Meiternich,  etc.  The 
Scottish  and  Dutch  sounds  of  ch,  so  similar  to  the  Ger- 
man, when  anglicized,  assume  invariably,  if  we  mistake 
not,  the  sound  of  k.  The  ordinary  mode  of  pronouncing 
the  Greek  x  tends  to  the  same  result.  We  have  not, 
however,  represented  the  sound  of  the  German  g,  at  the 
end  of  a  syllable,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  ch,  though  it 
has  nearly  the  same  sound,  because  it  is  not  customary  to 
anglicize  it  by  the  sound  of  k,  except  in  a  few  instances. § 
Were  the  pronunciation  of  such  a  word  as  berg  repre- 
sented by  berYi,  the  effect  would  be  to  lead  the  Eng- 
lish scholar  to  pronounce  it  differently  from  the  ordinary 
mode,  while  he  would  be  in  no  respect  nearer  the 
German  than  those  who  pronounce  the  word  according 
to  the  English  sound  of  the  letters.  Another  considera- 
tion may,  perhaps,  be  allowed  to  have  some  weight, 
viz.,  that  though  the  more  approved  mode  of  German 
pronunciation  requires  that  g,  when  it  does  not  begin  a 
word,  should  be  pronounced  nearly  like  ch,  yet  in  some 
parts  of  Germany  it  is  pronounced  in  every  case  like^ 
hard  in  English.  In  a  similar  manner,  and  for  similar 
reasons,  we  have  usually  represented  the  German  t^;  by  a 

X  Although  in  America  we  very  frequently  hear  this  name  pro- 
nounced Blu'tcher  by  intelligent  speakers,  the  ch  should  unquestion- 
ably be  hard,  as  is  indicated  by  the  following  passage  from  Moore's 
"  Fudge  Family  in  Paris  :" 

"  A  fine  sallow  sublime  sort  of  Werter-faced  man, 
With  mustachios  that  gave  (what  we  read  of  so  oft) 
The  dear  Corsair  expression,  half  savage,  half  soft; 
As  hyenas  in  love  may  be  fancied  to  look,  or 
A  something  between  Abelard  and  old  Blucher." 
§  Dantzic  or  Dantzick,  (German,  Danzig,)  Leipsic  or  Leip- 
siCK,  (German,  Leipzig,)  Sleswick,  (German,  Schleswig ;  Danish, 
Slesvig,)  are  the  only  examples  that  we  now  recollect. 

7 


INTRO  D 


UCTION. 


^,  and  not  by  a  v,  though  this  is  nearer  the  sound  of  the 
German  letter.' 

With  regard  to  French  names,  however,  a  different 
plan  has  been  pursued,  both  because  it  is  less  easy,  so 
to  speak,  to  anglicize  the  French  letters,  and  because, 
from  the  circumstance  of  this  being  far  more  studied 
than  any  other  foreign  language,  it  is  much  more  usual 
for  English  or  American  speakers  to  adopt  all  the  pecu- 
liar sounds  in  pronouncing  French  words  or  names. 


ARABIC. 
I. 

The  Arabic  belongs  to  what  is  called  the  Semitic* 
family  of  languages,  and  is  nearly  related  to  the  Hebrew, 
which  it  resembles  not  only  in  its  general  grammatical 
structure,  but  also  in  the  form  of  many  of  its  individual 
words.  Of  all  the  Semitic  family  it  is  by  far  the  richest 
in  its  literature  and  the  most  copious  in  its  vocabulary. 
Like  the  Hebrew,  it  is  written  from  right  to  left.  It 
belongs  to  the  class  referred  to  in  the  Preface  (p.  vi.)  as 
"  neither  written  in  Roman  letters  nor  in  characters 
which  can  be  converted  into  corresponding  Roman  let- 
ters ;"  it  is  therefore  customary  for  Europeans  in  giving 
Arabic  words  or  names  to  spell  them  according-  to  the 
sound,  the  writers  of  the  different  nations  seeking  to 
indicate  the  pronunciation  in  the  manner  which  to  them 
seems  most  proper.  In  order  to  be  able  to  point  out 
more  clearly  the  causes  of  the  diversity  which  prevails 
among  European  writers  respecting  the  manner  of  rep- 
resenting the  sounds  of  the  Arabic  tongue,  and  for  other 
reasons,  we  have  deemed  it  proper  to  present  to  the 
reader  a  table  of  the  Arabic  characters,  accompanied  by 
such  explanations  as  seemed  necessary  for  our  purpose. 

The  Arabic  alphabet  consists  of  twenty-eight  letters, 
as  follows : 


2  . 

0  Q 

U  Id 

',  Q 

J 

^  w 

8  u 

d  <-> 

< 

Q 

< 

Name. 

Power. 

^  z 

Ui 

2 

I. 

L 

L 

V 

alif. 

a. 

2. 

>. 

J 

ba. 

b. 

3- 

0 

o- 

X. 

J 

ta. 

t. 

4- 

0 

A 

% 

thl 

th. 

5* 

jeem  or  jim. 

j- 

6. 

z 

Hi 

H. 

7. 

% 

i> 

kha. 

kh. 

8. 

dal. 

d. 

9- 

l\ 

dhai. 

dh. 

10. 

Jt 

/ 

J 

>> 

ra. 

r. 

II. 

jt 

J 

J 

J 

z. 

12. 

seen  or  sin, 

s. 

13- 

sheen  or  shin, 

sh. 

14. 

/O 

sad. 

s  or  ss. 

15. 

0^ 

AO 

dsad, 

ds  or  dh. 

16. 

J. 

Ja 

L 

ta, 

t. 

17. 

12 

dza. 

dz  or  dh. 

*  I.e.  Shemitic, — a  term  derived  from  Shem,  the  son  of  Noah, 
t  The  letters  thus  marked  ought  never,  according  to  the  rules  of 
Arabic  orthography,  to  be  connected  with  those  that  follow  them. 

8 


Uncon- 
nected. 

Final  Con- 
nected. 

Medial. 

Initial. 

Name. 

Powi 

18. 

t 

X 

£ 

ain,  (^'in  or  in,) 

t 

19- 

t 

k 

ghain,  (g^'in  or  Gin,)  J 

20. 

Si 

5 

f£l, 

f. 

21. 

A 

kaf. 

k. 

22. 

^§ 

^ 

Uf, 

k. 

23- 

JL 

i 

mm, 

1. 

24. 

r 

meem  or  mim. 

m. 

25. 

0 

0 

i 

noon  or  nun, 

n. 

26. 

J- 

J- 

waw, 

w. 

27. 

» 

i 

ha. 

h. 

28. 

l5 

l5 

J, 

y- 

In  the  Persian,  (and  Hindostanee,)  besides  the  fore* 
going,  the  following  four  additional  characters  are  used  j 
Unconnected.   Final  Connected.  Medial.   Initial.  Power. 
v—J  ^  -<j  J  p. 


ch. 
zh. 
g- 


(See  Section  XIV.) 

1.  \  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  is  sounded  variously, 
according  to  the  vowel-points  placed  upon  it,  (see  31  of 
this  section ;)  in  the  middle  of  a  word  it  is  sounded  as  a 
long  a,  as  in  v_jb  (bdb,)  a  gate. 

2.  Vw>  sounds  like  b  in  English. 

3.  o  has  the  sound  of  the  Spanish  /.  (See  XIX.  17.) 

4.  O  sounds  like  our  th  in  thin,  or  the  Spanish  z. 
S^^'In  Persian  and  Hindostanee  it  has  the  sound  of  s. 

5.  ^  is  usually  pronounced  like  the  English  y,  though 
in  some  dialects  it  has  the  sound  of  g  hard. 

6.  ^  sounds  nearly  like  the  Spanish  j  or  (see 
XIX.  9,)  but  it  is  formed  lower  in  the  throat. 

7.  ^  sounds  like  the  German  ch  in  ach,  doch,  etc. 
It  is  commonly  represented  in  the  French  and  English 
languages  by  kh,  and  in  the  German  by  ch. 

8.  0  nearly  resembles  the  English  d  in  sound,  but, 
in  pronouncing  it,  the  tip  of  the  tongue  is  placed  against 
the  teeth.  It  bears  the  same  relation  to  our  d  that  the 
Spanish  /  does  to  our 

9.  3  has  no  exact  equivalent  in  any  European  lan- 
guage, though  it  nearly  resembles  the  sound  of  our  th  in 
thy.  It  is  often  represented  by  dh,  and  sometimes  by  ds, 
dhs,  or  simple  d.  In  Persian  and  Hindostanee  it 
takes  the  sound  of  z. 

10.  ^  sounds  like  the  French  or  Italian  r,  or  like  rr  in 
the  English  word  terror. 

11.  J  has  the  sound  of  our  2. 

12.  \jH  sounds  like  our  s  in  this, 

13.  [J^  is  like  the  English  sh. 

14.  sounds  nearly  like  the  English  sharp  s ;  but, 


X  These  letters  have  in  sound  nothing  like  them  in  English.  (See 
[8  and  19  of  this  section.) 

§  Written,  also,  ^3.  |1  Written,  also, 


INTRODUCTION. 


in  pronouncing  it,  the  teeth  are  not  brought  so  nearly 
into  contact.    It  is  often  represented  by  jj,  or  by  f. 

15.  (jT  has  no  equivalent  in  any  European  language. 
It  is  variously  represented  by  dz,  dh,  dd,  and  ds.  This 
letter,  in  Persian  and  Hindostanee,  takes  the  sound  oi  z. 

16.  -b  is  in  sound  nearly  like  the  English  /,  but  is 
pronounced  somewhat  harder.  It  is  variously  repre- 
sented by  t,  tt,  and  th.* 

17.  j£>  has  a  sound  somewhat  similar  to  (jT'.  It  can- 
not be  indicated  by  any  English  letter  or  combination  of 
letters  ;  it  is,  however,  usually  represented  by  dA  or  d^/i. 
Ji^^  It  is  pronounced  like  2  in  Persian  and  Hindostanee. 

18.  ^  has  no  exact  equivalent  in  any  European  tongue. 
It  nearly  corresponds  to  the  Plebrew  ^-  In  the  hiatus  pro- 
duced in  uttering  S — d  in  quick  succession,  we  make  a 
sound  very  similar  to  the  Arabic  ain,  but  the  latter  is 
formed  lower  in  the  throat. 

19.  ^  has  no  equivalent  in  English.  It  bears  nearly 
the  same  relation  to  hard  g  that  M  (K)  does  to  k.  It  is 
sometimes  represented  by^,  but  more  frequently  by^//, 
at  least  by  French  and  English  Orientalists. 

20.  has  the  sound  of  our  / 

21.  is  similar  to  our  i,  but  is  formed  lower  in  the 
throat.  There  seems  to  be  a  sort  of  aspirate  mixed  with 
the  sound  of  It  is  sometimes  represented  by  (with 
a  dot  under  it,)  and  sometimes  by  g. 

22.  wii  in  sound  is  exactly  like  our  ^. 

23.  i3  is  like  the  English  /. 

24.  j»  is  pronounced  like  our  m. 

25.  Q  is  in  sound  like  the  English  n. 

26.  5,  as  a  vowel,  is  equivalent  to  00  or  u ;  as  a  con- 
sonant, it  sounds  like  the  English  w  or  v. 

27.  8  sounds  like  our  A;  when  final,  it  is  nearly  silent. 

28.  as  a  vowel,  sounds  like  ee  or  /,  in  which  case 
a  kasra  is  implied  or  expressed ;  as  a  consonant,  like  j. 
In  the  middle  of  a  word  the  sound  of  may  be  doubled 
by  means  of  the  tashdeed,  which,  in  writing,  is  often 
omitted.  Preceded  by  fatha,  (see  below,)  this  letter  as- 
sumes the  sound  of  our  long  t,  and  is  represented  by  az., 

29.  All  the  foregoing  characters  are  regarded  by  Arab 
grammarians  as  consonants.  I  has  been  compared  to 
the  soft  hxQ2i\.h.\r\g  (spiritus  lenis)  of  the  Greeks;  ^  is 
a  similar  breathing,  though  the  place  of  its  formation  is 
lower  in  the  throat. 

30.  The  true  vowels  are  three.  They  are  called — i. 
Fat' ha,  {a  ;\)  2.  Kas'ra,  (;,  sometimes  e ;)  and  3.  Dham- 
ma,X  (00  or  «.§)  Fatha  is  written  thus— over  the  con- 
sonant to  which  it  belongs ;  kasra  is  placed  beneath  its 
consonant,  thus—;  dhamma  (which  is  in  fact  a  minute  •)) 
is  written  over  its  consonant,  thus,—.  These  vowels 
are  always  joined  to  the  consonant  which  in  pronuncia- 
tion precedes  them:  thus,  in  ^i,  (kalam,)  a  "reed"  or 
"pen,"  the  fir&t  fatha  is  considered  to  belong  to  the  M/, 
over  which  it  is  placed,  the  second  to  the  /dm,  (not  to 


*  In  such  cases  ih  is  not  intended  to  indicate  a  sound  like  that 
of  the  English  tk  or  the  Greek  0,  but  rather  a  sound  similar  to  that 
of  the  Hindoo  th.    (See  XVIII.  6.) 

t  Often  represented  by  e,  and  sometimes  (in  English)  by  u  short. 
(See  IX.  3,  and  XIII.  3  ) 

t  Pronounced  by  the  Persians  zam'ma. 

§  Often  represented  by  o,  as  in  the  case  of  Mohammed,  (see  32  of 
this  section.) 


the  meem  which  comes  after  it ;)  and  so  in  all  similar 
cases :  it  follows  that  no  vowel  can  stand  by  itself.||  Hence, 
if  we  wish  to  write  an  initial  short  fatha,  it  must  be  as- 
sociated either  with  alif  or  aiti,  as  (ahad,)  a 
" unit," ^yic,  (afu,)  "forgiveness."  If  we  would  write 
a  short  initial  kasra  or  dhamma,  we  must  begin  the  word 
in  the  same  manner ^yjj,  (ib'n,)  a  "son,"  ^U^* 
(ibad,)  "servants,"  ^^f,  (uf  or  oof,)  "fie!"  ^y^&>  (ubiir 
or  dbboor,)  a  "passage"  or  "crossing." 

31.  As  a  general  rule,  if  any  one  of  the  simple  vowels 
is  joined  to  an  ordinary  consonant,  or  to  an  initial  alif 
or  ain,  it  is  short,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  previous 
examples  ;  but  if  in  any  syllable  not  initial  they  are 
joined  with  any  of  the  (so-called)  consonants  (alif,  ain, 
ivaw,  etc.)  to  which  they  naturally  correspond,  they  be- 
come long :  for  example,  fatha  with  alif  or  ain  gives  us 
the  sound  of  d,  as  vU,  (bab,)  a  "gate,"  tA*J,  (bad  or 
bi-ad,)  "after:"  so  kasra  with  yd  gives  the  sound  of  /, 
(or  ee,)  as  (seen  or  sin,)  the  name  of  the  letter  <^ ; 
so  also  dhamma  with  waw  gives  the  sound  of  u  or 
00,  as  {x\vM  or  noon,)  the  name  of  the  letter  q.  It 
should  be  observed  that  the  fatha  or  dhamma  is  not 
written  on  the  alif  or  waw,  nor  the  kasra  under  the  yd^ 
but  is  joined  to  the  previous  consonant,  the  semi-con- 
sonants coming  after,  for  the  sole  purpose,  it  would  seem, 
of  prolonging  the  vowel.l"  In  order  to  indicate  the  sound 
of  d  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  it  is  usual  to  place  a 
circumflex  over  the  alif, — thus,  \.  The  initial  long  /  ( i  or 
ee)  is  represented  by  jj,  and  long  u  (-&  ox  00)  by  •,1 

32.  The  vowels  are  not  usually  written  in  Arabic 
manuscripts,  and  they  are  scarcely  needed  by  the  native 
Arabs  who  already  know  the  language  ;  but  they  are 
of  great  utility  to  foreigners  in  learning  Arabic.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  jazm  or  jezm,  (**,)  a  mark  placed 
upon  a  consonant  to  show  that  it  has  no  vowel  following 
it,  as  vjjjj^,  (azrak,  "  blue,"  which  without  the  jazm  might 
be  pronounced  azarak,)  and  the  tashdeed  or  tashdid,  (-,) 
placed  on  a  consonant  to  show  that  it  must  be  doubled 
in  pronunciation  ;  as  (Mohammed.) 

33.  It  is  proper  to  observe  that  when  the  Arabic 
article  al  or  el  is  followed  by  certain  letters  it  changes 
its  sound  to  that  of  the  letter  following  :  thus,  el-Deen 
becomes  ed-Deen;  el-Dowlah,  ed-Dowlah ;  al-Rahman 
or  el-Rahman,  ar-Rahman  or  er-Rahtnan  ;  al-Temeemee, 
at-Temeemee ;  and  so  on.    (See  XIII.  4.) 

REMARKS  ON  ARABIC  PRONUNCIATION. 

When  any  of  the  long  vowels  (see  31  of  this  section) 
occur  in  the  final  syllable  of  a  word  or  name  ending  in 
a  consonant,  that  syllable  always  takes  the  accent  accord- 
ing to  the  common  European  signification  of  this  term. 

Some  eminent  grammarians  lay  it  down  as  a  rule  that 
the  accent  in  Arabic  never  falls  on  the  last  syllable ;  but 
this  rule  proceeds  on  the  supposition  that  the  final  syl- 
lable is  short.  Or,  if  it  be  meant  to  apply  to  all  syllables, 
long  as  well  as  short,  the  term  "  accent"  cannot  be  under- 
stood in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  used  by  most  European 

II  It  may  be  remarked  as  an  apparent  exception  to  this  rule  that 
Ibn,  "son,"  is  often  written  simply  {hn ;)  but  this  is  usually  to 
be  considered  as  an  abbreviation  for  though  l>en  or  itn  is 

not  unfrequently  used  instead  of  the  longer  form 

11  The  long  vowels  in  Arabic  are  to  be  pronounced  very  full  and 
long, — fjarticularly  the  long  a,  which  is  not  only  longer  but  sensibly 
broader  than  our  a  in /ar.   (See  XIV.  4.) 

9 


INTRO  D 


UCTION, 


nations.  In  support  of  our  position,  we  may  cite,  as  a 
practical  argument  of  great  force,  the  fact  that  when  an 
Arabic  word  ending  in  a  consonant,  preceded  by  a  long 
vowel,  is  adopted  into  any  European  language,  it  takes 
the  accent  on  the  final  syllable  :  thus,  Wddy-al-Kebir  be- 
comes in  Spanish  Gtcadalquivir,  A/-Mansoorhecomes  Al- 
mansSr,  and  so  on.  Nor  can  it  be  said  that  this  ultimate 
accent  is  due  to  the  tendency  of  the  Spanish  language 
to  throw  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable  ;  for  Almodovar, 
derived  from  the  Arabic  Al-Modhofer,  (which,  like  Al- 
Mansoor,  signifies  "  the  Victorious,")  is  in  its  Spanish 
form  accentuated  precisely  as  in  the  Arabic, — that  is, 
on  the  penultima.  If  an  Englishman  who  should  hear 
a  native  Arab  pronounce  the  word  kebir^  "great,"  or 
kethir,  "much,"  should  be  told,  by  one  who  had  any 
knowledge  of  the  subject,  that  the  first  and  not  the  last 
syllable  was  accentuated,  he  could  come  to  no  other 
conclusion  than  that  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker  accent 
had  a  totally  different  meaning  from  what  it  has  in  Eng- 
lish and  in  most  other  European  tongues.  In  Hammer- 
Purgstall's  great  work  on  the  literature  of  the  Arabs, 
he  translates  into  German  verse  many  thousand  lines 
from  the  Arabian  poets,  and  he  invariably,  if  we  are  not 
mistaken,  places  the  accent  on  a  long  final  syllable  end- 
ing in  a  consonant.  In  illustration  and  support  of  this 
statement,  we  may  select,  from  a  multitude  of  the  same 
general  character,  the  following  passage.  A  witty  Ara- 
bian poet  had  been  found  half  drunk  by  one  of  the 
caliph's  police-officers  in  a  tippling-house.  The  officer 
questioned  the  offender,  as  he  had  been  instructed  to 
do, — "  Who  art  thou,  and  what  is  thy  religion  V  The 
poet's  answer,  rendered  into  German,  is  as  follows : 

"  Ich  glaube  was  glauben  die  Beni  Abbas 
Und  was  ist  besiegelt  mit  Thon  auf  Papier; 
Wenn  ich  getrunken  ein  frbliches  Glas, 
Und  wenn  es  im  Kopfe  rumoret  bei  mir, 
So  sei  die  geringste  der  Sorgen  dir  das."* 
See  "  Literaturgeschichte  der  Araber,"  vol.  iii.  p.  462. 

If  there  were  any  Arabic  words,  ending  in  a  long  final 
syllable,  that  might  be  considered  doubtful,  it  would  be 
those  which,  like  Abbas,  have  a  double  consonant  in  the 
penultima ;  and  yet  nothing  can  be  clearer  than  that  the 
accent  is  placed  on  the  final  syllable  only,  in  the  foregoing 
verse.  Mansur,  (Mansoor,)  though  having  also  two 
consonants  after  the  penultimate  vowel,  is  pronounced 
by  Hammer-Purgstall  in  the  same  manner.  The  reader, 
by  referring  to  the  above  work,  will  find  a  multitude  of 
similar  examples,  among  others  Bagdad,  with  the  accent 
on  the  last  syllable,  (see  vol.  iii.  p.  440,)  to  which  testi- 
mony we  may  add  that  of  one  of  the  most  learned  and 
accurate  of  our  English  poets.  Southey  in  his  "  Thalaba" 
says, 

"  The  old  man  answered,  To  Bagdad  I  go." 

"  Stands  not  Bagdad 
Near  to  the  site  of  ancient  Babylon?" 

"At  length  Bagdad  appeared, 
The  city  of  his  search." 


*  The  following  is  a  nearly  literal  translation :  "  I  believe  what- 
ever the  Beni  AbbSs  [then  the  reigning  family  of  caliphs]  believe,  and 
whatever  is  sealed  with  wax  upon  paper,  [that  is,  whatever  is  gen- 
erally recognized  and  established.]  If  I  have  drunk  a  cheerful  glass, 
and  if  it  causes  some  confusion  in  my  head,  let  that  be  the  least  of 
thy  cares." 

10 


CHINESE. 
II. 

As  it  would  be  out  of  the  question  in  a  work  like  the 
present  to  attempt  to  give  a  minute  and  systematic  ex- 
position of  the  principles  of  Chinese  pronunciation,  vary- 
ing greatly  as  they  do  in  different  provinces  and  among 
different  classes  of  the  community,  we  shall  content 
ourselves  with  merely  offering  a  few  brief  observations, 
for  the  purpose  of  explaining  the  more  obvious  differ- 
ences in  the  mode  of  representing  Chinese  names  among 
the  nations  of  the  West. 

1.  One  of  the  remarkable  peculiarities  of  the  Chinese 
tongue  is  the  perpetual  occurrence  of  nasal  sounds.  It 
was  through  the  Portuguese,  who,  among  all  the  nations 
of  Europe,  were  the  first  to  become  intimately  acquainted 
with  China  and  the  Chinese,  that  the  forms  of  celebrated 
Chinese  names  first  became  familiar  to  Europeans.  It 
so  happened  that  the  Portuguese  language  abounded  in 
the  same  class  of  nasal  sounds ;  and  in  representing  these 
sounds  in  Chinese  names  according  to  the  principles  of 
their  own  language  the  Portuguese  missionaries  adopted 
a  spelling  which  would  necessarily  convey  an  erroneous 
idea  of  the  pronunciation  to  the  great  majority  of 
Europeans.  Thus,  they  wrote  for  the  name  of  the  great 
northern  capital  of  China,  Pcquim  or  Feguin,  and  for 
that  of  the  southern  capital,  Nanqidm  or  Nanqtcm,  the 
Portuguese  pronunciation  of  which  would  be  nearly 
pi'keeN'  or  p^keeng',  and  n^N'keeN'  or  ning'keeng'. 
The  Spaniards,  then  the  leading  nation  in  the  world, 
having  conquered  Macao  and  the  other  Portuguese  pos- 
sessions in  the  far  East,  adopted,  with  little  or  no  change, 
the  Portuguese  spellings,  giving  to  them  their  own  pro- 
nunciation, which  they  introduced  among  the  other  na- 
tions of  Europe.  The  result  was  that,  until  very  recently, 
Peking  was  often  written  Peking  and  was  generally  pro- 
nounced in  Europe  p^-keen'  or  pe-kin';  and  Nanking, 
commonly  written  A^^^/^-m,  was  called  nan'keen'.f  ToN- 
QUIN  (pronounced  almost  tong'king'  by  the  Chinese)  still 
retains  its  Spanish  pronunciation,  ton-keen';  and  Canton 
(in  Chinese  Quantong)  has  in  English  and  in  most  othef 
European  tongues  coinpietely  dropped  the  nasal  termi* 
nation  and  taken  the  sound  of  n  pure.  In  like  manner 
we  are  to  explain  the  fact  that  the  names  Confucius 
and  Mencius,  by  which  the  two  great  Chinese  philoso* 
phers  (KoNG-FOO-TSE  and  Meng-tse)  are  generally 
known  in  Europe,  have  no  trace  of  that  nasal  sound  which 
is  so  distinct  an  element  in  those  names  as  spoken  by 
the  Chinese. 

2.  Several  consonant  sounds  which  are  found  in  all,  or 
nearly  all,  European  tongues,  are  wanting  in  most  of  the 
Chinese  dialects,  viz.,  b,  d,g,  (hard,)  r,  v,  and  z.  It  being 
a  principle  or  law  of  this  language  that  every  individual 
word  must  be  a  monosyllable,  ending  either  in  a  pure 
vowel  or  a  nasal,  it  often  causes  strange  transformations 
when  an  attempt  is  made  to  introduce  words  or  names 
from  other  nations  :  thus,  the  Hindoo  Booddha  is  changed 
into  Fo,  the  initial  B  being  necessarily  replaced  by  a 
Chinese  consonant,  and  the  monosyllable  which  is  sub- 
stituted for  the  original  dir.syllable  drops  the  terminal 
consonant,  according  to  the  usage  of  the  language. 

On  account  of  the  difficulty  and  uncertainty  attending 
the  pronunciation  of  Chinese  names,  resulting  from  the 

t  As  is  shown  by  the  common  English  name  of  a  kind  of  cloth 
manufactured  there. 


INTRO  D 


UCTION. 


great  diversity  of  dialects  in  that  country,  to  attempt 
any  great  exactness  or  nicety  in  representing  that  pro- 
nunciation would  clearly  be  a  work  of  supererogation. 
We  have  deemed  it  sufficient  to  give  the  names  accord- 
ing to  the  usage  of  the  best  European  writers,  taking 
care  only,  when  there  is  occasion  to  do  so,  to  render 
the  French,  Portuguese,  or  German  spellings  into  their 
nearest  English  equivalents,  Respecting  the  diver- 

sity of  forms  caused  by  writing  Oriental  names  in  dif- 
ferent languages,  see  Preface,  (pp.  vi.-viii.,)  and  Section 
XIIL,  on  the  Oriental  Languages,  in  this  Introduction. 

DANISH. 
III. 

1.  A  usually  has  a  sound  between  that  in  the  English 
word  far  and  that  in  fat  It  may  be  represented  by  S. 
When  it  ends  a  syllable  it  is  usually  longer  than  when 
followed  by  a  vowel  in  the  same  syllable:  Xhns, fader 
("  father")  is  pronounced  fS'oer,  nearly  like  the  English 
father.  Aa  is  commonly  pronounced  nearly  like  our  aw, 
(or  au.) 

2.  E,  at  the  end  of  an  accented  syllable,  usually  has  a 
sound  like  that  of  /'in  pin,  (see  XX.,  3  ;)  in  other  cases  it 
is  sometimes  like  e  in  met,  and  sometimes  like  e  in  battery. 

3.  /is  like  ee,  or  like  /  in  pin.    li  is  like  our  ee. 

4.  O  is  like  the  English  o. 

5.  U  is  like  00. 

6.  Fis  equivalent  to  the  French  u  or  ii. 

7.  Ae  sounds  like  a  in  fate. 

8.  le  sounds  like  ee  in  English. 

9.  Oe  or  0  is  the  same  as  in  German. 

10.  The  consonants  b,  c,  f  h,  k,  /,  m,  ft,  p,  q,  s,  t,  x,  z 
are  like  the  English. 

11.  £>,  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  is  like  the  English 
d ;  between  two  vowels,  or  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  in 
which  it  follows  a  vowel,  it  sounds  nearly  like  t/i  in  tAis, 
(th.)  When  preceded  by  /,  «,  or  r,  more  particularly 
when  it  occurs  at  the  end  of  a  word,  it  is  almost  or  quite 
silent,  as  in  AhWdgard. 

12.  is  always  hard  ;  at  the  end  of  a  word  it  is 
sounded  very  slightly,  so  as  to  resemble  A :  e.g.  Aalborg 
is  pronounced  nearly  ol'bor^k. 

13.  y  is  like  the  English  j,  (consonant.) 

14.  R  is  similar  to  the  German. 

15.  V  \s  usually  like  the  English  ;  but  av  sounds  like 
dw,  (or  (m  in  our:)  plov  (a  "plough")  is  pronounced 
pl&w. 

16.  W  has  a  sound  similar  to  that  of  our  v  or  the  Ger- 
man w.    It  is  sometimes  interchangeable  with  v, 

DUTCH. 

IV. 

1.  The  vowels  a,  e^  i,  o,  and  u  are  similar  to  the 
French. 

2.  y  is  like  long  /  in  English,  as  in  nig-A. 

Obs.  /j  is  often  made  use  of  instead  of  ^;  thus,  Ovhrvssel  (the 
old  spelling)  is  now  commonly  written  Overijssel. 

3.  Aa  is  a  long,  (I.) 

4-  Ae  is  equivalent  to  M  or  I. 

5.  Ee  (equivalent  to  e  long)  sounds  like  our  a  in  fate. 

6.  Ei  or  ey  is  like  the  German  ei,  or  our  long  (1.) 

7.  le  sounds  like  ee  in  English. 

8.  Oe  sounds  like  00. 

9.  Oo  is  always  pronounced  like  0  long  in  English, 
or  like  00  in  door. 


10.  Ui  or  uy  is  similar  to  oi  in  English,  or  eu  in  Ger- 
man. It  appears,  however,  that  formerly  the  Dutch  ui 
had  a  different  sound,  somewhat  resembling  a  lengthened 
ii.  (See  H.  Frijlink,  '*  Woordenboek  voor  vreemde 
Eigennamen,"  p.  31,  Amsterdam,  1858.) 

11.  The  consonants  b,  c,f,  h,  ky  /,      n,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t, 
and  z  are  similar  to  the  English. 

12.  Z>,  at  the  end  of  a  word,  is  like  t;  in  other  cases 
it  is  the  same  as  in  English. 

13.  G  resembles  in  sound  a  strongly  aspirated  A,  or 
the  German  cA. 

14.  y  is  equivalent  to  the  English  (consonant.) 

15.  V,  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  or  name,  usually 
sounds  nearly  like  f  ;  or,  to  speak  more  exactly,  it  has  a 
sound  intermediate  between  that  of  the  German  v  (f)  and 
our  V. 

16.  fV  is  somewhat  like  the  German,  but  softer ;  in 
other  words,  it  has  a  sound  between  that  of  our  w  and 
the  German  w.  In  the  word  Nieuw,  ('*  new,")  followed 
by  a  consonant,  as  Nieuwpoort,  (written  also  NiEU- 
POORT,)  it  is  silent. 

17.  Ch  is  similar  to  the  German  ch. 

18.  Schy  however,  has  not,  as  in  German,  the  sound 
of  the  English  sh,  but  the  pure  sound  of  s,  followed  by 
the  guttural  ch,  resembling  sk  in  English. 

The  Flemish  is  so  closely  allied  to  the  Dutch  that  it  may 
be  regarded  as  essentially  the  same  language.  It  differs,  however, 
somewhat  in  the  spelling  of  words.  According  to  the  modern  Dutch 
.  orthography,  aa  is  generally  substituted  for  ae,  and  ij  for  y.  In 
Flemish  both  of  these  old  forms  are  still  retained. 

FRENCH, 
v.- 

1.  A,  in  French,  has  two  sounds  :  the  short,  as  in  amiy 
la  bal,  etc.,  is  intermediate  between  S  (as  in  the  English 
word  far)  and  i,  (as  in  fat:)  this  sound  in  the  present 
work  is  represented  by  t.  The  second  or  long  sound  is 
like  that  in  our  word  far ;  it  occurs  in  the  a  circumflexed 
(a)  and  a  followed  by  a  silent  s,  as  in  pas,  which  should 
be  pronounced  as  if  written  pa.  This  sound  is  repre- 
sented by 

2.  ^  has  four  sounds  :  {\)close,V[k^avci  the  English  word 
fate,  e.g.  in  (represented  in  this  work  by  k  ;)  (2  and  3) 
open,*  the  second  e,  nearly  as  in  met,  but  more  pro- 
longed, e.g.  in  prods,  (represented  by  §  or  i ;)  the  third 
e  {e  circumflexed)  is  like  the  preceding,  but  still  more 
open  and  more  prolonged,  e.g.  in  tete;  it  is  represented 
by  i ;  (4)  obscure,  as  in  battery,  e.g.  in  retour,  devrait.'\ 

3.  /  has  two  sounds  :  the  first  nearly  as  in  the  Eng- 
lish word  fig,  e.g.  in  il,  ami ;  the  second  like  ie  in  fieldy 
or  ee,  e.g.  in  git,  pie,  etc. 

4.  O  has  three  sounds  :  (i)  nearly  as  in  robe,  e.g.  in 
trdne,  (represented  by  6  ;)  (2)  as  in  rob,  e.g.  in  parole; 
(3)  as  in  lord,  e.g.  in  corps.  The  second  and  third  are 
both  represented  by  o  without  any  mark. 

5.  The  sound  of  the  French  u  has  no  equivalent  in 
English.    It  may  be  said  to  be  intermediate  between  ee 

*  In  pronouncing  this  sound  the  mouth  must  be  freely  opened, 
— ^whence  the  name. 

t  The  e  in  these  and  similar  cases  is  often  scarcely  sounded  at  all, 
and  appears  to  pass  imperceptibly  into  e  mute ;  retour  and  devrait 
may  be  pronounced  r'tooR  and  d'vsA.  It  should,  however,  be  ob- 
served that  in  reading  poetry,  as  well  as  in  the  graver  style  of  public 
speaking,  the  unaccented  e,  even  when  it  forms  the  terminal  letter  of 
such  words  as  tHe,  parte,  etc.,  nearly  always  makes  a  distinct  and 
separate  syllable.    (See  18  of  this  section.) 

II 


INTRODUCTION, 


and  00.  This  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  sounds  in  the 
language,  but  may  readily  be  produced  if  the  speaker^ 
after  placing  his  lips  in  the  position  proper  for  sounding 
our  00,  attempts,  without  moving  his  lips,  to  utter  the 
sound  of  ee.  In  tlie  present  work  it  is  represented  by 
the  German  ii. 

Ofis.  U,  before  n  nasal,  has  its  second  English  sound  nearly,  un 
being  pronounced  almost  like  «N. 

6.  yis  similar  to  the  French  In  the  middle  of  a 
word  J  is  usually  equivalent  to  ii,  as  in  fuyard,  fii-e'ytR', 
(pronounced  in  Yxench,  ftci-iar.) 

7.  Ai  and  ay  are  like  ^,  (represented  by  i.) 

Obs.  When  ai  forms  the  termination  of  verbs,  as  in  fai,  ("I 
have,")  je  parlai,  ("  I  spoke,")  je parlerai,  ("  I  shall  speak,")  it  has 
the  sound  of  e,  or  a  in  fate.  Some  authorities  say  that  while  aie,  ais., 
and  aye  are  to  be  sounded  as  k,  ai,  ay,  ei,  and  ey  terminal  (that  is, 
when  not  followed  by  ^  or  j  mute)  should  be  pronounced  as  e,  (A  ;) 
but  to  this  general  rule  there  appear  to  be  many  exceptions.* 

8.  Au  is  like  0. 

9.  Ei  and  ey  are  like  ^,  (see  7  of  this  Section ;  Ob- 
servation.) 

10.  Eli  is  nearly  similar  to  the  English  u  in  tub,  but  the 
sound  is  somewhat  closer  and  more  prolonged,  nearly 
resembling  that  of  tc  in  fur.  It  is  similar  to  the  German 
0,  but  is  rather  more  open, 

Obs.  Eu,  in  the  different  parts  of  the  verb  avoir,  "to  have," 
always  has  the  sound  of  simple  u. 

11.  le  is  like  ee  in  English,  or  i. 

12.  Oi  usually  sounds  like  w§. :  e.g.  mot  is  pronounced 
mwS  or  mwSh. 

Obs.  C/was  formerly  used  in  the  termination  of  the  French  verbs, 
e.g.  avois,  avoit,  avoient ;  also  in  the  final  syllable  of  many  adjectives, 


*  There  is  not  only  considerable  diversity  among  the  different 
French  authorities  in  regard  to  the  pronunciation  of  words  or  names 
with  these  terminations,  but  scarcely  any  one  writer  appears  to  be 
consistent  with  himself  in  this  respect.  In  Boyer's  "  French  Dic- 
tionary," with  the  pronunciation  according  to  the  Abb^  Tardy,  (Bos- 
ton, 1822,)  Bey  {a.  Turkish  governor)  is  pronounced  bA,  (or  be;)  but 
all  words  ending  in  ai,  as  l^atai,  delai,  essai,  gai,  geai,  lai,  Mai,  quai, 
vrai,  are  pronounced  with  the  open  sound  of  e,  or  k ;)  the  ai  of 
balai,  gai,  geai,  lai,  Mai,  and  quai  is  sounded  like  the  English  e  in 
9nei,  but  in  delai,  essai,  and  vrai,  like  e  in  there.  In  the  Dictionary 
of  Fleming  and  Tibbins,  (American  edition,  Philadelphia,  1843,)  in 
gai,  Mai,  and  quai  has  the  sound  of  e,  close  k,  (or  e,)  but  balai, 
delai,  essai,  lai,  and  vrai  are  pronounced  in  precisely  the  same 
manner  as  in  the  preceding  work.  In  Spiers  and  Surenne's  Dic- 
tionary (American  edition,  1852)  gai  has  the  sound  of  e  close,  (d  or 
i. ;)  but  balai,  Mai,  and  all  other  words  (not  verbs)  of  this  termi- 
nation are  pronounced  with  the  sound  of  open  e.  Bey,  as  in  Boyer 
and  Fleming  and  Tibbins,  is  pronounced  bd,  (or  b^ ;)  but  dey,  a  word 
similar  in  its  origin  and  general  character,  has  the  open  sound  of  e, 
(di.)  Ay  and  ey,  when  forming  the  termination  of  proper  names,  are 
in  Spiers  and  Surenne's  Dictionary  invariably  represented  in  pro- 
nunciation by  k,  with  the  single  exception  of  Solway.  See,  also, 
"  Surenne's  French  Pronouncing  Dictionary, "(American  edition,  from 
the  Edinburgh  edition  of  1840,)  in  which  is  given  the  pronunciation 
of  a  great  many  proper  names  ending  in  ay  and  ey,  and  never  with 
the  sound  of  e  close,  (e,)  except  in  the  solitary  instance  of  Solway, 
just  noticed.  Mr.  Bescherelle,  perhaps  the  highest  modern  authority 
in  regard  to  the  pronunciation  as  well  as  the  definition  of  French  words, 
does  not  speak  very  definitely  in  regard  to  the  sound  of  ai  or  ay 
terminal ;  but,  under  the  letter  E,  he  says  ey  has  its  middle  sound 
{^'son  moyen  ou  demi-ouverf^  in  bey,  dey,  Hervey,  Ney,  Volney,  etc., 
(see  "  Dictionnaire  National,"  vol.  i.,  pp.  1049  and  1050.)  In  con- 
sideration of  the  general  tendency  of  the  preceding  writers,  and  sup- 
ported by  the  high  authority  last  named,  we  have  adopted  the  general 
rule  to  make  the  e  open  in  the  final  syllables  of  all  names  of  this  class. 
At  the  same  time,  those  who  are  anxious  to  be  accurate  in  their  pro- 
nunciation should  take  care  to  make  the  sound  of  ai,  ay,  and  ey, 
terminal,  less  open  and  less  full  than  in  the  final  syllables  aie,  aye, 
ttts,  eys,  etc. 

12 


as  Polonois,  "  Polish,"  and  Lyonnois,  "belonging  to  Lyons."  The 
oi  in  these  words — which  are  now  usually  written  avals,  avaii, 
avaient,  Polonais,  Lyonnais — sounds  like  ai,  (or  ^.) 

13.  Ou  sounds  like  00  in  English. 

14.  B,  c,\  d,  f,  k,  p,  t,  V,  and  z  are  the  same  as  in 
English. 

15.  G,  before  a,  o,  and  u,  is  hard,  as  in  the  English 
word  ^(2/  ;  before  e,  i,  and  y  it  is  soft,  having  the  sound 
of  zh,  or  of  s  in  the  English  word  pleasure.  Gu  sounds 
like  g  hard  :  thus,  gue,  guide,  are  pronounced  gi,  g^d  or 
geed. 

16.  H\?,  never  pronounced  in  French  so  forcibly  as  in 
English.  Some  of  the  best  French  authorities,  indeed, 
say  that  the  h  should  Tiever  be  sounded  at  all  in  French 
words  or  names ;  the  only  difference  they  would  make 
between  the  (so-called)  aspirated  and  unaspirated  initial 
h  is,  that  before  the  latter  the  a  or  unaccented  e  in  such 
particles  as  la,  le,  etc.  is  dropped,  as  Vherbe,  (pronounced 
liRb,)  "the  grass;"  Vhomtne,  (lorn,)  "the  man;"  while 
before  the  former  it  is  retained,  as  la  halle,  (pronounced 
It  tl,)  "the  market;"  le  hamac,  (leh  t'mtk',)  "the  ham- 
mock," etc. 

17.  y  sounds  like  soft  ^  in  French,  or  zh  in  English. 

18.  L  has  usually  the  same  sound  as  in  English ;  but 
when  it  ends  a  word,  being  preceded  by  i,  or  when  // 
follows  i  in  any  situation,  it  usually  has  what  is  called 
its  liquid  sound.  This  may  be  said  to  answer  nearly  to 
the  sound  of  ///  in  million,  the  sound  of  /  in  such  cases 
being  blended  with  that  of  y,  (consonant :)  e.g.  papillon 
is  pronounced  pt'piKy6N';  Chantilly,  shfiN^t^Kye',  etc. 
It  should,  however,  be  observed  that  at  present,  accord- 
ing to  the  general  practice  of  the  more  polite  French 
speakers,  the  sound  of  /  in  such  words  is  in  ordinary 
conversation  scarcely  heard  at  all,  so  that  their  pronun- 
ciation may  rather  be  indicated  thus, — pt'pe^'6]S^  sh6N'- 
te'ye';  but  in  the  higher  style  of  speaking,  and  in 
public  discourses,  the  /  in  such  cases  is,  according  to 
the  best  usage,  distinctly  pronounced. 

19.  M  and  n,  when  followed  by  a  vowel,  or  when 
double,  have  the  same  sound  as  in  English ;  but  when 
at  the  end  of  a  word,  (not  immediately  followed  by 
another  word  beginning  with  a  vowel,)  or  when  followed 
by  another  consonant  in  the  middle  of  a  word,  they  have 
what  is  termed  the  nasal  sound,  which  somewhat  re- 
sembles that  of  ng  in  long,  pang,  etc.,  but  is  softer :% 
thus,  m  and  n  are  nasal  in  such  words  as  coMparer,  con- 
teNte,  but  have  their  natural  sound  in  such  as  commune, 
connu.  Bon,  ("  good,")  before  a  consonant  or  standing 
by  itself,  would  be  pronounced  b6N ;  but  if  followed  im- 
mediately by  a  vowel,  as  in  the  phrase  bon  ami,  ("  good 
friend,")  the  final  n  is  sounded  distinctly,  as  nn  would 
be  in  the  same  position.  The  pronoun  sien,  when  not 
followed  by  a  vowel,  is  pronounced  nearly  se-S^N' ;  but 
when  it  takes  the  feminine  termination  the  n,  being 
doubled,  has  the  same  sound  as  in  English,  so  that  sienne 
is  pronounced  se-hn' . 

20.  M  ox  n  nasal,  when  preceded  by  e,  causes  this 
vowel  to  assume  the  broad  sound  of  a:  thus,  dents,  sens, 
are  pronounced  like  the  French  words  dans  and  sans, 
almost  as  if  written  in  English  ddN  and  sdN. 

t  C  with  a  cedilla,  (g)  before  a,  o,  and  «,  sounds  like  s :  thus,  (a, 
go,  gu  are  pronounced  like  sa,  so,  su. 

tin  uttering  this  sound,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  press  the 
back  part  of  the  tongue  against  the  palate,  as  is  done  in  pronouncing 
the  EngHsh 


INTROD 


UCTION. 


21.  In,  t'm,  am,  aim,  ein,  oin,  and  en,  preceded  imme- 
diately by  i,  when  nasal,  have  a  sound  nearly  resembling 
that  of  ang  in  the  English  word  pang.  In  such  cases,  iit, 
im,  ain,  aim,  ein,  and  en  are  pronounced  alike  iN  ;  the  o 
in  oin  has  the  sound  of  our  w,  so  that  loin  and  soin  are 
pronounced  almost  IwiN,  sw^N. 

22.  In  om  and  on  nasal,  the  o  has  nearly  the  sound 
of  b  as  in  ivon''t. 

Obs.  The  French  nasal  sound  is  represented  in  the  present  work 
by  N  or  M,  distinguished  as  a  small  capital:  e.g.  Chaumont,  sho'- 
moN'. 

23.  Q  or  qn,  in  French,  always  sounds  like  k:  e.g.  quel 
is  pronounced  khl ;  qui,  ke. 

Obs.  Q,  in  French  words,  (except  when  terminal,  as  in  coq  and 
cinq,)  is  always  followed  by  w,  though  it  is  often  employed  without 
this  letter  in  writing  certain  foreign  names. 

24.  R  is  like  the  English,  but  is  trilled  more  strongly, 
especially  when  it  precedes  another  consonant,  or  stands 
at  the  end  of  a  word,  as  in  vev^tu,  puniK  :  in  similar  cases 
the  English  r  is  but  very  slightly  sounded.  This  sound 
is  represented  by  a  small  capital  r. 

25.  S,  when  single  and  between  two  vowels,  sounds 
like  z:  in  other  cases  it  is  the  same  as  in  En_glish. 

26.  X  generally  has  the  same  sound  as  in  English,  but 
is  sometimes  sounded  like  s, — e.g.  in  six,  pronounced  s^ss, 
and  Brtixelles,  (Brussels,)  pronounced  brii'sil.', — and  oc- 
casionally like  z,  as  in  dixiime,  de'ze-im'. 

27.  Ch  is  like  sh  in  English  ;  th  is  always  like 

28.  Gn  (the  same  as  in  Italian)  has  a  sound  which 
blends  that  of  n  and  (consonant,)  or,  in  other  words, 
is  equivalent  to  the  sound  of  ni  in  minion.  Thus,  Avi- 
gnon is  pronounced  t'v4n'y6.N'. 

Obs.  This  sound  is  represented  in  Spanish  by  and  bears  the 
tame  relation  to  n  that  the  liquid  /  (T)  does  to  the  ordinary/.  In 
Hungarian  it  is  expressed  by  wy,  and  in  Portuguese  by  nh. 

When  it  occurs  in  the  middle  of  a  word,  we  have  represented  it 
by  n  and  y,  as  in  the  example  above  given  ;  but  when  it  stands  at 
the  end  of  a  word,  as  it  cannot  then  be  expressed  by  any  letter 
or  combination  of  letters  in  English,  it  has  been  indicated  by  the 
Spanish  fi :  accordingly,  the  French  pronunciation  of  such  names 
as  Cologne  and  Boulooxe  is  thus  given  r—ko'loiV,  boo'loiV. 

SILENT  LETTERS. 

29.  The  vowel  e  at  the  end  of  a  word,  when  not  marked 
with  an  accent,  is  invariably  mute  :  e.g.  in  park,  contente,* 
etc. 

30.  The  French  consonants,  when  occurring  at  the 
end  of  a  word,  are  generally  not  pronounced,  unless  they 
are  immediately  followed  by  a  word  beginning  with  a 
vowel :  e.g.  in  content,  (pronounced  cAw'tdN',)  and  dents, 
(dflN.)  If,  however,  they  are  followed  by  a  mute  e  or  any 
other  vowel,  they  must  always  be  articulated  :  e.g.  in  con- 
tenYe,  den  ve,  etc. 

Obs.  I.  The  letters  c,  /,  I,  and  r  are,  when  final,  very  often  pro- 
nounced, (the  two  former  almost  always:)  e.g.  in  avec,  neuf,  il,  and 
funir. 

Obs.  2.  The  French  articulate  the  final  consonants  in  almost  all 
foreign  and  classical  names:  e.g.  in  Amsterdam,  {vt  not  nasal,) 
V^NUS.  etc. 

REMARKS  ON  THE  FRENCH  ACCENT. 
It  may  be  observed  that  the  French  language  has  no 
accent,  in  the  sense  in  which  we  employ  this  term.  The 

*  The  particles  le.  r^,  and  the  pronouns/^,  me,  te,  etc.,  are  per- 
haps, strictly  speaking-  .exceptions;  but  though  the  e  in  these  words 
is  not  always  absolutely  /-nute,  it  is  very  often  so:  thus,  the  sentence 
V071S  me  trouverez  le  mime  is  pronounced  in  rapid  conversation  voom 
troov  rkl  mem,  the  vowel  in  me  and  ne  being  entirely  suppressed, 
and  the  consonants  attached  to  the  preceding  words. 


marks,  called  accents,  that  are  placed  over  the  different 
vowels,  serve  only  to  indicate  some  particular  sound  of 
these  letters,  and  not  that  peculiar  impulse  of  the  voice 
which  characterizes  an  accented  syllable  in  the  English 
and  mo.st  other  European  tongues.  Thus,  the  accent 
over  the  e  in  parle  serves  to  show  that  this  vowel  has  its 
first  French  sound,  and  at  the  same  time  distinguishes 
it  from  parle,  another  form  of  the  same  verb,  in  which 
the  e  is  mute.  The  circumflex  imparts  to  the  vowel 
over  which  it  is  placed  a  longer  and  deeper  sound  than 
ordinary  :  e.g.  in  hate,  tempHe,  gtte,  and  apdtre. 

It  is  commonly  said  that  the  French  pronounce  all  the 
syllables  of  a  word  with  an  equal  stress  of  voice,  but  that 
they  seem  to  an  English  ear  to  accentuate  the  last,  be- 
cause in  our  language  the  universal  tendency  is  to  throw 
the  accent  towards  the  beginning  of  the  word.  Others, 
on  the  contrary,  maintain  that  in  pronouncing  words  of 
a  number  of  syllables  the  voice  of  a  native  French 
speaker  almost  invariably  rises  and  dwells  on  the  last, 
and  that  this  peculiar  terminal  intonation  is  very  analo- 
gou-s  and  nearly  equivalent,  to  our  accent.  This  last 
opinion  appears  to  us  to  be  not  without  a  real  founda- 
tion. But,  however  the  question  may  be  settled,  the 
fact  that  the  English  who  have  learned  the  pronun- 
ciation of  names  from  hearing  them  spoken  by  the 
French  themselves,  almost  invariably  thro^y  the  accent 
on  the  final  syllable,  furnishes,  in  our  judgment,  sufficient 
grounds  for  establishing  a  general  rule  on  this  subject. 
Accordingly,  in  the  present  work  we  have,  with  very 
few  exceptions,  placed  the  principal  accent  on  the  last 
syllable  of  French  names  ;  at  the  same  time,  it  has 
been  thought  proper  to  mark  the  others  with  sec- 
ondary accents,  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  being 
pronounced  too  slightly  or  indistinctly,  as  is  usually 
the  case  with  unaccented  syllables  in  English.  The 
pronunciation  of  Orleans,  for  example,  has  been  thus 
given : — oR'li'ftN'. 

Obs.  Particular  care,  however,  should  be  taken  not  to  break  such 
names  into  as  many  isolated  sounds  as  there  are  different  syllables, 
but,  while  pronouncing  these  syllables  with  a  stress  of  voice  nearly 
equal,  to  let  each  glide  smoothly  into  that  which  follows  it.  It  may 
be  observed  that  the  French,  in  uttering  short  sentences,  usually 
make  the  different  words  run  into  each  other,  as  if  they  were  parts 
of  the  same  word. 

GERMAN. 
VI. 

1.  A,  in  German,  usually  sounds  as  in  the  English 
word  far,  though  sometimes  approxirrjating  the  a  in  fat. 

2.  E,  when  long,  sounds  like  a  in  fate ;  when  short, 
like  e  in  met;  frequently,  however,  it  has  an  obscure 
sound,  like  e  in  bitter,  paper,  etc.  It  should  have  this 
obscure  sound  whenever  it  ends  an  unaccented  syllable, 
(as  in  Goethe^  or  when  it  precedes  /,  n,  or  r  in  an  un- 
accented syllabic,  (as  in  Schlegel,  Bunsen,  Schiller.) 

3.  /long  sounds  like  i  in  marine,  (or  ee  in  English  i) 
/  short,  like  i  in  pit. 

4.  O  long  sounds  like  o  in  no ;  0  short,  nearly  like  0 
in  on. 

5.  C/"long  is  like  00  in  moon;  u  short,  like  00  in  good. 

6.  F sounds  like  the  German 

7.  Ae,  or  d,  is  similar  to  the  German  e,  or  to  the  Eng- 
lish a  in  fate  or  e  in  met. 

8.  le  is  equivalent  to  i  long,  (or  ee  in  English.) 

9.  Oe,  or  0,  nearly  resembles  the  eti  in  French,  but 
has  no  parallel  sound  in  English  :  the  sound  in  our  Ian- 

'3 


INTRODUCTION, 


guage  nearest  to  it  is  that  of  e  in  ker^  or  u  in  fur :  the 
German  poets  often  rhyme  it  with  with  ^,  (§  or  a.) 

10.  Ue,  or  M,  is  like  the  French  u. 

11.  At  is  similar  in  sound  to  but  somewhat  broader, 
(See  14  of  this  section.) 

12.  Au  is  equivalent  to  the  English  ou  in  our. 

13.  dti  and  eu  resemble  in  sound  the  English  oiy  as  in 
oil. 

14.  Ei  and  <?/  have  the  sound  of  our  /'  in  mine,  as  pro- 
nounced by  the  Americans,  (the  English  draw  the  corners 
of  the  mouth  farther  back.) 

Obs.  It  may  be  observed  that  ai  and  au,  in  German,  as  well  as  in 
several  other  languages,  are /r<7/^r  diphthongs,  the  vowels  preserving 
their  distinct  and  proper  sound  :  thus,  ai  is  equivalent  to  ^'e,  and  au 
to  ^'00,  in  English. 

15.  The  consonants  k,  /,  m,  n,  /,  q,  t,  and  x  are  pro- 
nounced as  in  English. 

16.  B  and  d,  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  have  the 
same  sound  as  in  English  ;  at  the  end  of  a  word,  b  is 
pronounced  like  /,  and  d  like  t. 

17.  C,  before  a,  o,  and  «,  sounds  like  k ;  before  e,  i, 
and  y,  like  ts. 

18.  Ch  has  a  sound  unknown  to  our  language,  which 
can  be  learned  from  an  oral  instructor  only.  It  some- 
what resembles  that  of  our  k,  with  a  strong  aspiration  : 
after  a,  o,  and  u,  it  is  guttural ;  for  example,  in  the  word 
ack.*  When  it  follows  e,  i,  d,  0,  ii,  du,  or  eu,  it  seems  to 
be  sounded  more  in  the  palate  or  roof  of  the  mouth, 
as  in  ich,  euck,  etc.  We  have  represented  this  sound  in 
the  present  work  by  K,  distinguished  as  a  small  capital. 

Obs.  Ch,  before  j  radical,  {i.e.  forming  a  part  of  the  root  of  the 
word,)  has  the  sound  of  k :  e.g.  Ochs  is  pronounced  oks  ;  Sachsen, 
s^k'sen,  etc. 

19.  G,  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  sounds  as  in  the 
English  word  get.  In  other  situations  it  is  usually  pro- 
nounced nearly  like  the  German  ch,  in  which  cases  it  is 
represented  by  G  small  capital.  In  some  German  dia- 
lects, however,  it  is  sounded  in  all  cases  nearly  like  g 
hard  in  English  :  gg  is  usually  sounded  nearly  like  k. 

20.  His  pronounced  only  when  it  begins  a  word. 

Obs.  I.  When  ^and  h  occur  in  the  middle  of  a  compound  word, 
they  have  the  same  sound  as  when  they  are  initial,  provided  they 
begin  any  part  which  is  a  complete  word  in  itself:  thus,  in  the  parti- 
ciple gegeben,  ("given,")  the  latter  g  has  the  same  sound  as  the 
former,  because  it  begins  the  verb  geben,  (to  "give,")  from  which 
that  participle  is  derived.  It  is  sounded  in  like  manner  in  aufgeben, 
(to  "give  up,")  vergeben,  (to  "forgive,")  etc.  H,  in  similar  in- 
stances, is  pronounced :  e.g.  in  gehabt,  aufhalten,  etc. 

Obs.  2.  G  and  h,  occurring  after  a  vowel,  lengthen  its  sound  :  e.g. 
in  Tag,  Zahl,  Floh,  pronounced  tMc,  tsiSl,  flo,  etc.  A  silent  h  has 
the  same  effect  though  occurring  before  a  vowel,  as  Thai,  (pro- 
nounced tMl,)  Thai,  (tidt,)  and  so  on.  (See  Remarks  on  the  German 
Pronunciation,  at  the  end  of  this  section.) 

21.  J  has  the  sound  of  the  English  jj/,  (consonant.) 

22.  Q  is  only  used  before  u,  and  sounds  as  in  the  Eng- 
lish word  quit. 

23.  R  is  pronounced  like  rr  in  the  English  word  terror, 
but  somewhat  more  strongly.    (See  V.,  24.) 

Obs.  Care  should  be  taken  to  pronounce  the  r  in  German  dis- 
tinctly and  forcibly.  In  such  words  as  Be7g  and  Werth,  the  learner 
should  be  particularly  on  his  guard  against  allowing  the  e  to  become 
like  short  z/,  as  in  similar  words  in  English.  The  e,  in  such  cases, 
should  have  the  same  sound  as  in  our  word  merit,  so  that  Berg 

*  Those  who  have  no  opportunity  of  acquiring  this  sound  from  a 
German  might  perhaps  learn  it  from  a  Scotchman,  as  the  Scottish  ck 
is  essentially  the  same  with  the  German,  though  pronounced  some- 
what more  strongly. 

14 


should  be  pronounced  almost  as  if  written  bairc,  (not  Inirg  ;)  fVertJk 
as  wairt,  (not  miirt,)  but  somewhat  shorter. 

24.  S,  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  or  between  two 
vowels,  is  like  z  ;  in  other  cases  it  is  sharp,  as  in  t/iis.  Ss 
is  always  sharp. 

25.  Sc/i  sounds  like  the  English  sk  ;  sz,  like  ss. 

26.  Th  is  pronounced  like  /,  as  in  most  other  lan- 
guages. 

27.  V  sounds  like  /  in  English,  except  when  between 
two  vowels ;  it  is  then  pronounced  somewhat  softer,  ap- 
proximating in  sound  our  v. 

28.  W  resembles  our  v,  but  in  pronouncing  it  the 
upper  teeth  should  not  be  allowed  to  touch  the  lower 
lip,  as  is  done  in  uttering  the  English  v.  This  sound  is 
indicated  by  a  w  marked  thus,  ^. 

29.  Z  and  tz  sound  like  ts. 

REMARKS  ON  THE  GERMAN  ACCENT  AND  PRO- 
NUNCIATION. 

No  general  rule  can  be  given  for  the  accent  of  German 
words  or  names :  it  may  be  remarked,  however,  that  the 
penultimate  accent  occurs  much  less  frequently  than  in 
the  Spanish  or  the  Italian  language.  The  German  accent 
is  in  all  respects  very  similar  to  the  English,  differing 
widely  from  the  Spanish  and  entirely  from  the  French. 
It  is  proper  to  observe,  however,  that  the  secondary 
accent  on  compound  German  words  or  names  is  more 
distinctly  marked  than  it  would  be  in  English  in  the 
same  situation  :  thus,  the  English  say  Pe'ters-burg,  with 
scarcely  any  appreciable  accent  on  the  last  syllable, 
while  the  Germans  say  Pe'ters-burg',  (pa'ters-booRo',) 
the  last  accent  being  distinctly  marked,  though  decidedly 
less  than  the  first. 

It  is  a  rule  in  German  that  an  accented  vowel  ending 
a  syllable  is  long,  as  in  d'ber,  (J'ber,)  "but,"  ge'beUy 
(ga'ben,)  to  "give,"  Vd'ter,  (fS'ter,)  " father,"  Z^'^^-^,  (to 
"praise.")  The  vowel  is  considered  to  end  the  syllable 
when  followed  by  a  single  consonant  in  the  middle  of  a 
word,  in  which  case  the  consonant  always  goes  to  the 
following  vowel,  as  in  the  instances  above  cited  ;  but,  if 
the  vowel  is  followed  by  a  consonant  in  the  same  syllable, 
it  is  generally  short,  as  in  fal'len,  (to  "  fall,")  Mut'ter, 
("mother,")  etc.  But  to  this  last  remark  there  are 
several  exceptions.  In  declinable  words  ending  in  a 
single  consonant,  whether  monosyllables  or  dissyllables, 
with  the  accent  on  the  ultima,  the  syllable  on  which  the 
stress  of  the  voice  is  laid  is  long,  as  Bliit,  ("blood,") gut, 
("good,")  Graf,  ("count,")  Eugen,  ("Eugene,")  and  so 
on.  This  exception  may  be  said  to  follow  almost  as  a 
matter  of  course  from  the  first  part  of  the  foregoing  rule  ; 
for  if  the  vowel  in  such  words  as  Graf  wa.s  short,  then  in 
the  genitive  and  dative  ( Grafes,  Grafe)  it  must  also  be 
short,  thus  violating  the  rule  referred  to,  or  else  be  the 
cause  of  a  very  objectionable  and  inconvenient  irregu- 
larity, by  making  in  the  same  word  the  nominative  and 
accusative  short  and  the  genitive  and  dative  long.  The 
letters^ and  h  have  the  efiect  of  making  long  the  vowel 
which  precedes  them.  (See  20  of  this  section,  Observa- 
tion 2.) 

GREEK,  (MODERN.) 
VII. 

1.  A  a  (alpha)  is  like  a  in  far. 

2.  E  e  (epsllon)  is  like  a  in  fate. 

3.  H  77  (eta)  is  like  ee  in  English. 


INTRO  D 


UCTION. 


4.  I  c  (iota)  is  like  e  in  me  or  t  in 

5.  O  0  (omicron)  is  like  c  in  English. 

6.  T  w  (upsilon)  is  nearly  like  the  French  u,  (or  «.) 

7.  i2  (omega)  is  like  o  in  English,  there  being  no 
difTerence  between  this  and  omicron  in  prose  ;  in  poetry 
w  is  longer. 

8.  ki  is  like  a  in  fate. 

9.  and  oi  sound  like  ee  in  English. 

10.  Ov  is  like  our  00. 

11.  B  5  (beta)  is  like  v  in  English.* 

12.  r  y  (gamma)  is  like  ^  hard,  as  \n  get. 

13.  A  d  (delta)  is  like  th  in  this,  (*h.) 

14.  Z  ^  (zeta)  is  like  the  English  z. 

15.  0  ^  (theta)  is  like  th  in  thin. 

16.  K  /c  (kappa)  is  like  k. 

17.  A  "k  (lambda)  is  like  /. 

18.  M  ^  (mu)  is  like  m. 

19.  N  V  (nu)  is  like  n. 

20.  S  I  (xi)  is  like  x. 

21.  n  TT  (pi)  is  usually  like  the  English  p;  but  after  n 
(m)  it  is  like  b:  e.g.  e/xTropo^  is  pronounced  em'bo-ros.* 

22.  P  p  (rho)  is  similar  to  the  German  r. 

23.  2  (T  f  (sigma)  is  like  the  English  s. 

24.  T  r  (tau)  is  usually  like  the  English  /;  after  v,  (n,) 
however,  it  is  sounded  like  d:  e.g.  evrdc  is  pronounced 
en-cfos^. 

25.  T  V,  {consonant,)  when  before  a  vowel  or  the  liquids 
/,  m,  n,  r,  is  like  our  v:  e.g.  avepvu  is  pronounced  Sv-i- 
rii'o,  ai'/ldf,  Sv-los',  alpiov,  iv're-on ;  in  other  cases  it  is 
like  /:  e.g.  AevKcdia  (Leucadia)  is  pronounced  lef-kS- 
thee'i 

26.  4»  <p  (phi)  is  equivalent  to  our  /. 

27.  X    (chi)  is  similar  to  ch  in  German. 

28.  ip  (psi)  is  like  ps  in  English. 

HEBREW. 

VIII. 

As  in  the  case  of  classical  names  we  have  not  at- 
tempted to  give  the  ancient  Latin  or  Greek  pronunciation, 
so  we  have  never  aimed  to  give  the  ancient  Hebrew  pro- 
nunciation of  Scripture  names.  Nevertheless,  that  such 
of  our  readers  as  may  happen  to  be  ignorant  of  Hebrew 
may  be  furnished  with  a  key  to  the  Hebrew  forms  of 
these  names,  as  well  as  for  purposes  of  comparison  with 
other  languages,  we  have  thought  it  necessary  to  present 
the  following  table,  exhibiting  the  form  and  power  of  the 
Hebrew  letters ; 


ANCIENT  HEBREW  ALPHABET. 

Name. 

Power. 

I. 

a'lef 

a 

2. 

beth  or  bath 

v,b 

3- 

: 

gimel  or  gee'mel 

g 

4. 

da'leth 

d  or  dh 

5- 

n 

he  or  ha 

h 

6. 

1 

vav  or  vauv 

V 

7- 

T 

za'yin 

z 

8. 

n 

Heth  or  Hath 

H  (like  the  Aral 

9. 

£3 

tet  or  tat 

t 

10. 

yodh 

y 

*  As  the  modem  Greeks  have  no  letter  corresponding  to  our  b, 
in  order  to  represent  this  letter  in  words  or  names  from  other  lan- 
guages they  employ  mtt  :  as  Mwoa-pa,  Basra  or  Bassora,  MjrajHTroj, 
Babo,  etc. 


Name. 

11.  Dor-^t  kaf 

12.  h  la'medh 


Power. 
kh,  k 


13.  D  m^m  or  mam  ra 

14.  3  or  |t  ntin  or  noon  n 

15.  D  si'mek  s 

16.  y  S'yin  a  (like  the  Arabic  ^) 

17     3  r,a  or  na  P^'  P  ("^arly  equivalent 

17.  J  peorpa  to  the  Arabic  ^) 

18.  V  tsi'da  ts 

19-    p  kof  k  (like  the  Arabic  ^) 

20.  T  resh  or  rash  r 

21.  shin  or  sheen  sh,  s 

.A  th,  t  (nearly  equivalent 

^  to  the  Arabic  ^) 

HINDOSTANEE. 
IX. 

1.  Hindostanee  is  the  name  given  to  the  language  formed 
by  the  interfusion  of  the  native  Hindoo  dialects  with  the 
Persian,  which  was  introduced  into  India  chiefly  by  the 
conquering  Mongols  under  BSber  and  his  successors.  It 
was  called  Hindostanee  or  Hindustani  (hin-dus-t4n'ee) 
because  it  originated  in  Hindostan,|  which  is  still  its 
principal  seat,  although  the  language  is  extensivelyspoken 
not  only  throughout  the  whole  of  India  proper,  but  also 
in  Afghanistan  and  Beloochistan.  It  is  also  frequently 
called  Oordoo  or  Urdft,  (dor'doo',)  or  [the  "  language  of 
the]  camp,"  because  it  was  in  the  camp  or  army  that  the 
intermixture  of  the  Persian  with  the  Hindoo  languages 
first  took  place.  In  writing  Hindostanee,  the  Persian 
alphabet,  with  some  slight  modifications,  is  commonly 
employed,  though  the  NSgaree  (Nigari)  is  not  unfre- 
quently  made  use  of.    (See  Sections  XIII.  and  XVIII.) 

2.  The  pronunciation  of  the  Hindostanee  nearly  corre- 
sponds in  all  essential  points  with  the  Persian  ;  perhaps 
the  only  differences  of  any  importance  are  in  the  sound 
of  the  short  a  Nagaree,  which,  following  the  Sanscrit 
pronunciation  of  that  vowel,  is  usually  like  our  short  u, 
as  in  but,  the  nasal  «,  (seldom  found  in  Persian,)  in  the 
sounds  of  kh,  gh,  th,  dh,  etc.,  and  in  those  of  the  lingual 
(or  cerebral)  d,  t,  and  r.  (See  .Section  XVIII.  for  the 
mode  of  distinguishing,  as  well  as  for  the  pronunciation 
of,  these  letters.) 

3.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  apply  the  pronunciation 
of  India  to  Persian  and  Arabic  names  of  persons  who 
have  never  had  anything  to  do  with  India.  "While  it  may 
not  be  improper  to  pronounce  the  name  of  the  great 
Akbar— iik'ber, — for,  though  an  Arabic  name,  it  was 
doubtless  so  called  by  a  large  majority  of  his  subjects, — 
it  would  be  inexcusable  for  an  Englishman  (except 
when  talking  with  Hindoos)  to  pronounce  the  name  of 
the  Arabian  prophet  Mo-hum'mud  or  Moo-hum'mud, 
as  it  is  nearly  always  called  by  the  natives  of  India. 
(See  Table  on  page  18.) 

Obs.  There  is  a  remarkable  general  analogy,  both  in  their  history 
and  in  their  composition,  between  the  Hindostanee  and  the  English 


t  These  characters  are  called  terminal,  being  used  only  at  the  end 
of  a  word  or  name. 

X  It  may  be  remarked  that  Hindostan  or  Hindoostan,  (the 
"country  of  the  Hindoos,")  in  its  strict  and  original  signification, 
was  applied  only  to  India  north  of  the  Vindhya  Mountains.  The  ap- 
plication of  the  name  to  the  entire  peninsula  is  comparatively  recent. 

IS 


INTRODUCTION. 

 V  


languages.  In  both  tongues  the  staple  (if  we  may  use  the  term) 
was  furnished  by  the  native  dialects  of  the  country,  while  the  higher 
style  of  speech,  and  particularly  the  language  of  the  court,  was  for  a 
long  time  that  of  the  conquerors, — Norman-French  or  Persian  ;  and, 
even  after  the  amalgamation  of  the  language  of  the  conquerors  and 
that  of  the  conquered  had  taken  place  to  a  great  extent,  it  was  in  both 
countries  regarded  as  a  mark  of  rank  and  high  breeding  to  introduce 
into  conversation  and  into  written  composition  as  large  an  admixture 
of  the  former  as  possible.  The  analogy  may  be  extended  still  further : 
as  the  Norman-French  was  not  the  original  language  of  the  Normans, 
so  the  Persian  was  not  the  original  language  of  the  Mongol  conquerors 
of  India,  but  derived  from  one  of  the  countries  which  they  had  sub- 
dued and  in  which  they  had  established  themselves. 

HUNGARIAN. 

1.  A;  unaccented,  is  like  oin  not ;  with  an  accent,  {d^  it 
sounds  as  a  in  far,  and  is  always  long  :  thus.  Aba  Uj-vdr, 
the  name  of  a  town,  is  pronounced  ob'oh  oo'c-v^Ir. 

2.  E,  unaccented,  is  like  e  in  met ;  with  an  accent,  (/,) 
it  has  a  sound  intermediate  between  e  in  w^-Zand  /  mpit, 
but  more  prolonged. 

3.  /,  and;;/  when  a  vowel,  sound  like  e  in  me,  or  i'mfig. 

4.  O,  without  an  accent,  is  the  same  as  in  English  ; 
when  accented,  {6,)  it  has  a  longer  and  deeper  sound. 

5.  U,  without  an  accent,  is  like  00  in  English ;  with 
the  accent,  («',)  its  sound  is  fuller  and  deeper, 

6.  Oe  or     and  tee  or  ii,  are  the  same  as  in  German. 

7.  The  consonants  b,  d,f,  k,  k,  I,  m,  n,p,  t,  v,  z,  are  like 
the  English. 

8.  C  is  not  used  without  being  joined  with  some 
other  consonant ;  cs  is  sounded  like  cA  in  English ; 
cz,  like  ts. 

9.  G,  except  when  followed  by j  or  y,  is  always  hard, 
as  in  the  English  word  get.    Gh  sounds  like  a  simple  g. 

10.  yis  usually  like  e  in  English;  /{/is  pronounced 
oo-e.  Dj  and  ^'are  equivalent  to  dy  and  gy,  and  tj  to  ty. 
(See  16,  17,  and  20  of  this  Section.) 

11.  is  like  the  German ;  in  other  words,  it  is  to  be 
trilled  more  strongly  than  the  English. 

12.  S  is  like  the  English  sh. 

13.  Sz  is  like  s  sharp,  or  ss. 

14.  Ts  is  equivalent  to  cs,  (or  ch  in  English.) 

15.  Tz  is  like  cz,  (or  ts  in  English.) 

16.  Y,  in  Hungarian,  is  nearly  always  a  consonant. 
When  it  follows  d,  g,  /,  and  t,  it  seems  to  be  blended 
with  these  letters,  so  as  to  form  but  one  consonant  sound. 

17.  Z>y  and ^  are  alike.  ^T/^zgyar  is  pronounced  mod'- 
yor. 

18.  Ly  is  like  I  in  Spanish,  or  ///  in  the  English  word 
million.  Vdsdrhely  is  pronounced  in  three  syllables, — 
vi'shSR-hll. 

19.  iVj/is  like  the  Spanish  n,  or  ni\xi  minion.  Mdrtony 
is  pronounced  in  two  syllables, — mSR'ton. 

20.  Ty  approximates  the  sound  of  our  ch,  bearing  the 
same  relation  to  t  that  dy  does  to  d. 

21.  Zs  is  sounded  like  the  French  /,  or  zh  in  English. 
Obs.  In  Hungarian,  the  accent  usually  falls  on  the  first  syllable. 

ITALIAN. 
XI. 

I.  A,  in  Italian,  is  like  the  English  a  in  far,  though  its 
sound  varies  somewhat  in  different  situations.* 

.  *  There  are  a  number  of  niceties  in  Italian  pronunciation,  which, 
however  interesting  to  a  thorough  linguist,  cannot  properly  be  noticed 
in  a  work  like  the  present.  The  difficulty  of  giving  a  brief  and  at  the 
$arae  time  a  satisfactory  exposition  of  the  principles  of  this  language 
16 


2.  E  has  two  sounds  :  (i.)  close,  like  a  in  fate;  (2.)  open, 
like  e  in  met. 

3.  /  is  like  e  in  me,  or  i  in  fig. 

4.  O  has  two  sounds  :  (i.)  close,  as  in  note;  (2.)  open^ 
similar  to  o  in  not,  but  rather  broader. 

5.  like  00  in  English. 

6.  and  au,  in  Italian,  are /r«?/(?;' diphthongs.  (See 
VI.  14,  Observation.)  Accordingly,  Cairo  is  to  be  pro- 
nounced ki'ro,  AusA,  ow'sS,  etc. 

7.  The  consonants  b,  d,  f  I,  m,  n,  p,  q,  s,  t,  and  v  are 
similar  to  the  English. 

Obs.  K,  w,  x,  and  j>' are  not  used  by  the  Italians,  except  in  spelling 
foreign  names. 

8.  C  and  cc,  before  a,  o,  and  u,  are  sounded  like  k  ;  be- 
fore e,  i,  and^,  like  ch  or  tsh. 

Obs.  C<r  should  be  pronounced  more  strongly  than  a  singles.  This 
remark  will  apply  to  all  double  letters  in  Italian,  as  well  as  in  most 
other  languages. 

9.  As  c,  when  immediately  before  a,  o,  or  u,  i«  never 
pronounced  like  ch,  in  order  to  express  this  sound  in 
such  cases,  the  vowel  i  is  inserted :  thus,  cia,  cio,  ciu, 
are  pronounced  ch"^,  cho,  choo.  (See  table  at  the  end  of 
this  Section.) 

10.  Ch  is  employed  to  express  the  sound  of  k  before  e 
and  /. 

11.  G,  before  a,  o,  and  u,  is  hard,  as  in  the  English  word 
get ;  before  e,  i,  and  it  sounds  like  the  English  j:  gia, 
gio,giu,  are  pronounced  jl.,jo,joo.  (See  table  at  the  end 
of  this  Section.) 

12.  Gh  is  used  to  express  the  sound  of  hard^,  before 
^  and  /. 

13.  GH  has  the  sound  of  the  liquid  /,  (T,)  or  of  ///  in 
vtillion:  thus,  BoGLiO  is  pronounced  b6Kyo. 

14.  Gn  has  the  same  sound  as  in  French  ;  in  other 
words,  it  is  like  the  Spanish  n:  e.g.  Bologna  is  pro 
nounced  bo-l6n'y3.. 

15.  ^is  never  sounded  in  Italian. 

16.  y,  at  the  beginning  of  a  syllable,  is  like  the  Eng- 
lish^, (consonant ;)  at  the  end  of  a  word  it  is  equivalent 
to  //,  (in  Italian.) 

17.  ^resembles  the  French,  but  is  trilled  somewhat 
more  strongly.    (See  V.  24.) 

18.  Sc,  before  e  and  /,  is  like  the  English  sh  :  e.g.  Scio 
is  pronounced  shee'o. 

19.  Z  commonly  has  the  sound  of  dz  in  English  ;  zx 
is  generally  pronounced  like  ts.  But  to  both  these  rules 
there  are  a  number  of  exceptions.  (See  Monti's  Italian 
Grammar,  p.  4  and  pp.  206-208.) 


The  following  table  will  perhaps  enable  the  readei 
more  readily  to  understand  the  mode  in  which  c  and  ch, 
^and  gh,  are  employed  by  the  Italians  : 


ca 

is 

pronounced 

kl 

ga 

is 

pronounced 

che 

ti 

kA. 

ghe 

gi. 

chi 

II 

ke. 

ghi 

II 

ge. 

CO 

II 

ko. 

go 

go. 

cu 

i< 

<i 

koo. 

gu 

II 

goo. 

cia 

i< 

II 

chl 

gia 

% 

ce 

II 

chA. 

ge 

II 

ci 

(1 

<i 

che. 

gi 

•1 

je. 

cio 

cho. 

gio 

It 

jo. 

ciu 

II 

choo. 

giu 

II 

joo. 

Obs.  In  Italian,  the  accent  of  words  ending  in  a  vowel  is  usually 
on  the  penultima;  but  to  this  general  rule  there  are  many  exceptions. 


is  increased  by  the  existence  of  different  dialects  in  different  parts  of 
Italy.  It  has  been  deemed  sufificient,  in  this  synopsis,  merely  to  ex- 
plain those  principles  of  pronunciation  which  appear  to  be  recognized 
by  the  Italians  generally. 


INTRODUCTION, 


NORWEGIAN. 
XII. 

As  a  written  language,  the  Norwegian  may  be  said  to 
be  identical  with  the  Danish,  since  not  only  the  gram- 
mar, but,  with  very  few  exceptions,  the  words,  of  both, 
are  precisely  the  same.  In  pronunciation,  however,  the 
Norwegians  differ  widely  from  the  Danes,  while  these, 
again,  differ  considerably  among  themselves.  Under 
Section  III.  we  have  given  the  elements  of  Danish 
pronunciation  as  the  language  is  spoken  by  the  educated 
classes  in  Copenhagen.  The  principal  points  of  differ- 
ence between  this  and  the  Norwegian  appear  to  be  the 
following:  (i.)  d  in  the  latter  tongue  always  has  its 
proper  sound,  while  in  the  Danish  it  is  often  pronounced 
like  the  English  th  ;  (2.)  g  at  the  end  of  a  word,  in  Nor- 
wegian, is  usually  sounded  distinctly  as^hard  in  English ; 
(3.)  e  at  the  end  of  a  word  always  retains  its  distinct 
sound ;  (4.)  on  is  like  the  Dutch  and  English  on,  {8w.) 

ORIENTAL  LANGUAGES. 
XIII. 

1.  Under  this  general  term  we  include  all  those  lan- 
guages which  are  neither  written  in  Roman  letters  nor 
in  characters  that  can  readily  be  converted  into  corre- 
sponding Roman  letters.  (See  Preface,  p.  vi.)  In  this 
sense  it  would  embrace  not  merely  the  Asiatic  languages, 
to  which  the  term  "Oriental"  is  commonly  limited,  but 
also  the  Russian,  which  may  in  one  sense  be  said  to 
form  the  connecting  link  between  the  Asiatic  and  Eu- 
ropean tongues.  It  is  proposed  under  this  head  to  offer 
some  remarks  and  explanations  respecting  the  causes 
of  the  perplexity  and  confusion  in  which  the  whole 
subject  of  Oriental  orthography  seems  at  first  sight  so 
hopelessly  involved.  By  a  reference  to  what  has  been 
said  on  the  different  sounds  of  the  Arabic  tongue,  (see 
Section  I.,)  it  will  readily  be  seen  that,  from  the  different 
modes  employed  to  represent  with  Roman  letters  the 
sounds  of  many  of  the  Arabic  characters,  an  almost 
endless  diversity  may,  or  rather  must,  result  in  regard 
to  the  spelling  of  names  in  which  those  characters  occur. 
The  confusion  is  not  a  little  increased  by  the  fact  that 
the  same  character  has  a  different  power  according  as 
it  is  employed  by  Arabian,  Persian,  or  Indian  writers. 

2.  As  an  illustration  of  the  foregoing  remarks,  we  may 
take  oLxc,  an  Oriental  surname,  signifying  a  "  redresser 
of  wrongs."  In  this  name  each  of  the  four  letters  may  be 
represented  in  two  or  more  different  ways  :  i.  the  ^^may 
be  represented  either  by^or^/^;  2.  the  (jr  maybe  repre- 
sented by^,  /,  or  (supposing  it  to  be  doubled)  by  iy,  and 
(in  English)  by  ey  or  e ;  3.  the  1  by  d,  d,  and  (in  English) 
au;  4.  the  o  may  be  represented  hy  or  s,  (or  ss.) 
The  name  may  then  be  written  (without  impropriety)  by 
European  writers  in  the  following  modes  :  First,  as  an 
Arabic  name,  in  which  the  vi^  retains  its  proper  sound : 
Ghiyath,  GiySth,  Gheath,  Geath,  Ghiyauth,  Giyauth, 
Gheauth,  and  Geauth.  Secondly,  as  a  Persian  or  Hin- 
dostanee  name,  in  which  the  o  is  represented  by  a  sharp 
s  or  ss:  Ghiyas,  Giyas,  Gheas,  Geas,  Ghiaus,  Giaus,  Ghe- 
aus,*  and  Geaus.  These  sixteen  spellings  are  not  all  the 
modes  which  might  legitimately  be  used  to  represent  the 
above  name  of  four  Arabic  letters,  but  they  are,  perhaps, 
amply  sufficient  to  illustrate  what  has  been  said  above. 

3.  Another  source  of  perplexity  in  regard  to  names  of 


•  So  written  by  Sir  John  Malcolm. 


Arabic  origin  is  the  difference  which  obtains  in  the  pro- 
nunciation of  the  fatha,  (short  a.)  In  Western  Asia  it 
often  approaches  very  nearly  the  sound  of  e  in  met,  (as  in 
(j+j  Yemen,  (ySm'en,)  the  name  of  Arabia  Felix,)  while 
in  some  of  the  eastern  parts  of  Persia  the  fatha  is  pro- 
nounced nearly  like  4,  and  in  India  it  is  sounded  like 
our  short  u,  (as  in  iud.)  Accordingly,  in  Eastern  Persia 
they  say  yam'an,  and  in  India  yiim'un,  for  Arabia  Felix. 

4.  The  pronunciation  of  the  Arabic  article  is  of  itself 
otten  the  cause  of  much  perplexity, — first,  by  the  frequent 
change  of  the  /  to  correspond  with  the  sound  of  the 
initial  letter  of  the  following  word,  (see  I.  33,)  and, 
secondly,  by  the  change  of  the  vowel,  which  is  variously 
sounded,  commonly  as  al  or  el,  often  as  ool,  and  some- 
times as  lil.  Hence  we  have  A bd-el-Malek,  Abd-al-Malek, 
Abd-ool'Malek,  (written  also  Abd-nl-Malek  or  Abd-oid- 
Malik;)  Abd-al-Rah7na7t,  Abd-el- Rahman,  Abdar-Rah- 
man,  Abderrahman,  Abdurrahman,  or  Abdourrahman. 

As  it  would  be  wholly  out  of  the  question  for  us  in 
every  instance  to  give  all  the  different  spellings  of  Ori- 
ental names, — and  we  have  not  attempted  to  do  so,  except 
in  the  case  of  a  very  few  of  great  celebrity,  (such  as  Jengis 
Khan,) — we  have  thought  it  might  be  useful  to  give  the 
following  table,  by  glancing  at  which  the  reader  will 
perhaps  acquire  a  greater  practical  facility  in  identifying 
rlames  which  at  first  sight  may  appear  wholly  different 
from  each  other,  than  he  could  by  a  more  elaborate  or 
more  scientific  explanation  of  the  causes  of  such  diver- 
sity. At  the  same  time,  that  he  may,  if  he  desires  to  do 
so,  clearly  understand  the  principles  which  lie  at  the 
bottom  of  all  this  apparent  confusion,  we  shall  refer  by 
numbers  (indicated  by  figures  included  in  a  parenthesis) 
to  the  explanations  and  remarks  made  when  speaking  of 
the  Arabic  alphabet,  (see  Section  I.,)  where  also  we  have 
pointed  out  the  chief  differences  between  the  power  of  the 
letters  in  that  tongue  and  in  the  Persian  and  Hindostanee. 

TABLE  OF  CELEBRATED  ORIENTAL  NAMES 
WRITTEN  VARIOUSLY. 

Aboo-Bekr,'  Abu-Beer,  Aboubecre,  Abu-Bakr,  (30,)t 
Abou-  (or  Abu-)  Beker  (or  -Bekr,)  Ebubekr,  Uboo- 
Bekr  or  Ub'oo-Bukr,J  (or  -Buk'ker.) 

Aboo-  (Abou-  or  Abu-)  Talib,  (or  -Taleb,)  Ebu-Thalib, 
Ub'oo-Ta'leb.§ 

Adhad-ed-Daulah,'*  Adadoddaulah,  Azad-ed-Daulah, 
(or  -Dowlah,)  (15,)  Uz'ud-ud-Dow'lah.§ 

Adherbijan,  Aderbijan,  Azerbaijan,  (9.)t 

*  The  "father  of  the  virgin,"  {J..e.  of  Ayeshah.) 
«  The  "arm  (or  defender)  of  the  state." 

t  The  use  of  the  numerals  in  parenthesis  will  be  clearly  seen  from 
the  following  examples.  Under  Aboo-Bekr  we  find  30.  By  a  reference 
to  this  number  in  Section  I.,  (note  t,)  we  find  that  fatha  is  sounded 
sometimes  like  d,  sometimes  like  e,  and  sometimes  like  H;  hence  the 
variations  of  Bnkr,  Bekr,  and  Bukr  or  Btikker.  Under  Adherbijan 
we  are  referred  to  9  in  Section  I.,  where  we  find  that  while  the  J>, 
as  an  Arabic  letter,  is  commonly  represented  by  dk  or  d,  it  has  in  Per- 
sian the  sound  of  z:  and  so  on. 

X  Major  Price,  in  his  "  Mahommedan  History,"  (London,  1811,) 
writes  the  name  AbQ-Bukker, — somewhat  inconsistently,  since  the 
first  part  of  the  name  (Abfl)  is  written  with  the  Italian  or  German 
vowels,  while  the  second  (Bukker)  is  written  in  the  English  mode, — 
a  mode,  moreover,  which  no  Englishman  would  be  likely  to  use  who 
had  not  acquired  his  pronunciation  of  the  name  in  India.  A  worse 
inconsistency  is  found  in  Major  Stewart's  spelling  of  the  name  of 
Hoomayoon,  (Houmaioon,)  in  which  the  first  and  second  parts  of 
the  name  are  French,  and  the  third  English.  He  should  either  have 
written  it  Houmaioun  or  Houmayoun,  or  else  Hoomayoon. 

§  So  generally  pronounced  in  India. 

17 


INTRODUCTION, 


Adh-Dhahabee,*  (or  -Dhahabi,)  (9,)  Al-Dzahabi,  Uz- 
Zu'hubee  *  (30.) 

Akbar,^  Akber,  Ekber,  Uk'bur,*  (sometimes  improp- 
erly written  Akhbar  and  Ackbar.) 

Alee,'  All,  Aly,  (or  Ally,)  UKee  * 

Al-kahir-Billah,*  Al-Qahir-t  (or  Qaher-)  Billah,  (21.) 

Baber,  Babar,  or  Baubur. 

Bayazeed,  Bayezeed,  Bayazid;  Bajasid,  (German;) 
sometimes  corrupted  into  Bajazet. 

Fereedoon,  Feridoun,  Feridun,  Fureedoon ;  written 
also  Pheridun  or  Pheridoun. 

Firdousee,  Firdausi,  Ferdougy,  Firdousi,  Firdusi, 
Ferdosi.  (For  the  signification  of  this  name,  see  Fir- 
dousee, in  the  body  of  the  work.) 

Hassan,'  Ha9an,  (14,)  Hussun.t 

Hoolakoo,  Houlakou,  Hulaku  or  Hooligoo,  Houla- 
gou,  Hulagu. 

Hoomayoon,®  Houmayoun,  Humayiin  or  Humayoon, 
Houmaioon. 

Isfendiyar,  Asfandiyar,  Isfundear.J 

Jehan-  (or  Jahan-)  Geer,""  Djehan-Ghyr,  Djahan-Guire, 
Dschehan-  (or  Dschahan-)  Gir. 

Kai-Kaoos,  Kai-Kaous,  Kai-Kaus,  Key-Kawuss. 

Kereem,*  (or  Kareem,)  Kerim,  Karim,  Carim,  Kur- 
reem.} 

Khadijah,  (or  Khadeejah,)  Chadidsha  or  Khadid- 
schah,  Khadidjah  or  Khadidja,  Kadijah. 

Khaled,  Chaled,  Caled. 

Khaleel,  Chalil,  Khulleel.J 

Lokman,  Locman,  Loqman,  (21,)  Lockmaun. 

Mahmood-Abool-Kasim-  (or  Kasem-)  Yemeen-ed- 
Dow  -  lah,"  Mahmoud  -  Abul  -  Kagem  -Yemin  -  eddaulah, 
Mahmud-Abul-Kassim-Jemin-eddaulah. 

Mansoor,'"  (Al,)  Mansour  or  Man90ur,  (14,)  Mansiir, 
Munsoor.J 

Meerza,''  Mirza,  Mirsa,  (German.) 

Moaweeyah,  Moawiah,  Moawiyah,  Moawije  and  Mua- 
wijjah,  (German,)  Moaveah,  Mauweiah,  (in  Latin, 
Moawias.) 

Modhafar,"*  Modhofar,  Mozaffer,  Mozuffur,  Muzu£fer, 
Moozuffur,t  (17.) 

Mohammed,"  Mahomed,  Mahomet,  Muhammed,  Me- 
hemet,  Moohummud,*  (moo-hum'mud.) 

Nadir  Shah,'*  Nadir  (or  Nader)  Chah,  Nadir  Schah, 
Nauder  Shah. 

Nasir-ed-Deen,''  Nassireddyn,  Nagireddin,  (14,)  Nas- 
ser-u-deen,  Nausser-ud-deen. 

Nizamee,  Nizami,  Nisami,  Nidhami,  (17.) 

Noor-ed-Deen'^  or  Nour-ed-Din,  Nour-u-deen,  Nour- 
eddyn,  Nureddin. 

•  "  The  golden."  ^  The  " great,"  or  " greatest." 
'  "High,"  "eminent,"  "noble."     *  "Victorious  through  God." 

•  "Beautiful,"  "handsome,"  "good." 

•  "Fortunate,"  "blessed."  Conqueror  of  the  world." 

•  "Bountiful,"  "generous,"  "merciful." 

•  Yemeen-ed-Dovvlah  signifies  "right  hand  of  the  state  (or  empire.") 
"  "The  victorious." 

I.e.  Meer-Zad,  or  Ameer-Z&d,  "son  of  a  prince." 

"  Victorious."  "  Praised." 

**  "  Wonderful  king."  »»  "Defender  of  the  faith." 

»«  "Light  of  the  faith." 

*  Sometimes  so  written  and  so  pronounced  by  the  English  in 
India.    (See  Section  IX.  3.) 

t  Sir  G.  Wilkinson  writes  the  name  of  the  celebrated  capital  of 
Egypt  (Cairo)  Qahera. 

X  So  written  by  Sir  John  Malcolm,  and  so  pronounced  in  India. 
18 


Nousheerwan,  Noushirwan,  Nauschirwan  or  Naou- 
chirwan,  Nuschirwan.  (See  Khosroo,  in  the  body  of 
this  work.) 

Omeyyah,  Ommeyah,  Ommaiah,  Umeyyah,  Omaee; 
(in  German,)  Omajjah,  Omijjah,  or  Umaijjah. 

Othman,  Osman,  Otman,  (or  Ottoman.) 

Roostam,  Roostum,  Roustam,  Roustem,  Rustam,  Rus- 
tem. 

Shah-Alam"  (or  -Aulum,)  Chah-Alam  (or  -Alem,) 
Schah-Alam. 

Shah-Jehan"  (or  -Jahan,)  Chah-Djehan,  Schah- 
Dschehan  or  Schah-Dschahan. 

Sooleyman,  Suleiman,  Solyman,  Soliman,  Souleyman. 

Soovorof,  Souvorof,  Suworow,  Suwarow,  Suwarrow, 
Souvarof,  Suvaroff,  Suvorow. 

Taimoor  or  Teemoor,  Timour,  Taimour,  Taimur  or 
Timur,  Tamerlane.'* 

Yakoob,  Yacoob,  Yakoub,  Yacoub,  Yakub;  Jakub, 
(German.) 

Yazeed  or  Yezeed,  Yazid  or  Yezid ;  Jezid,  (Dutch ;) 
Jasid  or  Jesid,  (German.) 

Yoozuf,  Yoosoof,  Youzouf  or  Youzef,  louzef ;  Jusuf  or 
Jusef,  (German.) 

The  following  table  of  names  of  a  certain  kind,  classi- 
fied according  to  their  spelling  in  the  four  principal 
European  languages,  will,  it  is  believed,  furnish  a  key 
to  many  of  the  difficulties  which  the  reader  is  likely  to 
meet  with  in  works  on  Oriental  history  or  biography : 


English. 

French. 

German. 

Italian. 

Chengiz, 

Tchenguiz, 

Tschengis, 

Cenghis. 

Chenghiz, 

Tchenghis, 

Tschingis, 

Cinghis. 

Chenghis, 

Tchenguis, 

Chingiz, 

Tchinguiz. 

Chingis, 

Tchinguis. 

Chinghis, 

Tchinghis. 

Jengis,§ 

Djenguiz, 

Dschengis, 

Genghis. 

Jengiz, 

Djenguyz. 

Jenghis, 

Djenguis. 

The  first  of  the  above  spellings  are  based  on  the  sup- 
position that  the  initial  consonant  in  the  Mongol  name 
had  the  sound  of  our  ch  ;  while  those  below  (Jengis,  etc.) 
rest  on  the  supposition  that  the  initial  letter  had  the 
sound  of  j.  On  this  question  the  best  Oriental  authori- 
ties are  not  agreed.  It  very  probably  had  a  sound 
somewhat  differing  from  either. 


English. 

French. 

German. 

Italian. 

Jaafar, 

Djafar, 

Dschafar, 

Giafar. 

Jafar, 

Djafer, 

Dschafer, 

Giaffar. 

Jafer, 

Djaafar, 

Dschaafar, 

Giaafar,  eta 

Jamsheed 

Djamchid, 

Dschamschid, 

Giamscid. 

or 

Djamchyd, 

Dschemschid. 

Jemsheed, 

Djemchid, 

Djemchyd, 

Djamschid,  ptc.l 

"  "King  of  the  world,"  or  "king  of  the  universe." 
"  "  King  of  the  world." 

"  A  corruption  of  Taimoor-leng  ox  Timur-lenk, — i.e.  "Taimoor 
the  lame." 


§  Gibbon,  the  historian,  writes  the  name  Zingis. 

II  It  is  extremely  common  for  French  writers,  in  spelling  Oriental  or 
Russian  names,  to  use  sch  instead  of  ch,  which  is  more  strictly  French. 
It  has  not  been  deemed  necessary  to  present  in  the  table  every  pos- 
sible form,  such  as  Djamschyd,  Djemschyd,  Dgemchid,  Dgemchyd. 
etc.,  although  these  would  be  perfectly  legitimate  French  spellings. 


INTRODUCTION, 


English. 

French. 

German. 

Italian. 

Taiwan  f^P(*r  ^ 

Djahanguir,* 

Dschahangir,* 

Giahanghir. 

Jehan  Geer 

Djahanguyr, 

Dschehangir, 

Gehanghir. 

or 

Djehanguir, 

Jehangeer, 

Djehanguyr, 

Djahanguire,  etc 

Khadyah, 

Khadidja, 

Chadidscha, 

Cadigia. 

Khadeejah. 

Meerza, 

Mirza, 

Mirsa  or  Mirza, 

Mirsa  or  Mirza. 

Nizimee, 

Nizami, 

Nisami, 

Nisami. 

Noor-ed-Deen,*  Noureddin,* 

Nureddin,* 

Nureddin. 

Noor-ud-deen, 

Noureddyn. 

Shah-Jahin, 

Chah-Djahan, 

Schah-Dschahan,Sciah  Giahan. 

Shah-Jehan, 

Chah-Djehan, 

Schah-Dschehan,  Sciach  Giacan. 

Shah-Jehaun. 

Yazeed 

Yazid, 

Jasid, 

Jasid. 

or 

Yasid, 

Jesid, 

Jesid. 

Yezeed, 

lazid, 

Yezid, 

lesid. 

Yoosuf 

Youzouf, 

Jussuf (or 

Jasuf. 

or 

Youzef, 

JusuQ 

JuseC 

Yoozoof, 

Youseph, 

Jusef, 

Yoozef, 

louzef,  etc., 

Juseph. 

Zeid  or  Zeyd, 

Zeid, 

Seid  or  Seyd. 

Zhookofski 

Joukofski, 

Schukowski, 

or 

Joukovski, 

Schukovski, 

Sciucofschi. 

Zhookofskee, 

Joucofski, 

Schukofski, 

Sciucovschi. 

ZhoukofskLt 

Shukowski. 

Any  number  of  instances  might  be  cited  in  which  re- 
spectable English  writers  use  in  the  same  work,  and,  it 
may  be,  in  the  same  sentence,  the  English,  French,  and 
German  orthography  indiscriminately,  as  Aboo,  Abou, 
or  Abu,  Abool-Kausim,  Aboul-Kassim,  Abul-Kassim, 
Arghoun,  Feridoon,  etc.  etc  This  is  unquestionably  a 
serious  defect  in  any  work,  as  in  most  cases  the  reader 
must  be  wholly  at  a  loss  to  determine  what  sound  the 
writer  intends  to  convey ;  yet  the  universal  prevalence 
of  this  practice,  and  the  absence  of  any  settled  orthog- 
raphy in  regard  to  Oriental  names,  may  be  justly  urged 
as  some  extenuation.  But  there  is  another  very  common 
fault,  which  in  our  view  is  far  more  objectionable, — that 
of  combining  French  and  English  or  English  and  Ger- 
man orthography  in  the  same  name  :  as,  Abou-Yusoof, 
(in  which  the  second  syllable  is  French,  the  third  Ger- 
man, and  the  fourth  English,)  Abou-Aly-Sumjoovee,  (in 
which  the  first  part  is  French,  and  the  second  and  third 
English,)  Aboushirwan,  Aboul-Kausim,  (in  both  of  which 
the  second  syllable  is  French,  and  the  third  English,) 
Abulfiradge,  (Aboolfaraj,)  (in  which  the  second  syllable 
is  German,  and  the  fourth  French,)  Nour-u-deen-Mah- 
mood,  (in  which  the  first  syllable  is  French,  and  all  the 
rest  English.) 

All  the  examples  last  cited,  and  most  of  the  others, 
are  taken  from  Sir  John  Malcolm's  '*  History  of  Persia," 

*  It  may  be  proper  to  observe  that  compound  names,  like  the 
above,  (as  Jahangeer  or  Djahanguir,  Noureddin  or  Nureddin,  etc., 
may  be  written  as  one  word  or  divided  into  their  separate  parts, 
according  to  the  option  of  the  writer.  Thus,  we  may  write  Jahangeer 
or  Jahan-Geer,  Djahanguir  or  Djahan-Guir ;  Nooreddeen,  Noor-ed- 
Deen,  Noureddin,  (or  Noureddyn,)  Nour-ed-Din,  Nour-Eddin, 
or  Nour-Eddyn;  etc.  etc.  We  have,  however,  in  giving  the  Eng- 
lish spellings,  generally  preferred  to  divide  the  names  into  their 
separate  parts,  which  appears  to  accord  with  the  general  usage  of 
our  language  in  regard  to  compound  words  of  modern  origin. 

t  It  may  be  remarked  that  French  writers  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  use  zh  instead  of  /  in  order  to  represent  the  sound  of  the 
Russian  ^K.  The  Germans  often  employ  sh  {s  in  German  being 
usually  equivalent  to  our  z)  for  the  same  purpose. 


a  work  of  decided  merit,  whose  author  was  not  wanting 
either  in  the  learning  or  judgment  required  to  produce 
a  work  essentially  free  from  the  above  defects,  had  his 
attention  been  directed  to  the  great  importance  of  con- 
sistency and  uniformity  in  writings  of  this  kind. 

PERSIAN. 
XIV. 

1.  The  modern  Persian  is  a  mixed  product  formed  by 
the  union  of  words  derived  from  the  different  Aryan 
dialects  of  ancient  Persia  with  the  Arabic,  which  was 
introduced  into  the  language  by  the  Mohammedan  con- 
querors of  the  country.  The  mixture  of  these  hetero- 
geneous elements  may  be  aptly  compared  to  that  of  oil 
and  water.  As  in  such  a  mixture  we  see  portions  or 
masses  of  each  ingredient  in  contact,  but  not  combined 
or  assimilated  with  each  other,  so  in  modern  Persian 
we  often  find  the  Aryan  and  Semitic  elements  thrown 
together  side  by  side,  without  the  slightest  attempt  to 
assimilate  or  combine  them  into  a  harmonious  whole. 
We  constantly  meet  with  scraps  of  pure  Arabic — not 
merely  phrases,  but  even  whole  sentences — introduced 
bodily  into  a  passage  of  which  all  the  rest  is  Persian, 
both  in  etymology  and  grammatical  construction.}: 

2.  The  Persian  alphabet  includes,  along  with  the 
twenty-eight  Arabic  letters,  these  four  additional  ones  : 
V'  (^')  >  (^^'^  (S-)  The  following 
characters  have,  in  Persian,  a  totally  different  power 
from  that  given  them  in  the  Arabic  alphabet,  viz. : 
^3,  (jT,  and  which  are  pronounced  like  and  O, 
which  takes  the  sound  of  s.  This  diversity  of  sound,  as 
might  naturally  be  expected,  often  causes  much  confu- 
sion, because  European  writers  are  apt  to  spell  the  name 
according  to  the  language  with  which  they  happen  to  be 
most  familiar  :  thus,  one  who  is  familiar  with  Arabic  and 
but  little  acquainted  with  Persian,  as  pronounced  by  the 
natives  of  that  country,  will  write  Adherbij'an,  Modhafef 
or  Modhofar,  while  those  who  have  learned  the  pronun- 
ciation of  these  names  in  Persia  or  India  will  write 
Azerbijan,  Mozafer  or  Mozaffer. 

3.  The  Persian  has  also  two  vowel-sounds  unknown  to 
the  Arabic, — namely,  ^  and  d.  These  sounds  of  yd  and 
waw  are  usually  distinguished  from  the  common  Arabic 
sounds  of  the  same  letters  (namely,  i  or  ee  and  «2  or  00) 
by  the  Arabic  epithet  Majhool  or  Majh^l,  (signifying 
"  unknown,")  or  Ajemee,  ( Ajemi,)  ( i.e.  "  Persian,")  while 
the  ordinary  sound  is  designated  by  the  term  Ma'roof, 
( Ma'riif, )  that  is,    known"  or  "  familiar." 

4.  It  may  be  observed  that  the  long  a  (d)'m  Persian 
is  considerably  broader  than  the  long  a  in  Arabic  or  in 
Sanscrit,  though  the  pronunciation  varies  somewhat  in 
different  provinces.  In  the  city  of  Shiraz  (where  it  is 
claimed  that  the  best  Persian  is  spoken)  the  sound  of  d 
is  scarcely,  if  at  all,  less  broad  than  in  the  English  words 
awe,  fall,  etc. 

t  Sir  William  Jones,  in  the  Preface  to  his  "Persian  Grammar," 
gives  a  very  striking  illustration  of  the  difference  between  the  crude 
mixture  of  different  ingredients  composing  the  modern  Persian,  and 
the  more  thoroughly  assimilated  elements  of  our  own  tongue,  by  the 
following  parallel  sentences.  The  first,  exhibiting  the  structuie  of 
the  English  language,  is  from  Middleton's  *'  Life  of  Cicero,"  (vol.  iii. 
p.  351 :)  "The  true  law  is  right  reason  conformable  to  the  nature  of 
things ;  which  calls  us  to  duty  by  commanding,  deters  us  from  sin  by 
forbidding."  The  composition  of  the  Persian  is  similar  to  the  follow- 
ing: "The  true  lex  is  recia  ratio  conformable  natiem,  which  by 
commanding  vocet  ad  ojfficium,  by  forbidding  hfraude  deterreat." 

19 


INTRODUCTION. 


POLISH. 
XV. 

1.  A  sounds  as  a  in  the  English  word  far. 

2.  E,  without  an  accent,  like^  in  met ;  with  an  accent, 
like  a  in  fate. 

3.  /  as  in  marine. 

4.  (9,  unaccented,  as  in  note ;  with  an  accent,  like  00  in 
^ood,  or  06. 

5.  U  is  like  00  in  w^7c7«. 

6.  y  resembles  e  in  but  is  more  guttural,  being 
similar  to  i  in  pin. 

7.  A  sounds  nearly  like  on  in  French,  (6n  ;)  ^  is  in  in 
French,  (or  ^N.) 

8.  The  consonants  b,  d,fg,  (always  hard,)  k,  m,  n, 
p,  s,  (always  sharp,)  /  and  z,  are  essentially  the  same  as 
in  English. 

9.  C  in  all  cases,  even  before  a  or  0,  sounds  like  ts  in 
English ;  cz  is  equivalent  to  our  c/i ;  ch  is  like  the  Ger- 
man ch. 

10.  yis  like  the  German,  being  equivalent  to^  con- 
sonant. 

11.  Z  (without  any  mark)  is  similar  to  our  /,  but 
softer  ;  \  is  very  hard,  somewhat  resembling  the  //  of  the 
Welsh. 

12.  ^  is  like  the  German. 

13.  W"\?>  similar  to  the  German,  resembling  our  v. 

14.  with  an  accent  over  it,  («,)  sounds  like  the 
Spanish  n. 

15.  S,  marked  in  a  similar  manner,  (r,)  has  a  sound 
blending  that  of  s  and  y  consonant.  Sc  has  a  sound 
which  cannot  be  given  in  English :  its  nearest  approxi- 
mation in  our  language  is  sts. 

16.  ^0  is  equivalent  to  sh  in  English. 

17.  Z,  with  a  point  over  it,  (4,)  is  like  the  French y,  or 
zh  in  English. 

18.  Zy  with  an  accent,  («,)  is  somewhat  similar  to  the 
above,  but  has  no  equivalent  in  our  language. 

Obs.  1.  The  accent  in  Polish  words  or  names  of  more  than  one 
syllable  is  nearly  always  on  the  penultima. 

Obs.  2.  The  sounds  of  the  letters  in  Slavonian,  Bohemian,  and 
Illyrian  correspond,  with  slight  exceptions,  to  those  of  the  Polish 
language. 

PORTUGUESE. 
XVI. 

1.  The  vowels  «,  ^,  /,  u,  and  y,  and  the  diphthongs 
ai,  ay^  au,*  are  essentially  the  same  as  in  Spanish. 

2.  Ao  and  am  are  pronounced  almost  <3wn. 

3.  The  consonants  b,  d,f  /,  m,  n,  p,  s,  t,  v,  and  z  are 
similar  to  the  English. 

4.  C  is  the  same  as  in  French,  differing  from  the  Eng- 
lish only  by  sometimes  having  the  cedilla. 

5.  Ch  is  the  same  as  in  French,  or,  in  other  words,  is 
like  our  sh. 

6.  G  and  /  are  the  same  as  in  French.  (See  V.  15 
and  17.) 

7.  in  Portuguese,  is  always  silent.  When,  how- 
ever, it  follows  /  or  it  renders  these  letters  liquid: 
thus,  flho  ("son")  is  pronounced  feel'yoo  or  f^Kyo ; 
senhora,  ("  lady,")  sin-yo'ri,  etc. 

8.  M  frequently,  and  n  sometimes,  has  a  nasal  sound. 
Sam,  like  sao,  is  pronounced  almost  souN ;  alem  or  alen 
sounds  like  I-ISn'. 

*  Et  and  ey  are  almost  the  same  as  in  Spanish,  but  have  a  sound 
sometimes  approaching  that  of  the  English  long  /. 
20 


9.  Qu  is  pronounced  as  in  French,  the  u  in  this  case 
not  being  sounded. 

10.  i?  is  like  the  French.    (See  V.  24.) 

11.  Xis  sounded  like  ch  in  Portuguese,  or  sh  in  English. 
Obs.  In  Portuguese  the  general  rules  of  accentuation  are  similar 

to  those  in  the  Spanish  language.    (See  XIX.  Obs.  i.) 

RUSSIAN. 
XVII. 

The  Russian  is  the  most  important  of  all  the  Slavic 
family  of  languages,  not  merely  on  account  of  its  being 
the  tongue  of  one  of  the  most  powerful  and  most  popu- 
lous empires  in  the  world,  but  it  is  probably  not  inferior, 
viewed  simply  as  a  vehicle  of  expression,  to  any  other 
member  of  that  family,  if  we  take  into  consideration  all 
the  qualities  which  go  to  form  a  good  language,  such  as 
softness,  flexibility,  variety,  richness,  and  force.  Al- 
though some  of  its  consonants — LH,  for  example — seem 
sufficiently  harsh  to  an  English  ear,  it  is  much  softer 
than  the  Polish,  and  is  mostly  free  from  that  concourse 
of  consonants!  which  makes  the  latter  tongue  so  formi- 
dable  to  foreigners. 

The  power  of  the  greater  number  of  the  Russian  letters 
is  perhaps  sufficiently  explained  in  the  table  on  the 
opposite  page.  The  following,  however,  require  some 
additional  explanation : 

1.  r  sounds  usually  nearly  like  our  hard  ^,  but  is  some- 
what more  guttural,  as  if  an  aspirate  were  mingled  with 
the  other  sound.  Occasionally  it  is  pronounced  like  hf 
and  not  unfrequently,  when  at  the  end  of  words,  like 
the  German  ch.  It  also  has  sometimes  nearly  the  sound 
of  our  h;  and,  as  the  Russians  have  no  other  letter  to 
represent  h  in  foreign  names,  they  use  T  for  this  purpose. 
Thus,  they  would  write  Kopengagen  for  Copenhagen. 

2.  E,  though  generally  possessing  the  pronunciation 
indicated  in  the  table,  (i  or  yk,)  in  some  cases  takes  the 
sound  of  yo  or  ^ ;  it  is  then  usual  to  mark  it  thus,  e, 
as  Hecexe,  "you  carry,"  (pronounced  n§s-yo'tS  or 
nSs-^'tS.) 

Obs.  1.  The  omission  of  this  mark  sometimes  leads  to  important 
errors:  thus,  Feodor,  ("Theodore,")  always  in  three  syllables,  is 
not  unfrequently  written  and  pronounced  by  foreigners  Fedor. 

Obs.  2.  The  varying  sound  of  e  (4  or  yi)  will  explain  why  certain 
names  beginning  with  this  vowel  are  written  sometimes  with  an 
initial  E  and  sometimes  with  F,  as  E kaierinoslaf  or  Vekaterinoslaf, 
Elisavetgrad  or  Yelisaveigrad,  etc. 

3.  K  is  usually  sounded  as  in  English,  but  in  certain 
positions  it  takes  the  sound  of  kh,  (or  the  German  ch.) 

4.  A  has  usually  the  same  sound  as  the  English  /,  but 
when  followed  by  the  hard  semi-vowel  t,  or  by  the 
vowels  a,  o,  y,  {00,)  it  is  similar  to  the  Polish  "k, 

5.  The  hard  semi-vowel  i>  imparts  to  the  preceding 
consonant  a  strong  harsh  sound,  as  if  it  were  doubled. 
When  preceded  by  B  (v)  it  changes  the  sound  of  this 
consonant  into  that  of  /  or  ff;  as,  op.ioB'L,  pronounced 
or-loff'.  Following  >k,  it  changes  the  sound  of  this  letter 
mio  sh;  as,  ho^kTi,  pronounced — nosh.  In  like  manner, 
when  it  follows  /\,it  changes  its  sound  to  t;  and  so  on. 

6.  The  soft  semi-vowel  L  usually  imparts  a  soft  or 
liquid  sound  to  the  preceding  consonant.  Thus,  CTaHB 
is  pronounced  almost  stin ;  cto;il,  stol,  etc. 

7.  The  semi-vowel  is  placed  after  vowels  with  which 
it  coalesces,  forming  but  one  syllable ;  as,  A^H  pro- 
nounced dt-!  or  di ;  neft,  pi^e  or  pa,  etc. 

t  As  occurs,  for  example,  in  such  Polish  names  as  the  followmg/ 
Brzesc,  Przemysl,  Skrzenbski,  etc.  etc. 


INTRODUCTION, 


The  Russian  alphabet  consists  of  thirty-six  letters,  as  follows ; 


I. 

A  a 

Power. 

Name  as  pronounced 
IN  English. 

19. 

Ttih 

p_„,_.„                 Name  as  pronounced 
^^""^•^                       IN  English. 

t  ti 

2. 

B  6 

b 

bk 

20. 

00 

00 

3- 

B  B 

V 

vi 

21. 

f 

hi 

4. 

r  r 

g  oxgh 

ghi 

22. 

X  X 

K  (like  the  German  ch) 

Ki 

5. 
6. 

7- 

£  e 

a 

i  or  y«l 
zh 

di  • 

yk 
zhi 

23- 
24. 
25- 

mm 

ts 

ch  or  tch  (equivalent  to  the 
Persian  rr) 

sh 

tsi 
Chi 
Shi 

c 
0. 

9- 
10. 

T/f  w 
11  H 

T  i 

z 

e,  I,  ye 
&  or  1 

zi 

ye 
h 

26. 
27. 
28. 

Um 

sh-tsh 

e  mute  (making  the  preceding 
consonant  hard) 

h  or  w6 

sh'tchi 

y5R 

yir-we 

lit 

K  K 

k 

ki 

29. 

h  L 

y,  nearly  mute 

ya'ri 

12. 

A  A 

1 

30. 

yi  or  i 

yi'ty  or  yi'tl 

13- 

m.  sH 

m 

£m 

31- 

3  3 

h 

h 

14. 

n  H 

Q 

&i 

32. 

10  JH) 

u  (yoo)  or  ii 

yoo 

0  0 

0 

6 

33- 

yi  or  yS 

16. 

n  n 

P 

pi 

34- 

e  e 

f 

ft-ti' 

17. 

p  p 

r 

gR 

35- 

ee'zhit-si 

18. 

G  c 

s 

gss 

36. 

y,  nearly  mute,  (like 
a  half- uttered  i.) 

hori 

SANSCRIT. 
XVIII. 

I.  The  Sanscrit*  {i.e.  the  "elaborate"  or  "perfect" 
language)  was  the  language  used  by  the  more  highly 
cultivated  portion  of  the  ancient  Aryan  inhabitants 
of  India,  (see  Arya  in  the  body  of  this  work,)  and  is 
still  the  learned  language  of  their  descendants,  the 
modern  Hindoos.!  It  is  regarded  as  the  oldest  of  the 
Indo-European  tongues.  The  character  in  which  it  is 
written  is  called  NagariJ  or  Devanagari,  (pronounced 
da'va  ni'ga-ree',)  and,  like  most  other  alphabets  of  the 
Indo-European  family,  it  is  written  from  left  to  right. 
The  Nagari,  (or  Nagaree,)  considered  simply  as  a  phonetic 
system,  is  perhaps  the  most  perfect  of  human  alphabets. 
It  not  only  has  a  separate  letter  for  every  one  of  its 
elementary  sounds,  but  it  is  also  remarkable  for  its  ad- 

•  Written  also  Sanscrit  and  Sungskrit.  The  term  is  derived 
from  the  Sanscrit  particle  sdm,  nearly  equivalent  to  the  Latin  con, 
"together,"  (acd,  like  it,  often  used  as  an  intensive,)  and  kritA, 
"  made"  or  "  done."  It  signifies  "made  or  done  thoroughly,"  and, 
hence,  "elaborate,"  "complete,"  "perfect." 

t  It  may  be  said  to  bear  nearly  the  same  relation  to  the  modern 
Hindoo  dialects  that  the  Latin  bears  to  the  dialects  of  modern  Italy. 

X  Nagari  [from  A'a^ara,  a  "city"]  signifies  "of  the  city,"  and,  hence, 
"refined"  or  "cultivated."  Deva,  (nearly  related  to  the  Latin  Dezts 
and  Divus,)  a  Sanscrit  word,  denoting  a  "god"  or  "deity,"  was  often 
applied  as  a  term  of  honour  to  the  Brahmans.  (See  "  Institutes  of 
Manu,"ix.  317,  319.)  Devanagari  would  appear,  then,  to  signify  the 
'cultivated  (written)  language  of  the  gods,  (or  Brahmans,")  the  use 
of  it  having  originally  been  for  the  most  part,  if  not  exclusively,  con- 
fined to  the  priestly  caste. 


mirable  classification  of  these  sounds.  It  consists  of 
fifty  letters,  of  which  fourteen  are  vowels  and  thirty-six 
consonants,  besides  various  compound  characters,  which 
may  be  said  to  be  merely  abbreviated  modes  of  writing 
two  or  three  consonants  together. 
2.  The  vowels  are 


jR-  ri  (or  ree) 
ciT  li  (or  lee) 


^  or  *^  ai  {i.e,  i'e) 
^  au  (or  6u) 


or  T  a 

^      i  (or  ee) 

3o  u  (or  06) 

Obs.  It  will  be  seen  that  most  of  the  Sanscrit  vowels  have  two 
forms :  the  first  is  used  at  the  beginning  of  a  clause  or  sentence,  the 
other  occurs  in  other  positions,  particularly  in  the  middle  of  a  word. 

3.  The  consonants  are  as  follows : 


m  k 

W  kh 

g 

ST  gh 

3  ng 

^  ch 

^  chh 

5T  j 

?1T  jh 

oT  n 

Z  % 

5  th 

-Z  d 

c  dh 

ITT  n 

FT  t 

5T  th 

^  dh 

^  n 

^  p 

ph 

sr  b 

V[  bh 

IT  m 

n  y 

^  1 

oT  V 

•  m 

ST  sh 

GT  sh 

e  s 

^h 

5  h|l 

§  The  pronunciation  of  5J,  in  modern  India,  is  like  that  of  our 
short  u  in  but.  It  should  be  observed  that  5fJ  and  ^  do  not  involve 
any  sound  of  i,  but  are  similar  to  our  r  and 

II  To  these  may  be  added        Q,)  occurring  only  in  the  Vedas. 

21 


INTRO  D 


UCTION. 


4.  The  vowels  are  divided  into 

Short,       ^  ^  :?  Rff  ^ 

Long,       ^  ^  3:  ^  cf| 

5.  The  Sanscrit  letters  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

ASHIRA- 


VOWELS. 

SEMI- 
VOWELS. 

NASALS. 

MUTES. 

SIBI- 
LANTS. 

TION, 
ETC. 

Gutturals, 

rrsr 

Palatals, 

J  t 

or 

Linguals, 

ITT 

z  z  ^  ^ 

Dentals, 

FT  2T  5:  ^ 

Labials, 

3  3; 

oT 

STVT 

6.  The  only  Sanscrit  sounds  of  frequent  occurrence 
which  present  any  serious  difficulty  to  the  European 
learner  are  the  combinations  of  the  mutes  k,  g,  ch,j, 
d,  t,  d,p,  and  b  with  h,  making  kh,  (W,)^/^,  (ST,)  th,  (5-,)  and 
so  on.  It  is  important  to  observe  that  W  has  a  totally 
different  sound  from  the  Arabic  or  Persian  (equivalent 
to  the  German  ch  ;)  and  5"  or  ?T  is  pronounced  quite  dif- 
ferently from  the  Arabic  O,  or  our  th.  The  sound  of 
kh,  gh,  th,  dh,  ph,  and  bh,  in  Sanscrit  as  well  as  in  the 
modern  Hindoo  dialects,  may  be  said  to  resemble  that 
produced  in  such  English  phrases  as  "bake-house," 
"stag-horn,"  "hot-house,"  "bid  him,"  "stop  him,"  etc., 
when  these  words  are  pronounced  quickly  and  yet  very 
distinctly;  with  this  important  difference,  however,  that  the 
Indian  mute  and  h  are  to  be  uttered  with  a  single  impulse 
of  the  voice,  and  never  divided  into  separate  syllables. 

7.  The  dental  t  (rT)  and  d,  (5^,)  in  Sanscrit,  have 
essentially  the  same  sound  as  the  Arabic  O  and  0,  (see 
Section  I.  4  and  8 ;)  but  the  lingual  (cerebral)  t  (^) 
and  d  (3")  have  no  equivalent  either  in  Arabic  or  Persian. 
They  somewhat  resemble  the  English  t  and  d,  but  are 
formed  by  reverting  the  end  of  the  tongue  far  back  into 
the  dome  of  the  mouth :  hence  the  name  of  cerebrals 
sometimes  given  to  them.*  The  Hindostanee  r  (j)  is 
pronounced  in  a  similar  manner.   (See  8  of  this  Section.) 

8.  It  may  be  observed  that  in  the  modern  dialects 
of  India,  including  Hindostanee,  we  have,  in  addition 
to  the  lingual  and  dental  sounds  of  t  and  d,  a  lingual 
(or  cerebral)  r,  (not  found  in  Sanscrit.)  The  Sanscrit  STtTT 
(ghota,)  a  "horse,"  becomes  in  Hindostanee  ghora; 
JT^S",  (Garuda,)  the  vahan  of  Vishnu,  takes  the  modern 
form  of  garur,  (pronounced  gur'oor.)  In  writing  Hindo- 
stanee with  the  Nagari  alphabet,  this  lingual  r  is  repre- 
sented by  3"  with  a  dot  beneath,  thus,  while  in  the 
ordinary  (Persian)  alphabet  it  is  indicated  thus,J;  or  j. 
The  lingual  /  and  d  in  the  modern  Nagari  are  written 
precisely  as  in  Sanscrit ;  but  in  the  common  alphabet 
they  are  distinguished  from  o  and  J>  either  by  having 
four  dots,  as  cy,  O,  or  by  a  stroke  placed  above,  O,  3. 

9.  In  writing  Sanscrit,  ^  (d)  is  never  expressed 
after  a  consonant,  but  it  is  implied  after  every  consonant 
unless  this  be  followed  by  another  vowel  or  by  the  rest- 
sign  :  thus,  chJ7c<H,  (kml,)  "lotus,"  is  to  be  read  kamala; 
but  if  the  final  consonant  has  the  rest  sign,  it  does  not 
take  the  d  after  it,  as  *T^,  (marut,)  "  wind." 

(For  a  fuller  and  more  systematic  exposition  of  the 
elements,  etc.  of  the  Sanscrit  language,  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  the  very  able  article,  entitled  "  Sanscrit,"  by 
Professor  Whitney,  in  the  "  New  American  Cyclopaedia.") 

*  They  are  called  in  Sanscrit  "  mvirdhanya,"  (from  murdhan,  the 
"  head,")  because  they  seem  to  be  pronounced  more  nearly  in  the 
centre  of  the  head  than  any  other  class  of  letters. 
22 


SPANISH. 
XIX. 

1.  The  Spanish  a  sounds  as  in  the  English  word  far ; 
e,  like  a  in  ale  ;  i,  like  e  in  mete  ;  o,  as  in  English  ;  u,  liks 
00 ;  and  J)/,  (when  a  vowel,)  like  the  Spanish  i. 

2.  Ai  and  ay  are  like  long  i  in  English.  Au  sounds 
like  on  in  our.  (See  VI,  14,  Obs.)  Ei  and  ^7  are 
pronounced  a'e. 

3.  The  consonants /,  /,  (single,)  n,  p,  s,  t,  and  v  are 
pronounced  nearly  as  in  English. 

4.  B,  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  sounds  as  in  English  ; 
but  when  between  two  vowels  its  sound  somewhat  re- 
sembles that  of  V,  with  this  difference, — v  is  pronounced 
with  the  upper  teeth  placed  against  the  under  lip,  while 
the  sound  of  the  Spanish  b  is  formed  by  bringing  the 
lips  loosely  or  feebly  into  contact.  This  sound  seems  to 
be  between  that  of  b  and  the  English  w.  It  is  repre- 
sented by  B  or  V. 

5.  C,  before  a,  o,  and  u,  is  pronounced  as  in  English  ; 
before  e  and  i,  it  has  the  sound  of  th  in  the  word  thin. 
In  the  Catalan  dialect  it  is  the  same  as  in  English. 

6.  Ch  has  the  same  sound  as  in  English,  except  in  the 
dialect  of  Catalonia,  where  it  is  pronounced  like  k. 

7.  D,  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  is  sounded  nearly 
as  in  English,  but  is  pronounced  with  the  tip  of  the 
tongue  against  the  upper  teeth,  while  in  pronouncing 
the  English  d  the  tongue  is  made  to  touch  the  roof  of 
the  mouth.  At  the  end  of  a  syllable,  or  between  two 
vowels,  d,  in  Spanish,  sounds  like  the  English  th  in 
this,  but  is  somewhat  softer.  This  sound  is  usually 
represented  in  the  present  work  by  a  small  capital  D. 

8.  G,  before  a,  0,  and  u,  is  hard,  as  in  English. 

9.  G  before  e  and  /,  and  /  before  every  vowel,  are 
pronounced  like  a  strong  guttural  h,  similar  to  the  Ger- 
man ch  in  ach.  This  sound  is  indicated  by  H,  distinguished 
as  a  small  capital. 

10.  Gua  and  guo  sound  somewhat  like  gw%  gwo,  but 
the  g  is  so  soft  that  it  is  scarcely  perceived ;  so  that  in 
these  cases  the  sound  of  gu  seems  to  approximate  very 
nearly  to  that  of  the  English  w.  Gu,  before  e  and  /,  is 
usually  sounded  like^hard  :  thus,  Guiana  is  pronounced 
ge-i'nS.  When,  however,  the  u  is  marked  with  a  diaer- 
esis, thus,  giii,  these  two  letters  have  the  same  sound  as 
when  before  a  or  0,  and  consequently  giii  is  pronounced 
gwe  or  we.    (See  table  at  the  end  of  this  Section.) 

11.  H,  in  Spanish,  is  never  pronounced,  except  in 
words  beginning  with  hue,  and  then  very  slightly. 

12.  J:  for  this  letter,  see  9  and  18  of  this  Section. 

13.  LI  (now  sometimes  written  I)  has  a  sound  which 
combines  that  of  /  and  y  consonant,  and  is  similar  to 
the  liquid  /  in  French  :  e.g.  villa  or  vila  is  pronounced 
veeKyI ;  Llerena,  li-ra'nS  or  lyi-ra'nS. 

14.  in  similar  manner,  unites  the  sounds  of  n  and 
y,  and  is  like  gn  in  French  :  thus,  pena  is  pronounced 
pSn'yl  or  p^n'yS. 

15.  Q,  in  Spanish,  is  always  followed  by  w.  Qu,  before 
a  and  o,  is  sounded  as  in  English,  or,  in  other  words,  is 
equivalent  to  kw  ;  before  e  and  /,  it  is  pronounced  like  k, 
unless  the  u  be  marked  with  a  diaeresis,  in  which  case  it 
is  like  kw.    (See  table  at  the  end  of  this  Section.) 

16.  R  is  similar  to  the  French,  but  is  trilled  more 
strongly.    (See  V.  24.) 

17.  7"  is  to  be  pronounced  by  putting  the  tip  of  the 
tongue  against  the  upper  teeth. 


EXPLANATIONS. 


18.  X  is  usually  sounded  like  the  Spanish  which 
letter,  according  to  the  present  mode  of  spelling,  has 
been  'generally  substituted  for  it :  thus,  instead  of  the 
old  spelling  Ximenes,  Xucar,  etc.,  we  now  often  see  in 
Spanish  works  JiMENES,  JucAR,  etc.  X,  before  a  con- 
sonant, or  before  a  vowel  marked  with  this  sign,  a  ,  is 
sounded  as  in  English  :  Examples, — Exterior,  Exdminar. 

19.  Y,  at  the  beginning  of  Spanish  words,  is  usually  a 
semi-consonant,  as  initial  y  is  for  the  most  part  in  English 
words. 

20.  Z  is  to  be  pronounced  like  th  in  thin. 

The  following  table  may  serve  to  show  more  clearly  the 
manner  in  which    g,  j,  q,  x,  and  z  are  used  in  Spanish. 

cua  or  qua  is  pronounced  qui. 
cue  or  qiie  "  *'  qui. 
cui  or  qiii  "  "  que. 
cuo  or  quo  "         "  quo. 

gua  is  pronounced  gw3  or  wl. 


is  pronounced 


is  pronounced 


ca 

que 
qui 

CO 

cu 
ga 
gue 
gui 
go 

gu  "  "  goo. 
ja  or  xa    is  pronounced  hI. 

je,  xe,  orge  "  "  hA. 

ji,  xi,  or  gi  "  "  He. 

jo  or  xo      "  "  HO. 

juorxu      "  "  HOC. 


U. 
kk. 
ke. 
ko. 
koo. 
g^. 
gi. 
ge- 
go. 


giie 
gdi 
guo 


gwA  or  wi. 
gwe  or  we. 
gwo  or  wo. 


is  pronounced 


ze  or  ce 
zi  or  ci 


i/te. 
Mo. 
//zoo. 


Obs.  I.  Spanish  words  or  names  ending  in  a  consonant  have  the 
accent  almost  always  on  the  last  syllable ;  those  ending  in  a  vowel 
are  generally  accentuated  on  the  penultima.  If  a  word  or  name  be 
an  exception  to  either  of  these  rules,  in  correctly-printed  Spanish 
works  the  accent  is  usually  marked;  as,  C6rdova,  AlcalX,  JiJcar, 
CXcERES.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  s  in  the  plural  does  not 
change  the  accent:  hence  cajaj," houses,"  though  ending  in  a  con- 
sonant, has  the  penultimate  accent  as  well  as  the  singular  casa,  a 
"house." 

Obs.  2.  The  Spanish  accent,  though  resembling  the  German  and 
Italian,  is  much  less  distinctly  marked  than  the  accent  of  those  lan- 
guages,— so  much  so,  that  it  is  sometimes  difficult  for  an  English 
ear  to  determine  positively  which  is  the  accentuated  syllable.  In  this 
respect  it  may  be  said  to  approximate  very  nearly  to  the  French. 

Obs.  3.  The  Spanish  language  as  spoken  in  Mexico  and  South 
America  differs  in  some  points  materially  from  the  true  Spanish. 


Thus,  z,  and  c  before  e  and  z,  instead  of  having  the  sound  of  /A,  ara 
generally  pronounced  like  s.  Among  the  uneducated  classes  //  is 
universally  sounded  like  y :  thus,  gallo  is  pronounced  almost  gd'yo. 


SWEDISH. 
XX. 

1.  The  vowels  a  and  /,  and  the  diphthongs  a  and  0,  are 
similar  to  the  German. 

2.  A  sounds  like  the  English  0.  Luled  is  pronounced 
loo'll-o ;  Torned,  tor'm-o,  etc. 

3.  E,  when  accentuated,  has  almost  the  sound  of  our 
short  /  prolonged,  represented  in  this  work  by  H. 

4.  O,  at  the  end  of  a  syllable,  is  like  our  00 ;  in  other 
cases,  like  o  in  not. 

5.  in  Swedish,  is  a  very  difficult  sound  for  foreigners 
to  acquire  ;  it  seems  remotely  to  resemble  the  French 
and  to  blend  (very  obscurely)  the  sounds  of  the  English 
/  or  /  and  00.  It  has  been  represented  in  the  present 
work  by  00,  this  sound  being  the  nearest  to  it  of  any  in 
our  language. 

6.  Y  is  the  same  as  in  Danish,  or,  in  other  words,  is 
similar  to  the  French  u. 

7.  The  Swedish  consonants  are,  for  the  most  part,  pro- 
nounced like  the  English,  with  the  exception  of  yand^, 
(before  e,  i,  d,  0,  and  ii,)  which  are  nearly  equivalent  to^ 
consonant,  (g,  before  a,  o,  and  «,  is  hard,  as  in  English,) 
and  of  z,  which  commonly  sounds  like  s,  or  else  like  the 
English  z. 

8.  Ch  initial  (except  when  immediately  followed  by 
rjis  sounded  like  the  English  cA  in  child ;  in  the  middle 
or  at  the  end  of  a  word  it  takes  the  sound  of  k.  ^'sounds 
like  the  English  ch  in  child:  thus,  (written,  also, 
simply  Koping)  is  pronounced  chb'ping.  C,  (as  in  Eng- 
lish,) before  a,  o,  and  u,  is  like  k  ;  before  e,  i,  zxvdy,  like  s. 
Qv  or  qu  is  like  qtt  in  English. 

9.  St,  followed  by y,  has  the  sound  of  our  sh:  hence 
Stjerna  is  pronounced  sh^R'ni.  K  before  e  sometimes 
takes  the  sound  of  our  ch :  thus,  Kellgren  is  pronounced 
chel'gren. 


EXPLAN 

SIGNS,  ETC.  RELAT 

1.  a  sounds  as  a  in  fate. 

2.  i  denotes  the  sound  of  a  in  fare  or  e  in  there.  It 

is  used  to  indicate  the  sound  of  the  long  open  e 
before  r  in  cases  where  it  would  be  objectionable 
to  employ  ai.  It  has  not  been  deemed  proper  to 
use  exactly  the  same  letters  (without  any  distinctive 
mark)  in  the  pronunciation  as  in  the  spelling  of  a 
name  ;  because  if  the  same  letters  were  used  for 
both,  and  the  reader  should  happen  to  miscall  the 
name  as  ordinarily  written,  he  would  perhaps  be 
equally  liable  to  miscall  the  pronunciation.  While, 
therefore,  the  pronunciation  of  Moli^re  may  very 
properly  be  represented  by  mo'le-aiR',  it  would, 
for  the  reason  just  given,  be  improper  to  repre- 
sent that  of  Beaucaire  by  bo'kaiR',  instead  of 
which  we  write  bo'k^R'. 

3.  i  is  essentially  the  same  as  a,  but  less  prolonged.* 

•  The  vowels  A,  k,  and  6,  though  very  similar  to  a,  e,  (or  egy)  0,  have 


ATIONS. 

ING  TO  ORTHOEPY. 

4.  i  is  nearly  like  the  preceding,  but  more  open.    It  is 

used  to  represent  a  sound  very  similar  to  that  of 
e  in  met,  (^,)  but  somewhat  longer.  (See  Intro- 
duction, V.  7,  note.) 

5.  a  sounds  like  a  in  far  or  father. 

6.  t  (the  short  sound  of  S)  has  a  sound  between  S  and 

i ;  it  is  shorter  than  the  former,  and  somewhat 
more  open  than  the  latter. 

7.  I  (the  long  sound  of  i)  indicates  a  sound  longer  than 

i;  in  the  pronunciation  of  Oriental  names  it  ap- 
proximates i  very  nearly. 

been  deemed  preferable  in  certain  cases,  particularly  in  the  pronun- 
ciation of  French  names,  in  order  to  guard  against  a  drawling  sound. 

For  a  similar  reason,  e,  in  marking  French  pronunciation,  has  been 
preferred  to  ee,  even  when  under  the  full  accent. 

It  may  be  remarked  that  long  a,  (a,)  as  pronounced  in  English, 
is  a  sort  of  diphthong,  almost  A-e.  In  pronouncing  foreign  languages, 
this  diphthongal  sound  should  be  carefully  avoided ;  the  sound  of  a 
should  be  pure,  without  any,  even  the  slightest,  soUnd  of  e  after  it. 

Z\ 


EXPLANATIONS. 


S,  i  has  the  sound  of  a  in  fall. 

9.  i  (or  a)  sounds  as  a  in  yJz/",  etc. 

10.  a  denotes  the  long  a  in  Oriental  names ;  it  is  also 

sometimes  used  in  English  names  to  indicate  the 
sound  of  a  in  fall,  halt,  etc,  :  e.g.  Dal'ton. 

11.  a  is  obscure,  as  in  the  first  and  last  syllables  of 

A  merica. 

12.  e  is  like  ee;  the  latter  (ee)  is  mostly  used  in  this  work. 

13.  h  is  like  the  preceding,  but  less  prolonged.* 

14.  k  (or  e)  sounds  as  e  in  met,  pen,  etc. 

15.  I  has  essentially  the  same  sound  as  the  preceding, 

but  is  more  open  and  more  prolonged.  (See  V.  2.) 

16.  e  is  obscure,  as  in  l^rth,  her,  rider. 

17.  1  indicates  the  long  sound  of  /  in  English,  as  in  pine, 

triangle,  etc. 

18.  1  or  i  sounds  as  /  in  pin,  pit,  etc. 

19.  i  is  obscure,  as  in  fir. 

20.  0  sounds  as  o  in  note,  home,  etc. 

21.  6  is  like  the  preceding,  but  less  prolonged.* 

22.  5  (or  6)  sounds  as  0  in  not. 

23.  06  (or  u)  has  the  sound  of  u  in  bull,  pull,  etc.,  or  of 

00  in  good. 

24.  00  sounds  as  u  in  rule,  or  00  in  moon,  noon,  etc. 

25.  o  has  a  sound  similar  to  the  French  eu.    It  has  no 

equivalent  in  English.  (VI.  9.t) 

26.  o  is  obscure,  as  in  Boston,  terror,  etc. 

?7.  ii  indicates  the  sound  of  the  French  u.    It  has  no 
equivalent  in  our  language.  (V.  5,  VI.  10. t) 

28.  u  is  the  short  sound  of  the  preceding. 

29.  U  (small  capital)  indicates  the  sound  of  the  French 

eu,  almost  like  that  of  our  u  in  fur ;  it  resembles 
the  sound  of  the  German  0.    (V.  10,  VI.  9.t) 

30.  ii  denotes  the  sound  of  06,  (very  short.) 

31.  B  (small  capital)  approximates  v  in  sound. 

32.  D  (small  capital)  indicates  a  sound  nearly  like  thy  (as 

in  this.)  (XIX.  7.t) 

*  See  note  *  on  preceding  page. 

t  These  refer  to  the  principles  of  pronunciation,  as  explained  in 

When  a  name  occurs  several  times,  it  has  not  been  deemed 
necessary  to  pronounce  it  more  than  once ;  in  which  case  the  reader 
should  look  for  the  very  first  occurrence  of  the  name,  where  the  pro- 
nunciation will  be  given.  If  a  name  having  the  same  spelling  occurs 
in  several  different  languages,  it  will  be  pronounced  but  once  for  each 
of  the  different  languages ;  that  is,  the  first  time  that  it  occurs  in  that 
particular  language. 

III^^  It  may  be  observed,  in  regard  to  the  arrangement  of  the 
names  in  the  present  work,  that  if  the  ordinary  names  are  spelled 
differently  they  are  given  in  strict  alphabetical  order,  without  the 
slightest  reference  to  the  Christian  or  first  names,  (which  are  always 
placed  in  a  parenthesis  and  in  a  different  kind  of  type  :)  but  if  a  num- 
ber of  names  occur  spelled  in  precisely  the  same  manner,  they  follow 
the  order  of  the  Christian  names.  Thus,  Smith,  (Charles,)  is 
given  before  Smith,  (John,  Robert,  or  William.)  If  it  should 
happen  that  both  the  ordinary  name  and  Christian  name  of  two  or 
more  different  persons  are  exactly  alike,  then  the  precedence  is  de- 
termined by  the  priority  of  date:  e.g.  Smith,  (William,)  of  the 
seventeenth  century  is  given  before  Smith,  (William,)  of  the 
eighteenth  century ;  and  so  on. 

When  the  same  name  belongs  to  a  great  number  of  princes 
or  sovereigns,  those  of  antiquity  are  given  first ;  among  modem  rulers, 
emperors  are  placed  before  kings,  and  these  before  inferior  person- 
ages, princes  or  dukes.  Emperors  or  kings  having  the  same  name 
are  usually  given  in  the  alphabetical  order  of  the  names  of  the  coun- 
tries which  they  rule :  thus,  the  emperors  of  Austria  precede  the 


47 


33.  G  and  K  (small  capitals)  indicate  the  sound  of  the 

German  ch,  or  one  similar  to  it. 

34.  H  (small  capital)  has  a  sound  nearly  like  the  pre- 

ceding. It  resembles  a  guttural  and  strongly- 
aspirated  h.  (I.  6,  and  XIX.  g.f) 

35.  h  Italic  is  used  to  represent  the  undetermined  sound 

of  the  so-called  aspirated  h.  (See  V.  16.) 

36.  I  (/liquid)  is  pronounced  like ///in  million;  it  blends 

the  sounds  of  /  and^  consonant.    (XIX.  13.!) 
n  in  like  manner  blends  the  sounds  of  n  and  y  con- 
sonant.   (XIX.  I4.t) 
M  and  N  (small  capitals)  denote  the  nasal  sound  in 

French.   (V.  19.!) 
R  (small  capital)  is  to  be  strongly  trilled ;  it  resembles 
the  sound  of  rr  in  terror. 

40.  §  is  used  to  denote  the  sound  of  a  very  soft  z. 

41.  ^  indicates  a  sound  similar  to  our  v.    (VI.  28.t) 

42.  ai  or  ay  (unless  otherwise  marked)  is  to  be  sounded 

like  a  in  fate. 

43.  au  and  aw  have  the  sound  oia  in  fall. 

44.  ey  at  the  end  of  an  unaccented  syllable  (in  English 

names)  is  to  be  sounded  like  e  or  short  /. 

45.  ^  has  the  same  sound  as  ee  m  been  or  /  in  the  first 

syllable  of  spirit. 

46.  u  indicates  a  sound  similar  to  the  preceding,  but 

longer ;  it  is,  in  fact,  the  sound  of  short  /  (as  in  pin) 
prolonged.   (XX.  3.!) 
Sw  or  ou  sounds  as  in  now  or  our. 

,  (capital,)  like  g,  denotes  the  sound  of  g  hard,  as 
get,  give,  etc. 

(capital,)  like  g,  denotes  the  sound  of  j  or  soft  gy 
as  in  gentle. 

2!^=°This  mark  — -  indicates  that  the  vowels  joined  by  it 
are  to  be  pronounced  almost  in  one  syllable,  as 
Berthier,  b^R'te-i'. 

the  Introduction.  The  Roman  numerals  have  reference  to  the  sec- 
tion, the  figures  to  the  sound  of  the  particular  letter. 

emperors  of  Russia,  and  the  kings  of  England  are  given  before  those 
of  France,  Italy,  or  Spain. 

When  a  date  in  parenthesis  is  placed  immediately  after  the 
title  of  a  work,  it  always  has  reference  to  the  time  of  publication, 
which  may  be,  and  not  unfrequently  is,  long  after  the  death  of  the 
author. 

In  marking  the  pronunciation  in  the  present  work,  our  aim 
has  been  not  to  embarrass  the  reader  with  unnecessary  marks  or  signs. 
Thus,  in  giving  the  pronunciation  of  the  Italian  name  Ciarpi,  we 
have  simply  written  chaR'pee,  which  gives  the  pronunciation  of  this 
name  as  perfectly  as  ch^R'pi  could  do ;  because,  in  English,  a,  im- 
mediately followed  by  r  and  another  consonant,  always  takes  its 
second,  or  Italian  sound,  and  ee  usually  represents  the  sound  of  the 
Italian  /  quite  as  well  as  e  or  ^  could  do.  For  a  similar  reason,  in 
such  names  as  Antonelli,  pronounced  Sn-to-nel'lee,  we  have  not 
thought  it  necessary  to  place  any  marks  on  the  e  in  the  penultimate 
syllable,  as  the  English  reader  would  be  sure  to  pronounce  the  e  with 
its  short  sound  in  this  position  when  followed  by  two  consonants  of 
the  same  kind  In  all  cases,  however,  when  it  seemed  possible  that 
the  omission  of  the  diacritical  mark  might  give  rise  to  doubt  or  error, 
such  sign  has  been  added,  since  practical  utility  has  been  deemed  of 
more  importance  than  the  mere  appearance  of  consistency.  Thus,  es 
in  modern  names,  even  when  under  the  full  accent,  has  been  marked 
short, — for  example,  in  Valdes,  vll-dSs', — because,  in  accordance 
with  the  usual  Latin  pronunciation,  the  e  in  such  positions  is  com- 
monly made  long,  as  in  Socrates. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


Fr.,  French. 
Ger.,  German. 
Or.,  Greek. 
24 


It.,  Italian. 
Lat.,  Latin. 
Myth.,  Mythology. 


Port.,  Portuguese. 
Pron.,  Pronunciation. 
Russ.,  Russian. 


Sp.,  Spanish. 
Sw.,  Swedish. 
Turk.,  Turkish. 


Pronouncing  Dictionary 

OF 

Biography  and  Mythology. 


A. 


Aa,  van  der,  vtn  der  t,  (Christian  Karel  Hen- 
DRIK,)  a  Dutch  scholar,  divine,  and  writer  on  natural 
science,  born  at  Zwolle  in  1718;  died  in  1793. 

Aa,  van  der,  (Christian  Pieter  Robid6,)  a  poet, 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1791,  was  a  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding.   Died  in  1851. 

Aa,  van  der,  (Diederik,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
the  Hague  in  1731.  His  works  are  commended  for  grace 
and  other  merits.    Died  in  1809. 

Aei,  van  der,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  biographer  of  the 
present  age.  He  published  an  excellent  "  Biographical 
Dictionary  of  the  Netherlands,"  ("  Biographisch  Woor- 
denboek  der  Nederlanden." 

Aa,  van  der,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  lawyer  and  writer  on 
jurisprudence,  born  at  Louvain.  The  date  of  his  birth 
is  unknown.  He  published  a  "Commentary  on  the 
Rights  of  Creditors,"  ("De  Privilegiis  Creditorum  Com- 
mentarium,"  1560.)    Died  in  1594. 

Aa.van  der,  (Pieter,)  a  learned  bookseller  of  Ley- 
den,  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  and 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.    Died  about 

1730- 
Aacs.    See  Acs. 

Aagaard,  au'goRd,  (Christian,)  written  also  Aa- 
gard,  a  Danish  writer  of  Latin  poetry,  born  at  Viborg 
in  1616.    Died  in  1664. 

See  RosTGAARD,  "Deliciae  Poetarum  Danorum ;"  Moller, 
"  Cimbria  literata." 

Aagaard  or  Aagard,  (Niels,  neels,)  a  Danish  poet, 
born  at  Viborg  in  16 12,  was  probably  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  professor  of  eloquence  at  Soroe. 
He  wrote  several  Latin  poems  and  critical  essays,  among 
which  is  "Prolusions  on  Tacitus."   Died  in  1657. 

Aagesen,  (Svend,)  sv^nd  au'geh-sen,  [in  Latin,  Sue'- 
NO  Aggo'nis  Fil'ius,]  regarded  as  the  earliest  Danish 
historian,  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. He  wrote  a  history  of  Denmark,  extending  from 
about  A.D.  300  to  II 87. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale," 

Aali.    See  Alee. 
Aalst.    See  Aelst. 

Aare,  van  der,  vin  der  i'reh,  (Diederik  or  Dirck,) 
Bishop  of  Utrecht,  and  also  a  powerful  temporal  lord, 
flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century. 
Died  in  1212. 

See  Wagenaar's  "  Vaderlandsche  Historic." 

Aaron,  a'ron,  [Heb.  jnnx ;  Gr.  'Aapuv,]  the  first  of 
the  high-priests  of  the  Israelites,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Amram,  who  was  the  grandson  of  Levi.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  been  born  about  1600  B.C.;  but  on  this  point  the 
different  authorities  are  not  agreed.  When  Moses  was 
called  by  Heaven  to  deliver  his  countrymen  from  the 
tjrranny  of  Egypt,  Aaron  was  commissioned  to  assist 
him  as  his  spokesman.  He  died  at  the  age  of  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-three,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  priest- 
hood by  his  son  Eleazar.  (See  Exodus  iv.  14  seq. ; 
also  Numbers,  particularly  chap.  xx.  23-29.) 

Aaron,  (Harischon,  hi're-shon,  or  Ariscon,)  a 


rabbi  of  the  Caraites,  practised  medicine  at  Constantino- 
ple in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  wrote  a  commentary 
on  the  Pentateuch. 

Aaron,  [It.  Aronne,  i-ron'ni,]  (Pietro,)  a  monk, 
born  at  Florence  about  1480,  was  a  canon  of  Rimini. 
He  published  several  treatises  on  music,  (1516-45.) 

Aaron  of  Alexandria,  a  physician  who  lived  in  the 
first  half  of  the  seventh  century.  He  wrote  a  medical 
work,  in  which  the  small-pox  is  first  mentioned. 

Aa'ron-Ben-Ash'er,  a  Jewish  rabbi  of  the  eleventh 
century,  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Hebrew  Accents,"  (1517.) 

Aaron-Ben-Jo'seph-Sa'son,  a  Jewish  rabbi  and 
writer,  lived  at  Thessalonica  about  1600. 

Aaron-Ben-Sam'uel,  a  Jewish  writer  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  His  chief  work  is  "The  House  of  Aa- 
ron," (Frankfort,  1690,)  which  is  said  to  be  a  very  useful 
book  for  biblical  students. 

Aaron-Margalitha,  (-maR-gS-lee'tl,)  a  Polish  pro- 
fessor and  rabbi,  born  in  1665.  He  was  converted  to 
the  Protestant  faith  at  Leyden,  and  wrote  a  number  of 
theological  treatises.    Died  about  1725. 

Aaron-Raschid.    See  Haroun-al-Raschid. 

Aarschot  or  Aerschot,  iR'sKot,  (Philippe  de 
Croi — deh  kRwS,)  Duke  of,  a  Flemish  general  who 
served  under  Charles  V.,  and  afterwards,  when  the 
troubles  broke  out  in  the  Low  Countries,  zealously  sup- 
ported the  cause  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain.    Died  in  1595. 

See  Motley,  "Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  vols.  i.  and  iii. 

Aarsens,  van,  vtn  SR'sens,  (Cornelis,)  Lord  of 
Spyck,  (spTk,)  a  statesman  of  Holland,  born  at  Antwerp 
in  1543.  He  was  many  years  griffier  ("recorder"  or 
"  registrar ")  to  the  States-General,  and  died  at  an  ad- 
vanced age. 

Aarsens.  van,  (Frans  or  Franciscus,)  a  distin- 
guished Dutch  diplomatist,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1572.  His  talents,  address,  and 
unscrupulousness  won  the  admiration  of  Cardinal  Riche- 
lieu, who  ranked  him  with  the  most  consummate  politi' 
cians  of  the  age.  The  unjust  death  of  Barneveldt  i3 
ascribed  partly  to  his  intrigues.    Died  in  1641. 

See  AuBERY,  "M^moires  pour  servir  i  I'Histoire  de  Hollande;" 
Motley,  "  History  of  the  United  Netherlands,"  vol.  iii. 

Aarsens,  van,  (Frans,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
wrote  a  work  called  "Voyage  enEspagne,"  (1666.)  He 
was  drowned  at  sea  in  1659. 

Aartgens,  SRt'cens,  or  Aertgen,  iRt'cen,  a  Dutch 
painter,  called  also  Arthus  Claessoon,  (ar'tus  kits- 
son',)  born  at  Leyden  in  1498.  He  worked  with  suc- 
cess in  his  native  city.    Died  in  1 564. 

Aartsbergen,  SRts'bgR^Gen,  (Alexander  van  der 
Capellen,  —  vtn  der  ki-pel'len,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
statesman,  who  was  born  about  1600,  and  died  in  1656. 
According  to  G.  Vossius,  he  was  a  man  of  rare  talents 
and  incredible  industry. 

Aartsen,  (Pieter.)    See  Aertsen. 

Aascov,  au'skov,  (Urban  Bruun,)  a  Danish  physi- 
cian, who  served  in  the  navy  about  1770. 

Aba,  6b'8h,  called  also  Samuel,  of  a  noble  Magyar 


e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 
€  as>^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

2? 


JBJCCO 


26 


ABBADIE 


lamily,  became  King  of  Hungary  in  IC41.  as  successor 
to  Peter,  whom  a  revolution  had  compelled  to  fly  the 
country.  His  injustice  and  cruelty  at  length  irritated 
the  Hungarians,  who  entreated  the  assistance  of  the 
emperor  Henry  III.  In  1044  a  battle  was  fought  on  the 
Raab,  in  which  Aba  was  defeated  and  slain,  and  Peter 
was  restored  to  the  throne  of  Hungary. 

Abacco,  i-bdk'ko,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  architect  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  a  pupil  of  San  Gallo.  He  pub- 
lished a  work  on  architecture  in  1558. 

Abacco,  (or  Abaco,)  dall',  ddl-la-bik'ko,  (Paolo,)  a 
Florentine  mathematician  and  poet,  who  flourished  about 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

Abad.    See  Abbad. 

Abad  I.,  II.,  and  III.,  (Sultans  of  Seville.)  See 
Abbad. 

Abadia,  i-si-Dee'd,  (Francisco  Xavier  —  H^-ye- 
aiR',)  a  Spanish  general,  born  at  Valencia  in  1774.  Died 
about  1830. 

Abad  y  Queypeo,  i-bio'  e  ki-pa'o,  (Manuel,)  a 
Spanish  bishop,  born  in  Asturias  about  1775.  He  was 
imprisoned  about  181 5  for  hostility  to  the  Inquisition, 
and  was  released  in  1820.    Died  after  1824. 

Abaelardus.    See  Abelard. 

Abailard.    See  Abelard. 

Ab^ka  Khan,  i-b3,'ki  Kan,  son  of  Hoolakoo,  (Hu- 
laku,)  and  grandson  of  Jengis  Khan,  succeeded  his 
father  on  the  Persian  throne  a.d.  1264.  He  was  a  just 
and  enlightened  ruler.  He  curbed  the  soldiery,  who  had 
been  so  licentious  under  his  father,  and  established  order 
and  justice  throughout  his  dominions.  Died  about  1280. 

Abamonti,  i-bi-mon'tee,  or  Abbamonte,  ib-ba- 
mon't^,  (Giuseppe,)  a  Neapolitan  statesman,  born  about 
1759.  He  became  secretary-general  of  the  Cisalpine 
Republic  in  1798,  and  a  member  of  the  executive  com- 
mission at  Naples.  After  the  king  was  restored  in  1799, 
he  removed  to  Milan,  and  acted  as  secretary-general  until 
1805.    Died  in  1818. 

Abaiicourt,  d',  dt'bSN'kooR',  (Charles  Xavier 
Joseph  Franqueville — fr6Nk'v^K,)  one  of  the  minis- 
ters of  Louis  XVI.,  and  nephew  of  Calonne.  He  was 
massacred  at  Versailles  on  the  9th  of  September,  1792. 

Abancourt,  d',  (Francois  Jean  Villemain — v^l  - 
miN',)  a  French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1745.  Died 
in  1803. 

Abano,  di,  de  d-bi'no,  or  Apo'no,  (Pietro,)  [in 
Latin,  Pe'trus  Apo'nus  or  Pe'trus  de  Apo'no,]  a 
learned  physician  and  astrologer,  born  at  Abano,  near 
Padua,  in  1250.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  medicine 
in  the  University  of  Padua  about  1303,  and  died  about 
1316.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  *' Conciliator  Diff"eren- 
tiarum  Philosophorum  et  praecipue  Medicorum,"  the  ob- 
ject of  which  was  to  reconcile  the  various  opinions  held 
by  the  diflerent  philosophical  and  medical  schools  ;  from 
which  he  has  been  surnamed  Conciliator,  "  Reconciler." 
Another  of  his  works,  entitled  "  On  Poisons  and  their 
Treatment,"  ("DeVenenis  eorumque  Remediis,")  though 
much  celebrated,  shows  him  to  have  possessed  more 
learning  than  originality  or  cautious  observation. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Raccolta  d'Opiiscoli  Scientific!  e  Filologici," 
1741 ;  Sloy,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Medecine,"  article  Apono. 

A-ban'ti-das,  ['A5avri(5af,]  a  tyrant  of  Sicyon,  (one  of 
the  small  states  of  Greece,)  who  obtained  the  supreme 
power  about  264  B.C.    He  was  afterwards  assassinated. 

Abarbanel.    See  Abrabanel. 

Abarca,  i-baR'ki,  (Joaquin,)  a  Spanish  prelate,  born 
ill  Aragon  in  1780,  became  Bishop  of  Leon.  He  was  a 
chief  of  the  Carlist  party  in  the  civil  war  which  began 
about  1833.    Died  in  1844. 

Abarca,  de,  di  i-baR'k^,  (Dona  Maria,)  a  Spanish 
amateur  portrait-painter.    She  died  about  1660. 

Abarca,  de,  di  i-baR'kl,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  his- 
torian, born  in  1619.  He  belonged  to  the  society  of 
Jesuits,  and  was  for  many  years  professor  of  theology 
in  the  IFniversity  of  Salamanca.  Died  about  1690.  His 
chief  work,  "  The  Kings  of  Aragon,"  ("  Los  Reyes  de 
Aragon,")  appeared  in  1684. 

Abascal,  a-sis-kil',  (Jos6  Fernando,)  a  Spanish 
commander,  born  at  Oviedo  in  1743.  At  19  he  entered 
the  army,  and  in  1804  was  appointed  Viceroy  of  Peru. 
Through  his  abilities  and  indefatigable  exertions,  not 


only  were  the  Peruvians  preserved  in  a  state  of  subjec- 
tion to  Spain  while  other  parts  of  South  America  were 
in  open  insurrection,  but  the  Spanish  arms  gained  many 
advantages  over  the  insurgents  of  Buenos  Ayres  and 
Chili.  In  1816  he  was  superseded  in  the  government 
by  General  Pezuela,  and  returned  to  Spain,  where  he 
died  in  1821. 

See  W.  B.  Stevenson,  "Twenty  Years'  Residence  in  South 
America." 

Abati,  a-bi'tee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Gubbio  in  1614.  He  was  governor  of  several  cities  in 
the  papal  dominions.    Died  in  1667. 

Abati,  degli,  diKyee  i-bi'tee,  a  Florentine  family 
known  in  history  chiefly  through  the  treachery  of  one  of 
its  members,  Bocco  degli  Abati.  During  a  battle  be- 
tween the  Guelphs  (the  party  of  the  Florentines)  and 
the  Ghibelines,  (1260,)  he  cut  off"  the  hand  of  Jacopo  del 
Vacca,  who  carried  the  Florentine  standard,  which  con- 
sequently fell,  and  caused  the  defeat  of  his  countrymen. 
For  this  crime  Dante  assigns  him  a  place  in  the  ninth 
or  lowest  circle  of  hell.    See  "  Inferno,"  canto  xxxii. 

Abatini,  i-bi-tee'nee,  (Guido  Ubaldo,)  an  Italian 
fresco-painter,  born  about  1600,  worked  in  Rome,  and 
died  in  1656. 

Abauzit,  t'bo'ze',  (Firmin,)  a  justly  celebrated  phi- 
losopher and  mathematician,  born  at  Uzes,  in  France, 
in  1679.  When  he  was  two  years  old  his  father  died, 
and  on  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  his  mo- 
ther, being  a  Protestant,  was  obliged  to  seek  a  refuge  in 
some  foreign  country.  Her  two  sons  were  sent  to  Gen- 
eva, where  Firmin  soon  distinguished  himself  by  his  rapid 
progress  in  almost  every  branch  of  learning  and  science. 
The  fame  of  Abauzit  does  not  rest  so  much  on  his  pub- 
lications as  on  the  opinion  entertained  of  him  by  his 
contemporaries.  He  not  only  enjoyed  the  respect  of  the 
greatest  writers  and  philosophers  of  France,  but  received 
the  most  flattering  testimonials  of  regard  from  other 
countries.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  esteemed  him  highly,  and, 
after  having  once  made  his  acquaintance,  kept  up  a  con- 
stant correspondence  with  him.  Died  at  Geneva  in  1767. 

See  Sabatier  de  Castres,  "  Les  Trois  Siecles  de  la  Litterature 
Frangaise;"  J.  J.  Rousseau,  "CEuvres;"  Sknebier,  "  Histoire  lit- 
teraire  de  Geneve,"  tome  iii.;  Berenger,  "  filoge  d' Abauzit." 

Abba  Arica,  ib'ba  i-ree'ka,  [Heb.  .XDHX 
commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Rav,  (31,)  a  learned 
Jewish  rabbi,  native  of  Babylon,  flourished  in  the  early 
part  of  the  third  century.    He  died  243  a.d. 

Abbad,  (or  Abad,)  ab'btd',  I.,  (called  also_ABOO-L- 
Kasim  (or  Aboul-cacem)  Mohammed,  i.'bool  ki'sim 
mo-him'med,)  the  founder  of  the  Abbadite  (or  Abadite) 
dynasty  of  Seville,  became  sovereign  of  that  city  about 
1023,  and  died  1042  a.d. 

Abbad  (or  Abad)  II.,  Aboo-Amroo,  (Abu-Ain- 
ru,)  ib'bSd'  i'boo  ^m^roo,  the  second  sultan  of  Seville, 
succeeded  his  father, Aboo-l-Kasim,  (Abu'l-Kasim,)  about 
1042,  aged  26  years.  He  was  an  able  and  successful 
general,  and  was  well  versed  in  the  learning  and  science 
of  the  times.  In  splendour  and  luxury  he  rivalled  the 
most  powerful  sovereigns  of  the  East ;  but  all  his  glory 
was  stained  by  his  sanguinary  cruelty.  He  used  to 
keep,  it  is  said,  in  a  private  apartment,  the  skulls  of  all 
the  chiefs  and  princes  who  had  fallen  into  his  hands, 
and  paved  the  alleys  of  his  gardens  with  those  of  infe- 
rior rank.    He  died  in  1069. 

Abbad  (or  Abad)  III,  Moorish  King  of  Seville,  born 
in  1039,  was  a  son  of  Abbad  11.  He  was  a  brave  and 
prudent  ruler,  and  patronized  arts  and  learning.  He  was 
deposed  by  Yoosuf,  (Yusuf,)  King  of  Morocco,  in  1091, 
and  died  in  1095. 

Abbadie,  a'bt'de',  (Jacques,)  a  distinguished  Prot- 
estant divine,  born  in  Beam,  in  the  south  of  France,  in 
1658.  His  "  Treatise  on  the  Truth  of  the  Christian  Reli- 
gion" ("Traite  de  la  Verite  de  la  Religion  Chretienne," 
2  vols.,  1684)  .was  received  with  great  favour  both  by 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  and  still  enjoys  a  high  repu- 
tation. He  was  the  author  of  several  other  works  of  less 
note.  He  preached  for  some  time  in  London,  and  after- 
wards became  Dean  of  Killaloe,  Ireland.  Died  in  London 
in  1727. 

See  Nic^RON,  "M^moires,"  and  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Abbadie,  d',  dt'bt'de',  (Antoine  and  Arnould 


i,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged ;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,    short;  a,  e,  j,  q,  obscure;  fUr,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good,  moon; 


ABBAMONTE 


27 


ABBOT 


Michel,)  two  brothers  of  Irish  origin,  but  citizens  of 
P'rance.  They  made  some  scientific  researches  in  Abys- 
sinia, where  they  passed  about  five  years, — 1840-45. 

Abbamonte.    See  Abamonti. 

Abbas  I.,  or  Shah  Abb^s,  shah  ib'bls',  [i.e.  "  King 
Abbas,")  surnamed  the  Great,  King  of  Persia,  was  born  in 
1^57.  His  father,  Mohammed  Meerza,  whose  want  of  capa- 
city rendered  him  unpopular,  was  deposed  by  the  discon- 
tented nobles,  and  Shah  Abbas  succeeded  to  the  throne 
at  the  age  of  twenty-five.  He  exhibited  an  energy  and  wis- 
dom which  commanded  the  respect  alike  of  his  subjects 
and  of  his  enemies.  After  having  healed  the  dissensions 
and  curbed  the  lawlessness  which  had  prevailed  among 
his  nobles,  he  marched  against  the  Turks,  who,  with  an 
army  of  100,000  men,  were  then  ravaging  the  Persian 
provinces  on  the  north.  The  army  of  Abbas  consisted 
of  scarcely  more  than  60,000  men ;  but  it  had  been  dis- 
ciplined under  the  direction  of  two  English  gentlemen, 
Sir  Anthony  and  Sir  Robert  Shirley,  and  w^as  provided 
with  an  efficient  artillery.  In  August,  1605,  a  battle  was 
fought,  in  which  the  Turks  suffered  a  total  defeat.  The 
Persian  king  recovered  all  his  lost  provinces,  and  was 
not  molested  by  the  Turks  during  the  remainder  of  his 
reign.    He  died  in  1627. 

See  Malcolm,  "  Histor>'  of  Persia,"  1829 ;  "  Travels  of  the  Broth- 
ers Shirley,"  1825. 

Abbks  II.,  Shah  of  Persia,  born  about  1631,  succeeded 
his  father  Sufi,  or  Sophy,  in  1641.  He  possessed  some 
good  qualities,  and  was  noted  for  his  liberal  treatment 
of  the  Christians  and  other  foreigners  in  his  dominions. 
Died  in  1666. 

Abb^s  III.,  King  of  Persia,  born  in  1731,  was  the  last 
king  of  the  dynasty  of  Sophvs.  He  was  a  son  of  Shah 
Tamasp,  who  was  dethroned  by  Nadir  Shah.  Died  in 
childhood  in  1736. 

Abbis,  or  more  fully  Abb^s-Ibn-Abd-il-Moot- 
talib,  (or  -Mottalib.)  db'bSs'  ib'n  abd-il-moot'tA-lib, 
written  also  Abbas-Ben- Abdel-Mottaiib,  a  paternal 
uncle  of  Mohammed,  born  at  Mecca  about  566  A.D., 
was  the  ancestor  of  the  dynasty  of  Abbassides.  He 
fought  against  Mohammed  at  the  battle  of  Bedr,  but 
afterwards  was  converted  to  the  cause  of  that  prophet, 
to  whom  he  rendered  important  services.  (See  Moham- 
med.)   Died  in  652  a.d. 

See  Caussin  de  Perceval,  "  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  des  Arabes." 

Abbas,  Sb'bSs',  (Pasha,)  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  born  at 
Yedda,  Arabia,  in  1813,  was  a  grandson  of  Mehemet 
Ali.  He  succeeded  his  uncle  Ibraheem  in  November, 
1848.    Died  in  1854. 

Abbas-Meerzl,  (-Mirza,)  db'bis'  meeR'zi',  son  of 
Fatah  Alee  Shah,  King  of  Persia,  was  born  about  1785. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  zealous  and  enlightened 
efforts  to  introduce  into  his  own  country  the  arts,  sci- 
ences, and  military  tactics  of  Europe.    He  died  in  1833. 

Abbassah,  db-bi'si,  a  pasha  of  Erzeroom,  distin- 
guished first  for  his  successful  rebellion  against  the  sul- 
tan Amurath  (Murad)  IV.,  and  afterwards  for  his  great 
favour  and  influence  with  that  monarch.  At  last,  how- 
ever, he  fell  a  victim  to  the  suspicions  of  his  sovereign, 
and  was  executed  in  1634. 

Abbassides  or  Abbasides,  ab-bas'sTdz,  singular, 
Abbasside,  ab-bas'sid,  [Fr.  pron.  t'btskl';  Ger.  Ab- 
BASSIDEN,  ib-bSs-see'den ;  Lat,  Abbas'Td.^:  ;  called  by 
the  Arabs  Benee  (Beni)  Abbas,  i.e.  "sons  or  descend- 
ants of  Abbas,"]  the  name  of  the  most  illustrious  dynas- 
ty of  caliphs.  They  traced  their  genealogy  to  Abbas  the 
uncle  of  Mohammed,  and  reigned  at  Damascus  and  after- 
wards at  Bagdad  from  749  to  1258  a.d.  See  Aboo-l- 
Abbas-Abdallah. 

Abbate,  ab-bi'ti,  or  Abate,  J-bl'ti,  (Andrea,)  a 
Neapolitan  painter  of  natural  history  and  inanimate  ob- 
jects.   Died  in  1732. 

Abbate,  db-bi'ti,  Abbati  or  Abati,  i-ba'tee,  (Nich- 
olas, or  NiccOLo,)  a  celebrated  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Modena  about  15 12.  Although  his  productions  rank 
him  with  the  greatest  Italian  masters,  very  little  is  known 
of  the  circumstances  of  his  life.  He  died  in  Paris  in 
1571.  Among  his  works  were  frescos  at  Fontainebleau. 
His  oil  pictures  are  very  scarce. 

See  Vedrl\ni,  "  Vite  dei  Pittori  Modenesi." 

Abbate  or  Abati,  (Pietro  Paolo,)  a  brother  of 


Niccolo,  noticed  above,  was  a  skilful  painter  of  battles 
and  horses,  at  Modena.    Died  about  1580. 

Abbate,  dell',  d^l-ldb-bi'ti,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  modeller,  worked  at  Modena.  Died  in  1557. 

Abba-Thulle,  ib'bi  t'huKlee,  a  king  of  the  Pelew 
Islands,  who  hospitably  entertained  the  crew  of  the  Eng- 
lish ship  Antelope,  wrecked  on  an  island  of  that  group 
in  1783.  Struck  with  admiration  on  witnessing  for  the 
first  time  the  effect  of  fire-arms,  he  prevailed  on  Captain 
Wilson,  commander  of  the  Antelope,  to  assist  him  in 
his  contests  with  the  neighbouring  islanders.  The  allied 
forces,  armed  with  "thunder  and  lightning,"  easily  sub- 
dued their  enemies,  destitute  of  these  novel  and  terrific 
implements  of  war.  When  his  English  friends  were 
about  to  return  to  their  native  country,  the  king  intrusted 
to  their  care  his  son  Lee  Boo,  that  he  might  visit  Europe. 

See  Keate's  "Account  of  the  Pelew  Islands,  from  the  Journal  of 
Captain  Wilson." 

Abbati,  ib-bi'tee,  or  Abbatio,  Sb-bS'te-o,  (Baldi 
Angelo,)  commonly  called  Abba'tius,  a  physician  and 
naturalist,  who  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century. 

Abbatini,  ib-bl-tee'nee,  (Antonio  Maria,)  an  Ital- 
ian composer  of  music,  who  flourished  in  the  first  half 
of  the  seventeenth  century.    Died  about  1675. 

Abbatucci,  Sb-bl-toot'chee,  (Carlo,  or  Charles,) 
a  Corsican  general,  born  in  1771,  was  a  son  of  Giacomo 
Pietro.  He  gained  the  rank  of  general  of  division  by 
his  conduct  at  the  passage  of  the  Lech  in  1796.  He  w  as 
killed  at  Huningue  in  1796. 

Abbatucci,  (Jacques  Pierre,  or  Giacomo  Pietro,) 
a  Corsican,  who  was  a  lieutenant  under  General  Paoli, 
and  after  various  changes  of  fortune  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  a  general  of  division  in  the  French  army.  Born 
1726,  died  1812. 

See  Jacobi,  "  Histoire  de  la  Corse  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Abbatucci,  (Jacques  Pierre  Charles,)  a  French 
lawyer,  born  in  Corsica  in  1791,  w^as  a  grandson  of 
Carlo  A.,  noticed  above.  He  was  elected  to  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  in  1848,  and  became  a  partisan  of 
Louis  Napoleon,  who  appointed  him  minister  of  justice 
about  1852.    Died  in  1857. 

Abbeville,  d',  dtb'v^K,  (Pi:RE  (paiR)  Claude,)  a 
Capuchin,  who  wrote  a  history  of  the  French  mission  to 
the  island  of  Maranham,  on  the  coast  of  Brazil,  entitled 
"  Histoire  de  la  Mission  des  Peres  Capucins  en  ITsle  de 
Maragnan."  He  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the 
character  and  customs  of  the  natives  of  that  island  and 
the  neighbouring  continent.  The  mission  alluded  to  was 
undertaken  in  161 2. 

Abbiati,  2.b-be-d'tee,  (Filippo,)  an  excellent  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Milan  in  1640.  He  painted  both  in  oil 
and  fresco  with  great  facility.  Among  his  best  w^orks 
is  a  fresco  of  "John  the  Baptist  preaching  in  the  wilder- 
ness."   Died  at  Milan  in  1715. 

Abbiati,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter  and  engraver, 
flourished  at  Milan  about  1700. 

Abbon,  t'biN',  [in  Latin,  Ab'bo  Cer'nuus,  "Abbon 
the  bent  or  bowed  down,"]  a  learned  French  monk,  who 
flourished  about  900.  He  wrote  a  Latin  poem  on  the 
siege  of  Paris  bv  the  Northmen,  (a.d.  885-6.) 

Abbon  of  Fleury,  [in  Latin,  Ab'bo  Floriacen'sis,] 
an  eminent  ecclesiastic  of  the  tenth  century,  born  near 
Orleans  in  France.  He  was  one  of  the  most  learned 
men  of  his  age,  and  after  he  was  elected  Abbot  of  Fleury 
showed  himself  a  patron  of  learning.    He  died  in  1004. 

Abbondanti,  Ib-bon-d^n'tee,  (Antonio,)  sometimes 
called  Abundan'tius  of  Imola,  (ee'mo-lS,)  an  Italian 
historian  and  poet,  lived  about  1625.  He  wrote  an  ac- 
count of  the  war  in  the  Low  Countries,  1559-1609. 

Ab'bpt,  (Abiel,)  an  American  divine,  born  at  An- 
dover,  Massachusetts,  in  1770.  He  died  in  1828,  on  his 
return  from  Cuba,  which  he  had  visited  on  account  of 
his  health.  A  posthumous  volume  of  letters  written 
while  in  that  island,  evinces  strong  powers  of  observation 
and  considerable  talent  for  description. 

Abbot,  (Benjamin,)  LL.D.,  an  American  teacher, 
born  about  1763,  was  for  half  a  century  the  principal  of 
Phillips  Academy,  at  Exeter,  New  Hampshire.  He 
numbered  among  his  pupils  Daniel  Webster,  Edward 


as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  §  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  yiasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^ii^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ABBOT 


28 


ABDALLAH 


Everett,  Jared  Sparks,  George  Bancroft,  and  John  G. 
Palfrey.    Died  in  1849. 

Ab'bot,  (Charles,)  Lord  Colchester,  a  British 
statesman,  born  at  Abingdon  in  1757,  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  about  1784,  He  was 
elected  to  Parliament  in  1795,  showed  himself  a  warm 
supporter  of  Pitt,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  talents 
for  business  and  his  public  spirit.  He  was  the  mover  of 
the  bill  which  in  1800  authorized  the  first  census  of 
the  population  of  Great  Britain  ever  taken.  In  1801 
he  became  chief  secretary  for  Ireland.  He  was  speaker 
of  the  House  of  Commons  from  February,  1802,  until 
May,  1 81 7,  when  he  resigned  on  account  of  ill  health, 
and  wa3  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Colchester.  He 
had  pe  formed  his  duties  as  speaker  to  the  general  satis- 
faction.   He  died  in  1829,  leaving  two  sons. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  May,  1829;  "Annual  Obituary," 
1830. 

Abbot,  (George,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at  Guild- 
ford, Surrey,  in  1562.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  took  orders 
in  1583,  became  a  very  popular  preacher,  and  was  em- 
ployed in  the  translation  of  the  Bible  authorized  by  King 
James  in  1604.  He  was  one  of  eight  divines  who  trans- 
lated the  Four  Gospels  and  the  book  of  Acts.  In  1609 
he  obtained  the  see  of  Lichfield,  from  which  he  was 
translated  to  the  see  of  London  in  1610.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  January,  161 1.  He 
was  a  zealous  Calvinist,  both  before  and  after  his  high 
promotion.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  favoured  the 
popular  party,  but  his  influence  in  the  church  and  state 
was  ruined  by  the  ascendency  of  Laud,  who  had  long  been 
his  rival  and  adversary.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Brief 
Description  of  the  Whole  World,"  (1634.)  Died  in  1633. 

See  William  Russell,  "Life  of  George  Abbot,"  1777;  Gardi- 
ner, "  History  of  England  from  1603  to  1616." 

Abbot,  (George,)  a  nephew  of  Archbishop  Abbot, 
was  born  about  1602.  He  fought  against  the  royalists 
in  the  civil  war.  He  published  "The  Book  of  Job  Para- 
phrased," (1640.)    Died  in  1648. 

Abbot,  (Lemuel,)  an  English  portrait-painter,  born 
about  1760,  worked  in  London,  and  was  well  patronized. 
Most  of  his  portraits  are  considered  to  be  excellent  like- 
nesses. Among  his  works  are  portraits  of  the  poet 
Cowper  and  Lord  Nelson.    Died  in  1803. 

Abbot,  (Sir  Maurice  or  Morris,)  a  distinguished 
merchant  of  London,  was  the  youngest  brother  of  Arch- 
bishop Abbot.  He  was  appointed  one  of  the  council  for 
settling  the  colony  of  Virginia  in  1624,  and  became  gov- 
ernor or  chairman  of  the  East  India  Company  in  1633. 
Died  in  1640. 

Abbot,  (Robert,)  a  learned  divine,  born  at  Guildford 
in  1560,  was  a  brother  of  Archbishop  Abbot.  He  was 
a  popular  preacher,  a  chaplain  to  James  I.,  and  King's 
professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford.  In  161 5  he  became 
Bishop  of  Salisbury.  He  was  a  strenuous  opponent  of 
Laud's  opinions  and  church  policy.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "Defence  of  the  Royal  Supremacy,"  in  Latin,  (1619.) 
He  was  esteemed  a  man  of  more  profound  learning  than 
the  archbishop.    Died  in  161 7. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica;"  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Abbot,  (Robert,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  became 
vicar  of  Cranbrook,  Kent,  and  minister  of  Southwick  in 
Hampshire.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  The 
Trial  of  our  Church-Forsakers,"  (1639.)  Died  about  1655. 

Abbot,  (Samuel,)  born  at  Wilton,  New  Hampshire, 
in  1786;  died  in  1839.  He  invented  a  process  of  ex- 
tracting starch  from  the  potato. 

Ab'bott,  (Charles,)  Lord  Tenterden,  an  emi- 
nent English  judge,  was  born  at  Canterbury  in  1762, 
and  studied  at  Oxford.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1795,  and  in  1802  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Law  of 
Merchant  Ships  and  Seamen,"  which  has  since  been  re- 
garded in  England  and  the  United  States  as  the  stand- 
ard work  on  maritime  law.  He  became  a  judge  in  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas  in  1816.  Lord  Ellenborough 
having  resigned  his  position  as  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  the 
King's  Bench  in  1818,  Mr.  Abbott  succeeded  him,  and 
in  1827  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Lord 
Tenterden.  He  died  in  November,  1832.  He  was  a  firm 
adherent  of  the  Tory  party.  His  judicial  merits  were 
of  a  very  high  order.    According  to  some,  he  excelled 


Lord  Mansfield  in  industry  and  learning,  and  equalled 
him  in  acuteness  of  perception  and  power  of  reasoning. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices,"  vol.  iii. ; 
Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  ix. ;  also  a  criticism  on  Lord 
Tenterden's  professional  character,  by  Brougham,  in  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review,"  vol.  Ixix.  p.  14. 

Abbott,  (Rev.  Jacob,)  a  popular  American  author, 
born  at  Hallowell,  Maine,  in  1803.  He  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  College  in  1820.  Few  writers  have  given  to 
the  public  a  greater  number  of  volumes.  Among  them 
may  be  mentioned  "The  Young  Christian;"  "The 
Corner-Stone ;"  "A  Series  of  Histories  of  Celebrated 
Sovereigns;"  "The  Rollo  Books,"  28  vols.;  "Harper's 
Story-Books,"  36  vols.,  etc.  etc.  Mr.  Abbott  has  ad- 
dressed himself  principally  to  the  young,  with  whom  his 
works  have  been  exceedingly  popular.  Nearly  all  his 
books  have  been  republished  in  England,  and  some,  it 
is  said,  have  been  translated  into  various  European  and 
Asiatic  languages. 

Abbott,  (John  S.  C.,)  an  American  author,  brother 
of  the  Rev.  Jacob  Abbott,  was  born  at  Brunswick,  Maine, 
in  1805.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1825, 
studied  divinity  at  the  Theological  Seminary  in  Andover, 
Mass.,  and  was  subsequently  minister  in  Worcester  and 
Roxbury.  Among  his  principal  works  may  be  named 
the  "Mother  at  Home,"  (1833;)  "Histories  of  Marie 
Antoinette,  Josephine,  Madame  Roland,  Cortez,"  etc., 
forming  a  series  in  six  vols. ;  "  History  of  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,"  2  vols.  8vo;  "History  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution," and  "  History  of  the  Civil  War  in  America,"  2 
vols.  8vo,  1863-66.  Most  of  his  books  have  obtained 
an  extensive  circulation.  He  is  a  pleasing  and  animated 
writer,  but  as  a  historian  he  is  scarcely  to  be  relied  on. 
His  "  History"  of  Napoleon,  in  particular,  is  perhaps  the 
most  remarkable  example  of  indiscriminate  and  extrava- 
gant eulogy  ever  given  to  the  world  under  the  august  name 
of  History.  He  has  recently  published  a  "  History  of  Na- 
poleon III.,  Emperor  of  the  French,"  (1868,)  which  is  said 
to  possess  the  merits  and  demerits  of  the  preceding  work. 

Abbt,  apt,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  German  writer, 
born  at  Ulm  in  1738.  He  studied  at  the  University  of 
Halle,  and  in  1 76 1  was  appointed  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  University  of  Rinteln.  Here  he  wrote  his 
two  most  celebrated  works,  "  On  Merit,"  ("  Vom  Ver- 
dienste,"  1765,)  and  "On  Dying  for  one's  Native  Coun- 
try," ("Ueber  den  Tod  fiir's  Vaterland,"  1761.)  He  was 
afterwards  invited  by  Count  William  of  Lippe-Schauen- 
burg  to  his  court  at  Biickeburg,  where  he  died  in  1766. 
Like  Lessing,  he  exerted  himself  to  improve  and  refine 
the  German  language,  and  had  he  lived  longer  his  name 
would  undoubtedly  have  become  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished in  his  country's  literature. 

See  NicoLAi,  "  Ehrengedachtniss  des  Herm  Thomas  Abbt,"  1767; 
Wolf,  "  Encyklopaedie  der  Deutschen  National-Literatur;"  Meu- 
SEL,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Litterateurs  d'Allemagne." 

ABD,  an  Arabic  word  signifying  "servant,"  and  form 
ing  the  prefix  in  many  names ;  as  Abd-Allah,  (Abdal 
lah,)  the  "servant  of  God." 

Abd-al-Kadir.    See  Abd-el-Kader. 

Abdallah,  ab-dlKlah,  (almost  ib-dul'lah.)  or  Abdul- 
lah, ib-ddoKlah,  the  last  shereef  (sherif)  or  prince  of  the 
Wahabites,  was  born  about  1 740.  Having  been  captured 
by  Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  Pasha,  he  was  executed  in  1818. 

Abdallah,  (or  Abd-Allah,)  Abu-l-Abbas.  See 
Aboo-l- Abb  as- Abdallah. 

Abdallah-  (or  Abdullah-)  Ibn-Abd-H-Moottalib, 
(-Ib'n  ibMil  md6t't3,-lib,)  the  father  of  the  prophet  Mo- 
hammed, is  said  to  have  been  distinguished  for  his  virtue 
and  personal  beauty.    Died  about  570  a.d. 

See  Abdallah-Ben-Abdelmottalib,  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic G^n^rale." 

Abdallah-Ibn-Al-Aftas,(-ai-af'tas,)  the  founder  'jf 
the  dynasty  of  Benee  Al-Aftas,  was  iDorn  at  Mequinez 
in  Africa  about  1004.  He  possessed  eminent  military 
talents,  and  was  surnamed  Al-Mansoor,  or  "the  vic- 
torious."   He  died  about  1060. 

Abdallah-Ibn-Balkeen,  (or  -Balkin,  -bJl-keen',) 
the  fourth  and  last  sultan  of  Granada;  dethroned  (a.d. 
1090)  by  Yoosuf,  whom  he  had  invited  from  Africa  to  as- 
sist him  against  Alphonso  I.  of  Castile.  He  was  a  brave 
and  enlightened  monarch.    He  was  a  patron  of  science. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good,  moon; 


ABDALLAH  29  ABD-EL-MALEK 


and  wrote  a  learned  and  valuable  commentary  on  the 
Koran. 

Abdallah-Ibn-Koteyba,  (-Coteyba.)     See  Ibn- 

KOTEYBA. 

Abdallah-Ibn-Mohammed,  (-Ib'n  mo-him'med,) 
the  seventh  sultan  of  Cordova  of  the  dynasty  of  Omeyyah, 
ascended  the  throne  in  888,  and  died  in  912.  He  was  a 
poet  and  a  patron  of  literature. 

Abdallah-  (or  Abdullah-)  Ibnool-Fara-dhee, 
{-Ib-nul-Faradhi,  ib'ndol  fl'rd-dhee,)  a  Mohammedan 
historian,  born  at  Cordova  in  962.  He  was  killed  at  the 
taking  of  his  native  city  by  Suleyman,  1013. 

Abdallah-  (or  Abdullah-)  Ibnool-Hijaree,  (-Ib- 
nul-Hij^ri,  ib'nool  he-ji'ree,)a  celebrated  Mohammedan 
historian,  born  in  the  territory  of  Guadalajara  in  1105. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  and  voluminous  history 
of  Spain,  most  of  which  is  lost.    He  died  about  1195. 

Abdallah-Ibn-Sa'd  (-sdd  or  -si'd)  was  one  of  the 
earliest  converts  to  the  Mohammedan  faith,  and  was  em- 
ployed by  the  prophet  to  write  down  his  pretended  reve- 
lations. He  was  afterwards  appointed  governor  of  Egypt, 
under  the  caliph  Othman,  about  the  year  646.  On  the 
death  of  the  caliph,  in  656,  he  was  deposed ;  but  the  year 
of  his  death  is  unknoAvn. 

Abdallah-Ibn-Yaseen,  (or  -Yasin,)  -yi'seen',  the 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Almoravides,  was  born  at 
Nafees,  a  little  town  in  North  Africa.  He  began  his 
career  as  a  zealous  teacher  of  religion,  about  the  year 
1041.  His  followers  were  called  Almorabitoon,  "men 
devoted  to  the  service  of  God,"  (whence  the  European 
name  Almoravides.)  At  first  he  contented  himself  with 
forcibly  converting  the  pagan  tribes  of  the  Berbers  to  Mo- 
hammedanism, but  finally  aspired  to  the  entire  subjuga- 
tion of  Africa  and  the  overthrow  of  the  ruling  dynasty 
of  Zenatah.  After  entire  success  had  crowned  his  under- 
taking, although  he  exercised  all  the  functions  of  royalty, 
he  never  assumed  the  titles,  but  contented  himself  with 
the  name  of  Fakih,  (fS-keeh',)  or  "Theologian."  He 
died  in  1059.  His  successors  ruled  over  the  greater 
part  of  North  Africa  and  Spain  for  nearly  a  century. 

Abdallah-Ibn-  (or  Ben-)  Zobeyr,  (or  -Zobair,)  -zo- 
hlK'y  surnamed  Aboo-Beker  or  Ab<i-Bekr,  i'boo 
bek'er,  Caliph  of  Mecca,  was  born  in  622.  He  maintained 
his  independence  against  the  Omeyyah  dynasty  from  680 
till  692,  when  he  was  conquered  and  slain  by  Abdel- 
Malek-Ibn-Merwan. 

See  Abdallah-Ben-Zobair,  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gend- 
rale." 

Abdallatif  or  Abdallatiphus.  See  Abd-el-Lateef. 
Abdalmalek  or  Abd-al-Malik.     See  Abd-el- 
Malek. 

Ab-da-lon'3^-mus  or  Ab-do-lonl-mus,  a  Sidonian, 
raised  by  Alexander  the  Great  from  the  occupation  of  a 
gardener  to  the  throne.  He  was  descended  from  the 
kings  of  Sidon. 

Abdalrahman.    See  Abd-er-Rahman. 

Abdal-Wahab.    See  Abd-el-Wahab. 

Ab'das,  [Gr.  'A^ckf,]  Bishop  of  Susa,  in  Persia,  ofi*end- 
ed  the  Guebers,  or  fire-worshippers,  by  burning  one  of 
their  temples,  for  which  he  was  put  to  death  in  430  a.D. 

Abdelaziz,  ab'del-S-zeez',  or  Abdu-l-aziz,  Wdob- 
IS-zeez',  (Anglicized  pron.  ab-da-li'ziz,*)  written  also  Ab- 
dalazis  and  Abdelasis,  the  son  of  Moosa,  (Miisa,) 
was  the  third  governor  of  Spain  after  its  conquest  by  the 
Arabs.  He  was  assassinated  in  716,  at  the  instigation 
of  the  caliph,  against  whom  ne  had  revolted. 

Abdelaziz  or  Abdulaziz,  (Abul-Hassan,  a'bool 
hJs'sSn,)  the  first  sultan  of  Valencia,  was  grandson  of 
the  famous  Al-Mansoor,  He  adorned  his  capital  with 
magnificent  gardens  and  buildings.    Died  about  1060. 

Abd-el-Baki,  (or  -Backi.)    See  Bakee. 

Abd  el-Hakk,  Jbd  el  hSk,  (Ibn-Ghaleeb  or  -Gha- 
lib,  Tb'n  cJ-leeb',)  a  Mohammedan  divine  and  poet,  born 
in  the  province  of  Granada  in  1088.  He  wrote  a  volumin- 
ous commentary  on  the  Koran,  which  was  highly  es- 
teemed by  the  Spanish  Moslems.    Died  1 1 52. 

Abd-el-Kader,  abd'el-kiMer,  (Ibn-Mehi-ed-Deen, 


*  "  The  regal  seat 
Of  Abdalazis,  ancient  Cordova." 

SouTHEv's  Roderick. 


Ib'n  m§h'hi-ed-deen',)  (see  remarks  on  Oriental  names,  in 
the  Introduction,)  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of 
whom  history  makes  mention,  was  born  near  Mascara, 
Algeria,  about  1807.  His  father,  Mehi-ed-Deen,  was  a 
Maraboot  (Marabout)  or  religious  noble  of  great  influ- 
ence. Having  become  distinguished  for  his  piety  and 
talents,  Abd-el-Kader  was  chosen  emir  of  the  Arab 
tribes  in  Algeria  soon  after  that  region  was  invaded  by 
the  French  in  1830.  He  attacked  Oran  in  1832,  but, 
after  the  most  determined  and  repeated  assaults,  was 
repulsed  by  the  French  artillery,  and  in  1834  concluded 
a  treaty  with  the  French  general,  who  recognized  him  as 
Emir  of  Mascara  and  Oran.  In  1835  he  defeated  a 
French  army  at  Macta.  After  the  victory  of  General 
Bugeaud  at  Sikka,  1836,  the  war  was  suspended  by  a 
treaty,  (1837.)  Hostilities  were  renewed  in  1839  by  the 
Arat)^,  who  were  stimulated  against  the  infidel  in- 
vaders by  fanaticism  as  well  as  patriotism.  In  the  long 
contest  which  ensued  against  a  power  immeasurably 
superior  to  his  own,  Abd-el-Kader  displayed  remark- 
able energy,  skill,  presence  of  mind,  and  fertility  of  re- 
sources, combined  with  administrative  talents  of  the 
highest  order ;  but  he  was  finally  compelled  to  surrender, 
in  December,  1847,  which  he  did  on  condition  that  he 
should  be  sent  to  Alexandria  or  St.  Jean-d'Acre.  By  a 
flagrant  violation  of  public  faith,  he  was  sent  to  France, 
and  detained  as  a  captive  until  about  the  end  of  1852, 
when  he  was  released  by  the  order  of  Louis  Napoleon. 
He  has  since  resided  chiefly  at  Brussa  and  Damascus. 

While  Abd-el-Kader  was  imprisoned  in  France,  Gen- 
eral Daumas,  who  had  charge  of  him,  wrote  to  one  of 
his  friends,  "  You  are  going  to  see  the  illustrious  pris- 
oner of  the  chateau  of  Pau.  .  .  .  You  have  known 
Abd-el-Kader  in  his  prosperity,  at  a  time  when,  so  to 
speak,  all  Algeria  acknowledged  his  rule,  "Well,  you 
will  find  him  greater  and  more  extraordinary  in  his  ad- 
versity than  he  was  in  his  prosperity."  In  i860,  when 
all  the  Christian  population  of  Syria  was  threatened 
with  massacre,  Abd-el-Kader  protected,  with  sleepless 
vigilance  and  at  the  imminent  peril  of  his  own  life,  many 
thousands  of  both  sexes  until  the  danger  was  past. 

Abd-el-Kader  excelled  in  all  martial  exercises.  As 
an  equestrian  he  was  unrivalled,  even  among  a  people 
whose  warriors  may  be  said  to  live  on  horseback.  His 
quickness  of  intellect  and  his  memory  were  extraor- 
dinary. At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  already  knew  the 
Koran  by  heart.  His  literary  attainments  would  have 
conferred  distinction  even  upon  one  who  had  devoted 
his  whole  life  to  peaceful  and  uninterrupted  study.  In 
addition  to  his  other  accomplishments,  he  was  endowed 
with  a  graceful  and  spirit-stirring  eloquence. 

See  "  Life  of  Abd-el-Kader,"  written  from  his  own  dictation,  ai>d 
compiled  from  other  authentic  sources,  by  Colonel  Churchill, 
London,  1S67  ;  also  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Abd-el-Kader-Ghiianee,  (-Ghiiani,)  Sbd'el-k^der 
ge-ld'nee  or  ce-lS'nee,  an  eminent  Persian  doctor  of  the 
Soofee  (Sufi)  sect,  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  century.  Like  the  orthodox  Mohammedans,  the 
Scofees  believe  in  one  eternal  God ;  but  their  views  of 
a  future  state  are  more  spiritual  than  those  taught  by  the 
Koran.  Abd-el-Kader  wrote  various  works  on  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Soofees,  some  of  which  are  still  extant. 
Died  at  Bagdad  in  1165. 

Abd-el-Kadir.    See  Abd-el-Kader. 

Abd-el-Lateef  or  Abdellatif,  ab'del-ll-teef,  or 
Abdullattif,  ib^dol-lS-teef,  an  eminent  Arabian  his- 
torian and  physician,  born  at  Bagdad  in  1 162.  He  wrote 
an  important  work  on  the  history,  antiquities,  and  geog- 
raphy of  Egypt,  of  which  De  Sacy  published  a  French 
version  entitle^  "Relation  de  I'figypte,"  (1810.) 

See  WiisTENFELD,  "  Geschichte  der  Arabischen  Aerzte ;"  "  Nou- 
velle Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Abd-el-Malek  or -Malik,*  abMel-mt'lek  or-mil'ek, 
(Ibn-Habeeb  or  -Habib,  ib'n  hl-beeb',)  a  famous 
Mohammedan  historian  and  divine,  born  at  Cordova  in 
801;  died  853. 

Abd-el-Malek,*  (Ibn-Koreyb — ko-rab',)  generally 


*  It  should  be  observed  that  the  Arabic  words  Maiek  (m^l'ek)  (writ 
ten  also  Melek,  mSl'ek)  and  Malek  (mii'lek)  differ  in  signification  as 
well  as  pronunciation;  the  former  signifies  "king,"  the  latter  "  mas- 
ter" or  "possessor." 


e  AS     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K.^tiural;  n,  nasal;  r.  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


e 


ABD^EL-MALEK  30  ABDIAS 


called  Alasmaee,  (Alasma'!,)  ai-as'mS-ee',  a  celebrated 
Mohammedan  doctor,  born  at  Bassora  about  740.  He 
possessed  an  extraordinary  memory,  and  is  said  to  have 
known  by  heart  above  16,000  poems.  Haroun-al-Raschid, 
hearing  of  the  fame  of  Alasmaee,  invited  him  to  his  court 
and  chose  him  as  his  own  instructor.  He  died  at  Bag- 
dad about  821.  The  famous  romance  of  Antar  has  been 
ascribed  to  him. 

Abd-el-Maiek  or  Abd-ul-Maiik,*  abd'dol-mi'lik, 
a  sultan  of  Western  Africa,  was  born  at  Fez  about  1500. 
When  his  dominions  were  invaded  by  Sebastian,  King 
of  Portugal,  he  made  vigorous  preparations  for  defence, 
and,  though  labouring  under  severe  disease,  accompanied 
his  army,  in  a  litter, "to  the  field  of  battle,  (August,  1578.) 
The  Moors  were  victorious,  and  Sebastian  was  taken  and 
put  to  death  ;  but  Abd-el-Malik  died  of  exhaustion  dur- 
ing the  contest,  and  Mohammed,  his  nephew,  wh«m  he 
had  dethroned,  and  at  whose  instigation  the  Portuguese 
king  had  begun  the  war,  was  drowned  in  his  flight.  This 
battle  has  been  called  "the  battle  of  the  three  kings." 

Abd-el-Malek,*  (Ibn-Merwan  — mer'wSn',)  the 
fifth  caliph  of  the  house  of  Omeyyah,  ascended  the  throne 
in  685.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  warrior  while 
quelling  several  formidable  rebellions  in  his  dominions  ; 
he  was  brave,  just,  and  strict  in  the  observance  of  all  the 
duties  of  his  religion,  and  was  moreover  a  patron  of  learn- 
ing and  the  useful  arts.  Died  in  705,  aged  sixty  years. 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  ix. 

Abd-el-Melek.    See  Abd-el-Malek. 

Abd-el-Moomen,  (-Moumen  or  -Mumen,)  dbd'el- 
moo'men,  written  also  Abdul-Munien,  the  second 
prince  or  sultan  of  the  line  of  Almohades,  in  Africa,  was 
born  in  the  province  of  Tlemsen,  about  iioo.  On  the 
death  of  Al-Mahdee,  (Al-Mahdi,)  founder  of  the  new 
dynasty,  he  managed  to  get  himself  elected  successor  to 
the  throne,  in  1130.  His  reign  was  constantly  occupied 
with  wars,  in  which  he  was  for  the  most  part  eminently 
successful.  Having  subdued  all  his  enemies  in  Western 
Africa,  he  was  preparing  to  cross  into  Spain,  that  he 
might  put  a  stop  to  the  victorious  career  of  Alphonso 
VHI.,  when  he  was  attacked  by  the  disease  of  which  he 
died,  in  1163.  He  assumed  the  title  of  caliph,  which  his 
successors  retained. 

See  Abd-el-Moumen,  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Abd-el-Moottalib,  (or  -Muttalib,)  ibd'el-mdot'- 
ti-lib,t  written  also  Abd-el-Mottalib  and  Abdol- 
Motalleb,  a  rich  citizen  of  Mecca,  born  in  497  a.d.,  was 
the  son  of  Hashem  and  grandfather  of  the  prophet  Mo- 
hammed. He  is  said  to  have  dug  at  Mecca,  in  obedience 
to  a  command  given  him  in  a  vision,  the  famous  well 
of  Zemzem,  which  was  destined  to  supply  pilgrims  with 
water  through  all  succeeding  ages.    Died  in  579. 

See  Abd-el-Mottalib,  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;" 
Sprenger,  "  Life  of  Mohammad." 

Abdel-Mumen.    See  Abd-el-Moomen. 

Ab d-el- Wahab,abd'el- wi- h  W,  or  Al) dul- Wahab, 

ib'dool-wi-hib',  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Wahab- 
ites,  (Wahabees  or  Wahabys,)  was  born  in  the  Arabian 
province  of  Nejd  in  169 1.  He  did  not,  as  has  been  as- 
serted, promulgate  the  doctrines  of  a  nevr  religion.  He 
saw,  as  he  believed,  that  the  primitive  Mohammedan 
faith  had  become  totally  corrupted,  and  his  effortb  were 
directed  towards  introducing  a  thorough  reformation. 
He  acknowledged  the  Koran  and  the  traditionary  law, 
the  "  Soonnah,"  (or  '*  Sunnah,")  to  be  the  foundation  of 
religion ;  but  the  opinions  even  of  the  greatest  com- 
mentators were  not,  he  maintained,  to  be  received  im- 
plicitly. He  complained  that  many  of  the  Mohammedan 
professors  bestowed  upon  the  prophet  and  the  saints 
honours  which  were  equivalent  to  adoration.  He  held 
and  proclaimed  that  before  God  all  men  were  equal,  and 


*  See  note  on  last  column  of  preceding  page. 

t  There  is  some  discrepancy  in  regard  to  the  accentuation  of  this 
name :  some  writers  gwt  Abd-el-Muidlib,  (or  -Motallib  ;)  but  the  best 
authorities  make  the  penultima  short.  Hammer-Purgstall  (Litera- 
turgeschichte  der  Araber,  vol.  i.  p.  384)  spells  \t  Abdol-Moththalib, 
{i.e.  -Moththalib,  for  he  uniformly  places  an  accent  on  the  long  sylla- 
bles:) it  should  also  be  observed  that  he  employs  th  (in  German)  for 
t  hard.  Pocock,  in  his  Latin  version  of  Abulpharagius,  writes  the 
name  with  //,  A  bdol-Motallab  or  -Motalleb  ;  but  in  the  Arabic  text 
the  penultima  is  short.    (See  "  Historia  Dynastiarum,"  Oxford,  1663.) 


that  it  was  a  sin  to  pray  to  departed  saints  or  to  honour 
their  relics  more  than  those  of  ordinary  persons.  The 
Wahabites,  wherever  they  had  the  power  to  do  so,  de- 
stroyed the  domes  and  ornamental  tombs :  even  the 
cupola  over  the  birthplace  of  Mohammed,  at  Mecca, 
and  his  tomb  at  Medina,  were  demolished.  Abd-el-Wa- 
hab  died  in  1787. 

See  BuRCKHARDT,  "  Materials  for  a  History  of  the  Wahabys," 
London,  1830;  "Voyages  d'Ali-Bey,"  Paris,  1814;  Niebuhr, 
"  Reisebeschreibung  nach  Arabien,"  etc. 

Abd-er-Rahman,  abd'eR-RdH'man,*  (or  Abd-ur- 
Rahman,  ib'ddoR-RiH'min,)  I.,  written  aJso  Abdar- 
rahman,  (the  "servant  of  the  Merciful,"  that  is,  of  God,) 
the  founder  of  the  Omeyyah  dynasty  of  sultans  in  Spain, 
in  opposition  to  the  caliphs  of  the  new  line,  (the  Abbas- 
sides.)  He  wrested  Moslem  Spain  from  the  govern- 
ment of  the  caliph  in  756,  and  died  in  788  A.D. 

See  Al-Makkari,  "  History  of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  -n 
Spain." 

Abd-er-Rahman  II.,  the  fourth  sultan  of  Cordova  of 
the  Omeyyah  dynasty,  ascended  the  throne  in  822  a.d. 
He  was  an  able  warrior,  was  eminent  for  his  modera- 
tion, justice,  and  humanity,  and  was  a  distinguished 
patron  of  learning.    Died  in  852  A.D. 

Abd-er-Rahman  III,  surnamed  An-Nasir-Lideen- 
Illah  or  -Lidinillah,  in-ni'sir-le-dee'niFllh,  {i.e.  "the 
defender  of  the  religion  of  God,")  the  eighth  sultan  and 
first  caliph  of  Cordova,  began  to  reign  in  912,  and  by 
his  talents  and  energy  raised  the  Mohammedan  empire 
in  Spain  to  the  highest  pinnacle  of  glory.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished both  as  a  warrior  and  as  a  patron  of  learning 
and  the  arts.  One  of  his  palaces  near  Cordova  was 
decorated  with  unequalled  magnificence  ;  the  audience- 
room,  in  particular,  was  adorned  with  golden  images  of 
the  most  exquisite  workmanship,  and  the  roof  was  cov- 
ered with  pure  gold.  After  a  reign  of  nearly  fifty  years, 
An-Nasir  died  in  961,  at  the  age  of  73.  An-Nasir-Li- 
deen-Illah  was  also  the  name  of  one  of  the  caliphs  of 
the  Abbasside  dynasty,  as  well  as  of  several  other  Mo- 
hammedan princes. 

See  Al-Makkari,  "  Histoi7  of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  in 
Spain,"  translated  into  English  by  Gayangos,  London,  1840-43; 
Conde,  "Histoire  de  la  Domination  des  Arabes;"  Casiri,  "  Bibli- 
otheca  Arabico-Hispana." 

Abd-er-Rahman,  Sultan  or  Emperor  of  Morocco, 
born  in  1778,  succeeded  his  uncle  Muley  Soliman  in 
1823.  He  became  the  ally  of  Abd-el-Kader  in  the  war 
against  the  French,  who  defeated  his  army  at  Isly  in 
1844. 

Abd-er-Rahman-Alghafekee,  (or  -Algh^feki,) 

il-Gi'fe-kee^,  a  Moslem  governor  of  Spain,  invaded  Gaul 
at  the  head  of  eighty  thousand  men,  and,  having  ravaged 
Aquitaine,  encountered  the  French  army  under  Charles 
Martel  near  Tours,  in  October,  732  a.d.  After  a  se- 
vere and  prolonged  contest,  the  Christians  gained  a 
complete  victory,  which  saved  Europe  from  the  Moham- 
medan yoke  and  put  an  effectual  check  to  the  conquests 
of  the  Saracens  of  Spain.  Abd-er-Rahman  himself  was 
left  dead  on  the  field  of  battle. 
See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Abd-er-Rahman,  (Ibn-Khaldoon  or  -Khaldiin.) 

See  Ibn-Khaldoon. 

Abd-er-Razzak,  dbd^eR-Rlz-zIk'.  or  Abdurrazzak, 
ibMooR-R^z-zak',  the  founder  of  a  small  empire  in  East- 
ern Persia,  about  1336,  which  lasted  only  till  the  con- 
quest of  Tamerlane  in  1381. 

Abd-er-Razzak,  or  Abd-er-Rezzak,  (Kamai-ed 
Deen  or  Kemai-ed-Din,  ka-mSK  ed-deen',)  a  Persian 
traveller  and  historian,  born  at  Herat  in  141 3  ;  died 
about  1475.  He  wrote  an  interesting  history  of  the  de- 
scendants of  Tamerlane. 

Abdias,  ab-dee'is,  (Ben-Shalom — shS'lom,)  a  Jew- 
ish rabbi  of  the  seventh  century,  went  to  Arabia  to  dis- 
pute with  Mohammed,  who  is  said  to  have  converted  him. 


*  Most  European  writers  accentuate  this  name  on  the  last  syllable, 
Abd-er-Rahman  ;  but  we  have  preferred  to  follow  Hammer-Purgstall, 
who  invariably  gives  it  with  the  relh'ma  short — Abderrahman,  (ab- 
der-rih'mSn.)  So  far  as  we  have  had  an  opportunity  of  consulting 
tne  Arabic  texts  of  the  Mohammedan  writers,  they  have  nearly 
always  confirmed  the  practice  of  that  eminent  Orientalist.  Both 
forms  are  undoubtedly  correct ;  but  that  given  above  is  sanctioned 
by  the  best  Arabic  usage. 


a  e,  I,  5,  \i,  y,  /ono^;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  f,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  gS&d;  moon; 


ABDOL^MALIK 


JBELa 


Abdol-Malik.    See  Abd-el-Malek. 

Abdol-Moththalib.    See  Abd-el-Moottalib. 

Abdolonimus.    See  Abdalonymus. 

Abd-ool-  (Abdul-  or  Abdoul-)  Hamid,  (or  -Ha- 
met,)  ab'ddol-  ha'mid,(or  ha''met,)  Sultan  of  Turkey,  born 
in  1725,  was  a  son  of  Ahmed  III.  He  succeeded  his 
brother  Mustapha  III.  in  1774.  Having  been  defeated 
by  the  Russians,  he  obtained  a  short  peace  by  the  treaty 
of  Kootchook-Kainarji  in  July,  1774.  He  was  again 
involved  in  war  against  Russia,  and  lost  a  battle  at  Oc- 
zakow,  in  1788.    Died  in  1789. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "  Histoire  de  TEmpire  Ottoman." 

Abd-ool-Mejeed,  Abdoul-Medjid,  or  Abdul- 
Mejid,  ib'ddol-me-jeed'',  an  eminent  Mohammedan 
poet,  vizier  to  Aboo-IMohammed,  the  last  king  of  Bada- 
joz.    He  died  about  1125. 

Abd-ool-Mejeed,  Abdul-Mejid,  or  Abdoul- 
Medjid,  ab'ddol-m^-jeed',  [Ger.  spelling,  Abdul  Med- 
SCHID,]  Sultan  of  Turkey,  born  in  1823,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Mahmood  II.,  whom  he  succeeded  July  i,  1839. 
He  found  Turkey  at  war  against  Mehemet  Ali  of  Egypt, 
whose  victorious  army  was  marching  towards  his  capital. 
From  this  danger  he  was  saved  by  the  intervention  of 
the  great  European  powers  in  1840.  He  pursued  the 
course  of  reform  commenced  by  his  father,  which  was 
resisted  by  a  fanatical  party  among  his  subjects,  and  ex- 
hibited a  spirit  of  tolerance  towards  Christians.  About 
the  end  of  1853  he  was  involved  in  a  war  with  Russia, 
in  which  France  and  England  were  the  allies  of  Abd-dbl- 
Mejeed.  (See  Nicholas  I.)  He  died  in  June,  1861,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Abd-ool-Azeez,  (Abdul- 
Aziz.) 

See  Abdoul  Medjid,  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Abdor-Rahman.    See  Abd-er-Rahman. 

Abdoul-Melek.    See  Abd-el-Malek. 

Abdulaziz.    See  Abdelaziz. 

Abdul-Kadir.    See  Abd-el-Kader. 

Abdul-Malik.    See  Abd-el-Malek. 

Abdul-Mumen.    See  Abd-el-Moomen. 

Abdurrahman.    See  Abd-er-Rahman. 

Ab'dy,  (Mi'ra  Smith,)  an  English  authoress,  born  in 
London  about  1818,  was  a  niece  of  Horace  and  James 
Smith.  She  married  a  Rev.  Mr.  Abdy,  of  London. 
She  has  written  agreeable  verses  and  tales,  some  of 
which  appeared  in  various  annuals.  Perhaps  her  most 
important  work  is  her  "Appeal  on  Behalf  of  Govern- 
esses."   Died  in  July,  1867. 

A'Bec'ket,  (Gilbert  Abbot,)  a  witty  and  humorous 
English  writer,  born  in  London  in  1810  or  1811.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1841.  He  contributed  to 
the  London  "Times"  and  "  Punch."  Among  his  works 
are  "The  Comic  Blackstone,"  (1844-46,)  and  "The 
Comic  History  of  England,"  (1848.)    Died  in  1856. 

A  Becket,  (Thomas.)    See  Becket. 

A-bed'ne-go',  called  also  Az-a-ri'ah,  one  of  the 
three  Hebrew  captives  whom  Nebuchadnezzar,  King  of 
Babylon,  ordered  to  be  thrown  into  his  fiery  furnace. 
(See  Daniel  i.  7  ;  ii.  49 ;  iii.  10,  etc.) 

A-beeF,  (David,)  an  American  missionary,  born  at 
New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey,  in  1804.  He  published 
"A  Journal  of  a  Residence  in  China,  1829-33."  Died 
in  1846. 

Abegg,  I'hlV.,  (Bruno  Erhard — SR'haRt,)  a  Ger- 
man lawyer,  born  at  Elbing  in  1803.  Died  in  Berlin  in 
1848. 

Abegg,  (Julius  Friedrich  Heinrich,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Erlangen  in  1796.  He  became  professor 
of  law  at  Breslau  in  1826,  and  published  many  legal 
works. 

Abeille,  I'hW,  [Fr.  pron.  t'biF  or  rbi'ye,]  (Gas- 
PARD,)  a  mediocre  French  lyric  and  tragic  poet,  born  in 
Provence  in  1648.  He  was  educated  for  the  church,  and 
received  the  title  of  "Abbe."  In  1704  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1718. 

Abeille,  i'bil',  (Louis,)  a  German  pianist  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Baireuth  about  1765.  He  produced 
several  successful  operas,  etc.    Died  in  1832. 

See  F6tis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musicians." 

Abeille,  (Louis  Paul,)  a  French  writer  and  agricul- 
turist, born  at  Toulon  in  17 19.    He  was  for  several 


years  inspector-general  of  the  manufactures  of  France. 
Died  in  1807. 

Abeille,  (Scipion,)  a  French  surgeon  and  poet,  was 
a  brother  of  Gaspard,  noticed  above.  He  wrote  in  verse 
a  "  Description  of  the  Bones,"  ("  Histoire  des  Os,"  1685.) 
Died  in  1697. 

Abeken,  ib'eh-k?n,  (Bernhard  Rudolph,)  a  Ger- 
man writer,  born  at  Osnabriick  in  1780.  He  was  em- 
ployed by  Schiller  as  tutor  to  his  children,  and  was  after- 
wards professor  in  the  College  of  Osnabriick.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Studies  on  the  Divina  Commedia  of 
Dante,"  (1826,)  and  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  biogra- 
phy of  Cicero,  "Cicero  in  seinen  Briefen,"  (1835,)  of 
which  an  English  version  was  published  in  1854. 

A'bel,  [in  Hebrew  ^3n>]  the  second  son  of  Adam  and 
Eve.  He  is  regarded  as  the  first  martyr,  and  the  first 
of  mankind  who  suffered  physical  death,  having  been 
murdered  by  Cain,  his  brother.  (See  Genesis  iv.,  and 
Hebrews  xi.  4;  also  Matthew  xxiii.  35.) 

Abel,  [Dan.  pron.  i'b^l,]  a  king  of  Denmark,  second 
son  of  Waldemar  11.  He  secretly  instigated  the  mur- 
der of  his  brother,  Erik  VI.,  and  was  elected  king  in 
his  stead  in  1250.  He  was  killed,  while  endeavouring  to 
suppress  a  rebellion  of  the  Frisians,  in  1252. 

Abel,  S'bel,  (Caspar,)  a  German  writer  and  anti- 
quary, born  in  1676;  died  1763. 

Abel,  a'bel,  (Clarke,)  an  English  surgeon  and  natu- 
ralist, born  about  1780.  He  accompanied  Lord  Am- 
herst to  China  in  1816  as  naturalist  of  the  expedition, 
and  published  a  "  Narrative  of  a  Journey  in  the  Interior 
of  China,"  (1818,)  which  has  been  highly  commended. 
He  was  afterwards  surgeon-in-chief  to  the  governor- 
general  of  India,  and  died  in  1826. 

See  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,"  Dec.  1827. 

Abel,  (Friedrich  Gottfried,)  a  German  physician, 
born  in  1714,  was  a  son  of  Caspar,  noticed  above.  Died 
in  1794. 

Abel,  (Joseph,)  a  distinguished  historical  painter, 
born  near  Linz,  on  the  Danube,  in  1768.  He  passed 
six  years,  1802-8,  in  Rome,  where  he  painted  "Pro- 
metheus Bound"  and  designs  from  the  Iliad.  He  after- 
wards worked  in  Vienna,  and  produced,  besides  many 
portraits,  some  historical  pictures,  among  which  is  a 
"  Flight  into  Egypt."    Died  in  Vienna  in  1818. 

Abel,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  musician,  born 
at  Kothen  in  1725.  In  1763  he  removed  to  London, 
where  for  many  years  he  enjoyed  the  highest  popularity ; 
but,  owing  to  the  fickleness  of  the  public  taste,  his  con- 
certs ceased  at  last  to  attract  any  attention.  He  died  in 
1787.  He  is  noted  as  having  been  the  teacher  of  Cra- 
mer. 

Abel,  3.'b^l,  (Niels  Henrik,)  a  distinguished  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Findo,  in  Norway,  in  1802.  He 
studied  at  the  University  of  Christiania  ;  and  afterwards, 
by  the  aid  of  a  pension  from  the  government,  travelled 
through  Germany,  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  France.  He 
returned  to  his  native  country  in  1827,  and  died  in  1829. 
The  special  object  of  Abel's  scientific  labours  was  the 
theory  of  elliptic  functions.  The  celebrated  Legendre 
spoke  with  astonishment  of  his  discoveries,  and  evidently 
regarded  his  mathematical  talents  as  of  the  most  orig- 
inal and  highest  order. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon ;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie Generale." 

Abel,  von,  fon  i'bel,  (Jakob  Friedrich,)  a  German 
philosopher,  born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1 751,  was  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Tubingen.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "Collection  and  Explanation  of  the  Remarkable 
Phenomena  of  Human  Life,"  ("  Sammlung  und  Er- 
klarung  merkwiirdiger  Erscheinungen  aus  dem  mensch- 
lichen  Leben,"  3  vols.,  1790,)    Died  in  1829. 

Abel,  von,  (Karl,)  a  Bavarian  statesman,  born  at 
Wetzlar  in  1788.  He  became  minister  of  the  interior  in 
1838,  and  the  chief  of  the  absolutist  or  ultramontane 
party.  By  the  influence  of  Lola  Montes  he  was  driven 
from  power  in  February,  1847. 

Abel-De-PujoL    See  Pujol. 

Abel  Remusat.    See  R^musat. 

Abela,  i-ba'ia,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  a  Maltese,  of 
noble  family,  who  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  Vi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ABEIARD 


32 


ABERCROMBr 


century  wrote  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Malta  Illus- 
trated, with  its  Antiquities,  and  other  Information," 
("  Malta  illustrata  con  le  sue  Antichita  ed  altre  Notizie.") 
Born  in  1582  ;  died  in  1655. 

Ab'^-lard'  (Pierre)  or  Abailard,  [Fr.  pron.  t'bi'- 
ItR' ;  in  Latin,  Pe'trus  Ab.^lar'dus,]  a  celebrated 
French  philosopher  and  logician,  was  born  near  Nantes 
in  1079.  After  having  studied  Latin,  Greek,  and  He- 
brew, he  visited  Paris,  where  he  became  the  pupil  of 
William  de  Champeaux,  the  most  skilful  dialectician  of 
the  age.  But  the  pupil  soon  surpassed  his  master,  and 
often  challenged  him  to  public  disputations,  so  com- 
mon in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  so  elated  by  his  frequent  triumphs  that  not 
only  his  master  but  his  fellow-students  were  disgusted 
with  his  vanity.  About  i  loi  he  retired  from  Paris  and  set 
up  a  school  at  Melun,  whither  crowds  of  pupils  repaired 
to  hear  his  instructions.  Not  long  after,  he  returned  to 
Paris,  where,  both  as  teacher  and  disputant,  he  was  soon 
without  a  rival.  When  he  was  about  thirty-four  years 
old,  Abelard  turned  his  attention  to  divinity,  and  went 
to  Laon  to  study  under  Anselme.  His  brilliant  repu- 
tation, joined  to  his  vanity  and  arrogance,  raised  up 
against  him  bitter  enemies,  whose  persecution  compelled 
him  to  leave  the  town.  He  then  reopened  a  school  in 
Paris,  and  his  fame  became  greater  than  ever  before. 
His  well-known  and  unfortunate  amour  with  his  pupil 
Heloise  need  not  be  related  here.  Suffice  it  to  say  that 
it  left  him  defenceless  against  the  malice  of  those  ene- 
mies whom  his  former  triumphs  and  arrogance  had  pro- 
voked. The  remainder  of  his  life  was  little  else  than  a 
succession  of  persecutions.  His  errors  and  his  afflic- 
tions appear  to  have  at  last  taught  him  simplicity  and 
humility.  He  died  in  1142,  at  the  priory  of  St.  Marcel, 
near  Chalons,  whither  he  had  gone  for  his  health.  His 
remains  were,  at  her  request,  given  up  to  Heloise,  and 
buried  at  the  oratory  of  the  Paraclete,  which  he  had 
founded,  and  where  she  was  then  prioress.  Twenty 
years  afterwards,  she  was  interred  in  the  same  tomb. 

Abelard  left  many  writings,  nearly  all  dialectical  or 
theological,  except  his  "Letters  to  Heloise,"  ("Epistolae 
Petri  Abaslardi  et  Heloisae,")  and  the  "  History  of  [his] 
Misfortunes,"  (*'  Historia  Calamitatum.") 

"Abelard's  reputation,"  says  the  '*  Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  January,  1846,  "  was  higher  than  that  of  any 
living  man.  ...  It  is  from  his  connection  with  Heloise 
that  Abelard  has  descended  to  posterity ;  his  own  claims 
are  slight,  and  have  been  greatly  overrated.  .  .  .  He 
discovers  nothing  ;  he  improves  nothing.  He  can  only 
dazzle  and  confuse." 

"Abelard,"  observes  Hallam,  "  was  almost  the  first  who 
awakened  mankind,  in  the  age  of  darkness,  to  a  sympa- 
thy with  intellectual  excellence.  His  bold  theories,  not 
the  less  attractive,  perhaps,  for  treading  upon  the  bounds 
of  heresy,  his  imprudent  vanity  that  scorned  the  regu- 
larly acquired  reputation  of  older  men,  allured  a  multi- 
tude of  disciples  who  would  never  have  listened  to  an 
ordinary  teacher.  .  .  .  But  the  whole  of  Abelard's 
life  was  the  shipwreck  of  genius ;  and  of  genius  both 
the  source  of  his  own  calamities  and  unserviceable  to 
posterity."  ("Middle  Ages,"  vol.  iv.  p.  377.) 

See  Cousin's  "  Introduction  to  the  Works  of  Abelard,"  1836 ;  Ber- 
INGTON,  "  Histoi-y  of  Abelard  and  Heloise,"  1787  ;  J.  Hughes,  "  Life 
cf  Abelard,"  1751 ;  Berington,  "  History  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  1814  ; 
Brucker,  "History  of  Philosophy,"  1766;  DoM  Gervaise,  "Vie 
d'Abelard,"  1720;  Fessler,  "Abalard  und  Heloise,"  2  vols.,  1806; 
Schlosser,  "Abalard  und  Dulcin,"  1807;  Feuerbach,  "Abalard 
und  Heloise,"  1834;  O.  Guizot,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits 
d' Abailard  et  de  Heloise,"  1839  ;  Ch.  de  Remusat,  "Abelard,"  2 
vols.,  1845;  Fleury,  "  Histoire  de  I'fialise,"  1751 ;  Bernaruus, 
(Saint,)"  Epistolae  ;"  also  articles  in  the  "  Westminster  Review,"  vol. 
xxxii.,  and  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly,"  vol.  xxxvi. 

Abelin,  t'behO^N',  or  Abeling,  S'beh-Hng,  (Johann 
Philipp,)  a  German  historian,  born  at  Strasburg,  as- 
sumed in  some  of  his  works  the  name  of  Johann  Lud- 
wiG  Gottfried,  (Gothofredus.)  He  published  many 
works,  among  which  are  the  first  and  second  volumes  of 
the  "Theatrum  Europaeum,"  a  valuable  record  of  con- 
temporary history,  which  was  continued  to  the  twenty- 
first  volume,  and  a  description  of  the  West  Indies,  ("  His- 
toria Antipodum,"  1655.)    Died  about  1646. 

See  JoCHER,  "Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Abell,  a'bel  or  i-b§l',  (John,)  an  English  singer  and 


performer  on  the  lute,  was  attached  to  the  chapel  of 
Charles  II.  He  was  banished  as  a  papist  in  1688. 
Died  after  1700. 

Abelli  or  Abelly,  i'b^He',  (Antoine,)  an  eminent 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  in  Paris  in  1527.  He  was  con- 
fessor to  Catherine  de  Medicis.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
died  about  1600. 

Abelli  or  Abelly,  (Louis,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  in  Paris  in  1603.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Rodez 
in  1664,  and  died  in  1691.  He  wrote  numerous  theo- 
logical works. 

Aben-  (or  Ebn-)  Beitar,  i'b6n-bi-e-taR'  or  -I  i-taK',  • 
(AbdalTah-Ibn-  (Tb'n)  Ah'med,)  an  Arabian  botan-  ? 
ist,  born  near  Malaga;  died  in  1248. 

Abencerage,  a-b^n'se-raj",  [Sp.  pron.  S-B^n-thk-ri'- 
H&,]  plural,  Abencerages  or  Abencerrages,  (a  Span- 
ish corruption  of  the  Arabic  Ben!  Serraj,  i.e.  the  "  Sons 
of  Serraj,")  the  name  of  a  noble  Moorish  family  in  the 
kingdom  of  Granada,  originally  from  Cordova.  Several 
members  of  this  family  acted  prominent  parts  in  the  pe- 
riod which  preceded  the  conquest  of  Granada  by  the 
Spaniards.  There  was  a  deadly  feud  between  the  Aben- 
cerages and  the  Zegris. 

Abendana,  i-b^n-d^'n^,  (Jacob,)  a  Spanish  Jew, 
who  lived  in  London,  and  wrote  commentaries  on  the 
Scriptures.    Died  in  1685. 

Abendroth,  ^'bent-rot^  (Amadeus  Augu.st,)  a  Ger- 
man lawyer,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1767.  He  became 
mayor  of  that  city  in  1 810,  and  burgomaster  in  1831. 
Died  in  1842. 

Aben-  (a'b^n)  Ez'ra,  a  Spanish  Jew,  born  at  Toledo 
in  1 1 19.  As  a  commentator  on  the  Scriptures  he  stands 
in  the  foremost  rank.  He  excelled  in  almost  every 
branch  of  science  ;  he  was  an  eminent  astronomer,  math- 
ematician, physician,  linguist,  and  poet.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  died  in  11 94. 

Aben-Humeya,  3.'b§n-hoo-rna'yi,  the  last  king  of 
Granada,  born  about  1520.  He  was  of  Spanish  origin, 
and  was  chosen  king  by  the  Moors  who  had  revolted 
against  Philip  II.  He  was  captured  and  strangled  in  1568. 

Abenpace.    See  Avenpace. 

Abercrombie,  ab'er-krum-be,  (James,)  D.D.,  an  elo- 
quent and  learned  clergyman  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
in  Philadelphia,  born  in  1758 ;  died  in  1841. 

Abercrombie,  (James,)  a  major-general  in  the  Brit- 
ish army  in  America,  where  he  arrived  and  took  com- 
mand of  the  troops  at  Albany  in  1756.  The  French 
having  obtained  possession  of  the  lakes,  Abercrombie  in 
1758  was  intrusted  by  Pitt  with  a  force  of  50,000  men  to 
recover  the  places  which  had  been  lost.  On  the  8th  ol 
July  he  attacked  Ticonderoga  at  the  head  of  15,000 
troops,  but  was  repulsed  by  Montcalm  with  great  loss. 
He  was  shortly  after  superseded  by  Lord  Amherst. 

Abercrombie,  (John,)  an  eminent  Scottish  physician, 
born  at  Aberdeen  in  1781.  Having  graduated  as  an 
M.D.  in  1803,  he  settled  in  Edinburgh,  and  rose  to  the 
highest  rank  in  his  profession.  His  reputation  was 
widely  extended  by  his  writings,  among  which  are 
"  Pathological  and  Practical  Researches  on  Diseases  of 
the  Brain  and  Spinal  Cord,"  (1828,)  "Inquiries  concern- 
ing the  Intellectual  Powers  of  Man,  and  the  Investiga- 
tion of  Truth,"  (1830,)  and  "The  Philosophy  of  the  Moral 
Feelings,"  (1833.)  Referring  to  his  work  on  the  intellect- 
ual powers,  the  "Quarterly  Review"  observes,  "  His  de- 
scriptions of  the  mental  phenomena  are  clear  and  pre- 
cise, and  his  reasonings  perspicuous  and  sound.  .  .  . 
The  style  of  the  work  merits  equal  praise.  It  is  sim- 
ple and  unambitious,  without  being  devoid  of  ornament 
or  power."  ("London  Quarterly"  for  July,  1831.)  He 
was  chosen  lord  rector  of  Marischal  College,  Aber- 
deen, in  1835.    Died  in  November,  1844. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
vol.  V. 

Abercromby,  ab'er-kriim-be,  (Alexander,)  a  Scot 
tish  j  udge,  the  youngest  brother  of  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby, 
was  born  in  1745.  In  1792  (on  the  death  of  Lord  Hailes) 
he  became  a  judge  in  the  court  of  justiciary.  Died  in 
1795.  He  wrote  several  interesting  papers  for  "The 
Mirror"  and  "The  Lounger,"  two  literary  periodicals 
edited  by  Mackenzie. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  Ions:;  \  ^.    same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JBERCROMBT 


33 


ABGAR  US 


Abercromby,  (David,)  a  Scottish  physician,  who 
flourished  in  the  latter  halt  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
Besides  four  short  treatises  on  medicine,  he  wrote  several 
works  on  other  subjects.  His  "  Fur  Academicus"  ("Aca- 
demical Thief")  shows  him  to  have  been  a  man  of  wit 
and  learning.  The  time  of  his  birth  and  that  of  his 
death  are  unknown. 

Abercromby,  (James,)  Baron  Dunfermline,  a 
British  peer,  a  son  of  vSir  Ralph,  noticed  below,  was 
born  in  1776.  He  entered  Parliament  about  1812,  voted 
with  the  Whigs,  and  acquired  distinction  as  a  debater. 
He  was  speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  from  1835 
to  1839,  in  which  year  he  resigned  and  passed  into  the 
House  of  Lords  as  Baron  Dunfermline.    Died  in  1858. 

Abercromby,  (John,)  a  horticultural  writer,  born 
near  Edinburgh  in  1726.  His  first  work,  entitled  "Every 
Man  his  own  Gardener,"  had  a  great  sale  ;  and  he  after- 
wards published  a  number  of  others,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  "The  British  Fruit  Gardener"  and  "The 
Gardener's  Daily  Assistant."    Died  in  1806. 

Abercromby,  (Sir  John,)  the  second  son  of  Sir 
Ralph,  served  under  him  in  Egypt,  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  general.  Having  been  appointed  governor  of 
Madras,  he  took  Mauritius  from  the  French  in  1810. 
He  died,  it  is  supposed,  in  1817. 

Abercromby,  (Patrick,)  M.D.,  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "  Martial  Achievements  of  the  Scots  Nation," 
(2  vols.,  1711-15,)  was  born  at  Forfar  in  1656,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  died  about  the  year  1720.  Although 
his  work  has  enjoyed  a  considerable  reputation,  it  pos- 
sesses little  merit, 

Abercromby,  (Sir  Ralph,)  a  distinguished  military 
commander,  was  born  in  Clackmannanshire,  Scotland, 
in  1734.  He  entered  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in 
1752,  and  in  1754  was  sent  by  his  father  to  Leipsic 
to  study  civil  law.  But,  as  he  manifested  a  decided  pref- 
erence for  the  military  profession,  his  father  yielded  to 
his  wishes  and  permitted  him  to  join  the  army.  In 
1773  he  was  elected  member  of  Parliament.  He  does 
not,  however,  appear  to  have  particularly  distinguished 
himself  in  any  way  till  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  with 
France  in  1793.  In  1795  he  was  created  Knight  of  the 
Bath.  In  the  unfortunate  campaigns  in  Holland  under 
the  Duke  of  York  in  1793-5,  and  es])ecially  in  that  of 
1799,  he  did  everything  that  a  subordinate  officer  could 
do.  The  bravery  and  military  skill  which  he  evinced 
won  for  him  universal  respect,  and  every  one  was  satis- 
fied that  had  he  commanded  in  chief  the  results  would 
have  been  very  different.  Abercromby  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  expedition  against  Eg\-pt, 
which  set  out  in  1800  and  reached  its  destination  in 
I  Sox.  A  few  days  after  the  landing  of  the  troops  near 
Alexandria,  the  British  camp  was  suddenly  attacked  by 
all  the  French  troops  in  that  country.  The  assailants 
were  bravely  repulsed,  but  during  the  action  the  British 
commander  received  a  wound  in  the  thigh,  of  which  he 
died  a  few  days  after.  As  an  officer,  Sir  Ralph  Aber- 
cromby was  distinguished  by  talents  of  a  high  order, 
and  still  more  by  a  humane  and  generous  regard  for 
the  welfare  of  his  soldiers.  Though  perfectly  reckless 
in  exposing  himself,  he  was  extremely  careful  never  to 
expose  those  under  his  command  to  any  unnecessary 
danger.  As  a  man,  he  was  distinguished  for  benevolence, 
superiority  to  prejudice,  and  a  high  sense  of  honour.  Sir 
Ralph  Abercromby  had  four  sons:  the  first  Lord  Aber- 
cromby ;  Sir  John  Abercromby,  who  served  with  credit 
under  his  father  in  Eg^'pt,  and  afterwards  rose  to  the 
rank  of  a  general ;  Lord  Dunfermline  ;  and  Alexander,  a 
lieutenant-colonel  in  the  army. 

See  "Memoir  of  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby,"  by  Lord  Dunferm- 
line ;  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
Wilson,  "  History  of  the  British  Expedition  to  Egypt." 

Abercromby,  (Sir  Robert,)  a  British  general,  was 
a  younger  brother  of  Sir  Ralph,  He  became  governor 
of  Bombay  in  1789,  and  commander-in-chief  in  India  in 
1792,  After  a  successful  campaign  against  the  Rohillas, 
he  returned  to  England  in  1797,  and  was  elected  to  Par- 
liament.   Died  about  1827. 

Ab-er-deen',  (George  Ham'ilton  Gor'don.)  Earl 
OE,  a  British  statesman,  born  in  1784,  inherited  the  earl- 
dom (in  the  Scottish  peerage)  from  his  grandfather,  who 


died  in  1802,  He  was  elected  one  of  the  Scottish  repre- 
sentative peers  about  1807,  identified  himself  with  the 
Tory  party,  and  was  sent  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Vi- 
enna in  1813.  In  1814  he  became  Viscount  Gordon  in 
the  peerage  of  the  United  Kingdom,  He  was  secretary 
of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  in  the  cabinet  of  Wellington, 
from  1828  until  November,  1830,  when  his  party  went 
out  of  power.  In  September,  1841,  Sir  Robert  Peel 
appointed  him  to  the  same  office,  which  he  retained 
until  the  triumph  of  the  Whig  party,  in  July,  1846.  His 
foreign  policy  was  pacific. 

After  the  death  of  Peel,  (1850,)  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen 
was  regarded  as  the  head  of  the  Peelite  party.  On  the 
defeat  of  Lord  Derby,  in  December,  1852,  he  became 
prime  minister,  and  formed  his  cabinet  by  a  coalition  of 
Conservatives  and  Whigs  or  Liberals.  In  spite  of  his  ef- 
forts to  maintain  peace.  Great  Britain  "drifted  into  war" 
against  Russia,  in  1854,  He  lost  popularity  by  his  mod- 
eration towards  Russia,  and  was  censured  for  remissness 
in  the  prosecution  of  the  war.  Having  been  defeated 
in  the  House  of  Commons  about  February  i,  1855,  ^-^ 
signed  his  office,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Palmerston. 
Died  in  December,  i860.  He  had  been  twice  married, 
and  left  a  son,  who  was  styled  Lord  Haddo, 

See  "  Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  February,  1861. 

Aberli,  a'beR-lee,  (Johann  Ludwig,)  a  Swiss  land 
scape-painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Winterthur  in  1723, 
His  landscapes  of  Swiss  scenery,  engraved  and  coloured, 
were  much  admired,  and  found  many  imitators.  Died  at 
Berne  in  1786. 

Abernethy,  ab^er-ne-ZZ/e,  (John,)  an  eminent  dis- 
senting divine,  born  at  Coleraine,  in  Ireland,  in  1680. 
He  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  at  the  College  of  Glasgow, 
and  afterwards  studied  divinity  in  Edinburgh.  Upon 
finishing  his  course  he  returned  to  Ireland,  and  at  length 
became  the  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  congregation  at 
Antrim.  Some  new  views  which  he  subsequently 
adopted,  on  the  right  of  private  judgment  in  matters  of 
faith,  together  with  the  spirit  of  independence  which  he 
manifested  with  respect  to  the  authority  of  the  synod, 
caused  at  last  a  schism  in  the  church.  In  1730  he  be- 
came the  pastor  of  an  independent  congregation,  ^n  ad- 
dressing whom  he  carefully  avoided  all  appeals  to  the 
affections,  maintaining  that  nothing  else  was  requisite 
than  merely  to  convince  the  reason.  Hence  his  follow- 
ers were  termed  Rational  Dissenters.  Abernethy  died 
in  1740. 

See  DucHAL,  "Life  of  Abernethy,"  prefixed  to  his  Sermons; 
"Biographia  Britannica." 

Abernethy,  (John,)  a  celebrated  English  surgeon 
and  physiologist,  born  in  London  in  1764,  was  a  pupil 
of  John  Hunter.  He  was  a  grandson  of  John  Aber- 
nethy, noticed  above.  In  1786  he  became  assistant-sur- 
geon of  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  London,  and  on 
the  death  of  Sir  C.  Blick  he  succeeded  him  as  chief  sur- 
geon in  that  institution.  He  lectured  on  anatomy  and 
surgery,  and  acquired  immense  popularity  as  a  teacher. 
He  published,  in  1809,  an  able  work  "On  the  Consti- 
tutional Origin  and  Treatment  of  Local  Diseases,"  in 
which  he  propounded  doctrines  which  have  made  a 
great  change  in  the  science  of  surgery.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  surgeon  who  performed  the  ligature 
of  the  carotid  artery  and  the  external  iliac  artery. 
Many  amusing  anecdotes  are  related  of  him,  exhibiting 
that  singular  mixture  of  shrewd  sense,  wit,  and  eccen- 
tricity for  which  he  was  so  remarkable.  A  gouty  rich 
man  having  consulted  him  received  for  answer,  "  Live 
on  sixpence  a  day,  and  earn  it."  In  domestic  relations 
he  is  said  to  have  been  amiable.  He  married  Ann 
Threlfall  in  1800.    Died  at  Enfield  in  April,  1 83 1. 

See  George  MacIlwain.  "Memoirs  of  J.  Abernethy,"  1853 
Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Abert,  a'bert,  (John  J.,)  an  American  engineer,  born 
in  Maryland  in  1790,  He  was  appointed  major  of  topo- 
graphical engineers  in  1814,  and  colonel  of  the  same  in 
1838.  Pie  was  at  the  head  of  the  corps  of  topographical 
engineers  for  about  thirty  years.  Died  in  January,  1863. 

Abesch,  yhlsh,  (Anna  Barbara,)  a  famous  Swiss 
painter  on  glass.    Died  about  1750. 

Ab'gar-us,  [Gr.  "AjByapog,]  written  also  Abagarus, 


e  as  k,  9  as  s;  g  ^ard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,  gidttiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  ass;  th  as  in  this.  0:^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ABIATHAR 


34 


ABOO-BEKR 


Agbarus,  and  Augarus,  a  name  common  to  several 
kings  of  Edessa  in  Mesopotamia. 

Ab-i'a-thar,  [in  Hebrew,  "ir\Oi<,]  a  high-priest  of  the 
Jews,  and  one  of  the  chief  counsellors  of  King  David. 
(See  I.  Samuel  xxii.,  xxiii.,  and  xxx. ;  II.  Samuel  viii. 
and  XX.;  1.  Kings  ii.  and  iv.) 

Abicht,  i^biKt,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  author 
and  divine,  born  in  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  in  1672. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  the  Hebrew  language  and 
antiquities,  and  also  on  theology.    Died  in  1 740. 

ADicot.    See  Habicot. 

Abidenus.    See  Abydenus. 

Ab'i-gail,  [Heb.  a  Hebrew  matron,  who  was 

married  hrst  to  Nabal,  and  secondly  to  King  David. 
(See  I.  Samuel  xxv.) 

A-bi'jah  or  A-bi'a,  [in  Hebrew,  n'^lJN,]  a  name  com- 
mon to  several  Israelites,  among  whom  may  be  named 
a  son  of  Jeroboam  and  a  son  of  the  prophet  Samuel. 

Ab-i^jam  [Heb.  D'^X]  or  Abijah,  King  of  Judah,  was 
a  son  of  Rehoboam,  whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne. 
After  a  reign  of  three  years,  he  died  about  955  B.C.  (I. 
Kings  XV.  1-8;  H.  Chronicles  xiii.) 

Abildga.ai'd, a''bIld-goRd', (Nicholas,)  a  distinguished 
Danish  historical  painter,  born  in  Copenhagen  in  1 744. 
In  1772  he  visited  Italy,  where  he  spent  live  years.  He 
was  afterwards  appointed  professor  of  painting  in  the 
Academy  of  Copenhagen.  Died  about  1806.  He  is 
considered  by  many  as  the  best  painter  that  Denmark  has 
produced.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Socrates,"  and  the 
"Creation  of  the  World,  after  Orpheus." 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Nagler, 
"  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikoii." 

Abildgaard,  (Peter  Christian,)  an  able  Danish 
physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Copenhagen  about  1740, 
was,  according  to  Malte-Brun,  a  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing. He  wrote  many  treatises  on  medicine,  zoology, 
etc.,  and  gave  a  description  of  the  Megatherium  at  the 
same  time  as  Cuvier,  (1796.)  He  was  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  founder  of  the  Veterinary 
School  of  Copenhagen.    Died  about  1808. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle;"  "  Historia  brevis  Regii  Instltiiti 
Veterinani,"  etc.,  Copenhagen,  1788  ;  Cuvier,  "  Sur  les  Ossements 
Fossile*" 

Abildgaard,  (So'ren,)  a  Danish  naturalist,  born  be- 
tween 1720  and  1730.  He  wrote  two  works  on  topo- 
graphical mineralogy,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "  Physico- 
Mineralogical  Description  of  the  Promontory  of  Moen," 
("  Physik-mineralogisk  Beskrivelse  over  Moens  Klint," 
1781.)    Died  in  1791. 

See  Ersch,  "  Handbuch  der  Dautschen  Literatur." 

Abilfedae.    See  Aboolfeda. 

A-bini'e-lee!i,   [Heb.  an  illegitimate  son 

of  Gideon,  chosen  king  by  the  men  of  Shechem  after 
he  had  slain  all  his  brothers  except  Jotham.  Afterwards, 
while  attempting  to  take  Thebez,  he  was  mortally  wound- 
ed with  a  stone  thrown  from  the  top  of  the  citadel  by  a 
woman ;  upon  which  his  armour-bearer,  at  his  request, 
ran  him  through  the  body  with  a  sword,  lest  it  should 
be  said  that  he  had  been  slain  by  a  woman.  (See  Judges 
ix.)  Two  kings  of  Gerar,  named  Abimelech,  are  men- 
tioned in  the  book  of  Genesis,  (chaps,  xx.  and  xxvi.) 

Ab'in-ger,  (Lord,)  an  English  lawyer,  whose  proper 
name  was  James  Scarlett,  was  born  in  Jamaica  about 
1 769.  Having  been  educated  in  England,  he  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1791,  and  obtained  great  success  as  a  pleader. 
He  was  appointed  attorney-general  in  1827,  and  became 
an  adherent  of  the  Tory  party.  In  1834  he  was  appointed 
chief  baron  of  the  exchequer,  and  raised  to  the  peerage 
as  Baron  Abinger.  He  is  said  to  have  been  almost  unri- 
valled in  the  tact  and  address  with  which  he  operated  on 
the  minds  of  juries.    Died  in  1844,  leaving  several  sons. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  June,  1844  ;  Foss,  "  The  Judges 
of  England,"  vol.  ix. 

Ab'ing-tpn,  (Frances,)  a  celebrated  English  actress, 
born  about  the  year  1731.  She  excelled  in  every  de- 
partment of  comedy,  and  was  for  a  long  time  without  a 
rival.  Her  taste  in  dress  was  greatly  admired.  Her 
talents  and  elegant  manners  procured  her  admittance 
into  society  of  the  highest  rank  ;  but,  as  a  woman,  her 
character  was  marred  with  those  moral  blemishes  so 
common  in  persons  of  her  profession.  She  died  in  1815. 


Abington,  (Thomas  and  William.)  See  Habing- 
ton. 

Abisbal,  a-B^s-bdl',  (Henry  O'Donnell,)  Count, 
a  Spanish  general  of  Irish  descent,  who  greatly  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  resisting  the  French  invasion  in 
1809-10.  He  afterwards  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in 
the  political  as  well  as  military  affairs  of  Spain  until  his 
death,  in  1834. 

A-bish'a-i,  [Heb.  'l^'^^X,]  one  of  the  three  sons  of 
Zeruiah,  sister  of  King  David,  in  whose  army  he  was  a 
leader.  See  II.  Samuel  xxiii.  18;  also  I.  Samuel  xxvi. 
6-9. 

Ablancourt,  d',  dt'blSN'kooR',  (Nicolas  Perrot — 
pa'ro',)  an  eminent  French  translator,  born  at  Chalons- 
sur-Marne  in  1606.  He  produced  translations  of  Taci- 
tus, Thucydides,  Cresar,  and  Lucian,  which  were  received 
with  favour ;  but  they  are  not  faithful,  and  are  now  neg- 
lected. He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy 
in  1637.  Colbert  proposed  him  as  historiographer  in 
1662,  but  Louis  XIV.  rejected  him  because  he  was  a 
Protestant.    Died  in  1664. 

Ab-laVi-us,  a  Roman  historian,  cited  by  Jornandes  in 
his  History  of  the  Goths.  The  age  in  which  he  lived  is 
unknown. 

Ableitner,  db'lTt-ner,  (Johann,)  a  Bavarian  sculptor, 
who  flourished  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. 

Ablesiniof  or  Ablecimof,  i-blSs'e-mof (Alexan- 
der,) an  officer  in  the  Russian  army,  who  became  dis- 
tinguished as  a  dramatist.  Among  his  works  is  a  suc- 
cessful national  comic  opera  entitled  "The  Miller," 
(1779,)  which  is  considered  a  faithful  picture  of  Russian 
manners.    Died  at  Moscow  in  1784. 

Ab''ner  or  Abiner,  [Heb.  or  "^i'llX,]  the  son  of 

Ner,  was  captain  of  the  host  of  Saul,  King  of  Israel. 
After  the  death  of  Saul,  in  consequence  of  an  affront 
offered  him  by  Ishbosheth,  Abner  sought  to  transfer  the 
whole  kingdom  to  David.  But  Joab,  exasperated  be- 
cause Abner  had  killed  his  brother  Asahel  in  battle, 
and  perhaps  jealous  of  the  influence  which  he  might  ac- 
quire with  David,  called  him  aside  under  pretence  of 
speaking  with  him  privately,  and  treacherously  slew 
him. 

Ab'ney,  (Sir  Thomas,)  M.P.,  Lord  Mayor  of  Lon- 
don, born  in  1639.  He  rendered  important  services  to 
William  III.    Died  in  1722. 

Abondio,  a-bonMe-o,  ( Alessandro,)  a  Florentine 
painter,  was  a  pupil  of  Michael  Angelo.  He  worked  in 
Germany,  and  died  at  Prague.  He  had  a  son  of  the 
same  name,  who  lived  at  Munich  and  was  no  less  dis- 
tinguished as  a  painter  than  his  father. 

AB'OO,  ABOU,  or  ABU,  an  Arabic  word  signifying 
"father,"  forming  a  prefix  to  many  Oriental  names,  as 
Aboo-Bekr,  (which  see,)  the  "father  of  the  virgin." 

Aboo-  (Abu-  or  Abou-)  Abdillah,  a.''boo  ^b-diK- 
lah,  the  Sheeite,  the  chief  actor  in  the  revolution  which 
established  the  dynasty  of  the  Fatimites  on  the  throne 
of  Egypt.  He  was  born  at  Sanaa  about  865.  By  his 
preaching  and  by  his  arms  he  induced  a  great  part  of 
the  Mohammedans  in  Africa  to  join  the  new  sect  and  to 
recognize  the  claims  of  Obeydallah,  the  first  sultan  of 
the  Fatimite  line.  But  having  afterwards  been  detected 
in  a  conspiracy  against  his  sovereign,  whom  he  had 
raised  to  the  throne,  he  was  put  to  death  in  911. 

Aboo-  (Abu-  or  Abou-)  Abdillah-Mohammed, 
surnamed  Al-mahdee  or  Al-mahdi,  {i.e.  "director"  or 
"  ruler,")  founder  of  the  sect  and  dynasty  of  the  Almo- 
hades,  ( Almowahedun,)  was  born  in  the  province  of  Soos, 
in  Morocco,  about  the  year  1087.  Like  many  other 
leaders  of  Mohammedan  sects,  he  began  with  preaching 
^nd  ended  with  the  sword.  He  died  in  1130,  leaving  to 
Abd-el-Moomen  the  prosecution  of  his  plans  of  reform 
and  conquest. 

Aboo-Amroo-Al-Owz^ee,  (Abu-Amru-Alau- 
zM,)  a'boo  am'roo  Sl-ow-zi'ee,  a  famous  Mohammedan 
doctor,  who  was  born  at  Baalbek  about  706  and  died 
about  774  A.D. 

Aboo-  (Aba-  or  Abou-)  Bahr-Sefwan,  cVboo'- 
bin'r  sef  wSn',  a  distinguished  Moslem  poet  and  histo- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ABOO-BEKR 


35 


ABOOLFEDA 


rian,  born  at  Murcia,  in  Spain,  about  the  year  1106. 
Besides  many  other  valuable  works,  he  wrote  a  biograph- 
ical dictionary  of  eminent  contemporary  authors.  He 
died  about  11 82. 

Aboo-Bekr,  (Abu-Beker,  Abu-Bekr,  or  Abou- 
Bekr,)  a'boo  bek''er,  or  a-boo'bek-er,  written  also  Abu- 
Bakr,  Abu-Bacr,  and  Aboubecre,  the  first  of  Mo- 
hammed's successors,  was  born  in  571  a.d.  He  be- 
longed to  the  celebrated  tribe  of  Koreish,  and  was  one 
of  the  first  and  most  zealous  of  the  converts  to  Islam. 
♦His  original  name  was  Abd-el-Kaaba,  (abd-el-ka'bd ;) 
but  after  the  prophet  Mohammed  had  married  his  virgin 
daughter  Ayeshah,  he  was  called  Aboo-Bekr,  the  "  Fa- 
ther of  the  Virgin."  He  was  elected  to  the  throne  in 
632,  and  died  in  634,  after  a  reign  of  two  years  and  three 
months.  Aboo-Bekr  is  admitted  by  all  to  have  been  a 
pious  and  humble  man,  and  a  mild,  generous,  and  excel- 
lent prince.    He  was  succeeded  by  Omar, 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  "chap.  1.  ;  Ir- 
ving, *'  Mahomet  and  his  Successors  ;"  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Cha- 
lifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  i.  For  a  notice  01' the  character  of  Aboo-Bekr,  see 
Sprexger's  "  Lite  of  Mohammad,"  p.  170  et  seg. 

Aboo-  (Abu-  or  Abou-)  Bekr-al-Mahree,  (Al- 
mahri,)  d'boo  bek'er  ^l-mdn'ree',  the  vizier  of  Almu- 
tamed.  Sultan  of  Seville,  was  born  about  1030.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  been  an  able  minister,  but,  having  incurred 
the  suspicion  of  his  sovereign,  he  was  put  to  death  in 
1084.  He  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  first  poets  of  his  age. 

Aboo-Bekr  (Abu-Beker)  -Ibn-Tofail,  (Ib'n  to- 
fll',)  an  eminent  Arabian  philosopher,  born  at  Cniadix,  in 
Spain.  He  wrote  a  philosophical  romance  entitled  "  Hai- 
Ibn-Yokdhan,"  (or  "  Hayyi-Ibn-Yokttan,")  which  was 
translated  into  Latin  by  Pocock  and  published  in  1671, 
and  into  English  by  vSimon  Ockley,  (London,  1708.) 
Died  at  Morocco  in  11 86. 

See  Al-Makkari,  "  History  of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  in 
Spain,"  translated  by  Gavangos,  vol.  i.  pp.  335-6. 

Aboo-  (Abu-  or  Abou-)  Fara.s,  .Vboo  fS-rts',  a  dis- 
tinguished Arabian  poet,  born  in  932.  He  was  cousin 
to  Seyf-ed-Dowlah,  (Seyfu-d-daulah,)  Sultan  of  Aleppo, 
at  whose  court  he  lived.  A  Mohannnedan  writer  calls 
him  "the  pearl  of  his  time,  and  the  sun  of  his  age,  in 
learning,  talent,  generosity,  glory,  elociuence,  horseman- 
ship, and  bravery."    He  was  killed  in  a  skirmish  in  968. 

Aboo-  (or  Abou-)  Hamid-Alghazaiee,  ( Abu-H^- 
mid-Al-ghazaii  or  Alghazzali,)  .VbcK)  hd'mitl  al-(}c^- 
zi'lee,  a  distinguished  doctor,  born  at  Toos,  (Tiis,)  in 
Khorassan,  about  1058.  He  spent  a  part  of  his  time  in 
travelling ;  but  much  the  greater  portion  appears  to 
have  been  passed  in  seclusion  and  wholly  devoted  to 
philosophy  and  divinity.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  man 
of  sound  judgment  and  immense  learning.  From  his  rare 
attainments  as  a  divine,  he  w-as  called  Zeyn-ed-Deen, 
"the  ornament  of  religion."    Died  at  Bagdad  in  iiii. 

Aboo-Haneefah.    Sec  Hankkfaii. 

Aboo-  (Abu-  or  Abou-)  Hayyan,  a'bob  hT''yan', 
surnamed  Atheer-ed-Dekx,  ( Aihir-ud-din,)  "the 
gloiyof  religion,"  a  distinguished  Arabian  author,  born 
in  the  province  of  Jaen,  in  Spain,  in  1256.  When  verv 
young,  he  visited  several  towns  in  Andalusia,  where  he 
supported  himself  by  transcribing  books  and  lecturing  on 
the  Koran.  He  afterwards  went  to  Kgypt,  and  was  ap- 
pointed a  professor  and  lecturer  on  the  Koran  in  one  of 
the  colleges  of  that  country.  He  died  in  Cairo  in  1344. 
He  was  called  "the  prince  of  his  age  in  the  science  of 
grammar."  Besides  numerous  other  important  works, 
he  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Turkish  Race,"  and  a  volu- 
minous commentary  on  the  Koran. 

Aboo-  (Abu-  or  Abou-)  Ishak,  (-is-hak',)  an  Ara- 
bian geographer,  who  lived  about  the  beginning  of  the 
tenth  century.    The  place  of  his  birth  is  unknown. 

Aboo-^  (Abu-  or  Abou-)  Ishak-Al-Hos'ree',  (or 
Al-Hosri,)  a  noted  poet,  born  near  Kairwan  in  Africa  ; 
died  in  1061. 

Aboo-Jaafar,  (or  -Jafar.)    See  Mansoor,  Al. 

Aboo-1-  ( Abu-1-)  Abbas- Abdallah,  <Vboor  ib^bas' 
ab-d3.1'iah,  surnamed  As-Seffaii  (as-sgf'fah',)  j.e.  "the 
shedder  of  blood,"  the  twenty-second  caliph  of  the  East, 
and  the  first  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Abbassides,  was  born 
at  Damascus  about  720  a.d.  He  was  a  descendant 
of  Abl^as,  the  uncle  of  Mohammed.     His  family  had 


always,  during  the  usurpation  of  the  house  of  Omey 
yah,  considered  themselves  the  rightful  heirs  to  the 
caliphate;  at  length,  during  the  reign  of  Merwan  H., 
the  standard  of  revolt  was  raised  in  Khorassan.  Upon 
hearing  this,  Merwan  caused  Ibraheem,  the  brother 
of  Aboo-l-Abbas-Abdallah,  the  representative  of  the 
line  of  Abbas,  to  be  seized  and  put  to  death.  His  broth- 
ers, Aboo-l-Abbas  and  Aboo-Jaafar,  being  then  absent 
from  Damascus,  fled  to  Koofah,  (Kufah,)  where  the  former 
was  proclaimed  caliph  by  the  people,  (a.d.  749.)  Mer- 
wan, having  advanced  against  the  rebels  with  an  army, 
was  defeated,  and  fled  to  Damascus,  and  thence  to  Egypt, 
where  he  was  overtaken  and  slain.  It  is  estimated  that 
more  than  one  hundred  of  the  Omeyyah  family  fell  vic- 
tims to  the  vengeance  of  the  new  caliph.  As-Seftah  died 
in  754.  Notwithstanding  his  severity  against  the  ene- 
mies of  his  family,  he  is  represented  by  some  historians 
as  a  liberal,  benevolent,  and  able  prince.  He  was 
esteemed  the  handsomest  man  of  his  time. 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  ii.  chap,  i.;  D'Her- 
BELOT,  "  B;baotheque  Orientale." 

Aboo-l-ala,  (Abu-l-'ala,)  ^'hobV  i'li,  a  famous  Ara- 
bian poet,  born  in  Syria  about  970.  When  only  four 
years  old,  he  lost  his  sight  from  the  small-pox.  He  used 
to  call  himself  "the  doubly-imprisoned  captive,"  allud- 
ing to  his  blindness  and  the  voluntary  seclusion  in  which 
he  devoted  himself  to  study.  He  soon  won  so  great  a 
reputation  that  his  house  was  filled  w'ith  students,  who 
came  to  him  from  different  countries.    Died  in  1057. 

Abool-Cacem.    See  Aboo-l-Kasim. 

Aboolfaraj,  (Abu-l-faraj,)  a'boor  far'^j,  (or-fdr'aj,) 
an  eminent  Arabian  author  and  compiler,  a  descendant 
of  Merwan  H.,  born  at  Ispahan  in  897.  His  works  are 
numerous  and  very  valuable.    Died  at  Bagdad  in  967. 

Aboolfaraj,  (Abu-1-  (or  Aboul-)  faraj,)  [written  in 
French  A boulfaradgf,  i'boor  fa'raj ;  Latin,  Abuf- 
fara'gius  or  Abulphara'gius  ;  called  aiso  Barhe- 
BR^'us,]  Gregorius,  an  eminent  historical  writer, 
born  in  Armenia  in  1226.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  was 
ordained  Bishop  of  Guba  by  Ignatius,  the  patriarch  of 
the  Jacobite  Christians.  About  1266  he  was  chosen 
Primate  of  the  Jacobites,  which  position  he  held  till  his 
death  in  1286.  His  entire  life  was  devoted  to  literature, 
— principally  history,  in  which  he  left  works  of  great 
value.  He  wrote  in  Arabic  and  Syriac.  His  talents 
and  virtues  gained  for  him  the  esteem  of  Mohammedans 
as  well  as  Christians. 

See  Aboulfak  xuGE,  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  General-e." 

Aboolfaraj  (Abu-^or  Abou-)  1-faraj)  of  Ronah, 
a  distinguished  I'ersian  poet,  born  in  the  first  half  of  the 
eleventh  century.  He  lived  at  the  court  of  Ibraheem 
of  Ghiznee,  (Gazna.)  He  died,  it  is  sup]iosed,  about  1090. 

Aboolfazl,  (Abu-l-fazlor  Aboul-Fazl,)  a'boorfaz'l, 
(commonly  pronounced  in  India  lib^obl-f fiz'l,)  the  en- 
lightened minister  and  historiographer  of  Akbar,  the 
greatest  of  the  Mogul  emperors.  The  date  of  his  birth 
is  unknown.  In  1572  he  was  raised  to  the  office  of  prime 
minister,  which  he  held  for  about  twenty-eight  years. 
He  was  waylaid  and  assassinated  about  the  year  1600, 
leaving  behind  him  the  justly-won  reputation  of  an  ex- 
cellent historian,  and  of  a  wise,  virtuous,  and  truly  great 
man.  His  works  are  numerous  and  extremely  valuable. 
Among  them  we  may  mention  the  "Akbar  Namah,"  a 
minute  history  of  the  times  of  Akbar  ;  "Ayeen  Akbari/' 
(or  "  Ayin-i-Akbari,")  "  Institutes  of  Akbar  ;"  and  a  post- 
humous work  entitled  "  Muktoobat,"  (or  "  Maktiibat,") 
the  "writings,"  or  "letters,"  including  Aboolfazl's  own 
correspondence. 

See  Aboltlfazl,  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Aboolfeda,  (Abu-l-feda*  or  Aboulfeda,)  VhobV 
fid'a  or  3.-b6oKfc-da',  a  prince  and  warrior,  and  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  of  the  Arabian  authors,  was  born  at 
Damascus  about  1273.  He  was  a  direct  descendant 
from  Aiyoob,  (Aiyub,)  the  founder  of  the  Aiyoobite  dynas- 
ty in  Egypt.    His  family  had  possessed  the  throne  of  Ha- 


*  It  may  be  proper  to  observe  that  the  Latin  name  Abulfeda 
forms  the  genitive  very  irregularly — Abilfed>e.  This  peculiarity  is 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  A  bit  in  the  first  part  of  the  name  has  in 
Arabic  Abi  for  its  genitive.  In  like  manr:er,  we  say  (in  the  nomi- 
native) Abu  Talib;  but  Ibn  Abi  Taiib,  the  "son  of  Abu  Taiib,"  the 
change  of  u  (00)  to  \  (ee)  being  necessary  to  mark  the  genitive  case. 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as J;  G,  li,  K,  outtural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23-' 


ABOO-L-HJSSJN 


36 


JBOO-SAEED 


mah,  but  the  fief  which  they  held  having  been  declared 
extinct  by  Nasir,  (or  An-Nasir-Ibn-Kalaun,)  Sultan  of 
Syria  and  Egypt,  Aboolfeda  was  deprived  of  his  inherit- 
ance. Upon  this  he  entered  the  service  of  the  sultan, 
and  was  with  him  in  all  his  wars  against  the  Tartars. 
Afterwards,  as  an  acknowledgment  of  his  eminent  ser- 
vices, the  sultan  conferred  upon  him  the  title  of  Prince 
of  Hamah.  He  remained  in  undisturbed  possession 
of  his  newly-acquired  dignity  until  his  death  in  133 1. 
All  the  Moslem  writers  agree  in  representing  Aboolfeda 
as  a  man  of  the  greatest  talents  ;  he  was  as  much  dis- 
tinguished for  skill  and  courage  in  the  field  as  for  wis- 
don.  and  prudence  in  the  divan.  In  spite  of  the  cares 
of  his  government,  he  devoted  much  of  his  attention  to 
the  cultivation  of  literature.  He  has  left  valuable  works 
on  history,  geography,  and  medicine.  His  work  enti- 
tled "The  Description  of  the  Countries"  is  considered 
to  be  the  best  and  most  complete  Arabic  geography 
which  exists.  His  great  history,  called  "An  Abridgment 
of  the  History  of  Mankind,"  is  a  work  of  vast  erudition. 
Besides  containing  a  history  of  the  Mohammedans  from 
the  birth  of  the  prophet  down  to  the  date  of  the  work 
itself,  (1328,)  it  furnishes  much  information  respecting 
Arabia  before  the  time  of  Mohammed,  the  ancient  Per- 
sian dynasties,  the  Copts,  the  Hindoos,  etc. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Blographle  Generale ;"  Ersch  und  Gruber, 
"Allgemeine  Eiicyklopaedie." 

Aboo-l-Hassan  or  Abu-1-  (Aboul-)  hassaii, 

.VbooK  hds'san,  an  Arabian  astronomer,  who  flourished 
in  Morocco  in  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

Aboo-l-Hassan,  (or  Abii-l-  (Aboul-)  hassan,)  writ- 
ten also  Aboul-Hagan,  a  Samaritan,  who  embraced 
the  Mohammedan  religion  and  repaired  to  the  court  of 
the  King  of  Damascus,  by  whom  he  was  appointed  vizier 
about  the  year  1231.  Accompanying  an  expedition  into 
Egypt,  he  was  taken  prisoner  and  put  to  death  in  1251. 

Aboo-l-Hassan  or  Aboul-Ha9an,  (Alee  (or  All) 
Ibn  Omar,  a'lee  Tb'n  o'mar,)  an  Arabian  astronomer 
of  Morocco,  lived  about  the  year  1200.  He  wrote  a  valu- 
able treatise  on  philosophical  instruments,  which  was 
translated  into  French  by  Sedillot. 

Aboo-l-Kisim,  Abu-l-k^aim,  or  Aboul-cacem, 
i'boor  ka'sim,  [in  Latin,  Albuca'sis  or  Abulca'sis,]  the 
most  celebrated  of  all  the  Arabian  writers  on  surgery. 
Scarcely  anything  is  known  of  his  life  ;  he  is  supposed 
to  have  practised  medicine  in  Cordova  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  eleventh  and  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century,  and  to  have  died  about  mo.  His  principal 
work,  which  treats  of  anatomy,  physiology,  the  practice 
of  medicine,  and  surgery,  is  one  of  extraordinary  value.  ■ 
That  portion  which  is  devoted  to  surgery  has  been  pro- 
nounced the  best  treatise  on  this  subject  that  has  come 
down  to  us  from  antiquity.  It  is  especially  interesting 
and  valuable  to  those  who  desire  to  trace  the  gradual 
progress  of  the  surgical  art  in  its  various  departments. 

See  WijsTENFEi,D,  "Geschichte  der  Arabischen  Aeizte;"  Spren- 
GEL,  "  History  of  Medic'.n-\" 

Aboo-l-K^sim,  ( Abu-l-k^sim  or  Abou-l-caoem,) 

a  distinguished  Mohammedan  theologian  and  poet,  born 
in  the  province  of  Valencia,  Spain,  about  1 143.  He 
visited  several  foreign  countries,  and  finally  settled  in 
Cairo,  where  he  was  aj^pointed  to  a  professorship.  He 
died  in  1194.  He  wrote  several  works  on  the  Koran, 
which  are  highly  esteemed. 

Aboo-l-K^sim  or  Aboul-Cacem,  a  Turkish  gen- 
eral, lived  about  1050.  He  took  Nicaea,  and  advanced 
towards  Constantinople,  but  was  repulsed  by  Taticius, 
and  put  to  death  by  the  Shah  of  Persia. 

Aboo-l-Kisim-Mansoor.    See  Firdousee. 

Aboo-l-Khatar  orAbul-  (Aboul-)  Khatt^r,  a^bool' 
K^t'taR',  a  governor  of  Spain  under  the  caliphs.  He 
was  a  native  of  Arabia,  and  was  sent  by  the  Viceroy 
of  Africa  to  quiet  the  contending  factions  by  which 
Spain  was  at  that  time  distracted.  He  arrived  in  Cor- 
dova in  743  A.D.  At  first  he  was  entirely  successful,  but 
at  length  a  rebellion  broke  out,  which  he  was  unable  to 
quell ;  and  he  was  finally  slain  by  the  conquering  party. 

Aboo-l-Maalee  or  Abul-  (Aboul-)  Maali,\Vb6or 
mS.'a-lee,  a  learned  Persian  who  flourished  in  the  reign 
of  Bahram  Shah,  of  Ghiznee,  between  11 18  and  1152. 

Aboo-l-Mahanee  or  Abul-  (Aboul-)  mahani, 


a'boor  ma-ha'nee,  an  Arabian  astronomer,  who  lived  at 
the  court  of  Al-Mamoon,  the  seventh  caliph  of  the  Ab- 
bassides,  between  813  and  833. 

Aboo-l-Wafa  or  Abul-  (Aboul-)  Wafa,  a'bool' 
wa'fa',  a  distinguished  mathematician  and  astronomer, 
born  in  Khorassan  about  940 ;  died  in  998.  He  was 
employed  at  Bagdad,  with  other  eminent  astronomers, 
to  correct  the  astronomical  tables  of  Aboo-l-Mahanee. 

Aboo-l-Waleed  or  Abul-  (Aboul-)  Walid, 
d'boor  vva-leed',  a  fixmous  Mohammedan  divine,  born  at 
Beja,  in  Portugal,  about  1012.  His  talents  and  learning 
attracted  the  notice  of  Al-Mo6tamed,  King  of  Seville,  by 
whom  he  was  appointed  chief  justice,  which  position  he 
held  till  his  death,  in  1081. 

Aboo-l-Waleed  or  Abul-  (Aboul-)  Walid,  a  dis- 
tinguished Moslem  divine  and  historian,  born  at  Alep- 
po about  the  year  1400  ;  died  1478. 

Aboo-l-Waleed-  (or  Abul-  (Aboul-)  Walid-)  Ibn- 
Jehwar — ib'n-jeh'wiR  or  -j^h'war,  the  second  sul- 
tan of  Cordova  of  the  Jehwar  dynasty,  whose  capita^ 
was  treacherously  wrested  from  him  by  Al-Mootamed 
King  of  Seville,  about  the  year  1045  '■>  the  latter  having 
with  a  large  army  entered  Aboo-l-Waleed's  kingdom 
with  the  professed  object  of  assisting  him  against  Al 
Mamoon,  King  of  Toledo.  Aboo-l-Waleed  died,  or  waa 
killed,  soon  after. 

Ab  o  ol- Wale  e  d-Moliammed-Ibn-Roshd.  Sec 

AVERROES. 

Aboo-Mansoor,  (Abu-Mansur  or  Abou-Man- 
sour,)  i'ljoo  man'sooR',  a  distinguished  astronomer, 
born  at  Mecca  in  855.  He  lived  at  the  court  of  the 
caliph  Al-Mamoon,  who  appointed  him  president  of  an 
academy  of  astronomers  at  Bagdad,  and  committed  to 
his  superintendence  the  building  of  two  observatories. 
The  time  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

Aboo-  (Abu-  or  Abou-)  Merwan  or  Merouan, 
^''boo  meR^wan',  a  distinguished  Mohammedan  divine, 
born  at  Seville  about  11 70.  He  was  for  several  years 
chief  justice  of  his  native  city.  Having  made  a  pil- 
grimage to  Mecca,  he  died  at  Cairo,  on  his  return,  in  1237. 

Aboo-  (Abu-  or  Abou-)  Mos'lem,  (or  -Muslim,)  a 
general,  who  contributed  greatly  to  the  overthrow  of  the 
Omeyyah  dynasty  and  the  establishment  of  that  of  the 
Abbassides,  was  born  about  720  A.D.  Neither  his  fidelity 
nor  the  greatness  of  his  merits  availed  him  against  the 
jealous  cruelty  of  a  sovereign  whom  he  had  raised  to 
the  throne.  Aboo-Jaafar  had  employed  him  in  quelling 
some  formidable  rebellions  which  threatened  to  dismem- 
ber the  empire.  But,  when  his  services  were  no  longer 
needed,  the  caliph,  having  invited  him,  with  every  mark 
of  friendship,  to  visit  him  in  his  palace  at  Roomeeyeh, 
(Rumiyyah,)  caused  Aboo-Moslem  to  be  basely  assas- 
sinated, in  755.  Although  Aboo-Moslem's  character 
was  undoubtedly  stained  with  many  crimes,  he  appears 
to  have  been  always  faithful  to  his  sovereign. 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap,  xvii.,  and  vol. 
ii.  cliaps.  i.  and  ii. 

Aboo-  (Abu-  or  Abou-)  Nowas — no-wass',  an  Ara- 
bian poet,  born  about  744,  and  died  about  810  A.D. 

Aboo-  (Abu-  or  Abou-)  Obeyd — o'bad'  or  -o'bTd', 
a  noted  Mohammedan  geographer  and  historian,  born 
in  Spain  about  1040.  He  was  vizier  to  Mohammed, 
King  of  Ahneria.    Died  about  1095. 

Aboo-  (Abu-  or  Abou-)  Obeydah — o-baMah,  a 
celebrated  Mohammedan  general,  who  commanded  un- 
der the  caliphs  Aboo-Bekr  and  Omar.  He  died  of  the 
plague,  at  Damascus,  in  639. 

Aboo-Reehan  or  Abu-  (Abou-)  Rihan,  written 
also  Abou-Ryhan,  i'boo  ree'hln',  a  distinguished 
Arabian  astronomer,  born  about  970 ;  died  in  1038. 
He  was  employed  on  several  embassies  by  Al-Mamoon, 
(Mamun,)  Sultan  of  Kharasm. 

Aboo-Saeed  or  Abu-  (Abou-)  Said,  cVboo  sa-eed', 
the  ninth  of  the  Persian  kings  of  the  race  of  Jengis 
Khan,  ascended  the  throne  in  13 17.  He  was  a  weak 
jjrince,  being  ruled  first  by  his  favourite,  the  emir  Choo- 
ban,  and  afterwards  by  his  wife,  the  daughter  of  that 
nobleman.    He  died  in  1335,  at  the  age  of  thirty. 

Aboo-Saeed-Meerza,  ( Abu-Said-Mirzi  or  Abou 
Said  Mirza,)  a'boo  sa-eed'  meer'zS,  a  prince  of  the 
Moguls,  born  about  1427,  was  a  descendant  of  Tamei  lane. 


i,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  li,  y,  shoft;  a,  e,  i,  g,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ABOO  SAHL-ISA 


37 


ABRAHAM 


Having  invaded  Irak  and  Azerbaijan,  he  was  taken 
prisoner  and  put  to  death  in  1469.  _ 

Aboo-  (Abu-  or  Abou-)  Sahl-Isa,  a'boo  sSh'!  is'i, 
(or  ee'sa,)  an  eminent  Christian  physician  of  Khorassan, 
tutor  to  the  famous  Avicenna,  (Ibn-Seena.)  He  lived  in 
the  early  part  of  the  eleventh  century.  ^ 

Aboo-Salat  or  Abu-  (Abou-)s-Salat,  a'boo  s3.1'at, 
(or  sal'at,)  a  Spanish  physician,  astronomer,  and  poet, 
born  in  1068  ;  died  in  1134. 

Aboo-  (Abou-  or  Abu-)  Sofian,  (Sophian  or  So- 
phySn,)  i'boo  so-fe-an',  a  chief  among  the  Koreish,  who 
distinguished  himself  by  his  obstinate  hostility  to  the 
claims  of  Mohammed.  After  all  resistance  was  vain, 
he  reluctantly  acknowledged  the  divine  mission  of  the 
prophet.  Aboo-Sofian  was  the  father  of  the  caliph 
Moaweeyeh,  the  founder  of  the  Omeyyah  dynasty  at 
Damascus.    (See  Mohammed.) 

Aboo-TaMr  or  Abu-  (Abou-)  Tahir,  i'boo  td'hir, 
the  chief  of  a  sect  called  Karmatians,  who,  with  a  com- 
paratively small  number  of  followers,  took  and  plun- 
dered Koofah,  (Kiifah,)  Mecca,  and  several  other  cities  of 
Asia,  and  at  length,  in  931,  was  bold  enough  to  advance, 
with  only  500  horse,  to  within  a  short  distance  of  Bagdad. 
He  suddenly  attacked,  defeated,  and  took  prisoner 
Abissaj,  (i'be-sSj',)  whom,  at  the  head  of  30,000  men, 
the  caliph  had  sent  against  him.  Died  in  943.  Bahrein, 
on  the  Persian  Gulf,  was  the  capital  of  his  dominions. 

Aboo-Taiib,  (or  -Taieb,)  Abu-Taiib,  or  Abou- 
Talib,  (or  -Thaleb,)  a'boo  tS'lib,  written  also  Ebu- 
Thalib,  an  uncle  of  Mohammed,  and  the  father  of  Alee, 
(All,)  who  married  the  prophet's  only  daughter,  Fatimah. 
He  belonged  to  the  illustrious  tribe  of  Koreish,  and 
flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixth  and  beginning 
of  the  seventh  century.  Died  about  620  a.d.  (See  Mo- 
hammp:d.) 

Aboo-  ( Abii-  or  Abou-)  Taiib,  (pronounced  by  the 
Hindoos  ul/00  td'lib,)  a  native  of  India,  born  at  Luck- 
now  in  1752.  For  a  number  of  years  he  was  em- 
ployed by  the  East  India  Company  in  various  offices, 
civil  and  military.  At  length,  in  1800,  he  visited  Eng- 
land, where  he  was  received  with  the  most  flattering  at- 
tentions by  the  royal  family  and  many  of  the  nobility. 
He  returned  to  India  through  France,  Italy,  Turkey, 
and  Persia.  He  wrote  a  very  interesting  journal  of  his 
travels,  a  translation  of  which  into  English  has  been 
published.    Died  in  1806. 

Aboo-  (Abu-  or  Abou-)  Temam  —  te-mSm',  a 
famous  Arabian  poet,  born  in  Syria  about  805  A.D. 
He  spent  the  first  years  of  his  life  in  Damascus  in  the 
service  of  a  tailor.  He  afterwards  repaired  to  Bagdad, 
where  he  was  munificently  patronized  by  the  caliph  and 
the  officers  of  his  court.    Died  in  845. 

Aboo-Yakoob-Yoosuf,  Abu-Ya'kub-Yusuf,  or 
Abou-Yakoub-Yousouf,  (or  -Yousef,)  a'boo  yd'- 
koT)b'  yoo'soof,  (or  yoo'suf,)  the  third  sultan  of  Africa  and 
Spain  of  the  Almohade  dynasty,  succeeded  his  father, 
Abd-el-Moomen,  in  1163.  In  1184  he  was  mortally 
wounded  before  the  walls  of  Santarem,  a  fortress  of  Por- 
tugal, in  the  possession  of  the  Christians,  which  he  had 
besieged  with  a  large  army.  Aboo-Yakoob  was  a  mild 
and  enlightened  sovereign,  and  a  patron  of  learning. 

Aboo-Yoosuf,  Abu-Yusuf,  or  Abou-You.5ef,  an 
eminent  Moslem  divine,  born  at  Koofah  (Kufah)  about 
731  A.D.  In  consequence  of  his  great  talents  and  legal 
knowledge,  he  was  appointed  chief  judge  of  Bagdad,  an 
ofiice  which  he  held  till  his  death,  in  798.  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  he  was  the  subject  of  the  famous  Haroun 
al-Raschid. 

Aboo-Yoosuf- Yakoob,  Abu-Yusuf-Ya'kub,  or 
Abou- Yousouf - Yakoub,  a'boo  yoo'sdof  yi'koob', 
surnamed  Almansoor,  (Al-Mansur,)"  The  Victorious,'' 
the  fourth  sultan  of  Africa  and  Spain  of  the  Almohade 
dynasty,  was  born  at  Morocco  in  11 60.  He  succeeded 
his  father  Aboo-Yakoob-Yoosuf,  who  fell  at  the  siege 
of  Santarem,  in  11 84.  Having  established  himself  on 
his  throne,  and  put  down  several  rebellions  in  his  Afri- 
can dominions,  he  determined  to  cross  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar  and  avenge  the  death  of  his  father.  He  made, 
jr.  all,  three  expeditions  into  the  Spanish  peninsula  :  in 
the  first  (1189)  he  took  captive,  of  both  sexes,  40,000 
persons,  whom  he  led  into  Africa  and  settled  at  Rabatt, 


near  Sale  ;  in  the  second  (1190)  he  reduced  the  fortress 
of  Torres  and  the  town  of  Silves  in  Portugal ;  in  the 
third  (1195)  he  defeated  the  Christians  under  Alphonso 
III.,  in  a  great  battle  near  Valencia  ;  after  which  he  took 
Calatrava,  Guadalajara,  Madrid,  Alcala,  and  Salamanca 
He  died  at  Morocco  in  1 198,  leaving  behind  him  the  char- 
acter of  an  able  and  enlightened  prince.  He  has  been  pro- 
nounced the  greatest  and  best  of  the  Almohade  sultans. 

Aboubecre.    See  Aboo-Bekr. 

Abou-Bekr.    See  Aeoo-Bekr. 

Abou-l-Cacem,  (or  Kasim.)    See  Aboo-l-Kasim. 

Abou-I-Casim-Mansour.    See  Firdousee. 

Aboulfaradge.    See  Aboolfaraj. 

Aboul-Hagan.    See  Aboo-l-Hassan. 

About,  t'boo^  (Edmond  Francois  Valentin,)  a 
successful  and  pithy  French  writer,  born  at  Dieuze  (in 
Meurthe)  in  1828.  Having  passed  some  time  at  Athens, 
he  published,  in  1855,  a  work  on  modern  Greece,  "  La 
Grece  contemporaine,"  which  is  said  to  be  remarkable 
for  the  best  qualities  of  a  truly  French  style.  His  ro- 
mance entitled  "ToUa"  (1855)  is  also  much  admired. 
He  has  written  several  novels,  among  which  are  "The 
King  of  the  Mountains,"  (1856,)  and  "  Germaine,"  (1857,) 
and  a  remarkable  political  work  on  the  "  Roman  Ques- 
tion," (about  i860,)  which  shows  a  decided  sympathy  for 
the  liberal  cause. 

Abou-Tahir.    See  Aboo-Tahir. 

Abou-Taleb,  (or-Thaleb.)    See  Aboo-Talib. 

Abou- Yousouf.    See  Aboo-Yoosuf. 

Aboville,  d',  dS'bo'v^K,  (Francois  Marie,)  Comte, 
a  French  general,  born  at  Brest  in  1730.  He  served  with 
distinction  as  colonel  at  Yorktown,  Virginia,  where  he 
directed  the  artillery,  (1781,)  became  a  general  about 
1790,  and  opposed  Dumouriez  at  the  time  of  his  defec- 
tion, 1793.  Under  the  regime  of  Bonaparte  he  was  in- 
spector-general of  artillery,  and  senator.    Died  in  1817. 

Abrabanel,  i-BR^'Bd-n^r,  [Span.  pron.  almost  av-Ra'- 
vd-neK,]  written  also  Abarbanel  and  Abrabaiiiel, 
(Isaac,)  the  most  illustrious  of  all  the  Spanish  rabbis, 
was  born  in  Lisbon  in  1437.  His  family,  which  was  sup- 
posed to  be  descended  from  King  David,  had  dwelt  in 
Spain  from  a  very  early  period.  The  parents  of  Abra- 
banel  were  rich,  and  no  expense  was  spared  in  his  edu- 
cation. Endowed  with  extraordinary  quickness  of  in- 
tellect and  great  powers  of  application,  he  soon  made 
himself  master  of  all  the  learning  of  that  time,  and  was 
particularly  distinguished  for  his  thorough  acquaintance 
with  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  the  writings  of  the  rabbis. 
His  great  abilities  attracted  the  attention  of  Alphonso 
V.  of  Portugal,  who  frequently  consulted  him  on  the 
most  important  affairs.  On  the  death  of  this  king,  in 
1481,  his  son,  John  II.,  yielding  to  the  bigoted  spirit  of 
that  age,  banished  Abrabanel  from  his  presence  and 
forced  him  to  seek  refuge  in  Spain.  Here  he  was  at 
first  received  with  great  favour  by  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
bella ;  but  in  1492  a  decree  was  promulgated  by  which 
all  the  Jews  were  banished  from  the  Spanish  dominions 
and  their  property  confiscated.  Abrabanel  fled  at  first 
to  Naples  ;  he  afterwards  resided  for  a  short  time  in 
several  of  the  Italian  cities,  and  at  last  died  in  Venice 
in  1508.  His  works  consist  of  commentaries  on  various 
parts  of  the  Scriptures.  They  are  considered  by  the 
best  judges  to  display  not  only  the  greatest  learning,  but 
powers  almost  unrivalled  in  this  species  of  writing. 

See  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  ;"  Le  Long,  "  Bibliotheca 
Sacra;"  J.  H.  Mai,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  at  Scriptis  Abrabanielis," 
1708. 

Ab-ra-da'tas,  a  king  of  Susa,  who  at  first  fought  on 
the  side  of  the  Assyrians,  but  afterwards  attached  him- 
self to  Cyrus  the  Great,  King  of  Persia.  He  fell  in  the 
war  which  Cyrus  waged  against  Croesus. 

See  Xenophon's  "  Cyropaedia,"  book  v. 

Abraham,  a'bra-ham,  [Heb.  DTT^I^X,]  or  Abram 
a'bram,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  Hebrew  patri- 
archs, was  born  at  Ur,  a  city  of  Chaldea,  about  2000  years 
(it  is  supposed)  before  the  Christian  era.  "  AlDraham" 
signifies  the  "  father  of  a  numerous  people,"  and 
"Abram"  "exalted  father."  In  consequence  of  his  ex- 
emplary obedience  and  trust  in  God,  he  has  been  hon- 
oured with  the  title  of  "  father  of  the  faithful."  He  died 
at  or  near  Hebron,  aged  175  years.  (See  Genesis  xi.-xxv.) 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  s  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  t-h  as  in  this.  (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ABRAHAM 


38 


ABSTRTUS 


Abraliam-a-Sancta-Clara  —  S-sank'ta  kLVi\i,  an 
Augustine  friar,  regarded  as  the  greatest  popular  preach- 
er of  Germany  during  the  seventeenth  century,  was  born 
in  Suabia,  in  1642.  His  proper  name  was  Ulric  Me- 
GERLE,  (ma'ger-la).  He  studied  philosophy  and  theo- 
logy in  the  Augustine  convent  at  Vienna.  In  1662  he 
entered  holy  orders,  and  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
divinity  ;  in  1669  the  emperor  Leopold  appointed  him 
preacher  to  the  imperial  court  at  Vienna,  which  office 
he  continued  to  hold  for  many  years.  He  died  in  1709, 
leaving  many  religious  works. 

See  LoNGKELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Oester- 
reichisches  Biograpliisches  Lexikon,"  Vienna,  1S51. 

Abraham-Bar-Chasdai-Hallevi — baR-Has'di'haK- 
ieh-vee'',  a  Jewish  rabbi,  born  at  Barcelona,  Spain,  lived 
in  the  last  half  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  wrote  "  The 
Book  of  the  Soul,"  and  other  works. 

Abraham-Beii-Chanania-Jagel  (or  -Jaghel) — 
kl-nd-nee'a  ya''gel,  an  Italian  rabbi,  was  born  near  the 
close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Fie  wrote  a  work  en- 
titled "  The  Book  of  Good  Doctrine,"  a  catechism  on 
the  articles  of  the  Jewish  faith,  which  is  much  cele- 
brated. He  embraced  Christianity  about  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  was  baptized  by  the 
name  of  Camillus  Jaghel.  The  exact  time  of  his  death 
is  unknown. 

Abraliam-Ben-Dior — de'oR^  (The  Levite,)  a  famous 
rabbi,  born  at  Toledo,  in  Spain,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
twelfth  century.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  personal 
friend  of  Maimonides,  who  speaks  of  him  with  great 
respect.  He  is  supposed  to  have  suffered  death  on  ac- 
count of  his  religion  about  the  year  11 80. 

Abraham-Ben-Haja  (-hcVya)  or  -Chaja,  (-Kd'yS,) 
a  Spanish  rabbi,  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  Nativities,"  and 
one  entitled  the  "  Globe  of  the  World,"  ("  Sph^era  Mun- 
di,"  1546.)    Died  in  1105. 

Abraham-Ben-Isaac-Zahalon — za-ha-l5n',  a  dis- 
tinguished Spanish  rabbi,  who  lived  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  was  an  excellent  lawyer,  an  eminent  astron- 
omer, and  also  a  poet.  He  was  banished  from  Spain 
with  the  other  Jews,  and  took  refuge  in  Italy. 

Abraham-di-  (or  de-)  Balmis — de  bal^m^s,  a  cele- 
brated Italian  rabbi  and  physician,  born  at  Lecce  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century.    Died  about  1522. 

Abraham-Zacuth  (or  -Zacut,  -za-kootO  or  -Zacu- 
tho — za-koo'to,  [Span.  pron.  thi-koot'  or  tha-koo'to,]  a 
Spanish  rabbi  and  astronomer,  born  at  Salamanca  near 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  was  one  of  the 
Jews  banished  from  Spain  in  1492.  On  leaving  his  na- 
tive country  he  went  to  Portugal,  where  he  was  kindly 
received  by  King  Emmanuel  and  appointed  astronomer 
and  chronographer  royal.  The  date  of  his  death  is  un- 
known. 

Abram,  t'bR6N',  (Nicholas,)  a  learned  French  Je- 
suit, born  near  Charmes,  in  1589.  In  1636  he  became 
professor  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Pont-a-Mous- 
son.    Died  in  1655. 

Abranches,  de,  da  i-bRln'shls,  (Alvaro,)  a  Por- 
tuguese noble,  who  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  revo- 
lution which  occurred  in  1640,  and  which  resulted  in  the 
expulsion  of  the  Spaniards  from  Portugal. 

Abrantes,  §,-bRdn'tes,  fourth  Marc^uis  of,  a  Portu- 
guese nobleman,  born  in  1784.  He  occupies  a  promi- 
nent place  in  the  political  history  of  his  country  from 
1807  to  1824,  when,  in  consequence  of  the  part  which  he 
took  in  the  murder  of  the  Marquis  of  Louie,  he  was  ban- 
ished from  Portugal.  He  went  first  to  Italy,  and  thence 
to  England,  where  he  died  in  1827. 

Abrantes,  Duke  of.    See  Junot. 

Abresch,  a^^Rgsh,  (Friedrich  Ludwig,)  a  learned 
German  author,  born  at  Hesse-Homburg  in  1699.  He 
studied  at  the  University  of  Utrecht.  His  parents  had 
designed  him  for  the  Church,  but  his  own  inclinations 
led  him  to  devote  himself  wholly  to  classical  literature. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Notes  on  ^schylus  and  Thucy- 
dides."  He  was  rector  of  the  College  of  Middelburg, 
1725-41.    Died  in  1782. 

Abreu,  d',  da'br^-00,  (Alexis,)  a  distinguished  Por- 
tuguese physician,  born  about  1570.  In  1606  he  was  ap- 
pointed consulting  physician  to  Philip  III.  of  Spain. 
Died  in  1630. 


Abreu  y  Bertodano,  de,  di  cVbRg-00  h  b^R-to-Di'no, 

(Felix  Jose,)  a  Spanish  knight,  (caballero,)  son  of  the 
Marquis  de  Regalia,  born  about  1720.  He  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  international  law,  and  published, 
in  1746,  a  "Treatise  on  Maritime  Prizes,"  (Tratado  ju- 
ridico-politico  sobre  Presas  de  Mar,")  which  attracted 
considerable  attention.  From  1755  to  1760  he  was 
envoy  extraordinary  to  the  court  of  St.  James.  The 
year  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

Abreu  y  Bertodano,  de,  (Jose  Antonio,)  a  Span- 
ish writer  on  international  law,  was  brother  to  the  pre- 
ceding.   Died  in  1775. 

Abrial,  t'bRe'aK,  (Joseph  Andre,)  a  French  advo- 
cate, born  in  1750,  at  Annonay,  was  educated  in  the 
College  of  Louis-le-Grand,  at  Paris.  He  was  sent  in 
1800  to  Naples,  in  order  to  organize  a  republican  gov- 
ernment, in  which  work  he  manifested  great  ability. 
During  the  whole  of  his  administration,  his  mildness 
and  moderation  won  for  him  the  affection  of  the  Nea- 
politans. He  was  made  senator,  and  received  the  title  of 
count,  under  Napoleon,  but  was  nevertheless  one  of 
the  first  to  vote  for  his  dethronement  in  1814.  He  was 
afterwards  created  a  peer  by  Louis  XVIII.  Died  in 
1828. 

Abriani,  a-bRe-i'nee,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Vicenza  in  1607.  He  was  employed  as  professor 
or  teacher  in  Genoa,  Verona,  and  Paclua.  Among  his 
works  are  a  volume  of  sonnets,  "Canzoni,"  etc.,  and  a 
poetical  version  of  Horace's  "Art  of  Poetry,"  (1663.) 
Died  at  Venice  in  1699. 

Abril,  i-BReer,  almost  a-vReeK,  [in  Latin,  Apri'lis,]  ,  , 
(Pedro  Simon,)  a  Spanish  grammarian,  who  is  supposed 
to  have  died  near  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  books,  some  of  which 
are  in  Spanish,  and  some  in  Latin 

Abruzzi,  a-bRoot'see,  a  landscape-painter,  who  lived 
in  Rome  towards  the  close  of  the  last  century. 

Abruzzo,  d-bRoot'so,  (Baldassare,)  a  Sicilian  philos- 
opher and  civilian,  born  about  1600;  died  in  1665. 

Ab'sa-lom,  [Heb.  CDlStJ^nX,]  the  third  son  of  Da- 
vid, was  born  in  Hebron  after  his  father  ascended  the 
throne.  Possessed  of  winning  manners  and  an  ex- 
ceedingly handsome  person,  he  became  very  popular 
throughout  the  land  of  Israel,  and  at  length  sought 
openly  to  dethrone  his  fi\ther.  In  the  battle  which  was 
subsequently  fought,  Absalom  was  slain  by  Joab,  al- 
though King  David  had  expressly  commanded  that  the 
life  o"f  his  son  should  be  spared.  The  rebellion  of  Ab- 
salom is  supposed  to  have  occurred  in  1036  B.C.  (See 
II.  Samuel  xiii.-xviii.) 

Absalon,  Sb'si-lon',  called  also  Axel,  a  descendant 
of  Slagus,  was  born  in  Iceland  in  1128.  He  studied  in 
Paris,  and  in  11 78  was  appointed  to  the  archbishopric  of 
Lund,  in  Scania,  which  office  he  held  till  his  death  in 
1 201.  Absalon  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  greatest 
men  of  his  age  ;  he  was  a  wise  counsellor  to  his  king,  a 
brave  general,  and  a  generous  patron  of  learning. 

See  EsTRUP,  "Absalon  considere  comme  heros,  homme  d'£tat  et 
eveque,"  1S56. 

Abschatz,  Sp'shats,  (Hans  Assmann— ass'min,) 
Baron  of,  a  poet  and  statesman,  born  in  Silesia  in  1646. 
He  studied  jurisprudence  at  the  Universities  of  Stras- 
burg  and  Leyden.  In  1675  he  was  appointed  governor 
of  the  principality  of  Liegnitz,  and  afterwards  was  Sile- 
sian  ambassador  at  the  court  of  Vienna.  Died  in  1699. 
He  is  ranked  among  the  principal  German  poets  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Many  hymns  of  his  composition 
are  still  sung  in  the'  Protestant  churches. 

Abslioven.    See  Apshoven. 

Abste^nio,  ab-sta'me-o,  or  Astemio,  [Lat.  Abste'- 

Mius,]  (Giampietro,)  an  eminent  teacher,  who  lived  in 
Friuli  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  His 
school  was  attended  by  young  men  of  the  first  Italian 
families. 

Ab-ste'mi-us  Lau-ren'ti-iis,  (lau-ren'she^s,)  [It. 
Astemio,  Ss-ta^me-o,]  an  Italian  writer,  who  was  born 
at  Macerata  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
Besides  several  works  on  grammar  and  criticism,  and 
one  on  geography,  he  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  book  of  Fables, 
which  at  one  time  enjoyed  considerable  popularity. 

Ab-syr'tus  or  Apsyr'tus,  [Gr.  ' h^pvprog ;  Fr.  Ab 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lojig;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  f^t;  met;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


ABV-BAKR 


39 


JCCOLTl 


SYRTE,  tb's^Rt',]  a  son  of  /Eetes,  King  of  Colchis,  was 
a  brother  of  Medea,  who  took  him  with  her  when  she 
fled  with  Jason.  When  she  was  pursued  by  her  father, 
she  killed  her  brother  and  scattered  his  severed  limbs 
along  the  road,  in  order  to  retard  the  pursuit. 

ABU,  ABU,  or  ABU,  a  prefix  to  many  Arabian 
names.    See  Aboo. 

Abu-Bakr,  (or  -Bacr.)    See  Aboo-Bekr. 

Abubeker  or  Abiibekr.    See  Aboo-Bekr. 

A-bu'ca-ra,  [Gr.  ^ k^ovKapu^  (Theodorus,)  a  Chris- 
tian theological  writer,  who  lived  in  the  eighth  century. 
Of  the  circumstances  of  his  life  little  or  nothing  is  known. 
He  wrote  a  great  number  of  works,  mostly  in  Greek, 
though  a  few  are  in  Arabic. 

Ab-u-dac'nus,  (Joseph,)  a  native  of  Cairo,  who,  about 
the  year  1600,  was  a  teacher  of  Arabic  at  Oxford.  Be- 
sides some  grammatical  treatises  on  Hebrew,  he  wrote 
a  "  History  of  the  Copts,"  ("  Historia  Jacobitarum  seu 
Coptorum  in  /Egypto  Libya,"  etc.) 

See  Wood,  "Athenje  Oxonienses." 

Abulfaragius.    See  Aboolfaraj. 
Abul-Faraj,  (or  Farage.)    See  Aboolfaraj. 
Abulfeda.    See  Aboolfeda. 

Abul-Kasira or  Abu-l-Kasim.  See  Aboo-l-Kasim. 

Abu-l-Kasim-Mansur.    See  Firdousee. 

Abulola.    See  Aboo-l-ala. 

Abulpharagius.    See  Aboolfaraj. 

Abul-Walid-Ibn-Roshd.     See  Averroes. 

Abundance,  d',  di^biiN'dSNss',  (Jean,)  a  French 
poet  and  satirist,  who  flourished  in  the  early  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life  ;  the 
name  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  fictitious.  One  of  his 
works  is  entitled  "The  Great  and  Marvellous  Acts  of 
Nobody,"  ("  Les  Grands  et  Merveilleux  Faits  de  Nemo.") 

Ab-y-de'nus,  ['A,5i;(57/v6f,]  a  Greek  historian,  who 
wrote  a  work  on  Assyria,  very  valuable,  so  far  as  can  be 
judged  from  the  few  fragments  which  remain.  Of  his  life 
nothing  is  known. 

Acace.  The  French  spelling  of  ACACIUS,  which  see. 

Acacius,  a-ka'she-us,  [Gr.  'kKuiuoQ-,  Fr.  Acace, 
t'ktss',]  a  bishop  of  Caesar e''a,  who  succeeded  Eusebius 
in  339  A.D.    Died  about  366. 

Acacius,  a  philosopher  and  rhetorician  of  Caesarea, 
contemporary  with  the  preceding. 

Acacius,  a  bishop  of  Beroe,  who  lived  in  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries. 

Acacius,  a  bishop  of  Amida,  in  Mesopotamia,  who 
ransomed  7000  Persians  that  had  been  taken  prisoners 
by  the  Romans,  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century. 

Acacius,  a  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  to  which 
dignity  he  was  appointed  in  471  A.D.  He  was  ambi- 
tious and  crafty,  and  aimed  to  raise  the  church  of  Con- 
stantinople above  all  other  Eastern  churches.  Died  in 
489. 

Ac-a-de'mus   {'kKddrjfiag]   or  Hec-a-de'mus,  an 

Athenian,  who  disclosed,  it  is  said,  to  Castor  and  Pollux 
the  place  where  their  sister  Helen  was  secreted.  The 
garden  or  grove  called  Acadeniia,  in  which  Plato  found- 
ed his  school  of  philosophy,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
named  in  honour  of  Academus. 

Acamapichtli,  S-ki-mS-p^tch'tlee,  the  first  king  of 
Tenochtitlan  or  Mexico,  was  elected  to  the  throne, 
according  to  the  Mexican  annalists,  in  the  year  1352. 
His  authority  extended  only  to  the  Aztecs  inhabiting 
the  island  on  which  Tenochtitlan  was  built.  Under  his 
reign  the  Aztecs  increased  in  fame,  stone  edifices  were 
built,  and  canals  were  constructed.    Died  in  1389. 

Ac'a-mas,  ['kKUfiaq,]  a  son  of  Theseus  and  Phaedra, 
is  said  to  have  been  sent  with  Diomede  to  Troy  to 
demand  the  surrender  of  Helen.  According  to  Virgil, 
he  was  one  of  the  band  enclosed  in  the  wooden  horse. 

A9arq,  d',  dS''sSRk',  a  French  critic  and  grammarian, 
who  was  born  in  1720  and  died  in  1795. 

A-cas'tus,  [Gr.  'A/caarof;  Fr,  Acaste,  t'ktst',]  a  son 
of  Pclias,  King  of  folcus,  was  one  of  the  Argonautae.  He 
married  Astydami'a,  who,  by  false  accusations,  produced 
an  enmity  between  Acastus  and  Peleus. 

Ac'ca,  a  learned  bishop  of  Hexham,  a  contemporary 
and  friend  of  the  celebrated  Bede.    Died  in  740  A.D. 

Ac'ca  Lauren'tia  (lau-r^n'she-a)  or  Larentia,  li- 


r^n'she-a,  the  wife  of  the  shepherd  Faustulus,  is  said 
to  have  been  the  nurse  of  Romulus  and  Remus.  Ac- 
cording to  one  tradition,  she  was  a  courtesan  who  was 
renowned  for  her  beauty,  and  who  bequeathed  a  large 
sum  of  money  to  the  Roman  people  in  the  time  of  An- 
cus  Martins. 

Accama,  ak'kl-ml,  (Bernard,)  a  Dutch  historical 
and  portrait  painter,  born  in  Friesiand.    Died  in  1756. 

Accarigi,  ak-ka-ree''jee,  or  Accarisi,  ak-kl-ree''see, 
[Lat.  Accaris''ius,]  (Francesco,)  a  distinguished  pro- 
fessor of  civil  law,  born  at  Ancona  about  1550.  He 
taught  successively  in  the  Universities  of  Sienna,  Parma, 
and  Pisa.    Died  at  Pisa  in  1622. 

Accai-rigi,  (jACoro,)  a  native  of  Bologna,  who  was 
professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  University  of  Mantua.  Died 
in  1654. 

Accarisio,  ak-ka-ree''se-o,(ALBERTO,)  an  Italian,  born 
at  Cento,  near  Ferrara,  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  was  the  author  of  an  Italian  grammar  of  some 
celebrity. 

Acciajuoli  or  Acciaioli,  ^t-chd-yo'lee,  (Donato,) 
a  distinguished  Italian  scholar,  born  at' Florence  in  1428, 
wrote  commentaries  on  the  ethics  and  politics  of  Aris- 
totle.   Died  in  1478. 

Acciajuoli  or  Acciaioli,  (Filippo,)  a  dramatic  writer 
and  composer,  born  at  Rome  in  1637  ;  died  in  1700. 

Acciajuoli  or  Acciaioli,  (Niccolo  or  Nicholas,) 
an  eminent  statesman,  born  at  Florence  about  13 10. 
He  was  for  many  years  the  chief  adviser  of  Joanna,  Queen 
of  Naples,  to  whom  he  was  recommended  by  his  talents, 
eloquence,  and  fine  personal  appearance.   Died  in  1366. 

Acciajuoli  or  Acciaioli,  (Renier,)  a  Florentine, 
who  obtained  possession  of  Athens  and  Corinth  about 
1364,  and  was  styled  Duke  of  Athens. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Acciajuoli  or  Acciaioli,  (Zenobio,)  a  classical 
scholar,  born  at  Florence  in  1461,  became  librarian  oi 
the  Vatican  and  a  friend  of  Politian.  He  translated 
Eusebius  and  Theodoret  into  Latin,  and  wrote  Latin 
verses,  which  were  praised  by  Giraldi  and  other  critics. 
Died  in  15 19. 

Acciajuoli-Salvetti,  It-chS-yo'lee  sdl-vet'tee,  (Mad- 
dalena,)  an  Italian  poetess  of  Florence,  wrote  "  Rime 
Toscane,"  and  otiier  works.    Died  in  1610. 

Accioli,  St-cho'lee,  (Juan  de  Cerqueira  y  Silva — 
dis§R-ka'e-ra  e  seeKvS,)  a  Brazilian  historian,  born  about 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Among  his  works  is 
"Historical  and  Political  Memoirs  of  the  Province  of 
Bahia,"  (6  vols.,  1835  and  the  years  following.) 

Accius,  ak'she-us,  or  Attius,  at'she-us,  (Lucius,)  a 
celebrated  Roman  tragic  poet,  born  about  170  B.C. 
None  of  his  dramas  has  come  down  to  us  entire  ;  but 
the  numerous  fragments  which  remain  justify  the  ad- 
miration with  which  the  ancients  regarded  him.  The 
date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

See  Sellars,  "  Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic,"  chap.  v. 

Accius,  (Titus,)  a  Roman  orator,  born  at  Pisaurum, 
(now  Pesaro,)  in  Umbria.    He  lived  about  70  years  B.C. 

Accolti,  ik-koKtee,  (Benedetto,  or  Benedict,)  an 
Italian  writer,  born  at  Arezzo  in  1415.  He  was  doctor 
and  professor  of  law  at  Florence  ;  in  1459  he  was  made 
chancellor  of  the  republic,  which  office  he  held  till  his 
death  in  1466.  He  wrote  a  Latin  history  of  the  conquest 
of  Palestine  by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  from  which  Tasso 
derived  the  materials  of  his  great  poem. 

Accolti,  Sk-koKtee,  (Benedetto,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at  Florence  in  1497,  was  a  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  a  son  of  Michele  Accolti.  He  became  a 
cardinal  in  1527,  after  which  he  was  sometimes  called 
Cardinal  de  Ravenna.  He  was  an  elegant  Latin  poet, 
in  the  opinion  of  such  judges  as  Vida  and  Sadoleto,  and 
was  also  a  patron  of  learning.    Died  in  1549. 

See  AuBERY,  "  Histoire  des  Cardinaux." 

Accolti,  (Bernardo,)  a  noted  Italian  poet  and  im- 
provisatore,  who  lived  at  the  court  of  Leo  X.,  was  a  son 
of  the  historian  Benedetto,  and  uncle  of  the  preceding. 
Whenever  he  recited  his  verses  in  public,  great  crowds 
flocked  to  hear  him.    Died  about  1535. 

Accolti,  (Francesco,)  a  distinguished  Italian  lawyer, 
(better  known  as  Areti'nus  or  Aretino,  a-ri-tee'no,)  a 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (jJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ACCOLTl 


40 


AC HARD 


name  assumed  by  several  members  of  his  family,)  born 
at  Aiezzo  about  141 8,  was  a  brother  of  Benedetto  the  his- 
torian. In  1440  he  was  made  professor  of  law  at  Bo- 
logna, and  in  1479  was  appointed  senior  professor  of 
law  at  Pisa,  which  position  he  held  till  his  death,  about 
1485.  Besides  a  number  of  works  of  a  strictly  profes- 
sional character,  he  wrote  several  essays  in  general  lit- 
erature, including  translations  from  the  ancient  authors. 
See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d' Italia." 

Accolti,  (PiETRO,)  Cardinal,  son  of  Benedetto  the 
historian,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1455.  He  held  for 
some  time  the  professorship  of  law  in  the  University  of 
Pisa;  afterwards,  in  151 1,  he  was  made  Cardinal  of  St. 
Eusebius.  He  has  generally  been  called,  though  incor- 
rectly, Cardinal  of  Ancona  :  it  is  under  this  title  that  he 
is  said  to  have  had  the  principal  share  in  preparing  the 
bull  against  Luther,  in  1520.  It  is  certain  that  he  pos- 
sessed great  influence  at  the  court  of  Leo  X.  Died  in 
1549. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Accolti,  (PiETRO,  the  younger,)  grandson  of  Cardinal 
Benedetto,  lived  in  the  early  pai»t  of  the  seventeenth 
century.    He  lectured  on  canon  law  at  Pisa. 

Accoraniboni,  3.k-ko-ram-bo^nee,  (Fabio,)  an  Ital- 
ian lawyer,  born  in  1502.  In  1523,  or  soon  after,  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  civil  law  in  the  University  of  Pisa, 
and  afterwards,  about  1527,  became  professor  of  canon 
law  at  Rome.    Died  in  1559. 

Accoramboni,  (Felix,)  an  Italian  philosopher  and 
physician,  a  grandson  of  Geronimo,  noticed  below,  lived 
about  1600.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  Aristotle  and 
Galen. 

Accoramboni,  (Girolamo,)  an  eminent  Italian  phy- 
sician, born  about  1467,  at  Gubbio,  in  the  duchy  of  Ur- 
bino.  He  was  professor  of  medicine  at  Perugia,  and 
afterwards  at  Rome.  Leo  X.  chose  him  as  his  own  phy- 
sician.   Died  in  1537. 

Accoramboni,  (Virginia,)  an  Italian  poetess,  was 
the  wife  of  Francesco  Peretti,  a  nephew  of  Pope  Sixtus 
V.    She  was  murdered  by  Luigi  Orsini  in  1585. 

See  Adry,  "Vie  de  V.  Accoramboni,"  1807. 

Accorso,  ik-koR'so,  [Fr.  Accurse,  t^kilRss',]  (Buo- 
NO,  boo-o'no,)  written  also  Buonaccorso,  [Lat.  Bo'nus 
Accur'sius,]  a  celebrated  classical  scholar  and  rhetori- 
cian, native  of  Pisa,  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  writings  of 
Csesar  and  other  Latin  classics. 

Accorso,  (or  Accursio,  ^k-kooR'se-o,)  (Marian- 
GELO,)  an  Italian  writer  and  critic,  who  lived  at  Rome 
in  the  time  of  Leo  X. 

Accum,  cWkum  or  ik'kum,  (Friedrich,)  a  German 
chemist,  born  at  BUckeburg  in  1769.  He  emigrated  to 
London  in  1793,  and  became  professor  of  chemistry 
there  about  1802.  He  published  an  excellent  "  Practical 
Treatise  on  Gas  Light,"  (1815,)  which  contributed  greatly 
to  promote  the  use  of  gas  for  illumination  of  cities. 
Among  his  other  works  are,  "  On  the  Adulteration  of 
Food,"  (1822,)  and  "  Essay  on  Chemical  Reagents,"  (Lon- 
don, 1 816.)    Died  in  Berlin  in  1838. 

Accurse.    See  Accorso  and  Accursius. 

Accursii,  ak-kur'she-T,  (CERVO'r''TUS,)  second  son  ol 
Accui  sius,  noticed  below,  born  about  1240  ;  died  in  1287. 

Accursii,  ak-kur'she-T,  or  Accursius,  ak-kur'she-us, 
(Franciscus,)  or  Accorso,  (Francesco,)  the  soiT^of 
Accursius  mentioned  below,  was  born  at  Bologna  in 
1225.  He  was  for  several  years  a  counsellor  to  Edward 
I.  of  England,  and  afterwards  a  professor  of  law  at  Bo- 
logna, where  he  died  in  1293. 

Accursii,  (Wilhelmus,)  a  third  son  of  Accursius, 
mentioned  below,  born  in  1246,  obtained  several  eccle- 
siastical preferments,  and  was  for  some  time  in  the  service 
of  the  pope.    Died  about  13 10. 

Accursius,  ak-kur'shc-us,  (the  Latinized  form  of  Ac- 
corso,) [Fr.  Accurse,  Fl<iiRss',]  an  Italian  lawyer, 
whose  Christian  name  is  supposed  to  have  been  Fran- 
cesco, was  born  in  or  near  Florence  about  1182.  He 
was  for  many  years  a  teacher  of  law  in  Bologna.  His 
"Glossa,"/>.  a  collection  o{  glossa;,  or  notes,  made  by 
different  commentators  on  Justinian,  is  very  celebrated. 
Died  in  1260. 


Acebedo,  a-thi-Ba'Do,  (Don  Man'J!;i.,)  a  Spanish 
historical  painter,  born  at  Madrid  in  1 744,  and  died  m 
1800. 

A-9er'bas,  or  Sichseus,  si-kee'us,  a  Tyrian  priest, 
who  married  Dido  and  was  murdered  by  her  brother 
Pygmalion.  .Servius  gives  Sicharbas  or  Sicharbes  for 
Sichceus. 

Acerbi,  a-cheR''bee,  (Enrico,)  an  Italian  surgeon, 
born  at  Castano,  near  Milan,  in  1785.    Died  in  1827. 

Acerbi,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  traveller,  born  near 
Mantua  in  1773.  He  performed,  in  1799,  a  journey 
through  Lapland  to  Cape  North,  and  published  a  narra- 
tive of  that  journey  in  English,  (1802.)  In  1816  he 
founded,  at  Milan,  the  "  Biblioteca  Italiana,"  a  period- 
ical of  some  merit.    Died  in  1846. 

Acernus.    See  Klonowicz. 

A9'e-sas  [Gr.  'k.Kzadr\  or  Aceseus,  as'e-siis,  ['A/ce- 
oz'vQ^  a  celebrated  embroiderer  or  weaver  of  remote  an- 
tiquity, was  born  in  Cyprus.  The  time  in  which  he 
lived  is  unknown. 

Acesius,  a-see'she-us,  ['A/tcaw^,]  a  bishop  of  Constan- 
tinople, who  flourished  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourth 
century. 

A-9e3'tor,  ['A/cearwp,]  a  sculptor  of  Gnossus,or  Cnosus, 
in  Crete,  lived  about  430  B.C. 

Acevedo  or  Az3vaflo,  d-thi-va'Do,  (Felix  Al- 
varez,) a  brave  Spanish  officer,  born  in  the  province 
of  Leon,  was  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  popular  party  in 
the  revolution  of  1820.  Having  gained  a  victory  near 
the  Minho,  he  was  shot  in  March,  1820,  by  some  roy- 
alists whom  he  had  approached  with  friendly  overtures. 
The  Junta  ordered  that  his  name  should  be  retained  on 
the  army  list  as  if  he  were  alive. 

Acevedo,  de,  da  d-thi-va'Do,  (Alonzo  Maria,)  an 
advocate  in  the  royal  council  at  Madrid,  and  doctor  of 
canon  law  in  the  University  of  Salamanca,  flourished 
from  about  1760  to  1770.    Died  about  1775. 

Acevedo,  de,  (Cristobal,)  an  eminent  Spanish 
historical  painter,  born  at  Murcia.  Pie  studied  with  B. 
Carducci,  at  Madrid,  about  1590,  after  which  he  worked 
in  Murcia.  He  excelled  in  design  and  in  grandeur  of 
expression. 

See  Cean-Bermudez,  "Diccionario  Historlco." 

Ach,  (JoHANN  van.)    See  Achen. 

Achasmenes,  a-kem'e-n^z,  [Gr.  ^ k.xaLiLhri<;^  the  fa- 
ther of  a  line  of  Persian  kings,  named  from  him 
Ach^menid.'E,  (ak-e-men'i-de.)  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  great-grandfather  of  Cyrus  the  Great. 

Achaemenidae.    See  Ach.'EMenes. 

Achceus,  a-kee'us,  [Gr.  ' kx^ioq ;  Fr.  Achee,  t'shi',] 
the  mythical  ancestor  of  the  Achaeans,  was  said  to  be  a 
son  of  Xuthus,  a  grandson  of  Helen,  and  a  brother  of  Ion. 

Achaeus,  a  Greek  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Eretria, 
484  B.C.  He  wrote  several  tragedies,  but  succeeded 
best  in  the  satiric  drama.  Only  a  few  fragments  of  his 
works  remain. 

Achaeus,  a  cousin  of  Antiochus  III.,  by  whom  he 
was  appointed  governor  of  Asia  Minor.  Having  re- 
belled against  his  sovereign,  he  was  taken  and  put  to 
death,  214  B.C. 

Achaintre,  t'shiNtR',  (Nicolas  Louis,)  a  French 
philologer,  born  in  Paris  in  1771,  became  a  school- 
teacher. He  was  patronized  by  Firmin  Didot,  and  pro- 
duced good  editions,  with  notes,  of  Horace,  (1806,)  Juve- 
nal, (1810,)  and  Persius,  (1812.)    Died  about  1830. 

Achard,  t''shtR',  (Antoine,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  min- 
ister, born  at  Geneva  in  1696,  was  an  eloquent  preacher. 
He  settled  in  Berlin  in  1724,  received  the  title  of  privy 
counsellor,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Berlin  in  1743.  Two  volumes  of  his  sermons  were 
published,  (1774.)    Died  in  1772. 

Achard,  ^'shtR^  (Claude  Franqois,)  a  French 
writer,  horn  at  Marseilles  in  1758,  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  Description  of  Provence,"  (1787,)  and  "Elements 
of  P.ibliooraphv,"  (3  vols.,  1807.)    Died  in  1809. 

Achard,  (Franz  Karl,)  a  distinguished  German 
chemist,  son  of  Antoine  Achard,  born  at  Berlin  in  1753. 
He  was  elected,  in  1776,  a  member  of  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  at  Berlin.  The  extraction  of  sugar 
from  the  beet-root  appears  to  have  engaged  his  especial 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged ;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/wrt;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good,  moon; 


J  CHARD 


41 


JCINELLI 


attention ;  and  his  essays  on  the  subject  contributed 
much  towards  the  introduction  ot  this  manufacture  into 
France.  Among  his  works  is  "Lectures  on  Experi- 
mental Philosopny,"  (4  vols.,  1792.)    Died  in  1S21. 

Achard,  (Louis  A. me  dee  Eugene,)  a  French  writer 
of  fiction,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1S14.  He  removed  to 
Paris  about  1S38,  and  wrote  for  several  journals,  among 
which  was  the  "Charivari."  His  romance  "La  Belle 
Rose"'  (5  vols.,  1S47)  obtained  success. 

Achards,  de  la  Baume  des,  d'la  bom  da-zS'shtR', 
(£leazar  Francois,)  a  French  bishop,  born  at  Avi- 
gnon in  1679.  He  is  commended  for  acts  of  charity 
during  the  prevalence  of  the  plague  at  Marseilles  in 
1721.    Died  in  Cochin  in  1741. 

Acharius,  a-kd're-as,  (Erik,)  a  distinguished  botan- 
ist and  physician,  born  at  Gefle,  in  Sweden,  in  1757. 
He  studied  at  Upsal,  under  the  celebrated  Linnaeus. 
As  a  botanist,  his  attention  seems  to  have  been  chiefly 
directed  to  cryptogamous  plants,  and  especiallvto  lichens. 
He  published  "  Lichenographia  Universalis,"  (1810.) 
Died  in  181 9. 

See  "  Blographiskt  Lexicon  ofver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man," 
Upsala  and  Oeiebro,  1835-1856. 

A-eha'tes,  [Fr.  Achate,  t'shSt',]*  a  friend  of  .-Eneas, 
whose  fidelity  was  so  exemplary  that  "  Fidus  Achates" 
became  a  proverb.  (See  Virgil,  "^f^neid,"  lib.  i.  18S 
and  312.) 

Achates,  J-KcVtis,  (Leonardus,)  one  of  the  early 
printers,  who  carried  the  art  from  Germany  into  Italy. 
He  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

Achelom.    See  Antiquls. 

A-eh-e-lo'us,  ['Axv-tjo^-,]  a  river-god  of  Greek  mythol- 
ogy, was  a  son  of  Oce'anus.  The  poets  relate  that  he 
had  the  assurance  to  compete  with  Hercules  as  a  suitor 
of  Dejanira,  and  was  defeated  by  that  hero  in  a  combat. 

Aclien  or  Aachen,  van,  van  d'Ken,  (Johann,)  writ- 
ten also  Acken,  Fanachen,  and  Janachen, an  emi- 
nent German  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  at 
Cologne  in  1552.  He  was  employed  at  Munich  by  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria,  and  afterwards  at  Prague  by  the  em- 
perors Rudolph  and  Matthias.  Died  at  Prague  about 
1620.    He  was  reputed  the  richest  artist  of  his  time. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  desPeintres  Flainands,"  etc. 

Achenbach,  i'Ken-baK',  (Andreas,)  a  German 
painter,  of  the  Dusseldorf  school,  born  at  Cassel  in 
1 81 5.  He  excels  in  landscapes  and  marine  views.  He 
obtained  a  medal  of  the  first  class  at  Paris  in  1855, 
when  he  exhibited  "  High  Tide  at  Ostend  ;"  a  "  Moon- 
light Scene,"  etc. 

Achenbach,  (Oswald,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
and  like  him  distinguished  as  a  painter  of  landscapes, 
was  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1827. 

Achenwall,  i'Ken-Ml,  (Gottfried,)  an  eminent 
wiiter  on  statistics,  born  at  Elbing,  in  Prussia,  in  1 7 19. 
He  may  almost  be  said  to  have  created  the  science  of 
statistics,  called  by  him,  in  German,  Staatswissenschaft, 
(in  Latin,  "Scientia  Statistica,")  i.e.  "the  science  or  in- 
formation relating  to  States."    He  appears  to  have  in-  j 
eluded  in  the  terms  above  cited  all  those  facts  of  which  ' 
a  knowledge  is  necessary  to  thorough  statesmanship,  i 
Accordingh',  in  his  lectures  he  treated  of  the  laws  of 
nations  and'  history,  as  well  as  of  statistics  in  the  present  ! 
acceptation  of  the  word.    He  first  taught  in  the  Uni-  i 
versity  of  Marburg;  but  in  1748  he  was  employed  at! 
Gottingen,  where  he  continued  till  his  death,  in  1772. 

Acherley,  ak'er-le,  (Roger,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
political  writer,  who  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  eigh-  I 
teenth  century.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  Britannic  Con- 
stitution, and' another  on  Free  Parliaments. 

Acheron.    See  Pluto. 

Achery,  d',  dt'shi're',  (Jean  Luc,)  a  learned  French 
Benedictine  monk,  born  at  St.  Quentin  in  1609.  His 
most  important  work  is  a  collection  of  rare  documents, 
entitled  a  "Gleaning  [Spicilegium]  of  certain  old  Wri- 
ters who  have  been  buried  in  the  Libraries  of  France," 
(13  vols.,  1653-77.)    Died  in  1685. 

A-ehillas,  [Gr.  'kxi/>.u^,]  an  Egyptian  general,  who, 
on  the  death  of  Ptolemy  Auletes,  was  appointed  regent 


•  Oiaucer  writes  the  name  Achate.  (See  the  "  House  of  Fame.") 


of  Egypt  and  guardian  to  Ptolemy  XHI.  and  his  sister 
Cleopatra.  He  was  afterwards  put  to  death  by  Arsinoe, 
sister  of  Ptolemy. 

Achilles,  a-kiri^z,[Gr.'A,ViA/^Tf;  Fr.  Achille,  S'sh^K, 
It.  Achille,  d-kel'la,j  a  celebrated  Grecian  warrior,  the 
hero  of  Homer's  Iliad,  was  the  son  of  Peleus,  King  of 
Thessaly,  and  the  sea-nymph  Thetis  :  hence  he  is  often 
called  Peli''des.  The  poets  feigned  that  his  mother 
dipped  him  into  the  river  Styx  to  render  him  invulnera- 
ble, and  that  he  was  vulnerable  only  in  the  heel  by 
which  she  held  him.  He  led  to  the  siege  of  Troy  a 
band  of  Myrmidones  in  fifty  ships,  and  performed  great 
exploits  ;  but  he  quarrelled  with  Agamemnon  before  the 
end  of  the  war,  and  withdrew  from  the  contest.  To 
avenge  the  death  of  Patroclus,  he  again  took  arms,  and 
slew  Hector.  He  was  at  last  killed  by  Paris,  (or,  as  some 
say,  by  Apollo,)  who  shot  him  in  the  heel. 

See     Iliad," /rtjj/w/,  and  "Odyssey,"  xxiv.  36. 

Achilles,  [Ger.  pron.  i-Kil'les,]  (Alexander,)  a  Prus- 
sian nobleman,  whom  Ladislaus,  King  of  Poland,  sent 
on  an  embassy  to  Persia.    Born  in  1584;  died  in  1675. 

Achilles  Tatius,  a-kil'lez  ta'she-us,)  ['A,\v/./fi'f  Ta- 
TLog,^  a  Greek  poet  and  romance-writer,  who  is  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  centnrv.  This 
writer,  or  another  of  the  same  name,  is  the  author  of  an 
astronomical  work  called  the  "Sphere." 

Achillini,  a-k^l-lee'nee,  [Lat.  Achilli'nus,]  (Ales- 
SANDRO,)  a  celebrated  physician  and  philosopher,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1463.  He  studied  at  Paris,  and  in  14S5  be- 
gan to  teach  in  his  native  town.  In  1506  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  philosophy  and  medicine  at  Padua  ; 
but  three  years  after,  in  consequence  of  a  Mar,  he  re- 
turned to  Bologna,  where  he  died  in  15 12.  He  left  sev- 
eral works  on  anatomy,  and  some  philosophical  treatises. 

Achillini,  (Claudio,)  [Lat.  Clau'dius  Achilli'- 
NUS,]  born  at  Bologna  in  1574,  was  professor  of  law 
successively  in  the  Universities  of  Bologna,  Ferrara,  and 
Parma.  He  wrote  poems  in  the  inflated  style  which 
was  prevalent  in  his  time.  He  was  a  grandson  of  Gio- 
vanni Filoteo.    Died  in  1640. 

Achillini,  (Giovanni  P^iloteo,)  a  poet  and  anti- 
quary, brother  of  Alexander  the  physician,  was  born 
at  Bologna  in  1466,  and  died  in  1538. 

Achish,  a'kish,  a  king  of  Gath,  to  whom  David  fled 
from  Saul.    (See  I.  Samuel  xxi.  10.) 

Achitophel,  (a-kit'o-fel.)    See  Ahithophel. 

Achmet.    See  Ahmed. 

Achmet  Geduc.    See  Ahmed  Kedijk. 

Achrelius,  a-kree'le-us,  (Daniel,)  a  professor  at  the 
University  of  Abo,  wrote  a  book  agaiiist  the  Copernican 
system,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

See  "  Biographiskt  Lexicon  ofvernamnkunnige  Svenska  Man,"  Up- 
sala, 1S35. 

Achterveldt,  ^K'ter-v^lt',  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
who  died  in  1704. 

Achtschelling,  aKt'sK§l-ling,  (Lucas,)  a  skilful  land- 
scape-painter, who  lived  at  Brussels  towards  the  close 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  was  a  close  imitator  of 
nature. 

Acidalius,  as-se-da'le-us  or  dt-se-da'le-us,  (Va'lens,) 
a  German  classical  scholar,  born  at  Wittstock,  in  Bran- 
denburg, in  1567  ;  died  in  1595.  His  commentaries  on 
Velleius  Paterculus,  Quintus  Curtius,  and  other  Latin 
authors,  exhibit  much  critical  acumen. 

See  Leuschner,  "De  V.  Acldalli  Vita,  Moribns  et  Scriptis," 
1757- 

Acier,  t'se-i',  (Michel  Victor,)  a  French  sculpicr, 
born  at  Versailles  in  1736;  died  in  1799. 

A-gill-us  Gla'bri-o,  (Manius,)  a  Roman  general, 
who  became  consul  in  191  B.C.,  and  commanded  the  army 
sent  against  Antiochus  of  Syria,  whom  he  defeated  at 
Thermopylae.  He  also  subdued  the  Boeotians  and  rEto- 
lians.  A  golden  statue  of  Acilius  Glabrio  was  the  first 
of  that  material  seen  in  Italy. 

Ag-in-dy'nus,  ['A/viVJvroc,]  (Gregorius,)  a  Greek 
monk  and  polemical  writer,  who  lived  at  Constantinople 
during  the  fourteenth  century. 

Acinelli,  i-che-neKlee,  a  Genoese  historian,  who 
flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
He  wrote  a  "History  of  Genoa,"  (1745-47.) 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


JCK 


42 


ACROTATUS 


Ack,  ak,  (John,)  a  distinguished  painter  on  glass, 
tvlio  tlourished  at  Brussels  about  1550. 

Acken,  (Jan  van.)    See  Achen. 

Ac'ker-mann,  [Ger.  pron.  dk'ker-man^,]  (Conrad,) 
a  celebrated  German  comedian,  born  in  17 10;  died  in 
1771- 

Ackermann,  (Jacob,)  an  eminent  German  physiolo- 
gist, born  near  Mentz  in  1765.  He  was  professor  of 
botany  and  afterwards  of  anatomy  in  the  University  of 
Mentz.  In  1S04  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  anat- 
omy at  Jena,  and  in  1805  to  the  same  position  in  Hei- 
delberg, which  he  held  till  his  death,  in  1813. 

Ackermann,  (Johann  Christian  Gottlieb,)  a 
physician  and  distinguished  classical  scholar  and  critic, 
was  born  in  Upper  Saxony  in  1756.  He  studied  at  Jena 
in  1 77 1,  and  subsequently  at  Gottingen,  under  the  cele- 
brated Heyae.  Some  years  after,  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  pathology  and  therapeutics  in  the  University 
of  Altorf,  where  he  died  in  1801.  Among  his  various 
works  the  lives  of  Hippocrates,  Galen,  and  other  Greek 
physicians  deserve  particular  mention. 

Ackermann,  (Rudolph,)  a  German  artist  and  dealer 
in  prints,  was  born  in  Saxony  in  1764.  He  settled  in 
London,  where  he  prospered  as  a  print-seller,  and  estab- 
lished an  extensive  repository  of  arts,  which  had  a 
European  reputation.  He  pulDlished  coloured  engrav- 
ings and  lithographs,  and  an  annual  or  series  of  annuals 
entitled  "  The  Forget-me-not."  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  who  introduced  lithography  as  a  fine  art  into 
England.  According  to  Jerdan,  he  published  the  first 
annual  in  England.    Died  in  1834. 

See  "Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xiii. 

Ac'land,  (Henry  Wen rvvoRrii,)  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  a 

distinguishe  1  iLiiglish  physician,  born  in  1815,  graduated 
as  M.D.  at  Oxford  in  1 848.  In  i860  he  accompanied  the 
Prince  of  Wales  to  America  as  his  medical  attendant. 

Ac;and,  (I^ady  Harriet,)  wife  of  Major  Acland,  who 
served  with  distinction  in  tlie  British  army  under  Bur- 
goyne.  She  accompanied  her  husband  in  the  campaigns 
of  1776-7,  of  which  she  wrote  a  narrative.  Her  husband 
was  seriously  wounded  and  taken  prisoner  in  October, 
1777.    She  died  in  1815. 

Agoka.    See  Ashoka. 

Acolutli,  ¥ko-\6Qi\  [Lat.  Acolu'thus,]  (.Andreas,) 
a  distinguished  Oriental  scholar,  born  in  Silesia  in  1654, 
was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin. 
Died  in  1704. 

Acoluth,  (Johann,)  a  German  theologian,  born  in 
Silesia  in  1628.    Died  in  1689. 
Aconiinatus.    See  Nicetas. 
Aconce.    See  Aconzio. 

Aconz  Kover,  3.'konts  ko'ver,  (Stephen,)  a  distin- 
guished Armenian  writer,  born  in  Transylvania  in  1740. 
His  ancestors  had  removed  from  Armenia,  in  Asia,  in 
1330.  He  was  chosen,  in  1800,  abbot  of  the  convent  of 
St.  Lazarus  at  Venice,  regarded  as  the  great  centre  of 
Armenian  learning.    Died  in  1824. 

Aconzio,  il-kon'ze-o,  (Giacomo,  or  James,)  [Lat. 
aco'bus  Acon'tius,  ( a-kon'shc-us;)  Fr.  Aconce, 
'koNss',]  a  distinguished  writer,  born  at  Trent  about 
1500.  Having  relinquished  the  Catholic  and  embraced 
the  Protestant  faith,  he  left  his  native  country  about 
1557,  and,  passing  through  Switzerland,  went  to  Eng- 
land, where  it  is  supposed  that  he  died  about  1565.  He 
wrote  a  book  entitled  "Stratagems  of  Satan,"  (1565,) 
which  has  enjoyed  great  celebrity.  His  work  on  the 
Best  Method  of  Acquiring  Knowledge,  evinces  an  acute 
understanding ;  and  all  his  writings  show  him  to  have 
been  a  man  of  learning  and  literary  taste. 

Ac'o-ris,  [Gr.  'KnopLc,]  a  king  of  Egypt,  who  flou- 
rished about  380  B.C.  He  made  war,  though  with  little 
success,  against  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  King  of  Persia. 

Acosta,  i-kos'ta,  (Christovao,  or  Christopher,)  a 
Portuguese  naturalist,  who  visited  India  to  procure 
drugs,  and  afterwards  practised  medicine  at  Burgos. 
He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Drugs  and  Plants  of  the 
East  Indies,"  (1578.)    Died  about  1580. 

Aco3ta,  (Gabriel,)  a  professor  of  theology  at  Coim- 
bra,  Portugal,  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures. 
Died  in  1616. 

Acosta,  (Joaquin,)  a  native  of  South  America,  a 


colonel  of  engineers  in  the  service  of  New  Granada, 
published  a  "  Historical  Compendium  of  the  Discovery 
and  Settlement  of  New  Granada,"  (1848,)  with  a  good 
map  of  that  country. 

Acosta,  d-kos'ta,  or  d'Acosta,  dd-kos'ta,  (Jose,) 
a  Spanish  Jesuit  and  writer,  born  at  Medina  del  Campo 
about  1539.  He  went  to  South  America  as  a  missionary 
in  1571,  returned  in  1588,  and  published  a  work  entitled 
"Natural  and  Moral  History  of  the  Indies,"  ("  Historia 
Natural  y  Moral  de  las  Indias,"  1590,)  which  was  much 
esteemed,  and  translated  into  several  languages.  He 
became  rector  of  the  University  at  Salamanca,  where  he 
died  in  1600. 

Acosta,  (Uriel,)  a  Portuguese,  who  was  educated  as 
a  Christian,  converted  to  Judaism,  and  afterwards  ex- 
communicated by  the  Jews  in  consequence  of  his  having 
written  against  the  Mosaic  Scriptures  and  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul.  He  killed  himself  in  1640,  or,  accord- 
ing to  some  accounts,  in  1647. 

See  his  Autobiography,  Leipsic,  1847;  Jellinek,  "Acostas  Le- 
ber.," 1847. 

Acquapendente.  See  Fabricius  or  Fabrizio, 
Geronimo. 

Acquaviva,  ak-kwa-vee'vi,  a  noble  family  of  Naples 
that  has  produced  a  number  of  distinguished  command- 
ers, statesmen,  and  men  of  learning.  Its  representa- 
tive has  for  several  generations  borne  the  title  of  Duke 
of  Atri. 

Acquaviva,  (Andrea  Matteo,)  Duke  of  Atri,  J'tree, 
a  Neapolitan,  born  about  1460,  was  a  munificent  patron 
of  learning.    Died  in  1528. 

Acquino,  Sk-kwee'no,  a  Piedmontese  chronicler,  who 
lived  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Acquisti,  ik-kwes'tee  or  ^k-kwis''tee,  (Luigi,)  an 
Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Forli  in  1744;  died  in  1824. 
He  worked  at  Rome  and  Milan.  A  group  of  "  Venus 
pacifying  Mars"  is  considered  his  master-piece. 

Ac'ra-gas,  [Gr.  'A/cpuya^,]  a  celebrated  engraver  or 
chaser  in  silver,  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury B.C. 

Acrel,  §,'kRel,  (Olof,)  an  eminent  Swedish  surgeon, 
born  near  Stockholm  in  171 7.  Having  spent  some 
time  in  Paris  in  observing  the  practice  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished surgeons  of  that  city,  he  entered  the  French 
army  in  1743  ;  but,  after  serving  in  two  campaigns,  he  re- 
tired on  account  of  ill  health.  He  died  at  Stockholm  in 
1807,  leaving  several  surgical  works. 

See  "  Biographiskt  Lexicon  ofvernamnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Acrisius,  a-krish'e-us,  [Gr.  'AKpioLog,']  a  son  of  Abas, 
King  of  Argos,  and  the  father  of  Danae,  whom  he  con- 
fined, it  is  said,  in  a  brazen  tower  or  other  prison,  be- 
cause an  oracle  had  declared  that  she  would  bear  a  son 
who  should  kill  her  father.  He  was  killed  accidentally 
by  Perseus,  the  son  of  Danae  by  Jupiter.    (See  Danaij.) 

A'cron,  [Gr.  'A/cpwv,]  a  celebrated  physician  of  Agri- 
gentum,  (now  Girgenti,)  in  Sicily,  who  lived  in  the  fifth 
century  B.C. 

A'cron  Hel-e'ni-us,  a  Roman  grammarian,  who 
wrote  a  commentary  on  Horace.  The  age  in  which  he 
lived  is  unknown. 

A-cro'ni-us  or  Acron,  S-kron',  (Jan,  or  John,)  a 
Dutch  physician,  born  in  1520.    Died  at  Bale  in  1563. 

A-crop-o-li'ta,  [Gr.  ' kKpoTioXLTrig,']  (Constantine,)  a 
Byzantine  writer,  lived  between  1250  and  1300,  He  was 
a  son  of  George,  below  noticed. 

Acropolita,  (George,)  a  celebrated  Byzantine  his- 
torian, born  at  Constantinople  in  1220.  He  was  highly 
esteemed  by  the  emperors  Ducas  (to  whom  he  was  re- 
lated) and  Michael  Palaeologus,  and  held  the  office  of 
chancellor  (logotheta)  at  the  Byzantine  court.  He  was, 
moreover,  employed  on  several  important  embassies. 
His  greatest  work  is  a  history  of  the  Byzantine  Empire 
from  "the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins  in 
1204  down  to  1260,  when  Michael  Palaeo'logus  again  took 
possession  of  the  city.    Died  in  1282. 

See  Gibbon,  "History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire," chap.  Ixii. 

A-crot'a-tus,  ['A/cporarof,]  King  of  Sparta,  was  the 
son  of  Areus,  whom  he  succeeded  about  265  B.C.  Be- 
fore his  accession  he  distinguished  himself  by  the  de- 
fence of  Sparta  against  Pyrrhus  in  272.    After  a  reign  of 


a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  long;  a,  6,6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fAt;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ACS 


43 


ADALOALDVS 


one  year,  he  was  killed  in  battle  against  Aristodemus  of 
Megalopolis. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Pynhus." 

Acs  or  Aacs,  itch,  (Michael,)  a  Hungarian  philos- 
opher, born  at  St.  Martin  in  163 1.    Died  in  1708. 

Acs  or  Aacs,  (Michael,)  a  theologian,  born  at  Raab 
in  1672,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  171 1. 

Actceon,  ak-tee'on,  [Gr.  'XnTaiuv ;  Fr.  ACTEON, 
tk'ta'6N',]  in  the  Greek  mythology,  a  hunter,  who  was  a 
son  of  Aristaeus  and  Autonoe,  a  daughter  of  Cadmus. 
He  was  changed  into  a  stag  by  Diana  and  torn  to  pieces 
by  his  own  hounds,  because  he  had  seen  that  goddess 
bathing. 

Ac-tis'a-nes,  [Gr.  'A.KTLaavTj^,']  an  ancient  king  of 
Ethiopia,  who  is  said  to  have  conquered  Egypt  before 
the  time  of  the  Trojan  war. 

Ac'ton,  [Fr.  pron.  ik't6N',]  (Joseph,)  an  officer  of 
Irish  descent,  born  at  Besan9on,  France,  in  1737.  He 
entered  the  navy  of  Tuscany,  became  a  captain,  and  af- 
terwards passed  into  the  service  of  the  King  of  Naples. 
The  favour  of  the  queen,  and  his  own  intrigues,  procured 
his  promotion  to  the  office  of  minister  of  the  marine. 
He  was  prime  minister  from  1784  to  1798.  His  policy 
was  implacably  hostile  to  the  Fi-ench.  Died  about 
1810. 

See  CoLLETTA,  "  Storia  del  Regno  di  Napoli." 
Ac'tor,  [Gr.  'A/crwp,]  a  son  of  Deion,  (or,  as  some  say, 
of  Myrmidon,)  was  the  husband  of  /Egina,  and  grand- 
father of  Patroclus,  who  was  called  Actor'ides. 

Ac-tu-a''ri-us,  ['A/c-oyapwf,]  (John,)  a  Greek  physi- 
cian and  medical  w-riter,  who  flourished  about  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  century. 

A-cuTe-o,  (Caius,>  a  Roman  knight  and  distin- 
guished lawyer,  who  married  an  aunt  of  Cicero  the 
orator. 

A-cu'me-nus,  {' kKov^iEvo^,']  an  Athenian  physician, 
and  friend  of  Socrates,  lived  in  the  fifth  century  u.c 

Acuna,  de,  da  a-koonV.i,  (Antonio,)  Bishop  of  Za- 
mora,  Spain,  distinguished  for  his  martial  exploits  in  the 
insurrection  of  Castile  in  1520.  He  was  strangled  in 
prison  in  1526. 

Acuna,  de,  (Cristoval,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  born  at 
Burgos  in  1597,  wrote  an  interesting  narrative  of  the 
voyage  of  exploration  of  the  river  Amazon  in  1639-41. 
His  work  is  entitled  "  New  Discovery  of  the  Great  River 
of  the  Amazons,"  ("  Nuevo  Descubrimiento  del  gran 
Rio  dc  las  Amazonas.")    Died  about  1680. 

Acuna,  de,  (Hernando,)  a  distinguished  Spanish 
soldier  and  poet,  born  about  1500,  was  a  friend  of  Gar- 
cilasso  de  la  Vega.  His  sonnets  and  eclogues  were 
much  admired.    Died  in  15S0. 

Acuna,  de,  (Don  Pedro  Bravo,)  a  Spanish  gov- 
ernor of  the  Philippine  Islands,  distinguished  as  a  war- 
rior and  naval  commander.  His  principal  exploit  was 
the  reconquest  of  the  Moluccas  from  the  Dutch  in  1606. 
He  died  the  same  year,  at  Manilla. 

A-cu-si-la'us,  Y'\KovaLkaoc,]  a  Greek  historian,  sup- 
posed to  have  flourished  about  530  B.C. 

A'da,  a  Carian  princess,  who  succeeded  her  husband 
on  the  throne  of  Caria  in  344  B.C.  When  Alexander 
conquered  Asia  Minor,  he  appointed  her  to  the  satrapy 
of  Caria. 

Ada,  d'dd,  a  countess  of  Holland,  deprived  of  her 
patrimonial  estate  by  William  of  Friesland.  She  is  sup- 
posed to  have  died  about  the  year  12 18. 

A'da,  (Ear-Ahaba  or  -Ahavah,)  a  celebrated  rabbi, 
regarded  as  the  greatest  of  all  the  Jewish  astronomers, 
was  born  at  Babylon,  A.D.  183.  He'is  said  to  have  lived 
to  the  age  of  170  years. 

Adadurof,  S-dd-doo'rof,  (Basil,)  a  Russian  savant, 
born  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1709,  was  preceptor  to  Cathe- 
rine II.   He  wrote  some  scientific  works.  Died  in  1780. 

Adaeus  ['Af'a^or]  or  Addaeus,  ['A(5(5a?of,]  ad-dee'us, 
a  Greek  poet,  native  of  Macedonia,  flourished,  it  is  sup- 
posed, about  320  B.C. 

A-dair',  (James,)  a  trader  and  resident  among  the 
Chickasaw  and  other  neighbouring  tribes  of  Indians,  pub- 
lished in  1775  a  "  History  of  the  American  Indians,"  in 
which  he  endeavours  to  establish  their  descent  from  the 
Israelites. 

A-dair',  (James,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer,  and 


member  of  Parliament.  He  was  recorder  of  London 
about  1780,  or  after  that  date.    Died  in  1798. 

A-dair',  (James  Makit'trick,)  a  Scottish  physician, 
born  in  1728,  died  in  1802.  He  spent  many  years  of  his 
life  in  the  West  Indies.  Besides  a  number  of  medical 
essays,  he  wrote  a  pamphlet  against  the  abolition  of  the 
slave-trade. 

A-dair'',  (John,)  an  American  general  and  senator, 
born  in  South  Carolina  in  1757.  He  served  in  the  wars 
against  the  frontier  Indians  in  179 1-2-3,  ^^'^^  ^  senator 
in  Congress  from  Kentucky,  1805-6,  and  in  1814  distin- 
guished himself  in  command  of  the  Kentucky  troops  at 
the  battle  of  New  Orleans.  From  1820  to  1824  he  was 
Governor  of  Kentucky,  and  from  1831  to  1833  a  repre- 
sentative in  Congress.    Died  in  1840. 

Adair,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  a  noted  Scottish  hydrog- 
rapher,  who  lived  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries.  He  is  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  De- 
scription of  the  Sea-coast  and  Islands  of  Scotland,  with 
Large  and  Exact  Maps  for  the  Use  of  Seamen." 

Adair,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  able  English  diplomatist, 
born  in  London  in  1763.    He  entered  Parliament  about 
!  1802  as  a  friend  of  Fox,  and  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to 
!  Vienna  in  1806.    In  1808,  ahliough  not  identified  in 
1  politics  with  the  ministry,  he  was  appointed  on  a  special 
j  mission  to  the  Ottoman  Porte.    He  was  ambassador  at 
that  court  from  1809  until  1811.    In  1831  he  was  sent 
by  Earl  Grey  on  a  special  mission  to  the  court  of  Bel- 
gium, and  in  1835  retired  from  public  service  with  the 
rank  of  privy  counsellor.    Died  in  1855,  aged  about  92. 
See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  Nov.  1855. 

Adalard.    See  Adalhard. 

Adalbero,  a-dal-ba'ro,  or  Adalberon,  a'dSl'beh- 
roN^,  Archbishop  of  Rheims,  flourished  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  tenth  century.  He  officiated  at  the  corona- 
tion of  Hugh  Capet  in  987,  and  died  in  988. 

Adalbero,  a  bishop  of  Laon  in  the  time  of  Louis  the 
last  of  the  Carlovingians,  and  Hugh  Capet. 

Ad'al-bert,  [Fr.  pron.  a'dftrbaiR'';  Lat.  Adalber'- 
Tus,]  written  also  AFdebert  or  Aldeber'tus,  a  French 
bishop  of  great  popularity,  who  lived  about  the  middle 
of  the  eighth  century.  He  pretended,  it  is  said,  to  work 
miracles,  and  to  be  possessed  of  all  knowledge.  He  was 
dei^osed  from  his  bishopric  for  heresy,  and  imprisoned, 
about  775  A.  D. 

Ad'al-bert,  [Ger.  pron.  ^'dal-bCRt',]  an  archbishop 
of  Bremen,  born,  it  is  supposed,  about  loco  A.D.  He 
was  descended  from  the  emperor  Otho  II.,  and  became 
a  favourite  of  Henry  IV.    Died  in  1072. 

Ad'al-bert  (Adalberto,  a-dal-ber'to)  I.,  son  of 
Boniface,  Count  of  Lucca,  assumed  the  title  of  Marquis 
of  Tuscany.  His  son  Adalbert  (or  Adalberto)  II.  suc- 
ceeded him,  with  the  titles  of  duke  and  marquis.  Died 
about  888. 

Ad'al-bert  or  Adalber'tus,  Bishop  of  Prague,  called 
the  "Apostle  of  the  Prussians,"  commonly  known  as 
Saint  Adal])ert,  was  born  in  939.    He  was  killed  in  997. 

Ad'al-bert,  an  eminent  prelate  who  lived  in  the  time 
of  Henry  V.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  by  whom  he  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Mentz.  W^hen  Henry  was  excom- 
municated by  the  pope,  in  11 12,  Adalbert  was  one  of  the 
first  to  turn  against  him,  and  became  at  length  his  irre- 
concilable enemy ;  and  on  his  death,  in  11 25,  had  sufficient 
influence  to  prevent  his  nephew,  Frederick  of  Suabia, 
from  being  elected  emperor.    He  died  in  1137. 

Adalbert,  S'dal-b^Rt'',  (Heinrich  Wilhelm,)  a 
Prussian  prince,  cousin-german  of  Frederick  William 
IV.,  born  in  Berlin  in  181 1.  He  entered  the  army  in 
his  youth,  and  made  a  voyage  to  Brazil,  of  which  he 
wrote  a  narrative  :  "  Passages  from  my  Travelling  Diary," 
("Aus  meinem  Reisetagbuch,"  1842.)  He  obtained  com- 
mand of  the  Prussian  navy  about  1850. 

Adalbertus.    See  Adalbert. 

Adalhard,  ad'a-lard',  [Lat.  Adalar'dus,]  an  abbot 
and  eminent  preacher,  allied  to  the  family  of  Charles 
Martel,  born  about  753.  He  stood  in  high  favour  at  the 
court  of  Charlemagne,  who  employed  him  on  several 
important  missions.    Died  in  826. 

A-dalo-aFdus,  a  king  of  the  Lombards,  son  of  Agi- 
lulfus  and  Theudelinda,  was  born  at  Mu^tina  (Mod''ena) 
about  602  A.  D.    He  is  said  to  have  been  poisoned  by 


C  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  c,  11,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ADAM 


44 


ADAMI 


some  of  his  subjects  whom  his  tyranny  had  exasper- 
ated. 

Ad'am,  [Heb.  DIX,  i.e.  "man,"]  the  first  man,  (see 
Genesis  i.,  li.,  and  iii.,)  is  commonly  supposed  to  have 
been  created  a  little  more  than  4000  years  before  the 
Christian  era;  though  according  to  the  computation  of 
some  writers,  his  date  should  be  placed  much  earlier. 

Adam,  S'doN',  (Adolphe  Charles,)  a  popular  com- 
poser, born  in  Paris  in  1803,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Louis, 
noticed  below.  He  composed  with  extreme  facility.  In 
1844  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Institute.  Among 
his  works  are  operas  entitled  "  Le  Chalet,"  (1834,)  and 
"Le  Postilion  de  Lonjumeau,"  {1836.)    Died  in  1856. 

Adam,  a'ddm,  (Albrechf,)  a  German  painter  of  bat- 
tles, was  born  at  Nordlingen  in  17S6.  He  entered  the 
service  of  Eugene,  Viceroy  of  Italy,  whom  he  accom- 
panied in  the  Russian  campaign  of  181 2.  Among  his 
works  is  "The  Battle  of  the  Moskwa,"  (1835.)  Died  in 
1862. 

Ad'am,  (Alexander,)  an  eminent  teacher  and  gram- 
marian, born  in  1741  in  Murrayshire,  Scotland.  In  1768 
he  became  rector  of  the  Edinburgh  high  school,  which, 
under  his  able  management,  acquired  a  reputation  al- 
most unequalled  among  institutions  of  its  kind.  He 
published  his  "Principles  of  Latin  and  English  Gram- 
mar" in  1772,  and  in  1791  his  "Roman  Antiquities." 
Both  of  these  works,  until  within  a  few  years,  have  been 
extensively  used  in  many  schools  in  the  United  States 
as  well  as  in  Great  Britain.  His  "  Roman  Antiquities," 
(1791,)  considered  the  most  creditable  of  all  his  works, 
immediately  established  his  reputation  as  a  sound  and 
thorough  scholar.  In  1794  appeared  his  "Summary 
of  Geography  and  History,  both  Ancient  and  Modern," 
which  afterwards  passed  through  several  editions.  Be- 
sides tlie  foregoing,  and  a  little  book  entitled  "  Classical 
Biography,"  he  published  a  compendious  Latin  dictionary, 
("  Lexicon  Linguae  Latinoe  Conipendiarium,")  abridged 
from  a  much  larger  work,  of  the  same  kind,  which  was 
never  finished.    He  died  in  1809. 

See  Alexander  Henderson',  "Life  of  A.  Adam,"  1810;  Cham- 
bers, "  Biograpliicil  Dxtionavy  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  and  Sir  Wal- 
ter Scott's  "Autobiography,"  which  contains  some  interesting  par- 
ticulars illustrating  Dr.  Adam's  character,  both  as  a  teacher  and  as 
a  man. 

Adam,  (Daniel,)  a  German  historian,  born  at  Prague 
in  1546.    Died  in  1599. 

Adam,  t'dox',  (pRANgoiS  Gaspard,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Nancy  in  17 10,  was  a  brother  of  Lambert 
Sigisbert,  noticed  below.  He  worked  in  Paris  and  Ber- 
lin.   Died  in  1759. 

Adam,  S.'dlm,  (Georg,)  a  German  landscape-painter, 
of  Nuremberg,  born  about  1783  ;  died  in  1823. 

Adam,  (Jacob,)  a  German  engraver,  lived  in  Vienna 
about  1800.  He  engraved  plates  for  the  "  Bilder-Bibel" 
of  Vienna. 

Adam,  (Jacques,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Vendome 
in  1663  ;  died  in  1735.  ^^"^^  one  of  the  translators 

of  De  Thou's  Universal  History,  (16  vols.,  1734,)  and 
was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 

Ad'am,  (James,)  an  architect,  was  a  brother  and  part- 
ner of  Robert,  noticed  below.    Died  in  1794. 

Adam,  ([ean  Louls,)  a  French  composer  and  pianist, 
born  in  the  department  of  the  Lower  Rhine  about  1760. 
He  had  great  success  as  professor  of  music  in  Paris,  and 
published  a  "  Methode  de  Piano,"  (1802,)  which  was  very 
popular.    Died  in  1848. 

Adam,  (Jean  Victor,)  a  French  painter  and  lithog- 
rapher, born  at  Paris  in  1801.  He  painted  several  bat- 
tle-pieces for  the  gallery  of  Versailles,  and  produced 
many  lithographs,  among  which  are  the  "  Promenades 
and  Environs  of  Paris." 

Adam,  (Lambert  Sigisbert,)  a  distinguished  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Nancy  in  1700.  When  only  twenty-three 
years  of  age,  he  obtained  the  first  prize  in  the  Academy 
at  Paris.  He  executed  several  groups  for  the  royal 
gardens  at  Versailles  and  Choisy.  In  1744  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  in  the  Royal  Academy  of  Paris.  His 
works  were  less  remarkable  for  their  conception  than 
for  their  finished  execution,  and  are  deficient  in  the  sim- 
plicity of  antique  art.    Died  in  1759. 

Adam,  i'dim,  (Melchior,)  an  eminent  German 
biographer,  born  in  Silesia  in  the  latter  part  of  the  six- 


teenth century,  and  died  in  1622.  Pie  wrote  the  lives  of 
many  eminent  men,  both  Germans  and  foreigners,  who 
lived  between  1500  and  1618.  He  was  rector  of  the 
College  of  Heidelberg.  One  of  his  works  is  entitled 
"  Lives  of  German  Philosophers,"  ("  Vitce  Germanorum 
Philosophorum,"  4  vols.,  1615-20.) 

Adam,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  grammarian  and  trans- 
lator, born  in  Paris  in  1716.    Died  in  1792. 

Adam,  (Nicolas  Sebastien,)  a  younger  brother  of 
Lambert  Adam  the  sculptor,  whom  he  surpassed  in  all 
the  higher  qualities  of  the  art,  was  born  at  Nancy  in 
1705.  His  two  greatest  works  are  his  "Prometheus 
Chained,"  and  his  "  Monument  of  the  Queen  of  Poland." 
Pie  was  professor  of  sculpture  in  the  Academy  of  Paris. 
Died  in  1778. 

Adam,  (Robert,)  an  architect,  born  at  Edinburgh  in 
1728,  and  died  in  1792.  He  and  his  brother  James 
erected  a  number  of  mansions  for  the  nobility,  and 
public  edifices  in  different  parts  of  England.  His  style, 
though  strikingly  novel  at  the  time  of  its  introduction,  has 
the  great  defect  of  excessive  and  minute  decoration  ;  and 
his  works  generally  are  deficient  in  unity  of  composition. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Adam,  (Rev.  Robert,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  at' 
Udney  about  1770,  published  "The  Religious  World 
Displayed."    Died  in  1826. 

Adam,  (Rev.  Thomas,)  born  at  Leeds  in  1701,  and 
died  in  1784.  He  wrote  numerous  works  of  a  religious 
character,  of  which  his  "  Private  Thoughts  on  Religion" 
(published  in  1786)  is  probably  the  best-known. 

Adam,  (Right  Hon.  William,)  a  British  lawyer, 
born  in  Scotland  in  1751,  was  a  nephew  of  Robert  Adam 
the  architect.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  Parliament 
in  1774,  fought  a  duel  with  Charles  James  Fox  in  1779, 
and  was  one  of  the  managers  appointed  by  the  Commons 
to  conduct  the  impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings  in 
1788.  He  was  sworn  of  the  privy  council  in  181 5,  and  pre- 
sided over  the  Scottish  jury  court  for  the  trial  of  civil 
causes  from  1816  until  his  death  in  1839.  His  son  John 
became  Governor-General  of  India,  and  died  in  1820. 
Another  son,  Charles,  obtained  the  rank  of  admiral. 

See  Lockhart,  "Life  of  Scott." 

Adam-Billaut,  t'd6N'  be'y5',  commonly  styled  Mai- 
TRE  Adam,  mgt'R  t'dSw',  [i.e.  "  Master  Adam,")  a  French 
poet,  and  a  joiner  by  trade,  sometimes  called  the 
Joiner  of  Nevers.  Pie  was  patronized  by  the  great 
Conde,  and  pensioned  by  Richelieu.    Died  in  1662. 

Adam  of  Brem''8n,  [Lat.  Ada'mus  Bremen'sis,]  an 
ecclesiastical  author,  who  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  eleventh  century.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the  efforts 
to  extend  Christianity  from  the  time  of  Charlemagne  to 
that  of  Henry  IV. 

Adam  de  la  Halle— deh'lt-htK,  surnamed  Le  Bossu 
d'Arras,  leh  bo^sii'  dt'rSss',  {i.e.  "The  Hunchback  of 
Arras,")  a  French  poet  of  the  thirteenth  century.  He 
wrote  a  piece  called  "  The  Play  of  the  Shepherd  and 
Shepherdess,"  (•'  Le  Jeu  du  Berger  et  de  la  Bergere,") 
which  is  regarded  as  the  earliest  specimen  of  the  modern 
drama. 

Adam  de  Marisco.    See  Adamus  Mariscus. 

Adamannus  or  Adamanus.    See  Adomnan. 

Adamanteo,  a-da-man-ta'o,  an  Italian  mathemati- 
cian and  Orientalist.    Died  in  158 1. 

Adamantiu3,  ad-a-man'she-us,  ['A(5a,uaynof,]  the  au- 
thor of  a  treatise  in  Greek  on  physiognomy,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury after  Christ. 

Adami,  a-d3.'mee,  (Adam,)  a  German  ecclesiastic, 
statesman,  and  historian,  born  at  Miihlheim  about  1600. 
He  was  chosen  by  the  prelates  of  Wiirtemberg  to  repre- 
sent them  in  the  congress  which  met  in  1643  to  nego- 
tiate the  peace  of  Westphalia  ;  and  afterwards  wrote  an 
excellent  and  impartial  history  of  those  negotiations, 
"Arcana  Pacis  Westphalicae,"  (published  in  1698.)  Died 
in  1663. 

Adami,  d-di'mee,  (Antonio  Filippo,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  prose-writer,  born  at  Florence  about  1720. 
Died  in  1761. 

Adami,  (Lionardo,)  an  Italian  author  and  excellent 
classical  scholar,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1690.  He  wrote  a 
history  of  ancient  Arcadia,  (1716.)    Died  in  1719. 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  tl.  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mht;  n5t;  good;  mt56n; 


ADAMI 


45 


ADAMS 


Adami,  S-di'mee,  (Tobias,)  a  writer  born  in  Saxony 
in  1581,  first  introduced  the  works  of  Campanella  to  the 
notice  of  the  philosophers  of  Germany.    Died  in  1643. 

Adami-da-Bolsena,  ^-da'mee  da  bol-sa'ni,  (An- 
drea,) an  Italian  musician,  born  at  Rome  in  1663,  pub- 
lished a  work  called  "  Observations  for  the  Regulation 
of  the  Choir  of  Singers  in  the  Pontifical  Chapel,"  ("Os- 
servazioni  per  ben  regolare  il  Coro  dei  Cantori  dellaCa- 
pella  Pontificia,"  1711.)    Died  in  1742. 

Adamino,  d-d^-mee'no,  an  Italian  sculptor,  who  lived 
in  the  eleventh  century. 

Adamnan  or  Adamnanus.    See  Adomnan. 

Ad'ains,  (Abigail,)  the  daughter  of  the  Rev.  William 
Smith,  "was  born  at  Weymouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1744.. 
She  was  married  in  1764  to  John  Adams,  afterwards 
President  of  the  United  States,  and  died  in  181 8.  Her 
"  Letters"  are  interesting  and  valuable  for  the  hints 
which  they  furnish  ot  the  manners  of  her  country  at 
the  period  in  which  she  lived,  and  for  her  original  and 
graphic  notices  of  European  society. 

Adams,  (Amos,)  an  American  divine,  born  in  1727. 
He  published  several  sermons,  two  of  which,  giving  a 
"Concise  Historical  View,  etc.,  of  New  England,"  were 
republished  in  London.    Died  in  1775. 

Adams,  (Charles  Baker,)  an  American  naturalist, 
born  at  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  in  1814.  He  grad- 
uated at  Amherst  College,  became,  in  1838,  professor  of 
chemistry  and  natural  history  in  Middlebury  College, 
Vermont,  and  afterwards  of  chemistry  and  zoology  at 
Amherst.  He  assisted  Professor  Hitchcock  in  his  geo- 
logical survey  of  New  York,  and  as  State  geologist  was 
engaged  for  several  years  in  a  survey  of  Vermont.  He 
published  "Contributions  to  Conchology,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1853. 

Adams,  (Charles  Francis,)  an  American  diplomat- 
ist, the  son  of  John  Quincy  Adams,  was  born  in  lioston 
on  the  1 8th  of  August,  1807.  He  passed  his  childhood 
mostly  in  St.  Petersburg  and  London,  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1825,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1828.  He  served  for  five  years  in  the 
legislature  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  nominated  at 
Buffalo,  in  August,  1848,  for  the  office  of  Vice-President 
l)y  the  convention  of  Frce-Soilers  which  nominated  Mar- 
tin Van  Buren  for  the  Presidency. 

He  published  the  "  Life  and  Works  of  John  Adams," 
(10  vols.,  1850-56.)  In  1858  he  was  elected  to  Congress 
as  a  Republican  by  the  voters  of  the  third  district  of 
Massachusetts.  He  was  re-elected  in  i860,  and  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  England  in  the  spring  of  1861.  He 
encountered  the  most  bitter  social  hostility  in  England, 
but  he  maintained  the  rights  of  his  country,  and  acquit- 
ted himself  with  credit  in  the  difficult  and  important 
controversies  that  arose  during  the  great  rebellion. 
Among  the  principal  subjects  of  his  negotiations  was 
the  damage  inflicted  on  the  American  mercantile  marine 
by  piratical  war-steamers  built  in  England  and  depend- 
ing for  success  on  British  aid  and  sympathy. 

"  No  ambassador  in  recent  times,"  says  the  "  London 
Spectator"  of  Feb.  8,  1868,  "has  ever  had  to  fill  a  posi- 
tion, not  merely  so  delicate  and  difficult,  but  so  trying 
to  the  equanimity  of  him  who  held  it  through  the  rapid 
and  extreme  changes  of  fortune  in  the  State  of  which  he 
has  been  the  mouth-piece.  .  .  .  Mr.  Adams  must 
have  entered  on  his  diplomatic  task  with  a  just  sense  of 
soreness,  which,  but  for  his  great  self-command  and  even 
self-forgetfulness,  might  have  resulted  after  the  most 
lamentable  fashion."  He  resigned  about  F'ebruary,  1868. 
"It  has  been  the  good  fortune  of  Mr.  Adams,"  says  the 
"London  Illustrated  News"  of  February  15,  1868,  "to 
have  exercised  the  grandest  qualities  of  true  statesman- 
ship just  where  and  when  they  were  of  priceless  value, 
and  to  have  exercised  them  with  complete  success." 

Adams,  (George,)  an  English  optician  and  scientific 
writer,  distinguished  as  a  maker  of  mathematical  instru- 
ments and  globes.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Treatise  on 
the  Construction  and  Use  of  Globes,"  ( 1 766,)  and  an  "  Es- 
say on  the  Microscope,"  (1771.)    Died  in  London,  1786. 

His  son  George,  born  about  1750,  was  also  an  op- 
tician. He  published  an  "  Essay  on  Vision,"  (1789,)  and 
"Astronomical  and  Geometrical  Essays,"  (1789,  often 
reprinted.)    Died  in  1795. 


Adams,  (Hannah,)  one  of  the  earliest  female  writers 
of  America,  born  at  Medfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1755. 
She  was  the  author  of  a  "  View  of  Religious  C)pinions,' 
(1784,)  "History  of  New  England,"  (1799,)  "Evidences 
of  Christianity,"  (1801,)  "  History  of  the  Jews,"  (1812,) 
and  of  several  other  works.  She  numbered  among  her 
friends  the  Abbe  Gregoire  and  other  distinguished  per- 
sons.   Died  in  1832. 

Adams,  (Isaac,)  of  Boston,  inventor  of  the  Adams 
printing-press,  was  born  near  the  commencement  of  the 
present  century.  His  printing-presses  are  now  hi  general 
use  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  in  the  j.;iincipal 
cities  have  nearly  or  quite  superseded  every  other. 

Adams,  (Jasper,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born  at 
Medway,  Massachusetts,  in  1 793.  He  graduated  at  Brown 
University  in  1815,  and  soon  after  became  professor  of 
mathematics  in  that  institution.  He  was  subsequently 
president  of  Charleston  College,  South  Carolina.  Died 
in  1841. 

Adams,  (John,)  an  Englishman,  who  lived  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  He  published  "  Index  Villaris  ;  or, 
An  Alphabetical  Table  of  all  the  Cities,  Market  Towns, 
Parishes,  etc.,  in  England  and  Wales,"  (1680,)  which  has 
been  pronounced  the  best  work  of  its  kind. 

See  GouGH,  "British  Topography." 

Adams,  (John,)  an  eminent  preacher,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1662,  was  chaplain  to  William  III.  and  to  Queen 
Anne.  He  obtained  a  prebend  at  Canterbury,  which  he 
exchanged  in  1708  for  a  stall  in  the  royal  chapel  at 
Windsor.  He  left  a  treatise  on  suicide,  and  several  ser- 
mons.   Died  in  1719  or  1720. 

Adams,  (John,)  an  American  divine  and  poet,  born 
in  1704.    Died  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1740. 

Adams,  (John,)  an  eminent  American  statesman,  the 
second  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  in 
Braintree,  Massachusetts,  about  ten  miles  from  Boston, 
on  the  19th  of  October,  1735,  O.  S.  He  was  the  eldest 
son  of  John  Adams,  a  farmer,  and  Susanna  Boylston. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1755,  and,  while  he 
was  preparing  himself  for  the  profession  of  the  law, 
taught  school  at  Worcester  for  two  years  or  more.  In 
choosing  a  profession  he  was  at  first  inclined  to  be  a 
minister  of  the  gospel ;  but  he  found  he  could  not  assent 
to  the  orthodox  creed  in  the  doctrine  of  election  and 
rci)robation.  "  His  disgust  at  the  doctrines  of  Calvin- 
ism," says  John  Quincy  Adams,  "  was  perhaps  riveted 
by  the  opinions  which  he  found  disseminated  in  the  so- 
cial circle  into  which  he  had  been  introduced."  He 
studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1758,  and 
afterwards  resided  with  his  father  at  Braintree  for  sev- 
eral years. 

"  For  the  profession  of  the  law,"  says  his  grandson, 
"  John  Adams  had  been  pre-eminently  gifted  with  the 
endowments  of  nature  ;  a  sound  constitution  of  body,  a 
clear  and  sonorous  voice,  a  quick  conception,  a  discrim- 
inating judgment,  and  a  ready  elocution." 
•  Among  the  intimate  friends  of  his  youth  was  Jonathan 
Sewall,  an  eloquent  lawyer.  In  1761  his  patriotic  zeal 
was  inflamed  by  the  argument  of  James  Otis  (which  he 
heard)  on  the  subject  of  writs  of  assistance.  Alluding 
to  the  time  and  place  of  that  plea,  John  Adams  said, 
"American  independence  was  then  and  there  born." 
He  married,  in  1764,  Abigail  Smith,  (a  grand-daughter 
of  Colonel  John  Quincy,)  a  woman  of  excellent  char 
acter  and  superior  talents.  The  passage  of  the  stamp  act 
in  1765  was  the  occasion  of  his  first  active  participation 
in  political  affairs.  At  a  meeting  of  the  citizens  of  Brain 
tree  he  offered  resolutions  or  instructions  addressed  tc 
the  legislature,  which  were  approved,  and  were  adoptee 
by  forty  other  towns  in  Massachusetts.  He  published, 
in  1765,  an  "Essay  on  Canon  and  Feudal  Law." 

The  same  year,  Jeremiah  Gridley,  James  Otis,  and  John 
Adams  were  employed  by  the  people  of  Boston  as  their 
counsel  to  support  an  important  memorial,  addressed  to 
the  governor  and  council,  praying  that  the  courts  of  law, 
which  had  been  closed,  might  be  reopened.  In  order  to 
induce  him  to  join  the  Tory  party,  he  was  offered  in  1763 
the  place  of  advocate-general,  which  he  declined.  He 
removed  from  Braintree  to  Boston  in  1768,  and  soon 
obtained  an  extensive  practice. 


€  as  /6;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  k,  giitttcral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ADAMS 


46 


ADAMS 


He  had  now  become  distinguished  as  one  of  the  most 
prominent  and  intrepid  advocates  of  the  popular  cause ; 
yet  he  was  also  disposed  to  act  the  part  of  a  moderator 
and  to  counteract  the  violent  excesses  of  the  patriots. 
He  acted  as  counsel  for  the  defence  in  the  trial  of  the 
soldiers  who,  when  attacked  by  a  mob  in  Boston  in 
March,  1770,  had  fired  and  killed  several  persons.  In 
this  case  he  firmly  resisted  the  storm  of  popular  excite- 
ment and  the  violence  of  party  spirit.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  general  court  {i.e.  the  legislature)  in 
1770.  "  It  was  not  as  a  politician,"  says  Charles  Francis 
Adams,  "  but  as  a  lawyer,  that  John  Adams  was  first 
drawn  into  public  life."  He  became  the  chief  legal  ad- 
viser of  the  patriots.  The  destruction  of  the  tea  in  the 
harbour  of  Boston,  December,  1773,  opened  the  active 
drama  of  the  Revolution  by  a  resort  to  physical  force. 

Mr.  Adams  was  one  of  the  five  delegates  sent  by  Mas- 
sachusetts to  the  first  continental  Congress,  which  met  at 
Philadelphia  in  September,  1774.  To  his  friend  Sewall, 
who  urged  him  not  to  engage  in  the  perilous  enterprise 
of  revolution,  he  replied,  "  The  die  is  now  cast ;  I  have 
passed  the  Rubicon.  Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive 
or  perish  with  my  country,  is  my  unalterable  determina- 
tion." In  Congress  he  found  a  fitting  arena  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  those  great  talents,  both  for  business  and  de- 
bate, which  ultimately  raised  him  to  the  leadership  of 
that  body.  His  diary  and  letters  give  a  graphic  account 
of  the  proceedings  of  that  assembly. 

During  the  winter  of  1774-75  he  wrote,  under  the  sig- 
nature o{  JVoc'angins,  a  series  of  able  essays  in  defence  of 
the  rights  of  the  colonists.  These  first  appeared  in  a 
journal  of  Boston,  and  may  be  found  in  the  fourth  vol- 
ume of  his  collected  works.  After  the  battle  of  Lexing- 
ton, (A]Dril,  1775,)  which  made  many  converts  to  the 
cause  of  independence,  he  returned  to  Congress.  The 
majority  of  the  members,  however,  were  still  disposed 
to  temporize,  and  adopted  another  petition  to  the 
king,  which  Mr.  Adams  opposed.  He  was  more  suc- 
cessful in  his  efforts  to  induce  the  Congress  to  provide 
for  the  defence  of  the  colonies.  It  appears  that  he 
was  the  first  to  propose  George  Washington  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army.  He  was  again  elected  to 
the  Federal  Congress  for  one  year,  and  went  to  Philadel- 
phia in  February,  1776.    In  a  letter  dated  March  23, 

1776,  he  wrote,  "All  our  misfortunes  arise  from  the  re- 
luctance of  the  southern  colonies  to  republican  govern- 
ment." He  procured,  in  May,  the  passage  in  Congress 
of  a  resolution  that  the  colonies  should  assume  the  duty 
of  self-government.  On  the  7th  of  June  a  resolution 
was  moved  by  Richard  Henry  Lee,  and  seconded  by  Mr. 
Adams,  that  these  colonies  "  are  and  of  right  ought  to 
be  free  and  independent  States."  On  the  nth  of  June, 
Thomas  Jefferson,  John  Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin, 
Roger  Sherman,  and  Robert  R.  Livingston  were  ap- 
pointed a  committee  to  prepare  a  declaration  of  inde- 
pendence. This  measure  was  opposed  by  a  strong  party, 
of  which  John  Dickinson  was  the  leader  and  spokes- 
man. In  reply  to  him,  Mr.  Adams  made,  about  July  2,  a 
memorable  speech,  in  reference  to  which  Jefferson  said, 
"  John  Adams  was  the  ablest  advocate  and  champion  of 
independence  on  the  floor  of  the  house."  "  He  was  the 
colossus  of  that  Congress.  Not  graceful,  not  eloquent, 
not  always  fluent  in  his  public  addresses,  he  yet  came  out 
with  a  power  of  thought  and  expression  which  moved 
his  hearers  from  their  seats." 

On  the  3d  of  July  he  wrote  to  his  wife,  "The  second 
day  of  July,*  1776,  will  be  the  most  memorable  epoch 
in  the  history  of  America.  I  am  apt  to  believe  that  it 
will  be  celebrated  by  succeeding  generations  as  the  great 
anniversary  festival." 

Mr.  Adams  was  the  president,  or  chairman,  of  the 
board  of  war  appointed  in  June,  1776.  He  was  also 
chairnian  of  twenty-five  committees  in  Congress.  He 
was  appointed  commissioner  to  France  in  November, 

1777,  and  arrived  in  Paris  in  April,  1778,  to  learn  that  a 
treaty  between  France  and  the  United  States  had  al- 


♦  The  clay  on  which  the  resolution  in  favour  of  independence  was 
passed :  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  with  its  various  amend- 
ments, was  not  agreed  to  until  the  4th,  and  then  only  after  a  long  and 
vehement  debate. 


ready  been  concluded.  He  returned  to  the  United 
States  in  July,  1779,  and  in  the  ensuing  autumn  served 
in  the  convention  which  formed  a  new  constitution  for 
Massachusetts.  Before  this  business  was  finished,  Mr. 
Adams  was  appointed  minister  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of 
peace  and  commerce  with  Great  Britain.  He  embarked 
in  November,  1779,  but  did  not  reach  Paris  until  Feb- 
ruary, 1780.  Having  changed  his  base  of  operations  to 
Amsterdam,  in  July,  he  was  authorized  in  January,  1781, 
to  act  as  minister  to  Holland.  The  difficulty  of  his  po- 
sition was  increased  by  the  intrigues  and  duplicity  of 
the  French  minister,  De  Vergennes,  who  induced  Con- 
gress to  revoke  Mr.  Adams's  powers  to  negotiate  a  treaty 
of  commerce.  Adams,  Franklin,  Jay,  and  Laurens, 
who  had  been  appointed  joint  commissioners,  negotiated 
with  Great  Britain  a  treaty,  the  preliminary  articles  of 
which  were  signed  November  30,  1782.  He  was  minis- 
ter at  London  from  May,  1785,  until  the  spring  of  1788, 
during  which  period  he  published  a  "  Defence  of  the 
American  Constitutions."  When,  in  1789,  Washington 
was  inaugurated  as  President  of  the  United  States, 
Adams  became  Vice-President.  As  an  advocate  of  t"he 
Federal  constitution  he  was  identified  with  the  Federal- 
ist party,  by  which  he  was  again  elected  Vice-President 
in  1792.  In  the  first  Congress  he  gave  no  less  than 
twenty  casting  votes,  all  on  points  of  imijortance  in  the 
organic  laws,  and  thus  rendered  an  efficient  support  to 
the  policy  of  Washington.  When  the  French  Revolu- 
tion divided  the  Americans  into  two  parties,  Mr.  Adams 
joined  the  Anti-Gallican  party. 

In  1796,  John  Adams  and  Thomas  Pinckney  were 
nominated  by  the  Federalists  for  the  offices  of  President 
and  Vice-President.  The  Republican  candidate  for  the 
Presidency  was  Thomas  Jefferson.  Mr.  Adams  wrote 
to  his  wife,  under  date  of  January  20,  1796,  "  I  am  heir-ap- 
parent, you  know,  and  a  succession  is  soon  to  take  place." 
His  friends  assert  that  General  Hamilton,  who  was  the 
favourite  leader  of  the  Federal  party,  used  his  influence 
to  elect  Pinckney  to  the  Presidency.  The  result  of  the 
canvass  was  that  Adams  received  seventy-one  electoral 
votes  and  became  President,  while  Jefferson  received 
sixty-eight  votes  and  became  Vice-President.  As  Pres- 
ident, Adams  retained  the  cabinet  ministers  appointed  by 
Washington,  viz.,  Timothy  Pickering,  Oliver  Wolcott, 
James  Mclienry,  Joseph  Habersham,  and  Charles  Lee. 
With  the  first  two  of  these  secretaries,  however,  he  had 
no  cordial  relations.  In  the  war  between  France,and  Eng- 
land he  maintained  neutrality;  but  the  French  Directory 
provoked  the  enmity  of  the  Americans  by  the  violation  of 
their  maritime  rights,  and  by  the  expulsion  of  the  envoys, 
Marshall  and  Pinckney,  from  France.  In  1798  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  organized  a  new  army,  of 
which  General  Washington  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief.  For  the  post  of  second  in  command  Wasli- 
ington  preferred  Hamilton,  whom  the  President  regard- 
ed with  ill  will  or  distrust  ;  but  the  general-in-chief  pro- 
cured the  appointment  of  Hamilton  by  a  "  menace  of 
resignation."  In  February,  1799,  without  consulting  his 
cabinet,  Adams  nominated  a  Mr.  Murray  as  minister  to 
the  French  Republic.  This  act,  wliich  Charles  Francis 
Adams  says  was  "  the  most  noted  event  of  Mr.  Adams's 
administration,"  gave  great  offence  to  many  of  his  own 
party,  although  the  result,  by  averting  a  war  with  France, 
was  probably  advantageous  to  the  country.  His  unpop- 
ularity was  increased  by  the  alien  and  sedition  laws,  the 
latter  of  which  made  the  mere  expression  of  opinions  or 
public  men  and  measures  a  penal  offence.  In  May,  1800, 
he  removed  Mr. Pickering  from  the  office  of  secretary  of 
state,  and  appointed  John  Marshall  in  his  stead. 

In  the  presidential  election  of  1800  he  was  again  the 
Federal  candidate,  and  received  sixty-five  electoral  votes, 
but  was  defeated  by  Thomas  Jefferson,  who  received 
seventy-three  votes.  In  March,  1801,  he  retired  from 
public  life,  and  sank  into  neglect,  covered  with  obloquy 
by  both  of  the  great  political  parties.  A  reaction  of 
public  sentiment,  however,  gradually  took  place  in  his 
favour,  and  his  faults — which,  indeed,  were  of  a  kind  to 
impair  his  popularity  rather  than  his  usefulness — were 
almost  lost  sight  of,  after  he  had  withdrawn  from  political 
life,  in  the  remembrance  of  his  inany  and  inestimable 
public  services. 


a,  e,  i,  5,  u,  y,  lons^;  i,  hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  shoj-t;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  f^t;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ADAMS 


47 


AD  4  MS 


He  l^egan  to  write  an  Autobiography,  whiich  he  never 
finished.  Having  lived  to  see  his  son,  John  Quincy, 
elected  President  of  the  United  States,  he  died  at  Quin- 
cv  on  the  4th  of  July,  1S26.  By  a  remarkable  coinci- 
dence, Thomas  Jetferson  died  on  the  same  day.  The 
character  of  John  Adams  as  drawn  by  Jefferson  before 
these  distinguished  men  had  become  rivals  for  the  suf- 
frages of  the  American  people,  is  probably  very  near  the 
truth.  He  says,  writing  from  Paris,  "A  seven  months' 
intimacy  with  him  here,  and  as  many  weeks  in  London, 
have  given  me  opportunities  of  studying  him  closely. 
He  is  vain,  irritable,  and  a  bad  calculator  of  the  force 
and  proljable  effect  of  the  motives  which  govern  men. 
This  is  all  the  ill  which  can  possibly  be  said  of  him.  He 
is  profound  in  his  views  and  accurate  in  his  judgment, 
except  where  knowledge  of  the  world  is  necessary  to 
form  a  judgment." — Letter  to  Madison,  dated  January  30, 
1787. 

Sje  "  The  Life  and  Works  of  John  Adams,"  edited  by  his  grand- 
son, Charles  Francis  Adams,  10  vols.  Svo,  1850-56  ;  Bancroft, 
"  Hiotory  of  the  United  States;"  Hilureth,  "History  of  the 
United  States;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1S41  ;  "New 
York  Review"  for  January,  1842  ;  "  North  American  Review"  for 
October,  1850;  Jared  Sparks,  "Diplomatic  Correspondence  of  the 
American  Revolution." 

Adams,  (John,)  a  British  sailor,  was  one  of  the  mu- 
tinous crew  of  the  "Bounty,"  who,  in  1789,  sent  their 
commander,  Bligh,  adrift  in  a  boat,  and  established  them- 
selves in  Pitcairn's  Island.  After  some  of  his  comrades 
had  been  killed  by  the  natives,  he  became  religious, 
trained  his  children  in  habits  of  strict  morality,  and  was 
regarded  as  the  patriarch  of  the  colony.  His  proper 
name  is  said  to  have  been  Alexander  Smith.  Died  in 
1829.  An  account  of  this  colony  was  published  in  a 
"  Voyage  to  the  Pacific,"  etc.,  by  Captain  Beechey,  who 
visited  it  in  1825  ;  also  by  Rev.  E.  Murray,  (1853.)  Lord 
Byron  has  made  the  history  of  this  colony  the  subject 
of  a  poem  in  four  cantos,  entitled  "  The  Island." 

See,  also,  Sir  John  Barrow,  "History  of  the  Mutiny  of  the 
Bounty." 

Adams,  (John  Couch,)  an  eminent  English  astron- 
omer, l)orn  in  Cornwall  about  181 7,  was  educated  at 
Cambridge.  He  shares  with  Leverrier  the  honour  of  the 
discovery  of  the  planet  Neptune,  although  he  was  anti- 
cipated by  that  astronomer  in  the  publication  of  the  dis- 
covery. He  began  his  researches  into  the  causes  of  the 
irregularities  in  the  motion  of  Uranus  as  early  as  1843, 
and  communicated  the  results  to  Professor  Airy  in  1845. 
In  November,  1846,  he  made  public  his  "Explanation 
of  the  Observed  Irregularities  in  the  Motion  of  Uranus." 
He  received  the  Copley  medal  in  1848,  was  chosen  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1849,  and  President  of  the 
Astronomical  Society  in  185 1.  He  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  astronomy  at  Cambridge  in  1858. 

Adams,  (John  Quincy,)  an  American  statesman, 
orator,  and  diplomatist,  the  sixth  President  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  in  Braintree,  Massachusetts,  on  the  i  ith 
of  July,  1767.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  President  John 
Adams,  above  noticed.  He  enjoyed  peculiar  and' rare 
advantages  for  education.  In  childhood  he  was  instruct- 
ed by  his  mother,  a  grand-daughter  of  Colonel  John 
Quincy,  and  a  woman  of  superior  talents.  In  1778, 
when  only  eleven  years  old,  he  accompanied  his  father 
to  France,  attended  a  school  in  Paris,  and  returned 
home  in  August,  1779.  Having  been  taken  again  to 
Europe  by  his  father  in  1780,  he  pursued  his  studies  at 
the  University  of  Leyden,  where  he  learned  Latin  and 
Greek.  In  July,  1781,  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  he  was  ap- 
pointed private  secretary  to  Francis  Dana,  minister  to 
Russia.  He  remained  at  St.  Petersburg  until  October, 
1782,  after  which  he  resumed  his  studies  at  the  Hague, 
and  was  present  at  the  signing  of  the  definitive  treaty  of 
peace  in  Paris,  September  3,  1783.  Having  passed  some 
months  with  his  father  in  London,  he  returned  to  the 
United  States  to  complete  his  education,  entered  Har- 
vard College  in  1786,  and  graduated  in  1788. 

He  studied  law  with  the  celebrated  Theophilus  Par- 
sons, of  Newburyport,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1791, 
and  began  to  practise  in  Boston.  In  1791  he  published 
in  the  "  Boston  Centinel,"  under  the  signature  of  Piibli- 
cola,  a  series  of  able  essays,  in  which  he  exposed  the  fal- 
lacies and  vagaries  of  the  French  political  reformers.  | 


These  papers  attracted  much  attention  in  Europe  as 
well  as  in  the  United  States. 

Under  the  signature  of  Marcelhis  he  wrote,  in  1793, 
several  articles,  in  which  he  argued  that  the  United 
States  should  observe  strict  neutrality  in  the  war  between 
the  French  and  the  British.  "  To  him,"  says  Mr.  Sew- 
ard, "  it  is  believed,  belongs  the  honour  of  first  publicly 
advocating  this  line  of  policy,  which  afterwards  became 
a  settled  principle  of  the  American  government."  These 
writings  having  commended  him  to  the  favour  of  Gen- 
eral Washington,  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Holland 
in  May,  1794.  Pie  married,  in  July,  1797,  Louisa  Cath- 
erine Johnson,  a  daughter  of  Joshua  Johnson,  of  Mary- 
land, who  was  then  American  consul  at  London.  In  a 
letter  dated  February  20,  1797,  Washington  wrote  i.o  the 
elder  Adams,  "  I  give  it  as  my  decided  opinion  that 
Mr.  Adams  is  the  most  valuable  public  character  we 
have  abroad,"  and  he  advised  the  President-elect  not  to 
withhold  promotion  from  him  because  he  was  his  son. 
John  Quincy  Adams  was  accordingly  appointed  ministei 
to  Berlin,  in  1797.  He  translated  Wieland's  "  Oberon" 
into  English,  and  published  an  account  of  his  travels  in 
Silesia,  which  he  visited  in  1800.  He  succeeded  in  ne- 
gotiating a  treaty  of  amity  and  commerce  with  the  Prus- 
sian government,  and  was  recalled  about  February,  1801. 

He  was  elected  a  senator  of  the  Uuited  States  by  the 
Federalists  of  Massachusetts,  for  the  term  beginning 
March,  1803.  In  1805  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
rhetoric  and  belles-lettres  at  Plarvard  College,  and  ac- 
cepted that  office  on  condition  that  he  should  be  permit- 
ted to  attend  to  his  senatorial  duties  while  Congress  was 
in  session.  His  lectures  at  Harvard  were  much  ad- 
mired, and  were  published  in  1810.  In  1805  he  endeav- 
oured to  procure  the  passage  of  a  law  to  levy  a  duty  on 
the  importation  of  slaves.  He  offended  his  political 
friends,  the  Federalists,  by  supporting  Jefferson's  em- 
bargo act,  which  was  passed  in  December,  1807,  and 
thus  became  connected  with  the  Democratic  party.  The 
legislature  of  Massachusetts  elected  another  person  to 
take  the  place  of  Mr,  Adams,  who  resigned  his  seat  in 
March,  1808,  declining  to  serve  for  the  remainder  of  the 
term,  rather  than  obey  the  instructions  of  the  Federalists, 
who  were  then  the  dominant  party  in  his  State.  He  sub- 
sequently gave  far  deeper  offence  by  charging  some  of  the 
Federal  leaders  with  a  plot  to  dissolve  the  Union  and 
establish  an  independent  northern  confederacy.  This 
accusation  was  doubtless  one  of  the  principal  causes  of 
the  hostility  and  distrust  which  were  long  felt  towards 
New  England,  not  only  in  the  Southern,  but  also  in  the 
Middle  and  Western  States. 

While  a  member  of  the  Senate,  Mr.  Adams  had  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  an  able  and  eloquent  public  speak- 
er, as  well  as  an  accomplished  scholar.  In  March,  1809, 
he  was  appointed  by  President  Madison  minister  to 
Russia,  louring  his  residence  in  that  country  he  was 
nominated  an  associate  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of 
the  United  States,  and  confirmed  February,  181 1  ;  but 
he  declined  the  appointment.  His  influence  and  diplo- 
matic services  at  St.  Petersburg  laid  the  foundation  of 
those  amicable  relations  which  have  ever  since  been 
maintained  between  Russia  and  the  United  States.  In 
1813,  Adams,  Clay,  Gallatin,  and  Russell  were  appointed 
commissioners  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Great 
Britain.  They  met  the  British  diplomatists  at  Ghent, 
and,  after  a  protracted  negotiation  of  six  months,  signed 
a  treaty  of  peace  on  the  24th  of  December,  1814. 

In  the  spring  of  1815,  Adams  was  appointed  minister  to 
the  court  of  St.  James,  where  he  remained  until  he  was 
selected  by  Mr.  Monroe  for  the  office  of  secretary  of  state 
in  181 7.  In  his  long  and  successful  career  as  a  diplomat- 
ist he  had  justified  the  confidence  of  Washington,  who, 
in  1797,  had  predicted  that  Mr.  Adams  would  "prove 
himself  to  be  the  ablest  of  all  our  diplomatic  corps." 
He  entered  upon  his  duties  as  secretary  of  state  in  Sep- 
tember, f8i7,  and  performed  them  with  a  fidelity  and 
success  which  obtained  the  approbation  of  the  country. 
He  defended  General  Jackson's  conduct  in  Florida,  when 
the  other  members  of  the  cabinet  censured  him  for  tran- 
scending his  orders. 

According  to  Mr.  Seward,  "  Mr.  Adams  deserved 
and  received  a  high  share  of  credit"  for  negotiating,  in 


c  as  y^,  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!:^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ADAMS 


48 


ADAMS 


1819,  with  Spain,  a  treaty  which  was  very  advantageous 
to  the  United  States. 

In  1824,  Adams,  Jackson,  Crawford,  and  Clay  were 
candidates  for  the  Presidency;  all  Democrats,  and  pro- 
fessing substantially  the  same  political  creed.  Mr. 
Adams,  who  was  supported  by  the  Eastern  States  and 
New  Vork,  received  eighty-four  electoral  votes  ;  General 
Jackson,  ninety-nine  ;  Mr.  Crawford,  forty-one  ;  and  Mr. 
Clay,  thirty-seven.  Neither  of  the  candidates  having 
received  a  majority  in  the  electoral  colleges,  the  election 
devolved  on  the  House  of  Representatives.  Aided  by  the 
influence  of  Henry  Clay,  Mr.  Adams  received  the  votes 
of  thirteen  States,  and  was  elected. 

He  appointed  Mr,  Clay  secretary  of  state,  Richard 
Rush  secretary  of  the  treasury,  James  Barbour  secretary 
of  war,  Samuel  L.  Southard  secretary  of  the  navy,  and 
William  Wirt  attorney-general.  The  friends  of  Jack- 
son were  indignant,  and  accused  Adams  and  Clay  of 
obtaining  their  success  by  "bargain  and  corruption." 
Athough  Mr.  Crawford  wrote  to  Mr.  Clay,  after  the  elec- 
tion, "  I  approved  of  your  vote  when  it  was  given,  and 
should  have  voted  as  you  did  between  Jackson  and 
Adams,"  yet  the  friends  of  Crawford  formed  a  coalition 
with  the  Jacksonians  to  oppose  the  new  administration. 
Mr.  Adams  favoureti  internal  improvements,  and  the 
protection  of  domestic  manufactures.  It  ought  to  be 
remembered  to  his  honour  that  he  refused  to  remove 
competent  men  from  office  merely  because  they  were 
his  political  opponents.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  Pres- 
idential term  the  opposition  had  a  majority  in  both 
houses  of  Congress,  and  assailed  the  President  with  un- 
scrupulous and  bitter  hostility.  At  the  election  of  1828 
he  received  eighty-three  electoral  votes,  and  was  defeated 
by  General  Jackson,  who  received  one  hundred  and 
seventy-eight  votes.  His  defeat  was  probably  promoted 
by  the  charge  of  corrupt  collusion  with  Mr.  Clay  in  1825, 
although  that  charge  appears  to  have  been  wholly  des- 
titute of  foundation.  On  the  4th  of  March,  1829,  he 
retired  to  his  estate  at  Quincy. 

In  1830  the  public  were  greatly  surprised  by  the  elec- 
tion of  Mr.  Adams  to  Congress,  in  which  he  took  his 
seat  in  December,  183 1.  He  continued  to  represent  his 
native  district  in  that  body  for  seventeen  years,  during 
which  he  was  constantly  at  his  post,  and  surpassed 
nearly  all  the  members  in  close  application  to  business 
and  in  the  power  of  endurance.  "  In  every  respect," 
says  Seward,  "  he  was  a  model  legislator."  He  usually 
acted  with  the  Whigs,  but  kept  himself  free  from  the 
trammels  of  party.  His  most  memorable  service  in  Con- 
gress was  his  defence  of  the  right  of  petition,  and  his 
inflexible  resistance  to  the  encroachments  of  the  slave 
power.  In  1836  the  opponents  of  slavery  began  to  send 
to  Congress  petitions  for  the  abolition  of  slavery,  which 
were  presented  by  Mr.  Adams.  The  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives adopted  a  rule  that  no  petition  relating  to 
slavery  should  be  read,  printed,  or  debated.  "  With  un- 
wavering firmness,"  says  Seward,  "  against  a  bitter  and 
unscrupulous  opposition,  exasperated  to  the  highest 
pitch  by  his  pertinacity — amidst  a  perfect  tempest  of 
vituperation  and  abuse — he  persevered  in  presenting 
these  petitions,  one  by  one,  to  the  amount  sometimes 
of  two  hundred  in  a  day — demanding  the  action  of  the 
house  on  each  separate  petition."  His  opponents  once 
made  a  motion  to  punish  him  by  a  vote  of  censure  for 
presenting  a  petition  from  slaves  ;  but  they  were  bafifled 
in  their  object  when  the  fact  was  announced  that  the 
said  petitioners  prayed  that  slavery  should  NOT  be  abol- 
ished. 

On  the  2 1  St  of  February,  1848,  while  in  his  seat  in 
the  Capitol,  he  was  struck  with  paralysis.  He  died  on 
the  23d  of  that  month  ;  his  last  words  were,  "  This  is 
the  last  of  earth  !    I  am  con  tent  !" 

In  the  latter  part  of  his  career  he  was  popularly  known 
by  the  title  of  "the  Old  Man  Eloquent."  He  kept  a 
copious  diary  of  his  public  life,  and  was  a  voluminous 
writer  of  prose  and  verse.  Manv  of  his  orations,  poems, 
and  discourses  have  been  published.  In  religion  he 
was,  like  his  father,  a  Unitarian. 

Sie  William  H.  Skward,  "Life  of  John  Q  lincy  Adams,"  1849; 
Tf)  -I  ah  Q'jimcy,  "  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  John  Q  jincy  Adams,"  1858  ; 
HiLO^'RTH.  "History  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  vi.  (or  vol.  iii., 
Second  Series.) 


Adams,  (Joseph,)  a  physician  and  medical  writer, 
born  in  1756.  He  practised  in  London  from  1805  till 
his  death  in  181 8.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"  Observations  on  Morbid  Poisons,"  (1796.)  He  was  an 
enthusiastic  admirer  of  Hunter,  and  appears  to  have 
adopted,  too  implicitly,  most  of  the  views  of  that  emi- 
nent physiologist. 

Adams,  (Nehemiah,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born 
at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  1806.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  University  in  1826.  For  many  years  he  has  been 
pastor  of  the  Essex  Street  Congregational  Church,  Bos- 
ton. Among  his  various  publications  may  be  men- 
tioned "  Remarks  on  the  Unitarian  Belief;  "  "  F'riends  of 
Christ  in  the  New  Testament ;"  "  Life  of  John  Eliot;"  and 
"South  Side  View  of  Slavery,"  (1854,)  which  has  been 
severely  criticised  by  the  free-soil  press  of  the  country. 

Adams,  (Richard,)  an  English  non-conformist  minis- 
ter, born  in  Cheshire,  graduated  in  1644.  He  was  eject- 
ed from  a  living  in  Bread  street,  London,  in  1662.  Died 
near  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Adams,  (Samuel,)  an  eminent  American  patriot  and 
orator,  born  in  Boston  on  the  27th  of  September,  1722, 
was  a  second-cousin  of  President  John  Adams.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1740.  A  few  years  af- 
terwards, on  taking  the  degree  of  master  of  arts,  he  chose 
for  his  thesis  the  question,  "  Whether  it  be  lawful  to  re- 
sist the  supreme  magistrate  if  the  commonwealth  can- 
not otherwise  be  preserved  .''"  of  which  he  maintained 
the  alifirmative.  In  early  life  he  applied  himself  to  mer- 
cantile business,  in  which  he  was  not  successful.  He  af- 
terwards served  as  collector  of  taxes  in  Boston.  Having 
gained  distinction  as  a  political  writer,  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  general  assembly  of  Massachusetts  in 
1765.  He  continued  to  represent  Boston  in  that  assem- 
bly for  nine  years,  and  by  his  courage,  talents,  and  energy 
acquired  great  influence.  Before  the  Revolution  he  was 
a  zealous  opponent  of  the  policy  of  the  British  ministers, 
and  an  advocate  of  independence.  John  Adams,  in  his 
diary,  written  in  1765,  after  some  notice  of  James  Otis 
and  others,  says,  "Adams,  I  believe,  has  the  most  thor- 
ough understanding  of  liberty  and  her  resources  in  the 
temper  and  character  of  the  people,  though  not  in  the 
law  and  constitution,  as  well  as  the  most  habitual  radi- 
cal love  of  it,  of  any  of  them." 

He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  continental  Congress 
in  1774,  and  was  one  of  the  two  popular  leaders  excepted 
from  the  general  pardon  offered  by  the  British  govern- 
ment in  Tune,  1775.  As  a  member  of  Congress,  in  which 
he  continued  about  eight  years,  he  rendered  important 
services,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
Mr.  Adams  took  part  in  the  formation  of  the  constitution 
of  Massachusetts,  adopted  in  1780,  served  afterwards  as 
a  senator  of  that  State,  and  was  a  member  of  the  con- 
vention which  ratified  the  Federal  constitution  in  1788. 
In  national  politics  he  favoured  the  Republican  or  Jef- 
fersonian  party.  Lie  was  lieutenant-governor  from  1789 
to  1794,  and  in  1795  succeeded  John  Hancock  as  Gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts.  Having  been  several  times  re- 
elected, he  served  as  Governor  until  1797,  and  then  re- 
tired from  public  life.  He  had  married  young,  and  had 
an  only  son,  whom  he  survived.  In  religion  he  was  1 
strict  Calvinist.  An  oration  on  the  independence  of  his 
country,  which  he  delivered  in  Philadelphia  in  August, 
1776,  has  been  published.  He  died  in  Boston,  on  the 
2d  of  October,  1803.  Respecting  his  merits  as  a  speaker 
and  writer,  John  Adams  remarks  that  in  his  works  may 
be  found  "specimens  of  a  nervous  simplicity  of  reasoning 
and  eloquence  that  have  never  been  rivalled  in  America." 

See  "  Life  and  Public  Services  of  Samuel  Adams,"  by  Wn.Li.\M 
V.  Wells,  3  vols.  8vo,  Boston,  1S65  :  see  also  the  "  Encycloj-'jedia 
Americnna;  ' Goodrich,  "Lives  of  the  Sii^ners  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence;"  Sanderson,  "Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the 
Declaration  of  Independence;"  Bancroft,  "History  of  the  United 
States,"  vol.  v.  chaps,  x.  and  xix.;  Hildreth,  "History  ol  the 
United  States,"  vol.  ii. 

Adams,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  royalist,  noted  for 
munificence,  born  in  Shropshire  in  1586.  He  was  lord 
mayor  of  London  in  1645.    Died  in  1667. 

Adams,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clissenting  mmister, 
who  was  rejected  for  non-confonnity  about  1662.  He 
wrote  a  work  called  "  Protestant  Union."  Died  in  1670. 

Adams,  (William),  an  English  navigator,  born  m 


,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  k,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, !,  o,  li,  y,  s/wrt;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsa^re;  fSr,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


V 


/ 


ADAMS 


49 


ADDISON 


Kent  about  1575.  He  entered  the  Dutch  navy  as  pilot, 
and  passed  some  time  in  Japan,  where  he  is  said  to  have 
rendered  important  services  to  the  commerce  of  the 
Dutch  and  English.    Died  in  1621. 

Adams,  (Rev.  William,)  distinguished  as  the  friend 
of  Dr.  Johnson,  was  born  in  1707,  and  died  in  1789. 
Besides  some  smaller  pieces,  he  published  "An  Answer 
to  Mr.  Hume's  Essay  on  Miracles,"  (1752,)  which  at- 
tracted considerable  attention. 

Adams,  (William,)  an  English  divine  and  writer, 
born  in  1814.  He  held  the  position  of  vicar  of  St.  Peters, 
Oxford.  Among  his  works  are  "  The  Shadow  of  the 
Cross,"  (1842,  8th  edition,  1849,)  and  "Distant  Hills," 
(4th  edition,  1847.)    I^ied  in  1848. 

Ad'am-spn,  (Henrv,)  a  Scottish  poet,  who  lived  in 
the  early  part  ot  the  seventeenth  century.  He  was  a 
nephew  of  Archbishop  Adamson.    Died  in  1639. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men." 

Adamson,  (John,)  an  English  author,  born  in  1787. 
He  published  a  "Memoir  of  Camoens,"  (1820,)  and 
"  History,  Antiquities,  and  Literature  of  Portugal,"  (2 
vols.,  1842-46.)    Died  in  1855. 

Adamson,  (Patrick,)  an  eminent  Scottish  prelate 
and  writer,  born  at  Perth  in  1536.  He  embraced  the 
cause  of  the  Reformation  on  its  gaining  the  ascendency, 
and  in  1564  published  a  poem  "On  the  Superstitious 
Follies  of  the  Papists,"  ("  De  Papistarum  Superstitiosis 
Ineptiis.")  In  1576,  through  the  influence  of  Morton, 
the  regent,  he  was  raised  to  the  archbishopric  of  St.  An- 
drews. From  this  time  to  the  end  of  his  life  he  was  en- 
gaged in  an  almost  incessant  struggle  with  the  Presby- 
terian party,  who  were  growing  every  day  more  powerful, 
and  who  at  last  succeeded  in  deposing  him,  not  only 
from  the  primacy,  but  from  all  his  functions  as  a  minis- 
ter. He  died  in  1592,  in  great  indigence.  Besides  the 
poem  already  mentioned,  he  wrote  translations  of  the 
book  of  Job,  of  the  Apocalypse,  and  other  parts  of  the 
Bible,  in  Latin  verse. 

See  Calderwood,  "  History  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  ;"  Cham- 
bers, "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen ;"  Spotts- 
WOOD,  "History  of  the  Church  of  Scotland." 

A-da'mus  Ma-ris'cus  or  Ad'am  de  Maris'co,  a 

learned  monk,  and  teacher  of  theology  at  Oxford,  born 
about  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  Roger  Bacon, 
who  was  his  contemporary,  speaks  of  him  as  an  eminent 
mathematician.    He  died  about  1260. 

A-da'miis  Mu-re-mu-then'sis  (or  Murimuthen- 
sis)  or  Adam  de  Murimuth,  Murimouth,  or  Mu- 
rymouth,  an  English  chronicler,  who  wrote  a  "  Chron- 
icle or  History  of  his  Own  Time,"  extending  from  1303 
to  1337.  He  appears  to  have  been  employed  on  several 
important  missions  ;  in  1323  he  was  ambassador  from  Ed- 
ward H.  (of  England)  to  the  pope  and  the  King  of  Sicily. 

Ada'mus  Sco'tus,  {i.e.  "Adam  the  Scotchman,")  a 
learned  bishop,  who  lived  in  the  twelfth  century,  chiefly 
remarkable  as  the  author  of  a  curious  dialogue  between 
the  Soul  and  Reason.  Of  the  events  of  his  life  little  or 
nothing  is  known. 

Adanson,  S'd6N''s6N',  (Michel,)  an  eminent  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Aix  in  1727.  His  family  were  of 
Scottish  extraction,  and  had  been  exiled  from  their 
country  on  account  of  their  devotion  to  the  house  of 
Stuart.  He  was  distinguished  at  school  for  his  great 
application,  and  won  many  of  the  prizes  while  at  the 
College  of  Plessis.  In  1748  he  visited  Senegal,  in  Africa, 
where  he  remained  five  years,  and  in  spite  of  burning 
suns  and  drenching  rains  he  collected,  by  unremitting 
labour,  an  immense  number  of  new  plants  and  animals, 
as  well  as  objects  of  commerce,  clothes,  utensils,  and 
implements  of  war  peculiar  to  the  inhabitants ;  made 
exact  maps  of  the  countries  through  which  he  travelled  ; 
prepared  grammars  and  vocabularies  of  the  different 
nations  of  that  region,  and  kept  an  exact  register  of  me- 
teorological observations.  After  his  return  to  France, 
he  published,  in  1757,  his  "  Natural  History  of  Senegal," 
("Histoire  Naturelle  du  Senegal,")  and,  in  1763,  his 
"Families  of  Plants,"  ("Families  des  Plantes.")  In 
these,  and  all  his  other  works,  he  strenuously  opposed 
the  artificial  system  of  Linnaeus  ;  but  the  influence  and 
popularity  of  the  Swedish  naturalist  were  so  great  as 


not  only  to  resist  uninjured  all  the  efforts  of  his  talented 
and  powerful  assailant,  but  to  throw  for  a  time  even 
Adanson's  extraordinary  merits  into  the  shade.  Though 
on  the  publication  of  the  "  Natural  History  of  Senegal"  he 
was  elected  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences 
of  Paris,  and  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  yet 
he  passed  a  considerable  portion  of  his  after-life  in  ob- 
scurity and  extreme  indigence  ;  but  he  was  finally  main- 
tained by  a  pension  from  the  French  government.  He 
died  in  1806.  In  addition  to  the  works  already  men- 
tioned, Adanson  contributed  many  valuable  papers  to 
the  Memoires  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  ;  and 
also  prepared  an  immense  work  entitled  "  Universal  Or- 
der of  Nature,"  ("Ordre  Universel  de  la  Nature,") — a 
sortof  encyclopaedia  of  natural  science, — which  has  never 
been  published.  He  read,  in  1 76 1,  before  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  a  very  interesting  notice  (accompanied  by 
an  accurate  botanical  description)  of  the  baobab-tree, 
which  was  afterwards  named,  in  honour  of  the  illustrious 
botanist,  Adansonia.  As  a  naturalist,  Adanson  is  not 
unworthy  to  be  the  rival  of  Linnseus  ;  in  the  estimation 
of  Cuvier,  indeed,  he  ought  to  rank  far  above  the  illus- 
trious Swede.  His  eulogy  was  composed  by  Cuvier, 
who  represents  his  character  as  noble,  but  eccentric. 

See  Cuvier,  "  filoge  d' Adanson,"  1819;  Lejovand,  "Notice  siii 
la  Vie  et  les  Travaux  de  M.  Adanson,"  8vo,  1808  ;  "Observations  sur 
feu  M.  Adanson,"  by  his  nephew,  M.  Adanson  ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Adashef,  d-dS-sh^f,  or  Adashev, written  also  Ada- 
scliew,  (Alexis,)  an  eminent  Russian  statesman,  who 
was  the  minister  and  favourite  of  Ivan  IV.  from  1547  to 
1560.  His  administration  was  distinguished  for  its  jus- 
tice, humanity,  and  enlightened  policy.  Having  incurred 
the  displeasure  of  his  sovereign,  he  died,  in  prison,  at 
Dorpat,  in  1561. 

See  Karamzin,  "History  of  the  Russian  Empire." 

Adashef  or  Adashev, (Daniel,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  a  successful 
expedition  which  he  commanded  against  the  Crim  Tar- 
tars in  1559.  Two  years  after,  he  was  beheaded  by  the 
order  of  his  capricious  and  ungrateful  sovereign. 

Addemeeree  or  Addemiri,  Sd-deh-mee'ree,  writ- 
ten also  Al-Damiri,  surnamed  Kemal-ed-Deen,  (or 
-ED-DiN,)  ke-mSK  cd-deen',  ("  Perfection  of  the  Faith,") 
a  distinguished  Arabian  naturalist,  born  in  Egypt  about 
1350.  He  wrote  on  history  and  biography  as  well  as 
natural  science.  The  best-known  of  his  works  is  "  The 
Lives  of  Living  Creatures."    Died  about  1405. 

Ad'ding-ton,  (Anthony,)  an  English  physician,  who 
was  the  confidential  friend  and  adviser  of  Lord  Chat- 
ham, was  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  took  the  degree 
of  master  of  arts  in  1740,  and  that  of  doctor  of  medicine 
in  1744.    He  practised  at  Reading,  and  died  in  1790. 

Addingtoii,  (Henry,)  afterwards  Lord  Sidmouth, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1756,  and  educated 
with  Pitt,  the  son  of  Lord  Chatham.  He  soon  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  political  world;  in  1789  he  was 
chosen  speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  in  1801, 
on  the  resignation  of  Pitt,  to  whom  he  had  ever  shown 
himself  an  unfaltering  friend,  he  succeeded  that  great 
statesman  as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  and  first  lord 
of  the  treasury.  The  opposition  of  his  enemies  obliged 
him  to  leave  his  station  in  May,  1804:  the  king  then 
conferred  upon  him  the  title  of  Lord  Viscount  Sidmouth. 
He  became  home  secretary  in  1812,  and  retired  from 
public  life  in  1822.    Died  in  1844. 

See  "  Life  and  Correspondence  of  the  Hon.  Henry  Addington," 
by  Pellew,  1847. 

Addington,  (Stephen,)  D.D.,  a  dissenting  minister, 
born  at  Northampton,  England,  about  1730,  and  died  in 
1796.  He  wrote,  besides  other  religious  works,  a  life  of 
the  Apostle  Paul. 

See  Wilson's  "Dissenting  Churches." 

Ad'di-son,  (Alexander,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
judge,  distinguished  for  his  learning  and  eloquence,  was 
born  in  1759.    Died  at  Pittsburg  in  1807. 

Ad'dison,  (G.  H.,)  an  Englishman,  born  in  1793;  was 
a  youth  of  high  promise  when  he  died,  in  India,  in  1815, 
leaving  a  work  called  "Indian  Reminiscences,"  (1837.) 

Addison,  (Joseph,)  an  English  author,  pre-eminent 
as  an  essayist,  humorist,  and  moralist,  was  born  at  Mil- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as /;  G  H,  y.,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JDDISON 


50 


ADDISON 


ston,  ^tar  Amesbury,  in  Wiltshire,  on  the  ist  of  May, 
1672.  He  was  a  son  of  the  Rev.  Lancelot  Addison. 
He  attended  school  at  the  Charter  House,  from  which, 
about  the  age  of  fifteen,  he  passed  to  Queen's  College, 
Oxford,  with  a  stock  of  classical  learning  that  would  have 
done  honour  to  a  master  of  arts.  In  1689  he  removed 
to  Magdalen  College,  where  he  remained  about  ten  years. 
He  acquired  at  college  a  high  reputation  as  a  writer  of 
Latin  verse,  in  which  he  probably  excelled  all  his  con- 
temporaries. His  first  English  composition  was  a  piece 
of  complimentary  verse  addressed,  m  1694,  to  Dryden, 
who  appears  to  have  been  pleased  with  this  tribute,  and 
became  a  friend  of  the  author.  Addison  wrote  the  crit- 
ical preface  which  Dryden  prefixed  to  his  version  of  the 
"  Georgics,"  (1697.) 

His  friends  destined  him  for  the  church,  to  which  his 
opinions  and  nabits  of  thought  were  well  adapted.  Be- 
fore he  had  decided  in  relation  to  the  choice  of  a  profes- 
sion, he  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Charles  Montagu, 
the  eminent  Whig  financier,  to  whom  he  dedicated  an 
elegant  Latin  poem  on  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  (1697.) 
was  persuaded  by  Montagu  to  decline  the  clerical  pro- 
fession and  to  devote  himself  to  the  service  of  the  state. 
The  course  of  his  life  was  determined  in  1699,  when  he 
received  an  annual  pension  of  ;i^300,  and  set  out  on  a 
tour  to  France  and  Italy,  partly  with  the  design  to  qualify 
himself  for  diplomacy  by  the  study  of  the  French  lan- 
guage. At  Paris  he  met  with  Boileau,  who  complimented 
him  highly  on  his  Latin  poetry.  He  passed  many  months 
in  the  chief  cities  of  Italy,  and  addressed  to  his  friend 
Montagu,  now  Lord  Halifax,  a  "  Letter  from  Italy,"  in 
verse,  (1701,)  which  was  greatly  admired.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  death  of  King  William  and  the  removal  of 
his  Whig  friends  from  office,  Addison  was  deprived  of 
his  pension  in  1702.  He  returned  to  England  about  the 
end  of  1703. 

One  morning  he  was  surprised  to  receive,  in  the  garret 
which  he  occupied  in  the  Haymarket,  a  visit  from  Mr. 
Boyle,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  who,  on  behalf  of 
the  chief  minister,  Godolphin,  requested  him  to  write  a 
poem  on  the  battle  of  Blenheim,  (1704.)  The  result  of 
this  visit  was  "The  Campaign,"  which  was  received 
with  immense  applause  by  the  public,  and  procured  for 
the  author  a  commissionership  as  an  earnest  of  greater 
favours.  He  published  an  interesting  "  Narrative  of  his 
Travels  in  Italy,"  which,  before  it  was  reprinted,  sold 
for  five  times  the  original  price.  His  next  work  was  the 
opera  "  Rosamond  ;"  which  failed  on  the  stage  through 
the  fault  of  the  music,  but  was  completely  successful  as 
a  publication. 

In  1705  Addison  was  appointed  under-secretary  of 
state,  through  the  influence  of  Halifax  and  Somers,  who 
had  formed  a  coalition  with  Godolphin  and  Marlborough. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1708,  and  on  one  occa- 
sion rose  to  speak,  but  could  not  overcome  his  diffidence, 
and  made  no  further  effort  to  become  a  debater.  His 
literary  talents  and  character,  however,  rendered  him 
one  of  the  main  pillars  of  the  Whig  party,  for  at  that  time 
public  opinion  was  influenced  more  by  the  pen  than  by  the 
tongue.  "  When  these  things  are  duly  considered,"  says 
Macaulay,  "  it  will  not  be  thought  strange  that  Addison 
should  have  climbed  higher  in  the  state  than  any  other 
Englishman  has  ever,  by  means  merely  of  literary  talents, 
been  able  to  climb." 

He  was  chief  secretary  to  Lord  Wharton,  Lord-Lieuten- 
ant of  Ireland,  in  1709,  with  a  salary  of  about  ;^2000.  In 
this  year  his  friend  Steele  began  to  issue  "  The  Tatler," 
which  afforded  to  Addison  an  opportunity  to  display  his 
genius  in  a  new  department  of  literature.  His  graceful 
style,  his  genial  spirit,  his  excellent  invention  and  inimi- 
table humour  rendered  The  Tatler,  and  its  successor 
"  The  Spectator,"  extremely  popular.  The  Spectator 
was  issued  daily  from  March  I,  171 1,  until  December  6, 
1 712,  and  was  revived  in  17 14  as  a  tri-weekly  paper. 
Addison  wrote  about  three-sevenths  of  The  Spectator, 
the  success  of  which  was  such  as  no  similar  work  has 
ever  obtained.  The  circulation  of  it  amounted  to  nearly 
four  thousand  copies.  For  some  particular  papers,  it  is 
said,  the  demand  was  so  great  that  not  less  than  twenty 
thousand  copies  were  required.  These  essays  exerted 
a  great  and  salutary  influence  on  society.    *'  He  not  only 


made  the  proper  use  of  wit  himself,"  says  Dr.  Johnson, 
"  but  taught  it  to  others.  .  .  .  He  has  dissipated  the 
prejudice  that  had  long  connected  gaiety  with  vice,  and 
easiness  of  manners  with  laxity  of  principles.  He  has 
restored  virtue  to  its  dignity,  and  taught  innocence  not 
to  be  ashamed.  This  is  an  elevation  of  literary  charac- 
ter, '  above  all  Greek,  above  all  Roman  fame,' "  Although 
the  Whigs  were  defeated  in  the  general  election  of  17 10, 
Addison  was  so  popular  that  he  was  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment without  a  contest.  On  this  occasion  Swift  writes, 
"  I  believe  if  he  had  a  mind  to  be  king,  he  would  hardly 
be  refused." 

In  1713  he  produced  his  tragedy  of  "  Cato,"  which 
was  greeted  with  "thunders  of  unanimous  applause^" 
and  obtained  more  celebrity  among  his  contemporaries 
than  any  other  of  his  works  ;  but  this  favourable  esti- 
mate has  not  been  confirmed  by  the  suftrages  of  a  later 
age.  On  the  death  of  Queen  Anne,  August,  1 7 14,  he 
was  appointed  secretary  to  the  regency  or  lords  justices. 
Soon  after  that  date  he  again  became  chief  secretary  to 
the  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland.  He  exchanged  this  office 
for  a  seat  at  the  board  of  trade  in  171 5,  and  began  to  pub 
lish  "The  Freeholder,"  his  best  political  work.  After  a 
long  courtship,  he  married,  in  17 16,  the  Countess-dow- 
ager of  Warwick,  who,  according  to  Johnson,  "  thought 
herself  entitled  to  treat  with  very  little  ceremony  the 
tutor  of  her  son."  He  became  one  of  the  two  principal 
secretaries  of  state  in  the  new  ministry  formed  in  the 
spring  of  171 7,  but  remained  in  office  only  eleven  months. 
His  retirement  is  attributed  to  ill  health  and  inefticienc) 
as  a  public  speaker. 

He  died  on  the  17th  of  June,  17 19,  leaving  no  child 
but  a  daughter,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
Shortly  before  his  death  he  said  to  his  step-son,  Lord 
Warwick,  "  I  have  sent  for  you  in  order  that  you  might 
see  in  what  peace  a  Christian  can  die  !" 

The  two  gravest  faults  charged  against  him  are  his 
habit  of  drinking  wine,  and  his  insidious  enmity  to  Pope. 
The  former  has,  in  all  probability,  been  much  exagger- 
ated, and  the  latter  is  said  to  have  been  fully  and  dis- 
tinctly disproved.  It  appears,  indeed,  to  have  never  had 
any  better  foundation  than  Pope's  morbid  suspicion. 
(See  Pope,  Alexander.) 

Addison's  colloquial  powers  are  extolled  by  several 
authors.  Lady  Mary  Montagu  said  that  "  she  had  known 
all  the  wits,  and  that  Addison  was  the  best  company  in 
the  world."  "Addison's  conversation,"  says  Pope,  "had 
something  in  it  more  charming  than  I  have  found  in  any- 
other  man.  But  this  was  only  when  familiar  :  before 
strangers,  or  perhaps  a  single  stranger,  he  preserved  his 
dignity  by  a  stiff  silence."  "  His  humanity,"  says  Mac- 
aulay, "is  without  a  parallel  in  literary  history.  The 
highest  proof  of  human  virtue  is  to  possess  boundless 
power  without  abasing  it.  No  kind  of  power  is  more 
formidable  than  the  power  of  making  men  ridiculous  ; 
and  that  power  Addison  possessed  in  boundless  meas- 
ure. But  it  would  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  find, 
in  all  the  volumes  which  he  has  left  us,  a  single  taunt 
which  can  be  called  ungenerous  or  unkind.  .  .  .  The 
numerous  fictions,  generally  original,  often  wild  and 
grotesque,  but  always  graceful  and  happy,  which  are 
found  in  his  essays,  fully  entitle  him  to  the  rank  of  a 
great  poet, — a  rank  to  which  his  metrical  compositions 
give  him  no  claim.  As  an  observer  of  life,  of  manners, 
of  all  the  shades  of  human  character,  he  stands  in  the 
first  class." 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets;"  Macaulay, 
"  Essavs,"  article  Addison;  Steele,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and 
Writings  of  J.  Addison,"  1724;  Des  Maizeaux,  "Vie  de  J.  Addi- 
son;" Lucy  AiKiN,  "Life  of  Joseph  Addison,"  1843;  Elwin,  "Life 
of  Addison,"  1857;  "  Biographia  Britannica;"  Villemain,  "Coursde 
Llttt^rature." 

Addison,  (Rev.  Lancelot,)  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Westmoreland  in  1632,  and  educated  at 
Queen's  College,  Oxford.  He  passed  seven  years  at  Tan- 
gier as  chaplain  to  the  garrison,  and,  after  his  return, 
published  "  West  Barbary,  or  a  Short  Narrative  of  the 
Revolutions  of  the  Kingdoms  of  Fez  and  Morocco," 
(1671,)  which  attracted  considerable  attention  both  i. 
England  and  foreign  countries.  He  became  a  royal 
chaplain  about  1670,  Dean  of  Lichfield  in  1683,  and  Arch- 
deacon of  Coventry  in  1684.    Among  his  writings  are 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ADEL 


51 


ADENEZ 


several  religious  treatises,  and  a  work  on  "  The  Present 
State  of  the  Jews,  (more  particularly  relating  to  those  in 
Barbary,")  (1675.)  He  died  in  1703,  leaving  three  sons  : — 
Joseph ;  Gulston,  who  died  Governor  of  Madras  ;  and 
Lancelot,  who  was  eminent  as  a  classical  scholar. 
See  Wood,  "Athenas  Oxonienses." 

Adel,  i'del,  or  Adils,  J'dils,  one  of  the  early  kings 
of  Sweden,  whose  history  is  lost  in  fable.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  in  the  fifth  or  sixth  century. 

Adelaar.    See  Adeler. 

Adelaide,  id'el-ad,  [Ger.  Adelheid,  ^'del-hit',]  an 
empress  of  Germany,  daughter  of  Rudolph  H.,  and  wife 
of  Otho  I.,  (surnamed  the  Great,)  was  born  in  931.  After 
the  death  of  the  emperor,  her  husband,  she  governed  the 
empire  with  great  ability  during  the  early  part  of  the 
reign  of  her  son,  Otho  H.  She  was  afterwards  regent 
during  a  part  of  the  minority  of  Otho  HI.  She  died  in 
999,' universally  beloved,  and  is  regarded  as  a  saint, 
though  her  name  does  not  appear  in  the  Roman  cal- 
endar. 

Adelaide,  ad'e-lad,  [Fr.  Adelaide,  t'd^'lt'kK,]  (Ma- 
dame,) the  eldest  daughter  of  Louis  XV.,  was  born,  in 
1732,  at  Versailles.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolu- 
tion, she,  with  her  sister,  Madame  Victoire,  left  their 
native  country  for  Italy.    She  died  at  Trieste  in  t8oo. 

Adelaide,  ad'e-lad,' Queen  of  England,  born  in  1792, 
was  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Meiningen,  and  was 
married,  in  1818,  to  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  who  became 
William  IV.    Died  in  1849. 

See  DoRAN,  "Life  of  Queen  Adelaide." 

Adelaide,  t'di'lt'W,  (Eugene  Louise,)  a  French 
princess,  born  in  Paris  in  1777,  was  a  sister  of  King  Louis 
Philippe.  She  was  an  exile  from  1792  until  1814.  In 
1830  she  urged  Louis  Philippe,  with  whom  she  had 
much  influence,  to  accept  the  crown.    Died  in  1847. 

Adelais  [M'W  ox  S'deh-li')  of  Louvain,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Godfrey,  Duke  of  Brabant,  and  the  second  queen 
of  Henry  I.  of  England,  was  born  about  1103,  and  mar- 
ried in  1 121.  Her  beauty  was  celebrated  under  the  des- 
ignation of  "  The  Fair  Maid  of  Brabant."  After  the 
death  of  Henry  I.  she  married  William  de  Albini,  an 
English  nobleman,  and  died  in  1 151. 

Ad'el-ard  or  Athelard,  a  king  of  the  West  Saxons, 
who  ascended  the  throne  in  727,  and  died  in  740. 

Adelard  ok  Bath,  [Lat.  Adelar'dus  Batho.men'- 
SIS,]  a  student  of  natural  science,  who  lived  in  England 
in  the  early  part  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  wrote  a  book 
entitled  "  Concerning  the  Natures  of  Things,"  ("  De  Na- 
turis  Rerum,")  and  made  a  translation  of  Euclid  from  the 
Arabic  into  I^atin,  at  a  time  when  this  work  was  almost 
unknown  in  Western  Europe. 

Adelbert.    See  Adalbert. 

Ad'el-bold,  [Lat.  Adelbol'dus,  Adelbal'dus,  or 
A  riiELHAL''DU.s,]  a  bishop  of  Utrecht,  who  flourished  in 
the  early  part  of  the  eleventh  century.  He  was  distin- 
guished for  his  piety,  and  was  a  great  patron  of  learning 
and  the  arts.    Died  in  1027. 

Adelburner,  i'del-booR'ner,  or  Adelbulner,  d^'del- 
booKner,  (Michael,)  a  German  mathematician,  born  at 
Nuremberg  in  1702,  became  professor  at  Altdorf  in  1743. 
He  published  an  astronomical  journal,  called  "  Commer- 
cmm  Astronomicum,"  (1735-40,)  which  had  great  suc- 
cess.   Died  in  1779. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "Histoire  des  Mathr^matiqiiefi." 

Adelcraiitz  or  Adelkrantz,  d'del-k  Rents',  the  name 
of  two  Swedish  architects,  father  and  son.  The  latter, 
Charles  Frederick,  who  was  the  more  eminent,  was 
born  at  Stockholm  in  1716,  and  died  in  1796. 

Adeler,  SMdl-er,  also  written  Adelaar,  (Cord  or 
Conrad  Sivertsen,)  a  famous  admiral,  born  in  Nor- 
way in  1622.  He  entered  the  service  of  Venice  in  his 
youth,  and  obtained  command  of  a  fleet.  In  1654  he 
gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Turkish  fleet,  and  killed 
with  his  own  hand  the  admiral  Ibraheem  Pasha.  The 
King  of  Denmark  recalled  him  in  1663,  and  gave  him  the 
command  of  his  navy.  Adeler  was  appointed  grand  ad- 
miral in  167:;,  and  died  the  same  yea» 

Ad'el-frid,  a  Saxon  king,  was  slain  in  battle  in  617. 

Ad-el-gi'sus,  called  also  A'del-ehffs,  the  only  son 
of  Desiderius,  King  of  the  Longobnrds.    Though  a  brave 


prince,  he  was  defeated,  with  his  father,  by  Charlemagne, 
in  773  ;  after  which  he  fled  to  Constantinople.  Little 
else  is  known  respecting  him. 

Adelgisus,  a  prince  of  Beneventum,  (now  Benevento,) 
who  lived  in  the  ninth  century.  He  was  murdered  by 
his  own  relations  in  878. 

Adelgreiff,  a'del-gRlf,  (Johann  Albrecht,)  a  noto- 
rious fanatic  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  claimed  to 
represent  God  on  earth.  He  was  beheaded  at  Konigs- 
berg  in  1636. 

Ad'el-man,  (or  i'd^l-m^n',)  an  ecclesiastical  writer, 
who  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century, 
was  Bishop  of  Brescia. 

Adelon,  td''16N',  (Nicolas  Philibert,)  a  French 
physician  and  writer,  born  at  Dijon  about  1780.  He  was 
a  favourite  pupil  of  Chaussier,  with  whom  he  co-operated 
in  the  first  volumes  of  the  "Biographic  Universelle." 
In  1823-24  he  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Physiology 
of  Man,"  (4  vols.)  He  obtained  the  chair  of  legal  medi- 
cine in  Paris  in  1826,  and  continued  to  occupy  it  so  late 
as  1858.    Died  in  July,  1862. 

Adelstan,    See  Athelstan. 

Adelung,  cVdeh-ldong,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Stettin  in  1768,  was  a  nephew  of  Johann 
Christoph,  noticed  below.  He  removed  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, where  he  became  preceptor  to  the  grand  duke 
Nicholas,  (afterwards  emperor,)  and  a  counsellor  of  state. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Relations  between  the  San- 
scrit and  Russian  Languages,"  (1815,)  and  an  "  Essay  on 
the  Sanscrit  Literature  and  Language,"  (1830.)  Died  at 
St.  Petersburg  in  1843. 

See  GuETsCH,  "  Histoire  de  la  Litt^rature  Riisse." 

Adelung  or  Adlung,  dd'loong,  (Jacob,)  an  organist 
and  writer  on  music,  born  near  Erfurt,  in  Germany,  in 
1699  ;  died  in  1762. 

Adelung,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  distinguished  phi- 
lologist and  lexicographer,  born  near  Anklam,  in  Pome- 
rania,  in  1732.  He  commenced  the  study  of  theology  at 
the  University  of  Halle,  but  his  tastes  led  him  to  general 
literature  and  philology,  to  which,  from  about  the  year 
1 761,  he  appears  to  have  devoted  all  histinie  and  thoughts. 
He  wrute  several  historical  works,  which,  however,  have 
attracted  but  little  attention.  That  on  which  his  fame 
principally  rests  is  his  "Attempt  at  a  Complete  Gram- 
matico-Critical  Dictionary  of  the  German  Language," 
("  Versuch  eines  voUstandigen  Grammatisch-Kritischen 
WorterbUches  der  Hochdeutschen  Mundart.")  This 
great  (jerman  work  has  been  compared  to  the  great  Eng- 
lish dictionary  of  Dr.  Johnson  ;  but  Adelung's  is  supe- 
rior to  Johnson's  in  its  definitions,  and  in  all  that  relates 
to  etymology.  His  dictionary  attracted  great  attention 
in  Germany  ;  and,  as  a  reward  for  the  important  service 
he  had  rendered  to  German  literature,  he  was  appointed, 
by  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  chief  librarian  of  the  public 
library  of  Dresden,  with  the  title  of  Hofrath,  ("  court- 
counsellor,")  an  office  which  he  held  until  his  death. 
Among  the  defects,  however,  of  Adelung's  dictionary 
may  be  named  :  ist,  an  excessive  partiality  for  the  dialect 
of  Upper  Saxony,  which  caused  him  to  reject  words  used 
in  other  parts  of  Germany  ;  2dly,  his  fastidious  rejection 
of  all  new  words  not  sanctioned  by  what  he  considered 
good  authority.  Besides  writing  a  German  grammar, 
and  several  other  books  illustrating  his  own  tongue,  he 
commenced  a  great  work,  entitled  "  Mithridates,  oder 
Allgemeine  Sprachen-Kunde,"  a  general  treatise  on  lan- 
guage, which  was  finished,  after  his  death,  by  J.  S.  Vater. 
Died  in  1806. 

See  Ersch  und  Grubek,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Adelwalch,  ad'el-w61k,  a  king  of  Sussex,  who  was 
slain  in  battle  in  686. 

Ad'e-mar'  [Lat.  Adema'rus]  or  Aymar,  i'mSR^  a 
French  historical  writer,  who  flourished  in  the  early  part 
of  the  eleventh  century. 

Ad-e-ma'rus,  a  courtier  of  Otho  III.,  Emperor  of 
Germany,  by  whom  he  was  appointed  Duke  of  Spoletum 
(Spoleto)  and  Marquis  of  Camerino,  about  the  end  of  the 
tenth  century. 

Adenez  or  Adenes,  td'ni'  or  tMeh-ni',  sometimes 
written  Adans,  surnamed  Le  Roi,  (leh  rwS,)  a  cele- 
brated minstrel,  born  in  Brabant  about  1240.     He  wa.s 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^See  Explanations,  p.  23.> 


U.  OF  ILL  LIB. 


ADEODAT 


52 


ADLERFELD 


first  patronized  by  Henry  III.,  Duke  of  Brabant,  and 
afterwards  by  Philip  the  Bold,  King  of  France.  The 
time  of  his  death  is  unknown. 
Adeodat.    See  Dieudonn6. 

Adeodato,  a-di-o-da'to,  an  Italian  sculptor,  who  lived 
in  the  twelfth  century. 

Ader,  t'daiR',  (Guillaume,)  a  physician  and  medical 
writer,  who  lived  at  Toulouse,  in  France,  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Adet,  t'dV,  (Pierre  Auguste,)  a  French  politician 
and  chemist,  born  at  Nevers  in  1763.  He  was  sent,  in 
1795,  as  minister  to  the  United  States,  but  resigned  or 
suspended  his  office  in  1797,  on  account  of  an  alleged  vio- 
lation of  neutrality.  Having  returned  to  France,  he 
became,  in  1809,  a  member  of  the  legislative  body.  He 
published  "Elements  of  Chemistry,"  (1804.)  Died  in 
1832. 

Adgillus  (ad-jil'lus)  I.  and  II.,  two  dukes  of  Fries- 
land,  who  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventh  and  the 
beginning  of  the  eighth  century. 

Adhad-ed-Dauiah,  (or  -Eddoulat.)  See  Azad-ud- 

DOWLAH. 

Adh-dhahebee  or  Adh-dhahebi,  iD-Dd'hSh-bee', 
(almost  ith-thi'h§h-bee',)  written  also  Al-Dzahabi,  sur- 
named  Shems-ed-Deen,  {i.e.  the  "  Sun  of  Religion,") 
an  eminent  Arabian  writer  and  lawyer,  born  at  Damas- 
cus about  1274.  Pie  was  raised  to  the  high  office  of 
Mufti  of  Damascus.  Died  about  1347.  His  principal 
work  is  a  chronological  history  of  all  the  Moslem  nations 
from  the  creation  down  to  his  own  time. 

Adh-dhobbee  (Adh-dhobbi)  or  Ad-dobbee,  Id- 
Dob'bee'  or  ath-%hob'bee',  a  native  of  Cordova,  who  wrote 
a  valuable  history  of  the  Spanish  Arabs.  He  flourished 
about  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

Adhemar,  ^'deh-maR',  written  also  Azemars,  (Wil- 
liam,) a  Proven9al  poet  of  the  twelfth  century,  who  is 
said  to  have  loved  the  Countess  of  Die  so  passionately 
that,  on  hearing  she  was  about  to  be  married  to  the  Count 
of  Embrun,  he  fell  desperately  ill,  and,  having  sent  for 
her,  expired  in  her  presence.  This  so  affected  her  that 
she  abandoned  all  thoughts  of  marriage,  and  died  of 
grief  a  few  years  afterwards. 

Adhemar  de  Monteil,  ad'eh-mar'  deh  mon-taK, 
[Fr.  pron.  td'mtR'deh  moN'tkF  or  m6N''ta'ye,]  an  eccle- 
siastic, statesman,  and  warrior,  who  lived  in  the  four- 
teenth century.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Metz  in 
1327,  and  died  in  1361.  He  had  the  reputation  of  a 
spirited  and  magnificent  prince. 

Ad-her'bal;  [Gr.  'Ara,o/3aj-,]  a  Carthaginian  command- 
er during  the  first  Punic  war,  who  gained  a  great  victory 
over  the  Roman  fleet  249  B.C. 

Adherbal,  the  son  of  Micipsa,  King  of  Numidia.  On 
the  death  of  his  father  (B.C.  118)  he  shared  the  kingdom 
with  his  brother  Hiempsal  and  his  cousin  Jugurtha,  by 
whom  he  was  slain,  112  B.C.    (See  Jugurtha.) 

Adi-Buddha,  (or  -Booddha.)    See  Booddha. 

Adil-Shah-Yoosuf,  (or-Yusuf,)  a'djl-shlhyoo'soof, 
a  son  of  the  Turkish  sultan  Amurath  H.,  whom,  on  the 
death  of  this  monarch  in  145 1,  his  mother  contrived  to 
secrete  from  the  executioners  sent  by  his  brother,  Mo- 
hammed II.,  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  him,  and 
caused  him  to  be  privately  conveyed  to  Persia,  whence 
he  afterwards  fled  to  Hindostan.  Here  he  entered  the. 
service  of  Mohammed  Shah,  (II.,)  King  of  the  Dekkan, 
and  gradually  rose  to  the  highest  military  offices  in  the 
state.  On  the  death  of  Mohammed  Shah,  an  attempt 
was  made  by  a  corrupt  faction  at  court  to  destroy  Yoosuf ; 
but  he  withdrew  to  Bejapoor,  (of  which  province  he  had 
been  appointed  governor,)  where  his  military  fame  and 
his  high  character  for  liberality  and  justice  soon  drew  to 
his  standard  multitudes  of  the  best  and  bravest  of  the 
land.  Though  at  first  he  acted  uniformly  on  the  de- 
fensive, he  at  length  (about  i  500)  established  an  empire 
on  the  ruin  of  his  enemies.  He  had  previously,  in  1489, 
assumed  the  title  of  royalty.  He  died  about  15 10.  His 
posterity  continued  to  reign  at  Bejapoor  till  1689,  when 
their  capital  was  taken  by  Aurungzebe,  and  Sikandar, 
the  last  of  the  Adil-Shah  dynasty,  was  made  prisoner  by 
the  conqueror. 

Ad-i-man'tus,  kdsifiavTo^,']  the  commander  of  the 
Corinthian  ships  during  the  invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes, 


480  B.C.  He  appears  to  have  been  destitute  alike  of  skill 
and  bravery. 

Adimantus  is  also  the  name  of  an  Athenian  gen« 
eral  who  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  Lysander 
at  i^Lgospotami,  405  B.C. 

Adimantus,  a  Manichaean  writer,  who  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  fourth  century. 

Adimari,  a-de-mi'ree,  a  noted,  though  not  noble, 
Florentine  family,  who  hold  a  considerable  place  in  the 
history  of  Italy  in  the  middle  ages. 

Adimari,  (  Alessandro,)  a  classical  scholar  and  poet, 
born  at  Florence  about  1 580,  made  a  translation  of  Pindar 
into  Italian  verse.    Died  in  1649. 

Adimari,  (Ludovico,)  born  at  Naples  in  1644; 
died  at  Florence  in  1708.  He  was  professor  of  Tuscan 
in  the  Academy  of  Florence,  and  wrote,  in  Italian,  satiric 
poetry  which  is  much  admired  by  some. 

Aditi,  ad'I-tl,  [common  Hindoo  pron.  lid'i-tT,]  the  wife 
of  Kasyapa,  and  the  mother  of  the  gods.  She  is  sometimes 
styled,  for  greater  distinction,  the  "mother  of  Indra." 
She  is  supposed  to  personify  the  earth. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Adibya,  d'dlt-ya,  [in  the  English  plural,  Adityas,] 
the  name  given  to  twelve  Hindoo  deities,  sons  of  Aditi. 
They  are  said  to  represent  the  sun  in  each  of  the  differ- 
ent months  of  the  year.  Among  the  Adityas  the  prin- 
cipal are  Varuna,  Surya,  Indra,  Yama,  and  Vishnu,  who,  in 
his  fifth  Avatar,  was  born  as  the  son  of  Kasyapa  and  Aditi. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Adler,  (Caspar.)    See  Aquila. 

Adler,  id'ler,  (Georg  Christian,)  a  theological 
writer  and  eminent  teacher,  born  in  Silesia  in  1674. 
He  founded  a  school  at  Konigsberg,  which  afterwards 
became  a  gymnasium,  being  now  called  the  "  Collegium 
P'redericianum."    Died  in  1741. 

Adler,  (Georg  Christian,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1734.  He  was  chief  pastor  of  a  Lutheran 
congregation  at  Altona,  and  died  in  1804.  Besides  other 
works  of  the  same  kind,  he  wrote  one  on  the  topography 
of  the  city  of  Rome,  (1781.) 

Adler,  (Georg  J.,)  a  philologist,  born  at  Leipsic,  in 
Germany,  in  1 821.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1833,  graduated  at  the  University  of  New  York  in  1844, 
and  from  1846  to  1854  was  professor  of  the  German  lan- 
guage in  that  institution.  He  is  the  author  of  several 
German  and  Latin  school  manuals,  and  of  an  excellent 
German  and  English  dictionary.  Died  in  New  York  in 
August,  1868. 

Adler,  ^d'ler,  (Jacob  Georg,)  a  Danish  Orientalist, 
born  at  Amis,  in  Sleswick,  in  1755,  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Copenhagen  in  1788.  Among  his  works 
is  one  on  the  Cufic  writings  or  inscriptions,  ("  Musaeum 
Cuficum  Borgianum,"  2  vols.,  1782-92.)    Died  in  1805, 

Adler,  (Philipp,)  the  first  who  carried  the  art  of  etch- 
ing to  any  degree  of  excellence,  was  born  in  Nuremberg 
in  1484.  The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown.  He  en- 
graved many  of  the  works  of  Albert  Diirer. 

Adlerbeth,  ad'ler-b^t',  (Gudmund  Goran,)  a  trans- 
lator and  Swedish  poet,  born  at  Jonkoping  in  1751.  In 
1778  he  was  appointed  antiquary  and  private  secretary 
to  Gustavus  III.,  whom  he  accompanied  on  a  tour  to 
Rome.  He  was  afterwards  made  councillor  of  the  state, 
and  baron,  besides  receiving  numerous  other  honours. 
Died  in  181 8.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer  ;  among  his 
works  are  many  operas  and  tragedies,  constructed  on  the 
plan  of  the  French  school.  He  translated  the_  works  of 
Virgil,  Horace,  and  the  Metamorphoses  of  Ovid. 

Adlerfeld  or  Adlerfelt,  ad'ler-f!lt',  (Gustaf,)  a 
Swedish  historical  writer,  born  near  Stockholm  in  1671. 
He  was  appointed  by  Charles  XII.  hof-junkarc,  pr  gen- 
tleman of  the  court,  and  afterwards  accompanied  the 
king  on  several  of  his  campaigns,  of  which  he  wrote  a 
regular  journal  until  his  death.  He  was  killed  by  a  can- 
non-ball in  the  famous  battle  of  Pultowa,  (or  Poltava,) 
July  8,  1 709. 

Adlerfeld,  (Pehr,  or  Peter,)  a  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, born  at  Stock»)lm  in  1680.  He  was  made  a  colonel 
in  the  Swedish  army  in  1712,  and  in  1720  was  raised  tc 
the  rank  of  a  baron,  and  made  a  member  of  the  Riks- 
rad,  "  Council  of  the  Kingdom."     He  wa?;  killed,  in 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^U,  fit;  mlt;  ndt;  gdod;  n  oon. 


ADLERSCREUTZ 


53 


ADOMNAN 


1743,  while  defending  his  native  city  against  the  insurgent 
Dalecarlians. 

Adlerscreutz,  id'l^Rs-kRoits^,  (Baron,)  a  Swedish 
general,  was  the  leader  of  the  party  which  dethroned 
Gustavus  lY.  in  1809. 

Adlersparre,  ad'ler-spSr'ra,  (Georg,)  Count  of,  a 
Swedish  general  and  \\Titer,  born  in  1760.  He  acted  a 
prominent  part  in  the  conspiracy  or  revolt  which  de- 
throned Gustavus  IV.  in  1809.    Died  in  1837. 

Adlung.    See  Adelung. 

Adlzreiter,  Sd'elts-rl'ter  or  ad'lts'rl'ter,  (Johann,)  a 
lawyer  and  statesman,  born  at  Rosenheim,  in  Bavaria,  in 
1596.  He  became  vice-chancellor  and  privy  counsellor 
to  Maximilian,  Elector  of  Bavaria.  Died  in  1662.  He 
furnished  important  materials  to  the  history  of  Bavaria, 
by  Fervaux,  which  was  published  under  his  name. 

Ad-me'tus,  [Gr.  'Adfirj-og ;  Fr.  Admbb:e,  td'mat',]  a 
son  of  Pheres,  King  of  Pherae  in  Thessalv,  succeeded  his 
father  on  the  throne.  Apollo,  who  had  been  banished 
from  Olympus  for  one  year,  tended  the  herds  of  Admetus 
during  that  period.  Admetus  became  a  suitor  for  Al- 
cestis,  the  daughter  of  Pelias,  who  promised  her  to  him 
on  condition  that  he  would  come  in  a  chariot  drawn 
by  a  lion  and  a  wild  boar.  With  the  help  of  Apollo 
he  fulfilled  that  condition,  and  married  Alcestis.  (See 
Alcestis.) 

Admiral,  L',  Itd'me'rtK,  (Jean,)  a  French  portrait- 
painter  in  miniature,  born  in  Normandy  in  1698.  Died 
in  1773. 

Ado,  3.'do,  Saint,  born  about  800,  in  the  territory 
of  Gatinois,  in  the  north  of  Gaul,  became  Archbishop  of 
Vienne  in  860,  and  died  in  875.  He  wrote  a  work  pur- 
porting to  be  a  chronicle  of  events  from  the  creation  to 
the  year  874. 

Adoaldus.    See  Adaloaldus. 

Adolf,  i'dolf,  a  German  sculptor,  who  lived  in  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Adolf,  (Joseph  Franz,)  a  German  painter,  who  died 
about  1750.    He  excelled  in  painting  horses. 

Adolfi,  3.-doKfee,  (Giro,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Bergamo  in  1683  ;  died  in  1758.  As  an  artist  he  was 
much  superior  to  his  brother  Giacomo. 

Adolfi,  (Giacomo,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  also 
a  painter,  was  born  in  1682  ;  died  in  1 741. 

Adolphe,  (of  Cleves,  Guelders,  etc.)  See  Adolphus. 

Adolphi,  d-doKfee,  (Christian  Michael,)  a  German 
physician,  professor  of  medicine  at  Leipsic,  born  in  1676; 
died  in  1753. 

Adolphi,  (CiRO.)    See  Adolfi. 

A-dol'phus,  [Fr.  Adolphe,  t'dolf,]  son  of  Arnold, 
the  sixth  Duke  of  Guelderland,  born  in  1438.  He  was 
in  constant  disputes  with  his  father  from  his  earliest 
years,  and  at  length,  in  1465,  suddenly  seized  and  im- 
prisoned him,  and  then  extorted  from  him  a  formal  act 
of  abdication.  But  he  was  afterwards  compelled  by 
John  I.,  Duke  of  Cleves,  and  Charles  the  Bold,  of  Bur- 
gundy, to  release  him  and  restore  to  him  all  his  posses- 
sions. Adolphus,  in  turn,  was  seized  and  kept  in  con- 
finement for  several  years,  during  which  time  his  father 
died.  Having  at  length,  on  the  death  of  Charles  the 
Bold,  been  released,  he  was  soon  after  killed,  while  be- 
sieging Tournay,  in  1477. 

Adolphus  (or  Adolph)  I,  Duke  of  Holstein  and 
Sleswick,  son  of  Frederick  I.,  King  of  Denmark,  was 
born  in  1526.  He  was  distinguished  as  a  soldier,  and 
was  the  founder  of  several  hospitals  and  flourishing  pub- 
lic schools.    Died  in  1586,  after  a  rule  of  forty-two  years. 

Adolphus  (or  Adolph)  I.,  Count  of  Holstein,  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  men  of  his  time,  flourished  in  the 
early  part  of  the  twelfth  century.  Little  is  known  re- 
specting him,  except  that  he  was  distinguished  both  as  a 
statesman  and  a  warrior,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the 
diffusion  of  Christianity  among  the  Wendi,  a  neighbour- 
ing nation  of  Slavonian  origin.    Died  in  113 1. 

Adolphus  (Adolph)  tl.,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
succeeded  his  father  while  still  very  young.  Though 
at  first  unsuccessful  in  his  campaign  against  Magnus, 
Duke  of  Sleswick,  and  in  his  war  with  Henry  the  Proud, 
Duke  of  Saxony,  he  soon  recovered  himself,  and  after- 
wards eclipsed  even  the  glory  of  his  father.  He  com- 
pletely subdued  the  Wendi,  and,  by  planting  colonies  in 


the  territories  which  they  had  occupied,  thoroughly  Ge^  • 
manized  the  country.  To  those  colonies  the  towns  d 
Lubeck  and  Eutin  owe  their  origin.  He  gained  several 
victories  over  Canute,  Prince  of  the  Danes.  In  1164. 
however,  while  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Demmin,  in 
Pomerania,  he  was,  through  treachery,  suddenly  attacked 
and  slain,  after  an  administration  of  thirty-three  years. 

Adolphus  (Adolph)  III.,  Count  of  Holstein,  was  a 
son  of  Adolphus  II.,  whom  he  succeeded.  Although  a 
valiant  soldier,  he  appears  to  have  been  far  inferior  to 
his  father  in  justice  and  wisdom.  Having  sided  with 
Waldemar,  Bishop  of  Sleswick,  in  his  contest  with  Can- 
ute, King  of  Denmark,  in  1200,  Adolphus  lost  nearly  all 
his  possessions,  and  died  soon  after. 

Adolphus  (Adolph)  IV.,  son  of  the  preceding,  re- 
covered Holstein  from  Waldemar,  King  of  Denmark, 
whom  he  defeated  in  a  great  battle  near  Eutin.  In  1238 
he  entered  a  monastery,  where  he  passed  the  remaining 
fourteen  years  of  his  life  as  an  humble  friar. 

Adolphus  [Fr.  Adolphe,  t'dolf]  II.,  Duke  of  Cleves, 
was  born  in  13  71.  He  was  almost  constantly  engaged 
in  wars,  chiefly  with  his  brother  Gerard,  Duke  of  Mark. 
He  died  in  1448,  leaving  behind  him  a  high  reputation 
for  piety  and  justice,  as  well  as  for  bravery  and  enterprise 
as  a  soldier. 

Adolphus  (Adolph)  VIII.,  Duke  of  Sleswick,  was 
the  son  of  Gerard,  Count  of  Holstein.  His  father  hav- 
ing died  when  he  was  but  three  years  old,  he  received 
his  education  at  the  court  of  the  emperor  Sigismund. 
In  1440  Christopher,  King  of  Denmark,  conferred  Sles- 
wick upon  Adolphus  as  a  fief.  When  Christopher  died, 
in  1448,  the  crown  of  Denmark  was  offered  him,  but  he 
declined  it.  He  died  in  1459,  leaving  a  high  character 
for  wisdom  and  justice. 

Adolphus,  (Frederick,)  a  king  of  Sweden,  born  in 
1 710,  was  descended  from  the  royal  line  of  Vasa.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Swedish  throne  in  1743.  The  royal  au- 
thority, however,  was  at  this  period  almost  entirely  over- 
borne by  the  council  of  the  states  ;  and,  after  having  been 
continually  thwarted  in  his  wishes  by  that  body,  Fred- 
erick Adolphus  at  length,  in  1769,  tendered  the  resigna- 
tion of  his  crown.  Upon  this  the  council  made  some 
trifling  concessions,  and  he  remained  a  nominal  king  till 
his  death,  in  1771. 

Adolphus  (or  Adolph)  II.,  (John,  or  Johann,)  Duke 
of  Saxe-Weissenfels,  sprung  from  a  collateral  branch  of 
the  electoral  (now  royal)  line  of  Saxony,  was  born  in 
1685.  He  early  distinguished  himself  by  his  bravery 
and  military  skill.  In  1704  he  was  made  a  lieutenant- 
general  in  the  Hessian  service,  and  in  1 7 10,  Augustus, 
Elector  of  Saxony,  appointed  him  one  of  the  generals  of 
his  forces  then  engaged  against  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden. 
His  two  older  brothers  having  died,  Adolphus  became 
Duke  of  Saxe-Weissenfels  in  1736.  In  1744  he  took  an 
active  part  against  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia ;  but,  ex- 
hausted by  the  fatigues  and  hardships  through  which 
he  had  passed,  he  soon  after  retired  to  his  duchy,  where 
he  died  in  1746. 

Adolphus  (Adolph)  of  Nassau  [in  Latin,  Adol'- 
phus  Nassovien'sis]  was  elected,  in  1292,  successor  to 
Rudolph,  Emperor  of  Germany.  Though  possessed  of 
considerable  military  talents,  by  his  falsehood  and  bru- 
tality he  soon  became  very  unpopular,  and  in  1298  was 
deposed  by  an  assembly  of  the  electors.  He  refused, 
however,  to  relinquish  his  power.  But  in  a  battle  fought 
soon  after  (in  1298)  between  him  and  Albert  his  succes- 
sor, Adolphus  was  slain,  fighting  desperately. 

See  J.  P.  Wagner,  "Vita  Adolphi  Nassoviensis,"  1775-80  ;  J.  G 
Leuchs,  "Adolph  der  Nassauer,  Kaiser  und  Konig  der  Deutscheii," 
1798. 

A-dol'phus,  (John,)  an  English  lawyer  and  historian, 
born  about  1770.  He  practised  in  the  criminal  courts  of 
London,  and  had  a  high  reputation  as  an  eloquent  ad- 
vocate. His  chief  work  is  a  "  History  of  England,  from 
the  Accession  of  George  III.,"  (7  vols.,  1805-45,)  which 
displays  considerable  research  and  learning.  Among 
his  other  works  we  may  name  "  Biographical  Memoirs 
of  the  French  Revolution,"  (4  vols.,  1799.)  He  gained 
great  credit  by  his  able  defence  of  Thistlewood,  charged 
with  treason,  in  1820.    Died  in  1845. 

Ad'om-oian^  or  Ad'am-nan^  [Lat.  Adomna'nus 


€  as  ^;  9  as     g  kard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  giitticral;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  ( Ji:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AD  ON  I J  AH 


54 


ADRIAN 


or  Adamna'nus,]  also  written  Adamaii'nus,  an  abbot 
of  the  monastery  of  lona,  born  about  624.  According 
to  some  writers,  he  was  a  native  ot  Ireland  ;  according  to 
others,  of  Scotland.  He  was  a  contemporary  and  friend 
of  King  Alfred  of  Northumbria.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
"  Life  of  St.  Columba,"  a  curious  work,  which  throws 
interesting  light  upon  the  political  and  social  condition 
of  that  period. 

Ad-o-nrjah,  [Heb.  iTJlX,]  a  son  of  King  David  and 
Haggith,  whoj  near  the  close  of  his  father's  reign,  aspired 
to  the  succession  in  opposition  to  the  claims  of  Solomon. 
He  was  afterwards  put  to  death  by  the  order  of  Solomon, 
1030  B.C.,  it  is  supposed.  (See  I.  Kings  i.  5  ;  ii.  13.) 

A-do'nis,  [Gr.  'AfWi'if,]  a  son  of  Cin^yras,  King  of 
Cyprus,  represented  by  the  poets  as  a  youth  of  exquisite 
beauty.  He  was  passionately  fond  of  hunting,  and,  not- 
withstanding the  anxious  admonitions  of  Venus,  by 
whom  he  was  greatly  beloved,  he  exposed  himself  daily 
in  the  chase,  and  at  last  was  killed  by  a  boar  which  he 
had  wounded.  From  his  blood  sprang  the  anemone,  a 
beautiful  flowe.',  Venus  was  inconsolable  at  his  loss; 
but  she  obtained  at  last  from  Proserpine  that  Adonis 
should  spend  six  months  of  every  year  with  her  on  earth, 
and  the  other  six  in  Hades.  Adonis  or  Adonai  {i.e. 
"  Lord")  was  an  Oriental  title  sometimes  given  to  the 
sun,  as  the  "  lord  of  day  :"  the  preceding  fable,  therefore, 
is  supposed  to  allude  to  the  periodical  return  of  summer 
and  winter.  Hence  the  expressions  "  Beautiful  as  Ado- 
nis" and  "  Beautiful  as  day"*  (in  French,  "  Beau  comme 
le  jour")  maybe  considered  as  equivalent  to  each  other. 

Adorni,  ^-doR'nee,  (Caterina  or  Catherina 
Fieschi — fe-^s'kee,)  an  Italian  poetess,  born  at  Genoa 
in  1447,  wrote  on  religious  subjects.    Died  in  15 10. 

See  Cattaneo  Marbatto,  "Vita  de  Catherina  Adorni." 

Adorno,  ^-doR'no,  (in  the  plural,  Adorni,  d-doR'nee,) 
an  influential  Genoese  family,  from  which,  between  1360 
and  1530,  no  fewer  than  six  doges  of  Genoa  were  chosen. 
They  held,  however,  a  precarious  authority,  being  ever 
and  anon  driven  from  the  city  according  as  the  opposing 
faction  (the  Fregosi)  chanced  for  the  moment  to  prevail. 

Adorno,  (Antonio,)  a  doge  of  Genoa,  elected  in 
1384,  is  said  to  have  been  an  enlightened  and  liberal 
statesman.    Died  in  1397. 

Adorno,  (Francesco,)  an  eminent  Italian  Jesuit,  born 
about  1530,  was  the  author  of  several  theological  works. 
Died  in  1586. 

Adorno,  (Prosper  or  Pros'pero,)  was  elected  Doge 
of  Genoa  in  1461,  but  was  soon  expelled  from  the  city 
by  Paul  Fregoso.  He  was  restored  to  power  in  1477, 
and  defeated  the  Duke  of  Milan  in  battle  in  1478,  soon 
after  which  he  was  driven  out  by  a  sedition.  Died  at 
Naples  in  i486. 

See  Varese,  "  Storia  della  Republica  di  Genova." 

A-drain^  (Robert,)  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  inathema- 
tician,  born  in  Ireland  in  1775.  Plaving  emigrated  to 
America,  he  became  successively  professor  of  mathema- 
tics and  natural  philosophy  in  Rutgers  College,  New 
Brunswick,  and  Columbia  College,  New  York,  and  sub- 
sequently professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  He  edited  Hutton's  Mathematics.  Died 
at  New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey,  in  1843, 

A-dras'tns,  [Gr.  "k^^aoToq;  Fr.  Adraste,  t'dRtst',]  a 
king  of  Argos,  contemporary  with  Theseus.  He  was 
the  leader  of  a  celebrated  expedition  against  Thebes,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  restore  Polynices  to  the  throne 
of  that  state.  This  expedition,  which  was  called  the  war 
of  the  "  Seven  against  Thebes,"  was  not  successful.  All 
of  the  Seven,  except  Adrastus,  were  killed  at  Thebes. 
The  war  of  ihe  Seven  against  Thebes  was  a  favourite 
subject  of  ancient  epic  and  tragic  poets. 

Adrastus,  ['A(5pa(7rof,]  a  Greek,  who  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  the  works  of  Aristotle,  and  a  treatise  on 
music,  which  is  extant.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life  ;  it 
\s  supposed  that  he  lived  in  the  first  or  second  century, 

Adrets,  des,  d^'zt'dRa',  (Franqois  Beaumont— 
•jS'm^N',)  Baron,  usually  called  simply  Des  Adrets, 


*  "  For  he  was  beautiful  as  day 
When  day  was  beautiful  to  me 
As  to  young  eagles  being  free." 

Byron's  Prisoner  0/  Chilian. 


a  celebrated  French  nobleman,  born  in  15 13,  became  a 
leader  of  the  Huguenots  in  1562,  out  of  resentment  to 
the  Duke  of  Guise.  He  was  distinguished  for  great  mili- 
tary talents,  the  boldness  and  celerity  of  his  movements, 
and  for  the  most  atrocious  cruelty.  In  1567  he  joined 
the_  Catholic  party  ;  but  soon  after,  incurring  their  sus- 
picions, he  was  thrown  into  prison.  Though  released  in 
1 571,  he  never  regained  his  influence,  but,  distrusted  and 
abhorred  by  all,  died  in  1587. 

See  Gui-Allard,  "Vie  du  Baron  Des  Adrets,"  1675. 

Adria,  i'dRe-i,  (Giovanni  Giacomo,)  an  eminent 
Italian  physician,  born  at  Mazara,  in  Sicily,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  emperor  Charles 
V.  made  him  his  own  physician,  ennobled  him,  and  ap- 
pointed him  proto-7nedictis  of  Sicily,    Died  in  1560. 

Adriaens,  a'dRe-ans",  (Lucas,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
who  lived  in  tlj^  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth  century, 

Adriaensen,  ^MRe-an'sen,  (Alexander,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1620.  He  painted  flow- 
ers, fruit,  vases,  etc.,  with  exquisite  skill. 

See  De.scamps,  "Vies des Peintres  Flamands." 

Adriaensen,  (Cornelis,)  a  popular  Catholic  preach- 
er and  Franciscan  friar,  born  at  Dordrecht  (Dort)  about 
1520,  The  Protestants,  to  whom  he  was  extremely  ob- 
noxious, charged  him  with  the  most  scandalous  conduct, 
— whether  justly  or  not  cannot  now  be  determined.  Died 
in  1581. 

See  VoET,  "Historia  von  Briider  Cornelis,  etc.,"  1613. 

Adrian,  a'dre-an,  [Gr,  ^Ac^ptawf ;  Lat.  Adria'nus,]  a 
Greek  writer  of  the  fifth  century,  who  wrote  an  intro- 
duction to  the  Scriptures. 

A'drian  \^k6pLavb(\  or  Ha'drian  of  Tyre,  a  Greek 
sophist  of  the  second  century,  studied  eloquence  at  Athens 
under  Herodes  Atticus,  whom  he  succeeded  in  his  school. 
His  reputation  was  so  high  that  he  was  invited  to  Rome 
by  Marcus  Aurelius.  He  died  at  Rome  during  the  reign 
of  Commodus,  whom  he  served  as  secretary. 

Adrian  or  Adrianus,  (Emperor.)    See  Hadrian. 

A'dri-an  or  Ha'dri-an,[Lat,  Adria'nus  or  Hadria'- 
nus,]  a  native  of  Africa,  who  was  made  abbot  of  the 
monastery  ot  St,  Peter,  at  Canterbury,  about  670.  Ac- 
cording to  Bede,  he  was  a  man  of  great  learning,  both 
theological  and  secular, 

Adrian  [Lat,  Adria'nus;  It,  Adriano,  S-dRe-^'no; 
Fr,  Adrien,  t'dRe'iN']  I.,  son  of  Theodore,  of  a  dis- 
tinguished Roman  family,  was  elected  pope  in  772. 
When  Desiderius,  King  of  the  Longobards,  had  taken 
several  towns  belonging  to  the  papal  see,  and  was  pro- 
ceeding to  Rome,  Adrian  threatened  him  with  excom- 
munication,— the  first  instance  on  record  of  such  a  threat 
to  a  sovereign  prince.  He  was,  however,  indebted  to 
Charlemagne  for  protection  against  the  Longobard  king. 
In  the  reign  of  this  pontiff  (a.  D.  787)  was  held  at  Nicasa, 
(Nice,)  in  Bithynia,  the  seventh  oecumenic  council,  which 
recognized  and  restored  the  worship  of  images.  In  794 
Charlemagne  assembled  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  a 
general  council  of  the  West,  which  justified  the  use  of 
images  in  churches,  but  condemned  their  worship, — a 
limitation  disapproved  by  the  pope,  though  countenanced 
by  the  King  of  the  Franks.  Adrian  appears  to  have 
been  an  able  and  liberal  prince.  During  his  pontificate 
Rome  enjoyed  a  degree  of  peace  and  prosperity  to  which 
she  had  long  been  a  stranger.  He  built,  or  repaired,  at 
his  own  expense,  several  public  edifices  ;  he  was  also 
very  liberal  towards  th«  poor.    Died  in  795, 

See  Panvin'io,  "  Vita  dei  Pontefici." 

Adrian  II.,  a  native  of  Rome,  succeeded  Nicholas  I. 
in  the  popedom  in  867,  and  died  in  872, 

Adrian  III.,  a  native  of  Rome,  succeeded  Marinas 
as  pope  in  884,  and  died  in  885. 

Adrian  IV.  (Nicholas  Breakspere)  was  boin 
about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century,  near  Saint  Albans, 
in  England.  Having  gone  to  France  to  seek  his  fortune, 
he  was  made  abbot  of  a  monastery  near  Avignon  in  1 137, 
But  the  canons,  displeased  with  his  strict  discipline, 
brought  charges  against  his  character,  which  obliged  him 
to  repair  to  Rome,  The  pope,  Eugenius  III.,  having 
examined  the  matter,  not  only  acquitted  Nicholas  entirely, 
but  was  so  pleased  with  him  that  he  kept  him  about  ins 
person,  and  in  1 146  appointed  him  Cardinal-Bishop  of 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  s/ior^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  moon- 


ADRIAN 


55 


jEGISTHUS 


Albano.  After  the  death  of  Anastasius  IV.,  in  1154,  he 
was  raised  to  the  holy  see  by  the  name  of  Adrian  IV. 
He  was  a  man  of  acknowledged  talents,  but  his  exalted 
views  of  papal  supremacy  involved  him  in  serious  dif- 
ferences with  the  emperor  Frederick,  (of  Suabia,)  which, 
still  unsettled  at  his  death,  led  to  an  open  rupture  dur- 
ing the  pontificate  of  his  successor,  Alexander  III. 
Adrian  IV.  died  in  1 1 59.  He  was  the  only  Englishman 
ever  raised  to  the  papal  chair, 

Adrian  V.,  a  native  of  Genoa,  was  elected  to  the 
Roman  see  in  1276,  and  died  the  same  year. 

Adrian  VI.,  a  native  of  Utrecht,  was  raised  to  the 
papal  see  on  the  death  of  Leo  X.,  in  152 1.  He  had 
formerly  been  preceptor  to  the  emperor  Charles  V,,  by 
whom  he  was  greatly  esteemed.  He  was  a  sincere  and 
upright  man,  and  saw  with  profound  sorrow  the  scandal- 
ous abuses  which  then  prevailed  in  the  Catholic  churches. 
He  justly  attributed  the  formidable  progress  of  Protest- 
antism to  the  sins  of  the  Catholics,  particularly  to  those 
of  the  higher  clergy.  He  undertook  and  accomplished 
several  important  reforms  ;  which,  however,  rendered 
him  extremely  unpopular.  When  he  died,  (a.d.  1523,) 
the  people  of  Rome,  especially  those  about  the  court, 
expressed  the  most  indecent  joy. 

See  MoRiNG,  "Life  of  Adrian  VI.,"  1536;  Caspar  Burmann', 
"Analecta  Historica  de  Hadriano  VI.,"  1727;  L.  E.  RoscH,  "Jets 
over  Paus  Adriaan  VI.,"  1S36. 

A'drian  de  Cas-tel'lo  or  Adriano  di  Castello, 

i-dRe-d'no  de  kas-tel'lo,  a  native  of  Tuscany,  who  was 
agent  for  English  affairs  at  the  court  of  Rome,  and  was 
afterwards  appointed  Bishop  of  Hereford,  whence  he 
was  translated  to  the  bishopric  of  Bath  and  Wells.  He 
was  made  cardinal  by  Pope  Alexander  VI.  Wolsey  suc- 
ceeded him  as  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  15 18.  He 
wrote  Latin  poems,  and  "On  True  Philosophy,"  ("De 
Vera  Philosophia,")  which  was  frequently  printed.  Died 
about  1520. 

A'dri-an,  [Russ.  pron.  i-dre-5n',]  the  last  primate  or 
patriarch  of  Russia,  died  in  1702,  after  which  the  office 
of  patriarch  was  suppressed  by  Peter  the  Great. 

Adrian,  i'dRe-dn,  (Joh.\nn  Valentin,)  a  German 
litterateur,  horn  at  Klmgenbcrg,  on  the  Main,  in  1793. 
He  became  professor  of  modern  languages  at  Giessen 
m  1823.  Among  his  works  is  one  called  "  Pictures  of 
England,"  ("Bilder  aus  England,"  2  vols.,  1828.) 

Adriani,  i-dRe-d'nee,  (John  Baptist,  or  Giovanni 
Battista,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at  Florence  in  1513. 
He  was  appointed,  in  1549,  professor  of  eloquence  in 
the  University  of  Florence,  which  office  he  held  till  his 
death  in  1579.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  his  own  Times," 
("Istoria  de'  suoi  Tempi,"  1583,)'  which  is  much  es- 
teemed. 

Adriani,  (Marcello,)  a  son  of  John  Baptist  Adriani, 
whom  he  succeeded  as  professor  of  eloquence.  Died  in 
1604,  aged  about  70. 

Adriani,  (Marcello  Virgilio,)  the  father  of  John 
Baptist  Adriani.  He  was  born  at  Florence  in  1464,  and 
became  professor  of  belles-lettres ;  in  1498  he  was 
made  chancellor  of  the  republic.  He  made  a  good 
Latin  version  of  Dioscorides'  "  De  Materia  Medica." 
Died  in  1521. 

Adriano,  (Pope.)    See  Adrian. 

Adriano  (a-dRe-cVno)  the  Friar,  a  Spanish  histori- 
cal painter,  who  was  born  at  Cordova,  and  died  there  in 
1630.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Cespedes,  and  painted  a  Mag- 
dalen, which  Palomino  pronounced  equal  to  Titian  in 
style. 

Adriansen,  i-dRe-dn'sen,  (Alexander,)  a  Flemish 
painter  of  fish,  born  about  1625. 

Adrichomia,  d-dre-ko'me-a,  (Cornelia,)  a  nun  of 
the  order  of  St.  Augustine,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  who 
versified  the  Psalms  of  David,  and  composed  other  sa- 
cred poems. 

Ad-ri-eho'mi-us,  (Christianus,)  a  writer,  born  at 
Delft,  in  Holland,  in  1533.  Being  a  Catholic  priest,  he 
was  driven  from  his  native  country  on  the  overthrow  of 
the  authority  of  Spain,  and  died  at  Cologne  in  1585. 
He  left  a  work  on  the  geography  of  the  Holy  Land,  en- 
itled  "Theatrum  Terrae  Sanctae,"  (1593.)  He  also 
"Tfote,  under  the  name  of  Christianus  Crucius,  a  "Life 
of  Christ." 


Adrien,  the  French  of  Adrian,  which  see. 

Adry,  fdRe'',  (Jean  F.,)  a  French  writer,  born  near 
Auxerre  in  1749.  He  was  professor  of  rhetoric  at 
Troyes,  and  afterwards  received  a  pension  from  the  gov- 
ernment. He  wrote  several  biographical  works,  besides 
making  various  compilations,  translations,  etc.  Died  in 
1818. 

Adryan,  a-dri-dn',  (Albin,)  a  Polish  poet,  born  about 
1490.    Died  at  Cracow  about  1540. 

Ad'so,  Az'o,  or  As'so,[Fr.  Adson,  td's6N',]  a  French 
monk,  born  about  910  a.d.  He  wrote  the  lives  of  sev- 
eral saints. 

Aduarte,  a-Doo-aR'ti,  almost  id-w^R'ti,  (Diego,) 
a  Spanish  historian,  born  at  Saragossa  about  1570.  He 
was  a  missionary  to  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  in  1632 
was  made  Prior  of  Manilla,  where  he  died  in  1637.  He 
has  left  a  very  interesting  account  of  his  missionary 
labours,  and  of  the  dangers  and  sufferings  which  he  and 
the  other  Spanish  missionaries  encountered  in  conse- 
quence of  their  efforts  to  introduce  Christianity  into 
Cambodia  ;  he  also  wrote  a  history  of  the  martyrdom  of 
the  Christian  converts  in  Japan,  and  several  other  works. 

Advenier-Fontenille,  td'veh-ne-i'f6Nt'neI'  or  foNt'- 
ne'ye,  a  French  captain  of  engineers,  who  wrote  an  opera 
and  other  works.    Born  at  Paris  in  1773;  died  in  1827. 

Adventius,  ad-ven'she-us,  a  bishop  of  Metz,  who 
flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  ninth  century. 

-ffiacides,  e-ass'e-d^z,  [Gr.  kiaKidrjc,']  the  father  of 
Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus,  was  killed  in  battle  313  B.C. 

"^acus,  ee'a-kus,  [Gr.  MuKog ;  Fr.  Eaque,  i'tk',] 
(Myth.,)  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  yEgina,  reigned  in  the  island 
of  /Egina.  He  was  the  father  of  Telamon  and  Peleus. 
He  was  renowned  for  justice  and  piety,  and  after  his 
death  became  one  of  the  judges  of  Hades. 

.SJantides,  e-an'te-d^z,  [A<avnd7?f,]  a  Greek  poet, 
lived  at  Alexandria  about  300  B.C. 

^desius,  e-dee'she-us,  [Gr.  kidtniocj]  a  New-Plato- 
nist,  native  of  Cappadocia,  lived  in  the  time  of  Constan- 
tine  the  Great.  He  was  a  disciple  of  the  celebrated 
lamblichus.  Some  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  the 
subsequent  age  were  taught  by  him  :  among  others,  the 
emperor  Julian. 

JGetes,  e-ee't^z,  or  JBeta.,  e-ee'ta,  [Gr.  kiijTrig;  Fr. 
Eete,  Whx.'  or  i'^t',]  a  fabulous  king  of  Colchis,  regarded 
as  a  son  of  Helios  and  Perseis,  and  the  father  of  Medea 
and  Absyrtus.  He  was  renowned  as  the  possessor  of 
the  golden  fleece,  the  object  of  the  Argonautic  expedition. 

.ffigaeon,  e-jee'on,  [Gr.  kiyaiuv;  Fr.  Eg^on,  a'zha'6N'',] 
a  monster  said  to  have  a  hundred  arms.  (See  Briareus.) 

.SIgeus,  ee'jus,  [Gr.  kiyev^;  Fr.  Egee,  i'zha',]  a  king 
of  Athens,  was  a  son  or  adopted  son  of  Pandi'on,  and 
was  the  father  of  Theseus.  According  to  tradition,  he 
drowned  himself  in  the  /Egean  Sea. 

.^gidius-a-Columna.    See  Colonna,  Egidio. 

^gidius,  e-jid'e-us,  (Petrus,)  of  Antwerp,  born 
in  1490,  travelled  in  Asia  and  Africa,  and  wrote  a  "De- 
scription of  Thrace,"  etc.    Died  in  1555. 

-ffigid'ius  Corbolien'sis,  a  medical  writer,  and  physi- 
cian to  Philip  Augustus,  King  of  France,  lived  about  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  wrote  several  medical 
treatises  in  Latin  verse,  which  show  him  to  have  been  a 
man  of  information  and  considerable  poetical  skill. 

^gid'ius  Leodien'sis,  or  Giles  of  Liege,  a  monk 
and  historical  writer,  lived  between  1200  and  1250. 

JGgidius  Romanus.    See  Colonna,  Egidio. 

.aigidius  OF  ViTERBO  [Lat.  ^gid'ius  Viterbien'sis] 
was  born  near  Viterbo  in  1470.  He  was  made  cardinal 
in  151 7,  and  died  in  1532.  He  was  regarded  as  one  of 
the  most  eminent  scholars  and  the  best  pulpit-orator  of 
that  age. 

.aigimus,  ej'l-mus,  or  .ffigimius,  e-jim'e-us,  {klyino^ 
or  kiyLuLoq,']  a  Greek  physician,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
lived  before  the  time  of  Hippocrates.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  wrote  particularly  on  the  pulse. 

iEgineta.    See  Paulus  ^gineta. 

-Slginhard.    See  Eginhard. 

JBgisthus,  e-jis'thus,  [Gr.  kh/iadoc;  Fr.  Egisthe,  i.'- 
zh^st',]  in  classic  mythology  was  regarded  as  a  son  of 
Thyestes  and  Pelopea.  The  latter  was  a  daughter  of 
Thyestes.  He  was  adopted  as  a  son  by  Atreus,  and  in 
the  absence  of  Agamemnon  seduced  Clytemnestra.  He 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  |  Aard;  g  as j;  o,  H,  K,  piUural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


jEGTPTUS 


56 


AEROPE 


was  »n  accomplice  in  the  murder  of  Agamemnon,  and 
was  killed  by  Orestes. 

iEgyptus,  e-jip'tus,  [Gr.  AiyvKTog ;  Fr.  Egyptus, 
i'zh^p'tiis',]  a  son  of  Belus,  and  a  brother  of  Danaus. 
He  inherited  Arabia  from  his  father,  and  obtained  by 
conr^uest  the  country  which  derived  from  him  the  name 
of  Egypt.  The  poets  feigned  that  he  had  fifty  sons,  who 
were  about  to  marry  the  fifty  daughters  of  Danaus,  but 
were  murdered  by  them.    (See  Danaides.) 

iElfred.    See  Alfred. 

jaSifric  or  JGlfricus.    See  Alfric. 

^lian,  ee'le-an,  [Lat.  tElianus,  e-le-a'nus ;  Gr. 
AlXtavog;  Fr.  Elien,  a'le'iN',]  (Claudius,)  a  native  of 
Prasneste  in  Italy,  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  third 
century.  Although  an  Italian  by  birth,  he  ranks  among 
the  purest  Greek  writers.  He  is  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "  Various  History,"  made  up  chiefly  of  extracts 
from  other  authors,  and  of  a  history  of  animals,  which, 
though  written  in  a  clear  and  agreeable  style,  is  full  of 
absurd  stories. 

^lian  or  ^-li-a'nus  Tac'ti-cus,  [AiXiai  og  TaKTiKog,] 
a  Greek  writer,  who  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the 
second  century.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  military  tactics 
of  the  Greeks,  whence  his  surname  "Tacticus." 

.Siianus  Meccius  —  mek'she-us,  a  Roman  physi- 
cian, who  lived  in  the  second  century.  He  is  mentioned 
by  Galen  with  high  commendation. 

^lius,  ee'le-us,  (Sextus  P^tus  Catus,)  an  emi- 
nent Roman  jurist,  became  consul  in  536  a.u.c.  A 
portion  of  the  Roman  law  was  named  after  him  the 
.^lian  law. 

^lius  Donatus.    See  Donatus. 

.ailius  Gallus.    See  Gallus. 

^lius  Marcianus.    See  Marcianus. 

iE'lius  Pro-rao'tus,  [Gr.  AiXLog  ILpouuTog,']  a  physi- 
cian of  Alexandria,  who  wrote  several  medical  works  in 
the  Greek  language.  His  date  is  uncertain.  Most  critics 
suppose  that  he  lived  before  the  Christian  era. 

.^luoth,  eKnoth,  a  monk,  who  was  born  in  England 
in  the  eleventh  century,  and  removed  to  Denmark  about 
1085.    He  wrote  a  life  of  Saint  Canute  the  Martyr. 

Aelst  or  Aalst,  van,  vtn  Slst,  (Evert),  a  distin- 
guished Dutch  painter,  born  at  Delft  in  1602.  He 
painted  principally  inanimate  objects,  as  dead  game,  ves- 
sels of  gold  and  silver,  etc.    Died  in  1658. 

Aelst,  van,  (Willem,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
by  whom  he  was  instructed,  was  born  at  Delft  in  1620. 
Pie  excelled  in  the  same  department  of  art  as  his  uncle. 
He  also  represented  fruits  and  flowers  with  exquisite 
skill.    Died  in  1679. 

iEmilia,  e-miKe-a,  (Juliana,)  [Ger.  pron.  yoo-le-3.'n3. 
i-mee'le-a,]  a  countess  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  born 
in  1637.  She  married  Count  Albert  Anton  in  1665,  and 
died  in  1706.  She  was  eminent  for  her  benevolence  and 
piety,  and  wrote  a  number  of  religious  poems  and  hymns. 

iEmilia  Tertia,  e-miKe-a  ter'she-a,  a  daughter  of 
Paulus  ^milius,  and  wife  of  Scipio  Africanus  the  elder, 
a  Roman  matron,  distinguished  for  her  prudence  and 
conjugal  affection.  Cornelia,  the  mother  of  the  Gracchi, 
was  her  daughter. 

wSJmilianus,  e-mil-e-a'nus,  [Fr.  Smilien,  a'me^le'- 
Ln',]  a  Roman  prefect  of  Egypt,  put  to  death  for  rebel- 
lion, by  order  of  the  emperor  Gallienus. 

^milianus,  (Marcus  Julius  ^Emilius,)  a  native 
of  Mauritania,  born  about  208  a.d.  He  was  governor 
of  Pannonia  and  Moesia  under  the  emperor  Gallus. 
His  soldiers  having  proclaimed  him  emperor,  Gallus 
marched  against  him,  but  was  murdered  by  his  own 
men,  who  went  over  to  ^milianus.  The  reign  of  the 
latter,  however,  lasted  but  four  months.  He,  in  his 
turn,  was  killed  by  his  own  soldiers,  at  Spoletum,  in  254 
a.d. 

.ffimilius,  e-mil'e-us,  or  .ZBmilianus,  e-mil-e-a'nus, 
a  Christian  martyr,  put  to  death  by  Huneric,  King  of  the 
Vandals,  in  484  A.D. 

^milius,  (Antonius,)  a  professor  of  history  and  a 
friend  of  Descartes,  was  born  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1589. 
He  wrote  Latin  verses.    Died  in  1660. 

^milius  Macer.    See  Macer. 

.ffimilius,  (Mamer'cus,)  a  Roman,  who  was  three 
times  dictator.    His  first  dictatorship  was  in  437  B.C. 


-ajmilius  (Paulus  or  Paullus)  I.,  a  Roman  consul 
and  able  general,  who  fell  bravely  at  the  battle  of  Can- 
nae, 216  B.C. 

^milius  (Paulus  or  Paullus)  II.    See  Paulus. 

-Slmilius,  (Paulus,)  an  Italian  historian.  See  Emilio. 

-ffineae,  i-na'i,  (Henricus,)  a  Dutch  mathematician 
and  physicist,  born  in  Friesland  in  1743,  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  committee  of  the  marine.  He  wrote  a 
"  Treatise  on  Hydrostatics,"  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1810. 

.aineas,  e-nee'as,  [Gr.  Awecag;  Fr.  £n6e,  k'n^,]  the 
hero  of  Virgil's  great  poem,  (the  "^neid,")  was,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  the  son  of  Anchises,  a  Trojan  prince, 
and  the  goddess  Venus.  In  the  various  accounts  given 
of  his  life  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  the  fabulous 
from  the  historical.  Some  writers  relate  that  he  went 
to  Thrace,  and  died  there  ;  but,  according  to  the  more 
popular  tradition,  which  is  followed  by  Virgil,  yEneas, 
after  the  destruction  of  Troy,  came  to  Italy,  married 
Lavinia  the  daughter  of  Latinus,  King  of  Latium,  and 
prepared  the  foundation  of  the  Roman  empire.  He  had 
a  son,  Ascanius  or  lulus,  to  whom  the  Julian  family  of 
Rome  traced  their  origin, 

JGneas  Gazaeus— ga-zee'us,  (s§  named  from  Gaza, 
where  he  was  born,)  a  Platonic  philosopher,  who  em- 
braced Christianity  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fifth  century. 
He  wrote  a  book  called  "  Theophrastus,"  in  which  the 
Platonic  and  Christian  doctrines  are  strangely  blended. 

-ffineas  Sylvius.    See  Pius  II. 

iEiieas  Tacticus,  [0  Ta/cn/cof,]  a  Greek  writer  on 
military  tactics,  lived,  it  is  supposed,  350  B.C. 

iSiiesideinus,  e-iies'e-dee'nius,  [Gr.  Aiv/ja'a^rjfioc,]  a 
skeptical  philosopher,  native  ofGnossus,  (orCnossus,)  in 
Crete,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  first  century. 

iEnobarbus.    See  Ahenobarbus. 

iBolus,  ee'o-lus,  [Gr.  AloXog ;  Fr.  fioLE,  h'oV,]  in 
the  Greek  mythology,  the  god  or  ruler  of  the  winds.  He 
is  said  to  have  reigned  in  the  ^olian  Islands,  and  to 
have  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Juno.  P'or  a  vivid  descrip- 
tion of  the  country  of  the  winds,  and  their  prison,  con- 
structed of  high  mountains,  whence  they  could  issue 
only  on  the  permission  of  iEolus,  see  Virgil's  ^neid, 
book  i.  51-63. 

Mollis,  a  mythical  personage,  said  to  have  been  a 
son  of  Helen,  a  brother  of  Dorus,  and  the  father  of 
Cretheus,  Athamas,  and  Sisyphus.  He  was  supposed 
to  be  the  founder  of  the  ^olic  branch  of  the  Greek 
nation. 

iEpinus,  e-pl'nus,  (Franz  Maria  Ulric  Theo- 
DOR,)  a  German  natural  philosopher  and  eminent  elec- 
trician, born  at  Rostock  in  1724.  His  proper  name  was 
HoCH.  Having  settled  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1757,  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  that  city, 
and  professor  of  physics.  He  possessed  great  sagacity 
as  an  experimenter,  discovered  the  electric  properties 
of  tourmaline,  and  is  justly  regarded,  says  Biot,  as  the 
inventor  of  the  electrical  condenser  and  electrophorus. 
His  principal  work  is  an  attempt  to  establish  a  new 
theory  of  electricity,  etc.,  entitled  "Tentamen  Theoriae 
Electricitatis  et  Magnetismi,"  (1759.)  In  this  he  en- 
deavoured to  subject  the  phenomena  of  electricity  to 
mathematical  analysis.  He  contributed  many  memoirs 
to  the  academy  above  named.    Died  at  Dorpat  in  1802. 

See  "  Memolres  de  I'Acad^mie  de  Berlin,"  1756. 

-Sl-pi'nus,  (John,)  [in  German,  Huch  or  Hoeck,]  an 
eminent  Protestant  divine,  born  at  Brandenburg  in  1499, 
was  a  disciple  of  Luther.  He  became  minister  of  a 
church  in  Hamburg  in  1529,  and  was  the  most  influen- 
tial theologian  in  the  North  of  Germany.  In  1538  he 
signed  the  Articles  of  Schmalkalden.  He  wrote  several 
polemical  works.    Died  in  1553- 

See  Arnold  Grevius,  "  Memoria  j^^pini,"  1736. 

A-e'ri-us,  [Gr.  'Aepioc,]  a  native  of  Pontus,  who  lived 
in  the  fourth  century.  He  was  the  founder  of  a  heretical 
sect  called  Aerians.  He  opposed  offering  prayers  for 
the  dead,  the  keeping  of  Easter,  and  some  other  prevail- 
ing customs  of  the  church. 

Aerope,  a-^r'o-pe,  [Gr.  'Aepoirr) ;  Fr.  £rope,  i'rop', 
or  AEROBE,  S'i'rop',]  a  daughter  of  Crateus,  King  of 
Crete,  was  married  to  Plisthenes,  and  afterwards  to 


i,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAor/;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


JERSCHOT 


S7 


^  SO  PUS 


Atreus.  She  was  the  mother  of  Agamemnon  and  Mene- 
laus. 

Aerschot,  Duke  of.    See  Aarschot. 
Aersens.    See  Aarsens. 

Aertseii,  SRt'sen,  (Peter,)  surnamed  Lungo, 
("long/')  an  eminent  historical  painter,  born  at  Am- 
sterdam in  1519  ;  died  in  1573. 

Aertsz,  SRts,  (Richard,)  a  Dutch  historical  painter, 
born  at  Wyck,  in  North  Holland,  in  1482,  worked  at 
Antwerp,  and  died  in  1577. 

.ZEschines,  es'ke-n^z,  [Gr.  Aiaxivri^;  Fr.  EscHiNE,  es^- 
sh^n',]  a  celebrated  orator,  and  rival  of  Demosthenes, 
born  at  Athens  about  389  B.C.  He  first  became  distin- 
guished as  a  soldier  in  the  battle  of  Mantinea,  (362  B.C.,) 
and  won  the  approbation  of  his  general,  Phocion,  in 
that  of  Tamynas,  (350  B.C.)  He  began  his  political  ca- 
reer as  a  violent  opposer  of  Philip  of  Macedon  ;  but,  after 
his  embassy  to  the  Macedonian  court,  a  change  took 
place,  and  he  afterwards  opposed  a  war  with  the  king 
as  zealously  as  he  had  urged  it  before.  This  was  either 
the  cause  ox  the  pretext  of  a  quarrel  between  him  and 
Demosthenes,  who  charged  /Eschines  with  preferring 
Macedonian  gold  to  the  interests  of  his  country.  The 
contest  which  followed  between  the  rival  orators  is  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  in  history,  and  it  gave  birth  to 
perhaps  the  finest  specimens  of  rhetorical  genius  and 
skill  that  are  to  be  found  in  the  literature  of  any  nation. 
At  length  Demosthenes  triumphed :  /Eschines  went 
into  exile,  (330  B.C.,)  and  afterwards  opened  a  school  of 
rhetoric  at  Rhodes,  where  he  taught  with  great  applause. 
Died  314  B.C. 

See  LiHANius,  "Vita  ^schinis  ;"  Norbf.rc,  "  Programmata  ii. 
de  ^schine  Oratore,"  1792  ;  Stechow,  "  De  it^schinis  Oratoris  Vita," 
1841;  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece,"  vol.  xii.  chap.  xcv.  ;  Hieron. 
Wolf,  "  Vita  Demosthenis  et  .(^^schinis,"  1572;  W.  F.  Palmblau, 
"iEschines  Atheniensiiim  ad  Philippum  Regem  Legatus,"  1S36; 
article  "Eschines,"  by  Passow,  in  Ersch  und  Gruber's  "Allge- 
meine  Eiicyklopaedie  ;"  Plutarch,  "Demosthenes,"  also  "  Vils 
Decern  Oratorum." 

.Sischines  surnamed  Socrat'icus,  a  disciple  of 
Socrates,  by  whom  he  was  highly  esteemed.  He  lived 
about  360  B.C. 

.SJschrion,  §s'kre-on,  [Gr.  A/a,vptwv,]  a  physician, 
native  of  Pergamus,  and  preceptor  of  Galen.  Pie  lived 
in  the  early  part  of  the  second  century. 

^schylus,  ^s'ke-lus,  [Gr.  kloxv>-o^ ;  Fr.  Eschyle, 
Ss'sh^K,]  the  first  of  the  three  great  tragic  poets  of  Greece, 
was  born  at  Eleusis,  in  Attica,  525  b.  c.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  battle  of  Marathon,  490  B.C.,  and 
ever  after  regarded  this  as  the  most  glorious  event  of 
his  life.  He  gained  his  first  prize  in  tragedy  484  B.C. 
Having  in  468  B.C.  been  defeated  by  Sophocles  in  the 
first  trial  of  this  young  poet,  he  left  his  native  country 
and  went  to  Syracuse,  in  Sicily,  where  he  was  held  in 
great  regard  by  King  Hiero.  He  afterwards  returned  to 
Athens.  The  manner  of  his  death,  which  took  ])lace 
456  B.C.,  was  extraordinary.  An  eagle  soaring  above 
him  dropped  a  tortoise  on  the  bald  head  of  the  poet,  and 
killed  him.  ^schylus  is  said  to  have  written  seventy 
tragedies,  besides  a  number  of  satiric  dramas,  and  to 
have  gained  thirteen  prizes.  Seven  of  his  tragedies  are 
extant,  viz.,  "Prometheus  Bound;"  "The  Seven  against 
Thebes;"  "The  Persians  ;"  "The  Female  Suppliants  ;" 
"Agamemnon  ;"  "  Choephoras  ;"  and  "Eumenides." 

According  to  Macaulay,  i4ischylus  was  a  great  lyric 
poet,  rather  than  a  great  dramatist.  "  Considered  as 
plays,"  he  remarks,  "  his  works  are  absurd  ;  considered 
as  choruses,  they  are  above  all  praise.  .  .  .  But  if  we 
forget  the  characters  and  think  only  of  the  poetry,  we 
shall  admit  that  it  has  never  been  surpassed  in  energy 
and  magnificence."  (See  article  on  Milton  in  the  "Edin- 
burgh Review,"  1825.) 

Speaking  of  the  spirit  of  ^schylus'  poetry,  another 
critic  remarks,  "  If  ever  there  was  a  poet  filled  with  a 
deep  sense  of  the  sacred  nature  of  his  calling  as  the 
teacher  of  religion,  and  of  all  virtue  as  therewith  con- 
nected, yEschylus  was  he.  And  this  it  is  which — to  all 
such  as  have  studied  him  earnestly — gives  a  character  to 
his  poetry  nothing  less  than  awful."  (See  article  en- 
titled "Modern  Criticism  on  ^schylus,"  in  the  "Quar- 
terly Review"  of  October,  1839.) 

See  Petersen,  "  De  .i^^schyli  Vita  et  Fabulis,"  1814;  Ahrens, 


"Ueber  ^Eschylus,"  1832;  R.H.Klausen,  "  Theologumena /Eschyli 
Tragici,"  1829;  F.  Jacobs,  "Ueber  den  Charakter  des  ^schylus ;" 
RocHEFORT,  "Siirla  Vie  d'Eschyle,"  1785;  Frensdorff,  "Etudes 
sur  Eschyle,"  1847;  K.  O.  Muller,  "History  of  the  Literature  of 
Ancient  Greece;"  Edward  R.  Lange,  "  Programma  de  .^Eschylo 
Poeta,"  1832. 

-Sjsculapius,  §s-ku-la'pe-us,  [Gr.  'AaKXr]m6g,  (As- 
klepios) ;  Fr.  Esculape,  ^s^kii^tp',]  (Myth.,)  the  god  of 
medicine,  supposed  to  have  been  the  son  of  Apollo  and 
Coronis.  He  is  said  to  have  raised  men  from  the  dead, 
so  that  Jupiter,  fearing  lest  the  realms  of  Pluto  should 
become  depopulated,  struck  him  with  thunder.  After 
his  death  he  was  translated  to  heaven.  He  is  usually 
represented  as  a  venerable  old  man  with  a  flowing  beard. 
Hygieia  [i.e.  "  Health")  is  said  to  have  been  a  daughter 
of  ^sculapius. 

Sj&ix,  a'sir,  [Icelandic  pron.  T'sir,]  sometimes  incor- 
rectly written  Asir,  Asar,  or  Aser,  [the  Norse  plural 
of  As,  Ss,  or  Asa,  a'sa,  a  word  of  doubtful  etymology, 
but  not  improbably  related  to  the  Sanscrit  as,  to  "  be," 
and  applied  to  the  gods  as  "  beings"  par  excellence. 
J^^'The  German  plural  of  As  is  AsEN,  ^'zen  ;  the  Eng- 
lish plural  Asas  or  AsES  is  sometimes  used,]  the  name 
of  the  principal  or  ruling  gods  in  the  Norse  mythology. 
They  may  be  said  to  be  the  representatives  of  life,  order, 
and  progress,  in  contrast  to  the  Jotuns,  who  typify,  under 
various  forms,  confusion,  desolation,  and  death.  (See 
Jotuns,  and  Vanir.)  Among  the  yEsir  are  generally 
reckoned  twelve  gods,  viz.,  Odin,  Thor,  Balder,  Niord, 
(or  Njord,)  Frey,  (or  Freyr,)  Tyr,  Bragi,  Heimdall,Vidar, 
Vali,  Ullur,  and  Forseti ;  and  the  same  number  of  god- 
desses, Frigga,  Freyia, (called  also  Van'adis,)  Iduna,  Eira, 
Saga,  Fulla,  Siofn,  (or  Siona,)  Lofn,  (or  Lovna,)  Vara,  (or 
Vor,)  Hlin,  Gefione,  and  Syn,  (or  Synia.) 

The  dwelling-place  of  the  ^sir  is  called  Asgard,  [i.e. 
the  "Asa  court,  ward,  or  garden.")  It  is  represented  as 
a  vast  fortress,  sufficiently  capacious  to  contain  the  man- 
sions of  all  the  gods  and  goddesses,  as  well  as  the  field 
or  plain  of  Ida,  the  assembling-place  of  the  gods.  It  is 
Heimdall's  special  office  to  keep  watch  that  the  giants 
(Jotuns)  do  not  approach  Asgard  unperceived.  Odin  also 
is  said  to  have  a  lofty  throne  in  Asgard,  whence  his  eye 
surveys  all  the  regions  of  the  world.    (See  Odin.) 

For  a  more  particular  account  of  the  M.s\x,  see  separate  articles  in 
this  work  ;  also,  Thorpe's  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.,  Mallet's 
"Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.,  and  Petersen's  "  Nordisk  My- 
thologi." 

jEIsoii,  ee'son,  \Qx.klauv;  Fr.  £soN,  \'zh^','\  (Myth.,) 
a  son  of  Cretheus,  king  of  lolchos  in  Thessaly,  and  the 
father  of  Jason.  He  was  deprived  of  the  kingdom  by 
his  half-brother  Pelias. 

iEIsop,  ee'sop,  [Gr.  AlauTzog;  Lat.  .^so'pus ;  Fr. 
£soi'E,  i'zop',]  the  celebrated  faloulist,  was  born  about 
619,  died  564  B.C.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
Phrygian.  He  was  the  slave  of  ladmon  the  Samian, 
who  set  him  free  as  a  reward  for  his  wit  and  pleasantry. 
The  Athenians  erected  a  statue  in  honour  of  him.  The 
fables  of  yEsop  are  among  the  very  earliest  compositions 
of  this  kind,  and  probably  have  never  been  surpassed 
for  point  and  brevity,  as  well  as  for  the  practical  good 
sense  which  they  display.  It  should,  however,  be  re- 
membered that  in  most  of  the  popular  collections  of 
fables  which  go  under  ^sop's  name  a  large  proportion 
are  spurious,  and  perhaps  all  have  been  more  or  less 
modified  by  the  translator  or  compiler.  Phaedrus  says, 
"yEsopo  ingentem  statuam  posuere  Attici, 
Servumque  collocarunt  a;terna  in  basi 
Patere  honoris  scirent  ut  cunctis  viam."* 

See  Suidas,  "yEsopus ;"  Bachet  de  Meziriac,  "Vie  d'fisope," 
1632;  Manoel  Mendes,  "Vida  y  Fabulas  de  Esopo,"  1603;  Beni- 
LEV,  "Dissertatio  in  jElsopi  Fabulas;"  A  Westermann,  "Vita 
iEsopi,"  1845;  "iEsopi  Leben  und  auserlesene  Fabeln,"  Nuremberg, 
1747;  M.  Planudes,  "Vita  .^sopi,"  1505;  Clinton,  "Fasti  Hel- 
lenic!," vol.  i. 

iEjSopus,  e-so'pus,  (Clodius,)  the  most  eminent 
tragic  actor  of  Rome,  was  a  friend  of  Cicero,  who  speaks 
of  him  as  an  old  man  in  55  B.C.  At  this  date  he  made 
his  last  appearance  on  the  stage.  He  was  grave,  digni- 
fied, and  impassioned,  but  less  versatile  and  graceful 
than  Roscius,  his  contemporary.  He  is  styled  gravis 
yEsopzis  by  Horace. 

*  "  The  Athenians  erected  a  great  statue  to  y^^sop,  and  placed  [him 
who  was]  a  slave  on  an  eternal  pedestal,  that  [men]  might  know  that 
the  road  to  glory  was  open  to  all." 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


jETHELRED 


JFZELIUS 


^tlielred.    See  Ethelred. 

iEtherius,  e-^/zee're-us,  {kiHepLO^,']  a  Greek  architect, 
who  flourished  about  500  A.D.,  and  bui't  an  edifice,  called 
"Calchis,"  at  Constantinople. 

^thicus  or  Ethicus,  eth'e-kus,  the  supposed  au- 
thor of  an  ancient  "  Cosmography"  of  uncertain  date, 
written  in  barbarous  Latin,  consisting  of  three  treatises 
on  Geography,  one  of  which  is  by  some  ascribed  to  Ju- 
lius Honorius,  and  another  is  found  in  Orosius,  forming 
the  second  chapter  of  his  history.  In  some  MSS.  he  is 
surnamed  Ister,  a  native  of  Istria. 

jEithra,  ee'thra,  [Gr.  kldpa;  Fr.  £thra,  ^''tRt',] 
(Myth.,)  a  daughter  of  Pittheus,  was  a  wife  of  iEgeus, 
and  the  mother  of  Theseus.  She  was  taken  as  a  cap- 
tive to  Sparta  by  Castor  and  Pollux,  and  became  a  ser- 
vant of  Helen. 

Aetion,  a-ee'te-on,  ['Afnwv,]  an  eminent  Greek 
painter  of  antiquity,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in 
the  early  part  of  the  second  century.  His  most  cele- 
brated work  was  a  painting  of  the  marriage  of  Alexander 
the  Great  and  Roxana,  which,  it  is  said,  exhibited  the 
most  exquisite  skill. 

Aetius,  a-ee'she-us,  sometimes  improperly  written 
i£jtius,  a  Roman  ^general,  born  near  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century.  For  many  years  he  successfully  de- 
fended Gaul  against  the  encroachments  of  the  barba- 
rians. In  451,  when  Attila  the  Hun  had  besieged  and 
was  on  the  point  of  taking  Orleans,  the  approach  of  the 
combined  armies  of  Aetius  and  Theodoric  obliged  him 
to  raise  the  siege  ;  and,  these  generals  having  followed 
the  Huns  in  their  retreat  to  the  plains  of  Chalons,  a 
great  but  indecisive  battle  was  fought,  in  which  300,000 
men  are  said  to  have  been  slain.  Soon  after,  Attila 
retreated  beyond  the  Rhine.  But  the  emperor  Valen- 
tinian,  having  become  jealous  of  the  fame  and  influence 
of  Aetius,  slew  him  with  his  own  hand  in  454.  The 
emperor,  it  is  said,  asked  a  Roman  if  he  had  done  well 
in  killing  Aetius.  He  replied,  "  I  do  not  know ;  but 
I  think  you  have  cut  off  your  right  hand  with  your  left." 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Jor- 
NANDES,  "De  Rebus  Geticis." 

Aetius,  a-ee'she-us,  written  also,  but  incorrectly, 
^tius,  ['Amot",]  a^reek  physician,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  at  Amida  about  the  end  of  the  fifth  century. 
He  wrote  a  work  on  medicine,  divided  into  sixteen 
books,  which  is  extant,  and  possesses  great  merit. 

Aetius  surnamed  the  Atheist,  a  heresiarch  of  the 
fourth  century,  who  favoured  the  doctrine  of  the  Arians, 
and  taught  fatalism.  He  wrote  a  work  in  defence  of 
his  doctrines,  and  had  a  number  of  followers,  called 
Aetians. 

Aettenkover  or  Attenkover,  et'ten-ko'ver,  (Jo- 
seph Anton,)  a  German  historian,  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Dukes  of  Bavaria."    Died  at  Munich  in  1775. 

Afer,  a'fer,  (Domitius,)  a  distinguished  Roman  orator, 
who  flourished  in  the  reigns  of  the  emperors  Tiberius 
and  Caligula.  He  was  born  at  Nimes,  (Nemausus,)  in 
Gaul,  15  B.C.,  and  died  60  a.d.  He  was  the  preceptor 
of  Quintilian,  (by  whom  his  oratory  was  highly  extolled,) 
and  was  made  consul  by  Caligula. 

Afesa,  3,-fa'sS,  (Pietro,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter, 
who  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury.   He  was  born  in  Basilicata,  a  province  of  Naples. 

Affaitati,  af-fi-ti'tee,  (Fortunio,)  an  Italian  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  who  wrote  a  work  on  astronomy  and 
natural  philosophy,  (1549.)  He  was  drowned  in  the 
Thames,  England,  about  1550. 

Affelman,  iffel-min,  (Johann,)  a  German  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Soest  in  1588,  was  professor  at  Rostock, 
where  he  died  in  1624. 

Affichard,  1',  la'fe'shtR',  (Thomas,)  a  French  dram- 
atist and  romance-writer,  born  in  1698;  died  in  1753. 

Afflitto,  af-fl^t'to,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  a  Neapolitan 
monk,  who  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Fortifications."  Died 
in  1673. 

Afflitto,  d',  daf-fl^t'to,  (Eustachio,)  an  Italian  Do- 
minican, wrote  "  Memoirs  of  the  Writers  of  the  King- 
dom of  Naples,"  ("  Memorie  degli  Scrittori  del  Regno  di 
Napoli,")  2  vols.,  1792,  (unfinished.)    Died  in  1790. 

Afflitto,  d',  (Matteo,)  [in  Latin,  Matth.^'us  de 
Afflic'tis,]  an  eminent  Italian  lawyer,  was  born  in  | 


Naples  in  1448.  He  became  professor  of  civil  and  canon 
law  in  the  University  of  Naples  in  1469.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  works,  all  on  the  subject  of  law.  Died  in  1524. 

Affo,  affo,  (Ireneo,)  an  Italian  historian,  philologist, 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Busseto,  in  the  duchy  of  Parma, 
in  1 741  ;  died  about  1800.  His  works  are  very  numer- 
ous :  they  rolate  chiefly  to  the  antiquities  and  history, 
both  literary  and  political,  of  his  native  country,  Parma. 
He  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  eminent  Italian  critics 
and  philologists  that  the  last  century  produced. 

Affonso.    See  Alfonso. 

Affre,  tfR,  (Denis  Auguste,)  Archbishop  of  Paris, 
born  at  Saint-Rome-de-Tarn  in  1793.  He  was  appointed 
canon  titular  and  vicar-general  at  Paris  in  1834.  Hav- 
ing become  Archbishop  of  Paris  in  1840,  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  virtues.  During  the  insurrection  of  June, 
1848,  he  made  a  noble  effort  to  arrest  the  carnage.  The 
troops  having  at  his  request  suspended  their  fire,  he  ad- 
vanced towards  the  insurgents,  preceded  by  M.  Albert, 
who  wore  the  dress  of  a  workman  and  carried  a  green 
branch.  He  began  to  address  the  insurgents,  who, 
hearing  the  report  of  a  gun,  and  suspecting  treachery, 
opened  a  fire  on  the  Garde  Mobile,  and  he  was  mortally 
wounded.  He  left,  besides  several  religious  works,  an 
"Essay  on  the  Egyptian  Hieroglyphics,"  (1834.) 

See  Abbe  Cruice,  "Vie  de  Denis  Auguste  Affre,"  1849;  Denis 
E.  Affre,  "  Biographie  de  D.  A.  Affre,"  1848  ;  E.  Gourdon,  "  Bio- 
graphie  authentique  de  I'Archeveque  de  Paris,  D.  A.  Affre,"  1848. 

Affrikan,  af-fre-kSn',  (a  corruption  of  Africanus,)  the 

name  by  which  Chaucer  designates  SciPio  Africanus 
the  elder.    (See  the  "Assembly  of  Foules.") 

Affry,  ITrc',  (Louis,)  of  a  Swiss  family,  was  bom  at 
Versailles  in  17 13.  In  1755  he  was  sent  as  French  min- 
ister to  the  Hague.  He  afterwards  became  colonel  of 
the  Swiss  guards  under  Louis  XVI.  In  1792  he  was 
imprisoned  by  the  revolutionists ;  on  being  released,  he 
retired  to  Switzerland.    Died  in  1798. 

Affry,  (Louis  Auguste  PiiiLiprE,)  Count,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Friburg  in  1743.  He  was  a 
lieutenant-general  in  the  French  army;  but  after  the  mas- 
sacre of  1792,  in  which  he  lost  a  brother,  he  retired  to 
Friburg.  He  afterwards  became  Lmidainan7i  or  chief 
of  the  Helvetic  Confederacy,  as  established  in  1803. 
Died  in  1810. 

Afhaoker,  ^fhik^er,  (Giles,)  a  Dutch  theologian, 
born  at  Vreeswyk,  lived  about  1600. 

A-fra'ni-us,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  comic  poet  and 
orator,  who  flourished  about  100  B.C.  Scarcely  anything 
of  his  writings  has  been  preserved. 

A-fra'ni-us  or  Afra'nius  Ne'pos,  (Lucius,)  an  ad- 
herent of  Cneius  Pompey,  was  killed  in  Africa  by  the 
soldiers  of  Caesar,  46  b.c. 

Afrasi&b,  a-frJ-se-lb',  a  semi-fabulous  king  of  ancient 
Persia,  who,  though  born  in  Tartary,  (Turan,)  claimed  to 
be  a  direct  descendant  of  the  famous  Fereedoon,  (Feri- 
dun.)  He  is  said,  with  an  army  of  Tartars,  to  have  in- 
vaded Persia,  which  he  conquered  after  an  obstinate 
resistance  and  for  many  years  ruled  with  a  rod  of  iron. 
The  people,  exasperated  by  his  tyranny,  rose  in  rebel- 
lion, and,  headed  by  Zal,  (the  father  of  Roostum,)  drove 
out  Afrasiab  and  restored  the  lawful  line  of  Persian 
kings  to  the  throne.  Afrasiab  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
about  1000  years  before  the  Christian  era. 

Africanus.    See  Scipio  Africanus. 

Africanus,  Leo.    See  Leo,  (John.) 

Af-ri-ca'nus,  (Sextus  C/ECIlius,)  a  Roman  jurist, 
who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  second  century. 

Africanus,  (Skxtus  Julius,)  [Fr.  Skxte  Jules 
Africain,  s^xt  zhiil  t'fRe''ka;i',]  a  Christian  writer,  who 
lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  third  century.  He  was  a 
man  of  extensive  learning,  and  wrote  a  history  of  the 
world  from  the  creation  to  the  year  221  A.D.  He  fixes 
the  date  of  the  creation  5499  years  B.C.,  and  the  birth 
of  Christ  three  years  earlier  than  the  ordinary  computa- 
tion. The  era  thus  fixed  is  known  as  the  historical  era, 
or  that  of  the  Alexandrian  historians.  He  is  sui)posed 
to  have  died  in  232  A.D. 

Af-ze'li-us,  [Sw.  pron.  Sf-tsTi'le-iis,]  (Adam,)  a  Swed- 
ish botanist,  born  in  1750.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Linnaeus. 
Having  visited  England  in  1789,  he  was  appointed 
botanist  to  the  Sierra  Leone  Company.    In  1792  he  left 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  sAor^;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


AFZELIUS 


59 


JGJSSIZ 


London  for  Africa,  and  returned  in  1 794  with  collections 
of  plants  from  the  regions  ^Yhich  he  visited.  In  1 812  he 
became  professor  of  dietetics  and  materia  medica  in  the 
University  of  Upsal,  an  office  which  he  held  till  his  death 
in  1836.  Most  of  the  writings  of  Afzelius  are  in  the  form 
of  papers  contributed  to  different  scientific  periodicals. 

Afzelius,  (Arvid  August,)  a  Swedish  historical 
writer,  born  in  1785.  Among  his  works  is  "Legendary 
History  of  the  Swedish  People,"  (*'  Svenska  Folkets 
Sagohafder,"  1839-43.)  Died  in  1871. 

Afzelius,  (JoHAN,)  a  Swedish  chemist,  born  in  1753, 
was  a  brother  of  Adam,  noticed  above.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  at  Upsal.    Died  in  1837. 

Ag'a-bus,  a  Christian  prophet  in  the  time  of  the 
apostles.  (See  Acts  xi.  28,  and  xxi.  10.) 

Ag-a-me'des  \^ \yauT]6r,c'\  and  Trophonius,  two 
anciep.t  architects  of  Greece,  who  are  supposed  to  have 
lived  in  the  time  of  Homer.    See  Trophonius. 

Ag-a-mem'non,  \^Xyaueuvuv,'\  the  son  of  Atreus,  King 
of  Mycenae,  and  brother  of  Menelaus,  was  appointed 
generalissimo  of  the  Greek  forces  during  the  Trojan 
war.  On  his  return  to  his  native  country,  Argolis,  after 
the  destruction  of  Troy,  he  was  murdered  by  his  wife 
Clytemnestra  and  her  paramour  ^-Lgisthus,  who  had 
possessed  the  kingdom  in  his  absence.  He  was  the 
father  of  Orestes,  Electra,  and  Iphigeni^a.  He  and  his 
brother  Menelaus  were  often  called  Atri'd/E. 

See  Homer's  "Iliad;"  /Eschvlus,  "Agamemnon." 

Aga-  (or  Agha-)  Mohammed,  ^'g\  mo-hSm'med, 
the  founder  of  the  present  dynasty  of  Persia,  was  born 
in  1734.  He  was  an  artful  as  well  as  a  warlike  prince. 
Commencing  his  career  about  1780,  he  overran  in  a  few 
years  a  large  part  of  Persia,  also  Georgia  and  Khoras- 
san.    He  was  assassinated  in  1797. 

Aganduru,  i-gSn-doc'roo,  or  Aganduro,  S-gSn- 
doo'ro,  (RoDRiGO  Mauricio,)  a  Spanish  missionary, 
who  laboured  in  Japan  about  1640.  He  wrote  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Moluccas  and  Philippine  Islands." 

Ag-a-pe'tus,  [Gr.  W-ya-iKog ;  Fr.  Agaret,  S'gS'pV,] 
a  deacon  of  the  principal  church  of  Constantinople,  lived 
in  the  sixth  century.  He  is  the  author  of  a  work  ad- 
dressed to  the  emperor  Justinian  in  527,  containing 
many  excellent  precepts,  religious,  moral,  and  political. 

Agapetus  L,  an  archdeacon  of  Rome,  who  was  ele- 
vated to  the  Roman  see  in  535.  Died  at  Constanti- 
nople in  536. 

Agapetus  H.  was  raised  to  the  Roman  see  in  946. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  955. 
Agar.    See  Hagar. 

Agar,  t'gir',  or  d'Agar,  dS'gtR',  (Jacques,)  a  native 
of  Paris,  born  in  1640.  He  became  court  painter  and 
chamberlain  to  Christian  V.,  King  of  Denmark,  and  died 
at  Copenhagen  in  1716. 

Agar,  it'gtR',  (Jean  Antoine  Michel,)  Count  of 
Mosbourg,  a  French  administrator,  born  near  Cahors  in 
1 77 1.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  legislative  body 
in  1804,  and  became  minister  of  finances  to  Murat,  Duke 
of  Berg,  in  1806.  Murat  having  ascended  the  throne  of 
Naples,  Agar  administered  the  finances  of  that  ki^fdom 
with  success  from  1809  to  181 5.  He  was  elected  to  the 
French  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1830,  and  became  a 
peer  of  France  in  1837.    Died  in  1844. 

Agar,  S-gaR',  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  officer,  born  in 
America,  was  one  of  the  three  members  of  the  regency 
chosen  in  1808  by  the  Cortes  after  the  abdication  of 
Charles  IV.  His  conduct  was  prudent  and  moderate. 
He  was  banished  by  the  absolutists  in  1 814.  On  the 
revolution  of  1820  he  became  president  of  the  Junta  of 
Galicia.  He  resigned  in  July  of  that  year.  Died  about 
1840. 

Agarde  or  Agard,  i-gard',  (Arthur,)  an  eminent 
English  archivist  and  antiquary,  born  at  Foston  about 
1540,  became  one  of  the  deputy  chamberlains  in  the 
Exchequer  in  1570.  He  contributed  several  treatises  to 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  which  were  published  by 
Hearne.    Died  in  1615. 

See  Hearne,  "Curious  Discourses." 

Agardh,  i'gaRd,  (Karl  Adolph,)  a  Swedish  natural- 
ist, was  born  at  Bastad,  or  Bostad,  in  Scania,  in  1785. 
He  became  professor  of  botany  and  rural  economy  at 
Lund  about  1812,  and  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1816. 


Besides  several  works  on  theology  and  economy,  he 
published  many  remarkable  treatises  on  botany,  among 
which  we  notice  "  Species  of  Sea-weeds,"  ("  Species  Al- 
garum,"  1820-28,)  "Systematic  Arrangement  of  Sea- 
weeds," ("  Systema  Algarum,"  1824,)  and  a  "Manual  of 
Botany,"  (2  vols.,  1830-31.)  He  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Karlstad  in  1834.    Died  in  October,  1862. 

See  "  Biographiskt  Lexicon  ofver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

A-ga'si-as,  [Gr.  'kyaaiag,']  a  sculptor  of  Ephesus,  who 
is  supposed'  to  have  lived  about  400  B.C.  Pie  was  the 
author  of  a  statue  called  the  Fighting  Gladiator,  a  fine 
specimen  of  ancient  art,  discovered  at  Antium  (vrhere 
the  Apollo  Belvidere  was  also  found)  in  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Agassiz,  t'gt'see'  or  a-gas'sTz,  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  natur^ 
alist  of  great  eminence,  was  born  in  the  parish  of  Mot- 
tier,  near  the  lake  of  Neufchatel,  in  1807.  His  father  was 
a  Protestant  divine.  Young  Agassiz  studied  the  medical 
sciences  at  Zurich,  Heidelberg,  and  Munich,  where  he 
graduated  about  1830.  In  1827  he  was  selected  by  Martins 
to  describe  the  species  of  fishes  which  Spix  had  brought 
from  Brazil,  and  on  which  he  produced  an  able  work  in 
Latin,  (1829-31.)  He  had  previously,  during  the  college 
vacations,  visited  many  parts  of  Europe  to  study  the  fossil 
and  fresh-water  fishes.  In  1832  or  '33  he  was'appointed 
professor  of  natural  history  or  zoology  at  Neufchatel. 
He  published  a  "  Natural  History  of  the  Fresh-Water 
Fishes  of  Central  Europe,"  (1839,)  and  "Researches  on 
Fossil  Fishes,"  (14  livraisons,  or  5  vols.,  with  311  plates, 
1832-42,)  a  work  of  high  order,  in  which  he  made  im- 
portant changes  in  classification. 

The  Transactions  of  the  British  Association,  the  "  An- 
nales  des  Sciences  Naturelles,"  and  other  journals,  con- 
tain many  contributions  from  Agassiz  on  fossil  fishes  and 
on  geology.  He  propounded  some  new  and  remarkable 
ideas  on  geology  and  the  agency  of  glaciers,  in  his  capital 
work  entitled  "  Etudes  sur  les  Glaciers,"  (1840,)  and  in 
his  "Systeme  Glaciere,"  (1847.) 

In  1846  he  visited  the  United  States  on  a  scientific 
mission,  and  about  the  end  of  1847  was  induced  to  ac- 
cept the  professorship  of  zoology  and  geology  at  Har- 
vard University,  Cambridge.  About  1854  he  declined 
the  offer  of  a  chair  of  natural  history  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh.  He  has  delivered  several  courses  of  lec- 
tures in  Boston,  and  has  given  a  decided  impulse  to  the 
study  of  his  favourite  sciences  in  the  New  World.  M. 
Agassiz  favours  the  theory  that  the  human  race  is  not 
descended  from  a  single  pair,  and  discredits  that  of  or- 
ganic development,  or  metamorphosis,  which  was  main- 
tained by  Lamarck  and  others.  In  1865  he  went  to 
Brazil  with  a  corps  of  assistants,  and  explored  the  Lower 
Amazon  and  its  tributaries  with  reference  to  natural  his- 
tory, geology,  etc.  It  is  stated  that  he  discovered  more 
than  1800  new  species  of  fishes  in  that  region. 

Among  his  other  works  are  a  "  Monography  of  Living 
and  Fossil  Echinodermata,"(  1838-42,)  "  Outlines  of  Com- 
parative Physiology,"  (1848,)  "Principles  of  Zoology," 
in  conjunction  with' Dr.  A.  A.  Gould,  (2d  edition,  1851,) 
"Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the  United 
States,"  to  be  completed  in  ten  volumes,  quarto,  of 
which  the  first  two  were  published  in  1857  ;  and  a  "  Jour- 
ney in  Brazil,"  (1868.)  Mr.  Agassiz  became  in  1868  a 
non-resident  professor  at  the  Cornell  University  at  Ith- 
aca, New  York. 

"In  the  operation  of  his  [Agassiz's]  mind,"  says  cne 
of  the  ablest  of  American  critics,  "there  is  no  predomi- 
nance of  any  single  power,  but  the  intellectual  action  of 
what  we  feel  to  be  a  powerful  nature.  When  he  ob- 
serves, his  whole  mind  enters  into  the  act  of  observation  ; 
just  as,  when  he  reasons,  his  whole  mind  enters  into  the 
act  of  reasoning.  .  .  .  He  is  not  merely  a  scientific 
thinker ;  he  is  a  scientific  force  ;  and  no  small  portion  of 
the  immense  influence  he  exerts  is  due  to  the  energy, 
intensity,  and  geniality  which  distinguish  the  nature  of 
the  man.  In  personal  intercourse  he  inspires  as  well  as 
informs,  communicates  not  only  knowledge,  but  the  love 
of  knowledge.  .  .  .  He  is  at  once  one  of  the  most  domi- 
nating and  one  of  the  most  sympathetic  of  men,  having 
the  qualities  of  leader  and  companion  combined  in  singu- 
lar harmony."  (See  Whipple's  "Character  and  Charac- 
teristic Men,"  Boston,  1866.) 


«  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k, guttural;  N,  fiasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (J^^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AGATHA 


60 


AGESILAUS 


Ag'a-tha,  Saint,  [Fr.  Sainte-Agathe,  sdN^tt^tt',] 
a  vii  i^in  martyr  of  Sicily  in  the  middle  of  the  third  cen- 
tury. She  was  put  to  death  by  Quintianus,  Proconsul 
of  Sicily,  in  251. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art ;"  Tillemont, 
"Alemoires  eccles.astiques,"  etc. 

Ag-a-than'ge-lu3,  an  Armenian  historian,  lived  about 
320  A.D.,  and  was  secretary  to  King  Tiridates. 

Ag-a-thar'«hi-des  ['Aya^a^.v^^w]  or  Ag-a-thar'- 
•ehus,  a  Greek  writer  and  grammarian,  born  at  Cnidos, 
lived  about  130  B.C.  He  was  guardian  to  the  young 
king  of  Egypt,  probably  Ptolemy  Soter  IL,  who  became 
king  117  B.C. 

Ag-a-thar'-ehus,  [Gr.  kyudapxog ;  Fr.  Agatharque, 
t'gS'taRk',]  a  Greek  painter,  who  lived  about  480  B.C., 
is  considered  as  the  first  artist  who  applied  the  laws  of 
perspective  in  painting.  Vitruvius  says  that  he  made  a 
scene  for  zEschylus  at  Athens,  From  the  context  it  is 
inferred  that  a  painted  perspective  scene  is  signified. 

Agatharchus,  a  Greek  painter,  born  at  Samos,  lived 
about  420  B.C.  He  was  patronized  by  Alcibiades,  who 
once  confined  him  in  his  house  until  he  had  painted  cer- 
tain pictures  which  he  had  ordered.  Plutarch  states 
that  he  boasted  of  his  facility  and  rapidity  in  the  pres- 
ence of  Zeuxis,  who  reproved  him  by  a  simple  remark 
that  he  (Zeuxis)  painted  slowly. 

Agatharque.    See  Agatharchus. 

Agathe.    See  Agatha. 

Ag-a-thein'e-rus,  [Gr.'Aya^^/zepof;  Fr.  Agathemere, 
t'gt'ta'maiR',]  the  author  of  a  small  work  on  geography 
in  Greek,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  200  A.D. 

A-ga'thi-as,  \^kyadLag,'\  surnamed  Asianus,  a-she-a'- 
nus,  a  Greek  historian  and  poet,  born  at  Myrina,  in  Asia 
Minor,  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixth  century.  He  studied 
at  Alexandria,  and  afterwards  settled  at  Constantinople, 
where  he  died  about  580.  He  commenced  a  history  of 
his  own  time,  but  left  it  unfinished.  His  history  and 
some  of  his  epigrams  are  extant ;  his  other  poems  are 
lost. 

Ag-a-thi'nus,  ['A}a9woc,]  an  eminent  Greek  physician, 
born  at  Sparta,  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  first  cen- 
tury. He  was  a  pupil  of  Athenaeus,  from  whose  doc- 
trines, however,  he  dissented  in  many  points,  and  founded 
a  school  or  sect  of  his  own. 

Agatho.    See  Agathon. 

Agathocle.    See  Agathocles. 

A-gath-o-cle'a,  [Gr.  ' Xyado'icAeia ;  Fr.  Agathocl^e, 
t'gt'to^kla',]  a  mistress  of  Ptolemy  Philopator,  who,  with 
her  brother  Agathocles,  obtained  an  absolute  ascend- 
ency over  that  king.  After  his  death,  which  for  a  time 
was  kept  secret,  Agathocles  ruled  in  the  name  of  the 
young  prince  ;  but  his  tyranny  became  so  intolerable  that 
the  people  rose  in  revolt,  and  killed  him,  his  sister,  and 
also  his  mother  QLnanthe,  who  had  been  the  first,  if  not 
the  principal,  instigator  of  his  crimes. 

A-gath''o-cles,  [Gr.  'AjadoKh)g;  Fr.  Agathocle, 
t'gt'tok'K,]  a  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  who  reigned  from  317 
to  289  B.C.  Born  at  Thermi,  in  Sicily,  he  learned  the 
trade  of  a  potter.  Being  distinguished,  however,  for 
bodily  strength  and  beauty,  he  was  raised  to  the  military 
rank  of  chiliarch.  He  afterwards  married  a  rich  widow, 
and  became  in  consequence  one  of  the  wealthiest  of  the 
Syracusans,  As  an  officer  he  was  not  only  brave  and 
fertile  in  resources,  but  he  was  distinguished  for  readi- 
ness and  boldness  as  an  orator.  In  317  B.C.  he  caused 
all  the  men  of  note  opposed  to  him  in  Syracuse  to  be 
massacred,  and  became  tyrant  of  the  city.  The  subse- 
quent career  of  Agathocles  is  marked  with  a  variety  of 
fortune,  in  which  the  boldness,  cruelty,  and  treachery  of 
his  character  are  conspicuous.  His  death,  as  related  by 
Diodorus  Siculus,  is  remarkable.  His  grandson  Archag- 
athus,  aspiring  to  the  succession,  corrupted  a  favourite 
of  his  grandfather,  named  Maenon,  who  gave  him  a  pois- 
oned toothpick,  by  which  his  mouth  became  incurably 
gangrened.  Being  speechless,  he  was  placed  on  a  funeral 
pile  and  burnt  while  still  alive,  (289  B.C.,)  in  his  seventy- 
second  year. 

SeeR.  Perrinchief,  "The  Sicilian  Tyrant ;  or,  The  Life  of  Agath- 
ocles," London,  8vo,  1661 ;  Diodorus  Siculus,  "History." 

Agath'ocles  of  Cyz'icus,  a  Greek  historian,  lived 


probably  about  100  or  150  B.C.  He  wrote  a  "History 
of  Cyzicus,"  which  is  lost. 

Agathocles  of  Egypt.    See  Agathoclea. 

Agathodaemon,  ag'a-tho-dee'mon,  [Gr.  'Ayadodai- 
of  Alexandria,  an  ancient  geographer  and  map- 
maker  of  an  uncertain  date.  He  probably  lived  after 
200  A.D. 

Ag'a-thon  or  Ag'a-tho,  ['Ayaduv,]  an  eminent  Greek 
tragic  poet,  born  at  Athens  about  450  B.C.,  was  a  con- 
temporary and  friend  of  Plato  and  Euripides.  He  gained 
the  prize  in  tragedy  at  a  public  festival  in  417  B.C.  His 
works  are  praised  by  Plato  and  Aristotle.  He  was  rather 
fond  of  antithesis  and  sophistical  subtleties.  Only  a  few 
fragments  of  his  works  remain.    Died  about  400  B.C. 

See  Bentley,  "Dissertation  on  the  Epistles  of  Euripides." 

Agathon,  a  monk,  native  of  Sicily,  was  raised  to 
the  Roman  see  in  679,  and  died  in  681  A.D. 

Agay,  d',dt'gi',  (Francois  Marie  Bruno — bRii'no',) 
Count,  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1722.  Died 
in  1805. 

Agazzari,  3.-g3.t-si'ree,  (Agostino,)  an  Italian  musi- 
cian, native  of  Sienna.    Died  about  1640. 

A-gePa-das,  ['AyeXudag,]  a  Grecian  sculptor,  who  lived 
at  Argos  about  500  B.C.    He  was  the  master  of  Phidias. 

Agelet,  tzh'la',  or  d'Agelet,  dtzh'LV,  (Joseph  Le 
Paute — leh  pot,)  a  French  astronomer,  born  in  1751. 
He  became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Ecole  Mili- 
taire  in  1777.  He  accompanied  La  Perouse  on  his  voy- 
age of  discovery  in  1785,  and  perished  with  him  in  1788. 
(See  La  Perouse.) 

Agelli,  i-jeKlee,  [Lat.  Agel'lius,]  (Antonio,)  a  dis- 
tinguished Italian  commentator,  born  at  Sorrento  in 
1532.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Acerno  in  1593,  and  died 
in  1608.  He  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Psalms,  the 
Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  and  many  other  parts  of 
Scripture. 

Agellio,  i-jel'le-o,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Sorrento.  He  worked  at  Rome  in  the  early  part 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  excelled  in  landscapes. 
He  assisted  Roncalli  and  other  artists  in  the  figures  and 
the  landscapes  of  their  paintings. 

Agellius.    See  Gellius,  Aulus. 

Ag'el-noth,  [Lat.  Agelno'thus,]  also  called  Eth'- 
el-noth,  an  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  lived  in  the 
early  part  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  died  in  1038. 
He  was  one  of  the  principal  advisers  of  the  Danish  king 
Canute. 

See  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury,"  vol.  iii. 
chap.  iii. 

A-ge'nor,  [Gr.  'Ayi^vup;  Fr.  Ag6nor,  i'zha'noR',]  a 
fabulous  king  of  Phoenicia,  regarded  as  a  son  of  Nep- 
tune, a  brother  of  Belus,  and  the  father  of  Cadmus, 
Phoenix,  Phineus,  and  Europa. 

Agenor,  a  brave  Trojan  warrior,  was  a  son  of  An- 
tenor.  According  to  Homer,  he  wounded  Achilles,  and 
was  rescued  from  him  by  Apollo. 

Ager,  t'zha^  [in  Latin,  Age'rius,]  (Nicolas,)  a 
Frei|(^botanist,  born  in  Alsace  in  1568,  wrote  a  treatise 
"  Oii^egetable  Life,"  ("  De  Anima  Vegetiva,"  1629.) 
Died  in  1634. 

Ag-e-san'der,  [Gr.  'Ayr^aavSpoc;  Fr.  Ag^sandre, 
t^zh^'zSNdR',]  a  sculptor  of  Rhodes,  mentioned  by  Pliny 
as  one  of  the  three  artists  who  executed  a  group  of  La- 
ocoon  and  his  sons,  which  was  in  the  palace  of  Titus  at 
Rome.  This  same  group,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  is 
now  in  the  Vatican.  It  was  accidentally  discovered  in 
1506.  The  time  of  Agesander  is  unknown  ;  some  sup. 
pose  him  to  have  been  contemporary  with  the  earlier 
Roman  emperors. 

Agesias.    See  Hegesias. 

A-ges'i-cles,  a  king  of  Sparta,  who  lived  about  600 

B.C. 

A-ges-i-la'us  [Gr.  'AyriatXaog;  Fr.  Ag6silas,  i'zhk'- 
ze'lis']  I.,  a  king  of  Sparta,  who  lived  in  the  ninth 
century  B.C.    He  was  contemporary  with  Lj^curgus. 

Agesilaus  II.,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the 
Spartan  kings,  was  a  son  of  Archidamus.  He  ascended 
the  throne  at  the  death  of  his  brother  Agis  in  398  B.C., 
and  reigned  thirty-seven  years  in  the  most  eventful  pe- 
riod in  the  history  of  Sparta.  In  the  second  year  of  his 
reign  he  commanded  an  expedition  into  Persia,  in  which, 


a,  c,  1, 0,  u,  y,  /o;t^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged ;  a,  e,  1, 6,  it,  y,  sAort;  a,  c,  j,  o,  obscm-e;  far,  f^ll,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  mot^n; 


AGESIPOLIS 


6i 


JGNESI 


by  his  generosity  and  courtesy,  as  well  as  by  his  success 
as  a  general,  he  won  over  to  his  cause  many  of  the  sub- 
jects of  Artaxerxes.  He  even  contemplated  the  con- 
quest of  the  Persian  empire  ;  but  the  accomplishment  of 
this  great  scheme  was  prevented  by  a  hostile  confederacy 
of  the  Greeks  at  home.  He  was  summoned  home  by 
the  Ephori  about  394  B.C.  In  the  subsequent  contest 
between  the  Spartans  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Argives, 
Thebans,  Athenians,  and  Corinthians  on  the  other,  Agesi- 
laus,  if  not  always  successful,  at  least  fully  justified  the 
high  opinion  which  his  countrymen  entertained  of  his 
statesmanship  and  military  skill.  His  vigilance  and 
energy  saved  the  city  of  Sparta,  which  was  menaced  by 
Epaminondas  in  362.  He  was  not  present  at  the  battle 
of  Leuctra,  where  the  Spartans  were  defeated  in  371. 
He  died  about  361  B.C.,  being  more  than  eighty  years  old. 

See  '"Life  of  Agesilaus,"  by  Plutarch,  who  compares  him  with 
Pompey ;  Xenophon,  "  Agesilaus"  and  "  Hellenica  ;"  Cornelius 
Nhpos,  "Agesilaus;"  Grote,  "History  of  Greece,"  vol.  ix.  chaps. 
Ixxiii.-lxxiv.  ;  Thirlwall,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  Cauer,  "  Ques- 
tionum  de  Fontibus  ad  Agesilai  Historiam  pertinentibus,"  Pars  I., 
Breslau,  1S47. 

Ag-e-sip'o-lis,  ['A}'7;ai7roA<f,]  a  Spartan  king,  who 
ascended  the  throne  as  colleague  of  Agesilaus  in  394. 
Died  in  380  B.C. 

There  were  several  other  kings  of  this  name. 

Agezio  or  Agesio,  d-ga'ze-o,  (Thaddeus,)  a  Bohe- 
mian, born  at  Prague  in  1525,  wrote  on  physiognomy. 

Ag'gas  or  Au'gus,  (Robert,)  an  English  landscape- 
painter,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  Died  in 
1679,  aged  about  60. 

Aggee.    See  Haggai. 

Aggenus  Urbicus,  ad-jee'nus  ur'be-kus,  a  Latin 
writer  on  agriculture,  who  probably  lived  in  the  time  of 
the  emperor  Vespasian. 

Agha-Mohammed.    See  Aga-Moiiammed. 

Agier,  a'zhe-i',  (Pierre  Jean,)  a  French  judge,  born 
in  Paris  in  1748.  He  was  president  of  the  revolutionary 
tribunal  in  1795,  when  Fouquier-Tinville  and  his  accom- 
plices were  condemned  to  death,  and  became  vice-pres- 
ident of  the  tribunal  of  appeal  in  Paris  in  1802.  He 
published,  besides  several  legal  works,  a  new  version 
of  the  Hebrew  Prophets,  (11  vols.,  1820-23.)  Died  in 
1323. 

Agila,  aj'e-la,  or  Agilan,  aj-e-lan',  a  Gothic  king  of 
Spain,  who  began  to  reign  in  549,  and  was  murdered  in 
554  A.D. 

Agiles,  d',  difzhhV  or  dt'zhe'l^s',  (Raymond,)  Canon 
of  Puy,  followed  the  Count  of  Toulouse  to  Palestine,  and 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Crusade  of  1095." 

Ag-i-luPfus  or  Agilul'phus,  [Fr.  Agilulpiie,  3'zhe'- 
liilf ,]  a  Longobard  duke  of  Turin,  who  became  King  of 
the  Longobards,  in  590,  by  marrying  Theudelinda,  the 
widow  of  King  Autaris  or  Autarich.  Through  her  influ- 
ence he  embraced  the  Catholic  faith,  and  induced  many 
of  his  nobles  to  do  the  same.  He  died  in  616  a.d.  From 
the  reign  of  Agilulfus  may  be  dated  the  commencement 
of  civilization  among  the  Longobards. 

Agincourt.    See  D'Agincourt. 

Agis,  a'jis,  ['A}ff.]  There  were  four  kings  of  Sparta  of 
this  name.  The  first  began  to  reign  about  1060  B.C. 
The  second  became  king  427  B.C.,  and  reigned  twenty- 
eight  years,  during  a  great  part  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 
He  defeated  the  Athenians  and  their  allies  in  a  great 
battle  at  Mantinea,  about  414  B.C.  He  died  in  399  B.C. 
Agis  HI.  ascended  the  throne  in  338  and  died  331  B.C., 
being  contemporary  with  Alexander  the  Great.  Agis 
IV.  began  to  reign  244  B.C.  He  attempted  to  restore 
the  ancient  Spartan  discipline,  and  the  simplicity  of 
manners  which  had  prevailed  under  the  earlier  vSpartan 
kings  ;  but  the  nation  was  too  deeply  sunk  in  eflfeminacy 
and  corruption.  Agis  became  a  martyr  to  his  virtuous 
ambition.  He  was  condemned  by  the  Ephori  for  an  at- 
tempt to  subvert  the  laws  of  his  country,  and  was  stran- 
gled 240  B.C.  He  met  his  death  with  a  heroism  worthy 
of  the  glorious  cause  in  which  he  had  been  engaged. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Agis;"  Thirlwall,  "History  of 
Greece,"  vol.  viii.  chap.  Ixii.  ;  Barrau,  "  Histoire  d'Agis  IV,  Roi 
de  Lac^d^mone,"  8vo,  1817. 

A'gi-us  (or  Agio,  J'jo)  de  Solda'nis,  di  sol-di'- 
n^ss,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  in  the  isle  of 
Gozzo.    Died  in  1760. 


Aglaia.    See  Charites. 

Ag-la'o-phon,  ['A}  Aao^wv,]  a  painter,  native  of  Tha- 
sos,  (a  Grecian  island,)  supposed  to  have  lived  about  500 
B.C.    He  was  the  father  of  Polygnotus  the  painter. 

Aglaophon,  a  Greek  painter,  supposed  to  have  been 
a  descendant  of  the  preceding,  lived  about  416  B.C.  He 
painted  a  picture  of  Alcibiades. 

Agliata,  al-ya'tS,  (Giovanni,)  a  distinguished  Sicilian 
lawyer,  born  at  Palermo,  held  several  high  offices  under 
the  government.    Died  in  1675. 

Aglietti,  al-yet'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  in  1757.    Died  in  1836. 

See  Zannuni,  "  Biografia  di  F.  Aglietti,"  Padua,  1836. 

AgTi-oii-by,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Cum- 
berland about  1568.  He  was  chaplain  to  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, and  one  of  the  translators  of  the  New  Testament 
for  the  English  Bible  authorized  by  James  I.  Died  in 
1610. 

Agnani,  di,  de  Sn-yi'nee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  about  1390,  was  professor  of  law  at  Bologna. 
Died  in  1457. 

Agneaux.    See  Aigneaux. 

Agnelli,  dn-yel'lee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  who 
wrote  several  theological  works.  Born  in  1621  ;  died 
in  1706. 

Agnelli, (Jacob,  or  Jacopo,)  an  eminent  Italian  Jesuit, 
born  at  Ferrara  in  1701.  He  was  professor  of  eloquence, 
and  afterwards  of  medicine,  in  the  University  of  Ferrara. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  poems,  some  of  which  possess 
great  merit.  He  died  in  1798,  aged  more  than  ninety- 
six  years. 

Agnello,  in-yeKlo,  (Andrea,)  or  Ag-nelTus,  (An- 
dreas,) an  abbot  of  Ravenna  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
ninth  century,  wrote  a  history  or  chronicle  of  Ravenna. 
His  work  is  valuable  as  illustrating  an  important  portion 
of  ecclesiastical  and  civil  history. 

Agnen,  tn'y6N',  (Jerome,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Bois-le-Duc  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
He  worked  in  Spain.    Died  in  1530. 

Agnes,  ag'n^z,  [Ger.  pron.  ag'n^s,]  a  German  em- 
press, who,  after  the  death  of  her  husband,  Henry  III., 
was  regent  during  the  minority  of  her  son,  Henry  IV. 
She  died  in  1057. 

Agnes  OF  Austria,  the  daughter  of  Albert  I.,  Duke  of 
Austria,  (afterwards  King  of  Germany,)  was  remarkable 
for  the  atrocious  cruelty  with  which  she  revenged  the 
death  of  her  father,  murdered  in  1308.  Many  persons 
were  put  to  a  death  of  torture  on  mere  suspicion,  and  a 
multitude  of  persons,  innocent  in  all  probability,  were 
beheaded  by  her  order.    She  died  in  1364. 

Agnes,  ag'n^z.  Saint,  a  Roman  virgin  of  noble 
family,  who,  according  to  the  legend,  suffered  martyrdom 
under  Diocletian  in  303  A.D.,  when  only  thirteen  years  of 
age. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Sacred  and  Legendary  Art ;"  Baillet, 
"Vies  des  Saints ;"  J.  A.  M.^rtignv,  "Notice  Historique,  etc.  sur 
le  Culte  de  Sainte  Agnes." 

Agnes  (ag'n^z  or  in'yH')  de  Meranie,  deh  mi'- 

rS'ne',  Queen  of  France,  was  married  to  Philippe  Au- 
guste  in  1196.    The  censure  of  the  church,  because  he 
had  divorced  Ingelburge  to  marry  Agnes,  induced  the 
king  to  discard  the  latter.    Died  in  1201. 
Agnes  Sorel.    See  Sorel. 

Agnesi,  in-ya'see,  (Maria  Gaetana — gS-a-ti^ni,) 
an  Italian  lady  of  wonderful  intellectual  powers  and  ac- 
quirements, born  at  Milan  in  17 18.  When  she  was  only 
twenty  years  of  age,  she  was  able  to  discourse  in  a  great 
number  of  different  languages  on  abstruse  questions  of 
mathematics  and  philosophy.  Her  Latin  is  said  to  have 
been  remarkably  pure  and  correct.  She  published,  in 
1748,  her  "  Instituzioni  Analitiche,"  ("Analytical  Institu- 
tions,") a  treatise  on  algebra,  including  the  differential 
and  integral  calculus,and  displaying  wonderful  knowledge 
as  well  as  judgment.  "  We  cannot,"  says  a  recent 
critic,  "take  leave  of  a  work  which  does  so  much  honour 
to  female  genius,  without  earnestly  recommending  the 
perusal  of  it  to  those  who  believe  that  great  talents  are 
bestowed  by  nature  exclusively  on  men."  (See  review 
of  Maria  G.  Agnesi's  "Analytical  Institutions"  in  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1804.)  In  1750, 
during  the  illness  of  her  father,  (who  was  professor  in 


€  as  k;  9  as     g  hard;  g  as o,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.J 


JGNESl 


62 


AGRICOLA 


the  University  of  Bologna,)  she  supplied  his  place. 
Shortly  after  this  she  retired  to  a  nunnery,  where  she 
spent  the  remainder  of  her  life,  and  died  in  1799, 

See  Paolo  Frisi,  "  Eloglo  Stoiico  di  M.  Agnesi ;"  ■  Bianca 
MiLEM-MojON,  "Vita  di  Maria  Gaetana  Agnesi,"  1836. 

Agnesi,  (Maria  Theresa,)  a  composer  of  operas, 
born  at  Milan  about  1724,  was  a  sister  of  the  preceding. 

Ag''new,  (Sir  Andrew,)  M.P.,  a  noted  Scottish  Sab- 
batarian, born  in  Wigtonshire  in  1793;  died  in  1849. 

See  Dr.  McCrie's  "  Life  of  Sir  Andrew  Agnew." 

Agnew,  (James,)  a  brigadier-general  in  the  British 
army  in  the  American  Revolution,  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Germantown  in  October,  1777. 

Agui,  ag'ni,  or  Ag'nis,[cominon  Hindoo  pron.  ug'ni  or 
lig'nis  ;  etymologically  allied  to  the  Latin  ignis,\  the  name 
of  the  Hindoo  god  of  fire.  He  is  sometimes  represented 
in  pictures  with  two  faces,  three  legs,  and  seven  arms,  and 
is  usually  painted  of  a  deep-red  colour.  His  two  faces  are 
supposed  to  symbolize  fire  in  its  two  characters — benefi- 
cent (or  creative)  and  destructive.  His  seven  arms  have 
been  conjectured  to  indicate  the  seven  prismatic  colours. 
Agni  has  been  called  the  Hindoo  Vulcan  ;  but  he  does  not 
appear  anywhere  as  an  artificer,  like  the  Vulcan  of  classic 
mythology,  his  most  prominent  characters  being  those  of 
a  purifier  and  of  a  bearer  of  incense  to  heaven,  becoming 
thus  a  mediator  between  men  on  earth  and  the  gods  above. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  Koppen,  "  Religion  des  Buddha," 
p.  5  ;  Sir  W.  Jones  on  "The  Gods  of  Greece,  Italy,  and  India,"  in 
"Asiatic  Researches,"  vol.  i.  p.  264. 

Ag-nod'i-ge  ['A}a'0(5k77,]  an  Athenian  woman,  who, 
disguised  in  the  dress  of  a  man,  studied  medicine  under 
Herophilus,  and  practised  with  success,  in  the  third  cen- 
tury B.C.    She  devoted  herself  chiefly  to  midwifery. 

Agnolo,  d',  din'yo-lo,  (Baccio,  bit'cho,)  an  eminent 
Italian  architect  and  sculptor  in  wood,  was  born  at  Flor- 
ence in  1460.  He  was  the  first  who  adorned  the  windows 
of  mansions  and  palaces  with  frontons,  or  frontispieces. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  the  Palazzo  Bartolini,  (Flor- 
ence,) and  Ihe  Villa  Borgherini,  near  Florence.  Died  in 
1543- 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors." 

Agnolo,  d',  (Gabriele,)  a  Neapolitan  architect,  who 
designed  the  Gravina  Palace,  and  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria,  at  Naples.    Died  in  15 10. 

Agnolo,  d',  (GiULiANO,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  who 
followed  the  profession  of  his  father,  both  as  sculptor 
and  architect.    Died  in  1555. 

Ag-non'i-des,  [Gr.  'AyuuviSTjg;  Fr.  Agnonide,  tn'yo^- 
n^d',]  an  Athenian  orator,  who  induced  the  Athenians 
to  put  Phocion  to  death.  For  this  he  was  afterwards,  in 
his  turn,  condemned  to  die. 

Ag'o-bard',  Saint,  [Fr.  pron.  siN^tt^o'btR',)  an 
archbishop  of  Lyons  in  the  ninth  century,  took  part  with 
the  sons  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire  against  their  father,  for 
which  he  was  deposed  in  835.  He  was,  however,  re- 
stored to  his  see  about  838,  on  the  reconciliation  of  Louis 
and  his  sons.    He  died  in  840. 

See  C.  B.  Hundeshagen,  "De  Vita  et  Scriptis  Agobardi,"  1831. 

Agocchi,  i-gok'kee,  or  Agucohio,  i-gook'ke-o, 
(Giovanni  B.vrnsTA,)  a  learned  Italian  ecclesiastic, 
iDorn  at  Bologna  in  1570.  About  1624,  Pope  Urban  VIII. 
appointed  him  his  nuncio  to  Venice,  with  the  title  of 
Archljishop  of  Amasia.    Died  in  1632. 

Ag-o-rac'ri-tus,  [Gr.  'AyopaupcTog;  Fr.  Agoracrite, 
t''go'ri'kR6t',]  a  famous  sculptor,  native  of  Paros,  lived 
in  the  fifth  century  B.C.    He  was  a  pupil  of  Phidias. 

Agosti,  i-gos'tee,  (Giulio,)  an  Italian  dramatic  poet, 
born  at  Reggio  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury.   Died  young  in  1704. 

Agostini,  i-gos-tee'nee,  (Lionardo,)  an  Italian  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Sienna,  went  to  Rome  about  1623,  and 
was  appointed  by  Alexander  VII.  pontifical  antiquary. 
He  published  an  enlarged  edition  of  Filippo  Paruta's 
work  on  the  medals  of  Sicily,  (1649,)  and  another  work, 
of  great  merit,  on  antique  gems,  "Antique  Gems  Deline- 
ated," ("Le  Gemme  antiche  figurate,"  1636  and  1657.) 

Agostini,  (Miguel.)    See  Agustl 

Agostini,  degli,  daKyee  i-gos-tee'nee,  (Giovanni,) 
a  learned  Italian  monk,  born  at  Venice  about  1700.  He 
wrote  "  Historical  and  Critical  Notices  of  the  Lives  and 


Works  of  Venetian  Authors,"  2  vols.,  1754,  which  is  said 
to  be  a  valuable  work.    Died  about  1755. 

Agostini,  degli,  (Niccolo,)  a  mediocre  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Venice,  flourished  in  the  first  half  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  He  translated  Ovid's  "  Metamorphoses," 
(1522,)  and  wrote  a  continuation  of  Bojardo's  "Orlando 
Innamorato,"  (1538.) 

Agostino  (^-gos-tee'no)  and  Agnolo,  ^n'yo-lo,  of 
Sienna,  sculptors  and  architects,  born  about  1265,  were 
brothers,  and  always  worked  together.  Among  their 
works  were  the  Palazzo  de'  Novi,  the  church  of  St.  Fran- 
cesco at  Sienna,  and  the  tomb  of  Bishop  Guido  at 
Arezzo,  which  was  designed  by  Giotto.  Died  about  1350. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Agostino  surnamed  Veneziano,  vi-n^t-se-i'no,  or 
the  "  Venetian,"  a  celebrated  Italian  engraver,  also  callea 
Augusti'nns  de  Mu'sis,  and  in  French  Augustiii, 
(o'giis'tiN',)  was  born  about  1490.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Marcantonio  Raimondi,  for  whom  he  worked  in  Rome. 
He  engraved  several  works  after  Raphael  and  Giulio 
Romano.    Some  of  his  works  are  dated  1536. 

Se&  V.A.SARI,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Agostino,  sometimes  called  Agostino  dalle  Pro- 
spettive — dSKla  pRo-spSt-tee'vk,  (which  may  be  trans- 
lated "  Perspective  Agostino,")  an  Italian  painter,  who 
flourished  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  perspective. 

Agostino,  (Paolo,)  an  eminent  Italian  musician  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  was  chapel-master  of  St.  Peter's, 
Rome.    Died  about  1660. 

Agoub,  cVgoob',  (Joseph,)  a  native  of  Cairo,  in  Egypt, 
born  in  1795.  His  parents  removed  to  France  when  he 
was  about  seven  years  old.  In  1820,  or  soon  after,  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  Arabic  at  Paris,  but,  having 
been  deprived  of  this  situation  in  183 1,  he  died  the  next 
year,  it  is  said,  of  a  broken  heart. 

Agoult,  t'goo',  (Charles  Constance  C^sar  Loup 
Joseph,)  born  at  Grenoble  in  1747,  became  Bishop  of 
Pamiers  in  1787.  He  took  part  in  political  affairs,  and 
was  one  of  the  friends  of  Louis  XVI.  whom  that  king 
consulted  just  before  his  flight  to  Varennes.  He  pub- 
lished several  works  on  finance.    Died  in  Paris  in  1824. 

Agoult,  (William,)  a  French  poet  of  the  twelfth 
century.  He  was  a  gentleman  of  the  household  of  Al- 
fonso X.,  King  of  Castile,  and  has  been  styled  the  chief 
and  father  of  troubadours.    Died  in  1181. 

Agoult,  d',  dS'goo',  (Marie  de  Flavigny  —  deh 
flS''v^n'ye',)  Countess,  a  French  authoress,  who  assumed 
the  name  of  Daniel  Stern,  was  born  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main  about  1800.  She  was  married  to  Count  d' Agoult 
in  1827.  She  has  written  several  successful  novels, 
among  which  is  "  Nelida,"  (1845  '■>)  ^^^^  ^  "  History  of  the 
Revolution  of  1848,"  (2  vols.,  1851.) 

Agrain,  d',  dt'gRdN',  (Eustache,)  a  French  warrior, 
who  went  to  Palestine  in  the  first  crusade  with  Raymond 
of  Toulouse,  and  became  Viceroy  of  Jerusalem.  He  was 
called  "The  Sword  and  Shield  of  Palestine." 

Agrate,  a-gR3.'ta,  (Marco  Fer.rerio — f§r-ra're-o,)  an 
Italian  sculptor,  lived  about  the  year  1500. 

Agreda,  de,  da  d-gRi'Da,  (Maria,)  a  Spanish  abbess, 
born  in  1602.  She  wrote  a  "Life  of  the  Virgin  Mary," 
which  Bossuet  censured  as  indecent.    Died  in  1665. 

Agresti,  S-gR^s'tee,  (Livio,)  an  eminent  Italian 
painter,  who  died  about  1580.  He  was  a  native  of  Forli. 
He  painted  frescos  at  Rome  and  Forli.  Vasari  extols 
the  grandeur  of  his  style. 

Agricola,  S-gRik'o-ia,  (Christoph  Ludwig,)  an  emi- 
nent German  landscape-painter,  born  at  Augsburg  (or, 
according  to  some  authorities,  at  Ratisbon)  in  1667.  He 
worked  for  a  long  time  in  Naples,  and  painted  several 
views  of  Southern  Italy.    Died  at  Augsburg  in  1719. 

A-gric'o-la,  (Cn^us  Julius,)  a  distinguished  Ro 
man  general,  "born  at  Forum  Julii,  (Frejus,)  a  Roman 
colony  in  Gaul,  A.D.  37.  In  62  he  married  at  Rome  a 
lady  of  high  rank,  and  the  next  year  went  as  quaestor  to 
Asia,  under  the  proconsul  Salvius  Titianus,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  strict  integrity.  In  73,  Ves- 
pasian (whose  cause  Agricola  had  early  espoused)  made 
him  a  patrician,  and  appointed  him  governor  of  Aqui- 
tania,  which  position  he  held  for  nearly  three  years.  In 
77  he  was  chosen  consul,  and  not  long  after  was  made 


S,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /on^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/ior^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


AG RICO LA 


63 


AGRIPPINA 


Governor  of  Britain,  where  he  subdued  the  Ordovices  in 
North  Wales,  and  conquered  the  island  of  Mona,  (An- 
glesea.)  He  adopted  a  wise  and  generous  policy  towards 
the  Brirons,  encouraging  them  to  enibrace  the  Roman 
customs  and  dress  and  to  instruct  their  children  in  the 
Latin  language.  He  afterwards  crossed  the  Tweed,  and 
carried  his  arms  (80  A.D.)  as  far  as  the  Frith  of  Tay,  and 
erected  a  chain  of  fortresses  from  the  Clyde  to  the  Frith 
of  Forth.  He  was  soon  after  recalled  by  the  emperor 
Domitian,  and  retired  into  private  life,  whither,  however, 
the  admiration  of  the  people  followed  him.  He  died  in 
93,  not  without  a  general  suspicion  of  his  having  been 
poisoned  through  the  jealousy  of  Domitian.  Agricola 
was  the  father-in-law  of  the  historian  Tacitus.  (See 
Tacitus.) 

See  Tacitus,  "J.  Agricols  Vita  ;"  Dion  Cassius,  "History  of 
Rome;"  Held,  " Commentatio  de  C.  J.  Agricolje  Vita  quae  vulgo 
Comelio  Tacito  assignatur,"  Schweidnitz,  1845. 

A-gi'ic'o-la,  (Franxis,)  a  German  theologian,  born  at 
Lunen,  wrote  against  the  Reformation.    Died  in  1621. 

Agricola,  (Georg,)  an  eminent  mineralogist  and 
physician,  whose  proper  name  was  Bauer,  was  born 
at  Glauchau,  in  Saxony,  about  1490.  He  became  well 
versed  in  metallurgy  and  the  art  of  mining.  "  He  was 
the  first  mineralogist,"  says  Cuvier,  "who  appeared 
after  the  renaissance  of  the  sciences  in  Europe.  He  was 
to  mineralogy  what  Conrad  Gesner  was  to  zoology." 
His  principal  works  are,  "  Concerning  Ores,  (or  Mines,)" 
("  De  Re  Metallica,"  1546,)  and  "On  the  Origin  and 
Causes  of  Subterranean  Things,"  ("  De  Ortu  et  Causis 
Subterraneorum,")  both  written  in  elegant  Latin.  Died 

1555- 

See  A.  D.  Richter,  "Vita  Georgii  Agricolie,"  1755;  M.  Adam, 
"  Vit^e  Medicorum  Germaiiorum  ;"  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary;"  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Agricola,  (Georg  Andre.\s,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Ratisbon  in  1672.  He  pretended  to  have  dis- 
covered a  method  by  which  the  growth  of  plants  might 
be  greatly  accelerated,  and  published  in  171 7  a  useful 
work  on  the  culture  and  propagation  of  plants.  Died 
about  1738. 

Agricola,  (Johan'nes  Ammo'nius,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, who  was  one  of  the  best  commentators  on  Hip- 
pocrates and  Galen.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at 
Ingolstadt,  where  he  died  about  1570. 

Agricola,  (Joha.nn  Friedrich,)  a  German  musician 
and  composer,  born  in  Altenburg  in  1720.  He  com- 
posed "Achilles,"  an  opera.    Died  at  Berlin  in  1774. 

Agricola,  (John,  or  Johann,)  was  originally  called 
John  Schneider  (shni'der)  or  Schnit'ter ;  but,  ac- 
cording to  the  usage  of  that  time,  he  changed  his  name 
into  Agricola.  Born  at  Eisleben,  in  Prussiafi  Sa.\ony, 
in  1492,  he  studied  at  Wittenberg,  where  he  formed  an 
intimate  friendship  with  Luther.  But  from  being  one  of 
that  great  reformer's  most  active  supporters,  he  after- 
wards became  a  bitter  opponent.  Agricola  asserted 
that  obedience  to  the  Mosaic  law  was  not  necessary  for 
a  Christian, — that  nothing  was  required  but  penitence 
and  faith  ;  while  Luther  maintained  the  necessity  of  obey- 
ing the  Ten  Commandments.  The  followers  of  Agricola 
were  styled  Antinomians,  ("opposers  of  the  law.")  He 
died  in  1566.  Besides  writing  a  great  number  of  theo- 
logical works,  he  made  a  valuable  collection  of  German 
proverbs,  to  which  he  added  a  commentary,  with  numer- 
ous illustrations. 

See  Unger,  "  Dlssertatiodejohanne  Agricola,"  1732;  B.  Kordes, 
"J.  Agricola  aus  Eisleben,"  1817;  De  Thou,  "  Histoire,"  book  v.  ; 
Ersch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Agricola,  (Martin,)  an  eminent  musician,  born  in 
Silesia  about  i486  ;  died  in  1556. 

Agricola,  ^-gRik'o-ia,  (Michael),  an  early  Swedish 
reformer  of  the  sixteenth  century,  who  translated  the 
New  Testament  into  the  Finnish  tongue.   Died  in  1577. 

Agricola,  (Rudolph,)  an  eminent  Dutch  scholar, 
born  near  Groningen,  in  Friesland,  in  1443.  H76  he 
went  to  Italy,  where  he  studied  Greek,  and  afterwards 
excited  the  admiration  of  the  Italians  (who  had  previously 
regarded  the  Germans  as  barbarians)  by  his  various  ac- 
complishments. In  1482  he  became  professor  at  Heidel- 
berg, where  he  died  in  1485.  He  was  highly  eulogized 
by  Erasmus.  His  influence  contributed  greatly  to  dif- 
fuse a  taste  for  Grecian  literature  among  the  Germans. 


"  He  was,"  says  Guizot,  ("  Biographic  Universelle,")  "  a 
good  painter,  a  good  writer,  a  good  poet,  and  a  learned 
philologer."  His  greatest  work  is  "  De  Inventione  Dia- 
lectica." 

See  Philip  Melanchthon,  "  Orationes  II.,  prior  de  Vita  Rud. 
Agricolas,"  etc.,  1539;  T.  F.  Tresling,  "  Vita  et  Merita  Rud.  Agric- 
olje,"  1S30;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie;" 
Jocher,  "Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

A-grip'pa,  an  ancient  skeptical  philosopher,  men- 
tioned by  Diogenes  Laertius  as  author  of  a  treatise  called 
"  Five  Reasons  for  Doubt." 
Agrippa,  King.  See  Herod  Agrippa. 
Agrippa,  a-gRep'pS,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Milan,  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  six- 
teenth century. 

Agrippa,  a-grip'pS,  (Henry  Cornelius,)  a  German 
physician,  theologian,    and   astrologer,  who  acquired 
celebrity  by  his  varied  learning,  superior  talents,  and 
supposed  skill  in  alchemy  and  occult  philosophy,  was 
born  at  Cologne  in  i486.    He  was  extolled  by  some  as 
an  ornament  of  his  age,  and  denounced  by  others  as  an 
1  impostor  and  a  heretic.    In  his  youth  he  served  several 
I  campaigns  in  the  Imperial  army  with  distinction.  His 
1  success  in  the  various  pursuits  which  he  followed  in  many 
I  countries  of  Europe  was  hindered  by  his  quarrelsome  or 
1  satirical  temper.    After  he  had  lectured  on  theology  at 
Cologne,  Pisa,  Turin,  and  Pavia,  and  practised  medicine 
in  France,  he  received,  in  1529,  invitations  from  Henry 
VIII.  of  England,  and  from  other  sovereigns.    He  ac- 
cepted that  of  Margaret  of  Austria,  regent  of  the  Low 
Countries;  but  she  died  in  1530.  He  died  poor,  at  Gren- 
oble, in  1535,  leaving,  besides  other  works,  one  "  On  the 
Vanity  of  the  Sciences,"  in  Latin,  (1527,)  which  has 
been  translated  into  English  and  several  other  languages. 
Hallam  calls  him  "  a  meteor  of  philosophy." 

See  H.  MoRi.EV,  "Life  of  Agrippa,"  1856;  "Agrippseana  oder 
H.  C.  Agrippas  Leben,"  1722;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  xiv. 
(1826.) 

A-grip'pa,  (Mar'cus  Vipsa'nius,)  a  distinguished 
Roman  commander  and  statesman,  born  63  B.C.  His 
family  was  obscure,  but  a  friendship  was  early  formed 
between  him  and  Octavius,  (afterwards  Augustus  Caesar,) 
and  his  fortunes  became  inseparably  associated  with 
those  of  the  future  emperor.  To  the  skill  and  wisdom 
of  Agrippa,  Augustus  owed  much  of  his  continued  suc- 
cess ;  especially  his  victory  at  Actium,  which  gave  him 
the  empire  of  the  world.  After  the  death  of  Marcellus, 
in  23  li.C,  Agrippa  married  his  widow,  Julia,  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  emperor,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons,  two  of 
whom  were  adopted  by  Augustus,  (see  Caius  C/esar,) 
and  two  daughters.  Pie  died  12  B.C.,  in  the  fifty-first 
year  of  his  age.  Agrippa  and  Maecenas  were  the  chief 
ministers  or  advisers  of  Augustus,  and  the  former  was 
for  some  time  regarded  as  his  destined  successor. 

See  G.  C.  Gebauer,  "  Dissertatio  de  M.  V.  Agrippa,"  1717;  P, 
Frandsen,  "Marc.  Vipsanius  Agrippa:  historische  Untersuchung 
iiber  dessen  Leben  und  VVirken,"  1836  ;  Livv,  "  Epitome  ;"  Tacitus, 
"  Annales  " 

Agrippa,  (Menf/nius,)  a  Roman  consul,  who  gained 
a  victory  over  the  Sabines  in  503  B.C.,  and  afterwards 
quelled  a  sedition  of  the  plebeians  by  relating  to  them 
the  well-known  fable  of  the  belly  and  the  members. 

Agrip'pa  Po.st'umus,  a  posthumous  son  of  M.  Vip- 
sanius Agrippa,  put  to  death  by  Tiberius,  14  A.D. 

Ag-rip-pi'na  [Fr.  Agrippine,  t'gRe'p^n']  I.,  a 
daughter  of  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa  and  Julia,  was  mar- 
ried to  Caesar  Germanicus,  the  nephew  of  the  emperoT 
Tiberius.  She  was  the  mother  of  the  emperor  Caligula, 
She  died,  it  is  supposed,  about  31  A.D. 

See  Eliz.^beth  H.amilton,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Agrippina," 
1800;  C.  BuRKHARD,  "  Agi-ippina  des  M.  V.  Agrippa  Tochter,"  1846. 

Agrippina  II.,  or  Agrippina  Augusta,  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  preceding,  and  mother  of  the  emperor  Nero 
by  her  first  husband,  Domitius.  She  was  a  woman  of 
abandoned  principles  and  remorseless  cruelty.  She 
married  her  father's  brother,  the  emperor  Claudius,  and 
afterwards  poisoned  him.  After  a  life  of  almost  unin- 
terrupted crime,  she  was  put  to  death  (A.D.  60)  by  the 
order  of  her  son  Nero. 

See  C.  H.  Graun,  "  Dissertatio  de  Agrippina  Neronis  Matre," 
16S1  ;  F.  F.  Walbrat,  "Agrippina  Gemahlin  des  Claudius  Stifterin 
von  Coin,"  1800;  Tacitus,  "Annales." 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  c,  H,  k,  guthtral;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AG U ADO 


64 


ABLE 


Aguado,  a-gw3.'Do,  (A.  Maria,)  a  financier  and  mil- 
lionaire, born  at  Seville,  Spain,  in  1784.  He  became  a 
banker  of  Paris.    Died  in  1842. 

Aguado,  de,  di  S-gw^'Do,  (Francisco,)  a  learned 
and  pious  Spanish  Jesuit,  born  near  Madrid  in  1572; 
died  in  1654,  leaving  many  religious  works. 

Agucchio.    See  Agocchi. 

Agiiero,  de,  da  i-gwa'ro,  (Benedicto  Manuel,)  a  dis- 
tinguished Spanish  painter,  born  at  Madrid  in  1626  ;  died 
in  1670.    He  excelled  in  landscapes  and  battle-pieces. 

Agiiesseau,  d',  dt'ga'so',  (Henri  Francois,)  (writ- 
ten by  himself  Daguesseau,)  a  celebrated  French  chan- 
cellor, orator,  and  legislator,  was  born  at  Limoges,  No- 
vember 27,  1668.  He  passes  for  the  most  learned  law- 
yer that  France  ever  produced,  and  is  called  the  father 
of  French  forensic  eloquence.  In  1691  he  was  appointed 
by  Louis  XIV.  one  of  the  advocates-royal.  He  be- 
came procureur-general  to  the  Parliament  in  1700,  and 
chancellor  of  France  in  171 7.  Before  the  latter  date 
he  had  resolutely  defended  the  liberties  of  the  Galilean 
Church  against  the  aggressions  of  the  papal  power  in 
the  case  of  the  bull  Unigenitus,  (1713.)  He  was  ban- 
ished from  court  in  17 18  for  his  opposition  to  the  finan- 
cial system  of  Law,  but  was  restored  to  his  high  func- 
tions in  1720,  after  the  ruinous  collapse  of  that  system. 
A  contest  for  precedency  between  D'Aguesseau  and  Car- 
dinal Dubois  resulted  in  the  removal  of  the  former  from 
ofiice  in  1722.  He  was  again  appointed  chancellor  in 
1737,  and  kept  the  seals  until  1750,  when  he  resigned  on 
account  of  his  great  age.  Died  in  Paris  in  February, 
1 75 1.  His  works,  consisting  chiefly  of  forensic  argu- 
ments, official  papers,  and  treatises  on  law,  were  pub- 
lished in  thirteen  volumes,  (1759-89.)  His  legislative 
reforms  constitute  perhaps  his  greatest  claim  to  the  re- 
membrance of  posterity. 

See  St.  Simon's  "  Memoirs ;"  Antoine  Thomas,  "  filoge  de 
H.  F.  d'Aguesseau,"  1760;  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de 
D'Aguesseau,"  2  vols.,  1835  ;  "Discours  sur  la  Vie  et  la  Mort  de  M. 
D'Aguesseau,"  by  his  son  :  Bourlet  de  Vauxcelles,  "  filoge  de 
D'Aguesseau,"  1760;  Morlhom,  "Eioge  du  Chancelier  D'Agues- 
seau," 1760;  Boinvilliers,  "  fi'oge  du  Chancelier  D'Aguesseau," 
1848:  Boullee,  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  du  Chancelier  D'Aguesseau," 
1849. 

Aguesseau,  d',  (Henri  C.  Jean  Baptiste,)  Count, 
born  at  Fresnes  in  1746,  was  a  grandson  of  the  chancel- 
lor. He  became  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in 
1789,  and  a  senator  in  1805.    Died  in  1826. 

Aguiar,  ^-ge-aR^,  (ToMAS,)a  Spanish  portrait-painter 
of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Aguila,  d',  dd'ge-1^,  (C.F.E.H.,)  an  officer  of  engineers, 
who  travelled  extensively  between  1770  and  1774.  He 
appears  to  have  been  a  native  of  Spain.  He  wrote,  in 
French,  a  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Gustavus  III.  of 
Sweden,"  (1803.)    Died  in  181 5. 

Aguila,  del,  dll  a'ge-ia.,  (Miguel,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
whose  works  are  said  to  be  in  the  style  of  Murillo. 
Died  at  Seville  in  1736. 

Aguilar,  S-ge-laR',  (Grace,)  a  Jewish  authoress,  of 
Spanish  extraction,  born  at  Hackney,  near  London,  in 
1816.  She  wrote  "The  Magic  Wreath,"  in  verse,  and  a 
number  of  prose  works,  among  which  are  "  Women  of 
Israel,"  "  Home  Scenes  and  Heart  Studies,"  and  "  Home 
Influence  :  a  Tale."    Died  at  Frankfort  in  1847. 

Aguilera,  de,  da  S-ge-la^ri,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  his- 
torical painter,  who  was  born  at  Toledo,  and  lived  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Aguillon,  t'ge'yoN',  (Franqois,)  a  learned  Jesuit, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1566;  died  in  161 7.  He  wrote  a 
work  on  optics,  (1613.) 

Aguirre,  de,  da  i-ger'ri,  (Jos^;  Saenz— si-^nth',)  a 
learned  Spanish  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1630,  was  made 
cardinal  in  1686  by  Pope  Innocent  XI.  Died  in  1699. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  theology. 

Agujari,  S-goo-yiVree,  (Lucretia,)  a  popular  singer 
and  performer,  who  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century.    Died  at  Parma  in  1783. 

Agusti,  3.-goos^tee,  written  also  Agustin,  S-goos-teen', 
or  Agostini,  S-gos-tee'nee,  (Miguel,)  a  Spanish  agri- 
culturist, born  at  Baiiolas,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  was 
prior  of  the  order  of  St.  John  at  Perpignan.  He  wrote 
a  useful  and  popular  work  called  "  The  Book  of  the 
Secrets  of  Agriculture,"  (161 7.) 


A.gylaeus,  aj-e-lee'us  or  d-ge-la'us,  [Fr.  Agyl6e, 
t'zhe'l^',]  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  at  Bois-le- 
Duc  about  1533,  was  noted  as  a  Greek  scholar.  Died 
in  1595- 

Ahab,  a'hab,  [Heb.3XnJ<,]  an  idolatrous  king  of  Israel, 
who  reigned  from  931  to  909  B.C.  He  was  slain  in  bat- 
tle in  a  war  against  Benhadad,  King  of  Syria.  (See  I. 
Kings  xvi.-xxii.) 

A-has-u-e'rus,  or,  more  correctly,  Ahhasverosh  or 
Akhasverosh,  [Heb.  tymiyn^,]  a  Hebrew  name  ap- 
plied in  the  Scriptures  to  various  Persian  and  Median 
kings.  It  is  in  all  probability  derived  from  the  ancient 
Persian  word  Khshvershe,  (the  Xerxes  of  the  Greeks, 
and  corresponding  to  the  Sanscrit  Kshatra,)  which  sig- 
nifies "king"  or  "lion-king." 

The  Ahasuerus  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Esther  is 
generally  believed  to  be  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  (in 
modern  Persian,  Ardashir  Daraz-dast,)  who  reigned 
from  464  to  425  B.C.    (See  Artaxerxes.) 

Ahaz,  a'haz,  or  Achaz,  a'kaz,  [Heb.  THX,]  a  son  of 
Jotham,  King  of  Judah,  succeeded  his  father  about 
741  and  died  725  B.C.  He  distinguished  himself  abovr 
all  his  predecessors  by  his  abominable  idolatry,  even 
sacrificing  his  own  children  to  Moloch.  (See  II.  Kings 
xvi.,  and  II.  Chronicles  xxviii.) 

Ahaziah,  a-ha-zl'a,  [Heb.  H'rnx,]  King  of  Israel, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Ahab.  He  reigned  two  years, 
from  909  to  907  B.C.  (See  I.  Kings  xxii.  ;  II.  Kings  i.) 
Also,  a  son  of  Jehoram,  King  of  Judah.  He  succeeded 
his  father  about  896  B.C.,  and  after  a  reign  of  one  year 
was  slain  by  Jehu.  (See  11.  Chronicles  xxii.  i-io;  II. 
Kings  viii.  25-29.) 

A-hen'o-bar'bus,  in  the  plural  A-hen'o-bar'bi,  a 
name  given  to  a  branch  or  division  of  the  Domitian 
family  of  Rome.  It  signifies  "  having  red  or  copper- 
coloured  beard,"  and  is  said  to  have  originated  as  fol- 
lows. When  Castor  and  Pollux,  on  their  return  from 
the  battle  of  Lake  Regillus,  announced  to  Lucius  Domi- 
tius  the  victory  of  his  countrymen,  he  did  not  believe 
them  ;  whereupon  they  stroked  his  hair  and  beard,  which 
were  instantly  changed  from  black  to  red.  The  most 
distinguished  of  this  name  are  the  following  : 

Ahenobarbus,  (Cneius  Domitius,)  a  consul,  122 
B.C.,  who  gained  a  victory  over  the  Allobroges  and  Ar- 
verni,  nations  in  the  south  of  Gaul. 

Ahenobarbus,  (Cneius  Domitius,)  a  son  of  Lucius 
Domitius,  noticed  below.  In  the  civil  wars  he  joined 
the  party  of  Brutus  and  Cassius,  but  after  the  battle  of 
Philippi  he  attached  himself  first  to  Antony  and  after- 
wards to  Octavius.  He  died  a  few  days  after  the  battle 
of  Actium|  31  B.C. 

Ahenobarbus,  (Cneius  Domitius,)  a  grandson  of 
the  preceding,  distinguished  for  his  profligacy  and  fero- 
city. He  married  Agrippina,  by  whom  he  became  the 
father  of  the  emperor  Nero. 

Ahenobarbus,  (Lucius  Domitius,)  a  Roman  gen- 
eral, who  married  a  sister  of  Cato  Uticensis.  He  be- 
came pr?etor  in  58  and  consul  in  54  B.C.  He  opposed 
Caesar  and  Pompey  during  their  coalition.  In  rhe  civil 
war  that  ensued,  he  was  appointed  by  the  Senate  to  suc- 
ceed Caesar  in  Farther  Gaul  in  the  year  49.  He  was,  it 
is  said,  the  only  leader  of  the  senatorial  party  who 
showed  energy  when  Caesar  invaded  Italy.  He  was, 
however,  on  account  of  the  defection  of  his  army,  com- 
pelled to  surrender  at  Corfinium.  He  was  killed  in  48 
B.C.,  at  Pharsalia,  where  he  commanded  a  wing  of  Pom- 
pey's  army. 

See  C^sAR,  "De  Bello  Civili;"  Suetonius,  "Life  of  Cssar;" 
Dion  Cassius,  "History  of  Rome." 

A-hi'jah,  [Heb.  rrnx,]  a  prophet  who  lived  in  the 
reigns  of  Solomon  and  Rehoboam.  (See  I.  Kings  xL,  xii. ; 

I.  Chronicles  xxvi.  20  ;  II.  Chronicles  ix.  29.) 
Ahimelech,  a-him'e-lek,  a  priest,  the  son  of  Ahitub, 

slain  by  the  command  of  Saul.  (See  I.  Samuel  xxi.,  xxii.) 

A-hith'o-phel  or  A-ehit'o-phel,  a  Hebrew  courtier, 
a  counsellor  of  King  David,  whose  cause  he  deserted  and 
became  an  adherent  of  Absalom  in  his  rebellion.  (See 

II.  Samuel  xv.  12,  xvi.  and  xvii.) 

Ahle,  a'leh,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  musician 
and  composer,  born  at  Miihlhausen  in  1650;  died  in 
1701. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;     h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  m^t;  nSt;  good;  moon: 


AHLE 


65 


AIDAN 


Ahle,  (JoHANN  Rudolph,)  a  German  organist,  born 
at  Miihlhausen  in  1625  ;  died  in  1673.  He  was  the  father 
of  the  preceding. 

Ahlee  or  Ahli,  Sn'Ie',  surnamed  Shirazee  or 
tlHEERAZEE,  (Shirazi,)  she-rS'zee,  from  the  place  of  his 
birth,  a  celebrated  Persian  poet,  born  at  Shiraz  about 
.he  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century;  died  about  1535. 

Ahlwardt,  aKMRt,  (Chrisi  ian  Wilhelm,)  an  emi- 
nent German  linguist,  born  at  Greifswalde  in  1760.  In 
181 8  he  was  appointed  professor  of  ancient  literature  in 
the  university  of  his  native  town,  where  he  died  in  1830. 
He  translated  into  German  portions  of  many  of  the  most ' 
celebrated  poems  in  the  ancient  as  well  as  in  the  differ- 
ent modern  languages.  He  made,  moreover,  a  com- 
plete translation  of  the  poems  of  Ossian. 

Ahlwardt,  (Peter,)  born  at  Greifswalde  in  1710. 
Though  the  son  of  a  shoemaker,  by  diligence  he  made 
great  progress  in  learning,  and  in  1752  was  appointed 
professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the  University  of 
Greifswalde.    Died  in  1791. 

Ahmed  (Jn'med)  or  Achmet  (aK'met)  I.,  a  son  of 
Mahom.et  HI.,  born  in  1590.  He  succeeded  his  father 
on  the  Ottoman  throne  in  1603,  and  died  in  161 7. 

Ahmed  or  Achmet  II.,  born  in  1643,  "^^'^s  the  son 
of  Sultan  Ibraheem,  (Ibrahim.)  He  began  to  reign  in 
1691.  His  army  was  defeatecl  with  great  loss  by  the 
Austrians,  at  Slankament,  in  the  same  year.  He  was  a 
feeble  ruler,  and  his  reign  was  disastrous  in  various 
respects.  He  died  in  1695,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mus- 
tafa H. 

Ahmed  or  Achmet  III.,  son  c?F  Mahomet  IV., 
born  in  1673,  was  raised  to  the  Ottoman  throne  in  con- 
secjuence  of  a  revolt  of  the  Janissaries  in  1703.  Though 
unfortunate  in  his  war  with  Austria  and  Venice,  his 
reign  was,  on  the  whole,  not  inglorious.  The  Turkish 
name  was  respected  abroad,  while  learning  and  the  arts 
of  peace  flourished  at  home.  Yet  Ahmed  was  deposed 
by  the  rebellious  Janissaries  in  1730,  and  died  in  1739. 

"Ahmed  or  Achmet  IV.,  or  Abd-ool-  (AbdiU-) 
H&mid,  db'ddol-hd'mid,  was  born  in  1 725,  and  succeeded 
ihe  sultan  Mustafa  HI.  in  1773.  His  reign  is  memora- 
ble for  two  disastrous  wars  with  Russia,  in  which  Turkey 
lost  the  Crimea,  a  considerable  portion  of  Circassia,  and 
some  other  territories,  besides  a  number  of  important 
fortresses.    Died  in  1789. 

See  Hammer,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Ahmed  Pasha,  surnamed  the  Traitor,  a  Turkish 
commander,  who,  in  the  reign  of  Solyman  I.,  captured  the 
island  of  Rhodes,  defended  by  the  Knights  of  St.  John. 
Afterwards  oflended  because  the  sultan  did  not  make 
him  grand  vizier,  he  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  in 
Egypt,  and  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  sultan  in 
1 524 ;  but,  though  successful  at  first,  he  was  soon  after 
taken  and  put  to  death. 

Ahmed  the  Renegade,  grand  vizier  to  the  sultan 
Solyman  the  Great,  was  a  native  of  Gratz,  in  Styria. 
He  was  educated  a  Christian,  but,  having  been  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Turks,  he  embraced  the  Mohammedan 
faith,  rose  to  distinction  at  the  Ottoman  court,  and  mar- 
ried the  grand-daughter  of  the  sultan.    Died  in  1580. 

Ahmed-al-Kastaiee,  (al-Kastaii,)  -al-kls-ta^lcc,  a 
distinguished  Arabian  poet,  born  in  Spain  in  958  ;  died 
about  1030. 

Ahmed-al-Makkari,  (or  Mekkari )  See  Mak- 
karee. 

Ahmed  An-Nahhas— an-nSh-Has',  a  distinguished 
Arabian  grannnarian  and  philologist,  who  was  drowned 
in  the  Nile  about  950.    He  was  a  native  of  Egypt. 

Ahmed-ar-Razi.    See  Ahmed-er-Razee. 

Ahmed-er-Razee,  (el-R^zi,)  -er-rd'zee,  a  native  of 
Cordova,  lived  in  the  tenth  century.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  v\.'luminous  work  on  the  geography  and  history  of 
Spain.  Another  Ahmed-er-Razee,  distinguished  as 
Ibn-  (or  Ben-)  Faris,  (fd'ris,)  i.e.  "son  of  Faris," 
wrote  a-i  Arabic  dictionary  and  a  work  on  biography. 
Died  in  985. 

Ahmed-Ibn  (or  -Ben)  -Arab-Shah,*  (-ib'n  d'rab- 
ihSh',)  an  Aral^ian  historian  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was 


*  This  name  is  incorrectly  given  Ahmed-Ibn- Arahsham  in  the 
'Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 


the  author  of  a  "  History  of  Tamerlane,"  which  was 
translated  into  Latin  by  Manger  and  into  French  by 
Vattier.    Died  in  1450. 

Ahmed-Ibn-Faraj — fSr'aj,  a  distinguished  Arabian 
poet  and  historian,  native  of  Spain,  died  about  970. 

Ahmed-Ibii-Hanbal.    See  Ibn-Hanbal. 

Ahmed-Ibn-Tooloon.    See  Tooloon. 

Ah'med-Kediik  —  ke-diik',  written  also  Achmet- 
Geduc,  a  celebrated  Turkish  commander,  who  was  grand 
vizier  of  Mahomet  II.  from  1473  1477-  During  this 
period  he  concjuered  the  Crimea,  and  took  the  towns  of 
Kaffa  and  Azof,  (or  Tana.)  Under  Bayazeed  (Bajazet) 
II.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Mahomet  II.,  Ahmed-Kediik 
greatly  distinguished  himself  He  quelled  a  formidable 
rebellion  headed  by  Prince  Jem,  a  brother  of  the  sultan, 
and  conquered  Kazim  Bey,  the  last  of  the  Caramanian 
princes.  But,  having  by  his  arrogance  deeply  offended 
Bayazeed,  he  was  put  to  death  in  1482. 

Ahmed  Khan  Abdalee  (Abdaii)  or  AbdaUee— 
Kan  ab-dS.'lee,  a  celebrated  conqueror,  the  founder  of  the 
Doorranee  (or  Durrani)  dynasty  in  Afghanistan.  He 
commenced  his  military  career  in  the  service  of  the  fa 
mous  Nadir  Shah,  by  whom  when  a  child  he  had  been 
taken  prisoner.  After  the  death  of  that  monarch,  he 
succeeded  in  getting  possession  of  a  large  convoy  of 
treasure  on  its  way  from  India  to  Nadir's  camp,  and  by 
this  means  laid  the  foundation  of  a  powerful  kingdom. 
He  was  crowned  at  Candahar  in  1747,  and  died  in  1773. 
In  the  intermediate  period  he  had  extended  his  sway 
over  the  eastern  part  of  Persia,  the  whole  of  Afghanistan, 
and  a  large  portion  of  India. 

See  Elphinstone's  "Caubul;"  Malcolm's  "  History  of  Persia." 

Ahmed-  (or  Achmet-)  Resmi-Effendi,  Sn'med 
rcs'mee  et'-fen'dce,  a  Turkish  historian  and  diplomatist, 
who  signed  the  treaty  of  Kainarji.  He  wrote  a  "His- 
tory of  the  War  between  the  Turks  and  Russians," 
(1768-74.)    Died  about  1788. 

Ahmed  (or  Ahmad)  Shah,  (of  Afghanistan.)  See 
Ahmed  Khan  Abdai.ee. 

Ahmed  Shah — shah,  succeeded  his  grandfather,Muz- 
zaftar  Shah,  on  the  throne  of  Guzerat,  in  141 1.  He 
founded  Ahmcdabad,  {i.e.  "city  of  Ahmed,")  and  made 
it  his  capital.    Died  in  1443. 

Ahmed  Shah  Walee  Bahmanee,*  (Bahmani,) 
— wa'lee  bSh'ind-nee'',  the  ninth  king  of  the  Bahmanee 
dynasty  in  the  Dckkan.  He  succeeded  his  brother  P'iroz 
in  1422,  and  died  in  1435. 

Ahrens,  .Vrens,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
in  Hanover  in  1808.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Brussels  from  1839  to  1848,  after  which  he  obtained  a 
chair  at  Gratz.  His  "Course  of  Natural  Law"  (Paris, 
1838)  has  been  often  reprinted,  and  translated  into  sev- 
eral languages. 

Ahriman.    See  Ormuzd. 

Ahroon,  (Ahrun,)  dh^roon',  or  Aaron,  a  Christian 
priest  of  Alexandria,  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventh 
century.  He  composed  a  voluminous  medical  work,  of 
which  some  extracts  only  are  extant. 

Aibek-Azad-ed-Deen,  (-ed-Din,)  i'e-b^k  (or  T''bek) 
a'zad  cd-dcei/,  the  first  Egyptian  sultan  of  the  dynasty 
of  Mamelukes.  He  began  to  reign  in  1254,  and  was  as- 
sassinated, through  the  jealousy  of  his  wife,  in  1257. 

Aicardo,  T-kaR'do,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  in  Piedmont,  worked  in  Genoa.  Among  his  works 
is  the  aqueduct  which  supplies  Genoa  with  water.  Died 
in  1650. 

Aicher,  T'Ker,  (Otto,)  a  German  antiquary  and  his- 
torian, born  in  1628,  lived  at  Salzburg,  and  died  in  1705. 
He  wrote  a  work  on  epitaphs,  entitled  "Theatrum  Fu- 
nebre,"  (1675,)  many  treatises  on  points  of  ancient 
history. 

Aichspalt,  iK'spJlt,  (Peter,)  an  archbishop  of  Mentz, 
born  about  1250.    Died  in  1320. 

Aidan  or  ..S3dan,  a'dan.  Saint,  a  pious  monk  of 
lona,  who  was  employed  about  635  A.D.  by  Oswald,  King 
of  Northumbria,  to  instruct  his  subjects  in  the  Christian 
religion.  He  is  considered  as  the  first  of  the  line  of 
bishops  now  styled  Bishops  of  Durham. 

See  Hook:,  "  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury,"  vol.  i.  chap,  ii 


*  Pronounced  in  India,  uh'mud  sh3h  wul'ee  bSh'miin-ee. 


f  as  k;  9  as  s  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  7iasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  ^J^^'>'^t  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AIDAN 


66 


AINSLIE 


Aidau,  a'dan,  King  of  Scotland,  began  to  reign  about 
578  A.D.    Died  in  606, 
Aidoneus.    See  Pluto. 

Aigiian,  an'y5N',  (£tienne,)  an  able  French  trans- 
la  or  and  political  writer,  born  at  Beaugency-sur-Loire 
in  1773.  He  produced  a  translation  of  the  Iliad  in  verse, 
which  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  French  language.  In 
1814  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy 
in  place  of  Bernardin  de  Saint  Pierre.  After  the  restora- 
tion of  181 5,  he  entered  the  ranks  of  the  liberal  opposi- 
tion as  a  publicist.  His  work  entitled  "The  Condition 
{£tat)  of  the  Protestants  in  France"  (1818)  is  highly 
commended  for  the  sentiments  and  style.  Died  in 
1824. 

Aigneaux  or  Aignaux,  Wyo^,  (Robert  and  An- 
TOINE,)  two  brothers,  born  at  Vire,  in  Normandy,  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  translated  Virgil  into  French 
verse.  Their  work  appeared  in  1582,  and  in  that  age 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation. 

Aiguani,  i-gwi'nee,  a  Carmelite  friar  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  was  a  respectable  sculptor,  and  afterwards  be- 
came Cardinal  of  Bologna.    Died  in  1400. 

Aiguebere,  ag'baiR',  (John  Dumas — dii'mi',)  a 
French  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1692.  He 
studied  at  Paris,  where  he  formed  a  friendship  with  Vol- 
taire which  lasted  through  life.  He  was  a  counsellor  of 
the  Parliament  of  Toulouse,  the  duties  of  which  office 
he  performed  with  equal  zeal  and  integrity.  Died  in 
1755- 

Aiguillon,  d',  d^'gCyoN'  or  da^geKyoN',  (Armand 
ViGNEROT  (or  Vignerod)  Duplessis  Richelieu,)  Sr'- 
m6N'  v^n'yeh-ro'  dii^phys^,  resh''le-uh',)  Due,  born  in 
1720,  is  said  to  have  been  a  great -grand-nephew  of  Cardi- 
nal Richelieu.  He  was  prime  minister  of  France  during 
the  last  three  years  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  He  was 
chiefly  indebted  for  his  promotion  at  court  to  the  favour 
of  Madame  du  Barry,  mistress  of  the  king.  His  admin- 
istration was  highly  disgraceful  to  France  ;  for,  though  an 
accomplished  courtier,  he  was  destitute  of  all  the  great 
and  solid  qualities  necessary  to  form  a  statesman.  Dur- 
ing his  ministry  the  partition  of  Poland  took  place ;  yet 
he  knew  nothing  of  this  nefarious  project  till  it  was  already 
accomplished.  On  the  accession  of  Louis  XVI.,  Aiguillon 
was  removed  from  office,  and  died  in  1788. 

See  "Memoires  du  Due  d' Aiguillon  ; Lacretelle,  "  Histoire 
du  Dix-huitieme  Siecle." 

Aiguillon,  d',  (Armand  de  Vignerot  Duplessis 
Richelieu,)  Due,  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  warmly 
supported  the  popular  cause  in  the  States-General  of 
1789,  and  was  the  second  of  the  noblesse  to  renounce  his 
privileges  in  the  session  of  August  4.  He  superseded 
Custine  in  the  command  of  one  of  the  armies,  early  in 
1792,  but  was  proscribed  by  the  dominant  party  in  Au- 
gust of  that  year.  He  escaped  by  flight,  and  died  in  1800. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Aiguillon,  d',  (Marie  Madeleine  de  Vignerot  or 
Vignerod,)  Duchesse,  a  niece  of  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
born  about  1610.  She  founded  several  charitable  institu- 
tions.   Died  in  1675. 

Aiken,  a'ken,  (William,)  born  in  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1806,  graduated  at  the  College  of  South 
Carolina  in  1825,  served  several  sessions  in  the  State 
Legislature,  and  was  chosen  Governor  of  his  native  State 
in  1844.  In  1850  the  Democratic  party  elected  him  a 
representative  to  Congress,  of  which  he  continued  a 
member  till  1857.  In  the  memorable  contest  for  the 
speakership,  1855-6,  he  catne  within  one  vote  of  being 
elected  to  that  office.  Among  Southern  statesmen  he 
has  distinguished  himself  by  his  moderation  and  good 
sense. 

Aikin,  (Anna  L.ctitia.)    See  Barbauld. 

Aikin,  a'kin,  (Arthur,)  a  son  of  Dr.  John  Aikin, 
noticed  below,  was  born  about  1780,  and  gained  dis- 
tinction as  a  scientific  writer.  He  was  editor  of  the 
''Annual  Review,"  (1803-08,)  and  was  for  many  years 
secretary  of  the  Society  of  Arts.  His  principal  works 
are  a  "Manual  of  Mineralogy,"  (1814,)  and  a  "IDictionary 
of  Chemistry  and  Mineralogy."    Died  in  1854. 

Aikin,  (Edmund,)  an  English  architect,  born  at  War- 
rington in  1780,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  Died 
in  1820. 


Aikin,  (John,)  M.D.,  an  eminent  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  in  Leicestershire,  England,  in  1747.  Besides 
a  number  of  essays  and  papers,  scientific  and  literary, 
he  published  an  instructive  and  popular  work,  entitled 
"Evenings  at  Home,"  (1792-95,)  in  which  he  was  as 
sisted  by  his  sister,  Mrs.  Barbauld.  His  greatest  wori 
was  his  "  General  Biography,"  a  biographical  dictionary 
extending  to  ten  closely-printed  quarto  volumes  :  it  wai 
completed  in  1815.  In  1816  he  published  his  "Annals 
of  the  Reign  of  George  III.,"  in  2  vols.  8vo ;  and  in 
1820,  his  "  Select  Works  of  the  British  Poets,"  with  bir>. 
graphical  and  critical  prefaces.    Pie  died  in  1822. 

Aikin,  (Lucy,)  a  daughter  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1781.  She  published,  among  other  works,  a  "Memoir" 
of  her  father,  in  2  vols.  8vo,  (1823,)  and  a  "Life  of 
Joseph  Addison,"  (1843.)    Died  in  1864. 

Aiknian,  ak'man,  (William,)  a  Scottish  portrait- 
painter,  born  in  Aberdeenshire  in  1682.  He  studied  in 
Rome,  returned  to  Scotland  in  17 12,  and  settled  in  Lon- 
don in  1723,  after  which  he  painted  portraits  of  many 
eminent  persons.  He  was  a  friend  and  patron  of  the 
poet  Thomson,  who  was  introduced  by  him  to  Sir 
Robert  Walpole,  and  who  wrote  verses  to  the  memory 
ofAikman.    Died  in  173 1. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting,"  etc. 

Aillaud,  t'yo'',  (Pierre  Toussaint— too'siN',)  a 
French  poet,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1759,  became  an 
abbe  and  a  professor  at  Montauban.  Among  his  works 
are  "  L'Egyptiade,"  a  heroic  poem,  (1802);  and  "  Le 
Nouveau  Lutrin,"  (1815,)  an  imitation  of  Boileau's  "Lu- 
trin."    Died  in  1826. 

Ailly  or  Ailli,  SKye'  or  f  ye',  (Peter  of,)  an  eminent 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Compiegne,  in  Picardy,  in 
1350.  In  1389  he  was  made  chancellor  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris  ;  in  1395,  Archbishop  of  Cambray ;  and  in 
1411  he  was  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal.  He 
presided  at  one  of  the  sessions  of  the  famous  Council  of 
Constance,  in  which  John  Huss  was  condemned  to  the 
stake.  Yet  he  was  a  reformer,  and  confessed  and  boldly 
denounced  the  abuses  and  impurities  of  the  church.  He 
died  about  1420. 

See  DiNAUX,  "Notice  historique  sur  P.  D'Ailly,"  1824. 

Ailred,  aKred,  a  religious  and  historical  writer  of  the 
twelfth  century,  and  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Rievaulx, 
in  Yorkshire. 

Ainiar  Rivault.    See  Rivault. 

Aime  (a'ma'')  de  Varenne.  See  Aimon  de  Va- 
renne. 

Aimeric,  a'mer-ik  or  §m'rek',  written  also  Haimerio, 
a  native  of  France,  chosen  Patriarch  of  Antioch  in  1142  ; 
died  in  1187. 

Aimeric  de  Pegulha — da  pi-gooKyc^  or  Aimeri  de 
Peguilain,  a'meh-re'  deh  peh-ge'liN',  a  troubadour  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  wrote  a  number  of  popular  poems 
and  songs.    Died  about  1260. 

Aimeric  of  Jerusalem.    See  Amaury. 

Aimericli,  T-ma-rMc',  (Mateo,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit  of 
great  learning,  born  in  Catalonia  in  171 5,  became  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  and  divinity.  He  was  noted  for  the 
elegance  of  his  Latin  style.  Among  his  works  is  "  Novum 
Lexicon  Historicum  et  Criticum  Antiquje  Romanas 
Literature,"  ("  A  New  Historical  and  Critical  Lexicon  of 
Ancient  Roman  Literature,"  1 787.)  Died  at  Ferrara  in 
1799. 

Aimery.    See  Amaury. 

Almoin,  almoin',  [Fr.  pron.  im^wiN' ;  Lat.  Aimoi'- 

NUS,]  a  French  monk  and  writer,  who  flourished  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  tenth  century.    Died  in  1008. 
Aimon.    See  Aymon. 

Aimon  de  Varenne,  i'm6N'  deh  vt^en',  a  French 
poet,  who  lived  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

Ainmiiller,  Tn'murier,  (Maximilian  Emanuel,)  a 
German  painter,  born  at  Munich  in  1807,  is  called  the 
restorer  of  the  art  of  painting  on  glass  in  Germany. 
Among  his  works  are  the  glass  windows  of  Notre  Dame 
de  Bon  Secours,  Munich.  He  has  also  a  fair  reputation 
as  an  oil-painter. 

Ainslie,  anz'le,  (George  Robert,)  born  at  Edinburgh 
in  1766,  was  ap])ointed  Governor  of  Dominica  in  1813, 
but  soon  after  retired,  having  obtained  the  rank  of  lieu* 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAorf;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


AINSLIE 


67 


AJJX 


tenant-general.  Died  in  1S39.  He  was  a  distinguished 
numismatologist,  and  published  "Illustrations  of  the 
Anglo-French  Coinage,"  (1830.) 

Ainslie,  (Hew,)  a  poet,  born  in  Scotland  in  1792, 
emigrated  to  America  in  1822.  He  is  author  of  "  Pil- 
fiCrimage  to  the  Land  of  Burns  ;"  and  of  "  Scottish  Songs, 
Ballads,  and  Poems,"  (1855.) 

Ainslie,  (Sir  Robert,)  born  in  Scotland  about  1730, 
was  knighted  and  sent  as  English  ambassador  to  the 
Ottoman  Porte  in  1755.  While  in  Constantinople,  he 
made  an  extensive  collection  of  coins  and  other  curiosi- 
ties.   Died  in  1812. 

A.insworth,  anz'worth,  (Henry,)  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  English  Independents  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
a  distinguished  controversial  writer.  He  was  banished 
from  England,  with  others  of  his  sect,  in  1593,  and  settled 
in  Amsterdam,  where  he  became  the  pastor  of  a  church. 
Died  about  1622.  His  "Annotations"  on  the  five  books 
of  Moses,  the  Psalms,  and  the  Song  of  Solomon,  is  a 
work  of  great  merit. 

See  Neal's  "History  of  the  Puritans;"  Brook's  "  Lives  of  the 
Puritans." 

Ainsworth,  (Robert,)  a  writer,  teacher,  and  eminent 
classical  scholar,  born  near  Manchester,  England,  in 
1660;  died  in  1743.  He  is  principally  known  as  the 
author  of  an  excellent  Latin  Dictionary,  (1736,)  which 
is  still  extensively  used. 

Ainsworth,  (William  Francis,)  an  English  geolo- 
gist, physician,  and  traveller,  born  at  Exeter  in  1S07.  He 
went  with  the  expedition  of  Colonel  Chesney  to  the  Eu- 
phrates in  1835,  and  afterwards,  as  agent  of  the  Bible 
Society  and  Geographical  Society,  was  sent  to  explore 
the  river  Halys  and  visit  the  Christians  of  Koordistan. 
He  has  published  "  Researches  in  Assyria,"  and  "  Travels 
and  Researches  in  Asia  Minor,  Mesopotamia,  Chaldea, 
etc.,"  (2  vols.,  1842.) 

Ainsworth,  (William  Harrison,)  a  cousin  of  the 
preceding,  an  English  novelist,  born  at  Manchester  in 
1805.  He  produced  in  1834  "Rookwood,"  which  had 
great  success.  His  popularity  with  a  certain  class  was 
maintained  by  his  "Jack  Sheppard,"  (1839.)  He  has 
been  censured  for  choosing  robbers  as  the  heroes  of 
these  novels.  Among  his  other  works  are  "The  Tower 
of  London,"  and  "The  Admirable  Crichton."  He  is,  or 
was  recently,  proprietor  of  the  "New  Monthly  Maga- 
zine." "With  a  great  regard  for  Ainsworth,"  says  an 
English  critic,  "  and  a  full  sense  of  the  talent  and  re- 
search which  he  brings  to  bear  upon  every  subject  which 
he  touches,  we  must  say,  we  like  not  this  gallows  school 
of  literature."  (See  article  on  "Ainsworth  and  Jack 
Sheppard"  in  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1840.) 

Airault.    See  Ayrault. 

Airay,  a're,  (Christopher,)  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  Westmoreland  about  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.    He  wrote  on  logic.    Died  in  1670. 

Airay,  (Henry,)  an  English  Puritan,  born  in  West- 
moreland in  1560,  became  provost  of  Queen's  College, 
Oxford,  and  vice-chancellor  of  the  university,  about  1606. 
He  wrote  "A  Treatise  against  Bowing  at  the  Name  of 
Jesus,"  and  several  other  works.    Died  in  161 6. 

Aird,  Srd,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  poet,  for  some  time 
editor  of  the  "Dumfries  Herald,"  born  in  Roxburgh- 
shire abo'.il  1802.  He  published  in  1846  a  volume  of 
poems,  which  are  commended.  He  has  also  written 
some  prose  works,  among  which  is  "Religious  Charac- 
teristics." 

Airey,  a're,  (Sir  Richard,)  a  British  officer,  born  in 
1803,  served  in  the  Crimean  war,  1854-55,  as  quarter- 
master-general.   He  became  lieutenant-general  in  1862. 

Airy,  a're,  (George  Bid'dell,)  an  English  astrono- 
mer, born  at  Alnwick,  Northumberland,  in  1801,  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  was 
elected  a  Fellow  in  1824.  He  became  Lucasian  profes- 
sor of  mathematics  at  Cambridge  in  1826,  and  Plumian 
professor  of  astronomy  in  1828.  In  1835  he  was  ap- 
pointed astronomer  royal  and  director  of  the  Observa- 
tory at  Greenwich,  the  efficiency  of  which  he  increased 
by  improved  methods  and  new  instruments.  He  was 
elected  in  1836  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  from  which 
he  lias  received  the  Copley  and  Royal  medals.  He  pub- 
h'shed  in  1846  an  important  "Abridgment  of  the  Planet- 


ary and  Lunar  Observations  from  1750  to  1830."  Among 
his  works  are  the  articles  "  Figure  of  the  Earth,"  and 
"  Tides  and  Weaves,"  in  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Metropoli 
tana,"  and  the  article  "  Gravitation,"  in  the  "  Penny  C»'- 
clopaedia." 
Aischah.    See  Ayeshah. 

Aisse,  a's<V,  (Mademoiselle,)  a  fair  Circassian,  born 
about  1694,  was  brought  to  France  by  Count  de  Ferriol 
in  1698.  She  was  educated  by  Madame  de  Tencin.  Her 
letters  were  published,  with  notes  by  Voltaire,  (1787.) 
Died  in  1733. 

Aitken,  at'ken,  (John,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  physician 
and  medical  writer,  who  died  in  1790. 

Ait'kin,  (Robert,)  for  many  years  a  printer  and  pub- 
lisher in  Philadelphia,  was  born  in  Great  Britain  in 
1734,  and  came  to  America  in  1769.  He  died  in  iSC2, 
To  him  is  generally  attributed  the  authorship  of  an  "  In- 
quiry into  the  Principles  of  a  Commercial  System  for 
the  United  States." 

Aiton,  a^ton,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  British  writer  of  the 
present  era,  was  minister  of  Dolphinton,  county  of  Lan- 
ark, Scotland.  He  published  "  The  Lands  of  the  Mes- 
siah, Mohammed,  and  the  Pope,  as  visited  in  185 1," 
(1852.) 

Aiton,  (William,)  an  eminent  Scottish  botanist, 
born  near  Hamilton  in  1731.  Pie  was  selected  in  1759 
by  George  III.  to  establish  and  arrange  a  botanic  gar- 
den at  Kew.  In  1783  he  became  superintendent  of  the 
pleasure-  and  kitchen-gardens  of  the  king.  He  published 
a  descriptive  catalogue  of  the  plants  cultivated  in  the 
botanic  garden,  entitled  "  Hortus  Kewensis,"  (3  vols., 
1789,)  which  Lowndes  calls  an  excellent  work.  Died  in 
1793- 

Ai'ton,  (William  Townsend,)  alandscape-gardener, 
born  in  1766,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded as  superintendent  at  Kew.    Died  in  1849. 

Aitsingerus  or  Aytsingerus,  It-sin'jer-us,  (Mi- 
chael,) otherwise  called  Michael  von  Eytzing — 
fon  it'sing,  an  Austrian  chronologist  and  historian,  born 
about  1535  ;  died  about  1600. 

Aitzema,  van,  vtn  Tt-za'mc\,  (Foppe,  fop'peh,)  a 
Dutch  diplomatist,  born  in  Friesland  in  1586.  Died  at 
Vienna  in  1637. 

Aitzema,  van,  (Leo,)  a  Dutch  historian,  born  at 
Doccum  in  1600  ;  died  in  1669.  He  wrote  a  valuable 
history  of  Holland,  extending  from  1621  to  1668,  (15 
vols.,  1657-71.) 

Aiyoob.  Aiyfib,  or  Aiyoub.    See  Job. 

Aiyoob-  (AiyCib-  or  Ayyub-)  (Ibn-Sh^di  or 
-Shadhi,)  fyoub'  Ib'n  sha''dee,  [written  in  French  AiouB 
(or  Ayoub)'  Ebn  (or  Ben)  Schadi,  and  EiouB  Ben 
Chady,]  surnamed  Nejm-ed-Deen  or  Nedjm-ed-DLn, 
nejm-ed-deen',  (the  "  star  of  religion,")  was  born  in  Ar- 
menia, or  Western  Persia,  in  the  early  part  of  the  twelfth 
century.  His  son,  the  famous  Salah-ed-Din  or  Saladin, 
having  become  the  vizier  of  the  Egyptian  caliph  AI-Ad- 
hed,  invited  his  father  to  Egypt.  Aiyoob  was  received 
with  the  highest  honour  by  the  caliph,  as  well  as  by  Sal- 
adin, who  offered  to  resign  his  position  in  favour  of  his 
father.  But  the  latter  refused  to  accept  it,  and  died  in 
retirement  in  11 73.  The  dynasty  founded  by  Salachn  is 
called,  from  the  name  of  his  father,  that  of  the  Aiyoobites. 

See  D'Hekeelot,  "  Bibliotheque  Orientale;"  QuATREMfeRE, 
"  Histoire  des  Sultans  Mamelouks  d'^gypte ;"  also,  the  "  Biographical 
Dictionary"  of  I bn-Khallikan. 

Aiyoobites  or  Aiyubites,  fyoob'Tts,  written  also 
Ayyubites,  Aioubites,  and  Eioubites,  [called  in 
Arabic  Aiyoo'bia  and  Benee  (or  Beni)  Aiyoob,  ben'ee' 
i^yoob',  i.e.  the  "  sons  of  Aiyoob,"]  a  name  applied  to  the 
successors  of  Saladin,  who  founded  the  Aiyoobite  dynas- 
ties of  Egypt,  Damascus,  etc.    (See  preceding  article.) 

Ajala  or  Axala,  de,  di  3.-HcVld,  (Martin  Perez,)  a 
Spanish  prelate,  born  in  1504,  became  Archbishop  of 
Valencia.  He  wrote  "Apostolic  Traditions,"  (1562.) 
Died  in  1566. 

Ajax,  a'jax,  [Gr.  Amf,]  the  name  of  two  Grecian 
heroes  who  fought  in  the  Trojan  war. 

Ajax,  the  son  of  Telamon,  [in  Latin,  A'jAX  Telamo'- 
nius,]  was  King  of  Salamis.  He  was  often  called  "the 
Great,"  on  account  of  his  great  stature,  in  which  he 
exceeded  all  the  other  Greeks.    He  was  also  distin- 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  7tasai;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AJAX 


68 


AKERBLAD 


guished  for  his  valour  and  beauty.  He  contended  with 
Ulysses  for  the  armour  of  Achilles  without  success,  be- 
came mac  in  consequence  of  this  defeat,  and  killed 
himself 

See  the  "lhad;"  Sophocles,  "Ajax;"  Hyginus,  "Fabula;." 

Ajax,  son  of  OYleus,  was  King  of  Locris,  and  was 
called  the  "  Lesser  Ajax,"  to  distinguish  him  from  the 
son  of  Telamon,  Next  to  Achilles,  he  was  the  swiftest- 
footed  of  the  Greeks.  He  perished  while  returning  from 
Troy,  through  the  wrath  of  Minerva  and  Neptune,  v/hom 
he  had  offended  by  his  impiety. 

Ajello,  d-yel'lo,  (Sebastia'no,)  a  Neapolitan  medical 
\^riter,  who  flourished  about  1575. 

Ajescha.    See  Ayeshah. 

Akakia,  S'kt'ke't^  written  also  Acacia,  (Martin,) 
an  eminent  French  physician  of  the  sixteenth  century ; 
died  in  155 1.  His  real  name  was  Sans-Mai-ICE,  ("with- 
out malice,")  which,  according  to  the  usage  of  those 
times,  he  changed  into  the  Greek  Akakia,  having  the 
same  signification.  He  translated  [portions  of  Galen's 
works,  to  which  he  added  commentaries  that  show  him 
to  have  been  a  man  of  judgment  and  a  close  observer 
of  facts.  He  left  a  son  of  the  same  name,  who  became  a 
professor  of  surgery,  and  second  physician  to  Henry  IH. 
Died  in  1588. 

Akbar  or  Akber,  tk''ber,*  [usually  pronounced  by 
the  Hindoos  lik'ber,]  (written  also  Acbar,  Ackbar, 
Ekber,)  Mohammed,  surnamed  Jalal-ed-Deen,  (or 
DjELAL-ED-DiN,)  j^-lSKed-deen',  the  "glory  of  the  faith," 
the  greatest  and  best  of  all  the  Mogul  emperors,  was  born 
at  Amerkote,  in  the  valley  of  the  Indus,  the  14th  of  Oc- 
tober, 1542.  He  appears  to  have  been,  like  Alfred  the 
Great,  one  of  those  thoroughly  accomplished  sovereigns 
of  whom  history  presents  us  with  so  few  examples. 
His  father  Humayoon  had  been  driven  from  his  capital 
by  his  rebellious  subjects  :  so  that  Akbar  was  born  in 
exile.  The  young  prince  grew  up  amid  privations  and 
dangers.  He  early  distinguished  himself  by  his  courage 
and  magnanimity.  The  victory  which  restored  Huma- 
yoon to  the  throne  of  his  father,  after  his  long  banish- 
ment, was  due  in  a  great  measure  to  the  heroic  example 
of  young  Akbar,  then  only  about  fourteen  years  of  age. 
But,  although  he  displayed  on  various  occasions  the 
most  splendid  abilities  as  a  general,  his  military  achieve- 
ments form  the  least  part  of  the  glory  of  his  reign.  He 
was  not  only  a  brave  and  able  commander,  but  a  far- 
seeing  statesman  and  a  humane,  magnanimous,  and 
enlightened  ruler.  He  treated  all  his  subjects,  whether 
Mohammedans,  Christians,  Jews,  or  Hindoos,  with  strict 
and  impartial  justice,  so  that  he  received  and  deserved 
the  title  &f  Jiig'at  Gooroo,  the  "protector  or  guardian 
of  mankind  ;"  and  he  furnishes  perhaps  the  only  exam- 
ple in  which  an  Oriental  sovereign  has  really  merited 
such  an  appellation.  If  he  had  any  fault  as  a  ruler,  it 
was,  perhaps,  too  great  a  lenity  towards  his  enemies. 
It  is  related  that  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign,  when  he 
had  not  yet  completed  his  sixteenth  year,  he  had  de- 
feated and  taken  prisoner  a  brave  but  most  troublesome 
leader  of  a  rebellious  faction.  The  captive,  covered 
with  wounds,  was  brought  into  the  presence  of  the  young 
emperor.  Akbar's  vizier,  who  also  held  the  office  of 
tutor  or  governor,  exhorted  him  to  take  away  with  his 
own  hands  the  life  of  his  dangerous  foe.  But,  though 
on  the  field  of  battle  he  had  no  superior,  he  had  not  the 
nerve  to  kill  in  cold  blood  a  defenceless  captive.  He 
drew  his  sword,  but,  scarcely  touching  with  it  his  victim, 
he  burst  into  tears.  The  vizier  regarded  the  young 
prince  with  a  look  of  stern  disapprobation,  and  then 
with  his  own  sabre  struck  off  the  head  of  his  prisoner. 

Akbar  earnestly  sought  to  lighten  as  far  as  practi- 
cable the  taxes  and  imposts  of  his  subjects.  With  a 
view  to  regulate  the  imposts  according  to  a  just  scale, 


*  This  is  sometimes  erroneously  accentuated  on  the  last  syllable — 
Akbar ;  but  the  name  is  nothing  more  than  the  comparative  and  su- 
perlative degree  of  the  Arabic  adjective  A'i'/v£?r  or  TTi^i^.V,  ("  great,")  and 
should  be  pronounced,  as  every  Arabic  scholar  knows,  ak'bar.  It  sig- 
nilaes  "  greater"  or  "  superior  ;"  also  "greatest ;"  hence  as  a  surname 
it  nearly  corresponds  to  the  Latin  Maximus,  which  was  given  as  a 
surname  to  the  greatest  of  the  Fabii.  "Allah  Akbar,"  the  battle-cry 
of  the  Moslems,  is  often  incorrectly  rendered  "God  is  great:"  it  prop- 
erly signifies  "  God  is  greatest,"  or  superior  to  every  other  power: 
hence  Gibbon  translates  it  "God  is  victorious." 


1  he  caused  to  be  taken  a  complete  survey  or  census 
of  his  whole  empire,  with  minute  statistical  details  in 
regard  to  the  extent  or  area  of  the  different  provinces 
and  their  various  productions.  The  book  treating  of 
these  particulars,  called  Aycen  Akbery,  ("  Institutes  of 
Akbar,")  enjoys  a  great  celebrity,  and  is  probably  with- 
out a  parallel  in  Oriental  history.  Among  his  other 
regulations,  Akbar  established  throughout  his  vast  do- 
minions posts,  (called  by  the  Hindoos  Dak  Chowkee,) 
to  convey  either  ordinary  letters  or  the  expresses  of  the 
government.  According  to  Ferishtah,  he  never  during 
his  reign  had  less  than  five  thousand  elephants,  (proba- 
bly the  greatest  number  ever  possessed  by  any  Indian 
sovereign  ;)  he  had  also  twelve  thousand  stable-horses, 
and  nearly  one  thousand  hunting  leopards.  Akbar  died 
in  1605,  after  a  reign  of  fifty-one  years,  during  which  he 
had  enlarged  his  dominions  by  the  conquest  of  Bengal 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  Dekkan.  With  him  died,  it 
would  seem,  all  the  magnanimity  which  had  hitherto 
distinguished  the  race  of  Baber.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Selim,  better  known  by  the  proud  title  of  Je- 
hangeer,  or  the  "Conqueror  of  the  World." 

See  Fekishta,  "  History  of  the  Mahomedan  Power  in  India," 
translated  by  Bkiggs,  vol.  ii.  ;  Elphinstone,  "  History  of  India;" 
ISIiLL,  "  History  of  British  India,"  1S41  ;  Abool-Fazl,  "Akbar 
Naniah;"  "Memoirs  of  Humayoon,"  translated  into  English  by 
Stewart;  Rickards,  "India,"  2  vols.,  1821. 

Akemoff.    See  Akimoff. 

Aken,  van,  vtn  i'ken,  (Jan  or  Jean,)  a  Dutch  or 
Flemish  artist,  distinguished  as  a  painter  and  still  more 
as  an  engraver,  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century. 

Aken,  van,  (Joseph,)  a  painter  of  Antwerp,  born 
about  1 7 10,  excelled  in  his  representations  of  draperies 
and  embroidery.  He  came  to  England,  where  he  died 
about  1750. 

Akenside,  a'ken-sid,  (Mark,)  an  eminent  English 
didactic  poet,  born  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne  in  1 721,  was  the 
son  of  a  butcher.  His  parents  were  dissenters.  His  mo- 
ther's name  was  Mary  Lumsden.  He  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh,  devoting  his  chief  attention  to  med- 
ical sciences,  and  took  his  degree  of  M.D.  at  Leyden  in 
1744.  On  this  occasion  he  wrote  an  able  Latin  thesis 
on  the  origin  and  growth  of  the  human  foetus,  and  at- 
tacked some  prevalent  theories  on  that  subject  which 
have  since  been  supplanted.  He  had  begun  to  write 
verse  at  an  early  age.  His  principal  poem,  "  The  Pleas- 
ures of  the  Imagination,"  in  blank  verse,  appeared  in 
1 744,  and  had  a  great  success. 

"  It  has  undoubtedly  a  just  claim  to  very  particular 
notice,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "  as  an  example  of  great  feli- 
city of  genius  and  uncommon  amplitude  of  acquisitions, 
of  a  young  mind  stored  with  images  and  much  exercised 
in  combining  and  comparing  them.  ...  In  the 
general  fabrication  of  his  lines  he  is  perhaps  superior  to 
any  other  writer  of  blank  verse  ;  his  flow  is  smooth  and 
his  pauses  are  musical,  but  the  concatenation  of  his 
verses  is  commonly  too  long  continued,  and  the  full  close 
does  not  recur  with  sufficient  frequency."  Addison's 
essays  on  the  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination  formed  the 
groundwork  of  this  poem. 

Akenside  published  a  volume  of  odes  in  1745.  In 
1748  he  became  a  resident  of  London,  where  he  prac- 
tised medicine  with  moderate  success  until  his  death. 
He  was  appointed  a  physician  to  St.  Thomas's  Hospital, 
and  one  of  the  physicians  to  the  queen  about  1760. 
Besides  the  works  above  named,  he  wrote  several  short 
poems  and  medical  treatises,  including  a  treatise  on 
Dysentery,  (1764,)  in  elegant  Latin,  which,  says  Johnson, 
"  entitled  him  to  the  same  height  of  place  among  the 
scholars  as  he  possessed  before  among  the  wits."  Died 
in  1770. 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets ;"  Bucke,  "  Life,  Writings, 
and  Genius  of  Akenside,"  1S32;  Kippis,  "  Biographia  Britannica ;" 
Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  English  Poets." 

Akerblad.a'ker-biad,  (Johan  David,)  a  distinguished 
Orientalist  and  antiquary,  born  in  Sweden  in  1760. 
Having  been  attached  to  the  Swedish  embassy  at  Con- 
stantinople, he  visited  Jerusalem  in  1792,  and  the  Tread 
{i.e.  the  plain  on  which  ancient  Troy  was  situated)  in 
1797.    He  was  the  first  who  attempted  with  any  success 


a  *J  T.  o,  \\,  y,  long;     6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  f^ll,  fat;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


AKEREL 


69 


JLARCON 


to  decipher  the  cursive  or  demotic  writing  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  Letter  on  the  Egyptian 
Inscription  of  Rosetta,"  (1802.)    Died  in  1819. 

See  Champollion,  "  Grammaire  figj'ptlenne ; "  "  Biographie  Uni- 
verselle,"  (Supplement.) 

Akerel,  a'ker-el,  (Fredrick,)  a  Swedish  engraver, 
born  at  Sodermannland  in  1748.    Died  in  1804. 

Akerhielm,  o'ker-hyelm',  (Anna,)  a  learned  Swedish 
lady,  born  in  1642.    Died  in  1698. 

Akermann,  a'ker-min,  (Anders,)  a  Swedish  en- 
graver, born  at  Upsal  in  1718.    Died  in  1778. 

Akers,  a^vcrz,  (Benjamin  Paul,)  an  American  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Saccarappa,  in  Maine,  in  1825.  He  passed 
several  years  at  Rome,  whither  he  went  in  1855.  Among 
his  works  are  busts  of  Edward  Everett  and  Henry  W. 
Longfellow,  and  a  head  of  Milton.  Died  in  Philadelphia 
in  May,  1861. 

See  TucKERMAX,  "Book  of  the  Artists,"  New  York,  1867. 

Akersbot,  a'kers-bot,  (Wille.m,)  a  Dutch  painter 
and  engraver,  lived  at  Haarlem  in  the  first  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century. 

Akiba,  i-kee^bS.,  (Ben  Joseph,)  a  famous  Jewish 
rabbi,  born  in  the  first  year  of  the  Christian  era.  Hav- 
ing joined  the  false  Messiah  Bar-Cokeba,  (a.d.  120,)  he 
was  taken  prisoner  and  put  to  a  cruel  death  by  the  Ro- 
mans, after  a  life  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  years. 

Akimoff,  Akiniov,  or  Akimow,  2.-ke-moP,  written 
also  Akemov,  (Ivan,)  an  eminent  Russian  painter, 
born  in  1754  ;  died  in  18 14. 

Akoui.    See  Akwei. 

Ak-Sliems-ed-Deen,  (or  -ed-Din,)  ik-sh^ms-ed- 
deen',  [i.e.  the  "  White  (or  bright)  Sun  of  the  Faith,")  a 
Turkish  sheikh,  famous  for  his  prophecies,  born  in  Svria 
in  1389;  died  about  1472.  When  the  troops  of  Ma- 
homet II.,  after  having  besieged  Constantinople,  had 
become  discouraged  with  the  obstinate  resistance  of  the 
Greeks,  Ak-Shems-ed-Deen  is  said  to  have  predicted 
truly  the  day  and  liour  in  which  the  city  would  be  taken. 

Akwei,  d-kwa'e,  (or  Akoui,  a-kwee',)  a  distinguished 
Chinese  general  and  prime  minister  during  the  reign  of 
Keen-Loong,  (or  -Loung,)  which  lasted  from  1736  to  1796. 

AL,  dl  or  al,  the  Arabic  definite  article,  forming  a 
prefix  to  a  multitude  of  Oriental  names :  as,  Al-Adel,  a 
surname  signifying  "the  Just;"  Al-Ameen  (-Amin,) 
"  the  Trustworthy  ;"Al-Mansoor,  "  the  Victorious,"  etc. 
It  should  be  observed  that  the  /  in  this  particle  is  often 
changed  so  as  to  correspond  to  the  initial  consonant  of 
the  following  word:  as,  Ao-DEMEEREEfor  Al-Demeeree, 
(-Demir!,)  An-Nasir  for  Al-Nasir,  Ar-Rasheed  for 
Al-Rasheed,  (-RASCHtD,)  As-Seffah  for  Al-Seffah, 
(or  -Saffah.)  The  a  in  al  has  an  obscure  sound,  and  is 
sometimes  pronounced  nearly  like  dol,  at  other  times  like 
ul  or  el,  varying  according  to  the  different  dialects.  (See  re- 
marks on  Oriental  names  in  the  Introduction  to  this  work.) 

Al-a-bas'ter,  (William,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
Suffolk  in  1567  ;  died  in  1640.  He  was  chaplain  to  the 
Earl  of  Essex  in  his  expedition  to  Cadiz  in  1596.  He 
is  chiefly  known  as  the  author  of  a  Latin  tragedy  entitled 
"  Roxana,"  said  to  be  to  a  great  extent  a  mere  transla- 
tion from  an  Italian  drama  by  Groto.  The  poet  Spenser 
expressed  great  admiration  for  his  poetry. 

See  Fuller,  "  Worthies  of  England ;"  Wood,  "Fasti  Oxonien- 
ses,"  in  "Athen^e  Oxonienses ;"  Addiso.v,  "Spectator,"  No.  221. 

Alacoque,  SHt'kok',  (Marguerite,)  a  French  nun, 
born  in  1647;  died  in  1690.  As  a  reward  for  her  emi- 
nent piety,  she  was,  it  is  said,  gifted  with  prophecy,  and 
foretold  correctly  the  time  of  her  own  death. 

Aia-ed-r)eeri,(or  Aia-ed-Din,)  a-ld'ed-deen',  written 
also  Aladdin,  a  younger  son  of  Osman  the  founder  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire,  was  a  dislinguislied  statesman  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  first  organized  the  band  called 
Janissaries,  [i.e.  Yeni-Sheri,  yi'nee-sha'ree,  or  the  "new 
troops.")  In  1370,  Ala-ed-Deen,  at  the  head  of  his  new 
soldiers,  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  emperor  An- 
dronicus,  and  took  Nicaea,  the  bulwark  of  the  Greek 
Empire  in  Asia. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs;" 
Marsigli,  "State  miHtare  dell'  Imperio  Ottomano." 


Alagon,  d',  dt'lt''g6N',  (Louis,)  a  French  nobleman 
put  to  death  in  1605  for  having  entered  into  a  plot  {or 
delivering  Marseilles  into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards. 

Alahmar,  a-lin'mar,  (Ibn  (,Tb'n)  Moham''med,)  the 
first  king  of  Granada,  built  the  Alhambra.    Died  in  1237. 

Alaimo.    See  Alaymo. 

Alaimo,  a-ll'mo,  a  Sicilian  nobleman,  who  took  a 
part  in  the  famous  conspiracy  called  the  Sicilian  Ves- 
pers in  1282.  Afterwards,  in  1287,  he  was  drowned  by 
the  order  of  the  King  of  Sicily. 

Alain,  t'15.N',  or  Alan,  %f\hn',  [Lat.  Ala'nus,]  a 
bishop  of  Auxerre  (P^"ance)  in  the  twelfth  century,  who 
wrote  a  life  of  Saint  Bernard.    Died  about  1185. 

Alain,  (John.)    See  Alan. 

Alcdn  Cliartier.    See  Ch artier. 

Alain  de  Lille,  t^liN'  deh  lei,  [in  Latin,  Ala'nus  de 
In'sulis,.]  a  French  ecclesiastic,  surnamed  the  Univer- 
sal Doctor,  was  reputed  one  of  the  most  learned  men 
of  the  twelfth  centurj-.  He  died  about  the  year  1200, 
leaving  numerous  works,  some  of  which  are  in  verse. 

Alaleona,*  a-ld-la-o^na,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  law- 
yer and  litferafeur,  born  at  Macerata  in  1670;  died  in 
1749. 

Alaman,  a-l§,-man',  (Lucas,)  a  Mexican  politician, 
born  in  the  eighteenth  century.  He  was  appointed  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs  (1853)  by  Santa  Anna.  His  policy 
was  reactionary  and  despotic.    Died  in  1855. 

Alaman,  d',  dt'lt'mSN',  (Sicard,)  the  chief  minister 
and  favourite  of  Raymond  VII.  of  Toulouse.  Died  in 
1275- 

Alamanni.  See  Alemannl 
Alamanno.    See  Alemannl 

Alameen,  (Alamin,)  a-la-meen',  (Mohammed,)  a 

son  of  Haroon-ar-Rasheed,  (Haroun-al-Raschid,)  whom 
he  succeeded  in  the  caliphate  in  809.  Having  disre- 
garded his  father's  injunctions  that  he  should  give  the 
command  of  the  army  to  his  brotlier  Al-Mamoon  and 
continue  him  in  the  government  of  Khorassan,  he  was, 
after  a  short  and  troubled  reign,  besieged  in  his  own 
capital,  and  slain  while  on  his  way  to  surrender  himself 
to  his  victorious  brother,  in  813. 

Al- Ameer'  or  Al-Amir,  dl-d-meeR',  a  Saracen,  who 
assumed  the  title  of  caliph  in  the  ninth  century,  and 
ravaged  some  parts  of  the  Greek  Empire. 

Alamos,  a'iS-m(is,  (Baltazar,)  a  Spanish  writer, 
who  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  and  begin- 
ning of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  born  at  Medina  del 
Campo.  He  is  the  author  of  an  accurate  Spanish  trans- 
lation of  Tacitus,  (1614.) 

Alamundar,  c^l-a-moon-dar',(?)  a  Saracen  prince,  who 
invaded  Palestine  in  509  A.D.,  and,  it  is  said,  was  con- 
verted by  the  anchorites. 

Alan,  Cardinal.    See  Allen,  (W^illiam.) 

Alan  (aKan)  of  Lynn,  an  English  theologian  and 
monk,  born  at  Lynn.    Died  about  1420. 

Alan  OF  Tewkesbury,  an  English  monk  of  the 
twelfth  century,  wrote  a  Life  of  Thomas  a  Becket.  Died 
in  1 201. 

Alan,  a'ldn,  or  Alanus,  a-LVniis,  (Johann,)  a  Danish 
writer  and  professor  of  philosophy,  was  born  at  Ala 
about  1565.    Died  in  1631. 

Aland.    See  Fortescue,  (Sir  John.) 

Al'an-son,  (Edward,)  an  English  surgeon,  born  in 
Lancashire  in  1747.  He  practised  in  Liverpool,  made 
improvemerts  in  the  method  of  amputation,  and  wrote 
"Practical  Observations  upon  Amputation,"  (1779.) 
Died  in  1823. 

Alarcon,  ^-laR-kon',  (Fernan  Martinez  de  Ce- 
vallos — da  tha-viKy6s,)  the  founder  of  the  noble  house 
of  Alarcon,  fought  against  the  Moors  in  Spain  in  the 
twelfth  century. 

Alarcon,  de,  dk  i-laR-kon',  (Don  Antonio  Suarez 
— swcVrSth,)  a  Spanish  historian,  born  about  1636,  was  a 
son  of  the  Marquis  of  Trocifal.    Died  about  1663. 

Alarcon,  de,  (Don  Fernando,)  called  El  Seilor 
Alarcon,  a  famous  Spanish  general,  born  about  1466, 
to  whose  custody  Francis  I.  was  committed  after  the 


*  The  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale"  spells  this  x\2imeAlaIcofia  ; 
but  this  is  doubtless  a  misprint.  Compare  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori 
d'ltalia." 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (^[JP^See  Explanations,  p.  23.  J 


ALARCON 


70 


ALAWr 


battle  of  Pavia,  1525.  He  had  a  high  reputation  for 
honour  and  bravery.  To  him  was  intrusted  the  custody 
of  the  captive  pope  Clement  VIL  in  1527.  Died  in  1540. 

See  Antonio  Suarez  de  Alakcon,  "  Comentarios  de  los  hechos 
del  Seiior  Alarcon,"  1665. 

Alarcon,  de,  (Hernando,)  a  Spanish  navigator,  of 
whom  little  is  known.  He  was  sent  in  1540  to  explore 
the  coast  of  California,  of  which  he  made  an  accurate 
survey.  He  was  the  first  who  ascertained  that  Lower 
(Valifornia  was  not  an  island,  but  a  peninsula. 

See  D.  DE  MuFRAS,  "  Explorations  des  Territolres  de  I'Oregon, 
des  CalitbiMies,  etc." 

Alarcon  y  Mendoza,  de,  di  i-laR-kon'  e  m^n-do'- 
tlii,  (Don  Juan  Rviiz — roo-eeth',)  an  excellent  Spanish 
iramatic  poet,  born  in  the  province  of  Mexico  about  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  removed  to  Spain 
about  1622,  and  attained  eminence  as  a  lawyer.  A  vol- 
ume of  his  dramas  was  published  in  1628,  and  another  in 
1634.  Among  his  works  are  "  Las  Paredes  oyen," 
("  VValls  have  Ears  ;")  "El  Examen  de  Maridos,"  ("Trial 
of  Husbands  ;")  and  "LaVerdad  sospechosa,"  ("Suspi- 
cious Truth,")  which  was  the  original  of  Corneille's 
"Menteur."  His  moral  tone  is  highly  commended  ;  his 
versification  is  easy  and  harmonious.  His  other  princi- 
pal merits  are  a  faithful  delineation  of  Spanish  manners, 
and  a  nervous  expression  of  noble  sentiments. 

See  A.  DE  PuiBUSQiiE,  "  Histoire  coniparee  des  Litteratures  Es- 
pagnoles  et  Frangaises ;"  N.  Antonio,  "  BIbliotheca  Hispana." 

Alard,  a'liRt  or  t'lia^  written  also  Adelard,  a  Dutch 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1490,  was  the  author 
of  several  controversial  works. 

Alard,  (Francis,)  a  theologian,  born  at  Brussels  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  converted  to  Protestant- 
ism by  reading  a  work  by  Luther.  Having  been  de- 
nounced to  the  Inquisition  by  his  own  mother,  it  was 
determined  to  poison  him,  in  order  to  save  his  relatives 
from  the  shame  of  a  public  execution.  The  poison  did 
not  take  effect ;  and  he  afterwards  escaped  from  prison, 
and  died  in  Holstein  in  1578. 

See  a  Life  of  F.  Alard,  by  his  grandson  Lambert,  in  "  Danische 
Bibliothek,"  vi. ;  and  Nicholas  Alard,  "Decas  Alardorum  Scriptis 
Clarorum." 

Alard,  a^l^Rt,  (Lambert,)  a  German  writer,  a  son  of 
Wilhelm,  noticed  below,  born  in  Holstein  in  1602,  was 
the  author  of  a  treatise  "  On  the  Music  of  the  An- 
cients," in  Latin,  and  a  history  of  Holstein,  entitled 
"  Nordalbingia,"  etc.,  (1628.)    Died  in  1672. 

Alard,  t'ltR',  (Marie  Joseph  Louis,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1779.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1S50. 

Alard,  3,'laRt,  (Nicholas,)  a  German  biographer, 
born  at  Tonningen  in  1683,  wrote  "Decas  Alardorum 
Scriptis  Clarorum,"  (1721.)    Died  in  1756. 

Alard,  (Wilhelm,  or  William,)  a  son  of  Francis, 
above  named,  was  born  in  1572,  and  became  pastor  at 
Crempe,  in  Holstein.  He  wrote  many  religious  works, 
and  Latin  poetry  which  was  much  admired.  Died  in 
1645. 

A-lar'dus,  (surnamed  .^^mstelreda'mus,  from  the 
place  of  his  birth,)  a  distinguished  scholar  and  rhetori- 
cian, born  in  Amsterdam  towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century;  died  about  1541. 

AVar-ic,  [Lat.  Alari'cus,]  a  famous  conqueror,  King 
of  tiie  Visigoths,  was  born  about  350  a.d.  He  served  for 
some  time  in  the  army  of  the  emperor  Theodosius,  who 
died  in  393.  Having  been  offended  by  Arcadius,  he  in- 
vaded the  Eastern  Empire  with  a  large  army  in  396.  He 
captured  Corinth  and  other  cities,  and  ravaged  the  coun- 
try, but  was  checked  by  Stilicho,  (or  Stilicon,)  and  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  the  ministers  of  Arcadius,  who 
admitted  him  again  into  his  service,  with  the  rank  of 
general.  In  402  he  invaded  Italy,  where  he  was  de- 
feated by  Stilicho  at  Pollentia,  and  was  compelled  to 
withdraw  from  Italy.  After  the  death  of  Stilicho,  Alaric 
renewed,  in  408,  the  invasion  of  Italy,  where  the  feeble 
Honorius  offered  little  resistance.  He  advanced  to  the 
gates  of  Rome,  then  the  most  magnificent  city  of  the 
world,  the  citizens  of  which  induced  him  to  spare  it  by 
the  payment  of  five  thousand  pounds  of  gold  and  thirty 
thousand  pounds  of  silver.  He  soon  after  withdrew  his 
army  into  Tuscany.     Negotiations  ensued  between  Ala- 


ric and  Honorius ;  but  the  latter  foolishly  rejected  the 
reasonable  terms  offered  by  the  victorious  Goth,  who 
captured  Rome  in  410  and  delivered  it  up  to  pillage  foi 
six  days.  The  churches  and  public  buildings,  however, 
were  spared.  Alaric  marched  southward,  with  a  design 
to  conqueF  Sicily,  and  died  at  Cosenza  in  410. 

See  JoRN ANDES,  "De  Rebus  Geticis;"  Sozomen,  "Hisloria;" 
Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Claudian, 
"De  Bello  Getico." 

Alaric  II.,  a  king  of  the  Visigoths,  who  succeeded 
his  father  Euric  in  484  a.d.  He  was  killed  in  battle 
by  the  hand  of  Clovis,  King  of  the  Franks,  in  507.  The 
reign  of  Alaric  II.  was  distinguished  by  the  formation  of 
a  body  of  laws  known  as  the  "  Breviarium  Alaricianum," 
i.e.  "  Compilation  or  Abridgment  of  Alaric." 

Alary,  ft'lt're',  (George,)  a  French  missionary,  born 
in  1 73 1  ;  died  in  181 7.  He  preached  in  the  Burmese 
Empire,  and  afterwards  in  China,  making  many  converts. 
He  returned  to  his  native  country  about  1772. 

Alary,  (Jean,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Toulouse  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  He  wrote,  besides  other  poems, 
"Virtue  Triumphant  over  Fortune,"  (1622,)  and  a  prose 
work  called  "  Abrege  des  longues  Etudes,"  ("Abridg- 
ment of  Long  Studies.") 

Alary,  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French  academician,  born 
in  Paris  in  1689.  He  was  sub-preceptor  to  Louis  XV., 
and  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1723. 
His  Letters  to  Bolingbroke  were  published.  Died  in  1 770. 

See  Bolingbroke's  "Letters." 

A  Lasco,  Alasco,  or  Alasko,  a-lSs^ko,  (John,)  a 
Polish  Protestant  theologian,  born  in  1499.  He  avowed 
his  conversion  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  after 
he  had  become  Bishop  of  Vesprim  in  1529.  He  preached 
some  years  at  Emden,  and  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. 
went  to  London,  where  he  had  charge  of  a  congregation, 
On  the  accession  of  Mary  (1553)  he  was  compelled  to 
leave  England,  and  returned  to  Germany.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  theology.    Died  in  Poland  in  1560. 

See  J.  F.  Bertram,  "Griindlicher  Bericht  von  Johann  Alasco," 
3  vols.,  1733. 

Al-Asharee,  (Al-Asliari,)  ll-dsh'S-ree^  an  Arabian 
doctor,  born  at  Basrah  about  860  A.D.  He  was  the  founder 
of  a  Mohammedan  sect  called  Asharites.  Died  about  940. 

Alasko.    See  Alasco. 

Alasmai.    See  Abdel-Malek-Ibn-Koreyb. 

Alatino,  J-ia-tee'no,  (Moses,)  a  Jewish  physician, 
born  at  Spoleto,  Italy ;  lived  about  1600.  He  translated 
into  Latin  Galen's  treatise  on  Hippocrates'  work  en- 
titled "De  Acre  Locis  et  Aquis."    (See  Hippocrates.) 

Alandanus.    See  Allouette. 

Alaiix,  t'lo',  (Jean,)  a  French  historical  painter,  born 
at  Bordeaux  in  1786.  He  was  patronized  by  Louis 
Philippe,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Institute. 

Alava,  d',  da'li-vi,  (Miguel  Ricardo,)  a  Spanish 
general,  born  at  Vittoria  in  1771.  He  fought  against  the 
French  in  the  Peninsular  war,  became  aide-de-camp  to 
Wellington,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade 
about  1813.  In  May,  1822,  he  was  chosen  President  of 
the  Cortes,  and  in  the  next  month  fought  for  the  Consti- 
tution and  the  Cortes  against  the  insurgents.  His  party 
having  been  subdued  by  French  intervention,  he  went 
into  exile  in  1823.  He  returned  to  Spain  after  the  death 
of  Ferdinand,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  London  in 
1834.    Died  in  1843. 

Alava  Esquivel,  d',  dcVlS-vS  gs-ke-vgK,  (Diego,)  a 
Spanish  prelate,  born  at  Vittoria.  He  was  successively 
Bishop  of  Astorga,  of  Avila,  and  of  Cordova,  and  wrote 
a  work  on  Councils,  "  De  Consiliis  Universalibus,"  (p'ib- 
lished  in  1582.)    Died  in  1562. 

Alava  y  Navarete,  de,  da  cVlS-va  e  nS-va-ra''ti, 
(Don  Ignacio  Maria,)  a  Spanish  admiral,  born  at  Vit- 
toria. He  entered  the  navy  in  1766,  and  became  rear- 
admiral  in  1787.  In  1794  he  set  out  on  a  voyage  of  cir- 
cumnavigation, during  which  he  rectified  many  errors 
in  the  charts  of  the  South  Sea.  He  was  second  in  com- 
mand of  the  Spanish  fleet  at  Trafalgar,  (1805,)  where  he 
was  wounded.  In  181 7  he  was  raisecl  to  the  rank  of  high- 
admiral.    Died  the  same  year. 

See  Clark's  "Life  of  Nelson." 

Alawy,  §,-LVwee,  a  Persian  physician,  bo-n  at  Shiraz 
in  1669,  was  patronized  by  Aurungzebe.    iMed  in  1749. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lo7ig;  a,  6,  4,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  f3.ll,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ALAYMO 


71 


ALBERICUS 


Alaymo,  Alaimo,  pronounced  alike  ^-li'mo,  or  Al- 
caimo,  al-ki'mo,  (Marco  Antonio,)  an  Italian  physi- 
cian, born  in  Sicily  in  1590.  He  practised  at  Palermo, 
and  was  regarded  as  the  first  physician  of  his  time  in 
Sicily.  Among  his  works  is  one  called  "  Uiadecticon," 
giving  an  account  of  different  medicinal  substances, 
(1637.)    Died  in  1662. 

Alba.    See  Alva. 

Alba,  d',  (Machino.)    See  Machino  d'Alba. 

Albacini,  al-ba-chee'nee,  (Carlo,)  a  Roman  sculp- 
tor who  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  He  was  much  employed  in  the  restoration  of 
antique  statues.    He  was  living  in  1807. 

Albau,  auFban,  Saint,  the  first  person  put  to  death 
in  England  for  embracing  the  Christian  faith.  He  suf- 
fered martyrdom  in  the  time  of  Diocletian,  about  285 
A.D.  The  monastery  of  Saint  Albans  was  founded,  in 
honour  of  him,  in  the  eighth  century. 

Albane.    See  Albani,  (Francesco.) 

Albaueze,  iKbt'naz'',  or  Albauese,  al-ba-na'si,  a 
noted  Italian  singer,  who  lived  in  Paris.  He  died  in 
1800. 

Albani,  al-bi'nee,  (Alessandro,)  [Lat.  Alexan'- 
der  Alba'nus,]  a  nephew  of  Pope  Clement  XL,  born 
at  Urbino  in  1692,  was  made  cardinal  in  1721.  He  was 
a  liberal  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts.  He  made  a 
very  valuable  collection  of  statues  and  other  works  of 
art.    Died  in  1779. 

See  Strocchi,  "De  Vita  Alex.  Albani  Cardinalis,"  lygo. 

Albani,  (Annibale,)  Cardinal,  born  at  Urbino  in 
1682,  wrote  "Memoirs  of  the  City  of  Urbino,"  (1724.) 
Died  about  1750. 

Albani,  (Francesco,)  [in  French,  L' Albane,  Itl'- 
btn',]  a  distinguished  Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna 
in  1578,  was  a  pupil  of  Denis  Calvart  and  of  Ludovico 
Caracci.  He  painted  mostly  in  Bologna  and  Rome  ; 
in  the  latter  city  he  executed  some  large  frescos.  His 
best  works  are  small  oil-pictures,  treating  of  subjects 
from  ancient  poetry  and  mythology,  and  are  highly  fin- 
ished. In  the  opinion  of  Mengs,  his  studies  of  women 
surpass  those  of  all  other  painters.  He  excelled  also  in 
rural  prospects.  He  reproduced  in  many  of  his  works 
"Venus  Sleeping,"  "Diana  Bathing,"  and  similar  sub- 
jects. Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  The  Four  Ele- 
ments," "  The  Toilet  of  Venus,"  a  "  Noli-me-Tangere," 
and  an  Annunciation.  He  had  a  family  of  twelve  chil- 
dren, who,  as  well  as  his  wife,  were  remarkable  for  their 
beauty,  and  served  him  as  models  for  his  angels,  Ve- 
nuses,  and  Cupids.  The  sculptors  Algardi  and  P'iam- 
mingo,  it  is  said,  likewise  studied  Albani's  children  as 
models.    Died  at  Bologna  in  1660. 

See  Malvasia,  "Felsina  Pittrlce ;"  Passeri,  "Vitede'  Pittori;" 
Heinecken,  "Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Albani,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  landscape- 
painter,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1668. 

Albani,  (Giovanni  Francesco.)    See  Clement  XL 

Albani,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  a  nephew  of  the 
cardinal  Alessandro  Albani,  born  at  Urbino  in  1720,  and 
made  cardinal  in  1747.    Died  in  1809. 

Albani,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  nobleman,  born  at 
Rome  in  1750,  became  cardinal  in  i8oi,and  died  in  1834. 

Albano.    See  Albani,  (Francesco.) 

Albano,  dl-ba'no,  (Giovanni  Girolamo,)  [Lat.  Jo- 
han'nes  Hieron'ymus  Alba'nus,]  an  eminent  Italian 
lawyer,  born  at  Bergamo  in  1504,  made  cardinal  in  1570, 
and  died  in  1591. 

Albans,  Saint,  sent  auFbanz,  (John  of,)  a  physi- 
cian, philosopher,  and  theologian,  born  near  Saint  Al- 
bans, in  England.  In  1 198  he  became  chief  physician 
to  Philip  II.  of  France  ;  in  1228  he  joined  the  Domi- 
nican order,  and  died  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century. 

Albans,  Saint,  (Duchess  of,)  an  English  actress, 
whose  maiden  name  was  Mellon,  was  married  first  to 
the  rich  banker  Coutts,  and  again  to  the  Duke  of  Saint 
Albans.    Died  in  1837. 

Albany,  arba-ne,  (Louisa,)  Countess  of,  a  daughter 
of  Prince  Stolberg-Gedern,  was  born  in  1753.  She  was 
married  in  1772  to  the  Pretender  Charles  Stuart,  a  grand- 
son of  James  II.,  from  whom  she  was  separated  in  1780. 
Soon  after  the  death  of  her  husband  (1788)  she  was 


I  privately  married  to  the  poet  Alfieri,  and  settled  at 
'\  Florence.  (See  Alfieri.)    He  ascribed  to  her  influence 
much  of  his  success  as  an  author.    Died  in  1824. 

Albarelli,  al-ba-reKlee,(jACOPO,)  a  Venetian  sculptor, 
born  about  15  70;  died  in  1620. 
Albaspinus.    See  Aubespine. 

Al-ba-teg'ni-us,  the  Latin  name  of  Albatenee,  (Al- 
bateni,)  &l-ba-ta'nee,  or  Albatini,  al-ba-tee'nee,  a  cele- 
brated Arabian  astronomer,  who  died  at  Bagdad  in 
929.  He  made  an  abridgment  of  the  Almagest  of  Ptol- 
emy, with  a  commentary,  and  wrote  other  valuable  works. 

Albe,  d'.  Due.    See  Alva,  Duke  of. 

Al-Beidawi,  (or  -Beidliawi.)    See  Beidawee. 

Albeladory  or  Al-Beladori,  (an  Arabian  historian.) 
See  Beladorl 

Al'be-marle,  (Arnold  van  Kep'pel,)  Earl  of,  a 
Dutch  gentleman,  born  in  Guelderland  in  1669.  He 
became  a  favourite  courtier  and  attendant  of  William, 
Prince  of  Orange,  whom  he  accompanied  to  England  in 
1688.  "Courage,  loyalty,  and  secrecy  were  common 
between  him  and  Portland,"  says  Macaulay,  He  was 
created  Earl  of  Albemarle  and  Master  of  the  Robes  by 
William  III.,  and  was  a  rival  of  the  Duke  of  Portland. 
He  served  as  general  in  the  war  against  Louis  XIV., 
(1702-12.)    Died  in  17 18. 

See  Macaulav's  "History  of  England,"  vol.  v. 

Albemarle,  Duke  of.    See  Monk. 

Albenas,  d',  dtlb^na',  or  dtKbeh-na',  (Jean  Joseph,) 
Vicomte,  a  French  military  officer  and  writer,  born  n^r 
Ninies  in  1760  ;  died  in  1824. 

Albenas,  d',  (Jean  Poldo — pol^do',)  a  French  anti- 
quary, born  at  Nimes  in  15 12,  was  a  Protestant.  He 
wrote  a  work  on  the  antiquities  of  Nimes,  (1560.)  Died 
in  1565. 

Alber,  SKber,  [Lat.  Al'berus,]  (Erasmus,)  a  learned 
German  poet  and  witty  satirist,  who  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Luther,  and  a  zealous  Protestant.  He  was 
born  at  Sprendlingen,  a  village  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  but 
the  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown.  He  was  employed  as 
teacher  or  preacher  at  Stade,  Magdeburg,  and  other 
places.  He  wrote,  besides  satires  against  the  Roman 
Catholics,  many  sacred  songs  or  hymns,  abounding  in 
original  ideas.    Died  in  1553. 

See  J.  J.  KoKBER,  "  Beitrag  zu  der  Lebensbeschreibung  Erasmi 
Alberi." 

Albergati,  al-b^R-ga'tee,  (Fabio,)  an  Italian  political 
writer,  born  at  Bologna.    Died  about  1605. 

Albergati,  (Niccolo,)  an  Italian,  born  at  Bologna  in 
1375,  was  made  cardinal  in  1426,  and  died  in  1443. 

Albergati-Capacelli,  d',  dai-bgR-gd'tee  k5-pd-cheK- 
lee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  marquis,  senator  of  Bo- 
logna, born  in  1728,  devoted  himself  to  theatrical  rep- 
resentations and  became  a  consummate  actor.  He  also 
composed  several  comedies  and  farces.    Died  in  1804. 

Albergoni,  ai-b§R-go'nee,  an  Italian  preacher  and 
learned  theologian,  born  at  Milan  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  sixteenth  century;  died  in  1636. 

Albergotti,  Sl-beR-got'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
lawyer,  born  at  Arezzo  in  1304;  died  in  1376. 

Alberi,  ^Kba-ree,  (Eugenic,)  an  Italian  writer,  born 
at  Padua  in  181 7.  He  published  a  Life  of  Catherine  de 
Medicis,  (1838,)  and  a  work,  "  De'  Lavori  di  G.  Galilei," 
(1843-) 

Alberic  I.  and  II.    See  Albericus  I.  and  IL 

Alberic,  tl'ba'rek',  a  Benedictine  monk,  afterwards  a 
bishop,  born  at  Beauvais  in  1080.  In  1140  he  con- 
voked at  Antioch  a  council  which  deposed  the  patriarch 
Rodolphus,  (or  Rudolphus.)    Died  in  1147. 

Alberic  (tl'ba'rekO  of  Trois  Fontaines,  (tRwi 
f5N't4n',)  a  French  chronicler  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

Alberici,  Sl-ba-ree'chee,  or  Albrizzi,  Sl-bR^t'see, 
(Enrico,)  an  Italian  painter  of  Bergamo,  born  in  1714; 
I  died  in  1775. 

I     Alberico  de  Rosciate,  il-b^-ree'ko  di  ro-shS'ti, 
I  an  eminent  Italian  lawyer,  born  near  Bergamo  about 
'  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century.    Died  in  1354. 
Al-be-ri'cus  or  Alberico  (Sl-bi-ree-'ko)  [Fr,  Al- 
BERic,  trbi^r^k']  I.,  a  count  of  Tusculum,  and  con- 
sul of  Rome  in  the  tenth  century. 

!     Albericus  II.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  married  the 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  /inrd;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  t/iis.    (gJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JLBERO 


72 


ALBERT 


daugliter  of  Hugo,  King  of  Italy,  and  governed  Rome 
with  full  authority  from  936  till  his  death  in  954. 

Al'be-ro  I.  and  II.,  the  name  of  two  bishop-princes 
of  I.iege  in  the  twelfth  century. 

Alberoni,  al-b^-ro'nee,  (GiULio,)  an  Italian,  born 
near  Piacenza  in  1664.  Having  been  appointed  agent 
of  the  Duke  of  Parma  at  the  court  of  Madrid,  he  won 
the  favour  of  Philip  V.,  obtained  a  cardinal's  hat,  and 
was  made  prime  minister  of  Spain  about  17 16.  Amiing 
to  restore  to  that  country  the  power  she  had  possessed 
under  Philip  IL,  Alberoni,  as  little  restrained  by  sound 
judgment  as  by  principle  or  the  laws  of  nations,  without 
any  declaration  of  war,  surprised  and  captured  Cagliari 
and  other  towns  of  Sardinia  then  belonging  to  the  Em- 
peror of  Germany.  All  Europe  cried  out  against  this 
violation  of  the  rights  of  nations,  and  the  ambitious  car- 
dinal was,  in  consequence,  deprived  of  his  oftice,  in 
1719,  and  banished  from  Spain.  He  retired  to  Italy, 
where  he  died  in  1792. 

See  RoussET  de  Missy,  "Vie  d' Alberoni,"  1719;  G.  Moore, 
"Life  of  Cardinal  Alberoni,"  1806. 

Albers,  iKbers,  (Heinrich  Philipp,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, born  at  Hameln  in  1768  ;  died  in  1830. 

Albers,  (JohaiNN  Abraham,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man physician,  born  at  Bremen  in  1772.  He  first  in- 
troduced among  his  countrymen  a  knowledge  of  the  doc- 
trines of  Broussais  and  the  discoveries  of  Laennec.  Died 
in  1S21. 

Albers,  (Johann  Friedrich  Hermann,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Dorsten,  near  Wesel,  in  1805.  He 
became  professor  of  medicine  at  Bonn  in  183 1.  Among 
his  works  is  a  "  Manual  of  General  Pathology,"  (2  vols., 
1842-44.) 

Albert,  aKbert,  [Ger.  Albrecht,  SKbR^Kt,]  I.,  Duke 
of  Austria,  son  of  Rudolph  of  Habsburg,  was  born  in 
1248,  and  elected  Emperor  of  Germany  in  1298,  in  the 
place  of  Adolphus  of  Nassau,  who  had  been  deposed. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  avarice,  cruelty,  and  for  an 
all-grasping  and  unprincipled  ambition.  In  1308  a  con- 
spiracy of  the  nobles  was  formed  against  him,  and  he 
was  killed  by  his  own  nephew,  John  surnamed  the  Par- 
ricide. 

See  Pezzl,  "  Oesterreichische  Biographic  ;"  J.  C.  Pfister,  "  Ge- 
scliichte  der  Teutschen." 

Albert  (Albrecht)  II.,  (or  the  Lame,)  Duke  of 
Austria,  was  a  younger  son  of  the  preceding.  Pie  was 
born  in  1298,  began  to  reign  in  1330,  and  died  in  1358. 

Albert  III.,  Duke  of  Austria,  a  son  of  Albert  the 
Lame,  born  in  1348,  died  in  1395.  He  was  a  distin- 
guished patron  of  the  arts  and  sciences. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Luden, 
"Histoire  de  I'Allemagne." 

Albert  (Albrecht)  IV,,  Duke  of  Austria,  born  in 
1377,  succeeded  his  father,  Albert  III.,  in  1395.  He 
was  a  nephew  of  Sigismund,  King  of  Hungary,  and  of 
Wenceslaus  of  Bohemia,  each  of  whom  appointed  Albert 
his  successor.    Died  in  1404. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Albert  (Albrecht)  V.,  Duke  of  Austria,  son  of  Al- 
bert IV.,  was  born  in  1397,  and  succeeded  his  father  in 
1404.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  activity  against 
the  Hussites,  over  whom  he  gained  several  victories. 
In  1435  he  drove  the  Turks  from  Hungary;  and  on 
the  death  of  Sigismund,  his  father-in-law,  the  Hunga- 
rians chose  Albert  for  their  king.  In  1438  he  was 
elected  Emperor,  and  thus  became  Albert  II.  of  Ger- 
many.   He  died  in  1439. 

See  Wemk,  "  Historia  Alberti  II.,"  1740;  Hormayr,  "  Oester- 
reichischer  Plutarch;"  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklo- 
paedie." 

Albert  (Albrecht)  VI.,  Duke  of  Austria,  surnamed 
THE  Prodigal,  born  in  1418,  was  a  son  of  Ernest. 
The  dominions  of  Ernest  were  divided,  in  1438,  between 
Albert  and  his  brother  Frederick  III.,  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many.   Died  in  1463. 

Albert,  (Albrecht,)  Archduke  of  Austria,  a  son  of 
the  emperor  Maximilian  IL,  was  born  in  1559.  He  was 
appointed  Governor  of  the  Low  Countries  by  Philip  IL 
in  1596,  and  married  Isabella,  (Elizabeth,)  a  daughter 
of  that  king.    In  an  attempt  to  conquer  the  Dutch,  he 


was  defeated  by  Maurice  of  Nassau  at  Xicuport,  in 
1600.  He  took  Ostend,  after  a  memorable  siege  of  three 
years,  in  1604.  The  war  was  suspended  in  1609  by  a 
truce  of  twelve  years.    Died  in  1621. 

See  Le  Mire,  "Vita  Alberti  Pii,"  1622;  Charles  Dubois, 
"  Histoire  d'Albert  et  d'Isabelle,"  1847  ;  De  Thou,  "  Histoire." 

Albert  or  Albrecht,  (Friedrich  Rudolph,)  Arch- 
duke, an  Austrian  prince  and  general,  son  of  the  Arch- 
duke Charles,  the  famous  commander  against  Napoleon, 
was  born  in  Vienna  in  181 7.  He  fought  under  Radetzky 
at  Novara  in  1849,  and  was  appointed  Governor  of  Hun- 
gary in  1851.  Plaving  obtained  command  of  the  south- 
ern army,  he  defeated  the  Italians  at  Custozza,  about 
the  1st  of  July,  1866,  soon  after  which  he  succeeded 
Benedek  as  commander-in-chief. 

Albert  (Albrecht)  of  Baireuth,  surnamed  Al- 
cibiades,  born  in  1522,  was  a  son  of  Casimir,  Margrave 
of  Brandenburg.  He  was  a  man  of  dissolute  habits. 
He  was  defeated  in  1553  by  the  Elector  Moritz  of  Sax- 
ony, and  his  allies.  Died  in  1555. 

Albert  (Albrecht)  I.  of  Bavaria,  son  of  the  em- 
peror Lewis  (Ludwig)  V.,  succeeded  to  the  territory  of 
Lower  Bavaria  in  1349  ;  died  in  1404. 

Albert  (Albrecht)  IV.  of  Bavaria,  surnamed  the 
Wise,  succeeded  to  the  government  in  1463,  and,  turn- 
ing all  his  attention  to  the  consolidation  and  organiza- 
tion of  his  estates,  contributed  greatly  to  the  rank  and 
influence  which  Bavaria  has  since  attained  among  the 
powers  of  Europe.    Died  in  1508. 

Albert  (Albrecht)  V.  of  Bavaria,  surnamed  the 
Magnanimous,  succeeded  his  father,  William  IV.,  in 
1550.  He  was  a  distinguished  patron  of  learning  and 
the  arts.    Died  in  1579,  aged  about  fifty. 

Albert  I.,  Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  surnamed  THE 
Bear,  was  born  about  1106.  He  is  called  the  founder 
of  the  house  of  Brandenburg.    Died  about  11 70. 

Albert  II.,  Margrave  of  Ikandenburg,  succeeded  his 
brother,  Otho  II.,  in  1206.    Died  in  1 221. 

Albert  III.,  Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  surnamed 
Achilles,  and  Ulysses,  on  account  of  his  bravery  and 
wisdom,  born  in  1414,  was  renowned  for  martial  ex- 
ploits. He  was  a  son  of  Frederick  I.  He  commanded 
the  army  of  the  emperor,  in  147 1,  against  the  Duke  of 
Bavaria.    Died  in  i486. 

Albert  (Albrecht)  of  Brandenburg,  a  grandson  of 
the  preceding,  and  first  Duke  of  Prussia,  was  born  in 
1490.  In  151 1  he  was  elected  Grand  Master  of  the 
Teutonic  Order,  who  held  Prussia  proper  as  a  fief  of 
the  King  of  Poland.  In  1525  he  abandoned  the  vows 
of  his  order,  became  a  Protestant,  and  received  Prussia 
as  a  hereditary  fief  of  the  crown  of  Poland.  Thus  the 
dominion  of  the  Teutonic  Knights  was  brought  to  an 
end.    Died  in  1568. 

Albert,  (Albrecht,)  Duke  of  Brunswick,  called  the 
Great,  born  in  1236,  was  a  son  of  Duke  Otho.  He  was 
an  energetic  and  warlike  prince.    Died  in  1279. 

Albert,  (Albrecht,)  Archbishop  of  Magdeburg, 
waged  war  against  the  emperor  Otho,  and  promoted 
the  election  of  Frederick  II.  in  1212.    Died  about  1232. 

Albert,  (Albrecht,)  an  archbishop  of  Magdeburg 
and  Mentz,  the  son  of  John  Cicero,  Elector  of  Bran- 
denburg, was  born  in  1489.  He  was  elected  Archbishop 
of  Magdeburg  in  15 13,  Archbishop  and  Prince  Elector  of 
Mentz  in  15 14,  and  raised  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal  iir 
1 5 18.  Died  in  1545.  He  was  a  patron  of  literature; 
and  possessed  popular  manners,  but  was  unfitted  by  hij 
want  of  energy  and  courage  to  contend  with  the  storms 
which  prevailed  in  Germany  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation. 

Albert  (Albrecht)  of  Mecklenburg,  a  son  of  Al- 
brecht, Duke  of  Mecklenburg,  was  chosen  King  of  Swe- 
den in  1363.  He  waged  war  against  Margaret,  Queen 
of  Denmark,  who  gained  a  decisive  victory  in  1388  and 
deprived  him  of  the  crown.    Died  in  1412. 

Albert,  (Albrecht,)  Archbishop  of  Mentz  in  the 
twelfth  century,  was  a  turbulent  politician,  and  an 
enemy  of  the  emperor  Henry  V.    Died  in  1137. 

Albei't  (Albrecht)  I.,  Duke  and  Elector  of  Saxony, 
began  to  reign  in  12 12.  He  accompanied  the  emperor 
Frederick  IL  in  a  crusade  against  the  Saracens  in  1228. 
Died  in  1260. 

Albert  (Albrecht)  II.  of  Saxony,  was  a  son  of  tne 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fdt;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon* 


ALBERT 


73 


ALBERT  I 


preceding.  He  contributed  to  the  election  of  three  em- 
perors, Rudolph  I.,  Adolph,  and  Albert  I.  Died  about 
1300. 

Albert  (Albrecht)  III.  succeeded  his  brother  Ru- 
dolph as  Elector  of  Saxony  in  1418.    Died  in  1422. 

Albert,  tKbaiR',  a  French  revolutionist,  whose  proper 
name  is  Alexandre  Martin,  was  born  in  Oise  about 
1 81 5,  and  became  a  mechanic.  In  1840  he  founded  a 
journal  called  "L'AteHer,"  ("The  Workshop.")  He 
was  a  member  of  the  provisional  government  formed  in 
February,  1848,  and  of  the  Constituent  Assembly 
which  met  in  May  of  that  year.  For  his  alleged  com- 
plicity in  a  sedition  of  May  15,  1848,  he  was  sentenced 
to  deportation. 

Albert  the  Blessed,  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  born  in 
the  diocese  of  Parma  about  1 150,  was  the  legislator  of 
the  order  of  the  Carmelites,  (or  White  Friars.)  He  was 
chosen  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  in  1204,  and  assassinated 
at  Acre  in  12 14. 

Albert,  (Charles.)    See  Charles  Albert. 

Albert  of  Cologne.    See  Albertus  Magnus. 

Albert,  (Erasmus.)    See  Alber. 

Albert  le  Grand.    See  Albertus  Magnus. 

Albert  the  Great.    See  AlBertus  Magnus. 

Albert  (Albrecht)  von  HALBERSTADT,(fon  haKber- 
stdt',)  a  German  poet  or  minnesinger,  wrote  about  1210-20. 

Albert,  aKbeRt,  (Helnrich,)  a  German  lyric  poet  and 
musician,  born  at  Lobenstein,  Saxony,  in  1604.  He  pro- 
duced sacred  and  secular  airs  and  songs  which  are  highly 
esteemed.  He  was  organist  of  the  cathedral  of  Konigs- 
berg  from  1631  till  his  death.    Died  in  1668. 

Albert,  (Michael  and  Salomon.)    See  Alberti. 

Albert,(PRiNCE,)  or,  more  fully,  Albert  Francis  Au- 
gustus Charles  Emmanuel,  Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha  and  Consort  of  Queen  Victoria  of  Great  Britain, 
was  born  near  Coburg  in  August,  1819.  He  was  the 
second  son  of  Duke  Ernest  I.  He  visited  England  in 
1838,  and  was  married  to  Victoria  in  February,  1840. 

In  1842  he  was  elected  Chancellor  of  the  University 
of  Cambridge.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  field-marshal 
in  the  British  army  and  colonel  of  the  Grenadier 
Guards.  While  maintaining  a  proper  reserve  and  neu- 
trality with  respect  to  political  parties,  he  acquired  a 
great  influence  in  the  public  councils,  and  merited  the 
confidence  of  the  queen  by  his  discretion  and  other 
qualifications  which  rendered  him  her  best  adviser.  He 
was  the  efiicient  chairman  of  the  Council  of  the  Great 
Exhibition  of  1851,  and  in  1859  was  chosen  president 
of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Sci- 
ence. Prince  Albert  was  interested  in  the  promotion  of 
the  fine  arts,  of  agriculture,  and,  we  may  add,  of  every 
benevolent  enterprise.  By  the  manner  in  which  he 
passed  through  the  somewhat  peculiar  trials  of  his  ex- 
ceptional position,  in  which  there  were  no  safe  prece- 
dents to  guide  him,  he  won  the  general  approbation  of 
the  British  people.  Died  on  the  14th  of  December, 
1861.  Plis  death  was  regarded  as  an  irreparable  loss, 
not  merely  to  the  queen,  but  to  the  nation  of  which  he 
had  been  king  in  all  but  the  name. 

See  "Early  Years  of  His  Royal  Highness  the  Prince  Consort," 
1867. 

Albert  of  S  fade.    See  Albertus  Stadensis. 
Albert  of  Sweden.    See  Albrecht  of  Mecklen- 
burg. 

Albert,  d',  (Charles.)    See  Luynes,  Due  de. 

Albert,  d',  dSrbaiR',  (Louis  Joseph,)  Prince  of  Griin- 
berghen  or  Grimbergen,  born  in  1672,  was  a  grandson  of 
Constable  de  Luynes.  He  entered  the  service  of  the  em- 
peror Charles  VII.  He  published  "  The  Dream  of  Alci- 
biades,"  (1735.)    Died  in  1758. 

Albert,  d',  dlKbaiR',  (Paul,)  born  in  1703,  was  made 
Archbishop  of  Sens  in  1753,  and  Cardinal  of  Luynes  in 
1756.  Died  in  1788.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  libe- 
rality of  mind  and  for  his  high  moral  character. 

Albert  dAilly.    See  Chaulnes,  Due  de. 

Albert  Diirer.    See  Durer. 

Albert  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  the  eldest  son  of 
Prince  Albert,  noticed  above,  and  Queen  Victoria,  and 
heir  apparent  to  the  British  crown,  was  born  on  the  9th 
of  November,  1841.    Besides  being  Prince  of  Wales,  he 


is  Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  Duke  of  Cornwall  and 
Rothesay,  and  Baron  Renfrew.  In  i860  he  visited  the 
United  States,  where  he  was  received  with  flattering  de- 
monstrations of  popular  favour.  In  the  winter  of  1861-2 
he  set  out  on  a  tour  to  Syria,  Palestine,  Egypt,  etc.  He 
married,  in  March,  1863,  the  Princess  Alexandra  of  Den- 
mark, and  has  a  son,  Albert  Edward,  born  in  January,  1 864. 

Albertano  da  Brescia,  al-beR-ta^io  dS,  bResh'yS,  an 
Italian  writer,  who  was  magistrate  of  Brescia  in  the  early 
part  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

Albei'tazzo,  Marquis  of  Este.    See  Este. 

Alberti,  al-beR^tee,  (ARis  roTiLE,)called  alsoRidolfo 
Fioravanti,  re-doKfo  fe-o-r^-vln'tee,  an  architect  and 
engineer,  born  at  Bologna,  was  one  of  the  greatest  me- 
chanicians of  the  fifteenth  century. 

Albeiti,  (Benedetto,)  a  Florentine  chief  of  the  popu- 
lar party  in  the  revolution  which  occurred  at  Florence  in 
1379-80.    He  was  exiled  in  1387. 

Alberti,  (Cherubino,)  a  brother  of  Giovanni,  noticed 
below,  a  painter  and  noted  engraver,  was  born  in  1552. 
Died  in  161 5. 

Alberti,  (Durante,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Borgo 
San  Sepolcro  in  1538.  He  worked  in  Rome,  where  he 
painted  in  fresco  and  oil.    Died  in  1 61 3. 

Alberti,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Perugia  in 
1548,  was  a  friend  of  Tasso.    Died  in  1612. 

Alberti,  ai-blR'tee,  (Georg  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
Protestant  minister,  born  at  Thundern,  in  Hanover,  in 
1723.  He  published  "Letters  on  the  State  of  Religion 
and  Science  in  Great  Britain,"  (1752-54,)  which  are 
commended  by  Guizot  in  the  "Biographic  Universelle." 
Died  in  1758. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Alberti,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Borgo 
San  Sepolcro  in  1558,  was  a  brother  of  Cherubino.  He 
was  unrivalled  in  his  age  for  foreshortenings  of  the  fig- 
ure, and  excelled  in  perspective  and  landscape.  He 
painted  frescos  in  the  Vatican  for  Clement  VIII.  Died 
in  1601. 

Alberti,  (Johann,)  a  German  jurist  and  Orientalist  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  born  at  Widmannstadt.  He  was 
appointed  Chancellor  of  Austria  by  Ferdinand  I.,  and 
published  an  "Epitome  of  the  Koran,"  with  critical 
notes,  (1543.)    Died  in  1559. 

Alberti,  (Johann,)  a  Dutch  theologian  and  profound 
scholar,  was  born  at  Assen  in  1698.  He  became  profes- 
sor of  theology  at  Leyden  in  1740.  He  was  well  versed 
in  Greek  literature,  and  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  critic. 
His  greatest  merit  consists  in  his  labours  to  perfect  the 
Lexicon  of  Hesychius,  of  which  he  published  an  excel- 
lent edition,  2  vols.,  1746-66.    Died  in  1762. 

Alberti,  (Johann  Gustav  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
manufacturer,  born  at  Hamburg  m  1757.  He  invented, 
about  181 7,  a  machine  for  spinning  linen.    Died  in  1837. 

Alberti,  (Leandro,)  a  learned  Italian  friar,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1479.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"  History  of  Bologna,"  (1541-43,)  and  a  "Description  of 
all  Italy,"  (1550.)    Died  in  1552. 

Alberti,  (Leon  Battista,)  an  eminent  Italian  archi- 
tect and  philosopher,  born  of  a  noble  family,  at  Genoa, 
(or,  as  some  writers  say,  at  Florence,)  in  1404.  He  was 
also  a  poet  and  a  painter,  and  highly  distinguished  by  his 
general  learning  and  personal  character.  He  succeeded 
to  the  direction  of  several  works  which  Brunelleschi  left 
unfinished  at  Florence,  where  he  completed  the  Pitti 
Palace  and  was  one  of  the  restorers  of  the  classic  style. 
The  church  of  St.  Francis  at  Rimini  is  called  his  mas- 
ter-piece. He  also  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  writer 
on  art,  by  his  "  Treatise  on  Architecture  "  ("  De  Re  /Edi- 
ficatoria,"  1485)  and  treatises  on  painting  (1540)  and 
sculpture.    Died  in  1472. 

See  G.  B.  Niccolini,  "  Elogio  di  L.  B.  Alberti,"  1819 ;  Milizia, 
"Vite  degli  Architetti  ;"  Tiraboschi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura 
Italiana;"  Quatremere  de  Quincv,  "Histoiredes  phjs  celebres 
Architectes." 

Alberti  (ai-b§R'tee)  or  Albert,  (Michael,)  a  learned 
German  physician  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Nu- 
remberg in  1682.  In  1716  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  medicine,  and  in  1719  professor  of  philosophy,  in  the 
University  of  Halle.    Died  in  17^7. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Si^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ALBERT  I 


74 


JLBINI 


Alberti,  (Romano,)  an  Italian  painter  and  writer  on 
art,  born  at  Borgo  San  Sepolcro,  lived  about  1600. 

Alberti,  (Salomon,)  an  eminent  German  physician 
and  anatomist,  born  at  Naumburgin  1540,  was  appointed 
professor  of  anatomy  and  philosophy  in  the  University 
of  Wittenberg  in  1576,  and  died  in  1600.  His  writings 
and  discoveries  entitle  him  to  a  high  rank  among  mod- 
ern anatomists. 

Alberti,  (Valentin,)  a  German  theologian,  born  in 
Silesia  in  1635,  became  professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic. 
He  wrote  many  polemical  works  on  questions  of  theology. 
His  "  Compendium  of  the  Law  of  Nature"  ("Compen- 
dium Juris  Naturae,"  1673)  was  written  in  opposition  to 
a  work  of  Puffendorf ;  it  has  often  been  reprinted.  Died 
ii  1697. 

Alberti  di  Villanova,  ai-b§R'tee  de  v^l-la-no'vl, 
(Francesco,)  an  Italian,  born  at  Nice  in  1731,  known 
as  the  author  of  several  popular  dictionaries.  His  '  Dic- 
tionnaire  Italien-Fran9ais  et  Fran9ais-Ita]ien"  had  a  high 
reputation,  and  has  passed  through  a  number  of  editions. 
Died  in  iSoo. 

Albertinelli,  ll-bgR-te-neKlee,  (Mariotto,)  an  emi- 
nent Florentine  painter,  born  about  1475,  iniitated  and 
equalled  Fra  Bartolommeo.  He  painted  religious  sub- 
jects at  Florence  and  Rome.  "  The  Visitation  of  Eliza- 
beth to  the  Virgin  "  is  his  master-piece.  Innocenzio  da 
Imola  was  his  pupil.    Died  about  1520. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Albertini,  ai-bSR-tee'nee,  or  Alberti,  dl-b§R'tee, 
(Annibale,)  an  Italian  medical  writer,  lived  about  1600, 
and  wrote  "  On  Diseases  of  the  Heart,"  ("  De  Affec- 
tionibus  Cordis,"  1618.) 

Albertini,  [Lat.  Alberti'nus,]  (Francesco,)  an  Ital- 
ian priest  and  antiquary,  born  at  Florence  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  His  chief  work  is  one  on  the  Antiquities  of 
Rome,  entitled  "  On  the  Wonders  of  Ancient  and 
Modern  Rome,"  ("  De  Mirabilibus  novae  et  veteris  Urbis 
Romas,"  1505.) 

Albertini,  (Giorgio  Francesco,)  an  Italian  theologi- 
cal writer,  born  in  Istria  in  1732.  He  became  professor 
of  theology  in  the  University  of  Padua.    Died  in  1810. 

Albertini,  (Ippolito  Francesco,)  an  eminent  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Crevalcore  in  1662.  He  studied  under 
Malpighi,  whom  he  succeeded  as  professor  of  medicine 
in  the  University  of  Bologna.  Died  in  1738,  leaving  a 
valuable  essay  on  diseases  of  the  heart. 

Albertini,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  priest,  writer,  and  po- 
litical agent,  born  at  Venice  about  1430.    Died  in  1475. 

Albertini,  von,  fon  S.l-b§R-tee'nee,  (Joiiann  Bap- 
tist,) an  eminent  Moravian  minister,  born  at  Neuwied, 
on  the  Rhine,  in  Germany,  in  1769.  He  wrote  hymns 
which  display  much  poetical  talent.  He  was  a  man  of 
extensive  acquirements  and  most  estimable  character. 
His  sermons  are  remarkable  for  beautiful  simplicity  of 
style.  He  was  made  a  bishop  in  1814.  Died  near  Herrn- 
hut  in  1 83 1. 

Al-ber-ti'nus,  (^gid'ius,)  a  German  satirist,  born 
at  Deventer,  in  Holland,  in  1560;  died  in  1620.  He  is 
remarkable  for  having  written  in  the  German  tongue  at 
a  time  when  Latin  was  almost  universally  employed  by 
the  learned  men  of  Germany.  His  works  were  very 
popular  in  his  time. 

AlbertoUi,  ai-beR-toKlee,  (Ferdinando,)  an  Italian 
architect,  was  a  nephew  of  Giocondo,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded at  the  Academy  of  Milan.    Died  in  1846. 

AlbertoUi,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  architect,  born  in 
1 76 1,  became  professor  of  civil  architecture  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Padua.    Died  in  1805. 

AlbertoUi,  (Giocondo,)  a  distinguished  Italian  archi- 
tect, born  in  1742,  was  appointed  professor  of  decorative 
architecture  at  Milan  about  1775.    Died  in  1840. 

Albertrandy,  ai-bSR-tR^nMe,  (John  Christian,)  an 
eminent  Polish  historian,  linguist,  and  numismatist,  born 
at  Warsaw  in  1731.  He  became  librarian  to  King  Stan- 
islaus, who  appointed  him  Bishop  of  Zenopolis.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Roman  Antiquities  explained  by  Medals," 
(3  vols.,  1805-08,)  and  a  "  History  of  Poland  during  the 
Last  Three  Centuries."    Died  in  1808. 

Albertsen,  aKb§Rt-sen,  (Hamilton  Hendrik,)  a 
Danish  writer  of  Latin  poetry,  born  at  Copenhagen  in 
1592.    Died  in  Egypt  about  1630. 


Albertucci  de'  Borselli,  Sl-beR-toot'chee  di  boK- 
seKlee,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  preacher  and  chronicler, 
born  at  Bologna  about  1432.    Died  in  1497. 

Albertus,  Sl-beR^tiis,  a  German  painter  and  engraver, 
born  in  Saxony.    Died  about  1680. 

Alber'tus  Mag'nus,  [Fr.  Albert  le  GRAND,trbaiR' 
leh  gR6N,]  [i.e.  "Albert  tRe  Great,")  a  celebrated  school- 
man and  philosopher,  born  at  Lauingen,  in  Bavaria, 
about  1200,  was  sometimes  called  Albert  de  Boll- 
stadt  (boKstat)  and  Alber'tus  Gro'tus.  He  occupies 
the  first  rank  among  the  philosophers  and  theologians  of 
the  middle  ages.  He  became  a  Dominican  friar  in  his 
youth,  and,  after  lecturing  on  theology  for  three  years  at 
Paris,  was  chosen  provincial  of  his  order  in  1254.  During 
a  long  period  he  gave  public  lectures  at  Cologne.  He 
was  appointed  Bishop  of  Ratisbon  in  1260,  but  about 
1263  he  resigned  that  office,  which  he  had  never  soli- 
cited. He  died  in  1280.  As  a  man,  he  was  remarkable 
for  an  enthusiastic  love  of  knowledge,  for  modesty,  and 
for  a  noble  and  disinterested  spirit.  He  left  a  great  num- 
ber of  works,  which  treat  of  logic,  theology,  physics,  and 
metaphysics.    Thomas  Aquinas  was  his  disciple. 

See  RuDOLPHUS  Noviomagensis,  "De  Vita  Alberti  Magni," 
1499  ;  Raffaele  Badi,  "  Ristretto  della  prodigiosa  Vita  del  Alberto 
iMagno,"  1680-S8;  Petrijs  DE  Prussia,  "Vita  Alberti  Magni;" 
Echard,  "  Scriptures  Ordinis  Prsedicatorum  ;"  Gauslinus,  "  Synop- 
sis Vitas  Alberti  Magni,"  1630;  Ludwig  Choulant,  "Albertus 
Magnus." 

Al-ber'tus  Sta-den'sis,  an  abbot  of  Stade,  Hanover, 
in  the  thirteenth  century,  known  as  the  author  of  the 
"Chronicon  Alberti,"  [i.e.  "Chronicle  of  Albertus,") 
containing  an  account  of  many  events  which  occurred  in 
the  north  of  Germany  in  the  middle  ages  down  to  1256. 

Alberus.    See  Alber. 

Albi,  tKbe',  (Henri,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  in  Prov- 
ence in  1590.  He  wrote  biographical  notices  of  several 
religious  persons.    Died  in  1659. 

Albicante,  ll-be-kan'tk,  (Giovanni  Alberto,)  a 
mediocre  Milanese  poet,  who  flourished  about  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Al-bi'cus,  (SiGiSMUNDus,)  or  Albicus  of  Prague, 
called  also  AFbic  orAlbik  and  Albicius,  al-bish'e-us, 
a  distinguished  physician,  born  in  Moravia  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  fourteenth  century.  He  taught  medicine  at 
Prague  for  many  years,  and  was  physician  to  Wences- 
laus  IV.,  King  of  Bohemia,  by  whom  in  1409  he  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Prague.  He  held  this  office  only 
about  four  years.    Died  in  1427. 

Albignac,  d',  dtrb^n'ytk',  (Louis  Alexandre,) 
Baron,  a  French  military  officer,  born  in  Gascony  in 
1739.  He  served  in  Hindostan  previous  to  the  peace 
of  1783,  and  afterwards  commanded  the  tenth  division 
under  the  French  Directory.  He  retired  from  service 
in  1798,  and  died  in  1820. 

Albignac,  d',  (Philippe  Franqois  Maurice,) 
Count,  a  French  royalist  general,  born  at  Milhaud  in 
1775  ;  died  in  1824. 

Albin,  auKbin,  (Eleazar,)  an  English  artist  and 
painter  in  water-colours,  published  in  173 1  a  "Natural 
History  of  Birds,"  with  205  fine  coloured  plates  ;  also 
a  work  on  English  Insects,  in  Latin,  (173 1,)  and  the 
same  in  English  in  1749,  with  100  copper-plates,  coloured. 
The  figures  were  correctly  drawn  from  the  life  by  him- 
self. 

Albina,  Sl-bee'nl,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter, 
sculptor,  and  architect,  lived  at  Palermo,  and  died  in 
161 1. 

Albini,  §.l-bee'nee,  (Alessandro,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1568,  was  a  pupil 
and  coadjutor  of  the  Caracci.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"  Prometheus  bringing  Fire  from  Heaven."  Died  in  1646. 

Albini,  3,1-bee'nee,  (Franz  Joseph,)  a  distinguished 
German  lawyer  and  statesman,  born  at  Saint  Goar,  in 
Rhenish  Prussia,  in  1748.  His  great  fame  as  a  jurist 
introduced  him  to  the  notice  of  the  emperor  Joseph  II., 
who  conceived  a  warm  affection  for  him  and  gave  him  a 
place  in  the  imperial  cabinet.  After  the  death  of  the 
emperor,  in  1 790,  Albini  was  invited  to  the  court  of  the 
Elector  of  Mentz,  (Mayence,)  and  soon  after  was  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  government.  From  1 792  to  the  death 
of  the  elector  in  1802,  his  prince  allowed  him  to  manage 
everything ;  and  he  proved  himself  worthy  of  the  trust 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscin-e;  far,  f^ll,  fit;  m?t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ALBINI 


75 


ALB  ON  I 


He  not  only  showed  distinguished  ability  in  the  manage- 
ment of  all  civil  affairs,  but  also  on  a  number  of  occasions 
evinced  military  talents  of  a  high  order.    Died  in  1816. 

Albini,  de,  da  al-bee'nee,  (William,)  Earl  of  Arun- 
del, the  son  of  a  Norman  baron  who  followed  William 
the  Conqueror  to  England.  He  married  Adelais,  queen- 
dowager  of  Henry  I.,  by  whom  he  obtained  the  castle  of 
Arundel  and  other  estates.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
those  troublous  times,  and  died  in  11 76,  during  the  reign 
of  Henry  II. 

Albino,  al-bee'no,  (Giovanni,)  [Lat,  Joan'nes  Al- 
bi'nus,]  a  Neapolitan  statesman  and  historian,  who  lived 
towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  was  a 
counsellor  to  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  who  appears  to  have 
consulted  him  in  military  as  well  as  in  civil  affairs.  He 
wrote  a  history  of  the  events  of  his  own  time. 

Al-bi-no-va'nus,  (Caius  Pedo,)  a  Latin  poet  of  the 
Augustan  age,  was  a  friend  of  Ovid,  who  addressed  to 
him  one  of  his  "  Epistolas  ex  Ponto,"  ("  Letters  from 
Pontus.")  He  is  said  to  have  excelled  in  epic  poetry, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  written  an  epic  poem  on  the 
exploits  of  Germanicus,  which  is  lost.  There  is  extant 
a  beautiful  elegy  on  the  death  of  Drusus,  which  is  as- 
cribed to  Albinovanus. 

Al-bi'nus,  [Gr.  'A/SiVof,]  a  Platonic  philosopher,  who 
lived  at  Smyrna  about  150  A.D.,  was  one  of  the  teachers 
of  Galen.  He  wrote  an  "  Introduction  to  the  Dialogues 
of  Plato,"  which  is  extant. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grseca." 

Albi'nus,  a  Roman  procurator  of  Judea  in  the  time 
of  Nero.    He  succeeded  Portius  Festus. 

Al-bi'nus,  [Ger.  pron.  al-bee'niis,]  (Adrian,)  a  Ger- 
man professor  of  law,  born  at  Lauban  in  15 13,  was  a 
friend  of  Luther.    Died  in  1590. 

Albinus,  (Bernard,)  a  German  physician,  born  at 
Dessau  in  1653,  was  appointed  professor  of  medicine  in 
the  University  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  in  1681,  and 
in  1702  to  the  chair  of  anatomy  at  Leyden,   Died  in  172 1. 

Albinus,  (Bernard  Siegfried,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man anatomist  and  physician,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  in  1696  or  1697.  He  was 
educated  at  Leyden,  and  on  the  death  of  his  father  in 
1 72 1  was  unanimously  chosen  professor  of  anatomy  and 
surgery  in  the  university.  In  1745  he  became  professor 
of  therapeutics,  and  held  this  office  till  his  death  in  1770. 
As  an  anatomist  he  was  distinguished  for  the  accuracy 
of  his  observations  and  the  clearness  and  fulness  of  his 
descriptions.  Almost  all  his  works  are  on  anatomy.  His 
excellent  "  History  of  the  Muscles  of  Man"  ("  Historia 
Musculorum  Hominis,"  1734)  is  highly  praised  by  Haller. 

See  BoERHAAVE,  "Oialio  de  Vita  et  Obitu  B.  Albini,"  1721 ; 
Haller,  "Bibliotheca  Anatoinica." 

Albinus,  (Christian  Bernard,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  near  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Utrecht, 
where  he  died  in  1752. 

Al-bi'nus,  (Clodius,)  a  native  of  Adrumetum,  in 
Africa,  became  Roman  governor  of  Gaul  about  180 
A.D.,  and  defeated  the  Frisian  tribes  beyond  the  Rhine. 
Prompted  by  jealousy,  the  emperor  Severus  endeavoured 
to  remove  him  by  assassination  ;  but,  this  proving  unsuc- 
cessful, the  two  leaders  met  in  battle  near  Lyons.  Al- 
binus was  defeated  and  slain  in  197.  He  appears  to  have 
been  at  one  time  associated  with  Severus  in  the  empire ; 
at  all  events,  he  reigned  three  years  in  Gaul  and  Britain, 
with  the  title  of  Caesar. 

Albinus  Flaccus.    See  Alcuin. 

Albinus,  (Friedrich  Bernard,)  born  at  Leyden  in 
171 5,  was  a  brother  of  Bernard  Siegfried,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded as  professor  of  anatomy  in  1745.  His  chief  work 
is  a  physiological  treatise  "  On  the  Nature  of  Man," 
("De  Natura  Hominis,"  1775.)    Died  in  1778. 

Albinus,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  poet,  born  at 
Naumburg,  was  a  son  of  an  inferior  poet  of  the  same 
name,  (1624-79.)  The  son  wrote  in  German  a  number 
of  popular  idyls  and  hymns,  a  volume  of  which  was  pub- 
lished in  1686.    He  was  living  in  1714. 

See  J.  B.  LiEBLER,  "  Nachrichten  von  J.  G.  Albinus  Leben," 
1728. 

Albinus,  (or  Weiss,  <vTss,)  (Petrus,  or  Peter,)  a 
learned  German  writer  and  historian,  who  was  born  in 


'  Saxony  and  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury.   Died  at  Dresden  in  1598. 

AFbi-on,  [Gr.  'AKUcdv  or  ' A.1e6'hj)v ,'\  a  fabulous  giant, 
regarded  as  a  son  of  Neptune.  Lie  and  his  brother 
Bergion  attacked  Hercules  near  the  Rhone,  and  were 
killed  by  that  hero. 

Albisson,  tKbe^soN',  (Jean,)  a  French  lawyer  and 
politician,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1732,  was  made  tribune 
in  1802.  He  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  several  por- 
tions of  Napoleon's  celebrated  Code.    Died  in  1810. 

Albitte,  trbfet',  (Antoine  Louis,)  a  French  Jacobin, 
member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1 791,  distin- 
guished for  his  violence  and  cruelty.  He  was  a  leader 
of  the  desperate  revolt  of  May  20,  1795,  against  the 
Convention.  For  this  he  was  condemned  to  death,  but 
succeeded  in  concealing  himself  till  the  danger  was  over. 
He  perished  in  the  retreat  froin  Russia  in  181 2,  after 
he  had  served  some  years  as  sub-inspector  of  reviews. 

Albizzi,  Sl-bif'see  or  al-bet'see,  a  Florentine  family 
which  occupies  a  considerable  place  in  the  history  of 
Florence  during  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 
The  most  worthy  of  notice  are  Pietro,  Rinaldo,  and 
ToMMASO  Albizzi,  noticed  below, 

Albizzi,  [Lat.  Albicius,  ai-bish'e-us,]  (Bartolom- 
meo,)  an  Italian  friar,  born  in  Tuscany,  was  the  author 
of  a  work  called  "Conformities  of  the  Life  of  Saint 
Francis  with  that  of  Jesus  Christ."  Erasmus  Alber  pub- 
lished in  1542  a  refutation  of  this  work,  entitled  "The 
Barefooted  Monk's  Jester  and  Alcoran,"  with  a  preface 
by  Luther.  Diedini40i, 

Albizzi,  (Pietro,)  the  leader  of  the  Guelph  party  at 
Florence,  was  put  to  death  in  1379  by  the  Ghibelines. 

Albizzi,  (Rinaldo,)  a  son  of  Tommaso,  noticed  be- 
low, born  towards  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
He  became  involved  in  an  unsuccessful  contest  with  the 
family  of  the  Medici,  and  died  in  exile  at  Ancona  in  1452. 

Albizzi,  (Tommaso,)  born  in  1347,  was  a  nephew  of 
Pietro  and  father  of  Rinaldo.  He  was  chief  magistrate 
of  the  republic  from  1382  to  1417,  which  is  accounted 
the  most  glorious  period  in  the  history  of  Florence. 
Died  in  141 7. 

Albo,  aKbo,  (Joseph,  or  Jos^:,)  an  eminent  Spanish 
rabbi,  born  at  Soria  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  He  wrote  a  very  able  work  in  defence  of  his 
religion,  entitled  "The  Foundations  of  the  Jewish 
Faith."    Died  in  1428. 

APboin,  [Lat.  Alboi'nus,]  the  son  of  Alduin,  be- 
came King  of  the  Longobards  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
about  553.  Alduin  had  defeated  the  Gepidas,  who  occu- 
pied the  countries  corresponding  with  the  modern  prov- 
inces of  Slavonia  and  Servia.  Alboin  nearly  extermin- 
ated that  nation,  killed  Cunimund,  their  king,  and  com- 
pelled his  daughter  Rosamund  to  become  his  wife.  He 
next  (about  570)  turned  his  arms  against  the  northern 
provinces  of  Italy,  and,  conquering  everything  in  his 
course,  excepting  Mantua  and  Padua,  advanced  as  far  as 
Spoletum,  (or  Spoleto.)  In  573,  Alboin,  after  drinking 
deeply  at  a  banquet  at  Verona,  ordered  a  cup,  which  he 
had  made  out  of  the  skull  of  Cunimund,  to  be  brought, 
and  invited  his  wife  Rosamund  to  drink  out  of  it.  This 
outrage  roused  her  to  deadly  vengeance.  She  conspired 
with  two  of  his  officers,  and  they  killed  the  king  when 
he  Avas  sunk  in  his  afternoon  sleep. 

See  Gibbon,  "History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire," chap.  xlv. ;  Mukatori,  "Annali  d'ltalia." 

Albon,  (Jacques.)    See  Saint-Andr^:. 

Alb  on,  d',  dtrboN',  (Claude  Camille  FRANgois,) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Lyons  in  1753.  He  wrote 
a  discourse  on  the  "  History,  Government,  Arts,  etc.  of 
some  Nations  of  Europe,"  (4  vols.)    Died  in  1788. 

Alboni,  Sl-bo'nee,  (Marietta,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
singer,  born  at  Cesena  in  1824,  was  a  pupil  of  Rossini. 
She  made  her  debut  at  Milan  in  1 841,  with  a  success 
which  was  repeated,  or  surpassed,  at  Vienna  and  Saint 
Petersburg.  In  1847  her  performances  excited  great 
enthusiasm  in  London  and  Paris,  and  a  few  years  later 
she  visited  the  United  States.  Her  voice  is  a  contralto 
of  great  purity,  compass,  and  flexibility.  "  There  never 
existed  a  voice  more  bewitching,"  says  M.  Bousquet, 
"  whose  tone  was  more  limpid  and  sweet,  whose  sono< 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  y., guttural ;  n,  7tasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^^^  See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


JLBONI 


76 


ALBVTIUS 


rousness  was  more  homogeneous  in  its  different  regis- 
ters."   She  was  married  to  the  Marquis  de  Pepoli. 
See  "Nouvelle  Blographie  Generale." 

Alboni,  (Paolo,)  a  distinguished  landscape-painter 
of  Bologna.  He  worked  in  Vienna  from  171010  1722, 
and  afterwards  at  Bologna.    Died  in  1730. 

Al-Borak  or  Al-Burak.    See  Borak. 

Alboresi,  al-bo-ra'see,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  architecture,  born  at  Bologna  in  1632.  He  painted 
(with  M.  Pasio)  the  west  fajade  of  the  cathedral  ot 
Florence.    Died  in  1677. 

Albomotius.    See  Albornoz,  (Gil  Alvarez  Ca- 

RILLO  DE.) 

Albornoz,  al-boR-n6th',  (Diego  Felipe,)  a  Spanish 
historian,  lived  about  1650,  and  published  "  Castilla  Po- 
litica  y  Cristiana,"  1666.) 

Albornoz,  de,  daal-boR-noth',  [Lat.  Alborno'tius,] 
(Gil  Alvarez  Carillo,)  or  simply  -SEIgidius  de  Al- 
bornoz, a  noble  Spaniard,  born  at  Cuenca  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fourteenth  century.  He  was  chaplain  and 
counsellor  to  Alfonso  XI.  of  Castile,  who  raised  him  to 
the  archbishopric  of  Toledo.  After  the  accession  of 
Pedro  the  Cruel  to  the  throne,  Albornoz,  having  incurred 
his  displeasure,  fled  to  Avignon  to  Pope  Clement  VI., 
by  whom  he  was  made  cardinal.  Innocent  VI.,  Qem- 
ent's  successor,  subsequently  appointed  him  his  legate, 
in  which  capacity  Albornoz  showed  great  wisdom  as 
well  as  military  skill,  and  in  a  few  years  recovered  a 
multitude  of  Italian  towns  which  had  become  disaffected 
or  openly  rebellious  to  the  Papal  see.    He  died  in  1367. 

See  MuRATORi,  "  Annali  d'ltalia  ;"  Stephano,  "  Vita  del  Cardi- 
nale  Albornoz;"  Sepulveda,  "DeVitaet  Rebus  gestis  G.  Albor- 
notii." 

Albosius,  41-bo'she-us,  or  Aiilebout,  trboo'  or 
t^ye-boo',  (Jean,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Autun, 
published  in  1587  a  description  of  a  remarkable  mon- 
strosity, (a  petrified  embryo,)  entitled  "  Portentosum 
LithopDsdium  sive  Embryon  petrifactum." 

Albrand,  tKbR6N^  (Fortune,)  a  French  Orientalist, 
born  about  1795,  planted  a  colony  in  Madagascar.  Died 
in  1827. 

Albrecht  of  Austria.    See  Albert. 

Albreclit  of  Bavaria.    See  Albert. 

Albreclit  of  Mecklenburg.    See  Albert. 

Albreclit,  (Achilles.)    See  Albert. 

Albreclit,  aKbR^Kt,  (Balthasar  Augustin,)  a  Ger- 
man painter,  born  at  Berg,  near  Munich,  in  1687.  Died 
at  Munich  in  1765. 

Albrecht,  (Johann  Lorenz,)  a  German  musician 
and  composer,  born  near  MUhlhausen  in  1732.  Died  in 
1773- 

Albrecht,  (Johann  Sebastian,)  a  German  naturalist 
and  writer,  born  in  1695,  lived  at  Coburg. 

Albrecht,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Erfurt  in  1703,  became  professor  of  medicine  in 
his  native  town  in  1729,  and  professor  of  anatomy,  sur- 
gery, and  botany  in  the  University  of  Gottingen  in  1734. 
Died  in  1736. 

Albrecht,  (Sophie,)  a  German  poetess,  born  in  1757 
at  Erfurt,  where  her  father,  J.  P.  Baumer,  was  professor 
of  medicine  and  philosophy.  She  was  married  at  the 
age  of  fourteen,  and  died  in  1837.  Her  poems  are  lyric 
and  dramatic  ;  they  display  deep  feeling  and  considera- 
ble poetic  power. 

Albrecht,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  agriculturist,  born 
in  1786,  was  a  pupil  of  Thaer.  In  1820  he  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  an  experimental  school  of  agriculture 
founded  at  Idstein  in  Nassau,  and  afterwards  removed  to 
Geisberg  near  Wiesbaden.  He  wrote,  or  edited,  "  The 
Annals  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Nassau,"  (15  vols.,) 
and  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  teacher.    Died  in  1848. 

Albrecht,  (Wilhelm  Eduard,)  a  German  legist, 
born  at  Elbing  in  1800,  was  professor  of  German  law  at 
Gottingen  from  1829  to  1837.  He  became  professor  of 
law  at  Leipsic  in  1840. 

Albrechtsberger,  ai'bRCKts-bgRG'er,  (Johann 
Georg,)  a  distinguished  German  musician,  born  near 
Vienna  in  1736;  died  in  1809.  The  celebrated  Bee- 
thoven was  one  of  his  pupils. 

Albret,  ai'bRa^  (Ciiarlfs  of,)  [Fr.  Charles  d'Al- 
bret,  shtRl  dlKbRa',]  a  cousin-german  of  Charles  VI., 


appointed  Constable  of  France  in  1402.  He  commandej 
the  French  army  at  the  disastrous  battle  of  Agincourt 
in  which  he  was  defeated  and  slain,  in  141 5. 

Albret,  (Henry  of.)  See  Henry  II.  of  Na- 
varre. 

Albret,  (Jeanne  of.)    See  Jeanne  of  Navarre. 

Albrici,  al-bRce'chec,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  com- 
poser and  organist,  who  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  He  spent  some  time  at  the 
court  of  Christina,  Queen  of  Sweden. 

Albrion,  de,  da  al-bRe-5n',  (Domingo,)  a  Spanish 
sculptor,  lived  between  1550  and  1600.  His  works  are 
praised  by  Ponz. 

Albrizzi.    See  Albericl 

Albrizzi,  Sl-bRit'see  or  Il-bRit'see,  (Isabella  Teo- 
toki — ta-o-to'kee,)  a  daughter  of  Count  Teotoki,  was 
born  at  Corfu  about  1770.  She  was  married  to  a  Vene- 
tian nobleman ;  and  her  house  in  V enice  became  a  place 
of  resort  for  persons  of  distinction,  both  natives  and 
foreigners.  She  was  distinguished  for  her  learning,  wit, 
and  taste,  and  not  less  for  her  domestic  virtues.  She 
wrote  several  works  of  merit.    Died  in  1835. 

Albucasis.    See  Aboo-l-Kasim. 

Albufera,  Duke  of.    See  Suchet. 

Albumazar,  al-boo-ma'zar,  (a  corruption  of  Aboo- 
Mashar,)  a  celebrated  Arabian  astronomer,  born  at 
Bulkh  (or  Balkh)  about  780  A.D.  He  died  in  885,  aged 
above  one  hundred  years. 

Albuquerque,  de,  da  ai-boo-kCR'ka  or  aKboo-kgRk', 
(Alfonso,)  [Port.  Affonso  d'Alboquerque,  ^f-fon'so 
dal-bo-keR^ka,]  surnamed  the  Great,  and  the  Portu- 
guese Mars,  a  famous  Portuguese  commander,  was 
born  of  a  branch  of  the  royal  family,  near  Alhandra,  in 
1453.  He  commanded  a  squadron  in  the  fleet  which 
in  1506  was  sent  to  India  under  Tristan  da  Cunha,  and 
carried  a  secret  commission  by  virtue  of  which  he  should 
supersede  Francisco  de  Almeida  as  governor  or  viceroy 
of  the  Indies.  On  his  way  he  took  Ormuz,  then  a  great 
emporium ;  but  he  was  soon  forced  to  evacuate  that 
place,  in  consequence  of  the  defection  or  insubordination 
of  some  officers  of  his  squadron.  He  arrived  in  India 
in  1508.  In  1 5 10  he  captured  the  rich  city  of  Goa,  and 
in  15 II  performed  a  brilliant  exploit  in  the  conquest  of 
Malacca.  He  entered  the  Red  Sea  in  15 13  with  the 
first  European  fleet  that  ever  navigated  its  waters,  and 
afterwards  obtained  permanent  possession  of  Ormuz. 
He  raised  the  affairs  of  the  Portuguese  in  India  to  the 
highest  state  of  prosperity.  Having,  however,  been  su- 
perseded in  the  government  of  India,  he  died  near  Goa 
in  15 15.  (See  Almeida.)  His  son  wrote  a  history  of 
his  campaigns,  entitled  "Comentarios  do  grande  Affonso 
d'Alboquerque,"  Lisbon,  1557. 

See,  also,  A.  Thevet,  "Viedes  Hommes  illustres;"  Lafitau, 
"  Histoire  des  Descouvertes,  etc.  des  Porlugais;"  Barros,  "De- 
cada  Segunda;"  Faria  y  Souza,  "Asia  Portugueza;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Albuquerque,  de,  (Bras  Affonso,)  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Alhandra  in  1500.  He  obtained 
command  of  a  ship  of  war,  and  was  afterwards  "  Veedor" 
or  manager  of  the  royal  patrimony.  He  was  noted  for  his 
integrity.  He  wrote  a  narrative  of  his  father's  exploits, 
(1557.)    Died  in  1580. 

Albuquerque,  de,  (Duarte  Coelho,  doo-aR  ti  ko- 
gl'yo,)  Marquis  of  Basto,  served  as  a  general  in  the 
war  agamst  the  Dutch  in  Brazil,  1620-39,  and  wrote  an 
account  of  that  war,  (1654.)    Died  at  Madrid  in  1658. 

Albuquerque,de,  dail-boo-kSR^va,  (Juan  Alfonso,) 
the  tutor,  and  afterwards  minister  and  favourite,  of  Pedro 
the  Cruel,  of  Castile,  was  the  unprincipled  agent  of  that 
monarch's  perfidy  and  cruelty ;  but,  having  at  last  in- 
curred his  displeasure,  he  was  banished  from  court. 
Died  in  1354. 

Albuquerque,  de,  (Mateo,)  a  Portuguese  general, 
who  was  appointed,  in  1628,  governor  of  the  province 
of  Pernamljuco,  which  he  defended  against  the  Dutch. 
He  was  recalled  to  Portugal  in  1635,  after  which  he 
commanded  a  division  in  the  war  against  the  Spaniards, 
and  gained  an  important  victory  at  Campo  Mayor  in 
1644.    Died  in  1646. 

See  Southey's  "History  of  Brazil." 

Albutius,  il-bu'she-us,  (Caius  Silas,)  a  Roman  ora- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;     h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  sJioTt;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ALBVTIUS 


77 


ALCIBIADES 


tor,  born  in  Cisalpine  Gaul.  He  lived  in  the  time  of  the 
emperor  Augustus. 

Albutius  or  Albuciiis,  (Titus,)  a  Roman,  who  lived 
about  ICO  B.C.,  distinguished  by  his  devotion  to  the  doc- 
trines ot  Epicurus. 

Alca9oba,  al-ka-so'ba,  or  Alcazova,  a  Portuguese 
navigator  in  the  service  of  Charles  V.  of  Germany.  He 
was  murdered  in  a  mutiny  in  1535. 

Al-ca-di'nus  or  Alcadino,  Sl-ki-dee^no,  a  Syra- 
cusan  physician,  who  attended  the  emperors  Henry  VI. 
and  Frederick  H.  He  lived  about  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century. 

Alcceus,  al-see'us,  [Gr.  'klKoLoq;  Fr.  Alcee,  SKsa',]  a 
celebrated  Greek  lyric  poet,  a  native  of  Mitylene,  in  Les- 
bos, flourished  about  600  B.C.  He  wrote  in  the  ^olic 
dialect,  and  is  said  to  have  invented  the  metre  called  Al- 
caic. His  odes  were  characterized  by  strong  passion  and 
enthusiasm;  they  were  admired  and  imitated  by  Horace. 
Among  the  nine  lyric  poets  of  the  Alexandrian  canon, 
Alcasus  occupied  the  second*  or,  according  to  some  wri- 
ters, the  first  place.  Quintilian  expressed  the  opinion  that 
he  was  often  equal  to  Homer.  Nothing  remains  of  his 
productions  except  a  number  of  small  fragments.  Some 
of  his  poems  were  addressed  to  Sappho,  his  contempo- 
rary. In  the  contest  between  the  nobles  and  the  people 
of  Lesbos,  he  fought  and  wrote  for  the  former. 

See  Bode,  "  Geschichte  derlyrischen  Dichtkiinst  der  Hellenen,"  and 
"Alkaios,"  in  Ersch  und  Gruber's  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Alceeus,  a  comic  poet,  a  native  of  Mitylene,  contended 
in  388  B.C.  with  Aristophanes  for  the  prize  which  the  lat- 
ter gained  by  his  "  Plutus." 

AlCceus  OF  Messene,  author  of  a  number  of  epigrams 
in  the  Greek  Anthology,  lived  al)out  210  B.C.  He  wrote 
epigrams  against  Philip  HI.  of  Macedonia. 

Alcaforada,al-ka-fo-r^Ma,  (Marianna,)  a  Portuguese 
nun,  who,  about  1662,  conceived  a  passion  for  a  French 
marquis  (De  Chamilly)  who  is  noticed  in  this  work.  Her 
letters  to  him  were  published  in  a  French  version,  ("Let- 
tres  Portugaises,"  1669,)  and  were  much  admired.  He 
did  not  return  her  affection,  and  appears  to  have  published 
them  to  gratify  his  vanity. 

Alcaforado,  al-ka-fo-ra'do,  (Francisco,)  a  Portu- 
guese who  took  part  in  the  expedition  which  discovered 
Madeira  in  1420  and  wrote  a  narrative  of  the  discovery. 

Alcala,  al-ka-ld',  (Don  Parafan  de  Rivera — pA- 
ra-fdn''  da  re-va'rd,)  Duke  of,  born  in  1508,  was  Viceroy 
of  Naples  under  Philip  II.    Died  in  1571. 

Alcala  y  Herrera,  de,  di  al-kd-la'  e  er-ra'ra,  (Al- 
fonso,) a  Spanish  poet  and  novelist,  who  lived  in  the 
early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  wrote  a  novel 
called  "The  Two  Suns  of  Toledo,"  (1641,)  in  which  the 
letter  a  was  not  used. 

Al-cam'e-nes,  [Gr.  'AlnanEvn^ ;  Fr.  Alcamene,  tK- 
kt'min',]  one  of  the  most  distinguished  sculptors  of 
antiquity,  was  a  native  of  Athens,  and  flourished  in  the 
fifth  century  B.C.  According  to  Pausanias,  he  was  living 
in  400  B.C.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Phidias.  His  most  cele- 
brated work  was  a  statue  of  Venus,  (now  lost,)  known  as 
'*  Venus  of  the  Gardens."  He  is  considered  to  have  been 
second  to  no  Greek  sculptor  of  his  age  except  Phidias. 

Alcamo,  d',  dSKkS-mo,  (Ciullo,)  a  Sicilian,  who  lived 
near  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century  ;  supposed  to  be  the 
earliest  writer  of  Italian  poetrv. 

Alcantara,  de,  di  al-kdn4a-ra,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish 
architect,  employed  by  Philip  II.    Died  in  1587. 

Alcantara,  de,  (San  Pedro,)  a  Spanish  zealot,  who 
founded  a  monastic  order  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He 
was  born  at  Alcantara  in  1499.  Died  in  1562.  His  peni- 
tential austerities  were  almost  incredible.  For  nearly 
forty  years,  it  is  said,  his  daily  allowance  of  sleep  was 
less  than  two  hours. 

Al-cath'o-us,  a  son  of  Pelops,  married  the  daughter 
of  the  King  of  Megara,  and  afterwards  became  himself 
king  of  that  city. 

Alcazar  or  Alcazar,  al-kd'thaR  or  dl-kS'sar,  (An- 
dres,) an  eminent  Spanish  surgeon,  who  lived  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Pie  was  professor 
of  surgery  in  the  University  of  Salamanca.  His  most 
important  work  was  a  treatise  on  syphilis. 


*  The  FIRST  place  being  accorded  to  Alcman,  (which  see."> 


Alcazar,  de,  da  al-kd'thaR,  (Baltazar,)  a  Spanish 
poet,  who  lived  at  Seville  about  1600.  He  composed 
many  "  redondillas,"  and  was  highly  commended  by  Cer- 
vantes in  his  "Canto  de  Caliope." 

See  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Alcazar,  de,  written  also  Alcasar,  (Luis,)  a  Span- 
ish Jesuit,  born  at  Seville  in  1554.  He  wrote  on  the 
Apocalypse.    Died  in  1613. 

Alcazova.    See  Alca^oba. 

Alcedo,  de,  da  dl-sa^'Do,  (Antonio,)  a  native  of 
Spanish  America,  published  at  Madrid  in  1786  a  valu- 
able work  on  the  geography  of  America,  "  Diccionario 
Geografico-historico  de  la?  Jndias  Occidentales  6  Ame- 
rica," (5  vols.)    Scarcely  anything  is  known  of  his  life. 

Alcee.    See  AlC/*;us. 

Al-ges'tis,  [Gr.  'AXKrjGTtg  or  'MneaTi] ;  Fr.  Alceste, 
Srs^st^J  the  daughter  of  Pelias  and  wife  of  Admetus, 
King  of  Thessaly,  is  fabled  to  have  prevented  the  death 
of  her  husband  by  offering  to  die  for  him.  Tradition 
adds  that  she  was  rescued  from  the  realms  of  death  by 
Hercules.  The  story  of  her  heroic  devotion  forms  the 
subject  of  one  of  the  best  tragedies  of  Euripides. 

APge-tas  [Gr.  'Ahiha^\  I.,  King  of  Epirus,  was  an 
ally  of  the  Athenians.    He  reigned  about  375  B.C. 

Al'cetas  II.,  King  of  Epirus,  was  a  grandson  of  Al- 
cetas  I.  He  was  killed  by  his  own  subjects,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Pyrrhus. 

APcetas,  a  brother  of  Perdiccas,  the  favourite  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  After  the  death  of  his  brother, 
321  B.C.,  he  killed  himself,  to  avoid  falling  into  the  hands 
of  Antigonus.    (See  Perdiccas.) 

Alchabitius,  al-ka-bish'e-us,  [Arab.  Abdalazeez 
or  A]n:)ALAZiz,]  an  Arabian  astrologer,  who  lived  at 
Alep]:)o  about  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century. 

Alchfred.    See  Alfred. 

Al-ehin'dus  or  Al-kinMus,  [Arab,  Al-Kin'dee  or 
Alkindi,]  a  noted  Arabian  astrologer,  physician,  and 
writer,  born  about  the  end  of  the  eighth  century.  He 
lived  at  the  court  of  Al-Mamoon,  Caliph  of  Bagdad.  He 
wrote  many  works,  in  one  of  which  he  pretended  to 
explain  the  action  of  medicines  by  the  principles  of 
mathematics  and  music. 

Alciati,  dl-cha'tee,  [Fr.  Alciat,  tl^se-$',]  (Andrea,) 
a  celebrated  lawyer  of  Milan,  born  in  1492.  He  became 
professor  of  law  in  the  University  of  Avignon  in  15 18, 
and  afterwards  filled  the  same  chair  in  Bourgcs,  (1528 
to  1532,)  and  subsequently  in  Bologna,  Pavia,  and  Fer- 
rara.  He  died  at  I'avia  in  1550.  Though  possessed  of 
popular  and  brilliant  talents,  he  was  far  from  being  a 
profound  jurist.  He  left  "  Commentaries  on  the  Digest," 
and  many  other  legal  works. 

"Alciati,"  says  Ilallam,  "was  the  first  who  taught  the 
lawyers  to  write  with  purity  and  elegance.  Erasmus  has 
applied  to  him  the  eulogy  of  Cicero  on  Scaevola,  that  he 
was  the  most  juiisprudent  of  orators  and  the  most  elo- 
quent of  lawyers."  (See  "Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe.") 

See  "Vita  Alciati,"  prefixed  to  his  "Emblemata,"  published  by 
Claude  Mignault  in  1581 ;  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Alciati,  (Francesco,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
and  tutor  to  the  celebrated  Saint  Carlo  Borromeo,  born 
in  1522,  was  made  cardinal  in  1565.    Died  in  1580. 

Alciati,  (Giovanni  Paolo,)  an  Italian  Protestant  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  who  was  accused,  or  at  least 
strongly  suspected,  of  heresy  by  Calvin  and  other  re- 
formers, in  consequence  of  which  he  retired  to  Dantzic, 
where  he  died  about  1570. 

Alciati,  (Terenzio,)  a  learned  Jesuit,  born  at  Rome 
in  1570.  He  taught  divinity  for  seventeen  years  in  the 
Jesuits'  College  at  Rome,  and  wrote  several  works  on 
theology.    Died  in  1651. 

Alcibiades,  i\l-se-bl'a-d^z,  written  also  Alkibi'ades, 
[Gr.  ' AliaSuidi]^ ;  Fr.  Alcibiade,  tl''se^be''td'';  Ger.  Al- 
cibiades, ilt-se-bee'i-d§s,]  a  celebrated  Athenian,  son 
of  Cleinias,  was  born  about  450  B.C.  He  seemed  to 
combine  all  the  gifts  of  nature  and  of  fortune.  He  was 
descended  from  the  noblest  families  and  inherited  one 
of  the  largest  estates  of  Athens.  He  possessed  remark- 
able personal  beauty,  and  an  intellect  of  wonderful 
strength  and  versatility.    The  ward  of  Pericles,  and  the 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  ■  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^  See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ALCIDAMAS 


78 


ALCYONE 


lavourite  pupil  and  companion  of  Socrates,  he  enjoyed 
unequalled  opportunities  for  cultivating  his  talents  to 
the  highest  degree.  Yet  all  these  advantages  were  ren- 
dered futile  or  pernicious  by  his  fickleness  and  want  of 
virtue.  He  was  elected  one  of  the  board  of  generals  in 
419  B.C.,  and  became  the  leader  of  the  democratic  party. 
Through  his  intrigues  and  counsels,  the  Athenians  were 
involved  in  a  war  with  Sparta  and  Syracuse,  414  B.C. 
About  the  time  he  was  to  sail  for  Sicily  with  the  fleet, 
(in  the  command  of  which  Nicias  was  associated  with 
him,)  he  was  accused  of  an  act  of  sacrilege  which  had 
been  recently  committed,  and  was  afterwards  condemned 
in  his  absence.  Upon  this  he  joined  the  enemies  of  his 
country,  and  by  his  counsels  contributed  powerfully, 
though  indirectly,  to  the  destruction  of  the  Athenian 
army  in  Sicily  in  413.  (See  NiciAS.)  Having  quarrelled 
with  the  Spartans,  he  was  recalled  by  the  hckle  popu- 
lace of  Athens  in  411,  and  was  again  intrusted  with  the 
command  of  the  fleet.  Under  his  conduct  the  Athe- 
nians gained  several  signal  victories,  at  Cynossema  and 
Abydos  in  411  B.C.,  at  Cyzicus  in  410;  and  in  the  two 
following  years  they  acquired  Chalcedon  and  Byzan- 
tium. But  subsequently  he  made  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt on  the  island  of  Andros,  and  soon  after  his  lieu- 
tenant in  his  absence  was  defeated  at  Notium,  near 
Ephesus.  He  was  superseded  in  the  command  of  the 
fleet,  and  retired  into  Thrace,  for  he  thought  it  unsafe  to 
return  to  Athens.  After  the  fall  of  Athens  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  rule  of  the  thirty  tyrants,  he  with- 
drew into  Asia,  where  he  was  honourably  received  by  the 
satrap  Pharnabazos.  Not  long  after,  the  house  in  which 
he  slept  was  attacked  at  night  by  a  body  of  men,  who 
set  it  on  fire,  and  when  he  rushed  out,  sword  in  hand, 
dispatched  him  with  darts  and  arrows,  404  B.C.  It  is 
not  known  whether  this  deed  was  done  at  the  instigation 
of  his  public  or  his  private  enemies. 

See  his  life  in  Plutarch  ;  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece,"  vol.  viii. 
chaps.  Ixii.  to  Ixiv.,  also  Ixvi. ;  Thirlwall,  "  Historj' of  Greece;" 
A.  G.  Meissner,  "Alcibiades,"  4vo1s.,  1785-8S  ;  J.  H.  Joanin,  "  His- 
toire  d' Alcibiades,"  1S19;  Hertzberg,  "  Alkibiades  der  Staatsmaun 
und  Feldherr,"  Halle,  1853;  W.  Vischer,  "  Alcibiades  und  Lysau- 
dros,"iS45;  Xenophon,  "  Hellenica  ;"  Thucvdides,  "History." 

Al-gid'a-nias,  ['AAwAi/ia^,]  a  Greek  rhetorician,  who 
lived  about  400  B.C.  He  was  a  native  of  Elsa,  in  Asia 
Minor. 

Alcides.    See  Hercules. 

Al-9iMes,  [Gr.  'AA/c£i(5;/f ;  Fr.  Alcide,  tKs^d',]  a 
name  of  Hercules,  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  Greek  aA/c^,  (alke,)  "strength." 

Al-gim'a-ehus,  ['A?L/a'//tI\;of,]  a  Greek  painter,  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Alcime.    See  Alcimus. 

Al-cim'e-nes,  ['AA/fi//ei^77^-,]  a  Greek  comic  poet,  who 
is  supposed  to  have  lived  at  Athens  about  500  B.C. 

Al'ci-mus,  [Gr.  "Aliunog ;  Fr.  Alciisie,  tl'sem',]  (called 
also  Ja-gi^mus  [Gr.  'laKetiJiog]  or  Jo'a-ehim,)  a  Jewish 
high-priest,  contemporary  with  Judas  Maccaboeus,  He 
apostatized  and  joined  Demetrius. 

See  I.  Maccabees  vii.,  ix. 

AFgi-mus  A-le^thi-us,  a  Latin  writer  and  rhetori- 
cian of  the  fourth  century.  He  lived  in  Burdigala,  (Bor- 
deaux.) 

Al-cin'o-us,  [Gr.  'Midvooq,]  a  king  of  the  Phaeacians, 
whose  beautiful  gardens,  described  by  Homer  in  the 
Odyssey,  have  afforded  a  favourite  thenie  for  other  poets. 
He  reigned  in  the  island  of  Scheria,  (now  Corfu.) 

Alcinous,  a  Greek  philosopher,  who  wrote  an  intro- 
duction to  the  philosophy  of  Plato.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  flourished  in  the  time  of  the  early  Roman  em- 
perors. 

Alcionio,  (Pietro.)    See  Alcyonius. 

Al'91-phron,  ['AA/c%jwv,]  a  Greek  epistolary  writer, 
supposed  to  have  lived  about  200  A.D.  His  works  are 
interesting  as  exhibiting  a  picture  of  the  domestic  life  of 
that  period.  The  number  of  his  letters  is  above  seventy. 
His  language  is  elegant  and  purely  Attic. 

Alcmaeon,  ilk-mee'on,  [Gr.  'Ahi/xatcov ;  Fr.  Alc- 
MEON,  tlk^mVoN',]  a  son  of  Amphiaraus  and  Eriphyle, 
renowned  as  the  leader  of  the  Epigoni  in  their  successful 
expedition  against  Thebes. 

Alcmae'on,  [Gr.  'AXKuaujv,]  a  natural  philosopher, 
native  of  Crotona,  lived  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  and 


was  a  pupil  of  Pythagoras.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  who  dissected  animals  in  order  to  study  anatomy. 

Alcmaeon,  (the  lyric  poet.)    See  Alcman. 

Alcniceonidse,  Alk-me-on'i-de,  [Gr.  ' AXKfiaujv'i6ai,] 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  noble  families  of 
Athens. 

Alcman,  ^Ik'man,  [Gr.  'A7Mfiav,]  called  Alcmse'on 
['A'AKfxcuui']  by  the  later  Greek  WTiters,  the  chief  lyric 
poet  of  Sparta,  flourished  about  650  B.C.  He  was  origin- 
ally a  Lydian  slave,  born  at  Sardis,  and  was  emanci- 
pated in  his  youth  and  nationalized  by  the  Spartans.  He 
wrote  Parthenia,  paeans,  bridal  hymns,  and  other  poems, 
which  were  highly  prized  by  the  ancients.  Some  beau- 
tiful fragments  of  his  works  are  extant.  He  was  con- 
sidered by  some  ancient  writers  the  inventor  of  erotic 
poetry.  To  Alcman  was  assigned  the  first  place  in  the 
canon  of  lyric  poets,  by  the  Alexandrian  grammarians. 

See  ScHOELL,  "Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Grecque." 

Alcmene,  ilk-mee'ne,  or  Alc-me'na,  [Gr.  'Alu- 
fj.7ivr] ;  Fr.  Alcmene,  tlk'man',]  the  daughter  of  Elec- 
tryon.  King  of  Mycena;,  and  wife  of  Amphitryon.  She 
bore  Hercules  to  Jupiter,  who,  it  is  said,  in  the  absence 
of  her  husband,  deceived  her  by  assuming  the  form  of 
Amphitryon. 

Alcock  or  Alcok,  auKkok,  (John,)  a  native  of  York- 
shire, England,  was  sent  as  ambassador  by  Edward  IV. 
to  John  II.  of  Castile,  and  afterwards  became  success- 
ively Bishop  of  Rochester,  of  Worcester,  and  of  Ely.  He 
was  also  tutor  to  Prince  Edward  of  Wales,  and  president 
of  his  council.  He  held  the  chancellorship  a  short  time 
under  both  Edward  IV.  and  Henry  VIII.  Died  in  1500. 
He  was  a  patron  of  learning,  and  founded  Jesus  College, 
Cambridge. 

Alcock,  (John,)  an  English  musical  composer,  born 
in  London  in  1715.    Died  in  1806. 

Alcock,  (Thomas,)  an  English  surgeon,  born  in  1784; 
died  in  1833. 

AFcon  ["Aa.'cw?-']  or  AFco,  a  Greek  statuary  of  un- 
known epoch,  noted  for  having  made  an  iron  statue  of 
Hercules. 

Alcott,  auKkot,  (Amos  Bronson,)  an  American 
writer  on  education,  born  in  Wolcott,  Connecticut,  in 
1799. 

Alcott,  (William  A.,)  M.D.,  an  American  reformer 
and  educational  writer,  born  in  Wolcott,  Connecticut,  in 
1798.  He  studied,  medicine  at  New  Haven,  but,  after 
following  the  profession  for  a  few  years,  united  with  Wil- 
liam C.  Woodbridge  in  the  preparation  of  his  school 
geographies  and  atlases,  and  in  editing  the  "Annals  of 
Education,"  etc.  He  has  since  laboured  zealously  in  the 
cause  of  educational  reforms,  and  lectured  extensively  on 
the  best  modes  of  instruction,  hygiene,  physiology,  etc. 
Besides  editing  and  contributing  to  various  journals,  he 
has  published  many  volumes  on  educational  and  kindred 
subjects.  Some  of  his  works  have  enjoyed  a  great  popu- 
larity, especially  "The  House  I  Live  in  ;"  "The  Young 
Man's  Guide;"  " The  Young  Woman's  Guide;"  "The 
Young  Mother;"  "The  Young  Housekeeper,"  etc. 

Alcuin,  dKkwin,  or  AFcwin,  an  English  prelate,  who 
passes  for  the  most  learned  man  of  his  age,  and  whose  full 
name  was  Flac'cus  Albi'niis  Alcui'nus,  was  born 
at  York  about  735  A.D.  About  780  he  accepted  an  in- 
vitation to  the  court  of  Charlemagne,  with  whom  he  lived 
thenceforth  on  terms  of  intimate  friendship.  The  court 
of  that  monarch,  it  is  said,  became  a  school  of  w^hich 
Alcuin  was  the  head.  According  to  some  writers,  he 
founded  schools  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Paris.  He  was 
appointed  in  796  abbot  of  St.  Martin  at  Tours,  where  he 
died  in  804.  He  left  many  epistles,  poems,  and  theo- 
logical works,  which  are  among  the  best  specimens  of 
mediaeval  Latinity.  A  life  of  Alcuin,  by  Professor  F. 
Lorenz,  of  Halle,  has  been  translated  into  English, 
(1837.) 

See  also  Bahr,  "  Geschichte  der  Romlschen  Literatur;"  '*  Bio- 
graphia  Britannica  Literaria,"  1S42. 

Alcyone  (il-sT'o-ne)    or   Hal-gy'o-ne,  [Gr.  'AA- 

Kv6v7j,]  (Myth.,)  a  daughter  of  ^Eolus,  who  became  the  wife 
of  Ceyx.  They  were  remarkable  for  their  mutual  and  de- 
voted love.  Ceyx  having  perished  in  a  storm  at  sea, 
Alcyone,  overcome  by  grief  and  despair,  threw  herself 
into  the  waves.    To  reward  their  conjugal  devotion,  the 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,         i,  6,  d,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fAt;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


jLCrONIUS 


79 


ALDRICH 


gods  transformed  them  into  kingfishers.  The  sea,  as 
ancient  writers  tell  us,  is  always  calm  and  the  weather 
delightful  during  the  period  in  which  these  birds  build 
their  nests  and  hatch  their  young:  hence  the  origin  of 
the  expression  "halcyon  days,"  signifying  those  of  peace 
and  happiness. 

Al-gy-o'ui-us  or  Al-9i-o'ni-us,  (Petrus,)  [It.  Al- 
ciONio,  al-cho'ne-0,  Pietro,]  a  distinguished  Italian 
scholar,  was  born  at  Venice  about  1490.  He  translated 
into  elegant  Latin  several  works  of  Aristotle,  and  be- 
came professor  of  Greek  at  Florence  about  1521.  His 
most  celebrated  work  is  "  Medices  Legatus  de  Exsilio," 
(1522,)  a  dissertation  on  Exile.  He  was  erroneously 
suspected  of  having  taken  the  finest  passages  of  this 
work  from  Cicero's  lost  treatise  on  Glory.  He  died  in 
Rome  in  1527. 

See  ;Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d' Italia  ;"  Paolo  Giovio,  "Elogia 
Virorum  ulustrium,"  IJale,  1677. 

Al-Damiri.    See  Addemeeree. 

Alday,  aul'de,  (John,)  an  English  translator,  of 
whom  little  is  known.  He  translated  a  popular  French 
work  by  Boaistuau,  (or  Boistuau,)  entitled  "  The  Theatre 
of  the  World,"  ("Theatrum  Mundi,"  15S1.) 

Aide,  van,  van  alMeh,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  painter 
and  engraver,  lived  at  Amsterdam  about  1650. 

Aldebert.    See  Adalbert. 

Aldegati,  al-da-ga'tee,  (Marco  or  Marcantonio,^ 
an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Mantua,  lived  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  fifteenth  century. 

Aldegoude,  Saint.    See  Marnix,  (Philip  van.) 

Aldegrever,  alMeh-gRi'ver,  or  Aldegraef,  aKdeh- 
gRef,  (Heinrich,)  an  eminent  German  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Soest,  Westphalia,  in  1502,  v.-as  a  pupil 
of  Albert  Diirer,  whose  style  he  closely  imitated.  He 
left  a  great  number  of  engravings,  mostly  from  his  own 
designs.  They  are  finely  executed  in  the  Gothic  stvle. 
Among  his  plates  are  "  Susanna  and  the  Elders  ;"  "  The 
Labours  of  Hercules and  portraits  of  Luther  and  Me- 
lanchthon.  His  paintings  are  not  numerous.  Died  about 

1562.  ! 

Aldeguela,  de,  di  al-di-ga'la,  (Tosef  or  Jose  Mar-  \ 
TIN,)  a  Spanish  architect,  born  in  1730;  died  in  1802.  j 

Al-Demiri.    See  Addemeeree. 

Alden,  aul'den,  (John,)  one  of  the  first  settlers  of' 
Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  came  over  in  the  Maj-flower  j 
in  1620.    He  was  a  magistrate  in  that  colony  for  more 
than  fifty  years.    He  forms  one  of  the  principal  charac- 
ters in  Longfellow's  poem  on  "  Miles  Standish's  Court- 
ship."   Died  in  16S7,  ^ged  about  eighty-nine. 

Alden,  (Timothy,)  an  American  clergyman,  born  in 
Massachusetts  in  1771,  was  the  founder'and  first  presi- 
dent of  Alleghany  College,  Meadville,  Pennsylvania. 
He  published  a  collection  of  epitaphs  and  inscriptions, 
in  5  vols.    Died  in  1839. 

Alderete,  de,  da  al-di-ra't^i,  or  Aldrete,  Sl-dRa'ti, 
(Bernardo,)  a  learned  Spanish  writer  and  priest,  born 
at  Malaga  about  1550.  He  was  distinguished  for  his 
knowledge  of  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Greek,  and  was  re- 
puted one  of  the  best  Spanish  writers  of  his  time. 
Among  his  works  is  "The  Origin  and  Principles  of  the 
Castilian  Language,"  (1606,)  which,  says  Gavangos,  is 
the  best  on  that  subject.  The  date  of  his  death  is  un- 
known. 

Alderete,  de,  (Diego  Gracian,)  a  Spanish  Hellenist 
of  the  sixteenth  century-,  was  employed  as  private  secre- 
tary by  Charles  V.  and  by  Philip  II.,  at  whose  court  he 
enjoyed  great  favour.  He  made  good  Spanish  versions 
of  Xenophon,  (1552,)  Thucydides,  (1554,)  and  other 
Greek  writers.  He  died  at  an'advanced  age  about  1590. 

Alderete,  de,  (Jose,)  a  younger  brother  of  Bernardo, 
noticed  above,  was  rector  of  the  College  of  Granada,  and 
author  of  a  treatise  "De  Religiosa  Disciplina  tuenda," 
(1615.)    Died  in  1616,  aged  about  fifty-six. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Alderoti,  ai-di-ro'tee,  (Taddeo,)  a  celebrated  phy- 
sician, and  a  friend  of  Dante,  was  born  at  Florence  in 
1215.    Died  in  1295. 

See  Vn.LANi,  "  Vie  d' Alderoti." 

Alderson,  aul'der-son,  (John,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished 
English  physician,  born  in  Suffolk  in  I7;8,  practised  in 
Hull.    Died  in  1829. 


Aldhelm,  Sld'h^lm,  Saint,  a  distinguished  Saxon 
ecclesiastic,  born  about  the  middle  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury. He  was  made  Bishop  of  Sherborn  in  705,  and 
died  in  709. 

Aldigieri.    See  Alticherio. 

Aldini,  il-dee^nee,  (Antonio,)  Count,  an  Italian 
statesman,  born  at  Bologna  in  1756,  was  a  nephew  of 
Galvani.  Having  become  a  political  friend  of  Bonaparte, 
he  was  chosen  president  of  the  Council  of  Slate  of  the 
Cisalpine  Republic,  and  in  1S05  secretary  of  state  in 
the  kingdom  of  Italy.  He  continued  to  live  at  Milan 
after  it  passed  into  the  power  of  Austria.    Died  in  1826. 

Aldini,  (Giovanni,)  a  distinguished  natural  philoso- 
pher, nephew  of  the  celebrated  Galvani,  and  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1762.  In  1798 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  physics  in  the  university 
of  his  native  city.  In  1S07  he  became  a  member  of  the 
council  of  state  at  Milan,  and  Knight  of  the  Iron  Crown. 
Died  in  1834.  He  has  left  essays  on  galvanism,  steam, 
the  hydraulic  lever,  and  other  subjects. 

See  Tip.\LDO,  "  Blografia  degli  Italiani  illustri."  * 

Aldini,  (Tobia,)  an  Italian  botanist  of  Cesena,  wrote 
a  "Description  of  the  Garden  of  Cardinal  Farnese  at 
Rome,"  (1625.) 

Aldobrandini,  al-do-bRan-dee'nee,  (CiNZio,)  a 
nephew  of  Pope  Clement  VIII.,  born  at  Sinigaglia,  be- 
came cardinal  in  1593.  He  was  a  friend  of  Tasso,  who 
dedicated  to  him  his  "Jerusalem  Delivered,"  ("  Gerusa- 
lemme  Liberata.") 

Aldobrandini,  (Silvestro,)  a  learned  Italian  jurist, 
born  in  1499.  He  was  for  some  years  professor  of  law 
at  Pisa.  Died  in  1558.  His  son  Ippolito  became  pope 
in  1592.  (See  Clement  VIII.)  He  had  a  son,  Gio- 
vanni, and  two  grandsons,  Pietro  and  Cinzio,  (noticed 
above,)  who  became  cardinals. 

Aldobrandini,  (Tomm.\so,)  a  son  of  Silvestro,  born 
at  Rome  about  1540,  was  a  brother  of  Clement  VIII. 
He  produced  a  translation  of  Diogenes  Laertius,  (1594.) 
He  died  in  the  prime  of  life. 

Aldobrandino,  dl-do-bRin-dee'no,  (called  Fioren- 
TiNo,  or  the  "Florentine,")  an  Italian  physician,  prac- 
tised at  Sienna,  and  died  at  Florence  in  1327. 

Aldo  Manuzio.    See  Manutius. 

Aldred,  al'drcd  or  dlMred,  surnamed  the  Glosser, 
[Lat.  Glossa'tor,]  an  Anglo-Saxon  writer,  author  of 
the  "  Book  of  Durham,"  lived  about  8co  a.d. 

Aldred,  aKdred,  [Lat.  Aldre'dus,  called  also  Al- 
re'dus  and  Ealre'dus,]  an  archbishop  of  York  in  the 
eleventh  century.  He  enjoyed  high  favour  with  Ed- 
ward the  Confessor.  In  1066  William  the  Conqueror 
was  crowned  by  him.    Died  in  1069. 

Aldrete.    See  Alderete. 

Aldric,  alMrik,  [Lat.  Aldri^'cus,]  Saint,  was  born  in 
France  about  Soo.  He  was  elected  to  the  bishopric  of 
Le  Mans  in  832,  in  which  office  he  acquired  the  highest 
character  for  wisdom  and  sanctity.    Died  about  856. 

Aldrich,  auld'ritch  or  auld'rij,  (Henry,)  D.D.,  an 
eminent  English  scholar  and  divine,  born  at  Westmin- 
ster in  1647,  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  became  a  tutor 
of  the  college  of  Christ  Church,  and  edited  several 
Greek  classics.  In  the  reign  of  James  II.  he  was  one 
of  the  most  able  defenders  of  the  Protestant  cause.  He 
was  appointed  dean  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  16S9, 
He  possessed  great  skill  in  music,  and  composed  numer- 
ous services  and  anthems  which  are  used  in  the  English 
cathedrals.  His  "  Compendium  of  the  Art  of  Logic" 
("  Artis  Logicae  Compendium")  was  extensively  used  in 
England  until  the  publication  of  Whately's  "Elements 
of  Logic"  in  1826. 

See  M.A.CAULAv's  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.  ch.  xiv.; 
Hawicins's  "History  of  Music" 

Aldrich,  auld'ritch,  (James,)  an  American  poet  and 
journalist,  born  in  Suffolk  county.  New  York,  in  1810. 
He  at  first  engaged  in  mercantife  pursuits,  but  subse- 
quently devoted  himself  entirely  to  literature.  Died  in 
1856.  He  edited  several  popular  periodicals,  and  was 
author  of  numerous  poems. 

See  Grisavold's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Aldrich  or  Aldridge,  auld'rij,  (Robert,)  born  in 
Buckinghamshire,  England,  became  Bishop  of  Carlisle 
in  1537,  and  died  in  1555. 


€  ad  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k.  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  tkis.    ([[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ALDRICH 


80 


ALEE  BET 


Aldrich,  (Thomas  Bailey,)  an  American  poet,  and 
assistant  editor  of  tlie  "New  Yorlv  Home  Journal," 
was  born  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampsliire,  in  1836.  He 
is  author  of  "  Miscellaneous  Poems,"  "  The  Course  of 
True  Love  Never  Did  Run  Smooth,"  etc. 

Aldridge,  aukKrij,  (Ira,)  a  negro  tragedian,  born 
near  Baltimore,  in  Maryland,  about  1 810.  He  early  ex- 
hibited uncommon  powers  of  mind,  acquiring  knowledge 
with  great  facility,  and  learning,  among  other  things,  to 
speak  the  German  language.  Having  attracted  the 
notice  of  Kean,  the  eminent  tragedian,  he  accompanied 
him,  as  an  attendant,  to  Europe,  and  at  Belfast  appeared 
on  the  stage  in  the  character  of  Othello  to  Kean's  lago. 
He  subsequently  rose  to  distinction  as  an  actor,  person- 
ating with  great  success  a  wide  range  of  characters, 
both  in  Great  Britain  and  on  the  continent.  Particular 
honours  were  conferred  on  him  by  the  King  of  Prussia 
and  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  and  in  1857  the  King  of 
Sweden  invited  him  to  visit  Stockholm.    Died  in  1867. 

See  "  Leben  unci  Kiinstlerlaufbahn  des  Negers  I.  Aldrige,"  Ber- 
lin, 185*. 

Aldrighetti,  al-dRe-get'tee,  an  Italian  physician  and 
medical  writer,  born  at  Padua  in  1573;  died  in  1631. 

Aldringer,  alt'ring-er,  or  Altringer,  (Johann,)  an 
officer  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  was  born  in  the  duchy 
of  Luxemburg,  of  an  obscure  family.  From  a  common 
soldier  in  the  Imperial  (Austrian)  army,  he  rose  gradu- 
ally to  the  highest  rank,  and  after  the  death  of  Tilly,  in 
1632,  was  made  field-marshal.  He  was  killed  while  de- 
fending the  bridge  of  Landshut  against  the  Swedes  in 
1634. 

Aldrovande.    See  Aldrovandus. 

Aldrovaiidi.    See  Aldrovandus. 

Aldrovandini,  M-dRo-vin-dee^nee,  a  family  of  artists 
who  lived  in  Bologna  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries.    The  most  celebrated  were  the  following  : 

Aldrovandini,  (Pompeo  Agostino,)  born  in  1677, 
died  in  1739.  Like  the  others  of  his  family,  he  was  dis- 
tinguished as  an  architectural  and  decorative  painter. 
He  painted  in  oil  and  fresco,  in  Vienna,  Dresden,  and 
Italy. 

Aldrovandini,  (Tommaso,)  a  painter  of  Bologna, 
born  in  1653,  w^as  a  cousin  of  the  preceding.  Died  in 
1736. 

Al-dro-vanMus,  [Fr.  Aldrovande,  aKdRoVSNd'; 
It.  Aldrovandi,  al-dRo-van'dee,]  (Ulysses,)  a  great 
Italian  naturalist,  born  of  a  noble  family,  at  Bologna, 
about  1 524.  Having  studied  botany,  medicine,  and  other 
sciences,  he  graduated  in  medicine  in  1553,  and  obtained 
the  chair  of  natural  history  at  Bologna  in  1560.  Lie  pur- 
sued his  favourite  studies  with  unremitting  zeal,  and  spent 
his  fortune  in  collecting  specimens  and  procuring  en- 
gravings by  the  best  artists.  The  result  of  his  labours  is 
a  "Natural  History,"  in  13  volumes,  of  which  four  ap- 
peared during  his  life.  He  published  three  volumes  on 
Birds,  1 599-1 603,  and  one  volume  on  Insects,  1602.  The 
other  volumes  were  edited  by  various  persons.  His 
works  are  praised  for  their  completeness,  but  are  defi- 
cient in  scientific  arrangement  and  condensation.  "The 
book  of  Aldrovandus,"  says  Cuvier,  "can  only  be  re- 
garded as  an  enormous  compilation,  without  taste  or  ge- 
nius :  the  plan  and  materials  of  it  are  in  a  great  measure 
borrowed  from  Gesner."  Died  at  Bologna  in  1607. 
Buffon  praises  the  method  of  Aldrovandus  and  his 
fidelity  of  description. 

See  Fantuzzi,  "  Memorie  della  Vita  d'UIisse  Aldrovandi,"  1774; 
Hauler,  "  Bibliotheca  Botanica  ;"  Jocher,  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon." 

Aldilin,  aicKwin,  [Lat.  Aldui'nus  or  Aldov/nus,] 
written  also  Aud^win,  Aud'oin,  and  sometimes 
Hieldui'nus,  the  first  king  of  the  second  dynasty  of 
Longobards  or  Lombards,  reigned  about  the  middle  of 
the  sixth  century.  The  emperor  Justinian  made  an  alli- 
ance with  him,  and  gave  him  Pannonia,  (now  the  south- 
western part  of  Hungary,)  and  the  Longobard  king  sent 
him  in  return  5000  mercenaries  to  fight  in  the  imperial 
army.    (See  Alboin.) 

Alduinus.    See  Alduin. 

Aldus  Manutius.    See  Manutius. 

Ale,  ^^leh,  (Egidius,)  a  Flemish  painter,  who  was 
born  at  Liege,  and  worked  at  Rome.    Died  in  1689. 


Aleander  and  Aleandre.    See  Aleandro. 

Aleandro,  a-la-an^dRo,  [Lat.  Alean'der  ;  Fr.  Ale- 
andre, t'la'oNdR'',]  (Girolamo,)  a  distinguished  Italian 
scholar,  born  near  Friuli  in  1480,  was  reputed  one  of  the 
most  learned  men  of  his  time.  He  became  professor  of 
belles-lettres  in  the  University  of  Paris  in  1508,  and  libra- 
rian of  the  Vatican  in  15 19.  In  1520  he  was  sent  by  Pope 
Leo  X.  as  nuncio  to  Germany,  to  oppose  the  doctrines 
of  Luther,  against  whom  he  showed  a  violent  hostility. 
He  was  the  redacteiir  of  the  edict  against  Luther  which 
the  emperor  and  diet  adopted.  In  1525  he  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Pavia  with  Francis  I.,  whom  he  had  accom- 
panied as  nuncio.  He  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1538,  and 
died  in  1542,  leaving  an  unfinished  work  on  holding  coun- 
cils, ("De  Concilio  habendo.") 

See  D'AuBiGNE,  "History  of  the  Reformation;"  Mazzuchelli, 
Scrittori  d'ltalia ;"  A.  Victorelli,  "  Vie  d' Aleandre,"  in  a  collec- 
tion of  lives  of  Pontiffs,  published  at  Rome  in  1630,  2  vols. 

Aleandro,  (Girolamo  the  younger,)  a  very  learned 
Italian  poet  and  antiquary,  born  in  Friuli  in  1574,  was  a 
grand-nephew  of  the  preceding.  Lie  was  remarkable  for 
the  precocity  of  his  intellect,  and  composed,  at  the  age  of 
sixteen,  seven  beautiful  odes,  called  "The  Tears  of  Peni- 
tence," ("  Le  Lagrime  di  Penitenza.")  He  was  for  about 
twenty  years  secretary  to  Cardinal  Bandini,  at  Rome. 
He  was  also  for  some  time  secretary  to  Pope  Urban 
VIII.  Among  his  works  are  "Penitential  Psalms,"  (in 
Latin.  1593,)  and  an  antiquarian  treatise  entitled  "An- 
tiquae  Tabulae  Marmorere,"  etc.,  (1616.)    Died  in  1629. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia;"  Gasparo  de  Simeoni, 
"  In  morte  di  G.  Aleandro  orazione,"  1636. 

Aleaume,  t'la'Sm',  (Louis,)  a  French  litkh-atew, 
born  in  1525,  died  in  1596.    He  wrote  Latin  verses. 
Alecto.    See  Eumenides. 

Alee  or  Ali,  cVlee,  or  Ali-Ibn-Abi-T^iib,  a'lee  ib'n 
iVbee  tJ'lib,  [i.e.  "  Alee  the  son  of  Aboo-Talib  :"  see  note 
to  Aboolfeda,  on  page  35,)  surnamed  the  Lion  op 
God,  an  Arabian  caliph,  born  at  Mecca  about  600  A.D., 
was  a  cousin-german  of  the  prophet  Mohammed.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  to  embrace  the  new  faith,  which  he 
afterwards  defended  with  uneciualled  zeal  and  valour. 
He  married  Fatimah,  a  daughter  of  Mohammed.  Upon 
the  death  of  the  prophet  in  632,  Alee  and  Aboo-Bekr 
were  rival  candidates  for  the  succession,  which  the  latter 
obtained.  This  contest  was  the  origin  of  the  great 
schism  between  the  Soonnites  (orthodox)  and  Sheeites, 
the  latter  of  whom  were  partisans  of  Alee.  On  the 
death  of  Othman  in  655,  Alee  became  caliph  ;  but  he  was 
obliged  to  maintain  his  cause  in  battle  against  Moa- 
weeyeh,  a  powerful  rival.  Three  fanatics  conspired  to 
assassinate  both  of  these  rivals  in  order  to  end  the  war, 
and  Alee  was  killed  by  one  of  them  in  660  A.D.  He  left 
a  son,  Hassan,  who  became  caliph.  Alee  is  a  popular 
hero,  especially  with  the  Persians,  who  belong  to  the 
sect  of  Sheeites.  He  is  also  celebrated  as  an  author  of 
maxims  and  sentences. 

See  Irving,  "Mahomet  and  his  Successors,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Weil, 
"Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap,  iv.;  Ockley,  "History  of 
the  Saracens;"  Elmacin,  "  Historia  Saracenica  ;"  _  D'Herbelot, 
"  Bibliotheque  Orientale  ;"  Noel  des  Vergers,  "  Histoire  de  1' Ara- 
ble," 1846. 

Alee  or  Ali,  (Abool-Hassan,  ^'hobV  has'san,)  King 
of  Granada,  ascended  the  throne  in  1466.  He  renewed 
the  war  against  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in  I48i,and  was 
defeated  at  Alhama.  In  1482  his  subjects  revolted,  and 
proclaimed  his  son  Boabdil,  or  Aboo-Abdillah,  king. 
Alee  died  soon  after  that  date. 

Alee,  Ali,  or  Aali,  a^ee,  a  Turkish  historian,  who 
wrote  a  history  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.    Died  in  1597. 

Alee-  (or  Ali-)  ar-Ridha,  i'lee  ar-r5d'5,  a  descendant 
of  Alee  the  son-in-law  of  Mohammed,  born  in  75^  A. D., 
was  considered  one  of  the  legitimate  successors  of  the 
prophet.  He  married  a  daughter  of  the  caliph  Al-Ma- 
moon.    Died  in  819. 

Alee  Beg,  (of  Poland.)    See  Alt  Beg. 

Alee-Best^mee  or  Ali-Bestami,  d'lee  bgs-ta'mee, 
a  famous  sheikh  and  learned  Mohammedan  writer,  born 
at  Llerat  in  1400.  He  came  to  Turkey  in  1443,  and  re- 
sided at  the  court  of  the  sultan  Mahomet  II.  He  wrote 
on  ethics,  grammar,  philosophy,  etc.    Died  in  1470. 

Alee  (or  Ali)  Bey,  aHee  ba,  or  Alee  Beg,  a  Mam- 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/wri;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JLEE-CHORLEELEE 


8i 


ALE  M  AND 


el  like  chief,  was  born  in  1728,  on  or  near  Mount  Caucasus. 
Having  been  taken  to  Cairo  when  a  child,  he  was  sold  to 
an  otiicer  of  the  Janissaries,  who  adopted  and  educated 
him.  He  soon  distinguished  himself  by  his  courage  and 
ability.  Having  at  length  got  possession  of  the  chief 
power  in  Egypt  in  1768,  he  aimed  to  make  it  an  inde- 
pendent kingdom.  In  1770  he  attempted  to  conquer 
Palestine  and  Syria  from  the  Turks,  which  led  to  a  long 
contest,  in  which  Alee  was  at  length  slain  in  1776. 

Alee-Chor-lee'lee,  (or  Ali-Chorlili,)  sometimes 
written  -Chourlouli,  a  vizier  of  Sultan  Ahmed  HI, 
during  the  time  that  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  was  in 
Turkey  in  1709-10.  He  was  an  enemy  of  Charles  XII. 
Died  in  1711,  aged  about  forty. 

Alee-Ibn-Hammood,  or  Ali-Ibn-Hammoud,  (or 
-Hammud,)  i''Iee  Ib'n  ham-mood',  the  founder  of  the 
dynasty  of  Hammood'ites  in  Spain.  He  defeated  in  bat- 
tle and  killed  Suleiman,  an  aspirant  to  the  throne.  Died 
i'l  1017. 

Alee-Ibnool-Abbas,  or  Ali-Ibnu-l- Abbas,  cVlee 
ii/nool  Sb'bas'',  (often  called  Haly  Abb^s,)  a  cele- 
brated Arabian  physician,  who  was  probably  a  native  of 
Persia,  and  died  about  994.  Little  is  known  of  the 
events  of  his  life.  His  work,  commonly  known  as 
"  Royal  Book,"  ("  Liber  Regius,")  is  considered  by  some 
as  the  best  or  most  complete  treatise  on  medicine  which 
has  come  down  to  us  from  ancient  times. 

Alee-  (or  Ali-)  Ibn-Rodhwan,  a^ee  ib'n  r6d^vSn^ 
(often  called  Haly  Rodoan,)  a  noted  Arabian  physician, 
born  near  Cairo  in  Egypt,  flourished  in  the  early  part  of 
the  eleventh  century. 

Alee-Ibn-Saeed,  (or  Ali-Ibn-Said,)  d^ee  Ib'n 
sa'eed',  a  distinguished  Mohammedan  geographer  and 
historian,  born  at  Granada  in  1214;  died  about  1286. 

Alee-  (or  Ali-)  Ibn-Yoonas,  (-Yunas  or-Younis,) 
3,'lee  Tl)'n  yoo''nas,  surnamed  A]/oc)i,  Has'san,  an  emi- 
nent Arabian  astronomer,  born  at  Cairo.  He  was  author 
of  astronomical  tables,  which  were  considered  the  best 
in  the  language.    Died  in  1008. 

Alee-  (or  Ali-)  Ibn-  (Ben-)  Yoosiif,  (or  -Yusuf,) 
a'lee  ib'n  yoo'soof,  a  sultan  of  Africa  and  Spain  of  the 
Almoravide  dynasty,  began  to  reign  in  1107.  He  waged 
war  against  the  Christian  princes  of  Spain,  who  captured 
a  number  of  his  cities.    Died  in  1 142-3. 

A'lee-Koo'jee,  [Gcr.  spelling,  Ali  Kudscjii,]  an 
Ottoman  astronomer,  who  lived  at  Constantinople.  Died 
in  1474. 

Alee-Koolee-  (or  Ali-Kuli-)  Khan,  a'lee  koo'lee 
Kan,  a  nephew  of  the  famous  Nadir  Shah  of  Persia, 
succeeded  that  monarch  in  1747.  He  was  dethroned 
and  deprived  of  sight  in  1748. 

A'lee-Mo-ez-zeen',  (Ali-Moezzin  or  -Muezzin,) 
Kapudan  Pasha  under  Sultan  Selim  I.,  was  defeated 
and  killed  in  the  great  naval  battle  of  Lepanto,  (1571,) 
where  he  commanded  the  Turkish  fleet. 

Alee-  (Ali-)  Mustafa-Ben- Ahmed,  S'lee  moos'ta-fS 
ben  dii'med,  an  excellent  Turkish  historian  and  indif- 
ferent poet,  born  at  Gallipoli  in  1542.  His  chief  work 
is  a  universal  history,  called  "Mine  of  Information." 
Died  in  1599. 

Alee-Sheer- Ameer,  or  Ali-Shir-Amir,  aOee'  sheer 
i-meer',  a  Persian  poet  and  statesman,  born  about  1440. 
He  became  vizier  or  prime  minister  of  Sultan  Husain 
of  Persia  about  1470.  He  has  been  styled  the  Mae- 
cenas of  his  age  and  country,  and  had  a  high  reputation 
as  a  poet.    Died  about  1500. 

Alee-Welee-Zade,  or  Ali-Weli-Zade,  S'lee  weKee 
zaMeh,  suinamcd  Arslan,  aRs-lan',  (i.e.  the  "  Lion,")  and 
commonly  called  Alee  (or  Ali)  Pasha,  was  born  at  Tep- 
aleen,  or  Tepalen,  in  Albania,  about  1750.  He  began  his 
career  as  a  robber.  At  one  time,  when  he  was  in  a  state  of 
extreme  destitution,  after  having  sold  his  sword  to  avoid 
starvation,  he  accidentally  discovered,  partially  buried 
in  the  earth,  a  large  iron  box  filled  with  gold.  With  this 
he  levied  two  thousand  Albanian  soldiers.  From  this 
time  forward  fortune  seemed  to  smile  upon  almost  all 
his  enterprises.  He  possessed  extraordinary  courage, 
shrewdness,  and  strength  of  mind,  and  well  knew  how- 
to  take  advantage  of  the  weakness  of  the  Porte,  and  of 
the  troubles  in  which  it  was  involved  with  the  surround- 
ing nations.  In  return  for  his  services  in  the  war  against 


Austria  and  Russia,  the  sultan  appointed  him  Pasha  of 
Trikala  in  1787.  Soon  after,  by  intrigue,  bribery,  and 
force,  he  caused  himself  to  be  declared  Pasha  of  Yanina, 
(Janina,)  by  which  title  he  is  generally  known.  He  sub- 
sequently rose,  step  by  step,  to  be  the  most  powerful 
subordinate  prince  (subject  he  could  scarcely  be  called) 
in  the  Ottoman  Empire.  In  the  wars  which  convulsed 
Europe  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  French  Revolution, 
Alee  Pasha  took  part  now  with  this  power  and  now  with 
that,  as  it  suited  his  interest.  Though  the  Porte  had 
abundant  reason  to  distrust  and  fear  him,  its  weakness 
obliged  it  to  temporize.  At  length,  in  1820,  the  Sultan 
Mahmood  II.,  who  had  too  much  pride  and  energy  to 
endure  any  longer  the  greatness  and  independent  spirit 
of  Alee,  sent  against  him  a  powerful  army ;  and,  though 
the  Pasha  of  Yanina  strove  to  avail  himself  of  the  aid  of 
the  Greeks,  who  were  then  beginning  to  assert  their  in- 
dependence, he  lost  one  fortress  after  another,  and  was 
at  last  entrapped  by  the  craft  of  Khurshid  Pasha,  the 
commander  of  the  sultan's  forces.  Hassan  Pasha  was 
dispatched  for  Alee's  head.  No  sooner  had  he  announced 
his  errand  than  Alee,  seizing  his  pistols,  rose  with  the 
fury  of  a  lion,  broke  with  one  shot  the  thigh  of  his  op- 
ponent, and  with  two  others  killed  two  of  Hassan's  lieu- 
tenants, but  was  shot  dead  himself  the  same  moment. 
This  occurred  in  P'ebruary,  1822. 

See  Mai.te-Brun,  "Tableau  historique  et  politique  de  la  Vie 
d'Ali  Pacha;"  Beauchamp,  "  Histoire  du  fameux  Ali  Pacha," 
1822  ;  Davexpokt,  ''Life  of  Ali  Pasha,"  1837  ;  article  on  Ali  Pacha 
in  the  "North  American  Review,"  January,  1824;  Pouqueville, 
"  Memoire  sur  la  Vie  et  la  Puissance  d'Ali  Pacha;  "  Vaudoncourt, 
"  INIenioirs  on  the  Ionian  Islands,  including  the  Life  of  Ali  Pacha." 

Alefeld,  a'leh-felt',  (Georg  Ludwig,)  a  German 
physician  and  writer,  born  at  Giessen  in  1732,  became 
professor  of  medicine  and  physics  at  that  place  in  1758, 
and  died  in  1774. 

Alegambe,  .V!eh-g6Mb'  or  aneh-gSm^beh,  (Philip,) 
a  learned  Flemish  Jesuit,  born  at  Brussels  in  1592.  He 
became  superior  of  the  house  of  the  Jesuits  at  Rome, 
where  he  died  in  1652.  He  was  the  principal  author  of 
an  excellent  work  entitled  "  Library  of  the  Writers  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus,"  ("  Kibliotheca  Scriptorum  Societatis 
Jesu,"  1643,)  clevoted  to  the  biography  and  bibliography 
of  Jesuit  writers. 

Alegre,  d',  da1:\gR',  (Yves  or  Ives,  ^v,)  Baron,  a  cele- 
brated French  captain,  who  served  in  Italy  in  the  time 
of  Charles  VIII.  and  Louis  XII.,  from  1495  to  1512, 
when  he  fell  at  the  head  of  his  victorious  troops  in  the 
battle  of  Ravenna. 

Alegre,  d',  (Yves,)  Marquis,  a  distinguished  French 
general  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  He  became  marshal 
of  France  in  1724.    Died  in  1733,  aged  about  eighty. 

Alejandro,  the  Spanish  for  Alexander,  which  see. 

Alekseief  or  Alexejev,  J-lgx-a'-y^f,  (Feodor  Ya- 
KOVLEVITCII,)  a  Russian  architectural  painter,  born  in 
1755.  He  excelled  in  perspective,  and  in  a  skilful  selec- 
tion of  the  point  of  view  from  which  his  pictures  were 
drawn.    Died  in  1821. 

Alemagna,  di,  d6  a-L\-man'ya,  (Giusto,)  [Lat.  Jus'- 
TUS  DE  AlEma'nia,]  an  eminent  artist,  probably  of  Ger- 
man origin,  painted  at  Genoa  about  1450. 

APe-man,  [Fr.  pron._  trmSN'',]  (Louis,)  a  distin- 
guished French  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1390,  was  made  car- 
dinal in  1426.  For  his  resolute  defence  of  the  authority 
of  the  councils  in  opposition  to  the  despotism  of  the 
Papal  see,  Eugenius  IV.  issued  a  bull  depriving  him  of 
all  his  ecclesiastical  dignities  ;  but  these  were  restored 
by  Nicholas  V.,  the  successor  of  Eugenius.  Aleman  died 
in  1452. 

Aleman,  I-la-m^n',  (Mateo,)  a  Spanish  writer  of  the 
time  of  Philip  II.,  born  at  Seville  about  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  the  author  of  a  celebrated 
novel,  "Guzman  de  Alfarache,"  (gooth-m^n'  di  Jl-fi- 
ri'chi,)  (1599,)  which  was  translated  into  many  lan- 
guages ;  and  of  a  few  other  works  of  less  importance. 
Aleman  is  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  sterling  integrity 
as  well  as  of  great  wit  and  judgment.  He  was  employed 
twenty  years  by  the  king  in  the  department  of  finances. 

Alemand,  tl^mSN^  (Louis  Augustin,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1653.  He  practised  law  and 
medicine  at  Grenoble,  and  displayed  both  judgment  and 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  /lard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  ti-illcd;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (S^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

6 


ALEMANN 


8 


2 


ALENCON 


erudition  in  his  works,  among  which  is  a  collection  of 
critical  remarks  on  the  history  of  words,  called  "  New 
Observations,  or  Civil  War  of  the  French  respecting 
Language,"  ("Nouvelles  Observations,  ou  Guerre  Civile 
des  Fran9ais  sur  la  Langue,"  1688.)    Died  in  1728. 

Alemann,  d'leh-mdn',  (Conrad,)  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Magdeburg  in  1309,    Died  in  1398. 

Alemaniii,  a-li-mdn'nee,  sometimes  written  Ala- 
manno,  a-la-man'no,  (Antonio,)  a  Florentine  poet, 
who  flourished  about  1500.  He  is  cited  for  the  purity 
of  his  style  in  the  "  Vocabolario  della  Crusca." 

Alemanni,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  son  of  Luigi,  the 
celebrated  poet  noticed  below,  born  in  1 5 19,  became  a 
privy  counsellor  of  Francis  L,  and,  in  1558,  Bishop  of 
Mascon,  (Macon.)  He  wrote  several  sonnets  and  let- 
ters.   Died  in  1581. 

Alemanni,  written  also  Alamanni,  a-ld-man'nee, 
(Luigi,)  an  eminent  Italian  poet,  born  at  Florence  in 
1495.  removed  to  Paris  about  1530,  and  passed 

many  years  at  the  court  of  Francis  L,  in  whom  he  found 
a  liberal  patron,  and  by  whom  he  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  Charles  V.  in  1544.  He  was  also  patronized  by 
Henry  H.  His  chief  work  is  an  excellent  didactic  poem 
on  agriculture,  "La  Coltivazione,"  (1546,)  which,  says 
Ginguene,  "abounds  in  elegant  imitations  of  Virgil's 
Georgics,  and  in  true  and  poetical  descriptions  of  the 
rural  beauties  of  Italy  and  France."  He  was  author  of 
numerous  sonnets,  epigrams,  elegies,  satires,  etc.  Died 
at  Amboise  in  1556. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia 
della  Letteratura  Italiana:"  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of 
Europe." 

Alemanni,  (Luigi,)  a  grand-nephew  of  the  poet  of 
that  name,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1558.  He  was  a  good 
classical  scholar,  and  author  of  several  short  Latin  poems. 
Died  in  1603. 

Alemanni,  (Niccolo,)  an  antiquary  of  Greek  origin, 
born  at  Ancona  in  1583.  He  became  a  priest,  and  was 
for  some  time  professor  of  Greek  in  Rome.  In  16 14 
he  was  appointed  librarian  of  the  Vatican.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  the  ninth  book  of  the  his- 
tory of  Procopius,  with  a  Latin  version  and  notes.  Died 
in  1626. 

Alemans,  trmSN^,  a  miniature-painter  of  rare  merit, 
resided  at  Brussels  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  His  works  were  in  great  demand,  and  com- 
manded very  high  prices. 

Alembek,  d'lem-bek",  (Louis  Valerian,)  a  Polish 
poet,  born  at  Leopol  about  1620.    Died  about  1690. 

Alembert,  d',  di'ldN'baiR',  (Jean  le  Roud— leh 
r6N,)  an  eminent  French  geometer  and  philosopher, 
born  in  Paris  on  the  i6th  of  November,  171 7,  was  an 
illegitimate  son  of  M.  Destouches-Canon,  a  commissary 
of  artillery,  and  Madame  de  Tencin,  an  authoress. 
Having  been  found  exposed  in  the  street,  he  was  placed 
by  the  police  in  the  care  of  a  glazier's  wife,  named  Rous- 
seau, by  whom  he  was  brought  up.  A  few  days  after  his 
birth  his  parents  settled  upon  him  an  annuity  of  1200 
livres.  It  is  said  that  after  his  remarkable  talents  be- 
came known  his  mother  discovered  herself  to  him,  but 
he  replied,  "  Je  ne  connais  qu'une  mere,  c'est  la  vitriere," 
("  I  know  but  one  mother — the  glazier's  wife.")  He  was 
educated  in  the  College  Mazarin,  which  he  entered  in 
1730.  After  he  left  college  he  studied  mathematics  and 
law,  and  continued  to  reside  with  his  foster-mother  for 
many  years. 

Having  written  a  "  Memoir  on  the  Integral  Calculus," 
he  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1741.  He 
published,  in  1 743,  a  celebrated  "  Treatise  on  Dynamics," 
containing  an  important  principle  which  will  always  be 
known  by  the  name  of  D' Alembert,  and  which  initiated  a 
revolution  in  physico-mathematical  sciences.  The  prin- 
ciple in  question  amounts  simply  to  this,  that  every  force 
applied  to  a  system  must  produce  its  entire  effect  some- 
where, if  not  at  the  point  of  application,  then  somewhere 
else.  In  other  words,  there  is  an  absolute  equality  at 
all  times  betzueen  the  entire  anioujit  of  force  applied  and 
the  sum  total  of  the  effects  produced:  thus,  one  portion 
of  the  force  may  be  spent  in  neutralizing  an  antagonistic 
force, — for  example,  in  overcoming  the  momentum  which 
a  body  may  have  already  acquired  ;  another  portion, 


in  overcoming  the  resistance  caused  by  friction ;  a 
third,  in  imparting  motion  in  a  new  direction.  D'Alem- 
bert's  work  "  On  the  General  Theory  of  the  Winds " 
gained  a  prize  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin  in  1746.  He 
declined,  in  1752,  the  invitation  of  Frederick  II.  of 
Prussia,  who  offered  him  the  presidency  of  the  Royal 
Academy  with  a  liberal  pension,  but  he  accepted  an  un- 
conditional pension  of  1200  francs  from  that  monarch 
in  1754.  From  this  time  until  his  death  a  constant  epis- 
tolary correspondence  was  maintained  between  him  and 
Frederick. 

D'Alembert  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in 
1754,  and  received  a  pension  of  1200  francs  from  Louis 
XV.  in  1756.  He  declined,  in  1762,  an  urgent  invitation 
from  Catherine  II.  of  Russia  to  come  to  her  court  and 
direct  the  education  of  her  son  for  a  salary  of  100,00c 
francs. 

About  1764  he  became  attached  to  the  accomplished 
Mademoiselle  de  I'Espinasse,  who  lived  with  him  twelve 
years,  but  rendered  him  unhappy  by  her  growing  indif- 
ference to  him  and  her  partiality  to  another.  (See  Espi- 
NASSE.)  D'Alembert  was  for  a  time  joint  editor  with 
Diderot  of  the  famous  "  Encyclopedic, '"  (commenced 
about  1750,)  for  which  he  wrote  many  mathematical 
articles,  and  an  introductory  discourse  that  was  highly 
commended  as  a  model  of  accurate  thinking  and  elegant 
composition.  (See  Diderot.)  For  many  years  he  was 
on  terms  of  great  intimacy  with  Voltaire,  to  whom  he 
was  as  superior  in  justness  of  thought  as  he  was  in- 
ferior in  wit  and  brilliancy.  D'Alembert  was  a  skeptic 
in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  {i.e.  a  "doubter"  or  "in- 
quirer,") but  not  a  scoffer  or  blasphemer,  as  he  has  been 
commonly  represented.  We  find  in  his  published  works 
no  attacks  on  the  Christian  religion;  although  he  did  not 
conceal  his  hostility  to  Roman  Catholicism. 

In  1772  he  was  chosen  secretary  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy. He  wrote  "liloges"  of  the  members  of  that  insti- 
tution who  died  between  1700  and  1772.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  "  Researches  on  V arious  Important 
Points  of  the  System  of  the  Universe,"  (3  vols.,  1754- 
56;)  "Melanges  of  Literature  and  Philosophy,"  (5 
vols.  ;)  and  "Elements  of  Philosophy,"  (1759.)  He  was 
a  member  of  all  the  prominent  learned  societies  of  Eu- 
rope.   Died  in  Paris  on  the  29th  of  October,  1783. 

Lacroix,  in  the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  expresses 
the  opinion  that  D'Alembert  should  be  ranked  as  high 
as  any  contemporary  geometer,  when  we  consider  the 
difficulties  he  overcame,  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  methods 
w^hich  he  invented,  and  the  ingenuity  {finesse)  of  his 
ideas. 

"His  literary  works,"  says  Lacroix,  "constantly  di- 
rected to  the  perfection  of  reason  and  the  propagation 
of  correct  ideas,  were  highly  appreciated  by  all  men  of 
sense,  {bons  esprits.)  All  of  them  are  remarkable  for  a 
pure  diction,  a  neat  style,  and  strong  or  pithy  thought." 
His  character  presents  many  amiable  traits,  among  which 
are  candour,  modesty,  and  beneficence. 

See  "  ]5lo_c;e  de  D'Alembert,"  par  Condorcet;  a  notice  in  the 
first  volume  of  the  edition  of  his  literary  and  philosophical  works 
published  by  J.  B.  Bastiem,  Paris,  18  vols.,  1805  ;  and  the  notice  pre- 
fixed to  an  edition  of  his  works  by  Bossange,  5  vols.,  1821 ;  N.  Ro- 
sen VON  RosENSTEiN,  "  Lefnadsbeskrifniug ofvcr  J.  L.  d'Alembert." 
Stockholm,  8vo,  17S7;  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Alen,  van,  vin  a'len,  (or  van  OTen,)  (John,  or  Jan,) 
a  Dutch  painter,  born  in  1631,  imitated  Melchioi  Hon- 
dekoeter.    Died  at  Amsterdam  in  1698. 

Alence,  d',  dt'lSN'sa',  (Joachim,)  a  French  astron- 
omer and  physicist,  born  in  Paris.    Died  in  1707. 

Alengon,  a-len'son  or  S']5n''s6n',  Counts,  and  after- 
wards Dukes  of,  a  distinguished  line  of  French  nobles 
in  the  middle  ages. 

Alengon,  (Charles  de  Valois  —  vSl'wa^)  Count 
OF,  a  brother  of  Philippe  de  Valois,  King  of  France. 
He  w^as  killed  at  the  battle  of  Crecy  in  1346. 

Alengon,  (Charles,)  Duke  of,  a  grandson  of  Jean, 
who  died  in  1476,  was  born  in  14S9.  He  married  a  sister 
of  Francis  I.  The  loss  of  the  battle  of  Pavia  was  at- 
tributed to  him.  He  is  said  to  have  died  of  shame  for 
his  misconduct  in  that  action.    Died  in  1525. 

Alengon,  (Franqois,)  Duke  of,  afterwards  Duke  of 
Anjou,  the  youngest  son  of  Henry  II.  of  France  and 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;    6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, 


short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fdt;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ALENCON 


83 


ALEXANDER 


Catherine  de  Medicis,  born  in  1554;  died  in  1584.  He 
was  awkwardly  made,  was  disfigured  by  the  small-pox, 
and,  to  crown  all,  was  of  a  cowardly  and  malignant  dis- 
position. Although  he  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
wars  and  intrigues  of  his  time,  he  accomplished  nothing 
useful  or  great.  He  paid  court  to  Queen  Elizabeth  of 
England,  and  his  proposals  were  very  favourably  re- 
ceived by  her,  but  the  marriage  was  broken  off  on  ac- 
count of  Jris  being  a  Catholic. 

See  De  Thoc,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis  ;"  Simonde  de  Sismondi, 
" Histoire  des  Francais  Sully,  ]Memoires  ;"  Motley,  "Rise  of 
the  Dutch  Republic,"  vol.  iii. ;  Froude,  "Reign  of  Elizabeth." 

Alengon,  (Jean,)  first  Duke  of,  a  French  nobleman, 
born  in  13S5.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Agincourt 
in  141 5. 

Alen9on,  (Jean,)  fourth  Duke  of,  a  French  noble- 
man in  the  reigns  of  Charles  VH.  and  Louis  XL,  noted 
for  his  turbulent  ambition.    Died  in  prison  about  1474. 

Aleni,  a-la'nee,  or  Alenio,  a-la'ne-o,  (Giulio,)  a 
learned  Italian  Jesuit  and  missionarj-,  born  at  Brescia. 
He  visited  China  in  1610,  and  preached  with  great  suc- 
cess ;  he  caused  several  churches  to  be  erected,  and 
made  many  converts.  Died  in  China  in  1649.  He  wrote 
a  number  of  works  in  the  Chinese  language. 

Aleni,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  historical  painter,  born 
at  Cremona  in  1500.    Died  about  1560. 

Aleotti,  d-la-ot'tee,  (GiAMiiATxrsTA,)  an  Italian  en- 
gineer and  architect,  born  near  Ferrara  in  1546  ;  died  in 
1636.    His  chief  work  is  the  theatre  of  Parma. 

Aler,  a'ler,  (Paul,)  a  German  Jesuit,  born  in  Lux- 
emburg in  1656,  passed  many  years  as  a  teacher  at  Co- 
logne. He  wrote  several  Latin  dramas,  and  published 
a  popular  school-book  called  "  Gradus  ad  Parnassum," 
of  which  it  is  said  he  was  not  the  author.    Died  in  1727. 

Ales,  Aless,  or  Alesse,  c^-less',  [Lat.  ALF.sius,a-lee'- 
she-us,]  (Alexander,)  an  eminent  Scottish  divine,  bom 
in  Edinburgh  in  1500.  His  family  name  was  Alane. 
He  was  driven  into  exile  about  1530  by  persecution  for 
religion,  and  became  a  pupil  of  Melanchthon,  with  whom 
he  formed  an  intimate  and  lasting  friendship.  He  was 
professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic  from  1543  until  1565. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  several  books  of  Scripture, 
and  some  polemical  works.    Died  at  Leipsic  in  1565. 

See  Cha.mbers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;'' 
M.-KCKENZiE,  "Lives  of  Scotch  Writers." 

.  Ales,  t'l^s',  (Pierre  Alexandre,)  Vicomte  de 
Corbet,  a  French  writer,  born  in  Touraine  in  17 15. 
His  chief  work  is  "  On  the  Origin  of  Evil,"  (2  vols.,  1758.) 
Died  about  1770. 

Alesio,  S-la'se-o,  (]\La.tteo  Pietro;  more  properly 
Matteo  Lecce — l^t'chi.)  a  painter  and  engraver,  born 
at  Rome,  was  a  pupil  of  Michael  Angelo.  He  worked 
at  Seville.  His  fresco  of  Saint  Christopher  in  that  city  is 
highly  praised.    He  returned  to  Italy,  and  died  in  1600. 

Alesius.    See  Ales,  (Alexander.) 

Alessandri,  d-l^s-sau'dRee,  (Alessandro,)  [in  Latin, 
Ali:xan''der  .\b  Alexan^dro,]  an  Italian  writer  and  i 
jurist,  born  at  Naples  about  1460;  died  in  1523.    He  left  ' 
a  work  on  philology,  called  "Dies  Geniales,"  (1522,) 
often  reprinted.    It  is  on  the  model  of  the  "  Attic 
Nights"  of  Aulus  Gellius. 

Alessandri,  d-l§s-san'dRee,  (Felice,)  an  Italian 
composer  of  operas,  born  at  Rome  in  1742.  Died  about 
1810. 

Alessandri,  (Tnnocente,)  an  Italian  engraver  of 
Venice,  born  about  1742. 

Alessandrini,  i-les-sin-dRee'nee,  (Giulio,)  an  Ital- 
ian medical  writer,  born  at  Trent  in  1506.  Died  in 
1590. 

Alessandro,  the  Italian  for  Alexander,  which  see. 

Alessandro,  S-les-sSnMRo,  and  Ju'li-o,  (or  Giuglio, 
jooKyo,)  two  Italian  fresco-painters,  who  are  supposed 
to  have  been  pupils  of  Raphael,  (or,  according  to  some 
writers,  of  Giovanni  da  Udine,)  and  appear  to  have  been 
partners.  They  worked  for  Charles  V.  in  Spain,  and 
decorated  the  Alhambra.    Died  about  1530. 

Alessi,  a-l^s'see,  (Galeazzo,  gS-la-at'so,)  an  eminent 
Italian  architect,  born  at  Perugia  in  1500,  was  an  inti- 
mate friend  of  Michael  Angelo.  Having  adorned  his 
native  city  with  several  palazzi,  (palaces,)  he  was  called 
to  Genoa  in  1552,  to  design  tlie  Carignano  Church.  He 


;  was  architect  of  the  Grimaldi  Palace,  and  of  other  grand 
I  palaces  of  Genoa.  Died  in  1572. 

I  See  Q.  DE  QuixcY,  "  Histoire  des  plus  celebres  Architectes  ; 
j  MiLiziA,  "  Vite  de'  piu  celebri  Architelti." 

'     Alessio   Piemontese,    i-18s'se-o  pe-a-mon-ta'sa. 

r  [Lat.  Alex'is  Pedemonta'nus,]  a  physician  of  the  six 
teenth  century,  who  dealt  in  secret  remedies.  Stung  bv 
remorse  at  the  death  of  a  person  who,  as  he  supposed 
might  have  been  saved  if  he  had  communicated  his  know- 
ledge to  the  attending  surgeon,  he  resolved  to  make 
known  to  the  world  all  his  remedies,  and  published  a 
curious  book  called  "  The  Secrets  of  Alexis  of  Pied- 
mont." 

APe-vas  or  Aleu'as,  [W'/A'ac,]  an  ancient  Greek 
statuarv,  who  worked  in  bronze.  He  is  mentioned  bv 
Pliny.  ' 

Al-ex-am'e-nus,  ['AAt^a.un-'of,]  a  native  of  Teos,  was, 
according  to  Aristotle,  the  first  Greek  who  wrote  dia- 
logues in  the  Socratic  style. 

Al-ex-an'der  ['A/i^ru'dpof]  I.,  King  of  Macedonia, 
a  son  of  Amyntas  I.,  began  to  reign  about  500  B.C.  He 
was  obliged  to  join  his  forces  with  the  army  of  Persian 
invaders  in  480. 

Alexander  II.,  King  of  Macedonia,  was  a  son  of 
Amynras  II.,  whom  he  succeeded  about  370  B.C.  He 
was  assassinated  in  367. 

Alexander  [Gr. 'A/i^aj'('pof;  Lat.  Alexan''der  ;  Fr. 
Alexandre,  J'lek'sSNdR';*  It.  Alessandro,  i-les-sin'- 
dRo;  Sp.  Alejandro,  d-la-Hdn'dRo  ;  Persian  and  Turk- 
ish, Iskan'der  and  Sikan'der]  surnamed  the  Great, 
the  first  in  order  of  time  of  the  four  most  celebrated  com- 
manders of  whom  history  makes  mention,!  and  the  third 
Macedonian  king  of  his  iiame,  was  born  at  Pella,  356  B.C. 
He  was  the  son  of  Philip  and  Olympias,  being  descended 
on  his  father's  side  from  the  ancient  royal  line  of  Mace- 
donia, and  on  his  mother's  from  the  kings  of  Epirus. 
who  boasted  their  descent  from  Achilles.  When  Alex- 
ander was  about  fourteen  years  of  age,  his  father  sent 
for  Aristotle,  that  he  might  become  the  tutor  of  the 
young  prince.  Under  this  illustrious  master,  the  greatest 
intellect  of  that  or,  perhaps,  of  any  age,  Alexander 
rapidly  advanced  in  knowledge  of  every  kind,  and  devel- 
oped mental  powers  of  the  highest  order.  Unhappily, 
his  descent  from  Achilles,  and  the  flattery  of  the  cour- 
tiers around  him,  gave  his  mind  an  early  bias  towards 
war,  and  the  ambition  to  be  a  great  conqueror  became 
the  ruling  passion  of  his  soul.  The  Iliad  was  his  favour- 
ite book  ;  and  it  is  said  that  he  had  a  copy  of  that  poem 
which  he  regularly  placed  under  his  pillow  at  night  along 
with  his  sword.  He  seemed  fitted  to  excel  in  every  de- 
partment of  knowledge,  as  well  as  in  every  manly  and 
martial  exercise.  In  horsemanship  he  was  unequalled  ; 
and  when  the  famous  steed  Bucephalus  was  brought  to 
Pella,  the  Macedonian  capital,  as  none  of  the  grooms  or 
nobles  could  manage  him,  Philip,  displeased,  ordered  the 
animal  to  be  sent  back  whence  he  came  ;  but  the  young 
prince  begged  to  be  allowed  to  try  his  skill.  His  wish 
was  at  first  regarded  as  the  thoughtless  expression  of 
youthful  folly;  but,  when  he  earnestly  insisted,  the  king 
asked  what  forfeit  he  would  be  willing  to  pay  in  case  he 
failed.  "  The  price  of  the  horse,"  said  Alexander.^  He 
had  observed  that  Bucephalus  was  excited  by  his  own 
shadow.  He  therefore  turned  the  horse's  head  towards 
the  sun,  and,  at  the  same  time  using  every  means  to 
soothe  him,  he  soon  succeeded  in  bringing  him  under 
complete  control.  The  king  was  so  delighted  with  his 
son's  success  that  he  is  said  to  have  wept  for  joy,  telling 
him  he  must  seek  for  another  kingdom,  for  Macedonia 
was  too  small  for  him.  He  had  such  confidence  in  Alex- 
ander's abilities,  that  when  he  set  out  on  an  expedition 
against  Byzantium  he  left  the  young  prince,  then  onl} 
sixteen  years  old,  as  regent  of  the  kingdom  during  his 
absence.  According  to  Plutarch,  Philip  was  delighted  to 
hear  the  Macedonians  call  his  son  "king,"  while  he  him- 


*  Chaucer  has  Alexandre  s.v\d.  Alisaimder,  the  latter  being  e\'i- 
dently  derived  from  the  Italian,  but  not  improbably  through  an  old 
French  form. 

t  Alexander,  Hannibal,  Caesar,  and  Napoleon. 

+  The  price  of  Bucephalus,  says  Pliny,  in  his  "Natural  History'," 
was  sixteen  talents, — probably  more  than  twenty  thousand  dollars  ot 
our  money. 


€  as  k:  c  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as /;  o,  h,  y^^ guttural;  N,  fiasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  t/iis.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ALEXANDER 


84 


ALEXANDER 


self  received  the  title  of  "general"  only.  When  but 
eighteen  years  of  age,  Alexander  greatly  distinguished 
himself  in  the  battle  of  Chcerone^a,  and  the  victory  which 
Philip  won  on  that  memorable  field  was  due  in  a  great 
measure  to  his  son's  courage  and  valour.  On  the  death 
of  his  father,  (336  B.C.,)  Alexander,  who  was  not  yet 
twenty  years  old,  succeeded  to  the  throne.  Several  of 
the  Grecian  states  which  had  been  subjugated  by  Philip, 
deemed  this  a  favourable  opportunity  for  regaining  their  j 
independence.  Alexander's  energy  and  promptitude,  I 
however,  disconcerted  all  their  measures,  and  even 
ihose  who  had  been  most  active  submitted  to  his  power 
without  a  struggle.  But  soon  after,  while  he  was  en- 
gaged in  subduing  the  Triballi  and  other  barbarous  na- 
tions in  the  east  of  Europe,  a  report  having  been  circu- 
lated that  he  was  dead,  the  Thebans  revolted  a  second 
time.  But  the  young  king  advanced  into  Boeotia  by  rapid 
strides,  and  was  soon  at  their  gates.  The  city  was  taken 
by  storm,  the  houses  levelled  to  the  ground,  and  all  the 
citizens  who  had  escaped  massacre  in  the  assault  were 
sold  into  slavery — the  posterity  of  the  poet  Pindar, 
and  the  families  of  those  who  had  opposed  the  revolt, 
alone  excepted.  The  other  states  of  Greece,  intimi- 
dated by  this  terrible  example,  were  fain  to  accept  Alex- 
ander as  their  ruler.  In  a  general  assembly  held  not 
long  after,  at  Corinth,  he  was  chosen  generalissimo  of 
all  the  Grecian  forces  destined  for  the  expedition  against 
Persia.  In  the  spring  of  334  B.C.  he  passed  over  into 
Asia  Minor  with  an  army  of  not  more  than  35,000  men, 
including  the  cavalry,  which  scarcely  amounted  to  5000. 
lie  first  engaged  the  Persians  at  the  river  Grani''cus, 
where  they  endeavoured  to  prevent  his  passage.  Al- 
though the  Macedonians  fought  at  a  great  disadvantage, 
being  attacked  by  the  Persians  while  they  were  still  in 
the  river,  they  soon  put  their  enemies  to  flight.  He  af- 
terwards advanced  to  Gordium,  where  was  the  famous 
Gordian  knot.  He  had  been  told  that  the  fates  had  de- 
creed the  empire  of  the  world  to  him  who  should  untie 
the  knot.  He  tried  therefore  for  some  time  ;  but,  finding 
all  his  efforts  to  be  vain,  he  at  last  drew  his  sword  and 
cut  the  knot,  declaring  that  this  was  the  only  way  to 
untie  it.  In  333  B.C.,  having  received  reinforcements 
from  Macedonia,  he  advanced  to  meet  Darius,  who  had 
assembled  an  army  of  about  600,000  men.  The  opposing 
forces  met  at  Issus.  The  Persians  were  defeated  with 
terrible  slaughter.  Darius  himself  escaped  from  the 
battle,  but  his  mother,  his  wife,  and  two  daughters  were 
taken  bv  the  conqueror,  who  treated  them  with  the 
greatest  kindness  and  consideration.  The  booty  which 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Macedonians  after  their  victory 
at  Issus  was  immense.  Before  proceeding  farther,  Alex- 
ander deemed  it  wisest  to  reduce  the  maritime  states. 
Most  of  the  other  towns  and  cities  submitted  at  once  to 
his  power  ;  but  Tyre  offered  a  most  determined  resist- 
ance. After  a  siege  of  seven  months,  during  which  the 
Tyrians  defended  the  place  with  equal  skill  and  obsti- 
nacy, the  city  was  taken,  332  B.C.  The  glory  of  this 
achievement,  however,  was  stained  by  the  cruelty  of  the 
conqueror  towards  the  inhabitants,  of  whom  several 
thousands  were  mercilessly  slaughtered,  and  the  remain- 
der, amounting  to  thirty  thousand,  sold  into  slavery. 
As  he  proceeded  southward,  all  the  towns  opened  their 
gates  except  Gaza,  which  experienced  a  fate  similar  to 
that  of  Tyre.  Alexander  then  marched  into  Egypt, 
where  he  was  received  by  the  people,  who  were  weary 
of  the  Persian  domination,  as  a  liberator.  Here  he 
founded  a  city  called,  after  his  own  name,  Alexandria. 
He  afterwards  visited  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Amnion  on 
an  oasis  in  the  desert  of  Libya,  in  the  hope,  as  some 
say,  that  the  god  would  acknowledge  him  as  his  son. 
This  acknowledgment  having  been  made  through  the 
priest  of  the  temple,  Alexander  returned  to  Egypt,  and, 
not  long  after,  marched  against  Darius,  who  had  col- 
lected another  army  of  more  than  a  million  men,  with 
40,000  cavalry.  The  Macedonians  had  only  about  40,000 
foot-soldiers  and  7000  horsemen.  The  armies  met  at 
Gaugamela,  near  Arbela,  331  B.C.  The  Persians  were 
routed  with  immense  slaughter.  Soon  after  Babylon  and 
Susa  opened  their  gates  to  the  conqueror.  Persepolis, 
the  capital  of  the  empire,  defended  by  Ariobarzanes, 
was  taken  after  a  slight  resistance.    Alexander  was  noAV 


the  undisputed  master  of  Persia;  but  his  successes 
appear  to  have  turned  his  brain.  Having  persuaded 
himself  that  he  was  a  god,  he  thought  that  he  owed  no 
obedience  to  laws  which  were  made  for  mortals  only. 
While  at  Persepolis,  he  is  said,  in  a  drunken  revel,  at  the 
instigation  of  the  courtesan  Thais,  to  have  set  fire,  with 
his  own  hand,  to  the  magnificent  residence  of  the  Per- 
sian kings,  then  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  In 
330  B.C.,  having  learned  that  Darius  was  collecting 
another  army  in  Media,  Alexander  set  out  in  pursuit  of 
him.  The  Persian  king  fled  towards  Bactria ;  but  be- 
fore he  reached  its  confines  he  was  murdered  by  Bessus, 
the  satrap  of  that  country,  who  aspired  to  the  throne  of 
Persia.  The  conqueror  came  up  just  as  Darius  was 
breathing  his  last.  The  dying  king,  covered  with  wounds, 
lay  extended  on  a  chariot.  At  this  sad  spectacle  Alex- 
ander could  not  restrain  his  tears.  He  caused  the  body 
of  Darius  to  be  conveyed  to  Persepolis  and  interred  in 
the  tombs  of  the  Persian  kings.  He  then  marched  in 
pursuit  of  Bessus,  who,  having  at  last  fallen  into  his 
hands,  was  put  to  death,  as  Plutarch  informs  us,  in  the 
following  manner.  He  was  attached  by  his  limbs  to  two 
trees,  which  had  been  bent  towards  each  other  for  this 
purpose,  and,  on  their  being  allowed  to  recoil,  his  body 
was  torn  asunder.  Alexander  had  carried  his  victorious 
arms  to  the  northward  beyond  the  Jaxartes.  He  after- 
wards subdued  Sogdiana.  Oxyartes,  a  Bactrian  prince, 
had,  for  the  sake  of  security,  placed  his  wife  and  daugh- 
ters in  a  fortress  built  upon  a  lofty  rock.  Alexander 
took  it,  and  was  so  deeply  smitten  with  the  beauty  of 
Roxana,  one  of  the  daughters,  that  he  married  her. 
After  his  conquest  of  Persia  there  were  formed  against 
his  life  two  conspiracies,  in  the  first  of  which  Philotas, 
the  son  of  Parmenio,  was  implicated,  and  which  led  to 
the  death  both  of  son  and  father,  (see  Parmenio  ;)  the 
second,  of  which  Hermolaus  was  the  chief  instigator,  in- 
volved Callisthenes,  the  pupil,  and,  according  to  some, 
the  nephew,  according  to  others  the  cousin,  of  Aristotle, 
and  several  of  the  royal  pages.  All  the  conspirators 
were  put  to  death,  except  Callisthenes,  who  was  muti- 
lated and  afterwards  killed ;  though  some  say  he  de- 
stroyed himself  by  poison. 

In  327  B.  C.  Alexander  invaded  India,  a  country  of  which 
until  that  time  even  the  name  was  scarcely  known  to  the 
Greeks.  Having  crossed  the  Indus,  he  formed  an  alli- 
ance with  Taxiles,  one  of  the  kings  of  that  region,  w^ho 
is  said  to  have  brought  him,  in  addition  to  a  large  body 
of  troops,  one  hundred  and  thirty  elephants.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  met  with  little  opposition  until  he  arrived 
at  the  banks  of  the  Hydaspes,  (Jhylum.)  Here  his  ad- 
vance was  resisted  by  a  king  named  Porus,  at  the  head 
of  a  great  army,  with  a  large  number  of  elephants.  After 
a  hard -fought  and  bloody  battle,  Alexander  was  victo- 
rious. He  took  Porus  prisoner,  but  afterwards  he  re- 
stored him  to  his  kingdom  and  treated  him  with  the 
highest  consideration.  His  favourite  horse  Bucephalus 
had  been  severely  wounded  in  the  battle,  so  that  he  died 
soon  after.  On  the  spot  where  he  was  buried  Alexander 
founded  a  town,  which  he  called,  in  honour  of  him,  Buce- 
phala.  He  afterwards  advanced,  subduing  many  cities 
in  his  course,  as  far  as  the  Hyphasis,  (Gharra,)  when  hiS> 
soldiers  refused  to  go  any  farther.  His  commands  and 
entreaties  were  equally  unavailing,  and  he  was  under  the 
necessity  of  returning.  Plaving  previously  given  orders 
that  a  fleet  should  be  built  on  the  Hj^laspes,  they  imme- 
diately embarked  upon  that  river,  continuing  their  course 
down  the  Indus  to  the  sea.  Committing  his  fleet  to 
Nearchus,  he  proceeded  by  land  to  Susa.  In  his  march 
he  encountered  incredible  hardships,  and  a  large  number 
of  his  men  perished  from  hunger  and  thirst.  At  Susa, 
where  he  rested  for  some  time,  he  married,  as  his  second 
wife,  the  daughter  of  Darius  ;  and  to  all  those  Mace- 
donians (amounting,  it  is  said,  to  9C00  or  10,000)  who 
married  Persian  women  he  gave  presents.  His  object 
was  to  unite  the  two  nations  as  intimately  as  possible. 
Soon  after,  his  friend  Hepha^stion  died,  for  whose  loss 
he  was  for  a  long  time  inconsolable.  As  he  was  forming 
vast  projects  for  the  improA-ement  of  his  empire,  and  for 
the  subjugation  of  the  surrounding  nations,  he  died  at 
Babylon,  323  B.C.,  in  his  thirty-third  year. 

In  the  extent  of  his  conquests,  and  in  the  splendour 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;     ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fall,  fdt;  \wlt;  \  6t  gdod;  moon; 


ALEXANDER 


85 


ALEXANDER 


of  his  exploits,  Alexander  may  be  said  to  have  surpassed 
all  other  military  heroes.  He  overran  and  subdued  the 
greater  part  of  the  world  known  to  the  ancients,  almost 
as  quickly  as  the  same  could  have  been  explored  by  an 
active  and  enterprising  traveller.  Even  now,  after  the 
lapse  of  twenty-two  hundred  years,  his  name  is  still 
"familiar  as  household  words"  in  most  of  the  countries 
that  he  conquered.  It  may  not  be  irrelevant  to  state — 
in  order  to  show  what  a  deep  impression  the  arms  and 
policy  of  Alexander  had  made  upon  the  mind  of  the 
Persian  nation — that  Firdousee,  (Firdausi,)  in  his  great 
historic  poem,  the  Shah  Nameh,"  written  about  the 
year  1000  A.D.,  speaks  of  Alexander  (Iskander)  as  the 
greatest  of  heroes ;  but,  following  probably  the  tradi- 
tions of  his  country,  the  poet  represents  him  as  the  son 
of  a  Persian  king  who  had  married  a  Macedonian  prin- 
cess, and,  while  she  was  on  a  visit  to  her  father  in  Mace- 
don,  Alexander  was  born.  This  is  equivalent  to  an 
acknowledgment,  on  the  part  of  the  Persians,  that  they 
considered  his  glory  too  great  not  to  be  appropriated  at 
least  in  part  by  themselves.  Although  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  Alexander  owed  more  to  fortune  than  any 
other  of  the  great  conquerors  mentioned  in  history,  it 
can  scarcely  be  questioned  that  his  military  talents  were 
of  the  very  highest  order.  Many  of  his  views  of  public 
policy  were  liberal  and  enlightened  ;  and  his  ideas  re- 
specting the  greatness  and  dignity  that  became  a  king 
were  very  different  from  those  of  an  ordinary  or  vulgar 
sovereign.  Undoubtedly,  much  of  what  was  greatest  and 
noblest  in  his  character  was  due  to  the  instructions  of 
his  illustrious  teacher  Aristotle  ;  but  it  is  certainly  no 
small  praise  that  the  royal  pupil  was,  at  least  in  the 
early  part  of  his  career,  before  his  brain  had  been  turned 
by  his  unparalleled  successes,  every  way  worthy  of  such 
a  teacher.  He  appears  to  have  regarded  him  with  an 
affectionate  reverence  such  as  he  felt  for  no  other  human 
being,  not  even  his  father.  And  if  these  sentiments  were 


!  1753;  LiNGL'ET,  "Histoire  du  Siecle  d'Alexandre  le  Grand,"  1762 
De  Bury,  "  Vie  d'Alexandre  le  Grand,"  1760;  G.  Schlegel,  "  Ein- 
leitung  zu  einer  Alexandropadie  oder  iiber  die  Jugenujahre  Alexander* 
des  Grossen,"  1775;  Gustav  Pfizer,  "Geschichte  Alexanders  dc. 
Grossen,"  1845;  Igxaz  A.  Fessler,  "Alexander  der  Eroberer,' 
1797;  C.  Matthias,  •'Historia  Alexandri  Magni,"  1645;  F.  Av 
GUSTi,  "  Riflessioni  critiche  sopra  il  Carattere  e  le  Gestad'Alessandro 
etc.,"  1764. 

Alexander  IV.,  a  son  of  Alexander  the  Great  ana 
Roxana,  was  born  in  323  B.C.,  after  his  father's  death.  He 
was  saluted  as  king  by  the  army  at  Babylon,  and  was 
under  the  guardianship  of  successive  regents,  Perdiccas. 
Antipater,  and  Polysperchon.  About  316  he  fell  intc 
the  power  of  Cassander,  who  put  him  and  Roxana  to 
death  in  310  B.C. 

Alexander  V.  of  Macedonia,  was  the  third  son  of 
Cassander.  He  disputed  w^ith  his  brother  Antipater  for 
the  royal  power,  and  was  put  to  death  by  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes  in  294  B.C. 

Alexander  I.,  King  of  Epirus,  was  a  son  of  Neop- 
tolemus,  and  brother  of  Olympias,  who  was  the  mother 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  He  was  killed  in  a  war  against 
the  Lucanians  about  330  B.C. 

Alexander  II.  of  Epirus,  succeeded  his  father  Pyr- 
rhus  in  272  B.C.  He  waged  war  against  Demetrius  of 
Macedon.    Died  about  242  B.C. 

Alexander,  tyrant  of  Pherae  in  Thessaly,  usurped 
the  throne  in  369  B.C.,  and  was  notorious  for  cruelty. 
He  was  compelled  by  Epaminondas  to  give  up  Pelopidas, 
whom  he  had  taken  prisoner  in  367.  In  364  he  was 
defeated  by  the  Thebans  under  Pelopidas,  who  fell  in 
the  action.    He  was  killed  by  conspirators  in  359  B.C. 

Alexander  I.  of  Egypt,  was  a  son  of  Ptolemy  Ever- 
getes  II.  He  reigned  jointly  with  his  mother  Cleopatra 
eighteen  years,  from  107  to  89  r-.C.  He  was  dethroned 
and  killed  in  battle  soon  after  the  latter  date.  His  son 
Alexander  reigned  a  few  weeks  in  81  B.C.,  and  was 
killed  by  his  own  subjects  in  the  same  year. 

AlexcQider  I.,  surnamed  Ba'las,  King  of  Syria,  pre- 


afterwards  somewhat  changed  by  the  folly  or  crinie  of  |  ^^^^^^^         ^he  son  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  He  began 


Aristotle's  relative  Callisthenes,  they  were  never  wholly 
extinguished.  There  was  in  Alexander's  nature  a  gene- 
rosity and  magnanimity  rare  even  among  men  most 
distinguished  for  greatness  of  soul.  His  treatment  of 
the  family  of  Darius,  and  his  generous  conduct  towards 
Porus,  have  already  been  spoken  of.  We  may  cite 
another  example  of  his  magnanimity,  related  by  Plutarch 
and  some  other  writers.  A  letter  from  Parmenio,  one 
of  his  ablest  and  most  trusted  officers,  informed  Alex- 
ander, when  he  was  once  lying  very  ill,  that  his  physi- 
cian Philip  had  been  bribed  by  Darius,  with  presents  of 
immense  value  and  the  promise  of  his  daughter  in  mar- 
riage, to  take  him  off  by  poison.  As  Philip  entered  the  ^  ^ 
chamber  with  a  cup  of  medicine  for  his  royal  patient,  i 


will  was  most  extraordinary,  unhap-  ^^^^^^^  Qabinius  about  the  end' of  that  year.  He 
10ns  was  still  greater.    Accordingly,  1  ^^.^^  ^^^^      ^^^^^^^      q        ^^-^y^^  p 


Alexander  drew  the  letter  from  under  his  jmHow  and 
gave  it  to  him  to  read,  while  he  himself,  without  the 
slightest  hesitation,  drank  off  the  medicine  prepared  for 
him.  The  result  fully  justified  the  trust  with  which 
Philip's  character  had  inspired  him,  and  which  his  coun- 
tenance then  confirmed.  Although  the  strength  of  his 
intellect  and  of  his 
pily  that  of  his  passi 

we  behold  him,  after  the  conquest  of  Persia,  so  elated  | 
as  eagerly  to  accept  the  adoration  which  his  flatterers 
offered  to  him  as  to  a  god,  and  yet  surrendering  him- 
self up  at  one  time  to  the  most  insane  paroxysms  of 
anger,  at  another  to  the  most  passionate  and  uncontrol- 
lable grief.  In  a  fit  of  rage  he  slew  his  friend  and  foster- 
brother  Clitus,  who  had  once  saved  his  life,  after  which 
he  became  a  prey  to  sorrow  and  remorse  no  less  violent 
than  his  anger  had  been,  so  that  had  he  not  been  re- 
strained by  his  friends  he  would  probably  have  killed 
himself.  Pope,  in  his  "  Temple  of  Fame,"  appropriately 
calls  him 

"The  youth  who  all  things  but  himself  subdued." 
See  Plutarch's  "Lives;"  Arrian's  "History  of  Alexander's 
Expedition;"  "Life  of  Alexander,"  by  Quintus  Curtius  ;  "  Bib- 
liotheca"  of  DiouoRUS  Siculus."  books  xvii.-xx.  ;  Sainte-Croix. 
"  Examen  critique  des  anciens  Historiens  d'Alexandre  le  Grand.'' 
1775;  Droypen,  "Geschichte  Alexanders  des  Grossen,"  1833:  Wil- 
liams, "Life  and  Actions  of  Alexander  the  Great."  1829;  Thirl- 
WALL,  "  HistorA- of  Greece  ;"  Valerius,  "  Historia  Alexandri  Magni," 
1589;  Lehmann,  "  Historia  Magni  Alexandri,"  1667;  Kossin. 
''L'Eroismo  ponderato  nella  Vita  di  Alessandro  il  Grande,"  2  vols.^ 
1716  ;  Fonseca-Rebelo,  "  Historia  abreviada  de  Alexandro  Magno," 


to  reign  in  150  B.C.,  after  he  had  defeated  Demetrius 
Soter  in  battle,  and  after  the  Roman  Senate  had  issued 
a  decree  in  his  favour.  The  kingdom  was  invaded  in  148 
by  an  army  raised  by  Demetrius  II.,  and  by  another  under 
Ptolemy  of  Egypt,  who  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
Alexancler  in  147.  He  fled  into  Arabia,  where  he  was 
killed  in  146  B.C.  His  surname  of  Balas  is  supposed  to 
signify  "  Lord." 

See  Josephus,  "  Histon,-  of  the  Jews." 

Alexander  II.,  otherwise  called  Alexander  Za- 
bi'nas,  (or  Zebina,  i.e.  "a  purchased  slave,")  was  a 
pretender,  who,  being  favoured  or  instigated  by  Ptolemv 
Physcon  of  Egypt,  obtained  the  throne  of  Syria  in  128 
C,  after  he  had  defeated  Demetrius  II.  Refusing  to 
pav  tribute,  lie  provoked  the  hostility  of  Ptolemy,  by 
whom  he  was  defeated  and  put  to  death  in  122  B.C. 

Alexander,  a  grandson  of  Alexander  Jannasus,  and 
a  son  of  Aristobu'lus  II,  He  raised  an  army  in  57  B.C. 
and  entered  Judca,  then  occupied  by  the  Romans.  He 
made  himself  master  of  that  country  in  56,  but  was  de- 


put  to  death  by  Q. 
Alexander  of'^g^,  (ee'je. 


Peripatetic  philoso- 


pher, instructor  of  the  Roman  emperor  Nero. 
Alexander  of  Aphrodisias.     See  Alexander 

EXEGETES. 

Alexander  surnamed  ^Etolus,  (e-to'lus,)  from 
his  birthplace,  .^tolia,  a  Greek  poet,  who  lived  in  the 
third  century  B.C.  He  Avas  regarded  as  one  of  the  Pleias 
of  tragic  poets. 

Alexander  surnamed  Exege'tes,  {i.e.  the  "Ex- 
pounder,") a  celebrated  philosopher  and  commentator 
on  Aristotle,  flourished  in  the  early  part  of  the  third 
century.  He  was  a  native  of  Aphrodisias,  in  Caria, 
Asia  Minor. 

Alexander  Jann^us,  (jan-nee'us,)  a  son  of  John 
Hyrcanus,  succeeded  his  brother  Aristobu'lus  as  King 
of'judca  in  105  B.C.  The  enmity  of  the  Pharisees  against 
him  caused  a  rebellion,  which  raged  several  years,  and 
was  suppressed  with  great  cruelty  in  86  B.C.  Died  in 
78  B.C. 

See  article  by  Gesenius  in  Ersch  und  Gruber's  "  Allgemeine  En- 
cyklopaedie." 


€  as  ^;  5  as  x;  g  kard;  g  as g,  h,  v.,giiUural;  N,  nasal;  K,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    0:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


ALEXANDER 


86 


AI EXANDER 


Alexan'der  Myxm'dius,  a  Greek  writer  and  natural- 
ist, lived  probably  in  the  second  century  B.C. 

Alexan'der  Nume'nius.  a  Greek  rhetorician  of  the 
second  century,  wrote  a  book  on  the  "  Figures  of  Rhet- 
oric,"' which  is  extant. 

Alexander  Pelop'laton,  a  Greek  orator,  who 
was  secretary  to  Antoninus  Pius  about  150  a.d. 

Alexan'^der  Philale'thes,  ^^Ckalrjdriq^  2.  Greek 
physician,  who  was  the  head  of  a  celebrated  medical 
school  in  Phrygia.  He  is  mentioned  by  Strabo  as  his 
contemporary,  and  by  Galen.   His  works  are  not  extant. 

Alexan^der  Trallia'nus,  [Gv.oTpa'/lXiavog;  Fr.  Al- 
exandre UE  Tralles,  t'lek'sONdR^deh  tRtK,]  a  Greek 
medical  writer  of  great  merit,  was  born  at  Tralles,  in 
Lydia,  and  lived  in  the  sixth  century.  He  settled  in 
Rome,  and  attained  great  distinction  in  his  profession. 
It  i>  supposed  that  he  was  a  Christian.  His  great  work 
is  entitled  "Twelve  Books  on  Medicine,"  {BcSAia  'LarpLKu 
dvoKaldena.)  He  is  considered  one  of  the  best  Greek 
physicians  after  Hippocrates.  His  style  is  clear  and 
elegant.    His  works  have  often  been  printed. 

See  E.  MiLWARD,  "Trallianus  Revivescens,"  1734;  Freind, 
'■  History  of  Physic." 

Alexander,  a  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  who  was  perse- 
cuted under  the  emperor  Septimius  Severus.  He  was 
translated  from  the  see  of  Cappadocia  to  that  of  Jeru- 
salem, where  he  founded  a  library.  Died  in  prison  about 
250  A.D. 

Alexander,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  from  312  to  325 
A.D.,  is  noted  as  the  first  orthodox  theologian  who  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  Arian  controversy.  He  wrote 
many  epistles  against  Arianism.  He  attended  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nice  in  325,  and  died  in  326  a.d.    (See  Atha- 

NASIUS.) 

Alexander,  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  born  about 
870  A.D.,  was  a  son  of  Basilius.  He  succeeded  his 
brother  Leo  the  Philosopher  in  911,  and  disgraced  him- 
self by  his  debaucheries.    Died  in  912. 

Alexander  I.,  Pope,  became  Bishop  of  Rome  in  108 
A.D.  ;  died  in  117.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
to  introduce  the  use  of  holy  water  in  the  service  of  the 
church. 

Alexander  II.,  named  originally  Anselmo  Bada- 
gio,  (bi-dcVjo,)  was  elected  pope  in  1061;  died  in  1073, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  VII. 

Alexander  III.  (previously  Cardinal  Rolando 
Ranuccio  Bandinelli  —  ri-noo'cho  b3n-de-neKlee) 
was  raised  to  the  papal  chair  in  1159  ;  died  in  1181,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Lucius  HI.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  learning  and  great  abilities. 

See  "  Vita  Alexandri  III.,"  by  the  Cardinal  of  Aragon  ;  Mu- 
RATOKi,  "  Annali  d'ltalia  ;"  G.  F.  Loredano,  "Vita  di  Alessandro 
III.,"  1672. 

Alexander  IV.  (Rinaldo  di  Anagni — de  S-nin'- 
yee)  became  pope  in  1254;  died  in  1261,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Urban  IV. 

Alexander  V.  (Pi ETRO  Filargo — fe-laR'go)  became 
pope  in  1409 ;  died  in  1410.  His  successor  was  John 
XXIH. 

Alexander  VI.  (Rodrigo  Lenzuoli  Borgia — Ign- 
zoo-oHee  boR'ji)  was  born  at  Valencia,  Spain,  about 
1430.  He  first  studied  law,  and  distinguished  himself  as 
an  Advocate,  but  afterwards  embraced  the  military  pro- 
fession. When  he  was  only  twenty-five,  his  uncle,  Ca- 
lixtus  HI.,  was  raised  to  the  papal  see.  This  circum- 
stance directed  his  ambition  towards  the  church.  He 
was  made  cardinal  through  the  influence  of  his  uncle  in 
1456,  and  at  length,  in  1492,  was  elected  pope  as  suc- 
cessor to  Innocent  VIII.  He  was  distinguished,  both 
while  he  was  a  cardinal  and  after  he  became  pontiff,  for 
his  profligacy,  inhumanity,  and  unscrupulous  ambition. 
Alexander's  illegitimate  son,  the  infamous  Cesare  Bor- 
gia, was  made  cardinal  soon  after  his  father's  accession 
to  the  papal  throne.  (See  Borgia.)  He  died  in  August, 
1503,  and  was  succeeded  by  Pius  III.  It  has  been  as- 
serted by  several  historians  that  Alexander  VI.  died  from 
the  effects  of  a  poison  which  he  and  his  son  Borgia  had 
designed  for  certain  of  their  guests  at  a  banquet,  but 
which,  by  mistake,  was  taken  by  the  pope  himself.  The 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale,"  in  an  elaborate  article. 


endorses  this  accusation.  It  has,  however,  been  dis- 
credited by  several  historical  critics,  on  the  ground  that 
the  evideiice  is  insufficient.  But,  whatever  judgment 
we  may  form  on  this  question,  it  can  scarcely  be  denied 
that  the  reign  of  Alexander  VI.  constitutes  the  blackest 
and  most  infamous  page  in  the  history  of  modern  times. 

See  Gordon,  "  Lives  of  Alexander  VI.  and  Csesar  Borgia,"  1729  ; 
MuRCHARD,  "  Specimen  Historian  Arcana;  seu  Anecdota  de  Vita  Alex- 
andri VI.,"  1697  ;  Panvinio,  "Vitedei  Pontefici ;"  ^tienne  Michel 
Masse,  "  Histoire  du  Pape  Alexandre  VI,"  1830;  F.  de  la  Fon- 
taine, "  Le  Pape  Alexandre  VI,"  1844;  Tomasi,  "  Vita  di  Cesare 
Borgia." 

Alexander  VII.  (Fabio  Chigi — kee'jee)  was  born 
at  Sienna  in  1599,  and  chosen  pope  in  1655,  on  the  death 
of  Innocent  X.  He  is  noted  for  his  zealous  and  successful 
efforts  to  improve  and  embellish  the  city  of  Rome.  He 
died  in  May,  1667,  and  was  succeeded  by  Clement  IX. 

See  Bagatta,  "Vitadi  Alessandro  VII. ;"  Botta,  "  Storia  d'lta- 
lia;" N.  N.  Sforza  Pallavicino,  "  Delia  Vita  di  Alessandro  VII.," 
2  vols.,  1840. 

Alexander  VIII.  (named  originally  Pietro  Otto- 
boni — ot-to-bo'nce)  was  born  at  Venice  in  1610.  He 
succeeded  Innocent  XI.  in  1689.  He  aided  the  Vene- 
tians in  war  against  the  Turks.  Died  in  1691.  His  suc- 
cessor was  Innocent  XII. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "Vies  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Alexander  I.,  King  of  Scotland,  was  a  younger  son 
of  Malcolm  Canmore.  He  succeeded  his  brother  Edgar 
in  1 107,  and  married  a  natural  daughter  of  Henry  I.  of 
England.  He  died  in  11 24,  and  left  the  throne  to  his 
brother,  David  I. 

See  Burton,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xi.  and  vol.  ii. 
chap.  xii. 

Alexander  II.  of  Scotland,  born  in  1198,  succeeded 
his  father  William  the  Lion  in  1 2 14.  He  fought  against 
King  John  of  England,  as  an  ally  of  the  revolted  barons, 
and  after  the  end  of  the  war  married  a  sister  of  Henry 
III.  He  is  represented  as  a  wise  and  able  ruler.  Died 
in  1249,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son. 

See  Burton,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  xiv. 

Alexander  III.  of  Scotland,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1241,  and  began  to  reign  in  1249.  His  nup- 
tials were  celebrated  with  Margaret,  the  daughter  of 
Henry  HI.  of  England,  in  125 1.  His  long  reign  was 
prosperous  and  peaceful,  with  the  exception  of  an  un- 
successful invasion  of  Scotland  by  Haco,  King  of  Nor- 
way, with  a  large  army,  in  1263.  Alexander  fell  with  his 
'lorse  over  a  precipice,  and  was  killed  by  the  fall,  in  1286. 
He  left  no  surviving  children,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
infant  grand-daughter  Margaret. 

See  Burton,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  xv. ;  Tvtler, 
"History  of  Scotland;"  Wvntovvn,  "  Chronicle  of  Scotland." 

Alexander  Jageli.on — yi-gel'lon,  King  of  Poland 
and  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania,  born  in  1461,  was  a  son 
of  Casimir  IV.  of  Poland.  He  became  king  at  the  death 
of  his  brother  John  Albert  in  1501.  He  waged  war 
with  little  success  against  the  Grand  Duke  Ivan  of  Rus- 
sia. In  his  reign  the  laws  of  Poland  were  reduced  to  a 
code  by  John  Laski,    Died  in  1 506. 

Alexander-NEVSKY — nev'ske,  (i.e.  "  of  the  Neva,") 
sometimes  written  -Nevskoi  and  -Newskoj,  a  brave 
Russian  prince,  born  in  12 19,  was  a  son  of  Yaroslav 
(Jaroslaw)  II.  He  is  said  to  have  gained,  in  1240,  a 
great  victory  over  the  Swedes  on  the  river  Neva,  whence 
his  surname.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  grand  duke 
in  1245.  Died  in  1263.  He  is  venerated  as  a  saint  by 
the  Russians. 

Alexander  I.,  (or,  more  fully,  Alexander-Pavlo- 
vitch — pav'lo-vitch^,  ie.  "Alexander  the  son  of  Paul,'') 
Emperor  of  Russia,  the  son  of  Paul  and  Maria  Feodo- 
rovna,  daughter  of  Prince  Eugene  of  Wiirtemberg,  was 
born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1777.  The  care  of  his 
education  was  taken  from  his  father  by  Catherine  II., 
his  grandmother,  who  herself  wrote  tales  for  the  amuse- 
ment and  instruction  of  the  young  prince.  Catherine 
died  in  1796,  having  named,  it  is  said,  Alexander  as 
her  successor  in  a  will  which  was  destroyed  by  Paul. 
In  1 80 1  Paul  was  assassinated  ;  but  there  is  no  sufficient 
ground  for  believing  that  Alexander  in  any  way,  directly 
or  indirectly,  sanctioned  this  crime,  al-nough  he  appears 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /o;i^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  s/iort :  a,  e,  i,  o,  odsnar;  fh',  fall,  fdt;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ALEXANDER 


87 


ALEXANDER 


to  have  consented  to  the  dethronement  of  his  father. 
The  chief  defect  of  his  character  in  the  early  part  of  his 
life  was  the  yielding  too  passively  to  the  advice  of  the 
corrupt  courtiers  about  him,  and  the  want  of  reliance 
on  his  ovai  judgment  and  on  the  dictates  of  his  own 
noble  nature.  This  may  perhaps  account  for  the  in- 
consistencies which  appear  in  his  conduct  in  different 
parts  of  his  life.  He  does  not  seem  to  have  exhibited 
any  striking  indications  of  that  greatness  of  mind 
which  was  afterwards  so  conspicuous,  till  about  the 
time  of  the  French  invasion  in  1812.  Our  limits  neces- 
sarily compel  us  to  pass  over  the  military  movements 
and  those  other  acts  of  his  reign  which  are  found  in 
every  history  of  that  eventful  period.  Suffice  it  to  say 
that  as  his  firmness  and  wisdom  had  led  to  the  over- 
throw of  Napoleon  in  1813,  so,  after  that  event,  his 
magnanimity  preserved  the  city  of  Paris  from  the  fury 
of  the  Russian  soldiers,  liberated  one  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  French  prisoners  of  war  confined  in  Russia, 
and  sought  to  obtain  for  his  fallen  foe  the  most  liberal 
terms  compatible  with  what  he  deemed  the  safety  of 
Europe.  It  was,  in  fact,  through  his  influence  that  Bo- 
naparte was  allowed  an  independent  sovereignty  in  Elba 
and  the  command  of  a  portion  of  his  former  guard.  On 
Alexander's  return  to  Russia  he  granted  an  absolute 
pardon  to  all  his  subjects  who  had  taken  part  against 
him  in  the  late  war.  When  it  w^as  proposed  to  erect  a 
monument  to  commemorate  his  exploits,  he  peremptorily 
declined  the  honour,  adding,  "  May  a  monument  be 
erected  to  me  in  your  hearts,  as  it  is  to  you  in  mine." 
He  gave  unremitting  attention  to  the  internal  improve- 
ment of  his  empire.  Reform  was  introduced  into  every 
department,  military  and  civil.  In  the  army,  the  soldier 
was  subjected  to  the  restraints  not  merely  of  discipline, 
but  also  of  humanity.  Persecution  on  account  of  reli- 
gion was  first  abolished  in  Russia  under  his  reign.  He 
entered  Paris  with  the  army  of  the  Allies  in  July,  181 5,  and 
in  September  of  that  year  he  concluded  with  the  Em- 
peror of  Austria  and  the  King  of  Prussia  a  treaty  called 
the  Holy  Alliance,  which,  although  ostensibly  formed  to 
promote  religion,  peace,  and  justice,  proved  to  be  a  bul- 
wark against  the  progress  of  liberal  principles.  He  died 
without  issue,  at  Taganrog,  on  the  ist  of  December,  1825, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Nicholas. 

In  reviewing  the  life  and  character  of  Alexander  I. 
of  Russia,  we  are  obliged  to  confess  that  although  his 
nature  was  on  the  whole  kind  and  generous,  and  most 
of  the  acts  of  his  reign  were  prompted  by  the  spirit  of 
justice  and  humanity,  the  cause  of  freedom  owes  little  or 
nothing  to  his  influence.  It  may  be  that  he,  like  so 
many  others,  received  such  an  impression  from  the  ex- 
cesses of  the  French  Revolution  that  he  came  to  believe 
that  the  people  could  not  safely  be  trusted  with  any  por- 
tion of  liberty.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  especially, 
his  mind  sharing,  perhaps,  in  his  bodily  infirmities,  he  re- 
garded with  morbid  apprehension  every  public  manifes- 
tation which  looked  towards  the  slightest  enlargement 
of  the  privileges  and  powers  of  the  people,  and  his  at- 
tention was  chiefly  devoted  to  suppressing  liberal  move- 
ments not  only  in  Poland,  but  also  in  Italy,  Spain,  Por- 
tugal, and  Germany. 

See  Henry  Evans  Lloyd,  "Alexander  I.,  Emperor  of  Russia," 
1826 ;  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "  Life  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  ;"  Ali- 
son, "History  of  Europe;"  Heinrich  Storch,  "  Russland  unter 
Alexander  L,"  8  vols.,  1803-06;  J.  D.  F.  Rumpf,  "Alexander  L 
Kaiser  von  Russland,"  1814;  Cousin  d'Avallon,  "Vie  privee, 
;>olitique  et  militaire  d' Alexandre  I,"  1826;  Carl  F.  Leidenfrost, 
"Abriss  eiuer  Lebens  Alexanders  L,"  1826;  Adrien  Egron,  "Vie 
d'Alexandre  I  de  Russie,"  1826;  Alphonse  Rabbe,  "  Histoire  d'Al- 
exandre  I,"  etc.,  1826;  Carl  Morgenstern,  "Zum  Gedaechtnisse 
Alexanders  L,"  1S27;  E.  W.  C.  Voigt,  "Alexander  L,"  1830. 

Alexander  II.,surnamed  NicoLAEViTCH,ne-ko-la.'e- 
vitch,  {i.e.  "son  of  Nicholas,")  Emperor  of  Russia,  the 
eldest  son  of  Nicholas  I.,  was  born  on  the  29th  of  April, 
1818.  Ilis  mother,  Alexandra  Feodorovna,  was  a  sister 
of  Frederick  William  IV.  of  Prussia.  He  married,  in 
1841,  a  daughter  of  Louis  II.,  Grand  Duke  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  who,  on  joining  the  Greek  Church,  adopted 
the  name  of  Marie  Alexandrovna.  On  the  death  of 
Nicholas,  March  2,  1855,  he  ascended  the  throne,  in  the 
midst  of  a  war  between  Russia  on  one  side,  and  France, 
England,  Turkey,  and  Sardinia  on  the  other.  He  re- 
'ained  in  office  the  ministers  of  his  father,  and  pro- 


claimed his  intention  to  pursue  the  policy  of  his  prede- 
cessor. The  war  was  prosecuted  with  vigour  even  aftei 
the  capture  of  Sebastopol,  September,  1855.  Conferences 
for  the  negotiation  of  peace,  opened  in  Paris  in  March, 
1856,  resulted  in  a  treaty  by  which  neither  party  gained 
any  important  advantages. 

Since  the  restoration  of  peace  he  has  ordered  several 
reforms  in  the  administration,  and  has  acquired  the 
reputation  of  being  more  moderate  and  liberal  than  his 
father.  Among  the  important  measures  of  his  reign  is 
the  gradual  emancipation  of  more  than  twenty  millions 
of  serfs,  which  was  decreed  in  March,  1861. 

A  letter  which  he  addressed  to  the  government  of  the 
United  States  in  1861,  on  the  subject  of  the  great  rebel- 
lion, was  received  as  an  indication  of  a  most  friendly 
feeling  on  the  part  of  Russia  towards  this  country,  which 
was  doubly  welcome  on  account  of  the  doubtful  or  hostile 
attitude  assumed  by  some  of  the  other  leading  European 
powders. 

Alexan'der  Alen''sis,  [i.e.  "of  Hales,")  a  renowned 
English  theologian,  styled  the  "Irrefragable  Doctor." 
His  chief  work  is  a  "System  of  Theology,"  ("Summa 
Theologiae,")  written  by  order  of  Pope  Innocent  IV. 
Died  in  1245. 

Alexander  [Fr.  Alexandre,  t'lek''s6NdR']  of  Ber'- 
NAY^  afterwards  Alexander  of  Paris,  a  French  poet 
of  the  twelfth  century,  born  at  the  village  of  Bernay,  in 
Normandy.  He  was  the  author  (or  one  of  the  authors) 
of  a  poem  on  the  exploits  of  Alexander  the  Great,  in 
verses  of  twelve  syllables,  a  measure  which  has  ever 
since  been  termed  "Alexandrine." 

Alexander  of  Canterbury,  an  English  abbot  and 
writer,  who  was  noted  for  his  assertion  of  the  rights  or 
interests  of  King  John  against  the  pope.  Died  about 
1220. 

Alexan'der  Essebien'sis,  {i.e.  "of  Ashby,")  an 
English  monk,  who  wrote  historical  and  theological 
works  in  the  first  part  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

Alexan''der  Insula'nus,  a  monk  and  chronicler  of 
Westphalia,  flourished  about  12 10. 

Alexander,  I^ishop  of  Lincoln,  born  at  Blois,  w^as 
surnamed  the  Magnificent.  He  rebuilt  Lincoln  Ca- 
thedral.   Died  in  1 147. 

Alexander  of  Ville  Dieu,  {vhl  de-uh',)  a  gramma- 
rian of  the  thirteenth  century.  He  taught  in  Paris,  and 
composed  a  book  of  grammar  in  verse,  which  was  long 
in  general  use  as  a  school-book. 

Alexan'der,  (Archibald,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  Ameri- 
can divine,  born  in  Rockbridge  county,  Virginia,  in 
1772.  His  grandfather,  of  Scottish  descent,  came  from 
Ireland  to  Pennsylvania  in  1736,  and,  after  a  residence 
of  about  two  years,  removed  to  Virginia.  His  father 
was  a  farmer.  Archibald  received  his  classical  education 
at  the  academy  of  the  Rev.  William  Graham,  with  whom 
he  also  studied  theology.  Pie  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1 79 1,  and  for  several  years  devoted  himself  to  itinerant 
labours,  in  which  he  acquired  great  fluency  as  a  speaker. 
In  1796  he  succeeded  the  Rev.  Dr.  John  Blair  Smith  as 
president  of  Hampden-Sidney  College,  Virginia.  He 
became  pastor  of  the  Pine  Street  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Philadelphia  in  1807.  On  the  organization  of  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  Princeton  in  1812,  Dr.  Alexander  was 
unanimously  chosen  the  first  professor,  with  the  sole 
charge  of  the  several  branches  of  a  theological  educa- 
tion. As  the  number  of  students  increased,  other  pro- 
fessors were  called  to  his  assistance,  which  enabled  him 
to  direct  his  attention  more  particularly  to  the  depart- 
ment of  pastoral  and  polemic  theology,  in  promoting 
which  and  the  general  interests  of  the  institution  he  con- 
tinued to  labour  with  great  zeal  and  success  till  his  death 
in  1 85 1.  Dr.  Alexander's  powers,  both  for  pulpit  oratory 
and  polemic  disquisition,  were  extraordinary ;  and  in  all 
the  relations  of  life  he  possessed  rare  excellencies.  Few 
persons  who  have  commenced  authorship  at  so  late  a. 
period  in  life  have  written  so  much.  With  the  exception 
of  some  occasional  sermons  and  contributions  to  peri- 
odicals, he  had  published  nothing  till  the  appearance  of 
his  "Outlines  of  the  Evidences  of  Christianity,"  in  his 
fifty-second  year, — a  work  which  has  been  translated 
into  various  foreign  languages  and  is  a  text-book  of  high 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  /tard;  g  as g,  h,  y.,  guttural ;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ALEXANDER 


88 


ALEXANDER 


a-ithority  in  several  colleges.  This  was  followed  by  his 
"Treatise  on  the  Canon  of  the  Scriptures  ;"  "Christian 
Experience  ;"  "  History  of  African  Colonization  ;"  "  His- 
tory of  the  Israelites  "  Bible  Dictionary ;"  "Counsels 
fr  jm  the  Aged  to  the  Young  ;"  besides  many  other  works 
which  our  limits  will  not  permit  us  to  mention.  His 
"Outlines  of  Moral  Science,"  published  in  1852,  (after 
his  decease,)  says  the  "  Westminster  Review,"  "  is  a  calm, 
clear  stream  of  abstract  reasoning  flowing  from  a  thought- 
ful, well-instructed  mind,  without  any  parade  of  logic, 
but  with  an  intuitive  simplicity  and  directness  which 
give  an  almost  axiomatic  force."  Dr.  Alexander  mar- 
ried in  1802  Janetta  Waddell,  daughter  of  the  celebrated 
blind  preacher  mentioned  by  Wirt  in  his  "  British  Spy." 
He  left  five  sons  and  one  daughter.  Of  the  former,  three 
were  ministers. 

See  "Life  of  Dr.  Archibald  Alexander,"  by  his  son,  James  W. 
Alexander,  New  York,  1852;  Sprague's  "Annals  of  the  American 
Pulpit,"  vol.  iii. 

Alexander,  (Caleb,)  D.D.,an  American  clergyman, 
was  born  at  Northfield,  Massachusetts,  and  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1777.  He  afterwards  settled  at  Onon- 
daga Hollow,  New  York,  where  he  died  in  182S.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  Latin  Grammar,  (1794,)  an  English 
Grammar,  and  an  Essay  on  the  Deity  of  Jesus  Christ, 
(1796.) 

Alexander,  (Sir  James  Edward,)  a  British  officer 
and  writer,  born  in  Scotland  in  1803.  He  was  employed 
about  1835  in  an  exploration  of  Africa,  and  commanded 
a  regiment  at  Sebastopol  in  1855.  Among  his  works 
are  "An  Expedition  into  Southern  Africa,"  "Travels 
through  Russia  and  the  Crimea,"  and  a  "Life  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington." 

Alexander,  (James  Waddell,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  eldest  son  of  Dr.  Archibald  Alexander,  was  born 
in  Louisa  county,  Virginia,  in  1804.  He  graduated  at 
Princeton  in  1820,  and,  after  studying  theology,  was  for 
some  time  tutor  in  that  institution.  He  commenced  his 
labours  as  a  minister  in  Charlotte  county,  Virginia,  about 
1826;  subsequently  removed  to  Trenton,  New  Jersey; 
and,  from  1830  to  1833,  edited  "The  Presbyterian,"  pub- 
lished in  Philadelphia.  He  filled  the  chair  of  rhetoric 
and  belles-lettres  in  the  College  of  New  Jersey  (Prince- 
ton) until  1844,  when  he  became  pastor  of  the  Duane 
Street  Presbyterian  Church,  New  York.  P'rom  1849  to 
1851  he  was  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  and  church 
government  in  the  Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  and, 
for  the  remainder  of  his  life,  minister  of  the  Presbyterian 
church  in  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York.  Dr.  Alexander  was 
a  ripe  scholar  and  vigorous  writer.  Among  his  works 
may  be  mentioned  above  thirty  juvenile  books  written 
for  the  American  Sunday-School  Union  ;  "  Life  of  Dr. 
Archibald  Alexander,"  8vo,  pp.  700 ;  "  American  Me- 
chanic's and  Working-Man's  Companion,"  2  vols. ; 
"  Gift  to  the  Afiiicted ;"  besides  numerous  sermons, 
essays,  etc.  For  many  years  he  was  one  of  the  principal 
contributors  to  the  "  Princeton  Review."  Died  at  Vir- 
ginia Springs,  July,  1859. 

See  "  Forty  Years'  Familiar  Letters  of  James  W.  Alexander,"  by 
John  Hall,  D.D. 

Alexander,  (Joseph  Addison,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished 
theologian  and  Oriental  scholar,  third  son  of  Dr.  Ar- 
chibald Alexander,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1809. 
At  the  age  of  twelve  he  commenced  the  study  of  Arabic, 
and  before  entering  college  had  made  considerable  pro- 
gress in  the  Persian  and  Hebrew.  After  graduating  at 
Princeton  in  1826,  he  continued  his  studies  under  pri- 
vate tutors,  and  from  1830  to  1833  was  adjunct  pro- 
fessor of  ancient  languages  and  literature  in  the  Col- 
lege of  New  Jersey.  In  1838  he  became  professor  of 
biblical  criticism  and  ecclesiastical  history  in  the 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  and  in  1852  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  chair  of  biblical  and  ecclesiastical  history. 
This  position  he  occupied  till  his  death,  (1859.)  In  the 
extent  and  accuracy  of  his  learning  Dr.  Alexander  had 
few  superiors  in  America ;  and  several  of  his  works 
have  had  a  great  success.  His  "  Commentary  on  the 
Prophecies  of  Isaiah,"  (8vo,  pp.  968,)  republished  in 
Scotland,  Dr.  Eadie,  of  Glasgow,  pronounces  "  among 
the  best  commentaries  on  Isaiah  of  any  age  or  lan- 
guage,"   His  "Psalms  Translated  and  Explained,"  in 


three  voh  mes,  which  appeared  in  1850,  reaciicd  a  sale 
of  ten  thousand  copies  in  four  years.  In  1851  he  gave 
to  the  public  his  "Essays  on  the  Primitive  Church  Of- 
fices." He  was  one  of  the  principal  contributors  to  the 
"  Princeton  Review."  At  the  time  of  his  decease  he  was 
engaged,  with  Dr.  Plodge,  in  the  preparation  of  a  com- 
mentary on  the  New  Testament. 

See  "Life  of  J.  A.  Alexander,"  by  the  Rev.  Henry  C.  Alhx- 
ANDER,  New  York,  1870. 

Alexander,  (Nathaniel,)  born  in  1756,  was  elected 
Governor  of  North  Carolina  in  1806  ;  died  in  180S. 

Alexander,  (NoiiL.)    See  Alexandre. 

Alexander,  (Stephen,)  LL.D,,  an  American  as- 
tronomer, was  born  at  Schenectady,  New  York,  in  1S06. 
He  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1824,  entered  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary  in  1832,  and  in  1834  was 
appointed  adjunct  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Col- 
lege of  New  Jersey.  In  1840  the  professorship  of  as- 
tronomy was  created  and  assigned  to  him,  and  on  the 
death  of  Dr.  Albert  D.  Dod,  in  1845,  succeeded  him 
as  professor  of  mathematics.  Since  1854  he  has  filled 
the  chairs  of  mechanics  and  astronomy.  He  has  pub- 
lished numerous  papers  on  astronomy,  mathematics, 
etc.,  some  of  which  have  attracted  the  attention  of  emi- 
nent astronomers  both  at  home  and  abroad.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  one  on  the  "  Physical  Phenom- 
ena attendant  upon  Solar  Eclipses ;"  "  Fundamental 
Principles  of  Mathematics  ;"  "  On  the  Origin  of  the 
Forms  and  the  Present  Condition  of  some  of  the  Clus- 
ters of  Stars,"  etc.  In  i860  he  conducted  an  astronom- 
ical expedition  sent  out  to  the  coast  of  Labrador  by  the 
United  States  government  for  the  purpose  of  making 
observations  on  the  solar  eclipse  of  July  18  of  that  year. 

Alexander,  (Thomas,)  Earl  of  Selkirk,  a  British 
writer  on  politics,  etc.,  planted  a  colony  in  Canada. 
Died  in  1820. 

Alexander,  (WilliXm,)  Earl  of  Stirling,  a  Scot- 
tish poet  and  courtier,  born,  it  is  supposed,  about 
1580.  He  produced  in  1604  tragedies  entitled  "Julius 
Cassar  "  and  "  Croesus  ;"  and  "  Paraenesis  to  the  Prince," 
a  didactic  poem.  His  long  didactic  poem  of  "  Doomes- 
day"  appeared  in  1614.  These  works  were  greatly  ad- 
mired by  his  contemporaries,  but  are  now  obsolete. 
He  received  from  James  I.,  by  charter,  in  1621,  the  ter- 
ritory of  Nova*Scotia,  which  he  afterwards  sold  to  the 
French.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  for  Scot- 
land in  1626,  and  received  the  title  of  Earl  of  Stirling  in 
1633.    Died  in  1640. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;" 
"  Biographia  Britannica." 

Alexander,  (William,)  (generally  known  in  Ameri- 
can history  as  Lord  Stirling,)  a  major-general  in  the 
American  army  of  the  Revolution,  was  born  in  1726  in 
New  York,  of  which  his  father,  a  Scotchman,  was  for 
many  years  the  provincial  secretary.  He  served  as  an 
officer  in  the  war  with  the  French  and  Indians,  and  at 
its  close  went  to  Scotland,  where  he  spent  a  large  por- 
tion of  his  fortune  in  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  estab- 
lish his  claim  to  the  estates  and  earldom  of  Stirling,  of 
which  many  believed  him  the  rightful  heir.  He  early 
and  warmly  espoused  the  patriotic  cause  in  the  war  of 
the  Revolution,  and,  before  the  arrival  of  Washington 
from  Boston,  captured  with  a  small  fleet  of  boats  a 
British  transport  in  the  harbour  of  New  York.  He  led 
the  attack  in  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  in  which  he  dis- 
played the  most  determined  courage,  but  was  finally 
compelled  to  surrender,  after  securing  the  safe  retreat  of 
a  large  part  of  his  detachment.  On  being  exchanged, 
he  at  once  resumed  his  command  under  Washington, 
fought  with  him  at  Brandywine,  and  especially  distin- 
guished himself  at  Germantown  and  Monmouth.  In 
the  last  of  these  engagements  he  commanded  the  left 
wing  of  the  American  army.  Through  his  fidelity,  Wash- 
ington was  made  acquainted  with  the  intrigues  and 
cabals  of  General  Conway  in  1777.  Besides  his  military 
achievements.  General  Alexander  won  an  honourable 
distinction  as  a  mathematician  and  astronomer.  Died 
at  Albany  in  1 783. 

See  William  A.  Duer,  "Life  of  William  Alexander,  Earl  of 
Stirling,"  New  York,  1847. 

Alexander,  (William,)  an  English  artist,  born  at 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ALEXANDER 


89 


ALFANI 


Maidstone  in  176S.  He  accompanied  Lord  Macartney 
as  draughtsman  on  his  embassy  to  China  in  1792,  and 
published  "Views  of  Chinese  Scenery,"  etc.  Died  in  1816. 

Alexander,  (William,)  a  British  medical  writer, 
practised  in  London.    Died  in  1783. 

Alexander,  (William  Lindsay,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish 
writer  on  theology,  born  at  Leith  in  1808.  He  became 
pastor  of  a  church  in  Edinburgh.  He  is  author  of  nu- 
merous works,  among  which  are  "The  Connection  and 
Harmony  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,"  (1841,)  and 
"Memoirs  of  Ralph  W^ardlaw,"  (1856.) 

Alexander  ab  Alexandre    See  Alessandri. 

Alexander,  (Ben-Moses-Ethu'^san  or-Ethuzan — 
St-hoo'zan.)  a  German  rabbi,  born  at  Fulda,  lived  about 
1710,  and  wrote  a  History  of  the  Jews,  (1719.) 

Alexander  Farnese.    See  Farnese. 

Alexander  de  Medici.    See  Medicl 

Alexander  Polyhistor.    See  Polyhistor. 

Alexander  Severus.    See  Severus. 

Al-ex-an^dra,  a  daughter  of  Hyrcanus,  was  the 
mother  of  Mariamne,  the  wife  of  Herod  the  Great.  She 
conspired  against  Herod,  and  was  put  to  death  in  28  B.C. 

Alexandre,  the  French  of  Alexander,  which  see. 

Alexandre,  t'lSk^sSNdR',  (Charles,)  a  philologist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1 797.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Greek-and- 
French  Dictionary,"  ("  Dictionnaire  Grec-Frangais.") 

Alexandre,  (Dom  Jacques,)  a  French  Benedictine, 
born  at  Orleans  in  1653.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
Tides,"  (1726,)  and  a  valuable  "General  Treatise  on 
Clocks,"  (1734.)    Died  in  1734. 

Alexandre,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  monk  and  medical 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1654,  published  a  "Botanical 
Dictionary,"  (1716.)    Died  in  1728. 

Alexandre,  (Noel,)  a  French  Jansenist  theologian, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1639.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Dogmatic  and  Moral  Theology,"  ("Theologia 
Dogmatica  et  Moralis,"  10  vols.,  1694.)    Died  in  1724. 

See  NiCEROx,  "Memoires." 

Alexandre-Severe.    See  Severus. 

Al-ex-an-dri'nus  or  Alexandrini,  a-lek-s^n-dRee'- 
nee,  (Julius,)  a  medical  writer,  physician  to  the  empe- 
rors Frederick  II.,  Maximilian,  and  Rudolph  II.,  was 
born  at  Trent  in  1506  ;  died  in  1590.  He  translated  and 
commented  on  several  of  Galen's  work^ 

Al-ex-i'nus  [Gr.  'Me^lvo^]  of  Elis,  a  disciple  of  Eu- 
bulides,  lived  about  350  B.C.,  and  distinguished  himself  as 
a  logician.  He  attacked  Aristotle  and  Zeno  the  Stoic, 
and  was  nicknamed  Elenxi'nus,  ("the  fault-finder.") 

Al-ex'is,  ["AAf^ff,]  a  Greek  comic  poet,  an  uncle  of 
the  poet  Menander,  was  born  at  Thurium,  and  flourished 
between  350  and  290  B.C.  He  removed  to  Attica  in  his 
youth.  He  excelled  in  the  delineation  of  the  characters 
of  Parasites,  belonged  to  the  middle  school  of  the  Attic 
comedy,  and  was  a  very  prolific  writer.  Only  small  frag- 
ments of  his  works  are  extant. 

See  A.  Meineke,  "  Historia  Critica  Comicorum  GrjECorum." 

Alexis,  a  Greek  sculptor,  who  is  mentioned  by  Pliny 
as  a  pupil  of  Polycletus,  and  of  whom  nothing  more  is 
known.  He  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  identical 
with  the  Alexis  whom  Pausanias  mentions  as  the  father 
of  Cantharus. 

Alexis,  t'l^k'se',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  Benedictine, 
who  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He 
wrote  in  verse  and  prose  several  works,  among  which  is 
"Le  Grand  Blason  de  Faulces  Amours,"  ("The  Great 
Blazon  of  False  Loves,"  1493.) 

Al-ex'is  or  Al-ex'i-us  I,  (Com-ne'nus.)  [Gr.  "Me^Lg 
or  'AM^Log  Kofivr/vor,]  an  emperor  of  Constantinople,  born 
about  1048.  He  was  of  high  birth,  and  became  general 
of  the  Byzantian  armies,  in  whicja  capacitv  he  showed 
considerable  military  skill.  About  1080  'he  was  pro- 
claimed emperor  by  his  soldiers,  in  opposition  to  Nice- 
phorus,  who,  on  the  approach  of  the  troops  of  Alexis, 
left  his  throne  for  a  monastery.  It  was  during  the  reign 
of  Alexis  that  the  first  crusade  to  Jerusalem  took  place. 
He  died  in  rii8,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  John. 
As  a  ruler  he  was  more  distinguished  for  craft  and  in- 
trigue than  for  any  higher  qualities. 

See  Anna  Comnena,  "Alexias ;"  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire,"  chaps,  xlviii.,  Ivi.,  Iviii.,  lix.;  Mill,  "His- 
tory of  the  Crusades." 


Alexis  or  Alexius  II.,  (Comne'nus,)  Emperor  of 
Constantinople,  a  son  of  Manuel,  was  born  about  1168, 
and  became  emperor  in  1180.  He  was  deposed  and 
strangled  by  Androni^cus  in  11 83. 

Alexis  or  Alexius  III.,  (An'ge-lus,)  was  a 
brother  of  Isaac  Angelus,  Emperor  of  Constantinople, 
whose  throne  he  usurped  in  1195.  An  army  of  crusa- 
ders, whose  destination  was  Palestine,  besieged  Constan- 
tinople in  1203,  ostensibly  to  restore  Alexis,  son  of  Isaac, 
to  the  throne.  (See  Dandolo.)  Alexis  III.  fled  on 
the  capture  of  the  city,  and  died  in  exile  in  12 10. 

Alexis  or  Alexius  IV.,  (Angelus,)  a  son  of  Isaac 
Angelus,  reigned  a  few  months.  He  was  put  to  death 
in  1204  by  Alexis  Ducas. 

Alexis  or  Alexius  V.,  (Du'cas,)  surnamed  MuR- 
zu'PHLUS,  usurped  the  throne  in  1204.  The  Latin  chiefs 
who  commanded  the  crusaders,  having  resolved  to  par- 
tition the  Empire  of  the  East,  took  Constantinople  by 
assault  in  1204.  Alexis  escaped,  but  was  arrested  in 
the  Morea,  was  tried  for  the  murder  of  Alexis  IV.,  and 
was  executed  in  the  same  year.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Baldwin  L 

See  Gibbon,  "  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire." 

Alex'is  or  Alex'ius  Comne'nus  is  also  the  name 
of  several  emperors  who  reigned  at  Trebizond  (Trape- 
zus)  in  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries. 
They  were  of  the  same  family  as  the  Alexis  Comnenus 
noticed  above. 

Al-ex'is  or  Alexei  (a-lSk-sa'^e)  Michaelovitch  or 
Mikhaylovitch — me-Ki'lo-vitch,  Czar  of  Muscovy, 
born  in  1629  or  1630,  succeeded  his  father  Michael  in 
1645.  He  introduced  many  improvements,  particularly 
with  respect  to  the  administration  of  the  laws.  He  also 
succeeded  in  transferring  from  Poland  to  Russia  the  alle- 
giance of  the  Cossacks  who  were  attached  to  the  Greek 
Church.  He  may,  indeed,  be  said  to  have  prepared  the 
way  for  the  great  undertakings  of  his  son  Peter.  (See 
Peter  I.  of  Russia.)  Died  in  1676,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Feodor. 

Alexis,  a  monk,  who  became  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople in  1025.  In  1042  he  crowned  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine  Monomachus.    Died  in  1043. 

Alexis  of  Samos,  a  Greek  historian,  the  author  of  a 
"  History  of  Samos,"  which  is  mentioned  by  Athenasus. 
The  period  in  which  he  lived  is  not  known. 

Alexis  Pedemontanus.  See  Alessio  Piemontese. 

Alexis  Petrovitch  or  Petrowitsch,  (pa-tRo'vitch,) 
written  also  Petrowitz,  a  Russian  prince,  born  in  1690, 
was  a  son  of  Peter  the  Great  and  his  first  wife  Eudokia. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  studious  youth,  averse  to  mar- 
tial pursuits  and  hostile  to  the  innovations  of  his  father. 
While  Peter  was  absent  on  one  of  his  long  European 
tours  in  1716,  Alexis  retired  furtively  to  Vienna  and 
Naples,  for  refuge  from  the  dreaded  ire  qf  the  Czar. 
This  strange  proceeding,  which  perhaps  was  as  wise  as 
any  course  that  was  open  to  him  in  the  circumstances, 
was  treated  as  a  crime  by  his  father.  Having  been  in- 
duced to  return,  Alexis  was  compelled  to  renounce  his 
claim  to  the  throne,  and  was  condemned  to  death  on  a 
charge  of  meditated  rebellion,  in  1718.  He  was  found 
dead  in  prison  a  few  days  after  his  sentence  was  pro- 
nounced. There  are  very  strong  reasons  for  believing 
that  he  was  poisoned  by  order  of  the  Czar.  He  left 
a  son,  Peter,  who  became  Czar  in  1727. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Histoire  de  Russie;"  Levesque,  "  Histoire  de 
Russle  ;"  Sir  John  Barrow,  "  Life  of  Peter  the  Great,"  in  the  "  Fam- 
ily Library;"  Von  Halem,  "  Leben  Peters  des  Grossen ;"  Ersch 
und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Alexis  del  Arco.    See  Arco,  (Alonso  del.) 

Aleyn,  iKen,  (Charles,)  an  English  poet,  who  once 
had  considerable  reputation,  born,  it  is  supposed,  about 
1590,  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  became  tutor  to 
Sir  Edward  Sherburne.  His  principal  poems  are  "The 
Battles  of  Cressy  and  Poitiers,"  (1632,)  and  a  "History 
of  Henry  VII.,  etc.,"  (1638.)    Died  about  1640. 

See  WiNSTANLEY,  "Lives  of  the  Poets,"  1687. 

Alfani,  il-fa'nee,  (Domenico  di  Paris,)  an  eminent 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Perugia  about  1483,  was  a  pupil 
of  Pietro  Perugino.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Virgin 
Mary"  and  a  "Saint  John."    Died  about  1540. 


c  as     9  as  s;  |  ^ard;  g  as  J;  o,  h,  Yi,  guttural;  N,  jiasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.   (2[^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ALFANI 


90 


ALFONSO 


Alfani,  (Orazio  di  Paris,)  an  able  artist,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Perugia  about  1 5 10.  He  imi- 
tated tlie  manner  of  Raphael  with  success,  and  painted 
both  in  oil  and  fresco.  Among  his  chief  works  are 
several  Madonnas.    Died  in  1583. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Alfar.    See  Elves. 

Al-fa-ra'bi-us,  [Arab.  Alfarabee  or  Alfarabi, 
ll-fa-ra^bee,]  the  Latin  name  of  a  distinguished  Ara- 
bian philosopher  who  lived  at  Damascus  in  the  tenth 
century.  He  is  said  to  have  understood  seventy  dif- 
ferent languages.  Besides  other  works  on  various 
sciences,  he  wrote  several  treatises  on  the  philosophy  of 
Aristotle. 

Alfarazdak,  al-fA'riz-dak',  an  eminent  Arabian  poet 
of  the  seventh  century. 

Alfaro,  al-fa'ro,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  silversmith 
and  artist,  who  flourished  at  Seville  towards  the  close 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  His  representations  on  silver 
were  designed  and  executed  with  great  taste. 

Alfaro  y  Gomez,  de,  da  al-fa'ro  e  go'meth,  (Juan,) 
a  Spanish  painter  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Cordova 
in  1640,  was  a  pupil  of  Castillo  and  Velasquez.  He 
worked  at  Madrid,  and  excelled  in  portraits,  in  which 
he  imitated  the  style  of  Velasquez.  Among  his  best 
works  is  an  "  Incarnation,"  at  Cordova,  and  a  portrait 
of  Calderon  the  poet.  He  was  a  brilliant  colorist.  Died 
in  1680. 

See  Bermudez,  "  Dicclonario  Historico,"  etc. 

Alfatli,  ai-fit',  or  Alfatah,  il-fa'td,  a  distinguished 
Arabian  philologist,  born  at  Seville,  in  Spain,  near  the 
close  of  the  eleventh  century.  He  was  put  to  death 
at  Morocco  in  1135.  He  wrote  a  book  containing  bio- 
graphical notices  of  various  Arabian  poets,  with  speci- 
mens of  their  poetry. 

Alfeii,  ti^fen,  (Johan  Eusebius,)  a  Danish  miniature- 
painter,  worked  in  Vienna.    Died  in  1770. 

Al-fe'nu3  Va'rus,  an  eminent  Roman  jurist,  and  a 
pupil  of  Servius  Sulpicius,  lived  in  the  last  half  of  the 
first  century  B.C.  He  wrote  forty  books  of  Digesta, 
extracts  from  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  Digest  of 
Justinian.  He  is  often  quoted  by  other  jurists.  A  pas- 
sage in  Horace  Sat.  i.  3,  v.  130  is  supposed  to  refer  to 
this  Alfenus. 

Alferghanee,  (Alferghani,)  ^l-fer-G^'nee,  written 
also  Alferg^nee,  Alfergaiiy,  and  Alferganus,  some- 
times called  Al-fra-gan^  an  Arabian  astronomer  of 
the  ninth  century,  was  born  in  Sogdiana.  He  wrote  a 
work  entitled  "  Elements  of  Astronomy,"  which  has 
been  translated  into  Latin. 

Alfez,  il-fez',  or  Alpliesi,  ^l-fez'ee  or  il-fa'zee, 
(Isaac  Berabbi — be-rab''be,)  a  rabbi  and  eminent  Jew- 
ish writer,  born  near  Fez,  in  Africa,  about  1013.  Died 
in  Spain  in  1103.  His  chief  work  is  an  abridgment  of 
the  Talmud,  called  the  "Lesser  Talmud." 

Alf  heim.    See  Elves. 

Alfieri,  ai-fe-a'ree,  (Benedetto,)  Count,  an  Italian 
architect,  born  in  Rome  in  1700,  was  an  uncle  of  the 
great  poet  Alfieri,  who,  in  his  own  memoirs,  speaks  of 
him  as  a  very  worthy  man.  He  designed  the  Royal 
Opera-House  of  Turin,  one  of  the  noblest  structures  of 
the  kind  in  Italy,  and  was  patronized  by  the  king,  Charles 
Emmanuel.  Among  his  other  works  are  the  fagade  of 
Saint  Peter's  Church  at  Geneva,  and  the  church  at 
Carignano.    Died  at  Turin  in  1767. 

Alfieri,  (Vittorio,)  the  most  celebrated  Italian  poet 
of  his  age,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Asti,  in  Pied- 
mont, on  the  17th  of  January,  1749.  He  inherited  an 
ample  fortune  from  his  father,  who  died  while  Vittorio 
was  an  infant,  and  was  sent  to  the  Accademia  or  College 
of  Turin,  in  which  he  received  such  an  education  as  those 
wholly  incompetent  to  teach  could  impart.  Fie  left 
school  about  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  indulged  his  passion 
for  travel  and  reckless  dissipation.  He  visited  Paris, 
passed  over  to  England,  and  sojourned  in  Holland. 
From  a  second  tour  through  Germany,  Sweden,  Russia, 
etc.,  he  returned  to  Turin  in  1772.  He  once  went  to 
England  on  purpose  to  purchase  horses,  of  which  he 
was  very  fond.  The  success  of  his  first  drama,  "  Cleo- 
patra," which  was  performed  at  Turin  in  1775,  appears 
to  have  produced  a  change  in  his  mode  of  life,  which 


was  thenceforth  devoted  to  study  and  to  dramatic  com- 
position. 

In  the  course  of  the  seven  ensuing  years  he  composed 
fourteen  tragedies,  among  which  are  "Filippo  II.," 
"  Virginia,"  "  Orestes,"  "  Mary  Stuart,"  "  Octavia," 
"Merope,"  and  "Saul,"  (1782.)  The  first  and  the  last 
of  these  are  considered  his  master-pieces.  His  dramas 
are  simple  in  design,  noble  in  sentiment,  sententious  in 
style,  and  pervaded  by  intense  passion.  About  1778 
Alfieri  became  acquainted  with  the  Countess  of  Albany, 
(wife  of  the  Pretender,  Charles  Edward  Stuart,)  who  in- 
spired his  wayward  heart  with  a  lasting  passion.  (See 
Albany,  Countess  of.)  It  is  supposed  that  he  was 
privately  married  to  her  after  the  death  of  her  husband 
in  1788.  He  resided  some  years  in  P>ance,  and  invested 
a  large  sum  of  money  in  French  stocks,  which  he  lost 
when  he  fled  from  the  outrages  of  the  Revolution  in  1792. 
He  then  became  a  resident  of  Florence,  and  about  the 
age  of  forty-six  commenced  the  study  of  Greek,  in  which 
he  made  good  progress.  He  translated  some  of  the 
plays  of  /Eschylus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides. 

Among  the  other  works  of  Alfieri  are  an  "  Essay  on 
Tyranny,"  a  translation  of  Sallust,  a  number  of  sonnets 
and  epigrams,  and  five  odes  on  the  American  Revolu- 
tion. He  died  at  Florence  on  the  8th  of  October,  1803. 
Notwithstanding  his  faults,  he  was  a  man  of  public  spirit, 
a  sincere  patriot,  and  an  ardent  lover  of  liberty.  A 
monument,  designed  by  Canova,  was  erected  to  him  by 
the  Countess  of  Albany  in  Santa  Croce,  Florence,  be- 
tween the  tombs  of  Michael  Angelo  and  Machiavel, 
"  He  rarely  speaks  to  the  heart,"  says  Ginguene,  "but 
he  is  eloquent  and  nervous  in  intense  passions  ;  he  pos- 
sesses grandeur,  and  in  his  ideas,  as  well  as  in  his  style, 
aspires  always  to  the  sublime.  .  .  .  His  dialogue  is  often 
a  model  of  precision  and  dramatic  argumentation." 
"  The  aim  of  his  works,"  says  Madame  de  Stael,  "  is  so 
noble,  the  sentiments  which  the  author  expresses  accord 
so  well  with  his  personal  conduct,  that  his  tragedies 
ought  always  to  be  praised  as  actions,  even  when  they 
may  be  criticised  as  literary  works."  {Corhine.)  "A  par- 
allel between  Alfieri  and  Cowper,"  says  Macaulay,  (in 
his  article  on  Byron,  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  1831,) 
"  may  at  first  sight  seem  as  unpromising  as  that  which 
a  loyal  Presbyterian  minister  is  said  to  have  drawn  in 
1745  between  (jcorge  the  vSecond  and  Enoch.  .  .  .  But 
though  the  private  lives  of  these  remarkable  men  pre- 
sent scarcely  any  points  of  resemblance,  their  literary 
lives  bear  a  close  analogy  to  each  other.  They  both 
found  poetry  in  its  lowest  state  of  degradation,  feeble, 
artificial,  and  altogether  nerveless.  They  both  possessed 
precisely  the  talents  which  fitted  them  for  the  task  of 
raising  it  from  that  deep  abasement.  .  .  .  They  had  not 
in  a  very  high  degree  the  creative  power,  but  they  had 
great  vigour  of  thought,  great  warmth  of  feeling,  and, 
what  was  above  all  things  important,  a  manliness  of 
taste  which  approached  to  roughness." 

See  his  Autobiography  entitled  "Vita  di  Vittorio  Alfieri  scritta  da 
Esso,"  translated  into  English  by  C.  E.  Lester  ;  "  Vita  di  Vittorio 
Alfieri,"  Milan,  1S23;  Serafico  Grassi,  "  Dissertazione  in  lode  di 
Vittorio  Alfieri,"  1S19;  Antonio  Zezon,  "  Biografia  di  Vittorio  Al- 
fieri," 1S35;  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Ville- 
MAiN,  "  Cours  de  Litterature  ;"  A.  Buccellini,  "  Elo^io  de  Vittorio 
Alfieri,"  iSii  ;  R.  Southey,  article  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of 
Alfieri,  in  the  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1S16. 

Alfon,  ll-fon',  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at 
Toledo,  lived  about  141 8. 

Alfonse,  tKfoNs',  (Jean,)  a  French  navigator  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  a  native  of  Saintonge,  whence  his 
surname  Le  Saintongeois,  (leh  s^-N'toN^zhw^'.)  He 
made  several  voyages  of  discovery  in  the  South  Seas, 
an  account  of  which  was  published  in  1559,  entitled 
"  Voyages  Adventure^x  du  Capitaine  Jean  Alfonse." 

Al-fon'so  I.,  surnamed  El  Batallador,  el  bS-til- 
yi-dSR',  {i.e.  the  "battler"  or  "warrior,")  King  of  Ara- 
gon  and  Navarre,  ascended  the  throne  in  1104.  He 
fell  in  battle  in  1134.  He  had,  it  is  said,  previously  de- 
feated the  Mohammedans  in  thirty-nine  successive  con- 
flicts, and  taken  from  them  a  much  greater  extent  of 
territory  than  he  had  inherited  from  his  ancestors.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Ramiro  II. 

Alfonso  II.  of  Aragon,  a  grandson  of  Ramiro  XL, 
born  in  1 152,  became  king  in  1163.    He  inherited  Bar- 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  vi,  y,  s/iorl;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  met;  nSt;  good;  inoon; 


ALFONSO 


91 


ALFONSO 


celona  from  his  father,  Raymond  V.,  and  extended  his 
dominions  at  the  expense  of  the  Mussuhnans.  Died  in 
1 196,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son,  Pedro  II. 

Alfonso  III.  of  Aragon,  born  about  1265,  was  a  son 
of  Pedro  III.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1285.  The  Cortes 
asserted  their  privileges  with  success  in  this  reign,  and 
set  bounds  to  the  royal  prerogative.  He  died  in  1291, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Jaime  II. 

Alfonso  IV.  of  Aragon,  a  son  of  Jaime  II.,  began 
to  reign  in  1327.  He  waged  a  war  against  the  Genoese, 
who  invaded  his  kingdom,  but  were  repulsed.  Died  in 
1336,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Pedro  IV. 

See  ZuKiTA,  "  Annales  de  Aragon." 

Alfonso  V.  OF  Aragon.  See  Alfonso  I.  of  Na- 
ples. 

Alfonso  I.,  King  of  Asturias,  ascended  the  throne 
in  739  A.D.  He  gained  many  victories  over  the  Mos- 
lems, and  took  from  them  a  multitude  of  towns  and  for- 
tresses. From  his  zeal  for  religion,  evinced  in  building 
churches  and  founding  monasteries,  etc.,  he  received  the 
surname  of  El  Catolico,  ("  the  Catholic")  Died  in  756. 

Alfonso  II.  of  Asturias,  surnamed  El  Casto, 
("the  Chaste,'")  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  791  A.D.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  successful  wars  against  the 
Mohammedans.  He  died  in  842,  after  a  prosperous 
reign  of  more  than  fifty  years. 

Alfonso  III.  of  Asturias  and  Leon,  surnamed  El 
Magno,  ("the  Great,")  succeeded  his  father  Ordono 
in  866  A.D.  He  greatly  extended  his  dominions  by  con- 
quests from  the  Mohammedans.  Died  in  910,  leaving 
the  throne  to  his  son  Garcia. 

Alfonso  I.  of  Castile,  (or  Alfonso  VI.  of  Leon,) 
surnamed  El  Bravo,  61  bri'vo,  ("the  Brave,")  a  son  of 
Fernando  I.,  ascended  the  throne  of  Leon  in  1065.  On 
the  death  of  his  brother,  Sancho  II.  of  Castile,  in  1073, 
Galicia,  Asturias,  Castile,  etc.  were  added  to  his  sway. 
He  acquired  great  renown  in  his  wars  against  the 
Moors.  His  reign  may  be  considered  as  the  dawn  of 
Christian  prosperity  in  modern  Spain.  Died  in  1 109, 
aged  seventy-nine. 

Alfonso  II.  of  Castile,  (called  Alfonso  VII.  of 
Leon  by  some  historians,  who  count  Alfonso  I.  of 
Castile  as  VI.  of  Leon,)  named  also  Alfonso  Ray- 
mond, a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  ascended  the  throne 
in  1 126.  He  was  very  successful  in  his  wars  with  the 
Mohammedans,  and  removed  the  frontiers  of  Castile 
from  the  Tagus  to  the  Sierra  Morena  Mountains.  In 
1 135  he  assumed  the  imperial  title,  and  is  accordingly 
sometimes  styled  "the  Emperor,"  Died  in  1 157,  leav- 
ing Castile  to  his  son  Sancho,  and  Leon  to  his  son  Fer- 
nando, The  written  language  of  Spain  is  supposed  to 
date  from  about  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Alfonso 
VII,,  and  the  oldest  Spanish  document  of  which  the 
date  is  known  is  one  given  by  Alfonso  VII,  to  the  city 
of  Aviles,  in  Asturias,  in  confirmation  of  certain  privi- 
leges prcviouslv  granted. 

See  Ticknor's  "Spanish  Literature,"  vol.  i.  chap.  ii. 

Alfonso  VIII.  of  Castile,  called  by  some  Alfonso 
III.,  surnamed  El  Noble,  el  no'Bli,  ("the  Noble,") 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1 158,  when  he  was  only  three 
years  old.  After  he  became  of  age  he  was  almost  con- 
stantly engaged  in  war  with  the  Mohammedans.  In 
1 195  he  sustained  a  severe  defeat  from  the  arms  of  Aboo- 
Yoosuf-Yakoob ;  but  in  1212,  with  the  kings  of  Aragon 
and  Navarre,  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Almo- 
hade  sultan  Mohammed  An-Nasir,  at  the  head  of  600,000 
men.  The  loss  of  the  Mohammedans,  as  estimated  by 
their  own  writers,  was  not  less  than  160,000,  Alfonso 
died  in  12 14,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Enrique  I, 

Alfonso  XI.  of  Castile,  a  son  of  Fernando  IV., 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  13 12,  when  he  was  only  a  year 
old.  In  1333,  aided  by  Alfonso  IV.  of  Portugal',  whose 
daughter  he  had  married,  he  turned  his  arms  against 
the  Moors,  and  in  1340  gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
sultan  Abool-Hassan  (or  Alboacen)  under  the  walls  of 
Tarifa,  then  besieged  by  the  Mohammedan  forces.  He 
died  in  1350,  respected  even  by  his  enemies.  The 
Moorish  king  of  Granada  is  said  to  have  exclaimed, 
when  he  heard  of  Alfonso's  death,  "We  have  lost  the 
best  king  in  the  world, — one  who  knew  how  to  honour 


the  worthy,  whether  friend  or  foe."  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Pedro  the  Cruel. 

See  Mariana,  "  Historia  general  de  Espaiia." 

Alfonso  I.,  II.,  and  III.  of  Leon.  See  Alfonso  of 
Asturias. 

Alfonso  IV.  of  Leon  and  Asturias,  surnamed  the 
Monk,  succeeded  his  uncle  Fruela  in  924.  Pie  abdi- 
cated in  favour  of  his  brother  Ramiro  about  930,  and 
became  a  monk.    Died  about  932. 

Alfonso  v.,  King  cf  Leon,  born  in  994,  succeeded 
his  father,  Bermudo  II.,  in  999.  His  reign  was  pros- 
perous, and  his  armies  gained  several  victories  over  the 
Moors.  He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Viseu'  in  IC28, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Bermudo  III. 

Alfonso  VI.  of  Leon.  See  Alfonso  I.  of  Castile. 

Alfonso  VII.  OF  Leon,  See  Alfonso  II,  of  Cas- 
tile. 

Alfonso  IX.,  King  of  Leon,  succeeded  his  father 
Fernando  II.  in  iiGS.  He  waged  war  against  Alfonso 
of  Castile,  and  afterwards  married  his  daughter.  Died 
in  1230,  leaving  a  son  Fernando,  who  was  King  of  Cas- 
tile and  Leon. 

Alfonso  X.,  King  of  Leon  and  Castile,  surnamed 
El  Sabio,  el  sa'se-o,  ("the  Wise,")  born  in  1226,  was  a 
son  of  Fernando  III.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1252.  He 
had  a  high  reputation  for  learning  and  eloquence,  and 
was  distinguished  for  the  patronage  he  extended  to 
science  and  literature ;  but  he  was  not  a  successful  or 
popular  ruler.  His  reign  was  disturbed  by  civil  wars, 
one  of  which  was  instigated  by  his  second  son,  Sancho, 
about  1281.  The  situation  of  Alfonso  was  so  desperate 
that  he  solicited  aid  from  the  Moors.  Spain  owes  to  him 
an  excellent  code  of  laws,  a  translation  of  the  Bible 
into  Castilian,  the  restoration  of  the  University  of  Sala- 
manca, and  the  first  use  of  the  Castilian  language  in 
public  aftairs.  Europe  is  indebted  to  him  for  the  valu- 
able astronomical  tables  called  Alphonsine  Tables, 
Died  in  1284. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature,"  vol.  i.  chap,  iii., 
Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Conde,  "  Histona 
de  la  Dominacion  de  los  Arabes  en  Espana  ;"  Mariana,  "Historia 
general  de  Espana  ;"  Marquis  de  Mondejar,  "  Memorias  historicas 
del  Rey  Don  Alfonso  el  Sabio." 

Alfonso  I.  of  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Aragon,  born  in 
1385,  succeeded  his  father  Fernando  I.  on  tlie  throne  of 
Aragon  in  1416.  He  had  been  adopted  as  the  heir  of 
Queen  Joanna  of  Naj^les,  and  in  1442,  seven  years  after 
the  death  of  that  princess,  and  after  encountering  much 
opposition,  he  obtained  possession  of  the  whole  Neapoli- 
tan kingdom.  Died  in  1458,  He  was  a  man  of  learning, 
and  a  liberal  patron  of  literature  and  science.  His  son 
Ferdinand  became  King  of  Naples. 

See  Facio,  "  Fatti  d' Alfonso  d'Aragona." 

Alfonso  II.,  King  of  Naples,  born  in  1448,  was  a 
son  of  Ferdinand  I.  He  defeated  the  Florentines  at 
Poggio  in  1479,  and  the  Turks  at  Otranto  in  1481.  He 
ascended  the  throne  in  January,  1494,  and  rendered  him- 
self odious  by  his  cruelty  and  avarice.  Alarmed  at  the 
approach  of  Charles  VIII.  of  France  with  an  army,  he 
abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son  Ferdinand  in  January, 
1495,  ^^""^  ^^^'^  about  the  end  of  that  year. 

SeeGiANNONE,  "Storia  del  Regno  di  Napoli." 

Alfonso  I.,  [Port.  Affonso,]  or,  more  fully,  Dom  Af- 
fonso  Enriqiies,  doN  Sf-fon'so  gn-ree'kgs,  the  founder 
of  the  Portuguese  monarchy,  son  of  Henry  of  Besangon, 
Count  of  Toulouse,  was  born  in  1094,  He  inherited 
the  title  of  Count  of  Portugal  from  his  father,  who  had 
received  it  from  Alfonso  I,  of  Castile,  his  father-in-law. 
Enriques  was  yet  a  child  when  his  father  died,  and  Por- 
tugal was  for  along  time  under  the  rule,  or  rather  mis- 
rule, of  his  mother  Theresa  ;  but  in  1128  he  took  the  su- 
preme authority  into  his  own  hands.  Alfonso  VIII,  (or 
more  properly  III.)  of  Castile,  having  supported  the 
claims  of  Theresa,  Enriques  met  him  in  the  field,  de- 
feated him,  and  established  the  entire  independence  of 
Portugal.  He  did  not,  however,  take  the  title  of  king 
till  1139,  when,  at  the  head  of  about  13,000  Portuguese, 
he  completely  routed,  at  Ourique,  the  combined  army 
of  the  Mohammedans,  amounting,  it  is  said,  to  200,000 
men,  and  made  prisoners  the  five  kings  by  whom  this 
mighty  host  was  led.    In  1146  he  took  Santarem  from 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  H,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (3^=See  Explanations,  p.  23,! 


ALFONSO 


92 


ALFRED 


che  Moors  by  assault,  and  in  the  same  year,  or  early  in 
the  next,  reduced  Lisbon,  after  a  siege  of  more  than  five 
months.  He  turned  his  arms  successively  against  the 
other  towns  and  fortresses  in  possession  of  the  Moham- 
medans, and  in  1 158  became  undisputed  possessor  of  his 
kingdom.  Died  in  1 185,  aged  ninety.  He  left  a  son, 
who  became  King  Sancho  1. 

See  Mariana,  "Histoiia  de  Espana;"  Schaeffer,  "Histoire 
du  Portugal." 

Alfonso  (or  Affonso)  II.  of  Portugal,  a  son  of  San- 
cho I.,  was  born  in  1 185,  and  began  to  reign  in  121 1. 
His  kingdom  was  placed  under  an  interdict  by  the  pope 
because  he  taxed  the  property  of  the  clergy.  Alfonso 
was  thus  reduced  to  submission.  He  died  in  1223,  leav- 
ing the  throne  to  his  son,  Sancho  H. 

Alfonso  (Affonso)  III.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1210,  succeeded  his  brother  Sancho  II.  in  1248.  His 
reign  was  rather  prosperous,  though  he  was  once  excom- 
municated by  the  pope.  He  died  in  1279,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Denis,  (Diniz.) 

Alfonso  (Affonso)  IV.  of  Portugal,  surnamed  the 
Brave,  a  son  of  Denis,  was  born  in  1290,  and  began 
to  reign  in  1325.  Among  the  remarkable  events  of  his 
reign  was  the  rebellion  of  his  son  Dom  Pedro,  whose 
motive  was  revenge  for  the  murder  of  Ines  de  Castro, 
to  which  the  king  had  consented.  He  died  in  1357, 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  son,  Pedro  I. 

Alfonso  (Affonso)  V.  of  Portugal,  a  son  of  Duarte, 
was  born  in  1432,  and  became  king  in  1438,  under  the 
regency  of  his  mother.  He  conducted  a  large  armament 
against  Africa  in  1458,  and  captured  Tangier.  Having 
invaded  Castile,  he  was  defeated  by  Ferdinand  of  Ara- 
gon  in  1476.  He  died  in  1481,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Joao  11. 

See  Mariana,  "  Historia  de  Espana." 

Alfonso  (Affonso)  VI.  of  Portugal,  a  son  of  John 
IV.,  was  born  in  1643,  and  became  king  in  1656.  Plis 
imbecility  or  vices  having  rendered  him  unpopular,  he 
was  forced  to  abdicate  in  1667  in  favour  of  his  brother 
Dom  Pedro,  and  was  banished  to  Terceira.  He  was  con- 
fined in  the  castle  of  Cintra  in  1675,  ^^'^d  died  in  1683. 

Alfonso  I.  of  Este,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  born  in  1476, 
began  to  reign  in  1505.  He  commanded  the  Papal 
troops  in  the  war  of  the  League  of  Cambrai,  1509.  In 
1 5 12  he  fought  against  the  Pope,  Julius  II.,  at  Ravenna. 
He  married  the  famous  Lucretia  Borgia.    Died  in  1534. 

Alfonso,  (the  Navigator.)    See  Alphonse. 

Alfonso,  al-fon'so,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  Jew,  who  was 
born  in  Aragon  in  1062,  and  was  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity. He  wrote  after  his  conversion,  besides  other 
works,  one  called  "Clerical  Discipline,"  ("Disciplina 
Clericalis,")  which  was  much  esteemed.  Died  about 
1 140. 

Alfonso  OF  Cartiiagena,  (or  de  Cartagena,  da 
kaR-ta-Ha'ni,)  [Lat.  Alphon'sus  a  Sanc'ta-Mari'a,] 
a  celebrated  Spanish  historian,  born  at  Carthagena  (or 
Cartagena)  in  1396,  became  Bishop  of  Burgos.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Spain,"  from  the  earliest  ages  down 
to  his  own  time,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1456. 

Alfonso  de  Cartagena.  See  Alfonso  of  Car- 
thagena. 

Alfonso  Lopez  de  Corella,  (lo'peth  da  ko-rel'yi,) 
a  Spanish  physician,  born  in  Navarre,  wrote  numerous 
medical  works,  dated  1546-82. 

Alfonso  de  Palencia,  (de  pi-lgn'she-a,)  [Sp.  pron. 
ai-fon'so  dk  pi-lSnV/ze-^ ;  Lat.  Alphon'sus  Palenti'- 
NUS,]  a  distinguished  Spanish  historian,  born  at  Palen- 
cia, in  Old  Castile,  in  1423.  He  was  royal  historiogra- 
pher to  Queen  Isabella  of  Castile.  The  precise  time 
of  his  death  is  unknown.  He  was  alive  in  1492.  He 
wrote  in  Latin  a  history  of  the  reign  of  Isabella,  and  a 
chronicle  of  Plenry  IV. 

See  Prescott,  "  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  part  i. 

Alfonso  Tostado.    See  Alphonsus  Abulensis. 

Alford,  awKford,  (Henry,)  D.D.,  commonly  known 
as  Dean  Alford,  an  English  poet  and  divine,  born 
in  London  in  1810,  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  He  became  vicar  of  Wymeswold,  Leices- 
tershire, in  1835,  Hulsean  Lecturer  at  Cambridge  in 
1841,  incumbent  of  Quebec  Street  Chapel,  London,  in 
1853,  and  Dean  of  Canterbury  about  1856.    He  pub- 


lished in  1835  "The  School  of  the  Heart,  and  other 
Poems,"  (2  vols.,)  which  are  commended.  "  The  present 
volumes,"  says  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  "appear  to  us 
to  be  a  beginning  of  great  promise.  .  .  .  Extracts  so 
much  longer  than  we  are  in  the  habit  of  making,  are  a 
sufficient  proof  of  our  sense  of  the  talent  displayed  in 
these  poems."  (Critique  on  "The  School  of  the  Heart, 
and  other  Poems,"  January,  1836.)  His  reputation  as 
a  divine  is  founded  on  an  excellent  edition  of  the  Greek 
New  Testament  in  four  or  more  volumes,  1841-61.  He 
also  published  a  small  volume  entitled  "The  Queen's 
English,"  (2d  edition,  1864,)  which  attracted  much  atten- 
tion.   Died  in  1871. 

Alford,  (Michael,)  an  English  Jesuit  and  writer, 
born  in  London  in  1587  ;  died  at  Saint  Omer,  in  France, 
in  1651.  He  wrote  "  Britannia  Illustrata,"  (1641,)  treat- 
ing of  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Britain. 

Alfragan.    See  Alferghanee. 

Alfrago,  ai-fR.Vgo,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  physician, 
wrote  a  history  of  Arabian  physicians,  etc.  Died  at 
Padua  in  1520. 

Alfred,  iKfred,  written  also  ^I'fred,  El'fred,  and 
Alured,  i.e.  Alvred,  [Lat.  zElfre'dus,]  surnamed 
the  Great,  King  of  the  West  Saxons  in  England,  was 
born  in  848  or  849.  He  was  the  son  of  King  .Ethel- 
wulf  and  Osburga,  (or  Osberga,)  the  daughter  of  a  Gothic 
nobleman.  On  the  death  of  his  brother  /Ethelred,  in 
871,  Alfred  became  king.  At  this  period  the  country 
was  in  the  most  deplorable  condition.  The  Danes  had 
overrun  a  great  portion  of  England,  and  many  of  the 
bravest  Saxons  had  fallen  in  vain  attempts  to  resist  their 
pagan  invaders.  King  Ethelred  himself  had  died  of  a 
wound  received  in  this  unequal  conflict.  Alfred  was 
fain  to  procure  peace  on  almost  any  terms,  and  at  last 
agreed  to  pay  the  Danes  a  sum  of  money  on  condition 
that  they  would  leave  his  dominions.  But  they  broke 
their  oaths,  and,  attacking  him  by  night,  destroyed  all  his 
cavalry.  All  the  means  of  resistance  being  lost,  Alfred 
for  a  time  laid  aside  the  ensigns  of  royalty  and  concealed 
himself  in  the  family  of  a  poor  herclsman.  Having  at 
length  been  discovered  by  some  of  his  nobles,  he  grad- 
ually, but  secretly,  collected  a  considerable  force,  with 
which  he  occasionally  made  inroads  into  the  territory 
occupied  by  the  Danes,  and  thus  procured  the  means  of 
subsisting  himself  and  his  army.  About  this  time  Odun, 
Earl  of  Devon,  sallied  from  his  castle,  defeated  the  be- 
siegers, slew  Ubbo,  one  of  the  principal  leaders,  and 
took  the  Danish  standard.  Upon  this,  Alfred  resolved 
to  attack  the  main  army  of  his  enemies,  which  he  routed 
with  great  slaughter  at  Eddington  in  878,  and  soon  after 
obliged  the  survivors  to  surrender  at  discretion.  The 
Danish  king,  Godrun,  (or  Guthrun,)  embraced  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  Alfred  standing  as  his  godfather  ;  and  a 
considerable  tract  of  country  was  allotted  to  the  con- 
verted Danes.  Alfred  now  directed  his  earnest  efforts 
towards  the  fortifying  and  internal  improvement  of  his 
kingdom.  He  caused  a  number  of  ships  to  be  built,  and 
may  be  said  to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  the  British 
navy.  He  repaired  the  old  dilapidated  fortresses,  and 
erected  new  ones  wherever  they  were  needed.  He  ex- 
erted himself,  moreover,  to  establish  an  efhcient  police 
and  a  thorough  administration  of  justice  within  his 
dominions.  He  was  not,  however,  as  has  frequently  been 
stated,  the  author  of  the  trial  by  jury.  It  was  his  highest 
glory  that  he  did  so  much  for  his  country's  literature  and 
the  intellectual  improvement  of  his  people.  He  not 
only  established  schools  in  all  the  principal  towns,  but 
he  began  himself,  it  is  said,  to  learn  Latin  at  the  age  of 
thirty-nine,  and  afterwards  translated  a  number  of  works 
from  that  language  into  his  native  tongue.  In  894  the 
Northmen  again  invaded  England,  with  a  fleet  of  three 
hundred  ships ;  but  they  were  defeated  by  Alfred,  and 
those  who  escaped  the  sword  were  either  taken  captive 
and  executed  as  pirates  or  chased  from  the  kingdom. 
Alfred  died  in  901. 

Alfred  the  Great  presents  to  us  one  of  the  most  per- 
fect characters  to  be  found  on  the  page  of  history.  He 
was,  to  use  the  language  of  a  recent  author,  "a  saint  with- 
out superstition,  a  scholar  without  ostentation,  a  warrior 
all  whose  wars  were  fought  in  defence  of  his  country,  a 
conqueror  whose  hands  were  never  stained  by  cruelty,  a 


a,  e,  T,  0, 11,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f3.r,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ALFRED 


93 


AL-HOMATDEE 


prince  never  cast  down  by  adversity,  never  lilted  up  to 
insolence  in  the  day  of  triumph,"  (See  Freeman's  "  Nor- 
man Conquest,"  vol.  i.  chap,  ii.;  also,  Hume's  character 
of  Alfred  in  his  "History  of  England,"  vol.  i,  chap,  ii.) 

See  T.  A.  Giles,  "  Life  and  Times  of  Alfred  the  Greai,"  1854; 
Spelmak,  ''Life  of  Alfred,"  1709;  A.  Bickxell,  "Life  of  Alfred," 
1777;  Stolberg.  "Leben  Alfreds  des  Grossen,"  1815;  Asser, 
"Life  of  Alfred,"  ("De  Aelfredi  Rebus  gestis,"  1571 :)  Richard 
Paulli,  "  Konig  Alfred  und  seine  Stelle  in  der  Geschichte  Englands," 
London,  1S51,  translated  into  English  by  Thomas  Wright,  1S52. 

Alfred,  a  son  of  the  Saxon  king  Ethelred  H.,  and 
Emma,  He  attempted  to  obtain  the  throne  in  1042,  but 
failed,  and  lost  his  life, 

Alfred,  surnamed  An'glicus  (or  the  "  Englishman") 
and  THE  Philosopher,  wrote  some  scientific  works, — 
one,  "  On  the  Motion  of  the  Heart,"  ("  De  Cordis  Motu,") 
A  part  of  his  life  was  passed  in  England ;  but  the  place 
of  his  nativity  is  unknown.    Died  about  1270. 

Alfred  or  Alured  of  Beverley,  an  English  historian, 
born  about  1 100,  became  a  priest.  He  left  a  Latin  His- 
ton,'  of  Britain,  which  is  supposed  to  be  an  abridgment 
of  the  work  of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth, 

Alfred  of  Malmesbury,  an  English  monk  and 
writer,  became  Bishop  of  Crediton  about  990. 

Alfred,  (Ernest  Albert.)  Duke  of  Edinburgh,  the 
second  son  of  Victoria,  Queen  of  England,  was  born  in 
1844.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1S58,  and  made  voyages 
to  various  countries.  In  1S62  he  declined  the  throne  of 
Greece,  which  had  been  offered  to  him.  He  was  shot  at 
and  wounded  by  an  assassin  in  Australia  in  186S. 

Alfred  and  A-bi'ram,  two  German  architects,  born 
in  Bavaria,  lived  in  the  ninth  century.  They  built  the 
imperial  palace  of  Ratisbon. 

Alfric,  dFfrik,  written  also  -Sllfric  and  Elfric,  [Lat. 
Alfri^cus,  .Elfri'cus,  or  Elfri'cus,]  surnamed  Abbas, 
(the  "  Abbot,")  and  Grammaticus,  (the  "  Grammarian,") 
a  celebrated  Anglo-Saxon  writer,  who  flourished  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  tenth  century.  Of  his  life  nothing  cer- 
tain is  known.  It  is  supposed  that  he  became  Archbishop 
of  Canterbur}-  in  995,  Among  his  works  are  numerous 
homilies, 

Alfric  or  JElfric,  Archbishop  of  York,  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  writer,  who  is  by  some  identified  with  the  famous 
w.iter  Alfric  surnamed  Grammaticus,  above  noticed. 
Died  in  105 1. 

Algardi,  Sl-gaR'dee,  (Alessandro,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  born  at  Bologna  about 
1600.  His  birth  is  variously  dated  at  1588,  1593,  and 
1602.    He  studied  design  the  Caracci,  became  a 

pupil  of  Cesare  Conventi,  and  went  to  Rome  about  1625. 
He  was  architect  of  the  Villa  Panfili  or  Pamphili,  and 
of  the  fa9ade  of  the  church  of  St.  Ignatius,  Rome.  His 
master-piece  in  sculpture  is  a  colossal  bas-relief*  in  the 
church  of  Saint  Peter's,  representing  Saint  Leo  forbid- 
ding Attila  to  enter  Rome,  (1640.)  This  is  said  to  be  the 
largest  bas-relief  in  the  world.  Among  his  works  are 
statues  of  Saint  Philip  de  Neri  and  Innocent  X,  He  is 
regarded  by  some  critics  as  the  greatest  sculptor  of  his 
age.    Died  in  1654. 

See  Passeri,  "  Vite  de'  Pittori,"  etc. ;  Milizia,  "Vite  degli  Archi- 
tetti." 

Algarotti,  al-gi-rot'tee,  (Francesco,)  Count,  a  dis- 
tinguished Italian  writer  and  connoisseur,  born  at  Venice 
in  1 712.  He  was  not  only  well  versed  in  many  languages 
and  sciences,  but  possessed  decided  skill  in  the  art  of 
design,  and  wTOte  verses  with  facility.  In  1733  he  pro- 
duced popular  dialogues  on  Optics,  entitled  "Optics  for 
Ladies,"  ("  Xeutonianismo  per  le  Dame,")  which  were 
translated  into  several  languages.  Invited  by  Frederick 
the  Great,  he  went  to  Berlin  about  1740,  and  passed 
many  years  at  that  court  as  a  friend  of  the  king,  who 
gave  him  the  title  of  count.  This  friendship  continued 
until  the  death  of  Algarotti.  He  corresponded  with  Vol- 
taire and  many  other  eminent  authors.  Besides  essays 
on  various  subjects,  he  wrote  "Letters  on  Painting," 
which  display  good  taste  and  judgment.  He  died  at 
Pisa  in  March,  1764. 

See  D.  MiCHELESsi,  "Memorie  intomo  alia  vita  del  Conte  F.  Al- 
garotti," 1770,  and  French  version  of  the  same,  1772;  Fabroni, 

•  Some  authorities  call  Algardi's  great  work  an  alto-relievo ;  we 
ha\-e  fuJowed  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


"Vitae  Itaiorum  doctrina  excelientium ;"  and  Voltaire,  "  Correspon- 
dance  Generale." 

Algazd,  al-g§.'zee,  (Solomon  Ben  Abraham,)  a 

voluminous  Jewish  writer,  born  in  the  Levant.  Died  in 
1683. 

AlgazzaU,  Algazali,  or  Alghazzali.  See  Aboo- 
Hamid-Alghazalee. 

Alger,  aKjer,  [Fr.  pron.  aKzhaiR';  Lat.  Al'gerus,] 

an  ecclesiastical  writer,  who  died  about  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  century.    He  was  a  native  of  Liege. 

Alger,  aKjer,  (William  Rounseville,)  an  Ameri- 
can writer,  born  in  Freetown,  Massachusetts,  in  1823. 
He  is  author  of  "Symbolic  History  of  the  Cross  of 
Christ;"  "Oriental  Poetry;"  "History  of  the  Doctrine 
of  a  Future  Life,  as  it  has  Prevailed  in  all  Nations  and 
Ages,"  (1S62,)  to  which  was  contributed  a  very  complete 
bibliography  of  the  subject,  by  Ezra  Abbot,  assistant 
librarian  at  Harvard  University;  and  various  other  works. 
Mr.  Alger  has  furnished  numerous  contributions  to  the 
"  Christian  Examiner"  and  other  periodicals. 

Alghafikee  or  Alghafiki,  M-ca'te-kee',  an  eminent 
physician,  who  lived  in  Mohammedan  Spain  in  the 
twelfth  century.    Died  about  1164. 

Alghisi,  al-gee'sec,  sometimes  written  Algisi,  (Fran- 
cesco,) an  Italian  musical  composer,  born  at  Brescia  in 
1666.  He  composed  two  operas,  one  of  which,  called 
"II  Trionfo  della  Continenza,"  ("The  Triumph  of  Con- 
tinence,") had  a  great  success.    Died  in  1733. 

Alghisi,  (Galasso,)  an  Italian  architect  of  the  six- 
teenth centuiy,  born  at  Carpi.  He  published  a  splendid 
work  on  fortihcations,  ("Della  Fortilicazione,"  1570.) 

Alghisi,  (ToMMASO,)  a  distinguished  Italian  surgeon, 
born  at  Florence  in  1669.  He  particularly  excelled  in 
lithotomy,  on  which  he  wrote  an  able  treatise,  (1707.) 
Died  in  1713. 

Algrin,  trgRaN',  (Jean,)  a  French  theologian,  who 
became  Archbishop  of  Besancon.    Died  in  1237. 

Alhakem  or  Al-Hakem  (al-hik'em)  I.,  Sultan  of 
Cordova,  began  to  reign  in  796  A.D.  He  waged  war 
against  Alfonso  of  Asturias  and  the  Franks,  and  sup- 
jDressed  with  great  cruelty  a  rebellion  in  Cordova.  Died 
in  822. 

Alhakem  H.,  Sultan  and  Caliph  of  Cordova,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Abd-er-Rahman  III,  in  961,  He  was  a 
pacific  and  enlightened  sovereign,  and  was  celebrated  as 
a  patron  of  literature  and  science.  His  reign  has  been 
called  the  golden  age  of  Arabian  literature.  He  col- 
lected a  great  library,  and  expended  vast  sums  in  the 
erection  of  colleges,  mosques,  hospitals,  etc.  He  died 
in  976,  aged  sixty-three,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Hisham  (or  Hescham)  II. 

Al-Hakem-Ibn-Attt,  il-hS'kem  ib'n  ^t\if,  com- 
monly called  Al-Mo-ken^na,  ( -Mo-can''na  or  -Mu- 
kanna,  mdo-kan'na,)  or  "  the  veiled  one,"  a  famous 
impostor,  who  arose  in  the  time  of  Aboo-Jaafar  Al-Man- 
soor,  the  second  caliph  of  the  Abbasside  dynasty.  He 
first  made  his  appearance  as  a  legislator  and  prophet  at 
Merv  or  Meru,  the  capital  of  Khorassan,  in  774  A.D. 
About  780  the  caliph  Mahdee  (Mahdi)  sent  an  army 
that  besieged  the  impostor  in  his  principal  fortress. 
When  Al-Hakem  found  that  there  was  no  chance  of 
escape,  he  administered,  it  is  said,  a  mortal  poison  to 
those  about  his  person,  and  afterwards  burned  their 
bodies  to  ashes,  so  that  no  vestige  might  be  left;  and, 
the  better  to  impress  posterity  with  the  idea  of  his  divine 
character,  he  plunged  into  a  large  caldron  filled  with  a 
liquid  so  powerful  and  penetrating  that  no  part  of  his 
body  remained  unconsumed.  The  truth  appears  to  have 
been,  that  he  burned  himself  in  the  castle  in  which  he 
was,  so  that  no  trace  of  him  remained  except  ashes. 
This  story  forms  the  basis  of  Moore's  poem  entitled 
"Mokanna,  or  the  Veiled  Prophet  of  Khorassan." 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vo].  ii.  chap,  iii.;  D'Her- 
BELOT,  "  Bibliotheque  Onentale  ;"  Abulpharagius,  "  Historia  Dy- 
nastiarum  ;"  Abulfeda,  "Annales  Moslemici." 

Alhazan  or  Alhazen,  written  also  Alhacen  and 
Alhasan,  al-haz'an,  an  Arabian  philosopher  and  mathe- 
matician, native  of  Bassora,  celebrated  as  the  author  of 
a  treatise  on  optics,  of  great  merit.  Died  at  Cairo  about 
1038. 

Al-Homaydee  or  Al-Homaydi,  il-ho-mi'dee'',  a  dis- 


€  ai  i;  ;  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,H,  Yi,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ALHOY 


94 


ALIX 


tinguished  Arabian  writer,  born  at  Majorca  in  10^9. 
A-mong  his  works  is  a  valuable  biography  of  the  distin- 
guished Moslems  of  Spain.  Died  at  Bagdad  about  1095. 

Alhoy,  t'lwa',  (Louis,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Angers  in  1755,  succeeded  Abbe  Sicard  as  Director  of 
the  Institution  for  Deaf-Mutes  in  1797.  He  wrote  "Les 
Hospices,"  a  poem.    Died  in  1826. 

Ali.    See  Alee. 

Ali,  (Pacha.)    See  Alee-Welee-Zade. 

Aliamet,  a'le-t'ma'  or  tl'yt'm<¥,  (pRANgois  Ger- 
main,) a  French  engraver,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1734, 
was  a  brother  of  Jacques,  noticed  below,  to  whom  he  was 
inferior  in  skill.  He  worked  some  years  in  London, 
and  engraved  historical  works  after  the  Italian  masters. 

Aliamet,  (Jacques,)  a  skilful  French  engraver,  born 
at  Abbeville  in  1727;  died  in  Paris  in  1788.  He  ex- 
celled in  landscapes  and  sea-pieces.  His  engravings, 
after  Vernet,  are  much  admired. 

Alibaud,  t'le^bo',  (Louis,)  a  French  fanatic,  born  at 
Nimes  in  1810.  He  attempted  to  assassinate  Louis 
Philippe  with  a  pistol  in  June,  1836,  and  was  guillotined 
in  July  of  the  same  year. 

Ali  Beg,  a'lee  beg,  a  native  of  Poland,  was  captured 
in  childhood  by  Tartars,  who  sold  him  to  a  Turk.  He 
became  dragoman  to  the  sultan,  and  translated  the  Bible 
into  the  Turkish  language.    Died  in  1675. 

Alibert,  t'le^baiR'',  (Jean  Louis,)  an  eminent  French 
physician,  born  in  Aveyron  in  1766.  He  became  one  of 
the  chief  physicians  of  the  Hospital  Saint  Louis,  Paris, 
in  1 80 1,  and  professor  of  medicine  in  1802.  In  18 14  he 
was  appointed  consulting  physician  to  Louis  XVIII.,  and 
a  few  years  later  was  made  first  physician-in-ordinary. 
He  gave  special  attention  to  diseases  of  the  skin,  on  which 
he  wrote  a  work  of  much  merit,  called  "  Description  of 
Diseases  of  the  Skin,"  ("  Description  des  Maladies  de 
la  Peau,"  1806-25.)  He  was  author  of  other  medical 
works,  written  in  an  elegant  style.    Died  in  1837, 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Aliberti,  a-le-bCR'tee,  (Giancarlo,)  an  Italian  fresco- 
painter,  born  at  Asti,  in  Piedmont,  in  1680;  died  about 
1740.    His  chief  works  were  executed  at  his  native  city. 

Ali  Bey,  aHee  ba,  the  assumed  name  of  Domingo 
Badia  y  Leblich,  do-ming'go  bJ-dee'^,  e  k\-blek',  a 
Spanish  traveller  and  projector,  born  in  Biscay  in  1766. 
He  travelled  in  the  disguise  of  a  Mussulman,  and  pub- 
lished "  Travels  in  Asia  and  Africa,  1803-1807,"  (3  vols., 
1814.)    Died  in  1818. 

See  the  "Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1816. 

Alibrandi,  I-le-bRin'dee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
Jesuit  and  casuist,  born  at  Messina.    Died  in  1711. 

Alibrandi,  (Girolamo,)  a  distinguished  painter, 
called  "  the  Raphael  of  Messina,"  where  he  was  born  in 
1470.  His  manner  resembled  that  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  with  whom  he  studied.  Died  of  the  plague  in 
1524.  His  master-piece  is  a  "  Purification  of  the  Virgin." 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Alidosi, a-le-do'see,  (Giovanni  Niccolo  Pasquale,) 
an  antiquary  of  Bologna.    Died  about  1630. 
Aiighieri.    See  Dante. 

Alignan,  t'len^yON^,  Benedict  of,  [Fr.  Benoit 
d'Alignan,  beh-nwa'  dt'len'yoN',]  a  French  Benedict- 
ine monk,  who  was  elected  Bishop  of  Marseilles  in  1229. 
Died  in  1268. 

Aligre,  t'legR',  (Iitienne  FRANgois,)  born  about  1726, 
became  president  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris  in  1 768,  which 
office  he  held  for  twenty  years.    Died  in  exile  in  1798. 

Ali,  Hyder.    See  Hyder  Alee. 

Al-i-men''tus,  (Lucius  Cincius,)  a  Roman  histo- 
rian of  merit,  became  tribune  of  the  people  in  214  B.C., 
and  praetor  in  210.  He  received  with  the  province  of 
Sicily  the  command  of  two  legions  which  had  been  de- 
feated at  Cannae  and  were  afterwards  condemned  to 
serve  in  Sicily.  Some  time  after  208  he  was  taken  pris- 
oner by  Hannibal,  who  appears  to  have  treated  him  with 
great  respect.  lie  wrote,  in  Greek,  a  history  of  Rome 
from  the  foundation  of  the  city  to  his  own  time,  and 
other  works,  on  law,  grammar,  etc.  His  diligence  and 
erudition  are  commended  by  Livy.  Only  fragments  of 
his  works  are  extant. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  AuLUs  Gellius,  xvi. ;  Voss, 
"  De  Historicis  Latinis." 


Alinard,  iKe-nard'  or  t'le'ntR',  written  also  Hali- 
nard,  a  learned  French  prelate,  born  in  Burgundy  about 
990,  became  Archbishop  of  Lyons  in  1046.   Died  in  1052. 

A-lip'i-us,  a  friend  of  Saint  Augustine,  was  an  emi- 
nent lawyer.  Having  been  baptized  by  Saint  Ambrose 
in  387  A.D.,  he  became  Bishop  of  Tagaste.  Died  about 
428. 

Aliprandi,  a-le-pRcWdee,  (Buonamente,)  an  Italian 
poet,  native  of  Mantua.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Mantua 
and  other  cities  of  Italy,  a  work  of  little  merit.  Died 
in  1414. 

Alisaunder,  one  of  the  modes  in  which  Chaucer 
writes  the  name  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

AFi-son,  (Alexander,)  a  British  writer,  born  in  Scot- 
land about  1 81 2.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Philosophy  and  History  of  Civilization,"  (i860,) 
and  is  about  to  publish,  it  is  said,  "The  Church  and  the 
World  Reconciled." 

Alison,  (Rev.  Archibald,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born 
in  Edinburgh  in  1757.  He  took  orders  in  the  Anglican 
Church  in  1784,  and  married  the  same  year  a  daughter 
of  the  well-known  Dr.  John  Gregory  of  Edinburgh. 
He  became  curate  of  Kenley,  Shropshire,  in  1790,  and 
vicar  of  Ercall  in  1794.  In  1790  he  pubhshed  "Essays 
on  the  Nature  and  Principles  of  Taste,"  a  popular  work, 
which  Lord  Jeffrey  made  the  subject  of  a  laudatory  article 
in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review  "  in  181 1.  He  became  senior 
minister  of  the  Episcopal  Chapel,  Cowgate,  Edinburgh, 
in  1800.    Two  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  published. 

"  We  do  not  know  any  sermons,"  says  the  "  Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  September,  1814,  "so  pleasing,  or  so 
likely  both  to  be  popular  and  to  do  good  to  those  who 
are  pleased  with  them.  All  the  feelings  are  generous 
and  gentle — all  the  sentiments  liberal — and  all  the  gen- 
eral views  just  and  ennobling."    Died  in  1839. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
Supplement,  vol.  v.;  " Gentleman's  Magazine,"  September,  1839. 

Alison,  (Sir  Archibald,)  a  historian,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Kenley,  Shropshire,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1792.  He  was  educated  in  Edinburgh,  studied  law, 
and  was  called  to  the  Scottish  bar  in  18 14.  In  1828  he 
was  chosen  sheriff  of  Lanarkshire.  He  gained  distinc- 
tion by  his  "Principles  of  Criminal  Law,"  (1832.)  His 
most  important  work  is  a  "  History  of  Europe  from  the 
Commencement  of  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Resto- 
ration of  the  Bourbons,  1815,"  (istvol.,  1839,)  which  has 
been  eminently  successful.  The  ninth  ecUtion  was  pub- 
lished in  1853-55,  12  vols.  "It  is  upon  the  whole," 
says  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1842,  "a 
valuable  addition  to  European  literature,  evidently  com- 
piled with  the  utmost  care :  its  narration,  so  far  as  we  / 
can  judge,  is  not  perverted  by  the  slightest  partiality. 
...  Its  merits  are  minuteness  and  honesty — qualities 
which  may  w^ell  excuse  a  faulty  style,  gross  political 
prejudices,  and  a  fondness  for  exaggerated  and  frothy 
declamation."  He  published  in  1847  "The  Life  of 
John,  Duke  of  Marlborough,"  (3d  edition,  1855,)  and  in 
1852-57  a  continuation  of  his  "History  of  Europe"  to 
the  year  1852,  (6  vols.)  The  latter  work  is  not  so  able 
nor  so  popular  as  his  first  history.  He  was  created  a 
baronet  in  1852.  His  political  sympathies  were  ultra- 
conservative.  He  was  the  author  of  several  other 
works,  among  which  are  "Essays,  Political,  Historical, 
etc.,"  (3  vols.,  1850,)  originally  published  in  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine."    Died  near  Glasgow  in  May,  1867. 

See  a  review  of  his  History  in  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
July,  1840. 

Alison,  (William  Pulteney,)  an  eminent  physician 
and  physiologist,  son  of  the  Rev.  Archibald  Alison, 
born  in  Edinlnirgh  in  1790.  He  became  professor  of 
medical  jurisprudence  at  Edinburgh  in  1820,  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  institutes  of  medicine  in  1828. 
In  1830  he  published  "First  Lines  of  Physiology."  He 
became  professor  of  the  practice  of  medicine  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  in  1832,  and  published  "Out- 
lines of  Physiology  and  Pathology"  in  1833.  He  re- 
ceived the  title  of  "First  Physician  to  the  Queen  for 
Scotland."    Died  in  Edinburgh  in  1859. 

Alix,  t'less',  or  Alice,  aKiss,  (called  by  the  older 
writers  Adela,  Ada,  and  Ala,)  a  daughter  of  Theobald, 
(Thibaud  le  Grand,)  Count  of  Champagne,  was  married 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fdll,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ALIX 


9S 


•  JLLJTIUS 


to  Louis  VII.,  King  of  France,  in  1160  ;  died  in  1206. 
Her  son  became  King  Philippe  Auguste. 

Aliy,  t'less',  (Matthieu  FRANgois,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  in  Paris  in  1738.  He  was  professor  of  anat- 
omy at  Fulda,  and  wrote  a  work  of  merit,  entitled  "  Sur- 
gical Observations,"  ("ObservataChirurgica,"  1774-78.) 
Died  at  Briickenau  in  1782. 

Alix,  (Pierre,)  a  French  priest,  born  at  Dole  in  1600, 
became  a  canon  at  Besancon.  He  defended  against  the 
pope,  in  several  tracts,  the  rights  of  his  chapter  in  regard 
to  the  election  of  archbishops.    Died  in  1676. 

Alix,  (P.  M.,)  a  French  engraver,  born  1752  ;  died  1809. 

Al-Jannabi  or  Al-Jannabius.    See  [annabee. 

Al-Kader-Billah,  al-kaMir  h'lVlA,  {i.e.  '"'mighty  by  the 
grace  of  God,")  a  caliph  of  the  house  of  Abbas,  born  at 
Bagdad  about  947,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  99 1;  died 
in  103 1  or  1032.  He  received  and  protected  at  his  court 
Firdousee,  (Firdausi,)  the  celebrated  Persian  poet,  who 
fled  from  the  anger  of  Mahmood  of  Gazna. 

Al-Kahir-Biilah,  al-ka'hir  biKla,  {i.e.  "victorious 
by  the  grace  of  God,")  a  caliph  of  the  house  of  Abbas, 
who  ascended  the  throne  in  929.  His  tyranny  and 
cruelty  rendered  him  an  object  of  execration,  and  caused 
his  dethronement  after  a  reign  of  rather  more  than  a  year. 

Alkaios.    See  Algous. 

Al-Kasim-Ibn-Hammood,   (-Hammud,)  ai-ki'- 

sim  ib'n  harn'mood',  a  sultan  of  Cordova,  dethroned  by 
his  nephew  Yahya  in  1024. 

Al-Kayim,  al-ka'yim  or  al-kl'yim,  a  caliph  of  the 
house  of  Abbas,  succeeded  his  father  Al-Kader-Billah 
about  1031.    Died  in  1073. 

Alkemade,  van,  vtn  ai-keh-miMeh,(KoRNELis,) 
a  Dutch  antiquary,  born  in  1654.  He  was  first  commis- 
sioner of  import  and  export  duties  at  Rotterdam.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  curious  treatise  on  old 
Dutch  customs  in  civil  life,  entitled  "  Nederlandsche 
Displechtigheden,"  (3  vols.,  1732.)  ^Died  in  1737. 

Al-Khazrejee  or  Al-Khazreji,  al-Ka/Zreh-jee^  an 
excellent  historian  of  Mohanmiedan  Spain,  supposed  to 
have  lived  about  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century. 

Alkhowarezmi,dl-k6w-d-rez'mee,an  Arabian  math- 
ematician, lived  about  810-830  a.d.  He  was  librarian 
to  Al-Mamoon  at  Bagdad. 

Alkibiades.    Sec  Alcihiades. 

Alkindi,  Alkiudu.s,  or  Alkendi.  See  Alciiindus. 

Alkman.    See  Alcmax. 

Alkniar  or  Alkmaar,  van,  vtn  ilk-msR',  (Henry, 
or  HiNREK,)  a  Low-German  poet,  who  lived  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  the  author  or  first  trans- 
lator of  a  celebrated  poem  and  satire,  "Reynard  the 
Fox,"  which  he  published  in  Low  German  at  Liibcck  in 
1498.  In  the  preface  he  states  that  he  translated  it  from 
the  Walsch  (supposed  to  be  the  Walloon)  and  the 
French,  and  that  he  was  a  schoolmaster  and  teacher  of 
virtue  in  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Lorraine.  The 
original  is  lost,  if  it  ever  existed.  The  poem  of  Alk- 
mar  is  one  of  the  most  popular  in  the  language,  and  has 
been  translated  into  several  other  languages.  Goethe 
produced  a  modern  German  version  of  it  in  hexameters, 
which  has  been  splendidly  illustrated  by  Kaulbach. 

See  J.  Grimm,  "Die  Sage  von  Reinhart  Vos,"  1834. 

Allacci.    See  Allatius. 

Allaiuval,  t'l^N'vSK,  (L^onor  Jean  Christine 
Soulas — soo'las')  a  French  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Char- 
tres  about  1 700;  died  in  1753.  Although  he  assumed 
the  title  of  abbe,  he  never  entered  holy  orders.  Among 
his  best  works  is  "L'£cole  des  Bourgeois,"  (1728,)  a 
comedy  which  is  praised  by  La  Harpe. 

AUais,  t'la',  (Denys  Vairasse — vi^rtss^)  a  French 
writer  of  the  seventeenth  century,  born  in  Languedoc, 
was  known  as  the  author  of  a  political  romance  called 
the  "  History  of  the  Sevarambians,"  ("  Histoire  des 
Sevarambes,"  1677.) 

AFlam,  (Andrew,)  a  learned  English  antiquary,  born 
near  Oxford  in  1655.  He  entered  holy  orders  in  1680. 
He  assisted  Wood  in  the  "Athense  Oxonienses,"  and 
began  a  "History  of  English  Cathedrals,"  the  comple- 
tion of  which  was  i^revented  by  his  death  in  1685. 

AUamand,  t'lS'mSN',  (Jean  Nicolas  S6bastien,) 
a  philosopher  and  naturalist,  born  at  Lausanne,  in  Swit- 
zerland, in  1 713.    In  1749  he  became  professor  of  phi- 


losophy, and  afterwards  of  natural  history,  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Leyden,  both  of  which  chairs  he  held  with 
credit  till  his  death  in  1787.  He  was  the  first  to  explain 
the  phenomena  of  the  Leyden  jar,  and  rendered  an  im- 
portant service  to  the  public  by  the  publication  of  the 
Historical  Dictionary  of  his  friend  Prosper  Marchand, 
(1758-9,)  which  the  latter  left  in  manuscript.  The  writ- 
ing was  so  minute  that  he  was  obliged  to  use  a  powerful 
microscope  to  decipher  it. 

Allan,  aKlan,  (David,)  a  Scottish  historical  painter, 
sometimes  called  "  the  Scotch  Hogarth,"  was  born  at 
Alloa  in  1744.  He  went  to  Rome  in  1764,  and  gained 
there  a  gold  medal  for  his  picture  of  a  Corinthian  maiden 
drawing  her  lover's  profile  on  the  wall  by  the  shadow, 
which  is  esteemed  his  master-piece.  He  settled  in  Edin- 
burgh about  1780,  and  increased  his  reputation  by  illus- 
trations of  Allan  Ramsay's  "Gentle  Shepherd.'^  He 
owes  the  name  of  the  Scotch  Hogarth  to  his  humorous 
designs  of  the  Roman  Carnival.    Died  in  1796. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biograpliical  Dictionary  of  Eminexit  Scotsmen  ;" 
Cunningham,  "Lives  ot  Painters,  Sculptors,"  etc. 

Allan,  ^Klan,  (George,)  an  English  attorney  and 
antiquary,  who  resided  at  Darlington,  was  a  zealous 
student  of  national  antiquities.  He  contributed  to 
Hutchinson's  "  History  and  Antiquities  of  Durham," 
and  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Life  of  Bishop 
Trevor,"  (1776.)    Died  in  1800. 

See  Nichols,  "  Literarj'  Anecdotes,"  etc. 

Allan,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  lyric  poet,  born  at  Kil- 
barchan  in  1774,  was  a  weaver.  He  produced  a  volume 
of  poems  in  1836.  Having  emigrated  to  the  United 
States,  he  died  at  New  York  in  1841. 

Allan,  (Thomas.)    See  Allen. 

Allan,  (Thomas,)  F'.R.S.,  a  Scottish  mineralogist, 
born  in  Edinburgh  in  1777.  He  formed  a  collection  ol 
about  seven  thousand  specimens  of  minerals,  said  to  be 
the  finest  collection  in  Scotland.  His  knowledge  of 
mineralogy  was  extensive  and  accurate.  He  wrote  the 
article  Diamond  for  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  and 
a  work  on  Mineralogical  Nomenclature.    Died  in  1833. 

Allan,  (Sir  William,)  an  eminent  British  historical 
])ainter,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1782.  He  studied  in  the 
Royal  Academy  of  London,  worked  some  years  in  Saint 
Petersburg,  visited  Circassia  and  Turkey,  and  returned 
to  Scotland  in  1814.  His  large  picture  of  the  "Circassian 
Captives"  was  purchased  for  1000  guineas  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott  and  ninety-nine  other  subscribers.  He  afterwards 
painted  subjects  of  Scottish  history,  among  which  are 
the  "Parting  of  Charles  Stuart  and  Flora  Macdonald," 
and  "The  Murder  of  Regent  Murray."  He  was  elected 
academician  of  the  Royal  Academy,  London,  in  1835, 
and  succeeded  Wilkie  in  1840  as  her  Majesty's  limner 
for  Scotland.  From  1838  until  his  death  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Scottish  Royal  Academy.  Among  his  chief 
works  are  two  pictures  of  the  "Battle  of  Waterloo." 
Died  in  1850. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
vol.  v.;  "  Er.cyc!opa;clia^Britannica." 

Allard,  t'ltR',  (Gui,)  a  French  writer,  noted  for  his 
works  on  the  history  and  genealogy  of  Dauphine.  Born 
at  Grenoble  about  1645;  died  in  1715. 

Allard,  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French  general,  born  in 
Var  in  1785.  He  left  France  after  the  restoration  of 
1S15,  and  v/ent  to  Hindostan.  He  entered  the  service 
of  Runjeet  Singh  at  Lahore,  organized  his  army  after 
the  French  system,  and  became  general-in-chief.  Died 
in  India  in  1839. 

Allarde,  d',  da'lSRd',  (Pierre  Gilbert  Leroi — leh- 
Rwa',)  Baron,  a  French  political  economist,  born  at 
Montlucon  in  1749  ;  died  in  1809. 

Allart,  t'ltR^  (Mary  Gay,)  a  novelist,  born  at  Lyons, 
in  France,  in  1750.  She  lived  a  long  time  in  Paris,  and 
wrote  a  successful  novel  called  "Albertine  de  Saint- 
Albe,"  (181 8.)  She  also  made  an  elegant  French  trans- 
lation of  the  "Family  Secrets"  of  Miss  Pratt.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1821. 

Allatius,  ^1-la'she-us,  (Leo,')  [It.  Leone  Allacci, 
la-o'na  Sl-lSt'chee,]  an  eminent  scholar  and  physician, 
born  at  Chios  (Scio)  in  1586,  embraced  the  Catholic 
religion,  taught  Greek  in  a  college  of  Rome,  and  was 


€  as  k;  5  as  .f ;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  tliis.    (^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ALLE  • 


96 


ALLEN 


appointed  librarian  of  the  Vatican  by  Pope  Alexander 
VII.  He  edited  and  translated  into  Latin  several  old 
Greek  works,  and  wrote  some  original  productions. 
Died  in  1669. 

Alle,  al'li,  (GiROLAMO,)  an  Italian  writer  and  eccle- 
siastic, born  at  Bologna  probably  about  1580.  He  was 
an  admired  orator,  and  author  of  many  works  in  prose 
and  verse  on  religious  and  moral  subjects,  (1613-54.) 

Al-lec'tus,  an  officer  of  Carausius,  King  of  Britain. 
Having  murdered  Carausius,  in  293,  he  usurped  the 
throne.  He  was  defeated  and  killed  by  the  Roman  army 
of  Constantius  Chlorus  about  296  a.d. 

Allegrain,  trgRiN',  (Christophe  Gabriel,)  a  dis- 
tinguished French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris  about  1 710. 
He  excelled  in  nude  figures.    Died  in  1795. 

Allegrain,  (Stienne,)  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  a  skilful  landscape-painter,  who  died  in  1736,  aged 
eighty, 

AUegretti,  3.1-la-gRet'tee,  (Antonio,)  a  Florentine 
poet,  who  lived  (mostly  at  Rome)  about  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century. 

AUegretti,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Monte 
Prandone,  lived  between  1600  and  1650. 

AUegretti,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian  physician  and  as- 
trologer, born  at  Forli  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  had  an  extensive  reputation  as  a  Latin  poet. 

AUegri.    See  Correggio. 

AUegri,  al-la'gRee,  (Alessandro,)  a  satirical  poet  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  a  native  of  Florence, 
and  excelled  in  burlesque  poetry.  The  purity  of  his 
language  was  recognized  by  the  Academy  Delia  Crusca. 
Died  about  1596. 

AUegri,  (Gregorio,)  an  eminent  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Rome  about  1580,  was  a  singer  in  the 
pontifical  chapel.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  relative  of 
the  painter  Correggio.  His  most  remarkable  work  is 
the  "Miserere,"  which  is  still  performed  annually  in  the 
pope's  chapel  during  the  holy  week.    Died  in  1652. 

See  Burney's  "Musical  Tour  in  Italy." 

AUegrini,  ai-la-gRee'nee,  (Francesco,)  a  distin- 
guished Italian  painter,  born  at  Gubbio  in  1587.  He 
worked  at  Rome  and  Genoa  in  oil  and  fresco.  Died  in 
1663. 

AUegrini,  (Francesco,)  a  designer  and  engraver, 
born  at  Florence  in  1729.    Died  about  1785. 

AUein  or  AUeine,  iKlen,  (Joseph,)  an  English  non- 
conformist divine,  born  at  Devizes  in  1633,  was  educated 
at  Oxford.  He  became  curate  to  Mr.  Newton  at  Taun- 
ton in  1655,  and  was  ejected  for  nonconformity  in  1662. 
Continuing  to  preach  frequently,  he  was  committed  to 
Ilchester  jail  in  1663,  fined  one  hundred  marks,  and  im- 
prisoned one  year.  He  again  suffered  similar  persecu- 
tion in  1665,  in  consequence  of  which  he  died  prema- 
turely in  1668,  leaving  several  religious  works,  one  of 
which,  "An  Alarm  to  the  Unconverted,"  (1672,)  is 
highly  esteemed  and  has  been  often  reprinted. 

See  A.  Duff's  "Life  and  Death  of  the  Rev.  J.  Alleine;"  August 
RiscHE,  "Leben  J.  Alleins  weiland  Predigers  zu  Taunton,"  Biele- 
feld, (?)  1850;  "Life  and  Death  of  J.  Alleine,"  London,  1672. 

AUein  or  AUeine,  (Richard,)  an  English  noncon- 
formist minister,  born  about  1610,  was  rector  of  Batcombe, 
in  Somersetshire.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  Vindication  of  Godliness,"  ("  Vindiciae  Pietatis," 
1663,)  which  was  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1 681. 

Allemand.    See  Lallemand. 

Allemand,  tl'mSN',  (Georges,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  at  Nancy,  lived  in  Paris  about  1650. 

Allemand,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  painter,  was 
a  pupil  of  J.  Vernet.  He  lived  at  Rome,  and  painted 
some  fine  landscapes  in  the  Corsini  palace  in  1750. 

Allemand,  tKmSN',  (Zacharie  Jacques  Theodore,) 
a  French  admiral,  born  at  Port  Louis,  in  Mauritius,  in 
1762.  He  commenced  his  career  as  a  cabin-boy.  In 
1792  he  was  made  captain,  and  captured  many  British 
merchant- vessels  between  1793  and  1800.  He  rose 
gradually  by  his  activity  and  skill  to  the  station  of  vice- 
admiral  in  1809.  He  commanded  the  fleet  which  Coch- 
rane attempted  to  destroy  with  fire-ships  at  the  Isle  of 
Aix  in  1809.    Died  in  1826. 

AUemanni,  ai-li-man''nee,  (Pietro,)  of  Ascoli,  an 
Italian  painter,  who  flourished  between  1470  and  1490. 


AUemant.    See  Lallemant  and  Lalamant. 

Allen,  aKlen,  (Alexander,)  an  English  philologist, 
a  son  of  John  Allen  (1771-1839)  noticed  below,  born  at 
Hackney,  near  London,  in  1814.  He  was  a  good  classical 
scholar,  and  an  excellent  teacher.  He  wrote  articles  for 
the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia"  and  for  Smith's  "  Dictionary 
of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  and  published  seve- 
ral works  for  the  use  of  students  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
languages.    Died  in  1842. 

AlTen,  (David  Oliver,)  an  American  missionary, 
born  at  Barre,  Massachusetts,  in  1800.  He  laboured 
many  years  in  India,  whither  he  went  about  1827,  and 
published  "  India,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  (2d  edition, 
1858.)    Died  in  1863. 

AlTen  or  Al''en,  (Edmond,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  in  Norfolk.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works.  Died 
ii-i  1559-  * 

Allen,  (Ephraim  W.,)  born  about  1780,  was  for  more 
than  thirty  years  editor  of  the  "  Newburyport  Herald." 
In  his  office  William  Lloyd  Garrison  learned  the  art  of 
printing.    (See  Garrison.)    Died  in  1846. 

Allen,  (E'than,)  an  officer  of  the  Revolutionary 
war,  born  at  Litchfield,  in  Connecticut,  about  1742.  He 
settled,  when  young,  in  Vermont,  and  became  the  leader 
of  the  famous  "Green  Mountain  Boys."  On  the  loth 
of  May,  1775,  the  head  of  only  eighty-three  men,  he 
took  the  forts  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point.  In  Sep- 
tember of  the  same  year,  -while  on  an  expedition  to  take 
Montreal,  he  fell  in  with  a  much  larger  force  of  British 
troops,  and  was  made  prisoner.  He  remained  in  cap- 
tivity above  two  years  and  a  half,  when  he  was  exchanged 
for  Colonel  Campbell,  an  English  officer.  After  his  re- 
lease he  was  appointed  general  of  the  state  militia.  He 
died  suddenly,  February  13,  1789.  Besides  a  narrative 
of  his  captivity,  and  some  writings  of  a  political  char- 
acter, he  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Reason  the  only  Oracle 
of  Man,"  in  which  he  advocated  pure  Deism. 

See  "  Ethan  Allen  and  the  Green  Mountain  Heroes  of  '76,"  by  11. 
W.  De  Puy  ;  Life  of  Ethan  Allen,  in  Sparks's  "  American  Biogra- 
phy ;"  Hugh  Moore,  "  Memoir  of  Colonel  E.  Allen,"  Plattsburg,  1834. 

Allen,  (Henry,)  a  religious  enthusiast,  born  at  New- 
port, Rhode  Island,  in  1748.  He  was  the  founder  of  a 
sect  in  Nova  Scotia  who  taught  that  Adam  and  Eve,  in 
their  state  of  innocence,  had  a  spiritual  existence  with- 
out bodies,  and  that  all  human  beings  are  emanations 
from  the  same  great  Spirit,  and  were  present  with  our 
first  parents  in  the  Garden  of  Eden  before  the  fall,  and 
participated  in  the  original  transgression.  He  published 
a  collection  of  hymns,  and  several  religious  treatises  and 
sermons.    Died  in  1784. 

Allen,  (John,)  an  Irish  prelate,  born  at  Dublin  in 
1476,  became  Archbishop  of  Dublin  in  1528.  He  was 
killed  in  1534  by  Thomas  Fitzgerald,  a  son  of  the  Earl 
of  Kildare,  during  a  rebellion. 

Allen,  (John,)  a  Puritan  divine,  born  in  England  in 
1596,  emigrated  to  America,  and  settled  as  first  minister 
in  DedhaiTi,  Massachusetts.    Died  in  1671. 

Allen,  (John,)  M.D.,  an  English  physician,  who  lived 
in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  wrote  a 
valuable  work  in  Latin  entitled  a  "  Synopsis  of  Universal 
Practical  Medicine,"  ("  Synopsis  Universae  Medicinae 
Practicae,")  which  aims  to  give  in  a  succinct  form  the 
opinions  of  the  most  eminent  physicians  in  all  ages  re- 
specting the  cause  and  cure  of  diseases.  He  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1730.    Died  in  1741. 

See  Nichols,  "Literary  Anecdotes." 

Allen,  (John,)  a  dissenting  layman,  born  at  Truro, 
England,  in  1771.  He  was  the  master  of  an  academy  at 
Hackney.  Besides  other  writings  of  a  religious  charac- 
ter, he  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  and  learned  work 
entitled  "  Modern  Judaism,  or  a  Brief  Account  of  the 
Opinions,  Rites,  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Jews,"  (1816,) 
said  to  be  the  best  work  on  the  subject  in  the  language. 
Died  in  1839. 

Allen,  (John,)  M.D.,  a  British  writer  on  constitu- 
tional history,  metaphysics,  etc.,  was  born  at  Redford, 
near  Edinburgh,  in  1770.  He  studied  medicine  and 
metaphysics  at  Edinburgh,  and  "  was  eminent  in  that  fa- 
mous school  of  metaphysics,"  says  Brougham, "  for  his  ex- 
tensive learning  and  unrivalled  power  of  subtle  reason- 
ing."  In  1795  he  published  "  Illustrations  of  Hume's  Es- 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ALLEN 


97 


ALLEN 


say  concerning  Liberty  and  Necessity."  He  contributed 
many  political  and  historical  articles  to  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review,"  and  published,  besides  other  \Yorks,  a  learned 
and  luminous  "  Inquiry  into  the  Rise  and  Growth  of  the 
Royal  Prerogative  in  England,"  (1830.)  His  intimacy 
with  Lord  Holland  was  such,  says  Lord  Brougham,  that 
"in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  [Mr.  Allen]  shared  all  his 
thoughts,  and  was  never  a  day  apart  from  him."  He 
was  master  of  Dulwich  College  for  many  years.  Died 
m  1843. 

See  Brougham,  "Statesmen  of  the  Times  of  George  III.," 
Second  Series  ;  Sydney  Smith,  "Memoirs." 

Allen,  (Joseph  W.,)  an  English  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Lambeth,  Surrey,  in  1803.  He  was  reduced  in 
his  youth  to  the  necessity  of  painting  scenes  for  the 
theatre,  and  became  principal  scene-painter  at  the  Olym- 
pic Theatre,  the  success  of  which  was  greatly  promoted 
by  his  skill.  He  acquired  considerable  reputation  as  a 
I)ainter  of  pastoral,  landscape,  and  simple,  quiet,  rural 
scenery.  The  style  of  his  later  works  was  vitiated  by 
"brilliant  effects  "  obtained  at  the  expense  of  fidelity  to 
nature.    Died  in  1852. 

Allen,  (Moses,)  an  American  patriot,  a  brother  of  the 
Rev.  Thomas  Allen,  was  born  at  Northampton  in  1748. 
He  served  as  chaplain  in  the  army,  was  taken  prisoner 
at  Savannah,  and  was  drowned  in  1779  in  an  attempt  to 
escape  from  a  prison-ship. 

Allen,  (P.AUL,)  an  American  poet  and  journalist,  born 
at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1775.  He  was  for  seve- 
ral years  editor  of  the  "Morning  Chronicle,"  published 
at  Baltimore,  where  he  died  in  1826.  His  principal 
works  are  a  volume  of  "  Original  Poems,  Serious  and 
Entertaining,"  and  a  large  poem  in  five  cantos,  entitled 
"Noah." 

Allen,  (Richard,)  an  English  Baptist  minister  of 
London,  published  "Ecclesiastical  Biography,''  ("Bio- 
graphia  Ecclesiastica,"  2  vols.,  1690.)  Died  in  London 
in  1717. 

Allen,  (Samuel,)  a  London  merchant,  who  came  to 
New  England  about  1690,  and  was  subsequently  Gov- 
ernor of  New  Hampshire.    Died  in  1705. 

Allen,  (Solomon,)  an  American  divine  and  patriot, 
brother  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Allen,  was  born  in  North- 
ampton, Massachusetts,  in  1751.  He  rose  to  the  rank 
of  major  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution.  While  in  the 
army,  he  was  ordered  by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Jameson  to 
carry  from  Andre  to  Arnold  the  letter  which  informed 
the  latter  of  Andre's  capture  and  enabled  Arnold  to 
make  his  escape.    Died  in  1821. 

Allen,  (Stephen,)  a  distinguished  citizen  of  New 
York,  born  in  that  city  in  July,  1767.  He  was  elected 
mayor  of  New  York  in  182 1.  While  commissioner  for 
visiting  prisons,  he  proposed  the  erection  of  a  State 
prison  at  Sing  Sing.  He  was  one  of  the  principal 
originators  of  the  project  for  supplying  New  York  with 
water  from  Croton  River,  and  was  chairman  of  the  Board. 
He  perished  in  the  steamer  Henry  Clay,  which  was 
burned  in  July,  1852. 

See  Hunt's  "  Lives  of  American  Merchants,"  vol.  ii. 

Allen,  (Stephen  M.,)  an  American  merchant  and 
banker,  born  at  Burton,  New  Hampshire,  in  1819.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  his  liberal  donations  to  various 
literary  institutions. 

See  Livingston's  "  Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans,"  New  York, 
1054. 

Allen,  Alleyn,  or  Allan,  pronounced  alike  ^Klen, 
(Thomas,)  an  English  mathematician  of  high  reputation, 
born  at  Uttoxeter  in  1542.  He  refused  a  bishopric  from 
the  Earl  of  Ivcicester,  with  whom  he  was  intimate,  and 
lived  much  in  the  family  of  the  Earl  of  Northumber- 
land. He  was  a  great  collector  of  manuscripts,  historical 
and  antiquarian.  Among  his  few  publications  is  a  copy 
(made  with  his  own  hand)  of  Ptolemy's  work  on  As- 
trology, ("De  Astrorum  Judiciis,")  to  which  he  added 
some  explanatory  notes.    Died  in  1632. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Allen,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  1572  or 
1573,  was  a  Eellow  of  Merton  College.    Died  in  1636. 

Allen,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  naval  commander, 
Dorn  in  Suffolk.  He  was  appointed  in  1664  commodore 
and  commander-in-chief  of  the  fleet  sent  to  punish  the 


Algerine  pirates,  and  in  the  same  year  he  gained  a  vic- 
tory over  the  Dutch  near  Gibraltar.  He  became  a  rear- 
admiral  in  1665,  and  was  vice-admiral  of  the  fleet  which 
under  the  Duke  of  Albemarle  defeated  the  Dutch  near 
the  southeast  coast  of  England  in  1666,  Died  about 
1680. 

See  Ch.^rnock,  "  Biographia  Navahs." 

Allen  or  AUein,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clergyman, 
born  at  Oxford  in  1682,  became  rector  of  Kettering  in 
1715.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Practice  of  a  Holy 
Life,"  (1716.)    Died  in  1755. 

Allen,  (Rev.  Thomas,)  an  American  divine,  born  at 
Northampton,  Massachusetts,  in  1743,  was  the  first  min- 
ister of  Pittsfield.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1762, 
and  was  ordained  at  Pittsfield  in  1764.  In  the  Revolu- 
tionary war  he  warmly  supported  the  popular  cause, 
and  served  as  chaplain  at  White  Plains,  Ticonderoga, 
etc.  Four  of  his  brothers  were  soldiers  in  the  army. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  published  sermons,  letters, 
etc.  Died  in  1810.  He  was  the  father  of  William 
Allen,  president  of  Bowdoin  College. 

Alien,  (Thomas,)  an  English  topographical  writer 
and  engraver,  born  about  1803.  He  published,  among 
other  works  illustrated  by  his  own  hand,  "  Tlie  History 
and  Antiquities  of  London,  Westminster,  and  Parts  ad- 
jacent," (4  vols.,  1827-8.)    Died  in  1833. 

See  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,"  July,  1S33. 

Allen,  Alan,  or  Alleyn,  (Willl\m,)  Cardinal,  born 
in  Lancashire  in  1532,  took  the  degree  of  D.D.  in  the 
University  of  Douay  in  1571,  and  was  made  cardinal  by 
Pope  Sixtus  V.  in  1587,  in  order  that  he  might  superin- 
tend the  Catholic  interests  in  England  after  Philip  II. 
of  Spain  should  have  conquered  that  country.  He  left 
a  niunber  of  works  in  defence  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
Died  in  Rome  in  1594. 

See  Fitzherbejjt,  "Epitome  VitJe  CardinaHs  Alani,"  1608;  a 
"  Life  of  Allen  "  in  the  folio  Brussels  edition  of  Dodd's  "Church 
History;"  Wood,  "Athena;  Oxonienses." 

Allen,  (William,)  a  chief  justice  of  Pennsylvania,  who 
assisted  Dr.  Franklin  in  establishing  the  College  of 
Philadelphia;  but  in  the  Revolution  he  took  sides  with 
the  royalists.  Died  in  1780.  His  son,  Andrew  Allen, 
also  became  chief  justice  of  Pennsylvania,  and,  like  his 
father,  sided  in  the  Revolution  with  the  British. 

Allen,  (William,)  an  English  chemist  and  philan- 
thropist, born  in  London  in  August,  1770,  was  a  member 
of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He  became  a  pupil  and  as- 
sistant of  Joseph  Gurney  Bevan,  chemist,  of  Plough 
Court,  and  acquired  distinction  as  a  pharmaceutical 
chemist.-  In  1802  he  was  appointed  a  lecturer  on  chem- 
istry at  Guy's  Hospital,  and  in  1804  gave  a  course  of 
lectures  on  natural  philosophy  at  the  Royal  Institution, 
at  the  request  of  his  friend,  H.  Davy.  He  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1807,  and  was  associated 
with  W.  H.  Pepys  in  researches  on  respiration  and  car- 
bonic acid.  (See  Pepys.)  William  Allen  was  an  active 
promoter  of  various  benevolent  and  reformatory  en- 
terprises, and  devoted  much  time  to  the  cause  of  the 
education  of  the  poor.  He  began  to  preach  in  the  meet- 
ings of  his  Society  in  1818,  and  accompanied  Stephen 
Grcllet,  a  noted  minister  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  in  a 
religious  visit  to  the  continent,  from  which  they  returned 
in  1S20,  after  they  had  traversed  Russia  from  north  to 
south  and  visited  various  cities  in  Turkey  and  Italy. 

In  1822  he  went  to  Vienna  to  see  Alexander,  Emperor 
of  Russia,  with  whom  he  had  a  long  and  satisfactory 
interview  in  relation  to  schools,  the  slave-trade,  and  the 
Greeks.  In  1825  he  founded  two  manual-labour  schools, 
one  for  boys  and  one  for  girls,  at  Lindfield,  Sussex. 
He  visited  Germany,  France,  and  Spain  on  religious 
and  philanthropic  missions  in  1832  and  1833.  He  con- 
tributed several  papers  on  chemistry  to  the  Philos^h- 
ical  Transactions.    Died  at  Lindfield  in  1843. 

See  "Life  of  William  Allen,  with  Selections  from  his  Correspond- 
ence," 2  vols.,  1847. 

Allen,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  American  biographer, 
born  at  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts,  in  17S4.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1802.  and  was  president  of  Bow- 
doin College  from  1820  to  1839.  He  succeeded  Dr. 
Channing  as  regent  in  Harvard  College.  In  1809  he 
published  "The  American  Biographical  Dictionary,"  (3d 


as  k;  9  as  x;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural ;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as 

7 


th  as  in  this,    [i^^^  See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


ALIEN 


98 


ALL  ION  I 


edition,  enlarged,  1S57.)  Among  his  works  are  "Wun- 
nissoo,"  a  poem,  (1856;)  and  "Psalms  and  Hymns,  with 
many  Original  Hymns,"  (1835.)    Died  in  July,  1868. 

Allen,  (William  Henry,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1784.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  lieutenant  under  Captain  Decatur 
m  the  battle  which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  the  Mace- 
donian, October  25,  1812.  Having  been  raised  to  the 
rank  of  captain,  he  sailed  in  the  Argus,  and  took  many 
orizes.  In  August,  1813,  he  was  killed  in  a  fight  between 
the  Argus  and  the  Pelican,  and  his  vessel  was  captured. 

Allen,  (W1LLLA.M  Howard,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  at  Hudson,  New  York,  in  1792.  He  took 
command  of  the  Argus  when  Captain  William  Henry 
Allen  was  disabled  by  a  mortal  wound  in  August,  1813. 
He  was  killed  in  a  fight  with  pirates  near  Matanzas  in 
November,  1822. 

AUende,  il-ygu'da,  (J.,)  a  Mexican  officer,  who  in 
1810  joined  Hidalgo  in  the  revolt  against  Spain  and 
tendered  efficient  service  to  the  cause.  He  was  cap- 
tured and  shot  in  July,  181 1. 

Allent,  t'16N',(  Pierre  Alexandre  Joseph,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Saint  Omer  in  1772.  After  the  resto- 
ration he  became  chief  of  the  staff  of  the  national  guard, 
and  counsellor  of  state.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the 
Imperial  Corps  of  Engineers,  and  of  the  Sieges  it  has 
directed,"  {1805,)  and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1837. 

AUeon-du-Lac,  t'la'oN'  dii  iSk,  (Jean  Louis,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  at  Saint  Etienne  in  1723,  was 
postmaster  at  that  place.  He  published  "  Memoirs  on  the 
Natural  History  of  Lyonnois,  Forez,  and  Beaujolois,"  (2 
vols.,  1765,)  and  "  Melanges  of  Natural  History,"  (2  vols., 
1762,)  both  works  of  merit.  He  died,  it  is  supposed, 
about  1770. 

Allerstein,  Allerstain,  aKler-stin',  or  Hallerstein, 

a  German  Jesuit,  born  about  1700,  went  as  a  missionary 
to  China.  He  stated  the  population  of  China  in  1760  at 
196,837,977.    Died  at  Pekin  about  1777. 

Allestree  or  AUestry,  auls''tre,  (Richard,)  an  emi- 
nent English  divine,  born  in  Shropshire  in  1619.  He 
served  in  the  royalist  army  in  the  civil  war,  and  at  the 
restoration  became  one  of  the  chaplains  of  Charles  II. 
In  1663  he  was  appointed  regius  professor  of  divinity  at 
Oxford.  His  lectures,  which  were  continued  about 
twenty  years,  are  commended' by  Bishop  Fell.  A  volume 
of  his  sermons  was  published  in  1669  and  1684.  Died 
in  1681. 

See  Wood,  "Athense  Oxonieiises." 

Allestry,  auls'tre,  (Jacob,)  an  English  poet,  born 
about  1653  ;  died  in  16S6. 

Alletz,i1as^  (Pierre  £douard,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  wrote  "  Walpole,"  a  dra- 
matic poem,  (1825,)  an  "Essay  on  Man,  or  the  Accord- 
ance of  Philosophy  with  Religion,"  (2  vols.,  1S35,)  and 
"Sketches  of  Moral  Suffering,"  ("Esquisses  de  la  Souf- 
france  morale,"  2  vols.,  1S36,)  which  is  his  principal 
work.  He  was  consul  at  Barcelona  when  he  died  in  1850. 

Alletz,  (PoNS-AuGUSTiN — poN^zS^giis^tS.N'',)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1703.  He  worked  for 
the  booksellers  of  Paris,  and  compiled  a  number  of  suc- 
cessful works,  some  of  which  were  popular  school-books. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "History  of  the  Popes,"  (1776;) 
"  L'Agronome,"  a  treatise  on  farming,  (1760;)  an  "Epi- 
tome of  Grecian  History,"  (1764;)  and  a  Synopsis  of  the 
Evidences  of  Christianity,  called  "  Catechism  for  Adults," 
("Catechisme  de  Page  mur.")    Died  at  Paris  in  1785. 

See  QuERAKD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Alley,  iKle,  (Rev.  Jerome,)  a  theologian,  born  proba- 
bly in  Ireland  in  1760,  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin.  He  became  rector  of  Beaulieu  and  Drumcarr. 
Arnong  his  works  is  "Vindiciae  Christianse,  or  a  Com- 
parative Estimate  of  the  Genius  and  Temper  of  the 
Greek,  the  Roman,  the  Hindu,  the  Mahometan,  and  the 
Christian  Religions,"  (1826.) 

Alley  or  Alleigli,  iKle,  (William,)  an  English 
bishop,  born  at  Great  Wycombe  about  15 12.  He  became 
a  zealous  Protestant  minister,  and  in  the  reign  of  Mary 
resigned  his  cure.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he  was 
appointed  reader  of  the  divinity  lecture  in  Saint  Paul's, 
London.   He  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Exeter  in  1560. 


He  translated  the  Pentateuch  for  the  Bishops'  Bible,  and 
left  several  religious  works.    Died  in  1571. 

AUeyn  or  Allen,  dKlen,  (Edward,)  a  celebrated 
English  actor,  born  in  London  in  1566,  was  a  friend  or 
companion  of  Shakspeare.  He  was  one  of  the  two 
owners  and  managers  of  the  Fortune  Theatre,  London, 
and  amassed  a  large  fortune,  which  he  spent  in  acts  of 
munificence.  He  founded,  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor, 
Dulwich  College,  finished  about  1618,  and  by  his  last 
will  endowed  twenty  almshouses.  The  college  was 
founded  for  the  support  of  one  master,  (whose  family 
name  must  always  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  founder,) 
one  warden,  four  fellows,  six  poor  men,  six  poor  women, 
and  for  the  education  and  support  of  twelve  boys.  Died 
in  1626. 

See  J.  P.  Collier,  "  Memoirs  of  Edward  Alleyn,"  etc. 

APli-bond,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Buck- 
inghamshire, was  rector  of  Bradwell.  He  wrote  a 
satirical  poem,  "  Rustic  Description  of  the  Oxford  Acad- 
emy lately  reformed,"  ("  Rustica  Academise  Oxoniensis 
nuper  reformatae  Descriptio,"  1648,)  and  is  called  by 
Anthony  Wood  an  excellent  Latin  poet.    Died  in  1658. 

AlTi-bone,  (Samuel  Austin,)  an  American  writer, 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  i8i6.  He  is  the  author  of  an 
excellent  work  entitled  "A  Critical  Dictionary  of  Eng- 
lish Literature  and  British  and  American  Authors," 
of  which  the  first  volume  (royal  8vo,  pp.  1005)  was  is- 
sued in  1858;  the  second  is  said  to  be  now  (1868)  in 
press.  The  plan,  which  is  as  happy  as  it  is  novel,  is  to 
give  a  succinct  biography  of  each  author,  accompanied 
by  copious  extracts  from  the  opinions  of  the  most  cele- 
brated critics,  or  some  periodical  of  acknowledged  repu- 
tation, by  means  of  which  the  reader  is  at  once  enabled 
to  determine  the  literary  standing  of  the  author  con- 
cerning whom  he  may  desire  information  ;  and  this  plan 
has  been  so  fully  and  thoroughly  carried  out  as  to  leave 
little  or  nothing  to  be  desired. 

Allier,  i'le-a^  (Achille,)  a  French  artist  and  anti- 
quary, born  in  the  Bourbonnais  in  1807  or  1808.  He 
described  some  antiquities  of  his  native  province  in 
"Esquisses  Bourbonnaises,"  (1832,)  and  began,  in  1833, 
to  issue,  in  numbers,  "  L'Ancien  Bourbonnais,"  a  splen- 
did work  on  the  history  and  antiquities  of  the  Bourbon- 
nais, with  plates  designed  by  himself.  He  died  in  1836, 
leaving  it  unfinished. 

Allier,  (Antoine,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  at  Em- 
brun  in  1793.  Among  his  works  are  statues  of  Philopoe- 
men  and  Eloquence,  and  busts  of  Sully  and  Arago. 

Allier,  (Louis,)  called  also  Hauteroche,  hof'rosh', 
a  French  antiquary  and  numismatist,  born  at  Lyons  in 
1766.  He  visited  the  Troad  and  Asia  Minor,  collected 
many  Greek  medals,  and  wrote  several  antiquarian 
treatises;  died  in  1827. 

Allies,  ^V\hz,  (Jabez,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Worcestershire  in  1787;  died  in  1856. 

AFling-heim,  (John  Till,)  a  popular  English  dra- 
matic writer,  flourished  about  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  He  was  a  native  of  London,  and  belonged  to 
the  legal  profession.  He  wrote  comedies  and  farces, 
among  which  are  "The  Weathercock,"  and  "Fortune's 
Frolic,"  (1799.) 

Allingham,  (William,)  a  poet,  born  at  Ballyshannon, 
Ireland,  about  1S28.  He  published  a  volume  of  poems 
in  1S50,  and  "Day  and  Night  Songs"  in  1854.  His 
poem  entitled  "Laurence  Bloomfield  in  Ireland"  (in  12 
chapters,  1864)  was  very  favourably  received.  He  has 
received  an  appointment  in  the  Customs  in  England,  and 
a  literary  pension  was  granted  him  in  1864. 

Allio,  iKle-o,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  worked 
at  Milan  about  1750.  His  brother  Tommaso  was  also 
a  sculptor  at  Milan. 

Allioli,  ai-le-o^'lee,  (Joseph  Franz,)  a  German  theo- 
logian, born  at  Sulzbach  in  1793.  He  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Munich  in  1826,  and  provost  of  the  cathe- 
dral of  Augsburg  about  1838.  He  made  a  translation 
of  the  Bible  from  the  Vulgate  into  German,  (1830,  6th 
edition,  1839-45,)  which  was  approved  by  the  pope,  and 
wrote  several  religious  works. 

AUioni,  il-le-o'nee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  physician 
and  eminent  botanist,  born  at  Turin  in  1725.  Pie  was 
professor  of  botany  in  the  University  of  Turin,  and  Fe!- 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  vl,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fS.lI,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ALLIOT 


99 


AL  MACRO 


low  of  the  Royal  Societies  of  London,  Madrid,  and  Got- 
tingen.  Like  his  friend  Haller,  he  was  opposed  to  the 
artificial  system  of  Linnaeus.  His  principal  work  is  a 
"  Flora  of  Piedmont,"  ("  Flora  Pedemontana,  etc.,"  3 
vols.,  1785,)  by  which  he  acquired  a  durable  reputation. 
He  wrote  an  able  medical  work,  entitled  "  Synopsis 
of  the  Present  Condition  of  Diseases,"  ("Conspectus 
Prsesentaneae  Morborum  Conditionis,"  1793.)  Died  in 
1804. 

See  M.  F.  Buniva,  "Reflexions  siir  toutes  les  ouvrages  publics  et 
in^dits  du  Dr.  C.  Allioni,  avec  des  notices  historiques  concernant  sa 
Vie,"  Turin;  Ersch  und  Grubek,  "  AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Alliot,  t^leV,  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  born  at  Bar-le-Duc,  had  the  repu- 
tation of  great  skill  in  the  treatment  of  cancerous  and 
other  malignant  ulcers. 

Allison.    See  Alison. 

APli-son,  (Francis,)  a  Presbyterian  minister,  born  in 
Ireland  in  1705.  He  became  a  professor  and  vice-pro- 
vost of  the  Philadelphia  College  about  1755.  Died  in  1777. 

Allix,  t'leks',  (Jacques  Alp:xandre  Francois,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Percy  (Manche)  in  1776,  served 
as  colonel  at  Marengo,  1800,    Died  in  1836. 

Allix,  (Pierre,)  a  French  Protestant  theologian,  born 
at  Alen9on  in  1641,  was  eminent  as  a  scholar  and  preacher. 
He  was  deeply  versed  in  Hebrew  and  classical  literature. 
The  sermons  he  preached  at  Charenton  in  opposition  to 
Bossuet  were  much  admired.  On  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes  in  1685  he  took  refuge  in  England, 
learned  the  English  language,  and  was  appointed  treas- 
urer of  the  cathedral  church  of  Salisbury,  (1690.)  He 
was  greatly  distinguished  as  a  controversial  writer.  His 
principal  work,  "  Reflexions  on  the  Books  of  the  Holy 
Scripture,"  (1688,)  is  highly  esteemed,  and  has  been  often 
reprinted.    Died  in  171 7. 

See  Wood,  "Fasti  Oxonienses." 

Allix.    See  Alix. 
AUoisi.    See  Galanino. 

AUori,  al-lo'ree,  [It.  pron.  Sl-lo'ree,]  (Alessandro,) 
an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1535,  was 
a  pupil  of  Angelo  Bronzino,  his  uncle,  and  an  imitator  of 
Michael  Angelo.  He  was  skilful  in  drawing,  and  in  the 
science  of  anatomy,  of  wiiich  he  made  an  excessive  dis- 
play in  his  works.  He  adorned  the  churches  and  palaces 
of  Florence  with  paintings  in  fresco  and  oil.  His  mas- 
ter-pieces are  "The  Last  Judgment,"  "Christ  Disputing 
with  the  Doctors,"  and  "The  Sacrifice  of  Abraham." 
Died  in  1607. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

AUori,  (Angelo.)    See  Bronzing,  (Angelo.) 

Allori,  (Cristofano,)  a  celebrated  painter,  a  son  of 
Alessandro,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1577. 
He  studied  with  Gregorio  Pagani,  and  adopted  a  style 
very  different  from  that  of  his  father.  He  excelled  in 
richness  and  delicacy  of  colouring,  and  was  a  superior 
portrait-painter.  His  works  are  scarce,  and  exquisitely 
finished.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  Magdalen, 
and  the  "Miracle  of  San  Giuliano,"  in  the  Pitti  gallery. 
Died  about  1620. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 
_  AFlot,  (Robert,)  is  believed  to  have  been  the  com- 
piler of  a  valuable  collection  of  early  poetry,  entitled 
"England's  Parnassus,"  (London,  1600,)  in  the  compila- 
tion of  which  he  showed  good  taste  and  judgment. 

Allou,  t'loo',  (Charles  Nicolas,)  a  French  arch- 
jEologist,  born  in  Paris  in  1787.  He  wrote  an  "Essay 
on  the  Universality  of  the  French  Language,"  (1828.) 

AUouette,  de  1',  deh  li'loo'gt',  [Eat.  Alauda'nus,] 
(Francois,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Vertus  about 
1530,  was  president  of  the  court  of  Sedan,  and  master 
of  riequests.  He  wrote  many  works  on  genealogy,  civil 
law,  the  history  of  the  Gauls,  etc.    Died  about  1608. 

AUston,  auKston,  (Joseph,)  an  American,  born  in 
1778,  was  Governor  of  South  Carolina  in  1812.  His 
wife  was  Theodosia,  the  only  daughter  of  Aaron  Burr. 
Died  in  1816. 

Allston,  (Robert  Francis  Withers,)  an  American 
planter,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  180 1.  He  was  elected 
Governor  of  his  native  State  in  1856.    He  distinguished 


himself  as  an  agriculturist,  and  made  improvements  U' 
the  cultivation  of  rice. 

Allston,  (Washington,)  one  of  the  most  eminent 
of  American  artists,  born  at  Waccamaw,  in  South  Caro- 
lina, November  5,  1779.  Owing  to  his  delicate  health 
in  early  childhood,  he  was  sent  to  Newport,  Rhode  Is- 
land, where  he  remained  at  school  ten  years.  He  en- 
tered Harvard  College  in  1796,  and  took  the  degree  of 
A.B.  in  1800.  He  returned  soon  after  to  Charleston, 
and  in  1801  embarked  for  England,  accompanied  by 
MalbonCj  the  painter,  whom  he  had  previously  known 
at  Newport,  and  with  whom  he  formed  a  warm  and 
lasting  friendship.  The  following  year  he  exhibited  in 
London  several  pictures,  one  of  which,  a  "French  Sol- 
dier telling  a  Story,"  attracted  very  favourable  notice. 
He  visited  Paris  in  1804,  and  subsequently  repaired  to 
Italy,  where  he  remained  four  years.  While  at  Rome 
he  formed  an  intimacy  with  Coleridge,  of  whose  extra- 
ordinary genius  he  speaks  in  enthusiastic  terms.  In 
1809  he  returned  to  America,  and  soon  after  married  a 
sister  of  William  E.  Channing,  the  eminent  Unitarian 
divine.  He  again  sailed  for  England  in  1811,  and  es- 
tablished himself  in  London,  where  he  had  resided  but 
a  short  time  when  he  met  with  a  severe  affliction  in  the 
death  of  his  wife.  In  181 8  he  was  elected  associate  of 
the  Royal  Academy.  The  same  year,  in  consequence 
of  failing  health,  he  returned  to  his  home  in  America. 
He  had  previously  finished  his  great  historical  painting 
of  "The  Dead  Man  revived  by  Elisha's  Bones,"  for 
which  he  obtained  the  first  prize  at  the  British  Institu- 
tion. Among  Mr.  Allston's  most  celebrated  pictures 
are  "Jacob's  Dream;"  "Elijah  in  the  Desert;"  "The 
Angel  Uriel  in  the  Sun;"  and  "Spalatro's  Vision  of  the 
Bloody  Hand."  He  was  engaged  on  a  large  painting  of 
"  Belshazzar's  Feast,"  when  he  died,  July  9,  1843.  I" 
addition  to  his  genius  as  a  painter,  Allston  possessed 
poetic  talent  of  a  high  order.  He  was  the  author  of 
"The  Sylphs  of  the  Seasons,  and  other  Poems,"  pub- 
lished in  1 813. 

During  his  residence  at  Rome,  Allston  became  ac- 
quainted with  Washington  Irving,  who  thus  describes 
him:  "There  was  something  to  me  inexpressibly  en- 
gaging in  the  appearance  and  manners  of  Allston.  I  do 
not  think  I  have  ever  been  more  completely  captivated 
on  a  first  acquaintance.  He  was  of  a  light,  graceful 
form,  with  large  blue  eyes,  and  black  silken  hair  waving 
and  curling  round  a  pale,  expressive  countenance.  Every- 
thing about  him  bespoke  the  man  of  intellect  and  refine- 
ment. His  conversation  was  copious,  animated,  and 
highly  graphic,  warmed  by  a  genial  sensibility  and  be- 
nevolence, and  enlivened  at  times  by  a  chaste  and  gentle 
humour.  .  .  .  His  memory  I  hold  in  reverence  and 
affection,  as  one  of  the  purest,  noblest,  and  most  intel- 
lectual beings  that  ever  honoured  me  with  his  friend- 
ship." 

See  DuNLAP,  "  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  Amer- 
ica," vol.  i.;  TucKEKiviAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists;"  also,  article  by 
Dr.  O.  W.  Holmes,  in  "North  American  Review,"  vol.  1.  p.  35S. 

AUut,  S'lii',  (  Antoine,)  born  at  Montpellier,  in  France, 
in  1743,  was  educated  at  Paris,  and  became,  while  very 
young,  a  contributor  to  the  "Encyclopedic."  He  was 
executed  by  the  Jacobins  in  1794. 

Ally,  (Ali.)    See  Alee. 

Almada,  de,  da  il-ma'D^,  (Al'varo  Vas,)  a  famous 
Portuguese  warrior,  was  created  Count  of  Avranches  by 
Charles  VI.  of  France.  He  was  a  loyal  adherent  of 
Dom  Pedro,  regent  of  Portugal,  and  was  killed  in  battle 
in  1449. 

Almagro,  de,  da  ^l-m^'gRo,  (Diego,)  a  bold  and 
enterprising  Spanish  officer,  who  was  the  principal  asso- 
ciate of  Pizarro  in  the  conquest  of  Peru.  He  was  a  found- 
ling, born  about  1464,  and  went  to  America  to  seek  his 
fortune.  About  1525,  Pizarro,  Almagro,  and  Luque 
agreed  to  co-operate  in  an  effort  to  conquer  Peru.  This 
object  they  effected  with  a  very  small  force  about  1533. 
(See  Pizarro,  Francisco.)  In  1534  Almagro  was  ap- 
pointed adelantado  (governor)  of  the  region  which  lies 
southward  from  Peru.  Pie  extended  the  conquests  of 
the  Spanish  power  into  Chili  in  1535,  after  which  he  cap- 
tured Cuzco  from  the  army  of  Pizarro,  who  had  become 
his  perfidious  enemy.    In  a  decisive  battle,  fought  near 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  trh  as  in  this.    (g:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AL  MACRO 


lOO 


ALMICI 


Cuzco  in  1538,  Almagro  was  defeated  and  taken  pris- 
oner by  Pizarro,  who  caused  him  to  be  put  to  death. 

See  Robertson,  "History  of  America;"  Prescott,  "Conquest 
of  Peru,"  vol.  i.;  Herrera,  "Historia." 

Almagro,  de,  (Diego,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
about  1520,  assisted  to  revenge  his  father's  death  by  the 
assassination  of  Pizarro.  After  the  defeat  of  his  asso- 
ciates by  De  Castro,  he  was  betrayed  and  put  to  death 
in  1542. 

Al-Mahdee  or  Al-Mahdi,  (founder  of  the  sect  of 
Ahnohades.)    See  Aboo- Abdillah-Mohammed. 

Almahdee  or  Almahdi,  al-mah'dee',  or,  more  fully, 
Almalidi  Billah,  [i.e.  "the  director  by  the  grace  of 
God,")  the  third  caliph  of  the  house  of  Abbas,  succeeded 
to  the  throne  in  776  a.d.    Died  in  785. 

Almaiii,  tKmdN'',  (Jacques,)  a  French  theological 
writer,  who  was  a  native  of  Sens.    Died  in  1515. 

Al-Makhzoomee  or  Al-Makhzumi,  al-m3,K-zoo'- 
mee,  a  distinguished  historian  and  poet  of  Mohammedan 
Spain,  born  in  1190.  He  passed  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  at  the  court  of  the  Sultan  of  Tunis,    Died  in  1256. 

Al-Makkari.    See  IMakkaree. 

Al-Makin.    See  Elmacin, 

Al-Makreezee  or  -Makrizi.    See  Makreezee. 
Al-Malek  or  Al-Melik.    See  Malik. 
Al-Mamoon.    See  Mamoon. 

Al-Mansoor,  Al-Mansur,  Al-Mansoiir,  or  Al- 
Mau90ur,  al-man's6or^  written  also  Almanzor  and 
Almansor,  ("the  Victorious,")  the  surname  by  which 
Aboo- Amir  (a'boo  d^mir)  -Mohammed,  the  minister 
of  Hisham  II.,  Sultan  of  Cordova,  is  generally  known. 
Born  near  Algeziras  in  939  A.D.,  he  began  his  career  as 
a  bookseller  and  scribe  ;  but  he  soon  found  means  to 
recommend  himself  to  the  notice  of  the  sultan,  and  at 
length,  by  his  talents  and  address,  succeeded  in  possess- 
ing himself  of  all  the  real  power  in  the  state,  Hisham 
retaining  only  the  name  of  sovereign.  He  exercised  the 
power  thus  obtained  with  an  ability  and  success  which 
have  scarcely  a  parallel  in  the  history  of  Mohammedan 
Spain,  He  not  only  overran  the  greater  part  of  the 
Peninsula,  but  also  extended  his  sway  over  a  considerable 
portion  of  Western  Africa.  His  internal  administration 
is  said  to  have  been  no  less  distinguished  for  wisdom  and 
justice,  than  was  his  military  career  for  brilliant  success. 
Died  in  1002. 

See  Al-Makkari,  "  H'story  of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  in 
Spain,"  translated  by  Gavangos,  2  vols.  4to,  London,  1840-43 ;  Conde, 
"  Historia  de  la  Dominacion  de  los  Arabes  en  Espaiia;"  Mariana, 
"  Historia  general  de  P2spana." 

Al-Mansoor,  (Aboo-Jaafar,)  Caliph  of  Bagdad. 
See  Mansoor. 

Almanzor.    See  Al-Mansoor. 

Almeida,  il-ma^-da,  (Manoel,)  a  Portuguese  Jesuit, 
born  at  Viseu  in  i38o.  He  passed  ten  years  in  Abys- 
sinia, (1622-32,)  and  collected  materials  for  a  "History 
of  Ethiopia,"  which  was  published  bv  B.  Tellez  in  1660; 
it  is  said  to  be  a  work  of  decided  merit.  Died  at  Goa 
in  1646, 

Almeida,  de,  da  ll-ma/e-dd,  (Antonio,)  a  Portu- 
guese surgeon,  born  in  BeiraT about  1760,  He  published 
"Surgical  Works,"  ("Obras  Cirurgicas,"  4  vols.,  1814.) 
Died  in  1822. 

Almeida,  de,  (Brites,  bRee'tis,)  a  heroine  who  has 
been  called  "  the  Portuguese  Joan  of  Arc,"  was  born 
about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  followed 
the  business  of  a  baker.  When  her  native  village  (Al- 
jubarotta)  was  attacked  by  the  Spaniards  in  1386,  she  is 
said  to  have  killed  several  soldiers  with  a  baker's  shovel, 
which  was  religiously  preserved  as  a  memorial  by  the  in- 
habitants of  Aljubarotta  through  several  generations. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Almeida,  de,  (Dom  Francisco,)  the  first  Portuguese 
Viceroy  of  India,  a  son  of  the  Count  of  Abrantes,  was 
born  at  Lisbon  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. Having  distinguished  himself  in  the  Moorish 
wars,  he  was  appointed  Viceroy  of  India  in  1505,  and 
fixed  the  seat  of  his  government  at  Cochin.  By  his 
courage  and  prudence  he  greatly  extended  the  dominion 
of  Portugal.  When  Albuquerque  arrived  in  1508  with 
a  commission  to  supersede  the  viceroy,  Almeida  refused 
at  first  to  resign  the  office,  and  arrested  the  admiral. 


About  the  end  of  1508,  Almeida  gained  a  great  victory 
over  the  Egyptian  fleet  near  the  coast  of  India.  Soon 
after  this  victory  he  gave  up  the  command  to  his  rival, 
and  embarked  for  Portugal  in  November,  1509;  but 
before  the  end  of  the  voyage  he  was  killed  in  an  af- 
fray with  a  band  of  Caffres,  near  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  in  15 10.  Thus  obscurely  perished,  by  the  hands 
of  savages,  a  man  who  had  humbled  the  potentates  of 
India  and  rendered  his  country's  flag  triumphant  on  the 
Eastern  seas. 

See  Barros,  "  Decadas  da  Asia ;"  Faria  y  Souza,  "Asia  Por- 
tugueza." 

Almeida,  de,  (Lorenzo,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
distinguished  for  the  many  noble  qualities  of  his  heart, 
as  well  as  for  bravery  and  military  talents,  fell  in  a  sea- 
fight  with  the  Egyptians  near  Choul,  in  1508. 

See  JoAO  DE  Barros,  "Decada  quarta;"  Faria  y  Souza,  "Asia 
Portugueza." 

Almeida,  de,  (Nicolao  Tolentino — to-lSn-tee'no,) 
a  Portuguese  satirical  poet,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1745.  He 
published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1802.  It  is  stated  that 
his  superiority  in  satire  was  such  that  he  had  neither 
rivals  nor  imitators.    Died  in  1811. 

Almeida,  de,  (Theouoro.)    See  Almeyda. 

Almeida-Garrett,  al-ma^-dagir-rgt'',(or  gar''ret,)  (J. 
B.  Leitao  de,)  a  Portuguese  litterateur,  and  the  author  of 
ametrical  romance  entitled  "  Adozinda,"  (London,  1828.) 
He  also  wrote  a  "  Historical  Sketch  of  Portuguese  Lite- 
rature." 

See  Longfellow's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe,"  and  an  article 
"On  the  Poets  of  Portugal,"  in  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
1832,  (vol.  X.) 

Almela,  de,  da  Sl-ma'la,  (Diego  Rodriguez,)  a 
Spanish  historical  writer  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was 
born  in  the  city  of  Mvuxia. 

Almeloveen,  van,  vtn  iKmeh-lo-van^,  (Theodorus 
Jansson  —  yans''son,)  an  eminent  Dutch  physician  and 
scholar,  born  at  Mydrecht  in  1657,  was  professor  of 
Greek  and  of  medicine  at  Harderwyk.  He  published 
good  editions  of  the  "Aphorisms"  of  Hippocrates,  and 
"Celsus  de  Medicina,"  (1687,)  ^i"'<^  wrote  several  works, 
among  which  is  "Theological  and  Philological  Ame- 
nities," (" Amoenitates  Theologico-Philologic^e,"  1694.) 
Died  in  17 12. 

Almeloven,  ^Kmeh-lo^ven,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter 
and  engraver,  born  in  Holland  about  1620.  He  left  a 
number  of  spirited  etchings  of  landscapes,  some  of 
which  are  after  his  own  designs. 

Almenar,  al-ma-naR',  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  physician, 
lived  about  1500,  and  wrote  "De  Morbo Gallico,"  (1502.) 

Almendingen,  von,  fon  i.Kmen-ding'en,  (Ludwig 
Harscher,)  a  jurist,  born  of  German  parents  in  Paris 
in  1766.  He  was  a  judge  or  counsellor  in  the  duchy 
of  Nassau.  He  wrote  several  legal  treatises,  and  co- 
operated with  Feuerbach  in  his  "  Bibliothek,"  a  periodi- 
cal devoted  to  criminal  law.    Died  in  1827. 

Aimer,  aKmer,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  Danish 
painter,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1742  ;  died  in  1792. 

Almeras,  tKma^rls',  (Louis,)  an  able  French  gene- 
ral, born  at  Vienne  in  1768.  He  served  on  the  staff  of 
Kleber  in  Egypt,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Heliopo- 
lis.  Having  obtained  the  rank  of  general,  he  joined  the 
grand  army  in  1809,  and  was  wounded  at  Wagram, 
For  his  conduct  at  the  battle  of  the  Moskwa,  in  1812, 
he  was  made  lieutenant-general.  He  was  taken  prisoner 
in  the  retreat  from  Russia,  He  was  appointed  com- 
mandant of  Bordeaux  in  1813.    Died  in  1823. 

Almeyda,  (Francisco.)    See  Almeida. 

Almeyda,  de,  da  ll-ma^-da,  (Fernando,)  a  Portu- 
guese sacred  poet,  born  at  Alberca  in  1459, 

See  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetrj'  of  Europe." 

Almeyda,  de,  (Francisco,)  a  Portuguese  theologian, 
born  at  Ivisbon  in  1701;  died  after  1750. 

Almeyda  or  Almeida,  de,  da  il-ma^-dJ,  (Theo- 
DORO,)  a  Portuguese  priest  and  writer,  born  ?kt  Lisbon  in 
1722.  He  promoted  the  study  of  philosophy  on  rational 
principles  in  Portugal,  and  wrote  many  wot^s,  of  which 
the  most  remarkable  is  "Philosophical  Recreation," 
("Recrea9ao  Filosofica,"  5  vols.,  1751.)    Died  in  1804. 

Almici,  ^1-mee'chee,  (Camillo,)  a  learned  Italian 
priest  and  writer,  born  at  Brescia  in  1714  ;  died  in  1779. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  loii^i:^;  ti,  h,  ('),  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f3.r,  fall,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ALMODOVAR 


lOI 


ALOMPRA 


Almodovar,  il-mo-do'vaR,  (Don  Ildefonso  Dias 
de  Ribera — de'as  da  re-Ba'ra,)  Count  of,  a  Spanish 
diplomatist  and  writer  of  consideraljle  merit.  He  was 
successively  ambassador  to  Russia  and  England,  and 
returned  to  Spain  in  1779.  His  chief  work  is  a  free 
translation  of  Raynal's  "  History  of  the  East  and  West 
Indies,"  (1784-90,)  in  which  he  made  such  changes  as 
enabled  it  to  pass  the  Spanish  censorship.  Died  in 
1794. 

See  CoxE,  "Memoirs  of  the  Kings  of  Spain." 

Almoliades,  dKmo-hAdz  ;  singular,  Almohade,  il'- 
mo-hdd,  [Fr.  pron.  trmo'Sd' ;  Ger,  Almohadex,  dl- 
mo-hi''den  ;  Lat.  Almo''had.-e  —  from  the  Arabic  Ai.- 
MOWAHiDOOX,  (AlmuwaiiidOn,)  signifying  "worship- 
pers of  ONE  God,"]  the  name  of  a  celebrated  Moham- 
medan dynasty  which  succeeded  in  Northern  Africa  and 
Spain  to  the  power  of  the  Almoravides.  Its  founder  was 
Aboo-Abdillah-Mohammed,  (which  see,)  a  religious 
reformer,  who  took  the  surname  of  Al-Mahdee,  (Al- 
Mahdi,)  "  the  director."  His  followers  called  themselves 
Al-Mowahidoon,  that  is,  "  worshippers  of  the  One  true 
God"  as  revealed  by  Mohammed,  and  accused  the  Almo- 
ravides of  having  departed  from  the  original  purity  of 
the  Moslem  faith  and  of  having  relapsed  into  a  condi- 
tion little  better  than  polytheism  or  paganism.  The  power 
of  the  Almohades  lastedYrom  about  1 145  until  1269,  when 
it  was  subverted  by  the  Benee  Mereen,  (Beni  Merin.) 
The  Almohade  dynasty  is  sometimes  called  that  of 
Abd-el-Moomen,  (or  Abd-ul-Mumen,)  because  he  was 
the  first  of  the  Al-Mowahidoon  who  took  the  name  of 
sultan. 

See  Al-Makkari's  "  Mohammedan  Dynasties  of  Spain,"  trans- 
lated by  Gayangos,  London,  1840-43  ;  Ibn-Khaldoon,  "  History 
of  the  Berbers." 

Almon,  iKmon,  (John,)  an  English  political  writer, 
born  at  Liverpool  about  1738,  was  a  political  friend  of 
John  Wilkes.  He  became  a  prominent  publisher  of 
pamphlets  for  the  opposition  party  about  1763.  Some 
of  these  pamphlets  were  of  his  own  composition.  He 
also  published  "Anecdotes  of  Eord  Chatham,  with  his 
Speeches  from  1736  to  1778,"  (1792,)  and  "  Biographical, 
Literary,  and  Political  Anecdotes,"  (3  vols.,  1797.)  Died 
in  1805. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  December,  1805. 

Almonacid,  de,  di  Sl-mo-nA-th^D',  (Sebastian,)  a 
Spanish  sculptor,  who  flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

Almonde,  van,  vSn  ai-m6n'deh,  (Philippus,)  writ- 
ten also  AUemonda,  a  Dutch  admiral,  born  at  Briel  in 
1646.  He  distinguished  himself  as  captain  in  the  battle 
against  the  English  in  Solebay,  1672.  On  the  death  of 
De  Ruyter,  1676,  he  obtained  command  of  the  fleet,  and 
in  the  following  year  shared  in  Tromp's  victory  over  the 
Swedes.  He  accompanied  William  of  Orange  in  his 
expedition  to  England  in  1688,  and  commanded  the 
Dutch  fleet  at  La  Hogue,  (1692,)  where  the  French  were 
signally  defeated.  Almonde  and  Sir  George  Rooke 
commanded  the  allies  at  the  destruction  of  a  Spanish 
fleet  in  the  Bay  of  Vigo  in  1702.    Died  in  171 1. 

See  Van  dek  Aa,  "  Eiographisch  Woordenboek  der  Nederlanden." 

Almonte,  &l-mon'ta,  (Juan  N.,)  a  Mexican  general, 
born  about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
served  under  Santa  Anna  in  Texas  in  1S36,  and  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  the  United  States  soon  after  1840. 
He  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Buena  Vista  and  Cerro 
Gordo  in  1847.  In  1862  he  was  appointed  dictator  by  a 
party  of  Mexicans  opposed  to  Juarez,  but  he  was  de- 
prived of  power  by  the  French  general  Forey  in  Sep- 
tember of  that  year.    Died  in  1869. 

Al-Moohtadee  or  Al-Muhtadi  Billah,  Sl-mooh'- 
tj-dee''  bil'ldh,  a  caliph  of  the  house  of  Abbas.  Born  in 
838  A.D.,  he  ascended  the  throne  in  869,  and  was  killed, 
after  a  reign  of  eleven  months,  by  the  rebellious  Turkish 
soldiers. 

Al-Mooktadee  or  Al-Muktadi,  il-mook'ti-dee', 
a  caliph  of  the  house  of  Abbas,  began  to  reign  at  Bagdad 
in  1075,  and  died  in  1094. 

Al-Mooktader,  (-Muktader,)  ai-mook'tS-der,  or 
Almobk'tader  BiPlah,  a  caliph  of  the  house  of 
Abbas,  ascended  the  throne  in  908,  and,  after  a  troubled 


and  inglorious  reign,  was  killed  in  battle  by  his  rebel 
lious  subjects  in  931  a.d. 

Al-Mooktafee  or  Al-Muktafi,  ai-mook'ta-fee',  a 
caliph  of  the  house  of  Abbas,  who  began  to  reign  in 
902  A.D.,  at  the  age  of  twenty  years,  and  died  in  908. 

AI-Mooktafee  or  Al-Muktaf  i  was  also  the  name 
of  another  Abbasside  caliph,  who  ascended  the  throne  ii. 
1 136.    Died  in  1160. 

Al-Moontaser,  Al-Muntaser,  or  Al-Muntasir, 
dl-mdon'tds-ser,  the  eleventh  caliph  of  the  line  of  Abbas, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  by  parricide  in  862  A.D.,  and 
died  after  a  reign  of  six  months. 

Al-Mootassem.    See  Motassem. 

Al-Mootenabbee  or  Al-Mutenabbi,  &l-moo^teh- 
nib^bee,  or  El-Motenebbi,  el-mo'teh-neb'bee,  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  of  the  Arabian  poets,  born  at 
Koofah  (Kfifah)  in  the  early  part  of  the  tenth  century. 
He  was  killed,  while  on  a  journey,  by  a  party  of  hostile 
Arabs,  in  965  A.D. 

Almoravides,  il-mo'ra-vidz;  singular,  Almcravide, 
il-mo'ra-vid,  [Fr.  pron.  tl^mo'rtVed' ;  Ger.  Almora- 
viden,  il-mo-ra-vee'den  ;  Lat.  Almorav'id/E — a  Eu- 
ropean corruption  of  the  Arabic  term  Almorabitoon,  (or 
Almorabitun,) — in  the  oblique  cases  Almorabiteen,  (Al- 
morabitin,)  an  Arabic  term  signifying  "those  bound"  or 
"  devoted"  to  the  service  of  God,]  the  name  of  a  Moslem 
dynasty  which  arose  in  Northern  Africa  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eleventh  century.  It  was  founded  by  Abdal- 
lah-Ibn-Yaseen,  (which  see,)  a  religious  leader,  one 
of  whose  generals,  Yoosuf-Ibn-Tashefeen,  conquered  a 
large  part  of  Spain  and  established  a  dynasty  which 
lasted  about  one  hundred  years.  The  last  sultan  of  this 
line,  Tashefeen-Ibn-Alee,  was  deprived  of  his  throne  and 
life  by  the  victorious  Almohades  in  1 145. 

See  Ibn-Khaldoon,  "  History  of  the  Berbers,"  (in  manuscript,) 
and  Al-Makkari,  "History  of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  in 
Spain,"  translated  by  Gayangos,  London,  1840-43. 

Almosnino,  al-mos-nee'no,  (Moses,)  a  learned  Jew- 
ish rabbi  and  writer,  born  at  Salonikiin  1523  ;  died  near 
the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Al-Motassem.    See  Motassem. 

Al-Motenebbi.    See  Al-Mootenabbee. 

Almquist,  alm'kwist,  (Karl  Jonas  Ludwig,)  a 
Swedish  poet  and  novelist  of  the  romantic  school,  was 
born  in  1 793.  He  i;t,i,i,blished  several  novels,  one  of  which 
is  entitled  "  Amorinaj'';  a  number  of  elementary  works 
on  history,  mathematics,  etc.,  and  a  collection  of  poems 
entitled  "Book  of  Thorn-Roses,"  {i.e.  "sweet-briers;" 
in  Swedish,  "  Tornrosens  Bok.")    Died  in  1844. 

See  Fahlkrantz,  "  C.  J.  L.  Ah-nquist  sasom  Fbrfattare  i  Alhnanhet 
och  sasom  Theolog  i  synnerhet  skiirskadad,"  2  vols.,  1845. 

Al-Muhtadi.    See  Al-Moohtadee. 

Al-Muktader.    See  Al-Mooktader. 

Al-Muktadi.    See  Al-Mooktadee. 

Al-Muktafi.    See  Al-Mooktafee. 

Al-Muntaser.    See  Al-Moontaser. 

Al-Mutassem.    See  Motassem. 

Al-Mutenabbi.    See  Al-Mootenabbee. 

Almy,  dKme,  (William,)  an  American  philanthro- 
pist, member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  born  in  1761. 
He  amassed  a  large  fortune,  which  he  employed  in  pro- 
moting objects  of  benevolence.  Among  other  things', 
he  liberally  endov»'ed  the  Friends'  Boarding-School  ar 
Providence,  Rhode  Island.    Died  in  1836. 

Alnander,  al-n§.nMer,  (Olaf  Johan,)  a  Swedish  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Norrkjoping,  lived  about  1510. 

Al-Nassir  or  Al-Nasir,  (An-Nasiar.)  See  Abd-er- 
Rahman  III. 

Aloisi  or  AUoisi,  (Baldassare.)    See  Galanino, 

Aloisio,  i-lo-ee'se-o,  (Gian-Francesco,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  near  Naples,  was  accused  of  heresy,  for  which 
he  was  put  to  death  in  1564. 

Aloja,  i-lo'yi,  (Giuseppe,)  a  Neapolitan  engraver, 
lived  about  1750. 

Alompra,  S-lom'pr^,  the  founder  of  the  present  dy- 
nasty of  Burmah,  was  born  about  17 10.  He  was  the 
chief  of  the  town  of  Monchaboo,  when  the  King  of  Pegu 
conquered  Burmah,  in  1752.  Having  raised  the  standard 
of  revolt,  in  1753,  he  defeated  the  Peguans  in  several 
battles,  and  made  himself  master  of  all  Burmah.  He 
took  the  King  of  Pegu  prisoner  in  his  own  capital  in 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  H,  k,  guttural;  n,  7iasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (J[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ALONSO 


I02 


AL-SAFFAH 


1757.  Alompva  was  faithless  and  cruel,  but  possessed 
superior  civil  and  military  talents.    Died  in  1760. 

See  Dalrymple,  "Oriental  Repertory;"  Crawfurd,  "Journal 
of  an  Embassy  to  Slam,"  etc. ;  Symes,  "Account  of  an  Embassy  to 
the  Kingdom  of  Ava  in  the  year  1795." 

Alonso  or  Alonzo,  (of  Spain.)    See  Alfonso. 

Alonso  de  los  Rios,  a-lon'so  da  16s  ree'6s,  (Pedro,) 
a  Spanish  sculptor,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1650,  worked 
at  Madrid.  Died  in  1700.  His  father,  Francisco,  was 
also  an  able  sculptor. 

Alonzo.    See  Alfonso. 

Alopa,  d',  da-lo'pa,  (Lorenzo,)  a  learned  printer, 
born  at  Venice,  published  at  Florence,  about  1475-1500, 
accurate  editions  of  several  Greek  works,  in  elegant 
typography. 

Alopaeus,  a-lo-pa''us,  (David,)  brother  of  Maxim, 
noticed  below,  born  at  Viborg  in  1769,  was  sent  by  the 
emperor  Alexander  1.  as  minister  to  Sweden  in  1809. 
After  the  peace  of  1815  he  was  minister  from  Russia  to 
the  court  of  Berlin,  where  he  died  in  1831. 

Alopaeui3,  (Maxim  Maximovitch,)  a  Russian  diplo- 
matist, born  at  Viborg,  in  Finland,  in  1748,  He  was 
appointed  by  Catherine  II.,  in  1790,  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary to  the  court  of  Prussia.    Died  in  1822. 

Alos,  a'los,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  medical  writer,  be- 
came professor  of  anatomy  at  Barcelona  in  1664. 

Aloysius,  i-lo-ish'e-us,  an  architect  who  flourished 
at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Theodoric  the  Great. 

Alpago,  ai-pi'go,  [Lat.  Alpa'gus,]  (Andrea,)  an 
Italian  physician,  native  of  Belluno,  lived  about  the 
close  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

Alp-Arsl^n,  ilp-ars-l5n'',  (the  "strong  lion,")  written 
also  Alp-Arselan,  a  celebrated  Seljook  sultan,  born 
in  Toorkistan  in  1030,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1063. 
In  1071  he  defeated  and  took  prisoner  Romanus  Dioge- 
nes, the  Byzantian  emperor,  who  is  said  to  have  com- 
manded, in  this  battle,  three  hundred  thousand  men. 
He  treated  his  imperial  captive  with  great  generosity 
and  kindness.  Alp-Arslan  was  assassinated  in  1072. 
His  person  was  remarkable  for  beauty,  grace,  and 
strength,  and  his  character  appears  to  have  been  almost 
without  a  stain.  His  minister,  Nizam-ul-Mulk,  (ne- 
zam-dol-mdolk,)  shared  the  glory  of  his  sovereign. 
"Under  his  wise  direction,"  says  Sir  John  Malcolm, 
"the  territories  of  Alp-Arslan  attainf^d  the  highest  pros- 
perity. Justice  was  well  admini^itfered ;  colleges  and 
mosques  were  erected  in  every  city  ;  learning  was  en- 
couraged ;  the  poor  were  protected  ;  and  the  inhabitants 
of  Persia  confessed  that  the  conquest  of  their  country 
by  the  savage  Tartars,  which  they  had  dreaded  as  the 
worst  of  evils,  had  proved  the  greatest  of  blessings." 

See  Malcolm,  "History  of  Persia,"  vol.  i.  chap.  viii. ;  Von 
Hammer,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs ;"  D'Herbelot, 
"  Bibliotheque  Orientale  ;"  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire." 

Al-pha'nus  or  Alfani,  il-f^'nee,  (Francesco,)  an 
Italian  medical  writer  of  Salerno,  lived  between  1550 
and  1600. 

Alphee.    See  Alpheus. 

Alpliege.    See  Elphege. 

Alphen,  van,  vin  ai'fen,  (Daniel,)  a  Dutch  jurist, 
born  in  17 13,  was  professor  of  law  at  Leyden.  Died  in 
1707. 

Alphen,  van,  (Hieronymus,)  a  popular  Dutch  poet, 
born  at  Gouda  in  1746,  became  procurator-general  at 
the  court  of  Utrecht,  and  treasurer-general  of  the  Union. 
He  published  "  Poems  and  Meditations,"  (1777,)  "  Dutch 
Songs,"  ("Gezangen,"  1779,)  and  "Short  Poems  for 
Children,"  (1781,)  which  are  remarkable  for  simple 
grace  and  beauty.  His  imaginative  poem  of  "The 
Starry  Fleavens"  ("De  Starrenhemel,"  1783)  is  one  of 
his  finest  productiuns.    Died  at  the  Hague  in  1803. 

See  Kampen,  "  Geschiedenis  der  Letteren  en  Wetenschappen  in 
de  Nederlanden  ;"  Jorlssen,  "  Erinnerung  an  H.  van  Alphen,"  1804. 

Alphen,  van,  (Hieronymus  Simon,)  a  distin- 
guished theologian,  an  ancestor  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  New  Hanau  in  1665.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Utrecht  in  171 5,  and  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  teacher.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  the 
epistles  of  Paul  (1742)  and  on  other  books  of  Scripture. 
Died  in  1742. 


Hieronymus  van  Alphen,  (1700-58,)  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  professor  of  theology  at  Utrecht,  and  grand-' 
father  of  the  poet  Van  Alphen. 

Alphery,  aKfa-re,  (Nicephorus,)  a  Russian,  who 
emigrated  to  England  and  became  a  parson  of  the  An- 
glican Church.  He  died  at  an  advanced  age  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Al-phe^us  or  Al-phei^us,  [Gr.  'AA^eor  or  'AZ^iwc; 
Fr.  Alphee,  trii',]  a  river-god  of  classic  mythology, 
was  a  son  of  Oceanus.  The  poets  fabled  that  he  loved 
the  nymph  Arethusa,  who  fled  from  him  to  the  island 
of  Ortygia  and  was  metamorphosed  into  a  fountain, 
and  that  Alpheus  followed  her  through  the  sea  and  was 
thus  united  to  that  fountain. 

Alpheus,  a  Greek  poet,  native  of  Mitylene,  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  Augustus  Caesar.  He  was 
distinguished  as  a  writer  of  epigrams. 

Alpheus,  a  Greek  engraver  of  gems,  lived  in  the  first 
century  of  our  era. 

Alphonse.    See  Alfonso. 

Alphonso.    See  Alfonso. 

Alphonso  (or  Alfonso)  Tostado.  See  Alphon- 
sus  Ahulensis. 

Al-phon^sus  Ab-u-len'sis,  (/,£-.  "Alphonso  of 
Avila,")  or  Alfonso  Tostado,  ai-fon'so  tos-ti'Do,  an 
eminent  Spanish  theologian,  born  in  New  Castile  about 
1400,  became  Bishop  of  Avila.  Died  in  1445,  leaving 
many  works,  among  which  are  "Commentaries  on  the 
Scriptures,"  (13  vols.,  1508.) 

Alphonsus  a  Sancta  Maria.  See  Alfonso  of 
Carthagena. 

Alphonsus  Palentinus.   See  Alfonso  de  Palen- 

CIA. 

Alpin.    See  Alpinus. 

Al-pi'nus,  written  also  Alpin,  (Prosper,)  [It.  Pros- 
PERO  Alpin  I,  pRos'pa-ro  ^1-pee'nee,]  an  eminent  Italian 
botanist  and  physician,  born  at  Marostica,  in  the  re- 
public of  Venice,  in  1553.  He  passed  some  years  in 
Egypt,  and  after  his  return  published,  in  Latin,  a  work 
"On  the  Plants  of  Egypt,"  (1591.)  He  also  published 
a  treatise  "  On  the  Egyptian  Practice  of  Medicine," 
("  De  Medicina  yEgyptiorum,"  1591.)  In  1593  he  became 
professor  of  botany  at  Padua.  He  was  the  first  Euro- 
pean who  published  an  account  of  the  coffee-plant,  and 
he  enriched  the  science  of  botany  with  many  new  facts. 
He  died  in  161 7,  leaving  in  manuscript  a  valuable  work 
"On  Exotic  Plants,"  ("De  Plantis  Exoticis,"  1628.) 

See  ToMASiNi,  "  Elogia  Virorum  Illustrium ;"  Haller,  "  Biblio- 
theca  Botanica." 

Alptageen  or  Alpteghin,  Slp^ta-geen',  a  Turkish 
slave,  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Gaznevide  dynasty 
in  Eastern  Persia,  (in  what  is  now  called  Afghanistan.) 
Died  in  976  A.D.  His  son-in-law  Sabuktageen  (or  Sebek- 
tagin)  was  the  father  of  the  famous  Mahmood  of  Gazna. 

Alquie,  d',  dtl'ke-a',  (Franqois  Savinien,)  a  French 
author  of  the  seventeenth  century,  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Delights  of  France,"  ("Les  Delices  de  la 
France,"  1670.) 

Alquier,  tl'ke-i^  (Charles  Jean  Marie,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  noted  for  his  tact  and  amenity,  born  in  La 
Vendee  in  1752.  From  1798  to  1813  he  was  appointed 
successively  ambassador  to  Bavaria,  Madrid,  Florence, 
Naples,  Rome,  Stockholm,  and  Copenhagen.  In  1816 
he  was  banished  from  France,  on  the  ground  of  his 
having,  when  in  the  National  Convention,  voted  for 
the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  He  was,  however,  recalled  in 
1818,  and  died  in  1826. 

Als,  tls  or  tlss,  (Peter,  or  Peder,)  a  Danish  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1725; 
died  in  1775. 

Alsace,  d',  dSrsts',  (Thomas  Louis,)  Cardinal, 
called  also  Alsace  de  Bossu,  tl^sts'  deh  bo'sii', 
(Thomas  Philippe  de  Hennin  or  Henin — ha^u^N',) 
was  born  at  Brussels  in  1680.  He  was  descended  from 
the  counts  of  Flanders  and  from  the  counts  of  Bossu. 
In  1 714  he  was  appointed  by  the  Emperor  of  Germany 
Archbishop  of  Malines  (Mechlin)  and  Primate  of  the 
Austrian  Netherlands.  In  17 19  he  was  raised  to  tne 
dignity  of  cardinal.    Died  in  1759. 

Al-Saffah  or  As-SefFMi.    See  Aboo-l-Abbas-Ab- 


E,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  S.,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  il,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fAt;  met;  n6t;  good;  mooii; 


JLSJRIO  DELIA  CROCK  103 


ALTHJiA 


Alsario  della  Croce,  il-si're-o  deKld  IcRo'chi,  [Lat. 
Alsa'rils,]  a  learned  physician  and  writer,  born  at 
Genoa  about  1576.  He  gave  lectures  on  medicine  in 
Rome  for  twenty  years  or  more,  and  was  physician  to 
Pope  Gregory  XV.    Died  after  1631. 

Al-Sheik^  al-shak'  or  il-sha^ik,  (Moses,)  a  Jewish 
rabbi,  born  at  Sapheth,  in  Galilee,  was  celebrated  as  an 
interpreter  of  the  Scriptures,  on  which  he  wrote  many  j 
commentaries.    Died  about  1595. 

Alsloot,  van,  vtn  ils-lot',  (Daniel,)  a  Flemish  land- 
scape-painter, who  was  born  at  Brussels  about  1550,  and 
died  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Alsop,  aul'sop,  (Antony,)  an  English  divine  and 
eminent  classical  scholar,  who  graduated  at  Cambridge 
in  1696,  and  became  a  prebendary  of  Winchester.  He 
published  a  "  Selection  of  the  Fables  of  /Esop,'"  in  Latin 
v(;rse,  (" ^Esopicarum  Fabularum  Delectus,''  1698.)  He 
also  wrote  Latin  odes  with  facility.    Died  in  1727. 

Alsop,  auKsop,  (Richard,)  an  American  poet  and 
journalist,  born  at  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in  1761. 
With  Theodore  Dwight,  Hopkins,  Trumbull,  and  others, 
called  the  "Hartford  Wits,"  he  issued,  in  1791,  the  first 
number  of  the  "  Echo,"  a  satirical  journal,  directed  chiefly 
against  the  Democratic  party.  In  1800  he  published  a 
Monody  on  the  Death  of  Washington.  He  translated 
"The  Enchanted  Lake  of  the  Fairy  Morgana,"  from 
Berni's  "Orlando  Lmamorato ;"  and  Molina's  "Geo- 
graphical, Natural,  and  Civil  Historv  of  Chili."  Died 
in  1815. 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Alsop,  (Rev.  Vincent,)  an  English  nonconformist 
divine,  who  became  minister  of  a  Presbyterian  congre- 
gation in  Westminster.  He  gained  distinction  by  his 
strictures  on  Sherlock's  work  "On  the  Knowledge  of 
Christ,"  and  his  reply  to  a  sermon  by  Stillingfleet  against 
nonconformists.    Died  at  an  advanced  age  in  1703. 

See  Nichols,  "Literary  Anecdotes." 

Alsted,  aKst^t,  [Lat.  Alste'dius,]  (Johann  Hein- 
RICH,)  a  voluminous  German  writer  on  theology  and 
history,  born  near  Herborn,  in  Nassau,  in  1588.  His 
works,  which  were  all  written  in  Latin,  were  once  highly 
esteemed.    Died  in  1638. 

Alston,  auls'ton,  (Charles,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
botanist  and  physician,  born  at  Eddlewood  in  1683.  He 
began  to  read  lectures  on  botany  and  materia  medica  at 
Edinburgh  soon  after  1720,  and  was  appointed  professor 
of  the  same  in  the  university  of  that  city  about  1740. 
His  principal  work  is  a  manual  of  botany,  entitled  "Tiro- 
cinium Botanicon  Edinburgense,"  (1753,)  in  which  he 
defended  the  system  of  Tournefort  and  wrote  against 
that  of  Linnaeus.  Died  in  1760.  His  lectures  on  Ma- 
teria Medica  (2  vols.,  1770)  are  highly  commended. 

See  Cham  BERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Alston,  (Washington.)    See  Allston. 

Alston,  auls'ton,  (Willis,)  a  native  of  Halifax  county. 
North  Carolina,  was  a  representative  in  Congress  from 
that  State  from  1799  to  1815,  and  from  1825  to  1831, 
During  the  war  of  1812  he  was  chairman  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Ways  and  Means,  the  most  honourable  and  at 
the  same  time  the  most  arduous  and  responsible  posi- 
tion, after  the  speakership,  in  the  National  House  of 
Representatives.    Died  in  1837. 

Alstorph,  ais'torf,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  antiquary,  born  at 
Groningen  about  1680 ;  died  in  1719. 

Alstromer  or  Alstroemer,  aKstRo-mer,  (almost  ^V- 
stRum-er,)  (Jonas,)  a  distinguished  Swede,  born  at  Al- 
ingsas,  in  1685,  of  poor  and  obscure  parents.  He  went 
to  seek  his  fortune,  first  to  Stockholm  and  afterwards  to 
London,  where  he  set  up  as  ship-broker,  in  which  busi- 
ness he  appears  to  have  been  very  successful.  Although 
he  became  an  English  citizen,  he  still  retained  the  warm- 
est attachment  to  his  native  country,  to  which  he  returned 
about  1724.  His  earnest  and  untiring  efforts  were  sub- 
sequently directed  towards  the  improvement  of  Swedish 
commerce  and  manufactures,  by  which  he  merited  and 
obtained  the  esteem  and  gratitude  of  his  countrymen, 
A-ho  conferred  upon  him  many  honours.    He  was  made, 

1739)  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Commerce,  and  was 
afterwards  ennobled.    Died  in  1761. 

See  Kryger,  "Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  J.  Alstromer." 


Alstromer  or  Alstroemer,  (Klaudius  or  Klas,)  a 
Swedish  naturalist,  born  at  Alingsas  in  1736,  was  a  son 
of  Jonas  Alstromer,  mentioned  above.  He  studied 
natural  history  under  Linnaeus,  and  travelled  in  Spain 
to  obtain  information  respecting  sheep  and  other  sub- 
jects. A  journal  which  he  wrote  during  this  tour  was 
accidentally  destroyed  by  fire.  He  published  a  "Dis- 
course on  the  Breeding  of  Fine-Woolled  Sheep,"  (1770,) 
which  is  highly  praised.    Died  in  1796. 

SeeDuBB,  "Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  Clas  Alstromer,"  1796. 

Alt,  alt,  (Franz  Joseph  Nicolaus,)  a  Swiss  historian, 
born  at  Freiburg  in  1689,  bore  the  title  of  baron.  He 
wrote  in  French  (of  which  he  was  not  a  perfect  master) 
a  "History  of  Switzerland,"  (10  vols.,  1749-52,)  a  work 
of  much  research,  but  defective  in  style  and  criticism. 
Died  in  1770. 

Altani,  al-ta'nee,  (Antonio,)  Bishop  of  Urbino,  an 
eminent  Italian  ecclesiastic  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Died 
in  1450. 

Altani,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  in  Friuli 
about  15 10,  was  of  the  same  family  as  the  preceding. 
He  left  in  manuscript  a  great  number  of  sonnets,  can- 
zoni,  and  epigrams,  the  most  of  which  are  lost.  Died 
about  1570. 

Altani,  (Enrico,)  an  Italian  dramatic  poet,  who 
flourished  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
Among  his  productions  is  "L'Americo,"  a  tragedy.  His 
works  are  commended  by  several  Italian  critics.  Died  at 
an  advanced  age  in  1648. 

Altaroche,  tl'ta'rosh'',  (Marie  Michel,)  a  success- 
ful and  witty  French  writer  and  journalist,  born  at  Is- 
soire  (Puy-de-D6me)  in  1811.  He  was  chief  editor  of 
the  "Charivari"  from  1834  to  1848/ and  sustained  during 
that  period  an  exuberant  flow  of  ready  wit,  raillery,  and 
satire.  He  published  a  volume  of  political  songs,  (1835,) 
two  historical  studies  entitled  the  "Reformation,"  and 
the  "Revolution,"  (1841,)  and  other  works,  which  favour 
democracy.  He  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assem- 
bly in  1848. 

Altdorfer,  Slt'doRTer,  written  also  Altorfer,  (Al- 

brecht,)  a  celebrated  German  painter  and  engraver, 
born  at  Altdorf,  in  Bavaria,  in  1488.  There  is  a  doubt- 
ful tradition  that  he  was  a  pupil  of  Albert  Dlirer.  He 
worked  chiefly  in  Regensburg,  (or  Ratisbon,)  and  is  called 
by  the  French  "Le  Petit  Albert,"  either  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  Albert  Diirer  or  because  he  seldom  painted  other 
than  small  figures.  Among  his  works  is  a  remarkable 
picture  of  the  victory  of  Alexander  at  Arbela,  which 
contains  a  great  number  of  figures.  The  details  of  cos- 
tume and  accessories  are  very  minutely  represented.  His 
engravings  on  copper  and  wood  are  more  numerous  than 
his  paintings.    Died  in  1538. 

See  Strutt,  "Dictionaiy  of  Engravers." 

Alten,  ai'ten,  (Karl,)  the  youngest  son  of  Baron  Al- 
ten,  was  born  in  Hanover  in  1764.  He  entered  the  Eng- 
lish army  in  1803,  became  a  major-general  in  181 2,  and 
commanded  with  great  credit  the  third  division  of  Wel- 
lington's army  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  in  which  he 
was  wounded.  He  was  soon  after  created  a  count. 
Died  in  1840. 

Altensteig  or  Altenstaig,  IKten-stlo^,  (Johann  or 
Johannes,)  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian,  a  native  of 
Germany,  flourished  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century. 

Altenstein,  aKten-stm,  (Karl,)  Baron,  a  Prussian 
minister  of  public  instruction,  born  at  Anspach  in  1770. 
In  1 81 5  he  undertook  the  recovery  of  the  works  of  art 
and  literary  treasures  which  the  French  had  removed 
from  Germany  to  Paris.  For  the  successful  accomplish- 
ment of  this  arduous  task,  all  Germany  owes  him  a  debt 
of  gratitude.  He  became  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion and  worship  in  181 7,  and  made  important  changes 
during  the  long  period  of  his  administration.  Died  in 
1840. 

Alter,  IKter,  (Franz  Carl,)  a  German  Jesuit  and 
eminent  classical  scholar,  born  in  Silesia  in  1749;  died 
in  1804.  He  published  editions  of  Homer's  "Iliad," 
Lucretius,  and  other  Greek  and  Latin  works. 

Althaea,  il-thee'a,  [Gr.  'Mdaia;  Fr.  Althee,  tlW,] 
in  the  Greek  mythology,  was  the  wife  of  CEneus,  King 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  K,guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ALTHAMMER 


ALTON 


of  CaWdon,  and  the  mother  of  Meleager.   (See  Melea- 

GER  ) 

Althammer,  alt'him'mer,  or  Althamer,  (Andreas,) 
a  distinguished  German  divine,  born  at  Brenz,  in  Sua- 
bia,  in  1498.  He  embraced  the  principles  of  Luther  in 
1520,  and  became,  by  his  learning,  energy,  and  wisdom, 
one  of  the  chief  pillars  of  the  Reformation.  Died  in 
1564.  His  best-known  work  is  his  "Diallage,"  {i.e. 
"Reconciliation,"  1528,)  in  which  he  attempts  to  explain 
and  reconcile  those  passages  of  Scripture  which  at  first 
sight  appear  to  be  contradictory. 

Althen,  trtON^  (Euan,  g-hin',  or  Jean,)  a  native  of 
Persia,  who  became  a  benefactor  to  France  by  the  in- 
troduction of  madder,  was  born  in  171 1.  His  father  was 
the  governor  of  a  province.  He  was  made  captive  in  his 
youth  by  some  Arabs,  and  sold  as  a  slave  at  Smyrna, 
whence  he  escaped  to  Marseilles.  He  carried  thither 
some  seeds  of  the  madder,  the  exportation  of  which  was 
forbidden  under  penalty  of  death.  Having  the  advan- 
tage of  a  handsome  person,  he  married  a  rich  heiress  of 
Marseilles,  and  was  thus  placed  in  a  situation  to  pursue 
at  leisure  his  plans  for  the  culture  of  madder  in  France. 
He  had  observed  that  the  soil  and  climate  of  the  Comptat- 
Venaissin  were  similar  to  those  of  Smyrna  and  Anatolia, 
which  were  most  favourable  to  the  cultivation  of  madder. 
His  experiments  in  this  part  of  France  were  crowned 
with  complete  success,  and  the  culture  of  madder  has 
since  become  extensive  and  very  profitable.  Died  in  1774. 

See  A.  Rastoul,  "  Vie  de  J.  Althen,"  in  "  Portraits  et  Histoire  des 
Homnies  utiles." 

Altliof,  alt'hSf,  (Ludwig  Christoph,)  a  German 
physician  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Detmold  in  1758; 
died  in  1832. 

Althor.p,  ^I'thorp,  (Lord  John  Charles  Spencer,) 
Earl  Spencer,  a  liberal  English  statesman,  the  son  of 
George  John,  Earl  Spencer,  was  born  in  May,  1782.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Oakhampton  in  1804,  and 
was  a  junior  lord  of  the  treasury  under  the  ministry  of 
Fox  and  Grenville,  1806-7.  He  represented  Northamp- 
tonshire in  the  House  of  Commons  from  1806  until  1834. 
By  his  good  sense,  prudence,  probity,  and  other  moral 
qualities,  he  acquired  great  influence,  and  was  commonly 
called  "honest  Lord  Althorp."  In  1830  he  became 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  the  Whig  ministry.  He 
inherited  the  title  of  Earl  Spencer  at  the  death  of  his 
father  in  1834,  and  resigned  ofhce  in  the  same  year.  His 
favourite  pursuit  was  agriculture,  to  the  improvement 
of  which  he  probably  contributed  more  than  any  other 
English  nobleman  of  his  time.    Died  in  1845. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  November,  1845. 

Althusen,  ilt'hii^sen,  [Lat.  Althu'sius,]  (Johann,) 
a  Dutch  jurist,  born  probably  at  Emden  about  1556, 
became  professor  of  law  at  Herborn  in  1590,  and  syndic 
at  Bremen.  He  was  an  enlightened  friend  of  liberty, 
and  advocated  the  doctrine  that  supreme  power  is  the 
right  of  the  people.  He  published  a  "  System  of  Roman 
Law,"  (1586,)  and  other  works.    Died  about  1638. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Alticherio,  al-te-ka're-o,  or  Aldigieri,  il-de-ja'ree, 
(Da  Zevio  —  did-za^ve-o,)  a  distinguished  Veronese 
painter,  who  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  four- 
teenth century. 

Alticozzi,  il-te-kot'see,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit 
and  theological  writer,  born  at  Cortona  in  1689.  His 
chief  work  is  "  Summa  Augustiniana,"  (6  vols.,  1744-61.) 
Died  in  1777. 

Altieri.    See  Clement  X. 

Altilio,  ai-tee'le-o,  [Lat.  Altil'ius,]  (Gabriello,)  an 
Italian  poet  and  ecclesiastic,  born  about  1440.  He  lived 
mostly  at  Naples.  He  is  known  as  the  author  of  some 
short  Latin  poems  of  great  merit,  among  which  is  an 
Epithalamium  on  the  marriage  of  Galeazzo  Sforza,  Duke 
of  Milan.    Died  about  1500. 

Alting,  aKting,  [Lat.  Altin'gius,]  (Heinrich,)  a 
Calvinistic  theological  writer  and  professor,  born  at 
Emden  in  1583.  He  was  preceptor  of  Frederick,  King 
of  Bohemia,  professor  of  theology  at  Heidelberg,  and 
subsequently  at  Groningen,  1627-44.    Died  in  1644. 

See  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  and  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Crit- 
ical Dictionary." 


Alting,  (Jacob,)  a  distinguished  biblical  scholar,  sou 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Heidelberg  in  1618.  In 
1642  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  and  the 
Oriental  languages  at  Groningen.  He  wrote  several 
valuable  exegetical  and  philological  works,  among  which 
was  a  Syro-Chaldaic  grammar.    Died  in  1679. 

See  B.  Becker,  "Vita  J.  Altingii,"  prefixed  to  his  "Opera  Om- 
nia." 

Alting,  (Menso,)  a  zealous  Calvinistic  preacher  and 
controversialist,  born  in  Drenthe,  a  district  of  Holland, 
in  1541,  was  the  father  of  Pleinrich,  above  noticed.  He 
was  minister  at  Emden,  and  leader  of  his  party  in  a  con- 
test against  the  Lutherans.    Died  in  16 12. 

Alting,  (Menso,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1636.  He  became  burgomaster  of  Groningen, 
and  published  a  valuable  work,  entitled  a  "Description 
of  Lower  Germany,"  ("Notitia  Germaniae  Inferioris," 
1697.)    Died  in  1712. 

See  Ubbo  Emmius,  "M.  Altingii  Vita,"  1717. 

Altissimo,  al-tes'se-mo,  {i.e.  "most  sublime,")  the 
surname  of  a  famous  Italian  poet  and  improvisatore 
who  lived  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  His 
true  name  is  believed  to  have  been  Cristoforo  Fio- 
rentino,  (kris-tof  o-ro  fe-o^r^n-tee'no.)  His  best  work 
is  an  Italian  metrical  version  of  the  first  book  of  the 
prose  romance  entitled  "  Reali  di  P'rancia." 

Altissimo,  dell',  del-lal-tes'se-mo,  (Cristofano,)  an 
eminent  Florentine  portrait-painter  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. 

Altmann,  ait'man,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  Swiss  theo- 
logian, born  at  Zofingen  in  1697,  was  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  and  Greek  at  Berne.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  "  Critical  Observations  on  the  New 
Testament,"  (3  vols.,  1737,)  and  was  one  of  the  two 
editors  of  the  "Tempe  Helvetica,"  (6  vols.,  1735-43.) 
Died  in  1758. 

See  Ersch  iind  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Altmish,  tlt^nish,  surnamed  Shems  (or  Shums) 
ood-Deen — shems  or  shums  ood-deen',  (the  "sun  of  re- 
ligion,") a  young  man  of  Tartar  descent,  who,  from  the 
condition  of  a  slave,  became  Sultan  of  Delhi  in  1210  a.d. 
He  died  in  1236.  He  was  an  able  ruler,  and  was  the 
father  of  Ruzeea  Begum  and  Mahmood  Nasir  ood-Deen. 

See  Ferishta's  "  History  of  the  Mahomedan  Power  in  India," 
translated  by  Briggs,  vol.  i. 

Altobello,  ll-to-beKlo,  (Francesco  Antonio,)  a 
Neapolitan  historical  painter  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
was  born  at  Bitonto.  He  worked  at  Naples,  and  ex- 
celled in  invention  and  composition. 

Altomare,  ai-to-mi'ra,  (Donato  Antonio,)  [often 
called  in  Latin  Dona'tus  ab  Altoma'ri,]  an  eminent 
Neapolitan  physician  and  medical  writer.  Having  been 
driven  from  Naples  by  persecution,  he  was  restored  by 
the  mechation  of  Pope  Paul  IV.  His  chief  work,  "Ars  Me- 
dica,"  (1553,)  has  been  often  reprinted.  Died  about  1566. 

Altomonte,  il-to-mon'ta,  (Martino,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Naples  in  1657.  He  worked  many 
years  in  Vienna  with  success,  and  painted  portraits  of 
the  Austrian  emperors.    Died  in  1745. 

Alton,  aKton,  (Richard,)  Count  of,  a  general  in 
the  Austrian  service,  born  in  Ireland  in  1732,  command- 
ed in  the  Low  Countries  at  the  beginning  of  the  insur- 
rection in  1789.  He  was  forced  to  evacuate  Brussels, 
and  died  during  his  retreat  towards  Vienna  in  1790. 

His  younger  brother,  Edward,  Count  of  Alton,  served 
with  distinction  against  the  Turks  and  French.  He  fell 
at  the  siege  of  Dunkirk  in  August,  1793. 

Alton,  d',  ddKton,  (Johann  Samuel  Eduard,)  a 
physician,  born  at  Saint  Goar  in  1803.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  Halle  in  1834,  and  published  a 
"Manual  of  Comparative  Anatomy  of  Man,"  (1850.) 

Alton,  d',  (Joseph  Wilhelm  Eduard,)  a  German 
naturalist  and  antiquary,  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Aquileja  in  1772.  He  studied  natural  his- 
tory and  the  fine  arts,  and  travelled  in  France,  England, 
Spain,  etc.  He  published  a  "Natural  History  of  the 
Horse,"  (1810,)  and  a  "  Comparative  Osteology,"  (1821- 
28.)  About  1821  he  was  appointed  professor  of  archae- 
ology and  the  history  of  art  in  the  University  of  Bonn< 
where  he  remained  until  his  death  in  1840. 


a,  G,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


ALT  ON -S  HE  E 


[05 


ALVAREZ 


Alton-Shee,  d',  dil  lo.x'  shi',  (Edmond,)  Comte,  a 
French  democrat,  born  in  1810.  He  was  an  active  pro- 
moter of  the  revolution  of  February,  1848,  advocated  a 
socialist  regime,  and  acted  with  Ledru-RoUin. 

Altorfer.    See  Altdorfer. 

Altoviti,  al-to-vee'tee,  (Antonio,)  born  in  1521,  at 
Florence,  was  made  archbishop  of  that  city  in  1548; 
died  in  1573. 

Altovitis,  trto've'tess',  or  Altouvitis,  trtooVe^tess', 
Mademoiselle,  a  poetess,  born  at  Mai'seilles  in  1550. 
Died  in  1606. 

Altringer.    See  Aldringer. 

Altschul,  ^It'shool,  (Elias,)  a  German  homoeopathic 
physician,  born  at  Prague  in  181 2.  He  published  a 
"Dictionary  of  Ocular  Medicine,"  (2  vols.,  1836.) 

Altzenbach,  ait'sen-bS,K^  (Wilhelm,)  the  name  of 
two  German  engravers  (father  and  son)  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century.  They  worked  in  Paris  and  Stras- 
burg. 

Alunno,  S-loon'no,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  gram- 
marian and  calligraphist  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was 
born  at  Ferrara.  He  is  known  as  the  author  of  two 
works  on  the  Italian  language,  which  were  often  re- 
printed, viz.  :  "Riches  of  the  Italian  Language,"  (1543,) 
and  a  Vocabulary  containing  the  words  in  Dante,  Pe- 
trarch, Boccaccio,  and  others,  (1548.)    Died  in  1556. 

Alunno,  (Niccolo,)  an  Italian  painter  of  Foligno, 
flourished  from  1450  to  1500,  painted  in  water-colours, 
and  was  an  artist  of  great  merit  for  his  time.  He  was 
one  of  those  who  contributed  to  the  progress  of  art  by 
the  freedom  of  his  style.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Na- 
tivity of  Christ." 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Alured.    See  Alfred. 

Alva,  dKva,  or  AFba,  [Sp.  pron.  iKvS,]  (Fernando 
Alvarez  de  Toledo,)  [Sp.  pron.  f^R-ndnMo  al'v^- 
r^th  di  to-la'Do,]  DuKE  of,  [Fr.  Due  d'Albe,  diik 
dtlb,]  a  celebrated  Spanish  general  under  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  and  Philip  II.,  King  of  Spain,  was  born  in 
1508,  of  a  noble  and  ancient  Castilian  family.  At  an 
early  age  he  entered  the  army  of  Charles  V.,  whom  he 
afterwards  accompanied  in  most  of  his  campaigns.  In 
1556-7  he  successfully  defended  Naples  against  the 
allied  French  and  Papal  armies,  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  prudent  and  able  general.  He  was  sent 
by  Phili])  11.,  in  1567,  to  quell  the  insurrection  which 
had  broken  out  among  the  Protestants  of  the  Low 
Countries.  But,  although  in  this  war  he  displayed  great 
abilities  as  a  general,  the  rigour  of  his  administration, 
and  the  extreme  cruelty  with  which  he  treated  the  avowed 
or  suspected  heretics  who  fell  into  his  hands,  doubtless 
contributed  more  than  any  other  cause  towards  the  final 
separation  of  those  provinces  from  the  Spanish  crown. 
Alva  was  recalled  to  Madrid  in  1573.  He  boasted  that 
in  the  space  of  four  years  he  had  brought  no  fewer  than 
eighteen  thousand  persons  to  the  scaffold!  In  1580  he 
invaded  Portugal,  and,  after  defeating  the  Portuguese 
forces  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus,  annexed  that  kingdom 
to  the  dominions  of  Spain.    Alva  died  in  1582. 

See  Watson,  "Philip  II.;"  Pkescott,  "Philip  II.,"  vol.  ii. ; 
Motley,  "History  of  the  Dutch  Republic;"  J.  Antonio  de  Vera 
Y  FiGUEROA,  "Resultas  de  la  Vida  de  Fern.  Alvarez  de  Toledo," 
1643  ;  "  Vie  du  Due  d'Albe,"  Paris,  169S  ;  J.  V.  de  Rustaut,  "  His- 
toriade  Fern.  Alvarez  de  Toledo  Duque  de  Alva,"  1750  ;  J.  Mitchell, 
"  Biographies  of  Eminent  Soldiers  of  the  Last  Four  Centuries,"  1865. 

Alvarado,  de,  da  Sl-vi-ri'Do,  (Alonzo,)  a  Spanish 
officer,  who  served  under  Cortez  in  Mexico,  after  the 
conquest  of  which  he  went  to  Peru  and  obtained  a  high 
command  in  the  army  of  Pizarro.  Having  been  sent 
with  five  hundred  men  to  reinforce  the  brothers  of  Pi- 
zarro at  Cuzco,  he  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner  by 
Almagro  in  1537.  After  the  death  of  Pizarro  he  took 
arms  against  Almagro  the  younger,  and  joined  his  troops 
to  those  of  De  Castro,  (1542.)  He  was  lieutenant-gene- 
ral of  the  army  which  suppressed  the  rebellion  of  Gon- 
zalo  Pizarro  in  1548. 

See  Prescott,  "Conquest  of  Peru." 

Alvarado,  de,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  officer,  born  at 
Badajos  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  one  of 
the  principal  companions  of  Cortez  in  the  conquest  of 
Mexico.    He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battles  of  Ta- 


basco and  Otumba,  and  gained  tne  full  confidence  of 
Cortez.  He  was  left  in  command  of  the  city  of  Mexicc 
when  Cortez  marched  to  encounter  Narvaez.  In  1523 
he  led  a  successful  expedition  against  Zacatula,  Tehuan- 
tepec,  and  Guatemala,  and  received  from  the  King  of 
Spain  the  title  of  Governor  of  Guatemala.  He  per- 
formed an  arduous  march  over  the  Andes  with  a  design 
to  seize  Quito  ;  but,  having  met  the  troops  of  Pizarro,  who 
claimed  the  command  in  that  place,  he  retired  peaceably 
after  receiving  a  large  indemnity  for  his  expenses.  He 
was  killed  in  a  fight  with  some  natives  in  1541.  Some 
writers  say  his  death  was  caused  by  a  horse  falling  on 
him  down  a  steep  bank. 

See  Prescott,  "  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vols.  ii.  and  iii. 

Alvares.    See  Alvarez. 

Alvarez,  aKva-rgth,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  theologiaru 
born  in  Old  Castile  about  1550,  became  Archbishop  ot 
Trani,  in  Italy,  in  1606.  His  chief  work  is  "On  the 
Aids  of  Divine  Grace,"  ("De  Auxiliis  Divinae  Gratiae,' 
1610.)    Died  about  1633. 

APva-rez,  [Port.  pron.  iKva-rlz,]  (Emanuel,)  a 
Portuguese  Jesuit,  born  in  the  island  of  Madeira  in  1526  : 
died  in  1582.  Among  other  works,  he  was  the  author  of 
an  excellent  Latin  grammar. 

Alvarez,  (Francisco,)  a  Portuguese  priest,  born  at 
Coimbra,  became  chaplain  to  King  Manoel  some  time 
before  15 15.  Soon  after  this  date  he  accompanied 
Duarte  Galvam  on  a  mission  to  the  King  of  Abyssinia, 
who  was  then  called  Prester  John.  He  passed  about 
six  years  in  that  strange  country,  and  returned  home  in 
1527.  A  long  and  valuable  account  of  this  mission  was 
published  in  1540,  with  the  title  "Prester  John  of  the 
Indias  :  a  True  Account  of  the  Country  of  Prester 
John,"  ("  Ho  Preste  Joam  das  Indias  :  verdadera  Infor- 
ma9am  das  Terras  do  Preste  Joam.")  He  is  regarded  as  a 
candid  and  veracious  writer.  Died  probably  about  1 540. 

See  F.  Denis,  "  Le  Monde  enchante,"  etc.;  Ramusio,  "Viaggi 
e  Navigazioni." 

Alvarez,  (Gomez,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  in  148S ; 
died  in  1538. 

Alvarez,  (Don  Jose,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  Span- 
ish sculptors,  was  born  at  Priego,  in  the  province  of 
Cordova,  in  1768.  He  became  a  student  in  the  Acad- 
emy of  Madrid  in  1794,  gained  there  a  prize  of  the  first 
class,  and  received  from  the  king  a  pension  of  twelve 
thousand  reals  (fifteen  hundred  dollars)  in  1799,  after 
which  he  pursued  his  studies  in  Paris.  His  reputation 
was  increased  by  a  statue  of  Ganymede,  (1804.)  He 
worked  chiefly  in  Rome,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Luke.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
"Orpheus  Sleeping,"  a  "Venus  and  Cupid,"  and  a 
group  of  "Antilochus  and  Memnon."  He  received  the 
title  of  court-sculptor  to  Ferdinand  VII.  about  1818. 
Died  at  Madrid  in  November,  1827.  His  son,  a  prom- 
ising sculptor,  died  in  1830,  aged  about  twenty-five. 

SeeBEKMUDEZ,  "  Diccionarlo  Historico;"  Nagler,  "Allgemeines 
Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Alvarez,  (Juan,)  a  Mexican  general,  born  in  1790, 
was  distinguished  for  his  energy  and  boldness.  He  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  insurrection  which  began  in 
1854  and  which  deprived  Santa  Anna  of  power  in  1855. 
Alvarez  became  President  of  Mexico  about  September, 
1855,  and  abolished  the  old  privilege  {fiiero)  of  the  clergy 
and  the  army.    He  resigned  in  December,  1855. 

Alvarez,  (Don  Manuel,)  a  distinguished  Spanish 
sculptor,  born  at  Salamanca  in  1727,  was  a  pupil  of  Fe- 
lipe de  Castro.  He  gained  the  first  prize  at  Madrid  in 
1754,  and  became  sculptor  to  the  king  in  1794.  The 
purity  and  vigour  of  his  design  procured  for  him  the  sur- 
name of  "El  Griego,"  ("the  Greek.")    Died  in  1797. 

Alvarez,  (Don  Martin,)  Count  of  Colomera,  a  Span- 
ish general,  born  in  Andalusia  about  17 14.  He  obtained 
in  1779  the  command  of  the  army  which  besieged  Gib- 
raltar without  success  for  several  years,  and  was  super- 
seded by  the  Due  de  Crillon  in  1782.  Having  been  raised 
to  the  rank  of  captain-general,  he  commanded  in  1794 
against  the  French,  whose  progress  he  failed  to  arrest. 
He  was  removed  in  February,  1795.    Died  in  1819. 

Alvarez,  (Tomas,)  a  Spanish  physician  of  Seville, 
published  a  treatise  on  the  plague  in  1569. 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,     guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (iJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


io6  A  MAD  ESI 


ALVAREZ 


Alvarez,  de,  aKvc\-i-eth,  (Bernardo,)  a  Spanish 
adventurer,  born  at  Seville  in  15 14,  founded  several  hos- 
pitals in  Mexico.    Died  in  1584. 

Alvarez  de  Cabral.    See  Cabral. 

Alvarez  de  Castro,  aKva-reth  di  kSs'tRo,  (Mari- 
ano,) a  Spanish  officer,  born  at  Granada,  was  distin- 
guished for  his  resolute  defence  of  Gerona  against  the 
French,  by  whom  it  was  taken  in  1809,  after  a  siege 
of  seven  months.  He  died  in  prison  about  the  end  of 
1809. 

See  SouTHEY,  "History  of  the  Peninsular  War." 

Alvarez  de  Colmenar.    See  Colmenar. 

Alvarez  de  Luna;    See  Luna. 

Alvarez  do  Oriente,  iKvi-riz  do  o-re-en'ti,  {i.e. 
"Alvarez  of  the  East,")  (Fernao,)  a  Portuguese  poet  of 
great  merit,  born  at  Goa,  in  India,  about  1540.  Scarcely 
anything  is  known  of  his  life,  except  that  he  was  bred  to 
the  sea  and  at  one  time  was  himself  the  captain  of  a 
vessel.  His  chief  work  is  entitled  "  Portugal  Trans- 
formed," ("A  Lusitania  transformada,"  1607,)  a  pastoral 
partly  in  verse  and  partly  in  prose. 

Alvarez  y  Baena,  al'va-rSth  e  ba-a'na,  (Jos^  An- 
tonio,) a  Spanish  biographer,  born  at  Madrid,  wrote 
the  "Illustrious  Sons  of  Madrid,"  ("  Hijos  de  Madrid 
illustres,"  4  vols.,  1789-91.)    Died  about  1803. 

Alvaro,  a/va-ro,  (Giovanni,)  a  Neapolitan  painter, 
who  flourished  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Alvarotto,  al-vi-rot'to,  (Jacopo,)  a  distinguished 
feudal  lawyer,  born  at  Padua  in  1385  ;  died  in  1453. 

Alvar  Paez,  aKvaR  pa'es,  or  Alvar  Pajo,  dKvaR 
pi'zho,  [Lat.  AlVarus  Pela'gius,]  a  theologian,  born 
probably  in  Portugal,  became  Bishop  of  Silves  in  Al- 
garve  about  1334.  His  chief  work  is  "On  the  Com- 
plaint of  the  Church,"  ("De  Planctu  Ecclesias,")  com- 
pleted in  1332.  He  maintains  in  this  the  supremacy  of 
the  pope.     Died  about  1350. 

APva-rus,  (Paulus,)  often  called  Al'varus  Cordu- 
beii'sis,  {i.e.  "  Alvarus  of  Cordova,")  from  the  place 
of  his  birth,  a  Christian  writer  of  the  ninth  century. 

Alvarus.    See  Alvarez. 

Alvensleben,  von,  fon  ^I'vens-la'ben,  (Albrecht,) 
Count,  a  Prussian  minister  of  state,  born  in  1794.  He 
was  minister  of  finances  from  1836  to  1842. 

Alvensleben,  von,  (Karl  Gebhard,)  a  Prussian 
general,  born  in  1778.  He  fought  at  Jena  in  1806,  com- 
manded a  regiment  at  Lutzen  in  181 3,  and  rendered  im- 
portant service  at  Bautzen.  He  became  a  general  in 
1817.    Died  in  1831. 

Alvensleben,  von,  (Philip  Charles,)  Count,  a 
diplomatist  in  the  service  of  Prussia,  born  at  Hanover 
in  1745,  was  made  a  count  in  1801,  and  died  in  1802. 

Alves,  iKves,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at 
Elgin  in  1745,  wrote  "The  Weeping  Bard,"  and  "The 
Banks  of  the  Esk,"  (published  in  1801.)    Died  in  1794. 

Alviano,  ai-ve-i'no,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  gen- 
eral who  was  famous  for  his  courage,  audacity,  and  skill 
in  the  wars  that  preceded  and  followed  the  League  of 
Cambrai,  was  born  about  1455.  Having  entered  the 
service  of  Venice,  he  routed  the  Imperialists  near  Ca- 
dore  in  1508,  and  was  promoted  to  the  position  of  gen- 
eral-in-chief  He  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by 
Louis  XII.  of  France  at  Ghiera  d'Adda  in  1509.  The 
Venetians  and  the  French  having  become  allies,  he  was 
released  in  1 5 13.  The  victory  of  the  French  at  Mari- 
gnano,  in  1515,  is  ascribed  in  great  measure  to  him.  He 
was  a  lover  of  literature,  and  a  generous  patron  of  lite- 
rary men.    Died  of  fever  in  1515. 

See  SiSMOXDi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiqiies  Italiennes." 

Alvinczy,  Alvinzi,  or  Alvinzy,  von,  pronounced 
alike — fon  al-vTnt'se,  (Joseph,)  Baron,  an  Austrian  gen- 
eral, was  born  at  Vincz,  (Vints,)  in  Transylvania,  in  1735, 
(or,  as  some  authorities  say,  in  1 726.)  He  became  a  lieu- 
tenant-field-marshal in  1789,  and  greatly  distinguished 
himself  as  commander  of  a  division  in  the  campaigns  of 
1792  and  1793  against  the  French.  After  the  defeat  of 
Wurmser  in  Italy  in  the  summer  of  1796,  Marshal  Al- 
vinczy was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a  new  army  of 
about  fifty  or  sixty  thousand  men,  sent  against  Bona- 
parte. He  entered  Italy  from  Carinthia,  and  fought  an 
indecisive  action  at  Bassano  on  the  6th  of  November, 


1796.  In  the  same  month  he  was  defeated  by  Bona- 
parte at  Areola,  after  a  battle  of  three  days'  duration. 
"The  ruinous  fetters  of  the  Aulic  Council,"  says  Alison, 
"paralyzed  all  the  movements  of  Alvinzi,  who  in  this 
strife  evinced  neither  the  capacity  nor  spirit  of  a  general 
worthy  to  combat  Napoleon."  Having  been  again  de- 
feated at  Rivoli  in  January,  1797,  he  resigned  his  com- 
mand.   Died  in  1810. 

See  BoTTA,  "  Storia  d'ltalia;"  Alison,  "Historyrf  Europe." 

Alvintzi  or  Alvinczi,  Sl-vint'se,  (Peter,)  a  Protest- 
ant divine  and  writer,  who  lived  at  Waradin  and  Ka- 
schau,  in  Hungary,  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Two  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  published 
in  1632  and  1634. 

Al-Waleed  or  Al-Walid  (ai-w^leedO  I.,  the  sixth 
caliph  of  the  race  of  Omxyyah,  ascended  the  tlirone  of 
Damascus  in  705.  During  his  reign,  Toorkistan  in  the 
East,  and  Spain  in  the  West,  were  added  to  the  Arabian 
Empire,  and  the  Omeyyah  dynasty  attained  the  acme  of 
its  power.    Died  in  715  a.d. 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen." 

Alxinger,  alk'  sing-er,  (Johann  Baptist,)  a  German 
scholar  and  poet,  born  at  Vienna  in  1755.  wrote 
lyric,  dramatic,  and  epic  poems.  Among  his  most  popu- 
lar works  is  "Doolin  von  Mainz,"  an  epic  poem,  (1787.) 
He  was  well  acquainted  with  the  best  works  in  the  an- 
cient as  well  as  the  modern  languages,  and  is  said  to  have 
known  the  whole  of  the  yEneid  by  heart.  As  a  man  he 
was  distinguished  by  a  noble  and  unostentatious  gene- 
rosity towards  all  who  needed  his  sympathy  or  aid.  He 
died  in  1797. 

Aly.    See  Alee, 

A-ly-at'tes,  [Gr.  ' klva-Tri^ ;  Fr.  Alyatte,  t'le-tt',]  a 
celebrated  king  of  Lydia,  the  father  of  Croesus,  began  to 
reign  about  618  B.C.  He  waged  war  for  five  years  against 
Cyaxares,  King  of  Media.  A  battle  between  them  was 
interrupted  by  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  in  consequence  of 
which  they  made  a  treaty  of  peace.  This  eclipse,  pre- 
dicted by  Thales,  is  supposed  to  have  occurred  in  610 
B.C.    Alyattes  reigned  fifty-seven  years. 

See  Herodotus,  book  i. ;  Rollin,  "Ancient  History;"  Hamil- 
ton, "Researches  in  Asia  Minor." 

Alyon,  t1e-6N',  (Pierre  Philippe,)  a  French  phar- 
macist, naturalist,  and  writer,  born  at  Aavergne  in  1758; 
died  about  1820. 

A-lyp'i-us,  [Gr.  'KIv'klo^,']  an  architect  of  Antioch, 
lived  in  the  fourth  century.  He  was  charged  by  Julian 
the  Apostate  to  rebuild  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.  But 
this  design  was  frustrated,  if  we  may  credit  the  statement 
of  an  excellent  pagan  historian,  (Ammianus  Marcellinus,) 
by  eruptions  of  fire  from  the  earth. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  chap,  xxiii. 

Alypius,  ['AAvTr/of,]  an  ancient  Greek  musician  and 
writer  on  music.    Fragrnents  of  his  work  are  extant. 

Alypius,  a  distinguished  Greek  sophist  of  the  fourth 
century,  born  at  Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  excelled  in  dia- 
lectics. 

Aly  Shir.    See  Alee-Sheer-Ameer. 
Alyy.    See  Alee. 

Alzate  y  Ramirez,  dl-sa'ta  e  ra-mee'res,  (Jos6 
Antonio,)  a  distinguished  astronomer  and  geographer 
who  lived  at  Mexico  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century.    His  numerous  works  are  written  in  Spanish. 

Amac,  (a  Persian  poet.)    See  Amak. 

Aniadei,  §,-mi-da'ee,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  priest, 
born  about  1483,  preached  and  wrote  against  Luther. 
Died  in  1543. 

Amadei,  (Stefano,)  an  Italian  painter  of  history  and 
portraits,  born  at  Perugia  in  1589.  He  excelled  in  the 
use  of  the  crayon,  and  worked  in  Rome.    Died  in  1644. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Amadeo,  cVmS-da'o,  or  Amadei,  ^-ma-da'ce,  (Gio- 
vanni Antonio,)  a  distinguished  Italian  sculptor,  born 
at  Pavi'a  about  1400.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
the  monuments  of  the  Venetian  general  Colleoni  and  his 
daughter,  at  Bergamo.    Died  in  1474. 

Amadesi,  a-ma-da'see,  (Domenico,)  a  popular  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Bologna  in  1657,  was  a  rich  merchant.  His 
first  poems  appeared  under  the  anagram  "  Simonide  de 
Meaco,"  (1709.)    Died  in  1730. 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  lons^;  i,  h.,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohsaire;  far,  f^ll,  fdt;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


JMADESI 


107 


AMALTEO 


Amadesi,  (Giuseppe  Luigi,)  a  distinguished  anti-  , 
quary  and  scholar,  born  at  Leghorn,  of  Bolognese 
parents,  in  1701.    He  contributed  to  Calogera's  "Rac- 
colta  di  Opuscoli,"  and  published  "DeComitatu  Argen- 
tato,"  (1763.)    Died  in  1773. 

Am-a-de''us,  [It.  Amedeo,  a-ma-da'o,  or  Amadeo, 
a-mi-da''o  ;  Fr.  Amedee,  t'ma'da',]  the  name  of  several  [ 
counts  and  dukes  of  Savoy  from  about  iioo  to  1472.  | 

Amadeus  I.  of  Savoy,  a  son  of  Humbert,  Count  of  | 
Maurienne,  lived  in  the  lirst  half  of  the  eleventh*  century. 

Amadeus  II.  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  and  a  ' 
son  of  Oddo  by  his  wife  Adelaide  of  Susa.    Died  in  the  ' 
eleventh  centu'rv.    He  was  succeeded  bv  his  son,  Hum- 
bert H.  ' 

Amadeus  III.,  Count  of  Maurienne,  succeeded  his 
father,  Humbert  H.,  in  1103.  He  went  to  Palestine  on 
a  crusade  with  his  nephew,  Louis  VH,  of  France,  in 
1 147,  and  died  in  Cyprus  in  1148.  His  successor  was  his 
son,  Humbert  IH, 

Amadeus  IV.  succeeded  his  father,  Thomas  I., 
Count  of  Savoy,  in  1233.  He  made  some  additions  to 
his  dominions.    Died  in  1253. 

Amadeus  V.,  born  in  1249,  was  a  son  of  Thomas  H. 
of  Savoy,  Count  of  Flanders.  He  succeeded  his  uncle 
Philip  as  Count  of  Savoy  in  1285.  He  died  in  1323, 
leaving  the  crown  to  his  son  Edward. 

Amadeus  VI.,  born  in  1334,  was  a  son  of  Aymon, 
Count  of  Savoy,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1343.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  able  and  successful  princes  of  the  house 
of  Savoy.  He  defeated  the  French  at  Arbrette  in  1354, 
and,  having  joined  a  crusade  against  the  Turks,  took 
Gallipoli  in  1366  and  released  the  captive  emperor 
John.  He  acquired  large  accessions  of  territory  in  Pied- 
mont.   Died  in  1383. 

Amadeus  VII.,  born  about  1360,  succeeded  his 
father,  Amadeus  VI.,  at  the  age  of  twenty-three.  He 
was  styled  the  "Red  Count,"  from  the  colour  of  his  ar- 
mour. He  annexed  Nice  to  his  dominions.  Died  in 
1391- 

Amadeus  VIII.,  son  of  Amadeus  VII.,  succeeded 
his  father  in  1391,  being  then  only  eight  years  old.  In 
1416  he  was  created  by  the  emperor  Sigismund  first 
Duke  of  Savoy.  He  enjoyed  a  great  reputation  for  wis- 
dom, and  was  called  the  Solomon  of  his  age.  In  1434 
he  made  his  son  Louis  lieutenant-general  of  his  domin- 
ions, and  retired  to  the  monastery  of  Ripaille,  which  he 
had  founded.  Having  remained  here  five  years,  he  was 
elected  pope  by  the  Council  of  Bale,  in  the  place  of 
Eugenius  IV.,  whom  they  haS  deposed.  Amadeus  ac- 
cepted the  office,  though  with  great  reluctance,  taking 
the  name  of  Felix  V.  Afterwards,  wishing  to  put  an 
end  to  the  schism  in  the  Church,  he  publicly  renounced 
his  claims  to  the  papacy  in  favour  of  Nicholas  V.,  who 
on  the  death  of  Eugenius  had  been  elected  at  Rome. 
Died  in  145 1. 

Amadeus  IX.,  a  son  of  Louis,  Duke  of  Savov,  and 
a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Thonon  in 
1435,  '^^^  began  to  reign  in  1465.  He  married  Yolande, 
a  daughter  of  Charles  VII.  of  France.  Died  in  1472, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Philibert. 

Am'a-dis  de  Gaul  or  GauTa,  the  hero  of  a  famous 
romance  of  chivalry  written  in  the  thirteenth  century  by 
Vasco  de  Lobeira,  a  Portuguese.  (See  Loeeira.)  "  The 
Amadis,"  says  Ticknor,  "is  admitted  by  general  consent 
to  be  the  best  of  all  the  old  romances  of  chivalry." 

See  Ticknor,  "  Spanish  Literature,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xi.  p.  221  et  seq. 

Amador  Rebello,  i-ma-doR'  ra-bel'lo,  a  Portuguese 
Jesuit  and  writer,  born  in  1539  ;  died  at  Lisbon  in  1622. 

Amaduzzi,  a-ma-doot'see,  [in  Latin,  Amadu'tius,] 
(Gtovaxxi  Cristoforo,)  a  learned  Italian  writer,  born 
near  Rimini  in  1740,  was  professor  of  Greek  in  Rome. 
He  published  "  Anecdota  Literaria,"  (3  vols.,  1774,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1792. 

Amaia.    See  A  may  a. 

Amak  Bokharee,  (or  Bokhari,)  am'Sk  bo-Ka'ree, 
(/V.  "  Amak  the  Bokharian,")  written  also  Amac  and 
Amik,  a  Persian  poet,  whose  life  was  nearly  coexten- 
si\  e  with  the  eleventh  century, 

A-mal'ar-ic,  [Lat.  Amalari'cus,]  the  last  king  of 
the  Visigoths  that  reigned  in  Spain,  was  a  son  of  Afaric 
II.,  who  died  in  507  a.D.    He  married  Clotilde,  a 


daughter  of  Clovis,  King  of  the  Franks.  He  was  killed 
during  a  war  against  the  Franks,  in  531  a.D. 

Am-a-la'ri-us  For-tu-na'tus,  an  archbishop  of 
Treves,  who  was  sent  by  Charlemagne,  in  811  a.D.,  to 
diftuse  Christianity  among  the  Saxons.  He  established 
the  first  church  at  Hamburg.  In  813  he  went  as  ambas- 
sador to  Constantinople.    Died  in  814  A.D. 

Am^a-lek,  [Heb.  p-:o;',]  a  king  of  the  Amalek- 
ites,  who  opposed  the'  Israelites  on  their  flight  from 
Egypt.  He  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Rephidim.  (See 
Exodus  xvii.  8-14;  Deuteronomy  xxv.  17.) 

Amalfi.    See  Avalos,  (Costaxza.) 

Amalie,  a-m§.'le-eh,  or  Ame'lia,  (Axxa,)  Princess 
of  Prussia,  and  sister  of  Frederick  the  Great,  was  born 
in  1723.  She  had  a  remarkable  talent  for  music,  to 
which  she  devoted  her  life.  Her  musical  library  was 
the  finest  and  most  complete  ever  collected.  Died  in 
17S7. 

Amalie,  or  Amelia,  (Anna,)  Duchess  of  Saxe- 
Weimar  and  Eisenach,  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick-\Yolfenbiittel,  born  in  1739,  was  distinguished  as 
a  patron  of  genius  and  learning.  She  assembled  at  her 
court  the  brightest  ornaments  of  German  literature, 
among  others  Wieland,  Herder,  Goethe,  etc.  She  was 
mother  of  the  duke  Karl  August.    Died  in  1S07. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Amalie,  (Catherine,)  a  German  poetess,  born  in 
1640,  married  the  Count  George  Lewis  (Georg  Ludwig) 
ofErbach.    Died  in  1696. 

Amalie  or  Amelia,  (Elisabeth,)  a  grand-daughter 
of  William  I.,  Prince  of  Orange,  was  born  in  1602,  and 
in  1619  married  \Villiam  V.,  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel. 
After  his  death,  in  1637,  she  was  made  regent,  in  which 
capacity  she  displayed  extraordinary  energy,  wisdom, 
and  virtue.    Died  in  1651. 

See  K.  W.  Justi,  "Amalie  Elisabeth  Lar.dgrafin  von  Hessen." 

Amalie  or  Amelia,  (Marie  Friederike  Auguste,) 
Duchess  of  Saxony,  born  in  1794,  was  a  sister  of  Fred- 
erick Augustus  II.  She  cultivated  poetry  and  music, 
and  wrote  in  German  successful  dramas,  among  which 
are  "Falsehood  and  Truth,"  "The  Marriage-Ring," 
"  Cousin  Henry,"  and  "  The  Young  Lady  from  the 
Country." 

See  article  by  Professor  Feltok,  in  the  "  North  American  Review," 
vol.  lii.,  and  "  Social  Life  In  Gemiany,  illustrated  in  the  acted  Dramas 
of  the  Princess  Amelia,"  etc.,  translated  from  the  German  by  Mrs. 
Jameson. 

Amalric  of  Jerusalem.    See  Amaury. 

Amalric,  t'mSrR^k',  (Arnaud,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  distinguished  by  the  energy 
and  sanguinary  cruelty  which  he  displayed  against  the 
heretics  of  Languedoc,  commonly  known  as  the  Albi- 
genses.  He  was  made  Archbishop  of  Narbonne  in  1212, 
and  soon  after  assumed  the  title  of  Duke  of  Narbonne. 
Died  in  1225. 

Amalricus.    See  Amalric  and  Amaury. 

Am-al-a-son'tha,  written  also  Amalasonte,  [Lat. 
Amalasue'n'ta,]  Queen  of  the  Goths  in  Italy,  distin- 
guished for  her  wisdom,  was  a  daughter  of  Theodoric  I. 
She  began  to  reign  in  526  A.D.,  as  guardian  of  her  son, 
who  was  a  minor.  The  famous  Cassiodorus  was  her 
prime  minister.    She  was  assassinated  in  535. 

See  J.  D.  RiTTER,  "Dissertatio  de  Amalasuenta,"  1735. 

Amalteo,  l-mll-ta'o,  [Lat.  Amalthe'us  ;  Fr.  Amal- 
thee,  t'mtrta',]  (Corxelio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Oderzo  about  1530.  His  profession  was  medicine.  He 
wrote  Latin  poems,  the  best  of  which  is  entitled  "  Pro- 
teus," (1572.)    Died  in  1603. 

Amalteo,  (Francesco,)  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He 
taught  literature  in  several  cities  of  Italy,  and  had  some 
reputation  as  a  writer  of  Latin  verse.  He  had  three 
sons,  who  were  poets. 

Amalteo,  (Giovanni  Battista  )  an  excellent  Latin 
poet,  a  son  of  Francesco,  noticed  above,  born  at  Oderzo 
in  1525,  became  secretary  to  the  republic  of  Ragusa. 
He  wrote  Latin  eclogues,  elegies,  and  epigrams,  and 
verses  in  Greek  and  Italian.  His  Latin  poems  are  con- 
sidered equal  in  elegance  to  those  of  any  poet  of  his 
time.    Died  in  Rome  in  1573,  soon  after  he  had  become 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  gtithiral;  n,  tiasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  \\\  as  in  this.  (S^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AMALTEO 


io8 


/ 

AMAT 


secretary  to  Pope  Pius  VII.  He  is  regarded  as  the 
most  eminent  poet  of  all  his  family. 

Amalteo,  (Girolamo,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Oderzo  in  1506,  was  a  physician,  philosopher, 
and  celebrated  Latin  poet.  He  practised  medicine  with 
great  success  at  several  places.  His  reputation  is  founded 
on  two  Latin  epigrams,  entitled  *'  De  Gemellis  Luscis," 
("On  the  One  Eyed  Twins,")  and  "  Horologium  Pul- 
vereum,"  ("Hour-Glass,")  the  former  of  which  has  been 
translated  into  many  languages.    Died  in  1574. 

Amalteo,  (Girolamo,)  a  brother  and  pupil  of  Pom- 
ponio,  noticed  below,  was  a  historical  painter  of  distin- 
guished ability.  His  chief  works  are  small  pictures, 
highly  finished.    He  died  at  an  early  age. 

See  Altan,  "  Memorie  intorno  alia  Vita  di  Pomponio  Amalteo;" 
Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Amalteo,  [Lat.  Amaltheus,]  (Paolo,  or  Paul,)  an 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Pordenone  in  1460,  was  a  brother 
of  Francesco,  noticed  above.    Died  in  15 17. 

Amalteo,  (Pomponio,)  an  eminent  painter  of  the 
Venetian  school,  was  born  in  Friuli  in  1505.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Pordenone,  whose  style  he  imitated,  though  with 
less  grandeur  of  invention.  His  colouring  is  brilliant, 
and  his  drawing  correct.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
"  The  Judgment  of  Solomon,"  and  "The  Judgment  of 
Daniel." 

Am-al-the'a  or  Am-al-tliei''a,  [Gr.  'kiiakdeia;  Fr. 
Amalthee,  t'lnSl'ta^]  in  Greek  mythology,  the  name 
of  the  nurse  of  Jupiter.  According  to  one  tradition,  she 
was  a  goat,  whose  horn  Jupiter  broke  off  and  filled  with 
herbs,  fruits,  flowers,  etc.,  and  endowed  it  with  the  prop- 
erty of  supplying  whatever  its  possessor  might  desire. 
This  was  the  origin  of  the  fable  of  the  Cornucopiae,  or 
"  horn  of  plenty." 

Amalthee,  tlie  French  of  Amalteo,  which  see. 

Amaltlieus.    See  Amalteo. 

Amama,  d-mi'ma,  (Sixti'nus,)  a  Dutch  Protestant 
and  biblical  philologist,  born  at  Franeker  in  1593.  He 
was  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  that  city  from 
161 8  until  his  death,  and  declined  the  chair  vacated  by 
Erpenius  at  Leyden.  He  was  the  author  of  a  critical 
work  on  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
a  number  of  Latin  treatises.    Died  in  1629. 

Aman,  d^nin,  (Johann,)  a  German  architect,  born 
in  Baden  in  1765.  He  designed  several  public  buildings 
in  Austria  and  other  countries.    Died  about  1834. 

Amand,  fmSx',  Saint,  [Lat.  Sanc'tus  Aman'- 
DUS,]  a  bishop  of  Bordeaux  in  the  fifth  century,  eminent 
for  his  piety  and  purity  of  life. 

Amand  or  Amandus,  Saint,  a  French  ecclesi- 
astic, born  about  590.  He  was  a  man  of  eminent  vir- 
tues.   Died  in  679  A.D. 

Amand,  (Jacques,)  a  French  engraver,  born  near 
Blois  in  1730;  died  in  Paris  in  1769. 

Amand,  (Pierre,)  a  French  surgeon  and  writer  on 
obstetrics,  born  at  Riez  about  1650 ;  died  in  1720. 

Amaniea  des  Bscas,  t'mt'ne-uh'  dcVzesOci',  a 
troubadour,  who  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  He  passed  a  part  of  his  life  at  the  court 
of  James  II.  of  Aragon. 

Amanton  or  Amanthon,  fmSN'toN',  (Claude 
Nicolas,)  a  judge  at  Dijon,  in  France,  and  a  writer  on 
biography  and  local  history,  born  in  1760 ;  died  in  1835. 

Amar,  i'mlR^  (Andre,)  (or  Amar,  J.  P.,  according 
to  the  "  Biographic  Universelle,")  a  French  demagogue, 
born  at  Grenoble  in  1750,  was  notorious  for  his  cruelty 
in  the  reign  of  terror.  He  was  elected  to  the  Conven- 
tion in  1792,  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king,  and  became 
chairman  of  the  committee  of  surete  generale  in  Septem- 
ber, 1793.  In  October  he  wrote  and  presented  to  the 
Convention  a  report  which  condemned  the  twenty-two 
Girondins  arrested  in  June  and  ordered  the  arrest  of 
seventy-three  other  deputies.  He  acted  with  the  enemies 
of  Robespierre  on  the  9th  of  Thermidor,  1794,  and  de- 
fended Barrere,  Collot  d'Herbois,  and  Billaud-Varennes 
in  1795.    Died  in  Paris  in  1816. 

Amar  (or  Amare)  du  Rivier,  t'mtR''  dii  re^ve-i', 
(Jean  Augustin,)  often  calledsimply  Amar  or  Am^afe, 
an  able  French  critic  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in 
Paris  in  1765.  He  became  conservator  of  the  Mazarin 
Library  m  1809.    He  made  translations  of  many  of  the 


ancient  classics,  published  several  school-books,  and 
wrote  many  articles  for  the  "Biographic  Universelle." 
Died  in  1837. 

Amaral,  d-ma,-rdK,  (Andres  do,)  a  Portuguese,  who 
became  chancellor  of  the  order  of  Saint  John  of  Jerusa- 
lem while  that  order  had  possession  (jf  the  island  of 
Rhodes.  He  was  defeated  as  a  candidate  for  the  office 
of  grand  master  in  1 521.  During  the  siege  of  Rhodes 
by  the  Turks  in  1522  he  was  put  to  death  on  a  charge 
of  giving 'intelligence  to  the  enemy. 

See  Vertot,  "  Histoire  des  Chevaliers  Hospitallers  de  St.  Jean;' 
FoNTANUs,  "De  Belle  Rhodico,"  1524. 

Amaral,  (Antonio  Caetano  (ka-a-t^'no)  do,)  a  Por- 
tuguese writer,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1 747.  He  wrote  a 
very  valuable  work  on  the  early  history  of  Portugal, 
entitled  "Memorias  sobre  a  Forma  do  Governo  e  Cos- 
tumes," etc.    Died  in  1819. 

Am'a-ra  Singlia  or  Sinha,  am'a-ra  sing'ha,  [mod- 
ern Hindoo  pron.  um'ur-a  sing'lia,]  a  celebrated  Hindoo 
poet  and  grammarian,  who  is  suj^posed  to  have  flourished 
in  the  first  century  B.C.  He  belonged  to  the  Booddhist 
sect.  His  works  were  all  destroyed  by  the  Brahmans, 
except  a  vocabulary  of  the  Sanscrit  language,  entitled 
"Amara  Kosha,"  which  is  esteemed  a  standard  work. 

Amari,  §.-ma'ree,  (Emerico,)  an  Italian  political 
economist,  born  at  Palermo  in  1810.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Palermo  in  1841. 

Amari,  (Michele,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at 
Palermo  in  1806.  His  father  was  condemned  to  an  im- 
prisonment of  thirty  years  for  a  conspiracy  against  the 
government.  He  published  in  1842  his  principal  work, 
"The  War  of  the  Sicilian  Vespers,"  ("La  Guerra  del 
Vespro  Siciliano,"  2  vols.,)  which  had  great  success,  but 
was  prohibited  by  the  government.  The  author  was 
summoned  to  trial,  but  escaped  to  France.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  revolution  of  Sicily  in  1848,  and  was 
appointed  minister  of  finances  in  the  new  government. 
He  resigned  ofilice  before  the  end  of  the  year.  He  has 
since  resided  in  Paris,  and  published  the  first  volume  of 
a  "History  of  the  Mussulmans  in  Sicily." 

Amariton,  t^mt^re'toN^,  (Jean,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
in  Auvergne  ;  died  in  1590. 

Am'a-sa,  [XZ^O^',]  a  Hebrew  warrior,  who  was  ap- 
pointed by  Absalom,  when  he  rebelled,  captain  of  the 
host  instead  of  Joab.  After  the  suppression  of  this  re- 
bellion he  became  commander  of  the  army  of  David, 
and  was  treacherously  slain  by  Joab.  (See  II.  Samuel 
xvii.  25  ;  XX.  4-10.) 

Amaseo,  a-m^-sa'o,  [Lat.  AMAS/^i'us,]  (Pompilio,) 
an  Italian  scholar,  was  a  son  of  Romolo,  noticed  below. 
Died  about  1584. 

Amaseo,  (Romolo,)  a  celebrated  Italian  scholar  and 
orator,  born  at  Udine  in  1489;  died  about  1552.  He 
Vi^as  professor  of  belles-lettres  (literas  humaniores)  at 
Padua,  Bologna,  and  Rome.  Among  his  works  may  be 
mentioned  a  Latin  version  of  Pausanias,  (1547,)  and  a 
Latin  version  of  Xenophon's  "Anabasis,"  (1533.) 

A-ma'sis,  [Gr.  "A//aa«f,]  a  celebrated  king  of  Egypt, 
succeeded  Apries  about  570  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  a  man  of  liberal  and  independent  spirit,  and  free 
from  the  prejudices  against  foreigners  which  were  com- 
mon among  the  Egyptians.  His  reign  was  prosperous 
and  peaceful.  He  built  the  grand  temple  of  Isis  at 
Memphis,  and  adorned  Egypt  with  many  magnificent 
monuments.  Died  about  525  B.C.,  leaving  the  throne  to 
his  son  Psammenitus,  (or  Psammetichus.) 

A-mas'tris,  a  Persian  lady  of  superior  talents,  and 
a  niece  of  Darius  Codomannus.  She  was  married  suc- 
cessively to  Craterus,  to  Dionysius,  tyrant  of  Heraclea, 
and  to  Lysimachus,  King  of  Thrace. 

Amat,  d-mat',  (Felix,)  an  eminent  Spanish  eccle- 
siastic and  writer,  born  at  Sabadell,  near  Barcelona,  in 
1750.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Palmyra  in  partihus 
infiddium  in  1803,  and  confessor  to  Charles  IV.  in  1806. 
He  was  supposed  to  be  favourable  to  the  French 
during  the  war  which  began  in  1808.  His  great  work  Is 
an  ecclesiastical  history,  e'ntitled  "  Treatise  on  the  Church 
of  Jesus  Christ,"  ("  Tratado  de  la  Iglesia  de  Jesu  Cristo," 
12  vols.,  1793-1803.)    Died  in  1824. 

See  Felix  Torres  Amat,  "  Vida  de  Amat  Arzobispo  de  Pal- 
myra," 1835. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sJiort;  a,  e,  i,  g,  obscure;  far,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


AMATI 


109 


AMBOISE 


Amati,  a-mi'tee,  (Andrea,)  a  celebrated  maker  of 
violins,  worked  at  Cremona  in  partnership  with  his  bro- 
ther N1CC0I6  about  1550.  Their  instruments  are  highly 
prized  at  the  present  time. 

AmatL  vAntonio,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Cremona  about  1565,  followed  the  same  business  with 
success.  He  made  for  Henry  IV.  of  France,  in  1595,  a 
violin,  which  is  said  to  be  now  in  good  order. 

Amati,  (Carlo,)  an  eminent  Italian  architect,  born 
at  Milan  about  1786.  Among  his  chief  works  is  the 
Rotunda  of  San  Carlo,  at  Milan. 

Amati,  (Girolamo.)  a  distinguished  Italian  scholar 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Savignano  in  1768.  He  was  an 
assistant  librarian  in  the  Vatican,  and  was  regarded  as 
an  oracle  among  antiquaries.  He  wrote  papers  on  the 
antiquities  of  philology  and  art  for  the  "  Giornale  Arca- 
dico,"  and  furnished  materials  for  the  works  of  other 
authors.  His  sagacity  in  palaeographical  science  was 
remarkable.    Died  in  1834. 

Amati,  (Pasquale,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at 
Savignano  in  1716;  died  in  1796. 

Amatius,  a-ma'she-us,  (Caius,)  a  famous  impostor, 
who  made  his  appearance  at  Rome  about  45  B.C.,  claim- 
ing to  be  the  grandson  of  Marius.  He  was  strangled  by 
order  of  Antony  about  43  or  44  B.C. 

Amato.    See  Amatus. 

Amato,  d',  di-mi'to,  or  Amati,  i-mS'tee,  [Lat.  1 
Ama'tus,]  (Elia,)  a  literary  Italian  monk,  born  at  Mon- 
talto  in  1666.    He  wrote  on  various  subjects,  and  dis- 
played a  talent  for  dry  humour.    Died  in  1 747. 

Amato,  d',  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  a  celebrated  his- 
torical painter,  called  "II  Vecchio,"  ("The  Elder,")  was 
born  at  Naples  in  1475.  style  resembles  that  of 

Perugino  in  simplicity.  He  painted  religious  subjects 
exclusively,  and  was  also  noted  as  a  theologian.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  a  "  Dispute  on  the  Sacrament,"  at 
Naples,  and  a  "  Madonna  and  Child."  He  painted  in 
oil  and  fresco.    Died  in  1555. 

Amato,  d',  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  a  nephew  and 
pupil  of  the  preceding,  surnamed  II  Giovane,  [i.e. 
"the  younger,")  born  at  Naples  in  1535,  was  a  skilful 
painter.  He  excelled  in  colouring,  and  painted  some 
Works  which  are  said  to  be  as  finely  coloured  as  those 
of  Titian.  His  chief  work  is  an  altar-piece  of  the  infant 
Christ,  in  a  church  of  Naples.    Died  in  1598. 

SeeDoMiNici,  "  Vite  de'  Pittori  Napolilani." 

Amato,  d',  (Michele,)  an  Italian  theologian,  born 
at  Naples  in  1682  ;  died  in  1729. 

Amato  or  A-raa'tus,  (SciPio,)  an  Italian  jurist  and 
linguist,  flourished  between  1600  and  1650. 

Amato  or  Amati,  [Lat.  Ama'tus,]  (Vincfnzo,)  a 
Sicilian  musician  and  composer,  born  in  1629;  died  in 
1670. 

Amatrice,  dell',  d^l  Id-ma-tRee'cha,  (Co'la,)  a  Nea- 
politan architect  and  painter,  who  flourished  in  the  early 
part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  worked  at  Ascoli. 
His  master-piece  is  a  picture  of  the  "Last  Supper." 

See  Laxzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Am-a'tus  Lu-.si-ta'nus,  [Port.  Joao  Rodriguez 
Amato,  zho-owN'  ro-dRee''ggz  d-ma'to ;  Lat.  Joan'nes 
RoDERi'cus  Ama'tus,]  an  eminent  Portuguese  physi- 
cian and  anatomist,  born  at  Castel-Branco  in  1 5 11.  He 
lectured  in  Venice,  and  practised  at  Ancona.  In  1555 
the  fear  of  the  Inquisition,  which  persecuted  him  as  a 
Jew,  induced  him  to  retire  to  Saloniki,  where  he  joined 
a  synagogue.  Died  in  1568.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  second  author  who  has  described  the  valves  in 
veins.  He  left,  besides  other  works,  one  giving  an  ac- 
count of  seven  hundred  remarkable  cases  in  medicine 
and  surgery,  (1551-66,)  which  was  highly  esteemed. 

See  Sprexgel,  "  Biogiaphie  Medicale." 

Amaury.    See  Amalric. 

A-mau'ry,  [Fr.  pron.  S^mo're',]  Aimery,  a'meh-re, 
[Fr.  pron.  Im're',]  or  Am-al'ric,  [Ger,  Amalrich, 
A'mil-riK' ;  Lat.  Amalri'cus,]  I.,  King  of  Jerusalem, 
born  in  1135,  was  a  son  of  Baldwin  II.  He  succeeded 
his  brother  Baldwin  III.  in  1162.  He  invaded  Egypt  in 
1x68,  and  marched  victoriously  to  Cairo,  but  was'driven 
out  by  an  army  of  Turks  under  Saladin,  who  invaded 
the  kingdom  of  Amaury  in  11 70.    The  latter  defended 


his  domhiions  with  ability  and  courage,  but  with  ill  suc- 
cess, until  his  death  in  1173,  and  left  the  throne  to  his 
son,  Baldwin  IV. 

Amaury  II.  of  Jerusalem  (otherwise  called 
Amaury  de  Lusignan — deh  lii''zen''y6N'')  inherited 
Cyprus  from  his  brother  Guy,  and  received  the  title  of 
King  of  Jerusalem  in  1194.  He  was  unable  to  defend 
the  kingdom  against  the  Saracens,  and  died  at  Ptole- 
mais  in  1205. 

Amaury,  Amalric,  or  Aimeric,  [Lat.  Amalri'- 
cus,]  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  succeeded  Fulcher  in  11 59. 
He  contributed  much  to  the  election  of  Amaury  I.  as 
King  of  Jerusalem.    Died  in  11 80. 

Amaury,  t'mo're',  [Lat.  Amalri'cus,]  of  Char- 
TRES,  a  French  theologian  of  the  twelfth  century.  He 
advanced  heterodox  opinions  on  the  Divine  nature  (which 
he  identified  with  the  primary  matter  of  Aristotle)  in  a 
work  called  "Physion,"  now  lost.    Died  about  1205. 

Amaury-Duval.    See  Duval. 

Amaya,  §.-mi'i,  a  Spanish  painter,  a  pupil  of  Vin- 
cenzo  Carducci,  lived  about  1682. 

Amaya  or  Amaia,  (Francisco,)  a  noted  Spanish 
jurisconsult  of  the  seventeenth  century,  born  at  Ante- 
quera.  He  published  "  Observationes  Juris,"  (1625,)  and 
other  works. 

Am-a-zi'ah,  [Heb.  rrvrDJ^j]  a  king  of  Judah,  who  as- 
cended the  throne  849  B.C.  He  was  killed  by  a  con- 
spiracy, S20  B.C.  (See  II.  Kings  xiv, ;  II.  Chronicles  xxv.) 

Am'a-zpns,  [Gr.  'Afia^oveg;  Lat.  Amaz'ones,]  the 
name  of  a  semi-fabulous  race  of  female  warriors,  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  originally  on  the  Thermodon  in 
Pontus,  and  to  have  made  conquests  in  Asia  Minor  and 
Thrace.  During  the  Trojan  war,  led  by  their  queen,  Pen- 
thisile'a,  they  fought  against  the  Greeks.  The  battles 
of  the  Amazons  were  favourite  subjects  of  the  ancient 
Greek  artists. 

See  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

Amberger,  Sm'beRG'er,  (Christoph,)  a  celebrated 
German  painter,  born  at  Nuremberg  about  1490,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Hans  Holbein.  He 
worked  in  oil,  fresco,  and  distemper,  excelled  in  per- 
spective, and  designed  well.  The  history  of  Joseph,  in 
twelve  pictures,  is  called  his  best  work.  He  was  patron- 
ized by  Charles  V.,  of  whom  he  painted  a  good  portrait 
at  Augsburg  in  1530.    Died  at  Augsburg  about  1570. 

Am-bi-ga^tus,  [Fr.  Ambigat,  SN^be^t',]  an  an- 
cient and  powerlul  king  of  Gaul,  supposed  to  have  reigned 
about  600  or  650  B.C. 

Ambillon.    See  Bouchet,  (Rene.) 

Am'bi-o-rix  or  Am-bi''o-rix,  written  also  Abrio- 
rix  and  Ambriorix,  a  king  of  the  Eburones,  a  Belgic 
nation,  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar.  By  stratagem  or 
treachery  he  succeeded  in  destroying  the  army  com 
manded  by  Cassar's  legates  Sabinus  and  Cotta,  54  B.C. 

See  CtsAR,  "De  Bello  Gallico,"  lib.  v. 

Ambiveri,  am-be-va'ree,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Bergamo  about  1592;  died  in  1627. 

Am-biv'i-us,  (Lucius  Turpio,)  a  famous  Roman 
actor,  lived  about  175  B.C. 

Amblimont,  d',  d6N'ble^m6N',  (Fuschemberg,  fii'- 
shoN^baiR',)  Count,  a  French  naval  ofiicer,  and  writer  on 
naval  tactics,  was  killed  in  battle  in  1796. 

Ambly,  d',  dON^ble',  (Claude  Jean  Antoine,)  a 
French  marquis  and  field-marshal,  born  in  Champagne 
in  1711.  He  emigrated  in  1792,  and  served  in  the  army 
of  the  Prince  of  Conde,  after  he  had  been  a  royalist 
member  of  the  States-General.  Died  at  Hamburg  in 
1797. 

Ambodik,  Sm^'bo-dik,  (Ne.stor  Maximovitch,)  an 
eminent  Russian  physician  and  accoucheur,  born  in  the 
province  of  Pultava  in  1740.  Died  in  1812.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  who  WTote  on  medical  subjects  in 
the  Russian  language.  He  practised  in  Saint  Peters- 
burg, and  published  many  translations  and  compilations. 

Amboise,  (Bussy  d'.)    See  Bussy  d'Ameoise. 

Amboise,  d',  dfiN'bwSz',  (Francois,)  a  French  ad- 
vocate and  scholar,  born  in  Paris  about  1550 ;  died  in 
1620.  He  is  chiefly  known  as  the  editor  of  the  works  of 
Abelard,  (i6j6.) 

Amboise,  d',  (George,)  commonly  known  as  Car- 


•£  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  ^ard;  g  as j;  G,  h,  k, guthiral;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  t-h  as  in  this.    (3;^=  See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


AM  BOISE 


o 


AMEILHON 


niNAL  d'Amboise,  a  French  statesman,  born  of  a  noble 
family  at  Chaumont-sui-Loire  in  1460.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Rouen  in  1493,  '^^'^'^  prime  minister  of 
Louis  XII.  of  France  at  his  accession  in  1498,  before 
which  he  had  been  his  faithful  partisan  or  friend.  He 
displayed  great  talents  for  administration,  made  reforms 
in  legislation  and  finance,  and  left  the  reputation  of  a 
wise  and  virtuous  minister.  He  remained  in  power 
until  his  death  in  1510.  He  was  surnamed  the  "Father 
of  the  People." 

See  Legendre,  "Vie  du  Cardinal  D'Amboise,"  1726. 

Amboise,  d',  (Jacques,)  [Lat.  Jaco'bus  Ambosia'- 
NUS,j  a  French  surgeon,  brother  of  Francois,  noticed 
above,  born  near  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
His  father  Jean  was  surgeon  to  Henry  H.,  Charles  IX., 
and  Henry  HI.  Jacques  became  in  1594  rector  of  the 
university,  which  he  restored  to  a  flourishing  condition. 
Died  in  1606. 

Ambra,  d',  dim'bRi,  (Francesco,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  comic  poet,  born  at  Florence  in  the  early  part  of 
the  sixteenth  century;  died  in  1558.  His  chief  works 
are  three  comedies,  "II  Furto,"  in  prose,  (1560,)  "La 
Cofanaria,"  inverse,  (1561,)  and  "J.  Eernardi,"  in  verse, 
(1563-) 

See  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  Mazzuchelli, 
"  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Ambrogi,  im-bRo'jee,  (Anton  Maria,)  an  Italian 
Jesuit,  born  at  Florence  in  17 13.  He  was  professor  of 
rhetoric  and  poetry  at  the  Collegio  Romano,  and  en- 
joyed a  great  reputation  as  teacher.  Died  in  1788.  His 
principal  work  is  a  translation  of  Virgil's  works  into 
Italian  verse,  (4  vols.,  1758-62.) 

Ambrogi,  degli,  daFyee  am-bRo'jee,  (Domenico,)  a 
skilful  Italian  painter  of  the  seventeenth  century,  born 
at  Bologna,  was  a  pupil  of  Denis  Calvart  and  of  Fran- 
cesco Brizio.  He  painted  landscapes  and  other  works, 
in  oil  and  fresco,  at  Bologna.  He  is  said  to  have  had 
great  facility  in  composition. 

Ambrogio,  im-bRo^jo,  (Giovanni,)  a  Florentine 
painter  and  sculptor,  who  flourished  in  the  fourteenth 
century. 

Ambrogio  or  Ambrosio,  Sm-bRo'se-o,  (Teseo,)  a 
distinguished  Italian  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Pavi'a  in 
1469,  became  a  regular  canon  of  San  Giovanni  di  Late- 
rano  at  Rome.  He  was  professor  of  Syriac  and  Chal- 
dee  at  Bologna.  His  principal  work  is  an  "  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Chaldee,  Syriac,  Armenian,  and  ten  other 
Languages,"  (1539.)    Died  in  1540. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Ambroise  de  Lombez,  SN'bRwIz'  deh  l^N'ba'',  or 
de  La  Peirie,  (deh  It  pa're^)  a  French  devotional 
Vv-riter,  born  at  Lombez  in  1708;  died  in  1778. 

Ambrose,  Saint,  sent  Im^broz,  [Lat.  Sanc'tus  Am- 
BRo'sius  ;  Fr.  Saint-Ambroise,  sS.N't6N''bRwaz',]  one  of 
the  Latin  Fathers,  was  born  in  Gaul,  at  Treves,  it  is 
supposed,  about  340  a.d.  His  father,  a  Roman  noble, 
was  then  praetorian  prefect  of  Gaul.  Ambrose  was  Gov- 
ernor of  Liguria  (a  province  of  which  Milan  was  the 
capital)  in  374,  when  Auxentius,  the  Arian  archbishop 
of  Milan,  died.  In  the  attempt  to  elect  a  successor,  the 
contest  between  the  Catholics  and  the  Arians  was  very 
fierce,  and  the  presence  of  the  governor  was  necessary 
to  appease  the  tumult.  He  addressed  them  with  such 
eloquence  and  power  that  the  assembled  people  declared, 
w^ith  one  voice,  "  Ambrose  shall  be  bishop."  He  accepted 
the  office  with  great  reluctance,  but  afterwards  fulfilled 
its  duties  with  unequalled  ability,  zeal,  and  disinterested- 
ness. He  sided  with  the  Catholics,  and  used  all  his  ef- 
forts and  influence  for  the  suppression  of  Arianism.  In 
390  the  emperor  Theodosius,  incensed  at  the  insolent 
disobedience  of  some  of  the  people  of  Thessalonica,  or- 
dered an  indiscriminate  massacre  of  all  the  inhabitants. 
Ambrose  was  greatly  shocked  at  this  crime  ;  and  when, 
shortly  after,  the  emperor  was  about  to  enter  the  church 
at  Milan,  the  archbishop  sternly  forbade  him.  Theodosius 
submitted,  and,  besides  undergoing  various  other  humili- 
ations, was  at  last  obliged  to  perform  public  penance. 
Ambrose  died  in  397.  He  left,  besides  other  works,  a 
treatise  "De  Officiis,"  on  the  duties  of  Christian  minis- 
ters, which  was  highly  esteemed,  and  expositions  of 


Scripture.  He  was  the  author  of  a  method  of  singing 
known  as  the  "Ambrosian  Chant." 

"His  Letters,"  says  Villemain,  "evince  a  man  who, 
amidst  the  turbulence  and  instability  of  the  empire, 
never  had  a  foible  nor  stain  on  his  character,  whose  mag- 
nanimity was  adequate  to  all  trials,  and  who  in  a  more 
auspicious  period  would  have  placed  himself  by  his 
writings  in  the  rank  of  the  first  orators  and  the  most 
noble  geniuses." 

See  Paulinus,  "Vita  Ambrosii ;"  Godefroi  Hermant,  "Vie 
de  Saint- Ambroise,"  167S  ;  J.  P.  Silbert,  "  Leben  des  heiligen  Am 
brosiiis,"  1841  ;  Baronius,  "Annales;"  " Saint-Ambroise ;  sa  Vie  ei 
extraitsde  ses  ecrits,"  Lille,  1852;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Genera!e ;" 
"  Encyclopaidia  Britannica  ;"  Villemain,  "Saint-Ambroise,"  Paris, 
Svo,  1852. 

Am^'brose,  (Isaac,)  an  English  nonconformist  min- 
ister and  writer,  who  cUed  in  1664. 

Ambrosini,  im-bRo-see^'nee,  (Bartolommeo,)  a  Bo- 
lognese  physician  and  writer  on  botany,  born  in  1588. 
He  wrote  several  botanical  and  medical  treatises,  and 
edited  four  volumes  of  the  works  of  Aldrovandus  on 
reptiles,  quadrupeds,  etc.    Died  in  1657. 

Ambrosini,  (Giacinto,)  a  botanist,  born  in  1605, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded  as 
professor  of  botany  at  Bologna  in  1657.  He  published 
the  first  volume  of  a  botanical  dictionary,  entitled  "Phy- 
tologia,"  etc.,  (1666.)    Died  in  1672. 

Ambrosius,  am-bro''she-us,  (Aurelia'nus,)  a  British 
chieftain,  who  lived  in  the  fifth  century,  was  a  rival  and 
the  successor  of  Prince  Vortigern,  whom  he  defeated 
about  466.  According  to  tradition,  he  fought  with  suc- 
cess against  the  Saxon  invaders  under  Hengist  about 
485  A.D. 

See  Palsgrave,  "Rise  and  Progress  of  the  English  Common- 
wealtli;"  Beda,  "Chronicon." 

Ambrosius  of  Camaldolt,  (kii-mai-do'lee,)  [Fr. 
Ambroise  le  Camaldule,  SN'bRwiz'leh  ki'mlKduK ; 
Lat.  Ambro'sius  Camaldulen'sis,]  an  Italian  monk, 
born  in  the  Romagna  in  1378,  became  general  of  his 
order  in  143 1.  Among  his-AVorks  is  an  account  of  an' 
ofiicial  visitation  of  nunneries  and  monasteries,  entitled 
"  Hodceporicon."    Died  in  1439. 

Ambrosius  or  Ambrose,  Archbishop  of  Moscow, 
distinguished  for  his  learning,  was  born  in  1 708.  Having 
removed  an  image  of  the  Virgin,  to  which  the  people 
had  resorted  for  protection  from  the  plague,  he  was 
charged  with  sacrilege,  and  massacred  by  a  mob,  in  1 771. 

Ambrozy,  am-bRo'ze,  (Wenzel  Bernhard,)  [Ger. 
pron.  \^§nt'sel  beRn''haRt  ^m-bRot'se,]  a  Bohemian  his- 
torical painter,  born  in  1723  ;  died  in  1806. 

Ambiihl  or  Ambuehl,  im'biil,  (Johann  Ludvv^ig,) 
a  German  school-teacher  and  poet,  born  in  Switzerland, 
in  the  canton  of  Saint  Gall,  in  1750.  He  wrote  novels 
and  historical  dramas,  which  were  once  popular,  and 
among  which  was  one  entitled  "  Wilhelm  Tell."  Died 
in  1800. 

Amedee.    See  Amadeus. 

Ameen-  (Amiii-  or  Amyn-)  Ahmed-er-R^zee, 

a-meen'  aii^med-er-r5.'zee,  written  also  -Alimed-el- 
Razy,  (or  -al-Razi,)  a  Persian  geographer,  who  lived 
about  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Ameil,  t'maF  or  t'ma'ye,  (  Auguste,)  Baron,  a  French 
general,  born  in  Paris  in  1775.  He  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  capture  of  Munich  in  1804,  and  was  wounded 
at  Jena  in  1S06.  In  181 2  he  served  in  Russia,  and  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  general  of  brigade.  He  entered  the 
service  of  Louis  xVlII.  in  1814,  changed  sides  twice 
or  oftener  during  the  Hundred  Days,  and  led  a  corps 
of  Napoleon's  cavalry  at  Waterloo  in  181 5.  Died  in 
exile  in  1822. 

Ameilhon,  t'ma'ldN',  (Hubert  Pascal,)  a  distin- 
guished French  scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1730.  He 
wrote  a  "History  of  the  Commerce  and  Navigation  of 
the  Ancient  Egyptians,"  (1766,)  which  caused  him  to 
be  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions. 
Having  become  a  partisan  of  the  Revolution,  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Commission  of  Monuments  in 
1793.  He  is  said  to  have  preserved  from  destruction 
800,000  volumes  which  belonged  to  various  libraries  and 
had  been  confiscated.  Ameilhon  was  librarian  of  the 
Arsenal  from  1797  until  1811.  He  contributed  many  ar- 
ticles to  the  "Journal  des  Savants"  and  the  "Journal  de 


a,    )",  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y, 


short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsairc;  fdr,  fill,  f^t;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


*  AMEINOCLES 


1 1 1 


JMES 


Verdun,"  and  some  valuable  antiquarian  treatises  to  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Institute.    Died  in  Paris  in  1811. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  Dacier,  "Notice  sur  la 
Vie  et  )es  Ouvrages  d'Ameiihon." 

A-mei'no-cles,  ['A^ueam/T/r,]  a  Corinthian  ship- 
builder, who  lived  about  700  B.C. 

A-meip''si-as,  or  A-mip'si-as,  {'AjieLipLag,']  a  comic 
poet  of  Athens  in  the  time  of  Aristophanes,  over  whom 
he  won  the  first  prize  in  a  dramatic  contest,  with  his 
Ktjuaarac,  414  B.C. 

Amel,  a^mel,  (Hans,)  an  architect  who  lived  in  the 
first  naif  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  designed  the 
fa9ade  and  steeple  of  Antwerp  Cathedral. 

Am'el-gard^  [Lat.  Amelgar^'dus,]  a  Flemish  histo- 
rian, who  lived  in  the  fifteenth  century.  He  wrote  Latin 
histories  of  the  reigns  of  Charles  VH.  and  Louis  XI. 

Amelia  or  Amelie  of  Germany.    See  Amalie. 

A-me'li-a,  (or  a-meeKya,)  an  English  princess,  daugh- 
ter of  George  III.,  was  born  in  1783.  Her  character  is 
highly  commended.    Died  in  1810. 

Ameliii,  d',  dtm'l^N',  (Jean,)  the  earliest  translator 
of  Livy  into  the  French  language,  was  an  officer  in  the 
army,  and  lived  in  the  time  of  Henry  II.  He  i)ublished 
a  version  of  the  "Third  Decade"  in  1559. 

Ameliiie,  tm'len'',  (Claude,)  a  French  priest,  born 
in  Paris  in  1624,  wrote  on  the  Will,  (1684.)   Died  in  1708. 

A-me'li-us  or  A-me'ri-iis,  an  Eclectic  philosopher, 
who  was  born  in  Italy  and  flourished  in  the  last  half  of 
the  third  century.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Plotinus.  His 
works  have  not  come  down  to  us. 

A-me'li-us,  (Martin,)  a  distinguished  professor  of 
jurisprudence  in  the  University  of  Freyburg,  in  Baden, 
was  born  in  1526.  He  contributed  greatly  to  the  in- 
troduction of  the  Protestant  religion  into  Baden  about 
1556,  and  was  chancellor  of  Baden  for  about  thirty  years. 
Died  about  1590. 

Amelot  de  la  Houssaye,  initio'  deh  li  hoo'sa', 
(Abraham  Nicolas,)  a  French  historical  writer  and 
translator,  born  at  Orleans  in  1634.  He  was  secretary 
of  embassy  at  Venice  about  1670,  and  published  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Government  of  Venice,"  (3  vols.,  1705,) 
which  had  a  high  reputation.  Among  his  other  works 
are  "  Historical,  Political,  Critical,  and  Literary  Me- 
moirs," (2  vols.,  1722.)  He  translated  the  "Prince"  of 
Macchiavelli,  (1683,)  and  the  first  six  books  of  the  "An- 
nals" of  Tacitus,  (10  vols.,  1690,)  to  which  he  added 
notes,  historical  and  political.  The  last  six  volumes 
were  translated  by  Bruys.  "  His  translations  with  politi- 
cal notes,"  says  Voltaire,  "  and  his  histories  are  very  good ; 
his  memoirs,  very  faulty.  He  is  the  first  writer  who  has 
made  the  government  of  Venice  known."  Died  in  Paris 
in  1706. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictiomiaire  historique  ;"  Querard,  "La  France 
Litteraire." 

Amelotte  or  Amelote,  tm'lot',  (Denys,)  a  French 
priest  and  ecclesiastical  writer,  born  at  Saintes  in  1606; 
died  in  1678.  He  made  a  version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment which  was  circulated  by  Louis  XIV.  and  often  re- 
printed. 

Amelunghi,  a-ma-loon^gee,  (Girolamo,)  a  burlesque 
poet  of  Pisa  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  wrote  a  poem 
called  "  The  War  of  the  Giants,"  ("  La  Gigantea,"  1566,) 
one  of  the  first  productions  of  a  kind  in  which  the  Italians 
have  excelled. 

Amendola,  ^-mgnMo-ia,  (Ferrante.)  a  historical 
painter  of  Naples,  born  in  1664  ;  died  in  1 724.  His  chief 
merit  was  in  colouring.  Pie  failed  in  his  eftort  to  imitate 
Luca  Giordano. 

Am-e-no'phis  or  Am-me-no/phis,  [Gr.  'Afievudt^,] 
the  name  of  several  of  the  early  kings  of  Egypt. 

_  Ameiiophis  I.,  a  powerful  king  of  Egypt  of  the 
eighteenth  dynasty,  ascended  the  throne  about  1778  B.C. 

Amenophis  II.  of  Egypt,  is  reckoned  as  the  seventh 
Pharaoh  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty.  He  is  identified  by 
some  authorities  with  the  Memnon  of  the  Greeks,  whose 
statue  was  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world. 

Amenophis  III.,  a  famous  king  of  Egypt,  a  grand- 
son of  the  preceding,  is  supposed  to  have  built  the  pa- 
lace or  temple  of  Luxor.  His  conquests  are  recorded  on 
the  obelisk  which  now  stands  near  the  Louvre  in  Paris. 

Amenta,  d-mgn'ta,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  poet,  law- 


yer, and  philologist,  born  at  Naples  in  1659.  He  com- 
posed popular  comedies,  among  which  are  "  Con- 
stanza,"  "  II  Forca,"  "  La  Fante,"  and  "  La  Carlotta." 
His  observations  on  the  Italian  language,  "  Delia  Lin- 
gua nobile  d'ltalia,"  (1723,)  are  commended.  He  wrote 
the  Tuscan  language  with  purity.    Died  in  17 19. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Amerbach,  S.^ner-bS.K',  (Basil,)  a  jurist,  born  at  Bale 
in  1534,  was  a  son  of  Boniface,  noticed  below,  whom  he 
succeeded  as  professor.  He  left  some  manuscript  works 
on  law.    Died  in  1591. 

Amerbach,  (Boniface,)  an  eminent  scholar,  born  at 
Bale  in  1495,  was  a  son  of  Johann,  noticed  below.  Pie 
taught  civil  law  at  the  University  of  Bale  for  twenty 
years,  and  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Erasmus,  who  ap- 
pointed him  his  residuary  legatee.  He  wrote  but  little. 
With  the  aid  of  his  brothers  Basil  and  Bruno,  he  cor- 
rected an  edition  of  Saint  Jerome,  (1516-26.)  Died  in 
1562.    His  Latin  style  was  remarkalDly  good. 

See  Melchior  Adam,  "Vitas  Germanorum  Jurisconsultorum." 

Amerbach,  a^mer-b^K^,  (Johann,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man printer,  born  in  Suabia.  He  settled  at  Bale  about 
1480.  His  principal  publications  are  editions  of  Saint 
Ambrose,  and  of  Saint  Augustine,  (1506,)  which  was 
printed  in  a  new  kind  of  type,  called  Saint  Augustin. 
Died  about  1 520. 

Amerbach,  (Vitus.)    See  Amerpach. 

Amerighi.    See  Caravaggio. 

Amerigo  Vespucci  or  Americus  Vespuciiis. 

See  Vespucci. 

Amerling,  i'mer-ling^,  (Friedrich,)  a  German 
painter  of  high  reputation,  born  in  Vienna  in  1803.  He 
studied  with  Horace  Vernet  in  Paris,  and  visited  Italy. 
He  is  considered  to  be  eminently  successful  in  portraits. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Dido  deserted  by  /lineas," 
"  Moses  in  the  Desert,"  and  a  portrait  of  the  emperor 
Francis  I. 

Amerpach,  a^mer-pSK^,  (Vitus  or  Veit,)  [Lat  Vi'- 
TUS  Amfrpa'chius,]  a  distinguished  German  scholar, 
born  at  Wendingen,  in  Bavaria,  about  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  studied  at  Wittenberg,  and  was  for 
several  years  professor  of  philosophy  at  Ingolstadt.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  Latin  works,  one  "  On  the  Soul," 
("De  Anima,"  1542,)  and  "Six  Books  of  Natural  Phi- 
losophy," (1548.)  He  also  translated  some  of  the 
speeches  of  Demosthenes  and  Isocrates,  and  wrote  com- 
mentaries on  Cicero  and  on  Horace's  "Art  of  Poetry." 
Died  in  1557. 

Amersfoordt,  i'mers-foRt',  or  Amersvoordt,  (Ja- 
cob.) an  eminent  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Amsterdam 
in  1786;  died  in  1824.  He  left  "A  Discourse  on  the 
Popularity  of  the  Christian  Religion,  or  its  Adaptation 
to  the  Popular  Mind,"  ("Oratio  de  Religionis  Christianaj 
Popularitate,"  1818.) 

See  J.  W.  de  Crane,  "Vie  d' Amersvoordt,"  1824, 

Amersfoort,  van,  vtn  a'mers-foRt^  (Evert,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  lived  in  the  first  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Ames,  amz,  (Edward,)  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  born  at  Athens,  in  Ohio,  in  1806. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Ohio  University,  licensed  lo 
preach  in  1830,  and  made  a  bishop  in  1852.  Since  1861 
he  has  resided  at  Baltimore. 

Ames,  (Fisher,)  a  celebrated  American  orator  and 
statesman,  born  in  Dedham,  Massachusetts,  on  the  9th 
of  April,  1758.  His  father  and  grandfather  were  physi- 
cians. The  former  died  when  Fisher  was  only  six  years 
old.  Plis  mother,  perceiving  the  promise  of  her  son,  re- 
solved to  give  him  a  classical  education,  and  at  the  age 
of  twelve  he  was  sent  to  Plarvard  College.  At  the  pre- 
liminary examination  he  was  pronounced  a  boy  of  un- 
common attainments.  He  graduated  in  1774,  but,  in 
consequence  of  his  extreme  youth  and  the  straitened 
circumstances  of  his  family,  it  was  several  years  before 
he  entered  upon  his  professional  studies,  the  meantime 
being  devoted  to  teaching  and  reading  the  ancient  and 
modern  classics.  He  became  a  student  at  law  in  the 
office  of  William  Tudor  of  Boston,  and  commenced 
practice  in  his  native  town  in  1781.  Although  too  young 
to  take  an  active  part  in  the  Revolutionary  contest,  he 
watched  its  progress  with  deep  interest 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as  J;  c,  h,  k.  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  x^.  23,) 


AMES 


112 


AMICO 


He  acciuired  distinction  by  several  political  essays 
which  were  published  in  the  newspapers  under  the  sig- 
nature of  Brutus  and  Camillus,  and  which  gave  proof  of 
practical  wisdom,  as  well  as  literary  merit,  of  a  higli  or- 
der. They  procured  his  election  to  the  convention  which 
met  in  Massachusetts  in  i/SSto  ratify  the  Federal  Con- 
stitution. In  this  convention  he  made,  on  the  subject  of 
biennial  elections,  a  speech  characterized  by  extraordi- 
nary eloquence  and  power.  As  a  member  of  the  legisla- 
ture of  Massachusetts,  he  was  the  principal  promoter  of 
a  law  which  placed  the  common-school  system  of  that 
State  upon  an  improved  basis.  Having  joined  the  Fed- 
eral party,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1789 
by  the  voters  of  his  native  district,  which  included  Bos- 
ton. He  continued  to  serve  in  Congress  for  eight  years, 
during  which  he  constantly  supported  the  administration 
of  Washington  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  de- 
bates on  all  important  questions. 

"  He  was,"  says  Griswold,  "the  leader  of  the  Federal 
party  in  the  House  of  Representatives  during  the  ad- 
ministration of  Washington,  and  was  applauded  for  his 
eloquence  and  learning,  the  solidity  of  his  judgment,  and 
the  unsullied  purity  of  his  public  and  private  conduct." 

On  the  2Sth  of  April,  1796,  he  supported  Jay's  treaty 
with  Great  Britain  in  an  eloquent  and  powerful  speech, 
which  has  been  preserved.  At  the  close  of  this  speech, 
a  member  of  the  opposition  moved  to  postpone  the  sub- 
ject, on  the  ground  that  the  House  was  in  a  state  of  too 
great  excitement  to  come  to  a  just  decision.  The  health 
of  Ames  had  been  for  some  time  very  delicate  and  de- 
clining, and  on  the  retirement  of  Washington,  about  the 
end  of  1796,  he  returned  to  his  farm  in  Dedham.  He  had 
married  in  1792  Frances  Worthington,  of  Springfield. 
In  1798  he  wrote  "  Laocoon  "  and  other  essays,  to  arouse 
the  Federalists  to  a  more  vigorous  opposition  to  the 
aggressions  of  France.  On  the  death  of  Washington, 
December,  1799,  he  pronounced  his  eulogy  before  the 
legislature  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  elected  president 
of  Harvard  College  in  1804,  but  he  declined  the  honour, 
chiefly  on  account  of  ill  health.  He  died  on  the  4th  of 
July,  1808,  leaving  several  sons,  of  whom  one,  Nathan- 
iel, acquired  some  reputation  as  an  author. 

In  the  preparation  of  his  speeches.  Fisher  Ames  did 
little  more,  it  is  said,  than  draw  the  outlines,  depending 
for  the  language,  illustrations,  and  modes  of  appeal,  upon 
his  mental  resources  at  the  time  of  speaking.  He  was 
equally  distinguished  for  his  delicate  wit  and  brilliant 
imagination ;  and  his  colloquial  gifts  were  considered  by 
his  acquaintances  not  less  remarkable  than  his  powers 
as  an  orator.  His  disposition  was  amiable,  and  his 
character  without  reproach.  In  person  he  was  of  me- 
dium height  and  well  proportioned.  His  letters  and 
other  writings  were  published  by  his  son,  Seth  Ames, 
in  2  vols.,  1854. 

See  Dr.  J.  T.  Kirkland's  "Memoir  of  F.  Ames,"  prefixed  to 
his  Works,  1854;  Griswold's  "Prose  Writers  of  America;"  also, 
Parker's  "Golden  Age  of  American  Oratory,"  Boston,  1857. 

Ames,  amz,  (Joseph,)  a  British  naval  officer,  born  in 
1619,  distinguished  himself  in  a  battle  against  the  Dutch 
in  July,  1653.    Died  in  1695. 

Ames,  (Joseph,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  antiquary,  born 
at  Yarmouth  in  1689.  In  1749  he  published  "Typo- 
graphical Antiquities  :  being  an  Historical  Account  of 
Printing  in  England,  with  some  Memoirs  of  our  Ancient 
Printers,  and  a  Register  of  the  Books  printed  by  them." 
An  improved  edition  was  published  by  W.  Herbert  in 
3  vols.,  1785-90;  and  another  by  Dr.  T.  F.  Dibdin  in 
1S10-19.    Died  in  1759. 

See  GdUGH,  "  Memoirs  of  Joseph  Ames,"  prefixed  to  the  "Typo- 
graphical Antiquities." 

Ames,  (Nathan  P.,)  an  American  machinist  and 
manufacturer  of  fire-arms,  ordnance,  and  cutlery,  born 
in  1803.  He  owned  extensive  works  at  Chicopee  Falls 
and  Cabotville,  Massachusetts,  and  was  distinguished  as 
an  inventor.    Died  in  1847. 

Ames,  (Nathaniel,)  a  son  of  Fisher  Ames,  was  the 
author  of  several  sea-sketches.    Died  in  1835. 

Ames,  (William,)  D.D.,  a  learned  English  Puritan 
divine,  born  in  Norfolk  county  in  1576.  He  emigrated 
to  Holland  about  1612,  and  was  professor  of  theology  at 
Franeker  for  twelve  years.    He  attended  the  Synod  of 


Dort  in  1618.  Among  his  works  are  "Marrow  of  Theo- 
logy," ("Medulla  Theologiae,"  1623,)  and  a  book  on 
practical  theology,  entitled  "On  the  Conscience  and  its 
Authority,"  ("l3e  Conscientia  et  ejus  Jure  vel  Casi- 
bus,"  1630,)  which  had  a  high  reputation  e  ven  in  foreign 
countries.  Died  at  Rotterdam  in  1633. 
See  Brook's  "Lives  of  the  Puritans." 

Amestris.    See  Ama.stkis. 

Amfreville,  d',  d6NT'r-v^K,  Marquis,  a  brave  French 
naval  officer,  commanded  the  vanguard  at  the  battle  of 
La  Hogue  in  1692.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  naval  armies,  and  died  at  an  advanced 
age.  Two  of  his  brothers  were  also  distinguished  naval 
captains. 

See  QuiNCY,  "  Histoire  militaire  de  Louis  le  Grand." 

Amherst,  am^erst,  (Jeffery  or  Jeffrey,)  usually 
called  Lord  Amherst,  an  English  general,  born  at  River- 
head,  in  Kent,  in  January,  171 7.  He  entered  the  army 
in  1 73 1,  was  aide-de-camp  to  Lord  Ligonier  at  Fontenoy 
in  1 741,  and  became  a  colonel  in  1756.  Having  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  major-general  in  1758,  he  commanded 
at  the  capture  of  Cape  Breton,  and  took  Ticonderoga 
from  the  French  in  1759.  He  performed  an  imix)rtant 
part  in  the  conquest  of  Canada  in  1760,  (see  Wolfe, 
General,)  after  which  he  was  commander-in-chief  of 
the  armies  in  America  until  1763,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed Governor  of  Virginia.  He  was  made  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  ordnance  in  1772,  received  the  title  of 
Baron  Amherst  in  1776,  and  became  commander-in-chief 
of  the  English  army  in  1778.  This  command  was  taken 
from  him  in  1782,  and  restored  in  1793.  He  was  super- 
seded as  commander-in-chief  by  the  Duke  of  York 
in  1795,  and  was  made  a  field-marshal  in  1796.  Died  in 
1797. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  September,  1797. 

Amherst,  (William  Pitt,)  Lord,  an  English  diplo-. 
matist,  born  in  1773,  was  a  nephew  and  heir  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  sent  as  ambassador  extraordinary  to 
China  in  1816,  and  arrived  at  Pekin,  but,  as  he  refused 
to  submit  to  the  degrading  ceremonies  which  were  the 
necessary  conditions  of  admission  to  the  Chinese  court, 
his  mission  was  so  far  a  failure.  An  account  of  his 
journey  to  China  was  published  by  Clarke  Abel.  He 
was  appointed  Governor-General  of  India  in  1823,  re- 
ceived the  title  of  earl  in  1826,  and  was  recalled  to  Eng. 
land  the  same  year.    Died  in  1857. 

Amhurst,  am'ilrst,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  political 
and  satirical  writer,  born  at  Marden,  Kent,  about  1702. 
Having  been  expelled  from  a  college  of  Oxford  in  1 719, 
he  published,  in  1721,  a  witty  satire  against  that  univer- 
sity, in  a  periodical  entitled  "Tcrrae  Filius."  Pie  after- 
wards gained  distinction  as  editor  of  "The  Craftsman," 
a  weekly  political  paper,  (commenced  about  1730,)  which 
had  a  very  large  circulation,  (ten  or  twelve  thousand 
copies,)  and  in  which  Lord  Bolingbroke  and  Pulteney 
were  his  coadjutors.  He  was  neglected  by  his  political 
friends  when  they  obtained  power  in  1742,  and  died  in 
the  same  year. 

See  Gibber,  "Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Amici,  a-mee'chee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
optician,  astronomer,  and  natural  philosopher,  born  at 
Modena  in  1784.  He  acquired  skill  in  the  construction 
of  optical  instruments,  especially  of  mirrors  for  tele- 
scopes and  lenses  for  microscopes.  About  1827  he  pro- 
duced a  dioptric  or  achromatic  microscope  which  bears 
his  name  and  is  highly  esteemed.  At  the  death  of  L. 
Pons,  (1835,)  Amici  was  appointed  director  of  the  Obser- 
vatory of  Florence,  \Yhere  he  gained  a  high  reputation 
as  an  observer.  He  wrote  memoirs  on  double  stars,  on 
the  diameter  of  the  sun,  etc.    Died  in  1863. 

Amici,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  sculptor  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  was  living  in  1495. 

Amico,  a-mee'ko,  (Antonino,)  a  Sicilian  priest, 
historiographer  to  Philip  IV.  of  Spain.  Died  in  1641. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  the  history  and  antiquities 
of  Sicily. 

Amico,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  in 
Lucania  in  1562,  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Naples. 
He  wrote  a  "Commentary  on  Aristotle,"  (7  vols.,  1623- 
48.)    Died  in  1649. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  I3,r,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JMICO 


"3 


AMMEN 


Amico,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  monk,  born  at 
Galiipoli,  near  Taranto,  passed  several  years  at  Jerusa- 
lem from  1596  to  about  1600.  He  published  at  Rome, 
in  1609,  descriptions  and  designs  of  sacred  buildings  in 
the  Holy  Land,  entitled  "  Trattato  delle  Piante  ed  im- 
magini  ciei  sacri  Edifici,"  etc.  The  designs  were  en- 
graved by  Callot. 

Amico  or  A-mi'cus,  (Diomede,)  an  Italian  medical 
writer,  born  at  Piacenza,  lived  about  1600. 

Amico,  (Faustino,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Bassano 
in  1524.  He  gave  promise  of  extraordinary  talents,  but 
died  prematurely  in  1558.  Among  his  works  is  a  beau- 
tiful Latin  epistle  to  his  friend  Alessandro  Campesano, 
(1564.)    He  wrote  also  Italian  verses. 

Amico,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  writer  on 
theology,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1578;  died  in  1651. 

Amico,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  monk  and  writer  on 
philology  and  other  subjects,  born  at  Milazzo  in  1633. 

Amico,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  diplomatist,  born  at  Asti 
in  1757  ;  died  in  1832. 

Amico,  (ViTO  Maria,)  a  learned  Sicilian  historian 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Catania  in  1693.  He  was  for 
some  time  professor  of  philosophy  at  Catania,  He  pub- 
lished "Sicilia  Sacra,"  (1733,)  and  "Catana  Illustrata," 
(4  vols.,  1 741.)    Died  in  1762. 

Amiconi,  i-me-ko'nee,  or  Amigoni,  J-me-go'nee, 
(OttaViO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Brescia  in  1605; 
died  in  1661. 

Amidano,  i-me-di'no,(PoMPONio,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Parma  in  the  sixteenth  century,  was  one  of  the 
most  eminent  pupils  of  Parmegiano.  His  chief  work  is 
an  altar-piece  in  the  church  of  the  Madonna  del  Quar- 
tiere  at  Parma,  which  is  highly  praised  by  Lanzi.  Died, 
it  is  supposed,  about  1600. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Amigoni,  d-me-go'nee,  or  Amiconi,  S-me-ko'nee, 
(Jacofo,)  an  Italian  historical  painter,  whose  success 
appears  to  have  been  greater  than  his  merit,  was  born 
in  Venice  in  1675.  worked  in  London  about  ten 

years,  (1729-39,)  during  which  he  painted  many  portraits. 
His  style  was  admired  by  the  purchasers  of  pictures 
more  than  by  the  critics.  Among  his  works  is  the  His- 
tory of  Judith.  He  was  court  painter  at  Madrid  when 
he  died  in  1752. 

See  Lanzi,  "'History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Amik,  a'inik  or  i'meek',  (of  Bokhara,)  a  Persian 
poet  of  the  twelfth  century. 
Amilcar.    See  Hamilcar. 

Amin-Ahmed-el-Razy,  (or  -al-Razi.)  See  Ameen- 
Ahmed-er-Razee. 

Amiot  or  Amyot,  t'me-o',  (Joseph,)  a  French 
Jesuit  and  missionary,  born  at  Toulon  in  17 18.  He 
went  to  China  in  1750,  and  was  invited  by  the  emperor 
to  Pekin,  where  he  remained  forty-three  years  and 
made  great  proficiency  in  the  Chinese  language.  No 
other  writer  of  the  eighteenth  century  has  thrown  so 
much  light  on  the  manners  and  history  of  the  Chinese. 
He  translated  several  Chinese  works,  wrote  a  "Letter 
on  the  Genius  of  the  Chinese  Language,"  (1773,)  ^'^^l 
compiled  a  Manchoo-Tartar-French  Dictionary,  (3  vols., 
Paris,  1789-90,)  the  first  ever  published.  He  was  author 
of  a  large  part  of  the  collection  entitled  "  Memoirs  con- 
cerning the  History,  Sciences,  Arts,  and  Customs  of  the 
Chinese,"  (16  vols.,  1 776-1 814.)  A  life  of  Confucius  by 
Amiot  is  included  in  these  Memoirs.  Died  at  Pekin 
in  1794. 

See  "  Lettresedifiantesetcurieuses,"xxviii.  158 ;  Staunton,  "  Mis- 
cellaneous Notices  relating  to  China;"  A.  Remusat,  "Recherches 
sur  les  Langues  Tartares;"  Ersch  und  Gkuber,  "Allgemeine  En- 
:yklopaedie." 

Amipsias.    See  Ameipsias. 

Am'leth  or  Ham'leth,  an  ancient  and  perhaps  fabu- 
lous prince  of  Jutland,  whose  story,  as  recorded  by  Saxo 
Grammaticus,  is  the  foundation  of  Shakspeare's  tragedy 
of  "  Ilamlet."  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  before  the 
Christian  era. 

Amling,  Sm'ling,  (Karl  Gustav,)  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man designer  and  engraver,  born  at  Nuremberg  about 
'650.  He  worked  at  Munich,  was  patronized  by  the 
elector  Maximilian  II.,  and  excelled  in  portraits.  He 
rfiso  engraved  historical  paintings,  but  with  less  success. 


He  was  reputed  the  best  German  engraver  of  his  time. 
Died  in  1701. 

Ammeeus,  Jm-ma'us,  or  Van  Amm,  vtn  Sm,  (DoMi 
NIC,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  at  Lceuwarden  in  1579,  became 
professor  of  law  at  Jena  in  1602.  He  wrote  an  import- 
ant work  on  public  or  constitutional  law,  "Discursus  de 
Jure  publico,"  (1617-23.)    Died  in  1637. 

Amman,  written  also  Ammann,  im'min,  (Johann,) 
a  German  botanist  and  physician,  born  at  Schaffhausen 
in  1707,  graduated  in  medicine  at  Leyden  in  1729.  In 
1733  he  became  professor  of  botany  at  Saint  Petersburg, 
where  he  died  in  1741  or  1742,  leaving  the  first  volume 
of  an  unfinished  work  on  the  plants  of  Russia,  (1739.) 

See  Sprengel,  "Geschichte  des  Botanik." 

Amman,  (Johann  Conrad,)  a  physician,  native  ot 
Schaffliausen,  who  settled  in  Holland,  where  he  gained 
a  great  and  deserved  reputation  for  teaching  the  deaf 
and  dumb  to  speak.  He  wrote  "  Surdus  Loquens," 
(1692.)    Died  probably  about  1725. 

Amman,  (Johann  Jacob,)  a  German  surgeon,  born 
at  a  little  village  on  Lake  Zurich  in  1586.  He  published 
a  book  of  Travels  in  the  Levant,  (3  vols.,  1618.)  Died 
at  Zurich  in  1658. 

Amman  or  Ammon,  drn'mon,  (Jost,  or  Justus,)  a 
famous  Swiss  engraver  and  designer,  born  at  Zurich 
about  1535.  He  became  a  citizen  of  Nuremberg  about 
1 560,  and  probably  passed  there  the  rest  of  his  life,  of 
which  little  is  known.  He  illustrated  many  books  with 
his  designs,  which  are  exceedingly  numerous.  He  en- 
graved on  wood  and  copper,  and  excelled  in  the  art  of 
grouping  figures.  His  "  Portraits  of  the  Kings  of  France 
from  Pharamond  to  Henry  HI."  appeared  in  1576.  His 
wood-cuts  are  better  than  his  copper-plates.  Died  in 
1591. 

See  Heinecken,  " Dictionnaire  des  Artistes;"  Strutt,  "Dic- 
tionary of  Engravers." 

Amman  or  Ammann,  (Paul,)  an  eminent  German 
botanist  and  physician,  born  at  Breslau  in  1634.  He 
obtained  a  chair  of  botany  at  Leipsic  in  1674,  and  a  chaii 
of  physiology  in  1682.  He  was  addicted  to  paradox,  and 
was  a  severe  critic.  Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned 
his  "Treatment  o*" Deadly  Wounds,"  ("  Praxis  Vulnerum 
lethalium,"  1690 ;)  and  "Natural  Character  of  Plants," 
("Character  naturalis  Plantarum,"  1676.)   Died  in  1691. 

See  Haller,  "Bibliotheca  Botanica." 

Ammanati,  am-ma-n3,'tee,  written  also  Ammanato 
andAmmanate,  (Bartolommeo,)  a  distinguished  Ital- 
ian sculptor  and  architect,  born  at  Florence  in  151 1, 
was  a  puj)il  of  Bandinelli  and  Sansovino.  He  imitated 
Michael  Angelo  in  sculpture.  He  worked  in  Rome  for 
Pope  Julius  III.,  adorned  the  Capitol  with  sculptures, 
and  designed  the  court  and  fa9ade  of  the  Roman  College. 
At  Florence  he  constructed  the  noble  bridge  called 
Ponte  della  Trinita,  (which  is  still  standing,)  finished  the 
Pitti  Palace,  and  erected  several  monuments.  Among 
his  chief  works  are  three  statues  which  adorn  the  tomb 
of  Sannazar  at  Naples,  and  a  colossal  statue  of  Neptune 
at  Florence.  Died  about  1590.  He  left  a  valuable  work 
on  public  buildings,  etc.,  entitled  "The  City,"  ("La 
Citta.")  His  wife,  Laura  Battiferri,  was  celebrated 
as  a  poetess. 

See  Vasari,  "  Uomini  illustri  d'ltalia  ;"  Cicognara,  "  Storia  di 
Scuhura." 

Ammanati,  Cardinal.    See  Piccolominl 

Ammanati,  (Giovanni,)  an  able  Italian  sculptor, 
worked  at  Orvieto  from  133 1  to  1355. 

Ammanati,  (Laura  Battiferri — bit-te-fgr'ree,)  a 
distinguished  Italian  poetess,  born  at  Urbino  about 
1520.  She  was  married  in  1550  to  B.  Ammanati,  above 
noticed.    Died  in  1589. 

Ammann.    See  Amman. 

Ammar-Ibn-Yisir,  Sm-maR'  ib'n  yi'sir,  a  famous 
Arab  and  companion  of  Mohammed.  He  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  the  Camel,  658  a.d.,  and  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Sefayn,  where  he  commanded  the  cavalry  for 
Alee. 

Am'men,  (Jacob,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Vir- 
ginia, graduated  at  West  Point  in  1831.  He  was  after- 
wards professor  of  mathematics  in  several  colleges  in 
different  parts  of  the  United  States.  He  was  appointed 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  about  July,  1862. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (Jii^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


114 


AMONTONS 


Am-nii-3  nus,  ['A/z//iawf,]  a  Greek  poet,  lived  about 
100-130  A.D..  and  wrote  epigrams,  many  of  which  are 
found  in  the  Greek  Anthology. 

Am-mi-a'nus  Mar-cel-li'nus,  [Fr.  Ammien  Mar- 
CELLIN,  a'me'AN'  mSR's.yiaN',]  a  Roman  historian  of 
great  merit,  born  of  a  Greek  family  at  Antioch  in  the 
early  part  of  the  fourth  century.  He  entered  the  army 
in  his  youth,  took  part  in  a  campaign  in  the  East  in  350 
A.D.,  and  afterwards  accompanied  Julian  in  an  expedition 
against  Persia.  Having  retired  from  the  army,  he  be- 
came a  resident  of  Rome,  where  he  wrote  his  history 
of  the  Roman  Empire,  in  thirty-one  books,  of  which 
the  first  thirteen  are  lost.  The  whole  work  comprised 
the  period  from  96  A.D.  to  378  a.d.  "His  fidelity  and 
impartiality  are  highly  commended  by  Gibbon  and 
other  critics.  His  style,  however,  is  much  inferior  to 
the  classic  models  of  Roman  prose.  He  died,  it  is  sup- 
posed, about  395  a.d.  It  has  been  disputed  whether  he 
was  a  Christian  or  a  heathen;  but  there  would  seem  to 
be  little  ground  for  doubting  that  he  was  a  pagan. 

See  Claude  Chifflet,  "  De  Ammiani  Marcellini  Vita ;"  Gibbon, 
"  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  chap,  xxiii. 

Ammien  Marcellin.    See  Ammianus  Marcelli- 

NUS. 

Ammirato,  tm-me-r3.'to,  (Scipione,)  an  Italian  his- 
torian, born  at  Lecce,  in  Naples,  in  1531.  After  various 
adventures  in  Venice,  Rome,  and  Naples,  he  settled  at 
Florence  in  1569,  and  found  a  patron  in  the  Grand 
Duke  Cosmo,  who  commissioned  him  to  write  the  his- 
tory of  Florence.  He  became  a  canon  in  the  cathedral 
of  Florence  in  1595,  and  wrote  a  large  number  of  works, 
among  which  is  a  "Discourse  on  Cornelius  Tacitus," 
(1594.)  His  most  important  work  is  a  "History  of 
Florence,"  ("  Istorie  Fiorentine,"  1st  vol.,  1600 ;  2d 
vol.,  1641,)  which  is  the  most  accurate  and  complete 
that  has  been  written  on  that  subject.  The  Academy 
Delia  Crusca  styled  him  "the  modern  Livy."  Died  at 
Florence  in  1601. 

See  DoMENico  de  Angelis,  "Vita  di  Scipione  Ammirato,"  1706; 
TiRABoscHi,  "Storiadella  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Am'mon  [Gr.  "A/z/l/wj^]  or  Hani'mon,  an  ancient  hea- 
then deity,  worshipped  in  Libya,  Egypt,  Greece,  etc.,  was 
called  Zeus  Ammon  by  the  Greeks,  and  Juj^iter  Amnion 
bv  the  Romans.  There  was  a  famous  temj)le  of  Ammon 
at  Thebes  in  E'j;ypt,  and  another  in  the  oasis  of  Siwah, 
in  the  Libyan  Desert.  He  was  represented  iii  the  form 
of  a  ram,  or  as  a  human  being  with  a  ram's  head. 

Ammcii,  dm''ni()n,  (Cli-MENI',)  a  German  engraver, 
horn  at  Frankfort,  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

Ammon,  (Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  Prussian  writer  on 
horses,  born  at  Trakehnen,  Prussian  Lithuania,  in  1777. 
He  published  a  "Natural  History  of  the  Horse,"  (1815,) 
and  a  "  Complete  Manual  of  Practical  Veterinary  Medi- 
cine," ("  Vollstandiges  Handbuch  der  praktischen  Pfer- 
dearzeneikunst,"  2  vols.,  1804-7.) 

Ammon,  von,  fon  ^m'mon,  (Christoph  Friedrich,) 
a  German  Protestant  theologian  and  popular  pulpit  ora- 
tor of  wide  reputation,  was  born  at  Baireuth  in  1766. 
He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Gottingen  from  1794  to 
1804,  in  which  year  he  obtained  a  chair  at  Erlangen.  He 
removed  to  Dresden  in  1813,  and  became  court  preacher 
to  the  King  of  Saxony.  He  was  one  of  the  first  apos- 
tles of  what  is  called  Rationalism  in  German  theology. 
His  principal  work  is  "  Development  of  Christianity  into 
the  Universal  Religion,"  ("  Fortbildung  des  Christen- 
thums  zur  Weltreligion,"  4  vols.,  1833-40.)  Among  his 
numerous  works  is  a  "Plan  (Entwurf)  of  a  pure  Biblical 
Theology,"  (3  vols.,  1802.)    Died  in  1820. 

See  Jui.ius  Pabst,  "  Lebens-  und  Charakterumrisse  C.  F.  von 
Amnions,"  Dresden,  1850;  Brockhaus,  " Conversations- Lexikon;" 
and  "Ch.  F.  Ammon  nach  Leben,  Ansichten  und  Wirken,"  Leipzig, 
1850. 

Ammon  or  Ammen,  von,  (Frfedrich  August,) 
a  German  physician,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Gottingen  in  1799.  He  became  ]Drofessor  in  the  medical 
academy  of  Dresden  in  1829,  and  royal  physician,  (Leib- 
arzt.)  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Observa- 
tions on  Diseases  of  the  Eye,"  (3  vols.,  1838-41.)  Died 
in  i86r. 

Am-mo'nas  or  Amoun,  i-moon',  [Gr.  'Afi/nuvac  or 


'Auoi'v,]  the  founder  of  a  celebrated  monastic  order  in 
Egypt.    Died  about  320  a.d. 

Ammonio,  dm-mo'ne-o,  written  also  Ammon,  (An- 
drea,) [Lat.  An'dreas  Ammo'nius,]  a  distinguished 
Italian  scliolar,  born  at  Lucca  in  1477,  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Erasmus.  He  became  about  15 13  Latin  sec- 
retary to  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  whose  victory  at 
Guinegate  he  celebrated  in  a  Latin  poem  called  "  Pane- 
gyricus,"  which  was  praised  by  Erasmus.  He  afterwards 
served  Pope  LeoX.  as  nuncio  to  the  court  of  Henry  VIIL, 
and  died  in  London  in  15 17.  All  his  Latin  poems  are 
lost,  except  one  eclogue. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Am-mo'ni-us,  [Gr.  'AfifMovtog.]  There  were  among 
the  ancients  a  number  of  eminent  persons  of  this  name  : 
the  following  are  perhaps  most  worthy  of  notice  : 

Ammonius,  a  Greek  grammarian,  who  lived  at  Alex- 
andria about  50  B.C.,  and  wrote  commentaries  on  Homer 
and  Aristophanes. 

Ammonius,  a  Peripatetic  philosopher  who  taught  at 
Athens  or  Delphi  in  the  latter  half  of  the  first  century. 
He  was  a  preceptor  of  Plutarch,  and  endeavoured  to 
reconcile  the  doctrines  of  Plato  and  Aristotle.  Plutarch 
wrote  a  life  of  him,  which  is  not  extant. 

Ammonius,  a  Christian  philosopher,  who  has  been 
confounded  with  Ammonius  Saccas,  lived  at  Alexandria 
in  the  third  century  of  our  era.  He  is  the  reputed  author 
of  a  Harmony  of  the  Gospels. 

Ammonius,  a  Greek  grammarian,  was  priest  of  a 
temple  in  Alexandria  about  380  A.D.  He  wrote  a  Dic- 
tionary of  Greek  Synonyms,  which  has  been  often  printed. 

Ammonius  surnamed  Lithot'omus,  a  celebrated 
surgeon  of  Alexandria,  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the 
third  century  B.C.  He  was  the  first  who  contrived  a 
method  of  breaking  the  calculus  in  the  bladder  when  it 
was  too  large  to  be  extracted  through  the  opening  made 
by  incision  ;  from  which  improvement  in  lithotomy  he 
received  his  surname. 

Ammonius  surnamed  Sac'cas,  (because  in  early 
life  he  was  a  porter,  and  earned  a  livelihood  by  carrying 
sacks,)  the  founder  of  that  school  of  Eclectic  philosophy 
commonly  known  as  New  Platonism,  was  a  native  of 
Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  where  he  died  241  A.D.  He  was 
the  son  of  Christian  parents,  but  preferred  the  heathen 
religion.  Among  his  numerous  disciples  were  Origen, 
Lc  nginus,  and  Plotinus.  He  left  no  writings,  and  ex- 
acted from  his  disciples  a  promise  not  to  divulge  the 
mysteries  which  he  taught. 

See  RiTTER,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  Dehaijt,  "  Essai  his- 
torique  sur  la  Vie  d'Ammonius  Saccas,"  1836. 

Ammonius,  son  of  Hermias,  a  Greek  philosopher, 
born  at  Alexandria,  lived  at  Athens  in  the  last  half  of 
the  fifth  century  after  Christ.  He  wrote  valuable  com- 
mentaries on  Aristotle  and  Porphyry,  and  belonged  to 
the  school  of  New  Platonists. 

Am'non,  a  son  of  David,  King  of  the  Jews,  was  slain 
by  Absalom.    (See  II.  Samuel  xiii.) 

Amo,  d'mo,  (Antony  William,)  a  learned  negro, 
born  in  Guinea  about  1702.  He  studied  at  Halle,  be- 
came a  classical  scholar,  and  published  a  work  "  On  the 
Law  of  the  Moors,"  ("De  Jure  Maurorum,"  1729.)  He 
was  afterwards  a  councillor  of  state  at  the  court  of  Ber- 
lin. On  the  death  of  his  patron,  the  Duke  of  Brunswick, 
he  returned  to  Africa.  He  was  seen  by  H.  Gallaudet 
at  Axoom,  (Axum,)  in  Abyssinia,  in  1753. 

See  Gregoire,  "De  la  Litterature  des  Negres." 

Amclon,  t'moHiN'',  or  Amnion,  t'mii^l6N',  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  who  became  Archbishop  of  Lyons  in  841 
A.D.  He  wrote  a  treatise  against  the  Jews.  Died  in 
852. 

Am-o-me'tus,  ['Aficj/irjToc,]  an  ancient  Greek  author, 
wrote  an  account  of  a  voyage  on  the  Nile,  of  which  some 
fragments  are  extant. 

Anion,  a'mon,  a  son  of  Manasseh,  King  jf  Judah,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  of  his  father,  and  cvas  killed  by 
his  own  servants,  who  conspired  against  him.  (See  11. 
Kings  xxi.  19-23  ;  also  II.  Chronicles  xxxiii.  21-24.) 

Ainontons,  t'm6N^t(!)N'',  (Guillaume,)  an  ingenious 
French  natural  philosopher  and  mechanician,  born  in 
Paris  in  1663.    He  learned  architecture,  and  *vas  em- 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  /on^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iorf;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir  fill,  fit;  nigt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


AMOR 


AMPHIARAUS 


ployed  on  several  public  works.  He  laboured  with  suc- 
cess to  improve  the  barometer,  thermometer,  and  hy- 
grometer, and  wrote  a  treatise  on  those  instruments, 
(1695.)  "He  was  the  real  inventor  of  the  telegraphic 
art,"  says  Biot,  "as  it  is  practised  at  the  present  day," 
{i.e.  181 1.)  He  proposed  that  signals  should  be  trans- 
mitted from  station  to  station  by  operators  whose  vision 
was  aided  by  the  telescope  ;  but  his  plan  was  not  executed 
until  fifty  years  later.    Died  in  1705, 

Amor,  the  Roman  god  of  love.    See  Cupid. 

Amoretti,  3,-mo-ret'tee,  (Carlo,)  a  meritorious  Ital- 
ian naturalist,  writer,  and  translator,  born  at  Oneglia, 
near  Genoa,  in  1740  or  1741.  He  translated  Winckel- 
mann's  "History  of  Ancient  Art"  into  Italian,  (1779,) 
wrote  an  excellent  biography  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
(1784,)  and  became  one  of  the  keepers  of  the  Ambrosian 
Library,  at  Milan,  in  1797.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Italian  Institute.  Amoretti  is  author  of  an  important 
work  on  the  geography  and  natural  history  of  Lakes 
Como,  Maggiore,  ancl  Lugano,  and  the  adjacent  districts, 
entitled  "Journey  from  Milan  to  the  Three  Lakes," 
("  Viaggio  da  Milano  ai  tre  Laghi,"  1794.)  He  trans- 
lated into  French  the  voyages  of  Pigafetta  and  Maldo- 
nado.    Died  in  1816. 

See  LoMBARDi,  "Sloria  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Amoretti,  (Maria  Peregrina,)  a  learned  Italian 
lady,  born  at  Oneglia  in  1756.  She  wrote  a  work  "On 
the  Right  of  Dowry  among  the  Romans,"  ("De  Jure 
Dotium  apud  Romanos.")    Died  in  1787. 

Amoreux,  S'mo'ruh',  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French 
physician  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Beaucaire 
about  1740.  He  wrote  several  works  on  natural  history 
and  rural  economy,  which  were  received  with  favour. 
Died  in  1824. 

Amoros,  d-mo'r6s,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  colonel, 
born  at  Valencia  in  1769,  was  the  first  who  introduced 
gymnastic  education  into  France.  During  the  reign  of 
Joseph  Bonaparte  he  was  councillor  of  state,  minister  of 
police,  etc.  He  afterwards  became  an  exile  in  France, 
and  established  a  gymnasium  with  success.  In  1831  he 
ivas  appointed  director  of  a  normal  gymnasium  in  Paris. 
Died  in  1843. 

Amorosi,  S-mo-ro'see,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  near  Ascoli,  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  He  painted  humorous  subjects,  which  the 
Italians  call  Bambocciate,  and  displayed  much  talent  for 
satire. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Amort,  i'moRt,  (Eusebius,)  a  German  theologian 
and  monk,  born  near  Tolz,  in  Bavaria,  in  1692.  He 
wrote  a  "History  of  Indulgences,"  (1735,)  ^'""^  attacked 
prevailing  superstitions  in  a  work  "On  Revelations, 
Visions,  and  Apparitions,"  (1744.)    Died  in  1775. 

See  Savioli-Corbelli,  "  Ehrendenkmal  E.  Ainorts,"  1777. 

Am'o-ry,  (Thomas,)  an  eccentric  English  writer,  a 
zealous  Unitarian,  was  born  about  1690.  He  published 
memoirs  of  several  ladies  of  Great  Britain,  (1755,)  and 
is  supposed  to  have  represented  his  own  character  and 
experience  in  "The  Life  of  John  Buncle,  Esq.  ;  contain- 
ing Various  Observations  and  Reflections  made  in  Va- 
rious Parts  of  the  World,"  (2  vols.,  1756-66.)  Died  in 
1788. 

Amory,  (Thomas,)  a  distinguished  Presbyterian  di- 
vine, born  at  Taunton,  P2ngland,  in  1700.  He  was  or- 
dained in  1730,  and  became  principal  tutor  of  a  dissent- 
ing academy  at  Taunton  in  1738.  In  1759  he  removed 
to  London,  and  in  1766  became  sole  pastor  of  the  chapel 
at  Old  Jewry,  where  he  had  preached  seven  years  as 
colleague  of  Dr.  Chandler.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  two  volumes  of  sermons,  (1758,  1766,)  and 
"Grove's  System  of  Moral  Philosophy,  revised,  cor- 
rected, and  improved,"  (1749.)    Died  in  1774. 

Amos,  a'mos,  [Heb.  DVj;*,]  one  of  the  minor  He- 
brew prophets,  lived  about  800  11. c.  He  was  a  herdsman 
and  gatherer  of  sycamore-fruit.  His  book  is  the  third 
in  order  of  position  among  the  minor  prophets,  and 
contains  several  eloquent  and  admirable  passages. 

Amoudrou,  t'moo'dRoo',  (Antoine,)  a  French 
architect,  born  at  Dole  in  1739  ;  died  in  1812.  He  built 
some  nalaces  in  Warsaw. 


Amom-,  (Saint.)    See  Saint-Amour. 

Ampach  auf  Griinfelden,  (or  Gruenfelden,)  von 

fon  am'pSK  owf  gRiinTerden,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  Ger- 
man physician,  born  in  1 784,  wrote  several  veterinary 
treatises.    Died  in  1832. 

Am-peTi-us,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman,  known  only  as  the 
author  of  a  work  called  "  Book  of  Memory,"  ("  Liber 
Memorialis,")  which  was  edited  by  Salmasius.  It  is  a 
compendium  of  history,  geography,  etc. 

Ampere,  SN'paiR'',  (Andre  Marie,)  a  celebrated 
French  mathematician  and  natural  philosopher,  born  at 
Lyons  on  the  20th  of  January,  1775,  was  the  son  of  a  mer- 
chant. He  learned  mathematics  in  early  youth  at  home 
without  a  teacher,  and  eagerly  read  the  poems  of  Virgil 
and  Horace  in  the  original.  He  married  Julie  Carron 
in  1799.  In  1802  he  attracted  the  public  attention  by  a 
curious  work  "  On  the  Mathematical  Theory  of  Gaming." 
In  1805  he  obtained  by  the  favour  of  Delambre  the 
place  of  repetitetir  of  analysis  in  the  Polytechnic  School, 
Paris.  He  became  inspector-general  of  the  university 
in  1808,  professor  of  analysis  in  the  Polytechnic  School 
in  1809,  and  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1814. 

In  1820  he  announced  the  remarkable  discoveries  in 
electro-magnetism  which  constitute,  perhaps,  his  chief 
title  to  celebrity.  He  demonstrated  the  influence  of  a 
spiral  wire  conducting  a  galvanic  current,  in  magnet- 
izing a  needle,  proved  that  two  voltaic  conductors  at- 
tract each  other  when  the  currents  have  the  same  direc- 
tion and  repel  each  other  when  the  currents  flow  in 
opposite  directions,  and  inferred  from  his  experiments 
that  the  phenomena  of  natural  magnetism  depend  on 
electrical  currents  which  constantly  pass  around  the 
earth  from  east  to  west.  These  results,  which  he  ob 
tained  by  the  application  of  the  most  difficult  parts  ot 
mathematical  analysis,  were  communicated  to  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  in  several  papers,  in  the  autumn  of 
1820.  "  The  vast  field  of  physical  science,"  says  Arago, 
"  perhaps  never  presented  so  brilliant  a  discovery  con- 
ceived, verified,  and  completed  with  such  rapidity." 

Ampere  gave  the  name  of  Electro-Dynamics  to  this 
new  science.  In  1822  he  published  a '"  Collection  of 
Observations  on  Electro-Dynamics."  His  theory  and 
discoveries  in  this  science  were  more  amply  developed 
in  his  work  entitled  "Theory  of  Electro-Dynamic  Phe- 
nomena deduced  from  Experiments  only,"  ("Theorie 
des  Phenomenes  electro-dynamiques  uniquement  deduite 
de  I'Experience,"  1826.) 

Among  his  later  works  is  a  treatise  on  the  undulatory 
theory  of  light,  ("  Memoire  sur  la  Determination  de  la 
Surface  courbe  des  Ondes  lumineuses,  etc.,"  1828;)  also, 
an  "  Essay  on  the  Philosophy  of  the  Sciences,  or  Ana- 
lytic Exposition  of  a  Natural  Classification  of  all  Human 
Knowledge,"  ("Essai  sur  la  Philosophic  des  Sciences,  ou 
Exposition  analytique  d'une  Classification  naturelle  de 
toutes  les  Connaissances  humaines,"  1834.) 

He  wrote  numerous  treatises  on  optics,  natural  his- 
tory, etc.,  which  were  printed  in  the  "  Memoires"  of  the 
Institute,  and  in  other  journals.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London.  Died  in  Paris  in  1836.  He 
is  said  to  have  resembled  La  Fontaine  in  good  nature, 
{bonhomie,)  simplicity,  and  absence  of  mind. 

See  Arago,  "  filoge  d'Ampere  ;"  Sainte-Beuve  et  M.  Littke, 
notice  in  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  February,  1837;  Quete- 
LET,  "Notice  sur  M.  Ampere,"  1836;  Louis  de  Lomenie,  "  Gak- 
rie  des  Contemporains  illustres." 

Ampere,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Lyons  in  August,  i8co.  He  devoted  him- 
self to  literary  pursuits,  and  obtained  access  to  the  select 
society  which  met  at  the  salon  of  Madame  Recamier. 
In  1830  he  became  an  assistant  or  substitute  of  Ville- 
main  as  professor  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  in  1833  suc- 
ceeded Andrieux  as  professor  of  French  literature  at 
the  College  of  France.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions  in  1842,  and  into  the  French  Acad- 
emy in  1847.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Literary 
History  of  France  before  the  Twelfth  Century,"  ("  His- 
toire  litteraire  de  la  France  avant  le  douzieme  Siecle," 
3  vols.,  1839,)  and  a  collection  of  charming  articles  called 
"  Litterature  et  Voyages,"  (1833.)    Died  in  1864. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Am-phi-a-ra'us,  [Gr.'A/^^mpaof,]  a  famous  soothsayer 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  7tasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AMP  MIGRATES 


ii6 


AMURATH 


;ind  hero  of  Argos.  He  took  part  in  the  Argonautic 
expedition,  and  married  Eriphyle,  who,  bribed  by  the 
fatal  neckhvce  of  Harnionia,  persuaded  him  against  his 
will  to  join  in  the  expedition  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes. 
Tradition  adds  that  the  earth  opened  and  swallowed 
him,  and  that  he  was  afterwards  worshipped  as  a  hero. 

Am-phic'ra-tes,  [Gr.  'AfKpiKpuT?]^,]  an  Athenian  ora- 
tor, who  flourished  about  70  B.C.  For  some  unknown 
cause  he  was  banished  from  Athens,  and  went  to  Asia, 
where  he  died. 

Am-phic'ty-on,  [Gr.  'Af^p'jitvcjv,]  a  fabulous  king  of 
Attica,  was  a  son  of  Deucalion,  (or,  as  some  say,  an 
autochthon.)  He  was  expelled  from  his  kingdom  and 
succeeded  by  Erichthonius.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
lived  about  1490  B.C. 

Am-phi-lo'-ehi-us,  [Gr.'A/j.(j)i2.6xiog;  Fr.  Amphiloque, 
SN'fe^lok',]  a  bishop  of  Iconium,  and  a  zealous  opponent 
of  Arianism,  was  born  in  Cappadocia.  About  383  a.d. 
he  went  to  the  court  of  the  emperor  Theodosius,  and 
instigated  him  to  issue  a  decree  prohibiting  the  public 
assemblies  of  the  Arians.  Died  about  395  a.d.  His 
works  are  nearly  all  lost. 

Ani-phi'on,  [Gr.  'AfKpiuv,]  a  Theban  prince,  who  re- 
ceived a  golden  lyre  from  Mercury,  and  cultivated  music 
with  such  success  that  he  built  the  walls  of  Thebes  by 
the  sounds  which  he  drew  from  that  instrument,  the 
stones  arranging  themselves  obsequiously  at  his  will. 
The  meaning  of  this  fable  appears  to  be  that  by  his  elo- 
quence and  persuasive  manners  he  prevailed  upon  his 
rude  and  hitherto  intractable  subjects  to  build  the  walls 
of  their  city.    He  married  the  famous  Niobe. 

Amphi'on  ['A/z^iwx']  ofCnos'sus,  a  Greek  statuary, 
who  lived  about  420  B.C. 

Am'phis,  ['A/j.(j)tg,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  who  was 
a  contemporary  of  Plato.    His  works  are  not  extant. 

Am-phis'tra-tos,  [' Afj.(j)'iaTpaTog,]  a  Greek  sculptor, 
mentioned  by  Pliny  as  the  author  of  a  good  statue  of 
Callisthenes.    He  lived  about  320  B.C. 

Am-phi-tri'te,  ['AiKptTplrrj,]  a  Nereid  of  the  Greek 
mythology,  represented  as  the  wife  of  Neptune,  and 
mother  of  Triton.  She  was  sometimes  styled  by  the 
poets  the  goddess  of  the  sea. 

Am'pi-us,  (Titus  Flavianus,)  a  Roman  general, 
who  fought  for  Vespasian  against  Vitellius  about  70  A.D. 

Ampsing,  Smp'sing,  or  Amp'zing,  (John  Assue- 
RUS,)  a  Dutch  medical  writer,  born  in  1559 ;  died  in  1642. 

Ampsing,  (Samuel,)  a  Dutch  poet,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Ampudia,  Sm-poo'de-^,  (Pedro  de,)  a  Mexican  gen- 
eral, who  obtained  that  rank  in  1840.  He  commanded 
an  army  which  besieged  Campeachy  in  1842-43.  In 
1846  he  was  in  command  at  Monterey,  which  was  be- 
sieged by  General  Taylor,  and  was  taken  prisoner  in 
September  of  that  year. 

Amreeta.    See  Amrita. 

Am'ri-ta,  [Hindoo  pron.  iim'rT-ta,  from  a,  priva- 
tive, and  mrita,  "dead,"  also  "death,"]  sometimes 
written,  but  less  correctly,  Amreeta,  the  name  given 
by  the  Hindoos  to  the  water  of  immortality  which  was 
produced  by  the  churning  of  the  ocean.  (See  KOrma- 
VATARA.)  The  term  Amrita  or  Amrit  is  also  applied  to 
the  food  as  well  as  to  the  drink  of  the  gods,  and  hence 
to  any  delicious  drink. 

Amroo,  Amru,  or  Amrou,  irn'roo,*  or,  more  fully, 
Amroo-Ibn-Al-Ais,  (or -Ass,) — Tb'n  il  tss,  {i.e.  "  Am- 
roo the  son  of  Al-Aas,")  a  famous  Arabian  general,  who 
conquered  Egypt  in  the  reign  of  the  caliph  Omar,  about 
640  A.D.  He  was  afterwards  governor  of  Egypt  until 
Omar's  death.  In  the  civil  war  which  followed  the  death 
of  Othman  he  fought  against  Alee.    Died  in  663  a.d. 

See  Irving,  "  Mahomet  and  his  Successors,"  vol.  ii.;  Abui.feda, 
"Annales  Moslemici;"  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,"  chap  li.;  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i. 

Amrool-kays,  Amrulkais,  or  Amroulcays,  Sm'- 
rool-kTs',  written  also  Amrolkais,  a  distinguished 
Arabian  poet,  who  lived  about  600  A.D.  He  was  author 
of  one  of  the  Mo'allakat,  poems  suspended  Oii  the  Kaaba 
at  Mecca. 

Amrou  or  Amru.    See  Amroo. 


*  See  remarks  on  Oriental  names,  in  the  Introduction. 


Amr-Seebawayh  or  Amr-Sibawayh,  dm'r  see'- 
bi-wlH',  the  greatest  of  the  Arabian  grammarians,  lived 
at  Bagdad  in  the  reign  of  Haroun-al-Raschid. 

Amsdorf,  von,  fon  SmsMoRf,  (Nikolaus,)  a  Ger- 
man Reformer,  born  near  Wurzen,  in  Saxony,  in  1483. 
He  became  professor  of  divinity  at  Wittenberg  in  151 1, 
and  a  zealous  adherent  of  Lutner,  whom  he  accompa- 
nied to  the  Diet  of  Worms  in  1521.  He  was  appointed 
superintendent  and  minister  at  Saint  Ulrich  in  Magde- 
burg in  1524,  and  Bishop  of  Naumburg  in  1542.  Ams- 
dorf took  part  in  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible,  and 
wrote  numerous  polemical  treatises  on  theology.  Died 
in  1565. 

See  Melchior  Adam,  "  Vitse  Theologorum  Germanorum." 

Amsler,  ims'ler,  (Samuel,)  an  excellent  German 
engraver,  born  in  Switzerland  in  1791.  He  was  profes- 
sor at  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Munich,  and  en- 
graved many  pieces  after  Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  ar.d 
Thorwaldsen.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Holy  Family" 
of  the  second,  and  "The  Triumph  of  Alexander"  of  the 
last-named  artist.    Died  at  Munich  in  1849. 

Amstel,  (CoRNELis  Ploos  van.)    See  Ploos. 

Amstel,  Gijsbrecht  or  Gysbrecht  van,  gls'br^Kt 
or  His'bK^KT  vtn  Sm'stel,  a  Dutch  nobleman  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  infamous  as  the  betrayer  of  Floris 
v..  Count  of  Holland,  in  1296.  (See  Floris  V.)  The 
odium  of  this  crime  contributed  much  to  the  ruin  of  the 
power  of  the  Dutch  aristocracy. 

Amthor,  im'tSR,  (Christoph  Heinrich,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Stollberg  in  1678.  He  entered  the  service 
of  Denmark,  and  was  made  a  counsellor  of  justice  at 
Copenhagen  about  17 18.  He  wrote  some  successful 
political  tracts  and  works  on  law.    Died  in  1721. 

Amulio,  a-mooHe-o,  or  Da  Mula,  di  moo'lS,  (Marc- 
Antonio,)  Cardinal,  an  Italian  scholar,  born  at  Venice 
in  1505.  He  gained  the  confidence  of  Pope  Pius  IV., 
who  employed  him  in  important  commissions,  and  made 
him  a  cardinal  in  1561.  He  wrote  Latin  poems  and 
orations,  and  other  works  of  some  merit,  nearly  all  of 
which  remain  in  manuscript.    Died  in  1570. 

A-mu'li-us,  King  of  Alba,  was  a  younger  brother  of 
Numitor,  whom  he  dethroned  about  714  B.C.  (See 
Romulus.) 

Amurath,  d-moo-rat',  or  Moorad,  (Mourad  or 
Murad,)  moo'rid',  (written  also  Amurat,  Amurad, 
and  Miirad,)  I.,  the  first  of  the  Ottoman  sultans  who 
made  conquests  in  Europe,  succeeded  his  father  Or- 
khan  in  1360.  He  took  Adrianople  in  1362,  and  made  it 
the  capital  of  his  European  dominions.  During  a  reign 
of  twenty-nine  years  his  arms  were  everywhere  crowned 
with  success.  A  formidable  insurrection  having  at  length 
broken  out  in  Servia,  he  hastened  to  meet  this  new 
danger,  accompanied  by  his  son,  the  famous  Bayazeed, 
(Bajazet,)  surnamed  Ilderim,  or  "the  lightning."  His 
army  was  inferior  in  numbers  to  that  of  the  insurgents ; 
but,  yielding  to  the  ardour  of  Bayazeed,  he  resolved  at 
once'  to  give  battle.  After  a  long  and  terrible  conflict 
on  the  plain  of  Kossovo,  the  forces  of  Amurath  gained  a 
complete  victory.  The  sultan  rejoiced  all  the  more  over 
this  success  because,  as  the  Moslem  historians  inform 
us,  he  had  dreamed  the  night  before  that  he  met  his 
death  from  the  weapon  of  an  assassin.  While  he  lingered 
on  the  field  of  battle,  one  of  the  bodies  on  which  he 
chanced  to  tread  suddenly  started  up  and  plunged  a 
dagger  into  the  heart  of  Amurath,  who  died  a  few 
moments  afterwards,  (June  15,  1389,)  aged  sixty-three 
years.  Amurath  I.  has  the  distinction  of  having  formed 
the  Janissaries  (who  had  been  first  levied  by  his  father 
Orkhan)  into  a  thoroughly  organized  and  disciplined 
body  of  troops. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale;"  Von  Hammer,  "  Histoire 
de  I'Empire  Ottoman." 

Amurath  or  Moorad  (Murad)  II.,  born  about 
1405,  succeeded  his  father  Mahomet  I.  in  1422.  His 

j  reign  was  marked  by  various  vicissitudes  of  fortune. 

j  At  one  time  (1422)  he  threatened  Constantinopk  with 
a  formidable  army.  In  1429  he  took  Thessalonica  from 
the  Venetians,  and  in  1433  took  possession  of  Yanina 
and  razed  its  fortifications  to  the  ground.  In  1442  the 
famous  Huniades  defeated  the  troops  of  Amurath  in  two 
successive  battles,  in  the  latter  of  which  the  Tu:'ks  lost 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /ono-;  k,  b,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e.  1, 6,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;       fill,  f2,t;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  mocn. 


JMURATH 


117 


ANACHJRSIS 


two  hundred  banners  and  five  thousand  prisoners,  in- 
cluding their  general-in-chief.  In  the  following  year 
Huniades  gained  in  rapid  succession  several  victories 
over  the  Ottoman  forces.  In  one  engagement  in  which 
the  sultan  himself  was  present,  Amurath  lost  six  thou- 
sand men,  so  that  he  was  compelled  to  sue  for  peace. 
A  treaty  of  peace  for  ten  years  was  signed  between  the 
sultan  and  the  King  of  Hungary,  but  it  was  soon  after 
broken  by  the  latter  at  the  instigation  of  the  papal  legate 
Julian.  This  want  of  good  faith  on  the  part  of  the 
Christians  was  signally  avenged  the  same  year  by  the 
defeat  of  the  Hungarians  near  Varna,  and  the  death  of 
Vladislaus,  their  king,  who  was  unhorsed  by  Amurath 
himself  and  slain  by  a  janissary.  Again  in  1448  the 
Hungarians  under  Huniades  suffered  a  total  defeat  in 
the  battle  of  Kossovo,  (October,  1448.)  This  engage- 
ment lasted  three  days  ;  at  last  Huniades  fled,  and  his 
troops  were  almost  annihilated.  Twice  during  his  reign 
Amurath  II.  abdicated  the  supreme  power  and  sought 
in  retirement  that  peace  of  mind  which  he  could  not 
find  on  the  throne  ;  but  in  both  instances  he  was  speed- 
ily recalled  by  the  wishes  of  his  people  to  the  post  which 
he  had  so  lately  left.  He  died  in  145 1,  leaving  behind 
him  the  reputation  of  an  able,  just,  and  humane  ruler. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Mahomet  II.,  the  con- 
queror of  Constantinople. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  Von  Hammer,  "  Histoire 
de  r Empire  Ottoman." 

Amurath  or  Moorad  (Murad)  III.,  born  in  1545, 
succeeded  his  father,  Selim  II.,  in  1574.  On  the  first  day 
of  his  reign  he  caused  his  five  brothers  to  be  strangled. 
He  was  weak  and  sensual  as  well  as  cruel ;  but  his  mind 
was  not  altogether  without  taste  and  cultivation.  Died 
in  1595- 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  Von  Hammer,  "Histoire 
de  r Empire  Ottoman." 

Amurath  or  Moorad  (Murad)  IV.,  born  about 
1610,  succeeded  his  uncle  Mustafa  in  1623.  In  1638  he 
took  Bagdad,  which  was  thenceforward  incorporated  with 
the  Ottoman  Empire  :  this  was  the  only  important  event 
of  his  reign.  He  had  a  vigorous,  athletic  frame,  but  a 
feeble,  passionate,  and  tyrannical  disposition  ;  and  these 
evil  traits  in  his  character  seemed  to  increase  with  his 
years.  He  was  almost  continually  intoxicated  ;  in  a  fit 
of  drunken  rage  he  would  sometimes  rush  from  his 
palace  into  the  street,  sword  in  hand,  killing  all  whom 
he  met ;  at  other  times  he  would  amuse  himself  by 
shooting  with  his  bow  from  the  palace-windows  those 
who  happened  to  be  passing  beneath.  Happily  for  his 
people,  he  died  (1640)  before  he  had  completed  his  thir- 
tieth year.    He  has  been  styled  "the  Turkish  Nero." 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  Von  Hammer,  "  Histoire 
de  I'Empire  Ottoman." 

Amussat,  fmii^sf,  (Jean  Zulema — zu'la''mt',)  a 
French  surgeon,  born  in  Deux-Sevres  in  1796.  He  in- 
vented several  instruments,  among  which  is  a  probe 
used  in  lithotrity,  and  published  a  number  of  treatises. 
His  memoir  on  "The  Torsion  of  Arteries"  (1829)  ob- 
tained a  prize  of  the  Institute.    Died  in  1856. 

Amy,  t'me',  a  French  advocate  of  Aix,  wrote  some 
interesting  works  on  rivers  and  fountains,  among  which 
is  "  Observations  experimentales  sur  les  eaux  des  rivieres 
de  Seine,  de  Majne,  etc.,"  (1749.)    Died  in  1760. 

Amyn  or  Amin.    See  Alameen. 

A-myn'tas,  [Gr.  'kiivvrar,]  the  name  of  three  kings 
of  Macedonia  between  510  and  330  B.C.  Also,  a  Mace- 
donian general  in  the  service  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Amyntas  I.,  King  of  Macedonia,  began  to  reign 
about  510  B.C.  He  presented  earth  and  water  to  the 
Persian  ambassadors  in  token  of  submission  to  the  su- 
premacy of  Darius. 

Amyntas  II.  of  Macedonia,  ascended  the  throne  in 
394  B.C.  He  was  defeated  in  battle  by  the  Illyrians,  and 
recovered  his  kingdom  by  the  aid  of  the  Thessalians. 
He  afterwards  strengthened  himself  by  an  alliance  with 
Sparta.  Died  in  370  B.C.,  leaving  three  sons,  Alexander, 
Perdiccas,  and  Philip  called  the  Great. 

Amyntas  III.  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and 
a  son  of  Perdiccas.  He  was  an  infant  at  the  death  of 
his  father  in  359  B.C.,  and  was  the  lawful  heir  to  the 
throne  which  was  usurped  by  his  uncle  Philip.    He  was 


put  to  death  on  the  charge  of  a  conspiracy  agaii.st  Alex 
ander  a  short  time  before  the  latter  invaded  Asia. 

Amyntas,  one  of  the  generals  of  Alexander  tht 
Great.  During  the  campaign  in  Asia  he  conducted  re- 
inforcements from  Macedonia  to  the  army  at  Babylon 
About  330  B.C.  he  was  tried  on  a  charge  of  complicity 
in  a  plot  alleged  to  have  been  formed  by  his  friend  Phi- 
lotas,  and  acquitted. 

Amyntas,  son  of  Antiochus,  a  Macedonian  officer 
who  was  in  the  service  of  Persia  when  Alexander  in- 
vaded that  country.  He  commanded  some  Greek  auxil- 
iaries that  fought  for  Darius  at  Issus,  333  B.C.,  after 
which  he  led  an  expedition  against  Egypt,  then  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Persians.  After  he  had  gained  a  victory 
near  Memphis,  he  was  surprised  by  the  Persians  and 
killed,  about  330  B.C. 

Amyntas,  a  king  of  Galatia,  fought  for  Antony  at 
Philippi,  and  against  him  at  the  battle  of  Actium,  31 
B.C.    Died  about  30  B.C. 

Amyntianus,  a-min-she-a'nus,  ['A//vrT(av6f,]  a  Greek 
author,  lived  about  170  A.D.,  and  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,"  which  is  lost. 

Amyot,  t'me-o',  (Jacques,)  a  French  writer  and 
translator  of  great  merit,  born  at  Melun  in  1 5 13.  He 
became  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  at  Bourges  about 
1540,  and  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  sons  of  Henry  II. 
in  1558.  He  was  made  grand  almoner  of  France  on 
the  accession  of  Charles  IX.  in  1560,  and  Bishop  of 
Auxerre  in  1570.  In  1559  he  published  an  excellent 
translation  of  Plutarch's  "  Lives,"  which  is  especially 
celebrated  as  a  model  of  French  style.  He  also  trans- 
lated from  the  Greek  seven  books  of  Diodorus  Siculus, 
(1554,)  Longus's  romance  of  "Daphnis  and  Chloe," 
(1559,)  and  the  "  Moral  Treatises  of  Plutarch."  Died  at 
Auxerre  in  1593.  Amyot  is  ranked  among  the  prose 
writers  who  have  contributed  most  to  the  perfection  of 
the  French  language. 

See  De  Thou,  "Histoire,"  book  viii.  ;  Niceron,  "  M^moires  ;" 
"Sloge  d'Amyot,"  in  the  "Memoires  de  I'Academie  Frangaise ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary." 

Amyot,  (Joseph.)    See  Amiot. 

Am'yot,  (Thomas,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at 
Norwich  about  1775.  He  embraced  the  legal  profes- 
sion, and  became  private  secretary  to  Mr.  Windham 
while  the  latter  was  secretary  at  war  in  1806.  In  1812 
he  published  the  speeches  of  Windham,  with  a  short 
notice  of  his  life.  He  contributed  several  treatises  to 
the  "  Archaeologia,"  and  was  for  many  years  secretary 
to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.    Died  in  1850. 

Amyraut,  S'me^ro',  [Lat.  Amyral'dus,]  (Moses,)  a 
distinguished  French  Protestant  divine  and  writer,  born 
at  Bourgueil,  in  Anjou,  in  1596.  He  became  professor  of 
divinity  at  Saumur  in  1633.  In  order  to  promote  union 
among  the  Protestant  churches,  he  wrote  a  Latin  "  Treat- 
ise on  Secession  from  the  Roman  .Church,  and  on  Peace 
among  the  Evangelical  Churches,"  and  was,  in  conse- 
quence, involved  in  a  controversy  with  certain  Calvin- 
istic  divines  by  his  attempt  to  explain  Calvin's  views 
on  predestination,  which  he  wished  to  reconcile  with  the 
doctrine  of  universal  grace.  He  was  author  of  many 
works  in  French  and  Latin,  among  which  is  "Christian 
Morality,"  (6  vols.,)  a  work  of  much  merit.  He  was 
esteemed  for  his  talents  and  worth  by  both  Catholics  and 
Protestants.    Died  in  1664. 

See  Charles  E.  Saigey,  "  M.  Amyraut,  sa  Vie  et  ses  £crit  ;,'* 
1849;  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Amyrtaeus,  am-ir-tee'us,  [Gr.  'A/uvpTaloc;  Fr.  Amyr- 
t6e,  t'meR^ty,]  King  of  Egypt,  obtained  the  throne  about 
450  B.C.  by  a  revolt  against  the  King  of  Persia. 

Anacaona,  a-na-ka-o'nS.surnamed  Golden  Flower, 
was  the  wife  of  Caonabo,  a  cacique  of  Hayti  when  Co- 
lumbus discovered  that  island  in  1492.  She  was  put  to 
death  by  Ovando,  the  Spanish  governor. 

See  Irving's  "  Life  of  Columbus." 

An-a-ehar'sis,  [Gr.  'Avaxapaic,]  a  Scythian  philoso- 
pher, contemporary  and  friend  of  Solon.  He  was,  ii  Is 
said,  the  only  barbarian  admitted  to  the  citizenship  ot 
Athens.  He  was  reckoned  by  some  writers  among  the 
Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece.  On  his  return  to  his  native 
country  he  was  shot  dead  with  an  arrow  by  the  Scythian 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  ^ard;  g  as  J;  o,  H,  Yi^  guttural ;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ANACLETUS 


ii8 


JNAXAGORAS 


king  for  performing  the  Greek  rites  to  the  goddess  Cy- 
bele.  Some  of  his  witty  sayings  have  been  preserved  by 
Diogenes  Laertius,  Plutarch,  and  Lucian. 

Au-a-cle'tus,  [Fr.  Anaclet,  a'nt'cLV,]  sometimes 
called  Cletus,  the  second  or  third  bishop  of  Rome,  was 
a  native  of  Athens.  He  is  variously  represented  as  the 
successor  or  predecessor  of  Clement.  Died,  it  is  sup- 
posed, about  ICG  A.D. 

Aiiacletus  the  Antipope,  was  elected  by  a  part  of 
the  cardinals  in  1130,  and  disputed  the  claim  of  Innocent 
II.  to  the  popedom.  Supported  by  the  populace  of 
Rome,  he  maintained  possession  of  that  city  until  his 
death  in  1 138,  though  his  rival  was  recognized  by  nearly 
all  the  European  powers. 

Set-  Aktaod  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

A-nac're-on,  [Gr.  'Ava/v-pec-jv,]  a  celebrated  Greek 
amatory  lyric  poet,  born  at  Teos,  in  Ionia,  about  560  B.C. 
He  passed  many  years  in  the  prime  of  his  life  at  the 
court  of  Polycrates,  tyrant  of  Samos,  to  which  it  is  sup- 
posed he  was  invited  about  540.  After  the  death  of 
Polycrates,  whose  bounty  he  had  largely  enjoyed,  he  re- 
moved to  Athens,  which  he  left  probably  about  514  B.C. 
According  to  some  accounts,  he  attained  the  age  of 
eighty-five.  His  death  is  said  to  have  been  caused  by  a 
grape-stone  or  dried  grape,  by  which  he  was  choked. 
He  left  odes  and  songs  on  love  and  wine,  which  are  re- 
garded as  models  of  that  species  of  poetry  named  from 
him  Anacreontic  ;  also  elegies,  epigrams,  etc.  Numer- 
ous fragments  of  his  poems  are  extant. 

See  MuLLER,  "Histoire  de  la  Litterature  de  I'ancienne  Grece ;" 
Bode,  "Geschichte  der  lyrischen  Dichtkunst  der  Helieneu ;"  Vos- 
sius,  "De  Poetis  Gracis." 

An-a-dy-om'e-ne,  [Gr.  'kvadvoiievrj,]  {i.e.  the  god- 
dess "rising  up  out"  of  the  sea,)  a  surname  given  to 
Venus,  in  allusion  to  the  story  of  her  origin. 

An-a-fes'tus  or  Anafesto,  a-nl-fes'to,  (Paoluccio, 
pow-loot'cho,)  the  first  Doge  of  Venice.   Died  in  717  A.D. 

A-na-i'tis  or  Anahid,  [Gr.  'kvaiTig,]  a  goddess  wor- 
shipped in  Armenia  and  Asia  Minor,  was  supposed  to  be 
identical  with  the  Greek  Aphrodite  or  the  Persian  god- 
dess of  nature. 

A'nan,  (Ben  David,)  a  Jewish  rabbi  of  the  eighth 
century,  is  represented  as  the  restorer  of  the  Karaite 
doctrines  and  defender  of  the  pure  law. 

Anania,  i-ni'ne-a,  (Giovanni  Lorenzo,)  a  learned 
Italian  of  the  sixteenth  century,  born  at  Taverna,  in  Ca- 
labria. Among  other  works,  he  wrote  a  treatise  on  the 
nature  of  demons,  (1581  ;  5th  edition,  1669.) 

Anania,  d',  dl-nd'ne-i,  or  Anagny,  d',  da-n3.n'yee, 
written  also  Agnany,  (Joannes,)  an  Italian  jurist  and 
canonist.    Died  in  1458. 

An-a-ni^as  or  Hananiah,  called  Sha'drach,  one 
of  three  Hebrew  captives  whom  the  King  of  Babylon 
ordered  to  be  thrown  into  a  fiery  furnace.  (See  Daniel  i. 
and  iii.) 

Ananias,  a  Jewish  general,  was  a  son  of  Onias  who 
erected  a  Hebrew  temple  at  Heliopolis,  in  Egypt.  He 
and  his  brother  Chelcias  commanded  an  army  which 
Cleopatra,  Queen  of  Egypt,  sent  into  Judea  against  her 
son,  Ptolemy  Lathyrus,  in  103  B.C. 

Ananias,  a  Jew,  who  was  appointed  high-priest  at 
Jerusalem  about  45  or  50  a.d.  He  was  a  party  to  the 
p2rsecution  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  and  appeared  as  his 
accuser  before  Felix.  (See  Acts  xxiii.  2  ;  xxiv.  i  ;  xxv.  2.) 
He  was  killed  by  robbers,  or,  according  to  some  ac- 
counts, by  the  seditious  Jews,  about  66  a.d. 

See  JosEFHUS,  "Jewish  Antiquities." 

Ananias,  one  of  the  primitive  Christians,  was  a  resi- 
dent of  Damascus,  and  eminently  devout.  He  was  sent 
by  the  Lord,  who  appeared  to  him  in  a  vision,  to  restore 
sight  to  Saul  of  Tarsus,  who  had  just  been  converted. 
(See  Acts  ix.  10-18.) 

A-nan'ta,  [Hindoo  pron.  un-iin'ta — from  an,  priva- 
tive, and  anta,  "end,"]  a  name  signifying  "without  end," 
sometimes  applied  to  the  great  serpent  Sesha,  the  sym- 
bol of  eternity.  (See  Sesha.) 

A-na'' pi-US  and  Am-phin'o-mus,  two  brothers,  who 
lived  at  Catania  before  the  Christian  era  and  acquired 
celebrity  by  saving  their  parents  from  an  eruption  of 
Mount  Etna. 

Anar.    See  Norvi. 


Anasco,  de,  di  an-ySs'ko,  (Juan,)  a  Sevillian  officer, 
who  served  under  Hernando  de  Soto  in  his  expedition 
into  Florida  in  1539-43. 

Anassagora.    See  Anaxagoras. 

Anastase.    See  Anastasius. 

Anastasia,  an-as-ta'she-a,  [Fr.  Anastasie,  S'nts'- 
ti'ze',]  Saint,  the  wife  of  Publius,  a  pagan.  After  his 
death,  having  made  a  public  profession  of  Christianity, 
she  suffered  martyrdom  in  303  A.D.,  during  the  reign  of 
Diocletian. 

Anastasius,  an-as-ta'she^s,  [Gr.  'Avaoruaiog ;  Fr. 
Anastase,  S^nts'ttz'',]  I.,  a^Uyzantine  emperor,  born  at 
Dyrrachium  (now  Durazzo)  about  430  A.D.  On  the  death 
of  the  emperor  Zeno,  in  491,  his  widow,  the  empress 
Ariadne,  gave  her  hand  in  marriage  to  Anastasius,  and 
raised  him  to  the  throne.  He  persecuted  or  differed 
with  the  orthodox,  who  rose  in  arms,  and,  under  the 
command  of  Vitalianus,  defeated  his  army  in  514.  Died 
in  518  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  Justin  I. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Anastasius  II.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  succeeded 
Philippicus  by  election  in  713  A.D.  The  army  which  he 
sent  against  the  Arabs  revolted,  proclaimed  Theodosius 
emperor,  and  captured  Constantinople.  Anastasius  was 
deposed  in  716,  and  put  to  death  by  order  of  Leo  HI. 
about  720  A.D. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Anastasius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  was  raised 
to  that  dignity  by  Leo  about  730  A.D.  He  favoured  the 
Iconoclasts.  The  Catholic  writers  represent  him  as  a 
disgrace  to  his  profession.    Died  in  753  A.D. 

Anastasius,  an-as-ta'she-us,  [Fr.  Anastase,  t^nts'- 
tiz',]  I.,  Pope,  a  Roman  by  birth,  succeeded  Siricius 
about  398  A.D.  He  was  strongly  opposed  to  the  doc- 
trines of  Origen.  Died  in  402,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Innocent  I. 

Anastasius  II.,  a  native  of  Rome,  was  elected  pope 
in  496,  in  place  of  Gelasius  I.  He  wrote  a  letter  to 
Clovis,  King  of  the  Franks,  on  his  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity.   Died  in  498  a.d. 

Anastasius  III.  became  pope  after  the  death  of 
Sergius  III.  in  911.  Died  in  913,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Lando. 

Anastasius  IV.,  a  native  of  Rome,  was  elected  pope 
in  1 153,  as  successor  to  Eugenius  III.  He  is  repre- 
sented as  wise  and  virtuous.  He  died  at  an  advanced 
age  in  11 54,  and  was  succeeded  by  Adrian  IV. 

Anastasius  surnamed  Bibliotheca'rius,  (z>.  "Li- 
brarian,") a  Roman  ])riest  of  the  ninth  century,  trans- 
lated from  Greek  into  Latin  several  works,  among  which 
is  "  Historia  Ecclesiastica,"  composed  chiefly  of  extracts 
from  Nicephorus  and  Syncellus.  Died  probably  about 
890  A.D. 

Anastasius,  surnamed  Sinaita  (sT-ni-T'ta)  from 
having  been  a  monk  on  Mount  Sinai,  became  Bishop  or 
Patriarch  of  Antioch  in  561  A.D.  He  was  a  zealous  de- 
fender of  the  orthodox  Catholic  faith,  for  which  he  was 
expelled  from  his  see  by  Justin  II.  in  570  ;  but  he  was 
restored  by  the  emperor  Maurice  in  593.  Died  in  599  A.D. 

Anastasius,  Saint,  called  "  the  Apostle  of  Hun- 
gary," was  born  in  954  A.D.,  and  died  in  1044. 

An-a-to'li-us,  [Fr.  Anatole,  t'nt'toK,]  an  eminent 
philosopher  of  Alexandria,  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
third  century.  He  opened  a  school  in  Alexandria,  and 
was  the  first  Christian  who  taught  the  philosophy  of 
Aristotle.   He  became  Bishop  of  Laodicea  about  270  a.d. 

Anatolius,  a  Platonic  philosopher,  contemporary  with 
the  preceding,  was  a  master  of  lamblichus  and  friend  of 
Porphyry.  A  fragment  of  work,  entitled  "  Sympathies 
and  Antipathies,"  is  ascribed  to  him. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Anatolius,  a  Greek  jurist,  born  at  Berytus,  was  em- 
ployed by  Justinian  in  the  compilation  of  the  Digest, 
about  530  a.d. 

An-ax-ag'o-ras,  [Gr.  'Ava^ayopac ;  Fr.  Anaxagore, 
t'ntk's^/goR' ;  It."  Anassagora,  S-nas-sag^o-rS,]  a  cele- 
brated Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Clazomenas,  near 
Smyrna,  500  B.C.  He  came  to  Athens  about  460  B.C., 
or,  according  to  some  writers,  twenty  years  earlier,  an-j 
remained  there  about  thirty  years.    Socrates  and  Eu- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lon^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  s/wr(;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nflt;  good;  moonj 


JNAXAGORJS 


119 


AN  CHI  ETA 


ripides  are  said  to  have  been  among  his  disciples.  In 
432  B.C.  he  was  prosecuted  on  a  charge  ot"  impiety. 
Pericles,  who  had  been  his  pupil,  assisted  in  his  defence. 
To  escape  from  death  he  fled  from  Athens,  and  died  at 
Lampsacus,  in  Asia  Minor,  428  B.C.  Anaxagoras  wrote 
a  treatise  on  Nature,  of  which  some  fragments  have  been 
preserved.  He  maintained  the  eternity  of  matter,  the 
elements  of  which  were,  he  held,  in  a  state  of  confusion, 
till  another  distinct  principle,  self-existent,  infinitely  sub- 
tile and  powerful,  which  he  termed  Nous,  (or  Mind,)  re- 
duced them  to  order  :  generation  and  destruction  were 
only  the  union  and  separation  of  elemental  particles 
which  could  neither  be  created  nor  annihilated  ;  there 
was  no  such  thing  as  chance  or  accident,  these  being 
nothing  more  than  names  for  unknown  causes. 

Anaxagoras  may  be  regarded  as  the  father  of  modern 
science.  Of  all  the  ancient  philosophers  he  appears  to 
have  been  the  first  to  combine,  in  the  investigation  of 
Nature  and  her  laws,  close  reasoning  with  careful  obser- 
vation and  experiment.  He  demonstrated  that  air  was 
a  substance,  and  not  mere  vacuity  according  to  the  popu- 
lar notion,  by  showing  that  when  it  was  confined,  as  in 
bladders,  it  offered  a  positive  resistance  and  displaced 
other  bodies.  His  observation  that  there  is  no  such  thing 
as  chance,  but  that  "  chance"  is  merely  the  name  for  a 
"cause  unperceived  by  the  human  intellect,"  {tt/v  tvxv^', 
udifAov  airiav  uvdpcjmvu  Xoyia/xC),)  evinced  rare  sagacity, 
as  well  as  subtlety  of  thought ;  and  in  teaching  that  the 
destruction  and  production  of  material  bodies  are  nothing 
more  than  the  separation  and  reunion  of  the  elemental 
particles,  he  anticipated  one  of  the  most  important  dis- 
coveries of  modern  chemistry. 

See  RiTTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy,"  3  vols.  8vo,  Oxford,  1838 ; 
G.  H.  Lewes,  "Biographical  History  of  Philosophy;"  De  Ramsay, 
"Anaxagoras,"  the  Hague,  1778;  J.  T.  Hemsen,  "Anaxagoras  Cla- 
zomenius  sive  de  Vita  ejus  atque  Philosoj^hia,"  8vo,  1S21  ;  Schau- 
BACH,  "  De  Anaxagora ;"  Diogenes  Laertius. 

Anaxagoras,  a  Greek  statuary,  born  at  Ailgina,  lived 
about  480  B.C.  He  executed  a  statue  of  Jupiter  placed 
at  Elis  after  the  battle  of  Plata^a. 

Anaxagore.    See  Anaxagoras. 

An-ax-aii'dri-des,  [Gr.  'Ava^avdpu^r]^,]  a  king  of 
Sparta,  reigned  from  about  560  to  520  B.C.  He  was  the 
father  of  Cleomenes  and  Leonidas. 

Anaxandrides,  a  Greek  comic  poet,  lived  in  the 
fourth  century  B.C.    He  wrote  many  successful  dramas. 

An-ax-ar'^ehus,  [Gr.  'Ava^apxog;  Fr.  Anaxarque, 
t^nlk'stRk',]  a  Greek  philosopher,  a  native  of  Abdera,  was 
intimate  with  Alexander  the  Great,  whom  he  accompanied 
on  his  expedition  into  Asia  in  334  B.C.  He  appears  to 
have  been  a  man  of  respectable  character.  After  the 
death  of  Alexander,  Anaxarchus  is  said  to  have  been  put 
to  death  by  the  tyrant  Nicocreon,  by  being  pounded  in  a 
large  mortar ;  he  bore  the  torment  with  stoical  fortitude. 

See  Arrian,  "Anabasis." 

A-nax'i-las,  [' Ava^lTia^,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet, 
contemporary  with  Plato,  lived  about  340  B.C. 

A-nax-i-la'us  [Gr.  ' Ava^t/.anc;]  or  An-ax'i-las,  a 
tyrant  or  prince  of  Rhegium,  (now  Reggio,)  in  the  south 
of  Italy,  in  the  fifth  century  B.C. 

Anaxilaus,  [Gr.  'Ava^tXao^,]  a  Pythagorean  philoso- 
pher, born  in  Larissa,  lived  at  Rome  in  the  reign  of 
Augustus,  and  was  banished  from  Italy  on  a  charge  of 
magic. 

A-nax-i-man'der,  [Gv.'Ava^l/iiavi)po^;  Fr.  Anaximan- 
DRE,  a'nik^se'mdNdR',]  an  eminent  Greek  philosopher, 
born  at  Miletus,  in  Asia  Minor,  about  610  B.C.,  is  said 
to  have  been  a  disciple  or  friend  of  Thales.  The  inven- 
tion of  the  sun-dial  is  attributed  to  him,  and  Pliny  states 
that  he  discovered  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic.  He 
taught  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere,  that  the  sun  is  a  globe 
of  fire  as  large  as  the  earth,  and  that  there  is  an  infinite 
number  of  worlds.  The  statement  of  his  opinions  given 
by  Plutarch  differs  from  the  above.  A  book  which  he 
wrote  is  the  oldest  prose  work  on  philosophy  mentioned 
among  the  Greeks.    Died  about  546  B.C. 

See  Ritter,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  G.  H.  Lewes,  "  Bio- 
p-aphical  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  Diogenes  Laertius. 

An-ax-im'e-nes,  [Gr.  'Ava^ifievi]^ ;  Fr.  Anaximene, 
t'ntk'se'min',]  a  Grecian  philosopher,  born  at  Miletus, 
flourished  probably  about  500  B.C.    Little  is  known  of 


his  life.  His  opinions  were  recorded  by  Theophrastus. 
He  maintained  that  Aer  (air)  is  the  original  principle  of 
which  all  things  are  formed  and  into  which  all  things 
are  resolved,  and  that  this  aer  is  in  eternal  motion. 

See  Ritter,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  G.  H.  Lewes,  "Bio- 
graphical History  of  Philosophy ;"  J.  H.  Schmidt,  "De  Anaxlmenis 
Vita  et  Physlologla,"  16S9  ;  Diogenes  Laertius. 

Anaxiiu'enes  of  Lamp'sacus,  a  historian  who  lived 
about  350  B.C.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Philip  of  Macedon 
and  of  his  son  Alexander,  which  is  lost.  According  to 
Suidas,  he  was  one  of  the  instructors  of  Alexander  the 
Great.  Pausanias  relates  that  he  once  saved  his  native 
city  by  his  ready  wit.  When  he  came  as  an  intercessor 
to  Alexander,  (who  was  greatly  exasperated  against  the 
citizens  of  Lampsacus  for  siding  with  the  Persians,) 
the  conqueror,  anticipating  his  intention,  exclaimed,  "  I 
swear  I  will  not  grant  your  request !"  "  I  implore  you, 
then,"  said  Anaximenes,  "to  destroy  Lampsacus  and 
reduce  its  citizens  to  slavery."  Alexander  had  the  mag- 
nanimity to  keep  his  word. 

Anaya  y  Maldonado,  cVnl'i  e  mll-do-ni''Do,(DiEGO,) 
born  at  Salamanca  about  1350,  was  made  Archbishop  of 
Seville  in  141 7  ;  died  in  1437. 

Aucseus,  an-sec'us,  [Gr.  'Aynalog;  Fr.  Ancee,  6N''sy,] 
a  fabulous  son  of  Neptune,  and  King  of  Samos,  was  the 
pilot  of  the  ship  Argo  in  the  Argonautic  expedition.  He 
planted  a  vineyard,  but  was  warned  by  a  seer  that  he 
would  never  drink  any  wine  of  his  own  production.  He 
made  some  wine,  and  was  raising  a  cup  of  it  to  his  mouth, 
when  he  was  told  that  a  wild  boar  was  in  his  vineyard. 
He  left  the  wine  untasted,  and  attacked  the  boar,  by 
which  he  was  killed.  This  event  is  said  to  have  given 
rise  to  the  proverb,  "  There  is  many  a  slip  between  the 
cup  and  the  lip." 

An-can'ther-tis,  (Claudius,)  a  physician  and  histor- 
ical writer,  lived  at  Vienna  between  1550  and  1600. 

Ancaraiio,  an-ka-rS'no,  (Gasparo,)  an  Italian  priest 
and  poet  of  Bassano,  lived  between  1550  and  1600. 

Ancaraiio,  d',  dan-ka-ri'no,  (Pietro  Giovanni,)  an 
Italian  jurist  and  poet,  born  at  Reggio,  in  Lombardy, 
lived  about  1550. 

Ancee.    See  Anc.^us. 

Ancelot,  ONss^lo',  (Jacques  Ars^ne  Francois  Po- 
LYCARPE,)  a  French  dramatic  author,  born  at  Havre  in 
1794.  He  was  in  his  youth  a  clerk  in  the  bureau  of  the 
navy  department.  In  1819  he  produced  "  Lo  i:s  IX.,"  a 
tragedy  inverse,  which  had  a  great  success,  and  obtained 
from  the  king  a  pension  of  two  thousand  francs.  His 
tragedy  of  "  Fiesco"  (1824)  was  also  favourably  received. 
He  afterwards  composed  many  dramas,  comedies,  aiid 
vaudevilles,  and  succeeded  De  Bonald  in  the  French 
Academy  in  1841.    Died  in  1850. 

His  wife,  originally  Marguerite  Virginie  Chardon, 
a  painter  and  authoress,  was  born  at  Dijon  in  1792. 
She  wrote  several  plays,  and  a  volume  of  tales  called 
"  Emprunts  aux  Salons  de  Paris,"  of  considerable  merit. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  Querard,  "La  France 
Litteraire." 

Ancharano,  d',  dSn-ka-r^'no,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  about  1350 ;  died  probably  about  1420. 

Ancheres,  SN'shaiR',  (Daniel,)  a  French  poet,  born 
near  Verdun  in  1586,  was  patronized  by  James  I.  of  Eng- 
land. 

Anchersen,  tng'ker-sen,  (Johan  Peder,)  a  Danish 
antiquary,  born  at  or  near  Ribe  about  1700,  was  professor 
of  elocution  at  Copenhagen.  He  wrote  "  Origines  Dan- 
icae,"  (1747,)  and  other  works  on  Danish  antiquities. 
Died  in  1765. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemelne  Encyklopaedie." 

Anchersen,  |Lat.  Ansga'rius  or  Ansga'rii,]  (Mat- 
TH.'EUS,)  a  Danish  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Colding  in 
1682,  was  made  Bishop  of  Ribe  in  1731,  and  died  in  1741. 

Ancheta,  Sn-cha'tS,  (Miguel,)  a  Spanish  sculptor  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  was  born  at  Pamplona.  He  was 
reputed  one  of  the  best  sculptors  of  his  time. 

See  Bermudez,  "DIccionarlo  Hlstorico." 

Anchieta,  de,  da  Sn-she-a'tJ,  (Jos^,)  a  distinguished 
Portuguese  Jesuit  and  missionary,  commonly  called  "  the 
Apostle  of  Brazil,"  was  born  at  Laguna,  in  Teneriffe,  in 
1533.  He  went  to  Brazil  in  1553,  and  the  same  year 
founded  a  college  for  the  Creoles  and  natives.    After  a 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  7iasal;  r,  trilled; 


th  as  in  this.    (S^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ANCHILUS 


1 20 


JNDERSEN 


life  of  peril  and  unceasing  toil,  he  died,  near  Espiritu 
Santo,  in  1597. 

See  Vasconcellos,  "  Vida  do  Padre  Joseph  de  Anchieta,"  1672; 
"  V'lua  del  Padre  J.  de  Anchieta,"  by  Rodriguez,  1618. 

Anchilus,  ang^Ke-lus,  [Fr.  pron.  dN'sheOiis',]  (N.,) 
a  Flemish  painter,  an  imitator  of  Teniers,  born  at  Ant- 
werp in  1688^  and  worked  in  London.    Died  in  1733. 

An-ehi'ses,  [Gr.  'Ay;\;<(7//f ;  Fr.  Anchise,  6N'sh6z',]  a 
Trojan  prince,  who  was  said  to  have  been  the  father  of 
vEneas  by  Venus.  On  the  destruction  of  Troy  he  escaped 
With  his  son,  and  afterwards  died  in  Sicily. 

Ancillon,  6N'se'y6N',  (Charles,)  a  French  writer, 
son  of  David,  noticed  bfelow,  was  born  at  Metz  in  1659. 
He  accompanied  his  father  to  Berlin,  where,  under  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg,  (afterwards  King  of  Prussia,) 
he  enjoyed  various  honourable  offices.  He  left  several 
mediocre  works.    Died  in  1 71 5. 

Ancillon,  (David,)  a  learned  French  Protestant  di- 
vine, born  at  Metz  in  161 7.  He  was  pastor  of  a  church 
at  Metz  from  1653  to  1685.  After  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes  in  the  latter  year,  he  went  to  Berlin, 
where  he  died  in  1692.  He  wrote  an  "Apology  for  Lu- 
ther," and  a  few  other  works. 

See  "Discours  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Ancillon,"  by  Charles  Ancil- 
lon, 1698. 

Ancillon,  (Johann  Peter  Friedrich,)  an  eminent 
German  writer  and  statesman,  of  French  extraction, 
born  at  Berlin  in  1766.  He  was  a  Protestant  minister 
in  early  life.  In  1806  he  was  appointed  instructor  to 
the  crown  prince,  and  received  the  title  of  councillor  of 
state,  and  afterwards  held  other  important  offices.  He 
was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  1831  until  his  death. 
He  belonged  to  the  French  family  of  Ancillons,  and 
wrote  in  the  language  of  his  ancestors  with  as  much 
facility  as  in  the  German.  Among  his  works  are  "  Me- 
langes of  Literature  and  Philosophy,"  in  French,  (1801,) 
and  *'  On  the  Spirit  of  Constitutions,  and  its  Influence 
upon  Legislation,"  in  German,  (1825.)  His  "  View  of  the 
Revolutions  of  the  Political  System  of  Europe  since 
the  Fifteenth  Century"  (in  French,  4  vols.,  1803)  was  very 
popular.    Died  in  1837. 

See  F.  A.  A.  Mignet,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Travaux  de  M. 
Ancillon,"  1847. 

Ancillon,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  lawyer,  born  at  Metz 
in  1626,  was  a  brother  of  David,  noticed  above.  He 
emigrated  to  Berlin  about  1685,  and  became  a  counsellor 
of  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg.  He  published  a  "  Treat- 
ise on  the  Difference  between  Personal  Property  and 
Real  Estate,"  (1698.)    Died  at  Berlin  in  1719. 

Ancillon,  (Ludwig  Friedrich,)  the  father  of  Johann 
Peter  Friedrich,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1744.  He 
was  a  man  of  superior  talents,  and  wrote  some  works  on 
religious  philosophy  and  sacred  literature,  among  which 
is  one  on  the  Cartesian  argument  for  the  existence  of 
God,  (Berlin,  1792.)     Died  in  1814. 

Ancina,  an-chee^ii,  (Giovanni  Giovenale,)  an 
Italian  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Fossano  in  1545,  became 
Bishop  of  Saluzzo  in  1602  :  died  in  1604.  He  wrote 
several  short  Latin  poems. 

Anckarstrom.    See  Ankarstrom. 

Ancona,  d',  dan-ko'nl,  (Ciriaco,)  an  Italian  traveller, 
writer,  and  antiquary,  born  at  Ancona  about  1390.  He 
travelled  much  in  the  Levant,  where  he  copiecl  inscrip- 
tions and  collected  manuscripts.  He  left,  besides  other 
works,  an  "  Itinerarium."    Died  about  1450. 

Ancora,  d',  dSN^ko-r^,  (Gaetano,)  an  Italian  miscel- 
laneous writer  and  antiquary,  born  at  Naples  in  1757, 
was  professor  of  Greek  in  the  university  of  that  city. 
Died  in  1816.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Memoir  on 
the  Observance  of  Silence  by  the  Ancients,"  (1782,)  and 
"Researches  on  some  Metallic  Fossils  of  Calabria," 
(1791-) 

Ancourt,    See  Dancourt. 

Ancre,  d',  dSxkR,  [It.  D'Ancora,  d3.n'ko-rl,]  (Con- 
cino  Concini,  kon-chee'no  kon-chee'nee,)  Le  Mar6- 
CHAL,  an  Italian  courtier,  born  at  Florence,  went  to 
France  in  1600  in  the  retinue  of  Maria  de  Medici,  queen 
of  Henry  IV.  He  married  Eleonora  Galigai,  who  was 
the  favourite  attendant  of  the  queen  and  had  great  in- 
fluence at  court.  After  the  death  of  Henry,  in  1610,  he 
became  first  gentleman  of  the  chamber.  Marquis  d' Ancre, 


and  marshal  of  France.  He  even  assumed  the  powei 
of  prime  minister,  and  made  many  enemies  by  nis  inso- 
lence and  rapacity.  He  was  assassinated  in  161 7  by  De 
Luines,  De  Vitry,  and  others,  who  appear  to  have  per- 
formed the  will  of  the  king  in  this  action.  His  wife  was 
tried,  convicted  of  sorcery  and  lese-majeste,  and  executed, 
in  the  same  year.  It  is  said  that  when  asked  by  what 
magic  art  she  gained  an  ascendency  over  the  queen,  she 
replied,  "  By  that  power  which  strong  minds  exercise 
over  the  weak." 

See  Bazin,  "  Histoire  de  France  sous  le  Regne  de  Louis  XIII 
G.  Salei,  "  Cenni  storico-critichi  su  la  Vita  di  C.  Concini,"  1839; 
SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Fran9ais;"  D.  Sandellius,  "De  D.  Con- 
cini Vita,"  1767. 

An'cus  Martins  or  Marcius,  (mar'she-us,)  the 
fourth  king  of  Rome,  a  grandson  of  Numa  Pompilius, 
succeeded  Tullus  Hostilius  about  634  B.C.  He  is  con- 
sidered the  lawgiver  or  founder  of  the  plebeian  order, 
which  seems  to  have  received  in  his  reign  a  distinct  po- 
litical existence.  He  waged  war  with  success  against 
the  Latins,  founded  Ostia,  and  built  the  Pons  Sublicius, 
(Bridge  of  Piles.)  He  died  about  610,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Tarquinius  Priscus. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "Roman  History." 

Ancwitz.    See  Ankvvitz. 

Andala,  anMi-lS,  (Ruard,)  a  learned  professor  of  the 
Cartesian  philosophy,  and  afterwards  of  theology,  in  the 
University  of  Franeker,  was  born  in  Friesland  in  1665, 
He  wrote  "  Descartes  in  reality  the  Overturner  of  Spi- 
nosism  and  the  Architect  of  Experimental  Philosophy," 
(1719.)    Died  in  1727. 

Andelot.    See  Dandelot. 

Anderloni,  an-dgR-lo'nee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  en- 
graver, born  near  Brescia  in  1784.  He  became  director 
of  the  School  of  Engraving  at  Milan  in  1 83 1,  and  en- 
graved several  works  of  Raphael  and  Titian.  Died  in 
1849. 

An'der-sen,  (Hans  Christian,)  one  of  the  most 
gifted  writers  of  the  present  age,  was  born  at  Odense,  in 
the  island  of  Fiinen,  April  2,  1805.  His  father  was  a 
shoemaker  in  very  indigent  circumstances,  although  he 
belonged  to  a  family  that  had  once  been  rich.  He  used 
to  seek  relief  from  the  bitterness  of  his  lot  by  relating  to 
his  children  and  friends  stories  of  the  wealth  and  splen- 
dour of  his  ancestors.  Hans  was  only  nine  years  old 
when  his  father  died.  His  mother  wished  to  apprentice 
him  to  a  tailor,  but  was  prevailed  on  by  a  fortune-teller 
to  send  him  to  Copenhagen.  Here  he  tried  to  obtain 
a  situation  at  the  theatre ;  but  he  was  refused  because  he 
was  so  meagre  and  thin.  Having  a  fine  voice,  he  found 
employment  for  a  time  as  a  singer.  But  after  six  months 
he  lost  his  voice,  and  was  again  thrown  upon  the  world. 
He  was,  however,  so  fortunate  as  to  meet  with  gen- 
erous and  enlightened  patrons.  Councillor  Collin,  who 
had  the  sagacity  to  perceive  Andersen's  uncommon 
powers,  obtained  permission  of  the  king  to  send  the  boy 
to  a  free  academy,  to  be  educated  at  the  expense  of  the 
state. 

At  an  early  age  Andersen  had  written  several  short 
poems,  among  which  "The  Dying  Child"  was  particu- 
larly admired.  Having  obtained  pecuniary  aid  from  the 
King  of  Denmark,  he  travelled  through  Germany,  France, 
and  Italy.  After  his  return  he  produced  a  successful 
romance,  entitled  "The  Improvisatore,"  (1834.)  The 
delineations  in  this  work  of  the  scenery  and  manners  )f 
Southern  Europe  have  never  been  surpassed  by  any 
writer.  Another,  called  "  O.  Z.,"  appeared  in  1835,  con- 
taining descriptions  of  life  in  the  North.  "Only  a  Fid- 
dler" presents  some  striking  pictures  from  the  story  of 
his  own  early  life. 

The  "Poet's  Bazaar"  (1842)  was  the  result  of  a  visit 
to  the  Levant.  His  original  genius  is  most  conspicuous 
in  his  fairy-tales,  of  which  he  has  published  several  vol- 
umes. They  are  characterized  by  quaint  humour,  rich 
imagination,  and  sometimes  by  deep  pathos.  His  numer- 
ous  works  have  been  translated  into  most  of  the  Euro- 
pean languages. 

"  For  vividness  and  reality  of  detail,  for  breadth  and 
boldness,  too,  in  the  description  of  scenery,  and  for  skill 
in  conveying  the  impression  made  on  a  fine  mind  and 
earnest  heart  by  all  that  is  beautiful  in  nature  and  true 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f3.ll,  fit;  mht;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JNDERSON 


121 


ANDERSON 


in  art,  he  stands  without  a  rival  among  recent  writers  of 
romance."  ("Quarterly  Review,"  March,  1845.) 

See  Howitt's  "Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe," 
London,  1853;  also,  "Blackwood's  Magazine,"  vol.  Ixii.  p.  387. 

An'der-son,  (Adam,)  a  Scottish  political  economist,  1 
born  about  1690,  was  a  clerk  in  the  South  Sea  House  for 
fort)-  years.  He  was  author  of  a  well-known  History-  of 
Commerce,  entitled  an  "  Historical  and  Chronological 
Deduction  of  the  Origin  of  Commerce,  etc.,"  (2  vols., 
1762,)  a  work  of  great  research.    Died  in  1765. 

See  Chambers,    Biographical  Dictionary- of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Anderson,  (Alexander,)  an  eminent  Scottish  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Aberdeen  about  1580,  became  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Paris,  and  died  in  the  early  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Supplementum  Apollonii  Redivivi,"  (1612.) 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Anderson,  (Alexander,)  M.D.,  a  British  botanist, 
who  pas-sed  many  years  in  the  West  Indies,  and  was  super- 
intendent of  the  botanic  garden  of  Saint  Vincent.  He 
wrote  an  ''Account  of  a  Bituminous  Lake  or  Plain  in  the 
Island  of  Trinidad,"  (1789  ;)  a  "  Description  of  the  Bread- 
Fruit  Tree,"  (1798;)  and  an  "Essay  on  the  Cultivation 
of  the  Clove,"  (1802.)    Died  about'1813. 

Anderson,  (Arthur,)  M.P.,  a  Scottish  gentleman 
noted  for  his  public  spirit  and  enterprise,  was  born  in 
Shetland  in  1792.  He  was  the  principal  founder,  and 
for  many  years  the  director,  of  the  Peninsular  and  Orien- 
tal Steam  Navigation  Company. 

Anderson,  (Christopher,)  a  British  Baptist  min- 
ister, born  in  Edinburgh  in  17S2.  He  founded  the  Edin- 
burgh Bible  Society.  His  chief  works  are  the  "  Domestic 
Constitution,"  (1826,)  and  "Annals  of  the  English 
Bible,"  (2  vols.,  1845.)    Died  in  1852. 

See  "  Life  and  Letters  of  Christopher  Anderson,"  by  his  nephew, 
1854;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

An'der-son,  (Sir  Edmond,)  an  English  judge,  noted 
{i)X  his  learning,  born  at  Broughton  about  1530.  He  was 
chief  justice  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  from  1582  i 
until  his  death,  and  was  one  of  the  commissioners  who  l 
tried  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 
He  treated  the  Puritans  with  rigour,  but  his  judicial  con- 
duct is  said  to  have  been  generally  moderate  and  correct. 
His  "  Reports  of  Cases  argued  and  adjudged  in  the  Com- 
mon Bench"  are  esteemed  good  authority.    Died  in  1605. 

See  Foss,  "Judges  of  England;"  Lloyd,  "State  Worthies." 

An'der-son,  (George,)  a  traveller,  born  in  Sleswick. 
He  traversed  Persia,  India,  China,  and  other  countries, 
between  1644  1650,  and  published  a  narrative  of  his 
travels,  in  German,  (1669.) 

Anderson,  (George,)  an  English  writer  and  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Weston  in  1760;  died  in  1796. 

Anderson,  (George  B.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Wilmington,  North  Carolina,  about  1834,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1852.  He  commanded  a  brigade  of 
Lee's  army  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  and  received  there 
a  wound  of  which  he  died  in  October,  1862. 

Anderson,  (Henry  J.,)  professor  of  mathematics, 
etc.  in  Columbia  College,  New  York,  from  1825  to  1843. 
He  was  associated  with  Lieutenant  Lynch  in  the  explo- 
ration of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  published  "Geology  of 
Lieutenant  Lynch's  Expedition,"  (1848.) 

Anderson,  (Isa.\c,)  an  American  Presbyterian  min- 
•  ister,  born  in  Rockbridge  county,  Virginia,  in  1780. 
He  was  distinguished  as  a  pioneer  preacher  or  mission- 
ary in  the  Western  States,  and  as  the  founder  of  a  theo- 
logical seminar}-  at  Marp-ille,  Tennessee.  Died  in  1857. 

Anderson,  (James,)  a  Scottish  antiquary  and  histori- 
cal writer,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1662.  He  became  a 
resident  of  London  soon  after  the  union  of  England  and 
Scotland.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  showing  that  the  Crown 
of  Scotland  is  Independent,"  (1705,)  and  spent  many 
years  in  making  a  collection  of  ancient  Scottish  charters, 
etc.,  which  was  published  under  the  title  of  "  Choice 
Treasury  (or  Collection)  of  the  Charters  and  Coins  of 
Scotland,"  ("  Selectus  Diplomatum  et  Numismatum 
Scotiae  Thesaurus,"  1739.)  He  also  published  "Collec- 
tions relating  to  the  History  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scotland," 
(4  vols.,  1724-28.)    Died  m  1728. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionar\- of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 


Anderson,  (James,)  an  ingenious  writer  on  agricul 
ture  and  political  economy,  born  near  Edinburgh  in  1739 
was  a  practical  farmer.  He  published  valuable  "  Essays 
relating  to  Agriculture  and  Rural  Affairs,"  (3  vols.,  1777,/ 
and  edited  a  weekly  periodical  called  "The  Bee,"  (1790- 
94,)  which  is  highly  commended.  In  1797  he  removed 
to  the  vicinity  of  London,  where  he  issued  a  monthly 
periodical  called  "  Recreations  in  Agriculture,  Natural 
History,  Arts,  and  Literature,"  (1799-1802,)  in  which  he 
developed  a  new  theory  on  rent,  that  was  afterwards 
adopted  by  Malthus  and  others.  His  scientific  informa- 
tion was  extensive  and  accurate.  Besides  his  other  wri- 
tings, he  has  contributed  several  articles  to  the  "  Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica."    Died  in  1808. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionan.-  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 
Anderson,  (James,)  was  physician-general  of  the 
East  India  Company's  army  at  Madras,  in  the  last  quar- 
ter of  the  eighteenth  century.  He  was  noted  for  long  and 
diligent  eftorts  to  introduce  the  cochineal,  mulberry- 
tree,  silkworm,  and  other  productions,  into  Hindostan. 
He  published  letters  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks  and  others  on 
these  subjects.    Died  about  1810. 

Anderson,  (James,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician, 
born  in  1752  ;  died  in  Maryland  in  1820. 
See  Thacher,  "Medical  Biography." 

Anderson,  (James  Stuart  Murray,)  an  English 
writer,  born  about  1798,  graduated  as  B.A.  at  Oxford  in 
1820.  He  became  rector  of  Tormarton  about  1850,  and 
published  "The  History  of  the  Church  of  England  in 
the  Colonies  and  Foreign  Dependencies  of  the  British 
Empire,"  (3  vols.,  1851.) 

Anderson,  an^'der-son,  (Johann,)  an  accomplished 
publicist,  was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1674,  and  took  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  laws  at  Leyden  in  1697.  He  was 
afterwards  employed  by  the  citizens  of  Hamburg  in  va- 
rious negotiations  at  different  European  courts.  He 
became  successively  syndic,  burgomaster,  and  senior 
burgomaster  of  his  native  city.  Died  in  1743.  He  left 
an  "Account  of  Greenland,  Iceland,  and  Davis'  Straits," 
(1746.) 

Anderson,  (John,)  born  in  Dumbartonshire,  Scot- 
land, in  1726,  was  appointed  professor  of  natural  phi- 
losophy in  the  University  of  Glasgow  in  1760.    Died  in 

1796.  He  deser\-es  honourable  and  grateful  remem- 
brance for  having  founded  in  Glasgow  an  institution, 
called  the  Andersonian  Institution,  for  the  purpose  of 
imparting  by  popular  lectures  a  knowledge  of  the  useful 
sciences  to  mechanics  and  others  not  able  to  go  through 
a  full  collegiate  course.  He  published  a  popular  work, 
entitled  "Institutes  of  Physics,"  (1786.) 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 
Anderson,  (John,)  a  Scottish  surgeon,  born  in  Mid- 
Lothian  in  17S9,  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Ham- 
ilton," (1825.)    Died  in  1832. 

j  Anderson,  (Rev.  John,)  a  Scottish  Presbyterian  di- 
I  vine,  born  about  167 1.  He  became  minister  of  Dum- 
I  barton  in  1704,  and  removed  to  Glasgow  in  1720.  His 
j  chief  work  is  a  "  Defence  of  the  Church  Government, 
I  Faith,  Worship,  and  Spirit  of  the  Presbyterians,'"  (1714.) 
Died  about  1722. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Anderson,  (Joseph,)  United  States  Senator,  bom 
near  Philadelphia  in  1757.  He  was  appointed  by  Wash- 
ington, in  1791,  judge  of  the  territory  south  of  the  Ohio. 
Upon  its  organization  into  the  State  of  Tennessee,  in 

1797,  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  of 
which  he  continued  an  influential  member  for  nineteen 
years,  being  twice  chosen  president /ri?  tempore.  From 
1 81 5  to  1836  he  was  First  Comptroller  of  the  United 
States  Treasury.    Died  in  1837. 

Anderson, '(Lars.)  See  Andre.^:,  (Laurentius.) 
Anderson,  {Richard  C.,)  an  American  diplomatist, 
born  in  Kentucky  about  1750.  He  was  a  representative 
in  Congress  from  Kentucky  from  1817  to  1821,  United 
States  Minister  to  the  Republic  of  Colombia  in  1823, 
and  in  1826  Envoy  Extraordinary  to  the  Assembly  of 
American  Nations  at  Panama.  Died  at  Panama  in  1826. 

Anderson,  (Richard  Henry,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  South  Carolina  about  1822,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1842.    He  became  a  captain  in  1855,  resigned 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (^:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ANDERSON 


122 


ANDRAL 


his  commission  in  1861,  and  was  made  a  brigadier-gene- 
ral in  the  confederate  army.  He  commanded  a  division 
at  Gettysburg,  July,  1S63. 

Anderson,  ( Ruber r,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  critic  and 
biographer,  born  in  Lanarkshire  in  1750.  He  resided 
in  Edinburgh  from  1790  until  his  death,  and  had  an  ex- 
tensive correspondence  with  literary  men.  He  is  best 
known  as  editor  of  a  good  edition  of  "  The  Works  of 
the  British  Poets ;  with  Prefaces  Biographical  and  Crit- 
ical," (14  vols.,  1 792-1807.)  He  also  published  "The 
Life  of  Dr.  Johnson,"  (1795,)  and  "  The  Life  of  Dr.  Smol- 
lett," (1803.)    Died  in  1830. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Anderson,  (Robert,)  a  British  poet,  born  at  Carlisle 
in  1770;  died  in  1833.  Many  of  his  ballads  and  other 
poems  are  in  the  Cumberland  dialect.  His  works  are 
chiefly  of  a  humorous  cast. 

See  "Autobiography  of  Robert  Anderson." 

Anderson,  (Robert,)  an  American  general,  born 
near  Louisville,  Kentucky,  in  1805,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1825,  He  served  as  captain  in  the  Mexican 
war,  1846-47,  and  became  a  major  of  artillery  in  1857. 
In  the  autumn  of  i860  he  took  command  of  the  forts  of 
Charleston  harbour.  He  removed  his  garrison,  Decem- 
ber 26,  from  Fort  Moultrie  to  Fort  Sumter,  which  he 
refused  to  surrender  on  the  demand  of  Governor  Pickens. 
The  insurgents  besieged  Fort  Sumter,  and  began  to  bom- 
bard it  on  the  12th  of  April,  1861.  The  bombardment 
was  kept  up  with  red-hot  shot  and  with  unremitting 
fury  for  many  hours.  Major  Anderson's  position  having 
at  length  been  rendered  untenable  by  want  of  provisions 
and  by  the  combustion  of  part  of  the  fort,  he  surrendered 
on  the  13th  of  April.  He  was  promoted  to  be  a  briga- 
dier-general in  the  regular  army  in  May,  1861.  In  con- 
sequence of  ill  health,  or  some  other  reason,  he  took 
no  further  part  in  the  civil  war.    Died  at  Nice  in  1871. 

See  Greeley's  "American  Conflict." 

Andei"son,  (Walter,)  a  historical  and  critical  writer, 
who  was  minister  of  Chirnside,  Scotland,  for  about  fifty 
years.  Among  his  works  are  "The  History  of  Croesus, 
King  of  Lydia,"  (1755,)  and  "The  Philosophy  of  Ancient 
Greece  investigated  in  its  Origin  and  Progress,  etc.," 
(1791,)  which  has  some  merit,  but  was  superseded  by 
Enfield's  "Abridgment  of  Brucker."     Died  in  1800. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Anderson,  (William,)  a  British  naturalist  who  was 
surgeon  on  the  Resolution  in  Cook's  second  voyage 
round  the  world,  1772-75.  He  wrote  several  short 
treatises. 

Anderson,  (William,)  a  Briti.sh  horticulturist,  born 
about  1766,  was  for  many  years  curator  of  the  botanic 
garden  at  Chelsea.    Died  in  1846. 

Andersson,  Su'der-son,  (Charles  John,)  a  trav- 
eller, born  in  Sweden  in  the  nineteenth  century.  Be- 
tween 1850  and  1855  he  passed  several  years  in  the  ex- 
ploration of  Southern  Africa,  and  made  contributions  to 
the  natural  history  and  geography  of  that  region.  He 
published  a  narrative  of  his  adventures.  While  on  a 
hunting  expedition  in  Southern  Africa,  he  was  attacked 
and  killed  by  a  wounded  elephant  in  1856. 

An'der-ton,  (Henry,)  an  English  painter  of  history 
and  portraits;  died  about  1665. 

Anderton,  (James,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic  con- 
troveisial  writer,  who  died  in  1643. 

Andhrimnir  or  Andrimner,  ^.n-drim^ner,  in  the 
Norse  mythology,  the  name  of  the  cook  who  boils  every 
day,  in  the  kettle  Eldhrimnir,  the  flesh  of  the  boar 
Soehrimnir,  for  the  table  of  the  gods  and  heroes. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Mallet,  "North- 
ern Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.,  Fable  xx. 

Andlo  (ind'lo)  or  Andlau,  2.nd'16w,  written  also  An- 
delo,  §.nMeh-lo,  (Peter  Herman  of,)  [Lat.  Pe'trus 
de  And'lo  or  And'elo,]  a  German  jurist,  of  Italian  de- 
scent, lived  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  wrote  in  Latin 
on  the  Germanic  Empire  a  work  which  is  remarkable 
as  the  first  atteinpt  in  Germany  to  compile  a  system  of 
public  law. 

An-doQ^i-des,  Y kvdoiMrjg an  Athenian  orator,  born 
about  467  B.C.,  was  called  one  of  the  "Ten  Orators." 
He  was  appointed  with  Glaucon  to  command  a  fleet  in 


432,  and  acted  a  prominent  part  in  political  affairs. 
When  the  thirty  tyrants  obtained  power  in  404  B.C.,  he 
went  into  exile,  from  which  he  soon  returned.  He  died 
about  390  B.C.    A  few  of  his  orations  are  extant. 

Andoque,  dN^dok',  a  French  writer  of  the  seven 
teenth  century,  author  of  a  History  of  Languedoc,  (1648.) 

Andrada,  an-dka'dd,  (Francisco,)  a  Portuguese  poet, 
flourished  about  1600. 

Andrada,  de,  da  ^n-dRa'Di,  or  Andrade,  de,  di 
dn-dRi'Da,  (Alfonso,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  born  at  Toledo 
in  1590,  wrote  many  works  on  theology.    Died  in  1658. 

Andrada,  de,  da  Sn-dR^'da,  or  Andrade,  de,  di  an- 
dR.¥dk,  (Antonio,)  a  Portuguese  Jesuit,  born  in  Alentejo 
about  1580.  He  went  as  a  missionary  to  India  and 
Thibet,  and  published  a  "  New  Discovery  of  the  Grand 
Cathay,  or  Kingdom  of  Thibet,"  (1627.)  Died  at  Goa 
in  1633. 

Andrada,  de,  or  Andrade,  de,  (Diogo  Lopez,)  a 
Portuguese  preacher,  born  in  Santarem  in  1569;  died 
in  1635. 

Andrada,  de,  or  Andrade,  de,  (Fernan  Perez,)  a 
Spaniard,  surnamed  (in  the  Galician  dialect)  O  Bo, 
("  the  Good,")  was  a  friend  of  Henri  de  Trastamara.  He 
built,  about  1388,  a  noble  bridge  across  the  Eume. 

Andrada,  de,  (Fernao  Perez,)  a  Portuguese  naval 
oftrcer,  commander!,  a  ship  in  the  fleet  of  Albuquerque, 
who  in  151 1  appointed  him  admiral  of  a  fleet  often 
ships  at  Malacca.  He  defeated  the  Sultan  of  Java  in  a 
sea-fight  in  15 13,  and  commanded  the  first  European 
fleet  that  appeared  on  the  coast  of  China,  (1518.)  He 
was  successful  in  opening  commercial  intercourse  with 
the  Chinese. 

Andrada,  de,  or  Andrade,  de,  (Francisco  Rades,) 
a  Spanish  writer  of  great  merit,  born  at  Toledo,  was 
author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Three  Spanish  Orders  of 
Chivalry,"  (1572.)  He  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  was  chaplain  to  Philip  II. 

Andrada,  de,  or  Andrade,  de,  (Jacinto,)  an  excel- 
lent Portuguese  writer,  born  at  Beja  in  1597.  He  was 
abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Santa  Maria  das  Chas.  Died 
in  1657.  His  principal  work  is  the  Life  of  Dom  Joao 
de  Castro,  Viceroy  of  India,  (1651,)  which  is  a  model  of 
fine  writing. 

Andrada,  de,  (Paolo  Gonzalez,)  a  Portuguese 
lyric  poet  of  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
He  wrote  a  volume  of  Spanish  poems,  (published  at 
Lisbon  in  1629.) 

Andrada  e  Sylva,  (or  Silva,)  an-dR^Ma  i  sel'vS, 
(Jos6  Bonifacio,)  a  distinguished  Brazilian,  born  at 
Santos  in  1765.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Coim- 
bra  in  Portugal,  and  returned  to  Brazil  in  1819.  He  was 
a  man  of  great  courage,  ability,  and  eloquence,  and  took 
the  lead  in  those  measures  which  in  1822  severed  Brazil 
from  Portugal  and  created  it  an  independent  empire. 
He  was  prime  minister  of  Brazil  for  a  short  time  in 
1822-23,  and  was  appointed  guardian  of  the  emperor's 
minor  children  in  1 83 1.  He  died  in  1838,  leaving  sev- 
eral scientific  treatises. 

His  brothers,  Antonio  Carlos  and  Martin  Fran- 
cisco DE  Andrada,  born  towards  the  close  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  were  both  distinguished  for  their  talents 
and  eloquence,  and  both  held  high  positions  under  the 
Brazilian  government.    Antonio  Carlos  died  in  1845. 

See  J.  M.  Pereira  da  Svlva,  "  Plutarco  Brasileiro,"  1847;  E. 
JoAQuiM  DA  Svlva  Maia,  "Jose  Bonifacio  de  Andrada  e  Sylva, 
Elogio  historico,"  1838;  Fletcher  and  Kidder,  "Brazil  and  the 
Brazilians,"  1868. 

Andrade  or  Andrada,  (Diogo  de  Payva — d.\  pi'- 

vS,,)  a  learned  Jesuit,  born  at  Coimbra,  in  Portugal,  in 
1528.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  talents  and  elo- 
quence at  the  famous  Council  of  Trent,  and  afterwards 
wrote  an  elaborate  defence  of  its  doctrines  against  Chem- 
nitz, a  Protestant  controversialist.    Died  about  1575. 

Andral,  Sw'dRtK,  (Gabriel,)  an  eminent  French 
physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1797,  was  a  son  of  Guillaume, 
noticed  below.  He  published  "  Clinique  Medicale,"  (4 
vols.,  1824-27,)  and  a  "  Summary  of  Pathological  An- 
atomy," (3  vols.,  1829,)  which  had  a  great  success.  He 
wrote  also  various  other  medical  works.  In  1S30  he 
became  professor  of  pathology,  and  in  1839  succeeded 
Broussais  in  the  chair  of  pathology  and  therapeut.es,  in 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lojig;  k,  b,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fSll,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon* 


ANDRAL 


123 


ANDREA 


Paris.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1842.  The 
wife  of  Dr.  Andral  was  a  daughter  of  Royer-Collard. 
Died  in  1S53. 

See  QiERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Andral,  (Guillaume,)  a  distinguished  physician,  the 
father  of  the  preceding,  ^Yas  born  in  Lot  in  1769.  He 
became  a  physician  to  the  army  of  Italy,  and  obtained  a 
high  position  under  Murat  at  Naoles  about  1808. 

Andray.    See  Andre. 

Andre.    See  Andre.^:. 

Andre.    See  Andreas. 

Andre,  ox'dRa',  called  Syl'vius,  [in  French,  Du  Bois, 
dii  bwa',]  a  French  chronicler  of  the  twelfth  century. 

Andre,  an'dRi,  (Christian  Karl,)  a  German  teacher 
and  writer,  born  at  Hildburghausen  in  1763.  He  taught 
near  Gotha  and  at  Briinn,  and  was  editor  of  a  popular 
magazine  called  "Hesperus,"  (1809-31.)  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  "Useful  Walks  for  Every  Day  in 
the  Year,"  (1790,)  and  a  valuable  "  Geographico-Statis- 
tical  Description  of  the  Austrian  Empire,"  (1813.)  Died 
at  Stuttgart  in  1831. 

Andre,  (Emil,)  a  German  writer  on  the  culture  and 
management  of  forests,  was  born  at  Schnepfenthal  in 
1 790. 

Andre'  b^'d^y,  or  Saint-Andre,  siN'tSN'dRi', 
(Fran(;ois,)  a  French  medical  writer,  lived  about  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Andre,  sometimes  written  Andray,  6N''dRi',  (Jean,) 
a  French  historical  painter,  born  at  Paris  in  1662;  died 
in  1753- 

AndrC;  (Johann,)  a  celebrated  German  composer, 
kapellmeister  to  the  Prince  of  Prussia,  was  born  at  Offen- 
bach in  1 741.  He  composed  many  operas  and  songs. 
Died  in  1799. 

Andre,.  (Johann  Anton,)  a  musical  composer,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Offenbach  in  1775.  He 
composed  masses,  concertos,  symphonies,  etc.,  and  pub- 
lished some  works  which  Mozart  left  in  manuscript. 
Died  about  1845. 

Andre,  an'dri  or  an'dre,  (John,)  an  adjutant-general 
in  the  British  army  of  the  American  Revolution,  cele- 
brated for  his  complicity  in  the  treason  of  Arnold,  was 
born  in  London  in  1751.  His  parents  were  from  Geneva, 
in  Switzerland,  where  he  was  educated  with  a  view  to 
becoming  a  merchant.  But,  being  crossed  in  love,  he 
abandoned  the  counting-house  for  the  camp,  and  received 
his  first  commission  in  the  British  army  in  1 77 1.  In 
1774  he  came  to  America  as  a  lieutenant  in  the  Royal 
Fusiliers,  and  was  among  the  officers  captured  at  Saint 
John's  early  in  the  war  by  Montgomery.  His  varied  and 
graceful  talents  and  his  engaging  manners  appear  to 
*  have  obtained  for  him  the  appointment  of  adjutant-gen- 
eral with  the  rank  of  major,  without  his  performing  any 
distinguished  military  services.  He  held,  moreover,  a 
facile  and  at  times  satirical  pen,  and  occasionally  amused 
himself  with  caricaturing  in  rhyme  the  appearance  and 
exploits  of  the  "  rebel "  officers.  After  the  evacuation 
of  Philadelphia  by  the  British  he  was  employed  to  carry 
on  a  correspondence  with  a  body  of  loyalists  near  the 
Chesapeake,  who  were  conspiring  to  restore  the  royal 
government.  He  first  introduced  himself  to  the  notice 
of  Arnold  by  means  of  a  letter,  written  August  16,  1779, 
to  Mrs.  Arnold,  whose  acquaintance  he  had  formed  in 
Philadelphia. 

Major  Andre  was  employed  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton  to 
conduct  the  secret  negotiations  with  Benedict  Arnold  for 
the  surrender  of  West  Point ;  and  for  rliis  purpose  he 
assumed  the  name  of  John  Anderson.  On  the  21st  of 
September,  1780,  Major  Andre  and  Arnold  had  an  inter- 
view at  the  house  of  Joshua  H.  Smith.  Arnold  furnished 
Andre  a  number  of  papers  relating  to  West  Point,  in- 
cluding maps  and  plans  and  memoranda  of  the  weakest 
points  where  an  attack  might  be  made  with  the  best 
advantage.  He  also  gave  him  a  passport  through  the 
American  lines.  After  he  parted  from  Arnold,  Smith 
accompanied  him  beyond  the  American  outposts,  and 
Andre  proceeded  towards  New  York  City  by  land. 
Andre  now  pursued  his  journey  in  confident  security 
until  he  had  crossed  a  small  stream  near  Tarrytown, 
when  three  men,  armed  with  muskets,  emerged  from  a 
thicket  and  brought  him  to  a  stand.    Losing  all  caution. 


he  exclaimed,  "Gentlemen,  I  hope  you  belong  to  oui 
party  "  What  party asked  the  leader.  "  The  lower 
party,"  said  Andre.  "  We  do,"  was  the  reply.  Andre 
then  declared  himself  a  British  ofiicer  on  important 
business,  who  must  not  be  detained  a  moment.  To  his 
consternation,  the  party  now  declared  themselves  Ameri- 
cans, and  told  Andre  he  was  their  prisoner.  Recovering 
himself,  he  attempted  to  pass  off  his  former  declaration 
as  a  subterfuge,  saying  he  was  a  Continental  officer 
procuring  information  from  below,  and  showed  a  pass 
from  General  Arnold.  The  suspicions  of  his  captors, 
however,  were  fully  aroused,  and,  on  searching  his  per- 
son, the  papers  furnished  him  hy  Arnold  were  found 
between  his  stockings  and  the  soles  of  his  feet.  As  a 
last  resort,  Andre  offered  them  his  horse  and  watch, 
or  any  reward  they  might  name,  if  they  would  let  him 
go.  But  the  sturdy  republicans  were  not  to  be  bribed. 
They  conducted  him  ten  or  twelve  miles  to  North  Castle, 
and  delivered  him  to  Lieutenant-Colonel  Jameson.  Rec- 
ognizing the  handwriting  of  Arnold  in  the  papers  found, 
and  perceiving  that  they  were  of  a  dangerous  nature. 
Colonel  Jameson  forwarded  them  by  express  to  Wash- 
ington at  Hartford,  and  then,  with  an  obtuseness  almost 
incredible,  was  about  to  send  Andre  to  Arnold  with  a  let- 
ter stating  the  circumstances  of  his  arrest  and  the  char- 
acter of  the  papers  found  on  him.  Major  Talmadge,  ar- 
riving soon  after,  immediately  suspected  Arnold,  and,  by 
earnest  entreaty,  prevailed  on  Jameson  to  detain  Andre  ; 
but  the  letter  was  suftered  to  go  on  and  furnish  Arnold 
timely  warning  to  make  his  escape.  Andre  was  tried  by 
a  court-martial  and  condemned  to  be  hung  as  a  spy.  He 
admitted  freely  who  he  was,  and  for  what  purpose  he 
came  within  the  American  lines,  but  declined  disclosing 
anything  implicating  any  other  person.  Sir  Henry  Clin- 
ton made  great  efforts  to  secure  his  release.  It  was 
intimated  to  him  that  Andre  would  be  given  up  on  the 
surrender  of  Arnold;  but  this  was  not  to  be  thought  of. 
Andre  requested  that  his  sentence  might  be  commuted 
to  being  shot ;  but  the  magnitude  of  the  plot  in  which  he 
was  implicated  forbade  any  indulgence  being  shown  him. 
He  was  executed  at  Tarrytown  on  the  m.orning  of  Oc- 
tober 2,  1780,  conducting  himself  with  great  fortitude  to 
the  last.  The  day  before  his  execution  he  sketched, 
with  pen  and  ink,  a  miniature  likeness  of  himself,  which 
is  now  in  the  Trumbull  Gallery  of  Yale  College.  In 
1821  his  remains  were  transferred  to  England  and  in- 
terred in  Westminster  Abbey.  The  names  of  his  captors 
were  John  Paulding,  David  Williams,  and  Isaac  Van 
Wart.  They  were  liberally  rewarded  by  Congress,  and 
in  1853  a  monument  was  erected  to  their  memory  on 
the  site  of  Andre's  arrest.  Joshua  H.  Smith  was  tried 
for  treason,  but  acquitted  on  the  plea  of  his  ignorance 
of  Arnold's  traitorous  designs. 

See  Life  of  Benedict  Arnold,  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography;" 
WiNTHROP  Sargent,  "  Life  and  Career  of  Major  John  Andre,"  1861 ; 
"Atlantic  Monthly"  for  December,  1S60. 

Andre,  6N'dRi',  L'Abbe,  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Marseilles,  lived  between  1750  and  1800.  He  published 
an  edition  of  the  works  of  D'Aguesseau,  (13  vols., 
1759-90.) 

Andre,  (Rudolph,)  a  German  writer  on  rural  econ- 
omy, born  at  Gotha  in  1792,  was  a  brother  of  Emil, 
above  noticed,  and  was  a  practical  cultivator.  It  is 
stated  that  he  first  described  the  art  of  improving  races 
of  animals.    Died  in  1825. 

Andre,  (Marshal  Saint.)    See  Saint-Andr^. 

Andre,  (Valere.)    See  Andreas,  (Valerius.) 

Andre,  (Yves  Marie,)  a  French  Jesuit  writer,  and 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Caen,  born  in  1675  in  Brit- 
tany ;  died  in  1 764.  He  is  known  as  the  author  of  an  "  Es- 
say on  the  Beautiful,"  (i  741,)  a  work  of  considerable  merit. 

Andrea,  an-dRa'S,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  histori- 
cal writer,  born  at  Barletta  in  15 19. 

Andrea,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  scholar,  born  at 
Vigevano  in  141 7,  became  Bishop  of  Aleria  in  Corsica. 
He  is  chiefly  remembered  as  the  editor  of  several  clas- 
sical works  published  at  Rome,  among  wTiich  are  "Cae- 
sar's Works,"  (1469  ;)  "  The  Decades  of  Livy,"  (1470  ;) 
"The  Works  of  Virgil,"  (about  1470  ;)  "Pliny's  Natural 
History,"  (1470,)  and  "  Cicero's  Orations,"  (1471.)  Died 
in  1475. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k, guttural ;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ANDREA 


124 


ANDREI 


Andrea,  written  also  Andreas,  (Onufrio,)  a  Nea- 
politan poet,  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  heroic  poem, 
called  *'  Italia  Liberata,"  (1646.)  He  was  ranked  among 
the  best  Italian  poets  of  his  time  by  Crescimbeni.  Died 
about  1650. 

Andrea  Pisano,  (pe-si'no,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
sculptor  and  architect,  born  at  Pisa  about  1270,  was  a 
pupil  of  Nicola  and  Giovanni  Pisani.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  who  abandoned  the  Gothic  style  for  the  antique 
models  of  Greece.  He  was  invited  to  Florence  to  exe- 
cute the  sculptures  of  the  fa9ade  of  Santa  Maria  del 
Fiore.  At  the  death  of  Arnolfo  di  Lapo,  Andrea  was 
appointed  superintendent  of  the  public  works  of  Flor- 
ence. He  designed  the  Castello  di  Scarperia  and  the 
church  of  San  Giovanni  at  Pistoja.  His  master-piece 
of  sculpture  is  the  bronze  rilievi  of  the  gates  of  the 
baptistery  of  San  Giovanni  at  Florence,  (1339.)  Died 
at  Florence  in  1345. 

His  son  Nino  was  an  able  sculptor,  and  finished  some 
of  his  father's  works. 

See  CicoGNARA,  "  Storia  della  Scultura." 

Andrea,  (Zoan  or  Giovanni,)  a  skilful  Italian  en- 
graver, who  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  copied  and  imitated  the  prints  of  Man- 
tegna.  His  works  are  rare,  and  command  high  prices. 

See  Ottley,  "  Early  History  of  Engraving." 

Andrea,  d',  din-dRa'i,  (Francesco,)  an  eminent 
jurist  of  Naples,  born  near  Amalfi  in  1625  ;  died  in 
1698. 

Andrea  del  Castagno.    See  Castagno. 

Andrea  del  Sarto  or  Vannucchi.    See  Sarto. 

Andrea  di  Luigi.    See  Luigi. 

Andreae,  in-dRa'a,  (Abraham,)  a  Swedish  prelate, 
born  in  Angermannland.  He  was  elected  Archbishop 
of  Upsal  in  1593,  before  which  date  he  had  opposed  the 
attempt  of  King  John  to  restore  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion  in  Sweden.    He  died  in  prison  in  1607. 

Andreas  or  Andrea,  in-dRa'i,  (or  Andreas,  ^n- 
dRa'is,)  (Jacob  or  James,)  an  eminent  German  Protest- 
ant theologian,  born  at  Waiblingen,  in  Wiirtemberg,  in 
1528.  He  was  ordained  deacon  at  Stuttgart  in  1546, 
after  which  he  became  professor  at  Tiibingen.  He 
performed  many  long  journeys  in  Germany  to  organ- 
ize the  Lutheran  worship,  and  acquired  great  influ- 
ence by  his  learning,  energy,  and  eloquence.  He  was 
president  of  a  board  of  five  who,  in  1580,  produced  the 
"  Formula  Concordiae,"  a  summary  and  symbol  of  faith 
then  adopted,  and  still  recognized,  by  the  Lutheran 
Church.  He  wrote  many  polemical  works  against  the 
Calvinists  and  Papists.    Died  in  1590. 

See  Melchior  Adam,  "  Vitae  Gernianorum  Theologorum ;"  J.  V, 
Andrew,  "  Fama  Andreana  reflorescens,"  etc.,  1630;  Lebret, 
*' Programmata  III.  de  J.  Andreas  Vita,"  1799. 

Andreae,  SnMre-e  or  in-dRa'a,  [Fr.  Andr6,  6n''- 
dRa',]  (Johannes  or  Giovanni,)  an  eminent  professor 
of  canon  law,  was  born  near  Florence  about  1275.  He 
was  professor  at  Bologna  for  many  years.  Died  in  1348. 
He  was  reputed  the  most  celebrated  canonist  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  His  "  Commentaries  on  the  Decre- 
tals" were  highly  esteemed. 

See  Fantuzzi,  "  Scrittori  Bolognesi ;"  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori 
d'ltalia." 

AndresB,  (Johann  Georg  Reinhardt,)  a  German 
apothecary,  born  at  Hanover  in  1724,  He  wrote  treat- 
ises on  chemistry,  botany,  etc.,  which  appeared  in  the 
"  Hanover  Magazine,"  and  "  Letters  from  Switzerland," 
(2d  edition,  1776.)    Died  in  1793. 

Andreas  or  Andrea,  [Fr.  Andre,  SnMr^',]  (Jo- 
hann Valentin,)  a  German  satirical  writer  of  great 
merit,  born  at  Herrenberg,  in  Wiirtemberg,  in  August, 
1586,  was  a  grandson  of  Jacob  Andreae,  (1528-90.)  He 
became  deacon  at  Vaihingen  in  16 14,  town-pastor  at 
Calw  in  1620,  court  preacher  at  Stuttgart  in  1639,  and 
ecclesiastic  counsellor  to  the  Duke  of  Brunswick- Wol- 
fenbiittel  in  1642.  The  institution  of  the  order  of  Rosi- 
crucians  is  ascribed  to  him  by  some  writers ;  but  the 
disputes  on  this  question  have  not  dispelled  its  obscurity. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "Hundred  Satirical  Dialogues," 
("  Menippus,  sive  Dialogorum  Satiricorum  Centuria," 
161 7.)  He  showed  a  liberal  philosophical  spirit  in  his 
Latin  work  entitled  *'  The  Images  of  the  Virtues  and 


Vices  of  Human  Life,"  (1619.)  He  also  published 
poems  in  German,  which  are  praised  by  Herder.  Died 
in  1654.  "Andreas,"  says  Hallam,  "was  a  man  above 
his  age,  and  a  singular  contrast  to  the  narrow  and  pe- 
dantic herd  of  German  scholars  and  theologians." 

See  Seybold,  "  Selbstbiographien  beruhmter  Manner,"  1799;  W, 
Hossbach,  "J.  V.  Andreae  und  seiner  Zeitalter  dargestellt,"  1819; 
Flogel,  "Geschichte  der  Komischen  Literatur." 

Andreae,  (Laurentius,)  [Sw.  Lars  An'derson,] 
one  of  the  principal  agents  in  the  introduction  of  the 
Reformation  into  Sweden.  He  was  converted  to  the 
Protestant  faith  in  1 520,  and  appears  to  have  become 
soon  after  the  principal  adviser  of  Gustavus  Vasa,  who 
appointed  him  chancellor.  In  1526  he  published  a 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  Swedish.  He 
afterwards  incurred  the  suspicion  and  displeasure  of  his 
sovereign,  and  died  in  obscurity  in  1552. 

See  Gezelius,  "  Biographiskt-Lexicon." 

Andreae,  (Tobias,)  a  German  Cartesian  philosopher, 
born  at  Braunfels  in  1604,  was  professor  of  Greek  at 
Groningen.    Died  in  1676. 

Andreae,  (Tobias,)  a  German  physician  and  profes- 
sor of  philosophy,  was  born  at  Bremen  in  1633 ;  died 
at  Franeker  in  1685. 

Andreani,  in-dRi-^'nee,  (Andrea,)  a  noted  Italian 
engraver,  surnamed  Mantuano,  {i.e.  the  "Mantuan,") 
born  at  Mantua  about  1540 ;  died  in  1623.  He  carried 
to  great  perfection  the  art  of  engraving  on  wood  in 
chiaroscuro.  His  master-piece  is  "The  Triumph  of 
Caesar." 

An'dre-as,  [Gr.  'k.v6peag,'\  the  name  of  several  an- 
cient physicians,  none  of  whom  is  of  sufficient  note  to 
deserve  a  place  here. 

An'dreas,  an  archbishop  of  Caesarea  in  Cappadocia, 
supposed  to  have  lived  about  the  close  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury.   He  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Apocalypse. 

An'dreas  surnamed  Creten'sis,  ("of  Crete,")  a 
native  of  Damascus,  who  became  Archbishop  of  Crete 
near  the  end  of  the  seventh  century. 

Andreas,  (Italian.)    See  Andrea. 

Andreas,  in-dRa''Ss,  Archbishop  of  Lund,  in  Sweden, 
wrote  "  Hexaemeron,"  a  Latin  poem  on  the  Creation, 
and  was  author  or  compiler  of  the  "Laws  of  Zealand." 
Died  in  1228. 

An-dre'as  or  An'drew,  (of  Naples,)  called  also 
Andreasso,  in-dRi-Ss'so,  born  about  1324,  was  the 
second  son  of  Carobert,  King  of  Hungary.  His  marriage 
with  Joanna,  heiress  of  the  throne  of  Naples,  was  cele- 
brated in  1 33 1,  and  she  became  queen  regnant  in  1334. 
A  conspiracy  having  been  formed  against  him  by  sev- 
eral princes  and  barons  of  Naples,  he  was  assassinated 
in  1345- 

Andreas,  3.n-dRa'ds,  a  liberal  German  prelate.  Arch- 
bishop of  Grain,  (Carniola,)  attempted  to  reform  the 
Romish  Church,  the  corruptions  of  which  he  boldly  ex- 
posed. He  was  committed  to  prison  and  strangled  in 
1484. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Andreas  or  Andrew,  (John,)  surnamed  Ratisbo- 
nen'sis,  {i.e.  "  of  Ratisbon,")  sometimes  called  Andreas 
Magister,  {i.e.  "  Andrew  the  Master,")  a  learned  Ger- 
man chronicler  who  lived  about  the  year  1400. 

Andreas,  (Onuphrius.)    See  Andrea,  (Onufrio.) 

Andreas,  an-dRa'3.s,  or  Andre,  SN^dRi',  (Valerius,) 
a  Flemish  bibliographer,  born  in  Brabant  in  1588.  He 
became  professor  of  Hebrew  and  of  law  at  Louvain. 
His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his  "  Bibliotheca 
Belgica,"  (1623,)  a  work  of  some  value  on  the  life  and 
writings  of  eminent  Belgians.    Died  in  1656. 

See  Felix  Neve,  "V.  Andre  professeurd'Hebreu,  etc.,"  1846;  E. 
Vanderlinden,  "V.  Andre;e  Pr^econium,"  iSso. 

Andreasi  or  Andreassi,  an-dRi-is'see,  (Ippolito,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Mantua,  was  a  pupil  of  Giulio 
Romano,  and  lived  about  1600. 

Andre-Bardon.    See  DandriS. 
V  Andre  du  Bois.    See  Andr6  Sylvius. 

Andreevsky,  Sn-dRa-ev'ske,  (Stepan,)  a  Russian 
physician,  who  became  minister  of  finances  in  1807  ;  died 
in  1 81 8. 

Andrei,  an-dRa^  or  in-dRa',  or  An'drew,  (Yaro- 
slavitch,  yd-ro-sli'vitch,)  a  younger  brother  of  Alexan- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f3.ll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ANDREI 


ANDREW 


der-Nevsky,  waged  war  against  Batoo-  (or  Batou-)  Khan 
the  Mogul.    Died  in  1264. 

Andrei  or  Andrew,  surnamed  Yoorevitch  or  You- 
REVITCH,  yoo're-vitch,  Grand  Duke  of  Russia,  born  in 
mo,  was  a  warlike  prince,  and  extended  his  dominions 
by  conquest.    He  was  assassinated  in  11 74. 

'Andreini,  in-dRa-ee'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
actor  and  writer  of  comedies,  born  at  Pistoja,  lived 
about  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  died  about  1620. 

Andreini,  (Giovanni  Baitista,)  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, also  an  actor  and  writer,  was  born  at  Florence 
about"i578;  died  about  1650.  Besides  other  successful 
works,  he  wrote  a  sacred  drama  entitled  "L'Adamo," 
(li-d^'mo,)  (or  "Adam,"  1613,)  from  which  Milton  is  by 
some  supposed  to  have  derived  the  idea  of  "  Paradise 
Lost." 

Andreini,  (Isabella,)  a  native  of  Padua,  the  wife  of 
Francesco,  noticed  above,  was  both  an  accomplished 
actress  and  a  poetess.  Though  greatly  admired  for  her 
personal  attractions,  she  maintained  an  irreproachable 
character.  Died  in  1604,  aged  forty-two.  Among  her 
poems  is  "Mirtilla,  a  Pastoral  Fable,"  (1588.) 

Andreini,  (Pietro  Andrea,)  a  learned  Italian  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Florence  about  1650;  died  in  1720. 

Andrelini,  Sn-dRa-lee'nee,  (Publio  Fausto,)  [in 
Latin,  Pub'lius  Faus'tus  Andreli'nus,]  an  Italian 
writer  of  Latin  poetry,  was  born  at  Forli  about  1450. 
In  1489  he  was  appointed  by  Charles  VIII.  professor 
of  classical  literature  in  the  University  of  Paris,  where 
he  died  in  15 18.  His  pretensions  as  a  poet  were  ridi- 
culed by  Erasmus,  who  said  his  verses  lacked  only  one 
syllable,  i.e.  seiise. 

Andreoli,  Sn-dRi-o'Iee,  (Giorgio  da  Gubbio— d^ 
goob'be-o,)  an  Italian  sculptor  and  worker  in  terra-cotta, 
lived  about  1500. 

Andreossi  or  Andreossy,  SN'dRiVse',  (Antoine 
Francois,)  Count  of,  a  distinguished  French  military 
officer  and  engineer,  born  at  Castelnaudary,  in  Langue- 
doc,  in  1 761.  He  served  with  distinction  in  Italy, 
(1796,)  became  general  of  brigade  about  1797,  and  went 
to  Egypt  in  1798.  He  contributed,  as  a  member  of  the 
Listitute  of  Cairo,  to  the  labours  of  the  "  Commission  of 
Egypt,"  and  wrote  excellent  memoirs  on  Lake  Menza- 
leh  and  the  natron  lakes.  He  officiated  as  chief  of  the 
staff  of  Bonaparte  on  the  i8th  Brumaire,  1799,  and 
was  made  general  of  division,  and  appointed  succes- 
sively ambassador  to  London,  Vienna,  and  Constan- 
tinople. On  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  (1814) 
he  was  recalled  from  the  Ottoman  Porte,  and  remained 
in  private  life  till  the  revolution  of  March,  1 81 5,  when 
he  again  accepted  office  under  Napoleon  as  the  head  of 
the  war  department.  After  the  defeat  of  Napoleon  at 
Waterloo,  he  was  one  of  the  five  commissioners  sent  to 
negotiate  an  armistice  with  the  allied  powers,  on  which 
occasion  he  gave  his  ready  consent  to  the  recall  of  the 
Bourbons.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1826,  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
in  1827,  and  died  in  1828.  He  left,  besides  otherworks, 
a  "Journey  to  the  Mouth  of  the  Black  Sea,  or  Essay  on 
the  Bosphorus  and  Delta  of  Thrace,"  (1818.) 

See  Marion,  "Notice  n(5crologique  sur  le  Cointe  Andreossi," 
1843;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Andreossy  or  Andreossi,  (Francois,)  an  ancestor 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1633.  He  was  an 
eminent  mathematician  and  engineer,  and  deserves  es- 
pecial notice  as  the  projector  of  the  Canal  of  Langue- 
doc.    Died  in  1688. 

Andreozzi,  Sn-dRi-ot'see,  (Gaetano,)  an  Italian  dra- 
matic composer,  born  at  Naples  in  1763 ;  died  in  1826. 

Andres,  du'dR^s,  (Bonaventura  Johann,)  a  learned 
Jesuit,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1744;  died  in  1822. 

Andres,  Sn-dR^s',  (Carlos,)  a  Spanish  lawyer,  born 
near  Valencia  in  1753.  He  translated  into  Spanish  several 
'vorks  of  his  brother  Juan  Andres.    Died  in  1820. 

Andres,  (Juan,)  a  most  learned  Spanish  author,  born 
at  Planes,  in  the  province  of  Valencia,  in  1740,  joined 
the  Society  of  Jesuits  in  1754.  When  the  Jesuits  were 
expelled  from  Spain  in  1767,  he  went  first  to  Corsica 
and  afterwards  to  Italy.  The  most  important  and  best- 
known  of  his  numerous  works  is  that  entitled  "  On  the 


Origin,  Progress,  and  Present  State  of  all  Literatuic," 
("  Deir  Origine,  de'  Progressi,  e  dello  Stato  attuale  d'ogni 
Letteratura,"  7  vols.,  1782-99.)  He  was  appointed  by 
Joseph  Bonaparte  prefect  or  keeper  of  the  royal  library 
at  Naples  in  1806.  His  best  works  are  in  Italian,  al- 
though he  sometimes  wrote  in  Latin,  and  occasionally  in 
Spanish.  His  "Essay  on  the  Philosophy  of  Galileo" 
(1776)  is  particularly  commended.  Died  in  181 7. 
Sea  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Andres  de  Gusseme,  Sn-dR§s'  di  goos'si-mi, 
(ToMAS,)  a  Spanish  numismatist  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. 

Andres  de  Uztarroz,  In-dR^s'  di  ooth-tlr-r6th', 

(Juan  Francisco,)  an  eminent  Spanish  historian  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Saragossa  about  1606.  He  obtained 
the  title  of  chronicler  of  the  kingdom.  Among  his  numer- 
ous works  is  one  called  "Annals  of  the  Crown  and 
Kingdom  of  Aragon,"  (1663.)    Died  in  1653. 

An'drew,  [Gr.  'kidpeaq;  Fr.  Andre,  SnMr^;  Lat. 
An'dreas,]  Saint,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  was  a 
brother  of  Saint  Peter,  and  a  fisherman  of  Galilee.  He 
appears  to  have  found  the  Messiah  and  become  his  dis- 
ciple before  any  other  of  the  twelve,  with  perhaps  one 
exception.  (See  John  i.  40.)  He  is  supposed  to  have 
preached  the  gospel  in  Greece,  Thrace,  and  the  coun- 
tries north  of  the  Danube.  Tradition  adds  that  he  suf- 
fered martyrdom  at  Patrae,  (now  Patras,)  in  Achaia.  (See 
Matthew  iv.  18,  x.  2;  Mark  i.  16,  xiii.  3;  Luke  vi.  14; 
John  vi.  8,  xii.  22.) 

An'drew  or  Andrds,  on'drSs,  the  name  of  three 
Hungarian  kings  of  the  line  of  Arpad,  between  1046  and 
1301.  Andrew  I.  ascended  the  throne  about  1046;  died 
about  1060. 

Andrew  II.  of  Hungary,  born  about  11 76,  began  to 
reign  in  1205.  In  1222,  seven  years  after  King  John  of 
England  had  granted  the  Magna  Charta  to  his  barons, 
Andrew  II.,  scarcely  less  weak  than  his  English  con- 
temporary, promulgated  the  Golden  Bull,  or  Magna 
Charta  of  Hungary,  in  which  the  following  remarkable 
clause  occurs  :  "  If  we,  or  any  of  our  successors,  ever  at 
any  time  wish  to  act  contrary  to  this  our  ordinance,  then 
let  our  bishops  and  the  other  barons  and  nobles  of  our 
kingdom,  all  and  sundry,  present  and  to  come,  have  the 
free  power  of  resisting  and  contradicting  us  and  our  suc- 
cessors, as  a  perpetual  privilege,  without  the  reproach 
of  any  want  of  fidelity."  This  provision  was  confirmed 
and  sworn  to  by  every  successive  king  of  Hungary  for 
more  than  four  hundred  years.  In  1687  it  was  modified 
with  the  consent  of  the  states.  Andrew  died  in  1235, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Bela. 

Andrew  III.,  King  of  Hungary,  a  grandson  of  An- 
drew II.,  was  born  at  Venice.  He  began  to  reign  in 
1290.  The  pope  claimed  Plungary  as  a  fief  of  the  pope- 
dom, and  made  a  donation  of  it  to  Charles  Martel,  son 
of  the  King  of  Naples,  whose  army  was  defeated  by  An- 
drew (1291)  at  Agram.  He  died  in  1301,  and  was  the 
last  king  of  the  line  of  Arpad. 

Andrew  of  Crete.    See  Andreas. 

Andrew,  Prince  of  Russia.    See  Andrel 

Andrew  of  Pisa.    See  Andrea  Pisano. 

An'drew,  (James,)  a  Scottish  mathematician  and 
grammarian,  born  in  1774;  died  in  Edinburgh  in  1833. 

An'drew,  (John  Albion,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  at  Windham,  Maine,  in  May,  1818.  He  graduated 
at  Bowdoin  College  about  1837,  studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  Boston  in  1840.  He  gained  dis- 
tinction by  his  opposition  to  slavery,  and  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  legislature  by  the  Republicans  of  Boston 
in  1858.  In  i860  he  was  elected  Governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts for  one  year.  Within  a  week  after  President 
Lincoln's  call  for  seventy-five  thousand  men,  April  15, 
1 86 1,  he  dispatched  five  regiments  in  answer  to  that 
summons.  He  was  elected  Governor  the  second  time, 
in  1 861,  and  afterwards  re-elected  at  three  successive 
elections.  In  his  message  of  January,  1862,  he  said, 
"  The  great  rebellion  must  be  put  down,  and  its  pro- 
moters crushed  beneath  the  ruins  of  their  own  ambition. 
The  greatest  crime  of  history  must  receive  a  doom  so 
swift  and  sure  that  the  enemies  of  popular  government 
shall  stand  in  awe  while  they  contemplate  the  elastic 
energy  and  concentrative  power  of  democratic  institu- 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  y.^  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ANDREWS 


126 


JNDRIEUX 


tions  and  a  free  people."  Governor  Andrew  acquired 
great  and  well-deserved  popularity  by  his  assiduous  at- 
tention to  the  wants  of  the  soldiers  in  the  field,  by  the 
fervid  eloquence  with  which  he  animated  the  people 
during  the  civil  war,  and  by  his  persistent  efforts  for  the 
arming  and  liberation  of  the  negroes.  He  died,  deeply 
lamented,  in  October,  1867,  A  meeting  of  members  of 
the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  passed  a  resolution — 
"That  in  his  decease  the  commonwealth  and  the  nation 
alike  have  suffered  an  irreparable  loss  ;  that  his  reputa- 
tion had  become  national,  and  we  might  well  have  hoped 
for  him  the  highest  national  offices  and  honours." 

"Among  the  many  heroic  men,"  says  Mrs.  Stowe, 
"who  have  sacrificed  their  lives  in  the  great  battle  of 
liberty  in  our  country,  there  is  no  one  who  deserves  a 
more  honoured  memory  than  John  A.  Andrew  of  Mas- 
sachusetts." 

See  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  "Men  of  Our  Times,"  1868;  P. 
C.  Heauley,  "Massachusetts  in  the  Rebellion,"  p.  18;  "  Notice  of 
the  Official  Life  of  Governor  Andrew,"  (anonymous,)  1868. 

An'drews,  (Annie  M.,)  an  American  lady,  born 
about  1835.  She  devoted  herself  to  the  relief  of  the 
sick  as  a  nurse  during  the  prevalence  of  the  yellow  fever 
at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  in  1855. 

Andrews,  (I£benezer  S.,)  an  American  publisher, 
born  in  Boston  in  1766.  As  a  partner  of  Isaiah  Thomas, 
he  established  a  publishing  house  at  Baltimore  in  1794, 
and  another  at  Albany  in  1796.    Died  in  1 85 1. 

Andrews,  (Ethan  Allen,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
scholar  and  writer,  born  at  New  Britain,  in  Connecticut, 
in  1787,  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1810.  He  was  for 
several  years  professor  of  the  ancient  languages  in  the 
University  of  North  Carolina.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
number  of  school-books,  chiefly  designed  for  those  com- 
mencing the  study  of  the  Latin  language.  Andrews  and 
Stoddard's  "  Latin  Grammar"  in  particular  has  had  an 
extensive  circulation.  His  most  important  work  is  an 
excellent  Latin-English  Lexicon,  (1850,)  on  the  basis  of 
Freund's  "  Worterbuch  der  Lateinischen  Sprache."  Died 
in  1858. 

An'drews,  (Henry,)  an  English  artist  and  botanist, 
who  resided  in  London.  He  published  a  series  of  col- 
oured engravings  with  descriptions  of  rare  plants,  en- 
titled "The  Botanist's  Repository,"  (10  vols.,  1 797-1814.) 
Among  his  other  works  is  a  "Monograph  of  the  Genus 
Rosa,"  with  coloured  figures. 

Andrews,  (James  Petit,)  an  English  historical  wri- 
ter, born  near  Newbury,  in  Berks,  in  1737.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  Great  Britain  connected  with  the 
Chronology  of  Europe,"  (vol.  i.,  part  i.,  1794,  part  ii., 
1795,)  a  work  of  some  merit,  which  was  never  finished. 
It  is  composed  on  a  new  plan,  and  comprises  the  period 
from  Caesar's  invasion  to  the  accession  of  Edward  IV. 
Among  his  other  works  is  a  curious  and  amusing  collec- 
tion of  "Anecdotes,  etc..  Ancient  and  Modern,"  (1789,) 
and  a  "  Continuation  of  Henry's  History  of  Great  Brit- 
ain" (i  vol.,  1796)  to  the  accession  of  James  1.  Died 
in  1797. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  September,  1797. 

Andrews,  (John,)  LL.D.,  an  English  historian,  for 
whose  biography  we  find  scanty  materials.  His  princi- 
pal works  are  a  "  History  of  the  Revolutions  of  Den- 
mark," (2  vols.,  1774,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  War  with 
America,  France,  Spain,  and  Holland,"  (4  vols.,  1785-86). 
He  died  in  his  seventy-third  year,  in  1809.  "  By  his 
death,"  says  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,"  "  the  nation  is 
deprived  of  an  able  historian  and  a  profound  scholar." 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  February,  1809. 

Andrews,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  Episcopal  clergyman, 
born  in  Cecil  county,  Maryland,  in  1746.  In  1789  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1810  became  provost  of 
that  institution.  He  published  "  Elements  of  Logic." 
Died  in  1813. 

Andrews  or  Andrewes,  an'druz,  (Lancelot,)  an 
English  divine  of  great  learning,  was  born  in  London  in 
1555,  and  educated  at  Cambridge.  Having  attained 
distinction  as  a  preacher,  he  became  one  of  the  chaplains 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  appointed  him  Dean  of  West- 
minster in  1601.  He  was  one  of  the  ten  divines  selected 
to  translate  the  Pentateuch  in  tht  reign  of  James  I.,  and 


was  chosen  Bishop  of  Chichester  in  1605.  At  the  re- 
quest of  the  king,  he  wrote  a  work  called  "Torture  of 
Tortus,"  ("Tortura  Torti,"  1609,)  in  which  he  de- 
fended the  authority  of  kings  in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  in 
answer  to  Matthew  Tortus.  He  was  translated  to  the 
see  of  Ely  in  1609  and  made  a  privy  councillor.  In 
1618  he  was  promoted  to  the  see  of  Winchester,  and 
became  dean  of  the  royal  chapel.  He  died  in  1626, 
leaving  a  high  reputation  for  piety,  moderation,  and 
charity.  Among  his  most  popular  works  we  may  name 
his  "  Manual  of  Private  Devotions  and  Meditations  for 
every  Day  in  the  Week,"  and  a  "  Manual  of  Directions 
for  the  Visitation  of  the  Sick."  He  was  probably  more 
learned  in  canon  law  and  ecclesiastical  antiquities  than 
any  of  his  English  contemporaries.  His  style  was  once 
greatly  admired,  but  is  too  affected  and  pedantic  to  please 
the  critics  of  the  present  age.  His  death  was  deplored 
by  Milton  in  a  Latin  elegy. 

See  Cassan,  "  Lives  of  the  Bishops  of  Winchester ;"  Fuller, 
"  Worthies  of  England,"  and  his  "  Church  History  ;"  Isaacson, 
"  Life  of  Bishop  Andrews,"  1650. 

Andrews,  (Miles  Peter,)  M.P.,  an  English  drama- 
tist, but  more  noted  as  a  man  of  fashion  than  as  an  au- 
thor, was  a  son  of  a  merchant  of  London,  and  inherited  a 
fortune.  He  wrote  several  comedies,  one  of  which  is 
called  "Better  Late  than  Never,"  (1790.)  He  repre- 
sented Bewdley  in  Parliament  from  about  1790  till  his 
death.  His  dinners  and  entertainments  were  celebrated. 
Died  in  1814. 

See  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

An'drews,  (Thomas,)  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  a  chemist,  born 
in  Belfast,  graduated  at  Edinburgh  in  1835.  He  re- 
ceived from  the  Royal  Society,  in  1845,  a  medal  for  his 
researches  into  the  heat  produced  by  chemical  combina- 
tion. He  became  professor  of  chemistry  at  Belfast  in  1849. 

Andri.    See  Andry. 

Andria,  an^dRe-S,  (Nicola  or  Niccolo,)  an  able 
Italian  scientific  writer,  born  in  Otranto  in  1748.  He 
became  successively  professor  of  natural  history,  (1775,) 
physiology,  (1801,)  and  the  theory  of  medicine,  (1808,) 
at  the  University  of  Naples.  Among  his  works  are 
"Elements  of  Chemical  Philosophy,"  in  Latin,  (1786,) 
"  Institutes  of  the  Practice  of  Medicine,"  ("  Institu- 
tiones  Medicinae  Practice,"  1790,)  and  "General  Ob- 
servations on  the  Theory  of  Life,"  (1804.)  Died  in 
1814.  His  Latin  works  have  been  translatecl  into  Italian, 
and  the  last  of  the  above-named  into  French. 

See  Cali.isen,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 

Andrian-Warburg,  von,  fon  in'dRe-in  -(^aR^booRG, 
(Victor,)  Baron,  an  Austrian  writer  on  politics  and 
government,  born  near  Goritz  in  1813. 

Andriessens,  in^'dRes'sens,  (Anton,)  a  skilful  Dutch 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1746.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  that  city.  Died  in 
1813. 

Andriessens,  (J.,)  a  brother  of  the  precedmg,  born 
at  Amsterdam  in  1742,  was  a  painter  of  history  and  land- 
scape, and  a  distinguished  teacher  of  art.  Several  emi- 
nent artists  were  pupils  of  his  school  at  Amsterdam. 
Died  in  1819. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Andrieu  or  Andrieux,  SN^dRe'uh',  (Bertrand,) 
a  celebrated  French  medallist  and  mint  engraver,  born 
at  Bordeaux  about  1760.  He  worked  in  Paris,  and  ex- 
celled in  minuteness  and  correctness  of  execution.  He 
engraved  medals  for  the  most  iniportant  events  of  the 
reign  of  Napoleon.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  Na- 
poleon crossing  the  Alps,"  "  The  Battle  of  Marengo," 
and  "The  Peace  of  Vienna."    Died  in  1822, 

Andrieu,  6NMRe''uh',  (Marie  Martin  Antoine,) 
a  French  military  officer,  born  in  1768,  became  adjutant- 
general  in  1797.    Died  in  vSaint  Domingo  in  1802. 

Andrieux,  SN'dRe'uh',  (FRANgois  G^'uillaume  Jean 
Stanislas,)  a  popular  P'rench  dramatist  and  poet,  born 
at  Strasburg  in  1759.  He  studied  law,  which  he  prac- 
tised for  soine  years.  In  1787  he  produced  a  successful 
comedy,  "  The  Giddy-Heads,"  ("  Les  Etourdis.")  He 
hailed  the  Revolution  with  joy  ;  he  was  chosen  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1798,  and  of  the 
Tribunat  in  1800.  Having  been  removed  from  this 
office,  on  account  of  his  independence,  in  1802,  he  re 


a,  e,  ■},  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  skori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f;\ll,  f^t;  met;  n6t;  good;  moonj 


JNDRIOLI 


127 


AN  BROS 


nounced  politics.  In  1804  he  became  professor  of  gram- 
mar and  belles-lettres  in  the  Ecole  Polytechnique,  and 
librarian  of  the  Senate.  He  was  chosen,  at  the  unani- 
mous desire  of  the  members  of  the  French  Academy, 
professor  of  literature  in  the  College  of  France  in  1814, 
which  position  he  held  nearly  twenty  years.  As  a  lec- 
turer he  was  very  popular.  In  1829  he  was  elected  per- 
petual secretary  of  the  French  Academy.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  several  comedies  in  verse,  one  of 
which  is  called  "La  Comedienne,"  (1816,)  occasional 
poems,  and  "  Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of  the  Belles- 
Lettres."    Died  in  Paris  in  1833. 

See  A.  H.  Taillandier,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  las  Ouviages 
d'Andrieux,"  1850;  M.  Thiers,  "  Discours  sur  Aiidrieux,"  in  the 
"  Recueil  de  I'Academie  Frangaise,"  1S30-39;  also  article  by  A.  H. 
Taillandier,  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Andrioli,  ln-dRe-o'lee,(GiROLAMO,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  Verona,  lived  about  1610. 

Andriolli,  Sn-dRe-oKlee,  (Michel  Angelo,)  a  phy- 
sician and  medical  writer  of  Verona,  lived  about  the  end 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  wrote  a  "  Manual  of 
Practical  Medicine,"  (1700,)  and  other  medical  works  of 
some  merit. 

_  An-dris'cus,  [Gr.  'k.v6pLaKog,]  a  native  of  Adramyt- 
tium,  in  Asia  Minor,  declared  himself,  about  150  B.C.,  the 
son  of  Perseus,  King  of  Macedon,  assumed  the  name 
of  Philip,  (whence  he  was  called  Pseudo-Philippus,  i.e. 
the  "false  Philip,")  and  made  himself  master  of  all 
Macedonia,  He  defeated  one  Roman  army,  but  was  at' 
length  defeated  himself  and  taken  prisoner  by  Caecilius 
Metellus,  148  B.C. 
Androcle.    See  Androcles. 

An'dro-cles,  ['AvJpo/cAf/f,]  an  Athenian  demagogue, 
enemy  of  Alcibiades,  after  whose  exile,  415  B.C.,  lie  be- 
came the  chief  of  the  democratic  party  at  Athens.  He 
was  assassinated  in  411  B.C. 

Androcles  or  An'dro-clus,  [Fr.  Androcle,  6n^- 
dRok'K,]  a  slave  who  lived  at  Rome  about  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era,  was  the  subject  of  a  well-known 
story,  which  is  briefly  as  follows.  He  ran  away  from 
his  master,  and  hid  himself  in  a  wild  region  of  Africa, 
where  he  extracted  a  thorn  from  the  foot  of  a  lion  that 
he  met  in  a  cave.  The  grateful  animal,  in  return, 
shared  with  Androcles  the  products  of  the  chase  for 
several  years.  Having  been  caught  by  his  master,  An- 
drocles was  condemned  to  fight  in  the  circus  with  a  lion, 
which  proved  to  be  his  former  friend,  and  received  him 
with  caresses.  Androcles  was  then  pardoned  and  set 
free.  This  remarkable  narrative  is  related  by  Aulus 
Gellius  on  the  authority  of  one  who  affirmed  that  he 
had  witnessed  the  scene  at  the  amphitheatre. 

See  "The  Guardian,"  No.  139,  by  Addison;  Dion  Cassius; 
AuLus  Gellius. 

An'dro-clus,  a  son  of  Codrus,  King  of  Athens,  led 
a  colony  to  Asia  Minor,  and  became  King  of  Ephesus, 
probably  about  1050  B.C. 

An-dro-9y'des,  ['Kv6poKv6rj^,]  a  Greek  painter,  a  na- 
tive of  Cyzicus,  was  a  rival  of  Zeuxis,  and  lived  about 
400  or  375  B.C. 

Androcydes,  a  Greek  physician  who  lived  about 
330  B.C. 

An-dro'ge-us,  [Gr.  'kvipoyeug ;  Fr.  Androg^e,  6n^- 
dRo'zhi',]  a  son  of  Minos,  King  of  Crete,  vanquished 
all  the  Greek  athletes  at  the  games  of  the  Panathenasa. 
It  was  fabled  that  yEgeus,  moved  by  envy,  caused  him 
to  be  assassinated,  and  that  Minos  waged  war  against 
Athens  to  avenge  his  death. 

An-drom'a-ehe,  [Gr. ' Ardpoiiuxv ;  Fr.  Andromaque, 
5N'dRo'mtk',]  a  Trojan  lady,  the  wife  of  Hector,  cele- 
brated for  her  beauty  and  virtue.  On  the  fall  of  Troy 
she  became  the  captive  of  Pyrrhus.  She  was  afterwards 
the  wife  of  Helenus,  a  son  of  Priam. 

An-drom'a-ehus,  [Gr.' kvdpo^axog,]  an  ancient  phy- 
sician, native  of  Crete,  who  became  "Archiatros"  {i.e. 
"  chief  physician")  to  the  Roman  emperor  Nero.  He 
invented  or  improved  a  famous  medical  compound  called 
"Theri^aca  Androm'achi." 

Andromaque.    See  Andromache. 

An-drom'e-da,  [Gr.  'AvSpofiedrj ;  Fr.  Androm^de, 
Ss'dRo'mid',]  a  daughter  of  Cepheus,  King  of  Ethiopia, 
and  of  Cassiopeia.    According  to  the  Greek  poets,  she 


was  rescued  from  a  sea-monster  by  Perseus,  and  was 
transformed  into  a  constellation  of  the  celestial  sphere. 

Andronic,  the  French  of  Andronicus,  which  see. 

An-dro-m''cns  [Gr.  'AvdpoviKog]  of  Olyn^'i-hus,  a 
general  of  Alexander  the  Great.  In  314  B.C.  he  fought 
for  Demetrius  against  Ptolemy. 

Andronicus,  an  Egyptian  Jew,  who  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Ptolemy  Philometor,  in  the  second  century  B.C.  In  a 
judicial  contest  between  the  Jews  and  Samaritans,  re- 
specting the  authority  of  the  temples  at  Jerusalem  and 
Gerizim  in  Samaria,  Andronicus  pleaded  the  cause  of  the 
[ews  with  success  before  the  king. 

Andronicus,  a  Greek  poet  of  high  reputation,  born 
in  Egypt,  lived  about  360  a.d.  His  works  are  not  ex- 
tant. 

Androni'cus,  (Joan''nes  Callis'tus,)  a  Greek 
teacher,  born  at  Thessalonica,  (Saloniki,)  was  learned  in 
grammar  and  philosophy.  After  the  capture  of  Con- 
stantinople in  1453,  he  fled  to  Italy,  and  taught  the  Greek 
language  at  Rome  and  Florence.  He  was  afterwards  a 
professor  in  the  University  of  Paris.    Died  about  1478. 

Andronicus,  (Marcus  Livius.)  See  Livius  An- 
dronicus. 

Andronicus,  (Marcus  Pomphjus,)  an  Epicurean 
philosopher  of  Syria,  taught  at  Rome  about  60  B.C. 

Androni'cus  Rho'dius,  (i.e.  "of  Rhodes,")  a 
Peripatetic  philosopher,  who  collected,  revised,  and  ar- 
ranged the  works  of  Aristotle  about  80  B.C.  He  is  said 
to  have  invented  the  term  Metaphysics.  His  works  are 
lost. 

Andronicus  An'ge-lus,  a  nephew  of  Alexis  Com 
nenus,  was  a  general  in  the  reign  of  Manuel,  1143-80 
His  sons  Isaac  and  Alexis  became  emperors. 

Androni'cus  I.,  Com-ne'nus,  [Gr.  'AvdpoviKog  Kofi 
vrjvuc;  Fr.  Andronic,  oN'dRo'n^k',]  a  Byzantine  em 
peror,  remarkable  for  his  talents,  personal  beauty, 
strength,  profligacy,  and  cruelty.  He  was  born  about 
1 1 15,  and  was  a  grandson  of  Alexis  I.  Comnenus.  He 
succeeded  in  getting  himself  appointed  regent  during  the 
minority  of  Alexis  II.  ;  but,  abusing  the  powers  thus  con- 
ferred, he  put  that  prince  and  his  mother  the  empress 
Maria  to  death,  and  usurped  the  throne,  in  1 183.  Some 
of  the  nobles  having  formed  a  conspiracy  against  him, 
he  determined  to  exterminate  the  whole  body  of  the 
aristocracy.  When  multitudes  had  already  perished,  and 
his  cruel  purpose  seemed  on  the  point  of  being  com- 
pletely fulfilled,  the  people  of  Constantinople  rose  in 
insurrection,  seized  Andronicus,  and,  after  inflicting  on 
him  every  species  of  indignity,  put  him  to  death,  in  1 185. 

See  Nicetas,  "Andronicus  Comnenus;"  Gibbon,  "Decline  and 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Androni^cus  Cyrrhes'tes,  (sTr-r5s't^z,)  [Kvji/^^arr/f,] 
a  Greek  architect,  who  is  supposed  to  have  designed  the 
Tower  of  the  Winds  at  Athens,  which  was  intended  to 
show  the  direction  of  the  wind. 

Andronicus  II.,  Palaeologus,  (pa-le-oKo-gus,)  [Gr. 
Tla2ai6?iOyo^,]  a  son  of  the  emperor  Michael,  was  born 
abc^lit  1260,  and  began  to  reign  in  1283.  He  manifested 
a  decided  hostility  to  the  Roman  Pontiff,  by  whom  he 
was  excommunicated  in  1307.  He  waged  war  with  va- 
rious success  against  the  Turks.  In  1328  he  was  de- 
posed by  his  grandson  Andronicus,  and  died  about  1332. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Andronicus  III.,  Palaeologus,  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  about  1296.  The  emperor  his  grand- 
father resolved,  on  account  of  his  dissolute  habits,  to 
deprive  him  of  his  right  to  the  succession.  After  a  civil 
war  of  several  years  between  the  young  prince  and  his 
grandfather,  the  latter  abdicated  in  1328.  Andronicus 
III.  was  defeated  by  the  Turks  in  1330,  and  was,  from  the 
time  of  his  accession,  involved  in  almost  continual  wars. 
Died  in  1341,  aged  forty-five,  and  v/as  succeeded  by  his 
son  John. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

An'drps,  (Edmund,)  an  English  gentleman,  born  in 
London  in  1637,  was  in  1672  major  in  Prince  Rupert's 
regiment  of  dragoons.  In  1674  he  was  appointed  Gov- 
ernor of  New  York.  He  was  recalled  in  1681,  and  re- 
ceived the  honour  of  knighthood.  In  1686,  James  II., 
having  resolved  to  unite  the  whole  of  New  England 
under  one  government,  appointed  Sir  Edmund  Andros 


f  as     9  as  s;  g  /larJ;  g  as G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ANDROS 


128 


ANGELIS 


Governor  of  the  same,  and  subsequently,  in  1688,  of 
New  York.  In  consequence  of  his  arbitrary  proceedings, 
his  administration  became  very  unpopular.  On  the  news 
of  the  landing  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  in  England,  the 
inhabitants  of  Boston  rose  in  insurrection,  (April,  1689,) 
imprisoned  Andros,  and  restored  Bradstreet,  the  former 
Governor.  In  the  following  July,  orders  came  from 
King  William  to  send  Andros  to  England ;  but,  the 
charges  against  him  having  been  withdrawn,  he  escaped 
-mpunished,  and  afterwards,  in  1692,  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Virginia.  He  was  removed  in  1698,  and 
died  in  England  in  17 13  or  1 7 14. 

See  Belknap,  "History  of  New  Hampshire;"  Neal,  "History 
of  New  England;"  Bancroft,  "History  of  the  United  States," 
vols.  ii.  and  iii. ;  Hildreth,  "History  of  the  United  States." 

An'dros,  (Thomas,)  an  American  divine  and  patriot, 
born  at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1759.  He  fought  at 
the  battles  of  Long  Island  and  White  Plains,  was  after- 
wards taken  prisoner,  and  confined  in  a  prison-ship, 
from  which  he  escaped.  He  preached  more  than  forty 
years  at  Berkeley,  Massachusetts.    Died  in  1845. 

An-dros'the-nes,  [GxJ kvi^poadevrig,]  a  Greek  sculptor 
of  Athens,  lived  about  420  B.C.,  and  adorned  the  temple 
of  Apollo  at  Delphos. 

Andros  thenes  of  Thasos,  a  general  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  accompanied  Nearchus  in  the  expedition  to 
explore  the  Persian  Gulf. 

An-dro'ti-on,  ['Ai'dponwv,]  an  Athenian  orator  and 
demagogue,  a  pupil  of  Isocrates,  lived  about  350  B.C. 
We  have  an  oration  of  Demosthenes  against  a  political 
measure  which  Androtion  advocated. 

Androuet  du  Cerceau,  SnMroo^A'  dii  sSr'sS', 
(Jacques,)  a  skilful  French  architect,  born  at  Paris,  (or, 
as  some  writers  state,  at  Orleans,)  was  a  Protestant.  He 
was  appointed  royal  architect  about  1578,  and  designed 
the  Pont  Neuf,  at  Paris.  He  was  employed  by  Henry 
IV.  in  the  extension  of  the  Tuileries,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  commenced  the  gallery  of  the  Louvre.  He  pub- 
lished several  architectural  works,  one  of  which  is  called 
"The  Most  Excellent  Buildings  {Bdtimeiits)  of  France," 
(1576.)    Died  about  1592,  in  exile  for  his  religion. 

See  Dezallier  d'Argenville,  "Vies  des  fameux  Architectes." 

Andry,  SnMrc',  (Charles  Louis  Francois,)  a 
French  physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1741.  He  wrote  an 
able  "Treatise  on  the  Induration  of  Cellular  Tissue 
in  New-born  Infants,"  (1788.)  He  was  one  of  the  con- 
sulting physicians  of  Napoleon  I.    Died  in  1829. 

Andry,  (Nicolas,)  surnamed  Boisregard,  (bw^R'- 
gtR',)  a  French  physician  and  medical  writer,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1658,  became  dean  of  the  faculty  of  medicine 
in  the  University  of  Paris  in  1724.  He  lost  this  position 
after  the  lapse  of  two  years.  His  "Treatise  on  the  Gen- 
eration of  Worms  in  the  Human  Body"  (1700)  was 
reprinted  and  translated  into  English,  German,  Italian, 
and  Dutch.    Died  in  1742. 

Aneau  or  Anneau,  t'n5',  (Barthelemy,)  a  French 
poet  and  historian,  born  at  Bourges,  was  favourable  to 
the  Protestant  faith.    He  was  killed  by  a  mob  in  1561. 

Anel,  t^n^K,  (Dominique,)  a  distinguished  French 
surgeon,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1678.  He  introduced 
important  improvements  m  the  operations  for  aneurism 
and  fistula  lachrymalis.  His  method  for  the  former  was 
further  improved  by  John  Hunter.  He  practised  in 
Paris  with  high  reputation,  chiefly  as  an  oculist,  and 
wrote  several  surgical  works.  Died  probably  about  1725. 

See  "Biographie  Medicale." 

Aneley.    See  Annesley. 

Anelli,  i-neKlee,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian  poet  and  pro- 
fessor, born  near  Brescia  in  1761.  He  became  professor 
of  history  and  eloquence  at  Brescia  in  1802,  and  of  fo- 
rensic eloquence  at  Milan  in  1809.  Among  his  works 
are  odes,  elegies,  comedies,  and  a  humorous  satirical 
poem  called  "  The  Chronicles  of  Pindus,"  ("  Le  Cronache 
di  Pindo,"  181 1,)  which  is  commended.    Died  in  1820. 

Anerio,  3.-na're-o,  (Felice,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
composer,  was  born  at  Rome  about  1560.  He  composed 
both  sacred  and  secular  music,  and  succeeded  Pales- 
trina  as  composer  to  the  chapel  of  the  pope.  Died 
about  1630. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Unlverselle  des  Musiciens." 


Anerio,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  a  composer  and 
musician,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rome 
about  1567  ;  died  after  1603. 

Anesi,  ^-na'see,  (Paolo,)  a  painter,  born  at  Florence, 
lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

An'eu-rin,  a  Welsh  poet  of  the  sixth  century.  Among 
his  works  is  a  poem  of  nine  hundred  lines,  called  the 
"Gododin,"  which  is  still  extant. 

See  E.  Jones,  "  Relicks  of  the  Welsh  Bards." 

Anfossi,  ^n-fos'see,  (Pasquale,)  a  successful  Italian 
dramatic  composer,  born  at  Naples  about  1733.  He 
lived  in  Paris,  London,  and  Rome,  and  composed  many 
operas,  oratorios,  masses,  and  motets.  Among  his  best 
operas  are  "Antigone"  and  "  L'Avaro."  He  died  at 
Rome  about  1795. 

Anfosso,  in-fos'so,  (Jacopo,)  an  able  Italian  en- 
graver, worked  at  Pavia  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Ange  de  Saint-Joseph,  6Nzh  deh  siN'zho'zgf ,  or 
Joseph  Labrosse,  (It'bRoss',)  a  French  missionary, 
born  at  Toulouse  in  1636,  laboured  in  Persia.  Died  in 
1697. 

Ange  de  Sainte-Rosalie,  5Nzh  deh  s^Nt'ro^zt'le', 
or  FRANgois  Raffard,  (ri'ftR^,)  a  French  monk,  born 
at  Blois  in  1655.  He  wrote  a  History  of  the  House  of 
France.    Died  in  1726. 

Angela  of  Brescia,  or  Angela  Merici,  Sn'ji-U 
ma-ree'chee,  who  founded  the  order  of  Ursuline  nuns, 
,was  born  near  Brescia  in  1511  ;  died  in  1540. 

Angeli,  (French  and  German.)    See  Angely. 

An'ge-li,  (singular,  An'ge-lus,)  the  name  of  a  By- 
zantine family,  several  of  whose  members  were  empe- 
rors of  Constantinople  ;  viz.,  Isaac  Angelus,  who  died 
in  1204,  Alexis  III.,  (see  Alexis,)  and  Alexis  IV. 

Angeli,  in'ja-lee,  (Bonaventura,)  an  Italian  writer 
and  jurist,  born  at  Ferrara  about  1525  ;  died  about  1592. 
His  most  important  work  is  a  "History  of  Parma," 
(159 1.)    He  also  wrote  several  legal  treatises. 

Angeli,  in'ja-lee,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
landscapes  and  battles,  born  in  Rome,  was  esteemed  one 
of  the  best  landscape-painters  of  his  time.  He  worked 
at  Florence,  to  which  he  removed  in  1612,  and  was  pa- 
tronized by  the  Grand  Duke  Cosmo.  In  his  works  the 
aerial  perspective  is  w^ell  expressed,  and  he  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  painter  who  applied  the  strict  rules 
of  perspective  to  landscapes.  He  was  sometimes  called 
Filippo  Napolitano,  because  he  lived  at  Naples  in  his 
youth.    Died  about  1645. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Angeli,  (Stefano,)  an  able  Italian  mathematician, 
who  lived  about  1650,  was  a  pupil  of  Cavalieri.  He 
taught  mathematics  at  Padua,  advocated  the  Copernican 
system,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Proble- 
mata  Geometrica,"  (1658.) 

Angelico,  (Era.)    See  Fiesole. 

Angelico,  in-jSKe-ko,  (Michel  Angelo,)  an  Italian 
apothecary,  born  at  Vicenza,  lived  about  1600. 

Angelico,  (Michel  Angelo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Vicenza.  He  entered  the  service  of  the  emperor 
Leopold  in  1690  as  imperial  poet,  and  lived  at  Vienna. 
Among  his  works  is  a  volume  of  "  Lyric  Poems," 
("Poesie  liriche,"  1665.)    Died  at  Vienna  in  1697. 

Angelio,  an-ja'le-o,  or  degli  Angeli,  daKyee  ^n'- 
ji-lee,  (PiETRO,)  [Lat.  Pe'trus  Ange'lius,]  a  distin- 
guished Italian  scholar  and  writer  of  Latin  poetry,  was 
born  at  Barga,  (whence  he  was  called  Barg^us,  bar- 
je''us,)  in  Lucca,  in  15 17.  He  was  professor  of  belles- 
lettres,  etc.  at  Pisa  for  about  twenty-five  years.  Among 
many  other  poems,  he  wrote  a  Latin  epic  on  the  con* 
quest  of  Jerusalem  by  the  crusaders,  entitled  "The 
Syriad,"  ("  Syriados  Libri  XII.,"  1591,)  a  work  which  was 
greatly  admired  by  his  contemporaries  and  was  even 
compared  to  Tasso's  immortal  poem.  In  the  estimation, 
however,  of  more  recent  critics,  it  possesses  but  little 
merit.  His  poem  on  hunting,  "  Cynegeticon,  vel  de 
Venatione,"  (1562,)  is  commended  as  his  best  work. 
Died  in  1596. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia;"  Ginguen^,  "  Histoire 
Litteraire  d' Italic." 

Angelis,  an'ji-l^s,  or  degli  Angeli,  dil'yee  Sn'ji-lee, 
(Alessandro,)  an  Italian  astronomer,  born  at  Spoleto 
in  1562;  died  in  1620. 


a,  e,  1,  0,  ii,  y,  long;  \  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  3?,  short;  a,    i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ANGhLIS  129 


ANGLESET 


Angelis,  (Filitpo.)    See  An-geli.  1 

Angelis,  6.N''2ha''less'',  (Pierre,)  a  French  painter  of 
landscapes  and  conversation-pieces,  born  at  Dunkirk  in 
1685.  He  worked  several  years  in  England  with  suc- 
cess, visited  Rome  in  1728,  and  afterwards  settled  at 
Rennes,  where  he  died  in  1734.  "  His  manner,"  says 
Walpole,  "  was  a  mixture  of  Teniers  and  Watteau,  with 
more  grace  than  the  former,  more  nature  than  the  latter." 

See  Walpole,  "  Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Angelis,  de,  da  an'ja-les,  (Domfnico,)  a  Neapolitan 
biographer,  born  at  Lecce  in  1675;  died  in  1719. 

Angelis,  de,'{GiROLAMO,)  a  devoted  Jesuit  mission- 
ary, born  in  Sicily  in  1567.  Fie  visited  the  Japanese 
islands  in  1602,  and,  after  having  made  many  thousand 
converts,  was  burnt  alive  in  1623. 

Angelis,  de,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  in 
Syracuse  ;  died  in  1647. 

'Angelis,  de,  da  ax'zha-les,  (Pedro,)  a  Portuguese 
publicist,  born  in  Italy,  resided  at  Buenos  Ayres.  He 
published  in  Spanish  a  work  on  the  history  of  the  prov- 
inces of  Rio  de  la  Plata  (in  seven  volumes,  the  first  of 
which  appeared  in  1836.)  It  is  entitled  "  Coleccion  de 
Obras  y  Documentos  relativos  a  la  Historia,"  etc. 

Angell,  an'jel,  (Joseph  K.,)  a  distinguished  Ameri- 
can writer  on  law,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in 
1794.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Right  of  Property  in  Tide-Waters,"  (1826.)  In 
conjunction  with  Samuel  Ames,  he  wrote  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Law  of  Private  Corporations  Aggregate,"  (2d 
edition,  1S43,)  which,  says  Chancellor  Kent,  is  a  "very 
learned,  full,  and  finished  treatise,  and  cannot  be  too 
highly  praised."    Died  in  1857. 

Aiigelo,  an'ji-lo,  (F.,)  an  Italian  poet  of  Florence, 
wrote  "  I  Lucidi,"  a  comedy,  and  other  poems.  Died  at 
Rome  in  154S. 

Angelo  di  Buonarotti,  (Michael.)  See  Michael 
Angelo. 

Angelo,  (Policiano.)    See  Poliziaxo. 

Angelo,  di,  de  Sn'ji-lo,  (Jacopo,)  a  Tuscan,  who 
lived  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  and  was 
distinguished  for  his  successful  efforts  to  introduce  into 
Italy  the  study  of  Greek  literature. 

Angeloni,'an-ia-lo'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Terni,  in  the  Roman  States,  was  the 
uncle  and  instructor  of  Bellori.  He  was  secretary  to 
Cardinal  Aldobrandini.  Among  his  principal  works  is 
"Istoria  Augusta,"  and  "The  History  of  Rome  from 
Julius  Caisar  to  Constantine  the  Great,  illustrated  by 
Ancient  Medals,"  (1641.)    Died  in  Rome  in  1652. 

Angeloni,  (Luigt,)  an  Italian  politician,  born  in  the 
Roman  Campagna  about  1758.  He  became  a  tribune  in 
the  Roman  republic  in  1798,  and  emigrated  or  fled  to 
Paris  in  1799.  He  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against 
Bonaparte,  and  was  imprisoned  for  a  number  of  months, 
about  1810.  In  181 1  he  published  a  work  on  the  life 
and  writings  of  Guido  d'Arezzo,  who'  has  been  called 
the  restorer  of  music.  He  also  wrote  several  political 
treatises.    Died  in  London  in  1842, 

Angelo  Rocca.    See  Rocca. 

Angelucci,  an-ji-loot'chee,  (Teodoro,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  physician,  born  near  Tolentino,  in  the  march 
of  Ancona.  He  was  an  admirer  of  Aristotle's  philosophy, 
in  behalf  of  which  he  wrote  against  Patrizzi.  He  left, 
besides  several  medical  works,  a  translation  of  Virgil's 
yEneid  into  blank  verse,  (1649,)  which  is  praised  by 
some  Italian  critics.    Died  at  Montagnana  in  1600. 

An'ge-lus,  (Christopher,)  a  Greek  scholar,  who 
came  to  England  in  1608,  and,  after  studying  in  Trinity 
College,  taught  at  Oxford,  where  he  died  in  1638.  He 
left  a  few  unimportant  works  written  in  Greek  and 
also  in  English,  and  some  others  written  in  Greek  and 
Latin. 

An'ge-lns  Sile'sius,(se-lee'she^s,)  [Ger.  pron.  ang'- 
gi-lus  se-la'ze-iis,]  otherwise  called  Johann  ScheFfier, 
a  German  poet,  born  at  Breslau  in  1624.  He  was  author 
of  "The  Angelic  Book  of  Wonders,"  (" Cherubinisches 
Wunderbuch,"  1674.)    Died  in  1677. 

Angely  or  Angeli,  6.\zh'le^  or  L'Angely,  ISxzh^le', 
a  Vi'itty  court  fool  to  Louis  XIII.  of  France.  His  name 
is  preserved  in  Boileau's  ist  Satire. 

Angely,  SNzh'le',  (Louis,)  a  popular  German  dra- 


matic writer  and  actor,  born  at  Berlin  about  1775,  of  a 
family  originally  from  France.  He  particularly  excelled 
as  a  ready  and  rapid  translator  of  French  comedies  and 
vaudevilles.  His  "  Feast  of  the  Craftsmen,"  and  "  Seven 
Girls  in  Uniform,"  had  great  success.    Died  in  1835. 

Angennes,  d',  ddx'zhen',  (Charles,)  a  brother  of 
Claude,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1530,  and  made  car- 
dinal in  1570.    Died  in  1587. 

Angennes,  d',  (Claude,)  Bishop  of  Mans,  an  influ 
ential  ecclesiastic  in  the  time  of  Henry  HI.  and  Henry 
IV.  of  France.    Born  in  1538;  died  in  1601. 

Angerbode  or  Angerboda.    See  Angurboda. 

Angermayer,  c^ng'er-ml'er,  (Christoph,)  a  Bavarian 
sculptor,  born  at  Weilheim  ;  died  in  1653. 

Angerstein,  ang''er-stTn,  (John  Julius,)  a  patron  of 
the  fine  arts,  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1735.  He  re- 
moved to  England,  where  he  became  an  eminent  mer- 
chant. His  rich  collection  of  paintings  forms  part  of  the 
National  Gallery  in  London.    Died  in  1822. 

Anghiera,  de,  da  an-ge-a'rS,  (Pietro  Martire — 
maR'te-ra,)  [Lat.  Pe'trus  Mar'tyr  Axgle^'rius,]  an 
Italian  scholar,  statesman,  and  historian,  born  at  Arona, 
on  Lake  Maggiore,  of  a  noble  Milanese  family,  in  1455, 
went  to  Spain  in  148S,  and  spent  several  years  at  the 
court  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  whence  he  was  sent 
in  1 501  on  an  embassy  to  Venice  and  Cairo.  He  was 
afterwards  appointed  a  member  of  the  Council  of  the 
Indies.  Died  at  Granada  in  1526.  He  left  a  valuable 
historical  work  on  the  progress  of  American  discovery, 
entitled  "Concerning  the  Things  of  the  Ocean  and  the 
New  World,"  etc.,  ("De  Rebus  Oceanicis  et  Orbe  Novo 
Decades,"  1530.) 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  ;i.  part  ii. 

Angilbert,  ang''gil-bert,  or  En'gil-bert,  [Fr.  pron. 
Sx'zherbaiR' ;  Lat.  Angilber'tus  or  Engilber'tus,] 
Saint,  a  pupil  of  Alcuin,  and  confidential  friend  of 
Charlemagne,  became  abbot  of  Saint-Riquier  in  793,  and 
died  in  814  a.d.  He  was  the  author  of  some  short  Latin 
poems.  Bertha,  a  daughter  of  Charlemagne,  was  his 
wife,  or  at  least  mother  of  his  children.  Angilbert  was 
called  the  Homer  of  his  time. 

See  Mabillon,  "Acta,"  etc.,  p.  loi  et  seq. ;  "  Histoire  Litteraire 
de  France." 

Angiolello,  .^n-jo-leFlo,  or  Anzolello,  an-zo-leKlo, 
(Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Italian,  who  was  taken  captive 
in  1469,  and  became  the  slave  of  the  sultan  Mahomet 
II.  He  accompanied  the  Turkish  army  in  1473  in  its 
invasion  of  the  dominions  of  Uzun  Cassim,  King  of 
Persia,  of  which  expedition  he  wrote  a  historical  account. 
Died  about  1530. 

Angiolini,  au-jo-lee'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
jesuit  and  scholar,  l)orn  at  Piacenza  in  1738.  He  trans- 
lated Josephus  into  Italian,  (1780,)  also  some  dramas  of 
Sophocles  and  Euripides.    Died  at  Polotsk  in  i  788. 

Angivilier,  d',  d6N'zhe\e'ya',  (Charles  Claude 
Labillarderie — la'be''ySRd're^)  Count,  a  French  pa- 
tron of  arts  and  sciences,  a  favourite  of  Louis  XVI.,  be- 
came director  of  the  royal  buildings,  gardens,  manufac- 
tures, etc.    Died  in  iSio. 

Anglada,  oN'glt'da',  (Joseph,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Perpignan  in  1775.  He  was  professor  of  medi- 
cine or  chemistry  at  Montpellier,  and  author  of  a  "  Treat- 
ise on  the  Mineral  Waters  of  the  Pyrenees,"  (2  vols., 
1833,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Toxicology,"  (1835.)  Died 
in  1833. 

Angleberme  or  Engleberme,  d',  ddN^g'l-baRm', 
(Jean  Pvrrhus,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Orleans  in 
1470,  was  instructed  in  Latin  and  Greek  by  Erasmus. 
He  became  professor  of  law  at  Orleans,  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Salic  Law," 
(1613.)    Died  in  1521. 

Anglesey,  (Arthur.)    See  Annesley. 

Anglesey,  Earl  of.    See  Annesley. 

Anglesey,  ang'g'l-see,  (Henry  William  Pag''et,) 
MARQUIS  OF,  a  British  general  and  statesman,  born  in 
1768,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  Earl  of  Uxbridge,  and 
was  styled  Lord  Paget  in  his  youth.  He  served  in  the 
campaign  of  Flanders  in  1794,  and  commanded  the  cav- 
alry of  the  army  of  the  Duke  of  York  in  Holland  in 
1799.  Having  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general  in 
1808,  he  distinguished  himself  as  a  cavalry  officer  in 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  H,  K,gutt2cral;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  tliis.    (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  2  \.) 

9 


ANGLICUS 


AN  HALT 


Spain  under  Sir  John  Moore.  On  the  death  of  his  fa- 
ther in  1 812  he  succeeded  to  the  earldom,  and  entered 
the  House  of  Lords,  He  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  cavah-y  of  the  British  army  in  the  spring  of  181 5, 
and  rendered  important  services  at  Waterloo,  where  he 
lost  a  leg.  A  few  days  after  this  action  he  was  rewarded 
with  the  title  of  Marquis  of  Anglesey.  In  18 19  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  general.  He  became  master- 
general  of  the  ordnance  on  the  formation  of  the  minis- 
try of  Canning  in  1827,  and  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland 
in  1828.  Having  declared  in  favour  of  Catholic  eman- 
cipation, he  was  recalled  about  the  end  of  1828,  but  was 
appointed  again  to  that  office  by  Earl  Grey  in  1830. 
He  resigned  office  in  1833,  and  was  master  of  the  ord- 
nance from  1846  to  1852.  Died  in  1854,  leaving  several 
sons. 

See  Lodgk's  "Portraits;"  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  June,  1854. 

Anglicus.    See  Gilbertus. 
Angliviel.    See  Beaumelle. 

Anglure,  d',  dSN'gliiR',  (Oger,  o^zhaiR',)  a  French 
gentleman,  who  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine  in  1395 
and  wrote  a  narrative  of  his  journey. 

Anglus,  (Thomas.)    See  White. 

Ango  or  Angot  (6N'go')  of  Dieppe,  a  rich  French 
ship-owner,  who,  in  1530,  blockaded  Lisbon  on  his  pri- 
vate account  and  obtained  compensation  for  injuries 
which  his  vessels  had  sustained  from  the  Portuguese. 
Died  in  1551. 

Ango,  (Pierre,)  a  writer  on  optics,  lived  at  Caen  be- 
tween 1650  and  1700. 

Angosciola.    See  Anguisciola. 

Angot,  dN%o^  (Robert,)  a  French  poet  of  moderate 
talents,  born  at  Caen  in  1581.  He  published  in  1603  a 
collection  of  odes,  sonnets,  epigrams,  etc.,  called  "  Le 
Prelude  poetique." 

Angot  des  Rotours.    See  Desrotours. 

Angouleme,  d',  dSN'goo'lSm',  Com  te,  was  the  title 
oi  Francis  I.  before  his  accession.  Charles  IX.  was 
styled  the  Duke  of  Angouleme  before  he  was  king. 

Angouldme,  d ,  (Charles  de  Valois — deh  vi'lwi',) 
Due,  a  natural  son  of  Charles  IX.  of  France,  was  born 
in  1573.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battles  of 
Arques  and  Ivry,  (1590,)  where  he  fought  for  Henry  IV. 
He  was  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life  in  1604  for 
a  plot  against  that  king,  but  was  released  in  1616. 
He  opened  the  famous  siege  of  Rochelle  in  1628,  and 
was  commander-in-chief  there  until  the  arrival  of  the 
king.  He  displayed  address  and  talent  in  civil  and 
military  affairs,  but  was  destitute  of  principle.  Died  in 
1650. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Angouleme,  d',  (Jacques,)  an  eminent  French  sculp- 
tor, who  worked  at  Rome  about  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  Among  his  works  (which  were  com- 
pared to  those  of  Michael  Angelo)  was  a  statue  of  Au- 
tumn, at  Meudon,  near  Paris. 

Angouleme,  d',  (Louis  Antoine  de  Bourbon — 
deh  booR^boN^,)  Due,  a  son  of  Comte  d'Artois,  after- 
wards Charles  X.  of  France,  was  born  in  1775.  He 
emigrated  with  his  father  in  1789,  and  resided  some  time 
at  Turin.  In  1799  he  married  his  cousin  Marie  Therese 
Charlotte,  a  daughter  of  Louis  XVI.  Having  been  re- 
fused the  privilege  of  asylum  by  several  powers  of  the 
continent,  they  lived  in  England  from  1S06  to  1814. 
He  commanded  the  French  army  which  invaded  Spain 
in  1823  and  restored  Ferdinand  VH.  to  absolute  power. 
He  assumed  the  title  of  dauphin  when  his  father  be- 
came king  in  1824.    Died  at  Goritz  in  1844. 

Angouldme,  d',  (Marie  Therese  Charlotte,) 
Duchess,  v/ife  of  the  preceding,  was  a  daughter  of  Louis 
XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette.  She  was  born  at  Versailles 
in  1778,  and  imprisoned  in  the  Temple  in  August  of  1792, 
with  the  king  and  queen.  In  1795,  by  the  mediation  of 
Austria,  she  was  released  and  exchanged  for  Camus  and 
other  members  of  the  Convention.  She  returned  to 
France  with  her  husband  in  1814,  and  was  at  Bordeaux 
when  Bonaparte  arrived  from  Elba.  The  duke,  having 
received  a  high  command  as  lieutenant-general  of  the 
kingdom,  assembled  an  army  to  oppose  the  Bonapart- 
ists.    The  duchess  is  said  to  have  acted  with  more  en- 


ergy and  spirit  in  thib  crisis  than  the  other  Bourbons. 
She  again  became  an  exile  in  1830,  and  died  in  1851. 

See  Mrs.  Romer,  "Memoirs  of  the  Duchess  of  Angouleme." 

Angran  d'AUeray,  6N^gR6N'  dlKr^V,  (Denis  Fran- 
c^ois,)  a  benevolent  French  judge,  born  in  Paris  in  1715, 
He  was  executed  in  1794  for  sending  money  to  his  son- 
in-law,  who  had  emigrated. 

Anguier,  6N'ge-a^  (Franqois,)  an  excellent  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Eu,  in  Normandy,  in  1604.  He  studied 
at  Rome,  and  after  his  return  was  appointed  by  Louis 
XIII.  keeper  of  his  cabinet  of  antiques.  Among  his 
best  productions  are  a  tomb  of  Cardinal  de  Berulle  and 
a  mausoleum  of  the  Duke  of  Montmorency  at  Moulins. 
His  works  are  remarkable  for  truth  of  expression. 
Died  in  1669. 

See  "  Vies  des  fameux  Sculpteurs." 

Anguier,  (Michel,)  a  celebrated  sculptor,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Eu  in  1612.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Algardi  at  Rome,  where  he  studied  and  worked  ten 
years.  In  1651  he  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  became 
rector  of  the  Academy.  His  master-piece  is  i  group  of 
the  Nativity,  in  the  church  of  Val  de  Grace.  Died  in 
1686. 

Anguillara,  an-gwel-la'rS,  (Luigi,)  an  eminent  Italian 
botanist,  born  at  Anguillara,  in  the  Papal  States.  He 
became  superintendent  of  the  botanic  garden  at  Padua 
about  1546,  and,  according  to  Sprengel,  was  professor  in 
that  city.  In  1561  he  resigned  his  office  and  retired  to 
Florence.  Having  travelled  in  Greece  and  other  foreign 
lands,  and  collected  many  plants,  he  endeavoured  to  iden- 
tify them  with  those  described  by  the  ancient  Greek  and 
Roman  writers.  He  was  author  of  a  work  on  "  Simples," 
("Semplici  di  Luigi  Anguillara,"  1561,)  which  had  a  high 
reputation.    Died  about  1570. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalla;"  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca 
Botanica;"  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie. " 

Anguillara,  deir,  dSl-lSn-gwil-li^ra,  (Giovanni  An- 
drea,) a  popular  Italian  poet,  born  at  Sutri,  in  the  Papal 
States,  about  151 7,  is  said  to  have  ruined  himself  by  de- 
bauchery, gaming,  and  other  vices.  His  principal  work 
is  a  translation,  or  rather  a  free  imitation,  of  Ovid's 
"Metamorphoses,"  (1554-61,)  which  has  been  extrava- 
gantly praised  by  Italian  critics,  some  of  whom  have 
preferred  it  to  the  original.  Died  at  Rome  after  1565; 
but  the  exact  date  of  his  death  is  not  known. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia 
della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Anguillesi,  Sn-gwe-la'see,  (Giovanni  Domenico,)  an 
Italian  writer  and  scholar,  born  at  or  near  Pisa  in  1766. 
Died  in  1833.  He  translated  Chateaubriand's  "Genie 
du  Christianisme,"  and  other  French  works,  into  Italian. 

Anguisciola,  Sn-gwe-sho'lS,  or  Angussola,  ^n- 
goos'so-ld,  (SoFONiSBA,)  a  celebrated  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Cremona  about  1535,  was  a  pupil  of  Bernardino 
Gatti.  She  excelled  in  portraits.  liavingbeen  invited  by 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,  she  went  to  Madrid  and  painted  por- 
traits of  the  king  and  queen.  She  afterwards  worked  in 
Genoa,  and  was  married  to  Don  Fabrizzio  de  Moncada. 
About  the  age  of  sixty-seven  she  became  blind.  It  is 
stated  that  Van  Dyck  said  he  had  learned  more  from  her 
conversation  on  art  than  from  the  study  of  the  best  mas- 
ters. Died  about  1620.  Her  sisters  Lucia,  Europa,  and 
Anna  IMaria  were  skilful  painters. 

See  Bermudez,  "DIccionario  Historico;"  Soprani,  "  Vite  de'  Pit- 
tori  Genovesi." 

Angurboda  or  Angerboda,  Sng^ger-bo'da,  (Angr- 
boda,)  j.e.  "anguish-boding,"  written  also  An'gerbode, 
(Norse  Myth.,)"  a  female  Jotun,  who  by  Loki  became  the 
mother  of  the  wolf  Fenrir,  the  Midgards  SerpExNT, 
and  Hela,  (the  goddess  of  death.)  which  see. 

Angus,  Earls  of.   See  Douglas. 

Angus,  ang'gus,  (Samuel,)  a  captain  in  the  Ameri- 
can navy,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1784.  In  1814  he 
commanded  the  vessel  which  took  Adams  and  Clay  to 
Ghent  to  conclude  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain. 
Died  in  1840. 

Anhalt,  dn'hilt,  (Anton  Gunther-goon'ter,)  Prince 
of,  a  general,  born  in  1653,  fought  for  the  allies  against 
Louis"  XIV.  at  Steenkerke  and  Neerwinden.  He  re- 
ceived in  1703  the  command  of  a  Prussian  army  of  15,000 


a,  e,  T,  0,  %  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  llr,  fall,  fit;  m^t;  n5t:  good;  moon; 


AN  HAL  T-BER  NBER  G 


ANKWITZ 


men  in  the  service  of  Holland  and  England.  Died  in 
1 7 14. 

Anhalt-Bernberg,  an'hait  beRn'b^RG,  (Christian,) 
Prince  of,  born  in  1568,  was  an  ambitious  man,  of  su- 
perior talents.  He  was  the  master-spirit  of  the  negotia- 
tions which  resulted  in  a  union  of  the  Protestant  Ger- 
man princes  against  the  emperor  about  1608,  and  was 
appointed  second  commancler  of  the  army  of  that 
"  Union."  He  was  successively  offered  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  armies  of  Venice  and  of  France  ;  but  he 
refused  both  positions.  He  commanded  the  army  of 
Frederick,  Elector  Palatine,  which  was  defeated  at  Prague 
in  1620.    Died  in  1630. 

Anhalt-Coethen,  (or  -Kothen,)  Sn^hdlt  ko''ten, 
(LuDWiG,)  Prince  of,  born  at  Dessau  in  1579,  was  a  good 
classical  scholar.  He  fought  for  the  Protestant  party  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  war.    Died  in  1650. 

Anhalt-Dessau,  Sn^halt  de.s''s6w,  (Leopold,)  Prince 
OF,  a  distinguished  Prussian  general,  born  in  1676.  Pie 
displayed  able  generalship  at  the  battle  of  Blenheim, 
(1704,)  and  commanded  the  Prussian  forces  under 
Prince  Eugene  in  Italy  and  Flanders  from  1706  to  17 12. 
About  1 712  he  was  made  a  field-marshal.  He  was  com- 
mander-in-chief, next  to  the  king,  of  the  army  which  in 
1 715  marched  against  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden.  In  1745 
he  gained  a  victory  for  Frederick  the  Great  at  Kesselsdorf. 
Died  in  1747. 

See  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  "  Biographlsche  Denkmale." 

Anhalt-Dessau,  (Leopold  Maximilian,)  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  1 700,  served  the  King  of  Prussia 
in  the  war  against  Austria,  and  became  field-marshal- 
general.    Died  in  1751. 

Anhalt-Zei'bst-Dessau,  in'hdlt  ts^Rpst  d^s'sow, 
(George  IV.,)  Prince  of,  born  in  1507,  was  eminent  as 
a  scholar  and  Protestant  divine.  He  was  ordained  a 
priest  in  1524,  and  became  an  eloquent  preacher,  both 
in  German  and  Latin.  He  was  intimate  with  Luther 
and  Melanchthon.  Died  in  1553.  Some  of  his  sermons 
were  published  in  1570. 

See  Melchior  Adam,  "  Vits  Germanonim  Theologorum." 

Anhalt-Zerbst-Dessau,  (RuDOLni,)  Prince  of, 
born  about  1460,  was  distinguished  as  a  warrior.  He 
commanded  the  Imperial  army  in  the  war  against  the 
Venetians  from  1508  till  his  death  in  15 13. 

Aniano.    See  Anianus. 

A-ni-a'nus,  a  native  of  Campania,  was  a  deacon  and 
a  friend  of  Pelagius,  whose  doctrines  he  defended  at 
the  Council  of  Diospolis  in  415  a.d.  He  translated  the 
homilies  of  Chrysostom  into  Latin.  His  skill  and  fidel- 
ity as  a  translator  are  praised  by  Huet,  Simon,  and 
others. 

Anianus,  [It.  Aniano,  i-ne-^'no;  Y\.  Anien,  t'ne'- 
^n',]  secretary  of  Alaric  II.,  King  of  the  Visigoths. 
His  name  is  connected  with  a  remarkable  code  of  laws 
promulgated  by  Alaric  about  506  A.D. 

Anianus,  an  astronomer  and  poet  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  wrote  in  verse  "Computus  Manualis,"  (1488.) 

Anibert,  t'ne'baiR',  (Louis  Matthieu,)  a  French 
poet  and  antiquary,  born  in  1742;  died  in  1782. 

Anicet-Bourgeois.    See  Bourgeois. 

A-ni-ce'tus,  [Fr.  Anicet,  t'ne'sa',]  SAiNT,was  Bishop 
of  Rome  about  155  a.d.  The  date  of  his  death  is  uncer- 
tain. 

Anich,  S'niK,  (Peter,)  a  German  peasant,  born  near 
Innspruck  in  1723,  studied  mathematics  and  astronomy, 
and  was  employed,  under  the  patronage  of  the  empress 
Maria  Theresa,  in  making  maps.    Died  in  1766. 

Anichini,  d-ne-kee'nee,  (Luigi,)  a  noted  Italian 
cameo-  and  gem-engraver,  born  at  Ferrara,  worked  at 
Venice  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Anicii,  a-nish'e-T,  a  patrician  family  of  Rome,  espe- 
cially distinguished  in  the  later  periods  of  the  empire. 

Anicius,  a-nish'e-us,  (Lucius  Gallus,)  a  Roman 
praetor,  who  conquered  Illyricum  in  168  B.C. 

Aniello,  (Tommaso.)    See  Masaniello. 

Anien.    See  Anianus. 

Animuccia,  a-ne-moot'chS,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
musician,  born  at  Florence  about  1500.  He  became 
chapel-master  of  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome.  Died  about  1570. 

See  F^Tis,  "Biographic  des  Musiciens." 


Animuccia,  (Paolo,)  a  musician  and  composer,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  lived  at  Rome;  died  in  1563. 

Anisio,  3.-nee'se-o,  (Giovanni,)  a  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Naples  about  1472.  He  sometimes  wrote  his  name 
Janus  Anysius.  He  published  a  volume  of  Latin  poem-j 
in  1 53 1,  and  had  once  a  high  reputation,  which  has  since 
declined.    Died  about  1540. 

Anisson,  t'ne'soN',  the  name  of  a  noted  family  ol 
printers  at  Lyons  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries. 

Anisson,  (Jean,)  a  Frenchman,  who  edited  the  Greek 
Lexicon  of  Du  Cange.  In  i6go  he  was  appointed  director 
of  the  royal  printing-office  of  the  Louvre.  Died  after 
1713- 

Anisson-Duperron,  t'ne'soN'  dii'pa'roN',  (Alex- 
andre Jacques  Laurent,)  a  French  economist^  born 
in  1776,  was  a  son  of  Etienne  Alexandre  Jacques,  no- 
ticed below.  He  was  appointed  director  of  the  imperial 
printing-office  at  Paris  in  1809,  and  master  of  requests. 
Yxom  1833  to  1842  he  sat  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
and  was  made  a  peer  in  1844.  Among  his  works  is  a 
treatise  in  favour  of  free  trade,  (1829.) 

Anisson-Duperron,  (Etienne  Alexandre  Jac- 
ques,) born  in  Paris  in  1748,  was  a  grandson  of  Jean 
Anisson.  He  was  director  of  the  royal  printing-office, 
178S-92.    He  was  guillotined  in  1794. 

Anitchkov,  a-nitch-kov',  or  Anitchkof,  (Dmitri 
S.,)  a  Russian  philosopher  and  mathematician,  born  in 
or  before  1740.  Lie  published  several  works,  one  of 
which  was  publicly  burnt  because  a  friend  to  whom  he 
had  lent  it  added  some  heretical  or  skeptical  opinions. 
Died  in  1788. 

Anjoo,  Anju,  or  Andjou,  in'joo,  a  Persian  writer, 
lived  about  1600,  was  one  of  the  chief  compilers  of  the 
great  Persian  Dictionary  called  "  Ferhenkee  Jehan- 
geeree,"  ("  Ferhenki  Jehangiri,")  in  honour  of  Jehan- 
geer,  the  Mogul  emperor  under  whose  auspices  it  was 
completed. 

See  Eksch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Anjou,  dn'^joo,  [Fr.  pron.  SN'zhoo',]  Duke  or  Count 
of,  the  title  of  an  old  and  noble  house  of  France  which 
was  powerful  in  the  middle  ages.  Fulke,  Count  of 
Anjou,  was  a  leader  of  one  of  the  crusades,  and  became 
King  of  Jerusalem  in  1131.  His  son,  Geoffroy  le  Plan- 
tagenet,  married  Matilda,  the  daughter  and  heiress  of 
Henry  I.  of  England,  and  founded  the  royal  house  of 
Plantagenet,  leaving  a  son,  who  became  King  of  Eng- 
land, (Henry  II.)  The  second  house  of  Anjou  was  a 
branch  of  the  royal  family  of  P>ance.  (See  Charles  I. 
of  Naples.)  Louis,  a  son  of  John,  King  of  France,  be- 
came Duke  of  Anjou  about  1360.  He  assumed  the  title 
of  King  of  Sicily,  or  Naples,  in  1382,  after  which  he  at- 
tempted to  conquer  Naples,  (which  Queen  Joanna  I.  had 
bequeathed  to  him,)  but  failed.  Died  in  1384.  The  title 
of  Duke  of  Anjou  was  also  borne  by  several  sons  of 
Henry  II.,  by  two  sons  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  by  a  grand- 
son of  Louis  XIV.,  who  became  Philip  V.  of  Spain. 

Anjou,  (Charles  of.)  See  Charles  I.  of  Naples  ; 
also  Charles  of  Anjou,  Count  of  Maine. 

Anjou,  (Fran(;ois,)  Due  d'.    See  Alenqon. 

Anjou,  (Rene  of.)    See  Ren^:  of  Anjou. 

Ankarkrona,  in''kaR-kRoo''na,  (Theodor,)  a  Swed- 
ish admiral,  born  at  Carlscrona  in  1687.  He  served  in 
the  French  and  British  navies  in  his  youth,  and  returned 
to  the  Swedish  service  in  1711.  He  conveyed  Charles 
XII.  from  Straisund  to  Stockholm  in  171 5,  after  which 
he  obtained  the  rank  of  admiral.    Died  in  1750. 

See  Gezelius,  "  Biographiskt-Lexicon." 

Ankarstrom  or  Anckarstroem,  ang'kar-strom', 
(JoHAN  Jacob,)  a  Swedish  nobleman,  born  in  1759,  as- 
sassinated King  Gustavus  III.  at  a  masked  ball,  INIarch 
16,  1792.  He  was  condemned  to  be  beaten  with  rods 
on  three  successive  days,  and  on  the  fourth  to  be  be- 
headed, his  right  hand  being  first  cut  off. 

Anker,  9ngn<er,  or  Ancher,  (Pender  Ko'fod,)  a 
•  Danish  lawyer  and  writer  on  law,  born  in  1710,  on  the 
island  of  Bornholm,  was  appointed  professor  of  law  in 
the  University  of  Copenhagen  in  1741,  and  died  in  1788. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ankwitz,  ink'vvits,  or  Ancwitz,  Count,  a  Pole  ot 


€  as  k;  9  a3  s;  g  hard-  g  as  j;  g,  ii,  k,  guttural:  N,  nasal:  R.  trilled:  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (f]i^='Sce  Explanations,  ]\  2j,) 


ANNA 


132 


ANNE 


noble  family  and  great  talents,  bora  about  1750.    He  1 
IS  generally  believed  to  have  been  a  traitor  to  Ids  coun- 
tty,  and  to  have  assisted  in  the  second  iniquitous  dis-  : 
memberment  of  Poland  in  1793.    In  an  insurrection  of 
the  people  of  Warsaw  in  1794  he  was  taken  and  hung. 

An'na,  a  Jewish  prophetess,  who  died  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Chr'sV.m  era.   (See  Luke  ii.  36.) 

Anna,  a  sister  of  Dido,  Queen  of  Carthage.  (See 
Virgil,  " /Eneid,"  book  iv.)    See  also  Anna  Perenna. 

An'na  Com-ne'na,  [Fr.  Anne  Comnene,  tn  kom'- 
r.^i'',]  the  daughter  of  Alexis  I.,  Emperor  of  Constan- 
tinople, a  princess  of  distinguished  beauty,  talents,  and 
learning,  was  born  in  1083.  At  her  father's  death,  in 
1 1 18,  she  conspired  to  place  the  crown  on  the  head  of 
her  husband,  Nicephorus  Bryennius,  but  without  suc- 
cess. Her  "Alexiacl,"  (or  "Alexias,")  a  biography  of  her 
father,  (in  Greek,)  is  a  remarkable  work,  and  one  of  great 
historic  value,  although  it  is  sometimes  disfigured  by  pre- 
judice, as  well  as  by  a  pedantic  and  aifected  style.  Died 
m  1 148. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grsca." 

An'na  Ivanovna,  Iwanowna,  (e-vl-nov'na,)  or 
Joanovna,  (yo  a-nov''na,)  Empress  of  Russia,  born  at 
Moscow  in  1694,  was  a  daughter  of  Ivan,  (or  John,)  who 
was  a  brother  of  Peter  the  Great.  She  was  married  in 
1 7 10  to  Frederick  William,  Duke  of  Courland,  who  died 
the  next  year.  She  ascended  the  throne  as  successor  to 
Peter  II.  in  1730.  Her.  army  invaded  Poland  in  1733, 
deposed  Stanislaus,  and  placed  his  rival,  Augustus  III., 
on  the  throne.  The  reign  of  Anna  was  disgraced  by  the 
tyranny  and  cruelty  of  her  favourite,  Biren  or  Biron,  who 
had  an  entire  ascendency  over  her.  She  died  in  Octo- 
ber, 1740,  and  was  succeeded  by  her  great-nephew,  Ivan. 

See  I.EVES(iUE,  "  Histoire  de  la  Russia." 

An'na  Pe-ren'na,  a  goddess  of  the  Roman  mythol- 
ogy, was,  according  to  Virgil  and  Ovid,  a  daughter  of 
Belus  and  a  sister  of  Dido.  After  the  death  of  Dido, 
she  went  to  Italy  and  was  kindly  received  by  /Eneas. 
The  Romans  invoked  her  favour  to  obtain  long  life  and 
health. 

An'na  Pet-rov'na,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Peter  the 
Great  by  his  empress  Catherine,  born  in  1708,  was  mar- 
ried in  1725  to  Charles  Frederick,  Duke  of  Holstein. 
She  was  the  mother  of  Peter  III.  of  Russia.  Her  beauty 
and  talents  are  spoken  of  in  high  terms.    Died  in  1727. 

An-Nadim,  (or  -Nadeem.)    See  Ibn-Abi-Yakoob. 

Annaeus,  (Lucius.)    See  Florus  and  Seneca. 

Ann^u-s,  (Marcus.)    See  Seneca. 

An^nand,  (Willl\m,)  a  Scottish  minister  of  the  An- 
glican Church,  born  in  1633,  became  Dean  of  Edinburgh. 
He  wrote  "  Mysterium  Pietatis,"  etc.    Died  in  1689. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

An-N^sir,  (of  Cordova.)  See  Abd-er-Rahman  HI. 

An-Nasir  (or  Al-Nassir)  Ledeeniliali,  (or  Lidini- 
1-lah,)  an-na'sir  le-deen-iKlah,  [i.e.  "the  defender  of  the 
religion  of  God,")  one  of  the  later  caliphs  of  the  house 
of  Abbas,  began  to  reign  in  1180,  He  attempted  to  re- 
store the  power  and  splendour  of  the  caliphate,  and  was 
successful  in  maintaining  his  dominions  against  the  en- 
croachments of  the  neighbouring  powers.  He  died  in 
1225,  leaving  the  character  of  a  just  and  enlightened 
prince  and  a  liberal  patron  of  literature  and  science. 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  xi. 

Annat,  t''nS',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Rodez  in  1590,  (or,  according  to  the  "Biographic  Uni- 
verselle,"  in  1607.)  His  proper  name  was  Canard.  He 
was  confessor  of  Louis  XIV.  from  1654  until  1670,  and 
was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  Jansenists.  The  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  of  Pascal's  "  Lettres  Provinciales" 
were  addressed  to  Annat,  who  had  written  several  works 
against  Jansenism.  The  "Biographic  Universelle"  calls 
him  "  the  soul  of  the  party  opposed  to  Port-Royal." 
Died  in  1670. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Port-Royal." 

Aiinat,  (Pierre,)  a  French  theologian,  born  in 
Rouergue  in  1638,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1 71 5. 

Annaya,  de,  di,  a-n^'yd,  (Pedro,)  a  Portuguese  ad- 
miral, who  conquered  Sofala  in  1508. 

Anne,  An,  [Ger.  pron.  an'neh,]  of  Austria,  Queen  of 


France,  was  a  daughter  of  Philip  III.  of  Spain,  and  mo- 
ther of  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  She  \va^  born  in  1601, 
and  was  married  in  1615  to  Louis  XIII.,  by  whom  she 
was  treated  with  neglect.  Cardinal  Richelieu  became 
her  enemy,  and  artfully  used  his  influence  to  alienate  the 
king  from  her.  By  the  will  of  Louis  XIII.,  who  died  in 
1643,  she  was  appointed,  nominally,  regent  during  the 
minority  of  her  son,  but  was  required  to  act  with  the 
concurrence  of  a  council  of  five,  of  which  Mazarin  was 
president.  The  Parliament,  however,  gave  her  the  re- 
gency without  limitations,  and  she  chose  Mazarin  as 
prime  minister.  The  civil  war  of  the  Fronde,  which 
began  in  1648,  ended  in  the  triumph  of  the  court  over 
the  Parliament  and  a  faction  of  discontented  nobles. 
(See  Mazarin.)    Died  in  1666. 

See  Saint-Aulaire,  "  Histoire  de  la  Fronde;"  Auberv,  "Kis- 
toire  du  Cardinal  Mazarin;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Anne  of  Bohemia,  called  the  "Good  Queen  Anne," 
a  daughter  of  the  emperor  Charles  IV.,  was  married  to 
Richard  II.  of  England  about  1380.  She  was  a  friend  of 
Wicklifte,  and  promoted  the  reformation  of  the  church. 
Died  in  1394. 

Anne  of  Brittany,  (or  Bretagne,)  Queen-consort  of 
France,  born  at  Nantes  in  1476,  was  the  heiress  of  the 
Duke  of  Brittany,  and  an  object  of  eager  competition 
among  various  princes.  She  was  married  in  1491  tc 
Charles  VIII.  of  France,  and  after  his  death  (1499)  to 
his  successor,  Louis  XII.  Her  character  is  represented 
as  excellent,  and  she  had  much  influence  in  the  affairs  of 
state.    Died  in  15 14. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Anne,  Duchess  of  Brittany,"  by  Louisa  S.  Cos- 

TEI.LO. 

Anne  of  Cleves,  the  fourth  queen  of  Henry  VIII., 
to  whom  she  was  married  in  January,  1540.  She  was 
divorced  in  July  of  the  same  year. 

See  Froude,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.  chap,  xvii.;  Strick- 
land, "  Lives  of  the  Queens  of  England." 

Anne  of  Cyprus,  a  daughter  of  Janus,  King  of  Cy- 
prus, was  married  in  143 1  to  Louis,  Duke  of  Savoy, 
over  whom  she  acquired  great  influence.    Died  in  1462. 

Anne  of  Denmark,  a  daughter  of  Frederick  H.  of 
Denmark,  born  in  1574,  was  married  to  James  I.  of 
England  in  1589.  She  was  the  mother  of  Charles  I. 
Died  in  1619. 

Anne,  dn,  Queen  of  England,  the  last  sovereign  of 
the  house  of  Stuart,  was  born  at  Twickenham  on  the 
6th  of  February,  1664.  She  was  second  daughter  of 
James  II.  and  Anne  Hyde,  who  was  a  daughter  of  Lord 
Clarendon.  She  was  educated  in  the  Protestant  religion, 
and  was  married  in  1683  to  Prince  George  of  Denmark, 
a  brother  of  Christian  V.  Before  this  event  she  had 
formed  an  intimacy  with  Sarah  Jennings,  who  became 
her  favourite  adviser  and  for  a  time  exerted  an  almost 
unlimited  influence  over  her.  (See  Marlborough, 
Duchess  of.)  During  the  reign  of  James  II.  unsuccess- 
ful attempts  were  made  to  convert  Anne  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion.  A  few  days  after  William  of  Orange 
entered  England  in  1688  to  dethrone  her  father,  she 
wrote  to  the  former  and  assured  him  of  her  warm  wishes 
for  his  success.  She  lost  in  1699  or  1700  her  son,  the 
Duke  of  Gloucester,  aged  eleven,  all  her  other  children 
having  died  in  infancy. 

Anne  succeeded  William  HI.  on  the  8th  of  March, 
1702,  and  declared  her  purpose  to  pursue  his  foreign 
policy,  which  involved  England  in  the  war  of  the  Span- 
ish succession,  as  the  enemy  of  France  and  the  ally  ol 
Austria  and  Holland.  (See  Marlborough,  Duke  of.) 
In  her  domestic  administration  she  favoured  the  Tory 
party.  Godolphin,  who  was  considered  a  moderate 
j  Tory,  became  lord  of  the  treasury,  or  prime  minister, 
i  Eventually,  Godolphin  formed  a  coalition  with  the 
Whigs,  and,  the  Duchess  of  Marlborough  having  been 
supplanted  hy  a  new  favourite,  Mrs.  Masham,  the  Tories, 
under  Lords  Oxford  and  Bolingbroke,  (then  known  as 
Harley  and  Saint  John,)  came  into  power  in  1710, 
"  The  great  party  which  had  long  swayed  the  destinies 
of  Europe,"  says  Macaulay,  "  was  undermined  by  bed- 
chamber women  at  Saint  James."  Marlborough  was 
deprived  of  command  in  1711,  and  the  new  ministry 
opened  with  the  French  court  negotiations  which  ended 
the  long  war  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  April  1 1,  1713, 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long-;  a,  i-,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  it,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  mooa; 


ANNE 


133 


ANSALDO 


when  the  alHes  recognized  Philip  V,,  a  Bourbon  prince, 
as  King  of  Spain  and  the  Indies. 

In  the  last  year  of  her  reign  Anne  co-operated  with 
her  ministers  in  secret  designs  and  intrigues  to  secure 
the  succession  to  her  half-brother  the  Pretender,  whose 
devoted  partisan,  Lord  Bolingbroke,  became  lord  treas- 
urer on  the  27th  of  July,  17 14.  Three  days  later  the 
queen  was  seized  with  an  apoplectic  fit,  which  termi- 
nated fatally  on  the  ist  of  August,  1714.  The  plans  of 
the  Jacobites  were  disconcerted  by  her  sudden  death, 
and  George  I.,  of  the  house  of  Hanover,  obtained  peace- 
able possession  of  the  throne.  Anne  was  a  woman  of 
moderate  or  inferior  abilities,  and  not  distinguished  for 
generous  moral  qualities.  The  period  in  which  she 
reigned  is  sometimes  called  the  Augustan  age  of  Eng- 
lish literature,  which  was  then  illustrated  by  the  genius 
of  Addison,  Pope,  Bolingbroke,  Arbuthnot,  and  Swift. 
The  victories  of  Marlborough,  which  are  considered  to 
have  reflected  more  lustre  on  the  English  arms  than  any 
other  since  the  time  of  Henry  V.,  were  achieved  during 
this  reign. 

See  CoxE,  "  Memoirs,  etc.  of  John  Duke  of  Marlborough,"  and 
Swift,  "Works;"  Burnet,  "  History  of  his  Own  Times;"  "Me- 
moires  du  Due  de  Saint-Simon  ;"  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV  ;" 
"Pictorial  History  of  England;"  "Account  of  the  Conduct  of  the 
Duchess  of  Marlboroiigli,"  edited  by  Hooke,  1742;  J.  Oldmixon, 
"  Life  of  Queen  Anne,"  1716;  Strickla.xd,  "Lives  of  the  Queens 
of  England." 

Anne  of  Hungary,  born  in  1503,  was  married  to 
Ferdinand  of  Austria.  She  was  the  heiress  of  the 
crowns  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia.    Died  in  1547. 

Anne  de  Beaujeu,  In  deh  bo^zhuh',  a  daughter  of 
Louis  XL  of  France,  was  born  about  1462.  She  was 
regent  during  the  minority  of  her  brother  Charles  VIIL, 
and  suppressed  with  vigour  a  revolt  of  princes,  of  whom 
the  Duke  of  Orleans  was  chief    Died  in  1522. 

Annebaut  or  Annebaud,  d',  dtn'ba',  (Claude,)  a 
French  general,  born  about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. He  was  taken  prisoner  with  Francis  I.  at  Pavi'a, 
(1525,)  after  which  he  served  with  distinction  in  Italy 
and  Flanders,  and  was  made  marshal  of  France.  Died 
in  1552. 

Annese,  in-na's^,  (Gennaro,)  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal actors  in  the  Neajiolitan  insurrection  of  July, 
1647.  (See  Masaniello.)  After  the  restoration  of  the 
Spanish  authority  in  1648,  he  was  beheaded. 

Annesley,  dnz'le,  (Alexander,)  an  English  writer 
on  law  and  political  economy,  published  several  works 
between  1800  and  1808.    Died  in  181 3. 

Annesley,  dnz'le,  (Arthur,)  Earl  of  Anglesey, 
was  born  at  Dublin  in  1614.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Parliament  called  by  Richard  Crom||||ll  in  1659.  As 
president  of  the  new  Council  of  State  appointed  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1660,  he  aided  Monk  in  his  efforts  for  the  restora- 
tion of  Charles  II.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Anglesey 
in  1661,  and  became  lord  privy  seal  in  1673.  He  wrote 
several  political  and  theological  works,  among  which 
are  "Truth  Unveiled  in  behalf  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land," (1676,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Wars  in  Ireland," 
which  is  lost.    Died  in  1686. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses;"  Walpole,  "Royal  and  Noble 
Authors." 

Annesley,  originally  written  Aneley,  (Rev.  Sam- 
uel,) an  eminent  English  nonconformist  minister,  a  j 
first-cousin  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Kenilworth 
in  1620.  He  obtained  the  living  of  Cliffe  in  Kent  about 
1646,  and  was  chosen  tninister  by  the  parishioners  of 
Saint  John,  London,  in  1652.  In  1657  Cromwell  ap- 
pointed him  preacher  at  Saint  Paul's.  After  the  resto- 
ration he  was  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  congregation  in 
London.  He  was  the  grandfather  of  John  Wesley,  the 
founder  of  the  Methodist  Church.  His  sermons  have 
been  published.    Died  in  1696. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

An'nett  or  An'net,  (Peter,)  an  English  deistical 
writer,  published  "Tracts  of  a  Certain  Free  Enquirer," 
(1766.)    Died  in  1778. 

Annibal.    See  Hannibal. 

Annibale,  in-ne-bd'li,  surnamed  Padovano,  pi-do- 
vi'no,  an  Italian  musician,  born  at  Padua,  was  organist 
of  the  church  of  Saint  Mark,  Venice.    Died  about  1655. 


An-ni-bal-li-a'nus,  (Flavius  Claudius,)  a  nephew 
of  Constantine  the  Great,  was  murdered  at  Constanti- 
nople in  337  A.D. 

An-ni9'e-i'is,  [Avvlkeplq,]  a  Greek  philosopher  ol 
Cyrene,  supposed  to  have  lived  about  300  B.C.  H-e  was 
a  follower  of  Aristippus. 

An'ni-us  of  Viterbo,  [It.  Annio  da  Viterbo,  in'- 
ne-o  dfi  ve-t§R'bo,]  an  Italian  Dominican  monk,  whose 
proper  name  was  Giovanni  Xanni,  was  born  at  Viter- 
bo about  1432.  He  was  well  versed  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
and  in  some  Oriental  languages.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Empire  of  the  Turks,"  ("  De  Imperio  Turco- 
rum,"  1471,)  and  acquired  notoriety  by  the  publication 
of  "  Seventeen  Volumes  of  Anticjuities  with  Commen- 
taries," ("  Antiquitatum  Volumina  XVII.  cum  Commen- 
tariis,"  1498.)  In  this  work  he  professed  to  give  pas- 
sages from  the  lost  works  of  Berosus,  Fabius  Pictor, 
and  other  ancient  writers.  It  is  generally  admitted  that 
these  are  forgeries.    Died  in  1502. 

See  D.  W.  Moller,  "  Disputatio  de  J.  Annio  Viterbiensi,"  1692. 

Anno.    See  Hanno. 

Au'no  or  Han'no,  Saint,  an  archbishop  of  Cologne 
in  the  eleventh  century.  He  was  an  able  but  overbear- 
ing prelate,  and  for  a  time  exercised  great  influence  over 
the  youthful  emperor  Henry  IV.    Died  in  1075. 

Annoue,  an-no'na,  or  Annoni,  an-no''nee,  (Johann 
Jakob,)  a  Swiss  naturalist  and  antiquary,  born  at  Bale 
in  1728,  was  professor  of  eloquence  and  law  in  that  city. 
He  wrote  scientific  essays,  and  made  rich  collections  in 
natural  history  and  antiquities.    Died  in  1804. 

An-Noowa'iree  or  An-Nuv/ayii,  an-noo-wT'ree' 
called  also  simply  Noowairee,  an  eminent  Arabian 
writer,  born  in  Egypt  about  1283  ;  died  in  1332. 

Annot,  t'no',  (Pierre  X'icolas,)  a  French  writer,  born 
in  1762  ;  died  in  1823. 

Anquetil,  fiNk^t^K,  (Louis  Pierre,)  a  French  histo- 
rian, a  brother  of  Abraham  Hyacinthe,  noticed  below, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1723.  He  became  prior  of  the 
abbey  of  Chateau-Renard  before  the  Revolution,  and  a 
member  of  the  Institute,  second  class,  in  1795.  He 
wrote  numerous  works,  which  show  marks  of  haste  and 
carelessness,  but  which  obtained  success,  especially  a 
"  Compendium  of  Universal  Historv,"  (9  vols.,  1797,) 
and  a  "  History  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  France  in  the  Six- 
teenth and  Seventeenth  Centuries,"  (3  vols.,  1767.)  Died 
about  1808. 

See  Bon  Joseph  Dacier,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de 
M.  Anquetil,"  1810;  Quer.^rd,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Anquetil-Duperron,  5Nk'teK  dii'pa'roN',  (Abraham 
HvACiN'iTiE,)  a  celebrated  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1 73 1.  He  visited  India  in  1755  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
covering the  religious  books  of  the  Parsees.  After  en- 
countering difficulties  and  toils  exceeded  only  by  his 
zeal,  he  at  last  obtained  the  objects  of  his  search.  In 
1762  he  returned  to  Europe,  rich  in  Oriental  manuscripts, 
and  in  177 1  published  his  "Zend-Avesta,"  the  first 
translation  of  the  original  work  of  this  name  that  had 
appeared  in  any  European  language.  He  left  other 
works,  among  which  is  "  India  in  Relation  with  Europe," 
(2  vols.,  1798.)    Died  in  1805. 

See  Lanc.i.ois,  "Notice  sur  Anquetil-Duperron  ;"  Von  Bohlen, 
"Das  Alte  li.dieu  ;"  Box  Joseph  Dacier,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les 
Ouvrages  dc  .M.  Anquetil-Duperron,"  1808;  L.  P.  Anquetil,  "No- 
tice sur  la  Vie  de  ^L  Anquetil-Duperron." 

Anraat,  van,  vtn  dn'rat,  (Pieter,)  a  skilful  Dutch 
painter  of  conversation-pieces  and  portraits,  flourished  at 
Amsterdam  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Ansaldi,  in-sdKdee,  (Casto  Lnnocente,)  a  distin- 
guished Italian  antiquary  and  professor,  born  at  Piacenza 
in  1 7 10,  became  a  Dominican  monk.  He  was  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Turin  from  1760  to  1779,  and  author  of 
several  works  of  merit,  among  which  are  a  treatise  "  On 
the  Recognition  of  a  Future  State  by  the  Hel^rews," 
("  De  futuro  S^eculo  ab  Hebrasis  cognito,"  1748,)  "On 
the  X^ecessity  of  X'^atural  and  Revealed  Religion,"  (1755,) 
and  "  Vindicias  Maupertuisianae,"  (1756.)   Died  in  1779. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Ansaldi,  (Innocenzio,)  a  Tuscan  painter,  born  in 
1734;  died  in  1816.  He  wrote  a  poem  named  "The 
Accomplished  Painter,"  ("II  Pittore  istruito,"  1820.) 

Ansaldo,  dn-s^Kdo,  (Andrea,)  a  celebrated  Genoese 


c  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  kard;  g  as  j;  G,  ii,  K,  guttural;  N,  itasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


AN  SALON  I 


I 


34 


ANSON 


painter,  born  at  Voltri  in  1584,  was  a  pupil  of  Cambiaso. 
He  worked  in  fresco  and  oil  at  Genoa  and  other  places. 
Among  the  best  of  his  numerous  works  are  a  "  Last 
Supper,"  an  altar-piece  of  the  martyrdom  of  Saint  Se- 
bastiait^  (at  Cadiz,)  and  frescos  in  the  Palazzo  Spinola, 
illustrating  the  exploits  of  General  Spinola  in  Flanders. 
Died  at  Genoa  in  1638. 

See  Nagler,  "Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Anaaloni,  ^n-sa-lo'nee,  (Giordano,)  a  Sicilian  mis- 
sionary, who  in  1632  visited  Japan,  where  he  was  put  to 
death  in  1634. 

Ansaloni,  (Vincenzio,)  an  able  Bolognese  painter, 
Hourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. His  "  Virgin  seated  on  the  Clouds"  is  highly 
praised  by  Lanzi. 

Ansaree  or  Ansari,  an'sa-ree^  (written  also  Un- 
3are8,)  a  celebrated  Persian  poet  and  scholar,  who  lived 
at  the  court  of  Mahmood  of  Ghiznee,  (or  Gazna.)  Died 
in  1040. 

Ansart,  Sn'sIr^  (x\ndre  Joseph,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic and  historian,  born  in  Artois  in  1723;  died  in 
1790. 

Ansbert,  ans'bert,  [Ger.  pron.  ans'b^Rt,]  a  German 
chronicler  of  the  twelfih  century,  accompanied  Frederick 
Barbarossa  to  Palestine,  and  wrote  an  account  of  that 
crusade,  which  was  first  published  in  1827. 

Ans-ca'ri-us  or  Ans-ga^ri-vis,  [Fr.  Anschaire,  6n'- 
shak',]  called  "  the  Apostle  of  the  North,"  the  most 
successful  propagator  of  Christianity  in  Denmark  and 
Sweden,  was  born  in  Picardy  about  800  A.D.  About 
831  he  was  created  the  first  archbishop  of  Hamburg. 
Died  in  864  A.D. 

Auseaume,  SN'som',  (N.,)  a  French  dramatic  poet, 
born  at  Paris  about  1720  ;  died  in  1784. 

Aii-se-gi'sus  or  An-si-gi'sus,  [Fr.  Ansegise,  6n^- 
si^zhez',]  a  distinguished  French  ecclesiastic  in  the  time 
of  Charlemagne  and  his  son  Louis  le  Debonnaire. 

Ansegisus  was  also  the  name  of  an  archbishop  of 
Sens  in  the  ninth,  and  a  bishop  of  Troyes  in  the  tenth 
century. 

Anselin,  6ns''1^n',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  in  Paris  in  1764;  died  in  1823. 

Anselm,  an'selm,  of  Havelberg,  a  Saxon  bishop, 
wrote  a  work  on  the  dogmatic  disputes  between  the 
Latin  and  Greek  Churches,  entitled  ' AvTLKslfisva.  Died 
in  1 1 59. 

An^selm,  Saint,  [Lat.  Sanc'tus  Ansel'mus  ;  Fr. 
Saint-Anselme,  saN^tON'selm',]  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, was  born  at  Aosta,  in  Piedmont,  about  1034.  He 
became  a  pupil  of  Lanfranc  at  the  abbey  of  Bee  in 
Normandy,  where  he  assumed  the  monastic  habit  in 
1060,  and  succeeded  Lanfranc  as  prior  in  1063.  He  was 
chosen  abbot  of  Bee  in  1078,  and  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury in  1093.  He  had  a  long  contest  with  King  Wil- 
liam Rufus,  who  confiscated  the  revenues  of  the  arch- 
bishopric in  1097.  Died  in  1109.  The  intellect  of 
Anselm  was  of  a  high  order,  and  his  writings  evince 
a  profound  and  original  mind.  He  is  considered  as  the 
reviver  of  metaphysics  after  the  decline  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  Among  lus  greatest  works  are  "Cur  Deus 
Homo;"  "  Monologium  ;"  "  Prosiogium  ;"  and  "The 
Agreement  (or  Compalibility)  of  Predestination  and  the 
Grice  of  God  with  Free  Will,"  ("Concordia  Pr^edesti- 
n.uionis  necnon  Gratiae  Dei  cum  libero  Arbitrio.") 

See  Eadmer,  "  Life  of  Saint  Anselm,"  in  Latin  ;  Mohler,  "Life 
uf  Saint  Anselm,"  in  German,  trans  ated  by  Cox;  W.  F.  Hook, 
"Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury,"  vol.  ii.  cliap.  lii.,  1S60; 
Franck,  "Anselme  de  Cantorbery, "  1842;  Hasse,  "  Vie  d'Anselme 
de  Cantorbery,"  1S43;  Rainefji,  Historical  Panec,yric  (Istorico 
jxauegirico)  on  Saint  Anselm,"  4  vols.,  1693-1/06;  "  Foreign  Quar- 
teily  Review,"  vol.  xxx. 

Anselme,  (Italian.)    See  Anselmo. 

Anselme,  an'selm  or  SN'sglm',  [Lat.  Ansel'mus,] 
Counf  of  Ribemont,  (re^beh-moN^,)  was  one  of  the  nobles 
who  accompanied  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  to  the  Holy  Land, 
where  he  was  killed  in  1099.  He  wrote  a  narrative  of 
the  events  of  this  crusade. 

Anselme,  an'sclm,  [Fr.  pron.  SN'sclm',]  or  Ansel, 
6n^s§K,  of  Laon,  [Lat.  Ansei/mus  Laudinen^sis,]  a 
famous  teacher  of  theology,  born  at  Laon,  France,  about 
1050,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  University  of  Paris. 
A  school  which  he  afterwards  directed  at  Laon  became 

a,  e,  1,  o,  II,  y,  /on£-;  k,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  li,  y, 


the  most  celebrated  in  Europe.  His  chief  work  is  a 
Gloss  on  the  Bible.    Died  in  11 17. 

Anselme  of  Liege,  a  Flemish  historian,  lived  about 
1050,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Bishops  of  Liege." 

Anselme,  SN'selm',  (Antoine,)  an  eminent  French 
preacher,  born  in  the  comte  of  Armagnac  in  1652.  He 
was  admired  as  an  orator  in  the  principal  churches  of 
Paris,  and  became  preacher-in-ordinary  to  the  king. 
Several  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  published.  Died 
in  1737. 

See  Madame  de  Sevigne,  "  Lettres." 

Anselme,  d',  dSN'sSlm'',  (Jacques  Bernard  Mo- 
DESTE,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Apt  in  1740,  was  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Italy  in  1792. 
He  was  soon  after  suspended  from  his  command,  was 
imprisoned  in  1793,  recovered  his  liberty  after  the  revo- 
lution of  July,  1794,  and  lived  in  retirement  till  his  death 
in  1812. 

Anselme  de  Sainte-Marie,  SN^sIlm'  deh  siNt'- 
mt're',  (Pierre,)  a  French  genealogist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1625,  published  a  "Genealogy  of  the  House  of  France," 
(2  vols.,  1674.)    Died  in  1694. 

Anselmi,  an-seKmee,  (Michel  Angelo,)  an  able 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Lucca  about  1490,  studied  at 
Sienna,  whence  he  is  often  surnamed  Da  Sienna,  ("of 
Sienna.")  He  is  said  to  have  worked  with  Correggio  at 
Parma.    Died  in  1554. 

Anselmo,  in-seKmo,  or  An'selme,  (Giorgio,)  a 
writer  of  Latin  poetry,  born  at  Parma,  lived  in  the  first 
part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  A  volume  of  his  poems 
was  printed  in  1528. 

Anselmo,  an-seKmo,  (Giorgio,)  an  Italian  astron- 
omer, born  at  Parma,  was  a  grandfather  of  the  Latin 
poet  of  the  same  name.    Died  in  1440. 

AnseFmo,  [Lat.  Ansel'mus;  Fr.  Anselme,  fiN'selm'; 
It.  Sant'  Anselmo,  sant  Sn-seKmo,]  Saint,  Bishop  of 
Lucca,  an  eminent  Italian  ecclesiastical  writer,  born 
about  1036;  died  in  1086.  Among  his  works  is  "Col- 
lectio  Canonum." 

See  Rota,  "  Notizie  istoriche  di  Sant'  Anselmo,"  1733. 

Ansgarius  or  Ansgarii.    See  Anchersen. 
Ansiaux,  6N'se'6^  (Emmanuel  Antoine  Joseph,) 
a  Belgian  jurist,  born  at  Liege  in  1761  ;  died  in  1800. 

Ansiaux,  (Jean  Joseph  Eleonore  Antoine,)  an 
eminent  painter  of  the  modern  French  school,  born  at 
Liege  in  1764.  He  produced  many  good  portraits  and 
historical  works,  among  which  are  "The  Assumption," 
"The  Conversion  of  St.  Paul,"  and  "The  Return  of  the 
Prodigal  Son."    Ansiaux  was  living  in  1 83 1. 

Ansidei,  Sn-se-da^'ee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Perugia  in  1642.    He  wrote  sonnets  and  other 
short  poems,  an(fli  "Tract  against  the  Long  Continuance 
of  Private  Enmities,"  (169 1.)    Died  in  1707. 
Ansigisus.    See  Ansegisus. 

Anslay  (anz'le)  or  Anneslay,  (Brian,)  an  English 
writer,  known  only  as  the  translator  of  a  curious  work 
called  "The  Citie  of  Dames,"  or  "Cyte  of  Ladyes," 
printed  in  1521. 

Anslo,  in'slo,  (Reinier,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Am- 
sterdam about  1625.  He  emigrated  to  Italy  about  1650, 
and  became  a  Roman  Catholic.  Plis  principal  works  are 
"The  Martyr  Crown  of  Stephen,"  (1646,)  "The  Plague 
at  Naples,"  and  a  drama  on  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bar- 
tholomew, entitled  "  Parijsche  Bruiloft,"  {i.e.  the  "Paris 
Wedding,")  written  before  he  became  a  Catholic.  Died 
at  Perugia  in  1669. 

See  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 
An'son,  (George,)  Lord,  a  distinguished  naval  com- 
mander, born  in  Staffordshire,  England,  in  1697.  He 
entered  the  navy  early,  and  in  1724  was  made  post-cap- 
tain. He  was  soon  after  ordered  to  the  Carolina  station, 
where  he  purchased  land  and  built  a  town,  called,  after  his 
own  name,  Ansonburg.  He  was  subsequently  appointed 
to  the  command  of  the  South  Sea  expedition  which 
sailed  from  England  in  1740;  and  throughout  the  whole 
of  that  voyage,  which  extended  round  the  world,  amid 
dangers  and  difficulties  of  every  kind,  he  displayed  a 
i:)rudence,  skill,  fortitude,  and  courage  that  have  seldom 
if  ever  been  surpassed.  After  his  return,  in  1744,  he 
was  successively  created  rear-admiral  of  the  blue,  com- 
missioner of  the  admiralty,  and  vice-admiral.    In  1747  he 

,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fSll,  fdt;  met;  n6t;  good:  m(5on ; 


JNSON 


135 


JNTENOR 


commanded  the  Channel  fleet,  and  captured  six  French 
ships  of  war.  As  a  reward  for  this  brilliant  exploit  he 
was  created  a  peer,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Anson,  Baron 
of  Soberton.  He  was  first  commissioner  of  the  admiralty 
from  1751  to  1756.  In  1757  Anson  was  made  admiral, 
and  in  the  same  year  placed  at  the  head  of  the  admiralty, 
where  he  remained  till  his  death  in  1762.  He  left  no 
issue.  A  Narrative  of  his  Voyage  round  the  World  was 
published. 

See  "Life  of  Lord  Anson,"  by  Sir  John  Barrow;  Kippis,  "Life 
of  Lord  Anson,"  in  "  Biographia  Britannica;"  J.  Campbell,  "Lives 
of  the  British  Admirals." 

Anson,  (George,)  a  British  general,  born  in  London 
in  1797,  was  a  younger  son  of  Thomas,  Viscount  Anson, 
and  uncle  of  the  Earl  of  Lichfield.  He  was  a  Whig 
member  of  Parliament  for  many  years,  (1828-53,)  and 
became  a  major-general  about  1851.  He  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  armies  of  India  in  1855,  and 
died  there  in  May,  1857,  soon  after  the  breaking  out  of 
the  mutiny  among  the  Sepoys. 

Anson,  on'sox',  (Pierre  Hubert,)  a  French  writer 
and  able  financier,  born  in  Paris  in  1744.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and  afterwards 
administrator-general  of  the  posts  of  France.  He  trans- 
lated into  French  the  Odes  of  Anacreon,  and  the  Letters 
of  Lady  Montagu,  (2  vols.,  1795.)  He  also  wrote  several 
short  poems  and  prose  works.    Died  in  1810. 

Anspach,  ins'pak  or  ins^p^K,  (Christian  Fried- 
rich  Karl  Alexander,)  Margrave  of,  was  born  in 
1736.  His  mother  was  a  sister  of  Frederick  the  Great. 
He  sold  his  principality  to  the  King  of  Prussia  in  1791 
for  an  annuity  of  four  hundred  thousand  thalers,  and 
married  Lady  Craven,  noticed  below.    Died  in  1806. 

Anspachi  (Elizabeth  Berkeley,)  Margravine  of, 
the  daughter  of  Augustus,  Earl  of  Berkeley,  was  born  in 
1750.  In  1767  she  was  married  to  William,  afterwards 
Lord  Craven,  and  on  his  death,  in  1791,  to  the  Margrave 
of  Anspach.  Died  at  Naples  in  1828.  She  possessed 
great  versatility  of  genius.  She  wrote  a  number  of 
dramas,  was  an  accomjjlished  musician  and  actress,  and 
had  considerable  skill  in  sculpture.  Unhappily,  little  can 
be  said  in  favour  of  her  moral  character.  Two  years 
before  her  death  she  jmblishcd  her  "Memoirs,"  a  work 
full  of  egotism,  but  withal  very  entertaining. 

See  CoLLiNs's  "  Peerage." 

Ans'prand,  [Lat.  Anspran'dus,]  a  Longobard  whom 
King  Cunibert  appointed  tutor  to  his  infant  son  Liut- 
bert.  After  the  death  of  this  prince  he  became  king  in 
712,  and  died  the  same  year. 

Ansse  de  Villoison.    See  Villoison. 

An'sted,  (David  Thomas,)  a  distinguished  English 
geologist,  born  in  London  about  1812,  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Professor  Sedgwick. 
He  succeeded  John  Phillips  as  professor  of  geology  in 
King's  College,  London,  and  became  editor  of  the 
journal  and  proceedings  of  the  Geological  Society. 
He  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  well-written  and 
systematic  work  entitled  "Geology,  Introductory,  De- 
scriptive, and  Practical,  with  num'erous  illustrations," 
(2  vols.,  1844.)  In  1847  he  published  a  popular  treatise 
called  "  The  Ancient  World,  or  Picturesque  Sketches  of 
Great  Britain."  Among  his  other  works  are  "The 
Gold-Seeker's  Manual,"  "The  Great  Stone  Book  of 
Nature,"  (1863,)  "Science  of  Physical  Geography,"  and 
"The  World  we  live  in,"  (1869.)  He  has  travelled  on 
the  Eastern  Continent  and  in  America,  and  has  applied 
his  science  to  the  exploration  of  mineral  resources. 

An'ster,  (John,)  an  Irish  poet,  born  at  Charleville, 
in  Cork  county,  about  1796.  He  published  in  1819  a 
volume  of  "  Poems  and  Translations  from  the  German," 
which  procured  for  him  the  friendship  of  Coleridge.  Fie 
was  called  to  the  Irish  bar  in  1824,  and  was  afterwards 
regius  professor  of  civil  law  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
till  near  the  time  of  his  death.  His  "  Faustus  ;  from  the 
German  of  Goethe,"  (1835,)  is  commended  by  the  "Edin- 
burgh Review,"  and  by  Coleridge.  Anster  contributed 
many  articles  to  "Blackwood's  Magazine."  His  version 
of  Faust  has  been  reprinted  in  Germany.  Died  in  June, 

Anstett,  von,  fon  an'stgt,  (Johann  Protasius— 
pRo-tl^ze-iis,)  a  diplomatist,  born  at  Strasburg  about 


1755.  He  entered  the  service  of  Russia  about  1790.  In 
conjunction  with  Nesselrode,  he  negotiated  the  treaty  of 
Reichenbach  in  1813,  after  which  he  represented  Russia 
at  the  Congress  of  Prague.  Fie  was  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary to  the  German  Diet  at  Frankfort  in  the  latter 
years  of  his  life.    Died  in  1835. 

Anstey,  in'ste,  (Christopher,)  an  English  satirical 
poet,  born  in  Cambridgeshire  in  1724,  was  educated  at 
King's  College,  Cambridge.  He  published  in  1766 
"The  New  Bath  Guide,"  a  scandalous  poem,  which  had 
great  popularity.  His  satire  was  directed  chiefly  against 
physicians  and  Methodists.  Among  his  other  poems  is 
"The  Election  Ball."    Died  in  1805. 

Anstey,  (Thomas  Chis'holm,)  an  English  lawyer, 
born  in  London  in  1816.  He  represented  Youghall  in 
Parliament  from  1847  to  1852.  He  published  a  useful 
"Guide  to  the  Laws  of  England  affecting  Roman 
Catholics,"  (1842.) 

An'stis,  (JoHiN,)  an  English  antiquary,  distinguished 
for  his  knowledge  of  heraldry,  was  born  at  Saint  Neots, 
in  Cornwall,  in  1669.  He  became  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment in  1702,  and  Garter  king-at-arms  in  1718.  He  pub- 
lished many  accurate  works,  among  which  are  "  Curia 
Militaris,  or  a  Treatise  of  the  Court  of  Chivalry,"  (1702,) 
and  "The  Register  of  the  Most  Noble  Order  of  the  Gar- 
ter," (1724.)    Died  in  1744. 

See  Nichols's  "Literary  Anecdotes." 

Anstrutlier,  in'stru-ther  or  in'ster,  (Sir  John,)  a 
British  judge,  born  in  1753,  became  chief  justice  of  Ben- 
gal in  1798.    Died  in  18 11. 

AntaeiLS,  an-tee'us,  [Gr.  'AvraZof ;  Fr.  Antee,  6N'ti',] 
a  Libyan  giant,  represented  as  a  son  of  Neptune  and 
Terra,  was  a  famous  wrestler.  He  resisted  Hercules 
with  success  for  a  time,  and  was  invincible  so  long  as  he 
touched  his  mother  Earth  ;  but  at  last  the  hero  raised 
Antajus  into  the  air  and  squeezed  him  to  death. 

An-tag'o-ras,  Ykvrayopag,]  a  Greek  poet  and  noted 
gourmand,  a  native  of  Rhodes,  lived  about  250  B.C. 

An-tal'9i-das,  ykvTaANi6ag,\  a  Spartan  ambassador, 
notorious  as  the  author  of  a  disgraceful  peace  concluded 
between  the  Grecian  States  and  Persia,  387  B.C.  One 
condition  of  the  "peace  of  Antalcidas"  was  that  all  the 
Greek  cities  in  Asia  should  be  surrendered  to  Persia. 

Ah^tar,  (more  properly  Antarah-Ibn-Slieddad, 
an''ta-ra  ib'n  shecrdad',)  a  celebrated  Arabian  warrior, 
supposed  to  have  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century.  He  was  himself  a  poet,  and  his  exploits  fur- 
nished a  copious  theme  for  Arabian  song  and  romance. 
He  composed  a  poem  which  is  numbered  among  the 
Mo'allakat  or  seven  famous  poems  suspended  in  the 
temple  of  Mecca.  He  is  the  hero  of  an  Arabian  ro- 
mance which  was  translated  into  English  by  T.  Hamil- 
ton and  entitled  "Antar,  a  Bedouin  Romance,"  (1819.) 

"Nothing  can  be  more  delightful,"  says  "  Blackwoocl's 
Magazine"  for  January,  1819,  "than  the  feeling  which 
attends  us  in  our  first  perusal  of  Antar.  We  are  trans- 
ported into  a  scene  of  which  we  have  before  seen  nothing, 
but  in  which  we  recognize  at  once,  as  if  by  intuition,  the 
glow,  the  wildness,  the  vastness — all  the  unchanged  and 
unchangeable  features — of  the  eternal  desert." 

See  De  Sacy,  "  Notices  des  anclens  Poemes  Arabes,  etc." 

Antelami,  degii,  daKyee  Sn-ta-li'mee,  (Benedetto,) 
an  Italian  sculptor  and  architect  of  the  twelfth  century. 

Antelmi  or  Anthelmi,  SN'tSl'me',  the  name  of 
several  ecclesiastics  of  the  south  of  France  in  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries.  The  most  noted,  per- 
haps, was  Joseph  Antelmi. 

Antelmi  or  Anthelmi,  (Joseph,)  a  French  ecclesi- 
astic, born  at  Frejus  in  1648.  He  became  grand-vicar 
and  official  of  the  Bishop  of  Pamiers  in  1684.  He 
left  a  work  "  On  the  Dangers  of  the  Life  of  Canons," 
("De  Periculis  Canonicorum,")  and  other  writings. 
Died  in  1697. 

Antelmi,  (Pierre  Thomas,)  a  French  writer  and 
mathematician,  born  in  Provence  in  1730;  died  in  1783. 

An-te'nor,  [Gr.  'Avrijvup;  Fr.  Ant^nor,  6iM'ti,''noR',] 
a  Trojan  noted  for  his  wisdom,  was  the  father  of  Aca- 
mas,  Agenor,  and  many  other  sons.  He  advised  the 
Trojans  to  restore  Helen  to  her  husband.  He  has  been 
accused,  by  writers  of  little  authority,  of  a  design  to  be- 
tray Troy  to  the  Greeks. 


€  as  Zv  9  as  s;  g  /lard;  g  as/;  o,  H,  ^,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ANTENOR 


136 


JNTIGONUS 


Antenor,  a  Grecian  sculptor,  who  lived  at  Athens 
about  500  B.C.  He  made  bronze  statues  of  HarmoMius 
and  Aristogi'ton,  which  were  carried  away  by  Xerxes  in 
480  B.C. 

Au'te-ros,  in  the  Greek  mythology,  was  originally  a 
being  opposed  to  Eros,  (or  the  god  of  Love ;)  but  after- 
wards the  name  was  applied  to  the  deity  who  avenges 
unrequited  love. 

Antesignan,  6N^ta's^n'y5N',  (Pierre,)  a  French 
grammarian,  born  at  Rabastens,  in  Languedoc,  lived 
about  1550. 

Anthelmi.    See  Antelmi. 

An-thel^mus  or  An-teFmus,  [Fr.  Anthelme,  5n'- 
tglm',]  Saint,  of  Savoy,  became  in  1163  Bishop  of  Bel- 
ley,  (berhV,)  in  the  south  of  France,  where  he  died  in  11 78. 

An-the''mi-us,  an  able  and  upright  minister,  who 
was  appointed  by  Arcadius  Prefect  of  the  East  in  405 
A.D.,  before  which  date  he  had  been  consul  with  Stilicho. 
At  the  death  of  Arcadius,  in  408,  he  became  prime  min- 
ister, and  guardian  of  the  infant  heir,  Theodosius  11.  He 
retired  from  office  in  414  a.d. 

Antliemius,  (or  Anthe'mius  Proco''pius,)  Roman 
Emperor  of  the  West,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He 
became  a  favourite  general  of  Leo,  Emperor  of  the  East, 
who,  having  been  solicited  by  the  Roman  senate  to  give 
a  ruler  to  Italy,  selected  Anthemius  for  that  position. 
He  began  to  reign  in  467  a.d.  His  son-in-law,  Ricimer, 
raised  an  army  and  marched  against  the  capital,  near 
which  Anthemius  was  defeated  in  battle  in  472  and  put 
to  death. 

Anthemius,  [Gr.  'Avdi/iLog,]  an  eminent  architect  and 
mathematician,  surnamed  Trallia'nus,  from  Tralles, 
in  Lydia,  where  he  was  born,  was  a  brother  of  Alexander 
Trallianus.  He  was  employed  at  Constantinople  by 
Justinian,  for  whom  he  designed  and  commenced  the 
celebrated  church  of  Saint  Sophia,  which,  after  his  death, 
was  finished  by  Isidorus  about  537  a.d.,  and  is  now  a 
Turkish  mosque.  Its  dimensions  are  two  hundred  and 
sixty-nine  feet  long  by  two  hundred  and  forty-three 
wide.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  large  dome,  and  is  con- 
sidered the  original  type  of  the  Byzantine  style.  Died 
about  534  A.D. 

An'ther-ic  or  An'thar-ic,  [Eat.  Antheri'cus,]  son 
of  Clefo,  the  successor  of  Alboin,  was  elected  King  of 
the  Lougobards  about  585,  and  died  in  590  a.d. 

Anfching,  in'ting,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  painter, 
born  at  Gotha  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. He  was  for  some  time  an  aide-de-camp  to  the 
Russian  general  Suwarrow.  He  painted  portraits  in 
profile,  at  Vienna,  Berlin,  etc.    Died  in  1805. 

Authing,  (Karl,)  a  German  general,  who  became 
Governor-General  of  the  Dutch  possessions  in  India. 
Died  at  Gotha  in  1823. 

Anthoine,  SN'twin^  (Antoine  Ignace,)  a  French 
merchant,  noted  for  public  spirit,  was  born  at  Embrun 
in  1749.  He  was  the  pioneer  in  opening  an  extensive 
commerce  with  Russia  by  the  Black  Sea,  and  wrote  a 
"Historical  Essay  on  the  Commerce  and  Navigation  of 
the  Black  Sea,"  (1805.)  He  was  mayor  of  Marseilles 
from  1805  to  1813.  His  wife,  whose  maiden  name  was 
Clary,  was  a  sister-in-law  of  Joseph  Bonaparte  and  Gen- 
eral Bernadotte.    Died  in  1826. 

Anthoine,  (FRANgois  Paul  Nicolas,)  a  French  gen- 
eral and  politician,  born  in  1720.  He  was  elected  in 
1789  to  the  States-General,  in  which  body  he  was  an 
earnest  advocate  of  the  establishment  of  the  trial  by 
jury.    Died  in  1793. 

An'thon,  (Charles,)  LL.D.,  an  American  classical 
scholar,  born  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1797.  He  en- 
tered Columbia  College  in  1811,  and  graduated  with  dis- 
tinguished honour  in  181 5.  Pie  studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1819;  but  his  strong  predilection 
for  classical  pursuits  induced  him  in  1820  to  accept  the 
position  of  adjunct  professor  of  the  ancient  languages  in 
Columbia  College  ;  and  on  the  resignation  of  Professor 
Moore  in  1835  he  became  principal  professor  of  the 
classics  in  that  institution.  He  published  an  edition  of 
Horace,  (1830,)  a  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Antiquities,"  and  a  "Classical  Dictionary,"  (1841.)  He 
also  edited  many  Greek  and  Latin  authors  for  the  use 
of  schools.    His  works  have  been  reprinted  in  England, 


a  distinction  rarely  if  ever  before  accorded  to  American 
classical  school-books.    Died  in  1867. 

For  an  interesting  notice  of  some  of  the  personal  traits  of  Dr.  An- 
then,  see  "The  (Jalaxy,"  New  York,  September,  1867. 

Authon,  (John,)  an  American  jurist,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Detroit  in  1784.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "An  Essay  on  the  Study  of 
Law,"  an  "Analysis  of  Blackstone,"  (2d  edition,  1832,) 
and  "Nisi  Prius  Cases."  He  practised  for  many  years 
in  the  city  of  New  York,  where  he  died  in  March,  1863. 

Anthonie  or  Anthony,  an'to-ne,  (Francis  )  [Lat. 
Franciscus  Anto'nius,]  an  English  physician  and  al- 
chemist, born  in  London  in  1550.  He  practised  medi- 
cine with  success,  and  professed  to  cure  all  diseases  with 
a  solution  of  gold  called  ai(j'upi  po^adi/e,  ("potable  gold,") 
on  which  he  published  a  treatise,  entitled  "  Golden  Pana- 
cea," ("  Panace'a  Au'rea,"  1619.)    Died  in  1623. 

An'thony  or  An'tony,  [Lat.  ANio''Nius ;  Fr.  An- 
toine, dN'twan'',]  Saint,  surnamed  Abbas,  one  of  the 
Christian  Fathers,  the  reputed  founder  of  monachism, 
was  born  near  Heracle'a,  in  Upper  Egypt,  in  251  A.D, 
It  is  said  that  in  his  youth  he  obeyed  in  a  literal  sense 
the  scripture  which  says,  "  Sell  that  thou  hast,  and  give 
to  the  poor,"  and  retired  from  the  world  to  the  desert, 
where  he  lived  as  a  hermit.  Having  acquired  a  wide 
reputation  by  his  austerities,  he  founded  a  monastery 
near  Faioom,  (or  Phaium,)  about  305.  Many  years  after- 
wards he  visited  Alexandria,  to  testify  against  Arianism. 
His  life  was  written  by  Athanasius.  Some  of  his  letters 
are  extant.    He  died  about  356  A.D. 

Anthony.    See  Antonius,  Antony,  or  Antoine. 

Anthony  de  Bourbon.  See  Antony  of  Bourbon. 

Antiboul,  ON'te^booK,  (Charles  Louis,)  a  French 
Girondist  and  lawyer,  born  at  Saint-Tropez  about  1752. 
He  was  elected  in  1792  to  the  Convention,  in  which  he 
voted  for  the  detention  of  the  king.  On  his  return  from 
a  mission  to  Corsica  he  was  executed  as  an  accomplice 
of  the  Girondists,  in  October,  1793. 

An-ti-cliMes,  [Gr. ' kvTUilmh]C ;  Fr.  Anticlide,  6n'- 
te'kled'',]  a  Greek  historian,  born  at  Athens,  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  about  300  B.C.    His  works  are  lost. 

An-tid'o-tus,  ['AvtoJoto^,]  a  Greek  painter,  who  lived 
about  350  B.C.,  was  the  master  of  Nicias,  the  great 
Athenian  painter. 

An-tig'e-nes,  [Gr.  'kvTLyEvr]^,'\  one  of  the  generals  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  Pie  distinguished  himself  at  the 
siege  of  Halicarnassus,  331  B.C.,  and  in  the  battle  against 
Porus,  327.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  he  was  a  faith- 
ful officer  of  Eumenes,  and  fought  against  Antigonus,  who 
put  him  to  death  in  316  B.C. 

Antigenes  was  also  the  name  of  several  ancient  Greek 
physicians. 

Antigenes,  \^ AvrLyevrig,'\  a  Greek  historian,  wrote  a 
Life  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

An-ti-gen^i-das,  ['Avrtyevidaf,]  a  famous  flute-player 
of  Thebes  in  the  fourth  century  B.C. 

Antigna,  SN^ten^yt',  (Jean  Pierre  Alexandre,)  a 
French  painter  of  genre,  born  at  Orleans  in  1818.  He 
gained  a  first  medal  in  1851. 

Antignac,  oN'ten'ytk^  (Antoine,)  a  noted  French 
song-writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1770;  died  in  1823. 
His  works  have  some  merit,  but  do  not  rank  among  the 
best  of  their  class. 

Antigone,  the  French  of  Antigonus,  which  see. 

An-tig'o-ne,  [Gr.  'AvTtyovj],]  the  heroine  of  one  of  tht 
tragedies  of  Sophocles,  was  a  daughter  of  CEdipus,  King 
of  Thebes.  She  was  immured  alive  by  Creon  for  having 
performed  the  rites  of  burial  to  the  body  of  her  brother 
Polynices, 

Antigone,  Queen  of  Egypt,  was  a  daughter  of  Cassan- 
der,  and  the  wife  of  tl;  -  Egyptian  king  Ptolemy  Lagus. 

An-tig'o-nus,  [Gr.  'Amyovog,]  a  king  of  the  Jews, 
was  a  son  of  Aristobu'lus  It.,  after  whose  death  he  was 
driven  from  Judea  by  Antipater  and  his  son  Herod. 
He  recovered  the  throne  by  the  aid  of  the  Parthians 
about  38  B.C.,  but  was  declared  an  enemy  by  the  Roman 
senate.  The  army  of  Antony,  who  favoured  Herod,  took 
Jerusalem,  and  put  Antigonus  to  death,  about  36  B.C. 

Antigonus,  [Gr.  'Av-iyoivg;  Fr.  Antigone,  6N^te'- 
gon',]  King  of  Asia,  surnamed  Cyclops,  or  "  one-eyed," 
an  able  general,  and  successor  of  Alexander  the  Great, 


a.  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /ono-;  k,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  s/ior^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  £2.11,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


A  NT  ICON  us 


137 


ANTIOCHUS 


was  born  in  Macedonia  about  382  B.C.  He  had  a  high 
command  in  the  expedition  against  Persia,  and  was  ap- 
pointed Satrap  of  Phrygia  in  333  B.C.  In  the  partition 
of  the  conquered  provinces  which  was  made  at  the  death 
of  Alexander  in  323,  Antigonus  obtained  Lycia,  Pamphy- 
ha,  and  Greater  Phrygia.  He  was  soon  involved  in  a  war 
against  Perdiccas,  and  formed  an  alliance  with  Antipater 
and  Ptolemy.  After  the  death  of  Perdiccas,  in  321,  he 
found  a  formidable  adversary  in  Eumenes,  who  com- 
manded a  Macedonian  army  in  Asia  for  the  cause  of  the 
royal  family.  In  316  Antigonus  gained  a  victory  over 
Eumenes,  and  put  him  to  death.  He  had  made  him- 
self master  of  a  large  portion  of  Asia,  when  a  coalition 
was  formed  against  him  in  315  by  Ptolemy,  Lysimachus, 
Cassander,  and  Seleucus.  A  long  war  ensued,  in  which 
Antigonus  professed  to  fight  for  Alexander,  the  minor 
son  of  Alexander  the  Great  by  Roxana.  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes,  a  son  of  Antigonus,  gained  a  naval  victory 
over  Ptolemy,  near  Cyprus,  in  306  B.C.,  soon  after  which 
Antigonus  assumed  the  title  of  king.  A  new  coalition 
having  been  formed  against  him  in  302  by  Cassander, 
Seleucus,  Lysimachus,  and  Ptolemy,  he  was  defeated  and 
killed  at  Ipsus,  in  Phrygia,  in  301  B.C. 

SeeDiODORUs  Siculus;  Thirlwall,  "History  of  Greece;"  Plu- 
tarch, "Eumenes,"  and  "Demetrius." 

Antig'oiius  Ca-rys'ti-us,  [AvTiyovog  Kapi'crriOf,]  a 
Greek  philosopher,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  285-247  B.C.  He  was 
the  reputed  author  of  an  extant  "  Collection  of  Marvel- 
lous Stories,"  and  of  some  other  works,  which  are  lost. 

Antig'onus  Do'soii,  [Gr.  ^kvrbjovog  Awawv,]  a  great- 
grandson  of  Antigonus  the  general  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  was  a  son  of  Demetrius,  and  a  nephew  of  Antig- 
onus Gonatas.  He  became  regent  or  king  of  Mace- 
donia during  the  minority  of  his  cousin  Philip,  229  B.C. 
As  general-in-chief  of  the  Achasan  League,  he  gained 
victories  over  Cleomenes  of  Sparta  and  his  allies  in  the 
Peloponnesus.  Died  in  221  B.C.,  leaving  the  throne  to 
Philip  above  mentioned. 

Antig'onus  Gon''a-tas,  [Gr.  'kvTLyovo^  VovaTug,] 
a  son  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  was  born  in  319  B.C. 
at  Gona,  or  Gonni,  in  Thessaly,  whence  his  surname 
Gonatas.  He  made  himself  master  of  Macedonia  in 
277,  after  he  had  defeated  Antipater,  a  nephew  of  Cas- 
sander, and  also  an  army  of  Gauls.  About  273  his  king- 
dom was  invaded  by  Pyrrhus,  the  renowned  King  of 
Epirus.  Antigonus,  being  unable  to  resist  "  the  fierce 
Epirote,"  fled  from  the  country,  but  afterwards  recovered 
his  throne,  on  the  death  of  Pyrrhus,  in  271  or  272  B.C. 
He  annexed  the  Peloponnesus  to  his  kingdom,  and  cap- 
tured Athens  in  262.  His  death  is  variously  dated  243, 
240,  or  239  B.C.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Deme- 
trius II. 

Antiles.    See  Antyllus, 

Antillon,  dn-t61-y6n',  (Isidore,)  a  Spanish  savant, 
born  in  Aragon  about  1760,  became  professor  of  astrono- 
my and  geography  at  Madrid.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
scientific  works,  "  Elements  of  the  Astronomical  and 
Natural  Geography  of  Spain  and  Portugal,"  (2d  edition, 
181 5,)  which  was  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1820. 

An-tiPo-ehus,  [Gr.  'kvTi'Aoxog ;  Fr.  Antiloque,  6n'- 
te^lok',]  a  son  of  Nestor,  distinguished  for  courage  and 
personal  beauty,  was  one  of  the  suitors  of  Helen,  and  a 
friend  of  Achilles.  He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Troy 
by  Memnon,  or,  as  others  say,  by  Hector. 

Antiloque.    See  Antilochus. 

An-tim'a-ehus,  [Gr.  'Avn/iaxog ;  Fr.  Antimaque, 
6N'te'm3k',|  an  eminent  Greek  epic  poet,  who  flou- 
rished about  400  B.C.,  was  a  native  of  Colophon  or  Cla- 
ros.  He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Plato.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  epig  poem  entitled  "Thebais,"  which  the 
Alexandrian  critics  thought  worthy  to  be  compared  to 
Homer's  Iliad.  His  works,  among  which  was  a  cele- 
brated elegy  called  "  Lyde,"  are  lost,  except  small  frag- 
ments. They  are  more  remarkable  for  learning  than 
genius. 

Antimachus,  a  Greek  epic  poet,  born  at  Heliopolis, 
in  Egypt,  lived  before  the  Augustan  age.  He  wrote  a 
poem  on  "The  Creation  of  the  World." 

Antimaco,  an-tim'S-ko  or  an-tee^m^-ko,  (Marcan^ 
TONio,)  an  Italian  professor,  writer,  and  critic,  born  at 


Mantua  about  1473.  He  taught  Greek  at  Ferrara,  and 
translated  part  of  the  "  Ars  Rhetorica"  of  Dionysius  of 
Halicarnassus  into  Latin.     Died  about  1550. 

Antimaque.    See  Antimachus. 

Antine,  d'.    See  D'Antine. 

Antinori,  Sn-te-no^ree,  (Antonio  Ludovico,)  an 
Italian  antiquary  and  priest,  born  in  Abruzzo  in  1704; 
died  in  1788.  He  left  "  Historical  Memoirs  of  the  Prov- 
inces of  the  Abruzzi,"  (4  vols.,  1781-84.) 

An-tin'o-us,  [Gr.  'Avrlvovc;,]  a  beautiful  youth,  a  fa- 
vourite of  the  Roman  emperor  Pladrian,  was  born  in 
Bithynia.  He  accompanied  Pladrian  to  Egypt,  and  was 
drowned  in  the  Nile  in  132  A.D.  A  city,  called  Anti- 
noop'olis,  was  built  by  the  emperor  near  the  spot  where 
he  perished,  and  countless  statues  were  erected  in  honour 
of  him  ;  some  of  these,  of  remarkable  beauty,  still  exist. 
A  new  impulse  was  given  to  the  fine  arts  by  the  emulous 
efforts  of  sculptors  and  painters  to  idealize  his  form  as  a 
type  of  beauty. 

An-ti^o-eiius,  ['Avrloxog,]  a  Greek  historian,  son  of 
Xenophanes,  born  at  Syracuse,  flourished  about  440  B.C. 
He  wrote  histories  of  Sicily  and  of  Italy,  which  were 
highly  prized  by  the  ancients,  but  are  not  extant. 

Anti^oclius'l,  surnamed  So''ter,  {/.e.  "  Saviour,")  the 
son  of  Seleucus,  King  of  Syria  and  Babylonia,  was  born 
about  324  B.C.,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  280  B.C.  A 
victory  gained  by  him  over  the  Gauls,  by  means  of  his 
elephants,  won  for  him  the  name  of  Soter.  He  was 
killed  in  battle  against  the  Gauls  in  261  B.C. 

Antiochus  II.,  The'os,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  261  B.C.  Having  delivered  the 
Milesians  from  their  tyrant  Timarchus,  he  received  from 
them  the  impious  title  of  Theos,  (or  *'  God.")  Among  the 
important  events  of  his  reign  was  the  successful  revolt 
of  the  Parthians  (250  B.C.)  under  Arsaces,  who  became 
the  founder  of  the  Parthian  Empire.  In  fulfilment  of  a 
treaty  with  Ptolemy  of  Egypt,  (252  B.C.,)  Antiochus  re- 
pudiated his  queen  Laodice,  and  married  Berenice,  a 
daughter  of  Ptolemy.  At  the  death  of  Ptolemy,  he 
again  took  Laodice  into  favour ;  but  she  poisoned  him 
in  246,  in  order  to  secure  the  throne  for  her  son  Seleu- 
cus Callini'cus. 

See  Ai'PiAN,  "Syriaca." 

Antiochus  III.  surnamed  the  Great,  was  a  grand- 
son of  the  preceding,  and  son  of  Seleucus  Callini  cus. 
He  was  only  fifteen  years  old  when  he  succeeded  his 
brother  Seleucus  Ceraunus,  in  223  B.C.  His  kingdom,  of 
which  Antioch  was  the  capital,  included,  besides  Syria 
proper,  Babylonia,  Media,  and  a  part  of  Asia  Minor. 
In  a  war  with  Ptolemy,  King  of  Egypt,  he  at  first  gained 
some  advantages,  but  he  was  afterwards  defeated  by 
Ptolemy  in  a  hard-fought  battle  at  Raphia,  in  Palestine, 
in  217  B.C.  About  214  he  suppressed  a  revolt  of  Achasus 
in  Asia  Minor.  While  he  was  engaged  in  these  wars, 
Arsaces  the  Parthian  had  occupied  Media.  Antiochus 
recovered  Media  in  212,  and  afterwards  pursued  Arsaces 
into  Parthia.  He  also  made  a  successful  expedition  to 
India,  and  formed  alliances  with  several  Indian  princes. 
His  encroachment  on  the  territory  of  Egypt,  and  his  am- 
bitious designs  against  Thrace,  which  he  invaded  in  196 
B.C.,  involved  him  in  a  war  with  the  Romans.  His  resolu- 
tion to  reject  the  ultimatum  of  the  Romans  was  confirmed 
by  the  advice  of  Hannibal,  who  took  refuge  at  his  court 
in  195.  Having  invaded  Greece  in  191  B.C.,  he  was  de- 
feated at  Thermopylae  by  the  Roman  consul  Acilius 
Glabrio,  and  withdrew  to  Asia  the  same  year.  In  190 
B.C.,  with  an  army  of  above  80,000  men,  he  encountered 
the  Romans  under  L.  Cornelius  Scipio,  near  Magnesia, 
and  was  utterly  defeated.  It  is  stated  that  he  left  50,000 
dead  on  the  field.  Peace  was  granted  to  him  on  condi- 
tion that  he  should  give  up  all  Asia  to  the  v^'est  of  Tau- 
rus, and  pay  the  expenses  of  the  war,  which  were  esti- 
mated at  fifteen  thousand  talents.  Having  attempted  to 
plunder  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Belus  in  order  to  raise 
money  for  the  Romans,  he  provoked  an  insurrection,  in 
which  he  was  killed,  in  187  B.C.  A  prediction  of  his 
death  may  be  found  in  Daniel  xi.  18,  19.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Seleucus  Philopator. 

See  Plutarch,  and  Eusebius,  "Chronicon;"  Poi.vbius,  "His- 
tory;" Appian,  "Roman  History;"  Justin,  "History." 

Antiochus  IV.,  inappropriately  surnamed  Epiph'- 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  /lard;  g  as G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal •  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


JNTIOCHUS  138  JNTIPATER 


ANES,  (or  the  "  Illustrious,")  was  a  younger  sou  of  the 
preceding,  by  whom  in  188  B.C.  he  was  given  as  a  hos- 
tage to  the  Romans.  After  a  captivity  of  twelve  years, 
he  was  released,  and  ascended  the  throne  of  Syria  in 
175  B.C.,  on  the  death  of  his  brother  Seleucus  Philopa- 
tor,  whose  son  Demetrius  was  detained  as  a  hostage  at 
Rome.  He  invaded  Egypt  in  170,  subdued  the  greater 
part  of  the  country,  and  captured  the  king,  Ptolemy 
Philometor,  but  he  retired  from  Egypt,  in  obedience  to 
the  peremptory  order  of  the  Romans,  in  168  B.C.  He 
plundered  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  and  cruelly  perse- 
cuted the  Jews,  who,  under  Judas  Maccabseus  and  his 
brother,  gained  several  victories  over  his  armies.  (See 
I.  Maccabees  ii.)  He  died  in  164  or  165  B.C.,  of  a  loath- 
some disease,  which  was  regarded  both  by  Jews  and 
Greeks  as  a  divine  punishment  for  his  impiety. 

See  RoLLiN,  "Ancient  History;"  Josephus,  "  History  of  the 
Jews." 

Antiocliiis  v.,  surnamed  Eu'pator,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded  at  the  age  of  nine 
years,  about  164  B.C.,  under  the  regency  of  Lysias.  He 
was  put  to  death  in  162  by  his  cousin-german  Deme- 
trius Soter,  who  succeeded  him  on  the  throne. 

Antiochus  VI.,  a  son  of  Alexander  Balas,  was  a 
minor  at  the  death  of  his  father  in  146  B.C.  Diodotus 
Tryphon  affected  to  support  him  as  a  rival  to  Demetrius 
Nicator,  who  then  possessed  the  throne.  The  latter 
was  defeated,  and  Antiochus  reigned  nominally  until  he 
was  put  to  death  by  Tryphon  in  142  B.C. 

Antiochus  Vil.,  surnamed  Sidetes,  (sT-dee't^z,) 
born  about  164  B.C.,  was  a  younger  son  of  Demetrius 
Soter.  Having  driven  the  usurper  Tryphon  from  the 
throne,  he  began  to  reign  in  138.  He  waged  war  against 
the  Jews,  whom  he  reduced  to  the  state  of  tributaries, 
and  afterwards  against  the  Parthians,  whom  he  defeated 
in  three  battles.  He  was  killed  in  a  battle  against  the 
same,  in  129  or  128  B.C. 

See  Appian,  "De  Bello  Syrlaco;"  Josephus,  "History  of  the 
Jews." 

Antioclms  VIII.,  surnamed  Gry'pus,  a  son  of  De- 
metrius Nicator  and  Cleopatra,  was  born  about  140  B.C., 
and  was  sometimes  styled  Epiphanes.  Having  expelled 
the  usurper  Alexander  Zabinas,  he  began  to  reign  about 
124  B.C.  His  reign  was  disturbed  by  a  civil  war  caused 
by  his  half-brother  Antiochus  Cyzicenus.  He  was  assas- 
sinated in  96  B.C. 

Antiochus  IX.,  surnamed  Cyzicf/nus,  because  he 
was  educated  at  Cyzicus,  was  a  son  of  Antiochus  Side- 
tes and  Cleopatra.  He  took  arms  against  Antiochus 
Grypus  about  116  B.C.,  and  compelled  him,  in  112,  to 
divide  the  kingdom.  Antiochus  IX.  obtained  for  his 
share  Coele-Syria  and  Palestine.  In  95  B.C.  he  was 
defeated  and  killed  by  Seleucus,  a  son  of  Grypus. 

Antiochus  X.,  surnamed  Eu'sebes,  (the  "  Pious,") 
was  a  son  of  Antiochus  IX.  He  took  the  title  of  king 
in  95  B.C.,  but  his  claim  was  contested  by  Philip  and 
Demetrius,  sons  of  Antiochus  Grypus,  who  prevailed  for 
a  time.  Tigranes,  having  been  invited  by  the  Syrians, 
ended  the  strife,  bv  seizing  the  kingdom  for  himself,  in 
83  B.C. 

Antiochus  XI.,  surnamed  Asiat'icus,  a  son  of 
Antiochus  Eusebes,  was  the  last  king  of  Syria  of  the 
dynasty  of  the  Seleucidas.  While  Tigranes  was  occu- 
pied with  a  war  against  the  Romans,  Antiochus  made 
himself  master  of  part  of  Syria,  about  69  B.C.  He  was 
deposed  by  Pompey  in  65  B.C.,  and  Syria  then  became  a 
Roman  province. 

Antiochus,  a  physician,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
lived  at  Rome  in  the  second  century,  and  who  attained 
a  great  age.  Galen  gives  a  minute  account  of  his  way 
of  living.  Another  physician  of  this  name  was  a  native 
of  Mauritania,  and  is  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom 
about  120  A.D.  He  is  venerated  as  a  saint  by  the  Roman 
Church. 

Antiochus  of  ^g^,  in  Cilicia,  a  Greek  sophist,  lived 
about  200  A.D.  He  served  under  Alexander  Severus  in 
the  war  against  the  Parthians,  and,  to  raise  the  courage 
of  the  soldiers,  rolled  himself  in  the  snow,  for  which  he 
was  well  rewarded  by  the  emperor.  He  afterwards  de- 
serted to  the  Parthians.  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a 
declaimer  or  forensic  speaker. 


Antiochus  of  Ascalon,  an  eminent  Platonic  philos- 
opher, was  a  friend  of  Cicero  and  of  L.  Licinius  Lucul- 
lus.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Philo,  whom  he  succeeded  as 
the  head  of  the  New  Academj^,  and  taught  philosophy 
at  Athens,  (where  Cicero  was  his  pupil  about  80  B.C.,) 
and  afterwards  at  Alexandria.  He  laboured  to  confute 
the  skepticism  of  Philo  and  Carneades,  and  to  effect  a 
union  or  compromise  between  the  principles  of  the 
Academy  and  those  of  the  Stoics.  He  wrote  several 
works,  which  are  lost ;  but  his  doctrines  are  explained 
in  Cicero's  "Academics." 

Antiochus  of  Commagene  was  an  ally  of  Tigranes 
in  the  war  against  the  Romans  under  Lucullus,  about  69 
B.C.  He  made  peace  with  Pompey,  who  gave  him  Seleu- 
cia,  and  he  furnished  troops  to  that  general  in  the  civil 
war  against  Caesar.    He  v/as  reigning  in  36  B.C. 

Anti''ochus  surnamed  Epiph'anes,  a  younger  son 
of  Antiochus  Grypus,  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Syria. 
He  was  defeated  by  Antiochus  X.  in  93  B.C. 

Antiochus  surnamed  Hi'erax,  a  son  of  Antiochus 
II.  of  Syria,  waged  war  against  his  brother  Seleucus, 
and  was  defeated.  Died  in  227  B.C.,  aged  about  thirty- 
three. 

Antiochus  of  Seba  or  Saba,  lived  about  the  com- 
mencement of  the  seventh  century.  He  wrote  a  treatise 
on  Christian  morals,  which  is  extant. 

An-ti'o-pe,  [Gr.  'A.vTionr],']  a  daughter  of  Nycteus, 
King  of  Thebes,  became  the  mother,  by  Jupiter,  of  Am- 
PHION  and  Zethus,  (which  see.) 

Antipas,  (Herod.)    See  Herod  Antipas. 

An-tip''a-ter,  [Gr.  'kvTLTTarpog,]  a  pupil  of  Aristotle, 
who  was  made  regent  of  Macedonia.  He  had  been 
employed  as  general  and  minister  by  Philip  of  Macedon, 
by  whom  he  was  highly  esteemed  for  his  prudence  and 
fidelity.  He  was  appointed  regent  by  Alexander  the  Great 
when  the  latter  set  out  on  his  expedition  against  Persia 
in  334  B.C.  In  331  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  Spartans 
near  Megalopolis.  He  was  superseded  as  regent  by  Cra- 
terus,  and  ordered  to  conduct  an  army  of  recruits  to  Baby- 
lon in  323.  At  the  division  of  provinces  after  the  death 
of  Alexander,  the  generals  agreed  that  Antipater  and 
Craterus  should  jointly  govern  Macedonia  and  Greece. 
He  defeated  the  Athenians  and  their  allies,  who  made  an 
effort  to  recover  their  independence,  in  322  B.C.  In  the 
treaty  which  ended  this  war,  called  the  Lamian  war,  it 
was  stipulated  that  Demosthenes  should  be  delivered  to 
Antipater.  The  latter  joined  Antigonus  and  Ptolemy 
in  a  coalition  against  Perdiccas  in  321,  and  was  marching 
through  Syria  on  his  way  to  Egypt,  when  Perdiccas  was 
killed  by  his  own  troops.  Soon  after  this  event  he  was 
appointed  regent  of  the  empire  in  place  of  Perdiccas, 
and  guardian  of  the  young  king,  Alexander  IV.,  with 
whom  he  returned  to  Macedonia.  Died  in  319  B.C., 
leaving  a  son,  Cassander. 

See  Thirlwall,  "History  of  Greece;"  Diodorus  Siculus, 
"History;"  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Phocion;"  Justin,  "History;" 
Droysen,  "Geschichte  der  Nachfolger  Alexanders." 

Antipater,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  the 
second  son  of  Cassander.  He  succeeded  his  brother, 
Philip  IV.  of  Macedon,  in  296  B.C.,  and,  after  a  contest 
with  his  brother  Alexander,  was  deposed  by  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes  in  294.  According  to  Justin,  he  was  put  to 
death  by  Lysimachus  of  Thrace. 

Antipater,  a  Greek  epigrammatic  poet  of  Macedonia, 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Phihp  V.,  220-179  B.C. 

Antipater,  a  son  of  Herod  the  Great  and  his  first 
wife  Doris,  was  notorious  for  cruelty.  He  con.spired 
against  his  father,  and  was  put  to  death  in  i  B.C.,  or  in 
the  last  year  of  his  father's  reign.  He  is  called  by  Jose- 
phus a  "mystery  of  iniquity." 

Antipater  of  Hierapolis,  a  Greek  rhetorician,  who 
was  private  secretary  of  Septimius  Severus,  who  reigned 
from  193  to  21 1  A.D. 

Antipater  (the  Idume'an)  was  a  son  of  Antipas. 
Governor  of  Idumea,  and  the  father  of  Herod  the  Great. 
He  ruled  Judea  by  permission  of  the  high-priest  Hyr- 
canus,  who  had  been  raised  to  the  priesthood  by  the 
aid  and  influence  of  Antipater.  About  46  B.C.  he  was 
appointed  Procurator  or  Governor  of  Judea  by  Cffisar, 
to  whom  he  had  rendered  some  service  in  his  war  against 
the  Egyptians.    Died  in  43  B.C. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lo7tg;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ANT  I  PATER 


139         '  ANTON 


Antipater  of  Sidon,  a  Greek  poet,  who  probably 
flourished  about  100  B.C.  Pliny  relates  that  he  had  a 
fever  every  year  on  his  birthday.  A  number  of  his  epi- 
grams are  extant. 

Antipater  of  Tarsus,  a  Stoic  philosopher,  who  lived 
about  140  B.C.,  was  a  disciple  and  successor  of  Diogenes 
the  Babylonian.  He  wrote  several  works  on  philosophy, 
divination,  morality,  etc.,  and  seems  to  have  been  a  man 
of  great  merit.  Cicero  praises  his  subtlety  or  acuteness. 
Antipater  had  a  controversy  with  Carneades,  whose  skep- 
ticism he  combated. 

Antipater  of  Tyre,  a  Stoic  philosopher,  died  at 
Athens  about  44  B.C.  He  is  favourably  mentioned  by 
Cicero. 

Antipater,  (L.  Ccelius.)    See  Ccelius. 

An-tiph'a-nes,  ['Avri^avT/r,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet 
of  considerable  merit,  flourished  about  360  B.C.  He 
wrote,  it  is  said,  not  less  than  two  hundred  and  sixty 
plays,  of  which  many  fragments  are  extant.  He  died, 
says  Suidas,  in  330  B.C. 

Antiphanes,  a  Greek  physician  of  Delos,  of  uncer- 
tain date,  mentioned  by  Galen. 

Antiplianes  of  Argos,  a  Gieek  sculptor,  the  master 
of  Cleon,  lived  about  400  B.C. 

An-tipli'i-lus,  [Gr.  'Avrd^(?ior;  Fr.  Antiphile,  5n'- 
teTi^F,]  a  celebrated  Greek  painter,  born  in  Egypt,  is 
supposed  by  many  to  have  flourished  about  330  B.C. 
But-Lucian,  in  his  treatise  against  Calumny,  states  that 
he  accused  his  rival  Apelles  of  complicity  in  a  conspi- 
racy which  was  formed  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philop- 
ator,  about  218  B.C.  Antiphilus  excelled  in  facility  of 
execution,  and  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  the  grotesque 
figures  called  grylli.  Pliny  notices  several  of  his  works, 
among  which  are  "Cadmus  and  Europa,"  and  a  "Boy 
blowing  a  Fire." 

Antiphilus,  a  Greek  epigrammatic  poet,  lived  proba- 
bly between  10  and  70  A.D. 

Antipho.    See  Antiphon. 

An'ti-phon  or  An'ti-pho,  ['Ax'n^wi^,]  one  of  the 
Ten  Attic  Orators,  a  son  of  Sophilus,  a  sophist,  was  born 
at  Rhamnus,  in  Attica,  about  479  B.C.  He  made  im- 
provements in  the  art  of  rhetoric,  and  was  one  of  the 
teachers  of  Thucydides,  who  expresses  a  favourable 
opinion  of  his  oratory.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  suc- 
cessful commander  in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  He  sel- 
dom spoke  in  public,  but  composed  speeches  or  orations 
for  accused  persons  or  politicians.  Fifteen  of  his  ora- 
tions are  still  extant.  He  acted  a  very  prominent  part 
in  the  revolution  by  which  the  Council  of  Four  Hur.dred 
obtained  power  in  411  B.C.  Before  the  end  of  that  year 
a  counter-revolution  occurred,  and  Alcibiades,  the  enemy 
of  Antiphon,  was  recalled.  Antiphon  was  tried  for  trea- 
son, and  made  an  eloquent  speech  in  his  own  defence, 
but  was  punished  with  death.  Thucydides  represents 
him  as  a  man  of  superior  virtue  and  wisdom. 

See  D.  RuHNKEN  and  P.  Van  Spaan,  "  Dissertatio  de  Anti- 
phonte  Oratore  Attico,"  1763;  A.  Drvander,  "  Commentatio  de 
Antiphontis  Rhamnusii  Vita,"  1838. 

Antiphon,  a  Greek  epic  poet  and  sophist,  who  was 
contemporary  with  Socrates.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the 
Antiphon  who  wrote  a  work  on  Truth,  to  which  several 
ancient  writers  refer. 

Antiphon,  a  younger  brother  of  Plato,  who  has  pre- 
served the  remembrance  of  his  name  in  his  dialogue 

Parmenides." 

Antiphon,  a  Greek  tragic  poet,  who  flourished  about 
400  B.C.  He  lived  at  the  court  of  Dionysius  the  Elder, 
by  whom  he  was  put  to  death.  Several  of  his  works 
are  cited  by  Aristotle.  When  the  tyrant  asked  him  what 
was  the  best  kind  of  brass  or  bronze,  he  answered,  "  That 
of  which  the  statues  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogi^ton  are 
made." 

Antiquario,  In-te-kw^'re-o,  (Jacopo,)  [Lat.  Jaco'- 
Bus  Antiqua'rius,]  a  learned  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Perugia  about  1444.  He  was  secretary  to  the  Duke  of 
Milan.  Died  at  Milan  in  15 12.  A  volume  of  his  Latin 
letters  was  published  in  1 5 19. 

Antiquus,  in-tee'kwus,  (Joannes  or  Jan,)  a  distin- 
guished Dutch  painter,  born  at  Groningen  in  1702.  He 
went  to  Italy  in  his  youth,  and  worked  in  Florence,  Rome, 
Naples,  and  Venice.    After  his  return  to  Holland  he 


was  patronized  by  the  Prince  of  Orange.  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Fall  of  the  Giants,"  a  "Scipio  Africa- 
nus,"  and  "  Parnassus."  Descamps  calls  him  a  good  de- 
signer and  a  good  colorist.  He  painted  many  portraits. 
Died  in  1750. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Hollandais." 

An-tis'ta-tes,  ['Ai^ricrarz/f,]  a  Greek  architect  of  the- 
sixth  century  B.C.,  laid  the  foundat-ion  of  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  Olympius  at  Athens. 

An-tis'the-nes,  [Gr.  ' AvuGdivr]^ ;  Fr.  Antisthene, 
6N''tes'tan',]  an  eminent  Greek  Cynic  philosopher,  and 
the  reputed  founder  of  the  Cynic  school,  was  born  at 
Athens,  and  flourished  about  400  or  375  B.C.  Fie  was  a 
disciple  and  friend  of  Socrates,  after  whose  death  he 
established  a  school  in  the  gymnasium  of  Cynosarges. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  an  enemy  of  Plato.  Among  his 
pupils  was  the  witty  and  eccentric  Diogenes.  Antis- 
thenes  was  very  temperate  and  simple  in  his  way  of  life, 
and  professed  a  contempt  of  riches.  As  he  seemed  to 
make  a  display  of  his  disregard  for  the  ordinary  usages 
of  life,  Socrates  once  said  to  him,  "  I  can  see  thy  pride 
(or  vanity)  through  the  holes  in  thy  robe."  Xenophon, 
in  his  "Banquet,"  gives  a  favourable  impression  of  his 
character.  Many  of  his  sententious  and  pithy  sayings 
are  recorded.  He  wrote  works  on  various  subjects, 
which  are  lost,  except  perhaps  two  declamations  which 
are  ascribed  to  him.  His  doctrines  were  chiefly  moral 
and  practical.  He  taught  that  virtue  is  all-sufflcient  for 
happiness,  and  approved  those  healthy  pleasures  that 
are  consequent  on  labour.  In  one  of  his  works  he  says, 
"  There  are  many  popular  gods,  but  only  one  natural 
God."    He  survived  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  371  B.C. 

.See  RiCHTER,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita,  Moribus  et  Placitis  Antis- 
thenis  Cynici ;"  Ritter,  "  History  of  Pliilosophy ;"  G.  H.  Lewes, 
"Biograi  hical  History  of  Philosophy ;"  Diogenes  Laertius. 

Antoine,  (of  Germany.)    See  Anton. 

Antoine,  (of  Italy.)    See  Antonio. 

Antoine,  dN'twan',  (Jacques  Denis,)  an  eminent 
French  artist,  born  in  Paris  in  1733.  He  built  the  stair- 
case of  the  Palais  de  Justice,  and  the  Mint,  (Hotel  des 
Monnaies,)  the  unity  and  simplicity  of  which  presented 
a  strong  contrast  with  the  then  prevailing  style  in  French 
architecture.    It  was  finished  in  1776.    Died  in  1801. 

See  Quatremere  de  Quixcv,  "Histoire  des  Architectes." 

Antoine,  (Paul  Gabriel,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Luneville  in  1679,  was  professor  of  philosophy  in  seve- 
ral colleges.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Theo- 
logia  Moralis  Universa,"  (3  vols.,  1726  and  1731,)  often 
reprinted.    Died  at  Pont-a-Mousson  in  1743. 

Antoine,  (Sebastien,)  a  French  engraver,  born  at 
Nancy,  flourished  between  1720  and  1750. 

Antoine  de  Bourbon.  See  Antony  of  Bourbon. 

Antoine  de  Messine.    See  Anton ello. 

Antoinette,  (Marie.)    See  Marie  Antoinette. 

Antolinez,  an-to-lee'neth,  (Don  Jose,)  a  Spanish 
landscape-painter,  who  excelled  in  colouring,  was  born 
at  Seville  in  1639.  He  painted  some  historical  pictures. 
Died  at  Madrid  in  1676. 

Antolinez  y  Sarabia,  Sn-to-lee'ngth  e  sS-ra-Bee"!, 
(Francisco,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Seville 
in  1644,  was  a  skilful  painter.  He  studied  with  Murillo, 
whose  colouring  he  imitated  with  success,  and  worked  at 
Madrid.    Died  in  1700. 

Antolini,  an-to-lee^nee,  (Giovanni,)  an  architect  of 
Milan,  born  in  1755  ;  died  in  1841.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  a  treatise  on  civil  architecture. 

Antommarchi,  Jn-tom-maR'kee,  (Francesco,)  an 
Italian  anatomist,  born  in  Corsica.  He  became,  in  1812, 
anatomical  dissector  to  a  hospital  of  Florence,  attached 
to  the  University  of  Pisa,  and  was  afterwards  physician 
or  surgeon  to  Napoleon  at  Saint  Helena,  1818-21.  He 
published  "The  Last  Moments  of  Napoleon,"  (2  vols., 
1823,)  and  "Anatomical  Plates  of  the  Human  Body," 
(1823-26.)  Died  in  Cuba  in  1838,  or,  according  to  some 
authorities,  about  1844. 

See  "  Memoires  du  Docteur  F.  Antommarchi." 

Anton,  an'ton,  or  An'tony,  [Fr.  Antoine,  5n' 
twSn',]  I.,  (Clemens  Theodor,)  King  of  Saxony,  born 
in  1755,  was  the  second  son  of  Frederick  Christian,  Elec- 
tor of  Saxony.    He  married  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria, 
I  whose  father  became  emperor  Leopold  I.    In  1827  he 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ANTON 


140 


ANTONINUS 


succeeded  his  brother  Frederick  Augustus,  but,  on  ac- 
count of  his  age  and  lack  of  abilities,  took  little  part  in 
the  government.    Died  in  1836. 

Sie  JMhvnert,  "Anton  Konig  von  Sachsen." 

Anton,  (Conrad  Gottlob,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Lauban  in  1745  ;  died  at  Wittenberg  in  1814. 

Anton,  (Gottfried,)  [Lat.  Gotiiofre'dus  Awro'- 
Nius,J  ah  eminent  professor  of  feudal  and  Roman  law, 
born  in  Westphalia  about  1570  ;  died  in  1618. 

Anton  or  An-to'm-us,  (Paul,)  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Hirschfeld,  in  Lusatia,  in  1661,  be- 
came professor  of  theology  at  Halle  about  1695.  His 
work,  called  "The  Doctrine  of  the  Council  of  Trent," 
(1697,)  has  been  often  reprinted.  Died  at  Halle  in  1730. 

Anton,  von,  fon  an''ton,  (Karl  Gotfloi],)  a  German 
historian  and  lawyer,  born  at  Lauban  in  1751,  was  noted 
xor  his  critical  sagacity.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  "History  of  Agriculture  in  Germany,"  (3  vols.,  1799- 
1802,)  and  a  "History  of  the  German  Nation,"  (unfin- 
ished, 1793.)    Died  in  1818. 

Antonelle,  SN'to'neK,  (Pierre  Antoine,)  a  French 
marquis,  born  at  Aries  in  1747,  became  a  zealous  revo- 
lutionist, was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly  in 
1792,  and  took  an  active  part  against  the  Girondists. 
Died  in  1817. 

Anbonelii,  an-to-nel'lee,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  car- 
dinal and  able  politician,  born  near  Terracina  on  the  2d 
of  April,  1806.  He  became  second  treasurer  under  the 
papal  government  in  1844,  ^^'^^  grand  treasurer  of  the 
two  apostolic  chambers  in  1845.  By  the  suppleness  of 
his  character  and  the  energy  disguised  under  an  affable 
exterior,  he  acquired  great  influence  with  Pius  IX.,  who 
appointed  him  minister  of  finances.  He  opposed  the 
liberal  movement  which  resulted  in  the  formation  of  a 
republic  at  Rome  in  1848,  and  became  the  pope's  secre- 
tary of  state  for  foreign  affairs  (or  first  minister)  in  April, 
1S50.  He  has  shown  himself  an  ultra-conservative,  and 
determinedly  hostile  to  the  cause  of  Italian  unity. 

Antoneiii,  (Giovanni  Carlo,)  an  Italian  bishop  and 
distinguished  writer  on  canon  law,  who  became  Bishop 
of  Ferentino  in  1677,  was  born  at  Velletri.  Among  his 
chief  works  is  one  "On  the  Government  of  the  Episco- 
pal Church,"  (or  "of  the  church  by  bishops,")  ("De  Re- 
gimine  Ecclesiae  Episcopalis,"  1650.)    Died  in  1694. 

Antonelli,  (Leonardo,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  at 
Sinigaglia  in  1730,  distinguished  himself  as  a  friend  of 
the  Jesuits,  and  as  an  advocate  of  the  most  extravagant 
claims  of  the  Roman  Church.    Died  in  181 1. 

Antonalli,  (Niccolo  Marl-^,)  Count,  an  eminent 
Italian  historian  and  theologian,  born  at  Pergola  in  1698, 
was  made  cardinal  in  1759.  He  wrote  on  "The  Rights 
of  the  Apostolic  See  to  Parma  and  Piacenza,"  (4  vols., 
1742,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1767. 

Antonello,  in-to-neKlo,  or  Antonelli,  S.n-to-neKlee, 
(Antonio,)  surnamed  da  Messina,  da  mes-see'n^,  from 
the  place  of  his  birth,  [Fr.  Antoine  de  Messine,  6n''- 
twan'  deh  ma'sen',]  a  celebrated  painter,  born  at  Messina 
about  1414,  is  generally  supposed  to  be  the  first  Italian 
who  painted  in  oil.  His  admiration  of  an  oil-painting 
by  J.  Van  Eyck  induced  him  to  visit  Bruges,  where  he 
gained  the  friendship  of  Van  Eyck,  who  imparted  to  him 
his  secret  method  of  mixing  his  paints.  He  returned  to 
Italy  about  1445,  worked  at  Milan,  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation  by  the  brilliancy  of  his  colouring.  About 
1470  he  settled  in  Venice,  where  he  lived  twenty  years, 
and  painted  subjects  from  the  Scriptures,  among  which 
is  a  picture  of  the  Virgin  reading.    Died  about  1495. 

See  LANzr,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy,"  and  "Lives  of  the 
Early  Flemish  Painters." 

Antoni,  d',  dan-to''nee,( Alessandro  Vittorio  Papa- 
cino — pa-p^-chee'no,)  a  distinguished  Piedmontese  artil- 
lery officer  and  writer  on  the  military  art,  born  at  Villa 
Franca  in  17 14.  He  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age, 
and  passed  successively  through  the  various  grades  until 
he  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  1784. 
Among  his  works  are  a  treatise  on  "  Military  Architec- 
ture," (6  vols.,  1778,)  and  one  on  "Gunpowder,"  (1765.) 
Died  in  17S6. 

Antoni,  degli,  daKyee  an-to'nee,  (Vincenzo  Bernt,) 
an  Italian  jurist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1747;  died  about  1810. 
See  Carlo  Pepoi.i,  "Vie  d'Antoni." 


An-to'm-a,  (Ma'jor,  or  "  the  Elder,")  a  daughter  of 
Mark  Antony  the  Triumvir,  and  Octavia,  a  sister  of  Au- 
gustus Caesar,  was  born  in  39  B.C.  She  became  the  wife 
of  L.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  and  mother  of  Cneius 
Domitius,  who  was  the  father  of  the  emperor  Nero. 

Anto'nia,  (Mi^nor,  or  "the  Younger,")  a  younger 
daughter  of  Mark  Antony  and  Octavia,  was  born  about 
36  B.C.  She  was  married  to  Claudius  Drusus  Nero, 
(who  died  in  9  B.C.,)  and  became  mother  of  the  celebrated 
Germanicus,  and  of  Claudius,  who  was  afterwards  em- 
peror. She  was  admired  for  her  beauty  and  esteemed 
for  her  virtues.  The  emperor  Caligula  was  her  grand- 
son.   Died  in  37  or  38  a.d. 

Antoniano,  5n-to-nc-a^-io,  (Silvio,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  improvisatore  and  cardinal,  born  at  Rome  in 
1540.  He  improvised  verses  on  various  subjects,  and  in 
all  the  measures  of  Italian  poetry.  As  professor  of  clas- 
sical literature  in  the  College  of  Sapienza  at  Rome,  he 
lectured  with  great  reputation.  He  was  made  a  cardinal 
in  1598.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Education,"  (1584,) 
and  a  volume  of  Latin  Orations,  (1610.)   Died  in  1603. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Antoniasso,  &n-to-ne-ds'so,  an  Italian  painter,  who 
lived  in  the  first  part  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Antonides,  an-to''ne-des,(THEODORUS,)  a  Dutch  theo- 
logian, lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Antonides  Nerdenus,  ^n-to'ne-des  ngR-da'nus, 
(Hendrik,)  also  called  Hendrik  Antonius  van  der 
Linden,  (vSn  der  lin'den,)  a  Dutch  theologian,  born  at 
Naerden  in  1 546.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  System  of 
Theology,"  (1613.)    Died  in  1604. 

Antonides  van  der  Goes,  Sn-to^'ne-des  vftn  der 
Hoos,  (Johannes,)  a  popular  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Goes 
in  1647.  Pie  practised  medicine  in  his  youth,  and  after- 
wards obtained  an  ofiice  in  the  admiralty.  His  chief 
work  is  a  national  poem  descriptive  of  the  Dutch  river 
Y  or  Ij,  entitled  "The  Y  Stream,"  ("Ijstroom,"  1671,) 
which  was  very  popular.    Died  in  1684. 

Antonides  van  der  Linden,  (Johannes.)  See  Lin- 
den. 

Antoniles,  (Jose.)    See  Antolinez. 

Antonilez.    See  Antolinez. 

Antonin,  the  French  for  Antoninus,  which  see. 

An-to-ni^na,  the  wife  of  Belisarius,  born  in  499  a.d., 
was  eminent  for  her  beauty,  energy,  and  powers  of  fas- 
cination. She  had  great  influence  in  public  affairs.  She 
was  once  imprisoned  by  Belisarius  for  her  infidelity,  but 
he  was  afterwards  reconciled  to  her.    Died  after  565. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Antonini,  Sn-to-nee'nee,  (Annibale,)  born  near  Sa- 
lerno, in  Naples,  settled  in  Paris,  where  he  was  known 
as  the  Abbe  Antonini.  He  wrote  an  Italian-French  Dic- 
tionary, and  other  works.    Died  in  1755. 

Antonini,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at 
Sarsina  in  the  sixteenth  century.    Died  about  1630. 

Antonini,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  antiquary  and 
jurist,  lived  between  1700  and  1750. 

An-to-m^nus,  [It.  Antonio,"  3.n-to'ne-o,  or  Anto- 
NiNo,  an-to-nee^no ;  Fr.  Antonin,  6N'to^n4N',]  Saint, 
a  learned  and  pious  archbishop  of  Florence,  born  in 
1389  ;  died  in  1459.  His  numerous  works  are  princi- 
pally theological.  His  "  Summa  Theologica"  (4  vols. 
1478)  has  been  often  reprinted. 

Antoninus,  (Marcus  Aurelius.)    See  Aurelius 

xA-NTONINUS. 

An-to-ni'nus  Lib-er-a'lis,  a  Greek  writer,  who  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  about  150  A.D.,  but  is  not  men- 
tioned by  any  ancient  author.  There  is  extant  a  work 
entitled  a  "  Collection  of  Metamorphoses,"  which  is 
ascribed  to  him. 

An-to-ni'nus  Pi'us,  or,  more  fully,  Ti'tiis  Au-re'- 
li-us  FuFvus  Boi-o'ni-us  Ar'ri-us  An-to-ni'nus, 
[Fr.  Antonin,  SN^to'n^N^,]  an  excellent  Roman  em- 
peror, a  son  of  Aurelius  Fulvus,  was  born  at  Lanuvium 
in  86  a.d.  He  became  consul  in  120  a.d.,  after  which 
he  governed  the  province  of  Asia,  as  proconsul,  with 
wisdom  and  equity.  He  married  Annia  Galeria  Faus- 
tina, and  was  adopted  by  Hadrian  in  138,  on  condition 
that  he  should  adopt  Marcus  Annius  Verus.  (See  Aure- 
lius, (Marcus,)  and  Lucius  Verus.)  Antoninus  suc- 
ceeded Hadrian  in  July,  138,  and  began  under  happy 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fdt;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ANTONIO 


141 


JNTONIUS 


auspices  his  peaceful  and  prosperous  reign.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  treated  the  Christians  with  moderation, 
if  not  clemency.  It  has  been  stated  that  he  issued  an 
edict  for  the  protection  of  Christians;  but  some  writers 
ascribe  this  edict  to  his  successor.  According  to  Capito- 
linus,  from  whom  we  derive  nearly  all  our  knowledge  of 
Antoninus,  he  was  temperate,  humane,  amiable,  learned, 
and  eloquent.  The  name  of  Pater  Patriae  ("  Father  of 
his  Country")  was  conferred  on  him  by  the  senate.  He 
died  in  161  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  Marcus  Aurelius. 
His  memory  was  so  greatly  venerated  that  five  of  his 
successors  assumed  the  name  of  Antoninus. 

See  J.  Capitolinus,  "Vita  Antdnini ;"  Gautier  de  Sibert, 
''Vie  d' Antonio." 

Antonio,  Sn-to'ne-o,  Dom  an  illegitimate  son  of 
Dom  Luis,  son  of  King  Emmanuel  of  Portugal,  claimed 
the  throne  in  opposition  to  his  uncle  Henry,  and  on  the 
death  of  the  latter,  in  1580,  was  proclaimed  king.  He 
was  totally  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Alva  the  same  year. 
After  various  attempts  to  recover  his  kingdom,  he  died 
in  Paris  in  1595. 

Antonio  of  Florence.   See  Antoninus,  (Saint.) 

Antonio,  (Marc.)    See  Raimondi. 

Antonio,  ^n-to^'ne-o,  (Nicolas,)  [Lat.  Nicolaus 
Anton  I  us,]  a  distinguished  Spanish  bibliographer  and 
critic,  born  at  Seville  in  161 7.  He  was  appointed  in 
1659  by  Philip  IV.  his  general  agent  at  the  court  of 
Rome,  where  he  remained  eighteen  years.  Durilig  this 
time  he  was  employed  on  his  great  work,  which  is  a  com- 
plete list  of  the  Spanish  authors  and  a  catalogue  of  their 
writings.  In  1672  he  published  a  part  of  this  work,  en- 
titled "New  Spanish  Library,'*  ("  Bibliotheca  Hispana 
Nova,"  in  2  vols.)  The  "  Old  Library"  ("  Bibliotheca 
Vetus,"  in  2  vols.)  appeared  in  1696.  He  became  fiscal 
of  the  royal  council  at  Madrid  about  1677.  Died  in 
1684.  His  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana"  is  considered  by 
many  critics  the  best  work  on  Spanish  literature.  He 
also  wrote  a  "  Critique  on  Fabulous  Histories,"  ("  Cen- 
sura  de  Historias  fabulosas,"  1742.) 

See  Arana  de  Varflora,  "  Hijos  de  Sevilla;"  Mayans,  "Vida 
de  N.  Antonio,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Censura  de  Historias  fabulosas;" 
TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Antonio  (dn-to'ne-o)  of  Padua,  a  Franciscan  monk 
and  celebrated  preacher,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1195  ;  died 
at  Padua  in  1231.  He  is  regarded  by  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics of  Italy  and  Portugal  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  their 
saints. 

Antonio,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  historical  painter,  born 
at  Cordova  m  1614  ;  died  in  1675. 

Anto'nio  surnamed  Veneziano,  (v^i-ned-ze-^'no,)  or 
the  "  Venetian,"  an  eminent  painter  in  fresco,  born  in 
Venice,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  in  Florence, 
about  1310.  He  worked  chiefly  in  Florence  and  Pisa. 
His  design  was  correct  and  graceful.  The  truth  and 
harmony  of  his  chiaroscuro  are  praised  by  Vasari.  His 
works  are  nearly  all  destroyed.    Died  in  1384. 

See  Nagler,  "  AUgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Antonio  da  Messina.    See  Antonello. 

Antonio  da  Vegu,  S.n-to'ne-o  di  vi-goo',  or  da 
Veggia,  dd  vld'jd,  an  able  Italian  sculptor,  lived  about 
1500  or  1550.    He  adorned  the  cathedral  of  Milan. 

Antonio  de  Lebrixa.    See  Nebrissensis. 

Antonio  di  Locate,  an-to'ne-o  de  lo-kd'ti,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  who  was  employed  on  the  fa9ade  of  the  Certosa 
di  Pavia  about  1473. 

Antonio  Margarita,  an-to'ne-o  maR-gS-ree'tS,  or 
Margalitha,  maR-gd-lee'ta,  was  converted  from  Juda- 
ism to  Christianity  in  1522.  He  wrote  an  exposition  of 
the  Jewish  religion,  (1530,)  which  was  praised  by  Luther. 

Antonio  Morosini,  Sn-to'ne-o  mo-ro-see'nee,  an 
Italian  poet,  lived  at  Florence  about  1650-1700, 

Antonisze,  an-to-nis'seh,  (Kornelis,)  a  skilful 
Dutch  painter  of  cities,  born  at  Amsterdam  about  1500. 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  council  of  Amsterdam 
in  1547.    His  name  is  sometimes  written  Teunissen. 

An-to'm-iis,  [Fr.  Antoine,  SN^twin',]  (Caius,)  a 
younger  brother  of  Mark  Antony  the  Triumvir,  was 
sent  in  49  B.C.,  as  Cesar's  lieutenant,  to  Illyricum,  and 
became  praetor  of  the  city,  as  a  colleague  of  Brutus,  in 
44  B.C.  In  the  same  year  he  led  a  small  army  into 
Macedonia,  which  he  found  occupied  by  a  hostile  force 


under  Brutus,  to  whom  he  surrendered  in  the  spring  of 
43  B.C.  He  was  put  to  death  in  retaliation  for  the  death 
of  Cicero  and  D.  Brutus. 

Antonius,  (CaE'us  Hyb'rida,)  an  uncle  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  a  son  of  M.  Antonius  the  Orator,  became 
prcetor  in  66,  and  the  colleague  of  Cicero  in  the  con 
sulship  in  63  B.C.  In  the  canvas  for  this  office,  Catiline 
and  Antonius  worked  together  to  defeat  Cicero.  Anto- 
nius was  a  man  of  profligate  habits,  and  did  not  cor- 
dially co-operate  with  Cicero  in  the  contest  with  Catiline, 
He  was  banished  for  extortion  or  malversation  in  59  B.C. 
Died  about  44  B.C. 

Antonius,  (Felix.)    See  Felix  Antonius. 

Antonius,  (Franciscus.)    See  Anthonie. 

Antonius,  (Iulus,)  a  son  of  Mark  Antony  and  Ful- 
via,  married  Marcella,  a  niece  of  Augustus.  By  the 
favour  of  Augustus,  he  was  chosen  praetor  in  13  B.C., 
and  consul  in  the  year  10.  He  was  condemned  to  death 
in  2  B.C.  for  an  intrigue  with  Julia,  daughter  of  the  em- 
peror. Horace  addressed  the  second  ode  of  his  fourth 
book  to  I.  Antonius,  who  was  himself  the  author  of  a 
poem  called  "Diomedeis." 

Antonius,  (Lucius,)  a  younger  brother  of  Antony 
the  Triumvir,  was  elected  tribune  of  the  people  for  44 
B.C.,  and,  after  the  death  of  Cxsar,  promoted  the  designs 
of  his  brother  Marcus.  In  41  he  was  consul  with  P. 
Servilius  Isauricus,  and  joined  Fulvia  in  her  efforts  to 
alienate  Mark  Antony  from  Octavius.  He  raised  an 
army  against  the  latter,  but  was  forced  to  surrender  at 
Perugia,  (41  B.C.,)  and  was  sent  to  Spain  to  take  com- 
mand in  that  country. 

Antonius,  (Marcus,)  commonly  called  the  Orator, 
one  of  the  most  eloquent  of  Roman  orators  and  law- 
yers, was  born  in  142  B.C.  He  was  grandfather  of 
Mark  Antony  the  Triumvir.  He  obtained  the  govern- 
ment of  Cilicia,  with  the  title  of  proconsul,  in  103,  and 
became  consul  in  99.  He  favoured  the  aristocratic  party, 
and  was  an  adherent  of  Sulla  in  the  civil  war  against 
Marius,  by  whose  order  he  was  assassinated  in  87  B.C. 
His  great  power  as  an  orator  is  commemorated  by 
Cicero  in  his  treatise  "  De  Oratore,"  and  in  his  "  Bru- 
tus." He  left  no  written  orations.  In  the  judgment  of 
Cicero,  Marcus  Antonius  and  L.  Crassus  were  the  first 
Roman  orators  who  equalled  the  great  orators  of  Greece. 

See  Plutarch,  "Marius;"  Drumann,  "  Geschichte  Roms," 
vol.  i. 

Antonius,  (Marcus,)  surnamed  the  Triumvir,  called 
in  English  Mark  Antony,  [Fr.  Marc-Antoine,  mtRk^- 
SN'twan',]  a  famous  Roman  general  and  politician,  a  son 
of  M.  Antonius  Creticus,  was  born  about  83  B.C.  His 
mother  was  Julia,  a  daughter  of  L.  Julius  Ca:?sar,  who 
was  consul  in  90  B.C.  He  distinguished  himself  in  his 
youth  by  his  talents,  extravagance,  and  audacious  de- 
fiance of  the  laws.  He  commanded  the  cavalry  under 
Gabinius  in  Syria  and  Egypt  in  57-56  B.C.,  and  was 
elected  quaestor  in  53  or  52.  In  the  latter  year  he 
served  in  Gaul  as  lieutenant  of  Caesar,  by  whose  influ- 
ence he  obtained  the  offices  of  augur  and  tribune  in  50 
B.C.  Antony  used  his  power  as  tribune  to  promote  the 
interest  of  Caesar  in  his  contest  with  the  senate.  In 
January,  49,  he  fled  from  the  city  to  the  camp  of  Ccesar, 
and  in  the  civil  war  which  ensued  he  became  the  lieu- 
tenant of  that  chief,  who,  when  he  passed  from  Italy  tc 
Spain,  intrusted  to  Antony  the  chief  command  in  the 
former  country.  He  proved  himself  a  brave  and  able 
general,  and  commanded  the  left  wing  at  the  battle  of 
Pharsalia,  48  B.C.  When  Caesar  became  dictator,  47 
B.C.,  Antony  was  appointed  his  master  of  the  horse. 
He  married  Fulvia,  the  widow  of  P.  Clodius,  in  th«. 
year  46,  and  was  the  colleague  of  Caesar  in  the  consul- 
ship in  44.  Many  of  the  conspirators  who  killed  the 
dictator  wished  to  involve  Antony  in  the  same  fate ;  bu*" 
this  design  was  overruled  by  Brutus. 

Having  obtained  possession  of  the  papers  of  Caesar 
he  aspired  to  supreme  power,  but  opened  insidious  ne- 
gotiations with  Brutus  and  Cassius,  consented  to  an  am- 
nesty, and  procured  from  the  senate  a  decree  to  ratify 
the  acts  of  the  late  dictator.  By  his  artful  and  eloquent 
funeral  oration  over  the  body  of  Caesar,  he  aroused  the 
fury  of  the  populace  against  the  conspirators,  who  were, 
in  consequence,  driven  out  of  Rome.  He  found  a  power- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  H,  Yi,  giitttiral ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    0:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


142  APAMA 


ANTONIUS 


ful  rival  in  young  Octavius,  (the  adopted  son  and  heir  of 
Ceesar,)  whom  he  at  first  treated  with  contempt.  An- 
tony's popidarity  was  also  damaged  by  the  Philippics 
of  Cicero.  The  consuls  Hirtius  and  Pansa  raised  an 
army  against  Antony,  who  was  defeated  at  Mu'tina  (now 
Modena)  in  43  B.C.  Before  the  end  of  this  year,  Octa- 
vius deserted  the  cause  of  the  senate,  and  united  with 
Antony  and  Lepidus  to  form  a  triumvirate.  It  was  on 
the  demand  of  Antony  that  Cicero  was  included  in  the 
fatal  proscription-list  of  the  triumvirs.  The  conduct  of 
the  war  against  Brutus  and  Cassius  devolved  chiefly  on 
Antony,  to  whose  skill  the  victory  at  Philippi,  42  B.C., 
must  be  ascribed. 

In  the  division  of  the  provinces,  Asia  and  the  East 
in  general  were  allotted  to  Antony,  who  there  indulged 
without  restraint  his  love  of  luxury  and  dissolute  vices. 
He  was  captivated  by  the  charms  of  Cleopatra,  Queen 
of  Egypt,  and  became  so  infatuated  as  almost  wholly  to 
neglect  his  affairs.  The  intrigues  of  Fulvia  caused  a 
rupture  between  Antony  and  Octavius  in  41,  but  after 
her  death  in  40  B.C.  they  were  reconciled,  and  the  former 
married  Octavia,  the  sister  of  Octavius.  Antony's  army, 
under  Ventidius,  defeated  the  Parthians  in  the  year  38. 
About  the  end  of  that  year  the  triumvirate  was  renewed 
for  a  second  period  of  five  years.  Antony  soon  renewed 
his  connection  with  Cleopatra,  and  divorced  Octavia. 
The  rival  triumvirs  began  to  prepare  for  war  in  32  B.C., 
or  earlier,  and  fought  in  '31  a  decisive  naval  battle  at 
Actium,  where  Antony  was  defeated.  (See  Augustus.) 
He  retreated  to  Alexandria,  and  was  deserted  by  his 
rieet.  Finding  his  case  desperate,  he  killed  himself,  in 
30  B.C.  He  had  by  Fulvia  two  sons,  lulus  and  Antyl- 
lus,  who  survived  him.  Antony  is  a  conspicuous  char- 
acter in  two  of  Shakspeare's  dramas, — "Julius  Caesar" 
and  "Antony  and  Cleopatra." 

See  "Antony,"  in  Plutarch's  "Lives;"  Dion  Cassius,  "His- 
tory of  Rome ;"  Drumann,  "  Geschlchte  Ronis ;"  Appian,  "  Bellum 
Civile." 

Anto'nius  surnamed  Cret'icus,  (Marcus,)  a  son  of 
M.  Antonius  the  Orator.  He  became  praetor  in  75  B.C., 
and  in  the  next  year  received  command  of  the  whole 
Roman  fleet,  with  instructions  to  clear  the  Mediterra- 
nean Sea  of  pirates.  He  disgraced  himself  by  plunder- 
ing Sicily.  Having  afterwards  attacked  Crete,  he  was 
totally  defeated.  He  died  or  was  killed  in  Crete  about 
70  B.C. 

Anto'nius,  (Marcus  Giiiplio — nl'fo,)  a  learned  rhe- 
torician and  grammarian,  born  in  Gaul  about  1 14  B.C. 
He  opened  a  school  in  Rome,  and  numbered  among  his 
pupils  Cicero  and  Caesar.  His  writings  have  not  come 
down  to  us.    Died  about  64  B.C. 

Antonius,  (Nicolaus.)    See  Antonio,  (Nicolas.) 

Antonius,  Saint.    See  Anthony. 

Antonius  Castor.    See  Castor. 

Antonius  (Marcus)  de  Dominis.    See  Dominis. 

Antonius  Musa.    See  M  us  a. 

Anto'nius  PoFe-mo,  a  sophist  and  orator  of  high 
reputation,  was  born  at  Laodice'a,  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian, 
He  lived  mostly  at  Smyrna,  where  he  taught  rhetoric 
with  success.  "I  heard  Polemo  declaim  thrice,"  says 
Herodes  Atticus  ;  "  the  first  time  as  a  critic ;  the  next  as 
a  lover ;  the  last  time  with  unmingled  wonder  at  his 
powers."  He  died  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius, 
138-161  A.D. 

Anto'nius  Pri'mus,  (Marcus,)  an  able  Roman 
general,  born  at  Tolosa  (Toulouse)  about  20  A.D.  He 
contributed  to  the  elevation  of  Vespasian  to  the  throne 
by  victories  over  the  partisans  of  Vitellius,  at  Bedria- 
cum,  and  near  Rome,  in  69  A.D. 

Antonius  Saturninus.    See  Saturninus. 

Antony,  (Mark.)    See  Antonius,  (Marcus.) 

An'to-ny  of  Bourbon,  (boor'bon,)  [Fr.  Antoine 
DE  Bourbon,  6N'tw3.n'  deh  booR^b6N^]  Duke  of  Ven- 
dome,  and  King  of  Navarre,  born  in  Picardy  in  15 18, 
was  the  first  prince  of  the  blood,  (next  to  the  king's  sons.) 
He  was  a  brother  of  the  Prince  of  Conde.  He  married 
in  1548  Jeanne  d'Albret,  heiress  of  the  King  of  Navarre. 
At  the  accession  of  Charles  IX.  in  1560  he  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom,  and  entered 
into  a  coalition  or  triumvirate  with  his  enemy  the  Duke 
de  Guise,  and  Constable  de  Montmorency.    About  this 


time  he  abandoned  the  Reformed  communion  and  turned 
Roman  Catholic.  In  the  civil  w^ar  which  began  m  1562 
he  commanded  the  royal  army  until  he  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  siege  of  Rouen.  He  died  in  1562,  and 
left  a  son,  who  became  Henry  IV.  of  France. 

SeeDAViLA,  "The  Civil  Wars  in  France;"  De  Thou,  "  Historia 
sui  Temi)oris  ;"  Brantome,  "Vies  des  Homines  illustres,"  etc.;  Sis- 
MONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Antraigues.    See  Entraigues. 

An-tylTus,  the  Greek  name  of  Marcus,  a  son  of 
Mark  Antony  the  Triumvir  and  Fulvia.  He  was  born 
about  45  B.C.,  was  invested  with  the  toga  virilis  at  Alex- 
andria in  30  B.C.,  and  about  the  end  of  that  year  was 
taken  prisoner  by  Octavius  and  put  to  death. 

Antyllus  [Gr. 'AvTDA^ioc]  or  An-tilTus,  sometimes 
incorrectly  written  Antiles,  an  eminent  physician  arid 
surgeon  of  antiquity,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the 
third  or  fourth  century  after  Christ.  He  wrote  in  Greek 
several  works,  which  are  quoted  by  Oribasius,  but  are 
not  extant. 

A-nu'bis,  [Gr.  'kvovStg,']  an  Egyptian  deity  or  idol, 
represented  as  the  offspring  of  Osiris,  and  worshipped 
in  the  form  of  a  dog. 

Anund,  I'nimd,  {Jakob,)  King  of  Sweden,  reigned 
from  1024  to  1035. 

Anvari.    See  Anwaree. 

Anville,  d',  doN'veK,  (Jean  Baptlste  Bourguignon 

— booR^gen^yoN'',)  one  of  the  greatest  geographers  that 
ever  lived,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1697.  He  early  devoted 
himself  to  studies  connected  with  his  favourite  science, 
which  he  may  be  said  to  have  almost  created.  In  1773 
he  was  elected  to  the  chair  of  geography  in  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  and  appointed  first  geographer  to  the  king. 
Our  limits  will  not  permit  us  to  name  more  than  a  small 
portion  of  the  works  of  D' Anville.  Suffice  it  to  say  that 
his  maps  embrace  almost  every  country  in  the  world  in 
ancient  as  well  as  modern  times.  He  is  admitted  to  be 
the  first  who  raised  geography  to  the  dignity  of  an  exact 
science.  "He  was  endowed,"  says  Rossel,  "with  a  sur- 
prising fineness  of  tact,  which  enabled  him  nearly  always 
to  distinguish  truth  from  error."  The  accuracy  of  his 
maps  of  Egypt  was  confirmed  by  the  survey  made  by  the 
French  about  1799.  Among  his  works  are  "  Orbis  Veteri- 
bus  notus  "Orbis  Romanus  ;"  and  a  "Compendium 
of  Ancient  Geography,"  ("  Geographic  Ancienne  abre- 
gee,"  3  vols.,  1768.)    He  died  in  1782. 

See  CoNDORCET,  "  Eloge  de  M.  D'Anville,"  1782  ;  "  EncyCiOpjedia 
Britannica  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Anwaree  or  Anwari,  ^n'wS.-ree^,  written  also  An- 
vari, one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Persian  lyric 
poets,  was  born  in  Khorassan  in  the  early  part  of  the 
twelfth  century.  He  began  his  career  in  great  poverty, 
but  w^as  soon  invited  to  the  court  of  the  sultan  Sanjar, 
and  at  length  raised  to  the  highest  honours  in  the  state. 
About  1 148  his  sovereign  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner 
by  a  tribe  of  Toorkomans,  and  Anwaree's  native  country 
presented  a  scene  of  universal  outrage  and  desolation. 
On  this  occasion  he  implored  the  aid  of  the  Prince  of 
Samarcand,  in  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  touching 
poems  in  the  Persian  language,  entitled  the  "Tears  of 
Khorassan."  Anwaree  lived  to  see  his  country  delivered 
from  its  oppressors,  and  died  about  1200. 

See  D'Herbelot,  "Bibliotheqiie  Orientale  ;"  Ferishta,  "His- 
tory." 

An'y-te  of  Tegea,  ['Avur?;  Te;  far?/c,]  a  Greek  poetess 
of  high  reputation,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  30c 
B.C.    Some  fragments  of  her  works  are  extant. 

An'y-tus,  f  ATwro^,]  an  Athenian  demagogue,  noto- 
rious as  an  accuser  of  Socrates,  after  whose  death  h'. 
was  banished  from  Athens,  and  is  said  to  have  bee:: 
stoned  to  death  at  Heracle'a  in  Pontus. 

Aoust,  d',  doo,  (EusT.\CHE,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Douai  in  1763,  was  executed  in  Paris  in  July,  1794. 

Apaczai  or  Apatzai,  6p'at-sT,  (Joannes,)  a  distir 
guished  Hungarian  scholar,  native  of  A|5atza,  in  Transyl- 
vania.   He  was  the  author  of  the  first  Hungarian  Ency- 
clopaedia, ("Magyar  Entzikloj^edia.")    Died  in  1659. 

Apafi,  6p'p6f-ee,  (Mihaly — me'hal',]  the  name  of  two 
Transylvanian  princes,  father  and  son,  the  first  of  whom 
died  in  1690,  the  second  in  1713,  leaving  no  issue. 

Ap'a-ma  [Gr.  'A-a«a]  or  Ap'a-me,"['A7ai/w/,J  a  Per- 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  lone;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  far,  fMl,  fit:  m6t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


APARICIO  143  APION 


sian  or  Bactrian  lady,  who  was  married  about  325  B.C. 
to  Seleucus  Nicator.  She  was  the  mother  of  Antiochus 
Soter. 

Aparicio,  a-pa-ree'the-o,  (Jos^:,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  in  17S0,  was  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated  French 
painter  David.  Among  his  works  is  a  picture  of  "The 
Plague  in  Spain."    He  was  living  in  1822. 

Apchon,  d',  dtp'shoN'',  (Claude  Marc  Antoine,) 
a  French  prelate,  noted  for  his  beneficence,  was  born  at 
JNIciitbrison  about  1723.    Died  in  1783. 

Apel,  i'pel,  (Johann,)  [Lat.  Johan'nes  Apel'lus,] 
a  German  professor  of  law,  and  a  devoted  follower  of 
Luther,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  i486  ;  died  about  1536. 

Apel,  (Johann  August,)  a  German  writer,  who  was 
once  popular,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1771.  He  composed 
verses  with  facility,  and  wrote  for  several  journals  and 
periodicals.  Among  his  works  are  songs,  elegies,  trage- 
dies, and  a  mediocre  treatise  on  classical  prosody  called 
"Metrik,"  (1816.)    Died  in  1816. 

Apelchasem,  (a  Turkish  general.)   See  Aboo-l-Ka- 

SIM. 

A-pel'las,  ['A-f/lZac,]  a  Greek  statuary,  lived  about 
the  fourth 'century  B.C.  According  to  Pliny,  he  made 
statues  of  bronze. 

Apellas  or  A-pol'las,  ['A-oZZdf,]  a  Greek  geog- 
rapher, born  at  Gyrene,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about 
235  a.d. 

A-pelTes,  [Gr.  'k-^/lrig;  Fr.  Apelle,  S'peK,]  the 
most  celebrated  painter  of  antiquity,  was  born  in  the 
island  of  Cos,  according  to  Pliny  and  Ovid  ;  but  others 
state  that  he  was  a  native  of  Colophon  or  Ephesus.  He 
attained  the  height  of  his  celebrity  about  330  B.C.  He 
studied  first  under  Ephorus,  and  afterwards  under  Pam- 
phikis  at  Sicyon.  His  success  was  partly  due  to  close 
and  long-continued  application.  Abulia  dies  sine  linea  is 
a  saying  which  originated  in  one  of  his  maxims.  He 
obtained  the  special  favour  of  Alexander  the  Great,  of 
whom  he  painted  many  portraits.  It  is  said  that  he  had 
the  exclusive  privilege  of  painting  this  king.  Apelles 
surpassed  other  ancient  painters  in  elegance  and  grace, 
the  charis  (l'«pff)  of  the  Greeks,  in  respect  to  which  Cor- 
reggio  is  perhaps  pre-eminent  among  the  moderns. 
Pliny  maintained  that  Apelles  contributed  more  towards 
perfecting  the  art  than  all  other  painters,  and  painting 
was  called  the  "Apellean  art"  ("ars  Apellca")  by  the 
Roman  poets  Statius  and  Martial.  Among  his  master- 
pieces was  a  portrait  in  profile  of  King  Antigonus  on 
horseback.  His  most  celebrated  work  was  the  "Venus 
Anadyomene,  or  Venus  rising  from  the  sea  and  wringing 
her  hair  with  her  fingers,"  which  was  painted  for  the 
people  of  Cos,  and  which,  after  the  lapse  of  three  hun- 
dred years,  was  taken  by  Augustus  Caesar  as  the  equiva- 
lent of  one  hundred  talents  (about  100,000  dollars)  in 
payment  of  tribute.  It  is  said  that  Apelles  was  en- 
amoured of  Campaspe,  (the  model  from  which  this 
picture  was  painted,)  a  favourite  of  Alexander,  who  gave 
her  to  the  artist.  Apelles  appears  to  have  survived 
Alexander,  who  died  in  323  B.C.  He  is  praised  for  his 
generous  conduct  to  the  painter  Protogenes  of  Rhodes, 
whose  works  were  not  appreciated  until  Apelles  pur- 
chased some  of  them  at  a  high  price  and  circulated  a 
report  that  he  would  sell  them  as  his  own.  Ovid  al- 
ludes to  the  picture  of  Venus,  above  noticed,  in  these 
elegant  lines : 

"  Sic  madidos  siccat  digitis  Venus  uda  capillos 
Et  modo  inaternis  tecta  videtiir  aquis."* 

Many  interesting  anecdotes  are  recorded  of  this  artist. 
He  is  supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  followed  Alex- 
ander the  Great  in  his  expedition  to  Asia. 

See  Pi.iNV,  "Natural  History;"  Suidas,  "Apelles;"  Plutarch, 
"Aratus,"  and  "Alexander;"  Carlo  Dati,  "  Vite  de'  Pittori  anti- 
chi,"  1667. 

Apelles,  [Gr.  'A7rcA/L?/f,]  a  heretic,  who  lived  about 
150  A.D.,  was  at  first  a  disciple  of  Marcion,  from  whom 
he  afterwards  differed.  He  is  said  to  have  rejected  the 
authority  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  to  have  taught 
strange  doctrines  respecting  the  Divine  nature.  He 


*  The  following  is  a  nearly  literal  translation:  "  >So  Venus  wrings 
her  dripping  hair  with  her  fingers,  and  appears  covered  (or  clothed) 
with  the  maternal  waters,"  {j.e.  the  waters  from  which  she  sprang.) 


founded  a  sect  called  Apellists,  and  wrote  a  work  en- 
titled the  "Gospel  of  Apelles." 

See  EusEBius,  "  Historia  Ecclesiastica ;"  Lardner,  "History  of 
Heretics." 

Apelles  OF  Ephesus,  a  Greek  painter,  mentioned  by 
Lucian  in  his  treatise  on  Calumny.  He  worked  in 
Egypt,  and  was  patrojrized  by  Ptolemy  Philopator,  about 
220  B.C.  He  was  falsely  accused  by  a  rival  painter,  An- 
tiphilus,  of  a  conspiracy  against  the  king  ;  but  his  inno- 
cence was  proved,  and  the  accuser  was  condemned  to  be 
the  slave  of  Apelles. 

A-pelTI-con  of  Teos,  [Gr.  'ATieA/li/twv,]  a  rich  Peri- 
patetic philosopher,  who  was  distinguished  by  his  fond- 
ness for  collecting  old  and  rare  manuscripts.  He  be- 
came a  citizen  of  Athens,  and  commander  of  a  force  in 
the  island  of  Delos,  where  he  was  defeated  by  the  Ro- 
mans. It  is  said  that  the  world  is  indebted  to  him  foi 
the  preservation  of  the  works  of  Aristotle,  and  that  he 
purchased  the  library  collected  by  that  philosopher,  in- 
cluding his  autograph  manuscripts.    Died  about  86  B.C 

A'per,  (Marcus,)  a  distinguished  Roman  orator  of 
the  time  of  Vespasian.  He  was  a  Gaul  by  birth.  None 
of  his  works  are  extant. 

Apezteguia,  a-peth-ta-gee'c%  (Don  Juan  Felipe,) 
a  Spanisji  sculptor,  worked  at  Madrid.    Died  in  1785. 

A-plia''reus,  (or  aFa-rus,)  ['A(/)api  ir,]  an  Athenian 
poet  and  orator,  who  flourished  about  350  B.C.,  was  an 
adopted  son  of  Isocrates  the  orator.  Fie  composed 
many  tragedies,  some  of  which  were  successful.  None 
of  his  v/orks  are  extant. 

Aph-ro-dis''i-us  of  Tralles,  a  sculptor,  mentioned 
by  Pliny  among  the  artists  who  adorned  the  palace  of 
the  Caisars.    He  lived  in  the  first  century  of  our  era. 

Aph-ro-drte,  ['A9po(5ir7/,]  the  Grecian  name  of  the 
goddess  Venus,  which  see. 

Apli-tho'ni-us  \^k^QovLoq\  of  Antioch,  a  noted  Greek 
rhetorician,  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  fourth  century 
of  our  era.  He  v/rote  a  popular  book  of  rhetorical 
exercises,  called  "  Progymnasmata,"  which  was  often 
printed  and  used  in  schools  in  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries. 

Apian,  d'pe-5n,  [Lat.  Apia'nus,]  or  Appian,  dp'- 
pe-an,  (Peter,)  a  noted  German  astronomer  and  mathe- 
matician, born  in  Misnia  in  1495.  -^^^^  real  name  was 
Pienewitz,  (bee'neh-wits.)  He  taught  mathematics  at 
Ingolstadt,  and  first  suggested  the  method  of  ascer- 
taining the  longitude  by  the  distance  of  the  moon  from 
a  fixed  star.  His  work  on  Cosmography  (1524)  had  a 
wide  reputation.  He  also  published  a  treatise  on  as- 
tronomy, entitled  "  Astronomicon  Cssareum,"  (1540.) 
He  was  patronized  and  ennobled  by  Charles  V.  Died 
in  1552. 

Apian  or  Appian,  (Philip,)  a  son  of  Peter  Apian, 
noticed  above,  born  in  153 1,  succeeded  him  in  the 
chair  of  mathematics.  He  wrote  "  On  the  Utility  of  the 
Cylinder,"  ("  De  Cylindri  Utilitate,")  and  several  other 
small  works.    Diecl  at  Tiibingen  in  1589. 

See  LiPENius,  "  Bibliolheca  realis  Philosophica ;"  Cellius,  "  Ora- 
tio  de  Vita  et  RJorte  P.  Apiani,"  1591. 

Apiciu.s,  a-pish'e-us,  (Marcus  Gabius,)  a  celebrated 
epicure,  lived  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Augustus  and  Ti- 
berius. It  is  related  by  Seneca  that  after  spending  on 
rare  culinary  dainties  one  hundred  million  sesterces, 
(about  $3,6oo,cco,)  Apicius  was  obliged  to  look  into  his 
accounts.  He  discovered  that  he  had  only  ten  million 
sesterces  ($360,000)  remaining;  upon  which,  unwilling 
to  starve  on  such  a  pittance,  he  poisoned  himself!  Plis 
name  has  become  proverbial  for  gluttony,  both  in  ancient 
and  modern  times. 

Apin,  ^-peen',  (Johann  Ludwig,)  a  German  physi- 
cian, born  at  Hohenlohe  in  1668  ;  died  in  1703.  He  was 
author  of  several  medical  works. 

Apin  or  Apinus,  S-pee^nus,  (Sigismund  Jakob,)  a 
philologist,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  near  Nu- 
remberg in  1693.  He  became  rector  of  a  school  at 
Brunswick.  Among  his  works  is  a  dissertation  "On 
Pure  Intellect,"  ("  De  Intellectu  puro.")    Died  in  1732. 

A'pi-on  [Gr.  'A-iwr]  surnamed  Plistoni^QES,  a 
learned  Greek  grammarian  and  historian,  was  born  in 
Oasis,  Egypt,  and  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Tiberius,  CkVig- 
ula,  and  Claudius,  (a.d.  15-54.)    He  became  master  of 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


i 


APIS  144  APOLLODORUS 


a  school  in  Rome  about  the  year  45.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  Egypt,"  a  lexicon  to  Homer,  and  other  works, 
among  which  were  annotations  on  the  poems  of  Homer, 
and  a  book  against  the  Jews,  in  reply  to  which  Josephus 
wrote  his  "  Anlitjnities  of  the  Jews."  He  was  called 
"Cymbahun  Mundi"  ("Cymbal  of  the  World")  by  Tibe- 
rius, probably  on  account  of  his  vanity  and  egotism.  His 
works  are  lost,  except  small  fragments. 

See  ScHOELL,  "Histohe  de  la  Litteiature  Grecque." 

A'pis,  [Gr.  'ATTif,]  a  mythical  king  of  Argos,  and  a 
son  of  Phoroneus.  He  is  said  to  have  called  Pelopon- 
nesus Apia,  and  to  have  reigned  also  in  Egypt. 

Apis,  the  Bull  of  Memphis,  the  chief  idol  or  object 
of  worship  among  the  ancient  Egyptians.  According 
to  some  accounts,  he  was  sacred  to  Osiris,  in  whom  the 
sun  was  worshipped.  The  death  of  this  animal  caused 
great  mourning  among  the  Egyptians. 

See  GuiGNiAUT,  "'Religions  de  I'Antiquite,"  vol.  i. 

Ap'john,  (James,)  F.R.S.,  an  Irish  chemist,  born  at 
Sunville,  county  of  Limerick,  in  1796.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  the  University  of  Dublin  in  1850. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  treatises  on  chemistry. 

A-po-Cau'cuS,  [Gr.  ' knoaavnoc; ;  ¥y.  Apocauque, 
fpo^kSk',]  a  powerful  and  corrupt  favourite  of  the  em- 
peror Androni''cus,  was  assassinated  in  1345. 

Apoiinarius.    See  Apollinarius. 

Apollinaire.    See  Apollinarius. 

A-pol-li-na'ris,  A-pol-i-iia''ri-us,  or  A-pol-li-na'- 
ri-us,  THE  Elder,  a  grammarian,  born  at  Alexandria, 
lived  about  330  a.d.  He  taught  at  Berytus  and  Laocli- 
ce^a,  and  became  a  presbyter  in  the  Christian  Church. 
He  wrote  a  "Grammar  for  Christians,"  and  other  works. 

Apollinaris  or  Apollinarius  the  Younger,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  Bishop  of  Laodicea,  and  author  of 
the  Apollinarian  heresy.  He  was  distinguished  as  an 
orator  and  philosopher,  and  was  a  man  of  great  abilities 
and  learning.  He  obtained  the  bishopric  as  early  as 
362  A.D.,  and  died  in  the  reign  of  Theodosius  the  Great, 
between  380  and  392  a.d.  He  w^as  author  of  many  vol- 
umes of  commentaries  on  the  Bible,  of  "Thirty  15ooks 
against  Porphyry,"  and  of  numerous  other  works,  which 
are  nearly  all  lost.  About  375  a.d.  he  was  charged  with 
heresy  in  relation  to  the  Incarnation.  It  appears  that  he 
taught  that  Christ  had  not  a  rational  or  human  soul, 
but  that  it  was  replaced  by  the  logos,  or  Divine  Spirit. 

See  SozoMEN,  "Historia  Ecclesiastica ;"  Wernsdokff,  "Disser- 
tatio  de  Apollinare  Laodiceno,"  1694;  Tillemont,  "Memoires;" 
"  Vits  Apoiiinaris  Historia,"  Paris,  1571. 

Apollinaris,  (Sulpitius  Caius,)  a  distinguished 
grammarian,  said  to  have  been  a  native  of  Carthage, 
taught  at  Rome  in  the  second  century. 

Apollina'ris  Si-do'ni-ns,  [Fr.  Apollinaire  Si- 
DOiNE,  t'po'le''n3:R'  se'dwin',]  (Caius  Sol'lius,)  Saint, 
a  bishop  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Lugdunum  (Lvons)  in 
430  a.d.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Avitus  who  became 
Emperor  of  Rome  in  455  and  was  deposed  the  next  year. 
He  was  appointed  by  Anthemius  chief  of  the  senate, 
prefect  of  the  city,  and  afterwards  patrician.  In  471 
a.d.  he  was  elected  Bishop  of  Clermont,  ( Augustoneme- 
tum.)  He  died  about  488,  leaving  various  works,  some 
of  which  are  lost.  His  "Carmina"  ("Poems,"  or 
"  Songs")  and  "  Epistolae"  are  extant,  and  are  prized 
for  the  historical  information  they  afford. 

See  Germaix,  "  Essai  sur  Apollinaris  Sidonius,"  1S40;  Fauriel, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Gaule  meridionale." 

Apollinarius.    See  Apollinaris. 

A-pol-li-na'ri-us  or  A-pol-i-na'ri-us,  [Gr.  'AttoA- 
XLvdpiQg ;  Fr.  Apollinaire,  fpo^le^naR',]  (Claudius,) 
Saint,  a  bishop  of  Hierapolis,  in  Phrygia,  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Marcus  Antoninus.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  defence  of  Christianity,  which  Saint  Jerome 
calls  an  excellent  book.    His  works  are  not  extant. 

A-pol'lo,  [Gr.  'AttoXAwv  ,•  Fr.  ApollOxN,  t'po'loN' ; 
It.  Apollone,  ^-pol-lo'ni,]  the  god  of  archery,  music 
and  poetry,  medicine,  and  prophecy,  was  the  son  of  Ju- 
piter and  Latona.  He  was  born  on  the  island  of  Delos, 
whence  he  is  often  called  Delius,  while  Diana,  his  sister, 
IS  named  Delia.  He  is  also  styled  Pythius,  or  the  "  Py- 
thian," because  his  first  great  exploit  was  to  slay  with 
his  arrows  the  serpent  Python.  Apollo  was  likewise 
regarded  by  the  later  poets  of  antiquity  as  the  god  of 


the  .--un.  Homer  represents  Apollo  and  the  sun-god  aa 
entirely  distinct  personages.  Under  the  name  of  Paean, 
ApolU)  was  invoked  in  the  character  both  of  a  healer  01 
protector  and  a  destroyer — for  his  arrows  were  supposed 
to  produce  the  pestilence.  Some  of  tlic  poets  rejjresented 
Paean  as  the  healing  god,  but  distinct  from  Apollo  ;  but 
this  was  not  the  general  opinion.  Although  Apollo  was 
regarded  as  the  author  of  the  healing  art,  the  title  of  the 
"god  of  medicine"  is  usually  given  to  his  son  /Escula- 
pius.  The  "god  of  the  unerring  bow"  ("  Childe  Harold," 
canto  iv.)  was  often  called  Phoebus,  or  I^haebus  Apollo, 
from  the  Greek  'I>o/;.%,  "  bright,"  or  "  shining."  Apollo  is 
usually  represented  as  a  beautiful  young  man,  crowned  with 
laurel,  and  having  in  his  hand  a  harp  or  bow  and  arrows. 

See  BuTTMANN,  "  Mythologus ;"  G.  Hermann,  "  Dissertatio  de 
Apolline  et  Diana ;"  Hartung,  "Die  Religion  derRomer;"  Gui- 
GNiAUT,  "  Religions  de  I'Antiquite,"  translated  from  the  German  of 
Creuzer,  vol.  ii.;  Keighti.ev,  "Mythology." 

Apollodore.    See  Apollodorus. 

Apollodoro,  i-pol-lo-do'ro,  (Francesco,)  some- 
times called  II  Porcia,  el  poR''cha,  an  Italian  portrait- 
painter,  born  in  Friuli,  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

A-pol-lo-do'rus,  [Gr.  'ATTolXodopog;  Fr.  Apollodore, 
t'po'lo'doR^,]  a  celebrated  Greek  artist,  the  founder  c>f 
a  new  school  of  painting,  was  born  at  Athens  about  440 
B.C.,  and  was  surnamed  the  "  Shadower."  He  was  a 
rival  of  Zeuxis,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who 
represented  the  effects  of  light  and  shade  with  success. 
His  works  are  highly  praised  by  Pliny,  who  says  he  was 
the  first  who  painted  men  and  things  as  they  really  ap- 
peared, {hie  prinms  species  cxprimere  instituit.)  Among 
his  works  was  a  picture  of  "  Ajax  Wrecked." 

See  Pliny,  "  Natural  History." 

AiDoUodorus,  a  Greek  sculptor,  born  probably  about 
350  n.c.  He  bestowed  great  labour  on  his  works,  and 
often  destroyed  them  because  they  did  not  satisfy  him. 

Apollodorus,  a  Greek  comic  poet  of  high  repute,  a 
native  of  Carystus  in  Euboea,  lived  probably  in  the  last 
half  of  the  fourth  century  B.C. 

Apollodorus,  an  Epicurean  philosopher,  who  became 
head  of  the  school  of  Epicurus.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  pupil,  Zeno  of  Sidon,  about  84  B.C.  According  to 
Diogenes  Laertius,  he  wrote  four  hundred  books,  {jStfSXia,) 
one  of  which  was  a  Life  of  Epicurus. 

Apollodorus,  the  name  of  several  ancient  physicians, 
one  of  whom  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  Venomous  Animals." 

Apollodorus,  a  jurist,  employed  by  Theodosius  the 
Younger  in  the  compilation  of  a  systein  of  laws  known 
as  the  Theodosian  Code.    He  lived  about  425  a.d. 

Apollodorus  of  Athens,  a  celebrated  grainmarian 
and  historian,  flourished  about  150  B.C.,  and  was  a  pupil 
of  Aristarchus.  He  wrote  many  valuable  works,  which 
are  all  lost  except  a  "  Bibliotheca,"  a  manual  of  Greek 
mythology,  which  is  incomplete  and  is  regarded  by  some 
critics  as  an  abridgment  of  his  original  work.  It  is, 
however,  highly  prized  as  the  best  work  extant  on  that 
subject.  Some  fragments  remain  of  his  versified  chron- 
icle of  the  History  of  Greece. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grsca;"  Schoell,  "Histoire  de  la 
Litterature  Grecque." 

Apollodorus  of  Damascus,  an  eminent  architect, 
born  at  Daniascus  in  the  first  century.  He  was  employed 
at  Rome  by  Trajan,  for  whoin  he  erected  many  grand 
edifices,  among  which  were  the  Forum  and  Column  of 
Trajan,  (which  still  exists,)  a  theatre,  an  odeum,  and  the 
Basilica  Ulpia.  The  Forum  of  Trajan  was  considereo 
the  most  splendid  in  Rome.  His  greatest  work  was  a 
magnificent  bridge  over  the  Danube,  near  the  confluence 
of  that  river  with  the  Aluta,  (Alt,)  built  in  105  A.D.  He 
was  put  to  death  by  Hadrian,  whose  motive  is  supposed 
to  have  been  envy  or  anger  because  Apollodorus  had 
ridiculed  a  temple  built  after  the  design  of  Hadrian. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  ;"  ^lius  Spartianus,  "  Hadrian." 

Apollodorus  of  Gela,  a  Greek  comic  poet,  who  lived 
probably  about  320  B.C.    His  works  are  not  extant. 

Apollodorus  of  Pergamus,  a  Greek  rhetorician,  born 
about  100  B.C.  He  taught  rhetoric  at  Rome,  and  was 
one  of  the  teachers  of  Octavius,  (afterwards  the  emperor 
Augustus.)  He  was  the  founder  of  a  new  school  of 
rhetoric ;  but  he  wrote  very  little.    Died  about  22  B.C. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /ong;  i,  h,  6,  saine,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fS.ll,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


APOLLODORUS  145  APOLLOPHJNES 


ApoUodorus  of  Phalerum,  (or  Phaleron,)  in  Attica, 
a  disciple  and  friend  of  Socrates.  He  was  a  man  of 
eccentric  character,  and  appears  to  have  been  deficient 
in  lirmness  and  in  intellectual  powei". 

ApoUodorus  surnamed  Eph'ilus,  a  Stoic,  who 
wrote  on  Ethics  and  Physics,  before  the  Christian  era. 

ApoUon.    See  Apollo. 

A-pol-lon'i-des  or  A-pol-lon'i-das,  [A.'no/luvL6i]q,'\ 
a  Greek  poet  of  unknown  date,  supposed  to  have  been 
born  at  Smyrna.  He  left  a  number  of  admired  epi- 
grams, which  are  extant  in  the  Greek  Anthology. 

Apolionides,  a  Greek  officer,  appointed  governor  of 
Argos  by  Cassander  about  315  B.C. 

Apolionides  of  Cos,  a  Greek  physician,  who  prac- 
tised at  the  court  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  of  Persia, 
and  is  said  to  have  seduced  Amytis,  a  sister  of  that  king, 
for  which  oftence  he  was  put  to  death. 

Apolionides  of  Nicaea,  a  Greek  grammarian,  of 
whom  little  is  known.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in 
the  reign  of  Tiberius.    His  works  are  lost, 

Apollonio,  d-pol-lo'ne-o,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Bassano  about  1585,  was  a  grandson  of  Jacopo 
da  Ponte.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  Saint  Sebas- 
tian, a  Saint  Francis,  and  a  Magdalen,  in  the  churches 
of  Bassano.    Died  in  1654. 

See  Lanzi,  "  Historj'  of  Painting  in  Italy." 
A-pol-lo'nis  or  A-pol-lo'ni-a,  the  wife  of  Attains 
I.,  King  of  Pergamus.  She  was  the  mother  of  four  sons, 
who  were  noted  for  filial  piety,  and  who  erected  a  temple 
to  her  memory. 

A-pol-lo'ni-us,  [Gr.  'ATroAAwiYor,]  an  eminent  sculptor 
of  Rhodes,  lived  probably  about  200  B.C.  He  and  his 
brother  Tauriscus  were  the  sculptors  of  a  marble  group 
of  Zethus  and  Amphi^on  tying  Dirce  to  the  horns  of  a 
bull,  which  Pliny  says  was  brought  to  Rome  by  Asinius 
Pollio.  Many  critics  have  identified  this  work  with  the 
group  called  "Toro  Farnese"  which  is  at  Naples. 

Apollonius,a  Greek  physician,  a  pupil  of  Herophilus, 
often  quoted  by  Galen,  lived  about  180  B.C. 

Apollonius,  an  excellent  Athenian  sculptor,  a  son  of 
Nestor,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  before  the  Christian 
era.  He  is  known  only  as  the  sculptor  of  a  marble 
statue  of  Hercules,  of  which  a  fragment,  called  the  Torso 
of  the  Belvedere,  is  preserved  at  Rome.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  admirable  extant  specimens  of  ancient  art.  The 
head,  arms,  and  legs  have  been  broken  off. 

Apollonius,  a  sophist  and  grammarian  of  Alexandria, 
lived  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  He  left  a  Homeric  Lexi- 
con to  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  which  is  still  extant  and  is 
highly  prized.    It  was  published  by  Villoison  in  1773. 

Apollonius  OF  Alabanda.  See  Apollonius  Molon. 

Apollonius  of  Athens,  a  rhetorician,  who  taught  at 
Athens  about  200  A.D.,  and  held  several  high  offices. 
He  gained  the  victory  in  a  rhetorical  contest  over  Hera- 
cli'des  in  the  presence  of  the  Roman  emperor. 

Apollonius  of  Chalcis,  a  Stoic  philosopher,  who  had 
so  high  a  reputation  that  he  was  invited  to  Rome  by  An- 
toninus Pius  to  direct  the  education  of  Marcus  Aurelius, 
by  whom  his  merit  as  a  teacher  is  commended. 

Apollonius  of  Myndus,  an  astronomer,  who  lived  in 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.   His  works  are  all  lost. 

Apollonius  of  Pergamus,  a  Greek  physician,  who 
lived  in  the  first  century  B.C. 

Apollo'nius  Citien'sis,  a  physician,  born  at  Ci- 
tium,  in  Cyprus,  lived  in  the  first  century  B.C.  He  wrote 
a  curious  Greek  treatise  on  Articulations,  ijlepi  updpuv,) 
which  is  called  the  most  ancient  commentary  on  Hip- 
pocrates that  has  come  down  to  us. 

Apollo'nius  surnamed  Dys'colus,  (the  "morose,") 
a  celebrated  Greek  grammarian  of  Alexandria,  lived  in 
the  reigns  of  Hadrian  and  Antoninus,  (117-161  a.d.)  He 
was  the  father  of  yElius  Herodian.  He  wrote,  besides 
many  works  which  are  lost,  an  able  treatise  "On  the 
Syntax  of  the  Parts  of  Speech,"  {Ilcpl  avvru^cug  rov  7'jbyov 
'lepQv,)  which  is  extant.  Priscian  calls  him  the  greatest 
of  grammarians. 

See  SuiDAS,  "Apollonius;"  Fabricius,  "BIbliotheca  Giasca." 
^  Apollonius  THE  Empiric,  a  Greek  physician,  who 
ived  probably  about  200  B.C. 

Apollonius,  (L^vi'nus,)  a  geographer  and  historian 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  born  near  Bruges.  He 


died  in  one  of  the  Canary  Islands,  while  on  a  voyage  to 
Peru.  He  was  author  of  two  works  of  some  merit, — an 
"Account  of  the  Discovery  of  Peru,"  (1567,)  and  "On 
the  Expedition  of  the  French  to  Florida,"  ("De  Naviga- 
tione  Gallorum  in  Terram  Floridam,"  1568.) 

Apollo^'nius  Mo'lon,  an  eminent  Greek  rhetori- 
cian, born  at  Alabanda,  in  Caria.  He  was  sent  by  the 
people  of  Rhodes  as  an  envoy  to  Rome  in  81  B.C.  He 
taught  at  Rhodes  both  before  and  after  this  date.  Cicero 
and  Julius  Caesar  were  among  his  pupils  about  78  B.C. 
His  works  are  not  extant. 

Apollo'nius  surnamed  PERGyE'us,  [Fr.  Apollonius 
LE  Pergeen,  t'po''lo'ne'us''  leh  pgR''zha'6N'',]  one  of  the 
most  profound  and  original  of  all  the  ancient  geometers, 
was  born  at  Perga,  in  Pamphylia,  about  the  middle  of 
the  third  century  B.C.  He  lived  at  Alexandria  in  the 
reign  of  Ptolemy  Philopator,  (B.C.  222-205.)  Little  or 
nothing  is  known  of  his  life  in  addition  to  the  facts 
above  stated.  It  is  supposed  that  he  survived  Archi- 
medes. His  principal  work  is  a  "Treatise  on  Conic 
Sections,"  (in  Greek,)  seven  books  of  which  have  been 
preserved.  The  eighth  book  is  lost.  He  also  wrote 
another  mathematical  treatise,  of  which  an  Arabic  ver- 
sion is  extant,  and  other  works,  which  are  lost.  Apollo- 
nius was  also  an  astronomer,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  who  discovered  the  method  of  representing  by 
epicycles  the  phenomena  of  the  stations  and  retrograda- 
tions  of  the  planets. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques ;"  Schoell,  "His- 
toire  de  la  Litterature  Giecque ;"  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grasca ;" 
"  KncyclopjEdia  Brltannica." 

Apollo'nius  Rho'dius,  [Gr.  'ATroAAcjwof  6  'PoSioc,] 
a  celebrated  Greek  epic  poet  and  rhetorician,  born  at 
Alexandria  (or,  as  some  say,  at  Naucratis)  about  235  ]!.c. 
He  was  a  son  of  Silleus  or  Ulcus,  and  a  pupil  of  the  poet 
Callimachus,  with  whom  he  quarrelled.  He  removed  in 
his  youth  to  Rhodes,  where  he  taught  rhetoric  for  many 
years  with  great  success  and  obtained  the  honour  of 
citizenship.  Llaving  returned  to  Alexandria,  he  was  ap- 
pointed keeper  of  the  celebrated  library  of  that  place,  as 
successor  to  Eratosthenes,  about  194  B.C.  Only  one  of 
his  works  is  extant,  namely,  the  " Argonautica,"  an  e\.\c 
poem  in  four  books  ©n  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts, 
which  in  general  displays  more  erudition  than  poetic 
inspiration.  "It  is,"  says  Quintilian,  "a  respectable 
work,  but  generally  mediocre."  Some  modern  critics, 
however,  think  they  find  in  this  poem  beauties  of  detail 
of  the  first  order. 

See  Weichert,  "  Ueber  das  Leben  iind  Gedicbt  des  Apollonius," 
1S21  ;  ScHOEix,  "  Histoire  de  la  Litt^rature  Giecque,"  1813;  E.  Ger- 
hard, "  Lectiones  Apollonianas." 

Apollo'nius  Tyan^eus,  (tl-a-nee'us,)  (or  "Apollo- 
nius of  Tyana,")  [Gr.  'ATTo/Jcjnog  Tvavalog ;  Fr.  Apollo- 
nius DE  '1'yane,  S'pono^ne'iis'  deh  te'tn',]  a  Pythagorean 
philosopher  who  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  first  century, 
was  born  at  Tyana,  in  Cappadocia.  He  is  the  subject 
of  marvellous  stories,  and  is  considered  by  some  writei  s 
to  have  been  an  impostor,  by  others  a  magician  of  won- 
drous skill.  It  appears  that  he  was  venerated  for  his 
wisdom  by  his  contemporaries,  who  believed  that  he  had 
the  gift  of  prophecy  and  the  power  of  working  miracles. 
His  life  has  been  written  by  Flavins  Philostratus,  who 
says  he  went  to  India,  conversed  with  the  Brahmins,  and 
after  his  return  assumed  the  character  of  a  moral  re- 
former in  Greece  and  Rome.  The  only  work  of  Apol- 
lonius that  has  come  down  to  us  is  his  "  Apology"  in 
reply  to  Euphrates.  His  miracles  have  been  compared 
to  those  of  Christ  by  some  ancient  and  modern  infidels. 

See  Brucker,  "History  of  Pbilosophy ;"  Ritter,  "History  ot 
Phllosopby;"  Philostratus,  "Life  of  Apollonius,"  in  English, 
1809,  translated  by  E.  Berwick;  John  Henry  Newman,  "  Life  of 
A]5ollonius  Tyana.'us,"  8vo,  1853;  F.  C.  Baur,  "Apollonius  von 
Tyana  und  Christus,"  1832;  Klose,  "  Dissertationes  II L  de  Apollo- 
nio Thyanensi,"  1724. 

A-pol-lo'ni-us,  (WiLLEM,)  a  Dutch  Reformed  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Veere  ;  died  in  1657. 

Apollonius  Collatius.    See  Collatius. 
Apollonius  de  Tyane.    See  Apollonius  Tya- 

N.'EUS. 

A-pol-loph'a-nes,  [Gr.  'Arro^lXo^avT/f,]  an  ancient 
physician,  born  at  Seleucia,  lived  200  or  250  B.C.  He 
was  physician  to  Antiochus  the  Great,  (or,  according  to 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  //ard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.', 

10 


APOLLOS 


APPLETON 


some  accounts,  Autiochus  Soter,)  with  whom  he  is  said 
to  have  Iiacl  much  influence. 

A-pol'los,  a  Jew  who  became  an  able  and  eloquent 
preacher  of  Christianity.  (See  Acts  xviii.  24;  I.  Corin- 
thians i.  12 ;  iii.  4 ;  iv.  6.) 

Aponus,  (Petrus.)    See  Abano,  (Pietro  di.) 

Apostoli,  d-pos'to-lee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Venice  about  1750.  He  was  once  minister  from 
San  Marino  to  Napoleon  I.  He  published,  at  Milan,  a 
"View  or  Picture  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  ("  Rap- 
presentazione  del  Secolo  XVHI.,"  3  vols.,)  "  History  of 
the  Gauls,  Franks,  and  French,"  ("Storia  dei  Galli, 
Franchi  e  Francesi,"  i  vol.,)  and  other  works.  Died 
poor  at  Venice  in  181 6. 

Apostoli,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  a  Latin  poet,  born 
in  Montferrat,  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  published  in  1580  a  volume  of  satirical 
Latin  poems,  entitled  "Leisure  Hours,"  ("Succisivae 
HorK.") 

Apostoli,  degli,  daKyee  §.-pos'to-lee,  (Pietro  Fran- 
cesco,) an  Italian  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Novara;  died 
about  1650. 

A-pos-to'li-us,  (Michael,)  a  learned  Greek  who  was 
born  at  Constantinople,  and  fled  to  Italy  soon  after  the 
capture  of  that  city  in  1453.  He  published  or  edited  a 
collection  of  Greek  and  Latin  Proverbs,  printed  in  1538. 
Died  about  1480,  leaving  a  son,  Arsenius,  Bishop  of  Mal- 
vasia. 

Apostool,  3.-pos-toK,  (Samuel,)  a  Dutch  Mennonite 
theologian,  born  in  1638.  He  became  in  1662  one  of 
the  ministers  of  the  Baptist  congregations  at  Amster- 
dam. A  doctrinal  dispute  between  him  and  one  of  his 
colleagues  resulted  in  a  division  of  the  sect  into  two 
parties,  called  Apostolians  and  Galenists. 

Appel,  ip'pel,  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Am- 
sterdam in  1680,  excelled  in  landscapes,  portraits,  and 
history.  He  worked  at  the  Hague  and  at  Amsterdam. 
Died  in  1751.  His  son,  of  the  same  name,  was  a  success- 
ful painter. 

Appslius,  ip-pa'le-irs,  (JoHAN  Hendrik,)  a  Dutch 
financier,  born  at  Middelburg  about  1767,  was  minister 
of  finance  for  many  years.    Died  in  1828. 

Appelnian,  ap^pel-min^,  (Barend,  or  Bernard,)  a 
Dutch  landscape-painter, 'born  at  the  Hague  in  1640. 
He  studied  in  Italy,  and  painted  many  admired  land- 
scapes of  Roman  scenery.    Died  in  1686. 

Appendini,  3.p-p6n-dee''nee,  (Francesco  Maria,)  an 
Italian  priest  and  scholar,  born  near  Turin  in  1768;  died 
in  1837.  He  is  the  author  of  the  best  political  and  lite- 
rary history  of  the  little  state  of  Ragusa,  (2  vols.,  1802,) 
and  of  a  "  Life  and  Examination  of  the  Works  of  Pe- 
trarch," ("La  Vita  e  I'Esame  delle  Opere  del  Petrarca.") 

See  CosNACiCH,  "  Memoria  storica  suiia  Vita  dei  P.  F.  M.  Ap- 
pet'.dlni,"  1838. 

Ap^per-ley,  (Charles  James,)  an  English  gentle- 
man, noted  as  a  fox-hunter  and  a  writer  on  sporting  sub- 
jects under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Nimrod,"  was  born  in 
Denbighshire  in  1777.  Besides  many  articles  for  sporting 
journals,  he  wrote  "  Remarks  on  the  Condition  of  Hunt- 
ers, the  Choice  of  Horses,  and  their  Management," 
(1831,)  "Nimrod's  Hunting  Tours,"  (1835,)  and  "The 
Chase,  the  Turf,  and  the  Road,"  (1837.)  The  last  ap- 
peared in  the  "  Quarterly  Review"  in  1827.   Died  in  1843. 

Appert,  t'paiR',  (Benjamin  Nicolas  Marie,)  a 
French  philanthropist,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  began 
about  1 816  to  establish  schools  among  the  poor  and 
others,  for  mutual  instruction,  which  were  eminently 
successful.  Since  1822  he  has  devoted  his  time  chiefly 
to  the  improvement  of  the  condition  of  prisons  and 
convicts.  He  has  written  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Education 
of  Prisoners,"  (1822,)  "Travels  in  Belgium,"  (1846,)  and 
other  works. 

Appert,  (Francois,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  has 
given  his  name  to  a  well-known  process  for  preserving  ali- 
mentary substances  in  vessels  of  tin  hermetically  sealed. 

Ap'pi-an,  [Gr.  ' XTrraavo^: ;  Lat.  Appia'nus  ;  Fr.  Ap- 
PTEN,  a^pe-^N',]  an  ancient  historian,  who  was  born  at 
Alexandria,  and  removed  to  Rome  probably  in  the  reign 
of  Trajan.  He  became  eminent  as  an  advocate,  and  ob- 
tained the  higlr  office  of  procurator.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  died  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,  (138-161  a.d.,) 


or  soon  after  the  end  of  that  reign.  He  is  the  author  of 
a  valuable  "  Roman  History"  written  in  Greek,  i^Y^ujiaiKj] 
'loTopia,)  in  which  he  treats  of  the  different  nations  of  the 
Roman  Empire  separately.  His  style  is  clear  and  easy, 
and  his  work  appears  to  have  been  carefully  compiled; 
but  he  is  not  ranked  among  historians  of  the  first  order. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotlieca  Grjeca ;"  Domenicus,  "Piogramma 
de  indole  Appiani  Alexandrini,"  1844. 

Appian,  (Peter.)    See  Apian. 

Appiani,  dp-pe-3.'nee,  (Andrea,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
painter,  born  at  or  near  Milan  in  1754..  He  imitated  the 
style  of  Correggio,  and  painted  both  in  oil  and  in  fresco. 
In  fresco  he  was  probably  unrivalled  by  any  painter  of 
his  time.  About  1805  he  was  appointed  principal  painter 
of  Napoleon,  (in  Italy,)  and  was  made  a  knight  of  the 
Iron  Crown.  Among  his  greatest  works  are  the  frescos 
of  the  church  Santa  Maria  Vergine,  Milan,  and  the  fres- 
cos of  the  royal  palace  of  Milan.  He  made  good  por- 
traits of  Napoleon  and  others  of  the  Bonaparte  family. 
His  works  are  admired  for  grace,  purity  of  design,  and 
brilliancy  and  harmony  of  colour.  Died  in  181 7  or  1818. 

See  Nagler, "Nevies  Allgenieines  Kiinsller-Lexikon  ;"  G.  Longhi, 
"  Elogio  storico  di  A.  Appiani,"  1826. 

Appiani,  (Andrea,)  an  able  painter,  worked  at  Milan 
in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  He  was  a 
grandson  of  the  preceding. 

Appiani,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Ancona  in  1702.  He  worked  at  Rome  and  Perugia,  and 
acquired  a  fair  reputation  as  a  fresco-painter.  Among 
his  best  works  is  the  "  Death  of  San  Domenico,"  at 
Rome.  He  continued  to  paint  until  his  ninetieth  year. 
Died  in  1792. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Appiano,  3.p-pe-i'no,  (Niccolo,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  was  a  pupil  of  Leonardo  da  A'inci. 

Appiano,  (Paolo  Antonio,)  an  Italian  preacher  and 
biographer,  born  at  Ascoli  in  1639  ;  died  at  Rome  in  1709. 

Appiano,  d',  dip-pe-3,^no,  (Gherardo,)  a  son  of  Ja- 
copo,  noticed  below,  succeeded  his  father  as  lord  or  mas- 
ter of  Pisa  in  139S.  In  1399  he  sold  Pisa  to  the  Duke 
of  Milan,  reserving  for  himself  the  sovereignty  of  Piom- 
bino  and  the  island  of  Elba.  His  descendants  ruled 
these  dominions,  with  the  title  of  Prince  of  Piombino, 
for  tv.'o  centuries.    Died  in  1405. 

Appiano,  d',  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian  politician,  who  by 
the  assassination  of  Pietro  Gambacorti  (which  Appiano 
appears  to  have  procured,  or  at  least  connived  at)  ob- 
tained the  chief  power  in  Pisa  in  1392,  and  assumed  the 
title  of  Lord,  (Signore.)    Died  in  1398. 

Appianus,  (the  historian.)    See  Appian. 

Appien.    See  Appian. 

Appion.    See  Apion. 

Appius  Claudius.    See  Claudius. 

Applegath,  ap'p'l-gath,  (Augustus,)  born  near  Lon- 
don in  1790,  invented  improved  machines  for  printing. 
About  1846  he  constructed  a  rotary  vertical  machine  for 
printing  the  London  "Times." 

Appleton,  ap'p'l-ton.  Commodore,  an  English  naval 
commander,  fought  in  the  harbour  of  Leghorn  in  1652 
against  the  Dutch,  who,  having  a  larger  number  of  guns, 
obtained  a  dearly-bought  victory. 

Appleton,  ap''p'l-ton,  (Daniel,)  the  founder  of  the 
publishing-house  of  Appleton  &  Comj^any,  New  York, 
one  of  the  largest  establishments  of  the  kind  in  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Haverhill,  Massachusetts,  in 
1785.  He  first  opened  a  bookstore  in  Boston,  but  sub- 
sequently removed  to  New  York,  where  he  died  in  1849. 

Appleton,  (Jesse,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born 
at  New  Ipswich,  New  Hampshire,  in  1772.  He  grad- 
uated at  Dartmouth  in  1792,  and  in  1797  was  ordained 
pastor  at  Hampton,  New  Hampshire.  He  was  chosen 
president  of  Bowdoin  College  in  1807,  and  continued  in 
the  otiice  until  his  death,  in  1819. 

Appleton,  (John,)  an  American  politician  and  editor, 
born  in  Beverley,  Massachusetts,  in  181 5.  He  was  foi 
some  years  editor  of  the  "  Eastern  Argus,"  at  Portland, 
Maine.  He  was  appointed  Minister  to  Russia  by  Presi- 
dent Buchanan  in  i860. 

Appleton,  (Nathan,)  a  Boston  merchant,  brother  of 
Samuel,  noticed  below,  born  in  New  Ipswich,  New 
Hampshire,  October  6,  1779,  was  one   of  the  three 


a,  e,  T,  o,  TLi,  y,  lon^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fdt;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


APPLETON 


H7 


AOUAl/IVA 


original  founders  of  Lowell.  He  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress in  183 1,  and  re-elected  in  1842.  He  was  author  of 
various  pamphlets  on  banking,  the  tariff,  etc.,  and  of  a 
memoir  of  the  Honourable  Abbott  Lawrence  in  Hunt's 
"Lives  of  American  Merchants."    Died  in  1861. 

Appleton,  (Samuel,)  an  eminent  American  merchant 
and  philanthropist,  was  born  at  New  Ipswich,  New 
Hampshire,  in  June,  1766.  He  established  himself  in 
business  in  Boston  about  1794  in  partnership  with  his 
brother  Nathan.  He  was  early  distinguished  for  his 
benevolence,  making  large  donations — for  many  years 
$25,000  annually — to  worthy  charitable  objects.  He 
liberally  endowed  the  academy  of  his  native  town,  and 
gave  $10,000  to  Dartmouth  College.  The  needy  and 
suffering  ever  found  in  him  a  kind  friend  and  benefactor. 
He  died  without  children  in  1853, worth  nearly  $1,000,000, 
bequeathed  to  his  widow  $200,000,  and  placed  in  the 
hands  of  his  executors  an  equal  amount  to  be  applied  to 
"  scientific,  literary,  religious,  and  charitable  purposes." 

Appony,  von,  fon  ip^poh',  (Anton  Rodolph,) 
Count,  an  Austrian  diplomatist,  born  in  1782,  was  am- 
bassador at  Paris  from  1828  to  1849. 

Appuleius.    See  Apuleius. 

Appuleius,  ap-pu-lee''yus,  (Marcus,)  a  Roman,  who 
became  quaestor  in  44  ILC,  and  supplied  Brutus  with 
money  and  men  in  the  civil  war. 

Appuleius  Saturninus.    See  Saturninus. 

Apraxin,  3.-pRik'sin,  (Feodor  Matveievitch,  m3.t- 
va'e-vitch,)  a  Russian  admiral,  the  grandfather  of  the 
following,  was  born  in  1671.  lie  obtained  the  favour  of 
Peter  the  Great,  and  was  one  of  his  principal  coadjutors 
in  his  projects  of  reform.  Having  been  appointed  Gov- 
ernor of  Azov  in  1700,  he  built  several  vessels  of  war  and 
a  haven  at  Taganrog.  He  became  an  admiral  and  presi- 
dent of  the  admiralty  in  1707,  and  captured  Viborg  from 
the  Swedes  in  1710.  In  1713  he  commanded  with  suc- 
cess against  the  Swedes  on  the  coast  of  Finland.  He 
afterwards  received  the  titles  of  admiral-general  and 
senator,  and  rendered  important  services  in  the  war 
which  was  ended  by  the  treaty  of  Nystad  in  1721.  Died 
In  1728. 

See  Halem,  "Leben  Peters  des  Grossen." 

Apraxin,  (Stepan  Feodorovitcii,)  a  Russian  gen- 
eral, born  in  1702.  He  served  in  the  war  against  the 
Turks,  and  obtained  in  1756  the  rank  of  field-marshal, 
[n  1757  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  a  large 
Russian  army  sent  against  Frederick  the  Great,  and  in 
August  of  that  year  he  defeated  the  Prussians  at  Gross- 
Jagerndorf  In  obedience  to  secret  orders  from  Bes- 
tuzhef,  the  chancellor,  he  omitted  to  improve  the  victory, 
and  was  recalled  in  disgrace.  Died  in  1758  or  1760. 
See  Halem,  "Leben  Peters  des  Grossen." 

Apres  de  Mannevillette,  d',  dS'pRV  deh  mtn've'- 
llt',  (Jean  Baptiste  Nicolas  Denis,)  often  called  sim- 
ply D'Apres,  a  distinguished  French  hydrographer,  born 
at  Havre  in  1707.  He  produced  a  collection,  of  charts 
of  the  Eastern  Seas,  entitled  "Le  Neptune  oriental," 
(1743.)    Died  in  17S0. 

A'pri-es,  [Gr.  'X-ftirjg,  'Arrpiaf,]  a  king  of  Egypt,  was 
a  son  of  Psammuthis,  (or  Psammis,)  whom  he  succeeded 
about  595  B.C.  He  is  ])robably  the  Pharaoh-hophra  of 
Scriptures,  (Jeremiah  xliv.)  Pie  sent  against  the  Greeks 
of  Cyrene  an  army  which  was  defeated  and  afterwards 
revolted.  Apries  was  dethroned  and  put  to  death  about 
568  B.C.,  and  was  succeeded  by  Amasis. 

Ap-ro'ni-us,  (Lueius,)  a  Roman  general,  flourished 
between  8  and  28  a.d. 

Aprosio,  d-pRo'se-o,  (Angelico,)  a  learned  Italian 
writer  and  Augustine  monk,  born  at  Ventimiglia  in 
1607,  was  a  noted  bibliographer.  He  acquired  a  high 
reputation  by  his  numerous  works  on  literary  criticism 
and  other  subjects,  among  which  are  a  moral  essay 
against  luxury,  entitled  "The  Shield  of  Rinaldo,"  ("  Lo 
Scudo  di  Rinaldo,"  1642,)  and  "La  Biblioteca  Apro- 
siana,"  (1673.)  founded  in  his  native  city  a  library 
called  "Aprosiana."    Died  in  1681. 

See  Mazzucheli.i,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Ap'sa-ra  [Hindoo  pron.  up'sa-rJ']  or  Ap'sa-ras, 
English  plural  Ap'sar^s  or  Ap'sarases,  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  a  race  of  celestial  nymphs,  produced  by 
the  churning  of  the  ocean.  (Sec  Kurmavatara.)  The 


Apsaras  (or  Apsarases)  are  described  as  possessing  in- 
comparable beauty,  sweetness,  and  grace.  It  is  commou 
among  the  Hindoo  writers  to  say  of  a  woman  of  extra 
ordinary  beauty  and  elegance,  that  she  rivals  the  Apsa- 
ras. These  charming  beings  are  unfortunately  wanting 
in  one  important  attribute — virtue  ;  they  are  the  dancing 
girls  of  Swerga,  (the  heaven  of  Indra,)  and  seem  to  corre- 
spond nearly  to  the  Peris  of  the  Persians. 

See  jMoor,  "Hindu  Pantheon,''  jip.  96  and  97,  also  259,  e;c. 

Apshoven,  van,  vtn  aps^ho'ven,  (Theodorus,)  a 
Dutch  painter  of  still  life,  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
He  was  a  pupil  or  imitator  of  Teniers. 

Ap'si-nes,  ['Ai/uVr/f,]  a  Greek  teacher  of  rhetoric,  born 
at  Gadara,  in  Phoenicia,  taught  at  Athens  in  the  third 
century.  A  work  attributed  to  him,  entitled  "  Art  of 
Rhetoric,"  is  extant,  but  in  a  defective  state. 

ApsTey,  (Sir  Allen,)  an  English  officer,  born  about 
1618,  was  a  son  of  Sir  Allen  Apsley,  Lieutenant  of  the 
Tower  of  London,  and  a  brother  of  Lucy  Hutchiason 
the  authoress.  He  fought  for  the  king  in  the  civil  wai 
and  was  governor  of  the  fort  at  Exeter  when  that  place 
was  taken  in  1646.  After  the  restoration,  he  was  treas- 
urer of  the  household  and  receiver-general  to  the  Duke 
of  York.  He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "  Order 
and  Disorder,  or  the  World  Made  and  Undone,"  (1679.) 
Died  in  1683. 

See  Mrs.  Hutchinson,  "Memoirs  of  Colonel  Hutchinson." 

Apsley,  Lord.    See  Bathurst,  (Henry.) 

Ap-syr''tus,  [^k-^vproq,]  written  also  Absyrtus,  a 
Greek  veterinary  surgeon,  born  at  Prusa  or  Nicomedia, 
in  Bithynia,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  first  half 
of  the  fourth  century. 

Ap'thorp,  (East,)  an  eminent  divine,  born  in  Boston, 
Massachusetts,  m  1733.  He  studied  at  the  University 
of  Cambridge,  in  England.  In  1778  he  published  four 
letters  in  reply  to  Gibbon's  attack  on  Christianity.  This 
work  was  very  favourably  received,  and  was  even  com- 
mended by  Gibbon  himself  Shortly  after,  Apthorp  re- 
ceived the  title  of  D.D.  In  1793  he  was  appointed  to 
the  prebend  of  Finsbury.    Died  in  1816. 

Apiilee,  the  French  for  Apuleius,  which  see. 

Apuleius,  a-pu-lee'yus,  sometimes  called  Apule'ius 
Platon'icus,  and  Luteins  Apule'ius  Bar'barus, 
a  naturalist,  of  whom  little  is  known  except  that  he  was 
author  of  an  extant  Latin  work  on  plants,  entitled  "  Her- 
barium." It  describes  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight 
plants,  and  indicates  their  medicinal  properties.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century. 

Apuleius  or  Appuleius,  dp-pu-lee'yus,  [Fr.  Apu- 
LEE,  a'pu'hV,]  a  Latin  writer  and  pagan  philosopher  of 
the  Platonic  school,  born  at  Madaura,  in  Africa,  lived 
about  150  A.D.  He  was  highly  distinguished  for  talents 
and  eloquence,  and  possessed  a  fertile  imagination. 
Having  married  a  rich  widow  at  CEa,  (Tripoli,)  he  was 
prosecuted  by  her  relatives  on  a  charge  that  he  had  in 
his  courtship  made  use  of  magical  arts.  He  defended 
himself  on  that  occasion  by  an  "Apology,"  which  is  still 
extant,  and  has  some  literary  merit.  His  most  remark- 
able work  is  a  fable  or  romance  called  "Metamorphosis, 
or  the  Golden  Ass,"  which  is  supposed  by  some  to  be 
designed  as  a  satire  on  magicians,  priests,  and  debauchees. 
It  has  been  translated  into  several  languages,  and  often 
reprinted.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  the  Doctrines  of 
Plato,"  which  is  extant,  and  several  other  works,  that  are 
lost. 

See  Betoland,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  d'Apulee;"  Fr.  Hil- 
DEBRAND,  "  Conimentarius  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  Apuleii,"  1S35  ;  D.  W. 
Moi.LER,  " Dissertatio  de  Lucio  Apulejo,"  i6gi;  Bayle,  "Histori- 
cal and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Apuleius  Celsus.    See  Celsus. 

Aquapendente.    See  Fabrizio. 

A-qua'ri-us,  [It.  Aquario,  S-kwi're-o,]  (Matthias,) 
an  Italian  monk,  who  wrote  on  the  philosophy  of  Aris- 
totle.   Died  in  1591. 

Aquaviva,  (Andrews.  Matteo.)    See  Acquaviva, 

Aquaviva,  a'kwil-vee'vc^,  (Claudio,)  a  general  of  the 
Jesuits,  born  at  Naples  in  1543,  was  a  son  of  the  Duke 
of  Atri.  He  wrote  a  "  Plan  or  Method  of  Studies," 
("Ratio  Studiorum,"  1586.)    Died  in  161 5. 

Aquaviva,  (Oct.vvius,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  abridged 
the  "  SuiTima"  of  Thon;as  Aquinas.    Died  in  1612. 


€  as  k:  g  as  s;  g  Imi'd;  g  as /;  /  :  'ri,     guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (gC^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JQUIBA 


148 


ARAGO 


Aquiba.    See  Akiba-Ben-Joseph. 

Aq'ul-la,  a  Jew,  who  was  born  in  Pontus,  and,  after 
liis  conversion  to  Christianity,  became  a  companion  of 
the  Apostle  Paul  in  a  voyage  from  Corinth  to  Syria. 
(See  Acts  xviii.  2,  18,  26.) 

Aquila,  a'kwe-lS.,  (Caspar,)  an  eminent  German  Prot- 
estant theologian,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1488.  His  name 
was  originally  Abler,  (signifying  "  Eagle,")  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  usage  of  those  times,  he  changed  to  its 
Latin  equivalent  Aquila.  He  became  professor  of 
}Iebrew  at  Wittenberg  about  1524.  He  was  an  intimate 
fiiend  of  Luther,  and  assisted  him  in  his  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament.  For  his  opposition  to  the  "  Literim," 
in  1548,  Charles  V.  declared  him  an  outlaw  and  set  a 
price  on  his  head.  Aquila  saved  himself  by  flight.  After 
the  treaty  of  Passau  (1552)  he  returned  to  his  pastorship 
at  Saalfeld,  which  Luther  had  procured  him  in  1527.  He 
published  a  number  of  works,  mostly  controversial.  Died 
at  Saalfeld  in  1560. 

See  CiiR.  ScHLEGEL,  "  Berlcht  vom  Leben  undTode  C.  Aquila?," 
1737  ;  J.  AvEMARius,  "  Kurze  Lebensbeschreibung  Casparis  Aqiiilze," 
1718;  F.  \V.  Strieder,  "  Hessische  Gelehrten-Geschichte ;"  Hillin- 
GER,  "Memoria  Aquilina  oder  Leben  Casp.  Aquilae,"  1731;  Gens- 
ler,  "Vita  Mag.  C.  Aquila;,"  1816. 

Aq'uila,  (Julius,)  a  Roman  jurist  of  unknown  date, 
is  called  Gallus  Aquila  in  the  "Index  Florentinus." 
The  Digest  contains  two  excerpts  from  his  "  Book  of 
Answers." 

Aquila,  a'kvve-l&,  (Pietro,)  a  distinguished  Italian 
engraver,  born  at  Palermo,  was  a  priest  in  his  youth, 
and  lived  at  Rome  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  His  best  work  is  the  Farnese  Gallery,  etc.,  after 
Annibale  Carracci.  He  engraved  also  some  works  of 
Raphael. 

His  brother,  Francesco  Faraone,  (fa-ra-o'na,)  was 
also  an  engraver,  but  inferior  to  Pietro.  He  worked  at 
Rome,  and  engraved  after  Raphael,  Correggio,  and  other 
masters. 

Aquila,  (Pompeo.)    See  Aquilano. 

Aq''uila  surnamed  Pon'ticus,  the  author  of  a  cele- 
brated Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  lived  about 
100  or  120  A.D.  According  to  Epiphanius,  he  was  a 
native  of  Sinope,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  was  employed  by 
Hadrian  to  superintend  the  building  of  the  city  /Elia 
Capitolina  on  the  site  of  Jerusalem.  He  was  converted 
by  the  Christians,  but  was  afterwards  excommunicated 
for  practising  astrology,  and  became,  it  is  said,  a  prose- 
lyte to  the  Jewish  faith.  His  version  (of  which  some 
fragments  now  remain)  was  adopted  by  the  Jews  in  pre- 
ference to  that  of  the  Septuagint,  and  was  admitted  by 
Origen  into  his  great  work  the  "Hexapla." 

Aquila,  dell',  d^l  WVysz-X^,  or  Aquilano,  dell',  dgl 
li-kwe-ll.''no,  (Serafino,)  a  celebrated  Italian  poet  and 
improvisatore,  born  at  Aquila,  in  A.bruzzo,  in  1466.  He 
composed  many  sonnets,  epistles,  and  capitoli,  which 
were  more  admired  by  his  contemporaries  than  by  mod- 
ern critics.  He  was  patronized  by  Ferdinand  II.  of 
Naples,  and  Caesar  Borgia.  Died  prematurely  at  Rome 
in  1500. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratuia  Itallana." 

Aquilano,  l-kwe-l&'no,  or  Dell'  Aquila,  d§l  li'kwe- 
IS,  (Pompeo,)  a  good  Italian  fresco-painter,  born  in  the 
Abruzzo,  lived  about  1580.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"  Deposition  from  the  Cross,"  at  Rome. 

Aquilano,  [Lat.  Aquila'nus,]  (Sebastiano,)  an 
Italian  physician,  who  flourished  towards  the  close  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  He  was  professor  of  medicine  at 
Ferrara  in  1495,  and  wrote  several  medical  works.  Died 
about  1 5 13. 

A-quiPi-us,  (Henri,)  a  Belgian  historical  writer, 
lived  about  1550. 

A-qulPi-us,  (Sabinus,)  a  Roman  jurist,  surnamed 
"the  Cato  of  his  age,"  was  consul  in  214  a.d. 

Aquilius  (or  Aquillius)  Gallus.    See  Gallus. 

A-quiPli-us,  (Manius,)  a  Roman  general,  became 
consul  in  loi  B.C.  He  subdued  the  revolted  slaves  of 
Sicily,  in  which  war  he  received  several  wounds.  The 
display  of  these  scars  in  court,  and  the  eloquence  of  M. 
Antonius,  saved  him  from  condemnation  in  a  trial  for 
malversation  in  98  B.C.  In  88  B.C.  he  was  sent  as  pro- 
consular legate  to  Asia,  where  he  was  defeated  and  taken 


prisoner  by  Mithridates,  who  put  him  to  death  by  pour- 
ing molten  gold  down  his  throat. 

Aquin,  d',  dt'kdN',  (Louis  Claude,)  a  French  organ- 
ist, born  in  Paris  in  1698;  died  in  1772. 

Aquin,  d',  (Pierre  Louis,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
and  a  mediocre  writer;  died  in  1797. 

Aquin,  d',  dt'k^N',  or  Aquino,  d',  dd-kwe'no,  (Phi- 
lippe,) a  learned  Jew,  born  at  Carpentras,  and  converted 
to  Christianity  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. He  was  baptized  at  Aquino,  in  Naples,  whence 
he  received  his  surname.  Died  about  1650.  He  pub- 
lishecl  a  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Talmudic,  and  Rabbinical 
Dictionary,  (1620,)  and  other  works. 

A-qui'nas,  (Thomas,)  [It.  Tommaso  d'Aquino, 
tom-mA'so  da-kwee'no;  Fr.  Thomas  d'Aquin,  to-mi' 
dS'kiN',]  Saint,  surnamed  the  Angelic  Doctor,  was 
perhaps  the  most  eminent  scholastical  teacher  that  ever 
lived.  He  was  born  of  a  noble  family,  probably  at 
Aquino,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  about  1225.  His 
father  was  a  nephew  of  Frederick  I.,  Barbarossa.  He 
joined  the  order  of  Saint  Dominic  about  the  age  of 
sixteen,  and  became  a  pupil  of  Albertus  Magnus.  His 
extraordinary  talents  and  attainments  soon  spread  his 
fame  over  Europe ;  but  he  steadily  refused  all  ecclesias- 
tical preferment.  He  taught  and  preached  for  some 
years  at  Paris  and  Rome.  Died  in  1274.  He  left  nu- 
merous works,  chiefly  theological,  moral,  and  metaphys- 
ical, among  which  the  most  important  is  his  "Sum  of 
Theology,"  ("Summa  Theologiae.")  "The  greatest  of 
the  schoolmen,"  says  Hallam,  "were  the  Dominican 
Thomas  Aquinas,  and  the  Franciscan  Duns  Scotus. 
They  were  founders  of  rival  sects,  which  wrangled  with 
each  other  for  two  or  three  centuries."  Aquinas  was 
remarkable  for  modesty  and  exemplary  obedience  to  his 
superiors,  as  well  as  for  purity  of  life;  but  he  was  not 
deficient  in  independence.  When  he  once  entered  the 
presence  of  Innocent  IV.,  before  whom  a  large  sum  of 
money  was  spread  out,  the  pope  observed,  "  You  see 
that  the  Church  is  no  longer  in  that  age  in  which  she 
said,  'Silver  and  gold  have  I  none.'"  "True,  holy 
father,"  replied  Aquinas;  "neither  can  she  any  longer 
say  to  the  lame,  'Rise  up  and  walk.'"  (See  Acts  iii. 
2-8.) 

See  Renn  Dickson  Hampden,  "Life  of  Tliomas  Aquinas,"  in 
the  "Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana,"  and  i8mo,  1848;  AntoineTou- 
RON,  "Vie  de  S.  Thomas  d'Aquin,"  ly,:;;;  Arriaga,  "  Vida  de  S. 
Tomas  de  Aquino,"  164S;  RIaffei,  "  Vita  di  Tommaso  d'Aquino," 
1842  ;  Tholuck,  "  Disseitatio  de  Tlioma  Aquinate,"  etc.,  1842  ;  P.  J. 
Carle,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  ficrits  de  Thomas  d'Aquin,"  1846  ; 
C.  Moreli.es,  "Vita  S.  Thoma;  Aquinatis,"  Antwerp,  1612  ;  But- 
ler, "  Lives  of  the  Saints." 

Aquino,  d',  dd-kwee^no,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  writer 
and  Jesuit,  born  at  Naples  in  1654.  lie  became  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  at  the  College  of  Rome,  and  obtained 
a  high  reputation  by  his  works  in  Latin  and  Italian, 
among  which  are  Latin  poems,  "Carmina,"  (3  vols., 
1701-03,)  "Lexicon  Militare,"  (1724,)  and  a  translation 
into  Latin  verse  of  Dante's  "Divina  Commedia,  "(1728,) 
which  is  regarded  as  his  greatest  poetical  production 
Died  at  Rome  in  1737. 

Aquino,  d',  (Tommaso.)    See  Aquinas. 

Arabella  Stuart.    See  Stuart. 

A-ra'bi-us  S-eho-las'ti-cus,  a  Greek  epigrammatic 
poet,  who  lived  probably  about  550  a.d.  Several  of  his 
epigrams  are  found  in  the  Greek  Anthology. 

Arabshah  or  Arabschah.  See  Ahmeu-Ibn-Arab- 
Shah. 

A-ra-eh'ne,  [Gr.  'kpuxvn;  Fr.  Arachne,  t'rtk^ni',] 
(Myth.,)  a  Lydian  maiden,  very  skilful  in  the  art  of 
weaving,  in  which  she  challenged  Minerva  to  a  trial  of 
skill.    The  offended  goddess  changed  her  into  a  spider. 

Aradon,  t'rt'd^N^  (Jerome,)  a  French  general, 
fought  for  the  League  against  Henry  IV.  about  1590. 

Arago,  ir'a-go  or  t^  t'go'',  (Dominique  Francois,) 
a  celebrated  French  astronomer  and  natural  ]:>hiloso- 
pher,  was  born  at  Estagel,  near  Perpignan,  (Eastern 
Pyrenees,)  on  the  26th  of  February,  1786.  He  entered 
the  Polytechnic  School  in  1803,  after  a  profound  study 
of  the  works  of  Euler  and  Laplace,  and  in  180^  was 
attached  to  the  Observatory  of  Paris  as  secretary  co  the 
Bureau  of  Longitudes.  In  1806  Arago  and  Biot  were 
ordered  by  the  emperor  to  continue  the  grand  geocesical 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/w?'^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fdt;  m?t;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


V 


ARAGO 


149 


A RAG  ON A 


operations  of  Delambre  and  Mechain,  and  extend  the 
measurement  of  the  arc  of  the  meridian  from  Barcelona 
to  the  Balearic  Isles.  In  the  performance  of  this  task 
he  was  exposed  to  severe  hardships  among  the  moun- 
tams  of  Spain,  and  in  1808  he  escaped  from  the  violence 
of  the  Spaniards  (who  suspected  that  he  was  a  spy)  by 
flight  to  Algiers.  On  his  voyage  from  Algiers  to  France 
he  was  taken  by  a  Spanish  privateer,  and  detained  in  the 
hulks  at  Palamos  until  he  was  liberated  on  the  demand 
of  the  Dey  of  Algiers.  After  other  dangers  and  dis- 
asters, which  he  describes  in  his  "  History  of  my  Youth," 
he  returned  to  France  in  the  summer  of  1809.  To  re- 
ward him  for  these  labours,  he  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  that  year,  although  he  had  not 
attained  the  age  required  by  their  rules.  He  succeeded 
Monge  as  professor  of  analysis  in  the  Polytechnic  School 
in  1809,  and  lectured  there  more  than  twenty  years. 

He  was  associated  with  Malus  and  Fresnel  in  their 
optical  discoveries,  advocated  the  undulatory  theory  of 
light,  and  made  some  discoveries  in  the  science  of  electro- 
magnetism.  He  showed  that  there  is  no  substance  which 
is  not  capable,  under  certain  conditions,  of  exhibiting 
signs  of  the  magnetic  virtue,  and  he  proved  that  the 
best  magnet  is  a  bar  of  steel  enclosed  by  a  helix  of  cop- 
per wire.  For  his  discovery  of  magnetism  developed  by 
rotation,  he  received  the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety of  London  about  1829.  In  1830  he  was  appointed 
Director  of  the  Observatory,  and  became  perpetual  sec- 
retary of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 

The  eulogies  which  he  composed  on  Fourier,  Con- 
dorcet,  Ampere,  James  Watt,  Carnot,  and  others,  are 
regarded  as  models  in  this  species  of  composition.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Chaniber  of  Deputies  in  1830  or  1831, 
and  became  a  leader  of  the  ext?'h?ie  gmtche,  the  advanced 
republicans. 

Arago  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  provisional 
government  formed  in  February,  1848,  in  which  crisis  he 
united  with  Lamartine  in  efforts  to  enforce  order  and 
moderate  measures.  He  acted  for  a  few  months  as  min- 
ister of  war  and  the  marine,  and  was  one  of  the  execu- 
tive commission  of  five  chosen  by  the  Assembly  in  May, 
1848.  He  opposed  the  election  of  Louis  Napoleon,  and 
refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  after  the  coup  d'etat 
of  December,  185 1.  In  consideration  of  his  eminent 
merits,  his  compliance  with  the  law  in  respect  to  this 
oath  was  dispensed  with.  He  died  on  the  2d  of  Octo- 
ber, 1853,  leaving  a  son  Emmanuel,  noticed  below,  and 
a  son  Alfred,  who  is  a  historical  painter. 

Arago  was  a  man  of  ardent  temperament,  and  was 
distinguished  for  his  courage,  generosit}',  and  eloquence. 
He  rendered  great  services  to  science,  less  perhaps  by 
his  discoveries  than  by  the  admirable  talent  with  which 
he  popularized  science,  in  his  lectures  on  astronomy  at 
the  Observatory,  in  his  academical  memoirs  or  reports, 
and  in  his  notices  published  in  the  "Annuaire  du  Bureau 
des  Longitudes."  His  articles  on  lightning,  steam,  and 
astronomy  gave  to  that  journal  an  immense  vogue. 
"  The  popularity  of  M.  Arago,"  says  Lomenie,  "  the 
F.uropean  reputation  which  he  enjoys,  his  marked  posi- 
tion in  politics,  have  all  combined  to  attach  to  his  name 
the  idea  of  a  species  of  intellectual  royalty."  The  same 
writer  asks  "  Whether  a  marvellous  faculty  of  illumining 
with  bright  and  unexpected  radiance  the  most  abstract 
theories ;  an  obstinate  ardour  in  the  cultivation  of  what 
the  learned  in  x  and  y  call  the  siibalte^-n  science,  .  .  . 
whether  all  this  does  not  give  genuine  claims  upon  pub- 
lic gratitude,  and  constitute  one  of  the  finest  attributes 
of  genius." 

Arago  and  Gay-Lussac  founded,  about  1816,  a  scien- 
tific periodical  entitled  "  Annales  de  Chimie  et  de  Phy- 
sique." He  was  a  member  of  all  the  principal  scien- 
tific academies  of  Europe,  and  a  friend  of  Humboldt, 
Brougham,  Brewster,  and  Faraday.  It  is  said  that  he 
was  a  favourite  of  Napoleon  I.,  and  that  the  latter,  after 
the  battle  of  Waterloo,  intended  to  select  Arago  as  his 
companion  and  retire  with  him  to  the  United  States,  to 
devote  himself  to  the  study  of  science.  Referring  to  his 
powers  of  application,  De  Lomenie  says,  "Ask  the  young 
astronomers  attached  to  the  Observatory ;  they  w'ill  tell 
you  that  never  did  a  human  brain  encounter  a  more 
enormous  mass  of  labour ;  that  he  deems  every  one  an 


idler  who  does  not  work  fourteen  hours  a  day.  Thev 
will  tell  you  that  this  formidable  man  busies'  himself 
with  politics,  chemistry,  physics,  mechanics,  astronomy 
philosophy  .  .  . ;  and  that  amid  all  his  various  and  ab- 
sorbing occupations  he  finds  time  to  play  the  part  of  one 
of  the  most  brilliant  and  delightful  talkers  of  the  saloons 
of  Paris." 

See  "  History  of  my  Youth,"  by  D.  F.  Arago  ;  M.  de  Lomenie, 
"Galerie  des  Contemporaius,"  tome  ii.  ;  English  version  of  the  same, 
by  Robert  Walsh,  entitled  "  Sketches  of  Conspicuous  Living  Cha- 
racters," Philadelphia,  1841 ;  Charles  Robin,  "Biographic  de  D. 
F.  Arago,"  1S48;  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire,"  Supplement; 
J.  A,  Barral,  "  F.  Arago,"  8vo,  1S53;  D.  F.  Arago,  "  Histoire 
de  ma  Jeunesse."  precedee  d'une  preface  par  Alexandre  de  Hum- 
boldt, etc.,  1854. 

Arago,  (Emmanuel,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Paris  in  181 2.  He  studied  law,  and  practised  at  the  bar 
with  success,  especially  as  counsel  for  the  defence  ir 
political  causes.  In  1839  he  was  one  of  the  defenders  of 
Martin-Bernard  and  Barbes.  He  was  an  active  pro- 
moter of  the  revolution  of  February,  1848,  and  was  se- 
lected on  the  24th  of  that  month,  by  a  reunion  of  repub- 
licans at  the  office  of  the  "  National,"  to  oppose  the 
proclamation  of  the  regency  in  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties. A  few  days  later  he  was  sent  by  the  new  govern- 
ment, as  commissary-general,  to  Lyons,  and  his  efibrts 
are  said  to  have  saved  that  city  from  a  disastrous  agita- 
tion. He  was  elected  in  April  to  the  Cc^nstituent  Assem- 
bly, and  in  May  w-as  sent  as  minister  to  Berlin,  On  the 
election  of  Louis  Napoleon,  in  December,  1848,  he  re- 
signed his  position  and  returned  to  France.  He  re- 
nounced political  life  after  the  coup  d'etat  of  December, 
1851. 

Arago,  (Etienne,)  a  dramatic  writer  and  politician, 
a  brother  of  the  celebrated  D.  F.  Arago,  was  born  at 
Estagel,  near  Perpignan,  in  1803.  He  began  about  1824 
to  produce  a  long  series  of  comedies  and  vaudevilles,  in 
which  he  was  assisted  by  various  persons.  Many  of 
these  were  performed  with  success.  His  works  evince 
a  genius  for  satire,  a  talent  for  observation,  and  great 
skill  in  producing  dramatic  effect.  He  is  the  sole  author 
of  the  "Aristocrats,"  (1847,)  a  successful  comedy  in  verse. 
In  the  revolution  of  1830  he  fought  in  Paris  against  the 
soldiery  of  Charles  X.  He  became  a  contributor  of 
political  articles  to  the  "Siecle"  and  "National,"  and  in 
1834  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "Reforme,"  a  daily 
democratic  journal.  M.  Arago  was  director-general  of 
the  post-ofiice  department  from  the  revolution  of  f^ebru- 
ary,  1848,  until  the  end  of  the  administration  of  Cavai- 
gnac,  in  December  of  the  same  year.  In  the  Constituent 
Assembly  he  voted  with  the  gauche,  and  supported  the 
motion  to  impeach  the  President  for  sending  an  army  to 
Rome.  He  was  exiled  fo»his  part  in  the  insurrection 
of  June,  1849. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Blographle  Generale." 

Arago,  (Jacques  Etienne  Victor,)  a  litterateur  and 
traveller,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Estagel 
in  1790.  In  181 7  he  accompanied  as  draughtsman  the 
exploring  expedition  of  Freycinet.  After  having  been 
wrecked  on  the  Falkland  Islands,  he  returned  to  France 
in  1821,  and  published  a  "Tour  round  the  World  in  the 
Uranie,"  etc.,  ("Promenade  autour  du  Monde  sur  les 
Corvettes  I'Uranie  et  la  Physicienne,"  2  vols.,  1822.) 
He  produced  several  dramas,  among  which  is  the  "Cadet 
de  Gascogne,"  (1836,)  and  a  "Voyage  round  the  World,"' 
(with  engravings,  5  vols.,  1838-40,)  which  has  been  often 
reprinted.    Died  in  1855. 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Ar'a-gon,  de,  [Sp.  pron.  da  a-r^-g6n',]  (Fernando,) 
a  Spanish  historian,  became  Archbishop  of  Saragossa 
in  1539.  His  father  was  a  natural  son  of  King  Ferdi- 
nand V.    Died  in  1575. 

Aragon,  de,  (Martin,)  Duke  of  Hermola,  a  Spanish 
numismatist  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Aragona,  d',  di-ra-go^nS,  or  Aragon,  d',  d3.-r3.-g6n', 
(Tullia,)  a  celebrated  Italian  poetess  and  musician, 
bom  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  She  was 
the  illegitimate  daughter  of  Tagliavia,  (afterwards  cardi- 
nal,) a  descendant  of  the  royal  house  of  Aragon.  She 
lived  at  Rome,  Venice,  and  Florence.  She  was  distin- 
guished for  her  beauty,  as  well  as  for  her  genius  and 
learning.     Her  chief  works  are  a  "Dialogue  on  the 


C  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  ii,  K,  g7itttiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ARAGONESE 


150 


A  RAT  US 


Inriiiity  of  Love,"  ("Dialogo  dell'  Infinita  d'Amore," 
1547,)  and  a  lomance  in  verse  called  "II  Meschino  o  il 
Guerino,"  (1560.)    Died  about  1560. 

Aragonese,  a-rd-go-na^si,  (Sebastiano,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  designer  of  Brescia,  lived  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  worked  chiefly  with  the  pen, 
and  made  drawings  of  sixteen  hundred  ancient  medals. 

Araja,  i-ra'ya  or  a-rl'd,  (Francesco,)  a  dramatic 
composer,  born  at  Naples  in  1700.  In  1735  he  visited 
Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  produced  "Cephalus  and 
Procris,"  (1755,)  the  first  opera  written  in  the  Russian 
ianguage.    Pie  returned  to  Italy  in  1759. 

Araktcheief,  a-rSk-sha'yef,  written  also  Arakcheev 
and  Arakcejeff,  (Alexis  Andreevitch,)  a  Russian 
count  and  general,  born  in  Novogorod  in  1769.  He  be- 
came inspector-general  of  artillery  in  1803,  and  minister 
of  wni  about  1808.  He  made  reforms  in  several  depart- 
ments of  the  army,  especially  in  the  artillery,  and  ren- 
dered important  services  in  the  war  of  181 2,  after  which 
he  established  the  system  of  military  colonies.  Died  in 
1834. 

Araldi,  ^-riKdee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  painter, 
a  pupil  of  Giovanni  Bellini,  was  born  at  Parma,  and 
painted  in  what  is  called  the  Gothic  style.  He  is  praised 
by  Lanzi.    Died  about  1528. 

Araldi,  (Michele,)  an  eminent  Italian  physician  and 
physiologist,  born  at  Modena  in  1740.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  physiology  and  anatomy  at  Modena  about  1770, 
and  was  distinguished  for  his  attainments  in  a  variety  of 
studies.  He  was  perpetual  secretary  of  the  National 
Institute  of  Italy  from  1804  until  his  death.  His  chief 
work  is  "On  the  Use  of  Anastomoses  in  the  Vessels  of 
Animal  Machines,"  (1816.)    Died  at  Milan  in  1813. 

See  RoviDA,  "  Elogio  d' Araldi,"  1817. 

Aram,  a'ram,  (Eugene,)  remarkable  for  his  talents 
and  acquirements,  as  well  as  his  untimely  end,  was  born 
in  1704  in  Yorkshire,  England.  While  acting  as  an 
assistant  to  his  father,  who  was  a  gardener,  he  studied 
mathematics,  and  gave  some  attention  to  the  languages. 
( )n  marrying,  he  became  a  school-master,  and  prosecuted 
his  studies  with  such  diligence  and  success  as  to  obtain 
a  good  knowledge  of  the  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  Chal- 
dee,  Arabic,  Welsh,  and  Irish  languages.  In  1759  he 
was  tried  for  the  murder  of  Daniel  Clark,  a  shoemaker 
of  Knaresborough,  and  found  guilty.  At  the  trial  he 
made  an  elaborate  and  able  defence,  but  after  his  con- 
demnation he  confessed  his  guilt.  On  the  night  before 
his  execution  he  made  an  attempt  to  commit  suicide,  by 
opening  the  veins  of  his  arms  ;  but  he  was  discovered 
before  he  had  bled  to  death,  and  the  sentence  of  the  law 
was  carried  into  effect.  Th^  story  of  Eugene  Aram 
forms  the  subject  of  one  of  Bulwer's  novels. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica ;"  "Account  of  the  Trial  of  Eugene 
Aram,"  London,  1759;  Scatcherd,  "Memoirs  of  Eugene  Aram," 
1832. 

Aramont  or  Aramon,  d',  dt'rt'moN',  (Gabriel 
de  Luetz — deh  lii'a^,)  Baron,  a  French  diplomatist, 
born,  it  is  supposed,  about  1500.  He  was  sent  as  am- 
bassador to  the  Ottoman  Porte  in  1546,  and  induced  the 
sultan  Solyman  the  Magnificent  to  send  a  fleet  to  ope- 
rate against  Charles  V.  He  accompanied  the  sultan  to 
Persia.  An  account  of  his  journeys,  written  by  his  sec- 
retary, Chesnau,  was  afterwards  published.  Died  in  1553. 

Aranda,  de,  da  a-rAu'di,  (Emanuel,)  of  Spanish 
extraction,  was  born  at  Bruges  about  1608.  He  was  cap- 
tured at  sea  by  Algerine  pirates  in  1640,  and  remained 
in  slavery  at  Algiers  until  March,  1642.  After  his  re- 
lease he  published  an  entertaining  narrative  of  his  adven- 
tures, with  a  description  of  Algiers,  (1657.) 

Aranda,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  sculptor,  worked  at 
Toledo  about  1 500.  His  brother  Juan  was  also  a  sculptor. 

Aranda,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  writer,  born  at  Jaen,  lived 
about  1550  or  1600. 

Aranda,  (Don  Pedro  Abarca  y  Bolea — S-baR'ka 
e  bo-la^a,)  Coun  t  of,  an  able  Spanish  diplomatist  and 
statesman,  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Saragossa  in  De- 
cember, 1 718.  He  served  some  vears  in  the  army,  and 
in  1759  obtained  the  chief  command  of  the  artillery.  In 
1763  he  commanded  an  army  which  invaded  Portugal 
and  took  Almeida.  He  became  prime  minister,  with  the 
title  of  President  of  the  Council  of  Castile,  in  1766,  and 


initiated  various  measures  of  reform.  Among  the  im- 
portant acts  of  his  administration  were  the  suppression 
of  the  order  of  Jesuits  in  1767,  and  the  reduction  of  the 
power  of  the  Inquisition.  The  intrigues  of  the  court  of 
Rome  and  the  hostility  of  the  clergy  to  Aranda  induced 
the  king  to  dismiss  him  from  power  in  1773,  but  at  the 
same  time  he  was  appointed  ambassador  to  France.  It 
is  stated  that,  about  the  close  of  the  American  war,  the 
British  ministry  having  offered  to  Spain  the  choice  of 
Gibraltar  or  Florida,  Aranda  chose  the  latter,  and  signed 
the  treaty  of  1783.  He  was  recalled  about  1785,  and 
was  prime  minister  for  a  few  months  in  1792,  before 
the  end  of  which  year  he  was  supplanted  by  the  royal 
favourite  Godoy.  Died  in  1799,  or,  according  to  some 
authorities,  in  1794. 

See  Masdeu,  "  Historia  de  Espaaa  ;"  R.  Saint-Hilaire,  "  His- 
toire  d'Espagne;"  Ersch  uucWGruber,  "AllgemeineEncyklopaedie;" 
CoxE,  "Memoirs  of  the  Kings  of  Spain." 

Aranda  de  Duero,  a-ranMd  da  doo-a'ro,  (  Anton\o,) 
a  Spanish  monk,  published  a  Description  of  Palestine, 
(1545,)  which  he  visited  in  1530.    Died  in  1555. 

Arantius,  a-ran'she-us,  or  Aranzio,  a-ran'ze-o,  (Ju- 
lius C.iiSAR,)  an  eminent  and  accurate  Italian  anatomist, 
born  at  Bologna  about  1530,  was  professor  in  the  uni- 
versity of  his  native  city  for  many  years.  Died  in  1589. 
He  left  several  works,  among  which  is  one  "De  humano 
Foetu,"  (1564.) 

Arany,  bx'on,  (JAnos,)  a  popular  Hungarian  poet, 
born  at  Nagy  Szalonta  in  1819.  He  produced  in  1843  ^ 
prize  poem  called  "The  Lost  Constitution."  His  second 
poem,  "  Toldi,"  (1847,)  was  also  successful.  He  after- 
wards v/rote  the  "Conquest  of  Murany,"  (1848,)  and 
"Catharine,"  ("Katalin,"  1850.) 

Aranzio,  (Giulio  Cesare.)    See  Arantius. 

A-ra'tor,  [It.  Aratore,  a-ra-to^ra,]  a  poet,  born  at 
Milan  or  Brescia  about  490  A.D.,  was  appointed  "comes 
privatorum"  (count  of  the  domestics)  by  Athalaric.  Hav- 
ing resigned  this  office,  he  entered  the  Church  of  Rome, 
and  became  a  subdeacon.  He  wrote,  in  Latin  verse, 
the  "  History  of  the  Apostles,"  ("  Historiae  Apostolicae,'") 
which  is  said  to  be  superior  to  the  poetry  of  his  contem- 
poraries.   Died  about  560  A.D. 

A-ra''tus,  ["Aparof,]  a  celebrated  Greek  poet  and  as- 
tronomer, was  born  at  Soli,  in  Cilicia,  and  lived  between 
300  and  250  B.C.  He  was  invited  by  Antigonus  Gonatas 
to  his  court,  where  he  passed  the  latter  part  of  his  life. 
He  was  the  author  of  an  astronomical  Greek  poem,  en- 
titled "  Phenomena,"  which  was  greatly  admired  by  the 
ancients  and  is  remarkable  as  being  the  oldest  treatise 
of  the  kind.  It  has  often  been  printed.  Cicero  made 
of  this  poem  a  Latin  version,  some  fragments  of  which 
have  come  down  to  us,  and  Hipparchus  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  it,  which  is  extant.  Aratus  is  supposed  to 
be  the  ]Doet  quoted  by  Saint  Paul  in  his  address  to  the 
Athenians  in  the  twenty-eighth  verse  of  the  seventeenth 
chapter  of  the  Acts.  He  wrofe  a  poem  on  the  weather, 
etc.,  called  "  Prognostica,"  which,  however,  is  considered 
as  a  division  or  portion  of  the  "  Phenomena."  This 
poem  was  so  much  admired  by  Ovid  that  he  said, 

"Cum  Sole  et  Luna  semper  Aratus  erit."* — Avior,  i.  15. 
A  good  edition  of  Aratus  was  published  by  Buhle  in 
1793-1801. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grasca ;"  Delambre,  "Histoire  de 
1' Astronomic  ancienne ;"  and  a  "Life  of  Aratus,"  published  by  P. 
Vettoki,  Florence,  1567. 

Aratus,  a  celebrated  Greek  statesman  and  general 
born  at  Sicyon  in  271  B.C.  On  the  murder  of  his  father 
Clinias,  Aratus,  then  seven  years  old,  escaped  to  Argos. 
He  liberated  his  native  city  from  the  tyrant  Nicocles  in 
251  B.C.,  and  became  the  founder  of  the  famous  Achaean 
League,  of  which  he  was  chosen  general  {strafe' s^os)  in 
245,  and  many  times  afterwards.  He  captured  Corinth 
from  the  Macedonian  garrison  in  243,  obtained  the  ac- 
cession of  Argos  to  the  league,  and  proved  himself  a 
consummate  politician  by  his  successful  efforts  to  coun- 
teract Macedonian  influence  in  Southern  Greece.  The 
Achaeans  were  involved  in  war  against  Sparta  in  226 
B.C.,  after  which  Aratus  was  defeated  in  several  cam- 


*  "Aratus  will  always  be  [associated]  with  the  sun  and  moon  in 
other  words,  his  fame  will  last  as  long  as  the  sun  and  moon  endure. 


a,  e,  f,  5,  li,  y,  lo7ig:  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  0,  T,  6,  u,  y,  shoi't;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


ARATVS 


51 


JRBUTHNOT 


paigns  by  Cleomenes  of  Sparta.  The  latter,  however, 
was  totally  defeated  in  222  B.C.  by  Antigonus  of  Macedon, 
with  whom  the  Achasans  had  formed  an  alliance.  Ara- 
tus  died  in  213  B.C.,  leaving  "  Commentaries,"  or  me- 
moirs of  his  life,  which  were  praised  by  Poly  bins,  but 
which,  unhappily,  have  not  come  down  to  us. 

See  article  "Aratus,"  in  Plutarch's  "Lives;"  Polybius,  "His- 
tory." 

Aratus,  an  Achaean  general,  son  of  the  preceding, 
obtained  command  of  the  army  in  219  B.C.  He  was 
poisoned  by  Philip  II. 

Araujo,  i-row'zho,  (Antonio,)  a  Portuguese  mission- 
ary, born  in  the  Azores  in  1566,  laboured  in  Brazil.  Died 
in  1632. 

Araujo  or  Arauxo,  ^-row^Ho,  (Francisco,)  a  Span- 
ish musician,  who  wrote  on  the  Organ.    Died  in  1663. 

Araujo,  de,  da  ^-row'zho,  (Jose,)  a  Portuguese  phi- 
losopher, born  in  Lisbon  in  1667;  died  in  1743. 

Araujo,  de,  da  a-row'Ho,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  sculp- 
tor, recei\  ed  the  title  of  sculptor  to  the  king  about  1700. 

Araujo  d'Azevedo,  i-row'zho  da-za-va'do,  (Anto- 
nio,) Count  da  Barca,  a  Portuguese  minister  of  state, 
born  at  Ponte  de  Lima  in  1754.  He  became  a  profi- 
cient in  the  Greek,  Latin,  French,  and  English  lan- 
guages, and  was  distinguished  for  his  literary  and  scien- 
tific attainments.  After  he  had  resided  some  years  as 
minister  at  the  Hague,  he  was  sent  to  Paris  in  1797 
to  negotiate  a  peace,  and  in  the  same  year  signed  a 
treaty.  The  cabinet  of  Lisbon  delayed  the  ratification 
of  this  treaty  so  long  that  the  French  Directory  annulled 
it.  A  report  having  gained  currency  that  Araujo  ex- 
pected to  procure  the  assent  of  the  Directors  by  bribery, 
they  resolved  to  prove  their  innocence  by  an  act  of  rigour, 
ancl  confined  him  in  prison  several  months.  He  became 
secretary  of  state,  or  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  in  1804, 
and  was  the  principal  minister  after  1806,  but  showed 
his  incapacity  to  guide  the  state  in  critical  times.  A 
French  army  entered  Lisbon  in  November,  1807,  the 
house  of  Braganza  ceased  to  reign,  and  Araujo  retired 
to  Brazil,  where  he  was  made  minister  of  marine  in  1814. 
He  had  been  chief  minister  for  a  few  months,  when  he 
died  at  Rio  Janeiro  in  181 7.  He  translated  the  "  Elegy" 
and  other  poems  of  Gray  into  Portuguese  verse. 

See  MendoTrigoso,  "  Vida  do  Araujo."  and  the  article  on  Araujo, 
by  Ferdinand  Denis,  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Arauxo,  ^-row'sho,  (Salgado — sSl-ga'do,)  a  Portu- 
guese ec_clesiastic  and  historian,  lived  about  1600. 

Ar-ba'ges,  [Gr.'Ap/ia/cr/r,]  a  Median  general  under  Sar- 
danapa'lus,  against  whom  he  revolted,  overthrew  the 
Assyrian  monarchy,  and  established  the  kingdom  of 
Media,  about  876  B.C. 

Arbasia,  aR-bi-see^a,  (Cesare,)  an  excellent  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Saluzzo.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Academy  of  Saint  Luke  at  Rome.  He  worked 
at  Cordova  and  Malaga,  in  Spain,  about  1580.  Among 
his  works  are  a  picture  of  the  Incarnation,  at  Malaga, 
and  some  frescos  in  the  town-hall  of  Saluzzo.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  died  in  1614. 

See  Bermudez,  "  Diccionario  Historico." 

Arbaud  de  Porcheres,  d',  dtRW  deh  poR'shaiii', 
(FRANgoiS,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Provence  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  was  a  friend  and  imitator  of  Malherbe. 
He  wrote  several  odes,  and  a  version  or  paraphrase  of 
the  Psalms,  (1633.)  He  was  one  of  the' first  members 
of  the  French  Academy,  and  received  a  pension  from 
Richelieu.   Died  in  1640, 

Ar-be'ti-o  (ar-bee'she-o)  or  Ar-be'ti-on,  a  Roman 
general,  noted  for  his  ambitious  intrigues,  was  consul  in 
355  A.D.  In  361  he  commanded  the  army  of  Constan- 
t'us  against  the  Parthians.  Having  sided  with  Valens, 
he  induced  many  of  the  troops  of  Procopius  to  desert,  so 
that  the  rebellion  of  the  latter  came  to  naught,  in  365  A.D. 

Arbiter.    See  Petronius  Arbiter. 

Arblay.    See  D'Arblay. 

Ar'bo-gast,  [Gr.  ' ApiSoyuoTrjc ;  Lat.  Arbogas'tes  ; 
Fr.  Arbogaste,  tR'bo'gtst',]  a  Frank  who  became  an 
able  and  distinguished  general  in  the  Roman  service. 
He  commanded  with  success  against  the  Germans  in  the 
reign  of  Gratian.  Under  Valenti  nian  II.  he  was  com- 
mander in  Gaul,  and,  having  won  the  favour  of  his  army, 
defied  the  authority  of  the  emperor,  who  was  found  dead 


in  his  chamber  in  392  A.D.  It  is  supposed  that  he  was 
killed  by  order  of  Arbogast.  The  latter  was  defeated  by 
Theodosius  near  the  river  Frigidus  (Wippach)  in  394, 
soon  after  which  he  killed  himself. 

Arbogast,  Saint,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  who  obtained 
the  favour  of  King  Dagobert,  and  was  made  Bishop  of 
Strasburg  about  669  A.D.    Died  in  678. 

Arbogaste,  tR'bo'gtst',  written  also  Arbogast, 
(Louis  Franqois  Antoine,)  a  distinguished  French 
mathematician,  born  in  Alsace  in  1759.  He  became 
rector  of  the  university  at  Strasburg,  and  afterwards 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Central  School  of  that 
place.  He  was  a  member  of  the  National  Convention 
about  1793,  but  took  no  part  in  politics.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  "  Du  Calcul  des  Derivations,"  (1800,) 
in  which  is  found  the  first  use  of  symbols  of  operation 
independently  of  symbols  of  quantity.    Died  in  1803, 

Arborio  di  Gattinara,  ^R-bo're-o  de  gat-te-na''ri, 
(Angelo  Antonio,)  Archbishop  of  Turin,  born  at  Pavia 
in  1658  ;  died  in  1743. 

Arborio  di  Gattinara,  (Giovanni  Mercurino,)  a 
brother  of  Mercurino,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Lucca 
in  1685.  He  became  Bishop  of  Alexandria.  Died  in 
1743- 

Arborio  di  Gattinara,  (Luigi,)  Abbe  de  Breme, 
(or  Brema,)  an  accomplished  Italian  scholar  and  writer, 
born  at  Turin  in  1781,  was  a  son  of  the  Marquis  de 
Breme.  He  became  governor  of  the  pages  at  the  court 
of  Eugene,  Viceroy  of  Italy,  and  a  friend  of  Silvio  Pel- 
lico.  He  contributed  literary  articles  to  "II  Concilia- 
tore,"  a  celebrated  journal  of  Milan,  and  wrote  a  number 
of  occasional  poems.    Died  in  1820. 

Arborio  di  Gattinara,  (Luigi  Giuseppe,)  the 
father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1754.  He 
served  the  King  of  Sardinia  as  ambassador  to  Vienna 
about  1785,  and  was  minister  of  the  interior  under  Eu- 
gene, Viceroy  of  Italy.    Died  in  1828. 

Arborio  di  Gattinara,  (MERCURiNO,m§R-koo-ree'- 
no,)  Count,  often  called  simply  Count  of  Gattinara, 
an  eminent  diplomatist  and  jurist,  born  at  Vercelli,  in 
Piedmont,  in  1465.  lie  became  president  of  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Buigundy  in  1507;  after  which  he  was  employed 
as  negotiator  by  the  emperor.  In  1520  he  was  appointed 
chancellor  by  Charles  V.,  whose  favour  and  confidence 
he  enjoyed  until  the  end  of  his  life.  He  was  the  princi- 
pal negotiator  of  the  treaty  of  Cambrai  in  1 529,  and  was 
made  a  cardinal  the  same  year.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Erasmus,  and  a  constant  advocate  of  moderate  and  libe- 
ral measures  for  the  reformation  of  the  Church.  Died 
at  Innspruck  in  1530. 

See  Aubery,  "  Histoire  des  Cardinaux;"  Guicciardini,  "  History 
of  Italy;"  Carlo  Denina,  "  Elogio  storico  di  M.  di  Gattinara," 
1782;  P.  Ekerman,  "  Dissertatio  de  M.  Gattinara,"  1761. 

Ar-bo'ri-us,  (.Emilius  Magnus,)  a  Roman  advo- 
cate, noted  for  eloquence,  born  in  Gaul  about  270  A.D., 
was  a  son  of  the  following,  and  an  uncle  of  the  poet 
Ausonius.  The  emperor  Constantine  appointed  him 
preceptor  of  one  of  his  children  at  Constantinople, 
Died  about  335  A.D. 

Arborius,  (C.-ecie'ius  ARGig'ius — ar-jish'e-us,)  a 
learned  citizen  of  Gaul,  settled  on  the  site  of  Bayonne 
in  264  A.D.  His  daughter  was  the  mother  of  the  poet 
Ausonius. 

Arbrissel  or  Arbrisselles,  d',  dlR^bRe'seK,  (Rob- 
ert,) the  founder  of  the  abbey  of  Fontevrault,  was  born 
at  Arbrissel,  in  Brittany,  about  1047;  died  in  1117. 

Arbuckle,  ar'buk-k'l,  (James,)  the  author  of  a  mock- 
heroic  poem  entitled  "Snuff,"  (1719,)  born  at  Glasgow 
in  1 700;  died  in  1734. 

See  Campbell,  "  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Poetry  in  Scot- 
land." 

Ar'buckle,  (Matthew,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Greenbrier  county,  Virginia,  in  1776.  He  served  in 
the  Mexican  war,  1846-47.    Died  in  1851. 

Ar-buth'notorAr-buth'net,( Alexander,)  a  Scot- 
tish Protestant  divine  and  poet,  born  about  1538.  He 
was  appointed  principal  of  the  University  of  Aberdeen 
in  1568,  and  was  twice  chosen  moderator  of  the  Assem- 
bly, 1573  and  1577.  He  is  the  reputed  author  of  several 
vernacular  poems  of  some  merit,  one  of  which  is  entitled 
"The  Praises  of  Women."    Died  in  1583. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 


V  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ARBUTHNOT 


ARCHANGELUS 


Arbuthnot,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  printer,  who 
printed  the  first  Scotch  Bible,  in  1579.    Died  in  1585. 

Ar'butli-not,  [Scottish  pron.  ar-buth''not,]  (John,)  a 
British  author,  satirist,  and  physician,  celebrated  for  his 
'  wit,  genius,  and  learning,  was  born  at  Arbuthnot,  near 

Montrose,  in  Scotland,  in  1675.  He  was  educated  at 
Aberdeen,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D.,  and  be- 
came a  resident  of  I^ondon  in  his  youth.  His  "  Exami- 
nation of  Dr.  Woodward's  Account  of  the  Deluge" 
(1697)  first  brought  him  into  notice.  His  "Tables  of 
the  Grecian,  Roman,  and  Jewish  Measures,  Weights, 
and  Coins"  (1705)  have  a  high  reputation,  and  are  re- 
garded as  a  standard.  In  1709  he  was  appointed  phy- 
sician-in-ordinary to  Queen  Anne,  He  became  intimate 
with  Pope,  Swift,  and  Bolingbroke,  and  was  employed  as 
a  political  writer  by  the  Tory  ministry.  He  produced 
in  1 7 12  the  humorous  "  History  of  John  Bull,"  an  excel- 
lent political  allegory,  in  which  the  belligerent  powers 
of  Europe  were  personated  by  John  Bull  the  Clothier, 
Nick  P'rog  the  Linen-draper,  Louis  Baboon,  (Bourbon,) 
etc.  Macaulay  calls  this  work  "the  most  ingenious 
and  humorous  political  satire  extant  in  our  language." 
("  History  of  England,"  vol.  v.  chap,  xxiv.) 

About  1 7 14  he  united  with  Pope  and  Swift  in  the 
formation  of  the  famous  "  Scriblerus  Club,"  the  design 
of  which  was  to  ridicule  all  false  tastes  in  literature  or 
abuses  of  learning.  His  "  First  Book  of  the  Memoirs 
of  Martinus  Scriblerus"  is  regarded  as  a  master-piece 
of  wit  and  irony.  Among  his  other  works  is  an  "  Essay 
on  the  Effects  of  Air  on  Human  Bodies,"  (1733.) 

He  died  in  1735,  leaving  a  son  George  and  two  daugh- 
ters. In  1 75 1  appeared  "The  Miscellaneous  Works  of 
Dr.  Arbuthnot,"  (2  vols. ;)  but  the  genuineness  of  some 
of  these  works  was  denied  by  his  son.  Referring  to 
the  writers  of  Queen  Anne's  reign.  Dr.  Johnson  said, 
"  I  think  Dr.  Arbuthnot  the  first  man  among  them.  He 
was  the  most  universal  genius,  being  an  excellent  phy- 
sician, a  man  of  deep  learning,  and  a  man  of  much  hu- 
mour." (Boswell's  "Life  of  Johnson.")  His  benevo- 
lence and  integrity  are  highly  commended.  "  He  has 
more  wit  than  we  all  have,"  said  Swift,  "and  his  hu- 
manity is  equal  to  his  wit." 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
Swift's  "  Letters." 

Arbuthnot,  (Mariot,)  a  British  admiral,  born  in 
171 1.  He  became  a  post-captain  in  1747.  Having  been 
raised  to  the  rank  of  vice-admiral  in  1779,  he  obtained 
the  chief  command  on  the  American  station,  and  was 
blockaded  by  Count  D'Estaing  in  the  harbour  of  New 
York.  He  co-operated  with  Sir  Henry  Clinton  in  the 
capture  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1780,  and 
became  an  admiral  of  the  blue  in  1793.    Died  in  1794. 

Arc,  Joan  d'.    See  Joan  of  Arc. 

Arc,  d',  or  Arcq,  d',  dtRk,  (Philippe  Auguste  de 
Sainte-Foix — deh  saNt'fw3.',)  a  French  historical  writer, 
published  a  "  History  of  Commerce  and  Navigation," 
(1758,)  and  other  works.    Died  at  Tulle,  in  1779. 

Arcade.    See  Arcadius. 

Arcadelt,  ak'ka-delt^  or  Arcadet,  tR'kt'da',  (Jac- 
ques,) an  eminent  Dutch  or  Flemish  musician  and  com- 
poser. He  went  to  Rome  in  1536,  and  was  employed 
in  the  pontifical  chapel  in  1540.  He  composed  masses, 
madrigals,  etc. 

Arcadio,  aR-k3.Me-o,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  medi- 
cal writer,  lived  in  Piedmont  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Arcadio,  (Gian-Francesco,)  an  Italian  medical 
writer,  born  at  Bistagno  ;  died  about  1620. 

Ar-ca''di-us,  [' kpKa&tog,]  a  Greek  grammarian,  born 
at  Antioch,  lived  about  200  A.D.  He  wrote  an  "Ono- 
masticon,"  which  is  praised  by  Suidas,  and  a  "Treatise 
on  Accents,"  which  is  extant. 

Arcadius,  [Gr.  'kpKd6i.og;  Fr.  Arcade,  tR'ktd',] 
Emperor  of  the  East,  born  in  Spain  in  383  A.D.,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  who  at  his  death,  in 
395,  divided  the  empire,  leaving  the  eastern  part  to  Ar- 
cadius, and  the  western  part  to  his  other  son,  Honorius. 
Byzantium  was  the  capital  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  which 
included  Thrace,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  etc.  Rufinus  be- 
came guardian  or  regent,  in  accordance  with  the  will 
of  Theodosius,  but  was  assassmated  by  Gainas  before 
the  end  of  the  year.  (See  Gainas.)  Arcadius  was  a  very 


weak  prince,  and  was  controlled  by  his  empress  I'Aidoxia. 
He  was  partial  to  the  orthodox  creed,  and  issued  edicts 
against  the  Arians.  Died  in  408  A.D.,  leaving  the  throne 
to  his  son,  Theodosius  II. 

See  Socrates,  "  Historia  Ecclesiastica ;"  SozoiMEN,  "Historia 
Ecclesiastica;"  Gibbon,  "History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire." 

Arcaeus,  ar-see-'us,  (Franciscus,)  [Sp.  P'rancisco 
DE  Arce,  frin-thes^ko  da  aR'sa,]  a  distinguished  Span- 
ish physician  and  surgeon,  born  at  Fresno  about  1494 ; 
died  probably  about  1575.  He  left  an  able  treatise  "On 
the  Treatment  of  Wounds,"  (1574,)  which  was  translated 
into  English,  German,  and  Dutch. 

Arcagna.    See  Orcagna. 

Arcano,  d',  daR-kS,'no,  (Mauro,  mow'ro*)  commonly 
called  "II  Mauro,"  a  celebrated  burlesque  poet  of  Italy, 
was  born  of  a  noble  family  of  Friuli  about  1490.  He  was 
intimate  with  the  poet  Berni,  and  an  enemy  to  Aretin. 
His  works  are  similar,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  some  critics, 
almost  equal,  to  those  of  Berni,  They  are  generally 
satirical,  and  are  censured  for  indecency  and  levity.  Died 
in  1536. 

Arcasio,  aR-ka''se-o,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an 
Italian  jurist,  born  at  Bisagno,  in  Piedmont,  in  1712,  was 
professor  of  law  at  Turin.    Died  in  1791. 

Arce,  de,  daaR^tha,  (Don  Caledonio,  ki-la-do'ne-o,) 
a  Spanish  sculptor,  patronized  by  Charles  IV.,  born  a<" 
Burgos  in  1739  ;  died  in  1795. 

Arce,  de,  (Francisco.)    See  Arc^us. 

Arce,  de,  (Jose,)  a  Spanish  sculptor,  who  executed 
in  1657  some  statues  for  the  cathedral  of  Seville. 

Arcere,  tr/saiii'',  (Louis  Etienne,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic, poet,  and  historian,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1698. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  Rochelle  and  of 
Aunis,"  ("Histoire  de  la  Rochelle  et  de  I'Aunis,"  2 
vols.,  1756-57.)    Died  in  1782. 

Arcesilas,  the  French  of  Arcesilaus,  which  see. 

Ar-ges-i-la'us,  \  'kpKEaLlaoq,'\  a  Greek  painter  of  Paros, 
whom  Pliny  calls  one  of  the  first  painters  in  encaustic. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  fifth  century  B.C. 

Arcesilaus,  a  Greek  sculptor,  of  whom  little  is  known. 
Among  his  works  was  a  statue  of  Diana,  on  which 
Simonides  wrote  some  verses. 

Arcesilaus  IV.,  the  last  king  of  Cyrene,  was  extolled 
by  the  poet  Pindar.    Died  about  431  B.C. 

Arcesilaus,  [Gr.  'ApKemlaog;  Fr.  Arcesilas,  tr'sa''ze'- 
ISs',]  a  Greek  skeptical  philosopher,  born  at  Pitane,  or 
Pitana,  in  ^Eolia,  in  316  B.C.,  was  the  founder  of  the  New, 
or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  Middle  Academy.  He 
studied  philosophy  under  Theophrastus  and  Polemo, 
and  admired  Plato,  but  modified  his  doctrines  so  much 
that  he  was  considered  as  the  head  of  a  new  school. 
He  opposed  the  dogmatism  of  the  Stoics,  and  main- 
tained that  man  knows  nothing  with  certainty, — that  the 
evidence  of  the  senses  is  deceitful.  His  oratorical  talents 
and  ingenuity  in  argument  are  highly  commended.  It 
is  not  known  that  he  left  any  written  record  of  his  prin- 
ciples. He  used  the  Socratic  method  of  teaching,  was 
in  the  habit  of  maintaining  alternately  both  sides  of  an 
argument,  and  was  noted  for  the  keenness  of  his  replies. 
Died  in  241  B.C. 

See  RiTTER,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  G.  H.  Lewes,  "Bio- 
graphical History  of  Philosophy;"  Diogenes  Laertius;  Sextus 
Empiricus,  "Adversus  Mathematicos." 

Arcesilaus,  an  eminent  sculptor,  who  flourished  r»j 
Rome  in  the  first  century  B.C.  "His  models,^'  saTs 
Varro,  "  were  more  highly  prized  than  the  finished  works 
of  other  artists."  Among  his  productions  was  a  "Venus 
Genitrix." 

Arcet.    See  Darcet. 

Ar-eliag'a-tlius,  a  Greek  surgeon,  who  is  said  to 
have  introduced  the  practice  of  surgery  into  Rome.  He 
lived  about  220  B.C. 

Archange  de  Clermont,  tR'kSNzh'deh  kleR'mdN^, 
a  French  historian,  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

Archange  de  Rouen..  tR''k6Nzh'  deh  rw6N,  rv  French 
theologian,  lived  about  1 690-1 700. 

Ar-elian'ge-lus  or  De  Archangelo,  da  aR-kSn'- 
ja-lo,  (Ottavio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Catania,  lived 
in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century. 


a.  e,  T,  d,  u,  y.  lon^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsc2ire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  ijood;  moon; 


ARCHBOLD 


153 


ARCH  US 


Arch'bold,  (J.  F.,)  an  eminent  English  writer  on 
law,  of  the  present  century,  has  published  many  legal 
works,  which  have  been  often  reprinted,  and  among 
which  are  a  "Digest  of  the  Pleas  of  the  Crown,"  (1813  ;) 
"The  Practice  of  the  Court  of  King's  Bench  in  Per- 
sonal Actions,"  (9th  edition,  1855  ;)  a  "Summary  of  the 
Law  relative  to  Pleading  and  Evidence  in  Criminal 
Cases,"  etc.,  (i8th  edition,  1856.) 

Arch'dale,  (John,)  an  Englishman,  born  in  Buck- 
inghamshire, was  originally  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  In  1694  he  became  Governor  of  Carolina,  or 
South  Carolina,  which  enjoyed  new  prosperity  under  his 
administration.  He  introduced  the  cultivation  of  rice, 
and  wrote  a  "Description  of  the  Province  of  Carolina," 
(1707.) 

See  Bancroft's  "History  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  iii.  chap, 
xix. 

Arch'dall,  (Rev.  Mer'vyn,)  an  antiquary,  born  in 
Dublin  in  1723.  He  published  in  1786  "  Monasticon 
Hibernicum,"  or  a  "  History  of  the  Abbeys,  Priories, 
and  other  Religious  Houses  in  Ireland."  He  was  after- 
wards rector  of  Slane,  in  the  county  of  Meath,  where  he 
died  in  1791. 

Arch-de'kin  or  Ars-de'kin,  (Richard,)  an  Irish 
Jesuit,  born  in  the  county  of  Kilkenny  about  1619.  He 
published  a  system  of  theology,  entitled  "Controversies 
concerning"  Faith  reduced  to  an  Easy  Method,"  ("Con- 
troversise  Fidei  ad  facilem  Methodum  redactae,"  161 7,) 
which  was  often  reprinted.    Died  at  Antwerp  in  1693. 

Ar-ehe-bu'liis,  [Gr.  'kpxeSovAog ;  Fr.  Archebule, 
tR'sha'biil'',]  a  Greek  poet,  born  at  Thebes,  flourished  in 
the  second  half  of  the  third  century  before  Christ 

Archedamus.    See  Archidemus. 

Ai;gelied'i-cus,  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  flourished 
about  302  B.C. 

Ar-ehe-la'us,  [A.()xe7iaoc,]  a  king  of  Sparta,  of  the 
race  of  Agidae,  began  to  reign  about  884  B.C. 

Archelaus,  a  son  of  Herod  the  Great  and  Malthace, 
was  appointed  heir  to  the  kingdom  by  the  last  will  of 
his  father.  His  claim  was  disputed  by  his  brother 
Herod  Antipas,  who  had  many  partisans.  About  i  A.D. 
Archelaus  went  to  Rome  to  procure  the  recognition  of 
Augustus  Csesar,  who  divided  the  kingdom  and  decided 
that  Archelaus  should  rule  Judea  Proper,  Samaria,  and 
Idumea,  with  the  title  of  Ethnarch,  ("ruler  of  nations.") 
He  was  banished  by  Augustus  for  cruelty  in  7  a.d. 
(See  Matthew  ii.  22.) 

Archelaus,  an  Egyptian  writer,  of  unknown  date, 
four  of  whose  epigrams  are  found  in  the  Greek  Anthol- 
ogy. He  is  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  a  work  called 
a  "  Description  of  Strange  or  Curious  Animals,"  which 
is  not  extant. 

^rchelaus,  a  Greek  poet,  who  wrote  a  work  on  al- 
chemy, lived  probably  in  the  fifth  century  after  Christ. 

Archelaus,  a  native  of  Cappadocia,  was  general-in- 
chief  of  the  army  of  Mithridates  VI.  in  his  first  war 
against  the  Romans.  In  87  B.C.  he  led  a  large  army  into 
Greece,  and  occupied  Athens,  where  he  was  attacked  by 
Sulla.  He  defended  himself  in  the  Pirasus  in  a  long  and 
famous  siege.  In  86  he  retired  to  Thessaly,  and  was 
defeated  by  Sulla  at  Chaeronea  and  Orchomenus.  By 
order  of  his  sovereign,  he  signed  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
Sulla  in  85  B.C.    He  deserted  to  the  Romans  in  81. 

Archelaus,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  obtained  the 
office  of  high-priest  of  Comana  about  63  B.C.  He  won 
the  hand  of  Berenice,  Queen  of  Egypt,  by  pretending  to 
be  a  son  of  King  Mithridates.  He  was  defeated  by  the 
Romans  and  killed  in  55  B.C.,  after  a  reign  of  several 
months.  His  son  Archelaus  succeeded  him  as  high- 
priest,  and  was  deposed  by  Caesar  in  47  B.C. 

Archelaus,  the  last  king  of  Cappadocia,  was  a  grand- 
son of  the  preceding  and  Glaphyra.  He  obtained  the 
throne  in  34  B.C.  by  the  favour  of  Mark  Antony,  who  is 
said  to  have  been  captivated  by  the  beauty  of  Glaphyra. 
Having  given  offence  to  Tiberius,  he  was  summoned  to 
Rome  and  detained  until  his  death  in  17  a.d. 

Archelaus,  Bishop  of  Carrha,  in  Mesopotamia,  lived 
about  276  A.D.  He  challenged  Manes  the  heretic  to  a 
oublic  dispute,  in  which  the  latter  was  worsted.  His 
account  of  this  disputation  was  highly  esteemed. 

Archelaus,  King  of  Macedonia,  was  a  son  and  suc- 


cessor of  Perdiccas  II.  He  reigned  from  413  to  399  B.C., 
and  encouraged  Greek  literature  and  arts  by  attracting 
to  his  court  several  eminent  poets  and  artists,  among 
whom  were  Euripides  and  Zeuxis.  Socrates  also  was 
invited  by  him,  but  declined  the  favour.  Archelaus  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Orestes. 

Archelaus  of  Miletus,  (or,  according  to  some  writers, 
of  Athens,)  a  Greek  philosopher,  who  flourished  about 
450  B.C.,  was  surnamed  Physicus,  because  he  directed 
his  attention  to  physical  rather  than  moral  science.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Anaxagoras,  and  an  instructor  of  Socrates 
at  Athens.  His  works,  if  he  wrote  any,  are  entirely  lost, 
and  the  merits  of  his  system  are  not  well  understood. 
He  admitted  two  principles  of  generation — heat,  which 
moves,  and  cold,  which  remains  at  rest. 

Archenholz.    See  Arckenholtz. 

Archenholz,  aR''Ken-holts^,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a 
popular  German  writer  of  history,  etc.,  was  born  at  Dant- 
zic  in  1741.  He  served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  at- 
tained the  rank  of  captain,  and  after  the  peace  of  1763 
spent  many  years  in  travelling  in  England,  France,  and 
Italy.  He  gave  evidence  that  he  was  a  shrewd  observer 
and  agreeable  writer,  in  his  descriptive  work  called  "Eng- 
land and  Italy,"  (2  vols.,  1785,)  often  reprinted.  He 
edited  for  about  twenty  years  the  "  Minerva,"  a  success- 
ful historical  and  literary  journal  of  Hamburg,  which  was 
first  issued  in  1792.  His  "  History  of  the  Seven  Years' 
War"  (2  vols.,  1793)  was  very  popular,  and  was  trans- 
lated into  many  languages.  He  was  author  of  other 
histories.    Died  in  1812. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ar'cher,  (John,)  physician  to  Charles  II,  of  England, 
wrote  a  book  called  "Every  Man  his  Own  Doctor," 
{1673.) 

Archer,  (John  Wykeham,)  an  English  painter,  en- 
graver, and  antiquary,  born  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne  about 
1806.  He  produced  several  hundred  drawings  or  sketches 
of  the  antiquities  of  Eondon  and  its  environs,  and  a  book 
entitled  "  Vestiges  of  Old  London."    Died  in  1S64. 

Archer,  (Sir  Simon,)  an  English  antiquary  of  War- 
wickshire, born  in  1581  ;  died  after  1654. 

Archer,  (Thomas,)  an  English  architect,  a  disciple 
or  imitator  of  Vanbrugh,  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  He  designed,  besides  other  works, 
St.  Philip's  Church  at  Birmingham,  (1719,)  and  St.  John's 
at  Westminster,  (finished  about  1728,)  a  remarkable 
structure  of  stone,  which  has  been  compared  to  "an 
elephant  lying  on  its  back,  with  its  legs  sprawling  in  the 
air."    Died  in  1743. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Ar'cher,  (William  S.,)  an  American  Senator,  born 
in  Amelia  county,  Virginia,  in  1789.  He  was  a  member 
of  Congress  from  1820  to  1835,  and  took  a  leading  part 
in  all  matters  of  national  importance.  In  1841  he  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  Whigs  of 
Virginia  for  six  years,  during  which  he  was  chairman  of 
the  Committee  on  Foreign  Relations.    Died  in  1855. 

Ar-ehes'tra-tus,  ykpxeoTpaTog,]  an  Athenian  general, 
who  succeeded  Alcibiades  as  commander  of  the  fleet  in 
407  B.C. 

Archestratus,  [Fr.  Archestrate,  tR^shgs'tRtt',]  a 
Greek  poet,  born  in  Sicily,  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
about  350  B.C.  He  wrote  a  poem  on  Gastronomy,  which 
is  lost.  His  descriptions  of  animals  were  accurate,  and 
were  used  by  Aristotle  in  his  "History  of  Animals." 

Archevesque,  tRshVfk',  (Hue,  hli,)  a  French  trou- 
badour of  the  thirteenth  century,  born  in  Normandy. 

Archiac,  d',  dtR^she-tk',  (Etienne  Jitles  Adolphe 
Desmier  de  Saint-Simon — dez^me-a'  deh  s^N'se'- 
m6N',)  VicOMTE,  a  French  geologist,  born  at  Rheims  in 
1802.  He  published  "  Zizim,  or  the  Chivalry  of  Rhodes," 
a  romance,  (3  vols.,  1828.)  His  most  important  work  is 
a  "History  of  the  Progress  of  Geology  from  1834  to 
1851,"  in  French,  in  six  or  more  vols.,  (1847-56,)  pub- 
lished under  the  auspices  of  the  minister  of  public  in- 
struction. 

Ar-ehi''a-das  [kpxui^ag]  or  Ar-ehi'a-des,  \^kpxiu- 
(5//f,]  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the  fifth  century  after  Christ, 
was  a  friend  of  Proclus. 

Ar'-ehi-as  [Gr.  'kpxiag]  of  Corinth,  founded  the  city 
of  Syracuse  about  733  B.C. 


£  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  y.,  guttural ;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^[^^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ARCH  IAS 


154 


ARCHIMELUS 


Arcbias  surnamed  the  Hunter  of  Fugitives 
gained  pa  infcimous  notoriety  by  pursuing  the  Athenian 
orators  ^vho  were  proscribed  by  Antipater  about  322  B.C. 

Archias,  (Au''lus  Licin'ius,)  an  accomplished  Greek 
poet  of  A.nti(.)ch,  in  Syria,  became  a  resident  of  Rome  in 
102  l!.C  lie  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Lucullus  and 
Cicero,  and  was  aclmitted  to  the  rights  of  citizenship. 
Among  his  works  were  a  poem  on  the  Cimbric  war  of 
Marius.  and  one  on  the  Mithridatic  war,  both  of  which 
are  lost.  His  right  of  citizenship  having  been  contested, 
Cicero  advocated  his  cause,  about  60  B.C.,  in  an  ad- 
mirable oration,  Pro  Archia,'')  and  expressed  himself 
deeply  iadebted  to  his  client  for  the  direction  of  his 
youthful  studies  and  the  development  of  his  mental 
powers.  About  thirty  epigrams,  of  little  merit,  bearing 
the  name  of  A:chias,  are  preserved  in  the  Greek  An- 
thology ;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  were  actually 
written  iDy  him.  The  oration  of  Cicero  is  the  only  source 
of  information  respecting  him. 

See  Wallenius,  "  Dissertatio  de  Aulo  Licinio  Arcliia,"  1806; 
ScHOELi..  '"Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Grecque;"  Jacobs,  "Antho- 
logia  Grxca." 

Ar-elii-da'miis  ['Ap,Y«k//o^-]  I.,  King  of  Sparta, 
reigned  probably  about  600  B.C.  He  was  one  of  the 
Proclid  (or  Eurypontid)  line. 

Arcliidamus  II.,  King  of  Sparta,  was  a  grandson  of 
Leotychides,  and  began  to  reign  about  470  B.C.  In  the 
Peloponnesian  war  he  commanded  an  army  which  in- 
vaded Attica  in  431  B.C. ;  but  he  could  not  provoke  the 
Athenians  to  risk  a  battle.  He  again  invaded  Attica  in 
428,  and  died  in  427  B.C. 

Arcliidamus  III.,  King  of  Sparta,  was  a  son  of  the 
great  Agesilaus.  In  367  B.C.  he  defeated  the  Argives  and 
Arcadians  in  a  battle  which  was  called  "the  tearless," 
because  it  was  won  without  the  loss  of  a  man  on  the 
Spartan  side.  He  resisted  with  success  the  attack  of 
Epaminondas  at  Sparta  in  362,  and  ascended  the  throne 
in  361  B.C.  Having  passed  over  to  Italy  to  aid  the 
Tarentines,  he  was  killed  in  battle  in  338  B.C.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Agis  III. 

Archidamus  IV.,  King  of  Sparta,  was  a  son  of 
Eudamidas.  He  \Vas  defeated  near  Mantinea  by  Deme- 
trius Poliorcetes  in  296  B.C. 

Arcliidamus  V.,  the  last  king  of  Sparta  of  the  Pro- 
clid line,  was  a  brother  and  successor  of  Agis  IV.,  who 
died  240  B.C.  According  to  Polybius,  he  was  put  to 
death  by  Cleomenes  not  long  after  that  date. 

Arcliidamus,  a  Greek  physician  mentioned  by  Ga- 
len, lived  probably  about  400  B.C. 

Ar-c.{ii-de'mu3,  a  Stoic  philosopher  of  Tarsus,  in 
Cilicia,  lived  about  160  B.C.  He  was  author  of  a  Greek 
work  "On  the  Elementary  Principles  of  Matter." 

Ar-ehig^e-nes,  [Gr.  'Apxqn'Tjr;  Fr.  Archigene,  Ir^- 
she'zh^n',]  a  celebrated  Greek  physician,  born  at  Apamea, 
Syria.  He  practised  in  Rome  with  great  success  in  the 
reigns  of  Domitian,  Nerva,  and  Trajan,  (81-1 17  a.d.,)  and 
wrote  numerous  works,  of  which  some  fragments  are 
extant.  Many  extracts  from  them  have  been  preserved 
by  Galen,  Oribasius,  and  others. 

Ar-ehiPo-elius,  [Gr.  'ApxiMx^C ;  Fr.  Archiloque, 
iR'sheOok',]  a  celebrated  Greek  lyric  poet  and  satirist, 
born  in  the  island  of  Paros,  flourished  about  680  or  700 
B.C.  He  emigrated  to  Thasos  in  the  prime  of  life,  and 
joined  the  Thasian  army,  but  fled  from  the  first  battle, 
and  threw  away  his  shield.  He  wrote  odes,  elegies,  and 
satires,  and  is  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the  Iambic 
verse,  or  the  first  Greek  who  composed  Iambic  verses 
according  to  fixed  rules. 

"Archilochum  proprio  rabies  armavit  lambo."* 

Horace,  "Art  of  Poetry." 

The  invention  of  the  Epodic,  Trochaic  Tetrameter,  and 
other  forms  of  metre  is  also  ascribed  to  him.  Some  frag- 
ments of  his  works  are  extant.  According  to  Quintilian, 
he  was  a  very  vigorous,  nervous,  versatile,  and  elegant 


*  "Rage  armed  Archilochus  with  his  own  Iambics,"  {i.e.  Iambics 
nf  his  own  invention.)  This  line  has  allusion  to  a  generally  received 
but  doubtful  story,  that  Lycam'bes,  having  promised  his  daughter 
Neobu'ie  to  Archilochus,  afterwards  broke  his  word  and  gave  her  in 
marriage  to  a  more  wealthy  suitor.  This  exasperated  the  poet,  who 
wrote  against  the  father  and  daughter  an  invective  so  scathing  that 
•hev  hung  themselves  in  despair. 


writer.  Sunima  in  co  vis  ;  elegantes,  vibrantesqic'j  seiiten- 
ti(£ ;  pluritnimi  sanguinis  et  nervorum.  He  was  espe- 
cially distinguished  by  the  severity  of  his  sarcasm.  Some 
ancient  critics  placed  him  above  all  other  poets  except 
Homer.  There  is  a  tradition  that  he  was  killed  in  a 
battle  between  the  Parians  and  the  Naxians. 

See  MuLLER,  "Literature  of  Ancient  Greece;"  Bentley,  "  Phal- 
aris;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  Bode,  "Geschichte  der 
lyrischen  Dichtkunst;"  Huschke,  "  Dissertatio  de  Fabulis  Archilo- 
chi,"  1S03. 

Archiloque.    See  Archilochus. 

Arcliimede.  _See  Archimedes. 

Ar-eln-me^des,  [Gr. ' kpxL[iv67]g ;  It.  Archimede,  aR- 
ke-maMa;  Fr.  Archimede,  tR'she^mid',]  the  greatest 
geometer  of  antiquity,  was  born  in  the  state  of  Syracuse, 
Sicily,  about  287  B.C.,  and  was  of  Greek  extraction.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Conon  of  Egypt, 
and  a  relative  of  Hieron  II.,  King  of  Syracuse.  He 
enjoyed  the  favour  and  patronage  of  Hieron  and  of  his 
son  Gelon.  Among  the  few  recorded  incidents  of  his 
life  is  the  following.  He  was  consulted  by  the  king  in 
regard  to  a  gold  crown  which  the  latter  suspected  to  be 
alloyed  with  silver  by  a  fraudulent  artificer.  While  he 
was  pondering  the  mode  of  detecting  this  fraud,  he  im- 
mersed himself  in  a  full  bathing-tub,  and,  with  the  thought 
that  the  water  which  overflowed  must  be  equal  in  bulk 
to  his  body,  he  discovered  the  mode  of  ascertaining  the 
bulk  of  the  crown  compared  with  an  equally  heavy  mass 
of  pure  gold.  He  was  so  transported  with  joy  that  he 
ran  home  undressed,  exclaiming.  Eureka,  (or,  rather, 
Heureka,)  "  I  have  found  it !" 

Archimedes  was  profoundly  versed  in  mechanics  and 
hydrostatics,  in  which  he  made  many  discoveries,  and 
was  the  inventor  of  several  powerful  machines.  I^early 
eighteen  hundred  years  elapsed  after  his  discoveries 
before  any  progress  was  made  in  theoretical  mechanics. 
It  was  he  who  uttered  that  famous  saying,  Aof  ttoC  arUi 
KoL  rov  Koajwv  Kivf/ou,  "  Give  me  where  I  may  stand,  and 
I  will  move  the  world,"  (or  "  univei'se.")  The  long  re- 
sistance of  Syracuse  to  the  Romans  under  Marcellus  is 
ascribed  to  the  warlike  engines  invented  by  Archimedes. 
The  story  that  he  burned  the  Roman  ships  by  means  of 
mirrors  is  discredited,  as  it  is  not  confirmed  by  Polybius, 
Livy,  or  Plutarch.  He  was  killed  at  the  capture  of  Syra- 
cuse, 212  B.C.  Of  this  event  Plutarch  gives  several  ver- 
sions, one  of  which  is  as  follows :  A  Roman  soldier 
entered  his  room  and  ordered  him  to  follow  him  to  Mar- 
cellus, but  the  geometer  refused  to  do  so  until  he  had 
finished  his  problem,  and  the  soldier,  in  a  passion,  drew 
his  sword  and  killed  him.  (See  article  "Marcellus," 
in  Plutarch's  "Lives.")  He  left  a  number  of  works, 
eight  of  which  are  extant,  viz.  :  "  On  the  Sphere  and 
Cylinder,"  (the  proportions  of  which  he  discovered ;) 
"The  Measurement  of  the  Circle,"  (in  which  he  proves 
that  the  circumference  is  to  the  diameter  nearly  as 
3.1428  to  I ;)  "On  the  Equilibrium  and  Centre  of  Grav- 
ity of  Planes;"  "On  Conoids  and  Spheroids;"  "On 
Spirals;"  "The  Quadrature  of  the  Parabola;"  "The 
Arenarius,"  {'fa/j.fUTT]^;)  and  "On  Floating  Bodies." 

"That  his  [Archimedes']  intellect  was  of  the  very 
highest  order,"  says  Professor  Donkin,  of  Oxford,  "is 
unquestionable.  lie  possessed  in  a  degree  never  ex- 
ceeded, unless  by  Newton,  the  inventive  genius  which 
discovers  new  provinces  of  inquiry  and  finds  new  points 
of  view  for  old  and  familiar  objects ;  the  clearness  of 
conception  which  is  essential  to  the  resolution  of  com- 
plex phenomena  into  their  constituent  elements  ;  and 
the  power  and  habit  of  intense  and  persevering  thought, 
without  which  other  intellectual  gifts  are  comparative!) 
fruitless."  (See  article  "Archimedes,"  in  Smith's  "Greek 
and  Roman  Biography  and  Mythology.") 

When  Cicero  was  quaestor  in  Sicily,  he  found,  over- 
grown with  briers,  the  tomb  of  Archimedes,  marked  b) 
the  figure  of  a  sphere  inscribed  in  a  cylinder,  in  com- 
memoration of  his  discovery. 

See  G.  LiBRi,  "  Histoire  des  Math^matiques  en  Italic ;"  Mazzu- 
CHELLi,  "  Notizie  istoriche  e  critichi  intorno  alia  Vita  ed  Invenzion: 
di  Archimede,"  1737;  Hennert,  "Dissertation  sur  la  Vie  d' Archi- 
mede," 1766;  J.  A.  Schmidt,  "  Dissertatio  de  Archimede,"  i6S3;Do- 
menico  Scin'A,  " Discorso  intorno  ad  Archimede,"  I023;  "Quarterly 
Review,"  vol.  iii. 

Ar-ehi-me'lus,  ['Apxtf^V^oc,]  a  Greek  poet^ flourished 


a.  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  /ong;  i,  b,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s//ort;  a,  e,  j,  g,  obsctire;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


AR  CHINTO 


155 


JR  CONFILLE 


about  225  B.C.  One  of  his  epigrams  is  preserved  by 
Athen^Eus. 

Archiiito,  aR-ken'to.  (Alessandro,)  a  theologian, 
who  received  from  Charles  V.  the  title  of  count.  Died 
at  Milan  in  1567. 

Arcliinto,  (Alessandro,)  a  Jesuit  and  writer,  born 
at  Milan  in  1577  ;  died  in  1645. 

Arcliinto,  (Carlo,)  Count,  a  learned  Italian  noble- 
m?.ii,  born  at  Milan  in  1669.  He  founded  an  academy 
of  cavalieri,  (knights,)  (1702,)  and  an  association  called 
Societa  Palatina,  by  which  Muratori's  great  work  was 
printed.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Tables  of 
Sciences  and  Arts."    Died  in  1732. 

Arcliinto,  (Carlo  Antonio,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastic 
and  writer,  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. 

Archiuto,  (Filippo,)  Archbishop  of  Milan,  an  Italian 
theologian,  born  in  1500;  died  in  1558. 

Archiuto,  (Filippo,)  Count,  an  Italian  jurist,  born 
at  Milan  in  1649.  He  held  several  high  otfices.  Died 
about  1720. 

Archiuto,  (Girola.mo,)  born  at  Milan  about  1671, 
became  Archbishop  of  Tarsus.    Died  in  1721. 

Archiuto,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  prelate,  born  in 
165 1.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Milan  and  a  cardinal 
in  1699.    Died  in  17 12. 

Archiuto,  (Ottavio,)  Count,  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  at  Milan.  He  wrote  several  treatises  on  the  anti- 
quities of  the  Milanese.    Died  in  1656. 

Ar-ehi'nus,  ['Apvn^of,]  an  Athenian,  who  with  Thra- 
sybu''lus  expelled  the  thirty  tyrants  in  403  B.C.  and  re- 
stored the  democracy.  According  to  Demosthenes,  he 
acted  the  principal  part  in  this  revolution,  and  distin- 
guished himself  as  a  statesman  on  other  occasions. 

Ar-ehip'pus,  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  of  whom  little 
is  known.  He  gained  a  victory  with  one  of  his  comedies 
in  416  B.C.  His  most  celebrated  play  was  entitled  "The 
Fishes."    Only  small  fragments  of  his  works  remain. 

See  Vossirs,  "  De  Poetis  Gravels." 

Archon,  tR'shoN',  (Louis,)  a  French  ecclesiastical 
writer,  born  at  Riom  in  1645  ;  died  in  171 7. 

Ar-ehy'tas,  [Gr.  'Apxvrai;']  an  eminent  Greek  philos- 
opher, mathematician,  and  general,  born  at  Tarentum, 
lived  about  350  B.C.  He  belonged  to  the  Pythagorean 
sect,  and  is  said  to  have  saved  the  life  of  Plato  from  the 
anger  of  Dionysius  the  Tyrant.  He  commanded  the 
army  of  Tarentum  for  seven  years,  and  perished  in  a 
shipwreck  on  the  coast  of  Apulia,  leaving  a  high  reputa- 
tion for  public  and  private  virtue,  Archytas  passes  for 
one  of  the  first  who  applied  geometry  to  mechanics  and 
framed  powerful  machines  on  mathematical  principles. 
He  left  a  number  of  works,  which  have  not  come  down  to 
us.  Fragments  of  a  treatise  "  On  Wisdom,"  ascribed  to 
him,  are  extant.    Horace  calls  him 

"  maris  et  terrae,  numeroque  carentis  arenas, 

Mensorem,"* 

in  an  ode  "Ad  Archytam,"  Carm.  i.  28. 

See  G.  LiBRi,  "  Histoire  des  Mntheinatiques  en  Italic;"  G.  Na- 
VARRA,  "Tentamen  de  Arcliyta; Tarentiui  Vita."  1820;  O.  F.  Gri'ppe, 
"Ueber  die  Fragmeiue  des  Archylas,  etc.,"  1S40. 

Archytas,  a  Greek  epigrammatic  poet,  mentioned  l)y  j 
Diogenes  Laertius. 

Archytas  of  Mitylene,  a  writer  on  music,  mentioned 
by  Diogenes  Laertius. 

'Arcimboldi,  aR-ch^m-boKdee,  (Antonello,)  an 
Italian  Hellenist  and  priest,  was  a  son  of  Giovanni  An- 
gelo,  noticed  below.  He  translated  some  works  of  the 
Greek  Fathers  into  Latin.    Died  in  1578. 

Arcimboldi,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  cardinal  and 
writer,  became  Archbishop  of  Milan  in  1484.  Died  in  . 
1491. 

Arcimboldi,  (Giovanni  Angelo,)  Archbishop  of 
Milan,  born  in  1485,  published  a  "  Catalogue  of  Heretics," 
(1554.)    Died  in  1555. 

Arcimboldi,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Milan  in  1533'  excelled  in  portraits.  He  worked  for  the 
emperor  Ferdinand  I.,  and  his  successor,  at  Prague. 
Died  in  1593. 


*  "The  measurer  of  the  sea  and  land,  and  of  the  innumerable 
sands." 


Arcimboldi,  (Guido  Antonio,)  brother  of  Gio- 
vanni the  cardinal,  became  Archbishop  of  Milan  in  14S8. 
Died  in  1497. 

Arcimboldi,  (Ottavio,)  a  learned  prelate,  born  at 
Milan  in  147 1,  was  versed  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin. 
Died  about  1503. 

Arcis,  tR'se'',  (Marc,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  at 
Toulouse,  became  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1684.    Died  about  1740. 

Arciszewski,  aRt-se-shev'ske,  (Christopher,)  a 
Polish  noble  and  general,  born  towards  the  ciose  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  He  entered  the  Dutch  service  about 
1630,  and  fought  with  distinction  in  Brazil  against  the 
Spaniards  and  Portuguese.  He  became  second  in  com- 
mand under  Maurice  of  Nassau,  in  Brazil,  in  1637.  Some 
authorities  state  that  he  was  Governor  of  Brazil.  Died 
at  Lissa  in  1656,  (or,  as  some  writers  state,  in  1668.) 

Arckenlioltz  or  Arkenholz,  aR^ken-holts',  (Jo- 
HANN,)  a  Swedish  historical  writer,  born  in  Finland  in 
1695.  He  published,  in  French,  "  Memoirs  of  Christina, 
Queen  of  Sweden,"  (4  vols.,  1750-60,)  valuable  as  a  col- 
lection of  materials,  but  not  well  written,  and  assisted 
Mauvillon  in  a  "  History  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,"  (1764.) 
Died  in  1777. 

See  PoRTHAX,  "Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  J.  Arckenholtz,"  17S1. 
Arco,  aR'ko,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  general  in  the  Im- 
perial army,  was  beheaded  for  treason  in  1704. 

Arco,  d',  daR'ko,  (Giambattista  Gherardo,)  an 
Italian  political  economist,  born  at  Arco  in  1739.  He 
became  a  resident  of  Mantua,  and  wrote  a  number  of 
works,  among  which  are  "The  Influence  of  Commerce 
on  Talents  and  Customs,"  ("  Costumi,"")  and  "On  the 
Political  and  Economical  Relations  between  the  City 
and  the  Country  belonging  to  it,"  ("  Dell'  Armonia  poll' 
tico-economica  tra  la  Citta  e  il  suo  Territorio,"  (1771.) 
He  was  appointed  governor  of  the  duchy  of  Mantua 
by  the  emperor  Joseph  II.    Died  in  1791. 

Arco,  d',  (XiccoLO,)  Count,  a  good  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Arco,  in  the  Tyrol,  in  1479.  He  was  learned  in  ancient 
and  modern  languages,  and  was  intimate  with  Annibal 
Caro,  Fracastor,  and  Paolo  Giovio.  A  volume  of  his 
poems  was  published  in  1546.  His  "Dirge  for  the 
Death  of  his  Mother,"  ("  N^enia  de  Morte  Matris,") 
which  resembles  Cowper's  "Lines  on  his  Mother's  Pic- 
ture," is  greatly  admired.    Died  in  1546. 

Arco,  del,  del  aR'ko,  (Alonso,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
who  was  a  deaf-mute,  called  El  Sordillo  del  Pereda, 
el  soR-del'yo  del  pa-ra'D^,  ("The  Little  Deaf  Man  of 
Pereda,")  was  born  at  Madrid  in  1625.  He  studied 
under  Pereda,  was  a  good  colurist,  and  excelled  in  por- 
traits. His  master-piece,  in  the  opinion  of  some,  is  the 
"Baptism  of  John  the  Baptist."    Died  in  1700. 

Arcoleo,  aR-ko-la''o,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  dramatic 
poet,  born  in  the  island  of  Candia,  lived  in  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

Argon,  d',  cIsr^son',  (Jean  Claude  El6onore  le 
Michaud — leh  me'sho',)  a  French  military  engineer, 
born  at  Pontarlier  in  1733,  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war.  He  was  the  inventor  of  floating 
batteries,  which  attracted  much  attention  in  1782,  al- 
i  though  they  proved  unsuccessful  in  the  siege  of  Gib- 
raltar. These  vessels,  the  decks  of  which  were  covered 
with  a  shell-proof  blindage  forming  two  inclined  planes, 
presented  to  the  guns  of  the  fort  a  thick  layer  ( anrasse ) 
of  green  wood,  partly  defended  by  an  armour  of  cables. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Political  and  Military 
Considerations  on  Fortifications,"  (1795.)  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Institute  and  of  the  Senate.  Died  in 
1800. 

See  Drinkwater,  "Account  of  the  Siege  of  Gibraltar;"  Girod- 
Chantr.ans,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  du  General  d'Argon,"  (iSoi.) 

Ar-co-na'tus,  (Jerome,)  a  German  poet,  born  in  Si- 
lesia in  1553  ;  died  in  1599. 

Arcoui,  d',  dta'ko'ne'',  (Cesar,)  a  French  writer  on 
physical  science  and  theology,  was  iDorn  at  Viviers  ;  died 
in  1681. 

Arconville,  d',  dtR^k6NVeK,  (Marie,)  a  learned 
French  authoress,  born  in  1720.  She  published  many 
works,  among  which  were  romances,  poems,  biogra- 
phies, and  a  "  Historv  of  Francis  II.  of  France,"  (2  vols., 
1783.)    Died  in  1805". 


€  as  y^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  gtittiiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JRCOS 


156 


ARELLANO 


Arcos,  aR'kos,  (Don  Rodrigo  Ponz  de  Leon — 

piiith  da  li-(i»a',)  Duke  of,  a  Spaniard  who  was  ap- 
pointed Viceroy  of  Naples  in  1646.  His  exactions  pro- 
voked a  formidable  insurrection  in  1647,  (see  Masani- 
ELLO,)  and  he  was  obliged  to  make  concessions  to  the 
people.  Don  Juan  of  Austria  in  the  mean  time  was  sent 
with  a  fleet  to  enforce  the  royal  authority,  and  the  fight 
was  renewed  between  his  troops  and  the  Neapolitans, 
who  proclaimed  a  republic.  The  Duke  of  Arcos  was 
removed  from  oftice  about  the  end  of  1647,  and  returned 
to  Spain  in  disgrace. 

See  Leo  and  Butta,  "HIstoire  d'ltalie." 

Arc-ti'nus  ['Ap/cnvof]  of  Miletus,  an  ancient  Greek 
epic  poet,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  before  700  B.C. 
Little  or  nothing  is  known  of  his  life.  His  works, 
among  which  was  a  poem  called  "^thiopis,"  are  all 
lost. 

Arcudi,  aR-koo'dee,  (Alessandro  Tommaso,)  an 
Italian  satirical  writer,  born  at  Galatina,  in  Naples,  in 
1655,  wrote  "The  Anatomy  of  Hypocrites,"  (1699.)  Died 
in  1718. 

Ar-cu'di-us  or  Arcudio,  aR-koo'de-o,  (Peter,)  a 
Roman  Catholic  priest,  born  at  Corfu  about  1570.  He 
was  sent  by  the  pope  to  Poland  and  Muscovy,  where  he 
laboured  as  a  missionary  about  twenty  years.  He  wrote 
in  Greek  "On  the  Harmony  of  the  Western  and  Eastern 
Churches  in  the  Use  of  the  Seven  Sacraments,"  (2d  edi- 
tion, 1619.)    Died  about  1635. 

Ar-cuFphus,  written  also  Arculf  and  Arculfe,  a 
French  or  Gallic  priest  who  visited  and  explored  the  Holy 
Land  about  650  a.d.  An  account  of  his  travels  was  writ- 
ten by  Adomnan. 

Arcussia,  d',  dtR^kii'se-t',  (Charles,)  a  French 
gentleman,  born  in  Provence  about  1548,  was  known  as 
the  author  of  a  work  on  Falconry,  (1598,)  which  had 
great  success.    Died  in  161 7. 

Arcy,  d'.    See  D'Arcy,  (Patrick.) 

Ar-da-bu'ri-us,  [Gr.  'ApJa/iorpiOf,]  a  general  of  the 
Eastern  Empire,  the  father  of  Aspar,  commanded  an 
Imperial  army  which  invaded  Persia  in  422  A.D.  and  be- 
sieged Nisi  bis  without  success. 

Ardasheer.    See  x\rdsheer. 

Ardell,  (James  Mac.)    See  MacArdell. 

Ardemans,  aR-da-mdns',  (Teodoro,)  a  Spanish  ar- 
chitect and  painter,  born  at  Madrid  in  1664.  He  was 
appointed  cabinet-painter  to  the  king  about  1704.  He 
designed  the  principal  part  of  the  palace  and  collegiate 
church  of  San  Ildefonso.    Died  in  1726. 

Ar'den,  (Edward,)  an  English  gentleman  and  Ro- 
man Catholic,  a  third-cousin  to  Mary  Arden  the  mother 
of  Shakspeare,  was  born  in  153L  In  1583  Arden  was 
executed  on  a  charge  of  treason,  with  his  son-in-law 
Somerville.  Many  persons  believed  that  Arden  was  in- 
nocent, and  that  he  was  the  victim  of  the  enmity  of  the 
Earl  of  Leicester,  with  whom  he  had  quarrelled.  He 
left  a  son  Robert,  who  was  a  lawyer. 

Arden,  (John.)    See  Arderx. 

Arden,  (Richard  Pepper,)  Lord  Alvanley,  an 
English  lawyer  and  judge,  born  at  Bredbury,  near 
Stockport,  in  1745.  He  became  a  personal  ancl  politi- 
cal friend  of  William  Pitt,  and  was  appointed  solicitor- 
general  in  1782.  Having  resigned  when  Fox  and  Lord 
North  came  into  power  in  1783,  he  was  reappointed  to 
that  office  about  the  end  of  the  same  year  by  Pitt.  He 
was  attorney-general  from  1784  to  1788,  and  was  made 
master  of  the  rolls  in  the  latter  year.  In  1801  he  suc- 
ceeded Lord  Eldon  as  lord  chief-justice  of  the  court  of 
common  pleas,  and  was  created  a  peer,  by  the  title  of 
Baron  Alvanley.    Died  in  1804. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  viii. 

Ardene,  t^RfdhV,  (Esprit  Jean  de  Rome,  es^pRe' 
zhSN  deh  rom,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Marseilles  in 
1684.  He  published  a  collection  of  Fables  in  verse, 
(1747,)  and  wrote  odes,  ej^igrams,  and  other  verses,  (4 
vols.,  1767.)    Died  in  1748. 

Ardene,  (Jean  Paul  de  Rome,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Marseilles  in  1689,  was  a  priest  and  hor- 
ticulturist. He  published  treatises  on  "  Tulips,"  (1760,) 
"Carnations,"  (1767,)  and  other  plants  ;  also  a  work  on 
gardening  and  rural  economy,  called  the  "  Rural  Year," 


("Annee  champetre,"  3  vols.,  1769,)  which  was  consid- 
ered one  of  the  best  on  those  subjects.    Died  in  1769. 

Ardenne,  d',  dtkMen',  [Lat.  Arduen'na,]  (Rema- 
CLE,  reh-mikl',)  a  Latin  poet,  born  near  Maubeuge 
about  1480.  He  was  secretary  of  Margaret  of  Burgundy. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  mediocre  poems,  "  Palamedes," 
a  drama,  (1512.) 

Ardente,  aR-d§n'ta,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Faenza,  worked  mostly  at  Turin,  He  painted 
portraits  and  history  with  success.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "Conversion  of  Saint  Paul"  and  a  "Baptism  of 
Christ."    Died  in  1595. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy,' 

Ar'dern,  (John,)  or  Johannes  de  Arderne,  an 

eminent  English  surgeon,  who  practised  at  Newark  from 
1349  to  1370,  when  he  removed  to  London.  He  made 
some  important  improvements  in  surgery,  and  wrote 
several  works,  one  of  which  is  a  "Treatise  on  Fistula," 
(1588.) 

Ar'derne,  (James,)  an  English  clergyman,  founded  a 
library  at  Chester.    Died  in  1691. 
Ardeschir.    See  Ardsheer. 
Ardha-Nari.    See  Siva. 

Ar'di-ges  of  Corinth,  an  ancient  Greek  painter,  who, 
according  to  Pliny,  painted  monochromatic  pictures. 

Ardingeili,  aR-den-jeKlee,  (Niccolo,)  an  Italian  car- 
dinal, whom  Pope  Paul  HI.  sent  to  France  to  negotiate 
a  peace  between  Francis  I,  and  Charles  V.  Died  in 
1547,  aged  about  forty-five. 

Ardizzon,  aR-det-s6n',  or  Ardizzoni,  aR-d^t-so'nee, 
(Antonio,)  an  Italian  writer,  died  at  Naples  in  1699. 

Ardoin.    See  Arduin. 

Ardoina,  aR-do-ee'iiS,  (Anna  Maria,)  an  Italian 
poetess,  born  in  1672,  was  a  daughter  of  the  Prince  of 
Palizzo.    Died  in  1700. 

Ardslieer  (Ardshir  or  Ardeschir)  B^began,  ard- 
sheer' b3.'beh-g^n',  a  famous  king  of  Persia,  the  founder 
of  the  dynasty  of  Sassanides,  was  a  man  of  humble 
origin.  He  rebelled  against  King  Artabanus  or  Arda- 
van,  who  was  defeated  and  killed  in  battle.  After  he 
had  extended  the  limits  of  Persia  by  conquests,  he 
reigned  many  years  in  peace,  and  had  a  wide  reputation 
for  virtue  and  wisdom.  His  maxims  are  still  preserved 
by  the  Persians.  He  died  probably  about  260  a.d.,  and 
left  the  throne  to  his  son,  Shapur  or  Sapor.  He  was 
called  Artaxerxes  by  the  Greeks. 

See  Malcolm,  "  History  of  Persia  ;"  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall 
of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Ardshir  (or  Ardsheer)  Darazdast.    See  Artax- 
erxes Longimanus. 
Arduenna.    See  Ardenne. 

Arduin,  arcKwin,  Ardoin,  or  Ardoino,  aR-do-ee'no, 
sometimes  written  Ardouin  and  Ardwig,  King  of 
Italy,  was  chosen  by  several  Italian  nobles  as  successor 
to  Otho  HI.  in  1002.  War  ensued  between  him  and 
Henry,  Emperor  of  Germany,  who  became  master  of 
Milan  and  other  cities  of  Lombardy.    Died  in  1015. 

See  Provana,  "Studj  critichi  sovra  la  Storia  d'ltalia  a'  tempi  del 
Re  Ardoino,"  1849;  Muratori,  "  Annali  d'ltalia." 

Arduini,  aR-doo-ee'nee,  or  Arduino,  aR-doo-ee'no, 
(LuiGi,)  an  Italian  agriculturist,  born  at  Padua  about 
1750.  He  became  professor,  at  Padua,  of  rural  economy, 
and  wrote  several  works  on  that  science.    Died  in  1833. 

Arduini,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  botanist,  the  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Verona.  He  published  in 
1766  a  work  on  the  culture  and  use  of  plants  employed 
in  domestic  and  rural  economy. 

Arduino,  aR-doo-ee'no,  (Maestro,)  a  Venetian  sculp- 
tor ancl  architect  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

Ar'dys,  [Gr.  'Ap(5i»f,]  King  of  Lydia,  succeeded  his 
father  Gyges  about  680  13. c,  and  reigned  about  forty- 
nine  years. 

Aregio,  S-ra^ne-o,  (Pablo,)  a  skilful  Spanish  painter, 
born  in  the  fifteenth  century.  He  painted  subjects  from 
the  life  of  the  Virgin,  in  the  cathedral  of  Valencia,  ibout 
1506. 

Areius,  (the  heresiarch.)     See  Arius. 

A-rei'us,  [Gr.  "Apeio^,]  a  Stoic  philosopher  of  Alexan- 
dria, was  a  friend  and  preceptor  of  Augustus  Caesar. 

Arellano,  de,  di  S.-r&l-ya'no,  (Gil  Ramirez,)  a  Span- 
ish antiquary  of  the  first  part  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  VL,  y,  long;  a,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  sho7't ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ARELLANO 


S7 


A  RET  IN 


tury.  He  wrote  "  Vindication  of  the  Ancient  Grandeur 
of  the  Counts  of  Aguilar,"  ("  Memorial  en  justificacion 
de  la  Grandeza  antigua  de  los  Condes  de  Aguilar,") 
which  is  a  model  in  its  kind. 

Arellano,  de,  (Juan,)  the  best  Spanish  flower-painter 
of  his  time,  was  born  in  1614.    Died  at  Madrid  in  1676. 

A-rel'li-us,  a  Roman  painter,  who  lived  in  the  first 
century  B.C.  The  senate  ordered  his  pictures  to  be  re- 
moved from  the  temples  because  he  took  courtesans  as 
his  models. 

Areniberg,  2.'rem-b§RG,(  Auguste  Marie  Raymond,) 
Prince  of,  a  son  of  Karl  Leopold,  noticed  below,  was 
born  at  Brussels  in  1753.  He  was  elected  to  the  French 
States-General  in  1789,  and  favoured  the  doctrines  of 
the  Revolution.  About  1792  he  emigrated  to  Austria, 
in  the  army  of  which  he  attained  the  rank  of  major- 
general.    He  was  a  friend  of  Mirabeau.    Died  in  1833. 

Areniberg,  (John  of  Ligne,)  Count,  a  general 
of  Philip  H.  of  Spain,  was  probably  born  in  Flanders. 
He  was  appointed  governor  of  Fries! and  and  Overyssel 
by  Philip  II.,  and  took  sides  against  the  Prince  of  Orange 
about  1563.  In  1567  he  commanded  a  small  army  sent 
by  Alva  against  the  French  Huguenots.  He  was  de- 
feated and  killed  in  a  battle  at  Groningen  in  May,  1568. 

See  Motley,  "Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  ii. 

Aremberg,  (Leopold  Philipp  Karl  Joseph  von 
Ligne,)  Duke  of,  a  general  born  at  Mons  in  1690,  was 
the  father  of  Karl  Leopold,  noticed  below.  He  fought 
for  Austria  at  Malplaquet  in  1709,  and  as  major-general 
contributed  to  Prince  Eugene's  victory  at  Belgrade  in 
1 71 7.  In  1737  he  obtained  the  rank  of  field-marshal,  and 
the  chief  command  of  the  army  in  Flanders.  He  com- 
manded an  army  of  Maria  Theresa  in  the  war  which 
began  in  1741.    Died  in  1754. 

Aremberg,  von,  fon  a'rem-beRG,  (Karl  Leopold,) 
a  field-marshal  in  the  Austrian  service,  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  the  preceding,  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war.  He  led  the  right  wing  of  the  Aus- 
trians  at  Hochkirchen  in  1758,  and  was  defeated  by 
Wiinsch  in  1759. 

Arena,  ^-ra'nd,  (Bartolommeo,)  a  politician,  born  in 
Corsica  about  1760.  Pie  was  elected  to  the  French 
Legislative  Assembly  in  1792,  and  was  a  partisan  of  the 
Revolution  and  an  enemy  of  Paoli.  Asa  member  of  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred,  he  opposed  Bonaparte  in  the 
contest  of  the  i8th  Brumaire,  1799,  after  which  he  lived 
in  exile.    Died  at  Leghorn  about  1830. 

Arena,  (Giuseppe,)  a  conspirator,  born  in  Corsica, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  served  as  adjutant- 
general  at  the  siege  of  Toulon  in  1793,  and  was  elected 
to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1796.  In  October 
or  November,  1801,  he  was  arrested  at  the  Opera  as  an 
accomplice  of  Ceracchi  and  others  in  a  conspiracy  to 
kill  Napoleon,  and  was  executed  in  1802. 

Arena,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  musician  and  composer, 
flourished  between  1725  and  1750. 

Arena,  i-ra'nS,,  or  Harena,  (Jacobus,)  a  Belgian  or 
Italian  jurist,  born  in  the  thirteenth  century,  is  said  to 
have  taught  civil  law  at  Padua  in  1300.  He  wrote  several 
legal  works,  which  were  printed  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Arena,  d',  dt'ri^nS',  (Antoine,)  the  Latinized  name 
of  La  Sable,  (It  stbl,)  a  French  jurist  and  macaronic 
poet,  born  at  Souliers,  near  Toulon.    Died  in  1544. 

Arenalcs,  S-ra-ni'lcs,  (Jose,)  a  South  American  ge- 
ographer, was  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  army  of  Buenos 
Ayres  in  1833. 

Arend,  ^'rent,  or  Arents,  3,'rents,  (Balthasar,)  a 
son  of  Caius,  noticed  below,  born  in  Ilolstein  about 
1640,  was  a  minister,  and  published  several  works,  chiefly 
sermons.    Died  in  1687. 

Arend  or  Arents,  (Caius  or  Kay,)  a  German  or- 
thodox divine,  born  in  Holstein  in  1614.  He  was  min- 
ister at  Gliickstadt  from  1661  to  1678,  and  afterwards  at 
Meldorf.   He  published  several  sermons.   Died  in  1691. 

Arends,  S'rdnts,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Dort 
in  1738.  Pie  painted  marine  pieces  and  other  subjects, 
at  his  native  place  and  Middelburg,  with  success.  Died 
in  1805. 

Arends,  written  also  Arents,  (Thomas,)  a  Dutch 
merchant  and  poet,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1652.  He 
composed  fugitive  poems  and  dramas.    Died  in  1700. 


Arendt,  a'rSnt,  (Martin  Frederik,)  a  Danish  anti- 
quary, born  at  Altona  in  1769.  Pie  traversed  many 
countries  of  Europe  on  foot  in  order  to  investigate  anti- 
quities, copy  runic  inscriptions,  etc.,  having  no  resources 
but  the  bounty  of  strangers.  He  wrote  several  short 
antiquarian  treatises.    Died  near  Venice  in  1824. 

Arensbeck,  a'rgns-bek',  (Peter  Dietrich,)  a  Swe- 
dish linguist,  was  minister  of  a  church  at  Stockholm, 
and  teacher  of  Oriental  languages.    Died  in  1673. 

Arents.    See  Arend. 

Ar'e-sas,  ['A^jeaaf,]  a  Greek  Pythagorean  philosopher, 
lived  in  Italy,  and  succeeded  Tydas  as  head  of  the  school. 

Aresi,  S-ra^see,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastic,  emi- 
nent as  a  preacher  and  writer,  was  born  at  Cremona  in 
1574.  He  became  Bishop  of  Tortona  in  1620.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  "  Sacred  Emblems,"  etc.,  ("  Imprese  sacre 
con  triplicati  Discorsi  illustrate,"  1613.)  He  afterwards 
enlarged  it  to  seven  volumes,  (1621-35.)  Died  in  1644. 

Areson,  3.'reh-son,  (Jon,)  a  bishop  and  poet  of  Ice- 
land, born  in  1484.  He  became  Bishop  of  Iceland  in 
1522,  and  resisted  the  efforts  of  the  King  of  Denmark  to 
establish  the  Protestant  religion  in  that  island.  Having 
taken  up  arms  against  the  king,  he  was  defeated  and  put 
to  death  in  1550. 

Aresti,  a-res'tee,  (Floriano,)  an  Italian  composer 
of  operas,  born  at  Bologna,  lived  about  1700. 

Aretceus,  Ar-e-tee'us,  [Gr.  'ApEralog;  Fr.  Aretee, 
t'ri''ta',]  an  eminent  Greek  medical  writer,  born  prob- 
ably in  Cappadocia,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  first 
or  second  century  of  the  Christian  era.  Nothing  is 
known  of  his  life.  He  wrote  a  work  in  eight  books  011 
the  Causes,  Symptoms,  and  Cure  of  Acute  and  Chronic 
Affections,  which  is  still  extant,  and  is  highly  prized  for 
its  matter  and  the  elegance  of  its  style.  His  work  has 
often  been  printed  in  Greek  and  Latin  since  1552. 

See  Sprengel,  "  Histoire  de  laMedecine;"  Suringar,  "Disser- 
tatio  de  Aretseo  medico,"  1837. 

Ar'e-tas,  [Gr.  'ApcTag,']  the  name  of  several  kings  of 
Arabia,  who  reigned  between  170  and  40  B.C.  One 
of  these  defeated  Antiochus  XII.  about  90  B.C.,  and 
aftei'wards  gained  a  victory  over  Alexander  Jannaeus. 

One  king  of  this  name  was  the  father-in-law  of  Herod 
Antipas.  He  appears  to  have  been  the  Aretas  who 
reigned  in  Damascus  when  the  Apostle  Paul  escaped  from 
that  city.  (See  II.  Corinthians  xi.  32.)  He  waged  war 
against  Herod  Antipas,  who,  having  been  defeated,  ap- 
plied for  aid  to  the  emperor  Tiberius.  The  latter  ordered 
Vitellius  to  march  against  Aretas  ;  but  the  death  of  Tibe- 
rius, in  37  A.D.,  prevented  the  execution  of  this  design. 

A-re'te,  [Gr.  'Ap//rr/,]  a  daughter  of  the  celebrated 
Aristippus,  was  versed  in  philosophy,  which  she  learned 
of  her  father.  She  had  a  son,  Aristippus,  who-\vas  sur- 
named  M>/Tpo6U]aKTog,  {i.e.  "Mother-taught.") 

Aretee.    See  Aretceus. 

Ar-e-thu^sa,  [Gr.  'ApsOovaa;  Fr.  Ar^thuse,  t'ra'- 
tiiz',]  a  Nereid  and  an  attendant  of  Diana,  was,  accord- 
ing to  a  poetical  legend,  beloved  and  pursued  by  Alpheus, 
and  was  changed  into  a  fountain  in  Ortygia,  near  Syra- 
cuse. (See  Alpheus.)  She  was  invoked  by  Virgil  as  a 
source  of  poetical  inspiration,  (Eclogue  x.  i.) 

Aretin  or  Aretino,  (Bernardo.)    See  Accoltl 

Aretin,  von,  fon  a^reh-teen',  (Johann  Adam  Chris- 
TOPH  [osEPH,)  Baron,  a  Bavarian  diplomatist,  born  at 
Ingolstadt  in  1 769.  He  represented  Bavaria  in  the 
Germanic  Diet  at  Frankfort  from  181 7  until  his  death, 
and  published,  besides  a  few  other  works,  a  "  Manual 
of  the  Philosophy  of  Life,"  (1793.)    Died  in  1822. 

Aretin,  von,  (Johann  Christoph  Anton  Maria,) 
Baron,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Ingol- 
stadt in  1772  or  1773.  He  became  aulic  counsellor  at 
Munich  in  1793,  and  vice-president  of  the  Munich  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  in  1804.  He  published  many  and  va- 
rious works,  among  which  are  a  "  History  of  the  Jews  in 
Bavaria,"  (1803,)  and  an  "Introduction  to  Mnemonics," 
(1810.)    Died  ii.  1824. 

Aretin,  von,  (Johann  Georg,)  Baron,  a  German 
writer  on  rural  economy,  born  in  1771,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding. 

Aretin,  von,  (Karl  Maria,)  Baron,  a  German  his- 
torian, born  at  Munich  in  1796,  was  a  son  of  Johann 
Christoph  Anton  Maria,  noticed  above.     He  was  ap- 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  /lard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  giittiii'al;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  tJiis.    (J^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ARETINO 


158 


ARGELLATl 


pointed  keeper  of  the  archives  of  Bavaria,  and  privy 
counsellor.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  the 
Elector  Maximilian  I.,"  (1842.) 

Aretino,  a-ra-tce'no,  [Lat.  Areti'nus;  Fr.  Ar6tin, 
S'ra''t:\N'',]  (Angelo,)  an  Italian  jurisconsult  6f  the  fif- 
teenth century,  born  at  Arezzo.  His  faniily  name  was 
Gambiglioni.  He  was  professor  of  law  at  Ferrara  and 
Bologna,  and  wrote  a  ''Treatise  on  Misdemeanours  and 
Crimes,"  ("Tractatus  de  Maleficiis,"  1472,)  and  other 
works,  which  were  highly  esteemed.    He  died  after  1450. 

Aretino,  (Carlo.)    See  Marsuppini,  (Carlo.) 

Aretino,  (Francesco.)    See  Accoltl 

Aretino,  (Leonardo.)   See  Brunl 

Aretino,  [Lat.  Areti'nus  ;  Fr.  Aretin,]  (Pietro,) 
a  satirical  Italian  writer,  surnamed  THE  Scourge  of 
Princes,  was  born  at  Arezzo  in  1492.  He  had  superior 
talents,  but  little  learning.  In  1527  he  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Venice,  and  wrote  a  libel  on  Pope  Clement  VIL, 
then  imprisoned  or  besieged  by  the  Imperialists.  He 
associated  with  eminent  authors  and  artists,  and  corre- 
sponded with  several  monarchs  of  Europe,  among  whom 
were  Francis  I.  of  France,  and  the  emperor  Charles  V., 
from  whom  he  received  a  pension.  His  conduct  was 
extremely  licentious  and  venal.  He  wrote  numerous 
works,  among  which  were  Dialogues,  Comedies,  Letters, 
(6  vols.,  1538-57,)  Sonnets,  and  other  poems.  He  died 
at  Venice  (where  the  greater  part  of  his  mature  life  was 
passed)  in  1557. 

See  Berni,  "Vita  di  P.  Aretino,"  1537;  Dujardin,  "Vie  de 
Pierre  Aretin,"  1750;  Mazzuchelli,  "Vitadi  Pietro  Aretino,"  1763; 
DuBois-FoNTANELLE,  "  Vie  de  Pierre  Aretin,"  176S. 

Aretino,  (Spinello,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Arezzo  about  13 1 5.  He  adorned  the  chapel  of 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  and  other  churches  of  Florence, 
with  frescos.  Those  of  San  Miniato,  in  the  same  city,  are 
still  preserved.  The  "  History  of  Pope  Alexander  III.," 
in  the  town-hall  of  Sienna,  is  called  his  principal  work. 
In  the  opinion  of  Vasari,  he  was  a  better  painter  than 
Giotto.    Died  about  1400, 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Aretins,  a-ree'she-us,  [Gcr.  pron.  d-r6t'se-us,]  (Bene- 
Dicr,)  a  wSwiss  Calvinist  theologian  and  botanist,  born 
at  Berne.  He  became  professor  of  languages  and  theo- 
logy at  that  city  about  1563.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Theological  Problems,"  ("Problemata 
Theologica,"  1574,  often  reprinted,)  and  a  "  Description 
of  the  Mountains  Stockhorn  and  Niesen,  and  the  Plants 
growing  on  the  Same,"  (1561.)  He  was  a  friend  of  Con- 
rad Gesner.    Died  in  1574. 

Aretins,  (Claudius  Marius.)    See  Arezzo. 

Aretusi,  S.-ra-too'see,  (Cesare,)  also  called  Cesare 
Modenese,  (mo-da-na''sa,)  a  skilful  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Modena  (or,  as  some  say,  at  Bologna)  al)out  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  imitated  with  suc- 
cess the  style  of  various  masters.  His  copy  of  Cor- 
reggio's  "  Notte  '  is  highly  commended.  Died  at  Parma 
about  16  ID. 

Areus,  a'rus  or  a're-us,  [Gr.  'Apsir,]  I.,  King  of  Sparta, 
succeeded  his  grandfather  Cleomenes  II.  in  309  B.C.  He 
repulsed  Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus,  who  attacked  Sparta 
in  272  B.C.  He  was  slain  at  Corinth  in  265,  in  a  battle 
against  the  Macedonians,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Acrotatus. 

Areus  II.  of  Sparta,  a  son  of  Acrotatus,  died  while 
still  a  child,  about  256  B.C. 

Arevalo.    See  Cano  de  Arevalo. 

Arezzo,  d-ret^so,  (Claudio  Mario,)  [Lat.  ARii'Tius, 
Clau'dius  Ma'rius,]  a  learned  Italian,  who  was  a  native 
of  Syracuse  and  lived  about  1550.  He  was  imperial 
historian  to  Charles  V.,  whose  armies  he  followed  in 
Italy  and  Germany.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  Chorographia  sive  de  Situ  Sicilice  Libellus,"  (1537,)  a 
description  of  Sicily. 

Arezzo,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  in  Tus- 
cany in  1756,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  sent  to  Saint  Petersburg  by  the  pope  in  iSoi  to 
negotiate  for  the  reunion  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Churches.  In  180S  he  was  appointed  Vice-Governor  of 
Rome,  and  arrested  by  the  French.  He  was  imprisoned 
in  Corsica,  whence  he  escaped  in  1813,  and  was  created 
a  cardinal  in  1816.    Died  in  1833. 


Arezzo,  (F.  M.)    See  Casinl 

Arezzo,  d',  da-ret'so,  (Betrico,  bi-tRee'ko,)  an  Ital- 
ian poet  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

Arezzo,  d',  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  pulpit  orator 
and  writer  on  theology,  born  in  1553  ;  died  in  1616. 

Arezzo,  d',  (Guittone,  gw6t-to^ni,)  a  poet  who  is 
called  one  of  the  founders  of  Italian  poetry,  and  of 
whose  life  little  is  known.  He  wrote  thirty-eight  son- 
nets, several  canzoni,  and  a  number  of  letters  in  prose. 
His  sonnets  are  remarkable  for  regularity  in  rhythm  and 
rhyme.  Petrarch  ranked  him  with  Dante  and  Cino  da 
Pistoja.    Died  in  1294. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Arezzo,  d',  (Guy.)    See  Guy. 

Arezzo,  d',  (Scipione  Burali-boo-riOee,)  an  Italian 
cardinal,  born  near  Gaeta  in  151 1.  He  employed  his 
great  influence  with  success  against  the  introduction  of 
the  Inquisition  into  Italy.    Died  about  1577. 

Arfe,  de,  da  aR^fa,  written  also  Arplie  or  Darphe, 
(Henrique,)  a  silversmith,  born  in  Germany  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  fifteenth  century,  removed  to  Spain.  Pie 
made  silver  tabernacles,  designed  with  great  taste,  for 
the  cathedrals  of  Leon,  Cordova,  and  Toledo.  His  son 
Antonio  was  also  a  skilful  artist  and  worker  in  silver. 

Arfe,  de,  (Jose,)  a  Spanish  sculptor,  born  at  Seville 
in  1603,  made  statues  of  silver  for  the  cathedral  of  that 
city.    Died  in  1666. 

Arfe  y  Villafane,  de,  da  aR'fa  e  v^l-yJ-fa'na,  (Juan,) 
a  son  of  Antonio,  was  born  at  Leon  in  1535.  He  de- 
signed the  tabernacles  of  Avila,  (1571,)  Seville,  (1587,) 
and  Osmas,  which  are  among  the  most  beautiful  in  Spain, 
and  was  employed  by  Philip  II.  to  adorn  the  Escurial. 
He  wrote  "  Assayer  of  Gold,  Silver,  and  Stones,"  ("  Qui- 
latador  de  Oro,  Plata  y  Picdras,"  1572.) 

See  Bermudez,  "Diccionario  Historico." 

Arfian,  de,  da  aR-fe-Sn',  (Antonio,)  an  excellent 
Spanish  fresco-painter,  a  pupil  of  Luis  de  Vargas, 
flourished  at  Seville  about  1550.  His  son  Alonzo  was 
also  an  able  painter. 

Argaiz,  de,  da  aR-glth',  (Gregorio,)  a  Spanish  monk 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  wrote  a  History  of  the  Span- 
ish Church,  (1667,)  derived  from  spurious  documents 
fabricated  by  himself. 

Ar'gall,  (Rev.  John,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
London,  graduated  at  Oxford  about  1565.  He  wrote 
"  Introduction  to  the  Art  of  Logic,"  ("  Introductio  ad 
Artem  Dialecticam,"  1605.)    Died  in  1606. 

Argall,  (Richard,)  an  English  poet  who  wrote  in  the 
reign  of  James  I.  Among  his  works  is  a  poem  called 
*' The  Bride's  Ornaments,"  (1621.) 

Argall,  (Samuel,)  an  English  adventurer,  born  at 
Bristol  in  1572.  He  was  deputy-governor  of  Virginia 
for  two  years,  (161 7-19)  and  was  accused  of  many  acts 
of  tyranny  and  rapacit3^    Died  in  1639. 

Argand,  tR^g5N',  (Atm^:,  a'ma',)  a  Swiss  chemist, 
born  at  Geneva  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, is  known  as  the  inventor  of  the  Argand  lamp.  The 
wick  of  this  lamp  is  in  the  form  of  a  hollow  cylinder, 
through  which  a  current  of  air  passes.  He  made  the 
first  model  of  the  lamp,  in  England,  in  1782,  and  added 
a  glass  chimney  to  it.  A  person  named  Quinquet  de- 
prived him  of  the  profit  of  the  invention.    Died  in  1803. 

Argelander,  aR'geh-lan'der,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm 
August,)  an  eminent  Prussian  astronomer,  born  at  Me- 
mel  in  1799.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Bessel,  and  afterwards 
his  assistant  in  the  Observatory  of  Konigsberg.  ^  In 
1823  he  became  director  of  the  Observatory  of  Abo, 
Finland,  which  was  removed  to  Helsingfors  about  1832. 
He  was  appointed  professor  of  astronomy  at  Bonn  in 
1837,  and  ])ublis(ied  a  good  celestial  atlas,  entitled 
"Uranometria  Nova,"  (1843.)  Continuing  the  great 
work  of  Bessel,  he  determined  the  position  of  22,000 
stars,  which  he  made  known  in  his  "  Observations  at  the 
Observatory  of  Bonn,"  (1846.) 

For  many  years  he  has  been  employed  in  observing 
the  variations  in  the  luminosity  and  apparent  magnitude 
of  certain  fixed  stars.  He  also  demonstrated  the  theory 
that  the  solar  system  has  a  progressive  motion  in  abso- 
lute space. 

Argellati,  aR-jel-li'tee,  (Filippo,)  a  learned  and  meri- 
torious Italian  writer,  born  at  Bologna  in  1685.  He 


a,  e,  1,  5,  u,  y,  Jong;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  sJiort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fAt;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon 


A  RG  ELL  ATI 


159 


I 

ARGER 


assisted  INIuratori  in  the  publication  of  his  "  Rerum 
Itahcarum  Scriptores,"  and  edited  or  republished  the 
works  of  several  Italian  authors.  He  was  the  author 
of  "  Library  of  Milanese  Writers,"  ("  Bibliotheca  Scrip- 
torum  Mediolanensium,"  2  vols.,  1745,)  and  of  a  few 
other  works.    Died  in  1755. 

Argellati,  (Francesco,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1712.  He  studied  law,  and  took  his  doc- 
tor's degree  in  1736.  In  1740  he  became  a  royal  en- 
gineer. He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Practice  at 
the  Venetian  Bar,"  ("Pratica  del  Foro  Veneto,"  1737,) 
and  a  "  History  of  the  Origin  of  Science  and  Literature," 
(ist  vol.,  1743;  the  other  volumes  were  never  finished.) 
Died  in  1754. 

Argens,  d',  dtR'zhSN',  (Jean  Baptiste  de  Boyer — 
deh  bwa'ya',)  Marquis,  a  French  litterateur^  born  at  Aix, 
in  Provence,  in  1704.  He  served  in  the  army  until  a  fall 
from  his  horse,  after  the  siege  of  Philipsburg,  disabled 
him.  Having  written  his  famous  "Jewish  Letters" 
(" Lettres  Juives,"  6  vols.,  1738-42)  and  "Chinese  Let- 
ters," (6  vols.,  1739-42,)  he  obtained  the  patronage  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  who  appointed  him  chamberlain 
and  director  of  belles-lettres  in  the  Academy.  D' Argens 
was  one  of  the  intimate  associates  of  that  king.  He 
was  also  the  author  of  "  The  Philosophy  of  Good  Sense," 
and  "Cabalistic  Letters."    Died  at  Toulon  in  1771. 

Argens  evinced  great  ardour  in  the  pursuit  of  every 
kind  of  knowledge.  He  took  Bayle  for  his  model  ;  but 
he  was  very  far  inferior  to  the  author  of  the  "Critical 
Dictionary"  in  wit  and  intellect  as  well  as  in  st3-le. 

See  Thiebault,  "Mes  Souvenirs  de  vingt  Ans  de  Sejour  a 
Berlin;"  Querard,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Argensola,  de,  da  aR-ii^n-so'la,  (Bartolome  Leo- 
nardo,) an  excellent  Spanish  'poet,  born  at  Barbastro, 
in  Aragon,  about  1565.  He  was  appointed  a  canon  of 
Saragossa,  and  coroiiista  or  historiographer  of  Aragon, 
about  1616.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Conquest 
of  the  Moluccas,"  (1609,)  and  wrote  a  number  of  poems 
("  Rimas,")  which  were  printed  with  those  of  his  brother. 
Lupercio.  These  brothers,  whose  genius  and  works  were 
similar,  were  called"  the  Horaces  of  Spain."  Died  in  163 1. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova;"  Longfellow, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Argensola,  de,  (Lupercio  (loo-p§R'the-o)  Leo- 
nardo,) a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Barbas- 
tro about  1563.  At  an  early  age  he  became  secretary  to 
the  ex-empress  Maria  of  Austria,  at  Madrid,  and  pro- 
duced three  successful  tragedies, — "  Fills,"  "  Isabcla,"  and 
"  Alejandra."  In  1610  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state 
by  the  Viceroy  of  Naples.  He  died  at  Naples  in  1613. 
His  fame  rests  on  his  lyric  poems.  "  An  understanding 
at  once  solid  and  ingenious,"  says  Bouterw  ek,  "  subject 
to  no  extravagant  illusion,  yet  full  of  true  poetic  teeling, 
and  an  imagination  more  plastic  than  creative,  impart  a 
more  perfect  Horatian  colouring  to  the  odes  and  sonnets 
of  Lupercio." 

See  Tici-TNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  LOiNcr-ELLOW, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  Bouterwek,  "History  of  Poetry 
and  Eloquence  from  the  Close  of  the  Thirteenth  Century ;"  .Sedano, 
"Parnaso  Espanol ;"  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Argenson,  d',  dSR^zhSN^soN',  (Marc  Antoink  Rene 
de  Paulmy — reh'na'  deh  po^me',)  a  son  of  Rene  Louis 
Voyer,  noticed  below,  v/as  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  He  collected  one  of  the  richest  libraries 
ever  owned  by  a  private  person,  and  sold  it  to  the  Count 
d'Artois  in  1785.  It  is  now  the  "  Bibliotheque  de  I'Ar- 
senal."  He  published  "Miscellanies  from  a  Large 
Library,"  ("  Melanges  tires  d'une  grande  Bibliotheque," 
65  vols.)    Died  in  1787. 

Argenson,  d',  (Marc  Pierre,)  Count,  a  son  of  Marc 
Rene  de  Voyer,  (1652-1721,)  noticed  below,  was  born 
in  1696.  He  was  secretary  of  war  from  1742  to  1757, 
and  was  an  able  administrator.  The  Encyclopedie  of 
D'Alembert  and  Diderot  was'dedicated  to  him  as  a  lib- 
eral patron  of  letters.  He  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire,  to 
whom  he  furnished  materials  for  his  "  Siecle  de  Louis 
XtV."    Died  in  1764. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance  Generale ;"  C.  Lebeau,  "  filoge 
de  M.  le  Comte  d' Argenson,"  1765. 

Argenson,  d',  (Marc  Ren^:,)  Marquis  de  Voyer, 
a  French  general,  born  in  1722;  died  in  1782. 


Argenson,  d',  (Marc  Rene  de  Voyer — deh  vw^'ya',) 
a  French  magistrate,  born  of  a  noble  family  in  1652. 
He  became  president  of  the  council  of  finance  and 
keeper  of  the  seals  in  1718.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.    Died  in  1721. 

See  Fontenelle,  "filogede  J\L  R.  de  Voyer  d'Argenson,"  1721. 

Argenson,  d',  (Marc  Rene  de  Voyer,)  a  grandson 
of  Count  Marc  Pierre,  born  in  1771.  He  married  the 
widow  of  Prince  Victor  de  Broglie.  He  was  prefect  of 
Deux-Nethes  from  1809  to  1813,  and,  as  a  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  during  the  Hundred  Days,  wa3 
joined  with  La  Fayette  in  a  deputation  to  the  allies  to 
obtain  the  exclusion  of  the  Bourbons.  After  the  restora- 
tion he  was  often  elected  as  a  deputy,  and  voted  with  the 
opposition.    Died  in  1842. 

See  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Voyer  d'Argenson,"  Paris,  1845. 

Argenson,  d',  (Rene  de  Voyer,)  Count,  a  chplo- 
matist  employed  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  and  Mazarin  ; 
died  about  1650. 

Argenson,  d',  (Ren6  Louis  Voyer,)  Marquis,  a 
son  of  Marc  Rene,  (1652-1721,)  noticed  above,  was 
born  in  1696.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  November,  1744,  and  resigned  ofiice  in  January, 
1747.  He  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire,  and  author  of  "  Con- 
siderations on  the  Government  of  France,"  (1764,)  which 
Rousseau  commended.    Died  in  1757. 

See  Voltaire,  "Correspondance  Generale." 

Argenta,  aR-j§n''td,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Ferrara,  flourished  about  1560. 

Argental,  d',  dSR^zhoNTIK,  (Charles  Augustin 
Feriol — faTe'ol',)  Count,  a  literary  P'renchman,  born 
in  Paris  in  1700,  was  a  nephew  of  Madame  de  Tencin, 
the  mother  of  D'Alembert.  He  corresponded  with  Vol- 
taire, who  treated  him  as  a  confidential  friend,  lie  wrote 
some  short  verses,  and  was  suspected  of  being  the  author 
of  "Anecdotes  of  the  Court  of  Edward,"  which  appeared 
among  the  works  of  Madame  de  Tencin.    Died  in  1788. 

See  Voltaire,  "Correspondance  Generate." 

Argentelle,  d',  dSR'zh6N''tgK,  (Louis  Marc  Antoine 
Robillard — ro'be'yiR^)  a  French  naturalist,  born  at 
Pont-l'Eveque  in  1777,  was  skilled  in  making  wax  models 
of  plants,  fruits,  etc.    Died  in  1828. 

Argenterio,  aR-jen-ta're-o,  [Lat.  Argente'rius  ; 
Fr.  Ar(;entier,  tR'zhoN'le-a'',]  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  at  or  near  Chieri,  in  Piedmont,  in  15 13. 
He  was  professor  of  medicine  successively  at  Naples, 
Pisa,  Rome,  and  Turin.  He  wrote  many  medical  works, 
in  some  of  which  he  attacked  the  system  of  Galen  and 
displayed  more  learning  than  judgment.    Died  in  1572. 

Argenti,  aR-jen'tee,  sometimes  written  Arienti, 
(Agositno,)  an  Italian  poet  of  Ferrara,  wrote  a  pastoral 
drama,  called  "The  Unfortunate,"  ("  Lo  Sfortunato," 
1568.)    Died  in  1576. 

Argenti,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  writer, 
born  at  Modena  about  1564;  died  in  1629. 

Argentier.    See  Argenterio. 

Argento,  aR-jCn'to,  (Gaetano,)  an  able  Italian  jurist, 
born  at  Cosenza  in  1662.  He  was  appointed  to  a  high 
judicial  office  in  1709.  In  1714  the  emperor  Charles 
VI.  raised  him  to  the  dignity  of  president  of  the  royal 
council,  and  gave  him  the  title  of  duke.  Fie  died  in 
1730,  leaving  several  legal  works. 

Argentre,  d',  dtR''zh6N'tRa'',  (Bertrand,)  a  learned 
French  jurist,  born  at  Vitre  in  15 19.  He  was  one  of 
the  commissioners  appointed  for  the  reformation  of  the 
law  of  Brittany,  but  opposed  the  efforts  of  Dumoulin 
to  introduce  general  or  equal  laws  and  diminish  the 
power  of  feudal  lords  over  their  vassals.  He  wrote  a 
"History  of  Bretagne,"  (1582,)  a  work  of  little  merit, 
and  several  legal  treatises.    Died  in  1590. 

See  M.  DE  Kerdanet,  "  Vie  d'Argentre,"  1820. 

Argentre,  d',  (Charles  du  Plessis  —  dii  pla'se',) 
a  French  theologian,  born  near  Vitre  in  1673.  He  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Tulle  in  1725.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Elementa  Theologica,"  (1702,)  and  "Lexicon  Phi- 
losophicum,"  (1706.)    iJied  in  1740. 

Argenville.    See  Dkzallier. 

Arger,  tii^zhaiR''  or  tR^zha',  (Pierre,)  a  Flemish  con- 
spirator, who  attempted  to  assassinate  Henry  IV.  of 
France.    He  was  detected  and  executed  in  1589. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  li,  K,  guttural;  N,  7ur<;  il;  R, 


tj'illed;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.  (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ARGHO UN 


1 60 


ARIADNE 


Arghoun  or  Arghun.    See  Argoon. 
Argliun  Khan.    See  Argoon. 

Argillata,  de,  di  aR-jel-la'td,  or  Argellata,  de,  di 
aR-jel-la'tii,  (Pietro,)  called  also  Pietro  della  Cerlata 
pe-a'lRo  dcl-la  cheR-la^ta,  an  eminent  Italian  physician 
and  anatomist,  was  professor  of  logic  and  medicine  at 
Bologna.  He  made  improvements  in  surgery,  on  which 
he  wrote  a  work,  "Chirurgiae  Libri  Sex,"  (1480.)  Died 
in  1423. 

Argis,  d',  (Boucher.)    See  Boucher. 

Argoli,  aR-go'lee  or  aR'go-lee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  born  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  about 
1570.  He  was  professor  of  mathematics  at  Padua,  and 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  Ephemerides,"  extend- 
ing to  1700.    Died  in  or  after  1650. 

Argoli,  (Giovanni,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Tagliacozzo  about  1610.  He  published,  in  1626,  a 
poem  called  "Endymion,"  which  was  successful.  He 
was  author  of  several  treatises  on  classical  antiquities, 
among  which  was  a  series  of  notes  on  Onuphrius  Pan- 
vinius  "  On  the  Games  of  the  Circus"  ("  De  Ludis  Cir- 
censibus")  and  "  On  Triumphs,"  ("  De  Triumphis,") 
(1642.)    Died  about  1660. 

Argonautee,  ar-go-nau'tee,  [Gr.  'Apyovavrat ;  Eng. 
AR^GONAurs,  (/>.  the  "sailors  of  the  Argo,")]  the  he- 
roes celebrated  in  the  old  Greek  traditions  as  the  com- 
panions of  Jason  in  a  maritime  expedition  to  Colchis, 
on  the  Euxine,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  golden 
fleece.  (See  Jason.)  They  derived  their  name  from 
the  ship  x\rgo,  in  which  they  made  the  voyage.  The 
expedition  of  the  Argonauts  forms  the  subject  of  an  epic 
poem  by  Apollonius  Rhodius. 

Argonne,  d',  dtR''gon',  (Noel,  no'eK,)  a  French  Car- 
thusian monk,  born  in  Paris  about  1635.  He  entered  a 
monastery  at  Rouen  about  1668,  and  changed  his  name 
from  Noel  to  Bonaventure.  He  published  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Right  Method  of  Reading  the  Fathers,"  ("  Traite 
de  la  Lecture  des  Peres  de  I'Eglise,"  1668,)  which  is 
highly  praised  by  Mabillon  and  others,  and  "Melanges 
of  History  and  Literature,"  (3  vols.,  1699-1701,)  under 
the  name  of  Vigneul-Marville.    Died  in  1704. 

Argoon,  Argoun,  or  Argun,  ar'goon',  written  also 
Arghoun  or  Arghun,  a  son  of  Abaka  Khan,  succeeded 
his  father  as  sovereign  of  Persia  (or  rather  of  Central 
and  Western  Asia)  in  1 281.  Through  the  influence  of 
his  minister,  Saad-ud-Dowlah,  the  Christians  residing 
in  the  dominions  of  Argoon  were  protected  and  treated 
with  great  favour.  And  while  the  pope  (Nicholas  IV.) 
was  sending  deputations  to  express  his  gratitude  to  Ar- 
goon, the  "  true  believers,"  if  we  may  trust  the  statement 
of  some  of  the  Moslem  historians,  "trembled  lest  the 
sacred  temple  of  Mecca  should  be  converted  into  a 
cathedral."    Argoon  Khan  died  in  1291. 

See  Malcolm,  "  History  of  Persia,"  vol.  i.  chap,  x.;  Price,  "Ma- 
homedan  Histor)'." 

Argote,  de,  da  aR-go'ta,  (Jeronimo  Contador — 
kon-ti-doR^,)  a  Portuguese  writer  and  monk,  born  at  Col- 
lares  in  1676.  Among  his  ])rincipal  works  are  a  "  History 
of  the  Archbishopric  of  Braga,"  ("Memorias  para  a 
Historia  ecclesiastica  de  Braga,"  3  vols.,  1732-44,)  and 
"  Rules  of  the  Portuguese  Language,  the  Mirror  of  the 
Latin  Language,"  ("  Regras  da  Lingua  Portugueza,  Es- 
pelho  da  Lingua  Latina,"  etc.,  1721.)    Died  in  1749. 

Argote  de  Molina,  aR-go'ti\  da  mo-lee'na,  (Gon- 
ZALVO  or  GoNQALO,)  a  Spanish  writer  on  history  and 
genealogy,  born  at  Seville  in  1549.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "Nobility  of  Andalusia,"  ("Nobleza  del 
Andaluzia,"  1588.)    Died  about  1590. 

Argou,  IrVoo',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  lawyer,  born  in 
the  Vivarais.  He  gained  distinction  by  his  work  called 
"  Institutes  of  French  Law,"  ("  Institution  au  Droit  fran- 
9ais,"  1692,)  often  reprinted.    Died  about  1705. 

Argoun.    See  Argoon. 

Argout,  d',  dSR^goo',  (Antoine  Maurice  Apolli- 
NAiRE,)  Count,  a  French  financier,  born  in  Isere  in 
1782.  He  became  auditor  to  the  Council  of  State  in 
1810,  and  a  peer  of  France  in  1819.  In  July,  1830,  he 
acted  as  mediator  between  Charles  X.  and  the  popular 
leaders,  and  obtained  concessions  from  the  former  when 
it  was  too  late.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  the  ma- 
rine in  November,  1830,  minister  of  commerce  in  1831, 


minister  of  the  interior  m  1833,  governor  of  the  Bank  ot 
France  in  1834,  and  minister  of  finances  in  1836.  Be- 
fore the  end  of  that  year  he  exchanged  that  office  for 
the  post  of  governor  of  the  Bank,  which  he  continued  to 
hold  under  the  republic  of  1848.  About  1852  he  was 
appointed  president  of  the  section  of  finances,  by  Louis 
Napoleon.    Died  in  1858. 

Argiielles,  aR-gweKyes,  (Augustin,)  a  Spanish  min- 
ister of  state,  born  in  the  Asturias  in  1775.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  committee  which  formed  the  liberal  con- 
stitution of  1 812,  and  rendered  himself  popular  by  his 
talents  and  liberal  principles.  He  was  proscribed  in  1814 
and  sentenced  to  an  exile  of  ten  years.  He  was  minis- 
ter of  the  interior  for  about  one  year,  in  1820.  In  1841 
he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  young  queen  Isabel.  Died 
in  1844. 

See  Labrador  y  Ortiz,  "  Biografia  de  A.  Argiielles,"  Madrid, 
1844  ;  EvARiSTo  San  Miguel,  "  Vida  de  D.  A.  Argiielles,"  1850. 

Arguelles,  (Jose  de  Canga.)    See  Canga. 
Argues.    See  Desargues. 

Arguijo,  de,  da  aR-gee^Ho,  Arguiso,  de,  da  aR-gev.'- 

so,  or  Arguizo,  de,  da  aR-gee'tho,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish 
poet  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Seville  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  man  of  fortune.  He 
was  eulogized  by  Lope  de  Vega  and  other  poets  who 
had  enjoyed  his  bounty.  He  wrote  sonnets  and  other 
short  poems,  the  style  of  which  is  elegant  and  natural. 
Died  about  1625. 

See  Varflora,  "Hijosde  Sevilla." 

Argun.    See  Argoon. 

Ar'gus,  [Gr.  "Apyoc,]  a  fabulous  personage,  whom  the 
Greek  poets  imagined  to  have  one  hundred  eyes,  some 
of  which  were  always  awake.  Having  been  employed 
by  Juno  as  guardian  of  a  cow  into  which  lo  was  trans- 
formed, he  was  killed  by  Plermes.  Tradition  adds  that 
Juno  transferred  his  eyes  to  the  tail  of  a  peacock. 

Argus,  a  mythical  king  of  Argos,  supposed  to  be.  a 
son  of  Jupiter  and  Niobe,  and  the  successor  of  A.pis. 

Argyle  or  Argyll,  Dukes,  Marquises,  and  Earls 
OE.    See  Campbell. 

Argyll,  ar-glK,  or  Argyle,  (George  Douglas  Camp- 
bell,) Duke  of,  a  British  statesman  and  author,  born 
in  1823.  He  was  styled  Marquis  of  Lorn  before  the 
death  of  his  father,  which  occurred  in  1847.  He  pub- 
lished, in  1848,  "  Presbytery  Examined."  In  the  Ho^<se 
of  Lords  he  has  acted  with  the  Liberal  party.  He  was 
appointed  lord  privy  seal  in  1852,  and  postmaster-gen- 
eral in  1855  ;  he  again  became  lord  privy  seal  in  the 
cabinet  of  Palmerston  in  1859.  In  1855  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  British  Association  assembled  at  Glas- 
gow. He  is  distinguished  as  a  parliamentary  debater 
and  popular  lecturer.  He  resigned  office  about  July, 
1866,  and  was  appointed  secretary  for  India  in  Decem- 
ber, 1868,  in  the  new  cabinet  formed  by  Mr.  Gladstone. 
He  published,  towards  the  close  of  1866,  a  philosopl  ical 
work,  entitled  "The  Reign  of  Law,"  which  has  attracted 
much  attention. 

Argyrammos,  Sr-ge-r^m'mos,  (Alexander,)  a  pub- 
lic-spirited Greek  patriot,  who  about  1810  established 
a  printing-office  in  order  to  publish  a  large  Greek  lexi- 
con, called  Kli3ut6(;. 

Ar-gy-rop''y-lus,  Ar-gy-rop'u-lus,  or  Ar-gy-rop'- 
u-lo,  (Joannes,)  a  learned  Greek  professor,  born  at 
Constantinople,  emigrated  to  Italy  between  1434  and 
1442.  He  taught  Greek  at  Florence  about  fifteen  years, 
ending  in  147 1,  after  which  he  was  professor  of  Greek 
at  Rome.  He  was  a  man  of  superior  talents.  His  chief 
works  are  Latin  translations  from  Aristotle.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  died  about  1490. 

Ar'gy-rus,  [Gr.  'Apyvpug ;  Fr.  Argyre,  tR^zHeR^] 
(Isaac,)  a  Greek  monk  and  astrononier,  born  at  Con- 
stantinople about  1322.  He  wrote,  besides  other  astro- 
nomical works,  "  Paschal  Canon,"  ("  Kanon  Pasch^  lios.") 

Ari,  cVre,  or  Ara,  ¥r^,  Hin  Frodi  ( — fro''de,)  a  his- 
torian of  Iceland,  was  born  in  that  island  aboui  1068. 
He  wrote  the  first  part  of  "  Landnamabok,"  a  "  History 
of  the  Settlement  of  Iceland,"  which  was  continued  by 
other  writers,  and  is  extant.    Died  in  1148. 

A-ri-ad''ne,  [Gr.  'Aptadvri;  Fr.  Ariane,  fre'Sn',]  a 
daughter  of  Minos,  King  of  Crete,  was  beloved  by 
Theseus.    It  is  said  that  she  gave  Theseus  a  clew  of 


§,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sJiort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t^  good;  moon; 


JRUDNE 


i6i 


ARION 


thread  wh*ch  enabled  him  to  find  his  way  through  the 
mazes  of  the  Cretan  labyrinth.    (See  Theseus.) 

Ariadne,  a  daughter  of  Leo  I.,  Emperor  of  the  East, 
was  married  to  Zeno,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  474 
A.D.  According  to  some  authors,  she  caused  him  to  be 
buried  alive  while  he  was  in  a  fit  of  epilepsy  or  apo- 
plexy; but  this  statement  is  extremely  improbable.  After 
the  death  of  Zeno,  (491,)  she  became  the  wife  of  his  suc- 
cessor, Anastasius  1.    Died  in  515  A.D. 

Arieeus,  a-ri-ee'us,  or  Aridaeus,  ir-e-dee'us,  [Gr. 
'Afuaiot,  or  'Aptdalo^,]  a  general  who  fought  for  Cyrus  the 
Younger,  of  Persia,  at  Cunaxa,  401  B.C. 

A-ri-al'dus,  an  archdeacon  of  the  Church  of  Milan, 
whose  zeal  against  simony  and  the  marriage  of  the  clergy 
produced  violent  tumults  and  a  schism  in  the  church 
about  1056.  He  was  resisted  by  the  majority  of  the 
Milanese  clergy,  (who  were  opposed  to  celibacy,)  and 
was  supported  by  the  pope,  and  by  the  mob,  who,  under 
his  direction,  plundered  and  pulled  down  the  houses  of 
the  priests.  In  1066  the  Archbishop  of  Milan,  who  had 
been  excommunicated  by  the  pope,  laid  an  interdict  on 
the  diocese  of  Milan,  to  continue  so  long  as  Arialdus 
remained  in  it.  Arialdus  was  killed  in  the  same  year 
by  some  partisans  of  the  clergy. 

See  Baronius,  "Annales;"  Muratori,  "Annali  d' Italia." 

Ariane.    See  Ariadne. 

A-ri-a-ra'thes  [Gr.  'Apiapudvc]  I-,  King  of  Cappado- 
cia,  born  about  400  B.C.,  succeeded  his  father  Ariamnes. 
In  the  partition  that  followed  the  death  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  Cappadocia  was  allotted  to  Eunienes,  and  Perdic- 
cas  sent  an  army  to  occupy  it.  Ariarathes  was  defeated 
in  battle  and  put  to  death  in  322  B.C. 

Ariarathes  II.,  a  nephew  of  Ariarathes  I.  After  the 
death  of  Eumenes,  315  B.C.,  he  received  aid  from  the 
King  of  Armenia,  expelled  the  Macedonians,  and  recov- 
ered the  throne  of  Cappadocia,  which  he  left  to  his  son 
Ariamnes  II. 

Ariarathes  III.,  a  son  of  Ariamnes  II.,  reigned  more 
than  twenty  years,  and  died  about  220  B.C. 

Ariarathes  IV.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  a  child 
when  his  father  died.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Anti- 
ochus  the  Great,  and  was  an  ally  of  that  king  in  his  war 
against  the  Romans  about  190  B.C.    Died  about  164  B.C. 

Ariarathes  V.,  also  called  Mithridates,  succeeded 
his  father  Ariarathes  IV.  He  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  Romans.  In  158  B.C.  he  was  driven  from  the  throne 
by  Holofernes,  a  pretender,  but  was  restored  by  the 
Romans.  While  fighting  for  the  Romans  against  Aris- 
toni'cus  of  Pergamus,  he  was  killed  in  battle  in  130  B.C. 
He  left  a  minor  son,  Ariarathes  VI.,  who  was  assassin- 
ated by  order  of  Mithridates,  King  of  Pontus,  in  96  B.C. 

Ariarathes  VII.,  a  son  of  Ariarathes  VI.,  was  placed 
on  the  throne  by  Mithridates,  by  whom  he  was  assas- 
sinated after  a  short  reign.  A  son  of  Mithridates  ob- 
tained the  throne  ;  but  the  people  revolted,  and  crowned 
Ariarathes  VHL,  who  was  a  brother  of  Ariarathes  VII. 
He  reigned  but  a  short  time. 

Ariarathes  IX.  of  Cappadocia  began  to  reign  about 
42  B.C.    He  was  deposed  by  Mark  Antony  in  36  B.C. 

Arias,  a're-Ss,  (Fernandez  Antonio,)  a  Spanish 
painter  of  the  seventeenth  century,  born  at  Madrid. 
He  excelled  in  colour  and  chiaroscuro,  and  was  patron- 
ized by  the  Duke  of  Olivarez.    Died  about  1684. 

See  liERMUDEZ,  "  Diccionario  Historico." 

Arias,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  writer  of  devotional 
works,  born  at  Seville  in  1533  ;  died  in  1605. 

Arias,  i're-Ss,  (Francisco  Gabino— gS-bee'no,)  a 
South  American  officer  and  traveller,  who'explored  the 
wild  or  desert  region  called  the  "Gran  Chaco,"  and  the 
valley  of  the  Vermejo,  about  1780.    Died  about  1808. 

A'ri-as  Mon-ta'nus,  (Benfdictus,)  [Sp.  Benito 
Arias  Montano  —  a're-Ss  mon-ti'no,]  an  eminent 
Spanish  linguist  and  biblical  scholar,  was  born  at  Frexe- 
nal,  in  Estremadura,  in  1527.  He  distinguished  him- 
^  self  at  the  Council  of  Trent  in  1562,  and  about  1568  was 
selected  by  Philip  II.  to  edit  a  polyglot  Bible,  which  was 
published  at  Antwerp  in  1572  and  is  a  beautiful  and 
celebrated  edition.  Arias  Montanus  was  accused  of 
heresy,  and  of  corrupting  the  text  of  Scripture,  by  Leon 
de  Castro,  a  professor  of  Salamanca,  but  was  not  con- 
victed.   He  was  an  adversary  of  the  Jesuits.    His  mod- 


esty and  sincere  piety  are  attested  by  various  writers. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  works,  among  which  is  one  en- 
titled "Jewish  Antiquities,"  (1593.)  Died  at  Seville  in 
1598. 

See  RosENMULLER,  "Handbiich  flir  die  Litteratur  der  Biblischen 
Kritik;"  N.  Antonio,  "Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova;"  Loumyer, 
"Vie  de  B.  A.  Montano,"  1842. 

Ar'i-bert  [Fr.  pron.  t're'baiR']  I.,  King  of  the  Lon- 
gobards  or  Lombards,  was  a  native  of  Bavaria.  He  was 
elected  king  in  653  A.D.  He  favoured  the  Catholic  party, 
and  proscribed  Arianism.    Died  in  661  A.D. 

Aribert  II.,  King  of  the  Lombards,  a  descendant  of 
Aribert  I.,  began  to  reign  in  701  A.D.  He  was  defeated 
in  battle  by  Ansprand  in  712,  and  died,  or  was  killed, 
soon  after  that  event. 

Arici,  a-ree'chee,  (Cesare,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Brescia  in  1782.  He  studied  law,  and  was  a  judge  under 
the  regime  of  Napoleon,  In  1824  he  became  professor 
of  Latin  at  Brescia.  His  principal  work  is  "  La  Pasto- 
rizia,"  (1814,)  a  didactic  poem  on  the  breeding  of  sheep 
which  is  praised  by  competent  judges.    Died  in  i6jO. 

See  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Aridaeiis.    See  Arrhid^us. 
Arienti.    See  Argen  it. 

Arienti,  degli,  dal'yee  i-re-^n'tee,  (Cecco,  chek'ko,) 
an  Italian  physician,  born  about  1418;  died  in  1508. 
Arier.    See  Arya. 

Arif-al-Harwee-  (or  Al-Harwi-)  Moulana,  (Mau- 

l^na,)  S'rif  dl-har'wee'  mow-lS'nS,  a  Persian  poet,  who 
lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

Ar-i-gi'sus  [Fr.  Arigise,  t're'zh^z']  ^I.,  Duke  of 
Beneventum,  reigned  from  591  to  641  A.D. 

Arigisus  II.,  Duke  or  Prince  of  Beneventum,  began 
to  reign  in  758  A.D.  He  contended  for  thirteen  years 
against  Charlemagne,  to  whom  he  at  last  became  tribu- 
tary.   Died  in  787. 

Ar-ig-no'te  [Gr.  'ApiyvuTrj]  of  Samos,  a  daughter  or 
pupil  of  Pythagoras.  According  to  Suidas,  she  wrote  on 
the  Mysteries  of  Ceres  and  Bacchus. 

Arigoni,  a-re-go'nee,  (Giovanni  Giacomo,)  an  Italian 
musical  composer,  lived  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Arigoni  or  Arrigoni,  ar-re-go'nee,  (Onorio,)  an 
Italian  numismatist,  born  at  Venice  in  1668.  He  had  a 
rich  collection  of  medals,  of  which  he  published  a  de- 
scription, (1741.) 

Arimanes  or  Arimanius.    See  Ormuzd. 

Ariniino,  de,  c\k  J-ree'me-no,  (Gregorius  or  Gre- 
GORio  da  Rimini — d'i  ree'me-nee,)  an  Italian  scholastic 
philosopher  and  Augustin  monk,  born  at  Rimini.  He 
was  remarkable  for  the  subtlety  of  his  intellect  as  well 
as  for  his  learning.    Died  in  1358. 

Aringhi,  3.-r^n'gee,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  priest  and 
antiquary,  born  in  Rome.  He  published  a  treatise  on 
the  Catacombs  of  Rome,  ("  Roma  Subterranea  Novis- 
sima,"  165 1.)    Died  in  1676. 

Arioald,  ^'re-o-ild',  was  elected  King  of  Lombardy 
in  625  A.D.  He  was  an  Arian,  and  married  Gundaberga. 
Died  about  636  a.d. 

A-ri-o-bar-za'nes  [Gr.  'ApLo(3ap^uvTic ;  Fr.  Ariobar- 
zane,  t're'o'bSR^ztn']  I.,  King  of  Cappadocia,  began  to 
reign  about  93  B.C.  He  was  several  times  driven  out 
by  Mithridates  and  restored  by  the  Romans. 

Ariobarzanes  II.  was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  whom 
he  succeeded  about  63  B.C. 

Ariobarzanes  III.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  began  to 
reign  about  50  B.C.  He  aided  Pompey  against  Caesar  in 
the  civil  war,  but  was  pardoned  by  the  latter.  He  was 
put  to  death  by  Cassius  in  42  B.C. 

Ariobarzanes,  the  name  of  three  kings  of  Pontus, 
descended  from  one  of  the  seven  Persian  chiefs  who 
killed  Smerdis  the  Magian  in  521  B.C. 

Ariobarzanes  I.  reigned  in  the  fifth  century  B.C., 
and  was  the  father  of  Mithridates  I. 

Ariobarzanes  II.  was  a  son  of  Mithridates  I.,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  363  B.C. ;  died  in  337  B.C. 

Ariobarzanes  III.,  a  son  of  Mithridates  III.,  began 
to  reign  about  266  B.C. ;  died  about  240. 

A-ri'on,  ['Apitov,]  an  ancient  Greek  poet  and  musician, 
who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  700  B.C.  Herodotus 
has  preserved  the  following  curious  fable  respecting  him. 
During  a  voyage  at  sea,  the  crew  of  the  ship  in  which  he 
sailed  resolved  to  kill  him  for  his  money,  and  ordered 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  zsj;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (g^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ARIOSTE 


ARISTjENETUS 


him  ti)  jump  overboard.  Avion,  having  obtained  permis- 
sion to  sing  one  song  to  his  cithara,  threw  himself  into 
the  sea,  and  was  received  on  the  back  of  a  dolphin,  which 
carried  him  safely  to  land.    (See  Herodotus,  book  i.) 
See  also  Muller,  "  Histoiredela  Litterature  de  I'ancienneGr^ce." 

Arioste.    See  Ariosto,  (Lodovico.) 

Ariosti,  i-re-os'tee,  (Attilio,)  an  Italian  dramatic 
composer,  born  at  Bologna  about  1660.  At  the  invita- 
tion of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  he  went  to  London 
in  1720,  and  became  a  rival  of  Handel.  He  produced 
in  London  several  operas,  which  were  performed  with 
success,  and  among  which  "  Coriolano"  was  the  most 
popular.  Having  ceased  to  enjoy  the  public  favour,  he 
left  England  about  1730. 

See  BuRNEV,  "History  of  Music." 

Ariosto,  i-re-os'to,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  monk, 
born  at  Bologna,  was  sent  about  1476  on  a  mission  to 
the  Maronites  of  Lebanon.  He  wrote  a  '*  Description  of 
Palestine." 

Ariosto,  (Francesco,)  a  great-uncle  of  the  famous 
poet,  was  professor  of  philosophy  and  civil  law  at  Fer- 
rara.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  a  spring  of  petroleum  at 
Mont  Gibbio,  (1690.)    Died  in  1492. 

Ariosto,  (Gabriello,)  a  brother  of  the  great  poet 
Ariosto,  had  also  some  talent  for  poetry.  He  was  a 
cripple  from  infancy.  His  poetry  is  praised  by  Lilio 
Giraldi.  After  his  death  a  volume  of  his  Latin  poems 
was  published  in  1582. 

Ariosto,  [Lat.  Arios'tus  ;  Fr.  Arioste,  t're'ost',] 
(Lodovico  or  Ludovico,)  an  eminent  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Reggio,  near  Modena,  September  8,  1474.  In  his  boy- 
hood he  dramatized  the  story  of  Pyramus  and  Thisbe. 
After  he  left  the  College  of  Ferrara  he  studied  law  for 
several  years,  in  compliance  with  the  will  of  his  father; 
but  his  strong  love  of  poetry  impelled  him  to  renounce 
that  profession.  By  his  early  lyric  poems,  remarkable 
for  elegance  and  facility,  he  attracted  the  notice  of  Car- 
dinal Ippolito  d'Este,  whose  service  he  entered  in  1503. 
He  was  employed  by  the  cardinal  and  his  brother  Al- 
fonso, Duke  of  Ferrara,  in  missions  to  several  Italian 
courts.  About  1505  he  began  to  compose  his  celebrated 
romantic  and  fantastic  poem,  "Orlando  Furioso,"  the 
subject  of  which  are  the  fabulous  and  chivalrous  adven- 
tures of  the  paladins  of  the  age  of  Charlemagne.  It  was 
published  in  15 16.  It  is  stated  that  Cardinal  Ippolito, 
when  a  copy  of  this  poem  was  presented  to  him  by 
Ariosto,  exclaimed,  "Master  Ludovico,  where  the  devil 
did  you  pick  up  so  many  absurdities  V 

The  "Orlando  Furioso"  has  been  translated  into 
nearly  all  the  languages  of  Europe.  The  best  English 
translations  are  those  of  Harrington  and  Rose.  "  No 
poet  has  equalled  him,"  says  Ginguene,  "  in  this  kind 
of  epopee,  where  the  imagination  has  another  race  to 
run  than  in  the  purely  heroic  poem.  No  one  has  blended 
with  such  skill  the  serious  with  the  amusing,  the  grace- 
ful with  the  terrible,  the  sublime  with  the  familiar." 

Ariosto  offended  Cardinal  Ippolito  in  15 17  by  his  re- 
fusal to  accompany  bim  to  Hungary,  although  he  pleaded 
ill  health  as  his  excuse ;  and  about  the  end  of  that  year 
he  entered  the  service  of  Duke  Alfonso.  In  1522  he 
was  appointed  commissary  or  governor  of  the  district 
of  Garfagnana,  which  was  infested  by  brigands  and  in- 
habited by  rude  and  lawless  people.  He  acquitted  him- 
self well  in  this  office,  which  he  resigned  in  1524.  He 
married,  late  in  life,  a  widow  named  Alessandra  Be- 
nucci,  but  the  marriage  was  kept  a  secret  until  his  death, 
probably  because  he  held  some  small  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fices. About  1526  he  built  for  himself  in  Ferrara  a  com- 
modious but  not  very  costly  house,  which  is  now,  or 
.was  recently,  standing.  He  published  in  1532  a  new 
and  improved  edition  of  his  great  poem.  He  died  at 
'-Ferrara  on  the  6th  of  June,  1533,  leaving  two  natural 
sons,  Giovanni  Battista  and  Virginio. 

Among  his  works  are  seven  satires,  which  are  com- 
posed in  the  Ploratian  manner  and  are  remarkable  for 
urbanity,  and  five  comedies  in  verse,  entitled  "  La  Cas- 
saria,"  "I  Suppositi,"  "II  Negromante,"  ("The  Ma- 
gician,") "La  Lena,"  and  "La  Scolastica,"  which  were 
'  performed  at  Ferrara  a  few  years  before  his  death.  He 
also  wrote  Italian  elegies,  sonnets,  canzoni,  etc.,  and  a 
number  of  Latin  poems,  which  were  printed  in  1553. 


"  Ariosto,"  says  Hallam,  "  has  been,  after  ftomer,  the 
favourite  poet  of  Europe.  His  grace  and  facility,  his 
clear  and  rapid  stream  of  language,  his  variety  and 
beauty  of  invention,  his  very  transitions  of  subject,  so 
frequently  censured  by  critics,  but  artfully  devised  to 
spare  the  tediousness  that  hangs  on  a  protracted  story, 
left  him  no  rival  in  general  popularity.  Above  sixty 
editions  of  the  'Orlando  Furioso'  were  published  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  .  .  .  Corniani  observes  of  the  style 
of  Ariosto,  .  .  .  that  he  is  sparing  in  the  use  of  meta- 
phors, contenting  himself  generally  with  the  plainest 
expressions;  by  which,  if  he  loses  something  in  dignity, 
he  gains  in  perspicuity.  .  .  .  Doubtless  this  transpa- 
rency of  phrase,  so  eminent  in  Ariosto,  is  the  cause  that 
he  is  read  and  delighted  in  by  the  multitude  as  well  as 
by  the  few.  .  .  .  His  similes  are  conspicuous  for  their 
elaborate  beauty  :  imitated,  as  they  usually  are,  from  the 
ancients,  they  maintain  an  equal  strife  with  their  models, 
and  occasionally  surpass  them.  .  .  .  The  '  Orlando  Fu- 
rioso,' as  a  great  single  poem,  has  been  very  rarely  sur- 
passed in  the  living  records  of  poetry.  He  must  yield  to 
three,  and  only  three,  of  his  predecessors.  He  has  not 
the  force,  simplicity,  and  truth  to  nature  of  Homer,  the 
exquisite  style  and  sustained  majesty  of  Virgil,  nor  the 
originality  and  boldness  of  Dante."  ("Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Garofalo,  "Vita  di  Ariosto;"  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori 
d'ltalia;"  Baruffaldi  Giuniore,  "  La  Vita  di  Lodovico  Ariosto," 
1S07 ;  Fabroni,  "  Elogj  di  Dante,  di  Poliziano,  di  Ariosto  e  di  Tasso," 
1800;  Harrington,  "Life  of  Ariosto,"  1634;  Pigna,  "I  Ro- 
manzi,"  1554;  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Cor- 
niani, "ISecoli  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Barotti,  "Vitadi  L. 
Ariosto,"  4  vols.,  1766;  Carl  L.  Fernow,  "  Lebenslauf  L.  Ariosto's 
des  Gottlichen,"  1S09. 

Ariosto,  (Orazio,)  a  son  of  Gabriello,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  Ferrara  in  1555,  and  became  a  canon  of  the 
cathedral  of  that  city.  He  was  a  friend  of  Tasso,  for 
whom  he  wrote  in  verse  the  "Arguments"  ("Argo- 
menti")  one  of  which  is  prefixed  to  each  canto  of  the 
"Jerusalem  Delivered."  He  also  wrote  some  comedies, 
and  left  unfinished  a  poem  entitled  "  L'Alfeo."  Died 
in  1593. 

Ariostus.    See  Ariosto,  (Lodovico.) 
Arioviste.    See  Ariovistus. 

A-ri-o-vis'tus,  [Ger.  Ehrenvest,  a'ren-vgst,  and 
Ariovist  ;  Fr.  Arioviste,  ^'re'o'v^st',]  a  German  chief 
of  the  Suevi,who,  after  aiding  the  Sequani  in  war  against 
the  .-Edui,  settled  in  Gaul  and  subjected  both  of  those 
tribes  to  his  dominion.  During  the  consulship  of  Julius 
Caesar  he  obtained  the  alliance  of  the  Romans,  who  re- 
cognized him  as  a  king.  In  58  B.C.  he  was  defeated  in 
a  great  battle  by  Csesar,  whom  the  Gauls  had  solicited  to 
liberate  them.  Ariovistus  escaped  across  the  Rhine  in 
a  boat. 

See  P.  L.  Haus,  "J.  Cagsars  Krieg  mit  dem  Germanier-Konig 
Ariovist,"  1790;  C/ESAR,  "De  Bello  Gallico." 

Ar'i-phron,  ['Api'^pwv,]  a  Greek  poet  of  Sicyon,  who 
is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  550  B.C.  He  composed 
a  beautiful  ode  or  paean  to  Health,  (T/i'em,)  which  has 
been  preserved  by  Athenaeus. 

Arisi,  i-ree'see,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  litterateur 
and  eminent  lawyer,  born  at  Cremona  in  1657.  He  pub- 
lished many  works  in  prose  and  verse,  among  which 
were  "Lyrical  Poems,"  ("Poesie  liriche,"  1680,)  and 
"Cretnona  Litterata,"  (3  vols.,  1702-41.)    Died  in  1743. 

Arista,  d-r^s'ti,  (Mariano,)  a  Mexican  general,  born 
about  1800.  He  served  as  an  officer  in  various  civil 
wars,  became  general  of  brigade  about  1833,  general 
of  division  in  1 841.  He  was  defeated  by  the  United 
States  anny,  under  General  Taylor,  at  Palo  Alto,  May  8, 
1846.  In  1848  he  was  appointed  minister  of  war,  and 
in  1850  was  elected  President  of  Mexico.  Santa  Anna 
having  headed  a  successful  insurrection,  Arista  was 
banished  in  the  early  part  of  1853.  He  died  in  Spain 
in  1855. 

Aristaenetus,  ir-is-ten'e-tus,  [Gr.  'ApioTalveToc:  Fr. 
ARTST^NfeTE,  t'r^sWnitM  a  Greek  rhetorician  of  Nicaea, 
in  Bithynia,  was  a  friend  of  Libanius.  He  was  appointed 
governor  of  a  district  of  Bithynia  by  the  emperor  Con- 
stantius,  and  was  killed  by  an  earthquake  at  Nicomedia 
in  358  A.D.  There  are  extant  about  fifty  fictitious  erotic 
letters,  of  little  merit,  under  the  name  of  Aristaenetus ; 


a,  e,  1,  0,  u,  y,        k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f?lr,  f^ll,  ftt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon 


ARIST^NUS 


163 


ARISTIDES 


but  many  critics  think  that  the  author  of  these  is  a  differ- 
ent person  from  the  friend  of  Libanius. 

See  ScHOELL,  "Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Grecque." 

Aristaenus,  4r-is-tee'nus,  [Gr.  'kp'iaTaivog;  Fr.  Aris- 
T^:ne,  t'r^s^tin',]  of  Megalopolis,  was  chosen  general 
{strate\s^s)  of  the  Achaeans  in  198  B.C.,  and  persuaded 
them  to  form  an  alliance  with  the  Romans,  rather  than 
with  Philip  of  Macedon.  He  was  a  political  opponent 
of  Philopoemen.  He  was  re-elected  stmtegos  in  195  and 
186  B.C. 

Aristaeon,  ir-is-tee'on,  a  Greek  philosopher,  of  whom 
h'ttle  is  known.  He  wrote  a  work  on  Harmony,  a  frag- 
ment of  which  is  preserved  by  Stobaeus. 

Aristaeus,  ir-is-tee'us,  [Gr.  'ApioTaiog;  Fr.  Aristae, 
t'r^s'ta',]  a  personage  in  the  Greek  mythology,  supposed 
to  have  been  the  son  of  Apollo  and  Gyrene.  He  was 
worshipped  as  the  god  who  presided  over  flocks  and 
herds  and  who  taught  men  the  art  of  managing  bees. 

See  Virgil's  "Georgics,"  book  iv. 

Aristaeus,  an  ancient  Greek  geometer,  the  reputed 
author  of  two  works,  one  of  which  was  entitled  Kuviku, 
("Conies.")  Euclid  appears  to  have  made  use  of  these 
works,  which  are  not  extant.  This  geometer  is  by  some 
writers  identified  with  Aristaeus  or  Aristaeon  of  Croton, 
a  philosopher  whom  lamblichus  calls  the  successor  of 
Pythagoras. 

Aristaeus  or  A-ris'te-as,  a  Greek  sculptor,  who 
probably  lived  about  130  A.D.  Among  his  works  are 
two  statues  of  centaurs,  found  at  Tivoli  in  1746. 

Ar-is-tag'o-ras,  [Gr.  'ApiaTayopac,]  tyrant  of  Miletus, 
revolted  against  the  King  of  Persia  about  500  B.C.,  and 
made  an  alliance  with  the  Athenians,  who  furnished  him 
twenty  ships.  The  allies  took  Sardis  and  burned  it, 
but  were  defeated  by  the  Persians.  Aristagoras  fled  to 
Thrace,  where  he  was  killed  about  498  B.C. 

Aristagoras,  a  Greek  geographer,  lived  about  350 
B.C.,  and  wrote  on  the  cities  and  antiquities  of  Egypt. 

Ar-is-tan'der  of  Paros,  a  Greek  sculptor,  lived  about 
400  B.C. 

Aristander,  [Gr. 'AplaravSpo^;  Fr.  Artstandre,  i'rhs^- 
t6NdR',]  a  Greek  soothsayer,  was  a  skilful  interpreter 
of  dreams,  and  was  often  consulted  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  whom  he  accompanied  in  his  expedition  to  Persia. 

Ar-is-tar'-ehuB  [Gr.  'Aplarapxoc;  Fr.  Aristarque, 
t'r^s'ttRk',]  a  Greek  astronomer  of  Samos,  flourished 
probably  about  260  B.C.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life. 
He  is  mentioned  in  the  "Arenarius"  of  Archimedes,  who 
says,  "Aristarchus  of  Samos  supposes  that  the  stars  and 
sun  are  immovable,  and  that  the  earth  revolves  around  the 
sun  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle."  The  only  extant 
work  of  Aristarchus  is  a  treatise  "  On  the  Magnitudes 
and  Distances  of  the  Sun  and  Moon,"  in  which  he  gave 
an  ingenious  method  of  measuring  the  distances  from  the 
earth,  although  the  results  which  he  obtained  were  far 
from  exact.  He  invented  a  dial  which  is  noticed  by 
Vitruvius.  There  is  a  passage  in  Plutarch  from  which 
it  is  inferred  that  Aristarchus  conceived  or  maintained 
both  the  annual  motion  and  the  diurnal  rotation  of  the 
earth. 

See  Delambre,  "Histoire  de  rAstronomie  ancienne ;"  Fortia 
d'Urban,  "Histoire  d'Aristarqiie  de  Samos,"  1810;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Eucyklopaedie." 

Aristarchus,  [Fr.  Aristarque,]  a  celebrated  Greek 
granmiarian  and  critic,  born  in  Samothrace,  was  a  pupil 
of  Aristophanes  of  Byzantium.  He  passed  the  greater 
part  of  his  life  at  Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  where  he  founded 
a  scliool  which  flourished  for  a  long  time.  Suidas  states 
that  he  lived  about  156  B.C.,  and  other  writers  date  his 
birth  at  160  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  died  in  Cyprus  at 
the  age  of  seventy-two.  He  is  regarded  by  some  as  the 
greatest  critic  of  antiquity.  It  is  generally  admitted  that 
his  merits  as  an  editor  and  commentator  of  Homer  are 
greater  than  those  of  any  other;  and  the  division  of  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey  into  twenty-four  books  is  attributed 
to  him.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  other  Greek  poets, 
and  several  works  on  grammar,  none  of  which  are  pre- 
served entire.  A  fragment  of  his  treatise  "  On  Analogy  " 
is  extant. 

See  ScHOELL,  "Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Grecque ;"  C.  L.  Mat- 
THE'^ius,  "Disputatio  de  Aristarclio  Grammatico,"  1725;  K.  Lehrs, 
"De  Aristarchi  Studiis  Homericis,"  1833. 


Aristarchus  of  Athens,  a  violent  opponent  of  the 
democracy,  was  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  government  in 
411  B.C.    He  was  executed  for  treason  about  406. 

Aristarchus  of  Tegea,  a  Greek  tragic  poet,  who 
lived  about  450  B.C.  He  comjxised  sixty  tragedies,  which 
are  all  lost.  One  of  them,  entitled  "Achilles,"  is  said 
to  have  been  translated  into  Latin  by  Ennius. 

Aristarchus,  a  disciple  and  companion  of  the  Apos- 
tle Paul,  was  a  native  of  Thessalonica.  (See  Acts  xx.  4 ; 
Colossians  iv.  10.) 

Aristarque.    See  Aristarchus. 

Aristeas.    See  Arist^us  and  Aristeus. 

A-ris'te-as,  ['Aptarea^,]  a  Greek  poet,  who  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  six  centuries  or  more  B.C.  According  to 
some  writers,  he  was  a  contemporary  of  Homer.  He 
wrote  an  epic  poem  entitled  "The  Arimaspea,"  {iu 
'ApcfzuaTTELa,)  six  verses  of  which  are  preserved  by  Lon- 
ginus. 

Aristeas,  the  supposed  author  of  a  Greek  letter 
entitled  "  The  History  of  the  Seventy  Interpreters," 
which  is  extant  and  gives  an  account  of  the  translation 
of  the  Pentateuch,  or  Old  Testament,  under  the  auspices 
of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  King  of  Egypt.  Josephus  calls 
him  a  friend  of  that  king,  and  quotes  his  letter.  It  is 
now  the  prevalent  opinion  that  this  letter  is  a  forgery. 
The  name  is  written  Aristaus  by  Josephus. 

Aristee.    See  Aristeus  and  Aristeus. 

Aristeides.    See  Aristides. 

Aristene.    See  Arist^nus. 

Aristenete.    See  Arist^netus. 

A-ris'teiis  (or  a-ris'te-us)  or  A-ris'te-as,  [Gr. 
'ApLcrevq  or  'Aptariag ;  Fr.  Aristee,  t'r^s'ti',]  a  Corin- 
thian general,  commanded  the  troops  which  were  sent 
by  Corinth  to  aid  Potidaea  against  the  Athenians  in  432 
B.C.  In  430  he  was  associated  with  some  Spartans  in 
an  embassy  to  the  King  of  Persia,  but  on  his  way  to 
that  country  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Athenians,  who 
put  him  to  death. 

See  Thirlwall's  "History  of  Greece." 

Aristide.    See  Aristides. 

Ar-is-ti'des  or  Aristei'des,  [Gr.  'AptGrecdrjc ;  Fr. 
Aristide,  t'r^s't^d',]  surnamed  the  Just,  an  Athenian 
statesman  and  general  of  great  eminence  and  merit,  the 
son  of  Lysimachus,  was  born  in  Alopeke,  a  demos  of 
Attica.  He  belonged  to  the  aristocratic  party,  and  be- 
came a  political  rival  of  Themistocles.  When  Greece 
was  invaded  by  the  Persians,  in  490  B.C.,  he  was  one  of 
the  ten  generals  who  commanded  alternately  each  for 
one  day.  According  to  Plutarch,  Aristides  resigned  hi.s 
turn  of  command  to  Miltiades,  and  thus  procured  for  the 
army  the  advantage  of  a  skilful  general  at  the  battle  of 
Marathon.  Having  been  selected  to  guard  the  spoils 
found  in  the  Persian  camp  at  Marathon,  he  maintained 
his  high  character  for  integrity,  and  was  elected  archon 
eponymus,  or  chief  archon,  in  489.  The  intrigues  of 
Themistocles  and  the  envy  excited  by  the  eminent  virtue 
of  Aristides  conspired  with  such  success  against  him 
that  he  was  ostracized,  in  483  B.C.,  on  the  pretext  that 
his  influence  was  becoming  dangerous  to  public  liberty. 
It  is  related  that  during  the  process  by  which  he  was 
ostracized,  he  was  requested  by  a  voter,  who  could  not 
write,  to  write  Aristides  on  a  shell  or  tile  used  as  a  voting- 
tablet.  He  complied,  but  first  inquired,  "  Has  Aristides 
done  you  an  injury?"  "No,"  replied  the  voter,  "nor  do 
I  even  know  him  ;  but  I  am  tired  of  hearing  him  always 
called  'Aristides  the  Just.'  " 

On  the  invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes,  in  480  B.C., 
Aristides  was  recalled,  and  recovered  his  influence.  In 
reply  to  Mardonius,  who  offered  to  bribe  the  Athenians 
to  desert  the  cause  of  the  Greeks,  he  declared,  "  So 
long  as  this  sun  shall  shine,  the  Athenians  will  wage  war 
against  the  Persians  for  their  ravaged  country  and  for 
their  violated  temples."  He  commanded  the  Athenian 
force  of  eight  thousand  at  the  battle  of  Plateea,  479  B.C., 
and  contributed  greatly  to  the  victory. 

Aristides  and  Cimon  obtained  command  of  the  troops 
which  Athens  contributed  in  477  B.C.  to  an  expedition 
of  the  allies  against  the  Persians.  Pausanias  of  Sparta 
was  commander-in-chief  of  the  allies  at  first,  but  rendered 
himself  unpopular  by  his  haughtiness  and  severity.  Aris- 
tides by  prudence  and  mildness  gained  the  favour  of  the 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  /lard;  g  as/;  G,  ii,  Y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


I 


JRISTIDES  164  JRISTOBULUS 


allies,  and  transferred  to  his  own  state  the  supremacy 
or  precedence  in  the  Greek  confederation.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  determine  the  amount  which  each  state  should 
pay  towards  the  expenses  of  the  war,  and  gave  general 
satisfaction  in  the  performance  of  this  duty.  He  died 
about  468  B.C. 

Aristides  is  considered  as  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
statesmen  and  patriots  of  antiquity,  and  one  of  the  most 
virtuous  public  men  of  any  age  or  nation. 

See  the  article  "Aristides,"  in  Plutarch's  "  Lives,"  where  he  is 
CO'Tipai  ;d  wilh  Cato  the  Censor;  "Life  of  Aristides,"  by  Cornelius 
Nicpos;  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece,"  chap,  xxxvi.  ;  Thirlwall, 
"  History  of  Greece;"  Epkema,  " Dissertatio  de  Aristide,"  1829. 

Aristides,  a  Greek  statuary,  who  lived  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Poly- 
cletus  of  Sicyon. 

Aristides,  (^E'lius,)  a  distinguished  sophist  and  rhe- 
torician, born  at  Hadriani,  in  Bithynia,  about  117,  or,  as 
some  say,  in  129  a.d.,  was  a  pupil  of  Polemon  and  He- 
rodes  Atticus.  He  became  a  resident  of  Smyrna,  and 
after  that  city  had  been  ruined  by  an  earthquake,  in  178 
A.D.,  he  persuaded  the  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  to  re- 
build it.  He  was  very  vain  of  his  eloquence,  and  com- 
pared himself  to  Demosthenes.  His  orations,  many  of 
which  are  extant,  have  little  merit  except  the  choice  and 
arrangement  of  the  words. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grsca:"  Philostratus,  "Vitae 
Sophistariim." 

Aristides  of  Athens  was  the  author  of  an  apology 
for  the  Christians,  which  was  presented  or  addressed 
to  the  emperor  Hadrian  about  125  A.D.,  and  is  not 
extant. 

Aristides  of  Miletus,  a  Greek  writer  of  fiction,  lived 
in  the  second  century  B.C.  He  wrote  tales  called  "  Mile- 
siaca,"  {MiTirjoLaKu.) 

Aristides  of  Thebes,  an  eminent  Greek  painter,  a 
contemporary  of  Apelles,  flourished  between  360  and 
330  B.C.  He  excelled  in  expression,  and,  according  to 
Pliny,  was  the  first  painter  that  expressed  the  passions 
and  movements  of  the  soul.  When  Alexander  the  Great 
stormed  Thebes,  he  saw  and  appropriated  a  picture  by 
Aristides  of  the  sack  of  a  city.  He  was  a  brother  of  the 
eminent  painter  Nicomacbus. 

A-ris-ti'des  Quin-til-i-a'nus,  a  Greek  writer  on 
music,  of  an  uncertain  period.  He  quotes  Cicero,  and 
is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  second  century  of  the 
Christian  era.  His  treatise  "  On  Music"  is  extant,  and 
is  highly  prized. 

A-ris'ti-on,  ['Apiarlov,]  otherwise  called  Athe'nion, 
a  Greek  philosopher,  who  persuaded  the  Athenians  to 
become  the  allies  of  Mithridates  against  the  Romans. 
About  the  same  time  he  made  himself  tyrant  of  Athens, 
the  people  of  which  he  cruelly  oppressed.  He  was  put 
to  death  by  Sulla  at  the  capture  of  Athens  in  86  B.C. 

Aristipp  or  Aristippe.    See  Aristippus. 

Ar-is-tip'pus,  [Gr.  'AptaTiTTTrog;  Fr.  Artstippe,  t'r6s'- 
t^p' ;  Ger.  Aristipp,  d-ris-tip',]  a  celebrated  Greek  phi- 
losofjher,  the  founder  of  the  Cyrenaic  school,  was  born 
at  Cyrene,  in  Africa,  about  425  B.C.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Socrates,  but  differed  from  him  widely  in  his  principles 
and  life.  He  passed  some  years  at  the  court  of  Diony- 
sius  of  Syracuse,  and  travelled  extensively.  His  system 
of  philosophy  favoured  the  free  indulgence  in  sensual 
pleasure,  and  he  is  said  to  have  regarded  pleasure  as 
the  chief  object  of  life,  although  he  observed  modera- 
tion in  the  enjoyment  of  it.  He  was  intimate  with  the 
courtesan  Lais.  His  works,  if  he  wrote  any,  are  not 
extant  ;  but  concurrent  traditions  enable  us  to  form  a 
probable  estimate  of  his  character  and  opinions.  He 
neglected  mathematics  and  the  physical  sciences,  and 
avoided  public  affairs.  His  versatility,  equanimity,  and 
faculty  of  adapting  himself  to  the  varieties  of  fortune 
and  circumstance  are  noticed  by  Horace,  who  says, 
felicitously, 

"Omnis  Aristippum  decuit  color  et  status  et  res."* 

A  number  of  his  sharp  sayings  and  repartees  are  re- 
corded by  Diogenes  Laertius.  When  King  Dionysius 
remarked  that  the  philosophers  seek  the  favour  of  the 
rich,  but  the  rich  do  not  pay  court  to  philosophers,  Aris- 


*  "All  fortune  fitted  Aristippus  well." — Creech. 


tippus  said,  "That  is  because  the  philosophers  know  what 
they  need,  while  the  rich  do  not  know."  He  was  living 
in  366  B.C.  After  his  death  his  doctrines  were  propa- 
gated by  his  daughter  Arete,  and  by  her  son  Aristippus. 
Wieland  wrote  a  romance  of  "Aristippus  and  his  Con- 
temporaries," ("Aristipp  und  seine  Zeitgenossen,"  4 
vols.,  1800-02.) 

See  RiTTER,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  G.  H.  Lewes,  "Bio- 
graphical History  of  Philosophy;"  F.  Mentz,  "Aristippus  Philoso- 
phus  Socraticus,  sive  de  ejus  Vita,"  etc.,  1719;  H.  Kunhardt, 
"Dissertatio  philosophico-historica  de  Aristippi  Philosophia  morali," 
1795;  Sextus  Empiricus,  "Adversus  Maihematicos;"  Diogenes 
Laertius. 

Aristippus  the  Younger,  a  Greek  philosopher, 

grandson  of  the  preceding,  whose  doctrines  he  pro- 
fessed.   He  flourished  about  360  B.C. 

Aristippus,  tyrant  of  Argos,  was  defeated  by  Aratus 
and  killed  about  242  B.C. 

A-ris'to  or  A-ris'ton,  ['kpiaTuv,]  an  ancient  Greek 
physician,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  fifth  century 
B.C.  Some  ancient  critics  ascribed  to  him  the  work  "On 
Wholesome  Diet,"  which  has  often  been  included  among 
the  works  of  Hippocrates. 

Aristo  or  Ariston  of  Alexandria,  a  Peripatetic  phi 
losopher,  lived  about  30  B.C. 

Aristo  or  Ariston,  the  son  of  Aristocles,  was  an 
Athenian  and  the  father  of  Plato. 

Aristo  or  Ariston  of  Ceos,  a  Peripatetic  philoso 
pher,  succeeded  Lycon  as  head  of  the  Peripatetic  school 
about  230  B.C.  His  works  are  lost.  According  to  Cicero, 
they  gave  evidence  of  a  refined  and  elegant  mind. 

Aristo  or  Ariston  of  Chios,  (surnamed  the  Si'ren, 
for  his  persuasive  eloquence,)  a  Stoic  philosopher,  was 
a  disciple  of  Zeno,  and  lived  about  275  B.C.  He  opened 
a  school  at  Athens,  and  lectured  on  ethics,  which  he 
considered  the  only  part  of  philosophy  worthy  of  study. 
He  did  not  follow  strictly  the  doctrines  of  Zeno,  but 
taught  that  the  highest  good  consisted  in  indifference 
to  everything  except  virtue  and  vice.  His  works,  if  he 
wrote  any,  are  not  extant. 

See  N.  Saal,  "  Commentatio  de  Aristone  Chio,"  1852. 

Aristo  or  Ariston  of  Cyrene,  was  the  chief  of  the 
democratic  party  in  a  civil  war  which  occurred  at  Cyrene 
about  403  B.C. 

Aristo  or  Ariston  of  Pella,  the  reputed  author  of 
a  Greek  work  called  a  "Dialogue  between  Papiscus  and 
Jason,"  which  was  probably  written  in  the  second  cen- 
tury, and  is  not  extant.  It  was  designed  to  prove  that 
the  prophecies  concerning  Christ  apply  to  Jesus,  and 
was  commended  by  Origen. 

Aristo  or  Ariston,  a  king  of  Sparta,  of  the  Eupon- 
tid  or  Proclid  line,  a  son  of  Agesicles,  ascended  the 
throne  about  560  B.C.,  and  after  a  long  reign  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Demaratus. 

Aristo  or  Ariston,  a  Spartan  sculptor,  who  made 
a  colossal  statue  of  Jupiter,  at  Olympia,  noticed  by  Pau- 
sanias. 

Aristo  or  Ariston,  a  Greek  painter,  who  lived  about 
330  B.C.,  was  a  son  of  Aristides  of  Thebes,  and  was  the 
master  of  Euphranor. 

Aristo,  (Titus,)  a  Roman  jurist  of  the  time  of  Tra- 
jan, was  a  friend  of  the  younger  Pliny,  who  speaks 
highly  of  his  virtue  and  learning. 

Aristobule.    See  Aristobulus. 

A-ris-to-buTus,  [Gr. ' ApiarofSovTiog ;  Fr.  Aristobule, 
t^res'to'biiK,]  a  Greek  historian  who  lived  about  330  B.C., 
and  wrote  a  history  of  the  Asiatic  expedition  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great,  which  he  had  accompanied.  •  This  his- 
tory, which  is  not  extant,  had  a  high  reputation,  and  was 
used  as  a  guide  by  Arrian.  Plutarch  and  Lucian  men- 
tion an  Aristobulus  of  Cassandria,  who  was  probably  the 
same  person. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Grascis." 

Aristobulus,  a  Jew  and  Peripatetic  philosopher, 
who  lived  in  Egypt  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philometor 
and  his  successor,  (181-117  B.C.)  He  wrote  a  commen- 
tary on  the  law  of  Moses. 

Aristobulus,  a  son  of  Herod  the  Great  and  Mari- 
amne,  was  sent  to  Rome  to  be  educated.  Having  been 
accused  of  a  plot  against  Herod,  he  was  put  to  death 
about  I  B.C. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  /on^;  h,  h,  6,  same,  less  p4-olonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ARISTOBULUS 


165 


ARISTOPHANES 


Aristobulus  the  Younger,  a  grandson  of  Herod 
the  Oreat,  passed  his  life  in  a  private  station.  He  died 
after  44  a.d. 

Aristobulus,  a  son  of  Herod,  King  of  Chalcis,  was 
placed  on  the  throne  of  Armenia  by  Nero  about  55  a.d. 

Aristobulus  I.,  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  was  a  son  of 
Joannes  Hyrcanus,  at  whose  death,  in  107  B.C.,  accord- 
ing to  Josephus,  he  assumed  the  title  of  king.  He  died 
in  105  B.C.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Alexander 
Jannaeus. 

Aristobulus  II.,  a  younger  son  of  Alexander  Jan- 
naeus, obtained  the  throne  about  70  B.C.,  after  he  had 
defeated  his  brother  Hyrcanus.  In  63  B.C.  Pompey  took 
Jerusalem,  placed  Hyrcanus  on  the  throne,  and  carried 
Aristobulus  as  a  captive  to  Rome.  He  escaped  in  the 
year  57,  renewed  the  war  in  Judea,  and  was  retaken. 
Having  been  released  by  Csesar  in  49  B.C.  and  sent  home 
to  fight  against  Pompey,  he  was  poisoned  by  the  parti- 
sans of  the  latter. 

Aristobulus,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  a 
brother  of  Mariamne,  the  wife  of  Herod.  He  was  made 
high-priest  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  and  was  put  to  death 
by  Herod  in  35  B.C. 

Aristocle.    See  Aristocles. 

A-ris'to-cles,  [Gr.  'AptaroK^g  ;  Fr.  Aristocle,  t'r^s^- 
tok'K,]  a  sculptor  of  Cydonia,  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
about  500  or  600  B.C.  Pausanias  says  he  was  among 
the  most  ancient  sculptors  of  Greece. 

Aristocles,  a  Greek  physician,  lived  probably  in  the 
first  century  after  Christ.  Some  of  his  formulas  have 
been  preserved  hy  Galen. 

Aristocles  of  Messana  or  Messina,  a  Greek  Peripa- 
tetic philosopher,  lived  in  the  second  century  after  Christ. 
He  wrote  on  Ethics,  etc. 

Aristocles  of  Pergamus,  a  rhetorician  and  Peripa- 
tetic philosopher,  was  a  disciple  of  Herodes  Atticus. 
He  flourished  between  100  and  135  a.d. 

Aristocles  of  Rhodes,  a  Greek  grammarian,  contem- 
porary with  Strabo. 

Aristocles  of  Sicyon,  a  Greek  sculptor,  and  a  bro- 
ther of  Canachus,  lived  about  400  B.C. 

Aristocrate.    See  Aristocrates. 

Ar-is-toc'ra-tes  I.,  King  of  Arcadia,  lived  about 

770  B.C. 

Aristocrates  II.,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
reigned  about  660  B.C.  He  was  put  to  death  by  his  sub- 
jects as  a  traitor. 

Aristocrates,  [Gr.  'ApcaroicpuTTj^;  Fr.  Aristocrate, 
t^r^s'to'kRtt',]  an  Athenian  politician,  was  a  member  of 
the  government  of  Four  Hundred  formed  in  411  B.C., 
which  he  aided  Theramenes  to  subvert.  He  was  one  of 
the  ten  generals  chosen  in  407,  and  one  of  those  who 
commanded  at  Arginusae  in  406  B.C.  He  was  put  to 
death  for  his  conduct  at  this  battle. 

Aristocrates,  a  Greek  physician  mentioned  by  Ga- 
len, lived  probably  between  100  B.C.  and  100  a.d. 

Aristocrates,  a  Greek  historian,  was  a  native  of 
Sparta,  and  appears  to  have  lived  later  than  i88  B.C. 
He  wrote  a  work  on  the  history  of  Laconia,  which  is  not 
extant. 

Aristodeme,  the  French  of  Aristodemus,  which 
see. 

Ar-is-to-de'mus,  [Gr.  'AptoTodijfwc;  Fr.  Aristodeme, 
S'r^s'toMim',]  a  Greek  painter  of  the  fourth  century 
B.C.,  was  the  father  of  two  more  eminent  painters,  Aris- 
tides  of  Thebes  and  Nicomachus. 

Aristodemus.  a  tragic  actor  of  Athens,  took  an 
active  part  in  politics,  as  a  supporter  of  the  Macedonian 
party,  and  was  an  opponent  of  Demosthenes. 

Aristodemus,  a  Greek  statuary,  lived  about  300  B.C., 
and  made  a  statue  of  Seleucus,  King  of  Babylon. 

Aristodemus  of  Caria,  a  Greek  painter,  lived  about 
50  A.D. 

Aristodemus,  tyrant  of  Cuma,  in  Italy,  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Tarquin  the  Proud,  of  Rome.  He  was 
killed  by  conspirators  about  490  B.C. 

Aristodemus,  a  general  of  the  first  Messenian  war, 
gained  several  victories,  and  became  King  of  Messenia 
about  730  B.C. 

Aristodemus  of  Miletus,  a  general  of  Antigonus, 
King  of  Asia,  who  sent  him  in  315  B.C.  to  the  Pelopon- 


nesus to  oppose  Cassander.  He  took  several  fortifiea 
places. 

Aristodemus  of  Nysa,  a  Greek  grammarian,  a  pupil 
of  Aristarchus,  lived  about  100  B.C.  His  works  are  all 
lost. 

Aristodemus  of  Nysa,  a  grammarian,  a  relation  of 
the  preceding,  taught  at  Rome  about  80  B.C.  The  great 
Pompey  was  one  of  his  pupils. 

Aristodemus,  a  Spartan  soldier  who  escaped  from 
the  battle  of  Thermopylae  in  480  B.C.  and  was  stigma- 
tized as  a  coward.  To  retrieve  his  honour  he  fought 
with  signal  bravery  at  Plataea,  where  he  was  killed, 
479  B.C. 

Ar-is-to-gi'ton  or  Aristogei'ton,  [Gr.  'ApiaToyehojv,] 
an  Athenian,  who  conspired  with  Harmodius  against 
Hippias  and  Hipparchus.    See  Harmodius. 

Aristogiton,  an  Athenian  orator  and  demagogue, 
who  was  surnamed  the  "Dog,"  and  was  a  political  op- 
ponent of  Demosthenes.    His  orations  are  not  extant. 

Aristogiton,  a  Greek  statuary,  lived  about  400  B.C. 

Ar-is-to-la'us,  an  eminent  Greek  painter,  a  son  and 
pupil  of  Pausias  of  Sicyon,  lived  about  300  B.C.  His  style 
was  remarkable  for  severity. 

Ar-is-tom'a-ehus,  [Gr.  'ApiaTOfiaxoc;  Fr.  Aristo- 
maque,  t'r^s'to'mtk',]  a  Greek  Peripatetic  philosopher, 
born  at  Soli,  in  Cilicia,  spent  much  time  in  the  study  of 
bees.    He  was  a  pupil  of  Lycon. 

Aristomaque.    See  Aristomachus. 

Ar-is-to-me'des,  [Gr.'ApLaT0fi7/(h]g  ;  Fr.  Aristom^de, 
t'r^s'to'mkK,]  a  sculptor  of  Thebes,  lived  in  the  time 
of  Pindar,  who  dedicated  a  statue  of  Cybele'made  by 
this  artist. 

Aristomene.    See  Aristomenes. 

Ar-is-tom'e-nes,  [Gr.  'ApiaTOjuevrjc;  Fr.  Aristomene, 
t^res'to^'min',]  a  Messenian  general,  famous  for  his  daring 
exploits,  commanded  the  Messenians  in  the  war  against 
the  Lacedaemonians  which  began  in  685  B.C.  and  ended 
in  668  B.C.,  when  the  Messenians  emigrated  to  Sicily. 
The  memory  of  Aristomenes  was  perpetuated  by  songs 
and  annual  sacrifices  for  many  centuries. 

See  JouRDAN,  "  Histoired' Aristomene,"  1749 ;  Nokrmann,  "Aris- 
tomenes Messenius  vir  heroiciis,"  1690. 

Aristomenes,  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  lived  about 
420  B.C.    His  works  are  not  extant. 

Ar-is-to-m''cus  of  Alexandria,  a  grammarian  and 
contemporary  of  Strabo.    His  works  are  not  extant. 

Aristonicus  ['Apiorovinoi-]  of  Marathon,  an  Athe- 
nian orator,  who  co-operated  with  Demosthenes  against 
the  Macedonian  party.  He  was  one  of  the  prominent 
public  men  whom  the  Athenians  delivered  to  the  vic- 
torious Antipater,  by  whom  he  was  put  to  death  in  322  B.C. 

Ar-is-ton'i-das,  a  Greek  statuary,  who,  according  to 
Pliny,  by  a  combination  of  different  metals,  imitated  the 
complexion  of  the  human  face. 

Ar-is-ton'o-us  ['ApLOTovoog]  or  A-ris'to-nus  ['Apia- 
Tovovg]  of  Aig'ma.,  a  Greek  statuary  of  uncertain  epoch. 

Ar-is-ton'y-mus,  ['ApLOTutwfiog,]  an  Athenian  comic 
poet,  contemporary  with  Aristophanes.  His  works  are 
not  extant. 

Aristophane.    See  Aristophanes, 

Ar-is-toph'a-nes,  [Gr.  'AptaTO(l)avr]g ;  Fr  Aristo- 
phane, S'r^s'to'ftn',]  the  most  celebrated  con.ic  poet  of 
Greece,  was  born  about  444  B.C.,  and  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  have  been  an  Athenian  by  birth.  He  produced 
in  427  his  first  comedy,  "The  P'easters,"  which  is  not  ex- 
tant. His  next  work  was  "The  Babylonians,"  (426,)  in 
which  he  attacked  Cleon,  a  powerful  demagogue,  who  was 
his  personal  and  political  enemy.  He  also  lashed  and 
ridiculed  Cleon  with  great  success  in  "The  Knights"  or 
"  Demagogues,"  which  gained  the  prize  in  424  B.C.  and 
is  esteemed  one  of  his  most  admirable  works.  It  is  said 
that  Aristophanes  acted  the  part  of  Cleon  in  this  drama, 
as  no  other  actor  was  bold  enough  to  personate  him. 

Among  his  master-pieces  is  "The  Clouds,"  (423,)  a 
powerful  satire  against  the  Sophists,  which,  however,  was 
not  successful  in  gaining  the  first  prize.  In  this  play  he 
ridiculed  and  misrepresented  Socrates,  whom  he  unjustly 
confounded  with  the  Sophists.  Plato,  in  his  "Apology," 
identifies  Aristophanes  with  the  accusers  of  Socrates, 
and  with  those  who  excited  the  popular  prejudice  against 
him  as  a  skeptic  and  a  corrupter  of  the  youth. 


€  as  ^;  9  a.s  s;  g  Aart^;  g  as J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ARISTOPHANES 


ARISTOTLE 


Aristophanes  was  the  author  of  about  fifty  comedies, 
of  which  eleven  are  extant,  viz.:  "The  Acharnians," 
(425  B.C.  ;)  "Tne  Knights,"  (424  ;)  "The  Clouds,"  (423  ;) 
"The  Wasps,"  which  gained  the  first  prize;  "The 
Peace,"  (419  ;)  "The  Birds,"  (414 ;)  "  Lysistrata  ;"  "Thes- 
mophoriazusje,"  (41 1  ;)  "Plutus,"  (408;)  "  T lie  Frogs," 
(395;)  and  "  The  Female  Orators,"  (392  B.C.)  He  is 
praised  for  his  wit,  comic  humour,  originality,  good 
sense,  and  fidelity  in  the  delineation  of  Athenian  man- 
ners. His  style  is  considered  a  model  of  Attic  purity. 
He  is  one  of  the  interlocutors  in  the  "Banquet"  of 
Plato,  who  is  said  to  have  been  a  great  admirer  of  his 
comedies.  "The  Acharnians,"  "The  Knights,"  "The 
Birds,"  and  "The  Frogs"  have  been  translated  into 
P'nglish  by  J.  Hookham  Frere.  He  died  probably  about 
3S0  B.C. 

See  Thirlwall,  "History  of  Greece,"  iv.  250;  H.  T.  Rot- 
SCHEK,  "Aristophanes  und  sein  Zeitaiter,"  1827;  H.  Pol,  "Disser- 
tauo  de  Aristophaue,"  1S34;  C.  F.  Ranke,  "Coinmentatio  de  Aris- 
tophaiiis  Vita,"  1845. 

Aristoph'anes  of  Byzantium,  a  celebrated  gram- 
marian and  critic,  called  the  founder  of  the  Alexandrine 
school  of  criticism,  nourished  between  250  and  200  B.C. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Callimachus  and  Zenodotus,  the  mas- 
ter of  the  famous  Aristarchus,  and  keeper  of  the  royal 
library  at  Alexandria.  The  invention  of  the  Greek  sys- 
tem of  punctuation  and  accents  is  attributed  to  him. 
Among  his  works,  which  are  all  lost,  except  small  frag- 
ments, were  commentaries  on  Homer  and  on  other  poets. 
He  shares  with  Aristarchus  the  honour  of  establishing 
the  Alexandrine  canon  of  classic  writers. 

See  ScHOELL,  "Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Grecque." 

A-ris'to-phon  ['Aptcrro^wv]  of  Azenia,  an  Athenian 
statesman  and  orator.  In  403  B.C.  he  procured  the 
passage  of  a  law  to  confine  the  right  of  citizenship  to 
persons  whose  parents  were  both  free  citizens.  He  ex- 
erted great  influence  in  the  state  throughout  a  career  of 
unusual  length.  In  355  B.C.  he  defended  the  law  of 
Leptines  against  Demosthenes. 

Aristophon  of  Colyttus,  an  influential  Athenian 
statesman,  younger  than  the  preceding,  was  a  contem- 
porary of  Demosthenes. 

Aristophon,  a  Greek  comic  poet,  whose  works  are 
lost,  except  small  fragments. 

Aristophon,  an  eminent  painter  of  Thasos,  of  the 
fifth  century  B.C.,  was  a  brother  of  the  great  painter 
Polygnotus. 

Aristote.    See  Aristotle. 

Aristoteles.    See  Aristotle. 

Aristotile,  J-r^s-tot'e-li,  |Fr.  Aristote,  i'ris'tot',] 
called  FroRAVANTi,  fe-o-rS-v^n'tee,  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Bologna  or  Venice.  By  the  invitation  of  the 
Czar  Ivan,  he  went  to  Moscow  about  1474.  He  re- 
paired or  rebuilt  the  Kremlin,  and  erected  the  magnifi- 
cent church  of  the  Assumption,  (1479,)  and  the  palace 
of  the  Belvedere,  (1497,)  at  Moscow.  He  wished  to 
return  to  Italy,  but  was  forcibly  detained  by  the  Czar. 
His  fr.mily  name  was  Alberti. 

See  Bayle,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Aristotile  or  Bastiano  da  San  Gallo,  bSs-te-S-'no 
dl  sJn  gSKlo,  an  Italian  painter  and  architect,  born  at 
Florence  in  1481,  was  a  nephew  of  Giuliano  and  An- 
tonio San  Gallo,  and  a  pupil  of  Pietro  Perugino.  He 
excelled  in  perspective  and  architectural  painting,  and 
was  much  employed  in  decorations  for  festivals  and 
princely  entertainments.  Among  his  works  was  a  copy 
of  Michael  Angelo's  cartoon  of  Pisa,  and  the  Expulsion 
of  Adam  and  Eve  from  Paradise.    Died  in  155 1. 

Sea  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

A-ris-to-ti'mus,  [Gr.  'ApiaT6Ttfj.o(;:  Fr.  Aristotime, 
t'r^s'to't^m',]  a  tyrant  who  usurped  the  supreme  power 
of  Elis,  lived  about  250  B.C. 

Aristotle,  ir'is-tot'l,  [Gr.  'ApioTOTeXr^g Lat.  and  Ger. 
Aristot'eles;  Fr.  Aristote,  t'r^s'tot';  It.  Aristotile, 
l-r6s-tot'e-U ;  Sp.  Aristoteles,  S-r^s-to-ta^lls  ;  Per- 
sian and  Arabic,  Arisi'atalis,  S'ris''t^'tSn6ss',]  one  of 
the  most  illustrious  philosophers  of  antiquity,  and,  if 
considered  with  respect  to  the  intellect  alone,  perhaps 
the  most  remarkable  man  that  ever  lived,  was  born  at 
Stagira,  (or  Stageira,)  in  Thrace,  on  the  western  side  of 


the  Gulf  of  Strymo.i,  384  B.C.  From  the  place  of  his 
birth,  he  was  surnamed  the  Stagiritk,  (I,TaytiplT7i(, 

His  father,  Nicomachus,  who  was  physician  to  Amyn- 
tas,  King  of  Macedon,  is  said  to  have  been  the  author 
of  several  works  on  medicine  and  natural  history.  Being 
left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age,  Aristotle  was  placed  under 
the  guardianship  of  Proxenus,  who  had  him  carefully 
educated.  When  he  was  seventeen  years  old,  he  visited 
Athens,  then  the  great  centre  of  Grecian  art,  literature, 
and  philosophy.  He  arrived  in  that  city  while  IMato 
was  absent  in  Sicily.  Aristotle,  however,  applied  him- 
self meanwhile  to  such  sources  of  philosophic  instruc- 
tion as  were  open  to  him  ;  and  as  soon  as  Plato  returned, 
he  became  his  pupil.  The  extraordinary  powers  and  zeal 
in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  evinced  by  the  young  Stagi- 
rite  made  him  a  great  favourite  with  his  master,  who  used 
to  call  him  the  "  Intellect"  of  his  school.  He  remained 
at  Athens  about  twenty  years.  He  seems  to  have  re- 
garded his  illustrious  teacher  with  the  highest  respect, 
and  even  affection  ;  but  he  did  not  accept  all  his  doc- 
trines ;  and,  as  his  own  views  became  more  definite  and 
more  matured,  the  difference  between  the  philosophic 
systems  of  the  master  and  the  pupil  became  more  strongly 
marked.  This  divergence  of  opinion  appears  to  have 
furnished  the  sole  foundation  for  the  stories  of  a  per- 
sonal disagreement  between  the  two  philosophers,  i.r»d 
of  Aristotle's  disrespect  and  ingratitude  towards  his 
great  teacher.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  period  of 
twenty  years  above  referred  to,  Aristotle  commenced  a 
school  of  his  own,  in  which  he  gave  lessons  on  rhetoric 
and  other  subjects.  About  347  B.C.  he  received  an  in- 
vitation from  Hermias,  the  prince  or  ruler  of  Atarneus, 
in  Asia  Minor,  who  had  been  one  of  his  pupils,  to  visit 
his  court.  While  here,  he  married  Pythias,  the  adopted 
daughter  of  Hermias.  But  this  prince  having  been 
assassinated  about  344  B.C.,  Aristotle  fled  with  his  wife 
to  Mitylene.  Here  he  remained  two  years,  when  he  re- 
ceived an  invitation  from  Philip  of  Macedon  to  become 
the  instructor  of  his  son,  Alexander.  In  the  lettert  which 
the  king  is  said  to  have  addressed  to  the  philosopher  on 
that  occasion,  he  says  (in  substance)  that  he  thanks  the 
gods  not  so  much  that  they  have  given  him  a  son,  as 
that  he  was  born  in  the  time  of  Aristotle,  under  whose 
instructions  he  hopes  the  young  prince  may  become 
worthy  of  his  high  destiny.  Aristotle  appears  to  have 
been  always  treated  with  the  greatest  respect  both  by 
Philip  and  Alexander.  The  latter,  indeed,  regarded  his 
master  with  an  affection  and  reverence  that  he  seems  to 
have  felt  for  no  other  mortal.  He  caused  to  be  rebuilt, 
at  Aristotle's  desire,  the  city  of  Stagira,}  which  had 
been  destroyed  during  the  wars  of  Philip.  He  is  said 
not  only  to  have  given  him  eight  hundred  talents 
(more  than  eight  hundred  thousand  dollars)  to  en- 
able him  to  prosecute  his  researches  in  natural  history, 
but  to  have  procured  for  him,  during  his  campaigns, 
many  rare  animals  and  other  curiosities.  Alexander 
having  ascended  the  throne  in  336  B.C.,  Aristotle  soon 
after  repaired  to  Athens,  where  he  opened  a  school  called 
the  Lyce'um,  from  its  proximity  to  the  temple  of  Apollo 
Lyceius,  {AvKuog.)  He  is  said  to  have  been  of  so  active 
and  restless  a  temperament  that  he  gave  his  lectures 
while  walking  up  aul  down,  and  that  hence  his  school 
was  called  fehe  "Peripatetic  School,"  (from  TrepLTrareu,  to 
"walk  about.")  Others  say  that  the  term  was  derived 
from  6  nep'inaTu^,  [i.e.  "the  walk,")  a  name  which  had  al- 
ready been  given  to  the  place  where  Aristotle  taught. 
The  new  school  was  largely  attended,  and  numbered 
among  its  scholars  many  distinguished  men,  including, 
among  others,  Callisthenes,  Demetrius  Phalereus,  and 
Theophrastus. 

After  the  death  of  Alexander,  Aristotle,  being  regarded 
by  many  of  the  Athenians  with  distrust  as  the  friend  of 
Macedon,  was,  as  a  mere  pretext,  it  would  seem,  accused 


*  Thus,  Pope,  in  his  "Temple  of  Fame,"  says, 

"There,  in  a  shrine,  that  cast  a  dazzling  lisrht, 
Sat,  fixed  in  thous:ht,  the  mighty  Stagirite." 
tSee  Aui.us  Gellius,  "Noctes  Attic-e,"  lib.  x. 
t  In  regard  to  this  subject  there  is  considerable  diversity  in  the  state- 
ments of  different  writers:  thus  much,  liowever,  may  be  regarded  as 
certain,  that  the  city  was  rebuilt,  and  that  this  was  due  to  Aristotie's 
influence  at  the  Macedonian  court. 


i«  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscu7'e;ikry  ftU,  ftt;  mfet;  n6t;  g56d;  moon: 


ARISTOTLE 


167 


ARISTViS 


of  impiety.  Without  awaiting  his  trial,  that  the  Athe- 
nians might  not,  as  he  said,  be  guilty  of  "twice  sinning 
against  philosophy,"*  he  withdrew  to  Chalcis,  in  Eu- 
bcea.    Here  he  died,  at  the  age  of  sixty-two. 

In  the  history  of  Western  civilization  there  is  no  ex- 
ami)le  of  any  other  philosopher  having  exerted  so  great 
and  so  permanent  an  intiuence  on  the  minds  of  men  as 
Aristotle.  For  nearly  two  thousand  years  his  authority  ' 
was  not  only  predominant,  but  almost  despotic,  in  all  coun- 
tries where  the  light  of  learning  had  penetrated,  whether 
in  Europe,  Northern  Africa,  or  Western  Asia.  During 
the  period  known  as  the  "dark  ages,"  when  little  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  learning,  even  in  the  most  favoured  por- 
tions of  Christian  Europe,  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle 
was  encouraged,  and  his  works  diligently  studied,  in  the 
Moslem  capitals  of  Bagdad  and  Cordova.  On  the  re- 
vival of  letters  in  Italy  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  Aris- 
totle reigned  for  a  time  in  the  schools  without  a  rival. 
Dante  (1265-1321)  speaks  of  him  as  "the  master  of  those 
that  know:" 

"  Vidi  il  Maestro  di  color  che  sanno 
Seder  tra  filosofica  famiglia. 
Tutti  lo  miran,  tutti  onor  gli  fanno."t 

In/erno,  canto  iv.,  1.  131. 

Unfortunately,  his  influence,  like  that  of  the  Roman 
pontiff,  had  come  to  be  established  on  the  basis  of  au- 
thority rather  than  of  reason  ;  and  that  great  reaction 
against  authority,  in  Christendom,  which  accompanied 
or  caused  the  Reformation,  did  not,  in  its  aggressive 
march,  spare  the  prescriptive  throne  of  the  Stagirite. 
For  nearly  two  hundred  years  after  the  time  of  Bacon, 
the  works  of  Aristotle  were  almost  universally  neglected 
among  the  learned  in  Europe.  Towards  the  close,  how- 
ever, of  the  last  century,  attention  was  again  directed  to 
them  by  several  distinguished  Germans,  including  Les- 
sing,  Wolf,  Schneider,  and  afterwards  more  particularly 
by  Hegel,  who  deemed  the  philosophical  writings  of 
Aristotle  worthy  of  the  profoundest  study.  Thus,  after 
having  been  for  ages  the  object  of  a  blind,  irrational  hom- 
age, and  then  of  an  almost  equally  blind  and  irrational 
contempt,  the  time  is  near,  we  may  hope,  when  at  last 
he  will  be  estimated  at  his  real  worth  and  assume  his 
true  position  in  the  realm  of  intellect.  This  position, 
after  a  thorough  and  impartial  examination  of  his  various 
claims,  must  be  admitted  to  be  fully  equal,  if  not  supe- 
rior, to  that  of  any  other  of  the  great  masters  of  thought 
that  the  world  has  ever  seen.  Not  only  was  his  intel- 
lect in  the  highest  degree  penetrating,  comprehensive, 
and  profound,  but  the  difterent  powers  of  his  mind  were 
so  justly  balanced,  that  he  seemed  equally  fitted  to  excel 
in  each  of  the  various  departments  of  thought.  There 
was  scarcely  any  branch  of  learning  or  science  known 
to  the  ancients  to  which  he  did  not  make  important  con- 
tributions ;  while  some  branches  he  may  be  truly  said  to 
have  created.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  science  of 
logic,  and  brought  it  to  such  a  degree  of  perfection  that 
subsequent  philosophers  have  added  little  or  nothing  of 
any  value  ;  and,  in  the  language  of  one  pre-eminently 
qualified  to  judge  of  such  questions,  he  is  "high  above 
cornparison  with  any  subsequent  logician."  (See  Sir 
William  Hamilton's  "  Logic,"  lecture  ii.,  p.  19). 

It  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say  that  he  was  also  the  father 
of  the  "science"  of  natural  history;  for  he  appears  to 
have  been  the  very  first  who  introduced  anything  like  a 
true  scientific  arrangement  into  this  department  of  study. 
Cuvier  has  called  attention  to  his  extraordinary  sagacity 
as  a  naturalist,  in  which  character  he  was  certainly  in 
advance  of  his  age  twenty-two  hundred  years.  "'He 
is,"  says  Cuvier,  "not  only  the  most  ancient  author  of 
comparative  anatomy  whose  works  have  cnme  down  to 
cs  but  he  is  one  of  those  who  have  treated  this  branch 
of  natural  history  with  the  most  genius,  and  best  deserves 
to  be  taken  for  a  model." 

It  is  common  to  speak  of  the  scientific  process  known 
as  "  Induction"  as  if  it  were  wholly  a  modern  invention. 
But  a  conception,  more  or  less  complete,  of  induction 
was  common  to  several  of  the  ancient  philosophers. 


*  In  allusion  to  Socrates'  having  been  put  to  death  on  a  similar 
a<jcusation. 

t  "  I  saw  the  master  of  those  that  know,  sitting  amid  a  family  of  phi- 
losophers; all  gaze  upon  him,  all  do  hini  honour." 


Aristotle  evidently  refers  to  this  process  when,  m  his 
work  on  "  Metaphysics,"  he  says,  "  Science  begins  when 
from  a  great  number  of  experiences  one  general  concep  - 
tion  is  formed  which  will  embrace  all  similar  cases.'' 
"Aristotle,"  says  one  who  has  evidently  studied  his 
works  with  great  care,  "  may  be  truly  styled  the  father 
of  the  Inductive  Philosophy,  since  he  first  announced 
its  leading  principles,  and  announced  them  with  a  com- 
pleteness and  precision  not  surpassed  by  Bacon  himself." 
(See  G.  H.  Lewes's  "Aristotle,"  p.  108.) 

The  moral  character  of  Aristotle  seems  to  have  been 
in  every  way  estimable.  In  his  friendships  he  was  warm 
and  constant.  He  appears  to  have  cherished  the 
memory  of  his  friend  and  patron  Hermias  with  a  deep 
and  devoted  affection.  Of  his  poetical  productions  there 
remains  a  beautiful  paean,  full  of  noble  simplicity  and 
pathos,  written  on  the  occasion  of  the  death  of  his  be- 
loved prince.  Besides  other  charges  brought  against 
him  by  the  Athenians,  he  was  accused  of  paying  divine 
honours  to  Hermias.  Although  a  measure  of  Alexander's 
aversion  and  hatred  to  Callisthenes  extended  to  Aris- 
totle, there  is  ground  for  believing  that  the  latter  never 
lost  his  regard  and  affection  for  his  royal  pupil.  And  so 
far  was  he  from  furnishing  just  occasion  for  the  charge 
against  him  of  disrespect  and  ingratitude  to  Plato,  that 
he  shows  towards  his  great  master  an  affectionate  regard 
in  those  very  passages  wherein  he  expresses  his  dissent 
from  him.  While  clearly  intimating  that  Plato  is  dear 
to  him,  he  maintains  that  truth  ought  to  be  dearer  to  us 
than  any  personal  considerations.  This,  in  all  proba- 
bility, is  the  true  origin  of  the  proverb,  "  Amicus  Plato, 
sed  magis  arnica  Veritas,"  ("  Plato  is  dear,  but  truth  is 
more  dear.")  He  did  not  accept  Plato's  theory  of 
Ideas,  nor  the  doctrine  of  Reminiscence  which  was  so 
intimately  connected  with  that  theory.  (See  Plato.) 
Although  he  fully  recognizes  the  existence  of  a  supreme 
spiritual  (or  immaterial)  Intelligence  as  the  creative 
power  of  the  universe,  there  is  nothing  in  his  writings  to 
show  that  he  believed  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  as 
this  expression  is  commonly  understood, — that  is,  the 
continuation  of  a  man's  personal  identity  in  a  future 
state  of  existence. 

Only  a  comparatively  small  portion  of  Aristotle's 
writings  have  come  down  to  us  ;  but  these  treat  of  a 
great  variety  of  subjects,  and  prove  the  universality  of 
his  genius.  They  may  be  divided  under  the  following 
heads:  i.  Dialectics  and  Logic  ;  2.  Physics;  3.  Mathe- 
matics ;  4.  Metaphysics  ;  5.  Ethics  ;  6.  Politics  ;  7.  CEco 
nomics  ;  8.  Historical  Writings ;  9.  Miscellaneous  Writ- 
ings. The  best  edition  of  Aristotle's  entire  works  is  that 
of  Bekker,  Berlin,  1 831.  Of  the  earlier  editions,  the  first 
Aldine,  (Aldina  editio  princeps,)  published  at  Venice  in 
5  vols.,  (1495-98,)  is  the  most  valuable. 

See  RiTTEK,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  G.  H.  Lewes,  "Aris- 
totle,"ivol.  8vo,  London,  1864;  AdolphStahr,  "  Aristotelia,"  1830 ; 
Ammonius,  "Vita  Aristotelis ;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grseca;" 
Diogenes  Laertius  ;  Andreas  Schott,  "Vitse  comparatje  Aris- 
totelis et  Demosthenis,"  1603;  Felix  Ravaisson,  "  Essai  sur  la 
Metaphysique  d'Aristote,"  2  vols.,  1837-46  ;  article  "Aristote,"  in  the 

Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale,"  by  Dr.  Hoefer  ;  "Encyclopaedia 
Britannica  ;"  "  Biograj  l\;e  Universelle." 

Aristoxene.    See  Aristoxenus. 

Ar-is-tox'e-nus  [Gr.  'kpLard^evog;  Fr.  ARiSTOxfeNE, 
t'r^s'tok'sin'l  of  Tarentum,  a  Greek  philosopher  and 
writer,  a  pupil  of  Aristotle,  lived  about  330  B.C.  He 
wrote  many  works,  which  are  lost,  and  three  extant 
books  on  music,  which  are  esteemed  valuable  and  are 
the  oldest  on  that  subject  that  have  come  down  10  i.s. 
He  rejected  the  arithmetical  system  of  Pythagcras  in 
music. 

Aristoxenus,  a  Greek  physician,  who  lived  about 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  and  whose  opinions 
are  quoted  by  Galen. 

A-ris'tus'  [-Ap^CTTOf]  of  Salamis,  in  Cyprus,  a  Greek 
historian  of  uncertain  date.  He  wrote  a  History  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  which  is  lost.  Some  statements 
derived  from  his  work  have  been  preserved  by  Arrian 
and  Strabo. 

Aristus,  an  Academic  philosopher,  who  was  a  friend 
of  Cicero,  and  a  brother  of  the  philosopher  Anti'xhus. 
He  taught  philosophy  at  Athens,  where  Marcus  Brtitus 
was  among  his  pupils,  and  where  Cicero  visited  hin»  in 
51  B.C. 


€  as  >6;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as^;  g,  h,  k, ^thcral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (S^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JRISTTLLUS 


168 


ARLOTTI 


Ar-i3-tyl'lus,  [Gr.  'S.^iOTvKko<;;  Fr.  Aristylle,  t'r^s'- 
t^K,]  a  Greek  astronomer,  lived  in  the  third  century  B.C. 

Ariu,  a're-00,  (Emilio,)  a  Venetian  sculptor  of  the 
fifteenth  century. 

A-ri'us  or  A-rei'us,  popularly  called  A'ri-us,  [Gr. 
'Apeiof,]  the  founder  of  Arianism,  and  author  of  the 
greatest  schism  that  ever  divided  the  Christian  Church 
before  the  Reformation,  was  born  at  Cyrene,  in  Africa, 
shortly  after  the  middle  of  the  third  century.  He  was 
ordained  a  deacon  at  Alexandria  by  the  patriarch  Peter, 
and  promoted  to  the  highest  rank  among  the  clergy  by 
the  patriarch  Alexander. 

The  controversy  which  arose  between  Alexander  and 
Arius  about  318  A.D.  caused  Constantine  to  summon 
the  first  general  council,  which  met  at  Nicaea  (or  Nice)  in 
325  A.D.,  and  condemned  with  great  unanimity  the  doc- 
trines of  x\rius,  who  denied  that  the  vSon  is  coeternal 
and  coessential  with  the  Father.  Arius,  who  had  at- 
tended this  council,  was  exiled  to  Illyricum  by  Constan- 
tine, but  this  sentence  was  revoked  two  or  three  years 
later.  Arianism  spread  rapidly  in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor, 
and  was  approved  by  the  Synods  of  Tyre  and  Jerusalem 
in  335  A.D. 

Soon  after  this  date  he  returned  to  Alexandria ;  but 
his  presence  excited  there  so  great  a  disturbance  that 
Constantine  recalled  him  to  Constantinople,  where  the 
Arians  were  numerous  and  powerful.  According  to 
some  writers,  he  avowed  his  submission  to  the  creed 
adopted  by  the  Council  of  Nice,  and  was  about  to  be 
restored  to  communion,  when  he  died  suddenly  near 
336  A.D.  Authorities  differ  respecting  the  place  of  his 
death  and  many  events  of  his  life.  Arianism  was  patron- 
ized as  the  religion  of  the  state  by  the  emperor  Con- 
stantius,  and  by  Valens,  The  contest  between  the 
Arians  and  Athanasians  (see  Athanasius)  raged  for 
more  than  two  centurici,  and  carnal  weapons  were  re- 
sorted to  by  each  party  to  enforce  its  arguments.  The 
Goths,  Vandals,  and  Suevi  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  cen- 
turies were  nearly  all  Arians. 

The  sect  became  divided  into  two  portions,  called 
"  Hetero-ousians"  (who  were  strict  or  ultra-Arians)  and 
Semi-Arians  or  "  Homoiousians,"  who  admitted  the 
"similar  essence"  of  the  Son  with  the  Father. 

The  followers  of  Arius  were  often  called  Eusebians, 
from  Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Nicomedia. 

See  Neander,  "Hisiorynf  the  Christian  Church  ;"  Maimbourg, 
"  Histolre  de  TArianisme  ;"  Stark,  "  Essay  on  Arianism,"  (in  Ger- 
man,) 1783:  G.  M.  Travasa,  "  Storia  critica  della  Vita  di  Ario," 
174S  :  Eusebius,  "  Vita  Constantini ;"  Sozomen,  "  H^sloria  Ecclesi- 
astical" Epiphanius.  "  Panarium  :"  Theodoret,  "Historia  Ecclesi- 
a&tica;"  Reuterdahl,  "Memorabilia  Arii  ejusque  Haereseos,"  1813. 

Arivey,  de  1',  deh  lS're\-a',  (Pierre,)  a  French  comic 
wiiter,  born  at  Troyes,  fiouri.shed  about  1550-80. 

Ai"ja,  a  German  spelling  of  Arya,  which  see. 

Arjasp  or  Argiasp,  ak'jasp',  a  king  of  Turin  or 
Tartary,  reigned  about  five  or  six  centuries  before 
Christ.  He  waged  war  against  Gushtasp,  King  of  Per- 
sia, because  the  Persians  had  adopted  the  religion  of 
Zoroaster.  He  was  defeated  and  killed  by  the  Persian 
prince  Isfendiyar. 

See  Malcolm's  "  History  of  Persia." 

Arje,  aR^Hi,  (R.  Jacob  Judah,)  a  learned  Spanish 
rabbi  and  antiquary,  born  about  1602,  resided  at  Am- 
sterdam, and  wrote  a  number  of  works.  His  great  work 
called  "Tabnith  Hecal"  ('*The  Model  of  the  Temple," 
1642)  was  highly  esteemed. 

Avie  or  Arie,  (R.  Judah.)    See  Leo  of  Modena. 

Arjona,  de,  di  aR-Ho'na,  (Manuel,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  at  Osuna  in  1761,  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life 
at  Seville.  He  became  doctoral  of  the  royal  chapel  of  San 
Fernando  at  Seville,  and  obtained  other  offices  in  the 
church.  He  wrote  an  "  Ode  to  the  Spanish  Nobility," 
("  Oda  a  la  Nobleza  Espanola,")  and  other  poems  of 
some  merit,  none  of  which  were  published  during  his 
life.    Died  in  1820. 

See  QuiNTANA,  "Tesoro  del  Parnaso  EspanoL" 

Ar'ju-na,  Ar'joon,  or  Ar'jun,  [Hindoo  pron.  ur'- 
jo6-na  or  ur'jdon,]  a  mythic  hero  among  the  Hindoos, 
supposed  to  represent  courage,  (or,  according  to  some 
writer.-,,  prudence.)    He  was  a  companion  of  Krishna. 

Arkenholtz.    See  Arckenholtz. 


Arkevolti,  aR-k^-vol'tee,  a  celebrated  Italian  rabbi, 
grammarian,  and  poet,  died  in  his  native  town  of  Padua 
in  161 1. 

Arkwright,  ark'rit,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  Englishman, 

whose  ingenuicy  has  contributed  greatly  to  the  prosperity 
of  Great  Britain,  was  born  at  Preston,  Lancashire,  in  1732, 
and  was  a  barber  in  his  youth.  He  is  the  reputed  in- 
ventor of  a  machine  for  spinning  cotton,  which  produced 
an  immense  extension  of  the  cotton-manufacture  in  the 
British  Empire.  He  set  up  the  machine  at  Preston  in  1 768, 
and  obtained  a  patent  for  it  in  1769,  about  which  date  he 
formed  a  partnership  with  Need  and  Strutt  of  Notting- 
ham. In  1 77 1  they  built  a  spinning-mill  on  the  Der- 
went  at  Cromford,  which  was  moved  by  water-power. 
This  enterprise  was  very  successful.  He  became  the 
proprietor  of  other  cotton-mills,  and  controlled  the  mar- 
ket of  cotton  yarn  for  some  years.  His  right  to  the 
patent  was  contested,  and  a  verdict  was  given  against 
him  in  1781;  but  his  business  continued  to  prosper.  He 
was  knighted  by  George  HI.  in  1786.  Died  in  1792. 
It  is  stated  that  he  left  property  valued  at  nearly  half  a 
million  sterling. 

Arkwright  is  celebrated  not  only  as  an  ingenious  in- 
ventor, but  also  as  the  founder  or  pioneer  of  the  factory 
system.  He  was  a  man  of  wonderful  energy  and  perse- 
verance. "  It  required,"  says  Dr.  Ure,  "  a  man  of  Napo- 
leon nerve  and  ambition  to  subdue  the  refractory  tempers 
of  workpeople  accustomed  to  irregular  paroxysms  of 
diligence,  and  to  urge  on  his  multifarious  and  intricate 
constructions  in  the  face  of  prejudice,  passion,  and  envy. 
Such  was  Arkwright,  who,  suffering  nothing  to  turn  aside 
his  progress,  arrived  gloriously  at  the  goal,  and  has  for- 
ever affixed  his  name  to  a  great  era  in  the  annals  of 
mankind." 

See  Dr.  Ure,  "  Cotton  Manufacture  of  Great  Britain,"  vol.  i.,  and 
"  Phi.osophyof  Manufactures,"  p.  14  ;  "  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under 
D  fficulties,"  vol.  ii.;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1827,  (vol.  xlvi. ;) 
Baines,  "History  of  the  Cotton  Manufacture  u\  Great  Britain;" 
"  Encyclopasdia  Britannica." 

Arkwright,  (Richard,)  the  only  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  born  in  1755,  and  inherited  excellent  talents  for 
business.  He  was  also  a  manufacturer  of  cotton,  and 
accumulated  an  immense  fortune,  which,  after  his  death, 
was  sworn  by  the  executors  to  exceed  one  million 
pounds  ;  but  this  was  a  mere  statement  of  form :  his 
actual  wealth  was  far  beyond  that  sum.  It  has  been 
stated  that  he  was  the  richest  commoner  of  England. 
He  was  well  versed  in  political  economy.   Died  in  1843. 

Arlaniboeus,  aR-lS-ne-bo'us,  (Filip,)  a  Swedish  his- 
torian of  the  seventeenth  century,  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"Swedish  Arms,"  ("  Arma  Suecica,"  1631.) 

Arlaud,  t.^OS',  (Benoit,)  a  Swiss  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Geneva,  worked  in  London.    Died  in  17 19. 

Arlaud,  (Jacques  Antoine,)  an  eminent  tniniature- 
painter,  born  at  Geneva  in  1668,  had  great  success  in  his 
art,  both  in  Paris  and  London.  He  formed  a  friendship 
with  Newton,  and,  after  his  return  to  Geneva,  corre- 
sponded with  him.    Died  at  Geneva  in  1746. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Ar-len'sis  de  Scu-da-lu'pis,  (Peter,)  an  alchemist, 
lived  in  the  last  part  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

ArTer  or  Arleri,  von,  fon  aR-la'ree,  (Peter,)  an  ar- 
chitect, born  in  Bologna  about  1333,  exercised  his  art  in 
Germany,  and  particularly  at  Prague,  where  he  was  for 
thirty  years  engaged  on  the  cathedral  of  Saint  Vitus,  a 
fine  specimen  of  the  Gothic  style.    He  was  living  in  1386. 

Arlincourt,  d',  dtR^ltN^kooR',  (Victor,)  Vicomte, 
a  French  poet  and  novelist,  born  near  Versailles  in  1789. 
He  was  appointed  auditor  to  the  Council  of  State  by 
Napoleon  I.  He  published  in  i8i8an  epic  poem  called 
"  Charlemagne,  ou  la  Caroleide."  His  most  popular  ro- 
mance is  "  Le  vSolitaire,"  (1825.)  His  style  is  eccentric, 
and  not  approved  by  the  critics.    Died  in  1856. 

Arlington,  Earl  of.    See  Bennet. 

Arlotti,  aR-lot'tee,  (Decio,)  an  Italian  dramatist  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  was  born  at  Reggio ;  died  in  1759. 

Arlotti,  (LuDOVico,)  an  Italian  poet  and  priest,  lived 
in  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Arlotti,  (Marcantonio,)  an  Italian  poet,  lived  in  the 
second  half  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Arlotti,  (Pompeo,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at  Reg- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  vl,  y,  lon^",       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  j?,  short;  a,    i,  9,  obscure;  far,  13,11,  fit;  m^t;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


i 


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ARLOTTI 


169 


ARM  FELT 


gio  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  wrote  a 
work  on  Bleeding  in  Fevers. 

Ariotti,  (RiDvJLFO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Reggio, 
in  Lombardy,  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  ceniury. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Tasso,  and  had  a  fair  reputation  as  a 
poet.  Among  his  works  was  a  poem  on  tne  Conquest 
of  Granada  by  Ferdinand  V.  of  Castile  and  Aragon. 
Died  in  1613. 

Arlotto,  aR-lot'to,  called  II  Piovano,  ^1  pe-o-vi'no, 
("The  Curate,")  or  Ariotto  Mdinardl,  aR-lot'to  mi- 
naR'dee,  a  celebrated  Italian  wit,  born  at  P'lorence  in 
1396,  was  originally  a  wool-comber,  but  afterwards  took 
holy  orders,  and  travelled  extensively.  He  was  a  favour- 
ite with  sovereigns  for  his  bonmots,  which  have  been 
published  at  various  times  and  in  different  languages. 
He  died  about  1483. 

Ar-io'tus  or  Ar'lot  de  Pra'to,  an  ecclesiastic,  born 
probably  in  Tuscany,  is  said  to  have  compiled  the  first 
Concordance  of  the  Bible.    Died  at  Paris  in  1287. 

Arluuo,  aR-loo'no,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  historian,  who  lived  at  Milan  about  1500,  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  history  of  his  native  city,  ("  Historia 
Patriae,")  which  was  never  printed, 

Arluno,  (Giovanni  Pietro,)  brother  of  the  above, 
was  a  physician  of  eminence.  He  practised  at  Milan, 
and  wrote  several  medical  works. 

Arma,  aR'ma,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  in  Piedmont.  He  was  appointed  first 
physician  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy  in  1553,  and  had  a  re- 
spectable reputation  as  a  medical  writer. 

Armagnac,  d,  dlR'mtn'yik',  (Bernard,)  Count, 
Constaule  of  France,  succeeded  to  his  title  and  estate 
in  1391.  He  was  ambitious,  unscrujiulous,  and  skilful 
in  war.  He  became  the  head  of  the  league  formed  in 
1410  by  the  princes  of  the  blood  against  the  Duke  of 
Burgundy,  and  was  the  chief  instigator  of  the  civil  war 
which  raged  between  the  "  Armagnacs"  and  the  "  Bur- 
gundians."  (See  Charles  VI,)  Called  by  Queen  Isabeau 
to  defend  the  kingdom  against  the  English  in  141 5,  he 
insisted  on  being  appointed  constable  and  chief  minister. 
Having  obtained  these  oflices,  he  treated  the  royal  family 
with  contempt,  and  rendered  himself  odious  to  the  peo- 
ple of  Paris  by  his  tyranny.  In  14 18  Paris  was  taken 
by  the  Burgundians,  who  massa-cred  the  Count  of  Ar- 
magnac, with  many  of  his  partisans. 

See  Rymer,  "  Fcedeia  ;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Fran<;ais." 

Armagnac,  (Jean,)  I,,  Count  of,  succeeded  to  liis 
coimty  in  1319,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  French 
service  under  the  kings  Philip  of  Valois,  John,  and 
Charles  V,,  taking  a  prominent  part  in  most  of  the  mili- 
tary movements  of  those  sovereigns.    Died  in  1373. 

Armagnac,  (Jean,)  III,,  Count  of,  was  a  brother  of 
Bernard,  and  grandson  of  Jean  I,  He  was  appointed 
captain-general  in  1385,  and  commanded  an  expedition 
for  the  conquest  of  Milan  from  Galeazzo  Visconti  in 
1391.  He  was  killed  in  battle  before  he  reached  Milan, 
in  the  same  year. 

Armagnac,  (Jean,)  IV.,  Count  of,  succeeded  his 
father  Bernard  VH.  in  141 8,  taking  sides  with  the  Eng- 
lish against  Charles  VII.  He  assumed  independent 
powers,  but  was  subdued  by  Lohis  XI.  (then  dauphin) 
in  1444,  and  imprisoned  for  a  year.    Died  in  1450. 

Armagnac,  (Jean,)  V.,  Count  of,  a  son  of  Jean 
IV.,  was  born  about  1420.  He  was  excommunicated 
by  the  pope  for  incest,  and  was  notorious  for  various 
crimes.  He  joined  the  League  of  the  Public  Good  in 
rebellion  against  Louis  XI.  about  1465.  After  this  rebel- 
lion was  terminated  by  the  treaty  of  Conflans,  he  again 
revolted.  He  was  taken  prisoner  and  killed  by  the 
royal  troops  in  1473. 

Armand,  tR'm6N',  (Alfred,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1805.  He  built  railway-stations  at  Ver- 
sailles, Amiens,  Paris,  Calais,  etc. 

Armand,  (Charles,)  Marquis  de  la  Rouarte,  deh 
It  roo't're',  a  French  officer  who  served  in  the  American 
war  of  the  Revolution  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general.    He  died  in  France  in  1793. 

Armand,  (Francois  Huguet,)  a  celebrated  French 
comedian,  born  at  Richelieu  in  1699,  and  died  at  Paris 
in  1765. 

Armand  de  Bourbon.    See  Conti. 


Armandi,  aR-min'dee,  (Pierre  Damien,)  a  general 
born  at  Fusignano,  in  Italy,  in  1778.  He  served  in  the 
French  army  during  the  empire,  and  obtained  on  thff 
field  of  Bautzen  (1813)  the  rank  of  colonel.  After  the 
restoration  of  1815  he  was  governor  of  the  eldest  son  of 
Louis  Bonaparte.  He  fought  for  the  Italian  insurgents 
in  1848-49,  and  commanded  the  artillery  at  Venice.  He 
wrote  a  valuable  work  entitled  "Military  History  of  Ele- 
phants," ("  Histoire  Militaire  des  Elepharts,"  1843.) 
Died  in  1855. 

Armani,  aR-mi'nee,  or  Armanni,  aR-m^n^nee,  (Gio- 
vanni Battista,)  an  excellent  Italian  improvisatore, 
born  in  Venice  in  1768,  performed  in  many  cities  of 
Italy,  and  held  several  civil  offices  under  Napoleon  in 
his  native  country.  He  translated  into  Italian  Chateau- 
briand's "Genius  of  Christianity"  and  "Martyrs,"  and 
wrote  two  dramas  which  added  nothing  to  his  reputa- 
tion.   Died  in  1815. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Armani,  (Piermartire,  pe-^lR-maR'te-ra,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  near  Modena  in  1613  ;  died  in  1669. 

Armann,  aR'man,  (Vincenz,)  called  by  the  Italians 
Vincenzo  Armanno,  a  Flemish  landscape-painter  of 
great  ability,  worked  a  number  of  years  at  Rome,  and 
painted  in  oil,  fresco,  and  distemper.  Died  at  Venice  in 
1649. 

Armansperg,  von,  fon  aR'mdn-spgRG  ,  (Joseph  Lud- 
wiG,)  Count,  a  liberal  German  statesman,  born  at  Kot- 
zing,  in  Bavaria,  in  1787.  He  attended  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  in  1815,  and  was  elected  to  the  chamber  of  depu- 
ties in  1825.  He  became  minister  of  finances  in  1826, 
and  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1828.  In  1832  he  was 
appointed  president  of  the  council  of  the  regency  formed 
for  Otho,  King  of  Greece,  who  was  a  minor.  He  directed 
the  affairs  of  Greece  until  February,  1837.    Died  in  1853. 

Armati,  aR-mS'tee,  (Salvino,  s^l-vee'no,)  a  Floren- 
tine, who  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  spectacles.  Little  is 
known  of  his  life.  His  epita])h,  preserved  by  L.  del 
Migliore  in  "Firenze  lUustrata,"  designates  him  as  the 
inventor  of  spectacles,  and  dates  his  death  in  13 17.  Vanni 
del  Busca,  who  wrote  in  1299,  mentions  spectacles  as  a 
recent  invention. 

Armelle,  SR^m^K,  (Nicole,)  a  French  mystic,  born  in 
1606,  was  celebrated  for  her  piety.  Her  life  was  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  "School  of  the  Pure  Love  of 
God,"  (Paris,  1704.)    Died  in  167 1. 

See  Zimmermann's  "Solitude." 

Armellini,  aR-m^l-lee'nee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  patriot 
and  eminent  lawyer,  was  born  at  Rome  about  1780. 
He  was  an  adherent  of  the  Roman  republic  formed 
under  French  influence  in  his  youth,  and  continued  to 
be  a  republican  to  the  last.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
provisional  government  formed  at  Rome  in  1848,  and 
one  of  the  committee  of  three  to  whom  the  executive 
power  was  confided  in  1849.  ^'"i  the  restoration  of  the 
pope  by  the  French  army  he  went  into  exile.  Died  in  1863. 

Armellini,  (Mariano,)  an  Italian  monk,  antifjuary, 
and  writer,  born  at  Ancona  about  1662;  died  in  1737. 

Armenini,  aR-mi-nee'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Faenza,  published  in  1587  "True 
Precepts  of  Painting,"  ("Veri  Precetti  della  Pittura.") 

Armero  y  Peneranda,  aR-mi'ro  e  pi-na-rin'di, 
(Francisco,)  a  Spanish  admiral  of  the  present  age.  He 
was  minister  of  the  marine  several  times  between  1840 
and  1850,  and  attained  the  rank  of  chief  admiral  in  1855. 
He  succeeded  Narvaez  as  prime  minister  in  1857. 

Armessin,  de  1',  deh  iSR'mi'siN',  (Nicolas,)  a 
French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1684.  He  engraved 
portraits  and  history  with  success,  and  received  the  title 
of  engraver  to  the  king.    Died  in  1755. 

His  father,  of  the  same  name,  born  in  1640,  was  an 
engraver  of  inferior  skill. 

Armfelt  or  Armfeldt,  aRm'fllt,  (Carl,)  Baron  of, 
an  eminent  Swedish  general,  born  in  Finland  in  1666. 
He  was  employed  by  Charles  XII.  to  defend  Finland 
against  the  Russians,  and  disj^layed  great  skill  and  valour 
in  a  battle  near  Storkyro,  in  1718,  but  was  overpowered 
by  superior  numbers.    Died  in  1736. 

Armfelt  or  Armfeldt,  (Gustaf  Mauritz,)  a  Swedish 
general  and  courtier,  born  in  the  province  of  Abo  in 
1757,  was  a  great-grandson  of  the  preceding.    He  was 


€  as     g  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  o,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


/ 


ARM  IN 


70 


ARMSTRONG 


a  favourite  of  Gustavus  III.,  and,  just  before  the  death 
of  that  king  in  1792,  was  appointed  governor  of  Stock- 
holm. In  1794  he  was  charged  with  treason  by  the 
regent,  who,  during  the  absence  of  Armfelt  on  a  mission 
to  Naples,  procured  a  sentence  of  death  against  him. 
He  was  restored  to  his  former  dignities  by  Gustavus  IV. 
in  1799,  and  appointed  governor-general  of  Finland  in 
1805.  In  1808  he  commanded  an  army  which  was  sent 
to  conquer  Norway,  but  failed.  He  entered  the  Russian 
service  in  1810,  and  obtained  several  high  offices.  Died 
in  1814. 

See  "Autobiography  of  G.  M.  Armfelt,"  1830. 

Ar'min  or  Ar'myn,  (Robert,)  an  English  actor  in 
Shakspeare's  company,  licensed  in  1603.  He  was  author 
of  a  small  work  called  "A  Nest  of  Ninnies,"  (1608,) 
which  is  of  little  value.  "The  Valiant  Welshman,"  a 
play,  (161 5,)  is  attributed  to  him. 

Arminius.    See  Hermann. 

Ar-min'i-u3,  (Fulgentius,  fiil-jgn'she-us,)  the  Latin 
n-ame  of  an  Italian  writer  who  became  Bishop  of  Nusco 
in  1669. 

Ar-min'i-us,  [Dutch  pron.  aR-mee'ne-iis,]  (Jacobus,) 
a  celebrated  Dutch  theologian,  from  whom  the  system 
of  theology  called  Arminianism  takes  its  name,  was  born 
at  Oudewater  in  1560.  His  Dutch  name  was  Jacob  Har- 
MENsen,  in  place  of  which  he  used  the  Latinized  form 
Arminius.  The  surname  Veteraquinas  (sometimes 
given  to  him)  was  derived  from  "  Veteres  Aquas,"  the 
Latin  for  Oudewater.  He  was  educated  at  Marburg, 
Leydeh,  and  Geneva,  1575-85,  visited  Rome  in  1586, 
and  was  ordained  a  minister  at  Amsterdam  in  1588.  He 
succeeded  Francis  Junius  as  professor  of  divinity  at  Ley- 
den  in  1603.  Before  this  date  he  had  entertained  doubts 
of  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  predestination,  and  had 
incurred  the  suspicion  of  heterodoxy.  In  1604  he  pro- 
pounded tenets  on  grace  and  predestination  which  were 
opposed  by  Francis  Gomar  and  others  and  excited  a 
violent  controversy.  His  adversaries  accused  him  of 
Pelagianism,  but  he  denied  the  charge.  Among  his 
adherents  were  Grotius  and  Olden-Barneveldt.  The 
Supreme  Court  of  the  Hague,  after  hearing  a  discussion 
between  Arminius  and  Gomar  in  1608,  declared  that  the 
difference  in  their  doctrines  was  of  little  importance.  A 
national  synod  was  convoked  to  settle  this  dispute  ;  but, 
before  the  appointed  time,  Arminius  died  in  1609,  leaving 
several  able  theological  treatises,  which  were  published 
in  one  volume,  (1629.)  He  was  a  man  of  blameless  life 
and  moderate  temper.  His  device  was,  "  A  good  con- 
science is  Paradise."  The  national  synod  which  met  at 
Dort  in  1618  condemned  the  five  articles  of  the  Armin- 
ian  creed,  the  adherents  of  which  were  severely  perse- 
cuted in  Holland  by  Maurice,  Prince  of  Orange.  The 
principles  of  Arminius  have  been  adopted  by  the  Wes- 
leyan  Methodists,  and  by  many  members  of  the  Anglican 
Church. 

See  Caspar  Brandt,  "Life  of  Arminius,"  (in  Latin,)  1724; 
MqsHEiM,  "Ecclesiastical  History;"  Petrus  Bertius,  "Oratio  in 
Obitum  J.  Arminii,"  1629;  Professor  Moses  Stuart,  "The  Creed 
of  Arminius,  with  a  Brief  Sketch  of  his  Life  and  Time,"  in  "The  Bibli- 
cal Repertory,"  1831. 

Ar'mis-tead,  (Lewis  A.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Virginia.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  1846-47, 
and  became  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  army 
in  1861.    He  was  killed  at  Gettysburg,  July,  1863, 

Armistead,  (Walker  Keith,)  an^American  general, 
born  in  Virginia  about  1780,  He  was  educated  at  West 
Point,  and  in  the  second  war  with  Great  Britain  was 
chief  engineer  to  the  army  on  the  Niagara,  and  after- 
wards at  Norfolk.  In  1828  he  was  breveted  a  brigadier- 
general,  and  in  1836-37  commanded  in  the  war  against 
the  Florida  Indians.    Died  in  1845. 

Ar'mi-tage,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  English  painter 
of  the  present  age,  has  executed,  besides  other  works, 
some  excellent  frescos  for  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament. 

Armonville,  tR'm6N'v^K,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
Jacobin  member  of  the  Convention,  born  at  Rheims  in 
1756  ;  died  in  1808. 

Arm'stron?,  (Archibald,)  commonly  called  Archy 
or  Archee,  jester  to  James  I.  of  England,  lost  his  place 
by  his  sarcasms  on  Archbishop  Laud,  and  died  in  1672. 

Armstrong,  (Francis,)  an  English  physician,  lived 
at  Uppingham;  died  in  1789. 


Armstrong,  (George,)  M.D.,  a  brother  of  John  the 

poet,  gave  peculiar  attention  to  the  diseases  of  children, 
and  founded  a  dispensary  for  the  relief  of  the  infant  poor 
in  London  in  1769.    Died  about  1780. 

Arm'strong,  (James,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Pennsylvania  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
He  took  part  in  the  defence  of  Fort  Moultrie  and  in  the 
battle  of  GermantowH.  He  was  a  representative  in  Con- 
gress from  1793  to  1795.    Died  in  1795. 

Armstrong,  (John  or  Johnnie,)  the  hero  of  a  ballad 
in  Scott's  "  Border  Minstrelsy,"  famous  for  his  freeboot- 
ing  expeditions  and  levies  of  black  mail  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Langholm.  He  was  hung,  by  order  of  James 
v.,  about  1529,  with  thirty-six  followers  who  had  come 
with  offers  of  service. 

Armstrong,  (John,)  an  eminent  British  poet  and 
physician,  born  at  Castleton,  Roxburghshire,  Scotland, 
about  1709.  He  took  his  degree  in  medicine  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1732,  soon  after  which  he  settled  in  London 
and  practised  with  little  success.  He  published  anony- 
mously in  1735  a  satirical  "Essay  for  Abridging  the 
Study  of  Physic  ;"  and  in  1737,  "The  Economy  of  Love," 
a  poem,  which  is  censured  for  indecency.  His  principal 
work  is  "The  Art  of  Preserving  Health,"  (1744,)  a  didac- 
tic poem,  which  was  received  with  favour  by  eminent 
critics  of  that  age,  and  often  reprinted.  "  There  is  a  clas- 
sical correctness  and  closeness  of  style  in  this  poem," 
says  Dr.  Warton,  "  that  are  truly  admirable,  and  the 
subject  is  raised  and  adorned  by  numberless  poetical 
images."  ("Reflections  on  Didactic  Poetry.") 

lie  afterwards  produced  "  Benevolence,  a  Poetical 
Epistle,"  (175 1,)  "Taste,  an  Epistle  to  a  Young  Critic," 
(1753,)  and  several  other  works.  He  was  physician  to 
the  army  in  Germany  from  1760  until  the  peace  of  1763, 
after  which  he  lived  on  half-pay.  In  1773  he  published 
a  volume  of  "Medical  Essays."  He  was  a  friend  of 
the  poet  Thomson.    Died  in  1779. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biosjraphical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;" 
Chalmers,  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets." 

Armstrong,  (John,)  an  English  military  engineer, 
wrote  a  "History  of  Minorca,"  (1752.)    Died  in  1758. 

Armstrong,  (John,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Carlisle,  in  Pennsylvania,  about  1758.  He  served  as  an 
officer  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  at  the  end  of  which  he 
wrote  the  celebrated  "  Newburg  Addresses,"  in  order  to 
obtain  redress  or  relief  for  the  officers  of  the  army.  He 
was  sent  as  minister  to  France  in  1804,  and  became  sec- 
retary of  war  in  January,  1813.  For  his  ill  success  in 
defending  Washington  against  the  British,  he  was  re- 
moved in  September,  1814.  He  died  in  1843.  (Allen 
says  1855.) 

Armstrong,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  medical 
writer,  born  near  Sunderland,  in  the  county  of  Durham, 
in  1784.  He  studied  in  Edinburgh,  and  practised  with 
success  in  Sunderland.  In  1814  he  published  a  treatise 
on  "Puerperal  Fever."  His  reputation  was  widely  ex- 
tended by  "  Practical  Illustrations  of  Typhus  Fever," 
(1816,)  which  was  a  very  popular  work.  He  removed 
to  London  in  1818,  and,  though  rejected  at  his  examina- 
tion by  the  College  of  Physicians,  obtained  great  profes- 
sional success  in  the  metropolis.  He  was  also  a  popular 
lecturer  in  the  Webb  Street  School  of  Medicine,  of  which 
he  was  one  of  the  founders.  It  appears  that  he  expressed 
a  great  contempt  for  medical  learning,  and  regarded  him- 
self as  a  reformer  of  the  science.  He  was  author  of  other 
works  besides  the  above-named.    Died  in  1829. 

See  "  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  J.  Armstrong,"  by  F.  Boott,  M.D., 
1834. 

Armstrong,  (John,)  an  English  writer  and  prelate, 
born  near  Sunderland  in  1813.  He  became  Bishop 
of  Grahamstown,  South  Africa,  about  1853.  Died  in 
1856. 

Armstrong,  (Rev.  John,^  a  Scottish  poet  and  politi- 
cal writer  of  much  promise,  born  at  Leith  in  1771,  re- 
moved to  London,  and,  while  expecting  church  ])refer- 
ment,  supported  himself  by  writing  for  periodicals.  He 
died  of  consumption,  induced  by  excessive  occupation, 
at  the  early  age  of  twenty-seven.  Many  of  his  poems 
appeared  in  the  daily  papers  of  that  time. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  September,  1797. 

Armstrong,  (John  Mostyn,)  an  English  geogra- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;    6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  ^,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ARMSTRONG 


ARNAUD 


pher  of  the  eighteenth  century,  published  an  "  Essay  on 
the  Contour  of  the  Coast  of  Norfolk,"  (1791.) 

Armstrong,  (Robert,)  a  general  in  the  Florida  war, 
was  born  in  Tennessee  about  1790.  Died  at  Washing- 
ton in  1854.  General  Jackson  bequeathed  to  him  his 
sword. 

Armstrong,  (Samuel  T.,)  a  noted  bookseller  of  Bos- 
ton, mayor  of  the  city,  and  Governor  of  Massachusetts 
for  the  unexpired  term  occasioned  in  1836  by  the  elec- 
tion of  Governor  Davis  to  the  United  States  Senate. 
Died  in  1850,  aged  sixty-six. 

Armstrong,  (Sir  Thomas,)  a  British  subject,  born  at 
Nymvvegen,  was  twice  imprisoned  by  Cromwell  for  his 
adherence  to  the  royal  cause  ;  released  and  rewarded  at 
the  restoration,  he  fell  under  suspicion  of  the  court  as 
an  intimate  friend  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  and  an 
accomplice  in  the  Rye-House  Plot,  and  suffered  death 
in  1684,  under  circumstances  of  great  injustice.  A  com- 
mittee of  the  House  in  1689  reported  that  "his  execu- 
tion was  illegal,  and  was  murder  under  pretence  of 
justice." 

Armstrong,  (Sir  William  George,)  F.R.S.,  an 
English  engineer,  inventor  of  the  Armstrong  gun,  was 
born  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  in  1810.  He  became  pro- 
prietor of  an  establishment  for  the  manufacture  of  hy- 
draulic engines  for  the  use  of  mines,  etc.  About  1856 
he  invented  the  wrought-iron  rifled  cannon  which  bears 
his  name  and  is  extensively  used.  Since  that  date  he 
was  appointed  engineer-in-chief  for  rifled  ordnance,  and 
superintendent  of  a  foundry  at  Woolwich. 

Armstrong,  (William  Joseph,)  an  American  Pres- 
byterian divine,  born  at  Mendham,  New  Jersey,  in  1796. 
He  was  pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  in  Rich- 
mond, Virginia,  from  1824  to  1834.  He  was  lost  at  sea 
in  the  steamer  Atlantic  in  November,  1846.  A  volume 
of  his  sermons,  with  a  memoir  of  his  life,  has  been  pub- 
lished. 

Armyn,  (Robert.)    See  Armin. 

Arnal,  aR-nSK,  (Juan  Pedro,)  a  learned  Spanish 
architect,  born  at  Madrid  in  1735.  He  was  appointed 
vice-director  of  the  Academy  of  San  Fernando  in  1774, 
and  director  of  architecture  in  the  same  Academy  in 
1786.  The  latter  appointment  was  made  by  the  king. 
Died  in  1805. 

Ar'nald,  (Richard,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Lon- 
don near  the  close  of  flie  seventeenth  century,  became  a 
fellow  or  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  and  rector  of 
Thurcaston,  Leicestershire,  in  1733.  His  principal  work 
is  a  "Critical  Commentary  on  the  Apocryphal  Books," 
which  is  esteemed  judicious  and  valuable.  It  is  usually 
printed  as  a  continuation  of  the  commentaries  of  Lowth 
and  Patrick.    Died  in  1756. 

See  J.  Nichols,  "  History  and  Antiquities  of  Leicester." 

Arnald,  (William,)  son  of  the  above,  and  preceptor 
to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  was  for  twenty  years  insane, 
and  died  in  1802. 

Arnaldi,  aR-nSKdee,  (Enea,  i-na'S,)  an  Italian  count 
who  was  born  at  Vicenza  in  1716,  and  devoted  much  at- 
tention to  architecture.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  con- 
struction of  theatres,  and  another  "  On  Ancient  Basili- 
cas, and  particularly  those  of  Vicenza,"  ("  Delle  Basiliche 
antiche,  e  specialmente  di  quella  di  Vicenza,"  1767.) 

Arnaldo  (aR-nSKdo)  or  Arnold  o''^  Brescia,  bR^sh'a, 
[in  I  atin.ARNAL'DUS,  Arnul'phus,  or  Arnol'dus  Brix- 
IEN^sis;  Fr.  Arnaud  (tR'noO  de  P.rescia,!  an  eloquent 
Italian  agitator  and  reformer,  was  born  at  Brescia  about 
the  end  of  the  eleventh  century.  He  studied  under  the 
celebrated  Abelard  in  France,  and  on  his  return  to 
Italy  became  a  monk  and  preacher.  At  this  time  the 
corruption  of  the  clergy  was  general  and  notorious.  He 
beejan  to  preach  openly  that  the  clergy  ought  not  to  pos- 
sess temporal  property  or  power,  and  ou^ht  to  be  con- 
tented with  their  tithes  and  the  free  offerings  of  the 
people.  His  doctrines  were  received  with  favour  by 
many  nobles  and  others,  and  produced  much  excite- 
ment. For  this  cause  he  was  banished  from  Italy  by 
Pope  Innocent  II.  in  1139.  He  retired  to  France  and 
Switzerland,  where  he  obtained  many  adherents. 

In  1143  the  populace  of  Rome,  who  favoured  the 
opinions  of  Arnaldo,  revolted  against  the  pope.  On 
learning  this  event,  Arnaldo  went  to  Rome  and  raised 


there  the  standard  of  civil  liberty  and  religious  reform. 
Excited  by  his  harangues,  the  Romans  established  a 
senate,  deried  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope,  and  some 
of  the  more  violent  committed  great  excesses  against 
the  persons  and  property  of  the  cardinals.  The  pope, 
Eugenius  HI.,  was  ariven  out  of  Rome  in  1146.  His 
successor,  Adrian  IV..  reduced  the  people  to  submis- 
sion by  placing  Rome  under  an  interdict  in  1 1 54.  Arnaldo 
was  driven  out  of  the  city,  and  afterwards  seized  by 
Frederick  Barbarossa.  who  delivered  him  to  his  ene- 
mies. He  was  put  to  death  at  Rome  in  1155.  His  vio- 
lent enemy  Saint  Bernard  admits  that  his  morals  were 
pure. 

See  J.  D.  KoLER,  "  Dissertatio  de  Arnoldo  Brixiensi,"  1742;  D. 
H.  Franke,  "Arnold  von  Brescia,"  Zurich,  1825;  Hodgson,  "Re- 
formers and  Manyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867;  Guadagnini,  "  Difesa 
di  Arnoldo  da  Brescia,"  2  vols.,  1790;  D'Achery,  "  Spicilegium  ;" 
Saint  Bernard,  "  Epistola; ;"  Beck,  "  Arnold  von  Brescia ;"  Qui- 
RiN,  "  Essai  historique  sur  Arnaud  de  Brescia,"  1848. 

Ar-naFdus  Vil-la-no-va'nus,  [Fr.  Arnaud  de 
Villeneuve,  tR'no''  deh  v^l'nuv';  It.  Arnaldo  di  Vil- 
LANoVA,  aR-naKdo  de  vel-lS-no'va,]  written  also  Arnal'- 
dus  Novicomen''sis,  a  celebrated  physician,  born 
about  1235.  He  studied  at  Paris,  at  Montpellier,  and 
in  Italy,  seems  to  have  possessed  all  the  medical  and 
chemical  knowledge  of  his  day,  and  paid  particular  atten^ 
tion  to  alchemy.  His  medical  essays  are  numerous,  as 
well  as  others  on  alchemy  and  religion.  He  incurred 
the  charge  of  heresy  at  one  time  for  his  religious  specu- 
lations. He  was  also  employed  in  diplomatic  affairs  by 
the  Kings  of  Sicily  and  Naples,  and  died  in  13 13  on  his 
way  to  Avignon  to  visit,  as  a  physician,  Clement  V.,  who 
had  sent  for  him. 

See  Campegius,  "Arnaldi  Vita;"  Pierre  Joseph  Haitze,  "Vie 
d'Arnauld,"  1719;  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibiioiheca  Hispana  Vetus." 

Ar'nall,  (William,)  a  political  pamphleteer,  editor 
of  the  "  British  Journal,"  "  Free  Briton,"  and  an  instru- 
ment of  Sir  Robert  Walpole's,  has  been  condemned  to 
notoriety  in  Pope's  "Dunciad."    He  died  about  1740. 

Arnas  Magnaeus.    See  Arni-Magnusson. 

Arnasou,  aR'nS-son,  (Jon,)  a  Danish  jurist,  born  in 
Iceland  about  1727  ;  died  in  1777. 

Aruason,  (Jon,)  an  Icelandic  writer,  born  at  Hof  in 
1819.  He  published,  besides  several  biographies  and 
other  works,  "  Icelandic  Popular  Tales  and  Adventures," 
(Leipsic,  1862-64,)  an  English  version  of  which  appeared 
in  1864. 

Arnason,  (Magnus  Jon,)  Bishop  of  Skalholt,  and  a 
man  of  great  learning,  was  born  in  Iceland  in  1665,  but 
studied  in  Copenhagen.  He  appears  to  have  been  a 
faithful  but  rigid  ecclesiastical  ruler.    He  died  in  1743. 

Arnau,  iR-now',  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  painter,  boin  at 
Barcelona  in  1595,  excelled  as  a  colorist.    Died  in  1693. 

Arnaud,  tR''n6',  (Daniel,)  a  celebrated  French  Pro- 
vencal poet,  born  in  Perigord,  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century. 

See  Longfellow's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Arnaud,  (Francois,)  a  French  abbe,  writer,  and 
critic,  born  near  Carpentras  in  172 1.  He  published  in 
1 754  a  "  Letter  on  Music  to  the  Count  de  Caylus,"  which 
was  received  with  favour.  He  was  associated  with  M. 
Suard  as  joint  editor  of  the  "Journal  Stranger,"  (1760- 
62,)  and  of  the  "Gazette  litteraire  de  I'Europe,"  (8  vols., 
1764-66.)  In  1771  he  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy,  and  became  reader  and  librarian  to  Monsieur, 
afterwards  Louis  XVIII.    Died  in  1784. 

Arnaud,  (George,)  a  jurist  and  classical  scholar,  of 
French  extraction,  born  at  Franeker,  in  Holland,  in  171 1. 
Before  he  attained  the  age  of  twenty,  he  excelled  as  a 
classical  antiquary  and  critic.  He  became  professor  of 
law  at  Franeker  in  1739,  and  died  in  1740,  leaving  seve- 
ral critical  and  legal  works,  which  have  a  high  reputa- 
tion. 

Arnaud,  (Henri,)  a  warlike  pastor  of  the  Waldenses, 
born  at  La  Tour  or  La  Torre,  in  Piedmont,  in  1641,  was 
noted  for  his  sagacity  and  ability  as  a  military  leader. 
He  led  a  successful  expedition  of  the  Waldenses,  (Vau- 
dois,)  who  in  1689  recovered  by  arms  their  homes,  from 
which  they  had  been  expelled  by  the  Duke  of  Savoy  on 
account  of  their  religion.  In  their  march  among  or  o\  er 
the  Alps  towards  their  native  valleys,  they  defeated  the 
French  armies  in  several  battles.    An  account  of  this 


€  as  k;  (i  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  YLyguthiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ARNAUD 


172 


ARNAULD 


expedition,  written  by  Arnaud,  was  published  in  English 
in  1827.  He  served  as  colonel  in  the  armies  of  the  allies 
'n  the  war  against  the  French  which  began  about  1702. 
Died  at  Schonberg  in  172 1. 

Arnaud,  d',  dtR''n6',  (pRANgois  Thomas  Marie 
Baculard — bt'kii'iSR',)  a  voluminous  French  writer  of 
plays,  novels,  etc.,  born  in  Paris  in  1718,  was  patronized 
in  his  youth  by  Voltaire.  He  afterwards  corresponded 
with  Frederick  the  Great,  who  addressed  to  him  some 
complimentary  verses.  His  biographers  record  with 
admiration  his  inswer  to  Frederick,  who,  after  several 
atheists  had  just  professed  their  creed,  asked  the  opinion 
of  Arnaud  on  the  subject.  He  replied,  "  I  rejoice  to  be- 
lieve in  the  existence  of  a  being  greater  and  wiser  than 
kings."  He  wrote  many  novels,  which  had  a  temporary 
popularity.  Among  his  principal  works  is  a  collection 
of  anecdotes  and  essays  called  "  Recreations  of  the  Man 
of  Sensibility,"  (*'Les  Delassements  de  I'Homme  sensi- 
ble," 12  vols.,  1784.)    Died  in  1805. 

See  QuERARU,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Arnaud  de  Marsan,  tR'no'  deh  mtR''s6N',  a  Pro- 
ven9al  troubadour,  and  the  author  of  a  poem  illustrating 
the  society  of  the  age  of  the  troubadours. 

Arnaud  de  Nobleville.    See  Arnault  de  Noble- 

VILLE. 

Arnaud  de  Ronsil,  tR'n5'  deh  r^N^s^F  or  r^N'se'ye, 
(George,)  a  skilful  French  surgeon,  born  about  1700, 
devoted  himself  especially  to  the  treatment  of  hernia. 
He  practised  in  Paris,  and  subsequently  in  London,  with 
a  high  reputation.  His  writings  are  praised  for  clear- 
ness and  profoundness.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  Disser- 
tation on  Hernias,"  (2  vols.,  1749.)    Died  in  1774. 

Arnaud  de  Villa  Nova.    See  Arnaldus. 

Arnauld,  tk^no',  (Ang6ltque,)  called  also  Ange- 
lique  de  Saint-Jean,  oN^zha'l^k'  deh  siN'zhSN',  an 
eminent  nun,  born  in  1624,  was  a  niece  of  Marie  Ange- 
lique  and  a  daughter  of  Robert  Arnauld  d'Andilly. 
She  was  elected  prioress  of  Port-Royal  in  1669,  and  ab- 
bess in  1678,  after  which  she  was  persecuted  by  the 
Jesuits.  She  was  considered  a  prodigy  of  piety  and 
learning,  and  it  is  stated  that  her  father  said,  "  AH  m^ 
children  and  myself  are  fools  in  comparison  of  Ange- 
lique."  She  was  the  principal  author  of  a  biographical 
work  called  "Memoires  pourservir  a  I'Histoirede  Port- 
Royal,"  (3  vols.,  1742.)    Died  in  1684. 

See  Sainte-Reuve,  "  Port- Royal,"  and  Mary  Anne  Schimmel- 
PENNiNCK,  "Memoirs  of  Port-Royal,"  2  vols.,  1853. 

Arnauld,  (Antoine,)  procureur-general  to  Catherine 
de  Medicis,  was  a  man  of  eminent  abilities,  and,  though 
a  Huguenot,  was  saved  from  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bar- 
tholomew by  Catherine.    He  died  in  1585. 

Arnauld,  formerly  written  Arnaud,  (Antoine,)  sur- 
named  L'Avocat,  (ll'vo^kS',)  or  "the  Advocate,"  a  cele- 
brated orator,  born  in  Paris  in  1560,  was  the  most 
eloquent  French  pleader  of  his  day,  and  the  father  of 
the  eminent  Arnaulds  of  Port-Royal.  He  succeeded  his 
father  as  procureur-general  in  1585.  His  most  celebrated 
speech  was  a  "  plaidoyer"  for  the  University  of  Paris 
against  the  Jesuits  in  1594,  which  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  cause  of  the  persecution  which  the  recluses  of 
Port-Royal  suffered  after  his  death.  He  died  in  1619, 
leaving  six  daughters  and  four  sons,  all  of  whom  were 
distinguished. 

Arnauld,  (Antoine,)  Doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  a 
celebrated  theologian  and  philosopher,  born  in  Paris  on 
the  6th  of  February,  161 2,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding 
and  Catherine  Marion.  He  was  the  most  celebrated 
member  of  the  family  of  Arnauld,  and  was  sometimes 
called  "  le  grand  Arnauld."  He  was  ordained  a  priest 
in  1 64 1,  and  became  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne  about 
the  same  time.  In  1643  he  published  an  able  work  "  On 
Frequent  Communion,"  ("  De  la  frequente  Communion,") 
which  made  a  powerful  impression,  and  gave  great 
offence  to  the  Jesuits,  of  whom  he  was  always  a  deter- 
mined antagonist.  This  work  produced  a  reform  in 
the  style  of  French  theologians,  and  set  an  example  of 
a  purer  taste,  which  was  soon  followed  by  Pascal  and 
Boss  net. 

In  the  controversy  respecting  grace  which  arose  be- 
tween Jansenius  and  his  opponents,  Arnauld  became  a 
zealous  Jansenist.    He  passed  some  years  in  the  retire- 


ment and  seclusion  of  Port-Royal,  (a  convent  near  Paris,) 
and  wrote  many  works  on  theology  and  philosophy.  In 
1656  he  was  expelled  from  the  Society  of  the  Sorbonne  for 
a  work  which  he  wrote  on  the  Jansenist  question.  TMs 
affair  gave  rise  to  the  '*  Provincial  Letters"  of  Pascal,  for 
which  Arnauld  furnished  some  materials.  During  the 
persecution  to  which  his  party  was  exposed  from  1656 
to  1668,  he  lived  in  concealment.  He  published  in  1669 
"The  Perpet'iity  of  the  Faith  of  the  Catholic  Church 
touching  the  Eucharist  defended  against  Sieur  Claude 
de  Charenton,"  which  added  to  his  reputation.  A  large 
part  of  it  was  written  by  Nicole.  He  sought  refuge  from 
the  enmity  of  the  Jesuits  in  exile  in  1679,  after  which  he 
lived  in  various  cities  of  Flanders  and  Holland  until  his 
death,  which  occurred  at  Brussels  in  1694. 

Arnauld  was  remarkable  for  his  simplicity  of  charac- 
ter and  habits,  his  impetuosity,  and  his  industry.  Boileau 
wrote  his  epitaph,  and  designated  him  "the  most  learned 
mortal  that  ever  wrote,"  ("le  plus  savant  mortel  qui 
jamais  ait  ecrit.")  His  fellow-worker  Nicole  having 
expressed  a  desire  for  repose  and  respite  from  their  long 
literary  and  dogmatical  strife,  Arnauld  exclaimed,  "  Will 
you  not  have  all  eternity  to  rest  in?"  (" N'aurez-vous 
pas  pour  vous  reposer  I'eternite  toute  entiere  ?") 

Among  his  works,  which  were  collected  in  a  good 
edition  oX  forty-five  closely-printed  quarto  volumes, 
(1775-83,)  are  "  La  Logique,  ou  I'Art  de  Penser,"  (1662,) 
an  excellent  treatise,  generally  called  "The  Port-Royal 
Logic;"  "Elements  of  Geometry,"  (1667;)  a  "Treatise 
on  True  and  False  Ideas,"  (1683 — in  opposition  to  the 
theory  of  Malebranche  ;)  and  "  The  Practical  Morality 
of  the  Jesuits,"  ("  Morale  pratique  des  Jesuites,"  8  vols., 
1683-94.)  He  aided  Lancelot  in  the  composition  of  the 
"  Grammaire  generale  et  raisonnee." 

See  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  M.  Arnauld,"  by  P. 
QuESNEL,  1697;  "Vie  d' Antoine  Arnauld,"  by  Larriere,  1783; 
"  Histoire  de  la  Vie  etdes  Ouvrages  de  M.  Arnauld  ;"  Sainte-Beuve, 
"  Port-Royal,"  vol.  ii. ;  Varin,  "  La  Verite  sur  les  Arnauld,"  2  vols., 
1847;  C.  Jourdain,  "Notice  sur  les  Travaux  philosophiques  d'A. 
Arnauld,"  1843;  "Biographic  Universelle." 

Arnauld,  (Antoine,)  commonly  called  the  Abb6, 
born  in  1616,  was  the  son  of  Robert  Arnauld  d'Andilly. 
He  first  joined  the  army,  but,  failing  of  promotion,  re- 
sorted to  the  Church.  He  was  a  moderate  Jansenist. 
In  1674  Louis  XIV.  conferred  on  him  the  abbey  of 
Chaumes-en-Brie.  He  died  in  1698,  leaving  some  valu- 
able historic  Memoirs,  published  in  1756. 

Arnauld  or  Arnaud,  iR^no',  (Antoine,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1749,  was  of  humble  birth, 
but,  joining  the  army  in  1 791,  he  distinguished  himself 
under  Dumouriez,  in  the  campaign  on  the  Rhine,  at 
Hohenlinden  and  other  places.  He  died  in  Holland  in 
1804. 

Arnauld,  (Henri,)  Bishop  of  Angers,  the  sixth  child 
of  "  L'Avocat"  before  mentioned,  was  born  in  1597.  In 
his  early  career  he  pursued  the  law,  and  spent  several 
years  at  Rome  as  attache  to  Cardinal  Bentivoglio.  On 
his  appointment  to  the  bishopric  of  Angers,  from  a  com- 
plete worldling  he  became  a  self-denying,  charitable,  and 
laborious  pastor.    He  died  at  Angers  in  1692. 

See  Besoigne,  "  Vie  de  Henri  Arnauld,"  2  vols.,  1750. 

Arnauld,  (Marie  Ang^lique,)  de  Sainte-Made- 
leine,  a  sister  of  Antoine  Arnauld,  (1612-94,)  was  born 
in  1 591.  Her  original  name  was  Jacqueline  Marie. 
She  became  in  early  youth  abbess  of  Port-Royal,  in 
which  she  made  a  reform  by  enforcing  a  rigid  ascetic 
regimen,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  virtue  and 
intelligence.  Died  in  1661.  Her  sister  Agnes  was  also 
abbess  of  Port- Royal,  and  author  of  two  religious  books. 
These  sisters  were  Jansenists.    Agnes  died  in  1671. 

Arnauld,  (SimonJ  Marquis  de  Pomponne.  See 

POMPONNE. 

Arnauld  d'Andilly,  iR^no'  dSN'de'ye',  (Rorert,) 
the  eldest  brother  of  the  great  Antoine  Arnauld,  and 
father  of  Angeli  |ue,  (de  Saint- Jean,)  noticed  above,  born 
in  Paris  in  1589,  was  distinguished  for  probity,  piety,  and 
literary  ability.  In  early  life  he  had  much  favour  and 
influence  at  the  court  of  Louis  XITI.,  who,  it  is  said, 
offered  him  the  office  of  secretary  of  state,  which  he  de- 
clined. He  accepted  the  place  of  intend  mt  of  the  army 
in  1634.  About  1645  he  retired  from  the  world  and 
entered  the  monastery  of  Port-Royal.    His  principal 


5,  e,  I,  5  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/ior^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ARNAULD 


173 


ARNEMANN 


works  are  interesting  autobiographical  Memoirs,  pub- 
lished in  1734,  and  an  elegant  translation  of  Josephus's 
History,  {1667-69.)  He  died  in  1674,  leaving  a  son, 
Simon,  Marquis  de  Pomponne. 

Arnauld  (Arnold)  de  Chartres,  tR^no'  deh  shtRtR, 
[Lat.  Arnol'dus  Carnoten'sis,]  a  French  writer  on 
the(yl.)§y,  became  abbot  of  Bonneval  in  1138.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "On  the  Principal  Works  of 
Christ,"  ("  De  Cardinalibus  Christi  Operibus.")  His  style 
is  elega.it. 

Ariiauid  de  Marveil,  ta'no^  deh  mSR'vaF  or  nitR'- 
va'ye,  written  also  Aruaud  de  Merueil  or  de  Ma- 
rueih,  a  Provencal  troubadour,  whom  Sismondi  places 
highest  as  an  amatory  poet  of  his  day.  He  died  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century. 

Arnault,  SR^n5^  (Lucien  Emile,)  a  French  dramatic 
writer,  son  of  Vincent  Antoine,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Versailles  in  1787.  He  was  appointed  auditor  to  the 
council  of  state  in  1808.  He  produced  a  number  of 
tragedies,  one  of  which,  entitled  "  Regulus,"  was  success- 
ful. After  the  revolution  of  1830  he  was  prefect  of 
several  departments. 

Arnault,  (Vincent  Antotne,)  a  French  poet  and 
dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1766.  He  began  his  career 
by  the  tragedy  of  "Marius  at  Minturnae,"  (1791,)  which 
had  great  success.  He  was  author  of  two  other  popular 
tragedies,  entitled  "Lucrece,"  (1792,)  and  "  Germanicus," 
(1816,)  and  of  a  number  of  poems,  fables,  etc.  In  1797 
he  was  charged  by  Napoleon  to  organize  the  government 
of  the  Ionian  Isles.  In  1808  he  was  appointed  chief  or 
director  of  public  instruction.  He  succeeded  Andrieux 
in  1833  as  perpetual  secretary  of  the  French  Academy, 
and  published  "Souvenirs  of  a  Sexagenarian,"  (4  vols., 
1833.)    Died  in  1834. 

See  JouRDAiN,  "Poetes  Frangais." 

Arnault  (tR^no^  or  Arnaud  de  Nobleville,  deh 

nobl'veK,  (Louis  Daniel,)  a  French  physician,  noted  for 
his  benevolence,  born  at  Orleans  in  1701.  He  devoted 
himself  to  the  gratuitous  service  of  the  poor  in  his  native 
city.  He  wrote  a  "Manual  for  Charitable  Ladies," 
("Manuel  des  Dames  de  Charite,"  1747,)  often  r-^printed, 
and  a  "Natural  History  of  Animals,"  to  serve  as  a  sup- 
plement to  the  Materia  Medica  of  Geoffroy,  (6  vols.,  1 756.) 
Died  in  1778. 

Aruavon,  SR^nt'v^N',  (Franqois,)  a  French  theolo- 
gian, born  near  Vaucluse  about  1740;  died  in  1824. 

Arnay,  d',  dtR'n<y,  (Johannes  Rudolphus,)  a  Swiss 
writer,  born  in  the  canton  of  Berne  in  1710.  He  became 
professor  of  eloquence  and  history  at  Lausanne,  and 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Private 
Life  of  the  Romans,"  (1732.)    Died  in  1766. 

Arnd,  aRnt,  (Christian,)  a  German  writer  on  phi- 
losophy and  logic,  born  in  1623  ;  died  in  1653. 

Arnd,  Arnt,  or  Arndt,  aRnt,  (Johann,)  a  German  Lu- 
theran divine  of  great  merit,  born  at  Ballenstadt,  duchy 
of  Anhalt,  in  December,  1555.  He  was  minister  at  Qued- 
linburg  from  1590  to  1599,  and  then  removed  to  Bruns- 
wick. He  was  an  earnest  teacher  of  practical  religion. 
About  1595  he  published  the  first  part  of  his  great  work 
"  On  True  Christianity,"  ("  Vom  wahren  Christenthum,") 
which  produced  a  powerful  impression,  was  admired  as 
a  master-piece  of  composition,  and  translated  into  nearly 
all  the  languages  of  Europe.  There  are  English  versions 
of  itbyBoehm  (1712)  and  W.  Jacques,  (1815.)  Probably 
no  other  book  except  the  Bible  has  been  so  often  printed 
in  Germany.  In  1611  he  became  general  superintendent 
at  Zelle,  where  he  died  in  1621,  leaving  several  other 
works. 

See  "Johann  Arnd,  ein  biographischer  Versuch,"  von  Fr.  Arndt, 
1838;  F.  W.  Krummacher,  "J.  Arnds  Leben,"  1842;  Wilden- 
HAHN,  "J.  Arnt:  Zeitbild  aiis  Braiinschweigs  Kirchen- imd  Stadtge- 
schichte,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1847;  Wehrhan,  "  Lebensgeschichte  "J. 
Arndts,"  1848;  H.  L.  Pertz,  "Commentatio  de  J.  Arndtio,"  1852. 

Arnd,  [Lat.  Arn'dius,]  (Josua  or  Josiah,)  a  German 
Lutheran  minister  and  prolific  writer,  born  at  Giistrow 
in  1626.  He  became  professor  of  logic  at  Rostock  in 
1653,  and  resigned  that  chair  in  1656,  after  which  he 
preached  at  Giistrow.  He  wrote  in  Latin  on  theology, 
philosophy,  history,  etc.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Lexi- 
con of  Ecclesiastical  Antiquities,"  (1667,)  and  several 
Latin  poems.    Died  in  1684. 

Arnd,  (Karl,)  one  of  the  earliest  bibliographical 


writers,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Giistrow  in 
1673.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Rostock  in 
1708,  and  published  several  learned  works.  Died  in  1721. 

Arndt,  aRnt,  (Ernst  Moritz,)  a  popular  German 
poet  and  political  writer,  born  in  the  Prussian  island  of 
Riigen  on  the  26th  of  December,  1769.  His  fiirst  work 
was  a  book  of  "Travels  in  Germany,  Hungary,  and 
Italy,"  (1797-98.)  He  became  a  professor  at  Greitswalde 
in  1806,  and  successfully  invoked  the  spirit  of  German 
nationality  against  the  aggressions  of  Napoleon,  in  his 
"Spirit  of  the  Time,"  ("Geist  der  Zeit,"  1806.)  He 
zealously  promoted  the  war  of  independence  (1812-13) 
by  a  number  of  spirited  songs,  poems,  and  pamphlets, 
which  were  considered  master-pieces.  His  famous  song, 
"Was  ist  des  Deutschen  Vaterland  ?"  ("What  is  the 
German's  Fatherland  .''")  is  called  the  most  popular  song 
of  Germany.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  hist^vry  at 
the  University  of  Bonn  in  1818;  but  he  was  suspended 
from  his  functions  in  1819,  because  he  insisted  on  the 
constitutional  reforms  which  the  king  had  promised. 
Arndt  was  restored  to  his  chair  at  Bonn  in  1840,  and 
was  deputed  to  the  National  Assembly  of  Frankfort  in 
1848.  Among  his  works  are  a  tract  entitled  "Ueber 
Landwehr  und  Landsturm,"  ("On  the  Militia  and  the 
Levy  en  Masse,"  1812,)  and  "Souvenirs  of  my  Life," 
(1 840.)    He  died  in  i860. 

See  W.  Neumann,  "  E.  M.  Arndt:  eine  Biographic;"  E.  M. 
Arndt,  "  Eriunerungen  aus  dem  aussern  Leben,"  1840;  Longfel- 
low, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Arndt,  (Gottfried  August,)  a  German  writer  on 
history  and  law,  born  at  Breslau  in  1748.  He  became 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  political  economy  at 
Leipsic  in  1791.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Archives  of  the  History  of  Saxony,"  (3  vols.,  1784-86.) 
Died  in  1819. 

Arndt,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Halle  in  1713.  He  was  rector  of  a  gymnasium 
at  Riga,  and  published  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Chroni- 
cles of  Livonia,"  (1740-50.)    Died  in  1767. 

Arndt,  von,  fon  aRnt,  (C.  Gottlieb,)  a  German 
writer,  and  imperial  councillor  of  Catherine  II.  of  Rus- 
sia, published  a  work  "  On  the  Origin  of  European 
Dialects."    Died  in  1829. 

Arndts,  aRnts,  or  Arendts,  S'r&nts,  (Ludwig,)  a  Ger- 
nian  jurist,  born  at  Arnsberg,  in  Prussia,  in  1805.  He 
was  successively  professor  of  law  at  Bonn,  Munich,  and 
Vienna,  and  wrote  a  "Manual  on  the  Pandects,"  and 
other  works. 

Arne,  arn,  (Cecilia,)  (originally  Young,)  one  of  the 

most  distinguished  singers  of  her  time,  was  the  wife  of 
Thomas  Arne.    Died  in  1776. 

Arne,  (Michael,)  an  English  composer,  son  of  Tho- 
mas, noticed  below,  was  born  in  London  about  1740. 
He  inherited  a  moderate  portion  of  his  father's  talent. 
His  principal  work  was  the  opera  of  "  Cymon,"  (1767.) 
He  composed  several  popular  songs,  among  which  is 
"The  Topsails  shiver  in  the  Wind."    Died  in  1785. 

Arne,  (Susanna.)    See  Gibber. 

Arne,  (Thomas  Augustine,)  an  eminent  English 
musician  ^nd  composer,  born  in  London  in  17 10,  was  the 
son  of  an  upholsterer  who  is  identified  by  some  with  a 
person  of  that  trade  mentioned  by  Addison  m  "The  Spec- 
tator," No.  50.  He  composed  the  music  for  Addison's 
opera  of  "  Rosamond,"  which  was  performed  with  suc- 
cess in  1733,  and  also  that  for  Milton's  "Comus,"  (1738,) 
which  increased  his  reputation.  "  The  melody  of  Arne 
at  this  time,"  says  Dr.  Burney,  "and  of  his  Vauxhall 
songs  afterwards,  forms  an  era  in  English  music  :  it  was 
so  easy,  natural,  and  agreeable  to  the  whole  kingdom 
that  it  had  an  effect  on  the  national  taste."  In  1740  he 
married  Cecilia  Young,  a  popular  vocalist,  and  in  1745 
was  engaged  as  composer  by  the  manager  of  Vauxhall 
Gardens.  Among  his  most  celebrated  works  is  the  opera 
"Artaxerxes,"  (1762.)  The  two  prfncipal  national  songs 
of  England,  "  God  save  the  King"  and  "  Rule  Britannia," 
owe  their  popularity  chiefly  to  his  music.    Died  in  1778. 

See  Burney,  "History  of  Music;"  F^Tis,  "Biographic  Univer- 
selle  des  Musiciens." 

Arnemann,  aR'neh-mSn'',  (Justus,)  a  German  medi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Liineburg  in  1763,  practised  some 
I  years  at  Altona.    He  published  numerous  works  of 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  o,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ARNEST 


174- 


ARNOLD 


/noderate  merit,  among  which  is  a  treatise  on  Materia 
Medica,  ("  Eiitwurf  einer  praktischen  Arzeneimittel- 
lehre,"  (2  vols.,  1792.)    He  committed  suicide  in  1807. 

Ar'nest  or  Er'nest  [Lat.  Arnes'tus]  of  Pardubicz, 
first  Archbishop  of  Bohemia,  minister  to  Charles  IV.  of 
that  kingdom,  and  first  chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Prague,  died  in  1364. 

Arn'grims-son,(Eystein — T'stTn,)  an  Icelandic  monk 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  celebrated  for  his  *'  Lily,"  re- 
puted the  best  poem  in  the  Icelandic  language.  It  en- 
joyed great  popularity  during  the  reign  of  Catholicism  in 
the  North.    He  died  in  1 361. 

See  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "  Almindeligt  Litteraturlexicon. 

Arnheini,  von,  fon  aRn'hlm,  or  Arnim,  ia'nim, 
(JoHANN  Georg,)  a  distinguished  German  diplomatist 
and  general,  born  in  the  Mark  of  Brandenburg  about  1 58 1. 
He  entered  the  army  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  II.  in 
1626,  and  won  the  favour  of  Wallenstein,  who  employed 
him  in  a  negotiation  with  Gustavus  Adolphus.  In  1628 
he  obtained  the  rank  of  field-marshal.  He  passed  in 
1630  into  the  service  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  who  gave 
him  the  chief  command  of  his  army,  and  he  commanded 
the  left  wing  under  Gustavus  Adolphus  at  Leipsic  in 
163 1.  Arnheim  and  Wallenstein  commanded  opposing 
armies  in  1632  and  1633;  but  the  former  was  suspected 
of  collusion  with  the  enemy.  He  defeated  the  Impe- 
rialists at  Liegnitz  in  May,  1634,  and  detached  Saxony 
from  the  Swedish  alliance  in  1635.  He  resigned  his 
commission  the  same  yeai'.    Died  in  1641. 

See  PuFENDORF,  "De  Rebus  Suecicis  ;"  Waldstein,  (Wallen- 
stein,) "  Briefe,"  3  vols.,  1S29. 

Arnigio,  aR-nee'jo,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Brescia  in  1523  ;  died  of  the  plague  in  1577. 
Arnim.    See  Arnheim. 

Arnim,  aR'nim,  (Elisabeth or  Bettina — bgt-tee'nS,) 
a  celebrated  German  authoress,  born  at  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main  in  1785.  She  was  a  sister  of  the  poet  Clemens 
Brentano,  and  became  the  wife  of  L.  A.  von  Arnim,  also 
a  poet.  She  was  in  her  youth  a  passionate  admirer  of 
Goethe,  with  whom  she  corresponded.  Her  imagination 
was  ardent  and  eccentric.  Her  principal  works  are 
'The  Correspondence  of  Goethe  with  a  Child,"  (3  vols., 
1835,)  which  she  translated  into  English,  and  "  Die 
Gtinderode,"  (2  vols.,  1840,)  a  collection  of  letters  and 
charming  idyllic  poems.  Died  in  Berlin  in  January,  1859. 

See  "  Biackwood's  Magazine,"  vol.  Iviii.,  and  "Foreign  Quarterly," 
vol.  xxxiv. 

Arnim,  von,  fon  aR'nim,  (Ludwig  Achim — i'Kim,) 
a  popular,  original,  and  romantic  German  poet,  born  at 
Berlin  in  1781.  He  studied  the  natural  sciences,  and 
published  in  1799  a  "  Theory  of  Electricity."  In  part- 
nership with  his  friend  Clemens  Brentano,  whose  sister 
Bettina  he  afterwards  married,  he  published  a  collec- 
tion of  popular  songs,  called  "The  Boy's  Wonder-horn," 
("Des  Knaben  Wunderhorn,"  3  vols.,  1806.)  His  novel 
entitled  "  Poverty  and  Riches,  Guilt  and  Repentance  of 
the  Countess  of  Dolores,"  (2  vols.,  1810,)  is  highly  com- 
mended, and  is  perhaps  his  best  work.  His  productions 
display  great  imagination,  depth  of  feeling,  and  a  tenden- 
cy to  the  romantic  simplicity  of  the  middle  ages.  Among 
his  admired  prose  works  are  the  tale  called  "Angelica 
the  Genoese  and  Cosmus  the  Rope-dancer,"  ("Angelica 
die  Genueserin  und  Cosmus  der  Seilspringer,")  and 
"Isabella  of  Egypt,"  (181 1.)    Died  in  1831. 

See  Gervinus,  "  Neuere  Geschichte  der  poetischen  national 
Literatur  der  Deutschen." 

Arni-Magnusson,  aR'ne  mSg'nus-son,  [Lat.  Ar'nas 
Magn.^'us,]  an  eminent  archaeologist  of  Iceland,  born 
in  1663,  studied  at  Copenhagen,  where  he  subsequently 
became  professor  of  history  and  antiquities.  He  was 
sent  to  Iceland,  in  1702,  by  Frederick  IV.,  and,  during  a 
residence  of  ten  years  in  that  country,  made  a  large  and 
valuable  collection  of  manuscripts.  The  Arna-Mag- 
naean  Commission,  having  for  its  object  the  publication 
of  these  works,  was  named  in  his  honour.  Died  in 
1730. 

See  the  Inti-odiiction  to  Kevser's  "Religion  of  the  Northmen," 
translated  by  Pennock,  pp.  22,  23. 

Arnisaens  or  Arnisaus,  aR-ne-za'iis,  (Hennin'gus,) 
a  miscellaneous  writer,  born  near  Halberstadt,  in  Prus- 


sian Saxony,  in  the  sixteenth  century.  In  1620  he  re« 
moved  to  Copenhagen  and  became  physician  to  Chris- 
tian IV.    Died  in  1636. 

Arnkiel,  aRn'keel,  (Friedrich,)  a  historian,  a  son  of 
Trogillus,  noticed  below,  lived  at  Apenrade  in  the  first 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Arnkiel,  (  Trogillus,  tRo-giKliis,)  a  divine  and  anti- 
quary, born  near  Apenrade,  in  Sleswick.  He  became 
superintendent  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Holstein  in 
1686.  His  work  "  On  the  Philosophy  and  School  of  F.pi- 
curus"  (in  Latin,  167 1)  was  received  with  favour.  He 
also  wrote  an  able  treatise  on  the  ancient  religion  and 
the  moral  and  political  state  of  the  Saxons,  Goths,  etc., 
entitled  "Cimbrische  Heiden-Religion,"  (1691.)  Died 
at  A])enrade  in  17 13. 

Ar'no,  first  Archbishop  of  Salzburg,  in  Germany, 
was  a  man  of  great  influence  in  his  day,  being  councillor 
to  the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  and  held  in  high  esteem  by 
Charlemagne  and  Pope  Leo  HI.    Died  about  820. 

Arnobe.    See  Arnobius. 

Ar-no'bi-us,  [Fr.  Arnobe,  tR^nob',]  (A'fer,)  some- 
times called  THE  Elder,  a  rhetorician  and  eloquent 
apologist  for  Christianity,  was  a  native  or  resident  of 
Sicca,  in  Numidia,  and  flourished  about  the  end  of  the 
third  century.  Little  is  known  of  his  life.  He  was  con- 
verted from  paganism  to  Christianity,  and  wrote  an  able 
work  called  "Disputations  against  the  Gentiles,"  ("Dis- 
putationes  contra  Gentes,")  in  which  he  attacks  the  ab- 
surdities of  the  pagan  religion  with  powerful  sarcasm. 
This  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  soon  after  the 
persecution  under  Diocletian,  which  began  in  302  a.d. 
His  doctrines  are  not  considered  strictly  orthodox.  M. 
Villemain,  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale,"  re- 
iTiarks  that  certain  circumstances  give  this  work  a  char- 
acter of  originality  and  a  real  importance  in  relation  to 
philosophy  and  history.  "  Writing  at  the  end  of  perse- 
cution and  before  the  ruin  of  paganism,  he  is  full  of 
ardent  recriminations  and  of  curious  details."  Lactan- 
tius  was  a  pupil  of  Arnobius. 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria ;"  Neander,  "  History  of  the 
Christian  Church;"  Bayle,  "Historical  Dictionary;"  MoR^Rl, 
"  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Arnobius  the  Younger,  [Fr.  Arnobe  le  Jeune, 
SR^nob'  leh  zhun,]  a  semi-Pelagian  ecclesiastic,  who 
flourished  about  460  A.D.  His  chief  work  was  a  Com- 
mentary on  the  Psalms.  He  opposed  the  doctrines  of 
Saint  Augustine. 

Ar'nold,  Duke  of  Gueldres,  (or  Geldern,)  of  the 
house  of  Egmond,  (or  Egmont,)  was  born  in  1410.  He 
was  defeated  in  battle  by  the  Duke  of  Berg  in  1444,  and 
lost  the  duchy  of  Jiilich.  His  son  Adolphus  rebelled 
against  him  with  success,  and  confined  Arnold  in  prison 
for  about  five  years.  He  was  released  by  the  interven- 
tion of  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy,  to  whom  he  sold 
his  duchy  in  1472.    Died  in  1473. 

See  Pontanus,  "  Historia  Gelrica." 

Arnold,  aR'nolt,  Abbot  of  Lubeck,  a  German  chroni- 
cler of  the  twelfth  century. 

Arnold,  (Andreas,)  a  German  theologian,  and  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  at  Nuremberg,  where  he  was  born  in 
1656  ;  died  in  1694. 

Ar'nold,  (Benedict,)  succeeded  Roger  Williams  as 
Governor  of  Rhode  Island  in  1657,  and  held  the  office 
for  many  years.    Died  in  1678. 

Arnold,  (Benedict,)  an  American  general,  infamous 
for  his  attempt  to  betray  his  country,  was  born  at  Nor- 
wich, Connecticut,  January  3,  1740.  During  his  boy- 
hood he  was  noted  for  his  turbulence,  audacity,  and  love 
of  mischief.  Having  been  apprenticed  to  an  apothecary, 
he  ran  away  and  enlisted  as  a  soldier,  but  soon  deserted, 
and  afterwards  became  a  merchant  of  New  Haven  and 
engaged  in  an  extensive  trade  with  the  West  Indies.  His 
speculations  ended  in  bankruptcy,  under  circumstances 
which  left  a  stain  upon  his  reputation  for  honesty. 
Soon  after  the  battle  of  Lexington,  April,  1775,  he  re- 
ceived a  commission  as  colonel  in  the  service  of  Mas- 
sachusetts. He  aided  Ethan  Allen  in  the  capture  of 
Ticonderoga  in  May,  1775,  and  in  the  autumn  of  that 
year  commanded  a  body  of  about  twelve  hundred  men 
sent  to  take  Quebec.  In  the  long  and  difficult  march 
through  the  pathless  forests  he  displayed  the  qualities 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  r>\hX\  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ARNOLD 


175 


ARNOLD 


of  an  able  commander.  He  joined  the  army  of  General 
Montgomery,  who  had  the  chief  command,  and  who 
attacked  Quebec  about  the  end  of  December,  but  was 
defeated  and  killed.  Arnold  was  wounded  in  the  leg  at 
Quebec,  and  his  services  in  this  campaign  were  rewarded 
with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general. 

Having  obtained  command  of  a  flotilla  of  small  ves- 
sels on  Lake  Champlain,  he  encountered  a  superior 
force  on  the  nth  of  October,  1776,  and,  although  he 
was  not  victorious,  he  fought  with  such  skill  and  deter- 
mined courage  that  this  action  tended  to  animate  and 
revive  the  hopes  of  the  patriots.  Early  in  1777  he  was 
deeply  oft'ended  because  Congress  promoted  five  of  his 
juniors  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  He  was  soon  after 
raised  to  the  same  rank,  but  the  affront  still  rankled  in 
his  heart,  for  the  five  previously  appointed  continued  to 
be  above  him.  He  was  frequently  involved  in  difficul- 
ties by  his  violent  and  imperious  temper  and  his  dis- 
honesty in  pecuniary  transactions. 

He  commanded  the  left  wing  at  the  battle  of  Bemus 
Heights,  September  19,  1777,  and  there  quarrelled  with 
General  Gates,  who  appears  to  have  been  jealous  of  Ar- 
nold. In  consequence  of  this  dispute,  Arnold  resigned 
his  command  soon  after  the  date  just  named  ;  but  dur- 
ing the  battle  of  Stillwater,  October  7,  he  entered  the 
field  without  the  permission  of  General  Gates,  and  dis- 
played desperate  courage  or  temerity.  According  to 
Sparks,  "  Arnold  received  no  orders  during  the  day, 
but  rode  about  the  field  in  every  direction,  seeking  the 
hottest  parts  of  the  action,  and  issuing  his  commands 
wherever  he  went.  Being  the  highest  officer  in  rank 
that  appeared  in  the  field,  his  orders  were  obeyed  when 
practicable  ;  but  all  accounts  agree  that  his  conduct  was 
rash  in  the  extreme,  indicating  rather  the  frenzy  of  a 
madman  than  the  considerate  wisdom  of  an  experienced 
general."  In  this  battle  he  received  a  severe  wound, 
which  disabled  him  for  several  months,  during  which 
Congress  accorded  to  him  his  full  rank. 

In  June,  1778,  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
Philadelphia,  which  had  just  been  evacuated  by  the 
British.  He  ran  deeply  into  debt,  and  lived  in  an  ex- 
travagant style,  which  he  endeavoured  to  support  by 
peculation  and  acts  of  rapacity.  He  married  about  1779 
Margaret,  a  daughter  of  Edward  Shippen,  an  eminent 
citizen  of  Philadelphia.  A  court-martial  called  to  inves- 
tigate his  official  conduct  in  Philadelphia  sentenced  him 
to  receive  a  reprimand  from  the  general-in-chief,  (Janu- 
ary, 1780.)  Although  the  reprimand  was  administered 
by  General  Washington  in  very  mild  and  conciliatory 
terms,  the  vindictive  spirit  of  Arnold  was  not  appeased. 
About  six  months  before  the  date  last  named,  he  had 
made  treasonable  overtures  to  the  enemy.  To  enhance 
the  value  of  his  treachery,  he  solicited  and  obtained 
command  of  West  Point,  (perhaps  the  strongest  and 
most  important  position  in  the  United  States,)  which  he 
proposed  to  betray  into  the  hands  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton. 
The  latter  employed  Major  Andre  as  his  agent  in  this 
negotiation.  The  plot  was  detected  and  defeated  by 
the  capture  of  Andre,  September  23,  1780,  (see  Andre, 
John,)  and  Arnold  narrowly  escaped  (September  25)  in 
the  British  sloop  Vulture,  which  was  stationed  below 
West  Point.  It  is  stated  that  he  received  from  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  £6t,i$  as  the  reward  of  his  treason  or  as 
an  indemnity  for  what  he  had  lost  by  desertion. 

Arnold  entered  the  British  army  as  a  colonel,  and 
issued  two  proclamations  or  addresses  to  the  Americans, 
designed  to  vindicate  his  own  course  and  to  persuade 
others  to  desert.  He  was  appointed  to  command  an 
expedition  against  Virginia,  and  sailed  from  New  York 
to  Hampton  Roads  in  December,  1780.  He  ascended 
the  James  River,  and  inflicted  much  damage  on  the 
people  of  that  region,  by  burning  and  pillage.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1781,^  he  commanded  a  body  of  troops  which 
took  Fort  Griswold,  Connecticut,  massacred  the  garri- 
son after  they  had  surrendered,  and  burned  New  Lon- 
don. This  was  his  last  exploit  in  tne  war  of  the  Revo- 
lution. He  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  mostly  in  England, 
where,  according  to  Sparks,  "he  was  shunned  and 
despised  by  everybody"  except  the  king  and  a  few  per- 
sons in  authority.  He  died  in  London  in  June,  1801, 
ieaving  a  son,  James  Robertson  Arnold,  who  became  a 


major-general  in  the  English  army.  (See  Sparks's  "Life 
of  Benedict  Arnold,"  in  his  "Library  of  American  Biog- 
raphy," vol.  iii.) 

Arnold,  aR'nolt,  (Christoph,)  a  German  peasant, 
distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  astronomy,  born  near 
Leipsic  in  1646.  He  is  said  to  have  discovered  the 
comet  of  1683  eight  days  before  Hevelius ;  and  he  was 
the  first  to  call  attention  to  that  of  1686.  He  also  ob- 
served the  transit  of  Mercury  across  the  sun's  disc  in  1690. 
Died  in  1695. 

Arnold,  (Christoph,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at 
Nuremberg  (or,  according  to  some  authorities,  at  Hers- 
bruck)  in  1627,  became  a  professor  of  history  and  elo- 
quence. He  wrote  a  number  of  works,  among  which 
was  the  "Ornament  (or  Beauty)  of  the  Latin  Language," 
("  Ornatus  Lingua  Latinae,"  1657.)    Died  in  1685. 

Arnold,  (Daniel  Heinrich,)  professor  of  philosophy 
and  divinity  at  Konigsberg,  born  in  that  city  in  1706, 
was  the  author  of  a  history  of  the  Konigsberg  Univer- 
sity.   Died  in  1775. 

Arnold,  (Franz,)  a  priest  of  Cologne,  and  a  violent 
opposer  of  Luther,  against  whom  he  wrote  several  works. 

Arnold,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  engraver,  born  in 
Berlin  in  1780  ;  died  in  1809. 

Arnold,  (Georg,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Chem- 
nitz in  1 53 1,  wrote  in  Latin  a  "Life  of  Maurice,  Elector 
of  Saxony."    Died  in  1588. 

Arnold,  (Georg,)  an  organist,  born  in  the  Tyrol, 
lived  towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Arnold,  (George  Daniel,)  a  jurist,  born  at  Stras- 
burg  in  1780.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  Roman 
law  at  his  native  city  in  1811,  published  a  text-book  of 
Roman  law,  (1812,)  and  gave  in  the  Alsatian  dialect  a 
remarkable  picture  of  manners  in  his  popular  comedy 
of  "Whit-Monday,"  ("Le  Lundi  de  Pentecote,")  which 
was  eulogized  by  Goethe.  He  also  wrote  fugitive  poems 
of  some  merit.    Died  in  1829. 

Arnold,  (Gottfried,)  a  German  Protestant  theolo- 
gian of  high  reputation,  born  at  Annaberg,  Saxony,  in 
1666.  He  preached  at  Werben  and  at  Perleberg,  and 
received  the  title  of  historiographer  to  Frederick  1.  of 
Prussia.  He  wrote,  besides  many  other  theological 
works,  a  mystical  book  called  "  Sophia,  or  the  Mysteries 
of  Divine  Wisdom,"  (1700,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Church 
from  the  Christian  Era  to  1688,"  (3  vols.,  1699-17CO,) 
which  offended  the  orthodox  Lutherans,  and  was  noticed 
in  foreign  countries.  He  died  in  1 7 14,  leaving  an  auto- 
biography, (1716.) 

See  also  Colerhs,  "  Historia  G.  Arnoldi,"  1718  ;  Petersen,  "  Ge- 
retteter  Bi  nder  Arnold,"  1718;  AdolpheRiff,  "G.  Arnold,  Historian 
de  rfiglise,"  1847. 

Arnold,  (Haldrenius  Vesaliensis.)    See  Arnol- 

DUS. 

Arnold,  (Johann  Christian,)  professor  of  philoso- 
phy, and  afterwards  of  physics,  in  the  University  of 
Erlangen,  was  born  at  Weissenfels  in  1724  ;  died  in  1765. 

See  Reinhard,  "Memoria  J.  C.  Arnoldi,"  1765. 

Arnold,  (Johann  Gerhard,)  a  German  publicist 
and  historian,  born  in  1637;  died  in  1717. 

Arnold,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  an  eminent  musical 
composer  for  the  violoncello,  was  born  in  Hohenlohe  in 
1773  ;  died  in  1806. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Arnold,  (Johann  von  Bergel — fon  b^R^gel,)  a  Ger- 
man poet  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  wrote  a  po<  ra 
"On  the  Invention  of  the  Art  of  Engraving  ©n  Coi  per 
or  Brass,"  ("De  Chalcographias  Inventione,"  1541.) 

Arnold,  (John,)  one  of  the  greatest  improvers  of  the 
chronometer,  was  born  at  Bodmin,  in  Cornwall,  in  1744. 
He  removed  to  London,  and  was  patronized  by  Georgi 
III.  Among  his  improvements  are  the  detached  escape- 
ment, the  expansion  balance,  the  cylindrical  balance- 
spring,  etc.    Died  in  1799. 

Arnold,  (Joseph,)  M.D.,  an  English  naturalist,  born 
in  Suffolk  in  1783,  entered  the  navy  as  assistant  sur- 
geon, visited  New  South  Wales,  and  made  a  large  col- 
lection of  natural  objects,  which  was  destroyed  by  fire 
at  Batavia.  He  afterwards  accompanied  Sir  Stamford 
Raffles  to  Sumatra,  where  he  died  in  1831. 

Arnold,  (Lemuel  H.,)  born  at  Saint  Johnsbury,  Ver- 
mont, in  1792,  was  elected  Governor  of  Rhode  Island  in 


#  <  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  v., guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (2i^===See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ARNOLD 


176 


ARNOLD  I 


1831,  re-elected  in  1832,  and  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1843  to  1845.    Died  in  1852. 

Arnold,  (Lewis  G.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
New  Jersey,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1837,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  also  in  the 
Florida  war  of  1856.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  in  the  Union  army  in  January,  1862. 

Arnold,  (Matthew,)  an  English  poet,  a  son  of  Dr. 
Thomas  Arnold  of  Rugby,  was  born  at  Laleham,  near 
Staines,  in  Middlesex,  December  24,  1822.  He  was 
educated  at  Rugby  and  Oxford,  and  elected  a  Fellow  of 
Oriel  College  in  1845.  became  in  1847  private  secre- 
tary to  Lord  Lansdowne,  and  lay  inspector  of  schools, 
under  the  Committee  of  the  Council  of  Education,  in 
185 1.  In  1848  he  published  "  The  Strayed  Reveller,  and 
other  poems," and  in  1856 appeared  a  "new  and  complete 
edition"  of  his  poenis.  He  was  elected  jM'ofessor  of  poetry 
at  Oxford  in  1857.  "For  combined  culture  and  fine  natu- 
ral feeling  in  the  matter  of  versification,"  says  the  "  Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  October,  1856,  "Mr.  Arnold  has  no 
living  superior."  In  1865  appeared  a  volume  of  "  Essays 
in  Criticism,"  in  which  Mr.  Arnold  shows  himself  to  be  a 
critic  of  110  common  order:  his  observations  "On  Trans- 
lating Homer"  are  among  the  very  best  that  have  ever 
been  written  on  that  subject.  A  volume  of  "  New  Poems 
by  Matthew  Arnold"  was  published  in  1867. 

Arnold  or  Arnoldus,  (Nicolaus,)  a  Protestant  divine 
and  eminent  preacher,  born  at  Lesna,  in  Poland,  in 
1618.  He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Franeker  in 
165 1,  and  wrote  in  Latin  several  works  on  theology. 
Died  in  1680. 

Arnold,  aR'nolt,  (Olori'nus  or  Cygn^'us,)  a  Dutch 
writer  on  theology;  died  in  1622. 

Arnold,  (Richard,)  an  English  chronicler  and  mer- 
chant of  London,  born  about  1450,  was  the  author  of 
a  work  commonly  called  "Arnold's  Chronicle,"  but 
sometimes  named  "The  Statutes  of  London,"  (about 
1500.) 

Arnold,  (Samuel,)  a  successful  English  musical  com- 
poser, born  in  London  in  1740.  His  opera  of  the  "  Maid 
of  the  Mill"  (1765)  was  greatly  applauded.  Among  his 
most  popular  works  are  the  oratorio  of  "  The  Prodigal 
Son  ;"  and  operas  entitled  "  Rosamond,"  (1767,)  "  Inkle 
and  Yarico,"  (1787,)  and  "The  Castle  of  Andalusia," 
(1782.)  He  was  appointed  organist  and  composer  to  the 
king  in  1783,  and  organist  of  Westminster  Abbey  in  1793. 
At  the  request  of  the  king,  he  published  a  magnificent 
edition  of  Handel's  Works,  (36  vols.)    Died  in  1802. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Arnold,  (Samuel  Benedict,)  a  German  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Dresden  in  1744;  died  in 
1817. 

Arnold,  (Samuel  J.,)  a  son  of  Samuel  Arnold  the 
composer,  published  a  number  of  dramatic  pieces, 
among  which  are  "Auld  Robin  Gray,"  (1794,)  "Irish 
Legacy,"  (1797,)  and  "Britain's  Jubilee,"  (1809.) 

Arnold,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  of  Rugby,  an  English  his- 
torian and  teacher  of  great  merit,  was  born  at  Cowes,  in 
the  Isle  of  Wight,  on  the  13th  of  June,  1795.  He  en- 
tered Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  in  181 1,  took  a 
first-class  degree  in  1814,  and  gained  the  chancellor's 
prize  for  a  Latin  Essay  in  181 7.  He  was  distinguished 
at  college  for  the  liberality  of  his  opinions  and  the  inde- 
pendence of  his  character.  In  1820  he  married  Mary,  a 
daughter  of  the  Rev.  John  Penrose. 

He  passed  several  ensuing  years  at  Laleham,  near 
Staines,  where  he  was  employed  as  a  private  tutor.  In 
1827  or  1828  he  was  ordained  a  priest,  and  became  head- 
master of  Rugby  School,  where  he  found  a  proper  sphere 
for  the  exercise  of  his  rare  qualifications  as  a  teacher. 
He  raised  the  character  of  that  school  by  the  influence 
of  Christian  principles,  enforced  by  his  own  example, 
and  diligently  cultivated  a  sense  of  duty  and  responsi- 
bility in  the  students. 

He  published  a  pamphlet  on  Church  Reform  in  1833, 
and  a  valuable  edition  of  Thucydides,  (in  1830-35.)  His 
principal  work  is  a  "  History  of  Rome,"  (3  vols.,  1838- 
40-42,)  which  comprises  the  period  from  the  origin  of 
Rome  to  the  end  of  the  second  Punic  war,  and  was  in- 
terrupted by  his  death.  This  is  a  work  of  high  reputa- 
tion, composed  on  the  basis  of  Niebuhr's  discoveries. 


He  contributed  articles  to  the  **  Quarterly  Review"  and 
"Edinburgh  Review."  In  August,  1841,  he  vya?  ap- 
pointed regius  professor  of  modern  history  at  Oxford. 
Soon  after  he  had  finished  the  introductory  course  of 
lectures,  he  died  at  Rugby,  in  June,  1842.  Among  his 
works  are  five  volumes  of  sermons,  (1828-42,)  and  "  In- 
troductory Lectures  on  Modern  History,"  (1842.) 

"  He  will  strike  those  who  study  him  more  closely," 
says  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1844, 
"  as  a  complete  character, — complete  in  its  union  of 
moral  and  intellectual  gifts  ;  ...  for  his  greatness  did 
not  consist  in  the  pre-eminence  of  any  single  quality,  but 
in  several  remarkable  powers,  thoroughly  leavened  and 
pervaded  by  an  ever-increasing  moral  nobleness." 

"His  sermons,"  says  Arthur  Penrhyn  Stanley,  "are 
remarkable  as  being,  byiheir  simple  and  natural  lan- 
guage, one  of  the  first  practical  protests  raised  in  the 
nineteenth  century  against  the  technical  and  unreal 
phraseology  generally  used  in  English  preaching,  and  as 
uniting  a  high  religious  standard,  a  strong  imagination, 
and  a  living  spirit  of  devotion  with  unaffected  good 
sense,  and  moral  energy  and  sincerity." 

"  As  an  historian,  his  moral  qualifications  consisted 
chiefly  in  his  love  of  truth,  his  conscientiousness,  and 
his  high  Christian  judgment  of  all  political  transactions. 
Intellectually,  his  chief  excellence  lay  not  so  much  in  the 
philosophical  and  biographical  department  of  history  as 
in  analyzing  laws,  parties,  and  institutions." 

•See  "  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Dr.  Arnold,"  (2  vols.,  1844,) 
by  A.  P.  Stanley,  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica ;"  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  January,  1843  ;  "  Tom  Brown's  School-Days  at  Rugby." 

Arnold,  (Thomas,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
1742.  He  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh,  and  settled  at 
Leicester,  where  he  became  senior  physician  to  the  in- 
firmary, and  physician  to  the  lunatic  asylum.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  "  Observations  on  the  Nature,  Kinds, 
Causes,  and  Prevention  of  Insanity,  Lunacy,  or  Madness," 
(2  vols.,  1782-86,)  which  displays  much  learning.  Died 
in  1816. 

Arnold,  (Thomas  Ker'chever,)  an  English  clergy- 
man, rector  of  Lyndon,  noted  as  editor  of  numerous 
popular  text-books,  was  born  about  1800.  Among  his 
publications  are  school-manuals  for  the  Greek,  Latin, 
French,  and  German  languages.    Died  in  1853.  • 

Arnold,  (William  Del'afield,)  a  son  of  Dr. 
Thomas  Arnold  of  Rugby,  born  in  1828,  became  an 
officer  in  the  British  army,  and  afterwards  director  of 
public  instruction  in  the  Punjab.  He  was  author  of  a 
novel  called  "  Oakfield  ;  or,  Fellowship  in  the  East,"  an 
exposition  of  the  trials  of  a  young  officer  who  resolves  to 
set  an  example  of  fidelity  to  Christian  principles  in  the 
army.  He  died  at  Gibraltar,  on  his  passage  homeward 
from  India,  in  April,  1859.  His  brother  Matthew  has 
written  some  beautiful  and  touching  lines  on  his  death. 

Arnold  of  Brescia.    See  Aknaldo. 

Arnold  or  Arnolt  von  Bruck,  aR'nolt  fon  bRook, 
(or  de  Prug,  deh  pRooG,)  a  German  musician  of  the  six- 
teenth century. 

Arnold  von  Biiderich,  aR'nolt  fon  bii'deh-riK',  a 
German  theologian,  lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  fif- 
teenth century. 

Arnold  Melchthal.    See  Melchthal. 

Arnold  of  Meldorp,  a  German  theologian  of  the 
twelfth  century. 

Ar'nold  or  Ar'nould  of  Rotterdam,  a  Dutch  theo- 
logian, whose  family  name  was  Geilhoven.  Died  in  1442. 

Ar'nold  von  Wink'el-ried,  [Ger.  pron.  aR'nolt  fon 
^ink'el-reet',]  a  brave  Swiss  patriot,  who  broke  the  Aus- 
trian phalanx  at  the  battle  of  Sempach  in  1386,  by  rush- 
ing against  the  points  of  their  spears  and  gathering\vithin 
his  arms  as  many  as  he  could.  He  fell  pierced  with 
mortal  wounds,  but  decided  the  victory  in  favour  of  the 
Swiss. 

See  "Histoire  de  la  Confederation  Suisse,"  translated  from  t"he 
German  of  J.  von  Miiller  by  Monnard  and  Vuillemin,  Paris, 
1840-46. 

Arnoldi,  aR-noKdee,  or  di  Arnoldo,  de  aR-nc^'do, 
(Alberto,)  an  eminent  Florentine  sculptor  and  archi- 
tect of  the  fourteenth  century,  executed  a  colossal  mar- 
ble group  of  the  Madonna  and  Child,  in  the  church  of 
Santa  Maria  del  Bigallo,  Florence,  (1364,)  which  was 
formerly  attributed  to  Andrea  Pisano. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  !,  6,  ii,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^U,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


ARNOLD  I 


177 


JRNTZENIVS 


Aruoldi,  aR-noKdee,  (Bartholomew,)  a  German 
friar  and  philosopher,  born  at  Usingen,  was  an  adver- 
sary of  Luther.    Died  in  1532. 

Arnoldi,  (Daniel,)  a  German  philologer,  born  at 
Bergedorf  in  1595;  died  in  1651. 

Arnoldi,  (Wilhelm,)  Bishop  of  Treves,  was  born  at 
Budan,  in  the  district  of  Treves,  in  1798.  He  was  elected 
bishop  in  1839.  In  1844  he  induced  a  great  multitude 
of  people  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  Treves  to  see  or  wor- 
ship a  relic  called  "the  holy  coat  of  Treves."  This  pro- 
ceeding caused  great  excitement,  and  resulted  in  a  schism 
of  the  Church.    (See  Ronge.) 

Aruoldi,  von,  fon  aR-noKdee,  (Johann,)  a  German 
diplomatist  and  historian,  born  at  Herborn,  in  Nassau, 
in  1 75 1.  He  was  employed  as  a  negotiator  by  the  Stadt- 
holder  William  V.  About  1803  he  entered  the  service 
of  William  I.,  King  of  the  Netherlands,  who  appointed 
him  a  privy  councillor  in  1815.  He  wrote  a  "History 
of  the  Countries  ruled  by  the  House  of  Orange-Nas- 
sau," ("Geschichte  der  Oranien-Nassauischen  Lander," 
3  vols.,  1 799-1816.)    Died  in  1827. 

Ar-nol'dus  or  Arnold,  aR'nolt,  (Haldre'nius 
Vesalien'sis,)  a  learned  theological  writer,  born  at 
Wesel,  on  the  Lower  Rhine.  He  taught  Greek  at  Co- 
logne, and  was  chosen  canon  of  the  metropolitan  chap- 
ter of  that  city.    Died  in  1534. 

Arnoldus  de  Villa  Nova.    See  Arnaldus. 

Arnolfini,  aR-nol-fee'nee,  (Giovanni  Attilio,)  an 
able  Italian  hydraulic  engineer,  born  at  Lucca  in  1733. 
He  was  charged  with  the  hydraulic  department  of  pub- 
lic works  at  Lucca  in  1761,  after  which  he  improved  the 
river  Serchio  by  confining  it  between  new  rocky  banks. 
He  died  in  1791,  leaving  in  manuscript  many  volumes 
on  physics,  hydrostatics,  etc. 

Ar-noFfo,  [Lat.  Arnul'eus,]  written  also  Arnoul, 
of  Milan,  a  historian,  who  lived  near  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Milan," 
(from  925  to  1076,)  prized  for  its  fidelity  and  accuracy. 
It  is  commended  by  Muratori. 

Arnolfo,  written  also  Arnoul,  became  Archbishop 
of  Milan  in  1093,  and  preached  a  crusade  in  company 
with  Urban  II. 

Arnolfo  di  Lapo.    See  Lapo. 

Arnolt  von  Bruck.    See  Arnold  von  Bruck. 

Arnone,  aR-no'ni,  (Alherto,)  a  skilful  Neapolitan 
portrait-painter,  born  in  the  seventeenth  century,  was  a 
pupil  of  Carlo  Maratta.    Died  at  Naples  in  1721. 

Ar'not,  (Hugo,)  a  Scottish  writer  and  advocate,  born 
at  Leith  in  1749.  His  original  name  was  Pollock,  which 
he  changed  when  he  became  heir  to  the  maternal  estate 
of  Balcormo.  He  published  an  entertaining  and  valua- 
ble "  History  of  Edinburgh,"  (1779,)  a  "  Collection  of 
Celebrated  Criminal  Trials  in  Scotland,"  (1785,)  which 
displays  great  research,  and  an  "  Essay  on  Nothing," 
(1777.)    Died  in  1786. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Ar'nott,  (Archibald,)  a  Scottish  physician,  born  in 
1 77 1,  served  as  surgeon  in  the  army  in  Egypt,  Spain, 
and  other  countries.  His  regiment  was  stationed  at 
Saint  Helena  while  Bonaparte  was  confined  there.  In 
April,  1821,  he  was  called  to  attend  the  imperial  captive, 
at  whose  death  he  was  present.  He  received  from  his 
dying  patient  a  gold  snuff-box  as  a  token  of  his  esteem, 
and  published  "An  Account  of  the  Last  Illness,  Decease, 
and  Post-Mortem  Appearance  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte," 
(1822.)    Died  in  1855. 

Arnott,  (James  Moncrieff,)  a  British  surgeon,  born 
in  1794.  He  settled  in  London  about  181 7,  and  became 
professor  of  surgery  in  King's  College  of  that  city. 

Arnott,  (Dr.  Neil,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  eminent 
experimental  philosopher,  born  near  Montrose  in  1788, 
\yas  a  pupil  of  Sir  Everard  Home.  He  began  to  prac- 
tise in  London  about  181 2,  and  delivered  a  course  of 
lectures  on  natural  philosophy  in  its  application  to  medi- 
cine, (1823-24,)  which  he  published  in  1827  under  the 
title  of  "  Elements  of  Physics  or  Natural  Philosophy, 
General  and  Medical,  explained  in  non-technical  Lan- 
guage." This  work  was  received  with  great  favour  and 
translated  into  nearly  all  the  European  languages.  He 
became  one  of  the  physicians-extraordinary  to  the  queen 
in  1837,  and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in 


1838.  The  Rum  ford  medal  of  this  society  was  awarded 
to  him  in  1854  for  his  inventions,  among  which  are  the 
water-bed  or  floating  mattress  for  the  sick,  and  the 
"Arnott  Stove."  He  received  also  a  gold  medal  from 
the  jurors  of  the  Universal  Exposition  of  Paris  in  1855. 
He  is  author  of  an  "  Essay  on  Warming  and  Ventilating,'' 
(1838.) 

Arnoul.    See  Arnulfo. 

Arnoul,  Sr^ioo',  written  also  Arnulf,  one  of  the 

most  learned  and  eloquent  French  prelates  of  his  time, 
was  appointed  Bishop  of  Orleans  in  986. 

Arnoul,  written  also  Arnulf  or  Ernulf,  born  at 
Beauvais  about  1040,  became  Bishop  of  Rochester  in 
II 14.  Died  in  11 24.  He  was  author  of  some  docu- 
ments relating  to  the  church  and  see  of  Rochester,  which 
were  published  by  Hearne  in  1720. 

Arnoul,  written  also  Arnulf,  a  Norman  priest,  who 
served  Robert  II.  of  Normandy  as  chaplain  in  the  first 
crusade.  He  obtained  by  intrigues  in  1 1 11  the  office  of 
Patriarch  of  Jerusalem.    Died  in  1118. 

Arnoul,  written  also  Arnulf,  a  French  prelate,  who 
became  Bishop  of  Lisieux  about  1 140,  was  a  friend  of 
Thomas  A  Becket.  He  died  in  11 82,  leaving  many  let- 
ters, which  have  some  historical  value. 

Arnoul  of  Milan.    See  Arnolfo. 

Arnoul,  (Rene,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Poitiers  in 
1569 ;  died  in  1639. 

Arnould.    See  Arnulf. 

Arnould,  tR'noo',  (Ambroise  Marie,)  a  French 
political  economist,  born  at  Dijon  about  1750.  He  pub- 
lished a  successful  work  "On  the  Balance  of  Trade," 
(1 791,)  and  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  party  which 
revolted  against  the  Convention  on  the  13th  Vende- 
miaire,  1794.  Having  supported  Bonaparte  in  the  Council 
of  Five  Hundred  in  the  crisis  of  the  i8th  Brumaire,  1799, 
he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Tribunat,  after  the 
suppression  of  which  he  was  a  counsellor  of  state.  Among 
his  important  works  is  "The  Political  Maritime  System 
of  the  Europeans  during  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  ("  Sys- 
teme  maritime  politique,"  etc.,  1797.)    Died  in  1812, 

Arnould,  (Sophie,)  a  popular  French  actress  and 
opera-singer,  born  in  Paris  about  1744,  was  noted  for  her 
conversational  powers  and  bonmots.    Died  in  1803, 

See  A.  Deville,  "Arnoldiana,"  1813. 

Arnould  of  Rotterdam.  See  Arnold  of  Rotter- 
dam. 

Arnoult,  tR'noo',  (Charles,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Beze  in  1750;  died  in  1793. 

Arnoult,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  writer,  born  in 
1689,  published,  besides  a  few  other  works,  "The  Pre- 
ceptor," (1747,)  which  contains  treatises  on  grammar, 
the  Christian  religion,  and  other  subjects.  Died  at  Besan- 
9on  in  1753. 

Arnoux,  tR^noo',  (Jean,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Riom  about  1560,  or,  as  one  account  states,  in  1575.  He 
became  distinguished  as  a  preacher  and  skilful  contro- 
versialist, and  was  appointed  confessor  to  Louis  XIII. 
in  161 7,  but  was  removed  from  this  position  in  1621.  He 
wrote  several  theological  works,  some  of  which  were 
against  Calvinism.    Died  in  1636. 

Arntzen,  aRnt'sen,  or  Arnt-ze'ni-us,  [Ger.  pron. 
aRnt-sa'ne-iis,]  (Johann,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at 
Wesel  in  1702.  He  succeeded  Burmann  as  professor  of 
history  and  eloquence  at  Franeker  in  1742.  His  repu- 
tation is  founded  on  excellent  editions  of  Aurelius  Victor, 
(i733>)  of  Pliny's  Panegyricus,  (1738,)  and  of  the  Pane- 
gyricus  of  Drepanius  Pacatus,  (1753.)    Died  in  1759. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Arntzen  or  Arntzenius,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a 
learned  philologist,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Nym- 
wegen  in  1734.  He  became  in  1774  professor  of  law  at 
Utrecht,  where  he  died  in  1797,  leaving  valuable  editions 
of  Arator's  poems,  (1769,)  and  of  the  "Panegyrici  Ve- 
teres,"  (1790.) 

Arntzen  or  Arntzenius,  (Ot'to,)  a  brother  of  Jo- 
hann, born  at  Wesel  in  1703,  was  a  good  Latin  scholar. 
He  was  professor  or  rector  at  Utrecht  and  Amsterdam. 
His  edition  of  Dionysius  Cato's  "  Disticha"  (1735)  is  said 
to  be  the  best.    Died  in  1763. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Arntzenius.    See  Arntzen. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  o,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  iji  this.  (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

12 


JRNU 


178 


ARRHIDjEUS 


Arnu,  tR'nii',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  theologian  of  con- 
eiderable  reputation,  born  near  Verdun  (Meuse)  in  1629. 
Died  at  Padua  in  1692. 

Arnulf.    See  Arnoul. 

Ar'nulf,  [Lat.  Arnul'phus,]  written  also  Arnoul  or 
Arnould,  Emperor  of  Germany,  was  a  son  of  Carloman 
of  Bavaria,  and  a  great-grandson  of  Charlemagne.  He 
was  elected  King  of  Germany  in  887  or  888  a.d.,  and 
defeated  the  Normans  near  Louvain  in  892,  after  which 
he  invaded  Italy  and  captured  Rome  in  896.  He  was 
then  crowned  as  emperor  by  the  pope.  He  died  at  Ratis- 
bon  in  899,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  IV. 

See  ScHWARZ,  "  Historia  Annilphi  Imperatoris,"  1744;  Gagern, 
"Anuilfi  Imperatoris  Vita,"  1837. 

Arnulf,  a  natural  son  of  Lothaire,  King  of  France, 
became  Archbishop  of  Rheims  in  988.    Died  in  1023. 

Arnulf,  Saint,  or  Arnoul,  an  ancestor  of  Charle- 
magne, was  born  about  580  A.D.,  and  became  Bishop  of 
Metz  in  611.  He  was  a  confidential  adviser  of  King 
Clotaire,  and  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  statesman. 
Died  about  640  a.d. 

Arnulfus  or  Arnulphus.    See  Arnulf. 

Arnulfus  of  Milan.    See  Arnolf. 

Arn'way,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  born  in 
1601,  suffered  much  for  his  attachment  to  the  cause  of 
Charles  I.,  and  during  his  exile  in  Holland  wrote  "An 
Alarum  to  the  Subjects  of  England,"  (1650,)  containing, 
among  other  things,  a  defence  of  the  character  of  the 
late  king.    He  died  in  Virginia  in  1653. 

Aromatari,  degli,  diKyee  a-ro-mi-ti'ree,  (Giu- 
seppe,) a  learned  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Assisi, 
in  the  Papal  States,  about  1586.  He  practised  medicine 
at  Venice  for  about  fifty  years  with  such  success  that  he 
was  invited  to  England  by  James  I. ;  but  he  preferred  to 
remain  where  he  was.  He  published  in  161 1  a  "Reply 
to  the  Criticisms  of  Alessandro  Tassoni  on  the  Poems 
of  Petrarch."  His  most  important  production  is  a  short 
treatise  on  the  reproduction  of  plants,  "  De  Generatione 
Plantarum  ex  Seminibus,"  which  was  prefixed  to  his 
work  on  Hydrophobia,  (1625.)  He  showed  the  analogy 
which  exists  between  the  seeds  of  plants  and  the  eggs 
of  animals,  and  first  suggested  those  principles  of  germi- 
nation which  have  been  recognized  by  modern  physiolo- 
gists.   Died  in  1660. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia;"  Haller,  "  BIbliotheca 
Botanica." 

Aronce.    See  A  runs. 

Arooj,  Aroudj,  or  Aruj,  S-rooj',  written  also  Aruch 
or  Arouds,  corrupted  intoHorush,  Horuc,  etc.,  a  Turk- 
ish pirate,  the  elder  of  two  brothers  who  about  1510-40 
were  the  terror  of  Christendom.    See  Barbarossa. 

Aroon.    See  Aruna. 

Arouet.    See  Voltaire. 

Arpad,  aR'pId,  founder  of  the  kingdom  of  Hun- 
gary, was  a  chief  of  the  Magyars,  who  about  890  a.d. 
migrated  from  Galicia  and  conquered  the  Slavonic 
princes  who  then  possessed  Hungary.  A  part  of  his 
army  invaded  Italy  and  defeated  Berengarius,  on  the 
Brenta,  in  900.  Died  in  907.  Andrew  III.,  who  died  in 
1301,  was  the  last  king  of  the  Arpad  dynasty. 

See  Ersch  uhcIGruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Mailath, 
*'  Geschichte  der  Magyaren." 

Arpajon,  d',  dtR'pS'zh^N',  (Louis,)  Duke,  and  Mar- 
quis of  Severac,  a  French  general,  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  siege  of  Montauban  in  1621.  He  had  a 
high  command  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war.  In  1645  he 
was  appointed  generalissimo  by  the  grand  master  of 
Malta,  for  the  defence  of  which  against  the  Turks  he 
raised  two  thousand  inen.    Died  in  1679. 

Arpajon,  d',  (Louis,)  Marquis,  a  French  general, 
was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1736. 

Arpe,  aR'peh,  (Peter  Friedrich,)  a  learned  juris- 
consult and  writer,  born  at  Kiel,  in  Holstein,  in  1682. 
He  was  professor  of  law  at  Kiel  from  171 7  until  1722. 
In  his  "Laicus  Veritatis  Vindex"  (1717)  he  maintained 
that  the  division  of  Christians  into  clergy  and  laity  is 
contrary  to  the  law  of  Moses  and  to  the  Gospel.  Among 
his  works  is  "Themis  Cimbrica,"  (1737,)  which  treats  of 
the  institutions  and  manners  of  the  Cimbri  and  other 
Teutonic  tribes.    Died  about  1745. 

See  MoiXER,  "  Cimbria  Literata;"  Adelung,  Supplement  to 
Jocher's  "Allgemelnes  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 


Arpino.   See  Cesari,  (Giuseppe.) 

Arpino,  aR-pee'no,  (Jacopo  Francesco,)  an  Italian 
physician,  philosopher,  and  naturalist,  was  born  in  Pied- 
mont in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Arquato,  aR-kwi'to,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an 
Italian  physician  who  wrote  a  work  called  "  Medicus 
Reformatus,"  (1608,)  was  born  in  the  Venetian  States, 
and  lived  about  the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth 
century. 

Arquier.    See  Darquier. 

Ar-Radhee-  (or  Ar-Radhi-)  Billah,  ar-riMee  biK- 
lih,  one  of  the  Abbasside  caliphs,  was  raised  to  the 
caliphate  in  934  a.d.    Died  about  940. 

Arraes,  ar-ri'Ss,  or  Arraiz,  ar-r^'iz,  almost  ar-rTz', 
(Amador,  3.-m^-doR',)  a  Portuguese  classic  writer, 
Ijorn  at  Beja  in  1530.  He  became  Bishop  of  Portale- 
gre  in  1581,  and  wrote  "Moral  Dialogues,"  (1589)  a 
work  of  high  reputation,  in  which  he  took  Plato  for  nis 
model.    Died  in  1600. 

Arraes  or  Arrais,  (Duarte  Madeira,)  a  Portuguese 
physician,  born  near  Lamego.  He  became  physician  to 
John  IV.,  and  wrote  several  medical  works  which  were 
often  reprinted.    Died  in  1652. 

Arragos,  t'rt'go',  (Guillaume,)  [Lat.  Guliel'mus 
Arrago'sius,]  a  French  physician,  born  near  Toulouse 
in  1513  ;  died  at  Bale  in  1610. 

Arraiz.    See  Arraes. 

Arran,  Earl  of.    See  Hamilton,  (James.) 

Arras,  d',  dS'rSs',  (Mathieu,)  a  French  architect,born 
at  Arras  about  1300.  He  was  employed  by  John,  King 
of  Bohemia,  to  build  the  cathedral  of  Prague,  com- 
menced in  1344.  Before  the  completion  of  this  work, 
he  died,  in  1352. 

Ar-Rasheed  or  Ar-Rashid,  ar-rl-sheed',  (^boo- 
(Abu-)  Mohammed-Abdul-Wahed,  I'hoo'  mo- 
ham'med  ab'dool  wi'hed,)  a  sultan  of  Western  Africa, 
commenced  his  reign  in  1232,  after  a  hard  struggle 
with  his  rival,  Yahya  An-Nasir,  in  which  he  took  Mo- 
rocco by  siege.    He  died  in  1242. 

Ar-Rashid.    See  Haroun-al-Raschid. 

Arrault,  i'ro^  (Charles,)  a  French  jurist,  born  in 
the  Gatinais  in  1643  ;  died  in  1 718. 

Arreboe,  ar'reh-bo'eh,  (Anders,)  a  popular  Danish 
poet,  born  in  the  island  of  Arroe  in  1587.  He  was 
chosen  Bishop  of  Drontheim  in  1618,  but  was  deposed 
for  disorderly  conduct  in  162 1.  Having  partially  re- 
trieved his  reputation,  he  became  pastor  at  Vordingborg 
in  1626.  He  was  considered  the  greatest  poet  that 
Denmark  had  produced  before  Tullin,  His  principal 
work  is  "  Hexaemeron,"  (1641,)  a  poetical  paraphrase 
of  the  French  poem  of  Du  Bartas.    Died  in  1637. 

See  Molbech,  "  Danske  Anthologie  ;"  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "A1- 
mindeligt  Litteraturlexicon  for  Danemark,"  etc. 

Arredondo,  ar-ri-DonMo,  (Isidoro,)  a  Spanish  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Colmenar  de  Oreja  in  1653.  He 
was  patronized  by  Charles  II.,  who  gave  him  the  title  of 
painter  to  the  king.    Died  in  1702, 

Ar-rhe'ni-us,  [Swed.  pron.  ar-ru'ne-iis,]  (Clas  or 
Claudius,)  a  Swedish  historian,  eminent  for  learning 
and  sagacity,  was  born  at  Linkoping  in  1627.  He 
became  professor  of  history  at  Upsal  in  1668.  His 
chief  work  is  an  "  Ecclesiastical  Ilistory  of  Sweden," 
("  Historias  Svecorum  Gothorumque  Ecclesiasticas  Libri 
IV.,"  1689.)  He  was  appointed  royal  historiographer 
in  1678,  and  ennobled  in  1684,  when  he  assumed  the 
name  of  Oernhielm,  (Eagle-Helmet.)    Died  in  1695. 

See  Gezelius,  "  Biographiskt- Lexicon  bfver  namnkunnige  Svenska 
Man;"  P.  Lagerloef,  "  Memoria  C.  Arrhenii,"  1696;  Thysklius, 
"Dissertatio  de  Meritis  literariis  C.  Arrhenii,"  1791. 

Arrhenius,  (Jacob,)  a  Swedish  scholar,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  1642,  was  professor  of  history  at 
Upsal  from  1687  until  1716.  He  wrote  many  able  treat- 
ises on  points  of  ancient  history,  among  which  are  a 
"  Short  Sketch  of  Ancient  Egypt,"  ("  Brevis  Adumbra- 
tio  Veteris  /Egypti,"  1694,)  and  an  essay  on  the  office  of 
Roman  Consul,  ("  De  Consule  Romano,"  1705.)  Died 
in  1725. 

See  Gezelius,  "  Eiographiskt-Lexicon." 

Arrhidaeus,  ir-re-dee'us,  or  Aridaeus,  [Gr.  'kl)btMo<. 
or  'kpuMoQ ;  Fr.  Arrhid6e,  t're'di',]  a  son  of  Philip 
of  Macedon  and  of  a  courtesan  named  Philinna,  was  a 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t:  n5t;  good;  moon; 


JRRHID^US 


179 


ARRIQUIBAR 


half-brother  of  Alexander  the  Great.  He  had  a  weak 
mind,  which,  according  to  Plutarch,  was  the  result  of 
poison  administered  by  Olympias.  On  the  death  of 
Alexander  he  was  proclaimed  king  at  Babylon,  under  the 
name  of  Philip.  He  was  controlled  by  his  wife  Eurydice, 
and,  after  a  nominal  reign  of  six  years,  was  put  to  death 
by  order  of  Olympias,  the  mother  of  Alexander,  about 
315  B.C. 

See  Justin,  books  ix.,  xiii.,  and  xiv. 

Arrhidaeus,  a  Macedonian  general,  who  was  one  of 
the  two  regents  appointed  at  the  death  of  Perdiccas  in 
321  B.C.  He  and  the  other  regent,  Python,  resigned  in 
the  same  year  because  they  were  unable  to  enforce  their 
authority  against  Eurydice.  In  the  division  of  provinces 
made  about  320  he  received  a  part  of  Phrygia. 

Arrhidee.    See  Arrhid^us. 

Ar'ri-a,  a  Roman  matron,  eminent  for  fortitude,  was 
the  wife  of  Caecina  Psetus,  who  was  condemned  to  death 
in  42  A.D.  She  killed  herself  in  order  to  set  an  example 
of  courage  and  fortitude  to  her  husband. 

Arriaga,  de,  da  ar-re-^'gi,  (Juan  Crisostome,)  a 
Spanish  composer  of  great  genius,  born  at  Biiboa  in 
1808,  studied  in  Paris  under  Fetis.  He  displayed  great 
inventive  power  in  his  fugue  for  eight  voices,  called  "  Et 
Vitam  Venturi,"  which  Cherubini  pronounced  a  master- 
piece. In  1824  he  published  a  set  of  quartets,  which  are 
highly  praised.    Died  prematurely  in  1825  or  1826. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Arriaga,  de,  (Pablo  Jos6,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  at  Vergara  in  1562,  laboured  in  Peru. 
Died  about  1622. 

Arriaga,  de,  (Rodrigo,)  a  Spanish  philosopher  and 
Jesuit,  born  at  Logrono  in  1592.  He  taught  philosophy 
with  great  success  for  thirteen  years  at  Prague,  where  he 
resided  from  1624  until  his  death.  He  attempted  to  re- 
vive the  philosophy  of  the  schoolmen  in  his  "  Philoso- 
phical Course,"  ("Cursus  Philosoj^hicus,"  1632,)  which 
evinces  an  acute  and  subtle  mind.  He  also  wrote  a 
work  on  theology,  (8  vols.,  1643-55.)    I^'^d  in  1667. 

See  Adelung,  "  GeschiclUe  der  Philosophic." 

Ar'ri-an,  [Gr.  'A^^iavoc;  Lat,  Arria'nus  Fla'vius  ; 
Fr.  Arrien,  t're-ix',]  an  eminent  Greek  historian,  born 
at  Nicomedia,  in  Bithynia,  was  a  pupil  and  friend  of  Epic- 
tetus.  He  committed  to  writing,  edited,  or  digested  the 
philosophic  doctrines  of  Epictetus,  (who  published  noth- 
ing himself)  There  are  now  extant  a  "Manual  ("En- 
chiridion") of  Epictetus,"  compiled  by  him,  and  four 
books  of  a  work  called  the  "  Epictetus  of  Arrian."  He 
obtained  the  favour  of  the  emperor  Hadrian,  who  in 
136  A.D.  appointed  him  governor  of  Cappadocia.  We 
have  no  evidence  that  he  held  this  office,  or  any  other, 
after  the  death  of  Hadrian,  138  A.D.  He  was  at  one 
time  priest  of  Ceres  and  Proserpine  in  his  native  city. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Expedition  of 
Alexander  the  Great,"  'AvujSaatg'ATie^uvSpov,  (The  Ascent 
of  Alexander,)  which  is  highly  prized  on  account  of  its 
intrinsic  merit,  and  because  we  have  no  other  history 
of  Alexander  worthy  of  equal  confidence.  Among  his 
qualifications  for  a  historian  were  a  good  judgment,  ac- 
curacy in  geographical  and  strategical  details,  and  a  cor- 
rect and  simple  style.  In  style,  and  in  other  respects,  he 
proposed  Xenophon  as  his  model.  He  was  author  of 
many  other  works,  some  of  which  are  lost.  Among  those 
extant  are  a  "Treatise  on  Tactics,"  a  "Discourse  on 
Hunting,"  a  "Circumnavigation  of  the  Euxine  Sea,"  and 
a  small  but  interesting  work  called  "  Indica,"  describing 
India,  its  people,  customs,  products,  etc.  The  date  of 
his  death  is  not  known.  His  abstract  of  the  philosophy 
of  Epictetus,  or  "  Enchiridion,"  was  highly  esteemed, 
both  by  the  pagans  and  early  Christians. 

See  Fabkicius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca  ;"  Ellendt,  "  De  Arriane- 
oriim  Librorum  Reliquiis,"  i8.^6;  Mauermann,  "Arrianus  Nicomc- 
diensis  et  Quintus  Curtius  Rufiis,"  1835. 

Arrianus,  (the  historian.)    See  Arrian. 

Ar-ri-a'nus,  [Gr.  'Af)fHav6g ;  Fr.  Arrten,  t're-^N',]  a 
Greek  author  of  uncertain  date,  wrote  a  treatise  on 
meteors  and  comets. 

Arrianus,  a  Roman  jurist,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
lived  in  the  time  of  Trajan,  wrote  a  work  on  law,  en- 
titled "  De  Interdictis,"  ("Concerning  Interdicts.") 

Arrianus,  a  Greek  poet,  who  wrote  a  poem  on  Alex- 


ander, called  "The  Alexandriad,"  and  translated  Virgil's 
Georgics  into  hexameter  verse. 

Arriaza,  Sr-re-i'tha,  (Juan  Bautista,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  poet,  born  at  Madrid  in  1770,  was  sometime^ 
called  Arriaza  y  Superviela,  (e  soo-p^R-ve-i'li.)  He 
published  a  volume  of  poems  entitled  "  First-Fruits," 
or  first  productions  of  his  genius,  ("  Las  Primicias," 
1797,)  and  soon  after  that  date  went  to  England  as  secre- 
tary of  legation.  In  1803  appeared  his  poem  "Emilia," 
on  the  infiuence  of  the  fine  arts.  He  returned  to  Spain 
in  1807,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  politics  as  a  friend 
of  absolute  monarchy.  After  the  restoration  of  1814  he 
was  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  Among  his  works  are 
"  Poesias  patrioticas,"  (1810.)    Died  in  1837. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon ;"  Longfello  r_"  Foets 
and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Arribas,  Sr-ree'Bds,  (Pablo  Antonio,)  a  Spanish 
minister  of  state,  born  in  1771,  held  office  under  Joseph 
Bonaparte.    Died  in  1828. 

Arrien.    See  Arrian  and  Arrianus. 

Arrighetti,  dr-re-gef'tee,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  eccle- 
siastic, born  at  Florence  in  1582,  was  distinguished  for 
his  knowledge  of  philosophy  and  theology.  Died  in  1662. 

Arrighetti,(NiccoL6,)  a  disciple  and  friend  of  Galileo, 
also  a  poet,  born  at  Florence  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
Died  in  1639.  . 

Arrighetti,  (Niccol6,)  a  learned  Jesuit,  born  at 
Florence  in  1709,  wrote  a  "Theory  of  Fire,"  ("Ignis 
Theoria,"  etc.,  1750.)    Died  in  1767. 

Arrighetto,  dr-re-get'to,  or  Arrigo  da  Settimello, 
Jr-ree'go  dS  s^t-te-meKlo,  a  Latin  poet  and  ecclesiastic, 
born  near  Florence  in  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. He  wrote  an  elegiac  poem  on  "  The  Mutability 
of  Fortune  and  the  Consolation  of  Philosophy,"  ("  De  Di- 
versitate  Fortunae  et  Philosophiae  Consolatione,")  which 
is  said  to  have  been  used  in  schools  and  esteemed  as  a 
model  by  mediaeval  teachers. 

Arrighi,  dr-ree'gee,  (Antonio  Maria,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  and  professor  of  civil  law  at  Padua,  born  in  Cor- 
sica in  1689,  was  naturalized  as  a  citizen  of  Venice  in 
1 741.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  one  "On  Uni- 
versal Pontifical  Law,"  ("Dejure  Pontificum  Universo," 
1727,)  and  a  "Life  of  F.  Morosini,"  (1749.)  Died  about 
1760. 

Arrighi,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  historical  painter, 
born  at  Volterra,  lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

Arrighi,  (Jean  Toussaint  —  too's^N',)  Duke  of 
Padua,  an  able  general,  born  in  Corsica  in  1778.  He 
entered  the  French  service,  and  was  wounded  at  Saint- 
Jean-d'Acre  in  1798  or  '99,  a  few  years  after  which  Na- 
poleon gave  him  the  title  of  Duke  of  Padua.  As  colonel 
he  distinguished  himself  near  Ulm  in  1805,  and  he  was 
made  a  general  of  division  on  the  field  of  battle  at  Ess- 
ling,  1809.  He  rendered  important  services  at  Leipsic  in 
1813,  and  was  appointed  governor  of  Corsica  on  the  re- 
turn of  Napoleon  from  Elba.  He  lived  in  exile  from  1815 
to  1820.    In  1852  he  became  a  senator.    Died  in  1853. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Arrighi  Landini,  ir-ree'gee  lin-dee'nee,  (Orazio,) 
a  native  of  Florence,  born  in  1718,  is  reckoned  among 
the  good  Italian  poets  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Ar- 
righi was  the  family  name  of  his  father,  and  Landini  that 
of  his  mother.  He  served  for  some  time  in  the  Neapoli- 
tan army,  and  afterwards  settled  at  Venice.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  "The  Tomb  of  Isaac  Newton,"  a  poem 
in  blank  verse,  (1751,)  and  "La  Bibliade,"  a  poetical 
description  of  the  great  libraries,  ancient  and  modern. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Arrigho.    See  Arrighetto. 

Arrigoni,  (Honorio.)    See  Arigoni. 

Arrigoni,  ^r-re-go'nee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  musician 
and  composer,  born  at  Florence.  He  went  to  London 
in  1732,  and  entered  into  competition  with  Handel,  with 
but  poor  success. 

Arrigoni,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Bergamo  in  1610;  died  in  1645. 

Arrigoni,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Mantua  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  published 
"Madrigali,"  (1602,)  and  "Rime,"  (1604.) 

Arriquil5ar,  Sr-re-kee'b^R,  (Don  Nicolas,)  a  Span- 


€  a.s  k;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as  J;  g,  H,  y.,  guttural ;  N,  iiasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JRRIUS 


JRSJCES 


ish  merchant  of  Bilboa,  who  about  1770  composed  a 
work  of  some  merit  on  political  economy,  called  "Re- 
creacion  politica."    Died  about  1778. 

Ar'ri-us,  (Quintus,)  Roman  praetor  in  72  B.C.,  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  servile  war  and  also  as  an 
orator. 

Arrius,  (Quintus,)  son  of  the  above,  was  a  friend  of 
Cicero. 

Arrivabene,  Sr-re-va-ba'ni,  (Andrea,)  a  Venetian 
printer  and  translator  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Arrivabene,  (Ferdinando,)  an  Italian  jurist  and 
I'hilologist,  born  at  Mantua  in  1770,  was  president  of  a 
'jourt  at  Brescia.  He  wrote,  besides  two  legal  treatises, 
a  historical  Commentary  on  Dante,  and  an  Essay  on 
Forensic  Language.    Died  in  1834. 

Arrivabene,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Mantua,  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  His  chief  works  are  two  maritime 
eclogues,  called  "Cloanto"  and  "  Idromanzia,"  (1547.) 

Arrivabene,  (Giovanni  Pietro,)  a  poet,  born  at 
Mantua  in  the  fifteenth  century.  He  wrote  a  Latin 
poem,  called  "Gonzagidos  Libri  quatuor,"  in  honour 
of  Ludovico  Gonzaga,  Marquis  of  Mantua,  which  was 
first  printed  in  1738.    Died  about  1504. 

Arrivabene,  (Ippolito,)  an  Italian  physician,  prac- 
tised at  Rome.    Died  in  1739. 

Arrivabene,  (John,)  Count,  an  Italian  patriot  and 
economist,  born  about  1785,  was  a  friend  of  Silvio  Pel- 
lico.  He  was  arrested  in  1821  by  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment, and  only  escaped  imprisonment  by  exile  from  his 
native  country. 

Sie  "Memoirs  of  Count  John  Arrivabene,"  written  by  himself, 
(London,  1862.) 

Arrivabene,  (Ludovico,)  an  Italian  poet,  flourished 
about  1600. 

Ar'row-smith,  (Aaron,)  an  eminent  English  geog- 
rapher, born  at  Winston,  Durham,  in  1750.  He  became 
a  resident  of  London  about  1770,  and  made  himself 
master  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  map-engraving.  In 
1790  he  published  a  large  map  of  the  world  on  Merca- 
tor's  projection.  He  collected  a  large  fund  of  new  in- 
formation from  navigators  and  other  sources,  and  pub- 
lished more  than  one  hundred  maps,  which  had  a  high 
reputation  on  the  continent,  and  among  which  is  a  "  Map 
of  the  World  on  a  Globular  Projection,  with  a  Com- 
panion of  Explanatory  Letter-press,"  (1794.)  Died  in 
^823.  His  son  Aaron  published  several  school  atlases 
and  manuals  of  geography. 

Arrowsmith,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English 
divine,  born  near  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  in  1602.  He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  was  regarded  as  one 
of  the  ablest  as  well  as  most  worthy  Puritan  divines  of 
that  age.  He  preached  at  Lynn  about  twelve  years, 
(1631-42,)  and  became  regius  professor  of  divinity  at 
Cambridge  in  165 1.  He  was  master  of  Trinity  College 
from  1653  until  his  death.  His  chief  works  are  "Tactica 
Sacra,"  (1657,)  and  a  "Chain  of  Principles,"  ("Armilla 
Catecheti:a,"  1659.)    Died  in  1659. 

See  Neal,  "  History  of  the  Puritans." 

Arroyo,  de,  da  Sr-ro'yo,  (Diego,)  an  excellent  Span- 
ish miniature-painter,  born  in  1498,  worked  at  Toledo 
and  Madrid.  He  was  appointed  cabinet-painter  to  Charles 
V.    Died  in  1551. 

Arruntius,  ar-rim'shejAS,  a  Roman  physician  men- 
tioned by  Pliny,  lived  probably  about  50  A.D. 

Arruntius,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  consul,  22  B.C.,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the 
First  Punic  War,"  referred  to  by  Seneca. 

Arruntius,  (Lucius,)  a  son  of  the  above,  was  consul 
in  6  A.D.,  and  eminent  for  his  wealth  and  integrity.  Au- 
gustus is  said  to  have  considered  him  worthy  of  the  em- 
pire. His  merits  excited  the  jealousy  of  Tiberius,  and 
brought  upon  him  annoyance  and  persecution,  which 
induced  him  to  commit  suicide  in  37  A.D. 

Arsaoe.    See  Arsaces. 

Ar-sa'ges  or  Ar'sa-9es,  [Gr.  'ApauKTj^ ;  Fr.  Arsace, 
Sr'sIss';  Persian,  Ar'shak,]  the  founder  of  the  kingdom 
of  Parthia  and  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Arsacidae.  He  prob- 
ably flourished  in  the  third  century  B.C.  ;  but  his  history 
is  involved  in  much  obscurity.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  chief  of  a  nomade  tribe  of  Scythians,  Bac- 


trians,  or  Parthians.  His  memory  was  so  highly  hon- 
oured that  his  successors  assumed  the  name  of  Arsaces. 

Arsaces  I.,  King  of  Parthia,  is  identified  by  some 
historians  with  the  preceding ;  others  have  regarded 
him  as  his  son  or  grandson.  In  the  reign  of  Antiochus 
Theos  of  Syria,  the  Parthians,  who  had  been  subject  to 
the  Syrian  monarchy,  revolted  with  success  about  250 
B.C.,  and  Arsaces  became  their  king.  After  a  reign  of 
two  years,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Tiridates. 

Arsaces  II.,  (Tir-i-da'tes,)  brother  of  Arsaces  I., 
began  to  reign  about  248  B.C.  He  gained  a  decisive 
victory,  about  238,  over  Seleucus  Callinicus,  who  at- 
tempted to  regain  possession  of  Parthia.  This  event 
was  celebrated  by  the  Parthians  as  a  new  era,  from 
which  their  national  independence  was  dated.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  died  about  220  B.C. 

Arsaces  III.  (Ar-ta-ba'nus)  was  the  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Arsaces  II.  He  was  defeated  about  212  B.C. 
by  Antiochus  the  Great,  who  invaded  Parthia.  Peace 
was  restored  soon  after  that  event.  The  length  of  his 
reign  is  unknown. 

Arsaces  IV.  (Priapetius,  prT-a-pe'sh^s)  was  a 
son  of  the  preceding.  According  to  Justin,  he  reigned 
fifteen  years. 

Arsaces  V.,  (Phra-a'tes  I.,)  King  of  Parthia,  son  of 
the  above,  succeeded  his  father  about  170  B.C.  He  con- 
quered the  Mardi. 

Arsaces  VI.,  (Mith-ri-da'tes  I.,)  brother  of  the 
preceding.  This  king  extended  his  conquests  to  the 
Indus.  He  reigned  twenty-five  years  or  more,  and  died 
about  135  B.C. 

Arsaces  VII.,  (Phraates  II.,)  son  of  Arsaces  VI., 
after  being  himself  defeated  three  times  by  Antiochus 
VII.,  King  of  Syria,  conquered  and  killed  the  latter  in 
128  B.C.,  but  was  in  turn  overcome  and  slain  by  the 
Scythians. 

Arsaces  VIII.,  (Artabanus  II.,)  uncle  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  slain,  after  a  short  reign,  by  the  Scythians. 

Arsaces  IX.  (Mithridates  II.)  surnamed  the 
Great,  was  a  son  of  Arsaces  VIII.  He  waged  war 
against  the  Scythians  with  success.  An  embassy  sent 
by  him,  in  92  B.C.,  to  Sulla,  (who  was  then  in  Asia,)  was 
the  first  intercourse  between  the  Parthians  and  Romans 
of  which  we  have  an  authentic  account. 

Arsaces  X.  Of  this  king  scarcely  anything  is  known. 

Arsaces  XI.  (San-a-tro'9es)  seems  to  have  been 
in  exile  among  the  Scythians,  who  restored  him  to  his 
throne  about  70  B.C.    He  reigned  only  seven  years. 

Arsaces  XII.  (Phraates  III.)  succeeded  his  father 
Arsaces  XI.  in  70  B.C.,  during  the  Mithridatic  war.  His 
alliance  was  courted  by  the  Romans  and  by  Mithridates, 
but  he  resolved  to  remain  neutral.  He  made  or  renewed 
a  treaty  with  Pompey  in  66  B.C.,  after  which  he  was 
offended  because  Pompey  cast  into  chains  his  son-in- 
law  Tigranes  the  Armenian,  and  because  he  refused  to 
address  him  (Arsaces)  as  "  King  of  Kings."  He  was 
murdered  by  his  sons  Mithridates  and  Orodes  about 
60  B.C. 

Arsaces  XIII.,  (Mithridates  III.,)  a  son  of  Arsa 
ces  XII.,  was  expelled  from  his  throne  by  the  Parthiai 
senate  on  account  of  his  cruelty,  and  put  to  death  by  hir^ 
brother  Orodes  about  55  B.C. 

Arsaces  XIV.,  (O-ro'des.)  a  son  of  Arsaces  XII.. 
was  King  of  Parthia  when  the  war  began  between  tha 
Romans  and  Parthians.  His  army,  under  Surena, 
gained  a  great  victory  over  Crassus,  who  was  slain,  in 
53  B.C.  The  Parthians  under  Pacorus,  a  son  of  Orodes, 
invaded  Syria  in  50  B.C.,  and  were  defeated  by  Cassius. 
He  maintained  neutrality  in  the  civil  war  between  Czesar 
and  Pompey  ;  but  after  the  battle  of  Philippi,  42  B.C.,  the 
war  was  renewed  between  him  and  the  Romans.  The 
Parthians  were  defeated  by  Ventidius,  an  officer  of 
Antony,  in  39  and  38  B.C.,  and  Arsaces  was  murdered  by 
his  son  Phraates  about  37  B.C. 

Arsaces  XV.  (Phraates  IV.)  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  In  36  B.C.  the  war  was  renewed  by  Antony, 
who  led  a  large  army  through  Armenia,  but  was  repulseo 
by  the  Parthians  and  pursued  as  far  as  the  Araxes. 
About  23  B.C.  Arsaces  made  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Au 
gustus,  to  whom  he  restored  the  prisoners  and  standarcb- 
taken  at  the  defeat  of  Crassus.    Died  in  4  A.D. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  lono-;  k,  b,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  xi,  y,  s/^or^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^U,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  raooni 


ARSACES 


i8i 


ARSILLI 


Arsaces  XVI.,  (Phra-a-ta'9es,)  said  to  have  been 
accessory  to  the  death  of  his  father  Arsaces  XV.  He 
was  put  to  death,  after  a  reign  of  a  few  months,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  rebellion  caused  by  his  vices. 

Arsaces  XVII.  (Orodes  II)  was  also  put  to  death 
by  his  subjects,  on  account  of  his  cruelty,  in  the  same 
year  as  his  predecessor. 

Arsaces  XVIII.,  (Vo-no'nes  I.,)  son  of  Phraates 
IV.,  lived  a  long  time  at  Rome  as  a  hostage,  where  he 
acquired  habits  which  made  him  unpopular  among  the 
Parthians  and  led  to  his  expulsion  from  the  throne.  He 
was  assassinated,  it  is  supposed,  by  the  order  of  Piso,  a 
Roman  officer,  about  19  a.d. 

Arsaces  XIX.,  (Artabanus  III.,)  a  Median  king, 
who  expelled  Arsaces  XVHI.,  had  a  stormy  reign  of 
twentv-eight  years,  during  which  he  was  twice  driven 
from  [lis  throne  by  the  aid  of  Rome,  but  died  at  last  in 
possession  of  Parthia  about  44  a.d. 

Arsaces  XX.  (Go-tar'zes)  and  Arsaces  XXI., 
(Bar-da^'nes,)  after  a  struggle  for  the  empire,  settled  it 
by  the  former  retiring  to  Hyrcania  and  the  latter  retain- 
ing Parthia ;  but,  Pardanes  having  been  assassinated, 
Gotarzes  resumed  the  royal  authority.  Gotarzes  died 
about  50  A.D.  He  was  succeeded  by  Arsaces  XXH., 
whose  reign  was  very  short. 

Arsaces  XXIII.,  ( Vol-o-ge'ses  I.,)  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  the  Parthian  kings,  was  involved  in  a 
long  contest  with  Rome  in  relation  to  the  sovereignty  of 
Armenia,  over  which  he  had  placed  his  brother  Tiridates. 
The  difficulty  was  finally  compromised  by  Tiridates  going 
to  Rome  to  receive  the  crown  from  Nero.  Vologeses 
died  in  90  a.d. 

Arsaces  XXIV.,  (Pac'o-rus,)  son  of  the  above, 
after  a  reign  of  nearly  eighteen  years,  died  about  107  a.d. 

Arsaces  XXV.,  (-ehos'ro-es,)  [Gr.  Xoop6r/c;  Per- 
sian, Khos'koo'  or  KoSREVV,]  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  defeated  by  Trajan  in  114,  and  finally  driven  from 
his  throne,  on  which  Parthamaspates  was  placed  by  the 
Roman  emperor;  but  on  the  death  of  I'rajan,  in  117, 
Chosroes  expelled  his  rival,  and  died  probably  in  122, 
greatly  esteemed  by  his  subjects. 

Arsaces  XXVI.,  (Vologeses  II.,)  a  son  of  Arsaces 
XXV.,  is  said  to  have  gained  great  advantages  over  the 
Romans  for  a  period,  but  afterwards,  having  been  driven 
back  into  his  own  dominions,  he  is  supposed  to  have 
died  in  149  a.d. 

Arsaces  XXVII.,  (Vologeses  III.,)  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, seems,  like  all  his  predecessors,  to  have  been  in- 
volved in  wars  with  Rome.  Diedin2i6A.D.  Somewriters 
suppose  two  or  more  kings  to  have  reii^ned  between  Ar- 
saces XXVI.  and  XXVHl.,  (as  we  have  numbered  them  :) 
on  this  point  see  article  "  Parther,"  in  Ersch  and  Gru- 
ber's  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie,"  by  Krause. 

Arsaces  XXVIII.,  (Artabanus  IV.,)  also  called 
Ardavan,  was  a  son  of  Arsaces  XXVII.,  and  was  the 
last  king  of  Parthia  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Arsacidas.  He 
began  to  reign  about  216  a.d.  In  217  he  fought  an  in- 
decisive battle  against  the  Romans,  under  Macrinus,  near 
Nisibis.  He  then  turned  his  arms  against  the  Persians, 
who  had  revolted  and  were  led  by  Ardsheer  or  Artax- 
erxes.  Having  been  defeated  and  taken  prisoner,  he 
was  put  to  death  by  Ardsheer  about  226  a.d. 

Ar-sa'ges  (or  ar'sa-sez)  I.,  King  of  Armenia,  was  a 
son  of  Arsaces  XIX.  (Artabanus  III.)  of  Parthia.  He 
obtained  the  throne  by  the  aid  of  his  father  in  35  a.d. 
About  a  year  later  he  was  murdered  by  his  own  officers, 
who  were  bribed  by  Mithridates  the  Iberian. 

Arsaces  II.  was  placed  on  the  throne  of  Armenia  in 
222  or  223  a.d.  by  his  brother  Artabanus  IV.,  King  of 
Parthia.  He  joined  Alexander  Severus  in  his  expedi- 
tion against  Persia,  by  which  alliance  he  saved  his  own 
kingdom.    He  died  before  260  a.d. 

Arsaces  III.  of  Armenia  succeeded  his  father  Tiri- 
dates HI.  about  340  a.d.  He  waged  war  against  Sapor, 
King  of  Persia,  about  360,  and  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  Julian  the  Apostate.  In  the  campaign  of  363  a.d. 
he  deserted  Julian,  whose  defeat  and  death  near  Ctesi- 
phon  are  attributed  to  the  treachery  of  Arsaces.  His 
nobles  having  rebelled  against  him,  he  applied  for  aid  to 
Sapor,  who  detained  him  in  captivity  until  his  death. 

See  Ammiamus  Marcellinus,  book:;  xx.,  xxi.,  xxiii.,  xxv.,  andxxvii. 


Arsaces  IV.  was  probably  a  grandson  of  Arsaces  II L 
He  began  his  reign  conjointly  with  his  brother  Valarsaces 
in  382,  but,  the  latter  dymg  the  next  year,  he  reigned  alone> 
till  his  deposition  by  Sapor  and  Theodosius,  who  divided 
his  kingdom  between  them  about  387  a.d. 

Arsachel.    See  Arzachel. 

Arsacid  or  Arsacide,  ar-sas'sid,  the  English  sin- 
gular of  Arsacide  ;  employed  also  as  an  adjective.  The 
plural  form  Arsacids  or  Arsacides  is  rarely  used. 

Arsacidae,  ar-sas'e-de,  [Fr.  Arsacides,  iR^st's^d' ; 
Ger.  Arsaciden,  aR-sit-see'den,  and  Arsakjden,  aR- 
si-kee'den  ;  a  patronymic  from  Arsaces,  which  appears 
to  have  been  a  very  common  name  among  the  ancient 
Persians,  Parthians,  etc.,  j  an  appellation  given  to  several 
Asiatic  dynasties,  but  especially  to  the  dynasty  of  Par- 
thian kings  who  reigned  from  Arsaces  I.,  about  250  B.C., 
to  the  death  of  Artabanus  IV.,  (Arsaces  XXVllI., — or 
XXXL,  according  to  some  authorities,)  in  226  a.d.,  and 
to  a  dynasty  of  Armenian  kings  who  reigned  between 
150  B.C.  and  430  A.D. 

Ai'sakes.    See  Arsaces. 

Arsakiden.    See  Arsacide. 

Ar-sa'mes,  [Gr.  'Apaa/iTjc,]  the  father  of  Hystaspes, 
and  grandfather  of  Darius  I.,  King  of  Persia.  Another 
of  the  same  name,  son  of  Darius  I.,  accompanied  Xerxes 
in  his  expedition  against  Greece.  A  third  was  a  favourite 
(illegitimate)  son  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  A  fourth  is 
supposed  to  have  been  a  king  of  Armenia  in  the  time 
of  Seleucus  II.,  and  the  founder  of  Arsamosata. 

Arsdekin.    See  Archdekin. 

Arsene.    See  Arsenius. 

Ar-se'ni-us,  [Gr.  'Apoeviog;  Fr.  Arsene,  iR'sin',] 
Saint,  written  also  Arsennus,  born  at  Rome  in  354  or 
355  A.D.,  was  appointed  tutor  to  Arcadius,  son  of  the 
emperor  Theodosius,  in  383,  and  remained  at  the  court 
of  Constantinople  eleven  years,  having  gained  the  favour 
of  the  emperor.  In  394  he  retired  to  a  desert  in  Egypt, 
where  he  became  noted  for  his  ascetic  piety.    Died  in 

449  A.D. 

Arsenius  surnamed  Autoria'nus,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  was  born  in  that  city  about  the  end  of 
the  twelfth  century.  He  was  appointed  in  1259,  by  the 
Greek  emperor  I'heodore  Lascaris  II.,  guardian  of  the 
prince  his  son,  an  office  for  which  he  seems  to  have  been 
wholly  unfitted.  He  was  circumvented  by  Michael  Palseol- 
ogus,  who  usurped  the  throne  and  banished  the  patriarch 
for  his  refusal  to  grant  him  absolution.    Died  in  1273. 

Arsenius,  a  distinguished  Greek  scholar  and  philolo- 
gist, son  of  Michael  Apostolius,  born  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  was,  it  is  supposed,  a  native  of 
Candia  (Crete)  or  of  Italy.  He  became  Roman  Cath- 
olic Archbishop  of  Malvasia,  or  Monembasia,  in  the 
Morea.  He  edited  his  father's  "  Apophthegmata,"  and 
a  collection  of  scholia  on  several  dramas  of  Euripides, 
(1534.)    Died  in  1535. 

See  HoDius,  "  De  Giaecis  illustribiis." 

Arsenius,  a  Greek  bishop,  who  accompanied  Jere- 
miah II.,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  to  Russia,  about 
1588,  when  he  established  the  Russian  Patriarchate,  of 
which  Arsenius  wrote  an  account, 

Arsenius,  a  Greek  monk,  founder  of  a  Greek  and  Latin 
school  at  Moscow  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  inventor  of  a  type  still  called  the  Arsenian. 

Arsenne,  SR^sen',  (Louis  Charles,)  a  French  painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1790,  was  a  pupil  of  David.  He  pro- 
duced some  remarkable  paintings  of  religious  subjects, 
among  which  was  "  Christ  in  the  Garden  of  Olives."  He 
also  derived  from  the  works  of  Chateaubriand  and  Lamar- 
tine  subjects  of  some  designs. 

Arsennus.    See  Arsenius. 

Arises,  [Gr.  'Apoyjg,]  Nar'ses,  [Gr.  ^upar/g,]  or  Oar'- 
ses,  [Gr.  'Oupoi/g,]  a  son  of  Artaxerxes  III.,  King  of 
Persia,  was  placed  on  the  throne  in  339  B.C.  by  Bagoas, 
who  had  killed  Artaxerxes.  After  a  reign  of  three  years, 
he  was  put  to  death  by  Bagoas.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Darius  Codomannus. 

Arshenevsky,  aR-shi-ngv'ske,  (Basil,)  a  Russian 
mathematician,  born  at  Kiev  in  1758  ;  died  in  1808. 

Arshi,  aR'shee,  also  called  Chaki,  a  Turkish  poet, 
born  in  Roumelia  ;  died  in  1570. 

Arsilli,  aR-s^Klee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  poet  and 


€  as     ?  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Y.,^tMiiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (S^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JRSJNOE 


182 


JRTJFJSDES 


physician,  born  at  Sinigaglia  about  1470.  He  practised 
in  Rome  many  years,  and  was  a  friend  of  Paulas  Jovius. 
He  wrote  in  verse  a  descriptive  catalogue  of  contempo- 
rary Roman  poets,  "  De  Poetis  Urbanis,"  (1524,)  which 
is  interesting  to  students  of  literary  history.  Died  in  1540. 

See  TiUABOsCHi,  "Storladella  Letteiatura  Itaiiana." 

Ar-sin'o-e,  [Gr.  'Apaivor],]  a  concubine  of  Philip  of 
Macedon,  became  the  wife  of  Lagus  and  the  mother  . of 
Ptolemy  I.,  King  of  Egypt. 

Arsinoe,  a  daughter  of  Ptolemy  I.,  King  of  Egypt, 
and  Berenice,  was  born  about  316  B.C.,  and  was  married 
to  Lysimachus  of  Thrace  in  300  B.C.  In  order  to  secure 
the  succession  for  her  son,  she  excited  the  suspicion  of 
Lysimachus  against  Agathocles,  his  son  by  a  former 
marriage,  who  was  put  to  death  in  prison.  After  the 
death  of  Lysimachus,  in  281  B.C.,  she  went  to  Thrace 
with  her  sons,  who  were  put  to  death  by  Ptolemy  Cerau- 
nus.  She  then  fled  to  Egypt,  and  became  the  queen  of 
her  own  brother,  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  A  gold  medal 
of  Arsinoe  is  extant. 

Arsinoe,  a  daughter  of  Lysimachus,  King  of  Thrace, 
and  Nicasa,  became  the  wife  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  of 
Egypt,  by  whom  she  had  three  children,  Ptolemy,  Ly- 
simachus, and  Berenice.  She  was  banished  by  the  king 
before  his  marriage  with  Arsinoe  above  noticed. 

Arsinoe,  wife  of  Magas,  King  of  Cyrene,  brother  of 
Ptolemy  II.  of  Egypt. 

Arsinoe,  daughter  of  Ptolemy  III.,  became  the  wife 
of  her  brother,  Ptolemy  IV.,  Philopator,  by  whom  she 
was  put  to  death  to  make  wa)  for  Agathoclea,  his  second 
wife.  She  appears  to  have  been  the  queen  whom  Livy 
calls  Cleopatra. 

Arsinoe,  daughter  of  Ptolemy  XL,  Auletes,  and  sis- 
ter of  Cleopatra,  assumed  the  sovereignty  during  the 
siege  of  Alexandria  by  Caesar  in  48  B.C.,  who,  on  the 
capture  of  the  city,  carried  her  to  Rome  to  grace  his 
triumph.  She  was  put  to  death  by  Antony,  at  Cleo- 
patra's instigation,  41  B.C. 

Arslan.    See  Alp-Arslan. 

Artabanus  of  Parthia.     See  Arsaces  III.  and 
XXVIII. 
Artabasdes.    See  Artavasdes. 
Artabaze.    See  Artabazus. 
Artabazes.    See  Artavasdes. 

Ar-ta-ba'zus,  [Gr.  'Apruiia^og;  Fr.  Artabaze,  tR^tS'- 
hiz',]  a  Persian  general,  who  lived  about  450  B.C.  He 
and  Megabysus  suppressed  the  revolt  of  Inarus  in  Egypt. 

Artaljazus,  a  Median,  who  formed  a  devoted  attach- 
ment to  Cyrus,  King  of  Persia. 

See  Xenophon's  "  Cyropjedia." 

Artabazus,  a  distinguished  Persian  general  and 
favourite  of  Xerxes,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his  inva- 
sion of  Greece  in  480  B.C.  He  was  present  at  the  battle 
of  Plataea,  479  B.C. 

Artabazus,  a  general  of  Artaxerxes  I.,  quelled  a 
revolt  of  the  Egyptians  about  460  B.C. 

Artabazus,  a  Persian  general,  was  a  satrap  of  Asia 
Minor  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  III.,  against  whom  he 
revolted  in  356  B.C.  With  the  aid  of  the  Athenian  Chares 
and  other  Greeks,  he  gained  several  victories.  He  was 
afterwards  defeated,  and  fled  with  his  brother-in-law, 
Memnon  of  Rhodes,  to  the  court  of  Philip  of  Macedon. 
Having  obtained  pardon,  he  returned  to  Persia,  and 
proved  his  loyalty  to  King  Darius  at  the  battle  of  Ar- 
bela.  He  was  appointed  Satrap  of  Bactria  by  Alexander 
the  Great  about  330  B.C.  He  died,  at  a  very  advanced 
age,  about  320  B.C. 

See  Thirlwall,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  Diodorus  Siculus,  books 
XV.  and  xvi. 

Artachaees,  ar-ta-kee'^z,  [Gr.  'Apraxatrjg,]  a  Persian, 
who  cut  the  canal  for  Xerxes  near  Mount  Athos,  by  which 
his  fleet  avoided  the  dangerous  voyage  round  the  pro- 
montory. 

Artaldus.    See  Artaud. 

Artale,  aR-tl'li,  or  Artali,  aR-ta'lee,  (Giuseppe,)  an 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Mazzareno,  in  Sicily,  in  1628.  He 
served  with  distinction  in  the  defence  of  Candia  against 
the  Turks,  and  was  noted  as  a  swordsman  and  duellist. 
He  published  several  poetical  works  of  no  great  merit. 
Died  at  Naj^les  in  1679. 

Artapherne.    See  Artaphernes. 


Ar-ta-pher'ne§,  [Gr. ' ApTa<pEpvT]g  ;  Fr.  Artapherne, 
tK^tt'fiRn',]  a  half  brother  of  King  Darius  Hystaspe.s,  by 
whom  he  was  appointed  satrap  of  the  Asiatic  coast  of  the 
/Egean  Sea  and  of  other  parts  of  Asia  Minor  in  506  B.C. 
He  intervened  in  favour  of  Hippias,  who  had  been  ex- 
pelled from  Athens,  and  ordered  the  Athenians  to  receive 
him  again  ;  but  they  refused.  He  suppressed,  about  498, 
a  revolt  of  the  lonians,  who  were  aided  by  the  Athenians. 

Artaphernes,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  appointed 
in  conjunction  with  Datis  to  the  command  of  the  Persian 
army  which  invaded  Greece  in  490  B.C.,  and  which  was 
defeated  at  Marathon.  He  appears  to  have  been  the 
second  in  command  under  Datis  in  this  campaign  ;  and 
he  commanded  the  Lydians  in  the  expedition  of  Xerxes 
against  Greece  in  480  B.C. 

Artaphernes,  a  Persian  ambassador,  sent  in  425  B.C. 
by  Artaxerxes  I.  on  a  mission  to  Sparta. 

Artario,  aR-tS're-o,  (Joseph,)  a  Swiss  sculptor  and 
modeller,  born  near  Lugano  in  1697.  He  worked  in 
Germany  and  England,  and  his  productions  are  called 
good  imitations  of  the  antique.  He  died  at  Cologne  in 
1760. 

Ar-ta-si'res,  [Gr.  'Apraaiprig,]  a  corruption  of  the 
Armenian  Ar'da-shir'  or  Ar'da-sheer',  i.e.  Artax- 
erxes, written  also  Ardashes,  a  son  of  King  Bahram 
Sapor,  was  the  last  king  of  Armenia  of  the  dynasty  of 
the  Arsacidse.  He  was  deposed  in  428  a.d.  by  Bahram 
V.  of  Persia,  who  annexed  Armenia  to  his  own  empire. 
This  result  was  promoted  by  the  Armenian  nobles,  who 
were  opposed  or  indifferent  to  Christianity.  Artasires 
was  nominally  a  Christian. 

Artaud,  iR'to',  [Lat.  Artal'dus,]  an  archbishop  of 
Rheims  in  the  first  half  of  the  tenth  century. 

Artaud,  (Antoine  Franqois  Marie,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  at  Avignon  in  1767.  His  chief  work  is 
"The  Mosaics  of  Lyons,"  ("Les  Mosaiques  de  Lyon," 
1 81 8.)    Died  in  1838. 

See  Dumas,  "  l^loge  de  A.  F.  M.  Artaud,"  1840. 

Artaud,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
at  Montpellier  in  1732.  Among  his  works  is  "  Le  Cen- 
tenaire  de  Moliere,"  (1773,)  which  was  performed  with 
success.    Died  in  1796. 

Artaud,  (Joseph  Pierre,)  a  French  prelate,  born  in 
Venaissin  in  1706,  became  eminent  as  a  preacher,  and 
was  appointed  Bishop  of  Cavaillon  in  1756.  He  wrote 
a  "Panegyric  on  Saint  Louis,"  (1754,)  and  "Pastoral 
Instructions,"  which  are  commended.    Died  in  1760. 

Artaud,  (Nicolas  Louis,)  a  French  writer  and  trans- 
lator, eminent  as  a  Greek  scholar,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1794.  After  the  revolution  of  1830,  he  became  inspec- 
tor of  the  Academy  of  Paris,  and  inspector-general  of 
letters.  In  1840  he  was  commissioned  to  organize 
instruction  in  Algeria.  He  was  a  member  of  the  coun- 
cil of  public  instruction  a  few  years  before  his  death. 
He  translated  the  tragedies  of  Sophocles,  (3  vols.,  1827,) 
the  comedies  of  Aristophanes,  (6  vols.,  1830,)  and  the 
tragedies  of  Euripides,  (1832.)  Among  his  works  is  a 
"  Literary  Essay  on  the  Poetical  Genius  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,"  (1825.)    Died  in  1861. 

Artaud  de  Montor,  tR^to'  deh  m6N^toR',  (Alexis 
Franqois,)  Chevalier,  a  French  author,  born  in  Paris 
in  1772.  In  his  early  life  he  was  secretary  to  several 
embassies  to  Rome  and  other  cities  of  Italy.  He  after- 
wards devoted  himself  to  literature  and  arts,  and  was 
admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Lives  of  Artists,"  "  Machiavel,  his 
Genius  and  Errors,"  (1833,)  a  "  History  of  the  Sovereign 
Pontiffs,"  8  vols.,  and  a  "Life  of  Pope  Pius  VH.," 
which  passed  through  eleven  editions  and  obtained  a 
prize  of  the  French  Academy  in  1838.    Died  in  1849. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ar-ta-vas'des,  [Gr.  ' ApTaovua6}]g Fr.  Artavasde, 
tR'tt'vtsd',]  Ar-ta-bas'de§,  [Gr.  'ApraSum^Tjg,]  or  Ar- 
ta-ba'zes,  [Gr.  'Apra^a^W ;  in  Armenian,  Ar'da-wazt' 
or  Ar^ta-vvazt',]  King  of  Armenia,  was  a  son  of  Tigra- 
nes.  He  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Roman  Crassus 
against  the  Parthians  in  54  B.C.  After  Crassus  persisted 
in  meeting  the  enemy  in  an  open  level  country  against 
the  advice  of  Artavasdes,  the  latter  retired  into  Armenia 
and  made  peace  with  Orodes  the  Parthian.  He  offered 
his  assistance  to  Antony  in  his  expedition  against  Par- 


su  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /on^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  f^ll,  fdt;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon* 


ARTAVASDES 


183 


ARTEMISIA 


thia  in  36  B.C.,  but  deserted  him  in  the  same  year.  In 
34  he  was  enticed  by  Antony  to  the  Roman  canip,  and 
detained  as  a  captive  until  31  B.C.,  when  he  was  put  to 
death  by  Cleopatra. 

bee  Dion  Cassius,  "History;"  Tacitus,  "Annals." 

Artavasdes  II.,  placed  by  Augustus  on  the  throne 
of  Armenia  in  6  B.C.,  was  driven  out  by  his  subjects  the 
following  year. 

Artavasdes  III.  was  King  of  Armenia  and  ally  of 
Sapor  I.,  King  of  Persia,  in  260  A.D.,  when  the  latter  con- 
quered and  took  prisoner  the  emperor  Valerian. 

Artavasdes  or  Ar-ta-bas'dus  [Gr.  'ApraSaadof  ; 
Fr.  Artavasde,  tR'tt'vtsd']  surnamed  Curopala'tes, 
was  the  political  chief  of  the  orthodox  party  at  Con- 
stantinople in  the  reign  of  Constantine  V.,  who  was 
an  iconoclast.  He  rebelled  in  742  A.D.,  and  was  pro- 
claimed emperor  by  his  party.  In  the  civil  war  that 
ensued,  he  was  defeated,  taken  prisoner,  and  executed 
about  the  end  of  743  A.D. 

Artaxerce.    See  Artaxerxes. 

Ar-tax-erx'e5  I.,  Lon-gim'a-nus,  [Gr.  'Apra^ep^r/f 
Ma«-p6;i;«p;  Fr.  Artaxerce  Longue-Main,  tR'tik'siRss' 
l(!)i\g'miN';  Persian,  Ard'sheer'  Darazdast,]  a  celebra- 
ted king  of  Persia,  the  son  of  Xerxes  I.,  whom  he  succeeded 
in  465  B.C.  He  was  surnamed  Longimanus  {i.e.  Long- 
handed)  because  his  right  hand  was  longer  than  his  left. 
He  killed  with  his  own  hand  Artabanus,  who  had  mur- 
dered his  father.  Among  the  events  of  his  reign  was  a 
revolt  of  the  Egyptians,  (460,)  who  were  aided  by  the 
Athenians.  About  455  B.C.,  Egypt,  with  the  exception 
of  the  marshes  of  the  Delta,  was  subjected  to  the  power 
of  Persia.  The  Persians,  however,  were  defeated  by  the 
Athenians,  under  Cimon,  near  Salamis,  in  Cyprus,  in  449 
B.C.  The  reign  of  Artaxerxes  is  described  by  Plutarch  as 
wise  and  moderate.  He  died  in  425  B.C.,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Xerxes  II. 

See  DioDORUs  Siculus;  Thirlwall,  "History  of  Greece." 

Artaxerxes  II.,  surnamed  Mnemon  (nee'mon)  from 
the  excellence  of  his  memory,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Darius  II.  and  Parysatis,  and  began  to  reign  in  405  B.C. 
His  younger  brother  Cyrus,  who  was  satrap  of  the  west- 
ern part  of  Asia  Minor  and  aspired  to  the  throne  of  Per- 
sia, collected  a  large  army,  in  which  were  ten  thousand 
Greeks.  Artaxerxes  having  taken  the  field  in  person, 
the  armies  met  at  Cunaxa  in  401  B.C.,  and  Cyrus  was 
killed.  (See  Cyrus  and  Xenophon.)  His  provinces  in 
Asia  Minor  were  invaded  by  the  Spartan  Agesilaus,  who 
gained  several  victories  ;  but  this  danger  was  averted  by 
the  peace  of  Antalcidas,  in  387  B.C.  His  reign  was  dis- 
turbed by  many  revolts,  and  his  efforts  to  recover  Egypt 
failed.  His  eldest  son  Darius  was  detected  in  a  conspi- 
racy against  the  king,  by  whose  order  he  was  put  to  death. 
Artaxerxes  died  in  362  B.C.,  aged  about  ninety-four. 

See  article  "Artaxerxes,"  in  Pi.utakch's  "  Lives ;"  Diodokus  Sicu- 
lus; Xenophon,  "Anabasis;"  Thirlwall,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Artaxerxes  III.  (or  O'-ehus)  was  a  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  the  preceding.  He  massacred  his  father's 
surviving  children,  and  became  notorious  for  cruelty. 
By  the  aid  of  Mentor  the  Rhodian,  and  other  Greeks,  he 
reduced  Egypt  to  his  domination  about  350  or  345  B.C. 
He  abandoned  himself  to  sensuality,  and  left  the  direc- 
tion of  the  government  to  Bagoas,  a  eunuch,  by  whose 
order  he  was  poisoned  in  339  B.C.  His  son  Arses  suc- 
ceeded him. 

Ar-tax'i-as  [Gr.  "kpTa^Laq\  or  Ar-tax'es,  ['Apr^!^?/^,] 
according  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  historians,  founded 
the  kingdom  of  Armenia  in  190  B.C.  After  the  defeat 
of  Antiochus  the  Great  (whose  general  he  was)  by  the 
Romans,  he  made  himself  independent  in  Armenia. 

Artaxias  II.,  King  of  Armenia,  whose  father  was  de- 
throned and  carried  to  Alexandria  by  Mark  Antony  in 
34  B.C.,  was  chosen  king  by  the  Armenians,  but  expelled 
by  the  Romaos,  and  reinstated  by  Phraates  IV.  of  Parthia. 
He  was  murdered  by  his  nobles  for  his  cruelty. 

Artaxias  III.  This  sovereign,  who.'^e  Greek  name 
was  Zk'no,  a  son  of  the  King  of  Pontus,  was  placed 
on  the  throne  of  Armenia  by  the  Romans  in  18  A.D., 
after  an  interregnum  of  two  years  in  consequence  of  the 
flight  of  Vonones. 

Arteaga,  aR-ti  S'ga,  (Esteban,)  a  Jesuit,  born  in 
Madrid  near  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  re- 


moved to  Italy  after  the  suppression  of  his  order.  He 
published  at  Bologna  a  history  of  the  Italian  lyrical 
drama,  ("Le  Rivoluzioni  del  Teatro  musicale  italiano," 
etc.,  2  vols.,  1783,)  which  is  called  the  best  work  on 
that  subject.    Died  in  Paris  in  1799. 

Arteaga,  (Hortensio.)    See  Artiaga. 

Arteaga  y  Alfaro,  aR-ti-i'g§.  e  il-fd'ro,  (Matias,) 
a  Spanish  painter  and  engraver,  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Academy  of  Seville,  was  born  in  that  city  in  the  first 
half  of  the  seventeenth  century.    Died  in  1704. 

See  Bermudez,  "  Diccionario  Historico." 

Artedi,  aR-taMee,  (Peter,)  [Lat.  Pe'trus  Arcte'- 

Dius,]  an  eminent  Swedish  naturalist,  born  at  Anund  in 
1705.  He  entered  the  University  of  Upsal  in  1724,  and 
studied  natural  sciences  and  medicine.  About  1728 
he  formed,  at  Upsal,  an  intimate  friendship  with  Lin- 
naeus. They  entered  into  a  scientific  partnership,  and 
agreed  to  divide  the  field  of  labour  in  natural  history. 
Artedi,  having  chosen  the  departments  of  fishes  and 
reptiles,  departed,  in  1734,  to  England,  where  he  had 
access  to  the  museum  of  Sir  Hans  Sloane.  He  met 
Linnajus  again  at  Leyden  in  1735,  and  was  employed 
by  Seba,  a  rich  apothecary  of  Amsterdam,  to  describe 
his  collection  of  fishes.  Before  he  had  finished  this 
task,  he  fell  into  a  canal  in  the  night  and  was  drowned, 
in  December,  1735.  He  left  an  excellent  work  on  fishes, 
which  was  published  by  Linnaeus  in  1738,  with  the  fol- 
lowing title,  "  Petri  Artedi  Ichthyologia  sive  Opera 
omnia  de  Piscibus,"  etc.  This  was  the  most  complete 
work  that  had  appeared  on  that  subject.  In  the  opin- 
ion of  Du  Petit-Thouars,  "  it  was  worthy  to  be  proposed 
as  a  model  to  natural  historians,  and  was  a  master-piece 
which  has  not  yet  been  surpassed." 

See  "Life  of  Artedi,"  by  Linn^us,  prefixed  to  his  "Opera 
Omnia,"  1738  ;  Gezelius,  "  Biographiskt-Lexicon ;"  "Biographic 
Universelle." 

Artefius.    See  Artephius. 

Artemidore.    See  Artemidorus. 

Ar-tem-i-do^rus,  [Gr.  'Aprc/zzJwpof ;  Fr.  Artemi- 
dore, SR'ta'me'doR',]  a  Greek  grammarian,  who  lived 
about  240  B.C.,  was  a  pupil  of  Aristophanes  of  Byzantium. 
His  works  are  not  extant. 

Artemidorus,  a  Greek  physician,  born  in  Pamphylia 
in  or  after  the  third  century  B.C.  He  taught  that  the 
oesophagus  or  stomach  was  the  seat  of  hydrophobia. 

Artemidorus,  a  native  of  Cnidos,  grammarian,  and 
friend  of  Julius  Caesar,  lived  in  Rome.  According  to 
Plutarch,  he  was  informed  of  the  plot  to  kill  Caesar,  and 
warned  him  of  his  danger  in  a  letter  which  Caesar  held 
in  his  hand  (but  had  not  read)  when  he  entered  the 
senate-house  on  the  Ides  of  March. 

Artemidorus,  a  painter  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  the 
poet  Martial,  by  whom  he  is  ridiculed. 

Artemido'rus  Cap'ito,  a  Greek  physician  and  gram- 
marian, who  lived  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  the  emperor 
Hadrian,  and  published  a  valuable  edition  of  Hippoc- 
rates, which  was  highly  esteemed  by  Hadrian. 

Artemido'rus  Corne'lius,  an  ancient  physician, 
an  accomplice  of  Verres  in  his  iniquities  in  Cilicia  and 
Sicily.    He  is  mentioned  by  Cicero  in  this  connection. 

Artemido'rus  Daldia'nus,  a  -native  of  Ephesus, 
who  lived  about  160  A.D.,  wrote  a  curious  work  on 
dreatns  and  their  interpretations,  ('OvecpoKpLTiKu,)  which 
is  valuable  for  the  light  it  throws  on  ancient  customs 
and  opinions. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grajca." 

Artemido'rus  of  Eph'esus,  a  geographer,  who  lived 
about  103  B.C.,  and  who  is  frequently  quoted  by  Strabo. 

Artemis,  ['Apre/utg,]  the  Greek  name  of  the  goddess 
Diana,  which  see. 

Artemise.  ,  See  Artemisia. 

Artemisia,  ar-te-mish'e-a,  [Gr.'ApTe^ia'ia ;  Fr.  Arte- 
mise, tu'tii'm^z',]  a  warlike  queen  of  Halicarnassus, 
who  reigned  after  her  husband's  death.  She  joined  the 
fleet  of  Xerxes,  with  her  ships,  in  the  expedition  against 
the  Greeks,  and  distinguished  herself  by  bravery  and 
skill  at  the  naval  battle  of  Salamis,  fought  against  her 
advice  in  480  B.C.  Being  pursued  by  an  Athenian  ship, 
she  artfully  eluded  the  danger  by  attacking  a  Persian 
vessel,  and  thus  led  her  pursuers  to  think  she  was  not 
their  enemy.    A  doubtful  tradition  adds  that,  in  conse- 


€  as  k;  Q  as  s;  g  /eard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  gtithcraL;  N,  nasal;  R»  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^[^^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ARTEMISIA 


184 


ARTIGA 


qweu'  e  of  disappointed  love,  she  jumped  from  the  Leu- 
cadian  rock  into  the  sea. 

See  Herodotus,  "  History,"  vli.  and  vlii.  ;  Pausanias,  iii. 

Artemisia,  an  Oriental  princess,  celebrated  for  her 
grief  at  the  death  of  her  husband  and  for  her  devotion  to 
his  memory,  was  the  wife  of  Mausolus,  Prince  of  Caria, 
who  died  in  352  B.C.  She  erected  for  him  at  Halicar- 
nassus  a  magnificent  tomb,  which  was  reckoned  one  of 
the  seven  wonders  of  the  world,  and  from  which  such 
monuments,  in  succeeding  times,  have  derived  the  generic 
name  of  mausoleiun.  It  is  stated  that  she  invited  the 
eminent  poets  and  orators  of  that  time  to  compete  with 
each  other  in  composing  a  eulogy  on  Mausolus,  that 
she  mingled  his  ashes  with  her  drink,  and  died  of  grief 
about  two  years  after  his  death. 

See  DioDORUS  SicuLUs ;  Strabo,  xiv.  ;  Cicero,  "  Tusculanae ;" 
J.  C.  AvENARius,  "Dissertatio  de  Artemisia  et  Mausoleo,"  1714. 

Artemius.    See  Anastasius  II. 

Ar-te'mi-us  [Gr.  'Apre//<of]  or  Ar-the'mi-us,  ['Ap(?e- 
^iof,  J  a  Christian  commander-in-chief  of  the  Roman 
army  in  Egypt  in  the  reign  of  Constantius.  He  was  put 
to  death  on  the  accession  of  Julian,  (362  A.D.,)  on  account 
of  his  severity  towards  the  pagans. 

Ar^te-mon,  ["A/^)n/iwv,]  a  Greek  painter  of  uncer- 
tain period,  who  is  classed  by  Pliny  among  artists  of  the 
second  rank.  Among  his  master-pieces  mentioned  by 
Pliny  was  the  "Apotheosis  of  Hercules." 

Artemon,  a  sculptor,  who  lived  in  Rome  about  the 
time  of  Pliny.  His  works  adorned  the  palace  of  the 
Caesars. 

Artemon,  a  rhetorician,  often  quoted  by  Seneca,  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  under  Augustus  or  Tiberius. 

Artemon  or  Ar'te-mas,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of 
Artemonites,  who  denied  the  divinity  of  Christ,  lived  in 
the  third  century. 

Artemon  of  Cassandria,  a  learned  grammarian,  who 
Nourished  about  300  B.C. 

Artemon  of  Clazomenae,  a  famous  engineer,  the  re- 
puted inventor  of  the  testudo  and  battering-ram,  was 
employed  by  Pericles  in  the  siege  of  Samos. 

Ar-te'phi-us  or  Ar-te'fi-us,  an  alchemist,  who  ap- 
pears to  have  lived  in  the  twelfth  century. 

Arteveld,  van,  vSn  aa'teh-velt',  or  Artevelde,  van, 
vSn  aa'teh-veKdeh,  (Jacob,)  a  famous  demagogue,  born 
at  Ghent  near  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
He  was  a  wealthy  brewer,  and  by  his  eloquence  and 
other  talents  acquired  great  influence  over  the  people  of 
Ghent,  who,  having  revolted  against  the  Count  of  Flan- 
ders, chose  Arteveld  as  the  commander  of  their  forces. 
He  confirmed  his  power  by  proscribing  the  nobles,  and 
ruled  the  city  in  a  violent  and  arbitrary  manner.  In 
1335  he  formed  an  alliance  with  Edward  HI.  of  Eng- 
land, whom  he  aided  in  his  war  against  France.  In 
1340  he  induced  the  Flemings  to  do  homage  to  Edward 
as  King  of  France.  Pie  afterwards  formed  a  project  to 
make  the  English  Black  Prince  Count  of  Flanders.  The 
citizens  of  Ghent,  led  by  Gherard  Denys,  revolted  against 
him  for  this  cause  and  killed  him  in  1345.  He  is  called 
James  d'Arteville  by  Hume,  and  Jacques  d'Artvelle  by 
French  writers. 

See  Fk-hssart,  "Chronicles;"  Meyer,  "Annales  Rerum  Flandri- 
carum  IScrevisse,  "  Redevoerin-j;  op  J.  van  Artevelde,"  8vo,  1846; 
J.  DE  Winter,  "J.  van  Artevelde,"  8vo,  1846. 

Arteveld,  van,  (Philip,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Ghent  about  1540,  and  inherited  his  father's 
riches.  He  passed  the  prime  of  life  in  a  private  station, 
which  he  suddenly  left  to  become,  like  his  father,  a 
powerful  popular  leader.  In  1379  the  people  of  Ghent 
revolted  against  Louis,  Count  of  Flanders,  who  be- 
sieged that  city  so  effectually  that  famine  was  imminent. 
Finding  that  their  leaders  were  inadequate  for  the  crisis, 
they  nominated  Arteveld  captain  by  acclamation  in  1381. 
In  May,  1382,  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Count 
Louis  at  Bruges,  which  was  captured  by  the  victors,  and 
he  assumed  the  title  of  regent.  Charles  VI.  of  France 
soon  after  sent  an  army  under  Clisson  to  aid  the  Count 
of  Flanders  against  the  insurgents,  who  were  defeated 
with  great  loss  at  Roosebeke  or  Rosebec  in  November, 
1382.  Arteveld  was  killed  in  this  battle,  and  Count 
Louis  became  master  of  Ghent. 

See  pRoissART,  "Chronicles;"  M.  de  Barante,  "  Histoire  de 
Bourgogne." 


Artevelde.    See  Arteveld. 

Arteveldt,  van,  (Andrew.)    See  Artvelt. 

Arteville  or  Artvelle.    See  Arteveld. 

Ar'thur  or  Ar'tus,  written  also  Artur,  a  semi-fabu- 
lous prince  of  Britain,  and  hero  of  the  famous  romances 
of  the  Round  Table,  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  in 
the  fifth  or  sixth  century,  during  the  dark  period  which 
occurred  between  the  evacuation  of  Britain  by  the  Ro- 
mans and  the  conquest  of  that  island  by  the  Saxons. 
The  authentic  accounts  of  his  deeds  are  so  scanty  that 
his  existence  has  been  doubted  by  some  antiquaries. 
According  to  popular  tradition,  he  gained  several  victo- 
ries over  the  Saxons,  and  over  Cerdic,  the  foundei  of 
the  West  Saxon  kingdom,  after  which  he  was  killed  in 
battle  against  his  rebellious  nephew  Modred  or  Medrod 
at  Camlan.  His  exploits  were  the  favourite  subj'^cts  of 
mediaeval  poets  and  romancers.  Hume  calls  him  Prince 
of  the  Silures.  ("  History  of  England.") 

See  Turner,  "History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons;"  Owen,  "Cam- 
brian Biography;"  Leland,  "Assertio  Arthuri ;"  Joseph  Ritson, 
"  Life  of  King  Arthur,"  1825. 

Ar'thur  I.,  Duke  of  Brittany,  born  in  1187,  was  a 
grandson  of  Henry  II.  of  England.  He  was  put  to  death 
by  his  uncle  John  Lackland  in  1202. 

Arthur  II,  of  Brittany,  born  in  1262,  was  a  son  of 
John  II.    Died  in  13 12. 

Arthur  III.,  Due  de  Bretagne,  (or  Brittany,)  born  in 
1393,  was  a  son  of  John  (Jean)  V.  He  fought  for  the 
Orleans  faction,  was  wounded  at  Agincourt,  and  became 
Constable  of  France  about  1424.  He  succeeded  to  the 
dukedoin  at  the  deatli  of  his  nephew  Pierre  in  1456. 
Died  in  1457. 

Ar'thur,  Prince  of  Wales,  the  eldest  son  of  Henry 
VII.  and  Elizabeth  of  York,  was  born  in  i486.  He 
married  Catherine  of  Aragon  in  1501,  and  died  without 
issue  in  1502,  after  which  his  widow  became  the  wife  of 
his  brother,  Henry  VIII. 

Ar'thur,  (Archibald,)  a  Scottish  divine  of  liberal 
principles,  was  born  in  Renfrewshire  in  1744,  and  licensed 
as  a  preacher  in  1767.  Soon  after  that  date  he  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  the  University  of  Glasgow.  He 
became  the  assistant  of  Dr.  Reid  as  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  at  Glasgow  in  1780,  and  succeeded  to  the 
chair  vacated  by  Dr.  Reid  at  his  death  in  1796.  He 
died  in  June,  1797,  leaving  "Discourses  on  Theolo'^ical 
and  Literary  Subjects,"  (1803.) 

Ar'thur,  (Timothy  S.,)  an  American  writer  of  f  ction, 
born  near  Newburg,  Orange  county.  New  York,  "n  1809. 
He  was  educated  in  Baltimore,  and  became  a  clerk  or 
agent  of  a  banking  company.  Since  1841  he  Kas  resided 
in  Philadelphia.  He  has  written  many  popular  tales 
illustrative  of  domestic  life  and  designed  to  promote 
morality.  Among  his  works  are  "  Lights  and  Shadows 
of  Real  Life,"  "  Tales  for  Rich  and  Poor,"  (6  vols.,) 
"  Library  for  the  Household,"  (12  vols.,)  "The  Good 
Time  Coming,"  (1855.) 

Arthus,  aR^toos,  Ar'tus,  or  Ar-thu'si-us,  (Gott- 
HARD,)  a  translator  and  compiler,  born  at  Dantzic  about 
1570.  Among  his  publications  is  a  "  History  of  the  East 
Indies,"  ("Historia  Indias  Orientalis,"  1608.)  He  sup- 
plied many  Latin  translations  for  De  Bry's  "Collection 
of  Voyages." 

Artiaga,  or  Paravicino  y  Artiaga,  pS-ri-ve-thee'- 

no  e  aR-te-a'gi,  (Hortensio  Felix,)  a  Spanish  poet  and 
priest,  born  at  Madrid  in  1580,  was  appointed  preacher 
to  Philip  III.  in  1616.  As  a  poet  he  was  a  disciple  of 
Gongora,  and  was  much  admired  by  his  contemporaries. 
Died  in  1633. 

Artieda,  de,  di aR-te-a'DS,  (Andres  Rey — ra  or  ra^,) 
a  Spanish  writer,  born  at  Valencia  about  the  mid.Ue  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  He  served  in  the  army  for  many 
years,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Lepanto.  He  wrote 
"The  Lovers,"  ("Los  Amantes,"  1581,)  and  other 
dramas.  His  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his  "  Discourses, 
Epistles,  and  Epigrams,"  (1605.)    Died  in  1613. 

Artiga,  de,  di  aR-tee'gJ,  (Don  Francisco,)  a  Span- 
ish landscape-painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Huesca 
about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  founded 
and  endowed  a  chair  of  matliematics  at  Huesca,  and 
taught  in  it  himself.  He  wrote  treatises  on  mathematics 
and  other  subjects.    Died  in  1711. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  iottg;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a-  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fJll,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ART  I  GAS 


185 


JR  UNDEL 


Artigas,  aR-tee'gSs,  (Don  Juan  or  Fernando  Jos6,) 
a  South  American  general,  born  at  Montevideo  about 
1760.  He  entered  the  service  of  the  Junta  or  republic 
01  liuenos  Ayres  about  181 1,  before  which  he  had  been 
a  leader  of  the  lawless  Gauchos.  He  gained  victories 
over  the  royalists,  nnade  himself  master  of  the  Banda 
Oriental,  and  became  a  general.  Having  quarrelled  with 
Posadas,  the  director  of  the  new  state,  he  raised  an  army 
of  Gauchos,  defeated  the  troops  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and 
compelled  the  Junta  to  recognize  him  as  independent 
chief  of  the  Banda  Oriental  in  1814.  He  waged  war  with 
various  success  against  the  Portuguese,  who  invaded  the 
Banda  Oriental  in  1816.  In  1820  he  captured  the  city 
of  Buenos  Ayres,  but  before  the  end  of  the  year  he  was 
driven  into  exile.    Died  in  Paraguay  in  1825  or  1826. 

See  Armitage,  "  History  of  Brazil." 

Artigny,  d',diR'ten'ye',(ANTOiNEGachat — gt'shS',) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Vienne  in  1706,  became  a 
canon  of  the  church  in  that  city.  He  published  a  valua- 
ble work  entitled  "  New  Historical,  Critical,  and  Literary 
Memoirs,"  ("  Nouveaux  Memoires  d'Histoire,  de  Cri- 
tique et  de  Litterature,"  7  vols.,  1749-56.)    Died  in  1778. 

Artis,  d,  dtR'te',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  Protestant  and 
controversial  writer,  noted  for  his  zeal  against  Socinian- 
ism,  was  born  in  Aveyron  in  1660.  He  became  minister 
of  a  church  in  Berlin,  but  was  deprived  of  that  office 
about  1692  on  account  of  his  contentious  spirit.  Died 
about  1730. 

Artis,  d',  [Lat.  Artis'ius,]  ([ean,)  a  French  writer 
on  canon  law  and  kindred  subjects,  born  at  Cahors  in 
1572,  was  appointed  professor  of  canon  law  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  in  1623.    Died  in  1651. 

Artisjosky.    See  Arciszewski. 

Artmann,  aRt'mSn,  (Jerome,)  a  celebrated  organ- 
maker  of  Bohemia,  born  at  Prague  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century. 

Artner,  von,  fon  aRt'ner,  (Maria  Therese,)  a  Ger- 
man poetess,  daughter  of  an  Austrian  officer,  born  at 
Schnitau,  in  Hungary,  in  1772.  She  produced  several 
successful  dramas,  among  which  was  "Quiet  Greatness," 
("Stille  Grosse,"  1824.)  Her  most  popular  works  are 
lyric  poems,  published  under  the  name  of  Theone, 
"  Field-Flowers  from  Hungary's  Plains,  gathered  by 
Minna  and  Theone,"  ("Feldblumen  aufUngarns  Fluren 
gcsamnielt  von  Minna  und  Theone,"  1800.)  Died  at 
Agram  in  1829. 

See  DoRiNG,  "Vie  d' Artner,"  1829. 

Artois,  van,  vSn  tR'twa',  (Jacques,)  an  excellent 
Flemish  landscape-painter,  born  at  Brussels  in  1613, 
His  works  are  commended  for  good  taste,  and  for  the 
richness  and  variety  of  the  details.  Many  of  the  figures 
in  his  landscapes  were  painted  by  the  younger  Teniers. 
He  obtained  high  prices  for  his  pictures,  but  his  habits 
were  so  extravagant  that  he  remained  poor.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  died  about  1665. 

See  HouBRAKEN,  "Groote  Scliouburg ;"  Heinecken,  " Diction- 
naire  des  Artistes." 

Ar-to'mi-us,  (Peter,)  a  Polish  poet  and  Lutheran 
minister  at  Thorn,  was  born  in  1552;  died  in  1609. 

ArtopcEUS,  aR-to-pee'us,  or  Artopous,  aR-to-po'us, 
(Tohann,)  a  German  writer  and  professor  of  law,  born 
at  Worms  in  1520  ;  died  about  1580. 

Artopoeus,  aR-to-pce^is  or  aK-to-po'iis,  sometimes 
written  Artopaeus,  (Peter.)  a  learned  Protestant  divine, 
born  in  Pomerania  in  1491,  was  the  author  of  many 
polemical  and  religious  works.    Died  at  Stettin  in  1563. 

Artopceus  or  Artopous,  (Johann  Christofh,)  a 
philologist  and  historian,  originally  named  Becker,  born 
at  Strasburg,  on  the  Rhine,  in  1626.  He  was  professor 
of  Latin  in  the  gymnasium  of  his  native  city  for  many 
years.  He  wrote  many  historical  and  antiquarian  treat- 
ises, and  was  the  reputed  author  of  a  curious  Latin 
"Essay  on  the  State  and  Place  of  Souls  after  Death," 
("  De  Statu,  Loco  et  Vita  Animarum,"  etc.)  Died  in 
1702. 

See  JocHER,  "Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Ar-to'ri-us,  |Gr.  'Aprwpwf,]  (Marcus,)  a  medical 
writer  of  Rome,  was  physician  to  the  emperor  Augustus, 
whom  he  attended  in  the  campaign  against  Brutus  and 
Cassius,  42  H.c.  By  his  advice,  Augustus  removed  from 
his  camp  at  Philippi  just  before  it  was  taken  by  the 


enemy.  Artorius  was  drowned  at  sea  in  31  H.C.  H# 
was  the  author  of  a  work  on  Hydrophobia,  which  is  lost. 

Artot,  tR''to',  (Joseph,)  a  Belgian  violinist,  born  at 
Brussels  in  1815;  died  in  Paris  in  1845. 

Artur  or  Artus.    See  Arthur. 

Artus,  (GoTTHARD.)    See  Arthus. 

Artus,  tR'tiiss',  (Thomas,)  Sieur  d'Embry,  a  French 
liiteratejir,  born  at  Paris  about  1550,  was  a  coadjutor  of 
Blaise  de  Vigenere. 

Artusi,  aR-too'see,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  a  writer  on 
music,  born  at  Bologna  about  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  was  a  canon  in  the  church  of  that  city. 
He  published  "The  Art  of  Counterpoint,"  (1586,)  and 
a  work  "  On  the  Imperfections  of  Modern  Music," 
(1600.)  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  1610. 
See  BuRNEY,  "  History  of  Music." 

Artusini,  aR-too-see'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  jurist,  born  at  Forli  in  1554  ;  died  about  1630. 

Artvelt,  van,  vtn  aRt'vglt,  (Andries,)  a  good  marine 
painter  of  Antwerp,  flourished  about  1620,  and  was  a 
contemporary  of  Van  Dyck,  who  painted  his  portrait. 
He  excelled  in  depicting  storms. 

Aruajo  de  Azevedo  Pinto  Pereyra,  S-roo-^'zho 
da  i-zi-va'do  pen'to  pi-ra^-r^,  (Antonio,)  Count  of 
Barca,  a  Portuguese  poet  and  diplomatist  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century.    Died  in  18 16. 

See  Longfellow's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Arum,  ^'rvim,  (Dominic,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  at 
Leeuwarden  in  1579,  became  professor  of  law  at  Jena 
about  1605.  "He  rendered,"  says  Guizot,  "importan. 
services  to  the  public  law  of  Germany."  Among  his? 
works  are  "Academic  Discourses  on  Public  Law," 
("Discursus  academici  de  Jure  publico,"  5  vols.,  1617- 
23,)  and  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Diets  of  the  German  Em- 
pire," ("  De  Comitiis  Imperii  Romano-Germanici,"  1630.) 
Died  at  Jena  in  1637. 

See  Foppens,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Ar'u-na  or  Ar'un,  [Hindoo  pron.  ur'o6-na,  and 
iir'oon,]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  charioteer  of  the 
Sun,  (Soorya  or  Surya.)  He  is  a  son  of  Kasyapa,  and 
brother-german  of  Garuda,  the  eagle  of  Vishnu.  As  a 
personification  of  the  dawn,  he  may  be  said  to  corre- 
spond to  the  Aurora  or  Eos  of  classic  mythology. 

See  Moor's  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Ar'un-del,  (Lady  Blanche,)  the  wife  of  Thomas, 
Lord  Arundel,  and  daughter  of  Edward  Somerset,  Earl 
of  Worcester,  was  born  in  1583.  She  gained  distinction 
by  her  defence  of  Wardour  Castle  against  the  Parliament 
about  1642.    Died  in  1649. 

Arundel,  Earl  of.    See  Howard. 

Arundel,  (Henry,)  third  Baron  of  Wardour,  suc- 
ceeded to  his  title  in  1648.  He  was  one  of  the  five 
Roman  Catholic  lords  who  were  imprisoned  upon  the 
perjured  testimony  of  Titus  Oates.  On  the  accession 
of  James  II.  he  became  lord  keeper  of  the  privy  seal. 
Died  in  1694. 

Arundel,  (Mary,)  Countess  of,  a  learned  English 
lady  and  writer  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  the  wife 
of  Henry  Howard,  Earl  of  Arundel. 

Arundel,  (Thomas,)  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  born 
at  Arundel  Castle,  Sussex,  in  1353,  was  a  younger  son 
of  Richard  Fitz-Alan,  Earl  of  Arundel.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Ely  in  1375,  lord  high-chancellor  in  1386,  and 
Archbishop  of  York  in  1388.  In  1396  he  was  translated 
to  the  see  of  Canterbury.  This  was  the  first  instance 
that  occurred  of  a  translation  from  the  see  of  York  to 
that  of  Canterbury.  In  1397  he  was  impeached  for  high 
treason,  and  banished  by  Richard  II.  He  took  a  pro.ni- 
nent  part  in  the  revolution  by  which  Richard  was  de- 
throned, and  was  restored  to  the  see  of  Canterbury 
by  Henry  IV.  in  1399.  He  prohibited  the  translation 
of  the  Scriptures  into  English,  and  persecuted  the  Lol- 
lards,— i.e.  the  disciples  of  Wickliffe.    Died  in  1413. 

See  Fuller.  "Church  History:"  Holinshed,  "Chronicle;" 
Rapin,  "  History  of  England;"  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Arch- 
bishops of  Canterbury,"  vol.  iv.  chap,  xvii.,  (i860.) 

Arundel,  (Thomas,)  first  Lord  Arundel  of  Wardour, 
was  a  son  of  Sir  Matthew  Arundel  of  Wardour  Castle, 
Wilts,  and  was  born  about  1540.  In  his  youth  he  en- 
tered the  service  of  the  German  emperor,  who  rewarded 
his  remarkable  exploits  in  the  war  against  the  Turks 


€2^k;q  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  V., gutttiral ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AR  UN  DEL 


ASAN 


with  the  title  of  Count  of  the  Roman  Empire,  (1595.) 
lie  was  created  Baron  Arundel  by  James  I.  in  1605. 
Ijied  in  1639. 

Arundel,  (Thomas,)  the  second  baron,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  fought  for  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war,  and 
was  mortally  wounded  at  Lansdowne  in  1643. 

Arundel,  (Sir  Thomas,)  was  a  grandfather  of  the 
first  Lord  Arundel  of  Wardour.  He  was  a  friend  of  the 
Duke  of  Somerset,  and  was  charged  with  being  his  ac- 
complice in  treason  and  in  a  conspiracy  to  kill  the  Duke 
of  Northumberland.  Though  he  was  probably  innocent, 
he  was  executed  in  February,  1551-52.  His  wife  was  a 
sister  of  Catherine  Howard,  a  queen  of  Henry  VIII. 

A'runs  or  Aruntius,  a-run^shejas,  [Fr.  Aronce, 
S^roNss',]  a  son  of  Demaratus  of  Corinth,  who  is  said  to 
have  emigrated  to  Etruria,  was  a  brother  of  Tarquin 
the  Elder,  of  Rome. 

Aruns,  a  Roman  prince,  was  a  brother  of  Tarquin  the 
Proud  (Superbus,)  the  last  king  of  Rome.  According 
to  the  legend,  he  was  killed  by  his  wife  Tullia,  (a  daugh- 
ter of  Servius  Tullius,)  who  was  notorious  for  cruelty. 

Aruns,  a  son  of  Tarquin  the  Proud.  After  the  ex- 
pulsion of  that  king,  an  army  of  Etruscans  marched 
against  Rome  to  reinstate  him,  and  encountered  the 
Roman  army,  led  by  the  consul  Brutus.  Aruns,  who 
fought  for  his  father  in  this  battle,  engaged  Brutus  in  a 
single  combat,  in  which  both  were  killed. 

Aruns,  a  son  of  Porsena,  who  accompanied  his  father 
in  his  invasion  of  Rome. 

Aruns,  an  Etrurian,  who  is  said  to  have  invited  the 
Gauls  into  Italy  to  revenge  himself  for  an  insult  offered 
to  his  wife  by  a  noble  of  that  country. 

Aruns,  a  Roman  historian,  lived  about  60  B.C.,  and 
wrote  a  History  of  the  Punic  War. 

Arusianus,  a-ru-she-a^ius,  (Messus  or  Messius,)  a 
Roman  grammarian,  of  whom  nothing  is  known  except 
that  his  name  is  connected  with  a  work  called  "  Quad- 
riga vel  Exempla  Elocutionum,"  a  vocabulary  of  remark- 
able phrases  found  in  Virgil,  Sallust,  Terence,  and  Cicero. 
The  value  of  this  is  enhanced  by  many  fragments  of  the 
lost  works  of  Sallust  and  Cicero  which  are  preserved  in  it. 

Ar-van'dus,  a  prefect  of  Gaul  from  467  to  472,  was 
condemned  to  death  by  the  Roman  senate  for  malprac- 
tices in  his  office  ;  but  his  punishment  was  commuted  to 
perpetual  exile  and  confiscation  of  property. 

Arvidsson,  aR'vids-son,  written  also  Arwidsson, 
(Truls  or  Troils,)  a  Swedish  engraver,  born  at  Wes- 
tervik,  studied  at  Upsal  about  1680,  and  became  learned 
in  Oriental  languages,  especially  Hebrew.  He  was  cop- 
per-plate engraver  to  the  Antiquarian  Archives,  and  pub- 
lished a  singular  work  on  the  original  music  of  the  first 
seven  Psalms  of  David,  (1705.)    Died  in  1705. 

Arvieux,  d',  dSR've''uh',  (Laurent,)  Chevalier,  a 
French  traveller  and  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Marseilles 
in  1635.  He  showed  nmch  tact  in  negotiating  a  treaty 
with  the  Dey  of  Tunis  in  1668,  and  rendered  important 
services  to  the  French  ambassador  at  Constantinople  in 
1672.  He  was  consul  at  Aleppo  from  1679  to  1686,  and 
refused  the  office  or  title  of  Bishop  of  Babylon,  which 
was  offered  him  by  the  pope.  His  "Treatise  on  the  Man- 
ners and  Customs  of  the  Arabs"  (171 7)  is  commended. 
His  accuracy  and  veracity  have  been  attested  by  Niebuhr. 
He  left  papers  from  which  Labat  compiled  "Memoirs 
of  Chevalier  D'Arvieux,  containing  his  Travels  in  Asia, 
Syria,  etc.,"  (6  vols.,  1735.)    I^i^d  in  1702. 

See  also  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Arwidsson.    See  Arvidsson. 

Arwidsson,  aR'v^ids'son,  (Adolf,)  a  Swedish  scholar, 
born  in  Finland  in  1791.  He  was  exiled  in  1822  from 
Finland  for  a  political  article  in  a  journal.  Having  re- 
moved to  Stockholm,  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the 
royal  library.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
collection  of  old  popular  Swedish  songs,  (3  vols.,  1834- 
42.)    Died  in  1858. 

Arya,  ar'ya,  [Ger.  Arja,1  English  plural  Ar'yas, 
the  name  of  an  ancient  race  of  men  who  are  supposed 
to  have  dwelt  originally  near  the  sources  of  the  Oxus, 
(Amoo,)  and  who  first  crossed  the  Indus  from  the  north 
probably  about  two  thousand  years  before  the  Christian 
era.  The  Aryas  were  the  ancestors  of  the  modern  Hin- 
doos, and  were  nearly  related  (as  is  shown  by  a  com- 


parison of  their  respective  languages)  to  the  ancient 
Persians.  The  Aryan  language  was  the  Sanscrit,  gene- 
rally regarded  as  the  most  ancient  of  all  the  Indo- 
European  tongues.  Using  the  term  in  a  more  compre- 
hensive sense,  the  Aryas  may  be  said  to  have  been  the 
ancestors  of  the  entire  Indo-European  (otherwise  called 
Aryan)  family  of  nations.  The  word  would  seem  to  have 
signified  originally  "agriculturists,"  used  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  Turanian  or  Tartar  nations,  who  were 
nomadic  shepherds,  though  its  later  Sanscrit  significa- 
tion is  "of  good  family,"  "noble,"  "honourable,"  and 
hence  it  was  applied  only  to  the  higher  castes  among  the 
Hindoos.    (See  Brahmanism.) 

See  Max  Muller's  "  Science  of  Language,"  pp.  237,  238,239; 
Whitney's  "  Language  and  the  Study  of  Language,"  particularly  lec- 
tures V.  and  vi. 

^[^^"Aryan,*  the  adjective  derived  from  Arya,  is  also 
used  as  a  noun,  with  the  same  signification  as  Arya. 
[The  Germans  use  Arier,  i're-er,  singular  and  plural.] 

Aryabhatta,  Sr-ya-bat'ta,  called  by  the  Arabs  Ar- 
yabahr,  aR'ya-bdHR',  a  celebrated  Hindoo  mathema- 
tician and  astronomer,  who  lived  probably  about  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  He  was  the  earliest 
known  writer  on  algebra.  He  announced  the  diurnal 
rotation  of  the  earth,  and  made  a  near  approximation 
to  the  truth  in  his  statement  of  the  earth's  diameter. 

See  Colebrooke's  "Essays." 

A-rym'bas  [Gr.  'ApvfijSag]  I.,  sometimes  written  Ar- 
rybas.  King  of  the  Molossi,  is  supposed  to  have  reigned 
alDout  390  B.C.,  and  to  have  been  the  first  to  give  a  well- 
organized  government  to  the  Molossi. 

Arymbas  II.,  also  a  king  of  the  same  people.  Died 
in  346  K.c. 

Ar-ys-da'ghes,  Saint,  a  Christian  bishop,  born  in 
Cappadocia  about  280  A.D.,  was  Patriarch  of  Armenia- 
Died  in  339. 

Arysdaghes,  an  Armenian  grammarian,  born  in 
1178  ;  died  in  1239. 

Arzachel,  aR-thi-ch^K,  a  noted  astronomer,  who 
lived  in  Spain  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eleventh  century. 

Arzan,  aR'zSn,  an  Armenian  high-priest  and  pagan, 
opposed  Christianity  by  arms.  He  was  killed  in  302  a.d. 

Arzao,  aR-zowN',  (Antonio  Rodriguez,)  a  Brazilian 
traveller,  who,  about  1694,  explored  the  province  of  Minas 
and  the  river  Doce. 

Arzere,  dell',  del-laRd-za'ri,  (Stefano,)  an  Italian 
fresco-painter  of  note,  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century,  at 
Padua.    He  imitated  Titian. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

As  or  Asa.    See  ^sir. 

A'sa,  [Heb.  >  Gr.  'Aau,]  King  of  Judah,  and  a 
son  of  Abijam  or  Abijah,  began  to  reign  in  970  B.C.  ac- 
cording to  Hales,  or  955  according  to  Usher.  He  was 
distinguished  by  his  zeal  against  idolatry.  He  died  about 
929  B.C.  (See  I.  Kings  xv. ;  II.  Chronicles  xiv.,  xv.,  xvi.) 

Asadi  (I'slMee)  of  Toos,  a  Persian  poet,  who  flour- 
ished about  950  A.D.,  was  a  preceptor  of  Firdousee, 
and  chief  poet  at  the  court  of  Mahmood  of  Gazna. 
Among  his  works  is  Gushtasp  Nameh,  an  epic  poem.  It 
is  said  that  he  wrote  the  last  part  of  the  Shahnameh, 
which  Firdousee  left  unfinished  at  his  death  in  1020. 

See  "Annals  of  Oriental  Literature,"  1820. 

Asam,  i'sSm,  a  Bavarian  painter,  born  in  the  seven- 
teenth century.  He  acquired  a  great  reputation  by  his 
frescos,  and,  with  his  brother  Egid,  adorned  many 
churches  in  Bavaria.  Among  their  works  are  the  pic- 
tures in  the  Johannes-Kirche  at  Munich.   Died  in  1739. 

See  Heinecken,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

A'san,  [Gr.  ^kauvrjg ;  Lat.  Asa'nes,]  King  of  Bulga- 
ria, reigning  about  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century, 
restored  his  country  to  independence  by  throwing  off 
the  yoke  of  the  Greek  Empire. 

Asan  II.,  (Joannes,)  son  of  the  preceding,  having 
been  compelled  to  flee  to  Russia  by  the  usurpation  of 
a  relative,  returned  about  12 17  with  a  Russian  army  and 
drove  out  the  usurper.    Died  in  1241. 

Asan  III.,  (Joannes,)  the  last  Bulgarian  king  of  the 
Asanian  dynasty,  (whose  father  King  Mitzes  was  an  exile 


*  Pronounced  dr'yan  or  .'ir'e-an,  to  distinguish  it  from  Artan,  {i.e. 
"belonging  to  Arius,"  the  great  heresiarch.) 


a,  e,  T,  0,  ii,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ia,    short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fdt;  mhi;  nftt;  good;  mooD 


ASANDER  187  ASCHENBRENNER 


at  the  time  of  his  death,)  recovered  his  kingdom  in  1279, 
but  was  expelled  in  128 1  by  the  usurper  Terter  or  Ter- 
teres,  and  died  at  Constantinople. 

A-san'der,  [Gr.  'A.nuv6pog;  Fr.  Asandre,  t'zfiNdR',]  a 
Macedonian  officer,  was  a  brother  of  Parmenio,  and  son 
of  Philotas.  He  was  appointed  in  334  B.C.  governor  of 
Lydia  by  Alexander  the  Great,  after  whose  death  he  ob- 
tained the  satrapy  of  Caria.  He  formed  an  alliance 
with  Ptolemy  the  son  of  Lagus,  and  extended  his  power 
by  the  conquest  of  Lycia.  From  3 1 5  to  3 1 3  B.C.  he  waged 
war  against  Antigonus.  The  time  of  his  death  is  un- 
known. 

Asauder,  appointed  governor  of  the  Bosphorus  in 
the  Tauric  Chersonesus  by  Pharnaces  H.  in  47  B.C., 
revolted  from  his  master  and  formed  a  kingdom  in  which 
he  was  confirmed  by  Augustus.  He  is  reputed  to  have 
built  the  wall  across  the  Tauric  Chersonesus. 

Asaiidre.    See  Asander. 

A'saph  [Heb.  ^DN]  or  As'saph,  a  Hebrew  musician 
or  psalmist,  who  was  contemporary  with  King  David.  He 
was  the  chief  of  certain  Levites  whom  David  appointed 
to  minister  before  the  ark  and  to  thank  and  praise 
the  Lord.  (See  I.  Chronicles  xvi.  5  and  xxv.  i.)  The 
name  occurs  at  the  beginning  of  many  of  the  Psalms. 
(See  Psalms  1.,  Ixxiii.  ef  seq.) 

As'aph,  Saint,  a  prelate  of  the  seventh  century,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  first  Bishop  of  Saint  Asaph  in 
Wales.  Several  theological  works  are  attributed  to  him. 

See  H.  Wharton,  "  Historia  de  Episcopis  et  Decanis  Londinen- 
sibus,  etc." 

As'both,  [Hun.  pron.  osh'bot,]  (Alexander,)  a 
Hungarian  patriot,  born  in  181 1,  distinguished  himself 
as  an  engineer  in  the  war  of  1848-49.  Having  come  to 
the  United  States,  he  was  made,  in  i86r,  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  under  General  Fremont,  in  Mis- 
souri.   Died  in  1868. 

Asar.    See  y^LsiR. 

Asbury,  as'ber-e,  (Francis,)  was  born  in  Stafford- 
.shire,  England,  in  1745.  He  was  sent  by  John  Wesley 
to  America  as  a  missionary  about  1770,  and  was  ap- 
pointed in  1784  the  first  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Church 
then  organized  upon  a  new  basis  in  the  United  States. 
Died  in  Virginia  in  1816. 

See  "Asbury  and  his  Coadjutors,"  by  W.  C.  Larrabee. 

Ascagne.    See  Ascanius. 

Ascalus,  Js'kS-lus,  (Conrad,)  a  German  philosopher, 
lived  about  1600-20.  He  published  "Physica  et  Ethica 
Mosaica,"  (i6i3,)and  other  works. 

As-ca'ni-us  [Gr.  'AoKuviog ;  Fr.  Ascagne,  ts'ktn'] 
was,  according  to  Virgil  and  Livy,  a  son  of  ^^neas  and 
Creusa,  and  the  founder  of  Alba  Longa.  He  was  also 
called  lulus  (Julus)  or  Ilus,  and  was  claimed  by  the  Julia 
gens  of  Rome  as  one  of  their  ancestors.  There  are 
various  traditions  about  him,  according  to  one  of  which 
he  succeeded  his  father  as  King  of  the  Latins. 

Ascanius,  ^s-k^'ne-us,  (Peter,)  a  Swedish  naturalist, 
who  lived  about  1750,  was  for  many  years  inspector  of 
the  mines  in  the  north  of  Norway.  He  corresponded 
with  Linnaeus,  and  pulDlished  a  work  on  natural  historv, 
entitled  "  Figures  enluminees  d'Histoire  naturelle,"  1767. 

Ascari^lTi.  Ss-ka-rel'lee,  written  also  Ascariel,  (De- 
BORA,)  a  Jewish  poetess,  born  at  Rome,  lived  about  1600. 

As'ca-rus,  \' koKapot;,]  a  Theban  sculptor,  lived  about 
300  B.C.    He  made  a  statue  of  Jupiter,  at  Olympia. 

As'9e-lin,  or  Ascelino,  S-shi-lee'no,  (Nicola,)  a 
Dominican  who  was  sent  by  Innocent  IV.  on  a  mission 
to  Tartaiy  about  1245. 

Ascensius.    See  Badius. 

Asch,  van,  vSn  Ssk,  (Pieter  Janzen — ySn'zen,)  a 
skilful  Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Delft  in  1603. 
He  lived  to  an  advanced  age,  but  left  few  works. 

Asch,  von,  fon  ^sh,  (Georg  Thomas,)  a  physician 
and  anatomist,  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1729,  studied 
at  Gottingen,  of  which  university  he  was  subsequently  a 
liberal  benefactor.  He  was  the  companion  and  friend  of 
Haller.  He  served  for  some  years  as  a  surgeon  in  the 
Russian  army.    Died  in  1807. 

Asch,  von,  (Peter  Ernst,)  brother  of  the  above, 
one  of  the  most  esteemed  physicians  of  his  time  in 
Moscow,  wrote  a  work  "  De  Natura  Spermatis." 

Ascha.    See  Maimoon-Ben-Kais. 


Ascham,  is'kam,  (Anthony,)  an  English  astrologer 
and  writer  on  herbs,  lived  about  1550. 

Ascham,  (Anthony,)  an  Englishman,  born  at  Bos- 
ton, in  Lincolnshire,  entered  Cambridge  University  in 
1633.  He  supported  the  Parliament  in  the  civil  war, 
and  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  captive  Duke  of  York 
in  1646.  He  wrote  a  work  "  On  the  Confusions  and 
Revolutions  of  Government,"  (1648.)  He  was  sent  soon 
after  as  ambassador  to  Madrid,  where  he  was  murdered 
in  1650  by  some  English  royalists,  who  were  tried  and 
condemned,  but  released  by  the  influence  of  the  pope. 
One  of  them,  however,  was  retaken  and  executed. 

See  Clarendon's  "History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Ascham,  (Roger,)  an  eminent  English  classical 
scholar  and  writer,  was  born  near  Northallerton,  in 
Yorkshire,  in  1 5 1 5.  He  was  educated  at  Saint  John's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  same 
in  1534.  In  1544  he  was  chosen  orator  of  the  university, 
and  in  1545  published  "Toxophilus,  or  the  School  of 
Shooting."  "He  designed  not  only  to  teach  the  art  of 
shooting,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "but  to  give  an  example 
of  diction  more  natural  and  more  truly  English  than  was 
used  by  the  common  writers  of  that  age.  He  has  not 
failed  in  either  of  his  purposes."  He  was  appointed  in 
1548  tutor  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  whom  he  instructed 
in  Greek  and  Latin  until  1550,  when  he  resigned  that 
situation.  His  motive  appears  to  have  been  the  offen- 
sive conduct  of  some  attendants  of  his  pupil. 

On  a  visit  to  Lady  Jane  Grey  at  her  father's  counti'y- 
seat,  he  found  her  reading  Plato's  "  Phaedon,"  in  the 
original.  "  While  the  horns  were  sounding  and  the 
dogs  in  full  cry,"  says  Macaulay,  "she  sat  in  the  lonely 
oriel  with  eyes  riveted  to  that  immortal  page  which  tells 
how  meekly  and  bravely  the  first  great  martyr  of  intel- 
lectual liberty  took  the  cup  I'rom  his  weeping  jailer." 
("Essay  on  Lord  Bacon.")  He  was  appointed  (notwith- 
standing his  Protestantism)  Latin  secretary  to  Queen 
Mary  in  1553,  and  was  continued  in  this  office  by  Queen 
Elizabeth,  (1558,)  who  also  after  her  accession  took  les- 
sons in  Greek  and  Latin  from  him.  He  resided  con- 
stantly at  court  from  this  time  until  his  death,  which  oc- 
curred in  1568.  He  left  a  son  Giles,  and  other  children. 
Ascham  appears  to  have  had  the  rare  felicity  of  passing 
through  the  worst  of  times  without  persecution  or  dis- 
honour. His  greatest  work  is  "The  Schole-Master,  or 
Plain  and  Perfite  Way  of  teaching  Children  to  under- 
stand, read,  and  write  the  Latin  Tonge,"  (1571,)  which 
is  a  production  of  great  merit.  Dr.  Johnson  speaks  of 
it  as  "  perhaps  the  best  advice  that  was  ever  given  for 
the  study  of  languages." 

See  a  "Life  of  Ascham"  (i)robably  by  Dr.  Johnson)  appended 
to  an  edition  of  liis  English  works,  1761  ;  Grant,  "  De  Vita  Rogeri 
Ascham;"  Wood,  "  Fasti  Oxonienses ;"  "Retrospective  Review, 
vol.  iv.,  (1821.) 

Aschaneus,  as-kS-na'us,  (Martin,)  a  Swedish  writer 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  obtained  the  office  of  "royal 
antiquarian"  about  1630,  before  which  he  was  a  chaplain 
in  the  army.  He  published  a  translation  of  the  Psalms, 
(16 19,)  and  left  in  manuscript  several  works,  among  which 
was  a  drama  "On  the  Creation  and  Fall  of  Man." 

Aschbach,  ash'b^K,  (Joseph,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Hochst,  near  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  in  1801. 
He  became  professor  of  history  at  Bonn  about  1842. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  History  of  the  Visigoths,"  (1827,) 
and  a  "History  of  the  Omeyyades  in  Spain,''  ("Ge- 
schichte  der  Omaijaden  in  Spanien,"  2  vols.,  1829-30,) 
which  are  commended. 

Ascheberg,  von,  fon  &s'keh-b§Rg^  or  Asch  en- 
berg,  von,  fon  ds'ken-b^Rg',  (Rutger,  rlit'ger,)  Count, 
an  able  Swedish  general,  born  at  Afgiilden  in  1621.  He 
was  made  a  colonel  in  1655  for  his  victory  over  a  greatly 
superior  force  of  Poles,  and  defeated  the  Danes  in  several 
actions  in  1658-59.  In  1670  he  attained  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-general. During  the  war  between  Sweden  and 
Denmark,  which  was  renewed  in  1675,  he  was  charged 
with  the  defence  of  Sweden,  The  victories  of  the  Swedes 
at  Halmstadt,  Lund,  and  Carlscrona,  in  1676,  are  ascribed 
to  his  skill,  although  the  king  had  the  nominal  command. 
He  was  m.ade  a  field -marshal  in  1680.    Died  in  1693. 

See  SvEN  Lacerbring,  "  Riitger  von  Aschebergs  Lefverne,"  1751. 

Aschenbrenner, ash'en-bRen'ner,(CHRiSTiAN  Hein- 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  kard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  asz;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JSC  UNO 


88 


ASFELD 


RicH,1  a  German  violinist,  born  at  Alt  Stettin  in  1654. 
Died  in  1732. 

Asciano,  d',  cia-shi'no,  (Giovanni,)  a  Siennese 
painter,  lived  towards  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

Ascione,  a-sho'n^,  (Angelo,)  a  Neapolitan  fruit- 
painter,  who  lived  towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century. 

Asclepi,  as-kla'pee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  natural 
philosopher,  born  at  Macerata  in  1706;  died  in  1776. 

Asciepiad  or  Asclepiade,  as-klee'pe-ad,  the  Eng- 
lish sinoular  of  Asclepiad^e;  used  also  as  an  adjec- 
tive. 2^*"  The  plural  form  Asclepiads  or  Ascle- 
piades  rarely  occurs  in  English. 

Asclepiadee,  as-kle-pT'a-de,  [Gr.  'kcKlimudaL ;  Fr. 
AscLEPiADES,  ts'kli'pe'ld',]  the  name  of  the  descend- 
ants of  ^sculapius,  who,  during  several  centuries,  were 
the  most  celebrated  physicians  of  Greece. 

Aa-cls-pi'a-des,  [Gr.  'AaKh/niudr/g ;  Fr.  Asclepiade, 
ts'kla'pe'td^]"a  Greek  lyric  poet,  inventor  of  a  kind  of 
verse  called  Asclepiad,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about 
600  B.C. 

Asclepiades,  one  of  the  bishops  of  Antioch,  was  dis- 
tinguished as  a  writer  of  commentaries. 

Asclepiades  of  Myrleia,  a  native  of  Bithynia,  said  to 
have  taught  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Pompey  the  Great. 
To  him,  or  a  person  bearing  the  same  name,  are  ascribed 
various  literary  works,  including  a  '  History  of  Bithynia," 
a  work  on  Spain,  and  a  commentary  on  the  Odyssey. 

Asclepiades  of  Phlius,  a  Greek  philosopher,  who 
was  a  pupil  or  friend  of  Menedenius,  and  lived  about  350 
B.C.    Nothing  is  known  of  his  opinions  or  works. 

Asclepiades,  an  eminent  physician,  born  in  Prusa,  in 
Bithynia,  in  a.d.  88,  was  presented  by  Trajan  with  the 
freedom  of  seven  cities. 

Asclepiades  of  Samos,  a  Greek  poet,  who  lived 
about  280  B.C.,  is  said  to  have  been  a  teacher  of  The- 
ocritus. A  number  of  epigrams  preserved  in  the  Greek 
Anthology  are  ascribed  to  him. 

Asclepiades  of  Tragilos,  (a  town  of  Thrace,)  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Isocrates,  was  the  author 
of  some  critical  works. 

Asclepi'ades  Bithy'nus,  a  celebrated  Greek  phy- 
sician, born  at  Prusa,  in  Bithynia,  in  the  second  cen- 
tury B.C.  He  practised  with  great  success  at  Rome, 
where  he  founded  a  school  which  was  very  popular. 
Among  his  pupils  were  Artorius  (noticed  in  this  work) 
and  Themison.  His  system  exercised  an  important 
influence  on  medical  science  for  a  long  time.  He  in- 
dulged the  inclinations  of  his  patients  in  the  use  of  wine 
and  other  things,  and  professed  that  a  physician's  duty 
consists  in  healing  his  patients  safely,  speedily,  and 
pleasantly.  He  adopted  the  corpuscular  theory  of  Epi- 
curus as  the  basis  of  his  pathology.  His  works  were 
numerous  ;  but  only  small  fragments  of  them  remain. 
He  died  at  a  great  age,  probably  between  90  and  60  B.C. 

See  GuMPERT,  "Asc'.epiadls  Bithyiii  Fragmenca,"  1798;  A.  Coc- 
CHi,  "Discorso  primo  sopra  Asclepiade,"  1758;  Bianchini,  "La 
Medicina  d' Asclepiade,"  1769. 

Asclepi'ades  Pharma'cion,  a  Greek  physician, 
lived  about  100  A.D.  He  wrote  a  work  on  Pharmacy,  in  ten 
books,  which  is  not  extant,  but  is  often  quoted  by  Galen. 

See  C.  F.  Harless,  "  De  Medicis  veteribus 'Asclepiades' dictis," 
1828. 

As-cle-pi-o-do'rus,  [Gr.  'Arrft:A??mof^upof ;  Fr.  AscL^;- 
PIODORE,  is'kla'pe'o''doR',]  an  excellent  Greek  painter, 
born  at  Athens,  was  a  contemporary  of  Apelles,  and 
lived  about  330  B.C.  According  to  Pliny,  he  surpassed 
Apelles  in  symmetry. 

Asclepiodorus,  a  general  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  a  satrap  of  Syria,  lived  about  330  B.C. 

As-cle-pl-od'o-tus,  \Qxx / kaKlriiriMoTOQ ;  Fr.  AscLife- 
PIODOTE,  ts'kl^i'pe'o'dot',]  a  Stoic  philosopher,  who  was 
a  pupil  of  Posidonius. 

Asclepiodotus,  a  Greek  physician  and  mathemati- 
cian, flourished  about  470-500  A.D. 

Asclepiodotus,  a  New- Platonic  philosopher  of  Alex- 
andria, was  a  disciple  of  Proclus. 

Asclepios  or  Asklepios.    See  /Esculapius. 

As-cle'pl-us,  [Gr.  'Aa«:A7?7rt6f,]  the  supposed  author 
of  a  dialogue  in  Greek  on  God,  Man,  and  the  World, 
between  Hermes  and  himself. 


Asclepius,  an  ancient  Greek  commentator  on  Hip« 
pocrates,  whose  period  is  unknown.  He  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  the  "Aphorisms,"  which  is  not  extant. 

Asclepius  of  Tralles,  a  Christian  writer,  who  lived 
in  the  sixth  century.  He  composed  a  commentary  on 
part  of  the  "  Metaphysics"  of  Aristotle. 

As-cle'pi-us,  (Nicholas,)  a  German  theologian,  sur- 
narned  Barba'tus,  was  a  native  of  Cassel.  He  pub- 
lished numerous  works  in  Latin.    Died  in  1571. 

Ascoli,  d',  (Cecco.)    See  Cecco. 

Ascoli,  d',  dis'ko-lee,  (David,)  a  Jew  who  lived  about 
1550,  and  wrote  "  Defence  of  the  Hebrews,"  ("Apologia 
Hebrasorum,"  1559,)  for  which  he  was  imprisoned. 

Ascoli,  d',  (Trojano  Marulli,  tRo-yd'no  mi-rooK- 
lee,)  Duke,  a  Neapolitan  officer  and  personal  friend  of 
Ferdinand  IV.,  was  remarkable  for  his  loyalty.  In  1800 
or  1 801  he  was  appointed  director-general  of  the  police 
of  the  kingdom.  He  is  praised  for  the  prudence  and 
humanity  with  which  he  restored  order  after  the  disturb- 
ances of  1 798-1800.    Died  in  1823. 

Ascondo,  as-kon'do,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  archi- 
tect, born  in  the  province  of  Biscay  in  1705;  died  in 
1 781  at  Valladolid.  Hfe  built  several  churches  and  con- 
vents in  Castile. 

As-co'ni-us  Pe-di-a'nus,  (Quintus,)  an  eminent 
Roman  critic  and  commentator,  who  flourished  about 
50  A.D.,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Padua. 
He  wrote  a  Life  of  Sallust,  which  is  lost,  and  valuable 
commentaries  on  Cicero's  orations,  some  of  which  are 
extant.  In  1416,  Poggio  Bracciolini  found  at  Saint  Gall, 
in  Switzerland,  a  manuscript  containing  commentaries 
on  the  following  orations;  "In  Verrem  ;"  "In  Divina- 
tionem  ;"  "  Pro  Cornelio  ;"  "  In  Toga  Candida  ;"  "  In 
Pisonem  ;"  "  Pro  Scauro ;"  and  "  Pro  Milone."  His  ex- 
planations and  comments  are  historical,  legal,  and  con- 
stitutional, rather  than  grammatical.  He  became  blind 
at  the  age  of  seventy-three,  and  survived  the  loss  of  his 
sight  about  twelve  years. 

See  Madvig,  "De  Q.  Asconii  Pediani  Commentariis  Disputatio- 
Critica,"  1828. 

Ascough,  (Anne.)    See  Askev^. 
Ascough,  (Sir  George.)    See  Ayscue. 
Asdrubal.    See  Hasdrubal. 

Asdrubali,  as-dRoo-bi'lee,  (Francesco,)  an  eminent 
obstetrical  practitioner  and  teacher  at  Rome,  died  in 
1832.  He  published  a  useful  work,  entitled  "Elements 
of  Obstetrics,"  ("  Elementi  di  Ostetricia,"  3  vols.,  1793.) 

Aseer-ed-Deen  Oomaiiee  or  Assir-ud-Din  Uma- 
ni,  d-seer'  ed-  (or  dod-)  deen'  00-ma'nee,  a  Persian  poet 
of  wit  and  learning,  lived  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

Aselli,  S-seKlee,  or  Asellio,  i-seKle-o,  [Lat.  Asel'- 
lius,]  (Gasparo,)  an  Italian  anatomist,  born  at  Cremona 
about  1580,  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Pavia,  after 
he  had  served  as  surgeon-in-chief  in  the  army.  He  was 
at  Milan  when,  in  1622,  he  made  the  important  discov- 
ery of  the  lacteal  vessels,  which  has  rendered  his  name 
memorable.  This  discovery  was  announced  in  a  work 
entitled  "  On  the  Lacteal  Veins,"  ("  De  Lactibus  sive 
Lacteis  Venis,"  etc.,  1627.)    Died  in  1626. 

See  HOLLER,  "Bibliolheca  Anatomica ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

A-sel'li-o,  (Purlius  Sempronius,)  a  Roman  histo- 
rian, lived  about  130  B.C.,  and  was  military  tribune  under 
Scipio  Africanus.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Punic 
Wars,"  which  is  not  extant. 

Asellius.    See  Aselli. 

A-sel'lus,  (Tiberius  Claudius,)  a  Roman  knight, 
whom  Scipio  Africanus  in  his  censorship  reduced  to  a 
lower  rank  in  141  B.C.  He  became  tribune  of  the  peo- 
ple in  139  B.C. 

Asen.    See  ^str. 

As'e-nath,  a  datighter  of  Poti-pherah,  an  Egyptian 
priest,  became  tlie  wife  of  the  patriarch  Joseph.  (See 
Genesis  xli.  45,  50.) 

Asensio  y  Mezorada,  ^-s^n'se-o  e  mi-tho-r^'Di, 
(Francisco,)  a  Spanish  engraver,  born  in  Old  Castile. 
Died  at  Madrid  in  1794. 

Asfandiy^r.    See  Isfendiyar. 

Asfeld,d',dSs'reld',(ALEXFsBidal—be'dt]',)  Baron, 
a  French  officer  of  German  extraction,  born  about  1650. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  several  campaigns  against 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;    6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  vi,  J?,  short;  a,  9,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ASFELD 


189 


JSHDOWNE 


the  Germans,  and  becanie  marechal-de-camp  in  1688. 
He  defended  Bonn  with  great  obstinacy  for  about  four 
months  against  a  large  army,  and  was  mortally  wounded 
in  that  siege  in  1689. 

Asfeld,  d',  (Benoit  Bidal,)  Baron,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1658.  He  fought  at  Fleurus,  (1690,) 
Steenkerke,  (1692,)  and  Charleroi,  (1693,)  and  obtained 
the  rank  of  marechal-de-camp  in  1696.  He  was  an  able 
and  active  ofificer  of  cavalry.    Died  in  1 71 5. 

Asfeld,  d',  (Claude  FkANgois  Bidal,)  Marquis,  an 
able  general,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1667.  He 
served  in  Flanders  in  1690-97,  and  in  1703  obtained  a  high 
command  in  Spain,  where  he  besieged  and  took  many 
fortified  places.  In  1704  he  became  a  lieutenant-general. 
He  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Almanza,  where  he  com- 
manded the  French  cavalry,  in  1707.  He  was  rewarded 
with  the  title  of  marquis  by  Louis  XIV.  about  17 14. 
In  1733  he  was  second  in  command  under  Villars  in 
Italy,  and  gained  several  victories.  He  succeeded  Ber- 
wick as  commander-in-chief  in  Germany  in  1734,  was 
made  a  marshal  of  France,  and  maintained  the  field 
against  Prince  Eugene  until  the  peace.     Died  in  1743. 

See  PiNARD,  "Chronologie  historique  militaire." 

Asfeld,  d',  (Jacques  Vincent  Bidal,)  a  French 
Jaiisenist  theologian,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1664.    Died  in  1745. 

Asgard.    See  J^sir. 

As'gill,  (Sir  Charles,)  the  first  baronet  of  that  name, 
rose  from  the  station  of  a  clerk  to  great  wealth.  He  was 
elected  lord-mayor  in  1757,  and  created  a  baronet  in  1761. 

Asgill,  (Sir  Charles,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
about  1763,  served  under  Cornwallis  in  America,  and 
was  selected,  by  lot,  to  be  hung  in  retaliation  for  an 
American  officer  who  had  been  ])ut  to  death  by  a  party 
of  English  ;  but  he  was  pardoned  through  the  interces- 
sion of  Marie  Antoinette.  He  served  under  the  Duke 
of  York  in  1793,  and  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  putting 
down  the  rebellion  in  Ireland.  He  rose  to  the  rank  of 
general,  and  died  in  1823. 

Asgill,  (John,)  an  English  lawyer  and  pamphleteer, 
born  in  the  seventeenth  century.  He  publishec^  in  1700 
"An  Argument  proving  that  Men  may  be  translated  to 
Heaven  without  Dying,  etc,"  which  caused  a  great  sen- 
sation. The  House  of  Commons,  of  which  he  was 
elected  a  member  in  1707,  condemned  his  book  as  blas- 
phemous, and  expelled  the  author.  He  attributed  death 
to  the  power  of  custom  and  to  the  fear  of  death,  rather 
than  to  necessity.  Asgill  advocated  the  cause  of  the 
House  of  Hanover,  in  several  pamphlets.  He  died  in 
prison  for  debt  in  1738,  aged  eighty  or  more. 

See  Kippis,  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Ash,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  English  physician  of 
London,  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  Oxford  in  1796. 
He  was  a  good  scholar,  and  had  excellent  conversational 
powers.  He  wrote  critical  articles  for  a  literary  paper 
called  "The  Speculator,"  (1790.)  About  1797  he  dis- 
covered that  when  plates  of  zinc  and  silver  moistened 
are  placed  in  contact,  the  zinc  is  rapidly  oxydated.  This 
was  a  step  towards  the  discovery  of  the  chemical  changes 
and  laws  on  which  the  action  of  the  galvanic  battery  de- 
pends. The  discovery  of  Dr.  Ash  was  published  in  1797 
by  Humboldt,  to  whom  he  had  written  a  letter.  Died  in 
1829. 

Ash,  (Dr.  John,)  F.R.S.,  an  uncle  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1723,  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  had  a  high 
reputation  as  a  physician,  and  practised  for  many  years 
in  Birmingham  and  London.  Among  his  works  is  a 
treatise  on  the  mineral  waters  of  Spa  and  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle,  (1788.)  He  was  president  of  the  Eumelian  Club, 
of  which  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  and  others  were  mem- 
bers.   Died  in  1798. 

Ash,  (Rev.  John,)  an  English  philologer  and  dissent- 
ing minister,  born  in  Dorsetshire  about  1724.  He  was 
minister  of  a  Baptist  congregation  at  Pershore  from 
1 75 1  until  his  death.  His  principal  work  is  a  "New 
and  Complete  English  Dictionary,"  (2  vols.,  1775,)  which 
is  not  considered  a  high  authority.    Died  in  1779. 

Ash  or  Ashe,  ash,  (Saint  George,)  an  Irish  prelate, 
who  was  born  about  1658.  During  the  troubles  of  James 
II. 's  reign  he  left  for  England,  and  became  an  attache  to 
Lord  Paget,  who  was  ambassador  for  King  William  at 


the  court  of  Austria.  On  his  return  to  Ireland  he  was 
made  successively  Bishop  of  Cloyne,  of  Clogher,  and  of 
Derry.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  Irish  privy  council. 
Died  in  17 18. 

Ash'burne,  de,  (Thomas,)  an  English  friar,  lived 
about  1350,  and  wrote  a  treatise  against  the  "Trialogus" 
of  Wickliffe. 

Ash-burn'ham,  (John,)  an  English  gentleman,  a 
native  of  Sussex,  was  a  confidential  agent  of  Charles  I. 
in  the  civil  war.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners  for 
the  treaty  of  Uxbridge  in  1644,  and  was  employed  in 
other  important  missions.  Ashburnham  and  Berkeley 
were  the  principal  agents  and  attendants  of  the  king  in 
his  escape  from  Hampton  Court  in  November,  1647,  and 
in  his  surrender  to  Colonel  Hammond.  He  was  sus- 
pected of  treachery  in  this  transaction  ;  but  his  character 
has  been  vindicated  from  this  suspicion.  He  became 
groom  of  the  bedchamber  to  Charles  II.  about  1660. 
Died  in  1671.  His  grandson  was  created  Earl  of  Ash- 
burnham. 

See  Clarendon,  "History  of  the  Rebellion;"  Whitelocke. 
"  Memorials." 

Ashburton,  Lord.    See  Dunning. 

Ash'bur-ton,  (Alexander  Baring,)  Lord,  an  Eng- 
lish financier  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1774,  was  a  son 
of  Sir  Francis  Baring,  a  merchant  of  London.  He 
passed  some  of  his  early  years  in  the  United  States  as  a 
commercial  agent  of  his  father,  and  married  a  daughter 
of  William  Bingham  of  Pennsylvania,  a  United  States 
Senator.  In  1810  he  succeeded  his  father  as  head  of 
the  great  firm  of  Baring  Brothers  &  Company.  He  was 
elected  to  Parliament  in  181 2  and  in  several  subsequent 
years.  In  politics  he  was  a  Whig  until  his  opposition 
to  the  Reform  Bill  of  183 1  converted  him  into  a  sup- 
porter of  Sir  Robert  Peel.  P^or  a  few  months  in  1834-35 
Mr.  Baring  was  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  in  the 
cabinet  of  Peel,  through  whose  influence  he  was  created 
Baron  Ashburton  in  1835.  Soon  after  the  return  of 
Peel  to  power  in  September,  1841,  Lord  Ashburton  was 
sent  on  a  special  mission  to  the  United  States  to  nego- 
tiate on  the  subject  of  a  long-disputed  boundary  between 
Maine  and  the  British  Colonies.  For  this  important 
service  he  was  selected  because  his  sentiments  and  an- 
tecedents were  favourable  to  peace  and  conciliation. 
The  negotiation  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  was 
conducted  in  a  similar  spirit  by  Mr.  Webster,  and  the 
treaty  was  signed  in  1842.  This  is  usually  called  the 
Ashburton  Treaty.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  the  fine 
arts.  He  died  in  May,  1848,  and  left  his  title  to  his  son, 
William  Bingham  Baring,  born  in  1799. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  July,  1848. 

Ashbury,  ash'ber-e,  (Joseph,)  a  distinguished  tragic 
actor,  born  in  London  in  1638.  Accompanying  the 
Duke  of  Ormond  to  Ireland,  he  became  connected  with 
the  Dublin  stage,  and  died  in  that  city  in  1720. 

Ash'by,  (Rev.  George,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  1724,  obtained  the  living  of  Barrow,  Suffolk,  in  1774. 
He  contributed  to  the  works  of  Bishop  Percy,  Richard 
Gough,  and  Nichols.    Died  in  1808. 

Ashby,  (Henry,)  an  English  penman  and  engraver 
of  writing,  born  in  1744;  died  in  1818. 

Ashby,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  admiral,  who  became 
a  captain  before  the  revolution  of  1688.  He  led  the  van 
at  the  battle  of  Ban  try  Bay  in  1689,  soon  after  which  he 
was  made  a  vice-admiral  of  the  red.  After  the  defeat 
of  the  Earl  of  Torrington  in  1690,  the  command  of  the 
fleet  was  given  to  Ashby  and  two  other  admirals  jointly. 
As  admiral  of  the  blue,  he  commanded  a  squadron  of 
the  fleet  which  gained  a  victory  over  the  French  at  La 
Hogue  in  1692.    Died  in  1693. 

See  Campbell,  "Naval  History." 

Ash'by,  (Turner,)  a  Virginian  general,  born  in  Fau- 
quier county,  Virginia,  about  1824.  He  took  arms  against 
the  Union  in  1861,  and  distinguished  himself  as  an  officer 
of  cavalry.  In  May,  1862,  he  became  a  brigadier-general 
in  the  army  of  Stonewall  Jackson.  He  was  killed  near 
Harrisonburg,  Virginia,  in  June  of  the  same  year. 

Ashdowne,  ash'down,  (William,)  a  writer  in  de- 
fence of  Unitarianism,  lived  at  Canterbury,  England, 
from  about  1760  to  1800.  Among  his  works  is  one  en- 
titled the  "Unitarian,  Arian,  and  Trinitarian  Opinion 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  ]x  23. ) 


190 


ASH  WORTH 


respecting  Christ,  examined  and  tried  by  Scripture 
alone,"  (1789.) 

Ashe,  ash,  (Andrew,)  an  excellent  flute-player,  born 
at  LLsburn,  in  Ireland,  about  1758.  He  performed  at 
the  Italian  Opera-House,  London.    Died  in  1838. 

Ashe,  (John,)  a  patriot  of  the  American  Revolution, 
born  in  England  in  1721,  emigrated  to  North  Carolina. 
He  led  an  expedition  against  Fort  Johnson  in  1775,  and 
served  as  brigadier-general  in  Georgia  in  1778  and  1779. 
Died  in  1781. 

Ashe,  (Samuel,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1725.  He  became  chief-justice  of  North  Carolina  in  1777, 
and  Governor  of  that  State  in  1796.    Died  in  181 3. 

His  son,  John  Baptist,  born  in  1748,  was  an  officer  in 
the  Revolutionary  war,  and  afterwards  a  member  of  Con- 
gress.   Died  in  1795. 

Ashe,  (Simeon,)  an  English  Puritan  minister,  who 
preached  many  years  in  London.  He  became  chaplain 
to  the  Earl  of  Manchester  about  1642,  and  favoured  the 
Parliament  in  the  civil  war,  but  after  the  death  of  Charles 
I.  was  an  opponent  of  the  dominant  party.  He  actively 
promoted  the  restoration  of  1660.  A  number  of  his  ser- 
mons were  published.  According  to  Baxter,  he  was  a 
nonconformist  of  the  old  stamp,  and  was  eminent  for  a 
holy  life.    Died  in  1662. 

See  Neal,  "  History  of  the  Puritans." 

Ashe,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  called  Captain 
Ashe,  published,  besides  other  works,  "Travels  in 
America,"  (1808.)    Died  in  1835. 

See  "  Life  and  Correspondence  of  T.  Ashe,"  3  vols.,  1814. 

Ash'e  or  Ash'i,  sometimes  written  Asser,  (Rab  or 
Rav,)  a  celebrated  Babylonian  rabbi,  born  in  353  a.d. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  original  author  or  compiler 
of  the  "  Babylonian  Talmud,"  which  is  a  vast  body  of 
traditions,  commentaries,  and  illustrations  of  the  Hebrew 
laws,  especially  of  the  oral  law  recorded  in  the  "  Mishna," 
which  forms  the  text  of  the  Talmud.  This  work  was 
not  finished  until  many  years  after  his  death.  He  was 
considered  a  man  of  great  learning,  genius,  and  piety. 
Died  in  427  a.d.  For  many  centuries  the  Jews  regarded 
the  Babylonian  Talmud  as  the  chief  object  of  their  study 
and  the  highest  authority  for  the  decision  of  legal  ques- 
tions. In  1554  the  Talmud  was  burnt,  by  order  of  the 
pope,  throughout  Italy. 

See  Wolf,  "  Bibliotheca  Hebraica;"  "Talmud  Babylonicum," 
Amsterdam,  1644. 

Ash'er,  [Heb.  Iiy^?,]  a  son  of  the  Hebrew  patriarch 
Jacob  and  Zilpah,  was  the  head  of  one  of  the  twelve 
tribes  of  Israel.  (See  Genesis  xxx.  13  ;  Deuteronomy 
xxxiii.  24.)    The  name  signifies  happy. 

Ashler,  (R.  Ben  Jechiel,)  was  head  of  the  Jewish 
College  of  Toledo,  in  Spain,  where  he  was  very  highly 
esteemed.  His  works,  all  relating  to  the  Jewish  laws 
and  religion,  are  very  numerous.    i3ied  in  1321. 

Ash'field,  (Edmund,)  an  English  portrait-painter, 
who  lived  in  the  age  of  Charles  11.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  artist  who  drew  in  coloured  crayons  (now 
termed  pastels)  in  imitation  of  oil-painting. 

Ashi,    See  Ashe,  (Rab.) 

Ashik,  §,sh'ik,  a  Turkish  poet  and  biographer,  born 
in  Roomelia  about  15 18.  He  officiated  as  judge  in  several 
towns.  He  wrote  biographies  of  about  four  hundred 
Turkish  poets,  and  a  number  of  lyrical  poems,  mostly 
erotic.  His  ode  on  the  Danube  is  called  one  of  the 
finest  specimens  of  Oriental  poetry.    Died  about  1570. 

See  Von  H  ammer,  "  Gsschichte  der  Osmanischen  Dichtkunst." 

Ash'ley,  (Chester,)  born  in  Westfield,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1790,  was  elected  in  1844  from  Arkansas  to  the 
United  States  Senate,  in  which  he  served  as  chairman  of 
the  Committee  on  the  Judiciary  until  his  death  in  1848. 

Ash'ley,  (John,)  an  English  musician  and  dealer  in 
music.  He  had  a  son.  General  Ashley,  an  excellent  vio- 
linist, who  died  in  1818.  Another  son,  John  James,  was 
noted  as  an  organist. 

Ashley,  Lord.    See  Shaftesbury. 

Ashley,  (Robert,)  an  English  translator,  born  in 
Wiltshire  in  1565.  He  published  translations  of  "  Uranie" 
from  the  French  of  Du  Bartas,  (1589,)  of  the  "Life  of 
Almansor,  King  of  Spain,"  from  the  Spanish,  (1627,) 
and  of  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1641. 


Ash'mole.  (Elias,)  an  English  antiquary,  alchemist, 
and  herald,  born  at  Lichfield  in  1617,  was  the  founder 
of  the  Ashmolean  Museum  of  Oxford.  He  studied  law 
and  astrology,  in  which  he  had  strong  faith.  In  the  civil 
war  he  favoured  the  roj'al  cause.  He  published  in  1652 
"Theatrum  Chemicum  Britannicum,"  a  work  which  con- 
sists of  treatises  on  alchemy  by  various  authors.  In  1660 
he  was  appointed  Windsor  herald  by  Charles  II.  His  prin- 
cipal work,  "The  Institution,  Laws,  and  Ceremonies  of 
the  Order  of  the  Garter,"  (1672,)  was  received  with  great 
favour,  and  is  still  esteemed.  About  1682  he  presented 
to  the  University  of  Oxford  a  collection  of  curiosities, 
medals,  coins,  and  botanical  speciirens,  the  most  of 
which  he  had  received  as  a  gift  from  the  botanist  Trades- 
cant  and  his  son.  The  museum  thus  commenced  still 
bears  his  name.  Died  in  1692.  He  left  Memoirs  of  his 
own  life,  (171 7.) 

See  also  Allen's  "  History  of  Lambeth." 

Ash'more,  (John,)  an  English  poet  and  translator, 

who  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Ash'mun,  (Jehudi,)  a  zealous  and  efficient  promoter 
of  colonization  in  Liberia,  whither  he  sailed  in  1822, 
from  which  period  he  devoted  all  his  time  to  the  cause. 
He  died  in  Boston  in  1828,  while  on  a  visit  for  the  re- 
covery of  his  health. 

See  the  "  Life  of  Jehudi  Ashmun,"  by  R.  R.  Gurlev;  "North 
American  Review,"  vol.  xli.,  (1835;)  and  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view," vol.  xxvi.,  (1841.) 

Ash'mun,  (John  Hooker,)  a  distinguished  American 
jurist,  born  at  Blandford,  Massachusetts,  in  1800.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  181 8,  and,  on  the  organization 
of  the  department  of  law  in  that  university  in  1829,  was 
appointed  its  first  professor.  Died  in  1833.  "He  liad 
gathered  about  him,"  says  Judge  Story,  "  all  the  honours 
which  are  usually  the  harvest  of  the  ripest  life." 

Ashoka.    See  Asoka. 

Ashraf,  dsh'raf,  a  tyrannical  and  cruel  Afghan  chief, 
who  occupied  the  throne  of  Persia  from  1725  to  1 729. 
He  was  defeated  by  Nadir  Shah,  who  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  deposed  prince  Tahmasp,  and  soon  after  killed, 
by  a  follower  of  the  latter,  in  1729. 

See  Malcolm,  "  History  of  Persia  ;"  Sir  William  Jones,  "  His- 
toire  de  Nadir  Chah,"  London,  1770. 

Ash'ton,  (Charles,)  an  English  classical  critic,  born 
at  Bradway,  Derbyshire,  in  1665.  He  obtained  a  pre- 
bendal  stall  in  Ely,  and  became  master  of  Jesus  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1 701.  His  chief  work  is  an  edition  of 
Justin  Martyr's  "Apologies,"  (1768.)    Died  in  1752. 

A.shton,  (John,)  a  gentleman  in  the  service  of  James 
II.  of  England,  was  executed  in  1691,  on  the  charge  of 
conspiring  to  restore  that  sovereign. 

Ashton,  (Thomas,)  a  popular  English  clergyman, 
born  in  1716,  was  a  friend  of  Horace  Walpole.  He  was 
elected  preacher  of  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1762,  and  published 
a  volume  of  sermons  in  1770.    Died  in  1775. 

Ashton,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  alchemist  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VI.,  who  had  a  patent  for  transmuting  the  baser 
metals  into  gold. 

See  Fuller,  "Worthies  of  England." 

Ash'to-reth  [Heb.  ;  Gr.  'koTapTri]  or  Ash'- 

ta-roth,  the  name  of  a  Syrian  goddess,  who  was  wor- 
shipped also  by  the  people  of  Israel.  (See  Judges  ii.  13 
and  x.  6  ;  I.  Samuel  vii.  3  ;  and  I.  Kings  xi.  33;  also, 
Milton's  "Paradise  Lost,"  book  i.) 

Ash'urst,  (Henry,)  an  English  gentleman,  who  ac- 
quired considerable  wealth  in  London  and  was  noted 
for  his  benevolence.  He  contributed  liberally  to  the 
support  of  Puritan  preachers,  but  he  professed  to  belong 
to  no  sect.    Died  in  1680. 

Ash'well,  (George,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
London  in"  16 12,  was  rector  of  Han  well,  near  Banbury, 
from  1658  until  his  death.  He  published  "Fides  Apos- 
tolica,"  "(1653,)  an  argument  for  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
and  a  treatise  on  Socinianism,  (1680.)    Died  in  1693. 

Ash'worth,  (Caleb,)  D.D.,  an  English  dissenting 
minister,  born  in  Lancashire  in  1722.  He  succeeded  Dr. 
Doddridge  in  1752,  in  accordance  with  the  will  of  that 
divine,  as  principal  of  the  academy  in  which  young  men 
were  educated  for  the  ministry,  and  which  was  removed 
from  Northampton  to  Daventry,  where  Ashworth  was 
then  pastor.    He  fulfilled  the  duties  of  this  position  in 


a,  e,  t,  5,  u,  y,  lonsr;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  flr^  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


ASINARI 


191 


ASPASIA 


such  a  manner  as  fully  to  justify  the  recommendation  of 
Dr.  Doddridge.    Died  in  1775. 

See  Chalmers's  "Biographical  Dictionary." 

Asinari,  S-se-nS'ree,  (Federigo,)  Count  of  Camerano, 
an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Asti,  in  Piedmont,  in  1527.  He 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Florence  in  1570.  He  wrote, 
besides  sonnets,  madrigals,  and  other  lyrical  poems,  a 
tragedy  in  verse,  called  "Tancred,"  ("Tancredi,"  1587,) 
which  was  highly  praised  by  Italian  critics.  Died  in  1576. 

Asinari,  (Ottaviano,)  an  Italian  poet,  was  a  son  or 
brother  of  the  preceding.  According  to  some  authorities, 
he  was  author  of    Tancredi,"  above  referred  to. 

Asinelli,  a-se-neKlee,  (Gerhardo,)  an  Italian  archi- 
tect, lived  about  inc.  He  and  his  brother  erected  the 
fanfous  tower  of  Bologna  which  bears  their  name. 

A-sin'i-us,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  jurist, 
lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Asinius  Gallus.    See  Gallus. 

Asinius  Pollio.    See  Pollio. 

Asioli,  S-se-oMee,  (Bonifazio,)  an  Italian  composer, 
born  at  Correggio  in  1769.  He  was  appointed  chapel- 
master  to  the  viceroy  Eugene  at  Milan,  and  director  of 
the  Conservatorio,  about  1800.  He  composed  operas, 
cantatas,  and  notturnos,  which  were  admired  especially 
for  their  ease  and  grace.    Died  in  1832. 

Asir.    See  /Esir. 

Asir-ud-Diu  Um&ni.    See  Aseer-ed-Deen. 

A'si-us,  (or  a'shejjs,)  ['Amof,]  of  Samos,  one  of  the 
earliest  of  the  Greek  poets,  composed  both  epic  and 
elegiac  poetry,  some  extracts  from  which  have  come 
down  to  us.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  700  B.C. 

See  Voss,  "De  Poetis  Graecis;"  Ulrici,  "Geschichte  der  Hel- 
lenischen  Dichtkunst." 

Askelof,  as'keh-lof,  (Johan  Christoph,)  a  Swedish 
journalist  and  editor,  born  in  1787. 
As'kew,  written  also  Ays'cough  and  As'cough, 

(Anne,)  an  English  martyr,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in 
152 1.  Having  been  convinced  of  the  Reformed  doc- 
trines by  reading  the  Bible,  she  was  turned  out  of  doors 
by  her  husband,  whose  name  was  Kyme.  She  was  ar- 
rested in  1545,  questioned  on  the  subject  of  the  sacra- 
ment, and  burned  at  the  stake  in  1546,  after  giving  proof 
of  invincible  fortitude. 

See  Hodgson,  "Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867; 
Fuller,  "Church  History;"  Fox,  "  Book  of  Martyrs." 

Askew,  (Anthony,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  physician, 
noted  as  a  Greek  scholar  and  a  collector  of  classical 
books  and  manuscripts,  was  born  at  Kendal  in  1722.  He 
travelled  in  the  Levant,  and  after  his  return  practised  in 
London.  He  was  a  friend  of  Dr.  Mead,  Dr.  Parr,  and 
Sir  William  Jones.  Died  in  1774.  His  books  were  sold 
at  auction  for  about  four  thousand  pounds  sterling. 

SeeDiBDiN,  "Bibliomania;"  Nichols,  "  Literary  Anecdotes." 

Askew,  (George.)    See  Ayscue. 
Asklepiadae.    See  Asclepiad^e. 
Asklepiades.    See  Asclepiades. 
Asklepiodorus.    See  Asclepiodorus. 
Asklepiodotus.    See  Asclepiodotus. 
Asklepios.    See  ^Esculapius. 

Aslacus,  as'13-kus,  (Cunradus,)  a  Norwegian,  a  pupil 
of  Tycho  Brahe,  born  at  Bergen  in  1564.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  and  theology  at  Copenhagen 
about  1600.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise 
on  the  "  Moral  and  Physical  Doctrines  of  Moses,"  ("  Phy- 
sica  et  Ethica  Mosaica,"  1613.)    Died  in  1624. 

Asmai,  Al.    See  Abd-el-Malek. 

As'mar,  (Maria  Theresa,)  born  near  Nineveh  in 
1804,  was  a  daughter  of  the  Emir  Abdallah-Asmar,  and 
was  educated  in  the  Christian  faith.  She  travelled  over 
the  principal  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  subsequently  visited 
Italy,  France,  and  England,  where  she  published  in  1844 
an  account  of  her  adventures. 

See  "Memoirs  of  a  Babylonian  Princess,"  London,  1844;  "  Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review." 

Asmonaeans,  as-mo-nee'ans,  or  As-mo-ne'ans,  [Fr. 

As.mon6ens,  ts'mo'ni'fiN',]  a  family  or  dynasty  of  Jew- 
ish princes,  some  of  whom  were  called  Maccabees. 
The  name  is  derived  from  Asmonasus  or  Asamonaeus, 
an  obscure  person  who  lived  about  300  B.C.  His  great- 
grandson  Mattathias  was  eminent  as  a  zealous  patriot. 


and  left  several  sons,  who  ruled  Judea  and  repulsed  the 
armies  of  their  Syrian  persecutors.  (See  Maccab/EUS.) 
The  sovereignty  of  Judea  remained  in  this  family  until 
the  death  of  Antigonus,  about  37  B.C. 

See  JosEPHUS,  "Jewish  Antiquities;"  and  the  Apocryphal  Books 
of  Maccabees. 

Asmoneans.    See  Asmon^ans. 

Asne,  r,  ISn,  (Michel,)  an  able  French  designer  and 
engraver,  born  at  Caen  in  1596.  He  engraved  after 
Rubens,  Titian,  and  other  masters.  Died  in  Paris  in 
1667. 

Asoka  or  A96ka,  a-so'ka,  sometimes  written 
Asho'ka,  called  also  Dhar-ma-so'ka,  King  of  Magha- 
da,  one  of  the  greatest  sovereigns  that  ever  ruled  in  India, 
was  a  son  of  Bindusara,  and  a  grandson  of  Chandragupta, 
(the  Sandracottus  of  the  Greek  historians.)  He  was 
born  at  Pataliputtra  about  three  centuries  before  Christ. 
Having  attempted  the  life  of  his  father,  he  was  banished 
to  a  distant  province.  On  hearing  that  his  father  was 
at  the  point  of  death,  he  hastened  to  Pataliputtra,  and 
killed  all  his  brothers  except  one,  who  was  a  son  of  the 
same  mother  with  himself,  and  placed  himself  upon  the 
throne.  But,  having  at  length  been  converted  to  Bood- 
dhism,  his  character  became  entirely  changed ;  and 
whereas  he  had  formerly  been  called  Chandasoka,  {i.e. 
the  "  raging  Asoka,")  he  now  received  the  name  of 
Dharmasoka,  (the  "Asoka  of  the  law,")  on  account  of 
his  zeal  for  the  law  of  Booddha.  He  is  said  (with 
Oriental  hyperbole,  no  doubt)  to  have  erected  eighty- 
four  thousand  monasteries  (vihars)  in  honour  of  the 
eighty-four  thousand  discourses  of  Booddha.  (See  Gau- 
tama.) He  has  left  monuments  with  inscriptions  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  India,  proving  that  his  dominion  extended 
over  a  large  part  of  what  is  now  known  as  Hindostan. 

See  KopPEN,  "Religion  des  Buddha,"  p.  168  et  seq. 

Asola.    See  Asula. 

Asolano.    See  Asolanus. 

Asoora  or  Asoor,    See  Asura. 

A-sop-o-do'rus,  a  Greek  statuary,  mentioned  by 
Pliny,  was  a  disciple  of  Polycletus. 

Asp,  Ssp,  (Matthias,)  a  Swedish  scholar,  noted  for 
his  knowledge  of  Greek,  born  at  Norrkjoping  in  1696. 
He  became  professor  of  poetry  and  eloquence  at  Upsal 
about  1730,  and  professor  of  theology  there  in  1737. 
He  wrote  many  academical  dissertations  on  ancient 
literature.    Died  in  1763. 

Asp,  (Pehr  Olof,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Stockholm  in  1745,  was  minister  to  Constantinople 
from  1790  to  1795,  and  to  London  from  1796  to  1799. 
He  wrote  a  treatise  on  Political  Economy,"  (1800,)  and 
"Travels  in  the  Levant,"  (1805.)    Died  in  1808. 

As'par,  [Gr.  "AoTrap,]  a  general  of  the  Eastern  Empire, 
was  a  son  of  Ardaburius.  In  425  a.d.  he  and  his  father 
defeated  the  usurper  John,  at  Ravenna.  He  acquired  so 
much  power  that  at  the  death  of  Marcian  in  457  A.D.  he 
procured  the  accession  of  Leo  I.,  whom  he  caused  to  be 
consecrated  by  a  bishop.  This  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  instance  of  the  consecration  of  an  emperor  by  a 
bishop.  His  Arianism,  it  seems,  prevented  Aspar  from 
making  himself  emperor.  In  471  A.D.  he  was  killed  in 
the  palace  by  order  of  Leo. 

Aspasia,  as-pa'she-a,  [Gr.  'kaTraaia;  Fr.  Aspasie, 
Ss^pfze',]  a  Grecian  woman,  celebrated  for  her  beauty, 
talents,  and  political  influence,  was  a  native  of  Miletus. 
She  removed  to  Athens  in  her  youth,  and  gained  the 
affection  of  Pericles,  with  whom  she  lived  as  his  wife. 
The  laws  of  Athens,  however,  did  not  permit  him  to 
marry  a  foreigner.  1  ne  comic  poets  and  other  scandal- 
mongers reported  that  she  instigated  Pericles  to  wage 
war  against  the  Samians.  Her  house  was  frequented 
by  the  elite  oi  Athens,  and  even  by  Socrates,.who  called 
himself  her  disciple.  According  to  Plutarch,  who  refers 
to  Plato's  "Menexenus"  as  his  authority,  many  Athe- 
nians resorted  to  her  on  account  of  her  skill  in  the  art 
of  speaking.  It  was  commonly  reported  that  she  com- 
posed part  of  the  famous  funeral  oration  which  Pericles 
pronounced  over  the  Athenians  who  fell  in  battle.  She 
was  once  prosecuted  by  the  poet  Hermippus  on  a  charge 
of  impiety,  but  was  acquitted  through  the  efforts  of  Peri- 
cles. She  survived  Pericles,  who  died  in  429  B.C.,  and  is 
said  to  have  formed  a  similar  connection  with  Lysicles. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ASPASIA 


192 


ASQUINI 


There  is  an  antique  bust  which  bears  the  name  of  Aspa- 
sia  and  is  supposed  to  be  a  portrait  of  the  subject  of  this 
article,  "Aspasia,"  says  Madame  de  Stael,  "  was  consid- 
ered a  mode)  of  female  loveliness,  as  Alexander  of  hero- 
ism," ("Aspasie  signifiait  la  plus  aimable  des  femmes, 
comme  Alexandre  le  plus  grand  des  heros.") 

See  Plutarch,  "Pericles;"  Suidas,  'Acrn-ao-ia;  Burigny,  "Vie 
d'Aspasie." 

Aspasia  the  Younger,  a  beautiful  Ionian  lady,  be- 
came the  wife  of  Cyrus  the  Younger,  who  changed  her 
original  name,  Milto,  to  Aspasia.  She  was  distinguished 
for  virtue  and  intelligence.  After  Cyrus  had  been  killed 
at  Cunaxa,  401  H.C.,  she  was  taken  as  a  captive  by  the 
king  Artaxerxes,  whose  favour  she  gained.  When  this 
king  appointed  his  sou  Darius  as  his  successor,  the  lat- 
ter requested  his  father  to  give  him  Aspasia  ;  but  the  old 
king  preferred  to  consecrate  her  as  a  priestess  of  Anaitis. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Artaxerxes." 

Aspasius  (as-pa'she-us)  [GY.'kaizaaLog]  the  Peripa- 
tetic, a  Greek  writer,  Lvcd  probably  in  the  first  century 
of  the  Christian  era.  His  commentaries  on  Aristotle's 
"Nicomachean  Ethics"  are  extant. 

Aspasius  of  Byblos,  a  teacher  of  rhetoric,  lived  about 
150  A.U.,  or  later,  and  wrote  several  works. 

Aspasius  of  Ravenna,  a  sophist  of  the  third  century, 
was  secretary  of  the  emperor  Alexander  Severus,  who 
appointed  him  principal  teacher  of  eloquence  in  the 
school  of  Rome. 

Aspegren,  ds'peh-gR§n^  (Gustaf  Carsten,)  a  Swe- 
dish naturalist,  a  baker  by  trade,  born  at  Carlscrona  in 
1791.  He  contributed  to  Nilsson's  Fauna,  Agardh's 
works  on  Algae,  and  other  Swedish  works  on  natural 
history.  He  published  "  An  Essay  at  a  Flora  of  Blek- 
ing,"  his  native  province,  (1823.)    Died  in  1828. 

Aspelin,  &s''peh-lin'',  (David,)  a  Swedish  poet,  born 
at  Langasjo  in  1780.  He  became  minister  of  a  church 
at  Tolg,  and  composed  several  successful  poems  on 
public  events.  His  poem  on  the  union  of  Norway  and 
Sweden  gained  the  first  prize  of  the  Swedish  Academy 
in  1813.    Died  in  1821. 

Aspelmayer  or  Aspelmeyer,as'pel-mT^er,  (Franz,) 
a  German  composer,  died  at  Vienna  in  1786. 

As'per,  a  Latin  critic  and  grammarian,  of  whom  little 
is  known,  wrote  a  commentary  on  Virgil,  and  a  treatise 
on  grammar.  He  is  quoted  by  Saint  Augustine,  Saint 
Jerome,  and  other  writers. 

Aspsr,  (Cauts  Julius,)  an  eminent  Roman,  whom 
Caracalla  raised  to  high  honour,  but  in  a  fickle  moment 
afterwards  degraded  and  banished. 

Asper,  ib'per,  (Hans,)  an  eminent  Swiss  painter, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1499.  He  painted  landscapes,  por- 
traits, and  animals  of  various  kinds.  His  style  was 
similar  to  that  of  Holbein,  his  contemporary,  whom  he 
nearly  rivalled  in  portraits.  He  made  the  original  draw- 
ings for  Gesner's  Natural  History.  His  works  are  very 
scarce,  unless  some  of  those  sold  as  the  works  of  Hol- 
bein were  painted  by  Asper.  Died  in  1571.  His  sons 
Hans  and  Rudolph  were  painters. 

Asper,  d',  dis'peR,  or  Aspre,  d',  dtspR,  (Constant 
Ghilain  Charles  van  Hoobrouck — van  ho'bRowk,) 
Baron,  a  general,  born  at  Ghent  in  1754.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Austrian  army  in  the  war  against 
the  French  republic,  and  became  a  general-major  in  1798. 
In  1805,  while  covering  the  march  of  General  Mack,  he 
was  taken  prisoner  near  the  Danube.  He  obtained  com- 
mand of  sixteen  thousand  men  in  1809,  and  was  rewarded 
for  his  conduct  at  Essling  with  the  rank  of  general  of 
the  ordnance.  He  was  mortally  wounded  at  Wagram 
in  1809. 

Asper,  d',  or  Aspre,  (Constantin,)  Baron,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Brussels  in  1789.  He 
entered  the  Austrian  army  in  1806,  after  which  he  served 
several  campaigns  against  the  French.  In  1825  he  be- 
came a  colonel.  He  fought  against  the  insurgents  in 
Italy  in  1830,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  divi- 
sion about  1840.  He  contributed  greatly  to  the  defeat 
of  the  revolted  Italians  in  1848-49,  and  became  a  general 
of  the  ordnance.    Died  at  Padua  in  1850. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Asper  tini,  as-p^R-tee'nee,or  Aspertino,  Ss-p^R-tee'- 
no,  (Am ICO,  S-mee'ko,)  a  skilful  and  eccentric  painter, 


born  at  Bologna  in  1474,  was  called  Maestro  Am  icq. 
He  painted  with  both  hands  at  the  same  time,  had  great 
facility  of  execution,  and  excelled  as  a  painter  of  ani- 
mals. His  style  was  a  mixture  of  all  styles,  from  that  of 
Giotto  to  that  of  Giorgione.  Died  in  1552. 
See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Aspertini,  (Guido,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
a  painter,  and  probably  a  native  of  Bologna.  Among 
his  works  is  an  "Adoration  of  the  Magi."  He  died 
about  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  at  the  age 
of  thirty-five. 

As-per''tus  or  Ans-ber'tus,  Bishop  of  Ratisbon  in 
891,  but  previously  private  secretary  to  King  Arnulf  of 
Germany.  He  is  thought  to  have  been  the  author  of  a 
part  of  the  "  Annales  Fuldenses." 

Aspetti,  ^s-pet'tee,  (Tiziano,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  at  Padua  in  1565,  was  said  to  be  a  nephew  of  the 
painter  Titian.  He  worked  at  Venice,  Padua,  Florence, 
and  Pisa.  His  works  are  highly  commended.  Vasari 
calls  him  "Tiziano  Padovano,"  ("Titian  of  Padua.") 
He  died  at  Pisa  in  1607.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
a  statue  of  Saint  Anthony  at  Padua,  and  the  statues  of 
Saint  Peter  and  Saint  Paul  which  adorn  the  fa9ade  of 
Saint  Mark  at  Venice.  M.  Weiss  argues  that  he  could 
not  be  a  nephew  of  Titian,  who  was  born  eighty-eight 
years  earlier. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,  Sculptors,  etc." 

Aspilcueta,  is-pel-kwa'tS,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  mis- 
sionary, born  in  Navarre.  He  went  in  1549  to  Brazil, 
where  he  laboured  with  success.    Died  at  Bahia  in  1555. 

Aspilcueta,  (Martin.)    See  Azpilcueta. 

As'pin-wail,  (William,)  an  American  physician, 
born  at  Brookline,  Massachusetts,  in  1743,  was  noted 
for  his  skill  in  treating  small-pox,  and  erected  hospitals 
for  inoculation.  He  served  as  a  volunteer  at  the  battle 
of  Lexington,  April,  1775.    Died  in  1823. 

SeeTHACHER,  "Medical  Biography." 

As'pland,  (Robert,)  an  eminent  English  dissenting 
minister,  born  at  Wicken,  in  Cambridgeshire,  in  1782. 
He  was  ordained  as  a  Baptist  minister  about  1802,  after 
which  he  became  a  Unitarian.  He  preached  at  the 
Gravel-pit  Chapel,  Hackney,  from  1805  until  his  death, 
in  1845.  began  about  1815  to  issue  the  "Christian 

Reformer,"  a  monthly  magazine,  and  was  author  of 
numerous  works. 

See  "A  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  R.  Aspland,"  by  his  son,  Robert 
B.  Aspland,  1850. 

Asplund,  Ss'pldond,  (Arnold,)  an  eminent  Swedish 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1736,  had  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  preacher,  and  published  several  sermons.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  National  Diet  about  1790.  His  life 
appears  to  have  been  passed  in  Stockholm.  Died  in  1 81 5. 

Aspre.    See  Asper. 

Aspreniont,  d',  dtspR'm6N',  Vicomte,  was  governor 
of  Bayonne  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.  He  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  refusal  to  massacre  the  Huguenots 
in  1572. 

Aspremont,  d',  (FRANgois  de  la  Mothe  Ville- 
bert — deh  It  mot  v^KbaiR^,)  Vicomte,  a  French  general 
and  engineer,  who  commanded  with  success  at  several 
sieges  in  Flanders,  1655-72.  He  was  wounded  at  Conde, 
Valenciennes,  and  Gravelines.    Died  in  1678. 

Aspruck,  ds'pRook,  (Franz,)  a  German  painter  and 
engraver,  lived  at  Augsburg  about  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century. 

As'pull,  (George,)  an  excellent  English  musician, 
born  at  Manchester  in  1813.  He  performed  on  the  piano 
with  applause  before  the  king  in  1824,  and  about  the 
same  time  gave  public  concerts.  Before  he  was  eleven, 
he  executed  with  ease  the  most  difficult  pieces  which 
were  composed  as  tests  of  manual  skill  by  Kalkbrennei 
and  Czerny.  It  is  stated  that  Rossini  pronounced  him 
"  the  most'extraordinary  creature  in  Europe."  Died  in 
1832. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Asquini,  Js-kwee'nee,  (Basilio,)  an  Italian  priest 
and  artist,  born  at  Udine  in  1682,  designed  a  fine  church 
for  his  native  town,  and  published  a  volume  of  bio- 
graphies of  eminent  men  born  in  Friuli,  (1735.)  Died 
in  1745. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ASQUINI 


193 


ASSENEDE 


Asqiiini,  (Fabiano,)  Count,  a  meritorious  rural 
economist  of  Italy,  was  born  at  Udine  in  1726.  He  is 
entitled  to  the  greater  part  of  the  honour  of  introducing 
the  cultivation  of  silk  into  Friuli.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  to  promote  in  Italy  the  use  of  potatoes  as 
food  and  of  turf  as  fuel.  He  also  enriched  himself  and 
the  country  by  extensive  plantations  of  trees.  Died  in 
1818.  His'  treatise  "On  the  Means  of  Obviating  the 
Scarcity  of  Timber"  was  published  after  his  death. 

SeeTiPALDO,  "  Italiani  illustri  del  Secolo  XYIII." 

Assaeed-(as-sa-eedO  Abool-Hassan-Alee,  (or  As- 
sa'id-Abul-Hassan-Ali,)  a'boor  has'san  i^Iee',  twelfth 
Sultan  of  Western  Africa,  was  raised  to  the  throne  in 
1242  A.D.,  under  the  title  of  Al-Mootadhed  Billah,  and 
was  killed  in  1246  in  battle  at  Tlemcen. 

See  CoNDE,  "Histoire  de  la  Domination  des  Arabes,"  etc. 

Assafadee  or  Assafadi,  as-sifa-dee^  an  Arabian 
biographer,  born  at  Safada  in  1296  ;  died  in  1362. 

Assaliiii,  as-sS.-lee'nee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  at  Modena  about  1765.  He  served  in  the  French 
army  in  the  campaign  of  Egypt,  1798,  and  was  afterwards 
appointed  by  Napoleon  first  surgeon  to  the  court  and 
surgeon-in-ordinary  to  the  viceroy  Eugene.  He  pub- 
lished "  Observations  on  the  Plague,"  (1803,)  and  a  work 
on  diseases  of  the  eye,  (181 1.)    Died  about  1840. 

As-Sahiaanee  'or  As-Samaani,  ^s-sa-ma-^'nee, 
surnamed  Ka\vam-ed-Deen  or  Kawwam-ud-DIn,  ka- 
wSm' ed-deen',  (the  "support  or  pillar  of  religion,")  a 
famous  Mohammedan  writer,  born  at  Merv,  in  Khoras- 
san,  in  1 1 13,  was  the  author  of  a  History  of  Bagdad,  in 
15  vols.,  a  History  of  Merv,  and  a  work  on  Genealogy. 
Died  about  1 166. 

As-Sameel-Ibn-Hatim-al-Kelabee  or  As-Sa- 
mil-Ibn-Hatim-Al-Keiabi,  as-sa-meel'  Ib'n  ha'tim  dl- 
ke-LVbee,  a  distinguished  Mohammedan  general  and 
governor  of  Spain  under  the  caliphs,  flourished  about 
750  A.D.  He  was  afterwards  poisoned  in  prison  by  the 
order  of  Abd-er-Rahman. 

As -samh-Ibn- Malik -Al-Khoulanee,  (or  Al- 
Kliauiani,)  as-sSmh'  Tb'n  ma'lik  Al-Kow-ld'nee,  gover- 
nor of  Mohammedan  Spain  under  the  caliphs.  He  was 
appointed  to  that  office  in  719.  In  721  he  took  Carcas- 
sonne and  Narbonne,  in  France,  but  was  defeated  and 
killed  by  the  Duke  of  Aquitaine  in  the  same  year. 

Assa'ndro,  as-sSn'dRo,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an 
Italian  jurist,  lived  at  Cremona  in  the  early  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century. 

Assaph.    See  Asaph. 

Assarino,  ris-sa-ree'no,  (Luca  or  Lucas,)  an  Italian 
historian  and  popular  novelist,  son  of  a  Genoese  mer- 
chant, born  at  Seville  in  1607.  He  resided  mostly  in 
Italy.  Pie  wrote  "La  Stratonica,"  (1635,)  "L'Arme- 
linda,"  (1640,)  and  other  novels,  which  had  a  great  suc- 
cess for  a  time  ;  also  a  history  of  the  wars  in  Italy 
between  1613  and  1630,  ("Delle  Guerre  e  Successi  d'lta- 
lia,"  etc.,  1665.)    Died  at  Turin  in  1672. 

See  Soprani,  "Scrittori  della  Ligiiria." 

Assarotti,  as-sS-rot'tee,  (Ottavio  Giovanni  Bat- 
tista,) a  benevolent  priest,  born  at  Genoa  in  1753,  is 
known  as  the  founder  of  the  Italian  institutions  for  the 
education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb.  He  was  for  many 
years  a  teacher  in  the  schools  of  his  order,  called  Sct/ole 
Pie,  (benevolent  schools.)  About  1802  he  began  to  teach 
in  his  own  chamber  a  few  deaf-mutes,  being  almost  en- 
tirely ignorant  of  what  had  been  done  for  that  class  in 
other  countries.  He  received  aid  from  the  government 
in  1812.    Died  in  1829, 

See  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Assas,  S'si',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  officer,  was  captain 
of  the  regiment  of  Auvergne.  In  1760,  while  he  was 
inspecting  the  outposts  near  Klostercamp,  he  found  him- 
self in  the  hands  of  a  party  of  the  enemy  who  were  about 
lO  surprise  the  French.  He  was  threatened  with  instant 
death  if  he  gave  the  alarm  ;  but  he  cried  out,  "A  moi,  Au- 
vergne !  voila  les  ennemis  !"  and  fell  pierced  with  wounds. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XV." 

As.scherade3,  dsh'er-d'des,  (Carl  Gustav  Schtiltz 
-shdolts,)  a  Swedish  diplomatist  and  historian.    Died  in 
1799. 

Asseline,  tss'I^n',  (Gilles  Thomas,)  a  mediocre 


French  poet,  born  at  Vire  in  1682,  was  a  friend  of 
Thomas  Corneille,  on  whose  death  he  wrote  an  ode. 
He  became  president  of  the  college  of  Harcourt,  Paris, 
and  composed,  among  other  poems,  one  entitled  "  Re- 
ligion," (1725.)    Died  in  1767. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteiaire." 

Asseline,  (Jean  Rene,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born 
in  Paris  in  1742,  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  the  Sor- 
bonne.  In  1790  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Boulogne, 
but  he  refused  to  conform  to  the  civil  constitution  of  the 
clergy,  and  went  into  exile.  On  the  death  of  Abbe 
Edgeworth  he  became  confessor  to  Louis  XVIII.  He 
published  several  religious  works.    Died  in  1813. 

See  QuER.^RD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Asseiyn,  as'seh-lTn',  (|an,)  an  excellent  painter  of 
landscapes,  horses,  and  battles,  born  in  Holland,  or  at 
Antwerp,  in  16 10,  was  a  pupil  of  J.  Vandevelde.  He 
studied  in  Rome,  and  painted  a  number  of  landscapes 
taken  from  the  vicinity  of  that  capital.  He  imitated  the 
manner  of  his  friend  Peter  Laer.  About  1645  he  settled 
in  Amsterdam,  where  he  gained  a  high  reputation.  Plis 
colouring  is  brilliant  and  warm,  his  touch  fine,  and  his 
composition  displays  good  taste.  Died  at  Amsterdam 
in  1660. 

See  HouBRAKEX,  "  Groote  Schouburg;"  D'Argenville,  "Abr^gt? 
de  la  Vie  des  plus  fameux  Peintres." 

Asseniani,  as-sa-ma'nee,  (Giuseppe  Luigi  or  Aloy- 
Sio,)  a  theological  writer,  a  nephew  of  Giuseppe  Simone, 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  Syria  about  17 10,  but  edu- 
cated at  Rome,  where  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Syriac,  and  at'terwards  professor  of  Oriental  la  ^uages, 
at  the  Propaganda.    He  died  in  Rome  in  17S2. 

Asseniani,  (Giuseppe  Simone,)  a  learned  Maronite, 
born  at  Tripoli,  in  Syria,  about  1686,  was  educated  at 
Rome.  He  was  sent  to  the  Levant  by  the  pope,  in 
search  of  manuscripts,  in  1715,  and  was  appointed  keeper 
of  the  Vatican  Library  about  1730.  His  principal  work 
is  "  liibliotheca  Orientalis  Clementino-Vaticana,"  (4 
vols.,  fol.,  1719-28,)  which  is  probably  the  most  ample 
fund  of  information  on  Syriac  literature  that  has  ever 
been  amassed.  He  wrote  a  valuable  work  on  Oriental 
Church  History,  in  which  he  was  well  versed.  Died  at 
Rome  in  1768. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Sax, 
'•  Oiiomasticon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Asseniani,  (Simone,)  an  Orientalist  of  high  reputa- 
tion, born  at  Tripoli,  or,  as  some  writers  state,  at  Rome, 
in  1752,  was  a  relative  of  Giuseppe  Luigi.  He  became 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  in  a  seminary  of  Padua 
about  1785,  and  professor  of  the  same  in  the  university 
of  that  city  in  1807.  Among  his  works  are  an  "Essay 
on  the  Origin,  Religion,  Literature,  and  Customs  of  the 
Arabs  before  the  Time  of  Mohammed,"  (1787,)  and 
"Globus  Ccelestis  Cufico-Arabicus,"  (1790,)  the  descrip- 
tion of  a  celestial  globe  which  belonged  to  one  of  the 
Sultans  of  Egypt.    Died  in  1821. 

Assemani,  (Stefano  Evodio — i-vo'de-o,)  a  nephew 
•of  Giuseppe  Simone,  was  born  at  Tripoli  about  1707. 
He  was  the  princi])al  compiler  of  a  valuable  catalogue 
of  the  manuscripts  of  the  Vatican  Library,  (3  vols., 
1756-59,)  and  succeeded  his  uncle  as  keeper  of  that 
library  in  1768.  He  published  catalogues  of  the  Orien- 
tal manuscripts  in  the  Florentine  libraries,  viz.,  Medicea, 
Laurentiana,  and  Palatina,  (1742.)    Died  in  1782. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Assen,  van,  vin  Ss'sen,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  historical 
and  landscape  painter  of  considerable  merit,  born  at 
Amsterdam  about  1635.  His  style  of  painting  is  very 
bold,  and  he  is  said  to  have  used  the  prints  of  Antonio 
Tempesta  for  his  own  pictures.    Died  in  1695. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Assen,  van,  (Jan  Walther,)  a  Dutch  engraver  on 
wood,  born  at  Amsterdam  about  1480.  His  heads  havt 
much  expression,  but  his  design  is  not  very  correct.  His 
prints  are  in  great  request  among  amateurs. 

Assenede,  van,  vSn  Ss-seh-na'deh,  (Diderik,)  a 
Flemish  poet  of  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
translated  into  Flemish  verse  the  romance  of  "  Flores 
et  Blanche." 

See  Paquot,  "Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'Histoire  litteraire  des 
Pavs-Bas." 


€  as  /f;  9  as  s;  ^hard;  g  as G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jj^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ASSEOLO 


194 


ASTBVRY 


Asseolo.    See  Osceola. 
Asser.    See  Ash6,  (Rab.) 

As'ser,  or  As-se'ri-us  Men-e-ven'sis,  a  learned 

iLnglish  monk  of  the  ninth  century,  passed  much  time 
at  the  court  of  Alfred  the  Great,  who  treated  him  as  a 
friend  and  employed  him  as  his  reader.  His  name  is 
connected  with  a  Latin  "Life  of  Alfred  the  Great," 
(which  comprises  only  the  period  from  849  to  889,)  but 
some  critics  maintain  that  it  is  the  work  of  some  other 
author.    Died  about  910. 

Assereto,  as-si-ra'to,  (Giovacchino,)  an  Italian 
painter  in  oil  and  fresco,  born  at  Genoa  about  1600,  was 
a  pupil  of  Andrea  Ansaldo,  whose  design  he  imitated 
with  success.  He  worked  at  Genoa,  Sarzana,  and  Rome, 
and  gained  a  high  reputation.    Died  in  1649. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Assezan,  d',  dts'zdN^,  a  French  dramatic  author,  born 
at  Toulouse  in  1654.  His  principal  works  were  the  trage- 
dies of  "  Agamemnon"  and  "Antigone."    Died  in  1696. 

See  Parfait,  "  Histoire  du  Theatre  Frangais." 

Asshetori,  ash'tun,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  Lancashire  in  1641,  He  became  rector  of  Beck- 
enham,  Kent,  in  1676,  and  wrote  many  religious  works, 
among  which  is  "  Toleration  Disapproved  and  Con- 
demned," (1670.)  He  was  the  projector  of  an  unsuc- 
cessful scheme  for  the  maintenance  of  the  widows  of 
clergymen  and  others.    Died  in  1711. 

Sec  Watt,  "Life  of  William  Assheton,"  and  Wood,  "Athence 
Oxonienses." 

Ass'hod,  written  also  Aschod,  the  name  of  several 
princes  and  kings  of  Armenia,  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Pagra- 
tidae,  who  were  of  Jewish  origin,  but  who  appear  to  have 
adopted  the  Christian  religion  about  600  a.d. 

Asshod  I.  restored  the  kingdom  of  Armenia  about 
856  A.D.,  and  ruled  with  wisdom  and  moderation,  ex- 
tending the  bounds  of  his  dominions.    Died  in  889. 

Asshod  II.  ascended  his  throne  in  914,  after  a  long 
warfare  with  the  Arabs,  who  had  usurped  for  a  period 
the  government  of  Armenia.    Died  about  930. 

Asshod  III.  succeeded  his  father  in  952,  and  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  patronage  of  industry,  trade,  and 
architecture,  and  for  his  wars  with  the  Mohammedans. 
Died  in  977. 

Asshod  IV.  shared  the  kingdom  of  Armenia  with 
his  brother  John,  and  both  afterwards  became  tributary 
to  the  Greek  Empire.  In  this  reign  Armenia  was  much 
harassed  by  the  Turks.    Died  in  1039. 

Assignies,  d',  dS''sen''ye',  (Jean,)  a  Flemish  monk, 
and  writer  of  devotional  works,  born  in  1562  ;  died  in 
1642. 

Assigny,  d',  dS's^n''ye' or  dis-seen'ye,  (Marius,)  a 
clergyman  of  the  Anglican  Church,  of  French  extraction, 
born  in  England  in  1643,  wrote  "The  Art  of  Memory," 
(1699,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1 71 7. 

Assing,  as'sing,  (Rosa  Maria,)  a  German  poetess, 
a  sister  of  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  was  born  at  Dussel- 
dorf  in  1783.  She  was  married  in  1816  to  Dr.  Assing, 
a  physician,  who  soon  after  settled  at  Hamburg.  She 
wrote  numerous  poems  and  tales  of  some  merit.  Died 
in  1840.  A  volume  of  her  works,  entitled  "  Poetical 
Remains,"  ("Rosa  Maria's  poetischer  Nachlass,*")  ap- 
peared in  1 841. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Assisi,  d',  (Andrea.)    See  Luigi,  (Andrea.) 
Asso.    See  Adso. 

Assollaiit,  t'so^]6N',  (Jean  Baptiste  Alfred,)  a 
French  novelist,  born  at  Aubusson,  Creuse,  about  1827. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Acacia,"  "  Brancas," 
(1859,)  "  Les  Aventures  de  Karl  Brunner,"  (1861,)  "Rose 
d' Amour,"  (1862,)  and  "  Scenes  from  Life  in  the  United 
States,"  ("Scenes  de  la  Vie  des  Etats-Unis,"  1858.) 

Assomption,  de  1',  deh  lt's6Mp'se-6N',  (Charles,) 
a  Flemish  Carmelite,  and  writer  on  theology,  born  in 
1625  ;  died  in  1686. 

Assoucy,  d',  dt'soo^se',  (Charles  Coypeau — kwi'- 
po',)  a  French  satirical  poet  of  considerable  notoriety 
for  his  imprudence  and  misfortunes,  was  born  at  Paris 
about  1604.    Died  in  1678  or  1679. 

See  Flogei.,  "  Geschichte  des  Burlesken." 

Asso  y  del  Rio,  de,  di  Ss'so  e  d61  ree'o,  (Ignazio 


Jordan — iioR-dSn',)  a  Spanish  jurist  and  naturalist  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  He  published  in  1775  "Insti- 
tutes of  the  Civil  Law  in  Spain,"  ("  Instituciones  del 
Derecho  civil  de  Castilla,")  which  is  considered  the  best 
work  on  the  subject.  He  also  wrote  a  treatise  on  the 
plants  of  Aragon,  ("  Synopsis  Stirpium  indigenarum 
Aragoniae,"  1799.) 

See  Watt,  "Bibliofheca  Britannica." 

Assumpgao,  de,  dk  is-soomp-sowN',  (Jos^:,)  a  Por- 
tuguese theologian,  noted  as  a  writer  of  Latin  verse. 
Died  in  1751.^ 

Assumpgao-Velho,  da,  di  is-soomp-s6vvN'  v^Kyo, 
(Joachim,)  a  Portuguese  natural  philosopher,  born  in 
1753,  was  a  canon  regular  of  the  congregation  of  Saint 
Croix.  He  studied  physical  science  with  great  success, 
and  published  "  Meteorological  Observations  made  in 
1783-84,"  and  "  Observa9oes  fysicas  por  Occasiao  de  seis 
Raios,"  etc.  Died  in  1793.  "  He  left  unfinished  works 
which,"  says  Correa  da  Serra,  "would  have  procured  for 
him  a  great  reputation  in  Europe." 

Assunto,  deir,  dSl  lis-soon'to,  (Onorio,)  an  Italian 
monk,  and  writer  on  theology,  born  in  1639  ;  died  in  1716. 

Ast,  ^st,  (Georg  Anton  Friedrich,)  a  German 
scholar  and  teacher  of  great  eminence,  was  born  at 
Gotha  in  1778.  He  was  educated  at  Gotha  and  Jena, 
and  became  in  1805  professor  of  classical  literature 
in  the  University  of  Landshut.  In  1826,  when  this 
university  was  transferred  to  Munich,  Ast  removed 
thither  and  retained  his  professorship.  His  lectures 
were  eminently  suggestive.  Among  his  works  (which 
are  mostly  philological  or  philosophical)  are  a  metri- 
cal German  version  of  the  tragedies  of  Sophocles, 
(1804,)  a  "Manual  of  ^Esthetics,"  (1805,)  an  "Introduc- 
tion to  Philology,"  (1808,)  "Elements  (Grundlinien)  of 
Philosophy,"  (1809,)  and  "The  Life  and  Writings  of 
Plato,"  ("  Platons  Leben  und  Schriften,"  1816.)  He 
published  an  edition  of  all  the  works  of  Plato,  with  a 
Latin  version  and  commentary,  (11  vols.,  1819-32.) 
Few  modern  critics  have  done  more  to  illustrate  the 
works  of  Plato.    Died  at  Munich  in  December,  1841. 

See  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Asta,  deir,  del  Ids'ta,  (x^ndrea,)  a  Neapolitan  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Bagnuoli  about  1673,  was  a  pupil 
of  Solimena.  Among  his  chiefworks  is  a  Nativity.  Died 
in  1 72 1. 

As-ta'ri-iis  or  As-ti-a'ri-us,  (Blasius,)  [It.  Biasio 
AsTARio,  be-S'se-o  &s-ta're-o,)  an  Italian  medical  writer, 
born  at  Pavi'a,  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. 

Astarloa  y  Aguirre,  de,  di  is-t^R-lo'I  e  i-gwer'ri, 
(Don  Pablo  Pedro,)  a  Spanish  linguist,  born  at  Du- 
rango  in  1752.  He  devoted  his  life  chiefly  to  the  study 
of  languages.  His  principal  work  is  an  argument  for 
the  antiquity  of  the  Basque  language,  ("Apologia  de  la 
Lengua  Bascongada,"  1803,)  in  which  he  proves  its 
identity  with  the  language  of  the  ancient  Iberi.  "As- 
tarloa was  the  first,"  says  W.  von  Humboldt,  "who 
studied  the  Basque  language  in  a  really  searching  spirit." 
Died  in  1806. 

Astarrita,  ^s-tar-ree'tl,  (Gennaro,)  an  Italian  dra- 
matic composer,  born  at  Naples  about  1750.  He  com- 
posed many  operas,  which  were  for  the  most  part  suc- 
cessful, but  he  was  deficient  in  originality.  His  most 
popular  production  was  "Circe  and  Ulysses,"  ("Circe  e 
Ulisse.") 

As-tar'te,  [Gr.  'koTaprri;  see  Ashtoreth,]  a  god- 
dess worshipped  by  the  Phoenicians  and  Syrians,  who 
erected  to  her  a  famous  temple  at  Hierapolis.  (See  I, 
Kings  xi.  33.)  She  has  by  some  mythologists  been  iden- 
tified with  Aphrodite  or  Venus. 

Astbury,  asf'ber-e,  (J.,)  an  Englishman  who  made 
great  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  pottery,  was 
born  about  1678.  It  is  stated  that  by  feigning  to  be  an 
idiot  he  obtained  admission  into  the  workshop  of  a 
foreign  potter  and  learned'a  secret  process  used  by  him. 
He  began  business  at  Shelton,  and  produced  a  white 
stoneware  of  a  very  superior  quality  by  mixing  pipe- 
clay with  Shelton  marl.  He  was  the  first  British  potter 
who  used  calcined  flint  as  an  ingredient  of  his  fabrics. 
Died  in  1743. 

See  Shaw,  "History  of  the  Staffordshire  Potteries." 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,    same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  shoft ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon  j 


ASTELL 


195 


ASTOR 


As'tfll,  (Mary,)  an  English  authoress,  born  at  New- 
castle-upon-Tyne in  1668.  In  1697  she  published  a 
"Serious  Proposal  to  the  Ladies  for  the  Advancement 
of  their  True  and  Greatest  Interest,"  which  provoked 
the  ridicule  of  certain  writers  of  the  "Tatler,"  who  gave 
her  the  name  of  Madonella.  One  of  her  religious  treat- 
ises having  been  attacked  by  Lady  Masham,  she  de- 
fended her  opinions  in  "The  Christian  Religion  as  pro- 
fessed by  a  Daughter  of  the  Church  of  England,"  {1705,) 
which  was  praised  for  logical  ability.  She  was  esteemed 
by  several  eminent  divines  and  authors.    Died  in  1731. 

See  Ballard,  "Memoirs  of  Several  Learned  Ladies  of  Great 
Britain,"  Oxford,  1752. 

Astemio.    See  Abstemius. 
Aster.    See  Asterius. 

Aster,  ds'ter,  (Ernst  Ludwig,)  a  Prussian  general 
and  engineer,  born  at  Dresden  about  1778,  planned  the 
fortifications  of  Coblentz  and  Ehrenbreitstein. 

Astere.    See  Asterius. 

As-te'ri-a,  [Gr.  'Aortpla;  Fr.  Asterie,  ts''ta^re',]  in 
classic  mythology,  was  a  daughter  of  the  Titan  Coeus, 
a  sister  of  Latona,  and  the  wife  of  Perses.  The  poets 
feigned  that  to  escape  from  Jupiter  she  assumed  the 
form  of  a  quail. 

As-te'ri-us,  [Gr.  'AaripLoc,]  a  Sophist  and  advocate 
of  Arianism,  lived  in  Cappadocia  about  320  a.d.  During 
Maximian's  persecution  of  the  Christians,  in  the  early 
part  of  the  fourth  century,  he  is  said  to  have  relapsed 
into  paganism ;  but  he  afterwards  renounced  this  error. 
He  wrote  several  works,  which  are  not  extant. 

Asterius,  [Gr.  'Acrepiog;  Fr.  Astere,  ts'taiR',]  written 
also  Aster,  Saint,  a  Father  of  the  Church,  supposed  to 
have  been  born  at  Antioch  about  340  A.D.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Amasea,  in  Pontus  ;  but  the  date  of  this  pro- 
motion and  nearly  all  the  events  of  his  life  are  unknown. 
His  extant  homilies  contain  some  eloquent  passages,  and 
teach  doctrines  considered  sound  by  the  Roman  Catholics. 

Astesauo,  As-ti-sa'no,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  near  Asti  in  1412. 

Astesati,  as-ti-sd'tee,  (Giovanni  Andrea,)  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Brescia  in  1673 ;  died  in  1747. 

Astiariiis.    See  Astarius. 

Astle,  as^'s'l  or  as't'l,  (Thomas,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent 
English  antiquary,  born  in  Staffordshire  in  1 734.  He  was 
appointed  about  1775  chief  clerk  in  the  record  office  in  the 
Tower,  and  became  keeper  of  the  records  several  years 
later.  His  principal  work  is  "The  Origin  and  Progress 
of  Writing,  as  well  Hieroglyphic  as  Elementary,  illus- 
trated by  engravings,  etc.;  also,  some  Account  of  the 
Origin  and  Progress  of  Printing,"  (1784,)  which  is  said 
to  be  the  best  work  in  the  language  on  that  subject. 
Died  in  1803. 

See  Nichols,  "Literary  Anecdotes;"  Shaw,  "History  and  Anti- 
quities of  Staffordshire ;"  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  vol.  Ixiv.,  (1804.) 

Ast'ley,  (Sir  Jacob,)  afterwards  Lord  Astley,  an 
English  royalist  general,  who  had  served  under  Gustavus 
Adolphus.  Having  been  made  a  major-general  by  Charles 
I.  in  1642,  he  fought  at  Edgehill,  where  he  was  wounded, 
and  commanded  the  garrison  of  Reading  in  1643.  In 
1644  he  repulsed  Waller  at  the  Cherwell,  and  was  created 
Lord  Astley  of  Reading.  He  led  a  division  at  Naseby 
in  1645,  cominanded  the  last  remnant  of  the  royal 
army  which  was  defeated  at  Stow  in  1646.  Died  in  165 1. 
"Sir  Jacob,"  says  Clarendon,  "was  an  honest,  brave, 
plain  man,  and  as  fit  for  the  office  he  exercised,  as  major- 
general  of  foot,  as  Christendom  yielded." 

See  Clarendon,  "  History  of  the  Great  Rebellion." 

Astley,  (John,)  an  English  portrait-painter,  born  in 
Shropshire  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
was  a  pupil  of  Hudsoii.  He  visited  Rome,  and  subse- 
quently worked  with  success  in  London  and  Dublin.  He 
married  the  widow  of  Sir  William  Daniel,  whose  large 
fortune  he  inherited  a  few  years  after  his  marriage.  Died 
in  1787. 

See  Edwards,  "Anecdotes  of  Painters." 

Astley,  (Philip,)  an  excellent  equestrian,  and  founder 
of  Astley's  Amphitheatre,  London,  was  born  at  New- 
castle-under-Line  in  1742.  He  served  with  distinction 
in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and,  having  left  the  army  about 
176s,  began  to  exhibit  equestrian  feats  to  the  public.  He 
published  "The  Modern  Riding-Master,"  (1775,)  a  "  Sys- 


tem of  Equestrian  Education,"  (1801,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1814. 

See  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1S14. 

As-toFphus  or  As-tuFphus,  [Fr.  Astolphe,  ts' 
tolF,]  written  also  Aistulf,  King  of  the  Lombaids  01 
Longobards,  succeeded  his  brother  Ratchis  in  749  or  75c 
A.D.  He  seized  Ravenna  and  the  Pentapolis  about  752, 
after  which  he  marched  against  the  duchy  of  Rome.  The 
pope  called  to  his  aid  Pepin,  King  of  the  Franks,  who 
defeated  Astolphus  in  754,  and  compelled  him  to  cede 
the  provinces  called  the  Exarchate  and  Pentapolis  to 
the  see  of  Rome.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  temporal 
power  of  the  popes.    Died  in  756  A.D. 

As'ton,  (Antony,)  an  English  writer  of  comedies, 
appeared  as  actor  at  Drury  Lane  about  1700.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  died  about  1750. 

See  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Aston,  (Sir  Arthur,)  an  English  royalist,  whora 
Plume  calls  "an  officer  of^  reputation,"  commanded  the 
dragoons  at  Edgehill,  (1642,)  and  distinguished  himself 
in  the  defence  of  Reading.  He  afterwards  went  to  Ire- 
land and  became  commander  of  a  garrison  of  three  thou- 
sand men  at  Drogheda,  which  was  taken  by  Cromwell 
in  1649.  Aston  and  nearly  all  his  men  were  massacred 
by  the  victors. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England." 

Aston,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  Englishman,  who  wrote  a 
"Remonstrance  against  Presbytery,"  (1640.)  In  the 
civil  war  he  fought  for  Charles  I.,  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  in  an  attempt  to  escape  was  mortally  wounded.  Died 
in  1645. 

See  Wood,  "Athenas  Oxonienses." 

Aston,  (Sir  Walter,)  of  Tixall,  in  Staffordshire,  born 
about  15S0,  was  a  patron  of  Drayton  the  poet.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Spain  in  16 19.    Died  in  1639. 

Astor,  de,  da  as-toR^,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  copper-plate 
and  die  engraver,  lived  at  Toledo.  In  1609  he  was  ap- 
pointed engraver  to  the  mint  of  Segovia. 

See  Bermudez,  "Diccionario  Historico." 

As'tor,  (John  Jacob,)  a  celebrated  New  York  mer- 
chant, was  born  near  Heidelberg,  in  Germany,  in  1 763.  At 
the  age  of  sixteen  he  joined  his  brother  in  London  in  the 
business  of  making  musical  instruments,  and  four  years 
later  (1783)  embarked  for  Baltimore,  taking  a  stock  of 
instruments  with  him.  In  New  York  he  exchanged  his 
stock  for  furs,  which  he  took  to  London  and  disposed  of 
to  great  advantage.  Thus  encouraged,  he  resolved  to 
devote  himself  to  the  fur  trade,  and  with  this  view  made 
himself  acquainted  with  the  various  European  markets 
and  carefully  studied  the  cHfferent  kinds  of  furs.  On  re- 
turning to  America  he  established  himself  in  New  York, 
which  was  henceforth  his  usual  place  of  residence.  His 
enterprise  and  thrift  soon  enabled  him  to  ship  his  furs 
in  his  own  vessels,  which  brought  back  cargoes  of  foreign 
produce,  thereby  reaping  a  double  profit.  In  sixteen 
years  he  had  acquired  a  fortune  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  dollars.  Such  was  his  diligence,  and  so  great 
were  his  talents  for  business,  that  when  his  commerce 
covered  the  seas,  he  was  enabled  to  control  the  action 
of  his  "shipmasters  and  supercargoes  in  the  minutest 
details,  and  rarely  if  ever  was  he  known  to  have  erred 
either  in  judgment  or  in  a  knowledge  of  the  facts.  He 
conceived  the  vast  scheme  of  connecting  the  fur  trade 
with  the  Pacific  by  means  of  a  line  of  trading-posts  ex- 
tending from  the  great  lakes  along  the  Missouri  and 
Columbia  to  the  mouth  of  the  latter  river,  where  he 
founded  Astoria  in  April,  1811,  to  be  used  as  a  central 
depot,  and  then,  by  getting  possession  of  one  of  the 
Sandwich  Islands  as  a  station,  to  supply  China  and  the 
Indies  with  furs  directly  from  the  Pacific  coast.  The 
disasters  which  befell  two  of  the  expeditions  sent  out  to 
the  Pacific  for  this  purpose,  and  the  desertion  of  one  of 
the  principal  agents  or  partners  in  the  enterprise,  and 
his  betrayal  of  Astor's  plans  to  the  Northwest  (British 
Fur)  Company,  prevented  the  success  of  this  scheme. 
Astor  invested  largely  in  real  estate,  erected  numerous 
buildings,  both  public  and  private,  and  thus,  from  the 
!  almost  unexampled  rise  in  the  value  of  this  kind  of 
I  property  in  New  York  during  the  first  half  of  the  pres- 
I  ent  century,  added  immensely  to  his  rapidly  increasing 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  /lard;  g  as  J;  c,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^="See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


AST  ORG  A 


196 


ATAHUALPA 


wealth.  A  this  death  in  1848  his  property  was  estimated  at 
not  less  than  twenty  millions  of  dollars.  For  many  years 
Fitz-Gieene  Halleck,  the  poet,  was  his  private  secretary. 

Astor  no  doubt  owed  much  to  fortuitous  circumstances, 
but  hi:^  great  success  was  chiefly  due  to  sagacity  and 
close  application  to  business  through  a  long  course  of 
years.  Among  his  bequests  were  four  hundred  thousand 
dollars  for  the  establishment  of  a  library  in  New  York, 
and  fifty  thousand  dollars  to  his  native  village  in  Ger- 
many ;  but  almost  the  whole  of  his  property  was  left  to 
his  son,  William  B.  Astor.  William  B.  Astor  subse- 
quently added  to  his  father's  bequest  nearly  as  much 
more,  so  that  the  Astor  Library  is  now  one  of  the  most 
liberally  endowed  institutions  of  the  kind  on  the  Ameri- 
can continent. 

See  Washington  Irving,  "Astoria,"  1836,  and  "Adventures  of 
Captain  Bonneville,"  1S37;  Hunt's  "Mercliant's  Magazine"  for 
August,  1844;  Hunt's  "Lives  of  American  Mercliants,"  vol.  ii. 

Astorga,  as-toR^gl,  (Antonio  Pedro  Alvarez  Oso- 

rio — Al'va-reth  o-so're-o,)  Marquis  of,  a  Spanish 
statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  near  the  beginning  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  filled  the  office  of  ambassador 
to  Rome  with  great  credit.  He  was  also  Viceroy  of  Na- 
ples from  1672  to  1675. 

See  GiANNONE,  "  Storia  civile  del  Regno  di  Napoli." 

Astorga,  d',  dis-toR^gi,  (Emanuele,)  Baron,  an  ex- 
cellent musical  composer,  born  in  Sicily  about  1680. 
Astorga  was  a  name  which  he  assumed  after  his  father 
had  been  executed  for  a  political  offence.  He  was  pa- 
tronized by  Leopold  L,  at  whose  death  (1705)  he  left 
Vienna.  He  afterwards  visited  many  capitals  of  Europe, 
but  did  not  perform  in  public.  Among  his  works  are 
an  admirable  "  Stabat  Mater,"  and  cantatas  entitled 
"Quando  Penso,"  and  "Torna  Aprile." 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Astorga,  de,  da  Ss-toR^gS,  (Juan  Lorenzo,)  a  Span- 
ish poet,  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
See  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Astori,  is-to'ree,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  classical  scholar,  and  priest,  born  at  Venice 
in  1672,  became  canon  of  the  ducal  church  of  Saint 
Mark.  Among  his  works  is  a  treatise  "On  the  Cabiri 
Gods,"  ("De  Diis  Cabiris,"  1703.)  Among  his  friends 
were  A.  Zeno,  Scipio  Maffei,  and  Poleni.    Died  in  1743. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Astorini,  is-to-ree'nee,  (Elia,)  a  learned  Italian 
priest,  born  in  Calabria  in  165 1.  He  was  a  Cartesian  in 
philosophy,  and  appears  in  his  youth — during  a  residence 
in  Germany — to  have  adopted  or  favoured  Protestant 
doctrines.  About  1688  he  returned  to  Italy  and  to  the 
Roman  Church.  He  became  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Sienna  in  1690.  Among  his  works  are  "  Elementa 
Euclidis,"  (1691,)  and  a  treatise  entitled  "On  the  True 
Church  against  the  Lutherans,"  (1700.)    Died  in  1702. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia,"  and  Jocher,  "Allgenieines 
Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

As-tor-pil'co,  a  son  of  Francisco  Pizarro  and  Ange- 
lina, who  was  a  daughter  of  Atahualpa,  Inca  of  Peru. 

See  Humboldt,  "Tableaux  de  la  Nature." 

Astraea,  as-tree^'a,  [Gr.  'Aarpala;  Fr.  Astr^:e,  ts^tRi',] 
a  mythical  personage,  regarded  as  a  daughter  of  Jupiter 
and  Themis,  was  sometimes  called  the  goddess  of  jus- 
tice. According  to  tradition,  she  lived  on  the  earth  dur- 
ing the  golden  age,  at  the  end  of  which  she  ascended  to 
a  more  congenial  sphere  among  the  stars,  being  the  last 
of  the  immortals  to  leave  the  earth. 

As-tram-psy'-ehus,  [Gr.  'AaTpd/npvxog,]  the  name  of 
several  Persian  Magi.  One  of  this  name,  mentioned  by 
Suidas,  wrote  a  work  on  the  Interpretation  of  Dreams. 

Astree.    See  Astr.'EA. 

As-tron'o-mer,  The,  [in  Latin,  Astron'omus  ;  Fr. 
L'AsTRONOME,  Its^tRo'nom',]  is  the  appellation  given 
to  the  unknown  writer  of  a  valuable  "  Life  of  Louis  le 
Debonnaire."  It  appears  that  he  was  attached  to  the 
court  of  that  monarch,  and  wrote  from  personal  know- 
ledge, about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century. 

See  GuizoT,  "Collection  des  Historiens  de  la  France." 

Astros,  d',  dts'tRos',  (Paul  Thi^rese  David,)  a 
French  prelate,  born  in  Var  in  1772.  He  was  imprisoned 
by  Napoleon  for  several  years,  ending  in  1814,  because 


he  was  an  agent  of  the  pope  in  his  contest  against  the 
emperor.  In  1830  he  became  Archbishop  of  Toulouse. 
He  published  several  theological  works.    Died  in  1851. 

See  Pi  COT,  "Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'Histoire  ecclesiastique  du 
dix-huitieme  Siecle." 

Astruc,  ts^tRiik',  (Jean,)  a  French  medical  writer 
and  teacher  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Sauve,  in  Lan- 
guedoc,  in  1684.  By  the  aid  of  an  excellent  memoi"y  and 
methodical  habits,  he  acquired  great  erudition.  He  be- 
came professor  of  anatomy  at  Toulouse  in  17 10,  and  of 
medicine  at  Montpellier  in  1716  or  1717.  About  1728  he 
removed  to  Paris,  and  was  appointed  consulting  physician 
to  the  king,  and  professor  of  medicine  in  the  Royal  Col- 
lege, in  1730.  In  1736  he  published  his  capital  work 
"On  Venereal  Diseases,"  ("De  Morbis  Venereis,") 
which,  according  to  the  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  is 
the  most  complete  work  on  the  subject,  in  respect  to 
erudition  and  historical  research.  Among  his  works  is 
a  "History  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  of  Montpellier," 
("  Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'histoire,"  etc.)  Died  in  1 766. 

See  Lorry,  "Vie  d' Astruc ;"  and  Astruc,  "Autobiographic,"  in 
"  Memoires  de  la  Faculte  de  Montpellier." 

Astiilphus.    See  Astolphus. 

As-ty'a-ges,  [Gr.  'kGTvayrjq;  Fr.  Astyage,  ts'te^- 
tzh',]  King  of  the  Medes,  was  the  son  and  successor  of 
Cyaxares,  and  grandfather  of  Cyrus  the  Great.  He  was 
dethroned  by  Cyrus  about  560  B.C.,  and  is  called  the 
last  king  of  Meclia.  (See  Cyrus  I.)  Herodotus  is  the 
authority  for  this  statement.  According  to  Xenophon, 
Astyages  had  a  son  Cyaxares,  who  succeeded  him. 

As-ty'a-nax,  [Gr.  'karvtLva^,']  also  called  Scaman- 
drius,  son  of  Hector  and  Andromache,  was  killed  in 
infancy  by  the  Greeks  at  the  capture  of  Troy. 

As-tyd'a-mas,  [Gr.  'korvdajm^,]  an  Athenian  tragic 
poet,  was  a  son  of  Morsimus,  also  a  tragic  poet.  He 
lived  about  380  B.C.,  and  gained  prizes  for  many  of  his 
dramas,  none  of  which  are  extant.  The  people  erected 
to  him  a  statue,  on  which  he  wrote  an  egotistical  inscrip- 
tion. He  had  a  son  Astydamas,  who  was  a  tragic  poet. 
Only  the  titles  of  his  works  remain. 

See  Bruncks  and  Jacobs,  "  Anthologia  Graeca." 

As-ty-me'des,  [Gr.  'AGrvfiT/drjg  ;  Fr.  Astymede,  ts'- 
te''mad'',]  a  prominent  citizen  of  Rhodes,  who  sided  with 
the  Romans  against  Perseus  of  Macedon,  about  170  B.C. 

As-ty'o-elius,  [Gr.  'koTvoxog.']  a  Spartan  admiral, who 
obtained  chief  command  of  the  fleet  in  412  B.C.  He 
sailed  to  Chios  and  Lesbos  to  expel  the  Athenians,  but 
failed  ;  and  is  said  to  have  sold  himself  to  Tissaphernes. 
He  was  deprived  of  his  command  in  411  B.C. 

Asula,  a'soo-ia,  or  Asola,  a^So-ia,(GiovANNi  Matteo 
or  G.  Maria,)  an  Italian  composer,  a  native  of  Verona, 
lived  about  1580-1620. 

A-su-la''nus,  Asolano,  a-so-la^io,  or  D' Asola,  di¥- 
so-la,  (Andrea,)  one  of  the  earliest  Italian  printers,  born 
at  Asola,  flourished  about  1490-1520.  Pie  was  the  father- 
in-law  of  the  celebrated  Aldus  Manutius. 

See  Renouard,  "Annales  de  I'lmprimerie  des  Aides,"  1825. 

As''u-ra  or  As'oo-ra,  [Hindoo  pron.  us'06-ra,]  in 
common  language  Asur  "or  Asoor,  usually  pronounced 
lis'oor.  In  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  Asuras,  children 
of  Kas'yapa  and  Diti,  are  a  race  of  powerful  demons, 
who  are  represented  as  constantly  opposing  the  Suras, 
(Sooras,)  or  gods.  (See  Sura.)  The  Asuras  may  be 
said  to  correspond,  in  some  of  their  leading  attributes,  to 
the  giants,  (Jotuns,)  and  the  Suras  to  the  /Esir,  of  the 
Northern  mythology. 

See  Moor's  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

As'y-ehis,  [Gr.  'kavxig^  an  Egyptian  king,  whose 
period  is  uncertain,  but  who  built  'the  eastern  propy- 
la;a  of  the  great  temple  of  Phtha  (Vulcan)  at  Memphis, 
regarded  as  the  finest  work  of  the  kind  in  Egypt.  He 
also  built  a  brick  pyramid,  and  established  the  law^  of 
giving  the  dead  body  of  the  debtor's  father  as  security 
for  debt. 

Atabalipa.    See  Atahualpa. 

Atahualpa  or  Atahuallpa,  S-ta-hwSl'p.^,  sometimes 
written  Atabalipa,  the  last  Inca  of  Peru,  was  a  son  of 
Huayna  Capac  and  a  princess  of  Quito.  About  1525 
he  became  King  of  Quito  by  the  wnll  of  his  father,  who 
left  Peru  to  Atahualpa's  brother  Huascar,  the  lawful 
heir  of  the  whole  empire.    Atahualpa,  who  was  warlike 


i,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  lo7tg;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/i07't;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n5t;  good;  m<3on 


ATAIDE 


197 


ATHANASWS 


and  ambitious,  invaded,  with  a  large  army,  the  domin- 
ions of  Huascar,  whom  he  defeated  and  took  prisoner, 
(1532.)  According  to  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega,  he  massa- 
cred of  the  royal  family  all  who  had  the  blood  of  the 
Incas  in  their 'veins,  except  Huascar  and  his  brother 
Manco  Capac.  In  the  same  year  that  he  thus  usurped 
the  throne  of  the  Inca,  Pizarro  entered  upon  the  con- 
quest of  Peru.  After  mutual  professions  of  amity, 
Atahualpa  and  Pizarro  met  in  an  interview,  (November, 
1532,)  during  which  the  former  was  seized  by  the  Span- 
iards and  loaded  with  chains. 

To  obtain  his  release,  the  Inca  offered  to  fill  with  gold, 
as  high  as  he  could  reach,  the  room  in  which  he  was  con- 
fined, twenty-two  feet  long  and  seventeen  feet  wide. 
Pizarro  accepted  this  offer.  Before  the  full  amount  had 
been  collected,  the  Spaniards  became  impatient,  and  di- 
vided the  spoil.  Rumours  of  a  rising  among  the  natives 
afforded  Pizarro  a  pretext  to  arraign  the  captive  Inca 
before  a  military  court.  He  was  condemned  to  be 
burned  alive,  but  by  abjuring  his  religion  he  obtained 
the  privilege  of  being  strangled  by  the  garrote,  in  Au- 
gust, 1533.  "He  is  allowed  to  have  been  bold,  high- 
minded,  and  liberal,"  says  Prescott.  "All  agree  that  he 
showed  singular  penetration  and  quickness  of  percep- 
tion. His  exploits  as  a  warrior  had  placed  his  valour 
beyond  dispute." 

See  Prescott,  "Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  i. ;  Garcilasso  de  la 
Vega.  "Historia  general  del  Peru;"  A.  von  Humboldt,  "Ta- 
bleaux de  la  Nature." 

Ataide,  a-t^-eeMi,  written  also  Atayde,  (Dom  Luis,) 
Count  of  Tougia,  a  Portuguese  nobleman,  who  was  twice 
Viceroy  of  India.  He  first  landed  in  that  country  in 
1568,  at  a  period  when  there  was  a  conspiracy  between 
the  Nizam  and  other  native  princes  to  drive  out  the  Por- 
tuguese, which  he  frustrated.  He  embarked  for  Portu- 
gal in  1572,  but  returned  to  India  in  1580,  where  he  died 
shortly  after. 

See  A.  Pinto  Pereira,  "Historia  da  India,  etc.,"  1616. 

Atajee,  Ataji,  a-t3.'jee,  or  Athadschi,  a  distin- 
guished Turkish  poet,  born  at  Constantinople  about 
1583  ;  died  in  1635. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  der  Osmanischen  Dichtkunst." 

At-a-lan'ta  or  At-a-lan'te,  [Gr.  'AraAavr?/ ;  Fr.  Ata- 
LANTE,  t'tSI^Nt',]  in  ancient  mythology,  the  most  swift- 
footed  of  mortals,  was  distinguished  also  for  courage 
and  martial  exploits.  She  promised  her  hand  to  the 
man  who  should  outstrip  her  in  the  race,  with  the  con- 
dition that  if  he  failed  he  must  forfeit  his  life.  Milanion 
won  the  race  by  dropping  three  golden  apples  which  he 
received  from  Venus,  and  which  tempted  her  to  stop 
and  pick  them  up. 

Ata-Malek,  dt'^  mM'ek,  written  also  Atha-Melik, 
(Ala-ed-Deen  or  Ala-ed-Din,  ^-la-cd-deen',)  a  Persian 
historian,  born  in  Khorassan  about  1227,  was  appointed 
prefect  of  Bagdad  after  its  capture  by  the  Moguls  in 
1258.  He  was  author  of  a  history  of  the  Moguls,  en- 
titled "The  Conquest  of  the  World."    Died  in  1282. 

Atanagi,  a-ta-n^'jee,  (Dionigi,)  a  distinguished  Ital- 
ian litterateur  and  editor,  born  at  Cagli,  in  the  duchy  of 
Urbino.  About  1532  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  re- 
mained twenty-five  years  in  indigence.  He  removed  to 
Venice  in  1560,  and  died  there  between  1567  and  1574. 
He  is  regarded  as  a  judicious  and  accurate  editor.  Among 
his  publications  are  "  Familiar  Letters  of  Thirteen  Illus- 
trious Men,"  (1554,)  and  "  Poems  of  Several  Eminent 
Tuscan  Poets,"  ("  Delle  Rime  di  diversi  nobili  Poeti  Tos- 
cani,"  2  vols.,  1565.) 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Atanasio.    See  Athanasius  and  Athanasio. 

Atar,  a'tar,  (Ben  David,)  a  Jewish  rabbi  and  poet, 
lived  at  Amsterdam  in  the  second  half  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  translated  the  Psalms  into  Spanish  verse. 

Atar,  (Ben  Samuel,)  a  Jew  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
published  a  work  on  Hebrew  traditions. 

At'a-ulf,  Ad'a-ulf,  or  Ad'olf,  [Gr.  'kraovl^oq;  Lat. 
Ataul'phus,]  was  brother-in-law  of  Alaric  I.,  King 
of  the  Visigoths,  whom  he  succeeded  in  411  a.d.  He 
married  Placidia,  (a  sister  of  the  emperor  Honorius,) 
whom  he  had  taken  captive  at  the  capture  of  Roine  in 
10.  In  412  he  evacuated  Italy  and  marched  into  Gaul, 
where  he  took  Narbo,  Burdigala,  (Bordeaux,)  etc.  After 


he  had  conquered  Aquitaine,  he  crossed  the  Pyrenees  ta 
expel  the  Vandals  and  Suevi  from  Spain.  He  was  assas- 
sinated by  one  of  his  officers  at  Barcelona  in  415  A.i>. 
See  Muratori,  "Annali  d'ltalia." 

Atayde.    See  Ataide. 

Atch'i-son,  (David  R.,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Fayette  county,  Kentucky,  in  1807,  removed  in  1830 
to  Missouri.  He  was  appointed  in  1841  to  fill  an  unex- 
pired term  in  the  United  States  Senate,  of  vs^hich  he 
continued  a  member  till  1855.  He  at  first  acted  with 
the  Benton  wing  of  the  Democratic  party,  but  soon  after 
embraced  the  extreme  views  of  Calhoun.  In  the  troubles 
attending  the  organization  of  the  territory  of  Kaitsas  in 
1854,  '55,  and  '56,  he  not  only  lent  his  countenance  to  the 
outrages  committed  by  armed  men  from  Missouri,  by 
which  the  free-soil  voters  of  Kansas  were  driven  from 
the  polls,  but  also  took  an  active  part  in  those  civil  dis- 
turbances and  conflicts  in  that  territory,  which  may  be 
said  to  have  foreshadowed  the  war  of  the  great  rebellion. 

A'te,  [Gr.  'Ar??,]  a  personage  of  classic  mythology, 
was  said  to  have  been  a  daughter  of  Eris,  (Discord,)  or, 
according  to  Homer,  of  Jupiter.  She  was  called  the 
goddess  of  evil,  or  the  goddess  that  avenges  crimes. 

A-te-nuFfus  or  Afe-nulph,  written  also  Ate- 
nolphe,  became  Prince  of  Beneventum  by  conquest 
about  900  A.D.,  before  which  he  was  Count  or  Prince  of 
Capua.  He  died  in  910,  leaving  two  sons,  Landulphus 
and  Atenulphus,  who  reigned  jointly.  They  defeated 
the  vSaracens  on  the  Liris  in  916,  and  subjected  nearly  all 
Apulia.    Atenulphus  II.  died  about  940  A.D. 

See  GiANNONE,  "Storia  civile  del  Regno  di  Napoli." 

Atenulphus  II.  of  Beneventum,  reigned  jointly  with 
his  brother  Landulphus.  He  waged  war  against  the  Sa- 
racens, who  were  driven  out  of  Italy  in  916.  Died  in  933. 

Atha-Ben-Hakim.    See  Al-Hakem-1bn-Atta. 

Athaji  or  Athadschi.    See  Atajfe. 

A-thaFa-ric  or  A-thaFiic,  [Lat.  AthalarFcus,]  a 
Gothic  prince,  a  son  of  Euthelric  or  Eutharic,  and  a 
grandson  of  Theodoric  I.,  reigned  nominally  over  the 
Gothic  kingdom  of  Italy  (his  mother  being  regent)  from 
526  until  534  A.D.,when  he  died,  aged  eighteen. 

Ath-a-lFah,  [Heb.  rrSn;? ;  Fr.  Athalie,  t'tt']e^[ 
Queen  of  Judah,  a  daughter  of  Ahab,  King  of  Israel,  and 
the  notorious  Jezebel.  She  was  married  to  Jehoram, 
King  of  Judah,  and  became  a  zealous  patron  of  idolatry. 
At  the  death  of  her  son  Ahaziah,  she  usurped  the  throne, 
and  murdered  all  the  males  of  the  royal  family  except 
Joash,  by  whose  adherents  she  was  killed  about  878  B.C. 
The  history  of  Athaliah  forms  the  subject  of  one  of  Ra- 
cine's most  admired  tragedies.  (See  II.  Kings  viii.  18, 
26,  and  xi.  ;  II.  Chronicles  xxii.  and  xxiii.) 

AtlFa-mas,  [Gr.  'A(?a//af,]  a  mythical  person,  was  a 
son  of  iF^olus,  and  a  brother  of  Sisyphus  and  Salmoneus. 
He  married  Nephele,  and  afterwards  Ino,  a  daughter  of 
Cadmus.  It  is  said  that  he  became  insane  and  killed 
his  son.    (See  Ino.) 

Atha-Melik.    See  Ata-Malek. 

A-thaii-a-giFdus  [Fr.  Athanagilde,  i'tt^nS'zh^ld'] 
became  king  of  the  Spanish  Visigoths  in  554  a.d.  by  the 
aid  of  the  emperor  Justinian.  He  fixed  his  court  at  To- 
ledo, where  he  died  in  567  a.d.  His  daughter  Brunehaut 
was  married  to  Siegbert,  King  of  Austrasia,  and  her  sis- 
ter Galswinda  to  King  Chilperic. 

See  Mariana,  "  Historia  general  de  Espana." 

A-than'a-ric,  an  able  chief  of  a  tribe  of  Visigoths 
who  inhabited  Dacia,  made  a  treaty  of  peace  about  370 
A.D.  with  the  emperor  Valens,  against  whom  he  had 
waged  war  several  years.  He  failed  in  an  effort  to  resist 
a  horde  of  wild  Huns  who  rushed  like  a  torrent  from  the 
north  in  376  A.D.    Died  in  381. 

Athanase.    See  Athanasius. 

Athanasio,  a-ti-na'se-o,  or  Atanasio,  (Don  Pedro,) 
a  Spanish  painter  and  excellent  colorist,  born  at  Granada 
in  1638,  was  a  pupil  of  Alonzo  Cano.    Died  in  1688. 

Athanasius,  ath-a-na''she-us,  [Gr.  'Mavuctog;  Fr. 
Athanase,  t'tt'ntz';  It.  Atanasio, l-ta-n3.''se-o,]  Saint, 
an  illustrious  Greek  Father  and  pillar  of  the  Church,  was 
born  at  Alexandria  about  296  a.d.  He  was  a  pupil  and 
secretary  of  the  archbishop  Alexander.  He  attended  in 
325  A.D.  the  famous  Council  of  Nice,  in  which  he  dis- 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  ii,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (^[^^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ATHANJSIUS 


198 


ATHENAGORAS 


tinguished  himself  by  his  eloquence  and  zeal  against  the 
doctrine  of  Arius.  In  the  next  year  he  was  elected 
Archbishop  of  Alexandria  by  the  clergy  and  the  people. 
It  is  said  that  he  refused  to  obey  an  order  which  Con- 
stantine  the  Great  issued  in  331,  to  restore  Arius  to 
communion.  Having  been  accused  of  sacrilege  and 
other  crimes  by  his  enemies,  he  was  summoned,  in  334  or 
335  A.D.,  before  a  council  at  Tyre,  which  condemned 
him  without  proof  He  was  exiled  to  Treves  by  Con- 
stantine,  at  whose  death  (337)  he  was  restored  to  his  see 
by  the  favour  of  Constantine  II.  The  Arians  prevailed 
in  the  Council  of  Antioch,  341  A.D.,  and  were  patronized 
by  the  emperor  Constantius.  Athanasius  was  again 
deposed,  and  retired  to  Rome,  where  he  was  cordially  re- 
ceived by  the  bishop  Julius,  and  found  many  friends. 
In  347  his  cause  and  doctrines  were  approved  by  the 
Co  incil  of  Sardica,  and  in  349  he  returned  in  triumph 
to  Alexandria.  He  was  considered  the  leader  of  the 
orthodox  party,  who  were  sometimes  called  Athanasians. 

Athanasius  is  commended  for  the  fortitude  with  which 
he  endured  long  persecution,  and  the  firmness  with  which 
he  defended  the  faith  against  imperial  power  and  pre- 
sented himself  as  a  barrier  against  despotism.  His  in- 
fluence and  reputation  were  so  great  that  Constantius 
did  not  venture  to  use  open  violence  against  him.  but  by 
artful  and  indirect  means  he  procured  his  condemnation 
at  the  Council  of  Milan,  355  a.d.  Athanasius  then  found 
a  safe  refuge  among  the  anchorites  of  Upper  Egypt, 
where  he  remained  six  years  and  composed  several 
works.  On  the  death  of  Constantius,  361  A.D.,  he  was 
restored  to  his  office.  He  was  exiled  by  Julian  (362) 
and  by  Valens,  (367  ;)  but  he  passed  his  last  five  years  in 
the  possession  of  his  see,  and  died  in  373  A.D. 

Among  his  most  important  works  are,  a  "  Discourse 
on  the  Incarnation,"  "  Five  Books  against  Arius,"  a 
"  Discourse  against  the  Greeks  or  Gentiles,"  a  "  Disputa- 
tion {b^iiikmroq)  with  Arius  in  the  Council  of  Nice," 
"  Epistles  to  Serapio,"  "An  Apology  to  the  Emperor 
Constantius,"  and  an  "Apology  for  his  own  Flight." 
His  style  is  clear,  simple,  and  forcible.  His  character 
appears  to  have  been  a  rare  combination  of  genius,  wis- 
dom, practical  ability,  courage,  and  discretion. 

It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the  Athanasian 
Creed,  which  was  a  standard  of  orthodoxy  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  was  not  composed  by  this  Athanasius,  to  whom  it 
was  formerly  ascribed. 

See  Heraiant,  "Vie  d'Athanase,"  1671  ;  Mohler,  "Athanasius 
der  Grosse,"  1827;  Socrates,  "  Historia  Ecclesiastica ;"  Sozomen, 
"Historia  Ecclesiastica;"  E.  Renaudot,  "  Hisloire  des  Patriarches 
d'A'.exandrie,"  1713  ;  Photius,  "  Blbliotheca  " 

Athanasius,  Bishop  of  Ancyra  in  360  a.d.,  was  a 
strenuous  advocate  of  the  Nicene  Creed  against  the 
Eunomians  and  others.    Died  about  372  A.D. 

Athanasius,  presbyter  of  Alexandria,  of  which  city 
he  was  a  native,  lived  about  450  a.d. 

Athanasius,  a  jurist  of  Emesa,  in  Syria,  lived  in  the 
sixth  century. 

Athanasius,  Bishop,  was  elevated  to  the  see  of 
Naples  in  877  by  his  brother  Sergius,  duke  of  that  city, 
whom  he  afterwards  conspired  against,  put  out  his  eyes 
and  delivered  him  a  captive  to  Pope  John  VIII.,  and 
took  possession  himself  of  the  dukedom. 

See  GiANNONE,  "Storia  civile  del  Regno  dl  Napoli." 

Athanasius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  attained 
that  dignity  in  1289,  and  abdicated  in  13 10. 

Athanasius  called  the  Rhetorician,  was  born  at 
Constantinople  (or,  according  to  some  authorities,  in 
Cyprus)  about  1552.  He  removed  to  Paris,  where  he 
died  in  1663,  leaving  several  Greek  works,  among  which 
is  "The  Delight  of  the  Soul,  etc.,"  (1639,)  and  a  "Com- 
pendium of  Moral  Philosophy,"  (1641.) 

A''the-as,  a  warlike  and  prudent  king  of  Scythia,  lived 
about  350  B.C.  and  waged  war  against  Philip  of  Macedon. 

Athelard.'  See  Adelard. 

Atheling.    See  Edgar  Atheling. 

Ath'el-stan^  more  correctly  .ffithelstan  or  Ethel- 
stan — gth-el-stan^,  written  also  Adelstan  and  Edel- 
stan,  one  of  the  wisest  and  ablest  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
kings,  born  about  895  A.D.,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Edward 
the  Elder,  and  a  grandson  of  Alfred  the  Great.  He 
succeeded  his  father  in  925,  and  soon  after  annexed  to 


his  kingdom  Northumbria,  which  had  been  ruled  by  Sig- 
tric  or  Sithric,  a  Danish  chief  In  934  he  invaded  Scot- 
land. Among  the  important  events  of  his  reign  was  a 
great  victory  which  he  gained  in  937  a.d.  at  Brunenburg, 
Brunsbury,  or  Brunford,  over  an  army  of  Danes,  Scots, 
Picts,  etc.,  led  by  Anlaf,  (a  son  of  Sigtric,)  and  by  Con- 
stantine of  Scotland.  His  power  exceeded  that  of  any 
previous  Anglo-Saxon  king.  He  reigned  over  all  the 
island  except  Cumbria,  Wales,  Cornwall,  and  Scotland, 
which  were  tributary  to  him.  His  liberality,  and  respect 
for  laws,  learning,  and  religion,  are  commended  by  Wil- 
liam of  Malmesbury.  He  died  without  issue  in  941,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Edmund. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England,"  chap.  ii. ;  Freeman,  "Nor- 
man Conquest,"  vol.  i.  chap.  ii. 

A-the'na,  [Gr.  'Mr]vr]  or  'kdrjva,'\  the  goddess  of  wis- 
dom, one  of  the  great  divinities  of  the  Greek  mythol- 
ogy, was  fabled  to  have  sprung  in  full  armour  from  the 
head  of  Jupiter.  She  presided  over  agriculture,  inven- 
tions, sciences,  laws,  and  industry,  and  was  the  reputed 
creator  of  the  olive-tree.  She  was  the  great  national 
divinity  of  the  Athenians,  whose  capital  derived  its 
name  from  her.  Athena,  sometimes  called  Pallas  Athena, 
corresponds  to  the  Minerva  of  the  Romans.  (See  Mi- 
nerva.) 

Athenaeus,  ath-a-nee'us,  [Gr.  'Adf^vatog ;  Fr.  Athe- 
NEE,  t'ta'na',]  a  Peripatetic  philosopher,  born  at  Seleu- 
cia,  in  Cilicia,  lived  about  50  B.C.  He  was  a  party  leader 
in  his  native  city,  and  was  intimate  with  Lucius  Murena, 
who  conspired  against  Augustus  in  22  B.C.  He  was  ar- 
rested on  this  account,  but  was  released  because  there 
was  no  proof  against  him. 

Athenaeus,  the  author  of  an  extant  Greek  work  on 
Military  Engines,  addressed  to  Marcellus,  (probably  the 
conqueror  of  Syracuse.)  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  con- 
temporary of  Archimedes. 

Athenasus,  an  eminent  physician,  the  founder  of  the 
medical  sect  of  "  Pneumatici,"  was  born  in  Cilicia,  at  Tar- 
sus or  Attalia,  probably  in  the  first  century  after  Christ. 
He  practised  at  Rome  with  success,  and  wrote  many 
works,  of  which  only  small  fragments  remain.  The  name 
of  his  sect  is  derived  from  Trvsviia,  spirit,  an  active  prin- 
ciple which  they  considered  a  fifth  element. 

Athenaeus,  a  distinguished  Greek  litterateur  and  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Naucratis,  in  Egypt,  flourished  about 
200  A.D.  Little  is  known  of  his  life,  except  that  he  became 
a  resident  of  Rome,  and  wrote  or  compiled  an  interest- 
ing work  entitled  AsnrvoaocpLGTat,  "  The  Banquet  of  the 
Learned,"  or,  perhaps,  "  The  Contrivers  of  Feasts,"  which 
is  extant.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue,  and  purports  to  be 
a  description  of  a  banquet  given  by  Laurentius  or  Laren- 
sius,  a  noble  Roman,  to  a  number  of  eminent  men,  among 
whom  was  Galen.  It  is  an  immense  mass  of  anecdotes, 
criticisms,  facts  in  natural  history,  and  extracts  from  the 
works  of  about  seven  hundred  poets,  dramatists,  histo- 
rians, etc.,  and  derives  its  value  chiefly  from  these  ex- 
tracts from  authors  whose  works  are  lost.  As  a  work 
of  art  it  has  little  merit ;  but  it  affords  much  information 
about  the  private  life  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  gives 
proof  of  great  antiquarian  research. 

A  good  edition  of  Athenaeus  was  published  by  W.  Din- 
dorf,  Leipsic,  3  vols.,  1827. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Gr^ca  :"  Schoei.l,  "  Histoire  de  la 
Litterature  Grecque  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  vol.  iii.,  (1803  ;)  "Black- 
vyfood's  Magazine,"  vol.  iv.,  (1S18.) 

Athenaeus,  a  Greek  epigrammatic  poet  mentioned 
by  Diogenes  Laertius.  Two  of  his  epigrams  are  found 
in  the  Greek  Anthology. 

Ath-e-nag'o-ras,  fGr. ' kdrivayopag ;  Fr.  Ath^nagore, 
t^ta'nt'goR',]  an  ancient  physician  to  whom  is  ascribed 
an  extant  unedited  Latin  treatise  on  the  Pulse  and  Urine. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  before  the  Christian  era. 

Athenagoras,  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Athens, 
was  converted  to  Christianity  in  the  second  century,  and 
wrote  "An  Apology  for  the  Christians,"  which  is  still 
extant.  It  was  addressed  to  Marcus  Aurelius,  or,  as 
some  say,  to  Hadrian  and  Antoninus.  He  also  left  an 
extant  treatise  in  defence  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Resui- 
rection.  His  works  have  considerable  literary  merit,  nnd 
are  highly  esteemed  in  other  respects.  They  have  been 
translated  into  English  by  David  Humphreys.  Athenag- 


a.  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;     h,  ^,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  fi,  y,  sJiort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon*. 


ATHENAGORE 


199 


ATKINSON 


oras  has  been  accused  of  alloying  Christianity  with  Pla- 
tonic philosophy. 

See  Neander,  "History  of  the  Christian  Church." 

s  Athenagore.    See  Athenagoras. 
Athenais.    See  Eudocia. 

Athenas,  fta'nas'',  (Pierre  Louis,)  a  Frenchman 
distinguished  for  his  efforts  to  improve  agriculture,  com- 
merce, and  the  useful  arts,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1752. 
He  opened  a  manufactory  of  sulphuric  acid  at  Nantes, 
invented  a  plough  which  was  much  used,  discovered  the 
thi-mines  of  Piriac,  and  wrote  treatises  on  agriculture, 
rural  economy,  etc.  He  introduced  and  naturalized  the 
Guinea  grass,  [Paiiicum  alt  is  simian,)  which  is  valuable 
for  pasture  or  fodder.    Died  in  1829. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Athenee.  See  ATHENi*:us. 
Athenion.    See  Aristion. 

A-the''ni-on,  ['A0;?vi(jv,]  a  famous  Greek  encaustic 
painter,  born  at  Maronea,  in  Thrace,  lived  about  320  B.C., 
and  was  a  pupil  of  Glaucion  of  Corinth.  He  is  said  to 
have  exxelled  Nicias,  compared  with  whom  he  was  more 
austere  in  colouring.  Among  his  works  were  "  Ulysses 
detecting  Achilles  in  a  female  dress,"  and  a  "  Groom 
breaking  in  a  horse."  Pliny  expresses  the  opinion  that 
he  would  have  surpassed  all  men  in  painting  if  he  had 
not  died  young. 

See  Pliny,  "  Natural  History." 

Athenion,  a  Greek  comic  poet  of  the  middle  comedy, 
from  whose  play  "  The  Samothracians"  we  have  a  long 
extract  in  Atheuceus. 

Athenion  or  Athe'nio,  a  leader  of  the  insurgents 
in  a  servile  war  in  Sicily,  is  said  to  have  been  a  Cilician 
by  birth.  He  was  defeated  by  the  consul  Manius  Aquil- 
lius,  who  killed  Athenion  with  his  own  hand,  in  102  B.C. 

See  DiODORUS  Siculus,  "Fragments." 

Athenion,  a  Greek  physician,  mentioned  by  Soranus 
as  being  a  follower  of  Erasistratus,  lived  probably  be- 
tween 2G0  B.C.  and  100  a.d. 

A-then'o-cles  [Gr. ' kdrjvoKlri^l  of  Cyzicus,  a  commen- 
tator upon  Homer,  is  spoken  of  by  Athenaeus  as  a  better 
critic  of  Homer's  poems  than  Aristarchus.  Another 
Athenocles  is  mentioned  by  Athenaeus  as  an  excellent 
engraver,  and  embosser  of  drinking-cups. 

Athenodore.    See  Athenodorus, 

A-then-o-do'rus,  [Gr.  ' Mrivodupog ;  Fr.  Atheno- 
dore, t'ti^no'doR',]  a  Greek  statuary,  was  a  native  of 
Arcadia  and  a  pupil  of  Polycletus  the  elder.  He  was 
particularly  successful  in  representing  women  of  rank. 
He  flourished  about  350  B.C. 

Athenodorus,  one  of  the  three  sculptors  of  the 
celebrated  group  of  "Laocoon  and  his  Sons,"  was  a  son 
of  Agesander  of  Rhodes.    (See  Agesander.) 

Athenodorus,  a  Greek  physician,  who  was  probably 
a  contemporary  of  Plutarch.  He  wrote  a  work  "  On 
Epidemic  Diseases,"  (not  extant.) 

Athenodorus,  [Fr.  Athenodore,]  a  Stoic  philoso- 
pher, called  Canani'tes,  (from  Cana,  in  Cilicia,  the  birth- 
place of  his  father,)  was  born  at  Tarsus.  He  was  proba- 
bly the  person  whom  Cicero  calls  Athenodorus  Calvus, 
("Ad  Atticum,"  xvi.)  He  taught  at  Apollonia,  where 
Octavius  appears  to  have  taken  lessons  from  him,  and 
afterwards  removed  to  Rome.  His  influence  over  Oc- 
tavius, before  and  after  he  became  emperor,  tended  to 
restrain  him  from  excessive  severity.  Among  the  lost 
works  attributed  to  Athenodorus  is  a  treatise  against  the 
"  Categories"  of  Aristotle.    He  died  aged  eighty-two. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius;  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grsca." 

Athenodorus  surnamed  Cordyl'io,  of  Tarsus,  a 
Stoic  philosopher,  was  keeper  of  the  great  library  of 
Pergamus.  He  removed  to  Rome,  where  he  lived  in 
the  same  house  with  Cato  Uticensis  until  his  death. 

Athenodorus  of  ^nos,  a  Greek  rhetorician,  taught 
at  Athens  between  150  and  200  a.d. 

Athenodorus  of  Teos,  a  Greek,  who  performed  on 
the  harp  at  the  marriage  of  Alexander  the  Great  and 
Statira  in  324  B.C. 

Ath'er-stone,  (Edwin,)  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Nottingham  about  1788,  was  the  author  of  "Abradates 
and  Panthea,"  (1821,)  "The  Last  Days  of  Herculaneum," 
and  "The  Fall  of  Nineveh,"  (1828,)  which  are  highly 


commended.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Edinburgh  Re- 
view." 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine,"  vol.  xxvii.,  and  "  Edinburgh  Re- 
view," vol.  xlviii. 

Ath'er-tpn,  (Charles  G.),  an  American  Democratic 
politician,  son  of  Charles  H.  Atherton,  was  born  at  Am- 
herst, New  H^impshire,  in  1804.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1822.  In  1837  he  was  elected  to  Congress,  and 
the  next  year  introduced  a  series  of  resolutions,  which 
passed  the  House  of  Representatives,  requiring  that  all 
petitions  or  papers  relating  in  any  way  to  the  subject  of 
slavery  should  be  laid  on  the  table  without  being  de- 
bated, printed,  or  referred.  These  resolutions  formed 
the  basis  of  the  famous  "gag-law,"  in  the  repeal  of  which 
John  Quincy  Adams  won  immortal  renown.  In  1843 
Atherton  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  and 
re-elected  in  1852.    Died  in  1853. 

Atherton,  (Humphrey,)  a  major-general  in  New 
England,  much  employed  in  negotiations  with  the  In- 
dians, came  from  England  to  Dorchester,  Massachusetts, 
in  1650.    Died  in  1653. 

Athias,  a-tee'is,  (Isaac,)  a  Spanish  Jew  and  writer, 
lived  at  Amsterdam  about  1600-20. 

Athias,  (Rabbi  Joseph,)  an  eminent  Jewish  printer 
of  Amsterdam,  published  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible 
(1661  and  1667)  which  were  highly  esteemed.  He  was  pre- 
sented with  a  gold  chain  by  the  States-General  for  these 
services.  The  majority  of  modei-n  editors  of  the  Bible 
have  followed  the  text  of  Athias.    Died  in  1700. 

Athlone,  Earl  of.    See  Ginkel. 

Atia,  a''she-a,  the  mother  of  the  Roman  emperor  Au- 
gustus, was  a  daughter  of  M.  Atius  Balbus  and  Julia, 
the  sister  of  Julius  Caesar.  She  is  praised  for  the  care 
and  wisdom  with  which  she  educated  her  son.  Died  in 
43  B.C. 

Atienza  Calatrava,  a-te-§n'th§,  ka-lS-tRi'vl,  (Mar- 
tin,) a  Spanish  painter,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Aca- 
demy of  Seville,  lived  about  1660. 

A-til-i-gi'nus,  a  Roman  jurist,  who  lived  in  the  first 
century  of  our  era.    His  works  are  cited  in  the  Digest. 

A-til'i-us,  a  freedman  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  chiefly 
famous  for  an  amphitheatre  for  gladiators  which  he 
erected  near  Fidenae,  but  so  slightly  that  it  fell  when 
filled  with  spectators,  in  27  A.D.,  and  from  twenty  to 
fifty  thousand  persons  are  said  to  have  been  killed  and 
wounded.    He  was  banished. 

Atilius,  (Caius  and  Marcus,)  Roman  decemviri  in 
216  B.C. 

Atilius,  (Lucius,)  was  tribune  of  the  people,  311  B.C. 

Atilius,  (Lucius,)  a  quaestor,  216  B.C.,  fell  at  Cannae. 

Atilius,  (Lucius,)  commanded  the  Roman  garrison 
at  Locri,  215  B.C. 

Atilius,  (Lucius,)  praetor  in  197  B.C. 

Atilius,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  jurist  in  the  second  cen- 
tury B.C. 

Atilius,  (Lucius,)  surnamed  Sapiens,  a  Roman  jurist, 
lived  between  200  and  150  B.C. 

Atilius,  (Marcus,)  an  early  Latin  comic  poet,  whose 
period  is  unknown.  His  works  are  not  extant.  Cicero 
calls  him  a  very  rugged  poet, — poeta  ditrissimits. 

At'kins,  (PIenry,)  a  Boston  navigator,  who  in  nume- 
rous trading  voyages  to  Davis  Straits,  between  1729  and 
1758,  explored  much  of  the  coast  of  Labrador.  A  brief 
account  of  his  observations  is  published  in  the  "  Massa- 
chusetts Historical  Collections." 

At'kins,  (John,)  born  at  Plaistow,  Essex,  in  England, 
entered  the  navy  as  surgeon  about  1703.  He  served  in 
various  parts  of  the  world,  and  published  an  interesting 
work  entitled  "Voyage  to  Guiana,  Brazil,  and  the  West 
Indies,"  (1737,)  and  "The  Navy  Surgeon,  or  a  Practical 
System  of  Surgery,"  (1737.) 

Atkins,  (Richard.)    See  Atkyns. 

Atkins,  (Robert,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
born  in  Somersetshire  about  1625.  He  preached  at 
Exeter,  and  was  ejected  for  nonconformity  in  1662.  Died 
in  1685. 

At'kin-son,  (Benjamin  Andrew,)  an  English  Pres- 
byterian minister,  preached  in  London  about  1715-35, 
and  wrote  against  Popery. 

Atkinson,  (Henry,)  an  English  mathematician,  born 
I  near  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  about  1786.    He  contributed 


e  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Y.,  gtcttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


ATKINSON 


200 


ATT  ALUS 


to  die  Ladies'  and  Gentlemen's  Diaries,  and  was  one  of 
the  editors  of  the  "Newcastle  Magazine."  Died  in  1831. 

At'kin-son,  (Henry,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
North  Carolina  about  1780.  Having  in  1820  been  made 
a  brigadier-general,  he  commanded  the  Western  Army  at 
the  battle  of  Bad  Axe,  in  which  he  defeated  the  Indians 
under  Black  Hawk,  August  2,  1832.    D^?d  in  1842. 

Atkinson,  (Theodore,)  a  chief-justice  of  New 
Hampshire,  born  at  New  Castle  in  1697  5  died  in  1779. 

Atkinson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
Latin  poet,  was  rector  of  Islip,  where  he  died  in  1639. 
He  left  in  manuscript  a  Latin  tragedy,  entitled  "Man," 
("  Homo.") 

At'kin-son,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  about 
1800,  lived  in  Glasgow.    Died  in  1833. 

Atkinson,  (Thomas  Witlam,)  an  English  artist  and 
traveller,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1799.  He  painted  land- 
scapes, passed  about  seven  years  in  the  exploration  of 
Siberia,  and  published  "  Oriental  and  Western  Siberia, 
a  Narrative  of  Seven  Years'  Explorations  and  Adven- 
tures," etc.,  (1858,)  and  "Travels  in  the  Regions  of  the 
Upper  and  Lower  Amoor,"  (i860.)    Died  in  1861. 

At'kyns,  (John  Tracy,)  an  English  lawyer,  who  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1732.  Pie  was  appointed  cursitor 
baron  of  the  exchequer  in  1755.  "  Reports  of  Cases 

argued  and  determined  in  Chancery  from  1736  to  1754" 
are  considered  good  authority. 

See  Foss,  "Judges  of  England,"  vol.  viii. 

Atkyns  or  At'kins,  (Richard,)  an  English  gentle- 
man, born  in  Gloucestershire  about  1615,  raised  a  troop 
of  horse  for  the  king  in  the  civil  war.  In  a  work  "  On 
the  Origin  and  Growth  of  Printing,"  (1664,)  he  attempted 
to  deprive  Caxton  of  the  credit  of  introducing  printing 
into  England.    (See  Caxton.)    Died  in  1677. 

Atkyns,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer  and 
judge,  a  son  of  Edward  Atkyns,  who  was  a  baron  of  the 
exchequer,  was  born  in  Gloucestershire  in  1621.  He  was 
knighted  at  the  coronation  of  Charles  II.,  and  appointed 
a  judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  in  1672.  Re- 
fusing to  be  subservient  to  the  designs  of  the  corrupt 
court,  he  resigned  or  was  removed  in  1680.  After  the 
revolution  which  dethroned  James  II.  he  was  appointed 
chief  baron  of  the  exchequer  in  1689.  Among  his  works 
are  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Power  of  dispensing  with  Penal 
Laws,"  (1689,)  and  a  "Defence  of  Lord  Russell's  Inno- 
cency,"  (1689.)    Died  in  1709. 

See  Foss,  "Judges  of  England,"  vol.  vii. 

Atkyns,  (Sir  Robert,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
near  London  in  1646  or  1647.  He  devoted  much  time 
to  researches  in  the  history  and  antiquities  of  the  county 
in  which  he  resided,  and  is  chiefly  known  as  author  of 
"  The  Ancient  and  Present  State  of  Glo'stershire,"  (1712.) 
Died  in  1711. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

At-lan'ti-des,  [Gr.'ArAavrHef,]  the  daughters  of  Atlas, 
were  also  called  Hesperides,  Pleiades,  and  Hyades. 

AtTas,  [Gr. 'ArAar,!  a  mythical  personage  represent- 
ed by  the  ancient  poets  sometimes  as  bearing  the  heavens 
on  his  shoulders,  and  sometimes  as  the  keeper  of  the 
pillars  which  support  the  heavens.  Hesiod  calls  him  a 
son  of  Japetus  and  Clymene.  In  later  traditions  the 
conception  of  his  superhuman  personal  existence  is 
blended  or  lost  in  the  idea  of  the  celebrated  mountain 
in  Northern  Africa.  By  some  he  was  represented  as  the 
leader  of  the  Titans  in  their  war  against  Jupiter. 

At'lee,  (Samuel  John,)  an  American  colonel  in  the 
Revolutionary  war,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1738,  was 
elected  to  Congress  from  Lancaster  in  1780.  Died  in 
1786. 

Atnian,  at'man,  or  Atm^,  It'mS,  {i.e.  "soul,")  called 
also  Paramatm^,  ("  first  or  great  soul,")  the  Sanscrit 
name  of  the  great  soul  of  the  world,  [in  German,  Welt- 
seele,]  alluded  to  in  the  Vedas  as  the  original  or  pri- 
mary principle  of  nature.  This  idea  is  regarded  as  the 
germ  or  commencement  of  the  Brahminical  philosophy. 

See  KoppEN,  "Religion  des  Buddha," p.  29. 

Atondo  y  Antillon,  a-ton'do  e  an-t^l-y6n',  (Don 
IsiDORO,)  a  Spanish  admiral  who  explored  Lower  Cali- 
fornia and  planted  a  colony  there  about  1682. 

See  Venegas,  "  Noticias  de  la  California." 


A-tos'sa,  [Gr.  "Aroaaa,]  a  daughter  of  Cyrus,  King  of 
Persia,  became  successively  the  wife  of  Cam'jyses,  of 
Smerdis  the  Magian,  and  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  over  whom 
she  had  great  influence.  She  was  the  mother  of  Xerxes, 
According  to  Hellanicus,  she  was  the  first  person  who 
wrote  epistles. 

Atree^  See  Atreus. 

A'treus,  [Gr.  'Arpevg;  Fr.  Atri^e,  t'.tRa',]  an  ancient 
king  of  Mycenae,  supposed  to  have  been  a  son  of  Pelops 
and  Hippodami^a,  and  father  or  grandfather  of  Agamem- 
non and  Menelaus.  The  crimes  and  calamities  of  Atreus 
and  his  family  afforded  a  prolific  subject  for  the  Greek 
poets  and  fabulists. 

A-tri^des,  [Gr.  'ATpel6T]g,]  plural  A-tri'dae,  ['Arpadai,] 
a  patronymic  from  Atreus.  In  the  singular  it  commonly 
designates  Agamemnon,  but  in  the  plural  the  two  bro- 
thers Agamemnon  and  Menelaus.  (See  Homer's  "  Iliad," 
passim.) 

A-tro-91-a'nus,  [Ger.  pron.  i-trot-se-a^nus,]  (Joan- 
nes,) a  German  poet  and  botanist,  lived  at  Bale  and  Col- 
mar  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  a 
teacher  of  languages,  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  Latin  poem  on  "The  Peasants'  War  of  1525,"  ("De 
Bello  Rustico  Anni  1525,")  (published  in  1528,)  and  an 
edition  of  ^^imilius  Macer  "On  the  Virtues  of  Plants." 

A-trop'a-tes,  [Gr.  'ArpoTrarT?^,]  a  Persian  general, 
commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Arbela,  331  B.C., 
and  was  made  Satrap  of  Media  by  Alexander,  330  B.C. 

Atropos.    See  Parc.-e. 

Afsyll,  (Richard,)  an  English  engraver,  worked  for 
Henry  VIII.  about  1510-40. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting  in  England." 

At'ta,  (Titus  Quintius,)  a  Roman  dramatic  poet, 
wrote  comedies  about  80  B.C.  Some  fragments  of  his 
writings  have  been  preserved. 

At-ta-gi'nus,  [Gr.  'ArTajlvor,]  a  Theban,  who  fa- 
voured the  cause  of  Xerxes  on  his  invasion  of  Greece, 
480  B.C. 

Attaignant,  t'tan'ySN  ,  (Pierre,)  a  French  printer 
of  Paris,  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  printed  music 
with  movable  types.    Died  in  1556. 

See  Panzer,  "Annales  Typographicae. " 

Attaignant,  de  1',  deh  iS^tan'ySN',  (Gabriel 
Charles,)  a  French  versifier,  born  in  Paris  in  1697,  be- 
came a  canon  of  Rheims.  His  works,  comprising  songs, 
madrigals,  etc.,  were  published  in  four  volumes  in  1 757. 
Died  in  1779. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Attaji.    See  Atajee. 
Attale.    See  Attalus. 

At'ta-li'a-tes  or  Attali'ata,  [Gr.  'ATraTietaTrjc,]  (Mi- 
chael,) compiled  a  compendium  of  law  at  Constanti- 
nople in  the  eleventh  century. 

At'ta-lus,  [Gr.  'Arralog;  Fr.  Attale,  t'ttK,]  a  gene- 
ral of  Philip  of  Macedon,  was  uncle  of  Cleopatra  whom 
Philip  married  in  337  B.C.  At  a  feast  which  followed 
this  event,  he  offended  the  prince  Alexander  by  a  wish 
or  prayer  for  a  legitimate  successor  to  the  throne.  Atta- 
lus insulted  or  injured  Pausanias,  who  complained  to 
King  Philip ;  but  the  latter,  from  favouritism  to  Attalus, 
refused  to  give  him  redress.  This  offence  is  supposed 
to  have  caused  the  assassination  of  Philip  by  Pausanias. 
Attalus  was  put  to  death,  by  order  of  Alexander,  in  336 
or  335  B.C. 

See  DiODORUs  Siculus,  book  xvi. ;  Justin,  books  ix.  and  xii. 

Attains,  [Fr.  Attale,]  an  officer  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  and  brother-in-law  of  Perdiccas,  was  one  of  the 
officers  left  with  part  of  the  army  in  Bactria  in  328  B.C., 
and  accompanied  Alexander  in  the  invasion  of  India  in 
326.  In  321  he  commanded  the  fleet  of  Perdiccas  in 
his  expedition  against  Ptolemy  of  Egypt.  He  was  de- 
feated in  Pisidia  and  taken  prisoner  by  Antigonus  in  320 
B.C.    His  ultimate  fate  is  unknown. 

See  /Vrrian's  "Anabasis." 

Attains  I.,  King  of  Pergamus,  succeeded  his  cousin 
Eumenes  I.  in  241"  B.C.  He  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  Gauls,  who  had  occupied  Galatia.  Before  the 
year  226  he  had  made  himself  master  of  all  Asia  Minor 
west  of  Mount  Taurus.  As  ally  of  the  Romans  and 
/Etolians,  he  waged  war  against  Philip  of  Macedon  be- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohsacre;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ATTAL  US 


20 1 


ATTERBURT 


tween  210  and  204.  In  200  B.C.  he  met  at  Athens  a  Ro- 
man embassy  and  formed  another  league  against  PhiHp. 
He  died  in  197  B.C.,  and  left  the  throne  to  his  son 
Eumenes  II.  Attains  had  the  reputation  of  a  just  and 
wise  ruler,  and  a  very  able  general. 

See  PoLYBius,  "  History,"  books  iv.,  v.,  x.,  xvi.,  xvii.,  xviii.,  xxii., 
etc.  ;  Livv,  books  xxvi.,  xxvii.,  xxviii.,  xxix.,  xxxi.,  etc. 

Attains  II.,  surnamed  Philadel'phus,  was  the  sec- 
ond son  of  Attalus  I.,  and  was  born  about  220  B.C.  He 
began  to  reign  in  159,  before  which  he  had  served  Eu- 
menes II.  as  general  and  ambassador  to  Rome.  He 
adhered  constantly  to  the  Roman  alliance,  and  waged 
war  against  Prusias  of  Bithynia.  He  founded  Philadel- 
phia in  Lydia,  and  patronized  the  arts  and  sciences. 
Horace  is  supposed  to  refer  to  the  flourishing  finances  of 
Attalus  in  the  phrase  Attalicis  conditionibus,"  (Ode  I. 
"Ad  Mascenatem.")    Died  in  138  B.C. 

See  PoLYBius,  "  History,"  books  iii.,  xxii.,  xxv.,  xxx.,  xxxi. ;  Livv, 
books  XXXV.,  x.xxvii.,  xxxviii.,  xlii.,  xlv. 

Attalus  III.,  (Philome'tor,)  a  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  son  of  Eumenes  II.,  ascended  the  throne  in 
138  B.C.,  soon  after  which  he  murdered  many  of  his 
friends  and  relatives.  Having  been  seized  with  remorse, 
he  abandoned  public  affairs,  and  applied  himself  to  sculp- 
ture, and  to  gardening,  on  which  he  wrote  a  book.  He 
died  in  133  B.C.,  having  made  a  will,  in  which  the  Roman 
people  were  appointed  his  heirs. 

See  DioDORUs  Siculus,  book  xxiv. ;  Justin,  book  xxxvi. 

Attalus,  a  mathematician,  who  wrote  a  commentary 
on  the  "  Phenomena"  of  Aratus,  is  supposed  to  have 
flourished  between  162  and  128  B.C. 

Attalus,  a  Greek  physician  of  the  second  century, 
A.D.,  was  a  pupil  of  Soranus,  and  belonged  to  the  mecli- 
cal  school  called  Mcthodici,  (or  "Methodists.") 

Attalus,  an  Athenian  sculptor  of  unknown  date,  who 
executed  the  statue  of  the  Lycian  Apollo  at  Argos. 

Attalus, an  able  and  eloquent  Stoic  philosopher,  who 
lived  at  Rome  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  He  was  a  teacher 
of  the  philosopher  Seneca,  who  speaks  of  him  in  very 
favourable  terms  and  quotes  a  number  of  his  sayings. 
He  was  banished  through  the  influence  of  Sejanus. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grsca." 

Attains,  a  rhetorician  or  sophist,  who  appears  to 
have  been  a  native  of  Laodicea.  He  settled  at  Smyrna, 
and  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  AurcHus. 

Attalus,  a  presbyter  of  the  Christian  Church  in  the 
fourth  century,  was  condemned  for  Arianisni,  381  A.D. 

Attalu-s,  (Flavius  Priscus,)  probably  an  Ionian  by 
descent,  was  a  pagan  by  birth,  and  was  converted  to 
Arianism.  He  was  prefect  of  Rome  when  that  capital 
was  taken  by  Alaric  in  409  A.D.,  and  was  then  proclaimed 
emperor  by  Alaric  in  place  of  Floiiorius.  He  refused  the 
offer  of  Ilonorius  to  be  his  associate  in  the  empire.  In  410 
he  was  deposed  by  Alaric,  and  in  416  A.D.  was  banished  by 
Ilonorius  to  Lipari.    His  subsequent  fate  is  not  known. 

See  SozoMEM,  "  Historia  Ecclesiastica ;"  Gibbon,  ''Decline  and 
Fall  of  the^Roman  Empire." 

Attalus,  (Martyn,)  one  of  the  Christians  put  to  death 
at  Lugdunum  (Lyons)  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius, 
177  A.D. 

Attameemee,  (or  Atamimi,)  an  Arabian  physician, 
a  native  of  Jerusalem,  gave  much  attention  to  pharmacy 
and  materia  medica,  and  wrote  numerous  medical  works. 
He  was  living  in  Egypt  in  980  A.D. 

Attar,  at-"taR',  or,  as  he  was  usually  called,  Co'gi 
(or  Kho'jah)  Attar,  was  nominally  the  vizier,  but  really 
the  ruler,  of  Ormuz  when  Albuquerque  first  arrived  before 
that  city.  He  successfully  resisted  until  his  death  all 
the  attempts  of  the  Portuguese  to  take  Ormuz.  He  is 
believed  to  have  died  in  15 13. 

Attardi,  it-taRMee,  (Bonaventura,)  an  Italian  theo- 
logian and  Augustine  monk  of  the  early  part  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  became  in  1738  provincial  of  his  order  in 
Sicily  and  Malta. 

See  Mazzuciielli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Attar-Fereed-ed-Deeii,  (or  Ferid-ed-Din,)  it-tlr' 
fSh-reed'  ed-deen',  a  celebrated  Persian  poet,  who  was 
distinguished  for  his  profound  knowledge  of  the  Soofee 
doctrines,  was  born  in  a  suburb  of  Nishapoor,  in  Kho- 
rassan,  about  1120  a.d.  He  wrote  forty  poetical  works, 
one  of  which  was  published  at  Paris'  in  1819,  with  a 


memoir.    He  is  said  to  have  been  killed  by  a  soldier  oi 
Jengis  Khan,  1221  a.d.,  aged  one  hundred  and  one  years. 

Attavante,  at-ti-vin^ta,  (Fiorentino,)  an  Italian 
illuminator  and  miniature-painter  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  worked  principally  at  Venice. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Paintmg  in  Italy." 

Attavanti,  at-ta-vdn'tee,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  friar  and 
eloquent  preacher,  born  at  Florence  in  1419,  entered  the 
order  of  Servites,  of  which  he  wrote  an  account,  (1727.) 
Among  his  works  are  "  Compendium  of  Canonical  Law," 
("Breviarium  totius  Juris  canonici,"  1479,)  and  an  "Ex- 
position of  the  Penitential  Psalms,"  (1479.)  Died  in  1499. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

At-te'ius  surnamed  Pr^texta'tus,  a  grammarian, 
and  afterwards  called  Philologus,  He  lived  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  first  century  B,C.,  and  taught  many  noble 
Roman  youths,  and  prepared  a  Compendium  of  Roman 
Flistory  for  the  use  of  Sallust. 

Atteius  Capito.    See  Capito. 

Attendolo,  at-ten''do-lo,  or  Attendoli,  at-tgn'do-lee, 
(Dario,  da-ree''o,)  an  Italian  jurist  of  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  born  in  the  duchy  of  Ferrara. 
Among  his  works  is  a  treatise  on  the  Duel,  ("Duello 
diviso  in  tre  Libri,"  1560.) 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Attendolo,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  priest, 
distinguished  as  a  poet  and  a  linguist,  was  born  at  Capua. 
In  the  dispute  respecting  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered," 
he  defended  that  poet  against  the  Academy  della  Crusca. 
He  left,  besides  other  workd|i"  Rime,"  ("Poems,"  1584.) 
Died  in  1592. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Atterbom,  St'ter-bom',  (Peter  Daniel  Amadeus,) 
a  Swedish  poet,  born  in  East  Gothland,  or  in  the  county 
of  Christianstadt,  in  1790.  He  became  German  teacher 
of  Prince  Oscar  about  1820,  and  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Upsal  in  1828.  For  many  years  he  edited  the  "  Poetical 
Almanac,"  ("  Poetisk  Kalender.")  His  poems  are  ad- 
mired for  grace  and  harmony.  He  first  introduced  son- 
nets and  octaves  into  Swedish  poetry.  Among  his  chief 
works  is  "The  Seers  and  Poets  of  Sweden,"  a  contribu- 
tion to  literary  history,  in  five  or  six  volumes,  the  first 
of  which  appeared  in  1841.    Died  in  1855. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  Brockhaus, 
"Conversations-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Atterbury,  at'ter-ber-e,  (Francis,)  Bishop  of  Roches- 
ter, an  eminent  English  writer,  pulpit  orator,  and  politi- 
cian, born  at  Milton,  near  Newport-Pagnell,  in  Bucking- 
hamshire, in  March,  1662,  was  a  son  of  Lewis  Atterbury, 
noticed  below.  He  entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in 
1680,  published  a  Latin  version  of  Dryden's  "Absalom 
and  Achitophel"  in  1682,  and  married  Miss  Osborn,  a 
relative  of  the  Duke  of  Leeds,  in  1690,  In  1691  he  be- 
came lecturer  at  Saint  Bride's  Church,  London,  Having 
distinguished  himself  as  an  eloquent  preacher,  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  chaplains  to  WiHiam  and  Mary 
about  1694.  He  was  the  chief  author  of  a  witty  answer 
to  Bentley's  "Dissertation  on  the  Epistles  of  Phalaris," 
(See  Bentley  and  Boyle.)  Fie  wrote,  in  answer  to  Dr. 
Wake,  "The  Rights,  Powers,  and  Privileges  of  an  Eng- 
lish Convocation  stated  and  vindicated,"  (1700.)  He 
was  ap'pointed  chaplain  to  Queen  Anne  in  1702,  Dean  of 
Carlisle  in  1704,  and  Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1713. 

Atterbury  was  a  zealous  Tory  and  Jacobite,  and  was 
intimate  with  Pope  and  Swift.  He  was  an  able  and  adroit 
politician,  and  would  probably  have  been  primate  if 
Queen  Anne  had  survived  a  few  years  longer.  It  is  re- 
ported that  on  her  death  (i  714)  he  urged  Bolingbroke  to 
proclaim  the  Pretender  James.  He  was  committed  to  the 
Tower  in  1722  on  a  charge  of  being  engaged  in  plots  to 
restore  the  Stuart  family,  and  was  convicted  by  the  House 
of  Lords  in  May,  1 723.  The  sentence  was  deprivation  of 
all  his  offices  and  benefices  and  banishment  for  life.  He 
retired  to  France,  and  continued  to  be  a  favourite  agent 
and  adviser  of  the  Pretender.  He  died  in  Paris  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1732.  Four  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  pub- 
lished in  1740. 

According  to  Boswell,  Dr.  Johnson  reckoned  Atter- 
bury's  sermons  among  the  best  in  the  language  for  style. 
"  He  is  the  glory  of  our  English  orators,"  says  Dod- 
dridge.   "In  his  writings  we  see  language  in  its  strictest 


e  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (gi^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ATTERBURT 


202 


ATTWATER 


purity  and  beauty."  Among  his  works  is  an  eloquent 
vindication  of  Luther,  in  "An  Answer  to  some  Considera- 
tions on  the  Spirit  of  Martin  Luther  and  the  Original 
of  the  Reformation,"  (1687.) 

See  his  "Epistolary  Correspondence,"  4  vols.,  1783,  edited  by  J. 
Nichols;  Thomas  Stackhouse,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Francis 
Atterbury,"  1727;  Hali.am,  "Constitutional  History;"  Swift, 
"Four  Last  Years  of  the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne;"  Kippis,  "  Bio- 
graphia  Britannica." 

Atterbury,  (Lewis,)  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1631.  He  became  rector  of  Milton  or  Middleton 
Keynes,  in  Bucks,  about  1657,  and  retained  that  living 
under  the  reign  of  Charles  IL  Three  of  his  sermons  were 
published.   He  was  drowned  near  his  residence  in  1693. 

Atterbury,  (Lewis,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  the  parish  of  Newport-Pagnell  in  1656.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  priest's  orders  in  1681,  and  elected  preacher  at 
Highgate  Chapel,  London,  in  1695.  ^^'^s  one  of  the 

chaplains  of  Queen  Anne,  who  presented  him  to  the  rec- 
tory of  Shepperton.  He  also  obtained  the  rectory  of 
Hornsey  in  1719,  but  continued  to  preach  at  Highgate 
until  his  death.  Two  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  pub- 
lished in  1699  and  in  1703.    Died  in  1731. 

Attei'bury,  (Luffman,)  an  English  composer  of  glees 
and  songs,  born  about  1740;  died  in  1800. 

At'ti-cus,  [Gr.  'Arn/cof,]  a  philosopher  of  the  Platonic 
school,  lived  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  about  175 
A.D.    His  works  are  not  extant. 

Atticus,  an  Athenian,  who  was  raised  from  indigence 
to  affluence  by  the  discovery  of  a  vast  treasure  in  his 
house  or  land  near  Athens/  He  was  the  father  of  He- 
rodes  Atticus  the  rhetorician.  (See  Herodes.)  He  an- 
nounced his  discovery  of  the  treasure  to  the  emperor 
Nerva,  who  answered  that  he  might  use  it  or  abuse  it  as 
he  pleased.  He  left  by  will  an  annuity  of  one  mina*  to 
each  citizen  of  Athens. 

Atticus,  a  native  of  Sebaste,  in  Armenia,  was  irregu- 
larly chosen  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  406  A.D.,  in 
place  of  John  Chrysostom,  who  had  been  deposed.  Pope 
Innocent  refused  to  recognize  the  appointment ;  but  they 
were  finally  reconciled.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  Faith 
and  Virginity,"  ("De  Fide  et  Virginitate,")  not  extant. 
Died  in  425  A.D. 

Atticua,  (DiONYSius,)  a  Greek  rhetorician,  a  native 
of  Pergamus,  lived  at  Athens  about  50  B.C. 

Atticus,  (Titus  Pompon ius,)  a  Roman  philosopher 
and  scholar,  celebrated  for  his  benevolence,  moderation, 
and  mediatorial  services,  was  born  in  109  n.C.  He  be- 
longed to  the  equestrian  order,  and  inherited  an  ample 
fortune.  On  becoming  heir  to  his  uncle  Quintus  Cajcilius, 
he  assumed  that  name,  or  prefixed  it  to  his  original 
name.  During  the  civil  war  between  Sulla  and  Marius, 
he  retired  to  Athens,  where  he  remained  many  years,  and 
gained  the  favour  of  the  Athenians  by  his  munificence. 
He  returned  to  Rome  about  65  B.C.,  and  devoted  his 
time  chiefly  to  literature,  adhering  constantly  to  a  reso- 
lution, which  he  had  formed  in  early  life,  to  accept  no 
public  office  and  to  maintain  neutrality  between  hostile 
parties.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Cicero,  with  whom 
he  corresponded  regularly  for  many  years,  and  was  on 
friendly  terms  with  Caesar,  Pompey,  Brutus,  Mark  An- 
tony, and  Augustus.  When  Brutus  was  forced  to  fly 
from  Italy,  Atticus  sent  him  a  million  sesterces.t  He 
also  afforded  relief  to  the  wife  of  Antony  in  her  adversity. 
In  philosophy  he  favoured  the  sect  of  Epicurus.  He 
wrote  an  epitome  of  Roman  history,  entitled  "Annales," 
comprising  a  period  of  seven  centuries,  and  several  other 
works,  which  are  all  lost.  He  was  distinguished  for  fine 
literary  taste,  and  excelled  in  the  cotnposition  of  epi- 
grammatic inscriptions.  His  daughter  Pomponia  (or 
Attica)  was  married  to  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa,  the  chief 
minister  of  Augustus,  and  his  granddaughter  Vipsania 
Agrippina  was  the  wife  of  the  emperor  Tiberius.  Many 
letters  of  Cicero  to  Atticus  are  extant.    Died  in  32  B.C. 

See  "Life  of  Atticus,"  by  Cornelius  Nepos;  Cicero,  "Letters 
to  Atticus,"  in  Middleton's  "Life  of  Cicero;"'  Huli.emann,  "Dia- 
tribe in  T.  Pomponium  Atticum,"  ;  Drumann,  "  Geschichte 
Roms;"  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 


*  About  twenty  dollars  of  our  money  ;  but,  owing  to  the  compara- 
tive scarcity  of  the  precious  metals  in  that  age,  its  relative  value  was 
probably  very  mucli  greater. 

t  About  forty  thousand  dollars.    See  preceding  note. 


Afti-la,  [Gr.  'Arn'Aaf ;  in  German,  Etzel,  dt'sel,  or 
Atzel,  dt'sel,]  a  famous  heathen  conqueror,  chief  of 
the  Huns,  surnamed  THE  Scourge  of  God,  was  a 
son  of  Mundzuk  or  Mundzuccus.  About  432  A.D.  he 
succeeded  his  uncle  Roas  as  king  of  the  nomadic  Huns 
who  lived  in  Pannonia  and  north  of  the  Danube.  In 
a  few  years  he  extended  his  domination  over  vScythia 
and  Germany.  He  invaded  the  Roman  Empire  in  447 
or  446,  defeated  the  armies  of  Theodosius,  Emperor  of 
the  East,  in  several  battles,  and  obliged  him  to  treat  for 
peace,  which  he  obtained  by  the  payment  of  an  annual 
tribute.  Marcian,  who  began  to  reign  in  450  A.D.,  re- 
fused to  pay  tribute,  and  said,  in  reply  to  the  messengers 
of  Attila,  "I  have  gold  for  my  friends,  and  iron  for  my 
enemies."  The  haughty  barbarian  sent  to  the  Emperors 
of  the  East  and  West  a  message  in  these  terms  :  "Attila, 
my  master  and  thy  master,  commands  thee  to  prepare 
without  delay  a  palace  for  his  reception."  He  demanded 
in  marriage  Honoria,  a  sister  of  the  emperor  Valentinian, 
but  the  latter  refused  his  consent.  Having  led  a  large 
army  (estimated  at  seven  hundred  thousand  men)  into 
Gaul,  he  was  defeated  in  a  great  battle  by  the  Roman 
general  Aetius  and  Theodoric  the  Visigoth  near  Chalons- 
sur-Marne  in  451  A.D.  Soon  after  this  date  he  invaded 
Italy,  the  northern  part  of  which  he  ravaged  without 
meeting  any  resistance.  The  emperor  sued  for  peace  by 
the  mediation  of  Pope  Leo-  I.,  who,  in  a  personal  inter- 
view with  Attila,  induced  him  to  grant  a  truce  and  to  retire 
from  Italy.  He  died  in  Hungary  in  453  or  454  A.D.,  and 
was  buried  by  night.  It  is  reported  that  he  said  "  the 
grass  could  not  grow  where  his  horse  had  passed."  He 
left  sons  nained  Ellac  and  Dengezic  ;  but  they  did  not 
inherit  his  abilities  nor  his  power.  Attila  is  the  hero  of 
many  old  German  legends  and  songs,  especially  of  the 
Niebelungen-Lied. 

See  Jornandes,  "De  Rebus  Geticis;"  "Attila,"  an  epic  poem, 
(with  notes,)  by  Rev.  William  Herbert,  1828  ;  Gibbon,  "  Decline 
and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  chaps,  xxxiv.  and  xxxv. ;  Calli- 
machus  Experiens,  "  De  Gestis  Attilse,"  1541  ;  Juvencus  C^lius 
Callanus,  "Vita  Attila,"  1502;  J.  M.  Barbieri,  "La  Guerra 
d' Attila,"  1568;  Fessler,  "Attila  Kbnig  der  Hunnen,"  1794;  Ame- 
DEE  Thierry,  "Attila  dans  les  Gaules,"  1852:  Link,  "  Ueber 
Attila  Konig  der  Hunnen,"  1780;  Dr.  Hoefer,  in  the  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Attinghausen,  it'ting-how'zen,  a  Swiss  patriot,  who 
was  landamman  of  the  canton  of  Uri  in  1306,  and  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  federation  between  the  cantons  of 
Uri,  Schwitz,  and  Unterwalden. 

Attiret,  t'te'ra',  (Claude  Franqois,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Dole  in  1728,  worked  at  Dijon.  By  order 
of  the  magistrates  of  Dole,  he  executed  a  statue  of  Louis 
XVI.,  the  first  erected  to  that  prince.    Died  in  1804. 

Attiret,  (Jean  Denis,)  a  French  painter  and  Jesuit, 
an  uncle  of  the  precechng,  born  at  Dole  in  1702.  He 
worked  at  Lyons  and  Avignon.  In  1737  he  went  to 
Pekin,  in  consequence  of  a  request  from  the  French  mis- 
sionaries that  an  artist  should  be  sent  to  them.  He 
gained  the  favour  of  the  emperor  Kien-Lung,  by  whom 
he  was  employed  in  his  palace  for  many  years,  Kien- 
Lung  also  required  the  artist  to  accompany  him  in  a 
military  expedition  and  to  paint  the  battles  or  pomps 
which  he  witnessed,  Attiret,  from  motives  of  policy, 
conformed  to  the  Chinese  taste,  and  used  water-colours, 
or  distemper,  because  the  emperor  disliked  the  gloss  of 
oil-colours.    Died  at  Pekin  in  1768. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Attius,  (L.,)  a  Roman  poet.    See  Accius. 

At'to  or  Ac'to  [Fr.  Atton,  t't6N'|  Ver-gel-li-en'- 
sis,  a  French  monk,  who  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Vercelli 
about  924  A.D,    His  works  were  published  in  1768, 

At'tucks,  (Crispus,)  a  half-breed  Indian  or  mulatto, 
was  the  leader  of  the  mob  in  the  fray  known  as  the 
"  Boston  Massacre,"  which  occurred  on  the  5th  of  March, 
1770.  He  was  killed  by  the  soldiers  on  that  occasion, 
and  was  buried  with  much  pomp. 

Attumonelli,  at-too-mo-neKlee,  (Michele,)  a  dis- 
tinguished physician  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Andria, 
in  Naples,  1753,  in  1799  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  had 
an  extensive  practice.    Died  in  1826. 

Att'wa-ter,  (Russell,)  a  soldier  of  the  American 
Revolution,  born  in  Cheshire,  Connecticut,  in  1762.  In 
the  attack  of  the  British  on  New  Haven  he  was  wounded 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fSr,  fSll,  fit;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  mocn; 


ATT  WOOD 


203 


AUBERT 


and  ]eft  for  dead  on  the  field,  but  recovered.  After  the 
defeat  of  Napoleon  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo  he  was 
employed  by  the  friends  of  the  emperor  to  purchase  a 
tract  of  land  in  Northern  New  York,  which  they  in- 
tended as  a  retreat  for  the  emperor  should  he  succeed  in 
making  his  escape.  But  on  hearing  that  Napoleon  had 
given  himself  up  to  the  English,  the  project  was  aban- 
doned.   Died  in  1851. 

Att'wood  or  Afwood,  (Thomas,)  an  English  judge, 
who  officiated  in  the  island  of  Dominica.  He  wrote 
"  Observations  on  the  true  Method  of  Treatment  of  the 
Negro  Slaves  in  the  British  West-India  Islands,"  (1790,) 
and  "  History  of  Dominica,"  (1791.)  Died  in  prison  for 
debt  in  1 793. 

Attwood  or  Atwood,  (Thomas,)  a  distinguished 
English  composer  for  the  church,  theatre,  etc.,  born 
in  1767,  was  a  favourite  pupil  of  Mozart,  at  Vienna.  He 
was  patronized  by  the  Prince  of  Wales,  (George  IV.,) 
an:I  was  elected  organist  of  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral  in 
1795,  and  composer  to  the  chapel  royal  in  1796.  His 
anthem  "  The  King  shall  rejoice,"  composed  for  the 
coronation  of  George  IV.,  was  much  admired.  He  be- 
came organist  to  the  chapel  royal  in  1837.  He  com- 
posed a  number  of  popular  songs  and  glees,  among 
which  are  "The  Harp's  Wild  Notes,"  and  *'  In  this  Fair 
Vale,"  several  operas,  and  a  grand  anthem  for  the  coro- 
nation of  William  IV.,  (1830.)    Died  in  1838. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Afwell,  (George,)  of  Cambridge,  England,  published 
a  "Defence  of  Astrologv,"  (1660,)  and  "  The  Faithful 
Surveyor,"  (1662.)  Sir  fsaac  Newton  is  said  to  have 
expressed  a  favourable  opinion  of  him. 

At'wood  or  Att'wood,  (George,)  an  English 
mathematician,  eminent  as  a  lecturer  on  natural  philoso- 
phy, was  born  in  1745.  He  became  a  Fellow  and  tutor 
of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  In  1784  he  published  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Rectilinear  Motion  and  Rotation  of 
Bodies,"  which  was  highly  esteemed,  and  contained  the 
first  account  of  the  machine  since  called  by  the  name  of 
"Atwood,"  by  which  the  laws  of  simply  accelerated  mo- 
tion are  verified.  His  "Dissertation  on  the  Construction 
of  Arches"  (1801)  is  a  work  of  much  merit.  Accord- 
ing to  some  writers,  he  was  financial  private  secretary  to 
William  Pitt.    Died  in  1807. 

Atwood,  (William,)  an  English  constitutional  and 
political  writer,  was  chief-justice  of  New  Vork,  and  lived 
about  1700.  He  wrote,  besides  several  historical  or 
legal  treatises,  a  tract  entitled  "The  Superiority  and  Di- 
rect Dominion  of  the  Crown  of  England  over  the  Crown 
and  Kingdom  of  Scotland,"  (1704,)  which  was  answered 
by  James  Anderson. 

Atzel.    See  Attila. 

Aubais.d',  do'biV,  (Charles  de  Barchi— deh  btR'- 
she',)  a  French  marquis,  noted  as  a  patron  of  literature, 
was  born  near  Nimes  in  1686.  He  published,  with  Leon 
Menard,  "  Documents  for  the  History  of  France,  with 
Notes,"  ("  Pieces  fugitives  pour  servir  a  I'Histoire," 
etc.,  3  vols.,  1759.)    Died  in  1777. 

Auban.    See  Saint-Aup^an. 

Aubenton.    See  Daukenton. 

Auber,  o^baiR',  a  French  economist,  born  at  Rouen 
about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  He  wrote 
several  able  reports  on  Agriculture,  Internal  Improve- 
ments, etc.,  as  secretary  of  the  "  Societe  d'Emulation" 
of  Rouen.    Died  in  1804. 

Auber,  (Daniel  FRANgois  Esprit,)  an  eminent 
French  composer,  born  at  Caen  in  January,  1784,  was  a 
pupil  of  Cherubini.  His  first  production,  "  Le  Sejour  mili- 
taire,"  (1813,)  was  coldly  received,  but  his  comic  opera 
"La  Bergcre  Chatelaine"  (1820)  was  a  complete  suc- 
cess. In  partnership  with  Eugene  Scribe,  he  composed 
the  music  of  many  popular  operas  which  are  remarkable 
for  originality  and  grace.  His  opera  "La  Muette  de 
Portici,"  (1828,)  commonly  known  as  "  Masaniello,"  had 
great  success,  and  is  called  his  master-piece.  "  In  this  are 
found,"_  says  M.  Denne-Baron,  "situations  strong  and 
impassioned,  rendered  with  admirable  energy,  mtances 
which  the  composer  has  seized  with  exquisite  delicacy, 
displaying  all  the  riches  of  a  style  diversified  to  infinity." 
Among  his  most  popular  comic  operas  are  "  Era  Dia- 
volo,"  (1830,)  "Lestocq,"  (1834,)  "Le  Domino  noir," 


(1837,)  and  "  Haydec,"  (1847.)  He  v.  as  chosen  a  member 
of  the  Institute  in  1826.  He  was  for  a  time  director 
of  music  in  the  chapel  of  Napoleon  III.    Died  in  1871. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "  Noiivelle 
Blograpliie  Generale  ;"  Lomenie,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains. " 

Auberi.    See  Aubery. 

Auberlen,  oW'ber-len,  (Samuel  Gottlob,)  a  Ger- 
man composer  and  organist,  born  near  Stuttgart  in  1758. 
He  composed  symphonies,  cantatas,  duets,  and  music 
for  various  instruments.  About  1816  he  founded  a  school 
for  choral  singing.  He  was  afterwards  organist  of  the 
cathedral  of  Ulm.    Died  about  1830. 

See  S.  G.  Auberlen,  "  Leben,  RIeinungen,"  etc.  ;  Fetis,  "Bio- 
graphie Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Aubernon,  o'beR'noN',  (Philippe,)  a  French  admin- 
istrator, born  in  1757,  became  commissary  of  the  army 
of  the  Alps  in  1792.    Died  in  1832. 

Aubert,  o'baiR^,  (Anais,  t'na',)  Mademoiselle,  a 
French  dramatic  artist,  born  about  1800. 

Aubert,  (Augustin,)  a  French  painter,  born  in  1781, 
lived  at  Marseilles.  He  painted  history,  landscapes,  and 
portraits  with  success.    Died  in  1832. 

Aubert,  (Esprit,)  born  near  Avignon,  was  the  author 
of  a  dictionary  in  Latin,  with  synonyms  in  Greek  and 
French,  published  at  Lyons  in  1613. 

Aubert,  Father,  a  Jesuit,  who  lived  in  the  first 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  wrote  several  works, 
principally  on  natural  history. 

Aubert,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  physician  and  medical 
writer,  born  at  Dormans,  in  Champagne,  in  1695  ;  died 
about  1760. 

Aubert,  (Francois,)  a  canon  and  religious  writer,  born 
at  Paris  in  1709.  He  wrote  a  "Refutation  of  Belimire 
and  his  Oracles" — i.e.  Rousseau,  Voltaire,  etc.,  (1768.) 

Aubert,  (Francois  Hubert,)  a  French  advocate, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1720.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Stanislas 
Lecszinski,  King  of  Poland  and  Duke  of  Lorraine, "(1769,) 
which  was  praised  by  Freron.  He  passed  about  twenty- 
five  years  in  the  service  and  at  the  court  of  this  prince. 

Aubert,  (Guillaume,)  an  eloquent  French  advocate, 
born  at  Poitiers  about  1534.  He  published  a  fragment 
called  a  "  History  of  the  Wars  waged  by  the  Christians, 
under  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  against  the  Turks,"  (1559.) 
Died  about  1600. 

Aubert,  (Jacques,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Ven- 
dome.  He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Plague,"  ("  Libellus 
de  Peste,"  1571,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1586. 

Aubert,  (Jean  Louis,)  ABB^,a  French  poet,  fal^ulist, 
and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1731,  was  for  many  years 
editor  of  the  "  Petitcs  Affiches,"  a  journal,  which  he 
made  popular.  In  1756  he  published  a  collection  of 
fables,  which  had  a  European  reputation.  Voltaire 
found  in  them  philosophy  adorned  with  the  charms  of 
wit,  and  wrote  to  Aubert,  "You  have  the  merit  of  style 
and  of  invention  in  a  department  where  every  thing 
seemed  to  have  been  said.  You  have  placed  yourself 
beside  La  Fontaine."  His  drama,  in  verse,  on  "The 
Death  of  Abel,"  was  less  successful.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  French  literature  in  the  College  Royal, 
Paris,  in  1773.    Died  in  1814. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Aubert,  (Michel,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in  Paris 
in  1700.  He  engraved  some  works  of  Rubens  and  of 
several  Italian  masters,  also  portraits  of  painters  for 
D'Argenville's  work,  "The  Lives  of  the  Most  Famous 
Painters."    Died  in  Paris  in  1757. 

Aubert,  (Pierre,)  a  literary  French  lawyer,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1642.  He  published  a  new  and  enlarged  edi- 
tion of  Richelet's  "  Dictionary  of  the  French  Language," 
(3  vols.,  1728,)  and  presented  to  the  city  of  Lyons  a  large 
library  for  the  public  use.    Died  in  1733. 

Aubert,  (Pierre  FRANgois  Olivier,)  a  violoncellist, 
musical  composer,  and  author  of  a  History  of  Music, 
born  at  Amiens  in  1765. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Aubert,  Saint,  became  Bishop  of  Avranches,  in 
France,  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighth  century.  He 
founded  the  monastery  of  Mont  Saint-Michel,  on  a  high 
rock  in  the  sea,  on  the  coast  of  France. 

Aubert  de  la  Chesnaye  des  Bois,  o'baiR'  deh  It 
shi'ni'da  bwi,  (FRANgois  Alexandre,)  a  French  com- 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,gjcttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AUBERT  204  AUBIGNE 


piler,  born  at  lirnee,  in  Mayenne  or  Maine,  in  1699.  He 
published  "  Historical,  Pliilosophical,  and  Critical  Cor- 
respondence in  answer  to  the  Lcttrcs  Juivcs,^^  (3  vols., 
1739,)  a  "Military  Dictionary,"  and  other  dictionaries; 
also,  "  Critical  Letters  on  the  Romans,  English,  and 
French,"  (1743.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1784. 

Aubert  (or  Gaubert)  de  Puicibot,  5'baiR'  deh 
pwe'se'bo',  a  P'rench  troubadour,  born  in  Limousin,  after 
a  life  of  dissipation  entered  a  monastery.    Died  in  1263. 

Aubert  de  Vertot.    See  Vertot. 

Aubert  de  Vitry,  o'baiR'  deh  ve'tRe',  (Francois 
Jean  Piiiliberf,)  a  French  writer  and  translator,  born 
in  Paris  in  1765.  He  published  in  1792  "  Studies  on  Edu- 
cation," and  wrote  against  the  Jacobins  in  1793.  Dur- 
ing the  republic  and  the  empire  of  Napoleon  he  filled 
several  civil  offices.  He  translated  "  Memoirs  of  Goethe" 
from  the  German,  (1823,)  and  several  works  from  the 
English.    Died  in  1849. 

See  QuERARD,  "La France  Litteraire." 

Aubert  du  Bayet,  5'baiR'du  bl'ya',  (Jean  Baptiste 
Annibal,)  a  French  general,  born  in  Louisiana  in  1759. 
He  fought  under  La  Fayette  for  the  United  States,  and 
was  elected  in  179 1  to  the  French  legislative  assembly,  in 
which  he  acted  with  the  popular  party.  Having  re-entered 
the  army,  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  general  of  division,  and 
in  1793  commanded  at  the  famous  siege  of  Mentz,  which 
he  surrendered  to  the  Prussians.  He  was  minister  of 
war  about  three  months  in  1795,  and  was  ambassador  at 
Constantinople,  where  he  died  in  December,  1797. 

Aubert  du  Petit-Thouars.    See  Du  Petit-Thou- 

ARS. 

Aubertin,  5''beR't3.N^  (Dominique,)  an  adjutant- 
general  in  the  French  army,  and  author  of  "  Memoirs 
on  the  War  of  La  Vendee,"  born  at  Luneville  in  1751  ; 
died  in  1825. 

Aubertin,  (Edme,  §dm,)  a  learned  French  Protestant, 
born  at  Chalons-sur-Marne  in  1595,  became  minister  at 
Charenton,  near  Paris.  He  published  in  1629  "The 
Conformity  of  the  Creed  of  the  Church  with  Saint  Augus- 
tine in  Relation  to  the  Eucharist,"  which  was  received 
with  favour  by  the  Protestants,  and  was  answered  by  the 
great  Arnauld.    Died  in  1652. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Aubert-Roclie,  o'baiR'  rosh,  (Louis,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, graduated  at  Paris  in  1833,  and  passed  some  years 
in  the  service  of  Mehemet  Ali,  Viceroy  of  Egypt.  In 
1839  he  published  a  treatise  "On  the  Plague  and  Ty- 
phus of  the  East,"  in  which  he  argues  that  the  plague  is 
not  contagious. 

Aubery,  5'bRe',  (Antoine,)  a  French  historical  wri- 
ter, born  in  Paris  in  161 6.  He  published  a  "  General  His- 
tory of  Cardinals,"  (5  vols.,  1642-49,)  a  "  History  of  Car- 
dinal Richelieu,"  (1660,)  "Memoires  pour  I'Histoire  du 
Cardinal  de  Richelieu,"  (2  vols.,  1660,)  and  a  "  History 
of  Cardinal  Mazarin,"  (2  vols.,  1695,)  which  Beuchot 
calls  glossed  over  [fanUe)  and  inexact.    Died  in  1695. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Aubery,  (Claude,)  a  French  physician,  who  lived  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  Having  adopted  the  Reformed 
religion,  he  removed  to  Lausanne,  where  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy.  His  works,  on  religious  and  medi- 
cal subjects,  display  great  erudition.    Died  in  1596. 

Aubery,  (Jacques,)  a  French  jurist  and  advocate, 
lived  at  Paris  between  1550  and  1600. 

Aubery,  (Jean,)  physician  to  the  Duke  of  Montpen- 
sier,  was  born  in  the  Bourbonnais  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  He  wrote  several  medical  works, 
and  a  "History  of  the  City  of  Autun." 

Aubery,  (Louis,)  Sieur  du  Maurier,  (mo're-a',)  a 
French  historical  writer  of  the  seventeenth  celitury, 
studied  at  Leyden,  and  travelled  in  the  north  of  Europe. 
His  chief  work  is  "Memoirs  to  illustrate  the  History  of 
Holland  and  the  other  United  Provinces,"  ("Memoires 
pour  servir  a  I'Histoire  de  Hollande,"  etc.,  1680,)  which 
passed  through  many  editions  and  is  praised  for  its 
veracity  and  impartiality.    Died  in  1687. 

Aubespine,  de  1',  deh  lo'bes'p6n^  (Charles,)  Mar- 
quis de  Chateauneuf,  and  Abbe  de  Preaux,  a  French 
diplomatist,  notorious  for  intrigues,  born  in  Paris  in  1580, 
was  a  son  of  Guillaume  de  I'Aubespine.  After  he  had 
served  in  several  foreign  missions,  he  was  appointed 


keeper  of  the  seals  in  1630.  He  is  censured  for  his 
severity  or  injustice  to  Marshals  de  Marillac  and  de 
Montmorency,  at  whose  trial  he  presided.  He  was  de- 
prived of  oflice  and  imprisoned  by  Richelieu  in  1633. 
Died  in  1653. 

Aubespine,  de  1',  (Claude,)  born  about  1508,  was 
secretary  of  state  and  finance  for  a  long  period,  and 
was  employed  by  several  kings  in  important  diplomatic 
missions.  lie  was  one  of  the  ablest  negotiators  of  his 
time.    He  left  a  son  Guillaume.    Died  in  1567. 

Aubespine,  de  1',  (Gabriel,)  a  brother  of  Charles, 
and  grandson  of  Claude,  noticed  above,  was  born  in 
1579.  He  became  Bishop  of  Orleans  in  1604,  and  dis- 
played much  learning  in  several  works,  one  of  which  is 
entitled  "On  the  Ancient  Rites  of  the  Church,"  ("De 
veteribus  Ecclesias  Ritibus,"  1623.)    Died  in  1630. 

Aubespine,  de  r,(MADELEiNE,)  a  daughter  of  Claude, 
and  aunt  of  Gabriel,  was  celebrated  for  her  beauty,  talents, 
and  accomplishments.  She  wrote  some  poetical  and  prose 
compositions,  and  translated  Ovid's  Epistles. 

Aubeterre,  d',  dab'taiR',  (David  Bouchard — boo'- 
shtR^,)  VicoMTE,  a  P'rench  officer,  born  at  Geneva,  of  a 
Protestant  family.  He  became  a  Roman  Catholic,  and 
was  appointed  governor  of  Perigord  by  Henry  IV.  He 
was  killed  at  the  siege  of  L'Isle  in  1598. 

Aubeterre,  d',  (Franqois  d'Esparbes  de  Lussan 
— dgs-ptR'biV  deh  lii'soN^)  Vicomte,  a  French  officer 
who  fought  for  Henry  IV.  in  the  civil  war,  became  a  mar- 
shal of  France  in  1620.    Died  in  1628. 

Aubeterre,  d',  (Joseph  Henri  Bouchard  d'Bspar- 
bez — boo'shtRM§s'pSR'ba^)MARQUis,  a  French  general, 
born  in  17 14,  served  with  distinction  in  several  campaigns, 
became  marechal-de-camp  in  1748  and  lieutenant-general 
in  1758.  He  was  afterwards  ambassador  to  Vienna,  Mad- 
rid, arid  Rome,  and  proved  himself  an  able  negotiator. 
In  1783  he  was  made  marshal  of  France.    Died  in  1788. 

Aubignac,  d',  do'ben''ytk',  (FRANgois  Hedelin — 
had^law',)  Abi5E,  a  mediocre  French  critic  and  dramatist, 
a  grandson  of  Ambroise  Pare,  born  in  Paris  in  1604. 
He  wrote  "Pratique  du  Theatre,"  (1669,)  which,  says  La 
Harpe,  "  is  a  dull  and  tedious  commentary  on  Aristotle  ;" 
"  Zenobie,"  a  tragedy  in  prose,  (1647  ;)  and  epigrams  and 
brocJmres  against  Corneille  and  Menage.    Died  in  1676. 

Aubigne,  d',  (Merle.)    See  D'Aubigne. 

Aubigne,  d',  do'b^n'ya^  (Theodore  Agrippa  — 
t^gRe^pt'',)  a  French  Huguenot  historian,  warrior,  and 
poet,  remarkable  for  his  learning,  wit,  and  audacity,  was 
born  at  Saint-Maury,  in  Saintonge,  in  1550.  Fie  was 
grandfather  of  Madame  de  Maintenon.  It  is  reported  that 
he  translated  the  "  Crito"  of  Plato  in  his  eighth  year.  At 
the  age  of  thirteen  he  was  sent  to  a  college  in  Geneva,  from 
which  he  ran  away  two  years  later.  He  fought  for  the 
Huguenots  in  1567  and  1568,  a  few  years  after  which  he 
entered  the  service  of  Henry  of  Navarre,  who  prized  him 
highly  as  a  partisan  and  companion  in  perilous  adven- 
tures, and  also  employed  him  in  negotiations.  He  some- 
times, however,  offended  Flenry  by  his  bold  sarcasms 
and  epigrams.  In  1586  he  raised  a  regiment  at  his  own 
expense  to  fight  against  the  League.  He  rendered  im- 
portant services  at  the  battle  of  Coutras,  (1587,)  and  was 
intrusted  by  Henry  IV.  with  the  custody  of  Cardinal 
Bourbon,  a  competitor  for  the  crown.  In  1616  he  pub- 
lished the  first  volume  of  his  valuable  History  of  his  own 
Time,  entitled  "Histoire  universelle  depuis  I'An  1550 
jusqu'al'An  1601,"  (3  vols.,  1616-20,)  which  is  his  greatest 
work.  A  sentence  of  death  was  passed  against  him  by 
the  French  court  in  1621,  but  he  had  previously  escaped 
to  Geneva.  The  pretext  for  this  sentence  was  that  he 
had  used  the  materials  of  a  ruined  church  to  repair  a 
fortress.  He  died  at  Geneva  in  1630.  Among  his  works 
are  a  satire  called  "Catholic  Confession  of  Sieur  de 
Sancy,"  "Adventures  of  Baron  de  Foeneste,"  a  satirical 
romance,  (1617-20,)  and  interesting  autobiographic  me- 
moirs, ("  Histoire  secrete  de  T.  A.  d'Aubigne,  ecrite  par 
lui-meme,"  (1729-31.) 

See  M.  A.  Savous,  "Vie  d'Aubigne;"  Bayle,  "Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary  ;"  Davil.a,  "  History  of  the  Civil  Wars  in  France ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Aubigne  de  la  Fosse,  d',  do'b^n'yi'  deh  It  fos,  (Na- 
than,) [called  in  Latin  Albin'eus  or  Albin.^;'us,]  a 
French  physician,  born  near  Pluviers  in  160 1,  was  a  son 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  loig;  h,  b,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fMl,  fdt;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JUBIGNT 


JVBUSSON 


of  Theodore  Agrippad'Aubigne,  (according  to  Beuchot  of 
the  "Biographic  Universelle.")  He  practised  at  Geneva, 
the  citizenship  of  which  he  obtained  in  1627,  and  pub- 
lished "Kibiiotheca  Chemica  Contracta,"  (1654.)  He 
died  at  an  advanced  age. 

Aubigny,  d',  do'ben^ye',  (Robert  Stewart,)  mar- 
shal of  France,  served  under  Charles  VHI.  in  Italy,  and 
was  made  a  marshal  in  1 5 14.    He  died  in  1544. 

Aubin.    See  Saint-Aubin. 

Aubin,  5'b^N',  (N.,)  a  French  Protestant  minister, 
born  at  Loudun  in  the  seventeenth  century.  He  took 
refuge  in  Holland  on  the  repeal  of  the  edict  of  Nantes, 
1685.  His  principal  work  is  "  Histoire  des  Diables  de 
Loudun,"  (1693,)  an  account  of  some  nuns  said  to  have 
been  possessed  by  devils. 

Aublet,  5'bhy,  (Jean  Baptiste  Christophe  Fusee 
—  fii'za.'',)  a  Fi'ench  botanist,  born  at  Salon,  in  Provence, 
in  1720.  He  passed  about  nine  years  (1752-61)  in  the 
Isle  of  France,  and  published  a  list  of  plants  growing 
there.  In  1762  he  was  sent  by  the  government  as  apothe- 
cary-botanist to  French  Guiana,  in  which  he  collected 
many  specimens.  His  greatest  work  is  a  description  of 
these,  with  figures,  "  Histoire  des  Plantes  de  la  Guiane 
Fran9oise,"  (4  vols.,  1775,)  which  was  highly  esteemed. 
It  describes  nearly  four  hundred  new  species.  His  her- 
barium was  purchasedby  Sir  Joseph  Banks.  Died  in  1778. 

See  "Biographie  Medicale  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographle  Generale." 

Aubree,  o'bRa',  (Rene,)  a  French  general,  born  at 
Rennes  in  1763,  was  killed  at  Saragossa  in  1808. 

Aubrey,  aw'bre,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English 
antiquary,  born  at  Easton-Piers,  Wiltshire,  in  March, 
1626,  inherited  several  valuable  estates.  Fie  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford,  and  became  a  diligent  collector  of  lite- 
rary and  antiquarian  materials.  In  1656  he  was  a  member 
of  the  club  of  Commonwealth's  Men,  founded  on  the 
principles  of  Harrington's  "Oceana."  Soon  after  1666 
he  was  reduced  to  poverty  by  law-suits  and  other  causes. 
As  a  writer  he  shows  much  credulity,  particularly  in  his 
"Miscellanies,"  (1696,)  in  which  he  treats  of  omens,  ap- 
paritions, oracles,  knockings,  etc.  Anthony  Wood's  ac- 
count of  Milton  was  transcribed  from  a  manuscript  of 
Aubrey,  who  was  acquainted  with  that  poet.  Died  in  1697. 
He  left  in  manuscript  "The  Natural  History  and  Antiqui- 
ties of  Surrey,"  which  was  published  in  17 19,  and  valuable 
memoirs  of  English  poets,  etc.,  published  in  1813,  under 
the  title  of  "  Letters  written  by  Eminent  Persons  in  the 
Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth  Centuries." 

See  "Memoir  of  John  Aubrey',"  by  John  Britton. 

Aubrey  or  Aw'brey,  (William,)  an  eminent  civil- 
ian, born  in  the  county  of  Brecon,  Wales,  in  1529 
or  1530,  belonged  to  the  same  family  as  the  preceding. 
He  was  appointed  regius  professor  of  civil  law  at  Oxford 
in  1553,  and  afterwards  a  member  of  the  council  of  the 
marches  of  Wales  and  a  master  in  chancery.  He  was 
distinguished  for  wisdom  and  learning.    Died  in  1595. 

See  Tannek,  "  Bibliotheca  Britannico-Hibernlca." 

Aubriet,  6'bRe^4',  (Claude,)  a  French  painter  of 
flowers,  and  an  able  botanist,  born  at  Chalons-sur-Marne 
in  1651.  He  accompanied  Tournefort  to  the  Levant,  and 
on  his  return  was  appointed  painter  to  the  king  at  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes,  He  added  to  the  collection  of  designs 
of  plants  on  vellum  commenced  by  Nicolas  Robert,  de- 
signed the  plates  of  Sebastien  Vaillant's  "  Botanicon  Pa- 
risiensc,"  (1727,)  and  illustrated  Tournefort's  "Elements 
de  Botanique."    Died  in  1743. 

See  Nagi.er,  "AUgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Aubrion,  5'bRe'6N',  (Jean,)  a  French  historian  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  was  a  burgess  of  Metz,  and  wrote  a 
"Chronicle  of  Metz  from  1464 to  1500."  Died  about  1500. 

Aubriot,  5'bReV,  (Hugues,)  a  prevot  (provost)  of 
Paris,  who  fortified  and  drained  that  city  by  subterranean 
channels,  {egouis,)  and,  by  his  strict  police,  made  some 
powerful  enemies,  who  prosecuted  him  for  heresy  and 
other  crimes.  He  was  condemned  and  imprisoned  in 
1 381,  and  liberated  by  a  party  of  insurgents  in  1382.  He 
is  said  to  have  died  the  same  year. 

Aubrussel,  1',  lo'bRii'sgK,  (Ignace.)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  writer,  born  at  Verdun  in  1663  ;  died  in  Spain  in  1730. 

Aubry,  o'bRe',  (Charles,)  a  French  Latin  poet, 
flourished  about  1700, 


Aubry,  (Charles  Louis,)  a  French  economist  and 
writer,  born  at  La  Ferte-Milon  in  1746;  died  in  1817. 

Aubry,  (Claude  Charles,)  a  PVench  general,  born 
at  Bourg-en-Bresse  in  1773.  For  his  services  on  the 
Danube  in  1809  he  was  made  a  general  of  brigade.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  the  construction  of  a  bridge 
across  the  Berezina,  which  saved  the  remains  of  Napo- 
leon's army  retreating  from  Moscow.  He  was  rewarded 
with  the  title  of  count  and  the  rank  of  general  of  division. 
He  was  killed  at  Leipsic  in  1813. 

Aubry,  (Etienne,)  a  successful  French  painter  of  por- 
trait ^nd  gem-e,  born  at  Versailles  in  1745  ;  died  in  1781. 

Aubry,  (Francois,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born  in 
Paris  about  1750,  became  in  1792  a  member  of  the  Con- 
vention, in  which  he  acted  with  the  Plaine.  He  protested 
againstthe  proscription  of  the  Girondists,  May  31,  1793, 
and  was  arrested  by  the  Jacobins.  In  April,  1795,  he 
was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Public 
Safety,  and  succeeded  Carnot  in  the  direction  of  military 
operations.  Among  the  acts  of  his  administration  was 
his  refusal  to  employ  Bonaparte,  who  solicited  a  com- 
mand in  1795.  Aubry  belonged  to  the  party  which  was 
defeated  September  4,  1797,  and  he  was  deported  to 
Guiana.    Died  in  exile  about  1800. 

Aubry,  (Jacques  Charles,)  a  French  jurist,  born  in 
1688  ;  died  in  1739. 

Aubry,  (Jean,)  a  French  alchemist  and  quack  doctor, 
practised  in  Paris  about  1650-60.  According  to  Gui- 
Patin,  he  was  vierus  et  igiiarus  nebtilo,  (an  "arrant  and 
ignorant  knave.") 

Aubry,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  learned  French  Benedict- 
ine, born  near  Epinal  in  1736.  Fie  wrote  "The  Philo- 
sophic Friend,"  ("  L'Ami  philosophique,"  1776,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1809. 

Aubry,  (Jean  Francois,)  physician-in-ordinary  to 
Louis  XVI.  of  France,  was  a  native  of  Luxeuil,  where 
he  died  in  1795.  He  published  a  well-known  work 
called  "The  Oracles  of  Cos,"  (1778.)  He  was  a  great 
admirer  of  Plippocrates. 

Aubry,  (Marie.)    See  Gouges. 

Aubry,  (Philippe  Charles,)  a  French  translator  and 
poet,  born  at  Versailles  in  1744,  was  a  teacher  of  lan- 
guages. He  published  the  "  Wit  of  Addison,"  ("Esprit 
d'Addison,")  a  French  version  of  Goethe's  "Sorrows  of 
Werther,"  (1777,)  and  a  volume  of  lyric  poems,  called 
"Le  Petrarque  Fran9ais,"  (1799.)    Died  in  1812. 

Aubry,  d',  dd^bRe',  or  Aubery,  d',  dob'Re',  (Jean,) 
conmionly  known  as  Abbe  Aubry,  an  ecclesiastic,  after- 
wards a  physician  and  medical  writer  of  considerable 
celebrity,  born  at  Mont])ellier  about  1700. 

Aubry  de  Montdidier,  S'bRe'  deh  moN^de'de-a',  a 
French  knight,  murdered  by  Richard  de  Macaire  in 
137 1.  His  dog  pursued  Macaire  until  the  king  ordered 
that  the  affair  should  be  decided  by  a  combat  between 
the  dog  and  the  suspected  assassin,  who,  having  been 
conquered  in  the  contest,  confessed  his  crime. 

Aubry  du  Boucliet,  ©'bRe'  dliboo'sha'',  a  deputy  of 
the  States-General,  and  originator  of  the  general  regis- 
try of  estates,  was  born  in  1740  at  La  Ferte-Milon,  in 
Aisne. 

Aubry-Lecompte,  6'bRe'  leh  koNt',  (Hyacinthe 
Louis  Victor  Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  designer  and 
lithographer,  born  at  Nice  in  1797,  produced  lithographs 
of  "  The  Holy  Family,"  after  Poussin,  and  of  some  works 
of  Raphael,  among  which  is  the  Sistine  Madonna.  Died 
in  1858. 

AubusEon,  d',  (pRANgois,)  Due  de  Feuillade. 
See  Feuillade. 

Aiibusson,  d',  do''bu's6N',  (Jean,)  a  troubadour  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  was  patronized  by  Frederick  II., 
Emperor  of  Germany. 

See  Mii-LOT,  "Histoire  litteraire  des  Trouljadours." 

Aubusson,  d',  (Jean,)  a  French  writer,  who  lived 
about  1550. 

Aubusson,  d',  (Pierre,)  grand  master  of  the  order 
of  Saint  John  of  Jerusalem,  was  born  of  French  family 
in  1423.  He  entered  that  order  (at  Rhodes)  about  1450, 
and  was  employed  in  important  missions  to  Paris  and 
Rome.  In  1476  he  was  elected  grand  master.  He  for- 
tified Rhodes  and  prepared  for  a  vigorous  defence  against 
Mahomet  II.,  who  besieged  the  city  of  Rhodes  in  1480 


as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  11,  K,  guthiral;  n,  7iasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  t-h  as  in  this. 


ee  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AUCHMUTT 


206 


AUDIFFRET 


with  an  army  of  about  one  hundred  thousand  men.  The 
Turks  were  repulsed  with  great  loss,  after  a  severe  fight, 
in  which  Aubusson  was  wounded  in  several  places.  In 
1 50 1  he  was  chosen  captain-general  of  a  league  of  Chris- 
tian princes  against  the  Moslems,  the  formation  of  which 
had  been  the  great  object  of  his  life.  This  enterprise 
failed,  partly  from  the  jealousies  of  the  allies.  Died  in 
^503- 

See  BouHOURS,  "  Histoire  de  Pierre  d' Aubusson,"  1676;  "  Nou- 
vclle  Biographie  Generale." 

Auchmuty,  i'mu-te,  (?)  [Scotch  pron.  ln'moo-te,] 
(Robert,)  an  eminent  lawyer  of  Massachusetts,  born 
in  the  north  of  Scotland,  settled  in  Boston  early  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  He  published  a  pamphlet  entitled 
"The  Importance  of  Cape  Breton  to  the  British  Nation." 
Died  in  Boston  in  1750. 

Auchmuty,  (Robp:rt,)  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
devoted  himself  to  the  law,  and  in  1768  became  judge 
of  the  court  of  admiralty.  In  1770  he  was  associated 
with  John  Adams  in  the  trial  of  Captain  Preston,  but 
upon  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  sided  with  the  royalists. 
Died  in  England. 

Auchmuty,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Boston  in  1725.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1742, 
studied  divinity  at  Oxford,  and,  on  returning  to  America, 
became  assistant  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  New  York, 
and  afterwards  had  charge  of  all  the  Episcopal  churches 
in  the  city.    Died  in  1777, 

Auchmuty,  a'mu-te,  (?)  (Sir  Samuel,)  a  British  gen- 
eral, a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  New  York  in  1756. 
He  served  in  several  campaigns  against  the  United 
States,  1776-78,  after  which  he  was  employed  about 
twelve  years  in  India.  He  acted  as  adjutant-general  to 
the  army  in  Egypt  in  180 1  and  1802.  Having  obtained 
in  1806  command  of  the  British  troops  in  South  Amer- 
ica, with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  he  took  the 
strongly  fortified  city  of  Montevideo  from  the  Spaniards 
in  1807.  He  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  at 
Madras  in  1810,  and  captured  Java  in  181 1.  In  1813  he 
returned  to  England,  and  became  a  lieutenant-general. 
Died  at  Dublin  in  1822. 

See  "Narrative  of  the  Operations  of  a  Small  British  Force  em- 
ployed in  the  Reduction  of  Montevideo,"  London,  1S07. 

AuckTand,  (George  Eden,)  Earl  of,  a  son  of  Wil- 
liam Eden,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1784.  On  his 
father's  death  in  1814,  he  entered  the  House  of  Lords, 
as  an  adherent  of  the  Whig  party.  In  1834  he  was 
appointed  first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  and  in  1835  sent 
to  India  as  Governor-General.  Among  the  important 
events  of  his  administration  was  the  disastrous  war 
against  the  Afghans,  (1838-39.)  He  was  recalled  in  1842. 
Died  in  1849. 

Auckland,  (William  Eden,)  Lord,  an  English 
diplomatist,  born  about  1750,  was  one  of  three  commis- 
sioners appointed  in  1778  to  negotiate  with  the  revolted 
American  colonies  and  restore  the  British  dominion 
over  them.  In  1785  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
France,  with  which  lie  negotiated  a  commercial  treaty. 
He  ptiblished  "The  Principles  of  the  Penal  Laws," 
(1771,)  a  treatise  "On  the  Population  of  England," 
(1786,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1814. 

Auclere,  o^klaiR^  (Gabriel  Andre,)  a  revolutionist, 
born  in  Argenton,  France,  about  1750,  sought  to  substi- 
tute paganism  for  Christianity.    Died  in  1815. 

Aucour.    See  Barbier  d'Aucour. 

Auda,  ow'da,  (Domenico,)  a  Franciscan  monk  and 
medical  writer,  born  near  Nice  towards  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

Audaeus,  au-dee'us,  [Gr.  kv6aloc^\  or  Au'di-us,  [Gr, 
kvuVoQ ;  Fr.  Audee,  5'da',]  the  founder  of  a  sect  in  the 
fourth  century  A.D.,  was  born  in  Mesopotamia.  Epipha- 
nius  ascribes  his  secession  from  the  church  to  persecu- 
tion which  his  zeal  against  the  luxury  and  vices  of  the 
clergy  had  provoked,  rather  than  to  heterodox  opinions. 

Aude,  6d,  (Jean,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at  or 
near  Apt  in  1755.  He  was  secretary  to  the  celebrated 
Buffon,  and  author  of  several  dramas.  He  is  said  to 
have  written  a  Life  of  Buffon.    Died  in  1841, 

Audebert,  od^baiR',  (Germain,)  a  French  lawyer 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Orleans  in  15 18,  was  the  author 


of  three  Latin  poems  in  praise  of  Venice,  Rome,  and 
Naples,  entitled  "  Venetia,"  (1583,)  "Roma,"  (1585,)  and 
"  Parthenope,"  (1585.)  He  was  decorated  with  the  collar 
of  Saint  Mark  by  the  senate  of  Venice.    Died  in  1598. 

Audebert,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  an  eminent  French 
painter,  engraver,  and  naturalist,  was  born  at  Roche - 
fort  in  1759.  He  first  attained  success  as  a  miniature- 
painter,  and  afterwards  became  an  enthusiastic  student  of 
natural  history.  He  published,  in  1800,  a  "  Natural  His- 
tory of  Apes,  Lemurs,  and  Galcopitheci,"  with  sixty-two 
plates,  designed  and  engraved  by  himself,  and  printed  in 
oil-colours  by  a  new  method  which  he  invented.  The 
description  and  engravings  of  this  work  are  highly  com- 
mended. His  costly  and  splendid  "  History  of  Hum- 
ming-Birds,  Fly-Catchers,  Jacamars,  and  Promerops" 
(i  vol.,  1802)  "is  regarded,"  says  Du  Petit-Thouars, 
"  as  the  most  perfect  work  of  the  kind  which  has  ever 
appeared."  He  died  in  1800,  leaving  unfinished  works 
on  birds,  which  were  edited  by  Vieillot  and  Desray. 

See  "Biographie  Universelle ;"  Le  Bas,  "  Dictionnaire  encyclo- 
pedique  de  la  France." 

Audebert,  Saint.    See  Aubert,  Saint. 
Audee.    See  Aud^us. 

Audefroi  (odTRwaO  the  Bastard,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  troubadours  of  the  Langue  d'Oil  in  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries.  He  is  thought  by  some  to 
have  been  the  inventor  of  the  "  Romance," 

Audenaerde,  Audenarde,  or  Oudenaerde,  van, 
pronounced  alike  vanow-deh-nlr'deh,  (Robert,)  a  Flem- 
ish portrait-painter  and  celebrated  engraver,  born  at 
Ghent  in  1663.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo  Maratta,  many 
of  whose  works  he  engraved.  He  painted  but  few  pic- 
tures.   Died  in  1743. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands." 

Audentius,  aw-den'she-us,  a  Spanish  theological 
writer  of  uncertain  age,  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  third 
or  fourth  century.    Pie  wrote  a  treatise  against  heretics. 

Audhumla,  (Au<5umla,)  6w-thiim''la  or  o-%hum'la, 
written  also  Audhumbla  and  CEdumia,  [from  au'^r, 
"  desert,"  and  hum,  "  darkness,"]  a  mythic  cow,  which, 
according  to  the  Norse  mythology,  came  into  existence 
simultaneously  with  the  giant  Ymir,  who  was  nourished 
by  her  milk.  She  licked  the  salt  frost-covered  rocks, 
and  there  came  forth  a  mighty  being  called  Buri,  whose 
son  Bor  was  the  father  of  Odin.  Her  name  doubtless 
has  reference  to  the  primeval  chaotic  darkness  in  which 
she  arose. 

See  Thorpe's  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.,  pp.  4  and  140. 

Audibert,  o'de'baiR',  an  antiquary,  born  at  Toulouse 
about  1720,  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  origin  of  that  city. 
Died  in  1770. 

Audibert,  (Louis  Franqois  Hilarion — e^lt^re'6N'.) 
a  French  litieniieur,  born  at  Marseilles  about  1798,  was 
master  of  requests  several  years,  and  resigned  in  1830. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  Melange  of  Literature  and  His- 
tory," (1839.)  _ 

Audibert,  (Urbain,)  a  French  botanist,  born  at 
Tarascon  (Bouches-du-Rhone)  in  1789,  was  a  pupil  of 
De  Candolle.  He  cultivated  a  nursery  near  Tarascon, 
a>nd  co-operated  with  Dunal  and  Requien  in  the  comple- 
tion of  "Flore  du  Midi."  He  took  an  important  part  in 
the  redaction  of  the  "Nouveau  Duhamel"  and  "Annals 
of  French  Agriculture."    Died  in  1846. 

Audierne,  6'de'aRn',  (Jacques,)  a  French  geometer, 
born  at  Beauchamps  about  1 710.  He  taught  mathematics 
in  Paris,  and  published  a  "Treatise  on  Trigonometry," 
(1756,)  and  "Elements  of  Geometry,"  (1765.)  Died 
about  1785. 

Audiffred,  o'deTR^d',  (J.  P.,)  a  French  mathematician 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  joint  author  (with  F,  N. 
Babeuf)  of  a  "Cadastre  perpetuel,"  (1789.) 

Audiffredi,  6w-d^f-fRa'dee,  (Giovanni  Battista,) 
an  astronomer  and  bibliographer,  born  at  Saorgio,  near 
Nice,  in  17 14,  resided  at  Rome.  Pie  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Celestial  Phenomena  observed,"  ("  Phie- 
nomena  Coelestia  observata,"  1 753-56-)    3Jied  in  1794. 

See  Delambre,  "Histoire  de  I'Astronomie  modeme." 

Audiffret,  oMeTR.V,  (Hercule,  ^r^kiil',)  a  French 
theologian,  born  at  Carpentras  in  1603,  was  considered 
one  of  the  most  eloquent  writers  of  his  day.    His  "Ou- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lono^;  h,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  11,  y,  s/iorf;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fdt;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JUDIFFRET 


207 


AVDRA 


vrages  de  Piete"  (3  vols.)  were  published  in  1675.  He 
was  an  uncle  of  the  pulpit  orator  Flechier,  whose  educa- 
tion he  directed.    Died  in  1659. 

Audiffret,  (Jean  Baptistk,)  a  French  geographer, 
born  at  Marseilles  about  1658,  published  "Geography, 
Ancient,  Modern,  and  Historical,"  (2  vols.,  1689-91.) 
Died  in  1733. 

See  Watt's  "  Bibliotheca  Britannica." 

Audiffret,  (Polyeucte,  po'le^ukt',)  a  French  monk 
and  numismatist,  born  in  Provence  about  1750,  had  a 
rich  cabinet  of  medals.    Died  in  1807. 

Audiffret,  d',  do'de'fRa'',  (Charles  Louis  Gaston — 
gts'toN',)  Marquis,  a  French  financier  and  senator,  born 
of  an  Italian  family  at  Paris  in  1787.  He  served  many 
years  as  chief  clerk  in  the  administration  of  the  finances, 
and  became  president  of  the  court  of  accounts  {cmir  des 
comptes)  in  1829.  His  "Financial  System  of  France" 
(1839)  was  regarded  as  the  best  work  to  consult  on  the 
actual  state  of  French  finances.  He  was  appointed  a 
senator  in  1852. 

Audigier,  oMe^zhe-a'',  a  French  historical  writer  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  wrote  a  work  on  the  Origin  of 
the  French,  (1676.) 

Audigier,  a  French  historian  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, born  at  Clermont,  was  the  author  of  a  History  of 
Auvergne,  which  remains  in  manuscript. 

Audiguier,  d',  do'de'ge-a',  (Vital,  ve'tlK,)  Sieur 
de  la  Menor,  (m^-noR',)  a~^French  writer,  born  near 
Villcfranche,  Guienne,  about  1570.  He  fought  for  Henry 
IV.  in  several  campaigns  against  the  League.  He  gained 
an  extensive  but  transient  reputation  by  his  novels,  verses, 
and  other  works,  among  which  are  "La  Philosophic  sol- 
dade,"  (1604,)  and  "The  Portrait  of  the  World,"  ("  Pour- 
trait  du  Monde,"  1604.)  His  versions  of  Cervantes's 
Tales  ("Novelas,"  1618)  were  included  by  the  French 
Academy  among  the  best  specimens  of  French  writing. 
He  was  assassinated  about  1625,  or,  according  to  some 
authorities,  in  1630. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Goujet, 
"  Bibliotheque  Fran^aise." 

Audiii,  6'd^N',  (J.  M.  V.,)  a  French  historian  and 
biographer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1793,  became  a  resident  of 
Paris.  Among  his  chief  works  are  a  "  Piistory  of  the 
Life  and  Works  of  Luther,"  (2  vols.,  1839,)  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  Leo  X.  and  his  Age."    Died  in  1851. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Audinot,  oMe'ni',  (Nicolas  Medard — miMSR',)  a 
French  actor  and  writer  of  plays,  born  at  Nancy  about 
1740;  died  at  Paris  in  1801. 

Audin-Rouviere,6'ddN'roo've-aiR',(JosEPH  Marie,) 
a  French  physician,  born  at  Cari)entras  in  1764,  lived 
chiefly  in  Paris.  He  published  "La  Medecine  sans 
Medecin,"  ("  Physic  without  a  Doctor,"  1794,)  which  was 
very  popular  and  was  translated  into  many  languages. 
He  vended  a  medicine  called  "Grains  of  Life,"  ("Grains 
de  Vie.")    Died  in  1832. 

See  QtJERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Audius.    See  Aud.eus. 

Audley,  awd'le,  originally  de  Aldithley,  (Henry, 
the  first  of  the  line  of  Lords  Audley.  He  supported 
John  in  his  contest  with  the  barons,  and  otherwise  took 
a  conspicuous  part  in  the  events  of  his  time, 

Audley,  (James,)  Lord,  son  and  successor  of  the 
preceding,  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  support  of  Henry 
HI.  against  the  barons  and  the  Welsh  rebels.  Died 
about  1272. 

Audley,  (James,)  I,ord  Audley  of  Hclegh,  an  English 
nobleman,  born  about  1314,  has  been  confounded  with 
Sir  James  Audley,  noticed  below.  Pie  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  army  of  Edward  HI.    Died  about  1386. 

Audley  or  Au'deley,  (Sir  James,)  a  chivalrous  at- 
tendant of  the  P>lack  Prince,  and  one  of  the  original 
knights  of  the  order  of  the  Garter.  Pie  displayed  signal 
courage  at  the  battle  of  Poictiers,  (1356,)  in  which  he  was 
severely  wounded.  The  Black  Prince  immediately  re- 
tained him  as  his  own  knight,  and  several  years  later 
appointed  him  governor  of  Aquitaine.  Died  in  1369. 
The  order  of  the  Garter  was  instituted  in  1344. 

Audley  or  Awdeley,  (John,)  a  noted  English  printer, 
who  lived  about  1570,  was  the  reputed  author  of  several 
ballads  and  short  poems. 


Audley,  (Thomas,)  Lord  Audley  of  Walden,  lord 
chancellor  of  England,  was  born  in  Essex  about  1488. 
He  became  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  about 
1529,  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  in  1532,  and  lord 
chancellor  in  1533.  He  presided  at  the  trial  of  Sir 
Thomas  More,  and  is  censured  for  his  servile  compli- 
ance with  the  arbitrary  will  of  Henry  VHI.  in  that  affai? 
and  in  other  proceedings.  He  was  created  Baron  Aud- 
ley of  Walden  in  1538.    Died  without  male  issue  in  1544. 

See  Fuller,  "History  of  the  Worthies  of  England;"  Lord 
Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;"  Foss,  "The  Judges 
of  England." 

Audoin.    See  Alduin. 

Audoin  de  Chaignebrun,  odV^N'  deh  shiiVbRuN', 
(Henri,)  a  French  physician  and  medical  writer,  born 
in  1714  ;  died  in  1781. 

Au-do'le-on,  [Gr.  AidoAcwv,]  a  king  of  the  Paeonians, 
reigned  about  300  B.C. 

Audouard,  6'doo-tR',  (Mathieu  Franqois  Max- 
ence — mtk'soNss',)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Castres, 
in  Tarn,  in  1776.  He  served  for  many  years  as  physician 
in  the  army.  About  1822,  the  legislature  voted  him  an 
annual  pension  of  two  thousand  francs.  He  wrote  treat- 
ises on  intermittent  fevers  and  on  the  yellow  fever,  (1807 
-24.)    Died  in  1856. 

Audouin,  6''doo-iN',  (Francois  Xavier,)  a  French 
revolutionist  and  economist,  born  at  Limoges  in  1766. 
He  was  commissioner  in  La  Vendee  about  1792,  and 
during  the  republic  was  a  judge  of  the  court  of  cassation. 
He  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  Maritime  Commerce  and  its 
Influence  on  the  Power  and  Riches  of  States,"  (1800.)  and 
a  "  History  of  the  Administration  of  the  War,"  (4  vols., 
181 1,)  which  are  commended.    Died  in  1837. 

Audouin,  (Jean  Victor,)  an  eminent  French  ento- 
mologist and  comparative  anatomist,  born  in  Paris  in 
April,  1797,  was  educated  as  a  physician.  He  began  in 
1818  to  contribute,  to  various  journals  and  the  Trans- 
actions of  Societies,  numerous  and  valuable  treatises  on 
insects,  which  procured  for  him  the  friendship  of  Cuvier. 
He  was  associated  with  Milne-Edwards  in  researches 
upon  the  Crustacea  and  Annelida.  In  1827  he  married 
a  daughter  of  Alexandre  Brongniart.  Pie  succeeded 
Latreille  as  professor  at  the  Museum  in  1833,  '^"^1  was 
admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1838.  Among 
his  chief  works  is  a  "  History  of  Insects  which  infest  the 
Vine,  especially  the  Pyrale,  etc.,"  (1840-43.)  He  was 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Annales  des  Sciences  natu- 
relles,"  and  left  in  manuscript  several  volumes  on  the 
economy  of  insects  when  he  died,  in  November,  1841. 

See  "  l^loges  de  J.  V.  Audouin,"  par  ROL  Sekres,  Chevreul, 
and  Milne-Edwards,  in  the  "Annales  des  Sciences  naturelles;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Audouin,  (Pierre,)  a  skilful  French  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  in  1768.  He  engraved,  for  Laurent's  "Collec- 
tion du  Musee,"  "  La  belle  Jardiniere"  of  Raphael,  the 
"  Jupiter  and  Antiope"  of  Correggio,  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1822. 

Audouin  de  Geronval,  oMoo-^n'  deh  zha'r6N^'tK, 
(Maurice  Ernest,)  a  French  writer  and  economist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1802,  was  secretary  of  the  Academic  de 
ITndustrie.  He  wrote,  besides  several  historical  treat- 
ises and  tales,  a  "  Project  of  a  Model  Farm,"  adopted 
by  the  Institute  in  1830.  He  is  said  to  have  originated 
the  idea  of  a  model  farm.    Died  in  1839. 

See  Qu^rakd,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Audoul,  o'dooK,  (Gaspard,)  an  advocate,  and  mem- 
ber of  the  Council  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  was  born  in 
Provence  in  the  last  half  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
He  wrote  a  work  upon  the  origin  and  powers  of  the 
regale. 

Audra,  oMrI',  (Joseph,)  a  French  abbe  and  histo- 
rian, born  at  Lyons  about  I7i2,was  a  friend  of  Voltaire. 
He  became  professor  of  history  at  Toulouse  about  1768, 
and  published  a  "General  Plistory  from  the  Time  of 
Charlemagne  to  the  Present  Day,"  (i  vol.,  1770,)  which 
was  eulogized  by  Voltaire,  but  censured  as  irreligious 
by  the  Archbishop  of  Brienne,  who  deprived  him  of  his 
office.  His  chagrin  on  this  account  induced  a  brain- 
fever,  of  which  he  died  in  1770. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance,"  and  Grimm,  "Correspon- 
dance." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  c,  H,     guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  tt'illed;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  t/iis.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AUDRADE 


208 


AUDUBON 


Audrade,  6'dRtcK,  [Lat,  Audra'dus,]  called  Mod'- 
icus,  a  French  visionary,  wlio  professed  to  be  inspired. 
He  wrote  a  poem  called  the  "  Fountain  of  Life,"  ("  Fons 
Vitse.")    Died  about  854  a.d. 

Audran,  5'dR6N',  (Benoit,)  an  eminent  French  de- 
signer and  engraver,  a  son  of  Germain,  was  born  at  Lyons 
in  1 66 1,  and  became  a  pupil  of  his  uncle  Girard  Audran. 
Among  his  best  works  are  The  Seven  Sacraments," 
after  Poussin,  and  "  The  Brazen  Serpent,"  after  Le 
Brun.  He  also  engraved  some  works  of  Raphael,  Paul 
Veronese,  and  other  Italians.  He  was  patronized  by 
Louis  XIV.    Died  in  1721. 

Audran,  (Charles,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in 
Paris  in  1594,  studied  in  Rome.  He  engraved  prints 
after  Titian,  the  Caracci,  Domenichino,  and  other  Italian 
masters.    Died  in  1674. 

Audran,  (Claude,)  a  mediocre  engraver,  born  in 
Paris  in  1592,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  set- 
tled at  Lyons,  where  he  died  in  1677,  leaving  three  sons, 
Germain,  Girard,  and  Claude,  all  distinguished  engravers 
or  painters. 

Audran,  (Claude,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1639  or  1640,  was  a  painter  of  history.  He 
assisted  Le  Brun  in  his  "  Battles  of  Alexander,"  and  WaS 
an  imitator  of  his  style.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Paris  in  1675,  and  became  a  professor  in 
the  same  in  1681.  Among  his  chief  works  is  "The 
Miracle  of  the  Five  Loaves."    Died  in  1684. 

Audran,  (Claude,)  eldest  son  of  Germain,  a  painter 
of  grotesque  subjects,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1658.  Died 
in  1734. 

Audran,  (Germain,)  an  engraver,  born  at  Lyons  in 
1 63 1,  was  a  son  of  Claude  I.  He  worked  at  his  native 
city,  and  died  in  1 7 10,  leaving  four  sons,  Claude,  Benoit, 
Jean,  and  Louis,  who  were  artists. 

Audran,  (Girard  or  Gerard,)  regarded  by  some 
as  the  greatest  historical  engraver  that  ever  lived,  was 
a  son  of  Claude  I.,  and  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1640. 
After  he  had  received  instruction  from  his  father,  he 
studied  several  years  in  Rome,  where  he  designed  an- 
tique statues,  copied  with  the  crayon  some  works  of 
Raphael,  and  became  an  excellent  draughtsman.  He 
returned  to  Paris  about  1670,  and  was  appointed  en- 
graver to  the  king,  for  whom  he  engraved  Le  Brun's 
"Battles  of  Alexander."  These  are  Audran's  master- 
pieces. Among  his  other  works  are  two  cartoons  of 
Raphael,  (the  "  Death  of  Ananias"  and  "  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas at  Lystra,")  "  Coriolanus,"  after  N.  Poussin,  and 
the  "  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Agnes,"  after  Domenichino. 
The  point  and  graver  in  his  hand  assumed  the  powers 
of  the  pencil.  By  a  bold  mixture  of  free  hatchings  and 
dots,  he  gave  to  his  works  the  harmony  and  effect  of  a 
picture  in  which  the  colours  of  objects  are  finely  distin- 
guished. He  published  a  work  called  "The  Propor- 
tions of  the  liuman  Figure,"  (1683.)    Died  in  1703. 

See  Fo.MTENAi,  "  Dlctionnaire  des  Artistes ;"  Strutt,  "Diction- 
ary of  Engravers;"  Hubsr,  "Manuel  des  Amateurs;"  Nagler, 
"Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Audran,  (Jean,)  son  of  Germain,  born  at  Lyons  in 
1667,  was,  next  to  Girard,  the  most  eminent  artist  of  this 
family,  and  was  a  pupil  of  his  uncle  Girard.  He  en- 
graved after  more  than  fifty  eminent  painters,  among 
wliom  are  Poussin,  Rubens,  Le  Brun,  and  Van  Dvck. 
"  The  Rape  of  the  Sabines,"  after  Poussin,  is  called 
his  master-piece.  Among  his  best  works  are  "  Galatea," 
after  C.  Maratta,  and  "The  Victories  of  Alexander," 
after  Le  Brun.  He  was  appointed  engraver  to  the  king 
in  1707.    Died  in  1756. 

See  FoNTENAi,  " Dictionnaire  des  Artistes ;"  Huber,  "Manuel 
des  Amateurs." 

Audran,  (Louis,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1670,  was  a  skilful  engraver.  He  studied  with 
his  uncle  Girard  in  Paris.  Among  his  works,  which  are 
not  numerous,  is  "  The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents," 
after  Le  Brun.    He  died  prematurely  in  17 12. 

See  Huber,  "Manuel  des  Amateurs." 

Audran,  (Prosper  Gabriel,)  a  French  lawyer,  born 
at  Paris  in  1744.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew  in 
the  University,  and  wrote  a  Hebrew  and  Arab  grammar. 
Died  in  1819. 

Audrein,  oMrc^n',  (Yves  Marie,)  a  French  politi- 


cian and  writer,  was  one  of  the  teachers  of  Robespierre. 
He  became  a  warm  but  humane  partisan  of  the  princi- 
ples of  the  Revolution,  and  a  member  of  the  Convention, 
in  which  he  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  with  a 
respite.  He  was  elected  Bishop  of  Quimper-Corentin  in 
1798,  and  was  assassinated  by  the  Chouans  (royalists)  in 
1800.  He  left  a  treatise  on  national  education,  and  an 
"Apology  for  Religion  against  Pretended  Philosophers," 
(I797-) 

Audren  de  Kerdrel,  5^dRdN'  deh  keR^ReK,  (Jean 
Maure  —  mor,)  a  French  monk,  author  of  a  History  of 
Bretagne,  (1707.)    Died  in  1725. 

Audri.    See  Audry. 

Audrichi,  ow-dRee'kee,  (Everardo,)  an  Italian  eccle- 
siastic of  the  eighteenth  century,  who  taught  philosophy 
and  mathematics,  published  a  collection  of  Latin  plays, 
and  a  work  on  Antiquities. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Audry,  Audri,  5'dRe',  or  Aldric,  tKdR^k',  [Lat. 
Aldri^cus,]  Saint,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  about 
775,  became  Archbishop  of  Sens.    Died  in  840. 

See  "Vita  Sancti  Aldrici;"  Moreri,  "Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Audry  de  Puyraveau,  o'dRe'  deh  pii-e'rt'vo', 
(Pierre  Franqois,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born  at 
Puyraveau  in  1783.  He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  1827,  boldly  avowed  himself  a  republican 
and  was  a  leader  of  the  popular  party  in  the  revolution 
of  1830.  His  manufactory  in  Paris  was  the  rendezvous 
of  the  insurgents,  whose  efforts  he  directed  with  great 
efficiency.  It  is  stated  that  he  was  the  first  to  nomi- 
nate La  Fayette  as  commander  of  the  national  guard. 

Au'du-bon,  (John  James,)  an  American  ornitholo- 
gist of  great  eminence,  born  in  Louisiana  on  the  4th  of 
May,  1780.  Fie  was  the  son  of  a  French  naval  officer 
who  settled  as  a  planter  in  Louisiana.  He  manifested  in 
childhood  a  passion  for  observing  the  habits  of  birds. 
Educated  partly  in  Paris,  to  which  he  went  at  the  age  of 
fifteen,  he  studied  design  in  the  school  of  the  celebrated 
painter  David.  Having  returned  to  America  about  1798, 
he  inherited  from  his  father  a  good  farm  in  eastern  Penn- 
sylvania, and  married.  About  1810  he  commenced  a 
series  of  excursions  through  the  vast  primeval  forests, 
which  he  explored  alone,  and  in  which  he  passed  the 
greater  portion  of  his  time  for  many  years.  He  pro- 
duced coloured  designs  of  all  the  birds  he  could  find, 
being  impelled  to  this  pursuit  by  his  love  of  nature 
rather  than  an  ambition  to  make  himself  famous.  He 
removed  to  Henderson,  on  the  Ohio  River,  where  he  re- 
sided for  several  years  with  his  wife  and  children. 

In  1826  he  went  to  England,  and  began  in  London  the 
publication  of  a  great  work  on  ornithology.  He  visited 
France  in  1828,  and  was  received  with  great  honour  by 
Cuvier,  Humboldt,  and  other  savants.  He  obtained 
numerous  subscribers,  at  one  thousand  dollars  a  copy,  for 
his  magnificent  work  entitled  "The  Birds  of  America," 
in  folio,  illustrated  with  about  four  hundred  and  forty- 
eight  plates  of  one  thousand  and  sixty-five  species  of 
birds  of  the  natural  size,  beautifully  coloured,  (1830-39.) 
It  consists  of  five  volumes  of  engravings  designed  by  him- 
self, and  five  volumes  of  letter-press. 

Cuvier  expressed  the  opinion  that  this  work  "  is  the  most 
magnificent  monument  that  art  has  ever  erected  to  orni- 
thology," ("CVj-/  le  plus  viagnifique  inomiment  que  Part 
ait  encore  elezie  h  V ornithologies)  Audubon  returned  to 
America  in  1830,  after  which  he  explored  the  coasts, 
the  lakes,  the  rivers,  and  the  mountains  from  Labrador 
and  Canada  to  Florida.  He  visited  England  again,  to 
superintend  the  publication  of  his  "Birds  of  America." 
He  also  published  his  "Ornithological  Biography,  or 
an  Account  of  the  Habits  of  the  Birds  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  accompanied  by  a  Description  of  the 
Objects  represented  in  the  Work  entitled  The  Birds  of 
America,"  (Edinburgh,  5  vols.,  1831-39.)  Having  crossed 
the  Atlantic  homeward  for  the  last  time  about  1840,  he 
settled  on  the  Hudson  River,  in  New  York.  He  pub- 
lished a  popular  and  cheaper  edition  of  his  "Birds  of 
America,"  (7  vols.  8vo,  1844,)  and  "The  Quadrupeds 
of  North  America,"  (3  vols,  of  letter-press  and  3  vols, 
of  plates,  1846-50.)  In  the  latter  work  he  was  assisted 
by  his  sons  Victor  Gifford  and  John  Woodhouse. 

To  excellent  skill  in  designing  natural  objects  he  added 


L,  e,  1,  5,  u,  y,  long:  l\,  t,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohcnre;  f^r,  f^ll,  fit;  mit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JUDWIN  209 


an  admirable  talent  for  describing  them  in  graphic  lan- 
guage. His  character  is  eulogized  by  Professor  Wilson, 
of  Edinburgh,  in  the  following  terms:  "The  hearts  of 
all  warmed  towards  Audubon,  who  were  capable  of  con- 
ceiving the  difficulties,  dangers,  and  sacrifices  that  must 
have  been  encountered,  endured,  and  overcome  before 
genius  could  have  embodied  these,  the  glory  of  its  in- 
numerable triumphs.  .  .  .  The  man  himself  is  just  what 
you  would  expect  from  his  production,  full  of  fine  enthu- 
siasm and  intelligence,  most  interesting  in  his  looks  and 
manners,  a  perfect  gentleman,  and  esteemed  by  all  who 
know  him  for  the  simplicity  and  frankness  of  his  nature. 
He  is  the  greatest  artist,  in  his  own  walk,  that  ever  lived." 
He  died  in  New  York  City,  in  January,  1851. 

See  articleoi:  "American  Ornithology"  in  the  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  Ju'y>  i?32;  Griswold,  '  Prose  Writers  of  America ;" 
DuNLAP,  "  History  ol  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design," 
etc  ,  (vol.  ii.  chap,  xxviii.  ;)  "  Brief  Biographies,"  by  Samuel  Smh.es  ; 
Rev.  C.  C.  Adams.  "Journal  of  the  Life  and  Labours  of  J.  J.  Audu- 
bon ;"  "Audubon  the  Naturahst  in  the  New  World,"  by  Mks.  Horace 
bAiNT  John,  London,  1^6;  "Democratic  Review"  for  May,  1842. 

Audwin.    See  Aldwin. 

Auenbrugger  von  Auenbriig,  ow'en-bRooG^ger  fon 
6\v'en''bRdoG,  (called  Avenbrugger  by  French  and 
English  writers,)  (Leopold,)  a  German  physician,  who 
invented  percussion  as  a  means  of  detecting  diseases  of 
the  thorax  or  lungs,  was  born  at  Gratz,  in  Styria,  in  1722. 
He  became  physician  to  the  Spanish-hospital  of  Vienna. 
He  announced  his  great  discovery  in  his  "Inventum 
novum  ex  Percussione  Thoracis  humani,"  etc.,  ("New 
Discovery  by  Percussion  of  the  Human  Chest,"  etc., 
Vienna,  1761.)  This  was  translated  into  English  by  Dr. 
Forbes  in  1824.  The  practice  of  percussion  was  neg- 
lected until  it  was  revived  by  Corvisart  about  1808.  Auen- 
brugger wrote  two  treatises  on  insanity.    Died  in  1809. 

See  "Biographic  Medicale." 

Aue.    See  Hartmann  von  Aue. 

Auer,  ow'er,  (Anton,)  considered  the  founder  of  the 
present  school  of  Bavarian  porcelain-painters,  was  born 
at  Munich  in  1778.  He  was  patronized  by  Prince  Lud- 
wig,  (afterwards  king.)    Died  in  1S14. 

Auer,  (JoH.\NN  Paul,)  a  distinguished  historical  and 
portrait  painter,  was  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1636,  and 
died  in  16S7. 

Auerbach,  ow'er-b.^K',  (Bertiiold,)  a  popular  Ger- 
man author,  born  of  Jewish  parents  at  Nordstetten,  in 
Wiirtemberg,  in  i8i2.  He  published  "Spinoza,"  a  his- 
torical romance,  in  1837,  "The  Poet  and  Merchant," 
a  novel,  (1839,)  and  "  The  Cultivated  Citizen,"  ("Der 
gebildete  Blirger,"  1842.)  His  reputation  rests  chiefiy  on 
his  "  Village  Tales  of  the  Black  Forest,"  ("Schwarz- 
wiilder  Dorfgeschichten,"  2  vols.,  1843,)  which  were 
translated  into  English  and  other  languages.  His  novel 
entitled  "Auf  den  Hohen"  ("On  the  Heights")  has  also 
been  translated  into  English. 

See  Brockhau.s,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Auerbach,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German  por- 
trait-painter, born  in  Saxony  in  1697  ;  died  at  Vienna 
(where  he  was  court-painter)  in  1753. 

Auerell,  (William.)    See  Averell. 

Auenihammer.    See  Aurenhammer. 

Auersperg,  von,  fon  ^w'er-sp^RG',  (Anton  Alex- 
ander,) Count,  a  German  poet,  whose  assumed  name 
is  Anasta'sius  GRiiN,  was  born  at  Laybach  in  1806.  He 
has  published  successful  poems,  among  which  are  "The 
Last  Knight,"  ("Der  letzte  Ritter,"  1830,)  and  "Pro- 
menades" (or  "Excursions")  of  a  Poet  of  Vienna,". 
("  Spazicrgange  eines  Wiener  Poeten,"  1831,)  which  is 
remarkable  for  wit  and  humour. 

See  Longfellow's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Auersperg  or  Auersberg,  von,  (Herb ard.)  Baron, 
hereditary  marshal  of  Carniola,  (Krain,)  was  famous  as 
the  defender  of  Germany  against  the  Turks.  Born  in 
1525  ;  killed  in  battle  in  1575. 

Auerstadt  or  Auerstedt.    See  Davoust. 

Auffenberg,  von,  fon  6wf  fen-blRG^  (Joseph,)  Frei- 
HERR,  a  German  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Freiburg,  in 
Brisgau,  in  1798.  After  serving  in  the  army  of  Baden, 
he  settled  in  I5aden  about  1836,  and  received  the  title  of 
marshal  of  the  court  {Jwffmarschall)  of  the  grand  duke 
in  1839.    His  principal  works  are  "The  Alhambra,"  a 


AUGER 


dramatic  poem,  (3  vols.,  1829-30,)  and  "Louis  XL  in 
Peronne."    Died  in  1857. 

Auffmann,  owf  mSn,  (Joseph  Anton  Xaver,)  a  Ger- 
man organist  and  composer,  born  about  1 720;  died  in 
1778. 

Auffray,  oTRi',  (Jean,)  a  French  political  economist, 
who  considered  the  art  of  printing  an  injury  to  litera- 
ture, but  Was  an  advocate  of  free  trade.  Born  at  Paris 
in  1733  ;  died  in  1788. 

Auffschnaiter,  6wf  shnl'ter,  (Benedict  Anton,)  a 
German  musician,  lived  at  Passau  about  1700. 

Au-fid^i-us,  (Cneius,)  a  Roman  quaestor  in  119  B.C., 
and  tribune  in  114.  He  was  the  author  of  a  Greek  his- 
tory of  Rome. 

Aufidius,  (Titus,)  a  jurist,  who  was  quaestor  in  84 
B.C.,  and  afterwards  praetor  of  Asia. 

Aufidius,  (Trrus,)  a  Sicilian  physician,  lived  in  the 
first  century  B.C. 

Aufrere,  oTrair',  (Anthony,)  an  English  writer,  who 
translated  a  number  of  works  from  the  German  of  Goethe 
and  others,  and  the  editor  of  the  "  Lockhart  Letters,"  was 
born  at  Norfolk  in  1756,  and  died  at  Pisa  in  1833. 

Aufreri,  6''fRa''re',  (Etiennf,)  a  distinguished  French 
jurist,  who  wrote  on  civil  and  canon  law.  He  became 
the  official  of  the  Archbishop  of  Toulouse  in  1483.  Died 
about  1 5 10. 

Aufresne,  oTRln',  (Jean  Rival — re''vtK,)  an  eminent 
French  actor,  was  born  in  Geneva  in  1709,  and  died  in 
Russia  (where  Catherine  IL  gave  him  a  distinguished 
reception)  in  1806. 

Augaron,  o'gt'riN',  (Jacques,)  a  French  surgeon 
employed  by  the  King  of  Navarre  about  1570. 

Auge,  d',  dozh,  JLaL  Auge'tius,]  (Daniel,)  a  French 
philologist  and  writer,  born  at  Villeneuve-l'Archeveque  ; 
died  about  1595. 

Augeardi  O^zhtR',  (J.a.cques  Mathieu,)  a  farmer-gen 
era],  (the  last  who  held  the  office,)  and  secretary  of  com- 
mands to  Marie  Antoinette,  was  born  at  Bordeaux,  1731. 
Pie  left  memoirs  on  the  intrigues  of  the  French  court  in  his 
time,  which  remain  in  manuscript.  Died  in  Paris  in  1805. 

Augeard,  (Mathieu,)  a  French  jurist  and  advocate 
of  the  parliament  of  Paris.    Died  in  1751. 

Au'ge-as,  (or  au-ge'as,)  [Gr.  Avyiag  or  kvyeiaq ;  Fr. 
Aug6as,  6'zhi^  Ss',or  Aug^e,  o'zhY,]  a  mythical  king 
of  Elis,  said  to  be  a  son  of  Neptune,  (or  of  the  Sun.) 
One  of  the  tasks  imposed  on  Hercules  was  to  cleanse 
the  stables  of  Augeas,  who  kept  a  great  number  of  oxen. 
He  was  killed  by  Hercules  because  he  refused  to  pay 
the  reward  which  he  had  promised  for  this  work. 

Augee.    See  Augeas. 

Augenio,  6w-ja'ne-o,  (Orazio,)  an  Italian  physician 
and  medical  writer,  born  in  the  Romagna  about  1527, 
became  professor  of  medicine  at  Turin  in  1577,  and  at 
Padua  in  1593.    Died  in  1603. 

Auger,  o'zha',  ( Athanase,  t'tt^ntz',)  Abb6,  a  French 
classical  scholar  and  translator  of  great  learning,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1734.  He  was  appointed  vicar-gen- 
eral by  the  Bishop  of  Lescars.  He  published  a  trans- 
lation of  the  "  Complete  Works  of  Demosthenes  and 
.^schines,"  (4  vols.,  1777,)  which  is  generally  correct,  but 
is  deficient  in  spirit.  He  also  translated  the  works  of 
Isocrates,  (3  vols.,  1783,)  and  the  Orations  of  Cicero,  (3 
vols.,  1787.)  In  1792  he  published  an  able  work  "  On 
the  Constitution  of  the  Romans  under  the  Kings  and 
during  the  Republic,"  (3  vols.)    Died  in  1792. 

SeeHERAULT  de  Sechelles,  "filoge  d' Athanase  Auger ;"  Que- 
RARD,  '"La  Fiance  Litteraire." 

Auger,  (Edmond,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  near  Troves 
in  1 515.  Pie  was  one  of  the  missionaries  sent  by  his  su- 
periors to  convert  the  Protestants  in  the  south  of  France, 
and  became  confessor  of  Henry  III.  about  1575.  His  elo- 
quence is  praised  by  Catholic  Vv^riters.    Died  in  1591. 

See  MoRERL  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Auger,  (Hippolyte  Nicolas  Just,)  a  French  novel- 
ist and  dramatist,  born  at  Auxerre  in  1797.  He  wrote 
"Marpha,"  (1818,)  "Rienzi,"  (1825,)  and  other  novels. 
Among  his  successful  dramas  are  "Peter  the  Great," 
(1836,)  and  "Poor  Mother!"  ("  Pauvre  Mere!"  1837; 
with  F.  Cornu.) 

Auger,  (Louis  Simon,)  a  successful  French  critic  and 
Utter atciir,  born  in  Paris  in  1772.    He  edited  with  ability 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  K,o7iftural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  t/iis.   (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AUGEREAU 


o 


AUGUSTI 


the  works  of  numerous  French  authors,  and  began  to 
write  for  the  "Journal  of  the  Empire"  in  1808.  In  1816 
he  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy,  of  which  he  be- 
came perpetual  secretary  in  1827.  He  wrote  many  arti- 
cles for  the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  among  which  are 
those  on  Moliere  and  Voltaire,  and  the  "  Preliminary  Dis- 
course" of  the  same  work.  He  also  published  "  Melanges 
philosophiques  et  litteraires."  He  was  found  drowned 
in  the  Seine  in  1829,  having  probably  committed  suicide. 
See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteiaire." 

Augereau,  ozhW,  [in  Latin,  Augurel'lus,]  (An- 
TOINE,)  a  French  printer  of  Paris.    Died  in  1544. 

Augereau,  (Pierre  Franqois  Charles,)  Due  de 
Castiglione,  {kSs''t^g'le''on',)  a  celebrated  French  general, 
born  in  Paris  in  1757,  was  a  son  of  a  mechanic  or  domes- 
tic, and  had  few  opportunities  of  acquiring  an  education. 
He  was  a  fencing-master  at  Naples  before  the  Revolution. 
Having  enlisted  in  1792  as  a  private,  he  rose  rapidly, 
and  became  a  general  of  division  about  the  end  of  1793. 
He  contributed  mainly  to  the  victory  at  Loano,  in  No- 
vember, 1795,  and  was  one  of  the  most  active  and  suc- 
cessful of  Bonaparte's  generals  in  the  campaign  of  1796. 
He  took  Millesimo  in  April,  and  decided  the  victory  of 
Lodi,  by  his  charge  along  the  bridge,  in  May,  1796. 
Among  his  brilliant  exploits  were  the  defence  of  Casti- 
glione and  his  charge  at  Areola  in  the  same  year.  In 
August,  1797,  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
seventeenth  military  division,  (which  included  Paris,) 
having  been  selected  because  he  was  a  devoted  partisan 
of  the  new  regime.  He  obeyed  the  commands  of  a 
majority  of  the  Directors  with  audacity  in  the  couJ>  d'etat 
of  the  1 8th  Fructidor,  (4th  of  September,)  1797,  and  was 
elected  to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1799.  Be- 
fore this  date  Augereau  and  Bonaparte  regarded  each 
other  with  distrust  or  jealousy. 

He  commanded  the  Gallo-Batavian  army  in  1800  and 
1 80 1,  was  made  a  marshal  of  France  in  1804,  and  Duke 
of  Castiglione  in  1805.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Jena,  1806,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  Eylau.  In 
1809  he  was  employed  in  Spain.  When  Napoleon  in- 
vaded Russia  in  181 2,  he  left  Augereau  in  command  of 
an  army  in  Germany  to  cover  his  rear.  He  maintained 
his  reputation  at  Leipsic  in  1813.  Having  declared  his 
adhesion  to  Louis  XVIII.  in  1814,  he  was  confirmed  in 
his  rank  and  dignities  ;  but  he  deserted  to  Napoleon  in 
March,  1815.    Died  in  June,  1816. 

See  Las  Cases,  "Memorial  de  Sainte-Helene ;"  Bourrienne, 
'Memoires  sur  Napoleon;"  "  Nouvelle  Blographie  Generale." 

Augetius.    See  Auge. 

Augier,  o'zhe-i',  (Emile,)  a  French  dramatist  and 
poet,  a  grandson  of  Pigault  Lebrun,  was  born  at  Valence, 
in  Drome,  in  1820.  He  produced  in  1844  a  drama  entitled 
"La  Cigue,"  ("  Hemlock,")  which  had  a  great  success. 
His  "  Aventuriere,"  a  comedy,  (1848,)  was  received  with 
favour,  and  his  comedy  of  "  Gabrielle"  (1849)  obtained 
the  Monthyon  prize  of  the  French  Academy.  These 
comedies  are  in  verse.  He  published  a  volume  of  poems 
in  1856,  and  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1857 
in  place  of  M.  Salvandy. 

Augier,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  lawyer  and  gene- 
ral, born  at  Bourges  in  1769.  He  served  under  Napo- 
leon, and  was  governor  of  Konigsberg.  During  the 
Russian  campaign,  as  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  restoration.  Died 
in  1819. 

See  "  Dictlonnaire  historique  des  Generaux  Frangais." 

Augier-Dufot,  o'zhe-i'  dii'fo',  (Anne  Amable — t'- 
mftbK,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Aubusson  in  1733, 
was  author  of  works  on  various  subjects.  Died  at 
Soissons  in  1775. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Auguis.o'gess'',  (Pierre  Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
revolutionist,  born  at  Melle,  in  Deux-Sevres,  about  1745. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  voted  for  the 
detention  or  banishment  of  the  king,  and  courageously 
opposed  the  power  of  Robespierre  in  1794.  In  1799  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred.  Hav- 
ing supported  Bonaparte  on  the  i8th  Brumaire,  he  ob- 
tained a  seat  in  tlie  legislative  body.    Died  in  1810. 

Auguis,  (Pierre  Ren^,)  a  French  litterateur,  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Melle,  near  Niort,  in  17S6. 


He  published  "The  New  Odyssey,"  a  poem,  (1812,)  a 
"  History  of  Catherine  II.  of  Russia,  and  of  Paul  I.," 
(1813,)  "The  Genius  of  the  French  Language,"  (1820,) 
and  various  other  works.  In  1830  he  was  elected  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  oppo- 
sition.   Died  in  1846. 

Au'gur,  (Christopher  Colon,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  New  York,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1843. 
He  served  as  lieutenant  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,) 
and  gained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1852,  He  commanded 
a  division  at  Cedar  Mountain,  Virginia,  in  August,  1862, 
and  became  a  major-general  in  November  of  that  year. 
He  served  under  Banks,  in  Louisiana,  in  1863,  and  com- 
manded the  department  of  Washington  from  October, 
1863,  to  August,  1866.  He  holds  the  rank  of  colonel  in 
the  United  States  regular  army. 

Augur,  (Hezekiah,)  an  American  sculptor  and  in- 
ventor, born  in  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1 791. 
Among  his  works  maybe  mentioned  "Jephthah  and  his 
Daughter,"  in  the  Trumbull  Gallery  of  Yale  College. 
He  invented  a  machine  for  carving,  now  in  general  use. 
Died  in  1858. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists;"  Dunlap,  "History 
of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design,"  etc. 

Augurelli,  6w-goo-reKlee,  or  Augurello,  6w-goo- 
reKlo,  (Giovanni  Aurelio — 6w-ra'le-o,)  a  Latin  poet 
and  critic  of  superior  merit,  born  at  Rimini  about  1454, 
(or,  according  to  Ginguene,  about  1441.)  He  taught 
Greek  and  Latin  at  Venice,  and  wrote  odes,  elegies, 
epistles,  and  Iambics,  which  were  printed  collectively  in 
149 1  or  1492,  and  a  longer  poem  entitled  "  Chrysopoiia," 
(or  "  Chrysopoia,")  1515.  Died  at  Treviso  in  152401 
1537- 

Au-gu-ri'nus,  (Lucius  Minucius,)  a  Roman,  who 
was  prcefedus  annoncE  during  a  famine  in  439  B.C.  He 
exposed  the  designs  of  Spurius  Melius. 

Auguriiius,  (Marcus  Genucius,)  a  Roman  consul 
in  444  B.C.  Under  his  consulate  the  law  (Lex  Canuleia) 
permitting  marriage  between  patricians  and  plebeians 
was  passed. 

Augurinus  (Publius  Minucius)  was  a  Roman  con- 
sul (492  B.C.)  in  a  year  of  dreadful  famine,  which  he  and 
his  colleague  mitigated  by  importing  corn  from  Sicily, 
and  by  founding  a  colony  at  Norba,  to  which  many  of 
the  poor  were  sent. 

Augurinus,  (Quintus  Minucius,)  Roman  consul  in 
457  B.C.,  led  an  army  against  the  /Equi  and  Sabines, 
and  compelled  them  to  abandon  the  Roman  territory 
and  shut  themselves  up  in  their  own  towns. 

Augurinus,  (Sentius,)  a  Roman  poet,  who  was  the 
friend  of  the  younger  Pliny,  by  whom  his  verses  are 
highly  commended. 

Augurinus,  (Tiberius  Minucius,)  a  Roman  consul, 
who  defeated  the  Samnites  in  305  B.C. 

Augurinus,  (Titus  Genucius,)  brother  of  Marcus, 
noticed  above,  became  consul  in  451  B.C.,  and  was  after- 
wards one  of  the  first  Decemvirate. 

August,  the  German  of  Augustus,  which  see. 

AU-GUS' TA,  a  Latin  word  signifying  "majestic,"  or 
"  venerable,"  given  as  a  title  to  the  wives  of  the  Roman 
emperors.  The  first  who  received  it  was  Livia,  the  wife 
of  Augustus  Caesar.  ^ 

Augusta,  6w-goos'ta,  (Cristoforo,)  a  painter  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  born  near  Cremona,  gave  great  pro- 
mise of  future  eminence,  but  died  young. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 
.  Augusta,  6w-goos'tS,  (Johann,)  a  friena  of  Luther, 
born  at  Prague  in  1500,  became  a  minister  of  the  sect  of 
Bohemian  Brethren,  which  is  regarded  as  the  origin  of  the 
Moravian  Church.  He  was  chosen  bishop  of  all  their 
churches  in  Bohemia  about  1 538.  Pie  differed  from 
Luther  in  religious  opinions.  He  was  imprisoned  six- 
teen years  by  Ferdinand  I.  (from  1548  to  1564.)  He 
published  several  works.    Died  in  1575. 

See  Pelzer,  "  Portraits  de  Savants  Bohemes." 

Augustenburg,  Prince  of.  See  Charles  Augus- 
tus, Prince  Royal  of  Sweden. 

Augusti,  ow'gdos'tee,  (Christian  Johann  Wil- 
helm,)  an  eminent  German  theologian,  born  at  Esch- 
enberg,  near  Gotha,  in  1771.  He  became  professor 
extraordinary  at  Jena  in  1800,  and  succeeded  llgen  as 


a,  e,  I.  o,  u,  y,  lo),g;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


AUGUST  I 


211 


AUGUSTUS 


professor  of  Oriental  literature  in  that  city  in  1803.  In 
1807  he  obtained  the  chair  of  theology  at  Jena.  As  an 
orthodox  Lutheran  he  opposed  the  philosophical  or  spec- 
ulative school.  From  181 1  to  1819  he  was  professor  at 
Breslau,  and  removed  to  the  University  of  Bonn  in  1819. 
His  chief  work  is  "  Memorable  Things  from  Christian 
Archaeology,"  ("  Denkwiirdigkeiten  aus  der  Christlichen 
Archaeologie,"  12  vols.,  1817-35,)  which  he  condensed 
into  a  "  Manual  of  Christian  Archasology,"  (3  vols.,  1836.) 
Died  in  1841. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Augusti,  (Friedrich  Albrecht,)  a  grandfather  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  in  1696, 
was  the  son  of  a  Jew.  He  was  converted  to  Christianity 
in  1 72 1,  and  became  a  Lutheran  minister  at  Eschenberg. 
He  published  several  learned  works  on  theology.  Died 
in  1782. 

Augiistin,  (Antonio.)    See  Augustinus. 

Augustiii,  6'giis'taN^  (Jean  Baptiste  Jacques,)  a 
distinguished  French  miniature-painter  in  oil  and  ena- 
mel, was  born  at  Saint-Diez,  in  Vosges,  in  1759.  He 
worked  in  Paris,  was  patronized  by  Louis  XVHL,  and 
painted  portraits  of  many  eminent  persons.  He  was 
appointed  painter  to  the  king  in  1819.    Died  in  1832. 

Au'gus-tine,  [Lat.  Aure'lius  Augusti''nus  ;  Fr. 
AuGUSTiN,  o'giis'tLN';  It.  Augustino,  ow-goos-tee^io,] 
S.\int,  the  most  illustrious  Latin  Father  of  the  Church, 
was  born  at  Tagasta,  in  Numidia,  on  the  13th  of  No- 
vember, 354  A.D.  He  was  instructed  in  religion  by  his 
mother  Monnica  (or  Monica,)  who  was  a  devout  Chris- 
tian. He  also  studied  Greek,  rhetoric,  and  philosophy 
at  Madaura  and  Carthage.  About  the  age  of  nineteen 
he  was  captivated  with  the  heresy  of  the  Manichaeans,  to 
which  he  adhered  for  nine  years.  Having  taught  gram- 
mar and  rhetoric  at  Tagasta,  Carthage,  and  Rome,  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy  at 
Milan  in  384.  Amidst  a  career  of  immorality  mto 
which  strong  youthful  passions  had  impelled  him,  he 
was  seriously  impressed  by  the  sermons  of  Saint  Am- 
brose. He  experienced  a  decided  conversion  in  386, 
after  deep  conflicts,  which  he  has  described  in  his  "Con- 
fessions," an  autobiography.  Soon  after  this  event  he 
returned  to  Africa. 

He  was  ordained  a  priest  about  391  by  Valerius, 
Bishop  of  Hippo,  whom  he  succeeded  in  396.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  the  adversary  of  the  Donatists  at 
the  Council  of  Carthage  in  401  A.D.,  and  had  a  high 
reputation  as  an  eloquent  preacher.  About  418  he  pro- 
duced two  works  against  the  Pelagians,  "  On  the  Grace 
of  Christ,"  ("De  Gratia  Christi,")  and  "On  Original 
Sin,"  ("De  Peccato  Originali.")  His  capital  work,  en- 
titled "  On  the  City  of  God,"  ("  De  Civitate  Dei,")  was 
intended  to  subvert  the  foundations  of  paganism  and 
establish  those  of  Christianity,  and  to  refute  the  opinion 
that  the  capture  of  Rome  by  Alaric,  and  other  calami- 
ties of  the  empire,  were  caused  by  the  prevalence  of  the 
new  religion.  It  was  finished  about  426.  He  wrote 
many  other  works,  among  which  are  those  "On  Faith 
and  Works,"  ("De  Fide  et  Operibus,")  and  "On  the 
Soul  and  its  Origin,"  ("  De  Anima  et  ejus  Origine.") 
He  died  at  Hippo,  during  the  siege  of  that  city  by  the 
Vandals,  on  the  28th  of  August,  430  A.D.  His  habits 
were  simple  and  temperate,  rather  than  ascetic.  The 
best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  published  by  the  Bene- 
dictines at  Paris,  (11  vols.,  1679-1700.)  "Of  all  the 
Fathers  of  the  Latin  Church,"  says  Villemain,  "Saint 
Augustine  manifested  the  most  imagination  in  theolog}', 
the  most  eloquence,  and  even  sensibility,  in  scholasticism. 
.  .  .  He  writes  as  well  on  music  as  on  free  will ;  he 
explains  the  intellectual  phenomena  of  memory  as  well 
as  he  reasons  on  the  decline  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
His  subtile  and  vigorous  mind  has  often  consumed  on 
mystical  problems  an  amount  of  sagacity  which  would 
have  sufficed  for  the  most  sublime  conceptions." 

See  '_'  Confessions  of  Saint  Aucciistine  ;"  Possidius,  "  Vie  de  Saint- 
Augustin ;"  George  Moringo,  "Vie  de  Saint-Augustin."  1533; 
GoDEAU,  "Viede  Saint-Anguslin,"  1657 ;  Tillemont,  "Memoires 
ecclesiastiques,"  (vol.  xiii.,)  1702;  Rivius,  "Vita  Sancli  Augus- 
tini,"  1646;  PoujouLAT,  "Vie  de  Saint-Aueustin,"  2d  edition,  1852; 
BiNDEMAKK,  "  Angiistines  Leben,"  ;  Butler,  "Lives  of  the 
Saints;"  Bahr,  "  Christliche  Romische  Theologie :"  Villemain, 
'•'Tableau  de  I'Eloquence  chretienne  au  quatricme  Siecle,"  1849; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


Augustine  or  Austin,  Saint,  "  the  Apostle  of  Eng- 
land," was  prior  of  a  Benedictine  monastery  at  Rome 
before  he  was  sent  by  Gregory  I.  to  convert  the  Anglo- 
Saxons.  He  arrived  in  the  island  in  596  or  597  A.D., 
and  was  well  received  by  Ethelbert,  whose  wife  }3ertha 
was  a  Christian.  The  king  and  many  of  his  subjects 
were  soon  after  baptized.  Augustine  was  appointee 
Archbishop  of,  Canterbury.  The  year  of  his  death  is 
variously  dated  604,  607,  and  614. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury 
vol.  i.  chap.  ii. 

Augustini  (6w-go6s-tee'nee)  ab  Hor'tis,  (Chris- 
tian,) a  Hungarian  physician,  born  at  Zips  in  1598.  He 
became  physician  to  the  emperor  Ferdinand,  and  formed 
a  botanic  garden  at  Vienna.    Died  in  1650. 

Augustino.    See  Agostino. 

Augvistino,  (Veneziano.)    See  Agostino. 

Au-gus-ti'nus,  (Antonius,)  [Sp.  Antonio  Augus- 
tin,  an-to'ne-o  6w-goos-teen',]  Archbishop  of  Tarragona, 
one  of  the  most  learned  jurists  of  Spain,  was  bornatSara- 
gossa  about  15 16.  He  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his 
"Emendations  and  Opinions  of  Civil  Law,"  ("Emenda- 
tiones  et  Opiniones  Juris  Civilis,"  1538-43.)  In  1555 
he  was  sent  as  papal  nuncio  to  England,  to  promote  the 
interests  of  the  Roman  Church  in  that  country.  He  be- 
came Bishop  of  Lerida  in  1560,  and  Archbishop  of  Tar- 
ragona in  1574.  He  wrote  several  works  on  Roman 
and  canon  law,  which  are  called  classical,  and  among 
which  is  "  De  P^mendatione  Gratiani  Dialogi,"  (1581.) 
"  His  works,"  says  Correa  da  Serra,  in  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle,"  "will  preserve  his  celebrity  in  all  ages." 
Died  in  1586. 

See  "A.  Augustini  Vit^-e  Historia,"  by  Gregorius  Mayansus  Sis- 
CARius  ;  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Augustinus,  (Aurelius.)    See  Augustine,  Saint. 

Augu.sto,  6w-goos'to,  [Lat.  Augus'tus,]  of  Udine, 
an  Italian  poet,  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century. 

Au-gus'tu-lus,  (Romulus,)  the  last  Roman  Emperor 
of  the  West,  was  a  son  of  the  patrician  Orestes.  He 
became  emperor  in  475  A.D.,  and  was  deposed  by  Odoacer 
in  the  following  year.  ■ 

AU-GUS'  TUS,  a  name  conferred  by  the  Roman  sen- 
ate on  Caius  Julius  Caesar  Octavianus,  27  B.C.  The  word 
signifies  "noble,"  "majestic,"  or  "venerable."  This 
name  was  adopted  as  a  title  by  Tiberius  and  his  suc- 
cessors.   The  Greek  equivalent  of  Augustus  is  Sebastos. 

Augustus.    See  Augustus  C.^sar. 

Au-gus''tus  [Ger.  August,  ow'gdost]  I.,  (or  II.,) 
(Frederick,)  King  of  Poland,  was  born  at  Dresden  in 
1670.  He  was  the  second  son  of  John  George  III.,  Elec- 
tor of  Saxony,  and  Anna  Sophia  of  Denmark.  He  was 
endowed  with  superior  talents,  which  were  well  cultivated, 
and  possessed  extraordinary  physical  strength.  In  1690 
and  1 69 1  he  served  with  distinction  in  the  Imperial  army 
against  the  French.  He  succeeded  his  brother  John 
George  IV.  as  Elector  of  Saxony  in  1694,  formed  an  al- 
liance with  the  emperor,  and  obtained  from  him  the  chief 
command  in  the  war  against  the  Turks,  by  whom  he  was 
defeated  in  Hungary  in  1697. 

Augustus  was  elected  King  of  Poland  in  Mayor  June, 
1697,  having  abjured  the  Protestant  religion  for  the  sake 
of  this  ])rize.  His  rival,  the  Prince  of  Conti,  was  the 
choice  of  a  strong  party  in  the  Diet;  but  Augustus  ob- 
tained possession  of  the  throne  without  difficulty.  He 
joined  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia  in  a  league  against 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  and  invaded  Livonia  in  1700. 
His  army  was  defeated  by  the  Swedes  on  the  Duna  in 
1 701  and  at  Klissow  in  1702.  He  was  expelled  from 
Poland,  on  the  throne  of  which  Charles  XII.  placed 
Stanislas  Leszczynski,  in  July,  1704.  To  save  his  Saxon 
dominions  from  the  victorious  Swede,  he  signed  a  treaty 
in  1706,  by  which  he  renounced  the  crown  of  Poland. 

The  defeat  of  Charles  XII.  at  Pultowa  enabled  Au- 
gustus to  recover  the  throne  of  Poland  in  1709,  when 
Stanislas  retired  without  a  contest.  The  Diet  in  17 12 
demanded  the  removal  of  the  Saxon  troops  from  Poland, 
but  the  king  refused  to  remove  them,  and  thus  provoked 
an  insurrection,  which  was  at  last  appeased  by  the  king's 
complying  with  the  demand  of  the  Diet.  The  latter  part 
of  his  reign  was  comparatively  quiet.    He  died  in  Febru- 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  o,  n,  v., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (iJ:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AUGUSTUS 


2 


AUGUSTUS 


ary,  1733,  leaving  a  son,  Augustus,  who  succeeded  him, 
and  a  natural  son,  Maurice  of  Saxony,  the  famous  general. 
Augustus  was  ambitious,  licentious,  prodigal,  and  ex- 
tremely fond  of  luxury  and  splendour.  His  court  at 
Dresden  was  more  splendid  than  any  other  in  Europe, 
except  that  of  Louis  XIV. 

See  Fassmann  and  Horn,  "  P^Iedrich  August  desGrossen  Leben," 
1734 ;  Desroches  de  Parthenay,  "  Histoire  de  Pologne  sous  le  Roi 
Augusts  11,"  4  vols.,  1734. 

Augustus  (or  August)  II.,  (or  III.,)  (Frederick,)  a 
9  'U  01  the  preceding,  born  at  Dresden  in  1696,  did  not 
ii  herit  his  father's  talents.  He  was  educated  as  a 
Protestant,  but  was  converted  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  about  1712.  He  married  Maria  Josephine,  a 
daughter  of  Joseph  I.,  Emperor  of  Austria,  in  1 7 19.  In 
1733  he  succeeded  as  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  was  elected 
King  of  Poland  by  a  party  in  the  Diet,  another  party 
choosing  Stanislas.  In  the  contest  which  ensued,  Au- 
gustus, supported  by  Russia  and  Austria,  prevailed  about 
1736.  He  joined  the  league  formed  by  France  and 
Prussia  against  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria  in  1740  or  1741, 
but  in  1743  he  became  an  ally  of  that  empress  against 
Frederick  the  Great,  who  defeated  the  Saxon  army  and 
took  Dresden  in  1745.  In  the  Seven  Years'  war,  1756-63, 
the  Saxons  were  defeated,  and  Saxony  was  ravaged  by 
the  victorious  Prussians.  He  died  in  October,  1763,  and 
was  succeeded  in  Saxony  by  his  son,  Frederick  Christian 
August. 

See  BoTTiGER,  "  Geschichte  des  Kurstaates  und  Konigreiches 
Sachsen." 

Au-gus'tus  (or  August)  I.,  Elector  of  Saxony,  a  son 
of  Henry  the  Pious,  born  in  1526,  succeeded  his  brother 
Maurice  in  1553.  He  was  distinguished  as  a  legislator, 
and  had  the  reputation  of  a  wise  ruler  ;  but  he  was  intol- 
erant to  the  Calvinists.  Under  his  aus]Dices,  a  creed  of 
Lutheran  orthodoxy,  called  "  Formula  Concordiae,"  was 
adopted  about  1580.  He  died  in  1586,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Christian  I. 

See  HoMMEL,  "  Elector  Augustus  Saxonise  Legislator,"  1765  ;  Eicn- 
HORN,  "Deutsche  Staats-  und  Rechts-Geschiclite." 

Augustus  II.  OF  Saxony.  See  Augustus  I.  (or  II.) 
OF  Poland. 

Augustus  I.,  Klng  of  Saxony.  See  Frederick  Au- 
gustus. 

Augustus  II.,  King  of  Saxony.  See  Frederick 
Augustus. 

Augustus,  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  last  Archliishop  of 
Magdeburg,  born  at  Dresden  in  1614.  He  v^^as  dispos- 
sessed and  repossessed  of  his  archbishopric  several  times 
during  the  wars  between  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  the  Em- 
peror of  Germany.    Died  in  1680. 

Augus'tus,  [Ger.  August,  ow'gdost,]  (Emil  Leo- 
pold,) Duke  of  Saxe-Gotha  and  Altenburg,  born  at 
Gotha  in  1772,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Duke  Ernest  II., 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1804.  He  was  an  admirer  of 
Napoleon,  and  joined  the  Rhenish  Confederation  about 
1807.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  the  fine  arts,  and 
author  of  several  aesthetical  novels,  among  which  is  "  Kyl- 
lenion,  oder  Auch  ich  war  in  Arcadien,"  ("I  also  was  in 
Arcadia,"  1805.)  He  died  in  1822,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother  Friedrich.  The  daughter  of  Duke  August  was 
the  mother  of  Prince  Albert,  consort  of  Queen  Victoria. 

Au-gus'tus,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm  Heinrich,) 
Prince  of  Prussia,  born  in  1779,  was  a  nephew  of  Frede- 
rick the  Great,  and  a  son  of  Prince  Augustus  Ferdinand. 
He  fought  at  Jena  in  1806,  where  he  was  taken  prisoner. 
Having  obtained  in  1813  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general, 
he  displayed  skill  and  courage  at  Dresden,  Kulm,  and 
Leipsic.  In  1815  he  was  appointed  commander  of  a 
corps-d'armee,  and  besieged  and  took  many  fortified 
French  towns.  He  was  reputed  the  first  artillery  officer 
in  the  Prussian  army.    Died  in  1843. 

See  "Preussische  National-Encyklopadie." 

Augustus,  [Ger.  August,  ow'gdost,]  (Paul  Fried- 
rich,) Grand  Duke  of  Oldenburg,  was  born  in  1783. 
He  served  against  the  French  in  Russia  in  1S12,  and 
began  to  reign  in  1829.  He  is  represented  as  an  en- 
lightened and  liberal  prince.  About  1848  he  granted 
a  constitution  which  increased  the  civil  and  religious 
freedom  of  his  subjects.    Died  in  1853. 

Augus'tus,  (William,)  Prince  of  Prussia,  an  able 


general,  born  at  Berlin  in  1722,  was  a  younger  brother  of 
Frederick  the  Great.  He  studied  the  military  sciences 
with  zeal,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Hohen-PViedberg 
in  1745.  As  general  of  infantry,  he  gave  proof  of  skill  at 
Lowositz  in  1756.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Prussians  at 
Kollin,  in  1757,  Augustus  w^as  appointed  commander  of 
thirty  thousand  men  who  covered  the  rear  of  the  retreat- 
ing army.  He  failed  in  his  effort  to  check  the  superior 
force  of  the  enemy,  and  for  this  failure  was  deprived  of 
his  command.  He  died  in  1758,  leaving  a  son,  Frederick 
William,  who  became  King  of  Prussia. 

See  Archenholz,  "History  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,"  (in  Ger- 
man.) 

Augus^tus  Cae'sar,  called  by  Suetonius  Octavius 
Caesar  Augustus,  [Fr.  Octave  Cesar  Auguste,  ok'- 
ttv'  si'zSR'  6'giist';  It.  Ottavio  Cesare  Augusto,  ot- 
ti've-o  cha'si-ra  6w-goos'to,]  and  subsequently  named, 
as  the  heir  of  Julius  Caesar  the  dictator,  Ca'ius  Ju'liui 
Cae'sar  Octavia'nus,  the  first  Roman  emperor,  was 
born  at  Velitras,  not  far  from  Rome,  in  63  B.C.  He  was 
the  son  of  Caius  Octavius  and  Atia,  the  daughter  of 
Julia,  who  was  the  sister  of  Julius  Caesar.  His  father 
died  about  the  year  60,  and  his  mother  married  L.  Mar- 
cius  Philippus,  who  was  consul  in  56  B.C.,  and  who 
superintended  the  education  of  young  Octavius.  At  the 
age  of  twelve  he  pronounced  a  funeral  oration  in  praise 
of  his  grandmother  Julia,  and  four  years  later  he  assumed 
the  toga  virilis.  He  was  adopted  as  a  son  by  Julius 
Caesar  the  dictator,  whom  he  followed  to  Spain  in  45  B.C. 
According  to  some  writers,  he  was  present  at  the  battle 
of  Munda.  He  was  pursuing  his  studies  at  Apollonia 
when  he  learned  that  Ceesar  was  killed,  in  44  B.C.,  and 
that  he  had  been  appointed  the  heir  of  his  uncle.  In  com- 
pany with  his  friend  Vipsanius  Agrippa,  he  went  to  Rome 
to  claim  his  inheritance.  He  found  a  dangerous  rival  in 
Mark  Antony,  who  had  possession  of  the  money  and 
papers  of  the  dictator  and  refused  to  give  them  up. 
Octavius  pursued  an  artful  and  temporizing  course,  by 
which  he  gained  the  support  of  Cicero  and  other  sena- 
tors, and  showed  himself  an  equal  match  for  old  and 
experienced  players  in  the  game  of  political  intrigue. 
In  January,  43,  the  senate  gave  him  command  of  an 
army,  and  sent  him  with  the  consuls  Hirtius  and  Pansa 
to  fight  against  Antony,  who  was  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  The 
army  of  the  senate  defeated  Antony  near  Mutina,  (M6- 
dena,)  but  Hirtius  and  Pansa  were  killed  in  the  battle. 
Soon  after  this  event  the  command  of  the  army  was 
transferred  to  D.  Brutus  by  the  senate,  which  had  re- 
solved to  check  the  growing  power  and  ambitious  efforts 
of  Octavius.  In  defiance  of  the  authority  of  the  senate, 
he  marched  with  an  army  to  Rome,  was  elected  consul 
in  August,  43  B.C.,  (before  he  had  reached  the  legal  age,) 
and  formed  a  coalition  or  triumvirate  with  Antony  and 
Lepidus  against  M.  Brutus  and  the  other  republicans. 
Antony  and  Octavius,  commanding  in  person,  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  Brutus  and  Cassius  at  Philippi, 
42  B.C.  According  to  Suetonius,  he  treated  the  van- 
quished with  merciless  cruelty.  Thousands  of  persons 
perished  as  victims  of  the  proscription  which  the  trium- 
virs ordered.  Octavius  and  Antony  soon  quarrelled,  but 
postponed  hostilities  by  a  feigned  reconciliation,  and 
combined  their  forces  against  Sextus  Pompey,  who  was 
master  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia.  Octavius  gained  a  deci- 
sive victory  over  Pompey  in  36  B.C.,  and,  while  Antony 
was  engaged  in  Eastern  campaigns  or  in  dalliance  with 
Cleopatra,  established  his  power  in  Italy.  He  became 
consul  for  the  second  time  in  33  and  for  the  third  time 
in  31  B.C.  At  length,  owing  in  part  to  Antony's  infatua- 
tion for  Cleopatra,  and  his  neglect  of  Octavia,  (the  sister 
of  Augustus,)  whom  he  had  recently  married,  the  breach 
became  irreconcilable.  Octavius  gained  a  decisive  victory 
at  the  naval  battle  of  Actium,  (31  B.C.,)  which  rendered 
him  sole  master  of  the  Roman  empire.  He  entertained  or 
professed  a  design  to  restore  the  republic  ;  but  he  allowed 
himself  to  be  persuaded  to  usurp  imperial  power,  partly 
disguised  under  the  form  of  a  republican  government. 
He  was  elected  consul  several  times  after  the  year  30,  and 
received  the  title  of  Augustus  from  the  senate  in  27  B.C. 
His  chief  ministers  or  advisers  were  Agrippa,  Maeceiias, 
and  Asinius  Pollio.  He  accepted  in  the  year  23  the 
tribimitia  potestas  (tribunitian  power)  for  life. 


short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fdll,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  m(56n; 


AUGUSTUS 


21 


3 


AUMALE 


Augustus  was  a  liberal  patron  of  the  poets  Virgil  and 
Horace,  whose  genius  rendered  the  Augustan  age  the 
most  illustrious  in  the  history  of  Roman  literature.  He 
greatly  increased  the  architectural  splendour  of  Rome, 
and  boasted  that  he  left  that  a  city  of  marble  which  he 
had  found  a  city  of  brick.  Under  his  rule  the  people 
enjoyed  such  a  share  of  peace  and  prosperity  as  recon- 
ciled them  to  the  loss  of  their  liberty.  He  married 
several  wives,  namely,  Clodia,  Scribonia,  and  Livia  Dru- 
silla.  Scribonia  bore  him  a  daughter  Julia,  his  only 
child.  In  his  domestic  relations  he  was  not  happy.  He 
was  temperate  or  abstemious  in  his  diet,  and  lived  in  a 
comparatively  simple  style. 

He  applied  himself  with  great  diligence  to  the  study 
of  eloquence  from  his  early  youth.  Although  he  could 
speak  very  well  extemporaneously,  he  never  addressed 
the  senate,  the  soldiers,  or  the  people,  unless  he  had  care- 
fully prepared  himself  beforehand.  He  was  partial  to 
the  study  of  Greek  literature  and  philosophy,  but  he  never 
wrote  in  that  language,  and  did  not  speak  it  fluently.  Ac- 
cording to  Suetonius,  Augustus  composed  many  works  in 
prose  on  various  subjects,  including  a  history  of  his  own 
life,  which  extended  only  to  the  Cantabrian  war.  He 
a'so  wrote  some  epigrams  and  other  verses.  Having 
adopted  Tiberius  (his  step-son)  as  his  successor,  he  died 
in  August,  14  A. D. 

See  Suetonius,  "Life  of  Augustus,"  ("  Vita  Augusti ;")  Nicolas 
Davascenus,  "  De  Vita  Augusti ;"  Tacitus,  "Annales;"  Drumann, 
"Geschichte  Roms;"  Plutarch's  "Life  of  Marcus  Antonius;" 
NouGAREDE,  "  Histoirc  du  Siecle  d'Auguste,"  1840;  Larrey,  "Vie 
d' Augusta,"  1S40. 

'  Augus'tus  Fred'erick,  Prince  of  Great  Britain, 
and  Duke  of  Sussex,  the  sixth  son  of  George  HI.,  was 
born  in  1773.  married,  at  Rome,  in  1793,  Lady  Au- 
gusta Murray,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Dunmore.  The 
prerogative  court  having  declared  this  marriage  to  be  null 
and  void,  the  parties  were  separated,  after  the  birth  of  a 
son.  Sir  Augustus  Frederick  d'Este.  The  Duke  of  Sus- 
sex was  liberal  in  politics,  voted  for  the  abolition  of  the 
slave-trade  and  slavery,  and  favoured  religious  toleration. 
He  was  chosen  president  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1830, 
and  retired  from  that  position  in  1839.  He  contributed 
liberally  to  benevolent  institutions.    Died  in  1843. 

Au'laf,  written  also  Anlaf,  a  Danish  chief,  who  rav- 
aged Ireland  and  the  north  of  England,  and  finally, 
having  conquered  Edmund  at  Leicester,  obtained  the 
northern  part  of  the  kingdom,  which  he  ruled  until  his 
death  about  943. 

Aulaf,  King  of  Norway.    See  Olaf. 

Aulagnier,o'ltn'ye-i',  (Alexis  Franqois,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  in  Grasse  in  1767;  died  in  1839. 

Aiilaire.    See  Saint-Aulaire, 

Au-la^ni-us  E-van'der,  an  Athenian  sculptor,  who 
lived  in  Rome  in  the  time  of  Augustus. 

Aulard,  o'IIr',  (Pierre,)  a  French  general,  born  in 
Languedoc  in  1763,  was  killed  at  Waterloo  in  181 5. 

Aulber,  (Erasmus.)    See  Alber. 

Aulber,  owKber,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Waiblingen  in  1671  ;  died  in  1743. 

Aulber,  (Matthaeus,)  a  German  reformer,  born  at 
Blaubeuren  in  1495,  became  a  disciple  of  Luther  about 
1 5 18.  He  preached  at  Rcutlingen,  and  induced  that 
city  to  adopt  the  Augsburg  Confession  in  1530.  In  1548 
he  was  appointed  cathedral  preacher  at  Stuttgart  bv 
Duke  Ulrich. 

Aulbery,  o'hWre',  (George,)  secretary  to  Charles 
III.,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  was  author  of  several  poems,  a 
life  of  Saint  Sigisbert,  King  of  Austrasia,  and  a  descrip- 
tion of  Lorraine  and  Nancy. 

Auletta,  6w-let'tS,  (PirtrRO,)  an  Italian  composer  of 
operas,  lived  in  the  first  haff  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Aulich,  ow'liK,  (Louis,)  a  Hungarian  general,  born 
at  Presburg  in  1792.  He  was  made  a  general  in  the 
spring  of  1849,  and  contributed  to  the  success  of  the 
Hungarians  over  Windischgratz.  He  succeeded  Gorgey 
as  minister  of  war  in  July  or  August,  1849.  After  the 
surrender  of  Gorgey,  he  was  hung  as  a  rebel  by  the 
\ustrians  at  Arad  in  October,  1849. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Auliczeck.    See  Aulizeck. 

Aulisio,  d',  dow-lee'se-o,  [Lat.  Aulis'ius,]  (Dome- 


Nico,]  an  Italian  jurist,  linguist,  and  writer,  eminent  for 
his  learning,  was  born  at  Naples  about  1645.  He  was 
well  versed  in  the  ancient  and  modern  languages,  numis- 
matics, and  various  sciences,  and  was  professor  of  civil 
law  at  Naples  for  many  years.  Among  his  numerous 
works  are,  "  On  the  Architecture  of  the  Mausoleum," 
("De  Mausolei  Architectura,")  "On  the  Timaic  Har- 
mony," ("De  Harmonia  Timaica,")  and  "Commentaries 
on  Civil  Law,"  ("  Commentaria  Juris  Civilis,"  3  vols., 
1719-20.)    Died  in  171 7. 

See  "  Vita  di  Aulisio,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Scuole  Sacra"  by  Troi- 
sio,  1723. 

Aulizeck,  6w'lit-s§k^  or  Auliczeck,  ovv'lit-ch^k, 
(Dominic,)  a  Bohemian  sculptor,  born  at  Policzka  in 
1734;  died  at  Munich  in  1803. 

Aulnaye,  de  1',  deh  16'na',  (Franqois  Henri  Sta- 
nislas,) a  P>ench  writer,  born  at  Madrid  in  1739.  He 
translated  "  Don  Quixote"  into  French,  (1824,)  and  wrote 
many  articles  for  the  "Biographic  Universelle."  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  a-"  History  of  the  Religions  and 
Worships  of  all  Nations,"  (1791,)  "Pax  Vobis,  or  the 
Anti-Mason,"  (Philadelphia,  1791,)  and  an  essay  "On 
the  Pantomime  of  the  Ancients,"  ("De  la  Saltation 
theatrale,"  1790.)  "His  version  of  Don  Quixote,"  says 
Weiss,  "is  the  best  in  the  language."  He  lived  mostly 
in  Paris.    Died  in  1830. 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Aulon,  d',  do'loN',  (Jean,)  a  French  gentleman,  known 
as  a  companion-in-arms  of  Joan  of  Arc.  He  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  king  to  attend  her  as  intendaiit  ox  maitre- 
tVhotd.  lie  fought  at  the  siege  of  Orleans.  In  the  cam- 
paign of  1449  he  was  made  a  chevalier. 

Aultanne,  d',  doKttn',  (Joseph  Augustin  de  Four- 
nier — deh  fooR^ne-i',)  Marquis,  a  French  general,  born 
at  Valreas  in  1759,  served  at  the  battles  of  Zurich  and 
Hohenlinden,  but,  having  connected  himself  with  Moreau, 
became  suspected  by  Napoleon  for  a  time.  He  after- 
wards distinguished  himself  at  Austerlitz  and  Jena,  and 
was  made  governor  of  Warsaw  and  Toledo.  Died  in 
1828. 

Aulu-Gelle.    See  Gellius,  (Aulus.) 

Au'lus,  the  name  of  one  or  more  gem-engravers,  M'ho 
lived  under  early  Roman  emperors. 

Aulus  Gellius.    See  Gellius. 

Aulus  Postumius.    See  Postumius. 

Auniale,  d',  do''mtK,  (Charles  de  Lorraine — deh 
lo'ran',)  Due,  a  French  prince,  born  about  1555,  was  a 
son  of  Claude  II.,  and  a  first-cousin  of  Henry,  Duke  of 
Guise.  After  the  death  of  the  latter,  (1588,)  Aumale  and 
the  Duke  of  Mayenne  became  the  chiefs  of  the  League 
formed  against  the  Huguenots  and  Henry  IV.  Aumale 
commanded  a  wing  of  the  army  of  the  League  at  the 
battle  of  Ivry,  (1590,)  and  afterwards  joined  in  a  trea- 
sonable design  to  transfer  France  to  the  King  of  Spain. 
He  was  sentenced  to  death  by  Parliament  in  1595,  but 
had  escaped  from  their  power.  Died  at  Brussels  in 
1631. 

See  De  Thou,  "Historia  sui  Temporis ;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire 
des  Francais." 

Aumale,  d',  (Claude  de  Lorraine,)  Due,  a  French 
duke,  born  about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  a 
son  of  Rene  II.  of  Lorraine.  He  conquered  the  duchy 
of  Luxembourg  in  1542,  and  was  created  Duke  of  Guise 
by  Francis  I.    Died  in  1550. 

Aumale,  d',  (Claude  II.,)  Due,  the  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  about  1525,  was  a  brother  of  Francois, 
Duke  of  Guise.  He  had  a  high  command  in  the  war 
against  Charles  V.,  and  fought  against  the  Huguenots 
at  Dreux,  (1562,)  Saint-Denis,  (1567,)  and  Moncontour, 
(1569.)  He  was  one  of  the  principal  instigators  of  the 
Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  (1572.)  He  was  killed 
at  the  siege  of  La  Rochelle  in  1573,  and  left  a  son 
Charles,  noticed  above. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis." 

Aumale,  d',  (Claude,)  a  Knight  of  Malta,  son  of 
Claude  II.,  was  born  in  1563.  He  was  an  active,  fierce, 
and  cruel  member  of  the  League,  and  declared  he  would 
make  a  Saint  Bartholomew  of  the  royalists  all  over 
France.    He  was  killed  at  Saint-Denis  in  1591.^ 

Aumale  or  Albemarle,  d',  dtKbeh-mtRK,  (Etienne, 
or  Stephen,)  Count  of,  was  son  of  Eudes,  first  Count 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  guttural ;  n,  nasal;  r, 


trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AUMALE 


2 


14 


AURELIO 


of  Aumalc,  (and  Earl  of  Holderncss,)  and  nephew  of 
William  the  Conqueror.  In  1095  a  conspiracy  was 
formed  to  place  him  on  the  English  throne,  but  being 
defeated  he  was  condemned  to  the  loss  of  his  eyes  ;  Wil- 
liam Rufus,  however,  pardoned  him.  He  twice  rebelled 
against  Henry  I.,  who  burnt  his  castle  in  Aumale.  He 
made  two  pilgrimages  to  the  Holy  Land,  in  the  last  of 
which  he  died,  in  11 27. 

Aumale,  d',  or  Albemarle,  (Eudes  or  Odo,)  Count, 
son  of  Etienne  II.,  Count  of  Champagne,  being  deprived 
of  his  inheritance  by  his  uncle  Thibaut  HI.,  took  refuge 
with  the  Duke  of  Normandy,  whose  half-sister  he  mar- 
ried, and  to  whom  he  rendered  good  service  in  the 
conquest  of  England,  for  which  he  was  created  Earl 
of  Holderness.  Having  joined  Mowbray's  rebellion, 
in  1094,  he  was  imprisoned  by  William  Rufus  the  rest 
of  his  life. 

Aumale,  d',  or  Albemarle,  (Guillaume,  or  Wil- 
liam,) Count,  son  of  fitienne,  succeeded  his  father  in 
Aumale  and  Holderness  in  1 127.  He  supported  Stephen 
in  his  contest  for  the  crown  of  England  against  the  em- 
press Matilda.  In  1173  he  joined  the  rebellion  of  Prince 
Henry  against  his  father  Henry  II.,  but  afterwards  sub- 
mitted.   Died  in  1 180. 

Aumale,  d',  (Henri  Eugene  Philippe  Louis  d'Or- 
leans — doR^la'c^N^,)  Due,  the  fourth  son  of  King  Louis 
Philippe,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1822.  He  entered  the 
army  in  1839,  served  in  Africa  in  1840,  and  became 
marechal-de-camp  in  1842.  In  1843  ^""^  gained  a  victory 
over  Abd-el-Kader,  whose  camp  and  treasures  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  French.  He  was  rewarded  with  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general,  and  in  September,  1847, 
was  appointed  Governor-General  of  Algeria.  Soon  after 
that  date  Abd-el-Kader  surrendered  to  him.  When  the 
news  of  the  revolution  of  1848  arrived  in  Algeria,  the 
Due  d'Aumale  submitted  to  the  new  regime  in  a  manner 
that  was  generally  applauded.  He  retired  as  an  exile  to 
England. 

Aumale,  d',  (Jean  d'Arcourt — dta^kooR^,)  Comte, 
a  French  soldier,  born  in  1396,  defeated  the  English  in 
1423  between  Laval  and  Vitre.  He  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Verneuil  in  1424. 

Aumont,  d',  do'moN^  (Jacques,)  Due,  an  officer  in 
the  national  guards  in  the  Revolution,  (who  was  mal- 
treated by  the  mob  for  supposed  aid  to  Louis  XVI.  in 
his  escape,)  served  till  1793.    He  died  in  1799. 

Aumont,  d',  do'm^N^  (Jean,)  an  able  French  gene- 
ral, born  in  1522  of  a  noble  family.  He  fought  against 
the  Protestants  in  the  war  which  began  in  1562,  and  was 
niade  a  marshal  of  France  in  1579.  In  1589  he  became 
an  adherent  of  Henry  IV.,  for  whom  he  fought  with  dis- 
tinction at  Ivry,  in  1590.  He  was  killed  in  battle  in  1595. 
He  was  renowned  for  courage  and  magnanimity.  His 
grandson  Antoine,  Due  d'Aumont,  (1601-69,)  was  a  mar- 
shal of  France. 

See  De  Thou,  "Historia  sui  Temporls  ;"  and  I.'Estoile,  "  Me- 
moires. " 

Aumont,  d',  (Louis  Marie  Alexandre,)  Due,  a 
brother  of  Jacques,  born  in  1736,  was  a  member  of  the 
States-General  in  1789,  and  an  adherent  of  the  Bourbons. 
Died  in  1814. 

Aumont,  d',  (Louis  Marie  CiSleste  de  Pienne — 
deh  pe'en',)  Due,  a  royalist  general,  born  in  1770,  was  a 
so:i  of  Jacques,  above  noticed.  He  commanded  a  band 
C'f  royalists  who  entered  Normandy  from  the  sea  during 
the  Hundred  Days.    Died  in  1831. 

Aumont,  d',  (Louis  Marie  Victor,)  Due,  a  French 
general,  a  son  of  Antoine,  born  in  1632.  He  distin- 
guished himself  as  an  officer  in  the  wars  of  Louis  XIV. 
1'^  Flanders.    Died  in  1704. 

Au-na'ri-us  or  Au-na-eha'ri-us,  [Fr.  Aunaire, 
o'rSr'',]  Saint,  Bishop  of  Auxerre,  is  known  by  various 
names.  He  was  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Orleans  about 
540  A.D.,  and  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  for  learning  and 
sanctit3^ 

Aungerville.    See  Richard  de  Bury. 

Aunillon,  o^ne'yoN',  (Pierre  Charles  Fabiot — 
ft'be''o',)  Ahbe,  born  in  1684,  was  the  author  of  "The 
Disguised  Lovers,"  a  comedy,  "  Azor,  a  Fairy  Tale,"  and 
"The  Force  of  Education,"  a  novel.    Died  in  1760. 

Aunoy,  o^nw^',  (Marie  Catherine,)  Countess  of, 


a  distinguished  ornament  of  the  court  of  Louis  XIV., 
born  about  1650.  She  is  known  in  our  times  chiefly  by 
her  fairy-tales,  which  have  run  through  numberless 
editions  and  been  translated  into  various  languages. 
She  also  wrote  several  novels,  and,  among  them,  "The 
History  of  the  Count  of  Warwick,"  "  Memoirs  of  the 
Court  of  England,"  and  other  historical  memoirs  and  ro- 
mances.   Died  at  Paris  in  1705. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire  ;"  Dunlop,  "History  of 
Fiction  ;"  "  Histoire  Litteraire  des  Femmes  Frangaiscs." 

Aupick,  o'p^k'',  (Jacques,)  a  French  general,  born  at 
Gravelines  in  1789.  He  served  in  several  campaigns  of 
Napoleon,  became  a  colonel  in  1834,  and  a  general  of 
division  in  1847.  In  1851  he  was  ambassador  to  London. 
He  was  appointed  a  senator  in  1853.    Died  in  1857. 

Auramazda.    See  Ormuzd. 

Aurang-Zebe.    See  Aurung-Zeb. 

Aurat,  d'.    See  Dorat. 

Aurbach,  von,  ion  owR^blK,  or  Aurpach,  owR'piK, 

(JoiiANN,)  a  German  jurist  of  Bamberg,  lived  in  the  sec- 
ond half  of  the  fifteenth  century, 

Aurbaclier,6wR''baK-er,  (Ludvv^ig,)  a  German  school- 
master, born  in  Bavaria  in  1784,  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Adventures  of  Seven  Suabians,"  (1846.) 
Died  in  1847. 

Au-re'li-a,  the  mother  of  Caius  Julius  Caesar  the 
dictator,  was  a  woman  of  superior  character.  ,  Died  in 
54  B.C. 

Aurelia  Gens,  a  plebeian  family  in  Rome,  of  Sabine 
origin,  containing  many  illustrious  names.  C.  Aurelius 
Cotta  was  the  first  who  obtained  the  consulship,  252  B.C. 

Au-reTi-an  or  Au-re-li-a'nus,  [Fr.  Aurelien, 
5'ra'le''iN',]  (Claudius  Domitius,)  a  Roman  emperor, 
who  was  born  of  obscure  parents  ai)out  212  A.D.,  at  Sir- 
mium,  in  Pannonia,  or,  according  to  some,  in  Lower 
Dacia,  or  in  Moesia.  He  rose  by  his  talents  and  courage 
from  the  rank  of  private  to  the  highest  position  in 
the  army  of  Valerian,  and  was  appointed  consul  in  25S 
A.D.  On  the  death  of  Claudius  in  270,  Aurelian  was 
proclaimed  emperor  by  the  army.  About  the  same  time 
the  north  of  Italy  was  invaded  by  the  Alemanni,  who 
were  defeated  at  Fanum,  in  Umbria.  The  principal  event 
of  his  reign  was  an  expedition  against  Zenobia,  Queen 
of  Palmyra,  who  reigned  over  Syria,  Egypt,  etc.,  and 
whose  army  he  defeated  near  Emesa.  Palmyra  and  the 
queen  were  captiu'ed  by  him  in  273  A.D.  (See  Zenobia.) 
He  punished  a  revolt  of  the  Palmyrenes,  which  occurred 
soon  after,  with  a  general  massacre,  and  acted  with  ex- 
treme severity  on  other  occasions.  He  was  very  success- 
ful in  his  military  enterprises,  and  was  called  the  restorer 
of  the  empire,  but  was  more  competent  to  command  an 
army  than  to  govern  a  nation.  He  was  assassinated  by 
his  own  officers  in  275  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Tacitus. 

See  Vopiscus,  "Vita  Aurellani;"  Trebellius  Pollio,  "Odena- 
tus,"and  "  Zenobia  ;"  Tillemont,  "Histoire  des  Empereurs;"  Gib- 
bon, "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  chap.  xi. 

Aurelian  or  Aurelianus,  Saint,  was  born  about 
500  A.D.  He  became  Bishop  of  Aries,  and  the  pope's 
vicar  for  Gaul,  about  546.  He  died  at  Lugdunum,  (Lyons,) 
551  A.D. 

Aurelianus,  Saint.    See  Aurelian,  Saint. 

Aurelianus  Caelius.    See  C^lius  Aurelianus. 

Aurelien,  the  French  of  Aurelian,  which  see. 

Aurelio,  6w-ra'le-o,  King  of  Asturias,  reigned  fron-. 
768  to  774  A.D.  He  bound  himself  by  treaty  to  deliver 
annually  a  number  of  maidens  to  the  Moorish  king  as 
tribute. 

See  Paquis  and  Dochez,  "Histoire  d'Espagne." 

Aurelio,  6w-ra'le-o,  (Aurelio,)  a  Venetian  p  -l^ 
flourished  between  1660  and  1720. 

Aurelio,  Aurelli,  6w-reKlee,  or  Arelli,  d-reFlee, 
(Giovanni  Muzio — moot'se-o,)  [in  Latin,  Joan'nes 
Mu'tius  Aure'lius,]  a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Mantua, 
lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  si.xteenth  century.  He  was 
appointed  governor  of  Mondolfo  by  Leo  X.,  became  un- 
popular, and  was  assassinated  a  few  months  after  his 
appointment.  He  left  a  hymn  to  John  the  Baptist  and 
an  epistle  to  Leo  X.,  which  are  highly  praised  by  J.  C. 
Scaliger. 

See  BAiLLET,"Jugements  des  Savants,"  and  Scaliger,"  Poetica." 


ii,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  vi,  y. 


s/w?'t;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


AURELIO 


21 


5 


JURIFABER 


Aurelio,  (Ludovico,)  an  Italian  historian  and  Jesuit, 
born  at  Perugia,  was  distinguished  for  his  proficiency  in 
Greek,  Latin,  and  German.  He  became  a  canon  of  the 
Lateran  at  Rome.  Among  his  worlds  are  a  "  History  of 
the  Rebellion  of  the  Bohemians  against  the  Emperors 
Matthias  and  Ferdinand,"  (1625,)  and  an  "Epitome  of 
the  Annals  of  Cardinal  Baronius,"  (2  vols.,  1634.)  Died 
in  1637. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Au-re''li-iiS,  a  famous  Roman  painter,  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus. 

Aturelius,  6\v-ra^le-us,  (iEciDius,)  a  learned  Swedish 
writer  and  translator,  born  at  Upsal,  lived  about  1650. 

Aurelius,  (Joannes  Mutius.)  See  Aurelio,  (Gio- 
vanni Muzfo.) 

Au-re'li-us  An-to-ni'nus,  (Makcus,)  commonly 
called Mar'cus  Aure'lius,[Fr.MARC-AuRELE,mtR^ko  - 
ral',]  sometimes  surnamed  the  Philosopher,  a  Roman 
emperor,  celebrated  for  his  wisdom,  learning,  and  virtue, 
was  born  at  Rome  in  April,  121  a.d.  He  was  a  son  of 
Annius  Verus,  who  once  held  the  office  of  praetor.  His 
own  original  name  was  Marcus  Annius  Verus.  He  was 
educated  by  able  teachers,  among  whom  were  Fronto, 
Apollonius  of  Chalcis,  and  Herodes  Atticus.  In  philo- 
sophy he  was  a  disciple  of  the  Stoics,  of  which  sect  he 
became  an  illustrious  ornament  by  his  practice  as  well 
as  by  his  writings.  Having  been  adopted  by  Antoninus 
Pius  in  138  A.D.,  he  assumed  the  name  of  M.  ^lius 
Aurelius  Verus  Caesar.  In  139  Antoninus,  who  had  just 
become  emperor,  associated  him  in  the  administration. 
Aurelius  married  Faustina,  a  daughter  of  Antoninus, 
about  146  A.D.,  and  succeeded  his  adopted  father  in  161, 
after  he  had  been  urged  by  the  senate  to  accept  the 
throne.  He  associated  with  himself  in  the  empire  Lu- 
cius Commodus,  alias  Lucius  Verus.  They  reigned  har- 
moniously together  until  the  death  of  Verus  in  169  A.D. 

His  reign  was  disturbed  by  many  insurrections,  and 
by  inroads  of  northern  barbarians,  especially  the  German 
tribes  of  the  Marcomanni  and  Quadi.  Though  he  pre- 
ferred peace,  he  was  almost  continually  involved  in  war, 
in  which  he  acted  on  the  defensive  and  was  generally 
victorious.  He  is  said  to  have  shown  himself  a  skilful 
^  general.  He  commanded  in  person  the  army  that  drove 
the  Marcomanni  out  of  Pannonia.  His  victory  over  the 
Quadi  in  174  a.d.  is  attributed  to  a  miracle  by  some 
writers,  who  affirm  that  the  thirsty  Romans  were  refreshed 
by  a  shower  during  the  battle,  while  the  enemy  were 
assailed  by  a  violent  storm  of  hail  and  lightning.  An 
ancient  tradition  ascribes  this  miracle  to  the  prayers 
of  a  Christian  legion  which  formed  part  of  the  army  of 
Aurelius. 

In  175  A.D.,  Avidius  Cassius,  an  able  general,  who 
commanded  the  Roman  army  in  Syria,  revolted,  de- 
clared himself  emperor,  and  made  himself  master  of 
Egypt  and  of  the  part  of  Asia  which  lies  east  of  Mount 
Taurus.  He  was  killed  by  his  own  officers  in  the  same 
year.  Aurelius  visited  Syria,  Egypt.  Athens,  etc.,  in  176. 
He  was  initiated  into  the  Eleusinian  mysteries  at  Athens, 
and  on  other  occasions  conformed  to  the  established  re- 
ligious rites.  In  177  he  associated  his  son  Commodus 
with  himself  in  the  empire.  He  was  engaged  in  a  cam- 
paign against  the  Marcomanni  and  Quadi,  when  he  died 
at  Sirmium,  or  at  Vindebona,  (Vienna,)  in  March,  180  a.d. 
Commodus  erected  to  his  memory  the  Antonine  column, 
which  stands  at  Rome  in  the  Piazza  Colonna.  His 
thoughts  and  doctrines  were  recorded  by  himself  in  a 
Greek  work,  called  "Meditations,"  which  is  considered 
an  excellent  manual  of  moral  discipline.  His  biogra- 
phers find  it  difficult  to  explain  the  persecution  which  the 
Christians  suffered  ia  his  reign,  and  which  is  perhaps 
the  only  stain  on  his  memory.  We  learn  from  one  short 
passage  of  his  writings  that  he  was  prejudiced  against 
the  Christians.  No  monarch  was  ever  more  beloved  by 
his  subjects.  He  acquired  the  boasted  equanimity  of 
the  Stoic  philosophy,  without  the  asperity  which  was  a 
characteristic  of  the  Stoics  in  general.  A  good  English 
version  of  "  The  Thoughts  of  Marcus  Aurelius  Anto- 
ninus," by  George  Long,  appeared  in  1862. 

See  Cai-itolinus,  "  Marcus  Antoninus  Philosophus ;"  Tille- 
MONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs;"  Ripault,  "  Histoire  de  I'Em-- 
pereur  Marc-Antonin,"  5  vols.,  1820;  Dion  Cassius,  lib.  Ixxi.;  Fa- 


BRicius,  "Blbliotheca  Grasca;"  De  Suckau,  "Etude  sur  Marc 
Aurele,"  1S57;  Aurelius  Victor,  "  De  Cassaribus  Historia."  See 
also  the  notice  of  Marcus  Aurelius  in  Matthew  Arnold's  "Essays 
in  Criticism." 

Aurelius  Arcadius  Charisius.    See  Charisius. 

Aurelius  Augustinus.    See  Augustine,  Saint. 

Au-reTi-us  Cor-ne'li-us,  the  Latin  name  of  a  Dutch- 
man whose  family  name  was  SoPSEN,  better  known  as 
the  friend  of  Erasmus  (whose  preceptor  he  is  said  to 
have  been)  than  by  his  works,  which  were  principally 
Latin  elegies.    He  was  a  native  of  Gouda. 

See  Erasmus,  "Eplstote." 

Aurelius  Cornelius  Celsus.    See  Celsus. 
Aurelius  Cotta.    See  Cotta. 

Au-reTi-us  Vic'tor,  (Sextus,)  a  Roman  historian, 
who  flourished  between  350  and  400  A.D.,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  pagan.  He  was  appointed  prefect  of  Pan- 
nonia Secunda  by  the  emperor  Julian  about  360,  and 
was  prefect  of  the  city  of  Rome  under  Theodosius.  The 
materials  for  his  biography  are  very  scanty.  He  wrote 
"De  Caesaribus  Historia,"  which  contains  the  lives  of 
the  emperors  from  Augustus  to  Constantius,  and  is  ex- 
tant. He  is  also  the  reputed  author  of  two  extant  works, 
entitled  "Lives  of  Illustrious  Romans,"  ("De  Viris 
illustribus  Urbis  Romas,")  and  "On  the  Life  and  Cha- 
racter of  the  Emperors,"  ("De  Vita  et  Moribus  Impera- 
torum,"  or  "Aurelii  Victoris  Epitome.") 

Aurelli,  (Giovanni  Muzio.)  See  Aurelio,  (Gio- 
vanni Muzio.) 

Aureng-Zebe.  (or  Zeyb.)    See  Aurung-Zer. 

Aurenhammer,  ow'ren-hSm'mer,  or  Auernham- 
mer,  ow'ern-ham'mer,  (Josepha,)  a  celebrated  piano- 
forte player  at  Vienna,  and  a  composer  of  some  reputa- 
tion.   She  lived  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Au-re'o-lus,  (Caius,)  one  of  the  various  usurpers 
called  the  "Thirty  Tyrants"  that  arose  in  different  parts 
of  the  Roman  Empire  during  the  reign  of  Gallienus,  was 
born  in  Dacia,  of  an  obscure  family,  and  rose  by  his 
military  merit.  After  having  put  down  two  pretenders 
to  the  imperial  throne,  he  assumed  the  purple  about  267 
A.D.  Having  by  treachery  procured  the  assassination  of 
his  rival  Gallienus,  he  soon  after  submitted  to  Claudius 
II.,  (the  successor  of  Gallienus,)  but  subsequently,  re 
volting,  was  slain,  268  A.D. 

Aurgelmir.    See  Ymir. 

Auria,  6w-ree'a,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  antiquary  and 
historian,  born  at  Palermo  in  1625,  is  said  to  have  been 
chancellor  of  Sicily.  He  published  numerous  useful 
works,  among  which  arc  a  "  History  of  the  Viceroys  of 
Sicily,"  ("Istoria  de'  Signori  Vicere  di  Sicilia,"  1697,) 
and  a  "Treatise on  Tournaments,"  (1690.)  He  also  wrote 
verses  in  Latin  and  Italian.    Died  in  1710. 

See  MoNGiTORE,  "Vita  di  Auria,"  in  Crescimbeni's  "Vite  degh 
Arcadi  illustri." 

Auria,  d',  dow're-S,  (Giovanni  Domenico,)  an  emi- 
nent Neapolitan  sculptor  and  architect  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  His  master-piece  is  the  Fontana  Medina  in  the 
Piazza  del  Castelnuovo  at  Naples.    Died  in  1585. 

See  CicoGNARA,  "Storia  della  Scultura." 

Auria,  d',  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  mathematician,  who 
lived  in  Naples  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  wrote  a 
work  on  the  best  method  of  study.  He  also  translated 
various  works  of  the  Greek  mathematicians. 

Aurifaber,  ow're-f^'ber,  (Andreas,)  a  Latin  form  of 
the  name  of  Andreas  Goldschmidt,  a  German  phy- 
sician, born  at  Breslau  in  15 12,  became  professor  in 
the  University  of  Konigsberg.  He  published  a  treatise 
"On  the  Management  of  Dogs,  ("De  Cura  Canum," 
1545,)  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  Amber,"  ("Succini  His- 
toria," 1561.)    Died  in  1559. 

Aurifaber,  (Johann,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Breslau  in  15 17,  was  a  Lutheran  divine.  He 
gained  distinction  by  settling  some  religious  differences 
at  Lubeck,  and  became  professor  of  divinity  at  Konigs- 
berg about  1555.    Died  in  1568. 

Aurifaber,  "(Johann,)  a  German  divine,  born  in  the 
county  of  Mansfeld  about  15 19.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
private  secretary  of  Luther,  at  whose  death  he  was  pres- 
ent. He  was  appointed  court  preacher  at  Weimar  in 
1 55 1,  and  minister  of  the  principal  Lutheran  church  at 
Erfurt  in  1566.    He  edited  the  "Letters  of  Luther"  and 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  H,  k,  gtdtural;  N,  nasal;  R, 


trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  O^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AURIFERI 


6 


JUST  EN 


his  '*  Table-Talk,"  and  was  one  of  the  editors  of  Luther's 
other  works.    Died  in  1575. 

See  JocHER,  "Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Auriferi,  ow-ree^fi-ree,  (Bernardius,)  a  botanist  of 
distinction,  was  born  in  Sicily,  of  very  poor  parents,  in 
[739.  He  published  a  work  entitled  "  Hortus  Panormi- 
tanus,"  (1789.)    Died  in  1796. 

Aurigny,  d',  dd'ren'ye',  (Gilles,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Beauvais,  became  an  advocate  in  the  Parliament 
of  Paris.  He  produced  a  number  of  imaginative  works, 
which  were  once  popular.  Among  the  most  admired  of 
these  is  "The  Guardian  of  Love,"  ("Tuteur  d'Amour," 
1546,)  a  poem.    Died  in  1553. 

Auriol,  d',  dd^re'oK,  (Blaise,)  a  French  poet  and 
jurist,  born  at  Castelnaudary,  became  professor  of  canon 
law  at  Toulouse.  His  chief  poem  is  "  Le  Depart 
d'Amour,"  ("The  Departure  of  Love,"  1508,)  intended 
as  a  continuation  of  "  La  Chasse  d'Amour"  of  Octavien 
de  Saint-Gelais.    Died  about  1540. 

Auriol,  d',  (Pierre,)  [in  Latin  Aure'olus  or  Auri'- 
OLUS,]  a  French  theologian,  born  at  Toulouse,  became 
Archbishop  of  Aix  about  1320. 

See  Cardinal  Sernano,  "Vie  de  Pierre  d' Auriol." 

Aurisicchio,  6w-re-sek'ke-o,  an  Italian  composer, 
who  died  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Aurispa,  6w-res'pa,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  Italian 
scholar,  who  contributed  much  to  the  restoration  of 
classical  learning  among  his  countrymen.  He  was  born 
at  Noto,  in  Sicily,  about  1370.  Having  visited  Constan- 
tinople in  141 8,  he  returned  with  a  rich  store  of  Greek 
manuscripts,  many  of  which  were  almost,  if  not  wholly, 
unknown  in  Europe.  He  also  contributed  not  a  little 
to  the  popularity  of  Greek  literature  by  his  zeal  and 
success  as  a  teacher.  Died  at  Ferrara  in  1459.  He 
translated  into  Latin  "  Hieroclis  Liber  in  Pythagoroe 
Aurea  Carmina." 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Au-ri-viPli-us,  (or  ow-re-viKle-us,)  (Carl,)  an  emi- 
nent Swedish  Orientalist,  born  at  Stockholm  in  171 7, 
studied  at  Jena,  Halle,  and  Paris.  He  became  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  at  Upsal  in  1772,  and  was  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  a  commission  to  translate  the  Bible 
into  Swedish.  He  translated  the  Pentateuch,  Job,  the 
Psalms,  and  the  Prophets.  His  academical  dissertations 
are  highly  commended.    Died  in  1786. 

See  "  Biographiskt-Lexicon  ofver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Aurivillius,  (Eric,)  a  Swedish  jurist,  born  at  Knutby 
in  1643  '■>  ^^^'^  ii"^  1702. 

Aurivillius,  (Magnus,)  a  Swedish  minister,  who 
served  Charles  XII.  as  chaplain  at  Pultowa  and  Bender, 
was  born  in  1673. 

See  "  Biographiskt-Lexicon  bfver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Aurivillius,  (Pehr  Fabian,)  a  son  of  Carl,  born  in 
1756,  was  for  forty  years  keeper  of  the  principal  library 
of  Sweden,  at  U])sal,  of  which  he  compiled  a  catalogue, 
(1814.)  He  was  professor  of  humanities  at  Upsal,  and 
wrote  a  biography  of  Bergman  the  chemist.  Died  in 
1829. 

See  "Biographiskt-Lexicon  bfver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Aurivillius,  (Samuel,)  a  Swedish  physician,  and  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  Upsal.    Died  in  1767. 

Au-ro-gaPlus,  (Matthaeus,)  a  distinguished  scholar, 
cotemporary  and  friend  of  Luther,  was  born  in  Bohe- 
mia about  1480.  He  was  for  some  time  professor  of 
Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin  in  the  University  of  Witten- 
berg, and  afterwards  rector  in  that  institution.  He  pub- 
lished several  works,  and  aided  Luther  largely  in  his 
translation  of  the  Bible.    Died  in  1543. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Auroux  des  Pommiers,  5'roo'  di  po'me-^',  (Ma- 
thieu,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  legal  commentator, 
who  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Aurpach.    See  Aurbach. 

Au-run'cus,  (Posthumius  Cominius,)  a  Roman 
general,  who  was  consul  in  493  B.C.,  when  the  plebeians 
asserted  their  rights  on  Mons  Sacer. 

Aurung-Zeb,  (Aureng(or  Aurang)  -Zebe,)  6'rting- 
zab',  the  "  ornament  of  the  throne,"  afterwards  sur- 
named  Alum-Geer  or  Alam-Gir,  i'lum-geeR,  ("con- 
queror of  the  world,")  a  celebrated  emperor  of  Hindostan, 


was  born  in  1618.  Though  the  third  son  of  Shah  Jehan, 
he  managed,  by  creating  dissension  among  his  hi  others, 
and  finally  by  the  assassination  of  the  two  elder,  Dara 
and  Shuja,  and  the  imprisonment  of  the  younger,  Moorad, 
to  possess  himself  of  the  whole  empire,  even  in  the  life- 
time of  his  father,  whom  he  detained  in  captivity  for 
seven  years.  Notwithstanding  the  unscrupulous  means  * 
by  which  he  possessed  himself  of  power,  he  seems  to 
have  used  it  not  unwisely  nor  very  unjustly,  so  far  as 
his  Mohammedan  subjects  were  concerned ;  though  his 
bigoted  intolerance  towards  the  Hindoos  created  dis- 
content and  was  the  cause  of  the  first  formidable  insur- 
rection among  the  warlike  Marhattas.  Though  cool  and 
crafty,  he  seems  not  to  have  beerii  cruel,  except  from  mo- 
tives of  policy.  During  a  severe  famine  which  afflicted 
his  empire  in  the  third  year  of  his  reign,  he  showed  both 
wisdom  and  humanity  in  the  relief  of  his  famishing  sub- 
jects. He  added  Beejapore  and  Golconda  to  his  domin- 
ions, and  increased  the  imperial  revenue  to  ;,^40,ooo,ooo. 
He  died  in  1707,  in  the  fiftieth  year  of  his  reign.  The 
Mussulmans  of  India  regard  him  as  one  of  the  greatest 
of  their  monarchs ;  but  the  decadence  of  the  empire 
may  be  traced  to  his  policy.  As  in  the  case  of  Louis 
XIV.  of  France,  whom  he  resembled,  his  religious  intol- 
erance and  habits  of  duplicity  ruined  the  resources  and 
prosperity  of  the  country. 

See  Elphinstone,  "History  of  India;"  Bernier,  "Voyages  et 
Description  de  I'Empire  Mogol  ;"  J.  Mill,  "History  of  British 
India  ;"  Dow,  "  History  of  Hindustan." 

Au'si-us,  (or  6w''se-us,)  (Henry,)  a  Swedish  Hellen- 
ist, born  in  Smaland  in  1603,  was  professor  of  Greek  at 
Upsal.    Died  in  1659. 

Ausone.    See  Ausonius. 

Au-so'm-us,  [Fr.  Ausone,  6'son',]  (Decimus  Mag- 
nus,) a  celebrated  Latin  poet,  born  at  Burdigala  (Bor- 
deaux) about  310  A.D.  He  taught  grammar  and  rhetoric 
at  that  city  with  such  success  that  his  fame  induced  Va- 
lentinian  to  appoint  him  tutor  of  his  son  Gratian  in  367. 
After  the  accession  of  Gratian  to  the  throne,  375  a.d., 
Ausonius  enjoyed  the  favour  of  his  former  pupil,  and 
obtained,  besides  other  high  offices,  that  of  consul  in 
379.  He  appears  to  have  been  a  Christian  in  profession ; 
but  Muratori  and  others  have  affirmed  or  supposed  he 
was  a  pagan.  He  wrote  epigrams  ;  "  Idyllia ;"  a  descrip-  , 
tive  poem  on  the  Moselle  ;  and  "  Series  of  Noble  Cities," 
("Ordo  nobilium  Urbium.")  His  poems  were  greatly 
admired  by  his  contemporaries,  but  are  less  agreeable  to 
the  taste  of  modern  critics,  who  consider  his  style  faulty 
in  many  respects.  His  poem  on  the  Moselle  has  consid- 
erable merit,  and  is  called  the  oldest  specimen  of  descrip- 
tive poetry.    Died  about  394  a.d. 

See  M.  DE  PuvMAiGRE,  "Vie  d' Ausone ;"  Souchay,  "Disserta- 
tio  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  Ausonii ;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina ;"  J. 
Demogeot,  "fitudes  historiques  et  litteraires  sur  Ausone,"  1837. 

Ausonius,  [Fr.  Ausone,]  Saint,  born  in  the  French 
province  of  Saintonge,  is  supposed  to  have  been  conse- 
crated first  bishop  of  Angouleme  (Engolisma)  in  260  a.d., 
and  to  have  been  slain  by  the  Vandals  about  270 ;  but 
his  history  is  doubtful. 

Auspicius,  aw-spish'e-us.  Saint,  Bishop  of  Toul, 
was  a  learned  and  distinguished  ornament  of  the  Church 
in  France  in  the  fifth  centu-ry.    Died  about  480  a.d. 

Aussigny,  d',  d5^sen''ye',  (Thibauld,)  was  Bishop  of 
Orleans,  France,  in  the  fifteenth  century.  He  wrote  a 
"History  of  the  Acts  of  Joan  of  Arc." 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Tableau  de  la  Poesie  Fran^aise  au  seizieme 
Siecle." 

Aus'ten,  (Miss  Jane,)  an  English  authoress,  born  at 
Steventon,  Hampshire,  in  December,  1775,  was  ^  daugh- 
ter of  a  clergyman  who  was  rector  of  that  parish  for 
many  years.  After  the  death  of  her  father,  she  resided 
at  Southampton  and  at  Chawton,  to  which  she  removed 
in  1809.  In  1811  she  published  anonymously  her  first 
novel,  "  Sense  and  Sensibility,"  which  was  very  favour- 
ably received.  Pier  other  works  are  "  Pride  and  Preju- 
dice," "  Mansfield  Park,"  "  Emma,"  (1816,)  "Northanger 
Abbey,"  (1818,)  and  "  Persuasion,"  (1818.)  Her  charac- 
ters belong  to  the  middle  rank  of  English  society,  and 
are  not  extraordinary  either  morally  or  intellectually. 
She  is  considered  almost  unrivalled  in  fidelity  to  nature. 
Her  writings  are  free  from  sentimental  extravagance,  but 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lo)i<^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y, 


short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


AUSTEN  217  AUTENRIETH 


not  deficient  in  tenderness.  They  have  been  translated 
into  French,  and  are  achiiired  in  France.  "  Edgeworth, 
Ferrier,  Austen,"  says  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "have  all  given 
portraits  of  real  society  far  superior  to  anything  vain  man 
has  produced  of  like  nature."    Died  in  May,  181 7. 

See  LocKHART,  "  Life  of  Sir  Walter  Scott ;"  "  Quarterly  Review" 
for  January,  1821;  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  Februar}',  1863;  Mrs. 
Elwood,  "Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  Irom  the 
Commencement  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  ii.,  1843. 

Austen,  (Ralph,)  a  writer  on  horticulture,  fruit-trees, 
etc.,  was  born  in  Staffordshire  about  1610. 

Austen  or  Aus'tin,  (William,)  an  English  metal- 
founder  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  was  one  of  the  artists 
employed  to  execute  the  splendid  tomb  of  Richard,  Earl 
of  Warwick,  in  Saint  Mary's  Church  at  Warwick. 

See  DuGDALE,  "Antiquities  of  Warwickshire." 

Aus'tin,  (Benjamin,)  an  American  political  writer  of 
the  democratic  school,  born  about  1752.  He  was  a  sup- 
porter of  Jefferson.  A  collection  of  his  writings  in  the 
"  Boston  Chronicle,"  under  the  signature  of  "  Old 
South,"  was  published  in  1803  in  a  volume  entitled 
"  Constitutional  Republicanism."  He  died  in  Boston 
in  1820. 

Austin,  (Charles,)  a  son  of  Benjamin,  noticed  above, 
was  shot  in  the  streets  of  Boston  (1806)  in  an  attempt  to 
inflict  castigation  upon  one  who  had  attacked  his  father 
in  the  public  papers. 

Austin,  (James  Trecothic,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
writer,  son  of  Jonathan  L.  Austin,  born  in  Boston  in 
1784.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1802,  was  advocate 
of  Suffolk  county  for  twenty-nine  years,  and  attorney- 
general  of  Massachusetts  from  1832  to  1843.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  Life  of  Elbridge  Gerry,"  and  other  works. 

Aus'tin,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Norfolk 
county  in  1613,  became  a  Roman  Catholic  about  1640, 
and  afterwards  resided  mostly  in  London,  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Christian  Moderator;  or, 
Persecution  for  Religion  condemned,"  (1651,)  the  style 
of  which  is  commended.    Died  in  1669. 

See  Butler,  "Historical  Memoirs  respecting  the  English,  Irish, 
and  Scotch  Catholics." 

Austin,  (John,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in  1797,  was 
author  of  "The  Province  of  Jurisprudence  determined," 
(1832,)  which  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  most  valuable  con- 
tributions to  the  philosophy  of  law  and  legislation  that 
has  been  produced  in  modern  times.    Diecl  in  i860.  ■ 

Austin,  (Jonathan  Loring,)  an  American  patriot, 
born  in  Boston  in  1748.  In  1777  he  was  sent  to  Paris 
with  the  news  of  the  surrender  of  liurgoyne.  Here  he 
remained  two  years  as  Franklin's  secretary,  and  after- 
wards spent  two  years  as  his  agent  in  England.  On  his 
return  to  the  United  States  he  was  liberally  rewarded 
by  Congress.    Died  in  1826. 

Austin,  (Moses,)  an  American  pioneer,  born  in  Dur- 
ham, Connecticut,  about  the  commencement  of  the  Amer- 
ican Revolution.  He  sold  his  property  in  1820,  and  pen- 
etrated to  the  interior  of  Texas.  At  Bexar  he  forwarded 
to  the  Mexican  government  an  application  for  permission 
to  establish  in  that  country  an  American  colony  of  three 
hundred  families,  and,  without  waiting  for  a  reply,  he  set 
out  on  his  return  to  Missouri  for  settlers.  He  died  soon 
after  (June,  1821)  from  the  effect  of  the  hardships  to  which 
he  had  been  exposed.  His  application,  however,  was 
successful,  and  the  colony  was  established  by  his  son, 
Stephen  F.  Austin. 

Austin,  (Robert,)  an  English  clergyman,  who  de- 
fended the  Parliament  in  a  pamphlet  entitled  "Alle- 
giance not  impeached,"  etc.,  (1644.) 

Austin,  Saint.    See  Augustine,  Saint. 

Austin,  (Samuel,)  an  English  poet,  son  of  Rev.  Sam- 
uel, noticed  below,  was  born  in  1636;  died  in  1661. 

Austin,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  president  of  the  University 
of  Vermont,  was  born  in  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in 
1760.  He  graduated  at  Yale  with  distinguished  honours 
in  1783,  and,  after  studying  divinity,  preached  for  several 
years  in  Fair  Haven,  and  about  twenty-five  years  in  Wor- 
cester, Massachusetts.  Died  in  1830. 
^  Austin,  (Rev.  Samuel,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Cornwall  in  1606.  His  principal  work  is  "Austin's 
Urania,  or  the  Heavenly  Muse,"  (1629.) 

See  Wood,  "Athena;  Oxonienses." 


Austin,  (Mrs.  Sarah,)  an  English  writer,  distin- 
guished as  a  translator  from  the  German,  was  a  member 
of  the  Taylor  family  of  Norwich.  She  became  the  wife 
of  John  Austin,  barrister,  of  London.  She  published 
"  Characteristics  of  Goethe,"  (3  vols.,  1833,)  which  had  a 
great  success,  "  Considerations  on  National  Education," 
"Sketches  of  Germany  from  1760  to  1814,"  and  other 
original  works.  She  also  made  excellent  translations  of 
Prince  Piickler-Muskau's  "Travels  in  England,"  and  of 
Ranke's  "  History  of  the  Popes,"  (3  vols.,  1840,)  of  which 
Macaulay  remarks,  "  It  is  such  as  might  be  expected 
from  the  skill,  the  taste,  and  the  scrupulous  integrity  of 
the  accomplished  lady  who,  as  an  interpreter  between 
the  mind  of  Germany  and  the  mind  of  Britain,  has  already 
deserved  so  well  of  both  countries."  (Review  of  Ranke's 
"History  of  the  Popes.")    Died  in  1867. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  September,  1867. 

Austin,  (Stephen  F.,)  the  founder  of  the  State  of 
Texas,  was  a  son  of  Moses  Austin,  noticed  above.  He 
explored  the  region  watered  by  the  Colorado  and  Brazos 
Rivers  in  1821,  and  conducted  from  New  Orleans  a  party 
of  emigrants,  who  settled  where  the  city  of  Austin  now 
stands.  About  the  end  of  1822  the  grant  made  to  his 
father  was  confirmed  to  him  by  the  Mexican  government. 
In  the  spring  of  1833  the  Texan  colonists  formed  a  con- 
stitution and  applied  for  admission  to  the  Mexican  con- 
federacy ;  but  Austin,  who  visited  the  city  of  Mexico  on 
this  mission,  found  that  country  in  a  state  of  anarchy,  and 
failed  to  obtain  the  ratification  of  the  Texan  constitu- 
tion. He  was  detained  at  Mexico  as  a  prisoner  or  hos- 
tage until  September,  1835.  About  that  time  the  Texans 
took  arms  to  drive  the  Mexicans  out  of  Texas,  and  ap- 
pointed Austin  commander-in-chief  In  November,  1835, 
he  went  as  commissioner  to  the  United  States  to  pro- 
mote the  liberation  of  Texas  from  the  Mexican  domi- 
nation, and  to  obtain  the  recognition  of  Texas  as  an 
independent  State.    Died  in  December,  1836. 

Austin,  (William,)  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  London,  was 
the  author  of  a  poem  on  the  passion  of  Christ,  some 
prose  works  of  a  religious  character,  and  a  translation 
of  Cicero  on  "Old  Age."    Died  in  1633. 

Austin  or  Aus'ten,  (William,)  a  designer  and  en- 
graver, who  lived  in  London  about  1750.  Views  of 
buildings  in  Palmyra  and  Rome  are  his  most  noted 
works. 

Austin,  (William,)  an  English  physician  and  chemist 
of  high  reputation,  was  born  in  1753.  He  practised  at 
Oxford  and  in  London,  and  was  chosen  physician  to 
Saint  Bartholomew's  Hospital  in  1786.  He  published 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Origin  and  Component  Parts  of  the 
Stone  in  the  Bladder,"  (1791,)  and  wrote  several  papers 
on  gases.    Died  in  1793. 

Austin,  (William,)  an  American  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  in  1778,  rose  to  eminence  at  the  Boston  bar.  His 
principal  works  are  his  "  Letters  from  London,"  in  1802 
and  1803,  and  "Essay  on  the  Human  Character  of  Jesus 
Christ,"  in  1807.    Died  in  1841. 

Aus-tre-ber'ta,  Saint,  born  in  Artois  in  633  a.d., 
was  related  to  the  royal  family.    She  died  in  704. 

Austregilde,  os^t'r-zhekK,  the  wife  of  Gontran,  King 
of  Burgundy,  notorious  for  her  crimes.     Died  in  560  a.d. 

Austremoine,  Saint,  siN''t6s't'r-mwin',  [Lat.  Stre- 
mo'nius,]  the  first  Bishop  of  Auvergne,  converted  many 
pagans  in  Gaul  about  250  A.D. 

Autelli,  6w-teKlee,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian  worker  in 
mosaic,  flourished  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  There  is  said  to  be  a  curious  mosaic  in  the  mu- 
seum at  Florence  upon  which  he  worked  sixteen  years. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Autelz,  des,  di  zoihV,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  poet 
of  considerable  reputation  in  his  day,  but  of  no  great 
merit,  born  in  Burgundy  in  1 529.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  died  about  1600. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Autenrieth,  von,  fon  6w'ten-reet',(HERMANN  Fried- 
rich,)  a  physician,  born  at  Tubingen  in  1799,  succeeded 
his  father  as  professor  of  anatomy  in  1835.  He  has 
published,  besides  other  works,  one  "  On  the  Diseases 
of  the  Common  People  of  Great  Britain,"  ("  Ueber  die 
Volkskrankheiten  in  Gross-Britannien,"  1824.) 

See  Callisen,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 


€  as     9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JUTENRIETH 


218 


AVVERGNE 


Autenrieth,  von,  (Johann  Hermann  Ferdinand,) 
an  able  German  medical  writer  and  physiologist,  born 
at  Stuttgart  in  1772,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  practised  about  one  year  (1794)  at  Lancaster,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  became  professor  of  anatomy,  etc.  at  Tu- 
bingen in  1797.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  varied 
knowledge  and  powers  of  observation,  and  wrote  nume- 
rous works,  the  principal  among  which  is  a  "Manual 
of  Human  Physiology,"  ("  Handbuch  der  empirischen 
menschlichen  Physiologic,"  3  parts,  1801-02.)  Died  at 
Tubingen  in  1835. 

Aiiteroche,(CHAPPE  d'.)  See  Chappe  d'Auteroche. 

Authai'is.    See  Antheric. 

Authon.    See  Auton. 

Authville  des  Amourettes,  d',  dot'v^K  da  zt^- 
moo'ret',  (Charles  Lours,)  a  French  tactician,  who 
published  several  works  on  military  subjects.  He  was 
b'-rn  at  Paris  in  17 16,  and  died  there  in  1762. 

Autichamp,  d',  d5'te'sh6N',  (Antoine  Joseph  Eu- 
Icilie  de  Beaumont — uh'lt'le'  deh  bo'moN'',)  Count, 
born  in  1 744,  was  a  brother  of  the  marquis  Jean  T.  Louis, 
noticed  below.  He  fought  for  the  American  cause  at 
Yorktown.    Died  in  1S22. 

Autichamp,  d',  (Charles,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1770,  was  a  royalist  chief  in  the  Vendean  war  of 
1793.    Died  in  1852. 

Autichamp,  d',  (Charles,)  Seigneur  de  Miribel,  a 
French  officer,  entered  the  army  about  1640.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  Lerida  and  Lens.    Died  in  1692. 

Autichamp,  d',  (Jean  Therese  Louis  de  Beau- 
mont— deh  bo'moN',")  Marquis,  was  born  at  Angers,  of 
a  distinguished  French  family,  in  1738.  He  took  an  act- 
ive part  in  the  royalist  cause  during  the  Revolution  until 
1797)  when  he  entered  the  service  of  Paul  L  of  Russia, 
where  he  obtained  considerable  distinction.  Returning  to 
France  with  the  Bourbons  in  181 5,  he  was  made  lieuten- 
ant-general, and  governor  of  the  Louvre.    Died  in  1831. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  historique  des  Generaux 
l''rangais." 

Au'to-cles,  [Avro/vAz/f,]  an  Athenian  general  and 
orator,  commanded  in  Thrace  in  362  B.C. 

Au-toc'ra-tes  [/Vi-o/cpur?/f]  of  Athens,  one  of  the 
earliest  Greek  dramatic  poets. 

Autoin.    See  Alduin. 

Au-toFy-cus,  [AoroAw/cof,]  a  Greek  mathematician, 
born  at  Pitane,  in  yEolis,  lived  about  320  is.c.  He  taught 
mathematics  to  the  philosopher  Arcesilaus,  and  wrote 
two  extant  works,  "  On  the  Moving  Sphere,"  and  "  On 
the  Risings  and  Settings  of  the  Stars." 

See  ScHOELL,  "  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Grecqiie." 

Autolycus,  a  famous  thief  of  antiquity,  the  son  of 
Hermes.    (See  Sisyphus.) 

Au-tom'e-don,  [Airo^ueJwy,]  the  name  of  a  poet  to 
whom  are  attributed  a  number  of  epigrams  in  the  Greek 
Anthology:  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of 
Cyzicus,  and  to  have  lived  in  the  reign  of  Nerva. 

'Automne,  r/ton',  [Lat.  Autum'nus,]  (Bernard,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  near  Agen  about  1570.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  legal  works,  a  "  Commentary  on  the  Com- 
mon Law  ( Coiititvie)  of  Bordeaux."    Died  in  1666. 

Auton,  Authon,  d',  d5't6N',  or  Autun,  5''tiiN', 
written  also  Anton  and  D'Anton,  (Jehan  or  Jean,)  a 
French  poet  and  chronicler,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
been  born  about  1470.  His  reputation  as  a  poet  brought 
him  to  the  notice  of  Anne  of  Brittany,  queen  of  Louis 
XH.,  through  whom  he  received  the  appointment  of 
chronicler  to  the  king.  His  "  Annals  of  the  Reign  of 
Louis  XH."  are  distinguished  for  their  truth  and  fidel- 
ity.   Died  in  1527. 

See  GoujET,  "  Bibliotheque  Frangaise." 

Au-ton'o-e,  [Gr.  Airoi-o?/,]  a  daughter  of  Cadmus, 
and  a  sister  of  Lio,  was  the  wife  of  Aristajus,  and  mother 
of  Action. 

Au-toph-ra-da'tes,  [Gr.  AiiroGiparVzr??^,]  a  Persian 
general  in  the  time  of  Artaxerxes  HL  ancl  Darius  H. 
He  suppressed  the  revolt  of  Artabazus,  Satrap  of  Lydia, 
and  commanded  the  fleet  of  Darius  in  the  war  with  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  in  conjunction  with  Pharnabazus. 

Autran,  o'tRdN',  (Joseph,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Marseilles  in  1812.  He  produced  in  1838  "Sports  for 
the  Winds,"  ("Ludibria  Ventis,")  which  was  received 


with  favour,  and  in  1848  "The  Daughter  of  ^schylus," 
a  drama  in  five  acts,  which  shared  the  prize  of  the  Acad- 
emy with  the  "  Gabrielle"  of  Augier.  His  "  Poems  of 
the  Sea"  (1852)  are  admired. 

Autreau,  o'tRo',  (Jacques,)  a  French  artist  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  respectable  both  as  a  painter 
and  dramatic  writer.  His  comedy  of  "  Port  a  I'Anglais" 
(1718)  was  eminently  successful.  Died  in  poverty,  at 
Paris,  in  1745,  aged  eighty-nine. 

See  Heinecken,  "Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Autrey,  o'tRi',  (Henri  Jean  Baptiste  Fabry  de 
Moncault  —  ft'bRe'  deh  mdN^ko',)  Count,  born  in 
Paris  in  1723.  He  was  commander  of  a  brigade  of 
cavalry  of  Brittany  ;  but  was  chiefly  noted  for  the  works 
he  wrote  in  opposition  to  the  Encyclopaedists,  (as  the 
infidel  philosophers  of  the  French  Revolution  were 
called.)    Died  in  1777. 

See  Grimm,  "  Correspondance  littcraire." 

Autrive,  d',  do'tR^v',  (Jacques  FRANgois,)  an  emi- 
nent French  violinist  and  composer,  was  born  at  Saint- 
Quentin  in  1758,  and  died  in  1824. 

Autroche,  d',  do'tRosh',  (Claude  de  Loynes — deh 
Iwdn,)  a  French  translator,  born  at  Orleans  in  1744.  He 
published  in  1804  a  metrical  version  of  Virgil's  "  /Eneid," 
which  he  considered  an  improvement  on  the  original. 
He  proposed  to  give  an  edition  of  the  ^Eneid  such  as 
he  supposed  Virgil  would  have  written  if  he  had  lived 
long  enough  to  make  it  perfect.  In  1808  he  produced  a 
mediocre  version  of  "  Paradise  Lost,  separated  [degagee) 
from  the  superfluous  parts  which  disfigure  it."  Died  in 
1823. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Littcraire." 

Au-tro'ni-us  Pce'tus  was  consul  of  Rome  in  66  B.C., 
after  which  he  was  banished  as  an  accomplice  of  Catiline, 
Autumnus.    See  Automne. 
Autun.    See  Auton. 

Auvergne,  6-vern',  [Fr.  pron.  dV^Rn',]  (Bernard,) 
the  first  Count  of,  obtained  his  title  in  864.  He  joined 
the  league  of  Charles  the  Bald  in  877,  but  made  his 
peace  with  the  king  in  the  following  year,  and  afterwards 
rendered  distinguished  services  to  Louis  H.,  who  ap- 
pointed him  guardian  to  his  son  Louis  IH.  He  was 
killed  in  war  in  884 

Auvergne,  d',  ao''vaRii',  (AntoinE;)  a  French  ope- 
ratic composer,  born  at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1713,  went 
to  Paris,  where  he  became  director  of  the  Opera.  Died 
in  1797. 

Auvergne,  d',  (Edward,)  an  English  historical  writer, 
born  in  the  island  of  Jersey  about  1660.  He  was  chap- 
lain to  William  HL,  whom  he  accompanied  in  his  wars 
in  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  of  which  he  afterwards 
wrote  the  history.    Died  in  1 737. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses;"  Salmon,  "History  and  Anti- 
quities of  Essex." 

Auvergne,  d',  (Guillaume,)  [Lat.  Guliel'mus  Ar- 
ver'nus  or  Alver'nus,]  Bishop  of  Paris,  was  born  at 
Aurillac  in  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century.  A 
doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  he  was  distinguished  by  his  phi- 
losophical, mathematical,  and  theological  studies,  having 
written  voluminously  on  the  last  subject.  His  chief 
work  is  a  treatise  on  "The  Universe,"  ("De  Universo.") 
Died  in  1249. 

Auvergne,  d',  (Latour.)  See  Latour  d'Auvergne. 

Auvergne,  d',  (Martial,  mtR''se''tK,)  called  also 
Martial  of  Paris,  an  eminent  French  lawyer,  poet,  and 
wit,  was  born  in  Paris  about  1440.  Among  his  works 
maybe  mentioned  the  "  Decrees  of  Love,"  ("  Les  Arrests 
d'Amour,")  partly  in  prose  and  partly  in  poetry,  in  imi- 
tation of  the  subjects  treated  in  the  courts  of  Love  as 
established  in  that  age,  and  a  poem  entitled  "Vigils  of 
the  Death  of  Charles  the  Seventh."    Died  in  1508. 

See  Longfellow's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Auvergne,  d',  (Peyrols,  p^VroK,)  a  distinguished 
Proven9al  poet,  many  of  whose  songs  are  preserved  in 
the  Vatican  ancl  the  Royal  Library  of  Paris,  flourished 
in  the  twelfth  century. 

See  IMiLLOT,  "Histoire  litteraire  des  Troubadours;"  Sismondi, 
"De  la  Litterature  du  Midi  de  I'Eiuope." 

Auvergne,  d',  (Pierre,)  also  called  Petrus  de  Al- 
vernia  (or  Arvernia)  and  Petrus  de  Cros,  a  pupil 
of  Thomas  Aquinas,  was  born  in  Auvergne  about  1250, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/i07't;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  far,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


AUFERGNE 


219 


AVALOS 


and  became  one  of  the  most  distinguished  philosophers 
and  theologians  of  his  day.  He  wrote  several  commen- 
taries on  Aristotle's  works,  was  a  socius  of  the  Sorbonne, 
and  canon  of  the  Cathedral  of  Paris. 

See  BuLEE,  "  Historia  Universilatis  Pailsiensis. " 
■  Auvergne,  d',  (PierrI'.)  written  also  Peyre  d'Aul- 
vergne,  a  famous  troubadour  of  Clermont,  flourished 
about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  afterwards 
renounced  the  world  and  became  a  monk.  He  died,  it 
is  supposed,  about  1215. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  Millot, 
"  Histoire  litteraire  des  Troubadours." 

Auvergne,  d',  (Pierre,)  a  celebrated  French  scholar, 
who  became  rector  of  the  University  of  Paris  in  1272. 
Died  probably  about  1300. 

Auvergne,  d',  (Theophile  Malo  Corret  de  la 
Tour.)    See  Latour  d' Auvergne. 

Auvigny,  d',  d6^•en'ye',  (Jean  du  Castre  —  dli 
ktst'R,)  a  French  litth'afair,  born  in  Hainaut  about  17 10, 
is  said  to  have  been  addicted  to  pleasure  no  less  than  to 
literature.  Among  his  works  are  "  Lives  of  Illustrious 
Men  of  France,"  (10  vols.,  1739-57,)  and  a  romance 
called  "Memoirs  of  Madame  de  Barneveldt,"  (1732  or 
1735.)  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Dettingen  in  1743. 

See  MoRERi,  "  DIctionnaire  Historique." 

Auvity,  5've^te',  (Jean  Abraham,)  for  several  years 
a  surgeon  of  the  Foundling  Hospital  at  Paris,  was  noted 
for  his  skill  in  treating  the  diseases  of  children.  He 
wrote  several  medical  essays.    Died  in  1821. 

Auvray,  o'vRa',  (Felix,)  a  French  historical  painter, 
born  in  1800,  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  pupils 
of  Baron  Gros.    Died  in  1833. 

Auvray,  (Jean,)  a  French  poet  of  considerable 
merit,  but  whose  works  are  too  often  disfigured  by  in- 
delicate allusions  and  coarseness  of  expression,  born 
about  1590;  died  in  1633.  His  "Sacred  Treasure" 
seems  to  have  been  the  best  of  his  productions. 

Auvray,  (Louis  Marie,)  a  French  colonel,  born  in 
1762,  was  prefect  of  La  Sarthe  from  1800  until  1814. 
He  published  "  vStatistics  of  the  Department  of  La 
Sarthe,"  (1S02.)    Died  in  1833. 

Auvray,  (l^iiiLirp  Peter  Joseph,)  a  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Dresden  in  1778  ;  died  in  181 5. 

Auwera,  6w-<\a'ra,  (Johann  Georg,)  an  artist  who 
was  educated  at  Rome,  but  afterwards  became  court- 
sculptor  in  Bavaria,  resided  at  Wiirzburg,  where  he  died 
in  1756. 

See  Jacic,  "  Leben  und  Werke  der  Kiinstler  Bambergs." 

Auxboeuff,  o^buf,  (Pierre,)  a  French  priest,  emi- 
nent as  a  pulpit  orator,  lived  at  Paris  about  1400. 

Auxentiu.s,  awk-sen'she-us,  [Fr.  Auxence,  6k'- 
s6nss',]  Bishop  of  Milan,  (Mediolanum,)  born  in  Cappa- 
docia  about  310  a.d.  He  was  at  first  an  Arian,  but 
afterwards  recanted,  and  enjoyed  the  favour  of  the 
emperor  "\^alentinian  until  his  death  in  374. 

Aux-Epaules,  6'zi''p6K,  [Lat.  De  Hu'meris,  Ad 
Hu'meros,  or  De  Scap^ulis,]  a  French  soldier  of  for- 
tune of  the  fifteenth  century,  took  an  active  part  in  the 
civil  wars  under  Charles  VH.,  and  served  for  a  time  in 
the  English  army.    Died  in  1643. 

See  Jean  Chartier,  "  Chronique,"  and  "  La  Mer  des  Histoires," 
Lyons,  1512. 

Aux-iFi-us,  a  French  theologian,  lived  about  900,  and 
wrote  some  treatises  against  Pope  Sergius  HL 

Auxiron,  ok'se'rAx',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  at  Baume-les-Dames  about  1680; 
died  in  1760. 

Auxiron,  d',dok'se'r6N',(CLAUDEFRANgois  Joseph,) 
a  French  ofiuer,  born  in  Besan9on  in  1728,  wrote  some 
works  on  the  best  method  of  supplying  Paris  with  water, 
and  one  (2  vols.  i2mo)  on  "  Government."   Died  in  1778. 

Auxiron,  d',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Besan9on  in  1736  ;  died  in  1800. 

Auzanet,  o'zt'ny,  (Barth^lemi,)  a  French  lawyer 
of  high  repute,  born  in  Paris  in  1591.  He  was  engaged 
with  De  Lamoignon  in  an  effort  to  produce  a  uniform 
system  of  laws  throughout  France,  which,  though  it 
failed  of  its  object,  produced  some  valuable  legal  works. 
Died  in  1673. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 


Auziron,  5''ze'r6N'',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  engi- 
neer, and  writer  on  political  economy,  born  at  Besan9on 
in  1728  ;  died  in  1778. 

Auzoles,  d',  dS'zoF,  (Jacques,)  Lord  of  La  Peyre,  and 
author  of  several  works  on  Chronology  and  the  Bible,  was 
born  in  Auvergne  in  1571,  and  died  at  Paris  in  1642. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Auzou,  6'zoo'',  (Louis  Napoleon,)  a  nonconformist 
French  priest,  born  at  Versailles  in  1806,  was  a  disciple 
of  Abbe  Chatel,  founder  of  the  "  French  Catholic  Church." 
He  wrote  "  On  Sacerdotal  Usurpations,"  (1832,)  and  other 
works,  and  protested  against  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy. 
In  1839  he  retracted  his  heterodox  opinions. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Auzout,  5'zoo',  (  Adrien,)  an  able  French  astronomer, 
mathematician,  and  instrument-maker,  born  at  Rouen,  be- 
came one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
founded  in  1666.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the  movable 
wire  micrometer,  and  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Mi- 
crometer," (1667.)  "He  shares  with  Picard,"  says  liiot, 
"  the  honour  of  having  applied  the  telescope  to  graduated 
instruments  or  quadrants."    Died  at  Rome  about  1692. 

See  Delambre,  "Histoire  de  I'Astronomie  moderne;"  Con- 
DORCET,  "ifiloges." 

Auzoux  or  Auzou,  o'zoo',  (Louis,)  a  French  physi- 
cian, born  in  the  department  of  L'Eure  in  1797.  He  is 
distinguished  by  the  invention  of  a  new  art  of  imitating 
anatomical  preparations  with  paste  or  pulp,  {pate  de 
carton,)  which  becomes  hard  when  it  dries.  He  gave 
the  name  of  anatomic  clastiqne  to  his  method,  which  is 
considered  a  very  valuable  invention. 

Av-a-lo'ni-us,  (Elvan,)  an  English  missionary,  who 
is  said  to  have  preached  the  gospel  to  the  Bretons  in  the 
second  century. 

See  Godwin,  "De  Episcopiis  Angllcis;"  Moreri,  "Dictionnaire 
Historique." 

Avalos,  d',  dd-va'los,  sometimes  written  Davalo 
(da-VcVlo)  by  the  Italians,  the  name  of  a  noble  family  of 
Spanish  origin,  who  migrated  to  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
in  the  fifteenth  century. 

Avalos,  d',  (Alfonso,)  Marquis  of  Pescara,  an  officer 
and  friend  of  Ferdinand  H.  of  Naples,  to  whom  he  ren- 
dered good  service  in  his  war  against  the  French.  He 
died  from  the  effects  of  a  wound  in  1495,  leaving  a  son 
P^rdinand,  who  was  a  famous  general. 

Avalos,  d',  (Alfonso,)  Marquis  del  Vasto,  (written 
also  Del  Guasto,)  an  able  general,  born  at  Naples  in 
1502,  was  a  son  of  Inigo,  noticed  below,  and  a  first-cousin 
of  the  Marquis  of  Pescara.  He  entered  the  army  of 
Charles  V.  at  an  early  age,  and  greatly  contributed  to  the 
victory  of  Pavia  in  1525.  He  succeeded  the  Marquis  of 
Pescara  in  command  of  the  army  in  November  of  the 
same  year.  In  the  expedition  against  Tunis  in  1535  he 
had  the  chief  command  of  the  land-forces.  He  succeeded 
De  Leyva  as  captain-general  of  the  Imperial  forces  in 
Italy,  and  became  governor  of  Milan  in  1536  or  1537. 
He  was  defeated  with  great  loss  by  the  French  under 
Conde,  at  Cerisoles,  in  1544.  Died  in  1546.  His  sonnets 
and  Rime  are  commended. 

See  BoTTA,  "  Storia  d'ltalia ;"  Verri,  "  Storia  di  Milano ;"  Bran- 
tome,  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaines." 

Avalos,  d',  (CosTANZA,)  a  distinguished  poetess, 
sister  of  the  preceding,  livecl  about  1520.  She  became 
the  wife  of  Alfonso  Piccolomini,  Duke  of  Amalfi.  Her 
poetical  talents,  beauty,  and  virtue  are  highly  praised 
l3y  contemporary  writers. 

Avalos,  d',  (Ferdinando,)  Marquis  of  Pescara,  [in 
French,  Le  Marquis  de  Pescaire,]  a  famous  general, 
born  at  Naples  about  1490,  was  a  son  of  Alfonso  the 
elder,  noticed  above.  About  1508  he  married  Vittoria 
Colonna,  a  poetess.  (See  Colonna,  Vittoria.)  He  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  French  at  Ravenna  in  1 5 12,  and 
appointed  general  of  the  infantry  in  Italy  by  Charles  V. 
about  1 5 18.  In  1 52 1  he  captured  Milan  from  Lautrec, 
and  in  1522  pillaged  Genoa  after  he  had  taken  it  by 
storm.  Pescara  and  the  Duke  of  Bourbon  invaded  Pro- 
vence in  1524,  but  were  forced  to  retreat.  The  former 
formed  the  plan  of  the  battle  of  Pavia,  (1525,)  and  ap- 
pears to  be  entitled  to  the  honour  of  the  victory,  although 
he  was  not  nominally  the  first  in  command.  (See  Lan- 
noy,  and  Bourbon,  Due  de.)    Sismondi  says  Pescara 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  ttasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AVALOS 


220 


A  FAUX 


had  the  greatest  share  in  ganiing  this  battle,  in  which  he 
was  wounded.  Lannoy  having  gone  to  Spain  with  the 
royal  captive,  the  chief  command  devolved  on  Pescara. 
At  this  juncture,  several  Italian  princes  formed  a  secret 
league  to  drive  the  Spaniards  out  of  Italy,  and  attempted 
to  seduce  Pescara  into  the  project;  but  he  divulged  the 
secret  to  Charles  V.  Died  at  Milan,  in  November,  1525. 

See  Paoio  Giovio,  "La  Vita  di  Don  Feriando  Davalo;"  Bran- 
tome,  "\ies  des  Hommes  illustres;"  Giannone,  "Storia  civile 
del  Regno  dl  Napoli ;"  Guicciardini,  "  Istorla  d'ltalla;"  Botta, 
"  Storia  d'ltalia ;"  Verki,  "  Storia  di  Milano." 

Avalos,  d',  (In [GO,)  Marquis  del  Vasto,  a  younger 
brother  of  Alfonso,  Marquis  of  Pescara,  noticed  above, 
served  under  the  great  captain  Gonzalo  de  Cordova,  and 
died  in  his  service  in  1503. 

Avalos,  de,  da  3.-vd'l6s,  (Inigo,)  a  Spanish  general, 
who  was  a  constant  adherent  of  Alfonso  V.  of  Aragon. 
Died  in  1481. 

Avalos,  de,  (Ruy  Lopez,)  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  Grand  Constable  of  Castile,  and  a  noted  warrior. 
Died  about  1427. 

A-van-ci''nus,  [Ger.  pron.  d-v3.nt-see'nus,]  (Nico- 
I-AUS,)  a  learned  Jesuit,  rector  of  the  colleges  of  Gratz, 
Passau,  and  Vienna,  and  author  of  several  works  on 
biography,  criticism,  and  theology,  was  born  in  the  Tyrol 
in  1 61 2,  and  died  in  1685. 

See  JocHER,  "Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Avangoii,  d',  dt'vdN'soN',  (Guillaume,)  Archbishop 
of  Embrun,  born  about  1530,  was  a  violent  adversary  of 
the  Protestants.    Died  in  1600. 

Avantio.    See  Avanzi. 

AvaHiius,{HiERONYMUS.)  See  Avanzi,  (Girolamo.) 

Avanzi,  a-v§.n'zee,  or  Avantio,  J-v^n'te-o,  [Lat. 
Avan''tius,]  (Giovanni  Maria,)  a  distinguished  Italian 
jurist  and  poet,  born  at  Rovigo  in  1549,  was  a  friend  of 
Torquato  Tasso.  He  resided  at  Padua  from  1606  until 
his  death.  He  wrote  "  II  Satiro,  Favola  pastorale,"  a 
drama,  (1587,)  "The  Glow- Worm,"  ("La  Lucciola,"  a 
poem,  1627,)  and  other  works  in  prose  and  verse,  which 
remain  in  manuscript.    Died  in  1622, 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittorl  d'ltalia." 

Avanzi,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  philologist  and  editor, 
born  at  Verona  probably  about  1460.  He  assisted  Aldus 
Manutius  in  preparing  the  works  of  Latin  authors  for 
the  press,  and  was  rather  bold  and  unscrupulous  in  his 
conjectural  emendation  of  texts.  Among  the  classics 
which  he  edited  were  Catullus,  (1493,)  Lucretius,  (1500,) 
and  the  Younger  Pliny,  (1504.)    He  was  living  in  1534. 

Avanzi,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Fer- 
rara  in  1655,  was  more  noted  for  the  number  than  the 
quality  of  his  productions.  Lanzi  says  that  he  seems  to 
have  painted  against  time.  He  executed  figures,  land- 
scapes, etc.  His  master-piece  is  the  "  Beheading  of  John 
the  Baptist."  .Died  in  1718. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Avanzi,  (Niccol6,)  a  distinguished  engraver  of  gems, 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  born  at  Verona,  but 
worked  mostly  at  Rome. 

SeeVASARi,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Avanzi,  d',  d^-vin^zee,  (Jacopo  di  Paolo,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  painter  of  the  fourteenth  century,  supposed 
to  have  been  a  native  of  Bologna  or  Padua.  He  worked 
at  Bologna  between  1370  and  1400.  In  his  youth  he 
painted  Madonnas  almost  exclusively.  He  afterwards 
formed  a  partnership  with  Simone  de'  Crocefissi.  His 
style  resembled  that  of  Giotto,  whom  he  surpassed  in 
attitude  and  expression.  The  frescos  which  he  exe- 
cuted in  San  Felice,  Padua,  in  1376  were  partly  restored 
in  1773  t>y  F.  Zanoni. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Avanzini,  i-vin-zee^nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  ma- 
thematician and  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Gaino,  in 
Venetia,  in  1753.  He  became  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Padua  about  1797.  Having  been  deprived  of  this 
place  by  the  political  events  of  1801,  he  was  restored  in 
1806.  He  was  chosen  in  1805  a  member  of  the  National 
Institute.  He  wrote  essays  on  the  resistance  of  fluids, 
and  a  "Treatise  on  the  Theory  of  the  Hydraulic  Ram," 
{1815.)    Died  in  1827. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Ita'iani  illustri." 


Avanzini,  (Giustiniano,)  an  Italian  painter,  who 
flom-ishcd  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

Avanzini,  (Pietro  Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Piacenza ;  died  in  1733. 

Avanzino,  a-vin-zee''no,  a  painter  of  many  frescos  in 
the  churches  of  Rome,  born  at  Citta  di  Castello  in  1552^ 
died  in  1629. 

Avanzino,  (Giuseppe  Maria,)  an  Italian  physician 
of  Roveredo,  became  professor  at  Florence.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Vallisnieri,  and  defended  the  opinion  of  his 
master  respecting  the  origin  of  springs,  in  a  treatise, 
(1725.)    Died  in  1739. 

Avanzo.    See  Avanzi. 

Avaray,  d',  dt'vt'ra^  (Antoine  Louis,)  Dug,  a 
French  officer,  born  in  1759,  chiefly  distinguished  for 
aiding  the  escape  of  Monsieur  (afterwards  Louis  XVIII.) 
from  Paris  in  June,  1791,  of  which  Louis  in  gratitude 
published  a  full  account  after  his  accession  to  the  throne. 
Died  in  Madeira  (whither  he  had  gone  for  his  health)  in 
1811. 

Avaray,  d'^  (Claude  Antoine  de  Besiade  —  deh 

ba^ze'td'',)  Due,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1740.  He  served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  was  a  deputy 
in  the  States-General,  a  member  of  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly, (1790,)  a.nd  a  zealous  royalist.  He  only  escaped 
the  guillotine  by  the  death  of  Robespierre.  In  1814  he 
carried  the  address  of  the  Senate  to  Louis  XVIII.  Died 
in  1829. 

Avaray,  d',  (Claude  Th^ophile  de  Besiade,) 
Marquis,  a  French  general,  born  in  1655.  He  served  in 
several  campaigns  before  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  (1697,) 
and  became  marechal-de-camp  in  1702.  He  commanded 
a  wing  with  great  success  at  the  battle  of  Almansa  in 
1707,  and  served  under  Villars  in  Flanders  in  17 10— 12. 
Died  in  1745. 

Avas,  d-v^s',  (R.  Moses  Judah,)  a  Jewish  theological 
writer  and  poet,  lived  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Avattr,  ay'a.-tlr',  or  Avatara,  av^a-t^'ra,  [from  ava, 
"  off,"  "away,"  "down,"  and  tara,  a  "  crossing  over"  or 
passing  from  one  thing  to  another,]  a  term  signifying 
"  descent"  or  "  transformation,"  applied  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology  to  an  incarnation  of  one  of  the  principal  dei- 
ties, particularly  of  Brahma,  Siva,  and  Vishnu.  The 
avatars  of  Vishnu  are  especially  celebrated ;  they  are 
named  as  follows  :  I.  Matsya,  the  "  Fish  ;"  2.  Kiirma, 
(kooRma,)  the  "Tortoise;"  3.  Varaha,  the  "Boar;"  4. 
Narasingha,  the  "  Man-Lion  ;"  5.  Va'mana,  (or  Wa'ma- 
na,)  the  "Dwarf;"  6.  Parasura'ma,  (called  in  the  com- 
mon dialect  Pur''asooram';)  7.  Rama  Chandra  ;  8.  Krish- 
na ;  9.  Booddha,  (Buddha;)  the  tenth,  which  is  yet  to  come, 
is  called  Kalki.  The  particular  Avatars  of  Vishnu  will 
be  treated  of  more  fully  under  their  respective  heads. 
(See  Matsya,  Kurma,  etc.) 

Avaux.    See  Felibien. 

Avaux,  d',  dt^vo',  a  violin-player  and  composer,  who 
lived  in  Paris  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 

Avaux,  d',  (Claude  de  Mesmes — deh  mini,) 
Count,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  French  diploma- 
tists of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  born  about  1595. 
He  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Venice  in  1627.  About  1643 
he  was  appointed  a  plenipotentiary  to  conduct  the  intri- 
cate negotiations  required  to  terminate  the  Thirty  Years' 
war.  He  passed  several  ensuing  years  at  the  Hague, 
at  Miinster,  and  at  various  German  courts,  and  is  siid 
to  have  gained  the  confidence  of  foreign  powers  by  his 
integrity.  Before  he  had  completed  the  negotiations 
which  resulted  in  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  (1648,)  he 
was  recalled  by  Mazarin,  in  consequence  of  the  in- 
trigues and  jealousy  of  Servien,  who  had  been  sent  as 
his  colleague.  He  died  in  1650.  He  left  diplomatic 
memoirs,  which  were  published  in  1674. 

See  Retz,  "Memoires;"  Flassan,  "  Histoire  de  la  Diploniatie 
Francaise." 

Avaux,  d',  (Jean  Antoine  de  Mesmes,)  Count,  a 
French  diplomatist,  born  in  1640,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  whose  talents  he  is  said  to  have  inherited. 
He  was  one  of  the  plenipotentiaries  who  negotiated  tha 
treaty  of  Nymwegen,  (1678,)  after  which  he  was  ambas- 
sador to  Holland  until  1688.  In  1689  he  was  envoy  ex- 
traordinary to  James  II.  in  Ireland.  He  also  had  some 
agency  in  the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  (1697.)    Died  in  1709. 


e,  1,  5,  u,  y,  lon£^;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fdt;        n6t;  good;  moon; 


A  FAUX 


221 


AFENARIUS 


The  "  Negotiations  of  Count  d'Avaux"  were  published 
in  6  vols.,  1753. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,"  especially  chap.  xii.  of 
vol.  iii. ;  Saint-SixMON,  "  Memoires." 

Avaux,  d',  (Jean  Antoine  de  Mesmes,)  Count,  a 
judge  and  academician,  born  in  Paris  in  1661,  was  a 
grand-nephew  of  Claude,  noticed  above.  He  became 
first  president  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris  in  17 12,  and 
courageously  headed  that  Parliament  in  opposition  to 
several  measures  of  the  regency,  especially  to  the  finan- 
cial schemes  of  Law  in  171 8.  He  was  elected  in  17 10 
to  the  French  Academy.  He  was  noted  for  his  bon- 
mots.    Died  in  1723. 

See  D'Alembert,  "  Histoire  des  Membres  de  I'Academie." 

Avr.ux,  d',  (JE.A.N  Jacques  de  Mesmes,)  a  French 
judge,  born  in  1640,  was  a  member  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy.   Died  in  1688. 

Aved,  t'ved',  (Jacques  Andre  Joseph,)  a  successful 
I'^rench  portrait-painter,  born  at  Douay  in  1702,  was  a 
pupil  of  La  Belle.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Paris  in  1734,  soon  after  which  he  was  ap- 
pointed portrait-painter  to  the  king.  Among  his  works 
are  portraits  of  Mehemet-Effendi,  J.  B.  Rousseau,  and 
Mirabeau.  He  is  said  to  have  been  particularly  success- 
ful in  representing  character.    Died  in  1766. 

See  Heinecken,  " Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Av'e-dik,  Patriarch  of  Armenia.  Having  persecuted 
or  offended  the  Catholics,  he  was  abducted  by  the  Jesuits 
about  1704,  and  imprisoned  at  Messina. 

Aveelen.    See  Avelen. 

Aveen,  3.-van',  (Adrian,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  born  at 
Amsterdam,  lived  about  1700. 

Aveiro,  a-va'e-ro,  (Don  Josi^;  de  Mascarenhas — 
da  mds-kJ-ren'y^s,)  DuKE  of,  a  Portuguese  nobleman  of 
infamous  character,  born  in  Lisbon  about  1710,  is  chiefly 
noted  for  his  having  been  one  of  the  prime  actors  in  an 
attempt  to  assassin-ate  the  king  (Jose  L)  in  1758,  for  which 
he  was  broken  on  the  wheel,  and  his  property  confis- 
cated. This  conspiracy  was  originated  by  the  Jesuits  and 
discontented  nobles  in  revenge  for  the  protection  which 
the  king  gave  to  the  Marquis  of  Pombal. 

See  Smith,  "Memoirs  of  the  Marquis  of  Pombal,"  and  "Gentle- 
man's Magazine"  for  February,  1759. 

Aveis  or  Aveys,  a-vas'  or  ^-vTs',  written  also  Avis, 
Sultan,  second  sovereign  of  the  Persian  dynasty  of 
Ilkhanian  princes.  He  became  sultan  in  1356.  He  is  re- 
presented as  the  benefactor  of  his  people  and  a  munifi- 
cent patron  of  learning.    Died  in  1374. 

Avelen,  van  den,  vdn  den  a'veh-len,  or  Aveelen, 
i'va'len,  also  written  Aveele,  (Joiian,)  a  Dutch  en- 
graver of  moderate  ability,  worked  at  Stockholm  from 
1702  to  1712. 

Aveline,  tv^l^n',  (Antoine,)  a  French  engraver  and 
designer,  born  in  Paris  about  1660.  He  engraved  many 
landscaj^es  and  views  of  cities.    Died  in  171 2. 

Aveline,  (Francois  Antoine,)  an  engraver  of  me- 
diocre abilities,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1718.  He  worked 
chiefly  for  the  booksellers.    Died  in  London  in  1762. 

Aveline,  (Jean,)  an  engraver,  born  in  Paris,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding. 

Aveline,  (Pierre,)  a  designer  and  engraver,  born  in 
Paris  in  17 10,  was  a  cousin  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
the  most  able  artist  of  the  family.  lie  engraved  after 
Jordaens,  Watteau,  Teniers,  Rubens,  Albani,  and  his 
own  designs.    Died  about  1760. 

See  Basan,  "Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs.' 

Avellaneda,  de,  di  a-vel-yS-na'D^,  (Alonso  Fer- 
nandez,) the  assumed  name  of  a  Spanish  author  who 
in  1614  published  a  sequel  to  the  first  part  of  "Don 
Quixote,"  before  Cervantes  had  published  his  second 
part.  This  spurious  continuation,  entitled  "  Segundo 
Tomo  del  ingenioso  Hidalgo  Don  Quixote,"  was  trans- 
lated into  French  by  Le  Sage,  (1704,)  and  into  English 
in  1805.  Avellaneda's  work  is  much  inferior  to  that  of 
Cervantes,  but  has  some  literary  merit.  His  real  name 
is  not  known.  His  prologue  contains  a  scurrilous  attack 
on  Cervantes. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Avellaneda,  de,  (Don  Garcia— gaR-thee'S,)  Count 
of  Castrillo,  a  distinguished  Spanish  statesman,  born 


about  1600.  He  was  sent  by  Philip  IV.  as  viceroy  to 
Naples  in  1653.  During  his  administration  two  hundred 
thousand  people  are  said  to  have  died  of  plague  in  the 
city  alone  in  six  months.  Avellaneda  has  been  justly  cen- 
sured for  the  inefficiency  of  his  measures  of  prevention. 
See  GiANNONE,  "  Storia  civile  del  Regno  di  Napoli." 

Avellaneda,  de,  (Gertrudis  Gomes,)  a  popular 
Spanish  poetess,  born  in  the  island  of  Cuba  in  1816,  was 
a  daughter  of  a  naval  officer.  She  settled  at  Madrid 
about  1840,  and  published  a  volume  of  "Lyric  Poems" 
in  1 841.  Her  tragedies,  "Alfonso  Munio,"  "  Principe  de 
Viana,"  and  "  Egilona,"  had  great  success.  She  was 
married  in  1846  to  Don  Pedro  Sabator,  who  died  the 
same  year.  She  afterwards  produced  two  poems,  "  The 
Cross,"  ("  La  Cruz,")  and  the  "  Last  Accent  of  niy  Harp," 
and  several  dramas,  among  which  are  "The  Glories  of 
Spain,"  (1850,)  "The  Flower-Girl,"  ("La  Hija  de  las 
Flores,")  and  "La  Sonambula." 

Avellani.    See  Avelloni,  (Giuseppe.) 

Avellar,  de,  da  a-vel-laR^,  (Francisco  Gomes,)  a 
Portuguese  prelate,  born  in  1739,  became  Bishop  of  Al- 
garve  in  1789.  He  merited  the  title  of  public  benefactor 
by  his  improvements  in  agriculture.    Died  in  1816. 

Avellino,  S-vel-lee'no,  (Francesco  Maria,)  an  Ital» 
ian  antiquary  and  numismatist,  born  at  Naples  in  1788. 
He  became  professor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of 
Naples  in  181 5.  In  1839  he  was  appointed  director  of 
the  Museo  Borbonico.  He  wrote  many  treatises  on 
medals  and  antiquities.    Died  in  1850. 

Avellino,  (Giulio,)  a  Sicilian  landscape-painter, 
called  II  Messinese,  ("the  Messinese,")  was  a  pupil  of 
Salvator  Rosa.  His  style  resembles  that  of  his  master, 
but  is  not  so  wild.  He  worked  at  Ferrara,  where  he  died 
about  1700. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Avellino,  (Onofrio,)  a  skilful  Italian  painter  of  his- 
tory and  portraits,  born  at  Naples  in  1674,  was  a  pup'l  of 
Solimena.  He  was  especially  successful  in  portraits. 
He  worked  at  Naples  and  at  Rome,  where  he  died  in 
1 741.  Among  his  best  works  is  a  fresco  in  the  church 
of  San  Francesco  di  Paolo  in  Rome. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Avellone.    See  Avelloni. 

Avelloni,  3.-vel-lo'nee,  (Francesco,)  a  prolific  Italian 
dramatist,  born  at  Venice  in  1756.  His  first  play,  "Giulio 
Assassino,"  was  performed  with  success  at  Naples.  He 
wrote  many  plays  which  were  brought  on  the  stage  of 
Naples  under  the  name  of  the  Prince  of  Sangro,  who 
paid  him  eight  ducats  apiece.  He  was  most  successful  in 
the  sentimental  drama,  sometimes  called  the  "  lachry- 
mose." Among  his  works  are  the  "  Lantern  of  Epicte- 
tus,"and  "  II  Sogno  d'Aristo,"  ("Aristo's  Dream.")  Died 
at  Rome  in  1837. 

SeeTiPALDO,  "Blografia  degli  Italian!  illustri."  * 

Avelloni  or  Avellani,  3,-vgl-l§.''nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an 
Italian  poet  of  great  imagination,  born  at  Venice  in  1761. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Padova  Riacquistata,"  ("  Padua 
Recovered,"  1790.)    Died  at  Venice  in  1817. 

A'ven,  Da'ven,  Davent,  dt'v6N',  or  D'Avesnea, 
an  engraver,  the  time  and  place  of  whose  birth  are  un- 
known. He  engraved  on  copper  several  works  of  Pii- 
maticcio  and  Giulio  Romano. 

Avenant.    See  Davenant. 

Av-e-na^ri-iLS,  (Johann,)  a  German  theologian,  born 
at  Eger  in  1520.  His  German  name  was  Habermann,  (or 
Hafermann,  i.e.  "  Oatman,")  which,  according  to  the  cus- 
tom of  the  time,  he  changed  to  the  Latin  equivalent  Ave- 
nariiis.  He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Jena.  He 
published  a  Hebrew  Lexicon,  (1568,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1590. 

Avenarius,  (Johann,)  a  Protestant  minister,  born  at 
Steinbach  in  1670.  He  preached  at  Berka  and  Gera, 
and  wrote  several  theological  and  musical  works,  among 
which  is  "  E^vangelic  Doctrine,  or  Song-Sermons," 
("  Evangelische  Lehr,  oder  Lieder-Predigten,"  1729.) 
Died  at  Gera  in  1736. 

Avenarius,  (Johann,)  a  grandson  of  Tohann,  (1520 
-90,)  noticed  above,  was  professor  of  eloquence.  He 
wrote  "  Synopsis  CEconomica,"  and  other  works,  dated 
1608-28. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  K,  guttural;  n,  iias.il;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2;^='See  Explanations,  p.  23,) 


Jl^ENJRIUS 


222 


AFERROES 


Avenarius,  (Thomas,)  a  German  composer,  born 
near  Lcipsic,  published  some  songs  in  1614. 

Avenbrugger.    See  Auenhrugger. 

Avendaiino,  d-ven-dan'no,  (Pedro  Nunez — noon'- 
yeth,)  a  Spanish  jurist,  lived  about  1540. 

Avenelles,  des,  di  ztv'ncK,  (Alhin  or  Aubin,)  a 
French  satirical  poet,  born  in  1480,  was  canon  of  Sois- 
sons.  He  translated  into  verse  the  "  Remede  d' Amour" 
of /Eneas  Sylvius,  (Pius  II.) 

See  GoujET,  "  Bibliotheque  Frangaise." 

Avenelles,  des,  (Philippe,)  a  French  translator  of 
Plutarch's  "Lives,"  (Paris,  1558.) 

Avenelles,  des,  (Pierre,)  an  advocate  of  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Paris,  chiefly  known  by  his  disclosure  of  the 
Amboise  conspiracy  (formed  in  1560  by  the  Prince  de 
Conde)  to  remove  the  Guise  family  from  about  the  per- 
son of  Francis  II. 

Avenpace,  a\§n-pa'thi,  Avempace,  a\'§m-p^'tha, 
Abenpace,  or  more  properly  Ibn-Bajah,  ib'n-ba^jah, 
(Aboo-Bekr-Moliam'med-Ibn-Yaliya — yah'hya,) 
a  celebrated  Arabian  philosopher,  born  probably  at 
Saragossa.  He  practised  medicine  at  Seville,  which  he 
quitted  about  1120  a.d.  He  afterwards  became  vizier 
at  the  court  of  Fez,  where  he  is  supposed  to  have  died 
about  1 130.  He  was  one  of  the  teachers  of  Averroes, 
and  was  a  devoted  admirer  of  Aristotle.  Avenpace 
wrote  treatises  on  philosophy,  metaphysics,  etc. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotlieca  Hispana  Vetus ;"  Casiki,  "Biblio- 
theca  Arabico-Hispana  ;"  Wustenfeld,  "  Geschichte der  Arabischen 
Aerzte." 

Avenport,  d',  ddv'en-port,  (Francis  Christopher,) 
an  English  monk,  born  at  Coventry  about  1598,  was 
chaplain  to  Charles  II.    Died  in  1665. 

Av~en-ti''nus,  (or  a-ven-tee''nus,)  (Johannes,)  a  histo- 
rian of  much  merit,  whose  family  name  was  Thurmaier 
or  TuiiRNMAiER,  was  born  at  Abensberg,  in  Bavaria,  in 
1466.  Having  taught  eloquence,  etc.  at  Vienna  and  In- 
golstadt,  he  was  invited  to  Munich  in  1512,  and  became 
the  tutor  of  the  duke's  sons.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  His- 
tory of  Bavaria,"  ("Annales  Boiorum,"  1554,)  which  was 
generally  esteemed,  and  highly  praised  by  Leibnitz.  The 
editor  of  this  work  suppressed  some  passages  unfavour- 
able to  the  Romish  Church,  which  were  restored  in  an 
edition  published  by  Cisner  in  1580.    Died  in  1534. 

See  J.  ZiEGLER,  "Vita  Aventini ;"  D.  W.  Moller,  "  Dissertatio 
de  J.  Aventino,"  169S. 

Av'en-zo'ar,  written  also  Avenzohar  or  Aben- 
zoiiar,  a  corruption  of  the  Arabic  name  Ibn-Zohr,  (Tb'n 
zohR,)  a  celebrated  Arabian  physician,  born  probably 
near  Seville,  Spain,  about  1075.  According  to  some 
modern  authorities,  he  was  a  Jew.  He  was  a  son  of  an 
eminent  physician  of  similar  name  who  wrote  several 
works  and  died  in  1130.  The  son  became  vizier  of  the 
Sultan  Abdel-Moomen.  Died  at  Seville  in  1162.  His 
principal  work,  commonly  called  "Teiseer,"  ("Teisir," 
"Taisir,"  or  "Theizir,")  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
works  of  the  Arabian  physicians. 

See  Leo  Africanus,  "  De  Viris  illustribus  ;"  Fabricius,  "  Biblio- 
theca  Gra?ca;"  Casiri,  "  Blbliotheca  Arabico-Hispana." 

Avenzoar  the  Younger,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Seville  about  1114,  was  a  distinguished  ])hysician 
and  poet.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  chief  physician  to 
the  Sultan  Abdel-Moomen,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  vizier.  He  wrote  several  medical  works,  which  are 
not  extant.  Died  at  Morocco  about  1200.  By  Arabian 
writers  he  was  accounted  the  most  eminent  of  the  family. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotlieca  Grasca;"  N.Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca 
Hispana  Vetus." 

Aver.    See  Auer. 

Aver,  ^'ver,  (Johann  Paul,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Nuremberg  in  1636  ;  died  in  1687. 

Averani,  ^.-vi-ra'nee,  (Benedetto,)  an  eminent 
Italian  professor  and  classical  scholar,  born  at  Florence 
in  1645,  became  in  1676  professor  of  Greek,  and  after- 
wards of  humanities,  in  the  University  of  Pisa.  He  was 
very  successful  as  a  teacher  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
languages  and  antiquities.  His  lectures  on  Thucydides, 
Euripides,  Cicero,  Livy,  and  Virgil  were  published  in 
three  volumes,  (1716.)  He  wrote  other  works,  in  prose 
and  verse.    Died  at  Pisa  in  1707. 

See  G.  Averani,  "  Benedicti  Averani  Vita;"  Fabroni,  "Vitje 
Italorum  doctrina  excellentium. " 


Averani,  (Giuseppe,)  a  celebrated  jurist,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Florence  in  1662,  was  also  dis- 
tinguished for  his  attainments  in  the  physical  sciences. 
He  became  in  1684  professor  of  law  at  Pisa,  where  he 
lectured  with  high  reputation  for  many  years.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Discourse  on  the  Law  of  War 
and  Peace,"  ("  Disputatio  de  Jure  Belli  et  Pacis,"  1703,) 
and  "  Interpretations  of  Law,"  ("  Interpretationes  Juris," 
1716-36.)  His  Latinity  is  admired  by  Italian  critics. 
Died  in  1738. 

See  Fabroni,  "VitJE  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium;"  Tipaldo, 
"  Biogratia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittorid'Italia." 

Averani,  (Niccolo,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  an 
eminent  Italian  advocate  and  mathematician,  who  edited 
the  works  of  Gassendi,  was  born  at  Florence  about  1650  ; 
died  in  1727. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Averara,  a-va-ri'rd,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Ital- 
ian fresco-painter,  born  at  Bergamo,  was  an  imitator  of 
Titian.  He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  excelled  in  paint- 
ing infants  and  landscape -backgrounds.  He  was  in  the 
prime  of  life  when  he  died  in  1548, 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Averari,  i-va-ra'ree,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  writer  and 
famous  preacher,  born  in  Lombardy,  lived  about  1500. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Averdy,  de  1',  deh  Wvl-Rfdo.^,  called  also  Laverdi, 
(Clement  Charles  Francois,)  a  French  statesman, 
born  in  Paris  about  1720,  was  made  comptroller-general 
of  the  finances  in  1763.  He  recommended  the  abolition 
of  the  transit-duties  on  grain,  which  was  afterwards  car- 
ried into  effect,  and  proposed  other  salutary  measures, 
but  was  soon  after  removed  from  office.  He  perishecl 
by  the  guillotine  in  1793. 

See  Lacretelle,  "  Histoire  de  France,"  and  "Vies  des  Surinten- 
dants  des  Finances  et  des  Controleurs-g^neraux." 

A'ver-ell,  also  written  Auerell,  (William,)  an 
English  pamphleteer  of  the  sixteenth  century,  wrote  a 
"Dial  for  Daintie  Darlings,"  (London,  1590,)  and  other 
works. 

A'ver-ill  or  A'ver-ell,  (William  W.,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  the  State  of  New  York,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1855.  In  the  autumn  of  1862  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  captain  in  the  regular  army,  and  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  commanded  a  troop  of  cav- 
alry in  several  actions  fought  in  Virginia  in  1863.  In 
P^ecember  of  that  year  he  conducted  a  raid  into  vSouth- 
western  Virginia  and  destroyed  a  large  amount  of  stores 
at  Salem.  He  served  under  Sigel  and  Hunter  in  West 
Virginia  in  1864. 

Averkam,  van,  vSn  i^^er-kam^,  written  also  Aver- 
kampen,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  landscape  and  marine 
painter,  born  at  Kampen  about  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  was  called  "the  Mute  of  Kampen."  His  his- 
tory is  unknown.  His  drawings  are  more  prized  than 
his  pictures,  the  colours  of  which  have  been  injured  by 
time. 

Averois  or  Averoys.    See  Averroes. 

Averoldi,  ^-vi-roKdee,  (Giulio  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Venice  in  165 1,  became  a  resident  of 
Brescia.  He  formed  a  rich  collection  of  medals,  marbles, 
etc.,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  paintings  and  antiquities 
of  Brescia,  (1700.)    Died  in  171 7. 

See  Brulliot,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Monogrammes." 

Averoni,  S-vi-ro'nee,  (Valentino,)  an  Italian  theo- 
logian, born  at  Florence,  lived  between  1550  and  i6tjC. 

Averrlioes.    See  Averroes. 

Averroes,*  a-vgr'ro-ez,  or  A-ver'ro-is,  written  also 
Averois,  Averoys,  or  Averrhoes,  the  common  form 
of  the  name  of  Ibn-Roshd,  (Tb'n  rosh'd,)  one  of  the  most 
famous  of  all  the  Arabian  philosophers  and  physicians, 
was  born  at  Cordova,  in  Spain,  probably  in  the  first 
quarter  of  the  twelfth  century.  lie  was  a  pupil  of  Aven- 
pace and  Avenzoar.  He  became  cadi  (judge)  at  Seville 
and  Cordova,  and  enjoyed  a  high  degree  of  favour  at  the 
court  of  Aboo -Yoosuf-Yakoob -Al  -  Mansoor  -  Billah,  at 
Morocco.  His  celebrity  as  a  writer  rests  chiefly  on  his 
Commentary  on  Aristotle,  which  in  the  middle  ages 


*  Chaucer,  after  Dante,  writes  the  name  Averrois.  (See  I'rologue 
to  the  "Canterbury  Tales.") 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;     h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  sho?'t;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f3,ll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


AVERS  A 


223 


AFICENNA 


obtained  for  him  the  title  of  "  The  Commentator/'  He 
is  mentioned  by  Dante,  in  the  "Inferno,"  canto  iv.,  as 

"  Averrois  che  il  gran  comento  feo."* 
His  works  are  extremely  numerous.  He  wrote  on  medi- 
cine, theology,  law,  logic,  etc.  Some  of  his  works  have 
been  translated  into  Latin  and  Hebrew.  He  died  at 
Morocco  in  1198.  He  seems  to  have  been  a  more  de- 
vout believer  in  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  than  in  the 
religion  of  Mohammed.  In  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries  the  disciples  of  Aristotle  in  Italy  were  divided 
into  two  sects,  the  Averroists  and  the  Alexandrists. 

See  Leo  Africanus,  "  De  Viris  illustribus;"  N.  Antonio,  "  Bi- 
bliotheca  Hispana  Vetus;"  Brucker,  "History  of  Philosophy;" 
Tennemann,  "  Geschichte  der  Philosophie ;"  E.  Renan,  "Averroes 
et  Averroisme, "  1852;  Dr.  F.  Hoefer's  article  on  Averroes,  in  the 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Aversa,  ^-vCr'sJ,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
dramatist,  born  at  Amistrato,  in  Sicily.  He  was  patron- 
ized by  several  cardinals  and  dukes,  and  gained  con- 
sideral)Ie  reputation  by  his  poems,  among  which  are 
"Piramo  e  Tisbe,"  an  idyl,  (1617,)  and  "The  Pilgrim," 
("II  Pellegrino,"  a  drama,  1641.)  He  translated  Vir- 
gil's ".^neid"  into  Sicilian  verse,  (1654-60.)  Died  in  1663. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

A'ver-y,  (Waitstill,)  an  American  lawyer  and  pa- 
triot, born  in  Norwich,  Connecticut,  near  the  middle  of  the 
last  tentury.  He  removed  to  North  Carolina,  of  which 
State  he  became  attorney-general  in  1777.   Died  in  1821. 

Avesani,  d-va-s3.'nee'',  (Gioachixo,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Verona  in  1741,  became  professor  of  rhetoric 
at  Verona  in  1775.  In  1807  he  published  a  volume  of 
elegant  Latin  and  Italian  poems,  ("Poesie  Italiane  e 
Latine.")  Among  his  works  is  "The  Metamorphoses," 
("Le  Metamorfosi,"  a  poem,  1812.)  His  edition  of 
"Orlando  Furioso,"  in  which  the  licentious  passages 
are  suppressed,  appeared  in  1820.    Died  in  1818. 

See  MoscHixi,  "Delia  Letteratura Veneziana  del  Secolo  XVIII." 

Avesbury,  (Robert  of.)    See  Robert  of  Aves- 

BURY. 

Avesne,  d',  (Baudouin.)  See  Baudouin  d'Avesne. 

Avesne,  d',  dt'ven',  (Francois,)  a  French  fanatic  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  who  claimed  a  divine  mission 
for  himself,  and  made  virulent  attacks  upon  the  king  and 
his  ministers.    He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  1660. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memcires." 

Aveyro.    See  Aveiro. 

Avezac,  d',  dSv'zSk',  (Auguste  Genevieve  Valen- 
tin,) nephew  of  Jean  Pierre  Valentin,  noticed  below,  was 
a  native  of  Saint  Domingo.  Having  settled  in  the  United 
States,  he  became  a  successful  lawyer,  and  in  1831  was 
appointed  charge-d'affaires  to  the  Netherlands.  Died 
in  1850. 

Avezac,  d',  (Jean  Pierre  Valentin,)  son  of  Pierre 
Valentin,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1756,  and  was  one 
of  the  deputies  sent  to  France  in  1790  to  oppose  the 
revolutionary  ideas  then  prevalent.  Died  in  Saint  Do- 
mingo in  1803. 

Avezac,  d',  (Pierre  Valentin,)  a  French  lawyer, 
born  at  Tarbes  in  1719,  emigrated  in  1748  to  Saint  Do- 
mingo, where  he  became  a  planter  and  was  distin- 
guished for  his  zeal  in  promoting  public  improvements. 
Died  in  i78l 

Avezac,  d',  (Pierre  Valentin  Dominique  Julien,) 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Saint  Domingo' in  1769, 
removed  to  New  Orleans,  where  he  died  in  183 1.  He 
translated  Scott's  "  Marmion"  into  French. 

Avezzana,  a-vet-ZcVnS,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  pa- 
triot, born  in  Piedmont  in  1797,  fought  in  the  repub- 
lican campaigns  of  1821-23,  afterwards'served  in  Mexico 
under  Santa  Anna,  and  took  part  in  the  Italian  revolu- 
tion of  1848. 

Aviani,  ^.-ve-S-'nee,  an  excellent  Italian  painter  of 
architecture,  landscapes,  and  marine  views,  born  at 
Vicenza,  adorned  the  ceilings  of  several  churches  in  that 
city.  Some  of  his  works  contain  figures  painted  by 
Carpioni.  He  flourished  in  the  first  half  of  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Aviano,  a-ve-d'no,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Vicenza,  was,  according  to  Ginguene,  one  of  the  most 

*  "Averrois  who  wrote  the  great  Commentary." 


successful  burlesque  poets  of  his  time.    He  published 
three  satirical  chapters,  ("Capitoli,"  1603,)  which  are 
praised  by  several  Italian  critics.    Died  about  1608. 
See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

A-vi-a'iius,  (Flavius,)  a  Roman  poet,  who  is  often 
confounded  with  Rufus  Festus  Avienus,  was  the  author 
of  numerous  fables  in  verse,  which  are  sometimes  printed 
with  those  of  x'Esop.  His  date  is  uncertain.  He  proba- 
bly lived  between  200  and  350  a.d. 

Aviau  du  Bois  de  Sanzay,  t'veV  dii  bwi  deh 
sb^'zk',  (Charles  FRANgois,)  Archbishop  of  Bordeaux, 
noted  for  his  piety  and  benevolence,  was  born  in  1736,  in 
the  diocese  of  Poitiers.  He  emigrated  in  the  Revolu- 
tion, but,  returning  in  disguise,  visited  all  parts  of  his 
diocese,  at  great  personal  hazard.  Though  appointed 
archbishop  by  Napoleon,  he  sided  with  the  pope  in  his 
contests  with  the  French  emperor.  He  was  named  a 
peer  in  181 5,  and  died  in  1826. 

See  J.  TouRNON,  "Precis  de  la  Vie  de  Monseigneur  C.  F. 
d' Avian,"  1829. 

Av'i-bus,  (Gasparo  Osello,  gls-pa'ro  o-seKlo,  or 
Gas'par  ab  Osel'lo,)  an  Italian  engraver  of  Padua, 
lived  about  1560-80.  He  imitated  the  style  and  copied 
some  of  the  prints  of  Giorgio  Ghisi  surnamed  Manto- 
vano. 

See  Strutt,  "Dictionary  of  Engravers." 

Avicebron,  i-ve-tha-bRon',  (Solomon  Ibn  Gabi- 
rol,)  a  Spanish  Jew  and  philosopher,  was  author  of  a 
work  called  "  Source  of  Life,"  ("  Fons  Vitas,")  which  was 
often  noticed  by  Albertus  Magnus  and  Aquinas.  He  ap- 
plied the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  to  the  Mosaic  doctrines. 
M.  Munck  has  recently  proved  the  identity  of  Avicebron 
with  Solomon  Ibn  Gabirol,  who  was  distinguished  as  a 
religious  poet,  and  died  at  Malaga  in  1070. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Av-i-gen'na,  [It.  pron.  a-ve-chgn'nS  ;  Fr.  Avicenne,* 
a^'e''senn',]  the  Latin  forni  of  Ibn-Sin^,  Tb'n-see'nS, 
the  most  illustrious  of  Arabian  physicians,  born  at  Af- 
shena,  a  village  in  Bokhara,  980  A.D.  He  was  a  re- 
markable instance  of  precocity  as  well  as  activity  of  in- 
tellect. He  is  said  to  have  been  a  thorough  master  of 
Moslem  theology,  and  of  the  chief  branches  of  mathe- 
matical and  physical  science  then  cultivated,  including 
arithmetic,  algebra,  Euclid's  elements,  and  the  Almagest 
of  Ptolemy,  before  he  was  sixteen.  At  this  age  he  began 
the  study  of  medicine,  of  natural  science,  and  of  the  meta- 
physical writings  of  Aristotle.  Before  he  was  twenty  he 
had  the  reputation  of  being  the  most  learned  and  gifted 
man  of  his  time.  He  was  patronized  in  turn  by  several 
Mohammedan  princes,  among  whom  he  had  acquired 
great  fame  by  his  extraordinary  skill  in  the  cure  of  dis- 
eases. Although  he  applied  himself  intensely  to  study 
and  to  the  composition  of  his  numerous  works,  he  appears 
to  have  given  himself  with  scarcely  less  ardour  to  the 
pursuit  of  pleasure,  to  the  ruin  of  his  constitution,  so  that 
it  was  said  of  him  that  his  philosophy  could  not  procure 
him  wisdom  nor  all  his  medical  skill  procure  him  health. 
He  died  in  1037,  in  the  fifty-seventh  year  of  his  age. 
Among  his  numerous  writings  we  may  particularly  men- 
tion his  "  Rule"  or  "  System  of  Medicine,"  ("  Canon 
Medicinas,")  a  great  work,  the  different  parts  of  which 
treat  of  anatomy  and  physiology,  materia  medica,  and  the 
various  diseases  to  which  man  is  subject,  with  their  ap- 
propriate remedies.  It  was  originally  written  in  Arabic, 
and  has  been  translated  into  Hebrew  as  well  as  into 
Latin.  He  wrote  various  other  works,  including  a  book 
on  animals,  said  to  be  little  more  than  a  paraphrase  of 
Aristotle's  "  History  of  Animals,"  and  a  work  on  the 
"  Soul,"  ("  De  Anima  ;")  also  several  small  treatises  on 
alchemy  and  other  subjects.  No  man,  except  Aristotle 
and  Galen,  exercised  so  absolute  an  authority  in  science, 
during  the  middle  ages,  as  Avicen;ia.  For  five  centuries 
his  "  Canon"  was  regarded  as  the  highest  authority  in 
the  schools  of  Europe. 

See  If-n-Khallikan's  "Biographical  Dictionary,"  published  by 
De  Slane,  Paris,  1842;  Freind,  "History  of  Physic;"  Brucker, 
"History  of  Philosophy;"  Wustenfeld,  "Geschichte  der  Ara- 
bischen  Aerzte  ;"  S.  Klein,  "  Dissertatio  de  Avicenna  medico,"  1S46  ; 
Choulant,  "  Handbuch  der  Biicherkunde  flh-  die  altere  Medicin  ;" 
Abulfaraj,  "Oriental  History;"  Abulfeda,  "  Universal  History." 

*  Chaucer  writes  the  name  Avycen.  (See  the  "  Pardoneres  Tale." 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  /tard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  v.,  guttural;  n,  }iasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  tin's.    (3:^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AVIDWS 


224 


AVITT 


A-vid'i-us  Cas'si-us,  a  brave  and  able  Roman  gen-  ' 
eral,  born  in  Syria,  was  noted  for  his  extreme  severity 
as  a  disciplinarian.  He  commanded  under  Marcus  Aure- 
lius  the  army  which  defeated  the  Parthians  in  165  a.d., 
and  a  few  years  later  was  appointed  governor  of  Syria. 
Having  several  legions  under  his  command,  he  revolted 
in  175  A.D.  and  declared  himself  emperor.  He  made 
himself  master  of  Egypt  and  of  Asia  east  of  Mount  Tau- 
rus. Marcus  Aurelius  was  about  to  march  against  him, 
when  Avidius  was  killed  by  his  own  Officers  in  175  a.d. 

A-vi-e'nus,  (Rufus  Festus,)  a  Roman  poet,  who 
probably  lived  about  400  a.d.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Italy,  and  to  have  been  a  pagan.  The 
works  which  have  come  down  to  us  under  his  name  are 
a  Latin  paraphrase,  in  hexameters,  of  the  "  Periegesis" 
of  Dionysius,  a  translation  of  the  "  Phenomena"  and 

Prognostica"  of  Aratus,  and  a  fragment  (seven  hun- 
dred and  three  lines)  of  a  poem  called  "  The  Maritime 
Region,"  ("  Ora  Maritima.")  His  style  is  superior  to 
that  of  contemporary  writers. 

See  Weknsdorf,  "  PoetiE  Latini  niinores." 

Avigador,  a-ve-gi-doR',  (Solomon  Ben  Abraham,) 
a  Jewish  philosopher  and  writer,  lived  about  1400. 

Aviia,  de,  (Alfonso.)  See  Alphonsus  Abulensis. 

Avila,  de,  da  a've-lS,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  por- 
trait-painter of  Seville,  lived  in  the  first  part  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  His  portraits  were  celebrated  for  their 
fidelity. 

Aviia,  de,  (Gil  Gonzalez,)  a  Spanish  biographer  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Avila  abjut  1577.  He  published  in 
1606  "The  Antiquities  of  Salamanca,  with  the  Lives  of 
its  Bishops,"  and  in  1623  a  description  of  Madrid,  with 
the  lives  of  the  principal  natives,  in  his  "  Theatre  of  the 
Greatness  (or  "Glories")  of 'Madrid,"  ("Teatro  de  las 
Grandezas  de  Madrid.")  His  chief  work,  "  Ecclesiasti- 
cal Theatre,"  ("Teatro  eclesiastico,"  4  vols.,  1645-53,) 
giving  the  biographies  of  the  bishops  and  archbishops 
of  the  two  Castiles,  was  left  unfinished  at  his  death. 
Died  in  1658. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibllotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Avila,  de,  (Hernando,)  was  painter  and  sculptor  to 
Philip  II.  of  Spain.  He  appears  to  have  worked  chiefly 
in  Toledo,  where  about  1568  he  painted  two  altar-pieces, 
— a  "John  the  Baptist"  and  an  "Adoration  of  the  Kings." 
Died  about  1600. 

See  Bermudez,  "Dicclonario  Historico." 

Avila,  de,  (Juan,)  an  eloquent  and  zealous  Spanish 
preacher,  born  in  La  Mancha  about  1500,  was  called  "the 
Apostle  of  Andalusia,"  in  which  province  he  laboured 
with  success  as  home-missionary  for  twenty  years. 
Among  his  converts  were  Saint  Francisco  Borja  and 
Saint  Teresa  de  Jesus.  He  died  in  1569,  leaving,  be- 
sides other  religious  works,  "  Spiritual  Letters,"  which 
were  translated  into  French  and  (partly)  into  English. 

See  Luis  dr  Munoz,  "Vida  de  Juan  de  Avila,"  1635. 

Avila,  de,  (Don  Sancho,)  a  Spanish  general,  born 
at  Avila  in  1523.  He  was  an  officer  in  the  expedition 
against  the  corsair  Dragut,  in  Africa,  in  1550.  He 
went  to  the  Netherlands  in  1567  with  the  Duke  of 
Alva,  of  whose  guard  he  was  then  commander.  It  was 
Avila  who  arrested  the  Counts  Egmont  and  Hoorn  at 
Brussels.  He  failed  in  an  attempt  to  relieve  Middelburg 
in  1574,  but  in  the  same  year  defeated  Count  Louis 
of  Nassau  at  Mook  or  Mookerheide.  In  1577  he  with- 
drew with  his  army  from  the  Low  Countries  in  com- 
pliance with  the  treaty  of  Ghent.  Died  at  Lisbon  in 
15S3.  According  to  the  Dutch  historians,  he  was  as  cruel 
as  Alva. 

See  Brantome,  "  Capitaines  etrangers ;"  De  Thou,  "  Histoire 
Universelle ;"  Motley,  "Rise  of  the  iSutch  Republic,"  vol.  ii. 

Avila  y  Zuiiiga,  de,  da  ^'ve-lde  thoon-yee'ga,  (Luis,) 
a  Spanish  historian  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Charles  V., 
whose  favour  he  enjoyed.  He  was  ambassador  to  Rome 
in  the  time  of  Paul  IV.  and  Pius  IV.,  served  in  the  war 
against  the  Protestant  German  princes,  and  commanded 
the  Spanish  cavalry  at  the  siege  of  Metz  in  1552.  He 
wrote  "  Commentaries  of  the  War  of  Charles  V.  in  Ger- 
many in  the  Years  1546  and  1547,"  (1548,)  which  was 
translated  into  English  and  other  languages.  This  work 
has  been  praised  for  the  elegance  and  conciseness  of  its 


style,  but  is  considered  partial  by  some  judges.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  died  about  1560. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova;"  De  Thou, 
"  Histoire  Universelle." 

Ayiler,  t've'li^  (Augustin  Charles,)  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1653,  studied  in  Rome,  with 
the  aid  of  a  pension  from  the  king.  He  worked  some 
time  with  Mansard,  in  Paris,  and  afterwards  erected 
several  fine  buildings  at  Carcassonne,  Nimes,  and  Tou- 
louse, among  which  is  the  palace  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Toulouse.  He  published  a  "Course  of  Architecture," 
(1691,)  often  reprinted,  and  a  good  "  Dictionary  of  all 
the  Terms  of  Architecture,  Civil  and  Hydraulic."  Died 
at  Montpellier  in  1700. 

See  Fontenai,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Avis.    See  Aveis. 
Avisenna.    See  Avicenna. 

Av'i-son,  (Charles,)  an  eminent  English  musician 
and  musical  critic,  born  about  1710,  passed  nearly  all 
his  life  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  where  he  was  church  or- 
ganist. He  was  a  pupil  of  Geminiani,  and  published 
an  ingenious  and  able  "Essay  on  Musical  Expression," 
(1752,)  which  displays  good  taste,  scholarship,  and  sound 
judgment.  It  was,  however,  severely  and  bitterly  criti- 
cised by  Dr.  Hayes,  professor  of  music  at  Oxford.  Avi- 
son's  reputation  as  a  composer  rests  chiefly  upon  his 
concertos.    Died  in  1770. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Avisse,  i\-ess',  a  blind  French  versifier,  born  in  1772, 
became  professor  in  the  Institution  for  the  Blind  at 
Paris.  Died  in  1801.  A  volume  of  his  poems  was  pub- 
lished in  1802. 

Avisse,  (Etienne  FRANgois,)  a  French  comic  poet, 
born  in  Paris  about  1694.  He  wrote  "  The  Divorce," 
and  other  comedies,  which  had  a  temporary  success. 
Died  in  1747. 

Avitabile,  3.-ve-ta'be-la,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  mission- 
ary, died  at  Goa  in  1650. 

See  F.  Maggi,  "Vita  d'Avltabile  Pietro." 

Avitabile,  d',  da-ve-t^'be-la,  or  Avitable,  S-ve-ti'bli, 
(BiASio  Magoli — m^-go'lee,)  an  Italian  writer  of  poetry 
and  biography,  lived  at  Naples  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. 

Avitus.    See  Elagabalus. 

A-vi'tus,  (Al'cimus  EcDig'ius,)  Saint,  Bishop  of 
Vienne,  was  born  in  Auvergne  about  the  middle  of  the 
fifth  century.  He  obtained  great  reputation  for  learning, 
and  succeeded  his  father  as  bishop  about  490  a.d.  He 
was  a  zealous  adversary  of  Arianism,  from  which  he 
converted  Sigismund,  Prince  of  Burgundy.  He  wrote 
letters,  homilies,  and  other  works,  some  of  which  are 
lost.  Among  his  extant  works  is  a  poem,  or  series  of 
poems,  "On  the  Creation  of  the  World,"  "On  Original 
Sin,"  "On  the  Deluge,"  ("Diluvio  Mundi,")  etc.  "The 
analogy  of  these  two  poems,"  says  Guizot,  referring  to 
Milton's  epic,  "  is  a  curious  literary  fact,  and  that  of  Saint 
Avitus  deserves  the  honour  of  being  compared  to  that 
of  Milton."    Died  in  525. 

See  Ceillier,  "Auteurs  sacres;"  Bollandus,  "Acta  Sanc- 
tonun." 

Avitus,  (Gallonius,)  a  governor  of  Thrace  in  the 
time  of  Aurelian. 

Avitus,  (JuLiLTS,)  successively  governor  of  Mesopo- 
tamia, Asia,  and  Cyprus,  which  appointments  he  held 
under  Seve^rus  and  Caracalla.  He  was  the  husband  of 
Moesa,  and  grandfather  of  the  emperors  Elagabalus 
and  Alexander  Severus. 

Avitus,  (Marcus  M/ECilius,)  one  of  the  emperors 
of  the  Western  Roman  Empire,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
born  in  Auvergne  about  400  A.D.  Before  his  accession 
to  the  empire  he  had  been  Prefect  of  Gaul,  and  had  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  wars  against  the  Huns  and 
Vandals.  On  the  sack  of  Rome  by  the  latter,  and  the 
death  of  Maximus  in  455,  he  assumed  the  purple,  and 
after  a  reign  of  fourteen  months  was  deposed  by  Ricimer, 
and  appointed  Bishop  of  Placentia.  Died  in  457.  He 
was  the  father-in-law  of  Sidonius  Apollinaris. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Faliof  the  Roman  Empire." 

Avity,  d',  dtVe'te',  (Pierre,)  a  French  writer  and 
soldier,  was  born  at  Tournon  in  1573.    His  productions 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fdll,  fdt;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


AVOGADRO  22 


are  very  miscellaneous,  embracing  poetry,  history,  fiction, 
morals,  etc.;  but  his  greatest  work  appears  to  have  been 
"A  General  Description  of  the  Four  Quarters  of  the 
Globe,  its  Empires,  Kingdoms,  States,  and  Republics," 
(ist  vol.,  1626.)    Died  in  1635. 

Avogadro,  d-vo-ga'dRo,  (Alberto,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Vercelli,  lived  at  Florence  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

Avogadro,  (Camillo),  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Milan ; 
died  in  161 7. 

Avogadro,  not  Avogrado,  as  sometimes  spelled, 
(GiROLAMO,)  an  Italian  philologer,  jurist,  and  patron 
of  learning,  born  at  Brescia,  lived  between  1450  and 
1 50c. 

Avogadro,  (Giuseppe,)  Count  of  Casanova,  an  Ital- 
ian nobleman,  born  at  Vercelli  in  1731.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on- rural  economy,  (1783-1810.)  Died 
in  1813. 

Avogadro,  (Lucia,)  an  Italian  poetess  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  born  at  Bergamo.  She  had  the  distinc- 
tion of  being  praised  by  Tasso.    Died  about  1570. 

Avogadro,  (Ludovico,)  was  the  chief  of  a  band  which 
conspired  to  expel  the  French  from  Brescia  in  15 12,  and 
was  killed  in  the  attempt. 

Avogadro,  (Nestore  Dionigi,)  an  Italian  philolo- 
gist and  friar  of  Novara,  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  He  composed  a  Latin  Lexicon,  which 
passed  through  many  editions.  The  oldest  known  edi- 
tion is  dated  1488. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Avogadro,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  painter  of  consider- 
able merit,  lived  in  Brescia  in  the  first  half  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  "The  Martyrdom  of  San  Crispino"  is 
called  his  master-piece. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Avogadro  or  Avvocati,  Jv-vo-ki'tee,  (Vincenzo 
Maria,)  an  Italian  writer  on  theology,  born  at  Palermo 
in  1702. 

Avogaro  or  Avogari,  (Azzoni  Rambaldo.)  See 
AzzoNi  Avogari. 

Avolo,  A'vo-lo,  (Cesare,)  an  Italian  philosopher  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  wrote  "On  the  Causes  of  Sympathy 
and  Antipathy,"  ("  De  Causis  Sympathiae  et  Antipathiae," 
1580.) 

Avondcuio,  S-von-da'no,  (Pietro  Antonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian composer,  lived  at  Naples  in  the  first  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

Avont,  van,  vin  i'vont'  or  t'v6N',  (Pieter,)  a  Flem- 
ish painter  and  etcher  of  Antwerp,  flourished  about  1650. 
He  painted  landscapes  with  figures  from  sacred  history 
or  from  mythology.  His  pictures  and  etchings  are  scarce 
and  highly  prized. 

See  HuBER,  "Manuel  des  Amateurs;"  Heinecken,  "  Diction- 
naire  des  Artistes." 

Avosani,  d-vo-s^'nee,  (Orfeo,  oR-fa'o,)  an  Italian 
organist  and  composer  of  sacred  music  of  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

Avost,  d',  dt'vo',  (Jerome,)  a  French  poet,  born  in 
Brittany  in  1558  or  '59,  had  an  office  in  the  household 
of  Margaret,  queen  of  Henry  IV.  He  translated  into 
French  the  "Jerusalem  Delivered"  of  Tasso,  and  other 
works,  and  wrote  some  original  verses. 

Avrigny,  d',  di''vR^n'ye',  (Charles  Joseph  Loeil- 
lard — luh'ySR',)  a  French  poet  and  dramatist,  born  in 
the  island  of  Martinique  about  1760,  lived  mostly  in 
Paris.  He  wrote  several  operas  and  vaudevilles,  which 
were  moderately  successful,  and  in  1801  an  elegant  and 
vigorous  "  Essay  on  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the 
British  Power  in  India."  His  poem  on  "  The  Departure 
of  La  Perouse,"  (1807,)  and  his  tragedy  of  "Joan  of 
Arc,"  (1819,)  are  highly  commended.  He  was  a  censor 
of  the  press  under  the  empire.    Died  in  1823. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Avrigny,  d',  (Hyacinthe  Robillard— ro'be''ytR^)  a 
French  Jesuit,  and  a  historian  of  high  and  merited  repu- 
tation, was  born  at  Caen  in  1675.  By  his  impartial  and 
candid  statements  of  the  actions  of  the  Jesuits,  he  in- 
curred the  censure  of  his  superiors,  who  mutilated  his 
writings.  His  grief  on  this  account  is  said  to  have  has- 
tened his  death,  which  occurred  at  Alen9on  in  1 719.  His 
chief  work  is  "  Memoirs  contributory  to  a  General  His- 


5  AXTEL 


tory  of  Europe  from  1600  to  1716,"  (4  vols.,  1725,)  which 
we  have  only  in  a  mutilated  state. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique Le  Long,  "Biblio- 
theque  Historique." 

Avril,  t'vRel'  or  t'vRe'ye,  (Jean  Jacques,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Loudun  in  1752  ;  died  in  1839. 

Avril,  (Jean  Jacques,)  an  eminent  French  engraver, 
born  in  Paris  in  1744,  was  a  pupil  of  J.  G.  Wille.  His 
numerous  works  are  executed  with  much  taste  and  tech- 
nical skill.  Among  his  best  plates  are  "Virginia  and 
Icilius,"  after  Lebarbier,  "The  Family  of  Darius,"  after 
Lebrun,  and  several  after  Rubens  and  N.  Poussin.  Died 
in  1832. 

See  HuBER,  "Manuel  des  Ainateurs." 

Avril,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  son  and  pupil  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Paris  in  1771,  was  an  able  engraver.  He 
obtained  in  1810 a  gold  medal  for  a  plate  of  "The  Woman 
of  Cana,"  after  Drouais.    Died  in  1831. 

Avril,  (Philippe,)  a  French  Jesuit,  who  in  1685  made 
an  effort  to  go  by  land  to  China  as  a  missionary.  Having 
reached  Astrachan,  he  encountered  some  obstacle,  and 
resolved  to  try  another  route  through  Russia.  He  per- 
formed his  journey  as  far  as  Moscow ;  but  the  govern- 
ment would  not  permit  him  to  proceed  farther.  Having 
returned  to  France,  he  published  "Travels  in  various 
States  of  Europe  and  Asia,"  (1692,)  a  work  of  some 
value. 

Avrillon,  t\Re''y6N',  (Jean  Baptiste  Elie,)  an  elo- 
quent French  monk,  and  voluminous  author  of  religious 
works,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1652,  and  died  in  1729. 

Avrillot,  S'vRe^yo',  (Barbe,)  or  Madame  Acarie — 
t'kt're',  a  French  devotee,  called  the  founder  of  the 
order  of  Carmelites  in  France,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1565. 
Died  in  161 8. 

See  Tronson  de  Cheneviere,  "Vie  de  Barbe  Avrillot." 

Avvocati.    See  Avogadro,  (Vincenzo  Maria.) 

Avy,  t've',  (Antoine  Sylvain,)  Baron,  a  French 
general,  born  in  1776,  was  killed  at  Antwerp  in  1814. 

Avycen.    See  Avicenna. 

Awbrey,  (William.)    See  Aubrey. 

Awdeley,  (John.)    See  Audley. 

Awdeley,  (Thomas.)    See  Audley,  (Thomas.) 

Awhadi  (a^va-dee')  of  Maragha,  a  Persian  poet,  of 
the  Soofee  (Sufi)  sect,  was  the  author  of  "Jam-i-Jam," 
a  mystical  work  treating  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Soofees, 
which  is  still  extant.    Died  at  Ispahan  in  1297. 

Axajacatl,  S-Hjl-Hi-kS'tl,  sometimes  written  Axa- 
jatl,  emperor  of  the  Mexicans  or  Aztecs,  was  the  fathei 
of  the  celebrated  Montezuma.  He  reigned  about  four- 
teen years,  and  added  a  number  of  provinces  to  the 
empire.    Died  about  1477. 

Axehielm,  Jx'g-hy^lm,  (Joannes,)  a  Swedish  anti- 
quary, born  at  Norrkjoping  in  j6o8,  became  assessor  at 
the  superior  court  of  law  at  Abo  in  1637.  He  left  in 
manuscript  several  treatises  on  the  antiquities  of  Sweden. 
Died  in  1692. 

Axel.    See  Absalon. 

Axel,  ik'sel,  (Isaac,)  a  Swede,  who  was  secretary 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  wrote  a  crcatise  on  morality, 
(1662.) 

Axelson,  Sk'sel-son^  (Iver,  ee'ver,)  a  Dane,  who  re- 
nounced allegiance  to  Denmark  in  1453,  and  reigned 
over  the  island  of  Gothland.  He  delivered  that  island 
to  the  King  of  Denmark  about  1467. 

Axelt,  ak's§!t  or  Atzelt,  it'sglt,  (Johann,)  a  Ger- 
man engraver  of  portraits,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1654. 

Axen,  Sk'sen,  (Petrus,)  a  German  philologist  and 
lawyer,  born  at  Husum,  in  Sleswick,  in  1635.  He  trans- 
lated into  Latin  Galeazzi  Gualdi's  "History  of  the  Peace 
between  Louis  XIV.  and  Philip  IV.,"  (1667,)  and  pub- 
lished" Phaedri  Fabulae  ^sopicae,"  (1671.)  Died  in  1707. 

Ax-i-o-ni'cus,  ['A^wv</cof,]  an  Athenian  dramatic 
author,  who  lived  about  380  B.C. 

Ax-i-o'the-a,  ['A^<o0ea,]  a  Greek  woman  who  lived 
about  300  B.C.  and  came  to  Athens  disguised  in  male 
apparel  to  attend  the  lectures  of  Plato, 

Axmann,  Sks'mSn,  (Joseph,)  an  Austrian  engraver, 
born  at  Brunn  in  1793.  He  illustrated  various  works, 
chiefly  those  of  Schiller  and  Stolberg. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Ax'tel,  (Daniel,)  Colonel,  was  an  adherent  of  Par- 


e  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  .s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^=-See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

IS 


AXT ELM  AVER 


226 


ATLMER 


liament  in  the  civil  war,  and  served  under  Cromwell  in 
Ireland.    He  was  executed  by  the  royalists  in  1660. 
■   Axtelmayer,  aks'tel-ml'er,  (Stanislaus  Reinhard,) 
a  German  natural  philosopher,  who  lived  about  1700- 
25,  and  wrote  on  various  subjects. 

Ax'ti-us,  or  Axt,  ikst,  (Johann  Conrad,)  a  Ger- 
man physician,  who  graduated  in  1670.  He  published 
a  "Treatise  on  Coniferous  Trees  and  their  Products," 
(1679,)  and  other  works. 

Axtman,  akst^m^n,  (Leopold,)  a  clever  Austrian 
painter  of  animals,  born  at  Fulneck,  in  Moravia,  in  1700. 
He  settled  in  Prague,  where  he  died  in  1748.  He  ex- 
celled in  painting  dogs  and  horses. 

See  Jack,  "  Leben  und  Werke  der  Kiinstler  Bambergs." 

Axular,  tk'sii'ltR'',  (Pierre,)  a  French  writer  in  the 
Basque  language,  was  born  in  Gascony.  He  became 
parish  priest  of  Sare,  and  published  in  1642  a  popular 
treatise  "  On  Repentance,"  which  is  called  the  most  re- 
markable work  ever  written  in  the  Basque  language. 

See  AuGUSTiN  Chaho,  "Voyage  en  Navarre,"  Paris,  1836;  Lar- 
RAMENDi,  "Diccionario  trilingue  del  Castellano,  Bascuence  y  Latin," 
1745- 

Ayala,  S-yi'l^,  (Sebastiano,)  a  learned  Jesuit,  born 
in  Sicily  in  1744,  was  a  friend  of  Metastasio,  of  whom  he 
wrote  a  biography.  He  was  once  minister  from  the  re- 
public of  Ragusa  to  the  court  of  Vienna.  He  edited  the 
posthumous  works  of  Metastasio,  (3  vols.,  1785,)  wrote  a 
pamphlet  against  the  doctrines  of  the  French  Revolution, 
(1792,)  and  an  "Essay  on  the  Faults  of  the  Dictionary 
della  Crusca."    Died  in  181 7. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  ItalianI  illustri." 

Ayala,  de,  di  i-yi'li,  (Balthasar,)  a  learned  writer 
of  Spanish  extraction,  was  born  at  Antwerp  about  1548. 
He  was  judge-advocate  of  the  army  of  Philip  in  the  Low 
Countries.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "  Upon  the  Rights  and 
Duties  of  War  and  Military  Discipline,"  ("De  Jure  et 
Officiis  Bellicis  et  Disciplina  Militari,"  1582,)  which  is 
said  to  be  the  first  that  systematically  reduced  the  prac- 
tice of  nations  in  the  conduct  of  war  to  legitimate  rules. 
Died  in  1584. 

See  FOPPENS,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Ayala,  de,  (Barnab]^,)  a  Spanish  painter  of  Seville. 
Died  about  1670. 

Ayala,  de,  (Diego  Lopez,)  a  canon  of  Toledo,  lived 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  made  elegant  Spanish 
versions  of  the  "Philocopo"  of  Boccaccio,  and  of  the 
"Arcadia"  of  Sannazar,  (1547.) 

Ayala,  de,  (Juan  Interian  —  ^n-ti-re-3.n',)  [Lat. 
Joan'nes  Interamnen'sis  Ajal^'us,]  a  Spanish  poet 
and  prose  writer,  born  about  1656,  was  professor  of  He- 
brew and  theology  at  Salamanca.  His  best  works  are 
Latin  poems,  "  Opuscula  Poetica,"  (1723,)  which  are 
praised  for  their  grace  and  elegance,  and  the  "  Learned 
Christian  Painter,"  ("  Pictor  Christianus  Eruditus," 
1730,)  a  treatise  on  the  errors  which  painters  often 
commit  in  the  representation  of  religious  subjects. 
He  wrote  many  letters  to  Emanuel  Marti,  which  are 
published  with  those  of  his  correspondent.  Died  in 
1730- 

See  Mayans,  "  Specimen  Bibliothecae  Hispano-Majansianae." 

Ayala,  de,  (Pedro  Lopez,)  the  most  popular  of  the 
early  Spanish  historians,  was  born  in  Murcia  in  1332. 
He  fought  for  Henry  de  Tra&tamarre  at  the  battle  of 
Nagera,  (1367,)  where  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
English.  He  was  afterwards  a  member  of  the  council 
of  King  Henry  (Enrique)  of  Castile,  and  filled  the 
office  of  high  chancellor  in  the  reign  of  John  I.  His 
chief  work  is  a  "  History  of  Castile,"  ("Cronicas  de  los 
Reyes  de  Castilla,  Don  Pedro,  Don  Enrique  II.,  Don 
Juan  I.  y  Don  Enrique  HI.,"  1495,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed  for  fidelity.  He  was  probably  the  most  learned 
Spaniard  of  his  time.  He  translated  Livy's  History,  and 
other  works,  into  Spanish.    Died  in  1407. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "Bibliotheca  Hispana  Vetus;"  Lopez  de 
Ayala,  "Cronicas;"  Sanchez,  "  Coleccion  de  Poesias  Castellanas.'' 

Aybar,  i-baR',  (Ximenes  Pedro,)  a  Spanish  painter 
who  lived  at  Calatayud  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  was  a  pupil  and  imitator  of  Francisco 
Ximenes. 

Aybek.    See  Aibek. 

Aycard,  ^ktR',  (Marie,)  a  French  novelist,  was 


born  at  Marseilles  in  1794.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  novels  entitled  "  Flora,"  "  Marie  de  Man* 
cini,"  (1830,)  and  "The  Count  of  Horn,"  (1834.)  Died 
in  1859. 

Ayer,  a^er,  (Peter,)  a  soldier  of  the  American  Revo- 
lution, and  subsequently  one  of  the  founders  of  the  so- 
ciety of  Shakers,  was  born  in  1760,  in  Canterbury,  New 
Hampshire;  died  in  1857. 

Ayeshah  or  Aieshah,  a'e-shah  or  I'e-shah,  [Ger. 
spelling,  AiscHAH  or  Ayeschah,]  the  daughter  of  Aboo- 
Bekr,  and  favourite  wife  of  Mohammed,  to  whom  she 
was  married  when  only  nine  years  of  age.  In  the  events 
that  took  place  after  his  death  she  bore  a  conspicuous 
part, — particularly  against  the  caliph  Othman,  and  after- 
wards Alee,  whom  she  resisted  in  arms,  but  by  whom 
she  was  finally  subdued.  She  was  held  in  great  venera- 
tion by  all  Moslems.    Died  at  Medina  in  677. 

See  Irving,  "Mahomet  and  his  Successors;"  Ockley,  "History 
of  the  Saracens." 

Aylesbury  or  Ailesbury,  alz'ber-e,  (Frances,)  a 
daughter  of  Sir  Thomas,  noticed  below,  was  the  wife  of 
the  Earl  of  Clarendon,  and  grandmother  of  Queens  Mary 
and  Anne. 

Aylesbury  or  Ailesbury,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  Eng- 
lish mathematician  and  patron  of  learning,  was  born  in 
London  in  1576.  He  was  appointed  master  of  requests 
and  master  of  the  mint,  and  created  a  baronet  in  1627. 
He  patronized  Thomas  Hariot,  and  welcomed  to  his 
table  all  men  of  science,  some  of  whom  received  pen- 
sions from  his  private  income.  Having  adhered  to  the 
royal  cause  in  the  civil  war,  he  went  into  exile  in  1649. 
Died  at  Breda  in  1657. 

See  Wood,  "Fasti  Oxonienses;"  "Biographia  Britaimica." 

Aylesbury,  (William,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Westminster  about  161 2,  became  tutor  to  the  young 
Duke  of  Buckingham.  By  the  order  of  Charles  I.,  he 
translated  (with  the  aid  of  Sir  C.  Cotterell)  Davila's  "  His- 
tory of  the  Civil  Wars  of  France,"  (1647.)  He  was  for 
some  time  secretary  to  the  Governor  of  Jamaica,  where 
he  died  in  1657. 

See  Wood,  "Athenas  Oxonienses." 

Aylett,  a'let,  (Robert,)  an  English  poet,  born  about 
1580,  obtained  the  ofBce  of  master  in  chancery.  He  pub- 
lished in  1622  a  volume  of  four  poems,  entitled  "Peace 
with  her  four  Garders,"  "Susanna,"  "Thrift's  Equip- 
age," and  "Joseph  or  Pharaoh's  Favourite."  Among 
his  other  works  are  "Divine  and  Moral  Speculations," 
(1654.) 

AylifFe,  a'lif,  (John,)  a  learned  English  jurist,  who 
lived  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  styled  himself  a 
Fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford.  We  have  little  inform- 
ation of  the  events  of  his  life.  He  published  in  1714 
"The  Ancient  and  Present  State  of  the  University  of 
Oxford,"  (2  vols.)  He  manifested  his  hostility  to  the 
Romish  Church  in  his  "  Supplement  to  the  Canons  and 
Constitutions  of  the  Church  of  England,"  (1726.)  In 
1/^4  he  published  a  "  Pandect  of  the  Roman  Civil  Law." 
The  time  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

Aylini,  T-lee'nee,  or  Ailino,  I-lee'no,  (Giovanni,)  an 
Italian  historian,  lived  between  1350  and  1400. 

Ayllon,  de,  di  Tl-y6n',  (Lucas  Vasquez,)  a  Spaniard, 
of  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  who  was  in- 
strumental in  inducing  the  men  of  Narvaez  to  desert  to 
Cortez,  and  was  among  the  first  to  land  on  the  territo- 
ries of  the  (now)  United  States,  for  the  purpose  of  carry- 
ing off  Indians  for  slaves.  He  formed  a  settlement  in 
South  Carolina,  (which  was  afterwards  abandoned,)  where 
he  died  in  1526. 

Aylmer,  al'mer,  called  also  El'mer,  (John,)  an 
English  bishop,  born  at  Tilney,  in  Norfolk,  in  1521.  Soon 
after  he  left  college,  he  became  tutor  to  Lady  Jane  Grey, 
who  expressed  her  opinion  of  him  in  these  terms  :  "  He 
teaches  me  so  gently,  so  pleasantly,  with  such  fair  allure- 
ments to  learning,  that  I  think  all  the  time  nothing  whiles 
I  am  with  him."  He  was  a  zealous  Protestant,  and  lived 
in  exile  on  the  continent  during  the  reign  of  Mary.  In 
1559  he  published  an  "  Harborowe  (harborough)  for 
faithful  and  true  Subjects  against  the  late-blown  Blast," 
in  answer  to  John  Knox's  "Blast  of  the  Truinpet 
against  the  Monstrous  Regiment  of  Women."  He  be- 
came Bishop  of  London  in  1576,  after  which  he  distin- 


&,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  f^t;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


AYLMER 


227 


AYR  MANN 


guished  himself  bv  his  intolerance  and  persecution  of 
the  Puritans  and  the  Catholics.    Died  in  1594. 

See  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses;"  Fuller,  "Worthies  of  Eng- 
land;" Strvpe,  "Annals  and  Ecclesiastic  Memorials." 

Ayl'mer,  (Matthew,)  Lord,  born  probably  in  Ire- 
land about  1643,  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1692,  after  he 
had  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  La  Hogue. 
In  1709  he  was  appointed  lord  commissioner  of  the  ad- 
miralt}',  admiral,  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  fleet. 
He  was  deprived  of  his  command  in  1710,  but  reinstated 
in  1 7 14.  In  1 718  he  was  raised  to  the  Irish  peerage  as 
Lord  Aylmer,  Baron  of  Balrath.    Died  in  1720. 

Ayloffe,  a'lof,  (Sir  Joseph,)  adistinguished  antiquary, 
born  in  Sussex,  England,  about  1708.  He  was  chosen  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1731,  and  became  audi- 
tor-general of  the  hospitals  of  Bridewell  and  Bethlem  in 
1750.  His  chief  work  is  "Calendars  of  the  Ancient 
Charters,  and  of  the  Welsh  and  Scotch  Rolls,  now  re- 
maining in  the  Tower  of  London,"  (1772.)  He  contrib- 
uted some  papers  to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  and 
edited  several  works,  among  which  was  Leland's  *'  Col- 
lectanea," (6  vols.,  1770.)    Died  in  1781. 

See  Thomson's  "History  of  the  Royal  Society." 

Ayl'ward,  (Tiieodore,)  an  English  composer  of 
music,  was  organist  of  Saint  George's  chapel,  Windsor. 
Died  in  1801. 

Aymar.    See  Ademar. 

Aymar,  a'mtR',  (Jacques,)  a  successful  French  im- 
postor, who  was  born  a  peasant  in  1662.  He  professed, 
by  his  skill  in  divination,  to  discover  hidden  treasures, 
mines,  and  even  the  guilt  of  Suspected  persons.  He 
obtained  a  wonderful  degree  of  credence, — even  scientific 
men  maintaining  controversies  as  to  the  source  of  his 
marvellous  powers.  After  several  years  of  successful 
imposture,  he  finallv  confessed  the  fraud. 

Aymard,  cVuiSr^,  (Antoine,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Lezignan,  in  Aude,  in  1773,  became  a  colonel  in 
1807,  and  served  with  distinction  in  Spain  from  1808  to 
1 81 2.  Having  been  made  a  general  of  brigade  in  1813, 
he  adhered  to  Napoleon  during  the  Hundred  Days.  He 
commanded  the  troops  which,  after  a  severe  fight,  sup- 
pressed an  insurrection  at  Lyons  in  1834.    Died  in  1861. 

Aymar  Rivault.    See  Rivault. 

Ayme,  i'nii',  (Jean  Jacques,)  better  known  by  the 
name  of  Job  Ayme,  a  French  advocate,  born  at  Monte- 
limart  in  1752,  took  an  active  part  in  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, and  escaped  the  guillotine  only  by  the  fall  of  Ro- 
bespierre. He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Council  of 
Five  Hundred  in  1795,  but  was  banished  to  Guiana  in 
1798,  on  suspicion  of  being  a  royalist.  On  his  return 
he  received  an  appointment  from  Napoleon,  and  pub- 
lished a  work  on  Guiana.    Died  in  181 8. 

Ayme,  (Joh.)    See  Ayme,  (Jean  Jacques.) 

Ayme  de  Chatillon.    See  Aymi^  de  Varenne. 

Ayme  de  Varenne,  (or  Varranne,)  cVma'  deh  vt'- 
r^n',  (or  vtr'rtn',)  sometimes  called  Ayme  de  Chatil- 
lon, (deh  sht'te'ydN',)  a  French  poet  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, is  chiefly  known  as  the  author  of  the  "  Romance 
of  Florimont." 

Aymon,  Aimon,  a'mon,  [Fr.  pron.  a'm^N',]  written 
also  Haimon,  Count  of  Ardennes,  and  his  four  sons 
Alard,  Regnaud,  (Rinaldo  or  Renaud,)  Richard,  (or 
Richardet,)  and  Guichard,  (or  Guiscard,)  ("!es  quatre 
fils  Aymon,")  were  celebrated  characters  in  the  romances 
and  poems  of  the  Middle  Ages.  It  is  doubtful  if  they 
had  a  real  existence.  Rinaldo  is  one  of  the  principal 
characters  of  Ariosto's  great  poem. 

See  Ferrario,  "Storia  ed  Analisi  degli  antichi  Romanzi." 

Ay'mon,  [in  Italian  Aimone,  T-mo'ni,]  Count  of 
Savoy,  was  born  in  1291.  He  sent  troops  to  the  assist- 
ance of  France  in  the  war  against  Edw-ard  HI.  of  Eng- 
land, created  the  office  of  chancellor,  and  introduced  other 
reforms  calculated  to  maintain  a  pure  administration  of 
justice.    Died  in  1343. 

Aymon,  i'miN',  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born 
in  Dauphine.  He  turned  Protestant  about  1700,  after 
which,  it  is  said,  he  stole  some  manuscripts  from  the 
royal  library  of  Paris  and  fled  to  Holland.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  satirical  "Tableau  of  the  Court 
of  Rome,"  (1707,)  and  "Acts  of  all  the  National  Synods 
of  the  Reformed  Churches  of  France,"  (1710.) 


Aynes,  a'n^s',  (Franqois  David,)  a  French  littera- 
teur, born  at  Lyons  in  1766,  published  a  "Universal 
Dictionary  of  Geography,"  (3  vols.,  1814.)    Died  in  1827 

Aynsworth,  (Henry.)    See  Ainsworth. 

Ayo  or  A'io,  i'yo,  Duke  of  Beneventum,  succeeded 
to  the  dukedom  in  641  a.d. 

Ayolas,  de,  da  a-yo'lSs,  or  d'Ayolas,  d^-yo'lSs, 
(Juan,)  a  Spanish  adventurer,  who  sailed  with  Pedro  de 
Mendoza,  in  1534,  on  a  voyage  of  conquest  and  discov- 
ery to  the  La  Plata.  Mendoza,  having  been  disabled  by 
disease  in  1536,  deputed  his  command  to  Ayolas,  who 
ascended  the  Paraguay  to  Asuncion,  where  he  defeated 
a  body  of  natives  and  remained  six  months.  Leaving  a 
garrison  at  Asuncion,  he  ascended  the  river  about  eighty 
leagues,  and  then  marched  westward  by  land  with  two 
hundred  Spaniards.  He  never  returned.  According  to 
the  report  of  an  Indian,  Ayolas  and  his  men  were  de- 
coyed into  a  morass  and  killed  by  the  Payagos. 

See  SouTHEV,  "History  of  Brazil,"  and  Herrera,  "  Historia 
general." 

Ayrault or  Airault, i'ro',  [Lat.  ^Ero'dius,]  (Pierre,) 
a  French  jurist,  born  at  Angers  in  1536.  He  practised 
in  the  Parliament  of  Paris  with  a  high  reputation,  and 
wrote,  besides  other  legal  works,  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Paternal  Authority,"  ("  De  Patrio  Jure,"  1593,)  composed 
on  the  occasion  of  his  son  Rene  having  joined  the  Jesu- 
its against  his  father's  will ;  also  "  On  the  Judicial  Order 
and  Instruction  employed  by  the  Ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans  in  Public  Accusations,"  ("  De  I'Ordre  et  Instruc- 
tion judiciaire  dont  les  anciens  Grecs  et  Romains  ont 
use  en  Accusations  publiques,"  1575.)    Died  in  1601. 

See  Taisand,  "Vies  des  plus  celebres  Jurisconsultes ;"  "Vita 
Petri  .^.rodii,"  by  his  grandson,  Gilles  Menage,  1675. 

Ayrault,  (Rene,)  a  Jesuit  and  writer,  born  in  Paris 
in  1567,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1644. 

Ayrenhoff,  von,  fon  I'ren-hof^  (Cornelius  Her- 
mann,) a  German  dramatic  poet  of  decided  talent,  was 
born  in  Vienna  in  1733,  '^"^  died  there  in  1819.  He  took 
the  French  dramas  as  his  models.  His  most  successful 
works  were  comedies ;  but  they  are  now  little  known. 
He  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-field-marshal  in  the 
army  in  1794. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  published  in  1810,  and  Wolfk,  "  Ency- 
klopadie  der  Deutschen  Nationallitteratur." 

Ayrer,  I'rer,  (Christoph  Heinrich,)  a  German 
medical  writer,  lived  about  1600. 

Ayrer,  (Emanuel  Wilhelm,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1647  ;  died  in  1690. 

Ayrer,  (Georg  Heinrich,)  a  German  jurist,  born  in 
Meiningen  in  1702.  He  was  professor  of  law  at  Gottin- 
gen,  and  author  of  many  legal  treatises.    Died  in  1774. 

Ayrer  or  Eyer,  I'er,  (Jacob,)  a  German  drainatic 
poet,  who  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  practised  as  a  notary  and  advocate  at  Nu- 
remberg. Little  else  is  known  of  his  life,  except  that  he 
wrote  sixty-six  dramas  for  his  own  amusement,  the 
earliest  of  which  are  dated  about  1585.  They  display 
great  dramatic  power,  but  are  little  more  than  stories  in 
the  form  of  dialogue,  without  unity  of  action  or  of  time. 
Died  about  1605. 

See  TiECK,  "Deutsches  Theater;"  Wolff,  "  Encyklopadie  der 
Deutschen  Nationallitteratur." 

Ayrer,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  son  of  Emanuel  Wil- 
helm, noticed  above,  born  in  1671,  was  a  physician  at 
Altorf. 

Ayrer,  (Melchior,)  a  German  physician  and  chemist, 
born  at  Nuremberg  in  1520,  was  a  pupil  of  Melanchthon. 
He  left  some  works  in  manuscript. 

Ayres,  5rz,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  penman,  pub- 
lished a  Treatise  on  Penmanship,  (1697.)  Died  about 
1705. 

Ayres,  (Philip,)  an  English  writer,  who  flourished 
between  1650  and  1700.  He  published  "  Emblems  of 
Love,"  (1683,)  "Lyric  Poems,"  (1687,)  and  other  works. 

Ayrmann,  iR^min,  (Christoph  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man scholar,  born  at  Leipsic  about  1695,  became  pro- 
fessor of  history  at  Giessen  in  1721,  and  began  several 
historical  works,  but  finished  nothing.  He  edited  Vei 
leius  Paterculus,  pylorus,  Eutropius,  Ca;sar,  Suetonius, 
Justin,  and  Terence.    Died  in  1747. 

See  JocHER,  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 


€  as  /t;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AYRTQN 


228 


AZANZA 


Ayrton,  5r'ton,  (Edmund,)  an  English  composer  of 
cathedral  music,  was  born  at  Ripon,  Yorkshire,  in  1734. 
He  was  appointed  vicar-choral  of  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral 
about  1765,  and  master  of  the  children  of  the  royal 
chapels  in  1780.  His  compositions  are  highly  com- 
mended.   Died  in  1S08. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographle  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Ayrton,  (William,)  a  critical  writer  on  music,  born 
in  London  between  1777  and  1781,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  a  successful  teacher  of  music,  and  editor 
of  "  The  Harmonicon,"  a  monthly  musical  review,  1823- 
33     Died  in  1858. 

Ayscough,  (Anne.)    See  Askew. 

Ayscough,  as'ku,  (?)  (Francis,)  an  English  clergy- 
man, entered  Oxford  in  1 71 7.  He  was  preceptor  to 
George  HI.  before  his  accession,  and  became  Dean  of 
Bristol.  He  married  a  sister  of  George,  Lord  Lyttle- 
ton.    Died  about  1766. 

Ayscough,  (Sir  George.)    See  Ayscue. 

Ayscough,  (George  Edward,)  a  son  of  Francis, 
noticed  above,  edited  the  works  of  his  uncle.  Lord  Lyttle- 
ton,  in  1774,  and  published  "  Semiramis,"  a  tragedy,  in 
1776.    Died  in  1779. 

See  Nichols,  "Literary  Anecdotes;"  "  Blographia  Dramatica." 

Ayscough,  (James,)  an  English  optician,  lived  in 
London  about  1720-40,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  Spec- 
tacles, (1750.) 

Ayscough,  (Samuel,)  an  Englishman,  noted  as  a 
maker  of  indexes,  was  born  about  1745.  He  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  librarian  in  the  British  Museum  in  1785, 
of  the  manuscripts  of  which  he  had  published  a  good 
catalogue  in  1782.  He  made  indexes  for  the  "Gentle- 
man's Magazine,"  (56  vols.,  1731-86,)  for  the  "  Remark- 
able Passages  and  Words  of  Shakspeare,"  (1790,)  and 
for  other  works.    Died  in  1804. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1S05. 

Ayscue,  as'ku,  written  also  Ayscough,  Ascough, 
or  Askew,  (Sir  George,)  a  distinguished  English  ad- 
miral, who  had  acquired  the  reputation  of  an  able  officer 
before  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Charles  L  He  adhered 
to  the  Parliament  when,  in  July,  1648,  the  greater  part 
of  the  navy  revolted  and  went  over  to  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  and  for  his  fidelity  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  vice- 
admiral  in  1649.  He  conveyed  Cromwell's  army  to  Ire- 
land in  that  year,  and  took  Barbadoes  from  the  royalists 
about  the  end  of  165 1.  He  commanded  in  an  indecisive 
battle  against  the  Dutch  admiral  De  Ruyter,  near  Ply- 
mouth, in  1652,  a  few  months  after  which  he  resigned, 
or  was  dismissed.  In  1665  he  led  a  squadron  in  the 
battle  which  the  Earl  of  Sandwich  gained  over  the  Dutch, 
and  greatly  contributed  to  the  victory.  As  admiral  of 
the  blue,  he  took  part  in  a  great  battle  in  June,  1666,  and 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Dutch  after  his  ship  had  struck 
on  a  sand-bank.  This  \vas  the  last  action  in  which  he 
was  engaged.    The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

See  Campbell,  "Lives  of  British  Admirals;"  Charnock,  "Bio- 
graphia  Navalis,"  1794;  Clarendon,  "  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Ayta,  T'td,  or  Aytta,  Tt'tS,  (Ulrich  Viger  van 
Zuichm — ve-haiR'  vin  zoiKm,)  usually  called  Vig'li-us 
Zui'chemus,  an  eminent  Dutch  jurist  and  statesman, 
of  Spanish  extraction,  was  born  at  Leeuwarden  in  1 507. 
Pie  lectured  on  the  Institutes  at  the  University  of  Padua, 
and  became  very  popular  as  a  teacher.  He  was  appointed 
an  imperial  senator  in  1543,  and  president  of  the  impe- 
rial council  of  the  Netherlands  in  1549.  In  the  contest 
which  resulted  in  the  independence  of  the  United  Prov- 
inces, he  adhered  to  the  King  of  Spain,  but  opposed 
some  of  the  violent  measures  of  the  Duke  of  Alva.  His 
"  Commentaries  on  Ten  Titles  of  the  Institutes,"  relating 
to  wills,  (1534,)  were  regarded  at  that  time  as  the  very 
highest  authority.  According  to  Motley,  he  was  crafty, 
plausible,  adroit,  and  pusillanimous.  He  died  at  Brus- 
sels in  1577. 

See  Taisand,  "Vies  des  plus  c^lebres  Jurisconsultes  ;"  Motley, 
"  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  vols.  i.  and  ii. ;  Foppens,  "  Bibliotheca 
Belgica  " 

Ay'ton  or  Aytoun,  a'ton,  (Sir  Robert,)  a  Scottish 
poet,  born  at  Kinaldie,  Fifeshire,  in  1570.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  James  I.,  (1603,)  he  complimented  that  king  in  a 
Latin  poein,  for  which  he  was  rewarded  with  the  offices 
of  private  secretary  to  the  queen  and  master  of  requests. 


He  wrote  other  Latin  poems,  and  some  in  the  vernacu* 
lar,  which  were  adinired  by  Burns.    Died  in  1638. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Ay'toun,  (William  Edmondstoune,)  an  eminent 
British  critic  and  poet,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1813,  was  a 
son-in-law  of  Professor  John  Wilson.  In  183 1  he  gained 
a  prize  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh  for  his  poem  of 
"Judith."  Having  studied  law,  he  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1840.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  in  1845.  "  His  literary  connec- 
tion," says  "Blackwood"  for  April,  1868,  "with  Maga,* 
became  so  intimate  and  so  well  known  that  common 
repute  attributed  the  editorship  to  him,  as  it  had  to  his 
father-in-law.  Professor  Wilson, — in  either  case  without 
foundation."  His  7toin  de  phirne  was  Augustus  Dun- 
shunner.  In  1849  he  published  "Lays  of  the  Scottish 
Cavaliers,  and  other  Poems,"  which  reached  the  tenth 
edition  in  1857.  "A  volume  of  verse,"  says  the  "  London 
Quarterly  Review,"  "which  shows  that  Scotland  hasyel 
a  poet.  Full  of  the  true  fire,  it  now  stirs  and  swells  like 
a  trumpet  tone,  now  sinks  in  cadences  sad  and  wild  as 
the  wail  of  a  Highland  dirge."  Among  his  most  suc- 
cessful works  are  "Bothwell,  a  Poem,"  (1856,)  and  a 
parody  on  certain  poets  of  the  spasmodic  school,  entitled 
"  Finnilian,  a  Spasmodic  Tragedy,  by  T.  Percy  Jones," 
(first  published  in  1854.)  In  a  later  volume,  with  the 
last-named  work  are  included  Aytoun's  "Bon  Gaultier 
Ballads."    Died  in  1865. 

See  "  Memoir  of  William  Edmondstoune  Aytoun,"  by  Theodore 
Martin;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1868. 

Ayyub  or  Ayyoub.    See  Aiyoob. 

Ayyubiah.    See  Aiyoobites. 

Ayyubites  or  Ayyoubites.    See  Aiyoobites. 

Azad  Kh4n,  l.-z\A'  Kan,  an  Afghan  chief,  who  served 
under  Nadir  Shah.  Six  years  after  the  death  of  that 
conqueror,  (in  1753,)  he  became  a  powerful  competi- 
tor for  the  throne  of  Persia  with  Kareem  (Karim)  Khan, 
whom  he  at  one  time  nearly  drove  from  his  kingdom  ; 
but,  being  afterwards  surprised  in  a  mountain-pass,  his 
army  was  utterly  destroyed  by  the  forces  of  Kareem.  He 
at  first  fled  to  Georgia,  but  afterwards  returned,  and, 
throwing  himself  on  the  mercy  of  Kareem,  was  not  only 
pardoned,  but  admitted  to  his  intimate  friendship. 

Azad-ud-Daulah,  a'zad  (or  uz'ad)  dod  dow'lah, 
second  prince  of  the  Deelamee  (Dilami)  dynasty,  who 
ruled  over  the  western  part  of  Persia  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury. He  was  a  mild  and  beneficent  sovereign,  who  fos- 
tered letters  and  promoted  public  improvements.  Died 
in  983. 

Azairi  (d-zT're)  of  Rai,  a  Persian  poet,  who  lived 
about  1000  A.D.,  at  the  court  of  Mahmood  of  Gazna,  (or 
Ghiznee.) 

Azais,  t'zt'^ss',  (Pierre  Hyacinthe,)  a  French 
philosopher,  born  at  Soreze  in  1766,  was  a  son  of 
Pierre  Hyacinthe,  noticed  below.  Having  written  against 
the  excesses  of  the  Revolution,  he  was  condemned  to 
deportation,  but  escaped  by  concealing  himself.  Under 
the  empire  he  was  inspector  of  books  at  Nancy.  His 
favourite  study  was  the  doctrine  of  compensations,  on 
which  he  published  a  work,  "The  Compensations  in 
Human  Destinies,"  (1809.)  In  1812  he  published  a  larger 
work,  called  "  Systeme  universel,"  8  vols.    Died  in  1845. 

See  J.  Guadet,  "Notice  sur  Azai's,"  prefixed  to  the  fifth  edition 
of  his  "Compensations,"  and  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Azai's,  (Pierre  Hyacinthe,)  a  French  musician  and 
composer,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1743;  died  in  1793. 
See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Azambuja,  de,  da  ^-zam-boo'zhS,  (Joao  Esteves,) 
a  Portuguese  prelate,  became  Archbishop  of  Lisbon  in 
1402,  aiid  afterwards  cardinal.    Died  in  141 5. 

Azambuza,  de,  da  d-z.^m-boo'zi,  (Diogo,)  an  able 
and  humane  Portuguese  commander,  was  sent  out  in 
1481  by  Joao  II.  at  the  head  of  an  expedition,  and  estab- 
lished a  settlement  on  the  coast  01  Guinea. 

See  Marmol,  "Description  generale  de  I'Afrique." 

Azanza,  de,  di  a-thSn'tha,  (Miguel  Jos^,)  an  able 
Spanish  statesman,  born  in  Navarre  (Navarra)  in  1746, 
was  appointed  minister  of  war  in  1793.  He  was  Viceroy 
of  Mexico  from  1796  to  1799,  and  governed  that  colony 


*  Another  name  for  "Blackwood's  Magazine." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  lar,  fill,  fdt;  m^t;  nSt;  goc-» ;  m  )on; 


AZARA  2 


with  unusual  equity.  In  March,  1808,  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  finance  by  Ferdinand  VII.  As  a  member  of 
the  Supreme  Junta,  to  which  the  king  committed  the 
government  on  his  departure  to  Bayonne,  Azanza  ap- 
pears to  have  favoured  the  French  party.  He  was  min- 
ister of  the  Indies  and  minister  of  justice  under  Joseph 
Bonaparte,  (1809-13,)  and  followed  him  into  exile.  Died 
at  Bordeaux  in  1826. 

See  Alison,  "  History  of  Europe  ;"  Southey,  "  History  of  the 
Peninsular  War." 

Azeira,  de,  di  i-thi'rS,  (Don  Felix,)  a  Spanish  natu- 
ralist, born  near  Balbastro,  in  Aragon,  in  1746.  He  had 
obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  of  engineers, 
when  in  1780  he  was  sent  to  South  America  to  survey 
the  disputed  boundary  between  the  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese possessions.  He  remained  there  about  twenty 
years,  during  which  he  prepared  a  map  of  Buenos  Ayres 
and  Paraguay  and  studied  the  natural  history  of  those 
regions.  Amidst  his  arduous  labours  he  was  greatly 
hindered  and  harassed  by  jealous  and  ignorant  ofiicials. 
An  account  of  his  observations  on  the  mammalia  and 
birds  of  Paraguay  was  published  in  French  in  1801.  He 
published,  in  Spanish,  "  Observations  on  the  Quadrupeds, 
Reptiles,  and  Birds  of  Paraguay  and  La  Plata,"  (5  vols., 
Madrid,  1802.)  These  works  entitle  him  to  a  high  rank 
as  an  original  observer.  His  "Travels  in  South  Amer- 
ica," with  notes  by  Cuvier,  were  published  in  French 
(4  vols.,  1809)  by  Walckenaer,  at  the  request  of  the 
author.  Percival  Hunter  translated  into  English  the 
volume  of  his  Spanish  work  which  treats  of  the  quadru- 
peds of  Paraguay,  etc.,  (1836.)    Died  in  Aragon  in  181 1. 

See  Walckenaer,  "  Notice  sur  F.  Azara,"  prefixed  to  the  "  Voy- 
age dans  I'Amerique  Meridionale ;"  P.  Hunter,  "Natural  History, 
etc." 

Azara,  de,  (Don  Jose  Nicolas,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  distinguished  as  a  writer,  diplomatist,  and 
patron  of  literature  and  art,  was  born  at  IJarbunales, 
near  Balbastro,  in  1731.  He  succeeded  Grimaldi  as 
ambassador  at  Rome  in  1785,  before  which  date  he  had 
for  some  years  performed  the  functions  of  that  office 
without  the  title.  He  acquired  great  influence  with  the 
court  of  Rome,  where  he  remained  until  1798.  He  pa- 
tronized many  artists,  especially  Raphael  Mengs,  of  whom 
he  wrote  an  entertaining  biography,  (1780.)  In  1790  he 
produced  an  elegant  Spanish  version  of  Middleton's 
"Life  of  Cicero."  He  was  sent  to  Paris  as  ambassador 
about  1800,  and  died  there  in  January,  1804. 

See  BouRGOiNG,  "Notice  historique  sur  le  Chevalier  d'Azara," 
1804;  Semhere  V  GuARiNos,  "  Kibliotcca  Espaiiola." 

Azaree  or  Azari,  a'za-ree,  a  celebrated  Persian  poet 
of  the  Soofee  sect,  was  the  author  of  many  religious 
works.    Died  in  146c. 

Azariah.    See  Abednego. 

Az-a-ri'ah,  [Ileb.  JT'^jX,]  a  king  of  Judah,  succeeded 
his  father  Amaziah.    (See  II.  Kings  xiv.  21,22.) 

Azariah  di  Rossi,  S-zS-ree^a  de  ros'see,  (or  De 
Ru'beis,)  a  very  learned  Jewish  rabbi  and  writer  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  a  native  of  Mantua.  He  displayed 
a  spirit  of  liberal  criticism  in  his  work  called  "The  Light 
of  the  Eyes,"  (1574,)  which  treats  on  history,  chronology, 
etc.,  and  is  highly  esteemed  by  Christian  scholars. 

See  Lelong,  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra." 

Azario,  Sd-z^'re-o,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  chronicler, 
born  at  Novara  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  He  compiled  a  chronicle  of  Lombardy  from 
1250  to  1362,  called  "  Book  of  Achievements  in  Lom- 
bardy," ("Liber  Gestorum  in  Lombardia.") 

Azeezee  or  Azizi,  S-zee'zee,  a  Turkish  statesman, 
historian,  and  poet,  born  at  Constantinople  about  1590 ; 
died  in  1657. 

Azeglio,  d',  ddd-zM'yo,  (Cesare,)  Marquis,  born  at 
Turin  in  1763,  served  in  the  army  against  the  French, 
by  whom  he  was  taken  prisoner  in  1792.  About  181 5 
he  was  ambassador  from  the  King  of  vSardinia  to  Rome. 
He  founded  in  1822  a  journal  called  the  "Friend  of 
Italy,"  ("Amico  d'ltalia,")  which  he  edited  until  1829. 
Died  in  1830. 

Azeglio,  d',  (Massimo  Taparelli— td-pa-rel'lee,) 
Marquis,  an  illustrious  Italip.n  statesman,  author,  and 
artist,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Turin  about 
1800,    He  passed  about  eight  years  (1821-29)  at  Rome, 


AZEFEDO 


and  gained  distinction  as  a  painter  of  landscapes,  etc. 
He  married  a  daughter  of  the  celebrated  author  Man- 
zoni,  and  began  his  literary  career  by  a  popular  romance, 
"Ettore  Fieramosco,"  (1833,)  which  was  received  with 
enthusiasm  by  the  Italians.  His  historical  romance 
"  Niccolo  di  Lapi"  (1841)  had  also  a  great  success,  and 
gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  Italian  patriotism.  He  mani- 
fested his  liberal  principles  in  a  political  treatise  called 
"The  Late  Events  in  the  Romagna,"  (1846.)  In  1848 
he  took  arms  against  the  Austrians,  and  was  severely 
wounded  at  Vicenza.  In  May,  1849,  he  was  appointed 
president  of  the  council  (prime  minister)  by  Victor  Em- 
manuel. He  was  succeeded  by  Cavour  in  1852.  His 
policy  was  too  moderate  or  conservative  to  satisfy  the 
zealous  republicans.    Died  in  1866. 

See  "  jM.  Azeglio  prima  et  dopo  la  Guerra  della  Indipendenza," 
Turin,  1850;  Brockhaus,  " Conversations-Lexikon ;"  "Gentleman's 
Magazine"  for  March,  1866. 

Azelt.    See  Axelt. 

Az'e-mar''  (or  Azl-mar')  le  Noir — leh  nwar,  a 
Provenfal  troubadour,  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  thir- 
teenth century. 

Azemar,  i'za^mtr',  (FRANgois  Bazile,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Cabannes  in  1776,  was  killed  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Gross  Drebnitz  in  1813. 

Azevedo.    See  Acevedo  and  Acebedo. 

Azevedo,  (Felix  Alvares.)    See  Acevedo. 

Azevedo,  ^-za-va'do,  (Joao,)  a  Portuguese  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Santarem  in  1665  ;  died  in  1746. 

Azevedo,  (Luiz,)  a  Portuguese  Jesuit  and  linguist, 
born  at  Chaves  in  1573,  educated  at  Goa,  was  afterwards 
sent  to  Abyssinia,  where  he  was  greatly  beloved,  and 
where  he  died  in  1634,  He  spoke  fluently  the  Geez  and 
Amharic  dialects,  into  which  he  translated  the  New 
Testament  and  other  works. 

Azevedo,  d-thi-va'oo,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  physician, 
born  in  the  Canaries,  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  plague, 
(1589.) 

Azevedo,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  medical  writer,  who 
lived  about  1720. 

Azevedo,  de,  di  a-thi-va'Do,  (Alonso,)  a  Spanish 
lawyer  and  legal  writer,  died  in  his  native  city  of  Plasen- 
cia  in  1598. 

Azevedo,  de,  (Alonso,)  a  Spanish  poet,  who  pub- 
lished at  Rome,  in  161 5,  a  poem  entitled  the  "Creation 
of  the  World."  ^> 

Azevedo,  de,  da  a-zi-vaMo,  (Angela,)  a  Portuguese 
dramatic  authoress,  lived  about  1650.  She  wrote  in 
Spanish,  and  was  attached  to  the  court  of  Philip  IV.  of 
Spain. 

Azevedo,  de,  (Francisco,)  a  Portuguese  poet,  born 
at  Lisbon  ;  died  in  1680. 

Azevedo,  de,  (Ignazio,)  a  Portuguese  Jesuit  mis- 
sionary, born  at  Oporto  in  1527,  was  noted  for  his  self- 
denial  and  ascetic  piety.  He  laboured  several  years  in 
Brazil,  and  returned  to  Europe.  On  a  second  voyage  to 
Brazil,  of  which  he  was  appointed  provincial,  the  ship  in 
which  he  sailed  was  attacked  near  the  Canary  Islands 
in  1570  by  a  fanatical  sea-captain  in  the  service  of  the 
Queen  of  Navarre,  who  massacred  Azevedo  and  many 
other  Jesuit  missionaries. 

See  Beauvais  et  Caroura,  "La  Vie  et  le  Martyre  d' Azevedo," 
I74S- 

Azevedo,  de,  (Jeronymo,)  a  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  Governor-General  of  Ceylon  from  1595  to  1612, 
and  Viceroy  of  the  Portuguese  dominions  in  India  from 
161 2  to  16 1 7.  He  returned  to  Portugal  in  161 7,  and 
died  in  prison,  to  which  he  is  said  to  have  been  com- 
mitted for  alleged  disloyal  intrigues. 

Azevedo,  de,  (Luis  Antonio,)  a  Portuguese  gram- 
marian, lived  at  Lisbon  about  1800. 

Azevedo,  de,  (Luiza,)  a  Portuguese  poetess,  born  at 
Villa  de  Paredes  in  1655  ;  died  in  1679. 

Azevedo-Coutinho,  S-za-va'do  ko-t^n'yo,  (Joz6 
JOAQUIM,)  a  Portuguese  bishop  and  writer  on  commerce, 
was  born  in  Brazil  in  1742.    Died  in  1821. 

Azevedo-Morato,  de,  da  S-zi-va'do  mo-ri'to,  (Ma- 
NOEL,)  a  Portuguese  poet,  born  at  Coimbra,  lived  about 
1710. 

Azevedo-Tojal,  de,  da  d-zk-vaMo  to-zh^K,  (P.,)  a 
Portuguese  poet,  published,  in  1716,  "Carlos  reduzido, 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  K,giittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  tr 


rilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (SC^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


AZEVEDO 


230 


JZZOOBETDEE 


Inglatena  illustrada,"  ("Charles  restored  or  reclaimed, 
and  England  enlightened,")  a  heroic  poem,  of  which  the 
conversion  of  Charles  II.  of  England  to  Catholicism 
forms  the  chief  subject. 

Azevedo  y  Zuniga,  de,  di  i-thi-va'Do  e  thoon- 
yee'ga,  (Caspar,)  Count  of  Monterey,  was  made  Viceroy 
of  Peru  in  1603,  having  previously  filled  the  office  of 
viceroy  in  Mexico.    Died  at  Lima  in  1606, 

Azim-ed-Dowlah-Bahadur,(or  -Behauder,)  S.'zim 
ed  dow'Iah  ba-ha'der,  (or  ba-hd'ddor,)  the  last  nabob  of 
the  Carnatic  in  India.  He  ceded  the  Carnatic  to  the 
East  India  Company  in  1801.    Died  in  1819. 

Azinhero,  a-z6n-ya''ro,  (Christovao  Rodriguez,)  a 
Portuguese  jurist  and  historian,  born  at  Evora  in  1474. 

Azizi.    See  Azeezee. 

Aznar,  Jz-naR^,  or  As-i-na'ri-us,  Count  of  Gas- 
cony  or  Vasconie,  died  in  836  A.D.,  and  left  a  son  Sancho, 
who  became  Count  of  Navarre. 

Azo,  Azzo,  at'so,  or  A-zo-li'nus,  (Portius,)  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  jurists  of  the  middle  ages,  was  born 
at  Bologna  near  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century.  He 
lectured  at  the  University  of  Bologna.  His  chief  works, 
"  Summa  Codicis"  and  "  Summa  Institutionum,"  were 
the  highest  authority  in  his  time.    Died  about  1220. 

See  Taisand,  "Vies  des  plus  celebres  Jurisconsultes." 

Azolinus.    See  Azo. 

Azopardi,  Sd-zo-paRMee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
musician,  lived  at  Malta  about  1750,  and  published 
"Practical  Music,"  ("II  Musico  prattico.") 

Azor,  a-thoR^,  [Lat.  Azo'rius,]  (Juan,)  a  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  casuist,  born  at  Zamora  in  1533.  He  pub- 
lished at  Rome  "  Institutes  of  Morals,"  ("  Institutiones 
Morales,")  the  principles  of  which  were  censured  by 
Pascal  in  his  "Provincial  Letters."    Died  in  1603. 

Azpilcueta,  ith-p^l-kwa'ta,  (Martin,)  a  celebrated 
Spanish  doctor  of  canon  law,  often  called  the  "  Navar- 
rese"  or  "  Navarro,"  was  born  near  Pampeluna  about 
1490.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works,  which  were  pub- 
lished in  3  vols.,  1590.  At  the  age  of  eighty  he  appeared 
as  counsel  for  Carranza,  an  archbishop  who  was  tried 
for  heresy  at  Rome.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  charita- 
ble disposition.    Died  at  Rome  in  1586. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Azraki,  az'ri-kee,  a  Persian  poet  and  sage,  born  at 
Herat  in  the  eleventh  century,  flourished  at  the  court 
of  Tugan  Shah,  at  Nishapoor.  He  was  the  author  or 
reviser  of  a  work  of  philosophical  and  moral  maxims 
called  the  "  Book  of  Sinbad." 

Azulai,  ^-zoo'll,  (Abraham,)  a  Jewish  cabalistic  wri- 
ter, lived  at  Fez.    Died  in  1644. 

Azuni,  M-zoo'nee,  (Domenico  Alberto,)  a  distin- 
guished jurist  and  antiquary,  born  at  Sassari,  in  the  island 
of  Sardinia,  in  1749.  He  published  in  1786-88  a  valua- 
ble "  Universal  Dictionary  of  Mercantile  Jurisprudence," 
and  in  1795  "The  General  System  of  the  Principles  of 
the  Maritime  Law  of  Europe,"  ("Sistema  universale  dei 
Principii  del  Dritto  maritimo  dell'  Europa,"  4  vols.,)  a 
work  of  high  reputation.  An  improved  French  version 
was  published  by  him  in  1805.  He  was  appointed  by 
Napoleon  president  of  the  court  of  appeal  at  Genoa  in 
1807,  and  was  one  of  the  compilers  of  the  French  Code 
of  Commerce.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Civil  and  Natu- 
ral History  of  Sardinia,"  (1802.)  Died  at  Cagliari  in 
1827. 

S(e  G.  Manno,  "Vita  d'Azuni;"  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli 
Italiani  illustri." 

Azurara,  de,  d^  S-zoo-r^'ri,  or  Zurara,  zoo-ri'r^, 
(Gomez,)  a  Portuguese  historian,  born  in  the  first  half  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  Torre 
do  Tombo  in  1454.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Chronicle 
of  the  Discovery  and  Conquest  of  Guinea,"  He  was 
living  in  1472. 

Azzanello,  It-sa-neKlo,  (Gregorio,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Cremona,  lived  about  1400. 

Azzari,  St-s^'ree,  (Fulvio,)  a  historian,  born  at  Reg- 
gio,  in  Lombardy,  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 


century.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Reggio,"  in  Latin, 
(1623.) 

Az-zarkai,  az-zar-klK,  Abool-  (or  Abul-)  Kasim- 
Ibn-Abderrahman,  S'bool  ki'sim  ib'n  ^b-der-rSH'- 
man,  a  distinguished  astronomer  and  mathematician, 
born  at  Cordova  about  1000  A.D.,  was  the  inventor  and 
improver  of  some  astronomical  instruments,  and  the 
propounder  of  some  ingenious  theories  in  astronomy. 

Azzemino,  dt-si-mee'no,  (Paolo,)  a  Venetian  artist, 
who  flourished  about  1500-20.  He  excelled  in  the  art 
of  inlaying  on  gold,  silver,  and  iron,  called  in  French 
damasquinage. 

Azzi,  df'see,  (Orazio,)  an  Italian  writer  on  theology, 
born  at  Parma,  lived  about  1700-25. 

Azzi,  degli,  dil'yee  af'see,  (Francesco  Maria,)  an 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Arezzo  in  1655.  His  sonnets  have 
been  commended  by  Italian  critics.    Died  in  1707. 

Azzi  ne'  Forti,  degli,  dM'ye  it'see  na  foR'tee, 
(Faustina,)  a  sister  of  Francesco  Maria,  noticed  above, 
wrote  verses  which  were  received  with  favour.  Died  in 
1724,  aged  about  seventy-four. 

Azzio,  at'se-o,  [Lat.  Actius,]  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was 
the  author  of  a  treatise  on  the  game  of  chess. 

Azzo,  at'so,  I.,  (Albert,)  Marquis  of  Este,  was  in- 
volved in  war  against  the  Emperor  of  Germany  about 
1014.    Died  in  1029. 

Azzo  II.,  son  of  Azzo  I.,  the  wealthiest  of  the  Italian 
nobles,  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  affairs  of  Italy, 
as  also  did  his  successors  Azzo  III,,  V.,  and  VI.  Azzo 
VII.  was  a  distinguished  leader  of  the  Guelph  faction, 
in  which  he  experienced  great  variety  of  fortune,  but 
finally  triumphed,  and  died  in  Ferrara  m  1264. 

Azzo,  (Alberto,)  called  also  Atto  or  da  Alberto, 
a  nobleman  of  Lucca,  who  took  a  distinguished  part  in 
the  defence  of  the  towns  of  Lombardy  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  tenth  century,  and  was  created  by  Otho  the  Great 
Marquis  of  Reggio  and  Modena. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italieniies." 

Azzoguidi,  it-so-gwee'dee,  (Germani,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Bologna  in  1740,  was  the  author  of  an 
excellent  work  on  the  structure  of  the  uterus,  and  was 
the  founder  of  the  museum  of  comparative  anatomy  and 
physiology  in  his  native  city.    Died  in  1814. 

Azzoguidi,  (Valerio  Felice,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1651.  He  published  a  work  "  On  the 
Origin  and  Antiquity  of  Bologna,"  ("De  Origine  et  Ve- 
tustate  Bononiae,"  1716.)    Died  in  1728. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Azzolini,  at-so-lee'nee,  (Decius,)  an  Italian  cardinal 
and  poet,  born  at  Fermo  in  1623  ;  died  in  1689. 

Azzolini  or  Mazzolini,  mat-so-lee'nee,  (Giovanni 
Bernardino,)  a  Neapolitan  painter,  who  worked  at 
Genoa  about  16 10,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  in 
1 5 10.    He  excelled  in  expression. 

See  Soprani,  "  Vite  de'  Pittori  Genovesi." 

Azzolini,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Fermo, 
was  a  nephew  of  Cardinal  Azzolini.  He  became  secre- 
tary to  Pope  Urban  VIII.,  who  appointed  him  Bishop 
of  Ripatransone  in  1630.  He  wrote,  besides  other  poems, 
a  "  Satire  against  Luxury,"  (1686,)  which  was  much  ad- 
mired by  Italian  critics.    Died  in  1632. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Azzoni  Avogari,  degli,  dkl'yee  it-so'nee  i-vo-g^'- 
ree,  (Rambaldo,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Treviso 
in  1 719,  became  a  canon  of  the  cathedral  in  that  town. 
He  founded  a  public  library  at  Treviso.  His  knowledge 
of  the  ancient  documents  and  inscriptions  of  Italy  was 
remarkable.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise 
"On  the  Origin  and  Antiquities  of  Treviso,"  (1840.) 
Died  in  1790. 

See  a  "Life  of  Azzoni,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Considerazioni  sopra  le 
prime  Notizie  di  Trivigi,"  1840. 

Azzoobeydee  or  Az-zubeydi,  Sz-zoo-ba'dee,  a 
Moslem  lexicographer  and  grammarian,  born  at  Seville 
about  927  ;  died  about  990. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  Hr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n5t;  gi5bd;  moon, 


• 


BJADER  231:  BABER 


B. 


Baader,  bi'der,  (Clemens  Alois,)  brother  of  Franz 
Xaver,  noticed  below,  born  in  1762,  published  a  work 
entitled  "Learned  Bavarians,"  ("Gelehrten  Baiern.") 
Died  in  1838. 

Baader,  (Franz  Joseph,)  born  at  Ratisbon  in  1733, 
was  physician  to  the  Elector  of  Bavaria.    Died  in  1794. 

Baader,  (Tobias,)  a  German  sculptor,  born  in  Bava- 
ria, lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Baader,  von,  fon  bSMer,  (Franz  Xaver.)  a  German 
pHlosopher,  born  at  Munich  in  1765,  became  professor 
of  speculative  theology  in  that  city.  He  was  an  adherent 
ot  Jacob  Bohme,  and  published  several  works  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  philosophy  of  Hegel  and  Schelling ;  also 
many  well-written  pamphlets  or  short  treatises.  Died 
in  1841. 

See  F.  Hoffmann,  "  F.  v.  Baader  in  seinem  Veihaltniss  zu 
Hegel,  etc.,"  1850. 

Baader,  von,  (Joseph,)  brother  of  Franz  Xaver, 
born  at  Munich  in  1763,  was  the  author  of  a  number 
of  treatises  on  mechanics.    Died  in  1835. 

Baah-Deen  or  Baahdin,  ba'ih-deen',  a  learned  Per- 
sian, supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
wrote,  by  command  of  Abbas  the  Great,  a  '*  Summary  of 
Civil  and  Canon  Law,"  (left  unfinished.) 

Baak-Hattigh,  bak-hSt'tiG,  (Jean,)  a  Flemish  land- 
scape-painter, flourished  about  1640. 

Ba'al,  (orbal,)  [Heb. '7^t3,]  written  also  Bel,  the  princi- 
pal god  of  the  Phoenicians  and  several  other  Oriental 
nations,  represented  the  sun,  while  Baaltis,  Astarte,  or 
Ashtoreth,  the  correlative  female  deity,  corresponded  to 
the  moon,  (queen  of  heaven.)  Baal  was  also  the  Bel  or 
Belus  of  the  Babylonians,  and  his  worship  became  al- 
most universal  under  several  of  the  Jewish  kings.  (See 
I.  Kings  xviii.  22.) 

Baale,  van,  vSn  bi'leh,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  dramatic 
poet,  born  at  Delft,  wrote  "  De  Saracenen."  Died  in  1822. 

Baan,  van,  vtn  bin,  (Jacob,)  an  able  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  son  of  Jan,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  the 
Hague  in  1673.  He  accompanied  William  HL  to  Eng- 
land in  1688,  and  worked  for  some  years  in  London. 
Died  in  Vienna  in  1700. 

Baan,  van,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  portrait-painter  of  high 
reputation,  born  at  Haarlem  about  1633,  imitated  Van 
Dyck.  He  was  invited  to  England  by  Charles  H.,  whose 
portrait  he  painted.  Among  his  master-pieces  was  a 
portrait  of  John  de  Witt,  which  was  torn  in  pieces  by 
the  mob  that  murdered  that  statesman.  Van  Baan  re- 
fused to  paint  Louis  XIV.  in  1672,  because  he  waged  an 
aggressive  war  against  Holland.  Died  at  the  Hague  in 
1702. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  desPeintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,  etc. ;" 
Nagler,  "  Neiies  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Baardt  or  Baart,  bSRt,  (Peter,)  a  Flemish  physician 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  the  author  of  agricultural 
poems,  which  have  been  compared  by  his  countrymen 
to  Virgil's  "  Georgics." 

Baarland  or  Barland,  van,  vtn  baR'lant,  (Adrian,) 
a  Flemish  writer  and  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Louvain, 
born  in  1488;  died  in  1542. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires." 

Baarland,  van,  (Hubert,)  a  medical  writer,  born  at 
Baarland,  in  Holland,  flourished  between  15 10  and  1550. 

See  De  la  Rue,  "  Geletterd  Zeeland." 

Baarsdorp.    See  Baersdorp. 
Baart.    See  Baardt. 

Baart  or  Baert,  biRt,  (Arnaud,)  a  Flemish  jurist, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1554;  died  in  1629. 

Baasha,  ba'a-sha,  [Heb.  ^V}}^2,]  a  captain  of  Israel 
and  son  of  Ahijah,  slew  King  Nadab  and  usurped  the 
throne  about  950  B.C.  Died  926  B.C.  (See  I.  Kings 
XV.  and  xvi.) 

Baaz,bats,or  Baazius,bSt'se-us,(BENEDiCT,)  a  Swed- 
ish writer  on  morals,  etc.,  was  governor  of  the  royal 
castle  at  Stockholm.    Died  in  1650. 

Baaziiis,  bSt'se-fis,  (Johan,)  a  bishop  of  Wexio,  and 
author  of  the  "  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Sweden,"  born 


in  1 581,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  had  three 
sons,  who  distinguished  themselves — John,  (Archbishop 
of  Upsal,)  Eric,  and  Benedict.    Died  in  1649. 

Bab,  bSb,  (John,)  an  Armenian  theologian,  died  about 
the  end  of  the  ninth  century. 

Baba,  b3.'bS,  a  Turkish  prophet  or  impostor,  flourished 
about  1240. 

Baba- Alee  or  Baba-Ali,  bl'bi'  3.'lee',  the  first  inde- 
pendent Dey  of  Algiers,  was  elected  successor  to  Ibra- 
heem,  who  was  slain  in  an  insurrection  of  the  people  in 
1 710.  He  was  a  man  of  great  abilities  and  worth.  He 
succeeded  in  inducing  the  Turkish  sultan  to  recognize  in 
Algiers  an  ally  instead  of  a  subject.  He  died  in  1718, 
lamented  by  Europeans  as  well  as  Moslems. 

Babarczy,  bi-bSRt'se,  (Anton,)  born  at  Pesth,  in 
Hungary,  was  a  partisan  of  Austria  in  the  revolution  of 
1848,  and  rose  to  be  chief  commissioner  of  civil  affairs 
for  Hungary. 

BaVbage,  (Charles,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English 
mathematician,  born  about  1790,  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  was  Lucasian  professor 
from  1828  to  1839.  In  1832  he  published  an  important 
work  on  the  "  Economy  of  Manufactures  and  Machinery," 
which  was  often  reprinted,  and  translated  into  several 
languages.  He  contributed  mai^y  papers  to  the  "  Phi- 
losophical Transactions"  and  other  scientific  publica- 
tions. Among  his  works  is  "The  Ninth  Bridgewater 
Treatise,"  (1837.)  He  invented  about  1822  a  calculating 
machine,  and  expended  a  large  sum  of  money  (about 

7,000)  in  its  construction;  but  the  government,  which 
had  supplied  him  with  funds,  having  abandoned  the  enter- 
prise, the  machine  was  never  completed.    Died  in  1871. 

See  "  London  Quarterly"  for  January  and  March,  1827,  (vol. 
XXXV.;)  "Passages  from  the  Life  of  a  Philosopher;"  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  January,  1833,  (vol.  Ivi. ;)  "  Eraser's  Magazine,"  vol. 
viii. 

Bab'bard,  (Ralph,)  an  English  mechanical  inventor, 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Babbini.    See  Baijini. 

Babek  (bcVbek)  Khor'remee or Kho'remi,  i.e.  "the 

Sensualist,"  a  famous  Persian  impostor,  who  is  said  to 
have  inculcated  an  unbounded  libertinism.  He  propa- 
gated his  doctrines  with  the  sword,  and  for  a  time  defied 
the  utmost  power  of  the  caliph  Motassem,  but  was  at 
last  taken  and  put  to  death  in  837  A.D. 

Babel,  barbel,  (Hugh,)  a  writer  on  logic  and  gram- 
mar, was  professor  of  Hebrew,  Greek,  etc.  at  Louvain. 
Died  in  1556. 

Ba'bell,  (William,)  an  English  composer  and  or- 
ganist, born  about  1690,  lived  in  London.  Died  in  1722. 

See  F^Tis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

BabenoSanct  Hnber,  ba-ba'nosankthoo'ber,(LuD- 
wiG,)  a  German  philosopher  and  Benedictine,  born  at 
Leiningen  in  1660.  He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Salz- 
burg, and  published  several  works.    Died  in  1726. 

B^ber,  kVber,  written  also  Babour,  a  Persian  prince, 
was  a  grandson  of  Tamerlane.  He  dethroned  in  145 1 
his  brother  Mohammed,  who  reigned  over  Irak  and  Fans. 
Died  about  1460. 

Baber  (or  Babur)  Mohammed,  bS'ber  mo-htm'- 
med,  written  also  Babour  and  Baubur,  surnamed  Za- 
heered-Deen,  (ZAHtR  Eddin,)  za-heer'ed-deen',("pro- 
tector  of  religion,")  the  illustrious  founder  of  the  Tartar 
or  Mogul  Empire  in  India,  was  born  of  the  race  of  Tamer- 
lane in  1482  or  1483.  In  1494,  when  not  more  than  twelve 
years  of  age,  he  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  his  father, 
King  of  Ferghana.  The  career  of  Baber  was  marked  by 
a  series  of  extraordinary  vicissitudes  and  wonderful  ex- 
ploits unparalleled  even  in  Oriental  history.  On  one 
occasion,  having  been  expelled  from  his  paternal  king- 
dom, he  resolved  to  attack  with  less  than  three  hundred 
followers  Samarcand,  then  one  of  the  strongest  cities  of 
Asia,  and  defended  by  a  large  army.  He  scaled  the  walls 
in  the  night,  and  was  joined  by  many  of  the  inhabitants. 
A  panic  having  seized  upon  the  troops  of  the  city,  the 
king  fled,  leaving  his  capital  in  the  hands  of  Baber.  The 
latter  was  compelled  soon  after,  by  the  vicissitudes  of 


€  as  k;  q  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  H,  Y.,  gtUhiral ;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Jy:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BABEUF 


232 


BACCHUS 


war,  to  retire  to  Cabool.  Here  he  was  at  first  received 
with  great  favour ;  but,  a  formidable  insurrection  having 
been  raised  against  him,  he  successively  challenged  and 
slew  in  single  combat  five  of  the  principal  leaders  of  the 
opposing  faction.  The  others,  filled  with  admiration  or 
fear,  accepted  him  as  their  king.  Our  limits  will  not 
permit  us  to  pursue  the  various  changes  of  his  fortune. 
Suffice  to  say  that,  after  having  made  two  incursions  into 
India,  one  in  1505  and  the  other  in  15 19,  he  crossed  the 
Indus  the  third  time  in  1524,  and  defeated  and  slew  Ibra- 
heem.  King  of  Delhi,  thus  putting  an  end  to  the  second 
Gaurian  dynasty,  in  1526.  Baber  died  in  1530,  leaving 
his  throne  to  his  son  Humayoon.  Baber  possessed  not 
only  great  bodily  strength  and  dexterity,  but  abilities  of 
a  very  high  order,  and  was  not  less  distinguished  for 
his  courage  and  generosity.  He  was,  moreover,  a  mas- 
ter of  the  arts  of  music  and  poetry.  He  left  an  interest- 
ing as  well  as  highly  instructive  history  of  the  events  of 
his  own  life,  of  which  there  is  an  able  review  in  Lord 
Jeffi-ey's  "Essays." 

See  "  Life  of  B.iber,  Emperor  of  Hindostan,"  by  R.  M.  Calde- 
cott;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  second  series,  1S2S ;  "His- 
tory of  British  India,"  in  Harper's  Family  Library,  vol.  i. ;  Ferishta, 
"  Mahomedan  Power  in  India,"  translated  by  J.  Bricjgs,  4  vols.  8vo, 
London,  1829. 

Babeuf,  bi'buf,  (liMiLE,)  a  son  of  Fran9ois,  noticed 
below,  born  in  1785,  was  a  zealous  partisan  of  Bonaparte, 
whom  he  followed  to  Elba  in  1814. 

Babeuf,  (pRANgois  Noel,)  a  French  conspirator  and 
political  theorist,  born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1764,  assumed 
the  name  of  Caius  Gracchus.  He  founded  in  1794  a 
journal  called  the  "Tribune  of  the  People,"  in  which  he 
advocated  absolute  equality  and  community  of  property. 
He  became  the  chief  of  a  numerous  band  of  conspirators 
who  designed  to  revolt  against  the  Directory  and  estab- 
lish the  regime  of  babouvis7ne.  Having  been  betrayed 
by  one  of  his  accomplices,  he  was  executed  in  1797. 

See  BuoNAROTTi,  "Conspiration  pour  I'l^galite  dite  de  Babeuf," 
2  vols.,  1828;  SuDRE,  "  Histoire  du  Communisme,"  Paris,  1849. 

Babey,  bt'bi',  (Athanase  Marie  Pierre,)  a  mem- 
ber of  the  French  Constituent  Assembly,  born  in  1744, 
was  chosen  one  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1795. 
Died  in  1815. 

Babi,  bt'be',  (Jean  Franqcjis,)  a  French  anarchist, 
born  at  Tarascon  in  1759,  was  one  of  a  party  which  at- 
tacked the  camp  at  Crenelle,  for  which  he  was  executed 
in  October,  1796. 

Babie  de  Bercenay,  bt'be-a'  deh  b^Rss'nk',  (Fran- 
gois,)  a  prolific  French  writer  on  history,  etc.,  born  at 
Lavaur  in  176 1.    Died  about  1830. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Babin,  bt'b^N',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  ecclesiastical 
writer,  and  professor  of  theology  at  Angers,  born  in  1651. 
Died  in  1734. 

Babinet,  bt'be^na',  (Jacques,)  a  French  natural  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Lusignan  in  1794,  became  professor  of 
physics  in  the  College  of  Saint  Louis,  Paris.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  valuable  treatises  on  meteorological 
optics  and  terrestrial  magnetism,  and  made  important 
improvements  in  the  air-pump,  hygrometer,  etc.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1840. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Studies  and  Lectures  on  the  Sci- 
ences of  Observation,"  etc.,  ("Etudes  et  Lectures  sur 
les  Sciences  d'Observation,"  etc.) 

Bab'ing-ton,  (Anthony,)  an  English  gentleman,  and 
a  zealous  Catholic,  devoted  to  the  cause  of  Mary  Stuart, 
was  executed  in  1586  for  having  conspired  against  the 
life  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England,"  chap,  xlii.;  Froude,  "Reign 
of  Elizabeth." 

Babington,  (Charles  Cardale,)  F.R.S.,  an  English 
botanist,  born  about  1808.  He  became  professor  of  bo- 
tany at  Cambridge,  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Manual  of  British  Botany." 

Babiiigton,  (Gervase,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Nottinghamshire  about  1550,  became  Bishop  of  Wor- 
cester in  1597.    Died  in  1610. 

Babington,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  a  chemist  and  min- 
tralogist,  was  born  near  Coleraine,  Ireland,  in  1756. 
He  began  to  practise  medicine  in  London  about  1797, 
and  lectured  on  chemistry  at  Guy's  Hospital.    In  1799 


he  published  a  "NeW  System  of  Mineralogy."  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Geological  Society,  of  which 
he  was  chosen  president  in  1822.    Died  in  1833. 

See  Richard  Bright,  "  Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Wil- 
liam Babington." 

Babini,  ba-bee'nee,  or  Babbini,  bSb-bee'nee,  (Mat- 
teo,)  a  celebrated  Italian  vocalist,  born  at  Bologna  in 
1754.    Died  in  1816. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Babo,  bi'bo,  (Joseph  Maria,)  a  German  dramatist, 
born  at  Ehrenbreitstein  in  1756,  was  the  author  of  the 
historical  tragedy  of  "Otto  von  Wittelsbach,"  which  is 
ranked  among  the  best  dramas  of  its  kind  in  the  lan- 
guage.   He  lived  at  Munich.    Died  in  1822. 

Babo,  von,  fon  ba'bo,  (Lambert,)  a  German  culti- 
vator, born  at  Manheim  in  1790,  published  several  valua- 
ble treatises  on  the  culture  of  the  vine. 

Babois,  bt^bwi',  (Marguerite  Victoire,)  a  French 
poetess,  born  at  Versailles  in  1760,  was  a  niece  of  Ducis. 
Her  "Elegy  on  the  Death  of  her  Daughter"  (1805) 
was  greatly  admired.    Died  in  1839. 

Babou,  bt'boo',  (Jean,)  Baron  de  Sagonne,  a  French 
general,  commanded  the  artillery  at  the  battle  of  Saint- 
Denis  in  1567.    Died  in  1569. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  historique  des  Generaux 
Fran^ais." 

Babr,    See  Baber. 

Ba^'bri-us  [Bd/ipiof]  or  Ba'bri-as,  [Ba/Jpi'af,]  a  Greek 
fabulist,  supposed  to  have  lived  a  short  time  previous  to 
Augustus,  made  a  collection  of  ^sop's  Fables,  which  he 
turned  into  choriambic  verse. 

See  Tyrwhitt,  "Dissertatio  de  Babrio,"  1776. 

Babuer  or  Babure,  ba'biiR,  (Theodore,)  a  Dutch 
painter  of  interiors,  worked  about  1600-40. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kunstler-Lexikon." 

Bab'y-las,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  suffered  martyrdom 
under  Decius  in  251  a.d.  He  was  esteemed  one  of  the 
most  faithful  and  virtuous  prelates  of  his  time. 

Bac,  btk,  (Theodore,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Li- 
moges in  1808,  was  associate  editor  of  the  journal 
"  L'Europe  monarchique,"  in  1837.  He  was  a  deputy  to 
the  Constitutional  Assembly  in  1848. 

Baocaini,bik-ka-ee'nee  or  bik-kl'nee,  (Benedetto,) 
an  Italian  writer,  born  in  1657,  was  professor  of  ecclesi- 
astical history  at  Modena.    Died  in  1721. 

Bacoalar  y  Sanna,  bak-ki-laR'  e  sSn'ni,  (Vin- 
CENTE,)  Marquis  of  Saint  Philip,  a  Spanish  historian  and 
statesman,  who  occupied  important  posts  under  Charles 
II.  and  Philip  V.  He  wrote,  in  Spanish,  a  "  Hlistory  of 
the  Jewish  Monarchy"  and  a  "History  of  Philip  V." 
Died  in  1726. 

Baccanelli,  Bacchanelli,  bik-kS-nel'lee,  or  Bac- 
caneFcius,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  physician  and  medi- 
cal writer  of  the  sixteenth  century,  born  at  Reggio. 

Baccarini,  bak-k^-ree'nee,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  was  born  at  Reggio  ;  died  in  1682. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Baccelli.bat-cheFIee,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  writer 
and  physician,  born  at  Florence  in  15 15,  translated 
Homer's  "Odyssey"  into  Italian  verse.    Died  in  1581. 

Bacchanelli.    See  Baccanelli. 

Bac-ehei'us  \^aKxdoq\  or  Bac-ehe'us,  written  also 
Vacceus,  a  Greek  musician,  surnamed  the  Elder, 
flourished  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourth  century.  He 
was  the  author  of  an  "  Introduction  to  the  Art  of  Music." 

Bac-ehi''des,  a  general  of  Demetrius  Soter,  invade! 
Judea  160  B.C.,  and  fought  a  battle  against  Judas  Mac- 
cabaeus,  who  was  killed  in  this  action. 

Bacchini,  bS.k-kee^iee,  (Benedetto,)  a  learned  Bene- 
dictine monk,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Parma,  or  at  Flor- 
ence, in  165 1.  He  published  several  religious  and  mis- 
cellaneous works.    Died  in  1721. 

See  Ireneo  Affo,  "Vita  del  P.  Bacchini,"  1797. 

Bac^-ehus,  [Gr.  Bu/ctof,]  called  also  in  Greek  Diony'- 
sus,  [AfOTOCTOf,]  the  god  of  wine,  is  commonly  said  to  have 
been  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Semele.  He  taught  men 
the  culture  of  the  vine  and  the  mode  of  extracting  the 
juice  of  the  grape.  According  to  one  account,  Bacchus 
was  the  son  of  Ammon,  King  of  Libya,  and  a  beautiful 
woman  named  Amalthe'a.   Ammon,  fearing  the  jealousy 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sJiort ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsacre;  far,  illl,  f4t;  xakX;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BJCCHTLIDES 


233 


BACH 


of  his  wife  Rhea,  had  young  Bacchus  and  his  mother  con- 
veyed to  a  town  called  Nysa,  on  a  delicious  island  formed 
by  the  river  Triton.  He  became,  according  to  this  legend,  a 
mighty  conqueror  and  benefactor  of  mankind,  by  whom  he 
was  at  last  deified.  Among  the  most  important  events  of 
his  history  is  his  expedition  to  India.  From  this  and  other 
circumstances,  many  writers  suppose  the  worship  of  Bac- 
chus to  have  been  derived  from  India.  His  chariot  drawn 
by  panthers  or  tigers,  and  the  Indian  origin  of  the  vine, 
are  cited  as  incidental  evidences  of  that  fact.  Bacchus  is 
usually  represented  as  an  effeminate  young  man  crowned 
with  vine-  and  ivy-leaves,  with  a  thyrsus  in  his  hand. 

See  Keightley,  "  Mythology;"  Guigniaut,  "  Religions  de  I'An- 
tiquite,"  vol.  ii.  ;  G.  F.  Ckeuzer,  "Dionysus  seu  Commentationes  de 
Rerum  Bacchicarum  Orphicarumqiie  Origine  et  Causis,"  2  vols.  4to, 
1808-09. 

Bac-ehyl'i-des,  [Gr.  BaK.xv7j^ri^ ;  Fr.  Bacchylide, 
bt'lce'l^d',]  an  eminent  Greek  lyric  poet,  born  about  512 
B.C.,  in  the  island  of  Ceos,  was  a  nephew  of  Simonides 
and  a  rival  of  Pindar.  His  extant  works  have  been  pub- 
lished in  Bergk's  "  Poetae  Lyrici  Graeci." 

Bacci,  bat'chee,  (Andre.\,)  an  Italian  physician,  natu- 
ralist, and  writer,  who  lived  about  1580. 

Bacciarelli,  bit-chi-reKlee,  (Marcelling,)  an  Italian 
artist,  born  at  Rome  in  1731,  was  employed  by  Augustus 
HI.  of  Poland  as  designer  of  the  gallery  of  engravings  at 
Dresden.  He  also  painted  portraits  and  historical  pieces. 
He  settled  at  Warsaw  about  1765,  and  was  patronized  by 
the  king  Stanislas  Poniatowski.  Died  at  Warsaw  in  1818. 

Bacciccio.    See  Baciccio. 

Baccio,  bdt'cho,  or  Bacci,  bat'chee,  [Lat.  Bac'cius,] 
(Andrea,)  an  Italian  physician  and  naturalist  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  was  a  native  of  Milan. 

Baccio  d'AguoIo.    See  Agnolo. 

Baccio  da  Monte-Lupo,  bSt'cho  d^  mon'ti-loo'po, 
a  Florentine  sculptor  and  architect,  born  about  1445. 
His  bronze  statue  of  Saint  John  the  Evangelist  is  re- 
garded as  his  master-piece.  He  was  the  father  of  the 
sculptor  Raphael  da  Monte-Lupo.    Died  about  1533. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors." 

Baccio  della  Porta,  bat'cho  del-la-poR'tS,  an  emi- 
nent Italian  painter,  known  also  as  Fra  Bartolommeo 
Di  San  Marco,  (fR^  baR-to-lo-ma'o  de  sAn  maR'ko,)  was 
born  at  Savignano,  near  Florence,  in  1469.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Cosimo  Rosselli,  and  subsequently  studied  the 
works  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  He  was  an  adherent  and 
friend  of  the  celel^rated  reformer  Savonarola,  and  was 
so  deeply  affected  by  his  martyrdom  that  in  1500  he  took 
the  habit  of  Saint  Dominic.  After  four  years,  passed 
chiefly  in  the  convent  of  San  Marco,  at  Florence,  which 
he  adorned  with  some  of  his  finest  pictures,  he  visited 
Rome,  where  his  intercourse  with  Raphael  was  pro- 
ductive of  benefit  to  both.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
the  magnificent  fresco  of  the  "Last  Judgment"  in  the 
chapel  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova  at  Florence,  the  figure  of 
"  Saint  Mark"  in  the  Pitti  palace,  the  "Marriage  of  Saint 
Catherine,"  a  "  Virgin  on  a  Throne,"  and  a  "  Saint  Paul" 
at  Rome,  which  was  finished 'by  Raphael.  Baccio's  pro- 
ductions display  great  knowledge  of  chiaroscuro,  rich- 
ness of  colouring,  and  grace  in  the  disposition  of  the 
draperies,  united  to  a  dignity  and  sweetness  of  expres- 
sion little  inferior  to  those  of  Raphael,    Died  in  151 7. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing;" Mr.s.  Jameson,  "  Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters;"  Winck- 
ELMANN,  "Neues  Maler-Lexikon ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Bacciochi,  bit-cho'kee,  (  Adorno,)  a  Corsican  officer, 
who  entered  the  French  army  in  1761,  was  an  emigrant 
in  1792,  after  which  he  served  under  Conde  until  1801. 

Bacciochi,  (Felice  Pasquale,)  Prince  of  Lucca 
and  Piombino,  born  in  Corsica  in  1752.  He  married 
in  1797  Maria  Elisa,  sister  of  Napoleon.  He  was  made 
a  senator,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  general,  and  other 
distinctions.    Died  in  184 1. 

Baccusi,  bSk-koo'see,  (Ippolito,)  an  Italian  com- 
poser, lived  at  Verona  about  1590-1600. 

Bacellar.    See  Barbosa  Bacellar. 

Bach,  baK,  the  name  of  a  German  family  which  for 
more  than  two  centuries  was  celebrated  for  musical 
talent,  and  produced  upwards  of  fifty  distinguished  art- 
ists. Veit  Bach,  the  founder  of  the  family,  a  native  of 
Presburg,  in  Hungary,  setded  in  Thuringia  about  1600. 


Bach,  (Alexander,)  an  Austrian  statesman,  born  at 
Loosdorfin  1813.  He  became  in  1848  minister  of  justice, 
and  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Asseml^ly,  where  he 
advocated  the  centralization  of  the  Austrian  monarchy 
and  strongly  opposed  the  democratic  party.  He  favoured 
the  policy  which  provoked  the  revolt  of  Hungary  in  1848. 
In  1849  he  succeeded  Count  Stadion  as  minister  of  the 
interior. 

See  C.  WuRZBACH,  "A.  Bach,  politi.sches  Charakterbild,"  iS^o; 
Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Bach,  (Johann  August,)  a  German  jurist,  and  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Leipsic,  born  in  1721,  He  wrote,  in  Latin, 
a  "History  of  Roman  Jurisprudence,"    Died  in  1 759. 

Bach,  (Johann  Christian,)  youngest  son  of  Johann 
Sebastian,  noticed  below,  born  in  1735,  was  surnamcd 
the  Milanese  or  English  Bach.  He  resided  five  years  as 
organist  at  Milan,  and  in  1759  became  chapel-master  at 
London.  He  produced  a  number  of  popular  operas  and 
instrumental  pieces.    Died  in  1782. 

Bach,  (Johann  Christoph,)  born  at  Arnstadt,  in 
Thuringia,  in  1643,  enjoyed  the  highest  reputation  as  an 
organist,  composer,  and  contrapuntist.  His  works  are 
numerous,  including  ecclesiastical  and  secular  music. 
He  died  in  1703,  leaving  two  sons,  Johann  Nicholas  and 
Johann  Christoph,  who  were  distinguished  musicians. 

Bach,  (Johann  Christoph  Friedrich,)  a  musical 
composer,  a  son  of  Johann  Sebastian,  born  in  1732. 
He  lived  at  Biickeburg,  where  he  died  in  1795. 

Bach,  (Johann  Sebastian,)  the  most  illustrious 
member  of  the  family,  born  at  Eisenach  on  the  21st  of 
March,  1685,  was  the  son  of  Johann  Ambrosius  Bach. 
Having  received  his  first  instruction  from  his  brother 
Johann  Christoph,  he  became  for  a  time  a  chorister  at 
Liineburg.  In  1704  he  was  appointed  organist  at  Arn- 
stadt, and  in  1 708  court  organist  at  Weimar.  During  the 
seven  years  that  he  occupied  this  post,  he  produced 
many  of  his  finest  ",ompositions  for  the  organ.  In  1723 
he  became  musical  director  at  the  Saint  Thomas  School 
of  Leipsic,  which  situation  he  filled  till  his  death.  Hav- 
ing been  invited  to  the  Prussian  court  by  Frederick  II., 
in  1747,  he  surprised  and  delighted  that  monarch  by  his 
wonderful  extemporaneous  performances.  The  works 
of  Bach  are  very  numerous,  embracing  almost  every  va- 
riety of  sacred  and  secular  music,  and  so  admirable  for 
their  grandeur,  science,  and  inventive  power  as  to  en- 
title him  to  rank  among  the  greatest  composers  that  have 
ever  lived.  As  an  organist,  he  was  esteemed  equal  to 
Handel,  who  was  his  contemporary ;  and  his  skill  as  a 
performer  on  the  piano  and  other  keyed  instruments  was 
unsurpassed.  Among  his  best  compositions  are  his  orato- 
rio of  "The  Nativity,"  ("  Passions-Musik,")  and  a  collec- 
tion of  preludes  and  fugues,  entitled  "  The  Well-tempered 
Clavier."  Bach  was  twice  married,  and  had  eleven  sons 
and  nine  daughters.    Died  at  Leipsic  in  1750. 

See  the  "Life  of  John  Sebastian  Bach,"  translated  from  the  Ger- 
man; Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  J.  N.  For- 
KEL,  "  Ueber  J.  S.  Bach's  Leben,  Kunst  und  Kunstwerke,"  1802,  and 
the  English  translation  of  the  same;  C.  L.  Hilgenfeldt,  "J.  S. 
Bach's  Leben,  Wirken  und  Werke,"  1850. 

Bach,  (Karl  Philipp  Emanuel,)  son  of  Sebastian, 
noticed  below,  born  at  Weimar  in  1714.  He  was  ap- 
pointed chamber-musician  to  Frederick  the  Great  of 
Prussia  in  1740,  and  in  1767  became  director  of  music 
at  Hamburg.  Among  his  principal  compositions  are  the 
oratorio  of  "The  Israelites  in  the  Wilderness,"  and 
numerous  sonatas,  symphonies,  and  songs  of  great  origi- 
nality and  beauty.  He  also  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  True 
Art  of  playing  the  Harpsichord,"  (1797.)    Died  in  1788. 

See  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Bach,  btk,  (Victor,)  a  French  physician  and  Jaco- 
bin, born  at  Villefranche  about  1770,  practised  in  Paris. 
He  killed  himself  about  the  end  of  1799. 

Bach,  (WiLHELM  Friedemann — fRee'deh-mIn',) 
eldest  son  of  Johann  Sebastian,  born  at  Weimar  in  1710, 
was  surnamed  Bach  of  Halle,  from  his  residence  in 
that  city.  He  studied  music  under  his  father,  and  be- 
came organist  at  the  church  of  Saint  Sophia,  Dresden, 
(1733,)  and  afterwards  at  Halle,  (1747.)  He  attained 
great  excellence  both  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  music, 
and  as  a  performer  was  second  only  to  his  father.  Owing 
to  his  dissipated  habits,  he  died  in  great  poverty  in  1784. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  ttasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BACH  ARTIER 


234 


BACHOFIUS 


Bachartier-Beaupuy,  bt'shtR'te-i'  ba^pv^e',  (Mi- 
CHKL  Armand,)  a  French  general,  ^rn  in  1755,  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Reutlincen  in  1796. 

Bachaumont, bt'sh5'm6N  ,  (Louis,)  a  French  literary 
gossip  and  scandal-monger,  published  a  collection  of  an- 
ecdotes, songs,  facetiae,  etc.,  entitled  "  Memoires  secrets," 
(6  vols.,  1777.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1771. 

See  Le  Bas,  "  Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Bachaumont,  de,  deh  bt'sho^'moN',  (FRANgois  le 
Coigneux — leh  kw^n^yuh',)  a  French  lawyer  and  litte- 
ratem\  born  in  Paris  in  1624,  was  the  author  of  a  number 
of  witty  and  satirical  poems  against  Cardinal  Mazarin, 
dixring  the  war  of  the  Fronde.    Died  in  1 702. 

Bache,  batch,  (Alexander  Dallas,)  an  American 
philosopher  and  savant,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  July, 
1806,  was  a  great-grandson  of  Dr.  Franklin.  He  grad- 
uated at  the  military  academy  at  West  Point  in  1825,  and 
was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania  in  1827.  In  1836  he  was  chosen 
president  of  Girard  College,  and  visited  Europe  to  study 
various  systems  of  instruction.  He  published  in  1839  a 
"  Report  on  the  European  System  of  Education."  He 
became  in  1841  the  first  principal  of  the  Philadelphia 
High  School,  which  he  had  organized.  In  1843  was 
appointed  Superintendent  of  the  United  States  Coast  Sur- 
vey. His  services  in  this  position  were  most  important, 
and  gave  general  satisfaction.  Besides  his  voluminous 
ofiicial  reports,  he  contributed  many  valuable  scientific 
papers  to  the  Proceedings  of  the  American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science.    Died  in  1867. 

Bache,  (Benjamin  Franklin,)  an  American  printer 
and  journalist,  son  of  Richard  Bache,  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia about  1768.  He  accompanied  Dr.  Franklin  to 
Paris,  and  there  learned  the  business  of  printing  and 
type-founding  in  the  celebrated  establishment  of  the 
brothers  Didot.  After  his  return  to  the  United  States, 
he  began,  in  1790,  the  publication  of  the  "  General  Ad- 
vertiser," afterwards  called  the  "  Aurora,"  a  paper  which, 
under  his  editorial  management  and  that  of  his  succes- 
sor, Mr.  Duane,  exerted  a  powerful  influence  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  administrations  of  Washington  and  Adams. 
Died  in  1799. 

Bache,  (Franklin,)  a  physician  and  chemist,  son  of 
the  preceding,  and  cousin  of  Alexander  Dallas,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1792.  He  graduated 
as  M.D.  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1814,  pub- 
lished a  "  System  of  Chemistry  for  the  Use  of  Students 
of  Medicine"  in  1819,  and  became  professor  of  chemistry 
in  the  Franklin  Institute  in  1826.  In  183 1  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Philadelphia  Col- 
lege of  Pharmacy,  and  in  1841  obtained  the  same  chair 
in  the  Jeffei'son  Medical  College.  He  was  one  of  the 
authors  of  Wood  and  Bache's  "  Dispensatory  of  the 
United  States,"  (i  vol.  8vo,  1833,  13th  edition,  1869,)  a 
work  of  the  highest  character,  and  an  acknowledged 
standard  in  the  department  of  which  it  treats.  He  was 
elected  president  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society 
in  1853.    Died  in  1864.    (See  Wood,  George  B.) 

See  "  Biographical  Memoir  of  Franklin  Bache,  M.D.,"  by  George 
B.  Wood,  Philadelphia,  1S65. 

Bache,  (Richard,)  born  in  England  in  1737,  emi- 
grated to  the  United  States,  where  he  married,  in  1767, 
Sarah,  only  daughter  of  Benjamin  Franklin.  He  was 
appointed  postmaster-general  of  the  United  States  in 
1776.    Died  in  181 1. 

Bache,  (Sarah,)  only  daughter  of  Dr.  Benjamin 
Franklin,  and  wife  of  Richard  Bache,  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1744.  She  was  a  lady  of  superior  accom- 
plishments, and  was  remarkable  for  her  humane  and 
patriotic  efforts  to  relieve  the  sufferings  of  the  sick  and 
destitute  soldiers  of  the  P.evolution.    Died  in  1808. 

Bachelet-Damville,btsh'li'  dSN^eK,  (Louis  Alex- 
andre,) a  French  general  of  brigade,  born  at  Saint- 
Aubin  in  1771,  was  killed  in  Saxony  in  1813. 

Bachelier,  btsh'le-i',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French 
painter  of  landscapes,  fruit,  and  flowers,  born  in  Paris 
in  1724.  He  devoted  his  fortune  of  sixty  thousand  francs 
to  the  establishment  of  a  free  school  of  design.  He 
was  for  many  years  director  of  the  porcelain  manufactory 
at  Sevres.    Died  in  1805. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  AUgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 


Bachelier,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  sculptor  and  archi- 
tect, born  at  Toulouse,  was  a  pupil  of  Michael  Angelo. 
Bachelin.    See  Basselin. 

Bachelot,  btsh^lo',-  (Jean  Alexis  Augustin,)  a 
French  theologian,  born  in  1790.  Pie  went  as  a  mission- 
ary to  the  Sandwich  Islands  about  1826,  but  he  was  ex- 
pelled by  the  English.    Died  in  1838. 

Bachelot  de  la  Pylaie,  btsh'lo'  deh  li  pe'iy,  (A. 
J.  M.,)  a  French  naturalist  and  antiquary,  born  at  Fou- 
geres  in  1 786.  He  published  a  "  Manual  of  Conchology," 
(1828,)  and  a  "  Plora  of  Newfoundland,"  (1829.) 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Liu^raire,"  (Supp.) 

Bachelu,  btsh'lii',  (Gilbert  Desire  Joseph,)  Baron, 
a  French  general,  born  in  Dole  in  1777,  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  Egyptian,  Austrian,  and  Russian  cam- 
paigns, and  in  18 14  was  created  lieutenant-general  by 
Louis  XVIII.,  having  previously  been  made  an  officer 
of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  In  1838  he  represented 
Chalons-sur-Saone  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  where 
he  acted  with  the  opposition.    Died  in  1849. 

Bacher,  bS'sh^',  (Alexandre  Andre  Philippe  Fre- 
deric,) son  of  George  Frederic,  noticed  below,  was  born 
about  1730.  He  was  for  many  years  editor  of  the 
"Journal  de  Medecine."    Died  in  1807. 

Bacher,  [Lat.  Bache'rius,]  (George  Frederic,)  a 
French  physician,  born  in  Upper  Alsace  in  1709,  pub- 
lished several  works  on  the  Treatment  of  Dropsy. 

Bacher,  (Theobald,)  a  French  diplomatist,  born  in 
Alsace  in  1748,  was  charge-d'afifaires  at  Ratisbon  and 
Frankfort.  He  died  in  1813,  leaving  "Memoirs  on  Ger- 
many and  Switzerland." 

Bachet.    See  Meziriac. 

Bacheville,  btsh^veK,  (Antoine,)  a  French  adven- 
turer, born  at  Trevoux,  served  in  the  army  from  1804  to 
1 814.  Having  been  accused  of  a  political  conspiracy  in 
1 816,  he  escaped  and  went  into  exile.  He  died  at  Mus- 
cat in  1820. 

Bacheville,  (Barthelemi,)  a  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  his  companion  in  his  campaigns  and  in  exile, 
but  returned  to  France,  and  died  in  1835. 

See  "  Voyages  des  Freres  Bacheville  en  Turquie  et  en  Asie,"  1822. 

Bachiacca,  bd-ke-ik'ka,  a  surname  of  Francesco 

Ubertini,  fRan-ch§s'ko  00-beR-tee'nee,  anitalian  painter, 
born  at  Florence,  was  a  pupil  of  Perugino.  Died  in  1557. 
See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Bachman,  bak'man,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  American 
naturalist,  born  in  Dutchess  county.  New  York,  in  1790. 
He  became  pastor  of  the  German  Lutheran  church  of 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  about  181 5.  He  assisted 
Audubon  in  the  composition  of  his  great  work  on  Orni- 
thology, and  was  the  principal  author  of  a  work  on  the 
Quadrupeds  of  North  America,  illustrated  by  Audubon 
and  his  sons.    He  wrote  various  other  works. 

Bachmann,  biK^m^n,  (Gottlob,  )  a  German  com- 
poser, born  in  1763  ;  died  about  1 810. 

Bachmann,  (Gottlob  Ludwig  Ernst,)  a  German 
philologist,  and  professor  of  classical  literat-ure  at  Ros- 
tock, born  at  Leipsic  in  1792.  He  published  an  excel- 
lent edition  of  Lycophron's  "  Alexandra,"  a  collection  of 
"  Anecdota  Grjeca,"  from  the  Royal  Library  of  Paris,  and 
other  learned  works. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Bachmann,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Altenburg  in  1785,  was  professor  of  moral 
and  political  economy  at  Jena,  and  wrote  several  works 
on  philosophy.    Died  in  1855. 

Bachmann,  de,  deh  baK'min,  (Jacques  Joseph  An- 
toine Leger,)  Baron,  a  Swiss  general,  born  in  1733, 
commanded  the  Swiss  guard  which  defended  Louis  X VI. 
in  August,  1 792.    He  was  executed  the  same  year. 

Bachmann- Anderletz,  bSK'niSn  Sn'der-llts,  (Nico- 
LAUS  Franz,)  Baron,  a  vSwiss  general,  born  in  the  can- 
ton of  Glarus  in  1740,  served  during  the  Seven  Years' 
war  in  the  French  army,  and  rose  to  be  major-general 
under  the  King  of  Sardinia.  Under  the  Bourbons  he 
was  created  commander  of  Saint  Louis.    Died  in  1831. 

See  Girard,  "Histoire  des  Officiers  Suisses  qui  se  sont  distingues 
aiix  Services  etrangers,"  1781. 

Bachovius,  ba-Ko've-us,  (Reiniiart,)  called  also 
Bachov  (bSK'of)  of  Echt,  (eKt,)  a  Gernian  theolo- 
gian, born  in  1544,  was  the  author  of  several  treatises  in 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ilx,  fSll,  fit;  mlX;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BACICCIO 


235 


BACON 


defence  of  Calvinism.  Died  in  1614.  His  son,  of  the 
same  name,  born  in  1575,  was  professor  of  law  at  Heidel- 
berg in  16 I 3. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Baciccio,  ba-ch^t'cho,  Bacciccio,  bat-ch6t'cho,  or 
Bacici,  bS-chee'chee,  (Giambattista  Gauli — gowHee,) 
a  Genoese  painter  of  portraits  and  scriptural  subjects, 
born  in  1639.  His  pictures,  both  in  fresco  and  oil,  are 
numerous.    Died  in  1709. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bacici.    See  Baciccio. 
Baciochi.    See  Bacciochi. 

Back  or  Baeck,  bek,  (Abraham,)  a  Swedish  physi- 
cian, naturalist,  and  scientific  writer,  born  at  Soderhamn 
in  1 7 13.  He  became  physician-in-ordinary  to  the  king, 
and  president  of  the  Royal  College  of  Medicine,  in  1749. 
He  was  intimate  with  Linnaeus,  who  named  the  genus 
Basckia  in  his  honour.    Died  in  1795. 

See  Gezelius,  "  Biographiskt-Lexicon." 

Back,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  navigator,  born  at 
Stockport  in  1796.  After  serving  against  the  French  in 
1809,  he  accompanied  Sir  John  Franklin  on  his  Arctic 
expedition  in  1819  and  1823.  In  1833  he  undertook 
another  voyage  in  search  of  Captain  Ross.  Being  in- 
formed of  Ross's  safety,  he  continued  his  journey,  and 
made  several  discoveries,  of  which  he  gave  an  account 
after  his  return,  entitled  "A  Narrative  of  the  Expedition 
along  the  Shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  1833-34." 

See  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1836;  "Edinburgh  Review" 
for  July,  1S36. 

Back,  de,  deh  bik,  (James,)  a  Dutch  physician,  born 
at  Rotterdam,  lived  about  1650.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
to  accept  the  doctrine  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

Back'er,  (George,)  an  English  physician  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  was  the  author  of  "  Researches  on  the 
Advantages  of  Inoculation,"  (1776,)  and  other  medical 
works. 

Backer,  bak''ker,  (Peter,)  a  Prussian  sculjnor,  a 
pupil  of  Schlutter,  worked  at  Berlin  in  the  second  half 
of  the  seventeenth  centurv. 

Backer,  van,  vSn  bik'er,  (Adrian,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  born  in  1643,  worked  at  Amster- 
dam.   Died  in  1686. 

Backer,  van,  (Francis,)  an  able  Dutch  painter,  lived 
about  1720,  and  was  court  j^ainter  to  the  elector-palatine 
Johann  Wilhelm. 

Backer,  van,  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  painter,  brother  of 
Adrian,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1608.  He  worked  at  Am- 
sterdam, and  had  great  facility  of  execution.  Died  in  1651. 

See  HouBRAKEN,  "Viesdes  Peintres." 

Backer,  van,  (James  or  Jacob,)  sometimes  called 
James  of  Palermo,  a  distinguished  historical  painter 
and  excellent  coiorist,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1530;  died 
in  1560. 

Backereel,  bak'eh-raK,  (Giles,)  a  Flemish  or  Dutch 
painter,  born  about  1572,  worked  at  Antwerp.  His  de- 
sign is  said  to  be  as  correct  as  that  of  Rubens. 

See  Naglek,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Backhouse,  bak^'kiis,  (William,)  an  English  writer 
on  astronomy  and  alchemy,  born  in  1593,  was  the  author 
of  "The  Golden  Fleece,"  and  "The  Complaint  of  Na- 
ture." He  also  translated,  from  the  French,  "The  Plea- 
sant Fountain  of  Knowledge."    Died  in  1662. 

Backhuysen  or  Bakhuysen,bak-hoi'zen,(LuDOLF,) 
an  eminent  Dutch  marine  painter  and  engraver,  born  at 
Emden  in  1631.  He  was  the  pupil  of  Van  Everdingen, 
but  owed  his  great  excellence  chiefly  to  the  study  of 
nature.  It  was  his  custom  to  put  out  to  sea  during  a 
storm,  to  observe  the  motion  of  the  waves  and  the  agi- 
tated vessels,  and,  on  his  return,  finish  the  sketches  he 
had  made.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a  marine  view, 
for  which  the  burgomasters  of  Amsterdam  gave  him 
thirteen  hundred  florins,  and  subsequently  presented  to 
Louis  XIV.  of  France.    Died  in  1709. 

See  Naglek,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Backhuysen,  (Ludolf,)  a  painter  of  martial  scenes, 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  in  17 17.  He  died  at 
Rotterdam  about  1782. 

Backmeister,  b^k'ml-ster,  (Hartmann  Ludwig 
Christian,)  director  of  the  German  College  at  Saint 


Petersburg,  born  at  Dillenburg,  in  Nassau,  in  1 736.  He 
wrote,  in  German,  a  "  History  of  the  Swedish  Nation,' 
(1767,)  "Bibliotheca  Russica,"  (11  vols.,  1778,)  and  othei 
useful  works.    Died  in  1806. 

Backmeister,  (Lucas,)  a  German  theologian,  born 
at  Liineburg  in  1530,  was  the  author  of  a  number  of 
commentaries  on  the  Bible.    Died  in  1608. 

Backmeister,  (Lucas,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1570,  published  several  theological  and  controversial 
works.    Died  in  1638. 

See  J.  CusTERUS,  "MemoriaL.  Bacmeisterl  Oratione  parentali, 
etc." 

Backmeister,  (Matthew  or  Matthaeus,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Rostock  in  1580,  was  the  author  of  a 
"  General  Treatise  on  Practical  Medicine,"  and  other 
medical  works.    Died  in  1626. 

Back'us,  (Azel,)  D.D.,  the  first  president  of  Hamilton 
College,  New  York,  born  in  Norwich,  Connecticut,  1765. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1787,  and  succeeded  the  cele- 
brated Dr.  Bellamy  as  pastor  of  the  church  in  Bethlehem 
Connecticut.    Died  about  181 7. 

Backus,  (Charles,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist  di- 
vine, uncle  of  President  Azel  Backus,  was  born  in  Nor- 
wich, Connecticut,  in  1749.  Dr.  Backus  was  an  eloquent 
preacher  and  an  able  theologian.    Died  in  1803. 

Backus,  (Isaac,)  an  American  Baptist  minister,  born 
in  Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1724.  He  published  nume- 
rous works,  among  which  is  a  "  History  of  the  Baptists 
in  New  England."    Died  in  1806. 

Bacler  d'Albe,  btk'laiR'dtlb,  (Louis  Albert  Ghis- 
lain — g^z'l^N',)  a  skilful  French  painter  and  engineer, 
born  at  Saint-Pol  in  1762.  He  served  in  the  Italian  cam- 
paign of  1796,  and  took  a  distinguished  part  in  the  battle 
of  Areola,  which  forms  the  subject  of  one  of  his  best 
pictures.  In  1802  he  prepared  an  excellent  chart  of  the 
theatre  of  war  in  Italy,  with  54  plates.  He  was  ap- 
pointed by  Bonaparte  director  of  his  topographical 
bureau,  and  became  general  of  brigade  in  181 3.  He 
published  "Annales  pittoresques  et  historiques  des  Pay- 
sagistes,"  (1803.)    Died  in  1824. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Ba'con,  (Anne  Cooke,)  a  daughter  of  Sir  Anthony 
Cooke,  born  about  1528,  was  married  to  Sir  Nicholas 
Bacon,  and  was  the  mother  of  Lord  Bacon.  She  was 
versed  in  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Italian  languages,  and 
translated  Bishop  Jewel's  "  Apology  for  the  Church  of 
England"  from  Latin  into  English.    Died  in  1600. 

Bacon,  (Anthony,)  an  English  politician,  born  about 
1 558,  was  a  son  of  Sir  Nicholas,  and  a  half-brother  of  Lord 
Bacon.  He  was  a  friend  of  the  Earl  of  Essex  and  of  Plenry 
of  Navarre,  whom  he  visited  about  1585. 

Bacon,  (Francis,)  [Lat.  Francis'cus  Baco'nus,*] 
Baron  Verulam,  (v^r'u-lam,)  Viscount  Saint  Al- 
]!An's,  (commonly  called  Lord  Bacon,)  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  philosophers  of  modern  times,  was  born  in 
London,  the  22d  of  January,  1561.  His  father  was  Sir 
Nicholas  Bacon,  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  under  Eli- 
zabeth. His  mother  was  Lady  Anne,  the  daughter  of  Sir 
Anthony  Cooke,  and  the  sister  of  Mildred,  Lord  Bur- 
leigh's second  wife.  She  is  represented  as  a  person  of 
bright  talents,  no  inconsiderable  learning,  and  very  de- 
cided religious  opinions.  While  still  a  child.  Bacon  was 
remarkable  for  his  ready  wit,  as  well  as  for  his  general  in- 
telligence. When  the  queen  once  asked  him  how  old 
he  was,  he  replied,  "  Just  two  years  younger  than  your 
majesty's  happy  reign."  Queen  Elizabeth  used  to  call 
him,  it  is  said,  her  "little  lord  keeper." 

It  is  related  that  on  one  occasion,  while  his  young  com- 
panions were  playing  and  amusing  themselves  in  Saint 
James's  Park,  near  his  father's  house,  he  stole  away  to 
the  brick  conduit,  to  find  out  the  cause  of  a  singular  echo 
which  was  heard  there.  "  Every  tale  told  of  him  in  his 
childhood,"  says  Dixon,"  wins  on  the  imagination, whether 
he  hunts  for  the  echo  in  Saint  James's  Park,  or  eyes  the 
jugglers  and  detects  their  trick,  or  lisps  wise  words  to  the 
queen  and  becomes  her  young  lord  keeper."  When  a 
little  more  than  twelve  years  of  age,  he  and  his  brother 


*  Baco'nus  (genitive  Baco'ni)  is  the  usual  Latin  form  of  Bacon's 
name.  Sometimes,  though  rarely,  it  is  made  a  noun  of  the  third  de- 
clension— in  the  nominative  Bacon,  (genitive  Baco'nis.) 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BACON 


236 


BACON 


Anthony  were  sent  to  Cambridge,  and  entered  Trinity 
College,  of  which  Dr.  Whitgift,  afterwards  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  was  then  master.  Francis  was  a  diligent 
and  successful  student,  and  before  he  was  sixteen  years 
old  he  is  said  to  have  conceived  a  decided  dislike  to  the 
Aristotelian  philosophy,  as  then  taught  in  the  schools. 
On  leaving  the  University,  he  entered  Gray's  Inn  as  a 
student  of  law,  and  soon  after  visited  France,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  French  language, 
as  well  as  the  institutions  and  customs  of  the  continent. 
But  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1579,  made  it  necessary 
for  him  to  return  to  England.  The  other  brothers  had 
been  well  provided  for,  but  Sir  Nicholas  had  delayed 
making  any  provision  for  Francis,  his  youngest  son, 
though  intending  to  do  so,  when  all  his  plans  were  cut 
short  by  his  sudden  death.  In  1582  young  Bacon  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  ;  he  was  made  a  bencher  in  1586,  and 
in  1589  became  counsel-extraordinary  to  the  queen,  at  the 
early  age  of  twenty-eight ;  "a  grace,"  says  his  biographer 
Rawley,  "  scarce  known  before."  He  had  been  elected 
to  Parliament  for  Melcombe  Regis  in  1585,  at  the  early 
age  of  twenty- four,  and  appears  to  have  sat  in  every 
House  of  Commons  from  that  time  until  1614.  Ben  Jon- 
son,  in  his  "  Discoveries,"  gives  the  following  description 
of  Bacon's  oratory  while  he  was  in  Parliament :  "There 
happened  in  my  time  one  noble  speaker  who  was  full  of 
gravity  in  his  speaking.  His  language,  when  he  could 
spare  or  pass  a  jest,  was  nobly  censorious.*  No  man 
ever  spake  more  neatly,  more  pressly,  more  weightily,  or 
suffered  less  emptiness,  less  idleness,  in  what  he  uttered. 
No  member  of  speech  but  consisted  of  his  own  graces. 
His  hearers  could  not  cough  or  look  aside  from  him 
without  loss.  He  commanded  when  he  spoke,  and  had 
his  judges  angry  or  pleased  at  his  devotion.  No  man 
had  their  affections  more  in  his  power.  The  fear  of  every 
man  that  heard  him  was  lest  he  should  make  an  end." 

Although  a  near  connection  of  Burleigh,  whose  influ- 
ence during  the  greater  part  of  Elizabeth's  reign  was  un- 
rivalled, Bacon  appears  to  have  owed  little  or  nothing  to 
the  favour  of  that  powerful  minister.  Nevertheless,  the 
Cecils  procured  him  the  reversion  of  the  place  of  Register 
of  the  Star  Chamber,  an  office  worth  ;^i6oo  per  annum  ; 
but  it  did  not  fall  to  him  until  nearly  twenty  years  later, 
in  the  reign  of  King  James.  Without  adopting  the  sug- 
gestion of  Rawley,  that  Burleight  sought  in  every  way, 
especially  by  secret  means,  to  keep  Bacon  down,  "  lest  if 
he  had  risen  he  might  have  obscured  his  glory,"  it  is  suf- 
ficiently evident  that  the  Cecils  were  little  inclined  to 
favour  his  promotion,  possibly  because  they  regarded 
him  as  a  man  of  speculation  rather  than  of  practical 
ability.  The  intellectual  powers  of  Bacon  were  of  a  cha- 
racter too  original  and  profound  to  be  understood  and 
appreciated  by  those  whose  chief  talent  consisted  in  the 
facility  with  which  they  could  adapt  themselves  to  the 
servile  routine  of  courts.  And,  although  Burleigh  may 
have  been  somewhat  raised  above  the  class  referred  to, 
still  his  mind  appears  to  have  been  of  a  very  ordinary 
stamp.  Prudence  and  fidelity  to  his  sovereign  were 
almost  the  only  virtues  he  possessed  ;  and  even  his  pru- 
dence was  of  a  low  and  vulgar  type,  the  offspring  of  a 
cold  and  plodding  experience,  rather  than  the  inspiration 
of  an  original  and  far-seeing  intellect ;  and  hence,  in  an 
extraordinary  emergency,  he  was  really  less  prudent  than 
many  men  who  had  far  less  experience.! 

Bacon,  being  thus  left  to  his  own  unaided  exertions, 
applied  himself  diligently  to  the  law,  and  in  time  ac- 
quired a  lucrative  if  not  an  extensive  practice.  In  1592  ap- 


*  Censor-like — in  other  words,  severe  and  dignified  in  his  style. 

t  Alluding  to  Bacon's  failure  to  obtain  any  present  provision,  Raw- 
ley's  words  are,  it  "might  be  imputed  not  so  much  to  her  Majesty's 
averseness  or  disaffection  towards  him,  as  to  the  arts  and  policy  of  a 
great  statesman  then  who  laboured,  by  all  industrious  and  secret 
means,  to  suppress  and  keep  him  down,  lest  if  he  had  risen  he  might 
have  obscured  his  glory."  Some  suppose  that  the  person  here  alluded 
to  was  Burleigh's  son  Robert,  a  view  which,  perhaps,  better  corre- 
sponds to  the  known  facts  of  history,  although  at  that  date  young  Cecil 
could  scarcely  be  termed  a  " great  statesman."  "  The  Cecils,"  says 
Lord  Campbell,  "not  only  refused  to  interest  themselves  for  their 
kinsman,  but,  that  he  might  receive  no  effectual  assistance  from  others, 
they  spread  reports  that  he  was  a  vain  speculator,  and  totally  unfit  for 
real  business." 

t  See  Motley's  account  of  Burleigh's  conduct  during  the  prepara- 
tions for  the  Spanish  invasion,  ("  History  of  the  United  Netherlands.") 


peared  his  first  publication,  a  pamphlet,  in  reply  to  a  little 
book,  (or  "Libel,")  entitled  "A  Declaration  of  the  True 
Causes  of  the  Great  Troubles."  In  1594  he  became  a 
candidate  for  the  office  of  solicitor-general,  but  was  not 
successful.  The  Earl  of  Essex,  a  kinsman  and  favourite 
of  the  queen,  had  greatly  interested  himself  in  Bacon's 
behalf,  but  he  was  overborne  by  the  superior  influence 
of  the  Cecils.  Essex  felt  deeply  the  disappointment  of 
his  friend,  and  generously  gave  him  an  estate,  near 
Twickenham,  worth  ;i^i8oo,  a  sum  very  greatly  superior 
in  value  to  what  would  be  represented  by  the  same  figures 
at  the  present  time.  Mr.  Dixon  endeavours  to  prove 
that  Bacon  was  under  no  real  obligation  to  Essex  for  this 
magnificent  present, — that  it  was  indeed  nothing  more 
than  a  just,  though  scarcely  adequate,  payment  for  Bacon's 
professional  services.  But  Bacon  himself  evidently  did 
not  regard  it  in  that  light ;  for  he  says,  referring  to  the 
gift  of  his  friend,  that  it  was  made  "with  so  kind  and 
noble  circumstances  as  the  manner  was  worth  more  than 
the  matter." 

For  many  years  Bacon  appears  to  have  entertained 
the  project  of  making  his  fortune  by  a  wealthy  marriage. 
About  the  year  1596  he  was  paying  court  to  a  rich  widow 
named  Hatton.  Essex  again  warmly  interested  himself 
in  the  cause  of  his  friend,  but  with  no  better  fortune  than 
before.  "This  suit,  happily  for  Bacon,"  says  Macaulay, 
"was  unsuccessful."  Lady  Hatton  afterwards  married 
"  that  narrow-minded,  bad-hearted  pedant,"  Sir  Edward 
Coke,  "and  did  her  best,"  adds  the  same  writer,  "to 
make  him  as  miserable  as  he  deserved  to  be." 

Bacon  was  not  insensible  to  the  kindness  of  his  noble 
friend  ;  but  the  difference  of  character,  and  still  more 
the  difference  of  policy,  of  the  two  men,  led  necessarily 
to  a  coldness  between  them  and  to  their  final  estrange- 
ment. Bacon  could  not  approve  the  rash  and  criminal 
schemes  of  Essex,  and  his  remonstrances  were  lost  upon 
the  headstrong  and  infatuated  earl.  Nevertheless,  when 
fortune  and  everything  else  seemed  to  desert  his  former 
friend,  he  did  not  desert  him,  but  appears  to  have  used 
all  his  influence  and  eloquence  with  the  queen,  even  to 
the  risk  of  her  favour,  in  order  to  soften  her  resentment 
towards  her  misguided  kinsman.  And  when  at  length 
he  was  called  to  act  as  one  of  her  majesty's  counsel,  he 
seems  to  have  availed  himself  of  his  official  position  to 
mitigate,  as  far  as  possible,  the  severity  of  the  charges 
against  Essex..  It  is,  indeed,  difficult  wholly  to  excuse 
Bacon  for  the  part  which  he  took  in  this  trial ;  but  it  is 
altogether  probable  that  he  sincerely  believed — at  least  in 
the  earlier  stages  of  the  business — that  what  he  did  was 
the  best  for  Essex  that  could  be  done  under  the  circum- 
stances. But  if,  when  he  found  that  all  his  eff"orts  to  save 
his  former  friend  and  benefactor  were  unavailing,  he  had 
absolutely  declined  to  take  any  further  part  in  the  prose- 
cution, his  character  would  have  been  cleared  from  one 
of  the  darkest  shadows  now  resting  upon  it.  According 
to  Mr.  Dixon,  having  done  all  in  his  power  to  satisfy  the 
claims  of  friendship,  Bacon  was  perfectly  right  in  turning 
against  one  who  had  "  proved  himself  a  rebel  and  a 
traitor,"  and  that  in  this  "he  did  no  more  than  discharge 
his  necessary  duty  to  his  country  and  his  queen."  This 
might  be  a  valid  defence,  if  there  was  any  good  reason 
to  believe  that  without  Bacon's  efforts  to  secure  the  con- 
viction of  Essex  the  safety  of  his  country  would  have 
been  seriously  imperilled.  But,  as  the  case  now  stands, 
the  common  sense  and  common  feeling  of  mankind  are 
naturally  arrayed  against  one  who,  whatever  may  have 
been  his  secret  motives,  did  actually  promote  his  worldly 
interests  and  his  advancement  at  court — the  object  of  his 
life-long  ambition — by  seeking  to  convict  and  brmg  to 
the  block  one  to  whom  he  was  once  closely  bound  by 
gratitude  and  friendship. 

After  the  accession  of  James  I.,  (in  1603,)  Bacon's 
advancement  was  all  that  a  man  of  reasonable  ambition 
could  desire.  He  was  raised  to  the  knighthood  the  day 
before  the  king's  coronation.  Having  soon  after  been 
chosen  by  the  House  of  Commons  to  make  a  representa- 
tion of  the  oppressive  acts  of  the  royal  purveyors,  he 
performed  the  duty  with  such  ability  and  address  as  to 
give  satisfaction  both  to  the  king  and  to  the  Parliament. 
The  House  gave  him  a  vote  of  thanks,  and  the  king  ap- 
pointed him  one  of  his  counsel. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BACON 


237 


BACON 


In  Mav,  1606,  Bacon  married  Alice  Barnham,  the 
daughter  of  a  wealthy  London  merchant  and  alderman. 
In  1607  he  was  made  solicitor-general.  In  161 1  he  be- 
came one  of  the  judges  of  the  knights-marshal's  court, 
and  in  1613  he  was  appointed  attorney-general,  and  was 
made  a  member  of  the  privy  council.  His  law  practice 
wcis  now  very  lucrative,  and  the  emoluments  arising  from 
his  various  offices  afforded  him  what  for  those  times  may 
be  called  an  immense  income.  He  was  selected  by  the 
king  as  his  agent  in  the  prosecution  of  Peacham,  a  cler- 
gyman who  was  accused  of  treason  on  account  of  some 
passages  in  a  sermon  found  in  his  house.  The  sermon 
had  never  been  preached,  and  there  was  no  proof  that 
he  had  any  intention  of  preaching  it.  Bacon  is  charged 
with  having  sought,  contrary  to  law  and  justice,  to  ob- 
tain the  opinions  of  the  judges  before  the  case  came  up 
for  trial. 

In  March,  1617,  Bacon  was  appointed  keeper  of  the 
great  seal,  and  in  January,  1618,  he  became  lord  high 
chancellor  of  England,  the  highest  civil  office  to  which 
an  English  subject  could  then  attain.  In  July  of  the  same 
year  he  was  created  Baron  Verulam,  and  took  his  seat  in 
the  House  of  Peers.  In  1620  he  was  made  Viscount 
Saint  Alban's.  His  sixtieth  birthday  (January  22,  1620) 
was  celebrated  with  great  state,  Ben  Jonson  furnishing  a 
poem  to  be  recited  on  that  occasion,  in  which  he  speaks 
of  the  lord  chancellor  as  one 

*'  Whose  even  thread  the  Fates  spin  round  and  full 
Oat  of  their  choicest  and  their  whitest  wool." 

The  same  year  he  published  his  "  Novum  Organum," 
embodying  the  ripest  and  richest  results  of  his  life-long 
studies. 

In  contemplating  the  life  of  Bacon,  we  cannot  help 
calling  to  mind  those  words  of  our  great  poet,  descriptive 
of  the  career  of  one  who,  though  far  inferior  to  him  in 
genius,  was  in  worldly  power  and  splendour  fully  his 
equal : 

"  This  is  the  state  of  man  ;  to-day  he  puts  forth 
The  tender  leaves  of  hope,  to-morrow  blossoms, 
And  bears  his  blushing  honours  thick  upon  him. 
The  third  day  comes  a  frost,  a  killing  frost. 

*          #          #          *  *  * 

Farewell,  a  long  farewell,  to  all  [his]  greatness  !" 
A  man  named  Wraynham,  against  whom  Bacon  had 
decided  a  suit  in  chancery,  accused  the  chancellor  of 
accepting  bribes  ;  and,  though  he  did  not  make  good  his 
accusation  in  regard  to  his  own  case,  his  complaints  led 
to  the  appointment  of  a  committee  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, to  inquire  into  the  abuses  of  the  courts  of  justice. 
In  consequence  of  this  inquiry,  a  number  of  cases  of  al- 
leged corruption  on  the  part  of  the  lord  chancellor  were 
presented.  The  Commons  referred  the  case  to  the 
House  of  Lords,  as  the  only  proper  tribunal  for  trying  it. 
In  the  course  of  the  trial  it  was  shown  that  in  a  ma- 
jority of  the  cases  the  presents  were  received  after  the 
suits  were  terminated,  and  in  some  others  that  the 
chancellor  had  decided  against  the  donors.  But,  unfor- 
tunately, the  accusations  could  not  all  be  thus  disposed 
of  It  was  alleged  that  in  one  instance,  when  the  decision 
was  drawn  up  but  not  yet  delivered,  a  timely  and  liberal 
present  prevailed  on  the  chancellor  to  reverse  his  decree. 
In  another,  when  one  of  the  parties  had  administered  a 
liberal  bribe  and  was  encouraged  to  hope  that  the  deci- 
sion would  be  in  his  favour,  a  subsequent  and  larger  gift 
from  the  opposite  party  turned  the  scale  in  favour  of  the 
latter.  At  the  commencement  of  the  trial  Bacon  strongly 
asserted  his  innocence,  but  he  afterwards  abandoned  his 
defence  and  acknowledged  his  guilt.  His  words  were, 
I  do  plainly  and  ingenuously  confess  that  I  am  guilty 
of  corruption,  and  do  renounce  all  defence."*  So  that 
either  some  of  the  accusations  were  well  founded,  or 
else,  from  some  motive  difficult  to  conceive  of,  he  was 
induced  to  cast  away  his  good  name  by  telling  a  false- 
hood.   His  apologists  suggest  that  he  did  this  to  please 


*  No  greater  stigma  can  be  cast  upon  the  memory  of  Lord  Bacon 
than  to  charge  him  widi  insincerity  in  making  the  above  confession. 
After  the  paper  containing  it  had  been  read  m  the  House  of  Peers, 
twelve  lords  were  appointed  to  wait  on  him,  to  ascertain  if  the  signa- 
ture appended  to  the  confession  was  genuine.  He  passionately  ex- 
claimed, "  My  lords,  it  is  my  act,  my  hand,  my  heart !  I  beseech 
your  lordships  to  be  merciful  to  a  broken  reed  !"  (For  a  full  account 
of  the  case  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  State  Trials.) 


the  king.  But  such  a  defence  from  his  friends  dishon- 
ours him,  if  possible,  even  more  than  the  accusations  of 
his  enemies.  An  honourable  man,  to  please  his  sovereign, 
might  indeed  sacrifice  his  life,  but  not  his  honour,  not 
his  good  name  for  all  coming  time.  On  the  3d  of  May, 
1 62 1,  he  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  forty  thousand 
pounds  and  to  be  imprisoned  during  the  king's  pleasure. 
"The  sentence  of  Bacon,"  says  Macaulay,  "was  scarcely 
pronounced  when  it  was  mitigated.  He  was  indeed  sent 
to  the  Tower ;  but  this  was  a  mere  form.  In  two  days 
he  was  set  at  liberty."  Not  long  after,  his  fine  was  re- 
mitted. He  was  even  permitted  to  present  himself  at 
court.  He  was  allowed  a  pension  of  twelve  hundred 
pounds,  no  inconsiderable  income  for  that  age.  The 
rest  of  his  life  was  passed  in  retirement,  and  was  chiefly 
occupied  in  scientific  pursuits.  He  died  on  the  19th  of 
April,  1626,  leaving  no  children. 

In  person  Bacon  was  of  a  middling  stature,  well  formed, 
but  not  robust.  His  forehead  was  high  and  broad,  ancl 
the  expression  of  his  face  was  benevolent  as  well  as  in- 
tellectual. "  In  advanced  life,"  says  Lord  Campbell,  "  his 
whole  appearance  was  venerably  pleasing,  so  that  a  stran- 
ger was  insensibly  drawn  to  love  before  knowing  how 
much  reason  there  was  to  admire  him."  In  society  he 
is  represented  to  have  been  "  a  most  delightful  companion, 
adapting  himself  to  company  of  every  degree,  calling, 
and  humour,"  and  "bringing  out  with  great  effect  his 
unexhausted  stores  of  jests  new  and  old."  Prominent 
among  his  good  qualities  was  his  entire  freedom  from  all 
mean  jealousy  of  others,  ancl  his  disposition  to  patronize 
merit  wherever  found.  Towards  his  servants  and  de- 
pendants he  appears  to  have  been  uniformly  kind  and 
generous  ;  if  he  had  a  fault  in  this  respect  it  was  in  being 
too  indulgent,  and  their  extravagance  contributed  to  his 
ruin. 

In  contemplating  the  fall  of  so  great  a  man,  we  should 
not  lose  sight  of  the  principal  cause.  With  his  many  and 
rare  accomplishments,  and  with  all  the  strength  of  his 
transcendent  intellect.  Bacon  had  one  "  weakest  weak- 
ness," an  inordinate  love  of  splendour  and  display.  The 
consequence  was  that  he  was  often  embarrassed  and  in 
debt,  and  he  was  tempted  to  eke  out  the  deficiency  of  his 
large  income  by  accepting  presents  and  bribes. 

Bacon's  greatest  work  was  his  "  Instauratio  Magna,"* 
of  which  the  "  Novum  Organum, "t  already  referred  to, 
is  but  a  part,  although  the  most  important  part,  and  his 
treatise  "  De  Augmentis  Scientiarum"  ("  On  the  Ad- 
vancement of  the  Sciences"t)  the  opening  chapter.  Be- 
lieving, as  Bacon  did,  that  the  then  prevailing  mode  of 
studying  science  (particidarly  the  science  of  nature)  had 
become  greatly  perverted,  his  aim  was  to  bring  men 
back,  so  to  speak,  to  the  right  employment  of  their 
powers,  and  to  direct  them  into  such  a  path  of  inquiry 
and  examination  as  would  best  promote  the  cause  of  true 
science.  This  he  proposed  to  effect  by  teaching  them  a 
new  method  of  exploring  or  investigating  nature,  the 
principles  of  which  are  laid  down  with  great  explicilnes.s 
and  fulness  in  his  "  Novum  Organum." 

Among  Bacon's  other  works  we  may  mention  his  "Es- 
says," (first  published  in  1598,)  perhaps  the  most  popular 
of  all  his  writings  ;  "  On  the  Wisdom  of  the  Ancients," 
("De  Sapientia  Veterum,")  which  appeared  in  1610,  and 
of  which  a  good  translation,  by  Sir  Arthur  Gorges,  was 
published  in  1619.  His  collection  of  Apothegms  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  most  attractive  portions  of  his  various 
works. 

In  regard  to  Bacon's  attainments  as  a  lawyer,  and  his 
qualifications  as  a  judge.  Lord  Campbell  observes  that 
"  his  mind  was  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  principles  of 
jurisprudence,"  and  "that  he  had  made  himself  complete 
master  of  the  common  law  of  England."  The  same  able 
critic  pronounces  Bacon's  "History  of  the  Alienation 
Office"  "a  treati.se  worthy  of  Hale,  showing  a  most  co- 
pious and  accvuate  acquaintance  with  existing  law  and 
with  our  legal  antiquities."  "  No  one  ever  sat  in  W^est- 
minster  Hall  with  a  finer  judicial  understanding ;  no  one 


*  Literally,  the  "Great  Instauration,"  (or  "Restoration.") 
t  "  New  Instrument,"  or  new  method  of  pursuing  science. 
X  Or,  as  Bacon  himself  translates  it,  [On]  "the  Advancement  of 

Learning-,''  using  the  word  in  a  wider  sense  than  is  conmion  at  the 

present  day. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (Jj^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BACON 


BACON 


ever  more  thoroughly  understood  the  duties  of  a  judge." 
("  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  Ivi.) 

Respecting-  Bacon's  rank  as  a  philosopher  a  great 
diversity  of  opinion  prevails.  While  some  claim  that  to 
his  improved  method  of  studying  nature  are  chiefly  to 
be  attributed  the  prodigious  strides  which  have  been 
made  by  modern  science,  others  deny  to  him  not  merely 
pre-eminent  but  even  eminent  mC.it  in  this  respect, 
asserting  that  the  present  method  of  scientific  investiga- 
tion is  quite  different  from  the  method  laid  down  by 
Bacon.  The  truth  will  probably  be  found  between  the  two 
extremes.  If  Bacon's  method  was  not  in  all  respects  the 
same  as  that  pursued  by  the  most  enlightened  interro- 
gators of  nature  at  the  present  day,  there  can  scarcely 
be  a  reasonable  doubt  that  by  his  writings  and  influence 
he  has  contributed  far  more  than  any  other  philosopher 
to  pave  the  way  for  that  wonderful  "  advancement  of  the 
sciences"  which  forms  the  peculiar  distinction  and  glory 
of  modern  philosophy.  Our  narrow  limits  preclude  us 
from  entering,  in  this  place,  more  fully  into  the  consider- 
ation of  the  subject.  All  that  remains  for  us  is  to  direct 
the  reader's  attention  to  such  sources  of  information  as 
may  enable  him  to  form  a  correct  judgment  for  himself 
Respecting  this  question,  see  particularly  Professor  Na- 
pier's Essay  on  this  subject,  published  in  the  "Transac- 
tions of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,"  (1818,)  and  G. 
H.  Lewes's  article  on  Bacon,  in  his  "  Biographical  His- 
tory of  Philosophy ;"  Hallam's  "  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe  ;"  also  Macaulay's  very  interesting 
"Essay  on  Lord  Bacon,"  one  of  the  ablest  and  most 
brilliant  of  his  many  able  and  brilliant  review-articles. 

See,  also,  "  Personal  History  of  Lord  Bacon,"  by  William  Hep- 
worth  Dixon,  (1859,)  who  has  brought  to  light  some  interesting  facts 
which  had  escaped  the  researches  of  previous  biographers ;  Montagu, 
"Life  of  Bacon,"  added  to  Bacon's  collected  works;  Campbell, 
"Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,"  containing  one  of  the  most  impar- 
tial and,  on  the  whole,  one  of  the  best  of  all  the  Lives  of  Lord  Bacon  ; 
William  Rawley,  "Life  of  Lord  Bacon,"  1658;  David  Mallet, 
"  Life  of  Francis  Bacon,  Lord  Chancellor,"  1740 :  Robert  Stephens, 
"Life  of  Lord  Bacon,"  1734;  G.  L.  Craik,  "  Bacon,  his  Writings  and 
his  Philosophy,"  3  vols.,  1846-47;  Joseph  Sortain,  "Life  of  Lord 
Bacon,"  1851;  Remusat,  "Bacon,  sa  Vie  et  son  Influence,"  1857; 
De  Vauzelles,  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  F.  Bacon  de  Verulam,"  2 
vols.,  1833;  PouiLLOT,  "Vie  du  Chancelier  F.  Bacon,"  1755;  Kuno 
Fischer,  "  Franz  Bacon  von  Verulam,"  1856,  (a  work  of  great  merit ;) 
OzANAM,  "Deux  Chanceliers  d'Angleterre :  Bacon  de  Verulam  et  S. 
Thomas  (Becket  archeveque)  de  Cantorbery,"  1835;  W.  Dugdal, 
"Life  of  Lord  Bacon,"  in  the  "  Baconiana"  of  Thomas  Tenison, 
1679;  WiLHELMV,  " Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Philosophia  F.  Baconis," 
1843;  J.  Spedding,  "Life  of  Bacon,"  in  his  very  complete  edition  of 
Bacon's  works,  of  which  11  vols.  8vo  have  already  (1869)  appeared. 

Bacon,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  sculptor,  born 
in  Surrey  in  1740.  Having  gained  a  number  of  prizes 
from  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts,  he  be- 
came in  1770  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Plis 
principal  works  are  a  statue  of  Mars,  a  bust  of  George 
III.,  the  monument  to  Lord  Chatham  in  Guildhall,  the 
statue  of  Blackstone  at  Oxford,  and  the  statues  of  How- 
ard and  Dr.  Johnson  at  Saint  Paul's,  London.  Died  in 
1799. 

See  Richard  Cecil,  "Memoirs  of  John  Bacon,"  1801;  Cun- 
ningham, "  Lives  of  Painters,  Sculptors,"  etc. 

Bacon,  (John.)    See  Baconthorp. 

Ba'con,  (Leonard,)  an  American  divine,  born  at  De- 
troit, Michigan,  in  1802,  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1820,  and  became  pastor  of  the  Centre  Church,  New 
Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1825.  He  has  published  many 
theological  works,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  cham- 
pion of  orthodoxy  and  of  the  Congregational  Church 
polity.  About  1850  he  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
"Independent."  Among  his  works  is  "  Slavery  discussed 
in  Occasional  Essays  from  1833  to  1846,"  (1846.) 

Bacon,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  lawyer,  a  grandson 
of  Sir  Nicholas,  was  a  member  of  the  Long  Parliament, 
and  a  republican  in  the  civil  war.    Died  in  1660. 

Bacon,  (Nathaniel,)  a  Virginian  leader  of  insur- 
gents, was  born  probably  in  England  about  1630.  He 
was  an  eloquent  lawyer,  and  a  popular  favourite  among 
the  Virginians.  He  took  command  of  a  body  of  mal- 
contents who,  in  1676,  rose  in  arms  partly  to  defend  the 
province  against  the  Indians  and  partly  to  maintain  their 
rights  against  Governor  Berkeley.  Bacon  obtained  suc- 
cesses over  both  the  Indians  and  the  governor,  but  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  contest  he  died,  in  1677. 

See  Sparks,  "American  Biography,"  vol.  iii.  of  new  series. 


Bacon,  (Sir  Nathaniel,)  an  English  landscape- 
painter,  a  half-brother  of  Lord  Bacon,  studied  in  Italy. 
Died  about  1615. 

Bacon,  (Sir  Nicholas,)  an  eminent  English  states- 
man, born  at  Chiselhurst,  in  Kent,  in  15 10,  was  the 
father  of  the  great  philosopher  Lord  Bacon.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  studied  law.  In  1537  he 
was  appointed  solicitor  to  the  court  of  augmentations. 
He  was  attorney  to  the  court  of  wards  from  1546  until 
the  death  of  Edward  VI.,  when,  having  become  a  Prot- 
estant, he  was  removed  by  Queen  Mary.  He  was  ap- 
pointed lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  by  Elizabeth  in 
1558,  and  became  a  friend  of  Sir  William  Cecil,  who 
was  his  brother-in-law.  He  held  the  office  of  lord  keeper 
for  twenty  years,  during  which,  by  a  moderate  and  pru- 
dent policy,  he  contributed  much  to  the  prevalence  of 
the  reformed  religion  in  England.  His  mind  was  sound, 
well  balanced,  and  vigorous.  Referring  to  Bacon  arid 
other  ministers  of  Elizabeth,  Macaulay  says,  '  It  is 
needless  to  relate  how  dexterously,  how  resolutely,  how 
gloriously  they  directed  the  politics  of  England  during 
the  eventful  years  which  followed  ;  how  they  succeeded 
in  uniting  their  friends  and  separating  their  enemies  ; 
how  they  humbled  the  pride  of  Philip ;  how  they  backed 
the  unconquerable  spirit  of  Coligni.  .  .  .  Among  these 
statesmen  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon  was  generally  considered 
as  ranking  next  to  Burleigh.  Lie  was  called  by  Camden 
sacris  conciliis  alterum  columejty  ("  Essay  on  Lord 
Bacon.")    Died  in  1579. 

See  "A  Remembrance  of  the  Woorthie  and  Well  Employed  Life 
of  the  Right  Honourable  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  etc.,"  by  George 
Whetstones;  Lord  Campbell's  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors." 

Bacon,  (Phanuel,)  an  English  divine  and  humorous 
writer,  born  in  1700,  became  rector  of  Balden,  in  Oxford- 
shire. He  was  the  author  of  dramatic  pieces,  entitled 
"The  Moral  Quack,"  "The  Insignificants,"  and  "The 
Trial  of  the  Time-Killers,"  (1757.)    Died  in  1783. 

Bacon,  (Robert,)  an  English  divine,  writer,  and 
popular  preacher,  born  about  1168  ;  died  in  1248. 

Bacon,  sometimes  written  Bakon  or  Baciui,  (Ro- 
ger,) a  celebrated  English  philosopher  and  monk,  called 
THE  Admirable  Doctor,  was  born  near  Ilchester,  in 
Somersetshire,  about  12 14.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford 
and  Paris,  took  the  vows  of  the  Franciscan  order  at  Ox- 
ford, and  found  a  liberal  patron  in  Robert  Greathead, 
Bishop  of  Lincoln.  He  was  profoundly  versed  in  Latin, 
Greek,  Hebrew,  metaphysics,  theology,  philosophy,  and 
several  sciences.  His  learning  and  skill  in  mechanics 
were  so  great  that  he  was  suspected  of  dealing  in  magic. 
He  wrote  in  Latin  many  works  on  astronomy,  chemistry, 
optics,  physics,  theology,  etc.  "  The  mind  of  Roger 
Bacon,"  says  Hall  am,  "  was  strangely  compounded  of 
almost  prophetic  gleams  of  the  future  course  of  science 
and  the  best  principles  of  the  inductive  philosophy,  with 
a  more  than  usual  credulity  in  the  superstitions  of  his 
own  time."  "It  seems  hard  to  determine  whether  or 
not  he  be  entitled  to  the  honours  of  a  discoverer  in  sci- 
ence ;  that  he  has  not  described  any  instrument  analo- 
gous to  the  telescope  is  now  generally  admitted,  but  he 
has  some  new  and  important  notions  in  optics.  That  he 
was  acquainted  with  the  explosive  powers  of  gunpowder, 
it  seems  unreasonable  to  deny."  His  principal  work  is 
entitled  "  Opus  Majus,"  which  was  composed  about 
1265,  and  first  printed  in  1733.  It  treats  of  nearly  all 
the  sciences.  In  1278  a  council  of  Franciscans  con- 
demned his  writings  and  committed  Bacon  to  prison,  in 
which  he  was  confined  ten  years.  He  died  probably  at 
Oxford,  in  1292.  He  is  regarded  as  the  greatest  philo- 
sopher of  the  thirteenth  century.  "The  resemblance 
between  Roger  Bacon  and  his  greater  namesake,"  says 
Hallam,  "is  very  remarkable.  Whether  Lord  Bacon 
ever  read  the  '  Opus  Majus,'  I  know  not ;  but  it  is  sin- 
gular that  his  favourite  quaint  expression  prarogativa 
scientiariim  should  be  found  in  that  work.  And  who- 
ever reads  the  sixth  part  of  the  '  Opus  Majus'  upon  ex- 
perimental science  must  be  struck  by  it  as  the  prototype 
in  spirit  of  the  '  Novum  Organum.'  "  ("  Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Anthony  X  Wood's  "  History  and  Antiquities  of  Oxford;" 
Leland's  "  Commentarii  de  Scriptoribus  Britannicis ;"  "  Biographia 
Britannica  ;"  F.  Hoefer,  "  Histoire  de  Chimie,"  vol.  i.,  and  his  article 
in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ia,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moonj 


BACON 


239 


BADIA 


Bacon,  (Samuel,)  an  Episcopal  clergyman,  employed 
with  two  other  persons  by  the  United  States  government 
as  an  agent  for  establishing  a  colony  of  blacks  in  South- 
ern Senegambia,  where  they  arrived  in  charge  of  eighty- 
two  free  blacks  in  1820.  All  three  of  the  agents  died 
soon  after. 

Bacon-Tacon,  bt'kix'  tt'k6N',  (Pierre  Jean 
Jacques,)  a  French  antiquaiy,  born  at  Oyonnax  in  1738. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Numismatical  History  of  Dif- 
ferent Nations,  Ancient  and  Modern."    Died  in  181 7. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Ba'con-thorp,  Ba'con-dorp,  or  Ba'con,  (John,)  an 
English  monk  of  the  fourteenth  century,  born  in  Norfolk, 
was  surnamed  the  Resolute  Doctor.  He  had  a  high 
reputation  for  learning,  and  professed  the  philosophy  of 
Averroes.  He  WTote,  among  other  works,  a  commentary 
on  the  "Master  of  Sentences."    Died  about  1346. 

Bacoue,  bi'koo',  (Leon,)  a  French  Catholic  theo- 
logian of  the  seventeenth  century,  became  Bishop  of 
Pamiers  in  1685.  He  was  the  author  of  a  Latin  poem 
"  On  the  Education  of  a  Prince,"  (1671.)    Died  in  1694. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Bacquere,  de,  deh  bS'kaiR',  (BENotT,)  a  French 
writer  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a 
medical  work  entitled  "  Physician  for  Old  Men,"  ("  Senum 
Medicus.") 

Bacquet,  bS^kV,  (Jean,)  a  French  jurist  and  legal 
writer  of  the  sixteenth  century;  died  in  1597. 

Bacsanyi,  boh-chln'yee,  (Janos,)  a  Hungarian  writer, 
born  at  Tapolcza  in  1763.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  "  Magyar  Museum,"  and  the  author  of  a  poem 
entitled  "The  Bravery  of  Hungary."    Died  in  1845. 

Bactishua.    See  Bakhtlshwa. 

Bacun,  (Roger.)    See  Bacon. 

Baczko,  bc^tch'ko,  called  also  Glodzlaus,  a  Polish 
chronicler  of  the  thirteenth  century,  was  keeper  of  the 
library  of  Posen.  He  wrote  a  continuation  down  to 
1 27 1  of  the  chronicle  of  Poland,  begun  by  Bagalulphus, 
Bishop  of  Posen. 

See  JocHER,  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Baczko,  von,  fon  b^ts'ko,  (Ludwig,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Lyck,  in  East  Prussia,  in  1756,  became 
blind  at  the  age  of  twenty-one.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  romances  and  dramas,  and  a  "  History  of  Prus- 
sia."   Died  in  1823. 

See  his  "  Geschichte  meines  Leben,"  3  vols.,  1824. 

Bada,  (Jos^:,)  a  Spanish  architect,  born  at  Ma- 

laga about  1690,  finished  the  cathedral  of  that  city.  Died 
in  1756. 

Badajos,  ba-Dj-nds',  (Juan  de,)  a  Spanish  architect, 
a  native  of  the  city  of  that  name,  lived  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  One  of  his  greatest  works  is  the  cloister  of  the 
monastery  of  Saint  Zoil  at  Carrion,  in  Old  Castile. 

Badakhshi,  bJ-daK^shee,  a  Persian  poet  of  the  tenth 
century,  was  the  author  of  a  divan  or  collection  of  poems 
which  enjoyed  great  popularity  with  his  countrymen. 

Badalocchio,  ba-di-lok'ke-o,  sometimes  called  Sis- 
to  Rosa,  an  Italian  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Parma 
in  1 581,  was  a  pupil  of  Annibal  Caracci,  who  highly  com- 
mended his  skill  in  design.  Among  his  master-pieces 
we  may  name  a  "Saint  Francis,"  and  "Galatea."  His 
engravings  after  Correggio's  cupola  at  Parma  are  greatly 
admired.    Died  in  Rome  in  1647. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Badaracco,  bS-dl-r^k^ko,  (Giovanni  Raffaello,) 
a  skilful  painter,  son  of  Giuseppe,  noticed  below,  born 
at  Genoa  in  1648.    Died  in  1726. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Badaracco,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter,  called  II 
SoRDO,  born  at  Genoa  about  1588.  He  imitated  Andrea 
del  Sarto  with  success.    Died  in  1657. 

Badaro,  l)a-dcVro,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  botanist 
and  writer,  born  near  Genoa  in  1793  ;  died  in  1831. 

Bad'by,  (John,)  an  English  Lollard  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  perished  at  the  stake  during  the  persecutions 
of  his  sect  under  Henry  IV.,  (1409.) 

Bad'cock,  (Richard,)  an  English  botanist,  lived 
about  1745,  and  wrote  on  the  structure  of  anthers. 

Badcock,  (Samuel,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  De- 
vonshire in  1747.  He  opposed  the  doctrines  of  Priestley, 


and  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  able  criticisms  in  the 
"  Monthly  Review."    Died  in  1788. 

Badehorn,  b3.Meh-hoRn',  (Sigismund,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  in  1585,  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
Leipsic.    Died  in  1626. 

Baden,  bd'oen,  (Jakob,)  a  Danish  philologist,  born 
at  Vordenborg  in  1735.  studied  at  Gottingen  and 

Leipsic,  and  became  in  1779  professor  of  eloquence  and 
the  Latin  language  at  Copenhagen.  He  published 
school  editions  of  Virgil,  Horace,  and  Phaedrus,  and 
translated  several  classics  into  Danish.  He  was  editor 
of  the  "University  Journal "  from  1793  to  1801.  His 
Danish  Grammar  is  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1804. 

See  Kraft  og  NvERiJP,  "Almindeligt  Litteraturlexicon ;"  G.  L. 
Baden,  "  Bidrag  til  Professoren  J.  Baden,"  1800. 

Baden,  (Jakob  Gustav  Ludwig,)  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, born  in  1764,  was  the  author  of  several  legal  and 
historical  works.    Died  in  1840. 

See  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "Almindeligt  Litteraturlexicon." 

Ba''den,  (Richard  de,)  founder  of  University  Hall, 
Cambridge,  in  1326.  After  that  building  was  destroyed 
by  fire,  another  was  erected,  which  is  called  Clare  Hall. 

Baden,  (Torkel,)  a  Danish  philologist,  born  at  Frede- 
ricksburg in  1 765,  became  professor  of  eloquence  at  Kiel 
in  1794.    Died  in  1804. 

Baden,  (Torkel,)  a  Danish  philologer,  born  in  1668, 
wrote  "  A  Demonstration  of  the  Affinity  of  the  Danish 
and  Latin  Languages,"  ("  Roma  Danica,  Affinitatem  Lin- 
gua Danicas  cum  Romanaexhibens,"  1699.)  Died  in  1732. 

Baden-Baden,  bJMen  ba'den,  (Ludwig  Wilhelm 

I.  ,)  Margrave  of,  a  distinguished  general,  born  in  Paris 
in  1655.  He  served  under  Montecuccoli  against  the 
French,  and  in  1683  assisted  Sobieski  in  defending  Vienna 
against  the  Turks.  He  subsequently  defeated  the  Turks 
in  two  engagements.  He  constructed  the  celebrated  for- 
tifications called  the  lines  of  Stollhofen.    Died  in  1707. 

See  A.  ScHREiBER,  "Badische  Geschichte,"  16:7 

Baden-Baden,  (Wilhelm  I.,)  Margrave  of,  a  Ger- 
man general,  born  in  1593,  was  appointed  by  Ferdinand 

II.  to  command  the  army  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  which 
was  defeated  by  Gustavus  Adolphus,  (1631.)  He  made 
several  unsuccessful  attempts  to  unite  the  Catholics  and 
Protestants,  at  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon.    Died  in  1677. 

Badenius,  bd-da'ne-us,  (Andreas,)  a  German  theo- 
logian, died  in  1667.  * 

Badenius,  (Christoph,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  pub- 
lished, in  1710,  "John's  Testimony  to  the  Truth." 

Badens,  b  /dens,  [Fr.  pron.  bt'ddN',]  (Francis,)  a 
Flemish  pain  sr  of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Ant- 
werp in  1571,  was  surnamed  the  Italian,  from  his 
merits  as  a  col  irist.    Died  in  1604. 

Badens,  (J(  hn,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1576,  was  a  ski  ful  portrait-painter.    Died  in  1603. 

See  Nagler,  "  N'eiies  Allgemeines  Kunstler-Lexikon." 

Bader,  b3.'der,  (Karl  Adam,)  a  celebrated  German 
vocalist,  born  at  Bamberg  in  1789. 

Badesi,  bi-da'see,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  poet,  lived 
in  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Badessa,  bd-d^s'sa,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Messina,  flourished  about  1560.  He  translated  the  first 
five  books  of  Homer's  "  Iliad"  into  Italian  verse. 

Badg'er,  (George  E.,)  an  American  statesman  and 
jurist,  born  at  Newbern,  North  Carolina,  in  1795,  grad- 
uated at  Yale  College  in  1813.  President  Harrison  ap- 
pointed him  in  1841  secretary  of  the  navy,  in  which  office 
he  was  continued  by  Tyler,  but  resigned  on  the  Presi- 
dent's vetoing  the  bill  to  recharter  the  United  States 
Bank.  In  1846  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate,  and  was  re-elected  for  a  full  term  in  1848. 

Badger,  (Joseph,)  an  American  missionary,  born  at 
Wilbraham,  Massachusetts,  in  1757.  Having  served 
four  years  in  the  army,  he  went  to  Ohio,where  he  laboured 
more  than  thirty  years  as  a  missionary.    Died  in  1846. 

Bad'ham,  (David  C.,)  a  British  physician  and  natu- 
ralist, born  about  1805.  He  became  a  curate  of  Wymond- 
ham,  in  Norfolk,  about  1846.  He  wrote  on  natural 
history,  particularly  on  insects.    Died  in  1857. 

Badia,  bS-dee'S,  (Carlo  Agostino,)  an  Italian  com- 
poser of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  chapel-master  to 
Leopold  I.  at  Vienna. 


C  as  k:  9  as     g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BADIA 


240 


BAFFIN 


Badia,  (Carlo  Francesco,)  an  eloquent  Italian 
preacher,  born  at  Ancona  in  1675,  became  president  of 
the  University  of  Turin  about  1730  ;  died  in  1751. 

Badia,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  at  Modena 
about  1483,  attended  the  Diet  of  Worms  in  1540.  Died 
in  1547. 

Badia  y  Leblich.    See  Alee  Bey. 

Badiale,  bd-de-aOi,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  skilful  engraver,  born  at  Bologna.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  died  about  1650. 

Badie,  de  la,  deh  li  bt'de',  (Louis  Augustin,)  a 
French  general,  born  in  1696  ;  died  in  1765. 

Badier,  bS'de-4',  (Jean  Iitienne,)  a  French  monk 
and  writer,  born"lu  Dole  in  1650;  died  in  1719. 

Badile,  ba-dee'li,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  admirable  colorist,  born  at  Verona  in  1480. 
He  was  the  uncle  and  preceptor  of  Paul  Veronese,  and 
numbered  Zelotti  among  his  pupils.    Died  in  1560. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Ba-di'nus  or  Badino,  ba-dee'no,  (Luigi  Donato,) 
an  Italian  priest  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Mondovi  in 
1675.    Died  in  1742. 

Badius,  bt'de'iis',  (Conrad,)  a  learned  printer,  born 
in  Paris  in  15 10,  was  a  son  of  Jodocus,  noticed  below,  and 
a  brother-in-law  of  Robert  Estienne.  Having  been  con- 
verted to  Calvinism,  he  removed  in  1549  to  Geneva, 
where  he  published  fine  editions  of  many  works.  Died 
about  1560. 

See  A.  F.  Didot,  "Essai  sur  I'Histoire  de  I'lmprimerie." 

Badius,  b^'de^s,  (Jodocus,  yo-do'kus,  or  Josse, 
zhoss,)  a  celebrated  Flemish  printer  and  Latin  poet,  born 
in  1462,  was  surnamed  AsCENSius,  from  Asche,  near 
Brussels,  his  birthplace.  About  1500  he  established  a 
large  printing-house  in  Paris,  called  "  Praelum  Ascen- 
sianum,"  which  issued  many  fine  editions  of  the  classics. 
Died  in  1535. 

See  La  Caille,  "Histoire  de  I'lmprimerie;"  D.  M.  Manni, 
"Vita  di  G.  Badio,"  1757;  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dic- 
tionary." 

Badius,  biMe-oos,  (Raolfo,)  an  Italian  theologian, 
born  at  Florence,  lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

Badoaro,  bS-do-S'ro,  (Federigo,)  an  Italian  diplo- 
matist, born  in  Venice  in  15 18,  was  employed  by  the 
republic  in  embassies  to  the  court  of  Charles  V.  and 
Philip  II.  In  1556  he  founded  at  Venice  the  Academy 
della  Fama.    Died  in  1593. 

Badoaro,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  dramatic  poet  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  a  friend  of  Paolo  Sarpi. 

Badoaro,  (Giov.vnni,)  an  Italian  cardinal  and  writer 
on  theology.    Died  in  17 14. 

See  "Vita  del  Cardinale  G.  Badoaro,"  1766. 

Badoaro,  (Lauro,)  an  Italian  bishop  and  poet,  born 
at  Venice  about  1546,  wrote  "Rime  Spirituali,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1593. 

Badoero.    See  Baduero. 

Badoero,  ba-do-a'ro,  (Pietro,)  was  Doge  of  Venice 
from  939  to  942  A.D.,  during  which  period  the  independ- 
ence of  Venice  was  recognized  by  Berenger  II.  of  Italy. 

Badolet,  bt'do'l^',  (Jean,)  a  Protestant  minister,  was 
professor  ofthe  humanities  at  Geneva  about  1650.  Among 
his  works  is  "  Anatomy  of  the  Human  Conscience," 
("  Conscientiae  humanae  Anatomia,"  1659.) 

Badon,  bt'd^N',  (Edmond,)  a  French  dramatist  and 
novelist,  wrote  a  "Duel  under  Richelieu,"  (1832,)  and 
other  works.    He  died  prematurely  in  1849. 

Badoureau,  btMoo'ro',  (J.  F.,)  a  French  engraver, 
lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  He 
engraved  some  works  of  Raphael  and  Titian. 

Badstiiber,  bto'stiinjer,  (Andrew,)  a  Danish  jurist, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1728;  died  in  1808. 

Baduel,  h%.'dn'lV,  (Claude,)  a  French  Protestant 
minister,  born  at  Nimes  in  the  fifteenth  century.  He 
preached  at  Geneva,  and  wrote  a  work  to  prove  the 
utility  of  marriage  to  literary  men,  (1544.)  Died  at 
Geneva  in  1561. 

Baduero,  bd-doo-a'ro,  or  Badoero,  (Ursus  I.,)  Doge 
of  Venice  from  864  to  881  A.D., defeated  the  Saracens. 

Baduero,  (Ursus  II.,)  was  elected  Doge  of  Venice  in 
912,  and  retired  to  a  convent  in  932. 


Baeck.    See  Back,  (Aeraiiam.) 
Baeck,  bak,  or  Baecx,  bsks,  (Joachim,)  a  Dutch 
theologian,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1548;  died  in  1619. 
Baehr.    See  Bahr. 
Baehrens.    See  Baiirens. 

Baeli,  bd-a'lee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  poet  and  anti- 
quary, born  at  Milazzo,  in  Sicily,  in  1639;  died  in  171c. 

Baena,  ba-a^iS,  (Antonio  Ladislau  Monteiro — 
mon-ta''_e-ro, )  a  Portuguese  historian  and  geographer, 
served  "in  Brazil  as  officer  in  the  army.  He  wrote  some 
valuable  works,  one  entitled  "  Chorographic  Essay  on 
the  Province  of  Para,"  ("  Ensaio  corografico  sobre  a 
Provincia  do  Para,"  1839.)    Died  about  185 1. 

Baer.    See  Bar. 

Baer.bt'aiR',  [Ger.  pron.  bSR,]  (Frederic  Charles,) 
a  French  Protestant  professor  of  theology,  and  miscel- 
laneous writer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1719  ;  died  in  1797. 

Baerebistes,ber-e-bis'tfez,  or  Berebistes,  [Fr.  B6re- 
BISTE,  bi'ra'b^st',]  a  king  of  the  Dacians  about  40-20  B.C., 
drove  the  Sarmatians  beyond  the  Dnieper,  and  rendered 
Thrace  and  Macedonia  tributary  to  his  kingdom. 

Baerle.van,  vtn  bSr^leh,  [Lat.  Barl/e'us  ;  Fr.  Bar- 
L^E,  btR^iy,]  (Gaspard,)  a  Dutch  theologian  and  dis- 
tinguished Latin  poet,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1584.  He 
was  professor  of  logic  at  Leyden  in  161 7,  and  obtained  the 
chair  of  philosophy  and  eloquence  at  Amsterdam  about 
1633.  Besides  numerous  Latin  poems  and  orations,  he 
was  the  author  of  a  valuable  "  History  of  Brazil  under 
Maurice  of  Nassau."  He  was  also  engaged  in  the  de- 
fence of  Arminius  against  the  Gomarists.    Died  in  1648. 

See  CoRViNUS,  "Oraison  funebre  de  G.  Baerle." 

Baerle,  van,  [Lat.  Barl^'us,]  (Melchior,)  an  uncle 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Antwerp,  lived  between  1550 
and  1600.    He  wrote  several  Latin  poems. 

Baermann.    See  Barmann. 

Baersdorp,  van,  vtn  bsRs'doRp,  (Cornelis,)  a 
Dutch  physician  and  medical  writer  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, was  first  physician  to  Charles  V.,  who  also  made 
him  his  chamberlain  and  a  councillor  of  state.  Died  in 
1565- 

See  Mersseman,  "  Notice  sur  C.  van  Baersdorp,"  1S44 

BaersiuiS,  bSr'se-us,  or  Bek'en-stil,  a  Dutch  mathe- 
matician of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  resident  of 
Louvain.  He  wrote  "  Tables  of  the  Latitudes  and  Lon- 
gitudes of  the  Planets." 

Baerstrat,  bar'strat,  a  Dutch  marine  painter  of  the 
seventeenth  century.    Died  in  1687. 

Baert,  bS'aiR'  or  b^Rt,  (Alexandre  Balthasar 
Francois  de  Paule--deh  pol,)  Baron  of,  a  French 
geographer  and  statesman,  born  at  Dunkirk  about  1750. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  (1791,) 
and  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  (1815.)  Among  his 
principal  works  is  his  "  Picture  of  Great  Britain,  Ireland, 
and  the  English  Possessions,"  (1800,)  which  was  highly 
esteemed  by  Napoleon.    Died  in  1825. 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Baert,  [Lat.  Baer'tius,]  (Francis,)  a  Flemish  Jes- 
uit, born  at  Ypres  in  165 1,  wrote  a  "  Commentary  on  the 
Life  of  Saint  Basil,"  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "Acta 
Sanctorum."    Died  in  17 19. 

Baeumer.    See  Baumer. 

Baeza,  de,  di  bS-a'tha,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  theologian, 
born  in  Galicia  in  1582  ;  died  in  1647. 

Baf,  Saint.    See  Bavo,  Saint. 

Baffa,  hM'^\,  or  Baffi,  bSffee,  (Francesca,)  an  Italian 
poetess  of  the  sixteenth  century,  resided  at  Venice. 

Baffi,  bSf fee,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastic, 
published  a  number  of  Latin  orations.  Died  at  Milan 
about  1578. 

Baffi,  (Giovanni  Battlsta,)  an  Italian  poet  and  phy- 
sician, born  at  Perugia;  died  in  1596. 

Baffi  or  Baffo,  bif  fo,  [Lat.  Baf'fus,]  (Lucullo,)  an 
Italian  poet  and  physician,  born  at  Perugia;  died  about 
1622. 

Baffin,  (William,)  a  celebrated  English  navigator, 
born  about  1580.  He  made  three  successive  voyages  to 
the  Arctic  regions  in  1612,  161 5,  and  1616,  and,  during 
the  last,  discovered  the  large  bay  between  Greenland  and 
British  America,  since  called  by  his  name.  In  his  ac- 
count of  his  voyage  in  1612  is  first  given  a  method  for 
determining  the  longitude  at  sea  by  an  observation  of 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  lottg;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsacre;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BAFFO 


241 


BAG  inn 


the  heavenly  bodies.    Baffin  was  killed  at  the  siege  of 
Ormuz  while  fighting  against  the  Portuguese,  in  1622. 
Baffo.    See  Baffi. 

Baffo,  Mf  fo,  surnamedTHE  Pure,  a  beautiful  Venetian 
lady,  who,  being  captured  by  pirates  in  1580,  was  sold  as 
a  slave  to  Amurath  III.  She  subsequently  became  his 
sultana,  and  exercised  great  influence  over  him  and  his 
successor,  Mahomet  III. 

Baffo,  (Giorgio,)  a  Venetian  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, of  the  same  family  as  the  preceding,  was  called  the 
most  licentious  poet  of  his  time.    Died  in  1768. 

See  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Bafor,  von,  fon  bi'for,  (Balthasar,)  a  German  di- 
plomatist of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  counsellor  of 
state  under  the  emperors  Rudolf,  Matthias,  and  Ferdi- 
nand.   Died  in  1620. 

Bagaeus,  bc^-jee'us,  a  Persian  general  of  cavalry,  de- 
feated Agesilaus  the  Spartan,  near  Dascylium,  in  396  B.C. 

Bagard,  bt'gSR^  (Cesar,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  at 
Nancy  in  1639.  Among  his  principal  works  is  a  bust  of 
Louis  XIV.    Died  in  1709. 

Bagarotto,  bd-g^-rot'to,  or  Bagarato,  b^-gS-ri'to, 
an  Italian  jurist  and  legal  writer  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
turv,  was  a  native  of  Bologna.    Died  about  1242. 

6agarris,  de,  deh  bt''gt''ress'',  (Pierre  Antoine 
Rascas — rts'kcV,)  Sieur,  a  French  antiquary  and  col- 
lector of  medals,  lived  about  1600.  He  received  in 
1608  from  Henry  IV.  the  title  of  "  Maitre  des  cabinets, 
medailles,"  etc.  ' 

Bagatti,  ba-gSt'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  com- 
poser, who  was  court  organist  at  Milan  about  16 10. 

Bag'by,  (Arthur  P.,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in 
Virginia  in  1794.  He  settled  in  Alabama  about  181 8, 
and  represented  that  State  in  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  from  1842  to  1849.    Died  in  1858. 

Bagd-ed-Deeii  or  Bagdeddin,  bagd'ed-deen^  (Mo- 
hammed,) an  Arabian  mathematician  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  the  Divi- 
sion of  the  Superficies,"  which  was  translated  into  Latin 
oy  John  Dee. 

Bage,  (Robert,)  an  English  novelist,  born  at  Derby 
in  1728.  Among  his  works  we  may  mention  "  Barham 
Downs,"  "The  Fair  Syrian,"  and  "James  Wallace." 
His  life  has  been  written  by  Sir  Walter  Scott.  Died  in 
1801. 

See  Scott,  "Miscellaneous  Prose  Works  ;"  William  Hutton, 
"  Memoirs  of  Robert  Bage,"  1802. 

Bagelaar,  b.Vgeh-lSR^,  (Ernest  Willem,)  a  Dutch 
designer  and  engraver,  born  in  1775;  died  at  Ghent  in 
1836. 

Baget,  bt'zhi',  (Henri  Jean,)  a  French  anatomist  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  valuable 
"Treatise  on  Osteology,"  (1731.) 

Baget,  de,  deh  bi'zh^',  (Jean  Chevalier,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  1743;  died  in  1821. 

Bagetti,  ba-jet'tee,  or  Baggetti,  bld-jet'tee,  (Giu- 
seppe Pietro,)  an  Italian  landscape-painter,  born  at 
Turin  in  1764;  died  in  1831. 

Bag'fprd,  (John,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1651,  made  a  valuable  collection  of  ancient  books 
and  manuscripts  for  the  libraries  of  Bishop  Moore  and 
the  Earl  of  Oxford.    Died  in  1716. 

Baggaert,  big'gSrt,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  physician,  born 
at  Flushing  about  1657,  was  the  author  of  treatises  on 
smallpox,  measles,  and  scurvy.    Died  in  1710. 

See  Van  der  Linden,  "De  Scriptoribus  Medicis." 

Bagge,  bag'ggh,  (Jakob,)  a  Swedish  admiral,  born  in 
the  province  of  Aland  in  1499.  He  served  against  the 
Russians  in  1555,  and  afterwards  defeated  the  Danes  at 
Bornholm,  but  in  1564  was  captured  by  them,  and  sub- 
sequently died  in  prison. 

See  Geyer,  "  Histoire  de  la  Suede." 

Bagge,  von,  fon  bdg'geh,  (Karl  Ernst,)  Baron,  a 
German  amateur  musician  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was 
chamberlain  to  the  King  of  Prussia.  He  is  the  subject 
of  one  of  Hoffmann's  tales.    Died  in  1791. 

.See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Bagger,  bdg'ger,  (John,)  a  learned  Lutheran,  Bishop 
of  Copenhagen,  born  in  Holstein  in  1646.  He  was  a 
violent  opponent  of  the  Calvinists  and  Huguenots,  and 


used  his  influence  to  prevent  the  Danish  government 
from  giving  an  asylum  to  the  latter.    Died  in  1693. 

Bagger,  (Karl  Christian,)  a  Danish  poet,  born  in 
1807.  Among  his  principal  works  is  a  tale  entitled 
"My  Brother's  Life."    Died  in  1846. 

Bag'ge-sen,  (or  bio'ceh-sen,)  (Jens  Immanuel,)  a 
celebrated  Danish  poet,  born  at  Korsor,  in  Zealand,  in 
1764.  In  1789  he  visited  Germany,  France,  and  Switzer- 
land, and  while  at  Bern  married  the  granddaughter  of  the 
illustrious  Haller.  Having  become  thoroughly  versed  in 
German  literature  and  acquired  the  friendship  of  several 
eminent  German  writers,  he  wrote  a  number  of  his  prin- 
cipal works  in  that  language,  and  made  Klopstock,  Voss, 
and  Wieland  his  models.  His  "Comic  Tales,"  ("Co- 
miske  Fortallinger,")  in  Danish,  published  in  1785,  were 
very  well  received,  and  in  1808  he  brought  out  a  collection 
of  German  poems,  entitled  "  Heath-Flowers,"  ("  Haide- 
blumen.")  His  "  Parthenais,  or  the  Alpine  Journey," 
in  German,  (1812,)  is  an  epic  idyll  in  hexameter  verse, 
and  is  esteemed  one  of  his  finest  productions.  In  1811 
Baggesen  was  appointed  professor  of  the  Danish  lan- 
guage and  literature  at  Kiel.  Among  his  other  works 
may  be  mentioned  his  "  Labyrinthen,  or  Wanderings  of 
a  Poet  in  Europe,"  (4  vols.,  1792,)  a  memoir  of  his  own 
early  life,  written  in  Danish  prose,  and  "Adam  and  Eve," 
a  humorous  epic,  (1826.)    Died  in  Hamburg  in  1826. 

See  D.  Fricke,  "  In  Memoriam  J.  J.  Baggesen,"  (1827;)  Long- 
fellow, "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Howitt,  "  Literatnre 
and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe,"  1852;  August  Baggesen,  "J. 
Kaggesen's  Biographie  udarbeitet  vornemmeligen  after  han"?  ague 
Haandskrifter,"  2  vols.  8vn,  1S42-43  ;  Michel  Berr,  "Notice  siir 
Baggesen,  poete  Danois,"  Paris,  1805. 

Baggetti.    See  Bagetti. 

Bagieu,  bt'zhe-uh',  (Jacques,)  a  French  writer  on 
surgery,  lived  about  1750. 

Baglione,  b.\l-yo'ni,  or  Baglioni,  bSl-yo'n<'e,  (Cf,- 
sake,)  an  Italian  painter  of  landscapes,  fruits,  and  flowers, 
born  at  Bologna  about  1525.    Died  in  1590. 

See  Lakzi,  "History of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Baglione,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Rome  about  1573,  was  patronized  by  Pope  Paul  V.  His 
works  in  fresco  and  oil  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  in  his 
time.  Lfe  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  work  entitled 
"Lives  of  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects  from  1573 
to  1642."  He  worked  mostly  in  Rome.  Died  about  1650. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Baglioni.    See  Baglione. 

Baglioni,  bc^l-yo'nee,  (Astorre,)  a  relative  of  Gian 
Paolo,  noticed  below,  served  under  Charles  V.  in  the 
war  of  Tunis,  and  was  afterwards  made  governor  of 
Famagosta,  in  Cyprus,  by  the  Venetians.  After  a  brave 
defence  of  that  city  against  the  Turks  in  1570,  he  was 
forced  to  capitulate,  and  was  executed  by  order  of  Mus- 
tafa Pasha  in  1571. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Baglioni,  (Gian  Paolo,)  an  Italian  soldier,  of  a  noble 
family,  born  in  the  fifteenth  century,  rose  to  be  sovereign 
of  Perugia.  In  1520  he  was  summoned  to  Rome  and 
executed  by  order  of  Leo  X.,  who  then  took  his  posses- 
sions. 

Baglioni,  bil-yo'nee,~  (Lelio,)  a  Florentine  professor 
of  theology.    Died  in  1620. 

Baglioni,  (Malatesta,)  son  of  Gian  Paolo,  noticed 
above,  became  governor  of  Perugia,  but  was  deprived 
of  his  power  by  the  allied  army  of  the  pope  and  emperor 
in  1529.    Died  in  1531. 

Baglivi,  bdl-yee'vee,  (Giorgio,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  at  Ragusa  in  1669.  In  1692  he  studied  under  the 
celebrated  anatomist  Malpighi,  and  was  afterwards  ap- 
pointed professor  of  anatomy  and  medicine  at  the  Col- 
lege di  Sapienza,  at  Rome.  He  was  chosen  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  in  1698.  His  complete 
works  were  published  in  1704,  under  the  title  of  "  Opera 
omnia  Medico-practica,"  and  often  reprinted.  Baglivi 
is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  system  of  soUdism,  as 
opposed  to  the  previous  theories,  which  maintained  that 
in  diseases  the  fluids  of  the  body  are  the  first  to  be 
affected.  He  had  a  wide  reputation  as  a  medical  writer. 
Died  in  Rome  in  1707. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vitje  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium,"  etc.;  Fi- 
LiPPO  Ferrario,  "Delia  Vita  e  delle  Opere  di  G.  Baglivi,"  1839. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (gi^^See  Explanations^,  p.  23.) 

16 


BAGNACAVALLO 


BAIAN 


Bagnacavallo,  ban-ya-ka-va/lo,  (Bartolommeo,) 
originally  Bartolommeo  Ramenghi,  (ra-mCn^gee,)  the 
greatest  painter  of  the  Bolognese  school,  born  near  Bo- 
logna in  14S4.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Raphael,  whom  he 
assisted  in  the  decoration  of  the  Vatican.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  a  "Virgin  and  Child  with  Saint  John," 
and  "The  Coronation  of  Charles  V.  at  Bologna."  His 
works  were  admired  and  studied  by  Guido  and  the 
Caracci,    Died  in  1542. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Bagnacavallo,  (Bartolommeo,)  the  Younger,  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  a  skilful  painter  of  archi- 
tecture and  ornaments. 

Bagnacavallo,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  painter,  was 
a  son  of  Bartolommeo  the  Elder.  He  worked  with 
Primaticcio  in  France.    Died  in  1601. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bagnara,  da,  da  bdn-yi^ra,  (Pietro,)  a  painter  of  the 
Roman  school,  and  a  pupil  of  Raphael, worked  about  1 550. 

Bagnasco,  ban-yas'ko,  or  Bagna  Sacco,  b3n'ya 
sSk^vO,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  jurist  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "On  the  Succession  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Gaul, "("De  Successione  Regni  Gallia^.") 

Bagnoii,  ban'yo-lee,  or  Bagnioli,  ban-ye-o'lee  or 
bdn-yo'lee,  (GiULio  Cesare,)  an  eminent  Italian  poet, 
born  at  or  near  Ferrara,  wrote  "  The  Judgment  of  Paris," 
and  other  works.    Died  about  1630. 

Bagnolino,  bin-yo-lee'no,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian 
poet,  lived  about  1520-40. 

Bagnolo,  bAn-'yo-lo,  (Gian  Francesco  Giuseppe,) 
Count,  an  Italian  jurist  and  mathematician,  born  at 
Turin  in  1709.  His  principal  work  is  an  "Explanation 
of  the  Tables  of  Gubbio,"  (1748.)    Died  in  1760. 

Bagnuolo,  bin-yoo-o'lo.  Count,  an  Italian  general, 
born  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  He  commanded  an 
army  for  Philip  H.  in  Brazil,  and  opposed  Maurice  of 
Nassau  with  success  in  1638. 

Ba-go'as,  [Gr.  Baywaf,]  a  Persian  eunuch  and  soldier 
under  Artaxerxes  Ochus,  said  to  have  been  a  native  of 
Egypt.  Jn  338  B.C.  he  poisoned  the  king  and  his  sons, 
with  the  exception  of  Arses,  whom  he  raised  to  the 
throne.  Having  subsequently  put  him  to  death,  and 
made  Darius  Codomaimus  king  in  his  stead,  Bagoas  was 
beized  by  the  latter,  and  executed  about  336  B.C. 

Ba-go'as  Ca'rus,  a  favourite  of  Herod  the  Great, 
conspired  against  that  king,  and  was  put  to  death. 

Bagolino,  b^-go-lee^no,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a 
learned  Italian  physician  of  Verona,  lived  about  1580. 

Bagolino,  (Girolamo,)  a  learned  Italian  physician 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  native  of  Verona.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  medical  and  philosophical  treatises. 

Bagolino,  (Sehastiano,)  an  Italian  poet  and  painter, 
born  at  Alcamo,  in  Sicily,  in  1560;  died  in  1604. 

Ba-goph'a-nes,  a  Persian  general,  commanded  the 
citadel  of  Babylon,  which  he  surrendered  to  Alexander 
the  Great,  with  the  royal  treasure,  in  331  B.C. 

Bag''ot,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  English  diplomatist,  son 
of  William,  Lord  Bagot,  born  in  1781.  He  was  suc- 
cessively minister  to  France,  (1814,)  ambassador  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  (1820,)  and  to  Holland,  (1824.)  He  after- 
wards succeeded  Lord  Sydenham  as  Governor-General 
of  Canada,  where  he  died  in  1843. 

Bagot,  bt'go^  (Jean,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  writer, 
born  at  Rennes  in  1580,  was  engaged  in  the  controversy 
with  the  Port-Royalists.    Died 'in  1664. 

Bagot,  (Lewis,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  1740,  was 
successively  Bishop  of  Bristol,  of  Norwich,  and  of  Saint 
Asaph.  He  wrote  "  Sermons  on  the  Prophecies."  Died 
in  1802. 

Bagot,  (Richard,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1782,  became  Bishop  of  Oxford  in  1829,  and  of  Bath 
and  Wells  in  1845.  was  an  adherent  of  Dr.  Pusey. 

Died  in  1854. 

Bagration,  ba-gra'shon,  [Russ.  pron.  ba-GRa-te-in',] 
(Peter,)  Prince,  a  celebrated  Russian  general,  of  the 
Georgian  family  of  the  Bagradites,  born  about  1765.  He 
served  under  Suwarrow  in  the  cami:)aigns  of  Italy  and 
Switzerland,  and  was  everywhere  consj^icuous  for  his 
impetuous  and  unyielding  courage.  lie  commanded 
the  van-guard  under  Kootoosov  in  the  Austrian  cam- 


paign of  1805,  and  on  the  i6th  of  November  successfully 
opposed  the  greatly  superior  force  of  Murat  and  Lannes, 
;  thus  allowing  Kootoosov,  with  the  main  army,  to  reach 
Znaim  in  safety.  Being  appointed  lieutenant-general 
soon  after,  he  commanded  the  van-guard  under  Liech- 
tenstein at  Austerlitz,  and  displayed  the  greatest  bravery 
and  skill  in  the  subsequent  engagements  of  Eylau  and 
Friedland.  After  having  several  times  defeated  the 
Swedes  and  the  Turks,  he  was  mortally  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Borodino,  in  1812. 

See  Segur,  "  Histoire  de  Napoleon  et  de  la  Grande  Armee." 

Bag'shaw,  (Christopher,)  an  English  scholar  and 
theologian,  born  in  Derbyshire  ;  died  about  1626. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Bagshaw,  (Edward,)  an  English  lawyer  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  was  elected  to  the  Long  Parliament  in 
1640,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition  to  the 
cause  of  the  king  and  of  episcopacy.  He  wrote,  among 
other  works,  "  The  Right  of  the  Crown  of  England  as 
established  by  Law."    Died  in  1662. 

See  Wood,  "Athena;  Oxonienses." 

Bagshaw,  (Henry,)  an  English  divine,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1632,  was  chaplain  to  the  Earl  of 
Danby.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Discourses  against  Pa- 
pists and  Socinians."    Died  in  1709. 

Bagshaw,  (William,)  an  English  nonconformist  di- 
vine and  theological  v/riter  ;  died  in  1703. 

Bagutti,  ba-goot'tec,  (Pietro  Martire,)  an  Italian 
sculptor,  lived  at  Bologna  about  17S0-90. 

Bag^well,  (William,)  an  English  astroj-iomer,  who 
wrote  "The  Mystery  of  Astronomy  made  phiin,"  (1673.) 

Bahadar- or  Baliadur-Shali.  See  Beii ad ar-Sii  '  ii. 

Baharam-Kooree,  (or  Curi,)  bdh^a-r^m  koo'ree.  Sul- 
tan of  Persia,  reigned  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifth  centurv. 

Bahier,  bS'e-a'  or  bS'ya^,  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesias- 
tic and  Latin  poet  ;  died  in  1 707. 

Bahil,  bo^heK,  (Mat  rut  as,)  a  Hungarian  theologian, 
lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Bahn,  ban,  (Jerome,)  a  German  theologian,  born  at 
Hamburg;  died  in  1744. 

Bahn,  (Nicolas,)  a  German  writer  on  theology,  born 
in  1664  ;  died  in  1704. 

Bahnsen,  bSn'sen,  (Benedict,)  a  German  mystic, 
horn  in  Holstein,  lived  about  1660-90. 

Bahr  or  Baehr,  baR,  (Johann  Christian  Felix,)  a 
distinguished  German  scholar,  born  at  Darmstadt  in 
June,  179S,  studied  at  Heidelberg,  where  in  1826  he 
became  professor  of  classical  literature,  liis  "  History 
of  Roman  Literatin-e"  (2  vols.,  1828)  is  esteemed  a  stand- 
ard work.  Lie  published  editions  of  the  "Alcibiades" 
of  Plutarch,  and  other  class.ics,  and  made  numerous  con- 
tributions to  Ersch  und  Gruber's  "  Encyklopaedie,"  and 
to  other  publications.  Among  his  other  productions  is 
a  valuable  edition  of  the  works  relating  to  Herodotus, 
(4  vols.,  1832.)  Bahr  became  chief  librarian  at  Heidel- 
berg in  1833,  and  has  since  been  created  aulic  councillor. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Bahr,  baR,  (Joseph  Friedrich,)  a  German  Protestant 
bishop,  and  writer  on  theology,  was  born  in  1713.  He 
preached  at  Schonfeld  and  other  places.    Died  in  1775. 

Bahrdt,  baRt,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  Protest- 
ant theologian,  born  at  Bischofswerda  in  1741.  He  was 
successively  professor  of  Biblical  philology  at  Leipsic, 
and  of  philosophy  at  Erfurt,  but  was  obliged  to  give  up 
these  offices  on  account  of  his  profligacy  and  his  bold 
criticisms  on  the  Bible.  Lie  published,  among  other 
deistical  works,  "  Letters  on  the  Bible  in  a  Popular 
Style."    Died  in  1792. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Geschichte  meines  Lebens  und  meiner 
Schicksale,"  4  vols.,  1790:  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  All-jemeine  Enc^'- 
klopaedie  ;"  D.  Pott,  "  Leben  und  Schicksale  C.  F.  Bahrdts,"  1790. 

Bahrens  or  Baehrens,  barrens,  (J.  E.  F.,)  a  German 
writer  on  agriculture,  born  in  1760  ;  died  in  1830. 

Bai,  bT,  or  Bais,  bc^'ess,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  com- 
poser, born  at  or  near  Bologna,  was  master  of  the  chapel 
of  the  Vatican.  He  composed  a  MisercTe,  which  is  much 
admired.    Died  in  17 14. 

See  Fetis,  "  Blographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Baian,  bT-an',  written  also  Baion,  [Lat.  Baia'nus,] 
(Andrew,)  an  Indian  convert  to  Christianity,  born  at 


a,  e,  1, 0,  %  y,  lojig;  h,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/io;^i!;  a,  C;  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BAIARDI 


243 


BAILIES 


Goa,  was  ordained  a  priest  at  Rome  about  1635.  He 
translated  the  "  ^Eneid"  into  Greek  verse,  and  the  "  Lu- 
siad"  of  Camoens  into  Latin  verse. 

See  Chacdon  et  Delaxdine,  " Diclionnaire  Historique." 

Baiardi.    See  Bajardi. 

Baiardi,  ba-yaR^dee,  or  Baiardo,  bd-yaR'do,  (Otta- 
v'lo  Antonio,)"  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  about  i6go, 
was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Prodromus  of  the  An- 
tiquities of  Herculaneum,"  (1742.)    Died  about  1765. 

Baidii-Khan,  biMoo-kln,  called  also  Eaidu-Ogul, 
a  Tartar  or  Mongol  king  of  the  race  of  Jengis  Khan, 
died  in  1294,  after  a  reign  of  eight  months. 

Baisr,  bl^er,  (Johann  David,)  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Jena  in  168 1,  was  a  son  of  Johann  Wilhelm 
the  elder,  noticed  below.    Died  at  Altdorf  in  1752. 

Baier,  (Johann  Jacob,)  a  German  physician  and  nat- 
uralist, brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Jena  in  1677. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  scientiiic  and  medical  treatises,  (in 
Latin.)    Died  in  1735. 

See  "AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,"  Supplement. 

Baier,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  German  Lutheran  theo- 
logian, born  in  1647,  became  professor  at  Halle,  (1694.) 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "Compendium  of  Theology," 
(1686,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1695. 

Baier,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  theologian  and  natural- 
ist, born  at  Jena  about  1676,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  wrote  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Fossil  Monuments  of 
the  Universal  Deluge,"  ("Disputatio  de  Fossilibus  Di- 
luvii  universi  Monumentis,"  17 12.)    Died  in  1729. 

Baif,  de,  deh  bt'ef ,  (Jean  Antoine,)  a  French  litte- 
rateur, son  of  Lazare,  noticed  below,  born  at  Venice  in 
1532,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the  poet  Ronsard.  He 
was  the  author  of  sonnets  and  various  other  poems.  He 
was  one  ^  seven  poets  called  the  "  Pleiade,"  and  was 
the  repul^  founder  of  the  first  literary  society  in  France. 
Died  in  1589. 

See  Lo-VGFELLOW,  "Poets  and  Poetr}-  of  Europe;"  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "Tableau  de  la  Poesie  Frangaise  au  seizieme  Siecle." 

Baif,  de,  (Lazare,)  a  French  diplomatist  and  learned 
writer  of  the  sixteenth  century,  born  near  La  Fleche,  in 
Anjou,  was  a  counsellor  of  Francis  L  He  translated 
the  "  Electra"  of  Sophocles  and  the  "  Hecuba"  of  Eurip.i- 
des  into  French  verse,  and  wrote,  among  other  works,  in 
Latin,  a  treatise  "On  Naval  Affairs."    Died  in  1547. 

See  La  Croix  DU  Maine  et  Duverdier,"  Cibliotheque  Fian^aise." 

Bail,  bSI  or  bt'ye,  (Charles  Joseph,)  a  French  wri- 
ter and  officer,  born  at  Bethune  in  1777,  served  in  the 
Belgian  war  of  1793.  He  was  the  author  of  "Statistics 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Westphalia,"  esteemed  one  of  the 
best  works  of  the  kind,  a  work  "On  the  Jews  in  the 
Nineteenth  Century,"  and  several  other  treatises.  He 
also  edited  "  Bernadotte's  Correspondence  Avith  Napo- 
leon," (1819.)    Died  in  1827. 

See  Querakd,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Bail,  (Louis,)  a  French  theologian  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  born  at  Abbeville,  was  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne, 
and  superior  of  the  monastery  of  Port-Royal.  He  wrote 
a  treatise  "  On  the  Benefit  of  the  Cross,"  and  other  reli- 
gious works,  which  had  considerable  reputation  in  his 
time.    Died  in  1669. 

See  Moreri,  "Diclionnaire  Historique;"  Lelon'G,  "  Bibliotheque 
Frangaise." 

Baila,  WW  or  b^-ce'la,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  jurist, 
|)Orn  at  Monreale  in  1585,  died  in  1645. 
Bailay.    See  Bailey. 

BaiFdpn,  (Joseph,)  an  English  musician  and  com- 
poser, lived  about  1750-70. 
Bailey.    See  Bayi.ey. 

Bailey,  ba'le,  (Anselm,)  an  English  theologian  and 
writer  on  music;  died  in  1724. 

Bailey,  ba'le,  (Gamaliel,)  an  American  journalist, 
distinguished  as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  born  at  Mount 
PI  oily.  New  Jersey,  in  1807.  He  was  a  physician  in 
early  life,  removed  to  Cincinnati  in  1831,  and  joined  James 
G.  Birney  in  1836  as  the  publisher  of  an  anti-slavery 
paper  called  "The  Philanthropist."  During  the  first 
year  their  office  was  twice  attrxked  by  a  molt,  who  threw 
their  press  into  the  river.  In  1837  he  became  the  sole 
or  chief 'editor  of  the  "  Philanthropist."  He  removed  to 
Washington,  District  of  Columbia,  in  1847,  began 
to  edit  "The  National  Era,"  which  under  his  judicious 


management  exerted  a  considerable  influence  on  politi- 
cal aftairs.  Mrs.  Stowe's  celebrated  novel  "Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin"  first  appeared  in  the  columns  of  the  "National 
Era."    Died  in  1859. 

Bailey,  (Jacoh  Whitman,)  an  American  microscopist. 
born  at  Ward,  Massachusetts,  about  1808,  became  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  at  West  Point.  He  wrote  many 
treatises  on  infusoria,  algre,  etc.,  inserted  in  Silliman's 
"Journal  of  Science,"  and  in  other  periodicals.  He  ac- 
quired distinction  by  his  microscopic  researches  in  botany 
and  zoology,  and  made  improvements  in  the  construction 
of  microscopes.    Died  in  1857. 

Bai'ley,  (John,)  a  dissenting  divine,  born  in  Lan- 
cashire, England,  in  1644,  emigrated  in  1684  to  America 
and  settled  as  a  pastor  at  Boston.    Died  in  1697. 

Bai'ley,  (John,)  a  Scotch  mechanician  and  agricul- 
turist, born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
He  was  the  inventor  of  a  plough  which  he  described  in 
a  treatise,  afterwards  translated  into  German,  (1805.) 

Bailey  or  Bai^y,  sometimes  written  Eailay,  (Na- 
than or  Nathaniel,)  an  English  lexicographer  and 
school-master  at  Stepney,  published  an  Etymological 
English  Dictionary,  which  is  said  to  have  formed  the 
basis  of  Dr.  Johnson's  work,  also  a  "Domestic  Liction- 
ary,"  and  other  educational  books.    Died  in  1742. 

Bailey,  (Peter,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Cheshire, 
was  editor  of  a  journal  called  "The  Museum."  He 
published  "Sketches  from  Saint  George's  Fields,"  a 
humorous  poem,  and  "A  Queen's  Appeal,"  written  in 
the  S]".enserian  measure.    Died  in  1823. 

Bailey,  (Philip  James,)  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Nottingham  in  1816.  He  completed  his  studies  at  Glas- 
gow, and  subsequently  practised  law  for  a  short  time. 
His  principal  poem,  "  Festus,"  published  in  1839,  pro- 
duced a  great  sensation.  In  the  w'ords  of  a  judicious 
critic,  "  its  defects  and  merits  alike  gained  for  it  imme- 
diate and  wide  success.  Its  subject  was  the  highest 
questions  of  philosophy  and  religion,  and  it  abounded  in 
bold  and  glowing  passages.  Yet,  unlike  the  '  Faust'  of 
Goethe,  which  cloubtless  suggested  '  Festus,' its  art  was 
chaotic  ;  it  was  wildly  extravagant,  and  often  as  unintel- 
ligible as  it  was  fervent,  and  its  few  finely  imaginative 
utterances  have  not  been  able  to  retain  for  the  work  its 
first  popularity."  He  was  author  of  two  other  poems, 
entitled  "The  Angel  W^orld"  and  "The  Mystic." 

See  "  P)lack\vood's  Magazine"  for  April,  iJ^oo;  R.  H.  Horne, 
"  New  Spirit  of  the  Age." 

Bailey,  (Samuel,)  an  English  writer,  born  at  Shef- 
field in  1787.  His  "Essays  on  the  Formation  and  Publi- 
cation of  Opinions"  (1820)  was  very  favourably  received, 
and  was  commended  by  Sir  James  Mackintosh.  He  after- 
wards published  "  Essays  on  the  Pursuit  of  Truth  and 
Progress  of  Knowledge,"  "Theory  of  Reasoning,"  and 
other  works  on  mental  philosophy,  et-c.    Died  in  1870. 

Bailey,  (TheodorUs,)  an  American  rear-admiral,  born 
in  the  State  of  New  York  about  1804,  entered  the  navy 
in  1 81 8.  He  became  a  lieutenant  in  1827,  a  commander 
in  1849,  and  captain  in  1855.  He  was  second  in  com- 
mand under  Farragut  in  the  great  naval  battle  against 
the  defences  of  New  Orleans  in  April,  1862.  He  ren- 
dered important  services  in  this  action,  and  was  the  fore- 
most in  entering  New  Orleans,  having  been  sent  by  Far- 
ragut to  demand  the  surrender  of  that  city  on  the  25th. 
In  November,  1S62,  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
Eastern  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron.  It  is  stated  that  in 
about  one  year  and  a  half  he  captured  more  than  one 
hundred  and  fifty  blockade-runners. 

Eailey,  (Thomas,)  father  of  Philip  James,  noticed 
above,  born  in  1785,  was  the  author  of  the  "Advent  of 
Charity,"  and  a  "  History  of  Nottinghamshire."  Died 
in  1856. 

Bailey  or  Baley,  (Walter,)  born  in  Dorsetshire  in 
1529,  was  appointed  royal  professor  of  medicine  at  Ox- 
ford in  1561,  and  was  subsequently  physician  to  Queen 
Elizabeth.  He  wrote  "  Directions  for  Health,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1592. 

Bai'lies,  (William,)  a  celebrated  physician,  of  Eng- 
lish extraction,  was  emploved  by  Frederick  the  Great  of 
Prussia.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  Bath  Waters," 
and  other  medical  works.    Died  in  1787. 

See  "Biographic  Aledicale." 


e  as  k;  q  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as  j;  o.  H.  k,  guttural;  N,  7zasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  ^h  as  in  this.    (2[^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BAILLARGER 


2+4 


B  A  ILLY 


Baillarger,  bS'ytR^zhy  or  btl'ytR'zhi',  (Jules  Ga- 
briel Francois,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Mont- 
bazon  in  1806,  was  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  mental 
maladies,  on  which  he  published  several  works. 

Bailie.    See  IJayle. 

Bailies,  bt'ySs',  (Jacques  Marie  Joseph,)  Bishop 
of  Lugon,  and  Vicar-General  of  Toulouse,  born  in  that 
city  in  1 798. 

Baillet.    See  Saint-Julien. 

Baillet,bt'y^^  (Adrien,)  a  French  writer  and  scholar, 
born  near  Beauvais  in  1649.  His  most  important  pro- 
duction is  entitled  "Judgments  of  the  Learned  upon  the 
Principal  Works  of  Authors,"  (Jugements  des  Savants," 
etc.,  1685,  9  vols.  i2mo,  unfinished.)  He  also  wrote  a 
'Life  of  Descartes,"  a  "History  of  Holland  from  the 
Truce  of  1609  to  the  Present  Time,"  (1690,)  and  other 
,  works.    Died  in  1706. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires." 

Baillevil.    See  Baliol. 

Bailleul,  bt'yuK  or  bt^e-yuK,  (Jacques  Charles,)  a 
French  advocate,  born  near  Havre  in  1762,  was  a  mode- 
rate member  of  the  Convention  in  1792,  and  was  pro- 
scribed in  1793.    Died  in  1843. 

See  TissoT,  "  £!loge  de  Bailleul,"  1843. 

Bailleux,  bt'yuh'  or  btl'yuh',  (Antoine,)  a  French 
composer  and  professor  of  music  at  Paris,  produced  a 
number  of  symphonies.    Died  in  179 1. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Baillie,  ba'le,  (Joanna,)  one  of  the  most  eminent 
British  female  poets,  was  born  near  Glasgow  in  1762. 
She  published  in  1798  the  first  volume  of  a  series  of 
"  Plays  on  the  Passions,"  which  was  very  well  received. 
Her  tragedy  of  "  The  Family  Legend"  was  brought  out 
at  JLdinburgh  in  1810  with  brilliant  success.  Sir  Walter 
Scott  having  written  the  epilogue,  and  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal parts  having  been  performed  by  Mrs.  Siddons. 
Among  her  other  dramas,  "  De  Montfort"  and  "  Basil" 
enjoy  perhaps  the  highest  reputation.  Besides  the  above- 
named  works,  she  was  the  author  of  "  Metrical  Legends 
of  Exalted  Characters,"  and  a  number  of  ballads  and 
songs  of  great  beauty.  Miss  Baillie  resided  during  the 
greater  part  of  her  life  at  Hampstead,  near  London, 
where  her  brother,  the  celebrated  Matthew  Baillie,  was 
court  physician.  During  her  life,  which  was  prolonged 
almost  to  ninety  years,  her  house  was  the  resort  of  the 
most  distinguished  persons  of  her  own  and  other  coun- 
tries. She  was  a  very  intimate  friend  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  who  admired  her  genius  and  highly  esteemed  her 
for  her  moral  and  social  qualities.  She  died  at  Hamp- 
stead in  1851.  "This  great  work,"  says  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  April,  1836,  referring  to  her  "  Plays  on  the 
Passions,"  "is  then  completed,  and  in  a  manner  worthy 
of  its  commencement :  a  noble  monument  of  the  power- 
ful mind  and  the  pure  and  elevated  imagination  of  its 
author." 

See  also  "Quarterly  Review,"  vols.  xxxvii.,lv.  ;  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view," vols,  ii.,  v.,  xix.  ;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1824; 
Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Baillie,  (John,)  a  Scottish  Orientalist,  born  at  Inver- 
ness about  1770,  became  professor  of  the  Arabic  lan- 
guage and  Mussulman  law  in  the  College  of  Fort  Wil- 
liam, Bengal.  He  published  several  works  upon  Arabic 
grammar,  which  are  ranked  among  the  most  valuable 
that  have  appeared  on  the  subject.    Died  in  1833. 

Baillie,  (Lady  Grizel.)    See  Hume,  (Grizel.) 

Baillie,  (Matthew,)  a  celebrated  physician  and  ana- 
tomist, born  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  in  1761,  was  a 
brother  of  Joanna  Baillie.  He  studied  at  the  University 
of  Glasgow,  where  his  father,  the  Rev.  James  pjaillie, 
was  professor  of  divinity.  Through  the  influence  of  his 
maternal  uncle,  the  eminent  anatomist  William  Hunter, 
he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  medicine  at  Oxford, 
where  he  graduated  in  1789,  and  soon  after  was  made  a 
member  of  the  College  of  Physicians.  Li  1783  he  suc- 
ceeded Hunter  as  lecturer  on  anatomy.  He  became  phy- 
sician to  George  HI.  and  the  royal  family  about  1810, 
and  acquired  a  very  extensive  practice  in  London.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  diagnosis.  His  "Mor- 
bid Anatomy  of  some  of  the  most  Important  Parts  of 
the  Human  Body"  (1795)  is  esteemed  a  standard  work, 
and  has  been  translated  into  German,  French,  and  Ital- 


ian. He  also  wrote  "  Lectures  and  Observations  on 
I  Medicine,"  (1825.)  He  died  in  1823,  bequeathing  to  the 
i  College  of  Physicians  his  medical  library  and  anatomical 

collection. 

See  Cn.^MBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
aTid  "An  Account  of  Baillie's  Life,"  prefixed  to  his  works,  by  James 
j  Wakdkop.  ' 

Baillie,  [Lat,  Bay'lius,]  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  theo- 
logian, born  at  Glasgow  about  1602.  In  1640  he  was 
sent  to  London  by  the  Scottish  lords  to  protest  against 
the  innovations  of  Archbishop  Laud,  and  was  subse- 
quently principal  of  the  university  at  Glasgow.  In  1649 
he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  charged  to  compliment 
Charles  II.  at  the  Hague  in  the  name  of  the  general  as- 
sembly of  the  clergy.  He  was  a  man  of  profound  learn- 
ing, and  wrote  several  theological  and  historical  works 
in  English  and  in  Latin.    Died  in  1662. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen ;" 
"Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1842. 

Baillie  of  Jerviswood,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  patriot, 
eminent  for  ability  and  virtue,  was  identified  with  the 
party  or  cause  of  which  Lord  Russell  and  Algernon 
Sidney  were  the  chiefs.  He  was  arrested  in  1684,  and 
charged  with  complicity  in  the  Rye-House  plot.  He 
was  condemned  without  evidence,  and  executed  in  De- 
cember, 1684. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

BailTie,  (William,)  a  distinguished  engraver,  born 
in  Ireland  about  1736,  served  for  a  time  in  the  army,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  captain.  His  engravings  after 
Rembrandt  are  greatly  esteemed. 

See  Strutt,  "Dictionary  of  Engravers." 

Baillif,  (Le  Roche.)  See  Riviere,  (Roche  le 
Baillif.) 

Baillon,  bt^yoN^  (Emmanuel,)  a  Frencl^aturalisl, 

who  was  a  proficient  in  ornithology  and  vege^ole  physi- 
ology. He  furnished  valuable  information  to  Buffon, 
and  wrote  several  works,  one  of  which  was  "  On  the 
Means  of  counteracting  the  Encroachments  of  Moving 
Sands  on  the  Sea-Coast."  Died  at  Abbeville  in  1802. 
See  Le  Bas,  "  Dictlonnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Baillot,  bt^yo^  (Pierre  Marie  FRANgois  de  Sales 
— deh  stl,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated  French  violinists, 
born  at  Passy  in  1771,  was  a  ]3upil  of  Viotti.  He  visited 
Russia,  Holland,  and  England,  where  his  performances 
obtained  great  applause.    Died  in  1842. 

Bailloii,  de,  deh  bt'yoo',  [Lat.  Ballo'nius,]  (Guil- 
LAUME,)  a  French  physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1538.  He 
was  appointed  by  Henry  IV.  first  physician  to  the  Dau- 
phin in  1601.  He  was  the  author  of  several  medical 
works  of  great  merit,  among  which  we  may  cite  "  Medical 
Counsels,  in  Three  Books,"  (1649,)  and  "Adversaria 
Medicinalia."  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who 
made  known  the  nature  of  the  croup.    Died  in  16 16. 

See  Rene  Moreau,  "Vita  G.  de  Baillou  Doctoris  Medici,"  1641 ; 
"Biographic  Medicale  ;"  Sprengel,  " Geschichte  der  Medicin." 

Baillu,  bt'yii^or  btKyli',  written  also  Balliu  and  Bail- 
lieu,  (Peter,)  a  Fleinish  engraver  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  executed  numerous  prints  after  Rubens,  Van 
Dyck,  Rembrandt,  and  other  masters. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands.  ' 

Bailly,  bt'ye'  or  bt'e-ye'',  (Antoine,)  a  French  in- 
spector-general of  finances.  He  wrote  a  "  Financial  His- 
tory of  France,"  ("  Histoire  financiere  de  la  France,")  a 
work  of  merit.    Died  in  1851. 

Bailly,  ba'le,  (David,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Ley- 
den  in  1588,  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  his  portraits 
drawn  with  a  pen. 

See  Nagler,  "AUgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Bailly,  (George,)  a  French  general,  born  in  1685  ; 
died  in  1759. 

Bailly,  (Jacques,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Gracay 
in  1629;  died  in  1679. 

Bailly,  (Jacques,)  a  French  dramatist,  painter,  and 
keeper  of  the  royal  pictures,  born  at  Versailles  in  1701. 
The  celebrated  Jean  Sylvain  Bailly  was  his  son.  Died 
in  1768. 

Bailly,  ba'le,  [Fr.  pron.  bt'yeM  (Jean  Sylvain,) 
an  eminent  French  astronomer,  philosopher,  and  elo- 
quent writer,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  15th  of  Septem- 
ber, 1736.    He  was  a  pupil  and  friend  of  La  Caille.  In 


a,  .  T,     u,  y.  /.'-v^'V    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  sAor/;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fdt;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


BAILLT 


245 


BAINI 


1763  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  to  which 
he  had  presented  some  lunar  observations.  He  produced 
in  1766  an  able  "Essay  on  the  Theory  of  the  Satellites 
of  Jupiter,"  and  in  1771  a  remarkable  "Memoir  on  the 
Light  of  the  Satellites  of  Jupiter,"  which  light  he  had 
measured  by  an  ingenious  method.  His  eulogy  on  Leib- 
nitz gained  the  prize  offered  by  the  Academy  of  Berlin, 
and  his  eulogy  on  Moliere  obtained  an  accessit  at  the 
French  Academy.  He  published  in  1775  the  first  vol- 
ume of  his  great  work,  "The  History  of  Astronomy, 
Ancient  and  Modern,"  (4  vols.,  1775-83,)  which  is  written 
in  a  brilliant,  attractive  style  and  abounds  in  ingenious 
ideas.  It  obtained  great  popularity.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Academic  Fran9aise  in  1784,  and  to  the  Academy 
of  Liscriptions  in  1785.  Except  Fontenelle,  he  was  the 
only  Frenchman  who  had  the  honour  to  be  a  member 
of  the  three  great  Academies  of  Paris. 

Having  won  the  favour  of  the  public  by  his  probity 
and  other  virtues,  he  was  chosen  a  deputy  to  the  States- 
General  in  1789.  He  was  the  first  president  of  this  as- 
sembly, over  which  he  presided  during  the  famous  ses- 
sion of  the  Tennis-court,  and  was  elected  mayor  of  Paris 
on  the  i6th  of  July,  1789.  His  efforts,  in  concert  with 
La  Fayette,  to  maintain  order  and  moderate  the  violence 
of  the  Revolution,  were  not  successful.  By  his  order,  the 
national  guard  fired  on  a  riotous  crowd  which  had  as- 
sembled in  the  Champ-de-Mars  in  July,  1791,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  a  demonstration  against  the  king. 
This  act  gave  great  offence  to  the  popular  party.  Bailly 
offered  his  resignation  in  September,  but  was  persuaded 
to  retain  his  oftice  until  November,  1791. 

He  was  arrested  by  the  Jacobins  at  Melun  in  1793, 
taken  to  Paris,  and  condemned  to  death  in  November, 
one  of  the  charges  against  him  being  his  part  in  the  affair 
of  the  Champ-de-Mars.  He  was  executed,  after  he  had 
suffered  many  insults  and  refinements  of  cruelty,  on  the 
1 2th  of  November,  1793.  To  one  of  the  bystanders 
who  said,  "Bailly,  you  tremble,"  "Yes,"  he  replied, 
"but  it  is  with  cold."  "The  name  of  Bailly,"  says  La- 
martine,  "was  an  inscription  on  the  frontispiece  of  the 
Revolution.  He  was  on  a  level  with  this  destiny  by  his 
character,  if  not  by  his  genius.  His  administration  had 
been  a  series  of  triumphs  of  the  people  over  the  court. 
When  bloody  tumults  began  to  stain  the  victories  of  the 
people,  he  spoke  like  a  sage,  and  acted  like  a  magis- 
trate." ("  History  of  the  Girondists.")  He  left  Memoirs 
of  the  Revolution,  ("Memoires  d'un  Temoin  oculaire," 
etc.,  3  vols.,  1804.) 

See  "Biographie  de  Bailly, "^par  F.  Arago,  1852;  "  filoge  de 
Bailly,"  par  Lalande,  1794;  "  filoge  de  Bailly,"  par  Lacretelle; 
English  version  of  Arago's  "  Biographie,"  Boston,  1859;  "  Vie  privee 
et  politique  de  Bailly,"  Paris,  1790;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April, 
1805. 

Bailly,  (Joseph,)  a  French  physician,  born  in  1779, 
wrote  an  "Essay  on  Artesian  Wells."    Died  in  1832, 

Bailly,  (Josei'H  A.,)  a  skilful  sculptor,  born  at  Paris  in 
1825,  came  to  Philadelphia  in  1850.  He  executed,  besides 
other  works,  the  groups  of  "  Adam  and  Eve,"  "  Eve  and 
her  two  Children,"  and  the  monument  of  Washington 
placed  (1869)  in  front  of  the  State-House  in  Philadelphia. 

Bailly  de  Juilly,  bt'ye'  (or  bt'e-ye')  deh  zhii'e-ye', 
(Edme  Louis  Barth6lemi,)  a  French  politician,  born 
at  Troyes  in  1760.  He  was  a  moderate  member  of  the 
National  Convention  in  1792-95,  and  opposed  the  execu- 
tion of  Louis  XVI.    Died  in  1819. 

Bailly  de  Monthion,  bfye'  deh  m^N^te^oN'',  (Fran- 
cois Gedeon,)  Comte,  a  French  general,  born  in  the 
Isle  of  Bourbon  in  1776.  He  fought  at  Marengo,  and 
gained  the  rank  of  colonel  at  Austerlitz,  1805.  He  was 
wounded  at  Waterloo,  where  he  acted  as  general  of  divi- 
sion.   Died  in  1846. 

Baily,  ba'le,  (Edward  Hodges,)  an  eminent  English 
sculptor,  born  at  Bristol  about  1788.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Flaxman,  and  also  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  where 
he  successively  won  the  silver  and  the  gold  medals.  He 
became  an  academician  in  1820.  Among  his  master- 
pieces in  the  department  of  classic  and  poetic  sculpture 
we  may  mention  "Eve  at  the  Fountain,"  "Hercules 
casting  Hylas  into  the  Sea,"  "Psyche,"  "The  Graces 
Seated,"  and  "Eve  Listening  to  the  Voice."  He  has 
also  produced  statues  of  Earl  Grey,  Lord  jMansfield, 
Nelson,  and  other  celebrated  men. 


Baily,  (Francis,)  an  English  astronomer,  and  writei 
on  assurances,  annuities,  etc.,  born  in  1774,  was  a  mem 
ber  of  the  Stock  Exchange,  London.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Astronomical  Society  of  London. 
Among  his  most  useful  labours  was  the  reorganization 
of  the  "Nautical  Almanac,"  the  revision  of  the  society's 
catalogue  of  stars,  and  the  republication  in  England  of 
the  catalogues  of  Lalande  and  La  Caille.  He  also  made 
valuable  contributions  to  the  "Memoirs  of  the  Astro- 
nomical Society,"  and  published,  among  other  esteemed 
works,  "  The  Doctrine  of  Life  Assurances  and  Annui- 
ties," (1810.)  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Life  of  Ham- 
steed."    Died  in  1844. 

See  the  "Philosophical  Magazine." 

Baily,  (Nathan.)    See  Bailey,  (Nathan.) 

Baiii,  (Alexander,)  a  distinguished  Scottish  writer, 
born  at  Aberdeen  about  1818.  He  graduated  at  Maris- 
chal  College,  in  his  native  town,  in  1840.  In  i860  he  be- 
came professor  of  logic  in  the  University  of  Aberdeen. 
He  has  written  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  including 
logic,  psychology,  etc. 

Bain'bridge  or  Bam'bridge,  (Christopher,)  an 
English  prelate,  born  in  Westmoreland  about  1450,  rose 
to  be  Archbishop  of  York  in  1 508.  Being  afterwards  sent 
by  Henry  VIII.  on  an  embassy  to  Pope  Julius  II.,  he  was 
made  Cardinal  of  Saint  Praxede  by  the  latter.  He  died 
at  Rome  in  15 14,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  poisoned. 

Bainbridge,  (John,)  an  English  astronomer  and 
physician,  born  at  Ashby-de-la-Zouch  in  1582,  was  first 
Savillian  professor  of  astronomy  at  Oxford.  Among  his 
writings  is  a  "  Description  of  the  Comet  of  1618."  Died 
in  1643. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Bain'bridge,  (William,)  an  American  commodore, 
born  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  in  1774.  He  became^ 
captain  in  1800,  and  took  command  of  the  frigate  Phila- 
delphia, which,  having  run  aground  near  Tripoli,  was 
captured,  with  all  the  crew,  in  October,  1803,  by  the  gun- 
boats of  Tripoli.  He  was  detained  in  captivity  about 
nineteen  months.  Plaving  obtained  the  rank  of  com- 
modore, he  was  appointed,  in  September,  181 2,  com- 
mander of  a  squadron  consisting  of  the  Constitution, 
of  forty-four  guns,  the  Essex,  and  the  Hornet.  He  cap- 
tured the  British  frigate  Java,  of  forty-nine  guns,  in 
December,  1812,  after  an  action  in  which  the  British 
loss  was  about  one  hundred  and  seventy-four  killed  and 
wounded,  and  the  American  loss  thirty-three.  After  the 
end  of  the  war,  he  commanded  a  fleet  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean.   Died  in  1833. 

See  Thomas  Harris,  "Life  of  Commodore  William  Bainbridge," 
Philadelphia,  1837. 

Baines,  banz,  (Edward,)  an  English  journalist,  born 
in  Lancashire  in  1774.  He  was  for  many  years  editor 
and  proprietor  of  the  "  Leeds  Mercury,"  in  which  he 
showed  himself  an  able  advocate  of  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion and  of  other  important  reforms.  He  represented 
Leeds  in  Parliament  from  1834  till  1841.  He  wrote  a 
"History  of  the  Reign  of  George  III.,"  a  "History  of 
the  County  Palatine  of  Lancaster,"  (4  vols.,)  and  several 
other  works.    Died  in  1848. 

See  the  "  Life  of  Edward  Baines,"  by  his  son,  1851. 

Baines,  (Edward,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Ixeds  about  1800,  succeeded  his  father  as  editor  of  the 
"  Leeds  Mercury."  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Cotton 
Manufacture,"  (1835,)  and  a  "Life  of  Edward  Baines," 
(his  father,  1851.)  In  1859  he  was  elected  member  of 
Parliament  for  Leeds,  and  was  again  elected  in  1868.  He 
is  a  decided  Liberal  in  politics. 

Baines,  (John,)  an  English  mathematician,  born  in 
Yorkshire  about  1786,  published  valuable  contributions 
to  the  "  Mathematical  Repository,"  "  Ladies'  Diary," 
and  other  periodicals.    Died  in  1835. 

Baines,  (Matthew  Talbot,)  an  English  lawyer,  a 
son  of  Edward  Baines,  born  at  Leeds  in  1799.  He  was 
returned  to  Parliament  by  the  Liberal  voters  of  Hull  in 
1847,  and  was  president  of  the  poor-law  board  from  1849 
to  1855.  As  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  he 
had  a  seat  in  the  cabinet  from  1855  to  1858.  He  repre- 
sented Leeds  in  the  House  of  Commons.    Died  in  1S60. 

Baini,  ba-ee'nee  or  bT''nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 
I  musician,  born  about  1775,  was  director  of  the  pontifical 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  tJiis.  (^J:^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BAINS 


246 


BAKER 


chapel  at  Rome.  He  composed  a  number  of  sacred 
pieces,  and  wrote  "  Historical  and  Critical  Memoirs  of 
the  Life  and  Works  of  Palestrina,"  (1828.)   Died  in  1844. 

See  J.  Adrien  de  Lafage,  "  Notice  sur  J.  Baini,"  1S45. 

Bains,  banz,  [Fr.  pron.  bdx,]  (Michael,)  a  Calvinistic 
divine,  born  in  15 13,  was  a  deputy  from  Louvain  to  the 
Council  of  Trent.    Died  in  1589. 

Bainville,  bdN^^K,  (Charles,)  a  French  painter  and 
versifier,  was  a  relative  of  l)oileau,  who  advised  him  to 
cultivate  painting.    Died  in  1754. 

Bairaktar,  bi'rak-taR'',  or  Beirakdar,  bl^rik-daR', 
(Mustafa  Pasha,)  a  Turkish  officer,  born  in  1755.  In 
the  contest  between  Selim  HI.  and  Mustafa  he  was 
the  adherent  of  the  former.  After  the  murder  of  Selim 
by  Mustafa,  Bairaktar,  having  deposed  the  usurper  and 
raised  Mahmood  to  the  throne,  was  made  by  him  grand 
vizier.  On  a  revolt  of  the  janissaries,  in  1808,  he  put  an 
end  to  his  life. 

See  JucHEREAU  DE  Saint-Denvs,  "Revolutions  de  Constanti- 
nople en  1807-1808,"  Paris,  1S19. 

Baird,  bird,  (Absalom,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Washington,  Pennsylvania,  in  1824,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1849.  He  became  a  captain  in  the  regular  army 
in  1861,  and  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  May, 
1862.  Pie  served  at  Chattanooga,  November,  1863,  and 
commanded  a  division  of  Sherman's  army  in  the  cam- 
paign against  Atlanta  in  1864. 

Baird,  bird,  (Sir  David,)  a  distinguished  general, 
born  in  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland,  in  1757.  Having  en- 
tered the  service  in  India,  he  was  made  prisoner  by 
Hyder  Ali  in  the  engagement  at  Peramboucum,  and  de- 
tained captive  four  years.  After  his  release,  he  was  cre- 
ated general  of  brigade  about  1797,  and  in  1799  headed 
the  assault  on  Seringapatam,  which  resulted  in  the  cap- 
ture of  that  place.  For  this  splendid  achievement  he 
received  the  thanks  of  Parliament,  while  Colonel  Welles- 
ley,  afterwards  Duke  of  Wellington,  was  made  governor 
of  the  town,  though  he  had  taken  no  prominent  part  in 
the  assault.  He  accompanied  Lord  Cathcart  to  Den- 
mark in  1807,  and  afterwards  served  in  the  Spanish  cam- 
paign, where  he  was  severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of 
Corunna,  (1808.)  He  was  soon  after  created  a  baronet, 
and  obtained  the  order  of  the  Bath.   Died  in  1829. 

See  Theodore  Hook,  "  Life  of  Sir  David  Baird,"  1S32;  Cham- 
bers, "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Baird,  (Robert,)  D  D.,  an  American  theologian,  born 
in  Fayette  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1798,  studied  theol- 
ogy at  Princeton,  New  Jersey.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  organization  of  the  system  of  public  schools 
in  New  Jersey.  In  1835  he  went  to  Europe,  where  he 
devoted  several  years  to  the  promotion  of  Protestant 
Christianity  and  the  cause  of  temperance.  He  became 
the  agent  and  secretary  of  the  American  and  Foreign 
Christian  Union.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Visit  to  Northern  Europe,"  "A  View  of  Religion  in 
America,"  (1842,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Waldenses, 
Albigenses,  and  Vaudois."    Died  in  1863. 

See  "  Life  of  Robert  Baird,"  by  his  son,  1866. 

Baird,  (Spencer  F.,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  American 
naturalist,  loom  at  Reading,  Pennsylvania,  in  1823,  became 
professor  of  natural  science  in  Dickinson  College,  and 
afterwards  assistant  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion. Besides  his  other  labours,  he  has  translated  and 
edited  the  "  Iconographic  Encyclopaedia,"  (4  vols.  8vo,  2 
vols,  steel  plates,)  and  published  reports  on  the  collec- 
tions in  natural  history  made  by  Stansbury,  Gilliss, 
Murcy,  and  others.  He  has  also  published,  in  coiijunction 
with  J.  Cassin,  "The  Birds  of  North  America,"  (2  vols. 
4to,  i860,)  and  the  "Mammals  of  North  America,"  (i 
vol.  4to,  1 86 1.)  He  has  studied,  with  great  success,  the 
various  divisions  of  the  vertebrata  and  their  distribution, 
and  has  made  valuable  contributions  to  the  Journal  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  to  the  pub- 
lications of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  etc. 

Baireuth,  (Frederica,  Margravine  ok.)  See  Fred- 
erica  Sophia  Wilhelmina. 

Bairo,  bl'ro,  (Piktro,)  an  Italian  physician  and  medi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Turin  in  1468  ;  died  in  1558. 

Baiter,  bl'ter,  (John  George,)  a  Swiss  philologist, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1801,  was  professor  in  the  university 
of  that  city.  He  published  "  Oratores  Attici,"  (1838-43,) 


and,  in  conjunction  with  Orelli,  "The  Works  of  Plato, 
(21  vols..  1839-42.) 

Baithe,  Wte,  written  also  Beithe,  (Stephen,)  a 
Hungarian  botanist  and  Protestant  theologian  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  published  several  works  on  Botany. 

See  Jocher,  "  AUgeraeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,"  (Supplement.) 

Baitz,  bits,  (Johann  Andreas  Hartmann,)  a  cele- 
brated organ-maker,  born  at  Utrecht  about  1708.  Among 
the  best  may  be  named  those  of  the  churches  of  Zierik- 
zee,  of  Groningen,  and  of  the  Mennonites  at  Utrecht. 
Died  in  1770. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Baius,  bl^is,  (Jacques,)  a  Flemish  theologian,  was  a 
nephew  of  Michael,  noticed  below.    Died  in  1614. 

Baius,  ba^'yus,  the  Latinized  name  of  De  Bay,  deh  ba, 
(Michael,)  a  learned  Flemish  theologian,  born  at  Melin, 
in  Hainault,  in  15 13.  He  was  appointed  by  Charles  V. 
professor  of  divinity  at  Louvain  in  1551,  and  subsequently 
became  chancellor  of  that  university,  and  inquisitor-gen- 
eral of  the  Netherlands.  Having  published,  about  1565, 
his  works  on  free  will  and  grace,  in  which  he  advocates 
the  doctrines  of  Saint  Augustine,  his  dogmas  were  de- 
nounced by  Pope  Pius  V.,  and  Baius  was  obliged  to 
retract.  His  views  were  afterwards  adopted  by  the  Jan- 
senists.    Died  in  1 589. 

See  Sweert,  "Athence  Belgicas ;"  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Criti- 
cal Dictionary." 

Bajardi  or  Baiardi,  b^-yaRMee  or  bl-aR'dee,  or  Ba- 
jardo  or  Baiardo,  bi-yaR^do,  (Andrea,)  a  mediocre 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Parma;  died  after  1520. 

Bajardo,  bi-yaRMo,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  .skilful 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Geni)a ;  died  prematurely  in  1657. 

Bajazet,  or  Bajazid.    See  Bayazeed. 

Bajon,  bt'zhoN'',  a  French  naturalist,  went  to  Cayenne 
in  1763,  and  practised  there  as  surgeon  for  many  years. 
He  published  "Memoirs  towards  the  History  of  Cayenne 
and  Guiana,  etc.,"  (2  vols.,  1778.) 

Bajus.    See  Baius. 

Bajza,  bl'zoh,  (Anton,)  a  Hungarian  writer,  born  in 
1804.  In  1830  he  succeeded  Kisfaludy  as  editor  of  a  lite- 
rary journal  entitled  "The  Aurora."  He  was  the  author 
of  "  Lyric  Poems,"  and  several  historical  works. 

Bakacs,  boh^kotch',  (Thomas,)  a  Hungarian  states- 
man of  the  fifteenth  century,  who  rose  from  the  condition 
of  a  peasant  to  be  secretary  of  the  emperor  Matthias  Cor- 
vinus.  On  the  accession  of  Vladislaus  II.  to  the  throne, 
he  was  made  cardinal  primate  of  Hungary,  and  papal 
legate.  He  afterwards  preached  a  crusade  against  the 
Turks,  which,  however,  resulted  in  a  civil  war  among  the 
Hungarian  nobles.    Died  in  1521. 

Bake,  bi^keh,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  philologist,  born  in  1787 
at  Leyden,  where  he  became  professor  of  Greek  and 
Roman  literature  in  1817.  His  editions  of  Posidonius 
and  Cleomedes  (1820)  are  highly  esteemed.  He  was 
a  contributor  to  the  "  Bibliotheca  Critica  Nova,"  and 
wrote,  in  Latin,  a  number  of  philological  essays  of  re- 
markable elegance. 

Bake,  (Lauren  r,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Amsterdam 
about  1650,  was  lord  of  Wulverhorst.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Biblical  Poems."    Died  in  1714. 

B^kee  or  B^ki,  ba'kee,  or  Abd-el-Bakee,  (-Baki,) 
abd-el-bi'kee,  the  greatest  of  Turkish  lyric  poets,  born 
near  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  In  genius 
he  ranks  with  the  Persian  poet  Hafiz.  Died  in  1600,  or, 
according  to  Ersch  and  Gruber,  in  1599. 

See  Haimmer-Purgstall,  "  Geschichte  der  Osmanischen  Dicht- 
kunst,  bis  auf  unsere  Zeit;"  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgeraeine  Ency-' 
klopaedie." 

Ba'ker,  (Charles,)  an  English  philanthropist,  became 
in  1829  superintendent  of  the  Yorkshire  institution  for 
the  deaf  and  dumb  at  Doncaster.  He  contributed  valu- 
able articles  on  the  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind,  to  the  "  Penny 
Cyclopaedia"  and  other  publications. 

Baker,  (David  or  Augustine,)  a  learned  English 
Benedictine  monk,  born  near  Monmouth  in  1575,  made  a 
valuable  collection  of  documents,  v/hich  were  afterwards 
used  by  Cressy  in  his  "Church  History,"  and  by  Reyner 
in  his  "Apostolatus  Benedictinorum."    Died  in  1641. 

See  Wood,  "Athenje  Oxonienses." 

Baker,  (David  Erskine,)  an  English  biographical 
writer  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  a  son  of  Henry 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  e,  i,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/io)-t;  a,  fe,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fdll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BAKER 


247 


BALASSI 


Baker,  mentioned  below.  His  "  Companion  to  the  Play- 
house" forms  a  part  of  the  work  afterwards  published 
with  the  title  of  "Biographia  Dramatica."  Died  in  1774. 

Ba'ker,  (Edward  Dickinson,)  Colonel,  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States,  born  in  England  in  1811,  was  brought 
to  Pennsylvania  in  his  childhood.  He  studied  law  in 
Illinois,  served  as  colonel  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,) 
was  elected  to  Congress  in  1848,  and  removed  to  Cali- 
fornia in  1852.  Having  gained  distinction  as  an  orator 
of  the  Republican  party,  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  for  Oregon  in  i860.  He  made  an  eloquent 
speech  against  disunion  in  the  Senate,  in  answer  to  John 
C.  Breckinridge.  He  raised  a  regiment  in  New  York 
and  Philadelphia,  called  the  California  regiment,  (after- 
wards the  Seventy-first  Pennsylvania,)  of  which  he  be- 
came colonel,  and  commanded  a  brigade  at  Ball's  Bluff, 
where  he  was  killed  in  October,  1861. 

Baker,  (CxEOFP^roy,)  an  English  mon'k  and  historian 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  He  translated  into  Latin  the 
history  of  the  reigns  of  Edward  I.  and  Edward  H.,  written 
originally  in  French  by  Thomas  de  la  More. 

Baker,  (George,)  an  English  surgeon  of  the  sixteenth 
•century,  wrote  "On  the  Nature  and  Properties  of  Quick- 
silver," "The  Book  of  Distillations,"  and  other  medical 
works.  He  was  surgeon-in-ordinary  to  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Baker,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  physician  and  medi- 
cal writer,  born  in  Devonshire  in  1722.  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society,  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  and 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  of  which  he  was 
made  president  in  1797.  He  was  appointed  physician- 
in-ordinary  to  George  HI.    Died  in  1809. 

Baker,  (Henry,)  an  English  naturalist,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1698.  About  1720  he  opened  a  school  for  the 
instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  which  was  very  suc- 
cessful ;  but  his  method  was  kept  secret.  He  ]:>ublished 
a  treatise  entitled  "The  Microscope  made  Easy,"  (1743,) 
and  "Employment  for  the  Microscope,"  (1764.)  He 
obtained  in  1744  the  Copley  medal  for  his  microscopic 
experiments  on  saline  particles.  He  had  married  in  1729 
the  daughter  of  the  eminent  novelist  Defoe.  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries, and  founded  the  Bakerian  Lecture  of  the  Royal 
Society.    Died  in  1774. 

See  "  Biographia  Briiannica." 

Baker,  (Humi'HREY,)  an  English  mathematician,  pub- 
lished an  arithmetical  work  entitled  "The  Well-Spring 
of  Sciences,"  (1562,)  which  was  esteemed  at  the  time. 

Baker,  (John,)  an  iMiglish  admiral  under  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne  and  George  I.,  distinguished  himself  in 
the  expedition  against  the  French  which  resulted  in  the 
capture  of  Gibraltar,  (1704.)  He  was  afterwards  em- 
ploved  in  several  important  missions.    Died  in  1716. 

Baker,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  statesman  under  Henry 
VIII.,  Edward  VI.,  and  Mary,  rose  to  be  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer  in  1545.  As  one  of  the  privy  council,  he 
signalized  himself  by  his  lefusal  to  sign  the  bill  of  Ed- 
ward VI.  excluding  his  sisters  Mary  and  Elizabeth  from 
the  throne.    Died  in  1558. 

Baker,  (Osman  C.,)  an  American  bishop,  born  at 
Marlow,  New  Hampshire,  in  1812.  He  became  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  Methodist  Biblical  Institute  in  1847,  ^i^d  a 
bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1852. 

Baker,  (Richard,)  an  English  mathematician,  wrote 
a  work  entitled  "An  Idea  of  Arithmetic,"  (1655.) 

Baker,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  historian,  born 
about  1568,  was  the  author  of  a  "Chronicle  of  the  Kings 
of  England,"  which  had  great  popularity  in  its  time.  It 
was  composed  during  the  author's  residence  of  more 
than  twenty  years  in  Fleet  prison,  where  he  had  been 
confined  for  debt.    Died  in  1644. 

See  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses." 

Baker,  (Robert,)  an  English  physician  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a 
treatise  on  the  bones,  entitled  "  tursus  Osteologicus." 

Baker,  (Sir  Samuel  White,)  an  English  traveller, 
born  in  1 82 1.  He  explored  in  1861-64  the  region  lying 
around  the  sources  of  the  White  Nile.  He  published 
accounts  of  his  explorations,  entitled  "The  Albert 
N'yanza,  Great  Basin  of  the  Nile,"  etc.,  (1866,)  and  "The 
Nile  Tributaries  of  Abyssinia,"  (1867,)  besides  various 
other  works.    He  was  knighted  in  November,  1866. 


Baker,  (Thomas,)  an  English  mathematician,  born  in 
1625,  was  the  author  of  "The  Geometrical  Key;  or  the 
Gata  of  Equations  unlocked,"  (1684.)    Died  in  1690 

Baker,  (Th(;mas,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  near 
Durham  in  1656.  He  is  principally  known  from  his  valua- 
ble manuscript  collections  on  the  history  and  antiquities 
of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  which  comprise  in  all 
thirty-nine  volumes  folio.  He  also  rendered  important  as- 
sistance to  Bishop  Burnet,  Dr.  Conyers  Middleton.  and 
other  contemporary  writers,  in  their  works.  Died  in  1740. 

See  Masters,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Thomas  Baker,"  17S4. 

Baker,  (William,)  an  English  printer,  born  in  1742, 
wrote  "  Peregrinations  of  the  Mind,  by  the  Rationalist," 
(1770,)  and  "Remarks  on  the  English  Language." 

Bake''well,  (Robert,)  an  English  agriculturist,  born 
in  Leicestershire  about  1726.  He  is  celebrated  for  the 
improvements  he  introduced  into  stock,  the  principal  of 
which  are  the  long-horned  breed  of  cattle  and  the  sheep 
called  by  his  name.    Died  in  1795. 

Bakhtishwa,  baK'tish'wa,  a  Nestorian  of  the  eighth 
century,  was  physician  to  Haroun-al-Raschid.  Being 
unable  to  cure  the  calii)h  in  his  last  illness,  he  was  or- 
dered by  the  latter  to  be  put  to  death  ;  but  the  death  of 
the  sovereign  prevented  the  execution  of  the  order. 

Bakhuysen.    See  Backhuysen. 

Baki  or  Abd-el-E^ki.    See  Bakee. 

Bakker,  bak'ker,  (Gerbrand,  HeR'bR^nt,)  a  Dutch 
physician,  and  professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  at 
Groningen,  born  at  Enkhuisen  in  1771.  He  wrote  a 
treatise,  in  Dutch,  "  On  Animal  Magnetism,"  and  other 
works  in  Latin.    Died  in  1828. 

See  La  Faille,  "Hulde  aan  de  Nagedachtenis  van  G.  Bakker," 
1828. 

Bakker,  (Peter  Huizinga — hoi-zing'na,)  a  Dutch 
poet,  born  about  1 718.  He  wrote  "Satires  against  the 
English,"  a  poeni  on  the  inundation  of  1740,  etc.  Died 
in  1801. 

See  Wagenaar,  "  Notice  sur  Bakker." 

Bakon.    See  Bacon,  (Roger.) 

Baksai,  bok'shl',  (Abraham,)  a  Hungarian  jurist  and 
historian  of  the  sixteenth  century,  wrote,  in  Latin,  a 
"Chronology  of  the  Dukes  and  Kings  of  Hungary." 

Balaam,  ba-la-am  or  ba'lam,  [Heb.  D>'S3j]  ^  famous 
Oriental  seer,  lived  about  1490  B.C.  (See  Numbers  xxii., 
xxiii.,  and  xxiv.) 

Baiadori.    See  Beladori. 

Balaeus.    See  Bale. 

Balamio,  bi-ld-mee'o,  or  Bal'amy,  (Ferdinand,) 
physician  to  Pope  Leo  X.,  was  a  native  of  Sicily.  He 
translated  into  Latin  several  works  of  Galen. 

See  Van  dkr  Linden,  "De  Scriptoribiis  Medicls." 

Balanzac,  de,  deh  bt'16N^ztk',  (Francois  de  Bre- 
mond — deh  breh-moN',)  Baron,  a  French  Calvinist 
and  Protestant  leader,  who  fought  with  distinction  under 
Henry  of  Navarre,  in  the  battles  of  Jarnac,  Coutras,  etc. 

See  Sully,  "Menioires;"  Anseljvie,  "  Histoire  des  grands  Offi- 
ciers  de  la  Couronne." 

Balarama,  (Balarama,)  commonly  pronounced  buK- 
a-r§,'ma,  [from  bala,  "strength,"  and  rama,  "beautiful," 
"pleasing,"  denoting  perhaps  a  union  of  beauty  and 
strength,]  the  name  of  a  famous  Hindoo  warrior,  the 
elder  brother  of  Krishna,  whom  he  assisted  in  his  wars. 
He  is  regarded  as  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu. 

See  Moor's  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Balard,  bi'ltR',  (Antoine  Jerome,)  a  French  che- 
mist, born  at  Montpellier  in  1802,  discovered  in  1826  the 
substance  called  bromium.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1844,  and  in  1851  professor 
of  chemistry  in  the  College  of  P^rance.  He  was  a  con- 
tributor to  the  "Annales  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique." 

Balard,  (Marie  Fran^oise  Jacquete  Alby,)  a 
French  poetess,  born  at  Castres  in  1776;  died  in  1822. 

See  QuERAKD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Ba-las'sa,  (or  boKosh-shoh,)  (Valentine,)  Count  a 
Hungarian  nobleman  of  the  sixteenth  century,  wro^c 
Latin  poems,  and  a  number  of  popular  lyrics  in  Hunga- 
rian.   He  was  killed  in  1594,  at  the  storming  of  Gian. 

See  HoRANYi,  "  Memoria  Himgarorum." 

Balassi,  ba-]as''see,  (Mario,)  a  Florentine  painter, 
born  in  1604;  died  in  1667. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 


€  as  k;  g  as  s;  g  kard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  t-h  as  in  this.  (iJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  2  -^.\ 


BALE  AN 


248 


BALBOA 


Balban-G3ias-ed-Deen,  or  Balban-Gheias-ed- 
din,  bdl  biia  gT''as  ed-deen',  King  of  Delhi,  rose  from  an 
obscure  position  to  be  vizier  of  Nasir-ed-Deen-Mahmood, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1265.  Balban  was  a  man  of 
ability,  and  was  celebrated  for  the  splendour  of  his  court, 
and  for  his  generosity.  His  name  is  sometimes  written 
Bulb  UN,  according  to  the  common  Hindoo  pronuncia- 
tion. He  died  in  1286,  and  was  succeeded  by  Kai-Kobad. 

Sei  Ferishta,  "History  of  the  Mahomedan  Power  in  India," 
translated  by  General  Bkiggs. 

Balbastre,  biKbtstr',  (Claude  Louis,)  a  celebrated 
French  organist,  born  at  Dijon  in  1729,  was  a  pupil  and 
friend  of  Rameau.  He  was  chiefly  distinguished  for  his 
great  skill  as  a  performer.  By  substituting  the  piano 
for  the  harpsichord,  he  effected  a  revolution  in  this  de- 
partment of  music.    Died  in  1799. 

See  Feti  ■,  "Biographic  Unlverselle  des  Musiciens." 

Balbe,  the  French  of  Balbo,  which  see. 

Balbi,  baKbee,  (Adriano,)  an  eminent  geographer, 
born  at  Venice  in  1782.  Having  visited  Portugal  in 
1820,  he  obtained  materials  for  his  "Statistical  Essay  on 
the  Kingdom  of  Portugal  and  Algarve  compared  with 
other  States  of  Europe,"  (in  French,  2  vols.,  1822.)  He 
brought  out  in  Paris  in  1826  the  first  volume  of  his  "  Eth- 
nographical Atlas  of  the  Globe,  or  Classification  of  An- 
cient and  Modern  Nations  according  to  their  Language," 
(in  folio.)  This  work,  in  which  he  has  drawn  inform- 
ation from  the  writings  of  Humboldt,  Champollion, 
Adelung,  and  other  savants,  is  ranked  among  the  most 
valuable  productions  of  its  kind.  He  also  published 
a  "Compendium  of  Geography,"  ("Abrege  de  Geogra- 
phic," I  vol.  8vo,)  which  has  been  translated  into  the 
principal  European  languages  and  is  esteemed  one  of 
the  very  best  works  on  geographical  science.  His  works 
are  written  in  French.  He  resided  many  years  in  Paris, 
which  he  quitted  in  1 832.    Died  in  1848. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  Brockhaus,  "  Conversa- 
tions-Lexikon." 

Balbi,  (DoMENico,)  an  Italian  dramatist  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  was  a  resident  of  Venice. 

Balbi,  (Gasparo,)  a  celebrated  Venetian  traveller  and 
merchant,  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. He  visited  India,  where  he  spent  nearly  ten  years, 
and  published,  in  1590,  "Travels  in  the  East  Indies,"  an 
interesting  and  valuable  work. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "Histoire  Litt^raire  d'ltalie." 

Balbi,  (Giovanni,)  a  Dominican  monk  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  sometimes  called  Januensis,  was  born 
at  Genoa,  in  Italy.  He  was  the  author  of  a  kind  of  en- 
cyclopaedia, entitled  "  Catholicon,"  treating  of  theology, 
natural  history,  and  other  branches  of  knowledge.  It 
was  one  of  the  first  works  printed  by  Faust  and  Schaeffer  ; 
the  original  edition  is  dated  at  Mentz,  1460. 

See  Altamura,  "  BIbHotheca  Ordinis  Prasdicatorum." 

Balbi  or  Balbo,  bil'bo,  (Girolamo,)  a  Venetian  ec- 
clesiastic and  scholar,  born  in  the  fifteenth  century,  was  a 
pupil  of  Pomponio  Leto.  He  was  successively  professor 
of  belles-lettres  at  the  University  of  Paris,  and  of  German 
law  at  Vienna.  Having  been  made  Bishop  of  Goritz,  in 
Carinthia,  he  assisted  at  the  coronation  of  Charles  V., 
on  which  occasion  he  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  the  Corona- 
tion of  Princes."    Died  in  1535. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Balbi,  [Lat.  Bal'bus,]  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  prelate 
and  writer  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  a  relative  of 
.(^^neas  Sylvius,  afterwards  Pope  Pius  II.,  under  whom 
he  became  Bishop  of  Tropea.    Died  in  1479. 

Balbi,  de,  deh  blKbe',  La  Comtesse,  born  in  1753, 
was  a  favourite  or  confidante  of  the  Count  of  Provence 
before  he  became  King  Louis  XVlII.  She  was  discarded 
about  1792.    Died  in  1836. 

Balbian,  van,  vtn  bdKbe-an,  (Just,)  a  Dutch  physi- 
cian, born  at  Alost,  was  the  author  of  a  work  which  was 
translated  into  Italian  under  the  title  of  "  II  Specchio  della 
Chimia,"  ("The  Mirror  of  Chemistry.")    Died  in  1616. 

See  HoEFER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Balbin.    See  Balbinus. 

Balbin,  bal-b6n^  or  Balbino,  bai-bee'no,  (Paolo,)  an 
Italian  philosopher  and  poet,  became  professor  of  medi- 
cine at  Bologna  about  1724. 


Bal-bi'nus,  (Aloysiuc  Boleslaus,)  a  B  )hcmian  Jes- 
uit and  historian,  born  at  Koniggratz  about  luii.  He 
wrote,  in  Latin,  an  "  Epitome  of  Bohemian  History,"  and 
"  Historical  Miscellanies  of  the  Kingdom  of  Bohemia." 
Died  in  1688  or  1689. 

See  Stanislaus  Wydra,  "  Leben  A.  B.  Balbinus,"  1788. 

Bal-bi'nus,  [Fr.  Balbin,  btKb^N',]  (Decimus  C/E- 
Lius,)  a  Roman  senator  who,  in  conjunction  with  Maxi- 
mus,  was  proclaimed  emperor  in  opposition  to  Maximi- 
nus.  The  praetorian  guards,  dissatisfied  with  the  new 
emperors  elected  by  the  senate,  seized  them  in  their 
palace,  and,  having  put  them  to  death,  proclaimed  Gor- 
dianus  emperor,  238  A.D. 

See  Julius  Capitolinus,  "Vita  Balbini;"  Gibbon,  "Decline  and 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Balbis,  biKbis  or  biFb^ss,  (Giambattista,)  an 
Italian  botanist,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1765,  succeeded 
Allioni  as  professor  of  botany  at  Turin  in  1800,  and  in 
1819  filled  the  same  chair  at  Lyons.  In  conjunction 
with  his  friend  Nocca,  he  published  the  "  Flora  Ticinen- 
sis."    Died  in  1831. 

Balbis,  (Silvio,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Ca- 
raglia,  in  Piedmont,  in  1737,  wrote,  among  other  works,  a 
poetical  paraphrase  on  the  prophet  Nahum.  Died  in  1 796. 

Balbo,  baKbo,  (Cesare,)  an  Italian  writer  and  states- 
man, born  at  Turin  in  1789,  was  appointed  by  Napoleon, 
in  1 81 2,  commissioner  of  the  Illyrian  provinces.  In 
1843  published  a  work  entitled  "  Plopes  of  Italy," 
("  Speranze  dTtalia,")  which  created  a  great  sensation 
and  obtained  extensive  popularity.  In  1848  he  was  an 
earnest  advocate  of  the  moderate  party  and  the  admin- 
istration of  D'Azeglio,  and  contributed  a  number  of  able 
articles  to  the  Turin  journal  "II  Risorgimento."  His 
"  History  of  Italy  from  the  Beginning  till  18 14,"  published 
in  1849,  is  a  work  of  superior  merit.  Balbo  also  trans- 
lated from  the  German,  into  Italian,  Leo's  "  Exposition  of 
the  Constitutions  of  the  Lombard  States."  Died  in  1853. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Balbo,  (Girolamo.)    See  Balbl 

Balbo,  [Fr.  Balbe,  btlb,]  (Prospero,)  Count  of,  a 
Sardinian  diplomatist  and  writer,  born  in  1762,  was  am- 
bassador to  the  French  republic  in  1796.  He  became 
successively  rector  of  the  University  of  Turin,  minister 
of  the  interior,  and  president  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Died  in  1837. 

See  L.  CiBRARio,  "  Notizie  biografiche  del  Conte  P.  Balbo,"  1837. 

Balboa,  b^l-bo'a,  (Miguel  Cavello — ka-veKyo,)  a 
Spanish  missionary  who  visited  South  America  about 
1566  and  collected  materials  for  a  "History  of  Peru," 
which  was  published  in  French,  (Paris,  1840.) 

Balboa,  de,  da  bal-bo'a,  (Don  Francisco,)  a  native 
of  Italy,  who  became  counsellor  of  the  Spanish  Inquisi- 
tion, lived  in  the  seventeenth  century.  He  wrote,  in 
Latin,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Law  of  Monarchy,"  (1630.) 

Balboa,  de,  (Vasco  Nunez,)  a  celebrated  Spanish 
navigator  and  discoverer,  born  at  Xeres  de  los  Cabal- 
leros,  in  Estremadura,  about  1475.  Having  accompanied 
Bastidas  in  his  expedition  to  the  West  Indies  in  1501, 
he  joined,  while  at  Hayti,  in  15 10  the  party  of  Enciso,  a 
lieutenant  of  the  navigators  Ojeda.-  and  Nicuesa,  both 
then  absent.  They  founded  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
the  town  of  Santa  Maria  de  la  Antigua;  but  dissensions 
soon  after  breaking  out  between  them,  the  partisans  of 
Balboa  prevailed,  and  he  was  chosen  leader  of  the  expe- 
dition. Having  obtained  reinforcements  from  Columbu? 
at  Hispaniola,  he  proceeded  to  explore  the  Isthmus  of 
Darien,  and  on  the  29th  of  September,  15 13,  discovered 
from  the  summit  of  a  mountain  the  vast  expanse  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  Kneeling,  he  returned  thanks  to  God  for 
permitting  him  to  make  this  great  discovery,  and,  having 
erected  a  cross  upon  the  spot,  he  descended  to  the  shore, 
and,  standing  in  the  water,  took  possession  of  the  sea 
and  the  adjacent  countries  in  the  name  of  the  sovereigns 
of  Castile.  Meanwhile,  his  rival  Enciso  had  traduced 
him  to  the  Spanish  government,  and  Pedrarias  Davila 
was  sent  to  supersede  and  try  him  for  having  usurped 
Enciso's  command.  Balboa  was  at  length  appointed 
deputy  under  Pedrarias,  but  e\-entually  fell  a  victim  to 
the  jealousy  and  ill  will  of  the  latter,  who  caused  him  to 
be  executed  on  a  charge  of  treasonable  designs,  (151 7.) 
In  his  intercourse  with  the  Indians  Balboa  displayed 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  shoj't;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon. 


BALBUENJ 


249 


BALDER 


great  humanity  and  prudence,  and,  in  the  words  of  a 
contemporary  writer,  "  was  the  best  lance  and  the  best 
head  that  ever  protected  a  camp  in  a  land  of  idolatrous 
savages." 

See  W.  Irving,  "Voyages  and  Discoveries  of  the  Companions  of 
Columbus;"  M.  J.  Quintana,  "Vidas  de  Espanoles  celebres;" 
"  Nouvelle  Blographie  Generale." 

Balbuena,  de,  da  bal-bwa'ni,  (Bernardo,)  a  Spanish 
poet  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Val-de-Penas  in  1568,  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Porto  Rico,  in  the  West  Indies,  in 
1620.  He  was  the  author  of  a  pastoral  romance  entitled 
"The  Age  of  Gold,"  ("El  Siglo  de  Oro,")  which  was 
republished  by  the  Spanish  Academy,  (1821,)  "El  Ber- 
nardo," an  epic  poem,  and  a  number  of  lyrics.  Died 
at  Porto  Rico  in  1627. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

BaPbus,  (L.  Cornelius,)  surnamedMA'joR,  a  native 
of  Gades,  lived  in  the  first  century  B.C.,  served  under 
Metellus,  Memmius,  and  Pompey,  and  in  61  B.C.  accom- 
panied Caesar  to  Spain.  In  the  contest  between  Pompey 
and  Caesar  he  was  an  adherent  and  intimate  friend  of  the 
latter,  and  was  intrusted  by  him  with  the  management  of 
his  affairs  at  Rome.  After  Caesar's  death,  Balbus  attached 
himself  to  Octavius,  through  whose  influence  he  was 
made  consul  in  40  B.C.,  being  the  first  one  not  born  a 
Roman  citizen  who  had  received  that  honour.  He  wrote 
a  diary  (not  extant)  of  the  prominent  events  of  his  own 
and  Caesar's  life. 

Balbus,  (L.  Cornelius,)  called  Mi'nor,  nephew  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Gades,  was  quaestor  to  Asinius 
Pollio  in  Spain  in  43  B.C.  After  acquiring  a  large  for- 
tune by  oppression  and  fraud,  he  went  to  Africa,  where 
he  subsequently  became  proconsul.  For  his  victory 
over  the  Garamantes,  a  triumph  was  decreed  him  at 
Rome.  He  built  a  theatre  at  Rome  supported  by  pil- 
lars of  onyx. 

Ballus,  (L.  LuciLius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  supposed  to 
have  been  a  brother  of  the  Stoic  philosopher  Q.  Lucilius 
Balbus.    He  was  a  pupil  of  Mucins  Scaevola. 

Balbus,  (L.  Octavius,)  an  eminent  Roman  lawyer, 
who,  being  informed  of  his  proscription  by  the  triumvirs 
Augustus,  Anton}^,  and  Lepidus,  effected  his  escape,  but, 
on  hearing  that  his  son's  life  was  in  danger,  returned  to 
his  house,  where  he  was  slain  by  the  soldiers. 

Balbus,  (M.  Atius,)  a  Roman,  who  became  prastor 
in  62  B.C.,  and  governor  of  Sardinia.  He  married  the 
sister  of  Julius  Caesar,  and  their  daughter  Atia  was  the 
mother  of  Octavius. 

Balbus,  (Q.  Lucilius,)  a  Stoic  philosopher,  and  pupil 
of  Pansetius,  highly  commended  by  Cicero,  who  makes 
him  one  of  the  interlocutors  in  his  Dialogue  "On  the 
Nature  of  the  Gods." 

Balbus,  (Sp.  Thorius,)  a  Roman  orator,  became  tri- 
bune about  III  B.C.  He  introduced  an  agrarian  law, 
some  fragments  of  which  still  remain  on  bronze  tablets. 

Balbus,  (T.  Ampius,)  a  tribune  in  63  B.C.,  and  again 
in  59,  was  a  partisan  of  Pompey  during  the  civil  war. 
He  was  subsequently  banished  by  Caesar,  but  was  after- 
wards pardoned  through  the  intercession  of  Cicero. 

Balbus  surnamed  Men'sor,  (the  "Measurer,")  a 
Roman  engineer,  lived  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and 
compiled  and  superintended  a  register  or  census  of  the 
Roman  Empire. 

BaPcaii-qual,  (Walter,)  a  Scottish  prelate  in  the 
time  of  james  I.  of  England,  became  Bishop  of  Dur- 
ham. He  wrote  "  Letters  on  the  Synod  of  Dort,"  and 
"  Declaration  of  Charles  I.  concerning  the  Late  Tumults 
in  Scotland."    Died  in  1642. 

Bal-car'res  or  Bal-car'ras,  (Colin,)  Earl  of,  a 
Scottish  writer,  born  in  1649,  published  a  "Brief  Account 
of  the  Affairs  of  Scotland  relating  to  the  Revolution  of 
1688,"  (1 714.)    Died  in  1722. 

See  Macaulay's  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  ili. 

BiPchen,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
1669,  served  with  distinction  in  the  Spanish  wars  of 
1707  and  1739,  and  was  sent  in  1744  to  the  assistance  of 
Sir  Charles  Hardy,  then  blockaded  in  the  Tagus  by  the 
French.  On  his  return,  he  perished  by  shipwreck  off 
the  coast  of  Jersey,  together  with  nearly  twelve  hundred 
men. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 


Baldacchini,  bil-dak-kee'nee,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Cortona,  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  He  was  patronized  by  Leo  X.,  and  held 
the  offices  of  prothonotary  and  apostolic  referendary  at 
Rome. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrlttori  d'ltalia." 

Baldassari,  bai-dSs-s^'ree,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 
naturalist  and  physician,  born  about  1705,  was  a  resi- 
dent of  Sienna.  He  made  several  useful  discoveries  in 
chemistry,  and  wrote  treatises  on  the  mineral  waters  of 
Tuscany. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Baldasseroni,  bSl-dis-si-ro'nee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Ital- 
ian statesman,  born  at  Leghorn  in  1790,  became  in  1847 
minister  of  finance  of  Tuscany.  As  president  of  the  new 
conservative  cabinet,  (1849,)  he  advocated  the  laws  re- 
straining the  liberty  of  the  press. 

Baldasseroni,  (Pompeo,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at 
Leghorn  about  1750.  He  wrote,  among  other  works, 
"  Laws  and  Customs  of  Exchange,"  (3  vols.,  4th  edition, 
1805,)  which  has  a  high  reputation.    Died  in  1807. 

Baldassini,  bal-dfs-see''nee,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Jesi  about  1720,  was  the  author  of  "  His- 
torical Memoirs  of  the  City  of  Jesi."    Died  in  1780. 

Baldaya,  bdl-di'yi  or  bil-dl'^,  (Alfonso  GoNgALES,) 
a  Portuguese  explorer  in  the  service  of  the  Infant  Don 
Henry,  visited  the  western  coast  of  Africa  in  1434.  He 
penetrated  thirty  leagues  beyond  Cape  Bojador,  and  the 
following  year  arrived  at  the  port  since  named  Puerto  de 
Cavallero, 

See  JoAO  DE  Barros,  "Asia  Portugueza,  Decada  Primeira." 

Balde,  bal'deh,  (Jakob,)  a  learned  Jesuit,  and  one  of 
the  best  Latin  poets  of  modern  times,  born  at  Ensisheim, 
in  Alsace,  in  1603.  He  became  court  chaplain  to  the 
Prince-Elector  of  Bavaria.  His  satires,  odes,  elegies, 
idyls,  and  lyrics  are  highly  commended  by  Schlegel  and 
Herder,  and  a  number  of  his  songs  have  been  translated 
by  the  latter.    Died  in  1668. 

See  F.  C.  F.  Clesca,  "Balde's  Leben  und  Schriften,"  1842. 

Balde,  bai'deh,  [Lat.  Bald.^'us,]  (Philip,)  a  Dutch 
missionary  of  the  seventeenth  century,  resided  ten  years 
in  Ceylon.  He  wrote,  in  Dutch,  a  "Description  of  the 
Island  of  Ceylon,  Malabar,  and  Coromandel,"  (1672.) 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Baldelli,  bSl-dSKlee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  scholar 
and  Latin  poet,  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, was  a  native  of  Tortona.  He  made  translations  from 
Philostratus,  Eusebius,  Dio  Cassius,  and  other  classics. 

Baldelli,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born 
at  Cortona  in  1766,  published  editions  of  Macchiavelli, 
Boccaccio,  and  Marco  Polo,  and  wrote  an  "  Essay  on 
Petrarch  and  his  Works."    Died  in  183 1. 

SeeTiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Balder,  baiMer,  or  Baldur,  blKdiir,  [from  balldr, 
"strong,"  "brave,"  "good,"*]  in  the  Norse  mythology, 
the  second  son  of  Odin,  often  designated  as  "  Balder  the 
Good,"  is  supposed  to  represent  the  brightness  of  the 
summer  sun.  He  is  very  beautiful,  and  makes  all  things 
bright  and  cheerful  :  hence  he  has  been  called  the 
Apollo  of  the  North.  He  is  the  comforter  of  the  un- 
fortunate, and  is  beloved  by  all.  His  dwelling-place  is 
Breidablik,  [i.e.  "  widely  shining,")  where  nothing  im- 
pure can  enter.  It  is  related  that  Balder  dreamed  one 
night  that  his  life  was  in  imminent  peril.  WHien  he 
told  his  dream,  the  gods  were  exceedingly  distressed,  and 
his  mother  Frigga  exacted  an  oath  from  all  things — from 
fire,  water,  iron,  stones,  from  beasts  and  birds  and  ven- 
omous reptiles — that  they  would  not  in  any  way  injure 
her  beloved  Balder.  But  from  the  mistletoe  she  exacted 
no  oath,  because  it  seemed  so  feeble  and  insignificant 
that  it  could  not  possibly  be  a  source  of  danger.  After 
she  had  thus  bound  all  nature,  as  she  supposed,  to  spare 
her  favourite  son,  the  gods  were  accustomed,  by  way  of 
sport,  to  have  Balder  stand  forth  while  they  shot  at  him 
with  their  bows  and  threw  stones  at  him,  to  all  which 
assaults  he  was  completely  invulnerable.  But  when 
Loki,  the  god  of  evil,  discovered  that  the  mistletoe  had 


*  Grimm  supposes  that,  like  the  Lithuanian  balias,  the  name  origin- 
ally signified  both  "white"  and  "good." 


f  »&  k;  (i  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BALDERIC 


BALDUCCI 


taken  no  oath  not  to  injure  Balder,  he  procured  the 
plant,  and  came  to  the  assembly  of  the  gods.  There  he 
found  the  blind  god  Hoder  standing  apart  by  himself. 
Loki  asked  him  why  he  did  not  throw  something  at  J3al- 
der  as  well  as  the  rest.  "  Because  I  am  blind,"  said  he, 
"and  have  nothing  to  throw."  "Come,"  said  the 
tempter,  "do  like  the  rest;  show  honour  to  Balder  by 
casting  this  trifle  at  him,  and  I  will  direct  your  hand." 
Hoder  did  as  he  was  told,  and  Balder,  pierced  through 
by  the  fatal  mistletoe,  fell  dead.  When  they  saw  what 
had  been  done,  all  the  gods  were  struck  speechless,  and 
became  paralyzed  with  astonishment  and  grief.  But 
after  a  time  Hermod,  at  Frigga's  desire,  visited  the  realm 
of  death,  riding  Odin's  horse  Sleipnir.  Having  reached 
the  world  of  shades,  he  besought  Hela  to  release  Balder, 
so  greatly  beloved  by  all,  that  he  might  return  to  Asgard, 
(the  habitation  of  the  gods.)  Hela  answered  that  if  Bal- 
der was  indeed  so  universally  beloved  he  would  be  uni- 
versally lamented  ;  and  if  it  came  to  pass  that  everything 
wept  for  him,  then  he  should  return  to  the  gods,  but  if 
anything  whatever  failed  to  weep,  he  must  remain  in  the 
realm  of  death.  Thereupon  the  yEsir  sent  messengers 
over  all  the  world,  entreating  all  things  to  weep  for  Bal- 
der. And  all  did  so — everything  animate  and  inanimate 
— until  the  messengers  came  to  a  cavern  where  dwelt  a 
giant  hag  named  Thok,  (or  Thokt.)  She  answered  their 
request  with  jeers  : 

"Is  Balder  dead?  and  do  ye  come  for  tears? 
Thok  with  dry  eyes  will  weep  o'er  Balder's  pyre. 
Weep  h;m  all  other  things,  if  weep  they  will — 
I  weep  him  not:  let  Hela  keep  her  prey."* 

It  afterwards  appeared  that  it  was  no  other  than  Loki 
himself  (see  Loki)  who  had  thus  assumed  the  form  of 
the  hag  Thok,  in  order  to  prevent  Balder's  restoration 
to  life.  The  explanations  usually  given  of  the  myth  of 
Balder  are  not  very  satisfactory. 

See  Thorpe's  "Northern  Mytholocry,"  vol.  i.,  particularly  pp. 
185-6;  Keyser's  "Religion  of  the  Northmen,"  pp.  144-5;  Mal- 
let's "Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.,  Fables  xii.,  xxviii.,  and  xxix.  ; 
Petersen's  "Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Balderic,  bauKder-ik,  or  Baudry,  boMre,  [Fr.  pron. 
b5'dRe';  Lat.  Balderi''cus,]  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born 
at  Meun-sur-Loire  about  1050,  was  created  Bishop  of  Dol 
in  1 107.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Life  of  Robert  d'Ar- 
brissel,"  an  enlargement  of  "  Theudebode's  History  of 
the  First  Crusade,"  and  a  Latin  poem  on  the  Conquest 
of  England  by  the  Normans.    Died  in  1130. 

See  "Histoire  Litteraire  de  la  France,"  tome  vlii. 

Balderic  or  Balderi'cus,  surnamed  Ru'beus,  or  the 
Red,  a  French  chronicler  of  the  eleventh  century,  was 
Bishop  of  Noyon  and  Tournay.  His  principal  work  is  a 
"Chronicle  of  Cambray  and  Arras,  from  the  Reign  of 
Clovis  to  1090."    Died  in  1097. 

Baldeschi.    See  Baldus,  (Angelo.) 

Baldi,  baKdee,  [Lat.  Bal'du.s,]  a  Florentine  physician, 
and  professor  of  medicine  in  the  College  di  Sapienza  at 
Rome,  was  employed  by  Popes  Urban  VHL  and  Lino- 
cent  X.    Died  in  1645. 

Baldi,  (Bernardino,)  called  also  Baldi  d'Urbino 
— dooR-bee'no,  [in  French,  Baldi  d'Urbin — diiR^biln',] 
abbot  of  Guastalla,  an  Italian  scholar,  celebrated  for 
profound  and  varied  learning,  born  at  Urbino  in  1553. 
He  studied  mathematics  and  classical  literature  at  Padua, 
where  Commandino  was  one  of  his  teachers.  Among 
his  works,  which  amount  to  nearly  one  hundred,  we  may 
mention  a  "  History  of  Calvinism,"  "  Life  of  Federigo 
Commandino,"  a  number  of  eclogues,  sonnets,  and  other 
poems,  and  a  "  Chronicle  of  Mathematicians."  He 
translated  the  "  Automata"  of  Hero,  and  wrote  valuable 
commentaries  on  Vitruvius  and  the  "  Mechanics"  of 
Aristotle,  (1621.)  He  also  prepared  vocabularies  of  the 
Turkish  and  Hungarian  languages,  and  translated  into 
Italian  the  Geography  of  Edrisi.  Died  at  Urbino  in  161 7. 

See  Baffo,  "Vita  di  Bernardino  Baldi;"  Isidoro  Grassi,  "Bal- 
dus redivlvus  seu  B.  Baldi  Vita,"  Parma,  1717;  Ireneo  Aff6,  "Vita 
di  Monsignor  B.  Baldi  d'Urbino,"  1783. 

Baldi,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  philosophical  writer,  born 
at  Bologna  about  1547,  was  professor  of  logic  in  his  native 
city.    Died  in  1634. 


*See  the  fine  poem  by  Matthew  Arnold,  entitled  "  Balder  Dead," 
which  is  itself  almost  an  epitome  of  Northern  mythology. 


Baldi,  (Giuseppe,)  a  Florentine  physician  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  work 
on  mushrooms. 

Baldi,  (Lazarro,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Pistoia 
about  1623,  was  a  pupil  of  Pietro  da  Cortona.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  the  "  Repose  in  Egypt,"  and  an 
"Annunciation."    Died  in  1703. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Baldi,  (Valentino,)  a  painter  of  the  Florentine 
school,  born  at  Pistoia  in  1744  ;  died  in  1816. 

Baldi  deUbaldis,  baKdee  dk.  oo-b^Kd^ss,  (Pietro,) 
an  Italian  jurist  and  legal  writer  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, was  a  native  of  Perugia,  where  he  became  professor 
of  law.    Died  in  1400. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Baldi  d'Urbin.    See  Baldi,  (Bernardino.) 

Baldinger,  biKding-er,  (Ernst  Gottfried,)  an  emi- 
nent German  physician,  born  near  Erfurt  in  1738.  He 
became  professor  of  medicine  at  Gottingen  in  1773. 
Among  his  pupils  were  Blumenbach  and  Akermann. 
He  published,  besides  many  other  medical  and  botanical 
works,  a  treatise  "On  the  Diseases  of  Soldiers,"  (1763.) 
Died  at  Marburg  in  1804. 

See  G.  F.  Creuzer,  "Memoria  E.  G.  Baldingeri,"  1S04. 

Baldini,  bai-dee''nee,  (Baccio,  bit'cho,)  a  Florentine 
engraver  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  originally  a  gold- 
smith. He  executed,  among  other  prints,  a  number  of 
illustrations  for  Dante.  He  was  the  contemporary,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  the  pupil,  of  Finiguerra. 

See  Le  Bi.anc,  "IManuel  de  I'Amateur  d'Estampes." 

Baldini,  (Baccio,)  professor  of  medicine  at  Pisa,  and 
first  physician  to  Cosimo  I.,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  was 
director  of  the  Laurentian  Library.  He  wrote  a  "  Life 
of  Cosimo  I.,"  (1578,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1585. 

Baldini,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  mathematician  and 
physician,  born  near  Lake  Maggiore  about  1515  ;  died  in 
1600. 

Baldini,  (Era.  Tiburzio,)  an  Italian  painter  of  Bo- 
logna, is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  1610. 

Baldini,  (Giovanni,)  a  Florentine  painter,  lived  about 
1500,  and  was  the  master  of  Garofalo. 

Baldini,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  Italian  natural- 
ist and  priest,  born  at  Brescia  in  1677  ;  died  in  1765. 

Bcildinucci,  bal-de-noot'chee,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian 
writer  on  art,  born  at  Florence  about  1624,  was  patron- 
ized by  the  Grand  Duke  Cosimo  HI.  He  published  an 
important  work  entitled  "  Notices  of  the  Professors  of 
Design  (Painters)  from  Cimabue,  1260-1670,"  ("Notizie 
de'  Professori  del  Disegno,"  etc.,  6  vols.  4to,  1681-88, 
4th  edition,  14  vols.,  1808,)  which  is  highly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1696. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrlttori  d'ltalla." 

Baldit,  btlMe',  (Michel,)  a  French  physician  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  wrote  "  Wonders  of  the  Waters  of 
Bagnols,"  (1651,)  and  other  works. 

BaPdock  or  Bau'dake,  de,  (Ralph,)  an  English  pre- 
late and  statesman  of  the  thirteenth  century,  was  created 
Bishop  of  London  in  1304.  He  was  lord  chancellor  of 
England  for  a  short  time  under  Edward  I.  He  is  said 
to  have  written  a  "  History  of  England,"  Avhich  has  been 
lost.    Died  in  13 14. 

See  "  Bioc;raphia  Britannica. " 

Baldovinetti,  bll-do-ve-net'tee,   or  Balduinetti, 

b§,l-doo-e-net'tee,  (Alessio,)  a  Florentine  painter  and 
worker  in  mosaics,  born  in  1424,  was  a  pupil  of  Uccello, 
and  the  teacher  of  Domenico  Ghirlandaio.    Died  in  1499. 
See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Baldovini,  bal-do-vee'nee,  (Francesco,)  a  Floren- 
tine poet,  born  in  1635,  was  the  author  of  a  comic  idyl 
entitled  "The  Lament  of  Cecco  da  Varlungo,^'  (1694,) 
which  is  very  popular  in  Italy.    Died  in  1716. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'Pialia;"  Domenico  Maria 
Manni,  "Vita  del  priore  dottore  F.  Baldovini,"  1769. 

Baldovino.    See  Baldwin. 

Baldrighi,  bal-dRee'gee,  (Giuseppe,)  a  painter  of  the 
school  of  Parma,  born  at  Pavia  about  1722  ;  died  in 
1802. 

Baldncci,  bSl-doot'chee,  (Francesco,)  a  Sicilian  poet 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  a  native  of  Palermo. 
His  lyrics  in  the  Sicilian  dialect  are  highly  esteemed,  and 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  loftg;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  sJiort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsairc;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  m'5on: 


BALDUCCI 


251 


BALDWIN 


he  is  regarded  by  some  critics  as  one  of  the  best  Anacre- 
ontic poets  of  Italy.    Died  at  Rome  in  1642. 
See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Balducci,  (Giovanni,)  an  Itahan  sculptor  and  archi- 
tect, born  at  Pisa  in  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. Among  his  master-pieces  is  the  sculptured  shrine 
of  Saint  Peter  in  the  church  of  Saint  Eustorgio  at  Milan. 
He  was  living  in  1347. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Balducci,  (Giovanni,)  surnamed  Cosci,  an  Italian 
painter  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  native  of  Florence. 
Among  his  best  works  is  "The  Finding  of  the  Cross," 
in  the  church  of  La  Crocetta.  He  painted  frescos  in 
Fbrence,  Rome,  and  Pistoia.    Died  at  Naples  in  1600. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Balduiii.    See  Baldwin,  (Thomas.) 

Balduin,  bdl'doo-een,  (Christian  Adolf,)  a  Ger- 
man savant,  born  near  Meissen  in  1632,  was  the  author 
of  a  work  entitled  "  Hermes  Curiosus,"  and  other  chemi- 
cal treatises.    Died  in  1682. 

Balduin,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  Lutheran  writer, 
born  at  Dresden  in  1575,  was  professor  of  theology  at 
Prague.    Died  in  1627. 

See  J.  G.  Neumann,  "  Programma  de  Vita  F.  Balduini,"  1709. 

Balduinus.    See  Baldwin  and  Baudouin. 

Baldung,  bdlMoong,  (Hans,)  sometimes  called  Griin, 
an  eminent  German  painter  and  engraver,  born  at 
Gmvind,  in  Suabia,  about  1470.  His  works  include  his- 
torical pictures  and  portraits  ;  among  the  latter  niay  be 
named  tliose  of  Maximilian  I.  and  Charles  V,  His ''Cru- 
cifixion," in  the  cathedral  of  Freiburg,  is  ranked  among 
his  master-pieces.  He  was  a  friend  of  Albert  Diirer,  to 
whom  he  is  considered  nearly  equal.  He  executed  a 
number  of  wood-cuts  and  copper-plates.  Died  about  1550. 

Baldus,  the  Latin  of  Baldi,  which  see. 

BaPdus  or  Baldeschi,  b^l-dcs'kec,  (Angelo,)  some- 
times called  Augelus  Baldus  de  Ubaldis,  an  emi- 
nent Italian  jurist,  born  at  Perugia  about  1325,  was  pro- 
fessor of  law  successively  at  Pisa,  Bologna,  Florence,  and 
Padua.  He  wrote  "  Commentaries  on  the  Old  and  the 
New  Digests,"  "Lectures  on  the  Three  Books  of  Decre- 
tals," and  other  legal  works  of  great  merit.   Died  in  1400. 

.See  Savigny,  "  GescliiclUe  des  Romischen  Rechts  im  Mittelalter." 

Baldwin,  baukKwin,  [Fr.  Baudouin,  bod'w^N',  or 
Balduin,  btl'dw^N';  Lat.  Baldui'nus  ;  It.  Baldo- 
viNO,  bal-do-vee'no,]  first  Count  of  Flanders,  surnam.ed 
Bras  de  Fer,  ("  Iron  Arm,")  acquired  his  title  about  860 
A.D.  Having  married  Judith,  daughter  of  Charles  the 
Bald,  King  of  France,  against  the  will  of  the  latter,  he 
was  excommunicated  by  the  pope,  Nicholas  I.,  at  the 
instigation  of  Charles.  He  afterwards  obtained  absolu- 
tion from  the  pope,  and  was  reconciled  to  the  king,  who 
made  Flanders  a  county.    Died  in  877. 

See  Le'  Broussart,  "Memoires  sur  les  Baudouin,  Comtes  de 
FJandre,"  Brussels,  1820. 

Baldwin  II.,  Count  of  Flanders,  a  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  engaged  in  wars  against  Charles  the  Simple,  King 
of  France,  and  Eudes,  Count  of  Paris.  He  married  Alfrith, 
daughter  of  Alfred  the  Great  of  England.  Died  in  918. 

Baldwin  III.,  Count  of  Flanders,  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  began  to  reign  in  958.    He  died  about  1034. 

Baldwin  IV.,  Count  of  Flanders,  surnamed  the 
Bearded,  succeeded  his  father,  Baldwin  III.  He  in- 
creased his  dominions  by  the  conquest  of  Valenciennes, 
and  established  commercial  fairs  in  the  Flemish  cities. 
Died  in  1036. 

Baldwin  V.,  Count  of  Flanders,  surnamed  of  Lille, 
and  sometimes  LE  D^bonnaire,  (leh  di'bo^neR',)  was 
the  son  of  Baldwin  IV.  He  obtained  by  conquest  several 
considerable  districts  in  Germany,  which  he  retained 
as  a  fief  of  the  empire.  On  the  death  of  Henry  I.  of 
Fiance,  Count  Baldwin  became  guardian  to  his  son  Philip, 
and  regent  of  the  kingdom.  He  gave  his  daughter  Ma- 
tilda in  marriage  to  William  of  Normandy,  whom  he 
accompanied  in  the  invasion  of  England.   Died  in  1067. 

Baldwin  VI.,  Count  of  Flanders,  was  the  son  of 
Baldwin  V.,  and  was  surnamed  the  Good,  and  also 
OF  Mons.  He  assigned  the  county  of  Flanders  to  Ar- 
noul,  his  eldest  son,  and  Hainault  to' Baldwin,  the  second 
son.    Died  in  107c. 


Baldwin  VII.,  Count  of  Flanders,  surnamed  Hap- 
KIN,  from  a  kind  of  axe  used  in  the  execution  of  outlaws 
in  his  reign.  He  was  an  ally  of  Louis  le  Gros  of  France 
against  Henry  I.  of  England.    Died  in  11 19. 

Baldwin  VIII.,  Count  of  Flanders  and  Hainault, 
was  the  enemy  of  Philip  Augustus  of  France  until  1192, 
when  he  was  reconciled  and  did  homage  to  him.  The 
counties  of  Flanders  and  Hainault  were  united  in  his 
reign.    Died  in  1195. 

See  Le  Broussart,  "Memoires  sur  les  Baudouin,  Comtes  de 
Flandre." 

Baldwin  IX.,  [Gr.  Ba}Ahvlvog ;  Lat.  Baldui'nus,] 
son  of  the  preceding.  Count  of  Flanders,  afterwards 
Baldwin  L,  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  was  born  in  1171. 
He  joined  the  fourth  crusade  in  1200,  and  on  arriving  at 
Zara  with  a  fleet  commanded  by  Dandolo  was  solicited 
by  Alexius,  son  of  the  deposed  emperor  Isaac,  to  aid  in 
restoring  his  father  to  the  throne.  He  promised  them 
in  return  to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  pope  arid 
to  grant  them  pecuniary  assistance.  The  crusaders  suc- 
ceeded in  defeating  the  usurper ;  but,  the  people  being 
unwilling  to  perform  the  promises  of  Alexius,  hostilities 
broke  out  between  them,  and  after  a  siege  of  three  months 
Constantinople  was  taken  in  1204,  and  Baldwin  elected 
emperor.  He  was  subsequently  defeated  and  made 
prisoner  by  the  Bulgarians  in  1205.  He  died  in  1206, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Henry. 

See  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire ;"  A.  C  a  hour,  "  Baudouin 
de  Constantinople,"  1850;  J.  J.  de  Smet,  "Memoire  historique  sur 
Baudouin  IX,"  1846. 

Baldwin  II.,  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  born  in  1217, 
ascended  the  throne  in  1228.  In  1261  his  capital  was  taken 
by  Michael  Paloeologus,  and  Baldwin  effected  his  escape  to 
Italy,  where  he  died.    He  was  a  nephew  of  Baldwin  I. 

Baldwin  I.,  |  Fr.  Baudouin,  bod'wiN^;  It.  Baldo- 
VINO,  bal-do-vee'no,]  King  of  Jerusalem,  and  a  brother 
of  the  celebrated  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  whom  he  ac- 
companied in  1096  on  the  first  crusade.  He  fought  with 
distinguished  bravery  against  the  infidels,  and,  being 
afterwards  invited  by  the  Christian  inhabitants  of  Edessa 
to  become  their  ruler,  he  assumed  the  title  of  Count  of 
Edessa.  On  the  death  of  his  brother  Godfrey  in  1 100  he 
succeeded  him  as  King  of  Jerusalem.  He  gained  import- 
ant victories  over  the  Saracens,  and  captured  Sidon,  Asca- 
lon.  Acre,  and  other  cities.  He  died  in  11 18.  Tasso,  in  his 
"Jerusalem  Delivered,"  has  finely  contrasted  the  charac- 
ter of  Baldwin  with  that  of  Godfrey,  and  represents  the 
former  as  actuated  wholly  by  ambitious  motives. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire ;"  Le  Beau, 
"Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Baldwin  II.,  surnamed  DU  Bourg,  (dii  booR,)  a  cousin 
of  the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded  in  11 18.  He  was 
engaged  in  numerous  wars  against  the  Arabs  and  Sara- 
cens. During  his  reign  the  military  orders  of  Saint  John 
and  the  Templars  were  established  for  the  defence  of 
the  Holy  Land.  He  died  in  1131,  leaving  the  crown  tc 
his  son-in-law,  Foulques  of  Anjou. 

See  Oruericus  Vitalis,  "Historia." 

Baldwin  III.,  born  in  1130,  was  the  son  of  Foulques 
of  Anjou,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1142.  His  country  was 
invaded  in  1145  by  Zenghi,  Sultan  of  Aleppo,  who  took 
possession  of  Edessa.  Baldwin  fought  with  varying  suc- 
cess against  the  celebrated  Noor-ecl-Deen,  (Noureddin,) 
son  of  Zenghi.  He  died  in  1163,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother,  Amalric  or  Amaury. 

Baldwin  IV.,  King  of  Jerusalem,  surnamed  THE 
Leper,  born  in  1160,  was  the  son  of  Amaury,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  11 74.  In  1182  he  gained  a  signal  victory 
over  the  famous  Saladin  near  Tiberias,  but  was  after- 
wards several  times  defeated  by  him.  He  died  in  1186, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Baldwin  V.,  who  died 
in  childhood  about  1187. 

See  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Baid'win,  (Thomas,)  surnamed  Devo'nius,  [i.e.  "of 
Devonshire,")  an  English  prelate,  born  at  Exeter,  Devon- 
shire, about  II 50,  became  Bishop  of  Worcester  and  after- 
wards Archbishop  of  Canterbury,(ii84.)  Having  crowned 
Richard  I.  in  1189,  he  accompanied  him  the  following  year 
to  the  Holy  Land,  but  died  at  Acre  soon  after  his  arrival. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  ii.  chap.  ix. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttin'al;  N,  uasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (^[^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BALDWIN 


252 


BALGU7 


Baid'win,  (Abraham,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  Connecticut  in  1754.  Having  removed  to  Savannah, 
Georgia,  he  was  elected  a  delegate  to  Congress  in  1786, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  convention  which  formed  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States.  He  was  elected  a 
Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of  Geor- 
gia in  1799.  He  was  a  brother-in-law  of  Joel  Barlow. 
Died  in  1807. 

Baldwin,  (Henry,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at  New 
Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1779.  He  removed  to  Pennsyl- 
vania, where  he  was  several  times  elected  to  Congress. 
He  was  appointed  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  the 
United  States  in  1830.    Died  in  1844. 

Baldwin,  (Roger  Sherman,)  a  United  States  Sena- 
tor, born  in  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1793.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  181 1.  In  1844  he  was  elected  by 
the  Whig  party  Governor  of  the  State,  and  was  re-elected 
in  1845.  From  1847  to  1851  he  was  a  United  States 
Senator.  In  1841  Governor  Baldwin  distinguished  him- 
self as  associate  counsel  with  John  Qu^ncy  Adams  in  the 
famous  African  Amistad  trial  before  the  supreme  court 
of  the  United  States.   Died  in  1863. 

Baldwin,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  Baptist  divine, 
born  in  Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1753.  He  became 
pastor  of  the  Second  Baptist  Church  in  Boston  in  1790. 
He  took  an  imjiortant  part  in  establishing  Waterville 
College,  Maine,  also  Columbia  College,  in  the  District 
of  Columbia.  Dr.  Baldwin  was  author  of  a  work  in 
defence  of  the  religious  views  of  the  Baptists,  and  of 
numerous  published  sermons.    Died  in  1825. 

Baldwin,  (William,)  an  English  divine  and  moralist, 
published  a  "Treatise  of  Moral  Philosophy,"  (1549,)  and 
was  one  of  the  authors  or  editors  of  a  "  Mirror  for  Magis- 
trate_s."    Died  about  1564. 

Bale,  [Lat.  Bal/e'us,]  (John,)  a  learned  prelate  and 
biographical  writer,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1495.  Being  per- 
secuted on  account  of  his  conversion  to  Protestantism, 
he  repaired  to  Holland,  where  he  remained  till  the  acces- 
sion of  Edward  VI.  After  his  return  he  was  created  in 
1552  Bishop  of  Ossory  in  Ireland.  He  was  again  obliged 
to  leave  England  during  the  reign  of  Mary,  and  resided 
in  Switzerland  until  the  accession  of  Elizabeth.  His 
most  important  work  is  entitled  "  Catalogue  of  the  Il- 
lustrious Writers  of  Great  Britain,"  (in  Latin.)  He  also 
wrote  a  number  of  dramatic  pieces  on  religious  subjects, 
and  several  theological  treatises.  His  severe  attacks  on 
the  Catholics  have  caused  his  writings  to  be  prohibited 
by  that  church.    Died  in  1563. 

See  Tanner,  "  Bibliotheca  Britannico-Hibernica ;"  Pitseus,  "De 
Scriptoribus  Angliae. " 

Bale,  (Robert,)  a  Catholic  theologian  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  was  prior  of  the  Carmelites  at  Norwich.  Died 
in  1503. 

Balechou,  bt'la''shoo',  (Jean  Joseph  Nicolas,)  a 
celebrated  French  engraver,  born  at  Aries  in  171 5.  His 
full-length  portrait  of  Augustus,  King  of  Poland,  is 
esteemed  a  master-piece  of  its  kind.  Among  his  other 
works  are  "The  Calm"  and  "The  Tempest,"  after  Ver- 
net,  and  "  Saint  Genevieve,"  after  Vanloo.  Died  in  1765. 

See  Heinecken,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Balen,  van,  vtn  \A'\qw,  or  Ballen,  biKlen,  (Hen- 
DRIK,)  an  eminent  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1560,  was  a  pupil  of  Adam  van  Oort,  and  excelled  both 
in  design  and  colouring.  His  "Judgment  of  Paris,"  "  Saint 
John  in  the  Wilderness,"  and  "  Festival  of  the  Gods," 
are  among  his  master-pieces.  He  numbered  among  his 
scholars  Van  Dyck  and  Snyders.    Died  in  1632, 

His  son  John,  born  in  1611,  was  a  painter.  Died  after 
1650. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands." 

Bales,  balz,  (Peter,)  a  celebrated  English  calligrapher, 
born  in  London  in  1547.  It  is  related  by  Evelyn  that  he 
wrote  within  the  circle  of  a  penny  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the 
Decalogue,  the  Creed,  two  Latin  prayers,  his  own  name, 
motto,  and  date.    Died  in  1610. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Balestra,  bS-lSs'tRi,  (Antonio,)  an  eminent  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Verona  in  1666,  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo 
Maratta.  His  "  Defeat  of  the  Giants"  gained  a  prize 
from  the  Academy  of  Saint  Luke.    His  "  Saint  Theresa" 


and  "  Descent  from  the  Cross"  are  also  esteemed  mas- 
ter-pieces.   Died  in  1740. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Baley.    See  Bailey,  (Walter.) 

Balfe,  bilf,  (Michael  William.)  an  eminent  musi- 
cian and  composer,  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1808.  He 
performed  on  the  violin  in  his  youth,  and  went  to  Italy 
about  1825,  after  which  he  produced  many  operas,  and 
became  distinguished  as  a  singer.  Among  his  operas  are 
"Joan  of  Arc,"  "The  Daughter  of  Saint  Mark,"  "The 
Bohemian  Girl,"  which  had  a  great  success,  "  The  Maid 
of  Honour,"  and  "The  Rose  of  Castile."  Died  in  1870. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Balfour,  baKfoor  or  b^Kfur,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish 
litterateur,  loorn  in  Forfarshire  in  1767,  was  the  author  of 
novels  entitled  "Campbell,  or  the  Scottish  Probationer," 
and  "The  Foundling  of  Glenthorn,"  (1823.)  He  also 
published  a  volume  of  poems,  and  contributed  to  the 
"  Edinburgh  Review."    Died  in  1829. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Balfour,  (Andrew,)  a  Scottish  naturalist  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  founded  at  Edinburgh  a  botanical  garden 
and  museum.  The  "  Balfouria,"  a  genus  of  Australian 
plants,  was  named  in  his  honour. 

Balfour,  (Francis,)  a  Scottish  physician  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  was  a  native  of  Edinburgh.  He  resided 
many  years  in  Calcutta,  and  published  a  treatise  "On 
the  Influence  of  the  Moon  in  Fevers,"  (1784,)  and  seve- 
ral works  on  the  diseases  of  hot  climates. 

Balfour,  (Sir  James,)  a  Scottish  courtier  and  intriguer 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  became  a  lord  of  session 
about  1563,  and  was  implicated  in  the  conspiracy  against 
Darnley.  In  1567  he  was  appointed  by  Queen  Mary 
captain  of  Edinburgh  Castle,  which  he  afterwards  deliv- 
ered to  her  enemies.  He  became  in  1568  a  partisan  of 
Regent  Murray,  who  promoted  him  to  the  office  of  lord 
president  of  the  court  of  session  ;  but  he  soon  deserted 
to  the  party  of  Queen  Mary,  and  was  attainted  by  Par- 
liament in  1 57 1.  He  betrayed  all  parties  in  turn,  and 
was  accessory  to  the  destruction  of  the  regent  Morton, 
who  was  executed  for  the  murder  of  Darnley  in  1581. 
Died  in  1583. 

See  Knox,  "  History  of  the  Reformation  ;"  Chambers,  "  Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  Burton,  "History  of 
Scotland." 

Balfour,  (Sir  James,)  a  Scottish  antiquary  and  annal- 
ist. He  wrote  some  treatises  on  heraldry,  and  a  brief 
history  of  the  kings  of  Scotland,  which  remained  in 
manuscript  until  1824.    Died  in  1657. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Balfour,  (John  Hutton,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  Brit- 
ish botanist  and  physician,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in 
1808,  and  succeeded  Dr.  Hooker  as  professor  of  botany 
at  Glasgow  about  1840.  He  published  a  "Manual  of 
Botany,"  (1849,)  and  a  valuable  "Class-Book  of  Botany," 
(1852.)  He  also  wrote  the  articles  on  Botany  for  the 
"Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  (8th  edition.)  In  1845  he 
succeeded  Professor  Graham  in  the  chair  of  botany  and 
medicine  at  Edinburgh. 

Balfour  of  Pilrig,  (James,)  a  Scottish  jurist  and  phi- 
losophical writer,  born  near  Edinburgh  about  1705,  was 
appointed  in  1754  professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  that 
city.  He  was  the  author  of  "Philosophical  Essays," 
(1768,)  and  two  treatises  against  the  doctrine  of  Hume, 
written,  however,  with  such  kindness  and  candoai  as  to 
gain  for  him  the  friendship  of  that  writer.    Died  in  1795. 

Balfour,  (Robert,)  a  learned  Scottish  philosopher  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  was  profoundly  versed  in  mathe- 
matics and  ancient  languages.  He  wrote  commentaries 
on  Aristotle,  and  edited  the  works  of  Cleomedes. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Balfour,  (Walter,)  a  prominent  Universalist  minis- 
ter, born  in  Stirlingshire,  Scotland,  in  1776,  emigrated 
to  Massachusetts,  where  he  died  in  1852. 

Balguy,  bauKge,  (?)  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Sheffield  in  1686'^  became  in  1729  vicar  of  Northallerton, 
in  Yorkshire.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Brief  Inquiry 
concerning  the  Moral  Perfections  of  the  Deity,"  (1730,) 
"  Letter  to  a  Deist  concerning  the  Beauty  and  Excellence 
of  Moral  Virtue,"  and  other  similar  works.   Died  in  1 748. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    h,  h,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BALGUr 


253 


BALLARINI 


Balguy,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  17 16,  became  vicar  of  Alton,  in  Hamp- 
shire, in  1771.  He  published  "Discourses  on  Various 
Subjects,"  and  "  Divine  Benevolence  asserted  and  vin- 
dicated from  the  Reflections  of  Ancient  and  Modern 
Skeptics,"  {1782.)    Died  in  1795. 

Bal''i  or  Beli,  written  also  Baly,  [Hindoo  pron.  buKi,] 
called  also  Mah^bali,  ma-ha''ba-li,  \i.e.  the  "great  Bali,") 
(Indian  Myth.,)  the  name  of  a  mighty  prince,  who,  though 
generally  virtuous,  was  so  elated  with  his  great  power 
that  he  omitted  the  appropriate  ceremonies  and  offerings 
to  the  gods.  To  humble  and  punish  him,  Vishnu  took 
the  form  of  a  pitiful  dwarf,  (see  Vamana,)  and,  presenting 
himself  before  Bali,  asked  as  a  boon  as  much  land  oi" 
territory  as  he  could  pass  over  in  three  steps.  The  in- 
cautious monarch  unhesitatingly  granted  and  ratified  the 
request.  Thereupon  Vishnu  revealed  himself  in  his  true 
character,  and  with  two  steps  deprived  Bali  of  earth  and 
heaven,  but,  in  consideration  of  his  virtues,  left  him 
Patala,  or  the  Lower  World.  As  king  of  the  lower  re- 
gions, Bali  is  by  some  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Yama, 
the  god  of  justice  and  judge  of  departed  spirits. 

See  Moor's  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Balicour,  bt'le'kooR',  (Marguerite  Therese,)  a 
po])ular  French  actress,  born  about  1700;  died  in  1743. 

Balin,  bt''liN',  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  his- 
torian, born  at  Vesoul  about  1570,  wrote,  in  Latin,  a 
"  History  of  the  War  in  Flanders  under  Ambrosio  Spi- 
nola,"  (1609.) 

BaTi-ol  or  Bal'li-ol,  (Edward,)  son  of  John  Baliol 
the  rival  of  Bruce,  entered  Scotland  in  1332,  and,  having 
with  the  aid  of  Edward  IH.,  King  of  England,  gained 
several  victories  over  the  Scots,  was  crowned  king  of 
that  country,  but  was  compelled  to  resign  the  dignity 
in  less  than  three  months.  With  the  assistance  of  Ed- 
ward, he  was  victorious  in  1333  at  Halidon  Hill ;  but,  the 
English  king  having  crossed  over  into  France,  the  cause 
of  Baliol  declined,  and  David  Bruce  became  king.  Died 
in  1363. 

.See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Ba''li-ol  or  BalTi-ol,  [Fr.  Bailleul,  old  Frep':h  pron. 
baryuK,]  (John,)  an  English  baron  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  was  patronized  by  Henry  HL,  whose  cause  he 
espoused  against  the  revolted  barons.  Having  married 
the  Scottish  princess  Dervorgill,  he  became  the  father 
of  the  Baliol  who  disputed  the  crown  of  Scotland  with 
Bruce.  He  made  arrangements  for  founding  the  col- 
lege at  Oxford  called  by  his  name,  but,  dying  before  they 
were  completed,  it  was  founded  by  his  widow.  Died  in 
1269. 

Ba'li-ol  or  BaFli-ol,  de,  [Fr.  Bailt.eui.,]  (John,) 
Lord  of  Galloway,  the  son  of  the  preceding,  born  about 
1259,  is  celebrated  as  the  rival  of  Bruce  for  the  crown  of 
Scotland.  On  the  death  of  Margaret,  granddaughter  of 
Alexander  IH.,  the  succession  was  disj^uted  between 
Robert  Bruce,  John  Hastings,  and  John  Baliol,  the  near- 
est relatives  of  the  deceased  king.  The  case  was  referred 
to  Edward  L  of  England  as  arbiter,  who  decided  in  favour 
of  Baliol,  on  condition  that  he  should  do  homage  to  the 
King  of  England  for  his  crown.  His  coronation  took 
place  at  Scone,  in  1292.  During  his  short  reign  he  was 
called  King  John.  He  soon  repented  of  his  oath  to 
E!dward,  and,  renouncing  his  allegiance,  marched  against 
the  king,  who  had  invaded  Scotland.  Baliol's  army  was 
signally  defeated,  and  he  himself,  being  made  prisoner, 
resigned  to  the  English  king  his  title  to  the  crown.  After 
several  years  of  confinement,  he  retired  to  France,  where 
he  died  in  13 14. 

See  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  ii.  chaps,  xix.,  xx.; 
LiNGARD,  "History  of  England;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dic- 
tionary of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Ba-lis'ta,  a  Roman  commander,  was  prefect  of  the 
praetorians  under  Valerian.  When  the  emperor  was 
defeated  by  the  Persians  in  260,  Balista  was  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  army,  and  obtained  several  victories  over 
the  enemy.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  put  to  death 
in  264  A.D.,  by  order  of  Odenatus,  King  of  Palmyra. 

Balk,  baik,  (Daniel  Georg,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Konigsberg  in  1764,  was  professor  of  medicine 
in  the  University  of  Dorpat.  He  wrote  a  poem  entitled 
"  Human  Grandeur,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1826. 


Bail,  (Sir  Alexander  John,)  a  distinguished  naval 
officer,  was  a  native  of  Gloucestershire.  He  entered 
the  navy  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1798  commanded  the 
Alexander  in  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  where  he  was  con- 
spicuous for  his  bravery.  He  was  afterwards  appointed 
Governor  of  Malta.  Coleridge,  in  his  publication  en- 
titled "  The  Friend,"  speaks  in  high  terms  of  Sir  Alex- 
ander Ball,  with  whom  he  was  intimate.    Died  in  1809. 

Ball,  (John,)  an  English  preacher,  who  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  insurrection  of  Wat  Tyler  in  1381,  and 
was  executed  in  the  same  year  at  Coventry,  with  a  num- 
ber of  his  fanatical  companions. 

Ball,  (John,)  an  English  Calvinistic  divine,  born  near 
Woodstock  in  1585.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Treatise 
on  Faith,"  and  a  "  Treatise  containing  all  the  principal 
Grounds  of  the  Christian  Religion."  The  latter  passed 
through  many  editions,  and  was  translated  into  several 
languages.  The  piety  and  learning  of  Ball  are  highly 
commended  by  Fuller  and  Baxter.    Died  in  1640. 

See  S.  Clarke,  "Lives  of  XXXII  Divines." 

Ball,  (Robert,)  an  Irish  naturalist,  born  in  the  county 
of  Cork  in  1802,  was  secretary  of  the  Royal  Zoological 
Society,  and  director  of  the  museum  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin.    Died  in  1857. 

Ballabene,  bSl-ld-ba^ni,  (Gregorio,)  an  Italian  com- 
poser, born  at  Rome  about  1730.  Plis  principal  work  is 
a  mass  of  forty-eight  notes.    Died  in  1800. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musicians." 

Ballanche,  bt'lSNsl/,  (Pierre  Simon,)  a  French 
philosopher  and  writer  on  social  reform,  born  at  Lyons 
in  August,  1776.  Among  his  principal  works  are  an 
"Essay  on  Social  Palingenesis,"  "  The  Vision  of  Hebal," 
and  two  historic  prose  poems,  entitled  "  Antigone"  and 
"Orpheus."  He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy, and  an  intimate  friend  of  Chateaubriand,  Madame 
Recamier,  Nodier,  and  other  celebrated  writers.  Died 
in  June,  1847.  He  is  considered  by  some  French  critics 
as  a  great  writer  and  ])rofound  thinker,  but  by  others  his 
writings  are  regarded  as  mystical  and  obscure. 

See  Victor  Laprade,  "  I-Sallanche,  sa  Vie  at  sas  ificrits;'  Lo- 
MENiE,  "  M.  Ballanclie,  par  un  homnie  de  rien,"  1841,  (first  published 
in  Lomenie's  "Galerie  des  Conteniporains ;")  J.  J.  Ampere,  "Bal- 
lanche," 1849;  Albert  Aubert,  "  P.  S.  Ballanche,"  1847. 

Ballantyne.    See  Bellenden. 

BalTan-tyne,  (James,)  a  Scottish  printer  and  jour- 
nalist, born  at  Kelso  in  1772.  At  the  grammar-school 
of  Kelso  he  first  became  acquainted  with  Walter  Scott, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  a  friendship  which  continued 
through  their  lives.  Having  removed  in  1799  to  Edin- 
burgh, he  established  a  printing-house,  from  which  he 
issued  in  1802-3  Scott's  "Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish 
Border."  He  continued  for  more  than  twenty  years  to 
print  the  various  works  of  that  celebrated  writer,  and 
shared  in  his  failure  in  1826.  He  was  also  editor  and 
proprietor  of  the  "  Edinburgh  Weekly  Journal."  Bal- 
lantyne's  abilities  as  a  critic  were  highly  prized  by  Scott, 
and' his  fine  social  qualities  and  admirable  recitations 
are  commended  in  the  warmest  terms  by  Lockhart  and 
Professor  Wilson.  Died  in  1833.  (See  Scott,  Sir 
Walter.) 

Ballantyne,  (John,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Kelso  in  1774,  was  for  a  time  clerk  in  the  publishing- 
house  of  Ballantyne  &  Company,  of  which  he  became 
nominal  head  in  1808.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  wit 
and  humour,  and  is  said  by  Lockhart  to  have  surpassed 
the  comedian  Mathews  as  a  mimic.    Died  in  1821. 

Ballard.    See  Balard,  (Antoine.) 

BalTard,  (George,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Glou- 
cestershire, published  in  1752  a  popular  work  entitled 
"  Memoirs  of  British  Ladies  celebrated  for  their  W^ritings 
or  Skill  in  the  Learned  Languages,  Arts,  or  Sciences." 
Died  in  1755. 

Ballard,  (Volant  Vashon,)  an  English  naval  com- 
mander, born  about  1774,  accompanied  the  expedition 
of  Vancouver  to  the  northwest  coast  of  America.  He 
afterwards  had  a  share  in  the  capture  of  Guadeloupe,  and 
was  made  rear-admiral  in  1825.    Died  in  1833. 

Ballarini,  bll-13,-ree'nee,  (Ippolito,)  an  Italian  eccle- 
siastic and  writer,  born  at  Novara ;  died  in  1558. 

Ballarini,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Bo- 
logna in  1 7 12;  died  after  1782, 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  Yi,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  asz;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BALLE 


254 


BALNAVES 


Balle,  baKleh,  (Nikolai  Edinger — a'ding-er,)  a  Dan- 
ish theologian,  born  on  the  island  of  Laaland  in  1744. 
He  became  successively  professor  of  theology  at  Copen- 
hagen, (1772,)  court  preacher,  (1774,)  and  Bishop  of  See- 
land,  {1783.)  He  published  a  "  j\Ianual  of  Religion," 
"  Theological  Theses,"  (1776,)  and  other  esteemed  works. 
Died  in  1816. 

Ballenden  or  Ballaiiden.    See  Bellenden. 

Ballenstedt,  baKlen-stet',  (Johann  Georg  Justus,) 
a  German  theologian,  born  at  Schoningen  in  1756,  was 
the  author  of  a  valuable  geological  work  entitled  "  The 
Primitive  World,"  ("  Die  Urwelt.")  He  was  pastor  at 
Pabstorf  in  Prussia. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemelne  Encyklopaedie." 

Ballerini,  bdl-la-ree'nee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Verona  in  1698;  died  about  1760. 

Ballester,  bal-yes-taiR',  (?)  or  Balester,  bii-les-taiR', 
(Joaquin,)  a  Spanish  engraver,  born  about  1750.  He 
executed  a  number  of  the  plates  for  Yriarte's  work  on 
Music ;  also  the  engravings  for  the  splendid  edition 
of  "Don  Quixote"  published  at  Madrid  in  1780.  Died 
in  1795. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Ballesteros,  bal-yes-ta^ros,  (Don  Francisco,)  a 
Spanish  general,  born  at  Saragossa  in  1770,  served 
against  the  French  in  the  campaigns  of  1793  and  1795. 
He  was  for  a  short  time  minister  of  war  under  Ferdi- 
nand VH.    Died  in  Paris  in  1832. 

Ballesteros,  (Luis  Lopez,)  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, born  in  Galicia  in  1778,  succeeded  Garay  as  minister 
of  finance  in  1825. 

Ballet,  bi'ia^  (FRANgois,)  a  French  theologian,  who 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Pagan,  Jewish,  and  Christian  Tem- 
ples," (1760.) 

Ballexserd,  bt'lek^saiR^',  (Jacques,)  a  Swiss  physi- 
cian, born  at  Geneva  in  1726.  Pie  was  the  author  of  a 
"  Dissertation  on  the  Physical  Education  of  Children," 
(1762,)  which  obtained  a  prize  from  the  Academy  of 
Haarlem.    Died  in  1774. 

Balleydier,  bi'la'de-a^  (Alphonse,)  a  French  his- 
torical writer,  born  at  l^ns  in  1820,  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Revolutions  of  the  Aus- 
trian EiTipire,"  (2  vols.,  1853.) 

Balleydier,  (C.  J.  C.,)  a  French  officer,  born  at 
Annecy  in  1762,  served  with  distinction  in  Holland  and 
Prussia.    Died  in  1807. 

Balli,  bSlTee,  (Antonio,)  the  Elder,  an  Italian  jurist 
and  legal  writer,  born  at  Trapani ;  died  in  1591. 

Balli,  (Antonio,)  the  Younger,  a  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  judge  of  the  royal  court  of  Palermo. 

Balli,  (Fabio,)  an  Italian,  who  was  the  author  of 
"  Sicilian  Songs,"  and  a  poem  in  the  Neapolitan  dialect, 
entitled  "  Palermo  Liberato,"  1612.    Died  in  1632. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Balli,  (Giuseppe.)    See  Ballo. 

Balliani,  bai-le-a'nee,  (Giambattista,)  a  learned 
Genoese  senator,  born  in  1586,  was  the  author  of  a  valu- 
able treatise  "  On  the  Natural  Motions  of  Pleavenly 
Bodies."    Died  in  1666. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Balliere  de  Laisement,  btle-aip/  deh  laz/mdN', 
(Charles  Louis  Denis,)  a  YxQ.\\c\rutterate'iir  and  writer 
on  music,  born  in  Paris  in  1729;  died  in  1800. 

Ballin,  bt'lAN',  (Claude,)  a  celebrated  French  gold- 
smith, born  in  Paris  in  1615,  executed  a  number  of  ex- 
quisite works  in  gold  and  silver  for  Cardinal  Richelieu 
and  Louis  XIV.    Died  in  1678. 

See  Le  Bas,  "  Dictionnaire  encydopedique  de  la  France." 

Ballin,  (Claude,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  also 
highly  distinguished  in  the  same  department  of  art. 

Ballineri,  bal-le-na^ee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Florence  about  15S0,  was  a  pupil  of  Cigoli. 

Balling,  blKling,  (E:manuel,)  a  Danish  novelist,  born 
in  1743  ;  died  in  1795. 

BaiTin-galF,  (George,)  professor  of  military  surgery 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  born  at  that  city  in  1786. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Outlines  of  Military  Surgery," 
"Observations  on  the  Diseases  of  European  Troops' in 
India,"  and  other  medical  works.    Died  in  1855. 

Balliol.    See  Baliol. 


Ballo,  baiTo,  or  Balli,  bil'lee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 
priest  and  savant,  born  at  Palermo  in  1567  ;  died  at  Pa- 
dua in  1640. 

Ballois,  bt'lwi',  (Louis  Joseph  Philippe,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Perigueux  in  1778,  founded,  in  1802,  the 
"Annales  de  Statistique."    Died  in  1803. 

Ballon,  de,  deh  ba'16N',  (Louise  Blanche  Therese 
Perrucard— p:i  rii'ktR',)  a  PYench  nun,  born  in  Savoy 
in  1 59 1,  founded,  in  the  convent  of  Annecy,  the  sister- 
hood of  the  reformed  Bernardines.  Dietl  in  1668.  Her 
"  Religious  Works"  were  published  in  1700. 

Ballonins.    See  Baillou. 

Ballon,  bal-loo',  (Hosea,)  an  eminent  American 
preacher  and  controversialist,  the  author  or  founder  of 
"  Universalism"  in  the  modern  acceptation  of  this  term, 
was  born  in  Richmond,  New  Hampshire,  April  30,  1771. 
After  he  had  laboured  many  years  in  different  parts  0/ 
New  England,  he  settled  at  Boston  in  181 7.  He  pub- 
lished several  theological  works,  among  which  the  most 
worthy  of  notice  is,  perhaps,  his  "Examination  of  the 
Doctrine  of  Future  Retribution."  In  1819  he  estab- 
lished the  '*  Universalist  Magazine,"  the  first  weekly 
newspaper  devoted  to  the  doctrines  of  Universalism  ever 
published,  and  in  183 1,  in  connection  with  his  nephew  of 
the  same  name,  he  issued  the  first  number  of  the  "  Uni- 
versalist Expositor,"  now  known  as  the  "  Universalist 
Quarterly  Review,"  The  doctrine  preached  by  Mr.  Bal- 
lon in  the  early  part  of  his  career  was  that  known  as 
"  Restorationism,"  which  teaches  that  all  souls  will  ulti- 
mately be  saved,  after  undergoing,  for  a  longer  or  shorter 
period,  punishment  designed  simply  for  their  purification 
and  preparation  for  a  higher  state  of  happiness  ;  but  in 
the  latter  portion  of  his  life  he  taught  the  doctrine  that 
there  is  no  punishment  whatever  in  a  future  state  of  ex- 
istence, but  that  the  wicked  receive  their  full  punishment 
in  this  world,  and  that  all  men  will  be  saved  without  ex- 
ception, whatever  may  have  been  the  sins  or  crimes  of 
their  earthly  life.  His  biography  has  been  published  by 
his  son,  M.  M.  Ballon,  and  in  three  volumes  i2mo  by  the 
Rev.  Thomas  Whittemore.  Died  in  1852.  (See  Mur- 
ray, John.) 

Bally,  bi'le',  (Victor,)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Beaurepaire,  published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Tyj^hus  Fever 
of  America,"  (1814,)  and  "  Plistory  of  the  Yellow  Fever  in 
Spain  in  1821." 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Bal''mer,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  theologian,  born  in 
Roxburghshire  in  1787.  He  preached  at  Berwick  for 
many  years,  and  became  professor  of  theology  in  the 
United  Secession  (or  Presbyterian)  Church  in  1834.  Pie 
was  highly  esteemed  for  talent  and  moral  worth.  Died 
in  1844.  Plis  "Academical  Lectures  and  Pulpit  Dis- 
courses" were  published  in  two  volumes,  1845. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Balmes,  b3,l-nies',  written  also  Balmis,  (Francisco 
Xavier,)  surgeon  to  the  Spanish  court,  introduced  vac- 
cination into  the  Spanish  Colonies  in  1803,  and  subse- 
quently into  the  Canary  and  Philippine  Islands  and  China. 

Balmes,  (Jaime  Lucio,)  an  eminent  Spanish  theolo- 
gian and  philosopher,  born  at  Vich,  in  Catalonia,  in  1810. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Political  Considerations  on  the 
Situation  of  Spain,"  (1840,)  and  "Protestantism  com- 
pared with  Catholicism  in  its  Relations  to  European 
Civilization,"  (3  vols.,  1S48.)  The  latter,  esteemed  his 
ablest  work,  was  written  in  reply  to  Guizot.  liis  "  Filo- 
sofia  fundamental"  was  translated  into  English.  Died 
in  1848. 

See  Antonio  Soler,  "  Biografia  del  D.  J.  Balmes,"  1850;  Garcia 
DE  i.os  Santos,  Vida  de  Balme.s,"  184S  ;  Blanche-Raffin,  "J. 
Balmes,  sa  Vie  at  ses  Ouvrages,"  Paris,  1S49,  and  a  German  version 
of  the  same,  by  Karker,  1852. 

Balnaves,  bdl-nav'ess,  or  Balnav'is,  (Henry,) 
surnamed  OF  Halhill,  a  Scottish  statesman  and  Prot- 
estant writer,  born  in  Fiieshire.  He  became  in  1538  one 
of  the  lords  of  session,  and  secretary  of  state  under  the 
regent  Arran  in  1543.  In  this  post  he  promoted  the 
passing  of  Lord  IVIaxwell's  act  for  allov/ing  the  Scrip- 
tures to  be  read  in  the  vulgar  tongue.  Being  accused  of 
sharing  in  the  conspiracy  against  Cardinal  P-eatoun,  he 
was  imprisoned,  together  with  Knox  and  other  reformers, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lo}ig;  \  b,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  s/zort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BALOG 


255 


BALZAC 


at  Rouen,  in  France,  Avhere  he  wrote  his  "  Confession  of 
Faith."  Having  returned  to  Scotland,  he  was  appointed 
in  1563  one  of  the  commissioners  to  revise  the  "Book 
of  DiscipHne."    Died  in  1571. 

See  Mackenzie,  "  Lives  of  Scottish  Writers  ;"  Chambers,  "  Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Balog,  bS.-log,  or  Balogli,  (Janos,)  a  Hungarian  states- 
man, born  in  1800,  defended  the  rights  of  the  people 
against  the  nobility,  in  the  Diet  of  1825.  After  the  de- 
feat of  the  patriots  in  1849,  he  escaped  with  Kossuth 
into  Turkey. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Baloufeau,  bt'looW,  or  Balouffeteau,  bi'loof  to', 
(Jacques,)  a  French  adventurer  and  impostor,  born  at 
Saint-Jean-d'Angely.  After  having, under  assumed  names, 
married  many  women  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  he 
obtained  two  hundred  crowns  from  the  King  of  France 
as  a  reward  for  revealing  a  pretended  conspiracy,  and 
two  thousand  pounds  sterling  from  the  English  govern- 
ment for  a  similar  service.  He  was  at  last  arrested  in 
France  and  executed  in  1627. 

Balsamiiia,  bal-si-mee'nS,  (Camilla,)  an  Italian  vo- 
calist, born  at  Milan,  was  prima  donna  at  the  court  of 
Prince  Eugene,  Viceroy  of  Italy,  in  1807.    Died  in  1810. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Balsamo,  (Giuseppe.)    See  Cagliostro. 

Balsanio,  MKsa-mo,  (Paolo,)  a  distinguished  agri- 
culturist and  writer,  born  at  Termini,  in  Sicily,  in  1763. 
He  was  professor  of  agriculture  at  Palermo,  and  trans- 
lated into  Italian  Arthur  Young's  "Pleasures  of  Agri- 
culture."   Died  in  1818. 

See  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  ilkistri." 

Bal'sa-mo  or  BaFsa-mon,  (Theodore,)  a  Greek 
prelate,  who  became  Patriarch  of  Antioch  in  1186.  He 
wrote  a  "  Commentary  on  the  Canons  of  the  Apostles, 
and  the  Seven  CEcumenic  Councils."    Died  in  1204. 

BaFsham,  written  also  Belesale,  de,  (Hugh,)  an 
English  prelate,  and  founder  of  Saint  Peter's  College, 
Cambridge,  born  in  Cambridgeshire,  became,  in  1257, 
Bishop  of  Ely.    Died  in  12S6. 

Baltacchini,bal-tak-kee'nee,  (Michele,)  an  Italian 
philosopher,  born  in  Naples  in  1803.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "History  of  Masaniello,"  (1834,) 
and  "The  Life  and  Works  of  Campanella,"  (1840-43.) 

Baltadschi  or  Baltadji.    See  Baltajek. 

Baltajee  (Baltaji,  Baltadji,  or  Baltadschi)  Mo- 
hammed, l)51-ta'jee  mo-han/med,  a  Turkish  states- 
man and  commander,  rose  to  be  grand  vizier  under  Ah- 
med HI.  He  was  appointed  in  1719  to  command  the 
Turkish  forces  acting  with  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden 
against  the  Russians.  After  gaining  a  decided  victory 
over  the  enemy,  he  was  induced  by  the  empress  Cathe- 
rine to  sign  a  treaty,  by  which  he  lost  all  the  advantages 
he  had  won,  and  gave  great  offence  to  Charles.  Died 
in  1 712. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Histoire  de  I'Empire  Ottoman  ;"  Voltaire, 
"Histoire  de  Charles  XII." 

Baltard,  btl'ttR',(Louis  Pierre,)  a  celebrated  French 
architect  and  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1765.  He  fur- 
nished the  design  for  the  Palace  of  Justice  at  Lyons,  and 
constructed  the  chapels  for  the  houses  of  detention  of 
Saint-Lazare  and  Sainte-Pelagie.  Among  his  engravings 
we  may  name  "Paris  and  its  Monuments,"  (1803,)  and 
"  Saint  John  baptizing  on  the  Banks  of  the  Jordan," 
after  Poussin.    Died  iii  1846. 

See  J.  M.  Dalgabio,  "  £ loge  historique  de  M.  Baltard,"  1846. 

Baltard,  (Victor,)  a  French  architect,  born  in  Paris 
in  1805,  published  in  1847  a  "  Monography  of  the  Villa 
Medicis." 

Baltazariiii,  bai-tad-zS-ree'nee,  called  also  Beau- 
joyeulx,  bo'zhwa'yuh',  an  Italian  musician,  who  was 
a  favourite  at  the  court  of  Catherine  de  Medicis. 

See  Eetis,  "  Biograi^hie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Balten,  or  Baltens.    See  Balton. 

Balthasar,  the  French  for  Belshazzar,  which  see. 

Balthasar,  bSKtt'zSR',  (Christophe,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Villeneuve-le-Roi  in  1588,  was  royal  advocate  at 
Auxcrre.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the  Usurpations  of 
the  Kings  of  Spain  upon  the  Crown  of  France."  Died 
in  1670. 

Balthasar,  (Joseph  Antoine  F^lix,)  a  Swiss  jurist. 


born  at  Lucerne  in  1737,  contributed  several  articles  on 
Swiss  history  to  Flaller's  "  Bibliotheca  Helvetica,"  and 
wrote  a  "Defence  of  William  Tell."    Died  in  1810. 

Balthasar,  bai't2.-zaR,  or  Balthazari,  bal-ta-ts^'ree, 
(Theodor,)  a  German  savant,  and  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Erlangen,  is  supposed  to  have  invented  the 
solar  microscope,  of  which  he  published  a  description, 
(1710.)  This  invention  is  attributed  by  some  to  Lieber- 
kiihn. 

See  Fischer,  "  Geschichte  der  Physik." 

Balthasar,  von,  fon  biFt^-zaR,  (Augustin,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist  and  writer,  born  at  Greifswalde  in  1701 ;  died 
in  1779. 

Baltimore,  (Lord.)    See  Calvert,  (George.) 

Balton,  baFton,  Baltens,  or  Balten,  bil'tSN',  (Pe- 
ter,) a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1540.  He 
painted  in  the  style  of  Breughel,  and  his  miniature  land- 
scapes and  historical  pieces  are  highly  esteemed.  Died 
in  1579. 

See  Fiorillo,  "  Geschichte  der  Malerei." 

Baltus,  btFtiis',  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  at  Metz  in  1667,  wrote  a  reply  to  Fontenelle's 
"  History  of  Oracles,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1743. 

Baltzar,  balt'sar,  (Thomas,)  a  celebrated  German 
violinist,  who  in  1658  visited  London,  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  concerts  by  Charles  II.  Died  in  1663. 

See  Burn'ev,  "General  History  of  Music." 

Balue,  de  la,  deh  It  bS'lii^  (Jean,)  a  French  cardinal, 
born  at  Poitiers  in  1422,  was  a  favourite  of  Louis  XL, 
by  whom  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Evreux  and  prime 
minister.  For  his  efforts  to  abolish  the  "  Pragmatic 
Sanction"  he  was  made  a  cardinal  by  Pope  Paul  II.  in 
1467.  After  having  been  for  many  years  the  instigator 
and  partner  of  his  sovereign's  tyranny  and  vices,  he  en- 
deavoured to  excite  a  quarrel  between  Louis  and  his 
brother.  For  this  crime  he  was  imprisoned  by  the  king 
in  an  iron  cage  for  eleven  years.  He  was  released  in 
1480,  on  the  intercession  of  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  He  was 
afterwards  appointed  protector  of  the  order  of  Malta, 
and  obtained  other  high  preferments  from  Pope  Inno- 
cent VIII.   Died  in  1491. 

See  AuBERY,  "Histoire  des  Cardinaux." 

BalufS,  ba-looFfee,  (Cajetano,)  an  Italian  ecclesi- 
astic, resided  many  years  in  New  Granada,  and  published 
in  1848  a  "  Religious  History  of  America." 

Baluze,  hi.'\\\z\  (I^tienne,)  a  French  historian,  born 
at  Tulle  in  1630,  was  charged  by  Colbert  with  the  care 
of  his  library,  and  afterwards  appointed  inspector  of  the 
Royal  College  by  Louis  XIV.  He  published  in  1709 
his  "  History  of  the  House  of  Auvergne,"  in  which  he 
proves  that  the  family  of  Bouillon  are  descended  from 
the  ancient  dukes  of  Guienne,  and,  consequently,  owed 
no  allegiance  to  the  French  crown.  This  \vork  gave 
great  offence  to  the  king,  who  caused  it  to  be  suppressed, 
the  author  exiled,  and  his  estates  confiscated.  Baluze 
also  wrote  the  "Lives  of  the  Popes  of  Avignon,"  (1693.) 
Died  in  Paris  in  1718. 

See  "Vie  de  Baluze,  par  liii-meme,  continuee  par  Martin;"  J.  B. 
Vitrac,  "  Eloge  de  Baluze,"  1777. 

Balzac,  btFzik',  (Charles  Louis,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  in  Paris,  accompanied  the  expedition  to  Egypt 
in  1798,  and  contributed  valuable  architectural  designs 
to  the  Description  of  Egypt  afterwards  published  by 
the  government.    Died  in  1820. 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Balzac,  de,  deh  btrztk',  (Honore,)  a  celebrated 
French  novelist,  born  at  Tours  in  May,  1799.  He  pub- 
lished in  1822  a  series  of  tales,  under  the  names  of  Horace 
de  Saint- Aubin  and  other  pseudonyms,  and  in  1829 
brought  out,  in  his  own  name,  a  historical  romance  en- 
titled "The  Last  Chouan,"  ("Le  dernier  Chouan.") 
His  next  works,  the  "Physiologic  du  Mariage,"  and 
"La  Peau  de  Chagrin,"  were  very  successful,  and  were 
soon  followed  by  a  series  of  novels  and  talcs  entitled 
"  Comedie  humaine,"  intended  to  delineate  every  phase 
of  French  society.  Among  the  most  popular  of  these 
may  be  named  "  Le  Pere  Goriot,"  "  Eugenie  Grandet," 
and  "Balthasar  Claes."  In  1848  Balzac  married  the 
Countess  Hanska,  a  Polish  lady  to  whom  he  had  dedi- 
cated his  novel  of  "  Seraphita."    He  died  in  Paris  in 


c  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  ii,  y., guttural;  x,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (gJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BALZAC 


256 


BANCROFT 


August,  1850,  and  a  glowing  eulogy  was  pronounced 
over  his  grave  by  Victor  Hugo.  Balzac's  works  enjoy 
great  popularity  in  France,  and  have  been  translated 
into  the  principal  European  languages.  He  had  great 
acuteness  of  observation  and  brilliant  fancy  ;  but  his  de- 
lineations are  often  unnatural  and  extravagant,  and  his 
writings  are  deficient  in  moral  elevation. 

See  GusTAVE  DESNon<ESTERRES,  "Vie  de  Honore  de  Balzac;" 
Louis  de  Lomenie,  "Notice  sur  H.  de  Balzac,"  1842;  George 
Sand,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  H.  de  Balzac,"  8vo,  1853;  A.  Bas- 
CHET,  "H.  de  Balzac,"  1S52;  also,  a  critique  on  the  novels  of  Balzac, 
in  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  July,  1847,  (by  J.  L.  Motley.) 

Balzac,  de,  (Jean  Louis  Guez — ga,)  Seigneur,  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1594.  He 
contributed  greatly  to  the  improvement  of  his  native 
language,  and  was  esteemed  the  best  French  prosaist  of 
his  time.  He  was  patronized  by  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
and  in  1634  was  elected  unanimously  to  the  French 
Academy.  His  brilliant  success  as  an  author  and  his 
innovations  in  literature  caused  him  to  be  severely  as- 
sailed by  Goulu  and  other  contemporary  writers.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  The  Christian  So- 
crates," (1652,)  "  Aristippus,"  (a  treatise  on  the  duties 
of  sovereigns,  dedicated  to  Christina  of  Sweden,)  and  a 
number  of  Latin  poems  ;  but  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on 
his  "  Familiar  Letters,"  (1624,)  which  have  passed  through 
several  editions.    Died  in  Paris  in  1654. 

See  A.  Malitout^ne,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Balzac,"  prefixed  to 
his  "CEuvres  Choisies,"  2  vols.,  1823;  P.  H.  Marron,  "J.  L.  Guez 
de  Balzac;"  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Moreau 
DE  Mersan,  "  Notice  sin-  la  Vie  de  Balzac,"  prefixed  to  the  "  Pensees 
de  Balzac,"  1807. 

Balzaui,  bal-zi'nee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1658;  died  in  1735. 

Baize,  btlz,  (Nicolas,)  an  able  French  advocate,  born 
in  Languedoc  in  1 735,  wrote  odes,  tales,  etc.  Died  in  1 792. 

Bambam,  bam'bam,  (Hartwig,)  a  German  Lutheran 
theologian,  lived  at  Hamburg;  died  in  1742. 

Bamberger,  b.^m'beRG-er,  (Joiiann  Peter,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian  and  litterateur,  born  at  Magdeburg  in 
1722.  He  was  editor  of  the  "British  Theological  Maga- 
zine" at  Halle,  and  translated  "  Knox's  Essays,"  Ander- 
son's "  History  of  Commerce,"  and  other  English  works, 
into  German.    Died  in  1804. 

Bambini,  b^m-bee'nee,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Ferrara  about  1 590.  Lie  died  prematurely  in  1629. 

Bambini,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Venice  in  1 651,  possessed  great  skill  in  design,  but  was 
deficient  as  a  colorist.    Died  in  1736. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bamboccio,  bSm-bot'cho,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Piperno  about  1368.  Among  his  best 
works  are  the  mausoleum  of  Cardinal  Filippo  Minutolo, 
celebrated  by  Boccaccio,  and  the  monument  of  Ludovico 
Aldemareschi.    Died  about  1430. 

Bamboccio.    See  Laer,  (Peter  van.) 

Bamboche.    See  Laer,  (Peter  van.) 

Bambridge,  (Christopher.)    See  Bainbridge. 

Bamesbier,  bi'mess-beer^,  (Hans  or  Jan,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1500,  was  a  pupil  of 
Lambert  Lombard.  He  lived  to  the  age  of  a  hundred, 
notwithstanding  his  intemperate  habits.    Died  in  1600. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Bamfield.    See  Bamfylde. 

Bam'ford,  (Samuel,)  an  English  writer  and  radical 
politician,  born  near  Manchester  in  1788,  was  a  weaver 
by  trade.  He  was  several  times  imprisoned  on  account 
of  his  political  opinions.  He  was  the  author  of  a  col- 
lection of  poems  of  great  merit,  a  prose  work  entitled 
"  Walks  in  South  Lancashire,"  and  "  Passages  in  the  Life 
of  a  Radical." 

See  "Brief  Biographies,"  by  Samuel  Smiles. 

Bam'fylde  or  Bam'field,  (Francis,)  an  English 
theologian,  was  the  author  of  "  An  Argument  in  Favour 
of  the  Observance  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath,"  (1672,)  and 
other  religious  works.    Died  in  1684. 

Bamp'tpn,  (Rev.  John,)  Canon  of  Salisbury,  born  in 
1689,  was  the  founder  of  the  series  of  lectures  called  by 
his  name.  He  gave  his  estates  to  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford for  the  endowment  of  eight  divinity  lecture  sermons, 
to  be  delivered  annually.    Died' in  1751. 

Ban'as-ter,  (Gilbert,)  an  English  poet  and  musi- 


cian, whose  only  extant  poem  is  entitled  "The  Miracle 
of  Saint  Thomas,"  (1467.) 

See  Collier,  "History  of  Dramatic  Poetry,"  etc. 

Bancal  des  Issarts,  bSN'klK  da'ze'stR',  (Jean 
Henri,)  a  French  magistrate,  born  in  the  diocese  of 
Moutpellier  in  1750.  Pie  was  a  deputy  to  the  National 
Convention  in  1792,  where  he  voted  against  the  union 
of  Savoy  with  France,  and  opposed  the  execution  of  the 
king.  Being  sent  with  other  commissioners  to  Dumouriez, 
he  was  given  up  by  him  to  the  Austrians  and  imprisoned 
in  1793.  With  his  colleagues  he  was  exchanged  in  1795 
for  the  Duchess  of  Angouleme.  In  1796  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  P'ive  Hundred.  He  wrote, 
among  other  works,  a  treatise:  "  On  New  Social  Order, 
founded  on  Religion."    Died  in  1826. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Bancel,  bSN'sel',  (Louis,)  a  learned  French  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Valence,  lived  at  Avignon.    Died  in  1685. 

Banchero,  ban-ka'ro,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Sestri,  near  Genoa,  about  1774;  died  in  1793. 

Banchi,  bin'kee,  (Seraphino,)  a  Dominican  monk, 
born  at  Florence.  Having  informed  Henry  IV.  of  France 
of  Barriere's  project  to  assassinate  him,  he  was  offered 
by  that  monarch  the  bishopric  of  Angouleme,  which  he 
refused.    Died  in  1622. 

Bancliieri,  bin-ke-a'ree,  (Adriano,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  writer  on  music,  born  at  Bologna;  died  in  1634. 

Banck,  bSnk,  (Lawrence,)  a  Swedish  jurist,  was  a 
native  of  Norrkjoping.  He  became  professor  of  law  at 
Franeker,  and  wrote  in  Latin  several  treatises  against  the 
usurpations  of  the  pope.    Died  in  1662. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Banck  or  Bank,  van  der,  vtn  der  bink,  (Peter,) 
a  skilful  Flemish  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1649,  worked 
in  London,  where  he  died  in  1697. 

Banco,  bSn^ko,  (Nanni  d'Antonio,  nSn'nee  dSn-to'- 
ne-o,)  an  Italian  architect  and  sculptor,  born  at  Sienna 
in  1374,  had  a  share  in  the  construction  of  the  cathedral 
of  Florence.    Died  in  1421. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Ban'croft,  (Aaron,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congrega- 
tional  divine,  born  at  Reading,  Massachusetts,  in  1755, 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1778.  He  settled  as  pastor  at 
Worcester  in  1785,  and  remained  there  for  fifty  years  01 
more.  Besides  a  great  number  of  sermons,  he  published 
a  "  Life  of  Washington,"  which  obtained  great  popu- 
larity. He  was  the  father  of  George  Bancroft  the  his- 
torian. Diedinf839. 

Ban'croft,  (Edward,)  an  English  physician  and  natu- 
ralist, published  an  "  Essay  on  the  Natural  History  of 
Guiana,"  (1769,)  and  "Experimental  Researches  on  the 
Philosophy  of  Permanent  Colours,"  (1794.)  He  was  a 
f^ellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians,  and  was  intimate  with  Dr.  Franklin  and  Dr. 
Priestley.    Died  in  1821. 

Bancroft,  (George,)  a  distinguished  American  histo- 
rian, son  of  the  Rev.  Aaron  Bancroft,  was  born  at  Wor- 
cester, Massachusetts,  on  the  3d  of  October,  1800.  He 
entered  Harvard  College  in  1813,  and  graduated  with 
distinguished  honours  in  181 7.  In  18 18  he  went  to 
Germany,  entered  the  University  of  Gottingen,  and 
studied  history,  philology,  etc.,  under  Heeren,  Bunsen, 
and  other  distinguished  professors.  He  took  the  de- 
gree of  doctor  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen  in  1820, 
after  which  he  passed  some  time  in  Berlin  and  Heidel- 
berg in  the  society  of  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt,  Varn- 
hagen  von  Ense,  and  Schlosser.  Having  returned  home 
in  1822,  he  served  as  Greek  tutor  in  Harvard  College 
for  one  year,  published  a  volume  of  Poems  in  1823,  and 
opened  the  Round  Hill  School  at  Northampton.  In 
1824  he  produced  a  translation  of  Heeren's  "Reflections 
on  the  Politics  of  Ancient  Greece."  His  reputation 
was  increased  by  the  first  volume  of  his  "History  of  the 
Colonization  of  the  United  States,"  which  appeared  in 
1834. 

He  had  been  an  active  supporter  of  the  Democratic 
party  for  many  years  when  he  was  appointed  in  1838 
collector  of  customs  for  the  port  of  Boston.  The  third 
volume  of  his  History  appeared  in  1840,  and  was  com- 
mended by  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  in  the  following 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


BANCROFT 


257 


BANDTKE 


terms  :  "  The  real  liberality,  the  general  fairness,  the 
labour  and  conscientious  research,  it  evinces,  deserve, 
and  we  are  assured  will  receive,  his  [the  reader's]  warmest 
approbation."  (Vol.  Ixxxv.,  January,  1847.)  He  was  the 
Democratic  candidate  for  the  office  of  Governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts in  1844,  but  was  not  elected.  In  March,  1845, 
he  became  secretary  of  the  navy  in  the  cabinet  of  Mr. 
Polk.  He  established  a  naval  school  at  Annapolis,  and 
improved  the  Astronomical  Observatory  at  Washington. 
In  1846  he  resigned  his  place  in  the  cabinet  and  \yas 
appointed  minister  plenipotentiary  to  England.  _  During 
his  residence  in  Europe  he  examined  the  archives  and 
libraries  of  Paris  and  London,  in  which  he  collected 
materials  for  his  great  work  on  American  history.  He 
returned  to  the  United  States  in  1849,  became  a  resident 
of  the  city  of  New  York,  and  devoted  himself  to  literary 
pursuits.  He  contributed  to  the  "  North  American 
Review."  In  1852  he  published  the  fourth  volume  of  his 
History,  which  is  the  first  volume  of  the  "  History  of  the 
Revolution."  This  work  has  extended  to  nine  volumes 
octavo,  but  is  not  yet  (1869)  completed. 

"  We  know  few  modern  historic  works,"  says  Professor 
Heeren,  "inwdiich  the  author  has  reached  so  high  an 
elevation  at  once  as  an  historical  inquirer  and  an  his- 
torical writer.  The  great  conscientiousness  w^ith  which 
he  refers  to  his  authorities,  and  his  careful  criticism,  give 
the  most  decisive  proofs  of  his  comprehensive  studies." 

In  a  notice  of  the  third  volume,  William  H.  Prescott 
remarks,  "The  reader  will  find  the  pages  of  the  present 
volume  filled  w^ith  matter  not  less  interesting  and  import- 
ant than  the  preceding.  He  will  meet  w^ith  the  same  bril- 
liant and  daring  style,  the  same  picturesque  sketches  of 
character  and  incident,  the  same  acute  reasoning  and 
compass  of  erudition."  ("North  American  Review" 
for  January,  184 1.) 

In  February,  1866,  he  delivered  at  Washington,  in 
presence  of  Congress  and  the  foreign  diplomatic  corps, 
an  oration  in  honour  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  which  at- 
tracted much  attention. 

He  was  appointed  minister  to  the  court  of  Berlin  in 
1867,  and  negotiated  with  the  North  German  Confedera- 
tion a  treaty  by  which  Germans  who  emigrate  and  be- 
come naturalized  as  citizens  of  the  United  States  are 
released  from  their  allegiance  to  the  government  of  their 
native  country  and  are  assured  the  enjoyment  of  all  the 
rights  of  native  citizens  of  the  United  States. 

See,  also,  "North  American  Review"  for  January,  1835,  vol.  xL, 
and  "Foreign  Quarterly"  for  July,  1841. 

Bancroft,  (John,)  a  nephew  of  Richard  Bancroft, 
noticed  below,  was  a  native  of  Oxfordshire.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Oxford  in  1632.    Died  in  1640. 

Bancroft,  (Richard,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Lancashire  in  1544,  became  Bishop  of  London,  (1597,) 
and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  (1604.)  He  was  a  zeal- 
ous opponent  of  the  Puritans,  and  wrote,  among  other 
works,  "  Dangerous  Positions  and  Proceedings  published 
under  the  Pretence  of  Reformation,  etc."    Died  in  1610. 

See  Gardiner,  "  History  of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  chaps, 
iv.  and  x. ;  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Bancroft,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  who  made  a 
collection  of  "Epigrams  and  Epitaphs,"  (1649.) 

Bandarra,  bin-d^r^rS,  (Goksalo  Annes,)  a  Portu- 
guese poet,  and  pretended  prophet,  born  at  Villa  de 
Trancoso,  was  surnamed  the  Portuguese  Nostra- 
damus. His  verses  entitled  "Trovas  Redondilhas," 
prophesying  the  subjugation  of  Portugal  by  Spain,  and 
its  subsequent  restoration,  acquired  great  popularity 
in  Portugal,  and  were  translated  into  French.  Died  in 
1556. 

See  General  Foy,  "Memoires  sur  les  Guerres  de  la  Peninsule." 

Bandel,  bin'del,  (Ernst,)  a  distinguished  German 
sculptor,  born  at  Anspach  in  1800.  He  studied  at  Mu- 
nich, where  in  1820  he  exhibited  his  statue  of  Mars  ; 
he  afterwards  became  a  resident  of  Berlin.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  a  colossal  bronze  or  copper  statue  of 
Hermann,  (Arminius,)  and  busts  of  King  Maximilian  of 
Bavaria,  and  the  poet  Grabbe. 

Bandello,  bin-deKlo,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  novelist 
and  Dominican  monk,  born  at  Castelnuovo,  in  Pied- 
mont, in  1480.  Having  visited  France,  he  was  created 
Bishop  of  Agen  by  Henry  II.  in  1550.    He  published 


in  1554  the  first  three  volumes  of  his  novels ;  the  fourth 
came  out  after  his  death.  Though  less  elegant  in  style 
than  those  of  Boccaccio,  they  bear  a  strong  resemblance 
to  them  in  originality  of  conception  and  descriptive 
powers,  and  are  equally  immoral.  Shakspeare,  Mas- 
singer,  and  other  English  dramatists  derived  some  ot 
their  plots  from  Bandello.    Died  at  Agen  in  1561. 

See  Napione,  "Piemonlesi  illustri,"  and  Mor^ri,  " Dictionnaire 
Historique." 

Bandello,  de,  di  bSn-del'lo,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian 
Dominican  monk  and  writer,  born  at  Castelnuovo  in 
1435  ;  died  in  1506. 

Bandelloni,  bSn-dSl-lo'nee,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  musical  composer  of  this  century,  born  at  Rome. 

Bandettini,  bdn-d§t-tee'nee,  (Teresa,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  improvisatrice  and  poetess,  sometimes  called 
Amarilla  Etrusca,  born  at  Lucca  in  1763,  was  the 
author  of  a  tragedy  entitled  "II  Polidoro,"  and  "The 
Death  of  Adonis,"  a  poem.  She  was  crowned  with 
laurel  at  Rome  in  1794,  and  her  genius  and  virtues  are 
commended  by  Alfieri,  Monti,  and  other  eminent  writers. 
Died  in  1837. 

See  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Bandiera,  bin-de-a'rS,  (Attilio  and  Emilio,)  Ital- 
ian patriots,  brothers,  born  at  Naples  or  Venice,  the 
elder  in  181 7,  the  second  in  1 8 19,  were  the  sons  of  an 
Austrian  vice-admiral.  In  1842  they  embraced  with 
ardour  the  cause  of  Young  Italy,  and  entered  into  a  cor- 
respondence with  Mazzini.  In  the  hope  of  exciting  the 
people  to  insurrection,  they  advanced  in  1844  with  a 
small  force  into  Calabria,  but,  being  soon  after  betrayed 
and  arrested,  were  executed  by  order  of  the  Austrian 
government. 

See  RicciARDi,  "  Histolre  de  la  Revolution  d'ltalie  en  1848;" 
Giuseppe  Mazzini,  "Ricordi  dei  Fratelli  Bandiera  e  del  loro  Com- 
pagni,"  1S45. 

Bandiera,  (Benedetto,)  a  painter  of  the  Roman 
school,  born  at  Perugia  in  1557  ;  died  in  1634. 

Bandinelli,  ban-de-neKlee,  (Baccio,  Mt'cho,)  an 
eminent  Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Florence  in  1487,  was 
a  pupil  of  Gian  Francesco  Rustici.  Among  his  master- 
pieces are  the  figure  of  "Christ  at  the  Tomb,"  in  the 
church  of  the  Annunziata,  the  group  of  "  Adam  and 
Eve,"  and  the  bas-reliefs  in  the  Duomo  at  Florence.  He 
also  attempted  painting,  in  which,  however,  he  did  not 
excel.  As  a  sculptor  he  is  regarded  as  second  only  ti, 
Michael  Angelo,  to  whom  he  manifested  an  envious  hos- 
tility. Bandinelli  enjoyed  the  favour  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  Cosimo  de  Medici,  and  Pope  Clement  VII. 
Died  in  1559. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors;"  Cicognara, 
"Storia  della  Scultura." 

Bandinelli,  (Clemente,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Florence,  was  a  promising  sculptor,  but  died 
young. 

Bandinelli,  (Marco.)  a  painter  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  born  at  Bologna,  was  at  first  the  valet  and  cook 
of  Guido  Reni.  He  was  surnamed  Marchino  di  Guido. 

Bandinelli,  (Michel  Angelo,)  a  Florentine  painter, 
a  nephew  of  Baccio,  lived  about  1550. 

Bandini,  ban-dee'nee,  (Angelo  Maria,)  a  learned 
Italian  writer,  born  at  Florence  in  1726,  was  appointed 
in  1756  first  keeper  of  the  Laurentian  Library.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  a  "  Description  of  the  Obelisk 
of  Augustus  discovered  on  the  Field  of  Mars,"  and  a 
"Life  of  Amerigo  Vespucci,"  (1745.)    Died  in  1800. 

See  Ginguene,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Bandini,  (Giovanni,)  a  sculptor,  born  at  Castel]o,.in 
Tuscany,  worked  in  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  made  the  statue  of  Architecture  placed  on 
the  tomb  of  Michael  Angelo  at  Florence. 

Bandini,  (Sallustio,)  an  Italian  economist,  born  at 
Sienna  in  1677  ;  died  in  1760. 

Bandino,  bin-dee'no,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  scholar 
and  waiter,  born  at  Arezzo  in  1340,  was  professor  of  elo- 
quence at  Bologna,  and  afterwards  at  Padua.  He  wrote 
a  large  work  entitled  "  Eons  Memorabilium  Universi," 
treating  of  theology,  astronomy,  natural  philosophy,  etc., 
(unpublished.)    Died  about  141 5. 

See  Tiraeoschi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Bandtke,  b^nt'ka,  or  Bandtkie,  bdnt'kyk,  (George 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  k,  gtiitural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ( J^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

17 


BANDTKE 


258 


BANKS 


Samuel,)  a  Polish  historian,  born  at  Lublin  in  1768,  be- 
came in  181 1  librarian  and  professor  of  bibliography  at 
Cracow.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Polish 
Nation,"  (in  Polish,)  which  is  esteemed  a  standard  work, 
a  "  History  of  Printing  in  Poland,"  and  "  Historico- 
critical  Miscellanies  towards  the  History  of  Oriental 
Europe,"  (in  German,  1802.)    Died  in  1835. 

Bandtke,  (Johann  Vincenz,)  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, born  at  Lublin  in  1783,  was  professor  of  law  at  the 
University  of  Warsaw.  He  published  in  1831  a  collec- 
tion of  Polish  legal  documents,  entitled  "Jus  Poloni- 
cum."    Died  in  185 1. 

Banduri,  bin-doo'ree,  (Anselmo,)  an  Italian  anti- 
quary and  Benedictine  monk,  born  in  Dalmatia  in  1671. 
He  published  "Coins  of  the  Roman  Emperors  from 
Trajan  to  the  Last  Palaeologus,"  (1718,2  vols,  fol.)  Died 
in  Paris  in  1743. 

Bane,  written  also  Benn,  (James,)  became  Archbishop 
of  Sail  it  Andrew's  in  1328.    Died  in  1332. 

Bauel,  bt'n^K,  (Pierre,)  a  French  general,  born  at 
Lectoure  in  1766,  was  killed  at  Cossaria,  in  Piedmont, 
in  1796. 

Baner,  b3,-naiR'  or  bS,-mTR',  written  also  Bannier,  Ba- 
nier,  or  Banner,  (Johan,)  a  celebrated  Swedish  general, 
born  near  Stockholm  in  1595.  Having  served  in  the  Rus- 
sian and  Polish  campaigns  of  1626-29,  he  accompanied 
Gustavus  Adolphus  to  Germany  in  1630,  and  commanded 
under  him  the  right  wing  at  the  memorable  battle  of 
Leipsic.  His  brilliant  achievements  upon  this  occasion 
won  for  him  the  highest  commendations  from  his  sove- 
reign. Being  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  the 
Swedish  army  on  the  death  of  Gustavus,  he  gained  a 
signal  victory  over  the  allied  army  under  the  Elector  of 
Saxony,  near  Wittstock,  in  1636.  He  defeated  the  Im- 
perial troops  near  Chemnitz  in  1639,  and  subsequently 
overran  and  laid  waste  a  great  part  of  Germany.  He 
died  in  1641,  long  before  the  conclusion  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  war,  in  which  he  had  borne  so  distinguished  a 
part.  In  the  words  of  Schiller,  "  He  was  calm  in  dan- 
ger, greater  in  adversity  than  in  prosperity,  and  never 
more  formidable  than  when  he  was  supposed  to  be  on 
the  verge  of  ruin." 

See  Carl  Manderfeldt,  "]£loge  de  J.  Bandr,"  1787;  Schil- 
ler, "  History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War." 

Banes,  bi'nes,  (Domingo,)  a  Spanish  theologian, 
born  at  Valladolid  in  1527;  died  in  1604. 

Banfi,  b^n^fee,  (GiULio,)  an  Italian  lute-player,  who 
was  taken  as  a  prisoner  to  Tunis,  where  his  musical  tal- 
ents procured  for  him  the  favour  of  the  Bey,  who  gave 
him  his  liberty.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  The  Guitar- 
Master,"  (1653.)    Died  about  1670. 

Banfi,  bin''fee,  (Ladislaus,)  Baron,  a  Hungarian 
patriot,  born  in  1795,  was  a  coadjutor  and  intimate 
friend  of  Wesselenyi.  In  the  Diet  of  1839  he  advocated 
the  union  of  Transylvania  with  Hungary.    Died  in  1839. 

Bang,  btng,  (Frederik  Ludwig,)  a  Danish  physician 
and  medical  writer,  born  in  the  island  of  Seeland  in 
1747,  became  in  1782  professor  at  the  University  of  Co- 
penhagen.   Died  in  1820. 

See  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "  Almindeligt  Litteraturlexicon." 

Bang,  (Johan,)  a  Danish  medical  writer,  born  in  1737, 
lived  at  Copenhagen  ;  died  in  1808. 

Bang,  btng,  [Lat.  Ban'gius,]  (Peter,)  a  Swedish 
theologian,  and  professor  of  theology  at  Abo,  born  at 
Helsingborg  in  1633.  He  became  Bishop  of  Viborg 
in  1696.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  Treatise  on  Sacred 
Chronology,"  and  "Ecclesiastical  History  of  Sweden." 
Died  in  1696. 

Bang,  [Lat.  Ban'gius,]  (Thomas,)  a  Danish  philolo- 
gist and  writer,  born  in  the  island  of  Funen  in  1600, 
was  professor  of  Hebrew  and  afterwards  of  theology  at 
Copenhagen.    Died  in  1661. 

See  Moller,  "Cimbria  Literata  ;"  Morhof,  "  Polyhistor." 

Bangs,  (Nathan,)  an  American  Methodist  minister, 
born  in  Fairfield  county,  Connecticut,  in  1778.  He 
preached  in  the  city  of  New  York,  and  was  appointed 
agent  for  Methodist  books  in  1820,  after  which  he  edited 
the  "  Christian  Advocate  and  Journal,"  and  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Wesleyan  University  at  Middletown,  Con- 
necticut. He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,"  (4  vols,  i2mo.) 


Banier.    See  Ban^:r. 

Banier,  bt'ne-a',  (Antoine,)  a  French  litterateur^ 
born  in  Auvergne  in  1673,  wrote  a  work  entitled  "His- 
torical Explanation  of  Fables,"  and  translated  into  French 
Ovid's  "Metamorphoses."    Died  in  1741. 

Banieres,  ba'ne-aiR',  a  versatile  French  genius,  born 
at  Toulouse  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
was  successively  an  ecclesiastic,  lawyer,  soldier,  poet,  and 
comedian.  His  adventures  have  furnished  Dumas  with 
material  for  his  novel  of  "  Olympe  de  Cleves." 

See  Lemazurier,  "Galerie  historique  du  Theatre  Fran^ais." 

Ba'nim,  (John,)  a  celebrated  Irish  novelist,  born  at 
Kilkenny  about  1800.  His  delineations  of  peasant  life 
in  Ireland  are  eminently  vivid  and  truthful,  and  are  re- 
garded as  scarcely  inferior  to  those  of  Miss  Edgeworth. 
Among  his  most  popular  works  are  "  Tales  of  the  O'Hara 
Family,"  (1825,)  "The  Battle  of  the  Boyne,"  (1828,) 
"The  Denounced,"  (1830,)  "The  Smuggler,"  (1831,) 
and  "The  Mayor  of  Wind-Gap."    Died  in  1842. 

See  "Life  of  John  Banim,"  by  Patrick  J.  Murray,  1857;  R.  H. 
HoRNE,  "New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1844. 

Banim,  (Michael,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Kilkenny  about  1796,  was  also  a  writer  of  fiction.  He 
aided  his  brother  in  the  composition  of  "Tales  of  the 
O'Hara  Family,"  and  was  chief  author  of  "  The  Croppy." 
Among  his  works  is  "  Clough  Fionn,  or  the  Stone  of  Des- 
tiny." 

Banister.    See  Bannister,  (John.) 

Ban'is-ter,  (John,)  an  English  surgeon,  born  about 
1550,  wrote,  among  other  treatises,  "The  History  of 
Man,  sucked  from  the  Sappe  of  the  most  approved 
Anathomistes,"  (1578,)  and  "  Antidotarie  Chyrurgicale," 
(1589.)    Died  about  1630. 

Banister,  (John,)  a  distinguished  English  botanist, 
who  travelled  in  the  United  States  and  West  Indies. 
In  1680  he  contributed  a  catalogue  of  Virginian  plants 
to  Ray's  "  History  of  Plants."  The  genus  Banisteria 
was  named  in  his  honour.    Died  about  1689. 

Banister,  (John,)  an  English  violinist,  born  about 
1630.  He  composed  the  music  for  the  opera  of  "  Circe." 
Died  about  1679. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Banister,  (Richard,)  an  English  surgeon,  distin- 
guished for  his  skill  in  the  treatment  of  diseases  of  the 
eye,  in  relation  to  which  he  wrote  several  treatises.  Died 
about  1630. 

Bank-Ban,  bink'ban',  [Lat.  Bancba'nus,]  a  Hun- 
garian nobleman,  who,  in  121 7,  assassinated  Gertrude, 
queen  of  Andrew  II.,  for  having  aided  her  brother  Eck- 
art  to  outrage  his  wife.  Bank-Ban  was  subsequently  put 
to  death.  Katona's  tragedy  of  "  Bank-Ban,"  esteemed 
the  best  drama  in  the  Hungarian  language,  is  founded 
on  this  event. 

Bankert,  van,  vtn  blnk'ert,  (Adrian,)  a  Dutch 
naval  commander,  born  at  Flushing,  fought  against  the 
English  in  1666,  and  in  1672  against  the  united  French 
and  English  fleets.    Died  in  1684. 

Bankert,  (Joseph  van  Trappen — vtn  trSp'pen,)  a 
Dutch  admiral,  father  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Flushing 
about  1590,  fought  in  the  battle  of  Dunkirk,  and  defeated 
the  Portuguese  fleet  near  Brazil  in  1647.  Died  on  his 
voyage  home  the  same  year. 

Bankes,  binks,  (Henry,)  an  English  writer,  born 
about  1757,  published  the  "Civil  and  Constitutional 
History  of  Rome,"  (181 8.)  He  was  a  member  of  Par- 
liament from  1780  to  1826.    Died  in  1835. 

Bankes,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  jurist,  born  at  Kes- 
wick in  1589,  succeeded  Sir  Edward  Littleton  as  lord 
chief  justice  of  common  pleas  under  Charles  I.  in  1640. 
He  supported  the  king  against  the  Parliament,  by  which 
he  was  declared  a  traitor.    Died  in  1644. 

See  Foss,  "  The  Judges  of  England." 

Banks,  bSnks,  (Eduard,)  a  German  diplomatist,  born 
at  Hamburg  in  1796,  became  secretary  of  the  senate, 
(1826,)  syndic  of  Hamburg,  (1837,)  and  was  subsequently 
ambassador  to  London. 

Banks,  (John,)  an  English  dramatist,  was  the  author 
of  tragedies  entitled  "The  Destruction  of  Troy,"  "The 
Rival  Kings,"  "The  Unhappy  Favourite,  or  the  Earl  of 
Essex,"  (1685,)  "Cyrus  the  Great,"  (1696,)  and  others. 

See  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  vcili;  n6t;  good;  moon. 


BANKS 


259* 


BANNISTER 


Banks,  (John,)  born  in  Berkshire,  England,  in  1709, 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Critical  Review  of  the  Life  of 
Oliver  Cromwell."    Died  in  1751. 

Banks,  (Sir  Joseph,)  an  eminent  English  naturalist, 
born  in  London  on  the  4th  of  January,  1743,  was  a  son 
of  William  Banks,  Esq.,  from  whom  he  inherited  an 
easy  fortune.  He  entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in 
1760,  and  left  it  in  1763,  with  an  extensive  knowledge 
of  natural  history,  especially  of  botany.  In  1766  he  was 
chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  in  1768  ac- 
companied Captain  Cook  in  his  voyage  of  discovery 
round  the  world.  His  friend  Dr.  Solander  was  asso- 
ciated with  him  as  naturalist  in  this  expedition.  They 
returned  with  rich  collections  of  natural  objects  in  June, 
1 77 1,  and  intended  to  publish  a  botanical  work;  but  the 
death  of  Solander  prevented  its  completion.  Sir  Joseph 
Banks  explored  Iceland  in  1772.  He  was  president  of 
the  Royal  Society  from  1777  until  1820,  and  distinguished 
himself  as  a  liberal  patron  of  travellers  and  scientific 
men.  Several  voyages  of  discovery  were  performed 
nnder  his  direction  or  favoured  by  his  influence.  He 
laboured  to  diffuse  over  each  region  of  the  earth  the 
productions  of  other  climates.  He  was  knighted  in  1781, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  privy  council  in  1797.  In 
1802  he  was  chosen  an  associate  of  the  Institute  of 
France.  He  published  a  "  Short  Account  of  the  Cause 
of  the  Disease  in  Corn  called  the  Blight,  the  Mildew, 
and  the  Rust,"  (1803,)  and  "Circumstances  relative  to 
Merino  Sheep,"  (1809.)  He  died  in  London  in  1820,  and 
left  no  family.  Cuvier  composed  a  eulogy  on  him,  which 
he  read  at  the  Institute  in  1821. 

See,  also,  Duncan's  "Short  Account  of  the  Life  of  Sir  Joseph 
Banks,"  1821;  "Sir  J.  Banks  and  the  Royal  Society,"  London,  1844. 

Banks,  (Nathaniel  Prentiss,)  an  American  states- 
man and  general,  born  at  Waltham,  Massachusetts,  in 
January,  1816,  was  a  son  of  poor  parents,  and  enjoyed 
few  advantages  of  education.  He  learned  the  trade  of  a 
machinist,  cultivated  his  mind  at  home,  lectured  before 
lyceums,  and  studied  law.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  State  legislature  for  1849  as  a  Democrat,  and  was 
chosen  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  of  Mas- 
sachusetts in  185 1.  In  1852  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  Congress,  in  which  he  voted  against  the  Kansas-Ne- 
braska bill  and  separated  from  his  party  on  the  question 
of  slavery.  He  was  returned  to  Congress  in  November, 
1854,  by  the  Republicans  and  Know-Nothings,  and  was 
selected  as  the  Republican  candidate  for  Speaker  of  the 
House.  After  an  exciting  contest,  which  lasted  more 
than  two  months,  he  was  elected  Speaker  on  the  one 
hundred  and  thirty-third  ballot,  in  February,  1856.  He 
won  a  high  reputation  as  a  presiding  officer. 

In  November,  1857,  he  was  elected  Governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, and  was  re-elected  for  1859  and  i860.  Ori 
the  breaking  out  of  the  rebellion  in  1861,  he  was  ap- 
pointed in  May  a  major-general  of  volunteers,  soon  after 
which  he  commanded  a  separate  army  on  the  Potomac. 
His  army  gained  a  victory  at  Winchester  in  March,  1862, 
and  folK  wed  the  retiring  enemy  to  Harrisonburg.  In 
May  he  was  ordered  to  fall  back  to  Strasburg,  and  a 
large  part  of  his  army  was  withdrawn.  On  the  24th  of 
May  he  was  attacked  by  General  Stonewall  Jackson,  and 
made  a  rapid  retreat  to  the  Potomac,  marching  thirty- 
five  miles  in  a  day.  He  commanded  a  corps  which  under 
the  orders  of  General  Pope  fought  a  severe  battle  at 
Cedar  Mountain,  Virginia,  August  9,  1862.  Both  sides 
claimed  the  victory.  In  December,  1862,  he  superseded 
General  Butler  at  New  Orleans  as  commander  of  the 
Department  of  the  Gulf.  He  took  Opelousas  in  April, 
1863,  and  Alexandria  in  the  ensuing  month,  after  defeat- 
ing the  enemy  and  capturing  two  thousand  prisoners. 
About  the  25th  of  May  he  invested  Port  Hudson,  which 
was  surrendered,  with  about  six  thousand  prisoners,  July  9. 

In  March,  1864,  he  began  to  move  his  army  on  an  ex- 
pedition against  Shreveport,  on  the  Red  River,  in  which 
a  fleet  of  gunboats  and  monitors  under  Rear-Admiral 
Porter  co-operated.  Porter  took  Alexandria  on  the  1 6th 
of  March,  and  about  ten  days  later  Banks  assembled  his 
whole  army  at  that  place,  from  which  he  marched  to 
Grand  Ecore.  On  the  7th  of  April  his  advance  engaged 
the  enemy  at  Pleasant  Hill  and  drove  him  from  the 
held.    The  insurgents  attacked  and  defeated  a  part  of 


his  army  at  Sabine  Cross-Roads  and  Peach  Hill  on  the 
8th.  During  the  next  night  General  Banks  fell  back  to 
Pleasant  Hill,  where  the  enemy  attacked  him  on  the  9th 
and  was  repulsed  with  loss.  The  preservation  of  the 
gunboats  under  Porter  was  mainly  due  to  the  efiicient 
aid  of  Lieutenant-Colonel  Bailey,  who,  by  damming  the 
river,  enabled  the  boats  to  descend  in  safety,  although  the 
water  was  at  this  time  very  low.  The  Li  nion  army,  pressed 
by  superior  numbers,  retreated  to  Alexandria,  which  it 
reached  on  the  27th  of  April  and  evacuated  on  the  14th 
of  May,  1864.  About  that  date  General  Banks  was  re- 
lieved from  the  command.  He  was  elected  a  member  (<{ 
Congress  in  the  autumn  of  1864,  and  re-elected  in  1866 
and  1868.  He  served  as  chairman  of  the  Committee  of 
Foreign  Relations  in  the  Fortieth  Congress. 

Banks,  (Thomas,)  one  of  the  most" eminent  English 
sculptors,  born  at  Lambeth  in  1735.  He  studied  archi- 
tecture for  a  time  under  Kent,  but  he  soon  renounced  it 
for  sculpture.  He  exhibited  in  1771  his  group  of  "  Mer- 
cury, Argos,_and  lo,"  which  was  so  much  admired  that 
he  was  sent  by  the  Academy  in  1772  to  pursue  his  studies 
at  Rome,  While  there  he  produced  his  exquisite  statue 
of  "Psyche  and  the  Butteriiy,"  a  model  of  classic  grace, 
which  was  afterwards  purchased  by  Catherine  II.  of  Rus- 
sia, and  his  group  of  "  Caractacus  before  Claudius,"  also 
esteemed  a  master-piece.  On  the  invitation  of  the  em- 
press Catherine,  he  visited  vSaint  Petersburg  in  1784  ;  but, 
becoming  dissatisfied,  he  returned  to  England,  where  he 
was  soon  after  made  a  Royal  Academician.  Among  his 
other  productions  may  be  named  his  noble  figure  of  the 
"  Mourning  Achilles,"  and  the  monument  to  the  daughter 
of  Sir  Brooke  Boothby,  a  work  of  touching  beauty,  rep- 
resenting a  sleeping  child.  Banks  numbered  among  his 
friends  Flaxman,  Fuseli,  and  Horne  Tooke.  "  He  was," 
says  Cunningham,  "  the  first  of  our  native  sculptors  whose 
aims  were  uniformly  lofty  and  heroic  and  who  desired 
to  bring  poetry  to  the  aid  of  all  his  compositions,  and, 
like  Flaxman,  added  another  to  the  number  of  those  de- 
vout sculptors  whose  purity  of  life  and  reach  of  intellect 
are  an  honour  to  their  country."    Died  in  1805. 

See  Cunningham,  "Lives  of  Painters  and  Sculptors." 

Banks,  (Thomas  Christopher,)  an  English  gene- 
alogist, born  about  1762,  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Stemmata  Anglicana,"  (1825.)    Died  in  1854. 

Ban'na-tyne,  (George,)  born  in  Scotland  in  1545, 
was  the  compiler  of  the  manuscripts  entitled  "  Corpus 
Poeticum  Scotorum."  The  Bannatyne  Club,  designed  to 
promote  the  study  of  Scottish  history  and  antiquities, 
was  founded  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  1823,  and  the  "Me- 
morials of  George  Bannatyne,"  edited  by  Sir  Walter 
conjointly  with  D.  Laing,  appeared  in  1826. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Bannatyne,  (Sir  William,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born 
in  1743,  v^as  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Highland  Society 
of  Scotland,  and  contributed  to  the  "Mirror"  and  the 
"Lounger."    Dietl  in  1834. 

Ban'ne-ker,  (Benjamin,)  a  negro  mathematician  of 
Maryland,  born  in  1 731.  Thomas  Jefterson  sent  a  manu- 
script copy  of  Banneker's  almanac  to  the  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris.  Banneker  assisted  in 
running  the  boundary-lines  of  the  District  of  Columbia 
and  laying  out  Washington  City.  In  1792  he  published  a 
letter  addressed  to  Mr.  Jefferson,  then  secretary  of  state. 
Died  at  Baltimore  in  1806.  Two  sketches  of  his  life  have 
been  published  by  the  Maryland  Historical  Society. 

See  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  January,  1863. 

Banner.    See  Baner. 

Ban'ner-man,  (Alexander,)  an  English  portrait- 
engraver,  born  at  Cambridge  in  1730;  died  about  1800. 

Bannernian,  (Sir  Alexander,)  born  at  Aberdeen  in 
1783,  was  appointed  Governor  of  Newfoundland  in  1857. 

Eannier.    See  Ban6r. 

Ban''nis-ter  or  Bau'is-ter,  (John,)  a  distinguished 
comic  actor,  born  in  London  in  1760;  died  in  1836. 
See  John  Adolphus,  "Memoirs  of  John  Banister,"  2  vols.,  1829. 

Ban'nis-ter,  (William  B.,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
merchant,  was  born  in  Brookfield,  Massachusetts,  in 
1774,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  in  1783.  He 
died  in  1853,  and  left  forty  thousand  dollars  to  charitable 
institutions. 


€  as  y^;  9  as  s;  §  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttitral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled:  s  as  z:  tb  as  in  this.    (^^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


26o  BARALT 


BANNITZA 


Bannitza,  Mn-nit'sa,  (Joseph  Leo,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  at  Wurzburg  in  1733  ;  died  in  1800. 

Ban'quo,  a  Scottish  chieftain  of  the  eleventh  century, 
was  Thane  of  Lochaber,  and  the  acconipHce  of  Macbeth 
in  the  murder  of  King  Duncan.  He  was  assassinated  by 
Macbeth  in  1066,  but  his  son  Fleance  escaped,  and  from 
him  the  house  of  Stuart  derives  its  origin.  Shakspeare, 
in  his  tragedy  of  "  Macbeth,"  has  somewhat  altered  the 
facts  of  history  with  regard  to  Banquo. 

See  Guthrie,  "History  of  Scotland;"  Burton,  "History  of 
Scotland." 

Banti,  bSn'tee,  or  Bandi,  bSuMee,  (Georgina  Bri- 
GIDA,)  a  celebrated  Italian  vocalist,  born  at  Crema  in 
1757  ;  died  in  1806. 

Banzer,  bant'ser,  (Mark,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  at  Augsburg  in  1592;  died  in  1644. 

Ba'o-dan',  King  of  Ireland,  began  to  reign  about  565 
A.D.    He  was  killed  soon  after  by  Colman. 

Baour-Lormian,  bt'oor'  lor'me'5N',  (Pierre  Marie 
FRANgois  Louis,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Toulouse 
in  1770.  He  wrote  an  imitation  of  Ossian's  poems,  which 
attracted  the  favourable  notice  of  Napoleon,  also  a  num- 
ber of  poems  and  dramas,  and  translated  Tasso's  "Jeru- 
salem Delivered"  into  French  verse.  He  was  admitted 
into  the  French  Academy  in  1815.    Died  in  1857. 

Ba'phi-us,  a  Greek,  who  wrote  "Commentaries  on 
the  Basilica,"  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  1050  A.D. 

Ba-phom'e-tus,  the  name  of  a  personage  mentioned 
in  the  documents  of  the  Gnostics,  Templars,  and  Free- 
masons of  the  middle  ages,  conjectured  by  some  to  have 
been  Mohammed. 

Bapst,  bSpst,  or  Pabst,  papst,  (Michael,)  a  German 
physician  and  writer,  born  at  Rochlitz  in  1 540;  died  in 
1603. 

Baptista,  bip-t^s'tS,  or  Battista,  bit-t^s't^,  a  learned 
Italian  lady  and  nun  of  the  order  of  Santa  Clara,  was  of 
the  family  of  Malatesta.    Died  in  1447. 

Baptista  or  Battista,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  theologian,  born  at  Naples  ;  died  in  1675. 

Baptiste,  (Jean.)    See  Monoyer. 

Baptiste,  btp't^;st',  (John  Gaspard,)  a  Flemish  paint- 
er, a  pupil  of  Boschaert,  born  at  Antwerp;  died  in  1691. 

Baptiste, btp'test',  (Nicolas  Anselme,)  the  Elder, 
a  French  actor,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1761,  enjoyed  a  high 
reputation,  particularly  in  comedy.    Died  in  1835. 

Baptiste,  (Paul  Eustache  Anselme,)  called  the 
Younger,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  likewise  distin- 
guished as  a  comic  actor.    Died  in  1839. 

Baptistin.    See  Battistin. 

Baquoy,  bt'kwi',  (Jean  Charles,)  a  French  en- 
graver, born  in  Paris  in  172 1.  He  executed  the  vig- 
nettes for  an  edition  of  Ovicl's  "Metamorphoses,"  Died 
in  1777. 

Baquoy,  (Maurice,)  a  French  engraver,  father  of  the 
preceding,  born  about  1680;  died  in  Paris  in  1747. 

Baquoy,  (Pierre  Charles,)  son  of  Jean  Charles, 
noticed  above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1759.  His  engraving 
after  Le  Sueur's  "  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Gervais  and  Saint 
Protais"  is  esteemed  his  master-piece.    Died  in  1829. 

Bar,  baR,  (Georg  Ludwig,)  Baron  of,  a  German 
writer,  born  in  Westphalia  about  1701  ;  died  in  1767. 

Bar,  btR,  (Jean  Etienne,)  a  French  advocate,  born 
at  Anneville  in  1748.  Being  elected  to  the  National  Con- 
vention, he  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king,  and,  after  the 
fall  of  Robespierre,  became  secretary  of  the  Convention. 
He  was  subsequently  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred,  and  president  of  the  civil  tribunal  of  Thion- 
ville.    Died  in  1801. 

See  Le  Bas,  "Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Bar,  de,  deh  btR,  (Adrien  Aime  Fleury — fluh're',) 
a  French  general,  born  at  Thiais  in  1783,  served  in  the 
princi])al  campaigns  of  the  first  empire,  and  subsequently 
distinguished  himself  in  Algeria.  He  became  lieutenant- 
general  in  1844,  and  a  senator  in  1852.    Died  in  1861. 

Bar,  de,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  Benedictine  monk 
and  ecclesiastical  writer,  born  near  Saint-Quentin  in 
1538  ;  died  in  1606. 

Bar,  de,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  painter  of  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

Bar  or  Baer,  baiR,  [Lat.  B/e'rius,]  (Nicholaus,)  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Bremen  in  1639,  wrote  Latin 


poems  on  natural  history,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "  Or* 
nithophonia."    Died  in  1714. 

Bar  or  Baer,  von,  fon  baiR,  (Karl  Ernst,)  an  eminent 
Russian  naturalist,  of  German  extraction,  born  in  Esthonia 
in  February,  1792.  He  studied  at  Dorpat,  and  in  1819  be- 
came professor  of  zoology  at  Konigsberg,  where  he  found- 
ed a  zoological  museum.  In  1837  he  made  a  voyage  to 
Nova  Zembla,  of  which  he  afterwards  gave  an  account  in 
the  "Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg." 
Among  his  principal  works  (in  German)  are  a  "History 
of  the  Development  of  Animals,"  (2  vols.,  1828-37,)  and 
"  Researches  on  the  Development  of  Fishes,"  (1835.) 
Since  1834  he  has  been  a  resident  of  Saint  Petersburg, 
and  librarian  at  the  Academy  of  Sciences  there.  He 
made  important  discoveries  in  zoology  and  physiology. 

See  a  sketch  of  his  life,  by  himself,  Saint  Petersburg,  1865;  also 
a  notice  in  the  "London  Quarterly"  for  April,  1867. 

Barabas,b6r'6-b6sh,(NicoLAUS,)  a  Hungarian  painter, 
born  in  Transylvania  in  1810.  Among  his  best  works 
are  portraits  of  Baron  Wesselenyi,  Klapka,  and  Gorgey. 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  at 
Vienna,  and  of  the  Hungarian  Academy,  (1837.) 

Ba''ra-eh  or  Ba'rak,  [Heb.  p"^3,]  a  judge  of  the 
Hebrews,  and  son  of  Abinoam,  flourished  about  1240 
B.C.  Having,  with  the  assistance  of  Deborah,  defeated 
Sisera  and  delivered  his  people  from  the  yoke  of  the 
Canaanites,  he  ruled  over  Israel.    (See  Judges  iv.) 

Baradaeus,  bS-ri-dee'us,  (Jacobus,)  som.etimes  called 
Zan'zalus,  a  monk  who  distinguished  himself  by  his 
zeal  in  reviving  the  heresy  of  the  Monophysites  or  Euty- 
chians.  He  was  by  his  followers  (called  Jacobites)  made 
Bishop  of  Edessa.    Died  in  588  a.d. 

Baraguey  d'HUliers,  bt'rt'gi'  de'ye-y  or  dhVye-b/y 
(Achille,)  a  French  marshal,  son  of  Louis,  noticed  be- 
low, born  in  1795,  was  aide-de-camp  to  Marshal  Mar- 
mont  in  1813.  Having  served  successively  in  Austria, 
Spain,  and  Algeria,  he  was  made  lieutenant-general  in 
1843.  appointed  under  Louis  Napoleon  one  of 

the  vice-presidents  of  the  senate,  and  obtained  the  grand 
cross  of  the  legion  of  honour.  He  was  created  in  1854 
marshal  of  France. 

Baraguey  d'Hilliers,  (Louis,)  a  French  general, 
born  in  Paris  in  1764,  served  in  the  Italian  campaigns  of 
1796-97.  Having  been  created  inspector-general  of  in- 
fantry (1801)  and  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour, 
(1804,)  he  commanded  the  dragoons  in  the  invasion  of 
Austria  in  1805.  Appointed  governor  of  Venice  in  1808, 
he  shared  with  the  viceroy  Eugene  in  the  victory  of  Raab. 
As  commander  of  a  division  of  the  Russian  army  in  1812, 
he  had  the  misfortune  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy, 
with  the  greater  part  of  his  forces.  For  this  he  was  sus- 
pended from  his  functions  by  Napoleon,  and  died  soon 
after,  of  mortification. 

See  "  Victoires  at  Conquetes  des  Frangais." 

Barahona,  b3.-ra.-o'na,  (Pedro,)  sur named  Valde- 
viESO,  v^l-di-ve-a'so,  a  Spanish  theologian  and  religious 
writer  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Barahona  y  Soto,  or  Baraona  y  Soto,  de,  di 
b§,-ra-o'ni  e  so'to,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  poet  and  physician 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  born  at  Lucena,  in  Andalusia. 
He  wrote  a  continuation  of  the  "  Orlando  Furioso,"  en- 
titled "  The  Tears  of  Angelica,"  which  is  eulogized  by 
Cervantes  in  "  Don  Quixote,"  also  a  number  of  satires 
and  eclogues,  and  translated  some  of  Ovid's  works  into 
Spanish.    Died  about  1586. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Baraillon,  bt'rt'y6N',  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French 
physician,  statesman,  and  writer,  born  at  Vierzat,  in 
Auvergne,  in  1743.  He  was  elected  in  1792  to  the  Con- 
vention, where  he  voted  for  the  imprisonment  of  the 
king.  He  was  afterwards  secretary  of  the  Council  of 
Five  Hundred,  and  in  1801  president  of  the  legislative 
body.    Died  in  1816. 

Baraldi,  bS-riKdee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  litterateur^ 
born  in  1778  ;  died  in  1832. 

Baralt,  ba-rait',  (Rafael  Maria,)  a  Spanish- Ameri- 
can writer,  born  at  Maracaibo  about  1810.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  "  History  of  Venezuela  from  its  Dis 
covery  to  1797,"  (i  vol.,  1841.)  Two  additional  volumes, 
bringing  it  down  to  1837,  were  subsequently  written  by 
Baralt,  conjointly  with  Ramon  Diaz. 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  lo/tg;  a,  e,  ('),  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moonj 


BARANOF 


BARBARIGO 


Barauof,  M-ri'nof,  (Alexander  Andrevitch,) 
governor  of  the  Russian  possessions  in  the  northwest- 
ern part  of  America,  founded  in  1796  a  colony  at  Behring 
Strait.  He  was  ennobled  by  the  emperor  Alexander. 
Died  in  181 9. 

Baranovitch,  bi-rS.'no-vitch,  (Lazar,)  a  Russian 
theologian,  became  Archbishop  of  Tchernigov.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  poem  "  On  the  Vicissitudes  of  Human 
Life,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1693. 

Baranovski,  bi-ri-nov'skee,  [Lat.  Barano'vius,] 
(Albert,)  a  Polish  archbishop  of  Gnesen  under  the  reign 
of  Sigismund  HI.    Died  in  161 5. 

Baranovski,  (Stanislas,)  of  Rzeplin,  a  Polish  bio- 
graphical writer  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Barante,  de,  deh  bt'rdNt',  (Amable  Guillaume 
Prosper  Brugiere — bRu''zhe-aiR',)  a  French  statesman, 
an  excellent  historian  and  miscellaneous  writer,  son  of 
Claude  Ignace,  (the  second  of  that  name,)  noticed  below, 
was  born  at  Riom  in  1782.  He  was  appointed  mider 
Louis  XVHL  general  secretary  in  the  ministry  of  the 
interior,  and  in  1 819  made  a  peer  of  France.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "  Picture  of  French  Literature  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  (1808,)  "Literary  Miscellanies," 
(1836,)  and  "History  of  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy,"  (13 
vols.,  1826.)  The  last-named  work  has  a  high  reputa- 
tion. He  also  published  a  "  History  of  the  National 
Convention,"  (1853,)  and  translated  Schiller's  dramas. 
In  1828  he  succeeded  Deseze  in  the  French  Academy. 
Died  in  December,  1866. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  Prosper  de  Barante," by  Guizot,  1867. 

Barante,  de,  (Claude  Ignace  Brugiere,)  a  French 
critic  and  dramatist,  born  at  Riom,  in  Auvergne,  in  1670 ; 
died  in  1745. 

Barante,  de,  (Claude  Ignace  Brugiere,)  Baron, 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Riom  in  1745.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  an  "  Examination  of  the 
Fundamental  Principle  of  Rochefoucauld's  Maxims," 
(1798.)    Died  in  1814. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Baranzano,  bi-r^n-zi^no,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  sur- 
named  Redemp'tus,  a  Piedmontese  monk  and  philoso- 
pher, born  in  the  diocese  of  Vercelli  in  1590,  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Annecy.  He  opposed  the 
doctrines  of  Aristotle,  and  was  the  author  of  "  Urano- 
scopia,"  and  other  works,  in  Latin.  He  was  a  friend  and 
correspondent  of  Lord  Bacon.    Died  in  1622. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Niceron,  "  Me- 
moires." 

Baraona  y  Soto.    See  Barahona  y  Soto. 

Barat,  bt'rt',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born 
at  Boiirges,  aided  Thomassin  in  his  "  Glossarium  He- 
braicum."    Died  in  1706. 

Baratier,  bt'rt'te-i',  written  alsoBarretier,(JoHANN 
Philipp,)  a  German  youth,  of  French  extraction,  cele- 
brated for  precocity  of  intellect,  was  born  near  Nurem- 
berg in  1 72 1.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  had  mastered 
Latin  and  Greek  and  the  principal  Oriental  tongues, 
and  translated  from  the  Hebrew  into  French  the  travels 
of  Benjamin  of  Tudela.  In  1735  he  was  created  master 
of  arts  by  the  University  of  Halle,  where  he  publicly 
defended  fourteen  theses.  He  died  in  1 740,  at  the  age 
of  nineteen. 

See  J.  H.  S.  Formey,  "Viede  J.  P.  Baratier,"  1741 ;  F.  Bara- 
tier, "  Nachricht  von  seinem  friihzeitig  gelehrten  Sohne,"  1728  ;  Dr. 
Johnson's  Works,  vol.  xii.,  1812. 

Baratta,  bi-rSt'ta,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  at  Massa  di  Carrara.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"  Hercules,"  and  a  colossal  statue  intended  to  represent 
the  river  La  Plata.    Died  in  1666. 

Baratta,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Genoa,  removed  to  Rome  in  1824. 

Baratta,  (Pietro,)  a  Venetian  sculptor,  lived  in  the 
second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Barattieri,b&-rSt-te-a'ree,(BARTOLOMMEO,)  an  Italian 
jurist  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  native  of  Placen- 
tia.    He  composed  a  work  "  On  Feudal  Law." 

Baratynski,  ba-ri-tin'skee,  (Abram,)  an  eminent 
Russian  poet,  the  friend  and  contemporary  of  Pushkin, 
resided  during  his  youth  in  Saint  Petersburg.  He  after- 
wards spent  eight  years  in  the  military  service  in  Finland. 
His  poem  entitled  "  The  Gypsy"  is  a  charming  picture 


of  Russian  life,  and  enjoys  great  popularity.  He  pub- 
lished in  1833  his  complete  works,  in  two  volumes.  Died 
in  1844. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Barba,  baR'bl,  (Alvarez  Alonso,)  a  Spanish  eccle- 
siastic, who  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  was  the  author  of  a  "  Treatise  on  Metallurgy," 
(1640,)  which  was  translated  into  French  and  German. 

Barba,  baR'b^,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  advocate  and 
prelate,  born  at  Naples,  was  one  of  the  twelve  consisto- 
rial  advocates  at  Rome.  He  published  a  treatise  "  On 
the  Art  and  Method  of  Languages,"  (1734.)  Died  about 
1745- 

Barba,  (Juan  Sanchez,)  a  Spanish  sculptor,  whose 
principal  work  is  a  statue  of  the  "  Dying  Saviour,"  at 
the  convent  della  Merced  at  Madrid.    Died  in  1670. 

Barba,  (Pedro,)  professor  of  medicine  at  Valladolid, 
became  in  162 1  first  physician  to  Philip  IV.  of  Spain. 

Barba,  della,  d^Kli  baR'bS,  (Pompeo,)  an  Italian 
naturalist  and  writer  of  the  sixteenth  century,  born  at 
Pescia,  was  physician  to  Pope  Pius  IV.    Died  in  1582. 

Barbacena,  baR-bi-sa'ni,  (F.  Caldeira  Brant — 
kai-da'c-ri.  brint,)  Marquis  of,  a  Brazilian  diplomatist 
and  soldier,  born  at  Sabora  in  1772.  He  was  appointed 
by  the  Emperor  of  Brazil  to  conduct  the  negotiations  in 
relation  to  the  independence  of  that  country,  with  Por- 
tugal, and  was  afterwards  minister  of  finance.  Barbacena 
was  the  first  to  introduce  steamboats  and  steam-engines 
into  Brazil.     Died  in  1842. 

Barbadillo,  baR-bi-D^Kyo,  (Alfonso  Geronimo  de 
Salas — da  si'lis,)  a  Spanish  novelist  and  dramatic  wri- 
ter, born  at  Madrid  about  1580,  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Cervantes,  whose  style  he  imitated.    Died  in  1630. 

See  TiciCNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Baena,  "  Hijos 
de  Madrid." 

Barbadino,  baR-bi-dee'no,  a  Portuguese  writer  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  work  on  the 
"  True  Method  of  being  Useful  to  the  Church  and  State." 

Barbadoro,  baR-bS-do^ro,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Ital- 
ian scholar  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  native  of 
Florence.  In  conjunction  with  Jerome  Mei,  he  discov- 
ered the  "  Electra"  of  Euripides  and  the  "  Agamemnon" 
of  .^Eschylus,  subsequently  published  by  P.  Victorius. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Barbalho  Bezerra,  baR-bSKyo  bi-zgr'rS,  (Agos- 
TINHO,)  a  Brazilian  traveller,  born  at  Saint  Paul.  He 
was  appointed  general  superintendent  of  the  mines  of 
Brazil  in  1664,  and  explored  that  region  in  search  of 
precious  stones.    Died  about  1667. 

Barbalunga.    See  Ricci. 

Barbangois,  de,  deh  btR^bSN^sw^',  (Charles  He- 
lion — k'le'oN',)  Marquis,  a  French  nobleman  and  agri- 
cultural writer,  born  near  Chateauroux  in  1760.  He 
was  the  first  who  introduced  Spanish  sheep  into  France, 
(1776.)    Died  in  1822. 

Barbangon,  de,  deh  btR^b6N^s6N',  (Marie,)  a  French 
lady  of  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  cele- 
brated for  her  brave  defence  of  her  castle  against  Mon- 
tare,  governor  of  Bourbonnais. 

Barbanegre,  btR'bt'nigR',  (Jo^jefh,)  Baron  of,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Poutacq,  in  Basses-Pyrenees,  in 
1772.  He  served  in  Napoleon's  Austrian  and  Russian 
campaigns,  and  in  1815  bravely  defended  Huningen 
against  the  allies  for  nearly  two  months.    Died  in  1830. 

Bar'ba-ra,  Saint,  [Fr.  Sainte-Barbe,  siNt'btRb,] 
a  celebrated  martyr,  supposed  to  have  been  contempo- 
rary with  Origen  and  to  have  been  instructed  by  him. 
According  to  some  writers,  she  suffered  death  under 
Galerius ;  while  others  state  that  she  was  martyred  at 
Nicomedia  in  the  reign  of  Maximin  I. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson's  "Sacred  and  Legendary  Art;"  Mor^ri, 
"  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Barbarelli.    See  Giorgione. 

Barbarigo,  baR-b§.-ree'go, [Lat.  Barb ari'cus,]  ( Agos- 
tino,)  became  Doge  of  Venice  in  i486.  During  his  rule 
Italy  was  invaded  by  Charles  VIII.  of  France,  the  Turks 
deprived  Venice  of  her  Greek  provinces,  and  Cyprus 
was  reunited  to  the  Venetian  republic,  on  condition  of 
the  payment  of  an  annual  tribute  of  eight  thousand 
ducats  to  the  queen  of  that  island.    Died  in  1501. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  vl,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BARBARIGO 


262 


BARBAVLT 


Barbarigo,  [Lat.  Barbari'cus,]  (Gregorio,)  born  in 
Venice  in  1625,  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1660.  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  learning  and  piety,  and  for  his  libe- 
ral patronage  of  literature.    Died  in  1697. 

See  RiccHiNi,  "De  Vitaac  Rebus  gestis  B.  G.  Barbarici,"  1761. 

Barbarigo,  {Niccol6,)  a  relative  of  Agostino,  was 
ambassador  from  Venice  to  Constantinople.  He  wrote, 
in  Latin,  the  lives  of  the  doge  Andrea  Gritti  and  of 
Cardinal  Contarini.    Died  in  1579. 

Barbarini,  (Francesco.)    See  Barberini. 

Barbaro,  baR'ba-ro,  (Daniello,)  an  Italian  ecclesi- 
astic of  the  sixteenth  century,  born  at  Venice,  was  the 
author  of  a  treatise  "  On  Eloquence,"  and  of  one  "  On 
the  Architecture  of  Vitruvius,"  (1556.)    Died  in  1570. 

Barbaro,  (Ermolao,)  an  Italian  prelate,  born  at 
Venice  about  1410,  became  Bishop  of  Treviso  in  i4-}.3. 
He  made  a  Latin  translation  of  iEsop's  "  Fables,"  (un- 
published.)   Died  in  1471. 

Barbaro  or  Bar'barus,  (Ermolao  or  Hermolaus,) 
an  Italian  diplomatist  and  scholar,  born  at  Venice  in 
1454,  was  a  grandson  of  Francesco,  mentioned  below. 
He  studied  under  Pomponius  Laetus,  and  in  1477  be- 
came professor  of  philosophy  at  Padua.  He  was  after- 
wards employed  on  several  important  embassies.  Among 
his  principal  works  is  a  critical  commentary  on  Pliny's 
"Natural  History,"  entitled  "  Castigationes  Plinianae." 
He  also  made  translations  from  Dioscorides  and  Aris- 
totle into  Latin.    Died  in  1493. 

See  Teissier,  "  ^logesdes  Savants  ;"  Niceron,  "  Memoires." 

Barbaro,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  scholar,  orator, 
and  statesman,  born  at  Venice  in  1398,  rose  through 
several  offices  to  be  procurator  of  Saint  Mark.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "  Treatise  on  Marriage,"  and  of  other 
works,  in  Latin.    Died  in  1454. 

See  Ghilini,  "Teatro  de'  Uomini  letterati." 

Barbaro,  (Josaphat,)  a  Venetian  traveller  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  His  "  Journey  to  the  Tanais,  Persia, 
India,  and  Constantinople"  (1543)  is  to  be  found  in 
Ramusio's  "Collection  of  Travels."    Died  in  1494. 

See  M azzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Barbarossa.    See  Frederick  I.  of  Germany. 

Bar-ba-ros'sa,*  the  name  of  two  brothers,  who,  as 
corsairs,  were  the  terror  of  Christendom  during  almost 
the  whole  of  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
elder,  Arooj,  Horush,  or  Horuc,  was  a  native  of 
Mitylene.  Having  embraced  the  Mohammedan  religion 
and  commenced  his  career  as  a  corsair,  he  at  length  be- 
came (about  1 5 17)  ruler  of  a  large  portion  of  what  is  now 
known  as  Algeria.  In  1518  Charles  V.  sent  an  army  of 
Spaniards  against  Arooj,  who,  after  displaying  the  most 
desperate  courage,  was  defeated  and  slain. 

His  brother  Hadher,  (hSd'er,)  usually  known  by  his 
surname  Khair-ed-Deen,  (or  -eddin,)  klR^ed-deen^ 
{i.e.  the  "good  of  the  faith,")  was  immediately  after  the 
death  of  Arooj  proclaimed  ruler  of  Algiers.  In  order 
to  resist  the  Spaniards,  he  offered  the  sovereignty  of 
Algiers  to  the  Turkish  sultan,  Selim  I.,  on  condition  of 
being  made  viceroy  and  obtaining  reinforcements  of 
troops.  A  body  of  two  thousand  janissaries  was  sent  to 
him  in  15 19,  and  the  dominion  of  Turkey  from  that  time 
was  established  in  Algiers.  In  1532  Barbarossa,  on  the 
solicitation  of  the  people  of  Tunis,  drove  away  their 
king,  Muley  Hassan,  and  assumed  the  chief  power. 
Being  appointed  "capudan  pasha,"  or  great  admiral,  by 
Solyman,  he  ravaged  the  coast  of  Italy  in  1534,  but  was 
soon  after  defeated  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  and  his 
celebrated  admiral,  Doria,  who  captured  Tunis.  The 
French  king,  Francis  I.,  having  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  Sultan  against  Charles  V.,  their  united  forces  laid 
sisge  in  1543  to  Nice,  which  they  obliged  to  capitulate. 
Barbarossa  died  at  Constantinople  in  1546. 

See  Morgan,  "History  of  Algiers;"  Robertson,  "Charles  V.," 
chaps.  V.  and  vi. 

Barbarossa,  baR-ba-ros'sl,  (Paolo  Emilio,)  an  Ital- 
ian poet  and  mystic,  born  at  Trapani ;  died  in  1614. 
Barbaroux,  btR'bt'roo',  (Charles  Jean  Marie,)  a 


*  Derived,  according  to  some  writers,  from  barba,  "beard,"  and 
rossa,  (Italian,)  "  red,"  from  the  colour  of  their  beard  ;  but,  according 
to  others,  Barbarossa  is  a  corruption  of  Baba  ("father")-//<?r?<5/z, 
the  name  by  which  Arooj  was  commonly  called  by  his  followers. 


prominent  member  of  the  Girondist  party  during  the 
'  French  Revolution,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1767.  He  had 
already  distinguished  himself  by  his  eloquence  as  an 
advocate,  when  he  became  in  1791  deputy-extraordinary 
from  Marseilles  to  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  Paris, 
and  there  formed  an  intimacy  with  Vergniaud,  Roland, 
and  other  distinguished  revolutionists.  Elected  after- 
wards to  the  National  Convention,  he  denounced  Ro- 
bespierre and  his  colleagues,  and,  during  the  trial  of  the 
king,  voted  for  his  death,  but  with  the  appeal  to  the 
people.  After  the  proscription  of  the  Girondists  by  the 
Jacobins,  in  May,  1 793,  Barbaroux  left  Paris,  but,  having 
concealed  himself  for  some  days  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Bordeaux,  was  at  length  discovered,  and  guillotined 
in  that  city  in  1794. 

See  his  "Memoires,"  1822;  Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Giron- 
dists." 

Barbaroux,  (Charles  Oger,)  a  French  advocate 
and  writer,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Marseilles  in 
1792.  He  published  a  part  of  his  father's  "  Memoires," 
(1822,)  a  "History  of  the  United  States,"  (1824,)  and 
other  works.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Council 
of  State  in  1849,  and  became  Senator  in  1858. 

Barbat.    See  Barbut. 

Barbatelli.    See  Poccetti. 

Barbato,  baR-bi'to,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Padua.  He  edited  Tasso's  great  poem,  and 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Tasso,"  (1628.) 

Barbato,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  medical  writer,  first 
discovered  the  serum  of  the  blood,  on  which  he  wrote  a 
treatise,  (1667.) 

Barbatus.    See  Asclepius,  (Nicholas.) 

Bar-ba'tus,  (M.  PIoratius,)  a  Roman  of  the  Hora- 
tian  gens,  who,  having  distinguished  himself  by  his  oppo- 
sition to  the  second  decemvirate,  became,  with  Valerius 
Poplicola,  the  leader  of  the  plebeian  party.  They  were 
conjointly  elected  consuls  in  449  B.C.,  and  during  their 
consulship  were  passed  the  laws  entitled  "  Valerias  Ho- 
ratiiB  Leges,"  confirming  the  liberties  of  the  people. 

Bar'bauld,  [Fr.  pron.  btR^bo',]  (Anna  L^titia,)  an 
English  writer,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1743.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  the  Rev.  John  Aikin,  by  whom  she  was 
early  instructed  in  the  classics.  In  1773  she  brought  out 
a  collection  of  poems,  which  immediately  gave  her  a  high 
reputation,  and  which  passed  through  four  editions  in 
one  year.  This  was  soon  followed  by  "Miscellaneous 
Pieces  in  Prose,"  written  conjointly  with  her  brother,  Dr. 
John  Aikin.  Miss  Aikin  was  married  in  1774  to  the 
Rev.  Rochemont  Barbauld,  a  dissenting  divine  of  French 
extraction,  who  a  short  time  after  opened  a  school  for 
boys  at  Palgrave,  in  Suffolk.  About  this  time  Mrs. 
Barbauld  wrote,  for  the  use  of  a  few  pupils  under  her 
charge,  "  Hymns  in  Prose  for  Children,"  which  are  full 
of  poetic  feeling  and  moral  beauty.  In  1775  she  pub- 
lished "  Devotional  Pieces,"  and  "  Early  Lessons  ;"  the 
latter,  intended  for  young  children,  was  received  with 
great  favour,  and  still  retains  its  popularity.  In  1791 
she  wrote  a  poetical  epistle  to  Wilberforce  on  the  rejec- 
tion of  the  bill  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  and  in 
1792  "  Remarks  on  Mr.  Gilbert  Wakefield's  Inquiry  into 
the  Expediency,  etc.  of  Public  or  Social  Worship." 
She  brought  out  in  1793  a  sermon  entitled  "The  Sins  of 
the  Government  the  Sins  of  the  Nation,"  which,  as  well 
as  the  preceding  treatises,  displays  great  ability  and  the 
strongest  love  of  justice.  Among  Mrs.  Barbauld's  other 
productions  may  be  named  her  poem  entitled  "  Eighteen 
Hundred  and  Eleven,"  and  her  contributions  to  the 
popular  work  "Evenings  at  Home."  She  also  pub- 
lished a  selection  from  the  "  Spectator,"  "  Tatler,"  and 
"  Guardian,"  with  a  preliminary  essay  which  shows  great 
critical  acuteness,  and  wrote  a  life  of  the  novelist  Richard- 
son, accompanied  by  the  most  interesting  parts  of  his 
correspondence.  She  died  in  1825.  Mrs.  Barbauld's 
books  for  children  are  among  the  most  useful  and  attract- 
ive of  their  kind,  and  her  writings  are  all  characterized 
by  the  elevated  morality  and  deep  devotional  feeling 
which  were  so  conspicuous  in  her  life. 

See  "Life  of  Mrs.  Barbauld,"  prefixed  to  her  works,  by  Lucy 
Aikin;  Mrs.  Elwood,  "Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  Eng- 
land," etc.,  vol.  i.,  1843. 

Barbault,  btR'bS',  (Antoine  Franqois,)  a  French 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  lojig;,  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moonj 


BARBAVLT 


263 


BARBETRAC 


surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1705.  He  was  the  author  of 
"  Principles  of  Surgery,"  and  other  works  of  the  kind. 
Died  in  1784. 

Barbault-Royer,  btR'bo'  Rw^^yi',  (P.  F.),  a  West 
Indian  diplomatist  and  journalist,  (of  the  coloured  race,) 
was  engaged  in  the  insurrection  of  Saint  Domingo  in 
1792.  Being  sent  to  France  with  complaints  against  the 
colonial  government,  he  was  unable  even  to  obtain  a 
hearing  from  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred.  He  was 
afterwards  associate  editor  of  the  official  journal  of  the 
Directory  in  France,  and  was  employed  in  the  ministry 
of  foreign  affairs. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Barbazan,  btR'bt'zSN'',  (Etienne,)  a  French  writer, 
born  in  the  diocese  of  Auxerre  in  1696,  published,  among 
other  works,  "  Fables  and  Stories  of  the  French  Poets 
from  the  Eleventh  to  the  Sixteenth  Centuries,"  (1756.) 
Died  in  1770. 

Barbazan,de,  deh  btR''bt'z6N'',{ARNAULD  Guilhem,) 
Sire,  a  celebrated  French  soldier,  was  one  of  the  most 
active  defenders  of  the  cause  of  Charles  VH.  against  the 
Burgundian  faction.  In  1430  he  defeated  the  united 
English  and  Burgundian  army  at  La  Croisette,  for  which 
service  he  was  made  governor  of  Champagne  and  Brie 
and  received  the  title  of  restorer  of  the  kingdom  and 
crown  of  France.    Died  in  1432. 

See  Du  Chene,  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  du  Plessis  de  Richelieu." 

Barbe,  btRb,  (Philippe,)  a  learned  French  priest, 
born  in  London  in  1723,  translated  some  of  the  Greek 
Fathers.    Died  in  France  in  1792, 

See  Mathieu,  "Notice  sur  le  Pere  Barbe." 

Barbe,  Sainte.    See  Barbara,  Saint. 

Barbe-Marbois.    See  Marbois. 

Barbe-Radziwil.    See  Radziwil. 

Barbeau  de  la  Bruyere,  btR'bo'  deh  It  bRii'yaiR', 
(Jean  Louis,)  born  in  Paris  in  1710,  published  a  valu- 
able "Historical  Chart,"  (1750,)  and  translated  from  the 
German  of  Strahlemberg  the  "  Description  of  the  Russian 
Empire."    Died  in  1 781. 

Barbedette-Chermelais,  btRb'dgt'  sh^Rni'li',  (Jo- 
seph Jean,)  a  distinguished  French  jurist,  born  in  the 
department  of  Ille-et-Vilaine  in  1784;  died  in  1826. 

Bar'ber,  (Francis,)  an  American  officer,  born  at 
Princeton,  New  Jersey,  in  1751.  He  became  in  1769 
rector  of  an  academy  at  Elizabethtown,  and  gained  a 
high  reputation  as  a  teacher.  General  Alexander  Hamil- 
ton was  one  of  his  pupils.  He  entered  the  army  in  1776, 
obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  same  year, 
and  served  in  the  battles  of  Trenton,  Princeton,  Bran- 
dy wine,  and  Monmouth.  Li  1781  he  was  selected  by 
General  Washington  to  suppress  a  mutiny  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania and  New  Jersey  troops,  and  performed  that 
mission  with  success.  Colonel  Barber  was  killed  acci- 
dentally at  Newburg,  New  York,  in  1783. 

Bar^ber,  (John,)  an  English  lawyer  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Archbishop  Cranmer. 
He  was  a  contributor  to  the  compilation  entitled  "Ne- 
cessary Doctrine  and  Erudition  of  a  Christian  Man." 

Barber,  (John  W.,)  an  American  writer,  born  in 
Windsor,  Connecticut,  in  1798.  His  principal  works 
are  "  Connecticut  Historical  Collections,"  (1836,)  "  Mas- 
sachusetts Historical  Collections,"  (1839,)  and  "European 
Historical  Collections,"  (1855.)  In  conjunction  with 
Henry  Howe,  of  New  Haven,  he  has  also  published 
"Historical  Collections"  of  New  York,  (1841,)  New 
Jersey,  (1844,)  Virginia,  (1844,)  and  Ohio,  (1847.) 

Bar^ber,  (Mary,)  born  at  Dublin  about  17 12,  was  a 
friend  and  protegee  of  Dean  Swift.  She  published  a 
volume  of  poems  under  the  patronage  of  Swift  and  Lord 
Orrery.    Died  in  1757. 

Barbereau,  btRl/ro'  or  btR'beh'ro',  (Mathurin 
AuGUSTE  Balthasar,)  a  French  musician,  born  in 
Paris  in  1799,  composed  the  music  for  the  opera  en- 
titled "The  Sybarites  of  Florence." 

Barberet,  btRb'r^',  (Denis,)  a  learned  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Arnay-le-Duc,  in  Burgundy,  in  1714.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "  On  the  Epidemic  Diseases 
of  Beasts,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1770. 

Barberi,  biR-ba'ree,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  theologian, 
born  at  Syracuse  ;  lived  about  1480. 

Barberi,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  jurist,  was  fiscal 


procurator  under  Pius  VI.  He  had  charge  of  the  prose- 
cution of  the  celebrated  impostor  Cagliostro,  whom  he 
condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment.  Died  about  1800. 

Barberi,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  architect  and  painter 
of  perspective,  worked  at  Rome  about  1785. 

Barberini,  baR-ba-ree'nee,  (Antonio,)  surnamed  the 
Elder,  born  at  Florence,  of  a  noble  family,  in  1569,  was 
a  brother  of  Pope  Urban  VIII.  He  was  created  Cardinal 
of  Sinigaglia  in  1624.    Died  in  1646. 

Barberini,  (Antonio,)  called  the  Younger,  born 
at  Rome  in  1608,  was  a  nephew  of  Pope  Urban  VIII., 
and  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1628.    Died  in  1671. 

Barberini,  (Bonaventura,)  an  Italian  ecclefiastic 
and  Archbishop  of  Ferrara,  where  he  was  born  in  1674. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Orations,"  in  Italian,  which  were 
admired  in  his  time.    Died  in  1743. 

Barberini,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  at 
Florence  in  1597,  was  a  nephew  of  Urban  VIII.,  by  whom 
he  was  made  librarian  of  the  Vatican  and  appointed  to 
various  high  offices.  He  made  a  translation  of  the  twelve 
books  of  Marcus  Aurelius  from  the  Greek  into  Italian, 
and  was  the  founder  of  the  celebrated  Barberini  Library. 
Died  in  1679. 

Barberini  or  Barbarini,  baR-ba-ree'nee,  (Frances- 
co,) an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Barberino,  near  Florence,  in 
1264,  was  a  pupil  of  Brunetto  Latini,  who  has  been  im- 
mortalized by  Dante.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"  Documenti  d'Amore,"  being  a  kind  of  moral  and  phi- 
losophic treatise  in  verse.    Died  in  1348. 

Barberini,  (Francesco,)  a  descendant  of  the  noble 
Roman  family  of  that  name,  is  the  present  owner  of  the 
splendid  Barberini  palace,  which  was  built  in  the  time 
of  Urban  VIII.,  and,  next  to  the  Vatican,  is  the  largest 
in  Rome.  It  contains  several  master-pieces  of  Raphael, 
Pietro  da  Cortona,  and  other  eminent  painters. 

Barberini  or  Barberino,  (Maffeo.)  See  Urban 
VIII. 

Barberini,  (Taddeo,)  a  nephew  of  Pope  Urban  VIII., 
who  gave  him  the  principality  of  Palestrina.  He  at- 
tempted to  conquer  the  duchy  of  Parma,  but  was  defeated. 
Died  in  1647. 

Barberousse,  the  French  for  Barbarossa,  which  see. 

Barbes,  btR^^es',  (Armand,)  a  French  conspirator, 
born  in  the  island  of  Guadeloupe  in  1810,  removed  to 
Paris,  and  took  part  in  the  attack  on  the  Conciergerie  in 
1839,  for  which  he  was  condemned  to  imprisonment  for 
life.  On  the  revolution  in  1848  he  was  released,  but 
soon  becoming  involved  in  another  conspiracy  he  was 
taken  and  confined  in  the  prison  of  Belle-Ile-en-Mer. 

Barbesieux,  de,  deh  blR'ba^ze^uh',  (Louis  Fran- 
(;ois  le  Tellier — leh  ta'le-a',)  Marquis,  born  in  Paris 
in  1668,  was  a  son  of  Louvois.  He  became  minister  of 
state  under  Louis  XIV.    Died  in  1701. 

Barbette,  btR^b^t',  (Paul,)  a  distinguished  physician 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  born  at  Strasburg,  resided  at 
Amsterdam,  where  he  had  an  extensive  practice. 

Barbetti,  baR-bgt'tee,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian  artist, 
born  at  Sienna  in  1803,  was  celebrated  for  his  skill  as  a 
sculptor  of  wood. 

Barbeu-Dubourg,  btR^buh'  dii^booR',  (Jacques,)  a 
French  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Mayenne  in 
1709.  He  was  a  friend  and  correspondent  of  Franklin, 
to  whom  he  dedicated  his  "  Code  of  Human  Reason." 
He  also  published  "The  French  Botanist,"  and  "Ele- 
ments of  Medicine,"  and  translated  into  French  Boling- 
broke's  "Letters  on  History,"  (1752.)  He  edited  the 
works  of  Franklin,  translated  into  French  by  Lecuy. 
The  name  of  Barbeuia  has  been  given  to  a  genus  of 
Madagascar  plants.    Died  in  1779. 

Barbeyrac,  blR^ba^rtk',  (Charles,)  a  French  physi- 
cian of  high  reputation,  born  at  Cereste,  in  Provence,  in 
1629.  He  is  said  by  John  Locke,  who  was  intimate  with 
them  both,  to  have  greatly  resembled  Sydenham  both  in 
his  views  of  medicine  and  his  manners.  He  died  in  1699, 
leaving  a  number  of  medical  works  in  Latin  and  French. 

Barbeyrac,  (Jean,)  an  eminent  French  jurist,  born 
at  Beziers  in  1674,  was  the  son  of  a  Calvinistic  divine 
who  removed  to  Switzerland  on  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes.  He  became  professor  of  history  and 
civil  law  at  Lausanne  in  171 1,  and  of  public  law  at 
Groningen  in  1 71 7.    Among  his  principal  works  are  his 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  o,  H,  Yi.^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BJRBUNI 


264 


BJRBOSA 


''Histoi  y  of  Ancient  Treaties,"  from  the  earliest  times 
to  the  death  of  Charlemagne,  a  translation  into  French 
of  Puffendorfs  "  Abridgment  of  the  Law  of  Nature  and 
of  Nations,"  (1706,)  and  the  treatise  "  Ue  Jure  Belli  et 
Pacis"  of  Grotius,  Barbeyrac  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Sciences  at  Berlin.    Died  in  1744. 

See  G.  Laissac,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  Barbeyrac,"  1838. 

Barbiani,  baR-be-i'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista  Si- 
mon e,)  a  painter  of  the  Bolognese  school,  born  at  Ra- 
venna.   Died  in  1650. 

Barbiano,  baR-be-a''no,  (Alberico,)  Count,  an  Ital- 
ian commander  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was  noted  as 
having  substituted  native  troops  instead  of  the  foreign 
mercenaries  hitherto  employed.  Barbiano's  forces,  called 
the  Company  of  Saint  George,  acquired  a  high  reputation, 
and  some  of  the  first  generals  of  the  time  were  trained  in 
his  school.  In  1384  he  was  appointed,  by  Charles  III.  of 
Naples,  grand  constable  of  the  kingdom.    Died  in  1409. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Barbie  du  Bocage,  bSR^be-^'  dii  bo'ktzh',  (Alex- 
andre FRANgois,)  a  French  geographer,  born  in  Paris 
in  1798,  publisheda  "  Dictionary  of  Biblical  Geography." 
Died  in  1835. 

Barbie  du  Bocage,  (Jean  Denis,)  a  distinguished 
French  geographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1760,  was  a  pupil 
of  the  celebrated  D'Anville.  He  executed  the  maps  for 
Choiseul-Gouffier's  "Voyage  pittoresque  de  la  Grece," 
(1824,)  the  atlas  for  the  "Travels  of  Anacharsis,"  and  a 
valuable  map  of  the  Morea.  He  also  wrote  an  "Ac- 
count of  the  Life  and  Works  of  D'Anville,"  (1802.)  Died 
in  1825. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Barbier,  btR^be-4',  (  Antoine  Alexandre,)  a  French 
bibliographer,  born  at  Coulommiers  in  1765.  He  be- 
came successively  keeper  of  the  library  of  the  council  of 
state,  private  librarian  to  Napoleon,  (1807,)  and,  after 
the  restoration,  superintendent  of  the  private  libraries  of 
the  king.  He  obtained  the  decoration  of  the  legion  of 
honour  in  1822.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Dictionary 
of  Anonymous  and  Pseudonymous  Works,"  (4  vols.  8vo, 
1806-08,)  which  is  highly  esteemed,  and  a  "Catalogue 
of  the  Library  of  the  Council  of  State."  Died  in  Paris 
in  1825. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Barbier"  prefixed  to  the  fourth  volume  of  his  Dic- 
tionary ;  Louis  Barbier,  "Notice  biographique  sur  A.  A.  Barbier," 
1827. 

Barbier,  (Charles,)  a  French  philanthropist,  born 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  He  spent  much  time  in  de- 
vising a  method  to  teach  the  blind  to  write  in  characters 
legible  to  themselves.    Died  about  1830. 

Barbier,  (Edmond  Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  jurist 
and  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1689.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  a  "  Historical  and  Anecdotical  Journal  of  the  Reign 
of  Louis  XV.,"  (7  vols.  4to,)  which  contains  interesting 
information  not  met  with  elsewhere.    Died  in  1771. 

Barbier,  (Henri  Auguste,)  a  French  satiric  poet, 
born  in  Paris  in  1805.  His  poem  entitled  "La  Curee" 
came  out  in  1830,  and  was  soon  followed  by  the  "  Iimeute," 
"La  Popularite,"  and  "The  Idol,"  political  satires  which 
caused  a  great  sensation  and  at  once  established  his 
fame  as  a  patriot  and  poet.  In  1831  he  published  a  col- 
lection of  pieces  under  the  title  of  "  Iambics." 

See  Longfellow's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Barbier,  (Hippolyte,)  a  French  biographer  and  ec- 
clesiastic, born  at  Orleans  about  1805.  He  published 
a  valuable  "  Biography  of  Contemporary  Clergymen," 
{10  vols.,  1841  et  seq.) 

Barbier,  (Jean  Baptiste  Gr^goire,)  a  French  phy- 
sician and  botanist,  lived  at  Amiens  about  1800-20. 

Barbier,  (Louis,)  surnamed  the  Abb6  de  la  Ri- 
viere, (It  re've  aiR',)  a  French  prelate,  was  almoner  of 
Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans.  As  a  reward  for  betraying 
the  secrets  of  his  master  to  Cardinal  Mazarin,  he  was 
created,  by  the  latter.  Bishop  of  Langres.    Died  in  1670. 

Barbier,  (Marie  Anne,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Orleans,  was  the  author  of  the  tragedies  entitled  "  Cor- 
nelia," "The  Death  of  Caesar,"  and  "  Arria  and  Paetus," 
also  several  poems  and  operas.    Died  in  1742. 

Barbier  d'Aucour,  btR'be-i'  do'kooR^  (Jean,)  a 
French  critic  and  litterateur^  borvTat  Langres  about  1640. 
His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Opinions  of  Cleanthe  on 


the  Conversations  of  Ariste  and  Eugene,"  by  the  Jesui* 
Pere  Bouhours,  (1672,)  esteemed  a  model  of  able  and 
ingenious  criticism.  Barbier  was  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  an  opponent  of  the  Jesuits.  Died  in  1694. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Barbier-Vemars,  bSR^be-i'  vi'miR',  (Joseph  Nico- 
las,) a  French  philologist,  born  at  Louvres  in  1775.  He 
aided  in  the  compilation  of  the  "Annals  of  the  Arts  and 
Manufactures,"  (55  vols.,  1807-14.) 

Barbieri,  baR-be-a'ree,  (Francesco,)  surnamed  IL 
Legnano,  (^1  lin-yi'no,)  an  able  historical  and  landscape 
painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  born  at  Legnano  in  1623  ; 
died  in  1698. 

Barbieri,  (Giovanni  Francesco.)    See  Guercino. 

Barbieri,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Italian  philologist, 
born  at  Modena  in  15 19,  wrote  a  history  of  Attila,  ("La 
Guerra  d' Attila,"  1569.)    Died  in  1574. 

Barbieri,  (Lodovico,)  an  Italian  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Bologna,  worked  about  1660- 1700. 

Barbieri,  (Paolo  Antonio,)  an  Italian  pamter  of  the 
Bolognese  school,  was  a  brother  of  Guercino.  He  devoted 
himself  chiefly  to  painting' animals  and  fruits,  in  which 
department  he  attained  great  excellence.    Died  in  1649. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Barbieri,  (Pietro  Antonio,)  a  painter  of  the  Milan- 
ese school,  born  at  Pavia  in  1663  ;  died  after  1700. 

Barbieri,  del,  del  baR-be-a'ree,  or  Barbiere,  baR- 
be-a'rk,  [Fr.  Barbier,  btR'be-4'',](DoMENico,)  surnamed 
THE  Florentine,  an  Italian  painter  and  engraver,  born 
at  Florence  in  1501.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Rosso,  whom 
he  assisted  in  executing  the  frescos  at  Fontainebleau 
and  Meudon,  in  France.  His  engravings  after  Michael 
Angelo  and  Titian  are  highly  esteemed. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Barbiers,  baR-beers',  (Bartholomeus,)  a  Dutch 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1740,  was  a 
son  of  Pieter,  noticed  below.    Died  in  1808. 

Barbiers,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  in  171 7. 
One  of  his  principal  works  represents  the  burning  of  the 
Opera- House  at  Amsterdam.    Died  in  1780. 

Barbiers,  (Pieter  Bartsz — b^Rts,)  son  of  Bartholo- 
meus, noticed  above,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1772,  pro- 
duced historical  pictures  and  landscapes  of  superior 
merit.    Died  in  1837. 

Bar-bil'lus,  a  Roman  astrologer  of  the  first  century, 
was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Vespasian,  while  others 
of  the  profession  were  excluded  from  the  city. 

Barbo,  (Peter.)    See  Paul  II. 

Barbolani,  baR-bo-la'nee,  (Torquato,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  soldier,  born  at  Arezzo,  rose  to  be  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  the  service  of  the  emperor  Francis  I.  He  was 
the  author  of  Latin  and  Italian  poems,  and  translated 
the  "  Orlando  Furioso"  into  Latin  verse.   Died  in  1756. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Barbosa,  baR-bo'si,  (Agostinha  da  Sylva,)  a  Por- 
tuguese lady,  who  lived  about  1680,  and  published,  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Pedro  do  Albornoz,  a  "  Treatise  on 
Architecture  and  Arithmetic." 

Barbosa,  (Agostinho,)  a  Portuguese  prelate  and 
jurist,  born  in  1590,  was  created  Bishop  of  Ugento  by 
Philip  IV.  of  Spain.  He  was  the  author  of  theological 
and  legal  works.    Died  in  1649. 

Barbosa,  (Ayres  (I'rgs)  or  Arius,)  a  Portuguese 
poet  and  scholar  of  the  fifteenth  century,  studied  Greek 
at  Florence,  and  subsequently  contributed  greatly  to  re^ 
vive  classical  literature  in  Spain  and  Portugal.  After 
teaching  at  Salamanca,  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  Por- 
tuguese princes  Alfonso  and  Henry.  Pie  died  in  1530, 
leaving  several  Latin  poems  and  grammatical  works. 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "  Bibliotheca  Lusitana." 

Barbosa,  (Caetano,)  surnamed  Constantino,  (kon- 
st^n-tee'no,)  born  at  Evora,  in  Portugal,  in  1660,  was  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  preachers  of  his  time. 

Barbosa,  (Duarte,)  a  Portuguese  navigator,  born 
at  Lisbon  about  1480,  visited  India  and  the  Moluccas, 
and  wrote  an  account  of  those  countries,  which  is  con- 
tained in  Ramusio's  collection.  Having  accompanied 
Magellan  in  his  voyage  around  the  world,  Barbosa  was 
assassinated  in  the  island  of  Zebu  in  1521. 

Barbosa,  (Joz6,)  a  Portuguese  historian,  born  a* 
Lisbon  in  1674,  was  a  brother  of  Barbosa  Machado.  He 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  f^ll,  f4tj  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


BARB  OS  A 


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BJRCENA 


was  appointed  historiographer  of  the  house  of  Braganza, 
and  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Chronological  Catalogue  of 
the  Queens  of  Portugal  and  their  Sons,"  {1727.)  Died 
in  1750. 

Barbosa,  (Manoel,)  a  Portuguese  jurist,  the  father 
of  Agostinho,  flourished  about  1 570-1630. 

Barbosa,  (Pedro,)  a  celebrated  Portuguese  jurist  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  was  professor  of  law  at  Coimbra. 
Though  he  opposed  Philip  II.  of  Spain  as  the  usurper  of 
the  crown  of  Portugal,  he  was  created  by  him  a  council- 
lor of  state  and  chancellor  of  the  kingdom.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  valuable  legal  works,  in  Latin.  Died  in  1606. 

See  JbcHER,  "Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Barbosa,  (Vincent,)  a  Portuguese  monk,  born  in 
1663,  left  a  work  on  Borneo  and  the  missions  of  that 
island,  (1692.)  Diedini7ii. 

Barbosa  Bacellar,  baR-bo'si  ba-s^l-laR',  (Antonio,) 
a  celebrated  Portuguese  jurist,  poet,  and  historian,  born 
at  Lisbon  in  1610.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a 
defence  of  the  house  of  Braganza.    Died  in  1663. 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "Bibliotheca  Lusitana." 

Barbosa  Machado,  baR-bo'si  m§,-shi'do,  (Diego,) 
a  Portuguese  biographical  and  historical  writer,  born  at 
Lisbon  in  1682.  His  principal  work,  entitled  "  Biblio- 
theca Lusitana,"  (4  vols,  folio,  1741-59,)  is  a  historical 
and  critical  notice  of  Portuguese  writers,  and,  though 
containing  some  errors,  is  esteemed  the  most  valuable 
production  of  the  kind  in  that  language.    Died  in  1770. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Barbot,  btR'bo',  (Jean,)  a  French  traveller  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  inspector  of  the  establishments 
of  the  French  West  India  Company.  He  wrote  a  "  De- 
scription of  the  Western  Shores  of  Africa  and  the  Ad- 
jacent Countries."    Died  in  1720. 

Barbot,  (Marie  Etienne,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Toulouse  in  1770;  died  in  1839. 

Barbotan,  bSR'bo't6N',  (Claire  Joseph,)  a  French 
general,  born  about  17 19,  was  elected  to  the  States-Gene- 
ral in  1789,  and  executed  in  1794. 

Barbou,  bSR^boo',  (Hugues,)  a  son  of  Jean,  noticed 
below,  puljlished  at  Limoges,  in  1580,  an  excellent  edi- 
tion of  Cicero's  "  Letters  to  Atticus." 

Barbou,  (Jean,)  a  celebrated  French  printer  and 
resident  of  Lyons,  published,  in  1539,  an  edition  of  the 
works  of  Clement  Marot,  printed  with  remarkable  ele- 
gance and  accuracy. 

Barbou,  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  printer  of  Paris, 
noted  for  the  correctness  and  beauty  of  his  editions. 
Died  in  1752. 

Barbou,  (Joseph,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  became 
a  printer  in  Paris  about  1722.    Died  in  1737. 

Barbou,  (Joseph  Gerard,)  established  himself  as  a 
bookseller  in  Paris  in  1746,  and  issued  about  1750  the 
series  of  Latin  classics  called  by  his  name.  He  also 
printed  in  superior  style  the  "  New  Testament"  in  Latin, 
and  various  other  works. 

Barbou -Descourieres,  btR'boo'  dk'koo're-aiR', 
(Gapriel,)  a  French  general,  born  in  1761,  served  with 
distinction  under  Napoleon  in  Austria,  Spain,  and  Italy, 
and  became  governor  of  Ancona  in  1810.  Having  made 
his  submission  to  the  Bourbons,  he  was  appointed  grand 
officer  of  the  legion  of  honour,  and  chevalier  of  Saint 
Louis.    Died  in  181 7. 

Bar'bour,  (James,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Orange  county,  Virginia,  in  1775.  He  was  elected  Gov- 
ernor of  Virginia  in  1812,  and  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  in  1815.  In  accordance  with  the  wish  of  Presi- 
dent Madison,  he  presented  a  bill  to  establish  a  United 
States  Bank,  which  was  approved  by  the  Senate.  He 
was  appointed  secretary  of  war  by  President  Adams  in 
1825,  and  minister  to  England  in  1828.  Having  been 
recalled  by  President  Jackson  in  1829,  he  retired  from 
the  public  service.  He  was  president  of  the  Whig  Na- 
tional Convention  in  1839.    Died  in  1842. 

See  "Encyclopaedia  Americana,"  Supplement. 

Bar'bpur,  Bar'b^r,  or  Barbere,  (John,)  the  most 
eminent  of  the  early  Scottish  poets,  born  at  Aberdeen 
about  1320,  was  contemporary  with  Chaucer.  After  be- 
ing appointed  Archdeacon  of  Aberdeen,  he  visited  Ox- 
ford in  order  to  complete  his  studies.    His  principal 


work,  entitled  "  The  Bruce,"  is  a  history,  in  verse,  of  the 
life  and  deeds  of  Robert  Bruce,  which,  besides  its  merit 
as  a  poem,  has  great  value  as  a  historical  record. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Barbour,  (John  S.,)  a  relative  of  James  Barbour, 
noticed  above,  born  in  Culpepper  county,  Virginia,  in 
1790,  was  a  representative  in  Congress  from  1823  to 
1833.    Died  in  1855. 

Barbour,  (Philip  N.,)  a  nephew  of  James  Barbour, 
noticed  above,  was  born  near  Bardstown,  Kentucky,  in 
1 81 7.  He  served  as  an  officer  in  the  Mexican  war,  and 
was  killed  at  Monterey  in  September,  1846. 

Barbour,  (Philip  Pendleton,)  a  lawyer  and  judge, 
born  in  Orange  county,  Virginia,  in  1783,  was  a  brother 
of  Governor  James  Barbour.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  Congress  in  1814,  and  was  subsequently  chosen 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  He  advocated 
the  admission  of  Missouri  as  a  slave  State  in  1821,  and 
continued  to  serve  in  Congress  until  1825.  In  1829  he 
presided  over  the  convention  which  formed  a  new  con- 
stitution for  Virginia.  He  was  appointed  an  associate 
justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  in 
1836.    Died  in  1841. 

See  "  Encyclopaedia  Americana,"  Supplement. 

Barbour,  (Thomas,)  Colonel,  a  Virginian  officer, 
born  in  1735,  was  the  father  of  James  and  Philip  Pen- 
dleton Barbour.  He  served  as  a  colonel  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary war,  before  which  he  had  been  a  prominent  mem- 
ber of  the  House  of  Burgesses.    Died  in  1825. 

Bar-bu-calTus,  (Joannes,)  lived  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, and  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Barbucale, 
in  Spain.  Eleven  of  his  epigrams  are  extant  in  the 
Greek  Anthology. 

Bar''bu-la,  (L.  ^milius,)  son  of  Q.  ^milius,  became 
consul  in  281  B.C.  He  gained  important  victories  over 
the  Tarentines,  Samnites,  and  Etruscans. 

Barbula,  (Q.  /Emilius,)  a  Roman  consul  in  317  B.C., 
in  which  year  Apulia  was  subdued,  became  a  second 
time  consul  in  311. 

Barbuo,  baR'boo-o,  or  Barbo-Soncino,  baR'bo  son- 
chee'no,  (Scipione,)  an  Italian  jurist  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  resided  at  Padua.  He  wrote  "  Lives  of  the 
Dukes  of  Milan." 

Barbut  or  Barbat,  baR^biit,  written  also  Barbud, 
a  famous  but  semi-fabulous  Persian  musician,  who  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  earliest  times.  He  was  the 
reputed  inventor  of  a  sort  of  lyre  called  by  his  name, 
whence  possibly  the  Greek  barbitos  derives  its  origin. 

Barca.    See  Hamilcar. 

Barca.    See  Calderon  de  la  Barca. 

Barca,  baR'ki,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  chemist, 
born  at  Bergamo  in  1741 ;  died  in  1814. 

Barca,  (Francisco,)  a  Portuguese  musician,  born  at 
Evora,  lived  about  1600-30. 

Barca,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Mantua,  worked  at  Verona  in  1650. 

Barca,  baR'ka,  (Jose,)  a  captain-general  in  the  Span- 
ish service,  was  born  at  Milan,  and  lived  between  1600 
and  1650. 

Barca,  (Pietro  Antonio,)  an  Italian  artist  and  engi- 
neer, born  at  Milan,  lived  about  1670. 

Barca,  de  la,  di  13.  baR'ki,  (Francisco  Joaquin 
Calderon,)  a  learned  ecclesiastic,  of  Creole  extraction, 
lived  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  became  preacher- 
general  of  the  order  of  the  Franciscans.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "Treatise  on  Practical  Astronomy." 

Barcali,  baR-ki'lee,  surnamed  Mohammed-Ben-Pir- 
Ali,  (mo-hSm'med  bin  peer  i'lee,)  a  Mohammedan  theo- 
logian and  writer  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Barcellos,  de,  di  baR-seKl6s,  (Francisco,)  a  Portu- 
guese poet  and  ecclesiastic,was  the  author  of  Latin  poems 
which  were  highly  esteemed  in  his  time.    Died  in  1570. 

Barceloneta,  di,  de  baR-chi-lo-na'tS,  (Ugone,)  an 
Italian  theologian  and  celebrated  preacher,  born  in  Pied- 
mont about  1230,  was  Cardinal  of  Saint  Sabina.  He  wrote 
several  religious  works  in  Latin. 

Barcena,  baR-tha'na,  (Alfonso,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit, 
born  at  Cordova,  resided  as  a  missionary  in  South 
America.  He  wrote,  for  the  use  of  the  natives,  several 
religious  and  educational  works  in  the  Indian  dialects. 
Died  in  1598. 


«  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


B  ARCH  AM 


26b 


BARCLAT 


Barc'ham  or  Bark'ham,  (John,)  an  English  divine 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Exeter  about  1570.  He  contri- 
buted to  Speed's  "History  of  England"  the  lives  of 
Henry  11.  and  King  John,  and  had  a  considerable  share 
in  Guillim's  "  Display  of  Heraldry."    Died  in  1642. 

See  Wood,  "Athena;  Oxonienses." 

Barchetta,  baR-kgt'ta,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  in  Naples,  lived  about  1630. 

Barchou  de  Penhoen,  btR^shoo'  deh  peh-no''6N'', 
(AugusteTh6odore  Hilaire,)  Baron,  a  French  writer, 
born  at  Morlaix  in  1801.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  German  Philosophy  from  Leibnitz 
to  Hegel,"  (2  vols.,  1836,)  "The  Philosophy  of  Schel- 
ling,"  (1834,)  and  a  French  version  of  Fichte's  "Destiny 
of  Man,"  (1833.)  He  was  one  of  the  first  redacteurs  of 
the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."    Died  in  1855. 

Barcia,  de,  da  baR-thee'^,  (Andrea  Gonzalez,)  a 
Spanish  historian,  who  lived  about  1700,  was  the  author 
of  a  "  General  History  of  Florida,"  and  a  work  entitled 
"First  Plistorians  of  the  West  Indies." 

Barckhausen,  baRk'how'zen,  (Johann  Conrad,)  a 
German  chemist  and  physician,  borii  at  Horn  in  1666, 
became  professor  of  chemistry  at  Utrecht,  in  Holland. 
He  wrote,  among  other  scientific  works,  a  "  Synopsis 
Pharmaceutica,"  (1690,)  and  "  Historia  Medicinae,"  and 
made  several  important  discoveries  in  chemistry.  A  genus 
of  plants  has  been  named  Barkhausia  in  his  honour. 
Died  in  1723. 

Bar'clay  (bark'le)  or  Bar''klay,  (Alexander,)  an 
eminent  British  writer  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  and  subsequently  visited  Germany 
and  France.  He  translated  an  allegorical  French  poem 
entitled  "The  Castle  of  Labour,"  also  Sallust's  "Jugur- 
thine  War,"  into  English,  and  wrote  the  lives  of  several 
saints.  His  most  popular  work  is  a  free  translation  of 
the  "  Ship  of  Fools,"  from  the  German  of  Sebastian 
Brandt.    Died  in  1552. 

See  Warton,  "History  of  English  Poetry." 

Bar'clay,  (George,)  a  Scottish  Jacobite  conspirator, 
formed  in  1696  a  plot  to  seize  or  kill  William  HI.  Some 
of  the  conspirators  were  executed,  but  Barclay  escaped 
by  flight. 

Barclay,  (Henry,)  D.D.,  an  Episcopal  clergyman, 
born  in  Albany,  New  York,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  was  for  several  years  a  missionary 
among  the  Mohawk  Indians,  and  was  afterwards  ap- 
pointed rector  of  Trinity  Church,  New  York.  In  con- 
nection with  W.  Andrews  and  J.  Ogilvie,  he  translated 
the  Liturgy  into  the  Mohawk  language.    Died  in  1765. 

Barclay,  btR'kla',  (Jean,)  an  eminent  French  writer, 
of  Scottish  extraction,  born  at  Pont-a-Mousson  in  1582. 
His  most  admired  work  is  an  allegorical  romance  in 
prose  and  verse,  written  in  Latin,  entitled  "Argenis," 
(162 1.)  It  has  been  translated  into  the  principal  lan- 
guages of  Europe,  and  has  been  eulogized  by  Leibnitz, 
Coleridge,  and  other  eminent  men.  He  also  wrote,  in 
Latin,  several  controversial  treatises,  and  the  "  Satyricon 
of  Euphormio,"  a  satire.  Died  at  Rome  in  1621.  He 
was  a  son  of  William  Barclay,  noticed  below. 

See  D.  Dalrymple,  (Lord  Hailes,)  "Sketch  of  the  Life  of  J. 
Barclay,  author  of  the  Argenis,"  1786;  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  "  Encyclopsedia  Britannica." 

Barclay,  (John,)  a  Scottish  theologian,  born  in  1645. 
He  wrote  a  "  Description  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church," 
(1689.)    Died  in  17 10. 

Barclay,  (John,)  a  Scottish  physician,  who  lived 
about  1620,  was  the  author  of  a  eulogy  on  tobacco,  en- 
titled "  Nepenthes,  seu  de  Nicotianae  Herbae  Viribus." 

Barclay,  (John,)  born  in  Perthshire,  Scotland,  in 
1734,  was  the  founder  of  a  religious  sect  called  Barclay- 
ans,  or  Bereans,  a  name  derived  from  a  passage  in  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  xvii.  11.  His  theological  works 
were  published  in  three  volumes.    Died  in  1798. 

Barclay,  (John,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  writer  on 
anatomy,  born  in  Perthshire  in  1760.  He  died  in  1826, 
leaving  to  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  his  anatomical 
collection,  since  called  the  Barclayan  Museum. 

Barclay,  (Robert,)  an  eminent  writer  and  an  apolo- 
gist for  the  Society  of  Friends,  was  born  at  Gordonstown, 
in  Morayshire,  Scotland,  on  the  23d  of  December,  1648. 
He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Colonel  David  Barclay  of  Ury 


and  Catherine  Gordon,  who  was  descended  from  the 
noble  family  of  Huntley.  He  was  educated  in  Paris  at 
the  Scots  College,  of  which  his  uncle  was  principal.  He 
learned  to  write  and  speak  Latin  with  facility  and  cor- 
rectness, and  after  he  left  Paris  studied  Greek  and  He- 
brew. About  1664  he  returned  to  Scotland,  in  obedience 
to  the  will  of  his  father,  who  had  recently  adopted  the 
principles  professed  by  George  Fox.  Robert  Barclay 
entered  into  fellowship  with  the  Society  of  Friends  in  1667, 
and  became  a  minister  of  the  gospel.  Pie  was  endowed 
by  nature  with  talents  of  a  high  order,  and  possessed  the 
moral  courage  and  energy  requisite  for  a  reformer. 

In  1670  he  began  to  defend  the  principles  of  the  Friends 
against  the  erroneous  charges  and  misrepresentations  of 
their  opponents,  by  a  treatise  entitled  "  Truth  cleared  of 
Calumnies."  He  married  Christian  Mollison  about  1670. 
In  1672  he  felt  himself  impelled  by  a  sense  of  duty  to 
walk  through  the  streets  of  Aberdeen  clothed  in  sack- 
cloth and  ashes.  To  explain  and  defend  the  doctrines 
of  the  Friends,  he  published  a  "  Catechism  and  Confes- 
sion of  Faith,"  (1675,)  "The  Anarchy  of  the  Ranters," 
(1676,)*  and  "  Theological  Propositions,"  ("  Theses  Theo- 
logies," about  1676.) 

In  company  with  George  Fox  and  William  Penn,  he 
visited  Germany  on  a  religious  mission  in  1677.  About 
this  date  he  and  his  father  were  imprisoned  in  Aberdeen 
on  account  of  their  religious  profession.  His  principal 
work  is  "An  Apology  for  the  True  Christian  Divinity, 
as  the  same  is  held  forth  and  preached  by  the  People 
called  in  scorn  Quakers,"  (1678,)  which  was  originally 
written  and  published  in  Latin,  and  afterwards  translated 
into  English  by  the  author.  This  work  is  characterized 
by  great  logical  acumen,  and  has  been  highly  commended 
by  eminent  critics  of  different  denominations. 

In  1679  he  obtained  from  Charles  II.  a  charter  for 
erecting  his  estate  of  Ury  into  a  free  barony  with  civil 
and  criminal  jurisdiction.  He  published  in  the  same 
year  a  vindication  of  his  "Apology,"  which  had  been 
attacked  by  several  writers.  In  1682  he  was  appointed 
governor  of  the  province  of  East  Jersey ;  but  he  sent  a 
deputy,  and  never  went  to  America  himself.  During  the 
last  years  of  his  life  he  enjoyed  the  favour  of  James  II. 
Pie  died  at  Ury  in  October,  1690,  aged  about  forty-two, 
leaving  three  sons  and  four  daughters.  One  of  the  sons, 
named  David,  was  a  merchant  of  London,  and  is  said  to 
have  entertained  three  successive  monarchs,  George  L, 
George  II.,  and  George  III.,  when  they  visited  the  city. 

See  Joseph  Gurney  Bevan,  "Life  of  Robert  Barclay,"  1802; 
Sewel,  "  History  of  the  Quakers;"  John  Barclay,  "History  of 
Friends  in  Scotland." 

Barclay,  (William,)  a  Scottish  jurist,  born  in  Aber- 
deenshire about  1540.  He  studied  in  France  under  the 
celebrated  Cujas  and  Leconte,  and  in  1578  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Pont-a-Mousson.  In  1603  he  visited 
England ;  but,  failing  to  meet  with  patronage  from  James 
I.,  on  account  of  his  being  a  Catholic,  he  soon  returned 
to  France,  and  in  1605  was  appointed  professor  of  law  at 
Angers.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a  treatise  on 
regal  power,  ("  De  Regno  et  Regali  Potestate,"  1600,) 
and  "  On  the  Power  of  the  Pope."  The  latter  was  pub- 
lished after  his  death  by  his  son  John  Barclay,  the  author 
of  "Argenis."  Barclay  is  ranked  among  the  first  jurists 
of  his  time.    Died  in  1606. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  NiCERON,"Md- 
moires;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men." 

Barclay  de  Tolly,  btR^kla'  deh  to'le',  (Michael,) 
Prince,  a  celebrated  Russian  field-marshal,  of  Scottish 
extraction,  born  in  Livonia  about  1755,  early  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  wars  against  Turkey,  Sweden,  and 
Poland,  between  1788  and  1794,  and  in  1806  took  part 
in  the  Polish  campaign  against  the  French.  He  was 
made  lieutenant-general  after  the  battle  of  Eylau,  where 
he  was  severely  wounded,  and  in  18 10  was  appointed 
minister  of  war.  In  181 2  he  obtained  the  command  of 
the  army  of  the  West,  but  after  the  battle  of  Smolensk 
he  was  superseded  by  Kootoosov.  At  Borodino,  Barclay 
commanded  the  right  wing,  and  by  his  skilful  retreat 
contributed  to  save  the  remnant  of  the  Russian  army. 


*  This  title  was  afterwards  exchanged  for  a  "  Treatise  on  Chris- 
tian Discipline." 


Si  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lojtg;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


I 


BAR  CO 


267 


BARDOU 


He  subsequently  held  the  chief  command  at  Bautzen, 
Culm,  and  Leipsic,  and  in  1814  was  created  a  field-mar- 
shal. He  died  in  1818,  having  been  previously  made  a 
prince  of  the  empire. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Bar'co.del,  (Alonso,)  an  eminent  Spanish  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Madrid  in  1645  ;  died  in  1685. 

Barco,  del,  (Juan  Rodriguez  Garcia,)  a  Spanish 
painter  who  was  employed  by  the  Duke  of  Alva  to  adorn 
with  frescos  his  castle  of  Barco  d'Avila,  which  received 
its  name  from  the  artist. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Barcokheba,  bar-koK'e-bS,  also  written  Bar- 
Cochba  or  Barchochebas,  (originally  Simeon,)  a 
celebrated  Jewish  impostor  under  the  reign  of  Hadrian. 
Claiming  to  be  the  Messiah,  he  excited  an  insurrection 
among  the  Jews,  a.d.  131,  and  took  possession  of  Jeru- 
salem and  many  fortified  places.  After  a  sanguinary 
contest  and  immense  loss  on  both  sides,  the  city  was  re- 
taken by  the  Roman  general  Julius  Seve^rus,  and  Bar- 
cokheba, after  an  obstinate  defence  in  the  fortress  of 
Bethar,  killed,  in  136  A.D. 

Barcos,  de,  deh  blR^kos',  (Martin,)  a  French  theo- 
logian, born  at  Bayonne  in  1600,  studied  at  Louvain 
under  the  celebrated  Jansenius.  In  1644  he  succeeded 
his  uncle,  Duvergier  de  Hauranne,  as  abbot  of  Saint- 
Cyran.  He  was  a  friend  of  Arnauld,  and  published, 
among  other  works  in  defence  of  Jansenism,  an  "  Ex- 
position of  the  Faith  of  the  Church  touching  Grace  and 
Predestination,"  (1697.)    Died  in  1678. 

Bard,  (John,)  an  American  physician,  born  near  Phi- 
ladelphia in  1 7 16.  He  practised  many  years  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  to  which  he  removed  in  1743,  and  attained 
eminence  in  his  profession.  He  was  elected  president 
of  the  Medical  Society  of  New  York  about  1788.  Died 
in  1799. 

Bard,  (Samuel,)  an  eminent  physician,  born  in  Phi- 
ladelphia in  April,  1742,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  John  Bard, 
and  a  grandson  of  Peter  Bard,  a  French  Protestant  re- 
fugee. He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
where  he  passed  about  three  years  and  was  received  as 
an  inmate  in  the  family  of  Dr.  Robertson  the  historian. 
Having  graduated  as  M.D.  in  1765,  he  began  to  prac- 
tise in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1767.  About  the  end 
of  the  Revolutionary  war  he  was  selected  by  General 
Washington  as  his  family  physician.  He  published  a 
treatise  on  "  Angina  Suffocativa,"  and  a  treatise  on  "Ob- 
stetrics," (1807.)  In  1813  he  was  chosen  president  of 
the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  of  New  York. 
Dr.  Bard  was  an  active  and  efficient  promoter  of  benevo- 
lent enterprises.    Died  in  May,  1821. 

See  Rev.  John  McVicker,  "  Life  of  Samuel  Bard,"  1822;  S.  D. 
Gross,  "  American  Medical  Biography,"  1861. 

Bard,  (William,)  an  American  merchant,  born  in 
the  city  of  New  York  in  1777.  He  was  the  first  presi- 
dent of  the  New  York  Life  Insurance  Company,  which 
he  and  others  organized  about  1830.    Died  in  1853. 

Bardaji  y  Azara,  de,  di  baR-d^-Hee'  e  d-thi'ri, 
(Don  EuSEBio,)  a  Spanish  statesman,  born  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Cuenca  in  1765,  was  employed  in  various  im- 
portant missions,  and  rose  to  be  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  and  procer  of  the  kingdom  in  1834.  He  favoured 
the  French  policy,  and  opposed  the  ministry  of  Cala- 
trava.    Died  in  1844. 

Bar'das,  brother  of  the  empress  Theodora,  was,  on 
the  death  of  the  emperor  Theophilus  of  Constantinople, 
appointed  one  of  the  tutors  to  his  son  Michael  III. 
Having  caused  his  colleague  Theoctistes  to  be  put  to 
death,  and  confined  his  sister  in  a  cloister,  he  assumed 
the  title  of  Caesar,  but  was  afterwards  supplanted  in 
the  favour  of  Michael  by  Basil  the  Macedonian,  and  as- 
sassinated by  order  of  the  emperor,  866  a.d. 

See  Le  Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Bar'das  Scle'rus,  a  distinguished  general  under  the 
Byzantian  emperor  John  Zimisces,  who  had  married  his 
sister.  After  the  death  of  Zimisces,  he  revolted  against 
the  emperor  Basil  II.,  and  was  for  a  time  nearly  always 
victorious.  But  at  length,  having  been  worsted  by  Bardas 
Phocas,  and  weary  of  his  stormy  life,  he  became  recon- 
ciled to  the  emperor.     Died  about  990  A.D. 

See  Le  Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 


Barde,  de  la,  deh  It  btRd,  [Lat.  Labard^'us,] 
(Jean,)  a  French  diplomatist,  born  at  Marolles-sur-Seine 
about  1600,  was  patronized  by  Cardinal  Mazarin.  He 
was  for  many  years  French  ambassador  in  Switzerland. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  valuable  history  of  his  own  times. 
Died  in  1692. 

Bardeleben,  von,  fon  baRMeh-la'ben,  (Kurt,)  a 
Prussian  statesman,  born  in  1796,  was  a  deputy  from 
Konigsberg  to  the  National  Assembly  at  Frankfort,  and 
in  1848  to  the  National  Assembly  of  Prussia. 

Bar-de-sa^nes,  an  eminent  Syrian  writer,  and  founder 
of  a  sect  called  Bardesanians,  was  born  at  Edessa,  and 
lived  about  170-200  a.d.  He  is  called  a  heretic  by  some 
writers.  It  is  said,  however,  that  he  wrote  several  works 
against  heretics.  He  composed  in  the  Syriac  language 
many  psalms  or  hymns  of  remarkable  beauty,  and  a 
dialogue  on  Fate. 

See  F.  Strunz,  "  Historia  Bardesanis,"  1710;  Hahn,  "  Bardesa- 
nes  Gnosticus ;"  Mosheim,  "De  Rebus  Christianorum." 

Bardet,  btR''da^  (Pierre,)  a  French  advocate,  born 
in  Bourbonnais  in  1591,  published  "  Recueil  d'Arrets  du 
Parlement  de  Paris,"  1690.    Died  in  1685. 

Bardi,  (Donato.)    See  Donatello. 

Bardi,  baR'dee,  (Giovanni,)  Count  of  Vernio,  an  Ital- 
ian miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Florence,  was  patron- 
ized by  Pope  Urban  VIII. 

Bardi,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  monk  and  historian, 
born  at  Florence  about  1544.  Among  his  works  we 
may  name  his  "Universal  Chronology  from  the  Creation 
of  Adam  to  1581."    Died  in  1593. 

Bardi,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  physician  and  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Rapallo  in  1603,  became  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  Pisa.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  several  treatises  on 
theology  and  medicine.  He  lived  at  Rome  from  1651  to 
1667.    Died  in  1670. 

Bardi,  (Pietro,)  Count  of  Vernio,  son  of  Giovanni, 
noticed  above,  an  Italian  litth'atejir,  born  at  Florence, 
lived  about  1640.  He  translated  into  Italian  the  essays 
of  Maximus  Tyrius. 

Bardi,  de',  da  baR'dee,  (Dea,)  an  Italian  nun  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  burlesque  poem 
entitled  "  Ode  on  the  Death  of  a  Jackdaw." 

Bardili,  baR-dee'lee,  (Christoph  Gottfried,)  a  Ger- 
man metaphysical  philosopher,  born  at  Blaubeuren  in 
1 761,  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Stuttgart  in 
1794.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "Sketch  of  First 
Logic,"  in  which  he  opposes  the  system  of  Kant  and 
favours  the  philosophy  of  absolute  identity,  ("Identitats- 
Philosophie.")    Died  in  1808. 

Bardili,  (Johann  Wendel — vMn'del,)  a  German 
writer  of  travels,  born  at  Reutlingen  ;  died  in  1740. 

Bardin,  btii'd^N',  (Etienne  Alexandre,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  Paris  in  1774,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Bardin 
the  painter.  Died  in  1840.  His  most  important  work 
is  a  very  extensive  and  complete  military  dictionary,  en- 
titled "  Dictionnaire  de  I'Armee  de  Terre,"  the  last  part 
of  which  has  been  published  since  his  death. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Bardin,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  jurist,  wrote  a 
"Chronicle  of  Languedoc,"  (from  1031  to  1454.) 

Bardin,  (Jean,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Montbar 
in  1732,  was  director  of  the  School  of  Fine  Arts  at  Or- 
leans, and  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  numbered 
among  his  pupils  Regnault  and  David.    Died  in  1809. 

See  Chaudruc  de  Crazannes,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Bardin," 
1809. 

Bardin,  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French  jurist,  born  at 
Toulouse,  lived  about  1420. 

Bardin,  (Pierre,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Rouen 
in  1590,  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  Died 
in  1637. 

Bardon,  a  French  painter.    See  Dandr^-Bardon. 

Bardon  de  Brun,  btRM6N'  deh  bRuN,  (Bernard,) 
a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Limoges,  wrote  a  tragedy 
in  verse  entitled  "Saint  James."    Died  in  1625. 

See  fixiENNE  Petiot,  "Vie  de  B.  Bardon,"  1636. 

Bardou,  btR^oo',  (Jean,)  a  French  litterateur  and 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  1729,  wrote,  among  other  works, 
"The  History  of  Laurent  Marcel,  or  the  Unprejudiced 
Observer,"  (1770.)   Died  in  1803. 


£  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23,) 


BJRDOU 


268 


BARGES 


Baj  dou,  (Oscar  Francois,)  a  French  actor,  born  at 

Montpellier  about  1804. 

Bcii'dozzi,  baR-dot'see,  (JAnos,)  a  Hungarian  writer, 
born  about  1740,  wrote  a  continuation  of  Wagner's  "Ana- 
lecta  Scepusii."    Died  in  1819. 

Bar-dyl'lis  [Gr.  BupSv'KXLg]  or  Bardylis,  a  robber 
chief,  who  lived  about  400  B.C.,  rose  to  be  King  of  Illyria. 
He  made  war  upon  Perdiccas  HI.  of  Macedonia,  whom 
he  defeated  and  killed  in  360  B.C. 

Bardzinski,  baRd-zin'skee,  (Jan  Alan,)  a  Polish 
theologian  and  scholar  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He 
translated  Lucan's  "  Pharsalia"  into  Polish  verse,  and 
also  made  a  translation  of  Seneca's  tragedies  and  Boe- 
thius's  "Consolations  of  Philosophy." 

Bare,  bt'ra',  or  Baret,  a  Frenchwoman,  born  in  Bur- 
gundy in  1741,  accompanied  the  botanist  Commerson, 
disguised  as  a  man,  in  his  voyage  with  Bougainville  in 
1766.    Commerson  named  several  plants  in  her  honour. 

Bare'bone  or  Bar'bone,  (Praise-God,)  a  noted  Eng- 
lish fanatic,  originally  a  leather-dealer,  was  a  member 
of  Cromwell's  Parliament  in  1653,  which  is  known  in 
history  by  his  name.  On  the  arrival  of  General  Monk, 
Barebone  headed  a  large  procession  of  the  people  with 
a  petition  to  Parliament  against  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Barella,  bS-r^Fla,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
Jesuit  and  writer,  born  at  Milan;  died  in  1687. 

Barellas,  bd-rlKySs,  (Esteban,)  a  Spanish  writer, 
published  a  historical  romance  entitled  "  History  of  the 
Counts  of  Barcelona,  Bernardo  Barcino  and  his  son 
Zinofre,"  (1600.) 

Barendsen.    See  Barents. 

Barentin,  bt'rSN'tiN',  (Charles  Louis  Franqois  de 
Paule — deh  p5l,)  a  French  statesman,  born  in  1738, 
succeeded  Lamoignon  in  1788  as  keeper  of  the  seals 
under  Louis  XVI.  He  was  the  originator  of  several 
unpopular  measures,  for  which  he  was  denounced  by 
Mirabeau  as  one  of  the  most  dangerous  advisers  of  the 
king.  Upon  this,  he  resigned  his  post ;  but  after  the 
restoration  he  was  appointed  honorary  chancellor  by 
Louis  XVIH.    Died  in  1819. 

Barentin-Moiitchal,  de,  deh  bt'r§N^tiN'  moN^shtK, 
(Louis,)  Viscount,  a  French  general  and  litterateur, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1737.  He 
served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  subsequently  com- 
manded the  guard  of  Louis  XVIII.  at  Mittau.  He 
wrote  a  treatise  "  On  Ancient  and  Historical  Geography," 
(1807.)    Died  in  1824. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire." 

Barentin-Moiitchal,  de,  Madame,  wife  of  the  pre- 
ceding, wrote  an  "Abridged  History  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament  for  Children  and  Youth,"  (1804.) 

Barent3,bi'r§nts,  or  Barendsen,  ba'rent-sen,  (Die- 
trich,) also  called  Bernard  Dirk,  a  Dutch'  painter, 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1534.  He  studied  in  Italy  under 
Titian,  with  whom  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship,  and 
whose  portrait  he  painted.  His  picture  of  "Judith"  is 
ranked  among  his  master-pieces.    Died  in  1592. 

See  Descami's,  "  Viesdes  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Barentz  or  Bareudz,  bi'rSnts,  written  also  Barent- 
zen,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch  navigator  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, who  attempted,  in  1594,  a  voyage  to  China  by  way 
of  the  Arctic  Sea,  and  reached  78°  of  latitude.  His  ac- 
count of  the  expedition,  translated  into  French,  is  con- 
tained in  the  "  Histoire  generale  des  Voyages." 

Barere  de  Vieuzac,  bt'raiR'  deh  ve-uh^ztk',  (Ber- 
TRAnd,)  a  French  Jacobin  demagogue,  born  at  Tarbes, 
in  Gascony,  in  1755.  He  entered  public  life  as  deputy 
to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  was  elected  to  the 
Convention  in  1792.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king, 
and  for  some  time  acted  with  the  Girondists.  In  April, 
1793,  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  committee  of  pub- 
lic safety.  He  deserted  the  Girondists  at  the  critical 
time  of  their  contest  with  the  Jacobins ;  and  after  the 
supreme  executive  power  was  usurped  by  a  committee 
of  nine,  (July,  1793,)  he  was  the  reporter  or  organ  of 
that  atrocious  committee.  The  flowery  style  with  which 
he  adorned  the  measures  of  a  merciless  proscription  pro- 
cured him  the  designation  of  the  "  Anacreon  of  the  guil- 
lotine."   He  first  proposed  that  "terror  should  be  the 


order  of  the  day."  In  1 794  a  schism  occurred  in  the  com- 
mittee. On  one  side  were  Robespierre,  Saint-Just,  and 
Couthon ;  on  the  other,  Billaud  and  Collot.  Barere 
waited  to  see  which  side  should  prove  the  stronger.  On 
the  9th  Thermidor  he  spoke  against  Robespierre  in  the 
Convention,  and  moved  that  his  head  be  cut  off  without 
trial.  Barere,  Collot,  and  Billaud  were  condemned  to  de- 
portation in  1795,  but  the  first  escaped  from  prison  and 
found  means  to  avoid  that  penalty.  He  was  banished 
as  a  regicide  in  18 16,  and  returned  to  France  in  1830. 
Died  in  1841.  The  "  Memoires  de  Barere"  were  edited 
by  H.  Carnot  and  David  d' Angers,  (4  vols.,  1843.) 

"  Compared  with  him,"  says  Macaulay,  "  Fouche  seems 
honest ;  Billaud  seems  humane  ;  Hebert  seems  to  rise 
into  dignity.  .  .  .  He  had  become  a  murderer  merely  for 
his  safety,  and  continued  to  be  a  murderer  merely  for  his 
pleasure." 

See  Macaulay's  "Essays;"  M.  Carnot,  "Notice  historique  sur 
Barere,"  1842. 

Baret,  bt'ra',  (Jacques  de  la  Galanderie — deh  It 

gt'lSNd'R^',)  a  French  lawyer  and  writer,  born  at  Tours 
in  1579;  died  about  1650. 

Baret,  (Jean,)  a  French  jurist  and  legal  writer,  born 
at  Tours  in  15 11. 

Baret,  (Jean,)  a  French  historian,  published  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Last  Troubles  in  Moldavia,"  (Paris,  1620.) 

Baret,  (Rene,)  grandson  of  the  jurist  Jean  Baret,  lived 
about  1650-70.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  "  Knowledge  of 
Horses  and  their  Diseases,"  (1661.) 

Baretti,  ba-ret'tee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  writer,  born 
at  Turin  in  17 16.  In  1751  he  visited  London,  where  he 
taught  Italian,  and,  having  been  befriended  by  Dr.  John- 
son and  other  distinguished  men,  was  appointed  secretary 
for  the  foreign  correspondence  of  the  Royal  Academy. 
Pie  published  an  "  Italian  and  English  Dictionary," 
(1760,)  an  "Italian  Grammar,"  an  "Account  of  the  Man- 
ners and  Customs  of  Italy,"  (1768,)  and  (in  English) 
"Travels  through  Spain,  Portugal,  and  France,"  (1770,) 
which  is  praised  in  the  highest  terms  by  Dr.  Johnson. 
The  first-named  work  is  still  in  use.  He  also  wrote,  in 
French,  an  essay  "  On  Shakspeare  and  Voltaire,"  in 
which  he  exposes  the  ignorance  of  the  latter  with  re- 
gard to  the  English  language  and  literature.  Died  in 
1789.  Dr.  Johnson  observes  of  Baretti,  "There  are 
strong  powers  in  his  mind.  He  has  not,  indeed,  many 
hooks,  but  with  what  hooks  he  has  he  grapples  very 
forcibly." 

See  BoswELL,  "  Life  of  Johnson ;"  Giuseppe  Franchi,  "Notizie 
intorno  alia  Vita  de  G.  Baretti,"  1790. 

Barezzi,  ba-ret'see,  (Stefano,)  a  Milanese  painter 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  noted  as  having  discovered  a 
process  for  transferring  frescos  to  wooden  tables. 

Barfod,  baR^foD,  (Paul  Frederik,)  a  Danish  histo- 
rian, born  at  Grenaae,  in  Jutland,  in  1811.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Denmark  and  Norway  under  Frederick 
III.,"  "The  Jews  in  Denmark,"  and  "Biography  of  the 
Ranzau  Family."  He  edited  for  a  time  a  journal  advo- 
cating the  union  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon. 

Barfuss,  baRTooss,  (Johann  Albrecht,)  Count  of, 
a  Prussian  general,  born  in  163 1,  served  with  distinction 
against  the  Turks  in  Hungary  in  1 69 1.    Died  in  1704. 

Bargagli,  baR-g3.Kyee,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  dramatic  writer,  brother  of  Scipione,  noticed  below, 
was  the  author  of  "  La  Pellegrina,"  a  comedy,  and  a  work 
entitled  "  Dialogo  dei  Giuochi,"  an  explanation  of  the 
social  games  of  Italy.    Died  in  1586. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Bargagli,  (Scipione,)  a  distinguished  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Sienna,  published  a  series  of  historical  sketches 
and  tales  entitled  " Trattenimenti,"  ("Entertainments,") 
and  a  treatise  "  On  Devices,"  ("  Dell'  Imprese,")  explain- 
ing the  origin  and  signification  of  devices  in  the  age 
of  chivalry.  He  was  created  a  count  palatine  by  the 
emperor  Rudolph  II.    Died  in  1612. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Bargede,  btRzh'di',  (Nicolas  or  Nicolle,)  a  French 
litterateur  :xnA         born  at  Vezelay  about  1550. 

Bargeo  or  Bargaeus.    See  Angelic. 

Barges,  btR'zhgs',  (Antoine,)  a  musician,  apparently 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6.  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


BARGES 


269 


BARKER 


of  French  extraction,  was  chapel-master  at  the  Casa 
Grande  at  Venice  about  1530. 

Barges,  (Jean  Joseph  Leandre,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic and  Orientalist,  born  at  Auriol  in  1810,  was  ap- 
pointed in  1842  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  faculty  of 
theology  in  Paris.  He  published  treatises  on  the  church 
history  and  antiquities  of  Africa  and  the  city  of  Tlemcen, 
and  "On  the  Temple  of  Baal  at  Marseilles." 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Bargeton,  btRzh^toN',  (Daniel,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Uzes  about  1678,  was  the  author  of  a  collection 
of  letters  advocating  taxation  of  the  clergy.  Died  in  1757. 

Barginet,  btR^he'na',  (Alexandre  Pierre,)  a 
French  political  writer  and  novelist,  born  at  Grenoble 
in  1798.    Died  in  1843. 

Bar''grave,  (Isaac,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  1586, 
became  Dean  of  Canterbury.    Died  in  1642. 

Bar'ham,  (Henry,)  an  English  naturalist  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  resided  many  years  in  the  West  Indies. 
He  wrote  an  account  of  the  vegetable  productions  of 
South  America  and  the  West  Indies,  entitled  "  Hortus 
Americanus." 

Barham,  (Richard  Harris,)  an  English  divine  and 
humorous  writer,  born  at  Canterbury  in  1788.  He  stu- 
died at  Oxford,  and  was  subsequently  appointed  rector 
of  Saint  Augustine  and  Saint  Faith  in  London.  His 
"  Ingoldsby  Legends,"  a  series  of  tales  in  verse,  appeared 
in  "Bentley's  Miscellany"  in  1837,  and  were  received 
with  great  favour.  He  was  also  one  of  the  principal 
contributors  to  Gorton's  "  Biographical  Dictionary,"  and 
wrote  for  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  a  story  of  college  life, 
entitled  "  My  Cousin  Nicholas."  Barham  was  a  friend 
of  Sydney  Smith,  Theodore  Hook,  and  other  celebrated 
wits  of  the  time.  For  a  severe  but  not  unjust  criticism 
on  the  "  Ingoldsby  Legends,"  see  the  "  New  Spirit  of  the 
Age,"  (London,  1844.)    Died  in  1845. 

See  a  "Life  of  R.  H.  Barham,"  in  an  edition  of  his  "Ingoldsby 
Legends,"  1847;  "Men  I  have  known,"  by  William  Jerdan,  1866. 

BarhebraBus.    See  Aboolfaraj,  (Gregorius.) 

Baricelli,  ba-re-cheKlee,  or  Baricello,  bd-re-cheKlo, 
(GiulioCesare,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at  San  Marco 
about  1580. 

Barile,  bi-ree'li,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
skilful  sculptor  in  wood,  born  about  1520.  He  was  the 
master  of  Andrea  del  Sarto. 

Barile,  (Giovanni  Domenico,)  an  Italian  theologian, 
flourished  between  1700  and  1725. 

Barili,  bi-ree'lee,  (Antonio  di  Neri,)  an  Italian 
sculptor  and  architect,  worked  at  Sienna  from  1485  till 
1511. 

Barilli,  bi-rM'lee,  (LuDOVico,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
vocalist,  born  at  Modena  about  1767,  was  for  many  years 
director  of  the  Italian  Opera  in  Paris. 

Barillon,  bt're^y6N',  a  French  diplomatist,  was  am- 
bassador at  the  court  of  London  in  the  reign  of  James 
II,  He  was  ordered  to  leave  England  by  William  of 
Orange  about  the  end  of  1688.  "  His  political  career," 
according  to  Macaulay,  "  had  brought  great  calamities 
both  on  the  house  of  Stuart  and  on  the  house  of  Bour- 
bon."   ("  History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.  chap,  xii.) 

Barillon,  (Jean,)  called  also  Jehan  Bourdel,  a 
French  historian,  born  at  Issoire,  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  First  Six  Years  of  the  Reign  of  Francis  I.,"  (unpub- 
lished.)   Died  in  1553. 

Barillon,  de,  deh  bt're'yoN',  (Henri,)  Bishop  of 
Lujon,  born  in  Auvergne  in  1639;  died  in  1699. 

See  C.  F.  Dubos,  "  Abrege  de  la  Vie  de  M.  H.  de  Barillon,"  1700. 

Baring,  (Alexander.)    See  Ashburton,  Lord. 

Baring,  barring,  (Daniel  Eberhard,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  near  Hildesheim  in  1690,  was  the  author 
of  a  work  on  diplomacy,  entitled  "Clavis  Diplomatica." 
Died  in  1753. 

Baring,  (Everard,)  a  German  scholar  and  teacher, 
born_at  Lubeck  in  1608,  taught  at  Hanover.  Died  in  1659. 

Ba'ring,  (Sir  Francis,)  an  English  financier  and 
capitalist,  born  at  or  near  Exeter  in  1740,  was  the  father 
of  Lord  Ashburton,  and  founder  of  the  great  banking- 
house  of  Baring  &  Company,  London.    Died  in  1810. 

Baring,  (Sir  Francis  Thornhill,)  a  liberal  English 
statesman,  born  in  1796,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
and  a  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Baring.    He  was  a  lord  of  the 


treasury  from  1830  to  1834,  joint  secretary  to  the  treas- 
ury from  1835  to  1839,  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
from  1839  to  1841.  In  the  cabinet  of  Lord  John  Russell 
he  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  1846-52. 

Baring,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  financier,  brother  of 
Sir  Francis  T.  Baring,  was  born  in  1800.  In  1835  he  was 
elected  to  Parliament  for  Great  Yarmouth,  and  in  1844 
for  Huntingdon.  He  was  for  a  time  the  principal  man- 
ager of  the  banking-house  of  Baring  &  Company. 

Baring,  (Sir  Thomas,)  eldest  son  of  Sir  Francis,  born 
in  1772,  was  a  member  of  Parliament  from  1830  to  1832. 
He  was  a  patron  of  art,  and  the  owner  of  a  choice  col- 
lection of  pictures. 

Barisani,  bS-re-zi'nee,  (Joseph,)  a  German  physician 
and  medical  writer,  born  in  1756;  died  in  1787. 

Barisano,  b§,-re-s3.'no,  (Francesco  Domenico,)  an 
Italian  physician  and  scientific  writer,  born  at  Alba 
about  1650. 

Barison,  ba're-s6n',  or  Bar'riso,  the  heir  of  the  king- 
dom of  Sardinia,  was  made  king  of  that  country  in  11 54 
by  the  assistance  of  Frederick  Barbarossa,  to  whom  he 
offered  a  tribute  of  four  thousand  silver  marks.  He  was 
subsequently  detained  a  prisoner  by  the  Genoese,  as  a 
hostage  for  the  money  they  had  advanced  for  the  tribute. 

See  Carl  Andreas  Bel,  "Dissertatio  de  Barrisone,"  1766. 

Barisoni,  bS-re-so'nee,  (Albertino,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1587,  became  professor  of  the 
Pandects  at  Padua  in  1 631,  and  Bishop  of  Ceneda  in 
1653.    Died  in  1667. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Baritu,  bi're-too,  (George,)  a  distinguished  Walla- 
chian  scholar  and  journalist,  born  in  Transylvania  in  1812, 
published  in  1853  a  "German-Roumanian  Dictionary." 

Barjaud,  btR'zho^  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  lit- 
teratcti)'  and  soldier,  born  at  Montlucon  in  1785.  He 
served  under  Napoleon  in  the  campaigns  of  1812  and  '13, 
and  was  mortally  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  (1813.) 
He  was  the  author  of  "  National  Odes"  and  other  works. 

Bar-Jesus.  See  Elymas. 

Bar'kah  Kh^n  I.,  called  also  Barbacan,  a  famous 
Kharizmian  chief,  who,  having  formed  an  alliance  with 
Nejm-ed-Deen,  Aiyoobite  Sultan  of  Egypt,  took  Jerusa- 
lem from  the  Christians  in  1244  and  slaughtered  all  the 
inhabitants  who  had  not  escaped.  A  quarrel  breaking 
out  soon  after  between  the  Sultan  and  Barkah  Khan,  the 
latter  was  slain  in  battle  in  1246. 

See  Malcolm's  "History  of  Persia." 

Barkah  Khan,  sometimes  called  Bor'ga,  second 
Mogul  ruler  of  Kapchak,  succeeded  his  brother  Batoo 
(Batu)  in  1255,  and  waged  war  against  the  Russians  and 
Persians.  He  founded  the  city  of  Serai,  on  the  Volga, 
and  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning.    Died  about  1265. 

Bar'ker,  (Andrew,)  an  English  merchant  of  Bristol, 
in  1576  fitted  out  two  vessels  to  the  West  Indies  at  his 
own  expense,  in  order  to  avenge  the  injuries  he  had 
received  f^'om  the  Spaniards  at  Teneriffe. 

See  Hakluyt,  "Collection  of  Voyages." 

Barker,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  landscape-painter 
of  superior  merit,  was  a  brother  of  Thomas  Barker,  the 
inventor  of  the  panorama.    Died  in  1838. 

Barker,  (Edmund  Henry,)  an  English  classical 
scholar,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1788.  He  published  a 
"Greek  and  English  Lexicon,"  (1831,)  "Classical  Recre- 
ations," and  "  Parriana,"  a  collection  of  criticisms  and 
anecdotes  relating  to  his  friend  Dr.  Parr.  He  was  also 
a  contributor  to  the  "Classical  Journal,"  and  edited 
several  Latin  classics,  and  the  "Thesaurus  Grascae  Lin- 
guae" of  Henri  Estienne,  (Stephanus.)    Died  in  1839. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  May,  1839. 

Barker,  (George,)  F.R.S.,  of  Birmingham,  an  Eng- 
lishman noted  for  his  public  spirit  and  liberal  support  of 
benevolent  enterprises.  Died  in  1 845,  aged  about  seventy. 

Barker,  (Henry  Aston,)  a  skilful  panorama-painter, 
son  of  Robert  Barker,  noticed  below,  born  at  Glasgow 
in  1774.    Died  in  1856. 

Barker,  (Jacob,)  an  American  merchant  and  finan- 
cier, born  in  Kennebec  county,  Maine,  in  1779.  He  has 
for  many  years  resided  at  New  Orleans. 

See  "Incidents  in  the  Life  of  Jacob  Barker,"  by  himself,  New 
York,  1855. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BARKER 


270 


BARLOW 


Barker,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  who  wrote  an 
•'Essay  on  the  Conformity  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Medi- 
cine in  the  Treatment  of  Acute  Diseases."  Died  in  1748. 

Barker,(JoHN,)  an  English  diplomatist,  born  in  Derby- 
shire, became  in  1826  British  consul  to  Alexandria,  and 
subsequently  consul-general  in  Egypt,    Died  in  1850. 

Barker,  (Matthew  Henry,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  about  1790.  His  novels  are  mostly  sketches  of 
sea-life,  and  first  appeared  in  the  "Literary  Gazette," 
"  Bentley's  Miscellany,"  and  other  journals,  under  the 
name  of  "The  Old  Sailor,"  and  other  pseudonyms. 
Among  the  most  popular  of  these  are  "  The  Greenwich 
Pensioners,"  "Tough  Yarns,"  and  "Hamilton  King." 
In  1828  Barker  became  editor  of  the  "  Nottingham  Mer- 
cury."   Died  in  1846. 

Bar'ker,  (Robert,)  a  distinguished  artist,  and  in- 
ventor of  the  panorama,  born  in  the  county  of  Meath, 
Ireland,  in  1739.  He  exhibited  in  Edinburgh  in  1788  a 
panoramic  view  of  that  city,  and  subsequently  a  pano- 
rama of  London  in  Leicester  Square.  Among  his  most 
admired  pieces  are  the  battles  of  Trafalgar  and  Copen- 
hagen.   Died  in  1806. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kunstler-Lexikon." 

Barker,  (Thomas,)  an  English  painter  of  landscapes 
and  rural  subjects,  born  in  Monmouthshire  in  1769. 
Among  his  master-pieces  is  the  "  Woodman  and  the 
Gypsy."    Died  in  1847. 

Barkey,  baR'kl,  (Nicolaus,)  a  German  scholar  and 
theologian,  born  at  Bremen  in  1709.  He  published  the 
"  Museum  of  the  Hague,"  ("  Museum  Haganum,") 
"  Bibliotheca  Bremensis  Nova,"  (1760,)  and  other  mis- 
cellaneous works.    Died  in  1788. 

Barkham.    See  Barcham,  (John.) 

Barkhausen,  baRkHiow^zen,  (Heinrich  Ludwig 
WiLLiBALD,)  a  German  writer  on  political  economy,  born 
in  1 742,  was  the  author  of  "  Letters  on  the  Policy  of  the 
Corn  Trade,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1813. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Barkiarokh  or  Barkyaroc,  bark^yi-rok',  fourth 
Persian  prince  of  the  Seljookian  dynasty,  succeeded  his 
father  Malik-Shah  in  1092.    He  died  in  1104. 

Bark'ly,  (Sir  Henry,)  born  in  London  in  181 5,  was 
appointed  Governor  of  Victoria,  in  Australia,  in  1856. 

Bar'kok',  first  Sultan  of  the  Circassian  Mamelukes, 
or  Borgites,  possessed  himself  of  the  throne  of  P^gypt  in 
1390,  after  overthrowing  the  Baharite  or  Tartar  dynasty. 
He  was  a  promoter  of  learning,  and  founded  a  college 
at  Cairo.    Died  in  1398. 

Barkow,  baR'ko,  (Hans  Karl  Leopold,)  a  German 
anatomist  and  physiologist,  born  in  the  isle  of  Rugen 
about  1798,  published  "  Monstra  animalium  duplicia  per 
anatomen  indagata,"  (1830-36.) 

Barks'dale,  (Clement,)  an  English  divine  and  writer 
born  in  Gloucestershire  in  1609,  was  the  author  of  a  "  Life 
of  Grotius,"  and  a  collection  of  poems.    Died  in  1687. 

Barks'dale,  (William,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Tennessee  in  1821.  He  removed  to  Mississippi, 
studied  law,  and  was  elected  to  Congress  about  1853. 
He  was  a  violent  partisan  of  slavery  and  disunion.  He 
was  killed  at  Gettysburg,  July  2,  1863. 

BarTa-am,  a  monk  of  the  order  of  Saint  Basil,  whose 
original  name  was  Bernard,  born  at  Seminara,  in  Ca- 
labria, about  1290.  He  resided  several  years  at  Constan- 
tinople, where  he  became  thoroughly  versed  in  the  Greek 
language,  and,  after  his  return,  was  appointed  in  1342 
Bishop  of  Geraci,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  Died  in  1348. 

Barland.    See  Baarland. 

Barlagiis.    See  Baerle,  (Caspar  van.) 

Barles,  btRl,  (Louis,)  a  French  physician  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  translated  several  medical  works 
from  the  Dutch  of  De  Graaf 

Barlesio,  baR-la'ze-o,  written  also  Barlezio,  [Lat. 
Barle^tius,]  (Marino,)  a  historian,  born  at  Scutari,  in 
Albania,  wrote,  among  other  works  in  Latin,  "The  Life 
and  Actions  of  Scanderbeg,"  (1506,)  which  has  been 
translated  into  several  languages. 

See  Sax,  "  Onomasticon." 

Barletta,  baR-let'ti,  (Gabriello,)  a  popular  Italian 
preacher,  born  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  lived  about 
1450-80.    His  sermons  have  been  often  reprinted. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  Dictionary;"  Niceron,  "Memoires." 


Barlotta,  baR-lot'tS,  (Giuseppe,)  a  Sicilian  poet  and 
litterateur,  born  at  Trapani  in  1654. 

BarTow,  (Francis,)  a  distinguished  English  painter 
and  engraver,  born  in  Lincolnshire  about  1625.  His 
representations  of  landscapes,  birds,  and  fishes  are  par- 
ticularly admired.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  illus- 
trations for  an  edition  of  ^sop's  "  Fables,"  which  he  also 
etched,  and  a  "  Book  of  Birds,"  engraved  by  Faithorne. 

See  Strutt,  "Dictionary  of  Engravers." 

BarTow,  (Francis  Channing,)  an  American  gen- 
eral, born  at  Brooklyn,  New  York,  in  1834.  Before  the 
breaking  out  of  the  rebellion  he  followed  the  legal  pro- 
fession. He  enlisted  as  a  private  in  April,  1861,  became 
a  colonel  about  May,  1862,  and  served  with  distinction 
at  the  battles  of  Fair  Oaks,  June  I,  and  Antietam,  Sep- 
tember 17.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  about 
September,  1862.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the  bat- 
tles of  the  Wilderness  and  Spottsylvania  Court-House, 
May,  1864  ;  also  in  an  assault  on  the  defences  of  Peters- 
burg in  June.  In  November,  1865,  he  was  elected  secre- 
tary of  state  by  the  Republicans  of  New  York. 

Barlow,  (Joel,)  an  American  poet  and  patriot,  born 
at  Reading,  Connecticut,  in  1755,  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1778.  He  studied  theology,  was  licensed  as 
a  Congregational  minister,  and  joined  the  army  as  a 
chaplain.  When  the  army  was  disbanded,  in  1783,  he 
settled  at  Hartford,  began  to  study  law,  and  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  1785.  Before  this  date  he  had  married 
a  sister  of  Abraham  Baldwin.  In  1787  he  published 
"The  Visioii  of  Columbus,"  a  poem,  which  obtained 
great  popularity.  He  visited  Europe  in  1788,  became  a 
resident  of  Paris  about  1 792,  and  wrote  several  works  to 
promote  the  principles  of  the  French  Revolution.  During 
his  residence  in  France  he  wrote  a  humorous  poem  on 
"  Hasty  Pudding,"  which  was  much  admired. 

Having  enriched  himself  by  commercial  speculations 
in  France,  he  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1805,  and 
settled  on  the  Potomac  near  Washington.  In  1808  he 
published  his  most  elaborate  work,  "The  Columbiad," 
an  epic  poem,  which  proved,  however,  in  the  opinion  of 
most  critics,  a  complete  failure.  He  was  appointed  am- 
bassador to  France  in  181 1,  and  was  invited  by  the  French 
minister  in  the  autumn  of  1812  to  a  conference  with  Na- 
poleon at  Wilna,  but  before  he  arrived  at  that  place  he 
died,  near  Cracow,  in  December,  1812.  "  As  an  author," 
says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "  he  belonged  to  the  first  class  of 
his  time  in  America  ;  and  for  h:s  ardent  patriotism,  his 
public  services,  and  the  purity  of  his  life,  he  deserves  a 
distinguished  rank  among  the  men  of  our  golden  age." 
("  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America.") 

See,  also,  C.  E.  Oelsner,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  Barlow,"  Paris, 
1813;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  lor  October,  1809:  "  Encyclopjedia  Ame- 
ricana ;"  DuYCKiNCK,  "  Cyclopjedia  of  American  Literature." 

Barlow,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  watchmaker,  who 
invented  a  repeater  clock  about  1676. 

Barlow,  (Peter,)  F.R.S.,  a  distinguished  English 
mathematician,  born  at  Norwich  in  1776.  He  became 
in  1806  one  of  the  mathematical  masters  in  the  Royal 
Academy  at  Woolwich,  He  was  afterwards  a  professor 
in  that  academy  many  years,  and  resigned  the  chair  in 
1847.  He  published  an  "  Elementary  Investigation  of 
the  Theory  of  Numbers,"  (1811,)  and  a  "Mathematical 
and  Philosophical  Dictionary,"  (1814.)  Plis  "Essay  on 
Magnetic  Attractions"  (1820)  was  highly  prized.  For  his 
researches  on  magnetism  he  received  the  Copley  medal 
in  1825.  Among  his  valuable  discoveries  is  a  method 
of  compensating  or  rectifying  errors  in  the  compass 
caused  by  the  attraction  of  iron  in  ships.    Died  in  1862. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Barlow,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine  and  theologian, 
born  in  Westmoreland  in  1607,  became  Bishop  of  Lin- 
coln in  1675.  He  was  the  author  of  "The  Case  of  To- 
leration in  Matters  of  Religion,"  and  several  works  on 
civil  and  canon  law.    Died  in  1691. 

See  Wood,  "Athena;  Oxonienses." 

Barlow  or  BarTowe,  (William,)  born  in  Essex 
county,  England,  became  Bishop  of  Chichester  in  1559. 
He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Cosmography,"  and  several 
controversial  treatises.    Died  in  1568. 

Barlow  or  Barlowe,  (William,)  an  English  di- 
i  vine  and  mathematician,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 


S,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/io?'t;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n^t;  good;  moon; 


BAR  MANN 


BARNES 


Pembrokeshire,  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Salisbury 
in  1614.  He  was  the  tirst  of  his  countrymen  who  wrote 
on  the  properties  of  the  magnet,  and  he  made  important 
improvements  in  the  mariner's  compass.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  "The  Navigator's  Supply,"  (1597.) 
Died  in  1625. 

Barmann  or  Baermaiin,  baiR'man,  (George  Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  mathematician  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, became  professor  of  mathematics  at  Wittemberg. 
He  published  an  edition  of  Euclid,  and  translated 
Lucian's  "Master  of  Eloquence"  into  German.  Died 
in  1769. 

Barmann  or  Baermann,  (Georg  Nikolaus,)  a  Gcx- 
ra?in  litterateur,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1785,  was  the  author 
of  a  number  of  romances,  tales,  and  dramas.  He  also 
made  translations  from  the  English,  French,  Spanish, 
and  Italian,  among  which  are  several  dramas  of  Calderon 
and  Gozzi,  and  Sir  Walter  Scott's  works.    Died  in  1850. 

Barmecides,  bar'me-sldz,  (singular  Bar''me-9ide,) 
or  Bar'ma-gides,  [Fr.  Barmecides,  btR^ma'sed';  Ger. 
Barmecidex,  baR-m§t-see'den ;  Lat.  BARMAg'iD.'E,J 
written  also  Barmekides,  a  celebrated  Persian  family, 
which  derived  its  name  from  Barmak  or  Barmek.  His 
son  Khaled-ben-Barmek  was  first  minister  of  Al-Mah- 
dee,  by  whom  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  his  son  the 
famous  Haroun-al-Raschid.  Yahya,  son  of  Khaled,  be- 
came vizier  to  Haroun,  and  by  his  eminent  services  contri- 
buted in  a  great  degree  to  the  glory  of  his  sovereign's  reign. 
Yahya's  three  sons,  namely,  Yahya,  Jaafar,  and  Fadh], 
after  enjoying  for  a  long  time  the  favours  and  friendship 
of  Haroun-al-Raschid,  at  length  incurred  his  displeasure, 
and  were  put  to  death  by  his  orders,  together  with  nearly 
all  their  family,  about  802  A.D.  The  virtues  and  the 
tragic  fate  of  the  Barmecides  have  been  a  favourite  sub- 
ject with  Arabian  poets  and  historians. 

See  Ersch  und  Gkuber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Bar'na-bas,  [Gr.  Bapvuiiag ;  Fr.  Barnahe,  btR^nt^- 
hW ,^^  Saint,  one  of  the  early  Christian  apostles,  was  a 
native  of  the  island  of  Cyprus,  and  was  originally  named 
Joseph.  He  accompanied  Saint  Paul  on  a  religious 
mission  to  Antioch,  and  afterwards  visited  Cyprus  with 
Mark.  According  to  tradition,  Barnabas  founded  the 
church  in  Milan,  of  which  he  was  the  first  bishop.  The 
writings  attributed  to  him  are  generally  regarded  as  apo- 
cryphal. The  time  and  manner  of  his  death  are  unknown. 

See  Acts  xiii.-xv. ;  P.  Puccinelli,  "Vita  di  S.  Barnaba,"  1649. 

Bar''nard,  (Sir  Andrew  Francis,)  a  British  general, 
born  in  1773  ;  died  in  1855. 

Barnabe.    See  Barnabas,  Saint. 

Bar'nard,  (Daniel  D.,  LL.D.,)  United  States  min- 
ister to  Prussia,  born  in  Berkshire  county,  Massachu- 
setts, in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In 
1827  he  was  elected  a  representative  to  Congress,  and 
was  re-elected  in  1839,  1 841,  and  1843.  He  was  appointed 
minister  to  Prussia  in  1850.  For  several  years  he  has 
edited  a  journal  of  education  in  New  York. 

Bar'nard,  (Lady  Anne,)  a  Scottish  poetess,  whose 
maiden  name  was  Lindsay,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1750, 
was  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Balcarres.  She  wrote 
the  ballad  of  "  Auld  Robin  Gray."    Died  in  1825. 

Barnard,  (Frederick  A.  P.,  LL.D.,)  an  American 
teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  in  Shefiield,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1809.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and 
became  professor  of  mathematics,  natural  philosophy, 
etc-  in  the  University  of  Alabama,  (1838  to  1854,)  and 
pr(<fessor  of  mathematics  and  astronomy  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Mississippi,  of  which  he  was  chosen  president  in 
1856.  His  principal  work  is  "  Letters  on  College  Gov- 
ernment and  the  Evils  inseparable  from  the  American 
College  System  in  its  Present  Form,"  (1855.) 

Bar^nard,  (Henry,)  a  British  general,  born  in  Oxford- 
shire about  1800.  He  served  in  the  Crimea  in  1854,  and 
obtained  command  of  an  army  in  India  in  June,  1857. 
Died  at  Delhi  in  July  of  that  year. 

Barnard,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  American  writer  on 
education,  born  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  January, 
181 1.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1830,  and  studied 
Jaw.  As  a  member  of  the  legislature  of  Connecticut,  to 
which  he  was  elected  about  1^837,  he  rendered  important 
services  by  the  reorganization  of  the  system  of  public 
schools.    He  became  secretary  of  the  board  of  educa- 


tion of  Connecticut,  and  in  this  capacity  wrote  a  number 
of  able  reports  on  public  schools.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  "  School  Architecture,"  "  Normal 
Schools  in  the  United  States,"  "  Hints  and  Methods  for 
the  Use  of  Teachers,"  and  "  National  Education  in  Eu- 
rope." He  has  recently  been  appointed  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education.  "  Mr.  Barnard,"  says  the 
"Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1854,  "in  his  work 
on  '  National  Education  in  Europe,'  has  collected  and 
arranged  more  valuable  information  and  statistics  than 
can  be  found  in  anyone  volume  in  the  English  language." 

Barnard  or  Bernard,  (John,)  an  English  divine 
and  controversialist,  born  in  Lincolnshire  ;  died  in  1683. 

Barnard,  (John,)  an  American  divine,  born  in  Bos- 
ton in  1 68 1.  He  was  minister  of  Marblehead  for  more 
than  fifty  years,  and  published  numerous  sermons.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  sagacity  in  temporal  affairs. 
Died  in  1770. 

Barnard,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  merchant  and 
statesman,  born  in  Berkshire  in  1685.  He  was  elected 
in  1722  a  member  of  Parliament  for  London,  which  he 
continued  to  represent  for  nearly  forty  years,  voting  gen- 
erally against  the  administration  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole. 
He  was  made  a  knight  in  1732,  and  in  1737  lord-mayor 
of  London.    Died  in  1764. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Barnard,  (John  G.,)  an  able  American  general  and 
engineer,  born  in  Essex  county,  Massachusetts,  in  181 5. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1833,  obtained  a  com- 
mission in  the  corps  of  engineers,  and  was  employed 
many  years  on  the  defences  of  the  coast.  He  became  a 
captain  in  1838,  and  served  as  engineer  in  the  Mexican 
war,  1846-47.  In  the  spring  of  1861  he  planned  and  su- 
perintended the  fortifications  of  Washington.  He  was 
appointed  chief  of  engineers  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac 
about  July  2,  and  served  at  the  battles  of  Gaines' 

Mill,  June  27,  and  Malvern  Hill,  July  I,  1862.  He  was 
chief  engineer  of  the  armies  in  the  field,  on  the  staff  of 
General  Grant,  from  June  5,  1864,  to  April  9,  1865.  In 
December,  1865,  he  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel  of 
engineers.  During  the  war  he  was  a  member  of  many 
boards  and  commissions.  He  has  published  a  number 
of  scientific  and  military  works. 

Barnaud,  btR'no'',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  writer  on 
alchemy  and  philosophy,  born  at  Crest,  in  Dauphiny. 
He  published,  among  other  works,  "The  Mirror  of  the 
French,"  (1582,)  a  political  treatise. 

Barnave,bSR^nSv'',(ANTOiNE  Pierre  Joseph  Marie,) 
a  French  revolutionist  and  orator,  born  at  Grenoble  in 
1 76 1.  He  acquired  distinction  as  an  advocate  in  his 
youth,  and  was  elected  to  the  States-General  in  1789. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  club  called  "  Friends 
of  the  Constitution,"  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  popular 
party,  and  for  a  short  time  had  much  influence  in  the 
Assembly.  He  was  the  adversary  of  Mirabeau  in  a  cele- 
brated debate  on  the  subject  of  the  king's  power  to  make 
war  and  peace.  In  1 791  he  and  two  others  were  appointed 
as  a  committee  to  attend  the  king  in  his  compulsory  return 
from  Varennes  to  Paris.  His  sympathy  was  excited  for 
the  royal  captives,  and  he  then  became  a  defender  of  the 
throne  with  the  constitution.  His  political  career  ended 
with  the  dissolution  of  the  Assembly  in  September,  1 791, 
and  he  was  executed  in  November,  1793.  He  left  several 
political  treatises,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "  Reflexions 
politiques."  Lamartine  represents  him  as  an  honest 
man,  of  moderate  capacity,  and  calls  him  "  the  first  ora- 
tor of  the  Assembly  which  held  the  fate  of  the  monarchy 
suspended,"  (in  June,  1791.)  "  Barnave,  though  the  best 
debater  in  the  National  Assembly,"  says  Macaulay, 
"flinched  before  the  energy  of  Mirabeau." 

See  M.  De  Salvandy,  "Vie  de  Barnave,"  1833;  Lamartine, 
"History  of  the  Girondists." 

Barner,  baR'ner,  (James,)  a  German  chemist  and 
physician,  born  at  Elbing  in  1641  ;  died  in  1686. 

Barnes,  barnz,  (Albert,)  an  eminent  American  di- 
vine, born  at  Rome,  in  the  State  of  New  York,  in  1798. 
He  graduated  at  Hamilton  College  in  July,  1820,  and 
in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  entered  the  Theological 
Seminary  at  Princeton.  Having  been  licensed  to  preach 
in  1823,  he  was  soon  after  ordained  pastor  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  of  Morristown,  New  Jersey.    In  1830  he 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as J;  g,  H,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     {^^^Stt  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BARNES 


272 


B  A  ROC  CI 


was  called  to  the  pastoral  charge  of  the  First  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Philadelphia,  a  position  which  he  held  for 
more  than  thirty  years.  In  the  controversy  which  led 
to  a  division  of  the  church  into  the  Old  and  New  Schools 
he  took  an  important  part,  and  he  is  perhaps  the  most 
prominent  and  influential  representative  of  the  New- 
School  doctrines.  As  a  commentator  on  the  Scriptures, 
Mr.  Barnes  has  deservedly  a  high  reputation.  It  is  ad- 
mitted, even  by  those  who  do  not  agree  with  him  in  many 
of  his  religious  views,  that  in  his  scriptural  notes  he 
combines  extensive  learning  with  great  simplicity  and 
clearness  of  exposition.  His  writings  are  highly  prized 
by  the  religious  community  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  circulation  of  his  "  Notes  on  the 
New  Testament"  (of  which  there  are  eleven  volumes) 
has  up  to  this  time  (1869)  reached  above  a  million 
volumes.  Among  his  numerous  other  works  may  be 
mentioned  his  "  Inquiry  into  the  Scriptural  Views  of 
Slavery,"  "The  Church  and  Slavery,"  (1857,)  and  "The 
Atonement  in  its  Relations  to  Law  and  Moral  Govern- 
ment," (1859.)    Died  in  December,  1870, 

Many  years  since,  Mr.  Barnes  took  a  decided  stand, 
both  in  his  sermons  and  in  his  writings,  against  the 
iniquities  of  slavery;  he  had  the  honourable  distinction 
of  having  firmly  and  fearlessly  declared  his  views  on 
this  subject  at  a  time  when  such  a  course  was  as  unpop- 
ular as  it  was  unusual  among  the  clergy  of  the  United 
States. 

It  may  be  proper  to  state  that  Mr.  Barnes  declined  on 
conscientious  grounds  the  title  of  doctor  of  divinity,  a 
title  to  which  perhaps  few  divines,  either  in  this  country 
or  in  Europe,  could  present  a  better  claim,  whether  we 
consider  his  great  learning  or  the  purity  and  consistency 
of  his  Christian  character. 

Barnes,  barnz,  (Barnaby,)  an  English  poet,  born 
about  1569.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Divine  Century 
of  Spiritual  Sonnets,"  and  a  tragedy  entitled  "The 
Devil's  Charter."  He  also  translated  Cicero's  "De 
Officiis." 

Barnes,  (Daniel  H.,)  a  Baptist  minister  and  distin- 
guished American  conchologist,  was  one  of  the  founders 
and  teachers  of  the  New  York  High  School.  He  con- 
tributed to  "  Silliman's  Journal"  a  number  of  articles  on 
conchology,  etc.    Died  in  1 828. 

Barnes',  (John,)  an  English  Catholic  theologian,  who 
condemned  in  his  writings  some  of  the  dogmas  of  the 
Romish  Church,  and  was  imprisoned  nearly  thirty  years 
in  the  Inquisition,  where  he  died.  His  principal  works 
are  "  Catholico-Romanus  Pacificus,"  (1680,)  and  an 
"Essay  against  Equivocations." 

Barnes,  (Joshua,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1654,  published  editions  of  Euripides,  Homer, 
and  Anacreon.  He  also  wrote  a  "  History  of  Edward 
the  Third,"  and  a  number  of  poems.    Died  in  1712. 

Barnes,  written  also  Berners,  (Juliana,)  born  in 
Essex,  was  prioress  of  the  convent  of  Sopewell,  near 
Saint  Alban's.  She  wrote  a  treatise  on  hunting,  hawk- 
ing, etc.,  known  as  the  "  Book  of  Saint  Alban's,"  (i486.) 

See  LiNGARD,  "History  of  England." 

Barnes,  (Robert,)  an  English  Protestant  theologian 
under  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  appointed  him 
one  of  his  chaplains.  He  afterwards  incurred  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  king,  and  was  burnt  at  the  stake  by  his 
order,  (1540.)  He  wrote  "Lives  of  the  Popes  from 
Saint  Peter  to  Alexander  II.,"  (1536,)  with  a  preface  by 
Luther. 

See  Burnet,  "  History  of  the  Refonnation." 

Barnes,  (Susan  Rebecca,)  an  American  poetess, 
born  in  New  Hampshire.  Her  works  are  included  in 
Griswold's  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

Barnes,  (Thomas,)  an  able  English  editor,  born  about 
1786.  He  was  chief  editor  of  tlie  London  "Times"  for 
about  twenty  years,  and  one  of  the  proprietors  of  the 
same.    Died  in  1841. 

Barnes,  (William,)  an  English  philologist,  clergy- 
man, and  poet,  born  in  Dorsetshire  about  1810.  He 
published  various  works. 

Bar''nett,  (John,)  an  English  musician  and  composer, 
born  at  Bedford  in  1802.  He  has  composed  popular 
songs,  masses,  and  a  successful  English  opera,  entitled 
"The  Mountain  Sylph." 


Barnett,  (Morris,)  an  English  actor  who  successfully 
adapted  the  French  drama  "Monsieur  Jacques,"  and 
others,  to  the  English  and  American  stage.  Died  in  1856. 

Barneveldt,  baR'neh-vglt,  (Johan  van  Olden— vtn 

old'en,)  an  eminent  and  liberal  Dutch  statesman,  born 
at  Amersfoort  in  1549.  He  began  to  practise  law  at  the 
Hague  about  1570,  soon  after  which  he  served  in  the 
army  against  the  Spaniards,  and  was  chosen  pensionary 
of  Rotterdam  in  1576.  He  was  at  the  head  of  a  depu- 
tation which,  in  1585,  after  the  death  of  William  of 
Orange,  offered  the  sovereignty  of  the  Dutch  prov- 
inces to  Queen  Elizabeth.  On  his  return  he  was  ap- 
pointed advocate-general  or  grand  pensionary  of  Hol- 
land, and  successfully  opposed  the  designs  of  the  Earl 
of  Leicester,  who  had  command  of  the  army.  He 
acquired  great  influence  in  the  state,  and  became  the 
chief  of  the  republican  party,  the  opponents  of  which 
followed  Maurice  of  Nassau.  In  his  negotiations  with 
the  Spanish  court,  which,  despairing  of  the  conquest  of 
the  revolted  provinces,  had  made  pacific  overtures,  he 
was  impeded  by  Maurice  and  his  partisans,  who  de- 
nouncecl  him  as  a  traitor  ;  but  he  extorted  the  recognition 
of  the  independence  of  the  United  Pro\'inces,  and  in 
April,  1609,  concluded  a  truce  for  twelve  years.  Before 
and  after  this  event  he  was  grand  pensionary,  the  high- 
est civil  officer  of  the  state. 

The  fierceness  of  faction  was  increased  by  fanaticism. 
A  bitter  contention  had  lately  risen  in  Holland  be- 
tween the  Arminians  and  Gomarists,  (rigid  Calvinists.) 
Barneveldt  having  identified  himself  with  the  former, 
Prince  Maurice  took  sides  with  the  Gomarists.  (See  Ar- 
MiNius  and  Grotius.)  The  army,  the  ignorant  multi- 
tude, and  the  majority  of  the  clergy  adhered  to  Maurice, 
who  procured  the  convocation  of  a  national  synod  to 
agree  upon  a  standard  of  compulsory  conformity.  This 
measure  Barneveldt  opposed,  because  he  favoured  uni- 
versal toleration.  The  Synod  met  at  Dort  in  161 8,  and 
condemned  the  Arminians.  Barneveldt  was  arrested 
the  same  year,'  convicted  on  imaginary  charges,  and  be- 
headed in  May,  1619. 

See  Motley,  "  History  of  the  United  Netherlands  ;"  De  Thou, 
"  Historia  sui  Temporls  ;"  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Bar'ney,  (Joshua,)  an  American  commodore,  born 
in  Baltimore  in  1759.  He  became  a  lieutenant  in  1775 
or  1776,  was  captured  by  the  British  in  1777  and  again 
in  1 781.  Having  obtained  command  of  the  Hyder  Ali, 
he  captured  the  General  Monk  in  1782.  In  the  autumn 
of  that  year  he  was  sent  to  France  with  despatches.  He 
received  a  commission  as  captain  in  the  French  service 
in  1795,  but  resigned  it  in  1800.  He  commanded  a  flotilla 
in  Chesapeake  Bay  in  1813,  and  was  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Bladensburg  in  August,  1814.    Died  in  1818. 

See  Mary  Barney,  "Memoir  of  Commodore  J.  Barney,"  1832. 

Barn''field,  (Richard,)  an  English  poet,  born  about 
1574,  was  the  author  of  "Cynthia,"  (1595,)  and  several 
other  poems.    Died  after  1605. 

Barni,  btR^ne',  (Jules',)  a  French  philosopher,  born 
at  Lille  in  1818.  He  has  published  French  versions  of 
the  works  of  Kant,  with  critical  remarks. 

Barnstorf,  baRn'stoRf,  (Bernard,)  a  German  physi. 
cian  and  scientific  writer,  born  at  Rostock  in  1625  ;  died 
in  1704. 

Barnstorf,  (Eberhard,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Rostock  in  1672,  became  professor  of  mathematics  and 
medicine  at  Halle.  He  was  the  author  of  several  medical 
works  in  Latin.    Died  in  1712. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Bar'num,  (Phineas  T.,)  a  famous  American  specu- 
lator, born  at  Bethel,  Connecticut,  in  1810.  In  1841  he 
established  in  New  York  City  a  museum,  which,  through 
its  real  and  pretended  wonders,  soon  acquired  great 
celebrity.  For  further  particulars  of  his  history,  see  his 
"Life,"  written  by  himself,  (New  York,  1855.) 

Baro,  bt'ro',  (Balthasar,)  a  French  poet  and  jurist, 
born  at  Valence  in  1600,  was  the  author  of  an  "Ode  on 
the  Death  of  Marshal  Schomberg,"  and  several  dramatic 
poems.    Died  in  1650. 

Barocci,  bi-rot'chee,  [Fr.  Baroche,  bt^rosh',]  or 
Baroccio,  bl-rot'cho,  (Fiori  Federigo  d'Urbino — 
dooR-bee'no,)  a  celebrated  Italian  painter,  born  at  Ur- 
bino  in  1528.    He  studied  the  works  of  Raphael  and 


a,  c,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon 


BAROCCIO 


273 


BARRAL 


Titian,  but  formed  his  style  chiefly  upon  the  model  of 
Correggio.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  "Descent 
from  the  Cross,"  at  Perugia,  a  "  Holy  Family,"  in  the 
Museum  at  Naples,  and  "  Saint  Francis  in  Ecstasy  at 
the  Appearance  of  the  Saviour  and  the  Virgin,"  which  he 
was  seven  years  in  completing.  Barocci  possessed  great 
merit  as  a  c'olorist,  and  skill  in  the  management  of  chiaro- 
scuro. Ho  also  engraved  several  of  his  pictures  in  supe- 
rior style.    Died  in  1612. 

See  Beli.ori,  "Vlte  dei  Pittori,"  etc. 

Baroccio,  bi-rot'cho,  or  Barocci,  (Ambrogio,)  a 
Milanese  painter  and  sculptor  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
was  an  ancestor  of  F.  Federigo  d'Urbino,  noticed  above. 

Baroccio  or  Barozzio.    See  Vignola. 

Baroche,  the  French  of  Barocci,  which  see. 

Baroche,  bt'rosh',  (Pierre  Jules,)  a  French  advo- 
cate and  minister  of  state,  born  in  Paris  in  1802.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  1848-49, 
and  minister  of  the  interior  in  1850.  From  April  to  Oc- 
tober, 1851,  he  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  Having 
become  a  partisan  of  Louis  Napoleon,  he  was  appointed 
president  of  the  council  of  state  just  after  the  coup  d'etat 
of  December,  1851.  In  June,  1863,  he  became  minister  of 
justice  and  keeper  of  the  seals. 

Baroero,  b§,-ro-a'ro,  (?)  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  pro- 
fessor of  surgery  at  Turin,  born  at  Soglio  in  1790,  wrote 
a  "Treatise  on  Practical  Surgery."    Died  in  1831. 

Bar'on,  (Alexander,)  a  physician,  born  in  Scotland 
in  1745,  emigrated  to  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  about 
1770.  He  practised  there  with  distinction,  and  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  medical  society  of  South  Carolina. 
Died  in  1819. 

Bar'pn,  written  also  Baro,  (Bonaventura,)  an  Irish 
monk,  originally  named  Fitzgerald,  born  at  Clonmel 
about  1600.    Died  in  1696. 

Baron,  bt'r^N',  (£guinaire,  i^ge'nSR',)  a  distin- 
guished jurist,  born  at  Saint-Pol -de-Leon  in  1495,  was 
styled  by  Cujas  the  French  Varro.  He  published  seve- 
ral Latin  treatises  on  the  Pandects.    Died  in  1550. 

See  Taisand,  "Vies  des  plus  cel^bres  Jurisconsultes." 

Baron,  bJ-ron',  (Ernst  GorrLiET?,)  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man lute-player  and  writer  on  music,  born  at  Breslau  in 
1696.  He  published,  among  other  works,  "  Historical, 
Theoretical,  and  Practical  Researches  on  the  Lute." 
Died  in  1760. 

Baron,  (Hyacinthe  Theodore,)  a  French  physician 
and  medical  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1686,  was  elected 
in  1730  dean  of  the  medical  faculty.    Died  in  1758. 

Baron,  (Hyacinthe  Theodore,)  a  physician,  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1707;  died  in  1787. 

Barton,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  wrote  a  "  Life 
of  Dr.  Jenner,"  (2  vols.,  1827-38.)    Died  in  1851. 

Baron,  (Michel,)  originally  Boyron,  a  dramatic 
writer,  and  one  of  the  most  celebrated  French  actors, 
born  in  Paris  in  1653.  At  an  early  age  he  attracted  the 
notice  of  Moliere,  who  became  his  intimate  friend  and 
gave  him  valuable  instructions  in  his  art.  He  was  called 
the  Roscius  of  his  time.    Died  in  1729. 

Baron,  written  also  Baro,  (Pierre,)  a  French  Prot- 
estant, became  professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge,  Eng- 
land, about  1574.    Died  in  London  in  1599. 

Baron,  (Richard,)  an  English  dissenting  divine  and 
political  writer,  was  a  native  of  Leeds.  He  published  a 
compilation  entitled  "The  Pillars  of  Priestcraft  and  Or- 
thodoxy shaken,"  and  edited  Milton's  prose  works.  Died 
in  1768. 

Baron,  (Vincent,)  a  French  theologian,  born  at 
Martres  in  1604,  published  several  works.   Died  in  1674. 

Baron  d'Henouville,  bS'r^N'  d^'nooVeK,  (Theo- 
dore,) brother  of  Hyacinthe  Theodore  Baron  the 
younger,  noticed  above,  born  in  Paris  in  171 5,  wrote 
several  valuable  works  on  chemistry  and  pharmacy. 
Died  in  1768. 

Baroni,  b^-ro'nee,  (Adrtana  Basilio,)  an  Italian 
lady,  celebrated  for  her  beauty,  talents,  and  accomplish- 
ments. A  volume  of  poems  in  praise  of  her  graces  was 
published  in  1623.  • 

Baroni,  (Leonora,)  daughter  of  Adriana  Baroni, 
was  likewise  distinguished  for  her  beauty  and  wit,  and 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation  as  a  vocalist. 

Baroni-Cavalcabo,  bi-ro'nee  k^-vai-ka^bo,  (Cle- 


MENTE,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  near  Roveredo  in 
1726,  wrote  "Memoirs  towards  Literary  History,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1796. 

Baroni-Cavalcabo,  (Gaspar  Antonio,)  a  painter, 
born  in  1682  near  Roveredo,  in  the  Tyrol.  Died  in  1759. 

Baronio.    See  Baronius. 

Ba-ro'ni-us  or  Baronio,  bJ-ro'ne-o,  (Cesare,)  an 
eminent  Italian  cardinal  and  writer  on  church  history, 
born  at  Sora,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  in  1538.  He 
studied  theology  at  Rome  under  the  celebrated  Filippo 
di  Neri,  whom  in  1593  he  succeeded  as  superior  of  the 
congregation  of  the  Oratory.  He  became  successively 
confessor  to  Pope  Clement  VIII.,  cardinal,  and  librarian 
of  the  Vatican.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Eccle- 
siastical Annals,"  12  vols,  folio,  (in  Latin,  1588-1607,) 
which,  though  not  free  from  errors,  is  characterized  by 
great  learning  and  research,  and  cost  its  author  thirty 
years  of  labour.  Among  his  other  productions  is  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Sicilian  Monarchy,"  in  which  he  op- 
poses the  claims  of  the  King  of  Spain  to  Sicily.  At  an 
election  for  pope  he  once  received  thirty-one  votes.  Died 
in  Rome  in  1607. 

See  NiCERON,  " Memoires ;"  J.  BARNAByEUS,  "Vita  purpurati 
principis  C.  Baronii  Caidinalis,"  1651 ;  La  Croze,  "  Vie de  Baronius;" 
T.  LE  Febvre,  "Vie  de  C.  Cardinal  de  Baronius,"  1668. 

Baronius,  (Justus,)  a  Calvinistic  theologian  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  born  at  Xanten,  in  the  duchy  of 
Cleves,  was  converted  to  Catholicism,  in  defence  of 
which  he  wrote  several  treatises. 

Barotti,  bi-rot'tee,  (Giovanni  Andrea,)  an  Italian 
litterateur,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1701  ;  died  about  1775. 

Barou  du  Soleil,  bt'roo'  dii  so'la'ye,  (or  so'lM',) 
(Pierre  Antoine,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Lyons  in 

1742,  was  executed  during  the  reign  of  terror  in  1793. 
Barozzi  or  Barozzio.    See  Vignola, 

Barozzi,  bS-rot'see,  or  Barocci,  bd-rot'chee,  (Fran- 
cesco,) an  Italian  jurist,  was  professor  of  canon  law  at 
Padua.  He  was  /elated  to  the  popes  Eugene  IV  and 
Paul  II.,  and  was  appointed  by  the  latter  Bishop  of  Tre- 
viso.    Died  in  1471. 

Barozzi  or  Barocci,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician and  scholar,  lived  about  1570. 

Barozzi,  (Giacomo,)  nephew  of  the  preceding,  wrote 
a  "  Treatise  on  Mathematics"  and  "  Commentary  on  the 
Sphere." 

Barra,  bi^rt',  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician  and  medi- 
cal writer,  lived  at  Lyons  about  1650. 

Barraband  or  Barraban,  b3'rt'b6N',(PiERRE  Paul,) 
a  French  artist  and  excellent  bird-painter,  born  at  Au- 
busson  in  1767.  Among  his  best  productions  are  the 
illustrations  for  Le  Vaillant's  "Natural  History  of  Afri- 
can Birds,"  for  Sonnini's  edition  of  Bufifon,  and  for  La- 
treille's  "History  of  Insects."    Died  in  1809. 

Barrabino,bJr-rS-bee'no,  (SiMONE,)  an  Italian  paint- 
er, born  near  Genoa;  died  in  1640. 

Barrados,  bSr-ri-'dos,  orBarradas,  bSr-r^'dls,  [Lat. 
Barra'dius,]  (Sebastiao,)  a  Portuguese  Jesuit,  born  in 
1542,  was  venerated  as  a  saint.    Died  in  161 5. 

Barragan,  bar-r^-gSn',  (Miguel,)  a  Mexican  general 
who  became  president  of  Mexico  in  1835  and  died  a  few 
months  afterwards. 

Barral,  bt'rSK,  (Jean  Augustin,)  a  French  chemist, 
born  at  Metz  in  1819,  first  extractecl  nicotine  from  the 
tobacco-leaf  and  made  known  its  highly  poisonous  quali- 
ties. He  also  wrote  several  treatises  on  the  application 
of  chemistry  to  agriculture  and  the  arts. 

Barral,  (Pierre,)  a  French  writer  and  zealous  Jan- 
senist,  born  at  Grenoble,  was  one  of  the  principal  con- 
tributors to  the  "  Historical,  Literary,  and  Critical  Dic- 
tionary of  Celebrated  Men."    Died  in  1772. 

Barral,  de,  deh  bt'rtK,  (Andr6  Ho-race  Fran- 
cois,) Viscount,  a  French  general,  born  at  Grenoble  in 

1743,  served  in  the  last  campaigns  of  the  Seven  Years' 
war,  and  in  1792  under  Kellermann  in  the  army  of  the 
Alps.    Died  in  1829. 

Barral,  de,  (Joseph  Marie,)  Marquis  of  Montferrat, 
brother  of  Andre  Horace,  a  French  magistrate,  born  at 
Grenoble  in  1742,  became  first  president  of  the  imperial 
court  at  Grenoble.    Died  in  1828. 

Barral,  de,  (Louis  Mathias,)  Count,  brother  of 
Andre  Horace,  noticed  above,  born  in  1746.    He  be- 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  k,  guttural;  N,  7iasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jf^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

18 


BJRRJNCO  274  BARRERE 


came  successively  Bishop  of  Meaux,  almoner  to  the 
empress  Josephine,  and  Archbishop  of  Tours. 

Barraiico,  bar-ran'ko,(FRANCisco,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
lived  in  Andalusia  about  1650. 

Barras,  de,  deh  btW,  (Louis,)  Count,  a  French 
naval  officer,  born  in  Provence,  served  under  De  Grasse 
in  the  American  war  in  1782,  and  afterwards  took  pos- 
session of  the  English  colonies  of  Nevis  and  Mont- 
ferrat, 

Barras,  de,  (Paul  Franqois  Jean  Nicolas,)  Count, 
one  of  the  first  five  Directors  of  the  French  Republic, 
was  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Foy-Emphoux,  in  Pro- 
vence, in  1755.  He  favoured  the  popular  cause  in  1789, 
and  in  1792  was  elected  to  the  Convention,  in  which  he 
was  a  prominent  partisan  of  the  Mountain.  In  Octo- 
ber, 1793,  Barras  and  Freron  were  sent  on  a  mission 
to  the  south  of  France.  They  are  charged  with  insti- 
gating the  cruel  execution  of  many  royalists  of  Toulon 
after  that  city  had  been  taken  by  the  army.  Barras  was 
one  of  the  conspirators  who  triumphed  over  Robespierre 
on  the  9th  Thermidor,  1794.  Having  been  appointed  by 
the  Convention  commander  of  the  national  guard  on  that 
day,  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  successful  audacity. 
In  October,  1795,  with  the  aid  of  Bonaparte,  whom  he 
selected  as  general  of  the  artillery,  he  defeated  the  in- 
surgents of  the  sections  in  Paris,  and  was  chosen  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Directory.  After  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  i8th 
Fructidor,  Barras  was  the  most  powerful  of  the  directors. 
He  was  the  only  man  who  kept  his  place  in  the  Direc- 
tory from  its  first  appointment  until  its  subversion  by 
Bonaparte  in  1799,  which  was  the  end  of  his  political 
career.  He  died  near  Paris  in  1829.  He  was  indolent 
and  dissolute,  and  possessed  only  moderate  abilities. 

See  "Memoires  de  Barras;"  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French 
Revokttion  ;"  C.  Doris,  "Amours  et  Aventures  du  Vicomte  de  Bar- 
ras," 4  vols.,  1816. 

Barrau,  bi'r5',  (Theodore  Henri,)  a  French  teacher 
and  educational  writer,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1794. 

Barraud,  bS'ro',  (Jacques,)  an  eminent  French  jurist 
and  legal  writer,  born  at  Poitiers  in  1555  ;  died  in  1626. 

Barraud,  (Jacques,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  also 
noted  as  a  jurist  and  Latin  poet. 

Barre,  bi'ra',  (Guillaume,)  a  German  publicist  of 
French  extraction,  born  about  1760.  Having  visited 
Paris  in  the  early  part  of  the  Revolution,  he  became  in- 
terpreter to  Napoleon.  He  published  in  1804  a  "His- 
tory of  the  French  Consulate  under  Bonaparte."  Died 
in  1829. 

Barre,  (Isaac,)  Colonel,  an  officer  of  the  British 
army,  born  in  Dublin  in  1726,  was  a  son  of  a  Frenchman. 
He  served  in  Canada  under  General  Wolfe,  was  patron- 
ized by  Lord  Shelburne,  and  was  elected  a  member  of 
Parliament  in  1761.  He  gained  the  favour  of  the  Amer- 
icans by  a  spirited  speech  against  the  Stamp  Act  in  1765, 
and  by  his  subsequent  course  during  Lord  North's  ad- 
ministration. In  1766  he  was  appointed  a  privy  coun- 
cillor. The  "  Letters  of  Junius"  have  been  ascribed  to 
Colonel  Barre.    Died  in  1802. 

Barre,  btR,  (Jean  Auguste,)  a  French  sculptor,  a  son 
of  Jean  Jacques,  noticed  below,  born  in  Paris  in  1811. 
He  gained  a  first  medal  in  1840. 

Barre,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  engraver  of  medals, 
born  in  Paris  in  1793.  He  became  graveiir-genh'al  of  the 
mint  in  1842.    Died  in  1855. 

Barre,  (Joseph,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  chancellor 
of  the  University  of  Paris,  was  the  author  of  a  "General 
History  of  Germany,"  (11  vols.,  1748,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1764. 

Barre,  (Louis,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Lille  in 
1799,  translated  Walter  Scott's  poems  into  French,  and 
published  in  1844  a  "New  Classical  Biography." 

Barre,  (Pierre  Yves,)  born  in  Paris  in  1749,  was  the 
author  of  several  popular  dramas,  one  of  which  is  en- 
titled "The  Marriage  of  Scarron."    Died  in  1832. 

Barre,  de  la,  deh  It  btR,  (Antoine  le  Fevre — leh'- 
fevr'  or  fivr',)  a  French  general,  appointed  Governor 
of  Guiana  in  1663,  re-took  Cayenne  from  the  Dutch,  and 
was  made  Governor  of  Canada  in  1682.  He  was  recalled 
m  1685,  and  died  in  1688. 

See  Charlevoix,  "  Histoire  de  la  Nouvelle  France." 

Barre,  de  la,  (C^;sar  Alexis  Chichereau — sh^sh'- 


ro',)  Chevalier,  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Langeais 
about  1630,  was  the  author  of  "Fables"  in  verse. 

Barre,  de  la,  (FRANgois  Poulain — poo'ldN',)  a 
French  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1647.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  a  treatise  "On  the  Equal- 
ity of  the  Sexes."    Died  in  1723. 

Barre,  de  la,  (Jean,)  a  French  lawyer  and  litterateur^ 
born  in  Paris  about  1650,  wrote  a  continuation  of  Bos- 
suet's  "Discourse  on  Universal  History."  Died  about 
1711. 

Barre,  de  la,  (Jean,)  a  French  antiquary  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  was  a  resident  of  Corbeil. 

Barre,  de  la,  (Jean  FRANgois  le  Fevre — lehTivr' 
or  fivr'',)  Chevalier,  grandson  of  Antoine  le  Fevre, 
noticed  above,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1747.  He  was  con- 
demned to  death  by  the  tribunal  of  that  city  for  having 
mutilated  a  crucifix,  and  was  executed  in  1766,  at  the  age 
of  nineteen.  This  act  of  barbarity  and  intolerance  is 
severely  commented  upon  by  Voltaire  in  his  "Account 
of  the  Death  of  the  Chevalier  de  la  Barre." 

See  Voltaire,  " Correspondance,"  and  his  "Relation  de  la  Mort 
du  Chevalier  de  la  Barre,"  1766. 

Barre,  de  la,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Geneva  in  1696,  was  a  son  of  Fran9ois 
Poulain,  noticed  above.  He  published  "Philosophic 
Thoughts"  and  "Dialogues  on  Different  Subjects."  Died 
in  1 75 1. 

Barre,  de  la,  (Louis  FRANgois  Joseph,)  a  French 
scholar  and  critic,  born  at  Tournay  in  1688,  was  a  brother 
of  Antoine  Barre  de  Beaumarchais.  He  published  edi- 
tions of  the  "Vetera  Analecta"  of  Mabillon,  of  Moreri's 
"Dictionary,"  and  other  valuable  works.    Died  in  1738, 

Barre,  La,  It  btR,  (Michel,)  a  celebrated  French 
musician  and  composer  of  operas,  born  in  Paris  about 
1680.    Died  in  1744. 

Barre  de  Beaumarchais,  de  la,  deh  It  btR  deh 
bo'mtR'sha',  (Antoine,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Cambrai,  was  the  author  of  "  Letters,  Serious  and  Play- 
ful, on  the  Works  of  Savants,"  (1729.)  Died  about  1757. 

Barre  de  Saint- Venant,  bt'ra'  deh  s^N'veh-n6N', 
(Jean,)  a  French  agricultural  writer,  born  at  Niort  in 
1737,  became  a  resident  of  Saint  Domingo.  He  wrote 
a  work  "On  the  Modern  Colonies  under  the  Torrid 
Zone,"  (1802.)    Died  in  1810. 

Barreau,  bt'ro',  (Alexandrine  Rose,)  a  French 
heroine,  born  at  Sartens  about  1770,  served  as  soldier 
in  nearly  all  the  campaigns  of  the  republic  and  empire. 
Died  in  1843. 

Barreau,  (FRANgois,)  an  ingenious  French  mechan- 
ician, born  at  Toulouse  in  1731.  One  of  his  master- 
pieces was  an  ivory  sphere  of  exquisite  and  complicatea 
workmanship,  called  a  kiosk,  which  he  presented  to  Na- 
poleon.   Died  in  1814. 

Barreaux,  des,  da  bt'ro^  (Jacques  Vallee — ^\'t''la',) 
Seigneur,  an  indifferent  French  poet,  born  in  Paris  in 
1602.    Died  in  1673. 

Barreiros,  bdr-ra'e-rds,  (Caspar,)  a  Portuguese  geo- 
grapher, was  a  nephew  of  the  celebrated  historian  Joao 
de  Barros.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Choro- 
graphia  ;"  besides  which  he  was  the  author  of  "  Cosmo- 
graphic  Observations."    Died  in  1574. 

Barrelier,  btR'le-cV,  (Jacques,)  a  French  botanist; 
born  in  Paris  in  1606.  In  1635  he  entered  the  order  of 
Saint  Dominic,  and,  while  visiting  the  convents  of 
I  France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  made  a  valuable  collection  of 
plants  and  shells.  He  was  engaged  upon  a  large  botan- 
ical work  when  he  died  in  1673.  His  manuscripts  were 
subsequently  destroyed  by  fire  ;  but  the  copper-plates 
were  preserved,  and  were  collected  by  Antoine  de  Jus- 
sieu,  and  published  with  accompanying  descriptions, 
under  the  title  of  "  Plants  of  France,  Spain,  and  Italy." 
The  work  contains  thirteen  hundred  and  ninety-two 
figures  of  plants,  and  three  plates  of  shells.  Plumier 
has  named  the  genus  Barrelia  in  honour  of  this  botanist. 

Barreme,  bt'rim',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  arithmeti- 
cian of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  a  native  of  Lyons, 
and  the  author  of  valuable  arithmetical  works.  Died 
in  1703. 

Barrere.    See  Barere. 

Barrere,  bt''raiR',  (Pierre,)  a  French  naturalist  and 
physician,  born  at  Perpignan  about  1690.    He  was  the 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mit;  n6t;  good;  moon 


BARRES 


275 


BARRON 


author  of  an  "  Essay  on  the  Natural  History  of  Equi- 
noctial France,"  being  a  mere  list  or  enumeration  of  the 
natural  productions  of  Guiana  and  Cayenne,  where  he 
resided  nearly  three  years.    Died  in  1755. 
See  "Blographie  Medicale." 

Barres,  (Joseph  Frederick.)    See  Desbarres. 
Barretier.    See  Baratier. 

Barreto,  bar-ra'to,  (Francisco,)  a  Portuguese  mis- 
sionary and  Jesuit,  born  at  Montemor-o-Novo  in  1588. 
He  wrote,  in  Italian,  an  "  Account  of  Missions,  etc.  in 
the  Province  of  Malabar,"  (1645.)  Died  at  Goa  in  1663. 

Barreto,  de,  da  bir-ra'to,  (Francisco,)  a  Portuguese 
who  was  appointed  in  1555  governor  of  the  Indies.  In 
an  attempt  to  conquer  that  portion  of  Africa  called  Mo- 
nomotapa,  after  suffering  great  hardships,  he  died  in 
1574.  It  was  by  his  orders  that  the  poet  Camoens  was 
exiled  to  Macao. 

Barreto,  de,  (Munoz,  moon-yoz',)  a  Portuguese 
under  the  reign  of  Sebastian,  was  Viceroy  of  the  Indies 
in  1573,  and  in  1589  governor  of  the  eastern  shores  of 
Africa. 

Barreto  de  Resende,  bir-ra'to  da  ra-s§n'di,  (Pe- 
dro,) a  Portuguese  historian,  who  left  in  manuscript  a 
work  on  the  history  of  India.    Died  in  165 1. 

Bar'rett,  (Eaton  Stannard,)  an  Irish  writer  of  satire 
and  fiction,  born  about  1785.  He  published  poems  en- 
titled "  Woman,"  and  "All  the  Talents,"  (1807;)  also 
"The  Heroine,"  a  satirical  romance.    Died  in  1820. 

Barrett,  (Elizabeth.)    See  Browning. 

Barrett,  (George,)  a  distinguished  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Dublin  about  1730,  was  one  of  the  first  members 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Painting.  He  was  a  friend 
of  Edmund  Burke.    Died  in  1784. 

Bar'rett,  (George  Horton,)  an  English  actor,  born 
in  1794,  removed  to  the  United  States,  where  he  gained 
considerable  popularity,  and  became  manager  of  the 
Bowery  Theatre  in  New  York. 

Bar-rett',  (orbt'ra^)  (Jf.an  Jacques,)  3i  Y  r  er\ch  lifter  a - 
teui%  of  English  extraction,  born  at  Condom  in  171 7.  He 
made  translations  from  Cicero,  Ovid,  Virgil,  and  Tacitus, 
and  also  translated  Macchiavelli's  "  History  of  Florence," 
and  "The  Praise  of  Folly"  by  Erasmus.    Died  in  1792. 

Barrett,  (John,)  a  distinguished  classical  scholar,  born 
in  Ireland  about  1750.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College, 
where  he  became  vice-provost  in  1806.  He  wrote  an 
"Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  the  Constellations  that  com- 
pose the  Zodiac,"  and  an  "Essay  on  the  Life  of  Swift." 
Dr.  Barrett  discovered,  among  the  manuscripts  of  the 
college  library,  a  palimpsest,  containing  fragments  of  the 
Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew,  supposed  by  some  to  have  been 
Vvritten  in  the  second  century.  He  was  noted  for  his 
eccentricities  ;  and  many  anecdotes  are  related  of  his 
simplicity  and  ignorance  of  common  life.    Died  in  1821. 

Barrett,  (William,)  an  English  antiquary  and  sur- 
geon, resided  at  Bristol.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"History  and  Antiquities  of  l^ristol,"  (1788.)  He  was 
a  fellow  of  the  Antiquarian  Society.    Died  in  1789. 

Barrey,  bt'ri',  (Claude  Antoine,)  a  French  physi- 
cian, born  at  Besan9on  in  1771,  was  a  zealous  promoter 
of  vaccination.    Died  in  1837. 

Barri.    See  Giraldus  Cambrensis. 

Barri,  bSr'ree,  (Garriello,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Francica,  in  Calabria,  wrote,  in  Latin, 
a  treatise  "  On  the  Antiquity  and  Situation  of  Calabria," 
(157 1,)  and  other  works. 

Barri,  (Giacomo,)  a  Venetian  painter  and  engraver, 
born  about  1630,  imitated  Titian  and  Tintoretto.  He 
published  "  Viaggio  pittoresco,"  (1671,)  which  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Lodge.    Died  after  1684. 

Barrientos,  bJr-re-^n't^s,  (BartolomE,)  a  Spanish 
scholar  and  commentator  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was 
a  native  of  Granada. 

Barrientos,  (Genes,  ni'nes,)  a  Sjianish  theologian, 
preached  in  the  Philippine  Islands.    Died  in  1694. 

Barriere,  bt're-aiR',  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French  lit- 
terateur, born  in  Paris  in  1786,  published,  among  other 
works,  "Memoirs  of  Madame  Campan." 

Barriere,  or  Labarre,  Ifbtu',  (Pierre,)  a  French 
soldier,  notorious  from  his  attempt  on  the  life  of  Henry 
IV.  He  was  executed  in  1593,  declaring  that  he  had 
been  incited  to  the  deed  by  the  Catholic  priests. 


Barriere,  (Theodore,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1823.  Among  his  works  is  "Les  Filles  de 
Marbre,"  (1853.) 

Barriere,  de  la,  deh  It  bt're-aiR^,  (Dom  Jean,)  the 
founder  of  the  order  of  the  Feuillants,  born  at  Saint- 
Cere  in  1544.  In  1586  his  institution  was  recognized 
by  a  brief  from  Pope  Sixtus  V.    Died  in  1600. 

Bar'rin-ger,  (Daniel  Moreau,)  an  American  poli- 
tician, born  in  Cabarras  county,  North  Carolina,  in  1807. 
He  represented  a  district  of  his  native  State  in  Congress 
from  1843  to  1849,  and  was  minister  to  Spain  from  1849 
to  1853. 

Bar'ring-ton,  (Hon.  Daines,)  a  distinguished  English 
jurist  and  naturalist,  born  in  1727,  was  a  son  of  John 
Shute,  Viscount  Barrington,  noticed  below.  He  pub- 
lished in  1766  "Observations  upon  the  Statutes,  chiefly 
the  more  Ancient,  from  Magna  Charta  to  the  21  Jac.  1. 
c.  27,"  which  is  esteemed  a  standard  work.  He  wrote 
also  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Linnasan  System,"  and  a 
tract  "On  the  Probability  of  reaching  the  North  Pole," 
(1775,)  which  is  said  to  have  suggested  to  Captain  Phipps 
his  voyage  to  the  Arctic  regions.  Barrington  contributed 
to  the  "Archaeologia"  and  to  the  "  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions." He  was  vice-president  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Died  in  1800. 

Barrington,  (John,)  son  of  the  first  Viscount  Bar- 
rington, a  major-general  who  commanded  the  British 
forces  at  the  capture  of  Guadeloupe.    Died  in  1764. 

Barrington,  (John  Shute,)  first  Viscount,  an  able 
English  writer  and  politician,  born  in  Hertfordshire  in 
1678.  He  became  a  member  of  Parliament  about  1714, 
after  which  he  was  raised  to  the  Irish  peerage.  "  He  is 
reckoned  the  shrewdest  head  in  England,"  says  Dean 
Swift.  His  principal  work,  "Miscellanea  Sacra;  or  a 
New  Method  of  considering  so  much  of  the  History  of 
the  Apostles  as  is  contained  in  Scripture,"  (2  vols.,  1725,) 
was  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1734. 

Barrington,  (Sir  Jonah,)  an  Irish  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  in  Queen's  county  in  1767.  He  became  in  1790  a 
member  of  the  Irish  Parliament,  where  he  acted  with 
the  popular  party  and  voted  against  the  Union.  He  was 
subsequently  made  a  knight  and  a  judge  of  the  admiralty 
court.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Historic  Memoirs  of  Ire- 
land" and  "  Personal  Sketches  of  his  Own  Times."  The 
latter  was  very  popular  :  it  abounds  in  amusing  though 
extravagant  anecdote,  and  presents  a  tolerably  correct 
picture  of  Irish  society  at  that  time.    Died  in  1834. 

Barrington,  (Hon.  Samuel,)  fifth  son  of  the  first 
Lord  Barrington,  entered  the  navy  at  an  early  age.  He 
was  ])romoted  to  the  rank  of  vice-admiral,  and  in  1778 
took  Saint  Lucia  from  the  F'rench.    Died  in  1800. 

See  Cami'eei,l,  "  Lives  of  the  British  Admirals." 

Barrington,  (Shute,)  the  youngest  son  of  the  first 
Lord  Barrington,  born  in  Berkshire  in  1734,  rose  to  be 
Bisho]3  of  Durham  in  1791.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Wil- 
liam, Viscount  Barrington."    Died  in  1826. 

Barrington,  (William  Wildman,)  second  Viscount 
Barrington,  eldest  son  of  John  Shute,  Lord  Barrington, 
born  in  1 7 10.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Ply- 
mouth in  1754,  which  he  continued  to  represent  for  more 
than  twenty  years.  He  was  successively  appointed  sec- 
retary at  war,  (1755,)  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  (1761,) 
and  treasurer  of  the  navy,  (1762.)    Died  in  1793. 

See  SiiUTE  Barkington,  "  Poiitical  Life  of  W.  Wildman  Bar- 
rington," 1S15;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  i8i6. 

Barrios,  bar're-6s,  or  De  Earrcs,  da  blr'r^s,  (Mi- 
guel,) sometimes  called  Daniel  Levi,  a  Spanish  Jew 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  wrote,  among  other  works, 
an  "Account  of  the  Spanish  Poets  and  Writers  of  Jew- 
ish Origin." 

Barris,  bt'r^ss',  (Pierre  Joseph  Paul,)  a  French 
statesman,  born  at  Montesquieu  in  1759,  was  a  deputy 
to  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1791,  and  subsequently 
president  of  the  court  of  cassation.    Died  in  1824. 

Barroilhet,  bS'Rwl''hy,(PAUL,)  a  French  vocalist,  born 
at  Bayonne  in  1810.  He  performed  in  the  Opera  of  Paris. 

Earrois,  bt'Rw^',  (Jacques  Marie,)  a  learned  French 
bookseller,  born  in  Paris  in  1704,  published  a  great  num- 
ber of  valuable  catalogues.    Died  in  1769. 

Bar'ron,  (James,)  an  American  commodore,  born  in 
Virginia  in  1768.     He  commanded  the  Chesapeake, 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  H,  K,  guttural:  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  t^h  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23/ 


BARRON 


276 


BARRY 


which  the  British  ship  Leopard  attacked  and  captured 
in  1807,  in  time  of  peace,  because  Barron  refused  to  al- 
low his  vessel  to  be  searched  for  deserters.  For  his  con- 
duct in  this  affair  he  was  suspended  for  several  years.  In 
1820  he  killed  Commodore  Decatur  in  a  duel,  and  was  at 
the  same  time  severely  wounded  himself.    Died  in  185 1. 

Barron,  (Samuel,)  a  naval  officer,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Virginia  about  1764.  He  commanded  a 
squadron  sent  against  Tripoli  in  1805.    Died  in  1810. 

Barron,  (Samuel,)  an  American  officer,  born  in  Vir- 
ginia, entered  the  navy  about  1812.  He  became  a  com- 
mander in  1847,  and  captain  in  1855.  As  commodore 
of  the  rebel  navy,  he  commanded  at  Fort  Hatteras,  which 
he  surrendered  in  August,  1861. 

Barros,bc^r'r6s,  (Andrea,)  a  Portuguese  Jesuit,  native 
of  Lisbon,  lived  about  1700-30.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of 
Antonio  Vieyra." 

Barros,  de,  da  bSr'ros,  (Joao,)  the  most  eminent  of 
the  Portuguese  historians,  born  at  Viseu  in  1496.  He 
was  patronized  by  the  Infant  of  Portugal,  afterwards  John 
III.,  on  whose  accession  he  was  appointed  governor  of 
the  Portuguese  establishments  on  the  coast  of  Guinea. 
Pie  subsequently  filled  the  post  of  agent-general  for  those 
colonies  for  more  than  thirty  years.  The  first  two  de- 
cades of  his  great  work,  entitled  "Asia,  or  the  History 
of  the  Discoveries  and  Conquests  of  the  Portuguese  in 
the  East  Indies,"  came  out  in  1552-53,  and  the  third 
decade  ten  years  later.  The  fourth,  which  brings  the 
history  down  to  1539,  was  published  in  161 5,  with  notes 
by  Lavanha.  A  continuation  of  this  history  has  been 
written  by  Diego  de  Couto.  Barros  was  the  author  of  a 
historical  romance  called  "Chronicle  of  the  Emperor 
Clarimundo,"  and  a  number  of  moral  and  scientific  treat- 
ises. His  writings  are  remarkable  for  elegance  of  style, 
and  his  merits  as  a  historian  have  procured  for  him  the 
name  of  "the  Portuguese  Livy.""    Died  in  1570. 

See  AIanoel  Severim  de  Faria,  "Vida  de  Joao  de  Barros," 
1624;  JJarbosa  Machado,  "  Bibliotheca  Lusitana,"  and  an  able 
essay  on  "  Portuguese  Literature"  in  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  May,  1809. 

Barroso,  bar-ro'so,  (Miguel,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  at  Consuegra,  in  New  Castile,  in  1538,  was  em- 
ployed by  Philip  II.  to  adorn  a  part  of  the  Escurial.  Died 
in  1590. 

Barrot,  bt'ro',  (Camille  Hyacinthe  Odillon — 
o'de''y6N',)  an  eloquent  French  advocate  and  statesman, 
born  at  Villefort,  in  Lozere,  in  1791.  Having  gained 
distinction  as  an  advocate,  and  adopted  liberal  opinions, 
he  began  his  political  career  as  president  of  the  society 
which  took  for  its  name  Aide-toi  et  le  del  faidera.  He 
was  an  active  promoter  of  the  revolution  of  1830,  and, 
it  is  said,  advised  or  persuaded  Lafayette  to  refuse  the 
presidency  of  the  republic.  In  August,  1830,  he  was 
appointed  prefect  of  the  department  of  Seine  at  Paris, 
and  a  few  months  later  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  in  which  he  became  a  leader  of  the  opposition, 
or  gmiche  moderee.  He  favoured  electoral  reform,  and 
won  popularity  by  his  speeches  against  the  administra- 
tion of  Guizot,  between  1840  and  '48.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  brief  ministry  which  the  king  appointed  in  Febru- 
ary, 1848,  as  a  concession  to  the  victorious  revolutionists. 
On  the  abdication  of  Louis  Philippe,  he  advocated  the 
appointment  of  the  Duchess  of  Orleans  as  regent.  He 
was  minister  of  justice  and  president  of  the  council  in  the 
first  cabinet  of  Louis  Napoleon  from  December,  1848,  to 
September,  1849.  He  protested  against  the  coup  d'etat 
of  December,  1851,  after  which  he  retired  from  political 
life. 

See  Louis  Blanc,  "Histoire  de  dix  Ans." 

Barrot,  (Ferptnand,)  brother  of  Odillon  Barrot,  born 
in  1806,  became  minister  of  the  interior  in  1849,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  council  of  state  in  1851,  and  a  senator  in  1853. 

Barrot,  (Jean  Andr^,)  a  French  politician,  the  father 
of  Odillon,  was  born  about  1752.  As  a  member  of  the 
Convention  in  1793,  he  voted  against  the  execution  of  the 
king.    Died  in  1845. 

See  Odillon  Barrot,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  A.  Barrot,"  1S14. 

Bar'row,  (Isaac,)  an  eminent  English  divine,  mathe- 
matician, and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  London  in  October, 
1630,  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  M.A.  in  1652.    After  an  extensive  tour  on  the 


Continent,  he  was  ordained  in  1660,  and  chosen  professor 
of  Greek  at  Cambridge.  In  1662  he  obtained  the  chair 
of  geometry  in  Gresham  College,  and  in  1663  the  Lu- 
casian  professorship  of  mathematics.  He  resigned  this 
in  favour  of  his  friend  and  pupil,  the  illustrious  Newton, 
in  1669,  and  was  appointed  master  of  Trinity  College  by 
the  king  in  1672.  As  a  mathematician  he  is  estimated 
more  highly  by  the  English  than  by  the  French.  By  the 
invention  of  the  method  of  tangents  he  prepared  the  way 
for  the  application  of  the  differential  calculus  to  geometry. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Euclidis  Elementa," 
(1655,)  "Lectiones  Opticoe,"  (1669,)  and  "Lectiones  Geo- 
metricae,"  (1670.)  Among  his  posthumous  works  are 
"Lectiones  Mathematicae,"  (1683,)  and  an  admirable 
"Treatise  on  the  Pope's  Supremacy."  His  Sermons  and 
other  theological  works,  edited  by  Dr.  Tillotson,  ap- 
peared in  three  volumes,  1685.  He  was  never  married. 
His  moral  character  was  irreproachable.  Died  in  London 
in  Mav,  1677. 

"We  admire,"  says  Robert  Hall,  "as  much  as  it  is 
possible  for  our  readers  to  admire,  the  rich  invention,  the 
masculine  sense,  the  exuberantly  copious  yet  precise  and 
energetic  diction,  which  distinguish  Barrow,  who,  by  a 
rare  felicity  of  genius,  united  in  himself  the  most  distin- 
guishing qualities' of  the  mathematician  and  the  orator." 

"The  sermons  of  Barrow,"  says  Hallam,  "display  a 
strength  of  mind,  a  comprehensiveness  and  fertility,  which 
have  rarely  been  equalled."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  Europe.") 

See  Arthur  Hill,  "Life  of  Barrow,"  prefixed  to  his  collected 
works,  1685;  Ward,  "Lives  of  the  Professors  of  Gresham  College." 

Barrow,  (John,)  an  English  writer  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, chiefly  known  as  the  compiler  of  a  "Geographical 
Dictionary,"  and  a  "  History  of  Discoveries  made  by 
Europeans  in  Different  Parts  of  the  World,"  (1756.) 

Barrow,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  who  published 
a  "New  Medicinal  Dictionary."  (1749,)  and  a  "New 
Essay  of  the.  Practice  of  Physic." 

Barrow,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  traveller,  and  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Geographical  Society,  born  in  Lan- 
cashire in  1764.  He  accompanied  Lorcl  Macartney,  as 
his  secretary,  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1797,  and  in 
1804  was  appointed  by  Lord  Melville  second  secretary  to 
the  admiralty,  a  position  which  he  held  for  forty  years. 
During  this  period  he  rendered  important  services  to  geo- 
gra])hical  science,  and  was  active  in  promoting  voyages 
to  the  Arctic  regions.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"Travels  in  South  Africa,"  (1803,)  "Memoirs  of  Naval 
Worthies  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  Reign,"  (1845,)  '^"'^^  "  Voy- 
ages of  Discovery  and  Research  in  the  Arctic  Regions." 
He  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica"  and  "  Quarterly  Review."  He  became  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1805,  and  was  subsequently  presi- 
dent of  the  Geographical  Society.    Died  in  1848; 

See  "An  Autobiographical  Memoir  of  Sir  John  Barrow." 

Bar^row-by,  (Willlxm,)  an  English  physician,  born 
in  London  about  1700,  translated  from  the  Latin  some 
of  the  works  of  Astruc. 

Bar'rowe  or  Bar^rowes,  (Henry,)  an  English  non- 
conformist, of  the  sect  called  Brownists,  was  executed  in 
1592  on  a  charge  of  publishing  seditious  books  againsl 
the  queen  and  government.  He  was  the  author  of  "A 
Brief  Discoverie  of  the  False  Church,"  (1590.) 

Barruel,  de,  deh  ba^rii-eK,  (Augustin,)  a  learned 
French  Jesuit,  born  near  Viviers  in  1741.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Pope  and  his 
Religious  Rights,"  (1803.)    Died  in  1820. 

Barruel- iSeativert,  de,  deh  bt^rii-el''  boVaiR',  (An- 
tolne  Joseph,)  Count,  a  French  litterateur,  born  near 
Bagnols,  in  Languedoc,  in  1756,  was  the  author  of  a  "  Life 
of  Rousseau,"  and  several  political  works  in  favour  of 
the  royalists.    Died  in  1817. 

Bar'ry,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  eminent  English  architect, 
born  at  Westminster  in  1795.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  the  church  of  Saint  Peter's  at  Brighton, King  Edward's 
Grammar-School  at  Birmingham,  and  the  Athenienm 
at  Manchester.  In  1840  he  began  the  new  Parliament- 
House,  which,  though  he  did  not  live  to  see  it  completed, 
is  a  splendid  monument  of  his  genius  and  taste.  Sir 
Charles  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  a  member 


a.  e.  T,  o,  u,  y,  loiig;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  it,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BARRT 


277 


BARTH 


of  the  Institute  of  Architects,  and  of  various  learned 
societies  in  Europe.    Died  in  1S60. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  Sir  Charles  Barr>-,"  by  his  son,  the  Rev.  Alfred 
Barry,  1867. 

Bar'ry,  (Sir  David,)  a  learned  physician,  born  in  the 
county  of  Roscommon,  Ireland,  in  1780,  was  the  author 
^of  "Researches  on  the  Influence  exercised  by  Atmos- 
pheric Pressure  upon  the  Progression  of  the  Blood  in 
the  Veins,"  etc.    Died  in  1835. 

Barry,  (Edward,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Bristol 
about  1759;  died  in  1822. 

Barry,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English  physician  and  me- 
dical writer,  studied  under  Boerhaave  at  Leyden,  He 
became  professor  of  medicine  at  Dublin,  and  was  a  Fel- 
low of  the  Royal  Society.    Died  in  1776. 

Barry,  (Garret,)  an  officer,  born  in  Ireland,  published 
in  1634  a  "Discourse  of  Military  Discipline." 

Bar'ry,  (George,)  a  Scottish  divine,  born  in  Berwick- 
shire in  1747,  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Ork- 
ney Islands,"  (1805.)    Died  in  1804. 

fearry,  (Gerald.)    See  Giraldus  Cambrensis. 

Barry,  (James,)  Lord  of  Santry,  writer  on  law,  born 
in  Dublin  in  1598,  became  lord  chief-justice  of  the  king's 
bench  in  Ireland.    Died  in  1673. 

Barry,  (James,)  an  eininent  historical  painter,  born 
at  Cork  in  1741.  Pie  was  the  son  of  the  master  of  a 
coasting-vessel,  who  destined  him  for  his  own  profession. 
He  manifested  a  passion  for  art  at  a  very  early  age,  pass- 
ing whole  nights  in  drawing,  and  "  spending  all  his  pocket- 
money  on  pencils  and  candles."  One  of  his  first  pro- 
ductions represented  the  conversion  of  a  king  of  Cashel 
by  Saint  Patrick :  it  attracted  general  admiration,  and 
procured  for  the  artist  the  friendship  and  patronage  of 
Edmund  Burke,  by  whose  pecuniary  assistance  he  was 
soon  after  enabled  to  visit  Rome.  Having  studied  five 
years  in  that  city,  he  returned  to  England  in  1770,  and 
was  subsequently  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy. In  1775  he  published  an  "Inquiry  into  the  Real 
and  Imaginary  Obstructions  to  the  Progress  of  Art  in 
England,"  an  able  refutation  of  Winckelmann's  theory 
that  the  climate  of  England  was  unfavourable  to  the  high 
development  of  art.  In  1777  he  began  a  series  of  six 
pictures  designed  to  illustrate  human  improvement.  Of 
these  works,  which  are  esteemed  his  master-pieces,  the 
"Victors  at  Olympia"  deserves  particular  mention.  Barry 
was  elected  professor  of  painting  at  the  Academy  in  1782  ; 
but  his  unfortunate  irritability  of  temper  kept  him  con- 
stantly embroiled  with  his  colleagues,  and  having,  as  was 
alleged,  made  some  false  accusations  against  members 
of  the  Academy,  he  was  deprived  of  his  office  in  1797. 
He  died  in  1806,  in  destitute  circumstances.  "Barry," 
gays  Cunningham,  "was  the  greatest  enthusiast  in  art 
which  this  country  ever  produced  :  his  passion  for  it  al- 
most amounted  to  madness  ;"  and  the  same  writer  adds, 
"  his  imagination  was  second  only  to  that  of  Fuseli." 

See  Cunningham's  "  Lives  of  Painters  and  Sculptors  ;"  "  Ency- 
clopjedia  Eritannica ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  August,  1810 ; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  December,  1S20. 

Barry,  (John,)  Commodore,  a  naval  officer,  born  in 
Wexford  county,  Ireland,  in  1745,  emigrated  to  America 
about  1760.  Having  obtained  command  of  a  United 
States  frigate  in  1776,  he  captured  the  British  vessel 
Atalanta  in  May,  1 781,  and  commanded  the  Alliance, 
which  conveyed  La  Fayette  to  France  about  the  end  of 
that  year.    Died  in  1803, 

Barry, bt're^  (Marie  Jeanne  Gomart  de  Vauber- 
nier — go^mtk'  deh  vo^beR^ne-i'', )  Countess  of,  a  mis- 
tress of  Louis  XV.,  of  FranceTwas  born  at  Vaucouleurs 
in  1746.  She  exercised  a  powerful  influence  at  court, 
and  received  the  homage  of  Chancellor  Maupeou  and 
other  distinguished  men,  who  obtained  through  her  the 
most  important  offices  and  privileges.  During  the  reign 
of  terror  she  was  arrested  as  a  royalist,  and  executed  in 
November,  1793. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Barry,  (Martin,)  a  distinguished  English  physiolo- 
gist, born  in  Hampshire  in  1802,  graduated  in  medicine 
at  Edinburgh,  and  finished  his  studies  at  Heidelberg 
in  1834.  His  principal  work,  entitled  "  Researches  in 
Embryology,"  first  appeared  in  the  "  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions" from  1838  to  1842,  and  obtained  for  him  the  gold 


medal  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  also  published  a  treat- 
tise  "On  Fibre,"  and  other  works  relating  to  animal  de- 
velopment. He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
in  1840.    Died  in  Suffolk  in  1855. 

Barry,  (Rene,)  a  French  litth-atetir  and  royal  histori- 
ographer, lived  about  1630.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Life 
of  Louis  XIII.,"  (in  Latin.) 

Barry,  (Spranger,)  a  celebrated  actor,  born  at  Dub- 
lin in  1 719,  performed  with  great  success  in  his  native 
city  and  in  London.  He  is  said  to  have  been  in  some 
characters  scarcely  inferior  to  Garrick.    Died  in  1777. 

See  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Bar'ry,  (William  F.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
New  York  City  in  181 8,  graduated  at  West  Point.  He 
was  made  captain  in  1852,  and  major  of  artillery  in  May, 
1861.  In  August  of  that  year  he  became  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers,  and  served  as  chief  of  artillery, 
under  General  McClellan,  in  the  battles  near  Richmond, 
June,  1862. 

Barry,  (William  Taylor,)  an  American  politician, 
born  in  Lunenburg  county,  Virginia,  in  1785.  He  be- 
came a  citizen  of  Kentucky,  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1810,  and  was  subsequently  chief  justice  of  that  State. 
He  was  appointed  postmaster-general  under  President 
Jackson  in  1829,  and  was  the  first  incumbent  of  that 
office  who  was  a  member  of  the  cabinet.  In  1835  he 
was  sent  as  minister  to  Spain.  He  died  at  Liverpool, 
while  on  his  way  to  Madrid,  the  same  year. 

Barry  or  Barri,  de,  deh  bt're',  (Paul,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  near  Narbonne  in  1587,  wrote  a  number  of 
mystical  religious  treatises,  which  were  satirized  by  Pas- 
cal in  his  "  Provincial  Letters."    Died  in  1661. 

Barry  Cornwall.    See  Procter. 

Barsony  (baR-shoh'')  of  Lovas  Bereny,  (lo-v6sh' 
ba-reii',)  (George,)  a  Hungarian  Catholic  bishop,  dis- 
tinguished for  his  zeal  against  the  Protestants.  Died  in 
1678. 

Bar-su'mas  or  Bar-sau'mas,  a  prominent  leader  of 
the  Nestorians,  became  Bishop  of  Nisibis  in  435  a.d. 

Bart  or  Barth,  bSR,  (Jean,)  a  celebrated  French  sea- 
man, born  at  Dunkirk  in  1651,  signalized  himself  as  a 
privateersman  against  the  Dutch  in  1672.  After  per- 
forming many  brilliant  exploits  as  a  cruiser  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, he  was  appointed  by  Louis  XIV.  chief  of 
a  squadron  in  1697.  He  obtained  letters  of  nobility 
from  the  French  king  for  having  captured  a  Dutch  fleet 
laden  with  corn,  in  1694.    Died  in  1702. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.;  A.  Richer,  "Vie 
de  Jean  Bart,"  17S0;  Vanderest,  "  Histoire  de  Jean  Bart,"  1841. 

Barta,  baR'tl,  (Balthasar,)  a  Hungarian  chronicler, 
born  at  Szoboszlo,  lived  about  1770. 

Bartalini,  baR-tS-lee^nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Sienna  about  1560;  died  in  1609. 

Bartas,  dii,  dii  btR^tS.',  (Guillaume  de  Salluste — 
deh  st'iiist',)  an  eminent  French  poet  and  negotiator, 
born  at  Montfort,  in  Armagnac,  in  1544,  was  a  Protestant. 
He  was  sent  by  Henry  IV.  on  missions  to  several  foreign 
courts.  His  chief  work  is  a  poem  entitled  "The  Week 
of  Creation,"  ("  La  premiere  Semaine,  ou  la  Creation,") 
which  was  once  greatly  admired,  and  was  translated 
into  Latin,  Italian,  English,  and  German,  He  received 
several  wounds  at  the  battle  of  Ivry,  survived  a  few 
months,  and  died  in  1590,  "His  imagination,  though 
extravagant,  is  vigorous  and  original,"  (Hallam's  "In- 
troduction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See,  also,  Sainte-Beuve,  "Tableau  de  la  Poesie  Frangaise." 

Bartels,  baR'tgls,  (Ernst  Daniel  August,)  a  Ger- 
man physician,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1778,  became  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Berlin  in  1827,  and  published  many 
works  on  physiology,  etc.    Died  in  1838. 

See  Callisen,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 

Bartenstein,  baR'ten-stin^,  (Johann  Christoph,) 
born  in  1690,  rose  to  be  vice-chancellor  of  Austria  and 
Bohemia.  He  wrote  "The  Law  of  Nature  and  of  Na- 
tions."   Died  in  1766. 

Bartenstein,  (Lorenz  Adam,)  a  German  mathema- 
tician and  scholar,  born  at  Heldburg  in  1711,  was  the 
author  of  several  critical  and  mathematical  treatises. 
Died  in  1796. 

See  J.  C.  Briegleb,  "Vita  L.  A.  Bartensteinii,"  1793. 

Barth,  btRt,  (Friedrich  Gottlieb,)  a  German  phi- 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2[^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BARTH 


278 


BARTHOLD 


lologist,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1738,  published  an  edition 
of  Propertius  with  notes,  and  a  '*  German  and  Spanish 
Grammar,"  {1778.)    Died  in  1794. 

Barth,  (Gottfried,)  a  German  jurist  and  professor 
of  law  at  Leipsic,  born  in  that  city  in  1650  ;  died  in  1728, 

Barth,  (Heinrich,)  a  celebrated  German  explorer, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1821.  He  visited  Northern  Africa 
in  1845,  whence  he  proceeded  to  Arabia  and  Asia  Minor, 
and  in  1849  published  his  "  Wanderings  along  the  Shores 
of  the  Mediterranean."  About  this  time  he  received 
proposals  from  the  British  government  to  join  the  expe- 
dition which  was  then  being  fitted  out  for  Central  Africa. 
In  company  with  Mr.  Richardson  and  Dr.  Overweg,  he 
set  out  in  December,  1849.  Having  spent  nearly  six 
years  in  his  explorations,  during  which  time  his  two 
companions  died,  Dr.  Barth  returned  to  Europe  in  1855. 
He  published  in  1857  his  "Travels  and  Discoveries  in 
North  and  Central  Africa."    Died  in  1865. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January  and  April,  1859,  vol.  cix. 

Barth,  (Jean.)    See  Bart,  (Jean.) 

Barth,  btR,  (Jean  Raphael  Philippe,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Sarreguemines,  in  Moselle,  about 
1812.  His  chief  work  is  a  "Practical  Treatise  on  Aus- 
cultation," (1840.)  He  was  assisted  by  Henri  Roger  in 
the  composition  of  this  work. 

Barth,  bsRt,  (Karl,)  a  German  engraver,  born  at 
Hildburghausen  in  1792.  Pie  engraved  some  works  of 
Cornelius  and  Overbeck. 

Barth,  [Lat.  Bar'thius,]  (Michael,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, born  af  Annaberg,  in  Saxony,  about  1650,  was 
the  author  of  "  Letters  on  Medicine,"  and  a  number  of 
Latin  poems.    Died  in  1684. 

Barth,  (Paul,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Nu- 
remberg in  1635  ;  died  in  1688. 

Barth,  von,  fon  baRt,  [Lat.  Bar'thius,]  (Caspar,)  a 
German  scholar,  born  at  Ciistrin  in  1587,  wrote  a  Latin 
work  entitled  "  Adversaria,"  and  commentaries  on  Clau- 
dian.  Statins,  and  other  classics.     Died  in  1658. 

See  Kromaver,  "  Programma  in  C.  Barthii  obitum,"  1658;  Ni- 
ci^RON,  "  Memoires." 

Barth-Barthenheim,  baRt-blRt'en-hTm',  (Johann 
Baptist  Ludvvig  Ehrenreich,)  Count  of,  a  distin- 
guished statesman  and  jurist,  born  at  Hagenau,  in  Al- 
sace, in  1784.  He  rose,  through  various  offices  under 
the  Austrian  government,  to  be  aulic  councillor.  He 
wrote  several  legal  and  political  works.    Died  in  1846. 

Barthe,  biRt,  (Felix,)  a  French  jurist  and  statesman, 
born  at  Narbonne  in  1795.  He  became  minister  of  pub- 
lic instruction  in  1830,  and  in  1831  minister  of  justice 
under  Casimir  Perier.  In  1834  he  was  made  first  presi- 
dent of  the  court  of  accounts,  and  a  peer  of  France. 

See  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Barthe,"  1846. 

Barthe,  (Nicolas  Thomas,)  a  French  writer,  born 
at  Marseilles  in  1734,  wrote  an  epistle  "On  Genius  con- 
sidered in  its  Relation  to  the  Fine  Arts."    Died  in  1785. 

Barthel,  baR'tel,  (Johann  Caspar,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  at  Kissingen  in  1697,  became  vice-chancellor  of 
the  University  of  Wiirzburg.  He  wrote  several  Latin 
treatises  on  canon  law.    Died  in  1771. 

See  "Vita  J.  C.  Bartheli,"  1752. 

Barthel,  written  also  Bartel,  (Johann  Christian 
Friedrich,)  a  German  engraver,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1775.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  "Castle  of  Hei- 
delberg," after  Primavesi,  and  a  view  of  Vaucluse.  He 
also  produced  several  paintings. 

Barthel,  (Melchior,)  a  German  sculptor,  born  in 
Saxony,  worked  at  Venice  ;  died  in  1674. 

Barthelemy  orBarthelemi,  Saint.  See  Bartholo- 
mew^, Saint. 

Barthelemy,  blR'tiKme',  (Auguste  Marseille — 
mtR'sa'ye,)  a  French  satiric  poet,  whose  works  had 
great  popularity,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1796.  Among  the 
principal  we  may  name  the  "  Villeliade,"  an  attack  on  the 
ministry  of  Villele,  ( 1 826,)  "  Satire  against  the  Capuchins." 
and"  Napoleonin  Egypt,"  (1828.)  In  conjunction  with  his 
friend  Mery,  he  wrote  the  "Dupinade,"  (1831,)  a  mock- 
heroic  poem,  and  a  number  of  political  satires.  He  re- 
sided mostly  in  Paris. 

Barthelemy,  (Franqois,)  Marquis  of,  a  French 
statesman,  born  at  Aubagne  in  1747,  was  a  nephew  of 
the  author  of  "  Anacharsis."    He  held  various  offices 


under  Napoleon,  and  at  the  fall  of  the  empire  in  1814 
presided  over  the  commission  of  the  senate  which  de- 
throned the  emperor.  Under  Louis  XVIII.  he  was  made 
a  peer  and  grand  oflicer  of  the  legion  of  honour,  and 
was  subsequently  appointed  minister  of  state.  Died  in 
1830. 

Barthelemy,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  celebrated  French 
writer  and  scholar,  born  near  Aubagne,  in  Provence,  in 
1716.  Having  studied  theology  and  ancient  languages 
under  the  Jesuits  at  Marseilles,  he  visited  Paris,  wnere 
he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Gros  de  Boze,  keeper  of 
the  royal  cabinet  of  medals.  In  1753  ^''^  succeeded  De 
Boze  in  this  post,  having  previously  been  elected  to  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions.  He  subsequently  travelled 
in  Italy,  where  he  spent  several  years  in  antiquarian  re- 
searches and  made  a  large  and  choice  collection  of 
medals  for  the  royal  cabinet.  Having  obtained  several 
lucrative  offices  through  the  favour  of  the  Duke  of 
Choiseul,  Barthelemy  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits, 
and  published  a  number  of  valuable  treatises,  chiefly  on 
numismatics  and  ancient  inscriptions.  In  1788  he 
brought  out  his  principal  work,  entitled  "Travels  of 
Anacharsis  the  Younger  in  Greece,"  ("Voyage  du  Jeune 
Anacharsis  en  Grece,")  on  the  composition  of  which  he 
had  spent  thirty  years.  It  soon  obtained  great  popularity 
both  in  France  and  other  countries,  and  was  translated 
into  several  languages.  In  1789  Barthelemy  became  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy.   Died  in  Paris  in  1795. 

See  Mancini-Nivernais,  "  Essai  surla  Vie  de  J.  J.  Barthelemy," 
1795;  M.  G.  C.  Vii.i.ENAVE,  "Notice  sur  les  Ouvrages  de  J.  J.  Bar- 
thelemy," 1821;  "Encyclopedia  Britannica." 

Barthelemy,  (Jean  Simon,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  at  Laon  in  1742;  died  in  Paris  in  1811. 

Barthelemy,  (Louis,)  a  French  writer  on  grammar, 
history,  etc.,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1759;  died  in  1815. 

Barthelemy,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  Benedictine,  born 
in  Touraine  in  1478,  was  the  author  of  Latin  epigrams 
and  idylls,  and  a  treatise  "  On  Active  and  Contemplative 
Life,"  (1523.)    Died  about  1535. 

Barthelemy  Saint-Hilaire,  btR'tiKme'  siNt'e'lir', 
(Jules,)  a  French  journalist  and  scholar,  born  in  Paris 
in  1805,  was  assistant  editor  of  the  "Globe,"  the  "Na- 
tional," and  other  journals.  He  became  in  1838  pro- 
fessor of  Latin  and  Greek  philosophy  in  the  College  of 
France.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "  Commentary 
on  Aristotle,"  which  obtained  a  prize  from  the  Academy. 

Barthelmont.    See  Bartlemann. 

Barthes.    See  Barthez. 

Barthez,  btR^ta',  or  Barthes,  btR^ti',  (Paul  Joseph,) 
a  celebrated  French  physician  and  physiologist,  born 
at  Montpellier  in  1734.  In  1757  he  was  appointed 
royal  censor,  and  became  associate  editor  of  the  "Jour- 
nal des  Savants"  and  the  "  Encyclopedic  Methodique." 
He  obtained  the  chair  of  medicine  at  Montpellier  in 
1759.  Having  settled  in  Paris  in  1780,  he  was  made 
consulting  physician  to  the  king,  and  a  councillor  of 
state.  He  was  the  author  of  "New  Doctrine  of  the 
Functions  of  the  Human  Body,"  (in  Latin,  1774,)  "New 
Elements  of  the  Science  of  Man,"  (1778,)  a  "Discourse 
on  the  Genius  of  Hippocrates,"  (1801,)  and  other  valua- 
ble works.    Died  in  1806. 

See  LoRDAT,  "  Memoires  surla  Vie  de  P.  J.  Barthez,"  1818. 

Barthez,  de,  deh  btR^ti',  (Antoine  Charles  Er- 
nest,) a  French  medical  writer,  born  at  Narbonne,  in 
Aude,  about  1800.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Diseases  of  Children,"  (3  vols.,  1843.) 

Barthez  (or  Barthes)  de  Marmorieres — deh  mtR^- 
mo^re-aiR',  (Antoine,)  Baron,  sonof  Guillaume,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Saint  Gall,  in  Switzerland,  in  1736. 
He  wrote  a  tragedy  entitled  "  The  Death  of  Louis  XVI.," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1811. 

Barthez  (or  Barthes)  de  Marmorieres,  (Guil- 
laume,) a  French  engineer  of  bridges,  etc.,  and  writer 
on  mechanics,  lived  about  1750. 

Barthius.    See  Barth,  (Caspar  von.) 

Barthold,  baR'tolt,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man historian,  born  in  Berlin  in  1799,  became  a  professor 
at  Greifswalde  in  1834.  He  published  a  number  of  well- 
written  works  on  German  history,  among  which  is  a 
"  History  of  the  German  Cities  and  Corporations," 
{'■'■  Burgerthums,''')  185 1. 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  lo7ig;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^U,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moonj 


BARTHOLDT 


279 


BARTLETT 


\ 


Bartholdy.    See  Mendelssohn,  (Felix.) 

Bartholdy,  btR-toKdee,  (Jakob  Salomo,)  a  German 
soldier,  diplomatist,  and  writer,  of  Jewish  extraction, 
born  at  Berlin  in  1779.  He  served  in  the  campaigns 
against  the  French  from  1809  to  1814,  and  subsequently 
became  consul-general  at  Rome.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  Tyrolese  War  of  1809,"  and  a  "  Life  of  Cardinal 
Consalvi,"  (1825.)    Died  in  1825. 

Barthole.    See  Bartoll 

Bartholin,  baR''to-lin',  [Lat.  Bartholi'nus,]  (Eras- 
mus,) a  Danish  physician  and  savant,  born  at  Roskild  in 
1625,  was  a  son  of  Kaspar,  noticed  below.  He  became 
professor  of  geometry  and  medicine  at  Copenhagen. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoiies." 

Bartholin,  written  also  Bartholine,  (Kaspar,)  a 
learned  physician  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Malmo,  in 
Scania,  in  1585,  was  professor  of  medicine  at  Copen- 
hagen, and  in  161 8  rector  of  the  university  in  that  city. 
Died  in  1629. 

See  Haller,  "  Eibliotheca  Anatomica." 

Bartholin,  (Kaspar,)  a  Danish  physician,  born  in 
1655,  was  a  son  of  Thomas  Bartholin,  (the  first  of  that 
name.)  He  became  physician  to  the  King  of  Denmark, 
and  published  a  number  of  medical  and  scientific  works, 
in  Latin.    Died  in  1738. 

Bartholin,  baR-to-leen',  or  Bartolini,  baR-to-lee'nee, 
(Ricardo,)  an  Italian  litterateur  oi  ihc  sixteenth  century, 
was  a  native  of  Perugia. 

Bartholin,  (Thomas,)  son  of  Kaspar  the  elder,  noticed 
above,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1616,  was  one  of  the  most 
eminent  physicians  of  his  time.  Having  studied  at  Leyden 
and  afterwards  visited  the  principal  countries  of  Europe, 
he  was  appointed  in  1648  professor  of  anatomy  at  Co- 
penhagen. Among  his  works,  which  are  written  in  Latin, 
are  a  treatise  on  the  lymphatic  vessels,  (the  discovery  of 
which  he  claimed,)  a  dissertation  on  the  functions  of  the 
liver,  and  his  "Anatomia,"  (1641,)  which  had  a  high  re- 
putation as  a  text-book  and  passed  through  numerous 
editions.    Died  in  1680. 

See  Haller,  "Eibliotheca  Anatomica;"  G.  Hann^us,  "Oratio 
in  obitum  T.  Bartholini,"  1680. 

Bartholin,  (Thomas,)  a  Danish  jurist,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1659,  was  appointed  keeper  of  the 
royal  archives,  and  held  other  important  offices.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  works  on  northern  antiquities 
and  history.    Died  in  1690. 

Bartholine.    See  Bartholin. 

Bartholinus.    See  Bartholin. 

Bartholomaeus,  bar-thol-o-mee'us,an  English  bishop 
of  Exeter,  wrote  a  compilation  entitled  a  "Penitential," 
and  "  Dialogues  against  the  Jews."    Died  about  1187. 

Bartholomaeus,  baR-to-lo-ma'oos,  Bishop  of  Urbino, 
in  Italy,  lived  about  1350. 

Bartholomaeus,  baR-to-lo-ma'us,  [Fr.  Barth^lemi, 
btR'taKme' ;  Sp.  Bartolom^:,  baR-to-lo-ma',]  (a  Mar- 
tyr''ibus;  so  named  from  the  church  of  the  Martyrs,)  a 
Portuguese  prelate,  born  in  1 5 14.  In  1559  he  became 
Archbishop  of  Braga.  At  the  Council  of  Trent  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  advocacy  of  reform  in  the 
Catholic  Church.    Died  in  1590. 

See  Lemaistrede  Sacv,  "Viede  Barthelemi,"  1663;  L.  Munoz, 
"Vida  de  Fr.  Bartolome  de  los  Martyres,"  1645;  F.  A.  Vitoria, 
"  Vida  do  arcebispo  Fr.  Bartholomeo  dos  Martyros,"  2  vols.,  1748-49. 

Bar-thol-o-mae'us  Co-lo-ni-en'sis,  or  Bartholo- 
mew of  Cologne,  a  distinguished  scholar  and  writer, 
born  at  Cologne  about  1460,  studied  at  Deventer,  where 
he  became  acquainted  with  Erasmus.    Died  about  15 14. 

Bartholomaeus  (or  Bar-thol'o-mew)  de  Glan'- 
ville,  a  Franciscan  monk,  called  Anglicus,  (the  "Eng- 
lishman,") born  in  Suffolk,  lived  about  1370.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  a  kind  of  encyclopaedia,  entitled  "  On  the 
Properties  of  Things,"  ("De  Proprietatibus  Rerum,") 
which  had  a  high  reputation  in  his  time. 

Bar-thoFo-mew,  [Gr.  Bapdo7.ofj.alog;  Lat.  Bartholo- 
m^e'us,]  Saint,  (believed  by  many  to  be  the  same  as  the 
Nathanael  spoken  of  in  John  i.  45-49,)  one  of  the 
twelve  apostles,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of 
Galilee.  It  is  stated  by  Eu.sebius  that  he  preached  the 
gospel  in  India.  The  time  and  place  of  his  death  are 
unknown,  and  none  of  his  writings  are  extant.  His 
relics  are  said  to  have  been  brought  to  Rome,  where  a 


church  was  erected  in  his  honour.  (See  Matthew  x., 
Mark  iii.,  and  Luke  vi.) 

Bartisch,  baR'tish,  (Georg,)  a  German  surgeon,  who 
lived  about  1570,  and  wrote  "On  Diseases  of  the  Eye." 

Bar'tle-mann,  [Fr.  Barthelmont,  bSR^t^Km^N',] 
written  also  Barthelemon,  (Hippolyte,)  a  French  mu- 
sician and  composer  of  operas,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1731  ; 
died  in  London  in  1808.    He  was  an  excellent  violinist. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine,"  vol.  xlviii. 

Bar'tle-mann,  (James,)  an  English  vocalist,  espe- 
cially distinguished  as  a  bass  singer,  born  at  Westmin- 
ster in  1769;  died  in  1821. 

Bart'lett,  (Elisha,)  an  American  physician,  born  at 
Smithfield,  Rhode  Island,  in  1804  or  1805,  graduated  in 
1826.  He  practised  several  years  at  Lowell,  Massachu- 
setts, obtained  the  chair  of  medicine  in  the  University  of 
Maryland  in  1844,  and  afterwards  lectured  on  medicine 
at  Lexington  and  Louisville,  Kentucky.  In  1850  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  medicine  in  the  University  of  New 
York.  He  was  a  popular  teacher,  and  acquired  distinc- 
tion by  his  medical  works,  among  which  is  an  "  Essay  on 
the  Philosophy  of  Medical  Science."  Died  in  1855. 
See  Gross,  "American  Medical  Biography." 
Bartlett,  (Ichabod,)  a  distinguished  American  lawyer, 
born  at  Salisbury,  New  Hampshire,  in  1786.  He  grad- 
uated at  Dartmouth  College  in  1808,  and  afterwards  prac- 
tised law  at  Portsmouth.  lie  was  a  representative  in 
Congress  from  1833  to  1839.    Died  in  1853. 

Bartlett,  (John  Russell,)  an  American  writer,  born 
at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1805.  He  was  a  mer- 
chant in  New  York  in  early  life,  and  was  appointed  in 
1850  commissioner  to  determine  the  boundary-liiie  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Mexico.  He  published  a 
"Dictionary  of  Americanisms,"  (1848,)  and  a  "Personal 
Narrative  of  Explorations  and  Incidents  in  Texas,  New 
Mexico,  California,  etc.,"  (2  vols.,  1854.) 

Bartlett,  (John  Sherren,)  M.D.,  a  physician  and 
journalist,  born  in  England  in  1790.  He  emigrated  to 
the  United  States,  and  in  1822  established  in  New  York 
"The  Albion,"  a  journal  of  the  English  conservative 
school  of  politics,  which  he  conducted  with  signal  ability. 
On  the  introduction  of  ocean  steam-navigation  he  founded 
"The  European"  in  Liverpool,  intended  to  furnish  the 
American  public  a  weekly  summary  of  foreign  news.  His 
latest  enterprise  in  journalism  was  "The  Anglo-Saxon," 
commenced  in  Boston  in  1855. 

Bartlett,  (Joseph,)  an  American  satiric  poet,  born  in 
Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  about  1763.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1782.  In  1799  he  delivered  a  poem  on 
Physiognomy  before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  Society  of  Har- 
vard. An  edition  of  this  poem  was  published  in  1823, 
together  with  a  number  of  aphorisms  on  various  subjects. 
On  the  4th  of  July,  1823,  he  delivered  an  oration  in 
Boston,  and  recited  a  poem  called  "The  New  Vicar  of 
Bray."    Died  in  1827. 

Bartlett,  (Josiah,)  M.D.,  an  American  patriot,  born 
in  Amesbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1729.  He  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1776-78,  and  signed 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was  appointed 
chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas  in  1779,  and  soon 
after  chief  justice  of  the  superior  court  of  New  Hamp- 
shire. In  1790  he  became  President  of  New  Hampshire, 
and  in  1793  was  chosen  the  first  Governor  under  the 
new  constitution. 

See  Charles  A.  Goodrich,  "Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  I>eclara- 
tion  of  Independence." 

Bartlett,  (Josiah,)  an  American  physician,  born  in 
Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  in  1759.  He  delivered 
orations  on  various  subjects.    Died  in  1820. 

Bartlett,  (William,)  a  wealthy  American  merchant, 
one  of  the  principal  founders  and  benefactors  of  the 
Theological  Seminary  at  Andover,  was  born  at  Newbury, 
Massachusetts,  in  1748;  died  in  1841. 

Bartlett,  (William  Henry,)  an  English  artist,  born 
in  London  in  1809,  travelled  extensively  in  the  East,  and 
published  several  works  illustrated  with  drawings  by 
himself.  Among  them  are  "  Walks  in  and  about  Jeru- 
salem," (1844,)  "Forty  Days  in  the  Desert,"  (1848,)  and 
"  The  Nile  Boat,  or  Glimpses  of  the  Land  of  Egypt," 
(1849.)    Died  at  sea  in  1854  or  1855. 

See  William  Beattie,  "  Memoir  of  William  Henry  Bartlett,"  1855. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  yl, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BART  LETT 


280 


BARTON 


Bartlett,  (William  H.  C.,)  an  American  scientific 
writer,  born  in  Lancaster  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1804, 
published  treatises  on  "Optics,"  "Mechanics,"  and 
"  Spherical  Astronomy,"  and  contributed  to  "  Silliman's 
Journal,"  etc. 

Bar'tol,  (Cyrus  Augustus,)  an  American  Congre- 
gational minister,  born  at  Freeport,  Maine,  in  1813.  He 
became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Boston  about  1837.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  Pictures  of  Europe," 
and  "  Discourses  on  the  Christian  Spirit  and  Life." 

See  a  notice,  by  E.  P.  Whipple,  in  the  "  North  American  Re- 
view" for  January,  1850. 

Bartoldy,  baR-toKdee,  (Georg  Wilhelm,)  a  learned 
German  writer,  born  at  Colberg  in  1765.  He  translated 
Bacon's  "  Novum  Organum."    Died  in  181 5. 

Bartoli.baR'to-lee,  orBartolo,  baR'to-lo,  [Lat.  Bar'- 
tolus  ;  Fr.  Barthole,  biR'toK,]  an  Italian  jurist  and 
legal  writer,  born  at  Sasso-Ferrato  in  13 13,  was  professor 
of  law  at  Perugia.  He  enjoyed  a  very  high  reputation 
in  his  time.    Died  in  1356. 

Bartoli,  (Cosimo,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  lived  at  Flor- 
ence, and  wrote  several  scientific,  historical,  and  moral 
treatises.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy 
degli  Umidi,  formed  in  1540.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"  Life  of  Frederick  Barbarossa,"  (1559.) 

See  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Bartoli,  (Daniele,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  distinguished 
writer,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1608.  His  greatest  work  is  a 
"History  of  the  Company  of  Jesus,"  (1653-63,)  which 
gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  missions  of  the  Jesuits 
in  the  various  parts  of  Asia,  including  Japan.  He  also 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Ignatius  Loyola,"  (1689,)  and  several 
moral  and  scientific  treatises,  which  are  highly  esteemed. 
Died  in  Rome  in  1685. 

See  TiKABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Bartoli,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  near  Lucca 
in  1629,  assisted  Beverini  in  translating  the  "  /Eneid" 
into  Italian.    Died  in  1698. 

Bartoli,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter  of  the  school 
of  Modena,  was  a  pupil  of  Bibbiena.    Died  in  1779. 

Bartoli,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at 
Padua  in  17 17,  became  professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Turin 
in  1745.  He  was  a  corresponding  member  of  the  French 
Academy  of  Inscriptions.    Died  in  1788. 

Bartoli,  (Minerva,)  an  Italian  poetess,  born  at  Ur- 
bino,  lived  about  1580. 

Bartoli,  (Pietro  Santi,)  a  celebrated  Italian  en- 
graver and  painter,  born  at  Perugia  about  1635.  He 
studied  painting  under  Nicolas  Poussin,  whose  style  he 
imitated  with  great  success.  He  is  chiefly  known  from 
his  engravings,  which  are  for  the  most  part  illustrations 
of  ancient  art  from  the  Catacombs  and  the  ruins  of 
Rome.  Died  at  Rome  in  1700.  He  engraved  some 
works  of  Raphael. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bartolini,  baR-to-lee'nee,  (Giuseppe  Maria,)  an  Ital- 
ian painter  of  the  Bolognese  school,  born  at  Imola  in 
1657  ;  died  in  1725. 

Bartolini,  (Lorenzo,)  a  celebrated  Florentine  sculp- 
tor, born  about  1778.  Having  studied  in  Paris  under 
Lemot,  he  soon  after  established  his  reputation  by  a  bas- 
relief  of  great  beauty,  representing  "Cleobis  and  Biton." 
He  was  charged  by  Napoleon  with  the  execution  of  a 
number  of  works,  and  founded  by  his  order  the  school 
of  sculpture  at  Carrara,  His  colossal  bust  of  Napoleon 
is  ranked  among  his  master-pieces ;  also  the  group  of 
"  Hercules  and  Lycas,"  and  the  monument  of  Lady 
Stratford  Canning  at  Lausanne,  in  Switzerland.  Bartolini 
is  esteemed  by  his  countrymen  as  second  only  to  Canova. 
"  No  artist,"  says  M.  Breton,  "  not  even  Canova,  ap- 
proached as  near  as  Bartolini  to  the  ideal  purity  and 
the  noble  simplicity  of  the  works  of  the  age  of  Pericles." 
("  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.")  He  died  at  or  near 
Florence  in  January,  1850. 

Bartolo.    See  Bartoli. 

Bartolo,  baR'to-lo,  or  Bartoli,  baR'to-lee,  (Dome- 
nico,) sometimes  called  Domenico  d'Asciano,  an 
Italian  fresco-painter,  born  about  1450,  was  a  nephew 
and  pupil  of  Taddeo,  noticed  below. 

Bartolo  or  Bartoli,  (Taddeo,)  an  Italian  painter  of 


Sienna,  born  about  1350.    Among  his  master-pieces  are 
the  frescos  in  the  public  palace  at  Sienna. 
See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bartolocci,  baR-to-lot'chee,  [Lat.  Bartoloc'cius,] 
(GiULio,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  ecclesiastic,  born  in 
1613,  is  sometimes  called  di  Celano,  (de  cha-la'no,) 
from  the  place  of  his  birth.  He  was  professor  of  Hebrew 
in  the  college  di  Sapienza  at  Rome.  His  principal  work 
is  entitled  "  Bibliotheca  Magna  Rabbinica,"  (4  vols., 
1675-93,)  a  valuable  synopsis  of  rabbinical  literature. 
Died  in  1687. 

See  Wolf,  "Bibliotheca  Hebraica." 

Bartolonimei,  baR-to-lom-ma'ee,  (Geronimo,)  n 
Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Florence  about  1584,  was  the 
author  of  several  tragedies  and  poems,  among  which 
is  "  Didascalia,  sive  Doctrina  Comica."    Died  in  1662. 

Bartolommei,  (Matteo  Mario,)  an  Italian  drama- 
tist, born  at  Florence  in  1640,  was  a  son  of  the  preced- 
ing.   Died  in  1695. 

Bartolommei,  (Simone  Pietro,)  an  antiquarian 
writer,  born  in  the  Tyrol  in  1709;  died  in  1764. 

Bartolommeo,  baR-to-lom-ma'o,  a  Florentine  painter 
who  worked  about  1250. 

Bartolommeo,  (Maestro,)  a  Venetian  sculptor  and 
architect,  lived  about  1390.  He  designed  the  "  Porta  della 
Carta,"  the  chief  entrance  to  the  doge's  palace  at  Venice. 

Bartolommeo  della  Porta.  See  Baccio  della 
Porta. 

Bartolommeo,  di,  de  baR-to-lom-ma'o,  (Dionisio,) 
an  Italian  architect,  worked  at  Naples  about  1580. 

Bartolommeo,  di,  (Leonardo,)  a  Sicilian  politician, 
born  at  Palermo  ;  died  in  1450. 

Bartoloni,  baR-to-lo'nee,  (Pietro  Domenico,)  an 
Italian  physician  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Em- 
poli,  near  Florence,  about  1640. 

Bartolozzi,  baR-to-lot'see,  (Francesco,)  an  eminent 
Italian  engraver,  born  at  Florence  about  1725.  He 
studied  under  Wagner  at  Venice,  and,  after  residing  for 
a  time  at  Rome,  removed  to  England,  where  he  executed 
a  series  of  plates  from  Guercino.  On  the  invitation  of 
the  Prince-regent  of  Portugal,  about  1805,  he  settled  in 
that  country,  where  he  died  about  181 6.  Bartolozzi  ex- 
celled in  every  department  of  engraving,  and  is  justly 
esteemed  one  of  the  greatest  masters  of  the  art.  Among 
his  most  admired  works  are  the  "  Virgin  and  Child," 
after  Carlo  Dolce  ;  Guido's  "  Massacre  of  the  Innocents 
and  the  "Death  of  Lord  Chatham,"  after  Copley.  The 
number  of  his  prints  is  estimated  at  more  than  two 
thousand. 

See  Le  Blanc,  "  Manuel  de  I'Amateur  d'Estampes." 
Bartolus.    See  Bartoli. 

Bar'ton,  (Benjamin  Smith,)  an  American  naturalist 
and  physician,  born  at  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania,  in  1766, 
was  a  nephew  of  David  Rittenhouse.  He  studied  medi- 
cine in  London  and  Edinburgh,  and  graduated  at  Got- 
tingen  about  1788.  He  obtained  in  1789  the  chair  of 
natural  history  in  the  College  of  Philadelphia,  which 
was  incorporated  with  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1 791.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  materia  medicain 
1795,  and  succeeded  Dr.  Rush  as  professor  of  the  theory 
and  practice  of  medicine  in  1813.  He  promoted  the 
diffusion  of  natural  science  by  his  writings,  among  which 
are  "Elements  of  Botany,"  (1803,)  and  "Collections  for 
an  Essay  towards  a  Materia  Medica  of  the  United 
States,"  (1798.)    Died  in  181 5. 

See  a  "  Biography  of  Benjamin  S.  Barton,"  by  his  nephew,  W.  P. 
C.  Barton;  Thacher,  "Medical  Biography." 

Bar'ton,  (Bernard,)  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  popularly  known  as  "the  Quaker  poet,"  was 
born  in  London  in  1784.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Napo- 
leon, and  other  Poems,"  (1822,)  "Devotional  Verses," 
(1826,)  "Poetic  Vigils,"  "A  Widow's  Tale,  and  other 
Poems,"  (1827,)  and  "The  Reliquary,"  (1836.)  "His 
works  are  full  of  passages  of  natural  tenderness,  and  his 
religious  poems,  though  animated  with  a  warmth  of  devo- 
tion, are  still  expressed  with  that  subdued  propriety  of 
language  which  evinces  at  once  a  correctness  of  taste  and 
feeling."  ("  Gentleman's  Magazine.")   Died  in  1849. 

See  "Memoirs,  Letters,  etc.  of  Bernard  Barton,"  edited  by  his 
daughter;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1820;  "Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  December,  1822. 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BARTON 


281 


B  AS  CHI  ERA 


Barton,  (Elizabeth,)  an  English  fanatic  or  impostor 
under  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  commonly  called  "the 
Holy  Maid  of  Kent."  Having  acquired  a  reputation  for 
being  inspired,  she  was  instigated  by  the  partisans  of 
Queen  Catherine  to  prophesy  against  the  marriage  of 
the  king  with  Anne  Boleyn.  The  excitement  produced 
by  these  revelations  among  the  people  was  so  great  that 
the  government,  becoming  alarmed,  caused  her  to  be 
arrested  in  1533,  together  with  a  number  of  priests,  her 
accomplices,  and  she  was  executed  with  them  at  Tyburn 
in  1534. 

Barton,  (Thomas,)  a  learned  Episcopal  minister,  born 
in  Ireland  in  1730.  He  married  a  sister  of  David  Rit- 
tenhouse  in  1753,  and  officiated  for  many  years  as  rector 
at  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania.  He  was  the  father  of  Ben- 
jamin Smith  Barton,  M.D.    Died  in  New  York  in  1780. 

Barton,  (William,)  Lieutenant-Colonel,  an  Ame- 
rican ofiicer,  born  about  1747.  He  commanded  a  small 
party  which  surprised  and  captured  General  Prescott 
near  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  July,  1777.  Died  in  183 1. 

Barton,  (William  P.  C.,)  an  American  botanist  and 
physician,  born  in  1786.  He  was  a  nephew  of  Benjamin 
Smith  Barton,  whom  he  succeeded  as  professor  of  botany 
in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  published  "Ve- 
getable Materia  Medica  of  the  United  States,  or  Medical 
Botany,"  (2  vols.,  1817-25,)  "Compendium  Ploras  Phila- 
delphicae,"  (2  vols.,  1818,)  and  "  Flora  of  North  America, 
illustrated  by  coloured  figures,"  (3  vols.,  1821-23.)  Died 
in  1856. 

Bar'tram,  (John,)  an  eminent  American  botanist,  born 
in  Marple,  Delaware  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1701.  His 
attainments  in  natural  history  attracted  the  attention 
of  Linnaeus,  who  pronounced  him  "  the  greatest  natural 
botanist  in  the  world."  He  was  the  first  American  to 
establish  a  botanical  garden,  which  he  enriched  with 
exotics  and  rare  native  plants.  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  Lin- 
naeus, and  other  eminent  European  botanists  furnished 
him  with  books  and  apparatus,  and  he  in  return  sent 
them  new  and  curious  specimens  of  the  natural  produc- 
tions of  America.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  several 
learned  societies  in  Europe,  and  appointed  American 
botanist  to  George  III.  of  England,  a  position  which  he 
held  till  his  death  in  1777.  The  results  of  his  observa- 
tions on  the  inhabitants,  animals,  climate,  soil,  produc- 
tions, etc.,  in  a  journey  to  Lake  Ontario,  were  published 
in  London  in  1751,  and  a  journal  of  a  tour  to  East 
Florida  in  1766.  He  also  contributed  various  papers 
to  the  "Philosophical  Transactions."  Mr.  Bartram  was 
distinguished  in  other  departments  of  natural  history, 
possessed  some  knowledge  of  medicine,  and  was  an  in- 
genious mechanic.  He  had  a  fine  botanic  garden  in  the 
environs  of  Philadelphia. 

See  William  Darlington,  "Memorials  of  John  Bartram  and 
Humphrey  Marshall,"  1849;  "  Encyclopasdia  Americana." 

Bartram,  (William,)  a  botanist  and  traveller,  born 
near  Philadelphia  in  1739,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  passed  about  five  years  in  the  exploration  of  the  na- 
tural productions  of  the  Carolinas,  Georgia,  and  Florida, 
and  published  "Travels  through  North  and  South  Caro- 
lina, Georgia,  and  East  and  West  Florida,"  (1791.)  He 
produced  a  list  of  American  birds,  which  was  the  most 
complete  that  appeared  before  the  work  of  Wilson. 
Died  in  1823. 

See  "  Encyclopaedia  Americana." 

Bartsch,  baRtsh,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  physician  and  savant, 
born  about  1720,  was  a  friend  of  Boerhaave  and  Linnaeus. 
The  latter  named  the  genus  Bartsia  in  his  honour. 

Bartsch,  von,  fon  baRtsh,  (Johann  Adam  Bern- 
HARt),)  a  German  engraver  and  writer  upon  art,  born  at 
Vienna  in  1747,  was  keeper  of  the  imperial  library  and 
of  the  prints  in  the  royal  collection.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  "The  Painter-Engraver,"  ("  Le  Peintre- 
Graveur,"  21  vols.,  1821,)  besides  which  he  prepared  a 
"  Catalogue  of  all  the  Prints  of  Rembrandt,"  with  several 
other  similar  works.  Among  his  engravings  and  etch- 
ings, which  amount  in  all  to  more  than  five  hundred,  we 
may  mention  his  prints  after  Rembrandt  and  Potter. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  I-E  Blanc,  "Manuel  de  I'Amateur  d'Estampes." 

Barucco,  bi-rook'ko,  (Giacomo,)  a  painter  of  the 
Venetian  school,  born  about  1620. 


Baruch,  ba'riik,  [Heb.  the  son  of  Neriah,  wa*. 

the  friend  and  companion  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  whom 
he  served  as  a  scribe.  He  accompanied  Jeremiah  in  588 
B.C.  into  Egypt,  where,  as  stated  by  some  writers,  he 
died ;  while  others  assert  that  he  died  in  Babylon.  The 
book  of  Baruch  is  recognized  as  canonical  by  the  Cath- 
olics, but  it  is  regarded  by  the  Protestants  as  apocryphal. 
(See  Jeremiah  xxxii.  12-16;  xxxvi.  4,  17,  27.) 

Baruffaldi,  b3,-roof-faKdee,  (Geronimo,)  an  Italian 
litterateur,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1675  ;  died  in  1753. 

Baruffaldi,  (Geronimo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  writer, 
born  at  P^rrara  in  1740,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding. 
Died  in  1817. 

Bar'wick,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  West- 
moreland in  1612,  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in 
promoting  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.    Died  in  1664. 

See  Peter  Barwick's  "Life  of  John  Barvvick,"  1721. 

Barwick,  (Peter,)  brother  of  John  Barwick,  was 
appointed  in  1660  physician-in-ordinary  to  Charles  II. 
He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "Defence  of  Harvey's 
Discovery  of  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood."  Died  in  1 705. 

Bary,bt^re',  (Henry,)  a  Flemish  engraver,  born  about 
1625.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  portraits  of  Grotius 
and  Admiral  Van  Tromp,  and  "  Summer  and  Autumn," 
after  Van  Dyck. 

See  Descamps,  "Vie  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Barye,  bt^re',  (Antoine  Louis,)  a  French  sculptor 
and  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1795.  Among  his  master- 
pieces are  a  "Lion  strangling  a  Boa,"  a  "Group  of 
Young  Bears,"  "Charles  VI.  in  the  Forest  of  Mans," 
and  "The  Three  Graces." 

Barzena.    See  Barcena. 

Barzini,  baRd-zee'nee,  (Francesco,)  a  Florentine 
writer  on  astrology  and  philosophy,  born  about  1667. 

Barzizzio  or  Barziza.    See  Gasparino. 

Barzoni,  baRd-zo'nee,  (Vittorio,)  an  Italian  politi- 
cal and  historical  writer,  born  at  Lonato  in  1768;  died  in 
1829. 

See  William  Thompson,  "Life  of  Vittorio  Barzoni,"  London, 
1831  ;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1813. 

Bas  or  Basse,  bSs,  (Martin,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  who 
lived  about  1600,  left  several  portraits  of  superior  merit. 

Bas  or  Basse,  (William,)  an  engraver,  whose  prin- 
cipal work  is  a  "Virgin  with  the  Infant  Jesus  and  Saint 
John."    Nothing  is  known  of  his  life. 

See  Strutt,  "Dictionary  of  Engravers." 

Bas,Le.  See  Le  Bas. 

Basadonna,  ba-sA-don'nJ,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Venice,  wrote  "Latin  Dialogues,"  (1518.) 

Basaiti,  b5-sl'tee,  (Marco,)  sometimes  called  del 
Friuli,  an  eminent  Italian  painter  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, was  a  native  of  Friuli.  His  "  Calling  of  Saint 
Peter,"  in  the  Academy  at  Venice,  is  esteemed  his  mas- 
ter-piece. He  painted  other  pictures  of  great  merit, 
among  which  we  may  name  an  "Assumption,"  and  "The 
Prayer  in  the  Garden." 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Basan  or  Bazan,  bt'z6N',  (Pierre  Francois,)  a 
French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1723.  Among  his 
best  works  are  a  "  Bacchus  and  Ariadne,"  after  Gior- 
dano, and  "Antiope,"  after  Correggio.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "  Dictionary  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Engravers," 
which  is  highly  esteemed,  (3  vols.,  1767.)    Died  in  1797. 

See  Le  Blanc,  "Manuel  de  I'Amateur  d'Estampes." 

Basanier,  bt'zt'ne-i',  (Martin,)  a  French  musician 
and  mathematician,  born  about  1540,  wrote  a  work  on 
the  theory  and  practice  of  music. 

Bascape,  bis-ka'pa,  (Geronimo,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  legal  writer;  died  in  1641. 

Baschenis,  bSs-ka'n^ss,  (Evaristo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Bergamo  in  161 7,  was  celebrated  for  his 
skilful  representations  of  musical  instruments,  books,  and 
similar  objects  of  still  life.    Died  in  1677. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Baschi,  bis'kee,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  monk,  born  in 
the  duchy  of  Urbino,  was  the  founder  of  the  order  of 
Capuchins,  so  called  from  a  hood  o^  peculiar  form  {cap- 
pnccio)  worn  by  them.    Died  in  1552. 

See  Baverius,  "Annales  Capucinorum." 

Baschiera,  bls-ke-a'rS,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  artist, 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BJSCHILOW 


282 


BASILIDES 


who  designed  the  magnificent  marble  front  of  Saint 
Peter's  at  Mantua.    Died  about  1760. 
Baschilow.    See  13ashilof. 

Bas^cpm,  (Henry  B.,)  an  American  Methodist  bishop 
and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  Western  New  York  in  1796. 
He  was  ordained  bishop  at  Saint  Louis,  Missouri,  in 
1849  or  1850,  and  died  in  the  latter  year. 

See  M.  M.  Henkle,  "Life  of  Bishop  Bascom,"  1857. 

Basedow,  bd'zeh-do'',  (Johann  Bernhard,)  origin- 
ally JoHANN  Berend  Bassedau,  (bas'seh-dow,)  a  cele- 
brated German  teacher  and  educational  reformer,  was 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1723.  He  published  in  1774  an 
elementary  school-book  entitled  "  Orbis  Pictus,"  in  three 
volumes  and  illustrated  with  one  hundred  engravings, 
which  soon  became  widely  popular.  About  the  same 
time  he  founded  at  Dessau  a  school  called  a  "  Philan- 
thropin,"  in  which  he  sought  to  render  knowledge  at- 
ti-active  and  adapt  it  to  the  comprehension  of  the  young. 
Died  at  Magdeburg  in  1790. 

See  J.  C.  Meykr,  "  Basedows  Leben  und  Schriften,"  2  vols.,  1792 ; 
H.  Rathmann,  "BeiUage  zur  Lebensgeschichte  J.  13.  Basedow's," 
1791. 

Baseilhac.    See  Cosme,  (Frere  Jean.) 

Ba-se'li-us  or  van  Basel,  vin  ba'zel,  written  also 
Basie,  (Jacobus,)  a  Dutch  historian  and  theologian,  born 
hi  1530,  wrote  an  "Account  of  the  Siege  of  Bergen-op- 
Zoom  in  1588."    Died  in  1598. 

Baselius,  (Jacobus,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Leyden,  was  the  author  of  an  "Ecclesiastical  History 
of  Belgium,"  (1657.) 

Baselius,  (Nicholas,)  a  Flemish  surgeon  and  writer, 
wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "Description  of  the  Comet  of  1577." 

Baselli,  b^-seKlee,  (Benedetto,)  an  Italian  physician 
and  surgeon,  born  at  San  Pellegrino.  Having  been  re- 
fused admission  to  the  College  of  Physicians  because 
he  practised  surgery,  he  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  vindication  of 
the  nobility  of  surgery.    Died  in  162L 

See  "  Biographic  Medicale." 

Basevi,  bas'e-ve,  (George,)  a  distinguished  English 
architect,  born  at  Brighton  in  1794.  Among  his  princi- 
pal works  are  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum  at  Cambridge, 
and  Saint  Mary's  Hall  at  Brighton.  He  also  furnished 
the  designs  for  Belgrave  Square.    Died  in  1845. 

Bash'aw,  (Edward,)  an  English  nonconformist  min- 
ister of  Exeter.  For  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance 
he  was  imprisoned  in  Newgate,  where  he  died  in  167  L 

Bashilof,  b^sh'Mof,  or  Baschilow,  (Semen,)  a  Rus- 
sian savant,  born  at  Moscow  in  1740.  He  was  secretary 
of  the  senate  at  Saint  Petersburg,  and  translated  several 
French  works,  among  which  was  the  "  Candide"  of  Vol- 
taire.   Died  in  1770. 

Bashkin,  bish'kin,  (Matthei  Semenof,)  a  Russian 
heresiarch  of  the  sixteenth  century,  who  professed  doc- 
trines resembling  those  of  the  Arians. 

Bashuysen,  von,  fon  bas'hoi''zen,(HETNRiCH  Jakob,) 
a  German  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Hanau  in  1679,  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  Oriental  languages  and  history 
at  Zerbst.  He  published  a  number  of  Latin  commenta- 
ries on  the  Hebrew  writers.    Died  in  1758. 

See  E.  L.  D.  Hugh,  "  Programma  continens  Vitam  H.  J.  de  Bas- 
huysen," 1759. 

Ba'sil,  Bishop  of  Thessalonica,  called  Ascolius  or 
Acholius,  was  a  friend  of  Saint  Ambrose.  He  bap- 
tized the  emperor  Theodosius.    Died  about  384  a.d. 

Ba''sil  or  Ba-siPi-us,  [Gr.  'QaatknoQ  or  Unatkiog ;  It. 
Basilio,  b3.-see'le-o ;  Fr.  Basile,  bt^z6K,]  Saint,  sur- 
named  the  Great,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the 
Christian  Fathers,  born  at  Caesarea,  in  Cappadocia,  about 
329  A.D.  He  studied  law  and  rhetoric  at  Constantinople, 
and  subsequently  at  Athens,  where  Julian  (afterwards 
emperor)  and  Gregory  Nazianzen  were  his  fellow- 
students.  With  the  latter  he  formed  an  intimate  friend- 
ship, which  lasted  through  life.  About  358  A.D.  he 
abandoned  his  profession,  and  retired  to  a  cloister  in  a 
mountainous  region  of  Pontus,  where  he  was  soon  joined 
by  Gregory.  He  here  established  a  system  of  monastic  dis- 
cipline, which  still  prevails  in  Greek  and  Oriental  monas- 
teries. On  the  deatt  of  Eusebius  in  370,  Basil  was  elected 
Bishop  of  Cassarea.  In  this  station  he  was  distinguished 
for  his  extensive  charities,  his  zeal  for  the  reformation 
of  church  discipline,  and  his  opposition  to  the  Arian 


heresy,  at  that  time  maintained  by  the  emperor  Valens. 
Among  his  chief  productions  (in  Greek)  are  "  Nine 
Homilies  on  the  Six  Days'  Work,"  "Two  Books  on 
Baptism,"  "  Plomilies  on  the  Psalms,"  and  a  collection 
of  "Letters."  His  writings  are  characterized  by  great 
purity  of  style,  and  an  elevated  moral  tone  combined 
with  fervent  piety.    Died  in  379  A.D. 

See  Socrates,  "Historia  Ecclesiastica ;"  Godfrey  Hermant, 
"Vie  de  Saint-Basile,"  1674;  Sozomen,  "Historia;"  A.  Agresta, 
"Vita  del  protopatriarca  S.  Basilio  Magno,"  1658;  J.  E.  Feisser, 
"Dissertatio  de  Vita  Basilii  ISIagni,"  8vo,  1828;  Klose,  "  Basiluis 
der  Giosse  nach  seinem  Leben,"  etc.,  1835. 

Basil  or  Basilius  of  Cilicia,  Bishop  of  Irenopolis,  an 
ecclesiastical  writer  of  the  fifth  century.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Church,"  and  several  con- 
troversial works. 

Basil  I.,  [Lat.  Basil'ius  ;  Fr.  Basile,  bt'z^K,]  sur- 
named  THE  Macedo'nian,  Emperor  of  the  East,  was 
born  about  820,  in  humble  circumstances.  He  succeeded 
in  winning  the  favour  of  the  emperor  Michael  HI.,  who 
raised  him  to  be  his  colleague  in  the  empire,  (866  ;)  but 
Basil  did  not  ItDug  retain  his  favour,  and,  believing  his 
own  life  to  be  in  danger,  he  caused  Michael  to  be  assas- 
sinated in  867.  He  commenced  the  compilation  of  the 
code  of  laws  entitled  "Basilica,"  which  was  completed 
by  his  son  Leo.  Having  conquered  a  considerable  part 
of  Asia  Minor,  he  drove  the  Saracens  out  of  Italy  in 
885.  He  died  in  886,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Leo  VI. 

See  Le  Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  G.  Impaccianti, 
"Basilio  il  Macedone,"  2  vols.,  1809. 

Basil  II.,  [Lat.  Basilius,]  Emperor  of  the  East,  born 
in  958,  was  a  son  of  Romanus  II.  On  the  death  of  the 
usurper  John  Zimisces,  (975,)  Basil  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  his  brother  Constantine  having  a  nominal  share 
in  the  government.  Basil  was  one  of  the  greatest  com- 
manders of  his  time,  and  was  engaged  in  almost  con- 
tinual wars  with  the  Saracens,  Bulgarians,  and  Germans. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Basil  or  Basilius,  made  Bishop  of  Ancyra  in  336 
A.D.  in  opposition  to  Marcellus,  who  was  deposed  by  the 
party  of  Eusebius.  He  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the 
Arians. 

Basil,  Bishop  of  Seleucia.    See  Basilius. 

Basil,  the  founder  of  the  heretical  sect  of  Bogomiles 
in  Bulgaria.  He  was  burnt  at  the  stake,  by  order  of  the 
emperor  Alexius  Comnenus,  in  1118. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Basil,  Prince  of  Moldavia  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
was  deposed  for  his  tyranny. 

Ba'sil-VaPen-tine,  [Lat.  and  Ger.  Basil'ius  Va- 
LENTi'nus,]  a  celebrated  German  writer  on  chemistry 
and  alchemy,  born  about  1410.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  treatise  entitled  "  The  Triumphal  Car  of  Antimony," 
("Currus  Triumphalis  Antimonii,")  and  other  scientific 
works,  which  had  a  high  reputation  among  his  contem- 
poraries. 

See  F.  HoEFER,  "Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Basile,  the  French  of  Basil,  which  see. 

Basile,  b^-see'li,  (Adriana,)  a  sister  of  Giambattista, 
noticed  below,  was  distinguished  for  her  beauty,  and  her 
talent  for  music  and  poetry, 

Basile,  (Gennaro,)  a  Neapolitan  painter,  who  about 
1756  resided  at  Briinn,  in  Moravia,  where  are  most  of 
his  works. 

Basile,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  about 
15S0 ;  died  in  1637. 

Basiletti,  bc^-se-let'tee,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
history  and  landscapes,  born  at  Brescia  ;  died  about  1845. 

Basili,  ba-see'lee,  (Pier-Angelo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Gubbio  about  1540 ;  died  in  1604. 

Basilico,  b^-see'le-ko  or  bi-siKe-ko,  (Ciriaco,)  an 
Italian  litteratejir,  lived  about  1670,  and  translated  into 
Italian  verse  the  "  Satyricon"  of  Petronius  Arbiter. 

Basilico,  (Geronimo,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at  Mes- 
sina, was  the  author  of  some  legal  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1670^ 

Bas-i-li'des,  [Gr.  V>aoL\d6iiQ;  Fr.  Basilide,  bt''ze1^d',] 
the  founder  of  a  sect,  lived  in  Egypt  under  the  reign  of 
Trajan  and  Hadrian.  His  doctrine  is  said  to  have  been 
a  reflection  of  that  of  Zoroaster.    He  taught  that  ihe 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  \  b,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sho7-t;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  mo<.»n; 


BASILINA  283 


world  was  produced  by  two  principles,  Good  or  Light, 
and  Evil  or  Darkness.    Died  about  130  a.d. 
See  RiTTER,  "History  of  Philosophy." 

Bas-i-li'lia,  the  second  wife  of  Julius  Constantius, 
and  the  mother  of  Julian  the  Apostate.  She  is  said  to 
have  favoured  the  doctrines  of  the  Arians.  Died  in  331  A.D. 

Basilic.    See  Basil,  Saint. 

Basilio  da  Gama,  bS-see'le-o  d^  gi'ml,  (Joze,)  born 
at  San  Joze,  in  Brazil,  in  1740,  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Brazilian  Academy.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
popular  poem  entitled  "  Uruguay,"  and  a  number  of 
lyrics.    Died  about  1795. 

Bas-i-lis'cus,  [Gr.  V>aoiXLaKoq ;  Fr.  Basilisque, 
ze'lesk',]  Emperor  of  the  East,  was  a  brother  of  the 
empress  Verina,  wife  of  Leo  1.  \\\  468  a.d,  he  was 
appointed,  under  Leo  L,  commander-in-chief  of  the  great 
expedition  against  Genseric,  King  of  the  Vandals,  who 
had  taken  possession  of  Carthage.  His  army  suffered 
a  total  defeat,  and  Basiliscus  was  banished  to  Thrace. 
On  the  death  of  Leo,  474,  he  usurped  the  throne,  of 
which  Zeno  was  the  rightful  heir.  Li  476  Zeno  defeated 
and  took  captive  the  usurper,  who  died  in  prison  in  477 
or  478.  During  his  reign  the  great  library  of  Constan- 
tinople was  destroyed  by  fire. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Basilisque  or  Basilique,    See  Basiliscus. 
Basilius.    See  Basil,  Saint. 

Ba-sil'i-us,  Bishop  of  Seleucia  from  448  till  458,  was 
the  author  of  a  collection  of  homilies. 

Basil'ius  of  Glemo'na,  a  missionary  to  China,  pub- 
lished a  "Chinese  Dictionary,"  (1726,)  which  has  been 
translated  into  several  languages.  Scarcely  anything  is 
known  of  his  life. 

Basilovitch.    See  Ivan,  Czar  of  Russia. 

Bas^i-lus,  (L.  Minucius,)  sometimes  called  M.  Sa- 
trius,  a  Roman  soldier,  served  under  Caesar  in  Gaul  in 
54  and  52  B.C.  Though  a  professed  friend  of  Cresar,  he 
took  part  in  his  assassination,  and  was  afterwards  mur- 
dered by  his  own  slaves,  whom  he  had  treated  cruelly. 

Basin,  bt^zdN',  (Simon,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1608,  was  chaplain  to  Anne  of 
Austria,  wife  of  Louis  XHI.    Died  in  1671. 

Basin  or  Bazin,  bt'zdN',  (Thomas,)  a  French  his- 
torian, born  at  Caudebec  in  1402.  He  became  professor 
of  canon  law  at  Caen,  and  in  1447  Bishop  of  Lisieux. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "History  of  Charles  VH.  and 
Louis  XL,"  which  is  highly  interesting,  a  "Justification 
of  the  Maid  of  Orleans,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1491. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Basine  or  Bazine,  bt^z^n',  was  originally  married  to 
the  King  of  Thuringia,  whom  she  abandoned,  and  be- 
came the  wife  of  Childcric  L  of  France,  and  the  mother 
of  the  celebrated  Clovis. 

Ba'sing  or  de  Ba'sing-stoke,  (John,)  an  English 
scholar,  born  in  Hampshire,  studied  at  Oxford,  and  sub- 
sequently at  Athens,  where  he  collected  a  number  of 
Greek  manuscripts.  He  introduced  the  Greek  numeral 
letters  into  England.  He  wrote  several  learned  works, 
and  translated  into  Latin  a  Greek  treatise  on  grammar, 
entitled  "Donatus  of  the  Greeks,"  ("Donatus  Graeco- 
rum.")  Basing  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Leicester. 
Died  in  1252. 

See  ScHOELL,  "Histoire  de  la  Litt^rature  Grecque." 

Basinio  di  Basanii,  b^-see'ne-o  de  bi-sa'ne-ee,  an 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Parma  about  1425,  became  pro- 
fessor of  Latin  eloquence  at  Ferrara.  H^e  wrote  a  Latin 
poem  entitled  "  Hesperides."    Died  in  1457. 

Basire,  (Claude.)    See  Bazire. 

Basire,  b^  -zeer',  (Isaac,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
the  island  of  Jersey  in  1607.  He  was  appointed  chap- 
lain to  Charles  I.  about  1640,  and  held  the  same  office 
under  Charles  II.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  English 
and  Scotch  Presbytery."    Died  in  1676.  : 

Basire,  (James,)  an  English  engraver,  born  in  1730. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Pylades  and  Orestes,"  after  West, 
and  "The  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold  ;  or  the  Interview 
between  Francis  I.  and  Henry  VIII."  The  last-named 
plate  was  one  of  the  largest  ever  engraved.  Died  in  1802. 

Basire,  (James,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1769, 
succeeded  his  father  as  engraver  to  the  Royal  and  Anti- 


BASS 


quarian  Societies.  His  prints  of  the  English  cathedrals 
after  John  Carter  are  among  his  best  works.  Died  in  1822. 

Bas''ker-ville,  (John,)  an  English  printer,  celebrated 
for  the  great  improvements  he  effected  in  typography, 
was  born  in  Worcestershire  in  1706.  His  English  Bible, 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and  editions  of  the  classics 
are  still  admired  and  sought  for.    Died  in  1775. 

Baskerville,  (Sir  Simon,)  an  eminent  English  phy- 
sician, died  in  1641. 

Basmaison  Pougnet,  de,  deh  b^^mi'ziN'  poon^yi', 
(Jean,)  a  French  jurist  and  legal  writer,  born  about  1540, 
was  a  native  of  Riom. 

Basmaji,  bSs-ma'jee,  or  Basmadji,  (Ibraheem,)  a 
Hungarian  renegade,  who,  in  conjunction  with  Seid-Ef- 
fendi,  established  the  first  printing-press  in  Turkey.  He 
was  permitted  by  the  Sultan  Ahmed  III.  to  print  any- 
thing except  the  Koran  and  the  canonical  writings.  Died 
in  1746. 

Basmanov,  bis-m^'nov,  (Peter,)  a  Russian  general, 
who,  having  in  1605  aided  the  false  Demetrius  to  usurp 
the  throne,  was  killed  in  attempting  to  enter  the  Kremlin. 

Basnage,  ba'ntzh',  (Antoine,)  a  French  Protestant 
divine,  son  of  Benjamin,  noticed  below,  born  in  1610.  He 
took  refuge  in  Holland  after  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  Nantes,  and  died  as  pastor  at  Zutphen  in  1691. 

Basnage,  (Benjamin,)  a  Protestant  theologian,  born 
at  Carentan  in  1580.  He  was  pastor  in  his  native  town, 
and  in  1637  became  president  of  the  synod  at  Alen9on. 
He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the  Church,"  (1612.)  Died  in 
1652. 

Basnage  de  Beauval,  bd^nizh'  deh  bo\tK,  (Henri,) 
son  of  Basnage  du  Fraquenay,  born  at  Rouen  in  1656,  was 
advocate  of  the  parliament  in  his  native  city.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "Treatise  on  Religious  Toleration," 
(1684,)  and  edited  a  journal  entitled  "History  of  the 
Works  of  Savants."  He  became  an  exile  for  religion 
about  1686.    Died  at  the  Hague  in  17 10. 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Basnage  de  Beauval,  (Jacques,)  an  eminent  scholar 
and  theologian,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Rouen 
in  1653.  He  studied  at  Savunur  under  the  celebrated 
Tannegui  Le  Fevre,  and  acquired  a  profound  knowledge 
of  the  ancient  and  modern  languages.  He  subsequently 
devoted  himself  to  theology  at  Geneva  and  Sedan,  and  in 
1676  became  Protestant  pastor  at  Rouen.  He  emigrated 
to  Holland  about  1685.  Through  the  influence  of  his 
friend  the  grand  pensionary  Heinsius,  he  was  appointed 
pastor  at  the  Hague  in  1709.  About  this  time  he  was 
employed  in  several  political  negotiations,  in  which  he 
displayed  such  diplomatic  ability  that  Voltaire  said  of 
him,  "he  was  fitter  to  be  minister  of  state  than  of  a 
parish."  Among  his  numerous  and  valuable  works  may 
be  named  "The  Holy  Communion,  or  Treatise  on  the 
Necessity  and  Means  of  Communing  Worthily,"  (16S8,) 
"  History  of  the  Church  from  Jesus  Christ  to  the  Present 
Time,"  (2  vols.,  1699,)  and  "History  of  the  Jews  from 
Jesus  Christ  to  the  Present  Time,"  (5  vols.,  1706.)  Died 
in  1723. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Basnage  de  Flottenianville,  bi'ntzh'  deh  flot'- 
mSN'v^K,  (Samuel,)  grandson  of  Benjamin,  noticed 
above,  born  at  Bayeux  in  1638.  He  became  pastor  at 
Zutphen,  where  he  died  in  172 1.  He  wrote  several  ec- 
clesiastical works  in  French  and  Latin. 

Basnage  dii  Fraquenay,  bS^ntzh'  dii  fRtk'n<y, 
(Henri,)  a  French  jurist,  son  of  Benjamin  Basnage, 
born  at  Sainte-Mere-liglise  in  1615,  was  one  of  the  most 
learned  and  eloquent  advocates  in  the  parliament  of 
Normandy.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Mortgages," 
(1687,)  and  other  legal  works.    Died  in  1695. 

See  Taisand,  "  Vies  des  plus  celebres  Jurisconsultes." 

Basque,  le,  leh  btsk,  (Michel,)  a  French  buccaneer, 
who,  in  concert  with  L'Olonnais,  captured  the  towns  of 
Maracaibo  and  Gil)raltar,  in  the  Gulf  of  Venezuela,  about 
1660,  and  obtained  immense  booty. 

See  Charlevoix,  "Histoire  de  la  Nouvelle  France." 

Bass,  (George,)  an  English  navigator,  discovered  in 
1798  the  strait  which  separates  Austraha  from  Tasmania, 
since  called  Bass's  Strait. 

See  Flinders,  "Journey  of  Discovery,  etc." 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  Jiasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SaSS  284  BASS  I 


Baas,  bass,  [Lat.  Bas'sius,]  (Heinrich,)  a  German 
physician  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Bremen  in  1690, 
was  for  many  years  professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery 
at  Halle.    Died  in  1754. 

Bassa,  bis'sa,  (Don  Pedro  Holasco,)  a  Spanish 
general,  born  at  Reus,  in  Catalonia,  in  1790,  He  served 
with  distinction  against  the  French,  and  was  appointed 
in  1834  governor  of  Barcelona,  where  he  was  killed  in 
a  riot,  (1835.) 

Bassaeus,  bas-sa'us,  (Nicholas,)  a  German  printer, 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  about  1550,  published 
several  valuable  botanical  works  with  plates. 

Bassal,  bt'stK,  (Jean,)  a  French  priest  and  revolu- 
tionist, born  at  Beziers  in  1752.  As  a  member  of  the 
National  Convention,  he  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king, 
and  was  subsequently  elected  by  the  Jacobins  president 
of  their  society.    Died  in  1802. 

Bassaii,  the  French  of  Bassano,  which  see. 

Bassaiid,  bt's6N',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1680.  He  studied 
at  Leyden  under  Boerhaave,  with  whom  he  afterwards 
maintained  a  correspondence,  which  was  published  at 
Vienna  in  1778.    Died  in  Vienna  in  1742. 

Bassani,  b^s-si'nee,  or  Bassanio,  bis-s^'ne-o,  ( Ales- 
sandro,)  an  Italian  lawyer,  born  at  Padua ;  died  in  1495. 

Bassani,  (Cesare.)    See  Bassano. 

Bassani,  (Giacomo  Antonio,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and 
pulpit  orator,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1686.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  sermons  and  poems  in  Latin  and  Italian. 
Died  in  1747. 

Bassani,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  violinist  and 
composer  of  church  music  and  operas,  born  at  Padua 
about  1657.    He  numbered  Corelli  among  his  pupils. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Bassani,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  about  1600,  resided  at  Venice.  He  invented 
a  musical  instrument  called  the  bassanello. 

Bassanino,  bas-sS-nee'no,  (Francesco,)  a  Venetian 
writer,  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  Life  and 
Death  of  Saint  Rosalie,"  (1733.) 

Bassanio.    See  Bassani. 

Bassano,  bas-si''no,  (Annibale,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Padua  about  1440. 

Bassano  or  Bassani,  b§,s-sS,'nee,  (Cesare,)  an  Ital- 
ian engraver,  born  at  Milan  about  1580. 

Bassano,  Duke  of.    See  Maret. 

Bassano,  [Fr.  Bassan,  bt'sdN',]  (Francesco  da 
Ponte — dapou'ta,)  called  the  Elder,  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Vicenza,  belonged  to  the  first  Venetian  school. 
He  worked  mostly  at  Bassano,  from  which  he  derived  his 
surname.    Died  in  1530. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bassano,  (Francesco,)  called  the  Younger,  eldest 
son  of  Giacomo,  noticed  below,  born  in  1548.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  the  fresco  representing  "The  Cap- 
ture of  Pavfa,"  in  the  ducal  palace  at  Venice,  and  "  The 
Rape  of  the  Sabines."    Died  in  1591. 

Bassano,  (Geronimo  da  Ponte,)  youngest  son  of 
Giacomo,  born  in  1560.  His  principal  work  is  an  altar- 
piece  in  the  church  of  San  Giovanni  at  Bassano,  repre- 
senting "  Saint  Barbara  and  the  Virgin."    Died  in  1622. 

Bassano,  (Giovanni  Battista  da  Ponte,)  born  in 
1553,  was  the  second  son  of  Giacomo.  He  copied  his 
father's  works  with  such  exactness  that  the  copies  are 
frequently  mistaken  for  the  originals.    Died  in  1613. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Bassano,  [Fr.  Le  Bassan,  leh  bt's6N',]  (Jacopo  or 
Giacomo  da  Ponte,)  son  of  the  elder  Francesco,  born 
at  Bassano  in  1510.  He  studied  at  Venice  the  works  of 
Titian  and  other  great  masters  of  the  Venetian  school. 
Among  his  best  historical  pictures  are  "The  Birth  of 
Jesus  Christ,"  "  The  Flight  into  Egypt,"  and  a  "  Mater 
Dolorosa."  He  also  painted  landscapes,  animals,  and  do- 
mestic and  tavern  scenes,  with  admirable  skill  and  fidelity. 
Bassano  had  a  profound  knowledge  of  chiaroscuro,  and 
as  a  colorist  was  scarcely  inferior  to  Titian.  He  like- 
wise produced  several  excellent  portraits,  among  which 
we  may  name  those  of  Tasso  and  Ariosto.  He  died  in 
1592,  leaving  four  sons,  who  were  distinguished  painters. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy;"  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters." 


Bassano,  (Leandro  da  Ponte,)  called  the  Cheva- 
lier, third  son  of  Giacomo,  born  in  1558,  produced  his- 
torical pictures  and  portraits  of  superior  merit.  He 
painted  the  portrait  of  the  doge  Grimani,  who  created 
him  Chevalier  of  Saint  Mark.    Died  in  1623. 

Bas'san-tin,  Bas'sin-toun,  or  Bas''sen-tin,(jAMES,) 
a  Scottish  mathematician,  born  about  1500,  was  the  au- 
thor of  several  astronomical  and  mathematical  works 
which  were  esteemed  in  his  time.    Died  in  1568. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Bassaraba.    See  Bessaraba. 
Basse.    See  Bas. 

Basse,  bass,  (William,)  an  English  poet  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  was  the  author  of  "The  Sword  and 
Buckler,"  "Great  Brittaines  Sunnes-set,  bewailed  with 
a  Shower  of  Teares,"  composed  on  the  death  of  Prince 
Henry,  and  an  epitaph  on  Shakspeare. 

Bassee,  de  la,  deh  It  bt'sa',  (Bonaventure,)  a 
French  Capuchin,  sometimes  called  Louis  le  Pippre, 
(leh  p^pR,)  born  in  Artois  about  1580.  He  wrote,  in 
Latin,  a  work  entitled  "  The  Obedient  Parishioner." 

Basselin,  bts^liN',  or  Vasselin,  vts^liN',  written 
also  Bachelin  and  Bisselin,  (Olivier,)  a  French  poet, 
born  in  the  Val-de-Vire,  Normandy,  about  1350,  was  a 
fuller  by  trade.  His  works,  which  are  chiefly  convivial 
and  bacchanalian  songs,  were  called  "  vaux-de-Vire" 
from  the  residence  of  the  writer.  The  modern  term 
vaudeville  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  vau-de-Vire. 
Died  about  1419. 

See  NicoT,  "  Tresor  de  la  Langue  Frangaise." 

Bassen,  van,  vtn  b^s'sen,  (B.,)  a  Dutch  painter  and 
sculptor,  born  about  1590,  resided  for  some  time  in  Lon- 
don, where  he  painted  the  portraits  of  Charles  I.  and  his 
queen.  He  excelled  in  perspective  and  in  architectural 
pictures. 

Bassenge,  bt'sSNzh',  (Jean  Nicolas,)  a  Flemish 
poet,  born  at  Liege  in  1758.  He  published,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  his  friends  Reynier  and  Henkart,  a  work  en- 
titled "Leisures  of  Three  Friends."    Died  in  1811. 

Bassentin.    See  Bassantin. 

Basseporte,  bts'poRt',  (Madeleine  FRANgoisE,)  a 
French  lady,  celebrated  as  a  painter  of  flowers  and  birds, 
born  in  Paris  in  1700,  held  the  position  of  designer  of  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes.  Her  principal  work  is  the  continua- 
tion of  the  collection  of  plants  painted  on  vellum  for 
Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans.    Died  in  1780. 

Bassermann,  bls'ser-mln^  (Friedrich  Daniel,)  a 
German  politician,  born  at  Manheim  in  1811,  became  in 
1848  under-secretary  of  state  in  the  ministry  of  the  in- 
terior, which  post  he  held  till  the  resignation  of  Gagern. 
He  died  by  suicide  in  1850. 

Basset,  bt's<V,  (C^;sar  Auguste,)  a  French  Bene- 
dictine monk  and  educational  writer,  born  in  Paris  about 
1760  ;  died  in  1828. 

Bas^set,  (Peter,)  an  English  historian,  born  in  Staf- 
fordshire about  1390,  was  chamberlain  to  Henry  V.,  whom 
he  accompanied  to  France.  His  work  entitled  "Acts  of 
King  Henry"  ("Acta  Regis  Henrici")  remains  in  manu- 
script. 

Basset  de  la  Marelle,  bt'sa'  deh  It  vcA'xhV,  (Louis,) 
a  French  jurist,  born  at  Lyons  about  1730,  rose  to  be 
president  of  the  grand  council  in  Paris.  He  was  con- 
demned to  death  by  the  Jacobins,  and  executed  in  1794. 

Bassetti,  b^s-set'tee,  (Marcantonio,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  born  at  Verona  in  15S8. 
He  was  a  good  colorist.    Died  in  1630. 

See  RiDOLFi,  "  Vite  dei  Pittori  Veneti." 

Bassetti,  (Simone,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  about  1590, 
wrote,  in  Latin,  a  work  entitled  "  Monomachia  of  Virtues 
and  Vices." 

Bassewitz,  b3.s''(^itz,  (Heinrich  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man diplomatist  and  historian,  born  in  1680,  was  ambas- 
sador to  the  court  of  Peter  the  Great.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Historical  Memoirs  of  Russia  from  1713  to  1725." 
pied  in  1749. 

'  Bassi,  bas'see,  a  celebrated  Italian  buffo  singer,  died 
at  Vicenza  in  1825. 

Bassi,  (Bartolommeo,)  a  Genoese  painter,  born 
about  161 5,  was  noted  for  his  skill  in  perspective. 

Bassi,  (Ferdinando,)  an  Italian  naturalist,  born  at 
Bologna.    A  genus  of  trees  indigenous  to  the  coast  of 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  a,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BJSSI 


285 


BASTARD 


Malabar  was  named  by  Linnaeus  Bassia  in  his  honour. 
Died  in  1774. 

Bassi,  (Francesco,)  a  painter  of  Bologna,  was  a  pupil 
of  Barbieri.    Died  in  1732. 

Bassi,  (Francesco,)  born  at  Cremona  in  1642,  was 
surnamed  IL  Cremonese  dei  Paesi,  ("the  Cremonese 
of  landscapes,")  from  his  excellence  in  that  department 
of  painting.    Died  in  1700. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bassi,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Italian  sculptor  of 
Bologna,  lived  about  1 7 10. 

Bassi,  (Giuseppe,)  Count  of  Velletri,  an  Italian  phi- 
losophical and  satirical  writer,  lived  at  Rome  about  1630. 

Bassi,  (Laura  Maria  Catarina,)  an  Italian  lady, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1711,  was  celebrated  for  her  profound 
knowledge  of  philosophy,  mathematics,  and  languages. 
She  was  appointed  in  1732  professor  of  philosophy  in 
her  native  city,  having  previously  received  the  title  of 
doctor.  In  1738  she  was  married  to  Dr.  Joseph  Verati. 
Died  in  1778. 

See  J.  Fantuzzi,  "Elogio  de  Laura  Bassi,"  Bologna,  1778. 

Bassi,  (Martino,)  an  Italian  architect  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  was  a  native  of  Milan,  and  assisted  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  great  cathedral  in  that  city. 

Bassi,  (Ugo,)  an  Italian  patriot  and  eloquent  preacher, 
born  in  the  Roman  States  about  1804.  He  fought  against 
the  Austrians  in  1848,  and  served  as  chaplain  to  Gari- 
baldi. Having  been  taken  prisoner,  he  was  put  to  death 
in  August,  1849. 

Bassi,  de',  ak  bSs'see,  (Ugo  Visconti,)  the  natural 
son  of  a  wealthy  gentleman  of  Sardinia.  The  Pisan 
government  having  refused  him,  on  account  of  his  illegi- 
timacy, the  large  possessions  of  his  father,  Bassi  resolved 
to  betray  Sardinia  into  the  hands  of  James  II.  of  Aragon. 
For  this  purpose  he  treacherously  invited  a  number  of 
Pisans  to  assist  in  defending  the  island  against  the  King 
of  Aragon,  and,  having  separated  them  into  small  bodies, 
caused  them  to  be  massacred,  (1323.) 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Republiqvies  Italiennes." 

Bassiano,  bSs-se-i'no,  (Landi,)  [Lat.  IUssia'nus 
Lan'dus,]  an  Italian  physician,  born  at  Placentia,  wrote 
a  number  of  medical  works  in  Latin.    Died  in  1562. 

Bassiano,  (Ulisse,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Bologna, 
lived  at  Rome  about  1550. 

Bassianus.    See  Caracalla. 

Bassignana,  da,  dS  bas-s^n-ycVnS,  (Giovanni  Ste- 
FANO,)  an  Italian  Carmelite  monk  and  religious  writer, 
flourished  about  1480. 

Bassinet,  de,  deh  bt'se^UcV,  (Alexandre  Joseph,)  a 
French  ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  at  Avignon  in  1733. 
He  was  editor  for  a  time  of  the  "  Magasin  Encyclope- 
dique,"  and  wrote,  among  other  works,  "The  Sacred 
History  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,"  (8  vols.,  1804.) 
The  last  volume  was  written  by  the  Abbe  Lecuy.  Died 
in  1813. 

Bassintoun.    See  Bassantin. 

Bassius.    See  Bass,  (Heinrich.) 

Basso,  bSs'so,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet  and  jurist, 
wl:o  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  Duke  of  Guise  for 
having  been  engaged  in  the  insurrection  of  1647. 

Basso,  del,  defbSs'so,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
prose- writer,  lived  about  1470. 

See  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Bas'sol,  (John,)  a  Scottish  philosopher,  was  the  au- 
thor of  "  Philosophic  and  Medical  Miscellanies,"  (in 
Latin.)    Died  in  1347. 

See  Cave,  "Historia  Literaria." 

Bassompierre,  bS^s6N''pe-aiR',  (FRANgois,)  Baron 
OF,  Marquis  d'Harouel,  and  marshal  of  France,  was 
born  in  Lorraine  in  1579.  At  an  early  age  he  became 
distinguished  at  the  French  court,  where  his  personal 
advantages  and  brilliant  accomplishments  procured  for 
him  the  friendship  and  patronage  of  Henry  IV.  Having 
served  in  Savoy,  and  subsequently  against  the  Turks  in 
1603,  he  was  appointed  colonel-general  of  the  Swiss 
guards.  After  the  death  of  Henry,  Bassompierre  en- 
joyed in  an  equal  degree  the  favour  of  Louis  XIII.,  who 
created  him  marshal  of  France  in  1622.  He  was  soon 
after  employed  in  important  embassies  to  Spain,  Swit- 
zerland, and  England.    He  married  privately  Louise  de 


Lorraine,  Princess  of  Conti.  In  163 1  he  was  imprisoned 
in  the  Bastille  by  order  of  Cai'dinal  Richelieu,  whom  he 
had  offended,  and  was  not  released  until  the  death  of  the 
cardinal  in  1642.  He  died  in  1646,  leaving  two  volumes 
of  "Memoirs,"  written  while  in  prison,  and  published  in 
1665  ;  they  are  considered  to  present  a  faithful  picture 
of  the  profligacy  of  the  French  court  at  that  time.  His 
style  is  said  to  be  animated  and  spiritiiel. 

See  "MemoiresduMarechalde  Bassompierre,"  1665;  Puymaigre, 
"Viede  Bassompierre,"  1848;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Bassot,  bt'so',  (Jacques,)  a  French  writer,  to  whom 
has  been  attributed  a  "  History  of  the  Giant  Teutobo- 
chus.  King  of  the  Teutons,  etc.,"  (1613.) 

Bassotti,  bSs-sot'tee,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Perugia,  flourished  about  1660. 

Bassuel,  bS'sii-eK,  (Pierre,)  a  French  surgeon  and 
medical  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1706;  died  in  1757. 

Bas'sus,  (C/ESius,)  a  Roman  lyric  poet  of  the  first 
century,  to  whom  the  sixth  satire  of  Persius  is  addressed. 
Fragments  of  his  works  are  in  the  "Corpus  Poetarum," 

Bassus,  (Cesellius,)  a  Roman  of  Carthaginian  ex- 
traction, promised  the  emperor  Nero  to  discover  the 
treasures  concealed  by  Dido.  Having  failed,  he  com- 
mitted suicide. 

Bassus,  (Cneius  Aufidius  Orestes,)  a  Roman  his- 
torian and  orator  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  He  wrote  a 
history  of  the  Roman  wars  in  Germany,  also  a  general 
history  of  Rome,  which  was  continued  by  Pliny  the 
Elder.    His  works  are  not  extant. 

Bassus,  (Lollius,)  a  Greek  poet,  a  native  of  Smyrna, 
flourished  about  20  A.D.  He  was  the  author  of  ten  Epi- 
grams which  are  contained  in  the  "Greek  Anthology." 

Bassus,  (Saleius,)  a  Roman  poet,  lived  about  60 
A.D.  He  was  highly  esteemed  and  patronized  by  Ves- 
pasian, and  his  genius  was  commended  by  Quintilian. 
None  of  his  woiks  are  extant. 

Bassville,  de,  deh  bts'veK,  (Nicolas  Jean  Hugou 
(hii^goo')  or  Husson — hii'soN',)  a  French  journalist  and 
diplomatist,  was  editor  for  a  time  of  the  "  Mercure  Na- 
tional." Being  sent  as  secretary  of  legation  to  Naples 
in  1792,  he  was  soon  after  summoned  to  Rome,  and, 
while  attempting  to  exhibit  the  republican  cockade,  was 
killed  in  a  riot. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Bast,  b^st,  (Friedrich  Jakob,)  a  German  scholar 
and  diplomatist,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Hesse-Darmstadt 
in  1772,  was  secretary  of  legation  at  Paris.  He  pub- 
lishecl  a  "Critical  Letter  on  Antoninus  Liberalis,  Par- 
thenius,  and  Arista^netus,"  (1805,)  written  in  French 
and  addressed  to  M.  Boissonade  ;  also  "Notes  and 
Palxographical  Dissertations"  in  Schaefer's  edition  of 
"Gregory  of  Corinth."  Beth  of  these  works  are  ranked 
among  the  best  of  their  kind.    Died  in  1811. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Bast,  bSst,  (Peter,)  a  Dutch  painter  and  engraver; 
died  in  1605. 

Bast,  de,  deh  bSst,  (Lievin  Amand  Marie,)  nephew 
of  Martin  Jan,  noticed  below,  born  at  Ghent  in  1787. 
He  was  keeper  of  the  cabinet  of  medals  at  Ghent,  and 
the  author  of  several  works  on  art.    Died  in  1832. 

See  A.  VoisiN,  "Notice  sur  L.  A.  AL  de  Bast,"  1833. 

Bast,  de,  deh  btst,  (Louis  Amed^e,)  a  French  novel- 
ist, born  in  Paris  in  1795. 

Bast,  de,  (Martin  Jan,)  a  Flemish  ecclesiastic  and 
writer  on  antiquities,  born  at  Ghent  in  1753,  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Brussels  and  the  Society  of  An- 
tiquaries in  France.    Died  in  1825. 

Basta,  bSs'tS,  (Giorgio,)  an  Italian  soldier,  born  at 
Naples,  served  with  distinction  under  the  Duke  of  Panna 
in  1579.  He  was  the  author  of  two  works  on  military 
science,  which  have  a  high  reputation.    Died  in  1613. 

Basta,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  jurist  and  legal  writer, 
born  in  1743  ;  died  in  1819. 

Bastard,  bts'ttR',  (T.,)  a  French  botanist,  was  di- 
rector of  the  botanic  garden  at  Angers  in  1814.  He 
wrote  a  "Flora  of  Maine-et-Loire,"  (1807.) 

Bas'tard,  (Thomas,)  an  English  epigrammatist  in 
the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  born  at  Blandford,  in  Dor- 
setshire. He  wrote,  besides  his  epigrams,  a  Latin  poem 
entitled  "Magna  Britannia."    Died  in  1618. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BASTARD 


286 


BATES 


Bastard,  de,  deh  bts'ttR',  (Dominique,)  a  French 
jurist,  bora  at  Toulouse  in  1683  ;  died  in  1777. 

His  son  FRANgois,  born  in  1722,  became  first  presi- 
dent of  the  ParHament  of  Toulouse.    Died  in  1780. 

Bastard  or  Bastart,  de,  deh  bts'ttR',  (Guillaume,) 
Vicomte  de  Fussy,  (fii'se^,)  born  at  Bourges,  held  several 
important  offices  under  Charles  VI.  and  Charles  VII. 
Died  in  1447. 

Bastard  d'Estang,  de,  deh  bts'ttR'  des'tSN',  (Do- 
minique FRANgois  Marie,)  Comte,  an  able  French 
judge,  born  at  Nogaro  in  1783.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  Chamber  of  Peers  in  1819.    Died  in  1844. 

See  A.  DE  Bastard  d'Estang,  "Notice  historique  sur  F.  de 
Bastard  Comte  d'Estang,"  1S44. 

Bastardi,  bSs-taRMee,  (Zaccheria,)  an  Italian  eccle- 
siastical writer,  born  at  Modena ;  died  about  1650. 

Bastaro,  del,  del  bas-ta''ro,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  the  Roman  school,  born  about  1590. 

Baste,  btst,  (Pierre,)  a  French  naval  commander, 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1768,  served  against  the  English  at 
the  siege  of  Malta,  the  battle  of  Aboukir,  (1798,)  and  in 
the  Spanish  campaign  of  1808.  In  1809  he  was  created  by 
Napoleon  count  of  the  empire,  and  rear-admiral  in  1811. 
Died  in  1814. 

Baster,  b3.s'ter,  (Job,)  a  Dutch  botanist,  born  at 
Zierikzee,  in  Zealand,  in  1711.  He  published  "Obser- 
vations on  some  Marine  Plants  and  Insects,"  (1753,)  and 
other  scientific  works.  The  name  Bastera  has  been  given 
in  his  honour  to  several  genera  of  plants.   Died  in  1775. 

See  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca  Botanica." 

Basterio,  bas-ta're-o,  (Niccolo  di  Carmagnola — 

de  kaR-man-yo'IS,)  an  Italian  professor  of  theology  and 
philosophy  at  Pavia,  lived  about  1620. 

Bastholm,  btsf'holm,  (Christian,)  an  eminent  Dan- 
ish theologian,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1740.  He  became 
court  preacher  in  the  Danish  capital,  and  published 
numerous  works,  among  which  are  "Spiritual  Elo- 
quence," (1775,)  "  Philosophy  for  the  Unlearned,"  (in 
German,  1787,)  and  "Principal  Doctrines  of  the  Chris- 
tian Religion,"  (1783.)    Died  in  1819. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Bastiani,  bis-te-i'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Macerata,  was  a  pupil  of  Gasparini,  and  lived 
about  1580. 

Bastianino.    See  Gratella. 

Bastiano  di  San  Gallo,  bis-te-3.'no  de  s^n  giKlo, 
an  Italian  painter  of  perspective  and  theatrical  decora- 
tions, was  a  pupil  of  Perugino  and  a  friend  of  Raphael. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Bastiat,  bSs'te't',  (Frederic,)  an  able  French  writer 
on  political  economy,  born  at  Bayonne  in  1801.  He 
published  in  1844,  in  the  "Journal  des  Economistes,"  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Influence  of  French  and  English 
Tariffs  on  the  Future  of  the  Two  Nations,"  in  which  he 
opposed  the  protective  system.  Having  visited  England 
and  made  the  acquaintance  of  Cobden,  he  brought  out 
after  his  return  a  translation  of  various  addresses  of  the 
free-traders,  to  which  was  prefixed  an  introduction,  en- 
titled "Cobden  and  the  League."  He  subsequently 
edited  in  Paris  the  "  Libre  Echange,"  a  journal  devoted 
to  the  cause  of  free  trade.  His  "  Harmonies  Econo- 
miques"  (1849)  is  regarded  as  his  greatest  work.  Died 
at  Pvome  in  1850. 

See  "Noiivelle  Biographie  G(?nerale." 

Bastide,  b3.s-tee'Da,  (Fernando,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  professor  of  theology  and 
chancellor  of  the  University  at  Valladolid. 

Bastide,  bts'ted',  (Jules,)  a  French  republican  jour- 
nalist and  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1800.  He  became 
about  1836  chief  editor  of  the  "National,"  a  daily  jour- 
nal, and  in  1846  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "Revue 
Nationale."  lie  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  under 
Cavaignac  from  June  to  December,  1848. 

Bastide,  (Louis,)  a  French  jurist  and  theologian, 
born  about  1680,  was  the  author  of  several  esteemed 
religious  works. 

Bastide,  (Marc,)  a  French  Benedictine  monk  and 
ecclesiastical  writer;  died  in  1668. 

Bastide,  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French  Protestant 
theological  writer  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Milhau-en- 


Rouergue  about  1624.  He  wrote  in  1672  a  reply  to 
Bossuet's  "Explanation  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Catholic 
Church,"  a  "Treatise  on  the  Eucharist,"  and  other  simi- 
lar works.    Died  in  1704. 

Bastide,  (Philippe,)  a  French  Benedictine,  born  in 
the  diocese  of  Bourges  in  1620 ;  died  in  1690. 

Bastide,  de,  deh  bSs'ted',  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French 
litterateur^  born  at  Marseilles  in  1724,  was  editor  of  the 
"  Spectateur  Fran9ais,"  and  other  journals.  His  works 
are  of  a  frivolous  character  ;  they  were  severely  criticised 
by  Voltaire  and  other  writers  of  the  time.   Died  in  1798. 

Bastien,  bts'te-iN',  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French  book- 
seller, born  in  Paris  in  1747,  compiled  a  number  of  valua- 
ble works  on  agriculture  and  gardening.    Died  in  1824. 

Bastiou,  bts'te-00',  (Yves,)  a  French  teacher  and 
educational  writer,  born  at  Pontrieux,  in  Brittany,  in 
1751  ;  died  in  18 14. 

Baston,  bts'toN',  (Guillaume  Andr:6  Rene,)  born 
at  Rouen  in  1741,  became  in  1813  Bishop  of  Seez.  Died 
in  1825. 

Bas'ton,  (Robert,)  an  English  writer,  born  near 
Nottingham,  was  the  author  of  Latin  poems  on  various 
subjects.    Died  about  13 12. 

Bastoul,  bts'tooK,  (Louis,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Montolieu  in  1753,  was  killed  at  Hohenlinden  in  De- 
cember, 1800. 

Bast'wick,  (John,)  an  English  physician  and  con- 
troversial writer,  born  in  Essex  in  1593.  For  his  violent 
attacks  on  episcopacy  he  was  condemned  to  imprisonment 
for  life  ;  but  the  sentence  was  afterwards  reversed. 

Baszko,  bc^sh'ko,  (Godislas,)  a  Polish  historian,  au- 
thor of  a  "Chronicle  of  Great  Poland,"  lived  about  1820. 

Batacchi,  bi-tak'kee,  (Domenico,)  a  licentious  Ital- 
ian writer,  born  at  Leghorn  in  1749  ;  died  in  1802. 

Bataillard,  bt'tt''ySR',  (Charles,)  a  French  writer, 
was  the  author,  among  other  works,  of  a  "  Political  and 
Moral  Picture  of  France,"  (1801.) 

Bafa-ius  [BaraAof]  or  Bat'ta-lus,  a  Greek  flute- 
player,  noted  for  his  eff'eminacy,  lived  about  420-400  B.C. 

Bate,  (George,)  a  distinguished  English  physician 
and  historian,  born  in  Buckinghamshire  in  1608.  He 
was  first  physician  successively  to  Charles  I.,  Cromwell, 
and  Charles  II.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  several  medical 
works,  and  a  "  History  of  the  Civil  War  between 
Charles  I.  and  Cromwell,"  in  which  he  favours  the  Puri- 
tans. Dr.  Bate  was  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society  and 
of  the  College  of  Physicians,    Died  in  1668. 

See  "Biographie  Medicale." 

Bate,  [Lat.  Ba'tus,]  (John,)  an  English  scholar  and 
theologian,  born  about  1350 ;  died  in  1429. 

Bate,  (Julius,)  an  English  divine,  published  a  "  He- 
brew and  English  Lexicon."    Died  in  1771. 

Bate'cumbe  or  Bade'combe,  (William,)  an  Eng- 
lish mathematician,  born  about  1390,  wrote,  in  Latin,  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Solid  Sphere,"  and  other  works. 

Batelier  or  Bathelier,  le,  leh  bt'ta'le-a',  (Jacques,) 
a  French  jurist,  was  the  author  of  "  Commentaries  on 
the  Common  Law  of  Normandy,"  (1626.) 

Bateman,  baf'man,  (Charles  Philip  Boteler,)  an 
English  admiral,  born  in  1775,  assisted  in  the  defence  of 
Cadiz  against  the  French  in  181 2. 

Bateman,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  physician, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1778,  was  for  a  time  associate  editor 
of  the  "  Edinburgh  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal."  He 
wrote  a  number  of  medical  treatises,  chiefly  on  diseases 
of  the  skin,  and  contributed  the  principal  articles  on 
medicine  to  Rees's  "Cyclopaedia."    Died  in  1821. 

See  J.  RuMSEY,  "Account  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Thomas  Bateman," 
1S26. 

Bateman,  (William,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at 
Norwich,  was  the  founder  of  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Norwich  in  1343.    Died  in  1355. 

Baten,  bS'ten,  (Henry,)  a  Flemish  astronomer  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Mirror  of 
Divine  and  Natural  Things,"  ("  Speculum  Divinorum  et 
Naturaliam,")  unpublished. 

Bates,  (Barnap.as,)  a  distinguished  advocate  of  cheap 
postage  in  the  United  States,  was  born  in  England  in 
1785.  About  1825  he  established  "The  Christian  En- 
quirer" at  New  York.  He  devoted  himself  for  years  to 
the  work  of  effecting  a  reduction  in  the  rates  of  postage, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lojig;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sJiort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  011,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BATES 


287 


BATHURST 


and  to  his  labours  we  are  greatly  indebted  for  our  present 
system  of  cheap  letter-carriage.    Died  in  1853. 

Bates,  (Edward,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Goochland  county,  Virginia,  about  1792.  He  emigrated 
to  Missouri  at  an  early  age,  studied  law,  and  became  an 
eminent  lawyer.  He  was  a  political  friend  of  Henry 
Clay  in  1824,  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1827,  and  voted  for  John  Quincy  Adams  in  1828.  After 
the  expiration  of  his  first  term  in  Congress,  he  devoted 
himself  exclusively  to  his  profession  for  many  years. 
He  was  president  of  the  national  convention  of  the 
friends  of  internal  improvement  which  met  in  Chicago 
in  1847,  ^'"^d  he  maintained  in  an  able  speech  that  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  Federal  government  to  develop  the  re- 
sources of  the  country  by  great  public  works.  He  op- 
posed the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  in  1854, 
after  which  he  acted  with  the  friends  of  free  labour  in 
the  Kansas  question.  He  was  appointed  attorney-gen- 
eral of  the  United  States  by  President  Lincoln  in  March, 
1861,  and  resigned  about  September,  1864. 

Bates,  (JOAH,)  a  distinguished  English  musician  and 
composer,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1740.  He  was  appointed 
in  1784  to  conduct  the  commemoration  of  Handel  at 
Westminster  Abbey.  Died  in  1 799.  His  wife,  originally 
Miss  Harrop,  was  an  excellent  vocalist. 

Bates,  (Joshua,)  born  in  Weymouth,  Massachusetts, 
in  1788,  established  in  1826,  in  connection  with  John 
Baring,  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Baring,  a  mercantile  house  in 
London  under  the  name  of  Bates  &  Baring.  Subse- 
quently the  firm  was  merged  into  the  celebrated  house 
of  Baring  Brothers  &  Company.  In  1854  he  filled  the 
position  of  umpire  to  the  British  and  American  commis- 
sioners for  settling  the  claims  of  citizens  of  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  growing  out  of  the  war  of  181 2, 
and  appears  to  have  discharged  its  delicate  and  respon- 
sible duties  with  entire  satisfaction  to  all  parties.  But 
that  which  confers  the  greatest  lustre  on  Mr.  Bates's 
memory  is  his  munificent  endowment  of  the  Boston  Li- 
brary, with  the  express  condition  that  it  should  be 
"  PERFECTLY  FREE  TO  ALL,  with  no  Other  restrictions 
than  may  be  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  the  books." 
He  may  thus  be  said  to  have  been  the  founder  not  only 
of  the  most  useful,  but — if  we  consider  the  variety  and 
character  as  well  as  the  number  of  its  books — of  per- 
haps the  most  magnificent  library  of  which  this  continent 
can  boast.  When  the  project  of  establishing  a  public 
library  in  Boston  was  made  known  to  Mr.  Bates,  he 
wrote  to  the  mayor,  offering  the  sum  of  fifty  thousand 
dollars  towards  the  library,  that  it  might  be  commenced 
"at once;"  he  afterwards  added  to  this  munificent  dona- 
tion books  to  the  value  of  not  less  than  fifty  thousand 
dollars  more.  On  his  death,  in  1864,  the  trustees  passed 
a  resolution  that  the  large  hall  of  the  library,  in  which 
the  rarest  and  most  valuable  books  are  contained,  should 
thenceforward  be  designated  as  Bates  Hall. 

See  "Memorial  of  Joshua  Bates,  from  the  City  of  Boston,"  1865. 

Bates,  (Joshua,)  an  American  clergyman,  born  at 
Cohasset,  Massachusetts,  in  1776.  He  was  president  of 
Middlebury  College,  Vermont,  from  1818  to  1839,  and 
afterwards  minister  at  Dudley,  Massachusetts.  Died  in 
1854. 

Bates,  (Thomas,)  an  English  farmer,  who  lived  at 
Kirkleavington,  was  distinguished  for  his  success  in  im- 
proving the  breed  of  cattle.    Died  in  1849. 

Bates,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  dissenting 
minister,  born  in  1625,  was  a  Presbyterian  and  a  royalist. 
He  preached  in  London  until  he  was  ejected  by  the  Act 
of  Uniformity  in  1662.  He  was  a  person  of  great  learn- 
ing and  superior  talents,  and  had  a  high  reputation  both 
as  a  preacher  and  a  writer.  Among  his  intimate  friends 
were  Archbishop  Tillotson  and  John  Howe.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "The  Lives  of  Pious  and 
Learned  Men,"  (in  Latin,  1681,)    Died  in  1699. 

See  Macaulay's  "History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  viii. 

Bate'son,  (Thomas,)  a  celebrated  English  composer 
of  madrigals,  was  organist  of  the  cathedral  at  Chester 
about  1600. 

Bath,  Earl  of.    See  Pulteney,  (William.) 

Bathe,  bith,  (William,)  an  Irish  Jesuit  and  writer, 
born  at  Dublin  about  1532,  became  director  of  the  Irish 
seminary  at  Salamanca.    Died  in  1614. 


Bathelier.    See  Bat^;lier. 

Bathem,  van,  vSn  bi^'tem,  written  also  Battem  01 
Battum,  (Gerard,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter  of  supe 
rior  merit,  lived  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Ba-thil'da  or  Ba-tiPda,  [Fr.  Bathilde  or  Batilde, 
bt'teld',]  Saint,  originally  an  Anglo-Saxon  slave,  be- 
came the  wife  of  Clovis  II.,  King  of  France,  who,  dyin^ 
young,  left  her  regent  of  the  kingdom.  She  was  cele- 
brated for  her  talents  and  piety,  and  was  canonized  by 
Pope  Nicholas  I.    Died  in  680. 

See  Baillet,  "Vita  Sanctie  Bathildis." 

Bathori,  bl'to-ree,  (Elizabeth,)  Princess  of,  a  niece 
of  Stephen  Bathori,  King  of  Poland,  and  wife- of  the  Hun- 
garian count  Nadasdi,  was  one  of  the  most  striking  ex- 
amples of  fiendish  cruelty  recorded  in  history.  With  the 
assistance  of  three  servants,  she  enticed  to  her  castle  a 
great  number  of  young  girls,  whom  she  caused  to  be  mas- 
sacred, in  order  that  she  might  restore  her  beauty  by 
bathing  in  their  blood.  Her  crimes  being  discovered,  she 
was  sentenced  to  perpetual  imprisonment.    Died  in  1614. 

Bathori,  (Gabor  or  Gabriel,)  became  Prince  of 
Transylvania  in  1608.  Matthias,  King  of  Hungary,  having 
invaded  his  country,  was  repulsed  with  the  assistance  of 
Bethlen  Gabor  ;  but  the  life  of  the  latter  being  threatened 
by  his  cousin  Bathori,  Bethlen  Gabor  was  made  Prince 
of  Transylvania  by  the  Turks,  and  Bathori  was  killed 
soon  after,  (1613.) 

Bathori,  (Ladislas,)  a  Hungarian  monk,  born  about 
1490,  translated  the  Bible  and  the  "Lives  of  the  Saints" 
into  Hungarian. 

Bathori,  (Sigismund,)  a  prince  of  Transylvania,  born 
about  1550.  Having  married  a  princess  of  the  house  of 
Hapsburg,  he  promised  to  the  emperor  Rudolph  that,  in 
case  of  his  dying  without  children,  the  crown  of  Transyl- 
vania should  be  vmited  to  that  of  Austria.  Through  the 
influence  of  the  Jesuits,  he  soon  after  abdicated  in  favour 
of  Rudolph.  His  subjects,  dissatisfied  with  this  arrange- 
ment, reinstated  him  in  1601 ;  but,  having  been  defeated 
by  the  Austrians,  Bathori  again  abdicated,  in  considera- 
tion of  a  large  pension  and  other  advantages.  Died  in 
1613. 

See  HoRANYi,  "Memoria  Hungarorum." 
•Bathori,  (Stephen,)  was  elected  in  1571  Prince  of 
Transylvania,  and  in  1576  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
Poland.  He  reconquered  Lithuania  from  the  Russians, 
and  obtained  other  important  advantages  over  them. 
Died  in  1586. 

See  Warsewitz,  "  Vita  et  Res  gestas  Stephani  Regis  Polonorum," 
1587- 

Bath'urst,  (Allen,)  Earl  Bathurst,  born  at  West- 
minster in  1684,  was  a  son  of  Sir  Benjamin  Bathurst, 
treasurer  of  the  household  to  the  princess  Anne,  after- 
wards queen.  In  1705  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for 
Cirencester,  and  signalized  himself  by  his  opposition  to 
Marlborough  and  other  Whig  leaders.  He  obtained 
the  title  of  Lord  Bathurst  in  1711.  Throughout  his 
public  career  he  firmly  opposed  the  administration  of  Sir 
Robert  Walpole.  Lord  Bathurst  (who  was  created  an 
earl  in  1772)  was  distinguished  for  his  literary  tastes  and 
attainments,  and  was  intimate  with  Pope,  Swift,  Addison, 
and  other  eminent  men.  Pope  dedicated  to  him  the  third 
epistle  of  his  "Moral  Essays."    Died  in  1775. 

See  the  "Annual  Register"  for  1775. 

Bathurst,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  diplomatist,  born 
in  London  in  1784.  Flaving  been  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Vienna  in  1807,  he  disappeared  mysteriously  near  Ham- 
burg, and  is  supposed  to  have  been  assassinated. 

Bathurst,  (Henry,)  second  Earl  Bathurst,  and  Lord 
Apsley,  an  English  judge,  son  of  Allen  Bathurst,  bcrn  in 
1 7 14.  He  was  appointed  a  judge  in  the  court  of  com- 
mon pleas  in  1754,  and  lord  chancellor  of  England  in 
1770  or  1771.  Pie  resigned  the  great  seal  in  1778,  and 
became  president  of  the  council  in  1780.    Died  in  1794. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;"  Foss, 
"The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  viii. 

Bathurst,  (Henry,)  a  nephew  of  Allen,  Lord  Bath- 
urst, born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1744.  He  was  created 
in  1805  Bishop  of  Norwich.    Died  in  1837. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Dr.  Henry  Bathurst,  Bishop  of  Norwich,"  by 
Rev.  H.  Bathurst,  1837. 

Bathurst,  (Henry,)  son  of  Baron  Apsley,  mentioned 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  Y.,guihiral;  N,  7iasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Si:^^" See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BATHVRST 


288 


BATTEN 


above,  born  in  1762.  Having  filled  several  important 
offices,  he  became  secretary  of  the  colonies,  (1812,)  and 
president  of  the  council,  (1828.)  He  was  a  decided  Tory 
in  politics.    Died  in  1834. 

Bathurst,  (Ralph,)  an  English  physician,  divine, 
and  scholar,  born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1620,  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society,  of  which  he  was 
elected  president  in  1668.  He  was  appointed  chaplain 
to  Charles  H.,  {1663,)  and  vice-chancellor  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford,  (1673.)  He  was  the  author  of  Latin 
poems  and  other  works.    Died  in  1704. 

See  Warton,  "Life  of  R.  Bathurst,"  1761. 

Bathurst,  (Theodore,)  a  relative  of  Dr.  Ralph  Bath- 
urst, translated  Spenser's  "  Shepherd's  Calendar"  into 
Latin  verse,  (1653.) 

Bathyani.    See  BatthyAnyl 

Bath-y-cles,  [Ba(?i;/c;\//f,]  a  Greek  sculptor,  native  of 
Magnesia,  supposed  to  have  been  contemporary  with 
Solon.  His  principal  work  was  the  colossal  throne  of  the 
Amycl.iean  Apollo,  which  he  covered  with  bas-reliefs. 

Bathylle,  the  French  of  Bathyllus,  which  see. 

Ba-thylTus,  [Gr.  Bat^yAAof ;  Fr.  Bathylle,  bt't^K,] 
a  celebrated  comedian,  who  lived  about  30  B.C.,  was  a 
native  of  Alexandria  and  a  freedman  of  Maecenas.  He 
excelled  in  comic  pantomime,  and  his  performances  were 
exceedingly  popular  with  the  Romans.  Flis  partisans 
were  styled  Bathyllians,  while  those  of  his  rival  Pylades 
the  tragedian  were  called  Pyladians. 

Batilda,  Saint,    See  Bathilde. 

Batinskof,  bJ-tins^kof,  (Constantine  Nicolae- 
vncH,)  a  Russian  poet  and  critic,  born  at  Vologda  in 
1787.  He  was  the  author  of  lyric  poems  and  elegies, 
which  are  highly  esteemed,  and  essays  on  Russian  and 
Italian  literature.  He  also  translated  into  Russian 
Schiller's  "Bride  of  Messina."    Died  in  1855. 

Batista.    See  Battista. 

Batizi,  ba-tee'zee,  (Andrew  and  Michael,)  Hunga- 
rian Protestants  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  former 
was  the  author  of  national  hymns,  the  latter  of  religious 
works. 

Batka,  liit'kS,  (Lorenz,)  a  German  musician,  born  at 
Lischau,  in  Bohemia,  in  1705,  was  director  of  music  at 
Prague.  He  died  in  1759,  leaving,  five  sons,  who  were 
noted  as  vocalists  and  musicians. 

Batlowski,  bat-lov'skee,  a  Polish  painter,  lived  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Bat'man,  (Stephen,)  an  English  divine  and  writer, 
born  in  1537.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a  poem 
entitled  "The  Travayled  Pilgrime,  bringing  Nevves  from 
all  Parts  of  the  Worlde."    Died  in  1587. 

Bat'man-son,  (John,)  an  English  Carthusian  monk, 
who  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century,  wrote  several  works, 
m  Latin,  against  Erasmus  and  other  reformers. 

Ba''toii,  [Barwv,]  a  Greek  comic  poet,  lived  about  300 
B.C.    A  few  fragments  of  his  comedies  are  extant. 

Baton  of  Sinope,  a  Greek  historian,  supposed  to  have 
lived  about  277  B.C.  He  wrote  "Commentaries  on  Per- 
sian Affairs,"  a  "  History  of  Attica,"  and  other  works, 
which  are  mentioned  by  several  ancient  writers. 

Batoni,  bi-to'nee,  (Pompeo  Girolamo,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Lucca  in  1708.  He  studied  in 
Rome,  where  he  soon  acquired  the  reputation  of  one  of 
the  first  artists  of  his  time.  Among  his  master-pieces 
in  historical  painting  are  "  Saint  Catherine  of  Sienna," 
"The  Fall  of  Simon  Magus,"  and  "Saint  Celso."  His 
portraits  of  Joseph  II.  and  Leopold  II.  of  Austria  are 
also  highly  esteemed  :  the  former  procured  for  him  let- 
ters of  nobility  from  the  empress  Maria  Theresa.  His 
st3'le  is  graceful,  and  free  from  the  prevalent  mpmnerism 
of  his  time.  He  had  great  facility  of  execution.  Died 
at  Rome  in  1786  or  1787. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Onofrio  Boni, 
"  Elogio  del  Cavaliere  P.  Batoni,"  1787. 

Batoo-  (Batou-  or  Batu-)  Khan,  bi^too'  kSn,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  grandson  of  Jengis  Khan,  as- 
sumed the  government  of  Ka]5chak  in  1223.  By  the 
command  of  the  great  khan  Oktai,  whom  he  acknow- 
ledged as  his  superior,  he  made  war  on  Poland  and  Hun- 
gary, and  conquered  Russia,  which  he  held  in  subjection 
for  ten  years.    Died  in  1255. 

See  D'Herbelot,  "  Bibiiotheque  Orientale." 


Batootah,  Batoutah,  or  Batiitah,  bS-too'tS,  written 
also  Battuta,  (Moham'med-Ibn-AbdilTah,)  com- 
monly called  Ibn-Batootah,  (or  -Batiitah,)  a  famous 
Moorish  traveller  of  the  fourteenth  century,  visited  Egypt, 
and  the  principal  part  of  Asia,  including  China  and  the 
Indian  archipelago.  Only  fragments  of  his  travels  have 
been  discovered  and  published. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  May,  1841. 

Batou-Khan.    See  Batoo-Khan. 
Batoutah.    See  Batootah. 

Bat'ra-ehus,  [Gr.  V>uT^axoq,  a  "frog,"]  a  Greek  archi- 
tect of  the  time  of  Augustus.  With  his  countryman 
Saurus,  [Sa?)po^^,  a  "  lizard,"]  he  built  two  temples  at 
Rome.  As  they  were  not  allowed  to  inscribe  their 
names  on  their  work,  they  carved,  it  is  said,  a  lizard  and 
a  frog  on  the  columns. 

Batsch,  b^tsh,  (August  Johann  Georg  Karl,)  aGer- 
man  naturalist,  born  at  Jena  in  1761.  He  wrote,  among 
other  works,  a  monograph  of  the  mushrooms  in  the 
vicinity  of  Jena,  entitled  "  Elenchus  Fungorum,"  (1783,) 
and  "  Elements  ofSystematic  Chemistry,"  (1789.)  Gmelin 
has  given  the  name  Batschia  to  a  genus  of  the  order 
Boraginas.  Batsch  was  professor  of  natural  history,  etc. 
at  Jena,  where  he  died  in  1802. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Batt,  bit,  (Bartholomew,)  a  Flemish  Protestant, 
born  at  Alost  in  1515,  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  treatise  "On 
Christian  Economy." 

Batt,  (Charles,)  a  Flemish  physician,  translated 
several  medical  works  from  the  French.  He  lived  at 
Dort  from  1593  to  1598. 

Batt,  bat,  (Conrad,)  a  Dutch  or  German  physician, 
born  at  Rostock  in  1573  ;  died  in  1605. 

Batt,  (Cornelius,)  son  of  James,  noticed  below,  born 
in  Zealand  in  1470,  was  the  author  of  a  "  Descrii^tion  of 
the  World."    Died  in  1517. 

Batt,  (James,)  born  in  Zealand,  was  secretary  of  the 
town  of  Bergen-op-Zoom.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Erasmus. 

Batt,  (Lievin,)  a  Flemish  physician,  son  of  Bartholo- 
mew, noticed  above,  born  at  Ghent  about  1540,  was  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Rostock.    Died  in  1591. 

Batt,  (William,)  an  English  physician,  born  at  Col- 
lingham  in  1744,  became  in  1778  professor  of  chemistry 
at  Genoa,  where  he  introduced  vaccination.  Died  in  1812. 

Battaglia.    See  Cerquozzi. 

Battaglia,  bit-t^KyS,  an  Italian  architect  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  celebrated  for  having  completed  the  mag- 
nificent convent  of  Catania,  in  Sicily. 

Battaglia,  (Cesare,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastic,  born  at 
Milan  in  1605. 

Battaglia,  (DiONisio,)  an  Italian  painter  of  the  Vene- 
tian school,  born  at  Verona,  lived  about  1520-40. 

Battaglia,  (Francesco,)  a  Venetian  senator,  who 
distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in  the  cause  of  the 
French  Revolution,  and  proposed  an  alliance  between 
the  republics  of  France  and  Venice.    Died  in  1799. 

Battaglini,  bSt-tai-yee^nee,  (Marco,)  an  Italian  pre- 
late, born  near  Rimini  in  1645,  was  Bishop  of  Cesena. 
He  wrote  a  "Universal  History  of  Councils,"  (16S6,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1 71 7. 

Battalns.    See  Batalus. 

Battara,  bat-ta'r^,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
naturalist  and  physician,  born  at  Rimini,  published  sev- 
eral botanical  works.    Died  in  1789. 

Bat'tel,  (Andrev^,)  an  English  traveller,  born  in  Es- 
sex about  1565,  was  made  prisoner  by  the  Portuguese 
and  detained  many  years  in  their  settlements  in  Africa. 
His  adventures  are  related  in  Purchas's  "  Collection  of 
Voyages." 

Battelli,  bat-tel'lee,  (Giovanni  Cristoforo,)  an  Ital- 
ian antiquary,  born  near  Urbino  in  1658,  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Amasia.    Died  in  1725. 

Battely,  bit'le,  (John,)  a  learned  English  divine, 
born  at  Bury  Saint  Edmund's  in  1647,  became  Archdea- 
con of  Canterbury.  His  principal  work  is  an  account 
of  the  antiquities  of  Richborough  and  Reculver,  entided 
"  Antiquitates  Rutupinas."    Died  in  1708. 

Battem.    See  Bathem. 

Bat^ten,  (Adrian,)  an  English  composer  of  sacred 
music,  became  organist  of  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral  ir»  1624. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  %  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


BJTTEUX 


289 


BAUD  ENS 


Batteux,  bi'tuh',  (Charles,)  a  French  litth-ateur, 
born  near  Vouziers  in  1713,  was  appointed  professor  of 
Greek  and  Latin  philosophy  in  the  College  of  France. 
He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Fine 
Arts,"  and  also  made  a  translation  of  Horace,  (1750,) 
which  is  valued  for  its  accuracy.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy,  and  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions.   Died  in  1780. 

See  Madame  Dacier,  "  filoge  de  Batteux,"  and  a  "  History  of 
First  Causes,"  or  '"Expose  sommaire  des  Pensees  des  Philosophes 
sur  ie  Principe  des  Etres,"  1769. 

Batthyanyi,  bot'yan-yee,   or  Bathyanyi,  (Casi- 

MiR,)  Count,  a  Hungarian  nobleman  and  patriot,  born 
about  181 7.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  revolution  of 
1848,  and  in  1849  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  af- 
fairs. After  the  defeat  of  the  Hungarians  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  a  time,  and  on  his  release  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  died  in  1854. 

Batthyanyi  or  Bathyani,  written  also  Battyany, 
(Ig.n'ATIUS,)  Count,  a  canonist,  born  in  Transylvania  in 
1 741,  became  Bishop  of  Weissenburg.  He  founded  an 
observatory  at  Carlsburg,  and  published  several  works. 
Died  in  1798. 

Batthyanyi,(CHARLES,)  Prince,  a  Hungarian  general, 
born  about  1697.  He  performed  a  prominent  part  in 
the  war  of  the  x^ustrian  succession,  which  ended  in 
1745.  He  also  had  a  high  command  in  the  Austrian 
service  during  the  Seven  Years'  war.    Died  in  1772. 

Batthyanyi  or  Bathyanyi,  (Louis,)  Count,  a  Llun- 
garian  patriot  and  liberal  statesman,  born  atTresburg  in 
1809.  He  contended  for  religious  liberty,  and  becaiiie 
chief  minister  of  the  government  formed  in  March,  1848. 
In  consequence  of  the  hostile  movements  of  Jellachich, 
Ban  of  Croatia,  who  was  instigated  by  the  imperial  court, 
he  resigned  in  September,  1848.  Civil  war  ensued,  in 
which  the  friends  of  Batthyanyi  were  vanquished.  He 
was  tried  by  a  court-martial,  and  shot  in  October,  1849. 

See  HoRVATH,  "Louis  Bathyanyi,  ein  politischer  Miirtyrer," 
1850;  and  "Graf  L.  Batthyanyi,  sein  Leben,  Wirken  und  Ende," 
Leipsic,  1850. 

Battle,  bit'te^  (William,)  an  English  physician,  born 
ni  Devonshire  in  1704,  was  celebrated  for  his  skilful 
treatment  of  insanity.  His  principal  work  is  a  "Treatise 
on  Madness,"  (1758.)  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society.    Died  in  1776. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Battier,  bS'te-i',  (Samuel,)  a  Swiss  physician,  born 
at  Bale  in  1667,  was  a  friend  of  Malebranclie  and  Tour- 
nefort.  He  published  several  philosophical  and  scien- 
tific works  in  Latin,    Died  in  1744. 

Battiferri,  (Laura.)    See  Ammanatl 

Baftis-hill,  (Jonathan,)  an  English  musical  com- 
poser, born  in  1738.  His  anthems,  glees,  and  songs  are 
highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1801. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Battista,  bc^t-t^s'tS,  (Fulgoso,)  a  Doge  of  Venice, 
who,  being  exiled  about  1480,  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  work 
entitled  "Memorable  Examples." 

Battista  or  Baptista,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  He  was  the  author  of 
Latin  epigrams,  Italian  lyrics,  and  several  prose  works. 
Died  in  1675. 

Battista,  (Ignazio,)  an  Italian  writer,  who  lived  about 
1540,  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Roman  Emperors,"  and 
a  «ork  "On  the  Origin  of  the  Turks,"  both  in  Latin. 

Battista,  (Spagnuoli,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastic  and 
Latin  poet,  surnamed  THE  Mantuan,  born  at  Mantua 
about  1436.  His  works  were  greatly  admired  by  his 
contemporaries,  but  are  now  forgotten.    Died  in  1^16. 

Battista  d'Agnolo,  bat-t^s't'S  dSn^yo-lo,  or  Battista 
del  Moro,  bJt-t^s'td  del  mo'ro,  an  Italian  painter  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  born  at  Verona.  He  worked  at 
Verona  and  Venice. 

Battista  del  Moro.    See  Battista  d'Agnolo. 

Battista  di  Ferrara,  bSt-t^s'tS  de  fer-r^'ri,  an  Ital- 
ian writer,  born  about  1380,  was  the  author  of  "Chroni- 
cles of  Ferrara,"  and  other  works. 

Battisti,  bit-tfes'tee,  (Bartolommeo,)  born  at  Rove- 
redo,  in  the  Tyrol,  in  1755,  was  appointed  about  1784 
physician  to  the  Emperor  of  Austria.    Died  in  1831. 

Battistin,  bJt-t^s-teen',  written  also  Baptistin,  (John 


Baptist  Stuck,)  an  Italian  musician  and  composer,  of 
German  extraction,  born  at  Florence  about  1677.  He  was 
an  excellent  performer  on  the  violoncello,  which  he  is 
said  to  have  first  introduced  into  France.   Died  in  1755. 

Battistini,  bat-tes-tee^nee,  (Francesco,)  a  noted  Ital- 
ian improvisatore,  born  in  1747,  becarne  professor  of 
Latin  and  Italian  eloquence  in  the  college  De  Propa- 
ganda at  Rome.    Died  in  1825. 

Batton,  bt'toN',  (Desire  Alexandre,)  a  French 
composer  of  operas,  born  in  Paris  in  1797,  was  a  pupil 
of  Cherubini. 

Battoni,  (Pompeo.)    See  Batoni, 

Battori.    See  Bathori. 

Battum.    See  Bathem. 

Bat'tus  I.,  a  Lacedaemonian,  born  at  Thera,  was  the 
founder  of  the  colony  of  Cyrene,  about  630  B.C.  He 
received  divine  honours  after  his  death. 

Battus  II.,  surnamed  Felix,  was  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  and  succeeded  Arcesilaus  as  King  of  Cyrene. 
Under  his  reign  the  colony  was  greatly  increa,sed  by  the 
arrival  of  colonists  from  various  parts  of  Greece.  Died 
about  575  P>.c. 

Battus  III.,  son  of  Arcesilaus  II.,  reigned  abt.ut 

544  B.C. 

Battnta.    See  Batootah. 
Battyany.    See  BatthyAni. 
Batu-Khan.    See  Batoo-Khan. 
Batus.    See  Bate. 
Batutah.    See  Batootah. 

Batz,  de,  deh  btts,  (Jean,)  Baron,  a  French  general, 
born  near  Tartas  in  1760,  made  several  unsuccessful 
attempts  during  the  Revolution  to  save  Louis  XVI.  and 
the  royal  faniily.    Died  in  1822. 

Baiibur  or  Baiiber.    See  I^abkr. 

Bau'gis,  (Myth.,)  a  Phrygian  peasant,  who,  with  her 
husband  Philemon,  kindly  received  Jupiter  and  Mercury 
when  travelling  in  disguise.  For  this  favour  Jupiter 
changed  their  cottage  into  a  temple,  and  made  them  his 
priests.    At  their  death  they  were  changed  to  trees. 

Baudake.    See  Baldock. 

Baiidart,  bo'dSR',  (William,)  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Deinse,  in  Flanders,  in  1565.  In  conjunc- 
tion with  Bucer  and  Bogerman,  he  translated  the  Old 
Testament  into  Dutch.    Died  in  1640. 

Bauddha  or  Baudha,  bow'd'ha,  worshipper  of 
Booddha,  which  see. 

Baude,  bod,  (Henri,)  a  French  poei  and  satirist,  born 
at  Moulins  about  1430 ;  died  about  1495, 

See  V.  DE  Viriville,  "  Nouvelles Recherches sur  H.  Baude,"  1853 

Bandeau,  b5'do',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  writer  on 
political  economy,  born  at  Amboise  in  1730,  He  was  a 
contributor,  conjointly  with  Mirabeau,  to  the  journal 
entitled  "  Ephemerides  of  the  Citizen  ;"  and  published, 
among  other  works,  an  "  Exposition  of  the  Natural  Law," 
Died  about  1792. 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Baudelaire,  bod'liiR',  (Charles,)  a  French  poet,  born 
in  India  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century.  He 
wrote,  among  other  things,  "  Les  Fleurs  du  Mai,"  ("  The 
Flowers  of  Evil,")  and  made  translations  of  the  works 
of  Edgar  A.  Poe,  His  productions  exhibit  a  mind  of 
uncommon  force,  but  intensely  morbid.    Died  in  1867, 

See  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  February,  1S69. 

Baudelocque,  bod'lok',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  celebrated 
French  surgeon,  born  at  Heilly,  in  Picardy,  in  1746,  He 
studied  under  Solayres,  arid  became  chief  surgeon  and 
accoucheur  of  the  hospital  de  la  Maternite.  He  was  also 
ap])ointed  by  Napoleon  first  accoucheur  to  the  empress 
Marie  Louise.  Among  his  writings,  which  are  esteemed 
standard  works,  we  may  name  his  "Art  des  Accouche- 
ments,"  (2  vols.,  1781.)    Died  in  1810. 

See  Le  Bas,  " Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Baudelot  de  Dairval,  bod'lo'  deh  daR'vtK, 
(Charles  Cesar,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in 
1648,  was  the  author  of  a  popular  work  "  On  the  Utility  of 
Travels,"  etc.  He  becarne  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions  in  1705.    Died  in  1772. 

See  NiCERON,  "Meinoires." 

Baudens,  b5'd5N',  (Jean  Baptiste  Louis,)  a  French 
surgeon,  born  at  Aire  in  1804,  was  the  author  of  a  "  New 
Method  of  Amputations,"  and  other  surgical  works. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  K,  gjittural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (S:^=See  Explanations,  p,  23,) 


BAVDER  290 


Bauder,  bowlder,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  born  at 
Hersbruck  in  1713,  wrote  on  Fossils,  etc.   Died  in  1791. 

Bauderon,  bod'r^N',  (Brice,)  a  French  physician, 
born  about  1540,  was  the  author  of  a  "  Pharmacopoiia," 
which  passed  through  many  editions.    Died  in  1623. 

Baudesson,  b6'cli's6N^  (Nicolas,)  a  French  flower- 
painter,  born  at  Troyes  in  1609 ;  died  in  1680. 

Baudet,  bo'da'',  (Etienne,)  a  French  engraver,  bom 
at  Blois  in  1643,  executed  a  number  of  prints  after  Pous- 
sin  and  Le  Bran.  His  "Adam  and  Eve,"  after  Domeni- 
chino,  is  regarded  as  liis  master-piece.    Died  in  17 16. 

Baudier,  (Dominicus.)    See  Baudius. 

Baudier,  b5'de-a',  (Michel,)  historiographer  of 
France,  born  in  Languedoc  about  1590.  He  published 
a  "History  of  the  War  in  Flanders  from  1559  to  1609," 
"Life  of  Cardinal  Ximenes,"  "General  History  of  the 
Religion  of  the  Turks,"  (1626,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1645. 

Baudin,  bdMiw',  a  French  priest,  afterwards  a  mode- 
rate Jacobin,  born  about  1766;  died  in  1830. 

Baudin,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  in  the 
Isle  of  Re  in  1750,  was  captain  of  a  vessel  sent  in  1800 
on  a  scientific  expedition  to  New  Holland.  He  died  in 
the  Isle  of  France  in  1803. 

Baudin  des  Ardennes,  bo'di.N'  da^zlR^in', 
(Charles,)  son  of  Pierre  Charles  Louis,  noticed  below, 
born  at  Sedan  in  1784.  He  served  with  distinction 
against  the  English  in  1808-12,  and  took  the  fortress  of 
San  Juan  de  Ulloa  from  the  Mexicans  in  1838.  He  v/as 
made  vice-admiral  and  obtained  the  grand  cordon  of  the 
legion  of  honour  in  1848.    Died  in  1854. 

Baudin  des  Ardennes,  (Pierre  Charles  Louis,) 
a  French  revolutionist  and  political  writer,  born  at  Sedan 
in  1748.  As  a  member  of  the  National  Convention,  he 
voted  for  the  imprisonment  of  the  king,  and  the  appeal 
to  the  people.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
Died  in  1799. 

Baudis.    See  Baudlssin. 

Baudissin,  bow'dis-sin'  or  bo'de'sS.N',  (Otto  Fried- 
rich  Magnus,)  a  German  general,  born  in  1792. 

Baudissin,  written  also  Bauditz  or  Baudis,  (Wolf 
Heinrich,)  Count  of,  a  distinguished  general,  of  Dan- 
ish extraction,  served  under  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  war,  from  1625  to  1633.  Died  about  1650. 

Baudissin,  (Wolf  Heinrich  Friedrich  Karl,) 
Count  of,  a  German  Utierateur,  brother  of  Otto  Fried- 
rich, noticed  above,  born  at  Rantzau  in  1789.  He  trans- 
lated into  German  "Henry  VIII.,"  "Othello,"  "Lear," 
"  Much  Ado  about  Nothing,"  and  other  dramas  of  Shak- 
speare,  which  are  accompanied  with  notes  by  Tieck. 

Bauditz.    See  Baudissin. 

Bau'di-us  or  Baudier,  bS^de-a',  (Dominicus,)  a 
Flemish  historian  and  scholar,  born  at  Lille  in  1 561. 
He  became  professor  of  history  and  eloquence  at  Ley- 
den  in  1602.  His  "  History  of  the  Twelve  Years' Truce" 
is  written  in  elegant  Latin,  and  his  Latin  poems  were 
likewise  greatly  admired.    Died  in  1613. 

See  SwEERT,  "Athense  Belgicae." 

Baudoin  or  Baudoin  de  Conde,  bo'dw^N'  deh 
koN^da',  a  French  poet,  lived  about  1220. 

Baudoin,  (Jean.)    See  Baudouin. 

Baudory,  du,  dii  bS'do're',  (Joseph,)  a  French  Jes- 
uit and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Vannes  in  17 10. 
Died  in  1749. 

Baudot,  bo'do',  (Auguste  Nicolas,)  a  French  gene- 
ral, born  at  Rennes  in  1765,  served  under  Moreau  and 
Kleber,  and  was  mortally  wounded  at  Alexandria  in  1801. 

Baudot,  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French  Jacobin,  mem- 
ber of  the  National  Convention,  voted  for  the  death  of 
the  king  within  twenty-four  hours.    Died  in  1830. 

Baudot,  (Pierre  Louis,)  a  French  antiquary,  and 
writer  on  numismatics,  born  at  Dijon  in  1760;  died  in 
1816. 

Baudot  de  Juilly,  bo'do'  deh  zhii^e'ye'  or  zhwe^ye', 
(Nicolas,)  a  French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1678. 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  England  by 
William  of  Normandy,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1759. 

Baudouin,  the  French  of  Baldwin,  which  see. 

Baudouin,  bo'dwdN',  (Benoit,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  at  Amiens  ;  died  in  1632. 

Baudouin,  [Lat.  Baldui'nus,]  (Francois,)  an  emi- 


BAUDUIN 


nent  French  jurist  and  writer,  born  at  x\rras  in  1520. 
He  was  professor  of  law  successively  at  Angers,  Paris, 
Strasburg,  and  Heidelberg,  and  was  created  a  councillor 
of  state  by  Henry  III.    Died  in  1573. 
See  NiCEKOiNT,  "Memoires." 

Baudouin,  (Gabriel,)  a  French  priest,  born  at 
Avesnes  in  16S9,  founded  a  hospital  at  Warsaw.  Died 
in  1768. 

Baudouin  or  Baudoin,  bo'dw^N',  (Jean,)  born  at 
Pradelles  about  1590,  wrote  translations  of  the  Latin 
classics.    Died  in  1650. 

Baudouin,  (Pierre  Antoine,)  a  French  miniature- 
painter,  borii  in  Paris  in  1723  ;  died  in  1769. 

Baudouin  d'Avesne,  bo'dwiN'  dt^'in^  a  French 
chronicler  of  the  thirteenth  century,  wrote  "  The  Genea- 
logical History  of  the  Counts  of  Hainault." 

Baudouin  de  Ninove,  (ne'nov',)  a  Flemish  monk, 
author  of  a  chronicle  from  the  birth  of  Christ  till  1294. 

Baudouin  (bo'dwiN^)  of  Paderborn,  a  priest,  lived 
about  1420,  and  wrote  a  "  Universal  History." 

Baudoux  or  Beaudoux,  bo'doo',  (Robert,)  a  Flem- 
ish engraver,  born  at  Brussels,  lived  about  1620. 

Baudrais,  bo^Ra',  (Jean,)  a  French  litterateitr^  born 
at  Tours  in  1749,  held  several  offices  under  the  govern- 
ment, and  was  one  of  the  witnesses  of  the  last  testament 
of  Louis  XVI.  He  passed  thirteen  years  as  an  exile  in 
the  United  States,  (1804^17.)  His  works  are  chiefly  ro- 
mances, tales,  and  dramas.    Died  in  1832. 

Baudrgjii  or  Baudrand,  bo'dRON'',  (Michel  An- 
toine,) a  French  geographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1633.  He 
wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  Geographical  and  Historical  Diction- 
ary," (2  vols.,)  which  was  translated  into  French.  Died 
in  1700. 

Baudrand,  bo'dRSN',  (Marie  Etienne  FRANgois 
Henri,)  Count,  a  French  general,  born  at  Besan9on  in 
1774,  served  under  Napoleon,  and  in  1830  became  lieuten- 
ant-general. He  was  created  a  peer  in  1832,  and  appointed 
tutor  to  the  Count  of  Paris  in  1838.    Died  in  1848. 

Baudrexel,  bow-dRSk'sel,  (Philipp  Jakob,)  a  Ger- 
man musical  composer,  born  in  Suabia  about  1635  ;  died 
about  1700. 

Baudricourt,  de,  deh  bo'dRe^kooR^,  (Jean,)  a  French 
marshal,  born  at  Blois,  served  successively  under  Charles 
the  Bold,  Louis  XL,  and  Charles  VIII.    Died  in  1499. 

Baudrigeen.    See  Baudringheen. 

Baudrillart,  bo'dRe^ylR^,  (Henri,)  a  French  econo- 
mist, born  in  Paris  in  182 1.  He  gained  the  prize  of  the 
French  Academy  for  his  "Eloge  de  Turgot,"  (1846,)  and 
his  "Eloge  de  Madame  de  Stael,"  (1850.)  He  also  wrote 
several  works  on  political  economy. 

Baudrillart,  (Jacques  Joseph.)  a  French  agricultu- 
rist, born  at  Givron,  in  Ardennes,  in  1774,  published  a 
"  Dictionary  of  Arboriculture  and  the  Management  of 
Forests,"  (1821,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1832. 

See  "Notice  biographique  sur  M.  Jacques  Joseph  Baudrillart," 
by  Baron  de  Silvestre. 

Baudrimont,  bo'dRe^'m^N',  (Alexandre  £douard,) 
born  at  Compiegne  in  1806,  was  a  professor  of  chemistry 
at  Bordeaux,  and  wrote  "  On  General  and  Experimental 
Chemistry,"  and  other  works. 

Baudringheen,  bow^dRing-Han',  or  Baudrigeen, 
bowMRe-Han',  a  Dutch  painter,  lived  at  Amsterdam  about 
1640. 

Baudron,  bS^RoN',  (Antoine  Laurent,)  a  French 
musician,  born  at  Amiens  in  1743  ;  died  in  1834. 

Eaudry  d'Asson,  bo^Re'  dt's6N^  (Antoine,)  a 
French  Jansenist,  born  in  Poitou,  was  a  friend  of  the 
celebrated  Arnauld.  He  published  various  religious  and 
controversial  works.    Died  in  1668. 

Baudry  d'Asson,  (Gabriel,)  a  royalist  ofificer,  born 
in  Poitou,  in  France,  in  1755,  took  an  active  part  in  the 
defence  of  La  Vendee,  and  was  killed  at  Mans  in  1793. 

Baudry  des  Lozieres,  bo^dRe'  di  lo'ze-aiR'',  (Louis 
Narcisse,)  a  French  traveller,  born  in  Paris  in  1761,  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  a  "  Voyage  to  Louisiana  and 
South  America,"  (1802.)    Died  in  1841. 

Bauduer,  bd'dli'i',  (Gilles  Arnaud,)  a  French 
scholar  and  theologian,  born  near  Auch  in  1744;  died 
in  1787. 

Bauduin,  b6'dw5,N',  (Dominique,)  a  Flemish  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Liege  in  1742,  was  professor  of  history  at 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  p\oon; 


BAUDUINS 


291 


BAULDRI 


Maestricht.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  defence 
of  the  Christian  religion.    Died  in  1809. 

Bauduins,  bo^dwax',  (Adrian  Francis,)  a  Flemish 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Uixmude  in  1640,  executed 
several  prints  after  Van  der  Meulen,  who  was  his  brother- 
in-law.    Died  in  1700. 

Baudus,  bo'diiss',  (Jean  Louis  Amable,)  a  French 
journalist,  born  at  Cahors  in  1761,  removed  to  Ham- 
burg in  1791,  and  became  editor  of  the  "Spectateur  du 
Nord."    Died  in  1822. 

Bauer.    See  Baur. 

Bauer,  bow'er,  a  German  jurist  and  legal  writer,  born 
at  Leipsic  in  1695  ;  died  in  1763. 

Bauer,  (Anton,)  a  German  jurist,  and  professor  of  law 
at  Gottingen,  born  at  Marburg  in  1 772.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "  Manual  of  Natiual  Law,"  (1808,)  "Introduction  to 
the  Practice  of  Criminal  Law,"  (1837,)  and  other  works. 
Died  at  Gottingen  in  1843. 

Bauer,  (Aurel  Reinhard  Eduin,)  a  German  theo- 
logian, and  preacher  of  th-^  German  Catholic  congrega- 
tion at  Dresden,  born  near  Grossenhain  in  1S16.  He 
wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Founda- 
tion and  Development  of  the  German  Catholic  Church," 
(1846,)  and  a  treatise  "  On  Primitive  Christianity."  In 
1849  he  embraced  Protestantism. 

Bauer,  (Bruno,)  a  German  rationalistic  theologian, 
distinguished  for  the  boldness  or  recklessness  of  his 
biblical  criticisms,  was  born  at  Eisenberg  in  1809.  In 
1838  he  published  a  "Critical  Exposition  of  the  Religion 
of  the  Old  Testament."  Among  his  numerous  other 
works  is  a  "  Critique  of  the  Gospels,  and  History  of  their 
Origin,"  (2  vols.,  1850.) 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Bauer,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  a  German  Protest- 
ant writer,  and  professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg,  was 
born  at  Hofgarten  in  1696  ;  died  in  1782. 

Bauer,  (Chrysostom,)  a  distinguished  German  organ- 
builder,  born  in  Wiirtemberg,  lived  about  1700. 

Bauer,  (Edgar,)  a  German  political  writer,  a  brother 
of  Bruno,  noticed  above,  born  at  Charlottenburg  in  1821. 
He  was  imprisoned  four  years  at  Magdeburg  for  a  work 
entitled  "I  he  Contest  of  Criticism  with  the  Church  and 
State,"  ("  Der  Streit  der  Kritik  mit  der  Kirche  und  Staat," 
1843-) 

Bauer,  (Ferdinand,)  a  German  painter  of  objects  of 
natural  history,  born  at  Feldsperg  in  1744.  He  accom- 
panied Dr.  Sibthorp  to  Greece  in  1784,  and  furnished 
the  exquisite  designs  for  the  "Flora  Grceca,"  published 
after  the  death  of  Sibthorp.  He  subsequently  joined 
Captain  Flinders's  expedition  to  Australia,  and  published, 
after  his  return,  "Illustrations  of  the  Flora  of  New  Hol- 
land," (1813,)  one  of  the  most  superb  works  of  the  kind. 
Died  in  1826. 

Bauer,  (Georg  Lorenz,)  a  German  rationalistic 
theologian,  born  at  Hiltboltstein  in  1755.  studied 
at  Altdorf,  where  in  1789  he  became  professor  of  elo- 
quence, Oriental  languages,  and  moral  philosophy,  and 
in  1805  obtained  the  chair  of  Oriental  literature  and  ex- 
egesis at  Heidelberg.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  "  Hermeneutica  Sacra  Veteris  Testamenti,"  (1797,) 
"Biblical  Theology  of  the  New  Testament,"  (4  vols., 
1800-2,)  and  "  Hebrew  Mythology  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,"  (1802-3.)  He  also  translated  from  the  Arabic 
into  German  the  History  of  Abool-Faraj.    Died  in  1806. 

See  Meusel,  "Gelehites  Deutschland." 

Bauer,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German  jurist  and 
legal  writer,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1695  >  died  in  1763. 

Bauer,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  German  bookseller,  born 
at  Strasburg  in  1706,  began  the  publication  of  the  "Uni- 
versal Library  of  Rare  Books,"  ("  Bibhotheca  Librorum 
rariorum  universalis.")    Died  in  1772. 

Bauer,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  a  German  philologist,  born 
at  Leipsic  in  1730.  He  published  a  "German-Latin 
Dictionary,"  and  other  educational  works.  Died  in  1799. 

See  J.  D.  Daniel,  "  C.  L.  Bauer,  biographisches  Denkmal,"  1806. 

Bauerle,  bow'eR-leh,  (Adolf,)  a  German  dramatist, 
born  at  Vienna  in  1784,  wrote  "  The  False  Prima  Donna," 
"  The  Friend  in  Need,"  and  other  popular  comedies. 

Bauernfeld,  bow'^Rn-ffilt",  (Eduard,)  a  German  dra- 
matic writer,  born  at  Vienna  in  1804,  was  the  author  of 
"The  Confession,"  and  several  other  successful  comedies. 


Bauffremont,  de,  deh  bofR^miN',  (Alexandre  Ema- 
nuel,) Prince,  born  in  Paris  in  1773.  He  fought  against 
the  French  Republic  in  1793-94.    Died  in  1833. 

Bauffremont,  de,  (Alfcjnse,)  Due,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
I  ceding,  created  a  count  by  Napoleon,  served  with  dis- 
j  tinction  at  the  battles  of  Moskwa  and  Dresden,  1813. 

Bauffremont  or  Beauffremont,  de,  deh  bofR''m6N', 
(Claude,)  Baron  of  Senescey,  son  of  Nicolas,  noticed 
below,  was  a  zealous  partisan  of  the  Duke  of  Guise  in 
the  war  of  the  League.  He  wrote  several  political  works. 
Died  in  1596. 

His  son  Claude  Charles  Roger  was  created  Bishop 
of  Troyes  in  1562. 

Bauffremont,  de,  (Henri,)  son  of  Claude,  noticed 
above,  held  several  offices  under  the  government.  Died 
in  1622. 

Bauffremont,  de,  (Nicolas,)  Baron  of  Senescey,  and 
governor  of  Auxonne,  was  a  zealous  Catholic,  and  fought 
in  the  battles  of  Jarnac  and  Moncontour.  He  was  ap- 
pointed grand  provost  of  France  under  Charles  IX.  Died 
in  1582. 

Baugier,  bo'zhe-a^  (Edme,)  a  French  writer,  born 
about  1680,  was  the  author  of  "Historical  Memoirs  of 
the  Province  of  Champagne,"  (1721.) 

Baugin,  bo^zhS.N'',  (Lubin,)  a  French  painter,  called 
LE  PETIT  Guide,  lived  in  Paris  about  1650. 

Bauhin,  ba'^N'',  (Gaspard,)  a  celebrated  anatomist 
and  naturalist,  of  French  extraction,  born  at  Bale  in  Janu- 
ary, 1560,  was  a  younger  son  of  Jean  the  elder,  noticed 
below.  He  studied  at  Padua  under  Fabricius  ab  Aqua- 
pendente  and  other  eminent  teachers,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  anatomy  and  botany  at  Bale  in  1588.  He 
was  also  made  rector  of  the  university,  and  obtained 
other  distinctions.  He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of 
valuable  medical  and  botanical  works,  among  which  we 
may  name  his  "  Pinax  Theatri  Botanici,"  (1596,)  and 
"  Prodromus  Theatri  Botanici,"  (1620.)  Plumier  named 
the  genus  Bauhinia  in  his  honour.  Died  at  Bale  in  1624. 
"Gaspard  Bauhin,"  says  Dr.  Hoefer,  "was  not  a  mere 
compiler.  He  had  the  merit  and  glory  of  a  legislator; 
his  name  for  a  long  time  was  received  as  an  authorit}^, 
and  even  at  the  present  day  it  is  sometimes  associated 
with  those  of  Tournefort  and  Linnaeus." 

See  "Nouvelle  Blographie  Generale;"  Nicekon,  "  Memoiies ;" 
Haller,  "Blbliotheca  Botanica." 

Bauhin,  (Jean,)  born  at  Amiens  in  1511,  was  first 
physician  to  Margaret,  sister  of  Francis  I.  Having  be- 
come a  Protestant,  he  removed  to  Bale,  in  Switzerland, 
where  he  was  made  dean  of  the  College  of  Physicians. 
Died  in  1582. 

Bauhin,  (Jean,)  an  eminent  botanist  and  physician, 
born  at  Bale  in  1541,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
studied  botany  at  Tubingen  under  Fuchs  in  1560,  after 
which  he  accompanied  Gesner  on  a  scientific  excursion 
in  Switzerland.  He  also  travelled  and  studied  in  France, 
but  was  compelled  to  leave  the  country  on  account  of 
his  being  a  Protestant.  In  1566  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  at  Bale,  ancl  in  1570  he  became  physi- 
cian to  the  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg  at  Montbeliard,  where 
he  resided  until  his  death.  His  reputation  is  founded 
on  two  posthumous  works,  viz.:  "  Historiae  Plantarum 
generalis  nova;  et  absolutae  Prodromus,"  (1619,)  and 
"  Historia  universalis  Plantarum  nova,"  ("x\  New  Uni- 
versal History  of  Plants,"  3  vols.,  1650-51.)  Died  in  1613. 

See  Peter  Brebach,  "  Christlicher  Arzt,  Leichenpiedigt  auf  J. 
Bauhin,"  1614 ;  Sfrengel,  "Historia  Rei  Herbaria;:"  Haller, 
"  Bibliotheca  ]3otanica." 

Bauhin,  (Jean  Gaspard,)  son  of  Gaspard,  noticed 
above,  born  at  Bale  in  1606,  was  professor  of  botany  in 
his  native  city.  In  1659  he  was  appointed  physician-in- 
ordinary  to  Louis  XIV.    Died  in  1685. 

See  Sprengel,  "Historia  Rei  Herbarise;"  Zwinger,  "Oratio 
in  obituni  J.  G.  Bauhin,"  1687. 

Bauhin,  (Jerome,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1637, 
was  also  a  distinguished  physician.    Died  in  1667, 

Bauhuis,b6w''hois,  [Lat.  Bauhu'sius,]  (Bernardus,) 
a  Jesuit,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1575,  was  the  author  of  Latin 
epigrams.    Died  in  1629. 

Bauhusius.    See  Bauhuis. 

Baulacre,  bo'ltkR^  (Leonard,)  a  Swiss  litUrateicr, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1670  ;  died  in  1761. 

Bauldri  or  Bauldry,  bS'dRe',  (Paul,)  a  French 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as  j;  o,  h,  Yi, guttural;  N,  Jtasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.   (2;::^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BAULIEU  292  BAUMSTARK 


scholar,  born  at  Rouen  in  1629,  became  i)rofessoi-  of 
sacred  history  at  Utrecht,  where  he  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  celebrated  Henry  Basnage.  He  published  an 
edition  of  the  "  De  Mortibus  Persecutorum"  of  Lactan- 
tius.    Died  in  1706. 

Baulieu.    See  Baulot. 

Baulme  Saint- Amour,  de  la,  deh  It  b5m  siNt^t'- 
mooR^,  ([ean,)  a  French  scholar  and  Latin  poet,  born 
in  Franche-Comte  in  1539;  died  about  1578. 

Baulot,  b5'lo',  or  Baulieu,  bo'le-uh',  (Jacques,)  a 
r  rench  surgeon,  celebrated  for  his  skill  in  lithotomy, 
born  near  Lons-le-Saulnier  in  165 1  ;  died  in  1720. 

Baumann,  bovv'min,  (Christian  Jakob,)  a  Germ.an 
Protestant  and  theological  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1725. 

Baumann,  (Nicholas,)  professor  of  history  at  Ros- 
tock, to  whom  some  writers  attribute  the  authorship  of 
"  Reineke  Fuchs,"  was  born  about  1450  ;  died  in  1526. 

Baimibach,  bowm'baK,  (Friedrich  August,)  a  Ger- 
man composer  and  writer  on  music,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1 753.  He  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Dictionary  of  the 
Fine  Arts"  published  in  1794.    Died  in  1813. 

Baumbacli,  (Johann  Balthasar,)  a  German  Orien- 
talist, was  professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  at  Heidelberg. 
Died  in  1622, 

Baumchen,  boim'Ken,  a  German  sculptor,  born  at 
Dusseldorf,  worked  in  Russia.    Died  in  1789. 

Baume,  bo'ma',  (Antoine,)  a  celebrated  French 
chemist,  born  at  Senlis  in  1728.  His  early  instruction 
was  very  defective,  but  he  acquired  by  his  own  exertions 
so  thorough  a  knowledge  of  chemistry  that  he  was  ap- 
pointed about  1752  professor  in  the  College  of  Pharmacy 
in  Paris.  He  founded  a  manufactory  of  sal-ammoniac, 
hitherto  imported  from  Egypt,  perfected  the  scarlet  dye 
of  the  Gobelin  tapestry,  improved  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain,  and  invented  a  method  of  dyeing  cloth  of  two 
colours.  He  was  also  the  inventor  of  the  areometer 
called  by  his  name,  and  made  several  other  important 
inventions  and  discoveries.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1773.  Among  his  most  valua- 
ble works  are  his  "  Elements  of  Pharmacy,  Theoretical 
and  Practical,"  (1762,  8vo,)  "Plan  of  a  Course  of  Ex- 
perimental and  Rational  Chemistry,"  (1757,)  and  "Man- 
ual of  Chemistry,"  (1763.)    Died  in  1804. 

See  Cadkt  dk  Gassicourt,  "Eloge  de  Baume,"  1806;  "Bio- 
graphic Medicale;"  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Baume,  de  la,  deh  li  bom,  (Nicolas  Auguste,) 
Marc^uis  of  Montrevel,  born  in  1645,  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  bravery  at  the  siege  of  Lille  and  at  the  battles 
of  Namur,  Luxemburg,  and  Cassel,  and  was  made  a  mar- 
shal in  1703.  While  dining  with  the  Duke  of  Biron,  he 
accidentally  overturned  a  salt-cellar,  when  he  exclaimed, 
"  I  am  a  dead  man  !"  and  died  a  few  days  after,  the  vic- 
tim of  his  superstitious  fears,  (1716.) 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires." 

Baume  des  Dossat,  de  la,  deh  It  b5m  da  do'st', 
(Jacques  Franqois,)  a  French  litterateu)',  born  at  Car- 
pentras  in  1705  ;  died  in  1756. 

Baume  Montrevel,  de  la,  deh  It  b5m  moNtR^vgK, 
(Claude,)  Archbishop  of  Besangon,  in  France,  born  in 
1531  ;  died  in  1584. 

Baume  Saint-Amour,  de  la,  deh  It  bom  s4nt^- 
t'mooF/,  (Philippe,)  a  governor  of  Franche-Comte, 
which  was  conquered  from  Spain  by  Louis  XIV.  of 
France  in  1668.    Died  about  1670. 

Baumeister,  bow'mi^ster,  (Friedrich  Christian,) 
a  German  philosophical  writer,  born  in  Saxe-Gotha  in 
1 709,  studied  at  Jena  under  the  celebrated  Wolf,  of 
whose  system  he  was  an  advocate.    Died  in  1785. 

See  Briegleb,  "  Epistola  de  Vita,  Morlbus,  etc.  Fr.  C.  Baumeis- 
feri,"  1766. 

Baumeister,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  German,  born 
at  Gmiind  in  1804,  was  appointed  in  1839  professor  in 
the  veterinary  school  at  Stuttgart.  He  wrote  several 
treatises  on  the  diseases  and  management  of  animals. 
Di<tid  in  1846. 

Baumer,  bow'mer,  written  also  Baumer,  (Georg,)  a 
German  sculptor,  born  in  Bavaria  about  1763.  Among 
his  works  are  a  bas-relief  representing  a  descent  from 
the  cross,  and  a  bust  of  Napoleon.    Died  about  1830. 

Baumer,  (Johann  Paul,)  a  German  physician,  born 
about  1725,  lived  at  Erfurt ;  died  in  1771. 


Baumer,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  German  naturalist, 
and  professor  of  medicine  at  Giessen,  born  at  Rehweiler, 
in  Franconia,  in  1719.  He  published  "The  Natural 
History  of  the  Mineral  Kingdom,"  (1780,)  and  other 
scientific  treatises.    Died  in  1788. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Baumes,  bom,  (Jean  Baptiste  Timothee,)  a  French 
physician  and  medical  writer,  professor  in  the  medical 
school  of  Montpellier,  was  born  at  Lunel  in  1777;  died 
in  1828. 

Baumgaertner.    See  Baumgartner. 

Baumgarten,  bowm'gaR''ten,  (Alexander  Gott- 
lieb,) a  celebrated  German  philosopher  and  disciple  of 
Wolf,  born  at  Berlin  in  17 14,  became  in  1740  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  He  is  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  the  science  or  philosophy  of  the  Beau- 
tiful, to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  "/Esthetics."  Among 
his  principal  works  are  his  "  Elements  of  Belles-Lettres," 
(3  vols.,  1748,)  "  Metaphysica,"  "Ethica  Philosophia," 
and  "  ^^!sthetica,"  (2  vols.,  1750,  unfinished.)  Died  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder  in  1762. 

See  Meyer,  "  Leben  Alexander  G.  Baumgartens,"  1763;  Semler, 
"  Ehrengedachtniss,"  1758;  "  Biographie  Univeiselle." 

Baumgarten,  (Johann  Christian  Gottlor,)  a  Ger- 
man botanist,  born  at  Lucknau,  in  Lusatia,  in  1765,  pub- 
lished the  "Flora  of  Transylvania,"  and  other  botanical 
works.    Died  about  1830. 

Baumgarten,  (Martin  A.,)  a  German  traveller,  born 
in  1473,  ■visited  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Palestine.  An  ac- 
count of  his  travels  was  published  in  Churchill's  Col- 
lection.   Died  in  1535. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "Voyage  en  Arabic." 

Baumgarten,  (Sigismund  Jakob, )  a  German  theo- 
logian, and  professor  of  theology  at  Halle,  born  at  Wol- 
mirstadt  in  1706,  was  a  brother  of  Alexander  Gottlieb, 
noticed  above.  He  was  the  author  of"  Moral  Theology," 
(1738),  "Abridgment  of  Ecclesiastical  History,"  (3  vols., 
1742,)  and  other  works.  He  also  translated  from  the 
English  the  "  Universal  History  of  the  World,"  (16  vols., 
1744,)  which  was  continued  after  his  death  by  his  friend 
Semler.    Died  in  1757. 

See  Semler,  "  Progranimain  Memoriam  S.  J.  Baumgarten,"  1757. 

Baumgarten-Crusius,  bowm'gaR^ten  kRoo'ze-us, 
(Detlev  Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at 
Dresden  in  1786.  He  published  editions  of  Plutarch's 
"Agesilaus,"  of  Xenophon,  Suetonius,  and  other  classics, 
and  was  the  author  of  moral  and  educational  treatises. 
He  lived  at  Meissen,  where  he  died  in  1845. 

See  A.  Baumgarten-Crusius,  "Leben  des  Rectors  D.  C.  W. 
Baumgarten-Crusius,"  1853. 

Baumgarten-Crusius,  (Ludwig  Friedrich  Otto,) 
a  learned  German  theologian,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Merseburg  in  1788.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  a  "Manual  of  the  History  of  Dogmas,"  (1831,) 
"Compendium  of  the  History  of  Dogmas,"  (1840,)  and 
"Observations  on  soine  Waitings  of  Lamennais."  He 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Jena  from  181 7  until  his 
death  in  1843. 

Baumgartner,  bowm'gaRt'ner,  (G.  J.,)  a  Swiss  jurist 
and  politician,  born  at  Saint  Gall  in  1797. 

Baumgartner  or  Baumgaertner,  bowm'giRt'ner, 
(Johann,)  a  German  sculptor,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1744 ; 
died  in  1792. 

Baumgartner  or  Baumgaertner,  (Johann  Bap- 
tist,) a  German  musician  and  writer  on  music,  born  at 
Augsburg  about  1725;  died  in  1782. 

Baumgartner,  (Johann  Wolfgang,)  a  Tyrolese  art- 
ist and  skilful  glass-painter,  boi'n  about  1710. 

Baumgartner,  von,  fon  bowm'gaRt'ner,  (Andreas,) 
a  German  savant  and  minister  of  trade  and  public  works, 
born  at  Friedberg,  in  Bohemia,  in  1793.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  physics  at  Vienna  in  1823.  He  wrote,  among 
other  works,  "  Mechanics  in  their  Application  to  the 
Arts  and  Industry."  In  1851  he  was  elected  presiden-t 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Vienna. 

Baumhauer,  bowm'how'er,  a  German  sculptor,  lived 
about  1620. 

Baumstark,  bowm'staRk,  (/Vnton,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  in  1800.  He  published  editions  of  Cassar, 
Quintus  Curtius,  and  other  classics,  made  a  German 


a.  c,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lofig;  i,  hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \x,  y,  sJiort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BAUMSTJRK 


293 


translation  of  Caesar,  and  wrote  a  "Commentary  on  the 
Poetry  of  Horace." 

Baumstark,  (Eduard,)  a  German  writer,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  near  Baden  in  1807.  He  became 
in  1839  professor  of  financial  science  and  political  econ- 
omy at  Greifswalde,  and  translated  into  German  Ricardo's 
"  Principles  of  Political  Economy." 

Baune,  de  la,  deh  It  bon,  (Jacques,)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  Latin  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1649;  died  in  1726. 

Bauny,  bS'ne',  (Etienne,)  a  French  Jesuit,  noted  for 
his  works  on  casuistry,  born  at  Mouzon  in  1564;  died  in 
1649. 

Baur,  bowR,  (Ferdinand  Christian,)  a  German 
critic  and  Protestant  theologian  of  much  influence,  born 
at  Schneiden  in  June,  1792,  is  called  the  founder  of  the 
Tiibingen  school  of  theology.  About  1826  he  became 
professor  of  theology  at  Tiibingen.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  the 
Atonement,"  (1838,)  and  "The  Christian  Dogma  of  the 
Trinity  and  Incarnation,"  (1843.)    Died  in  1861. 

Baur,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German  general, 
born  at  Bieber,  in  Hanau,  in  1735.  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  Frederick  the  Great  in  the  Seven  Years'  war, 
and  was  subsequently  invited  to  Russia  by  Catherine  H., 
who  made  him  engineer-general  and  conferred  on  him 
other  distinctions.  He  wrote,  in  French,  "  Geographical 
and  Historical  Memoirs  of  Wallachia."    Died  in  1783. 

See  Strieder,  "  Hessische  Gelehrten-Geschichte." 

Baur,  Bawer,  or  Bauer,  bowser,  (Johann  Wil- 
helm,) a  German  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Stras- 
burg  about  1600,  was  a  pupil  of  Brendel.  Among  his 
best  works  are  prints  from  his  own  designs  of  the  "Meta- 
morphoses" of  Ovid.    Died  in  1640. 

See  Le  Blanc,  "Manuel  de  TAmateur  d'Estampes." 

Baur,  bowR,  (Nicolaas,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  marine 
views  and  landscapes,  born  at  Harlingen  in  1767.  His 
"  Bombardment  of  Algiers"  is  regarded  as  his  master- 
piece.   Died  in  1820. 

See  Nagi.er,  "  Neues  Allgenieines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Baur,  (Samuel,)  a  German  scholar  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  at  Ulm  in  1768,  was  a  contributor  to  Ersch 
and  Gruber's  "  Encyklopaedie."    Died  in  1832. 

Baureiifeind,  bow'ren-fint^,  written  also  Bauern- 
feind,  (Georg  Wilhelm,)  a  German  artist,  born  at 
Nuremberg,  executed  several  of  the  designs  for  Nie- 
buhr's  "Travels  in  Arabia."    Died  in  1763. 

Bauria,  bow're-a,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  theologian  of 
Ferrara,  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  Defence  of  the  Apostolic 
I'ower  against  Martin  Luther,"  (1521.) 

Bausa,  bow's^,  (Gregorio,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
in  1596,  lived  at  Valencia;  died  in  1656. 

Bausan,  bo'zSN',  (Jean,)  a  naval  officer,  born  at 
Gaeta  in  1757.  He  fought  for  the  French,  under  Mas- 
sena,  at  Gaeta,  in  1806,  and  gained  a  victory  over  the 
English  and  Sicilians  in  1808.    Died  in  1821. 

Bausch,  bowsh,  (Johann  Lorenz,)  a  German  physi- 
cian, born  at  Schweinfurt  in  1605,  was  the  founder  and 
the  first  president  of  the  Academy  of  the  Curious  in 
Nature,  (1652.)    Died  in  1665. 

Bause,  bow'zeh,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  an  eminent 
German  engraver,  born  at  Halle  in  1738,  was  an  intimate 
friend  and  pupil  of  Wille,  whom  he  took  for  his  model. 
Bause  was  appointed  professor  of  engraving  in  the 
Academy  of  Arts  at  Leipsic.  He  executed  numerous 
portraits  of  the  celebrated  writers  of  his  time.  Died  in 
1 8 14.  His  daughter  Juliana  Wilhelmine  was  also  a 
skilful  engraver. 

See  Le  Blanc,  "Manuel  de  I'Amateur  d'Estampes;"  Nagler, 
"  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Bause,  (Theo:>or,)  a  German  jurist  and  antiquary, 
born  in  Saxony  in  1752,  became  professor  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Moscow,  and  corresponding  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Saint  Petersburg.    Died  in  1812. 

Bausner,  bows'ner,  (Bartholomew,)  a  physician  and 
writer,  born  in  Transylvania  about  1629;  died  in  1682. 

Bausset,  de,  deh  bo^s^,  (Louis  Franqois,)  a  distin- 
guished cardinal  and  writer,  born  at  Pondicherry  in  1748, 
came  at  an  early  age  to  France,  where  he  rose  through 
various  promotions  to  be  Bishop  of  Alais  in  1784.  In 
1 791  he  signed  the  protest  of  the  French  bishops  against 
the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy.    He  entered  the 


Chamber  of  Peers  after  the  second  restoration,  and  i:? 
181 7  was  made  a  cardinal,  having  previously  been  elected 
to  the  French  Academy.  His  "  History  of  Fenelon" 
(3  vols.)  came  out  in  1808,  and  met  with  the  most  favour- 
able reception;  it  was  followed  in  1814  by  the  "History 
of  Bossuet,"  which  was  less  successful.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  several  miscellaneous  treatises.    Died  in  1824. 

See  M.  de  Villeneuve,  "  Notice  historique  sur  le  Cardinal  de 
Bausset,"  1824;  De  Quelen,  "Discours  sur  I3ausset,"  1829. 

Bausset-Roquefort,  bo'sa'  rokToR',  (Pierre  Fran- 
gois  Gabriel  Raymond  Ignace  Ferdinand,)  Count 
OF,  cousin  of  Louis  Fran9ois,  noticed  above,  born  at  Be- 
ziers  in  1757,  became  Archbishop  of  Aix.    Died  in  1829. 

Bautain,  bo'tiN',  (Louis,)  a  French  theologian  and 
philosophical  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1796.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1838  dean  of  the  literary  faculty  at  Strasburg, 
and  in  1849  director  of  the  college  of  Juilly.  He  was 
the  author  of  "The  Philosophy  of  Christianity,"  (1835,) 
and  other  similar  works. 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire,"  (Supplement.) 

Bauter,  bo^ta',  (Charles,)  a  French  dramatic  poet, 
born  in  Paris  about  1580;  died  about  1630. 

Bautru,  bo'tRii'',  (Guillaume,)  Count  of  Serrant,  a 
French  nobleman,  diplomatist,  and  celebrated  wit,  born 
at  Angers  in  1588,  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the 
French  Academy.    Died  in  1665. 

Bauvin,  b6^'a.N',  (Jean  Gregoire,)  a  French  littera- 
teur' and  lawyer,  born  at  Arras  in  17 14,  was  professor  at 
the  military  school  in  his  native  city.    Died  in  1776. 

Baux,  bo,  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Nimes  in  1679,  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Plague."    Died  in  1732. 

Bauza,  bow'thS,  (Don  Felipe,)  a  Spanish  geographer, 
born  about  1750,  became  director  of  the  hydrographic 
depot  at  Madrid.  He  published  some  excellent  maps  of 
South  America.    Died  in  1833. 

Bava,  kVvi,  (Gaetano  Emanuele,)  Count  of  San 
Paolo,  a  Ptedmontese  savant,  born  at  Fossano  in  1737, 
published  a  "  Historical  Survey  of  the  Changes  and  Pro- 
gress of  Sciences,  Arts,  etc.  from  the  Eleventh  to  the 
Eighteenth  Century."    Died  in  1829. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Bava,  (Giovanni  B.\ttista,)  a  general,  born  at  Ver- 
celli,  in  Piedmont,  in  1790,  served  with  distinction  in  the 
French  armies  and  in  the  war  of  Italian  independence. 

Bavay,  de,  deh  bt'va',  (Paul  Ignatius,)  a  Flemish 
physician  and  chemist,  born  at  Brussels  in  1704,  was 
professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery  and  head-physician  of 
the  military  hospitals  in  that  city.    Died  in  1768. 

Baverel,  bSv'ReK,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  ecclesi- 
astic and  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1744;  died  in  1822. 

Baverini,  bd-vi-ree'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  mu- 
sician, born  about  1420,  is  said  to  have  composed  the 
music  for  "  The  Conversion  of  Saint  Paul,"  ("  San  Paolo,") 
the  first  opera  ever  represented. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Bavia,  de,  di  bi-vee'i,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  historian, 
born  at  Madrid,  wrote  a  continuation  of  Illesca's  "  His- 
tory of  the  Popes."    Died  in  1628. 

Baviera,  bi-ve-a'rl,  (Marcantonio,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  lived  about  1490,  was  professor  of  civil  law  at  Pisa 
and  Padua. 

Baville,  bt'v^K,  (Arnaud,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Fronton  in  1757,  died  of  a  wound  received  at  Liegniti. 
in  1813. 

Bavisano,  ba-ve-si'no,  (Francesco  Domenico,)  bort 
at  Alba,  in  Montferrat,  was  appointed  in  1570  physician 
to  the  Duke  of  Savoy. 

Ba'vi-us,  a  Latin  poet  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  who, 
with  his  friend  Maevius,  is  known  only  from  his  envious 
and  malicious  attacks  on  Horace  and  Virgil.  He  is  sati- 
rized by  the  latter  in  his  "  Bucolics." 

Bavo,  bi'vo,  or  Baf,  bif,  [Fr.  Bavon,  bt  'von',  J 
Saint,  sometimes  called  AUowin,  born  in  Brabant 
about  589,  was  the  patron  of  the  city  of  Ghent.  Died 
about  653. 

See  Jean  de  Thielrode,  "Chronique  de  Saint-Bavon  i  Gand," 
1798. 

Bavo,  di,  de  bi'vo,  (Gottofredo,)  president  of  the 
council  of  Charles  Emmanuel,  Duke  of  Savoy,  wrote  a 
valuable  work  "On  Criminal  Law,"  (1607.) 


€  as     5  as  s;  g|  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  ml, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BAVON 


BATARD 


Bavon,  the  French  of  Bavo,  whicli  see. 

Bavoux,  bi'voo',  (fivARiSTE,)  son  of  Francois  Nico- 
las, noticed  below,  was  a  deputy  in  1852  to  the  legislative 
body.  He  was  the  author  of  "Political  Philosophy," 
(1840,)  and  other  works. 

Bavoux,  (FRANgois  Nicolas,)  a  French  jurist  and 
legal  writer,  born  at  Saint-Claude  in  1774,  was  elected  to 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  about  1830  became  coun- 
sellor in  the  court  of  accounts.    Died  in  1848. 

Bawd'wen,  (William,)  an  English  divine,  who  pub- 
lished in  1809-12  two  volumes  of  a  translation  of  the 
"  Domesday-13ook."  He  died  soon  after,  leaving  the 
work  unfinished. 

Bawr.    See  Baur. 

Bawr,  bowR,  (Alexandrine  Sophie  Goury  de 
Champgrand — goo^re'  deh  shdN^RON',)  Baroness,  a 
novelist  and  dramatic  w'riter,  of  French  extraction,  born 
at  Stuttgart  in  1776.  She  was  first  married  to  the  cele- 
brated Count  de  Saint-Simon,  who,  not  long  after,  re- 
quested a  divorce  on  the  grounds  that  it  was  not  fit  that 
he,  being  the  first  man  in  the  world,  should  have  any 
other  than  the  first  woman  for  his  wife.  She  was  subse- 
quently married  to  the  Baron  de  Bawr,  who  died  soon 
afterwards.  Madame  de  Bawr  published  a  number  of 
popular  works,  among  which  we  may  name  the  comedy  of 
"  Money  and  Address,"  and  "  Raoul  ou  I'Eneide,"  a  novel. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire,"  (Supplement.) 

Bax'i-us,  (NiCAisius,)  a  Flemish  scholar  and  Latin 
poet,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1595. 

Bax'ter,  (Andrew,)  an  eminent  Scottish  philosopher 
and  metaphysician,  born  at  Aberdeen  about  1686.  His 
j)rincipal  work  is  entitled  "  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  of 
the  Human  Soul,"  {1737  ;)  it  is  commended  by  Dugald 
Stewart  and  Bishop  Warburton,  who  observes  of  the 
book  that  it  is  "one  of  the  most  finished  of  the  kind 
that  the  present  times,  greatly  advanced  in  true  philoso- 
phy, have  produced."    Died  in  1750. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Bax^ter,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  English  noncon- 
formist divine,  born  at  Rowdon,  in  Shropshire,  on  the 
I2th  of  November,  1615.  He  was  a  man  of  great  learn- 
ing, though  not  educated  at  any  college.  He  was  or- 
dained in  1638,  was  chosen  vicar  of  Kidderminster  in 
1640,  and  soon  became  distinguished  as  an  eloquent 
preacher.  In  the  civil  war  he  was  disposed  to  be  neu- 
tral, and  to  mediate  between  the  hostile  parties.  About 
1645  he  accepted  the  place  of  chaplain  to  a  regiment  of 
Cromwell's  army;  but  he  afterwards  showed  himself 
hostile  to  the  government  of  the  Protector.  He  pub- 
lished in  1650  "The  Saint's  Everlasting  Rest,"  a  work 
which  is  generally  and  justly  admired.  At  the  restora- 
tion (1660)  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  chaplains  of 
Charles  II.;  but  he  was  separated  from  the  Anglican 
Church  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity  in  1662,  after  he  had  re- 
fused a  bishopric.  He  subsequently  preached  at  Acton, 
and  after  the  Act  of  Indulgence  in  1672  he  removecl 
to  London,  where  he  lectured  in  Pinners'  Hall.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  "  Methodus  Theologiae,"  (1674,) 
"Ci^holic  Theology,"  and  a  "Call  to  the  Unconverted," 
(1669,)  of  which  about  twenty  thousand  copies  were  sold 
in  one  year.  In  1685  Baxter  was  tried  before  the  noto- 
rious Jeffries  on  a  charge  of  sedition,  founded  on  a  pas- 
sa':;e  in  one  of  his  works.  He  was  fined  five  hundred 
marks,  for  the  non-payment  of  which  he  was  imprisoned 
about  eighteen  months.  Died  in  December,  169.1.  In 
his  character,  zeal  and  moderation  were  happily  united. 
He  was  the  founder  of  a  new  school  of  theology,  which 
Dears  his  name.  "  He  discovers  a  manly  eloquence," 
says  Doddridge,  "and  the  most  evident  proofs  of  an 
amazing  genius,  with  respect  to  which  he  may  not  im- 
pro])erly  be  called  the  English  Dernosthenes.''''  "Pray 
read  with  g/eat  attention,"  says  Coleridge,  "Baxter's 
Life  of  himstlf;  it  is  an  inestimable  work.  There  is  no 
substitute  foi  it  in  a  course  of  study  for  a  clergyman  or 
public  man." 

See  his  own Narrative  of  tlie  most  memorable  Passages  of  his 
Life  and  Times,"  1696;  E.  Cai.amy,  "Life  of  Baxter,"  1713;  Rev. 
.William  Orme,  "Life  and  Times  of  R.  Baxter,"  prefixed  to  an 
edition  of  Baxter's  works  in  23  vols..  1830:  August  Neandek,  "  R. 
Baxter  ein  Mann  der  Wahrhaft  rechten  ALtte,"  etc.,  Berlin,  1S33; 
Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,"  vdI.  i.  chap,  iv.,  vol.  iii.  chap, 
xi.  ;  ■'  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1839. 


Baxter,  (Thomas,)  an  English  mathematician,  pub- 
lished "  Principles  of  Astronomy  and  Natural  Philoso- 
phy," (1740.) 

Baxter,  (Thomas,)  an  English  artist,  especially  dis- 
tinguished as  a  painter  of  china,  born  in  1782.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  copies  of  the  works  of  Reynolds 
and  West.    Died  in  1821. 

Baxter,  (William,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
Shropshire  in  1650,  was  a  nephew  of  the  celebrated 
Richard  Baxter.  He  prepared  editions  of  Horace  and 
Anacreon,  and  a  Latin  Grammar,  and  wrote,  in  Latin, 
a  "Glossary  of  British  Antiquities."  Baxter's  edition 
of  Horace  formed  the  basis  of  the  one  subsequently  pub- 
lished by  Gesner.    Died  in  1723. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Baxter,  (William  Edward,)  a  British  Liberal  poli- 
tician, born  at  Dundee  in  1825.  He  was  returned  to 
Parliament  for  Montrose  in  1855.  published  "Ame- 

rica and  the  Americans,"  (1850,)  and  other  works. 

See  "Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1850. 

Bay,  de,  deh  ba,  (Alexandre,)  Marquis,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Salins  about  1650..  served  with  distinc- 
tion in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession.  He  was  ap- 
pointed viceroy  of  the  province  of  Estremadura  in  1705, 
and  created  a  knight  of  the  Golden  Fleece  in  1708. 
Died  in  1715. 

Bayam,  ba-yowN^  (Joz6  Pereira,)  a  Portuguese  his- 
torian and  ecclesiastic,  born  near  Coimbra  in  1690,  wrote 
a  history  of  Portugal  and  the  achievements  of  Don  Se- 
bastian, (1737,)  also  a  "Treatise  on  Purgatory,"  (1742.) 
Died  in  1743. 

Bayaiine.bt'ytn',  (Alphonse  Hubert  deLattier — 
deh  It'te-a'',)  a  French  cardinal,  born  at  Valence  in  1739, 
held  several  offices  under  the  empire,  and  was  made  a 
peer  by  Louis  XVIII.  He  wrote,  in  Italian,  a  valuable 
work  on  the  malaria  in  Italy.    Died  in  181 8. 

Bayard,  bt''ytR',  (Ferdinand  Marie,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Moulins-la-Marche  in  1763,  publisheti 
"Travels  in  the  Interior  of  the  United  btates  in  1791," 
and  other  v/orks.    Died  about  181 8. 

Bayard,  bi''ard,  (George  D.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  New  York  about  1836,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1856.  He  became  a  captain  of  cavalry  in  the  regular 
army  in  August,  1861,  and  a  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers in  1862.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  leader  of 
cavalry  in  several  actions  in  Virginia  under  General  Pope. 
He  was  killed  at  Fredericksburg  in  December,  1862. 

Bayard,  (James  A.,)  a  distinguished  American  states- 
man and  lawyer,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1767.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton  College  in  1784,  and  commenced 
the  practice  of  law  in  Delaware.  In  1796  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  Fede- 
ral party  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  an  orator 
and  constitutional  lawyer.  He  supported  Jefferson  for 
President  in  preference  to  Burr  when  the  duty  devolved 
on  the  House  of  Representatives  to  elect  one  of  those 
two  candidates  in  1801  ;  and  the  result  of  this  contest  is 
ascribed  chiefly  to  his  influence.  He  represented  Dela- 
ware in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  from  1804  to 
1813,  and  opposed  the  war  of  1812.  He  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  who  negotiated  the  Treaty  of  Ghent  with 
Great  Britain  in  1814,  soon  after  which  he  was  appointed 
minister  to  the  court  of  Saint  Petersburg  ;  but  he  de- 
clined that  mission,  saying  that  he  had  no  wish  to  serve 
the  administration  except  when  his  services  were  neces- 
sary. He  died  in  August,  181 5,  soon  after  his  return 
from  Europe. 

His  son  James  A.  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  for  Delaware  in  1850. 

Bayard,  (Jean  Baptiste  Francois,)  a  French  jurist 
and  legal  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1750,  was  appointed  bv 
the  Directory  a  judge  of  the  court  of  cassation  about 
1799.    Died  in  1800. 

Bayard,  (Jean  Franqois  Alfred,)  a  French  littera 
teiir,  born  at  CharoUes  in  1796,  was  the  author  of  nu- 
merous very  popular  comedies  and  vaudevilles  ;  among 
others,  of  "Christine,  or  the  Queen  of  Sixteen  Years," 
(1828,)  and  "The  Promenade  to  Vaucluse."  Died  in 
Paris  in  1853. 

Bayard,  (John,)  a  patriot  of  the  American  Revolution, 
born  in  Cecil  county,  Maryland,  in  1738.    At  the  battle 


a,  e.  T.  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  ol'srinr;  far.  fSll.  fit;  met;  n6t:  good;  moon; 


BATARD 


295 


BATLE 


of  Trenton  he  commanded  a  battalion  of  Philadelphia 
militia.  In  1785  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Con- 
gress of  the  Confederation.  Mr.  Bayard  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Whiteheld.    Died  in  1807. 

Bayard,  ba^erd,  [Fr.  pron.  bt'yti<M  (Pierre  du  Ter~ 
rail — dii  ti'rtr,)  called  "le  chevalier  sans  peur  et  sans 
reproche,"  ("the  knight  without  fear  and  without  re- 
proach,") was  born  at  Castle  Bayard,  near  Grenoble,  in 
1475.  Having  attracted  the  notice  of  Charles  VIII.  by 
his  skill  in  horsemanship  and  knightly  accomplishments, 
he  accompanied  that  monarch  on  his  expedition  to  Na- 
ples in  1494,  and  .performed  remarkable  feats  of  valour 
at  the  battle  of  Fornovo.  After  the  death  of  Charles  he 
took  part  in  the  Italian  campaigns  of  Louis  XII.,  and  at 
the  '"battle  of  the  Spurs,"  in  1 5 13,  he  was  chiefly  instru- 
■nental  in  saving  the  French  army  from  total  rout  when 
pursued  by  the  English  cavalry.  On  the  invasion  of 
Italy  by  Francis  I.,  Bayard  took  Prosper  Colonna  prison- 
er, and  had  a  prominent  part  in  the  sanguinary  battle 
of  Marignano,  (15 15,)  after  which,  at  the  request  of 
Francis  I.,  he  conferred  upon  that  sovereign  the  honour 
of  knighthood.  In  1522  he  defended  the  frontier  town 
of  Mezieres  against  the  forces  of  Charles  V.,  an  exploit 
which,  in  the  words  of  Dampmartin,  "  would  have  sufficed 
for  the  glory  of  any  other  than  Bayard."  Being  sent  in 
1524  against  the  imperial  army  under  the  Duke  of  Bour- 
bon, Bayard  assumed  the  chief  command  after  Bonnivet 
was  disabled  by  a  wound.  While  exerting  himself  to 
enable  the  French  to  effect  a  retreat,  he  was  mortally 
wounded,  and  died  soon  after  on  the  field  of  battle. 

"  Perhaps  no  other  person,"  says  Southey,  "who  acted 
so  unimportant  a  part  in  the  world  ever  attained  so  wide 
and  just  a  renown."  ("Quarterly  Review,"  vol.  xxxii.) 
The  same  writer  adds  that  he  was  indebted  for  his  re- 
nown to  his  genuine  worth, — his  generosity  and  virtue. 

See  SvMPHORiEN  Champier,  "La  Vie  et  les  Gestes  de  Bayard," 
1525;  L.  A.  Baquillot,  "  Histoire  du  Chevalier  Bayard,"  1702; 
GuYARD  DE  Berville,  "  Histoiie  du  Chevalier  Bayard,"  1760;  Rev, 
Joseph  Sterling,  "Life  of  Chevalier  Bayard,"  1781 ;  Bucnoi.z, 
"Bayard,"  Berlin,  1801;  Pillot,  "  Essai  sur  le  Chevalier  Bayard," 
1816;  P.  Cohen,  "Histoire  de  Pierre  du  Terrail,"  1821 ;  Delandine 
de  Saint-Esprit,  "  Histoirede  Bayard,"  1S42;  W.  G.  Sim.ms,  "Life 
of  Chevalier  Bayard,"  New  York,  "1S47;  Major-General  John  Mit- 
chell, "  Biographies  of  Eminent  Soldiers  of  the  Last  Four  Centu- 
ries," 1865. 

Bayard,  (Samuel,)  an  American  jurist,  born  about 
1765.  He  published  a  "Digest  of  American  Cases  on 
the  Law  of  Evidence,"  1810,  and  an  "Abstract  of  the 
Laws  of  the  United  States."    Died  in  1840. 

Bayazeed,  Bayazid,  or  Bajasid,  ba'ya-zeed',  I.,  less 
correctly,  Baj'a-zet,  Sultan  of  the  Ottomans,  surnamed 
Ilderek.m,  ( I  i.DKRiM,)  or  "  Lightning,"  on  account  of  his 
rapid  movements,  born  in  1347,  was  the  son  of  Amurath  I. 
He  ascended  the  throne  in  1390,  and  within  a  few  years 
subjugated  Bulgaria,  the  greater  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
a  considerable  portion  of  Greece.  In  1396  he  gained  a 
signal  victory  over  the  allied  army  of  the  Hungarians, 
Poles,  and  French,  at  Nicopolis,  from  which  Sigismund, 
King  of  Hungary,  with  difficulty  escaped.  Tamerlane 
having  invaded  Asia  Minor,  a'  battle  was  fought  be- 
tween him  and  Bayazeed  near  Angora  in  1401,  in  which 
the  army  of  the  latter  was  totally  defeated  and  he  him- 
self taken  prisoner.  It  is  related  that  Bayazeed  was 
confined  by  his  conqueror  in  an  iron  cage.  He  died  in 
1403,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mahomet  I. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Bayazeed,  Bayazid,  or  Bajazet  II.,  born  in  1447, 
succeeded  his  father,  Mahomet  II.,  in  1481.  He  was 
engaged  in  almost  constant  warfare  with  the  Hungarians, 
Poles,  Venetians,  and  Persians,  and  was  at  length  deposed 
by  his  son  Selim.    Died  in  15 12. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Baye,  bi,  (FRANgois  Berthelot  — bgRtIo',)  Mar- 
quis OF,  a  French  general,  wrote  an  "Account  of  the 
Campaigns  of  Marshal  de  Crequi  in  1677."    Died  in  1776. 

Bayen,  bfySx',  (Pierre,)  a  French  chemist  and  phar- 
macist, born  at  Chalons-sur-Marne  in  1 725,  was  the  author 
of  treatises  on  the  mineral  waters  of  France,  and  on  the 
metallic  oxides.    Died  in  1798. 

See  Hoefer,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Bayen  y  Sabias.    See  Bayeu  y  Subias. 
_  Bayer,  ba-yaiR',  (Francisco  Perez,)  a  Spanish  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Valencia  in  171 1.    Pie  was  successively 


professor  of  Llebrew  at  Salamanca,  preceptor  of  the  In- 
fant Don  Gabriel,  and  keeper  of  the  library  at  Madrid. 
He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Alpha- 
bet and  Language  of  the  Phoenicians  and  their  Colonies," 
(1772.)    Died  in  1794. 

Bayer,  bi'er,  (Gottlieb  Siegfried,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man Orientalist,  particularly  distinguished  as  a  Chinese 
scholar,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1694,  was  a  grandson  (  f 
the  astronomer  Johann  Bayer.  In  1726  he  was  invited 
to  become  professor  of  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities  at 
Saint  Petersburg.  His  ])rincipal  work  is  entitled  "Mu- 
seum Sinicum,"  (2  vols.,  1730.)  It  contains  a  Chinese 
grammar  and  lexicon,  a  treatise  on  Chinese  chronology, 
and  extracts  from  Chinese  works.  He  also  wrote,  in 
Latin,  a  valuable  "  History  of  Osrhoena  and  Edessa, 
illustrated  by  Coins,"  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "Acta 
Eruditorum,"  and  the  "Memoirs"  of  the  Academy  of 
Saint  Petersburg.    Died  in  1738. 

Bayer,(HiERONYM  us  Johann  Paul,)  a  German  jurist, 
and  professor  of  law  at  Munich,  born  at  Rauris  in  1792. 

Bayer,  (Johann,)  a  German  astronomer  and  Protest- 
ant preacher,  born  at  Augsburg  about  1572.  He  pub- 
lished in  1603  an  excellent  work  called  "  Uranometria," 
a  description  of  the  constellations,  with  charts,  in  which 
the  stars  were  for  the  first  time  designated  by  the  letters 
of  the  Greek  alphabet.  This  very  convenient  innovation 
was  universally  approved.    He  died  in  1660. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "Histoire  des  Mathematiques ;"  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Bayer,  (Johann  Wolfgang,)  a  German  Jesuit,  born 
at  Schlesslitz,  in  Bavaria,  was  sent  in  1749  as  a  mission- 
ary to  Peru. 

Bayer  de  Boppart,  bT''er  deh  bop'paRt,  (Conrad,) 
became  Bishop  of  Metz  in  1415;  died  in  1459. 

Bayer  de  Boppart,  (Thierry,)  Bishop  of  Metz,  was 
ambassador  of  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  at  Rome.  Died 
in  1384. 

Bayes,  baz,  (Joshua,)  a  Presbyterian  nonconformist 
minister,  born  at  Sheffield  in  167 1,  preached  in  London, 
Died  in  1746. 

Bayes,  (Thomas,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  a  Pres- 
byterian minister  at  Tunbridge  Wells,  and  noted  as  a 
writer  on  mathematics.    Died  in  1761. 

Bayeu  y  Subias,  bi''e-oo  e  soo-Bee'as,  sometimes  in- 
correctly written  Bayen  y  Sabias,  (Francisco,)  an 
able  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Saragossa  in  1734.  He 
worked  at  Madrid,  and  obtained  the  title  of  painter  to 
the  king.    Died  about  1795. 

SeeBERMUDEZ.  "  Diccionario  Historico." 

Bayeux,  bt'yuh',  (George,)  a  French  jurist  and 
litterateur,  born  at  Caen  about  1752.  He  made  a  prose 
translation  of  the  "  Fasti"  of  Ovid,  accompanied  with 
valuable  notes,  and  wrote,  among  other  works,  "  Reflec- 
tions on  the  Reign  of  Trajan,"  (1787.)  Having  been 
appointed  royal  commissioner,  he  was  killed  in  a  mob  at 
Caen  in  1792. 

Bayf.    See  Baif,  (Lazare.) 

Bayhofier.    See  Bayrhoffer. 

Bayle,  bal,  (Antoine  Laurent  Jesse,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, nepjiew  of  Gaspare!  Laurent,  noticed  below,  was 
born  at  Vernet  in  1799.  He  wrote,  among  other  works, 
an  "  Elementary  Treatise  on  Anatomy,"  and  was  principal 
editor  of  the  "  Encyclopedic  des  Sciences." 

Bayle,  (Franqois,)  a  French  physician  and  writer, 
born  at  Saint-Bertrand-de-Commines  in  1622,  was  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Toulouse.    Died  in  1709. 

Bayle,  (Gaspard  Laurent,)  an  eminent  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Vernet,  in  Provence,  in  1774.  He  gradu- 
ated in  Paris,  where  he  was  subsequently  appointed 
physician  to  the  emperor  Napoleon.  He  wrote,  among 
other  treatises,  "  Researches  on  Pulmonary  Consump- 
tion," (1810,)  a  work  of  high  reputation,  and  was  a  con- 
tributor to  the  "  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences  medicales." 
Died  in  Paris  in  181 6. 

Bayle,  (MoYse,)  a  French  revolutionist  and  member 
of  the  National  Convention,  born  in  Languedoc  about 
1760,  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king  and  the  Girondists. 
He  was  appointed  in  1793  president  of  the  Convention. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Letters  to  Freron,"  (1795.)  Died 
about  1 81 5. 

Bayle,  (Pierre,)  a  celebrated  philosopher  and  critic, 


*  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  Yi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (Ql^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.^ 


BATLE 


296 


BAZAINE 


born  at  Carlat,  in  Ariege,  in  the  south  of  France,  on  the 
l8th  of  November,  1647,  was  a  son  of  a  Protestant  min- 
ister. He  studied  at  the  college  of  Toulouse,  where  he 
joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  ;  but  he  returned  to 
his  former  religion  about  a  year  later,  and  retired  for 
safety  to  Geneva,  (1670.)  For  several  years  he  served 
as  private  tutor  at  Geneva,  Rouen,  and  Paris.  In  1675 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  Protest- 
ant academy  of  Sedan,  which  was  suppressed  by  Louis 
XIV.  in  i68i.  To  reassure  the  public,  alarmed  by  the 
comet  of  1680,  he  produced  his  admirable  letter  on  the 
Comet,  ("  Pensees  diverses  sur  la  Comete,"  1682.)  He 
became  professor  of  philosophy  and  history  at  Rotter- 
dam in  168 1.  He  defended  the  Calvinists  against  the  mis- 
representations of  Maimbourg,  in  his  "Critique  generale 
de  I'Histoire  de  Calvinisme  de  Maimbourg,"  (1682,) 
which  was  very  successful  and  contributed  much  to  in- 
crease his  reputation.  In  1684  he  began  to  issue  monthly 
a  critical  journal  or  review,  entitled  "  Nouvelles  de  la 
Republique  des  Lettres,"  which  obtained  some  reputa- 
tion, but  was  discontinued  in  1687. 

His  repose  was  disturbed  by  the  jealous  enmity  of 
Jurieu,  his  former  friend,  who  accused  him  of  being  the 
author  of  an  anonymous  work,  "Avis  aux  Refugies," 
which  was  injurious  to  the  Protestant  cause.  The  magis- 
trates of  Rotterdam  deprived  him  of  his  professorship 
in  1693,  actuated,  it  appears,  by  a  suspicion  that  he  was 
not  sound  in  faith.  His  principal  work  is  a  "Historical 
and  Critical  Dictionary,"  ("  Dictionnaire  historique  et 
critique,"  2  vols,  folio,  1696,)  which  obtained  extensive 
popularity  but  was  censured  for  its  skeptical  tendency. 
It  appears  to  have  exerted  a  great  influence  over  the 
literature  and  philosophy  of  Europe.  A  third  and  en- 
larged edition  was  published  by  Prosper  Marchand,  (4 
vols.,  1720.)  This  dictionary  was  translated  into  English 
and  other  languages.  As  a  writer,  Bayle  was  remarka- 
ble for  wit,  vivacity,  dialectical  skill,  and  love  of  paradox. 
"An  admirable  dialectician  rather  than  a  profound  phi- 
losopher," says  Voltaire,  "  he  knew  scarcely  anything  of 
physical  science."  "Bayle  is  admirable,"  says  Hallam, 
"  in  exposing  the  fallacies  of  dogmatism,  the  perplexities 
of  philosophy,  the  weaknesses  of  those  who  affect  to 
guide  the  opinions  of  mankind.  But,  wanting  the  ne- 
cessary conditions  of  good  reasoning,  an  earnest  desire 
to  reason  well,  a  moral  rectitude,  ...  he  often  avails 
himself  of  petty  cavils  and  becomes  dogmatical  in  his 
very  doubts.  .  .  .  The  sophistry  of  Bayle,  however,  bears 
no  proportion  to  his  just  and  acute  observations."  ("  In- 
troduction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  He  died  at 
Rotterdam  in  December,  1706.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
strictly  moral,  disinterested,  and  indifferent  to  temporal 
riches.  Warburton  speaks  of  him  as  one  "  who  with  a 
soul  superior  to  the  sharpest  attacks  of  fortune  and  a 
heart  practised  to  the  best  philosophy,"  yet  "struck  into 
the  province  of  paradox  as  an  exercise  for  the  unwearied 
vigour  of  his  mind."  ("Divine  Legation,"  book  i.) 

See  Du  Revert,  "Histoire  de  Bayle  et  de  ses  Oiivrages,"  1716; 
Pierre  des  Maizeaux,  "Vie  de  Pierre  Bayle,"  1712;  Feuerbach, 
"  Pierre  Bayle,  seine  Verdienste  fiir  die  Geschichte  der  Philosophic," 
1838;  " Encyclopiedia  Britannica ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  in  the  "Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes"  for  December,  1835. 

Bayle,  sometimes  written  Bailie,  (Pierre,)  a  French 
Jacobin,  born  at  Marseilles,  was  a  member  of  the  Na- 
tional Convention,  where  he  voted  for  the  death  of  the 
king.  He  was  arrested  at  Toulon  when  that  city  was  given 
up  to  the  English,  and  was  put  to  death  in  prison,  (1793.) 

Bayley,  ba'le,  (Edward,)  an  English  physician,  wrote 
an  "Account  of  the  Earthquake  at  Plavana  in  1734." 
Died  in  1760. 

Bayley,  (Frederick  W.  N.  B.,)  an  English  littera- 
teur, and  first  editor  of  the  "  Illustrated  London  News," 
born  in  1807.  He  wrote  the  "New  Tale  of  a  Tub,"  in 
verse,  "Little  Red-Riding-Hood,"  and  other  poems. 
Died  in  1852. 

Bayley,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in  1763. 
He  published  a  "  Summary  of  the  Laws  of  Bills  of  Ex- 
change," (1789,)  and  became  a  justice  of  the  king's  bench 
in  1808.    Died  in  1841. 

Bayley,  (Richard,)  an  American  physician,  born  in 
Fairfield,  Connecticut,  in  1745.  He  began  to  practise 
medicine  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1772,  and  advocated 
a  new  mode  of  treating  croup,  which  was  extensively 


adopted.  He  published  a  "  Letter  on  the  Cr  ju]),"  (1781,) 
and  an  "  Essay  on  the  Yellow  Fever,"  (1797.)  Li  1793  he 
became  professor  of  surgery  in  Columbia  College.  Died 
in  1801. 

See  Thacher,  "  Medical  Biography." 

Baylies.    See  Bailies,  (William.) 

Baylies,  ba'16z,  (Francis,)  an  American  politician, 
born  in  1784,  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  Massa- 
chusetts. He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Old  Colony  of 
Plymouth,"  (1828.)    Died  in  1852. 

BayTy  or  BaiTey,  (Anselm,)  an  English  scholar, 
published  some  theological  and  critical  works. 

Bayly,  (John,)  son  of  Lewis,  Bishop  of  Bangor,  born 
in  1595,  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "The  Angel 
Guardian."    Died  in  1633. 

Bayly,  (Lewis,)  Bishop  of  Bangor,  born  in  Caermar- 
then  about  1565,  was  the  author  of  a  very  popular  work, 
entitled  "Practice  of  Piety."  It  was  translated  into 
Welsh  and  several  other  languages.    Died  in  1632. 

Bayly,  (Thomas.)  an  English  divine  and  controver- 
sialist, was  a  son  of  Lewis,  Bishop  of  Bangor.  He  was 
converted  to  Catholicism  about  1650. 

Bayly,  (Thomas  Haynes,)  an  English  lyric  poet  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  near  Bath  in  1797.  His  works 
include  novels  and  tales  and  numerous  dramatic  pieces. 
His  songs  enjoy  great  popularity.    Died  in  1839. 

BayTy,  (Thomas  Henry,)  an  American  politician, 
born  in  Accomac  county,  Virginia,  in  1810,  was  a  law- 
yer. He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1844  to  1856, 
and  was  chairman  of  the  committee  of  ways  and  means 
during  several  sessions.    Died  in  1856. 

Bayly,  (William,)  an  English  astronomer,  sent  by 
the  Royal  Society  in  1769  to  the  North  Cape,  to  ob'- 
serve  the  transit  of  Venus.    Died  in  1810. 

Bay'nam  or  Bayn'ham,  (William,)  an  American 
surgeon  and  anatomist,  born  in  Caroline  county,  Virginia, 
in  1749.  He  studied  in  London,  where  he  passed  many 
years,  and  became  an  excellent  anatomist.  He  returned 
to  America  about  1785,  and  settled  in  Essex  county,  Vir- 
ginia. He  performed  many  difficult  surgical  operations 
with  success,  and  wrote  several  articles  for  medical  jour- 
nals.   Died  in  18 14. 

See  Thacher,  "Medical  Biography." 

Bayne,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  jurist,  born  in  Fife- 
shire,  was  appointed  in  1722  to  the  chair  of  Scottish  law 
at  Edinburgh,  then  recently  established.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Law  of  Scot- 
land, and  the  Method  of  studying  it,"  and  edited  Hope's 
"  Minor  Practicks,"  which  had  remained  in  manuscript 
nearly  a  century.    Died  in  1737. 

Bayne  or  Baine,  ban,  (James,)  a  Scottish  dissenting 
divine  and  eloquent  preacher,  born  in  1 7 10.  He  preached 
in  Edinburgh.    Died  in  1790. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Bayne,  (William,)  an  English  naval  officer,  was 
killed  in  an  engagement  between  the  French  and  English 
near  the  West  Indies  in  1 782. 

BaynTiam,  (James,)  an  English  lawyer,  who  was 
burned  at  the  stake  in  1530  for  having  denied  the  real 
presence  in  the  eucharist. 

Bayn'tun,  (Sir  William  Henry,)  a  British  admiral, 
born  about  1765  ;  died  in  1840. 

Bayon,  de,  deh  bt'yoN'',  (Jean,)  a  French  monk  and 
ecclesiastical  writer,  lived  at  Bayori  about  1290. 

Bayrhoffer,  biR^hoffer,  incorrectly  written  Bay- 
hoffer,  (Karl  Theodor,)  a  German  philosopher  of  the 
school  of  Hegel,  born  at  Marburg  in  181 2.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  in  his  native  city  in  1845.  He 
wrote,  among  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On  Catholicism 
in  Germany,"  "Idea  and  History  of  Philosophy,"  (1838,) 
and  "  Researches  on  the  Essence,  History,  and  Criti- 
cism of  Religion,"  (1849.)  He  was  an  active  radical 
politician  in  1848. 

Bayro.    See  Bairo,  (Pietro.) 

Bazaine,  bt'zan',  a  French  mathematician,  born  near 
Metz  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  wrote 
a  work  entitled  "  French  Metrology."    Died  in  1833. 

Bazaine,  (Franqois  Achille,)  a  French  general, 
born  in  181 1.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Sevastopol 
in  1854,  and  became  a  general  of  division  in  1855.  He 
obtained,  in  1863  or  1864,  the  chief  command  of  the 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f&U,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BAZALIERO 


297 


BEATON 


French  army  in  Mexico.  That  army  was  withdrawn  in 
the  latter  part  of  1866. 

Bazaliero,  bSd-za-le-a^ro,  (Caligula,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  bookseller  of  Bologna,  lived  about  1480. 

Bazaii.   See  Basan. 

Bazancourt.  de,  deh  bt'zS.N'kooR',  (Jean  Baptiste 
Marin  Antoine  Lecat — leh'kt',)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Val-de-Molle  in  1767.  He  served  in  Egypt  and 
in  the  Austrian  campaign  of  1805,  and  was  subsequently 
created  a  baron  of  the  empire  and  commander  of  the 
legion  of  honour.    Died  in  1830. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Frangais." 

Baz'a-rad',  the  first  Prince  of  Wallachia  of  whom  his- 
tory gives  a  particular  account,  ruled  over  that  country 
about  1330. 

Bazard,  bt^zlR',  (Amand,)  a  French  journalist,  and 
founder  of  Carbonarism  in  France,  born  in  Paris  inijQi. 
He  was  a  principal  contributor  to  the  journal  entitled 
"  L'Aristarque,"  and  was  subsequently  associate  editor 
of  "  Le  Producteur,"  the  organ  of  the  Saint-Simonians, 
whose  system  he  had  adopted.  Becoming  dissatisfied 
with  the  extreme  doctrines  of  that  sect,  he  proclaimed 
himself  the  head  of  the  new  Saint-Simonian  hierarchy. 
Died  in  1832. 

See  MiCHAUD  et  Villenave,  "  Histoire  du  Saint-Sinionisme,"i847. 

Baze,  btz,  (N.,)  a  French  lawyer,  born  at  Agen  in 
1800,  was  elected  in  1848  to  the  Legislative  Assembly. 

Bazhenof,  bizh'e-nof,  (Vasili  Ivanovitch,)  an 
eminent  Russian  architect,  born  at  Moscow  in  1737.  He 
studied  at  Saint  Petersburg,  and  subsequently  in  Paris 
under  Duval,  and  on  his  return  was  made  adjunct  of  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  His  principal  work  is  the  Saint 
Michael  Palace  at  Saint  Petersburg  ;  he  also  assisted  in 
the  construction  of  the  Kazan  church  in  that  city.  Bazh- 
enov  made  a  Russian  translation  of  Vitruvius,  (4  vols., 
1790.)  He  was  vice-president  of  the  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  at  Saint  Petersburg,  and  member  of  several  foreign 
Academies.    Died  in  1799. 

Bazicalva,  bad-ze-kdKvS,  written  also  Bazzicaluve, 
(Ercole,)  an  Italian  designer  and  engraver  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  was  a  native  of  Pisa. 

Bazin.    See  Basin. 

Bazin,  bi'ziN',  (Anais  de  Raucou,  t'nt^^ss'  deh 
r5'koo',)  a  French  historian  and  lawyer,  born  in  Paris 
in  1797.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  France  under  Louis 
XIII.,"  (2  vols.,  1837,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1850. 

Bazin,  (Claude,)  a  French  physician  and  professor 
of  pharmacy,  born  in  Paris  ;  died  in  161 2. 

Bazin,  (Denis,)  a  French  physician  and  professor  of 
surgery  at  the  Royal  College  ;  died  in  1632. 

Bazin,  (Gilles  Augustin,)  a  French  naturalist,  born 
in  Paris,  practised  medicine  at  Strasburg.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  plants  and  insects.    Died  in  1754. 

Bazin,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  physician,  born  near 
Chartres,  became  in  1472  dean  of  the  faculty  of  medicine 
in  Paris.    Died  in  1500. 

Bazin,  (Jacques  Rigomer,)  a  French  jurist  and  poli- 
tician, born  at  Mans  in  1771,  was  editor  for  a'time  of 
"Le  Democrate,"  in  which  he  opposed  the  Directory. 
He  was  mortally  wounded  in  a  duel  in  1820. 

Bazin,  (Jean,)  a  French  diplomatist,  born  at  Blois  in 
1538.  He  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Poland  in  1572,  and 
procured  the  election  of  the  Duke  of  Anjou  as  King  of 
Poland.    Died  in  1592. 

Bazin,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  engraver,  born  at  Troyes 
about  1636,  was  a  pupil  of  Claude  Mellan.  He  executed 
a  number  of  prints  after  Correggio,  Guido,  and  Lebrun. 
Died  about  1706. 

Bazin,  (Simon,)  son  of  Claude  Bazin,  noticed  above, 
was  dean  of  the  faculty  of  Paris  in  1638.    Died  in  1660. 

Bazine.    See  Basine. 

Bazinghen,  de,  deh  bt'zAN'gSN',  (Francois  Andr^ 
Abot — t'bo',)  a  French  antiquary  and  numismatist,  born 
at  Boulogne-sur-Mer  in  17 10.    Died  in  1791. 

Bazire  or  Basire,  bS'z^R',  (Claude,)  born  at  Dijon 
in  1764,  was  a  member  of  the  National  Convention,  and 
voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  He  was  a  partisan 
of  Danton,  and  was  executed  in  1794. 

Bazius  or  Baazius.    See  Baaz. 

Baz'ley,  (Thomas,)  bom  in  Lancashire  in  1 797,  became 
president  of  the  Manchester  chamber  of  commerce  in  1845. 


Bazot,  bi'zo',  (Etienne  FRANgois,)  a  French //V/Zr^? 
teur,  born  in  the  department  of  Nievre  in  1782. 
Bazzacco.    See  Ponchino. 

Bazzani,  bit-si'nee,  (Gasparo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Reggio  in  1701  ;  died  in  1780. 

Bazzani,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter,  and  director 
of  the  Academy  of  Painting  at  Mantua,  executed  a  num- 
ber of  frescos  in  that  city.    Died  in  1769. 

Bazzani,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  physician  and  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Bologna  in  1674;  died  in  1749. 

Bazzano,  di,  de  bit-si^io,  (Francesco  Angeluc- 
Cio,)  an  Italian  chronicler  of  the  sixteenth  century,  wrote 
a  "History  of  Aquila  from  1436  to  1585." 

Bazzicaluve.    See  Bazicalva. 

Bazzino,  bit-see'no,  or  Bazzini,  bSt-see'nee,  (Fran- 
cesco,) an  Italian  composer  and  organist,  born  at  Lovero, 
in  the  Venetian  States,  about  1600.    Died  in  1660. 

Bazzino,  (Natale,)  an  Italian  musician,  was  a  bro- 
ther of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1639. 

Beach,  (Abraham,)  D.D.,  an  Episcopal  clergyman, 
born  at  Cheshire,  Connecticut,  in  1740,  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1757.  He  became  assistant  rector  of 
Trinity  Church,  New  York.    Died  in  1828. 

Beach,  (Moses  Yale,)  an  American  mechanic  and 
projector,  born  in  Wallingford,  Connecticut,  in  1800. 
About  1835  he  went  to  the  city  of  New  York,  and  be- 
came proprietor  of  "The  Sun,"  said  to  be  the  first  pennj 
paper  published  in  this  country.    Died  in  1868. 

Beacon.    See  Becon,  (Thomas.) 

Beak.    See  Bek,  (Anthony.) 

Beale,  beel,  (Bartholomew,)  an  English  physician, 
born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  a 
son  of  Mary  Beale,  mentioned  below. 

Beale,  (Lionel,)  an  English  physician  and  writer, 
born  about  1820.  He  became  professor  of  physiology, 
etc.  in  London. 

Beale,  (Mary,)  an  English  portrait-painter,  born  in 
1632,  was  a  pupil  of  Sir  Peter  Lely.  Among  her  best 
works  are  portraits  of  Dr.  Tillotson  and  the  Bishop  of 
Chester.  She  was  also  the  author  of  poems,  which  were 
admired  by  her  contemporaries.    Died  in  1697. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting  in  England." 

Beale,  [Lat.  Be'lus,]  (Robert,)  an  English  jurist 
and  diplomatist  under  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  was 
a  brother-in-law  of  Sir  Francis  Walsingham.  He  was 
ambassador  at  the  court  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  in  1576, 
and  was  employed  in  other  important  missions.  He 
possessed  one  of  the  most  valuable  historical  libraries  in 
Europe.    Died  in  i6or. 

Bean,  (Richard,)  an  English  painter  and  engraver, 
born  in  1792;  died  in  1817. 

Beard,  (John,)  a  distinguished  English  tenor-singer, 
born  about  1717;  died  about  1791. 

Beard,  (John  R.,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  about 
1800,  published,  besides  other  works,  the  "  People's  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible,"  (2  vols.,)  and  a  "Life  of  Toussaint 
L'Ouverture."  He  preached  some  years  in  Manchester. 

Beard,  (Thomas,)  an  Irish  engraver,  lived  about  1720. 

Bearde  de  I'Abbaye,  btR'da'  deh  li'ba',  a  French 
agricultural  writer,  died  in  1771. 

Beas'ley,  (Frederick,)  an  Episcopal  clergyman, 
born  in  1777,  was  professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  from  1813  to  1828.  Among 
his  works  are  "  An  Examination  of  the  Oxford  Divinity," 
"  A  Search  of  Truth  in  the  Science  of  the  Human  Mind," 
and  a  "Reply  to  the  Views  of  Dr.  Channing."  His 
writings  attracted  attention  in  Europe.  Died  at  Eliza- 
bethtown.  New  Jersey,  in  1845. 

Beatiano.    See  Beaziano. 

Beatillo,  bi-i-t^Klo,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and 
popular  preacher,  born  near  Naples  in  1570  ;  died  in  1642. 

Bea'ton,  [Scottish  pron.  ba'ton,]  written  also  Bea- 
toun,  Beton,  or  Bethune,  (David,)  Cardinal,  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Saint  Andrew's,  a  formidable  opponent  of  the 
reformed  religion  in  Scotland,  was  born  in  1494.  He 
finished  his  studies  in  Paris,  and  in  15 19  was  appointed 
Scottish  resident  at  the  French  court.  After  his  return, 
he  took  his  seat  in  Parliament,  in  1525,  as  Abbot  of 
Arbroath,  and  became  lord  privy  seal  in  1528.  In  1533 
he  was  ambassador,  in  company  with  Sir  Thomas  Ers- 
kine,  to  France,  where  he  negotiated  the  marriage  of 


e  ?.s  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  K,  giithiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.   (^[^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BEATON 


298 


BEAVCHAMP 


James  V.  with  Madeleine,  daughter  of  Francis  I.,  and, 
after  her  decease,  prepared  the  way  for  a  second  mar- 
riage with  the  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Guise.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  uncle  as  Archbishop  of  Saint  Andrew's  in 
1539,  having  shortly  before  been  created  a  cardinal  by 
Poi)e  Paul  III.  On  the  death  of  King  James,  in  1542, 
Beaton  claimed  the  regency  by  right  of  a  forged  will 
which  he  produced  ;  but  the  Earl  of  Arran  was  appointed 
regent,  and,  after  a  struggle  for  the  supremacy,  the  car- 
dinal prevailed  upon  him  to  abjure  Protestantism.  From 
this  time  he  applied  himself  to  the  work  of  persecution, 
and  incurred  general  odium  by  his  cruelties,  especially 
in  the  execution  of  the  celebrated  George  Wishart.  In 
May,  1546,  he  was  assassinated  in  the  chamber  of  his 
castle  by  a  band  of  reformers  headed  by  Norm.an  Leslie. 

See  Cook,  "  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland ;"  Knox, 
"History  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland;"  Froude,  "  History  of 
England,"  vol.  iv.  chaps,  xviii.-xxii.  ;  Robertson,  '*  History  of  Scot- 
l.uid;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Beaton,  (James,)  uncle  of  the  jDreceding,  was  born 
about  1470.  Fie  rose  through  several  promotions  to  be 
chancellor  of  the  kingdom,  and  Archbishop  of  Saint  An- 
drew's, in  1522.  He  was  a  member  of  the  council  of 
regency  appointed  in  1524.    Died  in  1539. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Beaton,  (James,)  an  eminent  Scottish  prelate,  born 
about  1520,  was  a  nephew  of  Cardinal  Beaton.  He  be- 
came Archbishop  of  Glasgow  in  1552.  He  was  a  confi- 
dential adviser  of  the  queen  regent,  after  whose  death, 
in  1560,  he  retired  for  safety  to  France.  Died  at  Paris 
in  1603. 

Beatoun.    See  Beaton. 

Beatrice.    See  Beatrizet,  (Nicolas.) 

Beatrice  Portinari,  ba-^-tRee'chk  poR-te-ni'ree,  an 
Italian  lady  of  rare  beauty  and  loveliness  of  character, 
innnortalized  by  Dante  in  his  "Divine  Comedy,"  was  a 
native  of  Florence.  She  was  married  to  Simone  dei 
Bardi.    Died  about  1290. 

See  Balbo,  "Vita  di  Dante." 

Be''a-trix,  (or  be-a'triks,)  a  daughter  of  Renaud, 
Count  of  Burgundy,  was  married  in  11 56  to  the  emperor 
Frederick  I.  of  Germany.    Died  in  1185. 

Beatrix,  a  daughter  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  King 
of  Naples,  was  married  to  Matthias  Corvinus,  King  of 
Hungary,  in  1475.    Died  in  1508. 

Beatrix  of  Lorraine  was  the  wife  of  Boniface  III., 
Marquis  or  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  the  mother  of  the  cele- 
brated Countess  Matilda.  After  the  death  of  Boniface 
she  was  married  to  Godefroi  le  Barbu,  Duke  of  Lorraine. 
Died  in  1076. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  HIstoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Beatrix,  Saint,  sister  of  Saint  Faustinus  and  Saint 
Simplicius,  was  put  to  death  in  303  for  having  drawn 
from  the  Tiber  and  buried  the  bodies  of  her  brothers 
above  named,  who  had  been  decapitated  by  order  of  Dio- 
cletian. 

Beatrizet,  bt'tR^'za',  or  Beaiitrizet,  bo'tR^'za'', 
(Nicolas,)  a  French  designer  and  engraver,  sometimes 
called  Beatrici  or  Beatrice,  born  about  1507.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  "Joseph  sold  by  his  Brethren," 
after  Raphael,  and  an  "Ascension,"  after  Michael  Angelo. 
Died  about  1570. 

See  Le  Blanc,  "Manuel  de  I'Amateur  d'Estampes." 

Beatson,  bgt'son  or  beet'son,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish 
A-riter  and  compiler,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1742.  Among 
his  principal  works  we  may  name  the  "  Naval  and  Military 
Memoirs  of  Great  Britain  from  1727  to  the  Present  Time," 
(3  vols.,  1790.)    Died  in  1818. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Beattie,  bee'te,  [Scottish  pron.  ba'te,]  (James,)  a 
Scottish  poet  and  philosophidfil  writer,  born  in  the  county 
of  Kincardine  in  1735.  He  was  appointed  in  1760  pro- 
fessor of  moral  philosophy  and  logic  at  Marischal  Col- 
lege, Aberdeen.  In  1767  he  brought  out  his  "  Essay  on 
Truth,"  written  in  refutation  of  the  doctrines  of  Hume. 
It  went  through  five  editions  in  four  years,  and  was  trans- 
lated into  several  languages.  The  first  book  of  "  The 
Minstrel"  appeared  in  1771,  and  met  with  great  favour. 
Beattie  soon  after  this  visited  London,  where  he  ac- 
quired the  friendship  of  Dr.  Johnson,  Goldsmith,  and 
other  eminent  literary  men  ;  and  during  a  second  visit. 


in  1773,  he  obtained  from  the  University  of  Oxford  the 
degree  of  D.C.L.  About  this  time  he  published  the 
second  book  of  "The  Minstrel,"  which  was  followed  iii 
a  few  years  by  a  number  of  moral  and  critical  essays,  and 
a  treatise  "  On  the  Evidences  of  Christianity,"  (1786.)  In 
1790  Dr.  Beattie  lost  his  eldest  son,  James  Hay  Beattie, 
a  youth  of  rare  promise  and  endowments ;  and  to  this 
bereavement  was  added  in  1796  that  of  his  only  remain- 
ing child,  a  son  of  eighteen  years.  His  health,  which  had 
long  been  feeble,  gave  way  under  these  afflictions,  and 
he  died  in  1803.  His  most  popular  work,  "The  Min- 
strel," without  displaying  great  originality,  is  charac- 
terized by  such  melody  of  versification,  tenderness  of 
feeling,  and  fine  perception  of  the  beauty  and  grandeur 
of  external  nature,  as  have  rendered  it  a  favourite  with 
all  classes.  It  is  eulogized  by  Gray,  Dr.  Johnson,  and 
Byron.  Burns  sent  a  copy  as  a  present  to  a  friend  with 
these  lines  : 

"  I  send  you  more  than  India's  boast, 
In  Edwin's  simple  tale." 

Cowper  pronomices  Beattie  the  most  agreeable  and 
amiable  writer  he  ever  met  with,  "  whose  critical  and 
philosophical  researches  are  diversified  and  embellished 
by  a  poetical  imagination  that  makes  even  the  driest  sub- 
ject a  feast  for  an  epicure  in  books." 

See  Sir  William  Forbes,  "  Life  of  James  Beattie,"  2  vols.,  1806 ; 
Alexander  Bower,  "Life  of  James  Beattie,"  1804 ;  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  "Encyclopaedia 
Britannica;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1807. 

Beattie,  (James  Hay,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Aberdeen  in  1768.  He  was  appointed  professor 
of  moral  philosophy  at  Aberdeen  before  he  was  nineteen 
years  old.  He  died  in  1790,  leaving  "Essays  and  Frag- 
ments," (1794.) 

See  "  Life  of  James  H.  Beattie,"  by  his  father,  1791. 

Beattie,  (William,)  born  in  1770,  was  physician  to 
the  fleet,  and  was  present  at  the  death  of  Nelson,  at  the 
battle  of  Trafalgar.  He  published  an  "Authentic  Nar- 
rative of  the  Death  of  Nelson,"  (1807.)    Died  in  1843. 

Beattie,  (William,)  M.D.,  a  popular  English  author 
and  physician,  born  in  Scotland.  He  graduated  about 
1820,  and  removed  to  London.  Among  his  numerous 
works  are  the  "  Heliotrope,  or  Pilgrim  in  Pursuit  of 
Health,"  a  poem,  (1833,)  and  "The  Danube:  its  His- 
tory, Scenery,  etc.,"  (1844.)  He  published  a  well-written 
"  Biography  of  Thomas  Campbell,"  who  was  his  friend, 
(3  vols.,  1849.) 

Be-a'tus  Rhe-na'nus,  a  German  scholar,  whose 
original  name  was  Bild,  (bllt,)  born  in  Alsace  in  1485. 
He  published  the  first  edition  of  the  Roman  history 
of  Velleius  Paterculus,  and,  according  to  Dupin,  first 
caused  the  works  of  Tertullian  to  be  printed.  He  also 
wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  History  of  Germany."  Died  in  1547. 

See Vossius,  " De  Historicis  Latinis;"  Baillet,  " Jugements des 
Savants." 

Beaubreuil,  de,  deh  bo'bRUl',  (or  b5'bRuh'ye,) 
(Jean,)  a  French  lawyer  and  litterateur  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  was  the  author  of  a  tragedy  entitled  "  Atilius 
Regulus,"  (1582.) 

Beaubrun,  bo'bRuN',  (Charles  and  Henri,)  some- 
times written  Bobrun,  French  portrait-painters,  born  at 
Amboise  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Beaubrun,  (Louis,)  a  portrait-painter,  born  at  Am- 
boise, resided  in  Paris  about  1640. 

Beaucaire  de  Peguillon,  bo'kaR'  deh  pa^ge''y6N', 
(Francois,)  a  French  prelate  and  historian,  born  in 
1 5 14,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the  Cardinal  Charles  de 
Lorraine,  by  whom  he  was  created  Bishop  of  Metz.  He 
wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "History  of  France  from  1541  to  1562." 

See  Baillet,  "Jugements  des  Savants." 

Beauchamp  or  Beauchamps,  b5^sh&N',  (Joseph,) 
a  French  astronomer,  and  member  of  the  Institute  of 
France,  born  at  Vesoul  in  1742,  was  a  friend  and  pupil 
of  Lalande.  He  was  appointed  in  1795  consul  at  Mus- 
cat, in  Arabia.  He  contributed  a  number  of  treatises  to 
the  "Journal  des  Savants"  and  the  "Memoirs  of  the 
Institute  of  Cairo."  He  was  one  of  the  savants  employed 
in  Egypt  in  1798.    Died  in  1801. 

Beauchamp,  bee'cham,  (Richard,)  Earl  of  War- 
wick, an  English  general,  born  about  1380,  served  in 
France  under  Henry  V.  He  succeeded  the  Duke  of 
Bedford  as  regent  in  France,  and  died  at  Rouen  in  1439. 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  lo7tg:  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscitre;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mkX;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BEAU  CHAMP 


BEAUHARNAIS 


Beauchamp,  (Richard,)  an  English  prelate,  noted 
for  his  knowledge  of  architecture,  became  Bishop  of 
Salisbury  in  1450.  He  rebuilt  the  chapel  at  Windsor 
under  Edward  IV.,  and  the  great  hall  in  the  episcopal 
palace  of  Salisbury.    Died  about  1481. 

Beauchamp,  de,  deh  bS'shoN^,  (Alfonse,)  a  littera- 
teur and  politician,  born  at  Monaco,  in  Sardinia,  in  1767. 
He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "  History  of  La  Ven- 
dee," and  a  "  Life  of  General  Moreau,"  (1S14.)  He  was 
a  contributor  to  the  "  Biographic  Universelle"  and  the 
"Gazette  de  France."    Died  in  1832. 

See  Le  Bas,  "  Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Beauchamp,  de,  (Charles  Gregoire,)  Marquis, 
born  in  Poitou  in  1731,  was  a  deputy  in  1789  to  the 
States-General,  where  he  was  an  advocate  of  the  cause 
of  royalty.    Died  in  181 7. 

Beauchamps,  de,  deh  bo'shoN'',  (Pierre  pRANgois 
Godart — go'dtR',)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in 
1689,  \Trot2  a  number  of  comedies  and  romances.  Died 
:u  1 761, 

Beauchateau,  de,  deh  bo^shi'to',  (FRANgois  Ma- 
THiEU  Chastelet — shat'li',)  a  precocious  French  poet, 
born  in  Paris  in  1645.  wrote,  at  the  age  of  twelve,  a 
collection  of  poems  entitled  "The  Lyre  of  the  Young 
Apollo."    Died  about  1700. 

Beauchateau,  de,  (Hippolyte  Chastelet,)  brother 
of  the  preceding,  visited  England,  where  he  was  converted 
to  Protestantism  in  1675,  and  became  noted  as  a  pulpit 
orator. 

Beauchene,  de,  deh  bS'shin',  (Edme  Pierre  Chan- 
vot — sh6N'vo',)  a  French  physician  and  writer,  born  at 
Ville-Franche,  near  Joignv,  in  1748,  was  consulting  phy- 
sician to  Louis  XVHL    t)ied  in  1824. 

Beauchesne-Gouiii,  de,  deh  bo^shen'  goo-aw',  a 
French  navigator,  who  discovered  in  1699  an  island  in 
the  Strait  of  Magellan,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
Louis-le-Grar,d,  and  in  1701  an  island  south  of  East 
Falkland,  which  he  called  Isle  Beauchene. 

See  Wood,  "  Cruizing  Voyage,"  London,  171S. 

Beauclair,  de,  deh  bo'klaR',  (P.  L.,)  a  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  in  the  Isle  of  France  in  1735  >  ^^^'^  1804. 

Beauclerc,  bo'klerk'',  (Diana,)  an  English  artist,  who 
lived  about  1780,  furnished  designs  for  the  beautiful 
edition  of  "  Lenore"  translated  by  W.  H.  Spencer. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Beauclerk,  boHvlerk',  (Topham,)  an  English  gentle- 
man of  distinguished  talents  and  wit,  born  in  1739,  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson.    Died  in  1780. 

Beaucousin,  bo^koo^z^N',  (Christophe  Jean  FRAN- 
gois,) a  French  jurist  and  biographical  writer,  born  at 
Noyon  in  1723  ;  died  in  1798. 

Beaudoiix.    See  Baudoux. 

Beauffremont.    See  Bauffremont. 

Beaufils,  bo'f^ss',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  in  Auvergne  in  1674;  died  in  1757. 

Beaufort,  bu'fort,  (Sir  Francis,)  F.R.S.,  a  British 
rear-admiral,  born  about  1775,  was  distinguished  as  a 
hydrographer,  and  produced  several  charts  of  sea-coasts. 
He  was  hydrographer  to  the  admiralty  from  1832  to  1855. 
Died  in  1857. 

Beaufort,  (Henry,)  Cardinal,  an  ambitious  English 
prelate,  a  half-brother  of  King  Henry  IV.,  was  born 
about  1370.  He  was  a  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of 
Lancaster,  and  Catherine  vSwynford.  He  became  Bishop 
of  Winchester  in  1404,  after  which  he  appears  to  have 
acted  as  lord  chancellor.  At  the  death  of  Henry  V.,  in 
1422,  the  care  of  the  person  and  education  of  the  infant 
Henry  VI.  was  intrusted  to  Beaufort,  who,  says  Hume, 
"v;as  a  prelate  of  great  capacity,  but  of  an  intriguing 
an-i  dangerous  character."  He  had  a  long  contest  for 
the  ascendency  with  his  nephew  the  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
over  whom  he  eventually  prevailed.  (See  Gloucester, 
Humphrey,  Duke  of.)  Died  in  1447.  Shakspeare  has 
no  doubt  followed  the  commonly-received  estimate  of 
Beaufort's  character  in  his  "Henry  VI." 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors  ;"  Aubery, 
"  Histoire  des  Cardinaux." 

Beaufort,  (Margaret,)  Countess  of  Richmond  and 
Derby,  born  in  1441,  was  descended  from  John  of  Gaunt, 
Duke  of  Lancaster.  She  was  successively  married  to 
Edmund  Tudor,  half-brother  of  Henry  VI.,  to  Sir  Henry 


Stafford,  and  to  Lord  Stanley,  afterwards  Earl  of  Derby 
Her  son  by  her  first  marriage  became  king,  under  the 
name  of  Henry  VII.  She  was  distinguished  for  her 
charities  and  her  patronage  of  learning,  and  was  the 
founder  of  Christ's  College  (1505)  and  Saint  John's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge.  She  also  established  the  professorship 
of  divinity  called  from  her  name  the  Lady  Margaret 
professorship.  She  translated  some  religious  works  from 
the  French.    Died  in  1509. 

See  "  Life  of  Margaret  Beaufort,  Countess  of  Richmond,"  by  C. 
A.  Halsted;  Walpole,   " Royal  and  Noble  Authors." 

Beaufort,  de,  deh  ho'io^',  (Eustache,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  1635,  was  appointed  abbot  of  Sept- 
Fonts.    Died  in  1709. 

Beaufort,  de,  (FRANgois  de  Vendome,)  Due,  born 
in  Paris  in  1616,  was  the  son  of  Cesar  de  Vendome,  and 
the  grandson  of  Henry  IV.  In  the  war  of  the  Fronde 
he  became,  with  the  Prince  of  Conti  and  other  nobles, 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  disaffected  party.  Being  sent 
in  1669  to  assist  the  Venetians  against  the  Turks,  he 
was  killed  in  the  defence  of  Candia. 

See  Mascaron,  "  Oraison  funebre  du  Ducde  Beaufort." 

Beaufort,  de,  (PIenri  Ernest  Grout — gRoo,)  Che- 
valier, a  French  traveller,  born  at  Aubevoye  in  1798. 
He  visited  Africa  in  1824,  and  explored  the  Gambia, 
Bondou,  and  the  country  of  the  Mandingoes.  Died  in 
Africa  of  a  fever  in  1825. 

See  E.  F.  Jomard,  "  Notice  sur  De  Beaufort,"  1824. 

Beaufort,  de,  (Louis,)  a  distinguished  historian,  of 
French  extraction,  was  tutor  to  the  Prince  of  Hesse- 
Homburg.  He  wrote,  in  French,  a  "  Dissertation  on  the 
Uncertainty  of  the  First  Five  Centuries  of  Ron-ian  His- 
tory," (1738,)  which  is  commended  by  Niebuhr,  a  "  His- 
tory of  Germanicus,"  (1741,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Ro- 
man Republic,"  (1766.)  He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London.    Died  in  1795. 

Beaufort  de  Thorigiiy,  boToR'  deh  to'ren^ye', 
(Jean  Baptiste,)  a  republican  general,  born  in  Paris  in 
1761,  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  in  Flanders,  (1793.) 
Died  in  1825. 

Beaufort  d'Hautpoul,  b5'foR'  d5''poo^,  (Edouard,) 
Marquis  of,  a  French  officer,  born  in  Paris  in  1782; 
died  in  183 1. 

Beaugeard,  bo'zhSR',  (Jean,)  a  French  Jacobin,  and 
member  of  the  National  Convention,  born  at  Vitre  in 
1764.    Died  in  1832. 

Beaugeard,  (Jean  Simon  Ferreol,)  a  French  litte- 
rateur, born  at  Marseilles  in  1754;  died  in  1828. 

Beaugendre,  bo'zhoNdR^,  (  Antoine,)  a  French  Bene- 
dictine 7iionk.  born  in  Paris  in  1628;  died  in  1708. 

Beauharnais,  de,  deh  bo'tR^na',  (Alexandre,)  Vi- 
comte,  a  distinguished  general,  born  in  1760  in  the 
island  of  Martinique,  where  in  1779  he  married  Josephine 
Tascher  de  la  Pagerie,  afterwards  Empress  of  France. 
He  served  under  Rochambeau  in  the  American  war, 
was  a  deputy  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  was  twice 
president  of  the  National  Assembly.  In  1794  he  served 
under  Custine  on  the  Rhine,  but,  being  accused  of  treason 
by  the  revolutionary  tribunal  for  having  failed  to  deliver 
Mentz  from  the  allies,  he  was  guillotined  in  that  year. 

See  Le  Bas,  "Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  dela  France." 

Beauharnais,  de,  (Claude,)  Count,  born  in  1756, 
was  a  son  of  Marie  Anne  Fran9oise  Beauhari*ais,  noticed 
below.    Died  in  181 9. 

Beauharnais,  de,  (Eugene,)  Viceroy  of  Italy,  born 
in  Paris,  September  3,  1781,  was  the  son  of  Alexandre 
de  Beauharnais  and  Josephine,  afterwards  Empress  of 
France.  After  the  marriage  of  his  mother  with  Napo- 
leon, he  accompanied  the  latter  to  Egypt  in  1798,  and 
was  severely  wounded  at  vSaint-Jean-d'Acre.  For  his 
conduct  at  Marengo  (1800)  he  obtained  the  rank  of  chef- 
d'escadron.  In  1805  he  was  appointed  arch-chancellor 
of  state,  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour,  and  Vice- 
roy of  Italy.  In  this  high  office  he  distinguished  him- 
self by  the  ability  and  justice  of  his  administration.  In 
the  Austrian  campaign  of  1809  he  defeated  the  Arch- 
duke John  at  Raab,  in  Hungary.  Pie  had  married  in 
1806  Augusta  Amelia,  daughter  of  the  King  of  Bavaria, 
and  was  soon  after  declared  by  Napoleon  his  adopted 
son,  and  heir-apparent  to  the  crown  of  Italy.  He  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812,  and 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  ha^-d;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural:  N.  nasal:  R.  trilled:  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BEAUHARNAIS 


300 


BEAUMES 


after  the  defeat  of  the  French  succeeded  Murat  in  the 
command  of  the  army.  His  conduct  on  this  occasion 
was  commended  in  the  warmest  terms  by  Napoleon,  and 
his  masterly  retreat  from  Moscow  contributed  in  a  great 
degree  to  save  the  remnant  of  the  French  forces.  In 
1814  Eugene  was  compelled  to  relinquish  Italy  to  the 
Austrians,  upon  which  he  retired  into  Bavaria,  where  he 
was  made  Prince  of  Eichstadt  and  Duke  of  Leuchten- 
berg.  He  died  in  February,  1824,  leaving  two  sons  and 
four  daughters. 

See  Leonard  Gali.ois,  "  Hisloire  cUi  Prince  Eugene  de  Beauhar- 
nais,"  1S21 ;  Antoine  Aubriet,  "Vie  de  Euj^ene  Beauharnais,"  1824  ; 
ScHONBERG,  "  Plinz  Evigcn  und  sein  Hof,"  1825;  Armandi,  "Vie 
militaire  du  Prince  Eugene,"  2  vols.,  1843;  Vaudoncoukt,  "  Histoire 
politique  et  militaire  du  Prince  Eugene,"  3  vols.,  1825. 

Beauharnais,  de,  (FRAxgois,)  Marquis,  born  at  La 
Rochelle  in  1756,  was  a  brother  of  Alexandre.  He  was 
a  devoted  royalist,  and  rose  to  be  major-general  ander 
Conde.  He  was  made  a  peer  under  the  Bourbons.  Died 
in  1823. 

Beauharnais,  de,  (Hortense.)    See  Hortense. 

Beauharnais,  de,  (Josephine.)    See  Josephine. 

Beauharnais,  de,  (Marie  Anne  FRANgoiSE  Mou- 
CHARD,)  Countess,  generally  called  Fanny  Beauhar- 
nais, born  in  Paris  in  1738,  was  married  to  Count  de 
Beauharnais,  uncle  of  Alexandre.  She  was  the  author 
of  several  dramas  and  poems.    Died  in  1813. 

See  M  adame  Briquet,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Frangaises." 

Beaujeu.    See  Anne  de  Beaujeu. 

Beaujeu,  de,  deh  bd'zhuh',  (Christophe,)  a  French 
soldier  and  poet,  served  under  Henry  HI.  and  Henry  IV. 

Beaujeu,  de,  (Edouard,)  son  of  Guichard,  noticed 
below,  born  in  13 16.  He  fought  against  the  English 
under  Edward  HI.,  and  was  present  at  the  battle  of 
Crecy,  soon  after  which  he  was  made  marshal  of  France. 
He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Ardres  in  135 1. 

Beaujeu,  de,  (Guichard,)  served  under  Philip  the 
Fair  and  several  succeeding  sovereigns,  and  in  1328  fought 
under  Philip  VI.  in  Flanders.    Died  in  133 1. 

Beaujeu,  de,  (Humbert,)  fought  against  the  Albi- 
genses  under  Louis  VIII.,  and  became  Constable  of 
France  in  1240.  He  accompanied  Saint  Louis  to  Pales- 
tine, and,  according  to  some  authorities,  died  in  Egypt 
in  1250. 

Beaujeu,  de,  (Pierre  de  Bourbon,)  Sire,  was  Con- 
stable of  France.  He  subsequently  married  Anne, 
daughter  of  Louis  XL,  and  became  regent  during  the 
minority  of  Charles  VIII.    Died  in  1502. 

See  Anselme,  "  Histoire  genealogique,  etc.  de  la  Maison  royale 
de  France." 

Beaujolais,  de,  deh  hb'zho'W,  (Louis  Charles 
d'Orl^ans,)  Comte,  born  in  Paris  in  1779,  was  a  son 
of  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  surnamed  £galite,  and  brother 
of  Louis  Philippe,  afterwards  king.    Died  in  1808. 

Beaujon,  bo^zhdN',  (Nicolas,)  a  wealthy  and  philan- 
thropic French  banker,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1718,  was 
the  founder  of  a  hospital  in  Paris  which  bears  his  name. 
Died  in  1786. 

Beaujour,  bo'zhooR',  (Louis  Felix,)  a  French  diplo- 
matist and  writer,  born  in  Provence  in  1765  ;  died  in  1836. 

Beaujoyeulx.    See  Baltazarini. 

Beaulac,  bo'ltk',  (Guillau.me,)  a  French  jurist  and 
legal  writer,  born  in  the  department  of  Herault  about 
1745  ;  died  in  1804. 

Beaulaton,  hb'\^'\.bs',  a  French  poet,  born  at  Mon- 
targis,  made  an  indifferent  translation  of  Milton's  "  Para- 
dise Lost"  into  French.    Died  in  1782. 

Beau,  Le.    See  Le  Beau. 

Beaulieu.    See  Baulot. 

Beaulieu,  bole-uh',  almost  boKyuh',  (Augustin,)  a 
French  navigator^~T3orn  at  Rouen  in  1589,  visited  the 
East  Indies  in  i6r6.  He  wrotellan  account  of  his  travels, 
which  was  published  in  Thevenot's  "  Collection  of  Voy- 
ages."   Died  in  1637. 

Beaulieu,  (Claude  Francois,)  a  French  publicist 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Riom  in  1754,  was  editor  of  the 
"Assemblee  Nationale"  and  other  journals,  in  which  he 
advocated  a  constitutional  monarchy.  He  contributed 
a  number  of  articles  to  the  "Biographie  Universelle," 
and  wrote  "  Historical  Essays  on  the  Causes  and  Effects 
of  the  French  Revolution,"  (1801.)    Died  in  1827. 

See  Le  Bas,  "Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 


Beaulieu,  (Eustorg,)  sometimes  called  Hector,  a 
French  poet  and  musician,  born  about  1530. 

Beaulieu,  de,  deh  bo'le-uh',  (Camus  de  Vernet, 
kt'miis'  deh  v^R'ni',)  favourite  of  Charles  VII.  of 
France,  who  appointed  him  grand  master  of  the  horse 
and  director  of  the  finances.  He  was  assassinated,  by 
order  of  the  constable  Artus  de  Richemont,  in  1427. 

Beaulieu,  de,  (Charles  Gilloton — zhe^yo'toN',)  a 
French  writer  on  political  economy,  lived  about  1750. 

Beaulieu,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste  AUais  —  t'li^)  a 
French  calligrapher,  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled 
"The  Art  of  Writing,"  (1681.) 

Beaulieu,  de,  (Jean  Pierre,)  Baron,  an  Austrian 
general,  born  in  1725,  fought  in  the  Seven  Years'  war. 
Being  sent  in  1796  to  Italy,  he  was  signally  defeated  at 
Montenotte  by  Bonaparte.  He  resigned  his  command 
in  June,  1796.    Died  in  1820. 

Beaulieu,  de,  (Louis  le  Blanc,)  a  Protestant  divine, 
and  professor  of  theology  at  the  Calvinist  Academy  of 
Sedan,  born  at  Plessis-Marly,  in  Limousin,  in  1614.  He 
was  the  author  of  "Sedan  Theses,"  ("Theses  Seda- 
nenses,")  and  other  religious  works.    Died  in  1675. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Beaulieu,  de,  (S^bastien  de  Pontault — deh  pdN^- 

to',)  first  engineer  of  Louis  XIV.,  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"The  Glorious  Conquests  of  Louis  le  Grand,  or  Col- 
lection of  Plans  and  Views  of  Places  Besieged  and  the 
Sites  of  Battles."    Died  in  1674. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais." 

Beaumanoir.    See  Lavardin,  (Jean  de.) 

Beaumanoir,  bo^mt'nwaR.',  Marquis  of,  a  French 
litterateur  and  dramatist,  born  in  Brittany  about  1720; 
died  about  1795. 

Beaumanoir,  de,  deh  bo'mt'nwaR',  (Jean,)  Sire,  a 
French  soldier,  and  companion-in-arms  of  the  famous 
Bertrand  du  Guesclin.  He  fought  on  the  side  of  the 
Count  of  Blois  against  John  of  Montfort,  and  was  the 
leader  of  the  thirty  Breton  knights  who  in  135 1  had  a 
combat  with  and  defeated  the  thirty  English  champions. 

See  Le  Bas,  "Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Beaumanoir,  de,  (Philippe,)  born  in  Picardy,  was 
one  of  the  most  eminent  jurists  of  his  time.  His  prin- 
cipal work,  entitled  "The  Common  Law  ( Coictume)  of 
Beauvoisis,"  still  enjoys  a  high  reputation,  and  was  re- 
published in  1842  by  M.  Beugnot.    Died  in  1296. 

See  Montesquieu,  "  Esprit  des  Lois  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Beaumarchais,  de,  deh  bo'mtR'sha',  (Pierre  Au- 
GUSTE  Caron — kt'r^N',)  a  French  dramatist  and  versatile 
genius,  born  in  Paris  in  1732.  He  was  the  son  of  a  watch- 
maker named  Caron,  and  for  a  time  pursued  his  father's 
occupation  ;  but  his  skill  in  music  soon  procured  him  ad- 
mission to  court.  About  this  time  he  entered  into  busi- 
ness relations  with  the  famous  financier  Duverny,  by  which 
he  was  enabled  to  make  a  large  fortune,  and  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  American  Revolution  made  an  advan- 
tageous contract  to  supply  the  colonies  with  arms  and 
ammunition.  In  this  affair  he  was  the  secret  agent  of 
the  French  government.  In  1775  he  brought  out  "The 
Barber  of  Seville,"  an  opera  which  was  very  successful, 
and  in  1784  "The  Marriage  of  Figaro."  The  latter, 
in  which  the  aristocracy  was  assailed,  was  prohibited 
from  being  acted  by  Louis  XVI.  ;  but  in  spite  of  the 
interdiction  it  was  brought  on  the  stage,  and  was  received 
with  the  greatest  enthusiasm.  Among  his  other  works 
we  may  name  the  drama  of  "Eugenie,"  which  formed 
the  groundwork  of  Goethe's  "  Clavigo  ;"  also  a  number 
of  memoirs  or  pleadings  written  on  occasion  of  lawsuits 
in  which  he  was  engaged,  and  displaying  such  powers 
of  wit  and  satire  as  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  Voltaire. 
He  favoured  the  popula?"  cause  in  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, to  which  his  writings  had  largely  contributed.  Died 
in  1799. 

See  Cousin  d'Avalon,  "Vie  de  P.  A.  Caron  de  Beaumarchais," 
1S02  ;  M.  deLo.menie,  "  Beaumarchais,  saVie  et  son  Temps,"  in  the 
"  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  October  and  November,  1S52  ;  Saint- 
Marc  Girardin,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Beaumarchais,"  1835 ;  E. 
Berger,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Beaumarchais,"  1847, 
"Edinburgh  Review,"  vol.  civ.,  1856;  "Eraser's  Magazine,"  vol. 
xlix.,  1854:  "Westminster  Review"  for  September,  1844. 

Beaume,  bom,  (Joseph,)  a  French  historical  painter, 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1790,  worked  in  Paris. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/wrt;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


BEAUMELLE 


301 


BEAUMONT 


Beaumelle,  de  la,  deh  It  bo'meK,  (Laurent  Angli- 
Viel — ox'gle've-el',)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Valle- 
raugue  in  1726.  Having  published  a  work  entitled 
"My  Thoughts,"  ("Mes  Pensees,")  which  contained 
remarks  offensive  to  Voltaire,  he  was  imprisoned  in  the 
Bastille,  chietly  at  the  instigation  of  the  latter.  On  his 
release  he  wrote  a  reply  to  Voltaire's  "  Supplement  to 
the  Age  of  Louis  XIV.,"  which  is  esteemed  a  master- 
piece of  wit  and  polemics.  In  1756  he  brought  out 
"  Memoirs  towards  the  History  of  Madame  de  Main- 
tenon,"  for  which  he  was  imprisoned  about  a  year.  Died 
in  1773. 

See  M.  Nicolas,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  L.  A.  de  la  Beau- 
melle," 1S52;  Charles  Nisard,  "  Les  Enneinis  de  Voltaire,  Des- 
fontaines,  Freron  et  La  Beaumelle,"  1853. 

Beaumelle,  de  la,  (Victor  Laurent  Angliviel,) 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  near  Mazeres  in  1772.  He 
served  in  the  Spanish  campaign  of  1808,  and  subsequently 
under  Uom  Pedro,  Emperor  of  Brazil.  He  wrote  a  treat- 
ise "  On  the  Brazilian  Empire,"  (1823,)  and  various  other 
works.    Died  in  183 1. 

Beaumes.    See  Belmeis. 

Beaumesnil,  hb'mk'nhV,  (Henriette  Adelaide 
Villard — ve^ySR',)  a  French  comic  actress  and  opera- 
singer,  born  in  1748;  died  in  1803. 

Beaumetz,  de,  deh  bo'mis',  (Bon  Albert  Briois — 
bRe^va^)  Chevalier,  a  French  jurist,  member  of  the 
Constituent  Assembly,  born  at  Arras  in  1759.  He  made 
important  improvements  in  the  laws,  and  wrote  a  valua- 
ble work,  entitled  "Penal  Code  of  the  Jurymen  of  the 
Chief  National  Court,"  (1792.)  To  escape  the  reign  of 
terror,  he  emigrated  in  1792.  Died  at  Calcutta  about  1809. 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Beaumont,  bo'mSnt,  formerly  bu'mSnt,  (Basil,)  an 
English  naval  officer,  born  in  1669,  became  rear-admiral 
under  Queen  Anne.  While  on  his  way  to  Rotterdam  in 
1703,  he  was  overtaken  in  the  Downs  by  a  terrible  storm  ; 
thirteen  vessels  were  sunk,  and  the  admiral,  with  fifteen 
hundred  seamen,  perished. 

See  BuRCHET,  "Naval  History'." 

Beaumont,  bo'm6N',  (Claude  £tienne,)  a  French 
architect,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1757,  studied  m  Paris 
I'.rder  Dumont.  His  principal  work  is  the  "Salle  du 
Tribunat"  in  Paris.    Died  in  1811. 

Beaumont,  bo'mdnt',  (Claudio  Francesco,)  an  Ital- 
ian painter,  born  at  Turin  in  1694.  Among  his  best 
works  are  the  frescos  of  the  royal  palace  at  Turin.  Died 
in  1766. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Beaumont,  bo'm^N',  (£tienne,)  a  Swiss  lawyer  and 
philosophical  writer,  born  a^  Geneva  in  1718,  was  the 
author  of  an  anonymous  work  entitled  "  Principles  of 
Philosophy,"  attributed  by  some  to  Diderot.    Died  in 

See  Sexebier,  "  Histoire  litt^raii-e  de  Geneve." 

Beaumont,  (Felix  Bellator,)  Count,  a  French 
soldier  and  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1793,  served  in 
the  campaigns  of  1812-15,  and  became  a  senator  in  1852. 

Beaumont,  (Francis,)  the  father  of  the  celebrated 
dramatist,  was  one  of  the  judges  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas.    Died  in  1598. 

Beaumont,  (Francis,)  an  English  dramatic  poet,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1586.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  studied  law  in  the  Temple. 
In  London  he  associated  with  Ben  Jonson  and  other  wits 
\sho  met  at  the  Mermaid  Tavern.  He  married  Ursula 
Isley,  by  whom  he  had  two  daughters.  He  became  the 
intimate  friend  of  John  Fletcher,  in  conjunction  with 
whom  he  wrote  a  number  of  po]nilar  dramas.  Among 
these  are  "Philaster,"  (i6ii,)  "The  Maid's  Tragedy," 
"  The  Coxcomb,"  (1613,)  and  "  Cupid's  Revenge,"  (1613.) 
Beaumont  was  sole  author  of  "The  Masque  of  the  Inner 
Temple,"  (161 2,)  and  of  minor  poems,  among  which  is  a 
"Letter  to  Ben  Jonson."  Diedini6r5.  (SeeFLETCiiER, 
John.)  "  It  cannot  be  denied,"  says  Hazlitt,  "that  they 
are  lyrical  and  descriptive  poets  of  the  highest  order;  every 
page  of  their  writings  is  a  florilegiimi :  they  are  dramatic 
poets  of  the  second  class  in  point  of  knowledge,  variety, 
vivacity,  and  effect;  they  are  masters  of  style  and  versi- 
fication in  alwnst  every  variety  of  melting  modulation 
or  sounding  pomp  of  which  they  are  capable  :  in  comic 


wit  and  spirit  they  are  scarcely  surpassed  by  any  writers 
■of  our  age."  ("Lectures  on  the  Dramatic  Literature  of 
the  Age  of  Elizabeth.")  The  elder  Coleman's  prologue 
to  "Philaster,"  spoken  in  1763,  has  the  following  apt 
and  admirable  lines : 

"  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  those  twin  stars  that  run 
Their  glorious  course  'round  Shakspeare's  golden  sun." 

(Beau.mont  and  Fletcher's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  203.) 
See  "  Biographia  Dramatica  ;"  Campbell's  "  Lives  of  the  British 
Dramatists." 

Beaumont,  (Sir  George  Howland,)  an  English 
amateur,  landscape-painter,  and  liberal  patron  of  art,  was 
born  in  Essex  in  1753.  He  had  the  principal  share  in 
the  establishment  of  the  National  Gallery,  to  which  he 
presented  sixteen  paintings,  many  of  them  works  of  emi- 
nent artists.  He  was  a  friend  of  Wordsworth  and  Cole- 
ridge.   Died  in  1827. 

Beaumont,  (Jean  Francois  Albanis — tKbt'ness',) 
a  French  agriculturist,  born  at  Chambery  about  1755, 
was  the  author  of  several  books  of  travels  and  antiqua- 
rian treatises.    Died  in  1812. 

Beaumont,  (Jeanne  le  Prince.)  See  Prince  de 
Beaumont. 

Beaumont,  (Sir  John,)  elder  brother  of  the  drama- 
tist, born  in  1582,  was  the  author  of  an  unpublished  reli- 
gious poem,  entitled  "The  Crown  of  Thorns,"  and  a 
collection  of  poems  called  "Bosworth  Field."  Died  in 
1628. 

Beaumont,  (Joseph,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Suf- 
folk in  161 5,  became  professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge 
in  1670.  His  poem  entitled  "Psyche,  or  Lovers'  Mys- 
teries," had  a  transient  popularity.    Died  in  1699. 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vols.  xi.  and  xii.,  1825. 

Beaumont,  (Pierre  Franqois,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  in  Paris  in  1720,  executed  several  prints  after 
Wouwerman  and  Breughel.    Died  about  1780. 

Beaumont,  bo'mSnt',  (William,)  M.D.,  a  surgeon  in 
the  United  States  navy,  born  in  1796.  While  stationed 
at  Michilimackinac,  in  1822,  a  young  man  was  brought 
to  him  with  a  wound  in  his  stomach  produced  by  the 
discharge  of  a  musket  at  the  distance  of  only  three  or 
four  feet.  By  skilful  treatment  the  wound  was  healed, 
leaving  an  aperture  of  about  two  and  a  half  inches  in 
diameter,  through  which  could  be  witnessed  the  process 
of  digestion.  Dr.  Beaumont  availed  himself  of  this  ex- 
traordinary phenomenon  to  prosecute  a  series  of  obser- 
vations and  experiments  on  digestion,  the  results  of 
which  have  been  received  as  valuable  acquisitions  to 
medical  science  throughout  the  world.  They  were  first 
published  in  1833,  and  have  been  republished  in  Eng- 
land and  on  the  continent.    Died  in  1853. 

Beaumont,  de,  deh  bo'mdN',  (Amblard,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  near  Grenoble  ;  died  in  1375. 

Beaumont,  de,  (Antoine  Francois,)  Vicomte,  a 
French  naval  officer,  born  in  Perigord  in  1733,  distin- 
guished himself  as  commander  of  a  squadron  against  the 
English  in  1781.  In  1789  he  was  a  deputy  from  Agen 
to  the  States-General.    Died  in  1805. 

Beaumont,  de,  (Christophe,)  Archbishop  of  Paris, 
born  in  Perigord  in  1703.  He  was  a  zealous  opponent 
of  the  Jansenists,  and  excited  so  much  hostility  by  his 
violence  that  he  was  at  length  exiled  to  La  Trappe. 
Died  in  1 781. 

See  P.  PiCHOT,  "  !£loge  de  C.  de  Beamnont,"  1822;  Abbe  Fer- 
LET,  "Oraison  funebre  de  Monseigneur  de  Beaumont,"  Paris,  1784; 

"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Beaumont,  de,  (Elie.)    See  Elie  de  Beaumont. 

Beaumont,  de,  (Geoffroy,)  born  at  Bayeux,  was 
Bishop  of  Laon  and  papal  legate  in  Lombardy.  Died 
in  1273. 

Beaumont,  de,  (J.  T.  G.  Leprevot — leh^pRaVo',) 
born  in  Normandy  aboute,i740.  He  suffered,  during  the 
reigns  of  Louis  XV.  and  Louis  XVI.,  an  imprisonment 
of  more  than  twenty  vears,  for  having  discovered  a  secret 
coalition  for  a  mono]Joly  of  grain,  known  as  the  pacte  de 
faviine,  ("  contract  of  starvation,")  which  was  sanctioned 
by  the  government. 

See  Le  Bas,  "  Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Beaumont,  de,  (Jean  de  Hainaut — h^^n5',)  Sire, 
a  French  soldier,  celebrated  by  Froissart,  was  a  brother 
of  William  the  Good,  Count  of  Hainaut.    He  at  first 


f  as     c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as c,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Qi^^See  Expl anations,  p.  2;v ) 


BEAUMONT 


302 


BEAUREPAIRE 


favoured  the  cause  of  Edward  III.  of  England,  who  after- 
wards married  his  niece  Philippa.  In  1345  he  went  over 
to  the  party  of  Philip  of  Valois,  and  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  battle  of  Crecy.    Died  in  1356. 
See  Fkoissart,  "Chronicles." 

Beaumont,  de,  (Jean  Louis  Moreau,)  a  French 
magisti-ate,  born  in  Paris  in  1715,  wrote  "Memoirs  con- 
cerning Taxes  in  Europe,"  (1768.)    Died  in  1785. 

Beaumont,  van,  van  bo'moN',  (Simon  Herbert,)  a 
Dutch  botanist  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Dort  in  1574; 
died  in  1654. 

Beaumont  de  Brivasac,  de,  deh  bo'moN'  deh  bRe'- 
vS'ztk',  CoMTE,  a  French  geographer,  "born  near  Tou- 
louse in  1746,  was  the  reputed  author  of  a  work  entitled 
'•Europe  and  its  Colonies."    Died  in  1821. 

See  QuEKARD,  "  L:i  France  Litteraire." 

Beaumont  de  Carriere,  de,  deh  ba^moN'  deh  kl'- 
re-aiR^,  Baron,  a  French  general  of  division,  was  aide- 
de-camp  of  Murat.    Died  in  1813. 

Beaumont  de  la  Bonniere,  de,  deh  bd'moN'  deh 
la  bo'ne-aiR',  (Gustave  Auguste,)  a  distinguished 
French  publicist  and  writer,  born  at  Beaumont-la-Chatre, 
in  Sarthe,  in  February,  1802.  In  1831  he  accompanied 
M.  de  Tocqueville  to  the  United  States,  in  order  to  study 
the  penitentiary  systems  of  that  country.  Having  re- 
turned to  France,  he  married  in  1836  the  granddaughter 
of  I>a  Fayette.  In  1840  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  and  in  1848  became  a  member  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly,  where  he  voted  with  the  moderate 
republicans.  In  August,  1848,  he  was  sent  by  General 
Cavaignac  as  ambassador  to  England.  He  wrote  a  val- 
uable treatise  "  On  the  Penitentiary  System  of  the  United 
States,  and  its  Application  in  France,"  (2  vols.,  1832,) 
"  Slavery  in  the  United  States,"  ("  L'Esclavage  aux  fitats- 
Unis,"  1835,)  and  "Ireland,  Political,  Social,  and  Reli- 
gious," (1839.)  The  two  last-named ^works  obtained  the 
Montyon  prize  from  the  Institute.  He  resigned  his  office 
of  ambassador  on  the  election  of  Louis  Napoleon,  De- 
cember, 1S48.  About  the  end  of  1851  he  was  imprisoned 
for  opposition  to  the  coup  d'etat  of  December  2.  Died 
in  1866. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire,"  (Supplement.) 

Beaumont  de  la  Bonniere,  de,  (Marc  Antoine,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  general,  born  in  Touraine  in  1760.  He 
served  in  the  principal  campaigns  from  1795  to  1809,  and 
was  made  general  of  division,  grand  officer  of  the  legion 
of  honour,  and  count  of  the  empire.  In  1814  he  was 
created  a  peer  by  Louis  XVIII.    Died  in  1830. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Frangais." 

Beaumont  de  Perefixe.    See  Per^fixe. 

Beaumont  des  Adrets.    See  Adrets. 

Beaune,  de,  deh  b5n,  (Florimond,)  a  French  geo- 
meter, and  an  intimate  friend  of  Descartes,  born  at  Blois 
in  1601.  He  wrote  a  treatise,  in  Latin,  "On  the  Limits 
of  Equations,"  and  invented  several  astronomical  instru- 
ments.   Died  in  1652. 

Beaune,  de,  (Jacques,)  a  French  minister  of  finance 
under  Francis  I.  He  lent  to  the  queen-mother  money 
provided  for  the  army,  for  which  offence  he  was  executed 
in  1527. 

Beaune,  de,  (Renaud,)  born  at  Tours,  in  France,  in 
1527,  became  Archbishop  of  Sens  in  1596.  He  was  in- 
strumental in  the  conversion  of  Henry  IV.  to  Catholi- 
cism.   Died  in  1606. 

Beaunoir,  bo^nw^R',  (Alexandre  Louis  Bertrand 
Robineau — ro^je^no',)  a  French  dramatist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1746.  Beaunoir  is  an  anagram  of  Robineau, 
which  was  his  proper  name.    Died  in  1823. 

See  QuERARO,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Beaupere,  bS^paiR',  (Jean,)  a  French  priest,  noto- 
rious as  one  of  the  judges  who  condemned  Joan  of  Arc 
in  1430.    Died  about  1450. 

Beaiiplan,  de,  deh  bo'plSx',  (Guillaume  le  Vas- 
seur — leh  vt^sUR',)  a  French  geographical  writer,  born 
in  Normandy,  published  a  "Description  of  the  Ukraine," 
(1650,)  which  was  translated  into  German  and  English; 
also  a  valuable  map  of  the  Ukraine.    Died  about  1670. 

Beaupre,  de,  deh  bd^pRi',  (Plat,)  a  French  priest, 
a  member  of  the  Convention  of  1792,  voted  for  the  death 
of  Louis  XVI. 


Beaup\iis,de,  deh  bo'pii-e',  almost b5'pwe',(CnARLi:s 
Walon,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Beauvais  in  162 1, 
became  director  of  the  Port-Royal  schools  in  Paris,  and 
wrote  several  "  Moral  Essays."    Died  in  1709. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Beaupuy,  de,  deh  bo^pu-e',  (Armand  Michel 
Bacmelier,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Mussidan  in  1757, 
served  under  Moreau  on  the  Rhine,  and  was  killed  in  the 
retreat  from  Bavaria  in  1796. 

Beaupuy,  de,  (Nicolas  Michel  Bachelier,)  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Mussidan  in  1750,  was 
elected  to  the  Council  of  Ancients  in  1799.  Died  in  1802. 

Beaurain,  de,  deh  bS'riN^  (Jean,)  born  at  Aix-en  - 
Essart  in  1696,  was  appointed  in  1721  royal  geographer. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "Topographical  and  Militaiy 
Description  of  the  Campaigns  of  [Marshal]  Luxembourg 
from  1690  to  1694,"  (1756.)    Died  in  1771. 

Beauregard.    See  IjErigard. 

Beauregard,  boR  gia',  (Charles  Victor,)  some- 
times called  Woirgard,  a  French  general,  born  at  Metz 
in  1764,  was  killed  near  Badajos  in  1810. 

Beauregard,  (Jean  Nicolas,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
po]Hilar  preacher,  born  at  Metz  in  1731  ;  died  in  1804. 

_Beauregard,  bo're-gard',  [Fr.  pron.  bo'reh-gtR'  or 
boR'gtR',]  (Peter  Gu.stavus  Toutant,)  an  American 
general,  born  near  New  Orleans  about  1816.  He  grad- 
uated at  West  Point,  the  second  in  his  class,  in  1838, 
and  was  appointed  second  lieutenant  of  artillery,  but  was 
soon  after  transferred  to  the  corps  of  engineers.  He 
was  breveted  as  major  for  his  meritorious  conduct  in  the 
Mexican  war,  (1846-47.)  He  obtained  in  1853  the  rank 
of  captain,  which  he  resigned  in  February,  1861,  to  enter 
the  Confederate  army.  He  directed  the  bombardment 
of  Fort  Sumter,  which  initiated  the  civil  war,  April  12, 

1861.  In  June  he  took  command  of  the  army  at  Ma- 
nassas Junction.  He  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  (July  21,)  where  he  gained  a  decided  victory  over 
the  Union  forces.  In  this  engagement,  according  to  his 
own  statement,  he  had  27,000  men,  of  whom  269  were 
killed  and  1483  were  wounded.  For  this  service  he  was 
promoted  to  be  a  general  in  the  regular  army  of  the 
Southern  Confederacy.  Early  in  1862  he  passed  from 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  to  that  of  the  Mississippi.  On 
the  first  day  of  the  battle  of  Shiloh  (April  6)  he  was  next 
in  command  under  General  Albert  S.  Johnston,  on  whose 
death  he  succeeded  to  the  chief  command.  He  was,  how- 
ever, the  next  day  defeated  by  General  Grant.  He  then 
retired  to  Corinth,  which  was  strongly  fortified,  and  which 
he  defended  against  the  Union  army  in  a  long  siege. 
He  evacuated  Corinth  about  May  30,  1862,  and  retreated 
with  but  little  loss.  Having  been  raised  to  the  full  rank 
of  general,  the  highest  inlhe  service,  he  took,  in  August, 

1862,  command  of  the  department  of  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia.  He  defended  Charleston  with  success  in  1863 
against  the  Federal  navy  and  army  commanded  respect- 
ively by  Dahlgren  and  Gillmore. 

About  the  ist  of  May,  1864,  Beauregard  moved  his 
forces  to  Petersburg  and  reinforced  the  army  of  Lee. 
He  was  appointed  commander  of  the  military  division  of 
the  West  in  October,  and  was  sent  to  Georgia  to  defend 
it  against  Sherman,  but  proved  utterly  unable  to  with- 
stand the  advance  of  the  Union  army.  He  had  united 
his  forces  with  those  of  General  J.  E.  Johnston  in  North 
Carolina  when  that  officer  surrendered  to  Sherman  in 
April,  1865. 

See  "Southern  Generals,"  an  anonymous  work,  1865;  Greei  ey 
"The  American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii. 

Beaurepaire,  boR^pSR^,  (Nicolas  Joseph,)  born  at 
Coulommiers  in  1740,  was  appointed  in  1792  command- 
ant of  Verdun,  which  was  immediately  afterwards  be- 
sieged by  the  Prussians.  Finding  his  efforts  to  maintain 
the  place  unavailing,  Beaurepaire  destroyed  himself. 

See  "  Victohes  et  Conquetes  des  Francais." 

Beaurepaire,  de,  deh  boR'paR',  (Nicolas  Girard,) 
a  French  soldier,  born  in  Poitou,  was  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  Vendeans  in  the  campaign  of  1793,  and  was  mor- 
tally wounded  the  same  year. 

Beaurepaire-Rohan,  de,  deh  boR^p^R'  ro^6N',  (Hen- 
ri,) a  Brazilian  traveller,  of  French  extraction,  born  about 
1818.  Among  his  principal  works  is  a  "  Complete  Geog- 
raphy of  Matto  Grosso. " 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long ;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohsacre;  fdr,  fill,  fSt;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


BEAURIEU 


303 


BEAUFAU 


Beaiirieu,  de,  deh  b5'Re-uh',  (Gaspard  Guillard— 
ge'ytR',)  a  French  iittcniteuf^ hoxw  at  Saint-Paul,  in  Ar- 
to'is,  in  1728,  wrote  "  The  Disciple  of  Nature,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1795. 

See  QuEKARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Beausobre,  de,  deh  bo'sobR',  (Charles  Louis,)  a 
Protestant  divine,  born  at  Dessau,  in  Germany,  in  1690, 
was  a  son  of  Isaac  de  Beausobre,  noticed  below.  lie 
became  a  privy  councillor  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  and 
pastor  at  Berlin.    Died  in  1753. 

Beausobre,  de,  (Isaac,)  an  eminent  French  Protest- 
ant theologian,  born  at  Niort  in  1659.  On  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  edict  of  Nantes  he  took  refuge  in  Rotterdam, 
(1685,)  and  in  1694  repaired  to  Berlin,  where  he  became 
pastor  of  one  of  the  French  churches,  and  subsequently 
court  chaplain.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Critical  His- 
tory of  Manichasus  and  the  Manicheans,"  (2  vols.,  1739,) 
which  is  esteemed  a  standard  work,  and  of  "  Critical  and 
Philological  Remarks  on  the  New  Testament,"  (1742.) 
He  also  contributed  a  number  of  valuable  articles  to 
the  "  Bibliotheque  Allemande,"  and  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Reformation,"  which  he  left  unfinished.  Died  at 
Berlin  in  173S.  Beausobre  and  Lenfant  translated  the 
New  Testament  into  French,  (171 8.) 

See  Lachapelle,  "Vie  de  Beausobre." 

Beausobre,  de,  (Jean  Jacques  de  Beault — deh  bo,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  general  and  military  writer,  born  in 
1704.  He  assisted  at  the  sieges  of  Menin  aiid  Ypres  in 
1744,  and  in  1757  commanded  at  the  blockade  of  Guel- 
dres,  which  he  forced  to  surrender.    Died  in  1784. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Fran^ais." 

Beausobre,  de,  (Louis,)  son  of  Isaac,  noticed  above, 
born  at  Berlin  in  1730,  was  the  author  of  "Letters  on 
German  Literature,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1783. 

Beausoleil,  bo'so^laF  or  bo'so'hVye,  (Jean  du  Chate- 
let — dii  shat'LV,)  born  in  Brabant  about  1576,  wrote  a 
work  on  alchemy  entitled  "Diorismus."    Died  in  1643. 

See  Hoefer,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Beaussier,  bo'se-a',  (Louis  Andr6,)  an  able  naval 
officer,  was  a  nephew  of  Louis  Joseph,  noticed  below. 
Died  in  1789. 

Beaussier  de  Lille,  bo'se-|,'deh  1^1,  (Louis  Joseph,) 
a  French  naval  officer,  born  at  Toulon  in  1700 ;  died 
in  1765. 

Beautemps-Beaupre,  bo^tSN'  bc/pRi',  (Charles 
FRANgois,)  a  celebrated  French  hydrographer,  born 
near  Sainte-Menehould  in  1766,  Among  his  principal 
works  are  the  Atlas  accompanying  the  account  of  D'En- 
trecasteaux's  voyage  in  1791,  an  "  Atlas  of  the  Baltic 
Sea,"  and  "  General  Hydrographic  Chart."  He  was  ap- 
pointed, in  1814,  chief  hydrographer  and  keeper  of  the 
marine  depot,  and  was  a  member  of  the  French  Institute 
and  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Gottingen.    Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Beauteville,  de,  deh  bot^veK,  (Jean  Louis  Dubuis- 
son — dii'bu-e^soN',  Bishop  of  Alais,  born  at  Beauteville., 
in  France,  in  1708;  died  in  1775. 

Beauvais,  bd'va',  (Charles  Nicolas  Daui^hin,)  a 
French  engraver,  son  of  Nicolas,  noticed  below,  born 
in  Paris  about  1720. 

Beauvais,  (Charles  Theodore,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Orleans  in  1772,  was  a  son  of  Charles  Nicolas 
Beauvais  de  Preaux.  He  served  under  Napoleon  in 
Italy,  Egypt,  and  Spain.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  "  The  Official  and  Confidential  Correspondence 
of  Napoleon  with  Foreign  Courts,"  (7  vols.,  1819,)  and 
was  principal  editor  of  the  compilation  entitled  "Victo- 
ries and  Conquests  of  the  French,"  ("  Victoires  et  Con- 
quetes  des  Fran9ais,"  28  vols.,  1817.)    Died  in  1830. 

Beauvais,  (Gilles  Francois,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
moralist,  born  in  Brittany  in  1695  5  ^^^^  1773- 

Beauvais,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  antiquary,  born 
at  Dunkirk  in  1698,  wrote  an  "Abridged  History  of  the 
Roman  Emperors  from  Medals,"  (1767,)  and  other 
works  on  numismatics.    Died  in  1773. 

Beauvais,  (Jacques,)  a  French  engraver,  born  about 
1750- 

Beauvais,  (Nicolas  Dauphin,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  in  Paris  in  1687,  was  a  pupil  of  Gerard  Adrian. 
Died  in  1763. 

Beauvais,  (Philippe,)  a  French  sculptor,  son  of  the 


preceding,  died  in  1781.  His  principal  work  is  a  statue 
of  "  Immortality,"  executed  for  the  Empress  of  Russia. 

Beauvais,  de,  deh  \yo'\\',  (Bertrand  Pairier,)  a 
French  royalist,  born  at  Chinon  about  1755,  took  an 
active  part  in  the  Vendean  war,  of  which  he  wrote  an 
account,  entitled  "View  of  the  War  of  La  Vendee." 
Died  in  1827. 

See  BiLLARD  DE  Veaux,  "Biographie  des  Personnes  marqiiantes 
de  la  Chouannerie." 

Beauvais,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste  Charles  Marie,)  an 
eloquent  French  prelate,  born  at  Cherbourg  in  1731,  be- 
came Bishop  of  Senez.  He  wrote  a  number  of  Funeral 
Orations  and  Sermons.    Died  in  1790. 

See  N.  Maillet,  "  filoge  de  Messire  de  Beauvais,"  1807  ;  N.  N. 
DE  Sambucy,  "Vie  de  Monseigneur  de  Beauvais,"  1842. 

Beauvais,  de,  (Remy,)  a  French  Capuchin,  born  about 
1580,  wrote  a  burlesque  poem  entitled  "La  Madeleine." 

Beauvais  de  Preaux,  bo'vi'  deh  pRa'5'',  (Charles 
Nicolas,)  a  French  physician  and  writer,  born  at  Or- 
leans in  1745.  As  a  member  of  the  National  Conven- 
tion in  1792,  he  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  Died 
in  1794. 

Beauval,  bS'vtK,  (Jeanne  Olivier  Bourguignon 

— booR'gen'yoN^,)  a  comic  actress,  born  in  Holland 
about  1643,  was  patronized  by  Moliere.    Died  in  1720. 

Beauvallet,  bo'vt'li',  (Pierre  Francois,)  a  French 
actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  Pithiviers  in  1801. 

Beauvallet,  (Pierre  Nicolas,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Havre  in  1749,  studied  under  Pajou.  Among 
his  best  works  are  busts  of  William  Tell  and  Marat. 
Died  in  1828. 

Beauvarlet,  bo''vtR''Ly,  (Jacques  Firmin,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1 73 1,  executed  several  prints 
after  Giordano.    Died  in  1793. 

Beauvau,  de,  deh  ho'\o',  (Bertrand,)  a  French 
statesman,  born  about  1400,  was  employed  by  Charles 
VII.  in  several  important  negotiations,  and  was  appointed 
royal  chamberlain  in  1435.    Died  in  1474. 

See  S.  DE  Sainte-Marthe,  "  Histoire  genealogique  de  la  Maison 
de  Beauvau." 

Beauvau,  de,  (Charles  Juste,)  marshal  of  France, 
born  at  Luneville  in  1720.  He  commanded  the  principal 
attack  at  the  storming  of  Mahon  in  1756,  and  had  a  pro- 
minent share  in  the  victory  of  Corbach  in  1760.  In  1789 
he  became  a  member  of  the  cabinet  of  Louis  XVI. 
Marshal  Beauvau  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy 
and  the  Academy  della  Crusca.    Died  in  1793. 

See  S.  J.  DE  BouFFLERs,  "  £5loge  de  M.  de  Beauvau,"  1805. 

Beauvau,  de,  (Charles  Juste  Francois  Victur- 
nien — v^k^tiiR^ne-aN'',)  Prince,  son  of  Marc  litienne, 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  1793.  Lie  served  in  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1812,  and  was  created  a  senator 
by  Louis  Napoleon  in  1852. 

Beauvau,  de,  (Henri,)  Baron,  a  French  general, 
served  with  distinction  under  Rudolph  II.  of  Germany. 
He  wrote  an  account  of  his  campaigns  and  travels,  (1619.) 

Beauvau,  de,  (Henri,)  Marquis,  son  of  the  prece- 
ding, wrote  "Memoirs  of  Charles  IV.,  Duke  of  Lorraine 
and  of  Bar."    Died  in  1684. 

Beauvau,  de,  (Louis,)  a  French  statesman,  born 
about  141  o,  became  grand  seneschal  of  Provence,  and 
chamberlain  of  Rene,  King  of  Sicily.    Died  in  1462. 

Beauvau,  de,  (Louis  Charles  Antoine,)  Marquis, 
a  French  general,  born  in  17 10,  was  killed  at  the  siege 
of  Ypres  in  1744. 

Beauvau,  de,  (Marc,)  Prince  of  Craon,  was  governoi 
of  Francis  of  Lorraine,  afterwards  Emperor  of  Germany, 
and  subsequently  became  Viceroy  of  Tuscany.  He  had 
a  high  reputation  for  learning  and  accomplishments. 
Died  in  1754. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Beauvau,  de,  (Marc  Stienne  Gabriel,)  born  in 
1773,  bore  the  title  of  a  prince  of  the  Holy  Empire,  and 
was  a  grandee  of  Spain.    Died  in  1849. 

Beauvau,  de,  (Ren^,)  a  distinguished  French  soldier, 
fought  under  Charles  of  Anjou  in  Italy  in  1265,  and  was 
mortally  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Benevento  in  1266. 

Beauvau,  de,  (Ren6  Franqois,)  an  excellent  French 
prelate,  born  in  1664.  Appointed  Bishop  of  Tournay  in 
1707,  he  did  his  utmost  to  relieve  the  sufferings  of  the 
soldiers  and  citizens  during  the  siege  of  that  place  by 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  H,  K,  gjiitiiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  th'n.    (J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BEAUVILLIERS 


304 


BECCARIA 


Prince  Eugene,  and,  after  it  was  captured,  refused  to 
perform  a  Te  Deum  for  the  conquerors.  He  was  created 
Archl)ishop  of  Narbonne  in  17 19.    Died  in  1739. 

See  MoKEKi,  "  Dictionnaiie  Historique." 

Beauvilliers,  boVe^ye-^',  (Antoine,)  a  noted  French 
gastronome,  born  in  Paris  in  1754,  wrote  "The  Art  of 
Cookery,"  {2  vols.,  1814.)    Died  in  1817. 

Beauvilliers,  de,  deh  bo've'ye-.V,  (FRANgois  Hono- 
RAT,)  Duke  of  Saint-Aignan,  born  in  1607,  was  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1687. 

Beauvilliers,  de,  (Marie,)  daughter  of  Count  Saint- 
Aignan,  born  in  1574,  was  mistress  of  Henry  IV.  until 
superseded  by  Gabrielle  d'Estrees,  after  which  she  be- 
came abbess  of  Montmartre.    Died  in  1656. 

Beauvilliers,  de,  (Paul  Hippolyte,)  Duke  of  Saint- 
Aignan,  born  in  1684,  wrote  a  work  entitled  "Literary 
Amusements."  He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy.   Died  in  1776. 

Beauvoir,  de,  deh  bS^vw^R',  (Aimee  Leocadie 
Doze,)  a  French  ch'amatic  authoress,  the  wife  of  Edouard, 
noticed  below,  born  in  1823.  She  wrote  several  successful 
dramas,  and  "  Les  Confidences  et  Causeries  de  Made- 
moiselle Mars,"  (3  vols.,  1855.) 

Beauvoir,  de,  (Edouard  Roger,)  a  French  novelist 
and  dramatic  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1809. 

Beauvois.    See  Belenvei. 

Beauvois,  de,  (Palisot.)    See  Palisot. 

Beauvollier,  de,  deh  boVo^le-a',  (Jean  Valot — 
vS'lo',)  a  P^rench  officer,  born  near  Loudun,  served  in  the 
Vendean  army  in  1793,  was  afterwards  taken  prisoner  by 
the  republicans  at  Mans,  and  executed  in  1794. 

Beauvollier,  de,  (Pierre  Louis  Valot,)  a  Vendean 
leader,  brother  of  Jean  Valot,  born  near  Loudun  in  1770. 
He  became  marechal -de-camp  after  the  second  restora- 
tion.   Died  about  1825. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Gendraux  Frangais." 

Beauxa:lmis,  bo'ztKme',  written  also  Beaulxamis, 

(Thomas,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  of  the  order  of  the  Car- 
melites, born  at  Melun  in  1524.    Died  in  1589. 

Beauzee,  bo''za',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  grammarian 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Verdun  in  171 7.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  are  his  "  Grammaire  Generale,"  (2  vols., 
1767,)  for  which  Maria  Theresa  bestowed  upon  him  a 
gold  medal,  "  Dictionary  of  Grammar  and  Literature," 
written  conjointly  with  Marmontel,  and  "  Exposition  of 
the  Historical  Proofs  of  Religion,"  (1747.)  Beauzee  was 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1789. 

See  Le  Bas,  "Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Bea'ver,  written  also  Biever  or  Bever,  (John,) 
known  also  by  the  Latin  names  of  Cas'tor,  Casto'rius, 
Fi'ber,  and  Fibe'rius,  was  an  English  Benedictine  monk 
of  Westminster,  and  lived  about  1330.  He  wrote  a 
"  Chronicle  of  England  from  Brutus  down  to  his  own 
Time." 

Beaver,  (Philip,)  an  English  naval  officer  of  great 
merit,  born  in  1760,  attempted  in  1792  to  found  a  colony 
on  the  island  of  Bulama,  off  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  for 
the  purpose  of  introducing  civilization  among  the  natives. 
Having  lost  the  greater  part  of  his  colonists  by  sickness, 
he  returned  to  England  in  1794,  and  published  soon  after 
an  account  of  his  expedition,  entitled  "African  Memo- 
randa," (1805.)    Diecl  in  1813. 

See  "Life  and  Services  of  Captain  Philip  Beaver,"  by  W.  H. 
Smyth,  London,  1829;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and 
November,  1829. 

Beaziano,  bk-ad-ze-a'no,  Beatiano,  bi-a-te-S'no,  or 
Beazzano,  ba-.^t-si'no,  (Agostino,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Treviso,  lived  about  1550. 

Beaz'ley,  (Samuel,)  an  English  architect  and  littera- 
teur, born  in  Westminster  in  1786.  He  constructed  a 
number  of  theatres  in  England  and  Dublin,  and  wrote 
upwards  of  a  hundred  dramas,  also  novels  entitled  "The 
Oxonians"  and  "The  Roue."    Died  in  185 1. 

Beazzano.    See  Beaziano. 

Bebel,  ba^'bel,  (Balthasar,)  born  at  Strasburg  in 
1632,  was  professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg.  He  wrote 
"  Antiquitates  Ecclesias,"  (3  vols.,  1669.)    Died  in  1686. 

Bebel,  [Lat.  Beiie'lius,]  (Heinrich,)  a  German 
scholar  and  litterateur,  born  in  Suabia,  became  in  1497 
professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Tiibingen,  and  wrote  "  Face- 


tiae," and  other  Latin  works  in  prose  and  verse.  Died 
about  1 5 16. 

See  G.  W.  Zapf,  "  H.  Bebel  nach  seinem  Leben  und  seinen 
Schriften,"  1802. 

Bebenburg,  von,  fon  ba'ben-booRc',  (Ludolf,)  a 
German  professor  of  canon  law,  became  Bishop  of  Bam- 
berg about  1340. 

Bebootoff  or  BebutofF,  ba-boo-toff^  (Vasili  Osi- 
POViTCH,)  Prince,  a  Russian  commander,  born  in  1792, 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Caucasian  campaigns  of 
1828-29,  and  became  lieutenant-general  in  1843. 

Becan,ba''kan,  [Lat  Goro''phius  Becca'nus,1(John,) 
a  Flemish  physician,  whose  original  name  was  Van  Gorp, 
born  in  Brabant  in  1518  ;  died  in  1572. 

See  MoRHOF,  "  Polyhistor." 

Beoan,  (Martin,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit  and  writer,  born 

in  Brabant  about  1550,  was  successively  professor  of  theo- 
logy at  Mentz,  Wiirzburg,  and  Vienna,  and  confessor  to 
the  emperor  Ferdinand  II.    Died  in  1624. 
See  "Scriptores  Societatis  Jesu." 

Becan,  (William,)  a  Flemish  poet  and  Jesuit,  born 
at  Ypres  in  1608  ;  died  in  1683. 
Beccadelli,  (Antonio.)    See  Panormita. 
Beccadelli,  bek-kd-deFlee,  or  Beccatelli,  bgk-ki- 

tel'lee,  (Luigi,)  an  able  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Bo- 
logna in  1502.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "Life 
of  Cardinal  Pole,"  which  was  translated  into  Latin, 
(1563,)  and  a  "Life  of  Petrarch."  Pie  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Ragusa  about  1555.  Died  at  Prato  in  1572. 
See  Mazzuchei.li,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Becoafumi,b§k-ka-foo'mee,  (Domenico,)  an  eminent 
Italian  painter  and  sculptor,  born  at  Sienna  about  1480, 
was  originally  named  Mecherino.  Among  his  master- 
pieces are  his  "  Saint  Sebastian,"  in  the  Borghese  palace, 
and  the  designs  of  the  mosaic  pavement  of  the  cathedral 
of  Sienna.  He  was  also  a  wood-engraver,  and  was  skilled 
in  the  art  of  casting  bronze.    Died  at  Genoa  in  1549. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,  Sculptors,"  etc. 

Beocara,  bck-k^'ra,  or  Bechara,  ba-ki'ra,  (Camil 
LO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Placentia,  lived  about  1550, 

Beccari,  beVkd-ree,  (Agostino,)  an  Italian  poet^ 
born  at  Ferrara  about  1540,  was  the  author  of  a  pas- 
toral comedy  entitled  "The  Sacrifice,"  ("II  Sacrifizio,") 
said  to  have  been  the  first  work  of  the  kind  ever  written, 
and  to  have  been  the  model  of  Tasso's  "Aminta."  Died 
in  1590. 

See  Ginguene,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Beccari,  (Giacomo  Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician and  savant,  born  at  Bologna  in  1682.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Morgagni  and  other  eminent  men, 
whom  he  assisted  in  founding  the  Academy  of  the  "In- 
cjuieti,"  (the  "  Restless,")  which  was  changed  or  devel- 
oped by  Count  Marsigli  into  the  Institute  of  Sciences  and 
Arts  in  1711.  Beccari  was  soon  after  appointed  professor 
of  physics  in  that  institution,  and  in  1750  succeeded  Baz- 
zano  as  president,  having  previously  been  elected  to  the 
Royal  Society  of  London.  He  wrote  several  scientific 
treatises.    Died  in  1766. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Beccaria,  b^k-k^-ree^'d,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  scholar 
and  poet,  born  at  Verona,  lived  about  1470. 

Beccaria,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  savant  and 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Mondovi  in  1 7 16,  was  ap- 
pointed in  1748  professor  of  experimental  physics  at 
Turin.  He  published  a  treatise  on  "Natural  and  Arti- 
ficial Electricity,"  (1753,)  and  "Letters  on  Electricity," 
(1758.)  He  contributed  several  articles  to  the  "Trans- 
actions" of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Died  in  1781. 

See  A.  Tana,  "  filo^e  de  J.  B.  Beccaria,"  Turin,  17S1 ;  G.  A.  F.  G. 
Landi,  "Memorie  stonche  intorno  a  gli  Studj  G.  B.  Beccaria,"  1783. 

Beccaria,  di,  de  blk-ki-ree'^,  (Cesare  Bonesana,) 
Marquis,  an  eminent  philosophical  and  political  writer, 
born  at  Milan,  in  Italy,  on  the  15th  of  March,  1738.  He 
early  became  familiar  with  the  works  of  Helvetius  and 
Montesquieu,  and  the  latter  exercised  a  powerful  influ- 
ence on  the  direction  of  his  studies.  He  published  in 
1762  a  work  "On  the  Abuses  of  the  Coinage  in  the 
State  of  Milan,  and  their  Remedies."  In  1764  he  brought 
out  his  "Treatise  on  Crimes  and  Punishments,"  ("Trat- 
tatodei  Delitti  e  delle  Pene,")  which  was  most  favourably 


a.  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  loig;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fdt;  met;  not;  good;  mooa; 


BECCJRLZZI 


BECK 


received,  and  at  once  established  the  author's  reputation. 

Never,"  says  a  French  writer,  "  did  so  small  a  book  pro- 
duce such  great  effects."  It  was  translated  into  the 
principal  languages  of  Europe,  including  modern  Greek, 
and  went  through  six  editions  in  less  than  two  years. 
Voltaire,  regarding  it  as  the  code  of  humanity,  wrote  a 
commentary  upon  it ;  and  Catherine  II.  of  Russia  caused 
it  to  be  transcribed  into  her  new  code.  Under  the  patron- 
age of  Count  Firmian,  he  had,  in  1764,  assisted  in  found- 
ing a  periodical  called  "  II  Caffe,"  on  the  plan  of  Addison's 
"  Spectator."  In  1 76S  Beccaria  accepted  the  chair  of  pub- 
lic economy  created  for  him  at  Milan  by  Count  Firmian. 
Died  at  Milan  in  November,  1793. 

See  TiPALDO,  '"Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustn,"  vol.  iii.;  Ugoni, 
"Delia  Letteratura  Italiana,"  1S20-22 ;  C.  P.  Villa,  "Vita  del  :\Iar- 
chese  C.  Beccaria,"  1S21;  Pietro  Custodi,  "Vita  di  C.  Beccaria;" 
'■  E:>.cyc!opsEdia  Britannica." 

Beccaruzzi,  bek-ki-root'see,  (Francesco  da  Cone-  i 
gliano — dd  ko-nal-ya'no,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  about 
1490  at  Conegliano,  was  a  pupil  of  Pordenone. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History-  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Beccatelli,  bgk-ki-teKlee,  (Giovanni  Francesco,) 
an  Italian  musician  and  writer  on  music;  died  in  1734. 

Beccatelli,  (Luigi.)    See  Beccadei.li. 

Becchio,  bek'ke-o,  [Lat.  Bec'chius,]  (Guglielmo,) 
Bishop  of  Fiesole,  was  a  native  of  Florence.  Died  in  14S0. 

Beccold.    See  John  of  Leyden. 

Bec-Crespin,  du,  dubek''kRes'paN',  (Jean,)  a  French 
theologian,  born  about  1540,  became  Bishop  of  Saint- 
Malo.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Great  Tamerlane, 
taken  from  the  Monuments  o'f  the  Arabs,"  (1602.) 

See  "Gallia  Christiana." 

Beccuci,  b&k-koo'chee,  (Domenico  Mari.^,)  an  Ital- 
ian writer,  born  at  Florence  in  1730  ;  died  in  1800. 

Beccuti,  bdk-koo'tee,  or  Beccuci,  bek-koo'chee, 
(Francesco,)  an  Italian  burlesque  poet,  surnamed  IL 
Coppetta,  born  at  Perugia  in  1509  ;  died  in  1553. 

Bec-de-Lievre,  b§k'deh'le-|.vR',  (Anne  Chris- 
tophe,)  a  French  royalist,  served  under  Conde  against 
the  republicans,  and  was  killed  at  Oudan  in  1795. 

Becelli,  ba-cheFlee,  (Giulio  Cesare,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Verona  in  16S3,  wrote  a  number 
of  dramas,  and  an  essay  "On  Modern  Poetry,"  (1732.) 
Died  in  1750. 

See  Mazzi  chelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Becerra,  bi-ther'rS,  (Domingo,)  a  Spanish  priest, 
born  at  Seville,  published  a  "Treatise  on  Customs," 
("Tratado  dos  Costumbres,"  1589.) 

Becerra,  (Fernando,)  a  Spanish  friar,  born  about 
15S0,  wrote  several  religious  works. 

Becerra,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  architect,  born  about 
1545.  built  in  Spanish  America  the  cathedral  of  Lima, 
the  church  at  Cuzco,  and  other  public  edifices. 

Becerra,  (Gasparo,)  an  eminent  Spanish  painter, 
sculptor,  and  architect,  born  at  Baeza  about  1520,  studied 
at  Rome  under  Michael  Angelo,  and  afterwards  worked 
for  Philip  II.  His  master-piece  is  a  statue  of  the  Virgin, 
at  Madrid.    Died  in  1570. 

See  Bermudez,  "Diccionario  Historico." 

Becerril,  bi-ther-rM',  (Alonzo,)  a  Spanish  artist, 
noted  for  his  skilful  sculpture  in  silver,  born  about  1550. 

Becerril,  (Francisco,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
\>as  also  an  artist  and  silversmith.    Died  in  1573. 

See  Ijermidez,  "Diccionario  Historico." 

Bechada,  bk'sht'da^  (Gregoire,)  a  French  poet, 
I'orn  about  1090,  wrote  "The  Concjuest  of  Jerusalem," 
(not  extant.) 

Bechard,  bi'shtR',  (Ferdinand,)  a  French  political 
writer,  born  at  Nimes  in  1799.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  Administrative  Centraliza- 
tion," (2  vols.,  1837.) 

Bechaud,  bk'sho',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Befort  in  1770,  was  killed  at  Orthez  in  1814. 

Beche,  de  la.    See  De  la  Beche. 

Beclier,  beK'er,  (Alfred  Julius,)  of  German  extrac- 
tion, was  born  at  Manchester,  in  England,  in  1S04.  He 
studied  law  at  Heidelberg  and  Berlin,  and  was  subse- 
quently professor  of  music  at  the  Hague.  On  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  revolution  of  1848,  he  edited  "The  Radi- 
.-al,"  a  democratic  journal,  which  was  suppressed  after 


the  storming  of  Vienna,  and  Becher  was  arrested  and 
put  to  death,  (1848.) 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Becher,  beK''er,  (Johann  Joachim,)  a  German  che- 
mist, born  at  Speyer  about  1630.  He  was  successively 
professor  of  medicine  at  Mentz,  aulic  councillor  at  Vi- 
enna, and  chief  physician  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  but 
did  not  remain  long  in  any  place.  He  was  fond  of  specu- 
lation, and  was  the  first  who  attempted  to  connect  by  a 
theory  the  scattered  facts  of  chemistry.  His  theory  was 
the  basis  of  that  perfected  by  Stahl.  The  most  import- 
ant of  his  numerous  works  is  his  "  Physica  Subterranea," 
(1669.)    Died  in  London  about  1684 ;  some  say  in  1682. 

See  F.  HoEFER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie ;"  Urban  G.  Bucher, 
"Muster  eines  niitzlichen  Gelehrten  in  der  Person  J.  J.  Bechers," 
1722. 

Becher,  (Siegfried,)  a  German  statistician,  born  at 
Plan,  in  Bohemia,  in  1806.  He  published  a  treatise 
"On  the  Austrian  Monetary  System  from  1524  to  1838," 
and  "Population  of  the  Austrian  Monarchy  from  1819 
to  1843." 

See  Brockh.^us,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Becherer,  bcK^er-er,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  archi- 
tect, born  at  Spandau  in  1746;  died  in  1823. 

Bechet,  ba  sha^  (Antoine,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and 
litterateur,  born  at  Clermont  in  1649  ;  died  in  1722. 

Bechet,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  P'rench  antiquary  and 
litterateur,  born  near  Salins  in  1759,  wrote  "Historical 
Researches  concerning  the  City  of  Salins."  Died  in  1830. 

Bechsteiii,  blK'stin,  (Johann  Matthias,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Gotha  in  1757.  He 
was  appointed  in  i8co  director  of  the  Academy  of  Forest 
Science  at  Dreissigacker.  He  published  the  "  Natural 
History  of  Germany,"  "Insectology  of  the  Forest," 
"  Forest  and  Hunting  Science  in  all  its  Departments," 
(5  vols.,  1818,)  "Natural  History  of  Cage-Birds,"  (1840,) 
and  other  works.  He  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  forest 
science.    Died  in  1822. 

See  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Bechstein,  (Ludwig,)  a  German  litterateur,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  born  near  Meiningen  in  1801.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  poems  and  tales,  among  which  is 
"Deutsches  Mahrchenbuch,"  (1848.) 

Bechtold,  bcK'tolt,  (Johann,)  a  German  artist,  lived 
in  Nuremberg  about  1584.  He  coloured  many  of  the 
engravings  of  x\lbert  Diirer. 

See  Xagler,  "  Xeues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Becichemi,  ba-che-ka'mee,  (Marino,)  born  at  Scu- 
tari, in  Turkey,  about  1468,  became  professor  of  Latin 
eloquence  successively  at  Venice,  Brescia,  and  Padua. 
Died  in  1526. 

Becius,  ba'se-us,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  Socinian  theologian, 
born  in  1622  ;  died  about  1700. 

Beck,  (Cave,)  an  English  clergyman,  published  "The 
Universal  Character  by  which  all  Nations  may  under- 
stand one  another's  Conceptions,"  (1657.) 

Beck,  bek,  (Christian  Daniel,)  a  German  historian 
and  philologist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1757.  He  became  in 
1785  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  his  native  cit)^  and 
filled  other  important  offices.  He  published  valuable 
editions  of  Euripides,  Pindar,  Apollonius,  and  other 
classics,  and  wrote  a  "Universal  History  of  the  World," 
(1 787-1806.)    Died  in  1832. 

See  Carl  F.  A.  Nobbe,  "Vita  C.  D.  Beckii,"  1S37. 

Beck,  (David.)    See  Beek. 

Beck,  (David,)  a  German  organ-builder,  resided  at 
Halberstadt  about  1790.  His  greatest  work  is  the  organ 
in  the  cathedral  of  Groningen. 

Beck,  (DoMiNiCUS,)  a  German  mathematician  ar.d 
Avriter,  born  near  Ulm  in  1732  ;  died  in  1791. 

Beck,  (Franz,)  a  German  musician,  born  in  1731, 
composed  a  number  of  symphonies  and  a  "  Stabat  Mater." 
Died  in  1809. 

Beck,  (George,)  born  in  England  about  1749,  was 
appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy at  Woolwich  in  1776,  and  emigrated  in  1795  to 
America.  He  translated  Anacreon,  and  a  large  part  of 
Homer,  Horace,  and  Virgil.    Died  in  1812. 

Beck,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  comedian  and  comic 
writer,  born  at  Gotha  in  1760  ;  died  in  1 803. 


£  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^^[^^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

20 


BECK 


306 


BECKER 


B6ck,  bek,  /'Jakob  Christopii,)  a  Swiss  historian, 
born  at  Bale  in  1712  ;  died  about  1770. 

Beck,  (JoiiANN  J.,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Nurem- 
berg" in  1684,  became  professor  of  law  at  Altdorf,  Died 
in  1744. 

Beck,  (JoHANN  LUDWIG  WiLHELM,)  son  of  Chris- 
tian Daniel,  noticed  above,  born  at  Leii)sic  in  1786,  be- 
came professor  of  law  at  Konigsberg  in  18 12.  He  wrote 
"  Corpus  Juris  Civilis,"  and  other  legal  works. 

Beck,  bek,  (John,)  Baron  of,  a  distinguished  soldier, 
fought  in  the  Spanish  army  in  the  campaigns  of  the 
Netherlands  from  1640  to  1648,  and  became  lieutenant- 
general,  and  governor  of  the  duchy  of  Luxemburg. 

Beck,  (John  Brodiiead,)  an  eminent  physician,  born 
at  Schenectady,  New  York,  in  1794,  graduated  at  Colum- 
bia College  in  1813,  and  in  1826  succeeded  to  the  chair 
of  materia  medica  and  botany  in  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  in  New  York  City.  At  the  time  of  his 
death,  in  1851,  he  was  professor  of  medical  jurisprudence 
in  the  same  institution.  He  was  author  of  "  Infant  Thera- 
peutics," (1849,)  '^''^d  ^V3.s  associated  with  his  brother,  T. 
R.  Beck,  in  the  authorship  of  their  great  work  on  Medical 
Jurisprudence. 

See  S.  D.  Gross,  "American  Medical  Biography,"  1861. 

Beck,  bgk,  (Karl,)  a  Hungarian  poet,  born  at  Baja 
in  1 81 7,  wrote  "The  Poet  Traveller,"  (1838,)  "Silent 
Songs,"  ("  Stille  Lieder,")  and  other  lyrics. 

Beck,  (Karl  Joseph,)  a  German  surgeon,  born  in  the 
duchy  of  Baden  in  1794,  published  a  "  Manual  of  Ocular 
Medicine,"  (1824,)  and  other  medical  treatises.  Died  in 
1838. 

See  C.  H.  Baumgaertner,  "  Gediichtnissrede  auf  Dr.  C.  J.  Beck," 
1839- 

Beck,  (Lewis  C.,)  M.D.,  an  American  naturalist,  born 
at  Schenectady  about  1798,  was  a  brother  of  John  B, 
Beck,  noticed  above.  He  graduated  in  181 7,  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  chemistry  at  Rutgers  College,  New 
Brunswick,  New  Jersey,  in  1830,  and  mineralogist  of  the 
survey  of  the  State  of  New  York  in  1836.  In  1840  he 
became  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Medical  College  of 
Albany.  He  wrote  numerous  treatises  on  chemistry, 
botany,  etc.  His  valuable  Report  on  the  Mineralogy  of 
New  York  was  published  by  the  State  in  1842.  Died 
in  1853. 

See  S.  D.  Gross,  "American  Medical  Biography,"  1861. 

Beck,  (Matthias  Friedrich,  )  a  German  theologian 
and  Orientalist,  born  in  Suabia  in  1649;  died  in  1701. 

Beck,  (Michael,)  a  German  theologian  and  scholar, 
born  at  Ulm  in  1653,  became  professor  of  the  Hebrew 
language  in  his  native  city.    Died  in  1712. 

Beck,  (Theodric  Romeyn  —  ro'min'',)  M.D.,  an 
American  medical  writer,  born  at  Schenectady,  New  York, 
in  1 79 1.  He  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1807,  prac- 
tised at  Albany  until  181 7,  and  then  became  principal  of 
the  Albany  Academy,  which  he  directed  for  more  than 
twenty-five  years.  In  1826  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
medical  jurisprudence  in  Fairfield  Medical  College.  He 
obtained  the  chair  of  materia  medica  in  the  Albany  Medi- 
cal College  about  1840.  His  principal  work  is  "  Elements 
of  Medical  Jurisprudence,"  (1823,  loth  edition,  2  vols., 
1850,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  November,  1855. 

See  S.  D.  Gross,  "American  Medical  Biography,"  1861. 

Becke,  von  der,  fon  der  bek'keh,  (Joiiann  Karl,) 
a  German  jurist  and  poet,  born  at  Iserlohn  in  1750. 
Died  in  1830. 

Becker,  (Balthasar.)    See  Bekker. 

Becker,  bek'ker,  (Christiane  Amalie  Luise,)  a 
celebrated  German  actress,  born  in  1777,  is  the  subject 
of  Goethe's  poem  of  "  Euphrosyne."  Her  personations 
of  Schiller's  and  Lessing's  dramatic  characters  were 
eulogized  in  the  highest  terms  by  Wieland  and  other 
eminent  critics.  She  was  married  at  the  age  of  fifteen, 
and  died  about  1796,  leaving  a  daughter,  the  present 
Madame  Werner. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Becker,  (Daniel,)  a  German  physician,  and  professor 
of  medicine  at  Konigsberg,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1594; 
died  in  1655. 

Becker,  (Daniel,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Konigsberg  in  1627,  was  dean  of  the  faculty  in  his  native 


city.  He  died  in  1670,  leaving  a  son  named  Daniel 
Christopher,  also  a  physician. 

Becker,  (Ferdinand,)  canon  of  Paderborn,  was  born 
at  Grevenstein  in  1740.  He  was  imprisoned  for  a  time 
in  the  convent  of  Paderborn  for  having  written  works 
containing  heresies.    Died  in  1 810. 

Becker,  (Ferdinand  Wilhelm,)  son  of  Karl  Fer- 
dinand, noticed  below,  born  at  Hoxter  in  1805.  He 
studied  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  and  subsequently  at 
Edinburgh.  In  1829  he  settled  as  a  physician  at  Berlin. 
He  published  a  valuable  treatise  "On  Cholera,"  and  a 
Latin  essay  "On  the  Historical  Explanation  of  Medi- 
cine."   Died  in  1834. 

Becker,  (Gottfried  Wilhelm,)  a  German  physi- 
cian and  litterateitr,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1778.  He  pub- 
lished sketches  of  travel,  and  other  works,  and  ti  ans- 
lated  some  of  Cooper's  novels,  and  "My  Prisons"  ("  Le 
mie  Prigioni")  of  Silvio  Pellico,  into  German. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Becker,  (James,)  a  skilful  German  painter  of  genre 
and  landscapes,  born  near  Worms  in  1810. 

Becker,  (Johann,)  a  German  physician  and  medicai 
writer,  born  at  Schwerin  in  1770;  died  about  1840. 

Becker,  (Johann  Philipp,)  a  German  patriot,  born 
at  Frankenthal  in  1809.  Being  compelled  to  leave  his 
country  on  account  of  his  liberal  opinions,  he  went  to 
Switzerland,  where  he  took  an  active  part  against  the 
Jesuits  and  the  Sonderbund.  In  conjunction  with  Esse- 
len,  he  published  a  "History  of  the  Revolution  of  May, 
1849,  in  Southern  Germany." 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographle  Generale." 

Becker,  (Julius,)  a  German  composer  and  writer  on 
music,  born  at  Freiberg  in  1811.  He  published  a  treat- 
ise "  On  the  Science  of  Harmony,"  and  composed  an 
opera  entitled  "  The  Siege  of  Belgrade." 

Becker,  (Karl  Ferdinand,)  a  German  scholar,  born 
in  the  electorate  of  Treves  in  1775.  He  published  a 
"  Complete  German  Grammar,'"  "  Organism  of  the  Ger- 
man Language,"  (1841.)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1849. 

Becker,  (Karl  Ferdinand,)  a  German  organist, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1804,  was  a  son  of  Gottfried  Wilhelm, 
noticed  above.  He  wrote  a  "  Systematic  and  Chrono- 
logical Exposition  of  Musical  Literature,"  (1836,)  and 
other  works. 

Becker,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  historian,  born 
at  Berlin  in  1777,  wrote  a  very  popular  "History  of  the 
World  for  Children  and  Teachers,"  (9  vols.,  1801.)  Five 
volumes  were  subsequently  added  to  it  by  Woltmann, 
Menzel,  and  Loebell.    Died  in  1806. 

Bec'ker  or  Bajert-Becker,  [Fr.  pron.  bt^zhaiR' 
bcVkaiR',]  (Leonard  Nicolas,)  Comte  de  Mons,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Obernheim  in  1770.  He  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  general  of  division  on  the  field  of  Austerlitz. 
Died  in  1840. 

Becker,  (Nikolaus,)  a  German  poet,  born  at  Geilen- 
kirchen  in  1816,  is  chiefly  known  as  the  author  of  a  very 
popular  national  song  beginning,  "  They  shall  not  have 
it,  the  free  German  Rhine  !"  ("  Sie  sollen  ihn  nicht  haben, 
den  freien  deutschen  Rhein  !")  It  was  written  in  1840, 
in  response  to  a  proposed  annexation  of  the  valley  of 
the  Rhine  to  France.    Died  in  1845. 

See  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Becker,  (Philipp  Christoph,)  a  German  engraver 
of  seals  and  medals,  born  at  Coblentz  in  1674.  He  was 
patronized  by  Joseph  I.  and  Charles  VI.  of  Austria,  and 
Peter  the  Great  of  Russia.    Died  in  1742. 

Becker,  (Philipp  Jakob,)  a  German  painter,  born  at 
Pforzheim"  in  1763,  studied  at  Rome  under  Raphael 
Mengs.    Died  in  1829. 

Becker,  (Rudolf  Zacharias,)  a  popular  German 
writer,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1752,  published  a  number  of 
moral  and  educational  works  for  the  lower  classes.  One 
of  these,  entitled  "  Instructive  Tales  of  Joy  and  Sorrow 
in  the  Village  of  Mildheim,"  (1787,)  was  so  popular  that 
more  than  half  a  million  copies  of  it  were  soon  printed 
in  German  and  other  languages.    Died  in  1822. 

See  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Becker,  (Wilhelm  Adolf,)  a  son  of  Wilhelm  Gott- 
lieb, noticed  below,  born  at  Dresden  in  1796,  published 
a  "Manual  of  Roman  Antiquities,"  (1843,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1846. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BECKER 


BECON 


Becker,  (Wilhelm  Gottlieb,)  a  German  writer  on 
antiquities  and  horticulture,  born  at  Kalenberg  in  1753, 
published  "  Augusteum,  or  Description  of  the  Antique 
Monuments  of  Dresden,"  (3  vols.,  1805,)  and  "Manual 
for  Amateurs  of  Gardens,"  {1795-99.)  Died  at  Dresden 
in  1813. 

Beckerath,  de,  deh  b§k'keh-rtt',  (Hermann,)  a 
Prussian  statesman  and  financier,  born  at  Crefeld  in 
iSoi.  He  was  a  deputy  in  1848  to  the  National  Assem- 
bly at  Frankfort,  where  he  sided  with  the  liberal  con- 
servative party,  and  the  same  year  became  minister  of 
finance  in  the  ministry  of  the  empire.  He  resigned 
both  offices  in  1849. 

Beck'et,  (ThOiMAS  a,)  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was 
born  in  London  in  11 17.  He  became  Archdeacon  of 
Canterbury  about  11 54,  and  chancellor  of  England  in 
1 158.  According  to  Hume,  the  chancellor  in  that  age  kept 
the  great  seal,  acted  as  secretary  of  state,  and  was  a  kind 
of  prime  minister.  Becket  lived  in  splendid  style,  per- 
formed the  part  of  a  courtier,  and  on  one  or  more  occa- 
sions exposed  his  person  in  battle  in  Normandy,  whither 
he  had  followed  the  king.  He  was  appointed  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  by  the  influence  of  Henry  H.  in  1 162,  after 
which  he  totally  altered  his  demeanour  and  affected  in 
his  person  the  greatest  austerity.  He  determined  to 
resist  the  projects  which  Henry  had  formed  to  limit  or 
diminish  the  ecclesiastical  power.  After  a  contest  with 
the  king  in  relation  to  the  "  Constitutions  of  Clarendon," 
Becket  appealed  to  the  pope,  and  escaped  to  France, 
(1164.)  Supported  by  the  pope,  he  excommunicated 
Henry's  ministers,  suspended  the  spiritual  thunder  over 
Henry  himself,  and  persisted  in  his  course  with  the  ut- 
most obstinacy.  In  1 1 70  he  was  permitted  to  return,  and 
was  reinstated  in  his  office  without  resigning  any  of  those 
pretensions  which  had  been  the  origin  of  the  contest. 
The  haughty  prelate  continued  to  defy  the  authority  of 
the  king,  and  excommunicated  two  bishops  for  their  com- 
pliance with  Henry's  will.  Not  long  after  (December 
29,  1 1 70)  he  was  assassinated  by  four  barons,  servants 
of  Henry.  Becket  was  the  first  Saxon  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  after  the  Norman  conquest.  He  was  re- 
garded as  a  martyr  not  only  by  the  devoted  adherents 
of  the  church,  but  by  thousands  of  patriotic  Saxons,  who 
beheld  in  him  the  champion  of  their  race  against  Nor- 
man tyranny.  He  was  canonized  by  the  pope  in  1172, 
and  his  shrine  at  Canterbury  became  the  resort  of  myriads 
of  pilgrims. 

See  Hume,  "  HistorA' of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap.  viii.  ;  M.^c.aulay, 
"History  of  England,"  vol.  i. ;  Canda,  "Vie  de  Saint  Thomas 
Pecket,"  1615;  Bataille,  "Vie  de  Saint  Thomas  Becket,"  1843; 
Robert,  "  Hisloire  de  Saint  Thomas  Becket,"  1844;  Giles,  "Life 
and  Letters  of  Thomas  a  Becket,"  London,  2  vols.,  1846;  James  C. 
Robertson,  "Biography  of  Thomas  Becket,"  1859;  Immanuel 
Bekker,  "Leben  des  heiligen  Thomas  von  Canterbury,"  1838;  W. 
F.  Hook,  "  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  xii. 

Becket,  (William,)  an  English  surgeon  and  writer 
on  surgery,  was  born  at  Abingdon  in  1684 ;  died  in  1738. 

Beck'ett,  (Isaac,)  one  of  the  earliest  English  mezzo- 
tint engravers,  born  in  Kent  in  1653.  Among  his  master- 
pieces are  portraits  of  Charles  II.  and  of  Lady  Williams. 

See  Walpole's  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Beck'fprd,  (William,)  born  in  the  West  Indies  in 
i6go,  rose  through  several  offices  to  be  lord  mayor  of 
l/Ondon.    Died  in  1770. 

Beckford,  (William,)  a  celebrated  English  writer, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1760.  He  inherited  from 
his  father  the  estate  of  Fonthill,  in  Wiltshire,  and  large 
estates  in  Jamaica,  producing  an  annual  revenue  of  more 
than  one  hundred  thousand  pounds.  At  the  age  of  twenty 
he  published  "Biographical  Memoirs  of  Extraordinary 
Painters,"  which  is  characterized  by  a  critic  in  the  "  Lon- 
don Quarterly"  as  "a  series  of  sharp  and  brilliant  satires 
on  the  Dutch  and  Flemish  schools."  His  romance  of 
"Vathek"  came  out  in  1784.  This  work,  written  in 
elegant  French,  was  commended  in  the  highest  terms  by 
Lord  Byron,  who  says,  "As  an  Eastern  tale,  even  Ras- 
selas  must  bow  before  it ;  his  Happy  Valley  will  not 
bear  a  comparison  with  the  Hall  of  Eblis."  An  able 
writer  in  the  "London  Quarterly"  observes,  however, 
that  "  its  inspiration  is  too  often  such  as  might  have  been 
inhaled  in  the  Hall  of  Eblis."  Having  visited  Portugal 
in  1794,  he  built  a  splendid  mansion  near  Cintra,  alluded 


to  by  Byron  in  "Childe  Harold,"  canto  i.  In  1796  he 
began  the  erection  of  Fonthill  Abbey,  upon  which  he  ex- 
pended enormous  sums,  and  filled  it  with  the  rarest  anc 
most  costly  works  of  art.  This  magnificent  establishment 
was  sold  in  1822,  and  Beckford  built  another  palace  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Bath.  In  1834  he  brought  out  a 
series  of  letters  entitled  "  Italy,  with  Sketches  of  Spain 
and  Portugal,"  which  are  ranked  by  an  English  critic 
"among  the  most  elegant  productions  of  modern  litera- 
ture."   Died  in  1844. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  March  and  June,  1834. 

Beck''ing-hani,  (Charles,)  an  English  dramatist, 
born  in  London,  wrote,  before  the  age  of  twenty,  his 
tragedies  of  "  Scipio  Africanus,"  and  "  Henry  IV.  of 
France."    Died  in  1730. 

See  "Biographia  Dramatica." 

Beck'ing-ton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  prelate  and  di- 
plomatist, born  about  1385,  was  tutor  to  Henry  VI.,  under 
whom  he  became  successively  secretary  of  state,  lord 
privy  seal,  and  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells.  In  1432  he 
was  one  of  the  ambassadors  charged  to  negotiate  a  peace 
with  France.    Died  in  1465. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica. " 

Beckmann,  bek^min,  (Friedrich,)  a  popular  Ger- 
man comedian,  born  at  Breslau  in  1803,  acted  at  Berlin, 
and  afterwards  at  Vienna. 

Beckmann,  (Johann,)  a  German  naturalist  and  agri- 
cultural writer,  born  at  Hoya  in  1739.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  physics  and  natural  history  at  the  Protestant 
Gymnasium  of  Saint  Petersburg  in  1763,  and  in  1770 
professor  of  economy  at  Gottingen,  where  he  lectured 
forty  years  or  more.  He  wrote,  among  other  works, 
"Principles  of  Rural  Economy  in  Germany,"  (1769,) 
and  "Contribution  to  the  History  of  Inventions,"  ("  Bei- 
trage  zur  Geschichte  der  Erfindungen,"  5  vols.,  1786- 
1805.)    Died  in  1811.  ^ 

See  G.  Hevne,  "Memoria  Joan.  Beckmanni,"  1811  ;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1816. 

Beckmann,  (Johann  Friedrich  Gottlieb,)  born 
in  1737,  was  organist  at  Celle,  in  Hanover,  and  one  of  the 
most  skilful  pianists  of  his  time.    Died  in  1792. 

Beck'witli,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  general,  born 
i''^  I753>  became  successively  Governor  of  Bermuda, 
(1797,)  Governor  of  Saint  Vincent,  (1804,)  and  com- 
mander of  the  South  American  forces  in  1808.  He  sub- 
sequently took  Martinique  and  Guadeloupe  from  the 
French.    Died  in  1823. 

Beckwith,  (John  Charles,)  an  English  general  and 
philanthro])ist,  born  in  1790.  He  served  on  the  staff  of 
the  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  lost  a  leg  at  Waterloo,  181 5. 
He  devoted  much  of  his  time  and  money  to  the  welfare 
of  the  Waldenses,  and  opened  many  schools  in  Piedmont, 
where  he  died  in  1862. 

Beclard,  bk^klia',  (Pierre  Augustin,)  a  French  sur- 
geon and  anatomist,  born  at  Angers  in  1785,  became 
surgeon-in-chief  of  the  hospital  de  la  Charite  in  Paris, 
and  in  1818  professor  of  anatomy  at  the  School  of  Medi- 
cine. He  was  an  excellent  teacher  of  anatomy,  and  pub- 
lished "Elements  of  General  Anatomy,"  (1823.)  Died 
in  Paris  iii  1825. 

See  C.  P.  Ollivier,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  P.  A.  Beclard," 
1827. 

Becmann,  bgk'm§,n,  (Gustav  Bernard  and  Otto 
David  Heinrich,)  brothers,  and  German  jurists,  born 
in  the  duchy  of  Mecklenburg  in  1720  and  1722,  were 
professors  of  law  at  Gottingen.  The  first-named  died 
in  1783,  the  latter  in  1784. 

Becmann,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German  geo- 
grapher and  historian,  born  at  Zerbst  in  1641,  became 
professor  of  Greek  and  of  history  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Oder.    Died  in  1717. 

See  "Monumentum  Becmannianum,  hoc  est  Vita  et  Scripta  J.  C. 
BecmannI,"  1719. 

BecoBur,  beh-kuR^,  (Charles,)  a  French  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  in  Paris  in  1807. 

Be'con  or  Bea'con,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English 
divine,  and  one  of  the  early  Protestant  reformers,  born 
in  Kent  about  15 12.  He  was  an  excellent  writer,  and 
was  the  author  of  several  works  against  popery.  Froude 
calls  him  "the  large-minded  Becon."    Died  in  1570. 

See  Froude,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  v.  chap,  xxviii. 


c  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hat'd;  g  as  /;  g,  H,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.  (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


BECOUEREL 


308 


BEDELL 


Becquerel,  bek'reK,  (Alexandre  Edmond,)  a  natu- 
ral philosopher,  son  of  Antoine  Cesar,  born  in  Paris  in 
March,  1820.  He  has  distinguished  himself  by  researches 
on  electricity,  magnetism,  and  optics,  and  has  been  asso- 
ciated in  the  labours  of  his  father.  He  ascertained  that 
oxygen  gas  has  a  magnetic  power,  and  discovered  a  chlo- 
ride of  silver  capable  of  receiving  and  preserving  the 
coloured  impressions  of  light.  In  conjunction  with  his 
father,  he  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Terrestrial  Physics  and 
Meteorology,"  (1847.)  In  1853  he  became  professor  of 
physics  at  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers. 

Becquerel,  (Antoine  C^sar,)  a  French  savant,  dis- 
tinguished for  his  discoveries  in  electro-chemistry,  was 
born  at  Chatillon-sur-Loing,  in  Loiret,  in  March,  1788. 
He  studied  in  the  Polytechnic  School,  served  in  the  army 
as  an  officer  of  engineers  from  1810  to  1815,  and  then 
retired,  with  the  rank  of  major,  to  devote  himself  to  the 
study  of  electricity.  Among  the  results  of  his  early  re- 
searches were  the  refutation  of  Volta's  theory  of  contact, 
and  the  construction  of  the  first  pile  with  a  constant 
current.  He  obtained  by  slow  electric  action  the  metals 
aluminum,  silicium,  glucium,  etc.,  and  invented  a  method 
of  electrotyping,  {coloration  elcdriqiie  siir  or  et  argent.)  He 
was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1829,  and 
received  the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don in  1837  for  various  memoirs  on  electricity.  Among 
his  works  are  a  "Treatise  on  Electricity  and  Magnet- 
ism," (7  vols.,  1834-40,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Electro- 
Chemistry."  He  afterwards  became  professeur-admi- 
nistrateur  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History.  He  has 
presented  more  than  a  hundred  memoirs  to  the  Institute. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  Querard,  "  La  France 
Litteiaire." 

Becquerel,  (Louis  Alfred,)  a  physician,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1814.  He  wrote  several 
able  professional  treatises,  and  was  appointed  physician 
to  the  hospital  of  Sainte-Perrine  in  1851. 

Becquet,  b^'ka',  (Antoine,)  a  learned  French  monk 
of  the  order  of  the  Celestines,  born  in  Paris  in  1654,  wrote 
several  bibliographical  works  in  Latin.    Died  in  1730. 

Becri-  (or  Bekri-)  Mustafa,  bgk'ree  miis'ta-fa,  a 
favourite  of  the  sultan  Amurath  IV.,  lived  about  1630. 

Bectoz,de,deh  bek^to',(CLAUDiNE,)  a  learned  French 
lady,  born  near  Grenoble  about  1480,  was  surnamed  THE 
Scholastic  Sister.  She  was  abbess  of  the  convent  of 
Saint-Honorat,  in  Provence.    Died  in  1547. 

See  HiLARioN  DE  CosTE,  "Eloges  des  Femnies  illustres." 

Beczkowski,  betch-kov'skee,  (Johann  Franz,)  a 
Bohemian  historian,  born  at  Deutschbrod  in  1658. 

Beda,  beh-dt',  (Noel,)  a  French  theologian,  born  in 
the  diocese  of  Avranches,  was  noted  for  the  bitterness 
and  violence  of  his  controversial  writings.  He  published 
a  work  against  Erasmus,  which  the  latter  pronounced  a 
"  repertory  containing  one  hundred  and  eighty-one  lies, 
two  hundred  and  ten  calumnies,  and  forty-seven  blas- 
phemies."   Died  in  1536. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Bedaffa,  van,  vtn  bi-d^ffa,  or  Bedaff,  be-daf, 
(Antony,)  a  skilful  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp 
in  1787  ;  died  in  1829. 

Beddevole,  bldVoK,  (Dominique,)  a  native  of  Ge- 
neva, in  Switzerland,  became  physician  to  William  HI. 
of  England.    Died  about  1692. 

Beddevole,  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  jurist,  born  at  Geneva 
in  1697,  made  a  French  translation  of  Giannone's  "Civil 
History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,"  (1742.)  Died  about 
I  760. 

See  Senebier,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  Geneve." 

Bed'does,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  physician 
and  chemist,  born  at  Shiffnal,  in  Shropshire,  in  1760. 
He  studied  in  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  and  attained 
great  proficiency  in  Latin  and  other  languages.  He  also 
received  instruction  in  medicine  from  Dr.  Cullen  of  Ed- 
inburgh. About  1787  he  was  appointed  reader  in  che- 
mistry to  the  University  of  Oxford.  Pie  resigned  this 
office  about  1792  because  his  liberal  political  opinions 
did  not  accord  with  those  that  prevailed  at  Oxford.  He 
married  a  younger  sister  of  Maria  Edgeworth.  In  1798 
he  established  at  Bristol  a  Pneumatic  Institution  in  order 
to  experiment  on  the  cure  of  disease  by  the  respiration 


of  gases,  and  employed  Humphry  Davy — then  a  young 
aspirant  for  fame — as  his  assistant.  He  was  the  author 
of  numerous  works,  among  which  arc  a  "  Popular  Essay 
on  Consumption,"  (1799,)  and  "  Hygeia,  or  Essays  Mo- 
ral and  Medical,"  (3  vols.,  1802.)  "He  was  a  remark- 
able man,"  says  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  "admirably  fitted 
to  promote  inquiry,  better  than  to  conduct  it."  13ied  in 
December,  1808. 

See  E.  Stock,  "Life  of  Beddoes,"  181 1. 

Beddoes,  (Thomas  Lovell,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1803,  was  a  poet,  and  an  eccentric  character.  In 
1822  he  produced  "The  Bride's  Tragedy,"  a  remarkable 
poem.  "  With  all  its  extravagancies,"  says  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine,"  "it  shows  far  more  than  glimpses  of  a  true 
poetical  genius,"  (vol.  xiv.)  His  favourite  sciences  were 
anatomy  and  physiology,  which  he  studied  in  Germany. 
He  died  at  Bale  in  1849,  in  consequence  of  a  scratch  he 
received  while  dissecting  at  Frankfort.  A  volume  of  his 
poems  was  published  after  his  death. 

Bede,  beed,  [Lat.  Be''da,]  surnamed  the  Venerable, 
an  English  monk  and  ecclesiastical  writer,  illustrious  for 
his  learning  and  virtues,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Dur- 
ham about  673,  and  at  the  age  of  thirty  was  ordained  priest. 
His  writings  include  treatises  on  astronomy,  mathema- 
tics, grammar,  and  music,  but  his  reputation  rests  chiefly 
on  his  "  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  English  Nation," 
("  Historia  Ecclesiastica  Gcntis  Anglorum.")  This  work, 
upon  which  he  was  employed  many  years,  was  completed 
about  734,  and  first  printed  about  1474.  It  was  trans- 
lated into  Saxon  by  King  Alfred.  His  severe  applica- 
tion to  study  brought  on  a  consumption,  of  which  he  died, 
about  735.  It  is  related  that  on  the  night  of  his  death 
he  continued  dictating  to  his  amanuensis  a  translation  of 
some  work,  probably  of  the  Gospel  of  Saint  John,  into 
Anglo-Saxon.  He  asked  the  scribe  how  many  chapters 
remained.  "Only  one,"  he  replied ;  "but  you  are  too 
weak  to  dictate."  "  No,"  said  Bede ;  "take  your  pen 
and  write  quickly."  After  some  time  the  scribe  said, 
"  Master,  it  is  finished  ;"  to  which  Bede  replied,  "  Thou 
hast  said  truly,  consummatum  est,"  (it  is  finished  ;)  and, 
having  repeated  a  short  prayer,  he  expired. 

See  Gehle,  "De  Bedae  Venerabilis  Vita  et  Scriptis;"  Cave. 
"Historia  Literaiia ;"  J.  A.  Giles,  "  Life  of  Bede,"  prefixed  to  his 
complete  works,  12  vols.  8vo,  1844. 

Bede,  (Cuthbert.)    See  Bradley,  (Edward.) 

Bedeau,  beh-do^  (Marie  Alphonse,)  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  at  Nantes  in  1804.  Pie  served  in  Algeria  ten 
years,  (1836-46,)  and  became  a  general  of  division  in  1844. 
Holding  a  high  command  in  Paris  during  the  revolution 
of  1848,  he  favoured  the  republicans,  and  was  vice- 
president  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1849. 

Bede  de  la  Gormaiidiere,  ba'da^  deh  IS  goR^mSx'- 
de-aiR',  (Jean,)  a  P'rench  jurist,  born  at  Angers,  lived 
about  1620.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  treatise 
"On  the  Liberty  of  the  Galilean  Church." 

BerdelP,  (Gregory  Tow^nsend,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished 
Episcopal  clergyman,  born  on  Staten  Island,  New  York, 
in  1793.  He  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1811. 
For  the  last  twelve  years  of  his  life  he  was  rector  of 
Saint  Andrew's  Church,  Philadelphia,  where  he  died  in 
1834.  Dr.  Bedell  was  greatly  admired  as  a  pulpit  orator. 
He  was  author  of  "Ezekiel's  Vision,"  "Onward,  or 
Christian  Progression,"  "  Renunciation,"  two  volumes  of 
published  sermons,  and  other  religious  works, 

Be-delP,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  prelate, 
born  in  Essex  in  1570.  Pie  accompanied  Sir  Henry 
Wotton,  ambassador  to  Venice,  as  his  chaplain  about 
1604,  and,  during  his  residence  in  that  city,  acquired  the 
friendship  of  the  celebrated  Paul  Sarpi,  known  as  Father 
Paul.  Having  become  thoroughly  versed  in  Italian,  he 
translated  into  that  language  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 
After  his  return  to  England,  he  was  elected  provost  of 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  (1627,)  and  created  Bishop  of 
Kilmore  and  Ardagh,  (1629.)  He  effected  a  great  re- 
formation among  the  Protestants  of  Ireland,  and  made 
numerous  converts  from  the  Catholics.  He  caused  the 
Old  Testament,  and  the  homilies  of  Chrysostom  and 
Leo  in  praise  of  the  Scriptures,  to  be  translated  into 
Irish.    Died  in  1642. 

See  Burnet,  "  Life  of  Bedell,"  16S5  ;  H.  J.  Monck  Mason,"  Life 
of  W.  Bedell,"  1842. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  li,  y,  long;  h,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  mocn; 


BEDENE 


BEECHER 


Bedene,  bi'dan',  or  Bidene,  be'dan',  (Vital,)  a 
French  poet,  born  at  Pezenas,  lived  about  1610. 

Bed'er-ic,  (Henri,)  surnamed  de  Bury,  an  English 
monk,  born  at  Bury  Saint  Edmund's,  lived  about  1380. 
He  wrote  sermons  and  other  religious  works  in  Latin. 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Bed''ford,  (Arthur,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
Gloucestershire  in  1668,  wrote  a  number  of  treatises 
against  the  stage  and  the  corrupt  dramatic  literature  of 
the  time,  also  a  work  entitled  "The  Great  Abuses  of 
Music,"  (1711.)    Died  in  1745. 

Bedford,  Duke  of.    See  Russell. 

Bedford,  (  Russell,)  first  Earl  of.  He  attended 

Henry  VHI.  in  his  expedition  against  France,  was 
knighted  in  1522  for  his  services,  and  created  Lord  Rus- 
sell in  1539.  He  was  afterwards  made  Earl  of  Bedford, 
and  died  in  1555,  leaving  the  title  to  his  son  Francis. 

Bed^fprd,  (Gunning  S.,)  ALD.,  an  American  phy- 
sician, born  in  Baltimore  in  181 1,  was  professor  of  mid- 
wifery, etc.  in  the  University  of  New  York.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  midwifery,  a  volume  of  clinical  lectures  on 
the  Diseases  of  Women  and  Children,  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1870. 

Bedford,  (Hilkiah,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1663,  was  fined  and  imprisoned  on  a  charge  of 
having  written  the  work  entitled  "  Hereditary  Right  to 
the  Crown  of  England  asserted,"  of  which  it  is  believed 
George  Harbin  was  the  author.    Died  in  1724. 

Bedford,  (John  Plantagenet,)  Duke  of,  the  third 
son  of  Henry  IV.  of  England,  and  Mary  Bohun,  was 
born  about  1390.  He  was  created  Duke  of  Bedford  in 
1414  or  141 5,  and  commanded  the  army  in  England 
during  the  absence  of  his  brother  Henry  V.  in  France. 
By  the  will  of  Henry  V.,  who  died  in  1422,  he  was  ap- 
pointed regent  of  France,  part  of  which  had  recently 
been  conquered  by  the  English.  In  the  same  year  the  Par- 
liament appointed  him  "protector"  of  England  during 
the  minority  of  Henry  VI.  He  is  described  by  Hume 
as  "the  most  accomplished  prince  of  his  age;  whose 
experience,  prudence,  and  valour  qualified  him  for  his 
high  office."  Having  taken  command  of  the  army  in 
person,  he  gained  victories  over  the  French  at  Verneuil 
(1424)  and  other  places;  but  his  victorious  progress  was 
effectually  arrested  by  Joan  of  Arc  at  Orleans  in  1429. 
It  a])pears  that  he  was  not  supported  and  reinforcecl  by 
the  English  Parliament  or  the  chief  ministers.  He  was 
one  of  the  chief  authors  of  the  judicial  murder  of  Joan 
of  Arc.    Died  at  Rouen  in  1435.  . 

See  Hume's  "History  of  England." 

Bedford,  (John  Russell,)  sixth  Duke  of,  an  Eng- 
lish peer,  distinguished  as  a  patron  of  fine  arts,  was 
born  in  1766.  He  devoted  much  time  and  money  to  the 
improvement  of  agriculture,  and  was  noted  for  his  libe- 
rality and  public  spirit.  He  was  the  father  of  Lord  John 
(Earl)  Russell.    Died  in  1839. 

Bedford,  (Thomas,)  son  of  Hilkiah,  was  the  author 
of  a  "  Historical  Catechism,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1773. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Bedford,  (William  Russell,)  fourth  Earl  and  first 
Duke  of.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Long  Parliament 
which  met  in  1640,  and  was  a  general  in  the  army  of  the 
Parliament  at  the  battle  of  Edgehill,  (1642.)  He  was 
created  Duke  of  Bedford  about  1694.  Died  in  1700.  He 
was  the  father  of  Admiral  Lord  Russell. 

Bedinelli,  di,  de  ba-de-neKlee,  (Francesco  di  Pao- 
lo,) an  Italian  surgeon  and  medical  writer,  who  resided 
at  Fano  about  1760. 

Bed'in-ger,  (George  M.,)  an  officer  in  the  American 
army  of  the  Revolution,  settled  in  Kentucky,  and  was  a 
representative  from  that  State  in  Congress  from  1803  to 
1807. 

Bed'loe,  (William,)  a  notorious  English  adventurer, 
vyho  was  rewarded  with  ;^500  for  his  pretended  revela- 
tion of  the  popish  plot,  and  of  the  circumstances  attend- 
ing the  murder  of  Sir  Edmundbury  Godfrey.  Died  in  16S0. 

See  Hume's  "History  of  England,"  vol.  vi. 

Bedmar,  de,  di  bgd-maR',  (Alfonso  de  la  Cueva — 
di  li  kwa'v^,)  a  Spanish  marquis,  born  in  1572.  Having 
been  sent  by  Philip  III.  as  ambassador  to  Venice  in 
1607,  he  entered  into  a  conspiracy  to  betray  that  republic 


into  the  hands  of  Spain.  The  plot  was  discovered,  and 
Bedmar  was  compelled  to  leave  the  city.  He  was  mado 
a  cardinal  in  1622.  Bedmar's  conspiracy  is  said  to  have 
suggested  the  plot  of  Otway's  "  Venice  Preserved."  Died 
in  1655. 

See  D.\RU,  "  Histoire  de  Venise ;"  S.a.ixt-Re.\l,  "Conspiration 
contre  Venise." 

Bedoch,  ba'dok',  (  Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French  magis- 
trate, born  in  the  department  of  Correze  in  1761,  wao  a 
representative  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  i8i8.  Died 
in  1837. 

Bedos  de  Celles,  beh^dos'  deh  sgl,  (Dom  Fran- 
cois,) a  learned  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Caux  in 
1706,  wrote  "Practical  Gnomonics,  or  the  Art  of  Draw- 
ing Solar  Dials,"  an  excellent  work.    Died  in  1779. 

Bedouin,  beh-dwaN',  (Samson,)  a  French  monk  of 
the  abbey  de  la  Couture,  near  Mans,  was  the  author  of  a 
number  of  dramas,  satires,  and  songs.    Died  about  1563. 

Bedoyere.    See  La  Bedoyere. 

Bedriaga,  bed-re-a''gd,  (Maria  E.,)  a  Russian  lady, 
born  at  Tver  in  1794,  was  the  author  of  several  tales,  etc. 
Died  in  1830. 

Beduschi,  ba-doos'kee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Cremona  in  1576,  was  a  pupil  of  Antonio  Campi. 

Bed'well,  (William,)  an  English  divine  and  Ori- 
ental scholar,  born  about  1562,  had  a  share  in  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Scriptures  published  under  James  I.  Died 
in  1632. 

Bee,  (Bernard  E.,)  a  South  Carolinian  general,  born 
at  Charleston,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1845.  He 
became  a  captain  in  1855,  and  fought  against  the  Union 
at  Bull  Run,  where  he  was  killed,  July  21,  1861. 

Bee'cher,  (Catherine  E.,)  an  American  authoress, 
a  daughter  of  Dr.  Lyman  Beecher,  was  born  at  East 
Hampton,  Long  Island,  in  1800.  She  was  principal  of  a 
female  seminary  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  from  1822  to 
1832.  She  published,  besides  other  works,  "Domestic 
Service,"  a  "Treatise  on  Domestic  Economy,"  "Physi- 
ology and  Calisthenics,"  (1856,)  and  "Common  Sense 
applied  to  Religion,"  (1857.) 

Beecher,  (Rev.  Charles,)  an  American  writer,  son 
of  Dr.  Lyman  Beecher,  born  at  Litchfield,  Connecticut, 
in  1815.  He  published  "Pen-Pictures  of  the  Bible," 
(1855,)  and  several  other  works. 

Beecher,  (Edward,)  an  American  clergyman,  a  son 
of  Dr.  Lyman  Beecher,  was  born  in  1804.  He  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1822,  became  a  tutor  in  that  institution 
in  1825,  and  pastor  of  Park  Street  Church,  Boston,  in 
1826.  He  was  president  of  Illinois  College  from  183 1 
to  1844,  and  pastor  of  Salem  Street  Church,  Boston,  from 
1846  to  1856.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Conflict  of 
Ages,"  (1854.) 

Beecher,  (Harriet.)  See  Stowe,  (Harriet 
Beecher.) 

Beecher,  (Henry  Ward,)  a  distinguished  American 
minister  and  WTiter,  a  son  of  Dr.  Lyman  Beecher,  no- 
ticed below,  was  born  in  Litchfield,  Connecticut,  on  the 
24th  of  January,  1813.  He  appears  to  have  given  in  child- 
hood but  little  promise  of  future  distinction.  "  He  had," 
says  Mrs.  Stowe,  "  precisely  the  organization  which  often 
passes  for  dulness  in  boyhood.  He  had  great  deficiency 
in  verbal  memory;  ...  he  was  excessively  sensitive  to 
praise  and  blame,  extremely  diffident,  and  with  a  power 
of  yearning,  undeveloped  emotion  which  he  neither  un- 
derstood nor  could  express.  .  .  .  In  forecasting  his  horo- 
scope, had  any  one  taken  the  trouble  to  do  it,  the  last 
success  that  ever  would  have  been  predicted  for  him 
would  have  been  that  of  an  orator."  But  even  while  a 
boy  he  proved  that,  if  he  did  not  inherit  the  eloquence, 
he  inherited  at  least  something  of  the  controversial  abil- 
ity, of  his  father.  "A  forward  school -boy  among  the  elder 
scholars  had  got  hold  of  Paine's  'Age  of  Reason,'  and 
was  flourishing  largely  among  the  boys  with  objections 
to  the  Bible.  Henry  privately  looked  up  Watson's 
'Apology,'  studied  up  the  subject,  and  challenged  a  de- 
bate with  the  big  boy,  in  which  he  came  off  victorious 
by  the  acclamation  of  his  school-fellows."  This  occurred 
when  he  was  about  eleven  years  old.  He  manifested  at 
this  period  little  inclination  for  severe  study,  but  had 
conceived  a  passionate  desire  to  go  to  sea.  His  father 
adroitly  used  this  desire  to  induce  him  to  commence  a 


€  as      9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j\  G,  H,  v.,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BEECHER 


BEER 


course  of  mathematics  with  a  view  to  qualify  himself  to 
become  a  naval  officer.  He  applied  himself  energetic- 
ally to  his  new  studies,  "  with  his  face  to  the  navy,  and 
Nelson  as  his  beau  ideal."  liut  not  long  afterwards 
there  occurred  in  that  section  of  the  coui^try  a  religious 
"revival,"  and  young  Beecher,  with  many  others,  was 
powerfully  impressed.  The  result  was  that  the  naval 
scheme  was  abandoned,  and  his  thoughts  were  directed 
to  the  pulpit  as  his  natural  and  proper  sphere.  After 
going  through  the  preparatory  studies,  he  entered  Am- 
herst College,  where  he  graduated  in  1834;  and  soon 
after  he  commenced  the  study  of  theology  at  Lane  Semi- 
nary, under  the  direction  of  his  father.  (See  Beecher, 
Lyman.)  He  began  his  ministerial  course  at  Lawrence- 
burg,  Indiana,  but  removed  soon  after  to  Indianapolis. 
In  1847  he  became  pastor  of  the  Plymouth  Church  (of 
orth  )dox  Congregationalists)  in  l>rooklyn,  near  New 
York.  Here  he  has  gathered  around  him  the  largest  con- 
gregation, it  is  said,  in  the  United  States.  He  is  also  one 
of  the  most  popular  writers  and  most  successful  lecturers 
in  America.  His  success  as  a  public  speaker  is  due  not 
so  much  to  what  is  popularly  termed  eloquence,  as  to  an 
unfailing  flow  of  racy  and  original  thought,  which,  though 
often  enlivened  with  flashes  of  quaint  humour,  is  not 
without  an  under-current  of  deep  moral  and  spiritual 
earnestness.  In  1850  Mr.  Beecher  published  a  volume 
of  "Lectures  to  Young  Men."  He  was  one  of  the  ori- 
ginators of  "The  Independent,"  a  weekly  religious  paper 
published  in  New  York,  which  acquired  through  his  con- 
tributions a  wide  popularit}-.  The  articles  which  he 
furnished  to  the  paper  were  signed  with  an  asterisk.  A 
volume  of  these  contributions  was  published  in  1855,  with 
the  title  of  "  Star  Papers  ;"  and  a  second  series  of  the 
same  appeared  in  1858.  Plis  "  Life  Thoughts"  (185S) 
has  had  a  very  extensive  circulation.  One  of  his  latest 
productions  is  a  novel,  entitled  "  Norwood,"  (1868,)  which 
first  appeared  in  the  columns  of  the  "  New  York  Ledger." 
As  a  reformer,  particularly  in  the  causes  of  temperance 
and  anti -slavery,  Mr.  Beecher  has  long  stood  in  the  fore- 
most rank  in  America. 

See  "  Men  of  Our  Times,"  by  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  186S. 

Beecher,  (Lyman,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  American 
preacher  and  theologian,  born  at  New  Haven,  Connec- 
ticut, on  the  1 2th  of  October,  1775.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1797,  and  studied  theology  under  Presi- 
dent Dwight.  After  he  had  preached  several  years  at 
East  Hampton,  Long  Island,  he  became  in  1810  minister 
of  the  Congregational  church  of  Litchfield,  Connecticut. 
He  was  a  popular  pulpit  orator,  and  acquired  great  influ- 
ence in  the  religious  world.  About  1826  he  removed 
from  Litchfield  to  Boston,  in  order  to  uphold  the  ancient 
(orthodox)  faith  against  the  influence  of  the  Unitarians. 
He  was  installed  as  minister  of  the  Hanover  Street 
Church,  Boston.  His  zealous  efforts  to  prevent  defec- 
tion from  the  orthodox  church  are  said  to  have  been 
very  successful.  In  1832  he  became  president  of  Lane 
Theological  Seminary  at  Cincinnati,  and  minister  of  the 
Second  Presbyterian  Church  in  that  city.  He  was  an 
active  and  earnest  promoter  of  temperance  and  other 
moral  enterprises,  and  was  distinguished  by  the  boldness 
and  energy  of  his  character.  He  quitted  Cincinnati 
about  1842,  after  which  he  resided  for  many  years  in  Bos- 
ton. He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Views  in  Theol- 
ogy," and  "Skepticism."  His  sermons  on  Temperance 
have  had  an  immense  circulation,  and  have  been  trans- 
lated into  several  foreign  languages.  His  collected  works 
were  published  under  his  direction,  in  Boston,  in  three 
volumes.  About  1856  he  removed  to  Brooklyn,  where 
he  died  in  January,  1863.  Dr.  Beecher  was  thrice  mar- 
ried, and  had  thirteen  children,  several  of  whom  became 
distinguished  as  writers  or  ministers. 

See  his  "Autobiography  and  Correspondence,"  edited  by  his  son, 
Charles  Beecher,  2  vols.,  1864. 

Beecher,  (Thomas  K.,)  a  son  of  Dr.  Lyman  Beecher, 
noticed  above,  born  at  Litchfield,  Connecticut,  February 
10,  1824.  He  graduated  at  Illinois  College  (Jacksonville, 
Illinois)  in  1843.  For  about  fifteen  years  he  has  had  the 
pastoral  charge  of  a  Congregational  church  at  Elmira,  in 
the  State  of  New  York.  He  is  an  eloquent  preacher, 
and  a  zealous  philanthropist.  He  considers  it  to  be  es- 
pecially his  duty  to  discourage  the  spirit  of  sectarianism. 


and  to  promote  a  liberal  and  fraternal  feeling  among 
the  various  Christian  churches. 

Bee'chey,  (Frederick  William,)  an  English  navi- 
gator and  naturalist,  son  of  Sir  William  Beechey,  men- 
tioned below,  was  born  in  London  in  1796.  In  1818  he 
sailed  with  P'ranklin  on  his  first  Arctic  voyage,  and  in 
1819  accompanied  Sir  Edward  Parry  to  the  Polar  re- 
gions. He  was  charged  in  1821,  in  conjunction  with  his 
brother,  H.  W.  Beechey,  to  make  a  survey  of  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa.  In  1825  he  sailed,  as  commander  of  the 
Blossom,  on  another  Arctic  ex])edition,  reached  71°  23' 
north  latitude,  and  returned  in  1828.  He  had  discovered 
in  1827  two  harbours  southeast  of  Cape  Prince  of  Wales, 
which  he  named  Port  Clarence  and  Port  Grantley.  He 
was  made  rear-admiral  of  the  blue  in  1854.  He  pub- 
lished in  1828  "  Proceedings  of  the  Expedition  to  explore 
the  Northern  Coast  of  Africa  from  Tripoli  eastward," 
and  in  1 831  a  "Narrative  of  a  Voyage  to  the  Pacific  and 
Behring's  Strait,"  which  was  followed  by  two  volumes 
treating  of  the  botany  and  zoology  of  the  voyage.  Died 
in  November,  1856. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  1831;  "Edinburgh  Review" 
for  March,  1S31. 

Beechey,  (Sir  William,)  a  distinguished  English 
portrait-painter,  born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1753.  He  was 
chosen  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1793,  and 
was  appointed  portrait-painter  to  Queen  Charlotte. 
Among  his  principal  paintings  was  one  of  George  III. 
on  horseback  ;  he  also  painted  the  Prince  of  Wales  and 
other  members  of  the  rojal  family.  Lord  Cornwallis, 
Lord  Nelson,  and  John  Kemble.  He  became  a  Royal 
Academician  in  1797.    Died  in  1839. 

Beeck,  bak,  (Johann  Martin,)  a  German  Protest- 
ant theologian,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1665  ;  died  in  1727. 

Beek,  bak,  (David,)  a  celebrated  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Delft  in  1621,  was  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished pupils  of  Van  Dyck.  He  was  appointed  by 
Charles  I,  of  England  teacher  of  drawing  to  the  Prince 
of  Wales  and  his  brothers,  and  was  subsequently  pa- 
tronized by  Christina  of  Sweden,  who  charged  him  to 
paint  the  portraits  of  the  sovereigns  and  eminent  per- 
sons of  Europe.    Died  in  1656. 

See  Descamps,  "Vie  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Beekkerk,  bak'kekk,  (Hermann  Walter,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Leeuwarden  in  1756;  died  in  1796. 

Beeldemaker,  bal'deh-ma'ker,  or  Beeldemaken, 
baKdeh-ml'ken,  (Franciscus,)  a  Dutch  historical  paint- 
er, son  of  Jan,  noticed  below,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1669. 

Beeldemaker,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  the 
Hague  in  1636,  was  distinguished  for  his  hunting-scenes 
and  animals.    Died  in  1736. 

See  Descamps,  "Vie  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Beer,  baR,  (Cornelis,)  a  Flemish  painter,  worked  in 
Spain  about  1630-50.  ^ 

Beer,  baR,  (Georg  Joseph,)  a  German  physician  and 
oculist,  born  at  Vienna  in  1763.  He  invented  several 
surgical  instruments,  and  wrote  "  Practical  Observations 
on  the  Cataract,"  (1791,)  "  Bibliotheca  Ophthalmica,"  (3 
vols.,  1799,)  and  other  valuable  works.    Died  in  1821. 

Beer,  (Jakob  Meyer.)    See  Meyerbeer. 

Beer,  Bahr,  or  Baehr,  bar,  (Joseph,)  a  German  musi- 
cian, born  at  Griinwald,  in  Bohemia,  in  1744  ;  died  in  181 1, 

See  Sprengel,  "Geschichte  der  Medicin." 

Beer,  (Martin,)  a  German  philosopher  and  geogra- 
pher, born  at  Nuremberg  in  161 7.  He  wrote  various 
works.    Died  in  1692. 

See  Johann  Fabricius,  "  Memoria  M.  Beerii,"  1693. 

Beer,  (Michael,)  a  German  dramatic  writer,  brother 
of  the  celebrated  composer  Meyerbeer,  born  at  Berlin  in 
1800.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  tragedies  of  "  Stru- 
ensee"  and  "The  Pariah,"  (1826,)  which  are  highly  com- 
mended.   Died  at  Munich  in  1833. 

See  Marmier,  "Revue  Germanique,"  1S34. 

Beer,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  astronomer,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Berlin  in  1797.  He  was  an  inti- 
mate friend  of  Madler,  in  whose  astronomical  labours 
he  was  associated.  They  published  in  1836  a  map  of  the 
moon,  which  obtained  the  Lalande  prize  from  the  Fre-ach 
Academy.  It  was  followed  in  1837  by  a  commentary, 
entitled  "The  Moon  in  its  Cosmic  and  Individual  Rela- 
tions."   Died  in  1850. 


a.  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \i,  y,  sJiort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BEER-BING 


311 


BEHADAR 


Beer-Bing,  b5R  bing,  (Isaiah,)  a  Jewish  scholar,  lived 
about  1 810.  He  translated  from  German  into  Hebrew 
the  "  Phadon"  of  Mendelssohn. 

Beering.    See  Behring. 

Beers,  (Nathan,)  an  American  subaltern  officer,  born 
at  Stratford,  Connecticut,  in  1753.  He  entered  the  army 
in  1777,  and  served  until  1783.    Died  in  1849. 

Beethoven,  van,  vtn  ba'to-ven,  (Ludwig,)  a  cele- 
brated composer,  of  Dutch  extraction,  was  born  at  Bonn, 
in  Prussia,  on  the  17th  of  December,  1770.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Neefe,  whom  he  succeeded  as  organist  at  the  court  of  • 
the  Elector  of  Cologne,  who  sent  him  to  Vienna  to  finish 
his  studies  under  Haydn ;  but  Haydn,  who  was  about 
to  depart  to  England,  placed  Beethoven  under  the  tui- 
tion of  Albrechtsberger.  He  settled  in  Vienna  at  an 
early  age,  and  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  extempore 
fantasias.  Desiring  to  offer  homage  to  the  genius  of 
Napoleon,  he  commenced  in  1802  a  symphony  for  that 
purpose.  This  master-piece  of  art  and  science,  in  which 
the  genius  of  the  artist  is  revealed  in  its  greatest  majesty, 
was  not  finished  until  1804.  It  is  said  that  when  he  was 
about  to  send  it  to  Napoleon  he  learned  that  he  had 
usurped  imperial  power,  for  which  reason  he  changed  the 
title  of  the  piece  to  "  Sinfonia  eroica."  In  1805  he  pro- 
duced the  celebrated  opera  of  "Leonore"  or  "  Fidelio." 
He  composed  many  symphonies,  overtures,  cantatas, 
sonatas,  quintets,  quartets,  etc.,  which  attest  the  origin- 
ality and  sublimity  of  his  genius.  In  1809  he  resolved 
to  accept  the  office  of  chapel-master  at  the  court  of  Je- 
rome Bonaparte,  but  was  induced  to  remain  at  Vienna  by 
the  promise  of  a  pension.  He  was  extremely  reserved 
in  conversation,  and,  having  become  deaf  in  the  prime 
of  life,  avoided  society,  and  fell  into  a  habit  of  gloom  and 
distrust.  He  was  i>ever  married.  Died  at  Vienna  in 
March,  1827. 

"His  imagination,"  says  Denne-Baron,  "required  the 
vast  field  of  the  orchestra  to  display  itself  in  all  its  splen- 
dour. It  is  in  instrumental  music,  especially  in  the  sym- 
phony, the  compass  of  which  he  extendecl  beyond  the 
scale  laid  down  by  Haydn  and  Mozart,  that  Beethoven 
acquired  his  chief  title  to  celebrity."  In  1831  appeared 
a  volume  of  "Beethoven's  Studies  in  Thorough  Bass, 
Counterpoint,  and  the  Theory  of  Composition." 

See  ScHiNDi.ER,  "  Biographie  von  L.  van  Beethoven,"  1S40,  and 
an  English  version  of  the  same,  by  Moscheles,  2  vols.,  1841 ;  F.  We- 
GELER  unci  F.  RiES,  "  Biographische  Notizien  fiber  L.  van  Beetho- 
ven," 183S  ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  1831. 

Beets,  bats,  (Nikolaas,)  a  popular  Dutch  humor- 
ist and  poet,  born  at  Utrecht  in  the  early  part  of  the 
present  century.  His  "  Camera  Obscura,"  a  collection  of 
sketches  and  tales,  and  a  volume  of  poems  entitled 
"  Corn-Flowers,"  ("  Korenbloemen,")  have  been  very 
favourably  received. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazuie"  for  December,  1S54. 

Beffa-negrini,  b^f-fa-ni-gRee'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian historical  writer,  born  at  Asola  in  1532  ;  diecl  in  1602. 

Beffara,  bcVfi'rd',  (Louis  pRANgois,)  a  French  litte- 
rateur,  born  at  Nonancourt  in  ^751,  wrote  contributions 
to  the  history  of  the  French  drama.    Died  in  1838. 

BefFroy  de  Beauvoir,  baTRwd'deh  bo^vw^R',  (Louis 
£tienne,)  born  at  Laon  in  1754,  was  ^  deputy  to  the 
National  Convention,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  the 
king.  He  afterwards  became  a  member  of  the  Council 
of  Five  Hundred.    Died  in  1825. 

See  Le  Bap,  " Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Beffroy  de  Reigny,  bi^fRwi'  deh  rkn^ye',  (Louis 
Abel,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  known  by  his  pseudo- 
nym of  "  Cousin  Jacques,"  born  at  Laon  in  1757.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  popular  comedy  entitled  "  La  petite 
Nanette,"  and  various  other  works.    Died  in  1811. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Bega,  ba'gl,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Haarlem  about  1620,  was  a  pupil  of  Adrian 
van  Ostade,  and  excelled  in  the  same  department  of 
painting.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  "Chemist  in 
his  Laboratory,"  and  a  "Company  of  Drinkers."  Died 
in  1664. 

See  Nagler,  "Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon ;"  Strutt, 
"Dictionary  of  Engravers." 

Begarelli,  bk-g§.-reKlee,  sometimes  written  Begarilli, 
(Antonio,)  an  Italian  artist,  born  at  Modena  about  1498, 


was  celebrated  for  his  skill  in  modelling  stucco  and  clay. 
He  was  intimate  with  Correggio,  whom  he  is  said  to  have 
instructed  in  his  art.    Died  in  1565, 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Begas,  ba'gas,  (Karl,)  court  painter  to  the  King  of 
Prussia,  and  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Ber- 
lin, born  at  Heinsberg  in  1794.  He  studied  under  Philip- 
part  at  Bonn,  and  subsequently  in  Paris  under  Gros. 
Among  his  best  historical  pictures  are  "  The  Finding 
of  Moses,"  "The  Sermon  on  the  Mount,"  and  "Henry 
IV.  at  the  Chateau  of  Canossa."  He  also  painted  a 
number  of  excellent  portraits,  including  those  of  Alex- 
ander von  Humboldt,  Cornelius,  and  Meyerbeer.  Died 
in  1854. 

See  Nagler,  "Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Begat,  beh'gt',  (Jean,)  a  French  jurist  and  legal 
writer,  born  at  Dijon  in  1523,  became  president  of  tlie 
parliament  in  his  native  city.    Died  in  1572. 

Begault,  ba'go'',  (Gilles,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  cele- 
brated as  a  pulpit  orator,  born  in  1660 ;  died  about  1715. 

Begein.    See  Begeyn. 

Beger,  badger,  (Lorenz,)  a  German  antiquary,  born 
at  Heidelberg  in  1653,  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  number  of  treat- 
ises on  numismatics.    Died  in  1705. 

Begeyn,  ba-gln',  (Abraham,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  1650 ;  died  about  1710. 

Begh,  beg,  (Lambert,)  sometimes  called  Le  Begue, 
a  French  ecclesiastic,  supposed  to  have  founded  at  Liege, 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  religious 
order  of  Beguines,  consisting  of  widows  and  unmarried 
women.  The  foundation  of  this  order  is  ascribed  by 
some  writers  to  Saint  Francis  of  Assisi.    Died  in  1 177. 

See  "  L'Art  de  verifier  les  Dates." 

Begin,  bi^zh^N',  (Augusts  Smile,)  a  French  liith-a 
teH7%\>oxn  at  Metz  in  1803.  He  published  a  "History 
of  Napoleon,  his  Family,  and  his  Epoch,"  (6  vols.,  1853 
et  seq.) 

Begin,  (Louis  Jacques,)  a  French  surgeon  and  writer, 
born  at  Liege  in  1793  ;  died  in  1859. 

Begon,  bi'g6N^  (Etienne,)  a  French  lawyer,  born 
about  1658;  died  in  1726. 

Begon,  (Michel,)  a  French  magistrate  and  eminent 
patron  of  science,  born  at  Blois  in  1638,  possessed  a 
choice  collection  of  medals  and  objects  in  natural  his- 
tory. Plumier  named  in  his  honour  the  Begonia,  a  genus 
of  South  American  plants  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of 
their  foliage  and  flowers.    Died  in  1710. 

See  MoRERi,  "Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Begon,  (SciPiON  Jerome,)  son  of  the  preceding,  boni 
at  Brest  in  1681,  became  Bishop  of  Toul.    Died  in  1753. 

Begue  de  Presle,  le,  leh  b^g  deh  pRil,  (Achille 
GuiLLAUME,)  a  French  physician,  born  near  Orleans 
about  1735.  He  translated  from  the  English  some  of 
the  w^orks  of  Monro  and  Lewis,  and  was  a  contributor 
to  the  "  Bibliotheque  physico-economique."  He  was  a 
friend  of  J.  J.  Rousseau,  and  wrote  an  account  of  his  last 
days.    Died  in  1807. 

See  "Biographie  Medicale. 

Begue,  Le,  leh  bag  or  leh  b§g,  a  celebrated  French 
musician  and  composer,  was  organist  of  the  church  of 
Saint-Merry,  in  Paris.    Died  about  1720. 

Beguelin,  de,  deh  bc\g^laN',  (Nicolas,)  a  Swiss  phy- 
sician, born  at  Courlary  in  1 7 14,  was  tutor  to  Frederick 
William,  afterwards  King  of  Prussia.  He  subsequently 
became  director  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin. 
Died  in  1789. 

Beguignot,  de,  deh  bi'gen^yo',  (FRANgois  Barth^:- 
LEMI,)  Comte,  a  French  general,  born  in  1747,  served 
in  the  campaigns  of  1795  and  1799.    Died  in  1808. 

Beguillet,  bi'ge'yi',  (Edme,)  a  French  agricultural 
writer  ;  died  in  1786. 

Beguin,  bi'giN',  (Jean,)  a  French  chemist,  born  about 
1600,  wrote  "Tyrocinium  Chymicum." 

Behadar-  (Bahadar-  or  Bahadur-)  Khan,  be-ha'dar 
or  ba-haMiir  Kan,  (Ala-ed-Deen-Aboo-Saeed,  or 
Ala-ed-Din-Abu-Said,  dKa-ed-deen''  a^joo  sa-eed',) 
last  Sultan  of  the  Mongol  dynasty  in  Persia,  born  in 
Azerbaijan  in  1302.    Died  in  1335. 

See  Price,  "History  of  Persia." 

Behadar-  (Bahadar-  or  Bahadur-)  Shah,  second 


€  as  iz;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


B  EH  AGUE 


312 


BEISCH 


son  of  Aurung-Zeb,  born  about  1642,  was  also  called  the 
Sultan  Moazzem,  (nio-az'zem.)  His  brother  Moham- 
med having  died,  Ikhadar  became  Emperor  of  the  Moguls 
on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1707.    He  died  in  1712. 

See  Eli'hinstone,  "History  of  India;"  Fkaser,  "History  of 
Nadir  Shah,"  etc. 

Behague,  de,  deh  ba'Sg',  (Jean  Pierre  Antoine,) 
COiMTE,  a  P'rench  general,  was  appointed  Governor  of 
Martinique  in  1792. 

Behaim,  ba'him,  written  also  Behem  or  Boehm, 
(Martin,)  an  eminent  navigator  and  geographer,  born  at 
Nuremberg  in  1436,  is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Regio- 
montanus.  About  14S0  he  visited  Portugal,  where  he  was 
received  with  great  distinction,  and  in  1484  was  appointed 
geographer  to  the  African  expedition  of  Diogo  Cam,  in 
which  they  explored  the  western  coast  of  Africa  from  the 
river  Gambia  to  the  Congo.  After  his  return  to  Lisbon 
he  was  made  a  knight  by  King  John  H.  He  subse- 
,  quently  settled  in  the  island  of  Fayal.  In  1492  he  made 
a  terrestrial  globe,  (still  in  the  possession  of  his  family,) 
which  is  an  interesting  monument  of  the  geographical 
science  of  that  time.  He  died  about  1506,  leaving  a  num- 
ber of  valuable  maps  and  charts. 

See  "Geschichte  des  Seefahrers  Ritter  Martin  Behaim,"  by  F.  W. 
Ghillany,  1853;  C.  G.  VON  MuRR,  "  Diploniatische  Geschichte  des 
beriihmten  Ritters  M.  Behaim,"  1778. 

Beliam,  ba^iam,  sometimes  written  Bochem,  (Bar- 
riiOLOMAUS,)  a  distinguished  German  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  about  1496,  was  a  pupil  of  Albert  Diirer. 
Among  his  master-pieces  in  engraving  are  "Triton  and 
the  Nereids,"  and  "Cleopatra."    Died  in  1540. 

See  Heinecken,  " Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Beham,  (Hans  Sebald,)  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Nuremberg  in  1500,  was  one  of  the  best  pupils 
of  Albert  Diirer.  His  prints  are  of  very  small  size,  and 
include  engravings  on  copper,  etchings,  and  woodcuts. 
Died  about  1550. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  KiinstLr-Lexikon." 

Behem.    See  Behaim. 

Behlen,  ba^en,  (Stephan,)  a  German  writer,  born  at 
Fritzlar  in  1784,  published  treatises  on  forest  science  and 
hunting.    Died  in  1847. 

Belim,  bam,  (Ernst  Leopold,)  a  German  Protestant 
theological  writer,  born  in  1700;  died  in  1742. 

Behm,  (Johann,)  a  German  Protestant  divine,  born 
at  Konigsberg  in  1578,  published,  in  Latin,  a  "Chro- 
nology of  the  World  from  the  Creation  to  the  Destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem."    Died  in  1648. 

Behm,  (Johann,)  a  German  Protestant  writer  on 
theology,  born  in  1687;  died  at  Konigsberg  in  1753. 

Behm,  (Michael,)  a  Protestant  theologian  and  writer, 
born  at  Konigsberg  in  16 12  ;  died  in  1650. 

Behmen.    See  Bohme,  (Jakob.) 

Behmer,  ba'mer,  (Friedrich  Ehrenreich,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist,  born  at  Berlin  in  1721 ;  died  in  1776. 

Behn,  hhw,  (Mrs.  Aphra,)  an  English  authoress,  whose 
maiden  name  was  Johnson,  born  about  1640.  She  wrote, 
besides  plays,  a  number  of  poems,  tales,  etc.,  remarkable 
for  their  licentiousness.  She  is  alluded  to  by  Pope  under 
the  name  of  Astrea,  which  was  her  pseudonym.  Her 
novel  entitled  "Oroonoko  the  American  Prince"  was 
very  popular.  About  1666  she  was  employed  by  Charles 
■IL  as  a  secret  agent  at  Antwerp,  and  captivated  several 
lovers,  from  one  of  whom  she  extorted  information  of 
an  intended  expedition  to  burn  the  shipping  in  the 
Thames.    Died  in  1689. 

See  Gibber,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets." 

Behom-t,  beh-ooR',  (Jean,)  a  French  grammarian 
and  dramatist,  iDorn  in  Normandy,  lived  about  1600. 

Behr,  baR,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  a  German  gene- 
ral, born  in  Pomerania  in  1739,  served  in  the  French 
army  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.    Died  in  183 1. 

Behr,  (Christoph,)  a  German  scholar,  wrote  several 
works  in  Latin.    Died  in  1704. 

Behr.  (George  PIenri,)  a  physician,  born  in  Stras- 
burg  in  1708,  was  a  pupil  of  Boerhaave.    Died  in  1761. 

Behr,  (Johann  Heinrich  August,)  a  German  states- 
man, born  at  Freiberg  in  1793,  became  in  1849  minister 
of  finance  for  the  kingdom  of  Saxony. 

Behr,  (Wilhelm  Joseph,)  a  German  publicist,  born 
at  Sultzheim  in  1775.  He  became  professor  of  law  at 
Wiirzburg  in  1799,  and  was  subsequently  twice  elected 


to  the  Bavarian  Diet,  in  which  he  supported  liberal  prin- 
ciples, and  was  punished  by  a  long  imprisonment.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  Frankfort  Parliament  in  1848. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  System  of  Public 
Law,"  (3  vols.,  1810.)    Died  in  1851. 

Behrens,  barrens,  (Conrad  Barthold,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Hildesheim  in  1660.  He  wrote  medi- 
cal, scientific,  and  historical  treatises.    Died  in  1736. 

Behrens,  (Georg  Henning,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Goslar  in  1662.  He  wrote  "  Hercynia  Curiosa," 
a  work  on  the  Hartz  Forest,  (1703.)    Died  in  1712. 

Behrens,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  traveller, 
published  in  1739  "Visits  to  Southern  Countries." 

Behrens,  (Michael,)  a  German  theologian,  born  at 
Buxtehude,  in  Hanover,  in  1657;  died  in  1728. 

Behrens,  (Rodolf  Augustin,)  a  German  physician 
and  medical  writer,  born  at  Brunswick;  died  in  1747. 

Behring,  barring,  (Vitus,)  a  Danish  historian  and 
Latin  poet,  born  in  Jutland  in  161 7,  became  historio- 
grapher to  the  King  of  Denmark.    Died  in  1675. 

See  Baillet,  "  Jugements  des  Savants." 

Behr'ing,  Beer'ing,  or  Bearing,  [Dan.  pron.  barring,] 
(Vitus,)  a  celebrated  Danish  navigator,  and  discoverer  of 
the  strait  which  bears  his  name,  born  in  Jutland  in  1680. 
Having  entered  the  Russian  navy  at  an  early  age  and 
served  with  distinction  against  the  Swedes,  he  was  ap- 
pointed in  1725  commander  of  a  scientific  expedition  to 
the  Sea  of  Kamtchatka,  After  an  absence  of  more  than 
three  years,  during  which  he  explored  the  coast  of  Kamt- 
chatka as  fai  as  67°  18^  N.  lat.  and  ascertained  that 
Asia  was  not  joined  to  America,  he  returned  to  Russia. 
Appointed  captain-commander  in  1732,  he  set  out  on  a 
second  voyage  in  1741,  and  discovered  a  part  of  the  North 
American  coast,  supposed  to  have  been  New  Norfolk. 
Both  he  and  his  crew  being  disabled  by  sickness,  they 
attempted  to  return  to  Kamtchatka,  but  were  wrecked 
on  the  island  of  Avatcha,  since  called  Behring's  Island, 
where  Behring  died  soon  after. 

See  "Nouvelles  Decouvertes  faites  des  Russes  entre  I'Asie  et 
rAmeriqiie,"  Paris,  17S1. 

Beidawee  or  Beid^wi,  (Al,)  SI  baMi^vee^,  written 
also  Beidhawi  and  Beidhavi,  (AbdaFlah-Ben- 
O'mar,)  a  learned  Mussulman  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
born  at  Beda  or  Beida,  in  Farsistan,  was  the  author  of 
a  "  Universal  Chronology,"  (in  Persian,)  and  a  "  Com- 
mentary on  the  Koran,"  (in  Arabic.)  The  latter  is  highly 
esteemed  by  Mohammedans. 

Beier,  bi'er,  (Adrian,)  a  German  jurist  and  legal 
writer,  born  at  Jena  in  1634,  was  professor  of  law  in  his 
native  city.    Died  in  171 2. 

Beier,  (August.)    See  Beyer. 

Beier,  (Hartmann,)  a  Protestant  theologian,  born  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  15 16,  studied  at  Wittenberg, 
where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Luther.  Died  in  1577. 

Beil,  bil,  (Johann  David,)  a  German  actor  and  dra- 
matist, born  at  Chemnitz  in  1734;  died  in  1794. 

Beimiram,  bT''me-ram',  (Isaac,)  a  Jewish  physician 
of  the  eleventh  century,  was  a  contemporary  of  Avicenna. 
He  wrote  several  works. 

Bein,  bin,  (Johann,)  a  designer  and  engraver,  born 
at  Coxweiller-.(Bas-Rhin)  in  1789;  died  in  1857. 

Beinaschi.    See  Bena.schi. 

Beinga-della,  ban'gi  deKli,  the  last  king  of  Pegu, 
who,  after  having  conquered  Ava  in  1752,  was  made  pris- 
oner in  1757  by  the  Burmans,  and  put  to  death  in  1775. 

Beinl  von  Bienenburg,  bln'l  fon  bee^nen-booRC-, 
(Anton,)  a  German  physician,  and  professor  of  pathology 
at  Vienna,  born  in  1749.  He  was  physician-in-chief  of 
the  Imperial  armies.    Died  in  1820. 

Beinville,  b^N^-eK,  (Charles  Barthelemi,)  a  French 
publicist  and  partisan  of  Richelieu,  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"  French  Truths  opposed  to  Spanish  Calumnies."  Died 
in  1641. 

See  Lelong,  " Bibliotheque  historique  de  la  France." 

Beireis,  bi^Ts,  (Gottfried  Christoph,)  a  German 
physician  and  chemist,  born  at  Miihlhausen  in  1730.  He 
wrote  on  medicine  and  natural  history.    Died  in  1809. 

See  J.  P.  Gabler,  "  Narratio  de  Vita  G.  C.  Beireisii,"  1S12. 

Beisch,  bish,  written  also  Beich,  (Joachim  Franz.)  a 
German  landscape-painter  and  engraver,  born  in  Suabia 
in  1,665.    Died  in  1 748. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lofig;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohaire;{^r,  fi.ll,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BEISLER  313  BELDERBUSCH 


Beisler,  bls'Ier,  (Hermann,)  a  Bavarian  statesman, 
born  at  Bensheim  in  1790,  filled  several  important  offices 
under  the  government,  and  was  appointed  in  1848  min- 
ister of  the  interior,  but  held  the  office  only  three  months. 

Beissier,  ba'se-a',  (Jacques,)  a  French  surgeon,  born 
in  1623,  in  Dauphlny,  attended  Louis  XIV.  in  his  cam- 
paigns.   Died  in  1712. 

Beisson,  ba's6N',  (FRANgois  Joseph  £tienne,)  a 
French  engraver,  born  at  Aix  in  1759  ;  died  in  1820. 

Beitar.    See  Aben-Beitar. 

Beja,  ba'zhS,  (Luis,)  a  Portuguese  theologian  and 
writer,  born  at  Perestrello,  lived  about  1600-50. 

Beja,  de,  da  ba'zhS,  (Frey  Antonio,)  a  Portuguese 
priest,  born  in  1493,  wrote  a  treatise  against  astrology. 

Bejart,  ba'zhlR',  (Jacques,)  a  French  comedian,  born 
in  Paris  in  1622,  was  a  friend  of  Moliere,  and  acted  some 
of  the  characters  in  his  plays.    Died  in  1659. 

Bejot,  beh-zho',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
atMontdidierin  17 18,  was  professor  of  Greek  at  Paris,  and 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Liscriptions.   Died  in  1787. 

Bek.    See  Beek,  (David.) 

Beke,  (Charles  Tilstone,)  an  English  traveller  and 
writer  of  high  reputation,  born  in  1800,  accompanied  the 
expedition  of  Major  Harris  to  Abyssinia  about  1845. 
wrote  "  Origines  Biblicae,  or  Researches  in  Primeval  His- 
tory," (1834,)  which  was  severely  criticised  in  Germany 
by  Paulus  and  others  ;  "Essay  on  the  Nile  and  its  Tribu- 
taries," (1847  ;)  "  On  the  Sources  of  the  Nile  in  the  Moun- 
tains of  the  Moon,"  (1848;)  and  "On  the  Geographical 
Distribution  of  the  Languages  of  Abyssinia,"  (1849.) 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1S34. 

Beketof,  bgk'g-toF,  or  Bek'e-toff',  (Nikita,)  a 
Russian  administrator,  born  in  1729,  was  governor  of 
Astrachan,  and  a  benefactor  to  the  public.  Died  in  1794. 

Bekiesz,  ba'ke-§ss,  (Gaspar,)  a  Hungarian  general  in 
the  service  of  Poland,  born  about  1530;  died  in  1579. 

Bekk,  bek,  (Johann  Baptist,)  a  German  statesman 
and  jurist,  born  at  Tryberg,  in  Baden,  in  1800,  became 
minister  of  the  interior  in  1846,  which  position  he  resigned 
after  the  revolution  of  1848. 

Bekker  or  Becker,  b^k'ker,  (Balthasar,)  a  Dutch 
theologian,  -born  in  Friesland  in  1634,  was  the  author  of 
"  Researches  on  Comets,"  and  "  The  World  Bewitched," 
("Betoverde  Weereld,"  1691.)  For  the  latter,  in  which 
he  condemned  the  prevailing  superstitions  of  the  time 
respecting  sorcery,  he  was  deprived,  by  the  synod,  of  his 
office  as  preacher.    Died  in  1698. 

See  J.  M.  ScHWAGER,  "  Geschichte  der  Intoleranz,  oder  Leben  und 
Schicksale  des  Dr.  B.  Bekker,"  1780;  "B.  Bekker  in  Franeker," 
Groningen,  1848. 

Bekker,  (Elizabeth,)  a  celebrated  Dutch  novelist 
and  poetess,  born  at  Flushing  in  1738.  She  was  married 
to  Adrian  Wolff,  a  Protestant  preacher,  and  after  his  death, 
in  1777,  resided  with  her  friend  Agatha  Deken,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  whom  she  wrote  her  most  admired  romances, 
among  which  are  the  "  History  of  William  Leevend," 
and  "  History  of  Sara  Burgerhart."    Died  in  1804. 

Bekker,  bgk'ker,  (L\i  MANUEL,)  an  eminent  German 
philologist  and  critic,  born  at  Berlin  in  1785.  He  studied 
at  Halle  under  Wolf,  and  was  appointed  professor  of 
philology  and  Greek  at  Berlin  about  1807.  As  a  mem- 
iDer  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  he  was  sent  by  that 
body,  in  181 7,  to  Italy,  in  order  to  assist  in  deciphering 
the  "Listitutes  of  Gains,"  discovered  by  Niebuhr.  Li 
1814  he  had  published  his  "  Anecdota  Grceca,"  (3  vols.) 
He  produced  good  editions  of  the  following  authors  : 
Plato,  (10  vols.,  1814-21,)  "The  Attic  Orators,"  (7  vols., 
1823,)  Aristotle,  (7  vols.,1831,)  Thucydides,  (3  vols.,  1821,) 
Aristophanes,  (3  vols.,  1825,)  "  Scholia  for  the  Iliad,"  (3 
vols.,  1827,)  and  Photius,  (2  vols.,  1824.) 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Bektash,  Bektasch,  or  Bektach.  See  Beygtash. 
Bel.    See  Belus  and  Baal. 

Bel,  bg],  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  Htteratetcr,  hoxn 
at  Bordeaux  in  1693,  wrote  "Critical  Letters  on  the  Ma- 
rianne of  Voltaire,"  (1726,)  and  other  works.  Diedin  1738. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Bel,  b^l,  (Karl  Andreas,)  born  at  Presburg  in  1717, 
was  a  son  of  Matthias,  noticed  below.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  poetry  at  Leipsic.    Died  in  1782. 

Bel,  [Lat.  Be'lius,]  (Matthias,)  a  Hungarian  theolo- 


gian, historiographer  to  the  emperor  Charles  VI.,  born 
at  Orsova  in  1684.  He  wrote  several  valuable  works, 
in  Latin,  on  Hungarian  history.    Died  in  1749. 

Bel,  le,  leh  bel,  (Jean,)  a  Belgian,  born  about  1305 
wrote  a  chronicle  of  his  own  times,  which  was  recently 
discovered,  and  published  in  1850.    Died  about  1390. 

Be'la  I.,  King  of  Hungary,  succeeded  to  the  throne 
in  1059.    Died  in  1063. 

Bela  II.,  THE  Blind,  succeeded  Stephen  in  1131. 

Bela  III.  became  King  of  Hungary  in  1 1 74.  Hungary 
was  first  divided  into  counties  in  his  reign.    Died  in  1 196. 

Bela  IV.,  son  of  Andrew  II.,  ascended  the  throne  in 
1235.  During  his  reign  the  Moguls  under  Batoo-  (Batu-) 
Khan  ravaged  Hungai^  with  fire  and  sword.  Died  in  1270. 

Bela,  de,  da  ba^'la,  Caballero,  a  Basque  historian, 
born  about  1715,  wrote  a  valuable  "History  of  tre 
Basques,"  of  which  only  an  extract  has  been  published. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Beladori  or  Beladzori,  (Ahmed,)  or,  more  fully, 
Aboo-l-Hassan  -  Ahmed  -Ton  -Yahya-al-Beiadori, 
(or  -Baladori,)  cVbool  has'san  in'med  ib'n  yih'hyi  il 
ba-ld'do-ree,  an  Arabian  historian  and  poet,  lived  at 
Bagdad  in  the  ninth  century.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the 
early  conquests  of  the  Arabs,  and  translated  works  from 
the  Pehlevi  into  Arabic.  He  died  in  a  hospital  for  the 
insane,  in  892  A.D. 

See  Ibn-Khali.ikan,  "Biographical  Dictionary;"  "  Nouvellc 
Biographic  Generale." 

Belair,  beh-lSR',  (Alexandre  Pierre  Julienne,)  a 
French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1747,  served  in  the  army 
of  the  North  in  1793,  and  rose  to  be  commander  of  the 
National  Guards.  He  wrote  several  works  on  fortifica- 
tions.   Died  in  1819. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  DIctionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais." 

Belair,  (Charles,)  born  in  Saint  Domingo,  was  a 
nephew  of  the  celebrated  Toussaint  L'Ouverture.  He 
took  an  active  part  as  general  of  brigade  against  the 
French  in  1802  ;  but,  having  been  taken  prisoner,  he  was 
condemned  by  a  military  commission  and  shot. 

See  P.  Lacroix,  "Memoires  sur  les  Revolutions  de  Saint-Do- 
mingue." 

Belanger,beh-16N^zha',  (Franqois  Joseph,)  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1744;  died  in  1818. 

Belbeuf,  de,  deh  bel'buf ,  (Antoine  Louis  Pierre 
Joseph  Godard — go'dtii',)  Marquis,  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1791,  became  a  senator  in  1852. 

BePcamp,  van,  (John,)  a  Dutch  painter,  who  worked 
in  London.    Died  in  1653. 

Belcari,  de,  di  bll-k^'ree,  (Maffeo,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  in  Florence ;  died  in  1454. 

Bel'cher,  written  also  Belchier,  (Dabridgecourt,) 
an  English  antiquary  and  dramatic  writer.    Died  in  1621. 

Belcher,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English  naval  officer  and 
explorer,  born  in  1799.  He  sailed  with  Captain  Beechey 
to  the  Arctic  regions  in  1825,  and  subsequently,  in  the 
ship  Sulphur,  made  a  voyage  round  the  world.  He 
joined  the  expedition  to  China  in  1841,  and  was  knighted 
in  1843.  In  1852  he  commanded  the  expedition  in  search 
of  Sir  John  Franklin.  He  published  a  "  Narrative  of 
the  Voyage  round  the  World  on  the  Sulphur,"  (1836,) 
and  several  other  works. 

Belcher,  (Jonathan,)  one  of  the  royal  governors  in 
America,  born  in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1681, 
became  one  of  the  principal  merchants  in  New  Eng- 
land. He  was  Governor  of  Massachusetts  and  New 
Hampshire  from  1730  to  1 74 1,  when  his  enemies  pro- 
cured his  removal.  Repairing  at  once  to  England,  he 
vindicated  his  conduct  before  the  king,  was  restored  to 
the  royal  favour,  and  appointed  Governor  of  New  Jer- 
sey about  1747.    Died  in  1757. 

Belcher,  (Jonathan,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1711.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1728,  was  appointed 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  Nova  Scotia  in  1760,  and  chief 
justice  in  1761.    Died  in  1776. 

Belchier,  beKcher  or  bel'chi-er,  (John,)  an  Eng- 
lish surgeon,  and  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  born  in 
Surrey  in  1706,  became  governor  of  Guy's  Hospital. 
Died  in  1785. 

See  Watt,  "  Bibliotheca  Britannica." 

Belderbusch,  beKder-bdosh',    (Karl  Leopold,) 


c  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=T"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BELDORI 


3H 


BELKNAP 


Count,  born  in  1749,  became  a  member  of  the  senate 
of  the  Netherlands  in  1810.    Died  in  1826. 

Beldori,  bel-do''ree,  (Giovanni  Pietro,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  l)orn  at  Rome  about  161 5  ;  died  in  1696. 

Belelli,  bi-leKlee,  (Fulgencio,)  an  Italian  ecclesias- 
tic, born  at  Kuccino,  in  NajDles,  about  1682  ;  died  in  1742. 

Belenvei,  de,  deh  berSn-va',  or  Beauvois,  bo''vy, 
(AiMKRY,)  a  French  troubadour.    Died  in  1264. 

Bel'e-sis  or  BeFe-sys,  a  priest  of  Babylon,  joined 
Arbaces  in  overthrowing  the  old  Assyrian  Em])ire.  He 
was  afterwards  governor  of  Babylon,  about  826  B.C. 

Belestat,  de,  deh  beh-les'tS^  (Gardouch,  gtR'- 
doosh',)  Marquis,  a  French  writer,  born  at  Toulouse 
in  1725  ;  died  in  1807. 

Belestat,  de,  (Pierre  Langlois,)  a  French  physi- 
cian, who  lived  about  1570,  wrote  on  Egyptian  antiquities. 

Beleze,  beh-laz^,  (Guillaume  Louis  Gustave,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1803.  Among 
his  works  is  a  "Universal  Dictionary  of  Practical  Life." 

BeFfour,  (Hugo  James,)  an  English  dramatist  and 
poet,  born  about  1802,  published,  under  the  pseudo- 
nym of  Saint  John  Dorset,  two  dramas,  entitled  "Mon- 
tezuma," and  "The  Vampyre."    Died  in  1827. 

BeFfrage,  (Henry,)  minister  at  Falkirk,  in  Scotland, 
was  born  in  1774.  He  published  "Discourses  for  the 
Young,"  (181 7,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1835. 

See  IMcKerrow,  "Life  of  Henry  Belfrage,"  1837. 

Belfredotti,  de,  dab^l-fRa-dot'tee,  (Bocchino,)  sove- 
reign of  Yolterra,  in  Italy,  was  put  to  death  as  a  traitor 
(1361)  for  attempting  to  sell  his  country  to  the  Pisans. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Belgiojoso,  bel-jo-yo'so,  (Cristina  Trivulzio,) 
Princess  of,  an  Italian  lady,  distinguished  for  her  tal- 
ents and  her  patriotism,  born  at  Milan  in  1808.  About 
1830  she  removed  to  Paris,  where  she  acquired  the 
friendship  of  Augustin  Thierry,  Mignet,  and  other  emi- 
nent men  of  the  liberal  party.  In  1848  she  warmly  ad- 
vocated the  Italian  revolution,  and  raised  a  battalion  of 
volunteers  at  her  own  expense.  After  the  defeat  of  the  pa- 
triots and  the  confiscation  of  her  property,  she  went  again 
to  Paris,  and  became  a  contributor  to  the  "National." 

BeFgi-us  or  BoFgi-us,  a  leader  of  the  Gauls,  who 
in  279  B.C.  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Macedonians, 
in  which  their  king,  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  was  killed. 

Belgrade,  bSl-gR^'do,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit, 
born  at  Udine  in  1704,  wrote  (in  Latin)  on  mechanics 
and  natural  philosophy.    Died  in  1789. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Belgrand,  bSKgRSN',  (Claude  Henri,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  1748,  commanded  at  the  long  siege  of 
Malta  in  1800.    Died  in  1839. 

Bel-graVi-us  or  Bel-lo-graVus,  (Richard,)  an 
English  Carmelite  monk  under  the  rergn  of  Edward  II. 

Belhomme,  b^Kom'  or  ba'lom',  (Dom  Humbert,)  a 
French  Benedictine  friar  and  eloquent  preacher,  born  at 
Bar-le-Duc  in  1653  ;  died  in  1727. 

Belhomme,  (Jacques  Etienne,)  a  French  physician, 
born  in  Paris  in  1800,  wrote  several  treatises  on  insanity. 

Beli.    See  Bali. 

Belidor,  de,  da  bk-le-D6R',  (Bernard  Forest,)  a 
distinguished  engineer  and  military  writer,  born  in  Cata- 
lonia in  1693,  became  professor  in  the  School  of  Artillery 
at  La  Fere,  in  France.  He  served  in  the  German  cam- 
paign of  1742,  and  afterwards  became  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  "Hydraulic  Architecture,"  (1737,)  "New  Course  of 
Mathematics  for  the  Use  of  Artillery,"  (1757,)  and  a 
work  on  engineering.    Died  in  1761. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Beliere,  dela,  deh  li  beh-le-aiR',  (Claude,)  a  French 
writer,  was  born  at  CharoliesT^nd  published,  in  1664, 
"  Physionomie  raisonnee." 

Beligatti,  bi-le-gdt'tee,  (CASSio,),an  Italian  Capuchin 
and  Orientalist,  born  at  Macerata  in  1708,  resided  as  a 
missionary  in  Thibet.  He  published  an  alphabet  of  the 
language  of  Thibet,  and  a  Hindostanee  grammar.  Died 
in  1791. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 
Belin,  beh-IdN'  or  bl^N,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  dra- 
matist, born  at  Marseilles  in  1672  ;  died  in  1732. 


Belin,  (Jean  Albert,)  a  learned  French  writer,  born 
at  Besan9on  about  1610,  became  Bishop  of  Bellay  in 
1666.    Died  in  1677. 

Belin  de  Ballu,  beh-14N'  deh  bt'lii',  (Jacques  Nico- 
las,) a  French  scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1753,  became 
professor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Kharkov,  in  the 
Ukraine.  He  translated  into  French  the  "Hecuba"  of 
Euripides  and  the  complete  works  of  Lucian,  with  critical 
and  historical  remarks.  He  also  wrote  a  "Critical  His- 
tory of  P21oquence  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans," 
(1803.)    Died  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1815. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Beling,  baling,  (Oswald,)  a  German  poet,  born  at 
Sleswick  in  1625  ;  died  at  Cassel  in  1646. 

BeFing,  (Richard,)  an  Irish  Catholic,  born  in  the 
county  of  Dublin  in  1613.  He  first  fought  for  the  insur- 
gents in  the  rebellion  of  1641,  but  afterwards  joined  the 
royalist  army.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  defence  of  the  Irish 
Catholics,  and  other  works.  He  added  a  sixth  book  to 
Sir  Philip  Sidney's  "Arcadia."    Died  in  1677. 

Belisaire  or  Belisar.    See  Belisarius. 

Bel-i-saM-us,  [Fr.  Belisaire,  ba'le'zaR' ;  Ger.  Beli- 
sar, ba^le-ziR',]  a  Byzantine  general, whose  talents  were  of 
the  highest  order,  was  born  at  Germania,  in  Illyria,  about 
505  A.D.  He  served  in  the  guard  of  Justinian  before  his 
accession  to  the  throne,  (527,)  and  soon  after  that  event 
was  appointed  general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  East. 
He  defeated  the  Persians  at  Dara,  in  530,  and  quelled  a 
dangerous  sedition  at  Constantinople  in  532  A.D.  In  533 
and  534  he  gained  decisive  victories  over  the  Vandals  in 
Africa,  captured  their  king,  Gelimer,  and  destroyed  his 
kingdom.  For  this  service  he  was  honoured  with  a  tri- 
umph, and  chosen  sole  consul,  in  535.  Between  535  and 
540  he  was  employed  against  the  Ostrogoths,  who  had 
obtained  possession  of  Italy.  He  made  himself  master 
of  Rome,  and  had  nearly  reduced  Italy,  when  he  was  re- 
called in  540  A.D.  He  opposed  with  success  on  the 
eastern  frontier  a  Persian  army  under  Cosroes  (or  Khos- 
roo)  in  542,  and  at  the  end  of  this  campaign  was  de- 
graded by  the  influence  of  the  empress  Theodora.  He 
was  fined  and  threatened  with  death,  but  was  pardoned 
on  condition  that  he  would  be  reconciled  to  his  unfaithful 
and  abandoned  wife  Antonina,  who  was  a  favourite  of 
Theodora.  In  544  he  renewed  the  war  against  the  Gothic 
king  Totila  in  Italy,  with  a  small  army,  which  proved  to 
be  inadequate  to  the  expulsion  of  the  more  numerous 
enemy.  He  returned  to  the  capital  in  548,  and  passed 
about  ten  years  in  inaction.  His  last  service  was  the 
repulse  of  the  Bulgarians,  who  invaded  the  empire  in 
559  A.D.,  after  which  the  jealousy  of  Justinian  or  the 
intrigues  of  courtiers  deprived  him  of  command. 

In  563  he  was  falsely  accused  of  a  conspiracy  against 
the  life  of  Justinian,  for  which  his  fortune  was  seques- 
tered. According  to  Gibbon,  his  innocence  was  recog- 
nized before  his  death,  which  occurred  in  565  A.D.  There 
appears  to  be  no  foundation  for  the  once  current  tra- 
dition or  fiction  that  he  was  deprived  of  sight  and  re- 
duced to  support  himself  by  begging.  He  seems  to 
have  been  a  Christian  in  outward  conformity  at  least. 
As  a  general,  he  was  distinguished  for  presence  of  mind 
and  rapidity  of  movement.  He  was  loyal  to  the  em- 
peror, humane  to  the  vanquished,  and  patient  towards 
rivals  who  falsely  accused  him. 

See  "Life  of  Belisarius,"  by  Lord  Mahon,  1829:  Gibbon,  "De- 
cline and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  Christian  Friedrich  Zel- 
LER,  "  Belisarius,"  Tubingen,  1809;  C.  L.  Roth,  "  Ueber  Belisars 
Ungnade,"  1846;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  May,  1847. 

Belknap,  bSKnap,  (Jeremy,)  an  American  historian 
and  clergyman,  born  in  Boston  in  1744.  He  was  ordained 
pastor  of  a  Congregational  church  at  Dover,  New  Hamp- 
shire, in  1767,  and  in  1787  removed  to  Boston,  where  he 
preached  about  ten  years.  He  published  a  "  History  of 
New  Hampshire,"  (3  vols.,  1784-92,)  "American  Biog- 
raphy," (2  vols.,  1794-98,)  and  "The  Foresters,"  an 
apologue.    Died  in  1798. 

See  a  "Life  of  J.  Belknap,"  1847. 

Belknap,  (William  G.,)  an  American  officer,  born 
at  Newburg,  New  York,  in  1794,  served  at  the  liattle  of 
Fort  Erie  in  August,  1 814,  became  a  captain  in  1822, 
and  a  major  in  1842.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Buenu 
Vista  in  1847.    Died  in  1852. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  li,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/wrt;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohsaire;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  met;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


BELL 


3J5 


BELL 


Bell,  (Andrew,)  the  founder  of  the  monitorial  system 
of  instruction,  also  called  the  Madras  system,  was  born  at 
Saint  Andrew's,  in  Fifesliire,  in  1752.  He  was  appointed 
in  1789  chaplain  of  Fort  Saint  George,  at  Madras,  where 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  gratuitous  instruction  of  the 
orphans  of  the  military  asylum.  On  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  published  an  account  of  the  new  method,  and 
soon  after  a  school  was  established  upon  this  plan  by 
Joseph  Lancaster.  The  success  of  these  experiments 
caused  the  system  to  be  generally  adopted  in  England 
and  other  countries.  Dr.  Bell  died  in  1832,  leaving  large 
sums  for  the  endowment  of  schools  on  the  Madras  sys- 
tem.   (See  Lancaster,  Joseph.) 

See  "  Life  of  the  Rev.  Andrew  Bell,"  by  R.  and  C.  C.  Southey; 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1811;  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Bell,  (Beaupre,)  an  English  antiquary,  who  be- 
queathed a  valuable  collection  of  medals  and  manu- 
scripts to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.    Died  in  1745. 

Bell,  (Benjamin,)  F.R.S.,  a  distinguished  Scottish  sur- 
geon, born  at  Edinburgh,  studied  under  Professor  Monro. 
He  published  a  "System  of  Surgery,"  (6  vols.,  1782,) 
and  other  works  of  high  reputation,  which  were  translated 
into  French  and  German,    Died  in  1806. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Bell,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  eminent  physiologist  and  anato- 
mist, born  at  Edinburgh  in  1774,  was  a  son  of  the  Rev. 
William  Bell.  He  was  a  pupil  of  his  brother  John,  noticed 
below.  About  1804  he  became  a  resident  of  London, 
where  he  practised  and  lectured  on  surgery.  He  pub- 
lished in  1806  an  "Essay  on  the  Anatomy  of  Expression 
in  Painting,"  which  is  highly  esteemed,  and  in  1807  his 
valuable  "  System  of  Operative  Surgery."  In  1814  he 
was  appointed  surgeon  to  the  Middlesex  Hospital,  which 
he  left  in  a  flourishing  condition  in  1836.  He  was  highly 
distinguished  for  his  skill  as  an  operator.  In  1821  he 
announced  an  important  discovery  in  a  paper  on  the 
"  Nervous  System,"  read  before  the  Royal  Society.  He 
discovered  that  the  nerves  of  sensation  are  distinct  from 
the  nerves  of  motion  ;  that  the  former,  arising  from  the 
posterior  column  of  the  spinal  marrow,  convey  sensation 
from  the  body  to  the  brain  ;  and  that  the  nerves  con- 
nected with  the  anterior  column  convey  the  mandates  of 
the  will  to  the  members,  and  are  essential  to  voluntary 
motion.  This  has  been  pronounced  the  most  important 
discovery  in  physiology  since  that  of  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  by  Harvey.  In  1824  he  published  "An  Ex- 
position of  the  Natural  System  of  the  Nerves  of  the 
Human  Body,"  and  was  appointed  to  the  senior  chair 
of  anatomy  and  surgery  in  the  London  College  of  Sur- 
geons. He  was  knighted  on  the  accession  of  William 
IV.,  (1830,)  and  accepted  a  chair  of  surgery  in  the  Edin- 
burgh University  in  1836.  He  died  in  Worcestershire, 
on  a  journey  to  London,  in  April,  1842. 

Among  his  works  are  "  Illustrations  of  the  Great 
Operations  of  Surgery:  Trepan,  Hernia,  Amputation, 
Aneurism,  and  Lithotomy,"  (1821,)  "The  Hand,  its 
Mechanism  and  Vital  Endowments  as  evincing  Design," 
(one  of  the  Bridgewater  Treatises,  1833,)  and  an  im- 
proved edition  of  his  "Anatomy  of  Expression,"  with 
'llustrations  drawn  by  himself,  (1844.) 

See  A.  Shaw,  "  Narrative  of  the  Discoveries  of  Sir  Charles  Bell 
in  the  Nervous  System,"  1837:  "Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1843, 
vnl.  Ixxii.  ;  Amedee  PicHOT,  "SurC.  Bell,"  Paris,  1846;  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement.) 

Bell,  (Currer.)    See  Bront6. 

Bell,  (George  Joseph,)  an  eminent  Scottish  jurist, 
born  near  Edinburgh  in  1770.  He  published  "Com- 
mentaries on  the  Laws  of  Scotland,"  (1810,)  which  soon 
passed  through  six  editions.  Its  rare  merit  procured 
for  him  a  vote  of  thanks  from  the  Faculty  of  Advocates. 
He  also  wrote  "Principles  of  the  Law  of  Scotland,"  and 
other  standard  treatises  on  law.  In  1 82 1  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Scottish  law  at  Edinburgh.    Died  in  1843. 

Bell,  (Henry,)  a  Scottish  engineer  and  mechanician, 
born  in  Linlithgowshire  in  1767.  He  constructed  in 
181 1  a  steamboat,  which  he  launched  on  the  Clyde  in 
1812,  four  years  after  Fulton's  first  experiment  on  the 
Hudson,  of  which  he  appears  to  have  been  ignorant. 
He  died  in  1830,  and  a  monument  was  erected  to  his 
memory  near  Bowling. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 


Bell,  (Henry  Glasford,)  editor  of  the  "Edinburgh 
Literary  Journal"  in  1830,  wrote  a  ''  Life  of  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots,"  and  a  collection  of  poems. 

Bell,  (Henry  H.,)  an  American  rear-admiral,  born  in 
North  Carolina,  entered  the  navy  in  1823.  He  was  ap- 
pointed fleet-captain  to  P"arragut  in  April,  1862.  He 
commanded  a  division  of  the  fleet  in  the  great  battle 
with  the  forts  below  New  Orleans,  April  18-25  of  that 
year.  On  the  capture  of  New  Orleans,  he  took  down, 
in  the  midst  of  an  angry  mob,  the  flag  of  the  disunion- 
ists  from  the  custom-house.  During  the  absence  of 
Farragut  in  1863,  he  commanded  the  Western  Gulf 
Blockading  Squadron,  and  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
rear-admiral.  He  was  drowned  on  the  coast  of  Japan 
in  January,  1868. 

Bell,  (jAMf:s,)  born  at  Jedburgh,  in  Scotland,  in  1769, 
published  a  "  System  of  Popular  and  Scientific  Geogra- 
phy," (6  vols.)    Died  in  1833. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Bell,  (John,)  sometimes  called  Bell  of  Antermony, 
from  his  residence,  a  Scottish  traveller,  born  in  1691.  In 
1 7 14  he  visited  Saint  Petersburg,  and  in  1715  was  ap- 
pointed by  Peter  the  Great  surgeon  and  physician  to  the 
expedition  then  preparing  for  Persia.  He  subsecjuently 
travelled  in  Siberia,  China,  and  the  Caucasus,  and  in 
1737  was  sent  by  the  Russian  government  on  a  mission 
to  Constantinople.  He  died  in  Scotland  in  1780.  His 
works  had  been  published  in  1763,  under  the  title  of 
"  Travels  from  Saint  Petersburg  to  various  Parts  of 
Asia:"  they  are  highly  interesting,  particularly  the  por- 
tion relating  to  China. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsanen." 

Bell,  (John.)  an  English  printer,  born  in  1746,  pub- 
lished fine  editions  of  Shakspeare  and  other  English 
poets.    Died  in  1831. 

Bell,  (John,)  an  English  artillery  officer,  born  in  1747, 
was  the  inventor  of  the  "gun  proof"  and  several  other 
military  machines,  for  which  he  obtained  a  silver  medal 
from  the  Society  of  Arts.    Died  in  1798. 

Bell,  (John,)  a  distinguished  British  surgeon,  born 
in  Edinburgh  in  May,  1763,  was  a  brother  of  Sir  Charles 
Bell.  He  began  to  lecture  on  anatoiiiy  and  surgery  in 
Edinburgh  about  1790,  in  a  theatre  built  for  himself, 
and  ]M-actised  surgery  with  great  success.  In  1 793  he 
published  the  first  volume  of  a  "  System  of  the  Anatomy 
of  the  Human  Body,"  (4  vols.,  1 793-1804.)  He  was  an 
eloquent  lecturer,  a  powerful  writer  in  controversy,  and 
one  of  the  most  skilful  operators  of  his  time.  His  other 
principal  works  are  "  Discourses  on  the  Nature  and 
Cure  of  Wounds,"  (2  vols.,  1793-95,)  "Principles  of 
Surgery,"  (3  vols.,  1801,)  and  "Observations  on  Italy," 
(1825.)  Having  visited  Italy  for  the  benefit  of  his  health, 
he  died  at  Rome  in  April,  1820.  "His  picturesque  de- 
scriptions of  the  country  are  fresh  and  delightfiil  land- 
scapes, while  his  remarks  on  the  pictorial  and  sculptured 
treasures  of  Italy  are  replete  with  feeling  and  judgment." 
("  London  Literary  Gazette.") 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Bell,  (John,)  M.D.,  a  physician  and  medical  writer, 
born  in  Ireland  in  1796,  emigrated  in  1810  to  America. 
He  was  for  several  years  lecturer  on  the  institutes  of 
medicine  in  the  Philadelphia  Medical  Institute,  and 
afterwards  became  professor  of  the  theory  and  practice 
of  medicine  in  the  Medical  College  of  Ohio. 

Bell,  (John,)  an  American  statesman,  born  near 
Nashville  in  1797,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1816.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1827,  and  was  re-elected  six  times  between  that  year  and 
1841.  He  opposed  Calhoun's  project  of  nullification, 
and  supported  General  Jackson  as  candidate  for  the 
Presidency  in  1832,  but  protested  against  the  removal  of 
the  deposits  from  the  Bank  of  the  United  States.  He 
acquired  distinction  as  a  debater,  and  was  a  constant  id- 
vocate  of  a  protective  tariff,  and  of  the  improvement  of 
rivers  and  harbours.  About  1833  he  separated  from  the 
Democratic  party  and  joined  the  Whigs,  who  elected 
him  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  1834, 
when  James  K.  Polk  was  his  competitor.  In  1836  he 
advocated  the  election  of  Hugh  L.  White  to  the  Presi- 
dency, and  was  returned  to  Congress  by  the  voters  of 
the  district  which  contains  Nashville  and  the  Hermitage, 


€  as     9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as^y  G,  H,  Yi, giithiral ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BELL 


31 


6 


BELLARMINO 


(General  Jackson's  residence.)  He  was  appointed  secre- 
tary of  war  by  President  Harrison  in  1841,  but  lie  re- 
signed in  September  of  that  year,  in  consequence  of 
Tyler's  defection  from  the  Whig  party.  Having  passed 
about  six  years  in  retirement,  he  was  elected  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States  from  Tennessee  in  1847.  lie  favoured 
the  compromise  measures  of  Mr.  Clay  in  1850,  and  op- 
posed the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  in  1854. 
In  1853  he  was  re-elected  a  Senator  for  six  years.  In 
i860  a  National  Convention  of  a  party  styling  itself  the 
Constitutional  Union  Party  nominated  Mr.  Bell  for  Pre- 
sident and  Edward  Everett  for  Vice-President,  with  a 
brief  "platform,"  which  insisted  only  on  "The  Consti- 
tution, the  Union,  and  the  Enforcement  of  the  Laws." 
He  received  thirty-nine  electoral  votes,  cast  by  the  States 
of  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  and  Virginia.    Died  in  1869. 

Bell,  (John,)  an  English  sculptor,  born  in  Norfolk  in 
1800.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  The  Eagle-Slayer," 
(1837,)  "Una  and  the  Lion,"  "Dorothea,"  {1841,)  and 
"The  Babes  in  the  Wood."  He  has  also  produced  sta- 
tues of  the  "Madonna  and  Child,"  "Andromeda,"  and 
other  scriptural  and  classical  subjects. 

pell,  (Luther  V.,)  an  American  physician,  born  at 
Chester,  New  Hampshire,  in  1806.  Pie  became,  in '1837, 
superintendent  of  the  McLean  Insane  Asylum  at  Charles- 
town,  Massachusetts. 

Bell,  (Robert,)  a  distinguished  journalist  and  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  born  at  Cork,  in  Ireland,  in  1800. 
Plaving  removed  to  London,  he  became  a  contributor  to 
the  "New  Monthly  Magazine,"  "The  Atlas,"  and  Lard- 
ner's  "Cabinet  Cyclopaedia."  In  conjunction  with  Bul- 
wer  and  Lardner,  he  founded,  in  1840,  "The  Monthly 
Chronicle."  He  also  published  a  "  History  of  Russia," 
(3  vols.,  1836-38,)  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets,"  (2  vols., 
1839,)  "Outlines  of  China,"  (1845,)  ^  "Life  of  George 
Canning,"  (1846,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  London 
in  April,  1867. 

Bell,  (Samuel,)  an  American  Senator  and  lawyer, 
born  at  Londonderry,  New  Hampshire,  in  1770.  He  was 
Governor  of  his  native  State  for  five  years,  (1819-23,) 
and  was  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  from  1823  to 
1835.    Died  in  1850. 

Bell,  (Thomas,)  a  distinguished  English  naturalist, 
born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1792.  He  became,  in  1825,  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  "Zoological  Journal,"  and  was 
subsequently  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and 
president  of  the  Linnaean  Society,  (1853.)  He  published 
a  "Monograph  of  the  Testudinata,"  (1833,)  a  "History 
of  British  Quadrupeds,"  (1836,)  and  a  "History  of  the 
British  Stalk-Eyed  Crustacea,"  (1853.) 

Bell,  (William,)  an  English  divine  and  religious 
writer,  born  about  1731,  vvas  chaplain  to  the  princess 
Amelia,  and  was  appointed,  in  1765,  prebendary  of  West- 
minster.   Died  in  1816. 

Bell,  (W^iLLiAM,)  an  English  painter,  born  at  New- 
castle-upon-Tyne. He  obtained  the  gold  medal  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  in  1771,  for  his  picture  of  "Venus  re- 
questing Vulcan  to  forge  the  Arms  for  yEneas."  Died 
about  1800. 

Bella,  beKla,  (Geronimo,)  an  Italian  pastoral  poet, 
born  in  Piedmont,  lived  about  1630-60. 

Bella,  della,  deKli  beKli,  (Giano,)  an  Italian  demo- 
crat, who  was  exiled  from  Florence  in  1294.  Died  about 
1295. 

Bella,  della,  (Stefano,)  an  eminent  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Florence  in  1610,  was  commissioned  by  Cardinal 
Richelieu  to  engrave  the  "Capture  of  Arras,"  and  other 
military  exploits  of  Louis  XIII.  His  works  are  of 
small  dimensions,  and  number  over  fourteen  hundred 
pieces.  "  No  one,"  says  Basan,  "  has  surpassed  this 
excellent  artist  in  delicacy  and  lightness  of  point."  In 
drawing  human  figures,  it  is  said,  he  always  began  at 
the  feet  and  worked  upwards.  On  his  return  to  Flor- 
ence, he  was  appointed  teacher  of  design  to  Prince 
Cosimo  II.,  afterwards  grand  duke.  Among  his  master- 
pieces is  a  "  View  of  Pont-Neuf,  Paris,"  and  "  Parnas- 
sus."   Died  in  1664. 

See  Nagler,  "Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Bellacato,  b§l-13.-ki'to,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  at  Padua  in  1 501,  practised  in  his  native  city.  Died 
in  1575- 


Bellagatta,  bgl-ia-g?.t'ta,  (Angelo  Antonio,)  an 
Italian  i)hysician,  born  at  Milan  in  1704,  wrote  "  Philoso- 
phic Letters,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1742. 

Bellaguet,  bi'lt'ga',  (Louis  FRANgois,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Sens  in  1807,  translated  several  works 
from  the  Latin  and  Italian. 

BePla-mont,  (Richard,)  Earl  of,  an  English  noble- 
man, who  was  appointed  Governor  of  New  York  and 
Massachusetts  in  1695.  was  a  popular  governor,  and 
captured  the  pirate  Captain  Kidd.  Died  at  New  York 
in  1701. 

BePla-my,  (Anne  George,)  a  noted  English  actress, 
born  in  London  in  1733.  She  died  in  poverty  in  1788, 
leaving  a  work  entitled  "Apology  for  the  Life  of  G.  Anne 
Bellamy,"  (London,  1785,)  which  some  writers  have  at- 
tributed to  Alexander  Bicknell. 

Bellamy,  beKla-me,  [Dutch  pron.  beKli-mi,]  (Ja- 
cobus,) one  of  the  most  eminent  of  Dutch  poets,  born 
at  Flushing  in  1757.  On  the  occasion  of  the  war  of 
1785,  he  published  his  "Patriotic  Poems,"  ("Vader- 
landsche  Gezangen.")  His  other  principal  works  are 
"Songs  of  my  Youth,"  ("Gezangen  mijner  Jeugd,")  and 
a  simple  and  touching  story  in  the  ballad  form,  entitled 
"  Roosje."  He  contributed  greatly  to  improve  the  Dutch 
language  and  literature  and  bring  them  nearer  to  his 
favourite  German  models.  Pie  died  at  the  early  age  of 
twenty-eight. 

See  Q.  Knipers,  "Notice  sur  Bellamy;"  A.  Vereul,  "  Rede- 
voeringen  over  J.  Douza  en  over  J.  Bellamy,"  1791 ;  Ockerse  en 
Kleyn,  "  Gedenkzuil  op  het  Graf  van  J.  Bellamy,"  1822;  Longfel- 
low, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Bellamy,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  published  in  1818 
"  The  Holy  Bible,  newly  translated  from  the  Original 
Hebrew." 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review,"  vols.  xix.  and  xxiii. ;  "Eclectic 
Review,"  vol.  x. 

BePla-my,  (Joseph,)  a  celebrated  American  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Connecticut  in  1 7 19,  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege in  1735.  He  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  church  at 
Bethlehem,  Connecticut,  in  1740,  and  also  laboured  as 
an  itinerant  preacher.  He  was  regarded  as  a  powerful 
preacher  and  a  learned  divine.  His  system  of  theology 
is  similar  to  that  of  Jonathan  Edwards.  Several  vol- 
umes of  his  sermons  and  other  works  have  been  pub- 
lished.   Died  in  1790. 

Bellamy,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  born  at  Kings- 
ton-upon-Thames  in  1745,  wrote  a  novel  entitled  "  Sa- 
daski,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1800. 

Bellange,  ba''16Nzh^  (Jacques,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Chalons  about  1610.  Among  his  best  prints  are 
"Saint  John  '■he  Wilderness,"  and  "The  Death  of 
Virginia." 

See  Heinecken,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Bellange,  ba'lSN'zh.V,  (Joseph  Louis  Hippolyte,)  a 
French  painter  of  battles  and  historical  pieces,  born  in 
Paris  in  1800. 

Bellange,  (Thierry,)  a  French  painter,  pupil  of 
Vouet,  born  at  Nancy  about  1596;  died  about  1650. 

Bellanger,  ba'lSN'zha',  (Francois  Joseph,)  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1744.  Among  his  works  is 
the  iron  cupola  of  the  grain-market,  {Halle  an  Ble,)  Paris, 
(1812.)    Died  in  1818. 

Bellanger,  (Jean  Antoine,)  a  French  en^-jraver,  who 
lived  about  1745,  executed,  among  other  prints,  the 
"Miracle  of  the  Loaves  and  Pishes,"  and  "The  School 
of  Athens,"  after  Raphael. 

See  Heinecken,  "Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Bellardi,  bgl-laR'dee, (Carlo  Luigi,)  a  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  near  Vercelli,  in  Piedmont,  in  1741.  Pie 
wrote  several  botanical  treatises,  and  contributed  to  Al- 
lioni's  "  Flora  Pedemontana."  He  lived  many  years  in 
Turin.    Died  in  1828. 

See  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Bellarini,  bel-la-ree'nee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  theo- 
logian, born  at  Castelnuovo,  entered  the  society  of  Bar- 
nabites  in  1575.  He  wrote  "Mirror  of  Divine  and 
Human  Wisdom,"  ("  Speculum  humanas  atque  divinae 
Sapientice,"  1630.)    Died  in  1630. 

Bellarmin  or  Bellarmine.    See  Bellarmino. 

Bellarmino,  b^l-laR-mee'no,  [Fr.  Bellarmin,  ba'- 
ItR'miN',]  often  called  in  English  Bellarmin  or  Bellar- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lotig;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y. 


short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsan-e;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good ;  moon; 


BELL  ART 


317 


BELLE-ISLE 


mine,  bel-lar'niin,  (Roberto,)  an  eminent  Italian  cardinal 
and  champion  of  Catholicism,  born  at  Montepulciano 
on  the  4th  of  October,  1542.  He  entered  the  order  of 
Jesuits  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Louvain  in  1570.  On  his  return  to  Rome 
in  1576,  he  was  appointed  by  Gregory  XIII.  to  teach 
controversial  theology  in  the  college  he  had  just  founded. 
He  was  made  a  cardinal  by  Clement  VIII.  in  1598,  and 
in  1601  Archbishop  of  Capua,  but  upon  being  appointed 
librarian  of  the  Vatican,  in  1605,  he  resigned  his  see.  He 
died  at  Rome  in  1621.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  "Controversies,"  (" Disputationes  de  Controversiis 
Fidei  adversos  hujus  temporis  Haereticos,"  1581-88,  4 
vols.,  1688,)  "  Treatise  on  the  Duty  of  Bishops,"  and 
"  On  the  Power  of  the  Pope  in  Temporal  Affairs,"  (all 
in  Latin.)  Cardinal  Bellarmine  was  distinguished  for 
his  elevation  of  character  and  mildness  of  disposition, 
and,  though  esteemed  one  of  the  ablest  controversialists 
of  his  time,  was  accustomed  to  say  that  "an  ounce  of 
peace  was  worth  more  than  a  pound  of  victory." 

"As  the  century  drew  near  its  close,"  says  Hallam, 
"the  Church  of  Rome  brought  forward  her  most  re- 
nowned and  formidable  cham])ion,  Pellarmin.  .  .  ,  His 
abilities  are  best  tested  by  Protestant  theologians,  not 
only  in  their  terms  of  eulogy,  but  indirectly  in  the  pecu- 
liar zeal  with  which  they  chose  him  as  their  worthiest 
adversary.  More  than  half  a  dozen  books  in  the  next 
fifty  years  bear  the  title  of  Anti-Bellarminus."  ("In- 
troduction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Bellakmino's  "Autobiography;"  G.  Fuligatti,  "Vita  del 
Cardinal  Roberto  Bellarinino,"  1622;  Daniello  Bartoli,  "Delia 
Vitadi  R.  Bellarmino,"  1678;  Francesco  Marazza,  "  Ristretto  della 
Vita  di  R.  Bellarmino,"  1682;  P.  Fkizon,  "Vie  du  Cardinal  Bellar- 
min,"  1 70S ;  and  "  Leben  des  Cardinals  R.  Bellannin,  von  einem  Pries- 
ter  in  PVanken,"  1846. 

Bellart,  ba^lSR',  (Nicolas  pRANgois,)  a  distinguished 
French  advocate,  born  in  Paris  in  1761.  He  was  made 
attorney-general  of  the  royal  court,  grand  officer  of  the 
legion  of  honour,  and  obtained  other  distinctions  under 
Louis  XVI IL    Died  in  1826. 

See  BiLLEcoQ,  "Notice  sur  Bellart,"  1826. 

Bellati,  b^l-la'tee,  (Antonio  Francesco,)  an  Italian 
theologian,  Jesuit,  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Ferrara  in 
1665,  wrote  "  Sacred  and  Moral  Treatises,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1742. 

See  IMazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Bellati,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  in  1745  ; 
died  in  1S08.    Some  of  his  works  are  at  Rome. 

Bellavene,  biVlt'v^n',  (Jacques  Nicolas,)  Baron, 
born  at  Verdun  in  1770,  was  appointed  by  Napoleon  in 
1812  inspector-general  of  military  schools.  Lie  wrote  a 
"  Course  of  Mathematics  for  the  Use  of  Military  Schools." 
Died  in  1826. 

Bellavia,  b^l-li-vee'c^,  (Marcantonio,)  a  Sicilian 
engraver  and  painter,  lived  about  1600. 
See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bellay,  bala'  or  ber]cy,( Francois  Philippe,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Lent  in  1762,  practised  at  Lyons. 
He  published,  with  Dr.  Prion,  a  good  medical  journal, 
(1799-1S04.)    Died  in  1824. 

Bellay,  du,  dii  hk'W,  (Guillaume,)  Seigneur  de 
Langey,  a  French  diplomatist  and  soldier,  born  near 
Montmirail  in  1491.  He  was  appointed  by  Francis  1. 
Viceroy  of  Piedmont,  and  was  employed  in  important 
embassies  to  England,  Italy,  and  Germany.  He  died  in 
1543,  leaving  "Memoirs  of  his  Times." 

See  Brantome,  "Memoires  des  Capitaines  Franq:ais." 

Bellay,  du,  (Jean,)  a  French  cardinal,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1492,  was  patronized  by  Francis  I., 
and  became  successively  Bishop  of  Paris  and  of  Limoges, 
and  Archbishop  of  Bordeaux.    Died  in  1560. 

See  AuEERV,  "Histoire  des  Cardinaux." 

Bellay,  du,  (Joachim,)  a  distinguished  poet,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  surnamed  THE  French  Ovid,  was  born 
near  Angers  about  1524.  lie  enjoyed  the  favour  of 
Francis  I.  and  his  sister,  Margaret  of  Navarre.  Pie  wrote 
Latin  poems  and  sonnets,  which  were  greatly  admired  in 
his  time.    Died  in  1560. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Tableau  de  la  Poesie  Frangaise  an  seizieme 
Si^cle  ;"  and  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Bellay,  du,  (Martin,)  brother  of  the  cardinal,  became 


lieutenant  of  Normandy.  He  wrote  "  Historic  Memoirs 
from  1 5 13  to  1547."    Died  in  1559. 

Bellay,  du,  (Rene,)  the  youngest  brother  of  Cardinal 
du  Bellay,  became  in  1 535  Bishop  of  Mans.    Died  in  1546. 

His  nephew,  Eustache  du  Bellay,  became  Bishop 
of  Paris. 

Belle,  bel,  (Clement  Louis  Marie  Anne,)  a  histori- 
cal painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1722;  died  in  1806. 

Belle,  de,  deh  bel,  (Jean  Francois  Joseph,)  a  French 
officer,  born  at  Voreppe  in  1767,  served  in  the  Italian 
campaign  of  1799,  and  subsecjuently  under  Le  Clerc  in 
Saint  Domingo,  where  he  fell  in  battle  in  1802. 

Belle,  la,  It  (Alexis  Simon,)  a  French  portrait- 
painter,  born  about  1674;  died  in  1734. 

Belleau,  ba'lo',  (Ri:MY,)  born  at  Nogent-le-Rotrou  in 
1528,  was  a  friend  of  Ronsard,  and  was  one  of  the  seven 
poets  called  "the  French  Pleiades."  He  wrote  pastorals 
entitled  "Bergeries,"  and  "Amours  et  nouveaux  Es- 
changes  des  Pierres  precieuses,"  (1576.)  Died  in  Paris 
in  1577- 

See  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Bellebuoni,  bel-la-boo-o'nee,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  about  1290,  translatecl  from  the  Latin  into 
Italian  "The  Llistory  of  the  War  of  Troy." 

See  GiNGUENE,  "Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Bellecombe,  de,  deh  bel'koMb',  (Andr^:  Ursule 
Casse,)  a  French  liith'ateiir,  born  at  Montpezat,  in  Lot- 
ct-Garonne,  in  1822,  wrote  a  "Universal  History,"  (8th 
volume,  1858;  unfinished.) 

Bellecourt,  bgrkooR'',  (Jean  Claude  Gilles,)  some- 
times called  CoLSON,  a  French  comedian,  born  in  Paris 
in  1725  ;  died  in  1778.  His  wife.  Rose  P6tronille  Le 
Roy  de  la  Corbinaye,  was  also  a  popular  actress. 

Bellee,  bi'la',  (Teodoro,)  an  Italian  physician,  born 
near  Ragusa.  He  taught  medicine  at  Paclua  for  many 
years.    Died  in  1600. 

Bellefonds  or  Bellefont,  de,  deh  b^lToN',  (Bernar- 
din  Gigault — zhe'go',)  Marquis,  born  in  1630,  served 
in  Flanders  in  1637,  and  subsequently  in  Holland,  and 
was  made  marshal  of  France  in  1668.    Died  in  1694. 

Belleforest,  de,  deh  belToW,  (Francois,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Sarzan  in  1530,  was  a  favourite  at  the 
court  of  Margaret,  Queen  of  Navarre.  He  published 
many  mediocre  works,  among  which  is  "Histoires  tra- 
giqucs,"  translated  from  Bandello.  Died  in  Paris  in  1583. 

Bellegarde,  de,  deh  b^rgtRd',  (Antoine  Dubois,) 
a  member  of  the  French  National  Convention,  born  in 
Angoumois  about  1740.  He  became  subsequently  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  and  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Ancients,  (1798.)    Died  in  1825. 

Bellegarde,  de,  (Gabriel  du  Pac,)  a  French  Jansen- 
ist  theologian,  born  near  Carcassonne  in  171 7.  He  wTote 
"  Historical  Memoirs  on  the  Affair  of  the  Bull  Unigeni- 
tus,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1789. 

Bellegarde,  de,  (Henri,)  Comte,  born  at  Chambery, 
in  Savoy,  in  1755,  entered  the  Austrian  service,  and 
fought  in  the  principal  campaigns  against  the  French 
from  1793  to  1800.  lie  was  made  field-marshal  in  1806. 
Died  in  1831. 

Bellegarde,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste  Morvan,)  generally 
known  as  the  Ai;be  de  Bellegarde,  born  near  Nantes 
in  1648.  He  made  translations  from  Saint  Chrysostom, 
Saint  Basil,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  other  Fathers,  also 
several  of  the  Latin  classics.    Died  in  1734. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Bellegarde,  de,  (Roger  de  Saiiit-Lary — deh  s^n'- 

It^re',)  a  French  marshal,  who  enjoyed  the  favour  of 
Catherine  de  Medicis  and  Henry  IIL,  but,  having  fallen 
into  disgrace,  was  poisoned  by  order  of  the  former,  (1579.) 

See  F.  Secousse,  "Memoire  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  Roger  de 
Saint-Lary  de  Bellegarde,"  1764. 

Bellegarde,  de,  (Roger  de  Saint-Lary  et  de 
Termes — deh  sflN'lS^re''  a  deh  taRn/,)  Due,  born  al(  ut 
1563,  was  a  favourite  of  Henry  HI.,  Henry  IV.,  and 
Louis  XIII.    Died  in  1646. 

Bellegingue,  berg^Ng'',  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Besancon  in  1759;  died  in  1826. 

Belle-Isle,  de,  Due.  See  Fouquet,  (Charles  Louis 

AUGUSTE.) 

Belle-Isle,  de,  (Louis  Charles  Armand  Fouquet,) 
Chevalier.    See  Fouquet. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  gutticral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BELLENDEN 


318 


BELLING 


Bel'len-den,  Ballantyne,  or  Ballentyne,  (John,) 
a  Scottish  poet,  who  served  James  V.  as  "  clerk  of  his 
comptis,"  and  became  Archdeacon  of  Moray  about  1536. 
He  translated  Hector  Boece's  "  History  of  Scotland" 
from  the  Latin  into  the  vernacular  language,  and  wrote 
several  poems.    Died  at  Rome  about  1550. 

See  Ballentyne,  in  Chambers's  "Biographical  Dictionary  of 
Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Bellenden,  Ballantyne,  or  Ballenden,  (Sir  John,) 
a  Scottish  statesman  and  jurist,  was  appointed  a  lord  of 
session  in  1547,  and  on  the  arrival  of  Queen  Mary  be- 
came one  of  her  privy  council.    Died  in  1577. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Bellenden,  (William,)  a  Scottish  writer,  celebrated 
for  the  elegance  of  his  Latinity.  He  resided  many  years 
in  Paris,  where  he  is  said  to  have  been  professor  of  hu- 
manities. His  principal  works  are  a  sort  of  compilation 
from  Cicero,  entitled  "Ciceronis  Princeps,"  (1608,)  dedi- 
cated to  Prince  Henry,  "  De  Statu  Reipublicae,"  and  "  De 
Statu  prisci  Orbis,"  (1615.)  Dr.  Middleton  has  been 
charged  with  borrowing  from  these  writings  in  his  "  Life 
of  Cicero."    Died  before  1633. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Bellenger,  bi'16N^zha^  (Franqois,)  a  French  philolo- 
gist and  litterateur,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Lisieux  in 
1688.  Pie  translated  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  and 
wrote  several  critical  essays.    Died  in  1749. 

Bellenghi,  bel-len'gee,  (Filippo  Maria  Albertino,) 
an  Italian  writer  on  theology  and  physical  sciences,  born 
at  Forlimpopoli  in  1758.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Ni- 
cosia.   Diecl  in  1839. 

Belle-Perclie,  de,  deh  beKpaRsh',  (Pierre,)  a  chan- 
cellor of  France  and  learned  bishop,  born  in  Nivernais ; 
died  in  1307. 

Beller  or  Bellere,  ba'laiR',  [Lat.  Belle'rus,]  a  Flem- 
ish typographer  and  writer,  published  at  Antwerp  a  num- 
ber of  elegant  editions  of  the  classics.    Died  in  1595. 

Bellermann,  beKler-man^,  (Christian  Friedrich,) 
son  of  Johann  Joachim,  noticed  below,  a  German  Prot- 
estant theologian  and  writer,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1793. 

Bellermann,  (Johann  Fkiedrich,)  a  German  litte- 
rateur, a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1795. 
He  published  in  1840  an  edition  of  the  "Hymns  of 
Dionysius  and  Mesomedes." 

Bellermann,  (Johann  Joachim,)  a  German  theolo- 
gian and  antiquary,  born  in  1754  at  Erfurt,  where  he 
became  professor  of  theology,  (1790.)  He  wrote  a 
"  Manual  of  Biblical  Literature,"  (1787,)  "Remarks  on 
Phoenician  and  Punic  Coins,"  (1812,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1842. 

See  "J.  J.  Bellermanni,  Vita  breviter  ab  ipso  descripta,"  1804. 

Bel-ler'o-phon,  [Gr.  Bc^.Afpo^o?^,]  i.e.  "  Slayer  of  Belle- 
rus,"  originally  called  Hippon'oiis,  in  Grecian  mythol- 
ogy, was  the  son  of  Glaucus,  King  of  Corinth.  Ilaving 
slain  Bellerus,  he  fled  to  Proetus,  King  of  Argos,  who, 
at  the  instigation  of  his  wife,  sent  him  to  lobates,  King  of 
Lycia,  requesting  the  latter  to  put  him  to  death.  Bellero- 
phon  being  sent  by  lol^ates  against  the  monster  Chi- 
maera,  slew  him,  and  afterwards  defeated  the  Amazons. 
Attempting  to  soar  to  Olympus  on  the  winged  horse 
Pegasus,  Jupiter  caused  him  to  be  thrown  to  the  earth, 
and  he  was  made  blind  by  the  fall. 

Bellerose,  bel'roz',  (Pierre  le  Messier— leh  ma'- 
se-a^,)  a  French  comedian,  died  in  1670. 

Bellet,  ba'la',  Abb6,  a  French  antiquary  and  natural- 
ist, lived  about  1720.    ?Ie  was  canon  of  Cadillac. 

Bellet,  (Charles,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  religious 
writer,  born  in  1702;  died  in  1771. 

Bellet,  (Isaac,)  a  French  physician,  who  was  in- 
spector of  the  mineral  waters  of  France.    Died  in  1778. 

Bellet-Verrier,  ba'hV  va're-a',  (Hubert,)  a  French 
writer,  lived  about  i68o-i725r^His  principal  work  is 
entitled  "Alphabetical  Memorial  concerning  the  Law, 
Police,  and  Finances  of  France." 

Belleteste,  bel'tit',  (B.,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born  at 
Orleans  in  1778,  translated  from  the  Arabic  a  "Treatise 
on  Precious  Stones."    Died  in  1808. 

Belleval,  de,  deh  bervtK,  (Charles  Franqois  Du- 
meisniel — du'mi''ne-eK,)  a  French  botanist,  born  in 
1733  ;  ^^^^^^      Abbeville  in  1790. 


Belleval,  de,  (Pierre  Richer,)  a  French  physician 
and  botanist,  born  at  Chalons-sur-Marne  in  1558.  He 
became,  in  1596,  professor  of  botany  at  Montpellier,  be- 
ing the  first  who  taught  that  science  in  France  except 
in  connection  with  medicine.  The  genus  Richeria  was 
named  in  his  honour.    Died  at  Montpellier  in  1623. 

See  "Recherches  sur  la  Vie  de  P.  R.  de  Belleval,"  Paris,  1822. 

Belleville,  b§Kv6K,  or  Turlupin,tiiR''lu^pflN',  (Henri 
Legrand — leh'gRdN',)  a  French  comedian.    Died  in 

Bellevois,  beKvwiV,  a  skilful  painter  of  marine  views. 
Died  at  Hamburg  in  1684. 

Bellevue,  de,  deh  bSlVii',  (Armand,)  a  French  Do- 
minican monk,  born  in  Provence  about  1290. 

Bellevue,  de,  (Jacques,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Aix,  became,  in  13 14,  professor  of  law  at  Perugia. 

Belley,  ba'la',  (Augustin,)  a  French  antiquary,  born 
at  Sainte-Foi-de-Montgomery  in  1697,  was  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.    Died  in  1771. 

Belli,  bSKlee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  writer, 
born  at  Venice  in  1742;  died  in  1816. 

Belli,  (Ciierubino,)  a  Sicilian  monk  and  poet,  lived 
about  1 590-1650. 

Belli,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  theologian  and  writer, 
born  at  Arzignano  in  1577  ;  died  in  1644. 

Belli,  (GiULio,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Capo  dTs- 
tria,  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Hermes  Politicus,"  (1608.) 

Belli,  [Lat.  Bel'lius,]  (Honorius,)  an  Italian  physi- 
cian and  botanist,  born  at  Vicenza,  lived  about  1550-90. 
He  practised  in  the  island  of  Crete,  was  well  versed  in 
the  Greek  language,  and  was  one  of  the  first  that  at- 
tempted to  identify  the  plants  mentioned  by  the  ancients. 

See  JocHER,  "  Allgeraeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Belli,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  Latin  writer, 
born  at  Messina  in  1588  ;  died  in  1658. 

Belli,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at  Alba  in  1502; 
died  in  1575. 

See  Veknazza,  "Vie  de  P.  Belli,"  1783. 

Belliard,  bcVle-tR',  (Augustin  Daniel,)  Comte,  a 
French  general,  born  at  P'ontenay-le-Comte  in  1769.  He 
became  a  general  in  1796,  fought  successfully  in  the 
campaigns  of  Italy,  Egypt,  Austria,  and  Russia,  and  in 
1814  was  made  colonel-general  of  the  cavalry  of  the 
guard.  He  was  created  a  peer  by  Louis  XVIII.,  and 
in  1 83 1  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Belgium.  Died  at 
Brussels  in  1832. 

See  "  AJemoires  du  Comte  Belliard,  ecrits  par  lui-meme,"  3  vols., 
1834;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Bellicard,  ba^eOctR',  (Jerome  Charles,)  a  French 
architect  and  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1726,  was  pro- 
fessor in  the  Royal  Academy  of  Architecture.  He  pub- 
lished "Observations  on  the  Antiquities  of  Hercula- 
neum,"  (1754.)  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academies  of 
Florence  and  Bologna.    Died  in  1786. 

See  Le  Blanc,  "Manuel  de  I'Aniateur  d'Estampes." 

Bellier,  bi^e-i',  (Pierre,)  a  French  scholar,  who 
translated  a  parTof  the  works  of  Philo-Judasus,  (1575.) 

Bellievre,  de,  deh  ba'le-avR^  (Albert,)  a  French 
prelate,  son  of  Pomponne,  noticed  below,  was  appointed 
Archbishop  of  Lyons  by  Henry  IV.  in  1599.  In  1604  he 
resigned  his  office  to  his  brother  Claude.    Died  in  1621. 

Bellievre,  de,  (Nicolas,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1583,  rose  to  be  president  of  the  parliament  of 
Paris  in  1614. 

Bellievre,  de,  (Pomponne,)  a  French  jurist  and  diplo- 
matist, born  at  Lyons  in  1529.  He  was  sent  on  import- 
ant missions  to  Sweden  and  England,  and  in  1599  was 
made  chancellor  of  France  by  Henry  IV.  Died  in  1607 

See  Jean  Papire  Masson,  "  Elogium  P.  de  Bellievre,"  1607. 

Bellin,  the  French  of  Bellini,  which  see. 

Bellin,  ba'liN',  (Jacques  Nicolas,)  a  French  hydro- 
grapher  and  engineer  of  the  marine,  born  in  Paris  in 
1703.  He  executed  the  maps  for  the  Abbe  Prevost's 
"  Histoire  Generale  des  Voyages,"  and  published  a  col- 
lection of  charts  entitled  "  French  Hydrography,"  (1756.) 
Died  in  1772. 

Bellincioni,b§l-len-cho'nee,  (Bernardo,)  sometimes 
called  Bellinzona,  a  Florentine  poet.    Died  in  1491. 

Belling,  von,  fon  beFling,  (Wilhelm  Sebastian,) 
a  Prussian  general  and  favourite  of  Frederick  the  Great, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  io/^o-;     h,  o,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BELLINGEN 


319 


BELLOWS 


born  about  1719,  served  with  distinction  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war.    Died  in  1799. 

See  Archenholz,  "Histoire  de  ]a  Guerre  de  Sept  Ans." 

Bellingen,  de,  deh  b^^liiN^'zhSN',  (Fleuri,)  a  French 
grammarian,  was  the  author  of  "  Etymology  or  Expla- 
nation of  French  Proverbs,"  (1656.) 

Bellingham,  beFling-am,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  able  sol- 
dier, and  for  two  years  governor  or  deputy  of  Ireland 
under  Edward  VL    Died  in  1549. 

See  Froude,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  v.  chap,  xxvili. 

BeFling-liam,  (Rich.\rd,)  Governor  of  Massachu- 
setts, born  in  "England  in  1592.  He  came,  to  America 
as  a  lawyer  in  1634,  and  subsequently  filled  the  ofhce  of 
lieutenant-governor  for  thirteen  years  and  that  of  gov- 
ernor for  ten  years.  He  was  first  elected  in  opposition 
to  Governor  Winthrop  in  1641.    Died  in  1672. 

Bellini,  bel-lee''nee,  or  Bellino,  bel-lee'no,  an  Italian 
painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  lived  about  1500. 

Bellini,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Urbino 
about  1560.    His  pictures  in  fresco  and  oil  are  praised. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bellini,  [Fr.  Bellin,  bi'l^N',]  (Gentile,)  a  celebrated 
Venetian  painter,  born  in  1421,  was  a  son  of  Jacopo,  no- 
ticed below.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The  Preach- 
ing of  Saint  Mark,"  and  "Presentation  of  the  Infant 
Jesus  at  the  Temple."  He  was  invited  to  Constantinople 
by  the  Sultan  Mahomet  II.,  who  treated  him  with  clis- 
tinguished  favour  and  employed  him  to  paint  several 
historical  pieces.    Died  about  1507. 

See  V.\s\Ri,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  Memoirs 
of  Early  Italian  Painters." 

Bellini,  (Giovanni,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Venice  about  1426,  was  the  most  distinguished  member  of 
his  family,  and  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Venetian 
school.  He  assisted  his  brother  in  the  embellishment 
of  the  senate-house  at  Venice,  and  painted  a  great  num- 
ber of  historical  pieces.  Of  these  we  may  name  a  "  Coro- 
nation of  the  Virgin,"  a  "  Madonna  and  Child  attended 
by  the  Angels,"  "Christ  at  Emmaus,"  and  "The  Saviour 
giving  a  Benediction."  His  works  display  great  richness 
of  colouring  and  superior  arrangement  of  the  draperies. 
Among  his  numerous  pupils  were  Titian  and  Giorgione. 
His  death  is  variously  dated  15 10,  15 12,  or  15 16. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Memoirs 
of  Early  Italian  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;" 
"  G.  Bellini  e  Pittori  contemporanei,"  Venice,  1840. 

Bellini,  (Jacopo,)  a  Venetian  painter,  chiefly  distin- 
guished for  his  portraits.  He  was  one  of  the  first  who 
painted  in  oil.    Died  about  1470. 

Bellini,  (Laurentio,)  a  celebrated  Italian  anatomist 
and  physician,  born  at  Florence  in  1643.  He  studied 
at  Pisa  under  Borelli,  whose  peculiar  system  he  adopted. 
(See  Borelli,  Giovanni  Alfonso.)  After  having  filled 
the  chair  of  anatomy  at  Pisa  for  thirty  years,  he  became 
first  physician  to  the  grand  duke  Cosimo  HI.  at  Flor- 
ence. He  wrote  several  medical  treatises  in  Latin, 
which  had  a  high  reputation  in  his  time.  Died  in 
1704. 

Sec  Fabroni,  "VitiC  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium ;"  G.  Atti, 
"  Notizie  biografiche  della  Vita  di  M.  Malpighi  e  di  L.  Bellini," 
1847. 

Bellini,  [Fr.  Bellin,]  (Vincenzo,)  a  celebrated  mu- 
sical composer,  born  at  Catania,  in  Sicily,  about  1802. 
He  studied  at  Naples  under  Zingarelli.  Having  produced 
several  symphonies  and  other  musical  pieces,  he  brought 
out  at  Milan  in  1827  his  opera  of  "  II  Pirata,"  which  was 
very  successful.  It  was  soon  followed  by  "  Fa  Straniera," 
and  "  I  Capuletti  ed  i  Montecchi."  "  La  Sonnambula" 
came  out  in  March,  183 1,  and  in  December  of  the  same 
year  "  La  Norma."  The  two  last-named  operas  were 
received  with  enthusiasm  throughout  Europe,  and  still 
retain  their  popularity.  In  1834  he  produced  "I  Puri- 
tani,"  which  ranks  among  his  best  works.  He  died  near 
Paris  in  September,  1835,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-two. 

See  Fetis,  "  Bioijraphie  Universelle  des  Musiciens ;"  F.  Gerardi, 
"Biografia  di  V.  Bellini,"  1835. 

Bellman,  bSKmin,  (Karl  Mickel,)  a  Swedish  poet, 
born  at  Stockholm  about  1740.  His  lyrics  are  princi- 
pally bacchanalian  songs  and  delineations  of  low  life, 
and  enjoy  great  popularity  in  Sweden.    Among  these 


may  be  named  "  The  Temple  of  Bacchus"  and  "  Fred- 
man's  Sanger  og  Epistlar,"    Died  in  1795. 

See  CaRL  Ploug,  "  C.  M.  Bellman's  Liv,  og  Bellman  som  comisk 
Dithyrambiker  af  J.  L.  Heiberg,"  1844. 

Bello,  beKlo,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at 
Naples  in  1666;  died  in  1719. 

Bello,  (Marco,)  an  Italian  painter  of  the  Venetian 
school,  lived  about  1450. 

Belloc,  ba''lok',  (Jean  Hilaire,)  a  French  painter  ot 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Nantes  in  1787. 

Belloc,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  near 
Agen  in  1730,  published  a  number  of  works  on  surgery 
and  legal  medicine,  and  invented  several  surgical  instru- 
ments. He  acquired  celebrity  as  a  professor  in  Paris, 
where  he  died  in  1807. 

Belloc,  ba'lok',  (Louise  Swanton,)  Madame,  a 
French  writer,  of  Irish  extraction,  born  at  La  Rochelle 
in  1799,  translated  into  French  a  number  of  the  works 
of  Byron,  Moore,  and  Miss  Edgeworth,  also  Goldsmith's 
"Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  and  "Uncle  Toin's  Cabin." 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Bellocq,  ba'lok',  (Pierre,)  a  French  litterateur  and 
satirist,  born  in  Paris  in  1645  ;  died  in  1704. 

Bel-lo'na,  [Fr.  Bellone,  ba'lon';  derived  from  the 
Latin  belhnn,  "war,"]  the  goddess  of  war  of  the  ancient 
Romans.  She  delights  in  war  and  carnage  ;  she  is 
usually  represented  as  the  companion,  and  sometimes  as 
the  sister  or  wife,  of  Mars.  She  is  described  by  the  poets 
as  armed  with  a  scourge,  and  bearing  a  torch  in  her  hand. 
Her  priests  were  called  Bellojiarii. 

See  TiESLER,  "  Dissertatio  de  Bellons  Cultii,"  1842. 

Belloni,  bel-lo'nee,  (Geronimo,)  a  Roman  banker, 
patronized  by  Benedict  IV.,  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  Com- 
merce," which  was  translated  into  several  languages. 
Died  in  1761. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Belloni,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  theologian  and  jurist, 
was  canon  of  Padua.    Died  in  1623. 

Belloni,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  sculptor  and  archi- 
tect, resided  at  Venice  about  1600-20. 

Belloni,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  jurist  and  legal  writer, 
was  professor  of  civil  law  at  Pavia.    Died  in  1625. 

Bellori,  bel-lo'ree,  (Giovanni  Pjetro,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Rome  in  161 5,  wrote  a  number  of 
treatises  on  Roman  history  and  antiquities.  Christina 
of  Sweden  appointed  him  her  librarian  and  keeper  of 
her  cabinet.    13ied  in  1696. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Bellot,  ba'lo',  (Joseph  Rene,)  a  French  naval  officer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1826,  accompanied  Captain  Belcher  in 
search  of  Sir  John  Franklin  in  1852.  Having  afterwards 
joined  Inglefield's  expedition,  he  perished  in  a  storm 
near  Cape  Bowden  in  1853.  He  discovered  a  strait  con- 
necting Prince  Regent's  Inlet  and  Peel  Sound,  which  has 
been  named  Bellot's  Strait. 

Bellot,  (Pierre  FRANgois,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1776,  was  professor  of  civil  law.  Died  at 
Geneva  in  1836. 

See  Cherbuliez,  "Notice  siir  la  Vie  de  P.  F.  Bellot,"  1838. 

Bellotti,  bgl-lot'tee,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  engraver,  surnamed  Canaletto,  born  at  Venice  in 
1724.    Died  in  1780. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bellotti,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  painter  of  the  Venetian 
school,  born  at  Volgano  ;  died  in  1700. 

Bel-lo-ve'sus,  the  first  Gallic  chief  who  passed  the 
Alps,  established  himself  with  his  band  in  Etruria,  ac- 
cording to  Livy,  about  590  B.C. 

See  DuPLEix,  "Memoires  des  Gaules." 

BelTows,  (Henry  Whitney,)  D.D.,  an  eminent 
Unitarian  divine,  born  in  Boston  in  1814.  He  took  the 
degree  of  A.B.  at  Harvard  in  1832,  and  afterwards  stu 
died  in  the  theological  school  of  that  university.  In 
1838  he  became  pastor  of  a  church  in  the  city  of  New 
York.  He  was  the  principal  founder  of  the  "  Christian 
Inquirer,"  (1846,)  and  was  for  several  years  the  chief 
contributor  to  its  columns.  Mr.  Bellows  is  an  able  and 
eloquent  public  speaker,  and  has  lectured  successfully  on 
a  great  variety  of  subjects,  especially  those  connected 
with  social  or  educational  interests,  or  with  patriotic  01 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,g7ittural;  N,  ftasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BELLOr 


320 


BELSHAM 


philanthropic  enterprises.  Among  his  publications,  his 
lectures  "  On  the  Treatment  of  Social  Diseases,"  deliv- 
ered at  the  Lowell  Institute,  Boston,  in  1857,  deserve  to 
be  particularly  mentioned.  He  was  the  principal  origin- 
ator of  the  United  States  Sanitary  Commission,  of 
which  he  became  the  first  president  in  1862.  He  held 
this  position  as  long  as  that  organization  continued. 

Belloy,  de,  deh  ba'lwa^  (Auguste,)  Marc^uis,  a 
French  poet,  born  in  Paris  about  1815.  He  produced, 
besides  other  works,  "  Orfa,"  (1853,)  and  "Flowery 
Legends,"  ("Legendes  fleuries,"  1855.) 

Belloy,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Freiich  cardinal,  and 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  born  near  Senlis  in  1709;  died  in 
1808. 

Belloy,  de,  (Pierre,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Mon- 
tauban  about  1540.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "The 
Catholic  Apology,"  being  a  defence  of  the  rights  of 
Henry  of  Navarre  to  the  throne  independent  of  his  Ca- 
tholicity. In  consequence  of  this  he  was  imprisoned 
two  years  in  the  Bastille  by  the  Guises. 

See  MoKERi,  "  Dictiounaire  Historique." 

Belloy,  de,  (Pierre  Laurent  Buyrette — bU-e'ret' 
or  bwe'ret'',)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at  Saint-Flour-en- 
Auvergne  in  1727,  wrote  a  tragedy  entitled  "The  Siege 
of  Calais."  He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
Died  in  1775. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Bellucci,  b§l-loot'chee,  or  Belluzzi,  b§l-loot'see, 
(Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  in  1654,  was  patron- 
ized by  Joseph  I.  of  Austria.  He  excelled  in  painting 
small  figures.    Died  in  1726. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bellucci,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  botanist,  born  at 
Pistoia.  He  became  professor  of  botany  at  Pisa,  and 
published  in  1662  an  "  Index  of  Plants  in  the  Garden  of 
Pisa,"  (in  Latin.) 

Bellune,  Due  de.    See  Victor. 

Bellunello,  bSl-loo-neKlo,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  the  Friuli,  lived  about  1470. 

Bellunese,  bel-loo-na'sa,  (Giorgio,)  an  Italian  por- 
trait-painter, born  in  the  Friuli,  lived  about  1550. 

Belluiio,  Duke  of.    See  Victor. 

Belluti,  bel-loo'tee,  (Bonaventura,)  a  Sicilian  phi- 
losopher and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Catania  in  1599.  He 
wrote  a  "  Course  of  Philosophy,"  and  other  works,  in 
Latin.    Died  in  1676. 

Belluzzi.    See  Bellucci. 

Belly,  biVle',  or  Billy,  be'ye',  (Jacques,)  a  French 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Chartres  in  1603. 

Belmas,  htYm^\  (Louis,)  born  at  Montreal,  in  the 
department  of  Aude,  in  1757,  became  Bishop  of  Cam- 
brai  in  1S02.  By  his  advocacy  of  the  liberty  of  the  Gal- 
lican  Church  and  his  submission  to  the  civil  constitution 
of  the  clergy,  he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  pope. 
He  was  the  last  constitutional  bishop.    Died  in  1841. 

See  Lasalve,  "  £loge  de  M.  Belmas,"  1848. 

BePmeis  or  BePmeys,  (John,)  called  also  John  of 
York,  a  divine  of  the  twelfth  century,  was  Bishop  of 
Poitou.    He  wrote  against  Thomas  a  Becket. 

Belmeis  or  Beaumes,  de,  (Richard,)  was  conse- 
crated as  Bishop  of  London  about  1 1 50. 

Belmeis  or  Beaumes,  de,  (Richard,)  became  Bishop 
of  London  in  1 108.  He  expended  a  large  sum  of  money 
in  the  erection  of  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral.  Died  in  1127. 

Belmissero,  bel-mes-sa'ro,  or  Belmessere,  bgl-mes- 
sa^a,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  physician  and  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Lanni,  lived  about  1530.  He  was  professor  of  medi- 
cine and  philosophy  at  Bologna. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Belmondi,  beKmoN^e',  (Pierre,)  a  French  littera- 
teur, born  at  Virieux  in  1774  ;  died  in  1822. 

Belmont,  de,  deh  bermow',  (Aimeri,)  a  troubadour 
of  Provence,  lived  aljout  1270. 

Belmontet,  bermoN^tiV,  (Louis,)  ?iY\-ei\ch  litterateur 
and  politician,  born  at  Montauban  in  1799.  He  became 
in  1830  editor  of  "La  Tribune,"  in  which  he  opposed 
the  Orleans  dynasty.  He  published  several  republican 
odes,  and  a  collection  of  poems  entitled  "Golden  Num- 
bers," ("  Les  Noml)res  d'Or,"  1846.)  In  1835  he  married 
a  granddaughter  of  the  famous  Vergniaud.    Among  his 


works  is  "Une  Fete  de  Neron,"  a  tragedy,  (1829,)  He 
is  now  a  Bonapartist  in  politics. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Blograpliie  Generale." 

Belmonti,  bgl-mon'tee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Rimini  in  1537;  died  in  1592. 

BeToe,  (William,)  an  English  divine  and  scholar, 
born  at  Norwich  in  1756.  He  made  several  translations 
from  the  Greek,  of  which  his  "  History  of  Herodotus, 
with  Notes,"  (4  vols.,  1791,)  deserves  especial  mention. 
He  also  wrote  a  number  of  original  w^orks,  and  was  as- 
sociated with  Archdeacon  Nares  as  editor  of  "The  Brit- 
ish Critic."    Died  in  181 7. 

Belon,  beh-liN'  or  bloN,  (Pierre,)  one  of  the  most 
eminent  naturalists  of  his  time,  born  in  the  department 
of  Sarthe,  in  P'rance,  about  1517.  He  visited  successively 
Greece,  Egypt,  and  Palestine,  and,  after  an  absence  of 
three  years,  returned  to  France  in  1550.  In  1553  he  pub- 
lished an  account  of  his  expedition,  which  was  trans- 
lated into  Latin  by  L'licluse.  On  his  way  to  Paris, 
through  the  Bois  de  Boulogne,  in  1564,  he  was  assas- 
sinated by  an  unknown  hand.  Belon  wrote  a  number 
of  valuable  treatises  on  natural  history,  geography,  and 
antiquities.  His  "  Plistory  of  Birds"  (1555)  is  said  to  be 
the  most  important  treatise  on  that  subject  produced  in 
the  sixteenth  century. 

See  CuviER,  "  Hlstoire  des  Sciences  naturelles." 

Beloselsky,  ba-lo-sel'skee,  (Alexander,)  Prince,  a 
Russian  litteratetir,  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1757, 
wrote  a  collection  of  poems  in  French.    Died  in  1809. 

Beloste,  ba'lost',  (Augustin,)  a  French  surgeon,  born 
in  Paris  in  1654,  published  a  treatise  on  surgery,  (1695,) 
and  a  "Treatise  on  the  Use  of  Mercury,"  (1725.)  He 
adopted  some  good  old  methods  which  had  fallen  into 
disuse.    He  practised  at  Turin,  where  he  died  in  1730. 

Belot,  beh-lo'  or  bio,  (Jean,)  a  French  lawyer,  born 
at  Blois  about  1590,  published  an  "Apology  for  the  Latin 
Language."  Menage,  in  his  "  Requete  des  Dictionnaires," 
remarks  "  that  his  generous  interest  in  that  language  is 
the  more  praiseworthy,  as  he  had  not  the  honour  to  be 
acquainted  with  it." 

See  Pelisson,  "  Hlstoire  de  rAcademie  Francaise." 

Belot,  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  who  lived  about 
1570,  wrote  treatises  on  chiromancy  and  occult  science. 

Belot,  (OcTAViE  Guichard,)  Madame,  a  French  au- 
thoress, born  in  Paris  in  1719.  She  published  "  Reflec- 
tions on  Rousseau's  Discourse  concerning  the  Inequality 
of  Conditions,"  and  translated  from  the  English  Dr. 
Johnson's  "  Rasselas,"  and  portions  of  Hume's  History. 
Died  in  1805. 

See  Le  Bas,  "  Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Below,  ba'lo,  (Jacor  Frederick,)  a  Swedish  physi- 
cian and  naturalist,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1669.  He  was 
appointed  by  Charles  XII.,  in  1705,  physician  to  the 
army.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Pultowa, 
after  which  he  practised  in  Moscow.    Died  in  1716. 

BePper,  (Edward  Strutt,)  Lord,  an  English  poli- 
tician, born  at  Derby  in  1801.  He  represented  Derby 
in  Parliament  from  1830  to  1848,  voting  with  the  Liberals. 

Belprato,  bel-pRa'to,  (Giovanni  Vincenzo,)  an  Ital- 
ian litterateur,  lived  about  1550. 

BePsham,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Unitarian  divine 
and  theological  writer,  born  at  Bedford  in  April,  1750. 
He  became,  in  1805,  pastor  of  the  Essex  Street  chapel, 
London,  where  he  remained  until  his  death.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  his  "  Evidences  of  the  Christian 
Revelation,"  and  "Elements  of  the  Philosophy  of  the 
Human  Mind  and  of  Moral  Philosophy,"  (1801.)  He 
also  published  a  "  Translation  of  the  Epistles  of  Saint 
Paul,  with  an  Exposition  and  Notes,"  (4  vols.,  1822.) 
Died  in  1829. 

See  John  Williams,  "Memoirs  of  Thomas  Belsham,"  1833: 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  1S23-24,  and  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  January,  1S03. 

Belsham,  (William,)  an  English  historian  and  politi- 
cal writer  of  the  Whig  party,  born  in  1752,  was  a  brother 
of  the  preceding.  He  i)ublished  a  "  History  of  Great 
Britain  to  the  Conclusion  of  the  Peace  of  Amiens  in 
1802,"  (12  vols.  8vo,  1806,)  "Essays,  Historical,  Politi- 
cal, and  Literary,"  (2  vols.,  1789-91,)  and  other  works. 
His  history  was  commended  by  Professor  Smyth  and 
other  critics.    Died  in  1827. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lojig;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsairc;  fir,  fS.ll,  fdt;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BELSHJZZAR 


321 


BEMMEL 


Bel-sliaz'zar,  [Heb.  ^'Hm^l ;  Fr.  Balthasar,  btK- 
tt'ztK',]  King  of  Babylon,  began  to  reign  about  554  B.C. 
He  was  a  descendant  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  In  538  or 
539  Babylon  was  taken  by  Cyrus  the  Great,  and  Bel- 
shazzar  was  killed. 

See  Book  of  Daniel,  chap.  v. ;  D.  S.  Goebel,  "  Dissertatio  de 
Belsasaro,"  1757. 

Belsunce,  de,  deh  b^KsiiNss',  Comte,  a  French  roy- 
alist officer,  was  killed  in  a  mob,  at  Caen,  in  1790. 

Belsunce,  de,  (Armand,)  a  French  general,  born  in 
1722.  He  fought  at  Fontenoy  in  1745,  and  at  Hasten- 
beck  in  1757.    Died  in  Saint  Domingo  in  1764. 

Belsunce  de  Castel-Moron,  de,  deh  b^KsuNss' 
deh  kSs'teK  mo'roN'',  (Henri  Francois  Xavier,)  a 
French  Jesuit,  born  in  167 1,  was  made  Bishop  of  Mar- 
seilles in  1709,  and  during  the  prevalence  of  the  plague 
in  that  city  {1720)  devoted  himself  to  the  relief  of  the 
sufferers.    Died  in  1755. 

See  P.  Barbet,  "filogede  Belsunce,"  1821. 

Beltraffio,  b^l-tR^f fe-o,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Milan  in  1467,  was  a  pupil  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci.    Died  in  15 16. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Beltramelli,  bdl-tRi-meKlee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 
litterateur,  born  at  Bergamo  in  1734;  died  in  181 5. 

Beltrami,  b^l-tR^'mee,  (Faisrizio,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Cetona,  in  Tuscany,  lived  about  1630. 

Beltrando,  b^l-tRdnMo,  (Hermano  DomiiXgo,)  a 
Spanish  architect  and  sculptor,  born  at  Vittoria ;  died 
in  1590. 

Beltrano,  \yh\-\.^\'no,  (Agostino,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Naples  in  1616;  died  in  1665. 

Beltrano,  (Ottavio,)  an  Italian  writer  and  publisher, 
who  lived  about  1650. 

Belurger,  beh-liiR'zhi',  (Claude,)  a  French  professor 
of  belles-lettres  at  the  College  of  Navarre.  Died  about 
1622. 

Be'lus,  [Gr.  B^/lof,]  a  mythical  king  of  Phoenicia,  re- 
garded as  a  son  of  Neptune  and  Libya,  a  brother  of 
Agenor,  and  father  of  yLgyptus.  He  is  by  some  writers 
identified  with  the  Hebrew  Baal,  and  in  a  mythic  sense 
signifies  the  Sun. 

See  GuiGNiAUT,  "  Religions  de  I'Antiquite,"  Paris,  1825-29,  vol. 
ii.  book  iv.  chap.  iii. 

Be'lus  or  Bel,  one  of  the  first  kings  of  Babylon,  was 
the  father  of  Ninus.  He  is  sometimes  confounded  with 
the  preceding. 

Belvedere,  b^l-vi-da'ri,  (Andrea,)  an  excellent  Ital- 
ian painter  of  animals,  fruits,  and  flowers,  born  at  Naples 
about  1646;  died  in  1732. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Belvezen.    See  Belenvei. 

Belyai'd,  bi'le-tR',  (Simon,)  a  French  poet,  who  lived 
about  1580,  was  a  partisan  of  the  League,  and  wrote 
against  Henry  HI. 

Belzoni,  b^l-zo'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  cele- 
brated traveller  and  explorer,  born  at  Padua  about  1778. 
In  1803  he  visited  England,  where  he  married,  and  for 
several  years  gained  a  livelihood  by  exhibiting  as  an 
athlete.  He  possessed  great  muscular  strength,  and  is 
said  to  have  supported  himself  by  performing  the  parts 
of  Hercules  and  Samson.  Having  studied  hydraulics  in 
his  youth,  he  sought  in  several  foreign  countries  an 
opportunity  to  apply  his  knowledge  of  that  science. 
Having  travelled  in  Portugal,  Spain,  and  Malta,  accom- 
panied by  his  wife,  they  arrived  in  Egypt  in  1815.  One 
of  his  first  antiquarian  labours  was  the  removal  of  the 
colossal  head  incorrectly  styled  the  young  Memnon,  in 
which  enterprise  he  was  assisted  by  Mr.  Salt,  the  British 
consul.  With  great  difficulty  it  was  shipped  to  England  ; 
and  it  now  forms  one  of  the  grandest  ornaments  of  the 
department  of  Egyptian  antiquities  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum. He  soon  after  visited  the  temple  of  Ipsambool, 
which  he  was  the  first  to  open,  and  in  181 8  discovered 
in  the  valley  of  Beban-el-Molook  a  magnificent  Egyptian 
tomb.  He  made  drawings  of  the  chambers  and  took 
impressions  of  the  figures  and  hieroglyphics,  which  fac- 
simile he  subsequently  exhibited  in  London.  This  tomb 
also  contained  an  alabaster  sarcophagus,  which  Belzoni 
brought  to  England.  He  penetrated  into  the  second 
pyramid  of  Gizeh,  and  discovered  the  ruins  of  the  town 


of  Berenice.  On  his  arrival  in  England  in  1819  he  pub- 
lished a  very  interesting  and  well-written  narrative  of 
his  discoveries.  He  set  out  in  1823  for  Timbuctoo,  in 
Africa,  but  died  in  Benin,  after  a  short  illness,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1823. 

See  Belzoni,  "  Narrative  of  the  Operations  and  Recent  Discov- 
eries within  the  Pyramids,  Temples,  Tombs,  and  Excavations  in 
Egypt  and  Nubia,"  London,  1820;  "Household  Words,"  vol.  ii., 
1851,  (republished  in  the  "Living  Age,"  vol.  xxix.;)  C.  L.  Bkight- 
WELL,  "Annals  of  Industry  and  Genius,"  1863. 

Bern,  bem,  (Joseph,)  a  distinguished  Polish  gen- 
eral, born  at  Tarnow,  in  Galicia,  in  1795.  He  served  in 
the  campaign  of  1812  under  Davoust,  and  about  1819 
was  made  professor  in  a  school  of  artillery  at  Warsaw. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution  of  1830,  he  be- 
came a  major  in  the  Polish  service.  Having  joined  the 
Hungarian  patriots  in  1848,  he  obtained  command  of 
an  army,  and  defeated  the  Austrians  in  several  battles. 
After  the  defeat  at  Temesvar  he  took  refuge  in  Turkey, 
where  he  became  a  Mohammedan,  and  was  made  a  pasha 
by  the  Sultan.    Died  in  1850. 

See  Patakv,  "Bem  in  Siebenbiirgen,"  1850;  N.  N.  Lajos,  "Lc 
General  Bem,"  Paris,  1S51. 

Be-mar'-ehi-us,  [B??/iap,xwf,]  a  Greek  sophist,  born 
at  Caesarea,  in  Cappadocia,  about  320  a.d.  He  wrote 
a  "I>ife  of  the  Emperor  Constantine,"  and  other  works, 
not  extant. 

Bembo,  b^m'bo,  (Bernardo,)  a  Venetian  senator  and 
liberal  patron  of  learning,  born  in  1433,  ^'^^  father 
of  the  celebrated  Cardinal  Bembo.    Died  about  1520. 

Bembo,  (Giovanni,)  succeeded  Marcantonio  Memmo 
as  Doge  of  Venice  in  1615.    Died  in  1618. 

Bembo,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  celebrated  for 
his  learning,  born  at  Venice  in  May,  1470.  He  studied 
Greek  under  Lascaris,  and  subsequently  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  academy  of  Aldus  Manutius.  In  1512  he 
repaired  to  Rome,  where  Leo  X.  appointed  him  his  pri- 
vate secretary  and  bestowed  upon  him  numerous  eccle- 
siastical preferments.  After  the  death  of  Leo  he  retired 
to  Padua,  where  he  formed  a  valuable  library  and  a  col- 
lection of  rare  medals.  He  was  made  a  cardmal  by  Paul 
III.  in  1539.  He  died  in  1547.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  a  "  History  of  Venice,"  (in  Latin,)  which  he 
afterwards  translated  into  Italian,  (1552,)  dialogues  on 
the  nature  of  love,  entitled  "  Gli  Asolani,"  and  a  number 
of  Italian  sonnets.  His  writings  are  all  characterized 
by  great  elegance  of  style.  Among  his  friends  were 
the  painter  Raphael  and  Cardinal  Bibbiena.  His  chief 
literary  merit  consisted  in  his  being  one  of  the  restorers 
of  pure  Latinity.  His  collected  works  were  published  in 
Venice,  in  four  volumes,  1729.  "If  some  praise  is  due," 
says  Hallam,  "as  it  surely  is,  to  the  art  of  reviving  that 
consummate  grace  and  richness  which  enchants  every 
successive  generation  in  the  periods  of  Cicero,  we  must 
place  Bembo  among  the  ornaments  of  literature  in  the 
sixteenth  century."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe.") 

See  Beccadelli,  "Vita  di  P.  Bembo;"  J.  de  i.a  Casa,  "Vita 
Bembi ;"  M.  Battaggia,  "  Elogio  del  Cardinale  Bembo,"  1827; 
Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Auberv,  "  Histoire 
des  Cardlnaux;"  M  azzuchelli,"  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

B^me  or  Besme,  bem,  (Karl  Dianowitz — de-S'no- 
^its,)  a  Bohemian,  notorious  as  the  assassin  of  Coligny. 
He  was  killed  by  some  Protestants  at  Saintonge  in  1575. 

Bemetzrieder,  ba'mets-ree'der,  writer  on  music,  born 
in  1747,  resided  in  Paris,  and  subsequently  in  London. 

Bemmel,  van,  vin  bem'mel,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch 
landscape-painter  of  great  merit,  born  at  Utrecht  in 
1630.  Having  visited  Italy  and  England,  he  established 
himself  at  Nuremberg.    Died  in  1708. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  F'lamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Bemmel,  von,  fon  bem'mel,  (Christoph,)  a  German 
landscape-painter,  son  of  Peter,  noticed  below,  born  in 
1707. 

Bemmel,  von,  (Joel  Paul,)  elder  son  of  Johann 
Georg,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1713,  was  a  painter  of 
landscapes  and  historical  pieces. 

Bemmel,  von,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  skilful  German 
painter  of  landscapes  and  animals,  born  at  Nuremberg 
in  1669,  was  a  son  of  Wilhelm,  noticed  below.  Died  in 
1725- 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 


c  as  /6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  §  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

21 


I 


B  EMM  EL  322  BENDLER 


Bemmel,  von,  (Johann  Noah,)  brother  of  Joel  Paul, 
born  dt  Nuremberg  in  17 16.  His  works  include  hunting- 
scenes,  battles,  animals,  and  portraits. 

Bemmel,  von,  (Karl  Seisastian,)  nephew  of  Chris- 
toph,  mentioned  above,  born  at  Bamberg  in  1743,  painted 
landscapes,  sea-pieces,  and  night  and  morning  scenes, 
which  are  greatly  admired  and  sought  for.    Died  in  1796. 

See  Jack,  "Pantheon  der  Literaten  und  Kiinstler  Bambergs." 

Bemmel,  von,  (Peter,)  brother  of  Johann  Georg, 
born  at  Nuremberg  in  1685,  painted  landscapes,  storms, 
and  winter  scenes  with  great  effect.    Died  in  1754. 

Bemmelen,  van,  vtn  bem'meh-len,  (Abraham,)  a 
Dutch  writer  on  physical  science,  born  in  1755,  published 
"  Elements  of  Experimental  Physics,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1822. 

Ben,  hh\,  (Sev,)  a  Polish  Jew,  born  in  1763,  was  a 
good  Hebrew  scholar,  and  published  a  Hebrew  Lexi- 
con.   Died  in  Vienna  in  181 1. 

Benaben,  beh^nS'bdN',  (Louis  Guillaume  Jacques 
Marie,)  a  French  journalist  and  litterateur^  born  at  Tou- 
louse in  1774,  was  associate  editor  of  '*  La  Minerve,"  and 
subsequently  edited  the  "  Gazette  de  France,"  a  journal 
of  Paris.    Died  in  Paris  in  1 83 1. 

Benaglio,  ba-niKyo,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
worked  at  Verona  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

Benaloazar,  bi-nSl-ki'thaR,  or  Belarcazar,  bi-laR- 
ki'th^R,  (Sebastian,)  a  Spanish  soldier,  born  in  Estre- 
madura.  In  15 14  he  accompanied  Pedrarias,  governor 
of  Darien,  to  South  America,  where  he  assisted  Pizarro 
in  the  conquest  of  Peru.  He  was  subsequently  appointed 
governor  of  Popayan.    Died  in  1550. 

See  Prhscott,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru ;"  Touron, 
"Histoire  generale  de  I'Amerique." 

Benamati,  bi-na-mi'tee,  (Guido  Ubaldo,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Gubbio.  Among  his  works  is  an  epic  poem, 
"The  Naval  Victory,"  ("La  Vittoria  navale,"  1640.) 
Died  in  1653. 

Benard,  beh-ntR',  (Laurent,)  a  French  Benedictine 
monk  and  writer,  born  at  Nevers  in  1573  ;  died  in  1620. 

Benary,  ba'nd-ree,  (Franz  Ferdinand,)  a  German 
Orientalist,  born  at  Cassel  in  1805.  He  published  in 
1830  the  Sanscrit  poem  of  "  Nalodaya,"  with  a  Latin 
translation  and  explanation. 

Benaschi,ba-nSs'kee,(  Angela,)  daughter  of  Giovanni 
Battista,  by  whom  she  was  instructed  in  painting,  was  born 
in  1666.    She  excelled  in  portraits.    (See  next  article.) 

Benaschi,  written  also  Beinaschi,  Benoschi,  or 
Berneschi,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Turin  about  1634,  imitated  the  style  of  Lanfranco. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  the  frescos  of  the  church 
of  Santa  Maria  at  Naples.    Died  about  1690. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Benavente,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Toledo 
about  1630. 

Benavides,  bi-ni-vee'o^s,  (Alfonso,)  a  Spanish 
Franciscan  monk,  lived  about  1600-40. 

Benavides, bi-ni-vee'd^s,  [Lat.  Benavid'ius,]  (Mar- 
co,) surnamed  Mantuano,  (min-too-^'no,)  an  eminent 
Italian  jurist  and  writer,  born  at  Padua  in  1489.  He 
was  created  count  palatine  by  Charles  V.,  and  was  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Padua.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled 
*'  Polymathia,"  and  legal  treatises.    Died  in  1582. 

See  A.  RiccoBONi,  "Oratio  in  obitum  M.  Benavidii,"  1582. 

Benavides,  (Vincent,)  a  painter,  born  at  Oran,  in 
Africa,  settled  in  Spain,  where  he  obtained  the  title  of 
painter  to  Charles  II.    Died  in  1703. 

Ben''a-ze-eli  or  Ben'e-ze-eh,  (Charles,)  an  English 
painter  and  engraver,  born  about  1740,  worked  several 
years  in  Paris  and  Rome.    Died  in  England  in  1803. 

See  Le  Blanc,  "Manuel  de  I'Amateur  d'Estampes." 

Benazech,  (Peter  Paul,)  an  English  engraver,  born 
in  London  about  1744. 

Beu'bow,  (John,)  an  English  admiral  of  distinguished 
bravery,  born  in  1650,  entered  the  service  under  James  II., 
and  was  subsequently  employed  by  William  HI.  In  Au- 
gust, 1702,  he  had  a  severe  engagement  near  Jamaica  with 
a  Fiench  squadron  under  Ducasse ;  but,  after  maintain- 
ing a  running  fight  for  more  than  four  days,  he  was 
mortally  wounded.    He  survived  until  November,  1702. 

See  Smollett,  "History  of  England;"  Campbell,  "  Lives  of 
the  British  Admirals." 


Benbow,  (John,)  a  son  of  Admiral  Benbow,  was 
shipwrecked  on  the  coast  of  Madagascar  in  1701  or  1702. 
He  was  compelled  to  remain  on  that  island  several  years. 

Benchaim,  bgn-Ka''^m,  (Abraham,)  an  Itahan  rabbi, 
who  published  in  1488  an  edition  of  the  Bible  which  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  printed  in  Hebrew. 

Benci,  bSn'chee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born 
at  Acquapendente  in  1542,  wrote  a  number  of  treatises  in 
elegant  Latin.    Died  in  1594. 

Bencius,  ben^she-us,  [It.  Benci,  bgn'chee,]  (Hugo,) 
called  also  Hugo  oi<  Sienna,  an  Italian  physician,  who 
translated  several  works  from  the  Greek  and  Arabic 
medical  writers.    Died  in  1448. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Bencivenni,  b^n-che-ven'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 
litterateur,  born  in  1731,  wrote  a  "Life  of  Dante,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1808. 

Benckert.    See  Benkert. 

Bencovich,  bgn'ko-vik',  (Friedrich,)  an  Austrian 
painter,  sometimes  called  Federighetto  di  Dalmatia, 
lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

See  Heinecken,  "Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Benda,  b^n'dS,  (Franz,)  a  German  musician  and  ex- 
cellent violinist,  born  in  Bohemia  in  1709,  became  in  1771 
concert-master  to  Frederick  the  Great.    Died  in  1788. 

Benda,  (Georg,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1 72 1,  was  patronized  by  Frederick  the  Great.  He  pro- 
duced several  popular  operas.  Died  in  1795.  His  son 
Friedrich  Ludwig,  a  composer,  was  born  in  1746. 
Died  in  1792. 

Benda,  (Johann  Wilhelm  Otto,)  a  relative  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Berlin  in  1775,  translated  into  Ger- 
man the  works  of  Shakspeare  and  the  poems  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott.    Died  in  1832. 

Bendavid,  bSn-dd'vit,  (Lazarus,)  a  philosopher  and 
mathematician,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at  13erlin  in 
1762,  was  a  disciple  of  Kant.  He  wrote,  among  other 
works,  a  treatise  "On  the  Jewish  Calendar,"  and  several 
essays  in  defence  of  Kant's  philosophy.    Died  in  1832. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  ("  Selbstbiographie,")  1804. 

Bendeler,  bgn'deh-ler,  or  Bendler,  bSnd'ler,  (Jo- 
hann Christian,)  a  German  landscape-painter,  born 
in  1688  ;  died  in  1728. 

Bendeler,  (Johann  Philipp,)  a  German  musician 
and  writer  on  music,  born  near  Erfurt  about  1660;  died 
about  1 7 12. 

Bendeler,  (Salomon,)  a  German  singer,  born  at 
Quedlinburg  in  1683,  is  said  to  have  possessed  a  voice 
of  prodigious  strength  and  compass.    Died  in  1724. 

See  Fetls,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiclens." 

Bendemann,  benMeh-min',  (Eduard,)  a  German 
painter,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Berlin  in  1811,  was 
a  pupil  of  Schadow.  Among  his  master-pieces  may  be 
named  "The  Jews  by  the  Rivers  of  Babylon,"  "Jere- 
miah on  the  Ruins  of  Jerusalem,"  (a  work  of  very  large 
dimensions,)  and  the  "  Two  Maidens  at  a  Fountain."  In 
1838  he  became  professor  at  the  Academy  of  Arts  at 
Dresden.  He  afterwards  decorated  the  royal  palace  at 
Dresden  with  many  grand  frescos,  which  are  greatly 
admired.  Some  of  these  represent  allegories,  religious 
subjects,  and  portraits  of  the  heroes  and  legislators  of 
universal  history.  According  to  a  French  critic,  he  "is 
distinguished  for  a  peculiar  grace  and  a  profound  know- 
ledge of  nature.  He  is  one  of  the  few  painters  of 
Dusseldorf  who  have  succeeded  equally  in  historical 
pictures  and  in  genre." 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler- Lexikon." 

Bender,  von,  fon  b^n'der,  (Blasius,)  Baron,  a  medi- 
ocre Austrian  general,  born  in  Breisgau  in  1 713.  He 
obtained  the  chief  command  in  Belgium  in  1790.  Died 
in  1798, 

Bendinelli,  b^n-de-nel'lee,  (Agostino,)  an  Italian 
musical  composer,  born  at  Lucca  about  1550 ;  died  about 
1620. 

Ben'dish,  (Bridget,)  daughter  of  General  Ireton,  and 
granddaughter  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  born  about  1650,  was 
noted  for  her  energy  of  character  and  her  eccentricities. 
She  is  said  to  have  strongly  resembled  Cromwell,  both 
physically  and  morally.    Died  in  1727. 

Bendler.    See  Bendeler. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ij,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BENDLOWES 


323 


BENEDICT 


Bendlowes,  bgnd'16z,  or  Benlowes,  (Edward,)  an 
English  poet,  born  in  Essex  in  1602,  published  a  num- 
ber of  poems  in  Latin  and  English.    Died  in  1676. 

See  Wood,  "Athenas  Oxonienses." 

Bendonsky,  ben-don'skee,  (Symon  Symonowicz,) 
a  Polish  poet,  born  in  Galicia  in  1557,  assumed  the  name 
of  Simon  IDES.  He  wrote  elegant  poems  in  Latin  and 
Polish.    Died  in  1629, 

Bendtseu,  bent'sen,  (Bendt,)  a  Danish  scholar,  born 
at  Copenhagen  in  1763.  He  was  director  of  the  college 
of  Frederiksburg,  and  published  several  works.  Died  in 
1830. 

See  J.  N.  Madvig,  "  Mindeord  over  B.  Bendtsen,"  1831. 

Benecke,  ba'neh-keh,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man philologist,  born  in  the  principality  of  Oettingen  in 
1762.  He  wrote  "  Contributions  to  the  Knowledge  of 
the  Old  German  Language  and  Literature."  Pie  was 
professor  and  librarian  in  the  University  of  Gottingen. 
Died  in  1844. 

.See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Benedek,  von,  fon  ba^ieh-d^k',  (Ludwig,)  an  Aus- 
trian general,  born  at  Oedenburg,  in  Hungary,  in  1804. 
He  served  as  colonel  in  the  war  against  the  Italians  in 
1848-49.  Having  been  raised  to  the  rank  of  general, 
he  fought  against  the  Hungarian  patriots  in  1849.  He 
obtained  in  June,  1866,  the  command  of  the  grand  Aus- 
trian army  of  about  200,000  men,  with  which  he  was 
expected  to  conquer  Prussia.  Remaining  on  the  defen- 
sive in  Bohemia,  he  permitted  the  two  Prussian  armies 
to  cross  a  range  of  mountains  and  to  effect  a  junction 
with  each  other'  at  Sadowa,  where,  on  the  3d  of  July, 
1866,  Benedek  was  defeated  in  a  battle  which  decided 
the  issue  of  the  war.  The  victors  took  more  than  one 
hundred  pieces  of  cannon,  and  21,471  prisoners. 

Benedette,  Le.    See  Castiglione,  (Giovanni.) 

Benedetti,  ba-na-def'tee,  or  Benedicti,  bi-ni-d^k'- 
tee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  physician,  whose  medical 
and  anatomical  works  had  a  high  reputation  in  his  time. 
He  settled  at  Venice  in  1495.    Died  after  15 10. 

Benedetti,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  anti- 
quary, born  at  Fermo  in  171 5,  was  professor  of  rhetoric 
in  the  Jesuits'  College  at  Rome.    Died  in  1788. 

Benedetti,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  physician,  and 
professor  of  anatomy  at  Venice,  lived  about  1740.  He 
wrote,  besides  medical  works,  several  poems  and  dramas. 

Benedetti,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  dramatic  poet, 
born  at  Cortona  in  1785,  wrote  several  tragedies,  and  a 
"Life  of  Cola  di  Rienzo,"  (1831.)    Died  in  1821, 

See  TiPAi.DO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Benedetti,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  able  Italian 
mathematician,  born  at  Venice,  was  a  ]:)upil  of  Tartaglia. 
He  published  in  1585  a  remarkable  work,  entitled  "Di- 
vers Speculations  of  J.  B.  Benedetti,"  ("  J.  B,  Benedicti 
diversse  Speculationes.")  He  made  many  discoveries  in 
mathematics,  and  advanced  many  sound  ideas  in  physical 
philosophy.    Died  in  1590. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Benedetti,  (Giulio  Cesare,)  an  Italian  medical 
writer,  born  at  Aquila,  was  professor  of  medicine  at 
Rome.    Died  in  1656. 

Benedetti,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Reggio  about  1650.    He  painted  frescos  at  Brescia. 

Benedetti,  (Michele,)  an  Italian  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Viterbo  in  1745,  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Vienna.    Died  in  1810. 

Benedetti,  bi-ni-det'tee,  (Vincent,)  born  in  Corsica 
about  1815,  was  appointed  by  the  French  government 
minister  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1861. 

Benedetti,  de',  dk  ba-na-det'tee,  (Domenico,)  an 
Italian  historical  painter,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1610; 
died  in  1678. 

Benedetti,  de',  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  poet  of  the  early 
part  of  the  sevanteenth  century,  born  at  Genoa,  trans- 
lated eight  of  the  Odes  of  Horace  into  Italian  verse. 

Benedetto.    See  Benedict. 

Benedetto.    See  Jacopone. 

Benedetto.    See  Marcello. 

Benedetto  da  Majano,  bi-ni-det'to  di  mi-yi'no,  a 
Florentine  sculptor  and  architect,  born  in  1444 ;  died  1498. 
£ee  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors." 


Benedetto  da  Rovezzano,  bi-ni-det'to  di  ro-vh 
si'no,  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  near  P^lorence  abou. 
1480;  died  about  1550. 

Ben'e-dict  I.,  [Lat.  Benedic'tus  ;  It.  Benedf:tto, 
bi-ni-det'to ;  Fr.  BENOi  r,  beh-nwi',]  surnamed  Bono'- 
sus,  became  pope  in  575  a.d.  Under  his  rule  the  Longo- 
bards  extended  their  conquests  in  Italy,  and  threatened 
Rome.    Died  in  578. 

Benedict  II.,  a  native  of  Rome,  succeeded  Leo  II.  as 
pope  in  684.  He  prevailed  upon  Constantine  IV.  to  re- 
nounce the  usurped  right  of  confirming  papal  elections. 
He  died  in  685,  and  was  succeeded  by  John  V. 

Benedict  III.,  successor  of  Leo  IV.,  was  elected 
pope  in  855.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  piety  and 
mildness  of  character.  He  died  in  858,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Nicholas  I. 

Benedict  IV.  succeeded  John  IX.  in  900  a.d.  The 
following  year  he  crowned  as  sovereign  of  Itah'  Louis, 
son  of  the  King  of  Provence.  He  died  in  903,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Leo  V. 

Benedict  V.  was  made  pope  in  964,  in  opposition  to 
Leo  VIII.;  but  the  Emperor  Otho  I.  of  Germany,  who 
favoured  the  cause  of  Leo,  reduced  Rome  by  famine, 
and  exiled  Benedict  to  Hamburg,  where  he  died  in  965. 

Benedict  VI.  was  elected  in  972  successor  of  John 
XIII.  After  the  death  of  Otho  I.,  the  Romans  re- 
belled against  Benedict  and  put  him  to  death,  (974.) 

Benedict  VII.  succeeded  Benedict  VI.  in  975.  He 
assembled  a  council  and  excommunicated  the  anti-pope 
Boniface.    Died  about  984. 

Benedict  VIII.  became  pope  in  1012.  His  claims 
were  supported  against  the  anti-pope  Gregory  by  Henry 
II.,  whom  he  crowned  at  Rome  in  1013.  He  signally 
defeated  the  Saracens,  who  had  invaded  Tuscany.  He 
died  in  1024,  and  was  succeeded  by  John  XIX. 

Benedict  IX.  (Theothylac'tus  of  Tusculum)  was 
the  successor  of  John  XIX.  in  1034.  His  vices  and  op- 
pressive rule  caused  him  to  be  expelled  by  the  Romans 
in  1044,  and  Silvester  III.  was  made  pope  in  his  stead. 
The  date  of  his  death  is  not  known. 

Benedict  X.,  a  native  of  Capua,  succeeded  Stephen 
IX.  in  1058,  though  not  regularly  elected.  He  was  com- 
pelled to  give  up  the  tiara  to  Nicholas  II.  in  1059. 

Benedict  XL,  (Niccolo  Boccasini — bok-ki-see'- 
nee,)  Cardinal  of  Ostia,  was  a  native  of  Treviso,  and 
succeeded  Boniface  VIII.  in  1303.  He  died  in  1304, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Clement  V. 

Benedict  XII.  (originally  Jacques  Fournier — fooR'- 
ne-a',)  was  a  native  of  France,  and  succeeded  John 
XXII.  in  1334.  He  was  the  third  pope  who  reigned  at 
Avignon.  He  laboured  zealously  to  reform  the  clergy 
and  the  monastic  orders,  and  was  the  author  of  several 
ecclesiastical  works.  He  died  in  1342,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Clement  VI. 

See  A.  DE  MoNTOR,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes  Romains." 

Benedict  XIII.,  Cardinal  Orsini,  succeeded  Inno- 
cent XIII.  in  1724.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  private 
virtues  and  his  pacific  disposition,  and  did  much  to  pre- 
serve peace  among  the  sovereigns  of  Europe.  He  died 
in  1730,  and  was  succeeded  by  Clement  XII. 

See  Alessandro  Borgia,  "Vita  Benedicti  XIII.,"  1741  :  Mi- 
chael Ranft,  "  Lebensbeschreibimg  des  Papstes  Benedict  XIII.," 
1743;  Clemente  da  Cruz,  "Vida  do  Benedicto  XIII.,"  1739. 

Benedict  XIV.,  Cardinal  Prospero  Lambertini, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1675,  succeeded  Clement  XII.  in 
August,  1740.  His  talents  were  of  a  high  order,  and  he 
was  profoundly  versed  in  theology,  history,  and  classical 
literature.  He  founded  acadeinies  at  Rome,  built  a 
number  of  public  edifices,  and  was  a  munificent  patron 
of  learning  and  the  arts.  He  died  in  1758,  leaving  the 
reputation  of  one  of  the  most  learned,  prudent,  and  re- 
spectable pontiffs  who  have  ever  lived.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  esteemed  religious  works  in  Latin. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Clement  XIII. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vitadi  Benedetto  XIV.,"  1787;  "VieduPape 
Benoit  XIV,"  Paris,  1775;  F.  Galiani,  "Delia  Lodi  di  Papa 
Benedetto,"  1758. 

Benedict  XIII.,  (Anti-pope,)  Pedro  de  Luna, 
(pa'dRoda  loo'ni,)  was  born  in  Aragon  about  1334.  He 
was  elected  pope  at  Avignon  in  1394,  but  his  title  wa^ 
disputed  by  Boniface  IX.,  who  reigned  in  Rome.  This 


e  as  ^;  5  as  J ;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  27  ^ 


BENEDICT 


324 


BENGER 


schism  caused  great  perplexity  in  the  church  for  many 
years.  At  length,  in  141 5,  the  Council  of  Constance  de- 
posed both  of  the  popes.    Died  in  1424. 

Beu'e-dict  or  Benoit  ok  Aniane,  (S'ne'Sn',)  Saint, 
born  in  Languedoc  about  750,  became  abbot  of  the  mon- 
astery of  Aniane.    Died  in  821. 

See  Baillet,  "Vies  des  Saintes." 

Benedict  of  Appknzell,  (dp'p^nt-sSK,)  an  eminent 
Swiss  musician  and  contrapuntist,  born  at  Appenzell 
about  1480.  His  works  are  eulogized  by  Dr.  Burney  and 
Fetis. 

See  Burney,  "General  History  of  Music." 

Benedict,  surnamed  Bis'cop,  an  Anglo-Saxon  monk, 
and  a  noted  promoter  of  learning,  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, built  the  monasteries  of  Wearmouth  and  Jarrow. 

Benedict  [Fr.  Benoist,  beh-nwa']  of  Peterbor- 
ough, an  English  chronicler,  became  abbot  of  Peterbor- 
ough in  1 1 17.  He  wrote  a  History  of  Henry  H.  and 
Richard  I.,  and  a  "Life  of  Becket." 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Benedict,  ba'neh-dikt,  (Julius,)  a  German  composer 
and  pianist,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1804.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  are  the  operas  of  "  The  Brides  of  Venice," 
"The  Assassins,"  and  "The  Gypsy's  Warning." 

Ben'e-dict,  [Lat.  BenediCtus ;  Fr.  BenoIt,  beh- 
nwa' ;  It.  Benedetto,  ba-n^-det'to ;  Sp.  Benito,  bi- 
nee'to,]  Saint,  a  celebrated  Italian  ecclesiastic,  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  the  monastic  system  in  the  West,  was 
born  at  Nursia,  near  Spoleto,  in  480  a.d.  He  founded  an 
establishment  at  Monte-Casino,  near  Naples,  about  529, 
and  instituted  as  the  rule  of  his  order,  in  addition  to  reli- 
gious duties,  various  kinds  of  manual  labour,  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  young,  and  the  transcription  of  valuable  manu- 
scripts. He  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Regula 
Monachorum,"  containing  the  rules  of  the  order  of  Saint 
Benedict.    Died  in  543. 

See  Juan  de  Castaniza,  "  Vida  de  S.  Benito,"  1583 ;  J.  B.  Plan- 
CHETTE,  "Vie  du  grand  S.  Benoit,"  1652:  Anton  Sulgrr,  "Vita 
divi  Benedict!,"  1601  ;  J.  G.  Waitzmann,  "  Leben  und  Wirken  des 
heiligen  Benedict,"  1825. 

Benedict,  (Traugott  Wilhelm  Gustav,)  a  German 
medical  writer,  lived  at  Breslau  about  1820. 
Beuedicti.    See  Benedetti. 

Ben-e-dic'tis,  de,  (da,)  (Ben.  Tetius,)  an  Italian 
canonist,  surnamed  Capra,  (kd'pRa,)  lived  about  1440. 

Benedictis,  de,  (Giamhattista,)  an  Italian  Jesuit, 
born  about  1620.  He  wrote  a  number  of  polemical  treat- 
ises against  the  philosophy  of  Descartes  and  against  the 
Jansenists.    Died  in  1706. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Benedictis,  (Jacob.)    See  Jacopone  da  Todi. 
Benedictus.    See  Benedict. 

Ben-e-dic'tus,  or  Benoit,  a  learned  Maronite,  whose 
original  name  was  Ambarach,  born  in  Phoenicia  in 
1663.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  subsequently  became 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Pisa.    Died  in  1742. 

Ben-e-dic'tus,  (John,)  a  Polish  physician,  who  pub- 
lished in  1530  a  work  in  Latin  on  the  sweating-sickness. 

Benediktov,  ben-e-dik'tof,  (Vladimir,)  a  Russian 
poet,  published  in  1835  collection  of  lyrics,  which  ob- 
tained great  popularity. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Benedix,  ba'neh-diks,  (Julius  Roderich,)  a  German 
dramatist  and  litterateur,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1811. 

Benefiale,  ba-ni-fe-i^a,  or  Beneficiale,  bi-na-fe- 
chi'li,  (Marco,)  Chevalier,  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Rome  in  1684;  died  in  1764. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Ben'e-field,  (Sebastian,)  an  English  Calvinistic  di- 
vine, born  in  Gloucestershire  in  1559,  became  professor 
of  divinity  at  Oxford  in  1613.  He  published  numerous 
sermons  and  commentaries  on  Scripture.    Died  in  1630. 

Beneke,  ba'neh-keh,  (Friedrich  Eduard,)  a  Ger- 
man philosopher,  born  in  1798  at  Berlin,  where  he  be- 
came professor  extraordinary  of  philosophy  in  1832.  He 
published  "Psychological  Sketches,"  (1825-27,)  "Prag- 
matic Psychology,"  (1850,)  and  other  works.  He  was 
found  in  1856,  drowned  in  a  canal;  and  it  is  supposed 
he  died  by  suicide. 

Benekendorf,  b§n'eh-ken-doRf,  (Karl  Friedrich,) 
a  German  writer,  born  in  Brandenburg  in  1720,  published 


several  popular  works  on  political  and  rural  economy. 
Died  in  1788. 

Benese,  de,  de  ben-eez',  (Richard,)  an  English  ec- 
clesiastic, who  wrote  a  treatise  on  mensuration,  (1535.) 

Beneton  de  Morange  de  Peyrins,  beh-neh-t6N' 
deh  mo'riNzh'deh  p.VrdN^,  (S  itenne  Claude,)  a  French 
litterateur,  published  a  "History  of  War,"  (1741.)  Died 
in  1752. 

Benetti,  bi-net'tee,  (Giovanni  Domenico,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  in  1658  at  Ferrara,  where  he  became  a 
professor  in  the  university.  He  was  physician  to  the 
Duke  of  Mantua,  and  wrote  a  work  entitled  "Corpus 
Medico-Morale,"  (1718.) 

Benevento  or  Benevent,  Prince  of.  See  Talley- 
rand. 

Benevoli,  bi-n^v'o-lee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  sur- 
geon and  skilful  oculist,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Spoleto 
in  1685,  published  treatises  on  the  cataract  and  on  hernia. 
He  practised  at  Florence,  where  he  died  in  1756. 

Benevoli,  (Orazio,)  an  Italian  musican  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Rome  in  1602  ;  died  in  1672. 

Benezech,  bi^na'zek',  (Pierre,)  born  at  Montpellier 
in  1745,  became  minister  of  the  interior  under  the  Di- 
rectory in  1795,  and  afterwards  a  counsellor  of  state. 
Died  in  1802. 

See  Challan,  "  filoge  liistorique  de  P.  Benezech,"  1803. 

Ben^e-zet',  (Anthony,)  an  eminent  philanthropist, 
born  at  Saint-Quentin,  in  France,  in  1713,  was  the  son  of 
Protestant  parents.  He  joined  the  Society  of  Friends, 
emigrated  to  Philadelphia  in  1731,  and  became  a  school- 
teacher. He  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  slave-trade, 
and  a  benefactor  of  the  negroes,  for  whom  he  opened  an 
evening  school.  He  wrote  on  the  slave-trade  and  slavery 
several  tracts,  which,  it  is  said,  first  drew  the  attention 
of  Clarkson  and  Wilberforce  to  that  subject.  Among 
his  writings  is  "  Some  Historical  Account  of  Guinea,  with 
an  Inquiry  into  the  Slave-Trade,"  (1771.)  He  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  generosity  and  active  kindness  to  the 
poor  and  suffering  wherever  found.    Died  in  1784. 

See  Vaux,  "Memoir  of  Anthony  Benezet." 

Benfatto,  bgn-fat'to,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  painter,  sur- 
named IL  Friso,  (^1  fRee'so,)  born  at  Verona  in  1551,  was 
a  nephew  and  pupil  of  Paul  Veronese.  Died  about  1641. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Benfey,  hhV{\,  (Theodor,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  near  Gottingen  in  1809.  He  published  a  "Dic- 
tionary of  Greek  Roots,"  (1839,)  which  obtained  the 
Volney  prize  from  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  ; 
also  an  edition  of  the  hymns  of  Sama-Veda,  with  a 
translation  and  glossary,  and  translated  the  comedies  of 
Terence.  His  "  Sanscrit-English  Dictionary"  (London, 
1866)  is  highly  esteemed. 

See  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Beng,  b6N,  or  Bengy,  bSN'zhe',  (Antoine,)  a  French 
jurist,  succeeded  Cujas  as  professor  of  law  at  Bourges 
in  1595.    Died  in  1616. 

Bengel,  bgng'el,  fLat.  Benge'lius,]  (Johann  Al- 
brecht,)  an  eminent  Lutheran  theologian,  born  at  Win- 
nenden,  in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1687.  Having  finished  his 
studies  in  the  theological  college  at  Tubingen,  he  was 
employed  for  many  years  as  pastor  at  Denkendorf,  and 
about  1749  became  prelate  at  Alpirsbach.  His  edition 
of  the  (jreek  Testament,  published  in  1734,  is  esteemed 
a  standard  work.  He  also  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  holi- 
ness of  God,  entitled  "Syntagma  de  Sanctitate  Dei," 
"  Gnomon  Novi  Testanienti,"  "  Explanation  of  the  Reve- 
lation of  Saint  John,"  (in  German,  1740,)  and  other 
works  of  a  high  character.    Died  in  1752. 

See  "Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  J.  A.  Bengel,"  trans- 
lated from  the  German;  J.  P.  Fresenhjs,  "Zuverlassige  Nachricht 
von  dem  Leben  nnd  den  Schriften  J.  A.  Bengals,"  1756;  J.  C.  F. 
BuRic,  "Dr.  J.  A.  Bengel's  Leben  imd  Wirken,"  1831. 

Bengel,  von,  fon  b^ng'el,  (Ernst  Gottlieb,)  grand- 
son of  Johann  Albrecht,  noticed  above,  born  in  1769, 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Tiibingen.  Died  in  1826. 

Benger,  beng'ger,  (Miss  Elizabeth  Ogilvy,)  an 
English  authoress,  born  at  Wells,  in  Somersetshire,  in 
1778.  She  published  poems,  novels,  and  dramas;  but 
she  owes  her  reputation  chiefly  to  her  historical  and 
biographical  works,  among  which  are  "  Memoirs  of 
Elizabeth  Stuart,  Queen  of  Bohemia ;"  "  Memoirs  of 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \,  h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  f^ll,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moAn; 


BENGTSON 


BENNET 


Mary  Queen  of  Scots ;"  and  "  Memoirs  of  Klopstock 
and  his  Friends."  Miss  Benger  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Mrs.  Barbauld,  Joanna  Baillie,  and  Mrs.  E.  Hamilton. 
Died  in  1827. 

Bengtson,  bengt'son,  (Johan,)  Archbishop  of  Upsal, 
in  Sweden,  born  in  141 7;  died  in  1467. 

Ben-ha'dad  [Heb.  nn-p]  King  of  Syria,  was 
contemporary  with  Asa,  King  of  Judah,  whom  he  as- 
sisted in  repelling  the  invasion  of  Baasha,  King  of  Israel. 

See  I.  Kings  xv.  20. 

Beuhadad  IL,  son  of  the  preceding,  made  war  on 
Ahab,  King  of  Israel,  and  besieged  Samaria.  He  was 
afterwards  murdered  by  Hazael,  who  succeeded  him  on 
the  throne  of  Syria, 

See  II.  Kings  vi.  24;  viii.  7-15. 

Beuhadad  III.,  King  of  Syria,  was  the  son  of  Hazael. 
He  carried  on  a  war  against  Jehoahaz,  King  of  Israel. 
See  II.  Kings  xili.  3. 

Benif  ba'nee,  (Paolo,)  a  scholar  and  critical  writer, 
born  in  the  island  of  Candia  about  1552,  was  successively 
professor  of  theology  at  Perugia,  of  philosophy  at  Rome, 
and  of  belles-lettres  at  Padua.    Died  at  Padua  in  1625. 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Ginguene, 
"  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Be-nig'nus,  [Fr.  Benigne,  bi'n^n',]  SaTxNT,  supposed 
to  have  been  a  disciple  of  Polycarp,  was  sent  on  a  mis- 
sion to  Gaul,  and  suftered  martyrdom  at  Dijon  about 

179  A.D. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historiqiie." 

Benincasa,  ba-n^n-ki'sS,  (Bartolommeo,)  Count, 
a  literary  Italian  nobleman,  born  near  Modena  about 
1745  ;  died  about  1825.  He  published,  in  French,  "  Les 
^Iorlaques,"  (1788,)  and  founded  a  journal  in  Dalmatia. 

Benincori,  bi-n^n-ko'ree,  (Angelo  Maria.)  an  Ital- 
ian musician  and  composer,  born  at  Brescia  in  1770; 
died  in  1821. 

Beninga,  bi-ning'ni,  (Eggerik,)  a  Dutch  historian, 
wrote  a  "Chronicle  of  East  Friesland."    Died  in  1562. 

Benini,  bi-nee'nee,  (Vixcenzo,)  an  Italian  physician 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Bologna  in  1713  ;  died  in  1764. 

Beuiowsky  or  Benyowsky,  bi-ne-ov'skee,  (Mau- 
ritius Augustus,)  Count,  a  Hungarian  nobleman  and 
adventurer,  born  in  the  county  of  Neutra  in  1741.  He 
served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  in  1768  joined  the 
Polish  confederation  against  the  Russians.  Being  taken 
prisoner,  he  was  exiled  in  1770  to  Kamtchatka,  whence 
he  effected  his  escape  to  France  in  1772.  He  was  soon 
after  sent  by  the  French  government  to  establish  a  col- 
ony in  Madagascar;  but,  having  claimed  the  sovereignty 
of  that  island,  he  was  killed  in  an  encounter  with  the  ! 
French  in  1786. 

See  M.  A.  Bemowskv,  "  Voyages  et  Memolres,"  2  vols,,  1791,  and 
English  version  of  the  same,  by  W.  Nicholson. 

Benit,  beh-ne',  (Anne  FRANgois,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Mirecourt  in  1796  ;  died  in  Spain  in  1823. 

Benito.    See  Benedict,  (Saint.) 

Benivieni,  bi-ne-ve-a'nee,  (Antonio,)   a  learned  i 
Italian  physician,  was  a  friend  of  Marsilio  Ficino  and 
Politiano.    Died  in  1502. 

Benivieni,  (Domenico,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
an  Italian  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Florence,  was  surnamed 
Scottino  (skot-tee'no)  from  the  subtlety  of  his  theology. 
He  became,  in  1479,  professor  of  dialectics  at  Pisa.  He 
was  a  warm  friend  of  Savonarola,  and  wrote  in  defence 
of  his  doctrines.    Died  in  1507. 

See  Mazzl'Chelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Benivieni,  (Geronimo,)  brother  of  the  two  preced- 
ing, born  at  Florence  about  1453.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Savonarola,  and  translated  from  Latin  into  Italian  his 
"Treatise  on  the  Simplicity  of  Christian  Life,"  (1496.) 
He  was  one  of  the  first  Italians  who  discarded  the  low 
and  trivial  taste  which  prevailed  in  the  fifteenth  century 
and  returned  to  the  standards  of  Dante  and  Petrarch. 
He  published  in  1500  "II  Commento  di  leronimo  Beni- 
vieni.''   Died  in  1542. 

See  GiNGLEN^.  '  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

_Ben'ja-min,  [Heb.  p'^'j:;,]  youngest  son  of  the  pa- 
triarch Jacob  and  Rachel.  He  was  the  favourite  of  his 
father,  who  reluctantly  permitted  him  to  accompany  his 
brothers  to  Egypt.  (See  Genesis  xlii.,  xliii.,  xliv.) 


Benjamin  of  Tudela,  a  Jewish  rabbi  and  traveller 
born  in  the  kingdom  of  Navarre.  He  visited,  between 
1 1 60  and  1 1 73,  Egypt,  Persia,  and  the  frontiers  of  China, 
which  countries  he  describes  in  his  "Itinerary."  This 
work  has  been  translated  into  several  languages,  and  is 
interesting  as  being  the  first  description  of  those  regions 
given  by  a  European. 

See  Cakmoly,  "  Notice  sur  B.  de  Tudele  et  ses  Voyages,"  1837. 

Ben'ja-min,  (Judah  P.,)  an  American  politician,  of 
Jewish  parentage,  born  in  Saint  Domingo  about  1812. 
He  studied  law,  which  he  practised  with  success  in  New 
Orleans.  In  1852  he  was  elected  a  United  States  Senator 
for  Louisiana,  and  re-elected  in  1858  or  1859.  In  politics 
he  was  a  Democrat  and  disunionist.  He  was  secretary 
of  war  at  Richmond  from  about  September,  1861,  to  Feb- 
ruary, 1862,  when  he  became  secretary  of  state  to  the 
Southern  Confederacy.  He  retired  to  Europe  soon  after 
the  capture  of  Jefferson  Davis,  May,  1865. 

Benjamin,  (Park,)  an  American  poet  and  journalist, 
born  in  1809  at  Demerara,  in  Guiana,  where  his  father 
was  engaged  in  trade.  He  studied  at  Harvard,  and 
graduated  at  a  college  of  Hartford,  Connecticut.  He 
edited  the  "American  Monthly  Magazine"  of  New  York 
in  1837  and  1838.  In  1840  'Mr.  Benjamin  and  R.  W. 
Griswold  began  to  publish  a  literary  journal,  called  "The 
New  York  World."  He  wrote  numerous  lyrical  poems 
and  sonnets.  His  longest  work  is  entitled  a  "  Poem  on 
the  Meditation  of  Nature."  "Many  of  his  pieces,"  says 
Griswold,  "are  distinguished  for  poetical  simplicity  of 
thought  and  elegance  of  diction."  ("  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  America.")    Died  in  1864. 

Benkendorf,  ben'ken-doRf,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a 
German  writer  on  agriculture  and  rural  economy.  Died 
in  1788. 

Benkendorf,  (Ludwig  Ernst,)  a  German  general, 
born  at  Anspach  in  171 1.  He  served  in  the  Seven  Years' 
war,  and  became  in  1775  inspector-general  of  cavalry. 
Died  in  1801. 

Benk'en-dorff;  (Alexander,)  Count,  a  Russian 
general  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Esthonia  about  1782. 
He  served  in  the  Russian  campaigns  against  the  French, 
and  became  aide-de-camp  to  the  grand  duke  Nicholas, 
afterwards  emperor.  After  the  accession  of  Nicholas  he 
was  made  a  count,  and  a  member  of  the  imperial  council. 
Died  in  1844. 

See  Brockh.'KUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Benkendorff,  (Constantine,)  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  1784,  served  against  the  French  in  1813- 
14,  and  subsequently  in  the  Persian  campaign  of  1826, 
when  he  was  made  lieutenant-general.  He  died  soon 
after. 

Benkert  or  Benckert,  b^nk'kert,  (Johann  Peter,) 
a  German  sculptor,  born  at  Neustadt  in  1709.  He 
adorned  with  his  works  the  royal  palace  of  Sans-Souci, 
in  Prussia.    Died  in  1769. 

Benkowitz,  b§n-ko'vits,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man writer  of  novels,  poems,  etc.,  born  in  1764,  com- 
mitted suicide  at  Glogau  in  1807. 

Benlowes.    See  Bendlowes. 

Benn,  (\Villiam,)  an  English  dissenting  divine,  born 
in  Cumberland  in  1600 ;  died  in  1680. 

Bennati,  ben-n§.'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  physi- 
cian, born  at  Mantua  in  1788,  wrote  medical  treatises, 
one  of  which  gained  the  Montyon  prize  of  the  French 
Institute.    Died  in  Paris  in  1834. 

Ben'net,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  nonconformist  di- 
vine, born  in  Leicestershire  in  1674,  published  a  "  Me- 
morial of  the  Reformation,"  (1721,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1726. 

Eennet,  (Christoppier,)  an  English  physician,  born 
in  161 7  ;  died  in  1655.    He  practised  in  London. 

Bennet,  (Henry,)  Earl  of  Arlington,  an  English 
statesman  under  Charles  II.,  born  in  1618.  He  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  state  in  1662,  and  was  one  of  the 
ministry  styled  "the  Cabal,"  from  the  initials  of  their 
titles  forming  that  word.  On  the  accession  of  James  II. 
he  was  continued  in  the  office  of  lord  chamberlain,  which 
he  had  previously  held.    Died  in  1685. 

See  M.^C.A.ULAv's  "History  of  England,    vol.  i. 

Bennet,  (John,)  a  celebrated  English  composer  ol 
madrigals,  lived  under  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 


C  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  guttural ;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BEN  NET  326 


Bennet,  (Robert,)  an  English  dissenting  divine, 
wrote  a  "Theological  Concordance  of  the  Synonymous 
Words  in  Scripture,"  (1657.)    Died  in  1687. 

Bennet,  ben'net,  (Roelof  Gabriel,)  a  Dutch  naval 
officer  and  writer,  born  about  1774,  published,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Van  Wyk,  a  "  History  of  the  Navigation  of 
the  Netherlands  from  the  Sixteenth  to  the  Eighteenth 
Centuries."    Died  in  1829. 

Bennet,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine  and  controver- 
sialist, born  at  Salisbury  in  1673,  published  a  "Refuta- 
tion of  Popery,"  "Treatise  on  Schism,"  a  Hebrew 
Grammar,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1728. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Bennet,  (William,)  an  English  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  about  1767,  became  organist  of  the  church 
of  .Saint  Andrew's  at  Plymouth.  His  sacred  composi- 
tions are  highly  esteemed. 

Ben'nett,  (Agnes  Maria,)  an  English  novelist,  was 
the  author  of  "Anna,  or  Memoirs  of  a  Welsh  Heiress," 
and  other  works.    Died  about  1805. 

Bennett,  (Edward  Turner,)  an  English  zoologist 
and  writer,  born  near  London  in  1797  ;  died  in  1836. 

Bennett,  (James,)  an  English  dissenter,  born  in  1774. 
He  wrote  (with  David  Bogue)  a  "  History  of  the  Dis- 
senters," (3  vols.,  1809.)    Died  in  1862. 

Ben'nett,  (James  Gordon,)  an  American  journalist, 
born  in  Banffshire,  Scotland,  about  1800,  emigrated  to 
the  United  States  in  1819.  He  was  employed  as  re- 
porter or  assistant  editor  of  several  journals  of  New 
York  City,  and  took  an  active  part  in  politics  as  a  sup- 
porter of  General  Jackson.  About  1830  he  became 
associate  editor  of  the  "  Courier  and  Enquirer,"  and  in 
1833  was  chief  editor  of  "The  Pennsylvanian,"  in  Phila- 
delphia. He  founded  in  1835  the  "New  York  Herald," 
which  he  has  conducted  with  great  ability  and  success 
for  thirty-four  years. 

Bennett,  (John  Hughes,)  an  English  medical  writer, 
born  in  London  in  1812.  He  obtained  about  1848  the 
chair  of  the  institutes  of  medicine  in  Edinburgh.  He 
published  a  "Treatise  on  Clinical  Medicine,"  (1856,)  and 
other  works. 

Bennett,  (William  Cox,)  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Greenwich  about  1820.  He  published  several  volumes 
of  poems,  and  gained  distinction  as  a  writer  of  songs. 

Bennett,  (William  James  Early,)  an  English  theo- 
logian, and  a  leader  of  the  tractarian  party,  was  born 
about  1805.  He  became  vicar  of  Frome  about  1852. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Eucharist." 

Bennett,  (William  Sterndale,)  an  English  pianist 
and  composer,  born  in  1816.  Having  studied  at  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music,  he  visited  Germany,  where  he 
acquired  the  friendship  and  patronage  of  Mendelssohn. 
In  1838  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  Music. 

Benning,  bgn'ning,  (John  Bodecher — bo'deK-er,) 
a  Dutch  philosopher  and  poet,  born  in  1606,  was  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Leyden.    Died  in  1642. 

Benningsen,  b^n'ning-sen,  written  also  Bennigsen, 
(Alexander  Levin,)  Count,  a  German  politician,  a  son 
of  General  Benningsen,  noticed  below,  was  born  near 
Wilna  in  1809.  He  was  minister  of  foreign  aftairs  of 
Hanover  from  March,  1848,  until  October,  1850. 

Benningsen,  written  also  Bennigsen,  (Levin  Au- 
gust Theophil,)  Count,  a  celebrated  military  com- 
mander in  the  Russian  service,  born  at  Brunswick  in 
1745.  He  fought  in  the  Turkish  campaign  of  1788,  and 
against  the  Poles  in  1793.  In  1796  he  took  Derbend 
from  the  Persians,  and  was  made  lieutenant-general  in 
1798.  Though  he  headed  the  conspiracy  against  the 
emperor  Paul,  he  was  appointed  by  Alexander,  on  his 
accession,  Governor-General  of  Lithuania.  He  com- 
manded in  1807  at  the  battle  of  Eylau,  where  the  victory 
was  claimed  by  both  parties.  On  the  death  of  Kootoosof, 
in  1813,  he  took  the  command  of  the  army  of  reserve, 
and  was  soon  after  created  a  count.  Died  in  Hanover 
in  1826. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographia  Generale." 

Ben'no,  fFr.  Bennon,  bcVn^N',]  Saint,  Bishop  of 
Meissen,  in  Germany,  born  in  loii,  was  at  first  a  parti- 
san of  Henry  IV.  against  Gregory  VII.,  but  afterwards 


BENSEN 


espoused  the  cause  of  ^hc  pope.  Luther  wrote  on  the 
subject  of  his  canonization  (in  1523)  a  work  entitled 
"The  New  Idol  of  Meissen."    Died  in  1107. 

See  "  Leben  und  Wundertliaten  des  heiligen  Benno,"  1844. 

Ben'nor  or  Ben'no,  a  German  cardinal,  who  lived 
in  the  last  part  of  the  eleventh  century,  supported  the 
cause  of  the  anti-pope  Clement  HI.  against  Gregory  VII. 
He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Gregory  VII.,"  (in  Latin,)  which  is 
very  unpopular  with  the  Catholics. 

See  AuBERY,  "  Histoire  des  Cardinaux." 

Benoist,  beh-nwi',  or  Benoit,  [Lat.  Benedic'tus,] 
Bishop  of  Marseilles,  lived  about  1230. 

Benoist  (or  Benedict)  of  Saint-Maure,  (mor,)  a 
troubadour  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  of  England,  wrote 
a  poem  called  "The  Romance  of  Troy."  "The  Chroni- 
cle of  the  Dukes  of  Normandy"  (in  French  verse)  is 
ascribed  to  him  by  some  critics. 

See  Abbe  de  la  Rue,  "  Essais  sur  les  Bardes." 

Benoist,  (Marie  Guilhelmine  Leroux  Delaville 

— leh-roo'  deh-lt'v^K,)  Madame,  wife  of  Pierre  Vincent, 
noticed  below,  born  in  Paris  in  1767,  studied  painting 
under  Lebrun  and  David.  Among  her  best  works  are 
portraits  of  Napoleon  and  Marie  Louise.    Died  in  1826. 

Benoist  or  Benoit,  beh'nwa',  (Pierre  Vincent,)  a 
French  statesman  and  litterateur^  born  at  Angers  in  1758, 
rose  to  be  minister  of  state  and  member  of  the  privy 
council  in  1828.    Died  in  1834. 

Benoist,  [It.  Benedetto,  ba-ni-det'to,]  (Zacharie,) 
a  naval  officer,  of  Genoese  extraction,  gained  two  vic- 
tories over  the  fleet  of  Pisa  in  1284  and  1286.  He  after- 
wards became  an  admiral  of  France. 

Benoit.    See  Benedict. 

Benoit,  beh''nwa',  (Antoine  Vernier — v^R'ne-S.'',)  a 
Yvench.  litterateur,  born  at  Dole  in  1769,  wrote  a  "Treat- 
ise on  Religious  Liberty,"  and  was  a  contributor  to  the 
"  Bibliotheque  Historique."    Died  in  1832. 

Benoit,  (Elie,)  a  French  Protestant  theologian,  born 
in  Paris  in  1640,  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes," 
(1693,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1728. 

Benoit,  (Jean,)  called  also  Benedicti,  a  French 
theologian  and  Dominican,  was  born  at  Evreux.  He 
wrote  "Introductions  to  Dialectics,"  ("  Introductiones 
Dialecticas,"  1538.)    Died  in  1563. 

Benoit,  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Carcas- 
sonne in  1632,  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Albigenses  and 
the  Waldenses."    Died  in  1705. 

Benoit,  (Michel,)  a  learned  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Autun  in  171 5.  In  1745  he  was  a  missionary  to  China, 
where  he  introduced  the  reflecting  telescope,  the  ?rt  of 
engraving,  and  other  useful  inventions.    Died  in  1774. 

See  "  I,ettres  edifiantes  et  curieiises." 

Benoit,  (Pierre  Vincent.)    See  Benoist. 

Benoit,  (Rene,)  a  French  theologian,  born  near  An- 
gers in  1521.  He  published  in  1566  a  French  translation 
of  the  Bible,  which  was  condemned  by  Pope  Gregory 
XIII.  as  favouring  Protestantism.  He  was  subsequently 
confessor  to  Henry  IV.,  who  appointed  him  Bishop  of 
Troyes.    Died  in  1608. 

See  MoRERi,  "Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Benoli,  ba'no-lee,  (Ignazio,)  called  IL  Borno,  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Verona.  He  imitated  Rubens, 
whose  works  he  copied,  but  with  reduced  dimensions. 
Died  in  1724. 

Benomont,  beh-no'm(l)N',  (Pierre,)  a  rich  French 
physician  and  philanthropist,  born  at  Machault  in  1679. 
He  practised  in  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1772. 

Benoni.    See  Ruffini. 

Benoschi.    See  Benaschl 

Benouville,  beh-noo'v^K,  (Francois  Leon,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1821.  He  gained  the 
grand  prize  in  1845,  and  a  medal  of  the  first  class  in 
1853.  Among  his  most  admired  works  are  "Judith," 
"  Esther,"  and  "  Raphael  seeing  La  Fornarina  for  the 
First  Time." 

Benouville,  (Jean  Achille,)  a  landscape-painter, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1 81 5.  He 
obtained  the  grand  prize  of  Rome  in  1845. 

Benozzo.    See  Gozzoli. 

Bensen,  ben'sen,  (Karl  Daniel  Heinrich,)  a  Ger- 
man writer,  born  in  1761,  was  professor  of  financial 
science  at  Wiirzburg,  where  he  died  in  1805. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \x,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BENSERADE 


327 


BENTINCK 


Benserade,  de,  deh  bdNss^nSd'  or  b6N''seh-Rtd'', 
(Isaac,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Upper  Normandy  in 
1612,  was  a  favourite  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  acquired 
great  popularity  at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV.  by  his 
sprightly  and  brilliant  verses.  During  twenty  years  he 
was  employed  to  compose  verses  for  the  ballets,  which  at 
that  time  constituted  the  favourite  diversion  of  the  court. 
In  such  performances  he  displayed  great  ingenuity  and 
finesse,  and  was  unrivalled  among  his  contemporaries. 
He  also  wrote  several  tragedies,  elegies,  sonnets,  etc. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  Died  in 
1691. 

See  Senece,  "Histoire  du  Theatre  Fran9ais;"  C.  Perkault, 
"  Paralleles  des  Anciens  at  des  Mc^ernes. " 

Bensi,  ben''see,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born 
at  Venice  in  1688,  was  professor  of  moral  theology  at 
Venice.    Died  in  1760. 

Bensi  or  Benso,  b§n'so,  (Giulio,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  near  Genoa  in  1601,  excelled  in  painting  architec- 
tural perspectives.    Died  in  1668. 

Bens''ley,  (Thomas,)  a  celebrated  English  printer, 
was  associated  with  Konig  in  the  construction  of  the 
steam  press  first  used  in  the  printing  of  the  "  London 
Times"  in  1814.  (See  Konig.)  Bensley  published  a 
splendid  edition  of  Shakspeare's  Works,  and  of  Hume's 
"History  of  England."    Died  in  1833. 

See  Nichols,  "Literary  Anecdotes,"  etc. 

Ben'spn,  (George,)  an  English  dissenting  divine, 
born  in  Cumberland  in  1699,  originally  a  Calvinist,  after- 
wards became  an  Arian.  He  wrote,  among  other  works, 
a  "History  of  the  Life  of  Christ,"  and  a  "Treatise  on 
Prayer."    Died  in  1763. 

Benson,  (Joseph,)  an  English  Methodist  minister, 
born  in  Cumberland  in  1748.  He  preached  in  several 
large  towns  of  England,  and  acquired  extensive  influence. 
He  published  a  "Defence  of  the  Methodists,"  (1793,)  an 
"Apology  for  the  Methodists,"  (1801,)  a  "Life  of  the 
Rev.  John  Fletcher,"  a  number  of  Sermons,  and  a  "  Com- 
mentary on  the  Holy  Scriptures,"  (5  vols.,  1811-18,) 
which  is  highly  esteemed.  "  He  was,"  says  Adam 
Clarke,  "  a  powerful  and  able  preacher,  and  a  profound 
theologian."    Died  in  London  in  1821. 

Benson,  (Martin,)  born  in  Herefordshire  in  1689, 
became  Bishop  of  Gloucester  about  1734.   Died  in  1752. 

Benson,  (William,)  sometimes  called  Auditor  Ben- 
son, an  English  Whig  politician,  born  in  1682,  was  a 
member  of  Parliament  in  the  reign  of  George  I.  He 
published  an  edition  of  Virgil's  "  Husbandry,"  with  notes, 
and  was  the  first  to  propose  the  erection  of  a  monument 
to  Milton  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Benson  is  satirized  in 
Pope's  "Dunciad."    Died  in  1754. 

Bent,  van  der,  vtn  der  bint,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1550,  was  a  pupil  of  Wouwerman 
and  Van  der  Velde.    Died  in  1690. 

BentaboUe,  bSN'tt'boK,  (Pierre,)  a  French  Jacotin, 
became  a  meml)er  of  the  National  Convention  and  of  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred.    Died  in  1798. 

Bent-Aichah,  bent-I'kah,  daughter  of  Ahmed,  an 
Arab  poet  of  Cordova,  was  celebrated  for  her  poetic 
talent.    Died  in  1009. 

Bentham,  bin'tam,  (Edward,)  an  English  divine, 
born  at  Ely  in  1707,  became  professor  of  divinity  at  Ox- 
ford.   Died  in  1776. 

Bentham,  (James,)  an  English  divine  and  antiquary, 
born  at  Ely  in  1708.  He  published  a  "History  and  An- 
tiquities of  the  Conventual  and  Cathedral  Church  of  Ely 
from  675  to  1771."    Died  in  1794. 

Bentham,  bSn'tam  or  bin'tham,  (Jeremy,)  a  cele- 
brated English  jurist  and  utilitarian  philosopher,  was 
born  in  London  on  the  15th  of  February,  1748,  He 
entered  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  about  the  age  of  four- 
teen, and  studied  law,  but  soon  declined  the  practice 
of  that  profession.  His  motive  is  said  to  have  been 
disgust  at  the  unjust  charges  to  suitors.  His  first  pub- 
lication was  an  anonymous  "  Fragment  on  Government," 
(1776.)  He  visited  Paris,  Constantinople,  Smyrna,  and 
White  Russia  in  1785-86.  In  1787  he  published  a 
"Defence  of  Usury,"  which,  says  Sir  J.  Mackintosh,  "is 
perhaps  the  best  specimen  of  the  exhaustive  discussion 
of  a  moral  or  political  question,  leaving  no  objection, 
however  feeble,  unanswered."  His  "Introduction  to  the 


Principles  of  Morals  and  Legislation,"  though  printed 
in  1780,  was  not  published  until  1789. 

He  devoted  his  life  to  the  reform  of  legislation,  and 
maintained  the  theory  that  "  utility  is  the  test  and  mea- 
sure of  virtue," — that  the  happiness  of  the  greatest  num- 
ber should  be  the  object  of  legislation.  In  his  long  war- 
fare against  the  iniquities  of  legislation  as  he  found  it,  he 
was  ridiculed  and  denounced  as  a  lunatic  by  many  of  the 
leaders  of  public  opinion  in  England.  His  works  were 
first  appreciated  by  foreigners.  About  1791  he  formed 
a  friendship  with  M.  Dumont,  who  became  to  him  a  val- 
uable coadjutor  and  translated  into  French  several  of 
his  works,  viz.,  "Treatise  on  Civil  and  Penal  Legisla- 
tion," ("  Traite  de  Legislation  civile  et  penale,"  3  vols., 
1802,)  and  "Theory  of  Penalties  and  Rewards,"  ("The- 
orie  des  Peines  et  des  Recompenses,"  2  vols.,  1818.) 
These  were  first  published  in  French.  (See  Dumont, 
Etienne.) 

Among  his  numerous  English  works  are  "  Panopticon," 
a  valuable  work  on  prison-discipline,  (1791,)  "The  Ra* 
tionale  of  Judicial  Evidence,"  (5  vols.,  1827,)  and  a  "  Con- 
stitutional Code."  His  "Traite  de  Legislation,"  etc. 
(1802)  was  translated  into  English  by  R.  Hildreth,  Bos- 
ton, (1840.)  "Those  who  read  it,"  says  Lord  Jeffrey, 
"  will  dissent,  we  should  imagine,  from  many  of  the  au- 
thor's fundamental  principles;  but  they  will  infallibly  be 
delighted  with  the  sagacity  and  independence  which  dis- 
tinguish all  his  speculations."  He  died  at  Westminster 
on  the  6th  of  June,  1832,  having  retained  to  a  great  age 
the  freshness  and  serenity  of  his  prime.  An  edition  of 
his  works,  in  eleven  volumes,  was  published  by  Dr.  Bow- 
ring  in  1843.  "Of  Mr.  Bentham,"  says  Macaulay,  "we 
would  at  all  times  speak  with  the  reverence  which  is  due 
to  a  great  original  thinker  and  to  a  sincere  and  ardent 
friend  of  the  human  race.  .  .  .  Posterity  will  pronounce 
its  calm  and  impartial  decision,  and  that  decision  will, 
we  firmly  believe,  place  in  the  same  rank  with  Galileo 
and  with  Locke  the  man  who  found  jurisprudence  a  gib- 
berish and  left  it  a  science."  "  In  some  of  the  highest  de- 
partments in  which  the  human  intellect  can  exert  itself, 
he  has  not  left  his  equal  or  his  second  behind  him." 
"  Never  was  there  a  literary  partnership  so  fortunate  as 
that  of  Mr.  Bentham  and  M.  Dumont.  The  raw  mate- 
rial which  Mr.  Bentham  furnished  was  most  precious, 
but  it  was  unmarketable.  He  was  assuredly  at  once  a 
great  logician  and  a  great  rhetorician.  But  the  effect  of 
his  logic  was  injured  by  a  vicious  arrangement,  and  the 
effect  of  his  rhetoric  by  a  vicious  style.  .  .  .  His  oracles 
were  of  high  import,  but  they  were  trace'd  on  leaves  and 
flung  loose  to  the  wind.  .  .  .  M.  Dumont  was  admirably 
qualified  to  supply  what  was  wanting  in  Mr.  Bentham." 
(See  "  Dumont's  Recollections  of  Mirabeau,"  in  Macau- 
lay's  Essays.)  "  It  cannot  be  denied,"  says  Mackintosh, 
"  that  Mr.  Bentham  has  done  more  than  any  other  writer 
to  rouse  the  spirit  of  juridical  reformation  which  is  now 
gradually  examining  every  part  of  law.  .  .  .  The  true 
and  eminent  merit  of  Mr.  Bentham  is  that  of  a  reformer 
of  jurisprudence.  He  is  only  a  moralist  with  a  view  to 
being  a  jurist." 

See  "Memoirs  of  Jeremy  Bentham,"  prefixed  to  his  works  by 
Dr.  Bowring  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  C3ctober,  1843  ;  SiK  James 
Mackintosh,  "View  of  the  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy." 

Bentham,  (Sir  Samuel,)  a  brother  of  Jeremy,  was 
born  in  1757.  He  was  a  ship-builder  and  naval  engineer, 
and  was  employed  by  the  government  as  inspector  of 
naval  works.    Died  in  1831. 

Bentham,  (Thomas,)  born  in  Yorkshire  about  15 13, 
was  appointed  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1559  Bishop  of 
Lichfield  and  Coventry.    Died  in  1578. 

Ben'tinck,  (Lord  George,)  a  political  leader,  whose 
full  name  was  William  George  Frederick  Cavendish 
Bentinck,  was  the  third  son  of  William  Henry,  fourth 
Duke  of  Portland.  His  mother,  Henrietta  Scott,  was  a 
sister  of  the  wife  of  George  Canning.  He  was  born  in 
February,  1802.  In  1826  he  became  private  secretary 
to  his  uncle  Canning,  then  a  member  of  the  cabinet. 
He  was  elected  in  1827  a  member  of  Parliament  for 
King's  Lynn,  which  he  represented  to  the  end  of  his  life. 
He  was  more  remarkable  for  his  passion  for  the  turf 
than  for  his  political  knowledge  or  talents.  About  1836 
he  deserted  the  Whigs,  and  became  a  political  friend  of 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as J;  g,  H,  y.^  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2i:^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BENTINCK 


3z8 


BENTLET 


Sir  Robert  Peel,  whom  he  served  efficiently  as  "whipper- 
in,"  urging  and  coercing  absent  members  of  his  party  to 
attend  and  vote  on  important  questions.  Like  the  ma- 
jority of  the  Tories,  he  was  opposed  to  free  trade,  and 
on  the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws,  in  1846,  was  converted 
into  a  violent  adversary  of  Peel.  He  then  became  the 
leader  of  the  Protectionist  or  Tory  party,  who  chose 
him  in  consideration  of  the  energy  and  skill  he  had 
shown  in  his  favourite  pursuits.  He  began  to  study 
statistics,  spoke  often  in  the  House,  and  maintained  a 
spirited  contest  against  the  ministry.  He  died  suddenly, 
of  a  disease  of  the  heart,  in  September,  1848. 

See  B.  Disraeli,  "Lord  George  Bentinck,  a  Political  Biogra- 
phy," 1851;  "Edinburgh  Review,"  vol.  xcv.,  1852. 

Bentinck,  (Henry,)  son  of  William,  noticed  below, 
was  created  Duke  of  Portland  in  1716,  and  became 
Governor  of  Jamaica  in  1721.    Died  in  1726. 

Bentinck,  (William,)  a  Dutch  statesman,  born  in 
1648,  was  a  personal  attendant  and  friend  of  William, 
?rince  of  Orange,  before  his  accession  to  the  throne. 
He  came  to  England  with  that  prince  in  1688,  was  cre- 
ated Earl  of  Portland  in  1689,  and  served  as  general  in 
Ireland  in  1690.  In  1697  he  was  the  principal  agent  of 
his  government  in  the  negotiation  of  the  treaty  of  Rys- 
wick.  He  is  said  to  have  possessed  the  confidence  of 
William  III.  in  a  greater  degree  than  any  other  person. 
Died  in  1709. 

See  Macaulav's  "  History  of  England,"  vols,  ii.,  iii.,  and  iv. 

Bentinck,  (William  Charles  Cavendish,)  Lord, 
a  British  general,  born  in  1774,  was  the  second  surviving 
son  of  William  Henry,  third  Duke  of  Portland.  Having 
served  in  many  campaigns,  he  became  Governor  of  Mad- 
ras in  1803,  and  was  recalled  about  1805.  He  was  com- 
mander of  the  troops  sent  to  aid  Ferdinand,  King  of 
Sicily,  in  1810,  and  held  at  the  same  time  the  office  of 
plenipotentiary.  He  gave  in  181 2  a  liberal  constitution 
to  Sicily.  In  1814  he  led  a  successful  expedition  against 
the  French  in  Italy,  and  took  possession  of  Genoa.  He 
was  appointed  Governor-General  of  India  by  Canning  in 
1827.  In  this  position  he  showed  himself  a  huiriane 
and  enlightened  governor.  The  most  important  act  of 
his  administration  was  the  abolition  of  the  Suttee — the 
custom  which  required  widows  to  be  burned  on  the 
funeral  piles  of  their  husbands — in  1829.  Lord  Bentinck 
resigned,  on  account  of  ill  health,  in  1835.  Died  at  Paris 
in  1839. 

See  Macfarlanh,  "Our  Indian  Empire." 

Bentinck,( William  Henry  CAVENDisH,)thirdDuke 
of  Portland,  an  eminent  statesman,  son  of  the  second 
duke,  born  in  1738.  He  began  his  public  life  as  a  Whig, 
became  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  1782,  and  was 
prime  minister  of  the  new  cabinet  formed  in  1783  by  a 
coalition  of  Lord  North  with  Mr.  Fox.  About  1791  he 
changed  his  politics  and  became  a  supporter  of  the  Tory 
ministry.  He  was  appointed  first  lord  of  the  treasury  in 
1807.    Died  in  1809. 

Bentivoglio,  b§n-te-v6Kyo,  (Cornelio,)  an  Italian 
ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1668,  was  a 
son  of  Ippolito,  noticed  below.  He  became  Archbishop 
of  Carthage,  and  papal  nuncio  in  France,  and  was  made 
a  cardinal  in  1719.    Died  in  1732. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes;"  Long- 
fellow, "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Bentivoglio,  (Ercole,)  an  Italian  poet  and  diplo- 
matist, born  about  15 10,  wrote  sonnets,  eclogues,  and 
dramatic  works  which  were  greatly  admired  in  his  time. 
Died  in  1573. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Bentivoglio,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  nobleman,  and 
leader  of  the  anti-papal  party,  was  proclaimed  sovereign 
of  Bologna  in  1401,  but  after  a  short  rule  was  defeated 
and  put  to  death.  His  son  Antonio  and  his  grandson 
Annibal  were  also  rulers  of  Bologna. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Bentivoglio,  (Giovanni  II.,)  rose  to  be  sovereign  of 
Bologna  about  1462.  After  a  rule  of  more  than  forty 
years,  he  was  driven  from  the  city  by  Pope  Julius  II. 
Died  in  1508. 

Bentivoglio,  (Guido.)  an  able  writer  and  diplomatist, 
born  at  Ferrara  in  1579,  became  successively  Archbishop 
of  Rhodes,  papal  nuncio  in  France  and  Flanders,  and 


cardinal.  He  wrote  an  "  Account  of  the  War  in 
Flanders,"  (1633,  in  Italian,)  a  volume  of  "Memoirs,'' 
(1648,)  and  a  collection  of  "Letters."    Died  in  1644, 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Ginguene, 
"Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Bentivoglio,  (Iitolito,)  a  lyric  poet  and  dramatist, 
born  at  Ferrara;  died  in  1685. 

Sec  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Bentkowski,  bent-kov'skee,  (Felix,)  a  Polish  au- 
thor, born  in  1 78 1,  was  professor  of  history  at  Warsaw. 
He  published  an  important  work,  entitled  a  *  History 
of  Polish  Literature,"  (2  vols.,  1814.)    Died  in  1852. 

Bent'ley,  (Gideon,)  an  American  soldier  of  the 
Revolution,  born  in  1751  ;  died  in  Oswego  county,  New 
York,  in  1858,  aged  one  hundred  and  seven  years. 

BentTey,  (Sir  John,)  a  British  admiral,  was  knighted 
for  his  conduct  in  an  action  off  Cape  Saint  Vincent  abou'- 
1760.    Died  in  1772. 

Bentley,  (Richard,)  a  celebrated  critic,  regarded  as 
the  greatest  classical  scholar  that  England  ever  produced, 
was  born  at  Oulton,  in  Yorkshire,  on  the  27th  of 
January,  1662.  He  entered  Saint  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1676,  and  in  1683  became  tutor  to  Dr.  Stil- 
lingfleet's  son,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Oxford.  His 
first  publication  was  a  "  Latin  Epistle  to  John  Mill, 
containing  Critical  Observations  on  the  Chronicle  of 
Joannes  Malala,"  (1691,)  which  procured  him  a  high  Eu- 
ropean reputation.  In  1692  he  was  honoured  with  the 
first  appointment  to  the  Boyle  lectureship,  and  chose  for 
his  subject  the  absurdities  of  atheism.  These  lectures 
were  much  admired,  and  reached  the  sixth  edition  in 
1735.  He  became  keeper  of  the  Royal  Library  in  1693, 
and  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  the  king  in  1695.  In  1697 
he  produced  his  celebrated  "Dissertation  on  the  Epistles 
of  Phalaris,"  in  which  he  affirmed  those  epistles  to  be 
spurious.  On  this  subject  he  was  involved  in  a  contro- 
versy with  Charles  Boyle,  Atterbury,  Pope,  Swift,  and 
other  wits,  who  attacked  his  personal  character  with  as- 
perity. He  replied  in  another  "  Dissertation  on  the 
Epistles  of  Phalaris,"  in  1699.  "It  was,"  says  Hallam, 
"  the  first  great  literary  war  that  had  been  waged  in  Eng- 
land. Both  combatants  were  skilfid  in  wielding  the 
sword :  the  arms  of  Boyle,  in  Swift's  language,  were 
given  him  by  all  the  gods  ;  but  his  antagonist  stood  for- 
ward in  no  such  figurative  strer.gth,  master  of  a  learning  to 
which  nothing  parallel  had  been  known  in  England  ;  .  .  . 
with  a  style  rapid,  concise,  amusing,  and  superior  to  Boyle 
in  that  which  he  had  chiefly  to  boast,  a  sarcastic  wit." 
Posterity  has  decided  that  Bentley  was  victorious  in  this 
affair.  He  was  appointed  master  of  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1700,  and  Archdeacon  of  Ely  in  1701.  He 
became  involved  in  a  long  contest  and  lawsuit  with  the 
Fellows  of  Trinity  College,  in  relation  to  which  he  is 
censured  for  his  arrogant  and  arbitrary  conduct.  Having 
been  elected  regius  professor  of  divinity  in  1 71 7,  he  gave 
great  dissatisfaction  by  the  demand  of  illegal  or  unusually 
large  fees  from  candidates  for  the  degree  of  D.D.  For  this 
offence  the  senate  of  the  university  deprived  him  in  1718 
of  all  his  degrees  ;  but  he  was  restored  by  a  mandamus  of 
the  court  of  king's  bench  about  1724.  He  published  an 
excellent  edition  of  Horace,  (1711,)  and  an  edition  of 
Terence,  (1725,)  which  is  called  one  of  his  best  perform- 
ances. His  ill-judged  attempt  to  improve  the  text  of 
Milton's  great  poem  gave  much  offence  to  the  admirers 
of  that  poet.  His  last  work  was  an  edition  of  Homer, 
which,  however,  he  did  not  live  to  finish.  Died  in  July, 
1742.  Bentley's  daughter  was  the  mother  of  Richard 
Cumberland  the  dramatist. 

See  Monk's  "Life  of  Bentley,"  1830;  Hartley  Coleridge, 
"Lives  of  Distinguished  Northerns;"  " Encyclopasdia  Britannica ;" 
" Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1830;  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  November,  1831. 

Bentley,  (Richard,)  son  of  the  preceding,  wrote  a 
comedy  entitled  "The  Wishes,"  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1782. 

Bentley,  (Robert,)  an  English  botanist,  born  about 
1820,  became  professor  of  botany  in  London,  and  wrote 
a  "Manual  of  Botany." 

Bentley,  (Thomas,)  a  nephew  of  the  famous  Richard 
Bentley,  was  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College.  He  published 
an  edition  of  Cicero  "  De  Finibus"  in  1718. 

Bentley,  (William,)  an  American  Unitarian  minister 


1,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BENTON 


329 


BERANGER 


and  antiquary,  born  in  Boston  in  1758,  was  ordained  pas- 
tor of  a  church  at  Salem  in  1783.  He  wrote  a  History 
of  Salem."    Died  in  1819. 

Ben'tpn,  (Thomas  Hart,)  an  American  Senator,  born 
at  or  near  Hillsborough,  North  Carolina,  on  the  14th  of 
March,  1782.  Having  removed  to  Tennessee  in  early 
youth,  he  studied  law,  and  began  to  practise  at  Nashville 
about  181 1.  In  1812  he  commanded  a  regiment  under 
General  Jackson,  with  whom  he  quarrelled.  Jackson 
attempted  to  strike  Benton  with  a  horsewhip  at  Nash- 
ville in  1813,  and  was  severely  wounded  with  a  pistol  by 
Benton's  brother.  Colonel  Benton  settled  at  Saint  Louis, 
Missouri,  in  181 5,  and  began  to  publish  a  political  paper. 
He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  Missouri  in  1820.  He  acted  with  the  Dem- 
ocrats, became  a  supporter  of  General  Jackson,  and  the 
most  prominent  politician  of  Missouri.  Having  been 
re-elected  to  the  Federal  Senate  in  1826,  he  distinguished 
himself  as  an  advocate  of  a  gold  and  silver  currency,  and 
received  the  sobriquet  of  Old  Bullion.  He  supported 
President  Jackson  in  his  hostility  against  the  United 
States  Bank.  About  1832  he  was  again  chosen  to  repre- 
sent Missouri  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  of  which 
he  continued  to  be  a  member  for  a  period  of  thirty  years. 
He  was  a  political  friend  of  President  Van  Buren,  voted 
for  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  United  States  in  1845, 
and  opposed  Calhoun  on  the  subjects  of  nullification  and 
State  rights.  In  1850  he  made  a  speech  against  Clay's 
compromise  bill.  In  consequence  of  a  division  in  the 
Democratic  party  in  relation  to  slavery,  Mr.  Benton  was 
defeated  as  a  candidate  for  the  office  of  Senator  about  the 
end  of  1850,  and  retired  from  the  Senate  in  March,  1851. 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  national  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives in  1852,  and  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  Mis- 
souri Compromise.  In  1856  he  was  supported  by  one 
section  of  the  Democracy  as  candidate  for  Governor  of 
Missouri,  but  was  not  elected.  He  advocated  the  elec- 
tion of  Buchanan  to  the  Presidency  in  1856,  in  preference 
to  Fremont,  who  was  his  son-in-law.  He  published  a 
voluminous  work  entitled  "A  Thirty  Years'  View,  or  a 
History  of  the  Working  of  the  American  Government 
for  Thirty  Years,  from  1820  to  1850,"  (2  vols.,  1854-56,) 
and  "An  Abridgment  of  the  Debates  of  Congress  from 
1789  to  1856,"  (15  vols.,  1857.)  He  died  at  Washington 
in  April,  1858. 

Benton,  (William  P.,)  an  American  lawyer  and  gen- 
eral, born  in  Maryland,  emigrated  to  Indiana.  He  be- 
came a  brigadier-general  of  the  Union  army  in  1862. 

Bentzel-Steinau,  von,  fon  bent'se!  st^R'now,  (An- 
SKLM  Franz,)  a  German  statesman,  born  in  1738,  was 
counsellor  to  the  Elector  of  Mentz.    Died  in  1784. 

Bentzel-Sternau,  von,(CHRisTiAN  Ernst,)  Count, 
a  German  statesman  and  writer,  born  at  Mentz  in  1767, 
became  minister  of  state  and  finance  in  the  grand  duchy 
of  Frankfort,  (1812.)  He  published  "  The  Stone  Guest," 
("Der  Steinerne  Gast,")  "The  Golden  Calf,"  and  other 
popular  satirical  romances.    Died  in  1850. 

See  Brockiiaus,  " Conversations-Lexikon." 

Bentzen,  bent'sen,  or  Bentzon,  (Adrian  Benoni,) 
a  Norwegian  litteratejir,  born  at  Tonsberg  in  1777. 

Benvenuti,  ben-vi-noo'tee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  ma- 
thematician and  Jesuit,  born  at  Leghorn  in  1716.  He 
wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  Synopsis  of  General  Physics,"  and 
translated  into  Italian  Clairault's  "  Elements  of  Geom- 
etry."   Died  in  1789. 

Benvenuti,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  physician  and 
medical  writer,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Lucca  about  1728. 

Benvenuti,  (PiEi  RO,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Are/.zo  in  1769.  He  was  regarded  by  some  as  the 
best  painter  of  Tuscany  in  his  time.  His  design  is  cor- 
rect and  his  style  elevated.  His  chief  work  is  a  series 
of  frescos  of  prophets  and  evangelists  on  the  dome  of 
the  chapel  of  Medici  at  Florence.  Among  his  other 
works  is  "  The  Woman  of  Samaria."  Died  at  Florence 
ui  1844. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Benvenuto,  bSn-vi-noo'to,  (Giovanni  Battista,) 
cilled  Ortolano,  an  Italian  painter  of  the  school  of 
I  errara,  born  about  1480  ;  died  in  1525. 

Benvenuto  Cellini.    See  Cellini. 

Benvoglienti,  bgn-v6l-ySn'tee,  (Uberto,)  an  Italian 


litterateur  and  patron  of  learning,  born  in  1668;  died  in 
1733- 

Benyowsky.    See  Beniowsky. 

Benzel,  bent'sel,  [Lat.  Benze'lius,]  (Eric,)  born 
about  1632,  was  made,  in  1700,  Archbishop  of  Upsal  by 
Charles  XII.  He  superintended  the  Swedish  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible  published  by  order  of  Charles  XII., 
and  wrote  several  religious  works.    Died  in  1709. 

See  JoHAN  EsBERG,  "Libri  in  E.  H.  Benzelii  Tuniukim,"  1712. 

Benzel,  [Lat.  Benzelius,]  (Eric,)  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, born  at  Upsal  in  1675,  became  successively  Bishop 
of  Gothenburg  and  of  Linkoping,  and  Archbishop  of 
Upsal.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  at  Upsal,  and  wrote  several  valuable  histori- 
cal and  antiquarian  works.    Died  in  1743. 

See  Olof  Dai.in,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  bfver  E.  Benzelius,"  1744. 

Benzel,  (Henry,)  brother  of  Eric,  mentioned  above, 
born  at  Strengnas  in  1689,  was  one  of  the  savants  sent 
by  Charles  XII.,  in  1714,  on  a  scientific  expedition  to 
the  East.  He  was  made  Archbishop  of  Upsal  after  his 
return.  His  journal  of  his  travels  is  still  in  manuscript. 
Died  in  1758. 

See  M.  Asp,  "  Likpredikan  ofver  H.  Benzelius  med  Personalier," 
1758. 

Benzel-Sternau.    See  Bentzel-Sternau. 

Benzenberg,  bent'sen-blRc',  (Johann  Friedricii,) 
a  German  mathematician  and  astronomer,  born  near 
Elberfeld  in  1777.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a 
"  Maiuial  of  Geometry,"  (1810,)  and  a  treatise  "On 
Falling  Stars,"  (1839.)    Died  in  1846. 

Benzi,  ben'zee,  (Massimiliano  Soldano,)  a  painter 
and  engraver  of  medals,  born  at  Florence  in  1658. 

Eenzio,  ben'ze-o,  (Trikone,)  an  Italian  diplomatist 
and  poet,  born  at  Assisi,  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  He  was  secretary  to  Pope  Julius  HI., 
and  was  employed  on  several  missions. 

Benzon,  ben'zon,  (Friedricii  Wilhelm  Karl,)  a 
Danish  historian,  born  at  Kioge  in  1791. 

Benzoni,  b^n-zo'nee,  (Geronimo,)  an  Italian  travel- 
ler, born  about  1520,  spent  many  years  in  America,  of 
which  he  gave  an  account  in  a  work  entitled  "History 
of  the  New  World,"  (1565.) 

Beolco,  bi-oKko,  or  Biolco,  be-oKko,  (Angelo,)  an 
Italian  dramatic  poet,  born  at  ]\idua  in  1502,  was  sur- 
named  Ruzzante,  from  the  number  of  rustic  farces  he 
composed.    Died  in  1542. 

Beorn.    See  Biorn. 

Beowulf,  be-o'woolf,  a  semi-fabulous  naval  hero  of 
Denmark,  who  forms  the  subject  of  a  celebrated  epic 
poem  in  Anglo-Saxon,  supposed  to  have  been  written  in 
the  ninth  century.  It  has  been  translated  into  English 
and  German. 

See  Turner,  "History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons." 

Bequet,  bi'kcV,  (^ itenne,)  an  able  French  journalist 
and  critic,  born  in  Paris  about  1800.  He  wrote  for  the 
"Journal  des  Debats"  for  fifteen  years.  In  1830  he  was 
prosecuted  and  acquitted  for  a  political  article  ending  with 
these  words:  "  Unfortunate  France  !  unfortunate  king  !" 
which  were  afterwards  often  rej^eated.    Died  in  1838. 

Berain,  beh-rdN^  (Jean,)  a  French  designer,  born  at 
Saint-Michel  in  1630  ;  died  in  1697. 

Berain,  (Pierre  Martin,)  a  French  historian,  lived 
about  1 7 10. 

Beranger,  h\'xh^'z\\\' ,  (Charles,)  a  French  painter 
of  landscapes  and  genre,  born  at  Sevres  in  1816. 

Beranger,  de,  deh  \A'\bWz\A' ,  (Pierre  Jean,)  a  cele- 
brated French  lyric  poet,  born  in  Paris  on  the  19th  of 
August,  1780.  He  lived  with  his  grandfather,  who  was 
a  tailor,  until  he  was  nine  years  old,  after  which  he  went 
to  reside  with  an  aunt,  who  appears  to  have  acted  towards 
him  the  part  of  a  true  mother,  and,  while  giving  him  the 
rudiments  of  an  education,  instilled  into  his  mind  the 
principles  calculated  to  make  him  a  good  man  and  a  true 
patriot.  For  a  short  time  he  served  as  apprentice  to  a 
printer.  When  he  was  about  sixteen,  he  began  to  write 
poetry.  Several  of  his  lyrics  attracted  the  attention  and 
procured  for  him  the  patronage  of  Lucien  Bonap^irte, 
and  in  181 5  he  brought  out  his  first  collection  of  songs. 
They  were  received  with  great  favour  by  the  people  ;  but 
their  bold,  patriotic,  and  often  satirical  tone  gave  offence 
to  the  government ;  and,  as  Beranger  in  his  succeeding 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  H,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BERARD  330 


productions  abated  nothing  of  the  freedom  of  his  satire, 
he  was  coiidemued  in  1828  to  an  imprisonment  of  nine 
months  and  a  heavy  line.  He  was  an  ardent  repubhcan. 
After  the  revolution  of  1830,  which  his  poems  had  con- 
tributed to  bring  about,  he  refused  to  accept  any  office 
under  the  government.  He  brought  out  in  1833  a  fifth 
collection  of  his  songs,  leaving  memoirs  of  his  life  and  a 
number  of  poems,  which  were  published  after  his  death. 
In  1848  he  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly 
by  the  voters  of  the  department  of  Seine,  but  he  de- 
clined to  serve.  He  died  in  July,  1857.  He  is  repre- 
sented as  a  man  of  a  generous,  noble,  and  independent 
character. 

*'  His  style,"  says  J.  F.  Destigny,  "  has  a  limpidity, 
precision,  and  purity  which  defy  criticism.  All  ordinary 
eulogy  {loiiange  baiiale)  would  cast  a  shade  upon  his 
glory."  ("  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.") 

"  The  great  peculiarity  of  Beranger,"  says  the  "  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  January,  1832,  "is  the  mixture  of  gayety 
and  pathos  which  he  combines  with  the  happiest  effect. 
He  indeed  mingles  *  the  grave  and  gay,  the  lively  and 
severe,'  with  a  very  original  and  singular  felicity." 

See  a  posthumous  work  of  Beranger,  entitled  "Ma  Blographie," 
1857;  BoiTEAU,  "  Philosophie  et  Politique  de  Beranger,"  1858;  Sa- 
vinien-Lapointe,  "  Memoires  sur  Beranger,"  1857;  Longfellow, 
*'  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1833 ; 
Louis  de  Lomenie,  "  Notice  sur  Beranger,"  1844. 

Berard,  ba'rtR',  (Auguste,)  an  eminent  French  sur- 
geon, born  at  Varrains,  near  Saumur,  in  1802.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  Societe  de  Chirurgie  of  Paris.  In  1842 
he  obtained  the  chair  of  surgical  diniqiie  in  Paris.  He 
published  a  number  of  able  treatises  on  surgery.  Died 
in  1846. 

Berard,  (Auguste  Simon  Louis,)  born  in  Paris  in 
1783,  became  master  of  requests  to  the  Council  of  State  in 
1814,  and  founded  (with  Chaptal)  the  first  company  for  the 
production  of  illuminating  gas.  He  was  a  liberal  member 
of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1827-30,  and  took  a  pro- 
minent part  in  the  revolution  of  1830  as  a  partisan  of 
Louis  Philippe.    Died  in  1859. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Berard,  (Fr6d6ric,)  a  French  physician  and  medical 
writer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1789,  was  a  contributor  to 
the  "  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences  medicales"  of  Paris. 
Died  in  1828. 

See  J.  A.  DuPAU,  "Notice  historique  sur  F.  Berard,"  1828. 

Berard,  (Pierre,)  a  French  pharmacist  and  botanist, 
born  at  Grenoble  about  1630.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"Theatrum  Botanicum,"  (unpublished.)  The  genus  Be- 
rardia  was  named  in  his  honour. 

Berard,  (Pierre  Honor6,)  a  distinguished  French 
surgeon,  brother  of  Auguste,  born  at  Lichtenberg  in 
1797.  He  became  in  1831  professor  of  physiology  to  the 
faculty  of  medicine  in  Paris,  and  was  subsequently  elected 
to  the  Academy  of  Medicine.  He  began  the  publication 
of  a  "Course  of  Physiology,"  (ist  vol.,  1848.)  Died  in 
1858. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Berardi,  ba-raR'dee,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian  musician 
and  composer,  born  near  Bologna  about  1650,  wrote 
several  treatises  on  music. 

Berardi,  (Fahio,)  an  Italian  engraver,  born  at  Sienna  in 
1728,  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  pupils  of  Wagner. 

Berardier  de  Bataud,  ba'rtR'de-i'  deh  bt't5', 
(Francois  Joseph,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris 
in  1720  ;  died  in  1794. 

Berardo,  ba-raR'do,  (Geronimo,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  about  1 500,  translated  two  of  the  comedies  of  Plautus. 

Beraud,  ba'ro',  (Antoine,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Aurillac  in  1 794.  He  wrote  dramas,  political  songs,  etc. 

Beraud,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  savant,  born  near 
Castellane  in  1753,  was  professor  of  mathematics  and 
experimental  physics  at  Marseilles.    Died  in  1794. 

Beraud,  (Laurent,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  astronomer, 
born  in  1703  at  Lyons,  where  he  was  director  of  the 
observatory.  He  published  several  valuable  scientific 
works.    Died  in  1777. 

See  Le  FfeBVRE,  "filoge  historique  du  P.  L.  Beraud,"  1780. 

Beraudiere,  de  la,  deh  It  bi''r5Me-aiR',  (Franqois,) 
Bishop  of  Perigueux,  born  at  Poitiers,  wrote  a  "  P'uneral 
Oration  on  Henry  IV."   Died  in  1646. 


BERCHEURE 


Berauld,  bi'ro',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  scholar,  son 
of  Nicolas,  noticed  below,  born  at  Orleans  about  1510. 
He  wrote  Greek  and  Latin  poems,  and  translated  the 
two  books  of  Appian  containing  the  wars  of  Hannibal 
and  those  of  Spain. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Berauld,  [Lat.  Berai/dus  Aure'lius,]  (Nicolas,) 
an  eminent  French  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Orleans 
in  1473.  was  a  friend  of  Erasmus,  and  numbered 

among  his  pupils  D'Andelot  and  Admiral  de  Coligny. 
He  published  a  Greek-Latin  Dictionary  (1521)  and  an 
edition  of  Pliny's  "Natural  History,"  (1516,)  and  wrote 
several  Latin  treatises.    Died  in  1550. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Berault,  ba'rS^  (Claude,)  a  French  philologist,  suc- 
ceeded D'Herbelot  as  professor  of  the  Syriac  language 
in  the  Royal  College  in  Paris.  He  published  an  edition 
of  "  Statius  ad  Usum  Delphini,"  (1685.)    Died  in  1705. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Berault,  (Jean,)  a  French  litterateur,  translated  Bar- 
clay's "Euphormio"  from  the  Latin,  (1640.) 

Berault,  (Josias,)  a  French  jurist,  and  advocate  of 
the  parliament  of  Rouen,  born  in  1563,  wrote  a  "Com- 
mentary on  the  Common  Law  of  Normandy."  Died 
about  1640. 

Berault,  (Michel,)  a  French  Protestant  theologian, 
published  in  1598  a  "Brief  and  Clear  Defence  of  the 
Vocation  of  the  Ministers  of  the  Gospel,"  in  reply  to 
Cardinal  Perron.    He  preached  at  Montauban. 

Berault-Bercastel,  ba'ro'  hhK'\<As'ilV,  (Antoine 
Henri,)  a  French  writer,  born  near  Metz  in  1772,  wrote 
a  "History  of  the  Church,"  (24  vols.,  1778-90,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1 794. 

Berbiguier,  hhufht'go-h/,  (BenoIt  Tranquille — 
tR^N^k^K,)  a  French  flutist  and  composer,  born  at  Car- 
derousse  in  1781  ;  died  about  1838. 

Berbiguier,  (Charles  Alexis  Vincent,)  a  French 
visionary,  born  at  Carpentras  about  1776,  wrote  a  work 
on  demonology.    Died  in  185 1. 

Berch,  b^ric,  (Anders,)  a  Swedish  writer  on  rural 
economy,  born  in  1711  ;  died  in  1774. 

Berch,  (Karl  Reinhold,)  a  Swedish  antiquary,  born 
in  1706,  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Kings  and  Celebrated 
Characters  of  Sweden,  taken  from  Medals."  Died  in  1777. 

See  Olof  Celsius,  "Aminnelse-Tal  bfver  C.  R.  Berch,"  1781, 

Berchelmann,  beR^Kel-m^n^,  (Johann  Philtpp,)  a 
German  physician,  born  at  Darmstadt  in  1718 ;  died  1783. 

Berchem.    See  Berghem. 

Berchem,  b§R'Kem,  [Lat.  Berche'mius,]  (Wil- 
Helm,)  a  German  chronicler,  lived  about  1480. 

Bercheny,  [Fr.  pron.  b^R^sha^ne';  Hun.  Bercs^ny, 
bgR-chan',]  written  also  Berkeny,  (Ladislas  Ignaz,) 
Count  of,  son  of  Nicholas,  noticed  below,  born  at 
Eperies,  in  Hungary,  in  1689.  He  entered  the  French 
service  in  1712,  and  became  a  marshal  in  1758.  Died 
in  1778. 

Bercheny  or  Bercseny,  b^R-chin',  (Nicholas,)  a 
Hungarian  nobleman,  born  in  1664,  made  an  unsuccess- 
ful attempt,  in  conjunction  with  Prince  Ragotsky,  to 
separate  Hungary  from  Austria  about  1 705.  Died  in  1 725. 

Berchet,  b^R  sh|',  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  patriot  and 
poet,  born  at  Milan  about  1790,  was  a  friend  of  Silvio 
Pellico.  After  the  suppression  of  the  "  Conciliatore,"  a 
liberal  journal  to  which  he  had  contributed,  he  removed 
to  Geneva.  He  published  in  1841  a  volume  of  patriotic 
songs,  which  were  received  with  enthusiasm,  and  still 
enjoy  great  popularity,  though  prohibited  by  the  govern- 
ment.   Died  in  Italy  in  1851. 

Berchet,  b^R^shi',  (Toussaint,)  a  French  philologist 
and  Protestant  writer,  born  at  Langres  in  1540.  He  made 
a  version  of  Henry  Estienne's  Greek  Catechism,  which 
was  often  re])rinted.    Died  about  1605. 

Berchett,  biR'shSt',  (Pierre,)  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  1659,  was  employed  by  William  III. 
of  England  to  decorate  his  palace  at  Loo,  Died  in  1720. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting  in  England." 

Bercheure.bgR'shuR',  written  also  Berchoire,  [Lat. 
Bercho'rius,]  (Pierre,)  a  French  Benedictine  monk, 
born  in  Poitou.  He  translated  into  French  Livy's  "  Ro 
man  History."    Died  in  1362. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsctire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BERCHHEIM 


BERENICE 


Berchheim,  b§R^k^N',  or  Berckheim,  de,  deh  MRk'- 
hlm,  (FRifiDRiCH  SiGiSMUND,)  Baron,  a  French  general, 
of  Germ;ai  extraction,  born  at  Ribeauville  in  1775.  He 
served  with  distinction  in  the  armies  of  Napoleon,  and 
attained  the  rank  of  general  of  division.    Died  in  1819. 

Berchoire.    See  Bercheure. 

Berchoux,  beR'shoo',  (Joseph,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Saint-Symphorien,  near  Lyons,  in  1765.  His  first 
poem  was  a  well-known  satire  on  the  ridiculous  ambi- 
tion then  prevalent  of  imitating  ^he  Greek  and  Roman 
costumes  and  habits  of  life,  entitled  "Qui  me  delivrera 
des  Grecs  et  des  Romains  ?"  ("  Who  will  deliver  me  from 
the  Greeks  and  the  RoiTians  ?")  He  published  in  1800 
"La  Gastronomic,"  which  had  great  success  and  was 
translated  into  English.  His  later  works  were  less  suc- 
cessful.   Died  in  1839. 

See  Le  Bas,  " Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Berchtold,  beRK'tolt,  (Leopold,)  Count  of,  a  Ger- 
man philanthropist,  born  in  1738,  travelled  in  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  and  introduced  vaccination  where  it 
was  previously  unknown.  He  also  founded  several  chari- 
table institutions  in  his  native  country.    Died  in  1809. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale. " 

Berckel,  van,  vtn  ber^vel,  (Theodorus  Victor,)  a 
Dutch  engraver,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc  in  1739;  died  1808. 

Berckheim.    See  Berchheim. 

Berckmann,  bcRk'min,  Bergmann,  b^Rc'min,  or 
Barkmann,  baRk'mdn,  (John,)  a  chronicler,  supposed 
♦o  have  been  a  native  of  Stralsund.  His  principal  work 
is  entitled  "  Chronicles  of  Stralsund,"  (in  manuscript,  and 
written  in  Low  German.)    Died  in  1560. 

Berckmaiis,  b^Rk'mSns,  (Hendrik,)  a  distinguished 
Dutch  portrait-painter,  born  near  Willemstadt  in  1629. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Jordaens  and  Wouwermans. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Berckringer,  beRk'ring'er,  (Daniel,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  the  Palatinate,  was  tutor  to  the  children 
of  the  King  of  Bohemia.    Died  in  1667. 

Bercseny.    See  Bercheny. 

Bere  or  Ber,  baiR,  [Lat.  Be'rus,]  (Louis,)  a  Catholic 
theologian,  born  at  Bale  ;  died  in  1554. 

Bere,  ba'reh,  (Oswald,)  a  German  physician,  born  at 
Frankfort  in  1472;  died  at  Bale  in  1567. 

Berebistes.    See  B^rebisies. 

Berecynthia.    See  Cybele. 

Berednikof,  be-red'ne-kof,  (Yakov  Ivanovitch,)  a 
Russian  archaeologist,  born  in  1802,  contributed  to  the 
large  Sclavonian  Dictionary  (1847)  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  Saint  Petersburg,  of  which  he  was  a  member. 

Beregani.  bi-ri-gS'nee,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  historian 
and  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1627  ;  died  in  1713. 

Berends,  ba'rents,  (Johann  Bernard  Jakob,)  a 
German  phj'sician,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  about 
1760.    Died  about  1830. 

Berends,  (Julius,)  a  German  democratic  politician, 
born  at  Kyritz  in  1S17,  was  elected  in  1848  to  the  Prus- 
sian National  Assembly. 

_  Berends,  (Karl  August  WiLHELM,)a  German  phy- 
sician and  medical  writer,  born  in  1753,  was  professor 
of  medicine  successively  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  Bres- 
lau,  and  Berlin.    Died  in  1826. 

See  Cali.isrn,  "  Medicinisches  Scliriftsteller-Lexikon." 

Berengaria,bi-r§n-ga're-a,  [Fr.  B^ireng^re,  Wxb^'- 
zhair^]  a  Spanish  lady  distinguished  for  beauty  and  reso- 
lution, was  the  queen  of  Alfonso  VIH.  of  Castile.  Died 
in  1 1 59. 

Berengaria,  a  sister  of  the  famous  Blanche  of  Cas- 
tile, was  married  to  Alfonso  IX.  of  Castile,  who  divorced 
her  in  1209.    Died  in  1244. 

Berengario,  bi-rln-ga^re-o,  [Lat.  Berenga'rius  ; 
Fr.  B^RENGER,  bi'rdN'zha',]  (GiACOMO,)  an  eminent 
Italian  surgeon  and  anatomist  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
surnamed  Carpen'sis,  was  born  at  Carpi.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  surgery  at  Pavia  and  Bologna,  and  wrote  seve- 
ral anatomical  works  in  Latin.  He  is  said  to  have  made 
important  discoveries.  Fallopius  called  him  the  restorer 
of  anatomy.    He  lectured  at  Bologna  from  1502  to  1527. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "  Storia  della  I.etteratura  Italiana." 

Berengarius  or  Berengario.  See  B6renger,  (kings 
of  Italy.)  ^ 
Berenger,  the  French  of  Berengario,  which  see. 


Berenger,  bi'rSN'zha',  [It.  Berengario,  bi-r§n-ga'« 
re-o  ;  Lat.  Berenga'rius,]  I.,  grandson  of  Louis  le  De- 
bonnaire,  was  crowned  King  of  Italy  about  888,  in  oppo- 
sition to  Guido,  Duke  of  Spoleto.  He  was  assassinated 
in  924. 

Berenger  (or  Berenga'rius)  II.,  called  the  Young- 
er, grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  crowned  King  of  Italy 
in  950.  His  country  being  afterwards  invaded  by  Otho 
the  Great  of  Germany,  Berenger  became  tributary  to  that 
sovereign,  and  was  at  length  deposed  and  imprisoned. 
Died  in  966. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Berenger,  bi'rSN'zha',  (Alphonse  Marie  Marcel- 
LIN  Thomas,)  a  French  jurist  and  magistrate,  born  at 
Valence  in  1785.  He  became  counsellor  at  the  court  of 
cassation  in  1831,  and  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers 
in  1839.  Among  his  principal  works  is  a  treatise  "On 
Criminal  Justice  in  France,"  (1818.)  He  became  in  1831 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences. 

Berenger,  (Jean,)  Count,  a  French  legislator,  born 
near  Grenoble  in  1767.  He  was  elected  to  the  States- 
General  in  1790,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Tribunat  in 
1800.    Died  about  1845. 

Berenger,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  Swiss  litterateur,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1740.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "  His- 
tory of  Geneva  from  its  Origin  to  the  Present  Time," 
(6  vols.,  1772.)    Died  in  1807. 

Berenger,  (Laurent  Pierre,)  a  French  litteratetir, 
born  at  Riez  in  1749,  became  inspector  of  the  Academy 
at  Lyons.  Among  his  works  we  may  name  "Morality 
in  Action,"  ("La  Morale  en  Action,")  which  has  gone 
through  numerous  editions.    Died  in  1822. 

See  J.  B.  Dumas,  "Notice  historique  sur  L.  P.  Berenger,"  1836. 

Berenger,  (Pierre,)  a  French  theologian  of  the 
twelfth  century,  was  a  native  of  Poitiers. 

Berenger,  (Raymond,)  grand  master  of  the  order  of 
Saint  John  of  Jerusalem,  was  a  native  of  Dauphiny,  in 
France.  He  defeated  the  Egyptian  corsairs  who  infested 
Cyprus  and  Rhodes,  and  took  Alexandria  after  a  short 
siege.    Died  in  1373. 

Ber^en-ger,  (Richard,)  gentleman  of  the  horse  to 
George  HI.  of  England,  was  the  author  of  "The  History 
and  Art  of  Horsemanship,"  (1771.)    Died  in  1782. 

Berenger  de  Palasol,  bi'r6N^zh^'  deh  pS'lt'sol'',  a 
French  troubadour  of  the  twelfth  century.  Died  in  1194. 

Berenger  de  la  Tour,  \A'\hWz\\\'  deh  It  tooR,  a 
French  poet  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  the  author  of 
"The  Golden  Age,"  and  other  works.  Died  about  1560. 

Berenger  [Lat.  Berenga'rius]  de  Tours,  ba'roN^- 
zha'  deh  tooR,  a  celebrated  French  ecclesiastic,  born 
about  998,  was  a  native  of  Tours.  He  studied  under 
Fulbert  of  Chartres,  and  became  in  1039  Archdeacon  of 
Angers.  Having  opposed  the  dogmas  of  transubstan- 
tiation  and  the  real  presence,  his  doctrine  was  condemned 
by  Pope  Leo  IX.  in  1050.  He  formally  retracted  his 
opinions  ;  but,  as  he  still  continued  to  deny  the  orthodox 
dogmas,  he  was  compelled,  in  a  council  at  Rome,  to  make 
another  recantation.    Died  in  1088. 

See  Fleukv,  "  Histoire  ecclesiastique ;"  Heinrich  Muller, 
"  Bereiigarii  veteris  novique  Historia,"  1674;  H.  Si'dendorf,  "Be- 
rengarius Turonensis,  oder  eine  Samnilung  ihn  betreffender  Briefe," 
1850. 

Berengiier,  bi-ren-gaiR',  (Pedro  Juan  Morales— 
mo-ra^lSs,)  a  Spanish  theologian  of  the  early  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  He  published  a  work  entitled 
"  Explanation  of  the  Mysteries  of  our  Holy  Faith,"  (1608.) 

Berenhorst,  ba'ren-hoRst',  (Georg  Heinrich,)  a 
German  officer  and  military  writer,  born  in  1733,  served 
in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"  Reflections  on  the  Military  Art,"  (1797.) 

Ber-e-ni'ge,  [Gr.  BfptTk?/,]  an  Egyptian  princess,  the 
daughter  of  Lagus,  and  niece  of  Antipater,  was  married 
to  Ptolemy  Soter.  Through  her  influence  he  appointed 
as  his  successor  her  son  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  children  of  Eurydice,  his  other  wife. 

Berenice  II.,  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  was 
married  to  Antiochus  Theos,  King  of  Syria,  who  had 
divorced  Laodice,  his  former  wife.  After  the  death  of 
Ptolemy,  Laodice  murdered  her  husband  and  her  rival 
Berenice  (247  B.C.)  and  placed  her  own  son  on  the  throne 

Berenice  III,  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  ana 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  gtittiiral;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (g^^See  Explanati  ons,  p.  23.) 


BERENICE 


332 


BERGER 


Arsinoe,  was  married  to  Ptolemy  Evergetes.  During 
his  absence  on  an  expedition  to  Syria,  she  made  an  offer- 
ing of  her  hair  to  Venus  for  his  safe  return  ;  and  the 
astronomer  Conon  publicly  reported  that  Jupiter  had 
made  of  it  the  constellation  called  "Coma  Berenices." 
Berenice  was  put  to  death  by  her  father  in  216  B.C. 

See  Carl  W.  Ramler,  "  Ptolemaus  unci  Berenice,""  1765. 

Berenice,  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Lathyrus,  was  married 
to  Alexander  II.,  whom  Sulla  had  made  king.  She  was 
soon  after  murdered  by  her  husband. 

Berenice,  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Auletes,  and  sister  of 
the  celebrated  Cleopatra,  was  raised  to  the  throne  by  the 
Alexandrians,  who  had  revolted  against  her  father,  (58 
B.C.)  Having  poisoned  her  first  husband,  Seleucus,  she 
was  married  to  Archelaus,  high-priest  and  King  of 
Comana.  In  55  B.C.  she  was  put  to  death  by  order  of 
her  father,  who  had  regained  his  crown. 

Berenice,  (called  Bern^ge  [Gr.  BfpiY/c//]  in  the  New 
Testament,)  daughter  of  Agrippa  I.,  King  of  Judea,  was 
born  about  28  A.D.  She  was  married  to  Herod,  King  of 
Chalcis,  and  afterwards  to  Polemon,  King  of  Cilicia. 
About  75  A.D.  she  visited  Rome,  where  Titus  wished  to 
marry  her,  but  renounced  her  when  he  found  the  match 
would  displease  his  people.  This  event  has  formed  the 
subject  of  one  of  Racine's  tragedies.  Berenice  was  the 
sister  of  Herod  Agrippa,  before  whom  Paul  preached. 
(See  Acts  xxv.) 

Beres,  baiR,  (^Imile,)  a  French  political  economist, 
born  at  Castelnau  d'Anzac  in  1801,  wrote  several  works 
on  political  economy,  trade,  etc. 

Ber^es-fprd,  (Rev.  James,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  1764,  ])ublished  "The  Miseries  of  Human  Life,  or 
The  Last  Groans  of  Timothy  Testy  and  Samuel  Sensi- 
tive," (2  vols.,  1806-07.)    Died  in  1840. 

Beresford,  (Lord  John  (Jeorge,)  Primate  of  Ire- 
land, a  son  of  the  Marquis  of  Waterford,  born  at  Dub- 
lin in  1773.  He  became  Bishop  of  Cork  in  1806,  of 
Clogher  in  1819,  Archbishop  of  Dublin  in  1820,  and  was 
translated  to  the  see  of  Armagh  in  1822.    Died  in  1862. 

Beresford,  (William  Carr,)  Viscount,  a  distin- 
guished general,  born  in  Ireland  in  1768,  was  the  natural 
son  of  the  first  Marquis  of  Waterford.  Having  served 
in  Egypt  and  Buenos  Ayres,  and  captured  Madeira  in 
1807,  he  fought  in  the  Peninsular  war  under  Wellington, 
and  was  made  a  field-marshal  of  Portugal  and  Duke  of 
Elvas.  After  his  return  to  England  he  was  created  a 
viscount  in  1823,  and  in  1828  master-general  of  the  ord- 
nance.   Died  in  1854. 

Berettoni,  ba-rlt-to'nee,  written  also  Berrettoni, 
(Niccol6,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Montefeltro  in 
1627,  was  one  of  the  best  pupils  of  Carlo  Maratta.  Died 
at  Rome  in  1682. 

Berg.    See  Bergius,  (Bengt.) 

Berg,  b^RG,  (Jens  Christian,)  a  Norwegian  jurist 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Drontheim  in  1775. 

Berg,  beRG,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  German  theologian 
and  Orientalist,  born  at  Bremen  in  1737,  became  pro- 
fessor of  ecclesiastical  history  and  Oriental  languages 
at  Duisburg,  He  wrote  valuable  commentaries  on  the 
Scriptures.    Died  in  1800. 

See  MoLLF.R,  "Denkschrift  zur  Ehre  J.  P.  Bergs,"  iSoi. 

Berg,  (Magnus,)  a  Norwegian  painter  and  excellent 
sculptor  in  ivory,  born  in  1666,  was  patronized  by  King 
Christian  V.    Died  in  1739. 

Berg,  van  den,  van  den  b^RG,  (Matthias,)  a  Flem- 
ish painter,  born  at  Ypres  in  161 5,  was  a  distinguished 
pu])il  of  Rubens,  whose  works  he  copied  with  great  ac- 
curacy.   Died  in  1647. 

See  Bryan,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Berg,  von,  fon  b§R(;,  (Joachim,)  a  German  diplo- 
matist and  philanthropist,  born  at  Herrndorf  in  1526, 
bequeathed  all  his  property  to  create  a  fund  for  the  edu- 
cation of  the  poor  in  his  own  country.    Died  in  1602. 

See  G.  VON  Berg,  "  Memoria  Bergeriana;"  Keller,  "Joachim 
von  Berge  und  sein  Stiftungen,"  1834. 

Bergalli,  b^R-g^Klee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastic 
and  litleratair,  born  at  Palermo  ;  died  in  1679. 

Bergalli,  (Luigia,)  an  Italian  dramatic  authoress,  born 
at  Venice  in  1703,  became  the  wife  of  Count  Gasparo 
Gozzi,  (See  Gozzi.)    Died  about  1760. 

Bergamasco.    See  Castello. 


Bergamini,  bgR-gi-mee'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1666;  died  in  1744. 

Bergamo, bdR'ga-mo,(jACoPo  Filii'poForesti,)  Ital- 
ian chronicler,  born  near  Bergamo  in  1434;  died  in  1520. 

Bergamo,  da,  dS  bcR'gd-mo,  (Fra  Damiano,)  an 
Italian  Dominican  monk,  who  was  celebrated  as  a  sculptor 
in  wood.    Died  in  1549. 

Bergantini,  bGR-gan-tee'nee,  (Giovanni  Pietro,)  an 
Italian  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Venice  in 
1685;  died  about  1760. 

Bergasse,  bCR'gIss',  (Alexandre,)  a  French  royalist 
and  political  writer,  brother  of  Nicolas,  noticed  below, 
was  born  at  Lyons  in  1747  ;  died  in  1821. 

Bergasse,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  jurist  and  political 
writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1750,  published  in  1787  a  memo- 
rial in  favour  of  his  client  Kornmann,  which  won  for  him  a 
high  reputation,  and  was  answered  by  Beaumarchais.  He 
also  wrote  in  favour  of  animal  magnetism.   Died  in  1832. 

See  Le  Bas,  "  Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Berge,  be R'geh,  (Ernst  Gottlieb,)  a  German  writer, 
born  in  1649,  visited  England  in  1678,  and  published, 
after  his  return,  an  excellent  translation  of  Milton's 
"  Paradise  Lost,"  (1682.) 

Berge,  baRzh,  (Francois  Beaudire — bo'd^R',)  born 
at  Collioure,  in  France,  in  1779,  served  successively  in 
Egypt,  Germany,  and  Spain,  and  was  made  lieutenant- 
general  in  1823.    Died  in  1832. 

Ber-gel-la^'nus,  (Johann  Arnold,)  a  German  typog- 
rapher, wrote  a  Latin  poem  in  praise  of  printing,  en- 
titled "Encomium  Chalcographi^e,"  (1541.) 

Bergelmir,  ber-geKmir,  [originally  Berggelmir,  a 
"  mountain  mass,"  (?)  |  the  name  of  one  of  the  Frost-giants 
in  the  Norse  mythology.  It  is  related  that  when  Odin 
and  his  brothers  slew  the  giant  Ymir,  all  the  Frost-Jotuns 
were  drowaied  in  his  blood  except  Bergelmir,  who,  with 
his  wife,  escaped,  and  continued  the  race  of  Frost-giants. 
(See  Ymir.) 

See  Thorpe's  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. 

Bergen,  bCRo'en,  a  Dutch  painter  of  rare  promise, 
born  at  Breda  about  1670,  died  at  the  age  of  nineteen. 
Some  of  his  works  are  in  the  Louvre,  others  at  Dresden. 

Bergen,  (Daniel.)    See  Berger. 

Bergen,  van,  vtn  beR^iren,  (Dirk,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  landscapes  and  animals,  born  at  Haarlem  about  1645, 
was  a  pupil  of  Van  der  Velde.    Died  in  1689. 

Bergen,  von,  fon  beR'gen,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  Ger- 
man medical  writer,  the  father  of  Karl  August,  born  at 
Dessau  ;  died  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  in  1738. 

Bergen,  von,  (Karl  August,)  a  German  botanist, 
anatomist,  and  scientific  writer,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Oder  in  1704.  In  1744  he  became  professor  of  pathology 
and  therapeutics  in  his  native  city.  The  genus  Bergena 
was  named  in  his  honour  by  Adanson.    Died  in  1760. 

See  "Biographic  Medicale." 

Bergen,  von,  (Rudiger,)  a  German  poet,  born  at 
Riga  in  1603  ;  died  in  1661. 

iSergenhielm,  b^R^gen-he-elm  or  b^R^gen-hyelm, 
(Johan,)  Baron  of,  a  Swedish  statesman  and  Latin  poet, 
born  in  Ostrogothia  in  1629,  rose  to  be  secretary  of  state 
and  chancellor  of  the  court.    Died  in  1704. 

Berger,  b^R'ger,  (Albrecht  Ludwig,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Oldenburg  in  1768  ;  died  in  1813. 

Berger,  b^R^ger,  (Christian  Johan,)  a  Danish  phy- 
sician, born  in  1724,  became  professor  of  medicine  and 
surgery  at  Kiel.    Died  in  1789. 

Berger  or  Bergen,  beR^'gen,  (Daniel,)  a  German 
engraver,  born  in  Berlin  in  1744.  He  engraved  history 
and  portraits.    Died  in  1824. 

Berger,  b^R^zhi',  (Jacques,)  a  painter  of  history,  born 
at  Chambery,  was  a  good  colorist.  Died  at  Turin  in  1823. 

Berger,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  senator,  born  at 
Thiers,  in  Puy  de  Dome,  in  1790.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1837  to  1848,  and  took 
an  active  part  in  the  republican  movement  of  1848.  He 
became  prefect  of  La  Seine  about  December,  1848,  and 
senator  in  1853. 

Berger,  (Johan  Eric,)  a  Danish  savant,  born  about 
1772,  was  professor  of  astronomy  at  Kiel.  He  wrote 
"  A  General  Sketch  of  Science,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1833. 

See  H.  Ratjen,  "J.  E.  von  Kerger's  Leben,"  1835. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


\ 


BERGER 


333 


BERGMAN 


Berger,  (Johann  Gottfried  Emanuel,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  at  Ruhland  in  1773,  published,  among 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Philosophy  of  Religions." 
Died  in  1803. 

Berger,  (Julien  Francois  Adolphe,)  a  French  clas- 
sical scholar,  born  in  1810.  He  was  for  several  years  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  at  the  College  of  Charlemagne,  Paris. 

Berger,  (Ludwig,)  a  German  composer  and  pianist 
of  great  merit,  born  at  Berlin  in  1777.  His  works  are 
chiefly  cantatas,  operas,  and  symphonies.  He  numbered 
among  his  scholars  the  celebrated  Mendelssohn.  Died 
in  Berlin  about  1839. 

Berger,  (Paul,)  a  German  theologian  and  Hebraist, 
born  at  Rosenburg,  lived  about  1730. 

Berger,  (Theodor,)  a  German  jurist  and  historian, 
born  near  Coburg  in  1683,  published  legal  and  historical 
works  in  Latin  and  German.    Died  in  1773. 

Berger,  von,  fon  b^R^'ger,  (CnRisrorH  Heinrich,)  a 
German  jurist  and  aulic  councillor,  born  at  Wittenberg 
about  1680.    Died  in  1757. 

Bergerac,  de,  deh  bCRzh^Rtk',  (Savinien  Cyrano,) 
a  French  dramatist  and  notorious  duellist,  born  in  Peri- 
gord  about  1620.  He  served  in  tbe  army  in  his  youth. 
His  principal  works  are  the  tragedy  of  "Agrippina," 
(1653,)  and  the  "Pedant  Joue,"  a  comedy.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1655.  Some  writers  conjecture  that  Swift  derived  the 
idea  of  his  "  Gulliver's  Travels"  from  Bergerac's  "  Comic 
History  of  the  States  and  Empires  of  the  Moon,"  ("  His- 
toire  comique  des  £tats  et  Empires  de  la  Lune,"  1656.) 

See  Charles  Nodier,  "B.  Despemers  et  Cyrano  de  Bergerac," 
1S41. 

Bergeret,  b^Rzh^Ri',  (Jean,)  a  French  botanist,  born 
at  Morlas,  in  Basses-Pyrenees,  published  a  Flora  of  the 
Basses-Pyrenees,  (2  vols.,  1803.)    Died  about  1814. 

Bergeret,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  physician  and 
botanist,  born  near  Auch  in  1 751,  became  surgeon  to 
Monsieur  (afterwards  Louis  XVIH.)  in  1785.  Died 
in  1813. 

Bergeron,  b§Rzh'r6N',  (Louis,)  a  French  journalist 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Chauny  in  1811,  published,  among 
other  works,  "  Campaigns  of  Spain  and  Portugal  under 
the  Empire,"  (1833.) 

Bergeron,  (Nicolas,)  a  R-ench  jurist  and  historian, 
a  native  of  Bethisy,  lived  about  1560.  He  is  said  to  have 
produced  the  first  synchronic  tables  of  history. 

Bergeron,  (Pierre,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Paris,  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Navigation  and  Modern 
Voyages  of  Discovery  and  Conquests,"  (1629,)  and  other 
geographical  and  historical  works. 

Bergeron,(PiERRE,)  a  French  \>ott  ixwd litteratettr,  horn 
in  Paris  in  1787,  was  professor  in  a  college  at  Brussels. 

Bergery,  bCRzh'Re',  (Claude  Lucien,)  a  French  ma- 
thematician, and  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  School 
of  Artillery  at  Metz,  born  at  Orleans  in  1787.  He  pub- 
lished "Geometry  applied  to  Industry,"  (1835,)  and 
"Elementary  Astronomy,"  (1832.) 

Berghaus,  b^Rc/hows,  (Heinrich,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man geographer,  born  at  Cleves  in  1797.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1816  geographical  engineer  in  the  war  depart- 
ment at  Berlin,  and  in  1824  professor  of  niathematics  in 
the  Academy  of  Architecture.  Among  his  numerous 
and  excellent  works  are  his  "Physical  Atlas,"  (with 
ninety  maps,  1838,)  an  oro-hydrographic  map  of  France, 
charts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  "Elements  of  Geography," 
(1842,)  "  Ethnography,"  (1846,)  and  "The  Nations  of  the 
Globe,"  ("Die  Volker  des  Erdballs,"  1845.)  He  also 
published  a  German  edition  of  Catlin's  "  Lidians  of  North 
America." 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Berghe,  van  den,  vSn  den  b^R'neh,  (Thomas,)  a 
Flemish  physician,  born  at  Dixmude  about  161 5,  wrote  a 
treatise  on  the  plague  of  1669. 

Berghem,b§Rc/hem,  (Nikolaas,)  an  excellent  Dutch 
landscape-painter,  whose  original  name  was  Van  Haer- 
lem,  was  born  at  Haarlem  in  1624.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Van  Goyen,  Jan  Wils,  and  Weeninx.  He  had  great 
executive  facility,  painted  with  equal  success  landscapes, 
animals,  and  figures,  and  gave  a  fine  finish  to  his  works 
without  impairing  the  general  effect.  His  works  are  ex- 
tremely numerous,  and  present  a  great  variety  of  subjects. 
Their  peculiar  charm  results  partly  from  a  graceful  and 


easy  touch,  a  harmonious  colouring,  and  a  natural  com- 
position. He  also  left  designs  and  etchings  of  remark- 
able beauty.  Died  at  Haarlem  in  1683.  "The  delicate 
degradation  of  his  aerial  perspective,"  says  Bryan,  "the 
light  floating  of  his  skies,  and  the  transparence  of  his 
water,  have  never  been  surpassed  by  any  Dutch  painter." 

See  Bryan,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters;"  Nagler,  "  Neues  AUge- 
meines  Kiinstler- Lexikon." 

Bergier,  b§R'zhe-4',  (Claude  Francois,)  a  French 
jurist  and  litteratetir^oxn  at  Darnay,  in  Lorraine,  in  1721. 
He  translated  Ferguson's  "  Essay  on  Civil  Society,"  and 
other  English  works,  into  French.    Died  in  1784. 

Bergier,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Rheims  in 
1567,  published,  among  other  antiquarian  works,  a  valu- 
able "  History  of  the  Great  Roads  {grands  chemins)  of 
the  Roman  Empire,"  (1622.)    Died  in  1623. 

See  Bayi.e,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Bergier,  (Nicolas  Sylvestre,)  a  French  scholar  and 
theologian,  born  at  Darnay  in  1718,  was  a  brother  of 
Claude  Fran9ois,  noticed  above.  He  wrote  several  able 
treatises  in  defence  of  the  Christian  religion  against  the 
attacks  of  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  and  Baron  Holbach,  and 
made  a  translation  of  Hesiod,  (1767,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed.    Died  in  Paris  in  1790. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Ber'gi-us  or  Berg,  beRg,  (Bengt,)  a  Swedish  botan- 
ist, born  at  Stockholm  in  1723,  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
Luxuries,"  and  other  works.    i3ied  in  1784. 

See  ScHOENBERG,  "Aniinnelse-Tal  ofver  B.  Bergins,"  1785. 

Bergius,  (Peter  Jonas,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated  Linnjeus,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  at  Stockholm.  Linnaeus  named 
in  his  honour  the  genus  Bergia.  Born  about  1 730;  died 
in  1790. 

See  Olof  Svvar'tz,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  P.  J.  Bergius,"  1822. 

Bergk,  b^Rk,  (Theodor,)  a  German  linguist  and  clas- 
sical scholar,  born  at  Leipsic  in  181 2,  became  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Marburg  in  1842,  and  at  Freiburg  in 
1852.  He  published  an  edition  of  Anacreon,  (1834,) 
and  "  Poetae  Lyrici  Grseci,"  (1843.) 

Bergklint,  b^Rk'lint,  (Glaus,)  a  Swedish  poet  of  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  wrote  an  "  Ode  on 
Adversity,"  which  is  very  ]:)opular  in  Sweden. 

Bergier,  beRc'ler,  (Joseph,)  a  statuary  and  painter, 
born  in  the  Tyrol  in  1718,  worked  at  Vienna,  Passau,and 
Prague.    Died  in  1788. 

Bergier,  (Joseph,)  a  German  painter,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Salzburg  in  1753.  He  executed  a  series 
of  pictures  illustrating  the  history  of  Bohemia.  Died 
in  1829. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler- Lexikon." 

Bergier,  (vStephen,)  a  distinguished  philologist,  born 
at  Cronstadt,  in  Transylvania,  about  1680.  He  contri- 
buted a  number  of  articles  to  the  "Acta  Eruditorum" 
and  "  Bibliotheca  Grajca,"  and  edited  several  Greek  and 
Latin  classics.    Died  at  Constantinople  in  1746. 

See  Sax,  "  Onomasticon." 

Bergman  or  Bergmann,  bSRc'min,  (Torbern 
Olof,)  a  celebrated  Swedish  chemist  and  naturalist, 
born  at  Catherinberg,  in  West  Gothland,  in  March,  1735. 
He  studied  at  Upsal,  and  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  natu- 
ral history,  physics,  and  mathematics.  Li  1 761  he  was 
appointed  adjunct  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy  at  Upsal,  where  he  succeeded  Wallerius  as 
professor  of  chemistry  in  1766  or  1767,  after  which  he 
gave  almost  exclusive  attention  to  chemistry.  He  first 
discovered  that  fixed  air  was  an  acid,  and  wrote  a  me- 
moir entitled  "On  the  Aerial  Acid,"  (1774.)  He  ascer- 
tained the  distinctive  characters  of  nickel,  analyzed  many 
mineral  substances  with  great  accuracy,  and  published  a 
classification  of  minerals,  in  which  the  grand  divisions 
are  founded  on  the  chemical  nature  of  the  substances. 
By  the  application  of  geometry  to  the  forms  of  crystals, 
he  laid  the  basis  of  crystallography,  which  was  developed 
by  Haiiy.  "  His  researches,"  says  Biot,  "  have  placed 
Bergman  in  the  first  rank  of  chemists."  His  theory  of 
Elective  Attractions,  on  which  he  published  an  essay, 
(1775,)  was  admired,  and  considered  as  an  important 
contribution  to  science.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Societies  of  London,  Berlin,  Turin,  etc.     He  wrote  a 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  gzUtiiral;  N,  7iasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BERG  MANN 


334 


BERKELEY 


*•  Physical  Description  of  the  Earth,"  (2  vols.,  1770-74,) 
an  "  Essay  on  the  Forms  of  Crystals,"  a  thesis  on  "  Astro- 
nomical Interpolation,"  (1758,)  and  many  other  works, 
published  under  the  title  of  "Opuscula  Physica  et  Chim- 
ica,"  (6  vols.,  1779-90.)  He  was  an  early  patron  of 
Scheele  the  chemist.    Died  at  Medevi  in  1784. 

See  P.  F.  AuRiviLLius,  "Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  T.  O.  Bergmann,'' 
1785;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgenieine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Biot,  arti- 
cle in  the  "  Biographie  Universelle  ;"  Peter  J.  Hjelm,  "Aminnelse- 
Tal  ofver  T.  O.  Bergman,"  1786;  Hoefer,  "  Histoire  delaChimie." 

Bergmann,  b^Ro'min,  (Gustav,)  a  German  writer 
on  Livonian  history,  etc.,  iDorn  in  1744;  died  in  1814. 

Bergmann,  (Joseph,)  a  German  Jesuit  and  naturalist, 
born  at  Aschaffenburg  in  1736,  became  professor  of 
physics  and  natural  history  at  Mentz.  He  published 
several  scientific  works.    Died  in  1803. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Bergmann,  (Michael  Adam,)  born  at  Munich  in 
1733,  wrote  contributions  towards  the  "  History  of  Mu- 
nich," (1780.)    Died  in  1783. 

Bergmiiller,  b^RG^mul'ler,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  Ger- 
man engraver,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1687,  became  director 
of  the  Academy  at  Augsburg.    Died  in  1762. 

Bergoeing,  b^R^gwiN',  (Francois,)  born  at  Saint- 
Macaire  in  1755,  was  a  member  of  the  French  National 
Convention,  and  voted  for  the  imprisonment  of  Louis 
XVI.    Died  in  1820. 

Bergon,  b^R'goN',  (Joseph  Alexandre,)  Count,  a 
French  statesman,  born  at  Mirabel  in  1 741,  rose  to  be 
councillor  of  state  under  Napoleon.    Died  in  1824. 

Bergonzoni,  bgR-gon-zo'nee,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1646,  was  a  pupil  of  Guer- 
cino.    Died  in  1722. 

Bergstrasser,  b^Ro'stR^s-ser,  (Johann  Andreas  Be- 
NiGNUS,)  an  eminent  German  naturalist,  born  at  Idstein 
in  1732,  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Hanau.  Among 
his  works  is  a  "  Description,  with  Figures,  of  all  the  Diur- 
nal Butterflies  of  Europe,"  (1759.)    Died  in  1812. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Berigard,  beh-re^gtR',  (Pierre,)  a  relative  of  the 
following,  born  at  Florence,  lived  about  1620.  He  trans- 
lated the  "Aphorisms"  of  Hippocrates  into  verse. 

Berigard,  de,  deh  beh-re'gtR^,  or  Beauregard,  b5R^- 
gtR',  (Claude  Guillermet,)  Seigneur,  a  French 
mathematician,  born  at  Moulins  about  1591,  became  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Pisa.    Died  in  1664. 

See  NiCKRON,  "Memoires." 

Bering.    See  Behring. 

Beringer,  ba'ring-er,  (Diephold,)  a  fanatical  German 
peasant,  also  called  Peringer  and  Shuster,  born  about 
1490,  gained  notoridty  by  preaching  against  the  pope. 

Beringer,  (Joachlm,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian, 
lived  between  1600  and  1650.  He  assumed  the  name  of 
Joachim  Ursinus. 

Beringer,  (Johann  Bartholomaus  Adam,)  a  Ger- 
man physician  and  naturalist,  born  about  1680,  published 
several  works. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Beringer,  (Michael,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at 
Uhlbach  in  1566,  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Tubingen. 
Died  in  1625. 

See  W.  ScHiCKARD,  "Vita  M.  Beringeri,"  1627. 

Beringhen,  de,  deh  beh-riN^gSw',  (Jacques  Louis,) 
Marquis,  born  in  Paris  in  165 1,  was  first  groom  of  Louis 
XIV.  He  served  with  distinction  as  an  officer  of  cavalry. 
Died  in  1723. 

Ber'ing-ton,  (Joseph,)  an  English  Catholic  historian, 
born  in  Shropshire  about  1750,  f  ublished  a  "  Literary 
History  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1814,)  one  of  the  best 
works  on  that  subject ;  and  a  "  History  of  the  Reign  of 
Henry  II.  of  England  and  his  Sons,"  (1790.)  Died  in  1827. 

See  Butler,  "  Historical  Memoirs  of  the  English,  Irish,  and 
Scottish  Catholics,"  etc.;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April, 
1814. 

Beriot,  de,  deh  bi,'re'o',  (Charles  Auguste,)  a  cele- 
brated Belgian  violinist,  born  at  Louvain  in  1802,  suc- 
ceeded Baillot  as  professor  at  the  Conservatory  of  Music 
in  Paris,  (1842.)  He  had  married  in  1836  the  famous 
vocalist  Madame  Malibran.    Died  in  1870. 

See  F^Tis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musicians;"  Fayolle, 
"  Paganini  et  Beriot,"  1831. 


Berkel,  van,  vtn  b^r'kel,  [Lat.  Berke'lius,]  (Abra- 
HAM,)  a  Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Leyden  about  1630, 
published  editions  of  the  "Enchiridion"  of  Epictetus, 
and  other  classics.    Died  in  1688. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Berkeley,  berk'le,  (Francis  Henry  Fitz-Har- 
dinge,)  a  liberal  English  legislator,  a  younger  son  of 
the  fifth  Earl  of  Berkeley,  born  in  1794.  He  has  repre- 
sented Bristol  in  Parliament  since  1837,  and  has  gained 
distinction  as  an  advocate  of  the  mode  of  voting  by  ballot. 

Berkeley,  (George,)  an  English  bishop  and  meta- 
physical philosopher  of  great  merit,  was  born  at  Kilcrin, 
near  Thomastown,  Ireland,  on  the  12th  of  March,  1684, 
He  became  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1707, 
and  established  his  reputation  as  a  philosopher  by  "An 
Essay  towards  a  New  Theory  of  Vision,"  (1709.)  In 
1710  he  published  a  remarkable  work,  "The  Principles 
of  Human  Knowledge,"  in  which  he  maintained  his 
celebrated  theory  of  idealism,  affirming  that  there  is  no 
proof  of  the  existence  of  matter  anywhere  but  in  our 
own  perceptions.  In  17 13  he  visited  London,  where  he 
became  intimate  with  Addison,  Pope,  Swift,  Arbuthnot, 
and  Steele,  and  wrote  several  essays  for  the  "  Guardian." 
In  1718  Mrs.  Vanhomrigh  (Swift's  "Vanessa")  left 
Berkeley  a  legacy  of  ^^4000.  He  was  appointed  Dean 
of  Derry  in  1724,  before  which  he  had  been  chaplain  to 
the  Duke  of  Grafton.  He  published  in  1725  a  "  Proposal 
for  Converting  the  Savage  Americans  to  Christianity," 
and  wished  to  found  a  college  in  America  for  that  object, 
for  which  he  raised  a  large  sum  of  money  by  subscrip- 
tions. He  also  received  a  grant  or  promise  of  ;i^20,ooo 
from  government,  and,  having  married  a  Miss  Anne 
Forster,  sailed  to  Rhode  Island  in  1728.  On  this  subject 
he  wrote  a  short  poem,  ending  with  these  lines  : 

"Westward  the  course  of  empire  takes  its  way; 
The  four  first  acts  already  past, 
A  fifth  shall  close  the  drama  with  the  day : 
Time's  noblest  offspring  is  the  last." 

He  preached  about  two  years  in  Newport,  but  was  com- 
pelled to  abandon  the  project  of  the  college  because  the 
ministry  failed  to  send  the  funds,  and  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land. He  defended  religion  against  infidels  and  skeptics 
in  his  "Alciphron,  or  the  Minute  Philosopher,"  (1732,)  a 
dialogue  on  the  model  of  Plato.  He  was  chosen  Bishop 
of  Cloyne  in  1734,  and  about  1745,  in  order  to  set  a 
shining  example  to  churchmen,  refused  the  See  of  Clo- 
gher,  the  revenue  of  which  was  twice  as  great  as  that  of 
Cloyne.  Among  his  later  works  are  "The  Analyst," 
addressed  to  an  infidel  mathematician,  (1735,)  '^"^  "A 
Word  to  the  Wise,"  (1749.)  He  removed  to  Oxford 
in  1752,  and  died  there  in  January,  1753. 

"  Berkeley,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "  was  a  profound  scholar 
as  well  as  a  man  of  fine  imagination."  "  Ancient  learn- 
ing, exact  science,  polished  society,  modern  literature, 
and  the  fine  arts,"  says  Sir  J.  Mackintosh,  "  contributed 
to  adorn  and  enrich  the  mind  of  this  accomplished  man. 
All  his  contemporaries  agreed  with  the  satirist  [Pope]  in 
ascribing 

'To  Berkeley  every  virtue  under  heaven.' 
Adverse  factions  and  hostile  wits  concurred  only  in  lov- 
ing, admiring,  and  contributing  to  advance  him,  .  .  .  His 
works  are  beyond  dispute  the  finest  models  of  philo- 
sophical style  since  Cicero.  Perhaps  they  surpass  those 
of  the  orator  in  the  wonderful  art  by  which  the  fullest 
light  is  thrown  on  the  most  minute  and  evanescent  parts 
of  the  most  subtle  of  human  conceptions."  ("  View  of  the 
Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy.") 

See  "  Life  of  Berkeley,"  by  Dr.  Stock,  prefixed  to  his  works,  1784; 
also  G.  N.Wright,  "Life  of  George  Berkeley,"  prefixed  to  his  works, 
184,^;  Cousin's  French  version  of  Tennemann's  "  Geschichte  der 
Philosophie  ;"  "  Encyclopjedia  Britannica." 

Berkeley,  (George,)  an  English  divine,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  London  in  1733,  became  prebendary 
of  Canterbury.    Died  in  1795. 

Berkeley,  (George,)  E.\rl  of,  published  "  Histori- 
cal Applications  and  Occasional  Meditations  on  Several 
Subjects."    Died  in  1698. 

Berkeley,  (George  Ch.\rles  Grantley  Fitzhar- 
dinge,)  an  English  writer,  son  of  the  Earl  of  Berkeley, 
born  in  1802.  He  published,  in  1836,  a  novel  called 
"  Berkeley  Castle." 

Berkeley,  (Maurice  Frederick  Fitz-Hardinge,) 


a,  e,  1,  o,  tj,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BERKELEY 


335 


BERNADOTTE 


M.P.,  a  naval  officer,  second  son  of  the  fifth  Earl  of  Berke- 
ley, born  in  1788.    He  became  a  vice-admiral  in  1857. 

Berkeley,  (Rev.  Miles  Joseph,)  an  English  natural- 
ist, born  at  Biggin  about  1803,  published  botanical  treat- 
ises, among  which  is  "  Gleanings  of  British  Algce."  He 
is  distinguished  as  a  mycologist. 

Berkeley,  (Sir  William,)  born  near  London,  was 
appointed  Governor  of  Virginia  in  1641,  took  sides  with 
Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war,  and  maintained  the  royal  au- 
thority in  Virginia  until  the  death  of  the  king.  He  sub- 
mitted to  Cromwell  in  i65i,and  then  retired  from  office. 
In  1659  he  again  became  Governor  of  Virginia,  He  is 
censured  for  his  cruelty  towards  the  insurgents  whom 
his  tyrannical  conduct  provoked  to  revolt.  (See  Bacon, 
Nathaniel.)  He  once  said,  "  I  thank  God  there  are  no 
free  schools  nor  printing-presses  in  Virginia."  Died  in 
England  in  1677. 

See  "  Eiicyclopasdia  Americana." 

Berkeley,  (Sir  William,)  a  British  vice-admiral, 
born  about  1640,  served  against  the  Dutch  under  the 
Duke  of  York,  and  was  killed  in  a  naval  engagement  in 
1666. 

Berkeley,  de,  (Thomas,)  an  English  baron,  was 
owner  of  Berkeley  Castle,  in  which  Edward  H.  was  con- 
fined and  murdered  in  1327.  He  was  not,  however,  ac- 
cessary to  that  crime. 

Berkely,  berk'le,  (George  Henry  Frederick,)  an 
English  general,  born  in  1785,  served  in  the  Peninsular 
war,  and  subsequently  represented  Devonport  in  Parlia- 
ment.   Died  in  1857. 

Berken,  written  also  Berquen,  de,  deh  beR^kgn, 
(Louis,)  a  lapidary  of  Bruges,  discovered  in  1476  the 
art  of  cutting  and  polishing  diamonds. 

Berkenhead.    See  Birkenhead. 

Ber'ken-hout,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  of  Dutch 
extraction,  born  at  Leeds  about  1730,  graduated  at  Ley- 
den  in  1765.  He  published  "Outlines  of  the  Natural 
History  of  Great  IJritain  and  Ireland,"  (1769,)  "  Bio- 
graphia  Literaria,"  (1777,)  and  a  "Botanical  Lexicon." 
Died  in  1791. 

Berkeny.    See  Bercheny, 

Berkheiden  or  Berkheyden,  b^Rk'hfdSn,  (Ge- 
rard,) a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Haarlem  about  1645, 
excelled  in  architectural  pictures.    Died  in  1693. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Berkheiden,  sometimes  written  Breckberg,  (Job,) 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Haarlem  about  1632, 
painted  landscapes  and  portraits  with  skill.  Died  about 
1695. 

Berkhey,  b^Rk'hT,  or  Berkey,  (Jan  Lefrancq,)  a 
Dutch  poet  and  savant,  born  in  1729  at  Leyden,  where 
he  became  professor  of  natural  history.  He  published 
a  "Natural  History  of  Holland,"  (1769,)  and  other  sci- 
entific works,  and  a  collection  of  Idylls,    Died  in  1812, 

Berkeley,  (John,)  an  English  royalist  officer  in  the 
time  of  Charles  I,,  wrote  "Memoirs  of  the  Negotiations 
of  Charles  I,  with  Cromwell,"  etc. 

Berlepsch,  von,  fon  b^R'lgpsh,  (Emilie,)  a  German 
authoress,  born  at  Gotha  in  1757,  published  "Miscel- 
lanies in  Prose  and  Verse,"  which  are  highly  esteemed. 

Berlichingen,  von,  fon  beR^iK-ing'gn,  (Gotz  or 
Gottfried,)  a  celebrated  German  knight,  surnamed 
of  the  Iron  Hand,  from  an  artificial  hand  which  re- 
placed one  lost  in  battle.  Having  taken  part  in  the 
war  of  the  peasants  against  the  nobles,  he  was  put  under 
ban  of  the  empire  by  Maximilian  I.,  and  sentenced  to 
pay  a  heavy  fine.  According  to  some  writers,  he  was 
afterwards  mortally  wounded  while  defending  his  castle 
against  the  Imperial  troops,  (1562.)  His  achievements 
form  the  subject  of  one  of  Goethe's  most  popular  dramas, 
which  has  been  translated  by  Sir  Walter  Scott.  He  left 
"Memoirs  of  his  Life." 

See  Carl  Lang,  "  Ritter  G.  von  Berlichingen,"  1825;  F.  W. 
PiSTORius,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  des  Ritters  G.  von  Berlichingen," 
1738;  BuscHiNG,  "Leben  Gbtz  von  Berlichingens,"  1814. 

Berlichingen,  von,  (Joseph  Friedrich  Anton,) 
Count,  an  officer  and  litterateur,  born  at  Tyrnau  in  1759, 
served  in  the  Austrian  army  against  the  Turks  in  1788. 
He  translated  into  Latin  verse  Goethe's  "  Hermann  and 
Dorothea."    Died  in  1832. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversatlons-Lexikon." 


Earlier,  b§R'le-i',  (Theophile,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1761,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention,  1792- 
95.    Died  about  1840, 

Berlin,  b^R-leen'',  (Johann  Daniel,)  a  German  com- 
poser and  musician,  born  at  Memel  in  17 10,  was  organist 
at  Drontheim,  in  Norway.    Died  in  1775. 

Berlinghieri,  bcR-len  ge-a'ree,  (Andrea  Vacca,)  an 
eminent  Italian  surgeon,  born  at  Pisa  in  1772,  studied 
anatomy  under  Desault  in  Paris  and  John  Hunter  in 
London.  He  lectured  on  surgery  at  Pisa,  and  published 
a  number  of  valuable  treatises  on  lithotomy  and  other 
branches  of  surgery.  He  also  improved  several  surgi- 
cal processes,  and  invented  a  number  of  surgical  instru- 
ments.   Died  in  1826. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Berlioz,  b§R'le'o',  (Hector,)  a  celebrated  French 
composer,  born  in  the  department  of  Isere  in  1803.  He 
visited  Rome  in  1830  as  pensionary  of  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  and  after  his  return  brought  out,  in  1833,  his 
symphony  of  "  Harold,"  His  Requiem  for  General 
Danremont,  performed  in  1837,  was  received  with  gen- 
eral applause,  and  was  followed  in  1839  by  his  dramatic 
syinphony  of  "  Romeo  and  Juliet,"  one  of  his  most  suc- 
cessful productions.  He  also  published  a  number  of 
valuable  treatises  on  music.  He  was  considered  by  some 
as  the  chief  of  the  romantic  musical  school.  Died  in  1869. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Bermann,  de,  deh  b^R^mSN',  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Nancy  in  1 741,  wrote  a  "Historic  Dissertation  on  the 
Ancient  Chivalry  and  Nobility  of  Lorraine,"  (1763.) 

Bermudes,  bCR-moo^Dgs,  (Geronimo,)  a  Spanish 
ecclesiastic,  and  professor  of  theology  at  Salamanca, 
born  about  1530,  published  several  tragedies  and  poems. 
Died  about  1589, 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Bermudes,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  ecclesiastic,  born  in 
Galicia,  In  1520  he  accompanied  the  Portuguese  em- 
bassy to  Abyssinia,  where  he  was  appointed  patriarch. 
He  died  in  1575,  leaving  an  interesting  account  of  Abys- 
sinia. 

See  VEVSSifeRE  la  Croze,  "Histoire  du  Christianisme  d'lSthiopie 
et  d'Armenie." 

Bermudez,  (Juan  Augustin  Cean,)  See  Cean- 
Bermudez. 

Bermudez  de  Castro,  b^R-moo'D^th  da  kis'tRo, 
(Salvador,)  born  at  Cadiz  in  1817,  contributed  a  num- 
ber of  poems  to  the  "  Revista  de  Madrid,"  of  which  he 
was  editor. 

Bermudo,  b^R-moo'Do,  or  Vermudo,  v^R-moo'Do, 
[Fr.  Bermude,  ber/mud',]  I.,  surnamed  the  Deacon, 
was  proclaimed  King  of  the  Asturias  in  788,  in  opposi- 
tion to  his  relative  Alfonso  II.  He  subsequently  made 
the  latter  his  colleague  on  the  throne. 

Bermudo  II.,  son  of  Ordono,  became  King  of  Leon 
and  Asturias  in  982.  In  conjunction  with  the  King  of 
Navarre  and  the  Count  of  Castile,  he  gained  a  signal  vic- 
tory over  the  Moors  at  Osma  under  Almanzor,  (998.) 
Died  in  999. 

Bermudo  III.  succeeded  Alfonso  V.  as  King  of  Leon 
and  Asturias  in  1027.  He  was  killed  in  1037,  while  fight- 
ing against  Sancho,  King  of  Navrre. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Berna  or  Bernia.    See  Berni,  (Francesco.) 

Bernabei,  beR-ni-ba'ee,  (Giuseppe,)  a  musician,  son 
of  the  following,  born  at  Rome  about  1643,  became 
chapel-master  to  the  Elector  of  Bavaria.  Died  at  Mu- 
nich in  1732. 

Bernabei,  (Giuseppe  Ercole,)  an  Italian  composer, 
born  at  Caprarola,  was  patronized  by  the  Elector  of  Ba- 
varia.   Died  at  Munich  in  1690. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Bernabei,  (Pier  Antonio,)  an  excellent  Italian  fres- 
co-painter of  Parma,  flourished  about  1550. 

Bernacchi,  bgR-niFkee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  vocal- 
ist, born  at  Bologna  about  1700;  died  about  1750. 

Bernadotte,  ber'na-dot',  [Fr.  pron.  beR'nt'dot',] 
Carl  XIV.  Johan,  King  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  Prince 
of  Ponte-Corvo,  and  marshal  of  France,  was  born  at  Pau, 
in  January,  1764,  and  was  the  son  of  a  lawyer.  His  origi- 
nal name  was  Jean  Baptiste  Jules  Bernadotte,  (zh6N 
btp-t^st' zhiil  hlK'n%fdoi'.)    In  1780  he  enlisted  as  a  pri- 


c  as     9  as  s;  g hard;gz.s j;  g,  h,  yl, guttural ;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BERNAERT 


336 


BERNARD 


vate  in  the  royal  marines.  While  a  sergeant,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Revolution,  he  saved  the  life  of  his  colonel 
from  a  mob  at  Marseilles,  in  1790.  In  politics  he  was  an 
ardent  republican.  Promoted  rapidly  in  the  wars  which 
followed  the  Revolution,  he  gained  distinction  in  Flanders 
and  on  the  Rhine,  under  Custine,  in  1792.  In  1794  he 
became  a  general  of  division  under  Kleber  and  Jourdan, 
and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Fleurus  in  that 
year.  He  served  under  Bonaparte  in  Italy  in  1797,  and 
was  applauded  for  his  conduct  at  the  passage  of  the 
Piave  and  in  other  actions.  In  consequence  of  a  dis- 
agreement with  Bonaparte,  he  applied  to  the  Directory 
for  another  command,  and  was  appointed  minister  to 
Vienna.  The  mob  of  that  capital  having  made  a  fero- 
cious attack  on  him  in  his  hotel  in  April,  1798,  he  sud- 
denly left  Vienna,  and  in  the  same  year  married  Made- 
moiselle Clary,  a  sister  in-law  of  Joseph  Bonaparte.  In 
June,  1799,  he  was  appointed  minister  of  war  at  Paris, 
and  displayed  much  ability  in  directing  this  department, 
until  he  was  removed  in  the  aututnn  of  the  same  year. 

Though  he  refused  to  join  in  the  movements  which 
made  Bonaparte  consul  and  emperor,  the  latter  in  1804 
created  him  marshal  of  France  and  gave  him  command 
of  an  army  in  Hanover.  In  1805  he  joined  the  grand 
army  which  invaded  Austria  ;  and  he  maintained  his  repu- 
tation at  Austerlitz,  where  he  and  Lannes  commanded 
the  French  left  wing.  He  was  created  Prince  of  Ponte- 
Corvo  in  June,  1806,  and  in  October  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  Prussians  at  Halle.  In  1807  he  received 
the  military  command  of  the  Hanse  Towns  and  Northern 
Germany.  His  conduct  at  Wagram,  in  1809,  was  severely 
censured  by  the  emperor. 

On  the  death  of  the  crown-prince  of  Sweden,  an  im- 
portant question  arose,  who  should  be  the  successor  to  the 
Swedish  throne.  Bernadotte  had  gained  credit  for  mod- 
eration and  humanity  during  the  war  between  France 
and  Sweden  in  1807-8.  For  this  and  other  reasons,  the 
Swedish  Diet  elected  him  as  heir  to  the  throne  in 
August,  1810.  With  some  difficulty  he  obtained  the  as- 
sent of  Bonaparte,  who,  it  is  said,  wished  Bernadotte  had 
refused  the  crown,  but  exclaimed,  finally,  *'  Go,  then  :  let 
our  destinies  be  accomplished  !"  Bernadotte  immediately 
went  to  Sweden,  and  became  the  colleague  of  Charles 

XIII.  in  the  government.  They  refused  to  support  Na- 
poleon's continental  system  by  the  exclusion  of  English 
goods.    The  French  army  having  invaded  Pomerania  in 

anuary,  1812,  the  Swedish  court  prepared  for  hostilities 
y  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Russia,  in  which  the  annexa- 
tion of  Norway  t(}  Sweden  was  stipulated. 

In  the  campaign  of  1813  he  joined  the  allies  in  Ger- 
many with  an  army  of  about  28,000  Swedes.  Having 
assumed  command  of  a  larger  army  designed  for  the 
protection  of  Berlin,  he  gained  an  important  victory  over 
Oudinot  at  Gross-Beeren  in  August,  and  another  over 
Ney  at  Dennewitz  in  September.  He  also  contributed 
to  the  victory  of  Leipsic,  but  was  considered  rather 
backward  and  lukewarm  in  the  cause.  The  English 
agent.  Sir  C.  Stewart,  having  resorted  to  menaces  to  drive 
him  into  the  action,  he  exclaimed,  "  Do  you  forget  that 
I  am  Prince  of  Sweden,  and  one  of  the  greatest  generals 
of  the  age  He  did  not  follow  the  allies  in  the  inva- 
sion of  France  in  18 14,  and,  returning  home,  he  soon 
effected  the  conquest  of  Norway,  which  was  averse  to 
be  transferred  to  the  Swedish  crown.  On  the  death  of 
the  king,  February  5,  181 8,  Bernadotte  succeeded  as 
Carl  XIV.  Johan.  Ilis  reign  was  peaceful  and  pros- 
perous. He  introduced  many  important  reforms,  and 
was  a  zealous  promoter  of  education  and  internal  im- 
provement in  his  kingdom.  He  died  on  the  8th  of  March. 
1844,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Oscar  I. 

See  Touchard-Lafosse,  "  Histoire  de  Cliarles  XIV;"  Heri- 
couKT,  "fitiide  biographique  sur  Cliarles  XIV,"  1844;  Sarrans, 
"Histoire  de  Bernadotte,"  1845;  Ekik  G.  Geijer,  "  Konung  Karls 

XIV.  Johan  Historia,"  1844;  M.  Runkel,  "Carl  XIV.  Johan," 
1841 ;  Wm.  G.  Meredith,  "  Memorials  of  Charles  (XIV.)  John,  King 
of  Sweden,"  1829 ;  Carl  Grosse,  "  Carl  XIV.  Johan  von  Schweden," 
1844. 

Bernaert,  b§R'n§Rt,  or  Bernaerst,  b^R'nlRst,  (Nr- 
CASius,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  about  1600;  died  about 
1665. 

Beniaerts,  beR'nSRts,  [Lat.  Bernar'tius,]  (Jean,) 
a  Flemish  jurist  and  litth'ateur,  born  at  Mechlin  in  1568. 


He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Life  and  Martyrdom  of 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots,"  (in  Flemish.)    Died  in  1601. 
See  Svveekt,  "AtheniE  Belgicje." 

Bernaldez,  beR-ndl'deth,  (Andres,)  often  called  El 
Cura  de  LOS  Palacios,  (di  hSs  pi  Id'the-is,)  a  Spanish 
historian,  born  in  Leon  about  1490,  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Catholic  Sovereigns,"  (still  in  manuscript.) 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  ii.  parti.; 
Irving,  "  Life  of  Columbus." 

Bernal  Diaz  de  Castillo.    See  Castillo. 

Bernaldus.    See  Bertholdus. 

Bernard.    See  Barnard,  (Tean.) 

Ber'nard,  [Fr.  pron.  bSk'niR';  It.  Bernardo,  b§R- 
n^R'do  ;  Lat.  Bernar'dus,]  King  of  Italy,  and  grandson 
of  Charlemagne,  succeeded  his  father  Pepin  about  812. 
He  was  deposed  by  his  uncle  Louis,  and  put  to  deatli, 
.about  818. 

Bernard,  Duke  of  Septimania  and  Toulouse,  espouse  I 
the  cause  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire  against  his  revolted 
sons.  Being  afterwards  accused  of  treason  by  Charles 
the  Bald,  he  was  put  to  death  in  844. 

Bernard  of  Brussels,  a  Flemish  painter  of  portraits, 
hunting-pieces,  etc.    Died  in  1540. 

Bernard  of  Tiiuringia,  a  German  visionary,  who 
caused  great  alarm  in  Europe  by  predicting  the  end  of 
the  world,  lived  about  960. 

Bernard,  bcR^ntR',  (Adrien  Antoine,)  called  Ber- 
nard de  Saintes,  was  born  at  Saintes  in  1750.  As  a 
member  of  the  National  Convention,  he  voted  for  the 
death  of  Louis  XVI.    Died  in  1819. 

Bernard,  (Andrew,)  a  French  monk,  born  at  Tou- 
louse, was  historiogra])her  to  Henry  VII.  of  England. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  History  of  Henry  VII.  to  the 
Capture  of  Perkin  Warbcck." 

Bernard,  (Aristide  Martin,)  a  French  radical  poli- 
tician, born  at  Montbrison  in  1808.  He  was  imprisoned 
for  political  offences  from  1840  to  1848. 

Bernard,  (.A^uguste  Joseph,)  a  French  antiquary  and 
historical  writer,  born  at  Montbrison  in  18 11. 

Bernard,  (Catherine,)  a  French  poetess,  born  at 
Rouen  in  1662,  was  a  relative  of  Corneille  and  Fonte- 
nelle.  Her  principal  works  are  the  tragedies  of  "  Lao- 
damia,"  (1690,)  and  "  Brutus,"  (1691.)  She  wrote  several 
novels,  which  exhibit  much  knowledge  of  the  human 
heart.  Fontenelle  was  her  friend  and  admirer.  Died  in 
1712. 

Bernard,  (Charles,)  historiographer  of  France  under 
Louis  XIII.,  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Wars  of  Louis 
XII r.  against  the  Rebellious  Religionists,"  (1646.) 

Bernard,  (Claude,)  called  the  Poor  Priest,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1588,  was  noted  for  his  benevolence,  and 
spent  a  large  fortune  in  acts  of  charity.    Died  in  1640. 

See  Francois  de  Girv,  "Vie  de  C.  Bernard,"  1683;  F.  Gerson, 
"Vie  du  Pere  Bernard." 

Bernard,  (Claude,)  an  eminent  French  physiologist, 
born  at  Saint-Julien,  in  Rhone,  in  July,  1813.  His  treat- 
ise entitled  "  Researches  on  the  Uses  of  'the  Pancreas" 
obtained  the  grand  prize  of  the  Institute  in  1849. 
was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1854,  and  succeeded 
Magendie  as  professor  of  experimental  physiology  in  the 
College  de  France  in  1855.  Among  his  works  are  "Re- 
searches on  the  Functions  of  the  Spinal  Nerve,"  and  a 
"Memoir  on  Animal  Heat,"  (1856.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Eer'nard,  (Edward,)  an  English  astronomer  and 
philologist,  born  near  Towcester  in  1638,  published  a 
"  Treatise  on  Ancient  Weights  and  Measures."  He  was 
for  many  years  Savilian  professor  of  astronomy  at  Ox- 
ford.   Died  in  1697. 

See  Thomas  Smith's  "  Life  of  E.  Bernard,"  in  Latin, 

Bernard,  (Sir  Francis,)  an  English  lawyer,  who  was 
Governor  of  New  Jersey  from  1758  to  1760,  when  he 
became  Governor  of  Massachusetts.  He  offended  the 
people  by  bringing  troops  into  Boston,  and  showed  him- 
self hostile  to  the  popular  cause.  He  was  one  of  the 
principal  instruments  employed  to  enforce  the  obnoxious 
measures  which  produced  the  Revolution.  He  was  re- 
called in  1769.    Died  in  1779. 

See  Bancroft's  "History  of  the  United  States." 

Bernard,  (Herman  Hedwig,)  of  Cambridge,  Eng- 


a,  e,T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  i\x,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


BERNARD 


337 


BERNARD 


land,  a  Hebraist,  born  in  1785,  published  "The  Main 
Principles  of  the  Creed  and  Ethics  of  the  Jews,"  (1832.) 
Died  in  1857. 

Bernard,  (Jacques,)  a  French  Protestant  divine  and 
scholar,  born  at  Nyons,  in  Dauphiny,  in  1658.  He  wrote 
several  religious  and  historical  treatises,  and  succeeded 
Bayle  as  editor  of  the  journal  entitled  "Nouvelles  de  la 
Republique  de  Lettres."  He  passed  his  latter  years  in 
Ilolland.    Died  in  17 18. 

See  QuERAKD,  "La  France -Litteraire." 

Bernard,  b^R^niRt,  (Jan  Frederik,)  a  writer  and 
bookseller  of  Amsterdam,  published  "  Memoirs  of  the 
Count  of  Brienne,  Minister  of  Louis  XIV.,"  (1719,)  and 
various  other  works.    Died  in  1752. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Bernard,  (Jean,)  a  French  writer  and  Latin  poet, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1576. 

Bernard,  (Jean,)  a  French  physician  and  medical 
writer,  born  at  Nantes  in  1702.  He  became  professor 
of  anatomy  at  Douay  in  1744.    Died  in  1781. 

Bernard,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  littcratetir.hoxw 
in  Paris  in  17 10,  became  professor  of  eloquence  in  the 
College  of  Navarre.    Died  in  1772. 

Bernard,  (Jean  Etienne,)  a  physician  and  medical 
writer,  of  French  extraction,  born  at  Berlin  in  1718; 
died  in  1793. 

Bernard,  (John,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at  Cas- 
tor, in  Lincolnshire,  became  a  Fellow  of  Lincoln  College, 
Oxford,  in  1648.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Peter  Heylin," 
(1683,)  who  was  his  father-in-law.    Died  in  1683. 

Bernard,  (John,)  an  English  actor,  born  at  Ports- 
mouth in  1756,  performed  with  applause  in  England  and 
the  United  States,  and  became  one  of  the  managers  of 
the  Boston  Theatre. 
Bernard,  William.) 

Bernard,  (Louis  Rose  Desir^,)  called  also  Bernard 
DE  Rennes,  a  French  magistrate  and  writer,  born  at 
Brest  in  17S8. 

Bernard,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  divine,  was  a  friend 
of  Archbishop  Usher,  whom  he  served  as  chaplain.  He 
took  the  degree  of  M.A.  at  O.xford  in  1628.  About  1642 
he  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Whitchurch.  He 
wrote  a  "Life  of  James  Usher,"  (1656.)    Died  in  1661. 

Bernard,  (Pierre,)  a  French  lawyer  and  writer,  born 
at  Calais  in  1640,  published  "Annals  of  Calais,"  (1715.) 
Died  in  1720. 

Bernard,  (Pierre,)  a  French  litterateur,  sometimes 
called  Bernard  d'H^ry,  born  near  Auxerre  in  1756,  pub- 
lished '  Poetical  Preludes,"  and  other  works.  He  also 
translated  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered"  into  French 
verse.    Died  in  1833. 

See  QuEKARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Bernard,  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Grenoble  in  17 10,  was  styled  by  Voltaire  the  "Gentil 
Bernard."  His  works  are  of  a  frivolous  and  immoral 
tharacter.    Died  in  1775, 

Bernard,  (Pons  Joseph,)  a  French  mathematician, 
porn  near  Draguignan  in  1748,  published  "  New  Prin- 
ciples of  Hydraulics,"  (1787.)    Died  in  1816. 

Bernard,  (Richard,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  rec- 
tor of  Batcombe,  Somersetshire,  born  about  1566,  wrote 
"The  Key  of  Knowledge  for  the  Opening  of  the  Myste- 
ries of  Saint  John,"  "  The  Faithful  Shepherd,"  and  other 
theological  works.  He  translated  Terence  into  English. 
Died  in  1641. 

Bernard,  [Fr.  pron.  b^R'ntu';  Ger.  ]'>ernhard,  beRn''- 
hiRt;  It.  Bernardo,  beR-naRMo,]  Saint,  an  eminent 
ecclesiastic,  born  near  Dijon,  in  Burgundy,  in  1091.  He 
entered  the  Cistercian  monastery  of  Citeaux  at  an  early 
age,  accompanied  by  his  five  brothers  and  a  number  of 
associates,  whom  his  eloquence  had  induced  to  embrace 
the  monastic  life.  In  in 5  he  became  Abbot  of  Clair- 
vaux,  near  Langres,  where,  refusing  all  higher  prefer- 
nient,  he  exercised  a  powerful  influence  on  the  ecclesias- 
tical affairs  of  Europe.  He  prevailed  upon  the  French 
and  English  sovereigns  to  recognize  Innocent  II.  as  pope, 
in  opposition  to  the  cardinal  Peter  of  Leon,  and  in  1140 
was  chiefly  instrumental  in  procuring  the  condemnation 
Df  Abclard's  heretical  writings.  He  was  also  active  in 
promoting  the  crusade  of  1146.  He  died  in  11 53,  and 
was  canonized  in  1174  by  Pope  Alexander  III.  The 


best  edition  of  his  works,  including  sermons,  episdes, 
and  religious  treatises,  was  published  by  Mabillon  in  1709. 

See  Lhmaitre,  "Vie  de  Saint-Bernard,"  1649;  Bourgoing  ue 
V1LI.EF0RE,  "Vie  de  S.  Bernard,"  1704:  A.  Neander,  "Der  hei- 
lige  Bernard  und  sein  Zeitalter,"  1813,  (translated  into  Englibli  by 
Wrench,  1843;)  J.  L.  T.  Ratisbonne,  "Histoire  de  S.  Bernard,"  2 
vols.,  1841  ;  C.  MoNTALEMBERT,  "  Histoire  de  S.  Bernard;"  Levin 
Olbers,  "Vita  Bernardi  Clarasvallensis,"  1810;  J  O.  Eli.enuorf, 
"Der  heilige  Bernhard,"  1837;  Eugenio  de  Corral,  "  Vida  de  S. 
Beinardo,"  1782;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Bernard,  (Salomon,)  a  French  painter  and  wood-en- 
graver, called  Petit  Bernard,  born  at  Lyons  about  1500. 

Bernard,  (Samuel,)  a  French  painter  and  engraver, 
born  in  Paris  in  161 5  ;  died  in  1687. 

Bernard,  (Samuel,)  a  French  banker,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  about  1651.  He  acquired  an  immense 
fortune,  and  lent  large  sums  to  Louis  XIV.  and  Louis  XV. 
Died  in  1739. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires." 

Bernard,  (Simon,)  a  French  general  and  engineer, 
born  at  Dole  in  1779,  served  under  Napoleon  in  several 
campaigns.  In  1824  he  accompanied  La  Fayette  to 
America,  where  he  rendered  important  services  as  chief 
engineer  of  the  army.  After  his  return  to  France  he 
became  aide-de-camp  to  Louis  Philippe,  lieutenant- 
general  of  engineers,  and  in  1836  minister  of  war.  Died 
in  1839. 

Bernard,  (Thomas,)  a  wealthy  English  philanthropist, 
born  at  Lincoln  in  1750.  He  procured  the  erection  of 
a  free  chapel  in  Saint  Giles's,  London,  and  in  conjunction 
with  Count  Rumford  founded,  about  1800,  a  scientific 
establishment,  which  afterwards  became  the  Royal  In- 
stitution. He  wrote  several  works  on  the  improvemeut 
and  education  of  the  poor.    Died  in  1S18. 

See  James  Baker,  "  Life  of  Thomas  Bernard,"  1819. 

Bernard,  (William  Bayle,)  son  of  John  Bernard  the 
actor,  noticed  above,  born  in  1808,  wrote  "The  Nervous 
Man,"  "The  Middy  Ashore,"  and  other  po])ular  dramas, 
and  completed  and  published  his  father's  "  Recollections 
of  the  Stage." 

Bernard,  de,  deh  b^R'nta',  (Louis  Simon  Joseph,) 
a  French  writer,  sometimes  called  Bernard  de  Mo.\r- 
BRisoN,  was  horn  at  Saint-Es|)rit  in  1768.  He  was  rec- 
tor of  the  Acadeniv  of  Strashiirg.    Died  in  1832. 

Bernard  de  Chartres,  beR'nSR'  deh  shtRtR,  a  cele- 
brated Platonic  philosopher  and  theologian  of  the  twelfth 
century.  He  directed  a  school  at  Chartres,  in  France,  and 
wrote  two  works,  called  "  Megacosmus"  and  "  Microcos- 
mus,"  which  are  extant. 

See  Haureau,  "De  la  Philosophie  scolastlque." 

Bernard  del  Carpio.    See  Bernardo. 

Bernard  de  Mentlion,  bCR''niR'  deh  mSN'toN', 
Saint,  founder  of  the  celebrated  establishments  of  the 
"  Great  and  Little  Saint  Bernard,"  was  born  near  An- 
necy,  in  France,  in  923.  After  having  converted  the 
pagan  inhabitants  of  the  Alpine  country  to  Christianity, 
he  built,  on  the  ruins  of  heathen  structures,  two  monas- 
teries for  the  relief  and  entertainment  of  pilgrims.  These 
houses  are  still  inhabited  by  monks,  who  render  great 
services  to  travellers  in  the  Alps.    Died  in  1008. 

See  Richard,  "Vie  de  Saint-Bernard  de  Menthon  ;"  J.  C.  Le- 
granu,  "Vie  de  S.  Bernard  de  Menthon,"  1743;  "Four  Eccled- 
astical  Biographies,"  by  J.  H.  Gurney. 

Bernard  de  Morlaix,  bgR''ntR''  deh  moR'kV,  a  Bene- 
dictine monk  and  Latin  poet  of  the  twelfth  century,  wrote 
a  treatise  "On  Contempt  of  the  World,"  ("De  Cou- 
temptu  Mundi,")  printed  in  1597. 

Bernard  de  Palissy.    See  Palissy. 

Bernard  de  Saxe- Weimar.    See  Bernhard. 

Bernard  de  Varennes,  b^R^ntR'  deh  vt'rfin',  Dom, 
a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  about  1650,  published  a 
"History  of  Constantine  the  Great,"  (1728,)  and  several 
religious  works.    Died  in  1730. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Bernard  de  Ventadour,  beR''ntR'  deh  vdN^tt'dooR', 
a  French  troubadour  of  the  twelfth  century,  was  patron- 
ized by  lileonore  of  Guienne.  He  is  noticed  and  praised 
by  Petrarch  in  his  "Trionfi,"  iv. 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1836;  Longfellow's 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Bernard  du  Grail,  de,  deh  b§R'ntR'  dli  gRtI  or 
gRt'ye,  (Charles,)  a  popular  French  novelist,  born  at 
Besanfon  in  1805.    Among  his  chief  works  are  "The 


aa  k;  (;  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  v.,  guttural; 


N,  Jtasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  #h  as  in  this. 
22 


(S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23 


BERNARD 


338 


BERNHARD 


Goidian  Knot,"  {1838,)  "Gerfaut,"  (1838,)  and  "The 
Serious  Man,"  {1847.)    ^^i^d  in  1850. 

See  QuERAKD,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  "Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine," voJ.  Ixi.,  1S47. 

Bernard  Saint-Affrique,  b^R'ntii'  siN'tt'fR^k', 
(Louis,)  a  French  statesman,  born  in  the  department  of 
Gard  in  1745,  became  a  member  of  the  National  Con- 
vention and  of  tlie  Council  of  Ancients. 

Beruardes,  beR-n^R^des,  (Diogo,)  one  of  the  most 
eminent  Portuguese  poets,  born  at  Ponte  de  Barca  about 
1540.  His  pastoral  poems  are  greatly  admired  by  his 
countrymen,  who  have  styled  him  the  "  Portuguese  The- 
ocritus."   Died  in  1596. 

See  Adamson,  "  Lusitania  illustrata;"  R.  Southev,  "On  Portu- 
guese Poetry;"  Longp-ellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  Bar- 
BosA  Machado,  "  Bibliotheca  Lusitana." 

Bernardi,  bcR'ntR^de',  (Arnald,)  a  French  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Cahors,  wrote  "Postilla  super  Apocalyp- 
sin."    Died  in  1334. 

Bernardi,  (August  Ferdinand.)    See  Bernhardi. 

Bernardi,  ber-nar'dee,  (John,)  an  English  officer, 
noted  for  his  zeal  in  the  cause  of  James  11. ,  whom  he 
followed  into  France  and  Ireland.    Died  in  1736. 

Bernardi,  (Joseph  Flzear  Dominique,)  a  French 
jurist  and  legal  writer,  born  at  Monieux,  in  Provence,  in 
175 1,  became  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred, 
and  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  (18 16.)  Died  in  1824. 

Bernardi  or  Bernardy,  beR'ntR^de^  (Philippe,)  a 
French  writer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Monieux 
in  1759,  was  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Poitiers.  Died  after 
1815. 

Bernardi,  bCR-n^R^dee,  (Stephen,)  a  German  com- 
poser and  writer  on  music,  lived  about  1600-40,  H6 
was  chapel-master  at  Verona. 

Bernardi  del  Castel-Bolognese,  beR-nSR^dee  del 
kas'tel  bo-l6n-ya'sa,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  lapidary, 
born  at  Castel-Bolognese  about  1495,  was  patronized  by 
Charles  V.  and  Pope  Clement  VII.    Died  in  1555. 

See  Nagler,  "Neues  Allgenieines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Bernardin.    See  Bernardino. 

Bernardin  de  Pequigny,  bCR'ntR^iN'  deh  pa'k^n^- 
ye',  a  French  theologian  and  writer,  born  in  Picardy 
about  1663  ;  died  in  1709. 

Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre.    See  Saint-Pierre. 

Bernardini,  bcR-ndR-dee^nee,  (Marcello,)  an  Italian 
opera-composer,  born  at  Capua  about  1752. 

Bernardino,  beR-naR-dee'no,  [Fr.  Bernardin,  hh\i'- 
ntR''diN',]  Sain  r,  of  Sienna,  an  eloquent  Italian  eccle- 
siastic, born  at  Massa  di  Carrara  in  1380.  He  became 
Vicar-General  of  the  order  of  Saint  Francis,  and  is  said 
to  have  founded  more  than  three  hundred  monasteries. 
Died  in  1444. 

See  DupiN,  "  Bibliotheque  ecclesiastique." 

Bernardo,  beR-niR'do,  [Fr.  Bernard,  beR^ntn',]  an 
Italian,  surnamed  IL  Trevisano,  (le  Tr^visan,)  born 
at  Padua  in  1406,  wrote  a  number  of  works,  in  Latin  and 
French,  on  alchemy.    Died  in  1490. 

See  F.  HoEFER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Bernardo  of  Pavia,  an  Italian  ecclesiastic,  became 
successively  professor  of  canon  law  at  Rome  and  at  Bo- 
logna, and  Bishop  of  Pavfa.  He  published  a  collection 
of  decretals,  and  several  other  works.    Died  in  1213. 

Bernardo,  (Zenale,)  called  Bernardino,  a  painter 
and  architect,  born  at  Treviglio,  in  the  Milanese,  was  a 
friend  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  who  praises  him  in  his 
"Treatise  on  Painting."    Died  in  1526. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Bernardo  da  Bologna,  b^R-niR'ao  di  bo-lin'yS,  an 
Italian  theologian  and  biographer,  lived  about  1740-50. 

Bernardo  "da  Cruz,  bgR-n^RMo  dS,  kRoos,  (Frey,) 
a  Portuguese  historian,  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Reign 
of  Don  Sebastian,"  (1837.) 

Bernardo  del  Carpio,  blR-n^R^do  del  kaR'pe-o,  a 
celebrated  Spanish  hero  of  the  ninth  century,  was  a 
nephew  of  Alfonso  the  Chaste.  He  displayed  the  most 
brilliant  courage  in  the  wars  against  the  Moors,  and,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  defeated  the  famous  Roland  at 
Roncesvalles.  His  exploits  form  the  subject  of  several 
dramas  by  Lope  de  Vega,  and  of  many  popular  Spanish 
ballads. 

See  Mariana,  "  Historia  de  Espaiia." 


Bernardoni,  b§R-n.^R-do'nee,  (Pietro  Antonio,)  an 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Vignola  in  1672  ;  died  in  1 7 14. 

Bernasconi,  bgR-nas-ko'nee,  (Andrea,)  a  musician, 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1712.  He  produced  a  number  of 
successful  operas.    Died  at  Munich  in  1784. 

See  Fetis,  "liiographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Bernasconi,  (Laura,)  an  Italian  flower-painter,  born 
at  Rome  about  1620  ;  died  after  1670. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bernauer,  b^R^now-er,  (Agnes,)  the  beautiful  daugh- 
ter of  a  citizen  of  Augsburg,  was  privately  married  to 
Albert,  Duke  of  Bavaria.  His  father,  having  discovered 
the  marriage,  caused  Agnes  to  be  drowned  in  the  Danube, 
(1435,)  on  a  charge  of  sorcery. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Bernazzano,  bgR-nat-sa^io,  a  Milanese  painter  of 
landscapes,  animals,  and  still-life,  lived  about  1540. 

Bernd,  bcRnt,  (Christian  Samuel  Theodor,)  a  Ger- 
man writer  on  heraldry,  born  at  Meseritz  in  1775,  pub- 
lished "The  Principal  Points  of  Heraldic  Science." 

Bernegger,  beR''nek''ker,  (Matthaus,)  a  German 
scholar  and  Latin  writer,  born  at  Hallstadt  in  1582  ;  died 
in  1640. 

Berner,  bSr/ner,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Breslau  in  1780,  was  a 
skilful  organist  and  pianist.    Died  in  1827. 

Berner,  (Johann  Benjamin,)  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Greitz  in  1727;  died  in  1772. 

Berneron,  de,  deh  bCRn^'roN',  (Francois,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  1750,  served  under  Luckner  and  Du- 
mouriez. 

Ber'ners,  (John  Bourchier,)  Lord,  an  English 
statesman  and  writer,  born  about  1474,  rose  to  be  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer  under  Henry  VIII.  He  is  chiefly 
celebrated  for  his  translation  of  Froissart's  "  Chronicles." 
Died  in  1532. 

Berners,  (Juliana.)   See  Barnes. 

Berne.schi.    See  Benaschi. 

Bernet,  beR'naV,  (Jacques,)  a  French  cardinal,  born 
at  Saint-P'lour  in  1770.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Aix 
in  1835.    Died  in  1846. 

Bernetti,  b^R-net^'tee,  (Tommaso,)  born  at  Fermo  i'-» 
1779,  was  one  of  the  thirteen  cardinals  who  refused  to 
attend  the  marriage  of  Napoleon  and  Maria  Louisa,  and 
who  were  called  black  cardinals,  from  their  not  being  al- 
lowed to  wear  the  purple.  He  assisted  in  the  conclusion 
of  the  concordat  with  the  Netherlands,  (1S27,)  and  was 
employed  in  other  important  negotiations.  Died  in  1852. 

See  "Biographie  du  Cardinal  Bernetti,"  1S52. 

Berneville,  de,  deh  beRn''veK,  (Gilebert,)  a  famous 
French  poet  or  tro2i7>cre,  born  in  Artois,  lived  about  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

See  A.  Dinaux,  "Trouveres  de  la  Flandre." 

Bernliard,  beRnOiaRt,  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar,  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  commanders  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
war,  born  in  1604,  was  a  son  of  John  HI.,  Duke  of  Saxe- 
Weimar.  Having  previously  served  in  the  armies  of 
Holland  and  Denmark,  he  joined  Gustavus  Adolphus 
on  his  arrival  in  Germany,  and  distinguished  himself  in 
various  engagements  in  163 1  and  1632.  After  the  death 
of  Gustavus  at  Liitzen,  (1632,)  he  commanded  the  left 
wing  of  the  Swedish  army,  and  by  his  skill  and  energy 
contributed  greatly  to  the  victory.  In  1633  he  obtained 
the  command  of  half  the  army,  and  received  the  duke- 
dom of  Franconia.  Dissatisfied  with  the  terms  of  the 
peace  of  Prague,  he  entered  into  a  personal  treaty  of 
alliance  with  France  in  1635.  He  subsequently  gained 
a  signal  victory  over  the  Imperial  troops  at  Rheinfelden, 
(1638,)  and  soon  after  captured  Breisach.  He  died  in 
1639,  of  pestilential  fever,  or,  according  to  some  writers, 
of  poison  administered  by  order  of  Cardinal  Richelieu. 

See  Schiller,  "  History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  ;"  "  History  of 
the  two  illustrious  Brothers  Ernestus  the  Pious,  and  Bernard,  Great 
Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar,"  London,  1740;  J.  A.  C.  von  Hellfeld, 
"Geschichte  Bernhards  des  Grossen,  Herzogs  zu  Sachsen-Wciniar," 
1797;  Bernhard  Roese,  "  Herzog  Bernhard  der  Grosse  von  Sach- 
sen-Weimar,"  2  vols.,  1828-29. 

Bernhard,  (Karl,)  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar,  born  at 
Weimar  in  1792.  He  served  in  the  principal  campaigris 
against  the  French  front  1806  to  1815,  and  was  made  lieu- 
tenant-general in  183 1.  He  published  "  Travels  in  North 


a,  e, T,  o,  u,  y,  h7!g;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BERNHJRD 


339 


BERNOULLI 


America,-'  (1828,)  and  "Summary  of  the  Campaign  in 
Java  in  181 1." 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and  November,  1829. 

Bernhard,  b^Rn^haRt,  (Karl,)  the  pseudonym  of 
Saiiit-Aubaiii,  a  celebrated  Danish  novelist,  of  French 
extraction.  Among  his  most  popular  works  are  "  Pic- 
tures of  Life  in  Denmark,"  (1841,)  "The  Children's 
Ball,"  and  "Christian  11.  and  his  Times,"  (1S37,)  a  his- 
torical romance. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale,"  and  Bellman,  "Poetes 
Suedois." 

Bernhard  or  Bernhardi  (beRn-haR'dee)  of  Bernitz, 
(Martin,)  a  Polish  botanist,  physician  to  the  King  of 
Poland,  lived  about  1650. 

Bernhard,  Saint.    See  Bernard,  Saint. 

Bernhardi,  beRu-haR'dee,  written  also  Bernard!, 
(August  Ferdinand,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at 
Berlin  about  1769.  He  was  a  brother-in-law  of  Tieck, 
and  published  conjointly  with  him  "  Bambocciaden,"  a 
collection  of  comic  tales.  He  also  wrote  "  Elements  of  the 
Science  of  Language,"  ("  Anlangsgriinde  der  Sprachwis- 
senschaft,"  1805,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1820. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Bernhardi,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  German  botanist  and 
medical  writer,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1774;  died  about  1840. 

Bernhardi,  (Karl  Christian  Sigismund,)  a  Ger- 
man statesman,  scholar,  and  writer,  born  at  Ottrau  in 
1799.  He  succeeded  Grimm  as  first  keeper  of  the  library 
of  the  museum  at  Cassel  in  1829,  and  was  in  1848  a 
member  of  the  National  Assembly  at  Frankfort. 

Bernhardy,  beRn-haR^dee,  (Gottfried,)  born  at 
Landsberg,  in  Prussia,  in  1800,  became  professor  of  clas- 
sical philology  at  Halle  in  1829. 

Bernhold,' beRnOiolt,  (Johann  Balthasar,)  a  Ger- 
man poet  and  theologian,  born  in  1687  ;  died  in  1769. 

Bernhold,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  1721,  wrote  several  tragedies.  Died  about 
1755- 

Bernhold,  (Johann  Michael,)  a  learned  German 
l)hysician  and  medical  writer,  born  in  1736  ;  died  in  1797. 

Berni,  beR^nee,  or  Bernia,  beR'ne-I,  (Francesco,) 
an  ennnent  Italian  burlesque  poet,  was  born  at  Lampo- 
recchio,  in  Tuscany,  about  1490.  He  became  a  priest, 
and  entered  the  service  of  Cardinal  Bibbiena  at  Rome. 
After  the  death  of  Bibbiena  he  passed  seven  years  in  the 
service  of  Ghiberti,  Bishop  of  Verona,  as  secretary.  He 
was  appointed  a  canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Florence  about 
1530.  He  wrote  a  number  of  burlesque  poems  and  satires, 
which  are  remarkable  for  the  elegance  of  their  style, 
and  are  considered  the  best  model  of  a  kind  of  poetry 
which  derives  from  him  its  name,  "Poesia  Bernesca." 
Berni  also  produced  a  modification  {rifacmienio)  of  Bo- 
jardo's"  Orlando  Innamorato,"  which  some  critics  regard 
as  superior  to  the  original  poem.  It  was  published  in 
1541.  "Berni  undertook,"  says  Hallam,  "  the  singular 
office  of  writing  over  the  'Orlando  Innamorato,'  pre- 
serving the  sense  of  almost  every  stanza,  and  inserting 
nothing  but  a  few  introductory  passages,  in  the  manner 
of  Ariosto,  to  each  canto.  The  genius  of  Berni,  playful, 
satirical,  flexible,  was  admirably  fitted  to  perform  this 
labour;  .  .  .  and  the  'Orlando  Innamorato'  has  de- 
scended to  posterity  as  the  work  of  two  minds."  ("In- 
troduction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")   Died  in  1536. 

See  GiKGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d' Italie ;"  Mazzuchelli, 
"Scntlori  d'ltalia;"  Rev.  H.  Stebbing,  "Lives  of  the  Italian 
Poets,"  1831;  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1824,  article 
"Italian  Narrative  Poetrj',"  (by  Pkescott.) 

Berni,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  jurist  and  dramatic 
poet,  born  in  1610  at  Ferrara,  where  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  belles-lettres.    Died  in  1673. 

Bernice.    See  Berenice. 

Bernier,  bgR'ne3^  (Adhelm,)  born  at  Senlis,  in 
Franc^,  published  several  works  on  French  history, 
dated  1834-37.^ 

Bernier,  (Etienne  Alexandre,)  a  zealous  royalist, 
born  at  Daon,  in  La  Mayenne,  in  1762,  was  called  "the 
Apostle  of  La  Vendee."  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Orleans  by  Napoleon.    Died  in  1806. 

See  Thiers,  "Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire." 

Bernier,  (Franqois,)  a  celebrated  French  traveller 
and  physician,  born  at  Angers.    In  1654  he  visited  Syria 


and  Egypt,  and  subsequently  resided  many  years  in  India 
as  physician  to  the  Mogul  emperor  Aurung-Zeb.  He 
published,  after  his  return,  a"  History  of  the  Last  Revo- 
lution of  the  States  of  the  Great  Mogul,"  (1670,)  and  a 
"Continuation  of  Memoirs  of  the  Empire  of  the  Great 
Mogul,"  (1671.)  These  are  esteemed  standard  works, 
and  are  written  in  a  spirited  and  attractive  style.  Ber- 
nier also  wrote  several  scientific  treatises,  which  were 
popular  in  his  tirhe.    Died  in  1688. 

See  Walckenaer,  "  Vies  de  plusieurs  Personnages  celebres;" 
"Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  i.,  second  series,  1827. 

Bernier,  (Jean,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Blois  in 
1622,  wrote  "  Medical  Essays,"  and  a  "  History  of  Blois.'" 
Died  in  1698. 

Bernier,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Mantes  in  1664,  became  royal  chapel 
master.    Died  in  1734. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiclens." 

Bernieri,  bg,R-ne-a'ree,  (Antonio,)  a  skilful  Italian 
miniature-painter,  born  in  1516,  was  apupil  of  Correggio. 
Died  in  1565. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Berningroth,  bCR'ning-rot',  (Martin,)  a  German 
engraver  and  designer,  born  in  1670;  died  in  1733. 

Bernini,  bCR-nee'nee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  eccle- 
siastic, son  of  Giovanni  Lorenzo,  noticed  below,  wrote  a 
"  History  of  all  Heresies  from  the  Beginning  of  Chris- 
tianity to  Innocent  XL,"  (1705.) 

Bernini,  [Fr.  Le  Bermn,  leh  bgR^niN'',]  (Giovanni 
Lorenzo,)  often  called  "  the  Cavalier  Bernini,"  an  emi- 
nent Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  born  at  Naples  in 
December,  1598.  At  a  very  early  age  he  was  taken  to 
Rome,  where  his  first  specimens  of  sculpture  procured 
for  him  the  favour  of  Paul  V.  and  Cardinal  Barberir.i, 
afterwards  Urban  VIII.  Among  his  best  works  are 
the  Barberini  palace,  the  colonnade  before  the  entrance 
of  Saint  Peter's,  and  the  monument  of  the  Countess  Ma- 
tilda. He  also  executed  busts  of  Charles  I.  of  England, 
Louis  XIV.  of  France,  and  other  distinguished  persons. 
Pie  was  patronized  and  munificently  rewarded  by  the 
principal  sovereigns  of  Europe,  and  left  at  his  death,  in 
November,  1680,  a  fortune  of  nearly  100,000  sterling. 
He  died  in  Rome. 

See  QuATREMERE  DE  QuiNCY,  "  Dictlonnaire  d' Architecture  ;" 
Domenico  Bernini,  "Vita  del  C'avallere  G.  L.  Bernini  suo  Padre," 
1713  ;  P.  B.  SiLORATA,  "  Biografia  del  Cavaliere  G.  L.  Bernini,"  1838. 

Bernini,  (Giuseppe  Maria,)  a  Capuchin  missionary 
to  the  East  Indies,  born  in  Piedmont,  translated  several 
works  from  the  Sanscrit.    Died  in  1753. 

Bernini,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  painter  and  sculptor, 
father  of  Cxiovanni  Lorenzo,  above  noticed,  born  in  Tus- 
cany in  1562.    Died  in  1629. 

iJernis,  de,  deh  bCR'ness',  (Francois  Joachim  de 
Pierre,)  a  French  cardinal  and  diplomatist,  born  at 
Saint-Marcel  de  I'Ardeche  in  1715.  He  was  ambassa- 
dor to  Venice,  was  employed  in  various  negotiations  by 
Louis  XV.,  and  subsequently  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs.  He  held  this  office  during  the  Seven  Years'  war, 
(1755-62.)  He  was  made  Archbishop  of  Albi  in  1764, 
having  been  previously  elected  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  He  wrote  a  number  of  poems  and  prose 
works.  In  1769  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death  in  1794. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XV,"  and  "  Correspondance  ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Bernitz,  (Martin  of.)    See  Bernhard,  (Martin.) 

Ber''no,  [Fr.  Bernon,  b^R^'noN'',]  a  learned  Bene- 
dictine monk,  became  Abbot  of  Reichenau,  near  Lake 
Constance.  Lie  wrote,  in  Latin,  several  treatises  on 
music  and  theology.    Died  in  1045. 

Bernouilli.    See  Bernoulli. 

Bernoul.    See  Bertholdus. 

Bernoulli,  beR'noo''ye^,  written  also  Eernomlli, 
(Christophe,)  nephew  of  Jacques,  (second  of  the  name,) 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Bale  in  1782.  He  studied  at 
Gottingen,  where  he  became  professor  of  natural  history 
in  1817.  He  published  a  treatise  "On  the  Phospho- 
rescence of  the  Sea,"  (1802,)  and  "Physical  Anthro- 
pology," 1811,  (in  German.) 

Bernoulli,  (Daniel,)  a  celebrated  mathematician  and 
philosopher,  son  of  Jean,  (the  first  of  that  name,)  noticed 


9  as  s;  g  /lard;  g  asy;  c,  H,  K.guthiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (ii^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.,> 


BERNOULLI 


BERQUIN 


below,  was  born  at  Groningen  on  the  9th  of  February, 
1 700.  He  studied  mathematics  and  medicine  in  Italy  under 
Michelotti  and  Morgagni,  and  was  appointed  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Saint  Petersburg  about  1725.  After 
his  return  in  1733  he  became  professor  of  anatomy  and 
botany  at  Bale,  and  subsequently  of  physics  and  specu- 
lative philosophy.  In  1748  he  succeeded  his  father  as 
member  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  ob- 
tained the  prize  of  that  institution  ten  times,  having 
shared  it  once  with  Euler,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
principal  learned  societies  of  Europe.  Among  his  nu- 
mejous  works,  which  are  written  in  Latin  and  French, 
we  may  mention  his  "  Treatise  on  Hydrodynamics," 
(1738,)  and  "Physical  and  Mechanical  Researches  on 
Sound,"  (1762.)    Died  at  Bale  in  1782. 

See  CoNDORCET,  "  filoge  de  Daniel  Bernoulli,"  1782;  D.  Ber- 
'jocLi.i,  "Vita  D.  BernouUi,"  17S3. 

Bernoulli,  (Jacques  or  James,)  an  eminent  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Bale,  in  Switzerland,  in  December, 
1654.  He  studied  the  philosophy  of  Descartes,  and  in 
1687  became  professor  of  mathematics  in  his  native  city. 
He  improved  the  differential  calculus  invented  by  Leib- 
nitz, and  solved  many  important  problems,  among  which 
is  the  "  Isoperimetrical  problem."  He  discovered  the 
properties  of  the  logarithmic  spiral,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  mathematics.  In  1699  he  was  elected  a 
foreign  associate  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris. 
Died  at  Bale  in  1705. 

See  Battier,  "Vita  Jacobi  Bernoulli,"  1703. 

Bernoulli,  (Jacques,)  son  of  John,  (the  second  of  the 
name,)  born  at  Bale  in  1759.  He  was  instructed  in 
geometry  and  physics  by  his  uncle  Daniel,  and  became 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he 
married  the  granddaughter  of  Euler.  He  was  drowned 
in  the  Neva  in  1789. 

Bernoulli,  (Jean  or  John,)  born  at  Bale  in  1667,  was 
a  brother  of  Jacques,  (the  first  of  the  name.)  He  dis- 
covered the  exponential  calculus,  and  had  a  share  in  the 
principal  discoveries  of  his  brother.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Groningen,  (1695,)  and  in  the 
University  of  Bale,  (1705.)  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academies  of  Paris,  Berlin,  and  Saint  Petersburg,  and 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  His  contributions  to 
the  "Acta  Eruditorum,"  and  other  journals,  were  pub- 
lished in  four  volumes,  (1742,)  and  his  "  Correspondence 
with  Leibnitz"  in  1745.    Died  in  1748. 

He  left  three  sons,  Nicholas,  Daniel,  and  John, 
who  are  all  noticed  in  this  work. 

See  D'Alembert,  "£loge  de  J.  Bernoulli." 

Bernoulli,  (Jean  or  John,)  brother  of  Daniel,  born 
in  1 7 10  at  Bale,  where  he  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics. He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
of  Paris  and  Berlin,  and  wrote  several  scientific  works, 
which  obtained  the  prize  from  the  first-named  institu- 
tion.   Died  in  1790. 

Bernoulli,  (Jean,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Bale 
in  1744,  became  astronomer  royal  at  Berlin.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg  and  the 
Royal  Society  of  London,  and  published  a  number  of 
works  on  astronomy,  mathematics,  and  geography,  also 
"Travels  in  Germany,  Russia,"  etc.,  (6  vols.,  1779.) 
Died  in  1807. 

Bernoulli,  (Jerome,)  a  Swiss  naturalist,  a  relative  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Bale  h\  1745  ;  died  in  1829. 

Bernoulli,  (Nicolas,)  eldest  brother  of  Daniel,  born 
at  Bale  in  1695.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Berne, 
and  subsequently  of  mathematics  at  Saint  Petersburg, 
in  conjunction  with  his  brother  Daniel.  Died  at  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1726. 

Bernoulli,  (Nicolas,)  cousin  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  liale  in  1687.  He  was,  on  the  recommendation  of 
Leibnitz,  appointed  in  1716  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Padua.  He  made  several  important  mathematical  dis- 
coveries.   Died  in  1759. 

Bernstein,  blan'stin,  (Georg  Heinrich,)  born  near 
Jena  in  1787,  became  in  1821  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Berlin.  He  published  an  edition  of  the  "Arabic 
Grammar  and  Chrestomathy"  of  Michaelis,  and  of  "  ?Ii- 
to])adesa,"  a  popular  Sanscrit  book  of  stories  or  fables. 
He  removed  to  Breslau  in  1843. 

Bernstein,  (Johann  Gottlieb,)  a  German  writer  on 


surgery,  born  in  1747  in  Berlin,  where  he  was  professor 
from  1810  until  1821.    Died  in  1835. 

Bernstorff,  von,  fon  beRn''stoKf,  (Andreas  Peter,) 
Count,  an  eminent  statesman,  born  in  the  duchy  of 
Brunswick-Luneburg  in  1735.  He  studied  at  Gottingen 
and  Leipsic,  and  became  minister  of  state  (1769)  under 
the  King  of  Denmark.  He  died  in  1797,  leaving  a  high 
reputation  for  ability  and  integrity.  He  was  a  nephew 
of  Johann  Hartwig  Ernst,  noticed  below. 

See  Eggers,  "  Denkwiirdigkeiten  aus  dem  Leben  des  Staatsmi- 
nisters  Von  Bernstorff,"  1800;  Rasmus  Nyerup,  "A.  P.  Bernstorffs 
Levnetsbeskrivelse,"  1812. 

Bernstorff,  von,  (Christian  Gunther,)  Count, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1769.  He 
became  successively  ambassador  to  Berlin  and  Stock- 
holm, and  minister  of  state,  (1797.)  He  represented 
Denmark  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  18 14,  and  in  181 5 
signed  the  cession  of  Norway  to  Sweden.  In  1818  he 
entered  the  service  of  Prussia,  and  was  appointed  minis- 
ter of  foreign  affairs.    Died  in  1835. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Bernstorff,  von,  (Johann  Hartwig  Ernst,)  Count, 
a  celebrated  statesman  in  the  Danish  service,  born  at 
Hanover  in  1712.  He  was  employed  m  various  import- 
ant negotiations,  and  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
in  1 75 1.  In  1773  he  concluded  a  treaty  by  which  Russia 
exchanged  Holstein  for  Oldenburg.  He  was  a  generous 
patron  of  learning  and  the  arts,  and  greatly  promoted 
the  commerce  and  manufactures  of  his  country.  Died 
in  1772.  A  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory  by 
the  serfs  whom  he  had  emancipated. 

See  Martin  Hubner,  "  Sorgetale  over  Greve  J.  H.  E.  Bernstorff," 
1772;  G.  L.  Ahlemank,  "  Ueber  das  Leben  und  den  Charakter  des 
Grafen  von  Bernstorff,"  1777;  G.  Navarro,  ''Vie  du  Comte  J.  H. 
E.  Bernstorff,"  1822. 

Bernt,  beRnt,  (Joseph,)  a  German  writer  on  legal 
medicine,  born  about  1770.  He  lectured  on  medical 
jurisprudence  at  Prague  and  at  Vienna.    Died  in  1842. 

Bernward,  bCRn'waRt,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Hildesheim, 
in  Lower  Saxony,  born  about  950,  was  celebrated  for  his 
profound  and  various  learning,  and  his  patronage  of  the 
arts.  Pie  was  appointed  tutor  and  court  chaplain  to  the 
emperor  Otho  HI.    Died  in  1022. 

Beroalde,  ba'ro^SkK,  orBerould,  ba'roo',(MATHiEU,) 
a  French  Calvinistic  theologian,  born  near  Paris  about 
1 5 10,  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Orleans.  Died  in  1576. 

Beroalde  de  Verville,  ba'ro'tkK  deh  v^R-veK, 
(Francois,)  a  French  mathematician  and  liticraieitr,  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1558  ;  died  in  1612. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Beroaldo,  ba-ro-.^Kdo,  (Filippo,)  called  the  Elder, 
an  Italian  scholar  and  writer  of  high  reputation,  born  in 
1453  at  Bologna,  where  he  was  for  many  years  professor 
of  belles-lettres.  He  published  numerous  commentaries 
on  the  Greek  and  Latin  classics,  also  Orations,  and  other 
short  works.    Died  at  Bologna  in  1505. 

See  Ginguexe,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  Giovanni  Pini, 
"Vita  P.  Beroa!di  Senioris,"  1505. 

Beroaldo,  (Filippo,)  nephew  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1472,  became  librarian  of  the  Vatican  in 
15 16.    Died  at  Rome  in  1518. 

Beroaldo,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  poet,  son  of  Bero- 
aldo the  Elder,  was  born  at  Bologna;  died  in  1557. 

Beroldingen,  de,  deh  ba'rol-ding''en,  (Franz,)  Ba- 
ron, a  Swiss  mineralogist,  born  at  Saint-Gall  in  1 740. 
He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  Ancient  and  Modern  Volca- 
noes," (1791,)  and  other  works,  in  German.  Died  in  1798. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Be-ro^sus,  [Gr.  Br/pwcrof;  Fr.  B^irose,  bi'roz',]  aChal- 
dee  historian,  sometimes  called  Bar-Oseas,  ("son  of 
Oseas,")  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
was  a  priest  of  Belus  at  Babylon.  His  principal  work 
was  a  "History  of  Babylonia  and  Chaldaea,"  written  in 
Greek  ;  fragments  of  it  are  preserved  in  Eusebius  and 
other  Greek  writers. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Graecis ;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliot.heca 
Grasca." 

Berould.    See  Beroalde,  (Mathieu.) 
Berquen.    See  Berken. 

Berquin,  beRO'ciN',  (Arnaud,)  a  French  writer,  l)orn 
at  Bordeaux  in  1749,  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  his  "Chil- 
dren's Friend,"  (6  vols.,  1784,)  and  other  popular  works 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lo7ig;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsciire;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  not;  good;  moon; 


BERQUIN 


34> 


BERRl^ER 


for  the  young.  He  also  made  a  number  of  translations 
from  the  English,    Died  in  Paris  in  1791. 

See  Le  Bas,  "  Dictionnaire  encyclop^dique  de  la  France." 

Berquin,  de,  deh  beR'kdN',  (Louis,)  a  French  gen- 
tleman, born  in  Artois  in  1489,  was  a  counsellor  of  Fran- 
cis I.  He  was  a  friend  of  Erasmus,  whose  works  he  was 
active  in  circulating.  Being  accused  of  Lutheranism  by 
the  theological  faculty  of  Paris,  he  was  burned  at  the 
stake  in  1529. 

See  SiSMON-Di,  "Histoiredes  Fran^ais,"  chap,  xvi.;  Bayle,  "  His- 
torical and  Critical  Dictionaiy ;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1859. 

Berr,  beR,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  musician  and 
composer  of  instrumental  music,  born  at  Manheim  in 
1794;  died  about  1838. 

Berre,  bi'ra',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Flemish  painter  of 
animals,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1777  ;  died  in  1838. 

Berredo,  de,  da  ber-ra'do,  (Bernardo  Pereira,)  a 
Portuguese  writer  and  soldier,  born  at  Villa  de  Serpa. 
He  became  Governor  of  Maranham,  Brazil,  and  wrote 
annals  of  that  province,  (1749.)  Died  at  Lisbon  in  1748. 

Berrettoni.    See  Berettoni. 

Berres,  ber'r^s,  (Joseph,)  a  skilful  German  surgeon, 
born  at  Goding,  in  Moravia,  in  1796.  About  1830  he 
became  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  University  of  Vienna, 
and  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Anthropologie," 
(1821,)  which  was  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1844. 

Berretoni,  (Niccolo.)    See  Berretti. 

Berretti,  ber-ret'tee,  or  Berretini,  b^r-ra-tee'nee, 
written  also  Berretoni,  (Niccolo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
one  of  the  best  pupils  of  Carlo  ALaratta,  born  about  1637  ; 
died  in  1682. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Berrettiui.    See  Cortona,  (Pietro  da.) 
Berri.    See  Berry. 
Berriat.    See  Berryat. 

Berriat  Saint-Prix,  ba're-S'  siN'pRe',  (Charles,)  a 
French  jurist  and  litterateitr,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1802, 
became  a  counsellor  at  the  imperial  court  of  Paris  in  1857. 

Berriat  Saint-Prix,  (Jacques,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Grenoble  in  1769.  He  published  numerous  works, 
and  edited  the  writings  of  Boileau,  (1830-34.)  Died  at 
Paris  in  1845. 

See  Duchesne,  "  Notice  siir  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Berriat  Saint-Prix," 
1847;  A.  H.  Taillandier,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Berriat  Saint- 
Prix,"  1846. 

Ber'ridge,  (John,)  born  about  1716,  became  vicar  of 
Everton  in  1755,  and  published  "The  Christian  World 
Unmasked,"  (1773.)  Died  in  1793. 
.  Ber'ri-en,  (John  McPherson,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  Senator,  born  in  New  Jersey  in  1781,  removed  to 
Georgia,  where  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate 
in  1824.  He  was  appointed  attorney-general  of  the  United 
States  in  1829,  and  resigned  in  183 1.  He  was  again 
made  Senator  in  1840  and  in  1846.    Died  in  1S56. 

Berrier,  ba're-a',  (Jean  Franqois  Constant,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Aire,  in  Artois,  in  1766,  wrote 
birthday  odes,  vaudevilles,  etc.    Died  in  Paris  in  1824. 

Ber'ri-man,  (William,)  a  learned  English  divine, 
born  in  London  in  1688,  became  chaplain  to  the  Bishop 
of  London  in  1720.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a 
"Historical  Account  of  the  Trinitarian  Controversy," 
(1725.)  He  was  well  versed  in  Greek,  Hebrew,  Chaldee, 
Arabic,  etc.    Died  in  1750. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Berroyer,  b^'Rw^'ya',  (Claude,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Moulins  in  1655,  was  an  advocate  in  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Paris.    Died  in  1735. 

Berruguete,  bgr-roo-ga'ti,  (  Alonzo,)  a  Spanish  archi- 
tect and  sculptor,  born  near  Valladolid,  was  a  pupil  of 
Michael  Angelo.  He  restored  the  Alhambra,  and  exe- 
cuted several  important  works  at  Madrid.  Among  his 
master-pieces  was  the  choir  of  the  cathedral  of  Toledo. 
He  was  made  a  chevalier  by  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
Died  in  1561. 

See  Bermudez,  "Diccionario  Historico." 

Berruyer,  bi'rii-e'i',  (Jean  Francois,)  born  at  Lyons 
in  1737,  served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war  and  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  the  French  Revolution,  and  was  made  inspector- 
general  of  cavalry.    Died  in  1804. 

Berruyer,  (Joseph  Isaac,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Rouen  in  1681  ;  died  in  1758. 


Ber^'ry,  (Hiram  G.,)  an  American  general,  born  ai 
Thomaston,  (now  Rockland,)  Maine,  in  1824.  He  served 
as  colonel  at  Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861,  and  became  a 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  April,  1862.  tie  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  skill  and  courage  at  Fair  Oakift', 
June  I.  and  in  the  Seven  Days'  battles  near  Richmond, 
June  26-July  I,  1862.  About  February,  1863,  he  was 
appointed  a  major-general.  He  commanded  a  division 
at  Chancellorsville,  where  he  was  killed.  May  3,  1863, 

Ber'ry,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  naval  commander, 
born  in  Devonshire  in  1635  ;  died  in  1 69 1. 

Berry,  (Mary,)  an  English  lady  of  distinguished  tal- 
ents and  beauty,  born  in  1762,  was  an  intimate  friend 
and  correspondent  of  Horace  Walpole.  She  wrote  a 
work  entitled  "  England  and  France,"  and  a  "  Life  of 
Lady  Rachel  Russell."  Her  correspondence  and  that 
of  her  sister  Agnes  with  Horace  Walpole  came  out  in 
1840.    Died  in  1852. 

See  "  Journals  and  Correspondence  of  Miss  Mary  Berry,"  edited 
by  Lady  Theresa  Lewis,  1S66;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
March,  1845;  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  vol.  cxxii.,  1865. 

Berry,  (William,)  a  Scottish  seal-engraver,  born 
about  1730  ;  died  in  1783. 

Berry  or  Berri,  de,  deh  b^r're,  [Fr.  pron.  ba're',] 
(Caroline  Ferdinande  Louise,)  Duchesse,  daughter 
of  Ferdinand  I.,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  was  born  at 
Naples  in  179S.  She  was  married  in  1816  to  the  Duke 
of  Berry,  second  son  of  Charles  X.  After  the  assassina- 
tion of  her  husband,  in  1820,  the  legitimists  supported  the 
claims  of  her  infant  son,  the  Duke  of  Bordeaux,  to  the 
throne.  In  1832  a  rising  in  her  favour  took  place  in  15rit- 
tany,  but,  being  betrayed  by  a  pretended  friend,  she  was 
taken  by  the  enemy,  and,  after  a  short  imprisonment, 
retired  to  Sicily.    Died  in  1870. 

See  Dermon'Court,  "La  Vendee  et  RLadame,"  Paris,  1834:  Al- 
fred Nettement,  "  Memoires  de  Madame  la  Duchesse  de  Berry," 
3  vols.,  1836;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1S33; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1837. 

Berry  or  Berri,  de,  (Charles,)  Due,  born  in  1446, 
was  a  son  of  King  Charles  VII.,  and  a  younger  brother 
of  Louis  XI.  Impelled  by  ambition  to  be  king,  he  con- 
spired with  Charles  the  iJold  against  Louis  XI.  Thi.s 
was  the  origin  of  the  League  of  the  Public  Good,  ( Bien 
public.)    (See  Louis  XI.)    Died  in  1472. 

Berry,  de,  (Charles,)  Due,  a  grandson  of  Louis  XIV., 
born  in  1686.  He  married  in  1710  the  daughter  of  Philij), 
Duke  of  Orleans,  afterwards  regent  of  France.  Died  iu 
1 7 14. 

See  Saint-Si.mon,  "Memoires." 

Berry  or  Berri,  de,  (Charles  Ferdinand  d'Ar- 
tois — dSk'tw^',)  Due,  a  French  prince,  born  at  \'er- 
sailles  in  1778,  was  the  second  son  of  Charles  X.  He 
emigrated  about  1790,  and  served  in  the  army  under  the 
Prince  of  Conde.  In  1816  he  married  the  Princess  Caro- 
line of  Naples.  He  was  assassinated  by  Louvet  in  Paris 
in  February,  1820. 

See  Chateaubriand,  "Memoires  touchant  la  Vie  et  la  Mort  du 
Due  de  Berry,"  1820;  F.  T.  Delbare,  "Vie  de  S.  A.  R.  le  Due  de 
Berry,"  1820. 

Berry  or  Berri,  de,  (Jean,)  Due,  born  in  1340,  was 
the  third  son  of  John  II.,  King  of  France.  Pie  was  pres- 
ent at  the  battle  of  Poitiers,  and  in  1360  was  one  of  the 
hostages  delivered  up  to  England  by  the  treaty  of  Bre- 
tigny.  In  1 38 1  he  was,  by  Charles  VI.,  appointed  royal 
lieutenant  for  Languedoc,  but  on  account  of  his  tyranny 
was  deprived  of  his  office.  After  the  murder  of  the  Duke 
of  Orleans,  he  joined  the  faction  of  tlie  Armagnacs 
against  the  Burgundians.  He  died  in  141 6,  leaving  a 
valuable  collection  of  manuscripts  and  works  of  art. 

See  Ravnal,  "  Histoire  du  Berry;"  Froissart,  "Chronicles." 

Berry  or  Berri,  de,  (Marie  Louise  Elisabeth 
d'Orleans — doR^la'SN',)  Duchesse,  eldest  daughter  of 
Philip,  Duke  of  Orleans,  born  in  1695,  was  married  to 
the  Duke  of  Berry,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  She  was 
noted  for  her  ambition  and  profligacy.    Died  in  17 19. 

See  S.AiNT-SiMON,  "Memoires." 

Berryat  or  Berriat,  ba're-t',  (Jean,)  a  French  phy- 
sician and  medical  writer;  died  in  1754. 

Berryer,  ba're-a''  or  b^R'ya'',  (Antoine  Pierre,)  a  ce- 
lebrated political  orator  and  chief  of  the  legitimist  party, 
a  son  of  Pierre  Nicolas,  noticed  below,  born  in  Paris  on 
I  the  4th  of  January,  1790.    He  studied  in  the  college 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Vi,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BERRTER 


342 


BERTHET 


[uilly,  and  made  his  delnit  at  the  bar  of  Paris  in  181 1. 
Ahhough  he  favoured  the  restoration,  he  thought  it  ex- 
pedient to  show  lenity  to  the  losing  party.  He  was  as- 
sociated with  his  father  in  pleading  the  cause  of  Marshal 
Ney  in  181 5,  and  defended  with  success  General  Cam- 
bronne,  who  had  followed  Napoleon  to  Waterloo.  As  a 
prelude  to  his  parliamentary  career,  he  gave  a  course  of 
political  lectures,  which  were  very  successful,  and  in  1830 
was.  elected  a  deputy  for  Puy,  (in  Haute-Loire.)  In  his 
first  speech,  March,  1830,  he  sustained  with  magnificent 
eloquence  the  bo'  :l  position  that  the  crown  has  a  right 
to  choose  the  mii.istry  outside  of  the  majority. 

After  the  revolution  of  July,  1830,  he  remained  as 
champ'on  of  the  legitimist  cause,  although  the  members 
of  his  ^;arty  retired  from  the  Chamber  en  viasse.  He 
maintained  a  position  independent  of  the  ministerial  and 
he  opposition  parties.  His  speech  against  the  abolition 
>f  the  hereditary  peerage,  in  1S31,  was  very  celebrated. 
In  June,  1832,  he  was  arrested  as  a  suspected  partisan  of 
the  Duchesse  de  Berry,  who  attempted  to  effect  a  revo- 
lution b  arms,  although  he  had  advised  her  against  that 
course.  He  was  tried  and  acquitted.  About  the  period 
of  1835  he  was  considered  the  foremost  orator  in  the 
Chambf  r.  He  opposed,  as  defective  and  premature,  the 
motion  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  1838,  supported 
the  transient  coalition  of  Guizot  and  Thiers  in  1839,  and 
defended  the  captive  Louis  Napoleon  in  1840.  In  the 
Assemblies  of  1848  and  1849  he  was  one  of  the  chiefs  of 
the  majority  formed  by  a  coalition  of  several  monarchical 
parties.  He  opposed  the  coup  d\'tat  of  Napoleon  in  De- 
cember, 1851,  after  which  he  remained  aloof  from  politics 
for  some  years.  He  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy 
in  1852.    Died  in  November,  1868. 

See  Louis  Marie  de  la  Have  Cokmenin,  "  Biographic  parle- 
mentaire  de  M.  Berryer,"  1837  ;  "  Biographie  de  M.  Berryer,"  Paris, 
8vo,  1839;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Blackwood's  Maga- 
74ne"  for  July,  1837;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1842. 

Berryer,  (Nicolas  Rene,)  a  French  statesman,  born 
\i\  Paris  in  1703,  became  keeper  of  the  seals  in  1761. 
Died  in  1762. 

See  DucLOS,  "Memoires  sur  le  Regne  de  Louis  XV." 

Berryer,  (Pierre  Nicolas,)  a  French  jurist  and  elo- 
quent pleader,  born  at  Sainte-Menehould  in  1757,  was  the 
father  of  Antoine  Pierre,  noticed  above.  He  had  a  large 
practice  in  commercial  causes,  and  was  counsel  in  several 
political  trials,  among  which  was  that  of  Marshal  Ney 
in  1815.  He  published  an  "  Allocution  of  an  Old  Friend 
of  Liberty  to  France,"  (1830,)  and  "Souvenirs,"  (1838.) 
Died  in  184 1. 

.See  "  Souvenirs  de  M.  Berryer  de  1774  a  1838,"  2  vols.,  1838. 

Ber'ser-ker,  [from  ber,  "bare,"  and  serk,  "coat  of 
mail,"]  a  legendary  Scandinavian  hero  of  the  eighth 
century,  celebrated  for  his  strength  and  valour.  He 
fought  without  coat  of  mail  or  helmet,  whence  his  name. 
The  name  Berserkers  was  also  applied  to  a  class  of  war- 
riors who,  under  the  influence  of  a  sort  of  demoniac 
possession,  fought  naked,  performing  marvellous  feats 
of  valour,  unmindful  or  insusceptible  of  wounds. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexlkon." 

Bersmann,bgRs'm^n,[Lat.  Bersman''nus,](Gregor,) 
a  German  scholar,  born  at  Annaberg,  in  Saxony,  about 
1536.  He  translated  the  Psalms  into  Latin  verse,  and 
published  editions  of  several  classics.  Died  in  1611. 

See  W.  Schubert,  "De  G.  Bersmanno  Philologo  et  Poeta,"  1853. 

Berta,  b^R^ta,  (Francesco,)  born  about  1719,  at  Turin, 
v.Miere  he  became  one  of  the  keepers  of  the  royal  library. 
Died  in  1787. 

Bertaire  or  Berthaire,  Saint,  s^N^blR't^R',  born 
about  810,  was  descended  from  the  kings  of  France.  He 
became,  in  856,  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Monte-Casino. 
He  was  killed  by  the  Saracens  in  884. 

See  Mabili.on,  "Acta  Sanctorum  Ordinis  Sancti  Benedict!." 

Bertana.  b^R-t^'uc^,  (Lucia,)  an  Italian  poetess,  born 
about  1530  ;  died  in  1567. 

Bertani,  beR-ta^iee,  or  Bertano,  (Giovanni  Bat- 
TiSTA,)  an  Italian  painter  and  architect,  was  a  pupil  of 
Giulio  Romano.    He  worked  at  Mantua  about  1566. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Bertani,  (Lelio,)  an  Italian  musician  and  composer, 
born  at  Brescia  about  1520;  died  in  1600. 


Bertaut,  Bertault,  cr  Berthaut,  pronounced  alike 
b^R'to',  born  at  Valenciennes  about  1705,  was  an  excel- 
lent performer  on  the  violoncello,  which  he  first  rendered 
popular  in  France.    Died  in  1756. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Bertaut,  (liLOi,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Vesoul  in 
1782,  became  professor  of  mathematics  at  Besan^on 
about  1800.    Died  in  1834. 

Bertaut,  (FRANgoiS,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in 
Paris  in  1621,  was  a  favourite  with  Louis  XIII.,  who  ap- 
pointed him  his  reader.  He  was  a  brother  of  Madame 
de  Motteville.    (See  Motteville.) 

Bertaut,  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  popular 
poet,  born  at  Caen  about  1560,  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  See?: 
in  1606,  and  almoner  to  Mary  de  Medicis,  queen  of  Henry 
IV.  It  is  said  that  he  contributed  much  to  the  conver- 
sion of  Henry  IV.  to  Catholicism.  He  composed  pas- 
torals, songs,  elegies,  and  other  poems,  which  were  much 
admired.  Many  of  them  were  translated  into  Greek  and 
Latin.  He  was  an  uncle  of  Madame  de  Motteville  the 
authoress.    Died  in  1611. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "De  la  Poesie  Frangaise  au  seizleme  Siecle." 

Bertaut,  (Leonard,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at 
Autun  ;  died  in  1662. 

Bertaux,  beii'tS',  (Duplessi,)  a  French  artist,  en- 
graved the  "Campaigns  of  Napoleon  in  Italy,"  after 
Vernet.    Died  in  181 5. 

Bertel,  b^R'tel,  or  Bertels,  bgR^tels,  (Jan,)  a  Flem- 
ish ecclesiastic  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Louvain  in 
1559  ;  died  in  1607. 

Ber''tha  or  Ber'trade,  called  also  E''dith-ber'ga,  a 
daughter  of  Caribert,  King  of  Paris,  lived  about  560  a.d. 
She  w^as  married  to  Ethelbcrt,  King  of  Kent,  whom  she 
persuaded  to  embrace  Christianity. 

See  Le  Bas,  "  Dictionnaii'e  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Ber'tha,  [Fr.  Berthe,  baRt,]  a  daughter  of  Conrad, 
King  of  Burgundy,  was  married  to  Robert,  King  of  Paris, 
her  cousin  in  the  fourth  degree,  about  995,  and  after- 
wards divorced  on  account  of  relationship. 

Berthaire.    See  Ijertaire,  Saint. 

Berthault,  beR'to',  (Louis  Martin,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  in  Paris  about  1771,  was  commissioned  by 
Napoleon  to  execute  a  number  of  public  works.  He 
furnished  the  designs  for  the  principal  parks  and  gardens 
of  France. 

See  Le  Bas,  "  Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Berthault,  (Pierre,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at 
Sens,  lived  about  1600-50. 

Berthault,  (Rene,)  a  French  litterateur,  translated 
the  "Golden  Book"  of  Marcus  Aurelius.   Died  in  1534. 

Berthaut.    See  Bertaut. 

Berthe.    See  I'ertha. 

Berthegene.    See  Berthezene. 

Berthelemy,  b^R^tarme',  (Jean  Simon,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  at  Laon  in  1743  ;  died  in  1811. 

Berthelet,  (Gregoire.)    See  Berthelot. 

Berthelin,  bCRt'ldN',  (Pierre  Charles,)  a  French 
writer  on  lexicography,  born  in  Paris  about  1720;  died 
in  1780. 

Berthelot,  hhvx'W ,  (Claude  Francois,)  a  French 
mechanician,  engineer,  and  professor  of  mathematics, 
born  at  Chateau-Chalons  in  1718.  He  published  "Me- 
chanics applied  to  the  Arts,  Manufactures,  Agriculture, 
and  War,"  (1782.)    Died  in  1800. 

See  Le  Bas,  "Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Berthelot  or  Berthelet,  (Gregoire,)  a  French  Bene- 
dictine writer,  born  at  Berain  in  1680  ;  died  in  1745. 

Berthelot,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  jurist,  and 
professor  of  law  in  Paris,  where  he  was  born  in  1749; 
died  in  1814. 

Berthelot,  (N.,)  a  French  satiric  poet,  born  about 
1580. 

Berthereau,  bgRt^ro',  (Georges  Franqois,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic  and  philologist,  born  at  Belesme  in  1732; 
died  in  1794. 

Berthet,  beR''ti',  (Elie  Bertrand,)  a  French  novel- 
ist, born  at  Limoges  in  181 5.  He  became  a  resident 
of  Paris  in  1834,  and  produced  many  successful  novels, 
among  which  are  "The  Poacher,"  ("Le  Braconnier," 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \i,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  md^m; 


BERTHET 


343 


BERTHOUD 


1S46,)  "The  Storks'  Nest,"  ("LeNidde  Cigognes,"  1848,) 
and  "The  Catacombs  of  Paris,"  (8 vols.,  1854.) 

Bertliet,  (Jean,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  writer,  born  at 
Tarascon  in  1622  ;  died  in  1692. 

Bertliezene,  bCRt'zaN',  written  also  Berthegene, 
(Pierre,)  a  French  baron,  born  in  Herault  in  1775, 
gained  the  rank  of  general  of  division  by  his  conduct  at 
Bautzen  and  Lutzen  in  1813.  He  had  a  prominent  part 
in  the  conquest  of  Algeria. 

Berthier,  beR'te-i',(GuiLLAUME  Franqois,)  a  French 
Jesuit  and  critic,  born  at  Issoudun  in  1704,  wrote  a  con- 
tinuation (in  6  vols.)  of  the  "History  of  the  Galilean 
Church."  He  edited  the  "Journal  de  Trevoux"  for 
many  years.    Died  in  1782. 

Berthier,  (Joseph  Etienne,)  a  French  Cartesian  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Aix  in  1702,  was  an  Oratorian,  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  The  Nature  of  Comets," 
("La  Physique  des  Cometes,"  1760,)  and  "The  Princi- 
ples of  Physics,"  (1763.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1783. 

Berthier,  (Louis  Alexandre,)  Prince  of  Wagram, 
was  born  at  Versailles  in  November,  1753.  He  served 
as  captain  under  La  Fayette  in  the  United  States,  (1778- 
82,)  and  in  1796  became  chief  of  staff  of  the  army  of 
Bonaparte,  with  the  rank  of  general  of  division.  He 
gained  in  this  campaign  the  favour  and  confidence  of 
Bonaparte,  whom  he  followed  in  1798  to  Egypt,  and 
aided  in  his  victory  over  the  Directory  in  1799,  soon 
after  which  he  became  minister  of  war.  He  was  made  a 
marshal  of  France  in  1804,  distinguished  himself  in  the 
campaign  against  Austria  in  1805,  and  received  the  title 
of  Prince  of  Neufchatel  in  1806.  During  the  absence 
of  Napoleon,  in  1809,  Berthier  had  for  a  short  time  the 
title  of  general-in-chief  of  the  grande  armee.  For  his 
services  at  the  battle  of  Wagram,  in  1809,  he  was  created 
Prince  of  Wagram.  In  this  and  subsequent  campaigns 
he  was  chief  o*i  the  staff,  and  usually  rode  in  the  carriage 
of  Napoleon,  whose  plans  and  orders  he  digested  and 
despatched  with  admirable  precision  and  promptitude. 
He  was  not,  however,  equal  to  the  chief  command  of  an 
army.  He  shared  the  disasters  of  the  Russian  campaign. 
In  1814  he  was  among  the  first  of  the  generals  to  give 
his  adhesion  to  Louis  XVIII.,  by  whom  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage.  On  the  return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba, 
Berthier  wished  to  be  neutral,  and  retired  to  Bamberg, 
where  he  met  a  violent  death  in  March,  1815.  Six  men 
in  masks  (says  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale") 
threw  him  from  a  window  into  the  street,  whence  he  was 
taken  up  in  a  dying  condition ;  but  this  story  is  discre- 
dited by  some  writers. 

See  "Memoires  d'A.  Berthier,"  Paris,  1826. 

Berthier,  (Napoleon  Louis  Joseph  Alexandre,) 
Duke  of  Wagram,  the  only  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1810.  He  entered  the  Chamber  of 
Peers  in  1836,  and  about  1848  became  a  partisan  of 
Louis  Napoleon.  In  1852  he  was  made  a  senator.  He 
is  distinguished  as  a  practical  agriculturist. 

Berthier,  (Pierre,)  a  French  mineralogist,  born  at 
Nemours  in  1772,  became  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1827.  His  chief  work  is  a  "Treatise  on 
Assays  by  the  Dry  Method,"  ("  Traite  des  Essais  par  la 
Voie  seche,"  11  vols.,  1833.)    Died  in  August,  1861. 

Berthold.    See  Bertiioldus. 

Berthold,  b^R'tolt,  a  Saxon  ecclesiastic,  who  was 
distinguished  for  his  zeal  in  converting  the  Livonians  to 
Christianity.  He  was  killed  in  1198,  while  endeavour- 
ing to  propagate  his  doctrines  by  force  of  arms. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgeineine  Encyklopaedie." 

Berthold,  a  German  ecclesiastic  and  eminent  pulpit 
orator  ;  died  in  1272, 

Berthold,  (Arnold  Adolf,)  a  German  savant,  born 
at  Soest,  in  Westphalia,  in  1 803,  He  published  a  "  Man- 
ual of  the  Physiology  of  Men  and  Animals,"  (2  vols., 
1829,)  a  "  Manual  of  Zoology,"  (1845,)  and  several  works 
on  comparative  anatomy  and  physiology.  He  became  a 
professor  at  Gottingen  in  1836.    Diecfin  1861. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Ber-thol'dus  or  Berthold,  bgR'tolt,  called  also  Ber- 
naldus,  Bernoul,  and  Bertoiil,  a  German  ecclesiastic, 
\yho  lived  about  1060,  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  history  of  his 
times,  and  other  works. 

Bertholet,  b^R'to'LV,  (Jean,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit,  born 


at  Salm,  wrote  the  "Ecclesiastical  and  Civil  History  ot 
the  Duchy  of  Luxembourg,"  (1741.)    Died  in  1755. 

Bertholet-Flemalle.    See  Flemalle. 

Berthollet,  beu'to'la',  (Claude  Louis,)  a  French 
chemical  philosopher  of  great  eminence,  was  born  at 
Tail  lore  or  Talloire,  near  Annecy,  Savoy,  on  the  9th  of 
November,  1748.  He  was  educated  at  Turin,  where  he 
took  his  degree  in  medicine  in  1768.  In  1772  he  re- 
moved to  Paris,  and  by  the  mediation  of  Tronchin  became 
physician  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  with  whom  he  enjoyed 
facilities  for  his  chemical  investigations.  He  produced 
"  Researches  on  the  Nature  of  Animal  Substances"  in 
1780,  and  about  this  time  was  admitted  into  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.  In  1785  he  announced  his  conversion 
to  the  anti-phlogistic  theory  of  Lavoisier,  which  no  other 
eminent  French  chemist  had  yet  adopted,  and  presented 
a  memoir  on  oxy-muriatic  acid,  (chlorine.)  He  discovered 
the  composition  of  ammonia  in  1785,  proved  that  nitro- 
gen is  an  essential  principle  in  the  composition  of  animal 
substances,  and  in  an  essay  on  pruss^c  acid  (1787)  main- 
tained that  oxygen  is  not  necessary  to  the  formation  of 
acids.  About  this  time  he  rendered  an  important  ser- 
vice by  inventing  the  process  of  bleaching  by  chlorine. 
In  1790  he  published  a  good  work  on  the  art  of  dyeing, 
"  Elemens  de  I'Art  de  la  Teinture."  He  was  chosen 
professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Polytechnic  School  in  1794, 
and  was  sent  to  Italy  with  Monge  in  1796  to  select  works 
of  art  and  science  which  should  be  taken  to  Paris  as 
spoils.  He  was  associated  with  Lavoisier  and  others  in 
reforming  the  nomenclature  of  chemistry.  Berthollet  is 
said  to  have  been  the  only  one  to  whom  Bonaparte  con- 
fided in  advance  the  secret  of  his  expedition  to  Egypt, 
(1798,)  which  he  accompanied.  Under  the  auspices  of 
Monge  and  Berthollet,  the  Institute  of  Egypt  was  founded; 
and  a  number  of  their  pupils  made  a  grand  application 
of  the  lessons  of  the  Polytechnic  School.  He  explained 
the  formation  of  the  carbonate  of  soda  at  Lake  Natron, 
and  discovered  a  valuable  mode  of  obtaining  muriatic 
acid  from  common  salt,  then  called  muriate  of  soda. 

Berthollet  was  one  of  the  few  select  friends  who  re- 
turned to  France  with  Bonaparte  in  1799,  about  the  end 
of  which  year  he  was  made  a  senator.  His  "  Researches 
on  the  Laws  of  Affinity"  (1801)  was  translated  into 
English  by  Farrel,  (1804.)  In  1803  he  published  an  able 
"Essay  on  Chemical  Statics,"  ("Essai  de  Statique  chi- 
mique,"  2  vols.,)  which  was  translated  into  English  and 
other  languages.  In  the  last-named  work  he  controverted 
the  opinions  of  Bergman  on  elective  affinity.  During 
the  empire  he  received  the  title  of  Count ;  but  he  always 
preserved  his  simplicity  and  love  of  study.  He  discov- 
ered how  to  keep  water  pure  in  voyages  by  carbonizing 
the  inside  of  the  cask  or  other  vessel.  On  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Bourbons  he  was  admitted  to  the  Chamber 
of  Peers.  He  died  at  Arcueil,  near  Paris,  on  the  6th  of 
November,  1822,  or,  according  to  some  writers,  on  the 
6th  of  December  of  that  year. 

See  CuviER,  "]£loge  de  Berthollet,"  1824;  E.  F.  Jomard,  "No- 
tice siir  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Berthollet,"  1823;  Jui.ia  de 
FoNTENELLE,  "  Notice  histoiique  sur  Berthollet,"  1826;  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Bertholon,  beR'toOSN',  (Pierre,)  a  French  physi- 
cian and  savant,  born  at  Lyons  in  1742,  was  a  friend  of 
Dr.  Franklin.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  "  Electricity 
of  Meteors,"  (1787,)  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in 
1800. 

See  "Biographie  Medicale." 

Berthon,  beR'toN',  (Rene  Th^:odore,)  a  French 
artist,  born  at  Tours  in  1778,  painted  history  at  Vienna 
and  Paris. 

Berthot,  b^R'to',  (Clement  Louis  Charles,)  a 
French  writer,  born  in  Haute-Marne  in  1758,  wrote  a 
"History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (18  vols.,  1792- 
1803.)    Died  in  1832. 

Berthoud,  b^R'too',  (Ferdinand,)  a  Swiss  mecha- 
nician and  writer,  born  in  the  county  of  Neufchatel 
about  1725,  was  the  inventor  of  marine  clocks.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Institute  of  France  and  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London.    Died  in  1807. 

Berthoud,  (Samuel  Henri,)  a  French  journalist  and 
litterateur,  born  at  Cambrai  in  1804,  was  successively 
associate  editor  of  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  the 


€  as      <;  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  c,  H,  K,  gtittiiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  tJiis.    (2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BERT  I 


344 


BERTON 


•*  Revue  de  Paris,"  and  "  La  Pi  esse."  He  has  published 
romances,  poons,  and  moral  and  historical  treatises.  He 
settled  in  I'aris  ai)out  1832. 

See  (^UEKARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Berti,  bCR^tee,  (Alessandro  Pompeo,)  an  Italian  ec- 
clesiastic and  historical  writer,  born  at  Lucca  in  1686. 
Died  in  Rome  in  1752. 

Berti,  (Giovanni  Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  theologian, 
and  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at  Pisa,  born  at 
Saravezza  in  1696;  died  in  1766. 

Berti,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  writer,  born  at 
Venice  in  1741,  was  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Parma. 
Died  in  1813. 

Ber'tie,  (Richard,)  an  English  Protestant  gentleman, 
who  married  the  Duchess-dowager  of  Suffolk.  In  the 
reign  of  Mary  he  retired  with  his  wife  to  the  continent, 
for  refuge  from  persecution. 

His  son  Perp:grine,  born  in  1555,  was  an  eminent 
officer,  and  succeeded  Leicester  as  commander  of  the 
English  troops  in  the  Low  Countries.    Died  in  1601. 

Bertie,  (Robert,)  a  son  of  Peregrine,  noticed  above, 
born  in  1582,  was  a  military  officer,  and  fought  for  Charles 
I.  in  the  civil  war.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Linclsey  about 
1626,  and  was  mortally^  wounded  at  Edgehill  in  1642.  • 

Bertie,  (Sir  Thomas  Hoar,)  an  English  naval  com- 
mander, born  in  London  in  1758.  He  served  against 
the  French  in  1778-82,  and  was  made  vice-admiral  in 
1813.    Died  in  1825. 

Bertie,  (Willoughby,)  fourth  Earl  of  Abingdon,  an 
English  statesman  and  political  writer.  He  published 
"  Thoughts  on  the  Letter  of  Edmund  Burke  to  the  She- 
riffs of  Bristol."    Died  in  1799. 

Bertier  de  Sauvigny,  beR^te-a'  deh  soVen^ye', 
(Louis  Benigne  Francois,)  a  French  statesman,  born 
about  1742,  was  intendant  of  the  district  of  Paris  in  1768. 
He  was  killed  in  a  mob  in  1789,  together  with  his  father- 
in-law  Foulon. 

Bertin,  biR'tiN',  (Antoine,)  a  French  erotic  poet, 
born  in  the  Isle  of  Bourbon  in  1752.  Plis  reputation  was 
founded  on  his  poem  "  Des  Amours,"  (1780.)  Died  in 
Saint  Domingo  in  1790. 

Bertin,  (Antoine,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at 
Droup-Saint-Basle  in  1761,  became  professor  of  theo- 
logy at  Rheims.    Died  in  1823. 

Bertin,  (Edouard  Francois,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  son  of  Louis  Francois,  noticed  below,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1797.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The 
Forest  of  Fontainebleau,"  and  a  "View  of  the  Apen- 
nines." He  became  editor  or  director  of  the  "Journal 
des  Debats"  in  1854. 

Bertin,  (Exupere  (gk'sii'paiRO  Joseph,)  a  French 
anatomist  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Tremblay  in  1712, 
published  a  "Treatise  on  Osteology,"  (4  vols.,  1754,)  and 
other  anatomical  and  medical  works.    Died  in  1781. 

See  CoNDORCET,  "filoge  de  Bertin." 

Bertin,  (Henri  Leonard  Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
statesman,  born  in  Perigord  in  1719,  became  controller- 
general  of  finance  in  1759.    Died  in  1792. 

See  Lacretelle,  "  Histoire  du  dix-huitieme  Siecle." 

Bertin,  (Jean  Victor,)  a  French  landscape-painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1775;  died  in  1841. 

Bertin,  (Louis  FRANgois,)  a  French  journalist  and 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1766.  He  founded  in  1800 
the  "Journal  des  Debats,"  a  literary  daily  paper,  to  which 
Chateaubriand  and  other  eminent  writers  of  the  time 
were  contributors.  Accused  by  Napoleon  of  favouring 
the  royalists,  he  was  first  imprisoned  and  afterwards 
exiled,  and  in  1811  his  journal  was  confiscated.  He  had 
then  twenty  thousand  subscribers  or  more.  In  1814  he 
resumed  its  publication.    Died  in  1841. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Bertin,  (Louis  Marie  Armand,)  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  succeeded  his  father  as 
editor  of  the  "Journal  des  Debats"  in  1841.  Died  in  1854. 

Bertin,  (Louise  Ang^;lique,)  daughter  of  Louis  Fran- 
9ois,  born  at  Roches  in  1805,  studied  music  under  Fetis, 
and  composed  the  operas  of  "  Esmeralda"  and  "  Faust." 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Bertin,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in 
1667.    He  became  a  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Paris 


in  1716.  Among  his  works  is  "  Saint  Philip  baptizing 
the  Eunuch."    Died  in  1736. 

Bertin,  (Rene  Joseph  Hyacinthe,)  a  French  phy- 
sician and  medical  writer,  son  of  Exupere  Joseph,  noticed 
above,  born  near  Rennes  in  1767;  died  in  1827. 

Bertin,  (Th^:odore  Pierre,)  a  French  litterateicr, 
born  near  Provins  in  1751.  He  translated  into  French 
the  "  Curiosities  of  Literature"  and  other  English  works. 
Died  in  1819. 

Bertin,  Saint,  born  at  Constance,  in  Switzerland,  fjc- 
came  Abbot  of  Sithieu,  at  Saint-Omer,  about  695.  Died 
in  709. 

Bertin  d'Antilly,  b^R't^N'  dSN'te^ye',  (Louis  Au- 
GUSTE,)  a  French  dramatic  writer,  a  natural  son  of  Au- 
guste  Louis,  noticed  below,  born  in  Paris  about  1760. 
He  died  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1804. 

Bertin  de  Blagny,  beR'tiN'  deh  bltn'ye',  (Auguste 
Louis,)  a  French  litterateur,  and  member  of  the  Academ]' 
of  Inscriptions,  lived  about  1750. 

Bertin  de  Veaux,  bgR't^N'  deh  v6,  (Louis  Fran- 
(;:ois,)  a  French  politician  and  journalist,  brother  of  Louis 
Fran9ois  Bertin,  noticed  above,  born  in  Paris  in  1771. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  and  managers  of  the  "  Jour- 
nal des  Debats."  He  was  twice  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  became  a  councillor  of  state  in  1827,  and  a 
member  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers  in  1832.    Died  in  1842. 

Bertini,  beR-tee'nee,  (Antonio  Francesco,)  an  Ital- 
ian physician,  born  at  Castel-Fiorentino  in  1658;  died 
in  1726. 

Bertini,  (Giuseppe  Maria  Saverio,)  a  physician  and 
medical  writer,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Florence  in 
1694  ;  died  in  1756. 

Bertini,  ber-tee'nee,  (Henri,)  a  composer  and  pianist, 
born  in  London  in  1798,  lived  many  years  in  Paris.  He 
composed  for  the  piano  some  works  which  are  highly 
commended  by  Fetis. 

Bertini,  (Salvatore,)  an  Italian  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Palermo  in  1 72 1,  became  chapel-master 
to  the  king.    Died  in  1794. 

Bertius,  bSR'te-us,  (Peter,)  born  at  Baveren,  in  Flan- 
ders, in  1565,  was  historiographer  and  cosmographer  of 
Louis  XIII.,  and  published  a  work  entitled.  "Theatre 
of  Ancient  Geography,"  (in  Latin,  1619.)    Died  in  1629. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  Walckenaek,  "Vies  de  plusieurs 
Personnages  celebres,"  1830. 

Bertlef,  beRt^Sf,  (Martin,)  a  German  writer,  born  in 
Transylvania,  was  professor  at  Thorn  in  1699.  He  pub- 
lished "Solemn  and  Civil  Orations,"  (or  "Assemblies,") 
("  Solennes  et  Civiles  Conciones,"  1695.) 

Bertling,  bgRt'ling,  (Ernst  August,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  at  Osnabrlick  in  1721  ;  died  in  1769. 

Bertola.    See  Bertolt. 

Bertolacci,  blR-to-l^t'chee,  (Antonio,)  a  magistrate 
of  Corsican  extraction,  born  in  England,  was  appointed 
by  the  government  administrator  and  controller-general 
of  the  island  of  Ceylon,  which  post  he  filled  for  seventeen 
years.  He  wrote  a  "  View  of  the  Agricultural,  Com- 
mercial, and  Financial  Interests  of  Ceylon,"  (1817.)  Died 
in  1833. 

Bertoli,  b^R'to-lee,  or  Bertola,  blR^to-lS,  (Aurelio 
Giorgio,)  an  Italian  author  and  monk,  born  at  Rimini 
in  1753.  He  lectured  on  history  at  Naples,  and  \>as 
afterwards  professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Pavi'a.  He  ttans 
lated  the  works  of  Horace,  and  Gesner's  Idylls,  into  Ital 
ian,  and  wrote,  besides  several  able  critical  essa)S,  a  poenc 
on  the  death  of  Clement  XIV.,  entitled  "  Le  Notti  Cle- 
mentine," which  was  received  with  favour.  Died  at 
Rome  in  1798. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Bertoli,  (Giovanni  Domenico,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  at  Mereto,  in  the  Friuli,  in  1676;  died  after  1750. 

Bertolio,  bCR^to'le-o',  (Antoine  Rene  Constance,) 
a  French  jurist,  born  at  Avignon,  was  appointed  by 
Napoleon  chief  judge  of  Guadeloupe.    Died  in  1812. 

Bertolotti,  bcR-to-lot'tee,  (Giovanni  Lorenzo,)  an 
Italian  historical  painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  1640;  died 
in  1 72 1. 

Berton,  b§R't6N',  (£mile  Adolphe  Joseph,)  a  French 
physician  and  writer,  born  at  Din  ant  in  1801,  was  a  son 
of  "General  Berton,  executed  in  1822.    Died  in  1855. 

Berton,  (Francois,)  son  of  Henri  Montan,  noticed 


a,  e,T,  6,  u,  y,  long;     h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,       short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BERTON 


345 


BERTRAMS 


below,  born  in  Paris  in  1 784,  produced  a  number  of  ballads 
and  comic  operas.    Died  in  1832. 

Berton,  (Henri  Montan — moN^tS.N',)  a  popular 
French  composer,  son  of  Pierre  Montan,  noticed  below, 
born  in  Paris  in  1766.  His  works  include  oratorios,  songs, 
and  operas,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "  Aline,  Queen  of 
Golconda."    Died  in  1844. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Uiiiverselle  des  Musiciens." 

Berton,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  general  of  brigade, 
born  near  Sedan  in  1769.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Carbonari,  and  in  1822  was  executed,  by  order  of  Louis 
XVIIL,  for  having  headed  an  insurrection  against  the 
government. 

See  "  JMemoire  pour  le  General  Berton,"  1822. 

Berton,  (Louis  Sebastien,)  principal  of  the  military 
school  of  Brienne,  where  he  was  born  in  1745.  Among 
his  pupils  was  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  who,  on  becoming 
First  Consul,  made  him  director  of  the  Lyceum  of  Arts  at 
Compicgne.  Diedini8ii. 

See  Le  Bas,  "  Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Berton,  (Pierre  Montan,)  a  French  composer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1727.  He  became  director  of  the  Opera  in 
1767.  Died  in  1780.  A  great  reform  in  dramatic  music 
was  effected  under  his  administration. 

Ber'ton,  (William,)  chancellor  of  Oxford  University, 
lived  about  1380.  He  wrote  several  Latin  treatises 
against  Wickliffe. 

Bertoni,  b§R-to'nee,  (Ferdinando,)  an  Italian  musi- 
cian, born  at  or  near  Venice  in  1727,  composed  success- 
ful operas  entitled  "Orfeo,"  "Armida,"  and  "Tancredi." 
Died  in  Venice  about  1800. 

Bertotti-Scamozzi,  b§R-tot'tee  skd-mot'see,  (Otta- 
vio,)  an  Italian  architect,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1726.  He 
built  several  fine  palaces  near  Vicenza,  and  published 
an  edition  of  Palladio's  works.    Died  about  1800. 

Bertoul.    See  Bertholdus. 

Bertoux,  b^R^too',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  writer,  born  in  1723. 
Bertrade,    See  Bertha. 

Bertram,  beR'tRam,  (August  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
physician,  born  in  1752,  became  in  1787  professor  of 
medicine  at  Halle.    Died  in  1788. 

Bertram,  bcR'tRfiN^,  (Bonaventure  Corneille,)  a 
French  Orientalist,  born  at  Thenars,  in  Poitou,  in  1531, 
became  a  Protestant  minister  and  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Geneva.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  work  on  the  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  policy  of  the  Jews,  (1580.)    Died  in  1594. 

Ber'tram,  (Charles,)  an  English  antiquary  and  phi- 
lologist, born  about  1700,  was  professor  of  the  English 
language  in  the  Royal  Marine  Academy  at  Copenhagen. 

Bertram,  (Christian  Aucjust,)  a  German  littcrateicr 
and  journalist,  born  at  Berlin  in  1751  ;  died  in  1830. 

Bertram,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German  Lutheran 
theologian,  born  in  1699  ;  died  in  1741. 

Bertram,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Liineburg  in  1670;  died  in  1728. 

Bertram,  (Philipp  Ernst,)  a  German  jurist  and 
writer,  born  at  Zerbst  in  1726,  was  professor  of  law  at 
Halle  in  1761.    Died  in  1777. 

Bertrand,  b^R''tR6N',  (Antoine  Marie,)  a  French 
revolutionist,  was  appointed  mayor  of  Lyons  in  1792. 
He  was  condemned  to  death  by  the  Directory,  and  exe- 
cuted in  1796. 

Bertrand,  b^R'tRfiN',  (£lie,)  a  Swiss  naturalist  and 
geologist,  born  at  Orbe  in  1712.  He  became  pastor  of  a 
church  at  Berne  about  1744,  published  "Memoirs  on  the 
Interior  Structure  of  the  Earth,"  (1752,)  a  "  General  Dic- 
tionary of  Fossils,"  (2  vols.,  1763,)  and  other  scientific 
works.  He  also  wrote  some  moral  and  religious  treatises. 
Died  about  1790. 

Bertrand,  (Francois  Seraphiqiie  —  sa'rt'fek',)  a 
French  jurist  and  poet,  born  at  Nantes  in  1702;  died  in 
1752. 

Bertrand  or  Bertrandi,  biR-tRinMee,  (Jean,)  a 
French  statesman  and  cardinal,  born  in  1470,  was  keeper 
of  the  seals  under  Henry  II.  and  afterwards  became 
Archbishop  of  Sens.    Died  in  1560. 

Bertrand,  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  divine  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  brother  of  £lie,  noticed  above,  born  at  Orbe  in 
1708.  He  wrote  several  agricultural  treatises,  and  made 
translations  from  the  English.    Died  in  1777. 


Bertrand,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  physician,  born 
at  Martigue,  in  Provence,  in  1670,  practised  at  Marseilles. 
He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "  Historical  Account 
of  the  Plague  of  Marseilles  in  1720."    Died  in  1752. 

Bertrand,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Cernay-les-Reims  in  1764,  pub- 
lished several  works  on  Etymology.    Died  in  1830. 

Bertrand,  (Jean  Elie,)  a  Swiss  moralist  and  religious 
writer,  born  at  Neufchatel  in  1737.  He  was  pastor  of  a 
French  church  at  Berne.    Died  in  1779. 

Bertrand,  (Joseph  Louis  FRANgois,)  a  French  ma- 
thematician, born  in  Paris  in  1822,  was  admitted  into  the 
Institute  in  1856.  He  published  several  able  works  on 
Algebra,  etc. 

Bertrand,  L'Abbe,  a  French  astronomer,  born  at 
Autun  in  1755,  became  professor  of  physics  in  the  college 
of  Dijon,  (1782.)    Died  in  1792. 

Bertrand,  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  mathematician  and  geolo- 
gist, born  at  Geneva  in  1731,  was  a  pupil  of  Euler.  He 
wrote  "  Elements  of  Geometry,"  (1812,)  and  other  inathe- 
matical  treatises.  He  obtained  a  professorship  at  Geneva 
in  1761.    Died  in  1812. 

See  CuviER,  "  Discourssur  las  Revolutions  de  la  Surface  du  Globe." 

Bertrand,  (Louis  Jacques  Napoleon  Aloysius,)  a 
French  poet,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1807  ;  died  in  1841. 

Bertrand,  (Philippe,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  in 
Paris  in  1664;  died  in  1724. 

Bertrand,  (Philippe,)  a  French  engineer  and  geolo- 
gist, born  near  Sens  in  1730.  He  published  several 
works  on  Navigation  and  Geology,  and  was  engineer  of 
a  canal  connecting  the  Rhine  with  the  Rhone.  Died  iu 
Paris  in  1811. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Bertrand,  (Thomas  Bernard,)  a  French  physician 
and  medical  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1682,  became  dean 
of  the  faculty  in  1740.    Died  in  1751. 

See  "Biographie  jNIedicale." 

Bertrand  d'Alamanon,  bCR'tRSN' dt'la^mfnoN',  or 
d'Allamon,  dt'lS'moN',  a  French  troubadour,  born  in 
Provence  about  iioo. 

Bertrand  de  Born.    See  Born. 

Bertrand  de  la  Hosdiniere,  beR^tRoN'  deh  It  ho' 
de'ne-aiR',  (Charles  Ambroise,)  a  French  magistrate, 
and  member  of  the  National  Convention,  sided  with  the 
Girondists,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  He 
became  in  1798  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hun- 
dred.   Died  in  1819. 

See  Le  Bas,  "Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Bertrand  de  Molleville,  de,  deh  b^R'tRdN'  deh  mol'- 
v^K,  (Antoine  pRANgois,)  Marquis,  a  French  states- 
man, born  at  Toulouse  in  1744.  He  was  appointed 
minister  of  the  marine  in  October,  1 791,  but  held  that 
office  only  a  few  months.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
French  Revolution,"  (14  vols.,  1800-1803,)  and  other 
works.  He  was  proscribed  as  a  royalist  in  August,  1792, 
but  escaped  by  flight.    Died  in  Paris  in  181 8. 

Bertrand,  de,  deh  bgR'tRdN',  (Henri  Gratien,) 
Comte,  a  French  general,  born  at  Chateauroux  in  1773. 
He  served  in  Egypt,  Austria,  and  Russia,  and  in  1815 
accompanied  Napoleon  to  Saint  Helena.  After  his  re- 
turn to  France,  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties. He  died  in  1844,  leaving  in  manuscript  "Memoirs 
of  the  Campaigns  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  dictated  by  Na- 
poleon at  Saint  Helena."  They  were  published  in  two 
volumes  (1847)  by  the  son  of  Count  Bertrand. 

See  "Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Fran^ais ;"  L.  de  Lomenie, 
"  Galerie  des  Contemporains  ;"  Paulin,  "Notice  biographique  sur  le 
General  Comte  Bertrand,"  1847. 

Bertrandi,  bgR-tR^nMee,  (Giovanni  Antonio  Ma- 
ria,) an  Italian  surgeon,  born  at  Turin  in  1723,  wrote 
several  medical  and  anatomical  works,  which  are  highly 
esteemed.  He  was  professor  of  surgery  in  Turin,  and 
chief  surgeon  to  the  king.    Died  in  1765. 

See  "Biographie  Medicale." 

Bertrandi,  (Jean.)    See  Bertrand. 

Bertrandi,  bgR'tRdNMe',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  jurist, 
and  professor  of  law  at  Toulouse,  wrote  a  historical  ac- 
count of  Toulouse,  ("De  Tholosanorum  Gestis,"  1515.) 
Died  in  1527. 

Bertrans,  b^R'tRdN',  surnamed  Clerc,  (klCRk,)  a 
French  poet  and  romance-writer  of  the  thirteenth  century. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  v., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BERTUCH 


346 


BESKOW 


Bertuch,  b^u'tooK,  (Friedricii  Justin,)  a  German 
litterateur  -AWfS.  journalist,  born  at  Weimar  in  1747.  He 
published,  in  ci)iijiiiictiun  with  Seckendorf  and  Zanthier, 
the  "Magazine  ol"  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Literature," 
and  translated  "  Don  Quixote"  into  German.  His  tragedy 
of  "Eltrida,"  (1775,)  and  his  "Picture-Book  for  Chil- 
dren," ("  Biiderbuch  fiir  Kinder,")  enjoy  great  popu- 
larity.   Died  in  1822. 

See  r.ROCKHAUS,  "  Coiiversations-Lexikon ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Geiieiale." 

Bei'tusio,  beR-too''se-o,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an 
Italian  painter  and  pupil  of  the  Caracci.  Died  about  1650. 

Bertuzzi,  bCR-toot'see,  (Nicculo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Ancona,  worked  at  Bologna.    Died  in  1777. 

BeruUe,  ba'riiK,  [Lat.  Berul'lus,]  (Pierre,)  an  emi- 
nent French  cardinal  and  statesman,  born  near  Troyes 
in  1575,  was  the  founder  of  the  congregation  of  the  Ora- 
tory (Oratoire)  in  France,  and  first  superior  of  the  order 
of  the  Carmelites,  which  he  also  instituted.  He  was  sent 
on  embassies  to  Spain  and  to  Rome,  and  was  afterwards 
appointed  minister  of  state,  in  which  post  his  abilities  and 
virtues  excited  the  jealousy  of  Cardinal  Richelieu.  He 
died  in  1629,  leaving  sermons  and  controversial  writings 
which  are  highly  esteemed.  The  piety  and  learning  of 
Cardinal  Berulle  are  warmly  eulogized  by  Bossuet. 

See  Habert  de  Cerisy,  "Vie  de  Berulle,"  1646:  M.  M.  Taba- 
RAUD,  "  Hisloire  de  P.  de  HeruUe,  Cardinal,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1S17  ;  Louis 
DoNi  d'Attichy,  "De  Vita  et  Rebus  gestis  P.  Berulli  Cardinalis," 
1649. 

Berullus.    See  Berulle. 

Bervic,  bCR'v^k'',  (Charles  Clement,)  an  eminent 
French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1756,  was  a  pupil  of  J. 
George  Wille.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  full-length 
portrait  of  Louis  XVI.,  a  print  of  Laocoon,  the  "Rape 
of  Dejanira,"  after  Guido,  and  the  "Education  of  Achil- 
les," after  Regnault.    Died  in  1822. 

See  Le  Bl.'VKC,  "Manuel  de  I'Amateur  d'Estampes." 

Berville,  beR'veK,  (Saint-Albin,  siN^ttKb^N^,)  an 
advocate-general  in  the  royal  court  of  Paris,  born  at 
Amiens  in  1788,  was  a  contributor  to  the  "Revue  Ency- 
clopedique"  and  other  journals. 

Berwick,  ber'rik  or  ber^wik,  (James  Fitz-James,) 
Dqke  of,  born  in  1660,  was  a  natural  son  of  James  II. 
of  England  and  Arabella  Churchill,  sister  of  the  Duke 
of  Marlborough.  He  served  in  Austria  under  Charles 
of  Lorraine,  and  in  1688,  after  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  oppose  the  Prince  of  Orange,  retired  with  James  II. 
to  France.  Having  been  naturalized  in  1703,  he  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  French  army  in  Spain  in 
1704.  He  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Spaniards  at 
Almanza  in  1707,  wdiich  established  Philip  V.  on  the 
throne.  He  was  created  by  that  sovereign  Duke  of 
Liria  and  Xerica,  having  previously  been  made  a  mar- 
shal.   He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Philipsburg  in  1734. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  v.  ;  Monte.squieu, 
"  filoge  historique  du  Due  de  Berwick;"  Due  de  Berwick,  "  Me- 
moires  depuis  1685  jusqu'en  1734,"  2  vols.  Svo,  1778;  "Life  of  J. 
Fitz-James,  Duke  of  Berwick,"  Dublin,  1738. 

Be-ryPlus,  [Gr.  BepDAXof,]  Bishop  of  Bostra  or  Bozra, 
in  A.rabia,  maintained  that  Christ  had  no  existence  be- 
fore his  incarnation.  He  was  converted  from  this  belief 
by  Origen  in  244  A.D. 

Berze,  b^Rz,  or  Bersil,  bgR''seK,  (Hugues,)  a  French 
satiric  poet,  lived  about  1230. 

Berzel.    See  Berzelius. 

Ber-ze'li-us,  [Sw.  pron.  bgR-zTT'le-us,]  (or  Berzel, 
b^Rf'sel,)  (JoHAN  Jakob,)  Baron,  a  celebrated  Swedish 
chemist,  was  born  near  Linkoping,  in  East  Gothland,  on 
the  20th  of  August,  1779.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
son  of  a  parish  schoolmaster.  He  studied  medicine 
and  chemistry  at  the  University  of  Upsal,  where  he 
graduated  in  1804.  In  1806  he  became  professor  of 
chemistry  at  Stockholm,  and  began  to  edit,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Hisinger,  "  Memoirs  of  Physical  Philosophy, 
Chemistry,  and  Mineralogy,"  (6  vols.,  1806-18,)  for 
which  he  wrote  forty-seven  important  articles.  Among 
his  first  publications  was  an  able  "Treatise  on  Animal 
Chemistry,  (2  vols.,  1806.)  He  was  chosen  president  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1810,  and  perpetual  secre- 
tary of  the  same  in  1818.  He  was  greatly  distinguished 
by  his  skill  and  precision  as  an  annalist,  and  enriched 
many  departments  of  chemistry  by  his  researches.  His 


great  work  is  a  "System  of  Chemistry,"  ("  Larebok  i 
Kemien,"  3  vols.,  1808-18,)  which  was  translated  into 
English  and  other  languages. 

He  contributed  much  to  perfect  the  atomic  tlieory 
after  Dalton,  and  proposed  a  chemical  nomenclature 
which  was  received  with  great  favour  in  the  north  of 
Europe.  He  discovered  selenium,  thorium,  and  perhaps 
other  elementary  substances.  It  was  his  researches  that 
gave  the  first  impulse  to  modern  organic  chemistry.  We 
owe  to  him  a  greater  number  of  accurate  analyses  than 
to  any  other  chemist  of  his  time.  At  the  recjuest  of  the 
academy,  he  produced  "Annual  Reports  on  the  Progress 
of  Physics,  Chemistry,  and  Mineralogy,"  (27  vols.,  1821- 
48,)  which  are  highly  prized  and  contain  many  judicious 
criticisms.  He  resigned  his  professorship  about  1832, 
and  received  from  the  king  the  title  of  "  Freiherr,"  or 
baron,  soon  after  that  date.  He  married  about  the  age 
of  fifty-two.    Died  in  August,  1848. 

See  B.  VON  Beskow,  "Tai  ofver  Professoren  J.  Berzelius,"  1848  ; 
G.  ForChhammer,  "J.  J.  Berzelius,"  Stockholm,  1849;  Louyet, 
"  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Travaux  de  J.J.  Berzelius,"  1849;  L.  de 
Lomenie,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains." 

Berzsenyi,  bgR'zhan-yee,  (Daniel,)  a  Hungarian 
lyric  poet,  born  at  Heteny  in  1776;  died  in  1836. 

Besangon,  beh-soN^soN^,  (Etienne  Modeste,)  a 
French  litterateur  and  ecclesiastic,  born  near  Beaune  in 
1730.  He  wrote  "The  Old  Market  Town,"  ("  Le  Vieux 
Bourg,")  a  mock-heroic  and  satirical  poem,  (1779,)  which 
passed  through  several  editions.    Died  in  1816. 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Besard,  beh-zSR^  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  physi- 
cian and  writer,  born  at  Besan9on  about  1576. 

Besborodko, bes-bo-rod'ko,  (Alexander,)  Prince, 
a  Russian  statesman,  born  in  Little  Russia  in  1742,  was 
patronized  by  Catherine  II.,  who  appointed  him  secre- 
tary of  state  in  17S0.    Died  in  1799. 

Bescherelle,  bisl/reK,  (Louis  Nicolas,)  an  eminent 
French  grammarian  and  lexicographer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1802.  He  was  appointed  librarian  of  the  Louvre  in  1828. 
He  has  pul^lished,  besides  several  works  on  grammar,  a 
French  dictionary,  ("  Dictionnaire  National,"  2  vols., 
1843-46,)  which  is  regarrled  as  the  be-^t  in  tlie  language. 

A  younger  brother  of  the  preceding,  known  as  Besche- 
relle Jeune,  born  at  Paris  in  1804,  has  published  a 
"Complete  Course  of  the  French  Language,"  (6  vols., 
1852.) 

See  "Notice  blograpliique  sur  I\L  Bescherelle  aine,"  1847. 

Beschi,  bes'kee,  (Constantino  Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 
Jesuit  and  missionary,  resided  many  years  in  India.  He 
wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "Grammar  of  the  High  Dialect  of  the 
Tamil  Language,"  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in  1742. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Bescliitzi,  bi-shet'see,  (Elias,)  a  Jewish  theologian, 
born  at  Adrianople  about  1420,  was  surnamed  the  By- 
zantine, from  his  residing  at  Constantinople.  He  pub- 
lished "The  Mantle  of  Elias,"  esteemed  a  standard  work 
by  the  Jews.    Died  in  1490. 

See  Bartolocci,  "  Bibliotheca  Latino-Hebraica." 

Beseler,  ba'zeh-ler,  (Karl  Georg  Christian,)  a 
German  jurist,  born  near  Husum  in  1809,  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Rostock  in  1837. 

Beseler,  (Wilhelm  Hartwig,)  a  German  politician, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Oldenburg  in  1806. 
He  w^as  an  active  promoter  of  the  revolt  of  Sleswick  and 
Holstein  against  Denmark  in  1848. 

Besenval,  de,  deh  beh-zoN'vtK,  (Pierre  Victor,) 
Baron,  a  Swiss  officer,  born  at  Soleure  in  1722,  entered 
the  French  service  and  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.  His  "  Memoirs"  (4  vols.)  were  published  in 
1805.    Died  in  1791. 

See  "  Memoiresde  M.  le  Baron  de  Besenval,  ecrits  par  lui-meme," 
Paris,  1805. 

Besenzi,  bi-sen'zee,  (Paolo  Emilto,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Reggio  about  1624;  died  in  1666. 

Besiers,  beh-ze-^',  (Michel,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  at  Bayeux  iii~T7i9,  wrote  a  "History  of  the  City  of 
Bayeux,"  (1773.)    Died  in  1782. 

Beskow,  bes'kov,  (Bernard,)  a  Swedish  poet  ■^x\^\ 
dramatist,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1796.  His  tragedy  01 
"Torkel  Knutsson,"  esteemed  one  of  the  best  of  Swedish 
plays,  was  translated  into  German  and  Danish  by  Oeh- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  long;  \,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obseiwe;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BESLER 


347 


BESSIERES 


lenschlager,  as  well  as  the  tragedies  of  "  Hildegarde," 
"  Gustaf  Adolf  i  Tyskland,"  and  others.  He  also  wrote 
a  collection  of  poems,  and  "  Recollections  of  Travel," 
("  Vandrings-minnen.")  In  1833  he  was  appointed  mar- 
shal of  the  royal  household,  and  subsequently  became 
perpetual  secretary  of  the  Swedish  Academy.  He  ob- 
tained the  rare  distinction  of  being  made  a  doctor  of 
philosophy  by  the  University  of  Upsal  in  1842. 

See  Bkockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Besler,  bes'ler,  (Basil,)  a  German  botanist  and  phar- 
macist, born  at  Nuremberg  in  1561,  i^ublished  several 
botanical  works  in  Latin.  The  genus  Eesiera  was  named 
in  his  honour  by  Plumier.    Died  in  1629. 

Besler,  (Michael  Robert,)  a  German  physician, 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1607 ; 
died  in  1661. 

Besly,  bale',  (Jean,)  a  French  jurist  and  writer,  born 
at  Couionges-les-Royaux,  in  Poitou,  in  1572  ;  died  in  1644. 

Besnard,  bes'ntR'',(FRANgois  Joseph,)  born  at  Busch- 
weiler,  ii^  Alsace,  in  1748,  became  first  physician  to  Maxi- 
milian, Count  Palatine.  He  introduced  vaccination  into 
Bavaria,  and  wrote  on  the  abuse  of  mercury.  Died  in  1814. 

Besnier,  ba'ne-a'',  (Pierre,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born 
at  Tours  in  1648,  wrote  a  "Discourse  on  the  Science  of 
Etymologies."    Died  in  1705. 

Bes'o-dun  [Lat.  Besodu'nus]  or  Bcs'ton,  (John,) 
a  prior  of  the  Carmelites  at  Lynn,  in  England,  wrote  a 
"  Comi)endium  of  Moral  Theology,"  (in  Latin.)  Died 
in  1428. 

Besoigne,  beh-swSfi',  (Jerome,)  a  French  Janscnist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1686,  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Abbey  of 
Port-Royal,"  (8  vols.,  1756,)  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1763- 

Besold,  ba'zolt,  or  Besolde,  ba-zoKdeh,  (Chris- 
TOPH,)  a  German  jurist,  and  professor  of  law  at  Tubingen, 
where  he  was  born  in  1577.    Died  in  1638. 

Besonibes  de  Saint-Genies,  beh-zoMb'  deh  s^n'- 
zheh-ne-i',  (Pierre  Louis,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Cahors  in  17 19.    Died  in  1783. 

Besozzi,  bi-sot'see,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  musi- 
cian, born  in  1700,  was  patronized  by  the  King  of  Sar- 
dinia. His  brothers,  Girolamo,  Antonio,  and  Gae- 
TANO,  were  distinguished  musicians. 

Besplas,  de,  deh  bes'plS',  (Joseph  Marie  Anne 
Gros — gRo,)  a  French  theologian,  born  at  Castelnaudary 
in  1734,  wrote  an  "Essay  on  Pulpit  Eloquence,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1783. 

See  QuERAKD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire." 

Bessa,  bi'st',  (Pancrace,)  a  French  painter  of  flowers 
and  fruits,  l)orn  in  Paris  in  1772  ;  died  after  1830. 

Bessaraba,  bes-sa'ra'bS,  a  powerful  familv,  which  gave 
a  name  to  Bessarabia,  a  region  comprised  between  the 
Pruth  and  the  Dniester. 

Bessaraba,  (Constantine  Brancovan,)  was  elected 
vaivode  in  1688,  and  became  the  secret  agent  of  Leopold 
of  Austria.  In  order  to  relieve  himself  from  the  Turkish 
yoke,  he  formed  an  alliance  with  Peter  the  Great  about 
1709.  But  he  proved  to  be  a  treacherous  ally  in  the 
war  which  Peter  waged  against  the  Turks  in  1711.  He 
was  put  to  death,  by  order  of  the  Sultan,  in  1 714. 

See  Cantemir,  "History  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.'^ 

Bessaraba,  (Matthew  Brancovan,)  reigned  over 
Wallachia  from  1633  to  1654. 

Bessaraba,  (Michael,)  the  Brave,  born  about  1558, 
was  elected  vaivode  in  1592.  He  was  a  warlike  prince, 
and  made  himself  master  of  Transylvania  by  conquest. 
He  A^as  assassinated  in  1601. 

Bessaraba,  (Mirce,)  Vaivode  of  Wallachia,  was  a  son 
of  Rudolph  II.,  and  was  elected  in  1382.  He  waged 
war  against  the  Turks,  to  whom  he  was  forced  to  become 
tributary  in  1393.    Died  in  1418. 

Bessaraba,  (Rudolph,)  was  the  founder  of  the  prin- 
cipality of  Wallachia.    Died  in  1265. 

Bes-sa'ri-on,  (John,)  sometimes  called  Basil,  a 
learned  Greek  cardinal,  born  at  Trebizond  about  1390. 
He  was  sent  in  1438  by  the  emjDeror  John  Palaeologus 
\o  the  Council  of  Ferrara,  to  assist  in  effecting  a  union 
between  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches.  He  was  created 
Archbishop  of  Siponto  by  Nicholas  V.,  and  in  1463  ob- 
tained the  title  of  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  from  Pius 
II.    He  was  a  zealous  promoter  of  Greek  literature,  and 


translated  into  Latin  the  "  Metaphysics"  of  Aristotle  and 
the  "Memorabilia"  of  Xenophon.    Died  in  1472. 

See  AuBERY,  "  Histoire  des  Cardinaux ;"  A.  Bandini,  "DeVitaet 
Rebus  gestis  Bessarionis  Cardinalis,"  1777;  O.  Raggi,  "  Conimentario 
sulIa  Vita  del  Cardinale  Bessarione,"  1844. 

Besse,  ba'sa',  (Guillaume,)  a  l^rench  jurist  and 
writer,  born  at  Carcassonne,  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Dukes,  Marquises,  and  Counts  of  Carcassonne,"  (1660.) 
Died  in  1680. 

Besse,  (Pierre,)  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  born  at 
Rosiers,  in  Limousin,  was  preacher  to  Louis  XIII.  and 
the  Prince  of  Conde.  He  had  a  high  reputation  for 
eloquence,  and  published  "  The  Christian  Democritus," 
and  other  religious  works.    Died  in  1639. 

Besse,  de,  deh  ba'sa',  (Henri,)  a  French  writer,  was 
a  member  and  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions. 
He  is  the  supposed  author  of  an  "  Account  of  the  Cam- 
paigns of  Rocroi  and  Friburg  in  1643  and  1644,"  (1673.) 
Died  in  1693. 

Besse,  de,  (Joseph,)  a  French  medical  writer,  born 
at  Peyrusse,  in  Aveyron,  about  1670.  He  practised  in 
Paris,  and  published  "  Analytical  Researches  on  the 
Structure  of  the  Parts  of  the  Human  Body,"  (2  vols., 
1 701,)  and  other  works.    He  died  at  an  advanced  age. 

Bessel,  bes-'sel,  (Christian  Georg,)  a  German  moral- 
ist, born  at  Minden,  wrote  in  German  a  curious  work, 
(1673,)  which  was  translated  into  Latin  with  the  title  of 
the  "  Artificer  of  Political  Fortune,"  ("  Faber  Fortunsp 
political.") 

Bessel,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  one  of  the  greatest 
of  modern  astronomers,  was  born  at  Minden,  I'russia, 
on  the  22d  of  July,  1784.  He  served  an  apprenticeship  - 
in  the  counting-house  of  a  merchant  of  Bremen  for 
about  seven  years.  Among  his  first  scientific  labours  was 
the  reduction  of  Harriott's  observations  on  the  comet 
of  1607,  which  he  performed  with  success  at  the  age  of 
twenty.  He  was  appointed  assistant  to  Schroter  at 
Lilienthal  in  1806,  and  became  director  of  a  new  obser- 
vatory, buiit  under  his  superintendence,  at  Konigsberg, 
in  1811-12.  He  was  also  professor  of  astronomy  in  the 
university  of  that  ])lace.  In  181 8  he  published  an  excel- 
lent work,  entitled  "Fundamenta  Astronomire,"  deduced 
from  the  observations  of  J.  Bradley.  He  undertook 
about  1837  the  arduous  task  of  ascertaining  the  annual 
])arallax  of  a  fixed  star,  61  Cvgni.  The  result  which  he 
obtained,  and  which  is  almost  immeasurably  small,  0^^.374, 
is  generally  received  as  the  truth.  Among  his  chief 
works  are  "Tabulas  Regiomontanae,"  (1830,)  "Determi- 
nation of  the  Length  of  the  Simple  Seconds'  Pendulum," 
(1837,)  "Measure  of  the  Distance  of  the  Star  61  in  the 
Constellation  of  Cygnus,"  (1839,)  and  "Astronomical 
Observations,"  (1841-42.)  No  observatory  has  contrib- 
uted more  during  the  present  century  to  the  im])rove- 
ment  of  every  branch  of  astronomy  than  that  of  Konigs- 
berg under  his  direction.  Bessel  was  appointed  a  privy 
councillor  by  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  received  several 
titles  of  honour.  He  was  author  of  a  great  number  of 
treatises  published  in  the  "  Astronomische  Nachrichten." 
In  early  life  he  married  a  daughter  of  Professor  Hagen. 
Died  in  March,  1846. 

See  J.  F.  W.  Hek'^chel,  "  Brief  Notice  of  the  Life  and  Discover- 
ies of  F.  W.  Bessel,"  1847;  C.  T.  Anger,  "Erinnerung  an  F.  W. 
Bessels  Leben  und  Wirken,"  1846. 

Bessel,  von,  fon  bgs'sel,  (Gottfried,)  a  German 
chronicler,  born  at  Buchheim  in  1672,  became  abbot  of 
the  monastery  of  Gottwich  in  1714.  He  wrote  a  "His- 
tory of  Gottwich,"  in  Latin.    Died  in  1749. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Bessenyi,  b§sl/shan-yee,  of  Galantai,  (George,)  a 
Hungarian  litterateur,  wrote  several  tragedies,  and  trans- 
lated Pope's  "  Essay  on  Man."    Died  about  1810. 

Be.sser,  von,  fon  bes'ser,  (Johann,)  a  German  poet, 
born  at  Frauenburg  in  1654,  became  counsellor  to  the 
Elector  of  Brandenl)urg  at  Berlin.  He  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony,  after  1 7 13.  Died 
in  1729. 

Bessieres,  ba^se-aiR',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  distin- 
guished French  marsTial,  born  near  Cahors  in  1768.  He 
served  in  the  campaigns  of  Italy,  Egypt,  and  Austria, 
and  was  made  a  marshal  of  France,  and  grand  officer  of 
the  legion  of  honour,  in  1804.  In  1805  he  defeated  the 
Russian  army  under  Kootoosov,  and  greatly  distinguished 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,giittii7'al;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  t/iis.   (^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


348  BET  HIST 


BESSIN 


hims«'lf  at  the  battle  of  Austerlitz.  Appointed,  in  1808, 
to  a  command  in  Spain,  he  was  chiefly  instrumental  by 
his  \!ctoi"ies  in  placing  Joseph  Bonaparte  on  the  throne. 
He  was  soon  after  made  Duke  of  Istria  by  Napoleon. 
In  1813  he  obtained  the  chief  command  of  all  the  cavalry, 
and,  while  reconnoitring  on  the  morning  before  the  bat- 
tle of  Lutzen,  was  killed  by  a  shot  from  the  enemy,  the 
1st  of  May,  18 13. 

See  "  Vicloires  et  Conqiietes  des  Fran^ais;"  C.  Miramont,  "  Vie 
de  J.  B.  Bessieres." 

Bessin,  btVsAN',  (Dom  Guillaume,)  a  French  Bene- 
dictine monk,  born  near  Evreux  in  1654;  died  in  1736. 

Besson,  ba'soN',  (Alexandre,)  a  French  Jacobin, 
born  near  Ornans  about  1757,  became  a  member  of  the 
National  Convention,  and  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hun- 
dred.   Died  in  1826. 

Besson,  (Jacques,)  a  French  mathematician  and 
writer,  born  at  Grenoble,  became  professor  at  Orleans 
in  1569.    He  invented  several  instruments. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Besson,  (Jacques  FRANgois,)  born  in  Ain  in  1756. 
He  became  liishop  of  Metz  in  1824.    Died  in  1842. 

See  "Notice  sur  J.  F.  Besson,"  1842. 

Besson,  (Joseph,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Carpen- 
tras  in  1607,  spent  many  years  as  a  missionary  in  Syria. 
He  published  in  1660  a  work  entitled  "Missions  of  the 
Jesuits  in  Syria."    Died  in  169 1. 

Besson,  L'Ahbe,  born  at  Flumet,  in  Upper  Faucigny, 
wrote  "  Memoirs  towards  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of 
the  Dioceses  of  Geneva,  Tarentaise,  Maurienne,  etc." 
Died  about  1780. 

Bes'sus,  [Gr,  B^aao^-,]  a  satrap  of  Bactriana,  fought  for 
Darius  at  Gaugamela,  accompanied  him  in  his  retreat, 
and  murdered  him  in  330  B.C.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Macedonians  and  delivered  to  a  brother  of  Darius, 
who  put  him  to  death. 

Best,  bSst,  (Jean,)  a  French  printer  and  engraver  on 
wood,  born  at  Toul  in  1808.  He  executed  illustrations  for 
works  published  in  Prussia,  Austria,  and  other  foreign 
countries,  and  obtained  a  medal  of  the  first  class  at  the 
Exposition  of  Paris  in  1855. 

Best,  bgst,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch  jurist  and  legal  writer, 
born  at  Amersfort  in  1683,  became  professor  of  civil  law 
at  Harderwick,    Died  in  1719. 

Bestelmeier,  b^s'tel-mT'er,  (Georg,)  a  German  poli- 
tician and  magistrate,  born  at  Schwabach  in  1785. 

Beston.    See  Besodun,  (John.) 

Bestoozlief  or  Bestoujev,  b^s-too'sh§f,  written 
also  Bestoujef,  Bestuschew,  and  Bestouchef,  (Al- 
exander,) a  Russian  novelist  and  soldier,  born  about 
1795,  was  implicated  in  a  conspiracy  against  the  emperor 
in  1825,  and  exiled  to  Siberia.  In  1830  he  was  permitted 
to  join  the  Russian  army,  and  fell  in  1837  in  an  engage- 
ment with  the  Circassian  mountaineers.  He  had  pub- 
lished in  1823,  conjointly  with  Ryleief,  a  literary  journal 
entitled  "The  Polar  Star."  His  romances  of  "Mullah 
Nur"  and  "Ammalath  Beg"  are  highly  esteemed  by  his 
countrymen,  and  have  been  translated  into  German. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Bestoozhef,  Bestoujev,  or  Bestuschew,  (Mi- 
chael Alexis  Petrovitch,)  a  Russian  statesman,  born 
at  Moscow  in  1693.  He  enjoyed  successively  the  favour 
of  Peter  the  Great  and  the  empresses  Annaand  Elizabeth, 
by  the  last  of  whom  he  was  appointed  grand  chancellor  of 
the  empire.  He  negotiated  important  treaties  with  Eng- 
land, Denmark,  and  Sweden,  and  influenced  the  Russian 
government  to  espouse  the  cause  of  Austria  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war.  In  1758  he  was  convicted  of  treason  for 
having  endeavoured  to  exclude  the  grand  duke  Peter 
from  the  throne,  and  was  stripped  of  his  titles  and  ex- 
iled. He  was  recalled  in  1762  by  Catherine  II.,  who 
created  him  a  field-marshal.  He  died  in  1766.  The 
invention  of  a  chemical  preparation  called  "Tinctura 
tonica  nervina  Bestuzewi"  is  attributed  to  Count  Bes- 
toozhef. 

See  Manstein,  "  Histoire  de  Russia;"  Rulhi^;re,  "  Histoire 
\t  I'Anaichie  de  Pologne." 

Bestoozhef,  Bestoujev,  or  Bestuschew  Riumin, 

j'is-too^shev  re^'min,  (or  re-u'meen',)  (Michael,)  a 
Russian  officer,  a  relative  of  the  preceding,  was  engaged 
in  the  conspiracy  of  1825,  having  for  its  object  the  exter- 


mination of  the  imperial  family.  He  was  executed  in 
1826,  with  three  of  his  accomplices. 

See  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Besuchet,  beh-zii'shy,  (Jean  Claude,)  a  French 
physician,  born  near  Paris  in  1790,  published  a  "Treatise 
on  Gastritis,"  (1837,)  and  a  "History  of  Free-Masonry 
from  its  Introduction  into  France  till  1829." 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Betangos,  de,  di  ba-tdn'thos,  or  Betanzos,  (Do- 
mingo,) a  Spanish  missionar}^,  born  at  Leon.  He  visited 
Hayti  about  15 14,  and  afterwards  resided  in  Mexico, 
where  he  laboured  earnestly  to  convert  the  natives  and 
save  them  from  the  tyranny  of  their  rulers.  He  died  in 
Spain  in  1549. 

See  Ternaux-Compans,  "  Pieces  sur  la  Mexique." 

Betangos,  de,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  historian  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  visited  the  West  Indies,  of  which  he  wrcte 
an  account,  (still  in  manuscript.) 

See  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Betencourt,  de,  deh  ba'tSN'kooR',  (Pierre  Louis 
Joseph,)  a  French  iienedictine  monk  and  antiquarian 
writer,  born  at  Arras  in  1743.    Died  in  1829. 

Beth'am,  (Edward,)  an  English  clergyman,  who 
gave  two  thousand  pounds  for  a  botanical  garden  at 
Cambridge,  and  founded  a  charity-school.   Died  in  1 783. 

Bethani,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  antiquary  and 
writer  on  genealogy,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1779.  In  1812 
he  was  appointed  genealogist  of  the  order  of  Saint 
Patrick,  and  soon  after  deputy-keeper  of  the  records  at 
Dublin.  He  wrote  "  On  the  Origin  and  History  of  the 
Constitution  of  England  and  the  Early  Parliaments  of 
Ireland,"  (1834,)  "On  Parliamentary  and  Feudal  Digni- 
ties," and  "  Etruscan  Literature  and  Antiquities  Inves- 
tigated." He  was  foreign  secretary  of  the  Irish  Academv, 
and  Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  London.  Died 
in  1853. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1845;  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  April,  .1845. 

Beth'ell,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer 
and  reformer  of  law,  born  at  Bradford,  in  Wiltshire,  in 
1800.  He  was  appointed  queen's  counsel  in  1840,  and 
returned  to  Parliament  for  Aylesbury  in  1851.  About 
the  end  of  1852  he  became  solicitor-general.  He  was 
appointed  attorney-general  in  1856,  resigned  in  1858,  and 
was  reappointed  in  1859.  He  became  lord  chancellor, 
with  the  title  of  Baron  Westbury,  in  June,  1861,  and  re- 
signed in  July,  1865.  He  belonged  to  the  Liberal  party 
in  politics. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  ix. 

Bethencourt  or  Bettencourt,  ba'tSN^kooR',  (Jac- 
ques,) a  French  physician,  who  practised  at  Rouen,  lived 
about  1520. 

Bethencourt,  (Jean,)  the  conqueror  of  the  Canary 
Islands,  was  chamberlain  of  Charles  VI.  of  France.  He 
died  in  1425,  and  his  "  History  of  the  First  Discovery  and 
Conquest  of  the  Canaries  in  1402"  was  published  in  1630. 

See  "  Histoire  de  la  premiere  Descouverte  et  Conqueste  des  Cana- 
ries," Paris,  1630. 

Bethencourt  y  Molina,  de,  deh  bcVtON^'kooR'  e 
mo'le^nS',  ^UGUsriN,)  a  descendant  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  the  island  of  Teneriffe  in  1760.  He  studied 
engineering  at  Madrid,  entered  the  Russian  service  in 
1808,  and  executed  many  important  public  works.  Died 
in  1826. 

Bethisy,  de,  deh  ba'te'ze',  (Charles,)  Comie,  a 
French  general,  son  of  the  following,  born  in  1770. 
He  served  in  the  royalist  army,  and  in  1820  was  created 
a  peer  of  France,  and  lieutenant-general.    Died  in  1827. 

Bethisy,  de,  (Eugene  Eustache,)  Comte,  a  French 
general,  nephew  of  Jean  Laurent,  noticed  below,  was 
born  at  Moutiers  in  1739.  He  served  under  Conde  in 
the  campaigns  of  1792-93,  and,  after  the  restoration,  was 
made  lieutenant-general.    Died  in  1823. 

Bethisy,  de,  (Jean  Laurent,)  a  French  musician, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1702,  wrote  an  "  Exposition  of  the  The- 
ory and  Practice  of  Music,"  (1754.)    Died  about  1770. 

Bethisy  de  Mezieres,  de,  deh  bi'te'ze'  deh  ma'- 
ze-aiR^,  (Henri  Benoit  Jules,)  brother  of  Eugene  Eus- 
tache, born  in  1 744,  became  Bishop  of  Uzes  in  1780. 
Died  in  1817. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/io?-^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fdt;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon 


BETHLEN 


349 


BETTINELLI 


Bethleii,  bet'len,  (Gabriel,)  or  Bethien-Gabor, 
(gi'bor,)  an  able  Magyar  general  and  ruler,  born  in 
1580,  became  Prince  of  Transylvania  in  1613.  He  was  a 
Protestant,  a  friend  of  religious  liberty,  and  a  patron  of 
learning.  Having,  as  commander  of  the  oppressed  Hun- 
garians, defeated  the  emperor  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  he 
was  elected  King  of  Hungary  in  1620  ;  but  he  soon  re- 
nounced or  lost  that  kingdom.    Died  in  1629. 

See  HoRANVi,  "Memoria  Hungarorum." 

Bethlen-Bethlen,  bet^len-bet'len,  (John,)  Count, 
born  in  161 3,  became  Chancellor  of  Transylvania.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Transylvania  from  1629  to  1663,"  (in 
Latin.)    Died  in  1687. 

Bethlen-Bethlen,  von,  fon  bet'len  bet'leii,  (Nico- 
las,) Count,  a  German  chronicler,  son. of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1642  ;  died  in  1 716. 

Bethlen-Bethlen,  von,  (Wolfgang,)  Count,  Chan- 
cellor of  Transylvania,  born  in  1648,  wrote,  in  Latin,  a 
"  History  of  Transylvania  from  1526  to  1609."  Died  in 
1679. 

Bethmann,  bat^mSn,  (Frederike  Auguste  Conra- 
DiNE,)  a  celebrated  German  actress,  originally  named 
Flittner,  born  at  Gotha  in  1766  ;  died  in  1814. 

Bethmann,  (Simon  Moritz,)  a  celebrated  German 
banker  and  philanthropist,  born  in  1768,  was  one  of  the 
firm  of  Bethmann  Brothers,  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
He  was  ennobled  by  the  emperor  Francis  of  Austria. 
Died  in  1826. 

Bethmann-Hollweg,  von,  fon  bat'mSn  hoKwec, 
(MuRiTZ  August,)  a  German  jurist  and  writer,  born  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1795.  He  studied  under  Sa- 
vigny  at  Berlin,  where  he  became  professor  of  civil  law, 
and,  in  1827,  rector  of  the  university. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Bethmont,  b^t'moN',  (Eugene,)  a  French  lawyer, 
bom  in  Paris  in  1804,  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  1846,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  minister 
of  justice. 

Bethune.    See  Beaton. 

Bethune.    See  Sully. 

Bethune,  befTm  or  barton,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish 
writer,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1804,  was  a  poor  peasant. 
1.1  conjunction  with  his  brother  John,  he  wrote  "Tales 
and  Sketches  of  the  Scottish  Peasantry."  Died  in  1843. 
His  brother  John  was  born  in  1810  ;  died  in  1839. 

Bethune,  (Armand  Joseph.)    Sec  Charost. 

Bethune,  [see  next  article,]  (Divie,)  a  philanthropist, 
born  at  Dingwall,  Scotland,  in  1771,  came  to  America  in 
1 792,  and  settled  in  New  York  as  a  merchant.  One-tenth 
of  his  income  was  devoted  to  the  cause  of  religion.  He 
supported  Sunday-schools,  and  imported  Bibles  for  dis- 
tribution; he  printed  at  his  own  expense  ten  thousand 
tracts,  many  of  which  he  distributed  with  his  own  hand. 
Died  in  1824. 

See  A.  R.  Van  Nest,  "Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Geo.  W.  Bethune," 
New  York,  1S67. 

Bethune,  be-thoon',*  (George  W.,)  D.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can divine,  scholar,  and  poet,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1805.  He  commenced 
his  education  at  Columbia  College,  in  his  native  city,  and 
afterwards  graduated  at  Dickinson  College,  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. He  studied  theology  at  Princeton,  and  in  1828 
became  the  pastor  of  a  Dutch  Reformed  church  at 
Rhinebeck,  New  York.  Two  or  three  years  afterwards, 
he  removed  to  Utica.  In  1834  he  was  invited  to  Phila- 
delphia, where  he  became  pastor  of  the  First  Dutch  Re- 
formed Church  of  that  city.  He  was  not  only  an  eloquent 
preacher,  but  an  accomplished  scholar  and  an  able  and 
successful  public  lecturer.  In  1849  he  removed  to  Brook- 
lyn, where  he  continued  to  reside,  for  the  most  part, 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  The  anxieties  which  he 
'elt  for  his  country  at  the  commencement  of  the  civil  war 
Ml  1861,  preyed  upon  his  health,  on  account  of  which  he 
visited  Europe  in  the  autumn  of  that  year.  After  passing 
some  time  in  France,  he  arrived  at  J'lorence  in  the  spring 
of  1862.  Having,  while  there,  imprudently  accepted  an 
invitation  to  preach  in  public,  he  was  soon  after  attacked 

*  The  name  Bethune  is  the  same  in  its  origin  as  Beaton,  Bea- 
Toux,  and  Betton  ;  and  it  appears,  from  the"  Rev.  A.  Van  Nest's 
"Memoir,"  that  the  name  of  Dr.  Bethinie's  father  was  pronounced 
in  Scotland  precisely  like  Beaton, — i.e.  ba'ton  or  bet'ton. 


with  cerebral  symptoms,  and  died  of  apoplexy  the  fol- 
lowing night,  April  27,  1862.  Dr.  Bethune  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  fine  culture,  his  genial  spirit,  and  his 
vivid  appreciation  of  the  varied  beauties  of  nature. 
Among  his  religious  publications  are  three  volumes,  en- 
titled respectively  "The  P'ruit  of  the  Spirit,"  "The  His- 
tory of  a  Penitent,"  and  "  Early  Lost,  Early  Saved."  He 
also  edited  a  volume  of  "British  Female  Poets,"  and 
Walton's  "Complete  Angler,"  (1847,)  to  which  he  pre- 
fixed a  valuable  bibliographical  preface.  A  collection  of 
his  poems,  entitled  "Lays  of  Love  and  Faith,  with  other 
Fugitive  Poems,"  appeared  in  1848.  A  volume  of  his 
lectures  before  various  literary  associations  and  popular 
assemblies  was  published  in  New  York  in  1850. 

See  A.  R.  Van  Nest's  "  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Geo.  W.  Be- 
thune," New  York,  1867,  and  "Obituary  Notice  of  Dr.  Geo.  W. 
Bethune,"  read  before  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  by  Dr. 
Roblev  Dunglison,  October,  1862.  ^ 

Bethune,  (John  Drinkwater,)  Colonel,  an  Eng- 
lish officer,  born  about  1762.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Late  Siege  of  Gibraltar,"  (1785.)    Died  in  1844. 

Bethune,  (John  Elliot  Drinkwater,)  an  English 
gentleman,  born  in  1801,  was  appointed  in  1848  president 
of  the  "  Council  of  Education"  in  India,  where  he  first 
established  schools  for  the  education  of  native  females. 
Died  in  185 1. 

Bethune,  ba'tiin',  (Quesnes  or  Coesnes,  kwen,)  a 
French  poet,  accompanied  Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders, 
to  Palestine,  about  1190. 

Bethune,  de,  deh  ba'tiin',  (Hippolytf.,)  a  benevolent 
French  prelate,  grandson  of  Philippe,  noticed  below, 
born  in  1647.  He  became  Bishop  oi  Verdun  about 
1680,  and  founded  a  hospital.    Died  in  1720. 

Bethune,  de,  (Philippe,)  Count  of  Selles  and  Cha- 
rost, a  French  diplomatist  and  soldier,  served  under 
Henry  IV.  in  his  principal  campaigns.  Fie  was  employed 
in  several  important  embassies,  and  concluded  the  treaty 
of  Pavia  in  1619.    Died  in  1649. 

See  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Be'tis  or  Ba'tis,  called  also  Bab-e-me-s^ses,  an 
officer  of  King  Darius,  defended  Gaza  bravely  against 
Alexander  the  Great ;  but  that  place  was  at  length  taken 
by  an  assault,  in  which  Betis  was  killed. 

Beton,  (Cardinal.)    See  Beaton. 

Betourne,  beh-tooR'ni',  (Ambroise,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Caen  in  1795.  He  wrote  fables,  ballads,  and 
elegies,  some  of  which  were  translated  into  various  lan- 
guages.   Died  in  1835. 

Betta  dal  Toldo,  bet't.^  dai  tolMo,  (Francesco,)  an 
Italian  jurist,  born  at  Roveredo  in  1526  ;  died  in  1599. 

Bette  d'Etienville,  b^t  da'te-^N^veK,  (Jkan  Charles 
Vincent,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Saint-Omer  in 
1759.  He  was  imi)licated  in  some  of  the  intrigues  of  the 
notorious  Madame  La  Motte-Valois,  for  which  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  a  short  time.  He  published  "  The  Effects  of 
Prejudice,"  (1788,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  Paris  in  1830. 

Bettelini,  bgt-ta-lee'nee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  en- 
graver, born  at  Lugano  in  1763,  was  a  jnipil  of  Bartolozzi. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  an  "  Assunijjtion"  after 
Guido  Reni,  and  an  "  Ecce  Homo"  after  Correggio.  He 
also  engraved  several  of  the  works  of  Thorwaldsen. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  AUgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Bettencourt.    See  Bethencourt. 

Bet'ter-ton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist,  and 
one  of  the  most  popular  actors  of  his  time,  born  in 
^Vestminster,  London,  in  1635.  He  excelled  in  the  roles 
of  Macbeth,  Othello,  and  Hamlet,  and  was  commended 
by  Addison,  Dryden,  and  Pope.    Died  in  17 10. 

See  Chakles  Gildon,  "  Life  of  T.  Betterton,"  1710. 

Betti,  bet'tee,  (Biagio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  near 
Pistoia  in  1545,  became  a  monk  in  1572  ;  died  in  161 5. 

Betti,  (SiGiSMONDO,)  a  Florentine  painter  and  skilful 
designer,  flourished  about  1750. 

Betti,  (Zaccaria,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Verona  in 
1732,  wrote  a  poem  entitled  "The  Silk-Worm,"  ("Del 
Baco  da  Seta.")    Died  in  1788. 

See  B.  DEL  Bene,  "  Elogio  del  Conte  Z.  Betti,"  1790. 

Bettine  or  Bettina.    See  Arnim. 

Bettinelli,  bet-te-neKlee,  (Saverio,)  an  Italian  Jesuit 
and  author,  born  at  Mantua  in  1718.  He  wrote  tragedies, 
poems,  and  other  works;  but  his  reputation  is  chiefly 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N.  nasal:  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  t^h  as  in  this.    (^[^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BETTING 


350 


BEUS2' 


founded  on  an  essay  on  the  "  Renaissance  of  Literature 
and  Art  in  Italy,"  ("  Risorgimento  negli  Studj  nelle 
Arti,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1775.)  He  published  his  collected 
works,  in  twenty-four  volumes,  1801.    Died  in  1808. 

See  TiPAi.DO,  "  Biografia  de.uli  Italiani  illustri ;"  G.  F.  Napione, 
"Vita  deir  Abate  S.  P.ettinelli  "  1S09. 

Betting  de  Lancastel,  ba'titN'  deh  ISN'kts^tSK,  a 
French  publicist,  born  in  the  department  of  Lower 
Rhine  in  1798,  wrote  "Considerations  on  the  State  of 
'he  Jews  in  Christian  Society,"  (1824.) 

Bettini,  bet-tee'nee,  (Antonio,)  Bishop  of  Foligno, 
born  at  Sienna  in  1396,  wrote  a  religious  work  entitled 
'  II  Monte-Santo  di  Dio,"  (1477,)  chiefly  remarkable  for 
containing  the  first  copper-plate  engravings.  Died  in  1487. 

See  Panzer,  "Annales  Typographic!. " 

Bettini,  (Domknico,)  a  skilful  Italian  painter  of  flowers 
and  fruits,  born  at  Florence  in  1644,  was  a  pupil  of  Mario 
Nuzzi.    Died  at  Bologna  in  1705. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bettini,  (Mario,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  writer,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1582  ;  died  in  1657. 

Bettkober,bet'ko-ber, (Christian  Heinrich Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  sculptor,  born  in  Berlin  in  1746;  died 
about  1822. 

Bettoni,  bet-to'nee,  (Carlo,)  Count,  an  Italian  agri- 
cultural writer,  born  at  Bugliaco,  near  Lake  Garda,  in 
1735  ;  died  in  17S6. 

See  F.  SoAVE,  "iMeniorie  intorno  alia  Vita  del  Conte  Bettoni." 

Bettoni,  (Niccolo,)  a  learned  Italian  printer  and 
writer,  lived  about  1800-20.  Fie  published  a  complete 
edition  of  "  Euripides,"  and  Alfieri's  tragedy  of  "Alceste," 
(1807.) 

Betts,  bets,  (John,)  born  at  Winchester  about  1620, 
studied  at  Oxford,  and  became  physician  to  Charles  II. 

Bet'ty,  (William  Henry  West,)  a  precocious  Eng- 
lish actor,  generally  called  "the  young  Roscius,"  born  at 
Shrewsbury  in  1791.  Before  the  age  of  thirteen  he  per- 
formed with  unprecedented  success  in  London,  Edin- 
burgh, and  Cork.  Having  made  a  large  fortune,  he 
retired  from  the  stage  in  1807.  He  appeared  again  in 
public  in  1812  ;  but,  as  the  popular  mania  had  subsided, 
he  was  received  without  enthusiasm. 

Betuleius,  ba-too-ll^iis,  (Sixtus,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Memmingen,  in  1500,  was  professor  of  phi- 
losophy and  belles-lettres  at  Augsburg.    Died  in  1554. 

Betussi,  ba-toos'see,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  litterateur, 
born  at  Bassano  about  1500. 

Beucliot,buh'sho',(ADRiEN  Jean  QuENTiN,)a  French 
bibliographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1773.  He  wrote  many 
articles  for  the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  and  published 
a  iiew  edition  of  Bayle's  Dictionary,  (16  vols.,  1821,)  and 
an  edition  of  Voltaire's  works,  (72  vols.,  1827-33,)  which 
is  said  to  be  the  most  complete  and  valuable  that  has 
been  issued.    Died  in  1851. 

Beudant,  buh'doN'',  (FRANgois  Sulpice,)  an  eminent 
French  mineralogist  and  natural  philosopher,  born  in 
Paris  in  vSeptember,  1787.  He  explored  the  minerals 
of  Hungary  at  the  public  expense  in  181 8,  and  became 
professor  of  mineralogy  in  the  Faculty  of  Sciences  of 
Paris  about  1820.  He  published  "  Researches  on  the 
Causes  which  determine  the  Variations  of  Crystalline 
Forms  of  the  same  Mineral  Suljstance,"  (1818,)  an  im- 
portant work  on  the  geology  and  mineralogy  of  Hungary, 
(3  vols.,  1822,)  an  excellent  "Elementary  Treatise  on 
Mineralogy,"  (2d  edition,  1831,)  and  other  works.  He  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1824,  and 
was  inspector-general  of  the  University.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1852. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  LItterature  Contemporaine." 

Beuf,  Le.    See  Le  Beuf. 

Beughem,  van,  van  buh'iiem,  (Charles  Antoine 
FRANgois  DE  Paule,)  a  Flemish  writer  and  Latin  poet, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1744;  died  in  1820. 

Beugnot,  de,  deh  bun^yo^  (Arthur  Auguste,) 
CoMTE,  an  able  French  writer  and  liberal  politician, 
born  at  Bar-sur-Aube  in  1797,  was  a  son  of  Jacques 
Claude.  His  most  important  work  is  a  "  History  of  the 
Destruction  of  Paganism  in  the  West,"  (2  vols.,  1835.) 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions 
about  1832,  became  a  peer  of  France  in  1841,  and  a  mem- 


ber of  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1849.  He  was  an  emi- 
nent advocate  of  the  freedom  of  education  in  that  body. 
See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1836. 

Beugnot,  de,  (Jacques  Claude,)  Comte,  a  French 
statesman,  born  at  Bar-sur-Aube  in  1761.  As  a  member 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  (1791,)  he  was  conspicuous 
for  his  opposition  to  the  Jacobins.  In  1807  he  took  part 
in  the  organization  of  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  and 
became  minister  of  finance  under  Jerome  Bonaparte. 
He  was  appointed  minister  of  the  interior  under  the 
provisional  government,  (1814,)  and  director-general  of 
police  under  Louis  XVIH.  He  acted  as  minister  jf  the 
marine  ^oi'  a  short  time  in  1815.  Died  in  1835.  '^^^^ 
memoirs  of  Comte  Beugnot  have  been  published  by  hi? 
grandson,  Albert  Beugnot,  in  two  volumes,  Paris,  1866. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1867. 

Beuil,  de,  deh  bul,  (Jean,)  a  Frenci^i  warrior,  born  in 
Touraine  in  1346,  had  a  high  command  in  the  army,  and 
gained  some  victories.  He  was  killed  at  Agincourt  in 
1415- 

Beuil,  de,  (Jean,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  commanded 
with  success  in  many  actions  between  1420  and  1450,  and 
was  called  "the  Scourge  of  the  English."    Died  in  1470. 

Beukels,  bul/kels,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch  fisherman,  to 
whom  Charles  V.  erected  a  statue  for  having  discovered 
the  method  of  preserving  herrings.  Born  in  1397  ;  died 
in  1449. 

Beulan,  bu^an,  [Lat.  Beula'nus,]  an  English  v/riter, 
was  contemporary  with  Saint  Gregory  the  Great.  He 
wrote  a  Latin  work  "On  the  Genealogies  of  Nations." 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Beumler,  boim''ler,  (Markus,)  a  Swiss  scholar  and 
Protestant  theologian,  born  in  the  canton  of  Zurich  in 
1555.  He  made  translations  from  Plutarch  and  Demos- 
thenes.   Died  in  1611. 

Beuree,  buh^ra',  (Denis,)  a  French  diplomatist  in  the 
service  of  Sweden,  was  preceptor  to  Prince  Eric,  son  of 
Gustavus  Vasa:  After  the  accession  of  Eric  to  the 
throne,  he  was  ennobled  and  made  a  senator  ;  but  he  was 
subsequently  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  king,  who  was 
insane  at  the  time,  (1567.) 

Beurer,  boi^-er,  (Johann  Ambrosius,)  a  German 
naturalist  and  physician,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1716,  was 
a  contributor  to  the  "  Opera  Botanica"  of  Conrad  Gesner. 
Died  in  1754. 

Beurmann,  de,  deh  buR'mSN',  (Pais  (pa)  Ernest,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1775  ;  died  in  1835. 

Beurnonville,  de,  deh  buR^noN^vel',  (Pierre  de 
RuEL,)  Marquis,  a  French  marshal,  born  at  Champi- 
gnolle  in  1752.  He  served  under  Dumouriez  in  1792, 
became  successively  minister  of  war,  (1793,)  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  North,  (1796,)  a  peer  and 
minister  of  state  under  Louis  XVIH.,  (1814,)  marshal 
of  France,  and  commander  of  the  order  of  Saint  Louis, 
(1816.)    Died  in  1821. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Frangais." 

Beurrier,  buh're^',  (Louis,)  a  French  monk  of  the 
order  of  the  Celestines,  born  at  Chartres,  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Monastery  of  the  Celestines  in  Paris,"  (1634.) 
Died  in  1645. 

Beurrier,  (Paul,)  a  French  theologian,  born  in  1610, 
was  Abbot  of  Sainte-Genevieve.    Died  in  1696. 

Beurrier,  (Vincent  Toussaint,)  a  French  preacher 
and  ecclesiastical  writer,  born  at  Vannes  in  1715;  died 
in  1782. 

Beurs,  buRs,  (  Willem,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  landscapes 
and  portraits,  was  born  at  Dort  in  1656  ;  died  near  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  centmy. 

Beu.st,  von,  fon  boist,  (Friedrich  Constantin,)  a 
German  geologist,  born  at  Dresden  in  1806,  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  "Criticjue  on  Werner's  Theory  of 
Veins,"  (1840.)  lie  became  engineer-in-chief  of  mines 
in  1851. 

Beust,  von,  (Friedrich  Ferdinand,)  Baron,  an 
eminent  German  statesman,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Dresden  in  1809.  He  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  Saxony  in  February,  1849.  October,  1866, 
he  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  {i.e.  prime 
minister)  of  the  Austrian  Empire.  He  acquired  a  high 
reputation  in  this  position, and  effected  important  changes, 
which  promoted  civil  and  religious  liberty,  and  which 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  g,  obscure;  far,  fall,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon. 


BEUTH 


351 


BETGTASH 


were  denounced  by  the  pope  in  an  allocution  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1 868. 

Beuth,  boit,  (Peter  Christian  Wii.helm,)  born  at 
Cleves  in  1781,  became  a  member  of  the  Prussian  coun- 
cil of  state. 

Beuther,  boi'ter,  sometimes  written  Beuthere,  (Mi- 
chael,) a  German  theologian  and  scholar,  born  at  Carl- 
stadt  in  1522,  studied  under  Luther  and  Melanchthon. 
He  wrote  "  Commentaries  on  Livy"  and  other  classics, 
and  "Historical  and  Chronographical  Observations," 
(in  Latin.)    Died  in  1587. 

Beutler,  boit'ler,  (Clement,)  a  Swiss  landscape- 
painter  of  great  merit,  lived  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The  Garden  of  Eden," 
and  "  Saint  Anthony  preaching  on  the  Sea-Shore." 

Beutler,  boitHer,  (Johann  Heinrich  Christian,) 
a  German  writer,  born  at  Suhl,  in  Franconia,  in  1750; 
died  about  1835. 

Beuve,  (Sainte.)    See  Sainte-Beuve. 

Beiivelet,  buvOa^  (Mathieu,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  devotional  writer,  born  near  Soissons  about  1500. 

Bev'an,  (Joseph  Gurney,)  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  Friends,  born  in  London  in  1753,  was  a  chemist  and 
druggist.  He  published  a  "  Life  of  Robert  Barclay," 
(1802,)  and  a  "Life  of  the  Apostle  Paul,"  (1807,)  which 
is  commended  by  Home  and  Orme.    Died  in  1814. 

Bever.    See  Beaver. 

Be'ver,  (Thomas,)  an  English  jurist  and  scholar, 
born  in  Berkshire  in  1725.  He  published  a  "History 
of  the  Legal  Polity  of  the  Roman  State,"  (1781.)  Died 
in  1 781. 

Bevereiise,  ba-vi-r§n'sa,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
painter,  worked  in  Venice  about  1670. 

Bev'er-idge,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  prelate 
and  Orientalist,  born  at  Barrow,  in  Leicestershire,  about 
1637.  He  published  in  1658  a  Latin  treatise  on  the  He- 
brev>',  Chaldee,  Syriac,  Arabic,  and  Samaritan  languages. 
On  the  revolution  of  1688  he  became  chaplain  to  Wil- 
liam and  Mary,  and  in  1704  Bishop  of  Saint  Asaph. 
Among  his  principal  writings  are  a  "  Treatise  on  Chro- 
nology," (1669,)  and  a  valuable  work  on  the  "Canons  of 
the  Creek  Church,"  (1672,)  both  in  Latin  ;  also  "Private 
Thoughts  upon  Religion,"  (1709,)  and  other  esteemed 
devotional  treatises.    Died  in  1708. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  Bishop  Beveridge,"  by  Thomas  H.  Horne, 
prefixed  to  Beveridge's  Works,  in  9  vols.,  1824. 

Beveriui,  bi-vi-ree'nee,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian 
ecclesiastic  and  litterateur,  born  at  Lucca  in  1629;  died 
in  1686. 

Beverland,  bev^er-lSnt,  (Adrianus,)  a  Dutch  writer 
and  classical  scholar,  born  at  Middelburg  in  1654.  Lie 
was  fined  by  the  University  of  Leyden,  and  afterwards 
banished  from  Utrecht,  on  account  of  the  obscenity  and 
impiety  of  his  works.    Died  in  1712. 

See  NiCERON,  " Memoires." 

Bev'er-ley,  [Lat.  Beverla'cius,]  (John  of,)  one  of 
the  most  learned  men  of  his  time,  was  the  tutor  of  the 
Venerable  Bede.  He  became  Archbishop  of  York  in 
687,  and  in  704  founded  at  Beverley  a  college  for  secular 
priests.  He  wrote  several  theological  works,  in  Latin. 
Died  in  721. 

See  Pits,  "De  Scriptoribus  Anglise;"  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Beverley,  (John  of,)  an  English  Carmelite  monk, 
was  professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford  about  1390. 

Bev'er-ly,  (Robert,)  an  American  writer,  born  in 
Virginia.  He  was  clerk  of  the  Council  about  1697,  and 
wrote  a  "History  of  the  Present  State  of  Virginia," 
(1705.)    Died  in  1716. 

Bevern,  ba^'eRn,  (August  Wilhelm,}  a  German 
general,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1 715,  served  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war.    Died  in  1782. 

Beverningk,  van,  vtn  ba'ver-nink^,  or  Beverning, 
(Hieron,)  a  Dutch  statesman,  born  at  Gouda  in  1614, 
was  called  the  Pacificator,  from  his  successful  negotia- 
tions. He  became  curator  of  the  University  of  Leyden, 
and  contributed  greatly  to  promote  the  study  of  botany 
and  other  sciences.  He  first  introduced  into  Europe  the 
Tropaeolum  majus,  or  Nasturtium.    Died  in  1690. 

See  G.  D.  J.  Schotef.,  "Jets  over  H.  van  Beverning,"  1847; 
Bavle,  ''Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Beverwyck,  van,  vtn  ba'ver-wlk',  [Lat.  Beverovi'- 


Cius,]  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  physician  and  writer,  born  in  1594 
at  Dort,  where  he  practised  and  taught  medicine.  Died 
in  1647.  ^ 

Bevilacqua,  ba-ve-la'kwa,  (Ambrogio,)  a  Milanese 
painter,  flourished  about  1480. 

See  LAiNZi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bevilaqua  or  Bevilagua.    See  Salimbeni. 

BeV'in,  (Elway,)  an  English  musician  and  composer 
under  the  reigns  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  King  James, 
became  royal  chapel-master,  and  organist  of  the.  Bristol 
Cathedral.  He  wrote  "A  Briefe  and  Short  Instruction 
of  the  Art  of  Musicke,"  (1631.) 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Miisiciens." 

Bev'is,  an  English  astronomer,  and  secretary  of  the 
Royal  Society,  born  in  1696.  He  assisted  in  publishing 
the  tables  of  Halley,  and  was  the  inventor  of  a  circular 
microscope.    Died  in  1771. 

Bevy,  ba-'ve',  (Dom  Charles  Joseph,)  a  French  Bene- 
dictine monk,  born  near  Orleans  in  1738,  was  royal  his- 
toriographer for  Flanders  and  Hainault.  He  wrote, 
among  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Nobility  of  the 
Gauls,  French,  and  other  European  Nations,"  (1791.) 
He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  i>ied 
in  1830. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteiaire." 

Bewick,  bu'ik,  (John,)  an  English  artist,  born  in 
1760,  was  a  brother  and  pupil  of  Thomas,  noticed  below. 
He  produced  some  of  the  designs  of  the  "  History  of 
Quadrupeds,"  and  aided  his  brother  in  the  illustration 
of  other  works.    Died  in  1795. 

Bewick,  (Thomas,)  an  English  artist,  distinguished 
for  his  skill  in  wood-engraving,  was  born  near  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne  in  1753.  He  studied  under  Beilby,  by  whom 
he  was  employed  to  engrave  the  diagrams  of  Hutton\s 
"  Treatise  on  Mensuration,"  (1770.)  Encouraged  by  the 
success  of  this  work,  he  furnished  illustrations  to  Gay's 
"Fables,"  for  one  of  which,  "The  Old  Hound,"  he  ob- 
tained the  premium  offered  by  the  Society  of  Arts  for 
the  best  wood-engraving.  In  1790  he  published,  con- 
jointly with  Mr.  Beilby,  a  "General  History  of  Quadru- 
peds," for  which  his  brother  John  furnished  a  part  of  the 
designs.  His  "  History  of  British  Birds,"  esteemed  his 
greatest  work,  came  out  in  1804,  in  two  volumes.  He 
also  illustrated  Goldsmith's  "Traveller"  and  "Deserted 
Village,"  the  "  Fables  of  ^sop,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1828. 

See  Strutt,  "  Dictionary  of  Engravers ;"  "Pnrsuit  of  Knowledg-e 
under  Difficulties,"  vol.  ii.,  1839;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Julv, 
1825. 

Bexley,  Lord.    See  Vansittart. 

Bexon,  b^'s^N',  (Gabriel  Leopold  Charles  Ame,) 
a  French  ecclesiastic  and  naturalist,  born  at  Remiremont 
in  1748,  was  a  friend  of  Count  de  Bufifon,  whom  he  aided 
in  his  work  on  natural  history.  He  published  several 
treatises  on  agriculture  and  natural  history,  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  Lorraine,"  (i  vol.,  1777,  unfinished.)  Died  in  1784. 

Eexon,  (Scipion  Jerome,)  a  French  jurist  and  legal 
writer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Remiremont  in 
1753,  was  charged  in  1806  by  the  King  of  Bavaria  to 
draw  up  a  criminal  code  for  his  states.    Died  in  1822. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1809. 

Beyer  or  Eeier,  bi'er,  (  Adolph,)  a  German  mineralo- 
gist, lived  in  Sa.xony  ;  died  in  1768. 

Beyer  or  Beier,  (August,)  a  philologist  and  minister, 
born  in  Saxony  in  1707,  published  several  bibliograplii- 
cal  works.    Died  in  1741. 

Eeyer,  (Georg,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Leipsic  ir. 
1665  ;  died  in  17 14. 

Beyerlinck  or  Beierlynck,  bi'er-lTnk^,  (Laurens,) 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1578,  was  canon  of  the  cathedral  in 
his  native  city.  He  wrote  "  The  Great  Theatre  of  liuman 
Life,"  (7  vols.,)  and  other  works,  (in  Latin.)  Died  in  1627. 

Beygtash  orBeygtach,  bag't^sh'  or  big''tash',  writ- 
ten also  Bekta-Bch or Bektacli,  Haji,  (Hadji,)  or  Vely, 
(/.^■.  the  "  Saint,")  a  Turkish  Mussulman,  was  the  founder 
of  an  order  of  dervishes  called  by  his  name.  Being  em- 
ployed by  Amurath  I.  to  bless  the  standard  of  his  militia, 
he  gave  them  the  name  of  Yeni-Shery,  or  "new  soldiers," 
which  is  the  origin  of  the  word  Janissary.  Died  about  1368. 

See  Von  Haimmer,  "Ge'^chichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  K,gnttiiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BEYLE 


352 


BIJNCHI 


Beyle,  (Marie  Henri,)  a  popular  and  versatile 
French  litterateur,  known  also  by  the  pseudonyni  of 
Stendhal,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1783.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  are  a  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy,"  (2  vols., 
1817;)  "Lives  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Metastasio," 
(1817;)  "Rome,  Naples,  and  Florence  in  1817;"  "Life 
of  Rossini,"  (1824;)  "Memoirs  ofaTourist,"  (1838;)  and 
the  romances  of  "The  Carthusian  Nun  of  Parma,"  ("  La 
Chartreuse  de  Parme,"  1839,)  and  "  Le  Rouge  et  le  Noir." 
His  life  was  adventurous,  and  diversified  by  various  pur- 
suits. *He  became  intendant  of  the  domains  of  the  em- 
peror Napoleon  at  Brunswick  in  1806,  and  entered  the 
Council  of  State  as  auditor  in  1810.  He  passed  seven 
years  at  Milan,  (1814-21,)  and  was  appointed  consul  at 
Civita  Vecchia  about  1830.    Died  in  Paris  in  1842. 

See  Coulomb,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  H.  Beyle,"  1845  ;  Honore 
DE  Balzac,  "  fitudes  sur  M.  Beyle;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
January,  1S56. 

Beyma,  van,  vtn  bi'mi,  (Julius,)  a  Dutch  jurist, 
born  about  1539,  became  successively  professor  of  law 
at  Wittenberg,  Leyden,  and  Franeker.    Died  in  1598. 

Beyme,  bi'meh,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  Count,  a  Prus- 
sian statesman,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1765  ;  died  in  1838. 

Beyricli,  bl^'riK,  (Heinrich  Ernst,)  a  German  geol- 
ogist, born  in  Berlin  in  i8i!^. 

Beys,  ba,  (Gilles,)  a  P'rench  printer;  died  in  1593. 

Beys,  de,  deh  ba,  (Charles,)  a  French  poet  and  dra- 
matist, born  in  Paris  in  1610  ;  died  in  1659. 

Beysser,  ba'sa',  (Jean  Michel,)  a  French  republican 
general,  born  at  Ribeauville,  in  Alsace,  in  1734,  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  war  of  La  Vendee.  He  was  exe- 
cuted in  1794,  on  a  charge  of  favouring  the  royalists. 

Beytz,  bits,  (Joseph  Francis,)  Baron  oe,  a  Belgian 
magistrate,  born  at  Bruges,  became,  after  the  union  of 
Belgium  with  France,  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred.    Died  in  1832. 

Be'za,  [Fr.  De  Beze,  deh  baz,  sometimes  written 
Besze,]  (Theodore,)  a  celebrated  Calvinistic  theologian 
and  scholar,  was  born  at  Vezelay,  in  Burgundy,  on  the  24th 
of  June,  15 19.  He  studied  the  classics  under  Melchior 
Wolmar,  professor  in  the  University  of  Bourges,  and 
subsequently  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits  in  Paris. 
Having  abjured  Catholicism  in  1548,  he  was  soon  after 
appointed  professor  of  Greek  at  Lausanne.  He  published 
in  1554  a  treatise  in  defence  of  the  execution  of  Servetus, 
eiititled  "  De  Hjereticis  a  Civili  Magistratu  puniendis." 
lu  1556  he  completed  his  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment into  Latin,  and  in  1559  removed  to  Geneva,  where, 
through  the  influence  of  Calvin,  he  was  appointed  rector 
of  the  university.  On  the  death  of  Calvin,  in  1564,  Beza 
succeeded  him  as  professor  of  theology.  He  died  in 
1605.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Life  of  Calvin,"  "  Eccle- 
siastical History  of  the  Reformed  Churches  in  France 
from  1521  to  1563,"  (3  vols,,  1580,)  and  several  controver- 
sial works.  He  was  profoundly  versed  in  ancient  litera- 
ture, and  was  one  of  those  in  France  who  contributed 
most  to  the  great  movement  of  the  renaissance. 

See  Boi.ZEC.  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Theodore  de  Beze,"  1577; 
Taillepikd,  "  Vie  de  T.  de  Beze,"  1577  ;  La  Fay,  "  De  Vita  et  Obitu 
T.  Bez.^,"  1606;  Vega,  "De  Vita  et  Miraculis  Lutheri,  Calvini  et 
Beza;,"  1646;  Ziegenbein,  "  Leben  Calvins  und  Bezas,"  1789; 
SCHLOSSER,  "Leben  des  The.  Beza,"  1809. 

Bezard,  ba'ztR',  (Leon  Louis,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Toulon  in  1800.  He  painted  historical  and  re- 
ligious subjects,  and  gained  a  first  medal  in  1836. 

Bezborodko.    See  Besborodko. 

Beze.    See  Beza. 

Beziers,  (Michael.)    See  Besiers. 

Bezons,  de  deh  beh-zoN',  (Claude  Bazin — bt'z5.N',) 
Seigneu  r,  a  I  rench  magistrate  and  writer,  born  in  Paris 
in  161 7,  succeeded  Chancellor  vSeguier  in  the  French 
Academy  in  1643.    Died  in  1684. 

Bezons,  de,  (Jacques  Bazin,)  a  French  marshal,  son 
of  Claude,  born  in  1646,  served  under  Turenne,  in  JIol- 
land,  in  1672,  and  subsequently  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Re- 
gency on  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.    Died  in  Paris  in  1 733. 

Bezout,  beh-zoo',  (Iitienne,)  a  French  mathemati- 
cian, born  at  iSTemours  in  1730.  He  wrote  a  "  Complete 
Course  of  Mathematics,  for  the  Use  of  the  Marine,  the 
Artillery,  and  the  Pupils  of  the  Polytechnic  School,"  (6 
vols.,  1780.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1783. 


Bezzi,  bet'see,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  about  1500 ;  died  in  1571. 

Bezzuoli,  bet-soo-o^ce, (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  P^orence  in  1784.  Among  his  best  works  are 
"The  Baptism  of  Clovis,"  and  "The  Entrance  of  Charles 
VIII.  into  Florence." 

Bhairava,  b'hi''ra-va,  [a  Sanscrit  word  signifying 
"terror  ;"  also  "terrible,"]  one  of  the  many  appellations 
applied  to  Siva.  It  is  also  the  name  of  one  of  Siva's 
sons,  who  is  said  to  be  chiefly  worshipped  among  the 
Mahrattas. 

See  Moor's  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Bharata-Muni  (or -Mouni,)  b'har'a-tamoo'ni,  [Hin- 
doo pron.  b'hiir'a-ta  moo'^nT,]  sometimes  written  Bha- 
ratu-Wouni,  an  ancient  Hindoo  writer  and  sage,  com- 
monly regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the  drama. 

Bh^ravi,  b'hi'ra-vT,  a  Hindoo  poet,  author  of  a  poem 
called  "  Kiratarjuniya." 

BIiar''tri-Har''i,  [Hindoo  pron.  b'hur'tri  hur'i,]  a  Hin- 
doo poet,  supposed  to  have  been  a  brother  of  King 
Vikramaditya,  wrote,  it  is  said,  a  grammatical  poem  en- 
titled "  Karika,"  (or  "Carica.")  Another  poet  of  the 
same  name  wrote  a  poem  on  Rama,  called  "  Bhatticavya." 

Bhat'ta  Nara^yana,  [Hindoo  pron.  b'hut^tu  nS  ra'- 
ya-na,]  a  Hindoo  dramatist,  supposed  to  have  lived  be- 
tween 800  and  1000  a.d. 

Bliav'a-bhu^ti,  [Hindoo  pron.  b'hiiv-a-b'hoo'ti,]  writ- 
ten also  Bhavabhouti,  a  Hindoo  poet  of  the  eighth 
century,  wrote  a  popular  drama,  entitled  the  "  Loves  of 
Malati  and  Madhava." 

Bhavani,  one  of  the  names  of  Parvat?,  which  see. 

Bhrigu,  b'hRig'06,  a  famous  sage  or  demigod  of  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  was,  according  to  one  account,  the 
son  of  Brahma,  according  to  another,  of  Varuna  ;  but  it 
is  stated  in  the  "Institutes  of  Manu"  that Manu produced 
"  ten  lords  of  created  beings,"  among  which  lords  Bhrigu 
is  numbered.  (Chap,  i.,  v.  32-35.)  According  to  the 
Sivapurana,  Bhrigu  was  the  father  of  Marichi,  who  was 
the  father  of  Kasyapa. 

See  Mook's  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Biacca,  be-.Wka,  (F'rancesco  Maria,)  an  Italian 
litterateur  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Parma  in  1673,  trans- 
lated the  poems  of  Catullus  and  Statins.    Died  in  1735. 

Biagi,  be-a'jee,  (Clemenzo,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born 
at  Cremona  in  1740,  published  several  works.  Died  at 
Milan  in  1804. 

Biagi,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Italian  poet  and  priest, 
born  at  Roveredo  in  1724;  died  in  1777. 

Biagioli,  be-d-joHee,  or  Biascioli,  be-i-sho'lee,  (Nic- 
COLO  Giosafatte,)  an  Italian //7/'6'V£?/t7/r,  born  at  Vezzano, 
near  Genoa,  in  1768,  published  an  "Elementary  Italian 
Grammar."  In  1799  he  was  exiled  on  account  of  his 
liberal  opinions,  and  became  a  resident  of  Paris,  where 
he  taught  Italian.  lie  edited  Dante's  works,  (3  vols., 
1 81 8,)  and  Petrarch's  works,  (3  vols.,  1821.)  Died  in  1830. 

Bialobocki,  be-A-lo-bot'skee,  (John,)  a  Polish  poet 
of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Biamonti,  be-a-mon'tee,  (Giuseppe  Luigi,)  an  Italian 
littcrateiir,  born  at  Vintimiglia  in  1730,  translated  into 
Italian  prose  the  works  of  Sophocles,  Homer's  "  Iliad," 
and  the  "  Odes"  of  Pindar,  and  wrote  several  tragedies. 
He  was  professor  of  eloquence  at  Bologna  and  at  Turin. 
Died  at  Milan  in  1824. 

Bianca  Capello.    See  Capello. 

Biancani,  be-an-ki'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  ma- 
thematician and  Jesuit,  born  at  Bologna  in  1566;  died 
in  1624. 

Biancardo,  be-Sn-kaR''do,  (Ugoletto,)  an  Italian 
general,  lived  about  1370. 

Bianchi,  be-an'kee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
gondolier  of  Venice,  lived  about  1760.  He  wrote  an  epic 
poem  entitled  "II  Davide,"  (1751,)  which  is  highly 
praised. 

Bianchi,  (Brigida,)  an  Italian  dramatist,  lived  about 
1650.    She  wrote  several  comedies  under  the  name  of 

AURELIA. 

Bianchi,  (Federigo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Mi- 
lan about  1590.  According  to  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale,"  he  was  one  of  the  best  Milanese  masters  of 
the  seventeenth  century. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 


a,  c,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sJwrt;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BIANCHI 


353 


BIBARS 


Bianchi,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  composer  of  operas, 
born  at  Cremona  in  1752  ;  died  in  181 1. 

Bianchi,  (Francesco  Ferrari,)  sometimes  called  il 
Frari,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Modena  in  1447,  is 
said  to  have  been  the  teacher  of  Correggio.  He  was  a 
good  colorist.    Died  in  1510. 

Bianchi,  [Lat.  Blan'cus  or  Plan'cus,]  (Giovanni,) 
an  Italian  savant,  born  at  Rimini  in  1693,  became  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  Sienna  in  1741.  About  1744  he 
returned  to  his  native  place  and  restored  the  Academy 
of  the  Lyncei.    Died  in  1775. 

Bianchi,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian  sculptor 
and  painter,  born  in  Lombardy;  died  at  Genoa  in  1657. 

Bianchi,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian  litterateur 
and  dramatist,  born  at  Lucca  in  1686  ;  died  in  1758. 

Bianchi,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  eminent  Italian 
anatomist,  born  at  Turin  in  1681,  was  professor  of  anat- 
omy in  the  University  of  Turin  for  many  years.  Among 
his  principal  works  is  a  "  History  of  the  Liver,"  ("  His- 
toria  Hepatica,"  2  vols.,  1725.)    Died  in  Turin  in  1761. 

See  TiRABoscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Bianchi,  (Isidoro,)  a  Milanese  painter,  born  about 
1626,  was  a  pupil  of  Morazzone.    Died  about  1670. 

Bianchi,  (Isidoro,)  an  Italian  monk  and  philosophical 
writer,  born  at  Cremona  in  1733  ;  died  in  1807. 

See  Louis  Bello,  "Vie  du  Pere  Bianchi." 

Bianchi,  (Marcantonio,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  in 
1498  at  Padua,  where  he  became  professor  of  criminal 
law  in  1544,    Died  in  1548. 

Bianchi,  (Orazio,)  an  Italian  philologist  and  trans- 
lator, born  at  Rome;  died  at  Milan  in  1756. 

Bianchi,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Rome 
in  1694 ;  died  in  1740. 

Bianchi,  be-6N'ke',  (Thomas  Xavier,)  a  French  phi- 
lologist, born  in  Pans  in  1783,  became  royal  secretary  and 
interpreter  (secretaire-interprete)  for  Oriental  languages. 
He  published,  among  other  works,  a  "Turkish-French 
Dictionary,"  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  J.  D.  Kiefifer. 

Bianchi,  (Vendramino,)  an  Italian  diplomatist,  lived 
about  1730. 

Bianchi,  von,  fon  be-Sn'kee,  (Friedrich,)  Baron, 
an  Austrian  commander,  of  Italian  extraction,  born  at 
Vienna  in  1768.  He  served  in  the  principal  campaigns 
against  the  French,  and  in  1809  obtained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-field-marshal.  In  1815  he  gained  a  signal  vic- 
tory over  Murat  near  Tolentino,  and  was  afterwards 
created  Duke  of  Casalanza.    Died  in  1855. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Bianchi  Giovini.    See  Giovini. 

Bianchini,  be-in-kee'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  eminent 
Italian  astronomer  and  antiquary,  born  at  Verona  in 
December,  1662.  He  published  a  number  of  valuable 
treatises  on  the  antiquities  of  Rome,  and  a  "  Universal 
History,  proved  by  Monuments  and  illustrated  with 
Symbols  of  the  Antique,"  (1697.)  He  passed  the  most 
of  his  life  at  Rome,  was  patronized  by  the  popes  Alex- 
ander VIII.  and  Clement  XL,  and  was  appointed  by  the 
latter  secretary  of  the  commission  charged  with  reform- 
ing the  calendar.  He  also  drew  a  meridian-line  and 
erected  a  gnomon  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  degli 
Angeli.    Died  at  Rome  in  1729. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  £loge  dc  Bianchini,"  1757;  A.  Mazzoleni, 
"Vita  di  F.  Bianchini,"  1735;  Niceron,  "M^moires." 

Bianchini,  (Giovanni  Fortunato,)  an  Italian  physi- 
cian, born  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  in  1720;  died  in  1779. 

Bianchini,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at 
Verona  in  1704,  was  a  nephew  of  Francesco,  noticed, 
above,  several  of  whose  works  he  completed. 

Bianco,  be-ln'ko,  written  also  Biancho,  (Andrea,) 
a  Venetian  geographer,  lived  about  1420.  He  executed 
a  number  of  hydrographic  charts. 

Bianco,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  architect,  born 
in  the  province  of  Como.  Among  his  best  works  is  the 
palace  of  the  University  at  Genoa.    Died  in  1656. 

Bianco,  del,  m  be-Sn'ko,  (Baccio,  bit'cho,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1604.  Having  been 
invited  by  Philip  IV.,  he  went  to  Madrid,  where  he  died 
in  1656. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Biancolelli,  be-an-ko-lel'lee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 


actor,  often  called  Domenico,  (dom-i-nee'ko,)  born  at 
Bologna  in  1640,  performed  the  part  of  Harlequin  in 
Paris.    Died  in  1688. 

Biancolelli,  (Paerre  FRANgois,)  called  likewise  Do- 
minique, (do'me''n^k',)  a  French  actor  and  dramatic 
writer,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1681 ;  died 
in  1734. 

Biancolini,  be-in-ko-lee'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista 
Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  chronicler,  born  at  Verona  in  1697  ; 
died  in  1780. 

Bianconi,  be-Sn-ko'nee,  (Charles,)  an  Italian,  noted 
as  the  inventor  or  originator  of  the  Irish  car  system  which 
bears  his  name,  was  born  in  the  duchy  of  Milan  about 
1787.  He  emigrated  to  Ireland  in  early  youth,  and  be- 
gan in  181 5  to  carry  passengers  in  cars.  He  succeeded, 
and  extended  his  lines  of  cars  or  stages  through  all  parts 
of  Ireland. 

Bianconi,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastic 
and  philologist,  born  in  1698  at  Bologna,  \^here  he  be- 
came professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew.    Died  in  178 1. 

Bianconi,  (Giovanni  Luigi,)  an  Italian  physician 
and  philosopher,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Bo- 
logna in  1 71 7.  He  published  "Two  Letters  on  Physics," 
(1746,)  a  "Treatise  on  Electricity,"  (1748,)  and  other 
works.  He  became  physician  to  the  King  of  Poland 
about  1750.    Died  at  Perugia  in  1 781. 

Biancucci,  be-Sn-koot'chee,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Lucca  in  1583,  was  a  pupil  of  Guido. 
Died  about  1653. 

Biandrate,  be-^n-dRi'ta,  (Benvenuto,)  an  Italian 
diplomatist  and  historian,  was  commander  of  the  order 
of  Saint  John  of  Jerusalem.    Died  in  1527. 

Biard,  be''tR',  (Auguste  FRANgois,)  a  celebrated 
French  painter,  born  at  Lyons  in  1800.  In  1828  he 
visited  various  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and 
made  valuable  collections  of  materials  for  the  exercise 
of  his  art.  His  "  P^'amily  of  Mendicants,"  exhibited  at 
the  Paris  Exposition  in  1832,  obtained  the  gold  medal, 
and  was  succeeded  in  a  few  years  by  "  The  Strolling 
Players,"  "The  Mad-House,"  "Attack  of  Spanish  Rob- 
bers in  the  Sierra  Morena,"  "The  Wind  of  the  Desert," 
and  "The  Slave-Trade." 

See  L.  BoiviN,  "Notice  sur  M.  Biard,"  etc.;  "  Examen  critique 
des  Tableaux  de  Biard,"  Paris,  1842. 

Biard,  (Paul,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Grenoble  in 
1565,  was  professor  of  theology  at  Lyons.  In  161 1  he 
visited  Canada,  being  one  of  the  first  Jesuit  missionaries 
to  that  country.    He  died  in  France  in  1622. 

See  Charlevoix,  "Histoire  de  la  Nouvelle  France." 

Biard,  (Pierre,)  a  French  sculptor  and  architect,  born 
in  Paris  in  1559;  died  in  1609. 

Biarnoy  de  Merville,  be'ti-'nwi'  deh  mgRS-eK, 
(Pierre,)  a  French  jurist,  born  in  Normandy,  published 
a  work  entitled  "  Regies  pour  former  un  Avocat,"  ("  Rules 
for  making  a  Lawyer,"  1711,)  which  obtained  great  suc- 
cess.   Died  in  1740. 

Bi'as,  [Bmf,]  one  of  the  seven  sages  of  Greece,  was  a 
native  of  Priene,  and  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about 
566  B.C.  He  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  for  skill  and 
ability  as  an  advocate,  as  well  as  for  practical  wisdom  and 
love  of  justice.  A  number  of  his  maxims  are  preserved 
in  the  writings  of  Diogenes  Laertius,  Plutarch,  and  others. 

Biascioli.    See  Biagioli. 

Biauzat,  de,  deh  be'o'zt',  (Gauthier,)  a  French 
magistrate,  became  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Ancients, 
(1798,)  and  of  the  court  of  cassation,  (1799.)  Died  in  181 5. 

Bi-bac'u-lus,  (M.  Furius,)  a  Latin  satirical  poet,  born 
at  Cremona  about  103  B.C.  He  wrote,  in  iambic  verse, 
a  poem  on  the  wars  of  Gaul,  entitled  "  Pragmatia  Belli 
Gallici,"  and  a  number  of  epigrams  and  satires.  He  is 
compared  by  Diomedes  with  Horace  and  Catullus.  A 
few  fragments  of  his  works  are  preserved. 

See  Weichert,  "Dissertatio  de  Turgido  Alpine  S.  M.  F.  Biba- 
culo,"  1822. 

Bibars  or  Bibarz,  bee'barz,  sometimes  written  Bai- 
bar.s,  called  also  Bundokd^i',  boon'dok-daR',  Sultan  of 
Egypt,  was  the  fourth  of  the  Baharite  dynasty  of  Mame- 
lukes. He  ascended  the  throne  in  1260,  having  murdered 
his  predecessor,  Kootooz,  (Kutuz.)  He  defeated  the 
Tartars  and  ravaged  Armenia,  but  at  length  died  from 
accidentally  drinking  poison,  in  1277. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  Yi,guttti'>'al;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

23 


BIBARS 


354 


BIDDLE 


Bibars  or  Bibarz,  twelfth  Sultan  of  the  Baharite 
Mamelukes,  ascended  the  throne  in  1309,  and  was  deposed 
and  put  to  death  in  13 10. 

Bibaut,  be'bo',  [Lat.  Bibau'cius,]  (Willem,)  a 
Flemish  preacher,  born  at  Thielt,  became  general  of  the 
order  of  Carthusians  in  1521.    Died  in  1535. 

Bibbiena.   See  Galli,  (Ferdinando.) 

Bibbiena,  b6b-be-a'ni,  (Angelo  Dovizio,)  nephew 
of  Cardinal  Bibbiena,  lived  about  1570.  He  held  the 
office  of  apostolic  prothonotary. 

Bibbiena,  (Bernardo,)  called  also  Bernardo  Dovi- 
zio (do-v6t'se-o)  or  Devizio,  (da-v^t'se-o,)  and  Ber- 
nardo di  Tarlatti,  (de  taR-lit'tee,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
cardinal,  born  at  Bibbiena  in  1470.  He  was  intimate 
with  Giovanni  de  Medici,  who  afterwards  became  Pope 
Leo  X.  and  made  Bibbiena  a  cardinal  in  1 5 13.  He  pa- 
tronized literary  men  and  artists,  and  wrote,  besides  other 
works  in  ve^;se  and  prose,  "  Calandria,"  a  comedy,  which 
was  much  admired  and  passed  through  many  editions. 
In  15 18  Bibbiena  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  the  French 
court  to  promote  a  crusade  against  the  Turks.  He  died 
suddenly  in  1520,  not  without  a  suspicion  of  his  having 
been  poisoned. 

See  Paolo  Giovio,  "  Elogio  de  Bibbiena;"  Gingueni^,  "  Histoire 
Litteraire  d'ltalie  ;"  A.  M.  Bandini,  "  II  Bibbiena,  ossia  il  Ministro  di 
Stato,"  etc.,  1758. 

Bibbiena,  da,  di  b^b-be-a'ni,  (Giovanni  Maria 
Galli,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  in  1625,  was  the  father  of 
Ferdinando  Galli,  and  a  pupil  of  Albano.  Died  in  1665. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bibbiena,  da,  or  simply  Bibbiena,  b^b-be-a'ni, 
(Giuseppe  Galli,)  a  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1696. 
He  worked  at  Vienna  and  Dresden.    Died  in  1756. 

Biber,  bee'ber,  (George  E.,)  a  theologian,  born  pro- 
bably in  Germany  about  1800,  became  curate  of  Roe- 
hampton,  England,  about  1842.  He  published  Bishop 
Blomfield  and  his  Times,"  and  many  theological  works. 

Biberstein,  bee'ber-stin",  (Marschall,)  Baron,  a 
German  botanist,  born  at  Wiirtemberg  in  1768,  travelled 
in  the  Crimea  and  the  Caucasus,  and  published  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  flora  of  those  countries.    Died  in  1828. 

Biberstein,  von,  fon  bee'ber-stin',  (Ernst  Franz 
LuDWiG  Marschall,)  a  German  statesman,  born  at 
Wallerstein  in  1770,  became  in  1806  minister  of  the  Duke 
of  Nassau.    Died  in  1834. 

Bib-i-a'na,  Saint,  a  Roman  virgin,  who  suffered 
martyrdom  about  360  A.D. 

Bib'li-an-der,  (Theodore,)  an  eminent  Swiss  divine 
and  philologist,  whose  original  name  was  Buchmann, 
(booK'min,)  born  at  Bischofszell  in  1504,  was  professor 
of  theology  at  Zurich  from  1532  to  1560.  He  wrote  theo- 
logical treatises  in  Latin,  and  translated  several  books  of 
the  Zurich  Bible  commenced  by  Leo  Juda.   Died  in  1564. 

Bibron,  be^bR6N',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  zoologist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1806.  He  wrote,  in  conjunction  with 
Dumeril,  a  "Natural  History  of  Reptiles,"  (about  1833.) 
Died  in  1848. 

Bib'u-lus,  (L.  Calpurnius,)  a  Roman,  who  became 
consul  in  59  B.C.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Pompey  during 
the  civil  war,  and  was  afterwards  proconsul  in  Syria,  and 
commander  of  the  fleet  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  (49  B.C.) 

Bibulus,  (L.  Calpurnius,)  son  of  the  preceding  and 
of  Portia,  the  daughter  of  Cato,  was  made  governor  of 
Syria  by  Antony.  He  died  about  40  B.C.,  leaving  a  life 
of  his  stepfather  Brutus. 

Bicaise,  be'kiz',  (Honors,)  a  French  physician,  born 
at  Aix-en-Provence  in  1590,  wrote  a  work  "On  the 
Causes  and  Cure  of  the  Plague." 

Bicci,  di,  de  b^t'chee,  (Lorenzo,)  a  painter  of  the 
Florentine  school,  born  before  1400.  He  painted  frescos 
in  the  cathedral  of  Florence.    Died  about  1460. 

Bicci,  di,  (Neri,)  an  Italian  painter,  son  of  Lorenzo, 
noticed  above.    Died  after  1466. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Bichat,  be^sht',  (Marie  FRANgois  Xavier,)  a  French 
physiologist  and  anatomist  of  great  eminence,  was  born 
at  Thoirette,  in  Jura,  on  the  nth  of  November,  1771. 
He  went  to  Paris  in  1793,  and  became  a  favourite  pupil 
of  Desault,  who  adopted  him  as  his  son.  In  1797  he  col- 
lected and  edited  the  "  Surgical  Works  of  Desault,"  and 
began  to  lecture  on  anatomy,  surgery,  and  physiology  in 


a  school  established  by  himself.  He  developed  new  and 
important  ideas  on  the  anatomy  of  the  tissues,  and  on 
the  distinction  between  organic  and  animal  functions,  in 
his  "  Treatise  on  the  Membranes,"  ( 1 798,)  in  "  Researches 
on  Life  and  Death,"  (1800,)  and  in  his  great  work,  "Gene- 
ral Anatomy  applied  to  Physiology  and  Medicine,"  ("Ana- 
tomie  generale  appliquee,"  etc.,  4  vols.,  1801,)  which 
established  his  reputation  as  a  profound  philosopher. 

Bichat  was  the  first  who  reduced  the  organs  of  the 
body  to  their  elementary  tissues  and  explained  the 
chemical,  physical,  and  vital  properties  of  each  primitive 
tissue.  He  has  also  the  honour  of  being  the  first  who 
recognized  the  importance  of  the  distinction  between 
organic  and  animal  functions  and  made  it  the  basis  of  % 
classification.  He  was  appointed  physician  to  the  Hotel- 
Die  u  in  1799  or  1800.  He  impaired  his  health  by  ex- 
cessive application  to  study  and  experiments,  and  died 
prematurely  in  July,  1802,  leaving  an  unfinished  work  on 
"  Descriptive  Anatomy,"  of  which  he  published  two 
volumes.  His  pupils  Buisson  and  Roux  added  three 
more  volumes.  "  No  one,"  says  Corvisart,  "  has  done 
so  much  and  so  well  in  so  short  a  time." 

See  P.  Sue,  "  £loge  de  Bichat,"  1803;  Bilon,  "  filoge  historique 
de  Bichat,"  1802;  Miquel,  "filoge  de  Bichat,"  1823;  Roux,  "  £loge 
de  Bichat,"  1851;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Bick'er-stafif,  (Isaac,)  an  Irish  dramatist,  born  about 
1735,  was  for  some  time  an  officer  of  marines.  He  pro- 
duced, besides  other  plays,  three  comic  operas,  entitled 
"Love  in  a  Village,"  (1763,)  "The  Maid  of  the  Mill," 
(1765,)  and  "Lionel  and  Clarissa,"  (1768,)  all  of  which 
were  successful.    He  died  after  1787. 

Bick'er-steth,  (Edward,)  D.D.,  an  English  writer, 
born  at  Acton,  in  Suffolk,  in  18 14,  became  Archdeacon 
of  Buckinghamshire  in  1853.  He  has  published  several 
theological  works. 

Bickersteth,  (Rev.  Edward,)  a  distinguished  Eng- 
lish divine  and  theological  writer,  born  in  Westmoreland 
in  1786.  He  published  in  1814a  "Help  to  the  Study 
of  the  Scriptures,"  which  obtained  great  popularity. 
Having  taken  orders,  he  visited  Africa  in  1816,  for  the 
purpose  of  inspecting  the  stations  of  the  Missionary  So- 
ciety in  that  country.  He  officiated  as  secretary  of  that 
society  for  about  fifteen  years.  In  1830  he  became  rector 
of  Watton,  in  Hertfordshire,  where  he  was  active  in 
promoting  the  cause  of  religious  and  benevolent  associa- 
tions. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Evangelical 
Alliance.  Among  his  numerous  and  valuable  works  may 
be  named  "A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Prophecies,"  "A 
Treatise  on  Baptism,"  "The  Promised  Glory  of  the 
Church  of  Christ,"  and  "The  Restoration  of  the  Jews." 
Died  in  1850. 

See  "  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Edward  Bickersteth,"  by  T.  R.  Birks, 
2  vols.,  1851;  "Burning  and  Shining  Lights,"  by  the  Rev.  Robert 
Steel. 

Bickersteth,  (Henry,)  Lord  Langdale,  an  English 
judge,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Kirkby-Lons- 
dale  in  1783.  He  practised  in  the  courts  of  equity,  and 
attained  to  eminence  as  a  lawyer.  He  was  appointed 
master  of  the  rolls,  and  raised  to  the  peerage,  in  1836. 
Died  in  1851. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  ix. 

Bick'er-tpn,  (Sir  Richard  Hussey,)  an  English 
admiral,  born  in  1759,  served  under  Lord  Keith  in  1801, 
and  assisted  in  the  blockade  of  Alexandria.  Pie  was 
created  admiral  of  the  blue  in  1810,  knight-commander 
of  the  Bath  in  181 5,  and  subsequently  general  of  the 
royal  marines.    Died  in  1832. 

Biclara,  be-kU'ra,  (Joao,)  a  Portuguese  historian, 
born  at  Santarem,  flourished  between  550  and  600  A.D. 

Bid'dle,  (Clement,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1740,  was  originally  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  Friends.  Before  the  Revolution  he  was  a 
merchant,  and  a  decided  asserter  of  the  rights  of  the 
colonies.  He  served  as  colonel  at  the  battles  of  Tren- 
ton, Princeton,  Brandywine,  and  Monmouth.  He  was 
appointed  marshal  of  Pennsylvania  about  1789  by  Gene- 
ral Washington,  who  was  his  friend  and  correspondent. 
Died  in  1814. 

Biddle,  (Clement  Cornell,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  1784,  was  a  lawyer  and  political 
economist.  He  served  as  colonel  in  the  war  against 
Great  Britain,  (1812-15.)    He  published,  with  notes  and 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  lo7tg;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \x,  y,  sho7't ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moSnj 


BIDDLE 


355 


BIELINSKI 


additions,  a  translation  of  J.  B.  Say's  "  Treatise  on  Po- 
litical Economy,"  (1821.)    Died  in  1855. 

Biddle,  (James,)  an  American  naval  officer,  born  in 
1783,  was  educated  in  Philadelphia.  He  entered  the 
navy  about  1800,  and  in  1832  signed  a  commercial  treaty 
with  Turkey.  Having  obtained  the  rank  of  commodore, 
he  commanded  a  squadron  on  the  coast  of  China  in 
1847.    Died  in  Philadelphia  in  1848. 

Bid'dle,  (John,)  the  founder  of  Unitarianism  in  Eng- 
land, born  in  Gloucestershire  in  16 15,  was  a  graduate 
of  Oxford.  In  1647  he  wrote  for  private  circulation  a 
pamphlet  in  which  he  attempted  to  refute  the  commonly- 
received  opinion  respecting  the  Deity  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
For  this  he  was  summoned  before  the  Parliament,  and, 
after  a  protracted  trial,  condemned  to  five  years'  imprison- 
ment. While  in  prison,  he  wrote  (in  1648)  a  "  Confession 
of  Faith  concerning  the  Holy  Trinity,"  and  several  other 
tracts  in  defence  of  his  peculiar  doctrines.  After  the 
death  of  Charles  I.,  Biddle  was  released  ;  but  he  was  soon 
remanded  by  Bradshaw,  president  of  the  council.  The 
act  of  indemnity  and  oblivion  having  been  passed  in  1651, 
he  was  set  at  liberty,  and  soon  after  formed  with  his  ad- 
herents a  society  to  which  was  given  the  name  of  Unita- 
rians. He  was  subsequently  twice  imprisoned  under 
Cromwell,  and  his  works  publicly  burned.  After  the 
restoration  of  Charles  H.  he  was  again  sent  to  prison, 
where  he  died  in  1662. 

See  J.  TouLMiK,  "Life  of  John  Biddle,"  1815;  John  Farring- 
TON,  "  Vita  J.  Bidelli,"  1682. 

Biddle,  (Nicholas,)  an  American  naval  commander, 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  1750.  He  entered  the  British  navy 
in  1770,  and  served  as  midshipman  in  the  same  vessel 
with  Lord  Nelson.  Having  returned  to  America  in  1776, 
he  was  appointed  captain  of  the  Andrew^  Doria,  and  cap- 
tured several  prizes  from  the  British.  In  February,  1777, 
he  took  command  of  the  Randolph,  a  frigate  of  thirty- 
two  guns.  During  an  action  with  the  British  ship  Yar- 
mouth, in  March,  1778,  the  magazine  of  the  Randolph  ex- 
ploded, and  killed  Captain  Biddle  with  nearly  all  his  crew. 

Biddle,  (Nicholas,)  an  American  financier,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  January,  1786,  was  a  nephew  of  Commo- 
dore Biddle,  and  a  son  of  Charles  Biddle,  who  was  for 
some  time  vice-president  of  the  commonwealth  of  Penn- 
sylvania. He  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1801,  after  which 
he  passed  several  years  in  Europe.  Having  returned 
in  1807,  he  edited  for  a  time  "  The  Port-Folio,"  (a  literary 
journal,)  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  legislature 
of  Pennsylvania  in  18 10.  He  served  in  the  Senate  of 
that  State  from  1814  to  1817,  and  in  1819  was  appointed 
a  director  of  the  United  States  Bank  by  President  Mon- 
roe. In  1823  he  became  president  of  that  bank,  which, 
by  virtue  of  his  new  financial  measures,  supplied  the 
country  with  a  uniform  currency,  until,  after  an  exciting 
political  contest,  the  bill  for  the  recharter  of  the  bank 
was  vetoed  by  President  Jackson  in  1832.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  limitation  of  its  charter,  the  bank  was  closed 
in  1836.  A  second  "  United  States  Bank,"  designed  as  a 
successor  to  the  old  one,  having  been  chartered  by  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania,  in  whose  legislature  the  Whig  or 
Anti-Jackson  party  had  at  that  time  a  majority,  Mr.  Bid- 
dle was  made  president  of  the  new  institution  :  it  failed, 
however,  in  1841.  Mr.  Biddle  was  also  president  of  the 
trustees  of  the  fund  (amounting  to  2,000,000  dollars)  left 
by  Stephen  Girard  for  the  establishment  of  a  college  for 
orphans.  "  To  his  exertions  alone,"  says  Judge  Robert 
T.  Conrad,  "  the  country  owes  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
structures  of  modern  times, — the  Girard  College.  .  .  . 
He  proposed  the  present  plan,  and,  in  the  midst  of  wild 
political  excitement  and  opposition,  persisted  firmly, 
and  secured  a  building  which  every  citizen  now  not  only 
approves,  but  applauds."  His  eloquence  and  literary 
merits  are  highly  extolled  by  his  biographer  just  quoted. 
Died  in  February,  1844. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  Nicholas  Biddle,"  bv  Robert  T.  Conrad,  in 
the  "National  Portrait-Gallery,"  vol.  iv.,  1839. 

Biddle,  (Richard,)  an  American  lawyer  and  writer, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in 
1796.  Pie  practised  law  at  Pittsburg,  and  published  a 
"  Memoir  of  Sebastian  Cabot ;  with  a  Review  of  the 
History  of  Maritime  Discovery,"  (1831.)  He  was  a 
member  of  Congress  from  1837  to  1840.    Died  in  1847. 


Bid'dulph,  (Thomas  Tregenna,)  an  English  divine, 
born  in  Worcestershire  in  1763,  wrote  "Essays  on  the 
Liturgy,"  (1798,)  and  other  religious  works,  which  have 
a  high  reputation. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1824. 

Bidermann.    See  Biedermann. 

Bidermann  or  Biedermann,  bee'der-min'',  (Jakob,) 
a  German  Jesuit  and  writer,  born  at  Tubingen ;  died  at 
Rome  in  1639. 

Bidermann,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German  writer 
on  genealogy,  lived  about  1760. 

Bidermann,  (Johann  Gottlieb,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Naumburg  in  1705  ;  died  in  1772. 

See  HuBLER,  "Memoria  J.  G.  Biedermann,"  1772. 

Bidet,  be^da',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  agriculturist,  born 
in  1709,  wrote  on  the  culture  of  grapes.  Died  at  Rheims 
in  1782. 

Biding,  be'diN',  (Moses  Israel,)  a  French  Jew,  born 
in  1775,  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Metz. 

BidTake,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Ply- 
mouth in  1755  ;  died  in  1814. 

Bidloo,  bid'lo,  (Godfried,)  a  Dutch  anatomist,  born 
at  Amsterdam  in  1649.  He  became  physician  to  Wil- 
liam III.  of  England,  and  in  1694  professor  of  anatomy 
and  surgery  at  Leyden.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  "Anatomy 
of  the  Human  Body,"  with  one  hundred  and  five  plates 
by  G.  de  Lairesse,  (1685,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1713. 

Bidloo,  (Lambert,)  a  Dutch  botanist,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  a  resident  of  Amsterdam. 

Bidou,  beMoo',  (Franqois  Simon,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  £cos  (Eure)  in  1769  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1824. 

Bidpai.    See  Pilpay. 

Bie,  van,  van  bee,  (Adrian,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
near  Antwerp  in  1594;  died  about  1640. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Bie,  van,  (Jakob,)  a  Flemish  engraver,  born  about 
1600,  resided  at  Antwerp. 

Biedermann.    See  Bidermann. 

Biedermann,  bee'der-min'',  (Friedrich  Karl,)  a 
German  publicist,  and  professor  of  law  at  Leipsic,  where 
he  was  born  in  18 12.  He  founded  in  1842  the  German 
Monthly  Journal  for  Literature  and  Public  Life,"  and 
published  a  treatise  "  On  German  Philosophy  from  Kant 
to  the  Present  Time,"  (2  vols.,  1842,)  and  "  Fundamental 
Philosophy,"  (1837.)  About  1850  he  began  to  direct  the 
publication  of  an  extensive  encyclopaedic  work,  called 
"Germania." 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Biedermann,  bee'der-min',  written  also  Bidermann, 
(Johann  Jakob,)  a  Swiss  landscape-painter,  born  at 
Winterthur,  lived  about  1 780-1820. 

Biehl,  beel,  (Charlotte  Dorothea,)  a  Danish  au- 
thoress and  dramatist,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1731,  made 
a  translation  of  Don  Quixote,"  which  is  highly  es- 
teemed.   Died  in  1788. 

See  Kraft  og  Nverup,  "  Litteraturlexicon  for  Danemark,"  etc. 

Biel,  beel,  (Gabriel,)  a  German  philosophical  writer, 
born  at  Speyer  ;  died  in  1495. 

Biel,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German  Lutheran  theo- 
logian, born  at  Brunswick  in  1687  ;  died  in  1745. 

Biel,  (Ludwig,)  professor  of  philosophy  at  Vienna, 
wrote  a  treatise  entitled  "  The  Utility  of  Money,"  ("  Utili- 
tates  Rei  Nummariae,"  1733.) 

Biela,von,  fon  bee'lS,  (Wilhelm,)  Baron,  aGerpian 
astronomer,  born  near  Stolberg  in  1782,  discovered  in 
1826  the  comet  since  called  by  his  name.    Died  in  1856. 

Bielefeld,  von,  fon  bee^eh-fglt,  (Jakob  Fried- 
rich,)  Baron,  a  German  publicist  and  litterateur,  born 
at  Plamburg  about  1712,  became  in  1747  inspector  of  the 
Prussian  universities.    Died  in  1770. 

Bieler,  bee'ler,  (Benjamin,)  a  German  antiquary  and 
theologian,  born  in  Saxony  in  1693  ;  died  in  1772. 

Bieler,  (Karl  Ambrosius,)  a  German  physician,  born 
at  Ratisbon  in  1693  ;  died  in  1747. 

Bielinski,  be-a-l^n'skee,  (Francis,)  a  Polish  natu- 
ralist, was  appointed  by  Augustus  III.  grand  marshal  of 
the  crown.    Died  about  1766. 

Bielinski,  (Peter,)  a  Polish  magistrate,  born  in  1754, 
became  senator  palatine,  and  filled  other  ofiices  under 
government.    Died  in  1829. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  v., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BIELKE 


356 


BIG  BLOW 


Bielke,  be-§l'keh,  written  also  Bjelke,  (Nicholas,) 
Count,  a  Swedish  mineralogist,  was  director  of  the  de- 
partment of  mines  from  1782  to  1789. 

Bielke,  (Sten  (or  Steno)  Karl,)  a  Swedish  naturalist 
and  scientific  writer,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1709;  died  in 
1754- 

See  Gezelius,  "  Biographiskt-Lexicon ;"  Rosenadler,  "Amin- 
nelse-Tal  ofver  Sten  Karl  Bjelke,"  1755. 

Bielowski,  be-i-lov'skee,  (Augustus,)  a  Polish  lit- 
terateur, born  in  Galicia  about  1806,  published  a  trans- 
lation of  Goethe's  "  Faust." 

Bielski,  be-§Kskee,  (Martin,)  a  Polish  chronicler, 
born  in  1495.  His  "  Kronika  Polska"  is  admired  for  the 
elegance  of  its  style,  and  is  the  first  important  history 
of  Poland  written  in  the  Polish  language.  Died  in  1576. 
His  son  Joachim  wrote  a  continuation  of  the  "Chronicle 
of  Poland,"  and  published  the  entire  work  in  1597. 

Bienaime,be-J.n''^'ma^(PiERRE Theodore,)  a  French 
architect,  born  at  Amiens  in  1765  ;  died  in  1826. 

Bienaise,  be-^n^az',  (Jean,)  a  French  surgeon,  born 
at  Mazeres,  wrote  "  Operations  of  Surgery  by  a  Short 
and  Easy  Method,"  (1688.)    Died  in  1681. 

Bienayme,  be-J_n'i'my,  (Pierre  Franqois,)  a  French 
naturalist,  became  Bishop  of  Metz  in  1802.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Buffon  and  Daubenton.    Died  in  1806. 

Bienne,  be-^n'ni',  [Lat.  Benena'tus,]  (Jean,)  a 
French  typogra]Sher,  published  several  fine  editions  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  classics.    Died  in  1588. 

Bienvenu,  be-iN'veh-nii',  (Jacques,)  a  Genevese /////- 
rateur  and  satiri^  lived  about  1570. 

Bienville,  de,  deh  be-dN^eK,  (Jean  Baptiste  Le- 
moine — leh-mwSn',)  a  French  captain,  born  in  Canada 
about  1680.  He  was  a  brother  of  Lemoyne  d'lberville, 
whom  he  accompanied  on  his  expedition  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi  in  1699,  and  after  his  death  (1706)  be- 
came governor  of  the  French  colony  which  was  planted 
in  Louisiana.  He  founded  the  city  of  New  Orleans  in 
1 7 18.    Died  in  France  about  1768. 

Bierbrauer,  beeR^bRow'er,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Ger- 
man magistrate,  born  at  Hesse  in  1705  ;  died  in  1760. 

Bierkander  or  Bjerkander,  be-gR^k^n-der,  (Klau- 
DIUS,)  a  Swedish  savant,  born  in  1735  ;  died  in  1795. 

See  OEDMANN,"Aminnelse-TalbfverprobstenC.  Bjerkander,"  1 798. 

Bierling,  beeR'ling,  (Conrad  Friedrich  Ernst,) 
son  of  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  born  in  1709,  was  professor  of 
metaphysics  and  theology  at  Rinteln.    Died  in  1755. 

Bierling,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German  preacher 
and  theologian,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1676,  was  a  friend 
and  correspondent  of  Leibnitz.    Died  in  1728. 

Biermann,  beeR'niSn,  (Karl  Eduard,)  a  German 
landscape-painter,  and  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts 
at  Berlin,  where  he  was  born  in  1803. 

Biermann,  (Martin,)  a  German  physician,  and  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Helmstedt,  lived  about  1 570-1600. 

Biernacki,  be-^R-nat'skee  or  by^R-nit'skee,  (Alois 
Prosper,)  a  Polish  nobleman,  distinguished  for  the  agri- 
cultural improvements  he  introduced  into  Poland,  born 
in  the  palatinate  of  Kalisch  in  1778;  died  in  1856. 

Biernatzki,  becR-nats'kee,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a 
German  Lutheran  divine,  born  at  Elmshorn,  in  Hol- 
stein,  in  1795,  published  "The  Hallig,  or  Shipwrecks 
in  an  Island  of  the  North  Sea,"  (1836,)  and  other  tales. 
Died  in  1840. 

See  C.  L.  Biernatzki,  "Biographie  von  J.  C.  Biernatzki,"  1852. 

Bierstadt,  beer'stat,  (Albert,)  an  eminent  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Dusseldorf,  in  Germany,  in  1828.  His 
parents  emigrated  to  New  England  when  he  was  about 
two  years  old.  In  1853  he  visited  Germany,  studied  for 
a  time  at  the  Dusseldorf  Academy,  and  executed  several 
views  of  German  scenery,  which  attracted  very  favourable 
notice.  Having  spent  a  winter  in  Rome,  and  made  the 
tour  of  Switzerland  and  the  Apennines,  he  returned  to 
the  United  States  in  1857.  The  following  year  he  ac- 
companied General  Lander's  expedition  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  where  he  spent  several  months  in  making 
sketches.  In  1863  he  produced  his  magnificent  "View 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains — Lander's  Peak,"  (six  feet  by 
ten.)  Among  his  other  works  may  be  mentioned  his 
"Sunlight  and  Shadow,"  "The  Storm  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,"  and  "The  Domes  of  the  Yo  Semite." 

See  Tuckerman's  "Book  of  the  Artists." 


Bieselinghen.    See  Biezelingen. 

Biesenthal,  bce'zen-tSK,  (Johannes  Heinrich,)  a 
Hebrew  philologist,  a  friend  of  the  celebrated  Neander, 
born  in  Posen  about  1800.  Though  born  of  Jewish 
parents,  he  early  embraced  Christianity.  He  published 
in  1840  a  Hebrew-Latin  Lexicofi,  and  in  1851  a  valuable 
"  History  of  the  Christian  Church  during  the  First  Three 
Centuries." 

Biesmann,  bees'min,  (Kaspar,)  a  German  Jesuit  and 
professor  of  philosophy,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1639.  He 
wrote  on  rhetoric  and  ethics. 

Blester,  bees'ter,  (Johann  Eric,)  a  German  littera- 
teur and  journalist,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1749.  In  1785  he 
founded,  conjointly  with  Gedike,  the  "  Berlin  Monthly 
Review,"  ("  Monatsschrift,")  and  became  in  1784  libra- 
rian of  the  royal  library.  He  translated  from  the  French 
Barthelemy's  "Travels  of  Anacharsis."    Died  in  1816. 

Biet,  be-y,  (Antoine,)  a  French  missionary  to  Ca- 
yenne, born  near  Senlis  about  1620. 

Biet,  (Claude,)  born  near  Verdun-sur-Saone,  became 
first  apothecary  to  the  king.    Died  in  1728. 

Biet,  (Rene,)  a  French  antiquary,  wrote  a  "Disserta- 
tion on  the  True  Epoch  of  the  Establishment  of  the 
Franks  in  Gaul,"  (1736.)    Died  in  1767. 

Biett,  be-et',  (Laurent,)  born  in  the  canton  of  Gri- 
sons,  became  physician  to  the  hospital  Saint-Louis, 
(Paris,)  into  which  he  introduced  important  improve- 
ments.   Died  in  1840. 

Biever.    See  Beaver. 

Bievre,  de,  deh  be-gvR',  (Mar^chal,)  Marquis,  a 
French  litterateur  and  wit,  born  in  1747,  published  several 
dramas,  and  the  "Almanac  of  Puns,"  ("  Calembours.") 
Died  in  1789. 

Biez,  du,  dii  be-i',  (Oudard,)  a  French  marshal,  who 
served  against  the  English  in  1523,  and  in  the  Italian 
campaign  of  1528.    Died  in  1553. 

Biezelingen  or  Bieselinghen,  van,  vtn  bee'zeh- 
ling'en,  (Christian  Jan)  a  Dutch  portrait-painter,  born 
at  Delft  in  1558.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a  portrait 
of  William  I.,  Prince  of  Orange.    Died  in  1600. 

BifE,  beffee,  (Andrea,)  a  Milanese  sculptor,  lived 
about  1600,  and  executed  works  for  the  Milan  cathedral. 

Biffi,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  litterateur  and  Latin  poet, 
born  near  Milan  in  1464. 

Biffi,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  musician  and  composer, 
born  at  Milan,  flourished  about  1580. 

Bifield,  (Nicholas.)    See  Byfield. 

Bifrost,  bifrost,  the  name  given  in  the  Norse  my- 
thology to  the  rainbow.    See  Heimdall. 

Bigari,  be-g^ree,  (Vittorio,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
sculptor,  born  at  Bologna  about  1692  ;  died  in  1776. 

Bigarre,  be^gt'ri',  (Auguste  Julien,)  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  at  Palais  in  1775  ;  died  in  1838. 

Bigelot,  b^zh'lo',  (Franqois  Emmanuel  Simeon,) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Nancy  in  1789;  died  in 
1820. 

Big'e-low,  (Erastus,)  born  at  West  Boylston,  in 
Massachusetts,  in  1814,  invented  a  machine  for  weaving 
counterpanes,  which  was  a  great  improvement  on  those 
previously  in  use. 

Bigelow,  (Jacob,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  American 
physician,  born  in  Sudbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1787,  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  in  1806.  He  was  for  many  years  phy- 
sician to  the  Massachusetts  General  Hospital,  and  pro- 
fessor of  materia  medica  and  of  clinical  medicine  in 
Harvard  University.  He  became  president  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Medical  Society,  and  also  president  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences.  He  served  on 
the  committee  of  five  appointed  in  1820  to  form  the 
"American  Pharmacopoeia,"  and  for  ten  j^ears  delivered 
lectures  at  Cambridge  on  the  application  of  science  to  the 
useful  arts.  As  the  founder  of  Mount  Auburn  Cemetery, 
he  displayed  great  taste  in  laying  out  the  grounds,  design- 
ing the  gateway,  etc.  His  first  work,  entitled  "  Florula 
Bostoniensis,"  appeared  in  1814,  (3d  edition,  greatly  en- 
larged, 1840;)  and  his  "American  Medical  Botany"  (3 
vols.  8vo)  in  1817-21.  He  has  also  published  a  work 
entitled  "The  Useful  Arts  considered  in  Connection 
with  the  Applications  of  Science,"  an  excellent  "  Dis- 
course on  Self-Limited  Diseases,"  and  a  kindred  work, 
entitled  "  Nature  in  Disease." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ia,  y,  long;    ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BIG  BLOW 


357 


BIHERON 


Bigelow,  (John,)  an  American  author  and  journalist, 
born  in  Ulster  county,  New  York,  in  1817,  graduated  at 
Union  College  in  1835.  He  has  contribi>ted  a  number  of 
able  articles  to  the  "Democratic  Review."  From  1845 
to  1848  he  was  prison-inspector  at  Sing-Sing,  and  origin- 
ated some  important  reforms  in  the  discipline  of  that 
institution.  In  1850  he  became  associated  with  Mr.  Bry- 
ant as  editor  of  the  New  York  '*  Evening  Post."  In  the 
same  year  he  visited  Jamaica,  and  published  after  his  re- 
turn an  excellent  work,  entitled  "Jamaica  in  1850  ;  or  the 
Effects  of  Sixteen  Years  of  Freedom  on  a  Slave  Colony." 
In  1 86 1  Mr.  Bigelow  was  appointed  American  consul  at 
Paris  ;  on  the  death  of  Mr.  Dayton,  in  December,  1864, 
he  became  charge-d'affaires,  and  in  April,  1865,  minister 
plenipotentiary  at  the  court  of  France.  He  resigned  this 
position  in  Decembei,  1866. 

Bigelow,  (Timothy,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  at 
Worcester,  Massachusetts,  in  1767,  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1786.  He  rose  to  the  first  rank  in  his  profession. 
In  1807  he  removed  to  Medford,  and  opened  an  office  in 
Boston.  He  was  an  active  Federalist,  and  was  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  of  Massachusetts  for  eleven 
years.    Died  in  1821. 

Bigeon,  be'zhdN',  (Louis  FRANgois,)  a  French  medi- 
cal writer,  born  at  La  Villee  in  1773,  practised  at  Dinan 
about  forty  years.    Died  in  1848. 

Bigeot,  be'zho',  (Claude  Etienne,)  a  French  diplo- 
matist in  the  service  of  Spain.    Died  in  1675. 

Biget.    See  Marthe. 

Bigg,  (William  Redmore,)  an  English  painter  of 
interiors  and  domestic  scenes.    Died  in  1828. 

Bigi,  bee'jee,  (Felice,)  an  Italian  flower-painter, 
worked  at  Verona  about  1680. 

Bigio,  bee'jo,  (Marcantonio  Francia,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  or  near  Florence  in  1445;  died  in  1525. 

Big'land,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  York- 
shire, published  "  Letters  on  the  Study  and  Use  of  Ancient 
and  Modern  History,"  and  a  "  History  of  Spain,"  which 
has  been  translated  into  French.  Died  in  1832. 

Bigland,  (Ralph,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Westmoreland  in  1711,  was  appointed  Garter  king-at- 
arms  in  1780.    Died  in  1784. 

Biglia,  b^KyS,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  scholar,  wrote 
historical  works  In  Latin.    Died  in  1435. 

Big'low,  (William,)  a  New  England  teacher  and 
writer,  born  in  1773.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1794, 
and  subsequently  became  principal  of  the  Boston  Latin 
School,  which  he  conducted  with  distinguished  success 
for  several  years.  Edward  Everett  was  among  his  pupils. 
He  prepared  several  text-books  for  his  school,  and  was  an 
active  contributor  to  the  periodical  press.    Died  in  1844. 

Bignan,  b^n'ySN',  (Anne,)  a  French  poet  and  transla- 
tor of  the  classical  school,  born  at  Lyons  in  1 795,  produced 
good  poetical  versions  of  Homer's  "Iliad"  (1830)  and 
"  Odyssey,"  (1840.)  He  obtained  four  prizes  of  the  French 
Academy  for  original  poems,  among  which  are  an  "  Epis- 
tle to  Cuvier,"  and  "Napoleon  in  Russia,"  (1844.)  Died 
in  November,  1861. 

Bigne,  de  la,  deh  It  b^ii,  (Gaces,  gts,)  a  French  poet 
and  ecclesiastic,  born  in  Normandy  about  1328,  was 
chaplain  successively  to  Philip  of  Valois,  John  II.,  and 
Charles  V.,  of  France. 

Bigne,  de  la,  (Marguerin,  mtRg'riN',)  a  French 
doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  born  at  Bernieres-le-Patry  about 
1546;  died  about  1590. 

Big'nell,  (Henry,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Oxford 
in  1611  ;  died  about  1660. 

Bignicourt,  de,  deh  bin'ye'kooR',  (Simon,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Rheims  in  1709  ;  died  in  1775. 

Bignon,b^n'y6N',  (Armand  Jerome,)  a  French  jurist, 
nephew  of  Jean  Paul,  noticed  below,  whom  he  succeeded 
as  royal  librarian,  was  born  in  1711.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy,  and  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions. His  son  Jean  Frederic  also  became  royal  librarian. 
Died  in  1772. 

Bignon,  (Jean  Paul,)  grandson  of  Jerome,  noticed 
below,  born  in  Paris  in  1662,  was  appointed  preacher  to 
Louis  XIV.,  and  in  1718  became  royal  librarian.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  He  was  a  friend 
and  patron  of  Tournefort,  who  named  in  his  honour  the 
genus  Bignonia.    Died  m  1743. 


Bignon,  (J6r6me,)  a  French  magistrate  and  scholar, 
born  in  Paris  in  1589,  became  a  page  and  companion  ol 
the  dauphin,  afterwards  Louis  XIII.  He  was  subse- 
quently councillor  of  state,  and  on  the  death  of  De  Thou 
succeeded  him  as  first  keeper  of  the  royal  library.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  profound  learning,  and  pleaded 
many  important  causes  with  great  eclat.  He  wrote, 
among  other  works,  a  treatise  "On  the  Grandeur  of  our 
Kings,  and  their  Sovereign  Power,"  (1615.)  Died  in  1656. 
According  to  Voltaire,  "  he  left  a  great  name,  rather  than 
great  works." 

See  P^RAU,  "Vie  de  Jerome  Bignon,"  1757. 

Bignon,  (Louis  Pierre  Edouard,)  an  able  French 
statesman  and  historian,  born  at  La  Meilleraye  in  1771. 
Lie  was  minister  plenipotentiary  to  Baden  in  1809,  and 
soon  after  administrator-general  of  Austria.  After  the 
battle  of  Waterloo  he  was  made  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  by  Napoleon,  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties in  1817,  and  created  a  peer  of  France  in  1837.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "History  of  France  from  the  i8th 
Brumaire  to  the  Peace  of  Tilsit,"  (6  vols.,  1829-30,)  and 
a  "  History  of  France  under  Napoleon  from  the  Peace  of 
Tilsit  to  1812,"  (4  vols.,  1838,)  also  of  several  political 
treatises.  Napoleon  bequeathed  to  M.  Bignon  100,000 
francs,  and  charged  him  to  write  the  history  of  French 
diplomacy  from  1792  to  1815.    Died  in  Paris  in  1841. 

See  MiGNET,  "Notice  sur  L.  P.  ]£.  Bignon,"  1841. 

Bignoni,  de,  da  b^n-yo'nee,  (Mario,)  an  Italian  monk 
and  eminent  preacher,  born  in  Venice  ;  died  in  1660. 

Bignotti,  b^n-yot'tee,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  eccle- 
siastic and  litterateur,  born  at  Vercelli  in  1764;  died  in 
1831. 

Bigoni,  be-go'nee,  (Ludovico,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Brescia  in  1712  ;  died  in  1785. 

Bigonnet,  be'go^n^^  (Jean  Adrien,)  a  French  revo- 
lutionist and  republican,  born  in  1755,  became  a  member 
of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred.    l3ied  in  1832. 

Bigot,  be'go',  (£mery,)  a  French  scholar,  born  at 
Rouen  in  1626.  He  discovered  in  the  library  of  Florence 
the  Greek  text  of  the  "  Life  of  Saint  Chrysostom"  by 
Palladius,  which  he  published  in  1680.    Died  in  1689. 

Bigot,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Laval, 
in  Maine,  in  1502,  became  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Tiibingen.  He  published  a  "  Prelude  of  Christian  Phi- 
losophy," ("  Christianae  Philosophiai  Praeludium,"  1549.) 

Bigot,  (Marie,)  a  celebrated  pianist,  whose  original 
name  was  Ki6n6,  born  at  Colmar  in  1786,  She  was  in- 
structed in  music  by  Haydn  and  Beethoven,  by  whom 
her  performances  were  highly  commended.  Died  in  1820. 

See  Le  Bas,  "  Dictionnaire  encyclopddique  de  la  France." 

Bigot  de  Palaprat.    See  Palaprat. 

Bigot  de  Preameneu,  be^o'  deh  pRk^tm'nuh',  (F^:- 
Lix  Julien  Jean,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Rennes  in 
1747,  was  made  a  count  of  the  empire  and  grand  officer 
of  the  legion  of  honour  under  Napoleon,  and  in  1815  a 
peer  of  France.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  a  coadjutor  of  Portalis  and  others  in  the 
reformation  of  the  civil  code.    Died  in  1825. 

See  NouGARfeoE  de  Fayet,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Bigot  de  Pre- 
ameneu." 

Bigotier,  be'go'te-i',  [Lat.  Bigothe'rius,]  (Claude,) 
a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Treffort,  in  La  Bresse,  about  1500, 
was  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Lyons. 

Bigotiere,  de  la,  deh  IS  be^o'te-aiR',  (Percham- 
BAULT,  p^R^shdN^bo',)  a  French  officer,  born  at  Rennes, 
served  in  the  royalist  army  in  La  Vendee.  Having  been 
made  prisoner  at  Mans,  he  was  shot  in  1794. 

Bigotiere,  de  la,  (Ren6  de  Perchambault,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Angers  about  1640,  wrote  a  treat- 
ise "On  the  Common  Law  of  Brittany,"  and  other  legal 
works.    Died  in  1727. 

Bigs^by,  (Robert,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at 
Nottingham  about  1806.  He  published  "Poems  and 
Essays,"  "The  Antiquarian  Enthusiast,"  (3  vols.,  about 
1850,)  and  other  works. 

Bih^ri  L61,  bi-h^'ree  151,  a  Hindoo  poet,  contempo- 
rary with  Kabir. 

Biheron,  be'r^N'  or  be'e'r^N',  (Marie  Catherine,) 
a  French  anatomist,  was  born  in  Paris  in  17 19.  She  was 
patronized  by  the  celebrated  physicians  Jussieu  and  Vil- 
loison  in  Paris,  and  by  Hunter  and  Hewson  in  London. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^[^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BILAIN 


358 


BILLICH 


Her  anatomical  cabinet  was  bought  at  her  death  for  Cath- 
erine II.  of  Russia.    Died  in  1786. 

See  Chaudon  et  Delandine,  "  Nouveau  Dictionnaire  Biogra- 
pliique." 

Bilain,  be'l^N',  (Antoine,)  a  French  jurist  and  legal 
writer,  born  near  Rheims  ;  died  in  1672. 

Bilderbeck,  de,  deh  hhYdl\<fhl\i'  or  bilMer-bgk', 
(L.  F,,)  Baron,  a  French  novelist  and  dramatist,  born 
at  Wissembourg,  in  Alsace,  lived  about  1800. 

Bilderbeck,  von,  fon  biKder-bgk',  (Christoph  Lo- 
RENZ,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Schwerin  in  1682. 

Bilderdijk  or  Bilderdyk,  pronounced  alike  biKder- 
dik',  (WiLLEM,)an  eminent  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Amster- 
dam in  1756.  He  published  in  1777  "The  True  Love  of 
Fatherland,"  {"  De  ware  Liefde  van  het  Vaderland,") 
and  in  1779  a  successful  translation  of  the  "  QEdipus  Ty- 
rannus"  of  Sophocles.  In  1806  he  was  chosen  by  King 
Louis  Bonaparte  to  instruct  him  in  the  Dutch  language, 
and  afterwards  elected  one  of  the  first  members  of  the 
Institute  then  recently  founded  at  Amsterdam.  Among 
the  most  important  of  his  numerous  works  may  be  named 
"Elius,"  (1778,)  "Miscellaneous  Poems,"  (1799,)  "The 
Destruction  of  the  First  World,"  ("  De  Ondergang  der 
eerste  Wereld,"  181 7,  unfinished,)  "  Maladies  of  Literary 
Men,"  "  Rural  Life,"  ("  Buitenleven,")  a  free  translation 
of  some  of  Ossian's  poems,  and  a  number  of  tragedies. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  attainments  in  almost  every 
department  of  learning.  "  Willem  Bilderdijk,"  says  Bos- 
worth,  "is  the  Samuel  Johnson  of  the  Dutch.  .  .  .  He 
was  a  giant  in  literature  and  intellectual  strength,  the 
most  fertile  of  the  Dutch  writers."  Died  at  Haarlem  in 
1831. 

His  second  wife,  Katharina  Wilhelmina,  was  the 
author  of  the  tragedies  of  "  Eifrida"  and  "  Iphigenia," 
and  translated  Southey's  "  Roderick."    Died  in  1830. 

See  Jan  van  Walke,  "  Ter  Gedachtenis  van  W.  Bilderdijk," 
1832 ;  J.  da  Costa,  "  Overzicht  van  het  Leven  en  de  Werken  van  W. 
Bilderdijk,"  1844;  Van  Kempen,  "  Histoire  Litteraire;"  Longfel- 
low, "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "Eraser's  Magazine,"  vol.  1., 
1854;  Bosworth's  "Anglo-Saxon  Dictionary,"  preface,  pp.  cviii., 
cix. 

Bilderdyk.    See  Bilderdijk. 

Bilfinger,  biKfing-er,  (Georg  Bernhard,)  a  German 
philosopher  of  the  school  of  Leibnitz,  born  at  Canstadt, 
in  Wiirteraberg,  in  1693.  He  was  curator  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tubingen,  and  a  member  of  the  Royal  Acade- 
my of  Berlin.  He  wrote  a  number  of  philosophical  and 
scientific  treatises  in  Latin.  He  obtained  the  prize  of- 
fered by  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  for  an  expla- 
nation of  the  cause  of  the  weight  of  bodies.  Died  in 
1750. 

See  Adelung,  Supplement  to  Jocher,  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon;"  W.  G.  Tafinger,  "  Leichenrede  iiber  den  hoch  zu  be- 
trauernden  Todesfall  des  zum  seltenen  Exempel,"  etc.,  1750. 

Bilguer,  bM'gaiR',  (Jean  Ulric,)  a  distinguished 
Swiss  surgeon  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Coire  in  1720, 
became  surgeon-general  of  the  Prussian  army  about  1759, 
and  received  a  title  of  nobility  from  the  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many. His  Latin  treatise  on  the  management  of  gunshot 
wounds  (1761)  has  been  translated  into  French,  German, 
and  English.    Died  in  1796. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Bilguer,  von,  fon  b^KgaiR',  (Paul  Rudolf,)  a  famous 
German  chess-player,  born  in  1809.  He  died  in  1840, 
leaving  a  "  Manual  of  Chess-Playing,"  which  was  com- 
pleted and  published  in  1843  Heydebrand. 

Bilhoii,  be'16N',  (Jean  Joseph  Fr^d^ric,)  a  French 
writer  on  political  economy,  born  at  Avignon  in  1759; 
died  in  1834. 

Bilhuber,  biKhoo'ber,  (Joseph  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man physician,  born  at  Aurich  in  1758;  died  in  1793. 

Bilintani,  be-l^n-tS'nee,  (Pompeo,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Venice,  lived  about  1530. 

Biliotti,  be-le-ot'tee,  (Ivo,)  an  Italian  soldier,  who 
lived  about  1530,  distinguished  himself  by  his  brave  de- 
fence of  Florence  against  the  forces  of  Charles  V. 

Bilistein,  de,  deh  be'le'st^N',  (Charles  Leopold 
Andreu,)  Baron,  a  French  writer,  born  in  Lorraine  in 
1724,  published  an  "Essay  on  the  Navigation  of  Lor- 
raine," and  other  works. 

Biliverti,  be-le-vCR'tee,  (Giovanni,)  a  skilful  painter, 
born  at  Florence  in  1576,  was  a  pupil  of  Cigoli.  Among 


his  master-pieces  are  a  "  Holy  Family,"  and  the  "  Chas- 
tity of  Joseph."    Died  m  1644. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bill,  (Robert,)  an  English  mechanician,  distinguished 
for  his  zealous  efforts  to  introduce  the  use  of  gas  into 
England,  was  born  in  1754;  died  in  1827. 

Billard,  be'ytR',  (Charles  Michel,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  near  Angers  in  1800,  translated  from  the 
English  Thomson's  "  Elements  of  Chemistry."  Among 
his  works  is  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  Infants," 
(1828.)    Died  in  1832. 

Billard,  (Claude,)  a  French  poet  and  dramatist,  was 
counsellor  to  Queen  Margaret  of  Valois.    Died  in  1618. 

Billard,  (£tienne,)  a  French  comic  writer,  born  at 
Nancy;  died  in  1785. 

Billard,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  physician  and  medi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Vesoul  in  1726;  died  in  1790. 

Billard,  (Pierre,)  a  French  theologian,  born  in  the 
department  of  Maine  in  1653,  wrote  against  the  Jesuits 
a  work  entitled  "The  Beast  with  Seven  Heads,"  (1693.) 
Died  in  1726. 

Billaud-Varenne,  (or  -Varennes,)  be'y5'  vfrSn', 
(Jacques  Nicolas,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  at  La  Ro- 
chelle  in  1756.  As  a  member  of  the  National  Convention 
in  1792,  he  voted  for  the  death  of  the  royal  family  and 
the  ministers,  and  in  various  ways  distinguished  himself 
by  the  violence  of  his  measures.  He  was  subsequently 
made  president  of  the  Convention,  and  a  member  of  the 
Committee  of  Public  Safety.  He  was  exiled  to  Cayenne, 
in  company  with  Collot  d'Herbois,  in  1795,  and  after- 
wards went  to  Hayti,  where  he  died  in  1819. 

See  "  Memoires  de  Billaud- Varennes,"  2  vols.,  1821 ;  Thiers, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Frangaise." 

Billault,  be'yd',  (Auguste  Adolphe  Marie,)  a 
French  jurist  and  politician,  born  at  Vannes  in  1805. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1837,  and 
distinguished  himself  as  a  legislator.  In  1848  he  was  a 
republican  member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly.  Hav- 
ing given  his  adhesion  to  the  policy  of  Napoleon,  he  be- 
came president  of  the  legislative  body  in  1851.  He  was 
minister  of  the  interior  from  July,  1854,  to  1858,  and 
succeeded  Walewski  as  minister  of  state  in  June,  1863. 
Died  in  October  of  the  same  year. 

Billaut,  (Adam.)    See  Adam-Billaut. 

Bille,  biKleh,  (Steen  Andersen,)  a  Danish  admiral, 
born  in  Funen  in  1 75 1,  took  part  in  the  blockade  of 
Tunis,  (1796,)  and  the  battle  of  Copenhagen,  (1801.) 
Died  in  1833. 

Bille,  (Steen  Andersen,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Copenhagen  in  1797,  served  in  the  French  army  in  the 
campaign  of  1823.  He  was  made  by  the  King  of  Den- 
mark minister  of  the  marine,  and  rear-admiral,  in  1852. 
He  commanded  a  scientific  expedition  around  the  world 
in  1845-47,  and  published  a  narrative  of  the  same,  (3 
vols.,  1849-51.) 

Billeberg,  biKleh-b^RO^  (Johan,)  a  Swedish  savant, 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Upsal.    Died  in  1 71 7. 

Billecocq,  be'ye-kok,  (Jean  Baptiste  Louis  Joseph,) 
an  eminent  French  advocate  and  litterateur,  born  in  Paris 
in  1765  ;  died  in  1829. 

See  Dupin,  "Notice  sur  Billecocq." 

Billemaz,  b^I'mt'  or  be'ye-mt',  (FnANgois  B.,)  a 
French  Jacobin,  born  at  Belley  about  1750,  was  executed 
in  1793  on  a  charge  of  being  an  agent  of  the  Girondists. 

Billerbek,  von,  fon  biKler-bek^  (Constantine,)  born 
at  Janikow  in  17 13,  served  in  the  Prussian  army  in  the 
principal  campaigns  of  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  was 
made  lieutenant-general  and  chevalier  of  the  Black  Eagle 
in  1784.    Died  in  1785. 

Billerey,  befra'  or  be'ye-ri',  (Claude  Nicolas,)  a 
French  physician,  born  about  1667  at  Besan9on,  where 
he  was  professor  of  medicine.    Died  in  1759. 

Billet,  be'yk',  (Pierre,)  a  French  scholar  and  Latin 
poet,  born  in  1656,  was  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  col- 
lege du  Plessis.    Died  in  1719. 

Billi,  (Jacques.)    See  Billy. 

Billican,  bil'le-kdn^,  (Theobald,)  also  called  Ger- 
lach,  a  German  reformer,  born  at  Billigheim,  was  con- 
verted by  Luther  about  15 18.  He  preached  at  Nord- 
lingen,  and  lectured  on  law  at  Heidelberg.  Died  in  1554. 

Billich,  biKliK,  [Lat.  Billich'ius,]  (Anton  Gun- 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  lojig;  i,  fe,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m€t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


BILLING 


359 


BINGHAM 


THER,)  a  German  physician  and  chemist,  wrote  a  treatise 
On  the  Three  Chemical  Principles,"  in  Latin. 
Billing,  be'ydN',  (Sigismond,)  a  French  officer,  born 
at  Colniar  in  1773.  He  was  commandant  of  the  national 
guard  of  Paris  during  the  Hundred  Days,  and  was  ap- 
pointed chief  of  the  staff  by  La  Fayette  in  1830.  Died  in 
1832. 

BiFlings,  (Joseph,)  an  English  navigator,  commanded 
an  expedition  sent  out  in  1787  by  Catherine  II.  of  Rus- 
sia, and  discovered  some  islands  in  the  Northern  Ocean. 

See  "  Decouvertes  des  Russes  dans  le  Nord." 

Billings,  (William.)  said  to  have  been  the  first 
American  musical  composer,  was  born  in  Boston  in  1746. 
He  introduced  a  new  style  of  church  music,  which  ob- 
tained great  popularity  in  New  England.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Samuel  Adams.   Died  in  1800. 

BiFlings-ley,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  mathemati- 
cian, translated  Euclid's  "Elements  of  Geometry"  into 
English,  with  notes  by  Whitehead.    Died  in  1606. 

Bil'ling-tpn,  (Mrs.  Elizabeth  Weichsel — wTk'scI,) 
a  celebrated  English  vocalist,  of  German  extraction,  born 
in  London  in  1770.  She  was  married  when  very  young 
to  Mr.  Billington,  a  musician  of  Drury  Lane  Theatre, 
with  whom  she  visited  the  principal  cities  of  Europe. 
She  was  ever^'where  received  with  enthusiasm,  and  is 
said  to  have  realized  ten  thousand  pounds  in  one  year 
by  her  engagements.    Died  in  181 8. 

See  her  "Autobiographic  Memoirs,"  1792;  Oxberry,  "Dramatic 
Biography." 

Billot,  be'yo',  (Jean,)  a  French  preacher,  born  at 
Dole  in  1709;  died  in  1767. 

Billouet,  b^l'yoo'y  or  be'yoo'i',  (PHILIPPE,)  a  French 
Hebraist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1684  ;  died  at  Orleans  in  1720. 

Billuart,  b^ryii-tR'  or  be'yii-tR',  (Charles  Ren6,)  a 
French  theologian,  and  professor  of  philosophy  in  the 
college  of  Douay,  born  in  1685  ;  died  in  1757. 

Billy.    See  Belly. 

Billy,  de,  deh  be^ye',  (Jacques,)  a  French  scholar, 
born  at  Guise  in  1535,  translated  into  Latin  the  works 
of  Saint  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Saint  John  Chrysostom,  and 
John  of  Damascus.    Died  in  1581. 

Billy,  de,  (Jacques,)  a  French  mathematician  and  sci- 
entific writer,  born  at  Compiegne  in  1602 ;  died  in  1679. 

Billy,  de,  (Nicolas  Antoine,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  writer,  born  at  Vesoul  in  1753  ;  died  in  1825. 

Bi'lon  or  Pi'lon,  an  Armenian  historian,  born  in 
643  A.D.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Patriarchs  of  Ar- 
menia," and  translated  into  Armenian  the  "  Ecclesiastical 
History"  of  Socrates.    Died  in  711. 

Bilon,  be'16N',  (Francois  Marie  Hippolyte,)  a 
French  physician,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1780,  was  a  pupil 
of  Bichat.  He  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Dictionnaire 
des  Sciences  medicales."    Died  in  1824. 

Bilotta,  be-lot'ta,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  jurist, 
wrote  some  legal  works.    Died  in  1636. 

Bilotta,  (Giovanni  Camillo,)  an  Italian  jurist  and 
legal  writer,  born  in  1557  ;  died  in  1588. 

Bilotta,  (Ottavio,)  son  of  Giambattista,  noticed  above, 
was  a  jurist  at  Naples.    Died  about  1650. 

Bilotta,  (Scipione,)  an  Italian  jurist  and  legal  writer. 
Died  in  1581. 

Bils,  van,  vtn  bils,  [Lat.  Bil'sius,]  (Lodewijk,)  a 
Dutch  anatomist,  who  lived  about  1670-90,  pretended 
to  have  a  secret  process  by  which  he  could  preserve 
bodies  from  decomposition. 

Bil'son,  (Thomas,)  a  learned  English  prelate,  born 
at  Winchester  in  1536,  became  Bishop  of  Worcester  in 
1596,  and  of  Winchester  in  1597.  He  published  "The 
Perpetual  Government  of  Christ's  Church,"  "The  True 
Difference  between  Christian  Subjection  and  Unchristian 
Rebellion,"  (1595,)  and  "The  Survey  of  Christ's  Suffer- 
ings for  Man's  Redemption,  etc.,"  (1604.)    Died  in  1616. 

Bimard.    See  La  Bastie. 

Bimbi,  b^m'bee,(BARTOLOMMEO,)  a  Florentine  painter 
of  flowers  and  fruit,  born  in  1648  ;  died  in  1725. 

Bimet,  be^mi',  (Pierre,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Avignon  in  1687;  died  in  1760. 

Binasco,  be-n§.s'ko,  or  Binaschi,  be-nis'kee,  (Fi- 
LIPPO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Binasco,  in  the  duchy  of 
Milan  ;  died  in  1576. 

Binchois,  b^N'shwi',  (Gilles,)  a  musician,  who  lived 


about  1400-20,  made  improvements  in  harmony  and  the 
notation  of  music. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Binck.    See  Bink. 

Binder,  bin'der,  (Wilhelm  Christian,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Weinsberg  in  1810.  In  1846  he  became 
editor  of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  for  Catholic  Germany." 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  The  German 
Horace,"  (3d  edition,  1841,)  and  "  Prince  Metternich 
and  his  Times,"  (3d  edition,  1845.) 

Bineau,  be^no',  (Amand,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
about  1 8 10,  became  professor  of  chemistry  at  Lyons.  He 
collected  and  published  in  1837  a  series  of  lectures  on 
chemical  philosophy,  by  Thenard. 

Bineau,  (Jean  Martial,)  a  French  engineer  and 
financier,  born  at  Gennes,  in  Maine  et-Loire,  in  1805.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  April,  1849, 
and  was  minister  of  public  works  from  October  of  that 
year  to  January,  1851.  He  became  minister  of  finance 
in  January,  1852.    Died  in  September,  1855. 

Binet,  be'n^,  (Claude,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Beau- 
vais,  was  a  friend  of  Ronsard,  who  intrusted  to  him  the 
publication  of  his  works. 

Binet,  (£tienne,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1569,  is  satirized  in  Pascal's  "Provincial  Letters."  Died 
in  1639. 

Binet,  (Etienne,)  a  French  surgeon,  practised  in  the 
army,  and  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Rochelle  in  1627  or 
1628. 

Binet,  (Francois  Isidore,)  a  French  preacher  and 
Capuchin  monk,  born  at  Niort  in  1720. 

Binet,  (Jacques  Philippe  Marie,)  an  eminent  French 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  born  at  Rennes  in  1786. 
He  succeeded  Delambre  in  1823  as  professor  of  astron- 
omy in  the  College  of  France,  and  in  1843  replaced 
Lacroix  in  the  department  [sectio7t)  of  geometry  at  the 
Academy  of  Sciences.  He  wrote  a  number  of  valuable 
treatises  on  geometry  and  natural  philosophy,  among 
which  is  a  "Memoir  on  the  Composition  of  Forces  and 
the  Composition  of  Momenta,"  (1815.)    Died  in  1856. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire,"  (Supplement.) 

Binet,  (Ren^:,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  near  Beau- 
vais  in  1729.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Decline 
of  Morals  among  the  Romans,"  (1795,)  and  a  good  trans- 
lation of  the  works  of  Virgil  and  Horace.    Died  in  1812. 

See  BouLARD,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  R.  Binet,"  1817. 

Bing.    See  Beer-Bing. 

Bingham,  bing'am,  (George,)  an  English  divine,  born 
in  Dorsetshire  in  1713,  wrote  a  "  Vindication  of  the  Doc- 
trine and  Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England,"  (1774,)  "Es- 
say on  the  Millennium,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1800. 

Bingham,  (Sir  George  Ridout,)  an  English  major- 
general,  born  in  1777,  served  in  the  Peninsular  war.  He 
was  subsequently  charged  to  convey  Napoleon  to  Saint 
Helena,    Died  in  1833. 

Bing'ham,  (John  A.,)  an  American  lawyer  and  legis- 
lator, born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1815.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1840,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress, 
in  1854,  by  the  Republicans  of  the  twenty-first  district  of 
Ohio.  He  was  re-elected  at  five  subsequent  elections, 
and  acquired  distinction  as  a  debater.  On  the  24th  of 
February,  1868,  Thaddeus  Stevens  and  Mr.  Bingham 
were  appointed  a  committee  to  impeach  Andrew  John- 
son, President  of  the  United  States,  at  the  bar  of  the 
Senate.  He  was  also  chairman  of  the  managers  who  con- 
ducted the  impeachment  in  April,  1868,  and  was  re- 
elected to  Congress  in  October  of  that  year. 

Bingham,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  English  scholar  and 
divine,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1668.  He  published,  m 
1722,  "Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church,"  ("Origines 
Ecclesiasticae,"  10  vols.,)  esteemed  one  of  the  most  valu- 
able works  of  the  kind.  Died  in  1723.  His  son  Joseph 
prepared  an  edition  of  the  "  Story  of  the  Theban  War," 
published  after  his  death. 

See  Richard  Bingham,  "Life  of  Joseph  Bingham,"  1829. 

Bingham,  (Peregrine,)  an  English  writer  on  law, 
born  about  1788.  He  published  several  legal  treatises, 
(1820-40,)  and  "Reports  in  the  Common  Pleas,"  (1822- 
34.)    Died  in  1864. 

Bingham,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  general,  who  had 
a  high  command  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.    He  served 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (Q^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BINGHAM 


360 


BIORN 


with  disrinction  against  the  Irish  insurgents  about  1586- 
}2.    He  was  the  ancestor  of  the  Earls  of  Lucan. 

Bingham,  (William,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in 
1752.  He  married  Miss  WilUng,  of  Philadelphia,  in  1780. 
He  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  from  1795  to  1801.  Died  at  Bath,  England,  in  1804. 
His  daughter  was  married  to  Sir  Francis  Baring's  son. 

Bingham.    See  Lucan,  Earl  of. 

Bing'ley,  a  celebrated  actor,  of  English  extraction, 
born  at  Rotterdam  in  1755  ;  died  in  1818. 

Bingley,  (William,)  an  English  divine  and  miscel- 
laneous writer,  born  in  Yorkshire.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  "Memoirs  of  British  Quadrupeds,'\(i8i9,) 
"The  Economy  of  a  Christian  Life,"  "Animal  Biog- 
raphy," and  "Useful  Knowledge,"  (3  vols.  8vo,  1816.) 
Died  in  1823. 

Bini,  bee'nee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  writer  and  repub- 
lican, born  at  Leghorn  in  1806,  was  a  friend  of  Mazzini 
and  devoted  to  his  political  principles.    Died  in  1842. 

Bini,  bee'nee,  [Lat.  Bin'ius,]  (Severin,)  a  German 
ecclesiastic,  and  professor  of  theology  at  Cologne,  was 
born  in  Rhenish  Prussia.    Died  in  1641. 

Bink  or  Binck,  bink,  (Jakob,)  a  celebrated  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Cologne  about  1500,  is  supposed  to 
have  studied  under  Albert  Diirer.  He  became  portrait- 
painter  to  Christian  VIII.  of  Denmark.  Died  about  1560. 

Binkes,  binks,  (Jakob,)  a  Dutch  mariner,  who  in  1676 
defended  the  island  of  Tobago  for  a  time  against  Admiral 
D'Estrees.    He  perished  by  an  explosion  the  same  year. 

Bin'ney,  (Amos,)  M.D.,  an  American  naturalist,  born 
in  Boston  in  1803,  was  noted  as  a  patron  of  art  and 
science.  He  possessed  an  ample  fortune,  which  he  ex- 
pended liberally  in  the  promotion  of  science  and  the  pa- 
tronage of  art.  He  was  president  of  the  Boston  Society 
of  Natural  History  at  the  time  of  his  death.  Among  his 
works  is  "Terrestrial  and  Air-Breathing  Mollusks  of  the 
United  States,"  illustrated  by  beautiful  engravings,  (3 
vols.,  1851.)    Died  at  Rome  in  1847. 

See  a  notice  of  A.  Binney,  prefixed  to  the  above  work,  by  A.  A. 
Gould,  who  edited  the  same. 

Binney,  (Horace,)  a  distinguished  lawyer  of  Phila- 
delphia, was  born  in  that  city  in  1780.  At  an  early  age 
he  entered  Harvard  College,  where  he  graduated  in  1797, 
dividing  the  first  honours  with  his  classmate,  the  late 
Judge  White,  of  Salem,  Massachusetts.  He  is  now  (1869) 
the  only  surviving  member  of  his  class.  He  studied  law 
in  Philadelphia,  in  the  office  of  Jared  Ingersoll,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1800.  He  devoted  himself  with 
great  assiduity  to  his  profession,  and  in  a  few  years  stood 
at  its  head  with  John  Sergeant,  Charles  Chauncey,  and 
other  eminent  lawyers.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
most  important  cases  in  the  higher  courts  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  was  frequently  called  to  the  supreme  court  of 
the  United  States.  More  than  once  he  had  tendered  to 
him  high  judicial  positions,  which  he  declined.  Towards 
the  close  of  President  Jackson's  first  administration  Mr. 
Binney  was  elected  to  Congress,  where  his  ability  and 
eloquence  soon  gave  him  a  commanding  position.  He 
appeared  in  court  for  the  last  time  in  1843,  when  he 
made  his  celebrated  argument  in  the  supreme  court  of 
the  United  States  in  the  case  of  Vidal  versus  the  Mayor 
of  Philadelphia.  This  argument,  which  was  exhaustive 
and  is  regarded  as  unanswerable,  is  often  cited  as  autho- 
rity, by  the  bench  and  bar  throughout  the  United  States, 
on  questions  involving  the  law  of  charitable  uses,  and  it 
has  been  referred  to  in  England  by  eminent  jurists  in 
terms  of  the  highest  commendation.  Mr.  Binney's  last 
appearance  before  his  legal  brethren  was  on  the  occasion 
of  the  death  of  his  friend,  the  Honourable  John  Ser- 
geant ;  and  in  delineating  the  character  of  that  distin- 
guished man  he  spoke  with  eloquence  and  touching 
pathos.*  His  great  and  varied  learning,  his  large  expe- 
rience and  profound  judgment  in  all  matters  pertaining 
to  his  profession,  joined  to  his  consistent  and  upright 
character,  have  given  Mr.  Binney  a  position  of  authority 
and  influence  to  which  few  men  have  attained.  Among 
his  most  important  writings  we  may  mention  "  An  In- 
quiry into  the  Formation  of  Washington's  Farewell  Ad- 
dress," (1859,)   and  his   Eulogiums  on  Chief- Justice 

*  His  remarks  on  that  occasion  are  to  be  found  in  "Wallace's  Cir- 
cuit Court  Reports,"  vol.  ii. 


Tilghman  (1827)  and  on  Chief-Justice  Marshall,  (1836.) 
His  argument  in  the  Vidal  case,  before  referred  to,  was 
published  in  Philadelphia  in  1844,  (i  vol.  8vo.)  Binney's 
"  Reports  of  Cases  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  Pennsyl- 
vania," in  six  volumes,  are  esteemed  models  of  their  kind. 
See  "Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  i860. 

Bin'ney,  (Thomas,)  an  eloquent  English  noncon- 
formist minister,  born  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  about 
1800.  He  settled  in  London  about  1830,  and  preached 
many  years  in  the  Weigh-House  Chapel.  He  is  the  author 
of  numerous  popular  works,  among  which  are  "The 
Closet  and  the  Church,"  "The  Practical  Power  of  Faith," 
and  "  Is  it  possible  to  make  the  Best  of  both  Worlds  ?" 

Bin'ning,  (Hugh,)  a  Scottish  Presbyterian  minister, 
born  in  Ayrshire  in  1627,  became  professor  of  moral  phi- 
losophy at  Glasgow.    Died  in  1654. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen."' 

Binninger,  bin'ning-er,  (Jean  Nicolas,)  born  at 
Montbelliard  in  1628,  was  physician  to  the  Duke  of 
Wtirtemberg. 

Binos,  de,  deh  be''nos',  L'Abb^,  a  French  traveller, 
born  in  1730,  published  in  1786  an  account  of  his  travels 
in  Egypt  and  Palestine.    Died  in  1803. 

Binterim,  bin'ter-im,  (Anton  Joseph,)  a  German 
Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1779,  pub- 
lished "  Memorable  Things  {Denkwiirdigkeiten)  respect- 
ing the  Cathohc  Church,"  (7  vols.,  1825-32,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1855. 

Bintinaye,  de  la,  deh  It  bSN^te'ni',  (Agathon  Ma- 
rie Ren6,)  a  French  naval  officer,  born  at  Rennes  in 
1758  ;  died  in  1792. 

Bioern.    See  Biorn. 

Biolco.    See  Beolco. 

Bi'on,  [Biwv,]  a  Greek  tragic  poet,  mentioned  by  Dio- 
genes Laertius,  lived  probably  in  the  first  century  B.C. 

Bion  of  Abde'ra,  a  Greek  mathematician,  who  lived  in 
the  third  or  fourth  century  B.C. 

Bion  of  Borysthenes,  a  philosopher,  who  lived  about 
280  B.C.  After  professing  nearly  all  the  systems  of  philo- 
sophy in  turn,  he  embraced  that  of  the  Peripatetics. 

Bion  [Gr.  Bluv']  of  Smyrna,  a  celebrated  bucolic  poet, 
lived  under  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  II.  of 
Egypt.  He  was  a  contemporary  and  friend  of  Moschus, 
who  composed  an  elegy  in  his  honour.  His  style  is 
elegant,  and  his  versification  harmonious.  His  principal 
extant  poem  is  a  lament  for  Adonis.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  died  by  poison. 

Bion,  be'dN',  (Jean,)  a  French  priest,  born  at  Dijon 
in  1668,  was  converted  to  Protestantism,  and  subsequently 
took  charge  of  an  English  congregation  in  Holland.  He 
wrote  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Sufferings  of  the  Protestants 
in  the  Galleys  of  France,"  (1708.) 

Bion,  (Jean  Marie,)  a  French  jurist,  and  member  of 
the  National  Convention,  (1792,)  voted  for  the  imprison- 
ment of  the  king.  He  became  secretary  in  the  Council 
of  Five  Hundred  about  1795. 

Bion,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  engineer  and  mechanician, 
born  in  1652.  He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Construction, 
etc.  of  Mathematical  Instruments,"  etc.    Died  in  1733. 

Biondi,  be-on'dee,  (Angelica  Lucia,)  an  Italian 
poetess,  daughter  of  the  architect  Zucchi,  was  born  in 
Piedmont  in  1771  ;  died  in  1805. 

Biondi,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  Italian  litterateur 
and  diplomatist,  born  in  Dalmatia  in  1572.  Having  been 
introduced  by  Sir  Henry  Wotton  to  James  I.  of  England, 
he  was  employed  by  that  sovereign  in  several  embassies. 
He  wrote,  in  Italian,  a  "  History  of  the  Civil  War  between 
the  Housesof  Lancaster  and  York,"  (1637.)  Died  in  1644. 

See  NiCERON,  "M^moires." 

Biondo,  be-onMo,  [I-at.  Blon'dus,]  (Michael  An- 
gelo,)  an  Italian  physician  and  medical  writer,  born  at 
Venice  in  1497  ;  died  about  1560. 

Biondo  Flavio.    See  Flavio. 

Biorn,  Bioern,  or  Bjorn,  be-oRN',  I.,  King  of  Sweden 
in  the  eighth  century,  was  surnamed  Ironsides. 

Biorn  III.  reigned  in  the  ninth  century.  He  favoured 
the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  Sweden. 

Biorn  or  Bjorn,  be-oRn'  or  byorn,  sometimes  writ- 
ten Beorn,  a  historian  of  the  seventeenth  century,  born 
in  Iceland,  was  the  author  of  a  work  on  the  discoveries 
in  Greenland,  "  De  Novitiis  Groenlandorum  Indiciis." 


a,  Q,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fl.ll,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


BIOT  361 


Biot,  be'o',  (Edouard  Constant,)  a  French  Orien- 
talist, son  of  Jean  Baptiste,  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
Pans  in  1803.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions.  He  translated  several  works  from  the 
Chinese,  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "Journal  Asia- 
tique."    Died  in  1850. 

Biot,  be'o'  or  be'ot',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  celebrated 
French  astronomer,  optician,  and  natural  philosopher, 
born  in  Paris  on  the  21st  of  April,  1774.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  college  Louis-le-Grand  and  in  the  Poly- 
technic School,  and  became  professor  of  physics  in  the 
College  of  France  in  1800.  Having  written  some  mathe- 
matical essays,  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  1803,  and'  accompanied  Gay-Lussac  in  his  ascension 
by  a  balloon  in  1804.  His  "Analytic  Treatise  on  Curves 
and  Surfaces  of  the  Second  Degree"  (1802)  was  highly 
esteemed  and  often  reprinted.  In  1805  he  published  an 
"Elementary  Treatise  on  Physical  Astronomy,"  (3d  edi- 
tion, 6  vols.,  1850.)  He  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  bu- 
reau of  longitudes,  and  in  1806  was  employed  by  the  gov- 
ernment, in  conjunction  with  Arago,  in  the  measurement 
of  the  arc  of  the  meridian  in  Spain.  He  obtained  the 
chair  of  physical  astronomy  in  the  Faculty  of  Sciences 
in  1809.  Biot  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal  Sociey 
of  London  about  1815.  He  was  sent  to  the  Shetland 
Islands,  in  181 7,  to  perform  a  geodesic  operation.  His 
"  Treatise  on  Experimental  Physics  and  Mathematics" 
(4  vols.,  1816)  is  called  one  of  the  best  on  that  subject. 
In  1821  he  published  "  Geodesical,  Astronomical,  and 
Physical  Observations  made  in  Spain,  France,  England, 
and  Scotland,  to  determine  the  Variation  of  Gravity,  etc." 
He  contributed  many  articles  to  the  "  Journal  des  Sa- 
vants" and  the  "Annales  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique." 
For  the  "Biographic  Universelle"  he  wrote  many  able 
notices  of  scientific  men,  among  whom  were  Descartes, 
Dr.  Franklin,  and  Galileo,  In  his  "  Memoir  on  Circular 
Polarization  and  its  Application  to  Organic  Chemistry" 
(read  in  1833)  ^'^^  announced  a  new  discovery,  which  has 
been  applied  with  success  in  testing  the  quality  of  sugar. 
He  received  in  1840  the  Rumford  medal  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London  for  his  researches  in  the  circular  po- 
larization of  light.  He  was  admitted  to  the  French 
Academy  in  1856,  in  consideration  of  the  beauty  and 
eloquence  of  his  writings,  among  which  we  should  notice 
his  "Researches  on  Ancient  Astronomy."  He  married 
in  early  life  a  daughter  of  Professor  Brisson.  Died  in 
1862,  in  his  eighty-eighth  year. 

See  Le  Bas,  "  Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Geiierale;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  July,  1818. 

Birago,  be-ri'go,  (Carlo,)  Baron  of,  a  distinguished 
military  engineer,  born  near  Milan  in  1792,  was  the  in- 
ventor of  the  system  of  bridges  called  by  his  name.  Died 
in  1845. 

Birago,  (Francesco,)  an  accomplished  Italian  gentle- 
man and  writer,  born  at  Milan  in  1562.  He  was  well 
versed  in  the  scienza  cavalleresca,  i.e.  the  laws  of  honour 
and  chivalry,  on  which  he  wrote  several  works  of  much 
merit.  He  was  appealed  to  as  an  oracle  or  arbiter  on 
questions  of  chivalry.    Died  about  1640. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Birago,  (Jacopo,)  sometimes  called  Lapo  or  Lampo, 
an  Italian  scholar  and  Hellenist,  born  in  Tuscany  about 
1420.  He  became  professor  of  literature  and  philosophy 
at  Bologna,  and  translated  Plutarch's  "  Lives"  into  Latin. 

Birago  Avogadro,  be-ri^'go  a-vo-giMRo,  (Giambat- 
TISTA,)  an  Italian  historian  and  jurist,  wrote  an  "  African 
History,"  (1650,)  which  has  been  translated  into  French. 

Birague,  be-ri'gi,  (Clemente,)  a  Spanish  artist,  born 
about  1560,  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  engrav- 
ing on  diamonds.  Among  his  works  of  this  kind  is  a 
portrait  of  Don  Carlos,  son  of  Philip  II. 

Birague,  de,  deh  be^rtg',  (Flaminio,)  a  French  poet, 
nephew  of  Rene,  noticed  below,  lived  about  1570. 

Birague,  de,  (Ren^;,)  a  statesman  and  cardinal  under 
Henry  II.  and  Charles  IX.,  was  born  at  Milan  in  15 10. 
He  became  keeper  of  the  seals  in  1570,  and  on  the  death 
of  L'Hopital  obtained  the  title  of  chancellor.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  one  of  the  principal  instigators  of  the  Mas- 
sacre of  Saint  Bartholomew.    Died  in  1583. 

See  De  Thou,  "Historia  sui  Temporis;"  Moreri,  "Diction- 
naire Historique." 


BIRDE 


Biran.    See  Maine  de  Biran. 

Birch,  beeRK,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  Danish  author, 
born  in  1750,  lived  at  Seeland ;  died  in  1795. 

Birch,  (Peter,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  1652,  be- 
came prebendary  of  Westminster. 

Birch,  (Samuel,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  Lon- 
don about  1 8 13.  He  has  written  on  Greek  and  Roman 
antiquities  and  Egyptian  hieroglyphics. 

Birch,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  an  English  historian  and 
biographer,  born  in  London  in  1705.  He  was  originally 
a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  but  he  subsequently 
entered  into  orders  in  the  Church  of  England.  He  be- 
came a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1734,  and  one  of 
its  secretaries  in  1752.  He  pubHshed,  in  1741,  his  "Gene- 
ral Dictionary,  Historical  and  Critical,"  (10  vols.,)  being 
a  translation  of  Bayle's  work,  with  great  additions.  He 
also  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Archbishop  Tillotson,"  "  Life  of 
Henry,  Prince  of  Wales,  Son  of  James  I.,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1766. 

Birch'ing-ton,  written  alsoBrychington,(STEPHEN,) 
an  English  monk  and  chronicler,  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  down  to  1368,"  published 
in  Wharton's  "  Anglia  Sacra." 

Birch-Pfeiffer,  beeRK'pfl'fer,  (Charlotte,)  a  popu- 
lar German  actress  and  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Stuttgart 
in  1800,  was  the  author  of  "The  Favourites,"  ("Die 
Giinstlinge,")  "  Hinko,"  and  other  plays.  Died  in  De- 
cember, 1868. 

Birck'beck,  (Simon,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
Westmoreland  in  1584,  published  a  work  entitled  "The 
Protestant's  Evidence." 

Birckner,  becRk'ner,  (Michael  Gottlieb,)  a  Danish 
author,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1756,  was  vicar  at  Kor- 
soer.  He  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  writings,  among 
which  is  a  "Plea  for  the  Liberty  of  the  Press,"  (1797.) 
Died  in  1798. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  1797,  and  a  German  translation  of  the 
same,  1812;  also  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "  Litteraturlexicon." 

Bird,  (Charles  Smith,)  an  English  theologian  and 
controversialist,  born  about  1795  ;  died  in  1862. 

Bird,  (Edw^ard,)  an  eminent  English  painter  of  rural 
and  domestic  scenes,  born  at  Wolverhampton  in  1772. 
His  pictures  of  the  "Choristers  Rehearsing,"  "Good 
News,"  and  "The  Will,"  established  his  reputation,  and 
caused  him  to  be  elected  an  academician.  He  was  ap- 
pointed painter  to  the  Princess  Charlotte  about  1813. 
Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  "The  Surrender 
of  Calais,"  "  The  Field  of  Chevy  Chase  the  Day  after  the 
Battle,"  "The  Gipsy  Boy,"  "The  Country  Auction,"  and 
"The  Death  of  Eli."  For  the  last-named  picture  he 
obtained  from  the  Marquis  of  Stafford  the  sum  of  five 
hundred  guineas.    Died  in  1819. 

See  Cunningham,  "Lives  of  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects." 

Bird,  (Francis,)  an  English  sculptor,  born  in  London 
in  1667.  Among  his  works  are  Dr.  Busby's  monument, 
in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  a  statue  of  Queen  Anne. 
Died  in  1731. 

Bird,  (Golding,)  an  English  medical  writer,  born  in 
1 81 5,  practised  in  London  with  success.  He  contributed 
many  treatises  to  medical  periodicals,  and  published 
"Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  (2d  edition,  1843.) 
Died  in  1854. 

Bird,  (John,)  an  English  mechanician  and  instrument- 
maker,  published  a  work  entitled  "  Method  of  Dividing 
Astronomical  Instruments."    Died  in  1776. 

Bird,  (Robert  Montgomery,)  M.D.,  an  American 
author,  born  at  New  Castle,  Delaware,  in  1803.  He 
began  to  practise  medicine  in  Philadelphia,  and  produced 
successful  tragedies,  entitled  "  The  Gladiator"  and  "  Ora- 
loosa."  In  1834  he  published  "Calavar,  a  Romance  of 
Mexico."  Among  his  other  works  are  "The  Infidel,"  a 
novel,  (1835,)  and  "The  Adventures  of  Robin  Day," 
(1839.)  He  became  in  1847  joint  editor  and  proprietor 
of  the  "North  American  and  United  States  Gazette," 
published  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  distinguished  for  his 
learning,  versatility,  and  practical  ability.    Died  in  1854. 

See  Griswold's  "Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Birde  or  Byrd,'bird,  (William,)  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish composer  of  church  music,  born  about  1540.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Thomas  Tallis,  and  became,  conjointly 
with  him,  organist  to  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1575.  Among- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  o,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BIRE 


362 


BISCHOFF 


his  best  productions  are  his  "Sacred  Songs,"  and  his 
magnificent  canon  entitled  "  Non  Nobis,  Domine,"  which 
is  still  popular.    Died  in  1623. 

See  BuRNEY,  "General  History  of  Music." 

Eire,  be'ri',  (Pierre,)  a  French  jurist,  lived  about  1580. 

Biren,  bee'ren,  Biron,  bee'ron,  or  Buren,  boo'ren, 
(Ernest  John,)  Duke  of  Courland,  born  in  1690.  He 
was  patronized  by  Anne,  Duchess  of  Courland,  who,  on 
becoming  Empress  of  Russia,  made  him  governor  and 
duke  of  Courland.  He  was  made  regent  by  the  empress 
at  her  death,  but,  having  formed  a  scheme  to  marry  his 
son  to  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  he  was  exiled  to  Siberia. 
He  was  afterwards  recalled  by  Peter  HI.    Died  in  1772. 

See  RuEHL,  "Geschichte  E.  J.  von  Biron,"  2  vols.,  1764  ;  Hem- 
PEL,  "  Leben  des  Herzogs  E.  J.  von  Curland,"  1772;  Karamsin, 
'*  Histoire  de  la  Russie." 

Bii'ger,  beeR^ger,  King  of  Sweden,  born  in  1281,  was 
deposed  by  his  subjects,  and  died  in  Denmark  in  1321. 

Birger  de  Bielbo,  (Bjelbo,)  beeR-'ger  dk  be-^Kbo, 
Duke  of  Gothia,  born  about  12 10,  was  a  brother-in-law 
of  Eric,  King  of  Sweden,  on  whose  death  he  became 
regent  of  the  kingdom.  He  founded  the  city  of  Stock- 
holm, and  introduced  numerous  reforms  into  the  gov- 
ernment.   Died  in  1266. 

See  SiLFVERSTOLPE,  "Areminnebfver  Birgerjarltlll  Bjallbo,"  1787. 

Biringuccio,  be-r^n-goot'cho,  (Vanucci,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  lived  about  1520.  He  wrote  a  work  on 
pyrotechny. 

Birk'beck,  (George,)  an  English  physician  and  edu- 
cational reformer,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1776.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Edinburgh,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Jeffrey,  Lord  Brougham,  and  Sidney  Smith.  He  became 
soon  after  professor  in  the  Andersonian  Institution  at 
Glasgow.  From  1801  to  1804  he  gave  a  gratuitous  course 
of  lectures  to  the  mechanics  of  that  city,  which  were 
numerously  attended.  In  1823  the  London  Mechanics' 
Institution  was  founded,  and  Dr.  Birkbeck  was  elected 
its  president.    Died  in  1841. 

See  Knight,  "  Dictionary  of  Arts,  Commerce,"  etc. 

Birk^en-head  or  Berk'en-head,  (Sir  John,)  an  Eng- 
lish journalist,  born  in  Cheshire  about  1615.  In  1642  he 
became  editor  of  "The  Court  Mercury,"  or  "Mercurius 
Aulicus,"  a  royalist  journal.  After  the  restoration  he 
became  a  member  of  Parliament  for  Wilton,  and  a  Fel- 
low of  the  Royal  Society,    Died  in  1679. 

Birk'head,  [Lat.  Birchea'dus,]  (Henry,)  an  Eng- 
lish writer  and  Latin  poet,  born  in  London  in  161 7. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Birnbaum,  b^Rn'bowm,  (Johann  Michael  Franz,) 
a  German  litteratejir,  born  at  Bamberg  in  1790,  became 
professor  of  law  and  chancellor  of  the  University  at  Gies- 
sen,  (1848.) 

Bir'ney,  (David  Bell,)  an  American  general,  son  of 
James  G.  Birney,  noticed  below,  born  at  Huntsville,  Ala- 
bama, in  1825.  He  was  a  lawyer  before  the  rebellion,  and 
resided  in  Philadelphia.  About  the  end  of  1861  he  was 
appointed  a  brigadier-general.  He  served  with  distinc- 
tion at  Fredericksburg,  December,  1862,  and  at  Chancel- 
lorsville,  May,  1863.  Having  been  raised  to  the  rank  of 
major-general,  he  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of 
Gettysburg,  July,  1863,  and  in  several  battles  between 
Grant  and  Lee  in  1864.  In  July  of  that  year  he  obtained 
command  of  the  tenth  army  corps.  He  died  in  Phila- 
delphia, October,  1864. 

See  Tennev,  "Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Birney,  (James  G.,)  a  distinguished  opponent  of  sla- 
very, born  at  Danville,  Kentucky,  in  1792  or  1793.  He 
studied  law,  which  he  practised  at  Huntsville,  Alabama. 
About  1834  he  began  to  advocate  publicly  the  immediate 
emancipation  of  slaves,  and  liberated  twenty  or  more 
which  he  owned,  thus  sacrificing  property  valued  at  sev- 
eral thousand  dollars.  He  founded  an  anti-slavery  paper, 
called  "The  Philanthropist,"  at  Cincinnati,  in  1834  or 
1835.  His  ofiice  was  attacked  by  a  mob,  which  threw  his 
press  into  the  Ohio  River.  About  1836  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  American  Anti-Slavery  Society,  and 
afterwards  resided  several  years  in  New  York  City.  He 
acted  an  important  part  in  the  organization  of  a  new  po- 
litical party,  called  the  "Liberty  Party,"  by  which  he  was 
nominated  for  the  Presidency  in  1840.  About  1842  he 
removed  to  Saginaw,  Michigan.    He  received  62,263 


votes  as  the  candidate  of  the  Liberty  party  in  the  Piesi- 
dential  election  of  1844.  He  was  author  of  a  tract  en- 
titled "  The  American  Churches  the  Bulwarks  of  Ame- 
rican Slavery."  Died  near  Perth  Amboy,  New  Jersey, 
in  1857,  leaving  several  sons. 

Bir^'nie,  (Sir  Richard,)  a  Scottish  magistrate,  born 
at  Banff  about  1760.  As  a  police  magistrate  in  London, 
he  rendered  service  in  the  suppression  of  a  riot  in  1820. 
Died  in  1832. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Biroli,  be-ro'lee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  physician 
and  botanist,  born  at  Novara  in  1772,  became  professor 
of  botany  and  materia  medica  at  Turin,  and  published 
several  works  on  agriculture,  etc.    Died  in  1825. 

Biron.    See  Biren. 

Biron,  de,  deh  be'r^N',  (Armand  de  Gontaut — deh 

g6N't6',)  Due,  a  French  marshal,  born  about  1524. 
He  fought  against  the  Huguenots  at  Saint-Denis  and 
Moncontour,  and  subsequently  under  Henry  IV.  at  Ivry. 
He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  fipernay  in  1592. 

Biron,  de,  (Armand  Louis  de  Gontaut,)  Due  de 
Lauzun,  a  nephew  of  Louis  Antoine,  noticed  below,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1747.  He  fought  in  America  for  the 
United  States  about  1780,  and  was  appointed  general-in- 
chief  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine  in  July,  1792.  He  defeated 
the  Vendeans  at  Parthenay  in  1793.  Having  offended 
the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  by  insisting  on  resigning 
his  command,  he  was  executed  in  December,  1793. 

Biron,  de,  (Charles  Armand,)  Dug,  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  in  1663.  He  obtained  the  baton  of  marshal 
in  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.    Died  in  1756. 

Biron,  de,  (Charles  de  Gontaut,)  Dug,  son  of  Ar- 
mand de  Gontaut,  noticed  above,  born  in  1562,  was  a 
favourite  of  Henry  IV.,  who  gave  him  the  title  of  mar- 
shal of  France  and  appointed  him  in  1595  Governor  of 
Burgundy.  Being  afterwards  convicted  of  conspiring 
with  the  Duke  of  Savoy  against  the  French  king,  he  was 
put  to  death  in  1602. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Tampons;"  Martir-Rizo,  "  His- 
toria  de  la  Vida  del  Duque  de  Biron,"  1629. 

Biron,  de,  (Louis  Antoine,)  a  son  of  Charles  Ar- 
mand, noticed  above,  born  in  1700,  served  in  Italy,  Flan- 
ders, etc.,  and  became  marshal  of  France.  Died  in  1788. 

Biroteau,  be'ro'to',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  Gi- 
rondist, born  at  Perpignan,  was  a  member  of  the  Na- 
tional Convention,  and  voted  at  the  trial  of  the  king  for 
the  appeal  to  the  people.  He  was  executed  on  a  charge 
of  treason  in  1793. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Frangaise." 

Birr,  beeR,  (Antoine,)  a  Swiss  physician  and  critic, 
born  in  1693,  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Bale. 

Bisaccioni,  be-slt-cho'nee,(MAjOLTNO,  mS-yo-lee'no,) 
Count,  an  Italian  soldier,  diplomatist,  and  writer,  born 
at  Ferrara  in  1582.  He  was  employed  in  various  em- 
bassies by  the  Duke  of  Savoy  and  other  princes.  Died 
in  1663. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Bis'bie,  (Nathaniel,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  wrote 
"The  Modern  Pharisee,"  and  a  number  of  sermons. 
Died  in  1695. 

Biscaino,  b^s-ki-ee'no,  (Domenigo,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Genoa  in  1632  ;  died  in  1657. 

Bischof,  bish'off,  (Karl  Gustav,)  a  German  chemist 
and  geologist,  born  at  Word,  near  Nuremberg,  in  1792, 
became  professor  of  chemistry  at  Bonn  in  1822.  He 
published  a  "  Manual  of  Chemical  and  Physical  Geology," 
(2  vols.,  1847-55,  unfinished,)  which  is  highly  esteemed. 

Bischof,  (Nicolas.)    See  Froben. 

Bischoff,  bish'off,  (Christoph  Heinrich  Ernst,)  a 
German  physician,  and  professor  of  pharmacy  and  thera- 
peutics at  I^onn,  was  born  at  Hanover  about  1780. 

Bischoff,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  born  at  Ellrichin  1780 
was  the  originator  of  the  musical  festivals  of  Germany. 
Died  in  1841. 

Bischoff,  (Gottlieb  Wilhelm,)  professor  of  botany 
at  Heidelberg,  born  at  Diirkheim  in  1797,  published 
"Elements  of  Medicinal  Botany,"  {1831,)  and  "ManuaJ 
of  Universal  Botany,"  (1834.) 

Bischoff,  (Ignaz  Rudolf,)  of  Altenstern,  a  German 
physician  and  surgeon  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Krems- 
miinster  in  1784,  became  professor  of  clinics  at  Vienna 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAor^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsatre;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


B IS  CHOP F 


363 


BISSET 


about  1825.  He  published  a  treatise  "On  Chronic  Dis- 
eases in  general,"  (181 7,)  and  other  medical  works.  Died 
in  1850. 

BischoflF,  (Theodor  Ludwig  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
physiologist  and  anatomist,  son  of  Christoph  Heinrich 
Ernst,  born  at  Hanover  in  1807.  In  1844  he  became 
professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  Giessen,  where 
he  founded  an  anatomical  museum  and  a  physiological 
institute.  He  wrote  several  valuable  treatises  on  the 
development  of  the  mammalia. 

See  Brocichaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Bischofsberger,  bish'offs-blR^Ger,  (Bartholomew,) 
a  Swiss  writer  and  Protestant  divine,  born  in  the  canton 
of  Appenzell  in  1622,  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Canton  of 
Appenzell."    Died  in  1678. 

Bischofswerder,  von,  fon  bish'ofs-^^^R^der,  (Jo- 
HANN  Rudolf,)  a  Prussian  officer  and  statesman  under 
Frederick  William  H.,  was  employed  by  him  in  several 
important  negotiations.    Died  in  1803. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Bischop  (or  Biskop)  van,  vtn  bis^Kop,  (Jan,)  a  skil- 
ful Dutch  designer  and  painter  of  landscapes  and  history, 
was  born  at  the  Hague  in  1646.  He  copied  the  Italian 
masters  with  the  crayon.    Died  in  1686. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Bischop,  van,  written  also  Biskop,  (Kornelis,)  a 
Flemish  or  Dutch  painter,  born  in  1630,  was  a  pupil  of 
Bol,  whose  style  he  imitated.    Died  in  1674. 

Biscioni,  be-sho'nee,  (Antonio  Maria,)  a  learned 
Italian  ecclesiastic  and  eloquent  preacher,  born  at  Flor- 
ence in  1674,  was  appointed  apostolic  prothonotary,  and 
chief  librarian  of  the  Laurentian  Library  of  Florence. 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Noble  Family  of  the  Pan- 
ciatichi,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1756: 

See  GiNGUENE,  "Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Bis'coe,  (Richard,)  an  English  divine,  born  about 
1670.  He  published  "The  History  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  confirmed  from  other  Authors,"  etc.,  "which," 
says  Dr.  Doddridge,  "shows  how  incontestably  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  demonstrate  the  truth  of  Christianity." 

Biset,  be'zy,  (Charles  Emmanuel,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Mechlin  in  1633,  became  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Antwerp  in  1674. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands." 

Bish'op,  (George,)  an  English  astronomer,  born  in 
1784  ;  died  in  186 1. 

Bishop,  (Sir  Henry  Rowley,)  an  eminent  English 
composer,  born  in  London  in  1780.  He  was  elected  pro- 
fessor of  music  at  Oxford  in  1848,  and  was  one  of  the 
first  directors  of  the  Philharmonic  concerts.  Among  the 
most  popular  of  his  numerous  operas  are  "  The  English- 
man in  India,"  "  Guy  Mannering,"  "  The  Knight  of  Snow- 
don,"  and  "The  Slave."  His  ballads,  songs,  glees,  etc. 
are  esteemed  master-pieces  of  the  kind.  He  was  knighted 
in  1842.    Died  in  1855. 

Bishop,  (Samuel,)  an  English  divine  and  poet,  born 
in  London  in  1 731.  He  is  believed  to  have  written  the 
popular  farce  of  "  High  Life  Below-stairs,"  sometimes 
attributed  to  Garrick.    Died  in  1795. 

See  T.  Clarke,  "  Life  of  S.  Bishop,"  prefixed  to  his  works,  1796. 

Bishop,  (William,)  an  English  Catholic  theologian, 
born  in  Warwickshire  in  1553.  In  1623  he  was  appointed 
by  the  pope  apostolic  vicar,  and  obtained  the  title  of 
Bishop  of  Chalcedon.    Died  in  1624. 

Bisi,  bee'see,  (Bonaventura,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
miniatures,  born  at  Bologna  in  1612,  was  also  an  etcher. 
Died  at  Modena  in  1662. 

Biskop.    See  Bischop. 

Bismark,  biz'miRk,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man general  and  military  writer,  born  at  Windheim,  in 
Westphalia,  in  1783.  He  entered  the  French  army,  and 
distinguished  himself  under  Ney  in  the  Russian  cam- 
paign of  1 81 2. 

Bismark-  (or  Bismarck-)  Schonhausen,  von, 
fon  biz'm^Rk  shon'how'zen,  (Karl  Otto,)  a  celebrated 
Prussian  statesman,  born' at  Brandenburg  in  1813.  He 
studied  law  at  the  Universities  of  Gottingen  and  Berlin. 
In  1847  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  United  Diet, 
And  became  one  of  the  chief  orators  of  the  Junkers,  or 
oonservative  party.    In  1851  he  was  sent  to  Frankfort 


as  first  secretary  of  legation,  with  the  title  of  Privy  Coun* 
sellor  to  the  Prussian  Embassy.  He  adopted  the  politi- 
cal axiom  that  Prussia  could  not  fulfil  its  mission  in 
Germany  until  Austria  should  be  driven  out  of  the  Bund. 
He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Saint  Petersburg  in  1859, 
about  the  end  of  which  year  he  visited  Paris,  ostensibly 
for  amusement.  He  represented  Prussia  at  Paris  for  a 
short  time  in  1862,  and  was  appointed  prime  minister  in 
September  of  that  year.  His  reactionary  policy  gave 
great  offence  to  the  Liberals.  In  October,  1862,  he  dis- 
solved the  chamber,  (the  majority  of  which  opposed  his 
measures,)  and  declared  that  the  ministry  would  govern 
on  their  own  responsibility.  Prussia,  with  the  aid  of  Aus- 
tria, conquered  Sleswick  and  Holstein  from  Denmark  in 
1864,  and  signed  the  Convention  of  Gastein  in  relation 
to  those  duchies  in  August,  1865.  Bismark  designed  to 
annex  Sleswick  and  Holstein  to  Prussia,  but  could  not 
obtain  the  consent  of  Austria.  The  long  rivalry  between 
these  two  powers  was  now  brought  to  a  crisis.  A  ma- 
jority of  the  German  Bund  having  voted  in  favour  of  Aus- 
tria, Prussia  seceded  from  the  Bund  and  formed  an  alli- 
ance with  the  King  of  Italy.  War  was  declared  in  June, 
1866.  The  Prussian  armies  speedily  occupied  Hanover 
and  Saxony.  Advancing  into  Bohemia,  they  encountered 
the  Austrian  army  near  Sadowa  (Koniggratz)  on  the  3d 
of  July,  and  gained  a  victory  so  decisive  that  the  Em- 
peror of  Austria  made  overtures  of  peace ;  and  a  treaty 
was  signed  in  August,  1866,  by  which  Austria  was  ex- 
cluded from  the  German  Bund.  Hanover,  Electoral 
Hesse,  Holstein,  and  other  small  states  were  annexed 
to  Prussia.  Bismark  negotiated  in  August,  1866,  secret 
treaties  of  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  Bavaria, 
Baden,  and  Wiirtemberg.  According  to  these  treaties, 
(which  were  made  public  in  April,  1867,)  the  King  of  Prus- 
sia is  commander  of  the  armies  of  the  said  states.  This 
brief  and  momentous  war  rendered  Prussia  perhaps  the 
foremost  power  in  Europe,  united  nearly  all  Germany, 
(except  Austria,  Bohemia,  and  Moravia,)  and  greatly 
impaired  the  influence  and  prestige  of  Napoleon  III. 
It  is  generally  admitted  that  Bismark  outwitted  the 
French  emperor  in  the  diplomatic  intrigues  and  con- 
tests of  1866.  "In  considering  recent  events,"  says  M. 
Thiers,  March,  1867,  "I  am  tempted  to  exclaim,  with 
Bossuet,  'A  man  was  found.'  Not  that  I  wish  to  insti- 
tute any  comparison  between  Cromwell,  to  whom  the 
quotation  applies,  and  the  bold  minister  who  has  so 
rapidly  raised  Prussia  to  greatness.  .  .  .  But,  considering 
how  wonderfully  adapted  he  has  shown  himself  to  the 
task  he  has  undertaken,  I  cannot  help  saying,  Yes,  a 
man  has  been  found  endowed  with  rare  political  saga- 
city, still  greater  boldness,  and  whom  his  countrymen 
must  consider  a  great  patriot."  He  was  appointed  chan- 
cellor of  the  North  German  Confederation  in  July,  1867. 

See  a  Memoir  of  Bismark  in  the  "North  American  Review"  for 
January,  1868. 

Bisot  or  Bizot,  be'zo',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  me- 
chanician and  pyrotechnist,  born  at  Besan^on  in  1702 ; 
died  in  1781. 

Bis'sat,  Bis'set,  or  Bis'sart,  (Peter,)  a  Scottish 
philosopher  and  poet,  born  in  1500,  became  professor  of 
canon  law  at  Bologna.    Died  in  1 568. 

Bisschop.    See  Episcopius. 

Bisschop,  van,  (Jan.)    See  Bischop. 

Bisselin.    See  Basselin. 

Bis'sell,  (William  H.,)  an  American  Governor,  born 
in  Otsego  county.  New  York,  in  1811.  He  studied  medi- 
cine, and  removed  to  Monroe  county,  Illinois,  in  1837. 
About  1842  he  began  to  practise  law.  He  served  as  col- 
onel in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and  represented  a  dis- 
trict of  Illinois  in  Congress  from  1849  to  1855.  Having 
separated  from  the  Democratic  party  in  1854,  he  was 
elected  Governor  of  Illinois  by  the  Republicans  in  1856. 
Died  at  Springfield  in  i860. 

Bissen,  bis'sen,  (Wilhelm,)  a  Danish  sculptor,  born 
near  Sleswick  in  1798,  studied  at  Rome  under  Thor- 
waldsen.  He  became  president  of  the  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  at  Copenhagen  in  1850.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  "Cupid  sharpening  his  Arrow,"  an  "Apollo,"  and  a 
"Venus." 

Bis'set,  (Charles,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  savant, 
born  in  Perthshire  in  1717.    He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  the 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  giUtitral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BISSET 


364 


BUCK 


Theor,^  and  Construction  of  Fortifications,"  and  several 
medical  works.    Died  in  1791. 

Ste  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Bisset,  (James,)  a  Scottish  littirateur  and  amateur 
artist,  born  at  Perth  in  1752  ;  died  in  1832. 

Bisset,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  writer,  published  a  '*  His- 
tory of  the  Reign  of  George  III.,"  (6  vols.,)  a  "  Life  of 
Edmund  Burke,"  (1798,)  and  an  edition  of  the  "Specta- 
tor," with  notes  and  lives  of  the  authors.    Died  in  1805. 

Bis'set,  (William,)  an  English  divine  and  political 
writer  under  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  wrote  several 
controversial  treatises  against  Dr.  Sacheverell. 

See  Nichols,  "  Literary  Anecdotes." 

Bisso,  bes'so,  (Francesco,)  a  resident  of  Palermo, 
was  appointed  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  in  1 581,  first  physi- 
cian of  the  kingdom  of  Sicily.    Died  in  1598. 

Bisson,  be's6N',  (Louis  Charles,)  Bishop  of  Bayeux, 
born  in  the  department  of  Manche  in  1742  ;  died  in  1820. 

Bisson,  (Count  P.  F.  J.  G.,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Montpellier  in  1767,  served  in  the  Prussian  campaign 
of  1807,  and  was  created  a  count  in  1808.    Died  in  1811. 

See  "  Victolres  et  Conquetes  des  Fran^ais." 

Bissoni,  b^s-so'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  Padua.    Died  in  1636. 

Bistac,  bes'ttk',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  grammarian, 
and  rector  of  the  college  at  Langres,  where  he  was  born 
in  1677.    Died  in  1752. 

Bitaube,be't6'ba^(PAUL  Jer^mie,)  aGerman  scholar, 
of  French  extraction,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1732.  He 
published  a  French  translation  of  the  "  Iliad"  and  "  Odys- 
sey," and  of  Goethe's  "  Hermann  and  Dorothea."  His 
most  esteemed  work  is  a  prose  poem  entitled  "  Joseph," 
He  was  a  foreign  associate  of  the  French  Academy  of 
Inscriptions.    Died  in  1808. 

See  Dacier,  "Notice  sur  Bitaube;"  Michel  Berr,  "  Essai  sur 
la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  P.  J.  Bitaube,"  1809. 

Biton.    See  Cleobis. 

Bi'ton,  [BiVwv,]  a  Greek  writer,  known  as  the  author 
of  a  work  on  machines  of  war,  dedicated  to  a  king  At- 
tains, but  which  one  is  uncertain. 

Bitzius,  bit'se-iis,  (Albert,)  a  popular  Swiss  author, 
who  wrote  under  the  assumed  name  of  Jeremias  Gott- 
HELF,  was  born  at  Morat,  in  the  canton  of  Freiburg,  in 
1797.  He  was  pastor  of  Liitzelfluh.  He  published  many 
tales  and  other  works,  among  which  are  "  Kathi  die 
Grossmutter,"  (2  vols.,  1848,)  and  "  Uli  der  Pachter," 
(1849.)    Died  in  1854. 

Biumi,  be-oo'mee,  (Paolo  Girolamo,)  an  Italian 
physician  and  medical  writer,  who  graduated  at  Pavia  in 
1685,  was  professor  of  anatomy  at  Milan.    Died  in  1731. 

Bivar,  be-vaR',  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  theologian 
and  religious  writer,  born  at  Madrid;  died  in  1636. 

Bivar,  de,  (Rodrigo  Diaz.)    See  Cm,  The. 

Biver,  be-vaiR',  or  Bivero,  be-va'ro,  (Pedro,)  a  Span- 
ish Jesuit  and  religious  writer,  born  at  Madrid  in  1572  ; 
died  in  1656. 

Bixio,  bek'se-o,  (Jacques  Alexandre,)  an  able 
journalist,  born  at  Chiavari,  in  Sardinia,  in  1808.  He 
founded  at  Paris,  with  M.  Buloz,  the  "  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,"  and  published  a  good  work,  entitled  "  La 
Maison  rustique."  In  1848  he  was  elected  to  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly,  and  was  wounded  in  a  contest  with  the 
seditious  mob.  He  was  minister  of  agriculture  and  com- 
merce for  a  short  time  in  December,  1848,  His  public 
life  was  abruptly  terminated  by  the  co2ip  d''etat  in  185 1. 

Bizardiere,  de  la,  deh  la  be'ztR'de-iiR',  (Michel 
David,)  Sieur,  a  French  historian,  wlio^ published  a 
"  History  of  Louis  le  Grand,"  (17 12,)  and  several  works 
on  Polish  history. 

Bizet,  be'zi',  (Martin  Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  near  Bolbec  in  1746. 

Bizot,  be'zo',  (Pierre,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  in 
1630  ;  died  in  1696. 

Bizzarri,  b^t-sSr'ree,  or  Bizari,  b^d-zi'ree,  (Pietro,) 
an  Italian  historian  and  poet,  born  about  1530.  His 
principal  works  are  a  "  History  of  the  War  in  Hungary," 
(1569,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Cyprian  War  between  the 
Venetians  and  Solyman,"  (1573,)  both  in  Latin, 

Bizzelli,  b^t-seKlee,  (Giovanni,)  a  Florentine  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  born  about  1556;  died  in  1612. 

Bjelke.    See  Bielke, 


Bjeringor  Biering,  be-&R'ing,  (Christian  Henrik,) 
a  Danish  author,  born  m  Funen,  was  pastor  of  Aastrup. 
Died  in  1804. 

Bjerken,  be-gR'ken,  (Peter,)  an  able  Swedish  sur- 
geon, born  in  Stockholm  in  1765,  became  in  1802  physi- 
cian-in-ordinary to  the  king.  He  obtained  the  order  of 
the  Polar  Star,  and  other  distinctions.    Died  in  1818. 

See  S.  A.  Hedin,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  P.  af  Bjerken,"  1819. 

Bjorn  or  Bjoern.    See  Biorn. 
Bjorner,  Bjoerner,  or  Bioerner,  be-oR'ner,  (Eric 
Julius,)  a  Swedish  antiquary,  born  in  1696  ;  died  in  1750. 
See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemelne  Encyklopaedie." 

Bjornklow  or  BicBrnklow,  be-oRn'klolX^,  (Mat- 
thew,) a  Swedish  statesman  and  senator,  born  in  1607, 
was  employed  in  various  embassies.    Died  in  1671. 

Bjornson,  be-oRn'son,  (Bjornstjerne,  be-oRn'- 
ste-eR^neh,)  a  popular  Norwegian  author,  born  in  1832, 
has  written  a  few  short  poems,  some  dramas,  and  several 
charming  tales,  among  which  are  "Arne,"  (recently 
translated  into  English,)  "A  Happy  Lad,"  and  "The 
Fisher-Maiden,"  ("  Fiskerjenten,"  1868.)  The  last, 
which  is  his  latest  production,  has  been  translated  into 
German  and  English.  His  works  have  been  received 
with  extraordinary  favour  wherever  they  have  become 
known.  "With  M.  Bjornson,"  says  the  London  "  Athe- 
nseum"  of  April  26,  1862,  "a  new  era  begins  in  Scandi- 
navian literature." 

See,  also,  the  London  "  Spectator,"  September  8,  1868. 

Bjornstahl  or  Bioernstahl,  be-oRn'stil,  (Jacob 
Jonas,)  a  Swedish  traveller,  born  in  Sudermania  in  1731, 
was  sent  by  Gustavus  III.  on  a  scientific  expedition  to 
Greece,  Syria,  and  Egypt,  but  died  at  Salonica  in  1779. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Bjornstjerna  or  BjcDernstjerna,  be-oRn'shiR'nS, 
(Magnus  Frederick  Ferdinand,)  a  Swedish  general 
and  writer,  born  at  Dresden  in  1779,  entered  the  Swedish 
army,  and  served  against  the  French  in  the  campaigns  of 
1809-13.  He  afterwards  concluded  the  treaty  by  which 
Sweden  and  Norway  were  united.  He  became  lieuten- 
ant-general in  1820,  and  minister  plenipotentiary  to  Eng- 
land in  1826.  He  published  a  treatise  "On  British  Rule 
in  India,"  ("  Det  Brittiska  Riket  i  Ostindien,"  1839,) 
and  "  The  Theogony,  Philosophy,  and  Cosmogony  of  the 
Plindoos,"  1843,  (in  German  and  Swedish.)  Died  in  1847. 

Blaarer  de  Wartensee,  bllR^er  di  -^^aR'ten-si, 
(Jean,)  a  Swiss  jurist  and  litterateur,  born  at  Zurich  in 
1685  ;  died  in  1757. 

Blacas,b]t'kas',(PiERRE  Louis  Jean  Casimir,)Duke 
of,  a  French  statesman,  born  at  Aulps  in  1770,  was  em- 
ployed on  important  embassies  to  Rome  and  Naples,  and 
negotiated  the  Concordat  of  181 7.  He  was  the  founder 
of  the  Egyptian  Museum  in  Paris,  and  a  member  of  the 
Institute.  He  was  a  constant  adherent  of  the  Bourbons. 
Died  in  1839. 

See  Vaulabelle,  "  Histoire  de  la  Restauration." 

Blacas  d'Aulps,  bltOct'dSps,  a  French  troubadour, 
born  at  Aulps  about  1160;  died  in  1229. 

Blache.bltsh,  (Antoine,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born 
at  Grenoble  in  1635,  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille  in 
1709  for  having  accused  the  Jesuits  of  conspiring  against 
the  king.    Died  in  17 14. 

Black,  (Adam,)  a  Scottish  publisher  and  statesman, 
born  in  Edinburgh  in  1784,  was  twice  elected  to  Par- 
liament from  his  native  city.  He  has  published  the 
"  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  and  other  standard  works. 

Black,  (Jeremiah  S.,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
Democratic  politician,  born  in  Somerset  county,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  1810.  He  was  elected  a  judge  of  the  su- 
preme court  of  Pennsylvania  in  1 85 1,  and  again  in  1854. 
He  was  attorney-general  in  the  cabinet  of  Buchanan 
from  March,  1857,  to  December,  i860,  and  secretary  of 
state  from  December,  i860,  to  March,  1861. 

Black,  (John,)  a  distinguished  journalist  and  littera- 
teur, born  at  Dunse,  in  Scotland,  in  1783,  became  prin- 
cipal editor  of  the  London  "  Morning  Chronicle"  in  1819. 
He  translated  Goldoni's  "Autobiography"  from  the 
Italian ;  also  Schlegel's  "  Lectures  on  Dramatic  Art  and 
Literature,"  and  Humboldt's  "  New  Spain,"  from  the 
German.    Died  in  1855. 

Black,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  chemist  and  physician, 
of  Scottish  extraction,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1728.  He 


a,  e, T,  6,  ia,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  j?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


BLACKALL 


365 


BLACKWOOD 


graduated  at  Edinburgh  in  1754,  and  became  professor  of 
anatomy  at  Glasgow  in  1756,  and  in  1766  of  chemistry 
at  Edinburgh,  where  he  lectured  with  eminent  success 
for  thirty  years.  He  published  in  1755  "  Experiments  on 
Magnesia,  Quicklime,  and  other  Alkaline  Substances," 
in  which  he  makes  known  his  important  discoveries  on 
the  nature  of  lime  and  fixed  air,  (carbonic  acid  gas.)  He 
also  originated  the  theory  of  latent  heat,  in  relation  to 
which  he  made  many  interesting  experiments.  Dr.  Black 
was  a  friend  of  Lavoisier,  and  numbered  among  his  pupils 
the  celebrated  James  Watt.    Died  in  Edinburgh  in  1799. 

See  HoEFER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie  ;"  Robison's  preface  to 
Black's  "Lectures  on  Chemistry;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dic- 
tionary of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1803. 

Blackball  or  Black'hail,  (Offspring,)  an  English 
divine  and  controversialist,  born  in  London  in  1654.  He 
was  created  Bishop  of  Exeter  in  1707.    Died  in  1716. 

Blackbourne,  blak'burn,  (John,)  an  English  non- 
juring  bishop,  born  in  1683.  He  published  an  edition 
of  Bayle's  "Chronicle  concerning  Sir  John  Oldcastle." 
Died  m  1741. 

Blackburne,  blak'burn,  (Francis,)  an  English  divine, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1705,  became  Archdeacon  of  Cleve- 
land. His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  The  Confessional, 
or  a  Full  and  Free  Inquiry  into  the  Right,  Utility,  etc. 
of  establishing  Confessions  of  Faith  and  Doctrine."  It 
caused  a  great  sensation,  and  gave  rise  to  a  protracted 
controversy.    Died  in  1787. 

See  a  Life  of  Blackburne,  prefixed  to  his  works  by  his  son  Francis, 
London,  1804. 

Black'burne,  (Francis,)  an  eminent  Irish  lawyer 
and  judge,  born  in  the  county  of  Meath  in  1782.  He 
became  attorney-general  for  Ireland  in  1830,  master  of 
the  rolls  in  1842,  and  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  queen's 
bench  in  1846.  He  was  keeper  of  the  great  seal  during 
the  brief  ministry  of  Lord  Derby,  (1852,)  and  became 
lord-justice  of  appeal  in  1856. 

Blackburne,  (Thomas,)  an  English  physician,  son 
of  Archdeacon  Blackburne,  noticed  above  ;  died  in  1782. 

Black'et,  (Joseph,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  York- 
shire in  1786,  was  the  son  of  a  day-labourer.  He  died 
in  1810,  leaving  a  collection  of  poems  of  superior  merit. 

See  "  Remains  of  Joseph  Blacket,"  with  a  Life  by  Pratt,  1811. 

Black  Hawk,  a  famous  American  Indian  chief,  born 
about  1768.  He  waged  war  against  the  United  States  in 
1832.    Died  in  Iowa  in  1838. 

See  "Life  of  Black  Hawk,"  by  W.  J.  Snelling.  ' 

Black'ie,  (John  Stuart,)  a  Scottish  classical  scholar 
and  writer,  born  in  Glasgow  in  1809.  He  produced  a 
poetical  version  of  Goethe's  "  Faust,"  and  a  good  trans- 
lation of  the  works  of  ^schylus,  (1850.)  In  1852  he 
became  professor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, He  published  in  1866  two  volumes  entitled 
"  Homer  and  the  Iliad."  Besides  the  above,  he  has  con- 
tributed to  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly,"  the  "  ^Vestminster 
Review,"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine,"  and  other  British 
periodicals.  He  has  also  written  several  articles  for  the 
"Imperial  Dictionary  of  Biography." 

See  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  i860. 

Black'lock,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  divine  and 
poet,  born  at  Annan  in  1 721.  He  became  blind  in  in- 
fancy, but  nevertheless  acquired  at  an  early  age  a  good 
English  education  and  some  knowledge  of  the  classics. 
Through  the  kindness  of  Dr.  Stevenson,  he  was  enabled 
to  study  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  mas- 
tered the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Italian  languages.  In  1762 
he  was  ordained  minister  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  at 
Kirkcudbright.  He  published  poems,  also  philosophical 
and  theological  works.    Died  in  1791. 

See  Lives  of  Blacklock,  by  H.  Mackenzie  and  by  Gordon; 
Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

BlackToe,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Catholic  theologian 
and  controversialist,  lived  about  1620. 

Elack'more,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  \Viltshire  about  1650,  was  physician  to  William  III. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  epic  poems,  which  were 
satirized  by  Pope  and  other  contemporary  wits.  His 
roem  entitled  "The  Creation"  (1712)  is  warmly  com- 
mended by  Cowper  and  Dr.  Johnson  ;  and  Addison  pro- 
nounces it  "  one  of  the  most  useful  and  noble  productions 
fn  our  English  verse."    Died  in  1729. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets." 


Black'rie,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  apothecary,  who 
wrote  "A  Disquisition  on  Medicines  that  dissolve  the 
Stone,"  (1766.) 

Black'st9ne,  (John,)  an  English  botanist  and  apothe- 
cary, who  lived  in  London,  and  died  in  1753. 

Black'stone,  (William,)  an  Episcopal  clergyman, 
who  was  one  of  the  first  settlers  of  Boston.  Died  in  1675. 

Blackstone,  (Sir  William,)  a  celebrated  English 
jurist,  born  in  London  in  1723.  He  practised  law,  was 
elected  to  Parliament  in  1761,  and  appointed  solicitor- 
general  in  1763.  About  1770  he  became  one  of  the  jus- 
tices of  the  court  of  common  pleas.  His  reputation  is 
founded  on  his  "  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  England," 
the  first  volume  of  which  appeared  in  1765.  Three  other 
volumes  were  afterwards  added  to  this  work,  which  passed 
through  many  editions  and  is  extensively  used  by  students 
of  law.  Died  in  1780.  The  very  high  reputation  which 
Blackstone  enjoys  as  a  legal  writer  is  due  more  to  the 
judgment  and  taste  evinced  in  the  selection  and  arrange- 
ment of  his  materials,  and  to  the  clearness,  purity,  and 
classic  elegance  of  his  style,  than  to  the  extent  of  his  legal 
knowledge  or  the  force  of  his  intellect.  J.  Horne  Tooke 
justly  characterizes  his  work  as  "  a  good  gentleman's 
law-book,  clear  but  not  deep."  Nearly  the  same  judg- 
ment has  been  pronounced  by  Fox,  Mackintosh,  Lord 
Eldon,  and  other  competent  critics. 

See  Clitheroe,  "  Life  of  Sir  W.  Blackstone,"  1780;  Foss,  "The 
Judges  of  England,"  vol.  viii.  ;  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Black'wall,  (Anthony,)  an  English  schoolmaster  and 
critical  writer,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1674,  published 
"The  Sacred  Classics  defended  and  illustrated,"  (1725.) 
Died  in  1730. 

Black'well,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  physician  and 
agricultural  writer,  went  in  1740  to  Sweden,  where  he 
was  executed  in  1748  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy  against 
the  royal  family.  His  wife,  Elizabeth  Blackwell,  pub- 
lished in  1737-39  a  herbal,  with  coloured  plates,  of  the 
principal  plants  used  in  the  practice  of  physic,  Com- 
merson  named  in  her  honour  the  genus  Blackwellia. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Black'well,  (Antoinette  L.  Brown,)  born  in  Mon- 
roe county.  New  York,  in  1825,  studied  at  Oberlin,  where 
afterwards  she  finished  a  three-years  course  in  theology. 
On  leaving  Oberlin  in  1849,  though  not  licensed,  she  oc- 
casionally preached  by  invitation  in  several  churches  in 
different  parts  of  the  United  States.  In  1853  she  was 
regularly  ordained  pastor  of  a  Congregational  church  at 
South  Butler,  New  York,  which  position  she  relinquished 
the  following  year  on  account  of  ill  health.  In  1856  she 
was  married  to  Samuel  C.  Blackwell,  and  has  since  re- 
sided near  New  York  City, 

Blackwell,  (Elizabeth,)  See  Blackwell,  Alex- 
ander, 

Blackwell,  (Elizabeth,)  the  first  woman  that  ever 
received  the  degree  of  M,D,  in  the  United  States,  was 
born  at  Bristol,  England,  in  1821.  She  was  brought  to 
New  York  by  her  parents  about  1832,  taught  school 
several  years,  studied  medicine,  and  applied  for  admis- 
sion to  the  medical  colleges  of  Philadelphia,  New  York, 
Boston,  and  other  places.  Her  application  was  rejected 
by  all  except  that  of  Geneva,  New  York,  where  she  was 
welcomed  by  a  unanimous  vote  of  the  students,  and 
where  she  graduated  in  1849.  She  afterwards  studied 
midwifery  in  Paris,  and  practised  medicine  with  success 
in  New  York. 

Blackwell,(GEORGE,)  an  English  Catholic  theologian, 
born  in  Middlesex  in  1545,  wrote  several  controversial 
works.    Died  in  1612. 

Blackwell,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  critic  and  scholar, 
born  at  Aberdeen  in  1 701,  became  professor  of  Greek 
in  Marischal  College  of  that  city.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  "Letters  on  Mythology,"  and  "An  Inquiry 
into  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Homer,"  (1735.)  He  was 
a  brother  of  Alexander,  above  noticed.    Died  in  1757. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Black'wood,  (Adam,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  at 
Dunfermline  in  1539,  studied  in  Paris,  where  he  was 
patronized  by  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  Pie  published,  in 
French,  "The  Martyrdom  of  Mary  Stuart,"  (1588,)  and 
several  Latin  works.    Died  in  16 13. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 


€  as  y^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  yl, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (2:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BLACKWOOD 


366 


BLAIR 


Blackwood,  (Henry,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  wri- 
tT,  born  about  1525,  became  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Paris.    Died  about  16 14. 

Blackwood,  (Henry,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Paris,  became  professor  of  medicine  and  surgery  in 
that  city.    Died  in  1634. 

Blackwood,  (Sir  Henry,)  a  distinguished  admiral, 
born  in  the  county  of  Down,  Ireland,  in  1770,  He 
served  against  the  French  in  1798,  and  was  present 
at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar.  In  18 19  he  was  created  a 
K.C.B.,  and  appointed  commander-in-chief  on  the  East 
India  station.    Died  in  1832. 

Blackwood,  (William,)  publisher  of  the  celebrated 
magazine  called  by  his  name,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in 
1776.  He  brought  out  in  181 7  the  first  number  of  his 
journal,  which  soon  numbered  among  its  contributors 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  Lockhart,  Hogg,  and  other  eminent 
writers  of  Tory  principles.  Under  the  editorship  of 
Professor  Wilson  it  became  the  most  popular  of  British 
periodicals,  and  its  pages  were  enriched  with  the  writings 
of  Wordsworth,  Lamb,  Coleridge,  De  Quincey,  and,  at  a 
later  period,  Bulwer,  Douglas  Jerrold,  W.  S.  Landor,  and 
Professor  Aytoun.    Died  in  1834. 

See  "Atlantic  Monthly,"  December,  1865. 

Bla'den,  (Martin,)  an  English  officer  and  writer, 
served  under  Marlborough,  and  attained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-colonel.  He  was  nine  times  elected  to  Par- 
liament. He  published  a  translation  of  Csesar's  "Com- 
mentaries," which  he  dedicated  to  the  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough.   Died  in  1746. 

Blaes.    See  Blasius, 

Blaesus,  blee'sus,  [Gr,  B'Aalaog,']  a  dramatic  poet,  sup- 
/  posed  to  have  lived  in  the  third  century  B.C.,  was  a 
native  of  Caprsea.  His  works  were  written  in  Greek, 
and  some  of  them  are  mentioned  by  Athenaeus. 

Blaeu,  bla'uh,  Blaeuw,  or  Blauw,  blow,  (Willem,) 
a  celebrated  Dutch  geographer  and  typographer,  born 
at  Amsterdam  in  1571.  He  was  a  friend  and  disciple 
of  Tycho  Brahe.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his 
"Theatre  of  the  World,"  ("Theatrum  Mundi,")  "Atlas 
of  the  Seas,  or  Aquatic  World,"  and  "Astronomical  In- 
struction on  the  Use  of  Globes,  etc."    Died  in  1638. 

Blaeuw,  bli'uh,  (Jan,)  son  of  the  preceding,  published 
a  number  of  beautiful  editions  of  the  classics,  and  wrote 
several  geographical  works.    Died  in  1680. 

Blag'den,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  English  physician  and 
chemist,  born  in  1748,  was  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Sir  Joseph 
Banks.  He  contributed  a  number  of  scientific  treatises 
to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions."    Died  in  1820. 

Blag'rave,  (John,)  an  English  mathematician,  pub- 
lished "The  Art  of  Dialling,"  "The  Mathematical 
Jewel,"  and  other  similar  works.    Died  in  161 1. 

See  Wood,  "Athenas  Oxonienses." 

Blagrave,  (Joseph,)  an  English  physician  and  astrolo- 
ger, born  in  1610,  wrote  "The  Astrological  Practice  of 
Physic,"  (1682,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1679. 

Blaine,  (James  Gillespie,)  an  American  legislator, 
born  in  Washington  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1830.  He 
removed  to  Maine,  and  became  editor  of  the  "  Kennebec 
Journal,"  and  afterwards  of  the  "  Portland  Advertiser." 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  by  the  Republicans 
in  1862,  1864,  1866,  and  1868.  In  March,  1869,  he  was 
chosen  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

Blainville,  de,  deh  bliN'v^K,  (Henri  Marie  Ducro- 
TAY,)  an  Eminent  French  zoologist  and  physician,  born 
near  Dieppe  in  September,  1777.  Having  studied  medi- 
cine for  a  time,  he  was  attracted  by  the  lectures  of  Cuvier 
to  the  study  of  comparative  anatomy  and  zoology,  and 
was  employed  by  that  great  naturalist  as  assistant  lec- 
turer. He  obtained  the  chair  of  anatomy  and  zoology 
in  the  Faculty  of  Sciences  in  181 2,  on  which  occasion 
he  took  for  his  thesis  the  Ornithorhynchus,  or  duck- 
bill. He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
1825.  In  1830  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  natural 
history  of  moUusks  and  zoophytes  at  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes,  and  on  the  death  of  Cuvier,  in  1832,  succeeded 
him  in  the  chair  of  comparative  anatomy  in  that  insti- 
tution, now  called  the  Museum  of  Natural  Plistory. 
About  this  time  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  and  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London.  His 


most  important  work  is  entitled  "Osteography,  Or  Com- 
parative Iconographic  Description  of  the  Skeleton  and 
Dentary  System  of  the  Five  Classes  of  Vertebrated  Ani- 
mals, Recent  and  Fossil."  He  died  in  Paris  in  May, 
1850,  leaving  the  above-named  production  unfinished. 
Twenty-four  parts  {livraisons)  were  issued  before  his 
death.  He  also  contributed  numerous  scientific  treatises 
to  the  "  Revue  Zoologique"  and  other  similar  periodicals, 
and  published  "Lectures  on  General  and  Comparative 
Physiology,"  (3  vols.,  1833.) 

See  NicARD,  "Notice  sur  De  Blainville,"  1850;  Flourens,  "Me- 
nioire  de  Ducrotay  de  Blainville,"  and  English  translation  of  the  same 
in  the  "Smithsonian  Report"  for  1865,  p.  175. 

Blair,  (Francis  Preston,)  an  American  journalist 
and  politician,  born  at  Abingdon,  Virginia,  in  1791.  He 
began  in  1830  to  edit  the  "Globe,"  a  Democratic  paper 
at  Washington,  and  became  a  friend  and  confidential 
adviser  of  General  Jackson.  He  ceased  to  edit  the 
"Globe"  in  1845.  ^^'^  1^4^  supported  Van  Buren  for 
the  Presidency,  in  opposition  to  the  regular  candidate 
of  the  party.  He  aided  in  the  organization  of  the  Re- 
publican party  about  1855. 

Blair,  (Frank  Preston,  Jr.,)  an  American  general 
and  lawyer,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Lexington, 
Kentucky,  in  1821.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Con- 
gress by  the  voters  of  Saint  Louis,  Missouri,  in  1856,  was 
re-elected  in  1861,  and  acted  with  the  Republicans  for  sev- 
eral years.  He  commanded  a  corps  in  the  army  of  Sher- 
man in  its  march  from  Chattanooga  to  Atlanta  in  1864, 
and  in  the  campaign  of  South  Carolina,  February,  1865. 
He  joined  the  Democratic  party  about  1865,  and  was 
nominated  as  Democratic  candidate  for  the  Vice-Presi- 
dency in  July,  1868,  but  was  not  elected. 

Blair,  (Hugh,)  a  celebrated  divine  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1 718.  He  became  a  doc- 
tor of  divinity  in  1757,  and  in  1758  one  of  the  ministers 
of  the  High  Church  of  Edinburgh.  In  1762  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  a  chair  of  rhetoric  and  belles-lettres  recently 
created  by  George  HI.  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
He  published  "  Lectures  on  Rhetoric,"  (1783,)  and  sev- 
eral volumes  of  sermons,  which  had  an  extraordinary 
popularity  in  his  time,  and  were  translated  into  the  prin- 
cipal European  languages  ;  but  they  have  not  found  with 
modern  readers  and  critics  the  same  favour  which  they 
once  enjoyed.  Plis  "Lectures  on  Rhetoric"  has  been 
extensivelyftused  as  a  text-book  for  schools  in  the  United 
States  as  well  as  in  Great  Britain.    Died  in  1800. 

See  James  Finlayson,  "Life  of  Hugh  Blair,"  1801 ;  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Blair,  (James,)  a  Scottish  divine  in  the  time  of  Charles 
II.,  was  sent  in  1685  as  a  missionary  to  Virginia,  where 
he  founded  William  and  Mary  College,  and  was  appointed 
its  first  president.    Died  in  1743. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Blair,  (John,)  a  Scottish  chronicler  and  Latin  poet, 
was  chaplain  to  Sir  William  Wallace.  He  wrote  the 
"Life  of  Wallace,"  in  Latin  verse,  translated  in  Hume's 
"  History  of  the  Douglases." 

Blair,  (John,)  a  relative  of  Hugh  Blair,  born  at  Edin- 
burgh, published  a  popular  work  entitled  "The  Chro- 
nology and  History  of  the  World,  from  the  Creation  to 
1753."  He  was  afterwards  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  appointed  tutor  to  the  Duke  of  York,  and  ob- 
tained other  distinctions.    Died  in  1782. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Blair,  (John,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in  1732,  was 
appointed"  by  Washington,  in  1789,  to  the  bench  of  the 
supreme  court  of  the  United  States,  of  which  John  Jay 
was  chief  justice.  Died  at  Williamsburg,  Virginia,  in 
1800. 

Blair,  (Montgomery,)  a  brother  of  General  F.  P. 
Blair,  was  born  in  Kentucky  about  1813.  He  studied 
law,  which  he  practised  in  Saint  Louis,  Missouri,  and 
became  a  judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas.  About 
1852  he  removed  to  Maryland.  He  was  appointed  post- 
master-general in  March,  1 86 1,  and  was  removed  near  the 
end  of  1864.  Since  that  event  he  has  assumed  an  atti- 
tude of  decided  opposition  to  the  Republican  party. 

Blair,  (Patrick,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  naturalist, 
born  at  Dundee,  published  "  Miscellaneous  Observations 
on  the  Practice  of  Physic,  Surgery,  and  Botany,"  (1718,) 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohsaire;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n5t;  good;  moon: 


BLAIR 


367 


BLANC 


•Anatomy  and  Osteolog}-  of  the  Elephant,"  and  other 
scientific  works.    Died  about  1728. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  DIctionan-  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 
Blair,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  clergyman,  born 
in  Edinburgh  in  1699,  was  a  cousin  of  Hugh  Blair,  no- 
ticed above.  He  was  ordained  minister  of  Athelstane- 
ford  in  1731,  and  married  a  Miss  Law  in  1738.  He  died 
in  1746,  leaving  a  poem  entitled  "The  Grave,"  which 
was  printed  in  1747  and  was  highly  esteemed  by  many 
readers.  The  poet  Campbell  expresses  the  opinion  that 
his  ''  language  and  imager}^  are  free,  natural,  and  pic- 
turesque." 

See  Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  British  Poets ;"  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictiouar}'  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Blaise,  bliz,  (Barthelemv,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
at  Lyons  in  1738.  Among  his  principal  works  are  the 
monument  of  Count  Vergennes,  and  a  bust  of  Frederick 
the  Great  of  Prussia.    Died  in  1819. 

Blaise,  blaz,  [Lat.  Bla'sius,]  Saint,  Bishop  of  Se- 
baste  in  Armenia,  suffered  martyrdom  in  316  A.D.,  under 
Agricola,  governor  of  Cappadoc'ia  and  Lesser  Armenia. 

Blake,  (Franxis,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  at  Rut- 
land. Massachusetts,  in  1774.  He  gradiiated  at  Harvard, 
and  practised  law  in  Worcester,  where  he  died  in  181 7. 

Blake,  (George  Smith,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
bom  in  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  in  1S03,  served  in  the 
Mexican  war,  and  became  in  1S57  superintendent  of  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis.  He  was 
made  commodore  in  1S62. 

Blake,  (Homer  C.,)  an  American  naval  officer,  born 
in  Dutchess  county,  New  York,  in  1822,  entered  the 
navy  about  1840.  'He  obtained  command  of  the  Hat- 
teras  in  1861,  and  was  employed  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
near  Galveston.  In  January,  1862,  he  attacked  the 
Alabama,  commanded  by  Captain  Semmes,  although  his 
vessel  was  inferior  to  that  of  the  enemy.  The  Hatteras 
was  sunk  in  the  action.  He  rendered  an  important  ser- 
vice by  defeating  an  attempt  of  the  enemy  to  bring  their 
rams,  etc.  down  James  River  against  City  Point,  in  Jan- 
uary, 1864. 

Blake,  (Jo.\QUIN,)  a  Spanish  general,  of  Irish  extrac- 
tion, served  from  1808  to  1811  against  the  French,  by 
whom  he  was  several  times  defeated.    Died  in  1827. 

Blake,  (John  Bradley,)  an  English  mathematician 
and  naturalist,  born  in  London  in  1745  ;  died  in  1773. 

Blake,  (John  Lauris,)  an  American  compiler  and 
biographer,  born  at  Xorthwood,  New  Hampshire,  in  1788. 
He  served  as  rector  of  an  Episcopal  church  at  Concord, 
New  Hampshire,  and  at  Boston.  He  published,  besides 
numerous  school-books,  a  "General  Biographical  Dic- 
tionary," (I  vol.  8vo,  1835,)  which  passed  through  several 
editions.    Died  in  1857. 

Blake,  (Joseph,)  nephew  of  the  celebrated  Admiral 
Blake,  succeeded  Thomas  Smith  as  Governor  of  South 
Carolina  in  1694.    Died  in  1700. 

Blake,  (Robert,)  a  celebrated  British  admiral,  born 
at  Bridgewater,  in  Somersetshire,  about  1599.  Having 
finished  his  studies  at  Oxford,  he  was  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment for  Bridgewater  in  1640.  He  was  a  staunch  Puri- 
tan and  republican,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the 
civil  war  by  his  brave  and  successful  defence  of  Taunton 
against  the  royalists,  (1645,)  thus  rendering  a  service  of 
great  importance  to  the  cause.  Being  appointed  in  1649 
commander  of  a  squadron  of  the  line,  with  the  title  of 
"General  of  the  Sea,"  he  blockaded  Prince  Rupert  at 
Kinsale,  and  on  his  effecting  his  escape  pursued  him  to 
the  Tagus  and  captured  a  great  number  of  Portuguese 
galleons.  For  these  achievements  he  was  made  Warden 
of  the  Cinque  Ports.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  war 
\\'ith  Holland,  in  1652,  he  gained  a  signal  victorv  over  Van 
Tromp  in  the  Straits  of  Dover,  (May  19,)  and  on  the 
28th  of  September  defeated  the  Dutch  fleet  under  Ad- 
miral De  Witt.  In  February,  1653,  he  again  encoun- 
tered Van  Tromp,  whom  he  defeated  after  a  running 
fight  of  three  days,  in  which  the  English  took  eleven  men- 
of-war  and  thirty  merchantmen.  On  account  of  his  fail- 
ing health,  he  retired  soon  after  from  the  service,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  first  two  Parliaments  summoned 
by  Cromwell.  In  1656  he  was  sent  to  blockade  Cadiz, 
and  the  same  year  destroyed  the  Spanish  plate-fleet  at 
Santa  Cruz,  in  the  island 'of  Teneriffe.    He  received  for 


this  service  the  thanks  of  Parliament  and  a  diamond 
ring  worth  ;^5oo.  He  is  considered  as  the  founder  of 
the  naval  supremacy  of  England.  He  died  on  his  voy- 
age to  England  in  1657. 

See  Ca.mpbell,  "  Lives  of  the  British  Admirals;"  "  Robert  Blake, 
Admiral  and  General  at  Sea,"  by  Hepworth  Dixon,  1852;  Macau- 
lav,  "  History-  of  England,"  vol.  i. ;  Dr.  Johnson's  Works,  voL  xii. ; 
"Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1858. 

Blake,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  born  in 
Staffordshire  in  1597,  published  "The  Covenant  Sealed," 
and  other  religious  treatises.    Died  in  1657. 

Blake,  (William,)  a  singularly  gifted  English  artist 
and  poet,  born  in  London  in  1757,  studied  engraving  foi 
j  a  time  under  Basire.  A  collection  of  his  ballads  and 
I  songs  was  published  in  1787,  partly  at  the  expense  oi 
'  his  friend  and  patron  the  sculptor  Flaxman.  These  were 
followed  in  1789  by  his  "  Songs  of  Innocence  and  Expe« 
rience,"  accompanied  by  etched  illustrations  of  great 
beauty.  He  next  produced  his  "  Gates  of  Paradise,"  in 
sixteen  designs,  and  soon  after  a  series  of  twenty-seven 
designs,  entitled  "Urizen,"  both  works  of  a  mystical 
character,  but  displaying  remarkable  genius.  He  sub- 
sequently illustrated  Young's  "Night  Thoughts,"  Hay- 
ley's  "Life  of  Cowper,"  and  Blair's  "Grave."  Among 
his  other  works  are  "Twenty-one  Illustrations  to  the 
Book  of  Job,"  and  "The  Canterbury  Pilgrimage,"  a 
picture  in  water-colours.  Blake  was  a  believer  in  the 
power  of  conversing  with  departed  spirits,  and  painted 
the  portraits  of  several  eminent  persons  who  he  alleged 
were  revealed  to  him.  He  died  in  1828,  having  passed 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  in  extreme  poverty,  which  he 
bore  without  repining,  finding  in  his  entire  devotion  to 
his  art  a  compensation  for  all  privations. 

See  CtNNiNGHA.M.  "  Lives  of  Painters  and  Sculptors;"  "Life  of 
William  Blake,"  by  Alexander  Gilchrist;  "Pictor  Ignotus,"  in 
the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  April,  1S64. 

Blake,  (William  Rufus,)  a  comic  actor,  born  in 
Nova  Scotia  m  1805,  acted  with  great  success  in  New 
York  and  other  places.    Died  in  1S63. 
j     Blake'ly  or  Blake^'ley,  (Johnston,)  a  naval  com- 
I  mander,  born  in  Ireland  in  1781,  entered  the  navy  of  the 
I  United  States  in  iSco.    He  took  command  of  the  sloop 
Wasp  in  August,  1 813,  and  captured,  in  June,  1 814,  the 
British  sloop  Reindeer,    In  September  of  that  year  he 
attacked  the  Avon,  which  surrendered.  The  Wasp  never 
returned  to  port,  and  it  is  not  known  what  became  of 
1  Captain  Blakely. 

j  Blake'uey,  Lord,  an  Irish  military  commander, 
born  in  the  county  of  Limerick  in  1672.  He  was  lieu- 
tenant-governor of  the  island  of  Minorca  when  it  was 
taken  by  the  French  in  1756. 

Blake'way,  (John  Brickdale,)  an  English  divine 
and  antiquarv,  born  at  Shrewsbury  in  1765.  He  wrote 
a  "History  of  Shrewsbury,"  and  other  works.  Died  in 
i826._ 

Bla'key,  (Robert,)  an  English  philosopher,  born  at 
Morpeth  about  1795.  He  published  a  "  History  of  Moral 
Science,"  (2  vols.,  1833,)  a  "History  of  the  Philosophy 
of  the  Mind,  embracing  the  Opinions  of  all  Writers  on 
Mental  Science,"  (4  vols.,  1848.)  which  was  received  with 
favour,  a  "  History  of  Political  Literature,"  (1855,)  and 
other  works. 

Blamire,  bla-mlr',  (Susannah.)  an  English  poetess, 
born  near  Carlisle  in  1747.  She  wrote,  in  the  Scottish 
dialect,  a  number  of  admired  lyrics,  among  which  are 
"The  Siller  Crown,"  and  "The  Nabob."    Died  in  1794- 

Blamont,  de,  deh  blS'm6N',  (pRANgois  Collin,)  a 
French  musician  and  composer,  born  at  Versailles  in 
1690  ;  died  in  1760. 

Blampin,  blSN^piN',  (Thomas,)  a  French  Benedictine 
monk,  born  at  Noyon  in  1640,  edited  the  works  of  Saint 
Augustine,  (8  vols.,  1679-1700.)    Died  in  1710. 

Blampoix,  bldN^pwi',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Macon  in  1740,  became  constitu- 
tional Bishop  of  Troyes.    Died  in  1820. 

Blanc,  bl6N,  (Ch.\rles,)  a  French  litteratetir,  brother 
of  Louis  Blanc,  noticed  below,  born  at  Castres  about 
181 5.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  French  Painters  of 
the  Nineteenth  Century,"  (1845,)  ^  "  History  of  the 
Painters  of  all  the  Schools,"  (ist  vol.  about  1850.) 

Blanc,  (Jean  Denis  Ferr]&ol,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Besanfon  in  1744  ;  died  in  1789. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  tkis.  (JJI^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.] 


BLANC 


368 


BLANCHETON 


Blanc,  (Louis,)  a  celebrated  journalist  and  historian, 
of  French  extraction,  born  at  Madrid  in  1813.  He  was 
educated  in  Paris,  and  in  1837  became  principal  editor 
of  the  journal  entitled  "Bon  Sens,"  ("Good  Sense.") 
He  founded  in  1839  "La  Revue  du  Progres,"  and  in 
1840  brought  out  his  treatise  on  the  "Organization  of 
Labour,"  an  exposition  of  his  radical  views  of  social 
and  political  reform.  In  1848  he  became  a  member 
of  the  provisional  government,  and  was  chiefly  instru- 
mental in  passing  the  decree  abolishing  the  death-pen- 
alty for  political  offences.  He  has  published  a  "  History 
of  the  Ten  Years  1830-40,"  ("  Histoire  des  dix  Ans 
1830-1840,"  6  vols.,)  and  has  begun  a  "  History  of  the 
French  Revolution,"  the  seventh  volume  of  which  came 
out  in  1855.  He  was  very  popular  with  the  operatives 
and  socialists  of  Paris.  Having  been  accused  of  complicity 
in  the  bloody  revolt  of  May  and  June,  1848,  he  escaped 
to  England,  where  he  remains  an  exile. 

See  Charles  Robin,  "  Louis  Blanc,  sa  Vie  at  sesOuvrages,"  1851 ; 
"Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  September,  1844;  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  July,  1863. 

Blanc,  blSnk,  (Ludwig  Gottfried,)  a  German  writer 
and  preacher,  born  at  Berlin  in  178 1,  was  a  resident  of 
Halle.  He  published  a  popular  work,  entitled  "  Manual 
of  Things  best  worth  knowing  in  Nature,"  ("  Handbuch 
des  Wissenswiirdigsten  aus  der  Natur,  etc.,"  3  vols.,  5th 
edition,  1846-49.) 

Blanc,  Le.    See  Le  Blanc. 

Blancard.    See  Blankaard. 

Blancard,  blSN^ktR',  (Pierre,)  a  French  traveller  in 
Asia,  born  at  Marseilles  in  i74i,wrotea  "Manual  of  the 
Commerce  of  the  East  Indies  and  China."  Died  in  1826. 

Blancas,  blSn'kis,  (Geronimo,)  a  Spanish  historian, 
born  at  Saragossa,  succeeded  Zurita  as  royal  histo- 
riographer. His  principal  work  is  a  History  of  Aragon, 
("  Commentarii  Rerum  Aragoniensium,"  1588.)  His 
Latin  style  is  eulogized  by  Prescott  for  its  elegance. 
Died  in  1590. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  part  i. 

Blancha,  blan'cha,  (Juan,)  governor  of  Perpignan 
when  under  Spanish  rule,  defended  that  place  for  eight 
months  against  the  French  in  1474. 

Blanciiard,  blSN^shtR^,  (Alain,)  a  citizen  of  Rouen, 
in  France,  who  generously  sacrificed  himself  for  the 
safety  of  his  native  city  when  besieged  in  141 8  by  Henry 
v.,  who  consented  to  spare  the  place  only  on  condition 
of  a  number  of  victims  being  given  up. 

See  LiCQUET,  "Notice  sur  Alain  Blanchard." 

Blanch'ard,  (Albert  G.,)  an  American  general  in 
the  Confederate  arrny,  born  in  Massachusetts  about  1810, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1829,  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  and  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in  1861. 

Blanchard,  (Slie,)  a  French  antiquary  and  scholar, 
born  at  Langres  in  1672,  was  a  pupil  of  Dacier.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  17 14.  Died 
in  1756. 

Blanchard,  (Emile,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1819,  published  a  number  of  treatises  on  ento- 
mology and  other  departments  of  zoology. 

Blanchard,  (Franqois,)  a  French  jurist  and  littera- 
teur;  died  in  1660. 

Blanchard,  (Franqois,)  a  celebrated  French  aero- 
naut, born  at  Andelys  in  1738.  After  the  brothers 
Montgolfier  had  invented  the  balloon,  Blanchard  con- 
structed one  with  wings  and  a  rudder,  in  which  he  made 
an  ascension  in  1784.  In  company  with  Dr.  Jeffries,  he 
crossed  the  Channel  in  his  balloon  in  1785,  for  which 
achievement  he  received  from  the  king  twelve  thousand 
francs  and  a  pension.    Died  in  1809. 

His  wife,  Marie  Madeleine  Sophie  Armant,  made 
several  ascensions  after  his  death,  and  was  killed  by  the 
explosion  of  her  balloon  in  1819. 

Blanchard,  (Guillaume,)  son  of  Fran9ois,  (the  first 
of  the  name,)  was  an  advocate  in  the  Parliament  of  Paris. 
He  wrote  a  "Chronological  Compilation  of  the  Statutes 
of  the  French  Kings."    Died  about  1724. 

Blanchard,  (Jacques,)  a  French  painter,  born  in 
Paris  in  1600,  studied  at  Rome  and  Venice.  His  "De- 
scent of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  in  the  church  of  Notre-Dame, 
in  Paris,  is  esteemed  his  master-piece.    Died  in  1638. 


Blanchard,(jEAN  Baptiste,)  a  French  Jesuit,  teacher, 
and  educational  writer,  born  in  the  department  of  Ar- 
dennes in  1731 ;  died  in  1797. 

Blanch'ard,  (Laman,)  an  English  journalist  and  lit- 
terateur, born  at  Great  Yarmouth  in  1803.  He  became 
associated  with  Bulwer  as  editor  of  "  The  New  Monthly 
Magazine"  in  1 831,  and  subsequently  assisted  in  editing 
the  "Court  Journal,"  the  "  Constitutional,"  and  "The 
Courier."  He  contributed  numerous  articles  in  prose 
and  verse  to  the  leading  English  periodicals.  He  com- 
mitted suicide  in  a  fit  of  insanity  in  1845.  His  "Essays 
and  Sketches"  were  published  by  Bulwer  Lytton,  accom- 
panied by  an  interesting  Memoir,  which  see. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1846,  (by  Thackeray.) 

Blanchard,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  American  in- 
ventor, born  in  Sutton,  Worcester  county,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1788.  Mr.  Blanchard  has  taken  out  in  all,  in- 
cluding machinery  for  locomotives,  steamboats,  etc., 
twenty-four  patents  for  his  different  inventions.  Died 
in  1864. 

See  Henry  Howe,  "  Eminent  American  Mechanics,"  etc.,  1847. 

Blanchard  de  la  Musse,  blON^shtR'  deh  It  miis, 
(FRANgois  Gabriel  Ursin,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Nantes  in  1752 ;  died  in  1837. 

Blanche,  blinch,  [Fr.  pron.  bl6Nsh,]  of  Artois, 
(tR^twi',)  daughter  of  Robert,  Count  of  Artois,  and  niece 
of  Saint  Louis,  was  married  in  1270  to  Henry  I.,  King 
of  Navarre.  She  afterwards  became  the  wife  of  Edmund, 
Earl  of  Lancaster,  brother  of  Edward  I.  of  England. 
Died  about  1300. 

See  Mezeray,  "Histoire  de  France." 

Blanche  of  Bourbon,  (boor'bon,)  a  daughter  of 
Peter,  Duke  of  Bourbon,  born  about  1338,  was  married 
at  the  age  of  fifteen  to  Peter  the  Cruel,  King  of  Castile, 
who  soon  abandoned  her,  and  caused  her  to  be  im- 
prisoned in  the  castle  of  Medina-Sidonia,  where  she  died 
in  1361.  Her  tragic  fate  forms  the  subject  of  numerous 
ballads  and  poems. 

See  Froissar-T,  "Chronicles;"  Ticknor,  "History  of  Spanish 
Literature." 

Blanche  of  Castile,  (kas-teeK,)  daughter  of  Al- 
phonso  IX.,  King  of  Castile,  born  in  1187,  was  married 
in  1200  to  the  son  of  Philip  Augustus,  afterwards  Louis 
VIII.  On  the  death  of  her  husband,  she  became  regent 
of  the  kingdom,  and  governed  with  great  ability  and  wis- 
dom. She  was  the  mother  of  Louis  IX.,  commonly 
known  as  Saint  Louis.    Died  in  1252. 

See  Macheco,  "Vie  de  Blanche  de  Castile,"  1820;  Vauvilliers, 
"  Histoire  de  Blanche  de  Castile,"  1841 ;  T.  Nisard,  "  Histoire  de  la 
Reine  Blanche,"  1842. 

Blanche  of  Navarre,  daughter  of  Charles  III.,  (sur- 
named  "  the  Noble,")  was  first  married  to  Martin,  King 
of  Sicily,  (1402,)  and  in  1420  to  John  of  Aragon,  son  of 
Ferdinand  I.    Died  in  1441. 

See  Gai.land,  "Memoires  de  Navarre." 

Blanchelande,  de,  deh  bl6Nsh'16Nd',  (Philibert 
FRANgois  Roussel,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1735.  He  was  appointed  in  1792  lieutenant-governor 
of  Saint  Domingo,  but,  being  accused  of  causing  the 
troubles  in  that  country,  he  was  condemned  by  the  Revo- 
lutionary tribunal,  and  executed  in  1793. 

Blanchet,  blSN'shi',  (Alexandre  Paul  Louis,)  a 
French  physician,  born  at  Saint-Lo  in  181 7,  published  a 
work  on  "  Deaf-Dumbness,"  ("  La  Surdi-Mutite,"  4  vols.) 

Blanchet,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  near 
Chartres  in  1707,  was  appointed  royal  censor,  and  keeper 
of  the  books  in  the  royal  cabinet.  He  published  "  Ori- 
ental Tales  and  Apologues,"  "  Moral  and  Amusing  Va- 
rieties," and  other  woi'ks.    Died  in  1784. 

See  DusAULX,  "Vie  de  I'Abbe  Blanchet,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Varie- 
tes  Morales,"  etc. 

Blanchet,  (Pierre,)  a  French  dramatic  poet,  born  at 
Poitiers  about  1459,  is  supposed  to  have  written  the 
"  Farce  de  Pathelin,"  which  was  translated  into  Latin. 
Died  in  1519. 

Blanchet,  (Thomas,)  a  French  historical  and  portrait 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  161 7.  His  works  are  praised 
by  D'Argenville.    Died  in  1689. 

Blancheton,  bldNsh'tiN',  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Vervaison  in  1784.    His  chief 


\  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6, 11,  y,  slwrt;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f  Sr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BLANCHON 


369 


BLAZE 


work  is  an  "Essay  on  Man  considered  in  his  Geographi- 
cal Relations,"  (1808.)    Died  in  1830. 

Blanchon,  bldN'shoN',  (Joachim,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Limoges  about  1550. 

Blanckhof,  blSnk'hof,  or  Blankoff,  blSn'kof,  (An- 
TOON,)  called  also  John  Maet,  (mtt,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Alkmaar  in  1628.  His  best  works  are  marine 
pieces.    Died  in  1670. 

Bland,  (Richard,)  an  American  political  writer  and 
antiquary,  was  a  citizen  of  Virginia.  He  published  in 
1766  an  "Inquiry  into  the  Rights  of  the  British  Colo- 
nies," and  was  elected  a  delegate  to  Congress  in  1774. 
Died  in  1778. 

Bland,  (Rev.  Robert,)  an  English  scholar  and  divine, 
born  in  London  in  1779.  He  published,  conjointly  with 
J.  H.  INIerivale,  "  Translations  from  the  Greek  Antholo- 
gy," (1806,)  and  wrote  several  poems,  and  a  poetical 
romance  entitled  "The  Four  Slaves  of  Cythera."  Died 
in  1825. 

Bland,  (Colonel  Theodoric,)  an  American  patriot, 
born  in  Prince  George  county,  Virginia,  in  1742,  was  an 
uncle  of  John  Randolph  of  Roanoke.  He  joined  the 
armv  in  1777,  and  gained  the  rank  of  colonel  and  the 
conlidence  of  Washington.  He  served  as  a  member  of 
Congress  from  1780  to  1783,  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
vention which  ratified  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1788, 
and  was  again  elected  to  Congress  in  1789.  Died  in  1790. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  T.  Bland,"  in  the  "  Bland  Papers,"  published 
by  Charles  Campbell,  1840. 

Bland,  (William,)  an  English  writer,  born  about 
1788.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Principles 
of  Agriculture,"  (1827.) 

Blandin,  blSN'diN'',  (Philippe  Frederic,)  a  French 
surgeon  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Aubigny  in  1798, 
practised  in  Paris.  He  published  "  Traite  d'Anatomie 
topographique,"  (1826,)  and  "Elements  of  Descriptive 
Anatomy,"  (2  vols.,  1838.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1849. 

Blandrata,  bl^n-dRi'ta,  (Giorgio,)  an  Italian  physi- 
cian, born  in  Piedmont,  was  the  founder  of  Unitarianism 
in  Poland  and  Transylvania.  He  became  successively 
a  Lutheran,  Calvinist,  and  Socinian,  and  being  appointed 
physician  to  John  Sigismund,  Prince  of  Transylvania, 
about  1563,  he  made  many  proselytes  in  that  country. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  been  assassinated  by  his  nephew 
about  1590. 

See  Varillas,  "  Histoire  des  Heresies." 

Blane,  (Sir  Gilbert,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  British 
physician,  born  at  Blanefield,  Ayrshire,  in  1749.  He  ob- 
tained, about  1780,  the  high  office  of  physician  to  the 
fleet  commanded  by  Rodney,  in  which  he  served  until 
the  end  of  the  war,  and  published,  in  1785,  "  Observations 
on  the  Diseases  of  Seamen."  From  1785  to  1795  he  was 
physician  to  Saint  Thomas's  Hospital,  London.  In  1819 
he  published  "Elements  of  Medical  Logic,"  which  is 
highly  esteemed.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 
Institute  about  1826,  and  became  first  physician  to  Wil- 
liam IV.  in  1830.    Died  in  London  in  1834. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionar>'  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Blangini,  bl5n-jee'nee,  (Giuseppe  Marco  Maria 
Felice,)  an  Italian  composer,  born  at  Turin  in  1781, 
produced  a  number  of  operas,  canzonets,  and  other  mu- 
sical pieces.    Died  in  1841. 

See  Arsene  Houssaye,  "Philosophers  and  Actresses,"  vol.  ii. 

Blankaard,  bl^n'klRt,  written  also  Blancard,  (Nik- 
OLAAS,)  a  Dutch  scholar,  born  at  Leyden  in  1625.  He 
became  professor  of  the  Greek  language  and  history  at 
Franeker  in  1669,  and  published  editions  of  Quintus  Cur- 
tius,  the  "  Enchiridion"  of  Epictetus,  and  other  classics. 
Died  in  1703. 

Blankaard  or  Blancard,  (Steven,)  a  Dutch  phy- 
sician, son  of  Nikolaas,  noticed  above,  born  at  Middel- 
burg,  published  a  number  of  medical  and  anatomical 
works  in  Latin,  the  most  important  of  which  is  "Ana- 
tomia  practica  Rationalis,"  (1688.) 

Blankenburg,  von,  fon  blin'ken-booRG^  (Christian 
Friedrich,)  a  German  litterateur  zx\A  critic,  born  at  Col- 
berg  in  1744.  He  translated  into  German  Johnson's 
'  Lives  of  the  Poets,"  and  other  English  works.  Died 
in  1796. 

Blankenstein,  bian'ken-stln',  (Ernst,)  Count,  a 
German  commander,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1733,  served 


in  the  Austrian  army  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  be- 
came lieutenant-field-marshal.    Died  in  1816. 
Blankoff.    See  Blanckhof. 

Blanpain,  bldN'p^N',  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  historical  writer,  born  in  1704;  died  in  1765. 

BlanquartdeBailleul,  bldN^kSR'deh  bt'yuK,(Louis 
Edmond  Marie,)  born  at  Calais  in  1795,  became  Bishop 
of  Versailles  in  1833,  and  in  1844  Archbishop  of  Rouen. 

Blanqiiet,  bldN^ka',  (Samuel,)  a  French  physician 
and  naturalist,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Mende  ;  died  about 
1750- 

Blanqnet  du  Chayla,  bl6N'k^'  dii  shi'lt',  (Armand 
Simon  Marie,)  a  French  vice-admiral,  born  in  the  de- 
partment of  Lozere  in  1759  ;  died  in  1826. 

See  "  Notice  sur  Blanquet  du  Chayla,"  Paris,  1852. 

Blanqui,  blSN^ke',  (Jean  Dominique,)  born  at  Nice  in 
1759,  was  a  deputy  to  the  National  Convention,  and  in 
1795  became  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred. 
He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  My  Ten  Months'  Agony," 
("Mon  Agonie  de  dix  Mois,"  1794.)    Died  in  1832. 

Blanqui,  (Jerome  Adolphe,)  a  celebrated  writer  on 
political  economy,  born  at  Nice  in  1798.  He  studied 
economic  science  under  J.  B.  Say,  and  in  1833  succeeded 
him  as  professor  at  the  Conservatory  of  Arts  and  Trades 
in  Paris.  He  published  a  "  History  of  Political  Economy 
in  Europe  from  the  Ancients  to  the  Present  Time," 
(1837,)  which  ranks  as  a  standard  work,  a  "Summary  of 
the  History  of  Commerce  and  Industry,"  and  a  "Journey 
in  England,"  (1824.)    Died  in  1854. 

Blanqui,  (Louis  Auguste,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Nice  in  1805,  has  distinguished  himself  as  a 
political  conspirator  and  socialist.  He  was  several  times 
imprisoned  for  his  seditious  attempts  previous  to  1848. 
He  was  a  ringleader  of  the  insurgents  and  outlaws  of 
Paris  who  took  arms  against  the  republic  in  April  and 
May,  1848.  For  this  offence  he  was  condemned  to  im- 
prisonment for  ten  years. 

Blarru,  de,  deh  blt'rii',  (Pierre,)  a  French  poet,  born 
in  1437,  wrote  a  heroic  poem  in  Latin,  entitled  "The 
Nanceid,"  (1518,)  which  was  once  admired,  and  has  been 
translated  into  French.    Died  in  1505. 

Blasche,  blSs'Keh,  (Bernhard  Heinrich,)  a  German 
educational  writer,  born  at  Jena  in  1766;  died  in  1852. 

Blasco,  blSs'ko,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Chiusa,  in  Sicily,  taught  philosophy  and  belles-lettres  at 
Naples  and  Rome  about  1600-25. 

Blasius,  bli'ze-us',  (Ernst,)  a  German  surgeon,  born 
at  Berlin  in  1802,  became  professor  of  surgery  at  Halle 
in  1834. 

Bla'si-us  or  Blaes,  bits,  (Gerard,)  a  learned  Flem- 
ish physician,  born  near  Bruges,  settled  in  1660  in  Am- 
sterdam, where  he  became  professor  of  medicine.  He 
published  several  Latin  treatises  on  anatomy  and  medi- 
cine.   Died  in  1682. 

Blasius,  Saint.    See  Blaise,  Saint. 

Blas'ta-res,  (Matth^eus,)  a  Greek  canonist  and 
monk  of  the  order  of  Saint  Basil,  lived  about  1350.  He 
was  the  compiler  of  a  "Collection  of  the  Canons  and 
Councils  of  the  Fathers,  and  Laws  of  the  Greek  Em- 
perors on  Ecclesiastical  Matters." 

Blau,  blow,  (Felix  Anton,)  a  German  Catholic  the- 
ologian, born  in  1754,  wrote  against  the  abuses  of  the 
Romish  Church.    Died  in  1798. 

Blaurer,  blow'  rer,  (Ambrose,)  a  Swiss  Lutherati 
divine,  born  at  Constance  in  1492;  died  in  1568. 

Blavet,  blt'vcV,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  litteratenr, 
son  of  Michel,  noticed  below,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1719. 
He  translated  from  the  English  Adam  Smith's  "Wealth 
of  Nations,"  and  Dalrymple's  "Memoirs  of  Great  Brit 
ain  and  Ireland."    Died  in  1809. 

Blavet,  (Michel,)  a  French  musician  and  composer, 
born  at  Besangon  in  1700;  died  in  1768. 

Blavier,  blt\e-a',  (£douard,)  a  French  geologist 
and  engineer,  born  in  Paris  in  1802. 

Blay'ney,  (Benjamin,)  D.D.,  an  English  philologist, 
and  regius  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Oxford,  had  a  high 
reputation  as  a  Biblical  critic.  He  published  new  trans- 
lations of  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations,  and  of  Zechariah. 
Died  in  1801. 

Blaze,  bltz,  (Elz^: ar,)  a  French  litterateur,  brother  of 
Castil-Blaze,  born  at  Cavaillon  about  1786;  died  in  1848. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as J;  o,  H,  k,  guttttral;  N,  7iasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.     (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

24- 


BLAZE  370  BLITTERSWICK 


Blaze,  (FRANgois  Henri  Joseph,)  called  also  Castil- 
Blaze,  kSs't^Kbltz,  a  French  musical  critic  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Cavaillon  in  1784.  He  edited  the  musical 
department  of  the  "Journal  des  Debats"  from  1820  to 
1831,  published  a  "  Dictionary  of  Modern  Music,"  (1821,) 
and  composed  several  operas.    Died  in  Paris  in  1857. 

Blaze,  (Henri  Sebastien,)  a  French  musician  and 
composer,  father  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Cavaillon  in 
1763  ;  died  in  1833. 

Ble,  du,  dii  bli,  (Nicolas,)  Marquis  d'Uxelles,  a 
Frencla  general,  born  in  1652,  became  a  marshal  of 
France  in  1703.    Died  in  1730. 

Blecker,  blek'ker,  or  Blek'er,  (Jan  Gaspar,)  a 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Haarlem  about  1600. 

Bleda,  bla'od,  (Jaime,)  a  Spanish  ecclesiastic,  born 
in  the  province  of  Valencia  about  1550,  wrote  a  "Chro- 
nology of  the  Moors  of  Spain."    Died  in  1624. 

Bleeck,  van,  vtn  blak,  (Peter,)  a  Flemish  painter  and 
engraver,  born  about  1700.  Among  his  best  works  is  a 
portrait  of  Paul  Rembrandt.    Died  in  London  in  1764. 

Bleecker,  blee'ker,  (Ann  Eliza,)  an  American  poet- 
ess, whose  maiden  name  was  Schuyler,  born  in  New 
York  in  1752;  died  in  1783. 

See  Griswold,  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

Bleek,  blak,  (Friedrich,)  born  at  Arensbok,  in  Hol- 
stein,  in  1793,  published  several  valuable  critical  works 
on  the  Scriptures.  He  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Bonn  in  1829.    Died  in  1859. 

Blefken,  blefken,  (Dithmar,)  a  German  traveller, 
visited  Iceland  in  1563,  and  afterwards  wrote  a  descrip- 
tion of  that  country,  in  Latin. 

Bleg''bo-r9Ugh,  (Ralph,)  an  English  physician,  born 
in  Yorkshire  in  1769,  was  a  member  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Physicians.  He  published  "  Facts  and  Observations 
respecting  the  Air-Pump  Vapour-Bath  in  Gout,  Rheu- 
matism, etc."    Died  in  1827. 

Blegny,  de,  deh  blan^ye',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  surgeon 
and  writer,  born  in  1652,  became  physician  to  the  king 
in  1687.    Died  in  1722. 

Blein,  bliN,  (FRANgois  Ange  Alexandre,)  Baron, 
a  French  general  of  engineers,  born  in  Drome  in  1767. 
He  served  at  Austerlitz,  Jena,  etc.,  and  wrote  several 
scientific  works. 

Bleiswick,  van,  vtn  blTs'v^ik,  (Pieter,)  grand  pen- 
sionary of  Holland,  born  at  Delft  in  1724,  wrote  a  Latin 
treatise  "On  Dykes."    Died  in  1790. 

Blekers,  bla'kers,  (N.,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  history 
and  landscapes,  born  at  Haarlem  about  1635,  was  patron- 
ized by  the  Prince  of  Orange. 

Blende,  de,  deh  blln'deh  or  bl6Nd,  (Barth^lemy,) 
a  Jesuit  missionary,  born  at  Bruges  in  1675,  visited  Para- 
guay, where  he  was  killed  by  the  natives  in  1715. 

Blenker,  bllnk'er,  (Louis,)  a  general,  born  at  Worms, 
Germany,  in  181 2.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  revo- 
lutionary movement  in  his  native  city  in  1849,  and  after 
the  defeat  of  the  popular  party  became  an  exile  in  New 
York.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  August, 
1861,  and  commanded  a  division  under  General  Fremont 
in  Virginia  in  1862.    Died  in  New  Jersey  in  1863. 

Blen^ner-has'set,  (Harman,)  a  wealthy  Englishman, 
noted  as  an  associate  or  accomplice  of  Aaron  Burr,  was 
born  in  Hampshire  about  1770.  He  purchased  about 
1798  an  estate  on  an  island  in  the  Ohio  River,  and  ruined 
his  fortune  by  advancing  money  to  aid  Burr  in  his  pro- 
jects. He  was  indicted  for  treason  in  1807,  but  was  re- 
leased on  the  acquittal  of  Burr.    Died  in  1831. 

See  "Life  of  Harman  Blennerhasset,"  by  W.  H.  Safford,  1853. 

Bles,  de,  deh  blSs,  or  Bless,  (Henri,)  a  Flemish 
landscape-painter  of  great  merit,  born  near  Dinant  in 
1480.    Died  in  1550. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Blessebois,  bl^ss'bwa',  (Pierre  Corneille,)  an 
enigmatical  personage,  of  whom  nothing  positive  seems 
to  be  known.  The  name  is  attached  to  several  French 
dramas,  satires,  and  poems,  published  about  1675.  Some 
of  these  are  said  to  be  scurrilous  and  indecent. 

Blessendorf,  bl^s'sen-doRf,  (Samuel,)  a  German 
painter  in  enamel,  born  in  Berlin  in  1670,  was  also  an 
engraver. 

Blessig,  blSs'sic,  (Johann  Lorenz,)  a  Protestant 
minister,  born  at  Strasburg  on  the  Rhine  about  1748. 


He  became  professor  of  theology  in  his  native  city  in 
1783,  and  published  several  works.    Died  in  1816. 

See  C.  M.  Fritz,  "  Leben  J.  L.  Blessig's,"  2  vols.,  i8i8. 

Bles'sing-tpn,  (Margaret,)  Countess  of,  an  Irish 
lady,  celebrated  for  her  beauty,  accomplishments,  and 
social  qualities,  was  born  in  Tipperary  county  in  1789. 
She  was  married  when  very  young  to  Captain  Farmer, 
and  after  his  death  to  the  Earl  of  Blessington  in  181 8. 
Lord  Blessington  dying  in  1829,  his  widow  took  up  her 
residence  at  Gore  House,  in  London,  which  was  for 
many  years  the  resort  of  the  literati  and  other  celebrated 
persons  of  England  and  the  Continent.  Among  her  most 
popular  works  we  may  name  "  The  Victims  of  Society," 
a  novel,  "  Conversations  with  Lord  Byron,"  (1832,)  "  The 
Idler  in  Italy,"  and  "The  Idler  in  France."  She  was 
a  frequent  contributor  to  the  magazines,  etc.  Died  in  1 849. 

See  "  The  Literary  Life  and  Correspondence  of  the  Countess  of 
Blessington,"  by  R.  R.  Madden  ;  "Edinburgh  Review,"  vol.  Ixvii. 

Blesson,  biys6N',  (Ludwig  Johann  Urban,)  a  Ger- 
man ofiicer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1790,  published  a  "Survey 
of  the  Art  of  Fortification,"  (1827,)  and  other  works. 

Bletterie,  de  la,  deh  It  bli'tRe'  or  blet're',  (Jean 
Philippe  Ren^,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Rennes  in 
1696.  He  was  professor  of  eloquence  in  the  Royal  Col- 
lege, and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  He 
wrote  a  "History  of  Julian  the  Apostate,"  (1735,) 
made  translations  from  the  Latin.    Died  in  1772. 

Bleuland,  bluh^l^nt,  (Janus  or  Jan,)  a  Dutch  medi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Utrecht,  lived  about  1 780-1 800. 

Bleville,  bleh-v^K,  (Jean  Baptiste  Thomas,)  born 
at  Abbeville  in  1692,  published  "The  L'^niversal  I3anker 
and  Merchant,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1783. 

Blicher,  bliK'er,  (Steen  Steensen,)  a  Danish  poet 
and  novelist,  born  in  the  stiff  or  province  of  Viborg  in 
1782.  His  "National  Novels"  are  very  popular,  and  in 
some  points  have  a  strong  resemblance  to  those  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott.  He  translated  the  poems  of  Ossian  into 
Danish.  He  had  studied  theology  in  early  life,  and  in 
18 19  entered  on  the  duties  of  a  pastor.  He  wrote  several 
treatises  on  rural  economy,  and  an  "Autobiography," 
which  was  published  in  a  collection  of  his  works,  (9  vols., 
1847-48.)    Died  in  1848. 

See  P.  L.  MoLLER,  "Dansk  Pantheon." 

Bligh,  blT,  (Sir  Richard  Rodney,)  a  British  admiral, 
born  in  Cornwall  in  1737;  died  in  1821.  • 

Bligh,  (William,)  an  English  naval  officer,  born  in 
1753.  By  the  orders  of  George  HI.  he  was  sent  in  1787 
to  the  South  Sea  Islands,  for  the  purpose  of  introducing 
the  vegetable  productions  of  those  countries  into  the 
West  Indies.  While  proceeding  with  his  cargo  to  Ja- 
maica, his  men  mutinied,  (April,  1789,)  and  he,  with 
eighteen  of  the  crew,  was  sent  adrift  in  the  launch. 
After  enduring  great  hardships,  they  arrived  at  the 
island  of  Timor  in  June,  and  in  the  spring  of  1790  landed 
in  England.  He  published  soon  after  a  "Narrative  of 
the  Mutiny  on  Board  H.M.  Ship  Bounty,"  which  excited 
great  interest.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  New 
South  Wales  in  1806,  but,  owing  to  his  tyrannous  con- 
duct, was  sent  back  to  England  in  1808.  He  died  in 
181 7.  The  mutiny  of  the  Bounty  suggested  to  Lord 
Byron  his  poem  entitled  "The  Island."  (For  an  ac- 
count of  the  mutineers,  see  Adams,  John.) 

Blin,  bl^N,  (FRANgois  Pierre,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Rennes  in  1756  ;  died  in  1834. 

Blin  de  Sainmore,  bl^N  deh  s^N''moR',  (Adrien 
Michel  PIyacinthe,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris 
in  1733,  was  appointed  by  Louis  XVI.  keeper  of  the  ar- 
chives, and  historiographer.  He  wrote  poems,  dramas, 
and  historical  works.    Died  in  1807. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance." 

Blioul,  du,  dli  ble'ooK,  (Jean,)  a  Flemish  ecclesiastic, 
born  in  Hainault  about  1570. 

Bliss,  (James  C.,)  M.D.,  an  American  philanthropist, 
born  at  Bennington,  Vermont,  in  1791.  He  practised 
medicine  in  the  city  of  New  York  about  forty  years, 
and  was  eminent  for  his  skill  and  beneficence.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  Tract  Society. 
Died  in  1855. 

Blitterswick,  van,  vtn  blit'te.rs-wik^  (Jan,)  a  Flem- 
ish ecclesiastic  and  religious  writer,  born  at  Brussels; 
died  in  1661. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fdt;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BLITTERSWICK 


371 


BLOND EAV 


Blitterswick,  van,  (Willem,)  a  Flemish  jurist  and 
litterateur,  born  at  Brussels  ;  died  in  1680. 

Blizzard,  (Sir  William,)  a  celebrated  English  anato- 
mist and  surgeon,  born  in  Surrey  in  1748.  He  became, 
in  1787,  professor  of  anatomy  to  the  old  Corporation  of 
Surgeons,  being  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
the  same  year.  When  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons 
was  founded,  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  anatomy 
conjointly  with  Sir  Everard  Home,  and  was  afterwards 
twice  president  of  that  college.  He  was  the  founder  of 
the  Hunterian  Society,  and  of  several  other  learned  and 
benevolent  institutions.  He  published  a  number  of 
works  on  Surgery  and  Sanitary  Reform.    Died  in  1835. 

•  See  "A  Brief  Memoir  of  Sir  William  Blizard,"  by  William 
Cooke. 

Bloch,  bloK,  (Georg  Castaneus,)  a  Danish  botan- 
ist, born  in  171 7,  became  Bishop  of  Ribe.    Died  in  1773. 

Bloch,  (JoHAx\N  Erasmus,)  a  Danish  gardener,  pub- 
lished, in  1647,  a  work  entitled  "  Horticultura  Danica." 

Bloch,  bloK,  (Markus  Elieser,)  a  German  physician 
and  naturalist,  of  Jewish  family,  born  at  Anspach  in  1723, 
practised  medicine  in  Berlin.  His  "  Universal  Natural 
History  of  Fishes"  (12  vols.,  with  432  coloured  plates, 
1782)  is  esteemed  a  standard  work.    Died  in  1799. 

Bloch,  bloK,  or  Ballagi,  (Moritz,)  a  learned  Hun- 
garian Jew,^born  at  Ternova  in  1815.  He  published  a 
"  Complete  Dictionary  of  the  Hungarian  and  German 
Languages,"  (1846.) 

Blochmann,  bloK'min,  (Karl  Justus,)  a  German 
teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  at  Reichstadt,  in 
Saxony,  in  1786.  About  1824  he  founded  at  Dresden  a 
large  school  called  Blochman'sche  Institut.  Died  at  or 
near  Geneva  in  1855. 

Block,  (Albrecht,)  a  German  agricultural  writer, 
born  at  Sagan  in  1774;  died  in  1847. 

Block,  (Ben7AMIn,)  a  German  portrait-painter,  born 
at  Lubeck  in  1631. 

Block,  (Daniel,)  a  German  portrait-painter,  father 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1580.  He  was 
court  painter  to  the  King  of  Denmark  and  the  King  of 
Sweden.    Died  in  1661. 

Block,  blok,  (James  Reugers,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Gouda  about  1580,  excelled  in  perspective  and  archi- 
tectural views.    l3ied  in  1632. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Block,  (Joanna  Koerten — kooR'ten,)  an  ingenious 
female  artist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1650,  was  celebrated 
for  her  skill  in  cutting  with  her  scissors  landscapes,  por- 
traits, and  animals.  For  such  works  she  was  paid  im- 
mense prices  by  several  sovereigns  of  Europe.  Died  in 
1715. 

Block, blok,  (Magnus  Gabriel,)  a  Swedish  physician, 
born  at  Stockholm  in  1669;  died  in  1722. 

Blockland,  blok'lant,  (Anthony  de  Montfort,)  a 
Dutch  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Montfort 
in  1532.    He  worked  at  Utrecht.    Died  in  1583. 

Blod'get,  (Samuel,)  an  American  projector,  born  at 
Woburn,  Massachusetts,  about  1720.  He  raised  a  valu- 
able cargo  from  a  sunken  vessel,  and  began  the  canal 
around  the  Amoskeag  Falls,  at  Haverhill,"  New  Hamp- 
shire, but,  before  it  was  finished,  was  sent  to  prison  for 
debt.    Died  in  1807. 

Bloemaert,  bloo'mSRt,  (Abraham,)  a  celebrated 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Gorkum  about  1564  or  1567.  He 
painted  landscapes  and  portraits,  but  excelled  in  histori- 
cal pieces.  He  was  also  a  skilful  engraver.  "  The  Death 
of  Niobe's  Sons"  is  called  his  master-piece.  Died  at 
Utrecht  in  1647. 

Bloemaert,  (Kornelis,)  an  excellent  engraver,  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1603,  studied  en- 
graving in  Paris  and  in  Rome.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  the  "  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,"  after  Cortona, 
and  "  Meleager,"  after  Rubens.  His  three  brothers, 
Adrian,  Henry,  and  Frederick,  were  also  engravers. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1680. 

See  Nagler,  "Neues  Allgemeines  Kunstler-Lexikon." 

Bloemeii,  van,  vSn  bloo'men,  (John  Francis,)  a 
Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1656.  He  studied 
in  Italy,  where  he  passed  his  mature  life,  and  where  he 
received  the  surname  of  Orizzonte  from  some  peculi- 


arity of  his  style.  His  landscapes  are  greatly  admired, 
and  command  high  prices.    Died  at  Rome  in  1740. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Bloemen,  van,  (Norbert,)  brother  of  John  Francis 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1672,  painted  portraits  and  conver- 
sation-pieces. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Bloemen,  van,  (Peter,)  surnamed  STANDAERT,(stln'- 
daRt,)  a  Flemish  painter,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  a 
native  of  Antwerp.  His  principal  works  represent  mili- 
tary marches,  battles,  fairs,  caravans,  etc.  He  be'.:ame 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Antwerp  in  1699. 

Bloeteling,  bloo'teh-ling,  sometimes  written  Blote* 
ling,  (Abraham,)  a  celebrated  Dutch  designer  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Amsterdam  in  1634.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  are  "  Daniel  in  the  Lions'  Den,"  after  Rubens, 
and  a  portrait  of  Erasmus,  after  Holbein.  Died  in  1676. 

See  Nagler,  "Neues  Allgemeines  Kunstler-Lexikon." 

Blois.    See  Blosius. 

Bloni,  blom,  (Karl  Magnus,)  a  Swedish  naturalist 
and  physician,  born  in  Smaland  in  1737,  was  a  pupil  of 
Linnaeus.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce  vaccination  into 
Sweden.  He  wrote  several  medical  and  scientific  works 
in  Latin.    Died  in  181 5. 

Blomberg,  blom'beRG,  (Barbara,)  a  lady  of  distin- 
guished family  in  Nuremberg,  was  the  mistress  of  Charles 
v.,  and  the  reputed  mother  of  Don  John  of  Austria. 

Blome,  blo'meh,  (Johann,)  a  learned  German  writer, 
born  at  Hamburg  about  1620  ;  died  in  1672. 

Blome,  (Richard,)  an  English  historical  writer,  lived 
about  1670. 

Blome'field,  (Francis,)  born  in  Norfolk,  England, 
in  1705,  published  "The  Topographical  History  of  Nor- 
folk," (3  vols.,  1739-69.)    Died  in  1751. 

Blomfield,  bliim'feld,  (Charles  James,)  Bishop  of 
London,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1 786.  He  graduated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  in  1808,  and  soon  after  brought  out 
valuable  editions  of  the  "  Prometheus"  and  several  other 
dramas  of  /Eschylus.  He  also  edited  the  "Adversaria 
Porsoni,"  and  contributed  to  various  reviews  a  number 
of  critical  essays  on  the  Greek  classics.  In  1824  he  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  Callimachus.  He  became  Bishop  of 
London  in  1828.  Bishop  Blomfield  distinguished  himself 
by  his  efforts  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  poor,  and 
promoted  the  erection  of  a  great  number  of  churches  in 
London.  His  opinions  were  decidedly  "high-church." 
Died  in  1857. 

See  Dr.  Biber,  "Bishop  Blomfield  and  his  Times,"  1857;  A. 
Blomfield,  "Life  of  C.  J.  Blomfield,"  1S63;  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  January  and  April,  186S. 

Blomfield,  (Edward  Valentine,)  a  distinguished 
English  scholar,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1788.  He  published  a  valuable  translation  of  Matthiae's 
"Greek  Grammar,"  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "Mu- 
seum Criticum."    Died  in  1816. 

Blommaert,  blom^iiaRt,  (Philippus,)  a  Belgian  phi- 
lologist and  poet,  born  about  1809,  published  editions  of 
several  old  Flemish  poems,  and  translated  the  "  Niebe- 
lungen"  into  Dutch  iambics.  His  best  production  is  a 
historical  work  entitled  "Aloude  Geschiedenis  der  Belgen 
of  Nederduitschers,"  (1849.) 

Blond,  le,  leh  bl6N,  (Jacques  Christophe,)  a  min- 
iature-painter, born  at  Frankfort  in  1670.  He  worked  in 
London,  and  made  unsuccessful  attempts  to  produce  col- 
oured engravings  or  copies  of  paintings.  Died  about  1 740. 

Blond,  Le.    See  Le  Blond. 

Blonde,  bl6Nd,  (Andr^:,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Auxerre  in  1734;  died  in  1794. 

Blondeau,bld)N'do'',  (Antoine  Francois  Raymond,) 
a  French  general,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1747,  served 
under  Pichegru  in  1794,  and  in  the  Italian  campaign  of 
1799.    Died  in  1825. 

Blondeau,  (Charles,)  a  French  jurist  and  miscel- 
laneous writer,  born  at  Mans;  died  in  1680. 

Blondeau,  (Claude,)  a  French  jurist  and  legal 
writer,  born  in  Paris,  lived  about  1650. 

Blondeau,  (Jean  Baptiste  Antoine  Hyacinthe,) 
professor  of  Roman  law  in  the  faculty  of  Paris,  was  born 
at  Namur  in  1784.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Moral  and  Political  Science,  and  published  several 
works  on  Roman  jurisprudence. 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


BLONDEAU 


372 


BLOUNT 


Blondeau  de  Charnage,  bl6N'd5'  deh  shtR^ntzh', 
(Claude  Francois,)  a  YxQnc\\  litterateur,  born  near  Pon- 
tarlier  in  17 10.    Died  in  1776. 

Blondel,  bl(!)N'd§K,  [Lat.  BLONDELyE'us,]  a  French 
troubadour,  and  favourite  of  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion, 
whom  he  accompanied  on  his  principal  expeditions.  He 
is  said  to  have  discovered  the  place  of  the  king's  impris- 
onment in  Germany  by  singing  before  the  fortress  part 
of  a  song  which  was  answered  from  within. 

Blondel,  (David,)  a  French  Protestant  divine  and 
writer,  born  at  Chalons-sur-Marne  in  1591.  In  1650  he 
succeeded  Vossius  as  professor  of  history  at  Amsterdam. 
Pie  published  a  number  of  theological  and  historical 
works  in  Latin  and  French.    Died  in  1655. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Brucker, 
"History  of  Philosophy." 

Blondel,  bl6NMeK,  (Francis,)  a  Flemish  physician, 
born  at  Liege  in  1613  ;  died  in  1682. 

Blondel,  (Francois,)  a  French  architect  and  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Ribemont  in  161 7.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal  College,  and  was 
chosen  by  Louis  XIV.  to  teach  that  science  to  the  dau- 
phin. He  published  a  "  Course  of  Architecture,"  and 
various  other  treatises.  The  triumphal  arch  of  the  Porte 
Saint-Denis  is  esteemed  his  master-piece  in  architecture. 
Died  in  1686. 

See  FoNTENAY,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Blondel,  (Franqois,)  a  French  physician,  born  in 
Paris,  graduated  about  1631,  was  noted  for  his  opposition 
to  the  use  of  antimony  in  medicine.    Died  in  1682. 

Blondel,  (Jacques,)  a  French  surgeon,  who  lived  at 
Lille  about  1580,  translated,  from  the  Latin,  Godin's 
"Military  Surgery." 

Blondel,  (Jacques  Franqois,)  a  French  architect, 
nephew  of  Francois  the  architect,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Rouen  in  1705.  He  became  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Architecture  in  Paris.    Died  in  1774. 

Blon'del,  (James  Augustus,)  an  English  physician, 
of  French  extraction,  wrote  several  esteemed  medical 
works.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal  College  of  Phy- 
sicians.   Died  in  London  in  1734. 

Blondel,  (Jean,)  a  French  jurist  and  legal  writer, 
born  at  Rheims  in  1733,  became  president  of  the  impe- 
rial court  of  Paris  in  1803.    Died  in  1810. 

Blondel,  (Laurent,)  a  French  scholar  and  theologi- 
cal writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1671  ;  died  in  1740. 

Blondel,  (Marie  Joseph,)  a  French  historical  painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1781,  was  a  pupil  of  Regnault.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Zenobia  on  the  Shore  of  the  Araxis,"  and 

Homer  in  Athens."   He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute. 

Blondel,  (Pierre  Jacques,)  a  French  litterateicr,  born 
in  Paris  in  1674;  died  in  1730. 

Blondel,  (Robert,)  a  French  poet  and  moralist,  born 
in  Normandy  about  1390,  was  preceptor  to  the  dauphin 
Charles,  a  son  of  Charles  VII.    Died  about  1460. 

Blondin,  bl6N'diN',  (Jean  Noel,)  a  French  gram- 
marian, born  in  Paris  in  1753,  became  secretary  and  in- 
terpreter at  the  Royal  Library.  He  published  a  "  Polyglot 
Grammar,  French,  Latin,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese, 
and  English."    Died  in  1832. 

Blondin,  (Pierre,)  a  French  botanist,  born  at  Vaudri- 
court  in  1682,  was  a  pupil  of  Tournefourt.    Died  in  1713. 

Blondus,  (Flavius.)    See  Flavio  Biondo. 

Blood,  bliid,  (Colonel  Thomas,)  a  notorious  Irish 
adventurer,  born  about  1628,  served  for  a  time  in  Crom- 
well's army.  Having  failed  in  his  attempt  to  surprise  the 
castle  of  Dublin  and  take  the  Duke  of  Ormond,  then 
lord-lieutenant,  he  seized  the  person  of  that  nobleman  in 
Iiis  coach  in  London,  (1670,)  and  was  only  prevented  from 
hanging  him  by  the  resistance  of  his  servants.  In  1671 
he  nearly  succeeded  in  possessing  himself  of  the  crown 
jewels  ;  but,  after  a  short  imprisonment  for  this  crime,  he 
was  pardoned  by  Charles  II.,  and  received  from  him  a 
pension.    Died  in  1680. 

See  Kennet,  "History  of  England." 

Bloom'field,  (Robert,)  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Honington,  in  Suffolk,  in  1766.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
tailor,  and  was  apprenticed  at  an  early  age  to  a  shoe- 
maker in  London.  While  in  this  situation  he  composed 
his  rural  poem  of  "The  Farmer's  Boy,"  which,  after 
being  refused  by  several  booksellers,  was  published  under 


the  patronage  of  Mr.  Capel  Lofft.  It  was  received  with 
extraordinary  favour,  and  was  translated  into  French, 
Italian,  and  Latin.  Among  his  other  poems  we  may 
name  "  Good  Tidings,  or  News  from  the  Farm,"  "  May- 
Day  with  the  Muses,"  and  "Ballads  and  Songs."  Of 
the  "Farmer's  Boy,"  Dr.  Nathan  Drake  observes,  in  his 
"Literary  Hours,"  that  "in  true  pastoral  imagery  and 
simplicity  no  production  can  be  put  in  competition  with 
it  since  the  days  of  Theocritus and  a  critic  in  "Black- 
wood's Magazine"  pronounces  it  "by  far  the  best-written, 
as  to  style  and  composition,  of  any  work  of  our  unedu- 
cated poets."    Died  in  Bedfordshire  in  1823. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  June,  1822,  vol.  xi. ;  "  Pursuit 
of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  li.,  1839. 

Bloomfield,  (S.  T.,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
scholar,  born  alDout  1790.  He  has  published  an  edition 
of  Dr.  Robinson's  "  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  the 
New  Testament,"  with  important  additions  and  correc- 
tions, which  is  highly  commended  by  the  "  Church  of 
England  Quarterly;"  also  the  "Greek  Testament,  with 
English  Notes,  Critical,  Philological,  and  Explanatory," 
(1832,)  and  other  valuable  works  of  the  kind.  He  brought 
out  in  1829  an  excellent  translation  of  Thucydides. 

Bloot,  blot,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  or  Flemish  painter, 
whose  favourite  subjects  are  drunken  frolics,  quarrels  of 
peasants,  etc.    Died  in  1667. 

Blo'si-us  or  De  Blois,  deh  blwS,  (Francis  Louis,) 
a  Flemish  Benedictine  monk  of  noble  family,  born  near 
Liege  in  1506,  became  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Liesses, 
in  Hainault.  He  was  educated  with  Prince  Charles,  after- 
wards the  emperor  Charles  V.    Died  about  1565. 

Blot,  bio,  Baron  de  Chauvigny,  (deh  sho'ven'ye',)  a 
French  wit  and  litterateur  in  tlie  reign  of  Louis  XIII., 
wrote  a  number  of  satires  and  epigrams  against  Cardinal 
Mazarin.    Died  in  1655. 

Blot,  (Maurice,)  a  French  painter  and  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  in  1754,  was  a  pupil  of  Saint-Aubin.  Died  in  181 8. 

Bloteling.    See  Bloeteling. 

Blouet,  bloo^^',  (Jean  FRANgois  Nicolas,)  a  French 
journalist  and  litterateur,  born  at  Metz  in  1745,  wrote  on 
agriculture,  commerce,  and  other  subjects.   Died  in  1809. 

Blount,  blunt,  (Charles,)  Lord  Mountjoy  and  Earl 
of  Devonshire,  born  in  1563,  lived  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  by  whom  he  was  treated  with  great  favour. 
He  succeeded  to  the  title  of  Lord  Mountjoy,  and  became 
governor  of  Portsmouth  in  1594,  and  lord  deputy  of  Ire- 
land in  1600.  Having  put  down  the  Irish  rebellion  in 
1603,  he  was  created  Earl  of  Devonshire  by  James  I., 
and  obtained  other  distinctions.  Died  in  1605  or  1606. 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the  Earl  of  Essex,  whose 
sister  he  married.  She  was  a  great  beauty,  and  previ- 
ously the  wife  of  Lord  Rich.  Lord  Devonshire  and 
Lady  Rich  had  five  children  born  before  their  marriage. 

Blount,  (Charles,)  an  English  writer,  son  of  Sir 
Henry,  mentioned  below,  born  at  Upper  Holloway  in 
1654,  published  a  deistical  work  entitled  "  Anima  Mundi," 
(1678,)  and  several  others  of  a  similar  nature.  He  also 
translated  from  the  Greek  the  "  Life  of  Apollonius  Tya- 
naeus,"  by  Philostratus.    He  committed  suicide  in  1693. 

See  Macaulav's  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv. 

Blount,  (Sir  Henry,)  born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1602, 
travelled  in  Greece,  Palestine,  and  Egypt,  of  which  coun- 
tries he  gave  an  account  in  his  "  Voyage  into  the  Levant," 
published  in  1636.  It  was  translated  into  French  and 
Dutch.    Died  in  1682. 

Blount,  [Lat.  Blon'dus,]  (John,)  an  English  writer, 
who  was  prebendary  and  chancellor  in  the  church  of  York. 
He  wrote  theological  works  which  were  highly  esteemed 
by  his  contemporaries,  but  they  are  not  known  to  be  ex- 
tant.   Died  in  1248. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Blount,  (Thomas,)  an  English  jurist  and  writer,  born 
in  Worcestershire  in  1618.  He  published  "Glosso- 
graphia,"  or  a  dictionary  of  legal  terms,  "  Lamps  of  the 
Law  and  Lights  of  the  Gospel,"  (1658,)  "The  Academy 
of  Eloquence,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1679. 

Blount,  (Sir  Thomas  Pope,)  son  of  Sir  Henry,  noticed 
above,  born  in  1649,  was  several  times  elected  to  Par- 
liament for  Saint  Alban's  and  Hertfordshire.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Critique  on  Celebrated  Writers,"  ("Censura 
celebriorum  Authorum,"  1690,)  which  is  commended  by 


a,  e,  T,  o,  II,  y,  long;  \,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fcill,  fit;  met;  u6t;  good;  m  )oni 


BLOUNT 


373 


BLUNDEFILLE 


Hallam,  Sir  Egerton  Brydges,  and  other  eminent  critics. 
Died  in  1697. 

Blouut,  bliint,  (William,)  an  American  Senator,  born 
about  1744.  He  was  appointed  governor  of  the  territory 
south  of  the  Ohio  River  in  1790,  and  was  elected  a  Sena- 
tor of  the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of  Tennessee 
in  1796.  He  was  expelled  from  the  Senate,  in  1797,  on 
a  charge  that  he  had  abetted  an  attempt  of  the  British 
to  conquer  from  Spain  part  of  the  lower  valley  of  the 
Mississippi.    Died  at  Knoxville  in  1800. 

Blount  (bliint)  Mount-joy',  Lord  Mountjoy,  born 
about  1598,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  Blount  and 
Lady  Rich.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Newport  in  1628, 
and  appointed  Constable  of  the  Tower  in  1641,  but  was 
removed  in  the  same  year  because  the  king  distrusted 
his  loyalty.  He  adhered  to  the  royal  cause  in  the  civil 
war,  but  was  regarded  as  lukewarm.    Died  in  1665. 

Blow,  (John,)  an  English  musician  and  composer, 
born  in  Nottinghamshire  in  1648,  became  organist  of 
Westminster  Abbey.  Among  his  principal  compositions 
are  a  "Gloria  Patri,"  and  a  collection  of  secular  pieces 
entitled  "Amphion  Anglicus."  The  celebrated  Purcell 
was  one  of  his  pupils.    Died  in  1708. 

See  BuRXEV,  "History  of  Music." 

Bliioher,  von,  fon  bloo'ker,  [Ger.  pron.  fon  blii'Ker,] 
(Gebhard  Lebrecht,)  a  celebrated  Prussian  field-mar- 
shal, born  at  Rostock  in  1742.  At  an  early  age  he  en- 
tered the  Swedish  army,  and  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
same  Prussian  regiment  (then  under  the  command  of 
Colonel  von  Belling)  which  he  afterwards  commanded 
with  such  distinction.  He  was  prevailed  upon  by  Von 
Belling  to  join  the  army  of  Frederick  the  Great,  and,  after 
the  accession  of  Frederick  William,  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  campaigns  of  1793-94  against  the  French. 
In  1806  he  commanded  the  Prussian  vanguard  at  Auer- 
stadt,  and  effected  a  masterly  retreat  to  Lubeck,  though 
pursued  by  Soult,  Bernadotte,  and  Murat.  Appointed 
in  1813  to  the  chief  command  of  the  allied  Russian  and 
Prussian  army,  he  obtained  a  signal  victory  over  Mac- 
donald  on  the  Katzbach,  and  soon  after  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  battle  of  Leipsic.  After  various  en- 
gagements with  the  French,  he  advanced  to  Paris  in 
March,  1814,  and,  having  stormed  the  heights  of  Mont- 
martre,  entered  the  city  with  the  allied  sovereigns.  On 
this  occasion  he  was  created  Prince  of  Wahlstadt  by  the 
King  of  Prussia,  and  received  other  high  distinctions. 
In  181 5  he  again  took  command  of  the  Prussian  army, 
and  though  defeated  at  Ligny,  June  16,  he  appeared 
on  the  field  of  Waterloo  in  the  evening  of  the  i8th  and 
decided  the  fortunes  of  that  eventful  day.  With  his 
fresh  troops  he  pursued  the  flying  enemy  through  the 
night,  and,  having  arrived  in  Paris,  assisted  in  re-estab- 
lishing the  Bourbon  dynasty.  He  died  in  1819,  at  the 
age  of  seventy-seven.  Bliicher  was  chiefly  remarkable 
for  his  impetuous  courage  and  the  rapidity  of  his  move- 
ments, which  procured  for  him  the  name  of  "Marshal 
Vorwiirts,"  ("Forwards.")  For  the  plans  of  his  battles 
he  relied  principally  upon  Scharnhorst  and  Gneisenau, 
generals  of  his  staff.  W^hen  praised  for  one  of  his  vic- 
tories, he  said,  "  It  is  owing  to  my  rashness,  Gneise- 
nau's  prudence,  and  the  mercy  of  the  great  God." 

See  "Life  and  Campaigns  of  Blucher,"  London,  1815;  Foerster, 
"Blucher  und  sein  Umgebung,"  1821  ;  Pischon,  "  Bliichers  Leben, 
Thaten  und  Ende,"  1S42;  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  "Bliichers  Le- 
bensbeschreibung,"  1827  ;  W.  Burckhardt,  "  G.  L.  von  Blucher 
nach  Leben,  Reden  und  Thaten geschildert,"  1835  ;  "  Vie  de  Blucher," 
Paris,  1 816. 

Bludoff  or  Bloudoflf,  bloo'dofF,  (Dmitri,)  Count,  a 
Russian  statesman,  born  at  Moscow  about  1783.  He  has 
been  employed  in  various  embassies,  appointed  secre- 
tary of  the  interior,  and  president  of  the  legislative 
department  in  the  council  of  the  empire. 

Bluet  d'Arberee,  de,  deh  blu-.V  (almost  blw&)  dSa'- 
baiR',  (Bernard,)  a  French  litteratettr,  and  fool  by  pro- 
fession, sometimes  called  the  Comte  de  Permission,  was 
born  near  Savoy  about  1560.  He  wrote  eulogies  on  his 
patrons,  and  a  number  of  prophecies  for  the  people.  A 
copy  of  his  works  was  sold  for  five  hundred  francs  at  the 
McCarthy  sale  in  1816. 

See  Flogel,  "Geschichte  des  Burlesken." 

Bluf,  bloof,  (Matthaus.  Joseph,)  a  German  physician 
and  medical  writer,  born  at  Cologne  in  1805  ;  died  in  1837. 


Bluhme,  bloo'meh,  (Christian  Albert,)  a  Danish 
statesman,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1794,  became  minister 
of  foreign  affairs  in  1851,  and  in  1852  president  of  the 
council. 

Bluhme  or  Blume,  bloo'meh,  (Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist,  born  at  Hamburg  about  1798.  He  became 
profoundly  versed  in  the  Roman  law,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  law  at  Bonn.  Among  his  works  are  "  Iter 
Italicum,"  (4  vols.,  1824-36,)  containing  the  results  of 
his  researches  in  Italy,  "  Canon  Law  of  the  Jews  and 
Christians,  especially  in  Germany,"  (1826,)  and  a  "  Sketch 
of  the  Law  of  the  Pandects,"  (1829.) 

Blum,  bloom,  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  architect,  resided  at 
Zurich.  He  published  in  1596  a  "  Book  of  Architecture." 

Blum,  bloom,  (Joachim  Christian,)  a  German  lit- 
tej'ateur,  born  at  Rathenau  in  1739;  died  in  1790. 

Blum,  (Karl,)  a  German  composer,  and  director  of 
the  Royal  Opera  at  Berlin,  born  in  that  city  about  1785. 
He  composed  numerous  operas  and  songs.  Died  in  1844. 

Blum,  (Robert,)  a  German  democratic  politician, 
born  at  Cologne  in  1807.  In  1840  he  founded  the  Schiller 
Association  at  Leipsic,  and  soon  after  became  a  leading 
contributor  to  the  "  Sachsischen  Vaterlandsblattern,"  a 
political  journal.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  German 
Catholic  church  at  Leipsic  in  1845.  In  the  revolution  of 
1848  he  was  a  prominent  leader  of  the  Liberal  party,  and 
was  one  of  the  deputation  sent  to  Vienna  with  the  ad- 
dress of  the  parliamentary  opposition.  On  the  capture 
of  that  city  by  Windischgratz,  he  was  arrested  and  shot, 
November  9,  1848. 

See  Eduakd  Duller,  "R.  Blums  Leben  und  Tod,"  1848; 
Eduakd  Franks,  "  Leben,  Wirken,  etc.  des  R.  Blum,"  1848;  LuD- 
wiG  WiTTiG,  "Blums  letzte  Stunden  inWien,"  1848. 

Blumauer,  bloo'mow'er,  (Aloys,)  a  German  poet, 
born  at  Steyer  in  1755,  published  a  burlesque  poem  en- 
titled "Virgil's  ^neid  travestied,"  (17S4,)  which  was 
very  popular  in  Germany  and  was  translated  into  Rus- 
sian.   Died  in  1798. 

Blumberg,  bloom'b^RG,  (Christian  Gotthelf,)  a 
German  Lutheran  divine  and  philologist,  born  near  Quer- 
furt  in  1664;  died  in  1735. 

Blume.    See  Bluhme. 

Blumenbach,  bloo'men-bik,  [Ger.  pron.  bloo'men- 
b^K,]  (JoHANN  Friedrich,)  a  celebrated  German  com- 
parative anatomist  and  physiologist,  was  born  at  Gotha 
on  the  nth  of  May,  1752.  He  studied  at  Jena,  and  after- 
wards at  Gottingen,  where  he  took  his  degree  in  medi- 
cine in  1775.  On  this  occasion  he  wrote  a  thesis  on  the 
"  Varieties  of  the  Human  Race,"  ("  De  Generis  humani 
Varietate  Nativa,")  which  was  translated  into  many  lan- 
guages. He  became  ordinary  professor  of  medicine  and 
anatomy  at  Gottingen  in  1778,  and  continued  to  lecture 
there  more  than  fifty  years.  He  published  in  1780  a 
popular  "Manual  of  Natural  History,"  (loth  edition, 
1830,)  and  in  1786  a  "Description  of  the  Bones  of  the 
Human  Body."  He  explained  with  success  the  functions 
of  the  human  system  in  his  "  Institutiones  Physiologicae," 
(1787,)  which  was  translated  into  English  and  other  lan- 
guages and  used  as  a  text-book  in  schools. 

Blumenbach  was  the  first  who  divided  the  human 
species  into  five  races, — viz.,  the  Caucasian,  Mongolian, 
Malay,  American,  and  African  or  Ethiopian.  He  advo- 
cated the  unity  of  the  human  species.  "  He  was  the  first," 
says  Dr.  Hoefer,  "who  placed  natural  history  on  a  sci- 
entific basis, — comparative  anatomy."  Among  his  im- 
portant works  is  a  "  Manual  of  Comparative  Anatomy," 
(1805.)  In  the  number  of  his  pupils  was  Alexander  von 
Humboldt.  He  was  a  member  of  about  seventy  learned 
societies,  and  corresponded  with  the  most  eminent  phi- 
losophers of  Europe.  He  was  created  a  knight  of  the 
Guelphic  order  about  1821.  Died  at  Gottingen  in  Janu- 
ary, 1840. 

See  "£loge  de  Blumenbach,"  par  Flourens,  1846;  C.  F,  H. 
Marx,  "Zum  Andenken  an  J.  F.  Blumenbach,"  1840;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Blumroder,  von,  fon  bloom'roMer,  (August  Fried- 
rich,) a  German  litterateur  and  soldier,  born  at  Gehren 
in  1776,  served  against  the  French  in  the  campaigns  of 
1814-15. 

Bluu'dell,  (James,)  a  British  physician  and  medical 
writer,  born  about  1810,  practised  in  London. 
Blun'de-ville,  (Thomas,)  an  English  mathematician, 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BLUNT 


374 


BOB  RUN 


published  in  1594  a  popular  work,  entitled  "Exercises, 
containing  Six  Treatises." 

Blunt,  (Edmond,)  an  American  hydrographer,  son 
of  Edmond  M.  Blunt,  noticed  below,  born  in  Newbury- 
port,  Massachusetts,  in  1 799.  He  was  for  many  years 
engaged  in  making  surveys  of  the  sea-coast  of  the  United 
States,  the  West  Indies,  Guatemala,  etc.,  and  since  1833 
has  been  first  assistant  in  the  United  States  Coast  Survey 
at  Washington. 

Blunt,  (Edmond  March,)  an  American  writer  on  nau- 
tical subjects,  born  in  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  in 
1770.  In  1796  he  published  his  "American  Coast  Pilot," 
which  has  since  passed  through  many  editions  and  been 
translated  into  several  European  languages.  It  con- 
tains descriptions  of  every  seaport  in  the  United  States 
and  of  most  of  those  in  America,  with  sailing-directions, 
Jists  of  light-houses,  etc.  He  has  also  published  many 
other  valuable  nautical  works,  charts,  etc. 

Blunt,  (E[enry,)  an  English  religious  writer,  born 
about  1794.  In  1835  he  became  rector  of  Streathan, 
Surrey.  He  published,  besides  sermons,  "Lectures  on 
the  History  of  Saint  Paul,"  (1833,)  "Lectures  on  the 
History  of  Elisha,"  and  other  popular  works.  It  is 
said  that  some  of  his  works  have  passed  through  forty 
editions.    Died  in  1843. 

Blunt,  (James  G.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Hancock  county,  Maine,  in  1826.  He  settled  in  Kansas 
about  1856,  and  became  a  leader  of  the  Free  State  party. 
He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  about  April,  1862. 
Pie  defeated  the  enemy  at  Kane  Hill,  Arkansas,  in  No- 
vember, and  at  Prairie  Grove  in  December,  1862.  Having 
been  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general,  he  com- 
manded the  department  of  Kansas  in  1863,  but  was  re- 
lieved in  October  of  that  year. 

Blunt,  (John  James,)  an  English  divine  and  scholar, 
born  at  Newcastle-under-Lime  in  1794.  He  became  in 
1839  Lady  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge. 
He  published  "  Undesigned  Coincidences  in  the  Writ- 
ings both  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  an  Argument 
of  their  Veracity,"  (1847,)  "Vestiges  of  Ancient  Manners 
in  Italy  and  Sicily,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1855. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1S58,  (vol.  civ.) 

Blunthli,  bloont'lee,  or  Bluntschli,  bloont'shlee, 
(Jean  Henri,)  born  at  Zurich  in  1656,  wrote  a  chronicle 
of  the  city  and  canton  of  Zurich,  entitled  "  Memorabilia 
Tigurina."    Died  in  1722. 

Bluntschli,  bloont'shlee,  (Johann  Kaspar,)  a  Swiss 
jurist,  born  in  1808  at  Zurich,  where  he  became  professor 
of  law  in  1836. 

Bluteau,  blii'to',  (Dom  Raphael,)  a  learned  writer, 
of  French  extraction,  born  in  London  in  1638,  became 
preacher  to  Henrietta  Maria,  queen  of  Charles  I.  He 
published  a  "Portuguese-Latin  Dictionary,"  (1712,  8 
vols,  fol.)    Died  in  1734. 

Blutel,  blii^tlK,  (Charles  Auguste  Esprit  Rose,)  a 
French  jurist,  and  member  of  the  National  Convention, 
born  at  Caen  in  1757.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Council 
of  Five  Hundred.    Died  in  1806. 

See  "  Notice  sur  M.  Blutel,"  Paris,  1847. 

Blyenburg,  bll'en-biiRG^  (Adrian,)  a  Latin  poet, 
nephew  of  Damasus,  born  at  Dort  in  1560  ;  died  in  1599. 

Blyenburg,  van,  vSn  blT'en-bviRG^,  (Damasus,)  a 
Dutch  littet'ateur,  born  at  Dort  in  1 558,  published  a  com- 
pilation of  the  modern  Latin  poets. 

B6,  bo,  (Jean  Baptiste  Jerome,)  a  French  physician, 
born  near  Mur-de-Barrez  in  1753,  was  elected  to  the 
National  Convention  in  1792,  and  voted  for  the  imme- 
diate death  of  the  king.    Died  in  1811. 

Boabdil,  bo-ab-deK,  [corrupted  from  Aboo-Abdillah 
or  Aboo-Abdallah,]  surnamed  el  Ciiico,  (cheeHvo,) 
(or  TJIE  Little,)  the  last  Moorish  king  of  Granada.  His 
claim  to  the  throne  was  contested  by  his  uncle,  Abdallah- 
el-Zagal.  This  dispute  was  settled  by  Ferdinand  of 
Aragon,  who  conquered  Granada  in  1491,  when  Boabdil 
ceased  to  reign.  He  retired  to  Africa  in  1496,  and  died 
about  1536. 

Boaden,  b5'den,  (James,)  an  English  writer,  born  at 
Whitehaven  in  1762,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  John 
Keinble.  He  published  several  dramas,  a  "  Life  of  John 
Philip  Kemble,"  a  "  Life  of  Mrs.  Jordan,"  and  one  of 
Mrs.  Siddons.    Died  in  1839. 


Bo-ad-i-ge'a,  [Fr.  PjOADIC^;e,  boTde'si',]  written 
also  Boudicea,  Boodicia,  and  Voadica,  wife  of  Prasu- 
tagus,  king  of  the  British  tribe  of  the  Iceni,  flourished 
about  the  middle  of  the  first  century.  After  the  death 
of  her  husband,  Boadicea,  incensed  by  the  rapacity  and 
insults  of  the  procurator  Catus,  took  up  arms  against 
the  Roman  colonists  and  their  allies,  seventy  thousand 
of  whom,  according  to  Tacitus,  fell  in  battle.  She  was 
subsequently  defeated  by  Suetonius  Paulinus  with  im- 
mense loss,  and  took  poison  to  avoid  falling  into'  the 
victor's  hands. 

See  Tacitus,  "  Annales,"  book  xiv. 

Boadicee,  the  French  of  Boadicea,  which  see. 

Board'man,  (George  D.,)  an  eminent  Baptist  mis- 
sionary, born  at  Livermore,  Maine,  in  1801.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Waterville  College  in  1821,  studied  divinity  at  the 
Theological  Seminary  at  Andover,  and  in  1825  sailed 
for  the  East  under  the  auspices  of  the  Baptist  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions.  He  arrived  at  Calcutta  in  December 
following,  and,  after  devoting  some  fifteen  months  to  the 
study  of  the  Burmese  language,  established  a  mission  at 
Maulmain,  on  the  Tenasserim  coast.  This  place  sub- 
sequently became  the  principal  seat  of  the  Baptist  mis- 
sions in  that  region.  The  next  year  he  founded  another 
mission  at  Tavoy.  Mr.  Boardman  continued  his  work 
with  great  zeal  and  success  until  his  death  in  1831. 

Boardman,  (Henry  Augustus,)  D.D.,  an  eloquent 
American  divine,  born  at  Troy,  New  York,  January  9, 
1808.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1829  as  valedictorian  of 
his  class,  and  studied  theology  at  Princeton.  For  more 
than  thirty  years  he  has  had  the  pastoral  charge  of  the 
Tenth  Presbyterian  Church  in  Philadelphia.  In  1853  he 
was  elected  by  the  general  assembly  to  fill  the  chair  of 
pastoral  theology  at  Princeton,  but  he  declined  the  honour. 

See  Ali.ibone's  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Boaretti,  bo-l-ret'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  able  Italian 
litterateur,  born  near  Padua  in  1748,  became  professor 
of  sacred  eloquence  at  Venice  about  1785.  He  trans- 
lated some  of  the  works  of  Sophocles  and  several  tra- 
gedies of  Euripides  into  Italian,  (versi  sciolti,)  and  Ho- 
mer's "Iliad"  into  ottava  rima,  (1788.)    Died  in  1799. 

Boas,  bo'as,  (Eduard,)  a  German  novelist,  born  at 
Landsberg  in  1815,  published  a  supplement  to  the  works 
of  Goethe,  (3  vols.,  1841,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1853. 

Boat.    See  Boor. 

Boaton,  de,  deh  bo't^t^N',  (Pierre  FRANgois,)  born 
near  Aubonne,  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud,  in  1734,  translated 
into  French  verse  Gessner's  "  Idyls"  and  "  Death  of 
Abel,"  and  Wieland's  "Oberon."    Died  in  1794. 

Bobadilla,  de,  dabo-sa-D^Kya,  (Francisco,)  a  Span- 
ish magistrate,  who  was  charged,  in  1500,  to  ascertain 
the  condition  of  the  colony  at  Saint  Domingo  under  Co- 
lumbus. On  his  arrival  he  caused  that  illustrious  man 
to  be  arrested  and  sent  in  chains  to  Spain,  where  he  was 
kindly  received  by  his  sovereigns  and  reinstated  in  his 
honours.  Bobadilla  was  soon  after  obliged  to  resign  his 
post  to  Nicholas  Ovando. 

See  Irving's  "  Life  of  Columbus." 

Bobart,  bo'baRt,  (Jacob,)  a  German  botanist  and 
physician,  born  at  Brunswick  about  1598,  became  super- 
intendent of  the  botanical  garden  at  Oxford  in  England. 
Died  in  1679. 

Bobart,  (Jacob,)  son  of  the  preceding,  became  pro- 
fessor of  botany  at  Oxford  in  1683.    Died  in  1719. 

Bobolina,  bo-bo-lee'n^,  a  modern  Greek  heroine, 
who  in  the  revolution  of  182 1  equipped  three  ships  at 
her  own  expense,  one  of  which  she  commanded.  She 
offered  her  vessels  to  the  government  for  the  blockade 
of  Nanplia,  which  was  maintained  fourteen  months.  She 
was  assassinated  in  1825  by  the  friend  of  a  person  sup- 
posed to  have  been  wronged  by  a  member  of  her  family. 

See  PouQUEViLLE,  "  Histoire  de  la  Regeneration  de  la  Grece." 

Bobrof,  bo'bRof,  (Semen  Sergeevitch,)  a  Russian 
poet,  whose  principal  poem  is  entitled  "  Khersonida," 
being  a  history  and  description  of  Taurida,  in  Southern 
Russia.    Died  in  1810. 

Bobrun,  bo'bRuN',  (Charles,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Amboise  in  1604,  executed  a  number  of  portraits 
in  conjunction  with  his  cousin  Henri,  noticed  below.  Died 
in  1692. 

Bobrun,  (Henri,)  a  French  portrait-painter,  born  at 


fl,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  11,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BOCJCCINO 


375 


BOCCURDO 


Amboise  in  1603,  was  patronized  by  Louis  XIV.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  portraits  of  Louis  and  of  Anne  of 
Austria.    Died  in  1677. 

See  Heinecken,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Bocaccino,  bo-kdt-chee'no,  (Boccaccio,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Cremona  about  1460.  He  is  praised  by 
Lanzi.    Died  about  15 18. 

See  Vasaki,  "Lives  of  the  Painters," 

Bocaccino,  (Camillo,)  surnamed  IL  Boccalini,  (^1 
bok-ka-lee'nee,)  born  at  Cremona  in  151 1,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  the  frescos 
in  the  church  of  Saint  Sigismund  at  Cremona.  Died  in 
1546. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bocace.    See  Boccaccio. 

Bocaiide,  bo'kSN'di',  (Bertrand,)  a  French  natu- 
ralist and  geographer,  born  at  Nantes  about  1820,  resided 
many  years  in  Africa.  He  published  "  Notes  on  Portu- 
guese Guinea,  or  Southern  Senegambia." 

Bocanegra,  bo-kl-na'gRa,  (Pedro  Atanasio,)  a 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Granada  about  1638,  was  a 
pupil  of  Alonzo  Cano.    Died  in  1688. 

Bocarro,  bo-kSr'ro,  (Antonio,)  a  Portuguese  histo- 
rian, wrote  a  continuation  of  the  "Asia  Portugueza"  of 
Joao  de  Barros,  (in  manuscript.) 

Bocarro  Francez,  bo-kdr'ro  fRan'sIs,  (Manoel,)  a 
Portuguese  astronomer  and  physician,  born  at  Lisbon 
in  1588,  received  lessons  from  Galileo.  Died  at  Florence 
in  1662. 

Boccaccio,  bo-kSt'cho,  [Old  English,  Boccace  or 
Bocace,  bo-kdss';  Fr.  Boccace,  bo'ktss';  Lat.  Bocca'- 
Tius  and  BoccAc'cius,]  or,  more  fully,  Boccaccio  di 
Certaldo,  bok-cSt'cho  de  chlK-tSlMo,  (Giovanni,)  the 
most  celebrated  of  Italian  novelists,  born  in  Paris  in  13 13, 
was  the  illegitimate  son  of  a  Florentine  merchant  and  a 
Frenchwoman.  At  his  father's  desire  he  engaged  in  mer- 
cantile pursuits,  and  afterwards  studied  canon  law,  which, 
however,  he  soon  abandoned.  Among  his  first  produc- 
tions were  the  romance  of  "  II  Filicopo,"  and  a  poem  in 
ottava  rima,  entitled  "  La  Teseide,"  written  at  the  request 
of  his  mistress,  the  Princess  Mary,  natural  daughter  of 
Robert,  King  of  Naples.  After  the  accession  of  Joanna 
to  the  throne  of  Naples,  Boccaccio  wrote,  at  her  desire, 
his  "Decamerone,  or  Hundred  Tales,"  (1353,)  which  are 
esteemed  models  of  Italian  prose  composition  ;  but  many 
of  them  are  disgustingly  licentious.  About  this  time  he 
was  sent  on  several  diplomatic  missions,  and  formed  an 
intimacy  with  Petrarch,  which  continued  for  the  remainder 
of  their  lives.  He  was  appointed  in  1373  to  lecture  at 
Florence  on  Dante,  and  wrote  a  commentary  on  the 
"  Inferno,"  and  a  "  Life  of  Dante."  Besides  his  works 
in  Italian,  Boccaccio  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  Latin 
eclogues  and  prose  essays,  and,  like  his  friend  Petrarch, 
rendered  important  services  to  classical  learning  by  col- 
lecting and  transcribing  ancient  manuscripts.  He  died 
in  1375,  having  for  many  years  previously  been  in  a  great 
measure  reformed  from  the  profligacy  of  his  early  life 
and  writings.  The  "  Decamerone"  has  furnished  Shak- 
speare  with  the  subjects  of  several  of  his  dramas,  and 
Chaucer  derived  from  it  his  poem  of  "  The  Knight's 
Tale."  Hazlitt,  after  remarking  that  Shakspeare's  play 
of  "All's  Well  that  Ends  Well"  is  from  Boccaccio,  adds, 
"  The  poet  has  dramatized  the  original  novel  with  great 
skill  and  comic  spirit,  and  has  preserved  all  the  beauty 
of  character  and  sentiment  zvithoiit  iviproviftg  tipo?i  it, 
which  was  impossible.  There  is  indeed  in  Boccaccio's 
serious  pieces  a  truth,  a  pathos,  and  an  exquisite  refine- 
ment of  sentiment  which  is  hardly  to  be  met  with  in 
any  other  prose  writer  whatever.  .  .  .  The  invention 
implied  in  his  different  tales  is  immense ;  but  we  are  not 
to  infer  that  it  is  all  his  own.  He  probably  availed  him- 
self of  all  the  common  traditions  which  were  floating  in 
his  time,  and  which  he  was  the  first  to  appropriate."  (See 
Hazlitt's  "Characters  of  Shakspeare's  Plays.") 

See  also  Baldelli,  "Vita  di  Giovanni  Boccaccio,"  1806;  Mazzu- 
CHEixi,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia;"  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of 
Europe  ;"  Gianotti  Manetti,"  Specimen  Historiaeliterarias  Floren- 
tinje  Seculi  XIII.  ac  XIV.,  seu  Vits  Dantis,  Petrarchae  ac  Boccaccii," 
1747;  J.  F.  Adry,  "Notice  sur  Boccace,"  1802;  "Lives  of  the  Italian 
Poets,"  by  the  Rev.  Henry  Stebbing,  London,  vol.  i.,  1831. 

Bocca  di  Ferro,  bok'k^  de  feR'ro,  (Girolamo,)  an 


Italian  jurist,  nephew  of  Luigi,  born  at  Bologna  in  1552; 
died  in  1623. 

Bocca  di  Ferro,  Bucca  Ferri,  book'kS  f^R^ree,  or 
Bucca  Ferra,  book'kd  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  phy- 

sician and  philosopher,  born  at  Bologna  in  1482.  He 
became  professor  of  logic  in  his  native  city,  and  numbered 
among  his  pupils  J.  C.  Scaliger  and  Benedict  Varchi. 
He  wrote  several  Latin  commentaries  on  the  works  of 
Aristotle.    Died  in  1545. 

Boccage,  du,  dii  bo''ktzh',(MANOEL  Maria  Barbosa,) 
a  celebrated  Portuguese  poet  and  improvisatore,  of  French 
extraction,  born  at  Setuval  in  1 771.  He  published  nu- 
merous sonnets,  odes,  elegies,  and  epigrams,  and  made 
several  translations  from  the  French  and  Latin.  It  is 
stated  that  he  could  speak  French,  Italian,  and  Latin 
with  facility.  He  became  the  chief  of  a  poetic  school, 
known  under  the  name  of  Ehnatiisnie.    Died  in  1806. 

See  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Boccage,  du,  (Marie  Anne  Le  Page,)  a  French 
poetess,  born  at  Rouen  in  1 7 10,  was  the  wife  of  P.  J.  Fi- 
quet  du  Boccage,  noticed  below.  She  was  the  author  of  a 
tragedy  entitled  "  The  Amazons,"  imitations  of  "  Para- 
dise Lost"  and  of  Gessner's  "  Death  of  Abel,"  and  other 
poems,  which  enjoyed  great  popularity  in  her  time,  but 
are  now  nearly  forgotten.  She  was  a  member  of  several 
foreign  academies,  as  well  as  of  those  of  Lyons  and  Rouen. 
Her  letters  to  her  sister,  Madame  Duperron,  are  still 
admired.    Died  in  1802. 

See  Guilbert,  "  Notice  sur  Madame  Boccage,"  1807. 

Boccage,  du,  (Pierre  Joseph  Fiquet — fe^k^,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Rouen  in  1700,  wrote  "Letters 
on  the  English  Theatre,"  and  translated  several  works 
from  the  English.    Died  in  1757. 

Boccalini,  bok-ka-lce'nee,  (Trajano,)  a  witty  Italian 
satirist,  born  at  Loretto  in  1556,  was  the  author  of  "  News 
from  Parnassus,"  ("  Ragguagli  di  Parnaso,"  1612,)  and 
other  works,  which  were  translated  into  several  languages 
Among  these  is  a  satire  called  "  Pietra  del  Paragone 
politico,"  (1626.)    Died  at  Venice  in  1613. 

See  MoRHOF,  "  Polyhistor." 

Boccanera,  bok-ki-na'rS,  (Egidio,)  a  Genoese  admi- 
ral, was  a  brother  of  Simone,  Doge  of  Genoa.  Having 
entered  the  Spanish  service,  he  assisted  in  the  capture  of 
Algesiras  in  1344,  and  in  1372  defeated  the  English  fleet 
under  the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  whom  he  made  prisoner. 
Died  about  1373. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Boccanera,(GuGLiELMO,)  a  Genoese  nobleman,  raised 
by  the  democratic  party  in  1257  to  the  sovereign  power 
in  Genoa,  was  deposed  in  1262. 

Boccanera,  (Simone,)  was  elected  Doge  of  Genoa  in 
1339,  removed  in  1344,  and  re-elected  in  1356.  He 
gained  victories  over  the  Turks  and  Moors.  Died  about 
1363- 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Boccherini,  bok-ki-ree'nee,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  com- 
poser of  instrumental  pieces,  born  at  Lucca  in  1740,  was 
patronized  by  Charles  IV.  of  Spain.    Died  in  1806. 

See  Fetls,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Bocchi,  bok^-cee,  [Lat.  Boc'chius,]  (Achille,)  an 
Italian  scholar,  born  at  Bologna  in  1488,  became  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  and  Latin  literature  in  his  native  city. 
He  wrote  several  Latin  works,  in  prose  and  verse,  on 
history,  philosophy,  etc.    Died  in  1562. 

Bocclii,  (Faustino,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Brescia 
in  1659  ;  died  about  1742. 

Bocchi,  (Francesco,)  born  at  Florence  in  1548,  wrote 
essays  on  various  subjects,  and  eulogies  on  eminent  Ital- 
ians.   Died  in  1618. 

Boc'-ehus  [Gr.  ^bKX0Q\  I.,  King  of  Mauritania,  was 
the  father-in-law  of  Jugurtha,  and  an  ally  of  that  prince  in 
the  war  against  the  Romans.  Having  been  defeated  by 
Marius,  he  betrayed  Jugurtha  to  the  Romans  in  106  B.C. 

Bocchus  II.,  supposed  to  have  been  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, fought  for  Caesar  against  Juba,  King  of  Numidia, 
and  was  rewarded  with  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Massi- 
nissa.  In  a  war  between  Antony  and  Octavius,  Bocchus 
was  a  partisan  of  the  latter. 

Bocciardo,  bot-chaR'do,  (Clemente,)   an  Italian 


*.  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as o,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BOCCONE 


376 


BOCLER 


pairter,  born  at  Genoa  in  1620,  was  surnamed  Clemen- 
tone,  from  his  large  stature.    Died  in  1658. 

Boccoue,  bok-ko'ni,  (Paolo,)  a  distinguished  Sicilian 
naturalist,  born  at  Palermo  in  1633.  He  published  a 
large  number  of  Latin  and  Italian  treatises  on  botany 
and  mineralogy.    Died  in  1704. 

Bocconio,  bok-ko'ne-o,  (Marino,)  a  Venetian  con- 
spirator, who,  having  failed  in  his  attempt  to  overthrow 
the  aristocracy  of  Venice,  was  executed  in  1299. 

Boccuci,  bok-koo'chee,  (?)  or  Bocous,(Jose,)  a  Span- 
ish dramatist,  probably  of  Italian  origin,  born  at  Barce- 
lona in  1775,  resided  for  some  years  in  Paris.  He  wrote 
successful  dramas,  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Bio- 
graphic Universelle." 

Bocerus.    See  Bocker,  (Johann.) 

Boch,  bok,  or  Bochius,  bo'ke-us,  (John,)  a  Flemish 
poet,  called  "the  Belgian  Virgil,"  born  at  Brussels  in 
1555,  wrote  Latin  poems  which  were  much  admired. 
Died  in  1609. 

Bochart,  bo'shlR',  (Mathieu,)  a  French  Protestant 
theologian,  was  the  author  of  a  "  Treatise  against  Relics," 
and  a  work  entitled  "  Diallacticon,"  (1662,)  advocating 
the  union  of  Lutherans  and  Calvinists. 

Bochart,  (Samuel,)  an  eminent  French  scholar  and 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Rouen  in  May,  1599.  He 
studied  divinity  and  the  Oriental  tongues  under  Cameron 
and  Louis  Cappel,  and  was  subsequently  instructed  by 
Erpenius,  at  Leyden,  in  Arabic,  Syriac,  and  Chaldee.  He 
was  appointed  in  1625  pastor  at  Caen,  where  he  remained 
forty-three  years  and  acquired  great  influence  and  repu- 
tation as  a  preacher.  In  1628  he  acquitted  himself  with 
credit  in  a  public  dispute  with  the  Jesuit  Veron,  who  was 
employed  iDy  Cardinal  Richelieu.  His  greatest  works 
are  his  "  Hierozoicon,"  (1663,)  or  an  account  of  animals 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and  "Geographia  Sacra,"  (1646.) 
They  are  commended  by  Cuvier  and  Baron  Humboldt. 
Bochart  died  at  Caen  in  1667,  with  the  reputation  of  one 
of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time.  Several  volumes 
of  his  sermons  were  published  after  his  death.  "  No  one," 
says  Hallam,  "  has  left  a  more  durable  reputation  in  this 
literature  [Rabbinical  or  Hebrew]  than  Bochart.  His 
'  Geographia  Sacra'  displays  great  learning  and  sagacity." 
("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  MoRiN,  "De  Vita  et  Scriptis  S.  Bocharti,"  1692;  Edward 
Herbert  Smith,  "S.  Bochart:  Recherches  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ou- 
vrages  de  cet  Auteur  illustre,"  1833. 

Bochart  de  Sarron,  bo^shtR'  deh  st'r6N',  (Jean 
Baptiste  Gaspard,)  a  French  mathematician  and 
astronomer,  born  in  Paris  in  1730.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  first  president  of  the 
Parliament  of  Paris.    He  was  guillotined  in  1794. 

See  MoNTjOYE,  "iSloge  historique  de  B.  de  Sarron,"  1800. 

Bochat,  de,  deh  bo^sht',  (Charles  Guillaume 
LoYS,)  a  Swiss  historian  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born 
at  Lausanne  in  1695  ;  died  in  1753. 

Bocholt,  von,  fon  boK'olt,  (Franz,)  one  of  the  ear- 
liest German  engravers,  lived  about  1470.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  "  The  Judgment  of  Solomon,"  and 
"Christ  and  the  Twelve  Apostles,"  (in  thirteen  plates.) 

Bochsa,  bok'st',  written  also  Bocska,  (Robert 
Nicolas  Charles,)  a  French  musician  and  composer, 
born  at  Montmedy  in  1789.  He  studied  in  Paris  under 
Mehul,  and  attained  great  excellence  as  a  performer  on 
the  harp.  In  1822  he  became  professor  of  the  harp  at 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  London.  His  composi- 
tions are  chiefly  pieces  for  that  instrument.  Died  in 
Australia  in  1856. 

Bock,  bok,  (Friedrich  Samuel,)  a  naturalist,  born 
at  Konigsberg  in  1716,  was  professor  of  Greek  and  the- 
ology in  his  native  city.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Socin- 
ianism  in  Prussia,"  (1753,)  and  several  works  on  natural 
history.    Died  in  1786. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Bock,  bok,  [Fr.  Le  Boucq,  leh  book  ;  Lat.  Tra'gus,] 
(HiERONYMUS,)  a  German  botanist,  born  at  Heidesbach 
in  1498,  was  one  of  the  greatest  promoters  of  botanical 
science  in  his  time.  The  genus  Tragia  was  named  in 
his  honour  by  Plumier.    Died  in  1554. 

Bock,  (Karl  August,)  a  German  anatomist  and 
physician,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1782,  published,  among 
other  works,  a  "  Manual  of  Practical  Anatomy  of  the 


Human  Body,"  (1819.)  He  lived  many  years  at  Leipsic. 
Died  in  1833. 

Bock,  (Karl  Ernst,)  an  anatomist,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Leipsic  in  1809,  published  a  "  Manual  of 
Pathological  Anatomy  and  Diagnostic,"  (1848.) 

Bock,  de,  deh  bok,  (Jean  Nicolas  £ tienne,)  Baron, 
a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Thionville  in  1747.  He 
wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  History  of  Sabeism,"  and  trans- 
lated from  the  German  the  "  Life  of  Baron  Trenck,"  and 
several  works  of  Wieland  and  Kotzebue.    Died  in  1809. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Bockelmann,  bok'kel-man',  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a 
German  jurist,  born  at  Steinfurt  in  1633  ;  died  at  Leyden 
in  1681. 

Bockenberg,  van,  vtn  bok'ken-bgRG^,  [Lat.  Cor- 
nelisso'nius  Buckenber'gius,]'  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch 
chronicler,  born  at  Gouda  in  1548,  was  historiographer 
of  the  States  of  Holland.    Died  in  161 7. 

Bocker,  bok'ker,  [Lat.  Boce'rus,]  sometimes  writ- 
ten Boedeker,  (Johann,)  a  German  writer,  Latin  poet, 
and  professor  of  law  at  Rostock,  born  near  Minden  in 
1525  ;  died  in  1565. 

See  J.  C.  Opitz,  "De  Vita,  Fatis  et  Scriptis  J.  Boceri,"  1750. 

Bockh  or  Boeckh,  boK,  (August,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man philologist  and  antiquary,  born  at  Carlsruhe  on  the 
24th  of  November,  1785.  He  studied  at  Halle  under 
F.  A.  Wolf,  and  became  in  181 1  professor  of  eloquence 
and  the  Greek  language  at  Berlin.  He  published  an 
edition  of  Pindar  with  a  continuous  commentary,  a  Latin 
translation,  and  a  treatise  on  Greek  versification,  (1811,) 
and  in  1817  brought  out  his  "Political  Economy  of  the 
Athenians,"  ("  Die  Staatshaushaltung  der  Athener,")  a 
work  displaying  profound  learning  and  research.  He 
likewise  published  "  Metrological  Investigations  concern- 
ing the  Weights,  Coins,  and  Measures  of  Antiquity," 
(1838,)  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Silver  Mines  of  Laurium 
in  Attica,"  and  other  treatises.  He  began  the  "Corpus 
Inscriptionum  Graecarum,"  continued  by  his  pupil  Franz, 
and  still  unfinished.  (The  third  volume  was  published 
in  1850.)  He  was  a  member  of  the  principal  learned  so- 
cieties of  Germany  and  other  countries.  Died  in  Berlin 
in  August,  1867.  The  works  of  Bockh  have  marked  an 
era  in  the  history  of  archseology  and  philology.  Ac- 
cording to  his  ideal,  the  aim  of  those  studies  should  be  to 
reproduce  the  entire  social  and  political  life  of  a  people 
during  a  determinate  epoch. 

See  Klausen,  "Biographie  von  Bockh,"  forming  part  of  Hoff- 
mann's "  Lebensbilder  beriihmter  Humanisten,"  1837. 

Bockh  or  Boeckh,  boK,  (Christian  Gottfried,)  a 
German  educational  writer,  born  at  Memmingen  in  1732. 
Pie  assisted  in  publishing  the  "Universal  Library  of 
Education,"  (1774.)    Died  in  1792. 

Bockh  or  Boeckh,  von,  fon  boK,  (Friedrich,)  a 
German  minister  of  state,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Carlsruhe  in  1777.  He  became  a  counsellor  of  finance 
in  1810,  and  was  minister  of  ^pance  (in  Baden)  from 
1828  to  1844.  He  was  president  of  the  cabinet  about 
two  years,  (1844-46.)    Died  in  1855. 

Bockhorst,  van,  vtn  bok'hoRst,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Dentekoom  in  1661,  studied  under 
Kneller  in  London.    Died  in  1724. 

See  Descamps,  "  Viesdes  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Bockhorst,  von,  fon  bok'hoRst,  (Johann,)  a  Ger- 
man painter,  born  at  Miinster  about  1610,  was  surnamed 
Langhen  Jan,  from  his  tall  stature.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Jordaens,  in  Holland,  and  ranked  high  among  the 
artists  of  the  time. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais  et 
Allemands." 

Booking  or  Boecking,  bok'king,  (Eduard,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist  and  legal  writer,  born  at  Trarbach,  Prussia, 
in  1802.    He  became  professor  of  law  at  Bonn  in  1835. 

Bockler  or  Boeckler,  bok'kler,  (Georg  Andreas,) 
a  German  architect  and  mechanician,  wrote  a  treatise 
"On  Hydraulic  Architecture,"  (1663.) 

Bockmann  or  Boeckmann,  bok'niSn,  (Jonas,)  a 
Swedish  physician,  born  at  Windberg  in  1716.  He 
studied  anatomy  at  Berlin  under  Budaeus,  and  in  1753 
was  appointed  physician  to  the  King  of  Sweden.  Died 
in  1760. 

Bocler  or  Boeder,  bok'ler,  (Johann,)  a  German 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BOCLER 


377 


BOD  IN 


physician,  born  at  Ulm  in  1651,  settled  at  Strasburg, 
where  he  died  in  1 701.  His  son  John,  born  at  Stras- 
burg in  1 68 1,  became  professor  of  medicine  in  his  native 
city.    Died  in  1733. 

Bocler  or  Boeder,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  one  of  the 
most  learned  Germans  of  his  time,  born  at  Cronheim, 
'n  Franconia,  in  161 1.  He  was  invited  in  1648  to  fill 
the  chair  of  eloquence  at  Upsal  by  Christina  of  Sweden, 
who  appointed  him  her  historiographer.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  historical  and  critical  works  in  Latin,  and 
edited  several  classic  authors.    Died  in  1692. 

See  MoRHOF,  "  Polyhistor." 

Bocler  or  Boeder,  (Johann  Philipp,)  son  of  Jo- 
hann, (the  second  of  the  name,)  born  at  Strasburg  in  17 10. 
In  1738  he  succeeded  Salzmann  as  professor  of  chemistry, 
botany,  and  materia  medica  at  Strasburg.   Died  in  1759. 

Boder  or  Boeder,  (Philipp  Heinrich,)  born  at 
Strasburg  ini  7 1 8,  was  a  brother  of  Johann  Philipp.  Died 
in  1759. 

Bocquillot,  bo^ke'yo',  (Lazare  Andr^:,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Avallon  in  1649,  published  a  num- 
ber of  theological  works,  and  a  "  History  of  the  Cheva- 
lier Bayard,"  (1702.)    Died  in  1728. 

See  Letors,  "Vie  de  L.  A.  Bocquillot,"  1745. 

Bocska.    See  Bochsa. 

Bocskai,  botch'kl,  (Stephan,)  a  nobleman  of  Tran- 
sylvania, who  in  1604  joined  the  Hungarians  in  a  revolt 
against  Austria.  Having  defeated  the  Imperial  troops, 
he  was  proclaimed  hereditary  King  of  Hungary  by  Sul- 
tan Ahmed  I.  In  1606  a  peace  was  concluded  with  the 
emperor  Rudolph,  by  which  religious  freedom  was  se- 
cured to  the  Protestants  of  Hungary,  and  Bocskai  was 
acknowledged  Prince  of  Transylvania.    Died  in  1606. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Bocthor,  bok'toR',  (Elie  or  Ellious,)  a  distinguished 
Orientalist,  born  at  Sioot,  in  Upper  Egypt,  in  1784.  He 
settled  in  France,  where  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Arabic  in  the  Royal  Library.  He  published  a  *'  French- 
Arabic  Dictionary,"  and  several  translations  from  the 
Arabic  into  French.    Died  in  1821. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteiaire,"  (Supplement.) 

Bodaeus  a  Stapel.bo-da'iisistd'pel,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch 
botanist  and  physician  of  Amsterdam,  died  young  in  1636. 

Bodard,  bo\ltR',  (Pierre  Henri  Hippolyte,)  a 
French  botanist  and  physician,  lived  about  1800. 

Bodard  de  Tezay,  bo'dtR'  deh  teh-zi',  (Nicolas 
Marie  Felix,)  a  French  litteratatr  and  diplomatist, 
born  at  Bayeux  in  1757;  died  in  Paris  in  1823. 

Boddaert,  bodMSRt,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at 
Middelburg  in  1694,  published  several  original  works, 
and  translated  into  Dutch  verse  the  *'  Atreus"  and 
•'Thyestes"  of  Crebillon.    Died  in  1761. 

See  "  Levensgeschiedenis  van  den  vermaarden  Dichter  P.  Bod- 
daert," Amsterdam,  1836. 

Boddaert,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  physician  and  natu- 
ralist, a  relative  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Zealand  about 
1730.  He  translated  into  Dutch  the  "Elenchus  Zoophy- 
torum"  of  Pallas,  and  John  Hunter's  "Natural  History 
of  the  Teeth"  (1773)  into  Dutch  and  Latin.  Died  about 
1790. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon. " 

Bode,  bo'deh,  (Christoph  August,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Wernigerode  in  1722,  became  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  at  Helmstedt  in  1754.  He  pub- 
lished an  Ethiopic  version  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
several  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures.    Died  in  1796. 

See  WiDERURG,  "Memoria  C.  A.  Bodii,"  1796;  Ersch  und  Gru- 
ber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Bode,  (Johann  Elert,)  an  eminent  German  astrono- 
mer, born  at  Hamburg  in  January,  1747.  He  published 
in  1768  a  popular  work  entitled  "  Introduction  to  the 
Knowledge  of  the  Starry  Heavens,"  ("Anleitung  zur 
Kenntftiss  des  gestirnten  Himmels,")  and  discovered  in 
the  same  year  a  comet,  which  was  the  first  one  having  a 
very  short  period.  He  was  invited  to  Berlin  by  Fred- 
erick the  Great,  and  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences. Bode  has  the  credit  of  discovering  a  law  of  the 
planetary  system  respecting  the  distances  of  the  planets 
from  each  other,  called  "  Bode's  Law."  Among  his  chief 
works  is  " Uranographia,"  or  "Great  Celestial  Atlas," 


(1801,)  by  which,  it  is  said,  twelve  thousand  stars  are 
added  to  former  catalogues.    Died  in  Berlin  in  1826. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale,"  and  Brockhaus,  "Conver- 
sations-Lexikon." 

Bode,  (Johann  Joachim  Christoph,)  a  German  lit- 
terateur, born  at  Brunswick  in  1730.  He  is  chiefly  noted 
for  his  excellent  translations  from  the  English  ot  Gold- 
smith's "  Vicar  of  Wakefield"  and  Sterne's  "  Sentimental 
Journey,"  and  of  Montaigne's  "  Essays"  and  Marmontel's 
"  Incas"  from  the  French.  He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of 
free-masonry,  upon  which  he  wrote  several  treatises. 
He  was  also  distinguished  as  a  musician  and  composer. 
Died  in  1793. 

See  C.  A.  Boettiger,  "J.  J.  C.  Bodes  literarisches  Leben,"  1796. 

Bodega  y  Quadra,  bo-Da'g^  e  kwi'DRi,  (Juan  Frai;- 
cisco,)  a  Spanish  navigator,  who  explored  the  west  coast 
of  North  America.    Died  in  1794. 

Bodekker,  bo-dek'ker,  (Jan  Franciscus,)  a  Dutch 
portrait-painter,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Cleves  in  1660 ; 
died  in  1727. 

Bodel,  bo'd^K,  (Jehan,)  a  French  troubadour,  lived 
about  1270. 

Bodelschwingh-Velmede,  von,  fon  bo'del-shv^ing' 
vIKmeh-deh,  (Ernst,)  a  Prussian,  born  at  Velmede,  near 
Hamm,  in  1794,  became  minister  of  the  interior  in  1844. 

Bodenschatz,  bo'den-sh^ts^  (Johann  Christoph 
Georg,)  a  German  scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Hof 
in  1717.  He  wrote  an  "Explanation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment from  Jewish  Antiquities."    Died  in  1797. 

Bodenstedt,  bo'den-stSt',  (Friedrich  Martin,)  a 
German  writer  and  journalist,  born  in  the  kingdom  of 
Hanover  iivi8i9.  He  resided  as  a  tutor  in  the  family 
of  Prince  Galitzin  at  Moscow,  where  he  perfected  him- 
self in  the  Russian  language  and  translated  some  of  the 
works  of  Pushkin  and  other  poets  into  German.  He 
subsequently  travelled  in  Turkey,  Greece,  and  Asia 
Minor,  and  published  in  1848  "The  Nations  of  the  Cau- 
casus." In  1850  he  became  editor  of  the  "  Weser  Zei- 
tung,"  He  has  also  made  a  successful  German  translation 
of  the  Persian  poems  of  Meerza  Shalfee,  (Mirza  Shaffy.) 

See  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Bodenstein.    See  Carlstadt. 

Bodenstein,  von,  fon  bo'den-stin',  (Adam,)  a  Ger- 
man physician  and  alchemist,  born  in  1528,  was  a  dis- 
ciple of  Paracelsus.    Died  in  1577. 

See  Schmieder,  "Geschichte  der  Alchemic,"  1832. 

Bodewyns,  bo'deh-wins'',  (Nikolaas,)  a  Flemish  or 
Dutch  landscape-painter,  was  associated  with  Francis 
Bout,  who  painted  figures  for  the  landscapes  of  Bode- 
wyns. The  latter  died  at  Brussels  in  1700.  Pilkington 
states  that  Bout  was  born  at  Brussels  in  1660. 

Bodiker  or  Boediker,  bo'de-ker,  (Johann,)  a  Ger- 
man writer,  born  in  1641,  published  Latin  and  German 
poems.    Died  in  1695. 

Bodin,  boM5,N',  (Jean,)  a  celebrated  French  political 
writer,  born  at  Angers  in  1530.  He  studied  law,  and 
became  secretary  to  the  Due  d'Alen9on.  His  principal 
work  is  a  treatise  on  government,  published  in  French, 
"  De  la  Republique,"  (1576,)  and  afterwards  translated  by 
him  into  Latin,"  De  Republica,"(  1586.)  He  maintains  that 
a  limited  monarchy  is  the  best  form  of  government.  This 
work  is  analyzed  at  length  by  Hallam,  who  says,  "  No 
former  writer  on  political  philosophy  had  been  either  so 
comprehensive  in  his  scheme  or  so  copious  in  his  know- 
ledge ;  none,  perhaps,  more  original,  more  independent 
and  fearless  in  his  inquiries.  Two  names  alone,  indeed, 
could  be  compared  with  his, — Aristotle  and  Machiavel." 
"  Bodin  and  Montesquieu  are,  in  this  province  of  political 
theory,  the  most  philosophical  of  those  who  have  read 
so  deeply,  the  most  learned  of  those  who  have  thought 
so  much."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 
Died  at  Laon  in  1596. 

See  LvsER,  "Selecta  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  J.  Bodini,"  1715;  E. 
CoLOMBEL,  "Jean  Bodin:  Suite  d'fitudes  sur  le  seizieme  Siecle," 
1845;  Baudrillart,  "J.  Bodin  et  son  Temps,"  1853;  Bayle, 
"Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Guhrauer,  "Das  Hepta 
plomeron  des  J.  Bodin,"  1841. 

Bodin,  (Jean  Franqois,)  a  French  magistrate,  born 
at  Angers  in  1776,  wrote  "Historical  Researches  con- 
cerning Angers  and  Lower  Anjou."    Died  in  1829. 

Bodin,  (Laurent,)  a  French  physician  and  medical 
writer,  born  in  the  department  of  Indre-et-Loire  in  1762. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  i^iittiiral;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (S^="See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


BOD  IN 


378 


BOERHAAVE 


Bodin,  (Pierre  Joseph  FRANgois,)  a  deputy  to  the 
French  National  Convention  in  1792,  voted  for  the  im- 
prisonment of  the  king.  He  afterwards  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred.    Died  in  1810, 

Bo-dis''co,  (Alexander,)  a  Russian  diplomatist,  born 
about  1 780.  He  was  appointed  Russian  minister  at  Wash- 
ington about  1837,  and  retained  that  position  until  his 
death  in  1854. 

Bod'ley,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  published  a 
"Critical  Essay  on  the  Works  of  Physicians,"  (1741.) 

Bodley,  (Sir  Thomas,)  founder  of  the  library  at  Ox- 
ford called  by  his  name,  Vv'as  born  at  Exeter  in  1544.  He 
studied  theology  and  the  ancient  languages  at  Geneva, 
whither  his  father  had  repaired  during  the  persecutions 
of  Queen  Mary's  reign.  Having  returned  to  England  on 
the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  he  graduated  at  Oxford  in 
1566.  He  became  gentleman-usher  to  the  queen  in  1583, 
and  was  afterwards  employed  by  her  on  important  em- 
bassies to  Denmark,  Germany,  and  France.  He  was  sent 
in  1588  to  the  Hague,  where  he  resided  many  years  and 
was  admitted  to  the  Council  of  State.  Soon  after  his  re- 
turn, in  1597,  he  founded  the  Bodleian  Library,  and,  on  the 
accession  of  James  L,  was  made  a  knight.   Died  in  1612. 

See  Thomas  Hearne,  "Reliquiae  Bodleianae." 

Bodmer,  bod'mer,  (Georg,)  a  Swiss  mechanician, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1786,  invented  numerous  machines,  and 
made  an  improvement  in  the  method  of  spinning  cotton. 

Bodmer,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Swiss  critic  and  littera- 
teur, born  near  Zurich  in  1698.  In  172 1  he  became  asso- 
ciated with  Breitinger  as  editor  of  a  literary  journal  en- 
titled "  Discurse  der  Maler,"  having  for  its  object  the 
reformation  of  German  poetry.  They  succeeded,  not- 
withstanding the  opposition  of  Gottsched  and  other  par- 
tisans of  French  taste,  in  bringing  to  their  views  several 
of  the  principal  writers  of  Germany,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  German  school  soon  after  made  illustrious  by 
Klopstock,  Goethe,  and  Schiller.  Bodmer  translated  the 
"Paradise  Lost"  and  Pope's  "Dunciad"  into  German, 
and  also  published  versions  of  the  "  Niebelungen"  and 
other  ancient  poems.  He  died  in  1 783,  having  for  fifty 
years  filled  the  chair  of  Swiss  history  at  Zurich. 

See  Meister,  "Ueber  Bodmer;"  J.  J.  Hottinger,  "Acroamade 
J.  J.  Bodmero,"  1783;  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Bodoni,  bo-do'nee,  (Giambattista,)  an  eminent 
Italian  printer  and  scholar,  born  at  Saluzzo  in  1740.  He 
studied  the  Oriental  languages  at  Rome,  and  in  1768 
became  superintendent  of  the  royal  press  in  Parma. 
Among  his  works,  which  are  esteemed  models  of  typo- 
graphic beauty,  may  be  named  editions  of  "  Homer," 
"Virgil,"  "Horace,"  Tacitus's  "Annals,"  and  Tasso's 
"Gerusalemme  Liberata."  He  also  wrote  a  "Typo- 
graphic Manual,"  (1818.)    Died  in  1813. 

See  Gregori,  "  Biographie  de  Lagrange,  Denina  at  Bodoni,"  1814 ; 
Lama,  "Vita  del  Cavaliere  G.  B.  Bodoni,"  1816. 

Bodwell.    See  Bothwell. 

Boece  or  Boyce, boiss,  [Lat.  Boe'tius  or  Boe'thius,] 
(Hector,)  one  of  the  early  Scottish  historians,  born  at 
Dundee  about  1465.  He  finished  his  studies  and  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Paris,  where  he  subsequently 
became  professor  of  philosophy.  While  there,  he  ac- 
quired the  friendship  of  Erasmus,  by  whom  he  was  highly 
esteemed.  His  "  History  of  Scotland"  (in  Latin,  1526) 
ranks  among  the  best  historical  works  of  that  period.  It 
was  subsequently  translated  into  the  Scottish  dialect  by 
Bellenden,  at  the  command  of  James  V.  Died  about  1536. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Boece,  the  French  of  Boethius,  which  see. 

Boecio,  the  Italian  of  Boethius,  which  see. 

Boeckel.    See  Bockel. 

Boeckel,  book'kel,  [Lat.  Bocke'lius,]  (Jan,)  a  Flem- 
ish physician  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1535, 
became  professor  of  medicine  at  Helmstedt  in  1575. 
Died  in  1605. 

Boeckh.    See  Bockh. 

Boeckhout,  van,  vtn  book'howt,  (Jan  Joseph,)  a 
Belgian  publicist  and  political  writer,  born  at  Brussels ; 
died  in  1827. 

Boecking.    See  Bocking. 

Boeckler.    See  Bockler. 

Boeckmann.    See  Bockmann. 

Boediker.    See  Bodiker. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y 


Boehm,  or  Boehme.    See  Bohme  and  Bohm. 
Boehmer.    See  Bohmer. 
Boehmius.    See  Bohme. 

Boel,  bool,  (Kornelis,)  a  Flemish  engraver,  born  at 
Antwerp  about  1580,  worked  in  England. 

Boel,  (PiETER,)  a  skilful  Flemish  painter  of  animals, 
fruits,  and  flowers,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1625.  One  of  his 
master-pieces  is  called  "The  Four  Elements."  Died  1680. 

Boemondo,  the  Italian  of  Bohemond,  which  see. 

Boerhaave,  (Abraham  Kaau.)    See  Kaau. 

Boerhaave,  bor'hav,  [Dutch  pron.  booR'hI-veh ; 
Lat.  Boerha'vius,]  (Herman,)  a  Dutch  physician  and 
philosopher,  whose  celebrity  has  scarcely  been  equalled 
by  that  of  any  physician  in  modern  times,  was  born  at 
Voorhout,  near  Leyden,  on  the  31st  of  December,  1668. 
He  was  educated  for  the  ministry  at  Leyden,  where  he 
took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  in  1689,  and 
wrote  an  inaugural  thesis  "  On  the  Distinction  between 
the  Soul  and  the  Body."  At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he 
began  the  study  of  medicine.  He  read  Hippocrates 
diligently,  and  took  his  degree  as  doctor  of  physic  at 
Harderwick  in  1693,  after  which  he  practised  in  Leyden, 
and  in  1701  was  chosen  the  successor  or  substitute  of 
Drelincourt,  who  lectured  on  the  theory  of  medicine  in 
the  university  of  that  city.  His  precise  definitions,  bril- 
liant eloquence,  and  immense  erudition  rendered  him  a 
very  popular  lecturer.  He  obtained  in  1709  the  chair 
of  medicine  and  botany  vacated  by  Hotton  at  Leyden,  on 
which  occasion  he  pronounced  a  discourse  in  favour  of 
simplicity  in  the  practice  of  medicine. 

Before  this  period  he  had  deviated  from  the  Hippo- 
cratic  method,  and  adopted  mechanical  and  chemical 
hypotheses,  which  he  advocated  in  his  treatise  "  De  Usu 
Ratiocinii  Mechanici  in  Medicina,"  (1703.)  His  reputa- 
tion was  widely  extended  by  an  excellent  systematic  work 
entitled  "Medical  Institutes,"  etc.,  (" Institutiones  Medi- 
cas  in  usus  annuas  Exercitationis  domesticos,"  1708.) 
He  gave  a  classification  of  diseases,  and  explained  their 
causes,  nature,  and  treatment,  in  his  "Aphorisms  on  the 
Diagnosis  and  Ciire  of  Diseases,"  ("  Aphorismi  de  cog- 
noscendis  et  curandis  Morbis,"  1709,)  which  is  considered 
a  master-piece  of  learning  and  of  style.  His  medical 
system  was  generally  adopted  by  his  contemporaries. 
Boerhaave  was  also  distinguished  as  a  botanist  and  a 
chemist.  He  published  in  1710  a  "  Description  of  Plants 
growing  in  the  Botanic  Garden  of  Leyden."  In  1718 
he  became  professor  of  chemistry,  without  ceasing  to  fill 
the  chairs  of  medicine  and  botany.  He  was  the  first,  ac- 
cording to  the  "Biographie  Universelle,"  who  rendered 
chemistry  popular  by  treating  it  in  a  clear  and  beautiful 
style.  His  "  Elements  of  Chemistry"  ("  Elementa  Che- 
miae,"  1724)  is  called  his  chef-d'oeuvre  by  the  work  just 
referred  to.  In  consequence  of  severe  attacks  of  gout, 
he  resigned  his  chairs  of  botany  and  chemistry  in  1727 
and  1 729.  He  was  elected  rector  of  the  University  of  Ley- 
den for  the  second  time  in  1730.  About  this  date  he  was 
chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He 
died  on  the  23d  of  September,  1738,  leaving  one  child, 
a  daughter.  He  was  a  man  of  sincere  and  earnest  piety. 
Among  his  admired  works  are  two  orations,  viz.,  "  De 
Comparando  certo  in  Physicis,"  (1715,)  and  "De  honore 
Medici  Servitute,"  (1731.) 

The  reputation  of  Boerhaave  as  a  physician  and  a  man 
of  learning  is  perhaps  without  a  parallel  in  history.  His 
fame  extended  not  only  to  every  part  of  Christendom, 
but  to  the  farthest  bounds  of  Asia.  A  Chinese  mandarin 
addressed  a  letter  to  him  with  this  superscription,  "  To 
Boerhaave,  Physician  in  Europe,"  and  the  missive  was 
duly  received.  Although  he  spent  his  money  freely  in  the 
interests  of  science,  yet  so  extensive  and  lucrative  was  his 
practice  that  at  his  death  he  left,  it  is  said,  more  than  two 
million  florins.  His  intense  application  to  study,  and  the 
exposure  incident  to  his  professional  duties,  had  brought 
upon  him  (in  1732)  a  severe  illness,  which  confined  him 
to  his  bed  for  several  months.  When  he  recovered,  the 
inhabitants  of  Leyden  celebrated  the  joyful  event  by  a 
public  illumination. 

See  Maty,  "  ifiloge  historique  de  H.  Boerhaave,"  1747;  Fonth- 
NELLE,  "filoge  de  Boerhaave,"  1763;  Dr.  S.  Johnson,  "Life  of  H. 
Boerhaave;"  Burton,  "Life  and  Writings  of  H.  Boerhaave,"  a 
vols.,  1743;  Carl  Wilhelm  Ebert,  "Dissertatio  historico-medica 
de  H.  Boerhavio,"  1843;  "Biographie  Medicale." 


short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


BOERHAFIUS 


379 


BOGUE 


Boerhavius.    See  Boerhaave. 
Boerio,  bo-a're-o,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  jurist  and 
legal  writer,  born  at  Lendinara  in  1754;  died  in  1832. 
Boerne.    See  Borne. 
Boerner.    See  Borner. 

Bo-e'thi-us,  [It.  Boecio,  bo-a'cho,  or  Boezio,  bo-k'- 
se-o;  in  French,  Boece,  bo'^ss',]  (Anicius  Manlius 
Severinus,)  a  celebrated  Roman  philosopher  and  states- 
man, born  about  475  A.D.  He  was  liberally  educated, 
and  well  instructed  in  Greek  philosophy.  When  about 
thirty-three,  he  was  elected  consul.  His  administration 
was  beneficent  and  favourable  to  the  oppressed.  He 
translated  the  works  of  Plato  and  other  Greek  writers 
into  Latin,  wrote  commentaries  on  Aristotle,  and  acquired 
a  great  reputation  as  an  author.  He  held  several  high 
offices  under  Theodoric  the  Goth,  but,  having  been  ac- 
cused by  some  envious  courtiers  of  conspiring  against 
the  government,  he  was  unjustly  condemned  by  that 
king  and  executed  about  525  A.D.  His  principal  work 
is  "On  the  Consolation  of  Philosophy,"  ("De  Conso- 
latione  Philosophise,")  which  was  written  in  prison, 
where  he  was  confined  just  before  his  death.  It  is  com- 
posed of  alternate  portions  of  verse  and  prose.  "  Few 
books,"  says  Hallam,  "are  more  striking  from  the  cir- 
cumstances of  their  production.  Last  of  the  classic 
writers,  in  style  not  impure,  ...  in  elevation  of  senti- 
ment equal  to  any  of  the  philosophers,  and  mingling  a 
Christian  sanctity  with  their  lessons,  he  speaks  from  his 
prison  in  the  swanlike  tones  of  dying  eloquence.  Quenched 
in  his  blood,  the  lamp  he  had  trimmed  with  a  skilful 
hand,  gave  no  more  light ;  the  language  of  Tully  and 
Virgil  soon  ceased  to  be  spoken."  ("  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe.")  His  great  work  was  very  popu- 
lar in  the  middle  ages,  and  was  translated  into  various 
languages.  It  was  translated  into  Anglo-Saxon  by  Al- 
fred the  Great,  and  imitated  by  Chaucer.  English  ver- 
sions of  it  have  been  produced  by  W.  Causton,  Rev. 
Philip  Ridpath,  R.  Duncan,  and  others. 

See  Procopius,  "History;"  Barberini,  "  Exposizione  della  Vita 
de  Boezio,"  17S3  ;  Dom  GERVAiSE,"Histoirecle  Boece/'ijis  ;  Heyne, 
"Censura  ingenii  Boethii,"  1806;  "Life  of  Boethiiis,"  prefixed  to 
Ridpath's  translation,  1785;  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire,"  chap,  xxxix.  ;  Ersch  und  Gkuber,  "  Allgemeine 
Encyklopaedie ;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina;"  SiRO  CoMi, 
"  Memoria  storico-critica  sopra  S.  Boecio." 

Boethius,  (Hector.)    See  Boece. 

Boethius,  bo-a'te-iis,  (Jacob,)  professor  of  theology 
at  Upsal,  in  Sweden,  born  in  1647.  He  was  condemned 
to  perpetual  imprisonment  for  having  opposed  the  abso- 
lute monarchy  introduced  by  Charles  XL,  but  he  was 
released  in  1710.    Died  in  1718. 

See  Erik  M.  Fant,  "Vita  J.  Boethii,"  Upsal,  1812. 

Boetie,  de  la,  deh  It  bo'i'te',  (Etienne,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Sarlat,  in  Perigord,  in  1530.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Montaigne,  who  refers  to  him  in  his 
chapter  "On  Friendship."  He  was  the  author  of  Latin 
and  French  poems,  and  a  political  treatise  "On  Volun- 
tary Servitude,"  (written  about  1546,)  a  work  of  much 
merit,  sometimes  called  "Le  Contr'un."  Died  in  1563. 
"La  Boetie,  in  fact,"  says  Hallam,  "is  almost  a  single 
instance  of  a  thoroughly  republican  character  till  nearly 
the  period  of  the  Revolution.  Montaigne,  the  stanchest 
supporter  of  church  and  state,  excuses  his  friend,  le  plus 
gra7id  ho?nme,  h  mon  avis,  de  notre  siecle,  (the  greatest 
man,  in  my  opinion,  of  our  age,)  assuring  us  that  he  was 
always  a  loyal  subject." 

See  La  Feugere,  "  fitiides  sur  la  Vie  de  La  Boetie,"  1845  ;  J.  F. 
Payen,  "  Notice  bio-bibliographique  sur  £.  de  la  Boetie,"  1853. 

Boetius,  (Hector.)    See  Boece. 
Boetius  I3po,  bo-a''te-us  a'po,  a  Dutch  jurist  and 
writer,  born  in  Friesland  in  1529;  died  in  1599. 
Boettger  or  Boettcher.    See  Bottger. 
Boettiger.    See  Bottiger. 

Boetzlaer,  boots''llr.  Baron  of,  a  Dutch  general, 
born  about  1720,  distinguished  himself  by  his  brave  de- 
fence of  Willemstadt  against  Dumouriez. 

Boezio.    See  Boethius. 

Boffrand,  bo'fRdN',  (Germain,)  a  French  architect 
and  engineer,  born  at  Nantes  in  1667.  Among  his  works 
are  the  palace  of  Nancy,  the  castle  of  Luneville,  and  the 
castle  de  la  Favorite,  near  Mentz.    Died  in  1754. 

Bogaert,  bo'giRt,  (Adam,)  a  Flemish  physician,  born 


at  Dort  in  1413,  was  professor  of  medicine  at  Louvain 
for  more  than  thirty  years.    Died  in  1483. 

Bogaert,  (Jacob,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Lou- 
vain  in  1440,  succeeded  his  father  as  professor  of  medi- 
cine in  that  city.    Died  in  1520. 

Bogaert,  van  den,  (Martin.)    See  Desjardins. 

Bogaerts,  bo'gsRts,  (Felix,)  a  Belgian  poet  and 
novelist,  born  at  Brussels  in  1805.  Among  his  works  are 
" Bibliotheque  des  Antiquites,"  (1834,)  and  "Lord  Straf- 
ford," (1843.)    Died  in  1851. 

See  E.  DE  BusscHER,  "  F.  Bogaerts,  Notice  biographique,"  1851. 

Bo'gan,  (Zachariah,)  an  English  philologist,  born  in 
Devonshire  in  1625,  wrote  a  "  View  of  Scriptural  Threats 
and  Punishments."    Died  in  1659. 

Bo-gar^dus,  (Everardus,)  the  first  minister  of  the 
Reformed  Dutch  Church  in  New  York,  came  to  this 
country  about  1633.  He  was  drowned  on  his  passage 
to  Holland  in  1647. 

Bo''gart,  (Elizabeth,)  an  American  poetess,  born  in 
New  York  in  the  early  part  of  this  century,  has  contrib- 
uted to  the  "New  York  Mirror,"  under  the  jzom  de  plume 
of  "Estelle."  A  number  of  her  poems  are  published  in 
Griswold's  "  Female  Poets  of  America,"  which  see. 

Bogatzky,  von,  fon  bo-gatsHvee,  (Karl  Heinrich,) 
a  German  theological  writer,  author  of  "The  Golden 
Treasury,"  was  born  in  Silesia  in  1690;  died  in  1774. 

Bogdane,  bog'dan,  (James,)  a  Hungarian  painter  of 
flowers,  fruits,  and  birds,  worked  in  England  for  Queen 
Anne.    Died  about  1720. 

Bogdanovitch,  bog-di-no^'itch,  (Hippolytus  Fe- 
DOROVITCH,)  an  eminent  Russian  lyric  poet,  born  in 
Little  Russia  in  1743.  He  was  appointed  in  1761  in- 
spector at  the  University  of  Moscow.  His  principal  work, 
entitled  "Dushenka,"  ("Psyche,")  came  out  in  1775.  It 
ranks  among  the  finest  poems  of  its  kind  in  the  lan- 
guage, and  was  received  with  the  greatest  favour  by  all 
classes.  He  also  translated  from  the  French  Vertot's 
"History  of  the  Revolutions  of  the  Roman  Republic." 
He  was  appointed  in  1788  president  of  the  archives  of 
the  empire.    Died  in  1803. 

See  BowRiNG,  "Russian  Anthology;"  Karamzin,  "  Biographie 
de  Bogdanovitch." 

Bogdanus,  bog-da'nus,  (Martin,)  a  Prussian  phy- 
sician, born  at  Driesen  about  1640. 

Bogernian,  bo'ger-mSn,  [Lat.  Bogerma'nus,]  (Jan,) 
a  Dutch  theologian  and  controversialist,  born  in  Fries- 
land  in  1576.  He  sided  with  Gomarus  in  his  dispute 
with  Arminius,  and  wrote  a  polemical  treatise  against 
Grotius.  He  was  president  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  and 
was  one  of  the  translators  of  the  Bible  into  Dutch.  Died 
in  1637. 

Boggs,  (Charles  Stewart,)  an  American  commo- 
dore, a  nephew  of  Captain  James  Lawrence  of  the  Chesa- 
peake, was  born  at  New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey,  in  181 1. 
He  entered  the  navy  in  1826,  and  gained  the  rank  of 
commander  in  1855.  He  commanded  the  gunboat  Va- 
runa  in  the  battle  by  which  Farragut  captured  New  Or- 
leans, in  April,  1862.  In  that  action  he  sunk  or  burned 
six  gunboats,  partly  iron-clad.  The  Varuna  having  been 
fatally  damaged  by  an  iron-clad  running  against  her. 
Captain  Boggs  ran  her  ashore,  tied  her  to  a  tree,  and 
continued  to  fight  as  long  as  his  guns  remained  above 
the  water,  or  "till  the  water  was  over  the  gun-truck." 

Bogin,  bo^zh^N',  [It.  Bogino,  bo-jee'no,]  (Jean  Bap- 
TISTE,)  born  at  Turin  in  1701,  became  grand  chancellor 
of  Victor  Amadeus,  King  of  Sardinia,  in  1730,  and  in 
1750  minister  of  state  under  Charles  Emmanuel.  Died 
in  1784. 

Bog''o-ris,  Prince  of  Bulgaria,  succeeded  Baldimir,  (or 
Valdimir.)  He  was  converted  to  Christianity  in  853  A.D., 
and  induced  or  compelled  his  subjects  to  adopt  the  same 
religion.    Died  in  896. 

Bogros,  bo^gRo',  (Annet  Jean,)  a  distinguished 
French  anatomist,  born  m  the  department  of  Auvergne 
in  1786 ;  died  in  1823. 

See  Verniere,  "Notice  sur  A.  J.  Bogros,"  1824. 

Bogsch,  bogsh,  (Johann,)  an  agricultural  writer,  born 
at  Deutschendorf,  in  Hungary,  in  1745;  died  in  1821. 

Bogue,  bog,  (David,)  a  Scottish  divine,  born  in  Ber- 
wickshire in  1750,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society  in  1 795.    He  was  one  of  the  first 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Y.,g2 Mural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  ((J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BOGUET 


380 


BOHMER 


editors  of  the  "  Evangelical  Magazine,"  and  took  an  act- 
ive part  in  promoting  the  principal  religious  associations 
of  the  day.    Died  in  1825. 

See  James  Bennett,  "Memoir  of  Dr.  Bogue;"  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Boguet,  ho'gy,  (Henri,)  a  French  magistrate  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Franche-Comte  about  1550. 

Boguphal,  bo'goo-fll,  Bishop  of  Posen,  in  Poland, 
wrote  a  Latin  "Chronicle  of  Poland,"  (1729,)  continued 
by  Baczko.    Died  in  1253. 

Boguslawski,  bo-gus-lav'skee,  (Adalbert,)  a  Polish 
dramatist  and  actor,  born  in  1752,  translated  dramas  from 
the  French,  Italian,  and  Spanish.    Died  in  1829. 

Boguslawski,  bo'goo-sliv'skee.  (Palm  Heinrich 
LUDWIG,)  a  Prussian  astronomer,  of  Polish  extraction, 
born  at  Magdeburg  in  1789.  Appointed  director  of  the 
observatory  at  Breslau  in  1 83 1,  he  discovered  in  1834 
the  comet  called  by  his  name.  In  1836  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  astronomy  at  Breslau.    Died  in  1851. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Bohadsch,  bo'hidsh,  (Johann  Baptist,)  a  German 
physician  and  naturalist,  was  professor  of  natural  history 
at  Prague.    Died  in  1772. 

Boha-ed-Deen  or  Boha-eddin,  bo^h^-ed-deen', 
(Ibn-Shedad,  ib'n  she-did',)  an  Arab  historian,  born 
at  Mosul  in  1145,  was  distinguished  by  the  favour  of  the 
Sultan  Saladin,  who  appointed  him  cadi  of  Jerusalem. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "  Life  of  Saladin,"  which  has  been 
translated  into  Spanish  by  Borbon.    Died  in  1232. 

Bohaire-Dutheil,  bo'^R'  dii'til',  a  French  dramatist 
and  satirical  writer,  born  about  1750  ;  died  in  1825. 

Bolian,  de,  deh  bo'6N',(FRANgois  Philippe  Lourat,) 
Baron,  a  French  tactician  and  military  writer,  born  at 
Bourg-en-Bresse  in  1751  ;  died  in  1804. 

Boliemoiid,bo'he-m6nd,[Fr.  Boh^mond,  bo'i^moN'; 
It.  BoEMONDO,  bo-a-mon'do ;  Lat.  Bohemun'dus,]  I.,  a 
famous  chief'  of  the  crusaders,  was  the  son  of  Robert 
Guiscard,  Duke  of  Apulia  and  Calabria.  Accompanied 
by  his  cousin  Tancred  and  several  Norman  princes,  he 
joined  the  first  crusade,  at  the  head  of  a  large  army,  in 
1096.  Having  assisted  at  the  capture  of  Nicaea,  he 
gained  possession  of  Antioch  by  a  strategem,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  the  sovereignty  of  that  city.  He 
subsequently  married  the  daughter  of  Philip  I.  of  France. 
He  died  in  11 11,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Bohe- 
mond  II. 

See  MiCHAUD,  "Histoire  des  Croisades." 

Bohemond  II.  became  Prince  of  Antioch  in  11 26. 
He  assisted  Baldwin,  King  of  Jerusalem,  in  his  wars 
against  the  Saracens.    Died  in  1130. 

Bohemond  III.,  grandson  of  Bohemond  II.,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  of  Antioch  in  1163.    Died  in  1201. 

Bohemundus.    See  Bohemond. 

Bohic,  bo'ek',  written  also  Bouhic  or  Boich,  (Henri 
or  I-Ierve,)  an  eminent  French  jurist,  born  in  Bretagne 
in  1310;  died  about  1390. 

Bohier,  de,  deh  bo'e-i',  [Lat.  Boe'rius,]  (Nicolas,) 
a  French  jurist,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1469  ;  died  in  1539. 

Bohl,  b51,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German  physician, 
and  professor  of  medicine  at  Konigsberg,  where  he  was 
born  in  1703  ;  died  in  1785. 

Bolile,  bo'leh,  (Samuel,)  a  German  theologian  and 
Hebraist,  born  in  Pomerania  in  161 1  ;  died  in  1689. 

Bohleii,  bo'len,  (Henry,)  born  in  Germany,  emigrated 
to  the  United  States  in  his  youth,  and  became  a  rich 
merchant  in  Philadelphia.  In  April,  1862,  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  brigadier-general.  He  served  under  Fremont 
and  Sigel  in  Virginia,  and  was  killed  near  the  Rappahan- 
nock in  August,  1862. 

Bohleii,  von,  fon  bo'len,  (Peter,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man Orientalist,  born  near  Jever  in  1796.  Owing  to  the 
poverty  of  his  family,  he  enjoyed  few  advantages  of  edu- 
cation, until  enabled  to  enter  the  University  of  Halle 
through  the  kindness  of  several  wealthy  patrons.  He 
became  in  1830  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Ko- 
nigsberg. Among  his  principal  works  are  a  dissertation 
on  the  Arabic  poet  Montenabbi,  ("  Commentatio  de  Mon- 
tenabbio,")  an  excellent  treatise  on  Indian  antiquities, 
entitled  "Das  Alte  Indien,"  (2  vols.,  1830,)  an  edition 
of  Bhartrihari's  "  Sententiae,"  and  "  Genesis  Historically 
and  Critically  explained,"  (in  German.)    He  also  wrote 


a  very  interesting  "Autobiography,"  published  in  1841. 
Died  in  1840. 

Bohm  or  Boehm,  bom,  (Andreas,)  a  German  ma- 
thematician and  philosopher,  born  at  Darmstadt  in  1720. 
He  published,  among  other  works,  a  "Magazine  for 
Engineers."    Died  in  1790. 

Bohm,  (Jacob.)    See  Bohme. 

Bohm  or  Boehm,  bom,  (John  Daniel,)  a  Hungarian 
sculptor,  born  at  Wallendorf  in  1794. 

Bohm  or  Boehm,  (Joseph,)  a  German  violinist,  born 
at  Pesth  in  1798,  became  professor  at  Vienna. 

Bohm  or  Boehm,  (Theobald,)  a  German  flutist, 
born  in  Bavaria  about  1802,  made  improvements  in  the 
construction  of  the  flute.  He  also  composed  music  for 
that  instrument. 

Bohm  or  Boehm,  (Wenzel  Amadeus,)  a  German 
engraver,  born  at  Prague  in  1771.  His  best  works  are  a 
Saint  Paul,  after  Sereta,  and  a  portrait  of  the  King  of 
Denmark.    Died  in  1823. 

Bohme,  bo'meh,  Bohm,  or  Boehm,  bom,  written  also 
Behmen,  [Fr.  Bcehm  or  BoiHme,  b|m ;  Lat.  Boeh'- 
mius,]  (Jacob,)  a  celebrated  German  mystic,  was  born 
near  Gorlitz,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  in  1575.  He  served  an  ap- 
prenticeship to  a  shoemaker,  and  followed  that  trade  at 
Gorlitz.  He  was  a  devout  reader  of  the  Scriptures  from 
his  youth,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Lutheran  Church, 
which  he  probably  never  forsook.  According  to  his  own 
statement,  he  was  divinely  illuminated,  and  thus  enabled 
to  perceive  the  mysteries  of  nature  and  grace.  He  wrote, 
about  1610,  a  religious  book  called  "Aurora,  or  the 
Morning  Redness,"  which  Hallam  says  was  not  pub- 
lished until  1641.  He  was  generally  accounted  a  vision- 
ary by  the  clergy,  but  his  opinions  were  adopted  by  many 
in  Germany,  Holland,  and  England.  Among  his  ad- 
mirers or  disciples  were  many  men  of  high  rank  and 
high  cultivation.  He  wrote  numerous  works,  which 
were  published,  in  10  vols.,  16S2.  They  were  trans- 
lated into  English  (1764)  by  the  eminent  divine  William 
Law,  who  was  an  admirer  of  Bohme.  He  died  at  Gor- 
litz in  1624.  "  His  supernatural  illumination,"  says 
Hallam,  "  came  without  the  gift  of  transferring  the  light 
to  others,  for  scarce  any  have  been  able  to  pierce  the 
clouds  in  which  his  meaning  has  been  charitably  sup- 
posed to  lie  hid." 

See  La  Motte-Fouque,  "Notice  sur  J.  Boehm,"  1831;  WuL- 
LEN,  "Jacob  Bohms  Leben,"  1836;  Johann  Adam  Calov,  "Dis- 
sertatio  de  Vita  J.  Boehmii,"  1707;  G.  L.  Gmelin,  "Dispiitatio  de 
J.  Boehmio,"  1708;  J.  F.  Sillig,  "J.  Boehme:  biographischer Ver- 
siich,"  iSoi. 

Bohme  or  Boehme,  (Johann  Eusebius,)  a  German 
writer,  and  professor  of  history  at  Leipsic,  born  at  Wurzen 
in  1717 ;  died  in  1780. 

Bohmer  or  Boehmer,  boh'mer,  (Georg  Ludwig,) 
a  younger  son  of  Justus  Henning,  noticed  below,  was 
born  at  Halle  in  171 5.  He  became  professor  and  dean 
of  the  faculty  of  law  at  Gottingen.    Died  in  1797. 

Bohmer  or  Boehmer,  (Georg  Rudolf,)  a  German 
physician  and  botanist,  born  at  Liegnitz  in  1723.  He 
became  professor  of  therapeutics  at  Kemberg  in  1783, 
and  afterwards  dean  of  the  university  in  that  city.  The 
genus  Boehmeria  was  named  in  his  honour.  Died  in  1803. 

See  Callisen,  "  Medicinisclies  Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 

Bohmer  or  Boehmer,  (Georg  Wilhelm  Rudolf.) 
a  Protestant  theologian  and  writer,  born  near  Magde- 
burg in  1800,  became  professor  of  divinity  at  Greifswalde 
in  1830. 

Bohmer  or  Boehmer,  (Johann  Benjamin,)  a  Ger- 
man physician,  born  at  Liegnitz  in  1719;  died  in  1753. 

Bohmer  or  Boehmer,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man historian  and  compiler,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main  in  1795,  published  "The  Archives  of  the  Roman 
Kings  and  Emperors  from  Conrad  I.  to  Henry  VII.," 
(1831,)  and  "Fontes  Rerum  Germanicarum,"  (1843-53.) 
Died  in  1863. 

Bohmer  or  Boehmer,  (Johann  Samuel  Fried- 
rich,)  son  of  the  following,  became  counsellor  to  the 
King  of  Prussia  and  director  of  the  University  of  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Oder.    Died  in  1772. 

Bohmer  or  Boehmer,  (Justus  Henning,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1674.  He  became  chancellor 
of  the  University  of  Halle,  and  was  created  by  Frederick 
the  Great  a  member  of  his  state  council.    His  principal 


a,  e,  1,  o,  Vi,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  3^,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsmre;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BOHMER 


381 


BOILEJU 


work  is  an  "  Introduction  to  Public  Universal  Law,"  in 
Latin,  (1709.)    Died  at  Halle  in  1749. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemelne  Encyklopaedie ;''  A.  Stru- 
ENSEE,  "Das  griinende  und  fruchtbare  Alter:  Gediichtniss-Predigt 
sum  Andenken  des  J.  H.  Boehmer,"  1749. 

Bohmer  or  Boehmer,  (Philipp  Adolf,)  brother  of 
Georg  Ludwig,  born  at  Halle  in  1717,  was  first  physician 
to  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar.  Pie  became  professor  of 
anatomy  at  Berlin  in  1 741,  and  in  1787  royal  counsellor 
and  dean  of  the  university.    Died  in  1789. 

Bohn,  bon,  (Henry  G.,)  a  distinguished  London  pub- 
lisher, of  German  extraction,  born  in  London  about  1800. 
Among  his  numerous  and  valuable  publications  may  be 
named  his  "Standard  Library,"  (130  vols.,)  "Library  of 
French  Memoirs,"  "Library  of  British  Classics,"  and 
"Guinea  Catalogue,"  which  describes  three  hundred 
thousand  volumes.  He  has  made  several  translations 
from  the  German,  and  edited  the  "  Bibliotheca  Parriana." 

Bohn,  bon,  [Lat.  Bok'nius,]  (Johann,)  an  eminent 
German  medical  writer,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1640.  He 
became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Leipsic  in  1668,  and  was 
the  first  who  attacked  successfully  the  chemical  system 
of  physiology  maintained  by  F.  de  la  Boe.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished in  medical  jurisprudence.  Among  his  chief 
works  are  "Circulus  anatomicus  physiologicus,"  (1680,) 
and  "  Medicinae  forensis  Specimina  Tria,"  (1690.)  Died 
in  1718. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Bohomolec,bo-ho-mo'lits,  (Francis,)  a  Polish  writer 
of  dramas,  biography,  etc.    Died  in  1 790. 

Bohren  or  Bohra.    See  Bora. 

Bohse,  bo'zeh,  (August,)  also  called  Talander, 
ti'lan-der,  a  German  writer  of  little  merit,  born  at  Halle 
in  1661.  He  wrote  novels,  operettas,  etc.  Died  about  1735. 

Bohtlingk,  bot'link,  (Otto,)  a  distinguished  Orien- 
talist, of  German  extraction,  born  at  Saint  Petersburg 
in  1 81 5.  He  has  published,  among  other  works,  "  Kali- 
dasa's  Sakuntala,"  (text  with  a  translation,  1842  ;)  a  "  San- 
scrit Chrestomathia,"  (1845,)  ^^"^^  ('i"*  conjunction  with 
Roth)  a  "  Sanscrit-German  Lexicon,"  (not  yet  finished,)  a 
work  of  unrivalled  merit  in  this  department  of  literature. 

See  Bkockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Bohtori,  boh'to-ree,  (Al-Waleed  or  Al-Walid,  ai- 

wa-leed',)  an  Arabian  poet,  born  about  821.  His  verses 
were  styled,  by  his  countrymen,  chains  of  gold. 

Bohtz,  bots,  (August  Wilhelm,)  born  at  Stettin  in 
1 799,  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen  in  1 842. 

Bo'hun,  (Edmund,)  an  English  writer,  was  the  author 
of  a  "Historical,  Geographical,  and  Poetical  Dictionary," 
(1694,)  and  several  political  works. 

See  M  acaulav,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv. ;  Wood,  "  Athe- 
nae  Oxonienses." 

Bohusz,  bo'hoosh,  (Xavier,)  a  Polish  historian,  born 
in  1746,  published  "Researches  on  the  Historical  Anti- 
quities and  Language  of  Lithuania."    Died  in  1825. 

Boianus.    See  Bojanus. 

Boiardo  or  Bojardo,  bo-yaR'do,  (Matteo  Maria,) 
Count  of  Scandiano,  a  celebrated  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Scandiano  about  1430.  His  principal  work,  the  "  Or- 
lando Innamorato,"  (left  unfinished,)  was  published  about 
1495,  and  was  afterwards  continued  by  Ariosto  under  the 
title  of  "Orlando  Furioso."  It  was  also  written  over 
and  so  greatly  improved  by  Berni  that  the  original  is 
nearly  forgotten.  The  "  Orlando  Innamorato  of  Boiardo," 
says  Hallam,  "has  hitherto  not  received  that  share  of 
renown  which  seems  to  be  its  due.  In  point  of  novel 
invention  and  just  keeping  of  character,  especially  the 
latter,  he  has  not  been  surpassed  by  his  illustrious  fol- 
lower Ariosto ;  and  whatever  of  this  we  find  in  the  Or- 
lando Innamorato  is  due  to  Boiardo  alone."  ("Intro- 
duction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")    Died  in  1494. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Ginguene, 
"  Histoire  Litleraire  d'ltalie  ;"  W.  H.  Prescott,  critique  on  Boiardo 
in  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1824,  vol.  xix.  ;  G.  F. 
CremokA;  "  Elogio  del  Conte  M.  M.  Bojardo,"  1827  ;  "  Lives  of  the 
Italian  Poets,"  by  the  Rev.  Henry  Stebbing,  London,  1831 ;  "Quar- 
terly Reviev/'  for  April,  1819,  article  "Narrative  and  Romantic 
Poetry  of  the  Italians." 

Boiceau,  bwi'so',  (Jean,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Poitiers  about  1520 ;  died  in  1589. 

Boichot,  bwi''sho',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1738;  died  in  1814. 

See  Le  Bas  de  Gourmont,  "Vie  de  Guillaume  Boichot,"  1823. 


Boie  or  Boje,  bo'yeh,  (Heinrich  Christian,)  a  Ger- 
man litterateur,  born  at  Meldorp,  in  Holstein,  in  1745.  In 
1770  he  published,  conjointly  with  Gotter,  the  first  "Mu- 
senalmanach,"  and  in  1776  became  associate  editor  of  the 
"  Deutschen  Museum."    Died  in  1806. 

Boieldieu,  bwirde-uh',  (Francois  Adrien,)  an  emi- 
nent French  composer,  born  at  Rouen  in  1775.  Among 
his  best  operas  are  "The  Caliph  of  Bagdad,"  "The 
White  Lady,"  ("  La  Dame  blanche,")  and  "  My  Aunt 
Aurora,"  ("  Ma  Tante  Aurore.")  In  1803  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  emperor  Alexander  of  Russia  his  chapel- 
master.    Died  in  1835. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens ;"  Refuveille, 
(alias  Andre  Reloi,)  "Boieldieu,  sa  Vie,  ses  CEuvres," Rouen,  1751. 

Boigne,  bwin,  (Benoit  le  Borgne  —  leh  boRn,) 
Count,  a  French  general,  born  at  Chambery  in  1741, 
entered  the  service  of  the  Rajah  of  the  Mahrattas  about 
1783.  He  made  an  immense  fortune,  a  great  part  of 
which  he  bequeathed  to  charitable  purposes  in  his  native 
city.    Died  in  1830. 

See  TuRiNA,  "  £loge  historique  du  Comte  de  Boigne." 

Boileau,  bwl'ia',  (Charles,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
and  member  of  the  French  Academy,  was  a  native  of 
Beauvais.    Died  in  1704. 

See  D'Alembert,  "  £loge  de  Charles  Boileau." 

Boileau,  (Gilles,)  a  French  magistrate,  born  in  1584, 
father  of  the  celebrated  Nicolas  Boileau.    Died  in  1657. 

Boileau,  (Gilles,)  a  French  litterateur,  a  brother  of 
the  celebrated  poet  of  that  name,  born  in  Paris  in  163 1. 
He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Epictetus,"  and  a  number  of  poems 
and  satires.  He  also  translated  the  "  Enchiridion"  of 
Epictetus.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
Died  in  1669. 

Boileau,  (Gilles  de  Buillon — deh  bii-e'yoN^,)  a 
Flemish  litterateur  of  the  sixteenth  century,  translated, 
from  the  Latin  into  French,  Albert  Diirer's  treatise  on 
Fortifications,  and  made  translations  from  the  Spanish. 

Boileau,  (Jacques,)  brother  of  Nicolas  Boileau,  born 
in  Paris  in  1635,  was  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne.  He 
wrote  several  ecclesiastical  works.    Died  in  1716. 

Boileau,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  biographer  and 
writer  on  morals,  born  near  Agen  in  1649;  died  in  Paris 
in  1735- 

Boileau,  boi'lo  or  bw^'lo',  or,  more  fully,  Boileau- 
Despreaux,  bwS'lo'  dcVpRa'o',  (Nicolas,)  an  eminent 
French  poet  and  satirist,  born  in  Paris  (or  at  Crosne, 
near  Paris)  on  the  1st  of  November,  1636,  was  a  son  of 
Gilles  Boileau,  registrar  of  the  great  chamber  of  the 
Parliament.  He  was  educated  for  the  law  or  the  church  ; 
but  his  tastes  did  not  incline  him  to  either,  and  he  fol- 
lowed no  profession  but  that  of  author.  He  was  a  friend 
of  Racine  and  La  Fontaine.  His  first  production  was 
a  satire  called  "  Adieu  of  a  Poet  to  the  City  of  Paris," 
(1660,)  remarkable  for  purity  of  style  and  elegance  of 
versification.  In  1666  he  published  seven  satires,  which 
had  great  success.  He  afterwards  wrote  five  other  sa- 
tires, at  various  dates.  In  the  maturity  of  his  poetical 
power  he  composed  twelve  Epistles,  which  are  even  more 
admired  than  his  satires. 

Among  his  best  works  are  "  The  Reading-Desk," 
("Le  Lutrin,"  1674,)  and  "The  Art  of  Poetry,"  ("L'Art 
poetique,"  1674,)  which,  in  the  opinion  of  Michaud,  ex- 
cels the  poem  of  Horace  in  the  felicity  of  the  transitions 
and  in  the  sustained  elegance  of  the  style.  "  Boileau  is 
the  analogue  of  Pope,"  says  Hallam,  "in  French  litera- 
ture. '  The  Art  of  Poetry'  has  been  the  m.odel  of  the 
'  Essay  on  Criticism  few  poems  more  resemble  each 
other.  Both  are  uncommon  efforts  of  critical  good  sense, 
and  both  are  distinguished  by  their  short  and  pointed 
language,  which  remains  in  the  memory.  The  '  Lutrin' 
is  the  most  popular  of  the  poems  of  Boileau.  Its  subject 
is  ill  chosen.  .  .  .  But  the  poignant  wit  and  satire,  the 
elegance  and  correctness  of  numberless  couplets,  as  well 
as  the  ingenious  adaptations  of  classical  passages,  redeem 
this  poem,  and  confirm  its  high  place  in  the  mock-heroic 
line."    ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

Boileau  was  appointed  historiographer  jointly  with 
Racine,  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy  in  1684.  He  has  the  honour  of  having 
effected  a  revolution  in  the  poetical  taste  of  the  French, 
which  was  greatly  vitiated  when  he  began  to  write. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BOILEAU 


382 


BO  IS  SAT 


He  was  visited  in  1700  by  Addison,  whose  Latin 
poems  JJoileau  had  read  and  greatly  admired.  '*  He 
certainly  opened  himself  to  Addison  with  a  freedom 
which  was  a  sure  indication  of  esteem.  The  old  man 
talked  on  his  favourite  theme,  literature,  long  and  well ; 
indeed,  as  his  young  hearer  thought,  incomparably  well. 
Boileau  had  undoubtedly  some  of  the  qualities  of  a  great 
critic.  He  wanted  imagination,  but  he  had  strong  sense. 
In  mere  style,  abstracted  from  the  ideas  of  which  style 
is  the  garb,  his  taste  was  excellent.  ...  It  is  easy,  we 
think,  to  discover  in  the  '  Spectator'  and  the  '  Guardian' 
traces  of  the  influence,  in  part  salutary  and  in  part  per- 
nicious, which  the  mind  of  Boileau  had  on  the  mind  of 
Addison."  (Macaulay,  "  Review  of  the  Life  of  Addison.") 

He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Racine,  and  co-operated 
with  Madame  Dacier  in  the  vindication  of  the  merits  of 
the  ancient  classical  authors.  His  poems,  it  is  said,  con- 
tain no  line  that  would  offend  the  strictest  moralist. 
Probity  and  benevolence  were  prominent  traits  of  his 
character.  He  had  the  spirit,"  says  Macaulay,  "to  tell 
Louis  XIV.,  firmly  and  even  rudely,  that  his  majesty  knew 
nothing  about  poetry."    Died  in  Paris  in  March,  171 1. 

See  D'Alembert,  "  j5loge  de  Boileau;"  Desmaizeaux,  "Vie  de 
Boileau,"  1712;  Dauxou,  "filoge  de  Boileau,"  1787;  Michaud, 
article  on  Boileau  in  the  "Biographie  Universelle ;"  Louis  Simon 
Auger,  "  £!loge  de  Boileau-Despreaux,"'  1805  ;  Longfellow,  "Poets 
and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  P>ench  Wri- 
ters," by  Mrs.  Shelley,  vol.  i. 

Boileau,  de,  deh  bwi'lo',  (Marie  Louis  Joseph,)  a 
French  jurist  and  li/(erateiir,  born  at  Dunkirk  in  1741 ; 
died  in  181 7. 

Boileau  de  Maulaville,  bwal5'  deh  mo'lt'v^K, 
(Edme  pRANgois  Marie,)  a  French  archaeologist,  born 
at  Auxerre  in  1759,  published  several  antiquarian  treat- 
ises, and  was  a  contributor  to  the  *'  Biographie  Univer- 
selle."   Died  in  1826. 

Boileux,  bwcVluh^  (Jacques  Marie,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Caen  in  1803.  He  published  a  "  Commentary  on 
the  Civil  Code,"  (3  vols.,  1828-44.) 

Boillot,  bwi^yo^  (Henri,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  litte- 
rateur, born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1698;  died  in  1733. 

Boillot,  (Joseph,)  a  French  architect  and  writer,  born 
at  Langres  in  1560. 

Boilly,bw3.'ye',  (Louis  Leopold,)  a  French  painter  of 
portraits  and  genre,  born  in  1761  ;  died  in  1830. 

Boindin,  bwiN'd^N^  (Nicolas,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  in  Paris  in  1676;  died  in  1751. 

Boinvilliei'S-Desjardins,  bw'iN've'ya'  da^zhtrMiN', 
(Jean  Etienne  Judith  Forestier-fo^rcyte-a^)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Versailles  in  1764;  died  in  1830. 

Boirel,  bwcVr^K,  (Antoine,)  a  French  surgeon,  born 
in  1625  ;  died  about  1700. 

Boiron.    See  Borron. 

Bois,  (John.)    See  Boyse. 

Boisard,  bw^zlR^  (J.  J.  F.  M.,)  a  French  fabulist, 
born  at  Caen  in  1743  ;  died  in  183 1. 

Bois  de  la  Pierre,  bwi  deh  IS  pe-aiR',  (Louise  Marie 
de  Lanfernat — deh  16N'fgR■'nS^)  a  French  poetess,  born 
at  Verneuil,  in  Normandy,  in  1663  ;  died  in  1730. 

Bois,  du.    See  Dubois. 

Bois-Duval,  bwa'dii'vSK,  (Jean  Alphonse,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Ticheville  (Orne)  in  1801,  wrote  several 
works  on  insects,  and  a  "French  Flora,"  (3  vols.,  1828.) 

Boisgeliii,  de,  deh  bw^zh'l^N',  (Jean  de  Dieu 
Raymond  de  Cuce — de-uh'  ra'moN'  deh  kii'si',)  a 
French  theologian,  born^lvt  Rennes  in  1732,  became 
successively  Archbishop  of  Aix  and  of  Tours,  and  a 
cardinal  about  1803.  He  w^as  elected  to  the  French 
Academy  in  1776.  He  was  the  author  of  several  theo- 
logical and  miscellaneous  works.    Died  in  1804. 

See  De  Bausset,  "Notice  historique  sur  M.  de  Boisgelin,"  1804. 

Boisgelin,  de,  (Louis  Bruno,)  Comte,  a  French 
diplomatist,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Rennes  in 
1773.  He  was  executed  in  1794  by  order  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary tribunal. 

Boisgelin  de  Kerdu,  de,  deh  bwazh'ldN'  deh  k^R^- 
dli',  (Pierre  Marie  Louis,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  the  diocese  of  Saint-Brieuc  in  1758.  He  wrote 
a  continuation  of  Vertot's  "  Plistory  of  the  Revolutions 
of  Portugal,"  (1809,)  and  a  work  entitled  "Ancient  and 
Modern  Malta,"  in  English.    Died  in  18 16. 

See  Querard,  "La  France  LItteraire,"  (Supplement.) 


Boisgerard,  bwd'zhyrtR',  (Marie  Anne  Francois 
Baruuat,)  born  at  Tonnerre  in  1767,  served  in  the  army 
of  the  republic,  and  was  mortally  wounded  in  1799  at 
the  battle  of  Capua. 

Bois-Guilbert  or  Bois-Guillebert,  bwS'giFbaiR', 
(Pierre  le  Pesant — leh  peh-z6N',)  a  French  litterateur, 
translated  the  "  History"  of  Herodian,  and  published 
several  original  works.    Died  in  1 714. 

Boisjolin,  bwa'zho'l^N^  (Jacques  Franqois  Marie 
Vieilli — ve'iF,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Alen9on  in  1761. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Tribunat  in  i8oo-i8or.  Died 
in  1 841. 

Boisjolin,  de,  deh  bwii'zho'liN',  (Claude  Augustin 
ViEiLH,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1788,  suc- 
ceeded Rabbe  as  editor  of  the  "  Biographie  portative 
des  Contemporains."    Died  in  1832. 

Boislandry,  de,  deh  bwa'16N'dRe',  (Louis,)  a  mem- 
ber of  the  French  Constituent  Assembly,  born  at  Ver- 
sailles in  1749;  died  in  1834. 

Boisleve,  bwi'lav',  (Pierre,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  at  Saumur  in  1745,  became  honorary  canon  of 
Notre-Dame.  In  iSio,  as  official  of  the  diocese  of  Paris, 
he  pronounced  the  sentence  of  divorce  between  the  em- 
peror Napoleon  and  Josephine.    Died  in  1830. 

Boismont.    See  Briere  de  Boismont. 

Boismont,  de,  deh  bwi^moN',  (Nicolas  Thyrel — 
te'reK,)  a  distinguished  French  preacher,  born  in  Nor- 
mandy about  1 71 5.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  was  appointed  preacher-in-ordinary  to  the 
king.    Died  in  1786. 

See  Rulhiere,  "  ^filoge  de  Boismont,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Oraisons 
fun^bres,  etc." 

Boismorand,  bwS^mo'rSN',  (Claude  Joseph,)  a 
French  writer  and  priest,  born  at  Quimper  in  1680.  He 
published  "Anecdotes  of  the  Court  of  Philip  Augustus," 
and  other  works,  and  translated  "  Paradise  Lost"  into 
French.    Died  in  1740. 

Boismortier,  de,  deh  bwi'moR^te-a',  (N.  Bodin — 
bo'd^N'',)  a  French  composer,  born  at  Perpignan  in 
1691  ;  died  in  1768. 

Boisot,  bwi^zo',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  learned  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1638.  He  was  a  con- 
tributor to  the  "Journal  des  Savants."  Plaving  obtained 
the  library  of  Cardinal  Granvelle,  he  arranged  and  pre- 
served the  important  documents,  treaties,  etc.  which  it 
contained,  and  thus  rendered  a  great  service  to  history. 
Died  in  1694. 

Boisrobert,  de,  deh  bwi'ro'baiR',  (FRANgois  le 
Metel,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  litterateur,  born  at 
Caen  in  1592.  His  wit  and  gayety  procured  for  him  the 
favour  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  who  made  him  his  com- 
panion and  gave  him  many  preferments.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  dramas,  poems,  and  tales.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  members  of  the  French  Academy,  which  Riche- 
lieu established  at  his  suggestion.  Once,  when  Richelieu 
was  indisposed,  his  physician  advised  him  that  the  com- 
pany of  Boisrobert  would  be  more  efficacious  than  any 
drugs,  and  wrote  this  prescription  : — Recipe  Boisrobert. 
Pie  was  sometimes  called  Abbe  Mondorl  Died  in  1662. 

See  HippEAU,  "Notice  sur  Boisrobert,"  1852;  Otpeau,  "Notice 
sur  Boisrobert,"  1S52. 

Boissard,  bwi'stR^,  (George  David  Fr^d^:ric,)  a 
French  Protestant  minister,  born  at  Montbelliard  in  1783. 
Pie  preached  for  many  years  in  Paris,  and  wrote  numer- 
ous religious  works.    Died  in  1836. 

See  RoDOLPHE  Cuvier,  "filoge  de  Boissard,"  1837. 

Boissard,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  Protestant  anti- 
quary and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1528.  He 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  formed  a  collection  of  antiqui- 
ties. He  published  numerous  works,  among  which  are 
"Emblemata  Latina  et  Gallica,"  (1584,)  "Portraits  and 
Lives  of  Illustrious  Men,"  ("  Icones  et  Vitas  Virorum 
illustrium,"  1592,)  and  "Romans  Urbis  Topographia  et 
Antiquitates,"  (1597.)    Died  at  Metz  in  1602. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Morhof, 
"  Polyhistor." 

Boissat,  de,  deh  bw.VsS',  (Pierre,)  a  French  jurist 
and  Hellenist,  born  at  Vienne  about  1550. 

Boissat,  de,  (Pierre,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Vienne,  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Knights  of 
Saint  John  of  Jerusalem,"  (1612.)    Died  in  1613. 


a,  e,  T,  Q-  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  f^ll,  f^t;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BOISSAT 


383 


BO  IV IN 


Boissat,  de,  (Pierre,)  poet  and  soldier,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Vienne  in  1603.  He  composed  Latin 
poems,  and  several  prose  works.  He  was  admitted  into 
the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1662. 

See  Chorier,  "De  P.  Boessatii  Vita,  Amicisque  literatis,"  1680. 

Boisseau,  bwa^s5',  (FRANgois  Gabriel,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Brest  in  1791  ;  died  at  Metz  in 
1836.  He  left  many  valuable  works,  among  which  is 
"Nosographie  organique,"  (4  vols.,  1828-30.) 

Boissel  de  Mouville,  bwi''sel''  deh  moN'v^K,  (Tho- 
mas Charles  Gaston,)  Baron,  councillor  to  the  Par- 
liament of  Paris,  born  in  that  city  in  1763.  He  was  the 
author  of  fables  and  dramatic  works.    Died  in  1832. 

Boisseree,  bwiss^'r^,  (Melchior,)  brother  of  Sulpice, 
noticed  below,  born  in  1 7S6,  was  distinguished  for  his  skill 
in  painting  on  glass,  (see  next  article.)    Died  in  185 1. 

Boisseree,  (Sulpice,)  an  eminent  Prussian  architect 
and  antiquary,  of  French  extraction,  born  at  Cologne 
in  1783.  In  conjunction  with  his  brother  Melchior  and 
his  friend  J.  B.  Bertram,  he  formed  the  celebrated  col- 
lection of  paintings  called  by  his  name  and  now  in  the 
possession  of  the  King  of  Bavaria  at  Munich.  In  1824 
he  began  the  restoration  of  the  cathedral  of  Cologne. 
He  published  "  The  Monuments  of  Architecture  on  the 
Lower  Rhine,  from  the  Seventh  to  the  Thirteenth  Cen- 
turies," (1830,)  and  "Views,  Plans,  and  Details  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Cologne,"  etc.,  (in  folio,  1823.)  Died  in  1854. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Boisset,  b\vi's^',(JosEPH  Antoine,)  a  French  Jacobin, 
born  at  Montelimart  in  1748,  became  a  member  of  the 
National  Convention,  and  subsequently  of  the  Council 
of  Ancients.    Died  in  1813. 

Boissier,  bwi'se-a^  (Edouard  Pierre,)  a  Swiss 
botanist,  born  at  Geneva  in  1810,  published  "Diagnoses 
Plantarum  Orientalium,"  (3  vols.,  1849-59.) 

Boissiere,  de,  deh  bwa'se-aiR^,  (Claude,)  a  French 
mathematician,  who  was  born  near  Grenoble,  lived  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Boissieu,  de,  deh  bwa'se-uh',  (Barthelemy  Ca- 
MILLE,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Lyons  in  1734 ;  died 
in  1770. 

Boissieu,  de,  (Denys  Salvaing— siKviN',)  a  French 
jurist  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Vienne,  in  Dauphiny,  in 
1600;  died  in  1683. 

See  A.  DE  Tekrebasse,  "Vie  de  Salvaing  de  Boissieu,"  1850. 

Boissieu,  de,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  engraver 
and  painter,  born  at  Lyons  in  1736.  His  prints  are  highly 
esteemed,  particularly  those  after  Ruysdael.  Died  in  1810. 

See  DuGAS-MoNTBEL,  "iSloge  de  J.  J.  de  Boissieu,"  i8io. 

Boissonade,  bwd'so^n^d',  (Jean  Francois,)  an  emi- 
nent French  philologist,  born  in  Paris  on  the  12th  of 
August,  1774.  In  1812  he  succeeded  Larcher  as  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  literature  in  the  Academy  of  Paris,  and 
also  took  his  place  in  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  He 
became  professor  of  Greek  in  the  College  of  France  in 
1828.  Among  his  works,  which  relate  principally  to 
Greek  literature,  are  editions  of  Philostratus,  Holsten- 
tius,  Nicetas  Eugenianus,  and  other  classics.  He  also 
published  a  "  Sylloge  Poetarum  Graecorum,"'  (24  vols., 
1825,)  and  a  collection  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-three 
fables  of  Babrius,  with  a  commentary  and  Latin  version. 
He  also  edited  several  French  classics,  and  contributed 
numerous  articles  to  the  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  and 
other  works  of  high  reputation.  "  His  lectures,"  says  a 
French  biographer,  "have  been  the  honour  and  pride  of 
the  university  which  could  match  him  against  the  most 
renowned  Hellenists  of  foreign  universities."  Died  in 
September,  1857. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "  Novivelie  Biographie 
Geneiale;"  "  Classical  Journal,"  March,  1825. 

Boissy,  bwt'se',  (Jean  Baptiste  Thiaudiere — 
te'o'd.e-aiR',)  a  French  antiquary,  and  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions,  born  in  Paris  in  1666;  died  in 
1729. 

Boissy,  (Louis  Michel,)  a  French  historical  writer, 
son  of  Louis  de  Boissy,  noticed  below.    Died  in  1793. 

Boissy-d'Anglas,  de,  deh  bwa'se'  dSN'gkV,  (Fran- 
cois Antoine,)  a  French  statesman  and  revolutionist, 
born  at  Saint-Jean-Chambre,  in  Ardeche,  in  1756.  As  a 
member  of  the  National  Convention,  he  voted  for  the 


detention  of  the  king  and  the  appeal  to  the  people.  He 
became  successively  secretary  of  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred,  president  of  the  tribunat,  (1802,)  commander 
of  the  legion  of  honour,  and  senator,  (1805.)  In  i8i6  he 
was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  political  essays.  Died  in  1826. 
See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Boissy,  de,  deh  bwS^se',  (Charles  Desprez — di'- 
pRy,)  a  P>ench  jurist  and  legal  writer,  born  in  Paris 
about  1730;  died  in  1787. 

Boissy,  de,  (Louis,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Vic 
in  1694,  was  the  author  of  a  successful  comedy  entitled 
"The  Man  of  the  Day,"  ("L'Homme  du  Jour.")  In 
1754  he  succeeded  Destouches  as  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.    Died  in  1758. 

Boiste,  bwSst,  (Pierre  Claude  Victoire,)  a  cele- 
brated French  lexicographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1765.  His 
"  Universal  Dictionary  of  the  French  Language"  (2  vols. 
8vo,  1800)  is  esteemed  a  standard  work,  holding  the 
same  rank  in  France  that  Johnson's  does  in  England.  He 
also  published  a  "  Dictionary  of  Universal  Geography, 
Ancient  and  Modern."    Died  in  1824. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Boistuau  de  Launai,  bwSs^tii'o'  deh  Xo't^W  (Pierre,^ 
a  French  historian,  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  His  "  Theatre  du  Monde"  was  printed  twenty 
times  or  more.    He  wrote  other  works. 

Boisville,  de,  deh  bwa'v6K,(jEAN  Francois  Martin,) 
a  French  theologian,  born  at  Rouen  in  1755,  '^^^^  canor 
of  the  cathedral  of  that  city.    Died  in  1829. 

Boisy,  de,  deh  bw^'ze'",  (Artus  Gouffier,  SR^tiis' 
goo'fe-a^,)  Seigneur,  a  French  statesman  and  soldier, 
born  aBout  1475.  served  in  Italy  under  Charles  VIII. 
and  Louis  XII.,  and  was  appointed  by  the  latter  tutor  to 
the  young  prince,  afterwards  Francis  I.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Francis,  he  became  grand  master  of  France  and 
governor  of  Dauphiny.    Died  in  1519. 

See  Anselme,  "  Histoire  genealogique  de  la  Maison  de  France." 

Boitard,  bw3.^ttR',  (Pierre,)  a  French  naturalist  and 
writer  on  agriculture,  born  at  Macon  in  1789.  He  edited 
several  journals,  and  published  numerous  works,  among 
which  are  "The  Cabinet  of  Natural  History,"  (1821,) 
"  Gardener's  Manual,"  "  Natural  History  of  European 
Birds  of  Prey,"  (1824,)  and  "Manual  of  Entomology," 
(1828.) 

Boiteau.bwi^to',  (Dieudonne  Alexandre  Paul,)  a 
French  lit/crateicr,  born  in  Paris  in  1830.  He  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  "  The  Philosophy  and  Politics  of  Be- 
ranger,"  (1858.) 

Boitel,  bwa''teK,  (Pierre,)  a  French  litterateur,  lived 
about  1620. 

Boitet  de  Frauville,  bw^'ti'  deh  fR5'v^K,  (Claude,) 
born  at  Orleans  in  1570,  translated  Homer's  "Odyssey" 
into  French.    Died  in  1625. 

Boivin,  bwa'vfiN^  (Jacques  Denis,)  a  French  general 
of  brigade,  born  in  Paris  in  1756,  served  in  the  republican 
army  from  1793  to  1805.    Died  in  1 831. 

Boivin,(Louis,)  a  French  scholar  and  historical  writer, 
born  in  the  diocese  of  Lisieux  in  1649,  became  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1701.    Died  in  1724. 

Boiviii,  (Marie  Anne  Victoire  Gillain — zhe^yaN',) 
born  near  Versailles  in  1773,  studied  anatomy  and  ob- 
stetrics, and  obtained  the  degree  of  M.D.  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Marburg.  She  was  patronized  by  Madame 
Elizabeth,  sister  of  the  king,  and  was  appointed  in  1801 
chief  superintendent  of  the  hospital  de  la  Maternite,  in 
Paris.  She  wrote  several  treatises  relating  to  her  pro- 
fession.   Died  in  1841. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Boivin,  (Ren^:,)  a  French  engraver,  born  at  Angers 
in  1530.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "Portraits  of 
Ancient  Philosophers  and  Poets,"  and  "  ^^Lneas  saving 
his  Father."    Died  in  1598. 

Boivin,  de,  deh  bwi'v^N',  (Francois,)  a  French  his- 
torical writer,  born  about  1550  ;  died  in  1618. 

Boivin  deVilleneuve,  bwa'viN'  deh  v^Knuv',(jEAN,) 
brother  of  Louis  Boivin,  noticed  above,  born  in  1663. 
He  became  in  1705  professor  of  Greek  in  the  College  de 
France.  He  translated  the  "  CEdipus"  of  Sophocles  and 
"The  Birds"  of  Aristophanes  into  French,  and  wrote  in 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BOIZOT  384  BOLINGBROKE 


reply  to  Lamotte  an  "Apology  for  Homer,  and  the  Shield 
of  Achilles,"  (1715.)    Died  in  1726. 

See  QuEKARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Boizot,  bwcVzo',  (Louis  Simon,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  1748.  He  executed  statues  of  Joseph  Vernet, 
Joubert,  and  Daubenton.    Died  in  1809. 

Bojaiius  or  Boianus,  bo-ya''nus,  (Ludwig  Hein- 
RICH,)  a  German  anatomist,  born  in  Alsatia  in  1776  ;  died 
at  Darmstadt  in  1827. 

Bojardo.    See  Boiardo. 

Bojer,  bo'yer,  (Wenceslaus,)  a  German  botanist, 
born  at  Prague  about  1798.  He  visited  Madagascar  and 
other  islands  near  Africa,  and  published  "  Hortus  Mauri- 
tianus,"  (1837.)    Died  in  1856. 

Bo-joc'a-lus,  a  German  warrior  and  ally  of  Rome, 
lived  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  been  put  to  death  under  Nero,  for 
having  refused  to  take  up  arms  against  his  people,  the 
Ansibarians. 

Booker,  (George  H.,)  an  American  poet,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1824.  After  graduating  at  Princeton  in 
1842,  he  made  a  tour  of  Europe,  and  has  since  resided 
in  Philadelphia.  Plis  first  volume,  "  The  Lesson  of  Life, 
and  other  Poems,"  appeared  in  1847;  followed  in  1848 
by  "Calaynos,"  a  tragedy,  which  has  been  played  with 
success  both  in  England  and  America.  Among  his  other 
productions  are  "Anne  Boleyn,"  a  tragedy,  "  Leonore  de 
Guzman,"  and  his  "  War  Lyrics,"  which  have  been  much 
admired. 

Bokharee,  Bokh^ri,  or  Bokh^ry,  bo-Ka'ree, 
(Aboo  Abdallah  Mohammed — a'boo  ab-dllOah  mo- 
him'med,)  a  celebrated  Mussulman  theologian,  born  in 
810  A.D.,  compiled  a  collection  of  traditions  or  sentences 
borrowed  from  Mohammed.    Died  in  870. 

Bol,  bol,  (Ferdinand,)  a  Dutch  painter  and  engraver, 
born  at  Dort  about  16 10,  was  a  pupil  of  Rembrandt. 
Among  his  best  engravings  are  a  "Sacrifice  of  Abra- 
ham," and  "  Saint  Jerome  holding  a  Crucifix."  His  por- 
traits are  highly  esteemed.    Died  about  1685. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Bol  or  Boll,  bol,  (Hans,  or  John,)  a  skilful  Flemish 
painter  of  landscapes,  animals,  and  flowers,  born  at 
Mechlin  in  1534.  He  worked  at  Amsterdam,  and  was 
also  an  engraver.    Died  about  1590. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Bol,  (Kornelis,)  a  Dutch  painter,  who  lived  in  Lon- 
don in  1666,  and  painted  views  of  the  great  conflagration 
which  occurred  there  in  that  year. 

Bolanger,  bo'lSN'zha',  (John,)  a  painter  of  history, 
born  in  1606,  was  a  pupil  of  Guido,  and  worked  for  the 
Duke  of  Modena.    Died  in  1660. 

Bolchowitinow.    See  Bolkhovitinov. 

Bold,  (Samuel,)  an  English  clergyman,  who  was  vicar 
of  Shapwick,  Dorsetshire.  He  published  several  theo- 
logical works.    Died  in  1737. 

Boldetti,  bol-det'tee,  (Marcantonio,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Rome  in  1663  ;  died  in  1749. 

Boldoni,  bol-do'nee,  (Sigismondo,)  an  Italian  physi- 
cian, and  professor  of  philosophy  at  Pavia,  born  at  Milan 
about  1597;  died  in  1630. 

Bolduc,  boKdiik',  (Jacques,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  theological  writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1580. 

Boleslaw,  boHls-lS-v^,  or  Boleslaus,  bo'lSs-li^us,  I., 
[Fr.  Boleslas,  bo'les'lts',]  surnamed  the  Brave,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Mieczislaw  (Micislaus)  as  Prince  of 
Poland  in  992.  He  was  engaged  in  a  war  with  Henry  II. 
of  Germany,  and  conquered  a  portion  of  Silesia  from  the 
Prussians.  He  died  in  1025,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Mieczislaw  II. 

Bcleslaw  or  Boleslaus  II.,  surnamed  the  Bold, 
born  in  1042,  was  a  son  of  Casimir  I.,  whom  he  succeeded 
in  1058.  Having  slain  at  the  altar  the  Archbishop  of 
Cracow,  who  had  remonstrated  against  his  tyranny,  he 
was  anathematized  by  the  pope,  and,  being  deserted  by 
his  subjects,  fled  to  Carinthia,  where  he  died  about  1090. 

Boleslaw  or  Boleslaus  III.,  surnamed  the  Wry- 
Mouthed,  was  the  son  of  Ladislaus,  whom  he  succeeded 
in  1102.  He  was  engaged  in  frequent  wars  with  the 
Hungarians  and  Russians,  and  is  said  to  have  been  vic- 
tor in  more  than  forty  battles.    Died  in  1138. 


Boleslaw  or  Boleslaus  IV.,  surnamed  Cris'pus, 
second  son  of  the  preceding,  ascended  the  throne  in 
1 147,  having  deposed  his  brother  Wladislaw,  (Ladislaus.) 
His  country  was  invaded  by  the  emperor  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa  in  1157  ;  but  the  following  year  a  peace  was  con- 
cluded between  them.    Died  in  ii 73. 

Boleslaw  or  Boleslaus  V.,  surnamed  the  Chaste, 
succeeded  his  father  Leszko  in  1237.  His  country  was 
laid  waste  by  the  Tartars  in  1240  and  1260.  Died  in  1279. 

Boleyn  or  Bullen,  pronounced  alike  booKen,  (Anne,) 
was  a  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Bullen,  afterwards  Vis- 
count Rochford  and  Earl  of  Wiltshire,  who  was  allied  to 
the  principal  nobility  in  the  kingdom.  Her  mother  was 
Lady  Howard,  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  She 
was  born  in  1507,  and  passed  some  years  at  the  court 
of  France.  About  the  age  of  twenty  she  became  a  maid 
of  honour  to  Queen  Catherine,  and  captivated  the  fancy 
of  Henry  VIII.,  who,  from  his  desire  to  marry  Anne 
Boleyn,  urged  the  pope  to  grant  him  a  divorce  from 
Catherine,  Henry  married  her  privately  in  the  early 
part  of  1533.  She  was  crowned  publicly  in  June  of  that 
year,  and  became  the  mother  of  Princess  Elizabeth  in 
September.  She  favoured  the  cause  of  the  Reformers. 
In  1536  she  lost  the  favour  of  the  king,  and  was  accused 
of  criminal  intercourse  with  several  men.  She  was  con- 
demned by  a  jury  of -peers  and  beheaded  in  May,  1536. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Anne  Boleyn,"  by  Miss  Benger  ;  Strickland's 
"Queens  of  England;"  also  the  Histories  of  Hume  and  Lingard, 
For  an  examination  into  the  character  of  Anne  Boleyn,  see  Froude's 
"  History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  xi. 

Bolgeni,  bol-ja'nee,  written  also  Boligeni,  (Gio- 
vanni ViNCENZO,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  at  Bergamo 
in  1733,  became  professor  of  theology  and  philosophy  at 
Macerata.  He  wrote  a  number  of  treatises  against  the 
Jansenists,    Died  in  1811. 

Bolingbroke,  boKing-brook,  (Henry  Saint  John,) 
Viscount,  an  eminent  English  author,  orator,  and  poli- 
tician, born  at  Battersea,  Surrey,  on  the  ist  of  October, 
1678,  was  a  son  of  Sir  Henry  Saint  John,  afterwards 
viscount.  He  was  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
and  became  extremely  dissipated.  In  1701  he  was  elected 
to  Parliament,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  Tory  party. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  of  war  in  1704,  and  retained 
the  office  until  the  change  of  the  ministry  in  1708.  A 
violent  political  change  occurred  in  17 10.  The  queen, 
always  partial  to  the  Tories,  and  no  longer  influenced  by 
the  Duchess  of  Marlborough,  dismissed  the  Whigs  from 
power,  and  formed  a  ministry  in  which  Harley  was  pre- 
mier and  Saint  John  secretary  of  state  for  foreign  aifairs. 
The  great  question  which  divided  the  nation  in  the  en- 
suing four  years  was,  whether  England  should  make 
peace  with  France  without  exacting  from  Philip  V.  a 
resignation  of  the  crown  of  Spain.  After  a  violent  con- 
test, the  Tories — the  peace  party — prevailed.  Saint  John 
was  the  principal  (English)  negotiator  of  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  (April,  1713,)  which  ended  the  long  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession.  He  was  created  Viscount  Boling- 
broke in  1 712,  and  about  that  time  became  a  rival  of 
Harley,  Earl  of  Oxford,  who  had  been  his  friend.  Sec- 
onded by  the  influence  of  Lady  Masham  over  the  queen, 
he  became  prime  minister  in  place  of  Harley  on  the  27th 
of  July,  1 714.  But  his  triumph  was  of  short  duration. 
The  death  of  Queen  Anne  (August  i,  1714)  deprived 
him  of  power,  and  frustrated  the  plans  which  he  is  known 
to  have  entertained  for  the  restoration  of  the  Stuart 
dynasty.  In  the  spring  of  171 5  he  escaped  to  France 
and  entered  the  service  of  the  Pretender,  who  appointed 
him  his  prime  minister.  He  was  impeached  of  high 
treason  in  the  same  year,  and,  having  failed  to  appear 
before  his  judges,  was  attainted  by  Parliament. 

In  his  exile  he  corresponded  with  his  old  friends  Pope 
and  Swift.  He  married  in  1720  the  widow  of  the  Mar- 
quis de  Villette,  a  niece  of  Madame  de  Maintenon.  He 
was  permitted  to  return  to  England  in  1723,  and  recovered 
his  estate,  but  was  not  admitted  into  the  House  of  Lords. 
Pie  maintained  a  long  opposition  to  Walpole  by  articles 
published  in  the  "  Craftsman."  Among  his  works  are  a 
"  Dissertation  on  Parties,"  (1735,)  "  Remarks  on  the  His- 
tory of  England,"  in  twenty-four  letters,  first  published 
in  the  "Craftsman,"  (1743,)  and  "The  Idea  of  a  Patriot 
King,"  (1749,)  His  works  have  little  merit  except  the 
style.    His  talents  were  rather  brilliant  than  solid.    "  In 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  n5t;  good;  moon 


BOLIVAR 


BOLOGNI 


his  reasonings,"  says  Dr.  Blair,  "  he  is  for  the  most  part 
flinisy  and  false  ;  in  his  political  writings,  factious  ;  in 
what  he  calls  his  philosophical  ones,  sophistical  and 
irreligious  in  the  highest  degree."  He  was  brilliant  in 
conversation,  and  had  a  high  reputation  as  an  orator. 
He  died  in  December,  1751,  having  bequeathed  some 
manuscript  essays  on  metaphysics  and  morals  to  David 
Mallet,  who  published  an  edition  of  his  works  in  five 
volumes,  (1754.)  "  His  political  writings,"  savs  the  "Ed- 
inburgh Review"  for  October,  1835,  "are  the  works  of  a 
skiltul  partisan — a  master  in  the  arts  of  insinuation  and 
sarcasm.  They  abound  in  animated  and  splendid  pas- 
sages, and  contain  many  sound  constitutional  truths 
which  are  now  trite  and  common,  but  which  had  never 
been  so  clearly  stated  nor  so  well  expressed  before." 

See  Goldsmith's  "Life  of  Bolingbroke ;"  Chesterfield's 
"  Memoirs  and  Letters;"  "Memoirs  of  Lord  Bolingbroke,"  by  G. 
W.  Cooke,  1835;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1835,  Oc- 
tober, 1863:  "Life  of  Lord  Bolingbroke,"  London,  1770;  Thomas 
Hunter,  "Sketch  of  the  Philosophical  Character  of  Lord  Boling- 
broke," 1770;  Friedrich  von  Raumer,  "Lord  Bolingbroke  uiid 
seine  Werke,"  2841 ;  Charles  de  Remusat,  "Bolingbroke,  sa  Vie 
et  son  Temps,"  1853. 

Bolivar,  bo-lee'viR,  (Gregorio,)  a  Spanish  mission- 
ary to  Mexico  and  South  America,  lived  about  1620. 

Bori-var,  [Sp.  pron.  bo-lee'v^R,]  or,  more  fully,  Boli- 
var y  Ponte,  bo-lee'v^Re  pon'ti,  (Simon,)  the  liberator 
of  South  America,  was  born  at  Caraccas  in  July,  1783, 
and  inherited  a  large  estate  from  his  father.  He  was  lib- 
erally educated  at  Madrid,  and  returned  to  his  native 
land  in  1809.  In  181 1  he  joined  the  insurgents  who  had 
taken  u.p  arms  to  liberate  their  country  from  the  S])an- 
ish  domination,  and  became  a  colonel  under  Miranda. 
He  obtained  the  command  of  an  army  in  1813,  defeated 
the  royalists,  and  declared  himself  dictator,  but  was  driven 
out  of  Venezuela  in  1814.  In  1815  he  took  refuge  from 
the  victorious  Spaniards  by  flight  to  Jamaica.  He  returned 
to  the  scene  of  contest  in  1816,  and  raised  another  army, 
which  defeated  the  Spaniards  under  Morillo  in  February, 
181 7.  At  a  congress  of  the  republic  of  Venezuela,  held 
in  February,  1819,  he  resigned  his  dictatorship,  or  ex- 
changed it  for  the  title  of  president.  His  army  in  the 
same  year  defeated  the  royalists  at  Bojaca  and  other 
places,  and  liberated  New  Granada.  In  December,  1819, 
Venezuela  and  New  Granada  united  to  form  the  repub- 
lic of  Colombia,  of  which  Bolivar  became  the  first  presi- 
dent. He  gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Carobobo  in  June, 
1821,  and  in  1822  marched  with  an  army  to  Peru,  which, 
with  his  aid,  was  quickly  liberated  from  the  Spaniards. 
The  independence  of  the  South  American  republics  was 
recognized  by  England  and  the  United  States.  About 
the  end  of  1823  Bolivar  was  appointed  Dictator  of  Peru. 
The  war  having  been  ended  bv  a  decisive  victory  over 
the  royalists  at  Ayacucho  in  December,  1824,  Bolivar 
resigned  the  office  of  Dictator  of  Peru  in  January  or  Feb- 
ruary, 1825.  The  same  year  he  visited  U])per  Peru,  which 
was  formed  into  a  separate  state,  called  Bolivia,  of  which 
he  was  declared  perpetual  protector.  He  framed  for  this 
state  a  code  or  constitution  by  which  the  executive  power 
was  vested  in  a  president  for  life  with  irresponsible  powers. 
This  caused  him  to  be  suspected  of  designs  against  popu- 
lar liberty.  During  his  absence  from  Coloinbia,  Paez 
rebelled  against  the  government,  which  was  too  feeble  to 
suppress  his  rebellion.  The  enemies  of  Bolivar  intimated 
that  he  fomented  this  revolt  in  order  to  impress  on  the 
minds  of  the  people  the  necessity  of  a  dictator.  He  re- 
turned in  1826,  and  restored  order  by  his  presence.  In 
December  of  that  year  he  was  declared  president  for  life  of 
Peru,  which  had  adopted  the  Bolivian  code.  About  this 
date  he  was  again  elected  President  of  Colombia.  He 
was,  however,  regarded  with  distrust  by  the  republicans, 
and  formally  resigned  in  February,  1827  ;  but,  as  the  Con- 
gress refused  to  accept  his  resignation,  he  remained  in 
power.  Some  writers  state  that  he  retired  to  private  life 
some  months  before  his  death.  He  died  at  San  Pedro 
in  December,  1830.  The  result  of  his  military  services 
was  the  independence  of  three  large  states,  which  he 
also  organized  with  ability. 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1829,  vol.  xxviii., 
(by  C.  Gushing:)  Ducoudrav-Holstein,  "  M ^'moires  de  S.  Boli- 
var," 1829,  and  English  translation  of  the  same,  2  vols.,  1830. 

Bolkhovitinov  or  Bolchowitinow,  bol-ko-vee'te- 
nov,  a  Russian  archbishop  and  historical  writer,  born  in 


1761.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Literary  Russia," 
which  was  translated  into  German  by  Strahl  in  1828. 
Died  in  1837. 

Bollei,  boKla,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  burlesque 
poet,  born  at  Bergamo  about  1540.  He  wrote  verses 
called  "macaronic." 

BoFlaii,  (William,)  a  lawyer,  born  in  England,  re- 
moved to  Massachusetts  about  1740.  He  was  sent  to 
England  in  1745  as  agent  of  the  colony,  and  remained 
there  many  years,  during  which  he  rendered  valuable 
services  to  Massachusetts  and  wrote  several  political 
tracts.    Died  in  1776. 

Bollaudus,  bol-lin'dus,  (John,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit, 
born  in  the  province  of  Limburg  in  1596.  He  was  the 
first  of  the  theological  writers  called  Bollandists,  the 
contributors  to  the  great  work  entitled  "  Acta  Sanc- 
torum," or  Lives  of  the  Saints.  In  1643  published, 
conjointly  with  Godfrey  Henschen,  the  first  two  volumes, 
in  folio.  Died  in  1665.  The  "Acta  Sanctorum"  was  con- 
tinued by  several  learned  men,  and  in  1794  had  reached 
fifty-four  volumes. 

See  L.  P.  Gachard,  "M^moire  historique  sur  les  Bollandistes," 
1835. 

BoUandus,  bol-lSn'dus,  or  De  BoUandt,  deh  bol'- 

lint,  (Sebastiaan,)  a  Dutch  theologian  and  philosopher, 
born  at  Maestricht.    Died  in  1645. 

Bollemont,  de,  deh  bol'm6N^  (Francois  Charles 
Robert  Chouet,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Arrancy 
in  1749,  served  under  Jourdan  in  Austria,  and  rose  to 
be  inspector-general  of  artillery.    Died  in  1810. 

Bollet,  ho'W,  (Philippe  Albert,)  a  French  Jacobin, 
and  member  of  the  National  Convention,  (1792,)  voted 
for  the  death  of  the  king.  He  subsequently  became  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  of  the 
legislative  body.    Died  in  1811. 

Bollioud-Mermet,  bo1e-oo'  m^R^mk',  (Louis,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Lyons  in  1709  ;  died  in  1793. 

Bollman,  boKman,  (Eric,)  a  German  physician,  born 
in  Hanover  about  1770.  Pie  made  an  unsuccessful  effort 
to  release  La  Fayette  from  prison  at  Olmutz,  and  after- 
wards passed  some  years  in  exile  in  the  United  States. 
Died  in  1821. 

Bologna,  bo-16n'yS,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  about  1580. 

Bologna,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Milan  about  1580,  wrote  the  "Crown  of  Poets,"  ("Co- 
rona Poetarum,"  1616.) 

Bologna,  da,  di  bo-l6n'yl,  (Giovanni,  or  John,)  [Fr. 
[ean  de  Bologne,  zh6N  deh  bo'lon',]  generally  called 
John  (Giovanni)  of  Bologna,  an  eminent  scul])tor  and 
architect,  born  at  Douai,  in  Flanders,  in  1524.  He  passed 
the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  Italy,  principally  at  Flor- 
ence, where  he  became  acquainted  with  Michael  Angelo. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Academy  of 
Florence.  Among  his  master-pieces  in  that  city  are  the 
bronze  statue  of  Mercury  in  the  Imperial  Gallery,  the 
"  Rape  of  the  Sabines,"  a  statue  of  Saint  Luke,  and  a 
"Centaur  vanquished  by  Hercules."  The  fountain  at 
Bologna,  with  a  colossal  bronze  figure  of  Neptune,  is 
ranked  among  the  finest  works  of  the  kind;  and  from 
this  production  the  artist  received  his  name.  He  also 
executed  a  number  of  excellent  pieces  of  sculpture  at 
Genoa.  As  a  sculptor  he  is  regarded  as  inferior  only  to 
Michael  Angelo.    Died  in  1608. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors;"  Cicognara, 
"Storia  della  Scultura;"  Fontenay,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes ;" 
Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario Duthilloeul,  "  iSloge  de  Jean  de  Bologne," 
1820. 

Bologna,  de,  (Lattanzio.)    See  Mainardl 
Bologne,  de,  deh  bo''lon^  (Pierre,)  a  lyric  poet,  of 

Italian  extraction,  born  in  Martinique  in  1706;  died  in 

1790. 

Bolognese.    See  Grimaldi. 

Bolognetti,  bo-16n-yet'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Bologna  about  1540. 

Bolognetti,  (Pompeo,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at 
Bologna  about  1590. 

Bologni,  bo-l^n'yee,  (Girolamo,)  born  at  Treviso  in 
1454,  was  the  author  of  Latin  poems,  and  edited  several 
Latin  classics.  He  became  a  priest  in  1479,  after  he  had 
married.  He  was  crowned  as  poet-laureate  by  the  em- 
peror Frederick  III.    Died  at  Treviso  in  15 17. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Viy guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

2; 


BOLOGNINI 


386 


BON 


Bolognini,  bo-16n-yee'nee,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician and  surgeon,  born  near  Padua  about  1490,  wrote 
*'  On  the  Cure  of  External  Ulcers,"  ("De  Cura  Ulcerum 
exteriorum,"  1 5 14.)    He  was  professor  at  Bologna. 

Bolognini,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  painter  of  architecture, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1678  ;  died  at  Vienna  in  1718. 

Bolognini,  (Giacomo,)  a  painter,  a  nephew  of  the 
following,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1664;  died  in  1734. 

Bolognini,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  called  the  Elder, 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1611.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Guido,  whose  works  he  copied  with  great  suc- 
cess. He  also  etched  some  works  after  that  master. 
Died  in  1688. 

Bolignini,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  the  Younger,  an 
Italian  sculptor,  son  of  Giacomo,  noticed  above,  bom  at 
Bologna;  died  in  1760. 

Bolognini,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  jurist,  legal  writer^  and 
diplomatist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1447  ;  died  in  1508. 

Bolomier,  de,  deh  bo'lo'me-i',  (Guillaume,)  secre- 
tary of  Amadeus  VIII.  of  Savoy,  rose  to  be  chancellor 
of  the  kingdom.  He  was  put  to  death,  on  a  charge  of 
calumny,  in  1446. 

Bolot,  bo'lo',  (Claude  Antoine,)  a  French  jurist, 
and  member  of  the  National  Convention,  born  in  Franche- 
Comte  about  1740.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis 
XVI.  with  a  delay  of  the  sentence.    Died  in  181 2. 

Bolsec,  boKsek',  (Jerome  Hermes,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  in  Paris,  wrote  virulent  attacks  on  Calvin 
and  Beza.    Died  in  1585. 

Bolswert,  boKswgRt,  or  Bolsward,  boKswiRt,  (Boe- 
Tius  Adam,)  an  eminent  Dutch  engraver,  born  in  Fries- 
land  about  1580,  lived  at  Antwerp.  Among  his  works 
are  a  **  Last  Supper,"  a  '*  Resurrection  of  Lazarus,"  after 
Rubens,  and  landscapes  after  Bloemaert.   Died  in  1634. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon ;"  Huber,  "Ma- 
nuel des  Amateurs." 

Bolswert  or  Bolsward,  (Scheltius,)  an  excellent 
engraver,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Bolsward  in 
1586,  resided  in  Antwerp.  His  prints  after  Rubens,  Van 
Dyck,  and  Jordaens  are  highly  esteemed. 

See  Heinecken,  " Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Boltin,  boKtin,  (Ivan,)  a  Russian  litterateur  and  his- 
torian, born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1735  ;  died  in  1792. 

BoFton  or  BouFtpn,  (Edmund,)  an  English  anti- 
quary and  historical  writer,  published  "The  Elements 
of  Armories,"  a  "  Life  of  Henry  II.,"  and  "Nero  Caesar, 
or  Monarchic  Depraved,"  (1624.) 

Bolton,  (James,)  an  English  naturalist,  who  lived 
about  1770-1800.  He  published  a  "History  of  British 
Ferns,"  (1795,)  "  Natural  History  of  British  Song-Birds," 
(2  vols.,  1794-96,)  and  other  works. 

Bolton,  (Matthew.)    See  Boulton. 

Bolton,  (Robert,)  an  English  scholar  and  Puritan 
divine,  born  in  Lancashire  in  1 572,  published  "  Helpes 
to  Humiliation,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  163 1. 

See  E.  Bagshaw,  "Life  of  Robert  Boltou." 

Bolton,  (Robert,)  Dean  of  Carlisle,  born  in  1697, 
published  "Letters  and  Tracts  on  the  Choice  of  Com- 
pany," and  other  treatises.    Died  in  1763. 

BoFton,  (Sarah  T.,)  an  American  poetess  of  the 
present  century,  born  in  Ohio,  was  a  contributor  to  the 
*'  Home  Journal"  of  New  York,  and  other  periodicals. 

See  Griswold's  "Female  Poets  of  America." 

Bolts,  bolts,  (Willem,)  born  in  Holland  about  1740, 
entered  the  service  of  the  English  East  India  Company, 
and  acquired  an  itnmense  fortune.  He  wrote  "Consid- 
erations on  the  Affairs  of  India,"  and  a  work  on  Bengal. 
Died  in  1808. 

Bolzani,  bol-zi'nee,  or  Bolzanio,  bol-z^'ne-o,  (Ur- 
i?ANO  Valeriano,)  an  Italian  monk  and  Greek  scholar, 
born  in  1440,  published  a  Greek  grammar.   Died  in  1524. 

Bolzano, bol-za'no,  (Bernhard,)  a  German  Catholic 
theologian  and  philosophical  writer,  born  at  Prague  in 
1781.  He  published,  among  other  works,  "Athanasia, 
or  Proofs  of  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul."   Died  in  1848. 

Bom, bom,  (Peter,)  a  Flemish  landscape-painter,  born 
at  Antwerp  in  1530,  painted  in  distemj^er.    13ied  in  1572. 

Bomare.    See  Valmont  de  Bomare. 

Bombaci,  bom-bS'chee,  (Gasparo,)  an  Italian,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1607,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Bologna,"  (1666.) 


Bombardini,  bom-biR-dee'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian jurist,  and  professor  of  law  at  Padua,  where  he  was 
born  in  1666;  died  in  1726. 

Bombasio,  bom-bi'se-o,  written  also  Bombace, 
(Gabriello,)  an  Italian  poet  and  orator,  born  at  Reggio 
about  1540.  He  was  patronized  by  the  Duke  of  Parma. 
He  wrote  "Alidoro,"  a  tragedy,  and  other  works. 

Bombelles,  de,  deh  bom'b^K,  (Henri  FRANgois,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  general  and  military  writer,  born  in 
1680,  distinguished  himself  at  the  battles  of  Oudenarde, 
Malplaquet,  and  Belgrade,  (1717.)    Died  in  1760. 

Bombelles,  de,  (Marc  Marie,)  Marquis,  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Bitche  in  1744.  He  served  in 
the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  was  subsequently  employed 
in  various  embassies  to  the  courts  of  England,  Holland, 
and  Austria.  He  afterwards  entered  into  orders,  and 
was  made  Bishop  of  Amiens,  (1819.)    Died  in  1822. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "Dictionnaire  des  G^n^raux  Frangais." 

Bombelli,  bom-beKlee,  (Rafaello,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  mathematician,  born  at  Bologna.  His  principal 
work  is  a  "Treatise  on  Algebra,"  (1572.)  He  appears  to 
have  been  one  of  the  first  Europeans  who  were  aware 
that  the  Arabs  derived  their  knowledge  of  algebra  from 
the  Hindoos. 

See  G.  LiBRi,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences  matWmatiques  en  Italic." 

Bombelli,  (Sebastiano,)  an  Italian  portrait-painter, 
born  in  Friuli  in  1635  ;  died  about  1685. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bomberg,  bom'blRC,  (Daniel,)  a  printer  of  Antwerp, 
celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  his  Ilebrew  characters. 
Among  his  works  are  several  editions  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  the  "  Hebraic  Concordance"  of  Isaac  Nathan,  and 
the  "Babylonish  Talmud."    Died  in  1549. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Bombino,  bom-bee'no,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1523;  died  in  1588. 

Bomfim,  b6N-f^N',  (Joz6  Joaquim,)  a  distinguished 
Portuguese  general  and  statesman,  born  in  Estremadura 
in  1790,  was  one  of  the  partisans  of  Dom  Pedro  in  Portu- 
gal, and  of  Donna  Maria  on  her  accession  to  the  throne. 
He  was  appointed  minister  of  war  and  of  the  marine  in 
1837.  After  the  downfall  of  the  constitution,  he  was 
banished  to  Africa,  whence  he  was  recalled  in  1847. 

See  Bkockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Bo-miFcar,  [Gr.  BopA/caf  or  Boc///'A/caf,]  a  Carthagin- 
ian admiral,  who  commanded  a  fleet  which  was  sent  about 
209  B.C.  to  support  the  army  which  defended  Syracuse 
against  the  Romans.  He  avoided  a  battle  by  a  hasty 
retreat,  and  returned  to  Carthage. 

Bomilcar,  a  Carthaginian  general,  who  aspired  to  be 
king  of  Carthage  about  308  B.C.,  but  failed  and  was  put 
to  death. 

Bommel,  van,  vtn  bom'mel,  [Lat.  Bomme'lius,] 
(Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  historical  writer.    Died  in  1542. 

Bommel,  van,  (Kornelis  Richard  Antoon,)  a 
Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Leyden  in  1790,  became 
Bishop  of  Liege  in  1829.    Died  in  1852. 

Bompard,  b^N^ptR',  (Alexis,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Conflans  in  1782,  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Digestive  Passages," 
("Traite  des  Maladies  des  Voies  digestives,"  1829.) 

Bompiano,  bom-pe-S'no,  (Ignazio,)  an  Italian  Jesuit 
and  historical  writer,  born  at  Frosinone  in  1612,  became 
professor  of  Hebrew  and  belles-lettres  in  the  Roman 
College.    Died  in  1675. 

Bon,  b6N,  (Florent,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  poet,  born 
about  1580,  resided  at  Rheims. 

Bon,  bon,  (Giovanni  Filippo,)  an  Italian  phj-^i.iar, 
and  professor  in  the  University  of  Padua,  born  in  1520. 

Bon,  (Louis  Andr6,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Ro- 
mans, in  Dauphiny,  in  1758.  He  served  with  distinction 
under  Augereau  in  Italy,  and  subsequently  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  Egypt  and  Syria.  He  was  killed  at  the  siege 
of  Saint-Jean-d'Acre  in  1799. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "Dictionnaire  des  Gen^raux  Fran(;ais." 

Bon  de  Saint-Hilaire,  b6N  deh  s^Nt'e'l^R',  (FRAN- 
gois Xavier,)  a  French  savant,  born  at  Montpellier  in 
1678,  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He  published  a  num- 
ber of  scientific  treatises,  one  of  which,  entitled  a  "Dis- 


a,  e,T,  o,  u  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscitre;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BONA 


387 


BONAPARTE 


sertation  on  the  Spider,"  (1710,)  obtained  extensive  popu- 
larity and  was  translated  into  Chinese.    Died  in  1761. 

See  Le  Bas,  " Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Bona,  bo'nS,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  at 
Mondovi  in  1609,  was  the  author  of  several  ecclesias- 
tical and  religious  works  in  Latin.    Died  in  1674. 

See  Bertolotti,  "Vita  J.  Bonse,"  1677;  Gouget,  "Vie  du  Car- 
dinal Bona." 

Bona,  della,  deKl^  bo'na,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  near  Verona  in  1712,  was  professor  at 
the  University  of  Padua. 

Bonac,  de,  deh  bo'ntk',  (Jean  Louis  d'Usson — 
dii's^N',)  Marquis,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  about 
1672,  was  employed  by  Louis  XIV.  in  important  em- 
bassies to  Sweden,  Poland,  and  Spain.  In  1 7 16  he  was 
ambassador  to  Constantinople,  where  he  resided  nine 
years.    Died  in  1738. 

Bonacci,  (Leonardo.)    See  Leonardo  of  Pisa. 

Bonaccioli,  bo-ndt-cho'lee,  or  Bonacciuoli,  bo-nit- 
choo-o'lee,  (Alfonso,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  about 
1 540.  He  translated  the  first  and  second  parts  of  Strabo's 
Geography  into  Italian;  also  portions  of  Pausanias. 

Bonaccioli,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at 
Ferrara  about  1480. 

Bonacina,  bo-ni-chee'nS,  (Martino,)  an  Italian  ec- 
clesiastic and  theological  writer,  born  at  Milan;  died  in 
1631. 

Bonacossi,  bo-ni-kos'see,  (Bardellone,)  son  of 
Pinamonte,  noticed  below,  having  imprisoned  his  father 
and  brother,  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  sovereign 
of  Mantua  in  1292.  He  was  deposed  in  1299  by  his 
nephew  Bottesella.    Died  about  1302. 

Bonacossi,  (Passerino,)  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
expelled  the  Guelphs  from  Mantua,  and  obtained  from 
the  emperor  Henry  VII.  the  title  of  imperial  vicar.  He 
was  killed  in  a  riot  about  1328. 

Bonacossi,  (Pinamonte,)  Prefect  of  Mantua,  became 
sovereign  of  that  city  about  1275,  having  murdered  his 
colleague,  and  sided  alternately  with  the  Guelph  and 
Ghibeline  factions.  He  is  mentioned  in  Dante's  "  In- 
ferno."   Died  in  1293. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  R^piibliques  Italiennes." 

Bo-na-cos'sus  or  Buoncossa,  boo^n'kos'sa,  (Er- 
COLE,)  an  Italian  physician,  and  ])rofessor  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Bologna,  was  a  native  of  Ferrara.    Died  in  1578. 

Bo'na  De'a,  [Fr.  Bonne  Di^esse,  bon  d^'^ss',]  ("  The 
Good  Goddess,")  a  Roman  divinity,  supposed  to  be  the 
sister  or  wife  of  Faunus,  and  by  some  authors  identified 
with  Ops.  She  was  worshipped  by  the  Roman  matrons 
at  an  annual  festival  and  with  mysterious  rites,  from 
which  all  males  were  strictly  excluded. 

Bonafide,  bo-nd-fee'd^,  or  Buonafede,  bQO^n-i- 
fa'da,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  botanist,  born  at  Padua 
in  1474.  He  founded  the  botanic  garden  in  that  city  in 
1540.    Died  in  1558. 

See  R.  DE  VisiANi,  "  Notizie  della  Vita  di  Bonafede,"  1845. 

Bonafous,  bo'ni'foo',  ( ?)  (Mathieu,)  an  agriculturist, 
born  at  Turin  in  1794,  wrote  on  the  production  of  silk  and 
on  other  branches  of  rural  economy.    Died  in  1852. 

Bonair,  bo'nSR',  (Henri  Stuard,)  a  French  histori- 
cal writer,  lived  about  1650. 

Bonal,  de,  deh  bo'ntl',  (FRANgois,)  born  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Agen,  in  France,  in  1734,  was  a])pointed  Bishop 
of  Clermont  in  1776,  and  was  afterwards  elected  to  the 
States-General.    Died  in  1800. 

Bonald,  de,  deh  bo^ntr,(Louis  Gabriel  Ambroise,) 
VicoMTE,  a  French  statesman  and  journalist  of  the  roy- 
alist party,  born  near  Milhau-en-Rouergue  in  1754.  He 
was  associated  in  1806  with  Chateaubriand  and  Fievee 
as  editor  of  the  "  Mercure,"  became  minister  of  state  in 
1822  and  a  peer  of  France  in  1823,  He  was  the  author 
of  "The  Theory  of  Political  and  Religious  Power,"  (3 
vols.,  1796,)  "La  Legislation  primitive,"  (3  vols.,  2d 
edition,  1821,)  and  other  works,  in  which  he  favours  ab- 
solutism. He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
Died  in  1840. 

See  Henri  de  Bonald,  "Notice  sur le Vicomte de  Bonald,"  1841. 

Bonald,  de,  (Louis  Jacques  Maurice,)  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Milhau  in  1787,  was  made  Archbishop 
of  Lyons  in  1839,  became  a  cardinal  in  1841,  and  a  senator 
in  1851.    He  was  a  legitimist  in  politics.    Died  m  1870. 


Bonami,  bo^nt'me',  (Francois,)  a  French  naturalist 
and  scientific  writer,  born  at  Nantes  in  17 10.  Du  Petit- 
Thouars  has  called  by  his  name  the  genus  Bonamia. 
Died  in  1786. 

Bonamici.    See  Buonamicl 

Bonamy,  bo'nt'me',  (Charles  Auguste  Jean  Bat- 
TiSTE  Louis  Joseph,)  born  at  Fontenay-le-Comte  in 
r764,  served  with  distinction  in  the  army  of  Napoleon  in 
Italy,  Austria,  and  Russia,  and  rose  to  be  general  of 
brigade.    Died  in  1830. 

Bonamy,  (Pierre  Nicolas,)  a  French  historical 
writer,  born  at  Louvres  in  1694;  died  in  1770. 

Bonanni,  bo-nSn'nee,  or  Buonanni,  boo-o-ndn^nee, 
(Filipfo,)  an  Italian  naturalist  and  antiquary,  born  in 
Rome  in  1638,  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Gabi- 
netto  armonico,"  (1716.)    Died  in  1725. 

Bonaparte,  bo-ni-paR'ta,  (Carlo,)  a  Corsican  law- 
yer, born  in  1744  was  the  father  of  Napoleon  I.  He 
was  a  partisan  of  Pascal  Paoli,  with  whom  he  fought 
against  the  Genoese.  He  married  the  beautiful  Letitia 
(Letizia)  Ramolino  in  1767,  and  had  five  sons  and  three 
daughters.    Died  at  Montpellier  in  February,  1785. 

Bonaparte,  (Caroline  Marie  Annoimciade,)  Queen 
of  Najjles,  a  sister  of  Napoleon  I.,  was  born  at  Ajaccio 
in  1782.  She  was  married  in  1800  to  General  Murat,  who 
became  King  of  Naples  in  July,  1808.  She  is  said  to 
have  exercised  a  great  influence  over  her  husband,  and 
to  have  taken  an  active  part  in  the  government.  After 
the  death  of  Murat  (181 5)  she  assumed  the  title  of 
Countess  of  Lipona,  and  resided  at  Trieste  for  many 
years.    Died  at  Florence  in  1839. 

Bonaparte,  (Charles  Lucien  Jules  Laurent,) 
Prince  de  Canino,  an  eminent  naturalist,  born  in  Paris 
in  1803,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Lucien  Bonaparte.  He 
married  his  cousin  Zenaide,  a  daughter  of  King  Joseph, 
in  1822,  soon  after  which  he  became  a  resident  of  Phila- 
delphia and  devoted  himself  to  ornithology.  He  pub- 
lished a  valuable  work,  entitled  "American  Ornithology, 
or  History  of  the  Birds  of  the  United  States,"  (Phila- 
deli)hia,  3  vols.,  1825-33,)  which  is  complemertary  to 
Wilson's  Ornithology.  In  182S  he  settled  in  Italy.  He 
took  a  ])rominent  part  in  organizing  the  Roman  republic, 
(1848-49.)  Among  his  chief  works  is  "  Illustrations  of 
the  Italian  Fauna,"  ("  Iconografia  della  Fauna  Italica," 
3  vols.,  1832-41,)  which  has  a  high  reputation.  He  had 
four  sons  and  eight  daughters.    Died  in  Paris  in  1857. 

Bonaparte,  (J^;r6me,)  King  of  Westphalia,  the  young- 
est brother  of  Napoleon  I.,  was  born  at  Ajaccio  in  No- 
vember, 1784.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1800,  obtained 
the  rank  of  lieutenant,  and  served  in  the  West  Indies. 
During  a  visit  to  the  United  States  he  became  acquainted 
with  Miss  Paterson,  of  Baltimore,  whom  he  married  in 
1803  w^ithout  the  consent  of  his  family.  His  marriage 
was  declared  null  in  1805  by  Napoleon,  who  would 
not  permit  the  wife  to  enter  France  ;  but  he  pro- 
moted Jerome  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1806.  In 
the  same  year  he  passed  from  the  navy  into  the  army  as 
a  general  of  brigade.  He  commanded  a  corps  which 
gained  some  successes  in  Silesia  in  1807,  and  was 
placed  on  the  throne  of  the  new  kingdom  of  West- 
phalia in  July,  1807.  In  the  ensuing  month  he  married 
Catherine,  a  daughter  of  the  King  of  Wiirtemberg.  Cas- 
sel  was  the  cai:)ital  of  his  kingdom.  He  ceased  to  reign 
in  October,  1813.  After  the  return  of  Napoleon  from 
Elba,  he  joined  his  standard,  and  commanded  a  divisi(Mi 
at  Waterloo.  He  resided  as  an  exile  at  Trieste,  Rome, 
and  Lausanne  until  1847,  when  he  returned  to  France. 
He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1850,  He  died  in 
June,  i860,  leaving  two  sons,  Jerome,  (whose  mother 
was  Miss  Paterson,)  and  Napoleon  Joseph  Charles  Paul, 
called  Prince  Napoleon,  issue  of  his  second  marriage. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale,"  (under  the  head  of  Nai'o- 

L^ON.) 

Bonaparte,  (Joseph,)  the  eldest  brother  of  Napo- 
leon I.,  was  born  at  Corte,  in  the  island  of  Corsica, 
on  the  7th  of  January,  1768.  He  was  sent  to  the  Col- 
lege of  Autun  about  1777,  and  returned  to  Corsica  in 
1784,  after  which  he  studied  law  at  Pisa,  and  was  re- 
ceived as  an  advocate  in  Bastia  in  1788.  Expelled  from 
Corsica  by  the  partisans  of  Paoli  in  1793,  he  retired  to 
France,  and  married  Julie  Clary.    In  May,  1797,  he  was 


€  as  k;  q  as  s;  g  /lard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K.gutttiral;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  I^xplanations,  p.  23.) 


BONAPARTE 


388 


BONAPARTE 


sent  as  ambassador  to  the  court  of  Rome,  and  received 
from  Napoleon  instructions  in  which  occur  the  following 
sentences  :  *'  Display  a  grand  character.  If  the  pope 
dies,  permit  not  another  to  be  chosen."  On  the  murder 
of  the  French  general  Du|)hot  by  the  Papal  troops,  De- 
cember, 1797,  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred.  He  negotiated  the 
treaty  of  Luneville  with  Austria  in  February,  1801,  and 
the  treaty  of  Amiens  with  the  English  in  March,  1802. 
His  manners  and  talents  are  said  to  have  been  well 
adapted  to  diplomacy.  He  seems  to  have  been  rather 
unambiti  us  ;  but,  urged  by  the  imperious  will  of  Napo- 
leon, he  accepted  the  throne  of  Naples,  February,  1806. 
On  this  occasion  the  imperial  egotist  addressed  to  him 
these  words  :  "All  sentiments  of  affection  yield  now  to 
reasons  of  state.  I  recognize  as  relatives  only  those 
who  serve  me."  In  May,  1808,  he  quitted  Naples,  and 
was  transferred  to  the  throne  of  Spain,  where  he  en- 
countered a  far  more  determined  resistance.  He  entered 
Madrid  with  the  French  army  in  July,  1808,  but  received 
little  support  from  the  Spaniards,  many  thousands  of 
whom  took  arms  against  the  French.  He  was  forced  to 
retire  from  Madrid,  July  31;  but  Napoleon  arrived  in 
November,  gained  several  victories  in  rapid  succession, 
and  occupied  the  capital  in  December,  1808.  In  1809  a 
large  portion  of  Spain  was  occupied  by  the  French 
armies,  severally  commanded  by  Soult,  Victor,  and  Suchet, 
over  whom  the  authority  of  the  king  was  only  nominal. 
Disgusted  with  his  anomalous  and  vexatious  position, 
he  offered  his  resignation  or  abdication,  (March,  1809,) 
which  Napoleon  would  not  accept.  His  army  fought  an 
indecisive  battle  against  the  English  under  General  Wel- 
lesley,  at  Talavera,  in  July,  1809.  The  war  was  prose- 
cuted with  various  success  for  several  years.  (See  Mas- 
sena;  Soult  ;  Wellington.)  Joseph  was  appointed 
general-in-chief  of  all  the  French  armies  in  Spain  in 
March,  1812,  and  was  defeated  by  Wellington  at  Vittoria 
in  June,  1813,  soon  after  which  event  he  ceased  to  reign. 
When  Napoleon  departed  from  Paris  for  the  army,  in 
fanuary,  1814,  he  left  Joseph  at  that  capital,  with  the  title 
of  lieutenant-general.  After  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  he 
emigrated  to  the  United  States,  styled  himself  Count  de 
Survilliers,  and  resided  at  Bordentown,  New  Jersey,  with 
his  two  daughters.  After  the  accession  of  Louis  Philippe 
to  the  throne  of  France,  in  1830,  Joseph  Bonaparte  re- 
turned to  Europe.  He  passed  several  years  in  England, 
and  afterwards  settled  at  Florence,  in  Italy,  where  he 
died  in  1844.    (See  Bonaparte,  Napoleon.) 

See  A  DU  Casse,  "  Memoires  et  Correspondance  du  Roi  Joseph," 
lo  vols.,  1S54  :  Thiers,  "  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire ;" 
"Biographical  Sketch  of  Joseph  Bonaparte,"  London,  1833;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Gendrale,"  (under  Napoleon.) 

Bonaparte,  (Letizia  or  Letitia  Ramolino  (r^-mo- 
lee'no)  or  Ramolini,)  the  mother  of  Napoleon  I.,  was 
born  in  Corsica  in  1750.  She  was  celebrated  for  her 
beauty;  she  was  also  a  woman  of  amiable  character  and 
good  sense.  Napoleon  once  declared,  "  It  is  to  my  mother 
and  her  good  principles  that  I  owe  my  fortune  and  all 
the  good  that  I  have  ever  done  ;"  and  again,  "  Madame 
Mere  had  a  great  character,  energy  of  soul,  much  ele- 
vation and  pride."  After  hevison  became  emperor,  she 
was  styled  Madame  M^re,  and  resided  in  Paris.  Died 
in  1839. 

Bonaparte,  (Louls,)  King  of  Holland,  a  brother  of 
Napoleon  I.,  was  born  at  Ajaccio  in  1778.  He  entered 
the  army  about  1794,  and  served  in  Italy  at  the  battles 
of  the  Brenta,  Areola,  (1796,)  and  Rivoli,  (1797.)  Hav- 
ing aided  Napoleon  in  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  i8th  Bru- 
maire,  1799,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  In 
1802  he  was  induced  to  sacrifice  his  own  inclinations  and 
peace  by  a  marriage  with  Hortense  de  Beauharnais,  who 
was  also  averse  to  the  union.  They  separated  finally  in 
1S07.  He  became  a  general  of  division  in  April,  1804,  and 
was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  prince  in  May  of  that  year. 
In  compliance  with  the  will  of  Napoleon,  he  accepted 
the  title  of  King  of  Holland  in  June,  1806.  The  Dutch 
submitted  quietly,  perhaps  contentedly,  to  the  authority 
of  Louis,  who  was  disposed  to  respect  their  rights  and 
consult  their  interests;  but  Napoleon  insisted  that  the 
policy  of  Holland  should  be  subservient  to  his  own  de- 
signs.   Louis  was  compelled  to  sacrifice  the  mercantile 


interests  of  Holland  by  co-operation  with  the  "Conti- 
nental System,"  i.e.  the  paper  blockade  of  the  British 
ports.  On  this  and  other  subjects  he  and  the  emperor 
had  disputes  which  ended  in  a  total  suspension  of  friendly 
relations.  In  December,  1809,  there  occurred  at  Paris  a 
meeting  of  allied  sovereigns, which  Louis  attended.  When 
he  was  about  to  return,  he  found  himself  treated  as  a  pris- 
oner, and  was  not  permitted  to  leave  Paris  until  he  sub- 
mitted to  certain  conditions  which  Napoleon  imposed.  In 
January,  1810,  the  French  army  began  to  occupy  Holland. 
Louis  abdicated  in  July,  i8io,  and  Holland  was  then  an- 
nexed to  the  French  Empire.  He  retired  to  private  life, 
and  resided  successively  at  Rome  and  Florence.  Died 
at  Leghorn  in  1846.  He  was  author  of  several  works, 
among  which  may  be  noticed  "  Historical  Documents 
and  Reflections  on  the  Government  of  Holland,"  (3  vols., 
1820.)  He  had  three  sons, — Napoleon,  who  died  in  1807  ; 
Napoleon  Louis,  who  died  in  1831  ;  and  Louis  Napoleon, 
now  Emperor  of  France. 

See  "  Memoires  sur  la  Cour  de  Louis  Napoleon  et  sur  la  Hollande," 
Paris,  182S;  Thiers,  "Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire;"  F. 
WoUTERS,  "  Les  Bonaparte  depuis  1815  jusqu'en  1846,"  1848. 

Bonaparte,  (Louis  Lucien,)  a  son  of  Lucien,  and 
nephew  of  Napoleon  I.,  was  born  in  England  in  1813. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  France 
in  1848.  In  1852  he  became  a  senator,  and  received  the 
title  of  prince. 

Bonaparte,  (Louis  N.\poleon.)  See  Napoleon  III. 

Bonaparte,  (Lucien,)  Prince  de  Canino,  a  brother 
of  Napoleon  I.,  born  at  Ajaccio  in  March,  1775,  was  one 
of  the  ablest  members  of  the  family.  He  was  educated 
at  the  College  of  Autun  and  the  school  of  Brienne.  In 
the  French  Revolution  he  showed  himself  a  zealous 
republican,  and  acted  with  much  energy  and  moderation 
on  several  occasions.  In  1795  he  married  Christine 
Boyer,  a  poor  girl  of  Provence,  and  was  appointed 
commissary  of  war.  He  was  elected  to  the  Council  of 
Five  Hundred  in  April,  1798,  acquired  great  influence, 
and  became  an  opponent  of  the  Directory, — or  rather  of 
the  policy  of  the  Directors ;  for  he  supported  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  year  III.  He  united  with  Sieyes,  who  was 
elected  a  Director  in  May,  1798,  and  counteracted  the 
Jacobins.  After  the  return  of  Napoleon  from  Egypt, 
October,  1799,  Lucien  was  elected  president  of  the  Five 
Hundred.  He  co-operated  most  efficiently  with  Napo- 
leon in  the  revolution  of  the  i8th  Brumaire,  November 
9,  1799.  According  to  some  authorities,  he  acted  with 
more  resolution  and  firmness  in  this  affair  than  Napoleon 
himself.  Lucien  was  appointed  minister  of  the  interior 
in  December,  1799,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Spain  in 
November,  1800,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Tribunat 
in  1802.  He  offended  the  First  Consul  by  marrying,  in 
1803,  a  widow  named  Madame  Jouberthon.  His  first 
wife  had  died  about  1800.  He  went  into  exile  in  1804, 
settled  at  Rome,  and  exchanged  politics  for  literature 
and  art.  The  emperor  offered  him  a  throne  on  condition 
that  he  must  dissolve  his  marriage  ;  but  he  declined  the 
offer.  He  was  ordered,  it  is  said,  to  quit  the  continent 
of  Europe.  He  embarked  for  the  United  States  in  i8io, 
was  captured  during  the  voyage  by  an  English  cruiser, 
and  detained  in  England  until  1814.  He  was  reconciled 
to  Napoleon  in  181 5,  supported  him  actively  during  the 
Hundred  Days,  and  after  his  abdication  advocated  in  the 
House  of  Peers  the  claim  of  Napoleon  II.  He  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  life  in  exile  in  Italy,  and  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  poem  entitled  "Charlemagne,"  (2 
vols.,  1814,)  and  "Autobiographic  Memoirs,"  (1836.) 
He  had  six  daughters  and  five  sons,  Charles  Lucien 
the  naturalist,  Paul,  Louis  Lucien,  Pierre  Napoleon, 
and  Antoine.    Died  at  Rome  in  1840. 

See  P.  W.  FoRCHHAMMER,  "Denkrede  auf  den  Fiirsten  von  Ca- 
nino L.  Bonaparte,"  1840. 

Bonaparte,  (Lucien,)  Cardinal,  a  son  of  Charles 
Bonaparte,  Prince  of  Canino,  was  born  about  1828.  His 
mother  was  Zenai'de  Charlotte  Julie,  a  daughter  of  Jo- 
seph Bonaparte.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1853,  and 
became  a  cardinal  in  1S68.  He  is  said  to  be  remarkable 
for  his  personal  resemblance  to  Napoleon  I. 

Bonaparte,  (Marie  Anne  £lisa,)  usually  called 
Elisa,  Princess  de  Piombino,  a  sister  of  Napoleon  I., 
was  born  at  Ajaccio  in  1777.    She  was  mairied  in  1797 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m8t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BONAPARTE 


389 


BONAPARTE 


to  Felix  Bacciochi,  a  captain  of  tlie  French  army,  and 
vvent  to  reside  in  Paris  in  1798.  In  1805  Lucca  and 
Piombino  were  erected  into  a  principality  by  Napoleon, 
who  gave  the  sovereignty  of  the  same  to  his  sister  Elisa. 
She  became  Grand  Duchess  of  Tuscany  in  March,  1809, 
and  governed  that  country  with  ability  until  1814.  Died 
near  Trieste  in  1820. 

Bonaparte,  bo'na-part,  or  Buonaparte,  (Napo'- 
LEON,)  [Fr.  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  nt'po'la'dN'  bo''- 
na'p$Rt';  It.  Napoleone  Bonaparte,  (or  Buonaparte,) 
na-po-la-o'na  bo'nS-paR^ta,  (or  boo-o^nS-paR'ti,)]  Napo- 
leon I.,  Emperor  of  the  French,  the  greatest  general  of 
modern  times,  was  born  at  Ajaccio,  in  Corsica,  August 
15,1769.  His  father.  Carlo  Buonaparte,  was  an  officer 
under  General  Paoli,  and  distinguished  himself  as  one 
of  the  bravest  and  most  energetic  defenders  of  the  liber- 
ties of  his  country  against  the  French.  In  the  hardships 
and  dangers  of  that  contest  he  was  accompanied  by  his 
wife  Letitia,  (whose  maiden  name  was  Ramolino,  rd- 
mo-lee'no,)  a  young  woman  of  rare  beauty  as  well  as 
courage.  It  is  said  that  she  was  suddenly  taken  in  labour 
at  mass,  and,  having  reached  her  home  in  haste,  her 
child  was  born  on  a  piece  of  old  tapestry  on  which 
were  represented  the  battle-scenes  of  the  Iliad.  The 
child  thus  ushered  into  the  world,  the  offspring  of  war- 
like parents  and  surrounded  by  the  images  of  war,  is 
said  to  have  been  not  only  singularly  beautiful,  but  very 
gentle  and  easily  managed  until  he  was  two  years  old. 
At  this  age  his  character  suddenly  changed :  he  became 
imperious,  and  was  invincibly  obstinate  to  those  wlio 
sought  to  control  him  by  menaces  or  by  force.  In  the 
childish  disputes  that  occurred  between  him  and  his 
elder  brother  Joseph,  Napoleon,  it  is  said,  invariably 
came  off  conqueror.  His  mother,  however,  by  com- 
bining moderation  with  firmness,  succeeded  at  length  in 
obtaining  a  complete  ascendency  over  him.  He  after- 
wards said,  '*It  is  to  my  mother,  and  to  the  principles 
which  she  instilled  into  me,  that  I  owe  my  fortune  and 
all  the  good  that  I  have  ever  done."  "Nevertheless," 
says  his  biographer  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale,"  "we  may  well  believe  that  this  education,  with  all 
its  efficiency,  was  somewhat  wanting  in  tenderness.  Napo- 
leon was  educated  to  be  one  of  Plutarch's  heroes.  He 
was  not,  perhaps,  sufficiently  imbued  with  those  gentle, 
refined,  and  benevolent  sentiments  which  form  the  very 
essence  of  the  moral  sense.  The  standard  of  virtue  on 
which  his  character  was  moulded  was  that  of  antiquity  : 
it  was  force  mastering  itself  in  order  that  it  might  become 
the  master  of  others."  Before  he  was  ten  years  old, 
(April,  1779,)  Napoleon  left  Corsica  for  the  military  school 
at  Brienne,  where  he  remained  until  he  went  (October, 
1784)  to  the  military  school  at  Paris  to  complete  his 
education.  While  at  Brienne  he  was  for  some  time 
under  the  instruction  of  Pichegru.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  proficiency  in  mathematics  ;  but  he  manifested  no 
fondness  for  classical  studies  or  for  belles-lettres  in  any 
form.  He  was  studious,  of  regular  habits,  well-behaved, 
and  enjoyed  excellent  health.  He  took  a  particular  in- 
terest in  history,  in  which  his  favourite  authors  were  Plu- 
tarch, Caesar,  Arrian,  and  others  of  this  class.  His  father 
died  in  February,  1785,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-six.  In 
September  of  the  same  year  Napoleon  received  a  com- 
mission as  sub-lieutenant  of  artillery  ;  but  he  was  soon 
after  made  first  lieutenant  in  a  regiment  of  artillery  sta- 
tioned at  Valence.  Having  gone  to  Corsica  on  a  fur- 
lough, he  expressed  himself  in  1789  very  warmly  in  favour 
of  the  revolutionary  movement  in  France.  In  February, 
1792,  he  was  made  captain  of  artillery.  While  he  was  in 
Ajaccio,  in  April  of  that  year,  a  serious  dispute  having 
occurred  between  the  troops  and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
town,  Bonaparte  was  accused  of  having  given  orders  to 
fire  on  the  people  ;  he  was  in  consequence  summoned  to 
Paris  to  answer  for  his  conduct.  He  was,  however,  ac- 
quitted. While  in  the  capital  he  witnessed  the  insur- 
rection of  June  20.  He  was  at  a  coffee-house,  when, 
seeing  the  mob  pass  by  armed  with  pikes,  axes,  etc.,  he 
said  to  his  friend  Bourrienne,  "Let  us  follow  this  ca- 
naille." He  saw  them  break  into  the  palace  of  the  Tuile- 
ries  without  meeting  any  resistance.  When  the  king 
appeared  at  the  window,  wearing  the  bonnet  rou^e,  he  ex- 
claimed, "  It's  all  over  with  that  poor  man  !    How  could 


they  permit  those  wretches  to  enter  the  palace  ?  A  few 
discharges  of  grape  would  have  sent  them  all  flying. 
He  afterwards  witnessed  the  rising  of  the  loth  of  Au- 
gust. Having  returned  to  Corsica,  he  found  the  peo])le 
of  that  island  divided  into  two  parties.  Much  the  larger 
number,  with  Paoli,  were  in  favour  of  seeking  the  protec- 
tion of  England.  The  Bonaparte  family,  though  once 
strongly  attached  to  General  Paoli,  adhered  to  the  cause 
of  France  and  the  Convention.  In  the  civil  war  that 
ensued  in  Corsica,  Napoleon  was  closely  besieged  in  a 
tower  with  only  fifty  men,  who  for  three  days  were  re- 
duced to  the  necessity  of  living  on  horse-flesh.  He  after- 
wards succeeded  in  making  his  escape,  and  in  conveying 
his  mother  and  the  family  in  safety  to  Nice,  and  subse- 
quently to  Marseilles. 

Napoleon  spent  a  portion  of  the  summer  of  1793  in 
Paris.  In  the  autumn  he  was  ordered  to  Toulon,  then 
in  possession  of  the  Spanish  and  English.  He  found 
the  French  artillery  at  that  place  in  a  miserable  condi- 
tion, and  the  troops  without  any  competent  commander. 
A  commissioner  having  arrived  from  Paris  about  this 
time,  a  council  of  war  was  called,  and,  Bonaparte's  plan 
for  the  reduction  of  the  place  having  been  decided  upon, 
the  execution  was  intrusted  to  the  young  Corsican.  It 
proved  a  brilliant  success,  and  the  name  of  Bonaparte 
at  once  became  distinguished  throughout  France.  He 
was  made  soon  after  a  brigadier-general.  On  the  fall  of 
Robespierre  in  July,  1794,  Bonaparte  was  suspended  in 
his  command  and  put  under  arrest,  but  was  released  after 
a  short  detention.  We  find  him  again  actively  engaged 
in  military  operations  towards  the  close  of  that  and  during 
the  early  part  of  the  ensuing  year.  But  in  the  spring  of 
1795,  the  army  having  been  reorganized,  Bonaparte,  for 
some  unexplained  cause,  was  suspended  from  his  duties 
and  placed  upon  half-pay.  He  immediately  repaired  to 
Paris,  and  complained  to  the  proper  authorities  of  this 
unworthy  treatment.  But  his  remonstrances  were  with- 
out avail  :  he  received  for  answer  only  that  he  was  too 
young  to  command  the  artillery  of  an  army.  He  replied, 
"  One  grows  old  very  quickly  on  the  field  of  battle."  His 
protestations  were,  however,  in  vain.  He  remained  for 
some  months  without  any  regular  employment.  But 
Fortune  seemed  resolved  not  to  neglect  her  favourite  son. 
The  13th  Vendemiaire,  (October  4,)  the  famous  Day  of 
the  Sections,  was  at  hand.  A  formidable  insurrection, 
headed  by  the  National  Guards,  threatened  the  total 
overthrow  of  the  power  of  the  Convention,  which,  though 
provided  with  troops  and  artillery,  had  no  officer  com- 
petent to  command  them.  Menou  had  been  selected  by 
the  Convention  for  this  duty  ;  but  his  indecision  had  in- 
creased the  confidence  of  the  insurgents  and  greatly  dis- 
heartened his  own  party.  Barras,  Tallien,  and  the  other 
leaders  were  in  the  greatest  perplexity  and  alarm.  Barras 
had  fortunately  become  acquainted  with  Bonaparte  at  the 
siege  of  Toulon.  He  said  to  his  colleagues,  Tallien  and 
Carnot,  "I  have  just  the  man  for  our  purpose, — a  little 
Corsican  officer,  who  will  not  stand  upon  ceremony.'' 
The  Corsican  was  accordingly  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand. He  had  more  than  five  thousand  regular  troops, 
about  fifteen  hundred  volunteers,  and  two  hundred  pieces 
of  cannon,  which  his  science  and  skill  rendered  more 
effective  than  ten  times  the  number  under  the  command 
of  an  ordinary  officer.  The  insurgents,  amounting  to 
more  than  thirty  thousand,  fell  before  the  Corsican 's  ter- 
rible artillery  like  grass  before  the  scythe.  Although  the 
National  Guards  fought  with  the  greatest  bravery,  the 
fate  of  the  day  was  quickly  decided.  The  Convention 
used  the  victory  thus  obtained  with  great  moderation. 
Only  two  persons,  it  is  said,  suffered  death  after  the  con- 
flict was  over.  Soon  after,  Barras  proposed  that  the  Con- 
vention should  approve  Bonaparte's  appointment  as 
second  in  command  of  the  army  of  the  interior,  Barras 
himself  remaining  commander-in-chief.  The  proposal 
was  adopted  by  acclamation.  Although  nominally  the 
second  in  rank,  he  became  by  this  appointment  virtually 
the  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  interior. 

Among  the  intimate  friends  of  Madame  Tallien  was 
Josephine  Beauharnais,  a  young  widow  of  rare  beauty 
and  accomjjlishments.  She  was  the  daughter  of  M.  de 
la  Pagerie,  a  naval  officer  of  Martinique,  where  she  was 
born  in  1763.    Having  gone  to  France  with  her  father 


€  as-*;  9  as  s;  ghard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  yl, guttural ;  n,  nasal;  "S.,  trilled;  sas0;  th  as  in  this.    (2(^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BONAPARTE 


BONAPARTE 


ia  1779,  she  became  acquainted  with  the  young  Marquis 
of  Beauharnais,  to  whom  she  was  soon  after  married, 
i)eing  then  scarcely  more  than  sixteen.  Her  husband 
had  in  1793  risen  to  the  rank  of  general  in  the  army  of 
the  Republic  ;  but,  as  he  belonged  to  the  noblesse,  he 
naturally  incurred  the  suspicion  of  those  in  power,  and 
suffered  death  by  the  guillotine  in  the  summer  of  1794. 
Soon  after  the  arrest  of  General  Beauharnais  his  wife 
also  was  imprisoned,  and  would  in  all  probability  have 
shared  his  fate  had  she  not  been  delivered  by  the  timely 
fall  of  Robespierre.  Bonaparte  became  acquainted  with 
her,  and  was  deeply  smitten  with  her  charms.  He  had 
been  appointed,  March  2,  1796,  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  of  Italy.  He  married  Josephine  on  the  9th  of 
]\Iarch,  and  a  few  days  afterwards  set  out  for  Nice  to  take 
command  of  the  army.  The  events  of  the  war  which  fol- 
lowed belong  to  history  rather  than  to  biography  :  suffice 
to  say  that  the  exploits  of  young  Bonaparte  surpassed 
in  splendour  everything  before  recorded  of  modern  war- 
fare. To  heighten  the  romance  of  the  story,  the  youthful 
hero,  all  in  the  midst  of  the  hardships,  excitements,  and 
anxieties  of  that  unequalled  campaign,  seems  to  have 
abandoned  himself  wholly  to  the  "sweet  delirium"  of 
his  first  love.  We  find  him  writing  frequent  and  most 
impassioned  letters  to  Josephine, — at  one  time  expressing 
all  the  tenderness  and  devotion  which  he  felt  for  her,  at 
another  bitterly  reproaching  her  that  she  wrote  to  him 
so  coldly,  so  briefly,  or  so  seldom.  He  had  sent  for  his 
wife  to  join  him  in  Italy.  She  arrived  at  Milan  towards 
the  end  of  June,  and  spent  some  days  with  him  at  the 
Serbelloni  palace.  As  she  was  about  to  set  out  under 
an  escort  towards  Brescia,  they  found  the  passage  ob- 
structed by  the  enemy.  She  saw  the  Austrian  uniforms 
and  heard  the  musketry  at  a  little  distance.  Trembling 
and  weeping,  she  returned.  Bonaparte,  touched  at  the 
sight  of  her  distress,  exclaimed,  with  emotion,  "Wurm- 
ser  shall  pay  me  dearly  for  the  tears  which  he  has  caused 
you  to  shed."  Having  defeated  and  almost  annihilated 
three  Austrian  armies  in  succession,  and  compelled 
Wurmser,  their  ablest  and  bravest  general,  to  take 
refuge  in  Mantua,  Bonaparte  at  length  brought  the  war 
to  a  triumjjhant  close  by  the  capture  of  that  city.  Wurm- 
ser surrendered  on  the  2d  of  February,  1797,  having  re- 
ceived from  the  victor  the  most  honourable  terms.  With 
true  magnanimity,  the  French  commander  declined  to  be 
present  at  the  capitulation;  and  thus  the  Austrian  gen- 
eral was  spared  the  mortification  of  delivering  up  his 
sword  to  a  conqueror  so  much  younger  than  himself 
Having  subdued  the  Austrians  in  Northern  Italy,  Napo- 
leon turned  his  victorious  arms  against  the  pope,  who, 
after  sustaining  several  defeats,  was  compelled  to  pur- 
chase a  precarious  peace  by  the  payment  of  thirty  millions 
of  livres,  besides  delivering  up  to  the  French  a  number 
of  statues,  paintings,  and  manuscripts.  It  was  resolved 
at  Vienna  that  another  army,  under  the  Archduke  Charles, 
who  had  distinguished  himself  in  the  recent  campaigns 
on  the  Rhine,  should  take  the  field  against  Bonaparte. 
But  nothing  could  resist  the  genius  or  the  fortune  of  the 
French  commander.  By  a  masterly  movement  he  sur- 
prised the  archduke,  who  occupied  a  very  strong  position 
on  the  Tagliamento,  and  succeeded  in  crossing  the  river 
before  the  Austrians  were  prepared  to  offer  any  effectual 
resistance.  Nothing  remained  for  them  but  to  retreat. 
Napoleon,  following  up  his  advantages  with  his  accus- 
tomed promptitude,  advanced  by  rapid  strides  towards 
ttie  Austrian  capital.  On  the  7th  of  April  he  arrived 
at  Leoben,  and  pushed  his  advanced  guard  to  within  two 
cr  three  days'  march  of  Vienna.  But  as  his  own  situation, 
s.)  far  from  France,  and  without  sufficient  forces  to  keep 
open  the  line  of  his  retreat,  was  not  free  from  danger,  he 
offered  terms  of  peace,  which  the  Austrian  court,  trem- 
bling for  the  safety  of  the  capital,  eagerly  accepted.  Hav- 
ing returned  to  Italy,  the  young  conqueror  was  for  some 
months  occupied  in  regulating  the  affairs  of  that  country, 
of  which  he  claimed  to  be  the  liberator.  By  the  treaty 
of  Campo  Formio,  signed  October  17,  1797,  Austria  ac- 
knowledged the  independence  of  the  new  Cisalpine  Re- 
public, which  included  the  larger  part  of  her  former 
possessions  in  Northern  Italy,  and  guaranteed  to  France 
the  extension  of  her  boundary  to  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine.    In  return  for  these  concessions,  the  French  gov- 


ernment gave  up  to  Austria  Venice  and  the  Venetian 
territory  as  far  as  the  Adige,  besides  Istria  and  Dalmatia. 
Genoa,  having  offered  some  opposition  to  the  French 
arms,  was  required,  by  way  of  reparation,  to  establish  a 
democratic  form  of  government,  taking  the  name  of  the 
Ligurian  ReiJublic.  The  terms  granted  to  Austria  were 
thought  by  many  of  the  friends  of  France  to  be  much  too 
favourable.  This  treaty  appears,  indeed,  to  have  been 
afterwards  a  subject  of  regret  and  mortification  to  Bona- 
parte himself  This  may  be  inferred  from  the  great 
anxiety  he  manifested  to  defend  or  apologize  for  it.  The 
Directory  had  enjoined  it  upon  him  not  to  make  peace 
with  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  except  on  condition  that 
the  latter  should  renounce  all  claim  to  Venice  and  all 
the  Venetian  territory  except  Istria  and  Dalmatia.  But 
Napoleon,  having  discovered  that  some  persons  con- 
nected with  the  government  of  Venice  had  made  propo- 
sals for  an  alliance  with  Austria,  determined  to  sacrifice 
that  republic  to  the  interests  of  France  and  his  own  am- 
bition, abandoning,  apparently  without  scruple,  those  of 
the  democratic  party  who  had  been  faithful  to  France, 
as  well  as  the  aristocrats  who  had  sought  the  protection 
of  the  emperor.  The  Directory,  it  is  said,  had  thoughts 
at  one  time  of  bringing  him  to  trial  for  disobeying  its 
orders  ;  but  his  unbounded  popularity  rendered  such  a 
step  not  merely  unwise,  but  extremely  perilous.  In  the 
early  part  of  1798  the  French  government  contemplated 
the  invasion  of  Great  Britain  ;  and  the  preparations  for 
this  great  undertaking  were  intrusted  to  Bonaparte.  With 
this  object  he  made  a  survey  of  the  French  coast  along 
the  British  Channel.  It  was,  however,  soon  after  deter- 
mined to  attack  the  power  of  England  in  her  remote 
possessions.  A  formidable  expedition,  destined  for  Egypt 
and  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  was  fitted 
out,  as  it  was  believed  that  the  British  empire  in  India 
could  be  most  conveniently  reached  from  that  side.  Thi? 
enterprise  was  regarded  by  the  Directory  with  the  more 
favour,  on  account  of  the  growing  influence  and  ascend- 
ency of  Bonaparte  :  the  members  of  the  government  were 
not  unwilling  to  send  far  from  France,  into  a  sort  of  hon- 
ourable banishment,  the  object  of  their  anxiety  and  fears. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  scheme  was  perhaps  still  more 
agreeable  to  Napoleon.  Visions  of  boundless  conquest 
and  glory  floated  before  his  youthful  imagination.  It 
seemed  not  unreasonable  that  a  young  commander,  who 
in  his  first  campaigns  had  rivalled,  if  he  did  not  surpass, 
the  most  brilliant  achievements  of  Alexander,  should 
think  he  might  carry  his  victorious  banners  as  far  as  the 
Macedonian  hero  had  done  two  thousand  years  before. 

The  expedition  was  got  ready  with  the  utmost  secrecy. 
The  land-force,  consisting  principally  of  the  army  of  Italy, 
is  said  to  have  amounted  to  near  30,000  men.  The  arma- 
ment set  sail  from  Toulon  on  the  19th  of  May,  1798,  and 
was  joined  soon  after  by  a  large  fleet  of  transports  carry- 
ing the  land-forces  under  General  Desaix.  They  reached 
Malta  on  the  lOth  of  June,  and  Bonaparte,  having  come  to 
an  understanding  with  some  person  within  the  place, 
took  possession  of  it  without  the  slightest  opposition.  As 
they  were  passing  the  impregnable  defences,  constructed 
by  the  famous  Knights  of  Malta,  one  of  his  officers  said 
to  him,  "  It  is  well,  general,  that  there  was  some  one 
within  to  open  the  gates  for  us ;  for  we  should  have  had 
more  trouble  in  entering  had  the  place  been  empty.'? 
The  expedition  arrived  at  Alexandria  on  the  29th  of  June, 
having  by  great  good  fortune  escaped  the  fleet  of  Nelson, 
who  had  rightly  guessed  the  destination  of  the  French 
armament,  and  had  actually  reached  Alexandria  before 
the  arrival  of  Bonaparte  ;  but,  hearing  nothing  of  the 
hostile  fleet,  the  English  admiral  had  set  sail  for  Rhodes. 
As  France  was  at  that  time  at  peace  with  the  Sultan, 
who  had  then  an  ambassador  in  Paris,  the  invasion  of 
E^gypt  was  wholly  unexpected,  and  Bonaparte  met  with 
little  resistance  until  the  French  troops  had  arrived  near 
Cairo,  in  sight  of  the  Pyramids,  where  they  encountered 
a  large  body  of  Mamelukes  with  their  Arab  auxiliaries. 
Bonaparte,  galloping  to  the  front  of  the  army,  exclaimed, 
with  enthusiasm,  "  Soldiers,  from  the  summit  of  yonder 
monuments  forty  centuries  look  down  upon  your  actions  !'* 
The  battle  was  fiercely  contested,  the  Mamelukes  fighting 
with  all  the  bravery  of  desperation;  but  nothing  could 
withstand  the  tactics  and  artillery  of  the  French.  The 


e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  ra&t;  n6t;  good;  i  roon; 


BONAPARTE 


391 


BONAPARTE 


Mamelukes  were  almost  annihilated :  the  few  who  es- 
caped fled  to  Upper  Egypt  and  Syria,  no  one  ottering  any 
further  resistance  to  the  progress  of  the  invading  army. 
Thus  ended  the  famous  "battle  of  the  Pyramids." 

In  his  endeavour  to  regulate  the  government  of  the 
country,  Bonaparte  earnestly  strove  to  conciliate  the  good 
will  of  the  conquered  people.  With  this  view,  he  not 
only  attended  with  his  army  the  yearly  festival  of  the 
Nile,  but  celebrated  with  great  pomp  the  Feast  of  the 
Prophet,  which  took  place  the  20th  of  August.  He  has 
been  accused  by  some  of  childish  folly  in  supposing  that 
by  his  expressions  of  respect  or  reverence  for  Mohammed 
he  could  impose  upon  the  minds  of  the  Moslems  or  de- 
lude them  into  the  hope  that  he  was  about  to  turn  Mus- 
sulman. But,  in  a  secular  point  of  view,  it  was  certainly 
not  unwise  for  a  conqueror  to  show  the  people  whom  he 
had  just  conquered  that  he  was  not  an  enemy  to  their 
religion.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  they  would  submit 
far  more  patiently  to  the  rule  of  one  who  was.  *ven  in- 
different than  of  one  who  was  hostile  to  their  faith,  as 
they  would  naturally  have  supposed  him  to  be — coming 
from  Europe,  and  especially  from  the  country  of  Saint 
Louis — had  he  not  taken  the  pains  to  convince  them  of 
the  contrary.  The  statements  about  Bonaparte's  having 
made  a  distinct  profession  of  the  Mohammedan  faith  ap- 
pear to  be  erroneous  or  much  exaggerated.  But  he  cer- 
tainly made  use  of  some  expressions  which  were  designed 
to  give  an  impression  to  the  Mohammedans  that  he  was 
^•ery  favourable  towards  their  religion.  At  the  same  time, 
assuming  an  exaggerated  or,  as  we  might  say,  an  Orien- 
tal style  of  speech,  which  indeed  seemed  to  be  in  perfect 
harmony  with  his  natural  character,  he  assured  them 
that  he,  like  their  prophet,  was  a  man  appointed  by  des- 
tiny, whom  it  would  be  as  vain  as  it  was  impious  to  re- 
sist He  even  went  so  far  as  to  declare  that  he  could 
call  them  to  account  for  their  most  secret  thoughts.  But 
these  declarations  did  not  prevent  the  Arabs  and  Turks 
from  perceiving  that  his  claims  to  a  supernatural  power 
were  made  simply  with  a  view  to  establish  more  firmly 
an  earthly  domination. 

Meanwhile  the  Porte,  assisted  by  England,  was  making 
vigorous  preparations  for  war.  Najjoleon  resolved  to  be 
first  in  the  field.  Leaving  Cairo  on  the  loth  of  Februarv, 
1799,  he  crossed  the  desert  through  the  Isthmus  of  Suez, 
taking  successively  El  Arish,  Gaza,  and  Jaffa,  the  last 
of  which  was  carried  by  storm.  From  1 200  to  1 500  Turks 
and  Arabs  were  taken  prisoners,  and  two  davs  after- 
wards marched  out  of  the  town  and  put  to  death  in  cold 
blood  by  volleys  of  musketrv  or  bv  the  bayonet.  The 
reasons  alleged  for  this  inhuman  massacre  were  that  the 
victims  had  been  taken  prisoners  previously  at  Gaza  and 
El  Arish,  and  had  violated  their  parole.  But  the  utmost 
severity  of  the  laws  of  war  could  require  no  more  than 
that  they  should  receive  no  quarter  while  they  were 
fighting  with  arms  in  their  hands  :  it  could  never  jus- 
tify the  victor  in  first  offering  them  life,  and  then  taking 
it  again  after  they  had  been  for  two  days  his  prisoners. 
The  apologists  for  Napoleon  allege  that  it  was  found  im- 
possible to  furnish  food  to  the  prisoners,  or  even  to  guard 
them,  surrounded  as  Bonaparte  was  by  swarms  of  active 
and  exasperated  enemies,  and  that  they  were  at  last  re- 
luctantly sacrificed  to  the  urgent  demands  of  the  army.* 
The  French  general  next  marched  against  Acre.  But  the 
plague  had  broken  out  in  the  army,  and  he  had  no  guns 
suitable  for  carrying  on  a  siege.  The  place  was  ably  and 
obstinately  defended  by  Djezzar  Pasha,  assisted  ty  an 
English  force  commanded  by  Sir  Sidney  Smith.  Re- 
peated and  desperate  assaults  were  made  by  the  attack- 
ing forces,  but  in  vain.  One  day  three  hundred  chosen 
men,  presenting  themselves  before  the  French  com- 
mander, took  an  oath  that  they  would  enter  the  town  or 
perish  in  the  attempt.  They' kept  their  word  :  not  one 
of  them  returned.  Napoleon  was  at  last  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  abandoning  the  place.  He  afterwards  said, 
"  If  Acre  had  fiUen,  I  would  have  changed  the  face  of 
the  world."  "  My  fortune  was  arre.sted  bv  a  grain  of 
sand  ;"  alluding  to  some  little  contingencies  which  had 

*  Thiers,  who  will  scircely  be  acrused  of  hostility  to  Bonaparte, 
throv:.  upon  him  the  whole  respon  ^ibil'ty  of  ihis  a:rrc!oiis  act.  callina: 
X  '"tne  only  cruel  act  of  his  life"  (.See  "Revolution  Fran^aise," 
ivTC  xiiv.) 


prevented  his  success.    The  encampment  before  Acre 
was  broken  up  on  the  21st  of  May,  1799,  and  the  army 
commenced  its  retreat  towards  Egypt.    Nelson  having 
destroyed  the  French  fleet,  August,  1798,  all  communica- 
tion with  Europe  was  cut  off.    Bonaparte  could  hope 
neither  for  reinforcements  nor  supplies.    The  retreating 
army  reached  Cairo  about  the  middle  of  June.  Having 
learned  (July  15)  that  the  Turkish  and  English  fleets 
had  landed  an  army  of  18,000  men  at  Aboukir,  the 
French  commander  instantly  made  preparations  to  attack 
them.    After  a  bloody  contest,  (July  25,)  almost  all  the 
Turks  were  either  cut  to  pieces  or  perished  in  the  sea. 
into  which  they  had  thrown  themselves  in  the  hope  of 
reaching  their  ships.    A  few  who  had  sought  refuge  in 
the  fort  of  Aboukir  were  compelled  to  surrender  a  few 
I  days  afterwards.    Soon  after  this  victory,  Napoleon,  hav- 
}  ing  heard  of  the  defeats  that  had  recently  been  sustained 
j  by  the  French  armies  in  Italy,  and  of  the  unpopularity 
I  of  the  Directory,  at  once  resolved  to  return  to  France. 

He  made  preparations  for  his  departure  with  the  utmost 
I  secrecy,  taking  with  him  only  a  few  of  his  best  and 
I  most  attached  officers.    Kleber  was  left  in  command  of 
the  army  of  Egypt,  now  reduced,  by  disease  and  war,  to 
less  than  20,coD  men.    Bonaparte,  and  the  ofiicers  who 
accompanied  him,  embarked  (August  22)  in  two  frigates, 
and.  after  a  long  passage  and  several  narrow  escapes  from 
the  English  cruisers,  he  landed  at  Frejus  on  the  14th  of 
October.    He  found  the  French  nation  thoroughly  dis- 
satisfied with  the  existing  government,  and  disheartened 
by  the  recent  disasters.    Taking  advantage  of  the  un- 
certainty and  confusion  among  the  political  parties,  he 
contrived  to  have  himself  chosen  First  Consul,  with  a 
power  little  short  of  absolute.    The  First  Consul  was 
assisted  by  two  other  consuls,  of  whom  he  had  the  ap- 
pointment, and  a  senate  entirely  dependent  uj^on  his 
I  will.     This  revolution  is  known  as  that  of  the  i8th  and 
■  19th  Brumaire,  (9th  and  loth  of  November.)    The  news 
I  of  Bonaparte's  elevation  to  the  supreme  power  was  re- 
I  ceived  by  the  French  nation  with  transports  of  joy.  The 
I  people  were  in  truth  tired  of  revolutions,  and  they  longed 
I  for  a  government  which  should  possess  the  ability  and 
I  the  will  to  maintain  itself  unmoved  against  all  enemies 
from  abroad  and  all  factions  at  home.    Commercial  con- 
j  fidence  was  at  once  restored.    Many  of  the  royalists  and 
!  priests  who  had  fled  from  their  native  country  during 
j  the  reign  of  terror  were  allowed  to  return  ;  and  Chris- 
I  tian  worship,  which  had  been  forbidden  under  the  dif- 
I  ferent  revolutionar\-  governments,  was  again  permitted 
i  throughout  France.    The  reason  Napoleon  afterwards 
!  gave  for  having  recourse  to  the  Concordat  furnishes  the 
I  key  to  this  new  policy  :  "The  restoration  of  the  public 
I  worship  will  give  me  the  hearts  of  the  people."    In  this 
I  he  was  not  deceived.    In  return  for  the  contemptuous 
I  smiles  of  a  comparatively  few  skeptics,  he  won  the  ad- 
i  miration  and  gratitude  of  millions  in  every  quarter  of 
;  the  empire.   On  his  return  from  Eg\-pt,  Napoleon  found 
France  at  war  with  Austria,  England,  and  Turkey.  His 
;  first  aim,  after  he  felt  himself  established  in  his  new 
1  power,  was  to  restore  to  the  banners  of  France  the  pres- 
I  tige  which  they  had  lost  during  his  absence.    Early  in 
i  May,  1800,  he  set  out  for  Italy.    On  the  14th  of  June  he 
:  fought  the  great  battle  of  Marengo.    Late  in  the  after- 
I  noon  a  large  part  of  the  French  army  was  routed,  and 
seemed  to  be  in  irretrievable  disorder.    At  this  moment 
I  Desaix,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  reserve,  arrived  on  the 
I  field.    He  observed  to  Napoleon,  "The  battle  is  lost :  I 
I  suppose  all  I  can  do  now  is  to  secure  your  retreat." 
!  "  Bvno  means,"  replied  the  First  Consul :  "the  battle  is, 
:  I  trust,  gained.   Push  forward  your  column  :  I  will  rally 
'  the  disordered  troops  in  your  rear."    This  order  was 
:  gallantly  obeyed,  and  what  seemed  a  disastrous  defeat 
f  was  changed  into  a  complete  victory  ;  but  General  De- 
:  saix  himself  fell  dead,  being  shot  through  the  breast  in 
i  the  first  charge.    Moreau,  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  the 
I  Rhine,  had  made  a  scarcely  less  successful,  though  a 
less  brilliant,  campaign  than  Napoleon  ;  and  Austria  was 
compelled  to  sue  for  peace.    The  conditions  were  settled 
j  by  the  treaty  of  Luneville.    Soon  after,  negotiations  with 
England  were  begun,  and  at  length  the  definitive  treaty 
of  Amiens  was  signed,  March  27,  1802.    A  decree  was 
passed,  April  26,  1801,  granting  a  general  amnesty  to  all 


€  as     c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  _^ittu7-al;  N,  ?iasal;  it,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BONAPARTE 


BONAPARTE 


etnigratils  who  wished  to  return  to  France,  on  condition 
that  they  would  take  the  o  ith  of  fidehty  to  the  govern- 
ment. From  this  amnesty  were  excepted  the  leaders  of 
armed  bodies  of  royalists,  those  who  had  held  rank  in 
the  armies  of  the  allies,  or  had  been  encouragers  of  war 
against  France,  those  who  had  been  guilty  of  treason  to 
the  republic,  and  those  who  had  belonged  to  the  house- 
hold of  the  Bourbon  family.  Such  of  their  property  as 
had  not  been  sold  was  ordered  to  be  restored  to  the 
emigrants  who  should  avail  themselves  of  the  amnesty. 
Soon  after  the  battle  of  Marengo,  negotiations  were  be- 
gun with  the  pope  for  the  establishment  of  a  treaty  known 
as  the  Concordat,  of  which  the  principal  provisions  were, 
on  the  one  hand,  that  the  Catholic  religion  should  be 
acknowledged  as  the  national  faith,  and  its  services  openly 
performed,  subject  to  such  police  regulations  as  the  gov- 
ernment should  deem  necessary ;  and,  on  the  other, 
that  there  should  be,  under  the  supervision  of  the  pope 
and  of  the  French  government,  a  new  division  of  the 
dioceses,  that  the  bishops  should  take  an  oath  of  fidelity 
to  the  government,  and  observe  a  ritual  containing  forms 
of  prayer  for  the  consuls  ;  those  bishops  who  should  de- 
cline to  conform  to  the  terms  of  the  treaty  were  to  be 
removed,  and  their  places  filled  by  the  pope  on  nomina- 
tions made  by  the  French  government.  Lastly,  the  pope 
renounced  all  right  to  dispute  or  change  tiie  sales  of 
chuixh  property  which  had  taken  place  since  the  Revo- 
lution. This  important  treaty  was  ratified  on  the  i8th 
of  September,  1801.  The  measure  was  received  very 
coldly  by  the  members  of  the  government,  and  with 
murmurs  of  dissatisfaction  by  the  army  ;  but  it  doubtless 
contributed  immensely  towards  attaching  the  mass  of  the 
people,  especially  in  the  provinces,  to  Napoleon's  gov- 
ernment and  person.  The  First  Consul  next  directed  his 
earnest  efforts  towards  the  organization  of  a  thorough 
system  of  police.  This  was  the  more  necessary  because 
not  only  the  restraints  of  religion  and  morality,  but  the 
habit  of  obedience  to  authority  so  influential  with  the 
mass  of  the  people,  had,  to  a  great  extent,  lost  their 
power.  The  secret  police  was  organized  under  the  su- 
pervision of  Fouche,  who  at  a  later  period  was  himself 
carefully  watched  by  four  counsellors  of  state,  ( conseillers 
d'etat,)  appointed  for  this  purpose.  The  whole  nation, 
from  the  highest  officer  under  the  First  Consul  to  the 
lowest  peasant,  was  subjected  to  a  system  of  the  strictest 
espionage,  from  which  even  the  privacy  of  domestic  life 
afforded  no  shelter.  In  a  society  thus  organized  there 
was  little  room  for  men  of  character  or  virtue,  except 
perhaps  in  the  army.  In  the  civil  government,  men  of 
suppleness  and  address  alone  were  in  request.  Fear  and 
self-interest,  the  lowest  motives  of  human  action,  were 
the  chief  s])rings  by  which  the  machinery  of  government 
was  set  or  kept  in  motion.  Under  these  circumstances, 
the  freedom  of  the  press  became  an  impossibility,  if  not 
an  absurdity.  Yet  homage  was  so  far  paid  to  liberty 
that  the  very  restrictions  by  which  she  was  fettered  were 
enacted  in  her  name.  The  decree  establishing  the  cen- 
sorship of  the  press  began  with  these  words  :  "  Pour 
assurer  la  liberte  de  la  presse,"  etc.,  ("In  order  to  in- 
sure the  liberty  of  the  press,"  etc.) 

To  this  period  belong  the  preparation  and  completion 
of  Napoleon's  celebrated  Civil  Code,  by  which,  even  in 
the  judgment  of  those  least  favourable  to  him,  he  ren- 
dered an  inestimable  service  to  France.  That  he  might 
establish  an  order  of  nobility  based  upon  merit.  Napo- 
leon instituted  what  he  called  the  "  Legion  of  Honour," 
designed  to  embrace  all  those,  whether  in  the  civil  or 
military  ranks,  who  were  sufficiently  distinguished  by 
their  worth  or  services  to  the  state.  Having  established 
his  power  at  home,  he  next  sought  to  change  the  form 
of  government  in  the  Cisalpine  Republic.  Between  four 
and  five  hundred  deputies  from  that  re])ublic  were,  at 
the  instance  of  Napoleon,  assembled  at  Lyons  for  the 
purpose  of  drawing  up  a  new  constitution.  Anticipating 
the  wishes  of  the  First  Consul,  they  atlopted  a  report, 
inviting  him  to  take  upon  himself  the  office  of  protector, 
of  which  their  state,  being  still  in  its  infancy,  stood  so 
much  in  need, — an  office  which  n(jne  but  himself  was  ca- 
pable of  filling.  He  graciously  acceded  to  their  wishes, 
promising  them  the  protection  of  the  strongest  nation  in 
Euro[)e.    Taking  advantage  of  the  political  dissensions 


that  prevailed  among  the  different  Swiss  cantons,  he 
offered  himself  as  a  mediator  in  their  disputes,  at  the 
same  time  enforcing  his  authority  by  the  presence  of  a 
French  army,  so  that  from  that  time  forward,  so  long  as 
his  power  lasted,  Switzerland  was  a  mere  dependcUit  of 
France.  The  negroes  of  Saint  Domingo,  having  been 
given  their  freed. nn  daring  the  invasion  of  the  isiand  by 
the  Spaniards  and  English  in  1793,  and  their  liberty 
having  been  confiirned  by  the  National  Convention  at 
Paris,  had  for  some  years  been  governed  as  citizens  of 
a  free  and  independent  state  by  their  able  ruler,  Tous- 
saint  L'Ouverture.  In  i8oi  the  First  Consul  resolved 
to  reduce  them  again  to  complete  subjection.  For 
this  purpose  General  Leclerc,  who  had  married  Napo- 
leon's sister  Pauline,  was  despatched  with  a  fleet  and 
an  army  of  more  than  20,000  men.  They  arrived  at 
Saint  Domingo  in  January,  1802.  After  a  war  of  great 
atrocity  on  both  sides,  during  which  the  yellow  fever  was 
perhaps  even  more  fatal  to  the  French  troops  than  the 
arms  of  their  enemies,  the  invaders  were  ail-but  exter- 
minated. General  Leclerc  himself  had  died  of  the 
fever;  and  his  successor,  in  order  to  save  the  feeble 
remnant  of  that  once  fine  army,  was  obliged  to  surrender 
at  discretion  to  the  English  squadron.  Meanwhile,  Bona- 
parte had  taken  possession  of  the  island  of  Elba  and  of 
Parma,  and  had  formally  annexed  Piedmont  to  France. 
These  encroachments  excited  the  jealousy  of  Europe  ; 
England,  in  particular,  complained  of  them  as  infractions 
of  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  and  at  length,  on  the  i8th  of 
May,  1803,  declared  war  against  France,  laying  an  em- 
bargo on  all  the  French  vessels  found  in  the  British 
ports.  Bonaparte  retaliated  by  seizing  on  all  the  Eng- 
lish who,  as  travellers,  or  from  whatever  cause,  hap- 
pened to  be  in  the  French  dominions.  In  the  early  part 
of  1804  a  conspiracy  was  detected  at  Paris  among  the 
partisans  of  the  Bourbons.  The  Duke  d'Enghien,  grand- 
son of  the  Prince  of  Conde,  was  reported  to  be  in  cor- 
respondence with  the  conspirators.  Although  he  was  ' 
living  at  Ettenheim,  in  Baden,  on  neutral  territory,  the  ' 
First  Consul  ordered  him  to  be  arrested.  A  body  of 
French  soldiers  entered  the  territory  of  Baden,  seized 
the  duke  in  his  own  chateau,  and  conveyed  him  to  the;' 
citadel  of  Strasburg,  whence  he  was  taken  to  the  castle" 
of  Vincennes,  near  Paris.  After  a  nominal  trial,  in  which  ' 
he  was  not  allowed  to  have  any  counsel  or  to  call  any 
witnesses,  he  was  condemned  to  death.  He  asked  for  a 
confessor  in  his  last  moments,  but  was  refused.  The 
trial,  or  rather  inquisition,  had  commenced  at  midnight; 
and  the  next  morning,  a  little  after  daybreak,  the  prisoner 
was  shot  on  the  margin  of  a  grave  which  had  been  dug 
even  before  the  sentence  of  death  was  pronounced  against 
him. 

Napoleon  was  chosen  "Emperor  of  the  French"  in 
May,  1804.  About  this  time  he  made  great  prepara- 
tions for  the  invasion  of  England  ;  but  he  afterwards 
abandoned  the  project,  and  turned  all  his  energies  against 
Austria,  who,  aided  by  Russia,  had  renewed  the  war. 
Sweden  and  England  were  also  members  of  the  coalition 
against  France.  Our  limits  will  permit  us  to  do  scarcely 
more  than  allude  to  the  chief  events  of  the  ensuing 
struggle.  The  Austrian  general  Mack  was  surrounded 
and  compelled  to  surrender,  with  above  20,000  men,  at 
Ulm,  October  17,  1805.  A  few  days  after  the  surrender 
of  Mack's  army,  the  great  naval  battle  of  Trafalgar  was 
fought,  resulting  in  the  almost  total  destruction  of  the 
French  fleet.  The  combined  Austro- Russian  army, 
consisting  of  80,000  men,  commanded  by  the  emperor 
Alexander  in  person,  was  defeated  with  terrible  loss 
in  the  great  battle  of  Austerlitz,  fought  on  the  2d  of 
December.  An  armistice  was  concluded  between  Na- 
poleon and  Alexander,  and  soon  after  a  treaty  of  peace 
with  Austria  was  signed  at  Presburg.  The  French 
emperor,  being  thus  left  free  to  carry  out  his  ambitious 
schemes,  apjiointed  (March,  1806)  his  brother  Joseph 
King  of  Na|>Ies  and  Sicily,  and  in  June  of  that  year 
made  his  brother  Louis  King  of  Holland.  Nai^oleon 
had  previously  (May  26,  1805)  been  crowned  King  of 
Italy  at  Milan.  Soon  after  he  annexed  the  Ligurian  Re- 
public (Genoa)  to  France.  Prussia  had  for  some  time 
iDeen  a  sort  of  timid  ally  of  France.  Napoleon,  since  his 
recent  successes  against  Austria  and  Russia,  had  begun 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  till,  fit;  mit;  n6t;  good ,  moon, 


BONAPARTE 


393 


BONAPARTE 


to  treat  her  with  supercilious  contempt.  The  King  of 
Prussia,  ofiended  at  the  tone  of  Napoleon,  had  the  im- 
prudence to  demand  that  the  French  troops  should  be 
withdrawn  from  the  German  territory.  The  French  em- 
peror replied,  with  contemptuous  defiance,  that  "  to  pro- 
voke the  enmity  of  France  was  as  senseless  as  to  attempt 
to  withstand  the  waves  of  the  ocean."  The  battle  of 
Jena,  fought  October  i6,  i8o6,  seemed  to  justify  the  arro- 
gant boast  of  Napoleon,  and  laid  Prussia  completely 
prostrate  at  the  feet  of  the  conqueror.  On  February  8, 
1807,  the  great  battle  of  Eylau  was  fought  between  the 
armies  of  France  and  Russia,  with  tremendous  loss  on 
both  sides,  though  neither  could  justly  claim  the  victory. 
Bonaparte,  having  been  reinforced  at  the  battle  of  Fried- 
land,  (June  13,)  defeated  the  Russians,  and  compelled 
them  to  retreat,  but  without  the  loss  of  their  baggage  or 
artillery.  The  treaty  of  Tilsit  between  the  French  and 
Russian  emperors  was  signed  July  7,  1807.  Two  days 
afterwards,  at  the  same  place,  a  treaty  was  signed  between 
France  and  Prussia.  From  the  time  that  Bonaparte  be- 
came First  Consul,  Spain  had  been  the  submissive  ally 
of  France  ;  but,  a  misunderstanding  and  disjiute  having 
occurred  between  Charles  IV.  and  his  son  and  heir,  the 
Prince  of  Asturias,  Napoleon  made  it  a  pretext  for  in- 
terfering with  the  internal  affairs  of  that  country.  The 
result  was  that  Joseph  Bonaparte  was  removed  from  the 
kingdom  of  Naples  and  placed  on  the  Spanish  throne. 
This  event  was  followed  by  a  long,  obstinate,  and  most 
cruel  war,  which  ended  only  with  the  downfall  of  Napo- 
leon in  1814.  The  French  emperor  himself  had  gone  to 
Spain,  in  order  to  establish  his  brother  firmly  on  the 
throne  at  Madrid.  A  despatch  from  Paris  caused  him 
to  return  with  the  utmost  expedition,  Austria  was  pre- 
paring for  another  war.  Napoleon  took  the  field  with 
his  usual  celerity.  After  gaining  a  victory  at  Eckmiihl, 
and  a  still  more  decisive  one  at  Wagram,  where  20,000 
Austrians  were  taken  prisoners,  he  made  peace  (October 
14,  1809)  with  Austria,  who  was  obliged  to  give  up  to 
the  conqueror  Trieste,  Carniola,  and  a  part  of  Croatia 
and  Galicia.  On  his  return  to  Paris  the  French  emperor 
announced  to  Josephine  his  purpose  of  obtaining  a  di- 
vorce ;  and  an  act  to  that  effect  was  passed  on  the  i6th 
of  December,  1809.  The  reason  given  for  this  step  was 
that  Josephine  had  never  borne  him  any  children,  and 
it  was  necessary,  for  the  interests  of  the  empire,  that  he 
should  have  an  heir.  Not  quite  three  months  from  that 
date  his  marriage  was  celebrated  at  Vienna  (March  11, 
1810)  with  Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  of 
Austria.  Napoleon  was  not  present,  but  he  was  repre- 
sented in  the  ceremony  by  his  favourite  Bertliier.  The 
young  bride,  accompanied  by  the  Queen  of  Naples,  set 
out  for  Paris  a  few  days  afterwards. 

Although  Napoleon's  power  at  this  time  appeared  to 
be  at  its  greatest  height,  those  who  looked  beyond  the 
surface  might  discern  not  a  few  elements  which  were 
calculated  to  impair,  if  not  destroy,  the  stability  of  that 
magnificent  edifice  which  he  had  just  succeeded  in  erect- 
ing. In  every  campaign  where  he  conmianded  in  j^erson 
he  had  been  successful  against  the  ablest  generals  and 
mightiest  armies  of  Europe.  His  empire  extended  from 
Denmark  to  Naples.  The  pope,  having  launched  a  bull 
of  excommunication  against  the  conqueror  of  Italy,  was 
seized  at  midnight  in  his  own  palace  on  the  Quirinal  by 
a  body  of  French  soldiers,  and  held  a  prisoner ;  and  out 
of  the  territories  of  the  Church  were  formed  two  French 
departments.  But*  while  Napoleon  sought  to  extend  his 
sway  more  and  more  widely,  he  neglected  to  strengthen 
his  empire  by  any  attempts  to  soothe  the  irritation  or 
win  the  affections  of  the  nations  whom  he  had  conquered. 
On  the  contrary,  elated  and  rendered  arrogant  by  his  un- 
paralleled successes,  he  appears  to  have  aimed  at  nothing 
less  than  to  completely  break  the  spirit,  as  he  had  broken 
the  armies,  of  those  who  had  opposed  him.  The  in- 
structions which  he  wrote  to  his  brothers  Joseph  and 
Louis  reveal  his  temper  and  policy,  and  show  us  clearly 
why  such  a  power  as  his  could  not,  in  the  nature  of 
things,  be  durable.  Joseph,  then  King  of  Najjles,  was 
desirous  of  governing  his  subjects  mildly,  and,  if  possi- 
ble, of  gaining  their  affections.  Napoleon  wrote  to  him, 
"  Vos  proclamations  ne  sentent  assez  le  maitre.  .  .  . 
Quel  amour  voulez-vous  qu'ait  pour  vous  un  peuple 


pour  qui  vous  n'avez  rien  fait  ?"  (*'  Your  proclamations 
have  not  enough  of  the  tone  of  a  master.  What  love  do 
you  expect  a  people  for  whom  you  have  done  nothing, 
will  have  for  you.'"')  and  he  ends  with  virtually  recom- 
mending his  brother  not  to  rely  upon  tb.eir  love,  but 
upon  their  fears  and  his  own  power.  To  Louis,  at  that  time 
King  of  Holland,  he  wrote,  reproving  him  for  some  in- 
dulgence he  had  shown  the  people,  "  Never  forget  that 
your  Ji?-st  duty  is  towards  ME,  your  second  towards 
France  :  all  your  other  duties,  even  those  towards  the 
people  whom  I  have  called  you  to  govern,  must  be  sub- 
ordinate to  these."  Of  all  the  European  powers,  Eng- 
land alone  continued  to  offer  any  effectual  resistance  to 
the  encroachments  of  Napoleon ;  but  her  resources 
seemed  as  nothing  in  comparison  with  those  of  the  con- 
queror. To  crown  the  good  fortune  which  appeared  ever 
to  attend  him,  on  the  20th  of  March,  1811,  Maria  Louisa 
bore  him  a  son,  who  received  the  title  of"  King  of  Rome  ;" 
Rome  being  the  second  capital  of  his  vast  empire.  (See 
Reichstadt,  Duke  of.)  But,  while  his  extended  do- 
minions excited  their  jealousy  and  fear,  the  haughty  and 
imperious  tone  which  he  assumed  deeply  wounded  the 
pride  of  those  nations  whom  he  had  not  yet  subdued. 
A  coolness  gradually  took  place  between  him  and  Alex- 
ander. He  had  demanded  of  Sweden  and  Russia  that 
they  should  strictly  enforce  his  decrees  prohibiting  all 
conmierce  with  the  English.  Both  nations  had  evaded 
his  demands.  Napoleon  at  first  contented  himself  with 
simply  making  complaints  to  Russia  ;  but  Sweden,  being 
a  far  less  formidable  power,  was  treated  with  less  cere- 
mony. His  armed  vessels  in  the  Baltic  captured  a  . great 
number  of  Swedish  merchantmen.  These  were  confis- 
cated, on  the  ground  of  their  being  engaged  in  the  con- 
traband trade  with  Britain.  To  resist  these  aggressions, 
Sweden  signed  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Russia  in  the 
early  part  of  181 2.  Then  followed  the  memorable  cam- 
paign of  1812.  Napoleon  approached  the  confines  of 
Russia  with  an  army  of  about  480,000  men.  Aftei  the  great 
battles  of  Smolensk,  August  16,  and  Borodino,  Sep- 
tember 7,  Napoleon  entered  Moscow,  and  took  up  his 
residence  in  the  Kremlin,  the  ancient  palace  of  the  Rus- 
sian emperors.  Soon  after  a  fire  broke  out,  and  was 
spread  by  the  winds  to  every  part  of  the  city,  all  efforts 
to  extinguisli  it  being  in  vain.  It  is  still  a  disputed  point 
whether  Moscow  was  purposely  set  on  fire  by  the  Rus- 
sians, or  whether  the  destruction  of  the  city  was  the 
result  of  accident.  But,  whatever  may  have  been  the 
cause,  the  effect  was  fatal  to  the  power  of  Napoleon. 
He  had  designed  to  take  up  his  winter-quarters  in  Rus- 
sia, but  the  conflagration  of  Moscow  made  it  necessary 
for  him  to  retreat  ;  and,  the  winter  having  set  in  much 
earlier  than  usual,  nearly  the  whole  of  his  magnificent 
army  were  either  taken  prisoners,  or  else  perished  in 
battle  or  with  hunger  and  cold.  At  Smorgoni,  on  the 
5th  of  December,  Napoleon  took  leave  of  his  generals, 
to  whom  he  committed  the  wreck  of  his  grand  army, 
and,  accompanied  by  Caulaincourt,  set  out  in  a  sledge 
for  Warsaw  and  Paris.  He  reached  the  French  capital 
on  the  18th  of  December.  The  Russian  historian  lioo- 
toorlin  (Buturlin)  states  the  total  loss  of  the  French  in 
the  campaign  of  181 2  at  450,000  men  ;  of  which  number, 
according  to  his  estimate,  125,000  were  killed  in  battle, 
132,000  died  of  fatigue,  hunger,  and  cold,  and  193,000, 
including  3000  officers  and  forty-eight  generals,  were 
taken  prisoners.  More  than  nine  hundred  pieces  of  can- 
non belonging  to  the  grand  army  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Russians. 

On  his  arrival  in  Paris,  Napoleon  began  immediately 
to  prepare  for  another  campaign.  By  fresh  conscriptions, 
and  by  recalling  from  distant  places  all  the  trooi)s  that 
could  be  spared,  he  succeeded  in  assembling  on  the 
German  frontier,  in  the  spring  of  1813,  an  army  of  350,000 
men.  He  won  in  May  the  indecisive  victories  of  Lutzen 
and  Bautzen  over  the  combined  Russo-Prussian  army. 
Austria  at  first  stood  neutral,  and  offered  her  mediation  ; 
but,  as  it  was  not  accepted,  she  at  length,  in  August, 
joined  the  allies.  Napoleon  might  now  perceive  the  fatal 
mistake  he  had  made  not  merely  in  neglecting  to  use  the 
means  in  his  power  to  attach  the  conquered  nations  to 
his  person  and  government,  but  in  recklessly  wounding 
and  outraging  their  feelings  of  national  pride  and  patriot- 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,  gtUtitral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ({J;^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BONAPARTE 


394 


BONAPARTE 


ism.  When  the  French  soldiers  first  entered  Germany, 
non  a  few  of  the  people  seem  to  have  regarded  them  as 
liberators,  and  a  large  proportion  were  almost  indifferent 
as  to  the  success  of  either  army  ;  but,  after  experiencing 
the  insolence  and  oppression  of  the  French  rule,  the 
mass  of  the  population  had  become  so  exasperated  that 
the  moment  there  appeared  to  be  some  reasonable  pros- 
pect of  throwing  off  the  yoke,  they  arose  as  with  one 
mind  against  their  oppressors,  in  unconquerable  numbers. 
The  war  which  ended  in  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  was 
commonly  called  in  Germany  "der  Volkskrieg,"  ("the 
people's  war,"*)  because  it  was  not  so  much  a  contest 
of  i^rinces  to  recover  their  ancestral  dominions,  as  a 
struggle  of  the  people  to  regain  the  liberty  which,  im- 
perfect as  it  was,  they  had  enjoyed  under  their  German 
rulers.  In  most  of  the  battles  which  Napoleon  fought 
during  the  campaign  of  1813,  his  transcendent  military 
genius  gave  him  the  superiority  over  his  foes.  But  the 
latter  were  becoming  stronger  every  moment;  and  at 
last,  in  the  fatal  battle  of  Leipsic,  about  10,000  of  his 
Saxon  allies  left  him  in  a  body  and  went  over  to  his 
enemies.  After  a  disastrous  retreat,  he  crossed  the  Rhine 
with  only  about  70,000  men  out  of  the  army  of  350,000 
with  which  he  had  entered  Germany  in  the  spring. 

The  French  people  had  at  last  become  weary  of  the 
long  and  ruinous  wars  which  they  were  compelled  to 
wage  under  Napoleon.  The  legislative  body,  though 
hitherto  it  had  seemed  to  be  little  more  than  a  pageant 
designed  to  add  dignity  to  the  imperial  court,  now 
ventured  to  advise  the  emperor  to  take  the  necessary 
steps  for  obtaining  peace,  so  far  as  this  could  be  done 
consistently  with  the  honour  and  welfare  of  the  country. 
A  new  conscription,  however,  was  ordered  ;  but  France 
had  become  completely  exhausted,  and  Napoleon  was 
under  the  necessity  of  again  taking  the  field,  with  an 
army  of  less  than  80,000  men.  After  the  most  extraor- 
dinary display  on  his  part  of  courage,  promptitude,  and 
military  skill,  against  desperate  odds,  the  allies  at  last 
succeeded  in  taking  possession  of  Paris,  on  the  31st  of 
March,  1814.  Soon  after  he  signed  an  act  of  abdication, 
and  retired  to  the  island  of  Elba,  of  which  he  was  to 
have  the  sovereignty,  with  the  title  of  emperor,  and  an 
annual  allowance  of  six  millions  of  francs,  to  be  paid 
by  France.  He  remained  in  Elba  only  about  ten  months. 
During  the  latter  part  of  his  sojourn  on  the  island,  he 
kept  up  a  correspondence  with  the  disaffected  parties  in 
France.  On  the  15th.  of  February,  1815,  he  left  Elba, 
and  landed  (March  i)  in  France,  near  Frejus.  His  jour- 
ney to  Paris  was  a  triumphal  procession.  The  Bourbons 
were  everywhere  deserted  by  the  troops.  Marshal  Ney, 
who  had  been  sent  by  Louis  XVHI.  to  check  Napoleon's 
progress,  went  over  to  his  old  commander.  Napoleon 
was  received  in  Paris  as  the  Emperor  of  France,  on 
condition  of  his  reigning  as  a  constitutional  sovereign. 
Early  in  June,  having  assembled  an  army  of  about 
125,000  men,  he  hastened  to  meet  the  allied  Prussian  and 
English  armies  in  Flanders.  He  repulsed  Bliicher  at 
Ligny,  (June  16,)  and  forced  him  to  retreat  with  consider- 
able loss.  On  the  i8th  of  June  the  battle  of  Waterloo 
was  fought  between  the  French  army,  under  Napoleon, 
and  that  of  the  allies,  commanded  by  Wellington.  We 
shall  not  attempt  to  give  a  particular  account  of  this 
great  conflict,  as  the  most  contradictory  statements  are 
found  even  among  those  who  are  regarded  as  the  best 
authorities  on  the  subject.  Suffice  to  say  that  the  oppos- 
ing forces  were  probably  nearly  equal,  each  comprising 
about  75,000  men.  The  English  troops,  however,  con- 
stituted less  than  one-half  of  Wellington's  army.  The 
battle  began  between  eleven  and  twelve  o'clock,  and 
continued  with  the  utmost  fury  till  near  nightfall,  when, 
the  Prussian  general  Bliicher  having  come  up  with  fresh 
troops,  the  French  were  defeated  at  every  point.  The 
loss  of  the  allies  at  Waterloo  is  admitted  by  Wellington 
to  have  been  "  inunense  but  the  army  of  Napoleon 
was  irretrievably  ruined.  After  the  rout  once  began, 
the  French  fled  in  the  utmost  confusion,  leaving  cannon, 
baggage,  and  everything  in  the  hands  of  the  victors. 
Napoleon  seems  still  to  have  entertained  hopes  of  re- 


*  It  was  likewise  often  called  "der  Freiheitskrieg,"  ("the  war  of 
freedom.") 


sisting  his  enemies  ;  but  France  had  become  utterly 
exhausted  with  her  long  contest  against  the  combined 
powers  of  Europe,  and  was  at  last  thoroughly  weary  of 
war.  The  Chamber  of  Representatives  at  Paris  declared 
itself  permanent,  and  demanded  the  abdication  of  the 
emperor.  When  Lucien  Bonaparte  spoke  to  them  of 
the  services  which  his  brother  had  formerly  rendered  to 
the  state.  La  Fayette  insisted  that  the  three  millions  of 
Frenchmen  whom  Napoleon  had  sacrificed  upon  the 
altar  of  his  ambition  should  not  be  left  out  of  the 
account.  "  We  have  followed  your  brother,"  he  said, 
"  over  the  sands  of  Africa  and  the  frozen  deserts  of 
Russia  :  the  bones  of  Frenchmen  scattered  over  every 
part  of  the  globe  attest  our  long  fidelity."  The  repre- 
sentatives remained  resolute.  Some  of  them  declared 
that  there  was  but  one  man  between  France  and  peace, 
and  demanded  that  he  should  be  sacrificed  to  the  com- 
mon good.  On  the  22d  of  June  Napoleon  signed  his 
second  abdication.  Thus  ended  the  history  of  the 
Hundred  Days,  (the  period  between  the  date  of  his  re- 
suming power  after  leaving  Elba,  and  that  of  his  final 
abdication.)  He  then  went  to  Rochefort,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  embarking  for  America ;  but,  finding  that  there 
was  little  hope  of  escaping  the  British  cruisers,  he  vol- 
untarily gave  himself  up  to  Captain  Maitland,  of  the 
British  line-of-battle  ship  Bellerophon.  He  was,  accord- 
ing to  an  agreement  among  the  allied  powers,  who  al- 
leged that  the  peace  of  the  world  required  that  he 
should  not  again  be  allowed  to  regain  his  liberty,  carried 
to  Saint  Helena,  having  been  removed  from  the  Bellero- 
phon to  the  Northumberland,  commanded  by  Sir  George 
Cockburn.  He  reached  Saint  Helena  on  the  15th  of  Oc- 
tober, 1815.  After  an  imprisonment  of  nearly  six  years, 
he  died,  of  cancer  of  the  stomach.  May  5,  1821. 

There  has  probably  never  been  in  the  history  of  the 
world  any  man  who  has  combined  those  attributes  of 
intellect  and  will  which  confer  upon  their  possessor 
transcendent  military  and  administrative  power,  in  so 
high  a  degree  as  Napoleon.  It  has  been  said,  not  with- 
out reason,  that  as  a  general  Caesar  gave  proof  of  greater 
originality  of  genius,  inasmuch  as  he  never  repeated  the 
same  stratagem  or  mode  of  warfare,  but  always  had  a 
fresh  invention  for  every  new  emergency.  But,  even  if  it 
be  admitted  that  in  fertility  of  invention  Najioleon  was 
inferior  to  Caesar,  it  may,  on  the  other  hand,  be  safely 
aflirmed  that  not  only  in  his  power  of  combination, — 
of  embracing  in  one  harmonious  plan  a  great  niunber 
of  distinct  and  independent  elements, — but  also  of  watch- 
ing over  and  directing  at  one  and  the  same  time  the 
complicated  movements  of  mighty  armies,  the  tone  of 
the  public  press,  the  operations  of  foreign  and  domestic 
commerce,  in  addition  to  the  endless  intricacies  and  de- 
tails of  his  system  of  police,  and  the  great  measures  of 
his  government,  not  merely  in  France,  but  through  the 
whole  extent  of  his  vast  empire, — he  was  unequalled  by 
any  commander  or  sovereign  that  ever  lived. 

But,  whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  genius  of  Napo- 
leon as  compared  with  that  of  other  great  commanders, 
it  cannot  be  denied  that  in  some  respects  his  career  was 
the  most  extraordinary,  and  his  destiny  the  most  won- 
derful, of  any  recorded  in  the  annals  of  mankind.  Other 
rulers  may  have  wielded  a  power  as  extensive  and  even 
more  absolute  ;  but  they  cannot,  like  Napoleon,  boast  of 
having  been  the  sole  architects  of  their  own  fortunes, — of 
having  risen,  like  him,  from  an  absolutely  private  station  to 
the  highest  pinnacle  of  greatness.  Cyrtis  and  Alexander 
inherited  each,  as  his  birthright,  a  powerful  kingdom  ; 
Hannibal  and  Caesar  were  respectively  the  recognizecl 
representatives  of  high  and  influential  families.  Na- 
poleon, on  the  contrary,  besides  his  energy  and  his  ge- 
nius, possessed  not  a  single  advantage  that  might  not 
have  fallen  to  the  lot  of  the  humblest  citizen  of  France. 
No  other  sovereign  of  whom  history  makes  mention  ever 
maintained  himself,  even  for  a  single  day,  against  such  a 
combination  of  gigantic  powers  ;  yet  Napoleon  not  only 
maintained  himself,  but  for  twelve  years  was  constantly 
adding  to  his  dominions  in  the  face  of  an  oppositic /i  such 
as  was  never  before  or  since  arrayed  against  any  single 
ruler.  And  he  fell  at  last,  so  to  speak,  by  his  own  hand. 
He  seems  to  have  possessed  every  intellectual  endow- 
ment except  wisdom,  and  every  form  of  power  except 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, 


r,  short;  a,    j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^U,  f^t;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


BONAPARTE 


395 


BONAPARTE 


moral  power.  His  ambition,  and  the  desire  to  exert  his 
imperious  will,  often  led  him  to  embrace  measures  which 
his  cooler  judgment  disapproved.*  His  invasion  of  Spain 
^  was  a  remarkable  instance  of  this.  No  one  saw  more 
clearly  than  he  the  ditficulties  and  dangers  to  be  encoun- 
tered in  such  a  war.  In  a  letter  addressed  to  Murat, 
March  29,  180S,  he  says,  "Do  not  imagine  that  you 
have  only  to  make  a  display  of  your  troops  in  order  to 
conquer  Spain.  .  .  .  They  may  raise  levies  against  us 
en  masse  which  will  render  the  war  eternal.  I  have  at 
present  partisans,  but  if  I  show  myself  in  the  character 
of  a  conqueror  I  cannot  retain  one  of  them."  Again, 
with  prophetic  forecast,  he  says,  "  If  war  once  break 
oyt,  ALL  IS  LOST."  Yet,  in  spite  of  what  he  so  clearly 
foresaw,  he  adopted  a  course  which  rendered  war  inevi- 
table. He  afterwards  said,  bitterly,  "  That  wretched  war 
was  my  ruin  :  it  divided  my  forces,  multiplied  the  neces- 
sity of  my  efforts,  and  injured  niy  character  for  morality.'''' 
Having  lost  his  reputation  for  morality,  his  subjects  and 
allies  ceased  to  have  any  confidence  in  his  word,  and  his 
vast  empire,  no  longer  cemented  by  "that  faith  which 
binds  the  moral  elements  of  the  world  together,"  was  al- 
ready beginning  to  crumble,  when  his  fatal  campaign  in 
Russia  annihilated  his  grand  army  and  involved  him  in 
irretrievable  ruin.  With  all  his  sagacity,  he  committed  the 
stupendous  error  of  supposing  that  he  could,  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  hold  Europe  in  subjection  by  the  mere 
force  of  his  intellect  and  will,  without  the  exercise  of  any 
strictly  moral  attributes,  and  without  laying  the  founda- 
tions of  his  power  in  the  affections  of  the  people. 

Among  the  writings  or  productions  of  Napoleon  may 
be  mentioned  a  "  History  of  Corsica,"  ("  Histoire  de  la 
Corse,")  which  having  been  shown  by  the  Abbe  Raynal 
to  Mirabeau,  the  latter  observed  that  this  little  history 
seemed  to  him  "to  indicate  a  genius  of  the  highest  or- 
der." Napoleon's  Correspondence,  extending  to  twelve 
volumes  or  more,  was  recently  published  in  Paris, 
by  order  of  Nap(jleon  III.  But  his  most  important 
contribution  to  literature  is  the  work  entitled  "  Me- 
moirs towards  the  History  of  France  under  Napoleon," 
etc.,  ("Memoires  pour  servir  ^  I'Histoire  de  la  France 
sous  Napoleon,"  etc.,)  dictated  by  him  at  Saint  Helena, 
and  written  by  his  generals  Gourgaud  and  Montholon, 
published  in  nine  volumes  8vo,  Paris,  1830.  To  these 
may  be  added  his  "  Military  Maxims,"  ("  Maximes  de 
Guerre,")  prepared  by  General  Husson,  Paris,  1830, 
and  the  "  Religious  Conversations"  ("  Conversations  reli- 
gieuses")  of  Napoleon,  edited  by  Beauterne,  Paris,  1841. 
We  should  fail  to  do  justice  to  the  literary  labours  of 
Napoleon  did  we  omit  to  mention  his  important  contri- 
butions to  the  public  journals  during  the  consulship  and 
empire.  As  soon  as  he  became  F"irst  Consul,  he  selected 
the  "Moniteur"  to  be  the  official  organ  of  his  govern- 
ment, and  he  became,  so  to  speak,  its  chief  editor  ;  for  if 
he  did  not  dictate  he  at  least  inspired  the  greater  number 
of  the  articles  that  appeared  in  its  columns.  In  it  were 
published,  from  time  to  time,  such  vindications  or  expla- 
nations of  his  policy,  and  such  statements  respecting 
the  measures  of  his  domestic  and  foreign  administration, 
as  he  wished  the  world  to  receive.  It  is  almost  needless 
to  remark  that  the  truth  or  accuracy  of  those  state- 
ments and  explanations  was  never  regarded  by  the  im- 
perial editor  as  a  point  of  vital  importance,  the  great 
object  being  to  produce  the  requisite  impression  upon 
the  mind  of  France  and  of  Europe. 

Those  who  desire  fuller  information  respecting  the 
life  and  character  of  Napoleon  may  consult,  besides  the 
publications  above  referred  to,  the  following  works  : 

Biographic  des  premieres  Annees  de  Napoleon,  etc.,  (Biography  of 
the  First  Years  of  Napoleon,)  by  the  Baron  de  Coston,  2  vols.  8vo, 
Paris,  1840. 

Memoires  siir  I'Enfance  et  la  Jeunesse  de  Napoleon  jusqu'ci  I'Age 
de  vingt-trois  Ans,  (Memoirs  relating  to  the  Infancy  and  Youth  of 
Napoleon  until  the  Age  of  Twenty-Three  Years,)  by  T.  Nasica,  i  vol. 
8vo,  Paris,  1852. 

Souvenirs  de  la  Jeunesse  de  Napoleon.  (Recollections  of  the  Youth  of 
Napoleon,)  published  in  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  March,  1842. 


*  The  writer  of  the  excellent  notice  of  Napoleon  I.  in  the  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale"  says,  "  En  son  genie  il  y  avail  plus  de 
volont^  que  de  raison,"  ("  In  his  genius  there  was  more  of  will  than 
of  reason.")  That  notice,  it  may  be  remarked,  thnueh  extreme'y 
favourable,  not  to  say  partial,  to  Napoleon,  contains  perhaps  the  best 
r^sum^  of  his  policy  that  has  yet  appeared. 


L'Enfance  de  Napol6on  depuis  sa  Naissance  jusqu'k  sa  Soitie  de 
I'^cple  militaire,  (The  Cliildhood  of  Napoleon  from  his  Birth  imtil 
his  Departure  from  the  Military  School,)  by  the  Chevalier  de  Beau- 
terne, I  vol.  i2mo,  Paris,  1846. 

Memoires  anecdotiques  sur  I'lnterieur  du  Palais  et  sur  quelques 
fivenements  de  TEmpire,  etc.,  (Anecdotical  Memoirs  relating  to  the 
Interior  of  the  Palace  and  to  some  Events  of  the  Empire,  etc.,)  by  L. 
F.  J.  DE  Baus.se  t,  prefect  of  the  palace,  4  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1827-29. 

Memoires  de  Constant,  premier  Vaiet-de  chambre  de  I'Empereur, 
etc.,  (Memoirs  of  Constant,  first  Valet-de-chambre  of  the  Emperor, 
etc.,)  6  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1830. 

Memorial  de  Sainte-Helene,  etc.,  by  the  Comte  de  las  Cases, 
8  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1823. 

Voice  from  Saint  Helena,  by  Dr.  Barry  O'Meara. 

Memoires  du  Docleur  Antommarchi.  ou  les  derniers  Moments  de 
Napoleon,  (Memoirs  of  Dr.  Antommarchi,  or  the  Last  Moments  of 
Napoleon,)  2  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1825. 

Recits  de  la  Captivity  de  I'Empereur  Napoleon,  etc.,  (Accoimt  of 
the  Captivity  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  etc.,)  by  General  Montho- 
lon, 2  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1847. 

History  of  the  Captivity  of  Napoleon  on  the  Island  of  Saint  He- 
lena, from  the  Official  Documents  and  Unpublished  Manuscript  ot  Sir 
Hudson  Lowe,  by  W.  Foksvth. 

Chaboulon's  Memoires. 

Vie  politique  et  militaire  de  Napoleon,  (Political  and  Military  Life 
of  Napoleon,)  by  Jomini,  4  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1827. 

Memoirs  of  Count  Segur,  3  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1827. 

Memoires  du  Due  de  Rovigo,  (Memoirs  of  Savary,  Duke  of  Ro- 
vigo,)  8  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1828. 

Memoirs  of  Bourrienne,  10  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1829. 

Bourrienne  et  ses  Erreurs,  etc.,  (Bourrienne  and  his  Errors,  etc.,) 
2  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1830. 

Memoires  sur  les  Cent  Jours,  (Memoirs  in  relation  to  the  Hundred 
Days,)  by  Benjamin  Constant,  i  vol.  Svo,  Paris,  1829. 

Memoirs  and  Souvenirs  of  the  Comte  Lavaletle,  2  vols.  Svo,  Paris, 
1831. 

Lord  Holland's  Diplomatic  Souvenirs,  etc. 
Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of  Ragusa,  (Marshal  Marmont,)  9  vols.  Svo, 
Paris,  1857. 

Histoire  generale  de  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  de  sa  Vie  privee  et  pub- 
lique,  etc.,  (General  History  of  Napoleou  Bonaparte,  of  his  Private 
and  Public  Life,  etc.,)  by  A.  C.  Thibaudeau,  5  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  1827. 

Le  Consulat  et  1' Empire,  (The  Consulate  and  the  Empire,)  by  A. 
C.  Thibaudeau,  8  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  1834-35.  (This  work  is  esj  ecially 
complete  in  regard  to  the  civil  history  of  t  rance  under  Napoleon.) 

Histoire  de  France  sous  Napoleon,  etc.,  (History  of  France  under 
Napoleon,  etc.,)  by  Louis  Pierre  Edouard  Bignon,  14  vols.  Svo, 
Paris,  1829-50.  (Very  complete  in  regard  to  the  foreign  relations  of 
P" ranee  during  the  period  referred  to.) 

Histoire  de  la  Republique  et  de  P Empire,  (History  of  the  Repub- 
lic and  of  the  Empire,)  by  F^Lix  Wouter.s,  i  vol.  4I0,  Brussels,  1849. 

Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Frangaise,  (History  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution,) by  Louis  Adolphe  Thiers,  id  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  1823-27. 

Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire,  (History  of  the  Consulate 
and  of  the  Empire,)  by  Louis  Adolphe  Thiers,  20  vols.  Svo,  Paris, 
1845-62. 

Alison's  History  of  Europe,  from  the  Commencement  of  the  French 
Revolution  to  the  Battle  of  Waterloo,  10  vols.  Svo,  1S33-42. 

Life  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  by  Sir  Walter  Scoi  t,  9  vols.  Svo, 
London,  1S27. 

Histoire  de  Napoleon,  by  M.  de  Norvins,  4V0IS.  Svo,  Paris,  1827. 
Histoire  de  Napoleon,  by  Elias  Regnault,  4  vols.  i2mo,  Pans, 
1846. 

Histoire  de  Na]")o!eon,  de  sa  Famille,  etc.,  (History  of  Napoleon, 
of  his  Family,  etc.,)  by  M.  E.  Begin,  5  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  1853-54. 

Histoire  de  Napoleon,  by  Abel  Hugo,  1  vol.  Svo,  Paris,  1833. 

Histoire  des  deux  Restauration.s,  etc.,  (History  of  the  Two  Resto- 
rations, etc.,)  by  A.  de  Vaui.abeli.e,  6  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  1844-47. 

Histoire  de  Napoleon,  by  Baron  Martin,  (de  Grey,)  3  vols.  Svo, 
Paris.  1858.    (A  work  of  rare  merit.) 

Histoire  de  la  Restauration,  (History  of  the  Restoration.)  by  La- 
MARTINE,  6  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  1S51-53. 

Souvenirs  contemporains  d'Histoire  et  de  Litt^rature,  (Contempo- 
raneous Recollections  of  History  and  Literature,) by  A.  F.  Villemain, 
2  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  1855. 

Victoires  et  Conquetes,  Desastres,  Revers  et  Guerres  civiles  des 
Frangais  de  1792  i  1815,  (Victories  and  Conquests,  Disa.sters,  Re- 
verses, and  Civil  Wars  of  the  French  from  1792  to  1815,)  by  a  Society 
of  Military  Men  and  Men  of  Letters,  27  vols.  Svo,  the  ifirst  of  which 
was  issued  in  1818. 

Histoire  de  Napoleon  et  de  la  grande  Armee  pendant  I'Annee  1812, 
(History  of  Najioleon  and  of  the  Grand  Army  din  ing  the  Year  1812,) 
lay  the  Comte  de  Segur,  i6th  edition,  2  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  1852. 

Histoire  de  r  Expedition  de  Russie,  (History  of  the  Campaign  in 
Russia,)  by  the  Marquis  of  Chambray,  3  vo'ls.  Svo,  Paris,  1838. 

Les  derniers  Jours  de  la  grande  Armee,  (The  Last  Days  of  the 
Grand  Army,)  2  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  1847. 

Memoires  pour  servir  I'Histoire  militaire  sous  le  D'vectoire,  le 
Consulat  et  I'Empire,  (Memoirs  towards  the  Military  History  fof 
France]  under  the  Directory,  the  Consulate,  and  the  Empire,)  by 
Marshal  Saint  Cyr,  4  vols.  Svo,  Paris.  1S31. 

Memoires  du  Marechal  Ney,  published  by  his  Family,  2  vols.  Svo, 
Paris,  1833. 

Among  the  smaller  publications  relating  to  Napoleon,  the  reader 
is  particularly  referred  to  Dr.  W.  E.  Channing's  able  and  eloquent 
review  of  the  life  and  character  of  that  extraordinary  man.  Although 
very  severe,  it  has  the  merit  of  being  (unlike  many  of  the  works  pub- 
lished in  France  and  England)  totally  free  from  any  partisan  or  na- 
tional animosity. 

See  also  the  article  "  Napoleon  Ter"  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale."  which  contains  a  very  complete  bibliography  of  Napoleon's 
works  and  of  those  pubiicalions  wliich  relate  to  his  life  and  history, 
from  which  the  foregoing  bibliographical  list  is  principally  taken. 


C  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  z\) 


BONAPARTE 


396 


BOND 


Bonaparte,  (Napoleon  Joseph  Charles  Paul,) 
commonly  styled  Prince  Napoleon,  a  son  of  Jerome, 
King  of  Westphalia,  by  his  second  wife,  was  born  at 
Trieste  in  September,  1822.  His  features  are  said  to  pre- 
sent a  very  striking  likeness  to  those  of  his  uncle  Napo- 
leon I.  He  passed  his  youth  in  various  foreign  countries 
until  the  Revolution  of  1848,  and  was  then  permitted  to 
enter  France.  He  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  and 
Legislative  Assemblies,  in  which  he  voted  with  the  dem- 
ocrats. In  1852  he  was  recognized  as  a  French  prince, 
and  heir  to  the  throne  in  case  of  the  failure  of  issue  of 
Napoleon  HI.  He  commanded  a  division  in  the  Crimean 
war,  (1854,)  and  was  appointed  minister  of  Algeria  and 
the  colonies  in  1858.  In  1859  he  married  Clotilde,  a 
daughter  of  Victor  Emmanuel  of  Sardinia,  and  com- 
manded a  corps  in  the  Italian  campaign  against  Austria. 
He  made  in  1862  two  eloquent  speeches,  in  which  he  ad- 
vocated Italian  nationality,  the  principles  of  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1789,  etc.,  and  opposed  the  temporal  power  of 
the  pope.  About  the  end  of  1862  he  visited  the  United 
States. 

Bonaparte,  (Pauline  or  Marie  Pauline,)  Princesse 
Borghese,  a  sister  of  Napoleon  I.,  born  at  Ajaccio  in 
1780.  She  was  the  most  beautiful  of  the  family,  but  was 
inferior  to  Elisa  in  talents.  In  1801  she  was  married  to 
General  Leclerc,  whom  she  accompanied  to  SaiiU  Do- 
mingo in  1802.  Having  lost  her  first  husband  by  death, 
she  became  the  wife  of  Prince  Camillo  Borghese  of  Rome, 
in  August,  1803.  This  prince  was  a  man  of  feeble  cha- 
racter, and  soon  separated  from  her.  She  was  prodigal 
and  voluptuous,  but  is  praised  for  generosity  to  the  poor. 
Canova  made  a  statue  of  her,  which  is  said  to  resemble 
the  Venus  of  Praxiteles.    She  died  at  Florence  in  1825. 

Bonaparte,  (Pierre  Napoleon,)  the  third  son  of  Lu- 
cien,  was  born  at  Rome  in  1815.  After  many  adventures 
in  America,  Italy,  and  Greece,  he  became  in  1848  a  re- 
publican member  of  the  French  Constituent  Assembly. 
After  the  cojip  d'etat  oi  1851  he  retired  to  private  life, 

Bon'ar,  (Horatius,)  D.D.,  a  sacred  lyric  poet  of 
great  merit,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1808,  published  in  1856 
"  Hymns  of  Faith  and  Hope,"  and  a  second  series  of  the 
same  in  1861. 

See  Cleveland,  "Literature  of  the  19th  Century,"  newed.,  1S66. 

Bonarelli  della  Rovere,  bo-nl-rel'lee  del'ld  ro-va'ri, 
(Guidubaldo,  gwe-doo-baKdo,)  an  Italian  poet  and  litte- 
rateur,  born  at  Urbino  in  1563,  was  the  author  of  "  Filli 
di  Sciro,"  (1607,)  a  pastoral,  which  obtained  great  suc- 
cess and  was  translated  into  French,  English,  German, 
and  Spanish.    Died  in  1608. 

See  F.  RoNCONi,  "Vie  de  G.  Bonarelli  della  Rovere." 

Bonarelli  della  Rovere,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  dra- 
matist, son  of  Prospero,  noticed  below,  lived  about  1650. 

Bonarelli  della  Rovere,  (Prospero,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  dramatist,  brother  of  Guidubaldo,  noticed  above, 
born  about  1588;  died  in  1659. 

Bonasoni,  bo-ni-so'nee,  or  Bonasone,  bo-n3.-so'ni, 
(GiULio,)  an  Italian  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Bo- 
logna, lived  about  1540-72.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  pupil  of  Sabbatini.  His  engravings  after  Michael 
Angelo,  Raphael,  and  Titian  possess  great  merit. 

See  George  Cumberland,  "Some  Anecdotes  of  the  Life  of  J. 
Bonasoni,"  1793. 

Bonassieux,  bo'nt^se-uh',  (Jean  Marie,)  a  French 
sculptor,  was  born  at  La  I^issiere  in  1810.  He  obtained 
medals  of  the  first  class  in  1844  and  1855. 

Bonati,  bo-ni'tee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  historical 
painter  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Ferrara  about  1635. 
He  worked  in  Rome.    Died  in  i68r. 

Bonati,  Bonato,  bo-ni'to,  or  Bonatti,  (Guido,)  an 
Italian  astrologer,  born  at  Florence;  died  in  1596, 

See  BoNCOMPAGNi,  "Della  Vi  a,  etc.  di  Guido  Bonati,"  1851. 

Bonati,  (Teodoro  Massimo,)  an  Italian  mathema- 
tician, physician,  and  scientific  writer,  born  near  Ferrara 
in  1724.  He  became  professor  of  mechanics  and  hy- 
draulics at  Ferrara,    Died  in  1820. 

Bonaventura,  bo-ni-v^n-too^rS,  (FederiCxO,)  an  Ital- 
ian srientific  vriter,  born  at  Anconain  1555  ;  died  in  1602. 

Bonaventura,  Saint,  [Fr.  Bonavenpure,  bo'nS'- 
vfiN^tiiR',] (Giovanni  diFidenza — de  fe-d^n'z.^,)  an  emi- 
nent scholastic  theologian,  born  at  Bagnarea,  in  Italy,  in 
1221,  was  styled  "  the  Seraphic  Doctor."  He  became  suc- 


cessively professor  of  theology  in  Paris,  (1253,)  general 
of  the  order  of  Franciscans,  Bishop  of  Albano,  (1273,) 
and  cardinal,  (1274.)  Among  his  principal  writings  are 
a  "  Life  of  Saint  Francis,"  (in  Latin,)  and  a  work  entitled 
"Progress  of  the  Mind  towards  God,"  ("  Itinerarium 
Mentis  in  Deum.")  He  is  regarded  by  the  Franciscans 
as  the  greatest  scholiast  of  their  order ;  and  Dante  has 
given  him  a  place  in  his  "  Paradiso."  Died  in  1274.  He 
was  canonized  in  1482  by  Sixtus  IV. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis;"  J.  C.  Boule,  "  Histoire 
de  la  Vie  de  Saint-Bonaventure,"  174;;  Ignaz  A.  Fesslkr,  "  Bona- 
ventura's  mystische  Nachte  oder  Leben  and  Meinungen  desselben,' 
1S07. 

Bonaventure  de  Saint- Amable,  bo'nt'vfiN'tiiR' 
deh  siNt't'mtb'l',  a  French  Carmelite  monk,  wrote  a 
"Life  of  Saint  Martial,"  (1685.) 

Bonavino.    See  Franchi. 

Boncenne,  b6N''s§n',  (Pierre,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Poitiers  in  1775,  published  "The  Theory  of  Civil  Pro- 
cedure," (4  vols.,  1828.)    Died  in  1840. 

Boncerf,  b6N'sgRF,  (Clal'DE  Joseph,)  a  French  lit- 
terateur^ born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1724;  died  in  181 1. 

Boncerf,  (Pierre  Francois,)  a  French  publicist  and 
economist,  born  in  Franche-Comte  about  1745.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  an  argument  against  feudal 
privileges,  (1776,)  which  attracted  much  attention  and 
was  translated  into  many  languages.    Died  in  1794. 

Bonchamp,  de,  deh  biN'shdN',  (Charles  Melchior 
Artus,)  a  French  royalist  general,  born  in  the  province 
of  Anjou  in  1759.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  Ven- 
dean  war,  and  was  mortally  wounded  at  Chollet  in  1793. 
By  his  dying  words  he  saved  the  lives  of  five  thousand 
prisoners  whom  his  soldiers  were  about  to  massacre. 

See  Chauveau  et  Dussieux,  "Vie  de  Bonchamp,"  1817. 

Bonoiario,  bon-chi're-o,  (Marcantonio,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  near  Perugia  in  1555;  died  in  1616. 

Bonoompagni,  b6n-kom-pIn'yee,  (Baldassare,)  one 
of  the  most  eminent  Italian  literati  of  the  present  age, 
born  at  Rome  in  1821,  inherited  a  large  fortune.  He  is 
a  liberal  patron  of  leariting,  and  has  published  a  number 
of  biographies  and  other  works. 

Boncore,  bon-ko'ra,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  physician 
and  jurist,  lived  about  1620. 

Boncuore,  bon-koo  o'ra,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an 
Italian  historical  painter,  born  about  1645  ;  died  in  1699. 

Bond,  (George  Phillips,)  an  American  astronomer, 
son  of  William  Cranch  Bond,  was  born  at  Dorchester, 
Massachusetts,  in  1825.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege about  1845,  ^'^^  aided  his  father  in  the  observatory 
at  Cambridge.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  an 
observer,  and  wrote  several  astronomical  works,  among 
which  are  a  "Treatise  on  the  Construction  of  the  Rings 
of  Saturn,"  and  "Elements  of  the  Orbits  of  Hyperion 
and  the  Satellite  of  Neptune,"    Died  in  1865. 

Bond,  (John,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in  Somer- 
setshire in  1559,  wrote  commentaries  on  Horace  and 
Persius.    Died  in  16 12. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Bond,  (Oliver,)  an  Irish  revolutionist,  born  in  1720, 
was  associated  with  Wolfe  Tone  and  others  in  the  rebel- 
lion of  1797.  He  was  arrested  in  1798,  and  was  soon 
after  found  dead  in  his  prison. 

Bond,  (Thomas,)  an  American  physician,  born  in 
Maryland  in  17 12.  He  practised  in  Philadelphia  with 
distinction,  and  delivered  the  first  clinical  lectures  in  the 
Pennsylvania  Hospital.  He  was  associated  with  Frank- 
lin, Bartram,  and  others  in  a  literary  society.  P"ed  n 
1784. 

See  Thacher,  "Medical  Biography." 

Bond,  (Thomas  Emerson,)  an  American  physician 
and  Methodist  minister,  born  in  Baltimore  in  1782.  He 
practised  medicine  in  his  native  city,  and  obtained  a  chair 
in  the  Medical  College  of  Maryland.  He  was  for  many 
years  a  local  preacher  among  the  Methodists,  and  ac- 
quired distinction  as  a  defender  of  Episcopal  Methodism 
during  the  controversy  which  resulted  in  the  organization 
of  the  Methodist  Protestant  Church.  He  edited  "The 
Christian  Advocate  and  Journal"  for  many  years.  Died 
in  1856. 

Bond,  (William  Cranch,)  an  American  astronomer, 
born  at  Portland,  Maine,  in  1789  or  1790.     He  was  a 


a»e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  vi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


BONDJM 


397 


BONICHON 


watchmaker  in  early  life.  In  1838  he  was  appointed  by 
the  government  to  make  observations  in  connection  with 
the  exploring  expedition  sent  to  the  South  Sea.  He  be- 
came director  of  the  observatory  of  Harvard  University 
about  1840.  He  gained  distinction  by  his  observations 
on  Saturn  and  the  fixed  stars,  and  by  his  operations  in 
celestial  photography.  Died  in  1859.  He  and  his  son 
discovered  a  satellite  of  Neptune  and  the  eighth  satellite 
of  Saturn. 

Bondam,  bon'dim,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  and  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Utrecht,  born  at  Campen  in  1727;  died 
in  1800. 

Bonde,  bon'dlh,  (Gustaf,)  Count,  a  Swedish  savant, 
born  at  Stockholm  in  1682,  became  chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Upsal.  He  died  in  1 764,  leaving  "  Memoirs 
of  Sweden  in  the  Reign  of  Frederick  I.,"  (in  manuscript.) 

See  D.  TiLAS.  "Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  G.  Bonde,"  1766, 

Bondi,  bon'dee,  (Clemknte,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
Jesuit,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Parma  in  1742,  became  pro- 
fessor of  history  and  literature  at  Vienna  in  1815.  He 
translated  into  Italian  verse  Virgil's  "^^ineid,"  "  Geor- 
gics,"  and  "  Bucolics."  His  version  of  the  "/Eneid"  is 
considered  one  of  the  best  in  the  Italian  language.  He 
also  translated  Ovid's  "Metamorphoses."  Among  his 
original  works  are  odes,  epigrams,  idyls,  satires,  and 
didactic  poems.  His  style  is  commended  as  noble,  sim- 
ple, and  refined.    Died  in  Vienna  in  1821. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Itaiiani  illustri ;"  A.  Pezzana,  "  In- 
tomo  a  C.  Bondi,  Epistola,"  1821. 

Bondioli,  bon-de-o'lee,  (Pietro  Antonio,)  a  distin- 
guished physician  and  medical  writer,  born  in  Corfu  in 
1765,  became  professor  of  materia  medica  at  Bologna, 
(1803.)    Died  in  1808. 

See  Mario  Pieki,  "  Elogio  di  P.  A.  Bondioli,"  1810. 

Bondt,  bont,  (Nikolaas,)  a  Dutch  scholar,  born  at 
Voorburg  in  1732,  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Confedera- 
tion of  the  United  Provinces,"  (1756,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1792. 

Bondy,  de,  deh  boN'de',  (Pierre  Marie  Taille- 
pied  —  X.^Y\)qA'  or  tS  ye-pe-a',)  Com  i  e,  born  in  Paris 
in  1766,  became  chamberlain  to  the  emperor  Napoleon 
in  1805.  He  was  afterwards  created  count  of  the  empire 
and  member  of  the  state  council,  and  m  1816  was  elected 
to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.    Died  in  1847. 

Bone,  (Henry,)  a  celebrated  English  enamel-painter, 
born  at  Truro,  in  Cornwall,  in  1755.  He  became  an 
academician  in  181 1,  and  was  appointed  enamel-painter 
successively  to  George  III.,  George  IV.,  and  William  IV. 
Among  his  master-pieces  may  be  named  "  Bacchus  and 
Ariadne,"  after  Titian  ;  a  "  Virgin,"  after  Raphael ;  and 
a  collection  of  eighty-five  portraits  of  eminent  persons 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.    Died  in  1834. 

Bonefbns.    See  Bonnefons. 

Bonelli,  bo-neKlee,  (BENEDErro,)  an  Italian  theolo- 
gian, born  near  Trent  in  1704. 

Bonelli,  (Francesco  Andrea,)  a  naturalist  and  scien- 
tific writer,  l)orn  in  Piedmont  in  1784,  became  professor 
of  natural  history  at  Turin  in  1809.  Died  in  Turin  in  1830. 

£ee  TipALDo,  "  Biografia  degli  Itaiiani  illnstri." 

Bonelli,  (Giorgio,)  an  Italian  physician  and  botanist, 
whose  principal  work,  the  "  Roman  Garden,"  ("  Hortus 
Ronianus,"  8  vols,  fol.,  1772,)  has  800  coloured  plates. 

Boner,  bo'ner,  [Lat.  Bone'rius,]  (Ulrich,)  a  German 
fabulist,  who  lived  in  the  fourteenth  century  and  wrote 
a  collection  of  a  hundred  fables,  entitled  "The  Jewel," 
("Der  Edelstein,"  1461.) 

Sie  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Bonet,  bo-net',  (Juan  Pablo,)  a  Spanish  philanthro- 
pist, who  lived  about  1 590-1630,  published  a  work  on  the 
instruction  of  deaf-mutes,  (Madrid,  1620.) 

Bonet,  (Th^ofhile.)    See  Bonnet. 

Bonet  de  Lates,  lio'ni'  deh  iSt,  a  French  physician 
and  astrologer,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  about  1480. 

Bonfadio,  bon-fi'de-o,  (Jacopo,)  born  near  Salo,  be- 
came professor  of  philosophy  at  Genoa  in  1545.  He 
wrote  a  history  of  the  republic  of  Genoa,  ("  Annalium 
Genuentium,"  1528  to  1550,)  which  was  translated  into 
Italian.  He  was  executed  in  1550,  on  a  charge  of  having 
libelled  several  distinguished  persons  in  his  history.  He 
left  poems,  which  are  highly  commended. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Vita  di  J.  Bonfadio,"  1746. 


Bonfante,  bon-fSn'ti,  (Angelo  Matteo,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  naturalist,  born  at  Palermo;  died  in  1676. 

Boniiglio,  bon-fel'yo,  or  Buonfigli,  boo-on -ffeKyee, 
(Benedetto,)  an  able  Italian  painter,  born  at  Perugia 
about  1420,  is  said  to  have  been  the  master  of  Perugino. 
Died  about  1500. 

Bonfini,bon-fee'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  litterateur, 
born  at  Ascoli  in  1427.  He  was  patronized  by  Matthias 
Corvinus,  King  of  Hungary,  at  whose  request  he  wrote  a 
"History  of  Hungary,"  in  Latin.    Died  in  1502. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Vossius,  "De 
Historicis  Latinis. " 

Bonfos,  b^N^fos',  (Man ahem,)  a  learned  Jew  of  Per- 
pignan,  in  France,  published  a  book  of  definitions  in  He- 
brew, (1567,)  explaining  scientific  and  technical  terms. 

Bonfrere,  boNTRaiR',  [Lat.  Bonfre'rius,]  (Jacques,) 
a  Flemish  Jesuit  and  Hebrew  scholar,  born  at  Dinant  in 
1573,  was  professor  of  theology  and  Hebrew  at  Douai. 
He  wrote  valuable  commentaries,  in  Latin,  on  the  Pen- 
tateuch and  other  books  of  the  Scriptures.  Died  in  1643. 

See  SwEERT,  "Athense  Belgicae." 

Bongars,  b6N'gtR',  (Jacques,)  a  learned  French  Cal- 
vinist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1546,  was  employed  by  Henry 
IV.  in  several  important  negotiations.  He  wrote  "Epis- 
tles," and  other  works,  in  Latin,  which  are  admired  for 
the  elegance  of  their  style.    Died  in  1612. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Bongars,  de,  deh  boN'gtR',  (Jean  Francois  Marie,) 
Baron,  born  in  the  department  of  Lower  Seine  in  1758, 
served  in  several  campaigns  of  the  Revolution,  and  was 
appointed  general  of  division  in  1812.  He  translated 
into  French  the  "  Military  Institutes"  of  Vegetius,  ( 1 772.) 
Died  about  1820. 

Bongarten,  bon'gaR^ten,  (Anichius,)  a  German  sol- 
dier of  fortune,  lived  about  1380,  and  served  under  sev- 
eral Italian  princes. 

See  SiSMONui,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Bongiovanni,  bon-jo-vSn'nee,  [Lat.  Bonjohan'nes,] 
(Antonio,)  an  Italian  scholar,  born  near  Verona  in  1712, 
published  editions  of  several  classics,  and  in  conjunction 
with  Zanetti,  librarian  of  Saint  Mark  at  Venice,  com- 
pleted a  catalogue  of  the  manuscripts  in  that  library. 

Bongo,  bon'go,  [Lat  Bun'gus,]  sometimes  written 
Bonges,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastic  and  scholar, 
born  at  Bergamo;  died  in  160L 

BonTiam,  (Milledge  L.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  South  Carolina  about  1 81 5,  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress from  1856  to  i860.  At  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July 
21,  1861,  he  commanded  a  brigade  under  Beauregard. 
He  was  elected  Governor  of  South  Carolina  in  January, 
1863. 

Bonheur,  bo'nUR',  (Auguste,)  brother  of  Rosa  Bon- 
heur,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1824.  He  has  painted  land- 
scapes, portraits,  etc. 

Bonheur,  (Isidore,)  a  French  sculptor,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1827.  Among  his 
favourite  subjects  are  horses  and  cattle. 

Bonheur,  (Rosa,)  a  celebrated  French  painter  of  ani- 
mals, born  at  Bordeaux  in  1822,  was  instructed  in  draw- 
ing by  her  father,  an  artist  of  talent.  Her  principal 
studies,  however,  were  from  living  models,  which  she 
represented  with  admirable  skill  and  fidelity.  Having 
previously  executed  several  pieces  of  great  merit,  she 
exhibited  in  1850  "The  Nivernais  Ploughing,"  ("  La- 
bourage  Nivernais,")  which  is  esteemed  her  master- 
piece and  has  obtained  a  place  in  the  gallery  of  the  Lux- 
embourg. Among  her  other  works  may  be  named  "The 
Horse-Fair,"  "The  Three  Musketeers,"  and  "Cows  and 
Sheep  in  a  Hollow  Road." 

Boni,  bo'nee,  (Giacomo  Antonio,)  an  Italian  fresco- 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1688;  died  in  1766. 

Boni,  (Mauro,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  at  Genoa  in 
1746,  published  a  number  of  treatises  on  antiquities  and 
bibliography.    Died  in  181 7. 

Boni,  (Onofrio,)  an  Italian  architect  and  antiquary, 
born  in  1743.  He  wrote  several  antiquarian  treatises, 
and  a  "Eulogy"  on  his  friend  Lanzi.    Died  in  1818. 

Bonichi,  bo-nee'kee,  (Bindo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Sienna  ;  died  in  1337. 

Bonichon,  bo'ne'shoN',  (Franqois,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic, wrote  "  Pompa  Episcopalis."    Died  in  1662. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi^giUtural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jt^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BONIFACE  398 


BONNJRD 


Boniface,  bon'e-fass,  [Fr.  pron.  bo''ne'ftss' ;  Lat.  Bo- 
NitVciLTs;  It.  BoNiKAZiu,  bo-ne-tlt'se-o,]  I.,  Pope,  suc- 
ceeded Zozimus  as  Bishop  of  Rome  in  419  a.d.  His 
claims  were  opposed  by  a  party  in  favour  of  Eulalius ; 
bi't  the  emperor  Honorius  decided  in  favour  of  Boniface. 
He  was  a  patron  of  learning,  and  Saint  Augustine  dedi- 
cated to  him  some  of  his  works.  He  died  in  422,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Celestinus  I. 

See  Baronius,  "Annales." 

Boniface  II.,  born  at  Rome,  succeeded  Felix  IV.  in 
530  ;  died  in  532. 

Boniface  ill.,  born  at  Rome,  was  elected  pope  in 
607,  and  died  the  same  year.  He  obtained  from  the 
emperor  Phocas  permission  for  the  pope  to  be  entitled 
universal  bishop. 

Boniface  IV.,  a  native  of  Valeria,  in  Italy,  succeeded 
Boniface  HI.  in  608.  He  dedicated  the  Pantheon  to  the 
Virgin  and  saints,  having  first  removed  the  heathen 
images.    Died  in  615. 

Boniface  V.,  a  native  of  Naples,  succeeded  Deus- 
dedit  in  619.  He  was  noted  for  his  efforts  to  convert 
the  Britons  to  Christianity.  He  died  in  624,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Honorius  I. 

Boniface  VI.,  born  at  Rome,  was  the  successor  of 
Formosus  in  895,  and  survived  his  election  but  fifteen 
days.    He  was  succeeded  by  Stephen  VII. 

Boniface  VII.,  the  anti-pope,  (Cardinal  Francone, 
fRin-ko'ni,)  was  elected  in  974,  during  the  rule  of  Bene- 
dict VI.,  who  was  soon  after  put  to  death.  Though 
driven  from  Rome  the  following  year,  he  returned  in 
985,  and  imprisoned  Pope  John  XIV.,  who  is  said  to 
have  been  starved  to  death.  He  died  in  985,  and  was 
Bucceeded  by  John  XV, 

See  Platina,  "Vitae  Pontificum." 

Boniface  VIII.,  (Cardinal  Benedetto  Gaetani — 
gi-a-td'nee,)  born  at  Anagni  about  1228,  succeeded  Ce- 
lestine  V.  in  1294.  The  Colonna  family  having  disputed 
his  election,  he  excommunicated  them  and  all  their  ad- 
herents, and  destroyed  their  city  of  Praeneste,  with  a 
number  of  their  castles.  He  was  subsequently  involved 
in  a  contest  with  Philip  the  Fair  of  France,  whom  he 
excommunicated.  Philip,  in  return,  charged  him  with 
heresy  and  other  crimes,  and  had  him  arrested  and  im- 
prisoned at  Anagni.  He  was  rescued  after  a  few  days 
by  his  followers,  but  died  soon  after,  in  1303.  Dante,  in 
his  "Inferno,"  mentions  Boniface  as  one  of  the  simon- 
ists,  and  dwells  on  his  persecution  of  the  Ghibelines. 
(See  "Inferno,"  canto  xxvii.) 

See  RuBEis,  "De  Vita  et  Rebus  gestis  Bonifacii  VIII.,"  1651  ; 
WiLHELM  Drumann,  " Gcscliichte  des  Papstes  Bonifacius  VIII.," 
2  vols.,  1852;  LuiGi  TosTi,  "Storiadi  Bonilazio  VIII.,"  1S47. 

Boniface  IX.,  (Cardinal  Pie  tro  Tomacelli — to-mi- 
chel'lee)  a  Neapolitan,  succeeded  Urban  VI.  in  1389. 
He  had  a  competitor  in  Benedict  XIII.,  the  anti-pope, 
who  held  his  court  at  Avignon.  Boniface  died  in  1404, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Innocent  VII. 

Boniface,  [Lat.  Bonifa'cius,]  a  Roman  general,  born 
in  Thrace,  gained  the  confidence  of  the  empress  Placidia, 
who  began  to  exercise  royal  power  in  424  A.D,  By  insid- 
ious arts  Aetius  induced  her  to  recall  him  from  Africa, 
where  he  had  the  chief  command.  Boniface  then  re- 
volted, and,  contrary  to  the  advice  of  his  friend  Saint 
Augustine,  invited  Genseric  the  Vandal  to  invade  Africa. 
Having  returned  to  the  service  of  Placidia,  he  came  to 
Italy,  and  was  killed  in  a  battle  against  Aetius  in  432  A.D. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Boniface,  bo'neTtss',  (Hyacinthe,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Forcalquier  in  1612;  died  in  1695. 

Boniface,  [Lat.  Bonifa'cius,]  (Win'frid,)  Saint, 
born  in  Devonshire,  England,  about  680,  was  styled  "the 
Apostle  of  Germany,"  and  distinguished  himself  by  his 
zeal  in  converting  the  Germans  to  Christianity.  He  re- 
sided among  them  more  than  thirty  years,  and  founded 
numerous  cathedrals,  schools,  and  monasteries.  In  732 
he  was  appointed  by  Gregory  III.  Archbishop  and  Pri- 
mate of  Germany,  and  subsequently  created  Archbishop 
of  Mentz  by  Pej^in  le  Bref,  whom  he  consecrated  King 
of  the  Franks  in  752.  He  was  assassinated  in  755,  with  a 
number  of  his  companions,  by  an  armed  troop  of  pagans. 

See  Wii.LiBAi.D,  "Life  of  Saint  Boniface;"  Gkorge  W.  Cox, 
"Life  of  Saint  Boniface,"  1853;  J.  C.  Seiters,  "Bonifacius  der 
Apostel  der  Deutschen." 


Bonifacio,  bo-ne-f?/cho,  (Baldassare,)  nephew  of 
Giovanni,  noticed  below,  born  at  Crema  about  1586,  be- 
came Bishop  of  Capo  d'Istria  in  1653.  published 
poems  and  treatises  on  various  subjects,  in  Latin  and 
Italian.    Died  in  1659. 

Bonifacio,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  jurist  and  writer, 
born  at  Rovigo  in  1547,  wrote  a  "History  of  Treviso," 
("  Storia  Trivigiano.")    Died  in  1635. 

Bonifacius.    See  Boniface. 

Bonifazio,    See  Boniface. 

Bonifazio,  bo-ne-flt'se-o,  or  Bonifacio,  bo-ne-fl'- 

cho,  (called  IL  Veneziano,  ^1  vi-net-se-S'no ;  i.e.  "the 
Venetian,")  a  skilful  painter  of  Verona,  born  about  1490, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Titian,  Among  his 
principal  works,  which  are  to  be  seen  at  Venice  and 
Rome,  is  "The  Traffickers  driven  from  the  Temple," 
Died  in  1553, 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Bonifazio,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Viterbo  in  1637,  was  a  pupil  of  Pietro  da  Cortona. 

Bonilla,  de,  da  bo-neKyS,  (Alonso,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  at  Baeza,  in  Andalusia,  about  1580. 

See  Longfellow's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Benin,  von,  fon  bo-neen',  (Eduarb,)  a  Prussian  gen- 
eral, born  at  Stolpe  in  1793.  He  commanded  the  army 
which  fought  against  the  Danes  in  Sleswick-Holstein  in 
1848  and  1849. 

Bon'ing-ton,  (Rich\rd  Parkes,)  an  English  painter 
of  landscapes  and  coast-scenery,  born  near  Nottingham 
in  1801.  He  studied  in  Paris  under  Baron  Gros,  and 
subsequently  visited  Italy.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
"Views  of  Venice  and  Bologna;"  "The  Tomb  of  Saint 
Omer ;"  and  "The  Turk  in  Repose."    Died  in  1828. 

Bonini,  bo-nee'nee,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Ancona;  died  about  1680. 

Bonisoli,  bo-ne-so'lee,  or  Bonizoli,  bo-n^d-zo'lee,( 
(Agostino,)  an  Italian  historical  painter,  born  at  Cre- 
mona in  1633  ;  died  in  1700. 

Bonito,  bo-nee'to,  (Giuseppe,)  a  Neapolitan  portrait- 
painter,  born  in  1705  ;  died  at  Naples  in  1789. 

Bonjean,  b6N''zh6N',  (Louis  Bernard,)  a  French 
jurist  and  legal  writer,  born  at  Valence,  in  Drome,  in 
1804.    He  was  appointed  a  senator  in  1855. 

Bonjour,  b6N'zhooR',  two  brothers,  noted  as  the 
founders  of  a  new  sect  of  Flagellants,  lived  about  1780. 

Bonjour,  (Casimir,)  a  French  litterateiiy-,  born  at 
Clermont  in  1795,  published  "The  Rival  Mother,"  "The 
Two  Cousins,"  and  other  popular  comedies. 

Bonjour,  (Francois  Joseph,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
near  Salins  in  1754,  was  a  pupil  and  assistant  of  Ber- 
thollet.  He  published  a  translation  of  Bergman's  "Chem- 
ical Affinities,"  (1788.)    Died  in  1811. 

Bonjour,  written  also  Bonjours,  (Gutllaume,)  a 
French  Augustine  monk,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1670,  went 
as  a  missionary  to  China,  where  he  died  in  1714. 

Bon,  Le,    See  Le  Bon, 

Bonn,  bon,  (Andreas,)  a  Dutch  surgeon  and  medical 
writer,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1738.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Brussels,    Died  in  1819. 

Bonnaire,  bo^n^R',  (Jean  Gerard,)  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  in  1 771,  was  condemned  to  exile  on  a  charge 
of  being  concerned  in  the  attack  on  Colonel  Gordon  at 
Conde  in  1816.    He  died  the  same  year. 

Bonnaire,  de,  deh  bo'nSR',  (Louis,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic and  moralist,  born  about  1680 ;  died  in  1752. 

Bonnal,  (FRANgois.)    See  Bonal. 

Bonnard,  bo^iSR',  (Charles  Louis,)  a  French  ma  h- 
ematician  and  engineer,  born  at  Arnay-le-Duc  in  17O9; 
died  in  1828. 

Bonnard,  (Ennemond,)  a  French  general  of  division, 
born  in  Dauphiny  in  1756,  served  in  the  Revolutionary 
campaigns  from  1793  to  1798.    Died  in  1819. 

Bonnard,  (Jacques  Charles,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1765,  was  a  pupil  of  Renard,  whom 
he  aided  in  restoring  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries.  Died 
in  1818. 

Bonnard,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  missionary  to 
China,  born  in  1824.  He  arrived  in  China  in  1850,  and 
was  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  government  in  1852. 

Bonnard,  de,  deh  bo'nSR',  (Bernard,)  a  French 
poet,  born  at  Semur-en-Auxois  in  1744;  died  in  1784. 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/ior^;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f&t;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BONNARD 


399 


BONNEVAL 


Bonuard,  de,  (Robert  Alexandre,)  a  French  geol- 
ogist, son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1781.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  wrote  on  geognosy 
and  metallurgy.    Died  in  1857. 

Bonna-Storza,  bon'ni  sfoRt'sd,  daughter  of  Galeazzo 
Sforza,  Duke  of  Milan,  was  married  in  1518  to  Sigismund 
I.,  King  of  Poland.    Died  in  1557. 

Boniiaterre,  bo^it'taiR',  (J.  P.,)  a  French  naturalist, 
born  in  Rouergue  about  1750,  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  "  Encyclopedie  Methodique."  He  published  in 
this  work  his  "  Picture  of  the  Three  Kingdoms  of  Na- 
ture," being  a  continuation  of  the  natural  history  of 
Daubenton,  in  the  same  work.    Died  in  1804. 

See  QuEKARD,  "La  France  Liueraire." 

Bonnaud,  bo'no',  (Jacques  Philippe,)  a  French 
general  of  division,  born  in  1757.  He  served  under 
Pichegru  and  Hoche,  and  was  mortally  wounded  at  Gies- 
sen  in  1797. 

Bonnaud,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Jesuit,  of  French  ex- 
traction, born  in  America  in  1740,  was  educated  in  Paris. 
He  wrote  several  political  works,  which  offended  the 
Jacobins,  by  whose  orders  he  was  executed  in  1792. 

Bonnay,  de,  deh  bo''ni',  (Francois,)  Marquis,  a 
French  statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1750,  was 
elected  president  of  the  National  Assembly  in  1789,  and 
sent  in  1814  on  a  mission  to  Copenhagen.  Died  in  1825. 

Bonne,  bon,  (Rigohert,)  a  French  hydrographer  and 
engineer,  born  in  1727.  He  published  a  "Picture  of 
France,"  (in  27  maps,)  and  "  Neptune  Anierico-septen- 
trional,"  (in  18  maps.)    Died  in  1794. 

See  QuEUARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Bonneau,  bo'nS',  (Jean  Ives  Alexandre,)  French 
consul  to  Poland,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1739.  He  was 
arrested  and  imprisoned  by  Catherine  II.  for  having 
opposed  the  dismemberment  of  Poland.  He  died  in 
1805,  soon  after  his  release. 

Bonne-Carrere,  de,  deh  bon'kt'raiR',  (Guili.aume,) 
a  French  revolutionist,  born  at  Muret,  in  Languedoc,  in 
1754,  was  employed  by  the  Directory  in  several  important 
ne,u,t)tiations.    Died  in  1825. 

Bonnechose,  de,  deh  bon'shoz',  (Francois  Paul 
Emile  Boisnormand — bw^'noR^mfiN',)  a  distinguished 
dramatist  and  historian,  born  at  Leyderdorp,  in  Holland, 
in  1801.  His  "History  of  France'"  (Paris,  1834)  enjoys 
a  high  reputiition  :  he  has  also  published  a  "History  of 
the  Four  Conquests  of  England,"  and  a  popular  tragedy 
entitled  "  Rosamond." 

Bonnechose,  de,  (Henri  Marie  Gaston,)  born  in 
Paris  in  1800,  became  Bishop  of  Carcassonne  in  1847. 

Bonnechose,  de,  (Louis  Charles  Boisnormand,) 
brother  of  Fran9ois  Paul,  noticed  above,  born  at  Nym- 
wegen  in  1812,  was  one  of  the  pages  of  Churles  X.  He 
was  mortally  wounded  soon  after  the  battle  of  La  Penis- 
siere,  in  1832. 

Bonnecorse,  de,  deh  bon'koRss',  (Balthasar,)  a 
French  poet,  born  at  Marseilles,  wrote  a  collection  of 
madrigals  entitled  "The  Watch  of  Love,"  (" La  Montre 
d'Amour.")    Died  in  1706. 

Bonnefoi,  bon'fwl',  (Ennemond,)  [Lat.  Enimun'dus 
Bonefid'ius,]  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Chabeuil  in  1536, 
became  professor  of  law  at  Geneva.  He  published  a 
valuable  work  on  Oriental  jurisprudence.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Cujacius,  and  numbered  De  Thou  among  his 
pupils.    Died  in  1574. 

Bonnefoi,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  surgeon,  born 
in  1756,  published  a  treatise  "On  the  Application  of 
Electricity  to  the  Art  of  Healing."    Died  in  1790. 

Bonnefon.s,  bon'f^N',  (Amable,)  a  French  writer  of 
devotional  works,  born  at  Riom  in  i6co;  died  in  Paris 
in  1653. 

Bonnefons,  (Elie  BENofr,)  a  French  Benedictine 
monk,  born  at  Mauriac  in  1622  ;  died  in  1702. 

Bonnefons,  written  also  Bonefons,  (Jean,)  a  French 
jurist  and  Uttcratetir,  born  at  Clermont-en-Auvergne  in 
^554)  wrote  amatory  poems  in  Latin,  which  are  com- 
mended by  Menage.  Died  in  1614. 
_  Bonnegarde,bon'gtRd',  a  French  compiler,  who  pub- 
lished a  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary,"  (1771.) 

Bonnelier,  bonle-^',  (Hippolytk,)  a  contemporary 
French  litterateur,  has  published  a  number  of  tales  and 
other  works. 


Bon'n^ll  or  Bon'nel,  (James,)  son  of  an  English 
merchant  at  Genoa,  born  in  1653,  published  "Medita- 
tions and  Prayers."    Died  in  1699. 

Bon'ner,  (Edmund,)  an  English  prelate,  infamous  for 
his  persecutions,  born  in  Worcestershire  about  1490.  He 
was  patronized  by  Henry  VIII.,  who  made  him  his  chap- 
lain, employed  him  in  several  important  negotiations, 
and  in  1540  promoted  him  to  the  see  of  London.  Having 
on  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.  refused  to  take  the  oath 
of  supremacy,  Bonner  was  deprived  of  his  bishopric  and 
imprisoned.  After  the  death  of  Edward  he  was  rein- 
stated in  his  office  by  Mary,  and  took  an  active  part  in 
the  persecution  which  has  made  her  reign  infamous. 
The  number  of  those  who  suffered  martyrdom  through 
his  agency  is  estimated  at  more  than  a  hundred.  On  the 
accession  of  Elizabeth,  Bonner  was  the  only  one  of  the 
Catholic  bishops  whom  she  would  not  permit  to  kiss  her 
hand.  The  queen  appears  to  have  fully  sympathized 
with  the  feeling  of  the  people,  among  whom  he  was 
known  as  "  Bloody  Bonner."  Bonner's  brutality  and 
cruelty  contributed  greatly  to  promote  the  Protestant 
cause.  A  published  letter,  addressed  to  him  by  a  lady 
of  that  time,  contains  the  following  passages:  "The 
very  papists  themselves  begin  now  to  abhor  your  blood- 
thirstiness  and  speak  shame  of  your  tyranny.  .  .  .  You 
have  lost  the  hearts  of  twenty  thousand  that  were  rank 
papists  within  this  tw^elvemonth."  He  was  imprisoned 
for  life  in  the  Marshalsea  for  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of 
supremacy.    Died  in  1569. 

See  Fkoude's  "History  of  England,"  vol.  vi.  chap,  xxxiii.,  and 
vol.  vii.  chap.  i.  ;  Hume's  "History  of  England;"  Foxe's  "Book  of 
Martyrs;"  "Life  and  Defence  of  Bonner,  Bishop  of  London.' 

Bonnet,  bo'n^',  (Auguste  Bernard,)  a  French  med- 
ical writer,  born  at  Miramont  about  1790,  resided  at 
Bordeaux. 

Bonnet,  bo'nk',  (Charles,)  an  eminent  naturalist  and 
philosopher,  born  at  Geneva  in  March,  1720.  He  pub- 
lished in  1745  his  "Treatise  on  Insectology,"  in  which 
he  gives  the  result  of  his  important  discoveries  on  the 
modes  of  reproduction  and  animal  functions  of  butter- 
flies, caterpillars,  etc.  His  treatise  "On  the  Use  of 
Leaves  in  Plants"  came  out  in  1754.  It  is  commended 
by  Cuvier  as  one  of  the  best  works  extant  on  vegetable 
physiology.  Having  impaired  his  sight  by  the  use  of  the 
microscope,  he  turned  his  attention  to  philosophy,  and 
published  in  1762  "  Considerations  on  Organized  Bodies." 
This  was  followed  by  his  "Contemplation  of  Nature," 
(1764,)  "  Philosoj^hical  Palingenesis,"  (1769,)  and  "Phi- 
losophical Researches  on  the  Evidences  of  Christianity," 
(1770.)  The  genus  ]»onnetia  was  named  in  his  honour 
by  Wahl.    Died  at  Geneva  in  1793. 

See  H.  B.  de  Saussure,  "  iSloge  historique  de  C.  Bonnet,"  17S7; 
J.  I'rembley,  "Memoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Oiivrages  de  C.  Bonnet," 
1794;  Alrrkt  Lemoine,  "C  Bonnet  de  Geneve,  Philosophe  et 
Naturaliste,"  1850;  article  "  Bonnet,"  in  "Biographic  Universelle," 
(by  CuviER.) 

Bonnet,  (Jacques,)  a  French  writer  on  music,  born 
in  1644.  He  published  a  "  History  of  Music  and  its 
Effects,"  (171 5.)    Died  in  1724. 

Bonnet  or  Bonet,  bo'ncV,  (Jean,)  a  skilful  Swiss 
physician,  brother  of  Theophile,  noticed  below,  born  at 
Geneva  in  161 5  ;  died  in  1688. 

Bonnet,  (Pierre,)  physician  to  the  Duchess  of  Bur- 
gundy, brother  of  Jacques,  noticed  above,  born  in  Paris 
in  1638 ;  died  in  1708. 

Bonnet,  (Simon,)  a  French  theologian,  born  at  Puy- 
en-Velay  about  1653,  expended  some  years  on  a  work 
called  "Biblia  maxima  Patrum."    Died  in  1705. 

Bonnet,  written  also  Bonet,  (Th^ophilk,)  a  cele- 
brated physician,  born  at  Geneva  in  1620.  His  princi- 
pal works  are  entitled  "  Sepulchretimi  sen  Anatomia 
Practica,"  and  "  Labyrinthus  Medicus  extricatus,"  (1679.) 
Died  in  1689. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires." 

Bonnetty,  bo'ni^te',  (Augustin,)  a  French  theolo- 
gian and  Orientalist,  born  in  the  department  of  Lower 
Alps  in  1798.  He  founded  in  1830  a  religious  journal, 
entitled  "Annales  de  Philosophic  chretienne." 

Bonneval,  de,  deh  bon^vtK,  (Claude  Alexandre,) 
Comte,  a  French  adventurer,  born  in  I>imousin  in  1675, 
served  in  the  Austrian  army  under  Prince  Eugene.  He 
subsequently  went  over  to  the  Turks,  and  became  an 


9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  y., guttural ;  N,  7tasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BONNErjL  400  BONTEKOE 


officer  in  their  army,  under  the  name  of  Ahmed  (Ach- 
met)  Pacha.    Died  in  1747. 

See  "Meiuoiie  sur  le  Conite  de  Bonneval,"  by  the  Prince  de 
LiGNE,  181 7;  David  Kassmann,  "  Leben  des  Grafen  von  Honneval," 
1740;  "Memoirs  of  the  Bagshaw  Count  Bonneval,"  London,  1750. 

Bonneval,  de,  (Michel,)  a  native  of  Mans,  was 
the  author  of  a  number  of  operas  and  ballets.  Died  in 
1766. 

Bonneval,  de,  (Ren^,)  a  French  critic  and  contro- 
versialist, born  at  Mans;  died  in  1760. 

Bonneval,  de,  (Sixte  Louis  Constant  Ruffo,)  a 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Aix  in  1742,  was  a  deputy 
from  the  clergy  of  Paris  to  the  States-General  in  1789. 
Died  in  1820. 

Bonneville,  bon'vil,  (Benjamin  L.  E.,)  an  officer 
and  traveller,  born  in  France,  graduated  at  West  Point, 
United  States,  about  181 5.  He  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  (1846-47,)  and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colo- 
nel. He  jjublished  a  "Journal  of  an  Expedition  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains."  In  1837  Irving  published  a  work 
entitled  "Adventures  of  Captain  Bonneville." 

Bonneville,  de,  deh  bon'veK,  (C.,)  a  French  en- 
gineer and  military  writer,  born  at  Lyons  about  1710; 
died  about  1780. 

Bonneville,  de,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  journalist  and 
litterateur,  born  at  Evreux  in  1760,  was  imprisoned  as  a 
Girondist  in  Paris  in  1793-94.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
Modern  Europe,"  (3  vols.,  1792,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1828. 

Bonnier,  ho'ne-Y,  (TtnouARD,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Lille  in  1808,  was  the  author  of  several  legal  works. 

Bonnier  d'Alco,  bo'ne-i'  diKko',  (Ange  Iilisa- 
BETH  Louis  ANroiNE,)  a  uiember  of  the  French  Na- 
tional Convention,  born  at  Montjjellier  in  1750,  voted 
for  the  death  of  the  king.  He  was  killed  by  some  Aus- 
trian hussars  while  returning  from  an  einbassy  to  Ras- 
tadt  in  1799. 

Bonnieres,  de,  deh  bo'ne-aiR',  (Alexandre  Jules 
Benoit,)  a  French  jurist,  bonT  at  Grancy  in  1750.  He 
favoured  the  royalists,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1795.    Died  in  1801. 

Bonnivard,  de,  deh  bo'neVtR',  (Francois,)  born 
at  Seyssel,  in  the  clepartment  of  Ain,  in  1496.  Having 
adopted  republican  opinions,  he  took  sides  with  the 
Genevese  against  Duke  Charles  IH.  of  Savoy;  but  he 
had  the  misfortune  in  1530  to  fall  into  the  power  of  the 
latter,  who  confined  him  six  years  in  the  castle  of  Chil- 
lon.  Bonnivard  is  the  hero  of  Byron's  "Prisoner  of 
Chillon."  Pie  wrote  a  "Chronicle  of  Geneva,"  and  be- 
queathed to  that  city  his  library  and  other  possessions. 
He  was  a  man  of  noble  character,  and  a  friend  of  the 
Reformation.    Died  in  1570. 

See  Byron,  notes  to  the  "Prisoner  of  Chillon." 

Bonnivet,  de,  deh  bo'ne^v^',  (Guillaume  Gouf- 
fier — goo'fe-i',)  Seigneur,  a  French  admiral,  born  about 
1488,  was  a~1avourite  of  Francis  L,  who  sent  him  on 
embassies  to  England  and  Germany.  It  was  by  the  ad- 
vice of  Bonnivet  that  Francis  I.  fought  the  disastrous 
battle  of  Pavia,  (1525;)  and  the  admiral,  unwilling  to 
survive  a  defeat  of  which  he  was  the  principal  cause, 
sought  and  found  death  in  the  thickest  of  the  fight. 

See  Brantome,  "Vie  de  Bonnivet;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 

Bonnycastle,  bon'e-kas^sel,  (John,)  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish mathematician,  born  in  Buckinghamshire,  became 
professor  at  the  Royal  Military  Academy  of  Woolwich. 
His  "  Introduction  to  Mensuration,"  (1782,)  "  Elements 
of  Geometry,"  (1789,)  "Treatise  on  Trigonometry," 
(1806,)  and  "Elements  of  Algebra,"  (1813,)  are  esteemed 
standard  works.    Died  in  1821. 

Bono,  bo'no,  (Giambattista  Agostino,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  near  Saluzzo  in  1738,  became  in  1768  pro- 
fessor of  canon  law  at  Turin.    Died  in  1799. 

Bonomi.bo-no'mee,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  Ital- 
ian, born  at  Cremona  in  1536,  was  patronized  by  the  car- 
dinal Carlo  Borromeo,  who  made  him  Bishop  of  Vercelli 
in  1572.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  "The  Life  and  Death  of 
Carlo  Borromeo,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1587. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Bonomi,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  born  at  Bologna  in 
1626,  published  a  number  of  poems  in  Latin  and  Italian. 


Bonomi,  (Giuseppe.)  an  Italian  architect,  born  at 
Rome  in  1739,  resided  mostly  in  England.  He  became 
an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy,  Among  his  principal 
works  are  the  Duke  of  Argyll's  mansion  at  Roseneath, 
and  Eastvvell  House  in  Kent.    Died  in  1808. 

Bo-no'mi,  (Joseph,)  an  antiquary,  born  in  London 
about  1796,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  published 
"Nineveh  and  its  Palaces,"  the  "Discoveries  of  Botta 
and  l>ayard  applied  to  the  Elucidation  of  Holy  Writ," 
(1852,)  and  other  works. 

Bononcini,  bo-non-chee'nee,  (Giovanni  Baitista,) 
a  famous  musical  composer,  born  at  Modena  about  1670, 
was  a  son  of  Giovanni  Maria,  noticed  below.  He  had 
composed  several  operas,  when  in  1716  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy of  Music  engaged  him  to  go  to  London.  There  he 
became  the  rival  of  Handel,  and  produced  a  number  of 
operas,  among  which  were  "  Erminia"  and  "  Astyanax." 
The  Tories  were  the  partisans  of  Handel,  and  the  W'higs 
patronized  Bononcini.  He  quitted  England  about  1733. 
Died  after  1748. 

Bononcini,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Italian  cotnposer, 
born  at  Modena  about  1640,  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "  The  Practical  Musician."  His  sons  Antonio 
and  Giovanni  were  noted  as  musicians, 

Bonone,  bo-no'n^,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Ferrara  in  1569.  His  best  works  are  the  frescos  in 
the  church  of  Campo  Santo  at  Ferrara,  and  of  Santa 
Maria  in  Vado,  which  are  highly  commended.  As  a  pupil 
and  imitator  of  the  Carracci,  Bonone  is  sometimes  called 
"the  Carracci  of  Ferrara."    Died  in  1632. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bonour.g,  de,  deh  bo^nooR^,  (Christophe,)  a  French 
officer  in  the  Spanish  service,  born  at  Vesoul  about  1590, 
published  "The  Memorable  Siege  of  Ostend." 

Bonpland,  bdN'plSN',  (Aim^;,)  an  eminent  French 
naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at  La  Rochelle  .in  1773. 
He  studied  medicine  under  Corvisart,  in  Paris,  where  he 
formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  Himiboldt,  and  in 
1799  accompanied  him  on  a  scientific  tour  to  South 
America.  They  published,  after  their  return,  "Travels 
in  the  Equinoctial  Regions  of  the  New  Continent,"  (12 
vols.,  1815  et  seq.)  Bonpland  presented  to  the  Museum 
of  Natural  History  his  large  and  valuable  collection  of 
dried  plants,  (6000  new  species,)  and  was  appointed  by 
the  empress  Josephine  superintendent  of  her  gardens  at 
Malmaison.  In  1816  he  sailed  for  Buenos  Ayres,  where 
he  became  professor  of  natural  history.  At  the  end  of 
five  years  he  set  out  on  a  journey  to  the  Andes,  but  in 
passing  through  Paraguay  was  captured  by  the  troops  of 
the  dictator  Francia,  After  a  residence  of  nearly  ten  years 
under  strict  surveillance,  he  was  released  in  1831.  He 
afterwards  resided  in  Uruguay,  and  died  in  1858.  Among 
his  other  productions  we  may  name  his  "  Nova  Genera 
et  Species  Plantarum,"  (7  vols,  fob,  with  700  plates,  1815,) 
a  magnificent  work,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  Kunth, 
a  "Monograph  of  the  Melastomeae,"  (2  vols.,  120  plates,) 
and  "  Equinoctial  Plants  collected  in  Mexico,  Cuba,  etc.," 
(2  vols,  fob,  140  plates.) 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Bonsi,  bon'see,  (Francesco,)  Count,  an  Italian 
writer  on  veterinary  medicine,  born  at  Rimini  about 
1720. 

Bonsi,  (Lelio,)  an  \\.^\\zn  litterateiir,  hon-\  at  Florence 
about  1552. 

Bonstetten,  de,  deh  bon'st^t'ten,  written  also  Bon- 
stettin,  (Charles  Victor,)  a  Swiss  philosopher,  born 
at  Berne  in  1745.  He  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire,  Rousseau, 
and  the  historian  MUller.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  "Researches  on  the  Nature  and  Laws  of  Imagina- 
tion," (1807,)  "Studies  on  Man,"  (in  French,  1821,)  an 
essay  on  "National  Education,"  and  other  treatises,  in 
German.    Died  at  Geneva  in  1832. 

See  "  Souvenirs  de  Bonstetten,"  1832:  and  his  "Autobiography," 
contained  in  a  collection  of  his  letters,  published  by  H.  Fi;essli  in 
1827 ;  (two  other  volumes  of  his  "  Letters"  were  published  in  1829  ;) 
Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Ailgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  "  Edinburg.h 
Review"  for  April,  1864. 

Bontekoe,  bon'teh-koo^  (Kornelts,)  a  Dutch  phy- 
sician and  medical  writer,  born  at  Alkmaar  in  1648 ;  died 
in  1685  or  1686. 

See  Overkamp,  "  Reden  over  het  Leven  en  de  Dood  van  C.  Bon- 
tekoe," 1685;  "  Biographie  Medicale." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  xnhi;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


BONTEKOE 


401 


BOONEiy!' 


Boutekoe,  (Willem  Isbrand,)  a  Dutch  sea-captain, 
who  sailed  in  1618  to  the  East  Indies.  His  ship  having 
taken  fire  and  exploded  when  near  Batavia,  Bontekoe 
was  thrown  unhurt  into  the  sea,  and  saved  himself  by 
means  of  a  mast.  He  wrote  an  account  of  his  adven- 
ture, which  was  translated  into  F'rench. 

See  Thevenot,  "Relation  de  divers  Voyages  curieux." 

Bontempi,  b6n-t^m'pee,  or  Buontnempi,  boo-6n- 
t^m'pee,  (Giovanni  Andrea  Angelini,)  an  Italian 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Perugia  about  1630, 
wrote  "Musical  History,"  {1695,)  and  other  works.  Died 
about  1700. 

Bontemps  or  Bontems,  b^N'tfiN',  (Marie  Jeanne 
de  Chatillon — deh  sht'te''y6N',)  a  literary  French  lady, 
born  in  Paris  in  1 718,  was  the  first  translator  of  Thom- 
son's "Seasons"  into  French.    Died  in  1768. 

Bontius,  bon'te-iis,  (Gerard,)  a  Dutch  physician, 
born  at  Ryswick  about  1536,  became  professor  of  medi- 
cine at  Leyden.    Died  in  1599. 

Bontius,  (Jacob,)  son  of  Gerard,  born  about  1590, 
obtained  a  high  reputation  as  a  naturalist.  He  visited 
India  and  Persia,  and  in  1625  settled  as  a  physician  in 
Batavia.  He  wrote  several  valuable  works  on  medicine 
and  botany.  Plumier  named  in  his  honour  a  genus  of 
American  plants.    Died  in  1631. 

Bonvicino,  b6n-ve-chee'no,  written  also  Buonvi- 
cino,  (Alessandro,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born 
in  15 14,  was  sometimes  called  IL  Moretto  da  Brescia, 
(^1  mo-ret'to  di  bR^sh'yi.)  He  was  a  pupil  of  Titian, 
whom  he  imitated  admirably.  He  painted  portraits 
with  success,  and  altar-pieces  the  dignity  and  grace  of 
which  are  highly  praised.  "Inspired  with  ardent  admi- 
ration for  Raphael,"  says  E.  Breton,  "he  formed  for  him- 
self a  new  style,  simple,  graceful,  and  elevated."  Died 
in  1564. 

See  RiDOLFi,  "Vite  de'  Pittori  Veneti." 

Bonvicino,  (Ambrogio,)  a  skilful  Italian  sculptor, 
born  at  Milan  in  1552  ;  died  in  1622. 

Bonwicke,  bon'wik,  (Ambrose,)  an  English  non- 
juring  divine,  born  in  1652,  became  master  of  Merchant- 
Taylors'  School.  He  wrote  "  Pattern  for  Young  Stu- 
dents in  the  University." 

See  W.  Beveridge,  "Life  of  A.  Bonwicke,"  1846. 

Bonzi,  (Paolo.)    See  Gob  bo. 

Booddha  or  Buddha,  bdod'da  or  bood'd'ha,  fFr. 
Bouddha,  boo'di',]  the  name  of  an  Asiatic  divinity, 
whose  worshippers,  called  Booddhists,  (or  Buddhists,) 
are  supposed  to  constitute  about  one-third  of  the  human 
race.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Sanscrit  verb  bild, 
to  " understand,"  to  "know,"  and  signifies  "wisdom," 
also  the  "wise  one,"  or  the  "sage."  The  term  Booddha 
has  been  applied  to  many  different  individuals  or  beings. 
The  Booddhists  of  India  and  Ceylon  teach  that,  through- 
out the  countless  ages  of  the  past,  there  have  appeared, 
at  long  intervals,  sages  who,  by  the  merit  they  have  ac- 
quired during  innumerable  transmigrations,  have  at  last 
attained  to  unlimited  intelligence  and  power.  (See  Brah- 
Manism.)  During  the  long  period  of  their  probation,  the 
Bodhisattvas  (or  "Aspirants  to  the  Booddhaship")  are 
sometimes  born  as  devas,  (inferior  deities,)  and  sometimes 
in  the  forms  of  various  animals,  even  insects,  but  more 
frequently  as  men  :  in  their  last  and  most  perfect  mani- 
festation as  supreme  Booddhas,  they  are  always  born  in 
the  human  form.  Of  these  divine  sages  the  most  recent 
and  best-known  is  Gautama,  (which  see.) 

Some  of  the  Nepaulese  Booddhists  believe  in  an  eter- 
nal, self-existent  Being,  whom  they  style  Adi  Booddha, 
that  is,  the  "  First  Booddha,"  who  created  all  things  in 
heaven  and  earth,  (see  Hodgson's  "  Literature  and 
Religion  of  the  Buddhists,"  page  63  ;)  but  the  Ceylonese 
Rooidhists,  who  appear  to  have  departed  the  least  from 
the  primitive  doctrines  of  Booddhism,  are  atheists,  that 
is,  they  do  not  recognize  the  existence  of  any  God,  prop- 
erly so  called.  According  to  their  belief,  the  highest 
forms  of  being  are  those  of  glorified  men,  who,  having 
become  supreme  Booddhas,  are  thereby  deified  ;  though 
they  enjoy  but  a  very  brief  existence  in  this  exalted  state, 
and  then  pass  into  Nirwana,  which  signifies  "annihila- 
tion," according  to  the  Ceylonese  Booddhists,  but,  ac- 
cording to  the  Aishwarikas  of  Nepaul,  "  absorption"  into 
he  eternal  essence  of  AdI  Booddha.    For  a  more  par- 


ticular account  of  the  doctrines,  and  for  the  history,  of 
Booddhism,  see  Gautama. 

See  Hardy,  "Manual  of  Bndhism ;"  Koppen,  "Religion  des 
Buddha,"  Berlin,  1857;  Guigniaut.  *' Religions  de  I'Antiquit^,'* 
Paris,  1825,  vol.  i.  book  i.  chap.  v. ;  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Boodt,  bot,  (Anselm  Boetius,)  a  Flemish  physi- 
cian and  naturalist,  born  at  Bruges  about  1580 ;  died 
in  1634. 

Boogrof,  Bougrov,  or  Bugrow,  boo'gRof,  a  Rus- 
sian astronomer,  published  a  "  Dissertation  on  the  Ellip- 
tic Motion  of  the  Stars."    Died  in  1822. 

Boo'ker,  (Rev.  Luke,)  rector  of  Tedstone,  an  English 
writer,  born  at  Nottingham  in  1762.  He  wrote  theolog- 
ical and  other  works.    Died  in  1835. 

Boole,  bool,  (George,)  an  English  mathematician, 
born  about  1820.  He  published  a  "Mathematical  Ana- 
lysis of  Logic,"  (1847,)  and  an  "Investigation  of  the 
Laws  of  Thought."    Died  in  1864. 

Boolgarin,  Boulgarine,  or  Bulgarin,  bool-gS'rin  or 
bool-ga''ven,  (Thaddeus,)  a  celebrated  Russian  writer, 
born  in  Lithuania  in  1789.  He  studied  at  the  Institution 
of  Military  Cadets  at  Saint  Petersburg,  and,  having  made 
several  campaigns  in  the  Russian  army,  entered  the 
French  service.  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon  he  became 
in  1825  associated  with  Gretsch  as  editor  of  "The 
Northern  Bee."  He  published  in  1827  a  collection  of 
essays  and  tales,  among  which  the  "  Recollections  of  the 
War  in  Spain"  deserves  especial  mention.  His  novel  of 
"  Ivan  Vuizhegin"  (1829)  enjoys  great  popularity,  and  has 
been  styled  "the  Russian  Gil  Bias."  He  also  wrote  a 
work  entitled  "Russia  in  a  Historical,  Statistical,  Geo- 
graphical,  and  Literary  Point  of  View." 

See  Friedrich  Otto,  "Lehrbuch  der  Russischen  Literatur." 

Boo'mer,  (George  Boardman,)  an  American  gene, 
ral,  born  in  Worcester  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1832. 
He  was  killed  in  an  attack  on  Vicksburg  in  May,  1863. 

Boon,  bon,  or  Boone,  bo'neh,  (Daniel,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  who  worked  in  England.  He  painted  drunken 
revels,  etc.    Died  in  1698. 

Boone,  (D.\niel,)  an  American  pioneer  and  explorer, 
born  in  Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1735,  was  a  fa- 
mous hunter  from  his  youth.  During  his  minority  he 
emigrated  with  his  father  to  North  Carolina,  where  he 
married.  In  1769  Boone  and  five  companions  pene- 
trated into  the  unexplored  forests  of  Kentucky,  where 
he  passed  many  months  in  the  pursuits  of  the  chase. 
He  was  captured  by  some  Indians,  but  escaped  from 
them,  and  returned  home  in  March,  1771.  Having  re- 
solved to  emigrate  to  Kentucky  with  his  family,  he  left 
North  Carolina,  accompanied  by  five  other  families,  in 
September,  1773.  After  several  fights  with  the  Indians, 
he  built  a  fort  at  Boonesborough,  on  the  Kentucky  River, 
in  1775.  He  repulsed  several  attacks  which  the  savages 
made  on  this  fort  in  1777.  In  February,  1778,  he  was 
surprised  and  captured  by  the  Indians,  who  carried  him 
to  Chillicothe  and  Detroit.  He,  however,  gained  the 
favour  of  the  savages,  and  was  adopted  as  a  son  by  an 
Indian  family.  He  escaped  in  June,  1778,  and  returned 
to  the  fort,  which  was  attacked  in  August  by  a  party 
of  Indians,  about  four  hundred  and  forty-five  in  number, 
fighting  under  the  British  flag.  Boone,  who  had  about 
fifty  men  under  him,  defended  the  fort  with  great  resolu- 
tion and  success.  Two  of  his  sons  were  at  different  times 
killed  by  the  Indians. 

Having  lost  his  lands  in  Kentucky  in  consequence  of 
a  defective  title,  he  removed  to  Missouri  about  1795,  and 
settled  on  the  Femme  Osage  River.  He  continued  to 
follow  the  occupation  of  hunter  and  trapper  in  Missouri, 
and  obtained  a  large  tract  of  land  in  that  territory,  which 
then  belonged  to  Spain  ;  but  when  it  was  ceded  to  the 
United  States  his  title  was  not  admitted  to  be  valid.  He 
died  in  Missouri  in  1820  or  1822. 

See  Sparks,  "American  Biography,"  vol.  xiii.,  Second  Series; 
W.  H.  BoGART,  "Life  of  Daniel  Boone,"  1857. 

Boonen,  b5'nen,  ( ARNOUD,)an  eminent  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Dort  in  1669.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  por- 
traits of  Peter  the  Great,  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  and 
the  painter  Van  Huysum.    Died  in  1729. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Boonen,  (Kaspar,)  a  portrait-painter,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Dort  in  1667  ;  died  in  1729. 


as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  ^ttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.' 

26 


BOORINSKI  402  BORCH 


Boorinaki  or  Burinski,  boo-rin'ske  or  boo-r4n'skee, 
a  Russian  lyric  poet,  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century. 

Boos,  bos,  (Martin,)  a  German  theologian,  born  in 
1762  ;  died  in  1825. 

See  "  M.  Boos  der  Prediger  der  Gerechtigkeit  die  vor  Gott  gilt: 
seine  Selbstbiogiaphie,"  1826;  C.  Bridges,  "  Life  of  M.  Boos,"  1836. 

Boos,  (Roman  Anton,)  a  German  sculptor,  born  in 
1735,  worked  mostly  at  Munich,  where  he  died  in  1810. 

Booseeree,  (or  Busiri,)  boo-see'ree,  written  also 
Bousyry,  (Shereef-ed-Deen  Aboo-Abdallah-Mo- 
hammed,)  an  Arabian  poet,  born  in  Upper  Egypt  in 
1210  ;  died  in  1294. 

Boot,  bot,  written  also  Boat,  (Gerard,)  a  brother 
of  the  following,  born  at  Gorkum  in  1604,  became  phy- 
sician to  Charles  I.  of  England.  He  wrote  a  work  en- 
titled "  Ireland's  Natural  History."    Died  in  1650. 

Boot,  van,  vtn  b5t,  (Arnoud,)  a  Dutch  physician, 
born  at  Gorkum  in  1606;  died  in  1650. 

Booth,  (Abraham,)  a  Baptist  minister,  born  in  Der- 
byshire in  1734,  published  "  Paedo-Baptism  Examined," 
(1784.)    Died  in  1806. 

Booth,  (Barton,)  a  celebrated  English  actor,  born 
in  Lancashire  in  1681,  was  a  relative  of  the  Earl  of  War- 
rington. His  performances  in  "  Hamlet,"  "  Othello,"  and 
Addison's  "Cato"  were  everywhere  received  with  the 
highest  applause.  He  wrote  "  The  Death  of  Dido,"  a 
drama.    Died  in  1733. 

See  T.  Gibber,  "Life  of  B.  Booth." 

Booth,  (EnwiN,)  a  popular  American  tragedian,  a 
son  of  Junius  Brutus  Booth,  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
Baltimore  in  1833.  He  visited  England  and  the  continent 
of  Europe  in  1861.  He  has  since  acted  with  great  ap- 
plause in  different  parts  of  the  United  States. 

See  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  May,  1866. 

Booth,  (Sir  Felix,)  a  wealthy  English  manufacturer, 
of  the  firm  of  Booth  &  Co.,  London,  born  in  1775.  He 
was  knighted  as  a  reward  for  his  generous  donation  of 
;(^20,ooo  for  promoting  the  expedition  of  Sir  John  Ross 
to  the  Arctic  regions.  The  most  northern  tract  of  land 
was  called,  in  his  honour,  Boothia  Felix.    Died  in  1850. 

See  Sir  John  Ross's  Narrative  of  his  Second  Voyage  in  Search 
of  a  Northern  Passage,  etc. 

Booth,  (George,)  son  of  Henry,  whose  title  he  in- 
herited, published  "  Considerations  upon  the  Listitution 
of  Marriage,"  (1739.)    Died  in  1758. 

Booth,  (Henry,)  Earl  of  Warrington,  born  in  165 1. 
As  a  member  of  Parliament  for  Cheshire,  under  the 
reign  of  Charles  H.,  he  was  conspicuous  for  his  opposi- 
tion to  the  Papists.  In  1689  he  was  appointed  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer  by  William  HI.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  political  tracts,  and  a  vindication  of  his  friend  Lord 
Russell.    Died  in  1694. 

Booth,  (John  Wilkes,)  an  American  actor,  notorious 
as  the  assassin  of  President  Lincoln,  was  born  in  Bal- 
timore. He  was  a  son  of  the  English  actor  Junius 
Brutus  Booth.  He  sympathized  with  the  Southern  se- 
cessionists in  the  civil  war,  and,  in  order  to  avenge  their 
defeat,  formed  a  conspiracy  with  J.  H.  Surratt,  Lewis 
Payne  Powell,  D.  Harold,  and  others.  On  the  night  of 
the  14th  of  April,  1865,  he  entered  the  private  box  of 
the  theatre,  shot  the  President  in  the  head,  and,  rushing 
to  the  front  of  the  box,  brandished  a  dagger  in  his  hand, 
exclaimed,  ^'■Sic  semper  tyrannis  T  and  leaped  down  to 
the  stage.  In  his  descent  his  spur  caught  in  the  Ameri- 
can flag,  and  he  broke  his  leg.  He  then  mounted  a 
horse,  which  was  standing  at  the  back-door,  and  escaped 
to  Virginia.  He  secreted  hiiriself  in  a  barn  near  Bowling 
Green,  to  which  he  was  tracked  by  detectives,  and,  re- 
fusing to  surrender,  was  shot,  on  the  26th  of  April,  1865. 

Booth,  (Junius  Brutus,)  a  popular  English  trage- 
dian, born  in  London  in  1796.  He  visited  America  in 
1 82 1,  where  he  performed  with  great  applause.  He  was 
pre-eminently  successful  in  the  character  of  Richard  III. 
He  died  in  1852,  while  returning  from  California. 

See  "Life  of  Junius  Brutus  Booth,"  by  his  daughter,  New  York, 
1866;  OxBERRV,  "Dramatic  Biography." 

Booth'by,  (Sir  Brooke,)  an  English  writer,  published 
"  Fables  and  Satires,"  and  "  Sorrows  sacred  to  the  Mem- 
ory of  Penelope,"  (1796.) 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1810. 


Booth'royd,  (Benjamin,)  D.D.,  an  English  dissent- 
ing divine  and  bookseller,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1768. 
He  published  an  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  without 
points,  which  is  commended  by  Home  and  other  able 
critics.    Died  in  1836. 

Bootoorlin,  (or  Bootoorleen,)  Boutouiiine,  or 
Buturlin,  boo-tooR-leen'  or  boo-tooR-lin',  (Dmitri  Pe- 
TROVicii,)  a  Russian  general  and  distinguished  military 
writer,  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1790.  He  published, 
in  French,  an  "Account  of  the  Italian  Campaign  in 
1799;"  also  a  "History  of  Napoleon's  Campaign  in 
Russia,"  (1820,  in  Russian.)  He  was  a  senator,  and 
director  of  the  Imperial  Library.    Died  in  1850. 

See  Otto,  "Lehrbuch  der  Russischen  Literatur." 

Bopp,bop,  (Franz,)  a  distinguished  German  Oriental- 
ist, who  may  be  said  to  be  the  founder  of  the  modern 
science  of  comparative  philology,  was  born  at  Mentz,  in 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  in  1791.  He  studied  in  Paris,  where 
he  acquired  the  friendship  of  S.  de  Sacy  and  A.  W. 
Schlegel ;  he  subsequently  visited  London  and  Gottin- 
gen,  and  soon  after  was  appointed  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Berlin.  He  published  in  1816  a  treatise 
"On  the  Conjugation-System  of  the  Sanscrit  Language," 
which  was  succeeded  by  a  "  Glossarium  Sanscritum," 
and  "Critical  Grammar  of  the  Sanscrit  Tongue."  His 
greatest  work  is  entitled  "Comparative  Grammar  of  the 
Sanscrit,  Zend,  Greek,  Latin,  Lithuanian,  Old  Sclavo 
nian,  Gothic,  and  German  Languages,"  (1833,)  which  has 
been  translated  into  English  under  the  care  of  H.  H. 
Wilson,  late  professor  of  Sanscrit  at  Oxford,  (1845.) 
also  published  portions  of  the  Indian  poem  "  Maha- 
bharata,"  with  a  German  version  and  notes. 

"  Professor  Bopp,"  says  Wilson,  "  may  be  considered 
to  have  established,  beyond  reasonable  question,  a  near 
relationship  between  the  languages  of  nations  separated 
by  the  intervention  of  centuries  and  the  distance  of  half 
the  globe,  by  differeiices  of  physical  formation  and  social 
institutions, — between  the  forms  of  speech  current  among 
the  dark-complexioned  natives  of  India  and  the  fair- 
skinned  races  of  ancient  and  modern  Europe;  a  rela- 
tionship of  which  no  suspicion  existed  fifty  years  ago, 
and  which  has  been  satisfactorily  established  only  within 
a  recent  period."    Died  in  Berlin  in  October,  1867. 

See  preface  to  the  English  translation  of  Bopp's  "Comparative 
Grammar,"  I-ondon,  1845;  also  an  excellent  article  by  Professor 
Whitney,  on  Dr.  Key  and  M.  Oppert,  in  the  "  No'-th  American 
Review"  tor  October,  1867,  and  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Feb- 
ruary, 1841. 

Boquin,  bo'k^N',  or  Bouquiii,  boo'kiN',  (Pierre,)  a 
French  Protestant  theologian,  succeeded  Calvin  as  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Strasburg,  and  was  afterwards 
preacher  to  the  Queen  of  Navarre.    Died  in  15S2. 

Eor  or  Bore,    See  Odin. 

Bor,  (PiETER  Kristiaan,)  a  Dutch  historian,  born  at 
Utrecht  in  1559,  published  a  "  History  of  the  Nether- 
lands," (1621,)  and  several  other  works.    Died  in  1635. 

Bora,  von,  fon  bo'ri,  or  Bohren,  bo'ren,  (Katha- 
RINA,)  the  wife  of  Martin  Luther,  born  at  Loeben  in  1499, 
was  originally  a  nun  in  a  convent  of  Saxony.  Having, 
with  a  number  of  her  companions,  been  converted  to 
the  doctrines  of  Luther,  they  were  assisted  by  hiiu  in 
effecting  their  escape.    (See  Luther.)    Died  in  1552. 

See  Walch,  "Geschichte  der  Catharina  von  Bora,"  2  vols.,  1754. 
Mayer,  "  De  Catharina  Martini  Lutheri  Conjuge,"  1669 ;  Hoffmann 
"Catharina  von  Bora,"  1845. 

Borak,  bo-rak',  or  Bur^k,  boo-rik',  (or,  with  the 
article  prefixed,  Al-Bor^k,  i.e.  the  "lightning,")  written 
also  Bur^q,  (Myth.,)  the  naine  of  a  creature  on  which, 
according  to  Mohaminedan  legends,  the  prophet  rode 
from  Mecca  to  Jerusalem,  and  afterwards  to  heaven, 
under  the  guidance  of  Jabreel,  (Gabriel.)  It  is  variously 
represented,  but  usually  as  an  animal,  in  size  between  an 
ass  and  a  horse,  having  a  human  face,  two  wings,  and, 
according  to  some  accounts,  a  tail  like  a  peacock. 

See  Shea's  translation  of  Mirkhond's  "Early  Kings  of  Persia," 
p.  441  ;  Sprenger's  "  Life  of  Mohammad,"  p.  127. 

Borastus,  bo-rSs'tus,  (Gregorius  Lars,)  a  Swedish 
publicist,  born  at  Norrkjoping  about  1584,  became  secre- 
tary to  the  King  of  Poland. 

Borch,  boKK,  (Michael  John,)  Count  of,  a  Polish 
naturalist,  published  several  treatises  on  mineralogy,  and 


%  e,T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  4, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m$t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BORCH 


BORDONI 


translated  Wieland's  "  Oberon"  into  French  verse.  Died 
in  1810. 

Borch,  boRK,  or  Borrich,  bor'riK,  [Lat.  Borrich'- 
lus,]  (Olaus  or  Oluf,)  a  learned  Dane,  born  in  Jutland 
in  1626,  became  professor  of  chemistry  and  botany  at 
Copenhagen.  He  founded  in  that  city  a  college  for  in- 
digent students.  He  wrote  several  valuable  scientific 
works  in  Latin.    Died  in  1690. 

See  BoRNEMAN,  "  Ligpraediken  over  O.  Borch,"  1690;  Nic^ron, 
'*  Memoires." 

Borcholten,  boRK^ol'ten,  [Lat.  Borchol'dus,]  (Jo- 
HANN,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Liineburg  in  1535, 
studied  under  Cujacius,  (Cujas,)  and  became  professor 
of  law  at  Helmstedt.    Died  in  1593. 

Borcht,  van  der,  vtn  der  boRKt,  (Hendrik,)  a  Flem- 
ish painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Brussels  in  1583,  worked 
for  Charles  L  of  England.    Died  in  1660. 

Borcht,  van  der,  (Pieter,)  a  Flemish  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Brussels  about  1540;  died  in  1608. 

Borck,  boRk,  (Kaspar  Wilhelm,)  a  German  diplo- 
matist and  writer,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1650,  rose  to  be 
minister  of  state.  He  translated  into  German  Shak- 
speare's  "Julius  Caesar."    Died  in  1747. 

Borda,  boR'dt',  (Jean  Charles,)  a  celebrated  French 
mathematician  and  engineer,  born  at  Dax  in  1733.  He 
studied  military  engineering,  and  wrote  in  1756  a  "Me- 
moir on  the  Motion  of  Projectiles,"  which  procured  him 
admission  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  In  1757  he 
fought  at  the  battle  of  Hastenbeck,  soon  after  which  he 
entered  the  navy.  He  published  a  "  Memoir  on  the  Re- 
sistance of  Fluids,"  (1763.)  In  1767  he  explained  the 
principles  of  the  calculus  of  variations  discovered  by 
Lagrange,  in  a  memoir  of  pure  analysis,  which  is  highly 
commended  by  Biot.  About  1776,  Lieutenant  Borda 
improved  the  method  of  determining  the  position  of 
points  on  a  coast,  for  which  he  adopted  astronomical 
bearings  obtained  by  reflecting  instruments.  Having 
obtained  the  rank  of  major-general  of  the  naval  army,  he 
served  in  the  American  war,  (1778-82.)  He  perfected  in 
1777  an  instrument  of  great  value  to  mariners,  called 
"  circle  of  reflection,"  or  reflecting  circle,  {cercle  a  re- 
flexion.) The  utility  of  the  repeating  circle  invented  by 
him  was  proved  in  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the 
meridian  from  Dunkirk  to  the  Balearic  Isles,  a  vast  en- 
terprise, of  which  Borda  was  the  master-spirit.  "  It  is  to 
Borda  and  Coulomb,"  says  Biot,  "  that  we  owe  the  renais- 
sance oi  sound  experimental  philosophy  in  France.  Borda 
should  also  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  men  who  have 
most  contributed  to  the  progress  of  the  nautical  art." 
Died  in  Paris  in  February,  1799. 

See  M.  Biot,  "Notice  sur  Borda,"  in  "Memoires  de  I'Academie 
des  Sciences;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Borda,  boR'dl,  (Siro,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  in 
1 761  at  Pavia,  where  he  became  professor  of  materia 
medica  in  1800.    Died  in  1824. 

See  G.  DEL  Chiappa,  "Memorie  intorno  alia  Vita  del  Cavaliere 
S.  Borda,"  1834. 

Bordazar  de  Artazu,  boR-dS-th^R'  di  5r-ta-thoo', 
(Antonio,)  a  Spanish  printer  and  writer,  born  at  Va- 
lencia in  1671,  published  "  Spanish  Orthography,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1744. 

Borde  or  Boorde,  bord,  (Andrew,)  [Lat.  Andre'a 
Perfora'tus,]  an  English  physician,  born  in  Sussex 
about  1500.  He  was  the  author  of  "  The  Breviary  of 
Health,"  "Merrie  Tales  of  the  Wise  Men  of  Gotham," 
and  other  works.  He  was  patronized  by  Henry  VIIT. 
The  designation  "  Merry- Andrew"  was  originally  applied 
to  him.    Died  in  1549. 

_  See  Wood,  "Athena:  Oxonienses ;"  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol. 
1.,  new  series,  1853. 

Borde,  boRd,  (Charles,)  a  French  poet  and  skeptical 
writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1711,  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire. 
Among  his  works  is  "Le  Catechumene,"  (1766.)  Died 
in  1781. 

See  Antoine  Pericaud,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  C.  Borde,"  1824. 

Borde,  de  la,  deh  It  boRd,  (Jean  Benjamin,)  a 
French  litterateur,  a  favourite  of  Louis  XV.,  born  in 
Paris  in  1734.  He  was  put  to  death  by  the  Jacobins 
in  1794. 

Bordeaux,  de,  deh  boR'dS',  Due,  a  French  prince, 
son  of  Charles  Ferdinand,  Due  de  Berry,  and  grandson 


of  Charles  X.,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1820.  He  is  some- 
times called  Count  de  Chambord.  He  is  recognized 
by  the  Bourbonists  as  the  legitimate  heir  to  the  throne, 
and  is  styled  Henri  V. 

Bordelon,  boRd^l6N',  (Laurent,)  a  Yx^\-\c\\litteratetir, 
born  at  Bourges  in  1653  ;  died  in  1730. 

Bor'den,  (Simeon,)  an  American  civil  engineer  and 
mechanician,  born  in  Fall  River,  Massachusetts,  in  1798. 
Having  invented  a  valuable  instrument  for  determining 
the  base-line  in  the  trigonometrical  survey  of  Massa- 
chusetts, he  was  appointed  in  1834  to  superintend  the 
work,  which  he  completed  in  1841.  This  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  geodetic  survey  aver  accomplished 
in  the  United  States.  He  afterwards  ran  the  bound- 
ary-line between  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island,  and 
directed  the  construction  of  several  railroads.  Died  at 
Fall  River  in  1856. 

Bordenave,  boRd'ntv',  (Toussaint,)  a  French  sur- 
geon, born  in  Paris  in  1728,  wrote  an  "Essay  on  Phy- 
siology," (1756,)  and  translated  Haller's  "Elements  of 
Physiology,"  (1766.)    Died  in  1782. 

Bordereau,  boRd'ro',  (Renee,)  a  French  heroine  of 
the  Revolution,  born  near  Angers  in  1770,  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Vendean  army.    Died  in  1828. 

See  "Memoires  de  Renee  de  Bordereau,"  etc. 

Borderie,  boRd're',  a  French  poet,  born  in  Nor- 
mandy in  1 507. 

Borderies,  boRd're',  (Etienne  Jean  P^RANgois,) 
born  at  Montauban  in  1764,  became  in  1827  Bishop  of 
Versailles.    Died  in  1832. 

Bordessoulle,  de,  deh  boRd'sooK,  (Stienne  Tar- 
DIF,)  Coun  t,  a  French  general,  born  at  Luzeret  in  1771. 
He  gained  the  rank  of  colonel  at  Austerlitz,  (1805,)  and 
displayed  courage  and  ability  in  numerous  battles  during 
the  first  empire.    Died  in  1837. 

See  MacDonald,  (£!tienne  J.  J.  A.  de  Tarente,)  "filoge  du 
General  de  Bordessoulle,"  1839. 

Bordeu,  de,  deh  boR'duh',  (Antoine,)  a  French 
physician,  born  in  Bearn  in  1696,  wrote  a  "Dissertation 
on  the  Mineral  Waters  of  Bearn,"  (1749.) 

Bordeu,  de,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  medical  writer, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Pan  in  1734. 

Bordeu,  de,  (Thi^ophile,)  a  French  medical  writer 
of  high  reputation,  son  of  Antoine,  born  at  Iseste,  in 
Bearn,  in  1722.  He  settled  in  Paris  about  1750,  and 
became  physician  of  the  hospital  La  Charite.  Among 
his  important  works  are  "  Researches  on  the  Pulse," 
(4  vols.,  1772,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Chronic  Diseases," 
(2  vols.,  1776-1801.)    Died  in  1776. 

See  Roussel,  "  filoge  historique  de  M.  de  Bordeu,"  1778;  Riche- 
RAND,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  T.  de  Bordeu,"  1817. 

Bording,  boR'ding,  (Anders,)  a  Danish  poet,  born 
at  Ribe  in  1619,  published  a  literary  periodical  in  Copen- 
hagen.   Died  in  1677. 

See  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "  Litteraturlexicon." 

Bording,  boR'ding,  (Jakob,)  a  Dutch  physician,  born 
at  Antwerp  in  15 1 1,  became  principal  of  the  college  at 
Carpentras,  and  subsequently  physician  to  Christian  III. 
of  Denmark.    Died  in  1560. 

See  M.  Adam,  "Vitas  Eruditorum." 

Bord'ley,  (John  Beale,)  an  American  writer  on 
agriculture,  born  in  1728;  died  in  Philadelphia  in  1804. 

Bordone,  boR-do'ni,  (Paride,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  born  at  Treviso  about 
1 5 10.  He  studied  first  under  Titian,  but  he  subsequently 
formed  his  style  on  the  model  of  Giorgione.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  a  "  Holy  Family,"  "  Fisherman 
presenting  the  Ring  of  Saint  Mark  to  the  Doge,"  "The 
Martyrdom  of  Saint  Andrew,"  "The  Sibyl,"  and  a 
"  Paradise."  His  portraits  are  nearly  equal  to  those 
of  Titian.  Died  in  Venice  in  1588,  or,  according  to  some 
writers,  in  1570. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ridolki,  "Vitede' 
Pittori  Veneti ;"  Winckelmann,  "  Neues  Maler-Lexikon." 

Bordoni,  boR-do'nee,  (Benedetto,)  an  Italian  geog- 
rapher, born  at  Padua,  wrote  a  "Description  of  Italy." 
Died  about  1530. 

Bordoni,  (Placido,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at 
Venice  about  1740,  made  several  translations  from  the 
French  and  Latin.    Died  in  1820. 

See  FiLiASi,  "  Elogio  storico  di  P.  Bordoni,"  1820. 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;^2& j;  g,  h,  Yi, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.     (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BORDONIO 


404 


BORGIA 


Bordonio,  boR-do'ne-o,  (Giuseppe  Antonio,)  an 
Italian  Jesuit,  and  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Turin,  where 
he  was  born  in  1682.    Died  in  1742. 

Bo're-as,  [Gr.  Mopea^  or  Bopuf;  Fr.  Bor^:e,  bo'rk',] 
the  North  Wind  personified  by  classic  poets,  who  repre- 
sent him  as  a  son  of  Astraeus  and  Aurora,  and  the  father 
of  Zetes  and  Calais. 

Boreau,  bo'ro',  (Victor,)  a  French  poet  and  miscel- 
laneous writer,  published  a  "  History  of  the  Middle 
Ages,"  (1838,)  and  other  works. 

Boree,  the  French  for  Boreas,  which  see. 

Boree,  ho'ik',  (Vincent,)  a  French  tragic  poet,  born 
about  1530. 

Borel,  bo'reK,  (Petrus,)  a  French  litterateur  zwd  jour- 
nalist, brother  of  Andre  Fran9ois,  born  at  Lyons  in  1809. 

Borel,  (Pierre,)  physician  to  Louis  XIV.,  born  at 
Castres,  in  Languedoc,  about  1620,  published  a  treatise 
"On  the  True  Inventor  of  the  Telescope,"  (in  Latin, 
1655,)  and  other  scientific  works.    Died  in  1689. 

See  F.  HoKFER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Borel  d'Hauterive,  bo'reK  dof'rev',  (Andr6  Fran- 
^t)is  Joseph,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Lyons  in  1812. 

Borelli,  bo-reKlee,  [Lat.  Borei/lus,]  (Giovanni  Al- 
fonso,) a  celebrated  Italian  physician  and  savant,  born 
at  Naples  in  January,  1608,  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  so-called  iatro-niatheniatical  school,  which  attempted 
to  apply  mathematics  to  medicine.  He  studied  at  Flor- 
ence and  Rome,  and  became  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Pisa  in  1656.  His  greatest  work  is  entitled  "On  the 
Motion  of  Animals,"  ("  De  Motu  Animalium,"  1680,) 
and  is  dedicated  to  his  patroness,  Christina  of  Sweden. 
He  also  wrote  (in  Latin)  an  "  Account  of  the  Eruption 
of  Etna  in  1669,"  and  a  number  of  medical  and  scien- 
tific treatises  in  Latin  and  Italian.    Died  at  Rome  in  1679. 

See  Eulogy  on  G.  A.  Borelli,  prefixed  to  his  "De  Motu  Anima- 
lium;" NiCERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  Haller,  "  Bibiiotheca  Anatomica." 

Borelli,  bo'ra'le'  or  bo-rel'lee,  (Jean  Alexis,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  in  Provence  in  1738,  resided  at 
Berlin,  where  he  was  patronized  by  Frederick  the  Great. 
He  published  moral  and  critical  essays,  and  edited  some 
posthumous  works  of  Frederick.    Died  about  1810. 

Borelli,  (Jean  Marie,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  poet, 
born  in  Provence  in  1723  ;  died  in  1808. 

Borellus,  (G.  A.)    See  Borelll 

Borga.    See  Barkah  Khan. 

Borgarucci,  boR-gi-root'chee,  [Lat.  Borgaru'tius,] 
(Prospero,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  near  Gubbio, 
became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Padua  in  1564. 

Borger,  boRc'er  or  boR'Her,  (Elias  A.,)  born  in 
Friesland  in  1785,  became,  in  181 5,  professor  of  theology 
at  Leyden.  He  published  poems,  and  several  critical 
and  theological  works.    Died  in  1820. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Willem 
Bkoes,  "  Leerrede  op  E.  A.  Borger,"  1820;  Jan  Tichler,  "Jets 
over  E.  A.  Borgers  Kanselwelsprekenheid,"  1835. 

Borghese,  boR-ga'sa,  (Camillo,)  born  in  1552,  was 
elected  pope  in  1605,  under  the  name  of  Paul  V. 

Borghese,  (Camillo,)  son  of  Marcantonio  III.,  born 
at  Rome  in  1775.  On  the  entrance  of  the  French  into 
Italy,  he  attached  himself  to  their  cause,  and  in  1803 
received  from  Napoleon  the  hand  of  his  sister  Pauline, 
widow  of  General  Leclerc.  He  was  afterwards  created 
Duke  of  Guastalla,  and  governor-general  of  the  trans- 
alpine provinces,  (1810.)  He  died  in  1832,  having  pre- 
viously separated  from  his  wife.  He  left  his  immense 
fortune  to  his  brother,  Francesco  Borghese  Aldobrandini. 

See  I'lPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Borghese,  (Giovanni  Ventura,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Citta  di  Castello  about  1640,  was  a  pupil  of  Pietro 
da  Cortona.    Died  in  1708. 

Borghese,  (Ippolito,)  a  Neapolitan  painter,  lived 
about  1620. 

Borghese,  (Marcantonio  I.,)  nephew  of  Paul  V., 
was  created  by  him  Prince  of  Sulmona  and  a  grandee  of 
Spain.  One  of  his  relatives,  Marcantonio  II.,  became 
Viceroy  of  Naples  in  1721.  Marcantonio  III.,  of  the 
same  family,  was  celebrated  for  his  patronage  of  the  arts, 
and  his  magnificent  collection  of  statues  and  antiquities 
in  his  villa  on  the  Pincian  Hill. 

Borghesi,  boR-ga'see,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  eminent 
Italian  archaeologist  and  numismatist,  born  at  Savignano, 


near  Rimini,  about  1780.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"Nuovi  Frammenti  di  Fasti  Consolari  Capitolini,"  (2 
vols.,  1820.)  He  has  also  made  valuable  contributions 
to  various  scientific  journals,  and  is  a  member  of  the 
principal  learned  societies  of  Europe.  His  collection 
of  coins  and  medals  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best  in  Italy. 
His  researches  and  writings  have  contributed  greatly  to 
elucidate  the  military,  political,  sacerdotal,  and  municipal 
institutions  of  the  ancient  Romans. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Borghesi,  (Diomede,)  an  Italian  poet  and  orator, 
born  at  Sienna,  was  an  able  critic  and  philologist.  He 
published  several  volumes  of  poems  and  of  letters,  (1566- 
1584.)    Died  in  1598. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Borghi-Mamo,  boR^gee-m^'mo,  (Adelaide,)  an  Ital- 
ian vocalist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1830. 

Borghini,  boR-gee'nee,  (Rafaello,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  litterateur,  wrote  a  pastoral  play  called  "  La  Diana 
pietosa,"  (1585,)  and  "II  Riposo  in  cui  si  tratta  della 
Pittura  e  della  Scoltura,"  (1584.) 

Borghini,  (  Vincenzo,)  a  learned  Italian  antiquary  and 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Florence  in  15 15,  wrote  a  work  on 
the  "Antiquities  of  Tuscany,"  (1584.)  He  refused  an 
archbishopric  which  was  offered  him  by  Cosimo  de  Me- 
dici.   Died  in  1580. 

Borgi,  boR'jee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  mechanic  and 
philanthropist,  born  at  Rome  about  1735,  called  "the 
founder  of  ragged  schools."  He  was  encouraged  and 
assisted  in  his  benevolent  labours  by  Pope  Pius  VII. 
Died  about  1802. 

Borgia.    See  Alexander  VI. 

Borgia,  boR'ji,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  theologian, 
born  at  Velletri  in  1682,  became  Archbishop  of  Fermo. 
Died  in  1764. 

Borgia,  (Cesare,)  Due  de  Valentinois,  (vt'lfiN^te'- 
nwi',)  was  an  illegitimate  son  of  Pope  Alexander  VI., 
by  whom  he  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1492.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished for  cunning,  cruelty,  and  perfidy.  In  1498  he 
was  sent  to  France  with  a  bull  of  divorce  for  Louis  XII., 
who  gave  him  the  title  of  Due  de  Valentinois.  He  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  Jean  d'Albret,  King  of  Navarre,  in 
1499.  Having  raised  an  army,  he  undertook  the  con- 
quest of  the  Romagna,  the  cities  of  which  were  ruled  by 
feudatories  of  the  Roman  See.  He  took  Imola,  Forli, 
Pesaro,  Rimini,  etc.  before  the  end  of  1501,  and  put  to 
death  prisoners  in  violation  of  his  oath.  After  the  death 
of  Alexander  VI.,  in  1503,  his  power  rapidly  declined. 
(See  Alexander  VI.)  His  army  having  been  defeated, 
he  was  taken  prisoner  and  sent  to  Spain  in  1504.  He 
escaped  in  1506,  entered  the  army  of  the  King  of  Navarre, 
and  was  killed  in  battle  in  1507. 

See  ToMASi,  "Vila  del  Diica  di  Valentino,"  1655;  French  version 
of  the  same,  1739  ;  and  "  Lebcn  des  C.  Borgia,"  Berlin,  17S2. 

Borgia,  (Francisco.)    See  Francisco,  Saint. 

Borgia,  boR'jS,  sometimes  wTitten  Borja,  (Fran- 
cisco,) a  Spanish  poet,  highly  esteemed  in  his  time,  was 
a  descendant  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  and  on  his  mother's 
side  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  King  of  Spain.  He  was 
appointed  Viceroy  of  Peru  in  1614.    Died  in  1658. 

See  Antonio,  "Bibiiotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Borgia,  (Lucrezia,)  a  daughter  of  Pope  Alexander 
VI.,  and  a  sister  of  Cesare  Borgia,  was  disttnguished  for 
beauty  and  talents.  She  was  married  to  Giovanni  Sforza, 
Lord  of  Pesaro,  in  1493,  to  Alfonso,  a  natural  son  of 
Alfonso,  King  of  Naples,  in  1498,  and  to  Alfonso  of 
Este,  a  son  of  the  Duke  of  P'errara,  in  1501.  Her  con- 
duct gave  rise  to  scandalous  reports,  which  were  gener- 
ally believed  by  her  contemporaries.  vShe  patronized  at 
Ferrara  several  literary  men,  especially  Bembo,  who  cele- 
brated her  in  his  works.  "The  compliments  of  the 
literati  whom  she  rewarded,"  says  Sismondi,  with  covert 
sarcasm,  "seem  at  present  to  counterbalance  the  unani- 
mous testimony  of  the  historians,  who  accuse  her  of  in- 
famous conduct."    Died  in  1523. 

See  BoTTA,  "Histoire  d'ltalie." 

Borgia,  (Stefano,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  nephew  of 
Alessandro,  noticed  above,  born  at  Velletri  in  173 1.  He 
published  several  antiquarian  treatises,  and  made  a  val- 
uable collection  of  medals  and  manuscripts.  Died  in  1804. 

See  AuBiN  Loi;is  Mii.LiN,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  du  Cardinal  Borgia.* 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  lon^^;    h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  5?,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n5t;  good;  moon: 


B  ORG  I  AN  I 


BOROWLASKI 


Borgiani,'  boR-ji'nee,  or  Borgianni,  boR-jii/nee, 
(Okazio,)  an  Italian  painter  and  engraver,  born  in  Rome 
about  1580,  worked  in  Spain  and  in  Rome.  Died  about 
1630. 

Borgo,  boR'go,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  at 
Vicenza  in  173 1,  was  professor  of  theology  at  Modena, 
He  wrote  a  panegyric  on  Ignatius  Loyola,  and  a  work 
on  fortitications,  which  he  dedicated  to  Frederick  the 
Great.    Died  in  1794. 

Borgo,  [Lat.  Bor'gus,]  (Pietro  Battista,)  an  Ital- 
ian soldier  and  historian,  served  in  the  Swedish  army  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  war,  of  which  he  wrote  an  account  in 
Latin,  entitled  "Commentaries  on  the  Swedish  War," 
(1633-) 

See  Mazzucheli-i,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 

Borgo,  di,  (Luca.)    See  Pacioli. 

Borgognone.    See  Courtois,  (Jacques.) 

Borgognone,  boR-gon-yo'ni,  (Ambrogio,)  a  distin- 
guished Italian  painter,  born  at  Fossano  about  1480. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  the  frescos  in  the  church 
of  San  Ambrogio  at  Milan,  and  a  "  Madonna  with  Two 
Angels"  in  the  Museum  at  Berlin. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Borgondio.    See  Burgundio. 

Borgt,  van  der,  vSn  der  boRkt,  (Hendrik,)  a  Flem- 
ish painter,  born  at  Brussels  in  1583. 

Borhan-ed-Deen  or  Borhan-Eddin,  bor-hin'  ed- 
deen',  a  learned  Arab,  born  about  1200,  published  "Ad- 
vice to  Students  on  the  Manner  of  Studying,"  which  has 
been  translated  into  Latin  and  Turkish. 

Borhan-ed-Deen  or  Borhan-Eddin,  (Ibraheem,) 
an  Arab  writer,  who  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the  Customs 
and  Maxims  of  the  Ancient  Philosophers,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1480. 

Borie,  bo-ree',  (Adolph  E.,)  an  American  merchant, 
of  French  extraction,  born  in  Philadelphia  about  1810. 
He  acquired  a  large  fortune  in  foreign  commerce.  During 
the  civil  war  he  was  an  active  and  liberal  supporter  of 
the  Union  cause.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
navy  by  President  Grant  in  March,  1869. 

Borie,  bo're',  (Pierre  Rose  Ursule  Dumoulin,) 
a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Beynat,  in  the  diocese  of 
Tulle,  in  1808.  He  set  out  on  a  mission  to  Tonquin  in 
1831,  where  he  laboured  successfully  for  seven  years; 
but  in  1838  he  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  king. 

See  "Vie  de  Monseigneur  Borie,"  etc.,  1844;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic Generate. " 

Borie-Cambort,  bo''re'  kSN'boR',  (Jean,)  a  French 
jurist,  and  member  of  the  National  Convention,  voted 
for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.    Died  in  1805. 

Bories,  bo're',  (JeAn  Francois  Louis  Leclerc,) 
born  at  Villefranche  in  1795,  attempted  in  182 1,  with 
several  accomplices,  to  excite  a  revolt  against  the  gov- 
ernment ;  but  they  failed  in  their  enterprise,  and  were 
executed  in  1822. 

Boris.    See  Godoonof. 

Borjon,  boR'zh^N',  (Charles  Emmanuel,)  a  French 
jurist  and  legal  writer,  born  at  Pont-de-Vaux,  in  Bresse, 
in  1633  ;  died  in  1691. 

Borkhausen,  boRk'how'zen,  (Moritz  Balthasar,) 
a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Giessen  in  1760,  published 
the  "Natural  History  of  the  Butterflies  of  Europe," 
(1788,)  "Fauna  of  Germany,"  (1797,)  and  other  scientific 
works.    Bied  at  Darmstadt  in  1806. 

See  "Biographie  Medlcale." 

Bor'lace  or  Bor'lase,  (Edmund,)  an  English  physi- 
cian and  historical  writer,  published  the  "  History  of  the 
Execrable  Irish  Rebellion,  etc.,"  (1680,)  and  other  works 
on  Ireland.    Died  in  1682. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Bor'land,  (Solon,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Virginia,  removed  to  Arkansas.  He  was  elected  a  Sena- 
tor of  the  United  States  for  Arkansas  about  1848.  He 
fought  against  the  Union  in  the  civil  war.  Died  in  Texas 
in  1864. 

Borlase,  (Edmund.)    See  Borlace. 

Borlase,  bor'las,  (William,)  an  English  divine  and 
eminent  naturalist  and  antiquary,  born  in  Cornwall  in 
1696.  He  was  appointed  in  1732  vicar  of  Saint  Just,  in 
Cornwall,  and  in  1750  became  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 


Society.  Among  his  works  are  "  Observations  on  the 
Antiquities,  Historical  and  Monumental,  of  the  County 
of  Cornwall,"  (1754,)  "Natural  History  of  Cornwall,'' 
(1758,)  and  "Observations  on  the  Ancient  and  Present 
State  of  the  Islands  of  Scilly."  He  also  wrote  several 
religious  treatises.  He  vvas  an  intimate  friend  and  cor- 
respondent of  Pope.  Died  in  1772. 
See  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Born,  boRn,  (Jakob,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Leipsic 
in  1638  ;  died  in  1709. 

Born,  (Jakob  Heinrich,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at 
Leipsic  in  1717  ;  died  at  Dresden  in  1775. 

Born,  de,  deh  boRn,  (Bertran  or  Bertrand,)  a 
French  troubadour  and  warrior,  born  in  Perigord,  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  wars  between  Henry  II.  of  Eng- 
land and  his  sons,  and  between  Philippe  Auguste  and 
Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  about  1185-1200.  According 
to  Dante,  ("  Inferno,")  Bertran  de  Born  by  his  verses 
fomented  war,  and  incited  the  sons  of  Henry  II.  to  fight 
against  him  and  against  each  other. 

See  MiLLOT,  "  Histoire  des  Troubadours;"  Vii.i.emain,  "Cours 
de  Litterature  ;"  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Born,  von,  fon  boRn,  (Ignaz,)  an  eminent  German 
mineralogist,  born  at  Karlsburg,  in  Transylvania,  in  1742. 
He  wrote  "Letters  on  the  Minerals  of  Hungary,"  (1774,) 
"  Index  of  Fossils,"  ("  Lithophylacium  Bornianuni,  sea 
Index  Fossilium,"  2  vols.,  1772-75,)  "Index  Rerum 
Naturalium  Musei  Caes.  Vindobonse,"  (1778,)  and  other 
works.  He  made  important  improvements  in  mining 
precious  metals,  among  which  was  a  new  method  of 
amalgamation.    Died  in  Vienna  in  1791. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Johann 
Pezzl,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  MontecucuU's,  W.  Liechtenstein's  und 
Bern's,"  1792. 

Borne  or  Boerne,  boR'neh,  (Ludw^ig,)  a  celebrated 
journalist,  critic,  and  politician,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1786.  He  studied  at  Hei- 
delberg and  Giessen,  and  subsequently  became  editor  of 
the  "  Staats-Ristretto,"  a  democratic  journal,  which  was 
soon  suppressed.  Having  been  previously  converted  to 
Christianity,  he  edited  in  1818-21  the  "  Wage,"  a  period- 
ical for  literature,  science,  and  art.  After  the  revolution 
of  1830,  he  founded  in  Paris  "  Le  Balance,"  in  which  he 
displayed  great  powers  of  satire  and  caustic  wit.  Among 
his  best  works  are  "Memorial  of  Jean  Paul,"  ("Denk- 
rede  auf  Jean  Paul,")  "Letters  from  Paris,"  (1832,)  and 
"  Menzel  the  Frenchman-Eater,"  ("  Menzel  der  Franzo- 
senfresser,")  in  reply  to  that  critic's  attack  on  the  French. 
Borne  was  involved  in  a  controversy  with  Heine,  who 
wrote  a  severe  attack  upon  him,  entitled  "  Heine  iiber 
Borne."    Died  in  Paris  in  1837. 

See  KarlGutzkow,  "  L.  Bbrnes  Leben,"  1840;  Eduard  Beur- 
MANN,  "  L.  Borne  als  Charakter  in  der  Literatur,"  1837;  Karl 
BoELSCHE,  "Zwei  Repubiikaner,"  1850;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  August,  1832. 

Borneil,  de,  deh  boR^n&I'  or  boR''n4'ye,  (Giraud,)  a 
French  troubadour,  born  about  1150,  is  mentioned  by 
Dante  in  his  "Divine  Comedy." 

Borneniann,  boR'neh-min^  (Wilhelm,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1794,  became  councillor  of 
state  in  1842,  and  in  1848  minister  of  justice. 

Borner  or  Boerner,  boR'ner,  (Caspar,)  a  Gentian 
theologian  and  mathematician,  born  at  Hayn,  in  Misnia, 
lived  at  Dresden.    Died  in  1547. 

See  J.  A  Ernesti,  "  Eulogium  C.  Boerneri,"  1740. 

Borner  or  Boerner,  (Chrlstian  Friedrtch,)  :<orn 
at  Dresden  in  1683,  was  professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic. 
He  published  several  religious  and  philosophical  works, 
in  Latin.    Died  in  1753. 

See  Chrlstian  Boerner,  "Vitse  suae  Descriptio,"  1753. 

Borner  or  Boerner,  (Friedrich,)  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1723,  was  a  distinguished 
phvsician  and  writer.    Died  in  1761. 

Borner  or  Boerner,  (Nikolaus,)  a  German  physi- 
cian., born  in  Thuringia  in  1693  ;  died  about  1770. 

Bornier,  boR^ne-i',  (Philippe,)  a  French  jurist,  was 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1634;  died  in  1711. 

Borowlaski,  bor-ro-las'ke,  Count,  a  Polish  dwarf, 
who  settled  in  England,  is  mentioned  in  Lockhart's  "  I-ife 
of  .Scott."  He  is  said  to  have  had  uncommon  intelligence 
and  culture.    Died  in  1837. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural; uasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  tb  as  in  this.    (^(^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BO  ROW  SKI 


406 


BORZONI 


Borowski,  bo-rov'skee,  (Georg  Heinrich,)  a  natu- 
ralist, born  in  1746  at  Konigsberg,  in  Prussia,  published 
the  "  Natural  History  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  180 1. 

Borowski,  von,  fon  bo-rov'skee,  (Ludwig  Ernst,) 
a  German  Protestant  divine,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1740, 
became  Archbishop  of  Prussia  about  1829.  Died  in  183 1. 

Borri.    See  Borrus. 

Borri,  bor'ree,  or  Bor'ro,  [Lat.  Bur'rus,]  sometimes 
written  Burrhi,  (Giuseppe  Francesco,)  an  Italian  ad- 
venturer, born  at  Milan  in  1627.  He  professed  to  have 
discovered  the  philosopher's  stone,  on  the  strength  of 
which  he  obtained  considerable  sums  from  Christina  of 
Sweden  and  the  King  of  Denmark.  He  was  afterwards 
arrested  as  a  heretic,  and  died  in  prison  in  1695, 

See  HoEFER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Borrich.    See  Borch,  (Olaf.) 

Borrichiu.s.    See  Borch. 

Borromee  or  Borromaeus.    See  Borromeo. 

Borromeo,  bor-ro-ma''o,  (Antonio  Maria,)  Count, 
an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Padua  in  1724,  wrote  poems 
of  some  merit,  and  published  "  Catalogo  de'  Novellieri 
Italiani."    Died  in  1813. 

Borromeo,  [Fr.  Borromee,  bo''ro^mi' ;  Lat.  Bor- 
ROMyE'us,]  (Carlo,)  Saint,  an  Italian  cardinal,  illus- 
trious for  his  virtue  and  piety,  born  at  Arona  in  1538. 
He  was  a  nephew  of  Pope  Pius  IV.,  by  whom  he  was 
made  Cardinal  and  Archbishop  of  Milan  in  1560.  He 
devoted  himself  to  reforming  the  morals  of  the  clergy  and 
providing  charitable  institutions  for  the  poor.  During 
the  prevalence  of  the  plague  at  Milan  in  1576,  he  gave 
his  personal  attendance  to  the  sick  at  the  risk  of  his  life, 
and  spent  all  he  possessed  in  administering  to  their 
wants.  He  died  in  1584,  reverenced  as  a  saint  and  martyr. 
He  was  canonized  by  Paul  V.  in  1610.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  theological  works,  and  an  exposition  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Ro:nan  Church,  entitled  "  Catechismus 
Tridentinus,"  ("Trent  Catechism.") 

vSee  RiMius,  "  Vita  di  S  Carlo  Borromeo,"  1585  ;  Magnago,"  Vita 
di  S.  Carlo  Borromeo,"  1587;  Possevino,  "Vita  di  Carlo  Borromeo," 
1591  ;  Besozzi,  "Vita  Cardinalis  C.  Borromjei,"  1601 ;  Giussano, 
"  Vita  di  S.  Carlo  Borromeo,"  1610  ;  Godeau,  "  Vie  de  Saint  Charles 
Borromee,"  1748  ;  Touron,  "  Viede  Saint  Charles  Borromee,"  3  vols., 
1761;  DiERiNGER,  "  Der  heilige  C.  Borromaus  und  die  Kirchcn- 
verbesserung  seiner  Zeit,"  1846;  Luis  Munoz,  "  Vida  de  S.  C. 
Borromeo,"  1624  ;  Alban  Butler,  "Vita  di  S.  C.  Borromeo,"  1835  ; 
Alexandre  Martin,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  S.  C.  Borromee,"  1847. 

Borromeo,  (Federigo,)  Cardinal  and  Archbishop 
of  Milan,  born  in  that  city  in  1564,  was  the  nephew  or, 
as  some  writers  state,  the  cousin  of  Saint  Carlo.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  profound  attainments  in  the 
classics  and  Oriental  tongues,  and  was  the  founder  of  the 
Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan,  for  which  he  caused  a  great 
number  of  manuscripts  to  be  collected.  He  was,  like 
his  predecessor,  eminent  for  his  exalted  character  and 
active  benevolence,  which  were  conspicuous  during  the 
famine  and  plague  at  Milan  in  1627  and  1630.  Of  his 
conduct  on  these  occasions  Manzoni  has  given  a  most 
interesting  picture  in  his  celebrated  novel,  "  I  Promessi 
Sposi."    Died  in  1631. 

See  Rivola,  "Vita  di  Federigo  Borromeo,"  1656. 

Borromini,  bor-ro-mee'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
architect,  born  in  the  district  of  Como  in  1599.  He  as- 
sisted his  relative  Maderno,  and  subsequently  the  cele- 
brated Bernini,  in  the  completion  of  Saint  Peter's.  He 
was  employed  by  Urban  VIII.  in  several  works  at  Rome, 
which,  though  displaying  much  talent,  are  disfigured  by 
extravagance  and  bad  taste.  He  committed  suicide  in 
1667,  in  a  fit  of  insanity. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemelnes  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Borron,  bo'r6N',  or  Bouron,  boo^r^N',  written  also 
Boiron,  Beron,  Bosron,  or  Burons,  (Robert  and 
Helis,)  two  Norman-English  writers,  supposed  to  have 
been  brothers  or  near  relatives,  were  patronized  by 
Henry  II. 

See  Wilken,  "  Histoire  des  Croisades." 

Borroni,  bor-ro^iee,  (Giovanni  Angelo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Cremona  in  1684,  worked  many  years  in 
Milan.    Died  in  1772. 

Bor'row,  (George,)  an  English  writer,  born  at  Nor- 
wich in  1803.  He  early  distinguished  himself  by  his 
attainments  in  modern  languages,  including  that  of  the 


gipsies,  with  whom  he  associated.  He  published  in 
1841  "The  Zincali  ;  or  an  Account  of  the  Gipsies  of 
Spain  ;"  being  the  result  of  his  observations  in  thai  coun- 
try. He  was  soon  after  sent  by  the  London  Bible  So- 
ciety on  a  mission  to  Spain.  In  1843  brought  out  his 
"Bible  in  Spain;  or  Journeys,  Adventures,  and  Impris- 
onments of  an  Englishman  in  an  Attempt  to  circulate 
the  Scriptures  in  the  Peninsula."  It  was  received  with 
extraordinary  favour,  and  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
original  and  attractive  works  ever  written  on  that  country. 
Among  his  works  are  "Lavengro,"  (1851,)  and  "  Romany 
Rye,"  (1857,)  which  are  partly  autobiographical. 

"  We  conceive,"  says  the  "Quarterly  Review"  for  De- 
cember, 1842,  "that  Mr.  Borrow  has  come  out  in  these 
pages"  ("The  Bible  in  Spain")  "as an  English  author  of 
high  mark.  Considering  the  book  merely  as  one  of  ad- 
venture, it  seems  to  us  about  the  most  extraordinary  one 
that  has  appeared  in  our  own,  or  indeed  in  any  other, 
language,  for  a  very  long  time." 

See,  also,  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  February,  1843  ;  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  September,  1841,  and  March,  1851 ;  "  Brief  Biogra- 
phies," by  Samuel  Smiles. 

Bor'rus  or  Borri,  bor'ree,  (Cristoforo,)  born  at 
Milan,  went  on  a  mission  to  the  East,  and  was  afterwards 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Lisbon.    Died  in  1632. 

Borsato, boR-sa'to,(GiusEPPE,)  askilful  Italian  painter 
of  the  present  century,  has  painted  landscapes  and  archi- 
tectural pieces.  He  was  for  some  time  professor  of  paint- 
ing in  the  Academy  of  Venice. 

Borsieri  de  Kanifeld,  boR-se-a'ree  di  ka^ie-fglt, 
[Lat.  Burse'rius,]  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  Tyrolese 
physician  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Trent  in  1725. 
He  studied  at  Padua,  and  in  1770  was  appointed  by 
Maria  Theresa  professor  of  materia  medica  at  Pavla. 
Died  in  1785. 

See  Leonardo  dei  Clock,  "Notizie  biografiche  intomo  G.  B. 
Borsieri  de  Kanifeld,"  1839. 

Borsini,  boR-see''nee,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  satirical 
poet,  born  at  Sienna  in  1800.  He  was  in  his  youth  suc- 
cessively soldier,  comedian,  and  musician,  and  led  an 
adventurous  life.  In  1837  he  published  a  "Sentimental 
Journey."  His  chief  works  are  a  poem  entitled  "  The 
Ass,"  ("Asino,"  1844,)  and  "  Novissimo  Galateo,"  (1851,) 
a  satire  in  verse,  which  had  considerable  popularity. 

Borsum,  van,  vtn  boR''srim,  (Adam,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  landscapes  and  animals,  lived  about  1666. 

Borth'wick,  (David,)  a  Scottish  jurist  in  the  time 
of  James  I.  of  England,  rose  through  various  offices  to 
be  lord  advocate  of  Scotland.    Died  in  1581. 

Borthwick,  (Peter,)  a  noted  Tory  politician,  born 
in  Scotland  in  1804.  About  1833  he  had  a  public  dis- 
cussion with  Mr.  George  Thompson,  in  which  he  ad- 
vocated gradual,  instead  of  immediate,  emancipation 
of  the  slaves.  He  subsequently  became  manager  of  the 
"Morning  Post."    Died  in  1852. 

Boru,  (Brian.)    See  Brian  Boroimhe. 

Bory,  de,  deh  bo^re',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  savant, 
born  in  Paris  in  1720,  contributed  several  scientific  treat- 
ises to  the  "Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,"  and 
other  journals.  He  was  appointed  in  1761  Governor- 
General  of  Saint  Domingo.    Died  in  1801. 

Bory  de  Saint- Vincent,  bo're'  deh  siN'v^N'sSN', 
(Jean  Baptiste  George  Marie,)  a  distinguished  French 
naturalist  and  geographer,  born  at  Agen  in  1780.  He 
set  out  with  Baudin's  scientific  expedition  to  Australia 
in  1800,  but  proceeded  no  farther  than  Mauritius,  where 
he  made  a  survey  of  the  neighbouring  islands.  On  his 
return  to  France  he  j^ublished  his  "Essays  on  the  Fortu- 
nate Isles  and  the  Ancient  Atlantis,"  (1803,)  and  "Voy- 
age among  the  African  Islands,"  (1804,  3  vols.,  with  an 
atlas.)  He  was  charged  in  1829  with  the  command  of 
the  scientific  expedition  to  the  Morea.  He  was  principal 
editor  of  the  "  Dictionnaire  classique  d'Histoire  natu- 
relle,"  and  contributed  numerous  articles  to  other  scien- 
tific journals.    Died  in  1846. 

See  "Justification  de  la  Conduite,  etc.  de  J.  B.  Bory  de  Saint- 
Vincent,"  by  himself,  1816;  Hericart  de  Thury,  "Notice  sur  le 
Baron  Bory  de  Saint- Vincent,"  1848;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April, 
1805. 

Borzoni,    boRt-so'nee,    or    Borzone,  boRt-so'ni, 

(Francesco  Maria,)  a  painter  of  Genoa,  son  of  Luciano, 
noticed  below,  born  in  1625;  died  in  1696. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6^;  good;  moon; 


BORZONI 


BOSIO 


Borzoui,  (Luciano,)  a  painter  of  portraits  and  his- 
tory, born  at  Genoa  in  1590.  His  chief  merit  was  truth 
of  expression.    Died  at  Genoa  in  1645. 

Bos,  bos,  Bosch,  bosk,  or  Bosco,  (Hierom,)  a  Dutch 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc,  in  Brabant, 
about  1450,  was  surnamed  i.E  Joyeux.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  spent  part  of  his  Hfe  in  Spain,  where  several  of 
his  best  works  are  to  be  seen.  Among  these  we  may 
name  the  "Flight  into  Egypt,"  "Temptation  of  Saint 
Antony,"  and  a  "Crucifixion"  in  the  Escurial.  He  ex- 
celled particularly  in  delineating  spectres,  demons,  and 
other  supernatural  subjects.  He  is  said  by  Descamps 
to  have  been  one  of  the  first  artists  who  painted  in  oil. 
According  to  some  authors,  he  died  about  1500. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  HoUandais,"  etc. 

Bos,  Bus,  bus,  or  Van  den  Bosch,  vtn  den  bosk, 
(Knj  NELis,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc  about 
15 10.    He  engraved  after  Raphael  and  Giulio  Romano. 

Bos,  (Lambert,)  a  Dutch  philologist,  born  in  Fries- 
land  in  1670,  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Franeker  in 
1704.  Among  his  numerous  and  learned  works  we  may 
name  "Ellipses  Graecae,"  "Description  of  Greek  Anti- 
quities," ("  Antiquitatum  Grsecarum  Descriptio,"  1713,) 
which  is  highly  esteemed,  and  an  edition  of  the  Septua- 
gint,  (1709.)    Died  in  1717. 

See  ScHULTENS,  "  Oratio  fimebris  in  Obitum  L.  Bos,"  1718. 

Bos,  de,  deh  bos,  (Jan  Ludwig,)  a  Dutch  painter  of 
flowers,  fruits,  and  insects,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc.  Died 
in  1507. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 
Bos,  du.    See  Dubos. 

Bosc,  bosk,  (Louis  Augustin  Guillaume,)  an  emi- 
nent French  naturalist,  son  of  Bosc  d'Antic,  noticed 
below,  born  in  Paris  in  1759.  Having  narrowly  escaped 
death  during  the  reign  of  terror,  he  visited  America  in 
1796,  where  he  spent  two  years  in  scientific  investigations. 
After  his  return  he  became  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  and  professor  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  and 
obtained  other  distinctions.  He  jiublished  the  "Natural 
History  of  Shells,"  (5  vols.,  1824,)  "  History  of  Worms  and 
Crustacea,"  (2  vols.,  1829,)  a  "Dictionary  of  Agricul- 
ture," (1809,)  and  a  "Complete  Course  of  Agriculture." 
He  was  charged  by  Madame  Roland  with  the  publication 
of  her  memoirs,  and  appointed  guardian  of  her  daughter. 
Died  in  1828. 

See  SiLVEsTRE,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  L.  A.  G.  Bosc,"  1829; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Bosc  d'Antic,  bosk  dSN't^k',  (Paul,)  born  in  Lan- 
guedoc  in  1726,  published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Best  Means 
of  uniting  Perfection  and  Economy  in  the  Glass-Manu- 
facture in  France."    Died  in  1784. 

Bosc,  du,  dii  bosk,  (Claude,)  a  French  engraver, 
who  worked  in  England  in  1715,  engraved  "Marlbor- 
ough's Battles,"  and  other  works. 

Bosc,  du,  (Pierre  Thomines,)  a  French  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Bayeux  in  1623  ;  died  in  1692. 
See  P.  Legendre,  "Vie  de  Pierre  Thomines  du  Bosc,"  1694. 
Boscager,  bos'kt'zhy,  (Jean,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Beziers  in  1601  ;  died  in  1687. 

Boscan  Almogaver,bos-kan'  Sl-mo-gl-vaiR',(  Juan,) 
a  celebrated  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Barcelona  about  1500. 
Through  the  influence  of  his  friend  the  Venetian  am- 
bassador Navagero,  he  attempted,  conjointly  with  Gar- 
cilasso  de  la  Vega,  to  reform  Spanish  poetry  by  adopting 
the  metre  and  forms  of  the  Italian.  This  innovation, 
though  at  first  strongly  opposed,  was  eventually  success- 
ful. He  was  the  author  of  sonnets  and  canzones  in  the 
style  of  Petrarch,  and  several  epistles  of  great  beauty. 
He  also  made  an  excellent  translation  of  the  Greek  poem 
of  "  Hero  and  Leander,"  by  Musasus.    Died  in  1544. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature  ;".  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Bos'ca-wen,  (Edward,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
1711,  was  a  son  of  Viscount  Falmouth,  and  related  on 
the  mother's  side  to  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.  In  1747 
he  fought  under  Anson  in  the  engagement  oft"  Cape  Fi- 
nisterre,  and  in  1748  against  the  French  in  India.  As 
admiral  of  the  blue,  he  commanded  in  1758  the  expedi- 
tion to  America,  where  he  gained  several  victories.  The 
following  year  he  defeated  the  French  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, taking  several  ships  and  two  thousand  prisoners. 


He  was  for  these  services  made  general  of  the  marines 
and  a  member  of  the  privy  council,  and  obtained  a  pen- 
sion.   Died  in  1761. 

See  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  British  Admirals." 

Boscawen,  (William,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1752,  wrote  a  poetical  "Essay  on  the  Progress 
of  Satire,"  and  translated  the  works  of  Horace.  Died 
in  1811. 

Bosch.    See  Bos. 

Bosch,  van,  vtn  bosk,  (Bernardus,)  a  Dutch  poet, 
born  in  1709,  wrote  "  Poetic  Recreations."  Died  in  1786. 

Bosch,  van,  (Hierom,)  a  Dutch  scholar  and  biblio- 
pole, and  one  of  the  best  Latin  poets  of  his  time,  born  at 
Amsterdam  in  1740;  died  in  1811. 

See  J.  D.  van  Lennep,  "Memoria  H.  de  Bosch,"  1817. 

Bosch,  van  den,  vtn  den  bosk,  (Balthasar,)  a 
Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1675.  Among  his 
master-pieces  is  the  portrait  of  the  Duke  of  Marlbor- 
ough on  horseback.    Died  at  Antwerp  in  171 5. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Bosch,  van  den,  (Jakob,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  fruit 
and  still  life,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1636;  died  in  1676. 

Bosche,  van  den,  van  den  bos'keh,  [Lat.  Bos'cHius,] 
(Pieter,)  a  learned  Flemish  Jesuit,  born  at  Brussels  in 
1686,  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Acta  Sanctorum,"  begun 
by  Bollandus.    Died  in  1736. 

Boschenstein  or  Boeschenstein,  bosh'en-stin", 
(Johann,)  a  German  philologist,  born  in  1471,  was  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  at  Augsburg  and  Wittenberg.  Melanch- 
thon  was  one  of  his  ])upils.  His  "  Hebrew  Grammar" 
was  printed  in  15 14,  under  the  direction  of  Melanchthon. 

Boscheron-Desportes.    See  Despories. 

Boschi,  bosH^ee,  (FABRizio,)a  skilful  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Florence  about  1575  ;  died  in  1642. 

Boschini,  bos-kee'nee,  (Marco,)  a  Venetian  painter, 
engraver,  and  writer  on  art,  born  in  1613;  died  in  1678. 

Boschius.    See  Bosche. 

Boscoli,  bos'ko-lee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  historical 
painter,  born  at  Florence  about  1550;  died  in  1606. 

Boscovich,  bos'ko-vik,.''[Lat.  Boscovi'cHUs,]  (Rug- 
giero  Giusefp?:,)  a  voluminous  writer  on  mathematics, 
astronomy,  and  natural  philosophy,  was  born  at  Ragusa, 
in  Dalmatia,  in  May,  171 1.  He  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits 
in  1725,  and  became  distinguished  by  his  talents  and  at- 
tainments in  various  sciences.  He  was  appointed  professor 
of  philosophy  and  mathematics  at  the  Roman  College 
about  1740.  He  was  among  the  first  savants  on  the 
continent  who  adoj^ted  the  Newtonian  philosophy,  which 
he  exj)lained  in  "  Philosophiae  Naturalis  Theoria,"  (1758,) 
a  work  of  much  merit.  About  1750  he  was  employed 
by  the  po'pe  to  measure  an  arc  of  the  meridian  in  the 
Papal  States.  An  account  of  this  operation  was  pub- 
lished in  1755.  His  Latin  poem  "On  Eclipses  of  the 
Sun  and  Moon"  (London,  1760)  is  praised  by  Walcke- 
naer.  Boscovich  is  ranked  among  the  best  modern  Latin 
poets  by  several  French  critics.  After  the  suppression 
of  his  order,  (about  1765,)  he  became  professor  at  Pavia. 
About  1775  he  removed  to  Paris,  and  was  appointed 
"  Directeur  de  I'Optique  de  la  Marine."  AiTiong  his  chief 
works  are  "  Elementa  universa  Matheseos,"  (3  vols., 
1754,)  and  treatises  on  Optics  and  Astronomy,  "Opera 
pertinentia  ad  Opticam  et  Astronomiam,"  (5  vols.,  1785.) 
He  died  at  Milan  in  February,  1787. 

See  Lalandr,"  filogede  Boscovich,"  in  the"Jonrna]  desSavants," 
1792;  Fabkoni,  "Vitas  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium ;"  Ricca, 
"  Elogio  storico  dell'  Abate  R.  G.  Boscovich,"  1789. 

Bose,  bo'zeh,  (Erns  t  Gottlob,)  a  German  physician 
and  scientific  writer,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1723,  became 
professor  of  thera])eutics  in  his  native  city.  Died  in  1788. 

Boselli,  bo-sel'lee,  (Antonio,)  a  painter  of  the  Vene- 
tian school,  lived  about  1500-40. 

Bosellini,  bo-s^I-lee'nee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  writer  on  political  economy,  born  at  Modena  in 
1765  ;  died  in  1823. 

Bosio,  bo'se-o,  (Angiolina,)  an  Italian  vocalist,  born 
at  Turin  in  1829,  performed  with  brilliant  success  at  Co- 
penhagen, Madrid,  Paris,  and  in  the  United  States.  She 
was  married  about  1856  to  Signor  Xindavelonis. 

Bosio,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  antiquary  of  Rome, 
author  of  "  Roma  Sotterranea,"  (1632,)  a  treatise  on  the 
catacombs  of  Rome.    Died  in  1629. 


€  zsk;  9as  j;  g  hard;  gdi&j;  c,  h,  Y.,giitiural;  N,  nasal;     trilled;  sasz;  th  asin////j.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BOSIO 


408 


BOSS  VET 


Bosio,  (FRANgois  Joseph,)  Baron,  a  distinguished 
Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Monaco  in  1769,  studied  under 
Pajou,  in  France.  He  was  employed  by  the  emperor 
Napoleon  in  numerous  works,  among  which  are  the  bas- 
reliefs  of  the  column  of  the  Place  Vendome,  busts  of 
Napoleon,  the  empress  Josephine,  Queen  Mortense,  and 
Pauline  Borghese.  His  "Cupid  Darting  Arrows"  is  es- 
teemed one  of  his  best  poetic  works.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  French  Institute  and  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  at 
Berlin.    Died  in  1845. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biogiaphie  Generale." 

Bosio,  [Lat.  Bo'sius,]  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  eccle- 
siastic and  historical  writer,  lived  about  1560. 

Bosman  or  Bosraann,  bos'man,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch 
traveller,  published  in  1704  "Travels  in  Guinea,"  which 
has  been  translated  into  French  and  English. 

Bosquet,  bos'ka',  (Pierre  Francois  Joseph,)  a 
marshal  of  France,  born  at  Pau  in  1810.  He  served  in 
nearly  all  the  campaigns  of  Algeria  from  1834  to  1852, 
became  general  of  brigade  in  1848,  and  general  of  division 
in  1853.  His  conduct  at  Alma  was  applauded,  and  his 
skilful  dispositions  contributed  to  the  victory  at  Inker- 
man,  November,  1854.  He  performed  a  prominent  part 
at  the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  and  was  wounded  in  the  final 
assault  in  September,  1855.  1856  he  became  marshal 
of  France.    Died  in  1862. 

Bosquet,  de,  deh  bos'ka^  (FRANgois,)  born  at  Nar- 
bonne  in  1605,  became  Bishop  of  Montpellier.  He  wrote 
a  Latin  "  History  of  the  Gallican  Church."  Died  in  1676. 

Bosquillon,  bos'ke'y^N',  (Iidouard  FRAwgois  Ma- 
rie,) a  P'rench  physician  and  scholar,  born  at  Montdidier 
in  1744.  He  settled  in  Paris,  became  professor  of  Greek 
in  the  College  of  France  in  1774,  and  was  afterwards 
royal  censor.  He  was  the  ownei%)f  a  library  of  more 
than  thirty  thousand  volumes,  including  the  most  valu- 
able medical  works  in  ancient  and  modern  languages. 
He  produced  translations  of  English  medical  works,  to 
which  he  added  valuable  notes.    Died  in  1816. 

See  QaERARD,  "La  Fiance  Litteraire." 

Bosron.    See  Borron. 

Bosscha,  bos'Ki,  (Herman,)  an  eminent  Dutch  phi- 
lologist and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Leeuvvarden  in  1755.  He 
studied  at  Franeker,  and  in  1804  became  professor  of 
ancient  literature  at  Groningen.  A  collection  of  his  Latin 
poems,  entitled  "  Musa  Daventriaca,"  was  published  at 
Deventer  in  1820.  He  also  translated  into  Dutch  Schil- 
ler's "  Revolt  of  the  Netherlands,"  Denon's  "Travels  in 
Egypt,"  and  Plutarch's  "Lives."    Died  in  1819. 

See  Van  Kampen,  "  Histoire  Litteraire." 

Bosschaert,  bos^K^Rt,  (Thomas  Willerrord,)  a 
Dutch  painter  of  great  merit,  born  at  Berg-op-Zoom  in 
1613,  was  director  of  the  Academy  at  Antwerp.  His 
works  are  in  the  style  of  Van  Dyck.    Died  in  1656. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Bosse,  bos,  (Abraham,)  a  French  engraver  and  writer 
on  art,  born  at  Tours  in  1611;  died  in  1678. 

Bo3seck,  bos's^k,  (Heinrich  Otto,)  M.D.,  a  Ger- 
man botanist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1726;  died  in  1776. 

Bosselet,  bos'la',  {Hippolyte,)  a  French  political 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1824. 

Bo3si,  bos'see,  (Giuseppe,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter 
and  poet,  born  near  Milan  in  August,  1777,  was  a  friend 
of  Canova.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  Academies 
of  Milan,  Venice,  and  Bologna,  and  published  in  1810 
"II  Cenacolo  di  Leonardo  da  Vinci,"  which  is  an  admir- 
able monument  of  learning  and  taste.  He  produced  a 
number  of  sonnets,  canzones,  etc.  Among  his  paintings 
are  "The  Italian  Parnassus,"  and  "Aurora  and  Night." 
Died  in  1815. 

See  TiPAT.uo,  "  Bioi^rafia  degli  Italian!  illustri ;"  G.  Calvi,  "  Versi 
in  Morte  di  G.  Bossi,"  1816. 

I  Bossi,  bos'see,  (Giuseppe  Carlo  Aureuo,)  Baron, 
an  able  Italian  diplomatist  and  poet,  born  at  Turin  in 
1758.  He  was  employed  by  the  King  of  Sardinia  on 
embassies  to  Prussia,  Russia,  and  Venice.  About  1800 
he  entered  the  service  of  Bonaparte,  and  promoted  the 
annexation  of  Piedmont  to  France.  Among  his  poems 
are  "American  Independence,"  (1785,)  and  "  Oroma- 
sia,"  (1805-12.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1823. 
SeeTiPAi.nn,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 


Bossi,  (LuiGl,)  an  Italian  antiquary  and  litterateur, 
born  at  Milan  in  1785.  He  published  an  "  Introduction 
to  the  Study  of  the  Arts  of  Design,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1835. 

SeeG.  B.  Carta,  "Cennibiografichiintornoal  Cavaliere  L.  Bossi," 
1835- 

Bos'si-us  or  Bo'si-us,  (Benignus,)  an  engraver,  sur- 
named  the  Belgian,  lived  about  1510,  and  worked  at 
Rome. 

Bosso,  bos'so,  (Matteo,)  a  learned  Italian  ecclesias- 
tic, born  at  Verona  in  1428,  was  the  friend  and  patron  of 
Politian  and  other  eminent  scholars.  He  wrote,  in  Latin, 
several  moral  essays,  among  which  is  one  "  On  the  Cul- 
ture of  True  Wisdom,"  ("De  vero  Sapientise  Cultu," 
1509.)  His  letters  and  orations  are  highly  commended. 
Died  at  Padua  in  1502. 

Bossu,  bo'sii',  (N.,)  a  French  navigator,  was  one  of 
the  first  who  explored  the  State  of  Louisiana.  He  pub- 
lished, in  1777,  "New  Voyages  in  North  America." 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteiaire." 

Bossuet,  bo'sii-i',  almost  bos'swa',  (Jacques  B6- 
xNI(;ne,)  a  celebrated  French  divine  and  pre-eminent  pul- 
pit orator,  born  at  Dijon,  September  27,  1627,  was  a  son 
of  a  counsellor  of  the  parliament  of  Metz.  In  1642  he  be- 
came a  student  in  the  College  of  Navarre,  in  Paris.  His 
favourite  studies  were  Greek,  Latin,  philosophy,  and  the 
theology  of  the  Bible.  In  1648  he  pronounced  a  thesis 
in  the  ])resence  of  the  Prince  of  Conde,  who  was  thence- 
forth his  friend.  He  received  the  degree  of  doctor  and 
the  order  of  priesthood  in  1652,  and  removed  to  Metz, 
of  which  he  had  been  appointed  canon.  Pie  is  said  to 
have  converted  many  Protestants  at  Metz  by  his  sermons 
and  by  a  tract  which  he  wrote  against  their  doctrines  in 
1655.  Having  become  renowned  for  eloquence,  he  was 
appointed  to  preach  the  Advent  sermons  before  the  court 
in  1661,  and  the  Lent  sermons  of  1662.  Between  1661 
and  1669  he  preached  in  nearly  all  the  pulpits  of  Paris, 
converted  from  Protestantism  Marshal  Turenne,  and 
composed  his .  celebrated  "  Exposition  of  the  Doctrine 
of  the  Catholic  Church  on  Subjects  of  Controversy," 
("  Exposition  de  la  Doctrine  de  I'figlise  catholique  sur 
les  Matieres  de  Controverse,"  1671,)  which  was  circulated 
in  manuscript  three  years  before  it  was  printed.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Condom  in  1669,  and  pronounced  in 
that  year  a  funeral  oration  on  Henrietta  Maria,  Queen 
of  England,  which  is  an  admirable  model  of  eloquence. 

In  1670  he  was  appointed  preceptor  to  the  dauphin, 
and  in  1671  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  He  wrote  for  the  instruction  of  the  dauphin 
a  "  Treatise  on  the  Knowledge  of  God  and  Oneself," 
and  his  "Discourse  on  Universal  History,"  ("  Discours 
sur  I'Histoire  universelle,"  1681,)  "which,"  says  Hallam, 
"  is  perhaps  the  greatest  effort  of  his  wonderful  genius. 
Every  preceding  abridgment  of  so  immense  a  subject 
had  been  superficial  and  dry.  He  first  irradiated  the 
entire  annals  of  antiquity,  down  to  the  age  of  Charle- 
magne, with  flashes  of  light  that  reveal  a  unity  and  co- 
herence which  had  been  lost  in  their  magnitude  and 
obscurity.  ...  It  is  written  in  that  close,  nervous  style 
which  no  one  certainly  in  the  French  language  has  ever 
surpassed."  Bossuet,  who  was  now  the  recognized  cham- 
pion of  the  Roman  Church  in  France,  had  a  "regular 
conference"  on  church  authority  with  the  Protestant 
minister  Claude  in  1678.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Meauxin  1681,  and  was  the  organ  and  master-spirit  of  the 
assembly  of  clergy  which  met  in  1682,  on  the  subject  of 
a  quarrel  between  Pope  Innocent  XI.  and  Louis  XIV.  in 
relation  to  the  rei^ale.  Bossuet  was  the  author  of  the  four 
articles  which  this  assembly  adopted  as  the  Gallican  creed 
on  the  limitations  of  the  papal  authority,  and  which  were 
confirmed  by  the  king.  In  1688  appeared  his  greatest 
polemical  work  against  the  Protestants,  a  "  History  of  the 
Variations  of  the  Protestant  Churches,"  ("  Histoire  des 
Variations  des  figlises  protestants,"  2  vols.)  "Never 
did  his  genius,"  says  Hallam,  "find  a  subject  more  fit  to 
display  its  characteristic  impetuosity,  its  arrogance,  or 
its  cutting  and  merciless  spirit  of  sarcasm."  ("  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

He  was  engaged  in  a  long  correspondence  (1691-1700) 
with  Leibnitz  in  relation  to  a  proposed  treaty  for  the 
union  of  the  Lutheran  and  Roman  Churches.  He  offered 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  Ioh^^;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon, 


BOSSUET 


BOTFIELD 


no  important  concession  in  doctrine,  and  assumed  the 
tone  of  a  dictator  rather  than  a  mediator,  but  was  dis- 
posed to  concede  the  sacramental  cup  to  the  laity.  Bos- 
suet  and  Fenelon  clashed  with  each  other  in  the  contro- 
versy of  Quietism,  which  originated  in  the  writings  of 
Madame  Guyon.  He  treated  Fenelon  with  remarkable 
harshness,  and  procured  the  condemnation  at  Rome  of 
his  "Maximesdes  Saintes"  in  1699.  He  died  in  Paris  on 
the  I2th  of  April,  1704.  Even  during  his  life  he  had 
received  from  La  Bruyere  the  title  of  a  Father  of  the 
Church. 

Among  his  most  admired  productions  are  six  funeral 
orations,  viz.,  "On  the  Queen  of  England,"  "On  the 
Duchess  of  Orleans,"  (1670,)  "  On  Maria  Theresa,  Queen 
of  France,"  {1683,)  "  On  Anne,  Princess  Palatine,"  (1685,) 
"On  M.  Letellier,"  (1686,)  and  "On  the  Prince  de 
Conde,"  (1687.)  "Few  works  of  genius,  perhaps,  in 
the  French  language,"  says  Hallam,  "are  better  known 
or  have  been  more  prodigally  extolled.  In  that  style  of 
eloquence  which  the  ancients  call  demonstrative,  or 
rather  descriptive,  the  style  of  panegyric  or  commemo- 
ration, they  are  doubtless  superior  to  those  justly  cele- 
brated productions  of  Thucydides  and  Plato  that  have 
descended  to  us  from  Greece ;  nor  has  Bossuet  been 
equalled  by  any  later  writer.  ...  In  moral  wisdom  Bos- 
suet was  pre-eminent;  his  thoughts  are  never  subtle  or 
far-fetched  ;  they  have  a  sort  of  breadth,  a  generality  of 
application,  which  is  peculiarly  required  in  those  who 
address  a  mixed  assembly."  ("Introduction  to  the  Lit- 
erature of  Europe.") 

Among  the  best  editions  of  his  complete  works  is  that 
published  at  Versailles  in  43  vols.,  (1815  et  seq.) 

See  Saint-Makc-Girardin,  "  ifiloge  de  Bossuet,"  1827  ;  "Life 
of  Bossuet,"  in  English,  by  Charles  Butler,  1812  ;  "Vie  de  Bos- 
suet," by  BuRiGNV,  1761  ;  "  filoge  de  Bossuet,"  by  D'Alembert; 
"Histoire  c'.e  Bossuet,"  by  M.  de  Bausset,  4  vois.,  1814;  Henri 
Patin,  "  filoge  de  Bossuet,"  1827;  J- J-  E-  Roy,  "Histoire  de  J. 
B.  Bossuet,"  1S40;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  185S  ;  "  Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1814;  Lamaktine,  "Memoirs 
of  Celebrated  Characters,"  1856. 

Bossuet,  (Jacques  Benigne,)  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  1664,  became  Bishop  of  Troyes  in  1716. 
He  edited  his  uncle's  works,  and  wrote  several  theologi- 
cal treatises.    Died  in  1743. 

Bos'su-lus,  (Ma  i  hieu,)  a  rhetorician,  born  in  France 
or  Italy,  was  preceptor  to  Don  Carlos,  the  son  of  Philip 
II.  of  Spain.    He  lived  in  Paris  in  1583. 

Bossut,  bo'sii',  (Charles,)  an  eminent  French  geom- 
eter, born  near  Lyons  in  1730,  studied  in  the  Jesuits' 
College  at  Lyons.  He  was  a  friend  of  Fontenelle  and 
D'Alembert,  and  assisted  the  latter  in  preparing  the 
mathematical  articles  for  the  "  Encyclopedic."  In 
1752  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  school 
of  engineers  at  Mezieres,  He  obtained  several  j^rizes 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  of  which  he  became  a 
member  in  1768.  Among  his  works  are  a  "IVeatise  on 
Mechanics  and  Hydrodynamics,"  (1763,)  "Complete 
Course  of  Mathematics,"  and  "Essay  on  the  General 
History  of  Mathematics,"  (2  vols.,  1802.)  He  also  ])ub- 
lished  an  edition  of  Pascal's  works,  5  vols.  8vo.  Died 
in  1814. 

See  Delambre,  "Jfiloge  de  Bossut;"  "Memoires,"  (of  the  In- 
stitute.) 

Bostkai,  bost'ki,  (Stephen,)  a  Hungarian  chief,  was 
leader  of  a  revolt  against  Rudolph  II.,  who  by  the  treaty 
of  Comorn  confirmed  him  in  the  possession  of  Transyl- 
vania.   Died  in  1606. 

Bos'ton,  (John,)  a  monk  of  Bury  Saint  Edmund's,  in 
England,  of  the  fifteenth  century,  wrote  a  "History  of 
Monachism." 

Bos'ton,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  Presbyterian  divine 
and  Hebrew  scholar,  born  at  Dunse  in  1676.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  Body  of  Divinity,"  "  Human  Nature  in  its  Four- 
fold State,"  and  several  other  works,  which  are  highly 
esteemed  by  his  sect.  He  preached  many  years  at  Et- 
trick,  Selkirkshire.    Died  in  1732. 

See  "Memoir  of  the  Life,  Time,  etc.  of  Thomas  Boston,"  1776; 
Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Bos'well,  (Sir  Alexander,)  son  of  the  biographer 
of  Dr.  Jolinson,  born  in  Scotland  in  1775,  was  a  friend 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  He  published  "Songs  chiefly  in 
the  Scottish  Dialect,"  and  other  works.  He  was  killed 
in  1822,  in  a  duel  arising  from  a  political  quarrel. 


Boswell,  (James,)  a  Scottish  lawyer  and  famous 
biographer,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1740,  was  a  son  of  the 
Laird  of  Auchinleck,  (pronounced  aPflek.)  He  published 
in  1763  a  volume  of  Letters  which  had  passed  between 
himself  and  Andrew  Erskine,  and  was  introduced  to  Dr. 
Johnson  in  the  same  year.  He  afterwards  made  a  tour 
in  France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  and  returned  home  in 
1766  a  warm  admirer  of  Paoli,  whom  he  had  visited.  He 
is  said  to  have  exhibited  himself  in  public  with  a  placard 
on  his  hat  bearing  the  inscription  of  Corsica  Boswell,  and 
he  published  in  1768  a  "Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Corsica." 
Having  become  intimate  with  Dr.  Johnson,  he  made  a 
journey  with  him  to  the  Western  Islands  in  1773.  His 
vanity,  curiosity,  or  other  questionable  motive,  prompted 
him  to  seek  the  society  of  eminent  men,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  rendered  him  the  laughing-stock  of  those  whose 
favour  he  courted.  Dr.  Johnson  said  that  Boswell  had 
missed  his  only  chance  of  immortality  by  not  having 
been  alive  when  the  "Dunciad"  was  written.  His  "Life 
of  Johnson"  (2  vols.,  1791)  was  received  with  great 
favour.  "The  Life  of  Johnson,"  says  Macaulay,  "is  as- 
suredly a  great,  a  very  great  work.  Homer  is  not  more 
decidedly  the  first  of  heroic  poets,  Shakspeare  is  not  more 
decidedly  the  first  of  dramatists,  .  .  .  than  Boswell  is 
the  first  of  biographers.  He  has  no  second.  .  .  .  We 
are  not  sure  that  there  is  in  the  whole  history  of  the 
human  intellect  so  strange  a  phenomenon  as  this  book. 
Many  of  the  greatest  men  that  ever  lived  have  written 
biography.  Bosweil  w'as  one  of  the  smallest  men  that 
ever  lived,  and  he  has  beaten  them  all."    Died  in  1795. 

See  Macaulav's  critique  on  Croker's  edition  of  Boswell's  "Life 
of  Johnson,"  published  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  1831;  also 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1858;  "Edinburgh  Review" 
for  April,  1857;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1857. 

Boswell,  (James,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1779. 
He  published  Malone's  edition  of  Shakspeare,  to  which 
he  made  some  additions.    Died  in  1822. 

Bos'worth,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  English  philologist 
and  divine,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1788.  He  studied  at 
Aberdeen,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  LL.D.,  and  in 
1839  received  that  of  D.D.  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
He  had  been  previously  appointed  British  chaplain  at 
Rotterdam,  (1832,)  where  he  resided  eight  years.  His 
studies  were  principally  directed  to  the  Anglo-Saxon 
and  kindred  dialects  ;  and  he  has  published  "  Elements 
of  Anglo-Saxon  Grammar,"  (1823,)  "A  Dictionary  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Language,"  (1838,)  and  an  edition  of 
"King  Alfred's  Anglo-Saxon  Version  of  the  History  of 
the  World,  from  the  Latin  of  Orosius."  Dr.  Bosworth's 
distinguished  attainments  in  philology  have  procured 
him  admission  to  the  Royal  Institution  of  the  Nether- 
lands, and  other  learned  societies  of  Europe  ;  he  is  also 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  of  the  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries, London. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1839. 

Botal,  bo-tai',  or  Botalli,  bo-tll'lee,  (Leonardo,)  a 
distinguished  physician  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Asti, 
in  the  Sardinian  States,  about  1530.  He  studied  under 
Fallopius,  and  was  subsequently  physician  to  Charles 
IX.  and  Henry  IH. 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Botalli.    See  Botal. 

Botelho,  bo-tSKyo,  or  Botello,  (NuNo  Alvarez,)  a 
Portuguese  navigator,  was  appointed  in  1628  Governor 
of  the  Portuguese  Indies.    Died  in  1630. 

Botero,  bo-ta'ro,  (Giovannl)  surnamed  Benis'itjs, 
an  Italian  ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  at  Bene,  in  Pied- 
mont, in  1540.  He  was  secretary  to  Saint  Carlo  Borro- 
meo,  and  in  1599  was  appointed  by  Charles  Emmanuel 
tutor  to  his  children.  His  political  treatise  entitled 
"  Delia  Ragione  di  Stato"  had  a  high  reputation  in  his 
time.    Died  in  161 7. 

Botetourt,  bot'e-tdort,  (Norrorne  Berkeley,) 
Lord,  born  about  1738,  was  sent  to  Virginia  as  governor 
in  1768.  Although  he  dissolved  the  house  of  burgesses 
(1769)  for  passing  resolves  against  the  obnoxious  meas- 
ures of  the  British  Parliament,  he  was  very  much  re- 
spected in  the  colony.    Died  in  1770. 

Bot'field,  (Beriah,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  Salop  in  1807.  He  wrote  a  "Tour  in  Scotland," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1863. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  K^guttural;  N,  Jtasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (3:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BOTH 


BOTTICELLI 


Both,  hot,  (John  and  Andrew,)  brothers  and  dis- 
tinguished painters,  born  at  Utrecht  about  1610,  were 
pupils  of  Bloeniaert,  and  worked  for  some  years  in  Italy. 
John  is  said  to  have  painted  the  landscapes,  while  his 
brother  supplied  the  figures  and  animals.  They  died 
about  1650.  According  to  some  authors,  Andrew  died 
in  1656. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Bothwell.both'well,  or  Bodwell,(jAME^  Hepburn,) 
Earl  of,  a  Scottish  courtier  and  conspirator,  noted  for 
his  audacity  and  profligacy,  was  born  about  1526.  He 
was  the  son  and  heir  of  Patrick,  Earl  of  Bothwell,  who 
died  ii\  1556.  On  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary(i56i) 
he  joined  the  Protestant  party,  against  which  he  had  be- 
fore fought,  and  became  a  memlier  of  the  privy  council. 
In  1562  he  formed  a  conspiracy  to  seize  the  queen,  but 
was  detected  and  imprisoned.  He  escaped  to  France, 
and  in  his  absence  was  outlawed.  He  returned  in  1565, 
and  gained  the  favour  of  the  queen,  "whose  measures," 
says  Hume,  "were  all  directed  by  his  advice  and  autho- 
rity." When  Darnley  was  killed  in  1567,  public  opinion 
designated  Bothwell  as  the  author  or  accomplice  of  the 
crime.  He  was  tried,  but  no  accuser  dared  to  appear  ; 
and  he  was  acquitted,  with  circumstances  that  confirmed 
the  general  opinion  of  his  guilt.  "The  favour  which 
Mary  openly  bore  to  Bothwell,"  says  Hume,  "kept  every 
one  in  awe."  A  large  number  of  nobles  signed  a  paper 
in  which  they  recommended  Bothwell  to  Mary  as  a  hus- 
band. In  1567  he  seized  the  queen  (who  was  returning 
from  a  visit  to  Stirling)  and  carried  her  to  Dunbar  Castle, 
with  an  avowed  design  to  force  her  to  marry  him.  He  ef- 
fected this  object  without  difficuity.  (See  Mary  Stuart.) 
The  principal  nobility  having  taken  arms  against  him, 
he  escaped  to  the  Orkneys,  where,  according  to  a  doubt- 
ful story,  he  subsisted  for  some  time  by  piracy.  Ac- 
cording to  Burton,  he  simply  made  his  escape  from  the 
Orkneys  in  a  pirate  vessel  to  Denmark.  He  afterwards 
died  in  the  castle  of  Draxholm,  about  1577. 

See  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iv.  cliaps.  xlv.,  xlvl.,  and 
xlvii.  ;  Robertson,  "History  of  Scotland;"  Froude,  "Reign  of 
Elizabeth." 

Bothwidi,  bot'we-dee,  (Johan,)  Bishop  of  Linko- 
ping,  in  Sweden,  was  preacher  to  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
whom  he  accompanied  in  his  campaigns.    Died  in  1635. 

Botin,  bo'tin,  (Anders,)  a  Swedish  historian,  born  in 
1724,  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Swedish  Nation  to  the 
Reign  of  Gustavus  I.,"  (1757.)    Died  in  1790, 

Botschild  or  Bottschild,  bot'shilt,  (Samuel,)  a 
German  painter  and  engraver,  born  in  Saxony  about 
1640  ;  died  in  1707. 

Bott  or  Bodt,  de,  deh  bot,  (Jean,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  1670,  was  employed  by  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia  to 
construct  the  arsenal  at  Berlin.    Died  in  1745. 

Bott,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dissenting  divine,  born 
at  Derby  in  1688,  published,  among  other  works,  an 
answer  to  Warburton's  "Divine  Legation  of  Moses," 
(1 743-) 

Bot'ta,  (Anne  Charlotte  Lynch,)  an  American 
poetess,  born  at  Bennington,  Vermont,  was  married  in 
1855  to  Vincenzo  Botta,  noticed  below.  A  volume  of  her 
poems  has  been  published. 

Botta,  bot'ta,  (Carlo  Giuseppe  Gugltelmo,)  an 
eminent  Italian  historian,  born  at  San  Giorgio,  in  Pied- 
mont, about  1768.  He  graduated  in  medicine  at  Turin, 
and  in  1795  was  appointed  surgeon  to  the  French  army 
in  Italy.  He  became  in  1800  a  member  of  the  Con- 
sulta  of  Piedmont,  and  in  1803  was  elected  to  the  French 
legislative  body.  He  published  in  1809  a  "History  of 
the  War  of  American  Independence,"  translated  into 
English  by  G.  W.  Otis  of  Boston,  and  in  1824  his  "  His- 
tory of  Italy  from  1789  to  18 14,"  (4  vols.,)  which  is 
written  with  imj^artiality,  in  a  spirited  and  attractive 
style,  and  is  ranked  among  the  best  productions  of  the 
kind  in  recent  Italian  literature.  His  "Continuation  of 
Guicciardini's  History  of  Italy  down  to  1789"  (10  vols.) 
came  out  in  1832.  He  also  wrote  a  "History  of  the 
Nations  of  Italy  from  Constantine  to  Napoleon,"  (1825,) 
"  Description  of  the  Isle  of  Corfu,"  a  poem  entitled  "II 
Camillo,  o  Vejo  conquistato,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  Paris  in  1837. 

See  TiPALDo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri;"  F.  Becchi, 
"Eiogio  storico  di  C.  Botta,"  1839. 


Botta,  (Paolo  Emilio,)  a  distinguished  archaeologist 
and  naturalist,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  about  1800. 
Being  appointed  French  consul  to  Alexandria,  he  visited 
Arabia  in  1837,  and  in  1844  published  an  "Account  of  a 
Journey  in  Yemen  in  1837  for  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Paris."  While  consul  at  Mosul  in  1843,  he  ex- 
cavated at  the  village  of  Khorsabad,  on  the  Tigris,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Mosul,  the  remains  of  an  Assyrian 
palace  containing  stones  with  cuneiform  inscriptions,  and 
statues  similar  to  those  since  discovered  by  Layard.  A 
number  of  these  sculptures  are  now  at  the  Louvre  in 
Paris.  Botta  published,  conjointly  with  Letronne,  Bur- 
nouf,  and  other  savants,  a  splendid  work  entitled  "  Monu- 
ments of  Nineveh  discovered  and  described  by  P.  E. 
Botta,  with  Designs  by  Flandrin,"  (5  vols,  fol.,  1847.) 

See  "Journal  des  Debats"  for  December,  1844. 

Botta,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  statesman,  born  in 
Piedmont,  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Turin,  and 
in  1849  was  elected  to  the  Sardinian  Parliament. 

Bottalla,  bot-tiina,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Savona  in  1613,  was  surnamed  IL  Ra 
FAELLINO,  from  the  resemblance  of  his  style  to  that  of 
Raphael.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Pietro  da  Cortona,  and 
executed  several  works  of  great  merit  at  Rome  and 
Genoa.    Died  in  1644. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bottani,  bot-td^'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Cremona  in  171 7,  became  professor  in  the  Acad- 
emy of  Mantua.    Died  in  1784. 

Bottari,  bot-t^'ree,  (Giovanni  Gaetano,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  scholar  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Florence  in 
1689.  He  puljlished  in  1738,  in  conjunction  with  other 
learned  men,  a  new  edition  of  the  "  Vocabolario  della 
Crusca,"  (6  vols,  fol.)  He  was  subsequently  appointed 
director  of  the  grand  duke's  printing-establishment  at 
Florence,  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  in  the  col- 
lege di  Sapienza,  librarian  of  the  Vatican,  and  prelate 
of  the  pontifical  court.  He  wrote,  among  other  antiqua- 
rian works,  an  account  of  the  monuments  found  in  the 
catacombs  of  Rome  ;  also  a  number  of  valual)le  critical 
essays.  He  published  in  1 741  his  excellent  edition  of 
the  "Vatican  Virgil,"  with  the  different  versions  and 
notes.    Died  in  1775. 

See  Mazzuchrlli,  "Scrittori  d'ltalia;"  F.  Grazzini,  "Eiogio  di 
G.  G.  Bottari,"  1818. 

Bottazzi,  bot-tit'see,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  Latin  scholar,  born  about  1770,  translated  into  Latin 
verse  Monti's  "Bard  of  the  Black  Forest,"  ("Bardo 
della  Selva  nera.") 

Eottcher  or  Boettcher,  bot'Ker,  Bottger  or  Boett- 
ger,  bot'cer,  (Adolph,)  a  German  poet  and  translator, 
born  in  Leipsic  in  1815.  He  wrote  several  original 
poems,  among  which  is  "Till  Eulenspiegel,"  (1850,)  and 
produced  translations  of  the  poems  of  Byron,  (12  vols., 
1840-50,)  Milton,  (1846,)  and  other  English  poets. 

Bottcher  or  Boettcher,  (Chrisitan,)  a  German 
painter,  born  near  Aix-  -Chapelle  in  1818.  Among  his 
works  are  "Evening  in  he  Black  Forest,"  and  "  Young 
Villagers  of  the  Rhine." 

Bottcher,  Boettcher,  Bottger,  or  Boettger,  bot'- 
Ger,  written  also  Boettiger,  (Johann  Frikdrich,)  the 
inventor  of  Dresden  china,  born  at  Schleitz,  in  Voigt- 
land,  about  1681.  Having  devoted  himself  for  several 
years  to  the  study  of  alchemy  and  chemistry,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  manufacturing  a  porcelain  nearly  equal  in 
beauty  and  strength  to  that  of  China.    Died  in  1 719. 

See  Engelhardt,  "Life  of  J.  F.  Boettcher,"  (in  German,)  Leip- 
sic, 1837. 

Bottee  de  Toulmon,  bo'ti'  deh  tool'mAN',  (Au- 
guste,)  a  French  antiquary  and  writer  on  music,  born 
in  Paris  in  1797;  died  in  1850. 

See  Vincent,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  A.  Bottee  de  Toulmon," 
1851. 

Bottex,  bo't§ks',  (Alexandre,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  in  1796,  lived  at  Lyons,    Died  in  1849. 

Botticelli,  bot-te-cheKlee,  (Sandro  or  Alessandro,) 
an  eminent  Italian  painter,  surnamed  Filipepi,  (fe-le- 
pa'pee,)  born  at  Florence  about  1440,  was  a  pui>il  of 
Filippo  Lippi.  He  was  patronized  by  the  popes  Sixtus 
IV.  and  Pius  IV.,  and  painted  in  the  chapel  of  the  Vatican 
frescos  which  display  great  power  of  imagination.  Having 


SI,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BOTTIGER 


411 


BOUCHhT 


returned  to  Florence,  he  became  a  disciple  of  Savonarola, 
and  neglected  his  art.    Died  in  15 15. 
See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Bottiger  or  Boettiger,  bot'te-ger,  (Karl  August,) 
an  eminent  German  archaeologist  and  litterateur,  born 
at  Reichenbach,  in  Saxony,  in  1760,  resided  at  Weimar, 
and  was  a  friend  of  Goethe,  Wieland,  and  other  eminent 
German  writers.  A  collection  of  his  essays,  etc.  ("  Kleine 
Schriften")  was  published  in  3  vols.,  1837-38.  Died  in 
1835. 

See  Karl  Wilhelm  Bottiger,  "Karl  August  Bottiger:  biogra- 
phiscbe  Skizze,"  1837;  NosTiz  und  Jaenkendokf,  "  K.  A.  Bottiger: 
seiii  Bild,  sein  Denkmal,"  1836;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
January,  1836. 

Bottiger  or  Boettiger,  bot'te'ger,  (Karl  Wilhelm,) 
an  eminent  Swedish  poet,  of  German  extraction,  born  at 
Wtsteras  in  1807,  is  a  son-in-law  of  Tegner.  He  ob- 
tained the  degree  of  doctor  in  philosophy  at  Upsal  in 
1833,  and  has  been  twice  crowned  by  the  Swedish  Acad- 
emy. He  has  published  poems  of  great  merit,  and  pro- 
duced a  translation  of  Tasso's  "  Gerusalemme  Liberata," 
and  of  Uhland's  ballads. 

Bottiger  or  Boettiger,  (Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man historian,  and  professor  of  literature  and  history  at 
Erlangen,  born  at  Bautzen  in  1790,  wrote  a  "History  of 
Germany,"  (1838,)  and  "History  of  the  Electorate  and 
Kingdom  of  Saxony." 

Bottoni,  bot-to'nee,  (Alberto,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  at  Padua,  where  he  became  professor  of  medicine. 
Died  in  1596. 

Bottoni,  (Domenico,)  a  learned  physician,  and  cor- 
responding member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London, 
born  at  Leontini,  in  Sicily,  in  1641  ;  died  in  1731. 

Bottrigari,  bot-tKe-gS'ree,(EKCoLE,)  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Bologna  in 
1531  ;  died  in  1612. 

Botts,  (John  Minor,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
at  Dumfries,  Prince  William  county,  Virginia,  in  1802. 
He  studied  law,  joined  the  Whig  party,  and  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress  in  1839.  He  was  re-elected  in 
1841,  supported  Mr.  Clay  in  1844,  and  was  returned  to 
Congress  in  1847.  '^^^  one  of  the  few  Southern 

members  who  co-operated  with  John  Quincy  Adams  in 
his  defence  of  the  right  of  petition.  After  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Whig  party  he  acted  with  the  American  party. 
He  opposed  the  rej^eal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  in 
1854,  and  was  a  constant  adherent  of  the  Union  during 
the  civil  war,  after  which  he  supported  the  Republican 
party.    Died  in  January,  1869. 

Bottschild.    See  Botschild. 

Boturini  Benaduci,  bo-too-ree'nee  bi-nd-doo'chee, 
(Lorenzo,)  a  native  of  Milan,  who  visited  Mexico  in 
1735,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  historiographer  of 
the  Indies.  He  wrote  a  "  General  History  of  North 
America,"  (in  manuscript.)    Died  about  1750. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  i.  book  i. 

Botzaris.    See  Bozzaris. 

Boubee,  boo'bi',  (Nei<6e,)  a  French  geologist,  born  at 
Toulouse  in  1806,  published  several  works  on  geology. 

Bouchard  or  Bouchart,  boo^shSR',  (Alain,)  a 
French  chronicler  and  jurist,  born  about  1470. 

Bouchard,  (Amaury,)  a  French  statesman,  born  at 
Saint-Jean-d'Angely  about  1480. 

Bouchard,  (David.)    See  Aureterre. 

Bouchardat,  boo'shSR^t',  (Adolphe,)  a  French 
chemist  and  pharmacist,  born  about  1810  in  Paris,  where 
he  became  professor  of  hygiene  in  the  Faculty  of  Medicine. 
He  has  written  various  scientific  works. 

Bouchardon,  boo'shtR^iN',  (Edme,)  an  eminent 
French  sculptor,  born  at  Chaumont-en-Bassigny  in  1698. 
He  studied  under  the  younger  Coustou  in  Paris,  and 
subsequently  passed  ten  years  at  Rome.  He  became, 
after  his  return,  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 
The  "Fountain  of  Crenelle"  in  Paris  is  esteemed  his 
master-piece  ;  his  equestrian  statue  of  Louis  XV.,  upon 
which  he  was  employed  twelve  years,  was  destroyed  by 
a  mob  in  1792.  He  executed  a  number  of  bas-reliefs  and 
bronze  statues  of  great  merit,  and  was  also  skilled  in 
etching  and  design.    Died  in  1762. 

See  A.  C.  P.  de  Cayi.us.  "Vie  d'E.  Bouchardon,"  1762;  Fonte- 
NAV,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 


Bouchaud,  boo'sho',  (Mathieu  Antoine,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  17 19,  became  professor  of  law  in 
the  College  of  France  in  1774.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  contributed  a  number  of  legal 
articles  to  the  "Encyclopedic."    Died  in  1804. 

Bouche,  boosh,  (Honor^:,)  born  at  Aix  in  1598,  wrote 
a  "Description  of  Provence."    Died  in  1671. 

Bouche,  boosh,  (Martin,)  a  Flemish  engraver  of 
portraits,  supposed  to  have  been  born  at  Antwerp,  flou- 
rished about  1680. 

Bouchel,  boo'sh^K,  (Laurent,)  a  French  jurist  and 
legal  writer,  born  at  Crespy  in  1559;  died  in  1629. 

Boucher,  boo'shi',  (Alexandre  Jean,)  a  French 
musician,  surnamed  the  Alexander  of  violins,  born 
in  Paris  in  1770.  He  was  patronized  by  Charles  IV,  and 
Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain. 

Boucher,  (Franqois,)  a  celebrated  French  painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1703.  He  studied  under  Le  Moine, 
and  in  1765  succeeded  Vanloo  as  painter  to  Louis  XV. 
Among  his  master-pieces  we  may  name  "Venus  order- 
ing Arms  for  yEneas,"  and  "The  Bath  of  Diana."  His 
works  are  censured  for  mannerism,  meretricious  attrac- 
tions, and  wanton  tendencies.    Died  in  1770. 

See  C.  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres;"  Grimm  et  Diderot, 
"  Correspondance  Litteraire." 

Boucher,  (Jean,)  a  French  theologian,  born  in  Paris 
about  1548,  was  a  violent  partisan  of  the  league  against 
Henry  IV.,  and  a  "trumpet  of  sedition."    Died  in  1644. 

See  Mezerav,  "Histoire  de  Henri  IV." 

Boucher,  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Besan- 
9on,  published  his  Travels  in  Palestine,  (1626.) 

Boucher,  bow'cher,  (Jonathan,)  an  English  philolo- 
gist and  political  writer,  born  near  Wigton,  in  Cumber- 
land, about  1738.  He  emigrated  to  Virginia  about  1756, 
and  became  rector  of  Hanover,  King  George  county,  in 
1 761.  He  adhered  to  the  royal  cause  in  the  Revolution, 
was  forced  to  resign  his  charge,  and  returned  to  England 
in  1775.  About  1784  he  obtained  the  vicarage  of  Epsom, 
in  Surrey.  He  published  in  1797  a  "View  of  the  Causes 
and  Consequences  of  the  American  Revolution."  He 
spent  many  years  in  compiling  a  "Glossary  of  Archaic 
and  Provincial  Words,"  which  was  unfinished  when  he 
died  in  1804.  Parts  I  and  2  of  this  work  appeared  in 
1832. 

Boucher  d'Argi.s,  boo'shk'  dtR^zhe',  (Andr6  Jean,) 
son  of  Antoine  Gaspard,  born  in  Paris  in  1751.  Having 
publicly  denounced  Marat,  he  was  condemned  to  death 
by  the  Revolutionary  tribunal,  and  executed  in  1794. 

Bovicher  d'Argi-s,  (Antoine  Gaspard,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1708,  contributed  legal  treatises 
to  the  "  Encyclopedic  Methodique."  Died  in  1791. 

Boucher  de  la  Richarderie,  boo'sha'  deh  It  re'- 
shtkd're',  (Gilles,)  a  French  litteratetir,  born  at  Saint- 
Germain-en-Laye  in  1733,  published  a  "Universal  Li- 
brary of  Travels,"  (6  vols.,  1808.)    Died  in  1810. 

Boucher  de  Perthes,  boo'shi'  deh  pirt,  (Jacques,) 
a  French  archaeologist,  born  at  Rethel  in  1788.  He 
wrote  several  dramas,  and  a  dictionary  of  passions  and 
sensations,  entitled  "  Hommes  et  Choses,"  ("  Men  and 
Things,"  4  vols.,  1851.)  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly 
on  his  work  called  "La  Creation,"  (5  vols.,  1839-41,) 
and  his  "Celtic  and  Antediluvian  Antiquities,"  (1847.) 
Died  at  Abbeville  in  August,  1868.  He  has  been  called 
the  founder  of  the  science  of  archaeo-geology. 

Boucherie,  boosh're',  (Auguste,)  a  French  chemist, 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1801.  He  invented  a  method  of 
rendering  wood  incorruptible  by  impregnating  it  with 
sulphate  of  copper. 

Boucheron,  boosh'rdN',  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  scholai 
and  writer,  of  French  extraction,  born  in  Turin  in  1773. 
Died  in  1838. 

See  T.  Vallauri,  "De  C.  Boucherono,"  1838. 

Boucheseiche,  boosh'sish',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Chaumont  in  1760,  translated 
the  "  Historical  and  Geographical  Description  of  Hin- 
dostan,"  from  the  English  of  Rennel.    Died  in  1825. 

Bouchet,  boo'shi',  (Claude  Antoine,)  a  French 
surgeon,  born  at  Lyons  in  1785,  originated  a  method  of 
healing  by  the  first  intention  after  amputations.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  Castellan,  "  Notice  sur  le  Docteur  Bouchet,"  1840. 


€  as  ir;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  gtittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BOUCHET 


412 


BOUGEREL 


Bouchet  (Fr^:d6ric  Jules,)  a  French  architect  and 
designer,  born  in  Paris  in  1799.  He  published  several 
professional  works,  among  which  is  "Compositions  an- 
tiques," {1850.) 

Bouchet,  (GuiLLAUME,)  a  French  litterateur^  born  at 
Poitiers  in  1526;  died  in  1606. 

Bouchet,  (Jean,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Poitiers 
in  1476,  published  "Annals  of  Aquitaine,"  (1524.)  Died 
about  1550. 

See  NiCEKON,  "Memoires." 

Bouchet,  du,  dii  boo'sh^',  (Jean,)  a  French  writer  on 
genealogy,  born  in  1599;  died  in  1684. 

Bouchetel,  boosh't&K,  or  Bochetel,  bosl/t^K,  (Guil- 
LAUME,)  born  in  the  province  of  Berry,  became  secretary 
to  Francis  I.,  King  of  France.    Died  in  1558. 

Boucheul,  boo'shul',  (Joseph,)  a  French  jurist  and 
legal  writer,  born  at  Dorat ;  died  in  1706. 

Bouchitte,  boo'she'ta'',  (Louis  Firmin  Herve,)  a 
French  litterateur,  and  professor  of  history  at  Versailles, 
born  in  Paris  in  1795,  published  a  "  History  of  the  Proofs 
of  the  Existence  of  God,"  (1841,)  and  other  works. 

Bouchoii-Dubouriiial,  boo'sh(5>N'  dii'booR'ne^tK, 
(Henri,)  a  Yrtnch.  litterateur,  born  at  Toul  in  1749,  trans- 
lated "  Don  Quixote,"  and  other  works  of  Cervantes. 
Died  in  1828. 

Bouchotte,  boo'shot',  (Jean  Baptiste  Noel,)  born 
at  Metz,  in  France,  in  1754,  was  minister  of  war  from 
April,  1793,  until  April  i,  1794.    Died  in  1840. 

Boucicault,  boo^se'ko',  sometimes  written  Bourci- 
cault,  (Dion,)  a  dramatist  and  actor,  born  in  Dublin 
in  1822.  He  produced  about  1841  a  successful  comedy 
called  "  London  Assurance,"  and  afterwards  numerous 
dramas,  some  of  which  he  translated  from  the  French. 

Boucicaut,  de,  deh  boo''se'k6',  (Jean  le  Meingre — 
leh  m^NgR',)  a  French  soldier,  who  became  a  marshal 
under  Charles  V.  of  France.    Died  in  1370. 

Boucicaut,  de,  (Jean  le  Meingre,)  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Tours  in  1365,  distinguished  himself  in 
the  war  against  the  Turks  in  1396,  and  became  marshal 
of  France  in  1412.  Being  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle 
of  Agincourt,  he  died  in  England  in  1421. 

See  Dk  Pilham,  "  Histoire  Marechal  Boucicaut,"  1697  ;  D'Au- 
BiGNY,  "Vies  des  Hommes  illustres,"  tome  vii. 

Boucquet,  boo'ki',  (Victor,)  a  Flemish  painter  of 
history,  born  at  Furnes  in  1619.  "The  Judgment  of 
Cambyses"  is  called  his  master-piece.    Died  in  1677. 

Bouddha  or  Boudha.    See  Booddha. 

Boudet,  hoo\W,  (Charles  Ernest,)  a  French  medi- 
cal writer,  born  in  1813  ;  died  in  1849. 

Boudet,  (Jean,)  Com te,  a  French  general  of  division, 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1769.  He  fought  against  the  Eng- 
lish in  the  West  Indies  in  1794,  and  in  the  subsequent 
campaigns  of  Holland  and  Austria.  For  his  services  at 
Aspern  and  Essling,  he  was  created  by  Napoleon  grand 
officer  of  the  legion  of  honour.    Died  in  1809. 

See  De  Coukcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais." 

Boudewyns,  bo\v'deh-<^Tns',  (Antoon  Franciscus,) 
a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Brussels  about  1660,  was  a 
pupil  of  Van  der  Meulen.  His  landscapes  are  highly 
praised. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Boudewyns,  (Michael,)  a  physician  of  Antwerp, 
was  professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery  in  that  city.  Died 
in  1681. 

Boudinot,  boo'de-not,  (Eltas,)  an  American  patriot 
and  philanthropist,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1740.  He 
studied  law,  which  he  practised  in  New  Jersey,  and  was 
a  zealous  advocate  of  the  patriotic  cause  in  the  Revolu- 
tion. In  1777  he  was  appointed  commissary -general  of 
prisoners,  and  elected  a  delegate  to  Congress,  of  which 
he  became  president  in  1782.  He  was  director  of  the 
mint  at  Philadelphia  from  1796  to  1805,  after  which  he 
resided  at  Burlington,  New  Jersey.  He  was  chosen  the 
first  president  of  the  American  Bible  Society  in  18 16. 
Among  his  writings  is  "The  Star  of  the  West;  or,  An 
Attempt  to  discover  the  Lost  Tribes  of  Israel."  He 
bequeathed  large  amounts  of  money  and  land  to  chari- 
table institutions.    Died  in  1821. 

Boudon,  boo'd6N',  (Henri  Marie,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic and  religious  writer,  born  in  the  department  of 
Aisne  in  1624;  died  in  1702. 


Boudot,  boo'do',  (Jean,)  a  French  printer  and  book- 
seller, published  in  1704  a  "Latin-French  Dictionary," 
which  was  long  popular  in  schools.  Died  in  1706.  His 
son,  of  the  same  name,  was  distinguished  as  a  printer 
and  bibliographer.    Died  in  1754. 

Boue,  boo'y,  (Ami,)  a  French  geologist,  born  at  Ham- 
burg in  1794,  published  several  works  on  geology,  and 
"Turkey  in  Europe,"  ("La  Turquie  en  Europe,"  1840.) 

Bouelles,  boo'el',  sometimes  written  Bouilles,  [Lat. 
Bovil'lus,]  (Charles,)  a  French  mathematician  and 
philologist,  born  at  Sancour,  in  Picardy,  about  1470, 
published  "  The  Book  of  the  Art  and  Science  of  Geom- 
etry," (1511,)  and  "Three  Books  of  Common  Proverbs," 
("  Proverbiorum  vulgarium  Libri  tres,"  1531.)  Died 
about  1550. 

Bouffe,  booTi',  a  popular  French  comedian,  born  in 
Paris  about  1800 ;  died  in  1853. 

Bouflers,  de,  deh  boo'flaiR',  (Louis  FRANgois,)  Due, 
a  celebrated  French  marshal,  born  in  1644,  served  under 
Turenne  in  Holland  and  Germany.  He  had  a  principal 
share  in  the  victory  of  Steenkerke  in  1692,  and  in  1693 
obtained  the  rank  of  marshal.  In  1695  he  defended 
Namur  a  long  time  against  the  allies  under  William  III. 
of  England,  and  in  1708  maintained  Lille  for  nearly  three 
months  against  Prince  Eugene.  He  received  from  Louis 
XIV.  the  order  of  Saint  Louis  and  many  other  distinc- 
tions, and  was  created  a  knight  of  the  Golden  Fleece 
by  the  King  of  Spain.  The  last  battle  in  which  he  was 
engaged  was  that  of  Malplaquet,  (1709,)  where  he  com- 
manded the  right  wing  ;  and  his  retreat  on  that  occasion 
was  esteemed  a  master-piece  of  military  skill.  Died  in 
1711. 

See  "Vie  du  Marechal  de  Bouflers,"  Lille,  1852;  Charles  de  la 
Rue,  "Oraison  funebre  de  M.  le  Marechal  de  Bouflers,"  1711. 

Bouflers,  de,  (Marie  FRANgoisE  Catherine  de 
Beauvau  Craon — deh  bo'vo'  kRS'6N',)  Marchioness, 
a  French  lady  of  distinguished  talents  and  accom])lish- 
ments,  was  the  wife  of  the  Marquis  de  Bouflers-Reniien- 
court,  captain  of  the  guards  to  Stanislaus  Augustus,  King 
of  Poland.  She  was  a  friend  and  correspondent  of  Vol- 
taire.   Died  in  1787. 

Bouflers,  de,  (Stanislas,)  Marquis,  a  mediocre 
French  writer,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Luneville 
in  1737  ;  died  in  181 5. 

Bouflers-Rouvrel,  boo'flai  R'roov'r§K,(MARiE  Char- 
lotte HiPPOLYTE,)  Countess,  born  in  Paris  in  1724, 
was  a  friend  of  Rousseau  and  other  celebrated  French 
writers,  and  a  correspondent  of  Hume.    Died  in  1800. 

See  J.  J.  Rousseau,  " Correspondance ;"  Hume,  "Private  Cor- 
respondence." 

Bougainville,  boo^giN'v^l',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French 
litterateur,  brother  of  the  navigator,  born  in  Paris  in  1722, 
was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  and  secretary  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.    Died  in  1763. 

Bougainville,  de,  deh  boo'g^NV^K,  (Louis  An- 
TOINE,)  a  celebrated  French  navigator,  born  in  Paris  in 
1729,  accompanied  Montcalm  to  America  in  1756,  as  his 
aide-de-camp.  In  1766  he  set  sail  with  the  frigate  La 
Boudeuse  and  the  ship  L'fitoile  for  the  Falkland  Is- 
lands, being  charged  by  the  government  with  the  trans- 
fer of  the  French  colony  of  Port  Louis,  on  one  of  those 
islands,  to  the  Spaniards.  Continuing  his  voyage,  he 
discovered  a  number  of  islands  in  the  South  Sea,  and 
gave  the  name  of  Navigator's  Islands  to  the  Samoan 
Archipelago.  He  also  saw  part  of  the  group  afterwards 
called  New  Hebrides  by  Captain  Cook.  He  returned 
to  France  in  1769,  having  been  the  first  French  navi- 
gator who  made  the  circuit  of  the  world.  His  account 
of  his  voyage  ("Voyage  autour  du  Monde")  appeared 
in  1 77 1,  and  was  translated  into  English  and  German. 
Bougainville  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don.   Died  in  1814. 

See  Marius  Pascal,  "  Essai  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  Bougain- 
ville," 1831. 

Bougeant.  boo'zhSN',  (Guillaume  Hyacinthe,)  a 
French  Jesuit  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Quimper  in 
1690,  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1743. 

Bougerel,  \>ooz\\' xhV ,  (Joseph,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  litth'ateur,  born  at  Aix  in  1680,  wrote  "Memoirs  oi 
Illustrious  Men."    1  »ied  m  1753. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,    j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BOUGET 


413 


BOULJRD 


Bouget,  boo'zhi',  (Jean,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born 
at  Saumur  in  1692,  became  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the 
college  of  the  Propaganda  at  Rome.  He  published 
"Rudiments  of  Hebrew  Grammar,"  and  other  learned 
works.    Died  in  1775. 

Boughton,  baw'tgn,  (George  H.,)  a  distinguished 
contemporary  painter  of  landscapes  and  genre,  was  born 
in  England,  and  resided  many  years  in  London  and  on 
the  continent.  He  afterwards  settled  at  Albany,  in  New 
York,  where  he  has  produced  many  works  of  great  merit. 
Among  these  may  be  named  his  "Coming  through  the 
Rye,"  "The  Ambush,"  and  "Passing  into  the  Shade." 

See  TucKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Bougouinc,  boo'gwiN',  (Simon,)  a  French  litterateur, 
torn  about  1490,  was  a  valet  of  Louis  XIL 

Bougrov.    See  Boogrov. 

Bouguer,  boo'gaiR',  (Pierre,)  a  celebrated  French 
mathematician,  born  at  Le  Croisic,  in  Lower  Brittany,  in 
1698,  Having  obtained  several  prizes  from  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  he  became  an  associate  of  that  body 
in  1731.  His  "Treatise  on  the  Gradation  of  Light" 
came  out  in  1729,  and  in  1736  he  accompanied  La  Con- 
damine  and  Godin  to  Peru,  in  order  to  measure  a  degree 
of  the  meridian.  He  published  an  account  of  this  opera- 
tion, entitled  "Theory  of  the  Figure  of  the  Earth," 
(1749.)  He  also  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Mechanics  and 
Dynamics,"  and  a  "  Treatise  on  Navigation  and  Pilotage," 
(1753,)  and  invented  an  instrument  which  he  named  the 
heliometer.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London.    Died  in  1758. 

See  article"  Bouguer"  in  the  "  Biographie  Universelle,"by  BiOT ; 
LABRkTHONiE,  "Relation  de  la  Conversion  et  de  la  Mort  de  Bou- 
guer," 1784. 

Bouhier,  boo'e-i',  (Jean,)  a  learned  jurist,  and  mem- 
ber of  the  French  Academy,  born  at  Dijon  in  1673,  be- 
came president  of  the  parliament  of  Dijon  in  1704.  He 
published  a  number  of  legal  works,  and  valuable  criti- 
cisms on  classical  subjects.  "  He  was,"  says  Abbe  Olivet, 
"a  savant  of  the  first  order."    Died  in  1746. 

See  OuDiN,  "  Commentarius  de  Vita  J.  Bouhierii,"  1746 ;  D'Ai.em- 

BERT,  "  £.OgeS." 

Bouhours,  boo'ooR',  (Dominique,)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  etymologist,  born  in  1628  in  Paris,  where  he  became 
professor  of  rhetoric  and  belles-lettres.  He  published 
in  1671  "Conversations  of  Aristes  and  Eugenius,"  and 
"  Remarks  and  Doubts  on  the  French  Language."  These 
works  were  received  with  great  favour  by  some  critics, 
and  severely  assailed  by  Menage  and  others.  He  also 
wrote  a  "  Life  of  Francis  Xavier,"  which  was  translated 
into  English  by  Dryden.    Died  in  1702. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  Memoires "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale  ;" 
Andke  Dacier,  "  filoge  de  Bouhours,"  1702. 

Bouillard,  boo'ytR',  (Jacques,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  in  1744;  died  at  Paris  in  1806. 

Bouillart,  boo'ytR',  (Jacques,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  historian,  born  at  Meulan  in  1669;  died  in  1726. 

Bouillaud,  boo'yo',  or  Bouilliaud,  boo'ye-6',  (Ts- 
maei,,)  a  French  astronomer,  born  in  Loudun  in  1605; 
died  in  1694. 

Bouillaud,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  professor  of  clinics  in 
the  Medical  Faculty  of  Paris,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1796. 
He  contributed  numerous  articles  to  the  "Revue  Medi- 
cale"  and  other  journals,  and  published  a  "Treatise  on 
Medical  Nosography,"  (5  vols.,  1846.) 

Bouille,  de,  deh  boo'yi',  (FRANgois  Claude  Amour,) 
Marquis,  a  distinguished  French  general,  born  in  Au- 
vergne  in  1739.  In  the  war  of  American  independence, 
while  Governor  of  Guadeloupe,  he  defended  the  French 
Antilles  against  the  English,  and  captured  several  of 
their  islands.  He  was  a  devoted  royalist,  and  active  in 
promoting  the  escape  of  Louis  XVI.  from  Paris  :  on  the 
failure  of  that  enterprise,  he  repaired  to  Russia,  in  order 
to  obtain  assistance  from  the  empress  Catherine.  He 
died  in  England  in  1800,  leaving  interesting  "Memoirs 
of  the  French  Revolution,"  which  were  published  in 
English,  (1797,)  German,  (1798,)  and  French,  (1801.) 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  de  ia  Revokition  Frangaise  ;"  Ren^  de 
BouiLi.E.  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  du  Marquis  de  Bouille,"  1853  ;  Carlyle, 
"  French  Revolution." 

Bouilles.    See  Bouelles. 

Bouillet,  boo^yi',  (Jean,)  a  French  physician,  born 
near  Beziers  in  1690 ;  died  in  1777. 


Bouillet,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  geologist,  born 
at  Cluny  in  1799,  has  written  on  minerals  and  fossils, 
and  on  the  geology  of  Auvergne  and  Puy-de-D6me. 

Bouillet,  (Marie  Nicolas,)  a  French  lexicographet, 
becan>e  inspector  of  the  University  of  Paris,  where  he 
was  born  in  1798.  He  published  a  "Classical  Diction- 
ary of  Sacred  and  Profane  Antiquity,"  (1841,)  and  other 
works. 

Bouillier,  boo'ye-^',  (Francisque,)  a  French  philos- 
opher, born  at  Lyons  in  1813,  published  a  "History  of 
the  Cartesian  Philosophy,"  (2  vols.,  1854.) 

Bouillon.    See  Godfrey. 

Bouillon,  de,  deh  boo'yoN',  (Emmanuel  Theodore 
de  la  Tour  d  Auvergne — deh  It  tooR  do'vakn^)  a 
French  cardinal,  son  of  Frederic  Maurice,  noticed  below, 
was  born  in  1644.  He  became  chief  almoner  to  Louis 
XIV.  Diedini7i5. 

Bouillon,  de,  (Fr6d6ric  Maurice  de  la  Tour 
d'Auvergne,)  Due,  elder  brother  of  Marshal  Turenne, 
was  born  at  Sedan  in  1605.  He  fought  under  his  uncle  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  and  subsequently  entered  the  French 
service.  Appointed  lieutenant-general  in  1642,  he  shared 
with  Prince  Thomas  of  Savoy  the  command  of  the  army 
of  Italy.  During  the  wars  of  the  Fronde  he  was  an  ad- 
herent of  the  princes  fighting  against  Mazarin.  Died 
in  1652. 

See  "  Memoires  de  la  Vie  de  F.  M.  de  la  Tour  d'Auvergne,"  edited 
by  AuBEKTiN,  1692;  PiNARD,  "  Chronologie  Milltaire. " 

Bouillon,  de,  (Henri  de  la  Tour  d'Auvergne,) 
Due,  a  French  marshal,  originally  Viscount  Turenne, 
born  in  1 555,  was  a  grandson  of  the  Constable  of  Mont- 
morency. At  an  early  age  he  became  a  Calvinist,  and 
was  a  zealous  partisan  of  Henry  of  Navarre,  who  ap- 
pointed him  lieutenant-general  of  his  armies.  He  mar- 
ried for  his  second  wife  Elizabeth  of  Nassau,  daughter 
of  William  Prince  of  Orange.  One  of  the  sons  of  this 
marriage  was  the  celebrated  Turenne,  Marshal  Bouillon 
was  a  patron  of  learned  men,  and  founded  at  Sedan  a 
college  and  library.    Died  in  1623. 

See  J.  Marsollier,  "  Histoire  de  H.  de  la  Tour  d'Auvergne,  Due 
de  Bouillon,"  1709;  Anselme,  "Histoire  genealogique  des  Pairs  de 
France." 

Bouillon,  de,  (Robert  de  la  Marck,)  Due,  a  French 
marshal,  born  in  1492,  became  lieutenant-general  of 
Normandy.    Died  in  1556. 

See  Brantome,  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaines." 

Bouillon-Lagrange,  boo'ydw'  It'gRSNzh',  (Edmk 
Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  chemist,  physician,  and  writer, 
born  in  Paris  about  1765,  became  apothecary  to  the  im- 
perial household.    Died  about  1840. 

Bouilly,  boo''ye',  (Jean  Nicolas,)  a  French  drama- 
tist and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  the  department  of 
Indre-et-Loire  in  1763;  died  in  Paris  in  1842. 

See  E.  Legouve,  "J.  N.  Bouilly,"  1842. 

Boulage,  boo'ltzh',  (Thomas  Pascal,)  a  French  ju- 
rist, born  at  Orleans  in  1769,  became  professor  of  French 
law  in  Paris.  He  was  one  of  those  who  offered  them- 
selves as  a  hostage  for  the  liberty  of  Louis  XVI.  Died 
in  1820. 

Boulainvilliers,  de,  deh  boo'liN^ve'ye^',  (Henri,) 
a  French  historian,  born  in  Normandy  in  1^58,  was  a  son 
of  Fran9ois,  Count  of  Saint-Saire.  He  wrote  a  "Chro- 
nological Abridgment  of  the  History  of  France,"  and 
other  works  on  French  history,  also  a  "Life  of  Mo- 
hammed," (1730.)    Died  in  1722. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Querard, 
"La  France  Litteraive." 

Boulanger,  boo'lfiN'zhi',  (Jean,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Amiens  in  1607  ;  died  in  1680. 

Boulanger,  (Louis,)  a  French  painter,  born  in  Pied- 
mont in  1806,  was  a  friend  of  Victor  Hugo,  whose  works 
he  illustrated.    He  gained  a  first  medal  in  1836. 

Boulanger,  (Nicolas  Antoine,)  a  French  Uttera- 
tetir,  born  in  Paris  in  1722,  wrote  a  work  entitled  "An- 
tiquity Unveiled,"  published  after  his  death.  Died  in 
1759- 

Boulard,  boo'ltu',  (Antoine  Marie  Henri,)  born  in 
Paris  in  1754,  was  appointed  by  La  Harpe  his  executor, 
and  published  the  last  part  of  his  "  Cours  de  Litterature." 
He  was  the  owner  of  a  very  large  and  valuable  library 
Died  in  1825. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  c,  h,  vl, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BOULARD 


BOURBON 


Boulard,  (Michel,)  a  French  philanthropist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1761,  became  upholsterer  {tapissier)  to  the  em- 
peror. He  gave  hirge  sums  of  money  to  the  poor,  and 
left  a  million  francs  to  found  a  hospital.    Died  in  1825. 

Boulay,  boo'iy,  (Jacques,)  a  French  agricultural 
writer  of  Orleans.    Died  about  1730. 

Boulay  de  la  Meurthe,  boo'li'  deh  It  mURt,  (An- 
ToiNE  Jacques  Claude  Joseph,)  Comte,  a  French 
statesman,  born  in  1761.  He  became  successively  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  and  of  the 
council  of  regency,  (1810,)  minister  of  state,  and  min- 
ister of  justice  conjointly  with  Cambaceres.  He  had  a 
principal  part  in  drawing  up  the  Civil  Code  of  Napoleon. 
Died  in  1840. 

See  "Biographic  de  M.  Boulay  de  la  Meurthe,"  1836. 

Boulay  de  la  Meurthe,  (Henri  George,)  Comte, 
son  of  the  j)receding,  born  at  Nancy  in  1797.  In  1837  he 
represented  the  department  of  Meurthe  in  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies.  He  was  vice-president  of  the  republic  from 
December,  1848,  to  December  2,  185 1.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1858. 

Boulay,  du,  dii  boo'li',  [Lat.  Bul^^'us,]  (C^sar 
Egasse,)  born  in  the  department  of  Mayenne,  was  rector 
and  historiographer  of  the  University  of  Paris.  Died  in 
1678. 

Boulay-Paty,  boo'la'  pt'te',  (fivARiSTE  F^lix  Cy- 
PRIEn,)  son  of  Pierre  Sebastien,  noticed  below,  born  at 
Donges,  in  Brittany,  in  1804.  He  published  a  collection 
of  "National  Odes,"  (1830,)  and  other  poems,  and  re- 
ceived in  185 1  the  Montyon  prize  of  the  French  Academy 
for  his  "Sonnets  on  Human  Life." 

Boulay-Paty,  (Pierre  Sebastien,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  in  Brittany  in  1763,  filled  several  offices  during  the 
Revolution,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred  in  1798.    Died  in  1830. 

Boulduc,  boordlik',  (Gilles  Franc^ois,)  a  French 
chemist,  son  of  Simon,  noticed  below,  born  in  1675, 
came  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Jardin  du  Roi  in  1729. 
Died  in  1742. 

Boulduc,  (Simon,)  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  Jardin 
du  Roi,  and  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris. 
Died  in  1729. 

Boule,  bool,  (Andr^;  Charles,)  a  French  cabinet- 
maker, born  in  Paris  in  1642,  adorned  his  works  with 
mosaics.  He  worked  for  nearly  all  the  sovereigns  of 
Europe.    Died  in  1732. 

Boulee,  boo'lk',  (^tienne  Louis,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1728;  died  in  1799. 

Boulen.    See  Boleyn,  (Anne.) 

Boulgai'ine.    See  Boolgarin. 

BouUanger,  boo'lSN'zha',  (Andr^,)  a  popular  French 
preacher,  born  in  Paris  about  1578;  died  in  1657. 

Boullemier,  boorme-i',  (Charles,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic and  writer,  born^t  Dijon  in  1725;  diedin  1803. 

Boullenger  de  Rivery,  boo'lSN'zha'  deh  r^v're', 
(Claude  FRANgois  Fi^llx,)  a  French  jurist  and  littera- 
teur, born  at  Amiens  in  1725  ;  died  in  1758. 

BouUenois  or  Boulenois,  boornwi.',  (Louis,)  a 
French  jurist  and  legal  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1680 ; 
died  in  1762. 

Boulliau,  boo1e-o',  or  Bouillaud,  boo'y5',  [Lat.  Bul- 
LIai/dus,]  a  distinguished  French  astronomer,  born  at 
Loudun  in  1605.  He  wrote  "  Astronomia  Philolaica," 
(1682,)  and  other  learned  works.    Died  in  1694. 

Boullier,  boo'le-i',  (David  Renaud,)  a  Protestant 
theologian,  of  French  extraction,  born  at  Utrecht  in 
1699;  died  in  London  in  1759. 

BouUongne,  boo'16Nn^  (Bon,)  a  French  painter,  son 
of  Louis,  noticed  below,  (the  first  of  the  name,)  born  in 
Paris  in  1649.  He  became  professor  in  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  at  Paris,  in  1678.  His  design  and  composi- 
tion are  praised.    Died  in  171 7. 

Boullongne,  (Lours,)  a  French  painter  and  engraver, 
born  in  Picardy  about  1609,  worked  in  Paris.  He  had 
remarkable  skill  as  a  copyist.    Died  in  1674. 

Boullongne,  (Louis,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Paris  in  1654,  became  first  painter  to  the  king,  and 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.    Died  in  1733. 

See  Hrinf.ckem,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Boulogne,  de,  deh  boo'lon',  (Etienne  Antoine,) 
born  at  Avignon  in  1747,  became  Bishop  of  Troyes  in 


1807,  was  deposed  by  Napoleon  in  1811,  and  appointed 
Archbishop  of  Vienne  in  181 7.  His  collected  works 
were  published  in  8  vols.,  (1827  et  seq.)    Died  in  1825. 

BouPt^r,  (Hugh,)  born  in  or  near  London  in  1671, 
became  in  1723  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  in  Ireland.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  charities,  and  his  zeal  in  the 
cause  of  education.    Died  in  1742. 

BouPtpn,  (Matthev^,)  an  English  mechanician,  born 
at  Birmingham  in  1728.  He  was  the  friend  and  coadju- 
tor of  the  celebrated  Watt,  in  conjunction  with  whom  he 
effected  great  improvements  in  the  steam-engine,  which 
he  also  applied  to  new  purposes.  His  coining-apparatus 
was  particularly  distinguished  for  its  excellence.  His 
services  are  mentioned  in  terms  of  the  highest  praise  by 
Watt.    Died  in  1809. 

See  a  "Life  of  M.  Boulton,"  published  at  Birmingham,  i8og; 
Henky  Howe,  "  Eminent  American  and  European  Mechanics,"  1847. 

Bouma,  b6w''ma,  (Dominick  Acronius,)  a  Dutch 
publicist,  was  professor  of  eloquence  and  political  his- 
tory at  Franeker.    Died  in  1656. 

Bouquet,  boo'ki',  (Dom  Martin,)  a  French  Bene- 
dictine monk,  born  at  Amiens  in  1685,  published  a  "Col- 
lection of  the  Historians  of  Gaul  and  France,"  which  has 
been  continued  by  several  other  writers.   Died  in  1754. 

Bouquier,  boo'ke-i',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  in  Perigord  about  1750,  was  a  Jacobin  member  of 
the  Convention,  (1792-95.)    Died  in  1811. 

Bouquin.    See  Boquin. 

Bourbon,  boor'bon,  [Fr.  pron.  booR^boN',]  the  name 
of  a  famous  P^  ench  dynasty,  which  reigned  over  France 
from  1589  to  1848,  excepting  the  period  of  the  republic 
and  the  empire  of  Naj^oleon  I.  Henry  IV.  was  the  first 
king  of  the  house  of  Bourbon,  The  house  of  Orleans  is 
a  younger  branch  of  the  same  family,  the  founder  of 
which  was  Robert,  Count  de  Clermont,  a  younger  son  of 
King  Louis  IX.   Robert  died  in  13 17.  (See  Orleans.) 

Louis  de  Bourbon,  first  Duke,  and  Count  of  Cler- 
mont, was  a  son  of  Robert,  and  was  born  in  1279.  He 
fought  with  success  against  the  English  for  Charles  le 
Bel,  and  was  created  Duke  of  Bourbon.   He  died  in  1341. 

Pierre,  the  second  duke,  a  son  of  Louis  I.,  was  born 
in  13 10.  He  was  a  brave  warrior,  and  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Poitiers  in  1356. 

His  son,  Louis  II.,  third  Duke  of  Bourbon,  born  in 
1337,  distinguished  himself  in  battle  against  the  English. 
In  1391  he  led  a  successful  crusade  against  the  pirates 
of  Tunis.    Died  in  1410. 

Jean,  the  fourth  duke,  born  in  1381,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Louis  II.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  Armagnac 
party  in  the  civil  war.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
English  at  Agincourt,  and  confined  until  his  death  in  1434. 

His  son  Charles  I.,  born  in  1401,  became  fifth  Duke 
of  Bourbon.  He  rendered  important  military  services 
to  the  dauphin,  (Charles  VII.,)  and  defended  Orleans 
against  the  English  in  1428.    Died  in  1456. 

Jean  II.,  the  sixth  duke,  born  about  1426,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Charles  I.  He  joined  the  Due  de  Bretagne 
and  others  in  the  league  against  Louis  XL,  {ligue  du  bien 
public.)  In  1483  he  became  Constable  of  France.  Died 
in  1488. 

The  seventh  duke  was  Charles,  Cardinal  de  Bourbon, 
a  son  of  Charles  I.,  born  in  1437.  He  was  a  diplomatist 
and  a  favourite  counsellor  of  Louis  XI. 

See  Desormeaux,  "Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Bourbon,"  5  vols., 
1772-S8. 

Bourbon,  (Nicolas,)  surnamed  the  Elder,  a  French 
scholar  and  distinguished  Latin  poet,  born  near  Bar-sur- 
Aube  in  1503  ;  died  in  1550. 

Bourbon,  (Nicolas,)  the  Younger,  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  born  near  Bar-sur-Aube  in  1774.  He  be- 
came professor  of  Greek  at  the  Royal  College  in  161 1,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1644. 

Bourbon,  de,  (Antoine.)  See  Antony  of  Bour- 
bon. 

Bourbon, de,  deh  booR^bdN',  (Charles,)Duc,  usually 
called  Constable  Bourbon,  (Connetable  de  Bourbon,) 
a  famous  French  general,  born  in  February,  1490,  was 
a  son  of  Gilbert  Bourbon,  Count  of  Montpensier.  He 
married  the  heiress  of  the  Duke  of  Bourbon,  and  ob- 
tained with  her  the  title  of  duke.  Having  served  several 
campaigns  in  Italy,  he  received  in  1 5 15  the  office  of 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  sJwrt;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  rah.;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BOURBON 


BOURDOIS 


constable,  the  highest  military  office  in  the  kingdom  of 
France.  He  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Marignano, 
(1515,)  and  in  the  next  year  was  chosen  viceroy  of  the 
Milanese.  His  loyalty  to  Francis  I.  was  shaken  by 
various  injuries  and  acts  of  ingratitude,  which  historians 
attribute  to  the  influence  of  the  king's  mother,  Louisa 
of  Savoy.  Her  motive  is  supposed  to  have  been  resent- 
ment for  the  coldness  or  contempt  with  which  he  treated 
her  amorous  overtures.  About  1521  he  was  deprived  by 
legal  process  of  his  estates,  which  were  claimed  by  Louisa 
of  Savoy.  This  transaction  determined  the  haughty  duke 
to  accept  the  brilliant  offers  which  he  had  received  from 
Charles  V.,  for  whose  service  he  raised  a  large  body  of 
Germans  in  1523.  He  became  lieutenant-general  of  the 
emperor  in  Italy,  and  had  a  high  command  at  the  battle 
of  Pavi'a,  (1525.)  The  victory  at  this  place  is  attributed 
by  some  writers  to  his  skill.  (See  Avalos,  Marquis 
OF  Pkscara.)  He  was  regarded  with  distrust  by  Charles 
v.,  who  neglected  to  pay  the  German  troops  commanded 
l)y  Bourbon  Disgusted  by  the  conduct  of  Charles,  he 
resolved  to  become  an  independent  prince  and  to  satisfy 
l)is  mutinous  troops  with  the  spoils  of  conquest.  His 
first  enterprise  was  extremely  bold,  and  conducted  with 
great  ability.  He  led  his  army  three  hundred  miles  or 
more  through  a  hostile  country,  and  assaulted  Rome. 
He  was  the  first  who  mounted  the  wall,  and  was  killed 
among  the  first,  on  the  6th  of  May,  1527.  His  victo- 
rious army  (which  contained  many  Lutherans)  pillaged 
the  city,  and  committed  frightful  excesses.  He  was 
reputed  the  ablest  French  general  of  his  time.  I'he 
Constable  Bourbon  forms  a  prominent  character  in 
Byron's  drama  entitled  "The  Deformed  Transformed." 

See  Robertson,  "  Histoi7  of  Charles  V.;"  Brantome,  "Vies 
des  grands  Capitaines;"  Guicciardini,  "  Historia  d'ltalia  ;"  Gail- 
LAKD,  "  Histoiie  de  Francois  I ;"  N.  Baudot  de  Juilly,  "  Histoire 
secrete  du  Coniieiable  de  Bourbon,"  1612  ;  Von  Sciuvaktzknau, 
"Der  Konnetable  Karl  von  Bourbon,  Biider  ans  seinem  Leber.," 
1852:  Major-General  John  Mitchell,  "Biographies  of  Eminent 
Soldiers  ot  the  Last  F  our  Centuries,"  1865. 

Bourbon,  de,  (Charles,)  Cardinal,  born  in  1520, 
was  a  brother  of  Antoine  de  Bourbon,  and  an  uncle  of 
Henry  IV.  of  France.  He  was  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
Catholic  League,  and  was  proclaimed  king,  with  the  title 
of  Charles  X.,  in  1589.  He  was  recognized  as  such  by 
the  Parliament  of  Paris  and  the  majority  of  the  people. 
Died  in  1590. 

See  J.  DuBREUi.,  "Vie  de  Charles  de  Bourbon,"  1612  :  Sismondi, 
"  Histoire  des  FranQais." 

Bourbon,  de,  (Charles,)  Cardinal  Vendome,  a  rela- 
tive of  the  preceding,  born  about  1 560.  He  was  a  son 
of  Louis,  first  Prince  de  Conde.    Died  in  1594. 

Bourbon,  de,  (Louis  Henri,)  Due,  son  of  Louis, 
born  at  Versailles  in  1692.  After  the  death  of  Louis 
XIV,,  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  council  of  re- 
gency, and  was  subsequently  first  minister  of  Louis  XV. 
Died  in  1740. 

Bourbon,  de,  (Luis  Antonio,)  a  younger  son  of 
Philip  V.  of  Spain,  born  in  1727,  was  made  a  cardinal 
about  the  age  of  eight,  but  renounced  that  ofiire  when 
he  arrived  at  manhood.    Died  in  1785. 

Bourbon,  de,  (Luis  Maria,)  a  Spanish  prelate,  born 
in  1777,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  As  president  of 
the  regency,  he  promulgated  the  Constitution  of  1812, 
and  abolished  the  Inquisition.    Died  in  1823. 

Bourbon,  de,  (Mathieu,)  surnamed  le  grand  Ba- 
TARD,  was  a  son  of  Jean  II.,  Duke  of  Bourbon,  and  was 
distinguished  as  a  warrior.    Died  in  1505. 

Bourbon  Conde,  de,  deh  booR'bdN''  k6N'di',(Louis,) 
Due,  a  French  nobleman  and  soldier,  born  in  1668,  was 
a  grandson  of  the  great  Conde.    Died  in  1710. 

Bourbotte,  booR'bot',  (Pierre,)  a  French  Jacobin, 
and  member  of  the  National  Convention,  born  near 
Avallon  in  1763.  Having  excited  an  insurrection,  he 
was  defeated,  and  executed  in  1795. 

See  Thiers,  "Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Frangaise." 

Bourcet,  booR^s^',  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French  tac- 
tician and  military  writer,  born  near  Chatellerault  in 
1700.    Died  in  1780. 

Bourchenu,  de,  deh  booRsh'nii',  (Jean  Pierre  Mo- 
ret,)  Marquis  de  Valbonnais,  a  French  historical  writer, 
born  at  Grenoble  in  1651  ;  died  in  1730. 

Bourchier,  (John.)    See  Berners,  Lord. 


Bourchier,  boor'chi-er,  [Fr.  pron.  booR'she-i',] 
Bourgchier,  or  Bouchier,  (Thomas,)  an  EnglislT^c- 
clesiastic,  rose  to  be  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1454, 
cardinal,  and  lord  chancellor  of  England.  He  crowned 
Edward  IV.,  Richard  III.,  and  Henry  VII.,  and  per- 
formed the  marriage-ceremony  between  the  last-named 
sovereign  and  Elizabeth  of  York.    Died  in  i486. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  V.  cliap.  xxi.,  i860. 

Bourcicault.    See  BoueieAULT. 

Bourci6r,  booR^se-V,  (Jean  Leonard,)  Baron  de 
Montureux,  (deh  m6N'tii'ruh',)  a  French  jurist  and  magis- 
trate, born  at  Vezelise,  in  Lorraine,  in  1649.  He  was 
the  principal  author  of  the  Leopold  Code,  adopted  in 
Lorraine.    Died  in  1726. 

See  M.  Salmon,  "fitude  sur  le  President  Bourcier,"  1846. 

Bourcier,  (Jean  Louis,)  Comte  de  Montureux,  a 
French  magistrate  and  jurist,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Luxembourg  in  1687  ;  died  in  1737. 

Bourdaille,  booR^dSF  or  booR'dt'ye,  (MieHEL,)  a 
French  theologian,  and  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  Died 
in  1694, 

Bourdaisiere,  de  la,  deh  It  booR'da'ze-aiR',  (Jean 
Babou,)  Seigneur,  a  French  statesman,  lived  about  1570. 

Bourdaloue,  booRMS'loo^  (Louis,)  an  eminent 
French  pulpit  orator  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Bourges  on  the 
20th  of  August,  1632.  Having  been  successively  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric,  philosophy,  and  moral  theology,  he 
was  appointed  in  1669  court  preacher  in  Paris,  where  for 
more  than  twenty  years  he  preached  the  sermons  during 
Lent  and  Advent.  His  discourses  were  enthusiastically 
admired  by  Louis  XIV.  and  his  court;  and  the  king  ob- 
served that  Bourdaloue's  "repetitions  were  better  than 
the  novelties  of  others."  Plis  main  object  was  to  con- 
vince, and  his  chief  weapon  was  logic,  compared  with 
which  he  considered  pathos  of  secondary  importance. 
His  proofs  fortify  each  other  by  their  connection,  and 
respond  by  their  gradation  to  the  auditor's  desire  to  re- 
ceive impressions  more  and  more  vivid.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  a  shining  example  of  modesty,  consistency, 
and  other  virtues  appropriate  to  his  office.  His  sermons 
were  published  in  16  vols.,  1707-34.    Died  in  1704. 

See  Prignv,  "Vie  de  Bourdaloue,"  1705;  Villenave,  "  Noti9e 
sur  Bourdaloue,"  1812  ;  Jean  Laboudkrie,  "Notice  sur  Bourda- 
loue," 1825;  De  Saint-Amand,  "Notice  biographique  sur  le  P. 
Bourdaloue,"  1842. 

Bourdeille,  de,  (Claude.)    See  Montr^sor. 

Bourdeilles,  de,  (Pierre.)    See  Brantome. 

Bourdelot,  booRcl'lo',  (Jean,)  a  celebrated  French 
scholar,  published  valuable  editions  of  Lucian,  Helio- 
dorus,  and  Petronius.    Died  in  1638. 

Bourdelot,  (Pierre  Mighon,)  Abb6,  a  distinguished 
French  physician,  born  in  1610  at  Sens,  was  patronized 
by  Christina  of  vSweden.  He  wrote  an  "Account  of  Mount 
ALtna,"  and  "The  History  of  Music  and  its  Effects,'- 
(1715.)    Died  in  1685. 

Bourdic-Viot,  de,  deh  booR^^k'  veV,  (Marie 
Anne  Henriette  Payan  de  I'Etang — pt'ySN'  deh 
li't6N',)  an  authoress,  born  at  Dresden  in  1746,  was  suc- 
cessively married  to  the  Marquis  d'Antremont,  the  Baron 
de  Bourdic,  and  M.  Viot.  She  published  eulogies  on 
Montaigne  and  Tasso,  and  other  works.  She  was  eulo- 
gized by  Voltaire.    Died  near  Bagnols  in  1802. 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Bourdigne,  de,  deh  booR^din'yi',  (Charles,)  a 
French  poet,  born  at  Angers  ;  died  in  1531. 

Bourdin,  booR'diN',  (Gilles,)  a  French  scholar,  born 
in  Paris  in  1515,  published  esteemed  commentaries  on 
several  of  the  classics.    Died  in  1570. 

Bourdin,  (Jacques,)  a  French  statesman  under  Henry 
TL,  Francis  II.,  and  Charles  IX.,  became  secretary  of 
finance  in  1549.  He  wrote  in  defence  of  the  rights  of 
the  Galilean  Church.    Died  in  1567. 

Bourdin,  (Maurice,)  a  French  prelate,  born  in  Li- 
mousin, became  Archbishop  of  Braga,  and  was  subse- 
quently elected  pope  by  the  German  emperor  Henry  V., 
in  opposition  to  Gelasius  II.  He  was  soon  after  deposed, 
and  died  in  prison  in  11 22. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Bourdois  de  la  Mothe,  booR'dwi'  deh  IS  mot, 
(Edme  Joachim,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Joigny  in 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  o,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (S:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BOURDOISE  416  BOURGUET 


1754.  He  was  physician  to  Louis  XVIII.  and  Charles 
X.    Died  about  1830. 

Bourdoise,  book'dwSz',  (Adrien,)  a  French  theolo- 
gian, born  near  Chartres  in  1584;  died  in  1655. 

See  Descourveaux,  "Viede  M.  Bourdoise,"  1714;  Bouchard, 
"Vie  de  M.  Bourdoise,"  1784. 

Boui'don,  booRMAN',  (Aim6,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Canibray  in  1638.  He  published  an  "Anatomi- 
cal Description  of  the  Human  Body,"  and  "New  Ana- 
tomical Tables."    Died  in  1706. 

Bourdon,  (Isidore,)  an  eminent  French  physician 
and  writer,  born  at  Merry,  in  Orne,  in  1 796.  He  practised 
in  Paris,  and  published  numerous  and  valuable  works, 
among  which  are  "Principles  of  Medical  Physiology," 
(2  vols.,  1828,)  "  Principles  of  Comparative  Physiology, 
or  History  of  the  Phenomena  of  Life  in  all  Beings  which 
are  endowed  with  it,"  (1830,)  and  "Illustrious  Physi- 
cians and  Naturalists  of  Modern  Times,"  (1844.)  He  is 
said  to  be  one  of  the  most  brilliant  writers  of  his  time. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Bourdon,  (Pierre  Louis  Marie,)  a  French  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Alen9on  in  1799,  published  "Elements 
of  Algebra,"  (1843,)  ^'""^  other  wori<s.    Died  in  1854. 

Bourdon,  (Sehastien,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
French  painters,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1616.  At  an 
early  age  he  visited  Rome,  where  he  formed  an  intimacy 
with  Claude  Lorrain,  whose  pictures  he  copied  with 
admirable  exactness.  He  became  in  1648  one  of  the 
founders  and  first  rector  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Paint- 
ing and  Sculpture  in  Paris.  In  1652  he  visited  Sweden, 
where  Queen  Christina  appointed  him  her  first  painter. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  his  "  Crucifixion  of  Saint 
Peter,"  in  the  Louvre,  and  the  "  Woman  taken  in  Adul- 
tery." Bourdon  excelled  in  historical  painting,  portraits, 
landscapes,  and  grotesque  subjects,  and  worked  with  won- 
derful rapidity  and  facility.  His  engravings  and  designs 
are  also  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  Paris  in  167 1. 

See  R.  DuMESNiL,  "  Le  Peintre  Graveur  Frangais;"  J.  Poite- 
viN,  "Notice  historique  sur  S.  Bourdon,"  1812;  Felibien,  "  Entre- 
tien  sur  ]es  Peiiitres." 

Bourdon  de  la  Crosniere,  booRM6N'  deh  It  kRo'- 
ne-aiR^  (Leonard  Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  Jacobin,  and 
member  of  the  National  Convention,  born  at  Longne- 
au-Perche  in  1758.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king, 
and  for  other  violent  measures  of  his  party.  Having 
quarrelled  with  Robespierre,  he  joined  Barras  as  leader 
of  the  National  Guards,  and  seized  the  person  of  his 
former  chief  and  others  of  the  Jacobin  faction.  He  was 
afterwards  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred, 
where  he  was  publicly  denounced  as  an  assassin.  He 
wrote  a  "Memoir  on  National  Education,"  and  other 
works.    Died  about  1816. 

See  Le  Has,  "  Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  de  la  France." 

Bourdon  de  I'Oise,  booR'd6N'  deh  Iwaz,  (FRANgois 
Louis,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born  near  Compiegne, 
was  a  member  of  the  National  Convention.  He  advo- 
cated the  most  violent  measures  of  the  Jacobins,  but 
joined  with  the  enemies  of  Robespierre  on  the  9th  Ther- 
midor.  He  was  elected  to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred, 
and  subsequently  opposed  the  republican  party.  He  was 
transported  by  the  Directory  to  Cayenne,  where  he  died 
in  1797- 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Frangaise." 

Bourdon  de  Sigrais,  booR'd^N'deh  se'gRcy,(CLAUDE 
Guillaume,)  a  French  writer,  born  near  Lons-le-Sanl- 
nier  in  171 5,  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions. He  published,  among  other  works,  a  "  History 
of  Rats,"  and  translated  into  French  the  "  Military  In- 
stitutes" of  Vegetius.    Died  in  1791. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Bourdon  de  Vatry,  booR^^N'  deh  vt'tRe',  (Marc 
ANTOtNE,)  Baron,  a  French  administrator,  born  at 
Saint-Maur  in  1 761.  He  was  minister  of  the  marine,  for 
a  short  time,  about  1800,  after  which  he  was  prefect  of 
Havre,  Vaucluse,  and  Maine-et-Loire.    Died  in  1828. 

Bourdonnaie.    See  La  Bourdonnaie, 

Bourdonnais.    See  La  Bourdon nats. 

Bourdot  de  Richebourg,  booR'do'  deh  r^sh'booR', 
(Charles  Antoine,)  a  French  jurist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1685,  edited  a  collection  of  the  common  laws  of  France. 
Died  in  1735. 


Bourd,  (Paul  Joseph,)  a  Belgian  statuary,  born  m 
1823  ;  died  in  1848. 

See  SousT  de  Borkenfeldt,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  P.  Boure," 
1849. 

Bourette,boo'rgt',  (Charlo  tte,)  a  French  authoress, 
born  in  17 14,  published  a  collection  of  works  in  prose 
and  verse.  She  kept  in  Paris  a  cafe  which  was  a  resort 
of  literary  men.    Died  in  1784. 

Bourg,  du,  dii  booR,  (Annk,)  a  French  magistrate  and 
Calvinist,  born  at  Riom,  in  Auvergne,  in  1521.  Iking 
falsely  accused  of  the  assassination  of  Minard,  one  of  the 
Catholic  judges,  he  was  executed  in  1559. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais;"  Henri  Doniol,  "  Notice 
historique  sur  A.  du  Bourg,"  1846;  Hoffmann  von  Westhoffkn, 
"  Le  Martyr  evangelique,  A.  du  Bourg,"  1841. 

Bourgade,  booR^gtd',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  mission- 
ary, born  at  Ganjou  in  1806,  laboured  in  Algeria,  and  pub- 
lished "  Evenings  at  Carthage,"  ("  Soirees  de  Carthage.") 

Bourgeat,  booR'zht',  (Louis  Alexandre  Margue- 
rite,) a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1787; 
died  in  1814. 

Bourgelat,  booRzh'15',  (Claude,)  the  founder  of 
veterinary  schools  in  France,  born  at  Lyons  in  1712.  He 
wrote  numerous  treatises  on  veterinary  medicine,  and  in 
1772  established  the  Royal  Veterinary  School  at  Lyons. 
Died  in  1799. 

See  Grognier,  "  Notice  sur  C.  Bourgelat,"  1805. 

Bourgeois,  booR'zhwS',  (Anicet,)  a  French  drama- 
tist, born  in  Paris  in  1806,  produced  a  large  number  of 
successful  melodramas,  vaudevilles,  and  farces. 

Bourgeois,  (Dominique  FRANgois,)  an  ingenious 
French  mechanician,  born  in  1698;  died  in  1781. 

Bourgeois,  biir-joiss'',  (Sir  Francis,)  an  English 
painter,  of  Swiss  extraction,  born  in  London  in  1756.  He 
was  appointed,  in  1791,  painter  to  the  King  of  Poland, 
and  in  1792  became  a  member  of  the  London  Royal 
Academy.  He  died  in  1811,  leaving  his  choice  collec- 
tion of  more  than  three  hundred  picttu-es  to  Dulwich 
College,  together  with  a  large  sum  of  money  for  building 
a  gallery. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon. 

Bourgeois,  (N.,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  La  Ro- 
chelle  in  1710;  died  in  1776. 

Bourges,  de,  deh  booRzh,  (Cl^mence,)  a  French 
lady,  born  at  Lyons,  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  among  her 
contemporaries  as  a  poetess  and  musician.  Died  in  1562. 

Bourgo  or  Bourgh.    See  Burgho. 

Bourgogne,  de,  Dues.   See  Burgundy,  Dukes  of. 

Bourgogne,  de,  Dukes.  See  Philip  the  Good; 
Charles  the  Bold. 

Bourgoing,  booR''gwiN',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  theo- 
logian and  religious  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1585,  became 
confessor  to  Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  superior-gen- 
eral of  the  order  of  the  Oratory,  (Oratoire.)  Died  in  1662. 

See  BossuET,  "Oraison  funebre  du  P.  Bourgoing." 

Bourgoing,  de,  deh  booR'gw^N',  (Charles  Paul 
Amable,)  Baron,  a  diplomatist  and  statesman,  son  of 
Jean  Fran9ois,  noticed  below,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1791. 
He  was  minister  plenipotentiary  from  France  to  Saxony 
in  1832,  and  was  made  a  senator  in  1853. 

Bourgoing,  de.  (Jean  FRANgois,)  Baron,  a  French 
diplomatist  and  writer,  born  at  Neversin  1748.  He  was 
appointed  in  1777  secretary  of  the  embassy  to  Spain, 
where  he  resided  seven  years,  and  in  1791  was  minister 
plenipotentiary  at  Madrid.  His  "  Picture  of  Modern 
Spain"  (1803)  has  been  translated  into  English  and  other 
languages.  He  also  wrote  "  Historical  and  Philosoijhical 
Memoirs  on  Pins  VI.  and  his  Pontificate,"  (1798,)  and 
made  several  translations  from  the  German.  Died  in  1811. 

See  "Nonvelle  Biographie  G^nerale ;"  "London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  October,  1804;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1804. 

Bourgoing  de  Villefore.    See  Villefore. 

Bourguet,  booR^gk',  (Louis,)  a  French  naturalist  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Nimes  in  1678,  became  professor  of 
philosophy  and  mathematics  at  Neufchatel.  He  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  Petrifactions,"  (1762,)  "Philosophical  Let- 
ters on  the  Formation  of  Salts  and  Crystals,"  etc.,  ( 1729,) 
and  other  works.  He  was  a  friend  and  correspondent  of 
Leibnitz.  He  is  said  to  have  discovered  the  explanation 
of  the  Etruscan  alphabet.    Died  in  1742. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  \  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


BOVRGVEVILLE 


417 


BOUTARrC 


Bourgueville,  de,  deh  booRg'v^l',  (Charles,)  Sieur 
de  l^ras,  (bR^,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  in  1504,  was 
patronized  by  Francis  I.  He  published  "Antiquities  of 
the  Province  of  Neustria,  now  Duchy  of  Normandy," 
(1588.)    Died  in  1593. 

Bourgiiignon,  (F.  M.)    See  Bourignon. 

Bourguignon,  (the  painter.)    See  Courtois, 

Bourignon,  boo'r^n''y6N',  (Antoinette,)  a  French 
visionary,  and  founder  of  a  sect  called  by  her  name,  was 
born  at  Lille  in  1616.  She  pretended  to  have  revelations 
from  heaven,  in  which  she  was  commanded  to  restore  the 
true  church.  She  travelled  over  a  considerable  part  of 
Europe,  making  many  converts,  and  while  at  Amsterdam 
renounced  Catholicism.  Her  works  amount  to  twenty- 
one  large  octavo  volumes.    Died  in  1680. 

See  '"Vie  d'Antoinette  Bourignon,"  prefixed  to  her  works. 

Bourignon  or  Bourguignon,  booR'gen'y^N',  (Fran- 
cois Marie,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Saintes  in  1753, 
published  "Topographic  Researches  on  the  Gallic  and 
Roman  Antiquities  of  Saintonge  and  Angoumois."  Died 
in  1796. 

Bourke,  burk,  (Sir  Richard,)  a  general  in  the  British 
service,  born  at  Dublin  in  1777,  distinguished  himself  in  j 
the  Peninsular  war,  and  afterwards  became  Governor  of 
New  South  Wales  and  Van  Diemen's  Land.  Died  in  1855. 

Bourlet  de  Vauxcelles.    See  Vauxcelles. 

Bourlie,  de  la,  deh  li  booR'le',  (Antoine  de  Guis- 
card — deh  ges'ktR^,)  Abbe,  a  French  politician,  born  in 
1658.  Having  failed  in  an  attempt  to  excite  an  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Protestants  against  the  government,  he  took 
refuge  in  England,  where  he  obtained  a  pension  from  ! 
Queen  Anne.  Being  convicted  of  treason  before  the 
privy  council,  he  stabbed  the  chancellor.  Lord  Oxford, 
for  which  he  was  sent  to  prison,  where,  it  is  said,  he  com- 
mitted suicide,  (171 1.) 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionar\'." 

Bourmont,  de,  deh  booR''m6N',  (Louis  Auguste 
Victor,)  Comte  de  Ghaisne,  (gin,)  marshal  of  France, 
born  in  the  department  of  Maine-et-Loire  in  1773.  He 
was  a  royalist  during  the  Revolution,  and  fought  against 
the  republic  in  the  Vendean  war  from  1794  to  1799. 
Having  refused  to  serve  under  the  First  Consul  as  a  gen- 
eral, he  was  imprisoned  about  the  end  of  1800.  He  made 
his  escape  in  1804,  and  took  refuge  in  Portugal.  He 
entered  the  service  of  Napoleon  in  1S09  or  1810,  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Russian  campaign,  and  was  made 
lieutenant-general  in  1814.  On  the  fall  of  the  emperor 
he  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  Louis  XVHL,  after  whose 
flight  he  again  went  over  to  Bonaparte.  Unwilling  to 
subscribe  to  the  Acte  Additionnel,  (by  which  the  Bour- 
bons were  proscribed,)  he  offered  his  resignation  to  Na- 
poleon, and,  after  the  second  restoration,  was  appointed 
in  1823  to  a  command  in  Spain.  He  became  minister  of 
war  in  1829,  and  in  1830  commander-in-chief  of  the  ex- 
pedition which  resulted  in  the  conquest  of  Algiers.  He 
was  created  a  marshal  the  same  year.  During  the  revo- 
lution of  1830  he  was  superseded  by  General  Clausel,  and, 
after  an  exile  of  several  years,  died  in  France  in  1846. 

See  De  Lansac,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  le  Comte  de  Bour- 
mont," 1847;  Merson,  "Notice  biographique  sur  le  Marechal  de 
Bourmont,"  1847;  Alison,  "History  of  Europe." 

Bourn,  boom,  (Samuel,)  an  English  dissenting  divine, 
born  in  Birmingham  in  1 713  ;  died  in  1796. 

See  R.  Flexman,  "Life  of  S.  Bourne,"  1799;  J.  Toulmin,  "Me- 
moirs of  the  Rev.  S.  Bourne,"  1809. 

Bourne,  boom,  (Hugh,)  founder  of  the  sect  of  Primi- 
tive Methodists,  was  born  in  Staffordshire  in  1772.  This 
connection,  first  established  in  1810,  numbered  in  1853 
108,926  members.  Mr.  Bourne  successively  visited  Scot- 
land, Ireland,  and  the  United  States,  where  he  was  re- 
ceived with  great  favour.    Died  in  1852. 

Bourn^,  (Vincent,)  a  distinguished  English  scholar 
and  writer,  born  about  1698,  wrote  Latin  poems  which 
rank  among  the  most  elegant  of  modern  times.  Several 
of  them  were  translated  into  English  by  Cowper.  He 
was  an  usher  of  Westminster  Scho'ol.    Died  in  1747. 

Bourne,  (William  Sturges,)  an  English  statesman, 
born  at  Winchester  in  1769.  He  became  a  lord  of  the 
treasury  in  1807,  privy  councillor  in  1814,  and  secretary 
of  state  for  home  affairs  under  Canning  in  1827.  Died 
m  1845. 


Bournon,  de,  deh  booR^n6N',  (Jacques  Louis,) 
Comte,  a  French  mineralogist,  born  at  Metz  in  1751, 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Geological 
Society  of  London.  He  was  appointed  by  Louis  XVHL 
director  of  his  mineral  cabinet.  He  died  in  1825,  leaving 
a  "Treatise  on  Carbonate  of  Lime,"  and  other  works. 

Bournonville,  booR^ndN'v^K,  (Anton  August,)  a 
Danish  composer  of  ballets,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1805. 

Bournouf.    See  Burnouf. 

Bouron.    See  Borron. 

Bourquelot,  booRk'lo',  (Louis  Fiux,)  a  French 
antiquary  and  litterateur,  born  at  Provins  in  181 5.  He 
succeeded  Louandre  in  the  editorship  of  the  "  Litterature 
Fran9aise  contemporaine,"  a  continuation  of  a  work 
commenced  by  Querard. 

Bourrienne,  de, deh  boo''re-§n^(FAUVELET,)  a  French 
diplomatist  and  biographer,  born  at  Sens  in  July,  1769. 
He  \vas  a  fellow-student  and  friend  of  Bonaparte  at  the 
school  of  Brienne.  On  leaving  school  they  made  mutual 
promises  of  eternal  friendship.  He  and  Bonaparte  again 
met  at  Paris  in  1792,  and  renewed  their  intimate  rela- 
tions. In  1796  he  became  confidential  secretary  to  his 
friend,  then  general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Italy,  whom 
he  followed  to  Egypt.  He  was  dismissed  from  that  office 
in  1802,  and  was  appointed  minister  or  charge-d'afifaires  to 
Hamburg  in  1804  or  1805.  Having  been  accused  of  pecu- 
lation, he  was  recalled  in  1810.  He  deserted  the  cause 
of  Napoleon  in  1814,  and  was  appointed  minister  of  state 
by  Louis  XVHL  in  181 5,  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 
He  published  "  Memoirs  of  Bourrienne,"  (10  vols.,  1829- 
31,)  which  produced  a  great  sensation  and  was  trans- 
lated into  many  languages.  This  work  is  considered  par- 
ticularly interesting  as  throwing  light  on  the  character 
of  Napoleon ;  although  it  is  not  entirely  reliable.  Died 
at  Caen  in  1834. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Bourrit,  boo're',  (Marc  Theodore,)  a  Swiss  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Geneva  about  1739,  wrote  a  "Description 
of  the  Glaciers  of  Savoy,"  (1774,)  "Description  of  the 
Pennine  and  Rhetian  Alps,"  (1781,)  and  other  works. 
He  ascended  to  the  top  of  Mont  Blanc  with  Saussure  in 
1787.    Died  near  Geneva  in  1815. 

See  "Notice  biographique  sur  M.  T.  Bourrit,"  1836. 

Bourru,  boo'rii',  (Edme  Claude,)  a  French  physi- 
cian  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1737  ;  died  in  1823. 

Boursault,  booR'so',  (Edme,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  at  Mucit-l'Eveque,  in  Burgundy,  in  1638,  published 
the  comedies  of  "  Le  Mercure  galant,"  "  ^sop  in  Town," 
and  "^.sop  at  Court."    Died  in  1701. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Boursier,  booR'se-i',  (Laurent  Franqois,)  a  French 
theological  writer,  born  at  £couen  in  1679,  wrote  a  work 
called  "Action  de  Dieu  surles  Creatures."  Died  in  1749. 

Bourvalais,  de,  deh  booR^■t■'li^  (Paul  Poisson,)  a 
wealthy  French  financier  under  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
Died  in  17 19. 

Bousbecq.    See  Busbecq. 

Bourzeis,  de,  deh  booR^za'^ss',  (Amable,)  a  French 
litterateur  and  theologian,  born  near  Riom  in  1606;  died 
in  1672. 

Bousmard,  de,  deh  boo^mtR',  (Henri  Jean  Bap- 
TiSTE,)  a  military  engineer  in  the  Prussian  service,  born 
at  Saint-Mihiel  in  1749,  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Dant- 
zic  in  1807.  He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  Fortification,"  (4 
vols.,  1803.) 

Bousseau,  boo''so',  (Jacques,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  1681,  was  a  pupil  of  Coustou,  and  became  first 
sculptor  to  Philip  V.  of  Spain.    Died  in  1740. 

Boussingault,  boo'siN'go',  (Jean  Baptiste  Joseph 
Dieudonne,)  a  French  chemist,  born  in  Paris  in  1802, 
served  in  his  youth  on  the  staff  of  Bolivar  in  South  Amer- 
ica. In  conjunction  v.-ith  Dumas,  he  determined  the  pro- 
portions of  the  gases  which  constitute  air.  He  made 
contributions  to  meteorology,  and  published  a  "  Treatise 
on  Rural  Economy,"  (2  vols.,  1844,)  and  other  works. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute. 

Bousyry,  (Cherif-Eddin.)    See  Booseeree. 

Boutard,  boo'ttR^,  (Francois,)  a  French  litteratejif 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Troyes  in  1664;  died  in  1729. 

Boutaric,  de,  deh  boo'tt'^rek',  (Francois,)  a  French 
jurist  and  writer,  born  at  Figeac  in  1672  ;  died  in  1733- 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  pdtural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (3^==See  Explanations,  p.  23. , 

27 


BOVTAVLD 


418 


BOW  DITCH 


Boutauld,  boo^to',  (Michel,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
theological  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1607  ;  died  in  1688. 

Boutelle,  boo''teK,  (Timothy,)  a  distinguished  Amer- 
•ran  lawyer,  born  at  Leominster,  Massachusetts,  in  1777, 
practised  at  Waterville,  Maine.    Died  in  1855. 

Bouteroue,  boot'roo',  (Claude,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  in  Paris  ;  died  about  1680. 

Bouterwek,  boo'ter'-^^k^,  (Friedrich,)  d  German 
philosopher  and  critic  of  high  reputation,  born  near 
Goslar,  in  Hanover,  in  1766.  He  published  in  1791  a 
popular  romance  entitled  "  Count  Donamar."  In  1802  he 
became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen.  His  "  His- 
tory of  Modern  Poetry  and  Eloquence"  (12  vols.,  1801- 
19)  is  ranked  among  the  best  works  of  the  kind,  and 
portions  of  it  have  been  translated  into  French,  English, 
and  Spanish.  He  also  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  Esthetics," 
(1806,)  and  a  "Manual  of  Philosophical  Science,"  (1813.) 
Died  at  Gottingen  in  1828. 

See  J.  F.  Blumenbach,  "  Memoria  T.  Bouterwekii,"  4:0,  1832; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Bouteville,  de,  deh  bootVeK,  (Francois  de  Mont- 
morency— deh  m6N''mo''r6N^se',)  Seigneur,  a  noted 
French  duellist  and  soldier,  born  in  1600,  fought  with 
distinction  against  the  Protestants  in  the  wars  of  the 
League.  He  was  condemned  to  death  for  one  of  his 
duels,  and  executed  in  1627.  He  was  the  father  of  the 
celebrated  Marshal  Luxembourg, 

Bouthilier,  le,  (Arm and  Jean.)    See  Range. 

Boutillier,  boo'te'ye-i',  (Maximilien  Jean,)  a 
French  dramatist,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1745;  died  in 
1811. 

Boutrays,  boo^tRa^  or  Boutterais,boot''ra',(RAOUL,) 
[Lat.  RoDOL^PHUS  Bothe'rius,]  a  French  writer  and 
Latin  poet,  born  at  Chateaudun  about  1552  ;  died  in  1630. 

Boutwell,  b6wt^vel,  (George  S.,)  an  American 
statesman,  was  born  in  Norfolk  county,  Massachusetts, 
in  1S18.  He  studied  law,  and  was  elected  Governor  of 
Massachusetts  in  1850,  and  re-elected  in  1S51.  Having 
joined  the  Republican  party,  he  represented  the  seventh 
district  of  Massachusetts  in  Congress  in  1863-69.  In 
February,  1868,  he  advocated,  in  an  able  speech,  the  im- 
peachment of  President  Johnson,  and  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  committee  appointed  to  report  articles  of  im- 
peachment. He  was  one  of  the  seven  managers  who 
conducted  the  impeachment  of  Johnson  in  April.  In 
March,  1869,  he  was  appointed  by  President  Grant  sec- 
retary of  the  treasury. 

Bouvard,  (Alexis.)    See  Bouvart,  (Alexis.) 

Bouvard,  boo'vtR',  (Charles,)  a  French  physician, 
born  near  Vendome  in  1572,  became  professor  in  the 
College  of  France  in  1625,  and  first  physician  to  Louis 
■XIII.  in  1628.    Died  in  1658. 

Bouvart  or  Bouvard,  booViR',  (Alexis,)  a  French 
astronomer,  born  in  Faucigny,  near  Mont  Blanc,  in  1767. 
He  became  an  assistant  in  the  Observatory  of  Paris  in 
1795,  and  afterwards  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He 
worked  with  Laplace,  who  confided  to  him  all  the  re- 
searches of  detail  and  calculations  of  his  "  Mecanique 
Celeste."  He  rendered  important  services  to  practical 
astronomy  by  his  tables  of  the  planet  Uranus,  (the  per- 
turbations of  which  were  first  noticed  by  him,)  as  sug- 
gesting the  existence  of  a  planet  then  undiscovered. 
Died  in  1843. 

See  Alfred  Gautier,  "Notice  sur  A.  Bouvard,"  1844. 

Bouvart,  (Michel  Philippe,)  a  French  physician 
and  writer,  born  at  Chartres  in  171 7,  enjoyed  a  high 
reputation  in  his  time,  and  became  professor  of  medi- 
cine in  the  College  of  France.    Died  in  1787. 

Bouvenot,  boov^io',  (Louis  Pierre,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Arbois  in  1756  ;  died  at  Sens  in  1830. 

Bouverie,  boo\eh-re^  (Edward  Pleydell,)  an 
English  politician,  son  of  the  Earl  of  Radnor,  was  born 
in  181 8.  He  became  paymaster-general,  and  president 
of  the  poor-law  board,  in  1855.  He  is  a  member  of  the 
privy  council. 

Bouvet,  hoo'\\' ,  (Joachim,)  a  French  missionary  to 
China,  born  at  Mans  about  1662.  He  died  in  1732, 
leaving  several  works  on  China. 

Bouvet  de  Cresse,  boo'vi'  deh  kR^^si',  (Auguste 
Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  writer  of  history  and  educa- 
tional works,  born  at  Provins  in  1772;  died  in  1839. 


Bouvier,  booVe-i',  (Andr^:  Marie  Joseph,)  a 
French  physician,  was  born  at  Dole  in  1746.  He  prac- 
tised in  Paris,  and  was  employed  by  the  mother  of  Na- 
poleon I.    Died  in  1827. 

Bouvier,  boo-veer',  [Fr.  pron.  booVe-i',]  (John,)  a 
jurist  and  legal  writer,  born  at  Codognan,  in  the  south 
of  France,  in  1787.  He  emigrated  to  America  about 
1802,  and  studied  law,  which  he  practised  in  Philadel- 
phia. In  1838  he  became  a  judge  of  the  court  of  crimi- 
nal sessions.  He  published  a  "  Law  Dictionary,"  (2  vols., 
1839,)  which  enjoys  a  high  reputation,  and  a  valuable 
work,  entitled  "  Institutes  of  American  Law,"  (4  vols., 
185 1,)  which  has  received  the  commendation  of  several 
eminent  jurists.    Died  in  1851. 

Bouys,  boo'e',  (Andr6,)  a  French  portrait-painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Hyeres,  in  Var,  in  1657  ;  died  in 
Paris  in  1740. 

Bovadilla.    See  Bobadilla. 

Boverio,bo-va're-o,  [Lat.  Bove'rius,]  (Zaccaria,)  an 
Italian  theologian,  born  at  Saluzzo  in  1568  ;  died  in  1638. 

Boves,  bo'vSs,  (Jose  Tomas,)  a  Spanish  royalist  sol- 
dier, notorious  for  ferocity,  born  in  Castile.  He  fought 
in  South  America,  and  defeated  Bolivar  at  San  Mateo  in 
February,  18 14.  He  was  killed  in  battle  in  December 
of  the  same  year. 

Bovet,  de,  deh  bo\a^  (Franqois,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic, born  in  1745,  became  Archbishop  of  Toulouse 
in  1817.  He  published  a  work  "On  Egyptian  Dynas- 
ties," ("Des  Dynasties  Egyptiennes.")    Died  in  1838. 

Bovillus.    See  Bouelles. 

Bow'den,  (John,)  a  clergyman  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  born  in  Ireland  in  1751,  emigrated  to  America 
in  1770.  He  became  professor  of  moral  philosophy  in 
Columbia  College,  New  York,  in  1805.    Died  in  181 7. 

Bowdicli,  bowMitch,  (Thomas  Edward,)  an  Eng- 
lish traveller  and  savant,  born  at  Bristol  in  1790.  About 
1 816  he  accompanied  amission  to  the  King  of  Ashantee, 
and  published,  after  his  return,  "A  Mission  to  Ashan- 
tee," (1819,)  which  was  received  with  great  favour.  In 
1822  he  again  set  out  for  Africa,  but  on  reaching  the 
mouth  of  the  Gambia  died  of  a  fever,  January,  1824. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  the  Geogra- 
phy of  North-Western  Africa,"  and  an  "  Essay  on  the 
Superstitions,  Customs,  and  Arts  common  to  the  Ancient 
Egyptians,  etc." 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  March  and  November,  1820. 

B5w'ditch,  (Nathaniel,)  an  eminent  American  ma- 
thematician, born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  March, 
1773.  He  was  the  son  of  a  cooper,  who  was  not  able  to 
give  him  a  liberal  education.  He  served  an  apprentice- 
ship to  a  ship-chandler,  and  passed  about  nine  years  at 
sea,  as  an  inferior  officer  of  a  merchant-vessel,  after  he 
attained  the  age  of  twenty-one.  He  learned  Greek, 
Latin,  and  other  languages.  About  1802  he  published  a 
work  called  "The  Practical  Navigator,"  which  was  highly 
esteemed.  He  was  president  of  an  insurance  company 
from  1804  to  1823,  and  removed  to  Boston  in  the  latter 
year.  He  was  offered  the  chair  of  mathematics  in  Har- 
vard College,  which  he  declined.  His  reputation  is 
founded  chiefly  on  a  translation  of  the  "Mecanique  Ce- 
leste" of  Laplace,  with  a  copious  commentary,  published 
in  4  vols.  4to,  (1829-38.)  Referring  to  this  subject,  the 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  of  July,  1832,  remarks, 
"The  idea  of  undertaking  a  translation  of  the  whole 
'  Mecanique  Celeste,'  accompanied  throughout  with  a 
copious  running  commentary,  is  one  which  savours  at 
first  sight  of  the  gigantesque.  .  .  .  The  first  volume 
only  has  as  yet  reached  us  ;  and  when  we  consider  the 
great  difficulty  of  printing  works  of  this  nature,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  heavy  and  probably  unremunerated  ex- 
pense, we  are  not  surprised  at  the  delay  of  the  second. 
Meanwhile,  the  part  actually  completed  (which  contains 
the  first  two  books  of  Laplace's  work)  is,  with  few  and 
slight  exceptions,  just  what  we  could  have  wished  to  see, 
— an  exact  and  careful  translation  into  very  good  Eng- 
lish, exceedingly  well  printed,  and  accompanied  with 
notes  appended  to  each  page,  which  leave  no  step  in  the 
text  of  moment  unsupplied,  and  hardly  any  material  difii- 
culty,  either  of  conception  or  reasoning,  unelucidated. 
To  the  student  of  '  Celestial  Mechanism,'  such  a  work 
must  be  invaluable."    Bowditch  was  actuary  of  the  Mas- 


a,  v.,  T,  -•^  u,  \-,  long:  i,  k.  6,  =nme,  less  prolonged:  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  v,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohsrurc:  fir,  f^1^  fdt;  met;  r.6t;  goot.!,  luoon; 


BOWDLER  419  BOWTER 


sachusetts  Life  Insurance  Company  from  1823  until  his 
death.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don. He  married  in  early  life,  and  had  several  children. 
Died  in  Boston  in  March,  1838. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  N.  Bovvditch, "  by  his  son  N.  J.  Bowditch,  1839  '> 
notice  of  Bowditch  in  the  "  American  Journal  of  Science,"  vol.  xxxv. 

Bowd'ler,  (Hannah,)  sister  of  Thomas,  noticed  be- 
low, published  "  Poems  and  Essays,"  and  "  Sermons  on 
the  Doctrines  and  Duties  of  Christianity."  Died  in  1830. 
Her  sister  Jane  was  also  distinguished  as  a  writer. 

Bowdler,  (John,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
London  in  1783,  published  "Select  Pieces  in  Verse  and 
Prose,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1815. 

See  "Memoir  of  John  Bowdler  and  Thomas  Bowdler;"  "Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review"  for  January  and  April,  1819;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  August,  181 7. 

Bowdler,  (Thomas,)  an  English  physician,  born  near 
Bath  in  1754,  wrote  "Letters  from  Holland,"  and  edited 
"The  Family  Shakspeare."    Died  in  1825. 

Bowdoin,  boM'n,  (James,)  a  patriotic  American 
governor,  born  in  Boston  in  1727,  was  descended  from 
a  Huguenot  refugee.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College 
in  1745,  and  inherited  an  ample  fortune.  He  was  elected 
president  of  the  Council  of  Massachusetts  in  1775,  be- 
fore which  he  had  served  many  years  in  the  council 
and  general  court.  In  1778  he  was  president  of  the  con- 
vention which  formed  the  Constitution  of  Massachusetts. 
He  was  chosen  Governor  of  the  State  in  1785,  and  again 
in  1786.  Among  the  events  of  his  administration  was 
Shays's  rebellion,  which  he  suppressed  with  vigour.  He 
was  one  of  the  chief  founders  of  the  American  Academy 
of  Arts  and  Sciences  at  Boston.    Died  in  1790. 

Bowdoin,  (James,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Boston  in  1752.  In  1805  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Spain  to  negotiate  the  cession  of  Florida  to  the  United 
States,  and  to  settle  other  affairs.  He  was  a  benefactor 
of  Bowdoin  College.    Died  in  181 1. 

Bow'en,  (Francis,)  an  American  scholar  and  author, 
born  at  Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  in  181 1,  graduated 
with  distinction  at  Harvard  University  in  1833.  He 
edited  the  "North  American  Review"  from  1843  until 
1854,  and  published,  in  1849,  "Lowell  Lectures  on  the 
Application  of  Metaphysical  and  Ethical  Science  to 
the  Evidences  of  Religion."  In  1853  he  became  Alford 
professor  of  natural  religion,  moral  philosophy,  and  civil 
polity  in  Harvard  University.  He  contributed  several 
articles  to  Sparks's  "American  Biography"  and  to  the 
"  Imperial  Dictionary  of  Biography."  Among  his  works 
is  "  Principles  of  Political  Economy  applied  to  the 
Condition  of  the  American  Peo])le,"  (1856,)  favourably 
noticed  in  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1856. 

Bowen,  (John  S.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Georgia  about  183 1,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1853. 
He  became  a  major-general  in  the  Confederate  service, 
and  commanded  the  army  which  General  Grant  defeated 
at  Port  Gibson  in  May,  1863.  He  died  at  Raymond, 
Mississippi,  in  July  or  August  of  that  year. 

Bowen,  (Pardon,)  M.D.,  a  physician,  born  in  Provi- 
dence, Rhode  Island,  in  1757.  He  published  an  "Account 
of  the  Yellow  Fever  at  Providence."    Died  in  1826. 

Bowen,  (William  C.,)  an  American  physician,  born 
probably  in  Rhode  Island,  in  1785.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Sir  Astley  Cooper  of  London,  and  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  Brown  University  in  1812.  His 
experiments  on  the  bleaching-properties  of  chlorine  pro- 
duced a  disease  or  injury  of  which  he  died  in  181 5. 

Bow'er,  (Archibald,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  at 
Dundee  about  1686,  originally  a  Catholic,  professed 
Protestantism  for  a  time,  and  afterwards  returned  to 
Catholicism.  He  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Historia 
Literaria"  and  the  "Universal  History,"  and  wrote  a 
"History  of  the  Popes,"    Died  in  1766. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Bow'er-bank,  (John  Scott,)  an  English  naturalist, 
born  in  London  about  1797,  published  a  "History  of  the 
Fossil  Fruits_and  Seeds  of  the  London  Clay." 

Bowie,  bol,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  was  a  con- 
tributor to  the  "  Archaeologia"  and  the  "Biographical 
History  of  England,"  and  defended  Milton  against  the 
attacks  of  Lauder.    Died  in  1788. 

Bowles,  (Caroline.)    See  Southey. 


Bowles,  bolz,  (William,)  a  distinguished  naturalist, 
born  in  Ireland,  resided  in  Spain,  where  he  publisheo, 
in  1775,  an  "Introduction  to  the  Natural  History  ana 
the  Physical  Geography  of  Spain,"  (in  Spanish.)  It  has 
been  translated  into  French  and  Italian. 

Bowles,  (William  A.,)  was  born  in  Maryland.  Dur- 
ing the  American  Revolution  he  instigated  the  Indians 
to  commit  atrocities  against  the  whites.  He  afterwards 
incited  the  savages  against  the  Spaniards,  who  took  him 
prisoner.    He  died  in  prison,  at  Havana,  in  1805. 

Bowles,  (William  Lisle,)  an  eminent  English  poet, 
born  at  King's  Sutton,  on  the  border  of  Northamp- 
tonshire, in  September,  1762.  He  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Oxford,  and  chose  the  clerical  profes- 
sion. After  he  had  been  disappointed  in  love  by  the 
death  of  a  lady  to  whom  he  was  engaged,  he  composed, 
in  1789,  "Fourteen  Sonnets,"  which  were  remarkable 
for  grace  of  expression  and  an  air  of  melancholy  tender- 
ness. He  became  rector  of  Dumbleton  in  1 797,  married  a 
daughter  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Wake,  and  obtained  the  valu- 
able living  of  Bremhill,  Wiltshire,  in  1805.  He  published 
in  1804  "The  Spirit  of  Discovery,"  which  is  his  longest 
poem.  Among  his  numerous  other  poems  are  "The 
Grave  of  Howard,"  (1790,)  "The  Missionary  of  the 
Andes,"  (1822,)  and  "Saint  John  in  Patmos,"  (1832.) 
In  1828  he  became  a  canon  of  Salisbury  Cathedral. 
He  edited  the  works  of  Pope,  (1807,)  and  made  some 
criticisms  on  that  author  which  provoked  a  long  contro- 
versy between  himself  and  the  two  poets  Byron  and 
Campbell.  He  published  in  1825  his  "Final  Appeal 
to  the  Literary  Public  relative  to  Pope."  Died  in  1850. 

The  poems  of  Bowles  were  admired  by  Coleridge, 
Wordsworth,  and  Southey,  the  last  of  whom  wrote  to 
a  friend,  "  My  poetical  taste  was  much  meliorated  by 
Bowles."  "The  Sonnets  of  Bowles,"  saysHallam,  "may 
be  reckoned  among  the  first-fruits  of  a  new  era  in  poetry. 
They  came  in  an  age  when  a  commonplace  facility  in 
rhyming,  on  the  one  hand,  and  an  almost  nonsensical 
affectation  in  a  new  school,  on  the  other,  had  lowered 
the  standard  so  much  that  critical  judges  spoke  of  Eng- 
lish poetry  as  of  something  nearly  extinct."  ("Address 
before  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature.") 

See  a  "  Life  of  Bowles,"  by  a  relative  and  Alaric  Watts  ;  "  Men 
I  have  known,"  by  William  Jerdan,  London,  1866;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April  and  December,  1818,  and  May  and  July, 
1820. 

Bow'man,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  surgeon, 
born  at  Nantwich  about  1816.  He  became  professor  of 
])hysiology  and  anatomy  in  King's  College,  London. 
He  published  "  Lectures  on  Operations  on  the  Eye," 
and  other  works. 

BowMng,  (Sir  John,)  LL.D.,  an  English  statesman 
and  linguist,  noted  for  his  attainments  in  the  Sclavonic 
languages,  was  born  in  Exeter  in  1792.  He  published 
"Specimens  of  the  Russian  Poets,"  (1821,)  "Ancient 
Poetry  and  Romances  of  Spain,"  "  Poetry  of  the  Mag- 
yars," "Servian  Popular  Poetry,"  (1829,)  and  "Ches- 
kian  Anthology,"  (1832.)  He  had  become  in  1825  editor 
of  the  "Westminster  Review,"  for  which  he  wrote  nu- 
merous articles  on  political  economy  and  in  favour  of 
free  trade.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1835,  re- 
elected in  1841,  continuing  in  office  till  1849,  when  he 
was  appointed  British  consul  at  Hong-Kong  and  su- 
perintendent of  trade  in  China.  He  was  knighted  in 
1854,  and  made  governor  of  Hong-Kong.  He  had  pub- 
lished in  1838-39  "The  Works  of  Jeremy  Bentham," 
who  was  his  intimate  friend  and  had  appointed  him  his 
executor.    He  returned  from  China  about  1858. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1831  ;  "  Dictionnaire  d'fico- 
nomie  politique." 

Bow'yer,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in 
Berkshire  in  1811,  published  a  "Treatise  on  Modern 
Civil  Law,"  and  other  works.  He  became  in  1852  a 
member  of  Parliament,  where  he  has  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  zealous  defender  of  the  policy  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  powers. 

Bowyer,  (William,)  a  celebrated  English  printer 
and  scholar,  born  in  London  in  1699.  Among  the 
numerous  and  excellent  works  which  issued  from  his 
press  we  may  name  his  "  Novum  Testamentum  Grae- 
cum,"  the  "  Greek  Lexicon"  of  Schrevelius,  the  "  Works 


e  as     c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  y., guttural;  N,  uasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BOXER  420  BOTER 


of  Selden,"  ("  Seldeni  Opera  Omnia,")  Pocock's  "De- 
scription of  the  East,"  Vertot's  "  Knights  of  Maha,"  and 
"The  Coptic  Pentateuch."  These  editions  are  not  only 
of  great  typographic  beauty  and  accuracy,  but  are  en- 
riched with  valuable  notes,  prefaces,  and  indexes.  He 
also  wrote  "  Remarks  on  Greek  and  Roman  Money," 
a  treatise  "  On  the  Origin  of  Printing,"  and  "  Critical 
Conjectures  and  Observations  on  the  New  Testament," 
a  work  of  the  highest  reputation,  which  was  translated 
into  German  by  Schulz.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries.  He  was  distinguished  for  the  benevo- 
lence and  integrity  of  his  character,  and  numbered  among 
his  friends  many  of  the  most  eminent  scholars  of  his 
time.    Died  in  1777. 

See  "Biographical  and  Literary  Anecdotes  of  William  Bowyer," 
by  John  Nichols,  1778. 

Box^er,  (Edward,)  an  English  admiral,  born  at  Dover 
in  1784,  served  against  the  French  in  the  campaigns  of 
1 80 1  and  1809,  and  subsequently  took  part  in  the  Crimean 
war.    Died  near  Balaklava  in  1855. 

Boxhorn,  boks'hoRn, (Marcus  Zuerius — zii-a're-us,) 
an  eminent  Dutch  critic  and  historian,  born  at  Berg-op- 
Zoom  in  1612.  He  succeeded  Heinsius  as  professor  of 
history  and  politics  at  Leyden.  He  wrote  a  large  num- 
ber of  Latin  works,  in  prose  and  verse,  among  which  are 
"Quaestiones  Romance,"  (1637,)  "  Chronicle  of  Zealand," 
(1643,)  and  a '*  Universal  History,"  (1675.)  Died  in  1653. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  L.  Barl^us,  "  Oratio  funebris  in 
Excessum  INI.  Z.  Boxhornii,"  1653. 

Boyardo.    See  Boiardo. 
Boyce.    See  Boece. 

Boyce,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  composer, 
born  in  Eondon  in  1710.  He  studied  under  Dr.  Greene, 
and  in  1758  became  organist  to  the  Chapel  Royal. 
Among  his  best  works  are  his  grand  anthem,  "  Lord, 
Thou  hast  been  our  Refuge,"  a  "  Te  Deum,"  six  anthems, 
and  a  Jubilate  in  Dr.  Arnold's  "Collection  of  Cathedral 
Music,"  and  "  Solomon,"  a  serenata.  He  also  published 
a  work  entitled  "  The  Cathedral  Music  of  the  English 
Masters  of  the  Last  Two  Centuries,"  (3  vols,  fob,  1760.) 
Died  in  1779. 

See  Fetis,  "  Blograpliie  Universelle  des  Miisiciens." 

Boyd,  (Andrew  K.  H.,)  a  popular  Scottish  writer 
and  divine,  born  in  Ayrshire  in  1825.  He  published  in 
'*  Fraser's  Magazine"  a  number  of  essays,  which  appeared 
in  i860  under  the  title  of  "Recreations  of  a  Country 
Parson."  He  has  also  been  a  contributor  to  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly." 

Boyd,  (Henry,)  an  Irish  litteratetir,  published  "Dra- 
matic and  Lyric  Poems,"  and  translatecl  Dante's  "  Divine 
Comedy"  into  English  verse.    Died  in  1832. 

Boyd,  (Hugh  Macauley,)  a  jurist  aiid  political  wri- 
ter, born  in  the  county  of  Antrim,  Ireland,  in  1746.  In 
1 781  he  accompanied  Lord  Macartney  to  Madras,  where 
he  died  about  1792.  The  "Letters  of  Junius"  were  for 
a  time  attributed  to  him. 

See  "  Biogvaphia  Britannica." 

Boyd,  (Hugh  Stuart,)  an  English  writer  and  Greek 
scholar.  He  translated  into  English  some  of  the  works 
of  Chrysostom,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  Basil,  (1806,)  and 
wrote  several  treatises  on  theology.    Died  in  1848. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1814. 

Boyd,  (James,)  an  English  classical  scholar,  born 
about  1795.  He  edited,  besides  other  works,  Adams's 
"  Roman  Antiquities."    Died  in  1856. 

Boyd,  (John  Parker,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1768,  commanded  a 
small  corps  in  the  service  of  Holkar  and  other  East  In- 
dian princes.  He  served  as  a  brigadier-general  in  the 
American  army  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Williamsburg,  Canada,  in  November,  1813. 
Died  in  1830. 

Boyd,  (Linn,)  from  1853  to  1855  Speaker  of  the  Na- 
tional House  of  Representatives,  was  born  at  Nashville, 
Tennessee,  in  1800.  In  1835  he  was  elected  to  Congress, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  1837-38,  was  regularly  re- 
elected till  1855,  a  period  of  twenty  years.  Died  in  1859. 

Boyd,  (Mark  Alexander,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born 
at  Galloway  in  1562,  published  "Epistolee  Heroidum," 
and  other  esteemed  Latin  poems.    Died  in  1601. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 


Boyd,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  statesman,  and  one  of  the 

lords  of  the  regency  during  the  minority  of  James  III. 
He  afterwards  declared  himself  sole  regent,  and  pro- 
moted a  marriage  between  his  son,  subsequently  Lord 
Arran,  and  the  sister  of  the  king.  Being  summoned  to 
Parliament  by  James  to  answer  for  his  conduct,  Boyd 
escaped  to  England^'  where  he  died  in  1470. 
See  Burton's  "History  of  Scotland,"  chap.  xxix. 

Boyd,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  divine,  born  at  Glasgow 
in  1578  ;  died  in  1627. 

Boyd,  (WiLuiAivi,/  Earl  of  Kilmarnock,  a  Scottish 
Jacobite,  born  in  1704.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  Cul- 
loden,  tried  for  treason,  and  executed  in  1746. 

Boyd,  (Zachary,)  a  Scottish  theologian,  lived  at 
Glasgow,  and  wrote  "Zion's  Flowers,"  in  verse,  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1653. 

Boy'dell,  (John,)  an  English  engraver  and  amateur, 
born  in  Shropshire,  or,  as  some  writers  assert,  in  Staf- 
fordshire, in  1719.  Having  previously  published  a  col- 
lection of  engravings,  among  which  were  upwards  of 
one  hundred  of  his  own  views  in  England  and  Wales,  he 
began  business  as  a  print-seller,  by  which  he  acquired 
an  immense  fortune.  By  his  patronage  of  the  best  Eng- 
lish painters  and  engravers  he  rendered  the  greatest 
services  to  art  in  his  native  country.  His  "  Shakspeare 
Gallery,"  consisting  of  illustrations  of  Shakspeare's  dra- 
mas, by  the  most  eminent  English  painters,  whom  he 
employed,  is  a  splendid  monument  of  his  munificence. 
The  engravings  from  these  pictures  were  published  under 
his  patronage  in  a  superb  folio  volume,  (1803.)  Boydell 
had  been  elected  in  1790  lord  mayor  of  London.  Died 
in  1804. 

See  Strutt,  "Dictionary  of  Engravers." 

Boye,  bo'ygh,  (Caspar  Johannes,)  a  distinguished 
poet  and  divine,  born  at  Kongsberg,  in  Norway,  in 
1 791,  wrote  several  poems  and  tragedies.  He  also 
translated  Sir  Walter  Scott's  romances,  and  several 
German  works. 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Boyen,  bo'yen,  (Hermann,)  a  Prussian  statesman 
and  general,  born  at  Kreuzburg  in  1771.  He  served 
against  the  French  in  the  campaigns  of  1810-12,  and 
became  minister  of  war  about  1814.  In  1847  he  was 
made  a  field-marshal,  and  governor  of  the  House  of 
Invalids  at  Berlin.    Died  in  1848. 

Boyer,  bwa''ya',  (Abel,)  a  French  lexicographer,  born 
at  Castres  in  1664,  published  a  "French  Dictionary"  and 
"  Grammar,"  a  "  Dissertation  on  French  Prosody,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1729. 

Boyer,  (Alexis,)  a  celebrated  French  surgeon,  born 
in  Limousin  in  1757.  He  became  about  1804  first  sur- 
geon of  the  emperor  Napoleon,  who  made  him  a  baron 
of  the  empire  and  conferred  on  him  the  cross  of  the 
legion  of  honour.  He  was  appointed  in  1823  consulting 
surgeon  to  Louis  XVIII.,  which  post  he  continued  to 
hold  under  Charles  X.  and  Louis  Philippe.  He  was 
afterwards  chief  surgeon  of  the  Hospital  of  Charity,  in 
Paris,  and  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  published  a 
"Complete  Treatise  on  Anatomy,"  (4  vols.,  1799,)  and 
a  "Treatise  on  Surgical  Maladies,"  (ii  vols.,  1814-26.) 
Died  in  Paris  in  1833. 

See  a  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  CEuvres  de  Boyer,"  prefixed  to  an 
edition  of  his  "Traite  des  Maladies  chirurgicales,"  7  vols.,  1844-53; 
Roux,  "iSloge  de  Boyer;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Boyer,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  Marquis  d'Aguilles,  (da'gel' 
or  dt'ge'ye,)  a  French  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Aix 
about  1640 ;  died  in  1709. 

Boyer,  (Jean  Baptiste  Nicolas,)  a  French  physi- 
cian, born  at  Marseilles  in  1693,  was  conspicuous  for 
his  skill  and  humanity  during  the  prevalence  of  the 
plague  in  that  city  in  1720.  He  wrote  an  "Historic 
Account  of  the  Plague  of  Marseilles,"  and  several  treat- 
ises on  infectious  diseases.    Died  in  1768. 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Boyer,  (Jean  Franqois,)  a  French  theologian,  born 
in  Paris  in  1675,  became  Bishop  of  Mirepoix  in  1730, 
and  subsequently  preceptor  to  the  dauphin,  father  of 
Louis  XVI.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy 
and  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  in  1741  succeeded 
Cardinal  de  Polignac  in  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions. 
Died  in  1755. 


a,  e,  T,  0,  \\,  y,  long;  \,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  f^t;  mit;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


BOTER 


BOTM 


Boyer,  boiler,  [Fr.  pron.  bw^'yV,]  (Jean  Pierre,) 
President  of  tlie  republic  of  Hayti,  born  at  Port-au- 
Prince  in  1776,  was  the  son  of  a  white  creoIe  and  a  free 
negress.  After  the  capture  of  Toussaint  L'Ouverture  in 
the  revokition  of  1802,  he  attached  himself  to  the  party 
of  the  mulatto  general  Alexander  Petion,  then  at  war 
with  Christophe,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  general  of  di- 
vision. On  the  death  of  Petion  he  succeeded  him  as 
President  of  the  republic  in  1818.  The  Haytians  be- 
coming dissatisfied  with  his  rule,  he  was  deposed  in  1842 
and  obliged  to  leave  the  country.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Herard,  also  a  mulatto.    Died  in  Paris  in  1850. 

See  Madion,  "Histoire  d'Haiti,"  1847. 

Boyer,  (Pierre,)  a  French  theological  writer,  born  at 
Arlanes  in  1677;  died  in  1755. 

Boyer,  (Pierre  Denis,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and 
controversialist,  born  at  Caissac  in  1766,  became  pro- 
fessor of  dogmatic  theology  in  the  Seminary  of  Saint- 
Sulpice,  Paris.    Died  in  1842. 

Boyer-Fonfrede.    See  Fonfrede. 

Boyle,  (Charles,)  Earl  of  Or''rery,  a  son  of  Roger, 
Earl  of  Orrery,  and  nephew  of  the  great  Robert  Boyle, 
was  born  at  Chelsea  in  1676.  While  a  student  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  he  published,  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  an 
edition  of  the  "Epistles  of  Phalaris,"  with  some  reflec- 
tions on  the  incivility  of  Bentley,  who  was  keeper  of  the 
king's  library,  and  who  had  lent  to  Boyle  a  manuscript 
of  the  Epistles,  with  a  remark  that  they  were  spurious. 
(See  Bentley,  Richard.)  In  1698  appeared  a  witty  and 
personal  attack  on  Bentley,  entitled  an  "Examination  of 
tlie  Dissertation  on  the  Epistles  of  Phalaris,  by  the  Hon. 
Charles  Boyle,"  which  was  written  mostly  by  Atterbury. 
Boyle  fought  as  major-general  at  the  battle  of  Malplaquet 
m  1709.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  George  I.,  he  be- 
came a  favourite  courtier  of  that  king.    Died  in  1731. 

See  BuDGELL,  "Memoirs  of  the  Lives  and  Characters  of  the 
Family  of  the  Boyles,"  1732. 

Boyle,  (Henry,)  an  able  politician,  a  son  of  Charles, 
Lord  Clifford,  and  a  great-grandson  of  the  first  Earl  of 
Cork.  He  was  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  from  1701 
to  1708,  and  in  the  latter  year  became  secretary  of  state. 
He  was  created  Lord  Carleton  in  17 14,  and  appointed 
president  of  the  council.  He  was  a  nephew  of  the  famous 
Robert  Boyle.    Died  in  1725. 

Boyle,  (Henry,)  a  grandson  of  Roger,  Lord  Broghill, 
became  Speaker  of  the  Irish  House  of  Commons  in  1732. 
About  1756  he  received  the  title  of  Earl  of  Shannon. 
Died  in  1764. 

Boyle,  (Jeremiah  T.,)  an  American  general  and  law- 
yer, born  in  Mercer  county,  Kentucky,  in  1818.  He  en- 
tered the  Union  army  in  186 1,  and  commanded  a  brigade 
at  Shiloh,  April,  1862. 

Boyle,  (John,)  son  of  Charles  Boyle,  fourth  Earl  of 
Orrery,  born  about  1707.  As  a  member  of  the  House 
of  Lords,  he  was  conspicuous  for  his  opposition  to  Sir 
Robert  Walpole.  He  published  "  Imitations  of  Two  of 
the  Odes  of  Horace,"  and  "  Remarks  on  the  Life  and 
Writings  of  Swift."    Died  in  1762. 

Boyle,  (Richard,)  the  first  Earl  of  Cork,  called  "the 
Great  Earl  of  Cork,"  was  born  at  Canterbury  in  1566. 
He  settled  in  Ireland,  acquired  a  large  estate,  and  held 
several  high  offices.  In  1620  he  was  created  Earl  of 
Cork.  He  contributed  greatly  to  the  suppression  of  the 
Irish  Rebellion  of  1641.  He  had  seven  sons.  Died  in 
1643  or  1644. 

Boyle,  (Richard,)  second  Earl  of  Cork,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1612.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Charles  I. 
in  the  civil  war,  and  received  the  title  of  Earl  of  Bur- 
lington.   Died  in  January,  1698. 

Boyle,  (Richard,)  fourth  Earl  of  Cork  and  third 
Earl  of  Burlington,  born  in  1695,  was  an  amateur  archi- 
tect, and  a  friend  of  Pope.    Died  in  1753. 

Boyle,  (Robert,)  a  celebrated  chemist  and  experi- 
mental philosopher,  born  at  Lismore,  in  Ireland,  on  the 
25th  of  January,  1626,  was  the  seventh  son  of  Richard, 
the  "great  Earl  of  Cork."  He  studied  at  Eton  and  at 
Geneva,  which  he  left  in  1 641,  and  afterwards  travelled 
in  Italy.  In  1644  he  returned  to  England,  and  devoted 
himself  to  study  and  experiments.  He  resided  at  Oxford 
from  1654  to  1668.  He  improved  the  air-pump,  and  dis- 
covered the  law  of  the  air's  elasticity, — namely,  that  its 


bulk  is  inversely  as  the  pressure.  By  his  "Skeptica. 
Chymist"  (1661)  he  contributed  to  subvert  the  theories 
of  the  iatro-chymists.  He  taught  that  the  elements  of 
bodies  are  atoms  of  different  shapes  and  sizes,  the  uniou 
of  which  gives  origin  to  what  are  vulgarly  called  ele- 
ments. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society, 
of  which  he  was  chosen  president  in  1680,  but  he  de- 
clined the  honour. 

"  No  one  Englishman  of  the  seventeenth  century  after 
Lord  Bacon,"  says  Hallam,  "raised  to  himself  so  high  a 
reputation  in  experimental  philosophy  as  Robert  Boyle. 
.  .  .  His  'Disquisition  on  Final  Causes'  was  a  well- 
timed  vindication  of  that  palmary  argument  against  the 
paradox  of  the  Cartesians,  who  had  denied  the  validity 
of  an  inference  from  the  manifest  adaptation  of  means  to 
ends  in  the  universe  to  an  intelligent  Providence.  Boyle 
takes  a  more  philosophical  view  of  the  principle  of  final 
causes  than  had  been  found  in  many  theologians."  ("  In- 
troduction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

Boyle  learned  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  languages  to 
qualify  himself  to  write  in  defence-of  revealed  religion, 
and  printed  at  his  own  expense  a  translation  of  the  Gos- 
pels into  the  Malay  language.  He  refused  a  peerage, 
which  was  offered  to  him  repeatedly.  It  has  been  re- 
marked that  he  was  born  in  the  year  of  Bacon's  death,  as 
the  person  destined  by  nature  to  succeed  him ;  and  he 
may  be  accounted  the  most  zealous  and  successful  dis- 
ciple of  Bacon  in  inductive  philosophy.  His  merits  were 
commemorated  by  Boerhaave  in  terms  like  these  :  "  Mr. 
Boyle,  the  ornament  of  his  age  and  country,  succeeded 
to  the  genius  and  talents  of  Lord  Verulam.  We  owe  to 
him  the  secrets  of  fire,  air,  water,  animals,  plants,  and 
fossils."  Lie  was  distinguished  for  his  liberality  and 
active  benevolence. 

Among  his  works  are  a  "  Free  Inquiry  into  the  Re- 
ceived Notion  of  Nature,"  "Excellency  of  Theology,"  a 
"Discourse  of  Things  above  Reason,"  "On  the  Great 
Veneration  that  Man's  Intellect  owes  to  God,"  "Con- 
siderations on  the  Style  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,"  and 
"  Hydrostatical  Paradoxes,"  (1666.)  An  edition  of  his 
complete  works  (with  a  Life  of  the  author  prefixed)  was 
published  by  Dr.  Birch  in  5  vols,  folio,  1744.  By  his  last 
will  he  left  a  fund  to  endow  eight  sermons  in  a  year  in 
defence  of  the  Christian  religion,  which  are  called  the 
"Boyle  Lectures."  He  was  never  married,  and  took  no 
part  in  political  affairs.  From  1668  until  his  death  he 
resided  mostly  in  London,  where  he  died  on  the  30th  of 
December,  1691.  A  narrative  of  his  early  life,  written  by 
himself,  may  be  found  prefixed  to  the  edition  of  his  works 
published  bv  Dr.  Birch  in  1744. 

See  BuDGEi.L,  "Memoirs  of  the  Lives  and  Characters  of  the 
Family  of  the  Boyles;"  Thomas  Birch,  "Life  and  Writings  of  the 
Hon.  R.  Boyle,"  1741 ;  Hoefer,  "Histoire  delaChimie;"  "  Ency- 
clopjpdia  Britannica." 

Boyle,  (Roger,)  Baron  Broghill,  son  of  the  first  Earl 
of  Cork,  was  born  in  1621.  Originally  a  partisan  of 
Charles  I.,  he  afterwards  fought  under  Cromwell,  and 
distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Clonmel,  in  Ireland. 
He  became  one  of  Cromwell's  privy  council,  and,  after 
the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  filled  the  same  office,  was 
made  lord  president  of  the  province  of  Munster,  and 
created  Earl  of  Orrery.  He  wrote  several  poems,  and  a 
romance  called  "  Parthenissa."    Died  in  1679. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England." 

Boyleau,  Boyleaux,  bwcVlo',  sometimes  written 
Boilesve,  (E.stienne,)  an  eminent  French  magistrate 
and  jurist,  born  about  1200.  He  accompanied  Saint 
Louis  in  the  crusade  of  1248,  and  was  appointed  after  his 
return  provost  of  Paris. 

Boyl'ston,  (Nichola.s,)  the  founder  of  the  Boylston 
professorship  of  rhetoric  and  elocution  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, was  born  in  1716;  died  in  1771. 

Boylston,  (Zabdiel,)  a  physician,  noted  as  the  first 
who  practised  inoculation  for  the  small-pox  in  America, 
w'as  born  at  Brookline,  Massachusetts,  in  1680.  He  began 
to  inoculate  in  Boston  in  1721,  and  excited  an  opposition 
so  violent  that  the  populace  threatened  to  hang  him.  He 
was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London. 
Died  in  1766. 

Boym,  boim,  (Michael,)  a  Polish  Jesuit,  was  a  m.is- 
sionary  to  India  and  China,  where  he  died  in  1659.  He 
wrote  an  "Account  of  China,"  and  other  works. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.   (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


BOTNE 


422 


BR  AD DOCK 


Boyne  loin,  (Gustavus  Hamilton,)  Lord,  a  British 
general,  born  about  1640.  Having  enlisted  in  the  service 
of  William  of  Orange,  he  was  appointed  governor  of 
Enniskillen  in  1689.  He  served  with  distinction  at  the 
battle  of  the  Boyne,  (1690,)  and  in  other  battles  in  Ireland. 
He  was  created  Viscount  Boyne  in  171 7.    Died  in  1723. 

Boyse,  Boys,  or  Bois,  boiss,  (John,)  an  English 
scholar,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1560,  assisted  in  the  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible  under  James  I.,  and  was  one  of  the  com- 
mittee of  six  charged  to  revise  it.  He  also  co-operated 
with  Sir  Henry  Saville  in  the  publication  of  the  works 
of  Saint  Chrysostom.    Died  in  1643. 

See  Pits,  "De  Scriptoribus  Angliae." 

Boyse,  (Joseph,)  an  English  dissenting  divine,  born 
in  Yorkshire  in  1660,  belonged  to  the  sect  of  Brownists, 
and  was  a  coadjutor  of  Thomas  Emlyn.    Died  in  1728. 

Boyse,  (Samuel,)  an  English  poet,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Dublin  in  1708.  Although  patronized  by 
several  persons  eminent  for  rank  and  talents,  he  died  in 
extreme  poverty,  ovying  to  his  dissolute  habits,  (1749.) 
He  contributed  numerous  poems  to  the  "  Gentleman's 
Magazine,"  and  published  separately  "Chaucer's  Tales 
in  Modern  English,"  "Albion's  Triumph,"  and  other 
works. 

Boyseau,  de,  deh  bw3.^z5',  (Pierre,)  Marquis  de 
Chateaufort,  (deh  shi't5Tor',)  born  near  Namur  in  1659, 
fought  on  the  side  of  Philip  V.  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession,  and  became  Captain-General  of  Old  Castile. 
Died  in  1 741. 

See  De  Stassart,  "Notice  sur  P.  Boyseau,"  1846. 

Boysen,  boi'zen,  (Friedrich  Eberhard,)  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Halberstadt  in  1720.  He  produced  a 
"Universal  History,"  (10  vols.,  1767-72,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1800. 

See  Ersch  imd  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  "  F.  E. 
Boysen's  Lebensbeschreibung,"  2  vols.,  1795. 

Boyssieres,  de,  deh  bwi^se-aiR',  (Jean,)  a  French 
poet,  was  born  at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1555. 
Boz.    See  Dickens. 

Boze,  de,  deh  boz,  (Claude  Gros,)  an  eminent 
French  archaeologist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1680.  He  be- 
came in  1706  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions,  and  in  171 5  succeeded  Fenelon  in  the 
French  Academy.  He  published  an  "  Historical  Treat- 
ise on  the  Jubilee  of  the  Jews,"  (1702,)  a  "  Dissertation 
on  the  Janus  of  the  Ancients,"  and  several  treatises  on 
numismatics.    Died  in  1753. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Boz'man,  (John  Leeds,)  an  American  lawyer,  poet, 
and  historian,  born  in  Oxford,  Maryland,  in  1757.  He 
was  a  contributor  to  "  Dennie's  Port-Folio"  and  other 
periodicals,  and  was  author  of  a  "  History  of  Maryland," 
(2  vols.  8vo,)  and  of  several  legal  works.  Died  in  1823. 

Bozzaris  or  Botzaris,  bot'sa-ris,  popularly  called 
boz-zir'is,  (Marcos,)  a  celebrated  modern  Greek  patriot, 
born  at  Suli,  in  Albania,  about  1790.  He  enlisted  in 
the  French  army  about  1808,  and  retired  in  1815  to  the 
Ionian  Isles,  where  he  married.  In  the  war  of  independ- 
ence which  began  in  1820  he  was  an  able  leader  and 
performed  many  heroic  exploits.  He  was  appointed 
Stratarch  of  Western  Greece  late,  in  1822,  and  passed 
the  winter  at  Missolonghi.  In  the  summer  of  1823  he 
attacked  by  night  a  greatly  superior  force  of  Turks,  and 
fell  mortally  wounded  in  the  action,  which  resulted  in  a 
decisive  victory  of  the  Greeks. 

See  C.  Paganel,  "Tombeau  de  M.  Botzaris,"  1826;  Pouque- 
viLLE,  "  Histoire  de  la  Regeneration  de  la  Gr^ce." 

Bozzoli,  bot'so-lee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  litterateur, 
born  at  Mantua  in  1724,  translated  Homer's  "Iliad"  and 
"  Odyssey,"  and  Virgil's  "  ^Eneid,"  into  Italian  verse. 
Died  about  1790. 

Brabant,  bRa^Dlnt  or  br^-bSnt',  (Henry,)  Duke  of, 
surnamed  le  Guerroyeur,  or  "the  Warrior,"  went  on 
a  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land.  He  was  the  first  who  bore 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Brabant.    Died  in  1235. 

Brabant,  (John  IV.,)  Duke  of,  married  in  141 8  his 
cousin  Jacqueline,  Countess  of  Holland  and  Hainault, 
who  afterwards  separated,  herself  from  him  in  order  to 
marry  Humphrey,  Duke  of  Gloucester.  In  1425  he  ob- 
tained from  the  pope  a  bull  for  the  erection  of  the  Uni- 


versity of  Louvain.  He  died  in  1427,  being  the  last  of 
the  sovereign  dukes  of  Brabant.    (See  Jacqueline.) 

Braccio  da  Montone,  buat'cho  dS  mon-to^ii,  (An- 
drea,) a  famous  Italian  mercenary  commander  or  con- 
doitiere,  born  in  1368.  He  took  Rome  in  141 7,  and  fought 
in  the  service  of  Naples  against  Sforza.    Died  in  1424. 

Bracciolim.    See  Poggio. 

Bracciolini,  bRit-cho-lee'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Ital- 
ian poet,  surnamed  dell'Api,  dSl-l^'pee,  born  at  Pis- 
toia  in  1566.  He  became  secretary  to  Cardinal  Barberini, 
afterwards  Pope  Urban  VIII.  He  wrote  "The  Cross 
Regained,"  ("  La  Croce  Riacquistata,")  a  heroic  poem, 
ranked  by  some  critics  next  to  Tasso's  "  Jerusalem  De- 
livered."   Died  at  Pistoia  in  1646. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie  ;"  Vossius,  "  De  His- 
toricis  Latinis  ;"  Paolo  Giovio,  "Elogia." 

Brace,  (Charles  Loring,)  an  American  writer  and 
clergyman,  born  at  Litchfield,  Connecticut,  in  1826.  He 
travelled  in  Europe,  and  published  "Hungary  in  1851," 
"Home-Life  in  Germany,"  (1853,)  and  "Norsefolk: 
Travels  in  Norway  and  Sweden,"  (1857.)  He  was  the 
principal  founder  of  the  Children's  Aid  Society  of  New 
York. 

Brace,  (Jonathan,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at  Har- 
rington, Connecticut,  in  1754.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1779,  and  in  1798  was  elected  to  Congress. 
Died  in  1837. 

Brace,  (Julia,)  a  blind  deaf-mute,  born  near  Hart- 
ford, Connecticut,  in  1806.  She  lost  by  a  severe  illness 
both  sight  and  hearing  when  she  was  four  years  old. 
She  had  previously  learned  to  speak  and  spell  a  little. 
After  her  misfortune  she  continued  to  speak  for  nearly  a 
year,  but  gradually  forgot  the  few  words  she  had  learned. 

For  a  very  interesting  notice  of  her  case,  see  Dunglison's  "Phy- 
siology," vol.  ii.  pp.  160,  161. 

Bracelli,  bRi-chel'lee,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Sarzana,  became  chancellor  of  the  republic  of 
Genoa.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Spanish  War," 
and  other  works,  in  Latin,    Died  in  1460. 

Brachmann,  bRiK'min,  (Luise  Karoline,)  a  Ger- 
man poetess  and  novelist,  born  at  Rochlitz  in  1777.  At 
an  early  age  she  acquired  the  friendship  of  Novalis  and 
of  Schiller,  who  in  1799  published  some  of  her  first  pro- 
ductions in  his  "  Musenalmanach"  and  "Horen."  She 
committed  suicide  in  1822. 

See  "  Life  of  Luise  Brachmann,"  prefixed  to  her  works,  edited  by 

SCHUTZ. 

Bracht,  van,  vtn  bR^Kt,  (Tielman,)  a  Dutch  Prot- 
estant theologian,  born  at  Dort  in  1625,  was  pastor  of 
the  Mennonites  in  his  native  city.    Died  in  1664. 

Brack'en-ridge,  (Henry  M.,)  an  American  judge  and 
writer,  born  at  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  in  1786.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  the  Second  War  with  Great 
Britain."  In  181 7  he  accompanied  as  secretary  the 
commission  to  the  South  American  republics,  and  in 
1820  produced  a  "Voyage  to  South  America,"  which 
was  commended  by  Humboldt.  He  also  wrote  "  Recol- 
lections of  Persons  and  Places  in  the  West,"  (2d  edition, 
2  vols.,  1869.)  He  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  western 
district  of  Louisiana  in  1821.  In  1840  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress. 

Brackenridge,  (Hugh  Henry,)  a  writer  and  poli- 
tician, the  father  of  the  preceding,  born  near  Campbelton, 
Scotland,  in  1748.  Having  studied  law,  he  settled  at  Pitts- 
burg, Pennsylvania,  about  1782,  and  was  appointed  a 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  State  in  1799.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  humorous  and  satirical 
book,  entitled  "Modern  Chivalry,  or  the  Adventures  of 
Captain  Farrago,"  (1792.)    Died  in  1816. 

Brac'ton,  de,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  jurist,  and  one 
of  the  earliest  English  writers  on  law,  lived  under  the 
reign  of  Henry  III.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  DCj 
Consuetudinibus  et  Legibus  Angliae,"  being  a  complete 
treatise  on  legislation  and  jurisprudence. 

See  Prince,  "Worthies  of  Devon;"  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Brad'bury,  (Thomas,)  an  English  nonconformist 
divine  and  writer,  born  in  London  ;  died  about  1759. 

Brad'dock,  (Edward,)  a  British  general,  born  about 
1 71 5,  commanded  the  army  in  America  in  the  war  against 
the  French  and  Indians.  He  was  defeated  and  killed 
near  Pittsburg  in  1755. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  xalx.;  n6i,  good;  moon; 


BRJDDON 


423 


BRADWARDIN 


Brad'dpn,  (Mary  Elizabeth,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  in  London  about  1837.  She  wrote  poems  entitled 
"Garibaldi"  and  "Lady  Lisle,"  and  a  number  of  popular 
novels,  among  which  are  "Lady  Audley's  Secret,"  "Au- 
rora Floyd,"  "Eleanor's  Victory,"  and  "  Henry  Dunbar." 

Brad^ford,  (Alden,)  LL.D,,an  American  divine  and 
author,  born  at  Duxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1765.  His 
principal  work  is  a  "  History  of  Massachusetts  from  1764 
to  1820."    Died  in  1843. 

Bradford,  (Andrew,)  son  of  William  Bradford, 
(printer,)  was  born  about  1686.  In  1719  he  commenced 
the  publication  of  the  "  American  Weekly  Mercury,"  the 
first  newspaper  issued  in  Philadelphia.    Died  in  1742. 

Brad''f9rd,  (John,)  an  English  Protestant  divine  un- 
der the  reign  of  Henry  VHL,  born  at  Manchester,  be- 
came chaplain  to  Edward  VL,  and  was  a  popular  preacher. 
After  the  accession  of  Mary,  he  suffered  martyrdom  at 
the  stake,  (1555.)  His  sermons  and  other  writings  were 
published  after  his  death. 

See  William  Stevens,  "Life  of  John  Bradford,"  1832;  W.  W. 
HoRNE,  '"Life  of  John  Bradford,"  1800. 

Bradford,  (Robert,)  a  major  in  the  army  of  the 
American  Revolution,  descendant  of  Governor  Bradford, 
was  born  in  Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1750.  He 
served  in  the  principal  battles  of  the  Revolution,  com- 
mencing with  that  of  Bunker  Hill  and  ending  with  the 
capture  of  Cornwallis.  For  his  gallant  conduct  La  Fa- 
yette presented  him  with  a  sword.    Died  in  1823. 

Bradford,  (Samuel,)  born  in  1652,  became  Bishop 
of  Rochester  in  1723.    Died  in  1731. 

Bradford,  (William,)  one  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers, 
born  in  Yorkshire,  England,  about  1590.  While  still 
very  young,  for  the  sake  of  religious  liberty  he  emigrated 
to  Ilolland.  He  was  one  of  the  enterprising  band  who 
crossed  the  Atlantic  in  the  Mayflower  in  1620.  In  1621 
he  was  elected  Governor  of  Plymouth  Colony,  and  by 
annual  re-elections  held  that  office  for  about  thirty  years. 
One  of  his  first  acts  was  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  In- 
dian Sachem  Massasoit.  In  1630  the  English  govern- 
ment granted  to  William  Bradford,  his  heirs,  associates, 
and  assigns,  a  patent  for  the  colony.  He  wrote  a  history 
of  Plymouth  People  and  Colony  from  1602  to  1647,  which 
was  published  in  1856.  He  is  said  to  have  been  distin- 
guished for  piety  and  wisdom.    Died  in  1657. 

See  Belknap,  "American  Biography  ;"  "  New  England  Register" 
of  1850. 

Bradford,  (William,)  the  first  printer  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, born  in  Leicester,  England,  in  1658.  Having  re- 
sided for  a  time  in  Philadelphia,  he  removed  (1693)  to 
New  York,  where  for  upwards  of  fifty  years  he  was 
printer  to  the  government.  In  1725  he  issued  the  first 
newspaper  ("  New  York  Gazette")  published  in  New 
York  City.    Died  in  1752. 

Bradford,  (William,)  attorney-general  of  the  United 
States,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1755.  Having  graduated 
at  Princeton,  he  served  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  at- 
tained the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  in  1780  became 
attorney-general  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1794  he  was  ap- 
pointed United  States  attorney-general  by  Washington. 
Died  in  1795. 

Bradford,  (William,)  an  American  landscape-painter 
of  great  merit,  born  at  New  Bedford,  Massachusetts. 
His  favourite  subjects  are  coast-views,  rocky  shores,  and 
icebergs.  Among  his  chief  pictures  are  "  Hailing  the 
Sloop  in  Martha's  Vineyard,"  "Light-House  in  Saint 
John's  Harbour,"  and  "The  Coast  of  Labrador." 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Brad'ley,  (Rev.  Edward,)  an  English  author,  whose 
assumed  name  is  Cuthbert  Bede,  born  in  1827,  became 
rector  of  Denton  in  1859.  Among  his  works  are  "Ver- 
dant Green,"  a  popular  novel,  and  "  The  Curate  of  Crans- 
ton," (1862.) 

Bradley,  (James,)  an  eminent  English  astronomer, 
who  united  the  qualities  of  observer  and  theorist  in  a 
degree  perhaps  never  surpassed,  was  born  in  Gloucester- 
shire in  1693.  He  was  educated  at  Balliol  College,  Ox- 
ford, was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1718, 
and  Savilian  professor  of  astronomy  at  Oxford  in  1721. 
In  order  to  observe  with  the  utmost  exactitude  the  vari- 
ations in  the  positions  of  the  fixed  stars,  he  erected  a 
zenith-sector  at  Wansted  in  1727,  about  which  date  he 


discovered  the  cause  of  the  phenomenon  called  the  "ab- 
erration of  light."  This  important  discovery  furnished 
the  first  demonstration  of  the  earth's  motion  around  the 
sun.  He  was  appointed  astronomer  royal  in  1742,  and  by 
a  series  of  observations  arrived  at  another  great  discovery, 
the  "nutation  of  the  earth's  axis,"  which  he  announced 
in  1747.  "These  two  discoveries,"  says  M,  Biot,  "have 
had  the  greatest  influence  on  all  astronomy  ;  for  as  long 
as  the  cause  of  these  petty  motions  was  vmknown,  they 
were  confounded  with  errors  in  observations,  and  ren- 
dered it  impossible  to  detect  those  errors."  The  same 
writer  calls  Bradley's  twelve  hundred  observations  of  the 
moon  "a  monument  of  inimitable  patience,  address,  and 
fidelity."  He  made  successful  researches  on  the  law  of 
refiaction,  for  which  he  produced  an  empirical  formula. 
He  died  at  Chalford  in  July,  1762,  leaving  in  manuscript 
thirteen  volumes  of  valuable  observations,  which  were 
presented  to  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  published 
1 798-1 805.  Bessel  has  rendered  a  great  service  to  as- 
tronomy by  the  reduction  of  these  observations.  (See 
Bessel,  F.  W.)  Sir  Isaac  Newton  pronounced  Bradley 
"the  best  astronomer  in  Europe." 

See  a  good  biographical  notice  of  Bradley,  by  Professor  Rigaud,  in 
the  edition  of  his  works  published  at  Oxford  in  1832;  "  Biographia 
Britannica  ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1837. 

Bradley,  (Ralph,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in  the 
county  of  Durham  in  1717;  died  in  1788. 

Bradley,  (Richard,)  an  English  physician  and  botan- 
ist, became  in  1724  professor  of  botany  at  Cambridge. 
He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  Agriculture  and  Gardening," 
(1724.)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1732. 

Brad'shaw,  (Henry,)  an  English  Benedictine  monl;, 
wrote  poems  and  chronicles.    Died  in  15 13. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Bradshaw,  (John,)  an  English  republican  judge, 
born  about  1586,  of  a  Cheshire  family.  He  studied  law 
in  Gray's  Inn,  and  practised  with  success  before  the 
civil  war.  He  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  Chester 
by  the  Parliament  in  1647,  and  was  chosen  president  of 
the  high  court  of  justice  which  tried  Charles  I.  in  Janu- 
ary, 1649.  In  answer  to  Charles,  who  denied  the  au- 
thority of  the  court,  he  firmly  maintained  its  superiority 
above  the  prisoner.  His  dignity  and  moderation  on  this 
occasion  are  commended  by  some  writers ;  but  Hume 
says  "  his  style  will  be  esteemed  to  the  last  degree  auda- 
cious and  insolent."  He  was  afterwards  president  of 
the  Council  of  State,  and  courageously  opposed  the  as- 
sumption of  supreme  power  by  Cromwell.  After  the 
death  of  Cromwell  he  was  president  of  the  council  for  a 
short  time.  He  died  in  November,  1659,  leaving  the 
reputation  of  a  staunch  and  consistent  friend  of  liberty. 
He  was  a  kinsman  and  friend  of  Milton,  who  in  his 
"Defensio  Secunda"  has  highly  extolled  Bradshaw's 
virtue  and  talents,  saying,  among  other  things,  that  "he 
was  an  eloquent  pleader,  and  discharged  all  the  duties 
of  an  uncorrupt  judge."  John  Forster  ranks  Bradshaw 
among  "  the  purest  and  loftiest-minded"  statesmen  of 
the  Commonwealth.  ("Life  of  Henry  Marten,") 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England." 

Bradshaw,  (William,)  an  English  Puritan,  born  in 
Leicestershire  in  1571,  preached  in  London,  and  wrote 
several  works  on  theology,  among  which  is  "English 
Puritanism,"  (1605.)    Died  in  1618. 

Brad'street,  (Anne,)  an  English  poetess,  born  at 
Northampton  in  1613,  was  married  to  Governor  Simon 
Bradstreet,  noticed  below.  Died  in  1672,  For  speci- 
mens of  her  poems,  see  Griswold's  "  Female  Poets  of 
America." 

Bradstreet,  (John,)  a  general  of  the  British  army  in 
America,  commanded  a  force  which  took  Fort  P'rontenac 
in  1758.    Died  at  New  York  in  1774. 

Bradstreet,  (Simon,)  born  in  Lincolnshire,  England, 
in  1603,  emigrated  to  New  England  in  1630.  He  was 
Governor  of  Massachusetts  from  1679  to  1686,  and  from 
May,  1689,  to  May,  1692.    Died  at  Salem  in  1697. 

Brad'street,  (Simon,)  an  American  divine,  born  in 
1669,  was  minister  at  Charlestown,  Massachusetts.  Died 
in  1 741. 

Brad'war-din,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  pre- 
late, surnamed  the  Profound  Doctor,  born  in  Sussex 
in  1290.    He  was  confessor  to  Edward  III.,  and  subse- 


-£  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  11,  v.,  guttural ;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.   (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


BRADY 


BRAHE 


quently  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  wrote  mathe- 
matical works,  and  a  theological  treatise  entitled  "  The 
Cause  of  God  against  Pelagius,"  {"  Ue  Causa  Dei  contra 
Pelagium,")  etc.    Died  in  1348. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  iv.  chap.  xi. 

Bra'dy,  (Hugh,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Penn- 
sylvania in  1768  ;  died  at  Detroit  in  185 1. 

Brady,  (James  T.,)  an  eloquent  American  lawyer, 
born  in  New  York  City  in  181 5,  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1836.  He  distinguished  himself  as  counsel  for  the 
defence  in  criminal  cases.  During  the  civil  war  he  was 
an  influential  leader  of  the  party  known  as  "  War  Demo- 
crats."   Died  in  1869. 

Bra'd^^,  (Nicholas,)  D.D.,  a  learned  divine,  born  at 
Bandon,  in  Ireland,  in  1659.  He  graduated  at  Dublin 
University,  and  subsequently  became  chaplain  to  Wil- 
iiam  HI.  and  Mary.  He  translated  Virgil's  "  ^neid," 
and  made  a  popular  version  of  the  Psalms  in  conjunction 
with  Mr.  Tate.    Died  in  1726. 

See  Gibber,  "Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Brady,  (Robert,)  an  English  physician  and  historian, 
born  in  Norfolk  in  1643,  was  professor  of  medicine  at 
Cambridge,  which  town  he  represented  in  Parliament. 
He  wrote  an  "Introduction  to  the  Old  English  History," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1700. 

Braganza,  bR^-gin'zi,  the  name  of  a  royal  family  of 
Portugal,  descended  from  Alfonso  the  first  Duke  of  Bra- 
ganza, who  was  an  illegitimate  son  of  King  John  I.  Died 
in  1461.  James  the  fourth  Duke  of  Braganza  was  a 
favourite  of  King  Emmanuel,  who  in  1489  designated 
him  as  his  successor  in  case  he  should  leave  no  issue. 
(See  John  IV,  of  Portugal.) 

Bragelongne,  de,  deh  bRtzh'loNn',  (Chrlstopre 
Bernard,)  a  French  mathematician  and  philologist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1688,  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences, and  a  friend  of  Malebranche.    Died  in  1744. 

Bragg,  (Braxton,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Warren  county.  North  Carolina,  about  181 5,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1837.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  Mexican  war  under  General  Taylor,  with  the  rank  of 
captain,  and  resigned  his  commission  in  1856.  He  be- 
came a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  service  in 
1861,  commanded  at  Pensacola  until  February,  1862,  and 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general  about  that  time. 
He  commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6 
and  7,  1862.  In  May  ensuing  he  succeeded  Beauregard 
as  commander  of  the  army  in  Mississippi,  with  the  rank 
of  general.  Moving  from  Chattanooga  in  August,  he  in- 
vaded Kentucky  with  a  large  army  and  threatened  Louis- 
ville. He  was  opposed  by  an  army  under  General  Buell, 
with  part  of  which  he  fought  a  severe  and  indecisive 
battle  at  Perry ville,  October  8,  1862.  General  Bragg 
retired  in  the  night  after  this  action,  and  returned  to  Ten- 
nessee loaded  with  spoils  captured  at  Lexington  and 
other  places.  General  Rosecrans,  who  took  command 
late  in  October,  followed  Bragg  to  Murfreesborough,  near 
which  they  fought  the  great  battle  of  Stone  River,  Decem- 
ber 31,  1862-January  2,  1863.  The  Union  army,  which  re- 
mained master  of  the  field,  lost  here  1533  killed  and  7245 
wounded.  General  Bragg  reported  that  he  lost  9000 
killed  and  wounded,  and  had  about  35,000  when  the  bat- 
tle began.  He  retired  to  Tullahoma,  followed  slowly  by 
Rosecrans,  and  thence  to  Chattanooga.  A  flank  move- 
ment of  Rosecrans  compelled  him  to  evacuate  that  im- 
portant point  on  the  9th  of  September.  Having  been 
reinforced,  he  turned  back  and  attacked  the  Union  anny 
at  Chickamauga  on  the  19th  of  .September,  1863.  Bragg 
drove  his  op])onent  from  the  field,  and  claimed  the  vic- 
tory ;  but  he  is  said  to  have  lost  15,000  men  in  this  battle, 
which  lasted  two  days.  He  was  defeated  by  General  Grant 
in  a  great  battle  on  Missionary  Ridge,  near  Chattanooga, 
November  25,  1863.  About  the  2d  of  December,  1863, 
he  was  relieved  from  his  command.  He  led  a  small  army 
from  North  Carolina  to  Georgia  in  the  autumn  of  1864. 

See  "Southern  Generals,"  (anonymous,)  New  York,  1865. 

Bragi,  brS'ge,  written  also  Brage,  [supposed  to  be 
derived  from  the  Icelandic  bragga,  to  "adorn,"  and  re- 
lated to  the  German  pracht,  "splendour,]  in  the  Norse 
mythology,  a  son  of  Odin,  is  the  god  of  eloquence  and 
poetry.    From  him  poetry  is  called  "  bragr,"  and  men 


distinguished  for  the  gift  of  speech  are  styled  "bragr- 
men."  His  wife  Iduna  keeps  the  apples  of  immortality, 
partaking  of  which  the  gods  never  grow  old.  This  myth 
doubtless  refers  to  the  power  of  poetry  to  confer  immor- 
tality. Bragi  is  represented  as  an  old  man  with  a  flowing 
beard,  the  type  of  an  ancient  minstrel. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.;  Key.ser,  "Religion 
of  the  Northmen;"  Phtersen,  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Bra'ham,  (John,)  a  celebrated  English  vocalist,  born 
in  London  about  1774.  He  performed  with  brilliant 
success  in  London,  Paris,  and  the  principal  cities  of  Italy. 
He  composed  several  operas  and  popular  songs.  Died 
in  1831. 

See  Fins,  "Biographle  Universelle  des  Musiciens ;"  Oxberrv, 
"Dramatic  Biography." 

Brahe,  bra  or  bri,  [Dan.  pron.  bRi'eh,]  (Tycho,)  a 
celebrated  astronomer,  descended  from  a  noble  Swedish 
family,  was  born  in  December,  1545,  at  Knudsthorp,  in 
Scania,  which  at  that  time  belonged  to  Denmark.  He 
entered  the  University  of  Copenhagen  in  1559,  and  was 
destined  for  the  profession  of  the  law;  but  the  great 
eclipse  of  the  sun,  August  21,  1560,  gave  a  new  direc- 
tion to  his  studies.  In  1562  he  was  sent  to  Leipsic  to 
study  law  under  the  charge  of  a  tutor.  While  the  tutor 
was  asleep,  Tycho  read  astronomical  works,  watched  the 
motions  of  stars  and  planets,  and,  with  no  better  instru- 
ment than  a  pair  of  compasses,  detected  a  large  error  in 
the  Alphonsine  Tables.  He  became  in  1569  a  resident 
of  Augsburg,  where  he  found  two  congenial  spirits,  named 
John  and  Paul  Hainzel,  and  employed  skilful  artists  to 
make  a  quadrant  of  fourteen  cubits'  radius. 

Having  returned  to  his  native  land  in  1571,  he  fitted 
up  an  observatory,  and  cultivated  alchemy  in  order  to 
replenish  his  purse.  In  1573  he  published  a  notice  of  a 
new  star,  brighter  than  Sirius,  which  suddenly  appeared 
in  the  constellation  of  Cassiopeia  in  November,  1572, 
and  disappeared  finally  in  March,  1574.  He  off"ended 
his  noble  relatives  by  marrying  a  peasant-girl  in  1573. 
At  the  request  of  the  king,  he  delivered  a  course  of 
lectures  on  astronomy  at  Copenhagen  in  1574,  having 
gradually  overcome  his  aristocratic  prejudice  against 
the  occupations  of  teacher  and  author.  He  proposed  to 
settle  in  Germany,  but  was  retained  by  the  liberal  offers  of 
the  king,  Frederick  II.,  who  gave  him  a  grant  for  life  of 
the  island  of  Huen,  Hven,  or  Hoene,  situated  about  four- 
teen miles  from  Copenhagen,  and  built  for  him  an  obser- 
vatory on  the  island.  This  magnificent  structure,  called 
Uraniberg  or  Oranienberg,  ("  City  of  the  Heavens,") 
was  ready  for  use  in  1577,  and  was  the  most  splendid 
observatory  that  had  ever  been  erected  in  Europe. 

Tycho  spent  there  twenty  years,  during  which  he  made 
vast  additions  to  astronomical  science  by  his  observations, 
and  merited  the  title  of  "the  restorer  of  astronomy." 
He  formed  a  catalogue  of  seven  hundred  and  seventy- 
seven  stars,  and  discovered,  it  is  said,  the  true  theory  of 
comets.  He  rejected  the  Copernican  system,  for  which 
he  substituted  a  hypot-hesis  that  seemed  more  consistent 
with  the  language  of  Scripture, — namely,  that  the  earth 
is  stationary  in  the  centre  of  the  universe,  and  that  the 
sun  and  stars  revolve  around  that  centre. 

After  the  death  of  his  royal  patron  in  1588,  a  powerful 
party  was  formed  against  Tycho  Brahe  by  courtiers  who 
envied  his  honours  and  coveted  his  revenues.  He  was 
deprived  of  his  pensions  about  1594,  and,  being  unable 
to  support  the  expense  of  his  establishment,  resolved  to 
transfer  his  instruments  to  another  place.  He  emigrated 
to  Germany  in  1597,  and,  having  obtained  the  patronage 
of  the  emperor  Rudolph,  settled  at  Prague  in  1600.  In 
the  same  year  Kepler  became  the  assistant  of  Tycho, 
who  had  invited  him  to  Prague.  Among  his  principal 
works  is  "Astronomije  Instauratse  Progymnasmata," 
(1587-89.)   Died  at  Prague  on  the  13th  of  October,  1601. 

"  As  a  practical  astronomer,"  says  Sir  David  Brewster, 
"Tycho  has  not  been  surpassed  by  any  observer  of  an- 
cient or  modern  times.  The  splendour  and  number  of 
his  instruments,  the  ingenuity  which  he  exhibited  in  in- 
venting new  ones,  and  his  skill  and  assiduity  as  an  ob- 
server, have  given  a  character  to  his  labours  and  a  value 
to  his  observations  which  will  be  appreciated  to  the 
latest  posterity.  .  .  .  His  improvements  in  the  lunar 
theory  were  still  more  valuable.    He  discovered  the 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/io?'t;  a,  e,  i,  o,  odscure/flr,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


*  BRAHM 


425 


BRAHMJNISM 


important  inequality  called  the  variation,  and  also  the 
annual  inequality  which  depends  on  the  position  of  the 
earth  in  its  orbit." 

See  Brewster,  "  Martyrs  of  Science,"  1841;  P.  Gassendi,  "Vie 
de  Tycho  Brahe,"  1654;  P.  Pedersen,  "Den  Danske  Astronom  T. 
Brah'e's  Liv  og  Levnet,"  183S;  A.  G.  Kaestner,  "  Ueber  T.  de 
Brahe's  Wahlspruch,"  1771  ;  Olaus  Schilling,  "Dissertatio  de 
Mentis  T.  Brahe  in  Astronomiam,"  Upsal,  1792;  P.  von  uer 
Weistritz,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  des  Sternsehers  T.  von  Brahe," 
2  vols.,  1756. 

Brahm,  [Hindoo  pron.  briihm  or  br'hm,]  a  Sanscrit 
word,  signifying  originally  "earnest,  intense  prayer,"* 
but  now  -used  as  the  name  of  the  eternal  self-existent 
Being,  of  whose  attributes  or  powers  the  gods  of  the 
Indian  triad,  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva,  are  personifica- 
tions. His  image  is  the  outward  universe.  In  the  "In- 
stitutes of  Manu"  (chap,  i.)  he  is  spoken  of  as  follows  : 
"  He  whom  the  mind  alone  can  perceive,  whose  essence 
eludes  the  external  organs,  who  has  no  visible  parts,  who 
exists  from  eternity, — even  he,  the  soul  of  all  beings, 
whom  no  being  can  comprehend,  shone  forth  in  person," 
in  other  words,  his  creative  power  was  manifested  or 
personified,  in  IBrahma.  (See  the  two  following  articles.) 
"Of  that  infinite,  incomprehensible,  self-existent  Spirit," 
says  Moor,  "  no  representation  is  made  ;  to  his  direct 
and  immediate  honour  no  temples  rise;  nor  dare  a  Hin- 
doo address  to  him  the  eff"usions  of  his  soul  otherwise  than 
by  the  mediation  of  a  personified  attribute,  or  through 
the  intervention  of  a  priest."  The  Hindoos  have  no 
images  of  Brahm,  but  the  pious  Brahmans  meditate  in 
profound  and  silent  awe  upon  his  unspeakable  attributes. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon;"  "Religions  de  I'Antiquite," 
translated  by  M.  Guigniaut  from  the  German  of  Dr.  Creuzer, 
Paris,  1825,  vol.  i.  p.        et  scq. 

Brahni^,  bri'ma,  [Hindoo  pron.  bruh'mS,]  a  Sanscrit 
word  signifying  "worship"  or  " prayer,"!  forming  the 
name  of  one  of  the  great  deities  of  the  Hindoos.  Brahma 
is  a  personification  of  the  creative  power,  (see  Brahm,) 
and  is  usually  styled  the  "  Creator."  It  may  be  observed 
that  Brahma  has  no  temples  or  rites  exclusively  dedi- 
cated to  him,  and  he  is  far  less  worshipped  or  honoured 
by  the  Hindoos  than  Siva  or  Vishnu.  The  votaries  of 
the  last-named  deities  are  stimulated  by  the  most  power- 
ful of  human  motives, — hope  and  fear  ;  but,  as  the  act  of 
creation  is  past,  the  worshippers  of  Brahma  are  influ- 
enced only  by  the  comparatively  feeble  principle  of  grati- 
tude. Images  of  Brahma  are  sometimes  found  in  temples 
dedicated  to  other  gods.  He  is  commonly  represented 
with  four  faces  or  heads,  having  reference  probably  to 
the  four  corners  of  the  world.  The  pictures  of  him  are 
usually  red,  or  of  a  reddish  hue,  which  is  supposed  to 
have  allusion  to  the  colour  of  the  all-producing  earth,  of 
which  Brahma  is  regarded  as  a  personification.  As  fire 
is  the  symbol  of  Siva,  and  water  of  Vishnu,  so  earth  is 
the  symbol  of  Brahma.  In  another  relation,  Brahma 
represents  matter,  Vishnu  spirit,  and  Siva  time.  (See 
articles  Siva  and  Vishnu.) 

See,  also,  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon;"  Coleman,  "Mythology  of 
the  Hindus,"  London,  1832;  Guigniaut,  "Religions  de  I'Antiquite," 
Paris,  1825,  vol.  i.  book  i.  chap.  iv. 

Brah'man-ism  or  Brah'min-ism,  [Fr.  Brahma- 
NisME,  bRt'mt'n^zm' ;  Ger.  Brahmaismus,  bRi-mi-is'- 
mtis,  or  Brahmanismus,  bRa-m3,-nis'mus,]  the  name 
of  the  religious  system  taught  by  the  BrahmansJ  of 
India.  We  first  find  this  system  developed  in  the  "  Insti- 
tutes of  Manu,"  (or  Menu,)  a  work  whose  date  (like  that 
of  all  the  early  writings  of  the  Hindoos)  it  is  impossible 

*  "  Brahm"  and  "  Brahma"  are  from  the  same  root,  (brih,)  and 
seem  originally  to  have  had  essentially  the  same  signification.  (See 
Koppen,  "Religion  des  Buddha,"  pp.  27,  28.)  Brahm  is  also  writ- 
ten Brahma;  but  in  the  popular  pronunciation  it  has  but  one  syllable. 

t  Brahma  appears  to  have  originally  signified  that  "earnest,  all- 
prevailing  prayer"  by  which  the  gods  were  compelled  (according  to 
the  Hindoo  belief)  to  grant  the  request  of  the  suppliant.  (See  next 
article.)  In  like  manner,  Agni,  (or  Agnis,)  the  god  of  fire,  carrying  the 
incense  and  offerings  of  mortals  to  heaven,  prevailed  upon  the  gods  to 
grant  the  prayers  of  their  worshippers.  Hence  in  very  early  times 
Agni  and  Brahma  may  be  said  to  have  been  scarcely  more  than  dif- 
ferent names  for  one  and  the  same  power.  (See  Koppen,  "Religion 
des  Buddha,"  p.  27.)  Afterwards  Brahma  came  to  be  regarded  not 
as  a  mediator  between  the  gods  and  men,  but  as  the  external  mani- 
festation of  the  creative  power  of  Brahm.  (See  Brahm.) 

t  The  term  Brahman  (or  Brahmin)  appears  to  have  been  derived  not 
from  the  god  Brahma,  but  from  brahma,  "prayer,"  or  "worship;" 
and  hence  it  properly  signifies  a  "praying-man,"  or  " priest."  (See 
Brahma.) 


to  fix  with  any  approximation  to  exactness.*  It  is  re- 
markable that  the  Vedas  (the  oldest  of  all  the  books  of 
the  Hindoos)  contain  so  few  traces — only  a  few  scattered 
germs,  so  to  speak — of  that  elaborate  religious  system 
which  is  presented  to  us  in  the  "  Institutes  of  Manu"  and 
other  later  works.  In  the  Vedas  the  gods  are  mostly 
such  as  would  be  suggested  by  the  objects  or  phenomena 
of  external  nature  :  for  example,  Varuna,  (Uranus,)  or 
Heaven,  (see  Varuna  ;)  Agni,  or  the  god  of  fire  ;  Indra, 
the  god  of  the  atmosphere  and  clouds ;  Mitra,  the  sun, 
etc.  As,  however,  the  Brahmanical  system  gradually 
becomes  developed,  these  divinities  retreat  into  the  back- 
ground and  are  replaced  by  the  gods  of  the  Hindoo  triad, 
Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva,  who  appear  as  manifestations 
of  Brahm,  the  eternal,  self-existent  Spirit.  (See  Brahm.) 
Brahma  first  makes  his  appearance  as  the  creator  of  the 
visible  universe,  and  becomes  the  source  and  centre  of 
an  endless  system  of  divine  sages,  inferior  gods,  celestial 
nymphs,  genii,  giants,  demons,  animals,  etc. 

In  the  early  ages  the  head  of  each  family  among  the 
Aryas  (see  Aryas)  appears  to  have  been  his  own  priest, 
making  offerings  to  the  deities  in  his  own  name ;  but, 
as  the  people  abandoned  the  primitive  customs  of  their 
ancestors,  they  had  recourse  to  professional  priests,  who 
were  supposed  to  know  the  mind  and  wishes  of  the  gods 
and  how  best  to  propitiate  their  favour.  The  priesthood, 
having  thus  become  an  indispensable  necessity,  was  not 
long  in  becoming  the  dominant  power  in  the  state  ;  and 
the  Brahmans,  having  once  obtained  the  ascendency,  took 
every  precaution  to  fortify  their  power  and  make  it  per- 
petual. 

With  this  object,  they  introduced  the  distinctions  of 
caste, t  not  merely  as  a  civil  institution,  but  as  resting  on 
and  inseparably  connected  with  the  very  foundations  of 
their  religious  system.  Like  the  modern  advocates  of 
slavery,  they  taught  that  these  distinctions  had  been 
established  by  the  Creator  himself.  They  ingeniously 
feigned  that  the  priestly  class,  or  Brahmans,  were  pro- 
duced from  the  mouth  of  Brahma,  becoming  thus  his 
spokesmen ;  while  the  Kshatriyas,$  or  warrior  caste, 
sprang  from  his  arm ;  the  Vaisyas,§  (herdsmen,  agricul- 
turists, or  merchants,)  from  his  thigh  ;  and  the  Soodras, 
(or  labourers,)  from  his  foot.  The  three  higher  castes 
are  supposed  to  be  of  pure  Aryan  descent ;  the  Soodras 
(written  also  Qudras)  were  not  improbably  the  earlier  in- 
habitants of  India,  whom  the  Aryas  subdued  and  reduced 
to  slavery.  In  the  Mahabharata  the  Brahman  is  called 
white,  the  Kshatriya  red,  the  Vaisya  yellow,  and  the 
Soodra  black.  It  may  be  proper  to  observe  that  the 
Brahmans  are  not  all  priests  ;  but  from  the  Brahmanical 
caste  alone  the  priests  must  be  chosen. 

In  order  to  preserve  the  sanctity  of  the  priestly  caste 
and  defend  it  against  all  encroachments,  a  man  of  any 
of  the  lower  castes  is  strictly  forbidden  to  marry  a 
Brahman  woman,  (Brahmani  or  Brahmanee,)  and  the 
children  of  such  marriages  are  regarded  as  irredeemably 
base.  The  offspring  of  a  Soodra  and  a  Brahmani  is 
called  a  Chandala,  and  is  accounted  the  lowest  of  mor- 
tals. His  very  shadow  is  shunned  as  pollution  ;  and  a 
Brahman  is  forbidden  to  take  shelter  under  the  same 
tree  with  one  of  those  wretched  outcasts.  The  Insti- 
tutes of  Manu  abound  with  passages  exhibiting  the 
boundless  pretensions  of  the  Brahmans,  setting  forth 
their  godlike  dignity  and  the  respect  and  adoration  due 
them  from  persons  of  the  other  classes.  "  From  his 
high  birth  alone,  a  Brahman  is  an  object  of  veneration 
even  to  the  gods."  (chap.  xi.  85.)  "A  Brahman,  whether 
learned  or  ignorant,  is  a  powerful  divinity.  .  .  .  Though 
Brahmans  employ  themselves  in  all  sorts  of  mean  occu- 
pation, they  must  invariably  be  honoured;  for  they  are 
something  transcendently  divine."  (ix.  317,319.)  "Let 


*  Sir  William  Jones  supposes  that  the  work  in  question  received  its 
present  form  about  880  B.C.;  and  it  seems  to  be  generally  admitted 
that  the  greater  part,  if  not  the  whole  of  it,  was  composed  some  cen- 
turies before  the  rise  of  Booddhism,  (about  500  B.C.) 

t  We  do  not,  of  course,  mean  to  say  that  the  system  as  it  existed  in 
after-ages  was  definitely  and  fully  planned  from  the  first,  but  simply 
that  those  who  laid  its  foundations  did  so  in  the  interest  of  the  priest- 
hood ;  and  the  same  motives  which  prompted  its  commencement  pre- 
sided over  its  completion. 

X  Kshatriya  is  pronounced  kshut're-ya  by  the  modern  Hindoos. 

§  Pronounced  vis'yaz. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    O^^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BRAHMANISM 


426 


BRAIN  ERD 


not  a  king,  although  in  the  greatest  distress  for  money, 
provoke  Brahmans  to  anger  by  taking  their  property ; 
for  they,  once  enraged,  could  immediately,  by  sacrifices 
and  imprecations,  destroy  him,  with  his  troops,  elephants, 
horses,  and  cars.  .  .  .  What  prince  could  gain  wealth  by 
oppressing  those  who,  if  angry,  could  frame  other  worlds 
and  regents  of  worlds? — could  give  being  to  new  gods 
and  mortals  ?"  (ix.  313, 315.)  "  No  greater  crime  is  known 
on  earth  than  slaying  a  Brahman.  .  .  .  Never  shall  the 
king  slay  a  Brahman,  though  convicted  of  all  possible 
crimes  :  let  him  banish  the  offender  from  his  realm,  but 
with  all  his  property  secure  and  his  body  unhurt."  (viii. 
380,  381.)  "A  Brahman  is  born  above  the  world,  the 
chief  of  all  creatures.  .  .  .  Whatever  exists  in  the  uni- 
verse is  in  effect,  though  not  in  form,  the  wealth  of  the 
Brahmans  :  .  .  .  through  the  benevolence  of  the  Brah- 
mans, indeed,  other  mortals  enjoy  life."  (i.  99,  100,  loi.) 

The  doctrine  of  "emanation,"  as  it  has  been  termed, 
may  be  said  to  form  the  basis  of  the  Brahmanical  sys- 
tem. According  to  this  doctrine,  Brahm  is  the  source 
and  centre  of  all  existence,  and  the  various  creatures  of 
the  universe  are  nothing  more  than  emanations  from 
Him  ;  in  other  words,  they  are  so  many  parts  or  mem- 
bers of  the  Universal  Being,  as  the  bays  and  creeks  on 
the  sea-coast  are  parts  or  members  of  the  ocean.  And 
as  Brahm  is  the  source  whence  all  things  have  pro- 
ceeded or  been  evolved,  so  all  things  will  at  last  return 
to  Him  and  be  absorbed  into  His  essence.  This  final 
absorption  is  regarded  by  the  devout  Hindoo  as  his  sal- 
vation. In  consequence  of  his  dislike  to  motion  and 
excitement,  the  notion  of  absolute  repose  becomes  a 
necessary  part  in  his  ideal  of  perfect  happiness.  Hence 
the  aim  of  all  his  efforts  is  to  bring  his  transmigrations 
to  an  end,  that  his  individual  existence  may  wholly  cease, 
and  that  his  soul  may  be  completely  absorbed  and  swal- 
lowed up  in  Brahm.  The  same  general  doctrine,  though 
with  important  modifications,  may  be  said  to  form  the 
foundation  of  Booddhism.    (See  Booddha.) 

The  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls  (called  by 
the  Greeks  Metempsychosis,  and  by  the  Germans  See- 
lenwanderung,  or  "soul-wandering")  became  a  powerful 
engine,  in  the  hands  of  the  Brahmans,  for  curbing  and 
breaking  the  spirit  of  the  laity.  For  neglecting  the 
smallest  duties  or  ceremonies  enjoined  by  the  priests, 
one  might  have  to  pass  ages  in  unhappy  transmigra- 
tions ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  by  an  implicit  and  faith- 
ful observance  of  those  duties  and  ceremonies  he  might 
at  length  acquire  such  an  accumulation  of  merit  as  to 
raise  him  above  the  power  of  the  gods  themselves. 
There  is  no  other  example  in  the  history  of  mankind  of 
an  ascendency  of  one  class  over  another  so  des])otic  and 
absolute  as  that  which  has  been  obtained  by  the  Brah- 
mans through  the  institution  of  caste.  And  this  has 
been  effected  not  by  any  punishment  applied  to  the 
body,  or  by  any  external  force,  but  by  gradually  acquiring, 
through  an  artful  employment  of  hope  and  fear,  an  un- 
limited control  over  the  mind.  No  inconsiderable  part  of 
the  twelfth  chapter  of  the  Institutes  of  Manu  is  occupied 
in  stating  the  kind  and  number  of  transmigrations  which 
one  must  undergo  for  each  of  a  long  list  of  sins  therein 
enumerated.  Thus,  for  example,  he  who  steals  the  gold 
of  a  priest  (unless  he  makes  in  this  life  expiation  by  some 
voluntary  and  cruel  penance)  will  be  born  a  thousand 
times  in  the  form  of  a  spider  or  of  some  disgusting  reptile  ; 
if  a  man  steal  meat,  he  will  in  the  next  life  become  a 
vulture  ;  if  he  steal  grain,  he  will  become  a  rat ;  and  so 
on.  He  who  kills  a  Brahman  (after  "having  passed 
through  terrible  regions  of  torture  for  a  great  number 
of  years")  may,  according  to  the  circumstances  of  his 
crime,  be  born  as  a  dog,  a  boar,  or  other  low  animal, 
or  as  a  Chandala.  A  priest  who  has  drunk  spirituous 
liquor  will  berome  a  worm  or  insect  feeding  on  filth. 
Some  learned  Hindoos  hold  that  there  is  no  expiation 
by  penance  for  a  voluntary  sin ;  but  this  is  not  the 
general  opinion.  To  a  Brahman  who  knows  the  Vedas, 
all  expiation  is  rendered  easy.  Although  the  ancient 
Hindoos  appear  to  have  regarded  women  with  far  more 
tenderness  and  respect  than  most  other  Asiatic  nations, 
Manu  shows  but  scant  indulgence  towards  those  who  err. 
He  says,  in  substance,  that  since  a  woman  is  not  per- 
mitted'to  know  the  Vedas,  by  which  her  guilt  might  be 


expiated,  she  has  no  right  whatever  to  commit  any  sin  : 
her  son,  however,  can  perform  expiation  for  her  by  the 
repetition  of  holy  texts.  (Chap.  ix.  iS  et  seq.) 

Not  the  least  remarkable  feature  in  the  religious  sys- 
tem of  the  Brahmans  is  the  immense  importance  which 
it  attaches  to  the  performance  of  prayer  and  penance. 
The  most  efficacious  prayer  is  the  committing  to  memory 
and  repetition  of  portions  of  the  Vedas.  "  As  fire  con- 
sumes in  an  instant  with  its  bright  flame  the  wood  that 
is  placed  upon  it,  so  with  the  flame  of  knowledge  a 
Brahman  who  understands  the  Veda  consumes  all  sin," 
("Institutes  of  Manu,"  chap.  xi.  247-.)  "A  priest,"  says 
Manu,  "  who  should  retain  in  his  memory  the  whole 
Rig- Veda  would  be  absolved  from  guilt  even  if  he  had 
slain  the  inhabitants  of  the  three  worlds,"  (chap.  xi. 
262,)  a  statement  which  acquires  addidonal  force  when 
we  consider  the  tender  regard  for  life  which  distinguishes 
the  Hindoos  from  most  other  nations.* 

The  Hebrew  and  Christian  Scriptures  teach  us  that 
prayer  and  sacrifice,  to  be  availing,  must  be  acceptable 
to  God.t  The  Brahmans,  on  the  contrary,  believe  that 
prayers,  even  though  prompted  by  the  most  unworthy 
motives  and  uttered  for  the  most  unrighteous  purposes, 
if  repeated  according  to  the  prescribed  form  and  duly 
persevered  in,  can  compel  the  gods  to  grant  the  wishes 
of  the  suppliant.  By  the  persevering  performance,  more- 
over, of  prayer,  penance,  and  sacrifice,  a  man  may  in  time 
acquire  a  power  superior  to  that  of  the  highest  gods. J 

See,  besides  the  "  Institutes  of  Manu,"  already  referred  to,  Moor, 
"Hindu  Pantheon;"  Coleman,  "Hindu  Mytliology:"  Koppen, 
"  Rehgion  des  Buddha,"  (first  part;)  Professor  H.  H.  Wilson's 
Introductions  to  the  several  volumes  of  his  translation  of  the  "  Rig- 
Veda,"  \'i~,oet  seq.,  and  ''  Essays  on  the  Religion  of  the  Hindus,"  vol. 
ii. ;  CoLEBROOKE,"  On  the  Vedas,"  in  "Asiatic  Researches,"  vol.  viii. ; 
Sir  W.  Jones,  "On  the  Gods  of  Greece,  Italy,  and  India,"  in  vol.  i. 
of  "Asiatic  Researches;"'  Max  Muller,  "  Chips,"  etc.  ;  Duncker, 
"  Geschichte  des  Alterthums  ;"  see,  also,  the  "Vedas,"  the  two  Hin- 
doo epics  "  Mahabharata"  and  "Ramayana,"  and  the  "Puranas." 

Braid'wood,  (Thomas,)  one  of  the  first  teachers  of 
the  deaf  and  dumb  in  Great  Britain,  founded  about  1760 
an  institution  at  Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  at  Hack- 
ney, near  London.    Died  in  1806. 

Braille,  bRt'ya',  (Louis,)  born  near  Paris  in  1809, 
was  blind  from  his  birth,  and  was  distinguished  for  his 
intelligence  and  his  rapid  acquisition  of  knowledge,  par- 
ticularly music.  He  invented  a  method  of  writing  with 
points,  which  has  been  generally  adopted. 

Brai'nard,  (John  G.  C.,)  an  American  poet,  born  at 
New  London,  Connecticut,  in'  1796,  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1815.  He  edited  "The  ConnecUcut  Mirror" 
(published  at  Hartford)  for  about  six  years,  and  produced 
a  volume  of  poems  in  1825.    Died  in  1828. 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America;"  John  G.  Whit- 
tier,  "  Memoir  of  Brainard,"  prefixed  to  his  Poems,  1832. 

Brai'nerd,  (David,)  an  American  divine  and  mission- 
ary to  the  Indians,  born  in  I7i8at  Haddam,  Connecticut. 
He  entered  Yale  College  in  1739,  but  in  February,  1742, 
was  expelled  for  expressing  his  belief  that  one  of  the  tutors 
was  wholly  without  the  grace  of  God.  Says  President 
Edwards,  "  I  never  knew  his  equal  of  his  age  and  stand- 
ing for  clear,  accurate  notions  of  the  nature  and  essence 
of  true  religion,  and  its  distinctions  from  its  various  false 
appearances."  Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned  a 
narrative  of  his  labours  among  the  Indians  in  Massachu- 
setts, Pennsylvania,  and  New  Jersey,  published  in  1746, 

*  According  to  Manu,  he  who  does  not  wilhngly  inflict  pain  upon 
any  creature,  but  "seeks  the  good  of  all  sentient  beings,  enjoys  bliss 
without  end."  (chap.  v.  46.) 

It  is  not,  however,  true,  as  many  suppose,  that  the  Brahmans  or 
other  Hindoos  are  absohitely  forbidden  to  eat  flesh :  we  are  expressly 
told  that  the  Self-existent  created  beasts  for  sacrifice.  "  He  who  eats 
according  to  law  commits  no  sin,  even  though  every  day  he  tastes  the 
flesh  of  such  animals  as  may  lawfully  be  tasted."  Those  animals, 
moreover,  "which  have  been  destroyed  for  the  purpose  of  sacrifice 
attain  in  the  next  world  exaUed  births."  But  he  who  eats  the  flesh 
of  animals  which  have  not  been  duly  consecrated  for  sacrifice  to  the 
gods  or  manes  "will,  unable  to  save  himself,  be  devoured  in  the  next 
world  by  those  animals  whose  flesh  he  has  thus  illegally  swallowed." 
(See,  on  this  subject,  the  "Institutes  of  Manu,"  chap.  v.  26-52,  and 
the  "Miscellaneous  Notice  of  the  Brahmans  and  Hindus"  in  Moor's 
"Hindu  Pantheon.") 

t  See  Isaiah  i.  15,  lix.  2 :  Proverbs  xv.  8  and  29,  xxi.  27,  xxvni.  9 ; 
John  ix.  31  ;  James  iv.  3,  v.  16.,  etc. 

X  This  doctrine  furnishes  the  groundwork,  so  to  speak,  of  Southey's 
celebrated  poem,  the  "  Curse  of  Kehama;"  and  in  the  notes  to  that 
work  the  reader  will  find  some  curious  and  striking  illustrations  of  the 
foregoing  remarks. 


I,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  p,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BRAIN  ERD 


427 


BRAND 


"Mirabilia  Dei  inter  Indicos,"  and  "Divine  Grace  Dis- 
played the  two  latter  being  portions  of  his  journal, 
edited  and  published  by  Sereno  Dwight  Edwards  in  1822. 
His  life  was  written  by  President  Edwards.  His  journal 
is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  instructive  narratives 
of  the  kind  ever  written. 

See,  also,  Sp.arks's  "American  Biography,"  vol.  viii. 

Brainerd,  (John,)  a  missionary  among  the  Indians, 
brother  of  the  Rev.  David  Brainerd,  whom  he  succeeded 
in  his  labours  in  New  Jersey  about  1748.  Born  in  1720; 
died  in  1781. 

See  "Life  of  John  Brainerd,"  bv  the  Rev.  Thomas  Brainerd, 
1865. 

Braith'waite,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  born  about 
1690,  published  an  "Account  of  the  Political  Events 
which,  on  the  Death  of  the  Emperor  Muley  Ismael,  took 
Place  in  the  Empire  of  Morocco."  It  was  translated  into 
several  languages. 

Braithwaite,  (John,)  an  English  mechanician,  who, 
by  means  of  a  diving-bell,  recovered  a  considerable 
amount  of  the  property  sunk  in  the  Royal  George  and 
other  vessels.    Died  in  1818. 

Braithwaite,  (William,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  about  1560,  assisted  in  the  translation  of  the  Bible 
in  the  reign  of  James  I. 

Brakel,  van,  vtn  bRa'kel,(jAN,)  a  Dutch  naval  officer, 
born  in  161 8,  distinguished  himself  in  several  engage- 
ments with  the  English,  and  attained  the  rank  of  rear- 
admiral.  He  was  killed  in  a  battle  against  the  French 
in  1690. 

See  Ersch  iind  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Brakenburg,  bRa'ken-bijRG'',  (Reinier,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1649. 

See  Desc.amps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Bra''m^,  (Joseph,)  a  celebrated  English  mechani- 
cian and  engineer,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1749.  Among 
his  numerous  and  very  valuable  inventions  are  the  safety- 
lock  called  by  his  name,  the  hydrostatic  press,  the  beer- 
machine  for  drawing  liquor  from  a  cellar,  improvements 
in  fire-engines,  pumps,  steam-engines,  and  pai)er-making 
machinery,  and  the  construction  of  mains  or  large  water- 
pipes  in  London.    Died  in  1814. 

See  Stuart,  "Anecdotes  of  Steam-Engines ;"  Samuel  Smii.es, 
"Industrial  Biography,"  1864;  Henry  Howe,  "Eminent  American 
and  European  Mechanics,"  1847. 

Bramante,  bR^-min'ti,  (Donato  Lazzari.)  a  cele- 
brated Italian  architect  and  painter,  born  near  Urbino  in 
1444,  was  a  relative  of  Raphael.  He  passed  many  years 
of  his  early  manhood  at  Milan,  whence  he  removed  to 
Rome  and  built  the  Cancellaria,  or  palace  of  the  chancery, 
(about  1495,)  a  fine  specimen  of  the  architecture  of  the 
Renaissance.  He  was  patronized  by  Pope  Julius  II., 
and  was  the  architect  of  the  vast  structures  which  joinecl 
the  Belvedere  to  the  palace  of  the  Vatican.  Among  his 
master-pieces  is  the  small  round  oratory  or  temple  in 
the  cloister  of  San  Pietro  in  Montorio,  in  the  genuine 
antique  style.  Bramante  was  the  author  of  the  original 
design  of  the  basilica  or  church  of  Saint  Peter,  which 
he  liegan  to  build  in  1513,  (some  say  in  1506.)  He  had 
finished  the  four  great  piers  which  support  the  dome, 
when  he  died,  in  1 5 14.  His  plan  was  not  adhered  to  by 
the  succeeding  architects,  among  whom  was  Michael 
Angelo.  Some  critics  think  the  work  would  have  been 
more  noble  if  Bramante's  design  had  been  carried  out. 
His  style  is  admired  for  its  simplicity,  grace,  and  har- 
mony of  proportions.  He  was  a  benefactor  of  Raphael, 
who  through  the  influence  of  Bramante  obtained  the 
patronage  of  Julius  II. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  Pungileoni,  "  Memo- 
ria  intorno  alia  Vita  di  Donato  Bramante,"  1837;  Quatremere 
DE  QuiNCY,  "  Vies  des  Architectes  celebres  ;"  Salvetti,  "Anedotti 
sulla  Patria  dell' Architetto  Bramante,"  1824. 

Bramaiitino,  da,  d^  bRd-mdn-tee^no,  (Agostino,)  a 
Milanese  painter,  flourished  about  1525. 

Bramantino,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  architect 
and  painter,  who  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  and  built  the  church  of  San  Satiro  in 
the  Milanese. 

Brambilla,  bRim-b^Kia,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an 
Italian  painter,  who  worked  in  Turin  about  1770. 

Bramer,  bRa'mer,  (Leonard,)  a  skilful  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Delft  in  1596.  He  worked  in  Italy,  and  imitated 


the  Italian  style.  He  excelled  in  the  treatment  of  noc- 
turnal conflagrations  and  illumined  caverns.  Among 
his  works  is  a  "  Raising  of  Lazarus." 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Bram'hall,  (John,)  born  in  Yorkshire  about  1593, 
graduated  in  divinity  in  1630,  and  in  1634  became  Bishop 
of  Londonderry.  As  one  of  Strafford's  coadjutors,  he 
was  impeached  by  the  Irish  House  of  Commons  in  1640, 
and  was  imprisoned  for  a  time.  After  the  restoration 
he  was  created  Archbishop  of  Armagh  and  Primate  of 
Ireland.  Bramhall  is  chiefly  known  from  his  contro- 
versy with  Hobbes,  entitled  "The  Question  concern- 
ing Liberty,  Necessity,  and  Chance,  clearly  stated  and 
debated,"  (1656.)    Died  in  1663. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Bramp'ston  or  Brani'.ston,  (Sir  John,)  an  English 
judge,  born  in  Essex  about  1576.  He  was  chief  justice 
of  the  king's  bench  from  1635  to  1642.  His  conduct 
was  vacillating  in  the  civil  war.    Died  in  1654. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices  ;"  Foss,  "The 
Judges  of  England." 

Bramp'tpn,  de,  (William,)  an  English  judge  justi- 
ciar, who  was  convicted  of  peculation  in  1288  and  fined 
forty  thousand  marks. 

B'ram'stpn,  (Rev.  James,)  an  English  satirical  poet, 
took  his  degree  at  Oxford  in  1720.  He  wrote  the  "Art 
of  Politics."    Died  in  1744. 

Brancaccio,  bRSn-kat'cho,  (Francesco  Maria,)  an 
Italian  cardinal,  patronized  by  Urban  VIII.  Died  in  1675. 

Brancadori-Perini,  bRan-kS.  do'ree  pa-ree'nee,  (Gi- 
AMBATi'iSTA,)  an  Italian  writer  on  chronology,  born  at 
Sienna  in  1674;  died  in  171 1. 

Brancaleone,  bRln-ki-la-o'na,  (Dandolo,  din'do« 
lo,)  Count  of  Casalecchio,  (ka-si-lek'ke-o,)  born  at  Bo- 
logna, was  made  a  senator  by  the  Romans  in  1253,  and 
invested  with  the  powers  of  a  dictator,  in  order  to  re- 
press the  quarrels  of  the  nobles.  He  compelled  Pope 
Innocent  IV.  to  acknowledge  the  power  of  the  people, 
waged  war  with  the  barons,  and  restored  peace  to  Rome. 
Died  in  1258. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Brancas,  bR6N^k§,',  (Andr6,)  a  French  officer,  known 
as  Admiral  de  Villars,  (ve^ytR^,)  served  for  a  time  in 
the  army  of  the  League,  but  afterwards  went  over  to 
Henry  IV.  Being  made  prisoner  at  the  siege  of  Doul- 
lens,  he  was  killed  by  the  Spaniards  for  his  desertion. 

See  Motley,  "History  of  the  United  Netherlands,"  chap.  xxxi.  ; 
Anselme,  "Histoire  generale  des  Pairs  de  France." 

Brancas,  de,  Due.    See  Lauraguais. 

Brancas,  de,  deh  bRSN'kd',  (Louis,)  Marquis  de 
Cereste,  (si'rgst',)  served  with  distinction  under  Louis 
XIV.  and  Louis  XV.,  and  was  made  marshal  of  France 
in  1740.    Died  in  1750. 

Brancas- Villeneuve,  de,  deh  bR6N'ki'  v^Knuv', 
(Andr^:  Francois,)  a  French  astronomer.  Died  in  1748. 

Brancato,  bR^n-ka'to,  (P'rancesco,)  an  Italian  mis- 
sionary to  China,  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Eucha- 
rist," and  other  works,  (in  Chinese.)    Died  in  1671. 

Branch,  (John,)  born  at  Halifax,  North  Carolina,  in 
1782,  became  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1823, 
was  secretary  of  the  navy  from  March,  1829,  till  1831, 
and  was  appointed  Governor  of  Florida  in  1843.  Died 
in  1863. 

Branch,  (Lawrence  O'Brien,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Halifax  county.  North  Carolina,  in  1820,  was  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  and  represented  a  district  of  that 
State  in  Congress  for  several  years  between  1855  and 
1861.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Antietam  (where 
he  fought  against  the  Union)  in  September,  1862. 

Brand,  bRint,  (Bernard,)  a  Swiss  jurist  and  magis- 
trate, born  at  Bale  in  1523,  wrote  a  "  Universal  History," 
(in  German.)    Died  in  1594. 

See  Brandmoller,  "Vie  de  Bernard  Brand,"  Bale,  1650. 

Brand,  bR^nt,  (Christian,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Vienna  in  1722,  was  director  of  the  Academy  of  Land- 
scapes.   Died  in  1795. 

Brand,  (John,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at  New- 
castle-upon-Tyne about  1741,  publishecl  "Observations 
on  Popular  Antiquities,"  and  "  History  and  Antiquities 
of  the  Town  of  Newcastle,"  (2  vols.,  1789.)   Died  in  1806, 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1814. 


*:  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Yi,guthiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (2i^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BRJND 


428 


BRANT 


Brand,  (John,)  an  English  divine  and  writer  on  poli- 
tical economy;  died  in  1809. 

Brandan,  Saint.    See  Brendan. 

Brandao,  bR^n-dowN',  (Alexandre,)  a  Portuguese, 
who  lived  about  1650-90,  wrote  a  "History  of  the  War 
by  which  Portugal  was  separated  from  Spain,"  (2  vols., 
1689.) 

Brandao,  (Antonio,)  a  Portuguese  historian,  suc- 
ceeded De  Brito  as  chief  historiographer  of  the  kingdom, 
(1617.)    Died  in  1637. 

See  Barbosa  Machauo,  "  Bibliotlieca  Lusitana." 

Brande,  brand,  (William  Thomas,)  F.R.S.,  an  emi- 
nent English  chemist,  was  born  in  London  in  1788.  He 
l)ecame  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Royal  Institution 
in  1813,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  lecturer. 
He  published  a  "  Manual  of  Chemistry,"  (6th  edition, 
1848,)  and  an  excellent  "  Dictionary  of  Science,  Litera- 
ture, and  Art,"  (1842.)  He  was  for  many  years  super- 
intendent of  a  department  in  the  Mint.    Died  in  1866. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  181 1,  and  October,  1813; 
"Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  April,  1866. 

Brandel,  bR^nMel,  (Peter,)  a  German  painter  of  his- 
tory and  portraits,  born  at  Prague  in  1660 ;  died  in  1739. 

Brandenburg,  Elector  of.  See  Albert  Achilles, 
and  Frederick  William. 

Brandenburg,  bRanMen-booRo',  (Friedrich  Wil- 
helm,)  Count  of,  son  of  Frederick  William  IL  of  Prus- 
sia by  his  morganatic  marriage  with  the  Countess  von 
Doenhoff,  was  born  at  Berlin  in  1792.  He  served  in 
several  campaigns  against  the  French,  and  became  lieu- 
tenant-general. He  was  appointed  prime  minister  in 
1848.    Died  in  1850. 

Brander,  bR^nMer,  (Gustavus,)  a  Swedish  naturalist, 
resided  in  London,  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Philo- 
sophical Transactions."    Died  in  1787. 

Brandes,  bRin'dls,  (Ernst,)  a  German  statesman 
and  writer,  born  at  Hanover  in  1758,  published  an 
''Analysis  of  Burke's  Reflections  on  the  French  Revo- 
lution," and  other  works.    Died  in  1810. 

See  Heyne,  "  Memoria  Ernesti  Brandes,"  1810;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Brandes,  [Lat.  Brande'sius,]  (Heinrich  Wil- 
helm,)  born  at  Groben  in  1777,  studied  at  Gottingen, 
and  became  professor  of  mathematics  at  Leipsic  in  1826. 
He  wrote  a  "Manual  of  Higher  Geometry,"  and  several 
treatises  on  astronomy  and  hydraulics.    Died  in  1834. 

See  G.  Hermann,  "Exequiae  H.  Brandesii,"  1834. 

Brandes,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German  dramatist 
and  actor,  born  at  Stettin  in  1735.  His  wife,  Esther 
Charlotte,  was  a  popular  actress,  and  his  daughter,  Minna, 
a  distinguished  vocalist.    Died  in  1799. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie,"  and  his 
"Autobiography,"  3  vols.,  1802-07. 

Brandes,  (Rudolf,)  a  German  pharmacist,  born  in 
Lippe-Detmold  in  1795.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
"Archives  of  Pharmacy,"  to  which  he  made  numerous 
contributions.    Died  in  1842. 

See  L.  F.  Bley,  "  Leben  des  Dr.  R.  Brandes,"  1844. 

Brandi,  bRin'dee,  (Giacinto,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
in  the  Roman  States  in  1623,  was  a  pupil  of  Lanfranc. 
Died  in  1691. 

Brandis,  bR^nMis,  (Christian  August,)  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Bonn,  a  son  of  Joachim,  noticed  below, 
was  l^orn  at  Hildesheim  in  1790.  He  published,  con- 
jointly with  Niebuhr,  the  "  Rhenish  Museum  for  Phi- 
ology.  History,  and  Greek  Philosophy,"  (1827-30,)  and 
wrote  several  critical  works.  He  was  chosen  a  foreign 
associate  of  the  French  Institute  in  1855.    Died  in  1867. 

Brandis,  (Joachim  Dietrich,)  an  eminent  German 
physician  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Hildesheim  in  1762. 
He  graduated  at  Gottingen,  became  professor  of  medi- 
cine at  Kiel  in  1803,  ancl  in  1809  physician  to  Frederick 
VI.  of  Denmark.    Died  in  1846. 

Brandmiiller,  bRint'muKler,  (Gregorius,)  a  Swiss 
painter,  born  at  Bale  in  1661,  was  a  pupil  of  Lebrun,  and 
worked  at  Prague  and  Bale.  Among  his  best  works,  the 
design,  expression,  and  colour  of  which  are  highly  com- 
mended, is  a  "Descent  from  the  Cross."    Died  in  1691. 

Brandmiiller,  (Johann,)  a  Swiss  theologian,  born  in 
1533,  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Bale.    Died  in  1596. 


Brando,  bRc\nMo,  Brand,  budnt,  or  Brands,  bR^nts, 
(Johann,)  a  Flemish  chronicler,  born  near  Hulst,  wrote 
a  history  of  the  world  from  the  creation  to  1413.  Died 
in  1428. 

Brandolese,bRan-do-la'si,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  bibli- 
ographer, born  in  1754;  died  in  1809. 

Brandolini,  bRin-do-lee'nee,  (Aurelio,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  litterateur,  surnamed  IL  Lippo,  born  at  Florence 
about  1440.  He  was  a  celebrated  pulpit  orator,  was 
patronized  by  Matthias  Corvinus,  King  of  Hungary,  and 
became  professor  of  eloquence  at  Buda.  Among  his 
works  is  one  "  On  the  Condition  of  Human  Life,"  ("  De 
Vitae  humanae  Conditione,"  1541.)    Died  in  1497. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  Bayle,  "Histori- 
cal and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Brandolini,  (Raffaello,)  a  blind  Italian  littemieur^ 
brother  of  the  preceding,  lived  about  1460-1520,  and  was 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Rome.  He  had  a  rare  talent 
for  improvising  Latin  verse.  He  was  patronized  by  Leo 
X.,  who  became  pope  in  1 5 13. 

Bran'dpn,  (Charles,)  Duke  of  Suffolk,  a  favourite 
of  Henry  VIII.  of  England.  He  married  Mary,  a  sister 
of  King  Henry,  the  widow  of  Louis  XII.  of  France. 
Died  in  1545. 

Brandt  or  Brand,  bRint,  a  German  alchemist,  who, 
in  attempting  to  find  the  philosopher's  stone,  is  said  to 
have  first  discovered  phosphorus.    Died  about  1695. 

See  F.  HoEFER,  "Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Brandt,  bR^nt,  (Georg,)  a  Swedish  chemist,  born  in 
1694,  made  various  interesting  experiments  upon  metals, 
of  which  he  gave  an  account  in  the  "  Memoirs  of  the 
Academy  of  Upsal."    Died  in  1768. 

See  Gezelius,  "  Biographiskt- Lexicon." 

Brandt,  bRint,  (Gerard,)  a  Dutch  Armi^ian  theo- 
logian, born  in  Amsterdam  in  1626.  He  preached  in  his 
native  city,  and  published,  besides  oth-er  works,  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Reformation  in  the  Low  Countries,"  (2  vols., 
1671-74.)    Died  in  1685. 

See  Jan  van  H'aes,  "Leven  van  G.  Brandt,"  1740. 

Brandt,  (Sebastian,)  a  German  poet,  born  at  Stras- 
burg  in  1458,  wrote  "  The  Ship  of  Fools,"  ("  Das  Narren- 
schiff,"  1494,)  a  satirical  poem,  which  enjoyed  extraor- 
dinary popularity  in  its  time  and  was  translated  into 
Latin  and  the  principal  European  languages.  Died  in 
1521. 

See  Flogel,  "Geschichte  der  Komischen  Literatur ;"  Gervinus, 
"Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Literatur." 

Brandt,  von,  fon  bR^nt,  (Heinrich,)  a  Prussian 
general,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1789,  published  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Art  of  War  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1828,)  a 
"Manual  of  Grand  Strategy,"  (1829,)  and  other  military 
works. 

Branicki,  bR§,-nits'kee,  (Francis  Xavier,)  a  Polish 
statesman,  took  an  active  part  in  the  dismemberment  of 
Poland  by  Russia,  and  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
confederation  of  Targowicza.  Having  been  declared  a 
traitor  to  his  country,  he  retired  to  the  Ukraine,  where 
he  died  in  1819. 

See  Ferrand,  "Histoire  des  trois  Demembrements  de  la  Po- 
logne,"  1820. 

Branicki,  (John  Clement,)  grand  general  of  the 
crown  of  Poland,  born  in  1688,  was  distinguished  as  the 
champion  of  the  nobility  against  the  king,  Augustus  II. 
Died  in  177 1. 

See  Rulhiere,  "Histoire  de  1' Anarchic  de  Pologne,"  1807. 

Braniss,  bRi'niss,  (Christlieb  Julius,)  a  German 
philosophical  writer,  born  at  Breslau  in  1792.  He  wrote 
a  "History  of  Philosophy  since  Kant,"  (1842,)  and  other 
works. 

Brank'er,  (Thomas,)  an  English  mathematician  and 
scientific  writer,  lived  about  1650. 

Bran^'nan  or  Bran'npn,  (John  M.,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  the  District  of  Columbia  about  1821, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841.  He  became  a  briga- 
dier-general in  September,  1861,  and  cominanded  a  di- 
vision at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  September  19  and 
20,  1863.  He  served  under  General  Sherman  in  the 
campaign  against  Atlanta,  May-September,  1864. 

Brant,  (Joseph,)  Thayendanega,  (tl-^n-dS-ne'ga,) 
a  famous  Indian  chief  of  the  Mohawk  tribe,  was  born 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/wrt;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BRANTOME 


429 


BRAT 


in  1742.  He  fought  against  the  American  colonists  in  the 
Revolution,  and  had  a  commission  in  the  British  service. 
After  the  end  of  the  war  he  went  to  England,  and  pub- 
lished the  Gospel  of  Mark  in  Mohawk.    Died  in  1807. 
See  W.  L.  Stone,  "Life  of  Brant." 

Brantome,  bRSN'tom',  (Pierre  de  Bourdeilles — 

deh  booR'dM'  or  booR^dyye,)  a  popular  French  historian, 
born  of  a  noble  family  about  1540,  was  a  brave  soldier, 
and  a  witness  of  many  military  events  of  his  time.  He 
was  for  some  time  chamberlain  to  the  Duke  of  Alen9on, 
and  obtained  great  favour  at  the  court  of  Charles  IX., 
who  gave  him  a  pension.  As  a  historian  he  is  sprightly, 
naif,  and  sometimes  eloquent,  but  never  profound.  His 
history  is  valued  as  a  vivid  picture  of  the  epoch  in  which 
he  lived,  and  of  the  characters  of  the  principal  actors  in 
it.  His  chief  work,  entitled  "  Lives  of  Illustrious  Men 
and  Great  Captains,  both  French  and  Foreign,"  ("  Les 
Vies  des  Hommes  illustres  et  grands  Capitaines  Fran9ais 
et  etrangers,")  was  not  published  until  after  his  death. 
Died  in  16 14. 

See  Nicolas  de  Monmerqu^,  "  Notice  historique  sur  Brantome," 
1824;  "Noiivelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Brants  or  Brantz,  bRints,  written  also  Braiit,(JoHN,) 
a  Flemish  writer,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1559,  was  father- 
in-law  of  the  celebrated  Rubens.    Died  in  1639. 

Bran''white,  (Peregrine,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Suffolk  in  1745  ;  died  in  1794. 

Brard,  bRtR,  (Cyprien  Prosper,)  a  French  mineral- 
ogist, born  at  L'Aigle,  in  Orne,  in  1786.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "Mineralogy  applied  to  the  Arts," 
(3  vols.,  1821,)  and  "New  Elements  of  Mineralogy," 
(1824.)    Died  in  1838. 

See  JouANNET,  "Notice  sur  C.  P.  Brard,"  1839. 

Brarens,  bRi'rens,  (Hendrik,)  a  Danish  naval  officer, 
born  in  17^1,  was  the  author  of  a  "System  of  Practical 
Navigation."    Died  in  1826. 

Brascassat,  bR^'kt'sS',  (Jean,)  a  French  painter  of 
landscapes  and  animals,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1805.  He 
gained  a  first  medal  in  183 1,  and  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Institute  in  1846.  Among  his  works,  which  are 
praised  for  a  rare  solidity  of  colour,  are  "Mercury  and 
Argus,"  and  the  "Campagna  of  Rome,"  (1833.) 

Braschi,  bR^s'kee,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  anti- 
quary, and  Bishop  of  Sarsina,  born  at  Cesena  in  1664; 
died  in  1727. 

Braschi-Onesti,  bR^s'kee  o-n^s'tee,  (LuiGi,)  Duke 
OF,  an  Italian  statesman,  born  at  Cesena  in  1748,  was  a 
nephew  of  Pius  VI.  He  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
treaty  of  Tolentino  in  1797,  and  was  afterwards  appointed 
mayor  of  Rome.    Died  in  1818. 

Brash'er,  (Abraham,)  an  American  patriot  and  colo- 
nel in  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  born  in  New  York  in 
1734,  was  the  author  of  numerous  popular  ballads.  Died 
in  1782. 

Bras'i-das,  [Gr.  'Bpaaida^,]  a  celebrated  Spartan  com- 
mander in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  gained  several  victo- 
ries over  the  Athenians,  and  rendered  important  services 
as  negotiator.  In  Plato's  "  Symposium"  he  is  compared 
to  Achilles,  ile  was  killed  in  battle  at  Amphipolis  in 
422  B.C.,  after  which  annual  sacrifices  were  offered  to  him 
as  a  hero. 

See  Thucvdides,  books  iii.,  iv.,  and  v. 

Brassac,  de,  deh  bRt'stk',  (Jean  Gallard  de 
Bearn— deh  ba'tRn',)  Comte,  a  French  minister  of 
state  under  Louis  XIII.,  born  in  the  province  of  Sain- 
tonge  in  1579  ;  died  in  1645. 

Brassavola,  bR^s-si-vo'lS,  (  Antonio  Musa,  )  an 
Italian  physician,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1500,  was  patronized 
by  Francis  I.,  Charles  V.,  the  popes  Paul  III.  and  Clem- 
ent VII.,  and  other  distinguished  persons.  Died  in  1570. 

SeeGiNGUENE,  "Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  Castellani,  "De 
Vita  M.  Brassavolae  Commentarius,"  1767. 

Brasseur,  bRi'suR',  (Philip,)  a  Flemish  writer  and 
1  atin  poet,  born  at  Mons  about  1597;  died  about  1650. 

Brassicanus.bR^s-se-ka'nvis,  (Johann  Alexander,) 
a  German  philologist  and  Latin  poet,  whose  original  name 
was  KoHLBURGER,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1500 ;  died  in 
1539- 

Brathwayte,  brath'wat,(RiCHARD,)  an  English  writer, 
born  in  1588,  published  "The  Prodigal's  Tears,"  "The 
Golden  Fleece,"  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1673. 


Brattle,  brat't'l,  (Thomas,)  an  American  merchant  and 
scientific  writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1657  ;  died  in  1713. 

Brault,  bRo,  (Charles,)  born  at  Poitiers  in  1752,  be- 
came Archbishop  of  Albi  in  1823,  and  was  afterwards 
made  a  peer  of  France.    Died  in  1833. 

Braun,  bRown,  (Alexander  Karl  Hermann,)  a 
German  statesman,  born  at  Plauen  in  1807,  became  min- 
ister of  justice  and  president  of  the  Council  in  Saxony. 
(1848.)    He  resigned  office  in  1849. 

Brami,  (August  Emil,)  a  German  archjeologist,  born 
at  Gotha  in  1809.  He  resided  many  years  in  Rome, 
where  he  became  pro-secretary  to  the  Archaeological  In- 
stitute. He  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Mythology  of  Art," 
("Kunst-Mythologie,"  with  100  plates,)  and  "Antique 
Marbles,"  (1843.)    I^ied  at  Rome  in  1856. 

Braun,  (Johann  Wilhelm  Joseph,)  a  German 
Catholic  theologian,  born  near  Diiren  in  1801.  He 
studied  at  Bonn,  under  Hermes,  whose  peculiar  views 
he  adopted.  He  became  professor  of  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory at  Bonn  in  1833,  ^^'^'^  ^^'^^  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  "Journal  of  Philosophy  and  Catholic  Theology." 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Braur.    See  Brauwer. 

Brauwer  or  Brouwer,  bRow'wer,  written  also 
Brawer  or  Braur,  (Adriaan,)  a  celebrated  Dutch 
painter,  born  in  1608  at  Oudenarde,  or,  as  some  writers 
state,  at  Haarlem.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Franz  Hals,  and  was 
patronized  by  Rubens,  but,  owing  to  his  dissipated  habits, 
died  in  poverty  at  the  age  of  thirty-t\yo.  His  works  are 
chiefly  tavern-scenes,  and  other  delineations  of  low  life, 
and  rank  among  the  best  of  their  kind.    Died  in  1640. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  HoUandais,"  etc. 

Bravais,  bRtVi',  (Auguste,)  a  French  natural  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Annonay  in  181 1.  He  has  written  able 
treatises  on  meteorology,  crystallography,  and  astronomy. 
In  1854  he  was  admitted  into  the  Institute,  (section  of 
geography  and  navigation.)  His  brother  Louis  F.  is  a 
botanist  and  writer. 

Bravo,  bR^'vo,  (Bartolom^:,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  poet, 
and  grammarian,  born  about  1560. 

Bravo,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  physician,  born  in  Castile, 
lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

Bravo,  bR^'vo,  (Nicolas,)  a  Mexican  general,  born 
about  1780  or  1790,  was  elected  vice-president  in  1824. 
He  took  arms  against  President  Vittoria  in  1827,  but  was 
quickly  defeated,  and  was  banished.    Died  about  1854. 

Bravo  de  Sobramonte-Ramires  bR&'vo  da  so- 
bRd-mon'ta  rS-mee'r^s,  (Caspar,)  professor  of  medicine 
and  surgery  at  Valladolid,  was  physician  to  Philip  IV. 
and  Charles  II. 

Bravo-Murillo.    See  Murillo. 

Brawe,  bRi's^eh,  (Joachim  Wilhelm,)  Baron  of, 
a  German  tragic  poet,  born  at  Weissenfels  in  1738.  His 
tragedies  entitled  "Der  Freigeist"  and  "Brutus"  were 
edited  and  published  by  Lessing  after  his  death,  which 
took  place  in  1758. 

Brawer.    See  Brauwer. 

Brax'ton,  (Carter,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  American  Independence,  was  born  at  Newing- 
ton,  King-and-Queen  county,  Virginia,  in  1736.  In  1775 
he  was  elected  to  Congress  as  successor  to  Peyton  Ran- 
dolph.   Died  in  1797. 

Bray,  (Anna  Eliza,)  an  English  novelist,  whose 
maiden  name  was  Kempe,  born  in  Surrey  about  1800. 
She  was  married  to  Charles  Stothard  in  1818,  and  to 
Rev.  Edward  A.  Bray  about  1825.  She  published  a 
number  of  novels,  among  which  are  "  Gaston  de  Foix," 
(1826,)  "The  White  Hoods,"  (1828,)  "Talba,"  (1834,) 
and  "Trelawney,"  (1837;)  also,  "Traditions  and  Legends 
of  Devonshire,"  (1838.) 

See  "London  Quarterly"  for  October,  1837. 

Bray,  (Sir  Reginald,)  an  English  architect,  and  a 
favourite  of  Henry  VII.,  whose  chapel  at  Westminster 
is  supposed  to  have  been  designed  by  him.  He  also  con- 
structed the  nave  of  Saint  George's  Chapel  at  Windsor, 
Died  in  1503. 

Bray,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Shrop- 
shire in  1656,  made  several  voyages  to  America  as  a 
missionary,  and  founded  in  1697'a  society  for  the  propa- 
gation of  <^he  gospel  in  the  colonies.    Died  in  1730. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 


€  asi;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  o,  h,  y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2^=  See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BRAT 


430 


BREDERODE 


Bray,  (William,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  1736, 
published  the  "Diary  and  Memoirs  of  Evelyn,"  and  was 
J,  contributor  to  the  "  Archaeologia."  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.    Died  ab'-  .t  1830. 

Bray,  de,  deh  bRc\,  (Franqois  Gabriel,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1765,  was  minister  to 
Berlin  and  Saint  Petersburg,  (1808.)  He  published  a 
"Critical  Essay  on  the  History  of  Livonia,"  (1817,)  and 
several  scientific  works,  A  genus  of  plants  has  been 
called  Braya  in  his  honour.    Died  in  1832. 

See  Martius,  "  filoge  academique  du  Comte  de  Bray,"  1835. 

Bray,  de,  deh  bRi,  (Jakob,)  an  excellent  Dutch 
painter  of  portraits  and  history,  son  of  Salomon,  noticed 
below,  born  at  Haarlem  about  1600  ;  died  in  1664. 

Bray,  de,  (Salomon,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Haar- 
lem in  1579  ;  died  in  1664. 

Bray'brooke,  (Richard  Cornwallis  Neville,) 
Lord,  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  London  in  1820 ; 
died  in  1861. 

Braybrooke,  (Richard  Neville  Griffin,)  Lord, 
an  English  antiquary,  born  about  1783.  He  published  a 
"History  of  Audley  End,  Essex."    Died  in  1858. 

Brayer  de  Beauregard,  bRt'ya'  deh  boR^gtR', 
(Jean  Baptiste  Louis,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Soissons  in  1770,  wrote  several  works  on  political  econ- 
omy.   Died  in  1834.  4 

Bray'ley,  (Edward  Wedlake,)  an  English  anti- 
quary and  topographer,  born  in  London  in  1773.  He 
published  numerous  works  on  the  antiquities  and  to- 
pography of  England,  among  which  is  "  Londoniana," 
(4  vols.,  1829.)    Died  in  1854. 

Bray'man,  (Mason,)  an  American  officer,  born  at 
Buffalo,  New  York,  in  1813,  entered  the  Union  army  in 
1 86 1,  and  became  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  1862. 

Brea,  bRa'i,  (Lodovico,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Nice,  flourished  from  about  1480  to  15 15.  He  worked 
mostly  at  Genoa.  His  heads  and  draperies  are  com- 
mended. 

Breard,  bRa'tR',  (Jean  Jacques,)  born  at  Marennes, 
in  France,  in  1760,  was  a  member  of  the  National  Con- 
vention, where  he  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  Died 
in  1840. 

Brebeuf,  de,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Thorigny  in  1618.  He  produced  a  metrical  version  of 
Lucan's  "  Pharsalia,"  which  was  once  popular,  but  was 
severely  criticised  l3y  Boileau  in  his  "Art  Poetique." 
Died  in  1661. 

Brebeuf,  de,  (Jean,)  a  French  missionary,  born  in 
1593,  laboured  in  Canada,  where  he  was  killed  by  sav- 
ages in  1649. 

Brebiette,  bReh-be-^t',  (Pierre,)  a  French  painter 
and  engraver,  born  about  1596. 

Brechten,  bR^K'ten,  or  Verbrechten,  v§r-bR§K'ten, 
(Nikolaas,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Haarlem  about  1240, 

Breckburg.    See  Berkheiden. 

Breck'en-ridge,  (James,)  an  American  politician, 
born  in  Botetourt  county,  Virginia,  in  1763,  was  a  repre- 
sentative in  Congress  from  1809  to  181 7,  and  was  an 
active  leader  of  the  Federal  party.    Died  in  1833. 

Breckenridge,  (John,)  attorney-general  of  the  United 
States  under  Jefferson  from  1805  to  1806,  was  born  in 
Virginia  near  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Having  removed  to  Kentucky,  he  was  elected  in  1801 
to  the  United  States  Senate.  In  this  body  he  proposed 
the  repeal  of  the  judiciary  system  established  at  the  close 
of  Adams's  administration,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  great  debate  which  followed.    Died  in  1806. 

Breckenridge,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  Presbyte- 
rian divine,  son  of  the  preceding,  and  uncle  of  John  C. 
Breckinridge,  (Vice-President  of  the  United  States,)  was 
born  at  Cabell's  Dale,  Kentucky,  in  1797.  He  graduated 
at  Princeton  in  1818,  and  subsequently  became  a  professor 
in  that  institution. 

Breckenridge,  usually  written  Breckinridge,  (John 
C.,)  an  American  statesman  and  general,  a  nephew  of 
Robert  J.  Breckenridge,  was  born  near  Lexington,  Ken- 
tucky, in  1 82 1.  He  studied  law,  became  a  Democrat  in 
party  politics,  and  was  elected  to  Congress  from  Ken- 
tucky in  185 1,  and  re-elected  in  1853.  Having  been  nomi- 
nated as  Democratic  candidate  for  Vice-President,  he  was 
elected  in  November,  1856,  when  James  Buchanan  was 


chosen  President.  He  was  nominated  for  the  Presidency 
in  i860  by  the  disunion  Democrats,  after  they  had  seceded 
from  the  convention  which  nominated  Douglas  as  a  Union 
Democrat.  He  had  two  other  competitors, — John  Bell 
and  Abraham  Lincoln.  He  received  seventy-two  elec- 
toral votes,  Lincoln  received  one  hundred  and  eighty, 
Bell  thirty-nine,  and  Douglas  twelve.  All  the  Southern 
States,  except  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Mis- 
souri, voted  for  Breckinridge.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Senate  of  the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of  Ken- 
tucky, and  took  his  seat  in  March,  1861.  After  he  had 
defended  the  cause  of  the  new  confederacy  by  several 
speeches  in  the  Senate,  he  went  to  the  South  in  Septem- 
ber, 1861,  and  took  arms  against  the  Union,  with  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  commanded  a  division  at 
Stone  River,  December  31,  1862-January  2,  1863,  and  at 
Chickamauga,  September  19  and  20,  1863.  He  defeated 
General  Sigel  near  Newmarket,  Virginia,  in  May,  1864. 
His  corps  formed  part  of  the  army  of  Early,  which  Sheri- 
dan defeated  near  Winchester  in  Sejjtember,  1864.  He 
was  appointed  Confederate  secretary  of  war  in  January, 
1865.  Soon  after  the  surrender  of  General  Lee,  he  sailed 
for  Europe.  He  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1868. 

Breckenridge,  (Robert  J.,)  an  American  Presby- 
terian divine,  born  at  Cabell's  Dale,  Kentucky,  in  1800,  is 
a  son  of  John  Breckenridge,  (the  first  of  the  name,)  no- 
ticed above.  He  studied  at  Yale  College,  graduated  at 
Union  College  in  1819,  practised  law  eight  years  in  Ken- 
tucky, and  became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Baltimore  in 
1832.  About  1847  he  removed  to  Lexington,  Kentucky. 
He  gained  distinction  as  a  preacher  and  a  writer,  had 
much  influence  in  the  church,  and  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  a  seminary  at  Danville,  Kentucky, 
in  1853.  Among  his  works  are  "Travels  in  Europe," 
(1839,)  and  "The  Knowledge  of  God  objectively  consid- 
ered," (1857.)  He  is  said  to  be  the  principal  author  of  the 
common-school  system  of  Kentucky.  During  the  civil  war 
he  was  a  decided  and  earnest  supporter  of  the  Union. 

Breckinridge,  (John  C.)    See  Breckenridge. 

Brecling,  bRek'ling,  (Frederik,)  a  Danish  Protest- 
ant theologian  and  writer,  born  near  Flensburg  in  1629  ; 
died  in  1711. 

Brecourt,  de,  deh  bR^'kooR',  (Guillaume  Marcou- 
reau,)  a  French  actor  and  dramatic  poet.  Died  in  1685. 

Breda,  van,  vtnbReh-dd',  (Jan,)  a  Flemish  painter  of 
landscapes,  fairs,  battles,  etc.,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1683. 
He  copied  the  works  of  Breughel  and  Wouwerman  with 
remarkable  skill.  His  touch  and  skies  and  distances  are 
praised  by  Descamps.    Died  in  1750. 

See  Descamps,  "Viesdes  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Breda,  van,  (Pieter,)  a  Flemish  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1630  ;  died  in  1681. 

Bredahl,  bRi-dlK,  (Christian  David,)  a  Danish 
poet,  born  in  1784,  wrote  "Dramatic  Scenes  taken  from 
an  Old  Manuscript,"  and  other  works. 

See  Erslevv,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Bredahl,  (Niels  Krog,)  a  Danish  dramatist,  born 
about  1732,  wrote  several  plays,  and  translated  Ovid's 
"Metamorphoses"  into  Danish  verse.    Died  in  1778. 

Bredenbach,  bRa'den-baK^  (Tilmann,)  a  historical 
writer,  born  at  Emmerich  about  1535  ;  died  in  1587. 

Brederode,  bRaMeh-roMeh,  (Gerbrand,)  a  Dutch 
poet,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1585.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  "The  Meditative  Song-Book,"  "The  Great 
Fountain  of  Love,"  and  a  comedy  entitled  "  Spaanschen 
Brabander."    Died  in  161 8. 

See  Longfellow's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Brederode,  bid-deh-roMeh,  (Hendrik,)  Count,  a 
Flemish  nobleman,  born  in  Brussels  in  153 1,  was  an 
adherent  of  Egmont  and  Horn.  In  1566  he  presented  a 
petition  to  the  Duchess  of  Parma  for  the  removal  of  the 
Inquisition.  He  was  also  one  of  the  principal  members 
of  the  association  called  "  Les  Gueux,"  ("  The  Beggars.") 
Having  fought  unsuccessfully  against  the  Spaniards,  he 
took  refuge  in  Germany,  where  he  died  in  1568. 

See  P.  ScHELTEMA,  "  H.  van  Brederode  te  Amsterdam  in  1567," 
1S47 ;  Schiller,  "History  of  the  Revolt  of  the  Netherlands;" 
Motley,  "Dutch  Republic;"  M.  C.  van  Hall,  "H.  Graaf  van 
Brederode  verdedigd,"  1845. 

Brederode,  (Pieter  Kornelis,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born 
at  the  Hague,  flourished  about  1600. 


a,  e,  /,  o,  11,  Y,  lono-;  a,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fcLr,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BREDOW 


431 


BRENDAN 


Bredow,  bRa'do,  (Gabriel  Gottfried,)  born  at  Ber- 
lin in  1773,  became  professor  of  history  at  Breslau  in 
1811.  He  published  a  "Manual  of  Ancient  History," 
etc.,  (1803,)  "Memorable  Events  of  Universal  History," 
(1810,)  and  a  series  of  tables  entitled  "  Historische  Ta- 
bellen,"  which  were  translated  into  English  by  Major 
Bell.    Died  at  Breslau  in  1814. 

See  KuNiscH,  "  Bredows  Leben,"  1816;  Eksch  und  Gruber, 
"Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Bredsdorff,  bR^Ds'doRf,  (Jakob  Hornemann,)  a 
Danish  naturalist,  born  in  Seeland  in  1790,  became  in 
1828  professor  of  botany  and  mineralogy  at  Soroe.  He 
published  "  Elements  of  Geognosy,"  and  other  scientific 
works.    Died  in  1841. 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Bree,  bRi,  (Mathieu  Ignace,)  a  distinguished  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1773,  ^^^s  director  of 
the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  that  city.    Died  in  1839. 

See  F.  BoGAERTS,  "M.  van  Bree,"  1842. 

Bree,  (Robert,)  an  English  physician,  born  in  War- 
wickshire in  1759,  practised  in  London.  He  published 
"  An  Inquiry  into  Disordered  Respiration,"  (1797.)  Died 
in  1839. 

Breenberg,  bRan'b^RC,  or  Breemberg,  bRam'b^RG, 
(Bartholomeus,)  a  Dutch  painter  and  engraver,  born 
at  Utrecht  about  1620,  excelled  in  small  landscapes  and 
animals.    Died  in  1660. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Bregis  or  Bregy,  de,  deh  bRa^zhe',  (Charlotte 
Saiimaise  de  Chazan — so'maz'  deh  sht'zSN',)  Com- 
TESSE,  a  witty  and  accomplished  French  lady,  born  in 
Paris  in  1619,  was  a  niece  of  the  celebrated  Salmasius. 
She  was  maid  of  honour  to  Anne  of  Austria.  Died  in 
1693,  leaving  a  collection  of  letters  and  poems. 

See  "Memoires  de  Madame  de  Motteville." 

Breguet,  bRk'g^',  (Abraham  Louis,)  a  celebrated 
Swiss  mechanician  and  watchmaker,  born  at  Neufchatel 
in  1747.  He  made  improvements  in  watches,  and  in- 
vented numerous  astronomical,  nautical,  and  other  in- 
struments, distinguished  for  the  perfection  of  their  work- 
manship. He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Bureau  of 
Longitude,  and  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris. 
Died  in  1823. 

See  Fourier,  "£loge  de  Breguet." 

Breguet,  (Louis,)  a  French  watchmaker  and  natural 
philosopher,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1804.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  Frenchman 
who  applied  himself  seriously  to  the  electric  telegraph, 
on  which  he  produced  a  treatise  in  1845. 

Bregy.    See  Br6gis. 

Brehm,  bRam,  (Christian  Ludwig,)  a  German  or- 
nithologist, born  at  Schonau  in  1787.  He  published  a 
"Manual  of  the  Natural  History  of  European  Birds," 
(2  vols.,  1823-24,)  and  other  works. 

Brehmer,  bRa'mer,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  jurist  and 
diplomatist,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1800. 

Breislak,  bRls'lik,  (SciPio,)  an  eminent  geologist,  of 
German  extraction,  born  at  Rome  in  1748.  Having  been 
appointed  professor  in  the  Nazarene  College  at  Rome, 
he  made  valuable  contributions  to  the  mineralogical  cabi- 
net of  that  institution.  He  subsequently  visited  Paris, 
where  he  became  acquainted  with  Cuvier  and  other  cel- 
ebrated savants.  He  published  "  Physical  Topography 
of  the  Campagna,"  (1798,)  "Introduction  to  Geology," 
(1811,)  and  other  works,  in  which  he  favours  the  vulcanic 
theory.  He  died  in  1826,  leaving  his  cabinet  of  minerals 
to  the  Borromeo  family. 

See  CoNFiGLiACHi,  "Memorie  intomo  alle  Opere,  etc.  del  Gef)- 
logo  S.  Breislak,"  1827;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1804,  and 
September,  1816. 

Breithaupt,  bRit'howpt,  (Joachim  Justus,)  a  German 
Protestant  divine  and  sacred  poet,  born  in  Hanover  in 
1658,  became  professor  of  theology  at  Halle. 

Breithaupt,  (Johann  August  Friedrich,)  a  dis- 
tinguished German  mineralogist,  born  near  Saalfeld, 
Saxe-Meiningen,  in  May,  1791,  was  a  pupil  of  Werner. 
He  became  professor  of  oryctognosy  at  Freiberg  in  1827. 
He  discovered  a  number  of  new  species  of  minerals.  His 
chief  work  is  a  "  Complete  Manual  of  Mineralogy,"  (3 
vols..  1836-47  ) 


Breitinger,  bRT'ting''er,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Swiss 
scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Zurich  in  1701,  became  pro 
fessor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  in  his  native  city.  He  was 
associated  with  Bodmer  in  his  efforts  to  reform  German 
literature,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  controversy 
with  Gottsched.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Critique  on 
the  Art  of  Poetry,"  ("Kritische  Dichtkunst,")  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1776. 

See  J.  C.  Lavater,  "  Eloge  historique  de  J.  J.  Breitinger,"  1771. 

Breitkopf,  bRlf'kopf,  (Johann  Gottlob  Emma- 
nuel,) a  distinguished  German  typographer,  born  at 
Leipsic  in  1719,  introduced  great  improvements  into  the 
form  of  types,  and  wrote  a  work  on  the  invention  of 
printing.    Died  in  1794. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  Hausius, 
"  Biographie  J.  G.  E.  Breitkopfs,"  1794. 

Brembati,  bR§m-bi'tee,  (Isotta,)  an  Italian  poetess, 
born  at  Bergamo;  died  in  1586. 

Bre'mer,  [Sw.  pron.  bRu'mer,]  (Frederika  or  Fked- 
RIKA,)  a  celebrated  Swedish  novelist,  born  at  Abo,  in  Fin- 
land, in  1802.  Her  parents  having  removed  to  Sweden 
while  she  was  yet  a  child,  her  education  was  finished  at 
Stockholm,  where  she  was  subsequently  teacher  in  a  fe- 
male seminary.  She  early  became  familiar  with  German 
literature,  and  was  an  especial  admirer  of  the  works  of 
Schiller.  Her  novel  of  "  The  Neighbours"  was  first  made 
known  to  the  English  and  American  public  in  1842, 
through  the  excellent  translation  of  Mrs.  Mary  Ho  wilt. 
It  was  followed  by  "The  Home,"  (1843,)  "The  Presi- 
dent's Daughters,"  "The  Diary,"  "The  H.  Family," 
"Strife  and  Peace,"  "Nina,"  "Brothers  and  Sisters," 
and  several  others,  also  translated  by  Mrs.  Howitt. 
They  enjoy  great  popularity  in  England  and  the  United 
States,  and  have  been  translated  into  German,  French, 
Dutch,  and  other  languages.  Having  visited  the  United 
States  in  1850,  she  published,  after  her  return,  "The 
Homes  of  the  New  World,"  (1853,)  of  which  an  English 
and  a  German  translation  soon  appeared.  Among  her 
more  recent  works  are  "England  in  1851,"  and  a  novel 
entitled  "  Hertha,"  (1856.)    Died  in  1866. 

See  "  Life,  Letters,  and  Posthumous  Works  of  Frederika  Bremer," 
edited  by  her  sister  Charlotte,  New  York,  i2mo,  1868;  "Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  November,  1843  ;  and  an  article  in  the  "  North  Ameri- 
can Review"  for  April,  1844,  (by  Lowell.) 

Bremond,  bRi-m6N^  (Gabrielle,)  a  French  lady, 
born  at  Marseilles,  travelled  in  Egypt,  Palestine,  and 
Syria,  and  wrote  an  account  of  her  journey,  which  was 
translated  into  Italian,  (1673.) 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Bremond,  de,  deh  bReh-m6N',  (Charles,)  Marquis 
d'Ars,  (d^R,)  a  French  naval  officer,  born  in  Saintonge 
in  1738,  was  killed  in  battle  against  the  English  in  1761 

Bremond,  de,  deh  bRk'm^N',  (FRANq'Ois,)  a  French 
natural  philosopher,  born  in  Paris  in  1713.  He  pro- 
duced a  good  translation  of  the  "  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,"  (4  vols.,  1738.) 
Died  in  1742. 

Bremond,  de,  (Gabriel,)  a  French  romance-writer, 
lived  about  167c- 1703. 

Bremond  d'Ars,  de,  deh bReh-m6N'  dtRs, (Cha rles,) 
a  French  captain,  born  in  1538,  rendered  important  ser- 
vices to  the  king  and  Catholic  party  in  the  civil  wars. 
Died  in  1599. 

See  DuPLEix,  "  Histoire  de  France." 

Bremond  d'Arses,  (or  d'Ars,)  bReh-m^)N'  dtRs, 
(Louis,)  a  French  commander,  born  in  Saintonge,  distin- 
guished himself  in  Italy  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XII.,  and 
had  a  high  command  at  Ravenna  in  1 511. 

Bremontier,  bRk'm6N^te-i',  (Nicolas  Theodore,) 
a  French  engineer  and  inspector-general  of  bridges  and 
highways,  born  in  1738;  died  in  1809. 

Bremser,  bRim'ser,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German 
physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Wertheim,  on  the  Main, 
in  1767.  He  practised  in  Vienna,  and  wrote  on  intestinal 
worms.    Died  in  1827. 

Bren'dan,  Saint,  written  also  Brandan,  was  born 
in  Ireland  in  the  fifth  century.  According  to  a  legend 
which  obtained  currency  for  several  centuries,  he  made 
a  long  voyage  in  the  Atlantic  and  discovered  an  island 
called  by  his  name.    Died  in  577  a.d. 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  June,  1836. 


€  as      c  ns  .f,-  g  Iiard;  g  as  j;  r,,  H,  v.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  fJiis.    (^^^^^^ee  E.xplaiuitions,  p.  23.) 


B  REN  DEL 


432 


BRET 


Brendel,  bR§u'del,  (Adam,)  a  German  physician,  was 
professor  of  anatomy  and  botany  at  Wittenberg.  Died 
in  1719. 

Brendel,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Wittenberg  in  17 12,  became  professor  of  medi- 
cine at  Gottingen.    Died  in  1758. 

Brendel,  (Zacharias,)  a  German  medical  writer,  born 
at  Jena  in  1592  ;  died  in  1638. 

Brenius,  bRa'ne-us,  (Daniel,)  a  Dutch  theologian, 
born  at  Haarlem  in  1594,  was  a  disciple  of  Episcopius. 
Died  in  1664. 

Brenkenhoff,  bR§nk'en-hof ,  (Leopold,)  a  German 
writer  on  the  art  of  war,  born  at  Dessau  in  1750;  died 
in  1799. 

Brenkenhoff,  von,  fon  bR^nk'en-hof,  (Franz  Bal- 
thasar  Schoenberg,)  a  German  rural  economist,  born 
near  Halle  in  1723;  died  in  1780. 

See  Meissner,  "  Leben  des  F.  B.  Schoenberg  von  Brenkenhoff," 
1782. 

Brenkmann,  bRgnk^mSn,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  jurist, 
born  at  Rotterdam  about  1680 ;  died  in  1736. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Brenner,  bR^n'ner,  (Elias,)  a  Swedish  antiquary  and 
artist,  born  in  1647,  was  appointed  miniature-painter  to 
Charles  XL    Died  in  1717. 

See  Ersch  und  Gkuber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Brenner,  (Henrik,)  a  Swedish  scholar  and  historian, 
born  in  1669.  He  translated  into  Latin  the  "  History  of 
Armenia"  of  Moses  Chorenensis,  and  wrote  an  account 
of  the  expedition  of  Peter  the  Great  against  Persia.  Died 
in  1732. 

Brenner,  (Sofia  Elisabet  Weber,)  a  Swedish  poet- 
ess, born  about  1660,  was  the  wife  of  Elias,  above  noticed. 
Died  about  1730. 

Bren'nus,  a  famous  chief  of  the  Sen'ones,  a  tribe  of 
Gauls,  invaded  the  Roman  State  about  390  B.C.  Having 
defeated  the  Roman  army,  he  entered  Rome,  which  he 
found  deserted  except  by  a  number  of  aged  senators 
sitting  in  ivory  chairs,  whom  the  Gauls  massacred.  The 
Capitol,  however, was  defended  by  a  garrison, whom  Bren- 
nus  attempted  to  surprise  by  night ;  but  Manlius  and 
his  companions,  alarmed  by  the  clamour  of  some  geese, 
repulsed  the  Gauls.  Brennus  was  induced  to  depart  by 
the  payment  of  one  thousand  pounds  of  gold — plus  the 
weight  of  his  sword,  which  he  threw  into  the  scale,  ex- 
claiming, "  Vae  victis  !"  According  to  the  popular  story, 
Camillus,  who  had  been  previously  banished,  came  to 
the  relief  of  his  countrymen  at  the  very  moment  when 
they  were  weighing  out  the  money  which  was  to  purchase 
peace  with  the  Gauls  :  the  latter  were  so  utterly  defeated 
that,  it  is  said,  not  one  remained  to  carry  home  the  news 
of  their  overthrow.    (See  Camillus.) 

See  Livv,  "  Plistory  of  Rome,"  book  v. 

Brennus,  a  Gallic  chieftain,  invaded  Greece  about 
280  B.C.  with  an  immense  army,  and  committed  great 
devastation.  He  was  defeated  at  Delphi,  and  died  soon 
after  that  event. 

Brent,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  jurist  and  littiraleiir, 
born  in  Warwickshire  in  1573.  He  translated  into  Eng- 
lish and  Latin  Paul  Sarpi's  "  History  of  the  Council  of 
Trent."    Died  in  1652. 

Brenta,  bRen'tS,  [Lat.  Bren'tius,]  (Andrea,)  an 
Italian  physician  and  litterateicr,  born  at  Padua  about 
1450,  was  secretary  to  Cardinal  Caraffa.    Died  in  1483. 

Brentana,  bRgn-tcVnl,  (Simone,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  in  1656  at  Verona,  or,  as  stated  by  some  writers, 
at  Venice.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a  "  Martyrdom 
of  Saint  Sebastian,"  at  Verona.    Died  about  1736. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Brentano,  bR^n-t^'no,  (Clemens,)  a  German  novel- 
ist and  dramatist,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1777, 
was  the  brother  of  Bettina  von  Arnim,  the  friend  of 
Goethe.  Among  his  most  popular  works  are  the  dramas 
of  "  Ponce  de  Leon"  and  "The  Foundation  of  Prague," 
("  Die  Griindung  Prags,")  a  tale  entitled  "  History  of 
the  Brave  Kaspar  and  the  Fair  Annerl,"  and  a  collection 
of  national  ballads  called  "  Des  Knaben  Wunderhorn," 
written  conjointly  with  his  brother-in-law,  A.  von  Arnim. 
Died  in  1842. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 


Brentano,  (Lorenz,)  a  German  politician,  born  at 
Manheim  in  1810,  took  an  active  part  in  the  Baden  revo- 
lution of  1848.  Being  afterwards  compelled  to  leave  his 
country,  he  took  refuge  in  America. 

Brentano,  (Sophie,)  wife  of  Clemens,  noticed  above, 
born  at  Altenburg  in  1761,  was  originally  named  ScHU- 
BART.  She  published  several  poems  and  romances. 
Died  in  1806. 

Brentel,  bR^n'tel,  (Frederick,)  a  painter  of  Stras- 
burg,  born  about  1580,  numbered  William  Bawer  among 
his  pupils. 

Brentius.    See  Brentz  and  Brenta. 

Bren'tpn,  (Captain  Edward  Pelham,)  an  English 
naval  officer,  born  in  1774,  wrote  a  "Naval  History  of 
Great  Britain  from  1783  to  1822,"  (5  vols.)  Died  in  1839. 

See  "Memoir  of  Capt.  E.  Pelham  Brenton,"  by  Sir  J.  Brenton. 

Brenton,  (Sir  Jahleel,)  a  British  rear-admiral,  bro- 
ther of  the  preceding,  born  in  1770.  He  published  "  The 
Hope  of  the  Navy,"  (1839,)  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1844. 

See  Henry  Raikes,  "Memoir  of  Sir  Jahleel  Brenton,"  1845; 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1847. 

Brentz,  bR^nts,  or  Brentzen,  bR^nt'sen,  [Lat.  Bren'- 
Tius,]  (Johann,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian,  and 
coadjutor  of  Luther,  born  at  Weil,  in  Suabia,  in  1499. 
He  assisted  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  in  1530,  drew  up 
the  "Confession  of  Wurtemberg,"  and  was  present  at 
the  Council  of  Trent.  Pursued  by  the  emissaries  of 
Charles  V.,  he  was  at  length  protected  by  Duke  Ulric 
of  Wiirtemberg.    Died  in  1570. 

See  J.  W.  Camerer,  "J.  Brentz  der  Wiirtembergische  Reforma- 
tor,"  1840;  Carl  Dietrich,  "Leben  des  J.  Brentz,"  1841;  Vai- 
HiNGER,  "  Leben  mid  Wirken  des  Reformators  J.  Brentz,"  1841. 

Brentzen.    See  Brentz. 

Brequigny,  de,  deh  bR^^k^n'ye',  (Louis  George 
OuDARD  Feudrix — fuh'dRe',)  a  French  historian  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Granville  in  1716,  was  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy  and  of  the  Academy  of  Inscription:». 
He  wrote,  in  conjunction  with  Mouchet,  a  continuation 
of  the  "  Memoirs  of  the  Chinese,"  begun  by  Amiot  and 
others,  and  assisted  in  the  publication  of  the  "  Collection 
of  Laws  and  Ordinances  of  the  Kings  of  the  Third  Race." 
Died  in  1795. 

See  Grimm,  "  Correspondance." 

Brera,  bRa'rl,  (Valeriano  Luigi,)  an  Italian  physi- 
cian and  medical  writer  of  great  merit,  born  at  Pavi'a  in 
1772,  became  professor  of  therapeutics  and  clinics  in  his 
native  city.    Died  in  Venice  in  1840. 

See  Tassinari,  "  Raccolta  della  Cure  e  Scritti  del  Professore 
V.  L.  Brera,"  1840. 

Brere'ton,  (Jane  Hughes,)  an  English  poetess,  born 
in  Flintshire  in  1685;  died  in  1740. 

Brere'wood,  (Edward,)  an  English  mathematician 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Chester  in  1565.  He  published 
"The  Patriarchal  Government  of  the  Ancient  Church," 
a  treatise  "  On  the  Weights  and  Values  of  Ancient  Coins, 
etc.,"  ("  De  Ponderibus  et  Pretiis  Veterum  Nummorum,") 
and  other  works,  in  English  and  Latin.    Died  in  1613. 

See  Wood,  "Athense  Oxonienses." 

Bres,  bRi,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Limoges  in  1782,  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Revue 
Encyclopedique."    Died  in  1832. 

Bresohet,  bRa^sha',  (Gilbert,)  a  French  physician, 
medical  writer,  and  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  Faculty 
of  Paris,  born  at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1784.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Institute.    Died  in  1845. 

Brescia,  da,  dS  bresh'yl  or  bRa'sha,  or  Bresciano, 
bRi-shi'no,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Brescia  about  1460.  His  brother 
Giovanni  Antonio,  born  about  1461,  was  an  engraver. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Bresmal,  bRi^mlK,  (Jean  Franqois,)  a  Flemish 
medical  writer  of  Liege,  lived  about  1700. 

Bressani,  bRes-s3.'nee,  (Gregorio,)  an  Italian  philos- 
opher, born  at  Treviso  in  1703,  wrote  against  the  doc- 
trines of  Galileo,  and  in  favour  of  Aristotle.  Died  in  1771. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Bret,  bR^,  (Antoine,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Dijon  in  171 7,  wrote  a  "Commentary  on  the  Works  of 
Moliere,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1792. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  f^t;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BRET AG NE 


433 


BRETDEL 


Bretagne,  de,  (Anne.)    See  Anne  of  Brittany. 

Bretagne,  de,  (Arthur.)    See  Arthur. 

Breteuil,  de,  deh  bueh-tuF,  (Louis  Auguste  le 
Tonnelier — leh  ton'le-a'',)  Baron,  a  French  diplomatist 
of  the  royalist  party,  Ijorn  in  Touraine  in  1733,  was  em- 
ployed in  missions  to  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Naples,  and 
became  minister  of  state  about  1783.    Died  in  1807. 

Breton,  bReh-t6N',  (Fran^-ois  Pierre  Hippolyte 
Ernest,)  a  French  artist  and  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in 
1812.  He  published  "Monuments  of  All  Nations,"  (2 
vols.,  1843,  with  300  engravings  designed  by  himself,) 
which  was  translated  into  several  languages,  and  "Pom- 
peia,"  (1855.)  He  wrote  many  articles  on  painters  for 
the  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Breton,  (Cuillaume,)  sometimes  called  Gulielmus 
Brito-Armoricus,  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  histoi  ian, 
born  in  Brittany  about  1150.  He  was  chaplain  at  the 
court  of  Philip  Augustus,  and  wrote  two  histories  of  his 
reign, — one,  entitled  "  Philippis,"  in  Latin  verse,  the  other 
in  prose.    Died  in  1226. 

See  NiCERON,  "Menioires." 

Breton,  brit'on,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  poet,  born 
in  1555.  He  wrote  pastorals,  sonnets,  etc.  Died  in 
1624- 

Breton,  (Raymond,)  a  French  missionary  to  the  West 
Indies,  born  in  1609,  published  a  "  French-Carib  and 
Carib-French  Dictionary,"  and  a  "Carib  Grammar." 
Died  in  1679. 

Breton  de  los  Herreros,  bRi-t6n'  dk  16s  §r-ra'r6s, 
(Manuel,)  a  Spanish  dramatist  and  poet,  born  in  the 
province  of  Logrono  in  1796. 

Bretonnayau,  bReh-to'nS'yo',  (Reni^,)  a  French  sur- 
geon and  writer,  lived  about  1540-90. 

Bretonne,  de  la.    See  R6tif. 

Bretonneau,  bReh-to'no',  (  Francois,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  theological  writer,  and  pulpit  orator,  born  in 
Touraine  in  1660;  died  in  1741. 

Bretonneau,  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician  and  medi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Tours  in  1771.  He  obtained  celebrity 
as  a  practitioner,  and  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  the  ope- 
ration called  tracheotomy.    Died  in  1862. 

See  CALi.rsEN,  "  Medicinische  Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 

Bretschneider,  bR^t'shnl'der,  (Heinrich  Gott- 
fried,) a  German  litterateur,  born  at  Gera  in  1739.  He 
was  the  author  of  fables,  poems,  romances,  and  satires, 
and  "Travels  to  London  and  Paris,"  a  translation  of 
which  appeared  in  "Blackwood's  Magazine."  He  is 
also  supposed  to  have  furnished  the  principal  material 
for  Nicolai's  "Travels."    Died  in  1810. 

See  Eksch  und  Gruber,  "AUgenieine  Encyklopaedie." 

Bretschneider,  (Karl  Gottlieb,)  a  German  ration- 
alist theologian,  born  at  Gersdorf  in  1776,  was  general 
superintendent  in  Gotha.  He  published  a  "Dogmatic 
Manual  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church,"  (1814-18,) 
and  "Corpus  Reformatorum,  or  Philippi  Melanchthonis 
Opera  quae  supersunt  Omnia,"  (15  vols.,  1834-48.)  Died 
in  1848. 

See  his  "  Aut-^biography,"  ("  Selbstbiographie,")  1851. 

Brett,  (Thomas,)  an  English  nonjuror,  born  in  Kent 
in  1667.  He  became  rector  of  Ruckinge  in  1705.  He 
wrote  several  polemical  treatises.    Died  in  1743. 

Bretteville,  de,  deh  brgt'v^K,  (£tienne  Dubois,)  a 
French  theologian,  born  near  Caen  in  1650 ;  died  in 
1688. 

Breughel,  bRuh'gel  or  bRuh'Hel,  (Abraham,)  sur- 
named  the  Neapolitan,  an  excellent  painter  of  birds 
and  of  still  life,  born  at  Antwerp,  resided  many  years  in 
Rome  and  Naples.    Died  in  1690. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Breughel,  (Jan,)  an  eminent  Flemish  painter,  brother 
of  Peter  the  younger,  born  at  Brussels  about  1570,  was 
called  Velvet  Breughel,  from  the  usual  material  of  his 
dress.  He  painted  landscapes,  fruit,  flowers,  and  animals 
with  admirable  skill.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  the 
landscape  of  "  Adam  and  Eve  in  Paradise,"  now  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Louvre,  for  which  Rubens  furnished  the 
figures.  In  conjunction  with  that  great  artist  he  executed 
"The  Four  Elements,"  and  "  Vertumnus  and  Bellona." 
His  death  is  variously  dated  from  1625  to  1642. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 


Breughel,  (Peter  or  Pieter,)  an  eminent  Flemish 
painter,  surnamed  THE  Droll,  born  near  Breda  about 
1525,  excelled  in  village  festivals  and  comic  subjects. 
Died  about  1590. 

Breughel,  (Peter,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Brussels  about  1569,  was  surnamed  THE  Hellish,  from 
the  nature  of  the  subjects  he  painted.    Died  about  1625. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Breuil,  du.    See  Dubreuil. 

Brev'al,  de,  (John  Durand,)  an  English  officer  and 
writer,  published  a  "  History  of  the  House  of  Nassau," 
and  several  poems.    Died  in  1739. 

Breves,  de,  deh  bRav,  (Francois  Savary,)  Comte, 
a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  1560,  was  ambassador  to 
Constantinople  and  to  Rome.    Died  in  1628. 

Brev'int,  (Daniel,)  a  Protestant  theologian,  born  in 
the  island  of  Jersey  in  1616.  After  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II.  he  became  Dean  of  Lincoln.    Died  in  1695. 

Brew'er,  (Anthony,)  an  English  dramatist,  lived 
about  1615-30,  and  wrote  a  play  entitled  "Lingua." 

Brewer,  (Samuel,)  an  English  botanist,  was  a  friend 
of  Dillenius,  whom  he  assisted  in  publishing  his  "His- 
tory of  Mosses,"  ("Historia  Muscorum.")  Died  in  1743. 

Brewer,  (Thomas,)  an  English  musician  and  lyrical 
composer,  lived  under  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 

Brews'ter,  (Sir  David,)  an  eminent  British  optician 
and  experimental  philosopher,  born  at  Jedburgh,  Scot- 
land, December  11,  1781.  He  was  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh,  for  the  ministry,  and  was  licensed 
to  preach  ;  but  his  fondness  for  scientific  research  led  him 
to  abandon  the  profession  of  divine  and  devote  himself  to 
his  favourite  pursuits.  He  was  editor  of  the  "  Edinburgh 
Encyclopaedia"  from  its  commencement,  in  1808,  until  its 
completion,  about  1829,  and  wrote  many  articles  for  that 
valuable  work.  After  he  had  been  engaged  some  years 
in  optical  researches,  he  published,  in  1812,  a  "Treatise 
on  Burning  Instruments,  containing  the  Method  of  build- 
ing  Large  Polyzonal  Lenses."  In  181 5  the  Royal  Society 
of  London  awarded  him  the  Copley  medal  for  his  essay 
"  On  the  Polarization  of  Light  by  Reflection,"  and  elected 
him  a  Fellow.  He  invented  the  kaleidoscope  about  181 6. 
In  the  same  year  he  received  from  the  French  Institute 
half  of  the  prize  of  three  thousand  francs  awarded  for 
the  two  most  important  discoveries  made  in  Europe  in 
physical  science  during  the  two  years  preceding.  Dr. 
Brewster  and  Professor  Jameson  founded  the  "Edin- 
burgh Philosophical  Journal"  in  1819,  and  the  "Edin- 
burgh Journal  of  Science,"  of  which  sixteen  volumes 
were  issued.  He  invented  an  improved  system  of  illumi- 
nating light-houses  by  polyzonal  (or  polygonal)  lenses, 
which  was  adopted  in  1833.  He  married  a  daughter  of 
Macpherson,  the  author  or  editor  of  "  Ossian's  Poems." 

Among  his  chief  works  are  a  "Treatise  on  Optics," 
(183 1,)  "More  Worlds  than  One,  the  Creed  of  the  Phi- 
losopher and  the  Hope  of  the  Christian,"  (1854,)  and 
"Memoirs  of  the  Life,  Writings,  and  Discoveries  of  Sir 
Isaac  Newton,"  (2  vols.,  1855.)  Among  his  chief  titles 
to  celebrity  are  his  discovery  of  the  law  of  the  polar- 
ization of  light  by  reflection,  and  his  researches  on  double 
refraction. 

"  In  the  earlier  compositions  of  Sir  David,  always 
severe  in  style  and  sternly  scientific  in  form,"  says  Hugh 
Miller,'" there  is  comparatively  little  indication  of  that 
rich  flow  of  fancy  and  imagination  and  that  fertility  of 
happy  illustration  which  his  later  writings  exhibit."  He 
was  a  contributor  to  the  "  North  British  Review"  and  the 
"Encyclopaedia  Britannica."  In  1841  he  was  appointed 
principal  of  Saint  Leonard's  College  at  Saint  Andrew's. 
In  1849  he  was  elected  one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates 
of  the  Institute  of  France,  in  place  of  Berzelius.  Died 
in  February,  1868. 

Brewster,  (William,)  one  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers, 
was  born  at  Scrooby,  England,  in  1560.  He  was  one  of 
a  company  of  Puritans  who  emigrated  to  Holland,  and 
he  removed  to  Plymouth  in  1620.  He  was  a  ruling  elder 
in  the  church.    Died  in  1644. 

See  "  Life  and  Times  of  William  Brewster,"  by  A.  Steele,  1857. 

Breydel,  bRl'del,  (Carl,)  a  Flemish  painter  of  land- 
scapes, battles,  etc.,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1677  ;  died  in 
1744. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttiiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2;^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

28 


BRETDEL 


434 


BRIGGS 


Breydel,  (Frants,)  a  Flemish  painter  of  portraits, 
carnivals,  and  feasts,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1679;  died  in  1750. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Breyn,  bRln,  [Lat.  Brey'nius,]  (Jakob,)  a  German 
botanist,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1637  ;  died  in  1697. 

Breyn,  (Johann  Philipp,)  a  German  physician  and 
scientific  writer,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1690  ;  died  in  1764. 

Brez,  bka,  (Jacques,)  a  botanist,  and  Protestant  min- 
ister, born  in  Piedmont  in  1771,  published  a  "  History 
cf  the  Waldenses,"  (2  vols.,  1797.)    Died  in  1798. 

Breze.    See  Maill6-Br6ze. 

Brezin,  bRa'zS.N',  (Michel,)  a  French  philanthropist, 
and  manufacturer  of  locks,  machinery,  etc.,  born  in  1758. 
He  founded  a  hospital  for  aged  operatives.  Died  in  1828. 

Brial,  bRe'lK,  (Michel  Jean  Joseph,)  Dom,  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Perpignan  in  1743.  He  was  a  con- 
tributor to  the  Literary  History  of  France,"  and  wrote 
other  works.    Died  in  Paris  in  1828. 

Bri'an  Boroihme,  (or  Bo-ru',)  a  king  of  Ireland, 
succeeded  his  father  Kennedy  on  the  throne  of  Munster 
in  978  A.D.  He  obtained  numerous  victories  over  the 
Danes,  but  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Clontarf,  after  de- 
teatingthe  King  of  Leinster  and  his  Danish  allies,  (1014.) 

Briaree,  the  French  of  Briareus,  which  see. 

Bri-a're-us,  (or  brl'a-rus,)  [Gr.  B^iapevf  ;  Fr.  Briaree, 
bRe'S'ry,]  a  giant  or  monster  who  was  said  to  have  a 
hundred  arms.  According  to  Homer,  he  was  called 
/Egaeon  by  men  and  Briareus  by  the  gods.  He  and  his 
two  brothers,  Gyges  and  Cottus,  conquered  the  Titans. 

Bricheteau,  bRish^to',  (Isidore,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  in  the  department  of  Aude  in  1789,  was  a 
favourite  pupil  and  assistant  of  Pinel.  He  contributed 
important  articles  to  the  "  Dictionary  of  Medical  Sci- 
ences," and  published  several  works,  which  are  highly 
esteemed. 

Brigounet,  bRe^so''ni',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  ec- 
clesiastic and  statesman,  rose  to  be  superintendent  of 
finance,  and  minister  of  Charles  VIII.  He  was  also 
Archbishop  of  Narbonne  and  Cardinal  of  Saint-Malo. 

Brigonnet,  (Guillaume,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  Bishop  of  Meaux,  and  a  patron  of  learning.  Died 
in  1533. 

Bridaine  or  Brydaine,  bRe'din',  (Jacques,)  a  cele- 
brated French  preacher,  born  at  Chuslan  (Gard)  in  1701. 
His  eloquence  is  highly  commended  by  Massillon,  La 
Harpe,  and  other  eminent  writers.  He  published  "Can- 
tiques  spirituels,"  (1748.)    Died  near  Avignon  in  1767. 

See  La  Harpe,  "  Cours  de  Littdrature ;"  Maury,  "Essai  sur 
rfiloquence  de  la  Chaire." 

Bridan,  bReMSw',  (Charles  Antoine.)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Ruviere,  in  Champagne,  in  1730;  died 
in  1805. 

See  C.  F.  Viel,  "Notice  sur  Bridan,"  1807. 

Bridault,  bReM5',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  litterateur  of 
Paris,  published  "The  Manners  and  Customs  of  the 
Romans,"  (1745.)    Died  in  1761. 

Bridel,  bRe'd^K,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  Swiss  littirateiir, 
born  in  1759,  became  professor  of  the  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Lausanne.    Died  in  1821. 

Bridel,  (Samuel  £lis6e,)  Baron,  a  Swi.ss  naturalist 
and  poet,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1761.  He 
published  "  Muscologia  Recentiorum,"  (1797,)  and  other 
botanical  works.  He  was  secretary  to  the  Prince  of 
Saxe-Gotha.    Died  near  Gotha  in  1828. 

Bridge,  (William,)  an  English  Puritan  and  Inde- 
pendent minister,  born  in  1600,  was  ejected  from  Great 
Yarmouth  in  1662.    Died  in  1670. 

Bridge'man,  (Sir  Orlando,)  an  English  judge,  pre- 
sided at  the  trial  of  the  regicides,  (1660,)  and  succeeded 
Lord  Clarendon  as  keeper  of  the  great  seal  in  1667. 
His  reputation  is  similar  to  that  of  the  other  ministers 
of  Charles  II.    Died  in  1674. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Bridges,  brij'iz,  (John,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  Berkshire  about  1666;  died  in  1724. 

Bridg'et,  Saint,  patroness  of  Ireland,  born  in  the 
county  of  Armagh,  lived  about  520  A.D. 

Bridg'et  or  Bri-git'ta,  written  also  Birgite,  Saint. 
fFr.  Sainte-Brigitte,  siNt^bRe'zh^t',]  born  in  1302, 


was  the  daughter  of  Birger,  Prince  of  Sweden.  Her 
work  entitled  "  Revelations"  was  translated  into  several 
languages.    Died  in  1373. 

See  Baillet,  "Vies  des  Saints;"  ^tienne  Binet,  "Vie  de 
Sainte-Brigitte,"  1634. 

Bridge'wa-ter,  (Francis  Egerton,)  third  Duke 
of,  an  English  peer,  born  in  1736,  was  a  younger  son  of 
Scroop,  the  first  Duke  of  Bridgewater.  His  mother  was 
Lady  Rachel  Russell.  He  succeeded  to  the  dukedom 
in  1748.  In  consequence  of  his  delicate  health,  his 
education  was  neglected.  His  reputation  is  founded 
on  important  improvements  of  inland  navigation.  He 
projected  a  canal  from  Worsley  to  Manchester, — the 
first  navigable  canal  constructed  in  England.  It  was 
completed  at  his  expense  in  1761.  He  died,  without 
issue,  in  1803. 

Bridgewater,  (Francis  Henry  Egerton,)  Earl 
of,  and  Baron  Ellesmere,  born  in  1758,  was  a  son  of 
John,  Bishop  of  Durham.  He  succeeded  to  the  earl- 
dom on  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  in  1823.  He  is 
noted  as  the  originator  of  the  Bridgewater  Treatises. 
In  his  will  he  left  eight  thousand  pounds  as  a  premium 
for  the  production  of  several  treatises  "  On  the  Power, 
Wisdom,  and  Goodness  of  God."  In  accordance  with  his 
will,  the  president  of  the  Royal  Society  selected  for  this 
task  Rev.  Thomas  Chalmers,  John  Kidd,  M.D.,  Peter 
Mark  Roget,  Charles  Bell,  William  Whewell,  Dr.  Buck- 
land,  Rev.  William  Kirby,  and  William  Prout,  M.D. 
Died  in  1829. 

Bridgewater,  [Lat.  Aquaponta'nus  or  Aquipon- 
TANUS,]  (John,)  an  English  Catholic  theologian  and 
Jesuit,  born  in  Yorkshire,  lived  about  1560-1600. 

See  Wood,  "Athenje  Oxonienses." 

Bridg'man,  (Laura,)  a  blind  deaf-mute,  who  fur- 
nishes a  remarkable  example  of  the  development  of  intelli- 
gence under  circumstances  apparently  the  most  adverse, 
was  born  at  Hanover,  in  New  Hampshire,  in  1829.  She 
had  the  enjoyment  of  all  her  faculties  until  she  was  about 
two  years  old,  when,  in  consequence  of  a  severe  attack 
of  illness,  she  lost  her  sight,  hearing,  and  smell,  and  the 
sense  of  taste  was  at  the  same  time  much  impaired 
When  about  eight  years  old,  she  was  placed  under  the 
tuition  of  Dr.  S.  G.  Howe,  principal  of  the  Perkins  In- 
stitution, in  Boston.  She  learned  in  a  few  months  to 
spell  and  read  with  a  manual  alphabet.  She  afterwards 
learned  to  write,  and  to  play  skilfully  on  the  piano. 

See  Dltnglison's  "  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.  p.  161;  also,  "Annual 
Reports  of  the  Perkins  Institution"  for  1837  ^^l- 

Brid'port,  (Alexander  Hood,)  Lord,  an  English 
admiral,  brother  of  the  celebrated  Admiral  Hood,  born 
about  1724.  He  served  with  distinction  against  the 
French  in  1793  and  1794.    Died  in  18 16. 

Brienne,  de,  deh  bRe^^n',  (Jean,)  a  French  noble- 
man, married  Isabella,  daughter  of  Conrad  of  Montfer- 
rat,  and  heiress  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem.  He  was 
subsequently  crowned  King  of  Jerusalem,  and  gained 
several  victories  over  the  Saracens.    Died  in  1237. 

See  Lafitau,  "  Histoire  de  Jean  de  Brienne,"  1727. 

Brienne  Lomenie.    See  Lom^nie. 

Briere  (or  Brierre)  de  Boismont,  bRe'aiR'  deh  bwa'- 
m6N',  (A.,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Rouen  in  1796, 
practised  in  Paris.  He  wrote  "  Elements  of  Botany," 
(1825,)  a  treatise  on  hygiene,  and  a  work  entitled  "Hal- 
lucinations," ("Des  Hallucinations,"  Paris,  1852,)  which 
has  attracted  considerable  attention. 

Briet,  bRe'i',  [Lat.  Brie'tius,]  (Philippe,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  at  Abbeville  in  160 1,  wrote  "  Parallels  of 
Ancient  and  Modern  Geography,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1668. 

Briey,  de,  deh  bRe'i',  (Camille,)  Comte,  a  Belgian 
diplomatist,  iDorn  in  1799,  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
from  August,  184 1,  to  April,  1843.  He  was  a  leader  of 
the  Catholic  party. 

Brifaut,  bReT5',  (Charles,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1781,  became  a  member  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy in  1826.  His  drama  called  "Ninus  II."  was  very 
successful.    Died  in  Paris  in  1857. 

Briggs,  (Charles  Frederick,)  an  American  writer, 
born  in  the  island  of  Nantucket,  became  in  early  life  a 
resident  of  New  York  City.  He  edited  "  Putnam's  Maga- 
zine" from  1853  to  1856,  and  afterwards  became  an  editor 


\,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


BRIGGS 


435 


BRILLON 


of  the  New  York  "Times."  Among  his  works  is  "The 
Adventures  of  Harry  Franco,  a  Tale  of  the  Great  Panic," 
(1839.) 

Briggs,  (George  Nixon,)  an  American  statesman 
and  philanthropist,  born  in  Berkshire,  Massachusetts,  in 
1796.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1830,  and  in  1844 
was  chosen  Governor  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  an 
earnest  advocate  of  the  temperance  cause  and  other  im- 
portant reforms,  and  became  president  of  the  American 
Temperance  Union  in  i860.    Died  in  1861. 

See  "Great  in  Goodness:  Memoir  of  George  N.  Briggs,"  by  Wil- 
liam C.  Richards. 

Briggs,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  English  mathematician, 
born  at  Warleywood,  near  Halifax,  about  1556.  He  was 
educated  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge.  In  1596 
he  was  chosen  professor  or  reader  in  geometry  in  Gres- 
ham  House,  (since  called  Gresham  College,)  London. 
He  became  in  1619  first  Savilian  professor  of  geometry 
at  Oxford.  He  is  chiefly  distinguished  for  the  improve- 
ment and  construction  of  logarithms.  "Napier  found," 
says  Hallam,  "a  coadjutor  well  worthy  of  him  in  Henry 
Briggs,  professor  of  geometry  at  Gresham  College.  It 
is  uncertain  from  which  of  them  the  change  [i.e.  from 
the  hyperbolical  to  the  decimal  method]  in  the  form  of 
logarithms  proceeded."  Briggs  published  in  1624  a 
great  work,  "  Arithmetica  Logarithmica,"  containing  the 
logarithms  of  all  natural  numbers  as  high  as  20,000, 
and  again  from  90,000  to  100,000,  calculated  to  fourteen 
places.    Died  in  1630. 

See  Ward's  "  Lives  of  the  Gresham  Professors." 

Briggs,  (Henry  Perronet,)  an  English  painter  of  his- 
tory and  portraits,  among  whose  master-pieces  may  be 
named  the  "  First  Interview  between  the  Spaniards  and 
the  Peruvians,"  and  "  Othello  relating  his  Adventures  to 
Desdemona."  In  1832  he  was  elected  an  Academician. 
Died  in  1844. 

Briggs,  (Henry  Shaw,)  born  in  Berkshire,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1824,  served  in  the  campaign  of  1861,  and 
was  made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  1862. 

Briggs,  (William,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
1641,  published  a  "  Theory  of  Vision,"  and  a  work  en- 
titled "  Ophthalmographia,"  or  description  of  the  eye. 
Died  in  1704. 

Brigham,  brig'am,  (Amarlvh,)  an  American  physi- 
cian, born  in  Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1798, 
began  to  practise  medicine  in  1821.  He  became  super- 
intendent of  the  Retreat  for  the  Insane  at  Hartford,  Con- 
necticut, in  1840,  and  obtained  the  same  office  in  the 
New  York  State  Lunatic  Asylum  at  Utica  in  1842.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Mental  Cultivation  and 
Excitement,"  and  "The  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Pa- 
thology of  the  Brain,"  (1840.)    Died  in  1849. 

Brigham,  brig'am,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  poet,  born 
at  Caversham,  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Persons," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1559. 

Brigham  Young.    See  Young,  (Brigham.) 

Bright,  (Jksse  D.,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Chenango  county.  New  York,  removed  to  Indiana,  and 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1845. 
was  expelled  in  1861  for  a  treasonable  correspondence 
with  Jefferson  Davis, 

Bright,  (John,)  a  celebrated  English  orator  and  Radi- 
cal statesman,  was  born  at  Greenbank,  near  Rochdale, 
on  the  i6th  of  November,  1811.  He  is  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  Friends.  He  was  the  son  of  Jacob  Bright, 
a  cotton-s])inner,  and  is  a  partner  in  the  firm  of  John 
Bright  and  Brothers,  manufacturers  of  cotton,  at  Roch- 
dale. In  1835  he  travelled  on  the  continent  and  visited 
Palestine.  He  enlisted  in  the  Anti-Corn-Law  League 
in  1839,  and  became  a  zealous  champion  of  the  repeal 
of  the  corn-laws.  About  this  time  he  formed  an  intimate 
friendship  with  Richard  Cobden.  He  addressed  many 
public  meetings  with  powerful  and  impassioned  decla- 
mation, and  was  considered  second  only  to  Cobden  among 
the  advocates  of  the  Anti-Corn-Law  League. 

He  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  the  city  of  Durham 
in  1843.  The  repeal  of  the  corn-laws  was  followed  by 
a  general  election  in  1847,  when  Mr.  Bright  was  one  of 
the  two  members  sent  from  Manchester.  He  was  not 
identified  with  either  of  the  great  political  parties,  but, 
in  co-operation  with  Cobden,  formed  the  Manchester 


school  of  politics,  advocates  of  electoral  reform  and  non- 
intervention in  foreign  wars.  He  was  re-elected  by  the 
voters  of  Manchester  in  1852,  but,  in  consequence  of  his 
opposition  to  the  war  against  Russia,  was  defeated  in 
1857.  Since  that  year  he  has  represented  Birmingham 
in  Parliament.  As  a  consistent  friend  of  liberty  and 
equal  rights,  he  testified  his  sympathy  with  the  American 
Republicans  in  the  civil  war,  by  several  eloquent  public 
speeches.  In  the  great  debate  on  the  Reform  Bill  of 
Russell  and  Gladstone  (1866)  he  took  a  prominent  ))art. 
After  the  defeat  of  this  bill  he  made  speeches  on  the 
subject  of  Reform  at  immense  meetings  held  in  Man- 
chester, Birmingham,  Glasgow,  London,  and  other  places. 
"He  is  endowed,"  says  the  "Saturday  Review,"  "with 
a  voice  that  can  discourse  most  eloquent  music,  and  with 
a  speech  that  can  equally  sound  the  depths  of  pathos 
or  scale  the  heights  of  indignation."  Alluding  to  Mr. 
Bright's  recent  efforts  in  the  cause  of  Reform,  the  "  Eu- 
ropean Times"  of  December  8,  1866,  remarks,  "  In  all 
Mr.  Bright's  previous  career,  he  has  never  put  forth  such 
extraordinary  power,  such  floods  of  the  very  highest 
order  of  eloquence  on  the  great  question  of  the  day,  as 
during  the  last  four  months  ;  and  it  is  not  too  much  to 
say  that  no  orator  of  the  century  has  stirred  the  heart  of 
the  country  in  so  short  a  time,  or  so  effectually,  by  his 
own  unaided  intellect"  On  the  15th  of  August,  1867, 
the  queen  signed  a  Reform  bill  which  granted  the  right 
of  suffrage  to  every  householder  in  a  borough. 

He  made,  in  March,  1868,  a  speech  on  Ireland,  which 
is  commended  by  the  London  "  Spectator,"  March  21, 
in  these  terms  :  "  Mr.  Bright's  grand  speech  did  more 
to  draw  the  noblest  men  of  all  parties  nearer  to  each 
other  than  long  years  of  discussion  had  effected  before." 
At  the  general  election  of  November,  1868,  he  was  re- 
turned for  Birmingham.  He  declined  the  ofiice  of  secre- 
tary for  India,  which  was  offered  to  him,  but  he  entered 
the  cabinet  of  Mr.  Gladstone  as  president  of  the  Board 
of  Trade  in  December,  1868.  Two  volumes  of  his 
"  Speeches  on  Questions  of  Public  Policy"  were  pub- 
lished in  1868. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1869. 

Bright,  (Richard,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Bristol  in  1789.  He  settled  in  London,  and  published 
an  important  work  entitled  "Original  Researches  into 
the  Pathology  of  Diseases  of  the  Kidney."  He  was  the 
first  to  describe  an  affection  of  the  kidney  which  is  gene- 
rally known  as  "Bright's  Disease."    Died  in  1858. 

Bright,  (Timothy,)  an  English  physician  and  clergy- 
man, born  at  Cambridge,  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Treatise  on  Melancholy,"  (1586.)    Died  in  1615. 

Bright'man,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
at  Nottingham  in  1557;  died  in  1607. 

Brigitte.    See  Bridget,  Saint. 

Brignolo-Sale,  bR^n-yo'lo  s^'li,  [Fr,  Brtgnole- 
Sale,  bRen'yoK  sSl,]  (Antonio  Giulio,)  an  Italian  wri- 
ter in  prose  and  verse,  born  in  1605,  was  a  son  of  a  doge 
of  Genoa.    Died  in  1665. 

See  J.  M.  ViscoNTi,  "Vita  di  A.  G.  Brignolo-Sale,"  1666. 

Bril,  bR^l,  (Mattheus,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1550.  He  was  patronized  by  Pope  Gregory 
XIII.,  for  whom  he  painted  several  frescos  in  the  Vati- 
can.   Died  in  1584. 

Bril,  (Paulus,)  brother  and  pupil  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1556.  At  an  early  age  he  joined  his 
brother  at  Rome,  where  he  soon  acquired  a  very  high 
reputation  as  a  landscape-painter.  Among  his  master- 
pieces are  "The  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Clement,"  in  the 
Vatican,  two  landsca])es  in  the  Pitti  palace  at  Flor- 
ence, and  "  Building  of  the  Tower  of  Babel,"  in  the  Berlin 
Museum.  The  figures  in  several  of  his  pieces  were 
painted  by  Annibal  Caracci.    Died  at  Rome  in  1626. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Brillat-Savarin,  bRe'yt'  st'vS'rdN',  (Anthelvie,)  a 
French  litterafeur,  born  at  Bellay  in  1755,  published  a 
popular  work  on  gastronomy,  entitled  "The  Physiolog;y 
of  Taste,"  (1825,)  the  style  of  which  is  highly  praised. 
Died  in  1826. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1835. 

Brillon,  bRe'yiN',  (Pierre  Jacques,)  a  French  jurist 
and  legal  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1671  ;  died  in  1736. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  Vi, guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled ;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BRINDLE7 


43^ 


BRITTON 


Brind'ley,  (James,)  an  English  engineer  and  mecha- 
nician, born  at  Thornset,  in  Derbyshire,  iii  1716,  was  an 
apprentice  to  a  millwright.  He  had  a  remarkable  faculty 
of  invention,  and  made  improvements  in  the  machinery 
of  mills.  About  1758  he  was  employed  by  the  Duke 
of  Bridgewater  as  engineer  of  a  canal  from  Worsley  to 
Manchester, — the  first  navigable  canal  made  in  Great 
Britain  in  modern  times.  He  performed  this  difficult 
enterprise  with  success,  and  exhibited  great  fertility  of 
resources.  He  superintended  the  construction  of  the 
Trent  and  Mersey  Canal,  begun  in  1766,  and  other  simi- 
lar works.    Died  in  1772. 

See  "  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  i.,  1839  • 
Henry  Howe,  "Eminent  American  and  European  Mechanics." 

Brink'ley,  (John,)  an  English  divine  and  astronomer, 
born  in  1763,  became  professor  of  astronomy  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin.  He  published,  among  other  works, 
"  Elements  of  Astronomy,"  which  is  esteemed  a  standard 
work.  He  was  created  Bishop  of  Cloyne  in  1826.  Died 
in  1835. 

Brinkmann,  bRink'min,  (Karl  Gustaf,)  Baron,  a 
Swedish  diplomatist  and  poet,  born  near  Stockholm  in 
1764,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  London  in  1807.  In 
1829  he  became  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Stockholm.  He  was  a  friend  and  correspondent  of 
Madame  de  Stael.  He  died  in  1848,  leaving  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Upsal  his  library  of  ten  thousand  volumes. 

See  Bernard  von  Beskow,  "Tal,  etc.  bfver  C.  G.  von  Brink- 
mann," 1848. 

BrinsTey,  (John,)  an  English  nonconformist  min- 
ister, born  in  1600,  was  a  nejihew  of  Bishop  Hall,  (of 
Norwich.)  He  preached  at  Yarmouth,  and  wrote  several 
works.    Died  in  1665. 

Brinvilliers,  bRiN've^ye-a',  (Marie  Marguerite 
d'Aubray — dS'bka',)  Marchioness  of,  a  Frenchwo- 
man, notorious  for  her  crimes,  was  the  daughter  of  Dreux 
d'Aubray,  civil  lieutenant  of  Paris,  and  was  married  in 
165 1  to  the  Marquis  de  Brinvilliers.  She  successively 
poisoned  her  father  and  two  brothers,  having  previously 
exercised  her  art  on  the  patients  at  the  hospitals.  She 
was  at  length  detected,  condemned  to  death,  and  exe- 
cuted in  1676. 

See  "  Histoire  du  Proces  de  la  Marquise  de  Brinvilliers,"  Paris, 
1676;  Madame  de  Sevigne's  "Letters." 

Brion,  bRe-6n',  (Luis,)  a  South  American  naval 
officer,  born  at  Cura9oa  in  1782.  He  acquired  great  in- 
fluence, took  arms  against  Spain  about  1811,  and  served 
under  Bolivar  with  distinction.    Died  in  1821. 

Briot,  bRe'o',  (Charles,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  at  Saint-Hippolyte,  in  Doubs,  in  181 7.  He  became 
teacher  of  mechanics  and  astronomy  in  the  Normal 
School  of  Paris  in  1855.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Lessons  in  Analytical  Geometry,"  (1851,)  in 
which  he  was  assisted  by  M.  Bouquet. 

Bris'baiie,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  English  admiral,  served 
with  distinction  under  Rodney,  Hood,  and  Nelson,  was 
appointed  Governor  of  Saint  Vincent,  and  created  vice- 
admiral  in  1820.    Died  in  1829. 

Brisbane,  (Sir  Thomas  Macdougal,)  a  British  as- 
tronomer and  general,  born  at  Bishopton  in  1773.  He 
commanded  a  brigade  in  many  actions  in  the  Peninsula 
in  1812-13,  after  which  he  was  Governor  of  Jamaica 
and  of  New  South  Wales.  He  built  an  observatory  on 
the  river  Tweed.    Died  in  i860. 

Briiasac,  de,  Due.    See  Cossi^-Brissac. 

Brisseau,  bRe''so',  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician,  born 
in  Paris  in  1631,  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Cataract," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  171 7. 

Brisson,  bRe^s^N^  [Lat.  Brisso'nius,]  (Barnab^,) 
an  eminent  French  jurist  and  philologist,  born  in  Poitou 
in  1 53 1.  He  was  appointed  first  president  of  the  Par- 
liament of  Paris  in  1588  by  the  League,  and  was  hung  in 
1 59 1  by  the  Seize,  a  committee  of  sixteen  factious  persons 
who  had  possession  of  the  capital.  He  was  author  of 
a  treatise  "On  the  Formulas  and  Solemn  Words  of  the 
Roman  People,"  ("De  Formulis  et  solennibus  Populi 
Romani  Verbis,"  1583,)  and  other  works. 

See  De  Thou,  "Histoire;"  Daniel  W.  Mollei?,  "Disputatio 
circularis  de  B.  Brissonio,"  1696. 

Brisson,  (Barnab^,)  a  French  engineer,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1777,  wrote  an  "Essay  on  Navigation,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1828. 


Brisson,(MATHURiN  Jacques,)  a  distinguished  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Fontenay-le-Comte  in  1723,  became 
professor  of  physics  in  the  College  of  Navarre,  published 
"The  Animal  Kingdom,"  ("Le  Regne  animal,"  1756,) 
"Ornithology,"  (6  vols.,  1760,)  and  a  treatise  "On  the 
Specific  Weight  of  Bodies,"  (1787.)  Died  near  Versailles 
in  1806. 

Brissot,  bRe'so',  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician,  born 
at  Fontenay-le-Comte  in  1478,  wrote  an  able  treatise  on 
bleeding  for  the  pleurisy,  (1529.)  Died  in  Portugal  in 
1522. 

Brissot  de  Warville,  bRe'so'  deh  vtR^v^K,  (Jean 
Pierre,)  a  French  Girondist  leader  and  political  writer, 
born  at  or  near  Chartres  in  January,  1754.  He  published 
in  1 781  "Theorie  des  Lois  criminelles,"  (2  vols.)  In  1785 
he  was  confined  in  the  Bastille  on  suspicion  of  having  writ- 
ten an  anonymous  libel,  of  which  he  was  innocent.  To 
promote  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  he  formed  with 
several  friends,  in  1788,  the  Societe  des  Amis  des  Noirs, 
(Society  of  the  Friends  of  the  Negroes,)  and  made  a 
voyage  to  the  United  States  to  inquire  into  that  subject. 
Having  returned  to  France  on  the  eve  of  the  Revolution, 
he  became  editor  of  the  "  Patriote  Fran9ais,"  a  journal 
which  would  have  sufficed  to  render  him  famous  if  he 
had  no  other  titles  to  celebrity.  He  was  elected  in  1791 
to  the  National  Assembly  by  the  voters  of  Paris,  advo- 
cated a  republic,  and  was  recognized  as  the  master  spirit 
of  the  Girondist  party,  often  called  Brissotins.  Li  the 
Convention  (1792-93)  he  strenuously  opposed  the  execu- 
tion of  the  king  and  other  excesses  of  the  Jacobins.  He 
was  imprisoned  in  June,  1793,  and  executed  in  Paris, 
with  twenty-one  other  Girondists,  in  October  of  the  same 
year.    He  was  author  of  numerous  works. 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Girondists;"  "Vie  privee  et 
politique  de  Brissot,"  Paris,  1792;  Brissot's  "  Memoires  pour  servir 
a  I'Histoire  de  la  Revolution,"  published  by  his  son,  4  vols.,  1830. 

Bris'ted,  (Charles  Astor,)  an  American  writer, 
born  in  New  York  in  1820,  graduated  at  Yale  College 
in  1839,  and  pursued  his  studies  at  Oxford,  England. 
He  published  "  Five  Years  in  an  English  University," 
(1852.) 

Bristed,  (John,)  an  Episcopal  clergyman,  father  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Dorsetshire,  England,  in  1779. 
He  emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1806,  and  married 
a  daughter  of  John  Jacob  Astor  in  1820.  He  preached 
at  Bristol,  Rhode  Island,  and  wrote  "The  Resources  of 
the  Unite_cl  States."    Died  in  1855. 

Bris'tow,  (Henry  William,)  an  English  geologist 
and  scientific  writer,  born  about  181 7. 

Bri-tan'ni-cus,  (Tiberius  Claudius  Germanicus,) 
a  Roman  prince,  born  in  42  A.D.,  was  a  son  of  the  empe- 
ror Claudius  and  Messalina.  He  was  the  heir  presump- 
tive to  the  throne  before  the  death  of  his  mother ;  but, 
through  the  influence  of  Agrippina,  Nero  was  preferred 
as  the  successor  of  Claudius.  Britannicus  was  poisoned 
by  Nero  at  a  banquet  in  56  A.D. 

See  Tacitus,  "Annales." 

Britard.    See  Brizard. 

Brito,  de,  di  bree'to,  (Bernardo,)  a  Portuguese  his- 
torian, born  at  Villa  de  Almeida  in  1569,  wrote  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Portuguese  Monarchy,"  and  "Eulogies  of 
the  Kings  of  Portugal."    Died  in  1617. 

See  Beauvais,  "Vie  de  B.  de  Brito,"  1744. 

Brito,  (Francisco  Joz^;  Maria,)  a  Portuguese  diplo- 
matist, born  about  1759.  He  was  minister  plenipoten- 
tiary to  France  in  181 5.    Died  in  1825. 

Brito,  (Gulielmus.)    See  Breton,  (Guillaume.) 

Brito-Armoricus.    See  Breton,  (Guillaume.) 

Brito  Freire,  de,  di  bRee'to  fRa'e-rii,  (Francisco,)  a 
Portuguese  admiral,  born  about  1^0,  served  with  dis- 
tinction against  the  Dutch  in  Brazil.    Died  in  1692. 

Brit-o-mar'tis  [Gr.  B(9<-6,tzapnf]  or  Bri'to,  [Bptrw,] 
a  nymph,  the  daughter  of  Jupiter,  and  favourite  com- 
panion of  Diana,  was  beloved  by  Minos,  to  escape  frorn 
whom  she  threw  herself  into  the  sea.  She  was  wor- 
shipped especially  by  sailors  and  fishermen. 

Britton.    See  Bracton. 

Brit'ton,  (John,)  a  celebrated  English  antiquary,  born 
in  Wiltshire  in  1 771.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
"The  Cathedral  Antiquities  of  England,"  (14  vols.  fol. 
and  4to,  with  nearly  300  engravings,)  "Architectural 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  h,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fMl,  f^t;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BRITTON 


437 


B ROD  HE  AD 


Antiquities  of  Normandy,"  (1825,)  "A  Dictionary  of 
the  Architecture  and  Archaeology  of  the  Middle  Ages," 
(1832,)  "Illustrations  of  Fonthill  Abbey,"  and  "Histo- 
rical Notices  of  Windsor  Castle,"  (1842.)  Died  in  1857. 

See  "Men  I  have  known,"  by  William  Jerdan,  London,  1866; 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June  and  September,  1826. 

Britton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  coal-dealer,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  about  1650,  was  celebrated  for  his 
proficiency  in  music.    Died  in  1714. 

See  "Annals  of  Industry  and  Genius,"  by  C.  L.  Brightvvell, 
London,  1863. 

Brizard,  bRe'zlR',  or  Britard,  bRe'ttR',  (Jean  Bap- 
TISTE,)  a  French  actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  Orleans 
in  1721  ;  died  in  1791. 

Brize,  bRee'zeh,  (Kornelis,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  still 
life,  bas-reliefs,  etc.,  lived  between  1650  and  1700. 

Brizeux,  bRe'zuh',  (Julien  Auguste  Pelage,)  a 
French  poet,  born  at  Lorient  in  1806.  He  produced  a 
successful  poem  entitled  "Marie,"  (1832,)  "The  Bre- 
tons," (1846,)  which  was  crowned  by  the  French  Acad- 
emy, and  "Primel  et  Nola,"  (1850.)    Died  in  1858. 

Brizio.    See  Brizzl 

Brizzi,  bR^t'see,  or  Brizio,  bR^t'se-o,  (Francesco,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1574,  was  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  pupils  of  the  Caracci.  Among 
his  best  works  is  the  "  Coronation  of  the  Madonna  del 
Borgo."    Died  in  1623. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy.^' 

Brocario,  bRo-ka're-o,  a  Spanish  typographer,  pub- 
lished in  1 5 14-16  the  Polyglot  Bible  of  Cardinal  Xime- 
nes,  (6  vols,  fol.) 

Brocchi,  bRok'kee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
naturalist,  born  at  Bassano  in  1772.  He  became  professor 
of  botany  at  Brescia  in  1802,  and  in  1808  inspector  of 
mines  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  his  "  Sub-Apennine  Fossil  Conchology,  with 
Geological  Observations  on  the  Apennines  and  the  Ad- 
jacent Soil,"  (2  vols.,  1814,)  and  a  work  "On  the  Physi- 
cal Condition  of  the  Soil  of  Rome,"  (1820.)  Died  at 
Khartoom,  in  Nubia,  in  1826. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri;"  G.  Larber, 
"Elogio  storico  di  G.  B.  Brocchi,"  1828;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
February,  1816. 

Brochant  de  Villiers,  bRo''sh5N' deh  ve^ye-i',  (An- 
dr6  Jean  Francois  Marie,)  a  French  naturalist  and 
scientific  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1773.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  inspector-general 
of  mines.    Died  in  1840. 

Brochet,  bRo'shi',  (Jean  £tienne,)  a  demagogue  of 
the  French  Revolution.  He  was  exiled  by  Bonaparte 
to  Cayenne,  but  was  soon  after  permitted  to  return,  and 
passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in  merited  obscurity.  Died 
in  1823. 

Brock,  (Isaac,)  a  British  major-general,  whose  prin- 
cipal achievement  was  the  capture  of  General  Hull  and 
his  army  at  Detroit,  in  August,  1812.  At  the  battle  of 
Queenstown,  October  13  of  the  same  year,  he  vvas  killed, 
being  pierced  by  three  balls.  As  a  token  of  the  respect 
which  was  feU  for  his  high  character,  the  guns  of  the 
American  forts  were  fired  during  his  funeral. 

Brockedon,  brok'don,  (William,)  an  English  author 
and  artist,  born  in  1787.  He  published  "Passes  of  the 
Alps,"  illustrated  by  elegant  engravings,  (2  vols.,  1828,) 
"Views  in  Italy,"  (1842-44,)  and  "Excursions  in  the 
Alps,"  (1845.)    l^iecl  in  1854. 

Brookes,  bRok'k^s,  (Barthold  Heinrich,)  a  Ger- 
man devotional  poet,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1680.  He  trans- 
lated Thomson's  "  Seasons"  into  German.   Died  in  1 747. 

Brock'ett,  (John  Trotter,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  1788;  died  in  1842. 

Brockhaus,  bRok'howss,  (Friedrich  Arnold,)  a 
celebrated  German  publisher,  born  at  Dortmund  in 
1772,  was  the  founder  of  the  firm  of  Brockhaus  at  Leipsic. 
Having  purchased  the  co])yright  of  the  "  Conversations- 
Lexikon,"  he  settled  at  Altenburg  in  1811,  and  began  in 
18 1 2  the  second  edition  of  that  work.  In  1813  he  edited 
a  patriotic  journal,  entitled  "Deutsche  Blatter."  He 
removed  in  1817  to  Leipsic,  where,  besides  six  editions 
of  the  "  Conversations-Lexikon,"  he  brought  out  Ebert's 

Universal  Bibliographical  Lexicon,"  Von  Raumer's 
"  History  of  the  Hohenstaufen  and  their  Times,"  Ersch's 


*'  Manual  of  German  Literature,"  and  other  important 
publications.  He  died  in  1823;  and  the  firm  was  con- 
tinued by  his  two  eldest  sons,  Frederick  and  Henry, 
under  whose  auspices  the  "  Conversations-Lexikon" 
reached  the  tenth  edition.  To  this  were  subsequently 
added  three  accompanying  works,  entitled  "  Conversa- 
tions-Lexicon of  the  Most  Recent  Times  and  Litera- 
ture," ("  Conversatio^is-Lexikon  der  neuesten  Zeit  und 
Literatur,"  4  vols.,  1832,)  "Conversations-Lexicon  of 
the  Present,"  ("Conversations-Lexikon  der  Gegenwart," 
4  vols.,  1838,)  and  "The  Present,"  ("Der  Gegenwart," 
1848.)  They  have  also  published  Ersch  and  Gruber's 
"Universal  Encyclopaedia,"  (" Allgemeine  Encyklopae- 
die,")  the  "  Pfennig-Magasin,"  and  a  number  of  useful 
periodicals. 

Brockhaus,  (Hermann,)  third  son  of  Friedrich  Ar- 
nold, noticed  above,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1806.  He 
became  in  1848  professor  of  the  Sanscrit  language  and 
literature  at  Leipsic.  He  has  published,  in  German  and 
Sanscrit,  a  portion  of  the  legends  of  Somadeva. 

Brocklesby,  brok"lz-be,  (Richard,)  a  distinguished 
English  physician,  born  in  Somersetshire  in  1722,  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Edmund  Burke.  He  graduated 
at  Leyden,  and  in  1758  was  appointed  physician  to  the 
army,  which  he  accompanied  to  Germany  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and 
of  the  College  of  Physicians,  and  published  several  medi- 
cal works.    Died  in  1797. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Brockmann,  bRok'man,  (Johann  Franz  Hiero- 
nymus,)  a  celebrated  German  actor,  born  at  Gratz^  in 
Styria,  in  1745  ;  died  in  181 2. 

Brodeau,  bRo'do^  (Jean,)  a  distinguished  French 
scholar,  born  in  1500,  published  "Notes  on  Martial,"  a 
"  Commentary  on  the  Tragedies  of  Euripides,"  and  other 
critical  works.    Died  in  1563. 

Bro'der-ick,  (David  Colbreth,)  an  American  Sen- 
ator, born  at  Washington,  District  of  Columbia,  in  181 8 
or  1 819.  He  worked  at  the  trade  of  stone-cutter  in  New 
York  City  in  his  youth,  removed  to  California  in  1849,  and 
became  a  leading  Democrat.  In  1856  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  by  the  legis- 
lature of  California.  He  acquired  eminence  as  a  debater, 
spoke  against  the  admission  of  Kansas  as  a  slave  State 
under  the  Lecompton  Constitution,  and  separated  from 
his  party,  on  the  question  of  slavery,  in  1858.  He  was 
challenged,  and  killed  in  a  duel  near  San  Francisco  in 
September,  1859,  by  Judge  David  S.  Terry,  a  partisan  of 
slavery,  whose  motive  appears  to  have  been  revenge  for 
the  speeches  which  Broderick  had  made  against  Senator 
Gwin  and  others  of  the  pro-slavery  party. 

Broderip,  brod'rip,  (William  John,)  an  English 
naturalist,  born  at  Bristol.  He  published  "Zoological 
Recreations,"  (1847,)  and  "  Leaves  from  the  Note-Book  of 
a  Naturalist,"  (1852,)  and  contributed  numerous  articles 
on  natural  history  to  Knight's  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia."  He 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Linnaean  Society  and  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  vice-president  of  the  Zoological  Society. 
Died  in  1859. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1847;  "Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  April,  1859. 

Brod'head,  (Jacob,)  D.D.,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Ulster  county.  New  York,  in  1782.  He  became 
pastor  of  a  Reformed  Dutch  church  in  New  York  in 
1809,  removed  to  Philadelphia  in  1813,  and  returned  to 
New  York  in  1826,    Died  in  1855. 

Brodliead,  (John  Romeyn,)  an  American  historian, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1814, 
graduated  at  Rutgers  College,  New  Jersey,  in  1831, 
and  studied  law.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
American  history,  and,  while  attached  to  the  United 
States  legation  at  the  Hague,  in  1841,  was  appointed  by 
Governor  Seward  an  agent  to  procure  information  re- 
lating to  the  colonial  history  of  New  York.  Pie  spent 
three  years  in  examining  the  records  in  Holland,  Lon- 
don, and  Paris,  and  returned  in  1844  with  eighty  volumes 
of  documents.  In  1849  the  legislature  passed  an  act 
authorizing  their  publication  in  ten  volumes  quarto. 
The  first  volume  of  the  "  History  of  New  York  from 
1609  to  1664"  (the  period  of  its  occupation  by  the  Dutch) 
appeared  in  1853. 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


B  ROD  IE 


438 


BROME 


Bro'die,  (Sir  Benjamin  Collins,)  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish surgeon,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1783.  He  studied 
under  Sir  Everard  Home,  and  became,  in  1832,  surgeon 
to  the  queen.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, corresponding  member  of  the  Institute  of  France, 
and  obtained  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  from  the  University 
of  Oxford,  (1850.)  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Ex- 
periments and  Observations  on  the  Different  Modes  in 
which  Death  is  produced  by  Certain  Vegetable  Poisons," 
(1811,)  "Pathological  and  Surgical  Observations  on  Dis- 
eases of  the  Joints,"  and  "  On  Local  Nervous  Affec- 
tions."   Died  in  1862. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  1865;  H.  W.  Acland,  "Biographical 
Sketch  of  B.  C.  Brodie,"  1864;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  January, 
1863.  and  July,  1865. 

Brodie,  (George,)  an  English  historian.  He  pub- 
li.-lied  a  "History  of  the  British  Empire  from  the  Ac- 
cession of  Charles  I.  to  the  Restoration,"  (4  vols.,  1822,) 
which  was  written  for  the  purpose  of  pointing  out  the 
faults  or  errors  of  Hume. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  March,  1824;  Professor  Smyth, 
"  1-ectures  on  Modern  History." 

Brodzinski,  brod-zins'kee,  (Casimir,)  a  Polish  poet 
and  critic  of  distinguished  merit,  born  at  Krolowko  in 
1 79 1,  became  professor  of  aesthetics  at  Warsaw.  He 
made  a  number  of  translations  from  the  English,  Ger- 
man, and  other  languages.    Died  in  1835. 

Broeck,  van  den,  vSn  den  bRook,  (Barbara,)  a 
Flemish  engraver,  born  about  1560,  was  a  daughter  of 
Crispin,  noticed  below,  some  of  whose  designs  she  en- 
graved. 

Broeck,  van  den,  (Crispin,)  a  Flemish  historical 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1530;  died 
about  1 60 1. 

Broeck,  van  den,  (Elias,)  a  Flemish  painter  of 
flowers,  fruits,  etc.,  born  in  1657  ;  died  in  1711. 

See  Descami's,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Broekhuizen,  van,  vtn  bRook'hoi'zen,  (Jan,)  [Lat. 
Ja'nus  Broukhu'sius,]  a  Dutch  scholar  and  poet, 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1649.  He  published  editions  of 
Tibullus  and  other  classics,  and  a  collection  of  Latin 
poems.    Died  in  1707. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Jocher, 
"  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Brofferio,  bRof-fa're-o,  (Angelo,)  an  eminent  Italian 
dramatist,  orator,  and  political  writer,  born  at  Asti,  in 
Piedmont,  in  1802.  He  produced  "Vitiges,  King  of 
the  Goths,"  "  Salvator  Rosa,"  and  other  dramas,  and  a 
volume  of  popular  songs  ;  also  a  "  History  of  Piedmont," 
(1849-52.)  In  1848  he  became  a  member  of  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies.   In  politics  he  is  a  radical  republican. 

Broghill,  Lord.    See  Boyle,  (Roger.) 

Broglia,  bRoKyS,  (Francesco  Maria,)  born  at  Chieri, 
in  Piedmont,  in  1611,  first  distinguished  himself  in  the 
civil  war  of  Savoy  in  1638.  He  afterwards  entered  the 
service  of  France,  where  he  won  a  high  reputation  for 
bravery  and  military  skill.  Died  in  1656.  He  was  the 
founder  of  an  illustrious  family  of  French  nobles,  of  whom 
the  following  are,  perhaps,  the  most  worthy  of  notice. 

Broglie,  de,  deh  bRog'le',  (Achille  L^:once  Victor 
Charles,)  Due,  a  French  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in 
1785  or  1789,  was  a  son  of  Claude  Victor,  noticed  below, 
lie  married  the  only  daughter  of  Madame  de  Stael  in 
1 816,  and  in  the  same  year  became  a  member  of  the  Cham- 
ber of  Peers,  in  which  he  made  a  speech  against  the  slave- 
trade  in  1822.  After  the  revolution  of  1830,  the  Due  de 
Broglie  and  his  friend  Guizot  were  the  chiefs  of  the  party 
called  Doctrinaires.  De  Broglie  was  minister  of  public  in- 
struction for  a  few  months  in  1830,  and  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  from  October,  1832,  to  April,  1834.  He  was  elected 
in  1849  to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  in  which  he  voted 
with  the  conservative  droite.  In  1856  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1870. 

Broglie,  de,  (Albert,)  Prince,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  1821,  is  distinguished  in  literature 
and  ])hilosophy.  He  has  contributed  several  articles 
to  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."  Among  his  works 
is  a  history  of  Constantine  the  Great,  entitled  "The 
Church  and  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  Fourth  Century," 
(2  vols.,  1856.) 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  i860. 


Broglie,  de,  (Albertine  Ida  Gustavine  de  Si  ael,) 
Duchesse,  born  in  Paris  about  1797,  was  the  only  daugh- 
ter of  the  celebrated  Madame  de  Stael-Holstein,  and  the 
wife  of  Achille,  Due  de  Broglie,  noticed  above.  She  was 
a  zealous  Protestant,  and  the  author  of  "  Fragments  on 
Various  Subjects  of  Religion  and  Morals,"  (1840,)  and 
other  works.  Died  in  1838.  "  Whatever  might  be  the 
eclat  of  her  position,"  says  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale,"  "she  enhanced  it  by  the  admirable  example 
that  she  gave  of  all  the  domestic  virtues.  Her  salon  was 
not  only  the  resort  of  eminent  statesmen,  but  was  one  of 
those  to  which  the  elite  of  Paris  came  to  seek  intellectual 
pleasure." 

Broglie,  de,  (Claude  Victor,)  Prince,  son  of  Victor 
Fran9ois,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1757.  He 
was  president  of  the  National  Convention  in  1791,  and 
in  1794  was  executed  by  order  of  the  Revolutionary 
tribunal. 

Broglie,  de,  (Franqois  Marie,)  Due,  grandson  of 
Francesco  Maria  Broglia,  noticed  above,  and  son  of 
Victor  Maurice,  Count  of  Broglie,  was  born  in  1671,  and, 
made  marshal  of  France  in  1734.  Ten  years  before, 
he  had  resolutely  refused  this  high  promotion,  because 
he  believed  the  claims  of  his  father,  who  was  then  still 
living,  were  juster  than  his  own.  In  consequence  of  this 
generous  refusal,  his  father  was  made  marshal,  which 
office  he  held  till  his  death  in  1727.  The  Duke  of  Brog- 
lie was  a  man  of  great  ability,  courage,  and  nobleness  of 
character.    Died  in  1745. 

Broglie,  de,  (Maurice  Jean  Madeleine,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  1766,  became  in  1803  almoner  to 
the  emperor,  and  subsequently  Bishop  of  Ghent.  Died 
in  1821. 

Broglie,  de,  (Victor  FRANgois,)  Due,  son  of  Fran- 
9ois  Marie,  noticed  above,  born  in  1718.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  commanded  in  sev- 
eral battles,  and  was  created  marshal  of  France  in  1759. 
He  became  minister  of  war  in  1789,  and  emigrated  about 
1790.    Died  at  Miinster  in  1804. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Frangais." 

Broglie,  de,  (Vicior  Maurice,)  Comte,  Marquis 
de  BrezolleS;  (deh  bReh-zoK,)  son  of  Francisco  Maria 
Broglia,  noticed  above,  born  about  1647,  rendered  im- 
portant services  in  Flanders,  (1672-90,)  and  became  a 
marshal  of  France  in  1724.    Died  in  1727. 

Brogni,  bRdn'yee,  Cardinal  of,  (originally  Gio- 
vanni AUarmet — il-lar-m§t',)  an  eminent  Italian  eccle- 
siastic, born  in  1342,  was  the  son  of  a  peasant  of  Brogni,  a 
village  near  Annecy.  His  talents  soon  raised  him  to  dis- 
tinction, and  in  1385  he  was  made  cardinal.  He  presided 
in  141 7  at  the  Council  in  which  John  Huss  was  con- 
demned. Fie  is  said,  however,  to  have  manifested  the 
kindest  sympathy  towards  Huss,  and  to  have  pronounced 
his  sentence  reluctantly,  and  not  till  he  had  tried  every- 
thing to  reclaim  him  which  Christian  charity  could  sug- 
gest.   Died  in  1426. 

See  MoRERi,  "Dictionnaire  Historique;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Broke.    See  Brooke. 

Broke,  brook,  (?)  (Francis  J.,)  an  officer  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Washington, 
was  born  near  Fredericksburg,  Virginia,  in  1763.  He 
entered  the  army  with  his  twin-brother  John  at  the  age 
of  sixteen,  and  served  his  first  campaign  as  a  lieutenant 
under  La  Fayette.  He  afterwards  joined  the  army  of 
General  Greene,  and  continued  in  service  to  the  end  of 
the  war.    Died  in  1851. 

Broke,  brook,  (Sir  Philip  Bowes  Vere,)  a  British 
rear-admiral,  born  in  1776.  He  commanded  the  Shannon 
in  a  fight  against  the  American  frigate  Chesapeake, 
which  he  captured  in  June,  1813.  (See  Lawrence, 
James.)    Died  in  1841. 

Brome,  (Alexander,)  an  English  poet  and  lawyer, 
born  in  1620.  He  wrote  a  number  of  satires,  songs, 
and  epigrams  in  ridicule  of  the  Parliamentary  party; 
also  a  comedy  entitled  "The  Cunning  Lovers."  Died 
in  1666. 

Brome,  (James,)  an  Englishman,  who  published 
"Travels  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales,"  (1700,) 
and  "Travels  through  Portugal,  Spain,  and  Italy," 
(1712.) 


SL, e, T,  o,  u,  y,  loftg;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  s/2ort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  ftt;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BROME 


Brome,  (Richard,)  an  English  dramatist,  was  origin- 
ally a  servant  of  Ben  Jonson.  He  published  fifteen 
comedies,  among  which  may  be  named  "The  Jovial 
Crew,  or  the  Merry  Beggars,"  and  "  The  Northern  Lass." 
Died  in  1652. 

Bromel,  bRo'mSl,  (Olaf,)  a  physician  and  botanist, 
father  of  the  following,  born  in  the  province  of  Nericia 
in  1639 ;  died  in  1705. 

Bromel,  von,  fon  bRo'mSl,  (Magnus,)  born  at  Stock- 
holm about  1678,  became  chief  physician  to  the  King  of 
Sweden.    Died  in  1731. 

Brom'field,  (John,)  an  American  merchant,  born  at 
Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1779,  lived  in  Boston. 
He  gave  twenty-five  thousand  dollars  to  the  Boston  Athe- 
naeum.   Died  in  1849. 

Brom'field,  (William,)  an  English  surgeon,  born  in 
1712,  published  "  Chirurgical  Observations  and  Cases," 
and  other  medical  works ;  also  a  comedy  called  "  The 
City  Match."  Died  in  1792.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  Lock  Hospital,  London. 

Brorri'ley,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
the  county  of  Salop  about  1530.  He  became  solicitor- 
general  in  1570,  and  lord  chancellor  in  1579.  According 
to  Lord  Campbell,  "he  framed  the  measures  intended 
to  bring  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  to  trial."  He  presided 
over  the  court  which  condemned  her  in  1586.  Died 
in  1587. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,"  vol.  ii. ; 
Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Bromley,  (William,)  an  English  engraver,  born  at 
Carisbrooke,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  1769.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  portraits  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
and  Young  Napoleon,  and  the  illustrations  to  "  Mack- 
lin's  Bible."    Died  in  1842. 

His  son  John,  born  at  Chelsea  in  1795,  obtained  great 
excellence  in  mezzotinto  engraving.    Died  in  1839. 

Bromp'tou,  (John,)  an  English  monk,  the  reputed 
author  or  editor  of  a  "Chronicon"  from  588  to  1198. 

Bronchorst,  (Jan.)    See  Bronkhorst. 

Brondex,  bR^N'd^x',  (Albert,)  a  French  wit  and 
poet,  born  in  1750  ;  died  in  1786. 

Brondsted  or  Bronsted,  bRon'st^d,  (Peter  Oluf,) 
a  Danish  antiquary  and  scholar,  born  at  Horsens,  in 
Jutland,  about  1780.  Having  visited  Italy,  Greece,  and 
Asia  Minor,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  at 
Copenhagen,  (1813,)  director  of  the  Royal  Museum  of 
Antiquities,  and  professor  of  philology  and  archaeology. 
He  published  "  Travels  and  Investigations  in  Greece," 
(1826,  in  German  and  French,)  and  other  valuable  treat- 
ises on  ancient  art.    Died  in  1842. 

See  Ersi.ew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon ;"  J.  P.  Mvnster,  "P.  O. 
Brondsted's  Biographic,"  1844. 

Brongniart,  bR6N'ne-ir',  (Adolphe  Th^:ophile,)  a 
French  botanist,  son  of  Alexandre,  noticed  below,  born 
in  Paris  in  1801.  He  succeeded  Desfontaines  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1834,  and  about  1840 
became  professor  of  botany  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes. 
Among  his  works  may  be  named  "  Prodromus  of  a 
History  of  Fossil  Vegetables,"  (1828,)  "Botanical  and 
Geological  Researches  on  Vegetables  enclosed  in  the 
Different  Strata  of  the  Earth,"  (2  vols.,  1828  et  seq.,) 
and  "Observations  on  the  Interior  Structure  of  the 
Sigillaria  Elegans."  He  was  chosen  a  foreign  member 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  in  1852. 

See  QuER.'VRD,  "La  France  Litteraire,"  (Supplement.) 

Brongniart,  (Alexandre,)  an  eminent  French  chem- 
ist and  mineralogist,  born  in  Paris  in  1770,  was  a  son 
of  Alexandre  Theodore,  noticed  below.  He  served  as 
physician  or  apothecary  in  the  army  in  his  youth,  and 
was  afterwards  a  professor  of  natural  history.  In  1800 
or  1801  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  manufactory  of 
porcelain  at  Sevres.  He  wrote  an  "Elementary  Treat- 
ise on  Mineralogy,"  (1807,)  which  was  used  as  a  text- 
book by  many  professors.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  who  classified  reptiles  under  the  heads  of  Saurians, 
Batrachians,  Chelonians,  and  Ophidians.  In  conjunction 
with  Cuvier,  he  produced  a  celebrated  "  Essay  on  the 
Mineralogical  Geography  of  the  Environs  of  Paris," 
(1810.)  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  181 5,  after  which  he  travelled  in  Sweden  with 
Berzelius.    Among  his  works  is  "A  Treatise  on  the  Art 


of  Pottery,"  ("Traite  des  Arts  ceramiques,"  1845.)  Died 
in  October,  1847. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Brongniart,  (Alexandre  Theodore,)  a  French  ar- 
chitect, and  member  of  the  Academy  of  Architecture, 
born  in  Paris  in  1739.  He  was  the  first  architect  of 
the  Palais  de  la  Bourse,  (Exchange,)  but  did  not  live  to 
finish  it.    Died  in  181 5. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gendrale." 

Brongniart,  (Antoine  Louis,)  a  French  chemist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  professor  in  the  College 
of  Pharmacy,  and  apothecary  to  Louis  XVI.  He  wrote 
an  "Analytical  View  of  the  Combinations  and  Decom- 
positions of  Different  Substances."   Died  in  1804. 

Bronikowski,  bRo'ne-kov'skee,  (Alexander  Au- 
gust Ferdinand  von  Opeln — fon  o'p^ln,)  a  German 
writer,  of  Polish  extraction,  born  at  Dresden  in  1783, 
published  novels  entitled  "Olgierd  and  Olga,  or  Poland 
in  the  Eleventh  Century,"  (1832,)  and  "  Hippolytus 
Boratynski ;"  also  a  "  History  of  Poland."  Died  in 
1834. 

See  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1834. 

Bronkhorst  or  Bronchorst,  van,  vtn  bRonK'horst, 
(Jan,)  a  distinguished  Dutch  painter  of  animals,  born  at 
Leyden  in  1648;  died  in  1726. 

Bronkhorst,  van,  (Pieter,)  un  excellent  Dutch 
painter  of  architectural  pieces  and  perspective,  born  at 
Delft  in  1588;  died  in  1661. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Bronn,  bRon,  (Heinrich  Georg,)  a  German  natu- 
ralist, born  in  1800  near  Heidelberg,  where  he  became, 
professor  of  natural  science  in  1833.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Universal  Zoology,"  (1850,)  and 
"Lethaea  geognostica,"  a  treatise  on  petrifactions  which 
serve  to  characterize  rocky  formations,  (2  vols.,  1834.) 

See  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Bronner,  bRon'ner,  (Franz  Xaver,)  a  German  pas- 
toral poet,  born  at  Hochstiidt,  on  the  Danube,  in  1758; 
died  in  1850. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  3  vols.,  1795-97. 

Bronsted.    See  Brondsted. 

Bronte,  bron'te,  (Anne,)  an  English  novelist,  whose 
assumed  name  was  Acton  Bell,  was  born  in  Yorkshire 
about  1820.  She  was  a  sister  of  Charlotte  Bronte.  She 
wrote,  besides  several  short  poems,  a  prose  tale  called 
"Agnes  Grey,"  (1847,)  and  "The  Tenant  of  Wildfeld 
Hall,"  (1848.)    Died  in  May,  1849. 

See  a  biosraphical  notice  prefixed  by  her  sister  Charlotte  to  tlw 
edition  of  "  Wiithering  Heights"  and  "Agnes  Grey,"  1850. 

Bronte,  (Charlotte,)  "Currer  Bell,"  a  populai 
English  novelist,  born  at  Thornton,  Yorkshire,  April 
21,  1 816,  was  a  daughter  of  Patrick  Bronte,  who  be- 
came curate  of  Haworth  in  1820.  She  lost  her  mother 
when  she  was  a  child.  While  at  a  boarding-school  her 
healtli  was  injured  by  impure  air  and  food  of  bad  quality. 
Her  friend  Mrs.  Gaskell  says  she  was  (about  1833  or 
1834)  a  "  little,  set,  antiquated  girl,  very  quiet  in  manners 
and  very  quaint  in  dress."  In  1835  she  became  a  teacher 
of  the  school  at  Roe  Head,  and  in  1841  a  governess  in  a 
private  family.  Charlotte  and  her  sister  Emily  went  to 
Brussels  in  1842  to  learn  French,  etc.  The  former  was 
afterwards  employed  there  as  a  teacher  of  English,  at  a 
salary  of  sixteen  pounds  a  year ;  but  she  returned  to 
Haworth  about  the  end  of  1843.  In  1846  the  Misses 
Bronte  published  a  volume  entitled  "Poems  by  Currer, 
Ellis,  and  Acton  Bell,"  Currer  Bell  being  the  assumed 
name  of  Charlotte.  About  two  years  later,  under  the 
pressure  of  painful  domestic  trials,  she  produced  "Jane 
Eyre,  an  Autobiography,  edited  by  Currer  Bell,"  (3 
vols.,  1848,)  which  obtained  great  popularity  and  was 
translated  into  many  languages.  "Almost  all  that  we 
require  in  a  novelist,"  says  "Eraser's  Magazine,"  "the 
writer  has, — perception  of  character  and  knowledge  of 
delineating  it,  picturesqueness,  passion,  and  knowledge 
of  life."  Of  "Jane  Eyre"  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
January,  1850,  says,  "It  is  certain  that  for  many  years 
there  had  been  no  work  of  such  power,  piquancy,  and 
originality.  Its  very  faults  were  faults  on  the  side  of 
vigour,  and  its  beauties  were  all  original.  The  grand 
secret  of  its  success,  however, — as  of  all  genuine  and 


•e  as  k;  q  as  s;  g  /lard;  g  as j;  g,  h,    gtithiral ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BRONTE 


BROOKS 


lasting  success, — was  its  reality."  This  work  was,  how- 
ever, severely  criticised  by  the  "  Quarterly  Review"  for 
December,  1848.  "Anyone  who  has  studied  her  writings," 
says  Mrs.  Gaskell,  "  must  have  noticed  her  singular  fe- 
licity in  the  choice  of  words."  In  1849  she  published 
"Shirley,  a  Tale."  Before  this  time  the  death  of  her 
iisters  had  filled  her  home  with  desolation.  About  the 
end  of  1849  she  visited  London,  and  became  acquainted 
with  Thackeray  and  Harriet  Martineau.  Extreme,  in- 
tense solitude  had  rendered  her  shy  and  somewhat  taci- 
turn in  the  presence  of  strangers.  "  Indigestion,  nausea, 
headache,  sleeplessness,"  says  Mrs.  Gaskell,  "all  com- 
bined to  produce  miserable  depression  of  spirits."  About 
the  end  of  1852  she  finished  "  Villette,"  another  novel, 
which  "was  received  with  one  burst  of  acclamation." 
In  December,  1852,  a  proposal  of  marriage  was  made  to 
her  by  Arthur  B.  Nicholls,  who  had  been  curate  of  Ha- 
worth  for  many  years,  and  had  seen  her  almost  daily 
during  that  period.  She  at  first  declined  the  offer  because 
her  father  sternly  disapproved  the  match;  but  he  finally 
consented,  and  they  were  married  in  June,  1854.  After 
a  brief  taste  of  domestic  happiness,  she  died  at  Haworth 
in  March,  1855. 

"  No  one  in  her  time,"  says  "  Blackwood"  for  May,  1855, 
"has  grasped  with  such  extraordinary  force  the  scenes 
and  circumstances  through  which  her  story  moved,  or 
thrown  so  strong  an  individual  life  into  place  and  lo- 
cality. Her  passionate  and  fearless  nature,  her  wild, 
warm  heart,  are  transfused  into  the  magic  world  she 
has  created, — a  world  which  no  one  can  enter  without 
yielding  to  the  irresistible  fascination  of  her  personal 
influence." 

See  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  1857;  E.  C.  Gaskell,  "Life  of 
Charlotte  Bronte,"  2  vols.,  1857. 

Bronte,  (Emily,)  "Ellis  Bell,"  a  younger  sister  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Yorkshire  about  1819.  She 
was  one  of  the  authors  of  a  volume  entitled  "Poems 
by  Currer,  Ellis,  and  Acton  Bell,"  (1846.)  She  also 
published  "  Wuthering  Heights,"  a  novel,  (1847,)  the 
merit  of  which  was  variously  estimated.  Died  in  Decem- 
ber, 1848. 

See  a  biographical  notice  of  Ellis  and  Acton  Bell,  prefixed  to  an 
edition  of  "Wuthering  Heights,"  1850. 

Bronte,  (Patrick,)  the  father  of  Charlotte  Bronte, 
was  born  in  Ireland  about  1774.  He  became  curate  of 
Haworth,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1820.  He  wrote  "Cottage 
Poems,"  (181 1.)    Died  in  1861. 

Bronzino,  (Alessandro.)    See  Allori. 

Bronzino,  bRon-zee'no,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Florence  in  1 501.  His  "Descent  of  Christ  into 
Hell"  is  considered  his  master-piece.    Died  in  1570. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Brook,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  1775, 
published  "The  Lives  of  the  Puritans,"  (3  vols.,  1813.) 
Died  about  1848. 

Brooke,  (Charlotte,)  an  Irish  authoress,  a  daughter 
of  Henry  Brooke,  noticed  below.  She  published,  about 
1788,  "Reliques  of  Irish  Poetry,"  translated  from  the 
Celtic.    Died  in  1793. 

Brooke,  (Frances,)  an  English  authoress,  wrote  the 
"  History  of  Julia  Mandeville,"  and  other  novels,  also 
"The  Siege  of  Sinope,"  a  tragedy,  and  several  poems. 
Died  in  1789. 

Brooke,  (George  Mercer,)  an  officer  in  the  United 
States  army,  served  with  distinction  in  1814  and  in  the 
Mexican  war,  and  attained  the  rank  of  major-general. 
Died  in  185 1. 

Brooke,  (Henry,)  a  political  and  miscellaneous 
writer  of  considerable  reputation  in  his  time,  was  born 
at  Rantavan,  in  Ireland,  in  1706.  Among  his  princi- 
pal works  are  a  poem  entitled  "Universal  Beauty," 
the  tragedies  of  "  The  Earl  of  Essex"  and  "  Gustavus 
Vasa,"  and  "  The  Fool  of  Quality,"  a  novel,  (1766.)  Died 
in  1783. 

See  Dr.  Johnson's  "Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Brooke,  (James,)  an  English  politician,  succeeded 
Wilkes  as  editor  of  "The  North  Briton."  Died  in  1807. 

Brooke,  (Sir  James,)  a  distinguished  statesman,  of 
English  extraction,  born  in  Bengal  in  1803.  He  sailed 
in  1838  in  his  yacht,  called  the  "  Royalist,"  for  Borneo, 


where,  as  a  reward  for  services  rendered  lu  the  sultan 
of  that  country,  he  was  appointed  in  1841  Rajah  and 
Governor  of  Sarawak.  He  formed  a  code  of  laws  for 
the  natives,  and  was  zealous  in  his  efforts  for  the  extir 
pation  of  piracy.  On  a  subsequent  visit  to  England  he 
was  made  a  K.C.B.,  and  obtained  the  degree  of  D.C.L., 
(1847.)    Died  in  England  in  June,  1868. 

See  "Private  Letters  of  Sir  James  Brooke,"  edited  by  J.  C.  Tem- 
PLER,  1853  ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1846. 

Brooke,  (John  Charles,)  an  English  topographer 
and  antiquary,  born  in  1748,  published  "The  Somerset 
Herald."    Died  in  1794. 

Brooke,  Lord.    See  Greville,  (Fulke.) 

Brooke  or  Broke,  brook,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  English 
magistrate  and  legal  writer;  died  in  1558. 

Brookes,  brooks,  (Joshua,)  a  celebrated  English 
anatomist  and  surgeon,  born  in  1 761.  The  number  of 
his  pupils  is  said  to  have  amounted  to  seven  thousand ; 
and  he  formed  an  anatomical  museum  of  great  value. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on  Osteology."  Died 
in  1833.  _ 

Brooks,  brooks,  (Rev.  Charles,)  an  American  Uni- 
tarian divine,  born  at  Medford,  Massachusetts,  in  1795. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Peace  Society,  and  a  prominent 
advocate  of  the  temperance  reform  from  its  commence- 
ment. He  also  contributed  to  the  improvement  of  the 
public  schools  of  New  England  and  to  the  establishment 
of  normal  schools,  which  work  was  finally  completed  by 
Horace  Mann.  In  1839  he  visited  Europe  for  the  second 
time,  having  previously  been  chosen  professor  of  natural 
history  in  the  University  of  New  York.  After  spending 
four  years  on  the  continent,  he  returned  to  his  professor- 
ship, which,  however,  on  account  of  his  failing  eye -sight, 
he  did  not  long  retain.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  "  Peace, 
Labour,  and  Education  in  Europe,"  and  other  works. 
Mr.  Brooks  also  published  one  volume  of  a  work  on 
Ornithology,  (finely  illustrated.) 

See  Livingston's  *'  Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans,"  1854. 

Brooks,  (Charles  Shirley,)  an  English  dramatist, 
born  in  1815  or  1816.  He  produced  dramas,  entitled 
"  The  Creole"  and  "  Honour  and  Riches,"  also  several 
novels,  among  which  is  "Aspen  Court,"  (1857.) 

Brooks,  (Charles  T.,)  an  American  Unitarian  di- 
vine and  poet,  born  in  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  1813. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard,  and  in  1837  was  settled  as 
pastor  in  Newport,  Rhode  Island.  He  has  published 
translations  of  Goethe's  "Faust,"  and  of  the  "  Wilhelm 
Tell"  and  other  poems  of  Schiller. 

Brooks,  (Erastus,)  an  American  journalist,  born  at 
Portland,  Maine,  in  1815.  He  became  editor  of  the 
"New  York  Express"  about  1836,  supported  the  Native 
American  party  in  1855  and  1856,  and  afterwards  joined 
the  Democratic  party. 

Brooks,  (James,)  an  American  politician,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Portland,  Maine,  in  1810. 
He  became  in  1836  associate  editor  of  the  "  New  York 
Express,"  and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1848.  Since  the  rebellion  of  1861  he  has  served  for 
several  terms  in  Congress,  and  has  acted  with  the  Dem- 
ocrats. 

Brooks,  (James  Gordon,)  an  American  poet,  born 
at  Claverack,  New  York,  in  1801,  graduated  at  Union 
College  in  1819.  He  removed  in  1823  to  New  York, 
where  he  edited  successively  "The  Minerva,"  "The 
Literary  Gazette,"  and  "The  Athenaeum."  He  married 
Mary  E.  Aikin,  a  poetess,  in  1828.    Died  in  1841. 

See  Griswold's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Brooks,  (Maria  Gowen,)  called  Maria  del  Occi- 
den te  by  Southey,  an  American  poetess,  born  at  Med- 
ford, Massachusetts,  about  1795.  She  was  married  at 
an  early  age  to  Mr.  Brooks,  a  merchant  of  Boston,  who 
died  in  1823.  She  published  in  1820  a  volume  entitled 
"Judith,  Esther,  and  other  Poems."  About  1823  she 
removed  to  the  island  of  Cuba.  Her  principal  work  is 
"Zophiel,  or  the  Bride  of  Seven,"  (1825,)  which  was 
highly  praised  by  Southey,  who  spoke  of  Mrs.  Brooks 
as  the  "  most  impassioned  and  most  imaginative  of  all 
poetesses."  She  visited  Southey  at  Keswick  in  183 1. 
Died  at  Matanzas  in  1845. 

See  Griswold,  "  Female  Poets  of  America;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  September,  1840. 


a,  e, T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BROOKS 


44 


BROUGHAM 


Brooks,  (Nathan  Covington,)  an  American  scholar 
and  poet,  born  in  Cecil  county,  Maryland,  in  1809.  In 
1848  he  became  president  of  the  Baltimore  Female  Col- 
lege, in  which  position  he  has  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  a  teacher.  He  has  published  a  "  History  of  the  Mex- 
ican War,"  which  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  that  has 
appeared  on  the  subject,  and  a  number  of  poems,  among 
which  we  may  cite  '*  Shelley's  Obsequies,"  and  "  The 
Fall  of  Superstition." 

See  Livingston's  "Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans,"  1854. 

Brooks,  (Peter  Chardon,)  a  distinguished  merchant 
of  Boston,  born  at  Medford  in  1767.  He  was  active  in 
promoting  benevolent  enterprises.  Died  in  1849.  His 
three  daughters  were  married  to  Hon.  Edward  Everett, 
Charles  Francis  Adams,  and  the  Rev.  N.  L.  Frothing- 
ham,  D.D. 

See  Edward  Everett,  "Life  of  P.  C.  Brooks,"  in  Hunt's 
"American  Merchants." 

Brooks,  (Rev.  Phillips,)  a  popular  American  cler- 
gyman, born  in  Boston,  December  13,  1835.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  in  1855,  and  studied  for  the  ministry  in 
the  Episcopal  Theological  Seminary  at  Alexandria,  Vir- 
ginia. Having  been  ordained  in  1859,  he  became  pastor 
of  the  Church  of  the  Advent  in  Philadelphia,  in  1862  of 
the  Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  in  the  same  city,  and  in 
1869  of  Trinity  Church,  in  Boston. 

Brooks,  (Preston  S.,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Edgefield  district.  South  Carolina,  in  18 19.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1853  and  in  1855.  In 
May,  1856,  he  acquired  notoriety  by  a  personal  outrage 
on  Charles  Sumner  in  the  chamber  of  the  Senate  of  the 
United  States,  He  was  censured  by  the  House  of  Re- 
presentatives, and  resigned  his  seat,  but  was  re-elected. 
He  died  in  Washington  in  January,  1857. 

Brooks,  (William  T.  H.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Ohio  about  1820,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1841.  He  became  a  captain  in  185 1,  and  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  about  September,  1861.  He  com- 
manded a  division  at  Chancellorsville  in  May,  1863,  and 
served  in  the  army  of  the  Potomac  at  Cold  Harbour  and 
Petersburg,  June-July,  1864.    Died  in  1870. 

Broome,  (William,)  an  English  poet  and  divine, 
who  assisted  Pope  in  translating  the  "Odyssey."  Having 
complained  that  his  services  were  inadequately  paid  by 
Pope,  the  latter  gave  him  a  place  in  the  "Dunciad." 
Broome's  merits  as  a  translator  are  highly  commended 
by  Dr.  Johnson.    Died  in  1745. 

See  Dr.  Johnson's  "Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Brosamer,  bRos'^-mer,  or  Bros'haraer,  (Hans,)  a 
German  painter  and  engraver,  born  about  1506,  resided 
at  Fulda.    Died  about  1560. 

BrosboU,  bRos'bol,  (Karl,)  a  Danish  novelist  and 
dramatist,  born  in  Jutland  in  1820.  Among  his  works 
is  "  Madsalune,"  (1841.) 

Broschi.    See  Farinelll 

Broshamer,  (Hans.)    See  Brosamer. 

Brossard,  de,  dehbRo'stR',  (S6bastien,)  an  eminent 
French  musician,  died  in  1730.  His  musical  library  was 
one  of  the  most  valuable  ever  formed. 

Brosse,  bRoss,  physician  to  Louis  XIII.,  and  founder 
of  the  "Jardin  Royal,"  (or  "Royal  Garden,")  otherwise 
called  the  "Jardin  des  Plantes,"  of  Paris.  Died  in  1641. 

Brosses,  de,  deh  bRoss,  (Charles,)  a  French  anti- 
quary, born  at  Dijon  in  1709.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  published,  among  other 
works,  a  "History  of  Voyages  to  Australia,"  ("Terres 
australes,"  2  vols.,  1756,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Seventh 
Century  of  the  Roman  Republic,"  (3  vols.,  1777.)  He  was 
the  first  who  used  the  terms  Polynesia  and  Australasia. 
Died  in  1777. 

See  ViLLEMAiN,  "Tableau  de  la  Litterature  au  dix-huitieme 
Si6cle." 

Brosset,  bRo'si',  (Marie  F^licit6,)  a  French  Orien- 
talist, born  in  Paris  in  1802.  He  removed  to  Saint  Pe- 
tersburg, where  he  became  keeper  of  the  great  public 
library,  (1842.)  He  published  several  works  on  the  his- 
tory and  language  of  Georgia. 

Brossette,bRo''sgt',(CLAUDE,)  a  French  advocate  and 
litterateur,  born  at  Lyons  in  1671  ;  died  in  1743, 

Brotero,  bRo-ta'ro,  (Felix  de  Avellar,)  an  eminent 
Portuguese  botanist,  born  near  Lisbon  in  1744,  published  | 


"  Phytographia  Lusitanica,"  (1827.)  He  was  professor 
of  botany  at  Lisbon  for  many  years.    Died  in  1828. 

See  GusMAO,  "  Notice  of  the  Life  of  F.  A.  Brotero,"  London,  1845. 

Brothers,  briith'erz,  (Richard,)  an  English  fanatic, 
who  professed  to  be  the  prophet  of  a  new  religion  and 
that  he  was  sent  to  restore  the  Hebrews  to  the  land  of 
Canaan.  He  made  numerous  predictions  relative  to 
European  affairs,  and  published  several  works  of  a  blas- 
phemous character.    Died  about  1824. 

Brotier,  bro'te-i',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  scholar,  born 
at  Tannay  in  1723,  was  librarian  in  the  College  of  Louis 
le  Grand.  He  published  a  valuable  edition  of  Tacitus, 
and  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  Roman,  Greek,  and  Hebrew 
Coins  compared  with  the  Coins  of  France,"  (1760.) 
Died  in  1789. 

Brouaut,  bRoo'6',  (Jean,)  [Lat.  Johan'nes  Brevo' 
Tius,]  a  physician  and  chemist  of  merit,  lived  in  the  Low 
Countries  about  1590. 

See  Hoefer,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Brouckere,  de,  deh  bRooOcaiR',  (Charles  Marie 
Joseph  Ghislain — g^s'l^N',)  a  Belgian  politician  and 
political  economist,  born  at  Bruges  in  1796,  was  minister 
of  war  from  August,  1831,  to  March,  1832.  He  pub- 
lished "Principles  of  Political  Economy,"  (1851.) 

Brouckere,  de,  (Henri  Marie  Joseph  Ghislain,) 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Bruges  in  1801. 
He  became  a  leader  of  the  Liberal  party,  and  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  state  in  1847.  In  October,  1852,  he 
was  directed  to  organize  a  new  ministry,  of  which  he 
became  president.    He  resigned  in  March,  1855. 

Broue,  de  la,  deh  ItbRoo,  (Pierre,)  a  French  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Toulouse  in  1643,  became  Bishop  of  Mire- 
poix.    Died  in  1720. 

Brougham,  broo'am  or  broo'm,  (Henry,)  Lord,  a 
popular  British  orator,  statesman,  and  author,  distin- 
guished for  his  great  learning  and  versatility,  was  born  in 
Edinburgh  on  the  19th  of  September,  1779.  His  father 
w^as  Henry  Brougham,  Esq.,  of  Brougham  Hall,  West- 
moreland, and  his  mother  was  Eleanor  Syme,  a  niece 
of  Dr.  Robertson  the  historian.  He  began  his  classical 
studies  in  the  High  School  of  Edinburgh,  and  about  the 
age  of  fifteen  entered  the  university  of  that  city,  where 
Dugald  Stewart  and  Dr.  Black  were  among  his  teachers. 
His  favourite  studies  were  the  mathematics  and  physical 
sciences.  At  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  wrote  a  paper  on 
the  Refraction  and  Reflection  of  Light,  which  was  printed 
in  the  "Transactions"  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Having  chosen  the  profession  of  the  law,  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Edinburgh  Society  of  Advocates  about 
1800.  In  1802  he  united  with  Francis  Jeffrey  and  Syd- 
ney Smith  to  found  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  to  which 
he  contributed  many  able  articles  during  a  period  of 
twenty-five  years,  (1803-28.)  He  published  in  1803  an 
"Enquiry  into  the  Colonial  Policy  of  the  European 
Powers,"  (2  vols.) 

Having  removed  to  London  in  1807  or  1808,  he  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  the  latter  year,  and 
chose  the  courts  of  common  law  and  the  Northern  cir- 
cuit. He  had  attained  a  high  reputation  as  a  forensic 
orator,  when  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  for 
Camelford  by  the  Whigs  in  1810.  As  a  parliamentary 
debater  he  soon  occupied  the  first  rank,  and  was  pre- 
eminent in  passionate  vehemence  and  invective.  For 
many  years  he  found  no  equal  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons except  Canning,  who  was  his  political  adversary. 
Brougham  procured  the  passage  of  an  address  to  the  king 
for  the  suppression  of  the  slave-trade  in  1810.  He  lost 
his  election  in  1812,  and  remained  out  of  Parliament 
four  years.  He  was  returned  in  1816  for  Winchelsea, 
which  he  represented  until  1830.  In  1819  he  married  a 
daughter  of  Thomas  Eden  of  Wimbledon,  a  brother  of 
Lord  Auckland. 

He  denounced  the  Holy  Alliance,  and  the  foreign 
policy  of  the  Tory  ministry,  on  several  occasions,  and 
distinguished  hin>self  as  the  advocate  of  popular  educa- 
tion and  political  reform.  His  popularity  was  greatly 
increased  by  his  forensic  arguments  in  1821,  before  the 
House  of  Lords  and  Privy  Council,  in  defence  of  Queen 
Caroline,  who  had  appointed  him  her  attorney-general. 
He  supported  the  measures  of  Canning  after  the  latter 
became  prime  minister  in  1827,  although  he  had  once 


e  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Yi,  guttural;  N,  7iasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BROUGHAM 


442 


BROWN 


vehemently  assailed  the  integrity  of  Canning's  public 
conduct. 

In  1825  he  published  "Practical  Observations  on  the 
Education  of  the  People,"  which  was  often  reprinted, 
and  produced  a  powerful  impression  on  the  public  mind. 
He  was  chosen  lord  rector  of  Glasgow  University  in 
1825,  when  Sir  Walter  Scott  was  his  competitor.  He 
rendered  an  important  service  to  the  community  as  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful 
Knowledge,  (1827,)  of  which  he  was  the  first  chairman. 
His  treatise  "  On  the  Objects,  Advantages,  and  Pleasures 
of  Science"  was  the  first  work  published  by  this  society. 
"There  is  no  second  man  in  the  kingdom  who  could 
with  such  admirable  art  have  analyzed,  as  it  were,  his 
mental  wealth,  and  sent  it  forth  in  a  form  at  once  the 
simplest,  the  most  convenient,  and  the  most  ready  of 
access  that  it  was  possible  to  contrive."  ("London 
Monthly  Review.") 

In  1830  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Yorkshire, 
after  a  contest  in  which,  it  is  said,  he  addressed  eight 
different  electoral  meetings  in  one  day.  He  avowed 
himself,  at  the  opening  of  the  session,  a  champion  of 
Parliamentary  reform,  which  was  then  the  principal  issue 
before  the  country.  In  November,  1830,  he  became 
lord  chancellor  of  England  in  the  new  ministry  formed 
by  Earl  Grey,  and  received  the  title  of  Baron  Brougham 
and  Vaux.  Among  his  most  celebrated  oratorical  efforts 
was  a  speech  for  the  Reform  Bill  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
in  October,  1831.  He  manifested  prodigious  activity  in 
the  performance  of  his  duties  as  chancellor  and  legisla- 
tor. He  promoted  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  colo- 
nies, and  reforms  in  municipal  jurisprudence.  On  the 
dissolution  of  the  Whig  ministry  in  November,  1834,  he 
retired  from  office,  and  ceased  to  act  with  the  Whig  party. 
His  political  course  from  that  time  was  independent  of 
party :  he  supported,  however,  several  liberal  measures, 
and  devoted  himself  especially  to  the  cause  of  law-reform. 
In  1843  published  "Letters  on  Law-Reform,  ad- 
dressed to  Sir  James  Graham."  He  denounced  the  Anti- 
Corn-Law  League,  but  voted  for  the  repeal  of  the  corn- 
laws  in  1846. 

Lord  Brougham  was  chosen  a  foreign  associate  of  the 
Institute  of  France  (class  of  moral  and  political  sciences) 
in  1833.  He  hailed  with  enthusiasm,  or  at  least  cordial 
favour,  the  French  revolution  of  1848,  soon  after  which 
he  signified  his  desire  to  become  naturalized  as  a  French 
citizen,  but  was  officially  informed  that  he  could  not  be 
received  as  such  unless  he  ceased  to  be  an  English  peer. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "  Sketches  of  Statesmen 
of  the  Time  of  George  III.,"  (3  vols.,  1839-43,)  "Politi- 
cal Philosophy,"  (3  vols.,  1840-44,)  "  Speeches  at  the 
Bar  and  in  Parliament,"  (4  vols.,  1843,)  "Lives  of  the 
Men  of  Letters  and  Science  who  flourished  in  the  Time 
of  George  III.,"  (2  vols.,  1845-46,)  and  "Contributions 
to  the  Edinburgh  Review  :  Political,  Historical,  and  Mis- 
cellaneous," (3  vols.,  1857.)  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works  was  published,  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
author,  in  ten  volumes,  1857.  It  is  stated  as  a  fact  with- 
out precedent  in  the  history  of  English  chancellors  that 
he  retired  from  the  court  of  chancery  without  leaving  a 
single  case,  which  had  been  heard,  in  arrear  for  judg- 
ment. Died  at  his  rural  retreat  at  Cannes,  in  France,  on 
the  9th  of  May,  1868. 

See  "'London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1818,  and  April, 
1859;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1837,  and  April,  1858; 
"British  Quarterly"  for  July,  i860. 

Brougham,  broo'am,  (John,)  a  popular  Irish  come- 
dian, born  in  Dublin  in  1810.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  about  1842,  and  performed  in  New  York.  He 
produced  several  comedies  and  other  works. 

Broughton,  brow'ton,  (Arthur,)  M.D.,  an  English 
botanist,  published  several  botanical  works,  (1782-94.) 

Broughton,  (Hugh,)  an  English  theological  writer 
and  Hebrew  scholar,  born  at  Oldbury  in  1549,  was  a 
protege  of  the  celebrated  Bernard  Gilpin.  Died  in  1612. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Broughton,  Lord.    See  Hobhouse,  (John  Cam.) 

Broughton,  (Richard,)  an  English  theologian,  pub- 
lished an  "Ecclesiastical  History  of  Great  Britain  from 
the  Nativity  to  the  Conversion  of  the  Saxons."  Died 
in  1634. 


Broughton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
London  in  1704,  published  "Christianity  distinct  from 
the  Religion  of  Nature,"  and  was  a  contributor  to  the 
"  Biographia  Britannica,"    Died  in  1774. 

Broughton,  (William  Grant,)  an  English  divine, 
born  at  Canterbury  in  1789,  became  in  1835  first  Bishop 
of  Australia.  He  died  on  the  voyage  home  to  England 
in  1853. 

Broughton,  (William  Robert,)  an  English  navi- 
gator, born  in  Gloucestershire  in  1763.  He  accompanied 
in  1790  the  expedition  of  Vancouver,  who  gave  the  name 
of  Broughton's  Archipelago  to  some  islands  in  the  Pa- 
cific, in  about  50  degrees  north  latitude.  He  published 
a  "  Voyage  of  Discovery  to  the  North  Pacific  Ocean," 
(1804,)  which  see.    Died  in  1822. 

Brouncker  or  Brounker,  briink'er,  (?)  (William,) 
Viscount,  a  distinguished  mathematician,  born  in  Ire- 
land in  1620.  He  became  first  president  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1662,  and  was  subsequently  appointed  lord  of 
the  admiralty  and  chancellor  of  the  queen.  He  wrote 
several  scientific  treatises,  and  originated  some  valuable 
discoveries  in  mathematics.    Died  in  1684. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Brou.ssais,  bRoo'si',  (Francois  Joseph  Victor,)  a 
distinguished  French  physician  and  medical  writer,  born 
at  Saint-Malo  in  1772,  was  professor  of  pathology  in  the 
Faculty  of  Paris.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute, 
and  the  teacher  of  a  system  or  theory  of  medicine  called 
the  Physiological.    Died  in  1838. 

See  "  Essai  critique  sur  Broussais,"  Paris,  1839;  Montegre, 
"  Notice  sur  la  Vie,  les  Travaux  et  les  Opinions  de  Broussais,"  1839; 
J.  B.  Priou,  "Notice  historique  sur  F.  J.  V.  Broussais,"  1841. 

Broussier,  bRoo'se-i',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  Count,  a 
French  general,  born  near  Bar-le-Duc  in  1766.  As  gen- 
eral of  brigade,  he  contributed  to  the  victory  at  Marengo 
in  1800.  He  became  a  general  of  division  in  1805,  and 
rendered  important  services  in  Italy  in  1809.  Died  in 
1814. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Frangais." 

Brousson,  bRoo^s6N',  (Claude,)  a  French  Protestant 
theologian  and  religious  writer,  born  at  Nimes  in  1647. 
He  was  executed  in  1698,  on  a  charge  of  treason. 

See  La  Beaumelle,  "  Lettres  k  Voltaire;"  A.  Borrel,  "Biogra- 
phie  de  C.  Brousson,"  1S52;  "Life  of  C.  Brousson,"  London,  1853. 

Broussonnet,  bRoo^so^na',  (Pierre  Auguste,)  a 
French  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Montpellier  in 
1761.  He  published  " Ichthyologia,"  and  "Memoirs 
towards  the  History  of  the  Respiration  of  Fishes."  He 
was  professor  of  botany  at  Montpellier,  and  a  membei 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.    Died  in  1807. 

See  CuviER,  "filogede  Broussonnet,"  1808;  A.  P.  Decandolle, 
"  £loge  de  Broussonnet,"  1809. 

Brouwer.    See  Brauwer. 

Browall,  bRo'\\^il,  [Lat.  Brovs^al'lius,]  (Johan,)  a 
Swedish  theologian,  naturalist,  and  scientific  writer, 
born  at  Westras  in  1707.  He  became  professor  of  natu- 
ral history  at  Abo  in  1737,  and  was  subsequently  Bishop 
of  that  city.  Linnaeus  named  in  his  honour  the  genus 
Browallia.    Died  in  1755. 

See  Gezelius,  "  Biographiskt-Lexicon." 

Brower.    See  Brauwer. 
Brown.    See  Browne. 

Brown,  (Aaron  Vail,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  in 
Brunswick  county,  Virginia,  in  1795,  removed  to  Nash- 
ville, Tennessee.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from 
1839  to  1845,  was  elected  Governor  of  Tennessee  in 
1845,  and  appointed  postmaster-general  of  the  United 
States  in  1857.    Died  in  1859. 

Brown,  (Albert  G.,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in 
Chester  district.  South  Carolina,  in  1813.  He  was 
elected  Governor  of  Mississippi  in  1843  and  in  1845, 
was  a  member  of  the  national  House  of  Representatives 
from  1847  to  1853,  and  was  chosen  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  in  the  latter  year.  He  was  re-elected  about 
1858,  and  retired  from  the  Senate,  as  a  secessionist,  in 
1861. 

Brown,  (Alexander,)  an  English  botanist  and  sur^ 
geon,  lived  about  1670.  The  genus  Brownia  was  named 
in  his  honour. 

Brown,  (Alexander,)  the  founder  of  a  family  of 
eminent  merchants,  was  born  in  Antrim  county,  Ire- 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  lojig;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon. 


BROWN 


443 


BROWN 


land,  in  1764.  He  settled  in  Baltimore  about  1800. 
Died  in  1834.  He  was  the  father  of  William  George, 
John  A.,  and  James  Brown. 

Brown,  (Antoinette.)    See  Blackwell. 

Brown,  (Catherine,)  a  Cherokee  convert  to  Chris- 
tianity, born  in  Alabama  in  1800;  died  in  1823. 

Brown,  (Chadd,)  an  American  Baptist  divine,  who 
fled  from  the  persecutions  of  Massachusetts  in  1636  to 
Providence,  Rhode  Island.  For  more  than  two  centu- 
ries his  descendants  have  been  among  the  most  distin- 
guished citizens  of  that  State.    Died  in  1665. 

Brown,  (Charles  Brockden,)  an  eminent  American 
novelist,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  January,  1771.  His 
ancestors  were  Quakers,  who  came  to  Philadelphia  with 
William  Penn.  He  was  liberally  educated,  and  from  his 
early  years  he  manifested  a  decided  inclination  for  lite- 
rary pursuits.  He  published  "  Wieland,  or  the  Trans- 
formation," (1798,)  "  Ormond,  or  the  Secret  Witness," 
(1799,)  and  "Arthur  Mervyn,"  (1800.)  In  the  last-named 
work  he  gives  a  graphic  account  of  the  scenes  exhibited 
during  the  prevalence  of  the  yellow  fever  in  Philadelphia 
in  1793.  He  was  editor  of  the  "Monthly  Magazine  and 
American  Review,"  (i 799-1800.)  He  also  founded,  in 
1803  or  1805,  "The  Literary  Magazine  and  American 
Register,"  which  he  edited  about  five  years.  Among 
his  other  works  are  "Clara  Howard,"  (1801,)  and  "Jane 
Talbot,"  (1804.)  He  married  a  Miss  Linn,  of  New  York, 
in  1804.  He  died  of  consumption  in  February,  1810, 
leaving  one  son.  Referring  to  his  characteristics  as  a 
writer,  Mr.  Prescott  observes,  "  He  has  been  said  to  have 
formed  himself  on  Godwin,  and  has  certainly  in  some  re- 
spects adopted  his  mode  of  operation,  studying  character 
with  a  philosophic  rather  than  a  poetic  eye.  But  there 
is  no  servile  imitation  in  all  this.  He  has  borrowed  the 
same  torch,  indeed,  to  read  the  page  of  human  nature, 
but  the  lesson  he  derives  from  it  is  totally  different.  His 
peculiar  merits  appeal  to  a  higher  order  of  criticism  than 
is  to  be  found  in  ordinary  and  superficial  readers.  Like 
the  productions  of  Coleridge  or  Wordsworth,  they  seem 
to  rely  on  deeper  sensibilities  than  most  men  possess, 
and  tax  the  reasoning  powers  j^^.ore  severely  than  is  agree- 
able to  readers  who  resort  to  works  of  fiction  only  as 
an  epicurean  indulgence." 

See  William  H.  Prescott's  "Life  of  C.  Brockden  Brown," 
in  Sparks's  "American  Bioprap'.y,"  vol.  i.,  reprinted  in  Pkes- 
cott's  "Miscellanies,"  1855;  W.  Dun,  ^p's  "Life  of  Brown,"  pre- 
fixed to  an  edition  of  his  works,  1827  ;  Griswold's  "  Prose  Writers 
of  America." 

Brown,  (David,)  an  English  clergyman,  went  to  Cal- 
cutta as  chaplain  to  the  East  India  Company,  and  be- 
came provost  of  the  College  of  Fort  William  in  1800. 
Died  in  India  in  181 2. 

Brown,  (David,)  a  Cherokee,  a  brother  of  Cathe- 
rine, noticed  above,  was  converted  by  missionaries,  who 
employed  him  as  an  interpreter  and  teacher.  Died  in 
1829. 

Brown,  (David  Paul,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1795,  gained  distinction  as  a  pleader  in 
criminal  cases.  He  published  "The  Forum,  or  Forty 
Years'  Full  Practice  at  the  Philadelphia  Bar,"  (2  vols., 
1856.) 

Brown,  (Ford  Madox,)  an  English  painter,  born  at 
Calais  in  1821.  Among  his  works  are  "King  Lear," 
"Chaucer  at  the  Court  of  Edward  III.,"  and  "The  Last 
of  England." 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1865. 

Brown,  (Frances,)  a  blind  Irish  poetess,  born  at 
Stranorlar,  in  Donegal,  about  1816.  She  published  "The 
Star  of  Atteghei,"  and  other  poems,  (1844,)  which  were 
received  with  favour. 

Brown,  (Sir  George,)  a  Scottish  general,  born  near 
Elgin  in  1790,  served  in  the  Peninsular  war,  and  in  the 
American  campaign  of  1814.  He  became  lieutenant- 
general  in  185 1,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  Cri- 
mean war  at  Alma,  Inkerman,  and  Sebastopol.  He  was 
made  a  K.C.B.  in  1855. 

Brown,  (George  L.,)  an  American  landscape-painter, 
born  in  Boston  about  1820.  He  has  executed  Italian  and 
American  landscapes  of  great  merit :  among  the  latter 
we  may  name  his  "Crown  of  New  England,"  a  view  in 
the  White  Mountains. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 


Brown,  (Goold,)  an  American  teacher  and  gramma* 
rian,  died  at  Lynn,  Massachusetts,  in  1857,  aged  sixty- 
six  years.  His  principal  works  are  the  "Institutes  of 
English  Grammar,"  (1823,)  which  obtained  an  immense 
circulation,  and  the  "  Grammar  of  English  Grammars," 
(1850;  2d  edition,  8vo,  1857,  pp.  1070,)  probably  the  most 
extensive  treatise  of  the  kind  that  has  hitherto  been 
published. 

Brown,  (Harvey,)  an  American  officer,  born  at  Rah- 
way.  New  Jersey,  about  1795,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1818.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  be- 
came a  colonel  of  the  regular  army  in  April  or  May, 
1 861,  and  conducted  a  successful  expedition  for  the  re- 
lief of  Fort  Pickens,  of  which  he  had  command  from 
April  16,  i86r,  to  February,  1862. 

Brown,  (Henry  Kirk,)  an  American  sculptor,  born 
in  Leyden,  Massachusetts,  in  1814.  He  studied  in  Italj', 
and,  after  his  return,  produced  a  bronze  statue,  said  to 
be  the  first  ever  executed  in  America.  One  of  his  most 
noted  works  is  the  colossal  equestrian  statue  of  Wash- 
ington in  Union  Square,  New  York.  He  has  also  exe- 
cuted "The  Four  Seasons,"  "  Pleiades,"  and  other  works 
in  marble. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Brown,  (Jacob,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Bucks 
county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1775.  ^799  settled  in 
the  northern  part  of  New  York.  He  defended  Ogdens- 
burg  in  1812,  and  Sackett's  Harbour  in  1813.  Having 
obtained  the  rank  of  major-general,  he  commanded  an 
army  which  invaded  Canada  in  the  spring  of  1814.  He 
gained  victories  at  Chippewa  and  Niagara  Falls  in  July, 
1 8 14.  In  1 82 1  he  became  comniander-in-chief  of  the 
army  of  the  United  States.    Died  in  1828. 

See  "  Encyclopaedia  Americana,"  (Supplement.) 

Brown,  (James,)  an  Englishman,  born  in  1709,  origin- 
ated, it  is  said,  "The  Directory,  or  List  of  Principal 
Traders  in  London,"  (1782.)    Died  in  1787. 

Brown,  (James,)  born  in  Virginia  in  1766,  was  elected 
a  Senator  of  the  United  States  from  Louisiana  in  1813, 
and  re-elected  in  18 19.  He  was  minister  to  France  from 
1823  to  1829.    Died  in  1835. 

Brown,  (James,)  an  American  publisher,  born  in  Ac- 
ton, Massachusetts,  in  1800,  became  a  partner  of  the 
firm  of  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  Boston.    Died  in  1855. 

Brown,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  clergy- 
man and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  1715  ;  died,  by 
suicide,  in  1766.  Besides  other  works,  he  wrote  "Bar- 
barossa,"  a  tragedy,  and  an  "Estimate  of  the  Manners 
and  Principles  of  the  Times."  The  latter  work  especially 
enjoved  an  extraordinary  popularity. 

Brown,  (John,)  a  Scottish  linguist  and  minister,  born 
in  Perthshire  in  1720  or  1722,  preached  at  Haddington, 
He  published  a  "Dictionary  of  the  Bible,"  (1769,)  and 
"The  Self-Interpreting  Bible,"  (2  vols.,  1791.)  Died  in 
1787. 

Brown,  (John,)  M.D.,  the  author  of  the  Brunonian 
system  of  medicine,  was  born  at  Dunse,  in  Berwickshire, 
Scotland,  in  1735.  ^  pupil  of  Dr.  Cullen,  and 

afterwards  became  his  enemy.  According  to  some  au- 
thorities, a  desire  for  revenge  induced  him  to  form  a  new 
system  of  medicine,  which  should  supplant  that  of  Cul- 
len, and  which  he  propounded  in  his  "Elementa  Medi- 
cinie,"  (1780.)  This  work  was  translated  into  many  lan- 
guages. His  system  was  more  popular  in  Germany  than 
in  Great  Britain.  He  divided  diseases  into  two  classes, 
the  sthenic  and  the  asthenic,  the  former  of  which  resulted 
from  excess  and  the  latter  from  deficiency  of  exciting 
power.  He  used  alcohol  as  a  remedy  for  one  set  of  dis- 
eases, and  opium  for  the  other.  Died  poor,  in  London, 
in  1788. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Brown,  (John,)  an  American  merchant,  brother  of 
Joseph,  Moses,  and  Nicholas  Brown,  was  born  in  Provi- 
dence, Rhode  Island,' in  1736.  He  was  a  zealous  pro- 
moter of  all  benevolent  and  educational  objects,  and  one 
of  the  most  liberal  benefactors  of  Brown  University. 
From  1799  to  1801  he  was  a  representative  in  Congress. 
Died  at  Providence  in  1803. 

Brown,  (John,)  an  American  officer,  born  in  Berk- 
shire county,  Massachusetts,  in  1744.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  expedition  against  Quebec  in  1775,  and 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  h,  VL.guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BROWN 


444 


BROWN 


was  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  in  1776.  He 
was  killed  in  a  fight  with  Indians  in  October,  1780. 

Brown,  (John,)  a  Scottish  painter  and  writer  upon 
art,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1752,  wrote  "Letters  on  the 
Poetry  and  Music  of  the  Italian  Opera."    Died  in  1787. 

Brown,  (John,)  an  eminent  Scottish  divine,  born  in 
1784,  was  a  grandson  of  the  author  of  the  "Self-Inter- 
preting Bible."  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  in  1822  became  pastor  of  the  Rose  vStreet 
Church  in  that  city.  He  was  appointed  in  1834  professor 
of  exegetical  theology  to  the  United  Secession  Church. 
His  principal  works  are  "  An  Exposition  of  our  Lord's 
Intercessory  Prayer,"  (1850,)  "Discourses  and  Sayings 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  and  a  commentary  "On  the 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians."    Died  in  1858. 

See  Rev.  Robert  Steel,  "  Burning  and  Shining  Lights,"  1864. 

Brown,  (John,)  M.D.,  son  of  the  preceding,  a  Scot- 
tish writer,  and  Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physi- 
cians at  Edinburgh,  born  about  1830.  He  published  in 
1858  an  interesting  and  popular  work  entitled  "  Horse 
Subsecivae."  He  has  also  written  "Pet  Marjorie  :  a  Story 
of  Child-Life  Fifty  Years  ago." 

See  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1859. 

Brown,  (John,)  of  Ossawatomie,  a  distinguished 
champion  of  liberty,  born  at  Torrington,  Connecticut, 
in  May,  1800.  His  father  removed  to  Ohio  in  1805. 
From  the  age  of  fifteen  to  twenty  he  worked  at  the  trade 
of  tanner  and  currier.  He  married  in  1820  Dianthe 
Lusk.  According  to  Redpath,  he  conceived  in  1839  the 
idea  of  becoming  a  liberator  of  the  Southern  slaves.  He 
was  a  devout  member  of  the  Congregational  Church,  and 
a  man  of  strict  moral  character.  He  possessed  unflinch- 
ing courage  and  intense  earnestness.  In  1846  he  re- 
moved to  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  where  he  was  em- 
ployed as  a  dealer  in  wool.  He  afterwards  visited  Europe 
on  business.  He  emigrated  in  1855  to  Kansas,  where 
he  took  an  active  part  in  the  contest  with  the  pnvslavery 
party.  In  August,  1856,  he  gained  some  advantages  at 
Ossawatomie  over  a  band  of  Missourians  who  had  in- 
vaded Kansas  and  were  ten  times  more  numerous  than 
his  own  company.  In  May,  1859,  he  called  a  secret  con- 
vention of  the  friends  of  freedom,  which  met  at  Chatham 
in  Canada,  organized  an  invasion  of  Virginia  for  the  pur- 
pose of  liberating  the  slaves,  and  adopted  a  constitution. 
In  the  following  July  he  rented  a  farm-house  about  six 
miles  from  Harper's  Ferry,  and  collected  there  a  supply 
of  pikes,  guns,  etc.  On  the  night  of  October  16,  1859, 
aided  by  about  twenty  men,  he  surprised  Harper's  Ferry, 
seized  the  arsenal  and  armory,  and  took  over  forty  pris- 
oners. About  noon  on  the  17th  the  party  of  Brown  w^as 
attacked  by  the  Virginian  militia.  After  two  of  his  sons 
and  nearly  all  of  his  men  had  been  killed,  and  he  himself 
had  been  wounded  in  several  places,  he  was  captured. 
"  Enemies  and  friends,"  says  Redpath,  "  were  equally 
amazed  at  the  carriage  and  sayings  of  the  wounded  war- 
rior." He  was  tried  in  November,  and  hung  at  Charles- 
town,  Virginia,  on  the  2d  of  December,  1859.  He  met 
his  death  with  serene  composure.  He  was  twice  mar- 
ried, and  had  twenty  children. 

See  Redpath,  "Life  of  Captain  John  Brown,"  i860;  "Life  and 
Letters  of  Captain  John  Brown,"  edited  by  R.  D.  Webb,  London, 
1861  ;  Gkeelev,  "American  Conflict,"  vol.  i. 

Brown,  (John  Newton,)  a  Baptist  clergyman  and 
writer,  born  at  New  London,  Connecticut,  in  1803.  He 
published  in  1835  the  "Encyclopaedia  of  Religious  Know- 
ledge," which  was  received  with  favour.  It  is  stated  that 
he  has  been  engaged  for  many  years  on  a  history  of  the 
Church. 

Brown,  (John  W.,)  an  American  author,  born  at 
Schenectady  in  1814,  was  an  Episcopal  minister.  He 
produced  "  Christmas-Bells,  a  Tale  of  Holy  Tide,  and 
other  poems."    Died  in  1849. 

Brown,  (Lancelot,)  an  English  landscape-gardener, 
called  Capability  Brown,  was  born  in  Northumber- 
land in  1715.  He  was  at  the  head  of  his  profession  in 
England.    Died  in  1773. 

Brown,  (Matthew,)  an  English  historical  and  por- 
trait painter.    Died  in  1831. 

Brown,  (Moses,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  1703,  was 
vicar  of  Olney.  He  wrote  "Percy  Lodge,"  (1756,)  and 
other  poems.    Died  in  1787. 


Brown,  (Moses,)  an  American  merchant,  born  at 
Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1738,  was  an  uncle  of  Ni- 
cholas, noticed  below.  He  joined  the  Society  of  Friends 
in  1773.  was  a  liberal  patron  of  the  Friends'  Board- 
ing-School  at  Providence.    Died  in  1836. 

Brown,  (Moses,)  an  American  merchant,  born  at 
Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1742,  was  a  benefactor 
of  Andover  Theological  Seminary.  He  also  gave  largely 
to  several  benevolent  institutions.    Died  in  1827. 

Brown,  (Nicholas,)  a  distinguished  American  mer- 
chant, and  munificent  patron  of  Brown  University,  (for- 
merly Rhode  Island  College,)  born  at  Providence  in 
1760.  His  donations  to  the  institution  at  different  times 
amounted  in  the  aggregate  to  not  less  than  $100,000. 
He  also  gave  freely  to  missionary  and  other  charitable 
objects,  and  in  his  will  made  a  bequest  of  $30,000  to- 
wards the  erection  of  a  Retreat  for  the  Insane.  lie  died 
October  27,  1841.  For  fuller  particulars,  see  Hunt's 
"Lives  of  American  Merchants." 

Brown,  (Obadiah,)  a  manufacturer,  born  at  Provi- 
dence, Rhode  Island,  in  1 771.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  firm  of  Almy,  Brown  &  Slater,  cotton-spinners.  He 
gave  large  sums  for  various  charitable  purposes.  Died 
in  1822.  ^ 

Brown  or  Browne,  (Robert,)  an  English  theologian, 
the  founder  of  die  sect  called  Brownists  and  afterwards 
Independents.  He  taught  that  all  the  members  of  a 
church  are  equal,  and  that  the  minister  should  be  elected 
by  the  members  of  his  congregation.  Died  in  1630, 
aged  about  eighty.  He  differed  from  the  Church  of 
England  about  discipline  rather  than  doctrines. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Brown,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  agriculturist,  born  at 
East  Linton  about  1770,  published  an  esteemed  work 
"On  Rural  Affairs,"  (2  vols.,  1811.)    Died  in  1831. 

Brown,  (Robert,)  M.D.,  an  excellent  British  botan- 
ist, born  at  Montrose  in  1773,  was  educated  at  Aberdeen 
and  Edinburgh.  He  was  attached  as  botanist  to  the  expe- 
dition sent  out  in  1801  under  Captain  Flinders  to  explore 
the  coast  of  Australia.  He  returned  in  1805  with  a  col- 
lection of  four  thousand  species  of  jjlants  from  Australia, 
and  became  librarian  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks.  In  1810  he 
published  "  Prodromus  Florae  Novae  Hollandiae."  As 
an  appendix  to  Flinders's  "Narrative,"  Dr.  Brown  also 
published  "General  Remarks,  Geographical  and  Sys- 
tematical, on  the  Botany  of  Terra  Australis,"  a  work 
of  great  merit.  He  adopted  and  illustrated  in  his 
writings  the  natural  method  of  Jussieu.  He  contributed 
many  able  treatises  to  the  "Transactions"  of  the  Lin- 
naean  Society,  and  made  important  discoveries  in  vege- 
table physiology,  especially  in  the  fecundation  of  plants. 
In  1833  he  was  elected  one  of  the  eight  foreign  asso- 
ciates of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences.  His  repu- 
tation was  perhaps  higher  on  the  continent  than  in  Great 
Britain  ;  and  Humboldt  estimated  him  as  the  first  of 
botanists,  {botanicorum  facile princeps.)  Died  in  London 
in  1858. 

See  article  by  Dr.  Hoefer  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Brown,  (Samuel,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  poet  and  chemi- 
cal theorist,  born  at  Haddington  in  1817,  was  a  grandson 
of  Rev.  John  Brown,  (1722-87.)  His  talents  and  attain- 
ments are  said  to  have  been  extraordinary.  He  devoted 
much  time  to  the  subject  of  isomerism,  and  laboured  to 
prove  that  chemical  substances  which  are  usually  con- 
sidered simple  can  be  transmuted  into  each  other.  In 
1850  he  produced  "The  Tragedy  of  Galileo."  Died  in 
1856.  Two  volumes  of  his  Essays  and  Lectures  were 
published  in  1858. 

Brown,  (Sir  Samuel,)  a  civil  engineer,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1776,  served  in  the  royal  navy,  and  gained  the 
rank  of  captain.  He  acquirecl  distinction  by  improve- 
ments in  suspension  bridges.    Died  in  1852. 

Brown,  (Tarlton,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
Barnwell  district.  South  Carolina,  in  1754,  served  as  cap- 
tain in  the  Revolutionary  war.    Died  in  1846. 

Brown,  (Thomas,)  a  satirical  and  facetious  English 
poet,  commonly  called  Tom  Brown,  born  in  1663,  was 
addicted  to  buffoonery  and  immoral  practices.  Died  in 
1704. 

See  CiBBER,  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets,"  etc. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i.,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moonj 


BROWN 


445 


BROWNE 


Brown,  (Thomas,)  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of 
the  Scottish  metaphysicians,  was  born  at  Kirkmabreck, 
near  Dumfries,  in  1778.  He  manifested  his  fondness  for 
metaphysical  speculation  before  he  was  fifteen  years  of 
age.  Not  long  after  he  attended  the  lectures  of  Dugald 
Stewart  in  Edinburgh,  and  attracted  the  attention  of  that 
philosopher  by  the  acuteness  of  his  remarks  on  a  certain 
theory  propounded  in  one  of  his  lectures.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  a  life-long  friendship  between  these  two 
eminent  men.  He  published,  in  1798,  "  Observations  on 
Darwin's  Zoonomia,"  which  evinced  remarkable  pre- 
cocity of  intellect  and  was  much  admired.  Mackintosh 
calls  the  "  Observations"  the  "  perhaps  unmatched  work 
of  a  boy  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his  age." 

About  1803  he  took  his  degree  as  doctor  of  medicine. 
He  resigned  his  practice  in  1810,  and  was  appointed 
colleague  of  Dugald  Stewart  in  the  chair  of  moral  phi- 
losophy in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  He  obtained 
great  popularity  as  a  lecturer.  His  lectures  were  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  "  Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of 
the  Human  Mind,"  (4  vols.,  1820.)  He  wrote  a  number 
of  poems,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "The  Paradise  of 
Coquettes,"  (1814.)  His  principal  work  is  "Observa- 
tions on  the  Relation  of  Cause  and  Effect,"  (3d  edition, 
enlarged,  1818.)  "His  first  tract  on  causation,"  says 
Sir  J.  Mackintosh,  "appeared  to  me  the  finest  model 
of  discussion  in  mental  philosophy  since  Berkeley  and 
Hume."    Died  in  1820. 

Dr.  Brown  possessed,  besides  an  acute  and  powerful 
intellect,  a  poetic  temperament,  with  a  lively  imagination 
and  refined  sensibilities.  "  His  mind,"  says  Mackintosh, 
"soared  and  roamed  through  every  region  of  philosophy 
and  poetry  ;  but  his  untravelled  heart  clung  to  the  hearth 
of  his  father  and  to  the  children  who  shared  it  with  him. 
.  .  .  His  heart  sought  little  abroad,  but  contentedly  dwelt 
in  his  family  and  in  his  study.  He  was  one  of  those  men 
of  genius  who  repaid  the  tender  care  of  a  mother  by 
rocking  the  cradle  of  her  reposing  age."  Respecting  the 
style  of  Dr.  Brown,  the  same  eminent  critic  observes, 
"  His  prose  is  brilliant  to  excess  ;  it  must  not  be  denied 
that  its  beauty  is  sometimes  womanly  ;  that  it  too  often 
melts  down  precision  into  elegance  ;  that  it  buries  the 
main  idea  under  a  load  of  illustration.  ...  It  is  dark- 
ened by  excessive  brightness  ;  it  loses  ease  and  liveliness 
by  over-dress ;  and,  in  the  midst  of  its  luscious  sweet- 
ness, we  wish  for  the  striking  and  homely  illustrations 
of  Tucker,  and  for  the  pithy  and  sinewy  sense  of  Paley, 
either  of  whom,  by  a  single  short  metaphor  from  a  fami- 
liar, perhaps  a  low,  object,  could  at  one  blow  set  the  two 
worlds  of  reason  and  fancy  in  movement." 

See  Dr.  Welsh's  "Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Thomas 
Brown,"  1825  ;  Mackintosh's  "  View  of  the  Progress  of  Ethical  Phi- 
losophy ;"  Allibone's  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Brown,  (William,)  an  English  botanist,  born  in 
1628,  published  "  Catalogus  Horti  Oxoniensis."  Died 
in  1678. 

Brown,  (William,)  an  eminent  merchant  and  banker, 
born  at  Ballymena,  Ireland,  in  1784,  settled  in  Liver- 
pool. He  was  senior  partner  of  the  firm  of  Brown,  Ship- 
Icy  &  Co.,  and  represented  South  Lancashire  in  Parlia- 
ment in  1845.  He  gave  ;i^30,ooo  or  more  for  a  public 
library  in  Liverpool.    Died  in  1864. 

Brown  or  Browne,  (William  Laurence,)  a  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Utrecht  in  1755,  I'emoved  to  Scotland  in 
1795,  and  became  professor  of  divinity  at  Aberdeen  in 
that  year.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  Folly  of  Skep- 
ticism," (1788,)  and  an  "Essay  on  the  Existence  of  a 
Supreme  Creator,"  (1816.)  The  latter  gained  a  prize 
of    1 25c.    Died  in  1830. 

See  Chambers,  "  Piiographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1804. 

Browne,  (Andrew,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  medical 
writer,  lived  about  1650-95. 

Browne,  (Edward,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  1642, 
was  physician  to  Charles  11.  He  translated  some  of 
Plutarch's  works,  and  wrote  a  book  of  travels.  Died  in 
1708. 

Browne,  (George,)  became  Archbishop  of  Dublin 
in  1535.  He  promoted  the  Reformation.  Died  about  1558. 

Browne,  (George,)  an  Irish  general,  born  in  1698, 
entered  the  Russian  service  and  fought  against  the  Poles, 


French,  and  Turks.    He  was  created  a  field-marshal  an? 
Governor  of  Livonia  by  Peter  HI.    Died  in  1792. 
See  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Georges  Browne,"  1794. 

Browne,  (Isaac  Hawkins,)  an  English  poet,  born 
at  Burton-upon-Trent  in  1706,  studied  law,  and  became 
a  member  of  Parliament.  He  wrote  poems  "  On  Design 
and  Beauty,"  and  "  On  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul," 
("  De  Animae  Immortalitate,"  1754.)    Died  in  1760. 

Browne,  (John,)  an  English  surgeon  and  medical 
writer,  born  in  1642,  was  surgeon-in-ordinary  to  Charles 
II.    Died  about  1700. 

Browne,  (John  Ross,)  an  American  traveller  and 
writer.  He  published  in  1846  "Etchings  of  a  Whaling 
Cruise,  with  Notes  of  a  Sojourn  on  the  Island  of  Zan- 
zibar." After  a  visit  to  Palestine,  he  produced  a  humorous 
account  of  his  adventures,  entitled  "  Yusef,  or  the  Jour- 
ney of  a  Frangi :  a  Crusade  in  the  East."  He  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  China  in  1868. 

Browne,  (Joseph,)  an  English  physician,  born  about 
1650,  published  a  work  entitled  "  Antidotaria,"  and  wrote 
against  the  doctrine  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

Browne,  (Joseph,)  D.D.,  an  English  scholar,  born 
in  Cumberland  in  1700,  was  provost  of  Queen's  College, 
Oxford.    Died  in  1767. 

Browne,  (Mary  Ann,)  an  English  poetess,  born  in 
Berkshire  in  1812.  She  produced  "Ada,"  (1828,)  "The 
Coronal,"  (1833,)  "  Ignatia,"  (1838,)  and  other  poems. 
In  1842  she  was  married  to  James  Gray.    Died  in  1846. 

Browne,  brown,  (Maximilian  Ulysses,)  a  distin- 
guished general  in  the  Austrian  service,  born  at  Bale  in 
1705,  was  a  relative  of  the  field-marshal  George  Browne. 
He  fought  in  the  Silesian  war  against  Frederick  the  Great, 
and  commanded  the  right  wing  at  the  battle  of  Mollwitz 
in  1 741.  In  1754  he  was  made  a  field-marshal.  He  was 
mortally  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Prague  in  1757.  Fred- 
erick the  Great  was  accustomed  to  call  Marshal  Browne 
his  teacher  in  the  art  of  war. 

See  Archenhoi.z,  "  History  of  the  Seven  Years'  War." 

Browne,  (Patrick,)  M.D.,  born  in  Mayo  county, 
Ireland,  about  1720,  published  a  "Civil  and  Natural 
History  of  Jamaica,"  (1756.)    Died  in  1790. 

Browne,  (Peter,)  Bishop  of  Cork,  wrote  several 
works  on  theology.    Died  in  1735. 

Browne,  (Rohert.)    See  Brown. 

Browne,  (Simon,)  an  English  Dissenting  minister, 
born  in  Somersetshire  about  1680,  preached  in  London. 
He  wrote  against  Tindal  a  "  Defence  of  the  Religion 
of  Nature  and  the  Christian  Revelation,"  (1732.)  Died 
in  1732. 

Browne,  (Thomas,)  a  learned  English  theologian, 
born  in  Middlesex  in  1604,  was  chaplain  to  Charles  I. 
Died  in  1673. 

Browne,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  physi- 
cian, philosopher,  and  writer,  born  in  London  in  1605. 
He  settled  in  1636  at  Norwich,  where  he  practised  medi- 
cine for  many  years,  and  married  Dorothy  Mileham  about 
1640.  In  1642  he  published  anonymously  his  "  Religio 
Medici,"  which  was  very  successful  and  has  often  been 
reprinted  and  translated.  "A  superior  genius,"  says 
Hallam,  "was  exhibited  in  Sir  Thomas  Browne.  His 
mind  was  fertile  and  ingenious,  his  analogies  original  and 
brilliant,  and  his  learning  so  much  out  of  the  beaten  path 
that  it  gives  a  peculiar  and  uncommon  air  to  all  his 
writings."  Among  his  principal  works  is  "  Pseudodoxia 
Epidemica,  or  Inc[uiries  into  Vulgar  and  Common 
Errors,"  (1646.)  He  also  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Christian 
Morals,"  (1716,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  In  1671  he 
was  knighted  by  Charles  II.  He  died  at  Norwich,  on 
his  seventy-seventh  birthday,  1682. 

See  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  "  Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Browne;"  Haz- 
LiTT,  "Age  of  Elizabeth;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  i. ;  Nice- 
RON,  "Memoires;"  Wood,  "Athenas  Oxonienses." 

Browne,  (William,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Tav- 
istock in  1590.  He  wrote  pastoral  poems,  (1613-16,) 
which  had  a  temporary  popularity.    Died  about  1645. 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  1820. 

Browne,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  physician  and 
writer,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1692  ;  died  in  1774. 

Browne,  (William  George,)  an  English  traveller, 
born  in  London  in  1768.  He  travelled  in  Egypt,  and 
attempted  to  explore  the  interior  of  Africa,  but  was  de- 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (SJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BROWNE 


446 


BRUCE 


tained  in  captivity  in  Darfoor  for  three  years.  He  pub- 
lished, in  1799  or  1800,  "Travels  in  Africa,  Egypt,  and 
Syria  from  1792  to  1798."  Having  started  on  another 
journey  towards  Samarcand,  he  was  murdered  in  Persia 
in  1813. 

Browne,  (William  Laurence.)    See  Brown. 

Brbwn'ell,  (Thomas  Church,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  -was 
born  in  Massachusetts  in  1779.  He  graduated  at  Union 
College,  with  the  highest  honours  of  his  class,  in  1804, 
and  continued  his  connection  with  the  institution,  as 
tutor  and  professor,  for  many  years.  He  was  ordained 
in  1816,  and  appointed  Bishop  of  Connecticut  in  1819. 
He  was  chosen  the  first  president  of  Washington  (now 
Trinity)  College,  an  institution  chartered  in  1823,  and 
built  up  at  Hartford  under  his  auspices.  In  1852  he 
became  Presiding  Bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  United  States.  Died  in  1865.  Bishop 
Brownell  was  the  author  of  several  valuable  religious 
works  and  various  occasional  sermons,  addresses,  etc. 
His  "Family  Prayer"  has  passed  through  numerous 
editions,  and  been  received  with  great  favour  by  Epis- 
copalians throughout  the  country.  His  "  Religion  of  the 
Heait"  (5  vols.,  partly  a  compilation  and  partly  original) 
is  also  highly  esteemed. 

Brownikowski.    See  Bronikowskl 

Brown'ing,  (Elizabeth  Barrett,)  one  of  the  most 
gifted  female  poets  that  have  ever  lived,  was  born  near 
Ledbury,  Herefordshire,  about  1807.  She  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  Mr.  Barrett,  an  opulent  merchant  of  London. 
She  was  highly  educated,  and  well  acquainted  with  the 
Greek  and  Latin  languages.  She  began  to  write  verse 
about  the  age  of  ten,  and  gave  early  proofs  of  poetical 
genius.  Among  her  first  published  works  was  "The 
Battle  of  Marathon."  In  1826  she  published  a  volume 
entitled  "Essay  on  Mind,  and  other  Poems."  She  pro- 
duced in  1833  "  Pi'ometheus  Bound,"  translated  from  the 
Greek  of  /Eschylus,  which  was  a  remarkable  perform- 
ance for  a  young  woman,  though  not  a  very  good  trans- 
lation. She  afterwards  made  an  amended  version  of  the 
same.  Her  reputation  was  extended  by  "The  Seraphim, 
and  other  Poems,"  (1838.)  She  contributed  to  the  "Athe- 
naeum" a  series  of  able  critical  papers  on  the  Greek 
Christian  poets.  Her  health  was  naturally  delicate,  and 
was  almost  ruined  by  grief  for  the  death  of  her  brother, 
who  was  accidentally  drowned.  After  that  event  she  was 
confined  for  several  years  in  a  darkened  chamber.  She 
published  in  1839  "The  Romaunt  of  the  Page,"  "The 
Drama  of  Exile,"  (1840,)  and  two  volumes  of  poems 
in  1844.  Ii"*  1846  she  was  married  to  the  poet  Robert 
Browning,  with  whom  she  resided  in  Italy  for  many  years. 
She  produced  in  185 1  "Casa  Guidi  Windows,"  a  poem 
which  treats  of  the  political  condition  of  Italy.  "This," 
says  the  "North  British  Review,"  "is  the  happiest  of 
Mrs.  Browning's  performances,  because  it  makes  no 
pretensions  to  high  artistic  character,  and  is  really  a 
simple  story  of  personal  impressions."  Her  greatest 
or  most  extensive  work  is  "  Aurora  Leigh,"  a  poem,  or 
novel  in  verse,  (1856,)  which  is  greatly  aclmired.  A  new 
edition  of  her  poems  was  published  in  three  volumes  in 
1856.    She  died  at  Florence  in  June,  1861. 

"  The  poetical  reputation  of  Mrs.  Browning,"  says  the 
"North  British  Review"  for  February,  1857,  "has  been 
growing  slowly,  until  it  has  reached  a  heiglit  which  has 
never  before  been  attained  by  any  modern  poetess, 
though  several  others  have  had  wider  circles  of  readers." 
"  She  possesses  genius,"  says  another  critic,  "a  cultivated 
mind,  a  truth-loving  heart,  quick  powers  of  observation, 
and  luxuriancy  of  fancy  and  expression  ;  but  that  luxu- 
riance too  often  verges — to  say  the  least — on  extrava- 
gance." 

See  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1865;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1861. 

Browning,  (Robert,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Cam- 
bervvell,  a  suburb  of  London,  in  1812.  He  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  London,  and  produced  in  1835  his 
first  poem,  entitled  "  Paracelsus,"  which  attracted  much 
attention  by  its  originality  and  subtlety  of  thought.  His 
tragedy  of  "Strafford"  (1837)  was  not  successful.  He 
married  Elizabeth  Barrett  the  poetess  in  1846,  since 
which  he  has  resided  at  Florence  and  Paris.  He  pub- 
lished a  collection  of  his  shorter  poems,  in  two  volumes. 


(1849,)  and  two  volumes  of  poems,  under  the  title  of 
"Men  and  Women,"  in  1855.  Among  his  other  works 
are  a  drama,  called  "The  lilot  in  the  Scutcheon,"  (1843,) 
"  Pippa  passes,"  and  "The  Ring  and  the  Book,"  (1868.) 
He  is  considered  by  some  critics  as  one  of  the  greatest 
English  poets  of  his  time,  but  is  not  popular  with  the 
masses.' 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1865;  "  Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  October,  1864;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1863 ; 
"Brief  Biographies,"  by  Samuel  Smiles;  R.  H.  Hukne,  "New 
Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1844. 

BrownTow,  (William  G.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  in  Wythe  county,  Virginia,  in  1805.  He  was  a 
Methodist  minister  in  the  former  part  of  his  mature  life. 
He  began  about  1837  to  edit  the  "  Knoxville  Whig," 
which  he  continued  to  publish  for  many  years.  He 
opposed  the  abolition  of  slavery  before  the  civil  war,  but 
in  the  crisis  of  1861  he  showed  himself  a  resolute  and 
uncompromising  adherent  of  the  Union.  He  was  per- 
secuted and  imprisoned  by  the  secessionists  in  the  win- 
ter of  1861-62  for  several  months.  He  was  elected  by 
the  Republicans  or  Radicals  Governor  of  Tennessee  in 
1865,  and  again  in  1867.  In  October  of  the  latter  year  he 
was  chosen  a  Senator  of  the  United  States. 

Brown'rig,  (Ralph,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at  Ips- 
wich in  1592,  became  Bishop  of  Exeter  in  1642.  Died 
in  1659. 

Brown'rigg,  (Sir  Robert,)  born  in  Ireland  in  1775, 
became  Governor  of  Ceylon  in  1813,  and  conquered  the 
kingdom  of  Candy,  thus  reducing  the  whole  island  under 
the  British  empire,  for  which  service  he  received  the  title 
of  baronet  in  1816.    Died  in  1833. 

Brownrigg,  (William,)  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  an  English  nat- 
ural philosopher,  born  in  Cumberland  in  17 11.  He  wrote 
"  The  Art  of  making  Common  Salt,"  (1748.)  Died  in  1800. 

Brown-Sequard,  brown-se-kaR',  [Fr.  pron.  bRown- 
sa'ktR^,]  (Edouard,)  an  eminent  French  physiologist, 
born  in  the  island  of  Mauritius  in  1818.  His  father,  Mr. 
Edward  Brown,  a  native  of  Philadelphia,  in  the  United 
States,  married,  in  Mauritius,  a  lady  of  French  extrac- 
tion, named  Sequard,  and  his  son,  in  accordance  with  a 
common  French  usage,  adopted  the  names  of  both  his 
parents.  He  studied  in  Paris,  where  he  graduated  as 
doctor  of  medicine  in  1840.  He  acquired  distinction  by 
his  researches  and  experiments  on  physiology,  especially 
on  the  blood,  on  animal  heat,  and  the  spinal  cord.  His 
experiments  on  animal  heat  indicate  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  human  body  is  103°  Fahr.  He  has  received 
several  prizes  from  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences.  In 
January,  1869,  he  was  appointed  professor  in  the  School 
of  Medicine  (Ecole  de  Medecine)  at  Paris. 

Brbwn'spn,  (Orestes  Augustus,)  a  versatile  Ame- 
rican writer  and  theologian,  born  at  Stockbridge,  Ver- 
mont, in  1803.  He  joined  the  Presbyterian  Church  about 
1821,  became  a  Universalist  minister  in  1825,  and  a  Uni- 
tarian pastor  a  few  years  afterwards.  Having  become  a 
resident  of  Boston,  he  founded  in  1838  "The  Boston 
Quarterly  Review,"  which  he  edited  until  1843. 
joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  about  1844.  Among 
his  works  is  "  Charles  Elwood,  or  the  Infidel  Converted," 
(1840,)  a  novel. 

See  Grlswold's  "Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Bruant,  bRii'dN'',  (Liberal,)  an  eminent  French  archi- 
tect, designed  the  Hotel  des  Invalides,  Paris.  He  died 
about  1697. 

Bruat,  bRii't',  (Armand  Joseph,)  a  French  admiral, 
born  at  Colmar  in  1796.  He  succeeded  Admiral  Hame- 
lin  as  commander  in  the  Black  Sea  in  1854,  and  took 
part  in  the  siege  of  Sebastopol.  Died  in  December,  1855. 

Brucaeus,  bRoo-sa'us,  (Hendrik,)  a  Flemish  medical 
writer,  born  at  Alost  in  1531  ;  died  at  Rostock  in  1593. 

Bruccioli,  (A.)    See  Brucioll 

Bruce,  (David.)    See  David  II.  of  Scotland. 

Brnce,  (Edward,)  a  younger  brother  of  King  Robert 
Bruce,  was  a  brave  warrior,  but  deficient  in  prudence. 
He  invaded  Ireland  in  13 15,  was  proclaimed  king,  and 
waged  war  against  the  English  for  several  years.  Having 
rashly  engaged  in  battle  against  a  vastly  superior  force 
of  English,  he  was  killed  near  Dundalk  in  1318.  , 

Bruce,  (Edward,)  a  Scottish  judge  a»^d  diplomatist, 
born  about  1549.    He  was  sent  to  England  in  1598  on  a 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BR  UCE 


447 


BRUETS 


mission  the  object  of  which  was  to  obtain  a  recognition 
of  James  as  the  heir  to  the  throne  of  England.  He  died 
in  1611.    The  Earls  of  Elgin  are  descended  from  him. 

Bruce,  (Sir  Frederick,)  an  English  diplomatist, 
brother  of  the  Earl  of  Elgin,  was  born  in  1814.  He  was 
appointed  ambassador  to  the  United  States  in  the  early 
part  of  1865.    Died  at  Boston  in  September,  1867. 

Bruce,  (James,)  a  celebrated  Scottish  traveller,  born 
at  Kinnaird,  in  the  county  of  Stirling,  in  December,  1730. 
He  was  related  to  the  royal  family  of  Bruce.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1762  consul  at  Algiers  by  Lord  Halifax,  who 
proposed  that  he  should  explore  the  antiquities  of  Bar- 
bary.  Departing  from  Algiers  in  1765,  he  spent  a  year 
or  more  in  examining  and  drawing  the  ruins  of  Barbary, 
and  afterwards  visited  Baalbec  and  Palmyra.  In  1768 
he  undertook  a  journey  to  Abyssinia  to  discover  the 
source  of  the  Nile.  Passing  through  Cosseir,  Jidda,  and 
Masuah  or  Masowa,  he  arrived  at  Gondar  in  February, 
1770.  He  was  kindly  treated  by  the  king,  and  remained 
in  Abyssinia  about  two  years.  He  discovered  the 
source  of  tlie  Blue  Nile  in  November,  1770.  Return- 
ing through  Nubia,  he  encountered  great  danger  and 
hardships,  which  he  overcame  by  uncommon  energy 
and  courage,  and  arrived  in  England  in  1774.  He  pub- 
lished "Travels  to  discover  the  Source  of  the  Nile," 
(5  vols.,  1790,)  which  attracted  much  adverse  criticism. 
His  veracity  was  questioned  by  many  persons  ;  but  more 
recent  researches  tend  to  confirm  his  statements.  He 
died  at  Kinnaird  in  1794. 

See  A.  Murray,  "Life  of  Bruce,"  1805;  Chambers,  "Biogra- 
phical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  Francis  Bond  Head, 
"Life  of  James  Bruce,  the  African  Traveller,"  1832. 

Bruce,  (James.)    See  Elgin,  Earl  of. 

Bruce,  (James  Daniel,)  a  Russian  engineer,  of  Scot- 
tish extraction,  born  at  Moscow  in  1670,  became  grand 
master  of  artillery  in  17 11.    Died  in  1735. 

Bruce,  (Sir  James  Knight,)  an  English  judge,  born 
in  1 791,  was  appointed  lord  justice  of  appeal  in  1852. 
Died  in  1866. 

Bruce,  (John,)  a  Scottish  writer  on  ethics,  politics, 
etc.,  born  in  1744,  was  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at 
Edinburgh.    Died  in  1826. 

Bruce,  (John,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  London 
about  1802.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
and  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,"  and  edited  many  old  works. 

Bruce,  (John  C.,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at  New- 
castle-upon-Tyne in  1805,  published  a  "  Hand-Book  of 
English  History,"  (1848,)  and  "The  Roman  \Vall,"(i85i.) 

Bruce,  (Michael,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  the  county 
of  Kinross  in  1746.  He  died  at  the  age  of  twenty-one, 
leaving  a  collection  of  poems  of  great  beauty  and  pathos. 

See  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Bruce,  (Peter  Henry,)  an  officer  of  Scottish  extrac- 
tion, born  in  Westphalia  in  1692* served  in  Germany  and 
Russia.  Hediedin  1751,  leaving  "  Memoirs"  of  his  travels. 

Bruce,  (Robert,)  King  of  Scots,  born  on  the  21st  of 
March,  1274,  was  descended  from  Robert  de  Brus  or  Bruys, 
a  Norman,  wno  came  over  with  William  the  Conqueror. 
He  was  the  son  of  Robert  Bruce,  Earl  of  Carrick,  whose 
father,  also  named  Robert,  was  the  competitor  of  John 
Baliol  for  the  throne.  He  inherited  the  title  of  Earl  of 
Carrick.  About  1296  he  joined  Wallace  in  resistance  to 
the  aggressions  of  Edward  L  of  England,  but  soon  after 
retired  from  the  contest  and  made  peace  with  the  English 
king.  He  formed  in  1305  a  secret  compact  or  compromise 
with  Comyn,  his  rival,  who  promised  to  support  him  in 
an  effort  to  liberate  Scotland  from  English  domination, 
on  condition  that  Bruce  should  give  him  extensive  landed 
estate?.  Comyn,  however,  betrayed  the  secret  to  Edward, 
and  was  killed  by  Bruce  for  his  treachery.  The  latter 
was  crowned  at  Scone  in  1306,  and  raised  a  small  army, 
which  was  quickly  routed  by  the  English.  After  he  had 
performed  prodigies  of  valour,  Bruce  was  forced  to  take 
refuge  in  a  small  island  near  the  coast  of  Ireland.  His 
brother  Nigel  was  taken  prisoner  and  executed,  and 
other  friends  of  Bruce  were  treated  with  barbarity. 

Bruce  renewed  the  contest  in  the  spring  of  1307,  and 
defeated  a  greatly  superior  force  of  English  at  Loudon 
Hill.  After  the  death  of  Edward  L,  which  took  place  in 
July  of  that  year,  he  recovered  a  number  of  fortresses 


from  the  enemy.  A  series  of  successful  actions  rendered 
him  so  strong  and  bold  that  he  invaded  England  and 
ravaged  the  northern  counties.  At  length,  in  13 14,  Ed- 
ward H.  marched  into  Scotland  with  an  army  estimated 
at  100,000  men,  over  which  Bruce  gained  a  decisive  victory 
at  the  great  battle  of  Bannockburn,  June  24,  1314.  The 
war  was  continued  until  1328,  when  the  English  king 
recognized  the  independence  of  Scotland.  Bruce  died 
in  1329.  He  had  a  son  David,  who  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  and  a  daughter  Marjory,  married  to  Walter  the 
Steward,  ancestor  of  the  house  of  Stuart. 

See  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  ii.  chaps,  xxii.,  xxiii., 
and  xxiv. ;  Scott,  "Tales  of  a  Grandfather;"  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Bruce,  (Robert,)  an  able  Scottish  clergyman,  born 
about  1554.  He  became  minister  of  a  church  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1 5S7,  and  acquired  great  influence.  Died  in  1631. 

Bruce,  (Thomas.)    See  Elgin,  Earl  of. 

Bruce,  de,  (Robert,)  Lord  of  Annandale,  was  the 
grandfather  of  King  Robert  Bruce.  In  1285  John  Baliol 
and  Robert  de  Bruce  were  rival  claimants  of  the  throne, 
and  referred  the  question  to  Edward  I.  of  England,  who 
decided  in  favour  of  the  former.    Bruce  died  in  1295. 

Brucioli,  bRoo-cho'lee,  or  Bruccioli,  bRoot-cho'lee, 
(Antonio,)  an  Italian  translator,  born  at  Florence,  lived 
about  1525-50.  He  produced  a  Tuscan  version  of  the 
Bible,  (1532,)  and  translated  some  works  of  Aristotle, 
(1547-51-) 

Bruck,  bRook,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  Baron,  a  German 
statesman,  born  at  Elberfeld  in  1798,  became  Austrian 
minister  of  commerce  and  public  works  in  1848.  He 
resigned  in  185 1,  and  was  appointed  minister  of  finance 
in  1855.  He  killed  himself  in  1861.  He  was  noted  as 
the  originator  or  chief  director  of  the  enterprising  com- 
pany at  Trieste  known  as  the  Austrian  Lloyds. 

B'rucker,  bRook^ker,  (Johann  Jakob,)'  an  eminent 
German  historian,  scholar,  and  Protestant  divine,  born 
at  Augsburg  in  1696.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Critical  History  of  Philosophy,"  ("Historia  critica 
Philosophise,"  5  vols.,  1741-44,)  a  work  of  immense 
labour  and  high  reputation.  It  was  the  first  complete 
and  methodical  history  of  the  various  schools  of  phi- 
losophy. His  biographies  of  philosophers  are  especially 
valuable.  The  merit  of  this  work  consists  in  the  ample 
collection  of  materials ;  for  it  is  deficient  in  critical  ana- 
lysis.   Died  at  Augsburg  in  1770. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Bruckman,  bRook'ni^n,  (Franz  Ernst,)  a  German 
physician  and  naturalist,  born  near  Helmstedt  in  1697; 
died  in  1753. 

Bruckner,  bRook'ner,  (Isaac,)  an  eminent  geometer 
and  mechanician,  born  at  Bale  in  1686  ;  died  in  1762. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Bru^,bRii'i',(ETiENNE  Robert,)  a  French  geographer 
of  merit,  born  in  Paris  in  1786;  died  in  1832.  Besides 
several  separate  maps  of  great  value,  he  published  a 
"Universal  Atlas." 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

BruehL    See  Bruhl. 
Bruellow.    See  Brullov. 

Bruere,  de  la,  deh  IS  bRli^aiR',  (Charles  Antoine 
Leclerc,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at  Crepy-en-Valois, 
or,  according  to  some  authorities,  at  Paris,  about  1715, 
wrote  a  play  entitled  "Dardamus,"  (1739.)  Died  in  1754. 

Bruerin,  bRu'r^N',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Lyons  about  1500,  wrote  a  treatise  on  diet, 
entitled  "  De  Re  cibaria."  He  was  physician  to  Henry  II. 
of  France. 

Brueys  d'Aigalliers,  bRii'i'  di'gt'le-i',  (or  d^'gtl'- 
yi',)  (Franqois  Paul,)  a  French  admiral,  born  at  Uzes 
in  1753.  He  commanded  the  fleet  which  conveyed  the 
army  of  Bonaparte  to  Egypt  in  1798.  In  August  of  that 
year  he  was  attacked  by  Admiral  Nelson  in  Aboukir  Bay. 
He  was  defeated  and  killed  in  this  action,  and  his  ship, 
the  Orient,  caught  fire  and  exploded  just  after  his  death. 

See  Thiers,  "Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Frangaise." 

Brueys,  de,  deh  bRii'^',  (David  Augustin,)  a  French 
dramatist  and  ])riest,  born  at  Aix  in  1640,  wrote  "  Le 
Grondeur,"  ("  The  Grumbler,")  and  other  comedicf. 
Died  in  1723. 

See  De  Launav,  "Vie  de  David  A.  de  Brueys." 


e.  ;is  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (S^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


I 


BR  UGES 


448 


BRUNE 


Bruges,  (John  of.)    See  Eyck,  (John  van.) 

Bru'ges,  van,  [Dutch,  Van  Bruggk,  vin  bRug'geh,] 
(RU'IGKK,)  a  Flemish  painter,  was  a  pupil  of  John  van 
Eyck.  There  are  several  excellent  pictures  in  the  Pina- 
kothek  at  Munich  attributed  to  him. 

Briiggeniann  or  Brueggemann,  bRuG'oeh-mJn, 
(Karl  Hkinrich,)  a  German  publicist  and  writer  on 
political  economy,  born  at  Hopsten  in  1810. 

Bruggen,  van  der,  vtn  der  bRiig'gen,  (Jan,)  an  ex- 
cellent Flemish  engraver,  born  about  1650. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Brugiere  de  Barante.    See  Barante. 

Brugman,  bRiiG'mdn,  sometimes  written  Brugmans, 
(Jan,)  a  celebrated  Franciscan  preacher  of  the  Nether- 
lands.   Died  in  1473. 

Brugmans,  bRuG^mc^ns,  (Sebald  Justin,)  a  physician, 
and  distinguished  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  I>eyden,  born  at  Franekerin  1763  ;  died  in  1819. 

See  Van  DER  Boon  Mesch,  "  Lofrede  op  S.  J.  Brugmans,"  1825. 

Brugnatelli,  bRoon-y3,-teKlee,  (Luigi  Gasparo,)  an 
Italian  chemist  and  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Pavia 
in  1 761.  lie  became  a  professor  in  the  University  of 
Pavia  in  1796.  Among  his  works  are  "Annals  of  Chem- 
istry," (22  vols.,  1790-1805,)  and  "The  Physico-Medical 
Journal,"  (20  vols.,  1792-96.)    Died  in  1818. 

See  B.  Bizio,  "  Elogio  storico  di  L.  Brugnatelli,"  1832. 

Brugnot,  bRun'yo',  (Jean  Baptiste  Charles,)  a 
French  poet  of  merit,  born  in  1798.  His  life  was  one 
long  brave  struggle  with  poverty  and  misfortune.  Died 
in  1831. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Bruguieres,bRu'ge-a.ir^(jEAN  GuiLLAUME,)a  French 
traveller  and  naturalisX^vas  born  at  Montpellier  in  1750  ; 
died  in  1799. 

Bruhier  d'Ablaincourt,  bRii'e-k'  dSb^liN^koOR', 
(Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  medical  writer,  born  at  Beau- 
vais,  practised  in  Paris.    Died  in  1756. 

Briihl  orBruelil,von,  fonbRiil,  (Heinrich,)  Count, 
a  German  statesman,  born  at  Weissenfels  in  1700.  He 
was  patronized  by  Augustus  H.  of  Poland,  and,  on  his 
death,  was  instrumental  in  raising  to  the  throne  the 
Elector  Augustus  HI.  He  was  loaded  with  distinctions 
by  the  latter,  who  in  1747  appointed  him  prime  minister. 
He  impoverished  the  country  by  his  extravagance  to 
such  a  degree  that,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  Saxony  could  furnish  but  17,000  men.  His 
library  of  sixty-two  thousand  volumes  forms  a  principal 
part  of  the  Royal  Library  at  Dresden.    Died  in  1764. 

See  JusTi,  "  Leben  und  Charakter  des  Premierministers  H.  von 
Briihl,"  3  vols.,  1760-65;  J.  H.  Sevfart,  "Leben  des  Grafen  von 
P-uhl,"  1764. 

Bruin.    See  Bruyn. 

Bruix,  bRii'e',  (Eustache,)  a  French  admiral,  born  at 
Saint  Domingo  in  1759.  He  was  minister  of  the  marine 
about  1798.  By  a  daring  effort  he  carried  relief  to  Mas- 
sena,  besieged  in  Genoa.  He  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  flotilla  which  Napoleon  prepared  for  the  invasion 
of  England  in  1804.    Died  in  1805. 

See  Mazeres,  "  Notice  historique  sur  E.  Bruix,"  1S05. 

Bruix,  de,  deh  bRii'e',  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Bayonne  in  1728;  died  in  1780. 

Brulart  de  Sillery.    See  Sillery. 

Brulliot,  bRii'le'o',  (?)  (Franz,)  a  German  engraver 
ar(d  writer,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1780,  published  a 
"  Dictionary  of  the  Monograms,  Initial  Letters,  etc.  by 
which  Artists  have  designated  their  Names."  He  was 
appointed  keeper  of  the  prints  of  the  King  of  Bavaria. 
Died  in  1836. 

Brullof  or  Briillow,  bRuKlov,  (Alexander,)  a  Rus- 
sian architect,  brother  of  Karl,  noticed  below,  built  the 
Observatory  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  the  Mikhailoff 
I'heatre,  and  other  edifices,  at  Saint  Petersburg. 

Brullof  or  Briillow,  (Karl,)  an  eminent  Russian 
painter,  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1800.  He  became 
court  painter  to  the  Czar  about  1830.  Among  his  master- 
pieces is  "The  Last  Day  of  Pompeii."  He  excelled  in 
colour  and  composition.    Died  in  1852. 

Brum'mel,  (George  Bryan,)  "  Beau  Brummel," 
an  English  fop,  born  in  London  in  1778,  inherited  an 
easy  fortune.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  learned  to  write 
Latin  verse,  and  became  noted  for  his  elegant  taste  in 


dress.  He  was  a  favourite  and  companion  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales,  lived  in  splendid  style  in  London,  and  asso- 
ciated with  the  nobility  on  equal  terms.  For  many  years 
he  was  regarded  as  a  leader  of  haut  ton,  and  an  oracle 
in  questions  of  dress,  fashion,  and  etiquette.  Having 
dissipated  his  fortune,  he  exiled  himself  to  France  about 
181 5.    He  died  poor  at  Caen  in  1840. 

S,ee  Captain  Jesse,  "Life  of  Beau  Brummel,"  1844;  William 
Russell,  "Eccentric  Personages." 

Brumoy,  bRii'mw^',  (Pierre,)  a  French  classical 
scholar  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Rouen  in  1688.  He  wrote 
Latin  poems  ;  but  his  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on 
his  "Theatre  des  Grecs,"  (3  vols.,  1730,)  consisting  of 
translations  from  Greek  dramatists,  with  analytical  re- 
marks which  were  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1742. 

Brun,  bRoon,  (Friedrike  Sophie  Christiane,)  a 
German  authoress,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Gotha  in  1765, 
was  the  daughter  of  Balthasar  Miinter.  She  was  married 
in  1783  to  Constantin  Brun.  Having  visited  Russia,  Swit- 
zerland, and  Italy,  she  published  "  Letters  from  Rome," 
(1808,)  and  "Episodes  of  Travel,"  ("Episoden  aus  Rei- 
sen,"  4  vols.,  1816.)  She  also  wrote  a  number  of  poems 
and  prose  essays.  She  was  intimate  with  Klopstock, 
Madame  de  Stael,  and  other  eminent  persons  of  the  time. 
Died  in  1835. 

See  BoNSTETTEN,  "Briefe  an  Friedrike  Brun,"  1829. 

Brun,  bRoon,  (Johan  Nordahl,)  a  Norwegian  pul- 
pit orator  of  high  reputation,  born  near  Drontheim  in 
1745,  became  Bishop  of  Bergen  in  1804.  He  wrote  lyric 
poems,  and  a  drama  entitled  "  Zarine,"  said  to  have  been 
the  first  original  tragedy  written  in  the  Danish  language. 
Died  in  1816. 

Brun,  Le.    See  Le  Brun,  (Charles  and  Pierre.) 

Brun,  (Malte.)    See  Malte-Brun. 

Brunaoci,  bRoo-nlt'chee,  or  Brunazi,  bRoo-nSd'zee, 
(Giovanni,)  an  Italian  historian  and  antiquary,  born  near 
Padua  in  1711  ;  died  in  1772. 

Brunacci,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  mathematician  and 
writer,  born  at  Pisa  in  1768.  He  became  professor  of 
the  higher  mathematics  at  Pavia  about  1800.  Among  his 
numerous  works  is  a  "Course  of  Higher  Mathematics," 
("Corsodi  Matematica  sublime,"  4  vols.,  1804-10.)  Died 
at  Pavi'a  in  181 8. 

See  Tipaldo,  "  Blografia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Brunazi.    See  Brunacci. 

Brunck,  bRoonk,  (Richard  Franqois  Philippe,)  a 
distinguished  classical  scholar,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1729, 
was  educated  in  Paris  among  the  Jesuits.  Entertaining  a 
passionate  fondness  for  the  poets  of  antiquity,  and  en- 
dowed with  an  exquisite  critical  taste,  his  editions  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  authors  possess  great  merit ;  but,  un- 
fottunately,  his  emendations  of  the  ancient  text,  though 
for  the  most  part  ingenious  and  even  felicitous,  are  too 
often  rash  and  unjustified  by  the  authority  of  the  best 
manuscripts.  Died  in  1803,  Among  his  principal  works 
are  editions  of  Aristophanes,  Sophocles,  Anacreon,  Apob 
lonius  Rhodius,  Terence,  and  Plautus,  and  a  "  Greek 
Anthology,"  (1776.) 

See  "Meinoria  R.  F.  P.  Brunckii,"  1803;  Ersch  und  Gruber, 
"AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Brune,bRun, (Christian,)  a  Frenchlandscape-painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1789;  died  in  1849.  His  wife,  Aimee 
Pages,  born  in  1803,  is  a  painter  of  history  and  genre. 

Brune,  (Guillaume  Marie  Anne,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Brives-la-Gaillarde  in  1763.  He  gained  the  rank 
of  general  of  division  by  his  services  at  Areola  and  Ri- 
voli,  (1796,)  and  in  1799  commanded  an  army  in  Holland, 
where  he  gained  some  victories.  He  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  marshal  about  1804,  and  became  governor-gen- 
eral of  the  Hanseatic  Towns  in  1807.  Soon  after  this 
date  he  offended  Napoleon,  who  removed  him  from 
command.  He  remained  out  of  service  until  1815,  when 
he  took  a  command  under  Napoleon  on  his  return  from 
Elba.  He  was  assassinated  at  Avignon  by  a  royalist  mob 
in  August,  1 81 5. 

See  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  Marechal  Brune,"  Paris, 
1821  ;  "  Esquisse  historique  sur  le  Marechal  Brune,"  2  vols.,  1840. 

Brune,  van,  van  brii'neh,  [Lat.  Brun^'us,]  (Jan,)  a 
Dutch  poet  and  statesman,  born  in  1585  ;  died  in  1658. 
See  Longfellow's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  3?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


BRUNEHAUT 


449 


BR  UNO 


Brunehaut,  bRiin'ho',  the  daughter  of  Athanagildus, 
King  of  Spain,  was  married  in  568  to  Sigebert,  King  of 
Austrasia,  (or  Ostrasie,)  one  of  the  four  sons  of  Clotaire  I. 
She  was  distinguished  in  her  youth  by  several  noble  traits 
of  character,  as  well  as  by  beauty,  talents,  and  courage  ; 
but  after  the  assassination  of  her  husband  in  575,  at  the 
instigation  of  Fredegonda,  Queen  of  Neustria,  she  aban- 
doned herself  to  a  reckless  desire  of  vengeance  and  an 
unprincipled  ambition.  Having,  after  a  life  of  vicissi- 
tudes, fallen  at  last  into  the  hands  of  Clotaire  II.,  son 
of  Fredegonda,  she  was  barbarously  murdered  in  613. 
She  was  tied  to  the  tail  of  a  wild  horse,  which,  being  let 
loose,  tore  her  to  pieces. 

See  Thierry,  "  Recitsdes  Temps  Merovingiens ;"  Alexis  Paulin 
Paris,  "  Brunehaut,"  8vo,  1834. 

Bru-neF,  (Isambard  Kingdom,)  an  eminent  British 
engineer  and  naval  architect,  born  at  Portsmouth  in  1806, 
was  a  son  of  Sir  Mark  Isambard,  whose  mechanical  in- 
genuity he  inherited.  He  was  educated  in  Paris.  He 
exhibited  great  energy  and  skill  in  the  construction  of 
the  Thames  Tunnel,  on  which  he  was  employed  as 
assistant  or  resident  engineer.  About  1833  he  was  ap- 
pointed engineer  of  the  Great  Western  Railway.  He 
was  the  chief  architect  or  engineer  of  the  Great  Western 
and  Great  Eastern  steamships,  the  latter  of  which  was 
finished  about  1859.  Among  his  works  is  the  Hunger- 
ford  Suspension  Bridge  over  the  Thames.  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.    Died  in  1859. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1862. 

Brunei,  (Sir  Mark  Isambard,)  a  celebrated  engineer, 
born  at  Hacqueville,  near  Rouen,  France,  in  April,  1769. 
He  displayed  great  mechanical  ingenuity  in  early  youth, 
joined  with  an  aversion  to  study  and  to  books,  except 
works  on  natural  philosophy  or  mathematics.  To  escape 
from  the  reign  of  terror,  (1793,)  he  emigrated  to  New 
York,  where  he  found  employment,  and  built  the  Bowery 
Theatre.  He  removed  to  England  about  1800,  and  mar- 
ried Miss  Kingdom.  He  invented  an  excellent  machine 
for  the  fabrication  of  block-pulleys,  for  which  the  English 
government  gave  him  more  than  15,000.  His  greatest 
work  is  the  Thames  Tunnel,  which  is  considered  one  of 
the  most  wonderful  triumphs  of  engineering  skill  in  the 
world.  It  was  commenced  about  1825,  and  completed 
in  1843.    Died  in  1849. 

See  R.  Beamish,  "Life  of  M.  L  Brunei;"  E.  Fr^re,  "  Notice 
historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  L  Brunei,"  1850;  William  Jerdan, 
"Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1866. 

Brunelleschi,  bRoo-nel-les'kee,  (Filippo,)  a  cele- 
brated Italian  architect  and  sculptor,  born  at  Florence 
in  1377.  He  learned  the  art  of  goldsmith,  and  studied 
in  Rome  the  monuments  of  ancient  architecture,  the 
principles  of  which  he  resolved  to  restore  and  illustrate. 
At  that  time  the  Gothic  style  prevailed  almost  exclusively. 
He  returned  to  Florence  about  1407,  and  was  appointed 
architect  of  the  cathedral  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  which 
Arnolfo  di  Lapo  had  left  unfinished,  and  over  which 
he  raised  a  majestic  dome,  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
beautiful  in  the  world.  It  was  nearly  finished  at  his 
death.  He  also  designed  the  churches  of  San  Lorenzo 
and  Santo  Spirito  at  Florence.    Died  in  1444. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,  etc.;"  Quatremcre  de 
QuiNCY,  "Vies  des  Architectes  celebres;"  F.  Baldinucci,  "Vita 
di  F.  di  Ser  Brunellesco,"  published  by  D.  Moreni,  1812. 

Brunet  or  Brunetto.    See  Latin  r. 

Brunet,  bRii'ni',  (FRANgois  Florentin,)  a  French 
theologian,  born  in  Lorraine,  wrote  "  Parallele  des  Re- 
ligions," (5  vols.,  1792.)    Died  in  1806. 

Brunet,  (Jacques  Charles,)  a  French  bibliographer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1780,  published  "Manuel  du  Libraire  et 
de  I'Amateur  des  Livres,"  (3  vols.,  1810;  new  edition, 
6  vols.,  1860-65.)  This  is  probably  the  most  extensive 
work  on  the  subject,  and  is  called  the  master-piece  of 
modern  bibliography.   Died  in  Paris  in  November,  1867. 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Brunet,  (Jean  Baptisj  e,)  a  French  general,  born  at 
Rheims  in  1765,  distinguished  himself  in  Italy  in  1800, 
and  afterwards  in  Saint  Domingo,  where  he  inveigled 
Toussaint  into  his  power.  (See  Toussaint  L'Ouver- 
ture.)    Died  in  1824. 

Brunet,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  commander  of  the  army 
of  Italy  in  1793,  having  been  suspected  of  treasonable 


correspondence  with  the  enemy,  was  condemned  by 
the  Revolutionary  tribunal,  and  executed  in  November, 
1793- 

Brunet,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  canonist,  born  at 
Aries  in  1688;  died  in  1747. 

Brunet,  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician  and  writer,  born 
at  Nantes  in  1770  ;  died  in  1832. 

Brunet,  (Pierre  Gustave,)  a  Yxtnch.  litterateur,  born 
at  Bordeaux  in  1807. 

Brunetti,  bRoo-net'tee,  (Sebastiano,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  about  1609,  was  a  pupil  of 
Guido.    Died  in  1649. 

Brunetto  or  Brunetto  Latini.    See  Latinl 

Brunfels,  bRoon'f^lss,  or  Brunsfeld,  bRoons'fllt, 
(Otho  or  Otto,)  a  German  botanist  and  physician, 
born  near  Mentz  about  1464.  He  published,  in  1530, 
"  Living  Figures  (Pictures)  of  Plants  in  Imitation  of 
Nature,"  (*"  Herbarum  Vivae  Icones  ad  Naturae  Imita- 
tionem,"  etc.,)  which  is  said  to  be  a  capital  work.  Died 
at  Berne  in  1534. 

See  M.  Adam,  "Vitas  Eruditorum." 

Bruni,  bRoo'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet,  became 
secretary  of  the  Duke  of  Urbino.  He  wrote  the  "  Grove 
of  Parnassus,"  ("Selva  di  Parnaso,"  1615,)  "  Epistole 
eroiche,"  (1626,)  and  other  poems.  Died  at  Rome  in 
1635- 

Bruni,  (Leonardo,)  a  learned  writer  of  Italy,  born 
in  1369  at  Arezzo,  whence  he  was  often  called  Leo- 
nardo Aretino,  (a-ra-tee'no.)  He  settled  at  Florence, 
of  which  city  he  was  appointed  chancellor.  Besides 
other  works,  he  wrote  a  "  History  of  Florence,"  (in 
Latin,)  and  the  lives  of  Dante  and  Petrarch.  Died 
in  1444. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Brunier.    See  Brunyer. 

Brunings,  bRoo'nings,  (Christian,)  a  German  Prot- 
estant divine,  born  at  Bremen  in  1702,  wrote  a  "Com- 
pendium of  Hebrew  Antiquities,"  (1763.)  Died  in  1763. 

Brunings,  bRii'nings,  (Christian,)  a  distinguished 
hydraulic  engineer,  born  at  Neckarau,  in  Baden,  in  1736, 
became  director-general  of  the  dikes  in  Holland.  He 
made  several  useful  inventions,  among  which  was  the 
strommesser,  an  instrument  for  measuring  the  rapidity 
of  streams.    Died  in  1805. 

Brunius,  bRoo'ne-us,  (Karl  Georg,)  a  Swedish 
antiquary  and  poet,  born  at  Tanum  in  1792,  became 
professor  of  Greek  at  Lund  in  1824,  and  wrote  several 
Latin  poems,  and  works  on  Northern  antiquities. 

Brunn,  bRobn,  (Johann  Jakob,)  an  eminent  physician, 
and  medical  professor  in  the  University  of  Bale,  where 
he  was  born  in  1591.  He  published  a  "System  of  Ma- 
teria Medica,"  ("  Systema  Materiae  Medicae,")  of  which 
numerous  editions  have  been  published.  Died  in  1660. 

See  G.  Seger,  "Memoria  J.  J.  Brunnii,"  1660. 

Brunner,  bRoon'ner,  (Balthasar,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, born  at  Halle,  in  Saxony,  in  1533  ;  died  in  1604. 

Bruno.    See  Leo  IX. 

Bru'noTHE  Great,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  a  brother 
of  Otho  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  a  man  of  great 
influence  on  the  affairs  of  his  age,  was  a  scholar  and  a 
patron  of  learning.  Otho  committed  to  him  the  admin- 
istration of  the  duchy  of  Lorraine.    Died  in  965. 

See  RuoTGERUS,  "Vita  Brunonis,"  Hanover,  1841. 

Bru'no,  [Lat.  Bru'nus,]  (Giordano,)  an  eminent  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Nola,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  entered  the 
order  of  Dominican  monks  in  his  youth,  but,  having  found 
that  position  irksome  to  his  independent  and  speculati\  e 
spirit,  he  escaped  from  the  convent,  and  went  to  Geneva 
about  1580.  He  afterwards  visited  England,  France,  etc. 
About  1584  he  published  "Spaccio  della  Bestia  trion- 
fante,"  "Della  Causa,  Principio  e  Uno,"  and  "Del  irifi- 
nito  Universo  e  Mondi,"  ("On  the  Infinite  Universe 
and  Worlds.")  He  returned  to  Italy  in  1592,  and  set- 
tled at  Pavfa,  where  he  was  arrested  by  the  Inquisition 
and  charged  with  heresy  and  apostasy,  for  which  he  was 
burned  at  Rome  in  1600.  "His  system,"  says  Ilallam, 
"may  be  said  to  contain  a  sort  of  double  pantheism. 
The  world  is  animated  by  an  omnipresent,  intelligent 
soul,  the  first  cause  of  every  form  that  matter  can  as- 
sume, but  not  of  matter  itself  ...  In  his  work  'Del 


c  as  /•;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^==See  Explanations,  p.  2  3.) 

29 


BR  UNO 


450 


BR  UTUS 


infinite  Universo,'  he  asserts  the  infinity  of  the  universe 
and  the  plurality  of  worlds.  That  the  stars  are  suns 
shining  by  their  own  light,  that  each  has  its  revolving 
planets,  were  among  the  enormous  and  capital  offences 
of  Bruno."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 
See  Bartholm^s,  "Jordano  Bruno,"  1847;  Debs,  "  Briini  No- 
lani  Vita  et  Placita,"  1844  ;  C.  G.  von  Murk,  "  Leben  und  Schriften 
des  G.  Bruno,"  1805;  N.  Moeli.er,  "  G.  Bruno,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Doc- 
trines," 1S40;  F.  J.  Clemens,  '"  G.  Bruno  und  Nicolaus  von  Cusa: 
philosophische  Abhandlung,"  1847. 

Bru'no,  (Jacobus  Pancratius,)  a  medical  writer, 
born  at  Altdorf  in  1629,  became  professor  of  medicine 
in  his  native  city  in  1662.    Died  in  1709. 

Bru'no,  Saint,  sometimes  called  "the  Apostle  of 
Prussia."  After  several  years  spent  in  converting  the 
heathen,  he  was  killed  near  Lithuania,  together  with  a 
number  of  his  coadjutors,  in  1008. 

Bruno,  Saint,  founder  of  the  order  of  Qarthusians, 
was  born  at  Cologne  about  1040.  He  retired  in  1086,  with 
several  associates,  to  a  mountain  near  Grenoble,  where 
he  formed  a  religious  order  which  adopted  the  rule  of 
Saint  Benedict,  The  convent  of  La  Grande  Chartreuse 
was  afterwards  erected  on  this  spot.  He  subsequently 
founded  another  Carthusian  convent  in  Calabria,  where 
he  died  in  i  loi. 

See  Tracy.  "Vie  de  Saint-Bruno,"  1785;  E.  Ducreux,  "Vie  de 
Saint-Brunon,"  1812. 

Brunof,  Brunov,  or  Brunow,  buoo'nof,  (Ernest 
Philip,)  Baron,  an  eminent  Russiaii  diplomatist,  born 
at  Dresden  about  1796.  He  negotiated  the  famous  treaty 
of  July  15,  1840,  by  which  England,  Russia,  Austria,  and 
Prussia  agreed  to  settle  the  Eastern  Question  without  the 
consent  of  France.  He  was  Russian  minister  at  London 
from  1840  to  1854,  and  resumed  that  position  in  1858. 

Brunov.    See  Brunof. 

Brunow.    See  Brunof. 

Brunquel  or  Brunnquell,  bRoon'kw^l,  (Johann 
Salomon,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Quedlinburg  in  1693, 
was  professor  of  law  at  Gottingen,  where  he  died  in 
1735.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Romano-German  Law," 
in  Latin,  (1727.) 

Sse  Jknichen,  "Vita  J.  S.  Brunnquelli,"  1738. 

Brunsfeld.    See  Brunfels. 

Bruns^wiok,  House  of,  an  ancient  princely  family 
of  Germany,  descended  from  the  princes  of  Este.  Er- 
nest OF  Brunswick,  the  Confessor,  born  in  1497,  was  a 
zealous  Protestant,  and  founder  of  the  houses  of  Bruns- 
wick-Liineburg  and  Brunswick-Wolfenblittel.  Died  in 
1546.  His  descendant  Ernest  Augustus,  Duke  of 
Brunswick-Llineburg,  became  Elector  of  Hanover.  (See 
Ernest  Augustus.) 

Brunswick,  (Caroline  of.)  See  Caroline,  Queen 
OF  England. 

Bruns'wick-Lu'ne-burg,  [Ger.  Braunschweig- 
LtiNERURG,  bRown'shwiG  lii'neh-booRG',]  (Karl  Wil- 
HELM  Ferdinand,)  Duke  of,  a  celelDrated  German 
commander,  born  in  173S,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Duke 
Karl,  and  a  nephew  of  Frederick  the  Great,  for  whom 
he  fought  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  Lie  married  Au- 
gusta, Princess  of  Wales,  in  1764,  and  succeeded  to  the 
dukedom  in  1780.  In  1792  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  allied  armies  of  Austria  and  Prus- 
sia, and  invaded  France  to  fight  against  the  Republic. 
He  was  l)affled  by  Dumouriez,  and  retired  from  France, 
In  1793  he  fought  several  battles  against  Moreau  and 
Hoche,  and  resigned  the  command.  Having  obtained 
the  chief  command  of  the  Prussian  army  in  1806,  he  was 
defeated  at  Jena  in  October  of  that  year,  receiving  a 
wound  of  which  he  died  in  the  following  November. 

See  Byrom's  "Childe  Harold,"  canto  iii.  stanza  xxiii. 

Bruns'wick-Oels,  Bs  or  ols,  (Friedrich  August,) 
Duke  of,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Brunswick 
in  1 740.  He  wrote  "  Reflections  on  Alexander  the  Great," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1805. 

Brunswick-Oels,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  Duke  of, 
born  in  1 771,  was  a  son  of  Karl  Wilhelm  Ferdinand.  He 
fought  against  the  French  in  1792  and  1793.  In  1815 
he  joined  the  allies,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Quatre- 
Bras. 

Karl,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1804.  Dur- 
ing his  minority  Brunswick  was  governed  by  George  IV. 
of  England,  who  had  married  an  aunt  of  Duke  Karl.  In 


1830  the  people,  provoked  by  his  misrule,  revolted,  and 
drove  Karl  out  of  Brunswick,  which  was  transferred  by 
an  act  of  the  Germanic  Confederation  to  his  brother 
William. 

Brun'ton,  (Mary  Balfour,)  a  British  novelist,  born 
in  one  of  the  Orkney  Islands  in  1778,  married,  about  the 
age  of  twenty,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Brunton.  She  wrote  two 
successful  novels,  entitled  "Self-Control,"  (1811,)  and 
"Discipline,"  (1814.)    Died  in  1818. 

See  Dr.  Brunton,  "Life  of  Mary  Brunton;"  "Memoirs  of  the 
Literary  Ladies  of  England,"  etc.,  by  Mrs.  Elwood,  vol.  ii. ;  Cham- 
bers, "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Bru'nus,  [It.  Bru'no,]  an  Italian  surgeon,  was  a  friend 
of  Petrarch,  and  lived  at  Padua.  He  wrote  in  1352  a  work 
called  "  Chirurgia  magna,"  etc. 

Brunyer  or  Brunier,  bRli'ne-i',  (Abel,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Uzes  in  1573,  practised  in  Paris.  He 
was  physician  to  the  children  of  Henry  IV.,  and  was 
employed  by  Richelieu  in  missions  to  the  Protestants. 
Died  in  1665. 

Brusantini,  bRoo-sSn-tee'nee,  or  Brusantino,  bRoo- 
sin-tee'no,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Ferrara. 
He  wrote  "  Angelica  innamorata,"  a  sequel  to  "  Orlando 
Furioso,"  (1550.)    Died  about  1570. 

See  Ginguene,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalic." 

Brusasoroi.    See  Riccio. 

Brusati,  bRoo-ScVtee,  (P.  Giulio  Cesare,)  a  learned 
Italian  professor  of  theology,  philosophy,  and  logic,  born 
near  Novara  in  1693  ;  died  at  Pavia  in  1743. 

Brusch.    See  Bruschius. 

Bruschius,  bRoosh'e-iis,  or  Brusch,  bRoosh,  (Kas- 
par,)  a  German  poet  and  writer  of  ecclesiastical  history, 
born  in  15 18.  He  was  assassinated  in  1559  by  two  per- 
sons whom  he  was  suspected  of  having  satirized.  He  is 
said  to  have  favoured  the  doctrines  of  Luther. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Fishbeck, 
"Vita  C.  Bruschii,"  1710. 

Bruslart,  de,  deh  bRii'llR',  (Louis  Guerin — ga'riN',) 
Chevalier,  a  French  officer,  born  in  1752,  became  lieu- 
tenant-general in  1823.    Died  in  1829. 

Brusoni,  bRoo-so'nee,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  his- 
torian and  poet,  born  at  Legnano  in  1610.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Italy  from  1635  to 
1655,"  (1656.)    Died  about  1680. 

See  Ginguene,  '  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Brusoni  or  Brusonio,  bRoo-so'ne-o,  (Lucio  Domi- 
TIO,)  an  Italian  professor  of  civil  law,  born  near  Rome, 
lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  pub- 
lished "  Facetiarum  Exemplorumque  Libri  VII.,"  (15 18,) 
a  collection  of  anecdotes,  etc.  from  classic  authors. 

Brutel  de  Lariviere,  bRii^tiK  deh  It're've-aiR', 
(Jean  Baptiste,)  a  learned  Protestant  theologian,  born 
at  Montpellier  in  1667,  lived  in  Holland.    Died  in  1742. 

Bruto,  bRoo'to,  or  Bruti,  bRoo'tee,  (GiovaNx\i  Mi- 
CHELE,)  a  distinguished  Venetian  historian  and  traveller, 
born  about  15 15.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works  of  less 
moment,  a  history  of  Florence,  in  Latin.  Died  about  1590. 

Bru'tus,  (Decimus  Junius,)  one  of  the  murderers  of 
Cassar,  had  served  under  him  in  Gaul,  and  had  been  ap- 
pointed commander  of  his  cavalry.  He  was  slain  (B.C.  33) 
by  Camillus,  a  Gaul,  to  whom  he  had  fled  for  refuge,  and 
whom  he  had  formerly  loaded  with  benefits,  and  his  head 
was  sent  to  Mark  Antony. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xlv.  and  xlvi. 

Brutus,  (Lucius  Junius,)  a  distinguished  Roman 
patriot,  son  of  Tarquinia,  the  sister  of  Tarquin  the  Proud. 
The  king  having  put  to  death  the  father  and  elder  bro- 
ther of  Brutus,  the  latter  feigned  idiocy,  gave  up  all  his 
possessions  to  his  tyrannical  uncle,  and  patiently  accepted 
the  reproachful  surnaine  ofBRUTUS,(/.^."stupid,brutish,") 
which  was  destined  to  become  a  title  of  so  much  glory  to 
his  family.  Aruns  and  Titus,  the  sons  of  Tarquin,  hav- 
ing been  sent  to  Delphi  to  consult  the  oracle,  took  Brutus 
with  them  to  serve  for  their  amusement.  When  they 
were  making  offerings  to  the  god,  Brutus  offered  a  simple 
staff,  which,  however,  was  hollow  and  contained  a  gold 
ring, — a  significant  emblem  of  the  character  of  the  giver. 
After  the  outrage  done  to  Lucretia  by  Sextus  the  son 
of  Tarquin,  (see  Lucretia,)  Brutus  threw  aside  all  dis- 
guise, put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  people,  expelled  the 
reigning  family  from  Rome,  and  effected  the  abolition  of 


i,  ,',  o,  u,  ••,  /ot/o-:    ^,    same,  less  prolonged:  a,  e,  T,  o,  \\,  v,  shoft:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaa-e;  fir,  fSll,  fit;  mht\  n6t;  g0(\^. ;  moon: 


BR  UTUS 


BR  rJNT 


royalty,  (509  B.C.)  Shortly  after,  Titus  and  Tiberius,  the 
two  sons  of  Brutus,  accused  of  conspiring  for  the  resto- 
ration of  Tarquin,  were  brought  before  the  consular  tri- 
bunal for  judgment.  Their  guilt  having  been  proved, 
Brutus,  then  consul,  with  unconquerable  patriotism  and 
inflexible  justice,  condemned  his  own  sons  to  death,  al- 
though the  people  were  willing  that  he  should  pardon 
them.  In  the  year  507  B.C.,  Tarquin,  who  had  never 
abandoned  the  purpose  of  regaining  his  kingdom,  led  an 
army  against  Rome,  and  his  son  Aruns  and  Brutus  met 
in  the  field  of  battle  and  slew  each  other.  The  corpse 
of  Brutus  was  carried  to  Rome  in  triumph,  a  statue 
of  bronze  was  erected  to  his  memory,  and  the  Roman 
matrons  wore  mourning  a  whole  year  for  the  avenger  of 
the  wrongs  of  Lucretia. 

See  C.  L.  Crell,  "Dissertatio  de  L.  J.  Bruto  Reipublicae  Ro- 
manae  Auctore,"  1721  ;  P.  C.  Chompre,  "Vie  de  Brutus  premier 
Consul  de  Rome,"  1730. 

Brutus,  (Marcus  Junius,)  a  Roman  jurist  and  gen- 
eral, a  descendant  of  Lucius  Junius  Brutus,  was  the  father 
of  the  famous  conspirator.  He  fought  for  Marius  against 
Sulla  in  the  civil  war,  and  commanded  a  force  which  de- 
fended Mutina  (Modena)  against  Pompey.  He  surren- 
dered that  place  in  77  B.C.,  and  was  put  to  death. 

Brutus,  (Marcus  Junius,)  a  noted  Roman,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  80  B.C.  Cato  Uticensis  was  his 
maternal  uncle,  and  afterwards  his  father-in-law,  Brutus 
having  married  his  daughter  Porcia.  In  the  civil  wars 
he  sided  with  Pompey.  After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  he 
was  treated  with  great  kindness  by  Caesar,  and  appears 
to  have  been  sincerely  attached  "to  him  for  a  time.  He 
was,  at  the  instigation  of  Caesar's  enemies,  induced  to 
join  the  conspiracy  against  the  life  of  the  dictator.  Sub- 
sequently he  and  Cassius  became  the  leaders  of  the 
republican  army  against  Antony  and  Octavius.  At  the 
battle  of  Philippi,  Brutus,  who  commanded  the  right 
wing,  was  at  first  completely  successful,  and  drove  the 
troops  of  Octavius  even  to  their  camp  ;  but  Antony, 
observing  the  mistake  his  enemies  had  committed  in 
pursuing  fugitives,  instead  of  assuring  the  victory  to  their 
own  friends,  turned  upon  the  exposed  flank  of  Cassius 
and  entirely  changed  the  fortune  of  the  day.  The  re- 
publican troops  were  totally  defeated  ;  and  Brutus,  after 
seeing  many  of  his  bravest  and  most  attached  followers 
lay  down  their  lives  in  order  to  prevent  his  falling  into 
the  hands  of  his  enemies,  killed  himself  with  his  own 
sword,  36  B.C. 

See  Plutarch,  "  Lives ;"  Appian,  "  Bellum  Civile ;"  Quevedo 
Y  ViLLEGAS,  "  Vida  de  M.  Bruto,"  1648. 

Bruun,  bRooN,  (Thomas  Christoffer,)  a  Danish 
poet,  born  in  Zealand  in  1750;  died  in  1834. 
See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Bruyere,  de  la,  deh  It  bRii-e'yaiR'  or  brli'yaiR', 
(Jean,)  a  distinguished  French  writer  and  moralist,  born 
at  Dourdan,  in  Normandy,  in  1646.  His  principal  work 
is  entitled  *'  Les  Caracteres  de  Theophraste,  traduits  du 
Grec,  avec  les  Caracteres  ou  les  Moeurs  de  ce  Siecle," 
("The  Characters  of  Theophrastus,  translated  from  the 
Greek,  with  the  Characters  or  Manners  of  this  Age," 
1688,)  a  satire,  (in  prose,)  exhibiting  keen  powers  of  ob- 
servation, accompanied  by  a  refined  and  good-humoured 
wit  and  an  elegant  and  spirited  style.  Died  in  1696. 
_  "The  Greek  writer,  [Theophrastus,]  with  no  contemp- 
tible degree  of  merit,"  says  Hallam,  "has  been  incom- 
parably surpassed  by  his  imitator."  ("Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  Europe.")  The  judgment  of  posterity 
has  pronounced  it  to  be  one  of  the  best  books  in  the 
French  language.  La  Bruyere,  according  to  some  critics, 
is  the  greatest  painter  of  manners  and  character  that  has 
written  in  French.  Through  the  influence  of  Bossuet,  he 
was  appointed  teacher  of  history  to  a  grandson  of  the 
great  Prince  of  Conde. 

See  SuARD,  "Notice  sur  La  Bruyere,"  1781 ;  Sicard,  "  Viede  La 
Bruyere,"  1827  ;  Walckenaer,  "  fitude  sur  La  Bruvere,"  prefixed  to 
his  works,  1847 ;  M.  J.  J.  Victorin-Fabre,  "filoge'de  La  Bruyere," 
1810. 

Bruyeres,  bRii-e'yaiR'  or  bRii'yaiR',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a 
French  officer,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1772,  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Jena  in  1806,  and  was  in  conse- 
quence made  general,  served  under  Murat  in  the  Russian 
campaign  of  1812,  and  was  killed  by  a  bullet  in  battle  in 
1813.  I 


Bruyn,  bRoin,  (Kornelis,)  a  Dutch  traveller  and 
artist,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1652.  He  studied  painting  in 
Rome  and  Venice,  and  subsequently  visited  Asia  Minor, 
Egypt,  and  Russia.  His  "  Voyage  to  the  Levant,"  pub- 
lished in  Dutch  and  French,  (1698-1700,)  contains  more 
than  two  hundred  engravings.  His  "  Travels  through 
Muscovy,  etc."  (171 1)  has  three  hundred  plates,  many  of 
them  of  superior  merit. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemelnes  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Bruyn,  de,  deh  bRoin,  (Abraham,)  a  Flemish  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1540. 

Bruyn,  de,  (Nicolaas,)  son  of  Abraham,  born  at 
Antwerp  about  1570,  was  a  skilful  painter  and  engraver. 

Bruyn,  van,  vSn  bRoin,  (Jan,)  a  learned  professor  of 
mathematics,  physics,  and  philosophy  in  the  University 
of  Utrecht,  born  at  Gorcum  in  1620;  died  in  1675. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Bruys,  bRii-e',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  litterateur  and 
critic,  born  at  Serrieres  in  1708,  published  a  "  History 
of  the  Popes,"  (5  vols.,  1734.)    Died  at  Dijon  in  1738. 

Bruys,  de,  dehbRli-e',  (Pierre,)  [Lat.  Pe'trus  Bru'- 
sius,]  a  French  fanatic  and  iconoclast,  suffered  death 
at  the  stake,  in  Languedoc,  in  1 147.  Many  of  his  views 
corresponded  with  those  of  the  modern  Protestants. 

See  Perrin,  "  Histoire  des  Vaudois." 

Bry,  bRe,  [Flemish  pron.  bRi,]  (Theodore,)  an  emi- 
nent engraver,  born  at  Liege  in  1528;  died,  in  1598,  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main.  His  sons,  John  Theodore  (1561- 
i62o)_and  John  Israel,  were  able  engravers. 

Bry'an,  (George,)  a  patriot  of  the  American  Revo- 
lution, born  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  about  1730.  Having 
emigrated  to  America,  he  was  appointed,  in  1778,  presi- 
dent of  the  supreme  executive  council  of  the  colony  of 
Pennsylvania.    Died  in  1791. 

Bry'' an,  (Michael,)  a  noted  connoisseur  in  painting, 
and  author  of  a  "Biographical  and  Critical  Dictionary  of 
Painters  and  Engravers,"  (1812,)  was  born  at  Newcastle, 
in  England,  about  1754;  died  in  1821. 

Bry'ant,  (Sir  Francis,)  an  English  soldier  and  states- 
man, served  with  credit  under  Lord  Surrey  in  1522,  be- 
came chief  justiciary  of  Ireland  in  1548,  and  died  in  1550. 

Bryant,  (Jacob,)  a  learned  English  antiquary,  born 
at  Plymouth  in  1715.  He  became  secretary  to  the  Duke 
of  INIarlborough  in  1756.  His  reputation  is  founded 
chiefly  on  his  "  New  System  or  Analysis  of  Ancient  My- 
thology," (3  vols.,  1774-76.)  Among  his  numerous  works 
is  a  "Treatise  on  the  Authenticity  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
and  the  Truth  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  (1792.)  Died 
in  1804. 

Bry'ant,  (John  Howard,)  an  American  poet,  brother 
of  William  C.  Bryant,  born  at  Cummington,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1807.  He  removed  to  Princeton,  Illinois,  about 
1832,  and  became  a  farmer.  He  is  the  author  of  a  num- 
ber of  short  poems. 

Bryant,  (Solomon,)  an  American  Indian,  born  in 
Massachusetts  in  1695,  resided  at  Marshpee,  where  he 
preached  in  his  own  language  to  the  Indians  for  many 
years.    Died  in  1775. 

Bryant,  (William  Cullen,)  an  eminent  American 
poet,  born  at  Cummington,  Hampshire  county,  Massa- 
chusetts, on  the  3d  of  November,  1794.  About  the  age 
of  thirteen  he  wrote  two  poems,  "The  Embargo,"  a 
political  satire,  and  "The  Spanish  Revolution,"  which 
were  printed  in  1808.  He  entered  Williams  College  in 
1810,  distinguished  himself  by  his  proficiency  in  the  lan- 
guages, and  became  a  student  of  law  about  1812.  Hav- 
ing been  admitted  to  the  bar  in  181 5,  he  practised  law 
for  several  years.  In  1816  he  published  "  Thanatopsis," 
which  is  by  many  regarded  as  his  finest  poem,  and  in 
1 82 1  a  volume  containing,  besides  other  pieces,  a  didac- 
tic poem  called  "The  Ages."  He  married  about  this 
date,  removed  to  New  York  City  in  1825,  and  became,  in 
1826,  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "Evening  Post,"  which 
he  has  continued  to  edit  with  great  ability  to  the  ])resenl 
time.  A  complete  collection  of  his  ])oems  was  published 
in  1832.  He  visited  Europe  in  1834,  and  returned  in 
1836,  since  which  he  has  crossed  the  Atlantic  several 
times,  and  in  1849  travelled  in  Egypt  and  Syria.  Among 
his  prose  works  are  "Letters  of  a  Traveller."  Since 
1845  has  resided  at  Roslyn,  on  Long  Island.  As 
editor  of  the  "Evening  Post,"  he  opposed  the  extension 


e  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  c,  K,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  K,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (S^=='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BRTJXIS 


BUCHANAN 


of  slavery,  and  efficiently  supported  the  Union  during 
the  civil  war. 

"  No  poet,"  says  Griswold,  "  has  described  with  more 
fidelity  the  beauties  of  the  creation,  nor  sung  in  nobler 
song  the  greatness  of  the  Creator.  He  is  the  translator 
of  the  silent  language  of  the  universe  to  the  world. 
His  poetry  is  pervaded  by  a  pure  and  genial  philosophy, 
a  solemn  and  religious  tone,  that  influence  the  fancy,  the 
understanding,  and  the  heart."  ("  Poets  and  Poetry  of 
America.")  "All  who  have  read  this  article,"  says  Pro- 
fessor Wilson,  "  will  agree  with  what  Washington  Irving 
has  said  of  his  friend, — that  his  close  observation  of  the 
phenomena  of  nature,  and  the  graphic  felicity  of  his  de- 
tails, prevent  his  descriptions  from  becoming  general 
and  commonplace."  ("  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April, 
1832.) 

See,  also,  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1832;  "Demo- 
cratic Review"  for  March,  1842. 

Bry-ax'is,  \Bpva^Lq,\  a  noted  Greek  sculptor,  flour- 
ished about  380  B.C. 

Bryczynski,  bRit-chin'skee,  (Joseph,)  a  Polish  litte- 
rateur, born  near  Warsaw  in  1798;  died  in  France  in 
1823. 

Brydaine.    See  Bridaine. 

Brydg'es,  (Sir  Samuel  Egerton,)  an  able  English 
writer,  born  at  Wootton  Court,  Kent,  in  1762.  He 
studied  law,  but  did  not  practise  it.  He  induced  his 
brother  to  prefer  a  claim  to  the  barony  of  Chandos.  The 
adverse  decision  of  the  House  of  Peers  was  a  severe 
disappointment  to  him.  He  was  a  prolific  writer  of  son- 
nets, novels,  essays,  letters,  etc.  Among  his  chief  works 
are  "Sonnets  and  Poems,"  (1785,)  "Censura  Literaria, 
containing  Titles  and  Opinions  of  Old  English  Books," 
(10  vols.,  1805-09,)  "Res  Literariae,"  (3  vols.,  1821,)  and 
"  Letters  from  the  Continent,"  (1821.)  Died  near  Geneva 
in  1837.  _  .  .  .  • 

See  "  The  Autobiography,  Times,  and  Opinions  of  Sir  Egerton 
Brydges,"  2  vols.,  1834;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  March  and 
June^  i834._ 

Bry-done',  (Patrick,)  a  Scottish  traveller,  author 
of  "Travels  into  Malta  and  Sicily."  Born  in  1741 ;  died 
in  1819. 

Bry-en'ni-iTS,  (Nicephorus,)  [Gr.  'NiKrjcpopo^  Bpvev- 
vto^  ;  Fr.  Nic^phore  Bryenne,  ne''si'foR'  bRe'Sn',]  a 
Byzantine  historian  and  general,  was  a  favourite  minister 
of  Alexis  Comnenus,  and  married  Anna  Comnena.  He 
wrote  '"TXr]  loToptac."   Died  about  1 137. 

Buache,  bii^tsh',  (Philippe,)  an  eminent  French 
geographer,  born  at  Paris  in  1700,  became,  when  only 
twenty-nine  years  old,  first  geographer  to  the  king. 
Died  in  1773.  He  wrote  several  valuable  works  on  geog- 
raphy, especially  that  department  of  it  which  is  termed 
hydrography. 

Buache  de  la  Neuville,  bii^tsh'  deh  It  nuh^^^K, 
(Jean  Nicolas,)  a  French  geographer,  a  relation  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Neuville-en-Pont  in  1741,  was  the  last 
Frenchman  who  bore  the  title  of  "first  geographer  to 
the  king,"  ("  premier  geographe  du  roi.")    Died  in  1825. 

See  Waixkenaer,  "Vies  des  Hommes  c^lebres;"  Querard, 
"I.a  France  Litteraire." 

Buat-Nangay,  bii't'  uSn's^',  (Louis  Gabriel,)  often 
called  simply  Comte  DU  Buat,  a  French  diplomatist 
and  writer,  author  of  an  "  Ancient  History  of  the  Nations 
of  Europe,"  (2d  ed.,  12  vols.,  1772,)  and  other  works. 
Born  in  Normandy  in  1732  ;  died  in  1787. 

Bube,  boo'beh,  (Adolph,)  a  German  poet,  born  at  Go- 
tha  in  1802.  He  published  "  German  Tales,"  ("  Deutsche 
Sagen,")  which  had  great  success,  and  afterwards  "Obo- 
len,"  (1827,)  "Poems,"  ("  Gedichte,"  1836,)  "New 
Poems,"  ("Neue  Gedichte,"  1840,)  and  "  Naturbilder," 
(1848.) 

Biibna  Littiz,  boob'n.^  lit'tits,  (Ferdinand,)  Count 
OF,  (often  called  simply  Bubna,)  a  very  distinguished 
Austrian  general,  born  at  Zamersk,  in  Bohemia,  about 
1768,  particularly  signalized  himself  in  the  campaign 
against  Napoleon  in  1813.    Died  in  1825. 

Bu-buFcus,  (Caius  Junius,)  a  Roman  statesman  who 
was  thrice  elected  consul,  and  became  dictator  in  302  B.C. 

Buc  or  Buck,  (Sir  George,)  an  iLnglish  antiquary 
and  historical  writer,  was  gentleman  of  the  privy  chamber 
to  James  L  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Richard  JiL,"  and 
other  works.    Died  about  1622. 


Buc,  du,  dli  biik,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  born  in  Martinique 

in  171 7,  of  a  noble  Norman  family,  was  appointed  by 
Choiseul  chief  of  the  bureaus  for  the  two  Indias,  and  in 
1770  retired  with  the  title  of  intendant  of  the  colonies. 
Died  in  1795. 

Bucer,  boof'ser,  (Martin,)  originally  Kuhhorn, 
(koo'hoRn,)  a  celebrated  German  reformer,  and  friend  of 
Luther,  born  in  1491  near  Strasburg,  where  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  theology  for  twenty  years.  He  assisted  at  the 
Diet  of  Augsburg  in  1548,  and  strongly  condemned  the 
so-called  Interim  of  Charles  V.  At  the  invitation  of 
Cranmer,  he  removed  to  England  in  1549,  and  became 
professor  of  theology  at  Cambridge.  He  died  about  1 550, 
leaving  numerous  works  in  Latin  and  German,  among 
which  is  a  translation  of  the  Psalms  with  a  commentary. 
He  was  an  advocate  of  peace  and  conciliation  among  the 
Protestant  sects.  His  "  Commentaries  on  the  Gospels" 
(1527)  are  highly  esteemed. 

See  Meixhior  Adam,  "  Yitss  Theologorum  ;"  Bayle,  "  Historical 
and  Critical  Dictionary;"  De  Thou,  "Histoire." 

Buch,  von,  fon  booK,  (Leopold,)  an  eminent  Prus- 
sian geologist,  born  at  Stolpe,  in  Uckermark,  on  the 
Oder,  in  1774.  He  studied  mineralogy  under  Werner 
at  Freiberg,  where  Alexander  von  Humboldt  was  his 
fellow-student.  In  1797  he  published  an  "  Essay  towards 
a  Geognostic  Description  of  Silesia,"  and  performed  a 
scientific  excursion  in  Italy  in  1798-99.  During  a  sec- 
ond visit  to  Italy  he  witnessed  the  eruption  of  Vesu- 
vius in  1805,  and  was  converted  from  the  Neptunian  to 
the  Plutonic  theory.  The  results  of  his  observations 
appeared  in  his  "  Geognostische  Beobachtungen  auf  Rei- 
sen  durch  Deutschland  und  Italien,"  (2  vols.,  1802-09.) 
He  afterwards  explored  Sweden  and  other  countries, 
generally  travelling  on  foot.  He  was  the  first  who  no- 
ticed the  gradual  elevation  of  Sweden,  and  he  originated 
the  doctrine  of  the  slow  upheaval  of  continents.  Among 
his  more  important  works  is  a  geological  map  of  Ger- 
many, (1824.),  He  was  pronounced  by  Humboldt  to  be 
"the  greatest  geologist  of  our  age,  the  first  to  recognize 
the  intimate  connection  of  volcanic  phenomena."  Died 
in  Berlin  in  1853. 

See  English  version  of  Flourens's  "Eulogy  on  L.  von  Buch,"  in 
the  "  Smithsonian  Report"  for  1862,  p.  358 ;  Hoffmann,  "  Geschichte 
derGeognosie,"  1S38 ;  Humboldt,  "Cosmos  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  October,  1813;  H.  von  Dechen,  "Leopold  von  Buch,  sein  Ein- 
fluss  auf  die  Entwickelung  der  Geognosie,"  8vo,  1853. 

Buchan,  biik'an,  (David,)  a  British  navigator,  born 
about  1780.  He  commanded  an  expedition  sent  out  in 
181 8  to  discover  a  passage  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean  through  Behring  Strait  and  the  Arctic 
Sea.   Died  in  1839. 

See  Barrow,  "  Chronological  History  of  Voyages  into  the  Arctic 
Regions." 

Buchan,  (David  Stuart  Erskine,)  Earl  of.  See 
Erskine. 

Buchan,  biaK'an, (Elizabeth  or  Elspeth,)  the  founder 
of  a  sect  of  enthusiasts  called  Buchanists,  was  born  in 
Scotland  in  1738  ;  died  in  1791. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Buchan,  (John  Stuart,)  Earl  of,  born  in  1380,  was 
a  son  of  Robert,  Duke  of  Albany,  Regent  of  Scotland, 
and  a  grandson  of  King  Robert  II.  He  entered  the 
service  of  Charles  VII.  of  France  in  1420,  defeated  the 
English  at  Bauge,  and  was  appointed  Constable  of 
France.    Died  about  1424. 

Buchan,  (Peter,)  a  Scottish  antiquary.  He  published 
"  Gleanings  of  Scotch,  English,  and  Irish  Scarce  Old 
Ballads,"  (1825,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1854. 

Buchan,  (William,)  M.D.,  born  at  Ancrum,  in  Scot- 
land, in  1729  ;  died  in  1805.  He  practised  in  .Sheffield, 
and  finally  in  London.  His  "Domestic  Medicine,"  pub- 
lished in  1769,  had  great  success. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen 
"Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  1S05. 

Buchanan,  buk-an'an,  (Claudius,)  a  Scottish  divine, 
vice-provost  of  the  College  of  Fort  William,  in  Bengal, 
distinguished  by  his  zeal  for  the  propagation  of  the  gos- 
pel in  India,  was  born  near  Glasgow  in  1766;  died  in 
1815.    He  wrote  "Christian  Researches  in  Asia,"  (1811.) 

See  Pe.arson,  "Life  of  Claudius  Buchanan,"  1819;  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  "London  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  December,  181 1. 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  /ono-;  i,  h,  f),  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fS.ll,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good ;  moon; 


BUCHANAN 


453 


BUCHMANN 


Buchanan,  (Francis,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  physician, 
born  in  Stirlingshire  in  1762.  Having  graduated  at 
Edinburgh,  he  sailed  in  1794  for  India,  as  surgeon  in  the 
East  India  Company's  service.  He  published  "Travels 
in  the  Mysore,"  (1807,)  which  has  a  high  reputation,  and 
a  "History  of  Nepaul,"  (1818.)  He  was  a  Fellow  of 
the  R.oyal  Society,  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  and  of 
other  learned  Institutions.    Died  in  1829. 

Sef  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1808. 

Buchanan,  biik-an'an,  (Franklin,)  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Baltimore,  entered  the  navy  about 
1815.  He  was  a  captain  when  the  civil  war  began,  re- 
signed in  1 86 1,  and  commanded  the  iron-clad  Merrimac 
when  she  destroyed  several  Federal  ships  in  Hampton 
Roads,  March,  1862.  Having  been  raised  to  the  rank 
of  rear-admiral,  he  commanded  the  iron-clad  Tennessee 
in  Mobile  Bay,  August,  1864,  where  he  was  defeated  by 
Admiral  Farragut,  and  taken  prisoner. 

Buchanan,  (George,)  a  celebrated  Scottish  historian, 
scholar,  and  Latin  poet,  born  near  Killearn,  in  the  county 
of  Stirling,  in  1506,  was  educated  in  Paris.  He  was  em- 
ployed as  tutor  to  the  Earl  of  Cassilis  for  several  years, 
and  returned  to  Scotland  about  1537.  Having  adopted 
Protestant  opinions,  and  written  a  satire  against  the 
monks,  entitled  "  Somnium,"  he  was  thrown  into  prison  ; 
but  he  escaped  to  England,  and  passed  thence  to  France 
about  1540.  He  remained  in  France  until  1547,  during 
which  period  he  taught  at  Bordeaux  and  Paris  and  wrote 
several  Latin  tragedies.  After  he  had  passed  several 
months  in  the  prison  of  the  Inquisition  in  Portugal,  he 
returned  to  France  in  1553,  and  to  Scotland  in  1560.  In 
1562  he  became  classical  tutor  to  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots, 
and  in  1570  or  157 1  was  appointed  preceptor  to  the 
young  king,  James  VL  He  was  an  adherent  of  the 
regent  Murray  in  the  civil  war.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  a  metrical  Latin  version  of  the  Psalms,  (1570,) 
"  Francis  .anus,"  a  poetical  satire,  and  a  "  History  of 
Scotland,"  ("  Rerum  Scoticarum  Plistoria,"  1582.)  The 
last  is  said  to  be  deficient  in  impartiality.  His  Latin 
writings  are  celebrated  for  the  purity  and  elegance  of 
the  style.  He  died  at  Edinburgh  in  1582,  after  saying, 
"  I  am  going  to  a  place  where  there  are  few  kings."  His 
translation  of  the  Psalms  shows  him  to  have  been  a  poet 
of  a  high  order ;  though  he  is  perhaps  more  remarkable 
for  harmony  of  versification  and  richness  of  style  than 
for  strength  of  imagination. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  1608;  David  Irving,  "Memoirs  of 
the  Life  and  Writings  of  George  Buclianan,"  1807 ;  Chambers, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen ;"  Bayle,  "  His- 
torical and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
June,  1818. 

Buchanan,  (James,)  the  fifteenth  President  of  the 
United  States,  born  in  Franklin  county,  Pennsylvania, 
in  April,  1 791.  He  graduated  at  Dickinson  College, 
Carlisle,  in  1809,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1812.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1820,  and  began  his  political  career  as  a  Federalist.  In 
1828  he  supported  General  Jackson  as  candidate  for  the 
Presidency,  and  was  again  elected  to  Congress.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Saint  Petersburg  in  183 1,  and 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  legisla- 
ture of  Pennsylvania  in  1833.  He  supported  the  ad- 
ministration of  Van  Buren,  (1837-41,)  and  favoured  the 
annexation  of  Texas  to  the  United  States.  Having  been 
re-elected,  he  sat  in  the  Senate  until  1845,  and  was  ap- 
pointed in  that  year  secretary  of  state  in  the  cabinet  of 
President  Polk.  He  ceased  to  hold  this  office  in  March, 
1849,  after  which  he  passed  four  years  in  private  life. 
He  opposed  the  Wilmot  proviso,  and,  like  most  other 
Democratic  leaders,  raised  his  voice  against  the  anti- 
slavery  movement.  He  was  minister  of  the  United 
States  at  the  court  of  Saint  James  from  1853  to  1856.  In 
June,  1856,  the  National  Democratic  Convention  at  Cin- 
cinnati nominated  him  for  President  of  the  United  States. 
His  competitors  were  John  C.  Fremont,  supported  by  the 
Republicans,  and  Millard  Fillmore,  "American."  Bu- 
chanan was  elected,  receiving  174  electoral  votes  out  of 
303,  which  was  the  whole  number.  In  the  first  year  of 
his  administration,  great  excitement  was  produced  by  an 
attempt  to  establish  slavery  in  Kansas,  which  became  the 
scene  of  civil  war.    On  this  question  Buchanan  showed 


himself  to  be  a  "  Northern  man  with  Southern  princi- 
ples." In  his  message,  December,  1857,  he  argued  that 
Kansas  should  be  admitted  with  the  "Lecompton  Con- 
stitution," which  the  pro-slavery  party,  aided  by  execu- 
tive influence,  had  framed.  The  majority  of  Congress, 
however,  refused  to  admit  Kansas  as  a  slave  State. 

He  used  his  influence  to  obtain  by  purchase  the  island 
of  Cuba,  in  order  to  secure  a  due  balance  of  power  be- 
tween freedom  and  slavery.  In  1854  he  had  united 
with  John  Y.  Mason  and  Pierre  Soule  in  the  "  Ostend 
Manifesto"  on  the  subject  of  Cuba.  His  cabinet  was 
composed  principally  of  disunionists  and  their  friends, 
namely,  John  B.  Floyd,  secretary  of  war  ;  Howel)  Cobb, 
secretary  of  the  treasury ;  Jacob  Thompson,  secretary 
of  the  interior ;  Isaac  Toucey,  secretary  of  the  navy  ; 
and  Jeremiah  S.  Black,  attorney-general.  Before  the 
Presidential  election  of  i860,  a  large  number  of  mus- 
kets were  removed  from  Northern  armories  to  the 
South,  for  the  benefit  of  the  disunionists.  In  his  last 
message,  December,  i860,  the  President  cast  on  the 
Northern  people  the  blame  for  the  disruption  of  the 
Union,  which  was  then  imminent,  and  decided  that  the 
Constitution  has  not  delegated  to  Congress  or  to  the 
Executive  any  power  to  coerce  a  State  or  to  prevent 
the  secession  of  a  State.  "  How  easy  would  it  be," 
says  he,  "  for  the  American  people  to  settle  the  slavery 
question  forever,  and  restore  peace  and  harmony  to  this 
distracted  country !  They,  and  they  alone,  can  do  it. 
All  that  is  necessary  to  accomplish  the  object,  and  all 
for  which  the  slave  States  have  ever  contended,  is  to  be 
let  alone.  .  .  .  For  this  [z>.  slavery]  the  people  of  the 
North  are  not  more  responsible,  and  have  no  more  right 
to  interfere,  than  with  similar  institutions  in  Russia  or  in 
Brazil."  About  the  12th  of  December,  Louis  Cass  re- 
signed the  office  of  secretary  of  state,  because  the  Pre- 
sident declined  to  reinforce  Fort  Sumter.  The  move- 
ments which  the  disunionists  initiated  to  found  and  fortify 
a  Southern  Confederacy  were  facilitated  by  the  supine- 
ness  of  the  outgoing  Federal  adininistration.  Nearly  all 
the  forts,  arsenals,  and  custom-houses  in  the  seceded 
States  were  seized  by  the  insurgents  in  the  winter  of 
1860-61.  Mr.  Buchanan,  after  his  retirement  from  office, 
resided  at  Wheatland,  near  Lancaster,  where  he  died  in 
June,  1868.  He  was  never  married.  He  had  published 
in  1866  a  work  entitled  "Mr.  Buchanan's  Administra- 
tion." 

See  Greeley,  "American  Conflict,"  2  vols.,  1864-66  ;  "  Edinburgh 
Review,"  vol.  civ.,  1858,  and  October,  1S60. 

Buchanan,  (Robert,)  of  Glasgow,  a  Scottish  divine 
of  the  present  age.  He  published  "  The  Ten  Years' 
Conflict,  being  the  History  of  the  Disruption  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland,"  (2  vols.,  1849.) 

Buchanan,  (Robert,)  a  British  poet,  born  in  the  early 
part  of  the  present  century,  has  written  works  entitled 
"  Undertones,"  "  Idyls  and  Legends  of  Inverburn,"  (Lon- 
don, 1865,)  and  "London  Poems,"  (1866.) 

Buchez,  bii'shi',  (Philippe  Joseph  Benjamin,)  a 
French  publicist,  republican,  and  able  philosophical  wri- 
ter, born  at  Matagne  (Ardennes)  in  1796.  He  advanced 
some  original  views  in  his  "  Science  of  the  Development 
of  Humanity,"  (1833.)  In  conjunction  with  M.  Roux, 
he  published  "The  Parliamentary  History  of  the  French 
Revolution,"  (40  vols.,  1833-38.)  His  most  important 
work  is  his  "  Complete  Treatise  on  Philosophy,  from 
the  Catholic  and  Progressive  Point  of  View,"  ("Essai 
d'un  Traite  complet  de  Philosophic,  au  Point  de  Vue  de 
Catholicisme  et  du  Progres,"  3  vols.,  1840.)  He  was 
president  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  on  the  15th  of 
May,  1848,  when  that  body  was  invaded  by  ruffians. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Buchholz,  bo'oK'holts,  (Andrew  Heinrich,)  a  Ger- 
man writer  of  fiction,  born  at  Schoningen  in  1607 ;  died 
in  1671. 

Buchholz,  (Paul  Ferdinand  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man litterateur,  born  at  Altruppin  in  1768  ;  died  in  1843. 

Buchhorn,  booK'hoRn,  (Karl  Ludv^ig  Bernhard,) 
a  German  artist  and  amateur,  born  at  Halberstadt  in 
1770,  became  professor  of  engraving  in  the  Academy  of 
Arts  at  Berlin.  He  died  in  1856,  leaving  considerable 
bequests  to  the  Academy. 

Buchmann.    See  Bibliander. 


€  a?  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  t/iis.  (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23, ) 


BUCHNER 


454- 


BUCKLAND 


Buchner,  booK'ner,  (August,)  a  German  scholar, 
professor  of  poetry  and  eloquence  in  the  University  of 
Wittenberg,  born  in  1591  ;  died  in  1661. 

Buchner,  (Johann  Andreas  Elia,)  born  at  Erfurt 
ill  1 701,  was  a  writer  on  materia  medica,  professor  of 
medicine  at  Erfurt  and  afterwards  at  Halle,  and  con- 
sulting physician  to  the  King  of  Prussia.    Died  in  1769. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Bucholtzer,  booK^olt'ser,  (Abraham,)  a  German 
divine,  an  intimate  friend  of  Melanchthon,  born  in  1529. 
He  wrote  the  "  Index  Chronologicus,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1584. 

See  Melchior  Adam,  "Vitae  Theologorum." 

Bucholz,  booK^olts,  written  also  Buchholz,  (Sam- 
uel,) a  German  historian,  born  at  Pritzvvalk  in  171 7. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the 
March  of  Brandenburg,"  (1759-75.)    Died  in  1774. 

See  Ersch  iind  Gruber,  "Allgemelne  Encyklopaedie." 

Buchon,  bii'shoN',  (Jean  Alexandre,)  a  French 
writer,  born  in  the  department  of  Cher  in  1791.  He 
published  a  "Life  of  Tasso,"  (1817,)  and  other  worJ<s, 
and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "Biographic  Universelle," 
Died  in  1846. 

Buchoz,  bii^sho',  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  physician  and 
botanist,  born  at  Metz  in  1731 ;  died  in  1807.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Natural  History  of  France,"  (14  vols.,  1776 
et  seq.,)  and  other  works. 

Bucliwald,  booK'Mlt,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  poet 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Vienna  in  1787.  He  became  in 
1828  professor  of  French  literature  at  Kiel. 

See  his  "Souvenirs,"  ("  Erindringer,")  2  vols.,  1827-29,  and 
Ersi.ew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Buck,  (Charles,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
1771.  He  preached  in  London  and  Hackney.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  a  "Theological  Dictionary," 
(1802.)    Died  in  1815. 

Buck,  (Sir  George.)    See  Euc,  (Sir  George.) 

Bucke,  biik,  (Charles,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
Suffolk  in  1781.  He  wrote  "The  Beauties,  Harmonies, 
and  Sublimities  of  Nature,"  (new  edition,  1837,)  an  elo- 
quent work,  which  was  praised  by  Sir  James  Mackintosh, 
and  "The  Book  of  Human  Character."    Died  in  1847. 

Buckeridge,  buk'rij,  or  BuckMdge,(JoHN,)  an  Eng- 
lish ecclesiastic,  born  in  Wiltshire.  He  became  Bishop 
of  Rochester  in  161 1,  and  Bishop  of  Ely  in  1626.  He 
wrote  "On  the  Power  of  the  Pope  in  Temporal  Affairs," 
("De  Potestate  Papae  in  Rebus  temporalibus,"  1614.) 
Died  in  1631. 

Buckliurst,  Lord.    See  Sackville,  (Thomas.) 

Buckinck,  book'kink,  (Arnold,)  a  German  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  the  first  who  engraved  maps  on  and 
printed  them  from  copper.  An  edition  of  Ptolemy's 
geography  with  copper-plate  maps,  the  first  known  work 
of  this  kind,  was  published  at  Rome  by  Buckinck  in  1478. 

See  Walckenaer,  "Vie  de  Buckinck,"  in  his  "Melanges." 

Buckingham,  buk'ing-am,  (George  Villiers — vil'- 
yerz,)  first  Duke  of,  an  English  courtier,  born  in  Leices- 
tershire in  1592,  became  in  his  youth  the  favourite  of 
James  L  He  obtained  in  rapid  succession  the  titles  of 
baron,  viscount,  earl,  and  marquis,  and  the  office  of  lord- 
admiral  of  England.  He  induced  Prince  Charles  to  pre- 
sent himself  in  person  at  Madrid  as  a  suitor  of  the  Infanta 
of  Spain,  and  accompanied  him  in  this  romantic  adven- 
ture, (1623.)  During  his  absence  on  this  journey  he  was 
created  Duke  of  Buckingham.  His  ascendency  con- 
tinued unimpaired  after  the  accession  of  Charles  L,  of 
whom  the  duke  was  the  chief  favourite  and  prime  min- 
ister. He  involved  England  in  a  war  with  France.  His 
nisolence,  incapacity,  and  destitution  of  principle  ren- 
dered him  very  unpopular.  He  was  assassinated  in  1628 
by  John  Felton. 

See  H.  WoTTON,  "  Short  Viewof  the  Life  of  George  Villiers,"  1642  ; 
Mrs.  Thompson,  "Life  of  George  Villiers,  Duke  of  Buckingham." 

Buckingham,  (George  Villiers,)  second  Duke 
OF,  born  in  1627,  was  the  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
possessed  the  qualities  requisite  for  a  successful  courtier, 
and  was  a  man  of  profligate  habits.  Li  the  civil  war  he 
fought  for  the  king  in  one  action,  and  subsequently  re- 
tired to  the  continent.  After  the  restoration  he  ob- 
tained the  favour  of  Charles  H.,  and  promoted  the  fall 
of  Clarendon,  (1667,)  of  whom  he  was  a  bitter  enemy. 


About  1670  he  formed  the  ministry  called  the  "Cabal," 
of  which  he  was  president.  Their  policy  was  to  make 
the  king  absolute,  by  the  aid  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France. 
Died  in  1688. 

Buck'ingham,  (James  Silk,)  an  English  traveller, 
born  in  Cornwall  in  1786.  He  visited  Egypt  and  India 
in  1813,  and  in  1816  edited  a  journal  in  Calcutta,  which, 
owing  to  its  censures  of  the  government,  was  soon  sup- 
pressed. After  his  return  to  England  he  published 
several  volumes  of  travels  in  Palestine,  Arabia,  etc., 
and  subsequently  "Travels  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada,"  (9  vols.,  1841-43.)  He  became  a  member  of 
Parliament  for  Shefiield  in  1832.  He  was  an  earnest 
advocate  of  temperance  and  other  social  reforms.  He 
died  in  1855,  leaving  an  unfinished  "Autobiography." 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October  and  January,  1822, 
and  September,  1841. 

Buck'ing-ham,  (Joseph  Tinker,)  an  American  jour- 
nalist, born  at  Windham,  Connecticut,  in  1779.  He  edited 
"The  New  England  Galaxy,"  (1817-28,)  "The  Boston 
Courier,"  (1824-48,)  and  "  The  New  England  Magazine," 
(1832-36.)  He  published  "Specimens  of  Newspaper 
Literature,  with  Personal  Memoirs,"  (2  vols.,  1850,)  and 
"  Personal  Memoirs  and  Recollections  of  Editorial  Life," 
(2  vols.,  1852.)    Died  in  1861. 

Buckingham,  (William  Alfred,)  born  in  Lebanon, 
Connecticut,  in  1804.  He  became  in  early  life  a  merchant 
at  Norwich,  and  was  for  many  years  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  carpets.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Con- 
necticut by  the  Republicans  in  1858,  and  was  re-elected 
seven  times.  In  1868  he  was  chosen  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  for  six  years. 

See  Harriet  B.  Stowe,  "  Men  of  our  Times,"  1868. 

Buck'ingham  and  ChanMos,  (Richard  Gren- 
ville  Brydges  Chandos,)  first  Duke  of,  an  English 
peer,  born  in  1776,  was  the  son  of  the  second  Earl  of 
Temple.  He  was  distinguished  as  a  politician,  and  voted 
with  the  Conservatives.    Died  in  1839. 

Buckingham  and  Chandos,  (Richard  Temple 
Nugent  Brydges  Chandos  Grenville,)  second  Duke 
OF,  born  in  London  in  1797,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  published  "Memoirs  of  the  Court  and  Cabinets  of 
George  III.,"  (3  vols.)    Died  in  1861. 

See  "  Private  Diai7  of  Richard,  Duke  of  Buckingham  and  Chan- 
dos," London,  1862. 

Buckinghamshire,  buk'ing-am-shir,  (John  Shef- 
field,) Duke  of,  son  of  the  Earl  of  Mulgrave,  born  in 
1649,  learned  the  art  of  war  under  Turenne,  became 
keeper  of  the  privy  seal  under  Queen  Anne,  and  died  in 
1721.  Besides  his  "Essay  on  Satire"  and  "Essay  on 
Poetry,"  and  other  poems,  he  wrote  "Memoirs"  of  the 
Revolution  of  1688. 

BuckTand,  (Cyrus,)  an  American  inventor,  master- 
machinist  to  the  United  States  armory  at  Springfield, 
Massachusetts,  was  born  at  Manchester,  Connecticut,  in 
1779.  His  principal  inventions  consist  of  various  kinds 
of  machinery  for  working  the  gun-stock,  comprising  four- 
teen different  machines,  which  have  been  introduced 
into  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  and  a  machine  for  cutting 
the  grooves  in  the  barrel  of  the  new  rifled  musket,  by 
which  eight  barrels  are  turned  off  in  the  time  required  to 
groove  one  by  the  old  process,  the  work  being  done  in  a 
much  superior  manner. 

BuckTand,  (Francis  Trevelyan,)  an  English  natu- 
ralist, son  of  Dr.  William  Buckland,  noticed  below,  was 
born  at  Oxford  in  1826.  He  has  written,  among  other 
works,  "  Curiosities  of  Natural  History,"  (1857  ;  3d  series, 
2  vols.,  1866,)  and  a  valuable  treatise  on  pisciculture, 
entitled  "Fish-Hatching,"  (1863.) 

Buckland,  (Ralph,)  an  English  Catholic  priest,  born 
in  Somersetshire  in  1564,  laboured  as  a  missionary  in 
England,  and  wrote  several  works.    Died  in  1611.  . 

Buckland,  (William,)  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  an  English  geo-' 
logist,  born  at  Axminster,  Devonshire,  in  1784,  was  edu- 
cated at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford.  He  obtained  the 
chair  of  mineralogy  at  Oxford  in  1813,  and  was  appointed 
reader  in  geology  there  about  1818.  In  1823  he  pub- 
lished "  Reliquiae  Diluvianas."  His  most  important  work 
is  the  Bridgewater  treatise  entitled  "Geology  and  Min- 
eralogy considered  with  Reference  to  Natural  Theology," 
(1836,)  which  is  highly  esteemed. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,     6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BUCKLE 


455 


BUCKNER 


"The  extraordinary  and  inestimable  facts^"  says  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1837,  "which  he  has 
brought  under  the  grasp  of  the  general  reader  have  been 
illustrated  by  numerous  and  splendid  embellishments ; 
and,  w^hile  his  descriptions  of  them  are  clothed  in  simple 
and  perspicuous  language,  the  general  views  to  which 
they  lead  have  been  presented  to  us  in  the  highest  tone  of 
lofty  and  impressive  eloquence.  We  have  ourselves  never 
perused  a  work  more  truly  fascinating  or  more  deeply 
calculated  to  leave  abiding  impressions  on  the  heart." 
He  became  Dean  of  Westminster  in  1845.  I^ied  in  1856. 

See,  also,  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1823  ;  "  London  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  April  and  July,  1823,  and  April,  1824;  "Men  I 
have  known,"  by  William  Jerdan,  London,  1866. 

Buckle,  buk''e],  (Henry  Thomas,)  a  popular  English 
writer,born  at  Lee  in  1822.  His  father  was  a  wealthy  mer- 
chant, and  the  son  received,  it  is  said,  a  "liberal  educa- 
tion." He  does  not,  however,  appear  to  have  enjoyed  the 
advantages  of  that  thorough  mental  training  which  would 
have  been  so  valuable  a  preparation  for  the  prosecution 
of  those  philosophic  inquiries  to  which  his  subsequent 
life  was  devoted.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1840, 
he  inherited  an  ample  fortune,  which  enabled  him  to  in- 
dulge his  fondness  for  books  and  to  give  himself  up 
wholly  to  literary  pursuits.  He  is  said  to  have  formed 
one  of  the  finest  private  libraries  to  be  found  in  Europe. 
In  1857  Mr.  Buckle  published  the  first  volume  of  his 
celebrated  "  History  of  Civilization  in  England."  This 
work,  characterized  as  it  was  by  great  boldness  of  thought 
and  vigour  of  style,  produced  no  little  sensation  in  Ame- 
rica, as  well  as  in  Great  Britain.  By  one  class  of  critics 
it  was  received  with  the  warmest  admiration,  while  by 
another  class  it  was  severely  criticised,  and  by  some  it 
was  condemned  in  unmeasured  terms.  This  wide  di- 
versity of  opinion  respecting  the  merits  of  the  work  was 
doubtless  chiefly  due  to  the  great  diversity  in  the  pre- 
conceived views  of  its  readers,  but  perhaps  also  in  no 
small  degree  to  the  peculiar  genius  of  the  writer.  Al- 
though not  remarkable  for  the  closeness  of  his  reasoning 
or  for  the  accuracy  of  his  knowledge,*  Mr.  Buckle  had 

*  Those  who  have  carefully  read  his  History  and  taken  the  trouble 
to  examine  the  facts  and  authorities  which  he  cites  to  prove  his  posi- 
tions, will  scarcely  question  the  justice  of  these  strictures.  It  may 
not,  however,  be  superfluous  to  call  attention  to  one  or  two  examples 
in  support  of  what  we  have  said  above.  In  attempting  to  prove  his 
theory  respecting  the  predominant  influence  of  physical  circumstances 
on  the  character  of  nations,  he  contrasts  Greece  and  India.  In  the 
former,  we  are  told,  the  people  are  self-reliant  and  aspiring ;  in  the  lat- 
ter, they  are  the  victims  of  a  grovelling  superstition.  He  speaks  of 
the  religion  of  India  as  "  a  system  of  complete  and  unmitigated  terror." 
"  In  Greece,"  says  Mr.  Buckle,  "we  for  the  first  time  meet  with  hero- 
worship, — that  is,  the  deification  of  mortals,"  (vol.  i.  chap,  ii.)  Now,  it 
so  happens  that  in  India,  for  the  last  twenty-five  hundred  years,  the 
deification  of  mortals  has  prevailed  to  an  extent  wholly  unparalleled  in 
the  histoiT  of  the  human  race.  Not  only  was  every  Brahman  considered 
to  be  "something  transcendently  divine,"  but  he  was  supposed  to  pos- 
sess the  highest  attribute  of  godhead,  that  of  creation, —  of  "framing 
other  worlds"  and  "giving  being  to  new  gods  and  mortals."  (See  "In- 
stitutes of  Manu,"  chap.  ix.  313,  315,  319.)  This  was  the  doctrine  of 
Brahmanism.  If  we  look  at  the  great  offshoots  of  that  system,  viz., 
the  religion  of  the  Booddhists  (strictly  so  called)  and  of  the  Jains,  the 
case  is  still  stronger  against  Mr.  Buckle's  theory  ;  for  with  the  latter 
the  PRINCIPAL  DEITIES,  and  with  the  former  the  only  deities,  were 
DEIFIED  MORTALS.  (See  "  Asiatic  Researches,"  vol.  ix.  p.  288  ;  Hardy's 
"Manual  of  Booddhism ;"  also  articie  Gaut.^ma  in  the  present 
work.)  Mr.  Buckle's  mistake  on  this  point  is  the  more  remarkable, 
as  it  has  the  most  vital  connection  with  the  fundamental  doctrine  of 
his  system.  It  is  true,  he  quotes  Mr.  Colebrooke  to  the  effect  that 
deified  heroes  formed  no  part  of  the  religion  of  the  Vedas  ;  it  should, 
however,  be  remembered  that  the  religion  of  the  Vedas  was  that  of 
the  Aryans  soon  after  their  arrival  in  India,  adopted  (as  we  may  rea- 
sonably suppose)  before  the  climate  and  other  physical  conditions  had 
yet  had  time  to  produce  their  full  effect  upon  the  minds  of  the  new 
inhabitants;  and  that  the  "deification  of  mortals,"  which  Mr.  Buckle 
cites  as  proof  of  a  self-reliant  or  anti-superstitious  tendency,  prevailed 
to  its  fullest  extent  after  all  the  physical  conditions  belonging  to  India 
had  had  the  arnplest  scope  for  exercising  their  utmost  influence. 
From  the  foregoing  facts  and  considerations  the  reader  can  judge  of 
the  truth  of  Mr.  Buckle's  assertion  that  "the  tendency  of  Asiatic 
[z.e.  Hindoo]  civilization  was  to  widen  the  distance  between  men  and 
their  deities."  ( !)  Mr.  Buckle  commits  an  error  scarcelv  less  import- 
ant in  regard  to  Spain.    (See  "  Edinburgh  Rev  iew"  for  July,  1861.) 

As  one  out  of  many  instances  of  defective  reasoning  to  be  found  in 
his  works,  we  may  cite  his  argument  intended  to  prove  that  in  all  the 
great  movements  of  society  the  progress  is  due  to  the  intellect  alone. 
(See  vol.  1.  chap,  iv.)  Having  shown  to  his  own  satisfaction  that  the 
progress  of  society  must  be  the  result  either  of  the  intellect  or  the  moral 
sentiments,  and  that  it  cannot  be  owing  to  moral  influences  alone,  he 
jumps  to  the  conclusion  that  the  intellectual  power  only  is  "the  real 
mover"  of  society,  assuming,  "  so  contrary  to  all  we  know  of  nature, 
that  a  phenomenon  cannot  have  more  than  one  cause."  (See  Mill's 
"System  of  Logic,"  book  v.  chap.  iii.  7.) 


the  power  of  presenting  his  ideas  with  extraordinary 
distinctness  and  force,  so  that,  however  he  may  fail  to 
convince,  he  seldom  or  never  fails  to  arouse  attention  and 
awaken  thought.  If  we  are  not  mistaken,  his  influence 
upon  the  minds  of  his  readers  is  owing  not  so  much  to 
the  severity  of  his  logic  or  the  weight  of  his  authorities, 
as  to  the  ardour  of  his  temperament  and  the  energy  of 
his  will.  Those  who  read  his  pages  may  be  com])ared 
to  men  listening  to  an  earnest  and  gifted  orator,  who 
carries  his  hearers  along  with  him  mainly  by  the  intensity 
and  force  of  his  own  convictions.  Those  alone,  it  would 
seem,  are  able  to  resist  the  fascination  of  his  genius  who, 
from  prejudice  or  from  philosophy,  are  predetermined 
not  to  yield,  or  to  yield  only  after  their  reason  is  fully 
convinced.  We  would  not  intentionally  undervalue  Mr. 
Buckle's  extraordinary  powers.  We  freely  concede  to 
him  the  possession  of  vast  stores  of  information,  as  well 
as  great  affluence  of  thought.  But  these  seeming  advan- 
tages may  to  an  ardent  mind  —  especially  if  it  have  a 
strong  bias  towards  controversy*  —  become  an  impedi- 
ment, rather  than  a  help,  in  its  elforts  to  arrive  at  the 
truth.  In  its  eager  desire  to  build  up  an  intellectual 
system,  it  will  often  unconsciously  seize  with  avidity  on 
such  facts  as  may  happen  to  favour  its  preconceived  theo- 
ries, and  as  unconsciously  reject  or  ignore  those  of  an 
opposite  character. 

In  1 86 1  a  second  volume  of  Mr.  Buckle's  History  made 
its  appearance  ;  but  it  did  not  excite  so  great  an  interest 
as  the  first  had  done.  It  may  be  that  the  novelty  which 
gave  attraction  to  the  first  was  wanting ;  it  is  also  pro- 
bable that  Mr.  Buckle's  impaired  health  prevented  him 
from  doing  as  full  justice  to  his  subject  as  he  would  have 
done  under  more  favourable  circumstances.  In  the  lat- 
ter part  of  1861,  with  a  view  to  recruit  his  failing  health, 
he  set  out  on  a  tour  in  the  Levant.  He  died  at  Damas- 
cus on  the  29th  of  May,  1862. 

See  "Westminster  Review,"  vol.  Ixviii.,  1857;  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  April,  1S58,  and  July,  i86i,  pp.  189-90;  "Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  July,  1858  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1861  ; 
"  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  September,  1862,  also  October,  1857,  Au- 
gust, 1863;  Froude,  "Lecture  on  the  Science  of  History,"  in  his 
"Short  Studies  on  Great  Subjects,"  vol.  i.,  1867;  Charles  Hale, 
"Personal  Reminiscences  of  the  late  Henry  Thomas  Buckle,"  pub- 
lished in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  April,  1863. 

Biickler.    See  Schinderhannes. 

Buck'man,  (James,)  an  English  naturalist,  born  at 
Cheltenham  about  1816,  was  professor  at  the  Agricul- 
tural College  of  Cirencester  for  many  years.  He  pub- 
lished several  works  on  botany,  geology,  and  agriculture. 

Buck'min-ster,  (Joseph,)  an  American  orthodox  cler- 
gyman, born  at  Rutland,  Massachusetts,  in  1751,  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  in  1770.  He  was  ordained  pastor 
of  the  North  Church  of  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire, 
in  1779.  He  was  an  eloquent  and  popular  preacher,  and 
was  distinguished  for  the  fervour  of  his  devotional  exer- 
cises. His  sermons  produced  emotion  rather  than  con- 
viction.   Died  in  1812. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  J.  Buckminster,"  by  his  daughter, 
Eliza  B.  Lee,  1851. 

Buckminster,  (Joseph  Stevens,)  an  eloquent  Uni- 
tarian minister,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Portsmouth  in  1784.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  with 
distinction  in  1800,  and  became  in  1804  pastor  of  the 
Brattle  Street  Church,  Boston,  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  intelligent  congregations  in  New  England.  He  ac- 
quired a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher  and  a  scholar.  In 
1806  he  made  a  voyage  to  Europe  for  his  health.  He 
superintended  the  publication  of  Griesbach's  "New 
Testament"  in  1808.    Died  in  1812. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  J.  S.  Buckminster,"  prefixed  to  hi?  works,  2 
vols.  ;  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America;"  Sprague,  "  Ameri- 
can Pulpit,"  vol.  viii. 

Buck'ner,  (Simon  Bolivar,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Kentucky  about  1824,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1844.  He  was  commander  of  the  State  Guard  of 
Kentucky  in  1861,  and  took  arms  against  the  Union  in 
the  autumn  of  that  year.  He  was  one  of  the  generals 
of  the  garrison  of  Fort  Donelson  when  it  was  attacked 
by  General  Grant.    The  chief  command  of  the  fort  was 

*  "  His  [Mr.  Buckle's]  controversial  ardour  is  not  only  a  heat,  but 
a  blaze,  and  frequently  dazzles  the  eye  of  his  understanding."  See, 
in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  January,  1863,  "Mr.  Buckle  as  a 
Thinker,"  an  article  which  is  well  worthy  of  perusal  by  all  who 
would  form  a  just  estimate  of  Mr.  Buckle's  system  of  philosophy. 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^=="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BUCKRIDGE  456 


BUFFO  N 


transferred  by  General  Floyd  to  Buckner,  who  surren- 
dered on  the  1 6th  of  February,  1862.  He  commanded  a 
corps  at  Chickamauga,  September  19  and  20,  1863. 

Buckridge.    See  Buckeridge. 

Buckstone,  (John  Baldwin,)  an  English  comic 
actor  and  dramatist,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  about 
1800.  Among  his  plays  are  "Jack  Sheppard,"  "The 
Wreck  Ashore,"  and  "  Victorine." 

Bucquet,  bii'ky,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  physi- 
cian and  chemist,  born  in  Paris  in  1746;  died  in  1780, 

Bucquoi,  bii'kwi',  (Charles  Bonaventure  de 
Longueval — deh  IdNg'vtK,)  a  celebrated  general  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  war,  born  in  1 561,  entered  early  into  the 
Spanish  army  destined  to  the  war  then  raging  in  the 
Netherlands.  Having  afterwards  passed  into  the  service 
of  Austria,  he  totally  defeated  the  revolted  Protestants 
of  Bohemia,  near  Prague,  in  1620.  He  was  killed  while 
besieging  Neuhausel,  in  Hungary,  in  1621. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgenieine  Encyklopaedie." 

Bucquoy,  van,  vtn  bii'kwi',  (Jakob,)  a  Dutch  trav- 
eller, born  at  Amsterdam  in  1693  ;  died  in  1760. 

Buddaus  or  Buddaeus,  bdod-da'us,  or  Budde, 
boodMeh,  (Johannes  Franciscus,)  a  German  Lutheran 
theologian,  historian,  and  voluminous  writer,  born  at 
Anclam,  in  Pomerania,  in  1667,  became  professor  of 
moral  philosophy  at  Halle,  and  afterwards  of  theology 
at  Jena.    Died  in  1729. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires." 

Buddaus  or  Buddaeus,  written  also  Buddeus, 
(Karl  Franz,)  a  writer  on  philosophy,  etc.,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Halle  in  1695,  filled  several  high  offices 
at  Weimar  and  Gotha.    Died  in  1753. 

See  his  autobiographic  "  Denkwiirdigkeiten  meines  Lebens,"  1748; 
J.  A.  LoEWE,  "  Gedachtnisspredigt  auf  den  Vice-Kanzler  Buddeus," 
1753- 

Bud'den,  (John,)  an  English  scholar,  and  professor 
of  civil  law  at  Oxford,  born  in  1566;  died  in  1620. 
Buddha.    See  Booddha. 

Bude,  biiMa',  (Guillaume,)  [Lat.  Guliel'mus  Bu- 
DM^US,]  a  distinguished  scholar,  author  of  a  work  of 
great  merit  on  ancient  coins,  entitled  "  De  Asse,"  (1514,) 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1467.  He  was  suspected  of  favouring 
the  Reformation.  Bude  is  said  to  have  been  the  most 
learned  man  in  France  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  was  a  friend  of  Erasmus,  and  was  patron- 
ized by  Francis  I.,  who  appointed  him  in  1522  master  of 
requests.  He  was  well  versed  in  Greek,  and  wrote  "  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Greek  Tongue."    Died  in  1540. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Louis  le  Roy, 
"Vita  G.  Budxi,  Parisiensis,"  1540;  D.  Rebitte,  "G.  Bude,  Restau- 
rateur des  fitudes  Grecques  en  France,"  1846;  Niceron,  "Me- 
moires;" "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Budee,  bii''da^  (Adrien  Quentin,)  a  French 
rateier  2Lnd  mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  1748;  died 
in  1826. 

Buder,  boo'der,  (Christian  Gottlieb,)  a  learned 
German  jurist  and  historian,  born  in  Upper  Lusatia  in 
1693,  became  professor  of  jurisprudence  at  Jena  in  1734, 
and  died  in  1763. 

Budes,  de,  deh  biid,  (Sylvestre,)  a  French  soldier 
and  com]:)anion-in-arms  of  Du  Guesclin.    Died  in  1379. 

Budg'ell,  (Eustace,)  an  English  essayist,  born  near 
Exeter  in  1685,  was  a  relative  of  Joseph  Addison,  who 
procured  for  him  a  clerkship  in  the  civil  service.  He 
wrote  for  the  "  Spectator"  numerous  papers  with  the 
signature  of  "X,"  and  was  suspected  of  forging  the  will 
of  Tindal,  by  which  ;!^20oo  were  bequeathed  to  Budgell. 
He  lost  ;^2o,ooo  in  the  South  Sea  bubble.  He  drowned 
himself  in  1736. 

Budg'ett,  (Samuel,)  a  wealthy  English  merchant  and 
philanthropist,  born  near  Bristol  in  1794.  His  extra- 
ordinary talent  for  business  and  energy  of  character  en- 
abled him  to  amass  a  large  fortune,  a  great  part  of  which 
he  spent  in  acts  of  beneficence  and  in  efforts  to  improve 
the  condition  of  the  poor  in  the  vicinity.  Died  in  185 1. 

See  "The  Successful  Merchant:  Sketches  of  the  Life,  etc.  of 
Samuel  Budgett,"  by  William  Arthur,  London,  1853. 

Budha.    See  Booddha. 
Budrio.    See  Lippi,  (Giacomo.) 
Bueil.    See  Buil. 

Bueil,  de,  deh  bu!  or  buh'ye,  (Jean,)  Count  of  San- 
cerre,  (sSN'saiR',)  a  noted  French  warrior,  contemporary 


with  Joan  d(  Arc.  He  became  admiral  of  France  about 
1450,  and  was  surnamed  "the  Scourge  of  the  English." 

Bu'el,  (Jesse,)  an  American  journalist,  born  at  Cov- 
entry, Connecticut,  in  1778,  established  about  1813  the 
Albany  "Argus,"  a  Democratic  journal,  which  has  had  a 
powerful  influence  in  the  politics  of  New  York.  Having 
severed  his  connection  with  it  in  1 821,  he  applied  him- 
self to  the  pursuits  of  agriculture,  and  in  1834  published 
the  first  number  of  the  Albany  "Cultivator,"  which  he 
conducted  for  six  years.  Mr.  Buel  contributed  to  pro- 
mote a  taste  for  agricultural  pursuits  by  his  addresses  on 
agriculture  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  served  repeat- 
edly in  the  legislature,  and  was  at  one  time  judge  of  the 
county  court.  Pie  was  author  of  "The  Farmer's  Instruc- 
tor" and  "The  Farmer's  Companion."    Died  in  1839. 

Bu'ell,  (Don  Carlos,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Ohio  about  1818,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841.  He 
gained  the  rank  of  captain  about  1848.  In  November, 
1 86 1,  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the  department 
of  Kentucky,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers. He  became  a  major-general  in  March,  1862, 
and  was  ordered  to  move  the  army  of  the  Ohio  (which 
he  commanded)  to  Tennessee  and  to  join  that  of  General 
Grant.  He  arrived  at  Pittsburg  Landing  on  the  evening 
of  April  6,  and  contributed  to  the  victory  on  the  7th 
of  that  month.  In  June,  1862,  he  moved  his  army  from 
Corinth  towards  Chattanooga ;  but  before  he  reached 
that  place  he  was  required  to  oppose  General  Bragg, 
who  invaded  Kentucky  in  September  and  threatened 
Louisville.  General  Bueil  arrived  at  Louisville  about 
the  24th  of  September.  On  the  ist  of  October  he  moved 
in  pursuit  of  the  enemy,  who  had  captured  Lexington 
and  Frankfort.  An  indecisive  battle  was  fought  at  Per- 
ryville,  October  8,  between  the  anny  of  General  Bragg 
and  a  part  of  Buell's  army.  General  Bragg  escaped  into 
Tennessee  with  immense  spoils.  General  Bueil,  who 
was  considered  dilatory  and  too  "  conservative,"  was  re- 
moved from  Ihe  command  in  October,  1862.  He  resigned 
his  commission  in  June,  1864. 

Buelow.  .  See  Bulow. 

Buesching.    See  Busching. 

Buettiier.    See  Buitner. 

Buffalniacco,  boof-fal-mak'ko,  (Buonamico  di  Cris- 
tofano,)  a  Florentine  painter,  born  about  1262,  was  a 
pupil  of  Andrea  Tafi.  He  is  celebrated  in  the  "  Deca- 
merone"  of  Boccaccio.    Died  about  1340. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Buffier,  biiTe-i',  (Claude,)  an  eminent  grammarian 
and  philosopher,  born  of  French  parents  in  Poland  in 
1661.  He  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits,  and  settled  in 
Paris.  He  showed  an  excellent  faculty  of  analysis  in 
his  "  French  Grammar,"  which  formed  part  of  his  "  Cours 
general  et  particulier  des  Sciences,"  (1732.)  Among  his 
works  (which  seem  to  be  more  highly  esteemed  by  the 
British  than  by  the  French)  is  a  "Treatise  on  Primary 
Truths,"  (1 7 1 7.)    Died  in  1737. 

Buffon,  de,  deh  buT6N',  [pron.  sometimes  Anglicized 
as  biif  fon,]  (Georges  Louis  Leclerc,)  Comte,  an  illus- 
trious French  naturalist  and  philosopher,  born  at  Mont- 
bard,  in  Burgundy,  on  the  7th  of  September,  1707.  He 
was  a  son  of  Benjamin  Leclerc,  a  counsellor  of  the  par- 
liament of  Dijon,  from  whom  he  inherited  a  competent 
fortune,  and  was  liberally  educated.  After  he  left  col- 
lege he  travelled,  in  company  with  Lord  Kingston,  in 
Italy  and  England.  In  1735  he  produced  a  translation 
of  Newton's  "Treatise  on  Fluxions."  He  tested  by  ex- 
periments the  probability  of  the  statement  that  Archi- 
medes set  fire  to  the  Roman  fleet  by  burning-mirrors,  and 
he  succeeded  in  igniting  wood  at  the  distance  of  two 
hundred  French  feet.  In  1739  he  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  and  appointed  intendant  of  the 
royal  garden,  ("  Jardin  du  Roi.")  Thenceforth  he  devoted 
himself  as  "  the  high-priest  and  interpreter  of  Nature." 

In  1749  he  published  the  first  three  volumes  of  his  great 
work,  "  Histoire  naturelle,  generale  et  particuliere,"  in 
which  he  was  assisted  by  Daubenton,  who  had  charge  of 
the  department  of  anatomy  and  of  those  parts  of  the 
work  which  required  patient  and  minute  investigation. 
All  the  brilliant  passages,  all  the  general  theories,  the  de- 
scription of  the  habits  and  manners  of  animals  and  of  the 
grand  phenomena  of  nature,  are  from  the  pen  of  Buffon. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /ono-;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \i,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BUFORD 


457 


BULL 


Twelve  other  volumes  were  issued  between  1749  and 
1767,  after  which  were  added  eight  volumes  containing 
the  History  of  Birds,  in  which  Daubenton  had  no  share, 
his  place  being  supplied  by  Gueneau  de  Montbelliard 
and  Abbe  Bexon.  Buffon  himself  wrote  five  volumes  on 
Minerals,  published  between  1783  and  1 785.  Commenting 
on  this  work,  Condorcet  remarks,  "  M.  de  Buffon  is  poet- 
ical in  his  descriptions  ;  but,  like  all  great  poets,  he  knows 
how  to  render  interesting  the  delineation  of  natural  ob- 
jects by  blending  with  them  moral  ideas  which  affect  the 
soul,  at  the  same  time  that  the  imagination  is  amused 
or  astonished."  Buffon  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy  in  1753,  and  married  Mademoiselle  de 
Saint-Belin  in  1762.  Among  his  greatest  productions  is 
the  "Epoques  de  la  Nature,"  ("Epochs  of  Nature,")  con- 
tained in  the  Supplement  to  his  Natural  History.  Never 
perhaps  was  any  literary  reputation  more  rapidly  or  more 
widely  established  than  that  of  Buffon  after  his  great 
work  was  given  to  the  world.  By  demonstrating  the 
unity  of  the  human  species,  Buffon  prepared  the  way  for 
the  labours  of  Camper,  131umenbach,  and  Cuvier.  Among 
his  important  contributions  to  the  philosophy  of  natural 
history  is  the  law  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  ani- 
mals depending  on  climate  and  other  physical  conditions. 
He  also  has  the  credit  of  discovering  that  the  test  of  a 
species  consists  in  fecundity,  or  power  to  propagate  itself. 
About  1776  he  received  the  title  of  Count  de  Buffon  from 
the  King  of  France.  He  had  one  son,  who  served  in  the 
army,  obtained  the  rank  of  major  or  colonel,  and  was  ex- 
ecuted in  the  reign  of  terror  for  the  crime  of  belonging  to 
the  aristocracy.  Buffon  died  in  Paris  on  the  1 6th  of  April, 
1788.  He  had  received  from  nature  an  imposing  figure 
and  an  eminently  noble  countenance,  bearing  the  impress 
of  high  intelligence  and  wisdom.  Besides  the  works 
above  mentioned,  he  left,  unfinislied,  a  "  Dissertation  on 
Style,"  in  which  occurs  the  celebrated  phrase,  Le  style  est 
de  Vhomvie. 

See  Condorcet,  "  filoge  de  Buffon  ;"  Cuvier,  "  filoge  de  Buffon," 
prefixed  to  an  edition  of  the  "  Natural  History,"  36  vols.,  1826 ;  Flou- 
RENS,  "Buffon;  Histoire  de  sa  Vie  et  de  ses  Ouvrages,"  1844;  en- 
larged edition  of  the  same,  1850;  A.  de  Chesnel,  "Vie  de  Buffon," 
1843  ;  Andre  Aude,  "Vie  privee  de  Buffon,"  1788. 

Bu'ford,  (Abraham,)  a  native  of  Kentucky,  who  be- 
came a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  service  in 
1861. 

Buford,  (John,)  an  American  major-general,  born  in 
Kentucky  about  1827.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1848,  and  gained  the  rank  of  captain  before  the  civil  war. 
In  the  summer  of  1862  he  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  obtained  command  of  a  brigade 
of  cavalry  about  August,  1862,  served  at  the  battle  of 
Antietam,  September  17,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a 
cavalry  officer  in  several  actions.  He  rendered  important 
services  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863.  Died  of  fever  at 
Washington  in  December  of  the  same  year. 

Buford,  (Napoleon  Bonaparte,)  an  American  gen- 
eral, a  half-brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Ken- 
tucky in  1807.  He  graduated  at  \Vest  Point  in  1827. 
He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  April,  1862,  and 
obtained  command  of  a  brigade  of  Federal  cavalry  in 
July  of  that  year. 

Bugeaud  de  la  Piconnerie,  bu^zh5'deh  It  pe'kon''re', 
(Thomas  Rohert,)  Due  d'lsly,  a  celebrated  French  mar- 
shal, born  at  Limoges  in  1784.  He  served  in  the  Span- 
ish campaigns  from  1810  to  1814,  and  attained  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-colonel.  He  went  over  to  Napoleon  on 
his  return  from  Elba,  and  in  the  revolution  of  1830  gave 
in  his  adhesion  to  Louis  Philippe,  by  whom  he  was  cre- 
ated marshal  of  France.  Being  appointed  to  a  command 
in  Algeria,  he  gained  several  victories,  and  in  1837  he 
concludedwithAbd-el-Kader  the  treaty  of  Tafna.  In  1840 
he  became  governor-general  of  the  French  possessions 
in  Africa.  In  the  course  of  the  three  ensuing  years  he 
subjected  the  whole  country  from  Tunis  to  Morocco. 
In  1844  hostilities  commenced  between  the  French  and 
the  Emperor  of  Morocco,  whom  Bugeaud  defeated  at 
Isly  in  the  same  year.  Having  been  recalled  in  1847, 
he  was  selected  to  command  the  army  and  national  guard 
at  Paris  on  the  24th  of  February,  1848.    Died  in  1849. 

See^  Besancenez,  "  Biographie  complete  de  M.  le  Marechal  Bu- 
geaud," 1849;  C.  PiTOis,  "  Souvenirs  du  Marechal  Bugeaud,"  2  vols., 
184s. 


Bugenhagen,  boo'cen-hl'Gen,  (Johann,)  surnamed 
Pomera'nus,  a  German  Protestant  reformer,  born  near 
Stettin,  in  Pomerania,  in  1485.  He  became  professor  of 
theology,  and  pastor  at  Wittenberg,  in  1522.  He  wrote 
an  "Explanation  of  the  Psalms,"  and  other  religious 
works,  and  assisted  Luther  in  translating  the  Bible.  He 
was  a  devoted  friend  of  the  great  Reformer,  and  preached 
his  funeral  sermon.    Died  in  1558. 

See  Jaencke,  "Leben  J.  Bugenhagen's,"  1730;  J.  C.  Lange,  "J. 
Bugenhagens  Leben,"  1731;  F.  C.  Kraft,  "De  J.  Bugenhagii  Po- 
merani  Meritis,"  etc.,  1831 ;  Biesner,  "  Leben  des  H.  Rubenow  und 
des  J.  Bugenhagen,"  1837  ;  F.  Koch,  "  Erinnerungen  an  J.  Bugenha- 
gen," 1817. 

Bugge,  booo'ceh,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  Danish  as- 
tronomer, born  in  1740  at  Copenhagen,  where  he  became 
professor  of  mathematics  and  astronomy  in  1777.  He 
published  "Elements  of  Spherical  and  Theoretical  As- 
tronomy," (1796,)  "Elements  of  Abstract  Mathematics,'* 
and  an  excellent  treatise  on  Surveying.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  French  Institute,  and  perpetual  secretary  of 
the  Society  of  Sciences  of  Denmark.   Died  in  181 5. 

See  Jonas  Collin,  "Mindetale  over  T.  Bugge  og  C.  Colbjoern- 
sen,"  1815. 

Bugiardini,  boo-jaR-dee'nee,  (Giuliano,)  a  mediocre 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1480,  was  an  asso- 
ciate or  friend  of  Michael  Angelo.   Died  in  1552. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Buglio,  booKyo,  (LuiGi,)  a  Sicilian  Jesuit  and  mis- 
sionary, born  at  Palermo  in  1606,  went  to  China  in  1637, 
where  he  died  in  1682. 

Bugnyon,biin'y6N',  [Eat.  Bugno'nius,]  (Philibert,) 
a  French  advocate  and  litterateur,  native  of  Macon.  Died 
in  1590. 

Bugrow.    See  Boogrov. 

Buhle,  booOeh,  (Johann  Gottlieb,)  a  learned  Ger- 
man writer,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1763,  became  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Gottingen  in  1787,  and  afterwards  taught 
in  his  native  city.  Died  in  1821.  Besides  a  multitude 
of  other  works,  he  wrote  a  "  History  of  Modern  Phi- 
losophy." 

See  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Buil,  boo-eel',  written  also  Bueil,  a  Benedictine  monk 
of  Catalonia,  sent  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  to  preach 
the  gospel  in  the  West  Indies,  of  which  he  is  regarded 
as  the  first  patriarch.  He  is  chiefly  known  from  having 
been  one  of  the  most  bitter  enemies  of  Columbus. 

Buister,  bois'ter,  (Philippus,)  a  Flemish  sculptor, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1595,  worked  in  Paris;  died  in  1688. 

Bujault,  bii^zho',  (Jacques,)  a  French  rural  econo- 
mist, born  near  Bressuire  in  1771 ;  died  in  1842. 

Bulaeus.    See  Boulay. 

Bu-lar'-ehus,  [Fr.  Bularque,  bii'ltRk',]  a  Greek 
painter  mentioned  by  Pliny,  lived  about  700  B.C. 

Biilau,  bii'low,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  writer  on  his- 
tory and  political  economy,  born  at  Freyberg,  in  Saxony, 
in  1805.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Leipsic 
in  1836.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Histori- 
sche  Hausbibliothek,"  ("  Historical  Family  Library,")  of 
which  the  36th  volume  appeared  in  1855. 

Bulbim.    See  Balban. 

Bulfinger,  booKfing'er,  (Georg  Bernhard,)  a  Ger- 
man professor  of  theology  at  Tubingen,  born  in  1693 ; 
died  in  1750. 

Bulgarin.    See  Boolgarin. 

Bulgaris.    See  Eugenius  Bulgaris. 

Bulk'ley,  (Charles,)  an  English  dissenting  minister, 
born  in  London  in  1719,  was  a  grandson  of  Matthew 
Henry  the  commentator.  He  published  "Discourses 
on  the  Parables  and  Miracles  of  Christ,"  (4  vols.,  1771.) 
Died  in  1797. 

Bulk'ley,  (Peter,)  the  first  minister  of  Concord, 
Massachusetts,  was  born  in  Bedfordshire  in  1583.  He 
emigrated  to  America  in  1635.    Died  in  1659. 

Bull,  (George,)  a  learnecl  English  ecclesiastic,  born 
at  Wells  in  1634,  became  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in 
1705,  and  died  in  1710.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  Defence  of  the  Nicene  Faith,"  ("  Defensio  Fidei  Ni- 
cense,"  1685-88,)  which  has  been  applauded  in  all  parts 
of  Christendom. 

See  Nelson,  "Life  of  G.  Bull,"  1717. 

Bull,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  composer  and  mu- 
sician, born  in  Somersetshire  about  1563.    He  became 


£  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  #h  as  in  this.    (Jj^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BULL 


458 


BJJLOW 


organist  to  the  Royal  Chapel  in  1 591.  The  authorship 
ot  the  anthem  "  God  save  the  King"  is  ascribed  to  him 
by  some  writers.    He  died  about  1625. 

Bull,  bool,  (Ole  Bornemann,)  a  celebrated  Norwe- 
gian violinist,  born  at  Bergen  in  1810.  Having  studied 
a  short  time  under  Spohr,  at  Cassel,  he  went  to  seek  his 
fortune  in  Paris.  Here  he  was  reduced  to  such  distress 
that  he  was  on  the  point  of  committing  suicide,  when  he 
was  relieved  by  a  lady  of  rank.  A  concert  which  he  gave 
soon  after  furnished  him  with  the  means  of  visiting  Italy, 
where  his  performances  were  received  with  the  greatest 
enthusiasm.  Having  met  with  the  same  brilliant  success 
in  Paris,  London,  and  the  principal  capitals  of  Europe, 
he  set  out  about  1845  for  America.  He  purchased 
about  120,000  acres  of  land  in  Pennsylvania,  where  he 
f  )unded  a  Swedish  colony,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  Oleona. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Bull,  bool,  (William,)  an  American  physician,  born 
in  South  Carolina  in  1 7 10,  became  lieutenant-governor 
of  his  native  State  in  1764.    Died  in  1791. 

Bullant,  bii'lSN',  (Jean,)  a  celebrated  French  archi- 
tect, born  about  1520.  He  erected  for  Catherine  de 
Medicis  a  palace  called  at  first  Hotel  de  la  Reine,  and 
afterwards  Hotel  de  Soissons.  He  was  architect  of  some 
parts  of  the  Tuileries,  was  patronized  by  several  kings 
of  France,  and  contributed  much  to  the  restoration  of 
the  classical  or  Roman  style.    Died  in  1578. 

Bullard,  booKlard,  (Artemas,)  an  American  divine, 
born  at  Northbridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1802,  became  in 
1838  pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  of  Saint 
Louis.    He  was  killed  by  a  railroad-accident  in  1855. 

Bullard,  (Henry  Adams,)  an  American  lawyer,  born 
at  Groton,  Massachusetts,  in  1788,  removed  to  Louisiana. 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  183 1,  and  again 
about  1848.    Died  in  1851. 

BuUen,  (Ann.)    See  Boleyn. 

Buller,  bdoKler,  (Right  Hon.  Charles,)  a  distin- 
guished Liberal  statesman,  born  at  Calcutta  in  1806. 
Having  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1828, 
he  was  elected  member  of  Parliament  for  West  Looe,  in 
Cornwall,  in  1830.  From  1832  till  1848  he  represented 
Liskeard  in  Parliament,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his 
opposition  to  the  corn-laws  and  his  advocacy  of  various 
reforms.  He  was  successively  appointed  queen's  counsel," 
member  of  the  privy  council,  1847,  and  president  of  the 
poor-law  commission  about  the  end  of  the  same  year. 
He  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Edinburgh"  and  "  West- 
minster" Reviews  and  other  periodicals.    Died  in  1848. 

Buller,  (Sir  Francis,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
Cornwall  in  1745,  was  a  grandson  of  Allen,  Earl  Bathurst. 
He  published  an  "  Introduction  to  the  Law  relative  to 
Trials  at  Nisi  Prius,"  (1767  ;  7th  ed.,  1817.)  Died  in  1800. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  viii. 

Bullet,  bii'la',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  learned  French 
theologian,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1699  ;  died  in  1775. 

BuUeyn,  booKlin,  (William,)  an  English  physician 
in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  born  about  1500;  died  in 
1576. 

Bulliard,  bli'le-|R',  (Pierre.)  a  French  botanist  and 
artist,  born  near  Langres  about  1742  ;  died  in  1793. 
wrote  "Flora  Parisiensis,"  (6  vols.,  1774,)  a  "  History  of 
Poisonous  Plants,"  (1784,)  and  other  works. 

BuUinger,  booKling-er,  (Heinrich,)  a  Swiss  Protest- 
ant reformer  of  high  reputation,  born  in  the  canton  of 
Aargau  in  1504.  While  pursuing  his  studies  he  is  said 
to  have  supported  himself  for  several  years  as  a  street- 
musician,  lie  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Zwingle,  whom 
he  succeeded  as  pastor  at  Zurich  in  1 53 1.  Several  vol- 
umes of  his  sermons  have  been  published.    Died  in  1575. 

See  Lavater,  "Vom  Leben  Heinrich  Bullingers,"  1576;  Brock- 
haus, "Conversations-Lexikon;"  Melchior  Adam,  "  Vitje  Theo- 
logorum  Germanorum  ;"  Josias  Simler,  "  Narratio  de  Ortu  et  Vita 
H.  BiiUingeri,"  1575:  Salomon  Hess,  "  Lebensgeschichte  Mag.  H. 
Bullingers,"  2  vols.,  1828. 

Bullinger,  (Johann  Balthasar,)  a  Swiss  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Langenau  in  17 13,  was  first  professor 
in  the  school  of  design  at  Zurich.    Died  about  1790. 

Bullion,  de,  deh  bli']e-6N',(CLAUDE,)  a  superintendent 
of  the  finances  under  Louis  XIII.  Under  his  direction,  in 


1640,  louis-d'ors  (the  earliest  gold  coins  of  France)  were 
first  made.  Hence,  perhaps,  the  origin  of  the  English 
term  "  bullion." 

See  Blanchakd,  "Histoire  des  Presidents  de  Paris." 

Bullions,  booKyonz,  (Peter,)  a  distinguished  scholar 
and  educational  writer,  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  in 
the  Albany  Academy,  was  born  in  Perthshire,  Scotland, 
in  1791.  His  series  of  Latin,  Greek,  and  English  gram- 
mars and  readers  are  among  the  most  popular  in  use. 
Died  in  1864. 

BuUioud,  bii^le-oo',  (Symphorien,)  Bishop  of  Sois- 
sons, and  governor  of  Milan,  born  at  Lyons  in  1480 ; 
died  in  1533. 

BulFpck,  (William  F.,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in 
Fayette  county,  Kentucky,  in  1807.  Having  served 
several  terms  in  the  State  legislature,  he  was  appointed, 
in  1846,  judge  of  the  fifth  judicial  district,  and  in  1849 
became  professor  of  the  law  of  real  property,  etc.  in 
the  University  of  Louisville. 

See  Livingston's  "  Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans." 

Bulmer,  booKmer,  (William,)  an  eminent  English 
printer,  born  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne  in  1758.  He  printed, 
among  other  works,  a  magnificent  edition  of  Shakspeare, 
regarded  as  equal  to  anything  ever  produced  in  this  de- 
partment of  art.    Died  in  1830. 

Billow  or  Buelow,  bii'lo,  (August  Friedrich  Wil- 
iielm,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Vorden,  in  Westphalia, 
in  1762 ;  died  in  181 7. 

Billow,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  Count,  a  Prussian 
general,  born  in  Mecklenburg  in  1755,  particularly  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  campaigns  of  1813  and  1815. 
In  the  latter  he  commanded  under  Bliicher ;  and  by  the 
promptitude  and  celerity  of  his  march  to  reach  the  field 
of  Waterloo  on  the  evening  of  the  1 8th  of  June,  he 
contributed  materially  to  the  victory  gained  by  the  allies 
on  that  memorable  day.    Died  in  1816. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Billow,  (Heinrich,)  Baron,  a  German  diplomatist, 
born  at  Schwerin  in  1790,  was  a  son-in-law  of  the  cele- 
brated William  von  Humboldt,  whom  he  accompanied 
to  London  as  secretary  of  embassy  in  181 7.  He  was 
ambassador  to  London  in  1827,  and  in  1842  was  appointed 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.  He  resigned  in  1844.  Died 
in  1846. 

Billow,  (Henry  William,)  a  talented  though  eccen- 
tric and  visionary  person,  brother  of  Friedrich  Wilhelm, 
noticed  above,  born  about  1760,  became  successively  a 
soldier,  an  actor,  and  a  preacher  of  Swedenborgianism. 
After  trying  his  fortune  in  the  United  States,  he  went  to 
France,  where  he  wrote  a  work  on  military  tactics,  which, 
from  its  singularity,  procured  him  the  name  of  "  Tactician 
Billow."  He  subsequently  visited  England,  and  then  re- 
turned to  his  native  country,  where,  having  incurred  the 
suspicion  of  the  government,  he  was  arrested,  and  died  in 
prison  in  1807,  (or,  according  to  Oettinger,  in  1816.) 

See  Julius  von  Voss,  "  H.  von  Buelow;  nach  seinem  Talent- 
Reichthum,  etc.,"  1807. 

Billow,  (LuDwiG  Friedrich  Victor  Hans,)  Count, 
a  Prussian  statesman,  born  near  Brunswick  in  1774. 
After  the  peace  of  Tilsit  he  became  a  member  of  the 
state  council  of  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  and  in 
1808  minister  of  finance,  commerce,  and  the  treasury. 
In  1813  he  was  appointed  minister  of  state  and  finance 
by  the  King  of  Prussia.    Died  in  1825. 

See  F.  Cramer,  "  Leben  des  Grafen  von  Biilow,"  1821. 

Billow,  von,  fon  bii'lo,  (Johann,)  a  Danish  gentle- 
man, distinguished  as  a  patron  of  literary  men,  was  born 
in  Funen  in  1751.  He  became  a  marshal  in  1784,  and 
director  of  the  royal  museums  in  1 791.  Many  Danish 
authors  and  artists  were  liberally  patronized  by  him. 
Died  in  1828. 

Biilow,  von,  fon  bii'lo,  (Karl  Eduard,)  a  German 
novelist  and  litterateur,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Saxony  in 
1803.  He  published  in  1834  his  "  Novellenbuch,"  con- 
taining one  hundred  tales  imitated  and  selected  from 
the  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  etc.  He  also  translated 
into  German  Manzoni's  "  Promessi  Sposi,"  (1828.) 

Biilow-Cummerow,  von,  fon  bii'lo  koom'meh-ro, 
(Ernst,)  a  German  jurist  and  writer,  born  in  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin  in  1775. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  skori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fdt;  mit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BULOZ 


459 


BUN  EL 


Biiloz,  bii'lo',  (Francois,)  a  Swiss  litteratettr,  born 
near  Geneva  in  1803.  He  settled  in  Paris,  and  founded 
in  1831  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  a  periodical  of 
high  reputation,  issued  twice  a  month. 

Bul'strode,  (Edward,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in 
158S,  published  "Reports  in  King's  Bench."  Died  in 
1659. 

Bulstrode,  (Sir  Richard,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  a  royalist  in  the  civil  war.  He  wrote  "  Essays  on 
Manners"  and  Morals,"  (1715.)  He  is  said  to  have  at- 
tained the  age  of  one  hundred  and  one  years. 

Btilteau,  biirto',  (Louis,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Rouen  in  1625,  published  an  "  Essay  on  the  Monastic 
History  of  the  East,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1693. 

Bulwer,  booKwer,  (Edward  George  Earle  Lyt- 
TON,)  Baron  Lytton,  a  distinguished  British  novelist, 
was  born  at  Heydon  Hall,  in  Norfolk,  in  1805.  His 
father,  William  Earle  Bulwer,  who  at  one  time  was 
brigadier-general  in  the  army,  belonged  to  one  of  the 
oldest  families  of  Norfolk.  His  mother,  Elizabeth  B. 
Lytton,  a  wealthy  heiress,  was  descended  from  an  ancient 
family  of  Knebworth,  in  Hertfordshire.  Edward  was 
the  youngest  of  three  sons,  and  was  carefully  educated 
under  the  superintendence  of  his  mother,  who  possessed 
a  decided  taste  for  literature,  and  is  said  to  have  con- 
tributed not  a  little  towards  giving  form  and  direction  to 
the  intellectual  powers  of  her  gifted  son.  He  entered 
Cambridge,  and  graduated  at  Trinity  Hall  in  1826.  The 
chancellor's  prize  for  English  verse  had  been  awarded 
to  him  for  his  poem  on  "Sculpture"  in  1825.  On  his 
return  from  a  tour  .through  France,  he  published  in  1827 
his  first  novel,  "  Falkland."  In  1828  appeared  "  Pelham, 
or  the  Adventures  of  a  Gentleman,"  a  work,  in  spite  of 
its  extravagances,  of  considerable  merit,  and  evincing 
powers  of  no  common  order.  It  was  followed  by  "The 
Disowned,"  (1828,)  "Devereux,"  (1829,)  "Paul  Clif- 
ford," (1830,)  "The  Siamese  Twins,"  a  satirical  poem, 
(183 1,)  and  "Eugene  Aram,"  (1832.)  The  hero  of  the 
last-named  novel  had  taught,  it  is  said,  in  the  family  of 
Bulwer's  grandfather,  from  which  circumstance  the  au- 
thor had  felt  a  peculiar  and  deep  interest  in  his  tragic 
history.  About  the  year  1831  he  became  editor  of  the 
"  New  Monthly  Magazine."  He  was  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment the  same  year  as  member  for  Saint  Ives,  and,  after 
the  passage  of  the  Reform  Bill,  was  elected  by  the  city  of 
Lincoln,  which  he  continued  to  represent  in  the  House 
of  Commons  till  1841.  "England  and  the  English," 
sketches  of  English  society  and  literature,  appeared  in 
1833.  His  health  having  failed,  in  consequence  of  the 
intense  application  of  his  mind,  he  visited  Germany  and 
Italy  in  1833-34,  and  soon  after  he  published  "The  Pil- 
grims of  the  Rhine,"  and  "  The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii ;" 
then  followed  "  Rienzi,  the  Last  of  the  Tribunes,"  (1835.) 
The  same  year  appeared  "  The  Student,"  consisting  of 
his  contributions  to  the  "New  Monthly  Magazine."  He 
published  in  1837  a  work,  historical  and  critical,  entitled 
"  Athens  :  its  Rise  and  Fall."  In  1837  also  another  novel, 
"  Ernest  Maltravers,"  was  given  to  the  world  ;  and  soon 
after  a  continuation  of  the  same,  entitled  "  Alice,  or  the 
Mysteries."  He  had  brought  out  in  1836  an  unsuccessful 
play  called  "The  Duchess  of  La  Valliere."  In  1838 
appeared  his  drama  entitled  "The  Lady  of  Lyons,"  and 
soon  after  another,  called  "  Richelieu,"  both  of  which 
were  eminently  successful.  He  also  produced  a  comedy 
entitled  "  Money,"  which  had  a  great  popularity.  Another 
novel,  called  "Night  and  Morning,"  was  published  in 
1841.  "Zanoni,"  a  fiction  abounding  in  the  marvellous, 
appeared  in  1842;  then  followed  "The  Last  of  the 
Barons,"  (1843,)  "  Lucretia,  or  the  Children  of  the  Night," 
(1846,)  designed  to  show  the  influence  of  atheistical  (or 
Lucretian)  opinions  on  the  moral  character,  and  "  Harold, 
the  Last  of  the  Saxon  Kings,"  (1848.)  "The  Caxtons," 
the  first  of  a  new  series  of  novels,  was  published  in  1850, 
"My  Novel :  by  Pisistratus  Caxton,"  in  1851,  and  "  What 
will  He  do  with  It?"  in  1858.  The  three  last-named 
works  made  their  first  appearance  in  the  columns  of 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine."  Although  Bulwer  is  chiefly 
distinguished  as  a  novelist,  he  has  attempted  almost 
every  species  of  literary  composition,  and  has  written, 
not  vyithout  success,  on  a  vast  variety  of  subjects.  In 
addition  to  the  works  already  named,  he  published  in 


1827  a  poem  in  the  Byronic  style,  entitled  "O'Niel,  or 
the  Rebel."  "The  Crisis,"  (1835,)  a  political  pamphlet 
advocating  liberal  views,  had  an  immense  success,  and 
caused  his  influence  to  be  recognized  in  politics  no  less 
than  in  literature.  Passing  over  less  important  works, 
we  may  mention  his  poems  "The  New  Timon,"  (1846,) 
and  "  King  Arthur,"(i848,)  which  added  new  laurels  to  his 
many-sided  fame.  His  translations  of  Schiller's  poems, 
(first  given  to  the  public  in  1844,)  though  not  remarkable 
for  their  fidelity  to  the  original,  may  be  regarded  on  the 
whole  as  a  decided  success,  and,  by  furnishing  another 
proof  of  his  versatility,  have  contributed  to  extend  his 
literary  reputation.  His  last  fiction,  "A  Strange  Story," 
which  by  its  marvellous  incidents  reminds  one  of  "Za- 
noni," was  first  published  in  "All  the  Year  Round"  in 
1861.  Bulwer's  novels  have  been  translated  into  several 
of  the  European  languages,  and  are  extensively  read 
throughout  the  civilized  world.  He  is  perhaps,  after 
Scott,  the  most  universally  popular  of  all  the  British 
novelists. 

Bulwer  was  made  a  baronet  in  1838.  Having,  on  his 
mother's  death  in  1844,  come  into  the  possession  of  the 
Knebworth  estates,  he  assumed,  in  compliance  with  the 
conditions  of  the  will,  the  name  of  Bulwer-Lytton.  In 
1856  he  was  chosen  lord  rector  of  the  University  of 
Glasgow ;  and  other  literary  distinctions  have  been  con- 
ferred on  him.  During  the  brief  term  of  the  Derby 
ministry  in  1858,  he  held  the  office  of  secretary  of  state 
for  the  colonies.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron 
Lytton,  in  1866.  He  had  married  in  1827  Miss  Rosina 
Wheeler,  of  Limerick,  Ireland;  but  the  union  was  not 
a  happy  one,  and  the  parties  were  subsequently  divorced. 
Robert  Edward  Bulwer  Lytton,  the  only  son  by  that 
marriage,  has  already  obtained  some  distinction  as  an 
author,  under  the  pseudonym  of  "Owen  Meredith." 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1837  :  "  London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  July,  1865;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  1855; 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1850. 

Bulwer,  (Sir  Henry  Lytton  Earle,)  an  English 
diplomatist,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1804. 
He  has  been  employed  in  missions  to  Vienna,  the  Hague, 
and  Brussels,  and  in  1830  became  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment for  Wilton.  From  1834  to  1837  he  represented 
Marylebone  in  Parliament.  He  was  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary at  Madrid  from  1843  to  1848,  was  sent  as  minis- 
ter to  Washington  in  1849,  ^^'^^  created  Knight  Grand 
Cross  of  the  Bath  in  1851.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  Constantinople  in  1858.  He  has  published  "France, 
Social,  Literary,  and  Political,"  "  Historical  Characters  : 
Talleyrand,  Cobbett,  Mackintosh,  and  Canning,"  (2  vols., 
1868,)  and  several  other  works. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1867. 

Bulwer,  (John,)  an  Englishman,  who  published  in 
1648  a  work  to  teach  deaf  people  to  understand  a  speakei 
by  observing  the  motions  of  his  lips. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Bulwer,  (Rosina  Wheeler,)  afterwards  Lady  Bul- 
wer Lytton, was  born  in  Ireland  in  1807.  In  1827  she 
was  married  to  Bulwer,  the  celebrated  novelist.  (See 
Bulwer,  Edward.)  She  has  published  numerous  works 
of  fiction,  among  which  may  be  named  "  Bianca  Capello," 
"Cheveley,  or  the  Man  of  Honour,"  and  "The  Budget 
of  the  Bubble  Family." 

Biinau,  bii'now,  (Heinrich,)  Count,  a  German 
statesman  and  historian,  born  at  Weissenfels  in  1697. 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  German  Emperors  and  Em- 
pire," (4  vols.,  1728,  unfinished,)  and  a  "History  of  the 
War  between  France,England,  and  Germany,"  (in  French 
and  German,  1763.)  His  library  of  42,000  volumes  now 
forms  a  principal  part  of  the  Royal  Library  of  Dresden. 
Died  in  1762. 

See  Sax,  "  Onomasticon." 

Bunbury,  biin'ber-e,  (Henry  William,)  an  English 
artist  and  caricaturist,  born  in  Suffolk;  died  in  1811. 

Bunbury,  (Selina,)  an  English  authoress  of  the  pres- 
ent century.  She  has  written  "  Rides  in  the  Pyrenees," 
(2  vols.,  1844,)  "  Evelyn  ;  a  Novel,"  (1849,)  "  Life  in  Swe- 
den," and  "Russia  after  the  War,"  (2  vols.,  1857.) 

Bundokdar.    See  Bibars. 

Bunel,  bii^n^K,  (Jacques,)  a  French  painter  of  history, 
born  at  Tours  in  1558;  died  about  1620. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  g,  h,  Yi, guttural;  N,  7iasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (gJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BUN  EL 


BUONJFEDE 


Bunel,  (Pierre,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Toulouse 
n  1499 ;  died  in  1 546. 

Bunemann,  boo'neh-min',  (Johann  Ludolf,)  a  Ger- 
•Txan  bibliographer,  born  in  1687  ;  died  in  1759. 

Bunge,  von,  fon  bdong'eh,  (Alexander,)  a  Russian 
botanist  and  traveller,  born  at  Kiev  in  1803.  In  1830  he 
accompanied  a  mission  to  Pekin,  and  made  a  valuable 
collection  of  the  plants  of  China  and  Siberia.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  botany  at  Dorpat  in  1836,  and 
published  several  botanical  works. 

Bunge,  von,  (Frederick  George,)  a  Russian  jurist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Kiev  in  1802,  became 
professor  of  law  at  Dorpat. 

Buniva,  boo-nee'va,  (Michele  Francesco,)  an  Ital- 
ian medical  writer,  and  professor  of  medicine  at  Turin, 
born  at  Pinerolo  in  1761  ;  died  in  1834. 

Bunn,  (Alfred,)  an  English  theatrical  manager.  He 
published  "The  Stage,  both  before  and  behind  the  Cur- 
tain, from  Observations  taken  on  the  Spot,"  (3  vols., 
1840.)    Died  in  i860. 

Bunnick.    See  Bunnik. 

Bunnik,  biin'nik,  or  Bunnick,  (Jakob,)  a  Dutch 
landscape-  and  battle-painter,  was  a  brother  of  Jan,  no- 
ticed below.    Died  in  1725. 

Bunnik,  (Jan,)  a  noted  Dutch  landscape-painter,  born 
at  Utrecht  in  1654,  was  invited  to  England  by  William 
III.    Died  in  1707. 

See  DitSCAMPS,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamaiids,"  etc. 

Bunon,  bii'noN',  (Robert,)  a  French  dentist,  born 
at  Chalons-sur-Marne  in  1702,  wrote  several  works  on 
the  teeth.    Died  in  Paris  in  1748. 

Bunsen,  boon'sen,  (Robert  Wilhelm  Eberhard,) 
a  German  professor  of  chemistry  at  Breslau,  born  at  Got- 
tingen  in  181 1.  He  made  some  discoveries  in  chemistry, 
and  contributed  to  Liebig's  "Annales  de  Chimie." 

Bunsen,  von,  fon  boon'sen,  (Christian  Karl  Jo- 
sias,)  Chevalier,  an  eminent  German  philologist, 
diplomatist,  and  theologian,  was  born,  of  poor  and  ob- 
scure parents,  at  Korbach,  in  Westphalia,  on  the  25th 
of  August,  1 79 1.  He  studied  under  the  famous  Heyne 
at  Gottingen,  learned  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  other  lan- 
guages, and  there  formed  a  friendship  with  Mr.  Astor, 
of  New  York.  He  afterwards  studied  Arabic  and  Per- 
sian in  Paris  under  Silvestre  de  Sacy.  "  He  was  endowed 
by  nature,"  says  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  "with  the 
warmest  and  broadest  sympathies.  His  knowledge  was 
vast  and  varied  ;  to  no  field  of  intellectual  research  was 
he  a  stranger."  About  1816  he  became  acquainted  at 
Rome  with  Niebuhr,  whom  he  regarded  with  peculiar 
affection  and  veneration,  and  of  whom  he  declared, 
"Him  alone  I  can  acknowledge  as  my  lord  and  master." 

In  181 7  he  married  a  Miss  Waddington,  a  young  Eng- 
lish lady  of  good  family  and  fortune,  whose  influence 
gave  more  regularity  and  stability  to  the  natural  piety 
of  his  character.  He  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
Prussian  embassy  at  Rome  in  1818,  through  the  favour 
of  Niebuhr,  who  then  represented  the  King  of  Prussia 
at  that  court.  There  he  passed  twenty  happy  years, 
during  which  he  devoted  much  time  to  historical  re- 
search, and  published,  about  1829,  a  "Description  of 
the  City  of  Rome."  He  succeeded  Niebuhr  as  Prus- 
sian minister  at  Rome  in  1827.  Having  been  recalled 
in  1838,  he  was  ordered  to  take  leave  of  absence  for  a 
journey  to  England,  where  he  made  many  friends  among 
the  higher  classes  and  literati.  In  1841  he  was  appointed 
Prussian  ambassador  at  the  court  of  Saint  James.  He 
enjoyed  a  high  degree  of  the  favour  of  the  crown  prince 
who  became  King  of  Prussia  in  1840.  "  He  acquired,"  says 
the  "Edinburgh  Review"  of  April,  1868,  "a position  and 
an  influence  in  English  society  which  had  never  before 
been  possessed  by  a  German  diplomatist."  He  gained  a 
wide  reputation  as  an  ecclesiastical  historian  and  Egyp- 
tologist. Among  his  principal  works  are  "  The  Consti- 
tution of  the  Church  of  the  Future,"  ("  Die  Verfassung 
der  Kirche  der  Zukunft,"  1845,)  "Egypt's  Place  in  Univer- 
sal History,"  ("  .-Egyptens  Stelle  in  der  Weltgeschichte," 
5  vols.,  1845-57,)  "  Hippolytus  and  his  Epoch,"  (4 
vols.,  1851,)  a  revised  edition  of  which  appeared  under 
the  title  of  "Christianity  and  Mankind,"  (7  vols.,  1854,) 
and  "  God  in  History ;  or  the  Progress  of  Man's  Faith 
in  a  Moral  Order  of  the  World,"  (2  vols.,  1868,)  trans- 


lated by  Susanna  Winkworth.  The  first  and  second  of 
these  works  have  been  translated  into  English.  He  con- 
tinued to  represent  Prussia  at  London  until  1854.  As 
he  advanced  in  age,  his  political  principles  became  more 
and  more  liberal.  In  1857  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage, 
with  the  title  of  Freiherr  (Baron)  von  Bunsen.  After  he 
left  London,  he  resided  at  Heidelberg  and  Bonn,  where 
he  died  in  i860,  leaving  a  number  of  children. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  Baron  Bunsen,"  by  [his  wife]  Frances,  Baron- 
NEss  VON  Bunsen,  drawn  chiefly  from  "  family  papers,"  2  vols.,  1868; 
Rev.  F.  D.  Maurice's  article  on  "Baron  Bunsen"  in  "  Macniillan's 
Magazine"  for  March,  1861,  and  a  notice  in  the  "Revue  Chreiienne," 
1S60,  by  M.  Pressens^  ;  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1846  ;  "  North 
British  Review"  for  June,  1868;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Sep- 
tember, 1868. 

Biint'ing,  (Edward,)  an  Irish  musician  and  lyrical 
composer,  born  at  Armagh  in  1773;  died  in  1843. 

Bunting,  (Jabez,)  an  eminent  English  Wesleyan 
minister,  born  in  Manchester  about  1778,  was  an  eloquent 
preacher.  He  published  a  number  of  sermons.  Died  in 
1858. 

See  "Life  of  J.  Bunting,"  by  his  son,  1859. 

Bun^yan,  (John,)  the  celebrated  author  of  "  Pilgrim's 
Progress,"  was  born  at  Elstow,  near  Bedford,  in  England, 
in  1628.  He  followed  the  occupation  of  his  father,  who 
was  a  tinker,  and  for  some  time  led  a  wandering,  chssi- 
pated  life.  He  married  about  the  age  of  twenty.  During 
the  civil  war  he  served  in  the  army  of  the  Parliament  in 
1645.  Having  become  deeply  impressed  with  the  im- 
portance of  religion,  he  joined  the  Anabaptists  of  Bed- 
ford about  1664,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  zeal. 
He  became  a  Baptist  minister  about  1655.  After  the 
restoration  he  was  sentenced,  as  a  promoter  of  seditious 
assemblies,  to  transportation  for  life.  This  sentence, 
however,  was  not  executed  ;  but  he  was  detained  more 
than  twelve  years  in  prison,  from  which  he  was  re- 
leased in  1672.  During  his  imprisonment  he  wrote  part 
of  his  immortal  work,  "Pilgrim's  Progress."  Besides 
"Pilgrim's  Progress,"  (1678,)  he  wrote  "The  Resurrec- 
tion of  the  Dead,"  "Gospel  Truths  Opened,"  (1656,) 
"The  Holy  City,"  (1665,)  "Grace  Abounding,"  (1666,) 
"Justification  by  Jesus  Christ,"  (1671,)  "The  Holy 
War,"  (1682,)  "The  Pharisee  and  Publican,"  (1685,)  and 
other  works.  After  his  release  he  was  minister  to  a 
congregation  at  Bedford,  and  became  extremely  popular. 
Died  in  1688. 

"  He  had  no  suspicion,"  says  Macaulay,  "  that  he  was 
producing  a  master-piece.  He  could  not  guess  what 
place  his  allegory  would  occupy  in  English  literature ; 
for  of  English  literature  he  knew  nothing.  ...  In 
puritanical  circles,  from  which  plays  and  novels  were 
strictly  excluded,  the  effect  was  such  as  no  work  of  ge- 
nius, though  it  were  superior  to  the  Iliad,  to  Don  Quix- 
ote, or  Othello,  can  ever  produce  on  a  mind  unaccus- 
tomed to  indulge  in  literary  luxury.  In  1678  came  forth 
a  second  edition,  with  additions ;  and  then  the  demand 
became  immense.  .  .  .  We  are  not  afraid  to  say  that, 
though  there  were  many  clever  men  in  England  during 
the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  there  v>^ere 
only  two  great  creative  minds.  One  of  those  minds 
produced  the  '  Paradise  Lost,'  the  other  the  '  Pilgrim's 
Progress.'"  (Essay  on  Southey's  edition  of  "Pilgrim's 
Progress,"  183 1.) 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  vii.  ;  Ivimey, 
"Life  of  John  Bunyan,"  1809;  Southey,  "Life  of  Banyan;" 
George  Offor,  "Life  of  Bunyan,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his 
works,  3  vols.,  1853;  "Quarterly  Review,"  vol.  xliii.,  May-October, 
1830. 

Buol-Schauenstein,  von,  fon  boo'ol  show'en-stTn', 
(Karl  Ferdinand,]  Count,  an  Austrian  statesman, 
born  in  Switzerland  in  1797.  He  was  sent  as  ambassa- 
dor to  Saint  Petersburg  in  1848,  and  to  London  in  185 1. 
In  1852  he  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs  {i.e.  prime 
minister)  of  Austria,  and  in  December,  1854,  signed  a 
treaty  which  engaged  Austria  to  favour  the  allies  against 
Russia.    He  resigned  in  May,  1859. 

Buonaccorsi.    See  Perino  del  Vaga. 

Buonafede,  boo-o'nS-faMi,  (Appiano,)  an  Italian 
writer,  and  professor  of  theology  at  Naples,  born  at  Co- 
macchio  in  1716.  He  published  "  Poetical,  Historical, 
and  Critical  Sketches  of  Various  Literary  Men,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1793. 

See  Mazzucheli.i,  "  Scrittori  d'ltalia." 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  a,  h.,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mlt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BV  ON  AMI  CI 


461 


BURDETT 


Buonamici,  boo-o-ni-mee'chee,  (Castruccio,  kis- 
tRoot'cho,)  one  of  the  most  elegant  Latin  writers,  born 
at  Lucca,  in  Italy,  in  1710.  His  "Commentaries  on  the 
Italian  War"  {"  Commentarii  de  Bello  Italico")  is  a  work 
of  great  merit.    Died  in  1761. 

See  Mazzuchelli,  "Scrittori  d'^talia." 

Buonamici  or  Bonamici,  bo-nl-mee'chee,  [Lat.  Bo- 
NAMi'cus,]  (Lazzaro,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  litterateiir, 
born  at  Bassano  in  1479;  died  in  1552. 

See  JoHANN  G.  Eck,  "  L.  Bonamicus,"  1768;  G.  B.  Verci,  "De 
Rebus  gestis  et  Scriptis  L.  Bonamici,"  1770. 

Buonamico.    See  Buffalmacco. 

Buouanni.    See  Bonanni. 

Buonaparte.    See  Bonaparte. 

Buonarotti.    See  Michael  Angelo. 

Buonaiotti,  boo-o-na-rot'tee,  or  Buonarrotti,  (Fi- 
LIPPO,)  an  Italian  republican  and  revolutionist,  born  at 
Pisa  in  1761.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  partisan  of  the 
principles  of  the  French  Revolution,  in  which  he  took  an 
active  part.  Having  gone  to  Paris  in  1792,  he  was  sent 
to  Corsica  with  extensive  powers  in  1793.  As  an  accom- 
plice in  the  conspiracy  of  Babeuf,  he  was  imprisoned 
several  years,  (1797-1800.)    Died  in  1837. 

See  Trelat,  "Notice  sur  Philippe  Buonarotti,"  1838. 

Buonarroti,  boo-o-nir-ro'tee,  (  Filippo,)  a  distin- 
guished Italian  antiquary;  died  in  1733. 

Buonarroti,  (Michael  (or  Michele)  Angelo,)  an 
Italian  poet,  nephew  of  the  famous  Michael  Angelo,  born 
at  Florence  in  1568;  died  in  1646. 

Buoncompagni.    See  Boncompagni, 

Buonconsigli,  boo-dn-kon-s^Kyee,  (Giovanni,)  an 
Italian  ])ainter,  born  at  Vicenza,  lived  about  1500. 

Buoncuore.    See  Boncuore. 

Buonfigli.    See  Bonfiglio. 

Buonfigli,  boo-on-f^l'yee,  (Giuseppe  Costante,)  an 
Italian  historian,  born  at  Messina,  wrote  a  "  History  of 
Sicily,"  (1604,)  and  other  works. 

Buoni,  de',  dk  boo-o'nee,  (BuoNO,)  a  Neapolitan 
painter  ;  died  about  1465. 

Buoni,  de',  (Silves  j  ro,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
a  painter.    Died  in  1484. 

Buoninsegna.    See  DucCiO. 

Buonniattei,  boo-6n-mat-ta'ee,  (Benedetto,)  an  able 
Italian  grammarian,  born  at  Florence  in  1581.  He  wrote 
a  treatise  "On  the  Tuscan  Langupge,"  (1643,)  other 
works.    Died  in  1647. 

Buono,  boo-o'no,  a  distinguisned  Italian  architect 
and  sculptor,  lived  about  1 150,  and  erected,  besides  other 
edifices,  the  famous  tower  of  Saint  Mark,  at  Venice. 

Buono,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  architect  and 
sculptor,  born  at  Bergamo.  He  became  architect  of 
the  republic  of  Venice  in  1505.  Among  his  greatest 
works  is  the  "  Procuratie  Vecchie,"  at  Venice.  He  also 
restored  the  tower  of  Saint  Mark.    Died  in  1529. 

Buononcini,  (Giovanni  Battista.)  See  Bononcinl 

Buontalenti,  boo-on-ti-len'tee,  (Bernardo,)  an  Ital- 
ian painter,  sculptor,  and  architect,  surnamed  della 
Girandola,  (je-ran'do-ia,)  born  at  Florence  in  1536. 
He  was  appointed  by  the  grand  duke  Cosimo  de'  Medici 
preceptor  to  his  son.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  the 
Casino  palace  at  Florence,  and  the  villa  of  Bratonilo  for 
the  grand  duke  Francis  I.  de'  Medici.    Died  in  1608. 

See  QuATREMERE  DE  QuiNCY,  " Dictioiinaire  d'Architecture ;" 
CicoGNAKA,  "  Storia  deila  Scoltura." 

Buontempi.    See  Bontempi. 
Buonvicino.    See  Bonvicino. 

Bu'pa-lus,  a  Greek  sculptor  and  architect,  born  in 
the  island  of  Chios,  lived  about  550  B.C.,  and  was  noted 
for  the  enmity  between  him  and  the  poet  Hipponax. 

Burak  or  Bur^q.    See  Borak. 

Buranello.    See  Galuppi. 

Burbage  or  Burbadge,  biir'bij,  (Richard,)  an  emi- 
nent English  actor,  was  a  friend  of  Shakspeare,  whpse 
principal  characters  he  personated.    Died  in  1619. 

Bur'beck,  (Henry,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
Boston  in  1754.  He  served  as  captain  in  the  war  of  the 
Revolution,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  brevet  brigadier- 
general  in  the  war  of  1812.    Died  in  1848. 

Burchard,  booR'KaRt,  [Lat.  Burcar'dus,]  sometimes 
written  Bouchard,  a  German  theologian,  born  in  Hesse, 
became  liishop  of  Worms  in  1006.  He  made  a  collection 


of  canons,  entitled  "  Magnum  Volumen  Canonum."  DieJ 
in  1026. 

Burchard,  Saint,  first  Bishop  of  Wiirzburg,  born  in 
England  ;  died  in  752. 

Burchiello,  booR-ke-el'lo,  (Domenico,)  a  witty  Ital- 
ian poet,  published  a  collection  of  sonnets,  which  went 
through  twenty  editions.    Died  in  1448. 

See  "  Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by  Rev.  H.  Stebbing,  London, 
1S31. 

Burckhard.    See  Spalatin. 

Burckhard,  booRk'hiRt,  (Frans,)  a  German  phi- 
losopher, wrote  "De  Autonomia,"  (1586.)  Died  at  Bonn 
in  1584. 

Burckhard,  (James,  or  Jakob,)  a  German  antiquary, 
born  at  Sulzbach  in  1681.  He  wrote  (in  Latin)  "  On  the 
Fortunes  and  Merits  of  Ulrich  Hutten,"  (1717-23,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1753. 

Burckhardt,  bdoRk^h^Rt,  (Johann  Karl,)  a  German 
astronomer,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1773.  He  visited  Paris 
in  1797,  and  acquired  the  friendship  of  Lalande,  whom 
he  assisted  in  his  scientific  labours.  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  adjunct  at  the  Bureau  of  Longitude,  and  in 
1807  succeeded  Lalande  as  astronomer  in  the  observa- 
tory of  the  Military  School.  He  translated  into  German 
a  part  of  Laplace's  "  Mecanique  Celeste,"  and  wrote 
several  astronomical  treatises.    Died  in  1825. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Burckhardt,  blirk'hart,  [Ger.  pron.  booRk'hSRt,]  (Jo- 
hann Ludwig,)  a  celebrated  Swiss  traveller,  born  at  Lau- 
sanne in  1784.  Having  studied  at  Gottingen,  he  visited 
London,  where  he  was  introduced  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks 
and  other  members  of  the  African  Association,  then  about 
to  send  out  another  traveller  to  Africa.  His  services  being 
offered  and  accepted,  he  set  out  in  1809,  having  prepared 
himself  for  the  journey  by  a  diligent  study  of  the  Arabic 
language,  medicine,  chemistry,  etc.  After  spending  more 
than  two  years  in  Syria,  where  he  assumed  the  name  of 
Ibrahim  and  the  Oriental  dress,  he  proceeded  to  Cairo, 
and,  passing  through  the  Nubian  desert,  arrived  in  1814 
at  Mecca.  In  the  character  of  a  Moslem  pilgrim  or  haji, 
he  performed  the  pilgrimage  to  Mount  Ararat,  and  subse- 
quently visited  Medina.  He  returned  to  Cairo  in  1816, 
and  in  October,  181 7,  when  about  to  join  the  caravan  for 
Fezzan,  was  attacked  with  a  violent  fever,  of  which  he 
died  at  Cairo.  He  was  buried  by  the  Mohammedans  with 
distinguished  honours.  His  principal  works  are  en- 
titled "Travels  in  Nubia,"  (in  English,  1819,)  "Travels 
in  Syria  and  Palestine,"  (1822,)  "Notes  on  the  Bedouins 
and  Wahabees,"  (1830,)  and  "Arabic  Proverbs,"  (1831.) 
He  bequeathed  his  valuable  collection  of  Oriental  manu- 
scripts to  the  University  of  Cambridge.  Burckhardt  pos- 
sessed in  an  eminent  degree  the  intellectual  and  moral 
qualities  requisite  in  an  explorer;  and  his  works  are 
esteemed  among  the  best  of  their  kind. 

See  Sueur-Merlin,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  duVoyageur  Burckhardt," 
1829;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  March,  1820;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  August,  1820. 

Burdach,  bdoR'diK,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1776,  became  in  1811  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  Dorpat.  He  wrote 
a  treatise  "On  the  Structure  and  Life  of  the  Brain  and 
Spinal  Marrow,"  (1819,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1847. 

See  his  Autobiography,  entitled  "  Riickblicke  auf  mein  Leben ; 
Selbstbiographie,"  1847. 

Bur'den,  (Henry,)  a  Scottish  mechanician,  born  at 
Dunblane  in  1791,  emigrated  in  1819  to  America,  where 
he  made  a  number  of  valuable  inventions.  Among  these 
are  a  cultivator,  a  suspension  water-wheel,  and  a  machine 
for  making  horse-shoes. 

Bur'der,  (Rev.  George,)  an  English  dissenting  divine, 
born  in  London  in  1752.  He  became  in  1803  pastor  of 
the  Congregational  church  in  Fetter  Lane,  London,  and 
soon  after  editor  of  the  "Evangelical  Magazine."  He 
published  "Evangelical  Truth  Defended,"  (1788,)  and 
"Village  Sermons,"  (6  vols.,  1799-1812.)    Died  in  1832. 

Bur-dett',  (Sir  Francis,)  an  English  Liberal  politi- 
cian, born  in  1770.  He  married  Sophia,  daughter  of 
Thomas  Coutts,  a  rich  banker,  and  was  elected  to  Par- 
liament about  1795.  He  opposed  the  war  against  France, 
and  advocated  reform  in  representation.  In  1807  he  was 
returned  for  Westminster,  which  he  represented  for 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  ha7'd:  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  gtUhiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BURDON 


462 


BURGOTNE 


nearly  thirty  years.  P'or  a  publication  reflecting  on  the 
conduct  of  Parliament  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower 
for  a  few  months  in  1810.    Died  in  1844. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Bur'dpn,  (William,)  an  English  writer  on  politics, 
ethics,  etc.,  horn  in  1764.  Among  his  works  is  "Mate- 
rials for  Thinking,"  (2  vols.,  1803-10.)    Died  in  1818. 

Bure,  boo^rSh,  [Lat.  Bur^'us,]  (Anders,)  a  distin- 
guished Swedish  architect  and  geographer,  born  in  1 571; 
died  in  1646. 

Bure,  [Lat.  Bur/E'us,]  (Johan,)  a  Swedish  antiquary, 
and  one  of  the  earliest  poets  of  Sweden,  born  in  1568, 
became  royal  librarian.    Died  in  1652. 

Bure,  (Katarina,)  a  Swedish  scholar  and  writer,  born 
in  1602,  was  a  daughter  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1679. 

Bure,  de,  deh  btir,  (Guillaume  FRANgois,)  a  noted 
French  bookseller  and  bibliographer.    Died  in  1782. 

Buren.    See  Biren. 

Buren.    See  Egmond,  (Maximilian.) 

Buren,  Van.    See  Van  Buren. 

Burette,  hxi'xlt',  (Pierre  Jean,)  a  learned  French 
physician,  born  in  1665  ;  died  in  1747.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  several  valuable  dissertations  on  the  gymnastics 
and  the  music  of  the  ancients. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  Qu^rard,  "  La  France 
Litteraiie." 

Burette,  (Theodore,)  a  French  historian,  born  in 
Paris  in  1804.  Among  his  works  are  a  "History  of 
France,"  (2  vols.,  1839,)  and  "  Modern  History,"  (2  vols., 
1843.)    Died  in  1847. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Biirg  or  Buerg,  biiRG,  (Johann  Tobias,)  a  German 
astronomer,  born  in  Vienna  in  1766.  He  was  professor 
of  astronomy  at  Klagenfurth,  and  afterwards  astronomer 
at  the  observatory  in  Vienna.  He  produced  valuable 
lunar  tables,  and  received  part  of  a  prize  offered  by  the 
French  Institute  for  the  solution  of  a  problem  in  regard 
to  the  moon's  motions.    Died  in  1834. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Biirger  or  Buerger,  biiR^cer,  (Gottfried  August,) 
a  popular  German  poet,  born  near  Halberstadt  in  1748  ; 
died  in  1794.  He  particularly  excelled  in  ballads  and 
in  romantic  poetry.  He  was  thrice  married.  Among 
his  chief  works  are  "  Lenore,"  (1772,)  and  "The  Wild 
Huntsman,"  which  have  acquired  a  European  celebrity. 
The  former  has  been  translated  into  English. 

See  H.  DoRiNG,  "G.  A.  Burger ;  blographisches  Denkmal,"  1847; 
Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  Longfellow, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Burgersdicius,  biir-gers-dish'e-us,or  Burgersdyck, 

biiR^Gers-dlk',  (Franciscus,)  a  Dutch  philosopher,  born 
near  Delft  in  1590,  wrote  on  logic  and  moral  philosophy. 
Died  in  1629. 

Burges,  biir'jess,  (George,)  an  English  dramatist  and 
Greek  scholar,  born  in  1786;  died  in  1864. 

Burges,bur''jess,  (George,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine, 
was  born  in  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1809.  After 
graduating  at  Brown  University,  he  continued  his  studies 
in  the  Universities  of  Bonn,  Gottingen,  and  Berlin.  In 
1847  he  was  ccnsecrated  Bishop  of  Maine,  becoming  at 
the  same  time  rector  of  Christ  Church  at  Gardiner. 
His  principal  works  are  a  versification  of  the  Book  of 
Psalms,  "  Pages  from  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  New 
England,"  "  Last  Enemy  Conquering  and  Conquered," 
and  "  Sermons  on  Christian  Life,"  (1854.)   Died  in  1866. 

Bur'gess,  (Cornelius,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  entered  Oxford  in  161 1.  He  preached  in  Lon- 
don.   Died  in  1665. 

Burgess,  (Daniel,)  an  English  dissenting  divine, 
born  at  Staines  in  1645,  pi'eached  in  London  many  years. 
He  was  noted  for  his  facetious  sayings.    Died  in  17 13. 

Burgess,  (Rev.  Richard,)  an  English  writer,  born 
about  1796.  He  became  rector  of  Upper  Chelsea.  Among 
his  works  is  "  Topography  and  Antiquities  of  Rome," 
(2  vols.,  1831.) 

Burgess,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  born  at 
Odiham,  in  Hampshire,  in  1756,  became  Bishop  of  Salis- 
bury about  1825.  He  wrote  numerous  religious  works. 
Died  in  1837. 

See  Harford,  "Life  of  Bishop  Burgess;"  William  Jerdan, 
"Men  I  Inve  known,"  London,  1866;  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  (~)ctober  and  January,  1822. 


Bur'gess,  (Tristam,)  an  American  orator  and  states- 
man, born  in  Rochester,  Massachusetts,  in  1770.  Having 
studied  law,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1799,  and  rose 
to  great  eminence.  He  became  a  leader  of  the  Federal 
party,  and  chief  justice  of  Rhode  Island  in  1815.  In  1825 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress,  in  which  his  fervid 
eloquence,  powerful  logic,  and  formidable  sarcasm  pro- 
cured for  him  a  national  reputation.  He  continued  to 
serve  in  Congress  until  1835.    Died  in  1853. 

See  H.  L.  Bowen,  "Memoir  of  Tristam  Burgess." 

Burggrave,  booRG^gRi'veh,  or  Burgrave,  bdoR^gR^- 
veh,  (Johann,)  a  German  physician,  boi'n  at  Darmstadt 
in  1673;  died  about  1746. 

Burggrave,  (Johann  Philipp,)  a  medical  writer,  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Darmstadt  in  1700 ;  died  in  1775. 

Burgh.    See  Burgho. 

Burgh,  biir'reh,  (James,)  an  estimable  moral  and 
political  writer,  born  in  Perthshire,  Scotland,  in  17 14, 
was  a  cousin  of  Robertson  the  historian.  He  wrote, 
among  other  works,  "The  Dignity  of  Human  Nature," 
(1754,)  and  "Political  Disquisitions,"  (3  vols.,  1774.) 
Died  in  1775. 

Burgh,  de,  (Hubert.)    See  Burgho  or  Burgo. 

Burgh,  de,  (Ulick.)  See  Clanricarde,  Marquis  of. 

Bur'gho,  Bur'go,  or  Bourgo,  boor'go,  written  also 
Burgh,  Bourgh,  and  Burke,  a  distinguished  Norman 
family,  related  to  William  the  Conqueror.  Hubert  de 
Burgo  was  the  minister  of  King  John  and  Henry  HI.; 
but,  though  faithful  to  the  interests  of  those  sovereigns, 
he  boldly  opposed  their  crimes.  From  another  branch 
of  the  same  family  sprang  those  invaders,  or  rather  rav- 
agers,  of  Ireland,  to  whom  the  poet  Campbell  alludes 
in  his  "O'Connor's  Child."* 

Burgho,  de,  de  bur^o  or  boor'go,  (Richard,)  a  pow- 
erful baron,  became  master  of  Connaught,  in  Ireland. 
Died  in  1243. 

Burgho,  de,  (Walter,)  son  and  successor  of  the 
preceding,  obtained  by  marriage  the  earldom  of  Ulster. 
Died  in  1271. 

Biirgi,  (Jobst.)    See  Byrgius. 

Burgkmair,  booRk'mlR,  (Hans,)  an  eminent  German 
painter  and  wood-engraver,  born  at  Augsburg  about  1473. 
Among  his  best  pictures  are  a  "  Saint  Sebastian"  and  a 
"Virgin  and  Child"  at  Nuremberg,  and  "Saint  John 
at  Patmos"  in  the  Pinakothek  at  Munich.  He  also  exe- 
cuted a  great  number  of  admirable  engravings,  including 
a  series  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  plates  called  the 
"Triumph  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian  I."  He  was  a 
friend  of  Albert  Diirer,  in  conjunction  with  whom  he 
produced  several  engravings.    Died  about  1559. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Burgo.    See  Burgho. 

Bur'gpn,  (John  William,)  an  English  poet  and 
biographer,  born  in  London  about  1820,  published 
a  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Gresham,"  (1839,)  "Petra,"  a 
poem,  (1845,)  and  other  works. 

Burgos,  de,  da  booR'gis,  (Don  Francisco  Xavier,) 
a  Spanish  author  and  politician,  born  at  Motel,  in  An- 
dalusia, in  1778.  He  produced  a  version  of  Horace,  (4 
vols.,  1820-23,)  which  is  commended,  and  wrote  several 
comedies  and  poems.  His  "  Ode  to  Reason"  is  much 
admired. 

Burgos,  de,  (Pablo,)  a  learned  Spanish  ecclesiastic, 
born  at  Burgos  in  1353.  He  was  Bishop  of  Burgos,  and 
wrote  several  works.    Died  in  1435- 

Burgoyne,  bur-goin',  (John,)  an  English  general 
and  dramatist.  He  married  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of 
Derby,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  in  1761. 
In  the  summer  of  1777  he  obtained  command  of  an  army 
of  about  8000  men,  with  which  he  marched  from  Canada 
towards  Albany.  Having  been  repulsed  at  Stillwater 
in  September,  he  was  forced  to  surrender  at  Saratoga 
in  October,  1777.  (See  Gates,  General.)  This  event 
was  one  of  the  most  important  victories  gained  by  the 
Americans  in  the  war,  and  produced  great  exultation 
among  the  patriots.    He  had  the  reputation  of  a  wit  as 

*  "  For  now  De  Bourgo's  sword  and  flame 
Had  ravaged  Ulster's  boundaries, 
And  lighted  up  the  midnight  skies. 
*  #          *          *  * 

And  stemmed  De  Bourgo's  chivalry." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lofig;  k,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mht;  n6t;  good;  mooi^; 


BURGOTNE 


463 


BURKE 


well  as  of  a  brave  and  generous  man.  He  composed 
three  dramas,  "The  Maid  of  Oaks,"  "Bon  Ton,"  and 
"The  Heiress,"  (1786,)  which  enjoyed  considerable 
popularity  in  their  day.    Died  in  1792. 

See  HiLDRETH,  "History  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  iii.  chap, 
xxxvi. 

Burgoyne,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  general,  who  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  principal  battles  of  the  Penin- 
sular war,  and  was  subsequently  appointed  inspector- 
general  of  fortifications  in  England,  lieutenant-general, 
(1851,)  and  Knight  Grand  Cross,  (1852.)  In  the  Crimean 
war  he  served  till  1855  as  chief  of  the  engineering  de- 
partment in  the  British  army.  He  has  also  obtained 
the  degree  of  D.C.L.  from  the  University  of  Oxford. 

Burgrave.    See  Burggrave. 

Burgsdorf,  von,  fon  booRGs'doRf,  (Friedrich  Au- 
gust LuDWiG,)  a  German  naturalist  and  writer,  born  at 
Leipsic  in  1747;  died  in  1802. 

Burgundio,  booR-goon'de-o,  or  Borgondio,  boR- 
gon'de-o,  (Orazio,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  scientific  writer, 
born  at  Brescia  in  1679,  became  rector  of  the  Roman 
College.    Died  in  1 741. 

Burgundy,  Dukes  of.  With  the  exception  of  Louis, 
noticed  below,  these  will  be  found  under  their  respective 
names,  as  Charles  the  Bold,  John  the  Fearless,  etc. 

Bur'gun-dy,  [Fr.  Bourgogne,  booR'gon',]  (Louis,) 
Duke  of.  Dauphin  of  France,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV., 
and  father  of  Louis  XV.,  was  born  at  Versailles  in  1682. 
The  celebrated  Fenelon  was  appointed  his  principal  pre- 
ceptor, and  was  instrumental  in  effecting  a  thorough 
change  in  his  character,  of  which  Saint-Simon  gives  the 
following  portrait:  "This  prince  was  born  terrible,  and 
continued  terrible  through  his  infancy  ;  incapable  of  bear- 
ing the  least  resistance,  even  from  time  and  the  elements  ; 
obstinate  to  excess,  and  given  tip  to  all  violent  passions 
From  the  height  of  the  skies  he  looked  down  upon  men 
as  atoms  with  whom  he  had  no  resemblance  ;  even  his 
brothers  scarcely  appeared  to  him  intermediate  between 
him  and  the  human  race.  From  this  abyss  came  forth 
a  prince  affable,  gentle,  and  humane,  humble  and  austere 
towards  himself."  He  died  in  1 7 12,  greatly  regretted 
by  the  nation. 

See  Sai.n't-Simon,  "  M^moiies ;"  Abb^  Fi.eurv,  "  Portrait  du  Due 
de  Bourgogne,"  1714;  J.  Martineau,  "  Recueil  des  Vertus  de  Louis 
de  France,"  1712;  Pkovart,  "  Viedu  Dauphin,  Pere  de  Louis  XV," 
2  vols.,  1778. 

Burhill,  biir^ril,  (Dr.  Robert,)  an  English  divine, 
chaplain  to  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  whom  he  is  said  to  have 
assisted  in  his  "History  of  the  World."  Died  in  1641. 

Buri.    See  Audhumla,  and  Odin. 

Bur'i-dan,  (John,)  [Fr.  Jean  Buridan,  zh6N  bii're'- 
d6N',]  a  schoolman,  born  at  Bethune,  in  Artois,  about 
13 1 5,  known  as  the  author  of  the  sophism  that,  if  a 
hungry  ass  were  placed  between  two  measures  of  oats 
so  that  each  should  make  exactly  the  same  impression 
on  his  senses,  being  incapable  of  making  a  choice,  he 
must  inevitably  die  of  starvation.  He  was  a  professor 
in  the  University  of  Paris,  and  wrote  on  logic,  etc.  Died 
in  1358. 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Frobes,  "  Dis- 
quisitio  de  J.  Buridano  ejusque  Asino,"  1748. 

Burigny,  de,  deh  bii'rd;n'ye',  (Jean  L^:vesque,)  a 
French  historian,  born  at  Rheims  in  1692.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  History  of  Pagan  Philosophy,"  (2  vols., 
1724,)  "General  History  of  Sicily,"  (1745,)  "History  of 
the  Revolutions  of  the  Empire  of  Constantinople," 
(1750,)  a  "Life  of  Grotius,"  (1750,)  a  "  Life  of  Erasmus," 
(i757>)  and  a  "Life  of  Bossuet,"  (1761.)  He  was  for  a 
time  associate  editor  of  the  journal  entitled  "  L'Europe 
Savante,"  at  the  Hague.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions.    Died  in  1785. 

_  See  Dacier,  "filoge  de  Burigny,"  1786;  Qu^rard,  "La  France 
Litteraire." 

Burinski.    See  Boorinskl 

Burkard,  1  ooR'kiRt,  (Waldis,)  a  German  fabulist 
of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Burke.    See  Burgho. 

Burke,  btirk,  (.^^danus,)  a  lawyer,  born  in  Ireland  in 
•743,  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of 
South  Carolina  in  1778,  after  which  he  became  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States.  He  wrote  a  famous  pamphlet 
against  the  Society  of  the  Cincinnati.    Died  in  1802. 


Burke  or  Bourke,  pronounced  alike  biirk,  (Ed- 
mund,) an  illustrious  orator,  statesman,  and  philanthro- 
pist, born  in  Dublin  in  1730,  or,  according  to  some 
authorities,  in  1728.  His  family  was  of  Norman  descent, 
Burke  having  been  originally  the  same  name  as  Burgh, 
De  Burgh,  l3e  Burgho,  or  De  Bourgo.*  His  father, 
Richard  Burke,  was  an  attorney  of  the  first  rank  in  his 
profession  in  Dublin.  His  mother,  whose  maiden  name 
was  Nagle,  was  a  Roman  Catholic,  of  respectable  family. 
Her  great-aunt,  Ellen  Nagle,  was  married  to  Sylvanus 
Spenser,  the  eldest  son  of  the  immortal  poet.  Edmund 
Burke  was  the  second  son  out  of  a  family  of  fourteen  or 
fifteen  children,  all  of  whom  died  young  except  three 
sons.  Garret,  Edmund,  and  Richard,  and  a  daughter, 
named  Juliana.  Edmund  was  of  a  delicate  constitution, 
and,  for  the  sake  of  country  air,  was  sent  at  an  early  age 
to  Castletown-Roche.  O'Halloran,  the  schoolmaster  of 
this  place,  used  to  boast  to  the  end  of  his  life  that  he  was 
the  first  who  put  a  Latin  grammar  into  the  hands  of 
Edmund  Burke.  Having  spent  about  five  years  at 
Castletown-Roche,  he  returned  to  Dublin,  and  not  long 
after  he  was  placed  at  Ballitore,  under  the  instruction  of 
Abraham  Shackleton,  a  Quaker  schoolmaster  of  superior 
learning  and  rare  moral  worth.  At  school  he  formed  for 
Richard  Shackleton,  the  only  son  of  his  preceptor,  a 
warm  friendship,  which  continued  to  the  end  of  his  life. 
It  is  related  that  while  at  school  Burke  one  day  saw  a 
poor  man  pulling  down  his  own  hut,  which  he  had  been 
ordered  to  do  because  it  was  too  near  the  highway.  The 
young  philanthropist  declared  that  if  he  were  a  man  in 
authority  the  poor  should  not  be  thus  oppressed.  At 
Ballitore  Burke  appears  to  have  imbibed  that  thorough 
respect  for  civil  and  religious  liberty  for  which  he  was 
afterwards  distinguished.  "  He  had  observed,"  says 
Prior,  "  among  the  Society  of  Friends,  in  which  he  was 
domesticated,  that  differences  of  opinion  on  those  points 
made  neither  worse  subjects  nor  worse  men.  Reflection, 
and  the  remembrance  that  [his]  relatives  on  the  side  of 
one  parent  were  Roman  Catholics,  probably  taught  him 
to  extend  the  same  liberality  of  sentiment  towards  per- 
sons of  that  persuasion."  Having  spent  three  years  at 
Ballitore,  he  entered  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  as  a  pen- 
sioner. The  range  of  his  studies  was  remarkable,  in- 
cluding the  classics,  history,  philosophy,  general  litera- 
ture, and  metaphysics,  besides  less  important  pursuits. 
He  was  accustomed  while  at  college  to  spend  three  hours 
every  day  in  the  public  library.  While  he  devoted  a 
large  part  of  his  time  to  studies  of  the  severest  and  most 
solid  character,  he  did  not  neglect  the  lighter  kinds  of 
reading,  including  poetry,  novels,  and  other  works  of 
imagination.  It  is  related  that  when  Richard  Burke 
was  found  one  clay  in  a  reverie,  shortly  after  his  brother 
had  made  a  great  speech  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  was  asked  the  cause,  he  replied,  "  I  have  been 
wondering  how  Ned  has  contrived  to  monopolize  all  the 
talents  of  the  family  ;  but  then,  I  remember,  wheti  we 
were  at  play  he  xuas  always  at  work.''''  Burke  gradu- 
ated as  A.B.  in  1748.  From  the  first  his  destination 
was  the  bar;  and  in  1747  his  name  was  enrolled  at  the 
Middle  Temple.  In  1750  he  went  to  London,  but  in 
1 75 1  returned  to  Ireland,  and  took  the  degree  of  A.M. 
About  the  year  1753  he  became,  it  appears,  a  candidate 
for  the  chair  of  logic  in  the  University  of  Glasgow,  but 
was  not  successful.  In  1755  Burke  felt  inclined  to  try 
his  fortune  in  America.  Several  persons  whom  he  con- 
sulted on  the  subject  highly  approved  of  it ;  but  his  fathei 
was  strongly  averse  to  the  scheme,  and  it  was  in  con- 
sequence abandoned.  In  1756  was  published,  anony- 
mously, his  "Vindication  of  Natural  Society."  It  was 
an  imitation,  or  rather  an  ironical  criticism,  of  Lord 
Bolingbroke's  writings  against  Christianity.  "The  imi- 
tation of  Bolingbroke's  style  and  manner  was,"  says 
Prior,  "so  perfect  as  to  constitute  identity  rather  than 
resemblance.  It  was  not  merely  the  language,  style,  and 
general  eloquence  of  the  original  which  had  been  caught, 
but  the  whole  mind  of  the  noble  author."  The  work 
purported  to  be  written  by  a  "late  noble  writer."  Many 
persons,  including  Lord  Chesterfield  and  Dr.  Warburton, 
believed  it  to  be  a  genuine  production  of  Bolingbroke. 


As  Campbell  writes  it  in  his  poem  of  "  O'Connor's  Child." 


e  as  k:  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (^[^^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BURKE 


464 


BURKE 


In  the  same  year  appeared  Burke's  "  Philosophical  In- 
quiry into  the  Origin  of  our  Ideas  of  the  Sublime  and 
Beautiful."  This  work  attracted  much  attention,  and 
was  greatly  admired  by  some  of  the  most  distinguished 
critics  of  that  age.  Dr.  Johnson,  it  is  said,  regarded  it 
as  a  model  of  philosophical  criticism.  In  1757  Burke 
was  united  in  marriage  with  Mary  Jane,  daughter  of  Dr. 
Nugent,  a  physician  of  Bath,  whither  the  young  student 
and  author  had  gone  for  the  re-establishment  of  his 
health.  This  union  appears  to  have  been  a  singularly 
happy  one,  since  he  was  accustomed  to  say  that  "every 
care  vanished  the  moment  he  entered  under  his  own  roof" 
"An  Account  of  the  European  Settlements  in  America," 
a  work  in  two  volumes,  was  published  in  1757.  There 
is  strong  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  written  principally 
or  wholly  by  Burke.  In  1758-59  he  established,  in  con- 
junction with  the  publisher  Dodsley,  the  "Annual 
Register,"  a  periodical  of  great  merit.  His  society  was 
now  sought  by  many  of  the  most  distinguished  men  in 
the  kingdom,  including,  among  others,  Johnson,  Garrick, 
Reynolds,  Lyttleton,  Hume,  and  Warburton.  Johnson, 
as  Prior  tells  us,  would  submit  to  contradiction  from 
Burke,  though  twenty  years  younger  than  himself,  but 
would  tolerate  it  from  no  other  person,  whatever  might 
be  his  talents  or  experience.  The  admiration  which  they 
conceived  for  each  other  at  their  first  acquaintance  never 
afterwards  suffered  any  diminution.  Johnson  used  to 
say  that  "no  man  of  sense  could  meet  Mr.  Burke  by  ac- 
cident under  a  gateway  to  avoid  a  shower  without  being 
convinced  that  he  was  the  first  man  in  England."  Grat- 
tan,  the  great  Irish  orator  and  patriot,  considered  Burke 
the  greatest  man  in  conversation  he  had  ever  met  with. 

In  1759  Burke  was  introduced  to  William  Gerard 
Hamilton,  chief  secretary  to  Lord  Halifax,  then  lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland.  The  secretary,  better  known  in 
political  history  as  "  Single-Speech  Hamilton,"  appears  to 
have  employed  Burke  as  his  private  secretary.  In  1763 
the  latter  received  from  the  government  a  pension  of 
^300  per  annum,  partly  or  chiefly  through  Hamilton's 
influence ;  but,  finding  afterwards  that  the  pension  was 
considered  to  be  the  price  not  merely  of  his  services  but 
of  his  political  independence,  he  threw  it  up  with  indig- 
nation, having  enjoyed  it  twelve  months  only.  When 
the  Marquis  of  Rockingham  became  prime  minister,  in 
1765,  Burke  was  appointed  his  private  secretary.  Not 
long  after  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Wendover, 
in  Buckinghamshire,  and  entered  the  House  of  Com- 
mons January  14,  1766.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
discussion  on  American  affairs,  and  at  once  proved  him- 
self an  able  and  eloquent  speaker.  Alluding  to  his 
extensive  and  varied  knowledge.  General  Lee  (who  after- 
wards took  part  in  the  American  Revolution)  says,  in  a 
letter  to  the  Prince  of  Poland,  "An  Irishman,  Mr.  Burke, 
has  sprung  up  in  the  House  of  Commons,  who  has  aston- 
ished everybody  with  the  power  of  his  eloquence  and  his 
comprehensive  knowledge  in  all  our  exterior  and  internal 
politics  and  commercial  interests."  The  Rockingham 
ministry  was  dissolved  July,  1766;  and  soon  after  Burke 
wrote  a  sort  of  manifesto  in  its  defence,  with  the  title  of 
"A  Short  Account  of  a  Late  Short  Administration."  In 
the  latter  part  of  the  same  year  an  attempt  was  made  to 
enlist  him  in  the  ministerial  ranks  by  the  Duke  of  Grafton, 
who,  in  addressing  Chatham,  spoke  of  Burke  as  "the 
readiest  man  upon  all  points  perhaps  in  the  whole  House." 
But  the  scheme  was  not  approved  of  either  by  the  pre- 
mier or  by  Burke  himself  On  the  dissolution  of  Par- 
liament in  1768,  Burke  was  again  returned  for  Wendover. 
About  the  same  time  he  purchased,  for  above  ;^20,ooo, 
an  estate  near  Beaconsfield,  in  Buckinghamshire.  He 
wrote  to  Shackleton,  "  I  have  made  a  push,  with  all  I 
could  collect  of  my  own  and  the  aid  of  my  friends,  to  cast 
a  little  root  into  this  country.  I  have  purchased  a  house, 
with  six  hundred  acres  of  land,  in  Buckinghamshire, 
twenty-four  miles  from  London." 

"About  this  time,"  says  Prior,  "Junius  broke  forth 
upon  the  English  world  with  a  vigour  and  rancour  never 
surpassed."  Universal  opinion  fixed  at  once  upon  Burke 
as  the  author  of  the  "Letters."  Even  his  own  friends 
at  first.  Dr.  Johnson  among  the  number,  believed  him 
to  be  the  true  Junius.  No  one  else  was  supposed  to 
possess  either  the  ability  or  the  knowledge  which  those 


letters  displayed.  His  eiiemies  made  it  a  ground  for 
heaping  upon  him  unmeasured  abuse.  Although  he 
unequivocally  and  repeatedly  denied  the  accusation,  his 
denial  was  not  generally  credited ;  and  it  was  only  after 
the  publication  of  the  "  Grenville  Papers"  that  he  was 
completely  cleared  from  suspicion  in  regard  to  this 
charge.  In  1770  Burke  published  a  pamphlet  entitled 
"Thoughts  on  the  Cause  of  the  Present  Discontents," 
which  is  considered  one  of  the  most  masterly  things  of 
the  kind  in  the  language.  He  was  rewarded  for  his 
thorough  acquaintance  with  American  affairs  by  being 
appointed,  in  1771,  agent  to  the  State  of  New  York,  a 
position  worth  nearly  ;^700  per  annum.  As  the  state  of 
the  American  colonies  claimed  at  this  time  a  large  share 
of  the  attention  of  Parliament,  Burke  became  more  and 
more  prominent  as  the  ablest  member  of  the  opposition. 
But  his  extensive  information  and  superior  abilities  were 
acknowledged  not  only  in  regard  to  the  aff"airs  of  the 
Western  colonies,  but  also  those  of  the  remoter  East. 
He  had  already  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  con- 
dition, population,  and  resources  of  India.  The  affairs 
of  the  East  India  Company  having  fallen  into  some  con- 
fusion, in  1772  Sir  Charles  Colebrooke  offered  Burke, 
in  the  name  of  the  directors,  "  the  first  position  in  a  su- 
pervisorship  of  three,  empowered  to  trace  out  in  detail 
the  whole  administrative  system  of  India  and  to  remedy 
all  they  could  find  amiss."  (Prior's  "  Life  of  Burke.' ) 
But  he  declined  the  offer.  The  affairs  of  America  were 
exciting  from  day  to  day  a  deeper  interest ;  his  friends 
appear  to  have  felt  that  he  could  not  be  spared  from 
Parliament ;  and  he  himself  was  probably  unwilling  to 
abandon  a  field  for  which  he  felt  himself  peculiarly  fitted, 
and  in  which  he  had  already  won,  and  was  still  to  win,  so 
many  laurels.  In  1772  he  accompanied  his  son  Richard 
(then  about  fourteen)  to  France,  and  placed  him  at  school 
at  Auxerre.  He  himself  spent  some  time  in  Paris,  where 
he  saw  for  the  first  tiine  the  young  queen  Marie  Antoi- 
nette, of  whom  he  has  given  so  glowing  a  description  in 
his  "  Reflexions  on  the  Revolution  in  France."  The  state 
of  religion  and  morals  at  the  French  capital  filled  him 
even  then  with  apprehension  and  alarm.  Soon  after  his 
return,  in  a  speech  in  Parliament,  among  other  things 
he  uttered  these  memorable  words:  "I  see  propagated 
principles  which  will  not  leave  to  religion  even  a  tolera- 
tion, and  make  virtue  herself  less  than  a  name."  His 
foresight  in  regard  to  affi^irs  in  America  was  scarcely  less 
remarkable.  Indeed,  he  alone,  among  all  the  members 
of  Parliament,  appears  to  have  fully  comprehended  the 
difficulties  and  dangers  which  menaced  that  portion  of 
the  empire.  He  remarked  indignantly  that  a  robbery  on 
Hounslow  Heath  would  excite  more  attention  than  the 
incipient  insurrection  which  then  threatened  to  dissever 
the  colonies  from  the  British  crown.  On  the  19th  of 
April,  1774,  he  made  a  speech  on  American  taxation.  It 
was  considered  by  many  as  the  greatest  effort  of  oratory 
that  had,  till  then,  ever  been  put  forth  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  On  this  occasion  an  intelligent  American, 
a  friend  of  Dr.  Franklin,  (Mr.  Sampson,)  is  said  to  have 
exclaimed,  "  You  have  got  a  most  wonderful  man  here  : 
he  understands  more  of  America  than  all  the  rest  of 
your  House  put  together."  On  the  dissolution  of  Parlia- 
ment, which  occurred  in  the  autumn  of  1774,  Burke  was 
returned  for  Malton.  While  he  was  expressing  to  his  con- 
stituents his  acknowledgments  for  the  honour  done  him. 
a  deputation  of  merchants  arrived  from  Bristol,  inform- 
ing him  that  he  had  been  nominated  to  represent  their 
city,  and  urging  him  to  accept  the  nomination.  Having 
obtained  the  ready  assent  of  his  Malton  friends,  he  pro- 
ceeded at  once  to  Bristol.  After  an  obstinate  and  pro- 
tracted contest,  he  was  returned  on  the  3d  of  November. 
His  speech  in  Parliament,  March,  1775,  recommending 
conciliatory  measures  towards  the  American  colonies, 
commanded  general  admiration.  Lord  Chatham,  on 
being  asked  his  opinion  of  it,  replied  that  "it  was  very 
seasonable,  very  reasonable,  and  very  eloquent;"  and 
Fox,  nearly  twenty  years  afterwards,  said,  "  Let  gentle- 
men read  this  speech  by  day  and  meditate  upon  it  by 
night  :  they  would  there  learn  that  representation  was 
the  sovereign  remedy  for  every  evil."  Lord  Erskine 
observed,  at  Edinburgh,  "  It  could  only  proceed  from 
this  cause  [the  corruption  of  Parliament]  that  the  im- 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  lo7ig;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsao'e;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BURKE 


465 


BURKE 


mortal  orations  of  Burke  against  the  American  war  did 
not  produce  as  general  conviction  as  they  did  unmingled 
admiration."  But  the  fault  lay  perhaps  still  more  with 
the  blindness  and  obstinacy  of  the  king  and  the  people. 

At  length  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the  government  be- 
gan to  produce  their  legitimate  effect.  The  rejection  of 
all  the  petitions  from  the  colonies,  and  the  utter  disre- 
gard not  only  of  the  rights  but  of  the  feelings  of  Ameri- 
cans, as  exhioited  in  the  furious  and  insane  abuse  heaped 
upon  their  representative.  Dr.  Franklin,  before  the  privy 
council  by  Wedderburn  in  1774,  had  resulted  in  a  feeling 
of  almost  total  alienation  from  the  mother-country. 
Owing,  perhaps,  to  that  large  foresight  which  enabled 
him  to  realize  all  the  evils  and  dangers  attending  such 
a  contest.  Franklin  had  been  among  the  most  reluc- 
tant to  commit  his  countrymen  to  war,  and  one  of  '"he 
last  to  abandon  all  hope  of  reconciliation.  The  day 
previous  to  his  finally  quitting  London  in  the  spring  of 
1775,  he  called  on  Burke  and  freely  stated  his  views  and 
feelings  in  regard  to  the  impending  crisis,  expressing  his 
deep  regret  that  the  unaccommodating  and  obstinate 
temper  of  England  seemed  to  render  a  separation  in- 
evitable. Before  he  reached  America  the  war  had  al- 
ready begun,  and  the  battles  of  Lexington  and  Concord 
(April  19)  had  been  fought.  That  of  Bunker  Hill  took 
place  in  the  following  June  ;  and  yet  so  great  was  the 
reluctance  of  the  Americans  to  separate  themselves  from 
the  mother-country  that  more  than  a  year  elapsed  be- 
fore they  could  prevail  upon  themselves  to  take  the  step 
which  rendered  reconciliation  hopeless,  and  even  then 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  was  carried  with  diffi- 
culty through  Congress.  There  cannot  be  a  reasonable 
doubt  that,  had  the  conciliatory  measures  recommended 
by  Burke  been  adopted,  the  war  of  the  Revolution  would 
not  have  taken  place,  or,  at  least,  it  might  have  been 
indefinitely  postponed.  In  1780,  Burke  delivered  one  of 
his  most  admirable  speeches,  usually  known  as  that 
"  On  the  Economical  Reform."  By  his  advocacy  of  the 
claims  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  by  his  opposition  to 
the  policy  of  repressing  the  trade  of  Ireland, — a  policy 
strongly  favoured  by  the  merchants  of  Bristol, — he  had 
lost  his  popularity  with  many  of  his  constituents  in  that 
city :  accordingly,  at  the  next  election  he  offered  himself 
as  the  candidate  for  Malton,  which  he  continued  to  repre- 
sent for  the  remainder  of  his  political  life.  Lord  North 
having  been  compelled  to  resign  his  post  as  prime  minis- 
ter in  1782,  the  Marquis  of  Rockingham  and  his  friends 
again  came  into  power.  Burke  was  made  a  privy  coun- 
cillor and  appointed  paymaster-general  of  the  forces. 
His  disinterestedness  while  in  this  office  gave  another 
illustration  of  that  high  principle  by  which  the  conduct 
of  his  whole  life  was  guided.  No  man,  by  the  consent 
of  all  impartial  persons,  had  rendered  greater  services 
to  the  country  than  he  ;  and  none  could  with  a  better 
right  have  availed  himself  of  the  perquisites  of  this  lu- 
crative Office  to  repair  the  deficiencies  of  his  private  for- 
tune. By  the  reforms  which  he  introduced  into  the 
paymaster's  department,  he  saved  to  the  public  revenue 
_;^47,ooo  per  annum  :  of  this  sum  above  ;[{^25,ooo  con- 
sisted of  the  usual  and  acknowledged  perquisites  which 
all  his  predecessors  had  received.  Lord  Shelburne 
having  become  prime  minister  on  the  death  of  the 
Marquis  of  Rockingham,  (July,  1782,)  Burke,  and  the 
other  friends  of  the  late  premier,  resigned.  By  the 
coalition  between  Fox  and  Lord  North,  the  latter  came 
again  into  power  in  1783,  and  Burke  was  restored  to  his 
former  office.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  debates 
on  India,  with  the  affairs  of  which  he  was  perhaps  bet- 
ter acquainted  than  any  other  man  in  England.  One  of 
his  greatest  speeches  was  delivered  on  the  East  India 
Bill  in  December,  1783.  The  bill  passed  the  House  of 
Commons,  but  was  lost  in  the  upper  House.  This  de- 
feat put  an  end  to  Lord  North's  administration,  and  Pitt 
succeeded  as  prime  minister.  Burke  retired  from  office, 
and  never  afterwards  held  any  position  under  the  govern- 
ment. He  had  been  elected,  November,  1 783,  lord  rector 
of  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  was  re-elected  the  fol- 
lowing year. 

Perhaps  the  most  brilliant,  and  certainly  not  the  least 
useful,  portion  of  Burke's  career  was  that  which  he  de- 
voted to  the  cause  of  India.    The  affairs  of  that  country 


had  recently  occupied  nearly  all  his  thoughts.  The  op- 
pression and  cruelty  of  which  Warren  Hastings,  ani* 
other  officers  of  the  East  India  Company,  had  beer 
guilty,  filled  his  soul  with  irrepressible  pity  and  indigna- 
tion. In  February,  1785,  he  made  an  eloquent  and  mas- 
terly speech  on  the  debts  of  the  Nabob  of  Arcot.  "  It 
was,"  says  Prior,  "one  of  those  outpourings  of  a  fertile 
and  vigorous  intellect,  which,  on  an  unpromising  theme, 
seemed  to  combine  all  that  could  instruct,  dazzle,  and 
even  overpower  the  hearer."  At  the  opening  of  the 
session  in  January,  1 786,  he  commenced  the  most  arduous 
and  formidable  undertaking  of  his  life, — the  prosecution 
of  Hastings.  The  articles  embracing  the  different  charges 
were  delivered  in  April.  They  were  so  numerous  and 
extensive  as  to  occupy  no  inconsiderable  part  of  the  at- 
tention of  the  House  for  two  sessions.  In  January,  1787, 
Sheridan  made  his  celebrated  speech  on  the  Begum  case. 
A  committee  of  impeachment  was  then  formed.  On  the 
loth  of  May,  Burke,  as  chairman  of  the  committee,  ac- 
cused Hastings  at  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords,  in  the 
name  of  the  Commons  of  England.  After  the  necessary 
preliminary  proceedings,  and  delays  from  various  causes, 
on  the  13th  of  February,  1788,  Westminster  Hall  was 
opened  in  form,  and  Burke,  in  full  dress,  proceeded 
thither,  followed  by  the  other  managers,  the  House  of 
Commons,  the  clerks  of  Parliament,  the  masters  in  chan- 
cery, the  sergeants-at-law,  the  judges,  the  House  of  Peers, 
and  the  royal  family,  the  Prince  of  Wales  closing  the 
procession.  (For  a  brilliant  description  of  this  imposing 
scene,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Macaulay's  article  on 
Warren  Hastings.)  Two  days  having  been  occupied 
with  preliminary  business,  on  the  15th  Burke  made  his 
opening  speech,  of  which  it  is  enough  to  say  that  it  was 
every  way  worthy  of  the  occasion  and  of  his  great  repu- 
tation. After  various  delays,  some  of  which  at  least  were 
unavoidable,  extending  through  a  series  of  years,  at 
length,  on  the  23d  of  April,  1795,  a  verdict  of  acquittal 
was  passed  :  the  lord  chancellor,  however,  voted  with 
the  minority,  who  thought  Hastings  guilty.  But,  although 
the  impeachment  was  not  carried,  it  would  be  a  great 
mistake  to  suppose  that  the  unconquerable  zeal  and 
herculean  labours  of  Burke  in  behalf  of  India  were 
without  avail.*  They  had  the  effect  of  directing  the 
earnest  attention  of  the  British  nation  to  the  misgovern- 
ment  and  oppression  of  which  the  agents  of  the  Company 
had  been  guilty,  and  thus  led  the  way  to  important  re- 
forms in  the  administrative  system  of  that  country. 

But,  long  before  the  trial  of  Hastings  was  concluded, 
the  mind  of  Burke  had  been  intensely  occupied  with  a 
far  different  subject,  which,  in  his  view,  was  closely  con- 
nected not  only  with  the  welfare  of  England,  but  with 
her  very  existence  as  a  nation.  He  had  for  some  time 
beheld  with  apprehension  the  dissemination  in  France 
of  principles  which  threatened  the  total  overthrow  of 
all  religion  and  all  government.  As  he  had  been  promi- 
nent in  the  eyes  of  Europe  as  one  of  the  most  zealous 
friends  of  liberty,  he  received  from  time  to  time,  from 
those  in  France  who  favoured  the  revolutionary  move- 
ment, the  most  glowing  accounts  of  the  success  of  their 
experiment.  It  was  in  reply  to  one  of  these  communi- 
cations that  Burke  wrote  his  "  Reflexions  on  the  Revo- 
lution in  France."  The  success  of  this  work  has  never 
been  paralleled  in  the  history  of  political  literature.  It 
was  published  in  November,  1790,  and  within  a  few 
months  more  than  thirty  thousand  copies  are  said  to  have 
been  sold.  The  work  was  immediately  translated  into 
French,  and  was  read  with  avidity  in  every  part  of  Eu- 
rope. So  great  was  the  influence  of  his  name,  combined 
with  the  masterly  logic  and  powerful  eloquence  of  the  "  Re- 
flexions," that  his  work  completely  arrested  the  spread 
of  the  revolutionary  spirit  in  England,  and  contributed 
greatly  to  check  its  progress  in  other  European  coun- 
tries. The  startling  and  terrible  events  which  followed 
soon  after  in  France,  by  proving  that  the  foresight  of 
Burke  was  even  more  remarkable  than  his  eloquence, 


*  "Never,"  says  Lord  John  Russell,  "has  the  great  object  of  pun- 
ishment— the  prevention  of  crime — been  attained  more  completely  than 
by  this  trial.  .  .  .  Hastings  was  acquitted  ;  but  tyranny,  deceit,  and 
injustice  were  condemned.  India  was  saved  from  abominations  dis- 
graceful to  the  English  name."  ("  Memorials  of  Charles  Jamss  Fox," 
vol.  ii.  p.  257.) 


f  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (S:^=See  Explanations  p.  2  ■;.) 

30 


BURKE 


466 


BURKE 


raised  his  fame  to  the  highest  point,  and  seemed  fully 
to  justify  the  eulogium  that  his  letter  on  the  French 
Revolution  was  "the  most  magnificent  political  prophecy 
ever  given  to  the  world."  The  uncompromising  hostility 
of  Burke  to  the  principles  of  the  French  Revolution  led 
not  long  after,  May  6,  1791,  to  an  open  rupture  between 
him  and  Fox,  who  hailed  the  revolutionary  movement 
as  the  dawn  of  a  political  millennium.  Fox  and  his  fol- 
lowers charged  Burke  with  having  abandoned  the  prin- 
ciples of  his  party,  and  with  being  guilty  of  great  incon- 
sistency, in  that,  after  having  shown  himself  a  strenuous 
friend  of  liberty  during  the  whole  of  his  former  life,  he 
had  in  his  late  writings  and  speeches  discountenanced 
and  denounced  the  struggles  which  a  great  nation  was 
making  to  establish  its  freedom.  Burke  published  a 
vindication  of  his  course,  entitled  "An  Appeal  from  the 
New  to  the  Old  Whigs,"  in  which  he  clearly  shows  that 
there  is  nothing  in  his  recent  writings  or  speeches  incon- 
sistent with  the  political  doctrines  which  had  been  the 
guide  of  his  former  life.*  The  truth  is,  he  never  had 
been  an  advocate  of  extreme  democratic  principles  ;  he 
had  no  confidence  in  any  political  system  based  solely 
upon  theoretical  ideas  of  right  and  adopted  without 
reference  to  experience  or  to  the  existing  condition  and 
usages  of  the  people  among  whom  it  was  sought  to  be 
established.  He  may  perhaps  with  more  justice  be 
charged  with  having  urged  his  views  with  too  great  ve- 
hemence, with  an  excessive  and  almost  acrimonious  zeal. 
But  who  shall  presume  to  exactly  measure  the  degree 
of  zeal  with  which  a  patriot,  who  sees,  as  he  believes, 
his  country  menaced  with  imminent  and  deadly  peril, 
should  exert  himself  in  seeking  to  save  her  from  destruc- 
tion }  It  is  certain  that  in  regard  to  personal  affi'onts 
and  injuries  Burke  often,  if  not  always,  manifested  a 
magnanimous  forbearance ;  but  in  the  cause  of  his 
country,  or  in  the  higher  cause  of  justice  and  humanity, 
he  displayed  a  spirit  as  uncompromising  as  it  was  dis- 
interested and  lofty.  It  cannot,  however,  be  denied  that 
after  his  health  had  been  broken  and  his  nerves  shat- 
tered by  the  toils  and  vexations  of  a  life  which  was  one 
long  battle  with  the  various  forms  of  misgovernment, 
oppression,  and  tyranny,  he  sometimes  exhibited  an  im- 
patience and  irritability  which  were  mortifying  to  his 
friends  and  which  seriously  impaired  his  political  and 
personal  influence.  One  rather  amusing  example  of  this 
kind  may  be  cited.  A  rough  country  gentleman  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  seeing  Burke  rise  with  papers  in  his 
hand,  exclaimed,  "  I  hope  the  gentleman  does  not  mean  to 
read  that  large  bundle  of  papers,  and  bore  us  with  a  long 
speech  into  the  bargain."  Burke  is  said  to  have  felt  so 
much  irritation  that,  incapable  of  utterance,  he  ran  out  of 
the  house.  "  Never  before,"  said  the  w^itty  Selwyn,  "  did  I 
see  the  fable  realized, — a  lion  put  to  flight  by  the  braying 
of  an  ass."  His  enemies  availed  themselves  of  this  weak- 
ness of  the  great  orator,  and  when  they  were  wholly  un- 
able to  answer  they  often  contrived  either  to  reduce  him 
to  silence,  or  to  prevent  his  being  heard,  by  coughing 
or  continual  vociferations.  This  practice  was  familiarly 
termed  "muzzling  the  lion." 

In  1795  Burke  received  from  the  king  a  pension  of 
£\200  per  annum  on  the  civil  list,  and  not  long  after 
another  of  ;!^2500  on  the  West  Indian  four-and-a-half 
per  cent.  fund.  These  pensions  were  granted,  it  is  said, 
at  the  express  desire  of  the  king,  no  application  having 
been  made  on  the  part  of  Burke  or  his  personal  friends. 
A  part  of  the  design  in  conferring  them  was  to  enable 
Burke  to  discharge  some  serious  debts  incurred  in  the 
performance  of  a  long  series  of  unrequited  public  ser- 
vices. Nevertheless,  his  acceptance  of  this  very  mode- 
rate reward  for  his  great  services  to  his  country,  caused 


*  Coleridge,  referring  to  the  speeches  made  by  Burke  at  the  coiji- 
niencement  of  the  American  war,  and  those  made  by  him  at  the 
breaking  out  of  the  French  Revolution,  remarks  "that  the  principles 
are  exactly  the  same,  and  the  deductions  the  same;  but  the  practical 
itiferences  almost  opposite  in  the  one  case  from  those  drawn  in  the 
other;  yet  in  both  equally  legitimate,  and  in  both  equally  con- 
firmed by  the  results.  Whence  gained  he  this  superiority  of  foresight?" 
Coleridge  answers,  "Burke  possessed,  and  had  sedulously  sharpened, 
that  eye  which  sees  all  things,  actions,  and  events  in  relation  to  the 
laws  that  determine  their  existence  and  circumscribe  their  possibility. 
He  referred  habitually  to  principles.  He  was  a  scientific  statesman, 
and  therefore  a  seer.  For  every  principle  contains  in  itself  the  germs 
of  a  prophecy."    ("  Biographia  Literaria,"  chap,  x.) 


his  conduct  to  be  asspiled  from  every  quarter.  Even 
the  dignity  of  the  House  of  Lords  did  not  save  him 
from  attacks  upon  his  character  by  two  of  the  peers.  In 
reply,  he  wrote  in  1796  his  "Letter  to  a  Noble  Lord," 
one  of  the  most  successful  and  popular  of  all  the  ])ro- 
ductions  of  his  pen.  Burke  died  July  9,  1797.  His 
only  son,  Richard,  a  man  of  superior  talents  and  great 
moral  worth,  had  died  in  1794.  The  grief  occasioned 
by  this  irreparable  loss  contributed,  there  is  reason  to 
believe,  materially  to  shorten  his  father's  life. 

Of  Burke,  Macaulay  says,  he  was  "  ignorant,  indeed,  or 
negligent  of  the  art  of  adapting  his  reasonings  and  his  style 
to  the  capacity  and  taste  of  his  hearers,  but  in  aptitude  to 
comprehension  and  richness  of  imagination  superior  to 
every  orator,  ancient  or  modern."  "  If  we  are  to  praise 
a  man  in  proportion  to  his  usefulness,"  says  vSchlegel,  "  I 
am  persuaded  that  no  task  can  be  more  difficult  than  to 
do  justice  to  the  statesman  and  orator  Burke.  This  man 
has  been  to  his  own  country,  and  to  all  Europe,  a  new 
light  of  political  wisdom  and  moral  experience.  He 
corrected  his  age  when  it  was  at  the  height  of  its  revo- 
lutionary frenzy;  and,  without  maintaining  any  system 
of  philosophy,  he  seems  to  have  seen  farther  into  the 
true  nature  of  society,  and  to  have  more  clearly  compre- 
hended the  effect  of  religion  in  connecting  individual 
security  with  national  welfare,  than  any  philosopher  of 
any  preceding  age."  "Of  all  the  men  who  are,"  says 
the  learned  Dr.  Parr,  "  or  who  ever  have  been  eminent 
for  energy  or  splendour  of  eloquence  or  for  skill  and 
grace  in  composition,  there  is  not  one  who,  in  genius  or 
erudition,  in  philanthropy  or  piety,  or  in  any  of  the 
qualities  of  a  wise  and  good  man,  surpasses  Burke." 

Burke's  command  of  language  has  always  been  ad- 
mired. His  style  is  not  a  inere  trick  or  artifice  designed 
to  give  dignity  to  trivial  or  point  to  commonplace  ideas  : 
it  is  simply  the  clothing  of  great  and  glowing  thoughts 
in  their  most  natural  and  appropriate  expression.  A 
collected  edition  of  Burke's  works  and  correspondence 
(8  vols.  8vo).  was  published  in  London  in  1852.  For 
some  excellent  observations  on  Burke  as  an  orator,  see 
the  "Quarterly  Review"  for  January  and  April,  1858, 
pages  595-98.  We  select  the  following  passages  in  re- 
gard to  Burke  and  his  style  of  oratory.  Referring  to 
his  speeches  on  the  Stamp  Act,  the  writer  remarks  : 

"  This  was  the  appropriate  start  of  a  man  who,  whether 
as  a  statesman,  a  thinker,  or  an  orator,  was  without  an 
equal.  Pitt  and  Fox  were  great,  but  Burke  belongs  to 
another  order  of  beings,  and  ranks  with  the  Shakspeares, 
the  Bacons,  and  the  Newtons.  .  .  .  Though  his  style  is 
never  stilted,  it  has  a  rare  majesty  both  in  thought  and 
expression.  .  .  .  His  language  was  nervous,  his  sen- 
tences polished,  his  abundant  metaphors  grand  and 
original.  .  .  .  His  commonest  fault  is  a  monotony  of 
dignity,  which  wants  the  relief  of  passages  dressed  in  a 
more  familiar  garb.  .  .  .  His  innate  genius  was  un- 
doubtedly wonderful,  but  he  improved  it  to  thb  utter- 
most. .  .  .  The  immense  labour  which  he  bestowed  on 
all  he  did  was  his  constant  boast.  ...  By  the  incessant 
practice  of  composition,  he  learned  to  embody  his  con- 
clusions in  a  style  more  grandly  beautiful  than  has  ever 
been  reached  by  any  other  Englishman,  with  either  the 
tongue  or  the  pen."  But  one  result  of  all  this  labour 
was  that  his  speeches  were  far  less  interesting  and  effect- 
ive when  heard  in  the  House  of  Commons  than  when 
read  in  print.  It  is  related  that  on  one  occasion  "  Ers- 
kine  crept  under  the  benches  to  escape  a  speech  which, 
when  published,  he  thumbed  to  rags." 

See  Prior,  "Life  of  Burke,"  i  vol.  8vo;  Bisset,  "  Life  of 
Burke,"  2  vols.  8vo ;  McCormick,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Right  Hon- 
ourable E.  Burke,"  1797;  Dr.  George  Crolv,  "Political  Life  of 
the  Right  Honourable  Edmund  Burke,"  2  vols.  8vo,  1840;  P.  Burke, 
"The  Public  and  Domestic  Life  of  Edmund  Burke,"  1S53 ;  Lord 
Jeffrey,  "Miscellanies."  For  a  description  of  Burke's  conversa- 
tional powers,  see  Miss  Burkey's  letter  to  S.  Crisp. 

Burke,  (John,)  a  English  genealogist,  born  in  Ire- 
land in  1786.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  Dictionary  of  the 
Peerage  and  Baronetage  of  the  British  Empire,"  (1826.) 
The  twentieth  edition  was  published  by  his  son,  Sir 
Bernard,  in  1858.    Died  in  1848. 

Burke,  (John  Doly,)  an  Irishman,  who  emigrated 
to  the  United  States  in  1797  and  became  an  editor  in 
Boston.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  Virginia."  Died  ii 
Virginia  in  1808. 


a,  ^,  .,  <■,    y,  .ong:    6,  6,  <:ame,  less  prnlongcd;  a.  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  sliorf:  .7.,  e,  i,  o.  ohsanr;  f5r,  fill,  f^t:  m^t;  r.ut;  good;  moot..- 


BURKE 


467 


BURNET 


Burke,  (Peter,)  an  English  jurist  and  writer,  son  of 
John  Burke,  noticed  above,  published  several  works  on 
the  law  of  copyright  and  patents  ;  also,  "The  Public  and 
Domestic  Lite  of  Edmund  Burke,"  (1853.) 

Burke,  (William,)  an  Irish  murderer,  was  a  resident 
of  Edinburgh.  In  1828  he  was  convicted  of  murder,  and 
he  confessed  that  he  and  his  accomplice  had  murdered 
fifteen  persons,  and  had  sold  their  bodies  to  a  surgeon. 

Burkhart  von  Hohenfels,  booRk'haRt  fon  ho'en- 
felss,  a  German  minnesinger,  born  about  1200. 

See  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Bur'kitt.  (William,)  an  English  theologian,  born  at 
Hitcham  in  1650,  wrote  "Expository  Notes  on  the  New 
Testament,"  (1739.)    Died  in  1703. 

Burlamacchi,  booR-li-m^k'kee,  (Francesco,)  an 
Italian  revolutionist,  who,  about  1546,  conspired  against 
the  party  of  the  pope  and  the  emperor  Charles  V.  The 
plot  being  revealed  by  one  of  the  conspirators,  Burla- 
macchi was  executed  for  high  treason. 

See  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  Jtily,  1846. 

Burlamaqui,  biiR'lS^mt'ke',  (Jean  Jacques,)  an  emi- 
nent Swiss  jurist,  born  at  Geneva  in  1694.  He  was  for 
many  years  professor  of  law  in  his  native  city,  and  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  State.  His  chief  works  are 
"The  Principles  of  Natural  Law,"  ("Principes  du  Droit 
naturel,"  1747,)  and  "  Principles  of  the  Law  of  Nations," 
("Principes  du  Droit  politique,"  1751,)  both  of  which 
were  translated  into  English,  German,  Italian,  and  Span- 
ish.   Died  at  Geneva  in  1748. 

See  Sexebier,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  Geneve;"  Ersch  iind 
Gri;ber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Burleigh,  Lord.    See  Cecil. 

Burleigh  or  Burley,  bur'le,  (Walter,)  a  learned 
English  philosopher  and  theologian,  born  in  1275.  He 
was  charged  with  the  education  of  Edward  III.,  who 
sent  him  on  a  mission  to  Rome  in  1327.    Died  in  1357. 

See  Brucker,  "  Historj' of  Philosophy." 

BurTeigh,  (William  H.,)  an  American  poet  and 
abolitionist,  born  at  Woodstock,  Connecticut,  in  1812. 
He  became  a  printer  and  editor  of  several  papers,  among 
which  was  the  "Christian  Witness"  of  Pittsburg.  He 
contributed  to  "The  New  Yorker,"  and  published  in 
1840  a  volume  of  poems  which  were  much  admired. 
He  is  a  brother  of  Charles  Burleigh,  an  anti-slavery 
orator. 

See  Grisvvold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 
Burliiigame,  bur'ling-gam,  (Anson,)  an  American 
diplomatist,  born  in  Chenango  county,  New  York,  in 
1822.  He  studied  law,  which  he  practised  in  Boston. 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  by  the  Repub- 
licans of  the  fifth  district  of  Massachusetts  in  1854,  in 
1856,  and  again  in  1858.  He  advocated  the  election  of 
John  C.  Fremont  in  several  eloquent  speeches,  (1856.) 
In  1 861  he  was  sent  as  commissioner  or  minister  to 
China.  About  the  end  of  1867  he  was  appointed  am- 
bassador from.  China  to  the  United  States  and  the  great 
powers  of  Europe.  Died  in  1870. 
Burlington,  Earl  of.  See  Boyle,  (Richard.) 
BurPton,  (Petkr  LIenry,)  an  English  geographer, 
born  in  1804...  While  making  scientific  researches  in 
India,  he  was  killed  by  the  natives  in  1829. 

Burmann,  buR'm3.n,  (Franciscus,)  a  Dutch  Protest- 
ant divine  and  scholar,  born  at  Leyden  about  1628,  be- 
came professor  of  theology  at  Utrecht.    Died  in  1679. 

Burmann,  (Franciscus,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1671,  was  professor  of  divinity  at  Utrecht.  He  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  a  "  Harmony  of  the  Evan- 
gelists," (1713.)    Died  in  1719. 

Burmann,  (Jan,)  son  of  Francis  the  younger,  born 
at  Amsterdam  about  1707,  became  professor  of  botany 
in  that  city,  and  published  "Thesaurus  Zeylonicus," 
(1737,)  and  other  botanical  works.    Died  in  1780. 

Burmann,  (Kaspar,)  a  legal  writer  and  historian, 
nephew  of  Peter  the  elder;  died  in  1755. 

Burmann,  (Nikolaas  Laurens,)  son  of  Jan,  born 
at  Amsterdam  in  1734.  He  published  a  "  Flora  Indica," 
with  sixty-seven  plates,  (1768,)  and  other  botanical 
works.    Died  in  1793. 

Burmann,  (Pieter,)  an  eminent  philologist,  brother 
of  Francis  the  younger,  born  at  Utrecht  on  the  6th  of 
filly,  t668.    He  became  professor  of  history,  eloquence. 


and  the  Greek  language  at  Leyden  in  171 5,  and  subse- 
quently obtained  the  chair  of  historv  for  the  United 
Provinces.  Pie  published  editions  of  tiorace,  Petronius, 
Ph^edrus,  Suetonius,  Lucan,  Quintilian,  Virgil,  and  other 
classics,  a  treatise  on  "The  Revenues  of  the  Romans," 
("De  Vectigalibus  Populi  Romani,"  1694,)  and  various 
other  works,  which  are  esteemed  for  their  learning  and 
accuracy.    Died  in  1741. 

See  Dr.  Johnson's  Works;  Schacht,  "Oratio  funebris  in 
Obitum  P.  Burmanni,"  1741  ;  "Encyclopsedia  Britannica." 

Burmann,  (Pieter,)  the  Younger,  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  17 13,  became  pro- 
fessor of  history  at  Franeker.  He  published  a  number 
of  Latin  poems,  an  "Anthology"  of  the  Latin  poets, 
(2  vols.,  1759-73,)  and  several  excellent  editions  of  the 
classics.    Died  in  1778. 

Burmeister,  booR'mi'ster,  (Hermann,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  at  Stralsund  in  1807.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  zoology  at  Halle  in  1842.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  "Manual  of  Entomology,"  (4  vols., 
1832-44,)  a  "  History  of  Creation,"  (1843,)  and  "The 
Animals  of  Brazil,"  (2  vols.,  1854-56.) 

Burn,  (Richard,)  LL.D.,  an  Englishman,  author  of 
several  popular  works  on  law,  born  in  Westmoreland, 
was  many  years  vicar  of  Orton.    Died  in  1 785. 

Bur'na-by,  (Andrew,)  an  English  divine  and  travel- 
ler, born  in  1732,  published  "  Travels  in  North  America," 
"Journal  of  a  Tour  to  Corsica,"  etc.    Died  in  1812. 

Burn'ap,  (George  Washington,)  an  American  Uni- 
tarian clergyman,  born  in  Merrimack,  New  Hampshire, 
in  1802,  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1824.  He  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  First  Unitarian  Church  of  Baltimore  in 
1827.  He  has  published  several  theological  and  other 
works. 

Bur'nel,  (Robert,)  an  English  lawyer  and  bishop, 
became  lord  chancellor  in  1274.  He  filled  that  office  for 
eighteen  years,  and  was  the  chief  adviser  of  Edward  I. 
He  died  in  1292.  "As  a  statesman  and  legislator,"  says 
Lord  Campbell,  "he  is  worthy  of  the  highest  commend- 
ation." 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,"  vol.  i. 

Burnes,  biirnz,  (Sir  Alexander,)  a  distinguished 
Orientalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Montrose,  in  Scotland, 
in  1805,  was  a  relative  of  the  poet  Burns.  At  an  early 
age  he  became  a  cadet  in  the  Bombay  army.  He  set 
out  in  1832  on  an  expedition  into  Central  Asia,  which 
he  accomplished  in  about  a  year.  On  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  published  his  "Travels  into  Bokhara,"  which 
had  an  immense  sale  and  was  soon  translated  into 
French  and  German.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society,  and  also  of  the  Royal  Geographical  So- 
ciety, which  awarded  to  him  the  gold  medal  "  for  the 
navigation  of  the  Indus,  and  a  journey  across  Central 
Asia."  Returning  to  India  in  1835,  he  was  sent  in  1836 
on  a  mission  to  Cabul.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  in- 
surrection in  that  city  in  1841,  he  was  murdered,  with 
several  other  British  residents. 

See  J.  B.  EvRifes,  "Notice  sur  A.  Burnes,"  Paris,  1842;  Cham- 
bers," Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement ;) 
J.  W.  Kaye,  "  Lives  of  Indian  Officers,"  vol.  ii.,  London,  1867 ;  "  Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1834. 

Bur'net,  (Gilbert,)  a  British  historian  and  prelate 
of  great  eminence,  born  in  Edinburgh  on  the  i8th  of 
September,  1643.  He  became  minister  of  Saltoun  in 
1665,  and  professor  of  divinity  at  Glasgow  in  1669. 
About  1670  he  married  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Cassi- 
lis.  Having  resigned  his  professorship  in  1674,  he  re- 
moved to  London.  He  published  in  1679  the  first  vol- 
ume of  his  "  History  of  the  Reformation  in  England," 
(3  vols.,  1679-1715,)  for  which  he  received  the  thanks  of 
Parliament.  Charles  II.  offered  him  a  bishopric  on  con- 
dition that  he  should  support  the  measures  of  the  court  ; 
but  he  declined  the  offer.  He  published  a  "  Life  of  Sir 
Matthew  Hals"  in  1682.  Burnet  was  a  person  of  much 
influence  in  public  affairs,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the 
revolution  of  1688  and  the  succession  of  William  and 
Mary.  He  became  chaplain  to  William  III.  and  Bishop 
of  Salisbury  in  1689.  "  The  name  of  Burnet,"  sa)'s  Mac- 
aulay,  "  was  odious  to  the  great  majority  of  the  Anglican 
priesthood.  .  .  .  This  distinction  he  owed  to  the  promi- 
nent place  which  he  held  in  literature  and  politic?,  to  the 
readiness  of  his  tongue  and  of  his  pen,  and  above  all  to  tlie 


e  as  k;  c  as     g  hard;'g2&j;  g,  h,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BURNET 


468 


BURNS 


frankness  and  boldness  of  his  nature, — frankness  which 
could  keep  no  secret,  and  boldness  which  flinched  from 
no  danger."  The  same  author  adds,  "The  utmost  ma- 
levolence of  faction  could  not  venture  to  deny  that  he 
ser\ed  his  flock  with  a  zeal,  diligence,  and  disinterested- 
ness worthy  of  the  purest  ages  of  the  church."  ("  History 
of  England.")  He  published  in  1699  an  "  Exposition  of 
the  Thirty-Nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England," 
which  is  considered  a  standard  work.  His  most  re- 
markable work  is  his  "  History  of  his  Own  Times,"  (2 
vols.,  1724-34,)  which  was  severely  criticised  by  Swift, 
Pope,  and  other  Tories.  He  was  author  of  an  interest- 
ing tract  entitled  "  Some  Passages  in  the  Life  and  Death 
of  Lord  Rochester,"  (1680.)    Died  in  171 5. 

See  "  Life  of  Bishop  Bumet,"  by  his  son  Thomas,  prefixed  to  the 
"History  of  his  Own  Times;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary 
of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  J.  Le  Clerc,  "Life  and  Character  of  Bishop 
Burnet,"  I^ndon,  1715  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April  and 
July,  1S23;  GuizoT,  " Monk's  Contemporaries." 

Burnet,  (Gilbert,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  chap- 
lain to  George  I.  He  wrote  some  treatises  on  theology, 
and  died  prematurely. 

Bur''net,  (Jacob,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  American  jurist, 
born  at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  in  1770,  was  one  of  the 
first  settlers  of  Cincinnati.  He  graduated  at  Princeton 
College,  and  afterwards  studied  law  under  Judge  Bou- 
dinot.  In  1796  he  removed  to  Cincinnati,  where  he 
resided  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  was  appointed 
in  1 82 1  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Ohio,  and  in 
1828  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States.  He 
assisted  in  founding  the  Cincinnati  College,  of  which  he 
became  the  first  president,  and  contributed  liberally  to 
the  cause  of  education.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Notes 
on  the  Early  Settlement  of  the  Northwestern  Territory." 
Through  the  influence  of  La  Fayette,  Judge  Burnet  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Died  in  1853. 

See  Livingston's  "Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans." 

Bur'net,  (John,)  a  Scottish  engraver,  born  near  Edin- 
burgh in  1784.  Among  his  best  works  are  prints  after 
Wilkie's  "Blind  Fiddler,"  and  "Chelsea  Pensioners 
reading  the  Gazette  of  the  Battle  of  Waterloo."  He  has 
published  a  "  Practical  Treatise  on  Painting,"  "  Rem- 
brandt and  his  Works,"  (1849,)  and  "Life  and  Works 
of  J.  M.  W.  Turner,"  (1852.)  The  last-named  work  was 
written  conjointly  with  Mr.  P.  Cunningham. 

Burnet,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine  and  eloquent 
writer,  born  at  Croft,  in  Yorkshire,  about  1635.  He  be- 
came a  Fellow  of  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1657, 
and  was  elected  master  of  the  Charter-House  in  1685. 
He  had  the  moral  courage  to  offer  the  first  opposition  to 
the  dispensing  power  which  James  IL  usurped.  His 
reputation  is  founded  on  a  fanciful  but  well-written 
work,  in  Latin,  entitled  "  Telluris  Theoria  Sacra,"  ("  The 
Sacred  Theory  of  the  Earth,"  1680,)  which  he  translated 
into  English,  (1684.)  This  work  has  little  scientific 
merit ;  but  it  was  greatly  admired  for  the  beauty  of  its 
imagery  and  its  style.  He  also  wrote  "  On  the  State 
of  the  Dead,"  ("De  Statu  Mortuorum,"  1727.)  Died 
in  1 71 5. 

See  Brucker,  "History  of  Philosophy." 

Burnet,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  became 
prebendary  of  Sarum.  He  published  several  works. 
Died  in  1750. 

Burnet,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  judge  and  political 
writer,  was  a  son  of  Bishop  Burnet.  He  edited  his  father's 
"  History  of  his  Own  Times,"  and  wrote  a  travesty  of  the 
first  book  of  the  "Iliad."  In  his  youth  he  was  dissipated, 
and  was  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  "Mohocks"  of  Addi- 
son's "  Spectator."    Died  in  1753. 

Burnet,  (William,)  a  son  of  Bishop  Burnet,  was 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1688.  He  was  appointed  Governor 
of  New  York  and  New  Jersey  in  1720,  and  ruled  those 
provinces  with  ability  for  eight  years.  In  1728  he  be- 
came Governor  of  Massachusetts.    Died  in  1729. 

Bur'nett,  (George,)  an  English  writer,  published 
"  Letters  on  the  State  of  Poland,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1811. 

Burnett,  (Gilbert  Thomas,)  an  English  naturalist, 
born  in  London  in  1800,  became  professor  of  medical 
botany  at  King's  College,  London.   He  wrote  "Outlines 


of  Botany,"  (1833,)  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "Jour- 
nal of  Science  and  Art,"  and  other  periodicals.  Died 
in  1835. 

Burnett,  (James.)    See  Monboddo. 

Bur'nett,  (John,)  a  Scottish  advocate  and  legal  wri- 
ter, born  in  1765,  became  judge-admiral  of  Scotland  in 
1 810.    He  died  ihe  same  year. 

Bur'nett,  (Waldo  Irving,)  M.D.,  an  American  nat- 
uralist and  microscopist,  born  at  Southborough,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1828.  He  visited  Europe  about  1850.  He 
contributed  to  the  "American  Journal  of  Science,"  and 
other  periodicals.  Among  his  works  is  an  "  Essay  on 
the  Cell  :  its  Physiology,  Pathology,"  etc.  Died  at  Bos- 
ton in  1854. 

Bur'ney,  (Charles,)  a  musical  composer  and  doctor 
of  music,  born  at  Shrewsbury  in  1726.  His  talents  and 
worth  procured  him  the  respect  and  friendship  of  several 
of  the  principal  wits  of  that  age, — among  others,  Dr. 
Johnson  and  Burke.  In  1773  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society.  His  "  General  History  of  Music," 
completed  in  1789,  is  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1814. 

See  "  Memoirsof  Dr.  Barney,"  by  his  daughter,  Madame  D'Ar- 
BLAv;  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Burney,  (Charles,)  a  distinguished  Greek  scholar, 
second  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Lynn  in  1757;  died 
in  1817. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  May,  1811. 

Burney,  (Frances.)    See  D'Arblay,  Madame. 

Burney,  (James,)  the  eldest  son  of  Dr.  Burney  the 
musical  composer,  born  about  1745,  entered  the  naval 
service  at  an  early  age,  and  accompanied  Cook  in  his 
last  two  voyages.  He  became  rear-admiral,  and  died  in 
1821.  Besides  other  works,  he  wrote  a  valuable  "His- 
tory of  Voyages  of  Discovery  in  the  Southern  Ocean," 
(5  vols.,  1804-16.) 

Burney,  (William,)  master  of  the  Royal  (Naval) 
Academy  of  Gosport,  and  author  of  "  Lives  of  the  Na- 
val Heroes  of  Great  Britain,"  born  in  1762  ;  died  in  1832, 

Burnouf,  biiR'noof,  written  also  Bournouf,  (Eu 
gene,)  a  distinguished  French  Orientalist,  son  of  Jeai\ 
Louis,  noticed  below,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1832,  and 
the  same  year  succeeded  De  Chezy  as  professor  of  San- 
scrit in  the  College  of  France.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  "Commentaries  on  the  Ya9na,  one  of  the 
Liturgic  Books  of  Persia,"  and  "  Introduction  to  the  His- 
tory of  Booddhism,"  (1845.)  He  died  in  1852,  having 
previously  been  appointed  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions. 

See  Charles  Lenormant,  "  Eugene  Burnouf,"  1852;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Burnouf,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  philologist,  born  at 
Urville  in  1775.  He  was  appointed,  in  181 7,  professor 
of  Latin  eloquence  in  the  College  of  France.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Method  of  Studying  the  Greek  Language," 
(1814,)  a  translation  of  the  complete  works  of  Tacitus, 
and  of  Cicero's  "De  Officiis."  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  librarian  of  the  uni- 
versity.   Died  in  1844. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Burns,  (John,)  an  eminent  Scottish  medical  writer, 
born  in  Glasgow  in  1775.  He  became  regius  professor 
of  surgery  in  the  University  of  Glasgow  in  181 5.  His 
chief  work  is  "Principles  of  Midwifery,"  (loth  edition, 
1843,)  which  obtained  great  success.  He  also  published 
"Principles  of  Surgery,"  (2  vols.,  1828-38,)  and  "Prin- 
ciples  of  Christian  Philosophy,"  (6th  edition,  1846.)  He 
perished  in  the  wreck  of  the  Orion  in  1850. 

Burns,  (Robert,)  a  celebrated  Scottish  poet,  born 
near  the  town  of  Ayr,  January  25,  1759.  His  father, 
William  Burness,  (or  Burnes — for  the  name  was  variously 
written,)  was  the  son  of  a  farmer,  and  "was  thrown," 
says  the  poet,  in  one  of  his  letters,  "by  early  misfortunes, 
on  the  world  at  large,  where,  after  many  years'  wanderings 
and  sojournings,  he  picked  up  a  pretty  large  quantity  of 
observation  and  experience,  to  which  I  am  indel^ted  for 
most  of  my  little  pretensions  to  wisdom."  In  early  life 
Burns's  father  had  followed  the  profession  of  a  gardener  ; 
but  afterwards  he  took  a  lease  of  a  small  farm  of  seven 
acres,  in  order  to  set  himself  up  in  the  nursery  business, 
and  built  with  his  own  hands  the  dwelling  in  which  the 


a.  e.  T.  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6.  u,  y,  shoj-t;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BURNS 


469 


BURNS 


poet  was  born.  Although  his  life  appears  to  have  been 
one  long  struggle  with  adversity,  William  Burness  spared 
no  pains  that  he  might  give  his  children  a  good  educa- 
tion. He  sent  them  to  school  as  he  had  opportunity, 
and  sometimes  in  the  evening,  after  the  day's  work  was 
done,  assisted  their  studies  himself.  "I  owed  much," 
says  the  poet,  "to  an  old  woman  who  resided  in  the 
family.  .  .  .  She  had,  I  suppose,  the  largest  collection 
in  the  country  of  tales  and  songs  concerning  devils, 
ghosts,  fairies,  brownies,  witches,  warlocks,  .  .  .  en- 
chanted towers,  dragons,  and  other  trumpery.  This  cul- 
tivated the  latent  seeds  of  poetry."  Robert  was  the 
eldest  son :  he  possessed,  with  a  strong  intellect  and 
acute  sensibilities,  a  robust  and  active  body,  so  that 
when  he  was  only  fifteen  he  is  said  to  have  done  the 
work  of  a  man.  He  was  early  familiarized  with  those 
hardships  and  sufferings  to  which  the  poor  are  so  often 
subject,  and  which  he  has  occasionally  touched  upon  in 
his  poems  with  such  pathos  and  power.  In  the  letter 
already  referred  to,  he  says,  "  My  father's  generous  mas- 
ter died,  the  farm  proved  a  ruinous  bargain,  and,  to 
clench  the  misfortune,  we  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  factor, 
who  sat  for  the  picture  I  have  drawn  of  one  in  my  'Tale 
of  Tvva  Dogs.'  My  father  was  advanced  in  life  when  he 
married;  I  was  the  eldest  of  seven  children;  and  he, 
worn  out  by  early  hardships,  was  unfit  for  labour.  .  .  . 
We  lived  very  poorly.  1  was  a  dexterous  ploughman 
for  my  age,  and  the  next  eldest  to  me  was  a  brother,  (Gil- 
bert,) who  could  drive  the  plough  very  well  and  help  me 
to  thrash  the  corn.  A  novel-writer  might  perhaps  have 
viewed  these  scenes  with  some  satisfaction  ;  but  so  did 
not  I :  my  indignation  yet  boils  at  the  recollection  of  the 
factor's  insolent,  threatening  letters,  which  used  to  set  us 
all  in  tears."  In  a  very  interesting  and  touching  account 
which  he  wrote  of  their  early  troubles,  his  brother  Gil- 
bert says,  I  doubt  not  but  the  hard  labour  and  sorrow 
of  this  period  of  his  life  was  in  a  great  measure  the 
cause  of  that  depression  of  spirits  with  which  Robert 
was  so  often  aftlicted  through  his  whole  life  afterwards." 
When  the  poet  was  about  fifteen,  his  father  gave  up  his 
farm  near  Ayr,  and  removed  to  the  parish  of  Tarbolton. 
A  little  before  Burns  had  reached  his  sixteenth  year,  he 
"first  committed,"  he  says,  "the  sin  of  rhyme."  In  his 
case,  as  in  that  of  Sappho,  "  it  was  Love  that  taught  [him] 
Song."  A  "bonnie  sweet  sonsie  lass"  had  been  assigned 
as  his  partner  in  the  labours  of  the  harvest-field,  (it  was 
the  custom  to  join  a  male  with  a  female  partner  on  such 
occasions.)  She  sang  sweetly,  and  "  the  tones  of  her  voice 
made  his  heart-strings  thrill  like  an  ^olian  harp."  Her 
singing  first  put  into  his  head  the  idea  of  writing  songs. 
Somewhat  later,  he  went  to  a  noted  school  at  a  distance 
from  home,  to  learn  mensuratior.,  surveying,  etc.,  where 
he  appears  to  have  made  good  progress  in  his  studies, 
until  a  charming  young  girl,  who  lived  near  by,  "  overset 
his  trigonometry,  and  set  him  off  at  a  tangent  from  the 
sphere  of  his  studies.  It  was,"  he  says,  "in  vain  to 
think  of  doing  any  more  good  at  school."  This  irre- 
sistible attraction  towards  what  he  terms  "the  adorable 
half  of  the  human  species"  seemed  destined  to  exert  a 
constant  and  controlling  influence  upon  his  life.  To  use 
his  own  words,  "  My  heart  was  completely  tinder,  and 
was  eternally  lighted  up  by  some  goddess  or  other." 
The  fame  which  he  had  acquired  by  his  verses,  added  to 
his  rare  conversational  powers,  caused  his  company  to 
be  eagerly  sought  in  the  social  gatherings  of  the  vicinity  ; 
and  the  promiscuous  society  into  which  he  was  thus 
thrown  appears  to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  the  irregu- 
larities and  dissipation  which  unhappily  marked  the  lat- 
ter part  of  his  life.  In  his  early  youth,  as  he  tells  us, 
he  regarded  illicit  love  with  horror  ;  but  through  the  in- 
fluence of  some  of  his  new  acquaintance  his  delicacy  of 
feeling  on  this  subject  gradually  wore  away,  and  before 
he  had  reached  his  twenty-fourth  year  we  find  him 
speaking  of  his  own  unlawful  amours  lightly  and  almost 
boastfully.  He  had  recently  been  initiated  into  the  mys- 
teries of  free-masonry.  He  was  introduced  to  the  lodge 
at  Tarbolton  by  John  Rankin,  who,  according  to  I^ock- 
hart,  was  "a  very  dissipated  man,  with  considerable  tal- 
ents,'' and  who  appears  to  have  exerted  a  most  unfavour- 
-ible  influence  on  the  moral  character  of  the  poet.  Burns 
afterwards  addressed  to  him  a  poetical  epistle.  Burns's 


father  was  a  worthy  and  sincerely  pious  man.  In  a 
beautiful  tribute  to  his  memory,  the  poet  speaks  of  him  as 

"The  tender  father  and  the  generous  friend ; 

The  pitying  heart  that  felt  for  human  woe ; 

The  dauntless  heart  that  feared  no  human  pride  ; 

The  friend  of  man,  to  vice  alone  a  foe  ; 
'  For  even  liis  failings  leaned  to  virtue's  side.'  " 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  these  noble  lines  ire 
not  chargeable  with  any  of  the  proverbial  falsity  of  epi- 
taphs. But,  unhappily,  at  the  time  above  referred  to, 
Burns's  character  was  but  too  truly  expressed  by  those 
words  of  the  Roman  poet,  "  Video  meliora  proboque, 
deteriora  sequor."*  In  proportion  as  he  rejected  the 
restraints  of  morality,  he  appears  to  have  cast  off  his 
reverence  for  religion.  "  Polemical  divinity,"  says  he, 
"  about  this  time  was  putting  the  country  half  mad  ;"  and 
he  appears  to  have  been  ambitious  to  show  that,  while 
in  argument  he  was  not  inferior,  in  wit  he  was  greatly 
superior,  to  most  of  those  whom  he  encountered.  He 
was  one  day  seen  "at  the  door  of  a  public  house, 
holding  forth  on  religious  topics  to  a  whole  crowd  of 
country-people,  who  presently  became  so  shocked  with 
his  levities  that  they  fairly  hissed  him  from  the  ground." 
(See  Lockhart's  "Life,"  page  68.)  While  in  this  contro- 
versial spirit,  he  wrote  two  satirical  pieces  which  excited 
no  little  commotion  in  that  part  of  Scotland,  being  as 
much  applauded  by  one  party  or  class  as  they  were  con- 
demned by  the  other.  These  were  "The  Twa  Herds," 
(or  "The  Holy  Tulzie,")  and  "  Holy  Willie's  Prayer." 
Of  the  latter,  Scott  speaks  as  "a  piece  of  satire  more  ex- 
quisitely severe  than  any  which  Burns  ever  afterwards 
wrote,  but,  unfortunately,  cast  in  a  form  too  daringly 
profane  to  be  received  into  Dr.  Currie's  collection." 

About  the  year  1785,  Burns  formed  a  liaison  (which 
was,  as  some  writers  tell  us,  according  to  the  usage  then 
prevailing  in  Scotland,  a  virtual  marriage)  with  a  young 
woman  named  Jean  Armour,  somewhat  above  his  own 
rank  in  life.  She  bore  him  twins.  He  had  previously 
given  her  a  written  acknowledgment  of  marriage  ;  but 
this  did  not  appease  the  anger  of  her  father,  as  Burns 
was  then  wholly  unable  to  support  a  family.  It  was  his 
purpose  to  quit  Scotland  and  seek  his  fortune  in  Jamaica. 
"  But,  before  leaving  my  native  country  forever,"  he 
says,  "I  resolved  to  publish  my  poems.  I  weighed  my 
productions  as  impartially  as  was  in  my  power.  I 
thought  they  had  merit ;  and  it  was  a  delicious  idea  that 
I  should  be  called  a  clever  fellow,  even  though  it  should 
never  reach  my  ears.  ...  I  can  truly  say  that,  panz'7'e 
inconuji  as  I  then  was,  I  had  pretty  nearly  as  high  an 
idea  of  myself  and  of  my  works  as  I  have  at  this  moment, 
when  the  public  has  decided  in  their  favour."  The  poems 
were  accordingly  published,  and  were  so  favourably  re- 
ceived that,  after  all  expenses  had  been  paid,  he  cleared 
about  twenty  pounds.  The  success  of  his  first  experi- 
ment as  an  author,  and  the  encouragement  which  he 
received  from  some  who  were  not  unknown  in  the  world 
of  letters,  produced  an  entire  change  in  his  plans  ;  and, 
instead  of  going  to  America,  he  resolved  at  once  to  visit 
Edinburgh  and  make  the  acquaintance  of  the  distin- 
guished men  of  letters  of  that  city.  He  was  soon  intro- 
duced to  the  notice  of  Dugald  Stewart,  Dr.  Hugh  Blair, 
and  many  others,  eminent  in  rank  and  fashion  as  well  as 
in  literature.  "The  attentions  he  received,"  says  Stew- 
art, "from  all  ranks  and  descriptions  of  persons,  were 
such  as  would  have  turned  any  head  but  his  own."  Scc»tt 
has  left  us  an  extremely  interesting  account  of  Bui  ns's 
appearance  at  this  time,  which  seems  to  have  made  a 
vivid  and  deep  impression  on  his  youthful  mind.  "  His 
person  was  strong  and  robust,  his  manners  rustic,  not 
clownish,  with  a  sort  of  dignified  plainness  and  simpli- 
city which  received  part  of  its  effect,  perhaps,  from  one's 
knowledge  of  his  extraordinary  talents.  .  .  .  There  was 
a  strong  expression  of  sense  and  shrewdness  in  all  l\is 
lineaments.    The  eye  alone,  I  think,  indicated  the  poeti- 


*  "  I  see  the  better  course  and  approve  it,  but  I  pursue  the  worse." 
One  can  scarcely  doubt  that  he  felt  at  times  all  the  force  of  those  lines 
in  his  admirable  "  Epistle  to  a  Young  Friend:" 

"  But  ne'er  with  wits  profane  to  range 
Be  complaisance  extended: 
A  n  atheisCs  laugh  'j  a  poor  excha7tge 
For  Deity  offended.'''' 


€  as  k;  5  as  .r,-  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BURNS 


470 


BURONZO 


cal  character  and  temperament.  It  was  large  and  of  a 
dark  cast,  which  glowed — I  say  literally  glowed — when 
he  spoke  with  feeling  or  interest.  1  never  saw  such 
another  eye  in  a  human  head,  though  I  have  seen  the 
most  distinguished  men  of  my  time.  conversation 
expressed  perfect  self-confidence,  without  the  slightest 
presumption." 

Among  the  persons  of  rank  who  showed  him  marked 
favour,  the  most  prominent  was  Lord  Glencairn,  whose 
kindness  the  poet  ever  remembered  with  the  deepest 
gratitude,  and  to  whose  memory  he  has  dedicated  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  and  touching  of  all  his  produc- 
tions,—  the  "Lament  for  James,  Earl  of  Glencairn." 
Under  the  patronage  of  the  distinguished  men  whose 
acqua'.itance  he  had  made  in  Edinburgh,  he  brought 
out,  about  the  close  of  1787,  a  new  edition  of  his  poems, 
from  which  he  is  said  to  have  realized  more  than  five 
hundred  pounds.  But,  unfortunately,  the  intoxication  of 
fame,  and  the  continual  excitement  of  his  Edinburgh  life, 
furnished  a  fresh  temptation  to  those  irregularities  which 
began  some  years  before.  In  1788  he  openly  declared 
his  marriage  with  Miss  Armour,  and  soon  after  was  ap- 
pointed officer  of  the  excise,  with  a  salary  of  but  fifty 
pounds  a  year :  it  was  afterwards  increased  to  seventy 
pounds.  In  1791  he  removed  to  Dumfries,  where  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  His  intemperate  habits, 
aggravated  by  pecuniary  distresses,  gained  more  and 
more  the  ascendency  over  him,  but  not  to  the  extent, 
as  has  sometimes  been  asserted,  of  rendering  him  inca- 
pable of  discharging  the  duties  of  his  office.  One*  who 
knew  him  well  during  the  latter  period  of  his  life,  in  re- 
futing the  charge  against  him  of  "  habitual  drunkenness," 
says,  "  He  superintended  the  education  of  his  children 
with  a  degree  of  care  that  I  have  never  seen  surpassed 
by  any  parent  in  any  rank  of  life  whatever." 

Burns  died  on  the  21st  of  July,  1796.  His  funeral  was 
attended  by  many  thousand  persons,  including  those 
of  every  rank  and  condition,  some  of  whom  came  from 
a  great  distance.  Nearly  twenty  years  after  the  poet's 
death,  a  costly  mausoleum  was  erected  in  the  church- 
yard at  Dumfries,  whither  the  remains  were  transferred, 
June  5,  1 81 5. 

The  most  striking  characteristics  of  Burns's  poetry  are 
simplicity  and  intensity, — an  intensity  not  limited  to  feel- 
ing or  passion  merely,  but  belonging  equally  to  his  ima- 
gination and  his  thoughts, — in  which  qualities  he  is 
scarcely,  if  at  all,  inferior  to  any  of  the  greatest  poets 
that  have  ever  lived.  Some  of  his  expressions  are  like 
brilliant  flashes  of  light:  in  an  instant  the  thought  or 
sentiment  is  impressed  upon  the  mind,  never  to  be  for- 
gotten. His  power  of  concentration  is  perfectly  marvel- 
lous.   In  two  short  lines — 

"The  rank  is  but  the  guinea  stamp, 
The  man's  the  gowd  for  a'  that," — 

he  says  more  than  many  able  men  could  do  in  an  elabo- 
rate essay.  His  "Tam  o'  Shanter,"  as  has  been  well 
observed,  is  truly  an  epic,  and  one  of  a  high  order.  As 
an  amatory  poet,  Burns  has  no  equal  among  British 
bards ; 

*'  For  love's  own  strain  to  him  was  given, 
'I'o  warble  all  its  ecstasies. 
In  Pythian  words,  unsought,  unwilled. "t 
He  appears,  however,  through  some  peculiarity  either 
of  his  genius  or  his  temperament,  to  have  been  disin- 
clined to  undertake  any  extended  poem  or  other  work 
of  imagination.  "  His  poetical  temperament,"  says  Camp- 
bell, ''was  that  of  fitful  transports  rather  than  steady 
inspiration."  But  this  peculiarity  may  have  been  at  least 
as  much  the  result  of  habit,  confirmed,  if  not  induced,  by 
the  necessities  of  his  outward  life,  as  of  the  original  cast  of 
his  mind.  Had  his  education  and  external  circumstances 
been  different,  his  genius  might  perhaps  have  taken 
another  form,  and  shown  itself  no  less  capable  of  lofty 
and  sustained  flights  of  imagination  than  it  was  of  bril- 
liant sallies  of  wit  or  of  the  inimitable  expression  of  pas- 
sion or  sorrow.  With  his  rare  insight  into  the  human 
heart,  his  intensity  of  feeling  and  vividness  of  imagination, 
combined  with  wit  and  humour  as  varied  as  they  were 
exquisite,  we  can  scarcely  doubt  that  had  his  inclination 

*  The  Rev.  James  Gray.  (See  Lockhart's  "  Life,"  pp.  334-338.) 
t  Campbell's  "Ode  to  the  Memory  of  Burns." 


and  habits  of  thought  led  him  to  attempt  some  longer 
work,  whether  a  drama  or  aii  epic,  he  might  have  written 
something  not  unworthy  of  a  place  among  the  world-re- 
nowned productions  of  immortal  genius,  such  as  Goethe's 
"Faust"  or  Cervantes'  ^'Don  Quixote."  "In  the  inim' 
itable  tale  of  'Tarn  o'  Shanter,'  "  says  Scott,  "he  has  lef 
us  sufficient  evidence  of  his  abilities  to  combine  the  ludi 
crous  with  the  awful  and  even  the  horrible.  No  poet, 
except  Shakspeare,  ever  possessed  the  power  of  exciting 
the  most  varied  and  discordant  emotions  with  such  rapid 
transitions.'^* 

Respecting  Burns's  moral  character  little  need  be 
added  to  what  is  revealed  by  his  life.  He  had  at  least 
the  merit  .of  not  seeking  to  defend  or  excuse  his  own 
faults,  though  he  has  occasionally  suggested  palliations, 
as  when  he  says, 

"  What's  done  we  partly  may  compute, 
But  not  what  is  resisted." 

His  sins  were  rarely  if  ever  the  result  of  "malice  afore- 
thought ;"  and  the  manner  in  which  he  sometimes  alludes 
to  them  is  as  fiill  of  instruction  as  of  pathos.  He  could 
not,  indeed,  as  has  been  justly  observed,  have  so  pathetic- 
ally enforced  the  truth  of  some  of  his  moral  lessons  had 
he  not  preached  from  the  text  of  his  own  errors. 

See  LocKHART,  "Life  of  Burns,"  i  vol.  8vo,  1828;  Curkih, 
"Life,"  prefixed  to  Burns'.s  "Correspondence;"  A.  Cunningham, 
"Life  and  Land  of  Robert  Burns,"  1840;  Alexander  Peterkin, 
"Review  of  the  Life  of  Robert  Burns;"  John  Wilson,  "Genius  and 
Character  of  Robert  Burns,"  1S45;  S.  Tyler,  "Robert  Burns  as  a 
Poet  and  a  Man,"  1848;  R.  Ch.ambers,  "Life  and  Times  of  Robert 
Burns;"  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  Carlyle, 
"Miscellanies,"  article  "Burns;"  Jeffrey,  "Miscellanies."  See, 
also,  Fitz-Greene  Halleck's  beautiful  lines  on  Burns. 

Burns,  (William  W.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Ohio  about  1826,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1847. 
became  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  about  Septem- 
ber, 1 86 1.    He  served  in  several  battles  near  Richmond, 
June,  1862. 

Burn'side,  (Ambrose  Everett,)  an  American  gene- 
ral, born  at  Liberty,  Union  county,  Indiana,  in  1824, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1847.  ^e  obtained  the  rank 
of  first  lieutenant,  which  he  resigned  about  1853.  He 
became  a  colonel  of  volunteers  early  in  1861,  commanded 
a  brigade  at  Bull  Run,  July  21,  and  was  appointed  a 
brigadier-general  in  August.  He  directed  the  expedition 
which,  moving  by  sea  and  aided  by  a  large  naval  force, 
captured  Roanoke  Island  in  February,  1862.  He  took 
Newbern  in  the  next  month,  and  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  major-general.  In  July,  1862,  he  moved  his 
army  to  the  James  River  to  reinforce  that  of  General 
McClellan.  He  commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of 
South  Mountain,  September  14,  and  at  that  of  Antietam, 
— where  he  distinguished  himself, — September  16,  1862. 
On  the  7th  of  November  he  succeeded  General  McClel- 
lan as  commander  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac.  On  the 
13th  of  December  he  crossed  the  Rappahannock  and 
attacked  Lee's  army,  which  held  a  strong  and  fortified 
position  near  Fredericksburg.  He  was  repulsed  with  a 
loss  of  10,243  killed  and  wounded,  and  during  the  night 
of  the  14th  retired  to  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  At  his 
own  request,  he  was  relieved  of  the  command  on  the 
26th  of  January,  1863.  In  March  or  April  of  that  year 
he  took  command  of  the  department  of  the  Ohio.  Mov- 
ing through  Kentucky,  via  Mount  Vernon  and  London, 
into  East  Tennessee,  he  occupied  Knoxville  about  the 
2d  of  September.  He  defended  Knoxville  with  success 
against  (general  Longstreet,  who  besieged  it  in  Novem- 
ber, 1863.  In  April,  1864,  he  obtained  command  of  the 
ninth  corps,  which  fought  under  General  Grant  at  the 
battles  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5,  6,  of  Spottsylvania 
Court-House,  May  9-11,  and  of  Cold  Harbour,  June  3. 
He  was  elected  Governor  of  Rhode  Island  in  1865,  and 
re-elected  several  times. 

Burons.    See  Borron. 

Buronzo  del  Signore,  boo-ron'zo  dll  s^n-yo'ri, 
(Carlo  Luigi,)  a  learned  Italian  prelate,  born  at  Ver- 
celli  in  1731,  became  Bishop  of  Turin  in  1797.  He  dis- 
covered a  manuscript  of  the  works  of  Bishop  Acto  or 
Atto,  "  Attonis  Vercellensis  Ecclesias  Episcopi  Opera," 
which  he  published  in  1768.    Died  in  1806. 


*  "Quaj'terly  Review,"  No.  i. 


a,  e.  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;     ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  vi,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  f^t;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BURR 


471 


BURTON 


Burr,  (Aaron,)  an  American  theologian,  born  at  Fair- 
field, Connecticut,  in  1715,  was  a  son-in-law  of  the  cele- 
brated Jonathan  Edwards.  He  became  in  1748  president 
of  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  which  was  removed  about 
1756  from  Newark  to  Princeton.    Died  in  1757. 

Burr,  (Aaron,)  an  American  politician,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  a  grandson  of  the  great  Jonathan  Edwards, 
was  born  at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  in  February,  1756. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1772,  entered  the  army  in 
1775,  ^"<^  served  in  the  expedition  against  Quebec. 
Earlj  in  1776  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major,  and  in 
July,  1777,  he  became  lieutenant-colonel.  He  resigned 
his  commission  in  March,  1779,  studied  law,  was  admit- 
te-i  to  the  bar  in  1782,  and  practised  with  great  success 
ii.  the  city  of  New  York.  He  was  a  very  adroit,  plau- 
sible, and  insinuating  speaker.  In  1782  he  married  a 
widow  named  Mrs.  Prevost.  Having  become  an  active 
Democrat,  he  was  appointed  attorney-general  of  New 
York  State  in  1789,  and  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the 
United  States  in  1791.  In  iSoo,  Jefferson  and  Burr  were 
the  Democratic  candidates  for  the  offices  of  President  and 
Vice-President,  and  received  an  equal  number  of  votes. 
The  election  consequently  devolved  on  the  House  of 
Representatives,  which,  after  a  long  and  exciting  contest, 
decided  that  Jefferson  should  be  President  and  Burr 
Vice-President.  By  his  effort  to  supplant  Jefferson  in 
this  election  he  lost  the  favour  of  the  Democrats.  In 
1804  he  presented  himself  as  candidate  for  the  office  of 
Governor  of  New  York,  but  he  was  defeated,  partly  by  the 
agency  of  General  Hamilton,  whom  with  slight  provoca- 
tion he  challenged  and  killed  in  a  duel  in  July,  1804. 
This  act  excited  such  a  storm  of  popular  indignation  that 
he  found  it  expedient  to  absent  himself  from  the  State. 
After  he  retired  from  the  Vice-Presidency  in  1805  he  was 
suspected  of  a  design  to  conduct  a  hostile  expedition 
against  Mexico,  with  the  view  of  establishing  a  govern- 
ment there  which  should  also  include  the  southwestern 
part  of  the  United  States.  He  was  arrested  on  a  charge 
of  treason,  tried  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  in  1807,  and  ac- 
quitted. In  1808  he  went  to  Europe,  where  he  passed 
several  years  in  poverty.  He  resumed  the  practice 
of  law  in  New  York  in  181 2,  but  could  not  recover  his 
former  standing.    Died  in  1836. 

See  Parton,  "Life  and  Times  of  Aaron  Burr,"  1858;  M.  L. 
Davis,  "Life  of  Aaron  Burr,"  2  vols.,  1836-37. 

Bur'rhus,  (Afranius,)  the  commander  of  the  prae- 
torian cohorts,  on  the  death  of  the  Roman  emperor 
Claudius,  caused  Nero  to  be  proclaimed  his  successor. 
He  at  first  restrained,  but  afterwards  yielded  to,  the 
sanguinary  tendencies  of  the  new  emperor.  Died 
A.D.  62. 

Burriel,  boor-re-IK,  (Andr^;s  Marcos,)  a  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  historian,  born  in  1719.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  California,  and  its  Temporal 
and  Spiritual  Conquest."    Died  in  1762. 

See  Ersch  imd  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Bur'rill,  (James,)  an  American  Senator  and  lawyer, 
born  in  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1772.  He  became 
chief  justice  of  his  native  State  in  1 816,  and  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States  in  181 7.  He  opposed  the  Missouri 
Compromise  and  the  admission  of  Missouri  as  a  slave 
State.    Died  in  1820. 

Bur'ritt,  (Elihu,)  an  American  reformer  and  linguist, 
called  "the  Learned  Blacksmith,"  was  born  in  New  Brit- 
ain, Connecticut,  in  181 1.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a 
blacksmith  about  1827,  and  worked  at  that  trade  many 
years,  during  which  he  learned,  in  the  intervals  of  labour, 
numerous  ancient  and  modern  languages.  As  a  public 
lecturer  he  advocated  temperance  and  other  reforms. 
He  published  "Sparks  from  the  Anvil,"  (1848,)  and 
"Thoughts  on  Things  at  Home  and  Abroad,"  (1854.) 

Burrough,  bur'ro,  (Edward,)  an  English  minister  of 
the  Society  of  Friends,  was  born  near  Kendal  in  1634. 
He  was  convinced  by  George  Fox  in  1652,  began  to 
preach  in  London  in  1654,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Message  to  the  Present  Rulers  of  luigland," 
(1659,)  and  "The  Trumpet  of  the  Lord  sounded  out  of 
Zion."  He  also  wrote  many  epistles.  In  the  spring  of 
1662  he  was  committed  to  Newgate  prison,  where  he 
died  in  the  last  month  of  that  year. 

See  "  Friends'  Library,"  vol.  xiv. 


Burrough,  (Stephen,)  an  English  navigator,  made  a 

voyage  to  the  Arctic  regions  in  1556,  of  which  he  wrote 
an  account. 

See  Hakluyt,  "Voyages  and  Discoveries." 

Burroughes,  bur'roz,  (Jeremiah,)  an  English  Puritan 
minister,  born  in  1599,  preached  in  London.  He  wrote 
several  works,  which  were  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1646, 

Bur^'roughs,  written  also  Boroughs,  (Sir  John,)  an 
Englishman,  who  wrote  "The  Sovereignty  of  the  BriSsh 
Seas  proved  by  Records."    Died  in  1643. 

Bur^roughs,  (George,)  an  early  New  England  divine, 
was  executed  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  1692,  for  witch- 
craft. 

Bur'row,  (Sir  James,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer; 
died  in  1782.  He  published  "Reports,"  (5th  ed.,  =5  vols. 
1812.) 

Burrow,  (Reuben,)  an  English  mathematician,  born 
in  Yorkshire,  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Calcutta  in  1782.  He  died  in  1791,  leaving  a  "  Treat- 
ise on  Projectiles,"  and  other  works. 

Bur'rows,  (George  Mann,)  an  English  physician,  of 
London.  He  published  about  1828  "Commentaries  on  the 
Causes,  Forms,  Symptoms,  and  Treatment  of  Insanity." 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1821. 

Bur'rows,  (William,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
with  the  rank  of  lieutenant,  born  near  Philadelphia  about 
1784.  As  commander  of  the  brig  Enterprise,  he  cap- 
tured the  British  brig  Boxer  in  September,  1 8 13.  He 
was  killed  in  this  action. 

Burser,  booR^ser,  (Joachim,)  a  German  physician 
and  botanist,  born  in  Lusatia  in  1593.  He  wrote  several 
botanical  works,  in  Latin.  The  name  of  Bursera  has 
been  given  to  a  genus  of  terebinths.    Died  in  16S9. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Bur'ton,  (Asa,)  D.D.,  pastor  of  the  church  in  Thet- 
ford,  Vermont,  born  at  Preston,  (now  Griswold,)  Connec- 
ticut, in  1752  ;  died  in  1836. 

Bur'ton,  (Cassibelan,)  an  English  poet,  a  son  of 
William  "the  antiquary,  born  in  1609.  He  made  a  trans- 
lation of  Martial  into  English  verse.    Died  in  1681. 

Burton,  (Edward,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  born  in 
1794,  became  in  1829  royal  professor  of  divinity  at  Ox- 
ford. He  published  a  "  Greek  Testament  with  English 
Notes,"  (1831,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1836. 

Burton,  (Henry,)  an  English  theologian  and  dis- 
senter, born  in  Yorkshire  in  1579.  He  published  in 
1626  two  sermons,  for  which  he  was  punished  with  the 
pillory,  the  loss  of  his  ears,  and  an  imprisonment  of 
fourteen  years.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Baiting  of 
the  Pope's  Bull,"  (1627.)    Died  in  1648. 

See  "Narration  of  the  Life  of  H.  Burton,"  1648. 

Burton,  (John,)  an  English  philologist  and  divine, 
born  in  Devonshire  in  1696,  became  professor  of  Greek 
at  Oxford.  He  published  "  Opuscula  Miscellanea  theo- 
logica,"  (2  vols.,  1771.)    Died  in  1771. 

Burton,  (John,)  an  English  physician  and  antiquary, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1697,  published  "The  Life  and 
Writings  of  Boerhaave,"  (1743,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1771. 

Bur'ton,  (John  Hill,)  a  Scottish  advocate  and  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  born  at  Aberdeen  in  1809,  has  pub- 
lished "  Benthamianas,  or  Extracts  from  the  Works  of 
Jeremy  Bentham,"  "Life  and  Correspondence  of  David 
Hume,"  (1846,)  "The  History  of  Scotland  from  the 
Revolution  to  the  Extinction  of  the  Jacobite  Insurrec- 
tion," (1853,)  and  "History  of  Scotland  from  Agri- 
cola's  Invasion  to  the  Revolution  of  1688,"  (1867.) 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1867. 

Burton,  (Richard  Francis,)  a  celebrated  English 
traveller,  born  about  1821,  published  "  Sindh,  or  the  Un- 
happy Valley,"  (2  vols.,  1852.)  Under  the  auspices  of 
the  Geographical  Society  of  London,  he  explored  Arabia 
in  1853,  and  published  a  "Personal  Narrative  of  a  Pil- 
grimage to  El  Medinah  and  Meccah,"  (3  vols.,  1856,) 
"The  Lake  Regions  of  Central  Africa,"  (i860,)  "Abeo- 
kuta  and  the  Cameroon  Mountains,"  (1863,)  and  "The 
Highlands  of  Brazil,"  (2  vols.,  1869.)  He  has  received 
for  his  services  to  science  the  gold  medals  of  the  English 
and  French  Geographical  Societies. 

See  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  i860;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  i860;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  September,  1855. 


£  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  VL,guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BURTON 


472 


BUSHNELL 


Burton,  (Robert,)  an  English  philosopher  and  hu- 
morist, born  at  Lindley,  Leicestershire,  in  1576,  was 
educated  at  Oxford.  He  became  vicar  of  Saint  Thomas, 
Oxford,  in  16 16,  and  published  in  1621  his  famous  work 
"  The  Anatomy  of  Melancholy  :  what  it  is,  with  ail  the 
Kinds,  Causes,  Symptoms,  Prognostics,  and  several 
Cures  of  it :  Philosophically,  Medicinally,  Historically 
opened  and  cut  up.  By  Democritus  Junior."  He  com- 
posed this  book  to  cure  himself  of  melancholy.  Lord 
Byron  pronounced  it  "  the  most  amusing  and  instructive 
medley  of  quotations  and  classical  anecdotes  I  ever 
perused."  Dr.  Johnson  expressed  the  following  opinion  : 
"  There  is  great  spirit  and  great  power  in  what  Burton 
says,  when  he  writes  from  his  own  mind."  (Boswell's 
"Life  of  Johnson.")  Burton  obtained  the  living  of  Se- 
grave  about  1630.    Died  in  January,  1639  or  1640. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
September,  1861. 

Burton,  (William,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1575,  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "Description  of 
Leicestershire,  with  its  Antiquities."  Died  in  1645. 

Burton,  (William,)  an  English  scholar,  born  about 
1609,  taught  school  at  Kingston-upon-Thames,  and  pub- 
lished "  Graecae  Linguae  Historia,"  (1657.)    Died  in  1657. 

Burton,  (William  Evans,)  a  popular  English  come- 
dian and  dramatist,  born  in  London  in  1804.  He  resided 
in  the  United  States  after  1834,  and  was  manager  of 
several  theatres  in  New  York  and  Philadelphia.  He 
published  a  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Wit  and  Humour,"  (2  vols., 
1858.)    Died  about  i860. 

Bury,  b§r're,  (Arthur,)  an  English  theologian,  was 
principal  of  Exeter  College  in  the  reign  of  William  HL 
His  work,  entitled  "The  Naked  Gospel,"  was  publicly 
burned  in  1690,  and  the  author  deprived  of  his  office. 

Bury,  (Lady  Charlotte  Campbell,)  a  British  novel- 
ist, born  in  1775,  was  a  sister  of  the  Marquis  of  Lorn. 
She  patronized  Sir  Walter  Scott  when  he  was  young. 
Among  her  works  are  "  The  Devoted,"  and  "  Flirtation." 
Died  in  1861, 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1838. 

Bury,  (Elizabeth,)  an  English  scholar,  noted  for  her 
knowledge  of  Hebrew,  was  born  in  Cambridgeshire  in 
1644.    Died  in  1720. 

See  a  "  Life  of  E.  Bury,"  by  her  husband,  Samuel  Bury. 

Bury,  de,  deh  bii're',  (Richard,)  a  French  historian, 
born  in  Paris  in  1730.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  i'he  Heroic  and  Private  Life  of  Henry  IV.  of  France," 
(2  vols.,  1765.)    Died  in  1794. 

Bury,  de,  (Richard.)    See  Richard  de  Bury. 

Bus.    See  Bos. 

Bus,  dcdehbiis,  (C^sar,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born 
at  Cavaillon  in  1544,  founded  in  1592  tlie  Congregation 
.)f  Christian  Doctrine.    Died  in  1607. 

See  J.  DE  Beauvais,  "Vie  de  Cesar  de  Bus,"  1645  ;  Pierre  Du- 
mas, "Vie  du  venerable  C.  de  Bus,"  1703. 

Busbecq,  bus'b^k  orbiis'b^k',  Bousbecq,  or  Boes- 
bec,  boos'bgk,  (Augier  Ghislen,)  [Lat.  Auge'rius 
Ghisle'nius  Busbe'quius,]  an  eminent  Flemish  scholar 
and  traveller,  born  at  Commines  in  1522,  was  sent  by 
the  emperor  Ferdinand  as  ambassador  to  Solyman  H. 
He  afterwards  wrote,  in  Latin,  an  interesting  narrative 
of  his  sojourn  at  the  court  of  the  Sultan,  "  Legationis 
Turcicae  Epistolae  quatuor,"  (1589,)  which  is  replete  with 
valuable  information  of  various  kinds.  Besides  the  above 
work,  he  wrote  "  Letters  from  France  to  the  Emperor 
Rudolph."    Died  in  1592. 

See  SwKERT,  "Athenae  Belgics ;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol. 
xiii.,  1826;  J.  G.  EcK,  "Dissertatio  de  A.  G.  Busbequio,"  1768;  Ni- 
CKRON,  "Memoires." 

Bus'by,  (Dr.  Richard,)  born  in  Lincolnshire,  Eng- 
land, in  1606,  became  master  of  Westminster  School  in 
1640,  and  in  the  fifty-five  years  during  which  he  held 
that  station  he  is  said  to  have  educated  a  greater  num- 
ber of  distinguished  men  than  any  other  teacher  that 
ever  lived.  He  died  in  1695.  Though  a  very  severe 
disciplinarian,  he  was  kind-hearted  and  eminently  chari- 
table to  the  poor.* 

See  Wooi>,  "Athense  Oxonienses;"  " BiographiaBritannica." 

*  "Yet  he  was  kind;  or,  if  severe  in  aught, 
The  love  he  bore  to  learning  was  in  fault." 

Goldsmith's  "  Deserted  Village." 


Busby,  (Thomas,)  an  English  musician  and  writer, 
born  at  Westminster  in  1755,  became  organist  at  the 
church  of  Saint  Mary  Wolnoth.  He  published  a  "  History 
of  Music,"  a  musical  dictionary,  "The  Age  of  Genius," 
a  poem,  and  made  a  translation  of  Lucretius.  Died  in  1838. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1814. 

Busch,  boosh,  or  Busel,  boo'zel,  (  August  Ludwig,) 
a  German  astronomer,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1804.  He  was 
the  assistant  of  Bessel,  whom  he  succeeded  as  director 
of  the  observatory  at  Konigsberg  in  1846.  Died  in  1855. 

Busche,  von  dem,  fon  dam  bdosh'eh,  [Lat.  Bus'- 
CHius,J  (Hermann,)  a  learned  German  friend  of  Luther, 
born  in  1468;  died  in  1534. 

Buschetto,  boos-kefto,  surnamed  da  Dulichio, 
(dJ  doo-lee'ke-o,)  from  the  place  of  his  birth,  a  Greek 
architect  and  sculptor,  built  the  famous  cathedral  church 
of  Pisa,  which  was  commenced  about  1063. 

See  Quatremere  dr  Quincy,  "Vies  des  Architectes  celebres." 

Biisching,  bii'shiag,  (Anton  Friedrich,)  an  eminent 
German  geographer  and  theologian,  born  in  Schaum- 
burg-Lippe  in  1 724.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Gottingen  in  1759,  and  in  1761  was  invited  to  Saint 
Petersburg  as  preacher  to  the  Protestant  congregation. 
His  "Description  of  the  Earth"  (1754)  was  esteemed 
the  most  complete  work  of  the  kind  that  had  then  ap- 
peared, and  was  translated  into  the  principal  languages 
of  Europe.  He  also  published  a  "  Magazine  for  History 
and  Geography,"  "Biographies  of  Celebrated  Persons," 
and  a  "  History  of  the  Lutheran  Churches  in  Poland  and 
Russia,"  (3  vols.,  1784-87.)    Died  in  1793. 

See  his  Autobiography,  entitled  "A.  F.  Buschings  Lebensge- 
schichte,"  1789. 

Biisching,  (Johann  Gustav  Gottlieb,)  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Berlin  in  1783.  He  was  appointed 
royal  archivist  at  Breslau  in  181 1,  and  professor  of  archae- 
ology in  1823.  He  published  many  works  on  German 
literature,  art,  and  mediaeval  antiquities.    Died  in  1829. 

Busel.    See  Busch. 

Busembaum.    See  Busenbaum. 

Busenbaum,  boo'zen-bowm',  or  Busembaum,  boo'- 
zem-bown/,  (Hermann,)  a  famous  German  Jesuit,  born 
at  Nottelen,  in  Westphalia,  in  1600.  His  work  entitled 
"Marrow  of  Moral  Theology"  ("Medulla  Theologiae 
Moralis,"  1645)  went  through  more  than  fifty  editions; 
but  it  was  condemned  to  be  burnt,  by  the  parliaments  of 
Paris  and  Toulouse,  for  countenancing  regicide.  Died 
in  1668. 

Bush,  (George,)  an  American  theologian  and  biblical 
scholar,  born  in  Norwich,  Vermont,  in  1796.  He  grad- 
uated at  Dartmouth  in  181 8,  and  was  appointed  in  183 1 
professor  of  Hebrew  and  Oriental  literature  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  New  York.  In  1832  he  published  his  "Life 
of  Mohammed,"  and  about  the  same  time  an  elaborate 
"Treatise  on  the  Millennium,"  in  which  he  maintained 
the  millennium  to  have  been  the  period  in  which  Chris- 
tianity triumphed  over  Roman  paganism.  In  1835  ap- 
peared his  "Hebrew  Grammar,"  in  1836  "Illustrations 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,"  and  in  1840  he  began  his  series  of 
"  Bible  Commentaries,"  in  8  vols.  In  1847  he  embraced 
the  doctrines  of  Swedenborg.  He  edited  the  "  New 
Church  Repository,"  and  officiated  as  Swedenborgian 
minister  until  within  a  few  months  of  his  death  in  i860. 

See  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Bushe,  boosh,  (Sir  Charles  Kendal,)  an  eloquent 
Irish  lawyer  and  judge,  born  about  1767,  was  a  member 
of  the  Irish  Parliament.  He  became  chief  justice  of 
Ireland  in  1822.    Died  in  1843. 

See  Brougham,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  IIL,"  Third 
Series. 

Bush'el,  (Thomas,)  an  English  royalist,  born  in  1594, 
was  master  of  the  royal  mines  in  Wales,  and  published 
several  works.    Died  in  1674. 

Bushnell,  bdosh'nel,  (David,)  an  American  inventor, 
born  in  Saybrook,  Connecticut,  about  1742,  became  a 
captain  in  the  army.  He  prepared  explosive  machines 
which  he  placed  in  kegs,  that  they  might  be  carried  by 
the  tide  against  the  British  ships  in  the  Delaware.  This 
affair  occasioned  Hopkinson's  ballad  of  "The  Battle  of 
the  Kegs."  Died  in  1826. 

See  Henry  Howe,  "  Lives  of  Eminent  American  Mechanics,  etc.," 
1847. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BUSH  NELL 


473 


BUTLER 


Bushnell,  (Horace,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  American 
divine,  born  in  Litchfield  county,  Connecticut,  in  1802. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1827,  and  was  after- 
wards fo  some  time  literary  editor  of  the  New  York 
"Journal  of  Commerce."  In  1833  he  was  ordained  pas- 
tor of  the  North  Congregational  Church  in  Hartford. 
Dr.  Bushnell  has  long  been  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
eloquent  preachers  and  accomplished  writers  in  Con- 
necticut. He  has  published  several  volumes,  and  a  great 
number  of  discourses  and  addresses  on  various  subjects, 
chiefly  philosophical  and  theological,  including  the 
"  Moral  Tendencies  and  Results  of  Human  History," 

Unconscious  Influence,"  "  Politics  the  Law  of  God," 
"The  Age  of  Homespun,"  etc.  In  1849  he  was  sum- 
moned before  the  Hartford  Central  Association  of  Min- 
isters for  the  heretical  opinions  alleged  to  be  contained 
in  his  volume  entitled  "  God  in  Christ."  The  charge  was 
not  sustained  ;  and  in  reply  Dr.  Bushnell  published  (1851) 
his  "  Christian  Theology,"  in  which  he  reviews  the  various 
shades  of  belief  that  have  prevailed  in  the  Church,  and 
arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  exactness  in  theological 
science  cannot  be  attained.  In  1858  appeared  his  most 
important  work,  "Nature  and  the  Supernatural  as  to- 
gether constituting  the  One  System  of  God." 

Biisiri.    See  Booseeree. 

Bu-si'ris,  [Gr.  BovotpLc,]  in  ancient  mythology,  a  king 
of  Egypt,  and  son  of  Neptune,  who  sacrificed  to  Jupiter 
all  the  foreigners  who  entered  his  dominions.  He  was 
killed  by  Hercules. 

See  P.  Ekermann,  "Dissertatio  de  Busiride,"  Upsal,  1743. 

Busleyden,  biis-li'den,  [Lat.  Buslid'ius,]  (Jerome,) 
a  distinguished  patron  of  literature,  and  friend  of  Eras- 
mus, born  in  the  province  of  Luxemburg  about  1470 ; 
died  in  1517. 

Buslidius,  the  Latin  of  Busleyden,  which  see. 

Buss,  boos,  (Franz  Joseph,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Zell  in  1803,  was  professor  of  law  and  political  ecouomy 
at  Freiburg  in  1836.  He  published  "The  Methodology 
of  Canon  Law,"  and  other  works. 

Bussey,  biiz'ze,  (Benjamin,)  a  wealthy  merchant  of 
Boston,  born  at  Canton,  Massachusetts,  in  1757.  He  be- 
queathed a  large  sum  to  Harvard  College.  Died  in  1842. 

Bussieres,  de,  deh  bii'se'aiR',  a  French  writer  and 
poet,  born  near  Lyons  in  1607  ;  died  in  1678. 

Bussola,  boos'so-ld,  (Dionigi,)  a  Milanese  sculptor, 
flourished  about  1600-30. 

Busson,  bii^s^N',  (J u lien,)  a  French  physician,  born 
in  Brittany  in  1717;  died  in  1781. 

Bussone.    See  Carmagnola. 

Bussy,  bii'se',  (Antoine  Alexandre  Brutus,)  a 
French  ph3'sician  and  scientific  writer,  born  at  Marseilles 
in  1794,  made  several  discoveries  in  chemistry.  In  1850 
he  was  admitted  into  the  Institute. 

Bussy  d'Amboise,  de,  dehbii'se'  dhs'hw^z' ,  (Louis 
DE  Clermont,)  a  French  nobleman  of  the  time  of  Henry 
III.,  signalized  himself  by  his  cruelty  during  the  Massa- 
cre of  Saint  Bartholomew.  He  was  at  length  murdered 
by  the  Count  of  Montsoreau,  whose  wife  he  had  seduced. 
His  adventures  form  the  subject  of  Dumas'  romance 
"La  Dame  de  Montsoreau." 

See  De  Thou,  "  Histoire  Universelle." 

Bussy-Rabutin,  de,  deh  bii'se'  rfbii^'tiN',  (Roger,) 
Comte,  a  French  satirist,  born  in  Nivernais  in  1618. 
He  published  "  Memoirs"  and  "  Letters,"  and  a  work 
entitled  "Amorous  History  of  the  Gauls."  He  was  im- 
prisoned a  year  in  the  Bastille,  and  subsequently  exiled 
to  his  country-seat  sixteen  years,  for  writing  a  satire  on 
Louis  XIV.    Died  in  1693. 

See  Le  Bret,  "Memoires  secrets  de  Bussy-Rabutin,"  1767. 

Bustamante  de  la  Camara,  boos-t^-mSn'ta  dk  la 
ki'mi-ri,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  naturalist,  born  at  Alcala  de 
Henares.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  animals  mentioned 
in  the  Scriptures,  (2  vols.,  1595.) 

Bustamente,  boos  ta-men'ti,  (Anastasius,)  a  Mexi- 
can general,  born  about  1782.  He  became  President  of 
Mexico  in  1830,  was  soon  after  banished,  was  again  chosen 
President  in  1837,  and  was  banished  a  second  time  in 
184L    Died  in  1851. 

Bustamente  or  Bustamante,  de,  di  boos-ti-man'- 
li,  (Don  Carlos  Maria,)  a  Mexican  archaeologist,  born 


about  1800.  He  edited,  besides  other  works,  Bernardino 
de  Sahagun's  "History  of  New  Spain,"  ("Historia  uni- 
versal de  las  Cosas  de  Nueva  Espana,"  3  vols.,  1839.) 

Busti,  boos'tee,  (Agostino,)  a  skilful  Italian  sculp- 
tor, sometimes  called  IL  Bustino,  (^1  boos-tee'no,)  and 
Bambaia,  (bam-bl'yi,)  born  in  the  Milanese  in  1470. 
His  chief  work  was  a  monument  to  Gaston  de  Foix  at 
Milan.    Died  about  1550. 

Bute,  (John  Stuart,)  Earl  of,  a  British  statesman, 
born  in  Scotland  in  1713.  He  became  in  1738  one  of 
the  lords  of  the  bedchamber  to  Frederick,  Prince  of 
Wales,  and  in  this  station  succeeded  in  obtaining  agreat 
ascendency  over  the  mind  of  that  prince's  son,  afterwards 
George  HI.  The  life  of  Lord  Bute  belongs  rather  to 
history  than  to  biography.  We  will  merely  say  here 
that  in  1761  he  was  made  one  of  the  principal  secretaries 
of  state,  and  in  May,  1762,  he  became  first  lord  of  the 
treasury  to  the  young  king.  As  minister  he  was  emi- 
nently unpopular ;  but  although  he  resigned  in  April, 
1763,  he  still  retained  the  confidence  of  the  king,  and 
continued  (as  was  generally  believed)  to  exert  a  great 
influence  over  the  counsels  of  the  cabinet.  He  passed 
the  last  six  or  seven  years  of  his  life  in  unbroken  re- 
tirement, and  died  in  1792.  Lord  Bute  was  a  liberal 
patron  of  literature  and  the  arts.  He  was  fond  of  the 
sciences,  especially  of  botany,  and  published  an  expen- 
sive work,  in  nine  volumes,  on  the  plants  of  England. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Aligemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  JNLacaulay, 
"Essay  on  the  Earl  of  Chatham,"  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
October,  1844. 

Buteo,  bii'tk'o',  or  Borrel,  bo^r^K,  (Jean,)  a  French 
geometer  and  writer,  born  at  Charpey  in  1492  ;  died  in 
1572. 

Bufler,  (Alb an,)  a  learned  English  Catholic  divine, 
president  of  the  College  of  Saint-Omer,  author  of  "  Lives 
of  the  Saints,"  (5  vols.,  1745,)  and  other  works.  Born  at 
Northampton  in  1710;  died  in  1773. 

See  Charles  Butler,  "  Life  of  Aiban  Butler,"  London,  1799. 

But'ler,  (Andrew  Pickens,)  an  American  politician, 
born  in  South  Carolina  about  1796.  He  was  a  United 
States  Senator  for  South  Carolina  for  a  number  of  years 
between  1846  and  1857.  His  kinsman  Preston  Brooks 
assaulted  Charles  Sumner  in  1856,  on  account  of  some 
remarks  off'ensive  to  Butler.    Died  in  1857. 

Butler,  (Benjamin  F.,)  an  American  lawyer,  practised 
at  Albany,  in  New  York  State.  He  was  attoiney-general 
of  the  United  States  from  December,  1831,  to  June,  1834, 
in  the 'cabinet  of  President  Jackson.   Died  in  1858. 

Butler,  (Benjamin  Franklin,)  an  American  politi- 
cian and  general,  born  at  Deerfield,  New  Hampshire,  on 
the  5th  of  November,  1818.  According  to  Parton,  he 
was  "a  youth  of  keen  vision,  fiery,  inquisitive,  fearless." 
He  graduated  at  Waterville  College,  Maine,  about  1838. 
He  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1840,  and 
practised  with  success.  It  is  said  that  in  fertility  of  ex- 
pedients and  devices  to  obtain  an  acquittal  of  his  client 
he  has  seldom  if  ever  been  equalled.  He  was  originally 
what  is  termed  a  "hard-shell"  Democrat,  [i.e.  one  in- 
flexibly devoted  to  the  principles  of  the  party.)  Pie  took  an 
active  part  in  politics,  and  was  a  delegate  to  the  National 
Convention  which  was  held  in  Charleston  in  April,  i860, 
and  adjourned  to  Baltimore,  where  it  separated  into  two 
bodies.  Butler  supported  Breckinridge  for  the  Presi- 
dency in  November,  i860,  and  thus  made  himself  so  un- 
popular in  the  North  that  he  received  only  six  thousand 
votes  as  candidate  for  Governor  of  Massachusetts  in 
that  year. 

On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  in  1861  he  took 
command  of  a  brigade,  which  he  moved  at  once  towards 
Washington  ;  but,  on  hearing  of  the  riot  in  Baltimore,  he 
made  a  detour  to  Annapolis.  He  occupied  Baltimore 
on  the  13th  or  14th  of  May,  was  appointed  a  major- 
general  on  the  1 6th,  and  on  the  22d  took  command  of 
Fortress  Monroe,  the  most  important  fort  in  the  Union. 
Three  slaves  having  come  to  the  fort  for  protection,  But- 
ler received  them,  and  applied  to  them  the  famous  phrase 
"contraband  of  war."  "An  epigram,"  said  Theodore 
Winthrop,  alluding  to  this  expression,  "  abolished  slavery 
in  the  United  States."  Butler  commanded  the  land- 
forces  of  the  expedition  which  took  Fort  Hatteras,  North 
Carolina,  in  August,  1861.   In  January,  1862,  he  olDtained 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  h,  vi, guttural ;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BUTLER 


474 


BUTLER 


command  of  an  army  of  about  15,000  men  sent  by  sea 
to  co-operate  with  the  navy  in  the  capture  of  New  Or- 
leans. The  department  of  the  Gulf  was  then  created, 
and  Butler  was  appointed  commander  of  the  same. 
Admiral  Farragut  passed  the  forts  on  the  24th  of  April, 
and  transferred  New  Orleans  to  General  Butler,  who 
entered  it  on  the  ist  of  May.  By  stern  and  vigorous 
measures  he  reduced  the  city  to  order,  and,  by  his  wise 
and  strict  sanitary  regulations,  preserved  it  from  the 
yellow  fever  in  the  summer  of  1862.  He  ordered  Wil- 
liam Mumford  to  be  executed  for  tearing  down  the  flag 
of  the  Union  from  the  mint.  To  obtain  funds  for  the 
sup]wrt  of  the  poor,  he  exacted  money  from  rich  seces- 
sionists. A  great  outcry  was  made  against  him  for  his 
order  "that  any  female  who  should  insult  an  officer  or 
Boldier  should  be  regarded  and  held  liable  to  be  treated 
as  a  woman  of  the  town,  plying  her  avocation,"  which, 
according  to  Parton,  had  a  salutary  effect.  General  But- 
ler imprisoned  the  insolent  Mayor  Monroe  in  Fort  Jack- 
son in  May,  1862.  He  armed  free  coloured  men,  and 
obtained  from  that  class  recruits  for  his  army.  In  No- 
vember, 1862,  he  was  removed  from  the  command,  and 
was  succeeded  by  General  Banks, — a  change  v/hich  it 
would  perhaps  be  difficult  to  defend  on  any  principles 
of  sound  policy.  "At  New  Orleans,"  says  Parton,  "he 
was  magnificently  right  both  in  theory  and  practice."  In 
December,  1862,  Jefferson  Davis  issued  a  proclamation 
in  relation  to  General  Butler,  whom  he  declared  to  be  a 
felon,  and  ordered  him  to  be  treated  as  an  outlaw.  But- 
ler had  gone  to  New  Orleans  a  pro-slavery  Democrat : 
he  came  away  a  decided  anti-slavery  man  and  a  Radical. 
He  obtained  command  of  the  department  of  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina  in  the  latter  part  of  1863.  Having  been 
instructed  to  operate  on  the  south  side  of  the  James  River 
against  Richmond,  he  moved  his  army,  composed  of  two 
corps,  up  the  James  River  on  the  4th  of  May,  1864,  and 
on  the  5th  occupied  City  Point  and  Bermuda  Hundred, 
where  he  intrenched  himself  His  army  was  attacked 
on  the  1 6th,  near  Drury's  Bluff,  and  forced  back  into  its 
intrenchments,  where  it  was  safe,  but  could  not  operate 
efficiently  against  Richmond.  He  commanded  the  land- 
force  of  an  unsuccessful  expedition  against  Fort  Fisher 
in  December,  1864,  and  soon  after  this  date  was  removed 
from  command  by  General  Grant,  who  complained  that 
he  had  violated  his  instructions. 

He  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1866,  and 
was  one  of  the  managers  selected  March  2,  1868,  to 
conduct  the  impeachment  of  President  Johnson.  He 
was  re-elected  to  Congress  in  1868. 

See  Parton,  "General  Butler  in  New  Orleans;  History  of  the 
Administration  of  the  Department  of  the  Gulf  in  1862,"  1864;  Gree- 
ley, "American  Conflict,"  2  vols.,  1864-66. 

Butler,  (Charles,)  an  English  clergyman,  scholar, 
and  writer  on  music,  etc.,  born  at  High  Wycombe  in  1559. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Feminine  Monarchy,  or  the 
History  of  Bees,"  (1609,)  and  "The  Principles  of  Music," 
(1636.)    Died  in  1647. 

Butler,  (Charles,)  an  able  and  learned  English  jurist 
and  Roman  Catholic  writer,  a  nephew  of  Alban  But- 
ler, noticed  above,  was  born  in  London  in  1750.  He 
completed  the  edition  of  Coke  upon  Littleton  which  Har- 
grave  left  unfinished.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"PIor^E  BiblicDe,"  (1797,)  "  Horee  juridicae  subsecivae," 
(1804,)  "Historical  Memoirs  of  the  English,  Irish,  and 
Scottish  Catholics,"  and  a  continuation  of  Alban  Butler's 
"Lives  of  the  Saints."   Died  in  1832. 

See  "Reminiscences  of  Charles  Butler,"  London,  1822. 

Butler,  (Cyrus,)  an  American  merchant,  born  in 
1767,  lived  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island.  He  gave  forty 
thousand  dollars  to  endow  a  hospital  for  the  insane  at 
Providence.    Died  in  1849. 

Butler,  (Frances.)    See  Kemble,  (Fanny.) 

Butler,  (James.)  See  Ormond,  Duke  of. 
^  Butler,  (James,)  an  American  soldier  of  the  Revolu- 
cion,  born  in  Prince  William  county,  Virginia,  settled  in 
South  Carolina,  where  he  distinguished  himself  in  par- 
tisan warfare  against  the  British.  He  was  killed  in  the 
massacre  at  Cloud's  Creek,  near  the  close  of  the  war. 

Butler,  (John,)  Bishop  of  Hereford,  an  English  politi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1717.  He  wrote  pamph- 
lets in  support  of  Lord  North's  measures.    Died  in  1802. 


Butler,  (John,)  an  American  tory,  born  in  Connecti- 
cut, was  notorious  as  the  leader  of  the  party  which  mas- 
sacred the  settlers  of  Wyoming  Valley  in  July,  1778. 

Butler,  (Joseph,)  an  English  bishop  and  writer  of  high 
reputation,  was  born  at  Wantage,  in  Berkshire,  in  1692. 
He  commenced  his  scholastic  education  at  the  grammar- 
school  at  Wantage,  from  which  he  went  to  an  academy 
in  Gloucestershire,  where  he  had  for  his  fellow-student 
Seeker,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  While  at 
this  academy  "  he  wrote,"  says  Mackintosh,  "private  let- 
ters to  Dr.  Clarke  on  his  celebrated  'Demonstration,' 
suggesting  objections  that  were  really  insuperable,  and 
which  are  marked  by  an  acuteness  which  neither  himself 
nor  any  other  ever  surpassed."  Not  long  after,  he  en- 
tered (3riel  College,  Oxford.  He  was  admitted  into  holy 
orders  about  1 716  or  17 17.  In  172 1  he  became  rector  of 
Houghton,  and  obtained  the  rich  living  of  Stanhope  in 
1725.  In  1726  he  published  fifteen  sermons  preached  at 
the  Rolls  Chapel,  which  are  highly  esteemed.  He  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  Lord-Chancellor  Talbot  in  1733, 
and  clerk  of  the  closet  to  the  queen  in  1736.  His  reputa- 
tion rests  chiefly  on  his  admirable  "  Analogy  of  Religion, 
Natural  and  Revealed,  to  the  Constitution  and  Course  of 
Nature,"  (1736.)  "This,"  says  Sir  James  Mackintosh, 
"  is  the  most  original  and  profound  v/ork  extant  in  any 
language  on  the  philosophy  of  religion."  Lord  Broug- 
ham pronounces  it  "the  most  argumentative  and  philo- 
sophical defence  of  Christianity  ever  submitted  to  the 
world."  Butler  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Bristol  in  1 738, 
and  Bishop  of  Durham  in  1750.  Died  in  1752.  His 
character  is  represented  as  pure,  modest,  and  amiable. 
He  was  never  married. 

See  Fitzgerald,  "Life  of  Bishop  Butler,"  prefixed  to  an  edition 
of  his  "Analogy,"  1848;  Mackintosh,  "View  of  the  Progress  of 
Ethical  Philosophy ;"  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors ;"  Thomas 
Bartlett,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Joseph  Butler,  Bishop  of 
Durham;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1830,  and  October, 
1839. 

Butler,  (Pierce  M.,)  Colonel,  born  in  Edgefield 
District,  South  Carolina,  in  1798,  became  Governor  of 
his  native  State,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Churu- 
busco  in  August,  1847. 

Butler,  (Richard,)  a  major-general  in  the  American 
army,  was  killed  while  fighting,  under  General  Saint 
Clair,  against  the  Indians,  in  1791. 

Butler,  (Samuel,)  a  celebrated  English  wit  and  poet, 
the  author  of  "  Hudibras,"  was  born  in  the  parish  of 
Strensham,  Worcestershire,  about  1612.  He  became  in 
early  life  a  clerk  to  Mr.  Jeffereys,  a  justice  of  the  peace, 
and  afterwards  entered  the  service  of  Sir  Samuel  Luke, 
an  officer  under  Cromwell.  Luke  is  supposed  to  be  the 
original  of  Hudibras.  After  the  restoration,  (1660,) 
Butler  was  secretary  to  the  Earl  of  Carbury,  who  ap- 
pointed him  steward  of  Ludlow  Castle.  He  married  a 
Mrs.  Herbert,  who  brought  him  a  fortune,  which,  how- 
ever, was  lost  by  investment  in  unsound  securities.  The 
first  part  of  his  famous  poem  was  published  in  1663, 
the  second  part  in  1664  ;  but  the  third  part  did  not  ap- 
pear until  1678.    He  died  poor,  in  London,  in  1680. 

"  '  Hudibras,'  "  says  Hallam,  "was  incomparably  more 
popular  than  '  Paradise  Lost :'  no  poem  in  our  lan- 
guage rose  at  once  to  greater  reputation.  Nor  can  this 
be  called  ephemeral,  like  that  of  most  political  poetry. 
.  .  .  The  sense  of  Butler  is  masculine,  his  wit  inexhausti- 
ble, and  it  is  supplied  from  every  source  of  reading  and 
observation.  But  these  sources  are  often  so  unknown 
to  the  reader  that  his  wit  loses  its  effect  through  the  ob- 
scurity of  the  allusions."  ("Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  Europe.") 

See  Dr.  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets;"  A.  M.  H.  Bou- 
LARD,  "  Vie  de  S.  Butler  Auteur  du  Poeme  d'Hudibras,"  Paris,  1816  ; 
"  Biographia  Britannica  ;"  A.  Ramsay,  "  Butler  and  his  Hudibras  ;" 
"Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  1S20;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
March,  1856. 

Butler,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  English  philologist,  born 
in  Warwickshire  in  1774.  He  studied  at  Saint  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  and  became  Bishop  of  Lichfield  in 
1836.  He  published  a  valuable  edition  of  "/Eschylus," 
a  "  Praxis  on  the  Latin  Prepositions,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1839. 

Butler,  (Thomas,)  Earl  of  Ossory,  son  of  James 
Duke  of  Ormond,  born  in  1634.  He  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  admiral  in  1673,  and  commanded  the  English 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscw'c;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


475  BUXTORF 


BUTLER 


'roops  in  Flanders  in  the  war  against  the  French  in  1677. 
Died  in  1680. 

Butler,  (Weeden,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Mar- 
gate in  1742,  became  chaplain  to  the  Duke  of  Kent. 
He  wrote  "  Tlie  Cheltenham  Guide,"  "  Sermons,"  etc. 
Died  in  1823. 

Butler,  (\ViLLiAM,)  an  English  teacher  and  writer  of 
school-books,  born  near  Worcester  in  1748.  Among  his 
works  is  "  Exercises  on  the  Globes,"  (1798.)  Died  in  1822. 

Butler,  (William,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Virginia  about  1755,  was  the  father  of  Andrew  P.  and 
Pierce  M.,  noticed  above.  He  represented  a  district 
of  South  Carolina  in  Congress  from  1800  to  1813.  Died 
in  1821. 

Butler,  (William  Allen,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
poet,  son  of  Benjamin  F.  Butler  the  attorney-general,  was 
born  in  Albany  in  1825.  His  "Nothing  to  Wear:  an 
Episode  in  City  Life,"  (1857,)  has  obtained  great  popu- 
larity both  in  Europe  and  in  this  country.  Mr.  Butler  has 
made  contributions  in  prose  and  verse  to  the  "Demo- 
cratic Review,"  "  Literary  World,"  etc. 

Butler,  (William  Archer,)  a  philosopher  and  poet, 
born  at  Annerville,  near  Clonmel,  Ireland,  about  1814. 
He  contributed  several  poems  to  the  "  Dublin  Univer- 
sity Magazine."  In  1837  he  became  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He  wrote  "Let- 
ters on  Romanism,  a  Reply  to  Cardinal  Wiseman,"  (1854,) 
"Lectures  on  the  History  of  Ancient  Philosophy,"  (2 
vols.,  1856,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1848. 

Butler,  (William  O.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Kentucky  about  1793.  He  served  in  the  war  of  1812,  and 
in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47.)  In  1846  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  major-general.  He  was  the  Democratic  can- 
didate for  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  in  1848, 
but  was  not  elected. 

Butret,  de,  deh  bii'tR^',  Baron,  a  French  horticul- 
turist of  Strasburg.  He  published  in  1794  a  treatise  on 
the  trimming  of  fruit-trees,  "  Taille  raisonnee  des  Arbres 
fruitiers,"  which  was  often  reprinted.    Died  in  1805. 

Butt,  (Georcje,)  an  English  clergyman  and  poet,  born 
in  1741,  published  numerous  sermons.  Died  about  1795. 

Butt,  (Isaac,)  an  Irish  lawyer  and  politician,  born  in 
Donegal  county  in  1813.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
Parliament  in  1852.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,"  (i860.) 

Buttafuoco,  boot-ta-foo-o''co,  (Matteo,)  a  general, 
born  in  Corsica  in  1730.  He  opposed  Paoli,  and  pro- 
moted the  incorporation  of  Corsica  with  France.  As  a 
member  of  the  States-General  in  1789,  he  favoured  the 
old  regime.    Died  about  1800. 

Bufter-field,  (Daniel,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Oneida  county,  New  York,  about  1831.  He  was  ap- 
pointed a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  September, 
1 86 1.  He  served  at  several  battles  near  Richmond  in 
May  and  June,  1862,  after  which  he  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  major-general. 

Butf'maiin,  [Ger.  pron.  boot'min,]  (Philipp  Karl,) 
a  learned  and  profound  German  philologist,  born  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  December,  1764,  became  in 
1796  secretary  and  in  181 1  librarian  of  the  Royal  Library 
at  Berlin.  Died  in  1829.  Buttmann  devoted  his  atten- 
tion chiefly  to  the  study  of  the  Greek  language  and  an- 
tiquities.  His  large  Greek  Grammar  ("  Ausfiihrliche 
Ciriec  hische  Sprachlehre")  is,  so  far  as  it  goes,  jDcrhaps 
the  best  work  of  the  kind  that  has  ever  been  written. 
Unhappily,  he  did  not  live  to  complete  it.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Niebuhr,  He  edited  various  Greek  classics. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "  Greek  Grammar  for 
Schools,"  (1792,)  which  is  an  abridgment  of  a  more  ex- 
tensive work,  sometimes  called  the  "  Intermediate  Greek 
Grammar,"  (1819,)  "Lexilogus,  or  Explanation  of  Greek 
Words,"  (1818,)  and  "  Mythologus,  or  a  Collection  of 
Treatises  on  the  Traditions  of  Antiquity,"  (2  vols.,  1828.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  Brockhaus,  "  Conversa- 
tions-Lexikon." 

Biitt'ner,  (Christian  Wilhelm,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man philologist  and  naturalist,  born  at  Wolfenbiittel  in 
1 7 16.  He  travelled  extensively,  and  formed  rich  collec- 
tions of  natural  history.  He  passed  many  years  at  Got- 
tingen  in  researches  into  the  primitive  history  of  nations 
and  the  filiation  of  languages.    To  him  we  owe  the  first 


essay  of  a  glossography,  or  geography  of  languages.  He 
published  several  works.    Died  at  Jena  in  1801. 
See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Buttner,  boot'ner,  (David  Sigismund  August,)  a 
German  botanist,  born  in  1724,  succeeded  Haller  in  the 
chair  of  botany  at  Gottingen.    Died  in  1768. 

But'ton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  navigator,  made  a 
voyage  to  the  northeastern  part  of  America  in  1612,  and 
discovered  the  mouth  of  Nelson  River,  in  about  57°  north 
latitude.  He  gave  the  name  of  Button's  Bay  to  a  bay 
near  Nelson  River.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
who  sailed  through  Hudson  Strait  to  the  western  shore 
of  Hudson  Bay. 

Butts,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Norfolk,  is  mentioned  by  Shakspeare  in  his  play  of 
"  Henry  VIII.,"  act  v.  He  was  physician  to  Henry  VIII. 
Died  in  1545. 

Buttura,  boot-too''ri,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  critic  and 
litterateur,  born  near  Lake  Garda  in  1 771.  He  became 
professor  of  the  Italian  language  and  literature  at  Saint- 
Cyr,  in  France,  and  in  1817  succeeded  Ginguene  as  pro- 
fessor at  the  Athenaeum.    Died  in  1832. 

Buttura,  bu'tu'rt^  (Eugene  Ferdinand,)  a  land- 
scape-painter, son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in 
1812  ;  died  in  1852. 

Buturlin.    See  Bootoorlin. 

Buxbaum,  books^bowm,  (Johann  Christian,)  a 
German  botanist,  born  at  Merseburg  in  1694,  founded, 
at  the  command  of  the  Czar,  a  botanic  garden  at  Saint 
Petersburg  about  1720,  and  died  in  1730. 

Buxhowden,  bdoks^hoMen,  sometimes  written  Bux- 
hoeden,  (Frederick  William,)  Count,  a  Russian  gen- 
eral, born  in  Livonia  in  1750.  He  served  in  the  Polish 
campaign  of  1792,  and  commanded  the  left  wing  of  the 
Russians  at  Austerlitz.    Died  in  1811. 

Buxtehude,  (Dip:trich,)  a  Dutch  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  about  1635,  became  organist  to  Saint  Mary's 
Church  at  Lubeck.  He  was  esteemed  one  of  the  best 
performers  of  his  time,  and  composed  sacred  pieces  of 
great  merit.    Died  in  1707, 

Bux'tpn,  (Charles,)  an  English  writer,  son  of  T. 
Fowell  Buxton,  noticed  below,  born  in  1822.  He  wrote 
"  Memoirs  of  Sir  Thomas  Fowell  Buxton,"  (3d  edition, 
,1851.)  He  became  a  member  of  Parliament  and  of  the 
Liberal  party. 

Buxton,  (Jedediah,)  an  English  arithmetician  of 
singular  powers  of  calculation,  born  near  Chesterfield  in 
1705.  His  intellect  was  below  mediocrity,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  wonderful  facility  in  solving  the  most  diffi- 
cult problems.  When  on  a  visit  to  London,  he  was  taken 
to  the  theatre,  and  employed  himself  in  counting  the 
words  used  by  the  actors.    Died  about  1774. 

Buxton,  (Sir  Thomas  Fowell,)  an  eminent  English 
philanthropist,  born  at  Castle  Hedingham,  in  Essex,  in 
1786.  He  married  in  1807  Hannah  Gurney,  of  Earlham 
Hall,  a  sister  of  Joseph  John  Gurney  and  Elizabeth  Fry. 
He  represented  Weymouth  in  Parliament  from  181 8 
to  1837,  acquired  much  influence  in  public  affairs,  and 
succeeded  Wilberforce  as  the  leader  of  the  anti-slavery 
movement.  About  1838  he  produced  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Slave-Trade."    Died  in  1845. 

See  a  "Life  of  T.  F.  Buxton,"  by  his  son,  Charles  Buxton,  3d 
edition,  1851;  A.  von  Treskow,  "Sir  T.  F.  Buxton:  ein  Biid 
des  Englischen  Lebens,  etc.,"  Berlin,  1853;  "London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  June,  1848;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  September,  1818. 

Buxtorf,  books'toRf,  [Lat.  Buxtor'fius,]  (Johann,) 
a  distinguished  Hebrew  scholar,  born  at  Camen,  in  West- 
phalia, in  1564.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Bale 
in  1591,  and  published  a  "Lexicon  Hebraicum  et  Chal- 
daicum,"(i6o7,)  "  Biblia  Hebraica  Rabbinica,"  or  Hebrew 
Bible  with  Rabbinical  notes,  and  several  treatises  on  the 
writings  of  the  Rabbins.    Died  in  1629. 

See  Daniel  TossANUS,  "Oratio  de  Vita  et  Obitu  J  Buxtorfii," 
1630;  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Buxtorf,  (Johann,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Bale  in  1599,  was  also  celebrated  as  a  Hebraist.  In  1630 
he  succeeded  his  father  as  professor  at  Bale.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Chaldee  and  Syriac  Lexicon,"  "Concordance 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible,"  (1632,)  left  unfinished  by  his  father, 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1664. 

See  L.  Gernler,  "  Oratio  parentalis  J.  Buxtorfii  Memoriae  dicata," 
1655;  Niceron,  "Memoires." 


€  as  k;  9  as  j-;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (;3:^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BUXTORF 


476 


BTRON 


Buxtorf,  (JoHANN  Jakob,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1645  at  Bale,  was  professor  of  Hebrew  in  his  native 
city.    Died  in  1704, 

His  nepliew  John  was  likewise  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Bale.    Died  in  1732. 

See  S.  Werenfels,  "Vita  eximii  Viri  J.  J.  Buxtorfii,"  1705. 

Buy  de  Mornas,  bii-e'  deh  moWn^^,  (Claude,)  a 
French  geographer,  born  at  Lyons.  He  published  "  Me- 
thodical and  Elementary  Cosmography,"  {1770,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1783. 

Buys,  bois,  (Paulus,)  an  eminent  Dutch  statesman, 
lived  about  1550-90.  He  was  honoured  with  the  friend- 
ship and  confidence  of  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  and 
held  for  a  considerable  time  the  office  of  advocate  of 
Holland.  During  the  administration  of  the  Earl  of 
Leicester  in  the  Netherlands,  Buys  was  the  leader  of 
the  opposition  party.  He  is  pronounced  by  Motley  one 
'>f  the  ablest  statesmen  of  Holland. 

See  Motley,  "United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  chap.  x. 

Buzanval,  de,  deh  bii'zSN^iK,  (Nicolas  Choart,) 
a  French  prelate,  remarkable  for  his  devotion  to  the 
duties  of  his  office  and  for  the  apostolic  simplicity  of 
his  character,  born  in  Paris  in  161  r,  became  Bishop  of 
Beauvais  in  1650.    Died  in  1679. 

See  J.  Besoigne,  "  Vies  des  quatre  fiveques  engages  dans  la  Cause 
de  Port- Royal,"  2  vols.,  1756. 

Buzot,  bii'zo',  (FRANgois  Leonard  Nicolas,)  an 
eminent  French  Girondist,  born  at  Evreux  in  1760,  was 
an  advocate  before  the  Revolution.  He  was  sent  as  a 
deputy  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  to  the  Na- 
tional Convention  in  1792.  In  the  trial  of  the  king  he 
voted  for  an  appeal  to  the  people.  On  the  31st  of  May, 
1793,  he  was  proscribed  as  a  royalist  with  the  other 
chiefs  of  the  Gironde,  and  fled,  first  to  Calvados  ;  after- 
wards they  attempted  to  conceal  themselves  in  the  south 
of  France.  Buzot  and  Petion  were  found  dead  in  a  field 
near  Bordeaux  in  June,  1794.  Buzot  was  an  especial 
favourite  of  Madame  Roland. 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Girondists;"  "Vie  de  Buzot," 
prefixed  to  his  "  Memoires  sur  la  Revolution,"  edited  by  Guadet, 
1823;  article  on  Madame  Roland  in  this  work,  and  "Memoires  de 
Madame  Roland,"  edited  by  M.  P.  Faug^re,  1S64. 

By'field,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  born 
in  Warwickshire  about  1578,  was  vicar  of  Isleworth.  He 
wrote  commentaries  on  some  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment.   Died  in  1622. 

Bylderdyck.    See  Bilderdijk. 

Byles,  (Mather,)  an  American  clergyman  and  noted 
humorist,  born  at  Boston  in  1706.  He  preached  many 
years  at  Boston.  In  1776  he  adhered  to  the  royal  cause. 
Died  in  1788. 

Bynaeus,  bT-na'us,  (Antoon,)  a  Dutch  philologist, 
born  at  Utrecht  in  1654,  published  several  Latin  works. 
Died  in  1698. 

Byng,  bing,  (George,)  an  eminent  English  naval 
commander,  born  in  1663,  became  rear-admiral  in  1703, 
vice-admiral  in  1706,  and  admiral  of  the  blue  about 
1708.  In  1 72 1  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the 
title  of  Viscount  Torrington.    Died  in  1733. 

Byng,  (John,)  an  English  admiral,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  1704.  Having  in  1756,  in  consequence  of 
the  improvidence  and  inefficiency  of  the  English  minis- 
try, been  unsuccessful  in  an  expedition  to  relieve  Minorca, 
then  blockaded  by  a  French  fleet  of  superior  strength, 
he  was  accused  of  cowardice  by  the  ministers,  who  were 
anxious  to  avert  the  public  odium  from  themselves.  By 
a  sentence  of  extreme  rigour,  he  was  condemned  to  be 
shot.  He  met  his  death  with  the  firmness  of  a  hero, 
March  14,  1757. 

See  Voltaire,  "Siecle  de  Louis  XV;"  "  Correspondance  Gene- 
rale;"  J.  F.  Seyfart,  "  Leben  des  Admirals  J.  Byng,"  1757. 

Bynkershoeck,  van,  vtn  bln'kers-hook',  (Kor- 
nelis,)  a  celebrated  jurist,  born  at  Middelburg,  in  Hol- 
land, in  1673.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Ob- 
servationes  Juris  Romani,"  (1700-33,)  and  *' Quaestiones 
Juris  Publici,"  (1737.)  His  death  is  variously  dated  1763, 
1743,  or  1745. 

See  Sax,  "  Onomasticon ;"  Adelung,  Supplement  to  Jocher's 
"Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Byns,  van,  vtn  bins,  (Anne,)  a  Flemish  poetess,  born 
at  Antwerp  ;  died  about  1548. 


Byrd,  (William.)    See  Birde. 

Byrge,  the  French  of  Byrgius,  which  see. 

Byr'gi-us,  (Justus,)  [Fr.  Juste  Byrge,  zhiist  b^Rzh,] 
or  Jobst  Biirgi,  (yopst  biiR^Gee,)  a  Swiss  mathemati- 
cian, born  at  Lichtensteg  in  1552.  He  was  patronized 
by  William  IV.,  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel,  for  whom 
he  constructed  a  celestial  globe,  afterwards  bought  by 
the  emperor  Rudolph  H.  He  was  appointed  instru- 
ment-maker to  the  emperor,  and  distinguished  himself 
by  several  valuable  inventions.  The  invention  of  loga- 
rithms is  ascribed  to  him  by  some  writers,  but  is  more 
generally  attributed  to  Napier.    Died  in  1633. 

Byrne,  birn,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  en- 
graver, born  at  Cambridge  about  1744;  died  in  1805. 

By'rom,  (John,)  an  English  writer  and  poet,  born 
near  Manchester  in  1691,  contributed  several  pieces  to 
*'  The  Spectator,"  and  invented  a  system  of  short-hand 
which  still  bears  his  name.  His  pastoral  of  "Colin  and 
Phebe,"  published  in  the  "  Spectator,"  No.  603,  was 
generally  admired.    Died  in  1763. 

By'rpn,  (Anna  Isabella  Millbanke,)  Lady,  an 
English  heiress,  born  in  1792  or  1793,  was  the  only 
daughter  of  Sir  Ralph  Millbanke,  afterwards  Noel.  She 
was  married  in  January,  181 5,  to  Lord  Byron  the  poet. 
They  separated  the  following  year.  After  their  sepa- 
ration she  inherited  the  title  of  Baroness  of  Wentworth. 
She  was  a  woman  of  superior  talents.    Died  in  i860, 

Byron,  (George  Anson,)  Captain,  an  English  naval 
officer,  born  in  1758,  was  a  son  of  Admiral  Byron,  noticed 
below.  He  rendered  important  service  in  the  great  naval 
victory  gained  by  Lord  Rodney  over  the  French  in  April, 
1782.    Died  in  1793. 

Byron,  (George  Gordon  Noel,)  an  English  poet  of 
rare  genius,  born  in  London,  January  22,  1788.  He  be- 
longed to  an  old  family  (the  name  appears  to  have  been 
originally  spelled  Burun  or  Biiriin,  afterwards  Biron, 
and  last  of  all  Byron)  which  traced  its  origin  back  to  the 
Norman  conquest.  His  grandfather,  John  Byron,  was  an 
English  admiral.  His  father.  Captain  Byron,  married 
Catherine  Gordon,  a  Scottish  heiress,  with  whom  he  lived 
unhappily,  and  whose  wealth  he  squandered  in  a  life  of 
vice  and  dissipation.  In  1790  the  mother  of  the  poet, 
having  been  deserted  by  her  husband,  retired  to  Scotland 
and  took  up  her  residence  in  Aberdeen.  Here  her  son 
received  the  first  rudiments  of  his  education  at  a  day- 
school.  Not  long  after  he  was  sent  to  the  grammar-school 
of  Aberdeen.  When  he  was  between  six  and  seven  years 
old  his  mother  took  him  with  her  on  a  visit  to  the 
Highlands,  the  scenery  of  which  is  said  to  have  made, 
even  at  that  early  age,  a  deep  and  indelible  impression 
on  his  mind.  When  he  was  ten  years  old  he  succeeded 
to  the  estate  and  title  of  William,  fifth  Lord  Byron, 
his  grand-uncle,  who  had  resided  at  Newstead  Abbey, 
in  Nottinghamshire,  and  had  died  there  in  May,  1798. 
Soon  after,  his  mother  took  him  to  London  and  consulted 
some  able  surgeons  respecting  a  congenital  deformity  and 
lameness  of  one  of  his  feet ;  but  the  defect  proved  to  be 
incurable,  and  continued  to  the  end  of  the  poet's  life  a 
source  of  bitter  mortification  to  him.  He  was  next  placed 
at  the  school  of  Dr.  Glennie,  at  Dulwich.  During  his 
school-days,  Byron  exhibited  many  indications  both  of 
the  virtues  and  weaknesses  which  marked  his  character 
in  after-life.  On  the  one  hand,  his  sympathetic  nature, 
his  generosity  and  courage,  won  for  him  the  love  and 
respect  of  his  companions  ;  while,  on  the  other,  his  mor- 
bidly sensitive,  wilful,  and  passionate  temper  involved 
him  in  continual  disputes  and  quarrels.  It  is  related 
that  while  at  Harrow  he  saw  one  day  a  large  tyrannical 
boy  punishing  little  Peel  (the  brother  of  the  celebrated 
Sir  Robert  Peel)  because  he  refused  to  be  his  "  fag." 
Byron  was  not  large  enough  to  resist  the  tyrant  with 
any  hope  of  success,  but,  in  a  voice  trembling  between 
terror  and  indignation,  he  demanded  that  he  might  bear 
half  of  the  punishment.  On  another  occasion,  having 
seen  a  small  and  sickly  boy  bullied  by  one  much  older 
and  stronger  than  himself,  he  interfered  with  success. 
Soon  after  he  said  to  his  protege,  "  If  any  one  bullies 
you,  tell  me,  and  I  will  thrash  him  if  I  can."  He  kept 
his  word  ;  and  they  were  afterwards  inseparable  friends. 
Byron  had  been  with  Dr.  Glennie  rather  less  than  two 
years,  when  he  left  for  Harrow.    While  here  he  formed  a 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  lojtg;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


BTRON 


Ml 


BTRON 


romantic  and  passionate  attachment  for  Miss  Chaworth, 
the  heiress  of  Annesley,  an  estate  adjacent  to  Newstead 
Abbey.  Miss  Chaworth's  father  had  been  killed  in  a  duel 
(or,  as  some  say,  in  a  drunken  fight)  by  Lord  Byron,  the 
poet's  great-uncle.  This  very  circumstance  may  not 
improbably  have  tended  to  inflame  young  Byron's  ima- 
gination. Alluding  to  his  love  for  Miss  Chaworth,  he 
says,  "  Our  union  would  have  healed  feuds  in  which  blood 
had  been  shed  by  our  fathers."  He  appears  to  have 
always  regarded  this  as  the  deepest  and  truest  passion  of 
his  life,  and  to  have  fully  persuaded  himself  that  if  he  had 
married  Miss  Chaworth  he  would  have  been  a  better 
as  well  as  a  happier  man.  But  she  did  not  return  his 
affection,  and  not  long  after  she  was  married  to  a  gentle- 
man named  Musters.  This  union  appears,  however,  not 
to  have  been  a  happy  one.  In  1805  Byron  went  to  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  which  he  left  two  years  after  with- 
out a  degree.  During  his  stay  at  the  University  he  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  poems  entitled  "  Hours  of  Idleness," 
(1807,)  which  was  very  severely  criticised  in  the  "Edin- 
burgh Review."  The  poet  wrote,  by  way  of  retaliation, 
his  "  English  Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers,"  a  caustic 
and  scathing  satire,  which  at  the  time  caused  a  great 
sensation,  and  convinced  the  critics  that  Byron's  genius 
was  not  to  be  terror-stricken  or  reduced  to  silence  by 
"paper  bullets  of  the  brain."  Little,  however,  can  be 
said  in  praise  of  the  justice  or  discrimination  shown  in 
this  satiric  poem.  The  author  reminds  one  of  Moliere's 
blind  man  with  a  club,  who  lays  about  him  so  valiantly, 
striking  down,  it  may  be,  friend  and  foe  alike.  The  sat- 
irist is,  in  fact,  scarcely  less  severe  against  Scott,  who 
had  never  injured  him,  than  against  Jeffrey,  the  object 
of  his  burning  and  bitter  resentment.  Byron  himself 
afterwards  sincerely  regretted  the  publication  of  this 
poem,  and  did  all  in  his  power  to  suppress  its  circulation. 

In  1809,  accompanied  by  his  friend  John  Cam  Hob- 
house,  (with  whom  he  had  become  acquainted  at  Cam- 
bridge,) Byron  set  out  on  his  travels  through  Europe, 
visiting  Portugal,  Spain,  Turkey,  and  Greece.  He  was 
absent  from  England  nearly  two  years.  On  his  return 
he  published  the  first  two  cantos  of  "Childe  Harold's 
Pilgrimage,"  the  success  of  which  was  so  sudden  and 
extraordinary  that,  as  he  tells  us,  "he  awoke  one  morn- 
ing and  found  himself  famous."  Soon  after  the  publica- 
tion of  "Childe  Harold"  he  took  his  seat  in  the  House 
of  Lords  ;  and  he  appears  to  have  thought  seriously  at 
one  time  of  devoting  himself  to  politics.  He  addressed 
the  House  three  times.  His  most  important  speech  was 
on  the  Catholic  claims  :  it  is  said  to  have  been  listened 
to  with  much  attention.  But  he  seems  to  have  soon  lost 
his  interest  in  politics,  and  to  have  abandoned  all  hopes 
of  making  a  figure  in  public  life.  In  1813  he  published 
"The  Giaour,"  {i.e.  "Infidel,")  an  Oriental  tale  inverse, 
which  contains  some  of  the  most  exquisite  poetry  to  be 
found  in  the  English  language.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
same  year  appeared  "The  Bride  of  Abydos,"  another 
poem  of  the  same  general  character,  which  added  to  his 
already  brilliant  reputation.  In  January,  1814,  was  pub- 
lished "The  Corsair,"  of  which,  it  is  said,  at  least  14,000 
copies  were  sold  in  a  single  day.  His  other  most  im- 
portant poems  of  this  period  were  "  Lara,". "The  Siege  of 
Corinth,"  "Parisina,"  and  "The  Prisoner  of  Chillon." 

On  the  2d  of  January,  181 5,  Byron  married  Miss  Anna 
Isabella  Millbanke,  only  daughter  of  the  baronet  Sir  Ralph 
Millbanke,  afterwards  Noel.  She  was  esteemed  a  great 
heiress.  Byron  says,  however,  "All  I  have  ever  received, 
or  am  likely  to  receive,  (and  that  has  been  twice  paid 
back,  too,)  was  10,000."  The  match  was  a  very  un- 
happy one  ;  the  incompatibility  of  their  tempers,  and, 
still  more,  Lord  Byron's  irregular,  not  to  say  licentious, 
habits,  rendered  domestic  harmony  and  peace  impos- 
sible. Lady  Byron  bore  him,  December  10,  181 5,  a 
daughter,  Ada,  who  became  afterwards  the  Countess  of 
Lovelace.  Soon  after  she  left  him  and  went  to  her 
father's,  taking  with  her  the  child ;  and  he  never  saw 
either  of  them  again.  In  the  spring  of  1816  he  left  Eng- 
land, with  the  determination  of  never  more  returning  to 
his  native  land.  Having  passed  through  Belgium  and 
visited  the  field  of  Waterloo,  he  proceeded  to  Switzer- 
land, and  resided  for  some  time  near  Geneva.  While 
here  he  wrote  the  third  canto  of  "Childe  Harold."  He 


afterwards  went  to  Italy  and  took  up  his  abode  in  Venice. 
He  next  visited  Ravenna  :  during  his  sojourn  in  this  city 
he  formed  a  liaison  with  the  beautiful  Countess  Guic- 
cioli,  whose  sprightly  and  imaginative  character  power- 
fully attracted  him.  During  his  stay  at  Pisa,  in  1822, 
the  tragic  death  of  his  friend  Shelley,  who  was  drowned 
in  a  squall  near  Leghorn,  affected  him  deeply.  In  the 
early  part  of  1822  he  was  associated  with  Shelley  and 
Leigh  Hunt  in  conducting  a  periodical  called  "The 
Liberal ;"  but,  soon  after  Shelley's  death,  Byron  and 
Hunt  quarrelled,  and  the  journal  was  discontinued.  (See 
Hunt,  Leigh.)  In  October  of  the  same  year  he  removed 
to  Genoa.  Soon  afterwards  his  sympathies  for  Grecian 
liberty  became  strongly  excited,  and  he  resolved  to  de- 
vote all  his  energies  to  the  cause.  During  his  sojourn 
in  Italy,  Byron  had  written  several  of  his  most  remark- 
able productions,  including  the  fourth  canto  of  "  Childe 
Haiold,"  "Mazeppa,"  "Manfred,"  "Cain,  a  Mystery," 
"Marino  Faliero,"  "The  Two  Foscari,"  "Sardanapa- 
lus,"  "  W^erner,"  and  "Don  Juan."  Having  fully  em- 
barked in  the  cause  of  Grecian  freedom,  he  left  Italy  in 
the  summer  of  1823,  and  proceeded  first  to  Cephalonia, 
where  he  remained  some  months.  He  arrived  at  Mis- 
solonghi  in  January,  1824.  He  applied  himself  to  busi- 
ness with  great  energy,  manifesting  a  good  sense  and 
practical  judgment  which  many  were  not  prepared  to 
expect  from  one  who  had  till  then  been  looked  upon 
merely  as  a  poet  and  a  man  of  pleasure.  The  exposure 
which  he  incurred  while  making  preparations  for  the 
siege  of  Lepanto,  then  in  possession  of  the  Turks,  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  illness  of  which  he  died.  About 
the  middle  of  February  he  had  a  severe  convulsive  fit. 
During  the  extreme  prostration  that  followed  this  attack, 
a  crowd  of  Suliotes,  whom  he  had  engaged  to  fight  under 
him,  rose  in  mutiny,  and,  bursting  into  his  apartment, 
brandished  their  arms  and  furiously  demanded  their  pay. 
Byron  retained  his  perfect  self-possession,  and,  by  his 
calm  and  determined  courage,  awed  them  into  submis- 
sion. Count  Gamba,  (brother  of  the  Countess  Guiccioli,) 
who  was  almost  constantly  with  Lord  Byron  during  the 
last  few  months  of  his  life,  says  of  him,  "  It  is  impossible 
to  do  justice  to  the  coolness  and  magnanimity  which  he 
displayed  upon  every  trying  occasion.  Upon  trifling 
occasions  he  was  certainly  irritable  ;  but  the  aspect  of 
danger  calmed  him  in  an  instant.  .  .  .  A  more  undaunted 
man  in  the  hgur  of  peril  never  breathed."  Having  caught 
a  severe  cold  on  the  9th  of  April,  he  was  attacked  with 
fever  and  violent  rheumatic  pains.  At  last  inflammation 
seized  upon  his  brain  and  terminated  his  life  on  the  19th 
of  April,  1824. 

As  a  man,  Byron  certainly  had  great  faults ;  but  in 
palliation  of  these  it  should  be  remembered  that  he  was 
not  only  born  with  violent  passions,  but  that  almost  every 
influence  of  his  early  life  was  adverse  to  the  acquisition 
of  habits  of  self-denial  and  self-control.  By  his  mother 
he  was  treated  at  one  time  with  the  most  foolish  indul- 
gence ;  at  another,  exasperated  with  causeless  re- 
proaches. The  fame  which  he  so  easily  and  suddenly 
acquired,  joined  to  his  distinguished  rank,  may  be  said 
to  have  completed  the  miseducation  which  was  begun 
in  the  nursery.  But,  in  spite  of  all  the  disadvantages 
of  education  and  hereditary  temperament,  he  exhibited 
many  truly  noble  traits  of  character,  among  which  were 
a  princely  generosity,  and  a  ready  and  true  sympathy 
for  the  suffering  even  in  the  humblest  condition.  We 
are  told,  in  Moore's  "Life,"  that  the  "inmates"  (domes- 
tics) "  of  his  family  were  extremely  attached  to  him,  and 
would  have  endured  anything  on  his  account,"  and  that 
"he  was  most  unostentatious  in  his  charities." 

With  all  his  professions  of  liberality  in  politics,  Byron 
always  remained  an  aristocrat  at  heart ;  and  he  is  said 
to  have  been  more  proud  of  his  Norman  descent  than 
he  was  of  the  rare  endowments  of  his  mind. 

Among  the  most  remarkable  characteristics  of  Byron's 
poetry,  two  are  deserving  of  particular  notice.  The  first 
is  his  power  of  expressing  intense  emotion,  especially 
when  it  is  associated  with  the  darker  passions  of  the 
soul.  "Never  had  any  writer,"  says  Macaulay,  "so  vast 
a  command  of  the  whole  eloquence  of  scorn,  mis- 
anthropy, and  despair.  .  .  .  From  maniac  laughter  to 
piercing  lamentation,  there  is  not  a  single  note  of  human 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.   (Qi^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BTRON 


478 


CABARRUS 


anguish  of  vvliich  he  was  not  master."  The  other  is  his 
exquisite  taste  and  marvellous  felicity  in  the  use  of  lan- 
guage. Take  for  example  that  passage  in  the  "  Giaour" 
beginning  with  the  lines 

"  He  who  hatli  bent  him  o'er  the  dead 
Ere  the  first  day  of  death  is  fled,"  etc.* 

Nothing  can  exceed  the  delicacy  of  perception  and  taste 
with  which  the  words  are  chosen.  Of  course  such  exqui- 
site propriety  in  the  choice  of  words  implies  an  equally 
exquisite  perception  of  the  proprieties  of  thought  and 
sentiment. 

See  Moore,  "Life  of  Byron,"  2  vols.  8vo;  Galt,  "  Life  of  Byron  ;" 
"Recollections  of  the  Last  Days  of  Shelley  and  Byron,"  by  E.  J. 
Trelawney,  1858;  the  elaborate  and  excellent  article  on  Byron  in 
Allibone's  "Dictionary  of  Authors,"  containing  some  interesting 
reco'lections  of  the  poet  not  before  published,  besides  a  very  complete 
list  .")f  bibliographic  references;  the  notice  in  the  "  Biographie  Uni- 
verselle,"  by  M.  Vi[.t.emain,  the  celebrated  criuc;  Jeffrey,  "  Mis- 
cellanies ;"  Sir  V/alter  Scott,  "Miscellaneous  Prose  Works;" 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January  and  July,  1814,  October, 
1816,  April,  1818,  July,  1823,  and  January,  1831  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
tor  December,  1816,  August,  1S17,  and  February,  1822;  "Atlantic 
Mouihiy"  for  September,  1S69;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  October, 
iMxj ;  "  I'he 'True  Story  of  T,ady  Byron'  established,"  by  Mrs. 
Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  1870. 

Byron,  (John,)  an  English  naval  commander,  born  in 
1723,  was  a  son  of  William,  Lord  Byron.  He  was  to  have  ac- 
companied Lord  Anson  as  midshipman  on  the  Wagerin  his' 
voyage  round  the  world.  The  Wager  was  wrecked  on  the 
eoast  of  South  America  in  1741.  He  returned  to  England 


in  1745.  The  narrative  v;hich  Byron  published  of  this 
shipwreck  on  his  return  to  England  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  works  of  the  kind  in  the  language.  He  com- 
manded the  Dolphin  and  Tamar  in  a  voyage  of  discovery 
in  the  South  Sea  in  1764-66.  In  1778  he  obtained  com- 
mand of  a  fleet  destined  to  operate  against  the  French 
in  the  West  Lidies.  He  fought  an  indecisive  battle  against 
D'Estaing  off  Grenada  in  July,  1779,  and  was  promoted 
about  that  date  to  the  rank  of  vice-admiral.  He  was 
grandfather  of  the  great  poet  Lord  Byron.  Died  in  1786. 

See  Charnock's  "  Biographia  Navalis." 

Bystrom,  bii'stRoin,  (Johan  Nils,)  a  Swedish  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Philipsstadt  in  1783.  He  studied  in  Rome, 
and,  after  his  return,  produced  a  colossal  statue  of  the 
crown  prince.  Among  his  other  works  may  be  named 
statues  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  of  Linnaeus. 

Bythner,  bit'ner,  or  Biittner,  but'ner,  (  Victorinus,) 
a  physician  and  philologist,  boni  in  Poland,  became 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Oxford.  He  published  "  Lyra 
Prophetica  Davidis  Regis,"  (1645.)    t)ied  about  1670. 

Bzovius,  the  Latin  of  BzowsKi,  which  see. 

Bzowski,  bzhov'skee,  [Lat.  BzoVius,]  (Abraham,) 
a  Polish  theologian,  born  in  1567.  He  became  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Milan,  and  afterwards  of  theology  at 
Bologna.  He  wrote  "  Lives  of  Paul  V.  and  Gregory 
XV.,"  "Continuation  of  the  Annals  of  Baronius,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1637. 


C. 


Caab_or  Cab.    See  Kaab. 

Ca-ba'des  or  Ca-va'des,  [in  Persian.  Kobad  or  Co- 
bad,'  ko-bScK,]  a  Persian  king,  father  of  the  celebrated 
Chosroes,  ascended  the  throne  about  486  A.D.  He 
gained  several  victories  over  the  Romans  between  502 
and  505,  and  died  in  53  L 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Cabakjee  Ogloo  or  Cabakdji  Ogloii,  ki-b^k'jee 
og-loo',  an  officer  of  janissaries,  one  of  the  ringleaders 
of  the  revolt  which  dethroned  Selim  HI.,  was  assassin- 
ated in  1808. 

Caballero,  kl-Bil-ya'ro,  (Fern an,)  the  pseudonym 
of  a  Spanish  novelist,  whose  maiden  name  ivas  Cjeciiaa 
BoHL  DE  Faber,  (bol  dch  fa^'ber.)  She  was  born  at 
Morgue,  in  Switzerland,  in  1797,  has  been  married  several 
times,  and  has  resided  in  Spain.  She  has  published  "  La 
Gaviota,"  and  other  novels,  which  present  brilliant  pic- 
tures of  Andalusian  life  and  are  highly  seasoned  with  the 
"Andalusian  wit,"  ("  sal  Andaluz.")  "  No  living  writer," 
says  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1861,  "has  shed 
so  bright  a  lustre  on  Spanish  literature." 

Caballero,  (Firmin,)  a  Spanish  journalist  and  states- 
man, born  at  Barajas  de  Melo  in  1800.  He  first  attracted 
public  attention  by  his  witty  criticisms  on  Mifiano's 
"Geographical  Dictionary."  In  1833  he  began  to  edit 
the  "  Boletin  del  Comercio,"  and  in  1834  established 
another  able  journal,  the  "  Eco  del  Comercio."  About 
1835  he  was  elected  a  deputy  to  the  Cortes,  and  afterwards 
became  a  cabinet  minister.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Geographical  and  Administrative  Manual  of 
Spain,"  (1844.) 

Caballero,  de,  di  ki-B^l-ya^ro,  written  also  Caval- 
lero,  (Don  Jose  Antonio,)  a  Spanish  marquis,  of  Ital- 
ian descent,  born  at  Saragossa  about  1760.  He  was  one 
of  the  ministers  of  Joseph  Bonaparte  while  King  of  Spain, 
and  on  his  deposition  in  18 14  became  an  exile  in  France. 
Died  in  182 1. 

Caballo,  ka-bSKlo,  [Lat.  Cabal'lus,]  (Francesco,) 
an  Italian  medical  writer,  born  in  Venetia,  lived  at  Padua. 
Died  in  1540. 

Cabanel,  kt'bt'n^K,  (Alexandre,)  a  French  histori- 
cal painter,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1823.  He  obtained  a 
first  medal  in  1855. 

Cabanis,  kt'bt'n^ss',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
advocate,  born  at  Issoudun  in  1723.    He  introduced 


*  See  remarks  on  this  passage  in  a  critique  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  July,  1813. 


improvements  in  cultivation  and  rural  economy,  and 
wrote  a  valuable  "Essay  on  Grafting,"  (1764.)  Died 
in  1786. 

Cabanis,  (Pierre  Jean  George,)  an  eminent  French 
philosopher,  author,  and  physician,  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Conac,  near  Saintes,  in  1757.  He  studied 
medicine  under  Dubreuil,  and  settled  at  Auteuil,  near 
Paris.  By  a  version  of  some  parts  of  the  "Iliad,"  he 
gained  access  to  the  highest  society  of  Paris,  where 
he  was  intimate  with  Diderot,  D'Alembert,  Condorcet, 
Franklin,  etc.  He  became  the  personal  and  political 
friend  of  Mirabeau,  whom  he  assisted  with  his  pen,  and 
whom  he  attended  in  his  last  hours.  ?Ie  wrote  an  "Ac- 
count of  the  Illness  and  Death  of  Mirabeau,"  (1791.)  In 
1796  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  in 
the  next  year  professor  of  clinical  medicine  in  Paris.  He 
married  Charlotte,  sister  of  General  Grouchy.  In  1802 
he  produced  his  most  important  work,  "  Relation  between 
the  Physical  System  and  the  Mental  Faculties  of  Man," 
("  Rapports  du  Physique  et  du  Moral  de  I'Homme,") 
which  obtained  celebrity,  and  will  doubtless  hold  its 
place  among  the  noble  essays  of  abstruse  philosophy.  In 
early  life,  and  until  about  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  Cabanis  held  the  atheistical  views  so  prevalent 
at  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution.  He  maintained, 
among  other  doctrines,  that  the  brain  "  secretes  thought," 
as  the  liver  secretes  bile.  He  afterw^ards  modified  his 
views  so  far  as  to  recognize  in  the  "  primal  causes" 
("les  causes  premieres")  of  the  universe  the  existence 
of  both  intelligence  and  will,  and  that  the  same  power  or 
powers  [i.e.  "  les  causes  premieres")  command  us  to 
practise  virtue.    Died  in  1808. 

See  MiGNET,  "  filoge  de  Cabanis  :"  also  the  article  "Cabanis"  in 
the  "Nouvelle  IJiographie  Generale." 

Cabanis-Jonval,  kt'bt'n^ss'  zh6N'vtK,  (Pierre,)  a 
French  litth-atetir,  born  at  Alais  about  1725  ;  died  in  1780. 

■Cabarrus,  kt'bt^riis',  (Francois,)  a  French  mer- 
chant, born  at  Bayonne  in  1752,  settled  in  Spain  at  an 
early  age.  By  his  talents  and  services  as  financier  he 
acquired  great  influence  in  the  government  about  1780, 
and  a  few  years  later  he  was  councillor  of  finances.  In 
the  reign  of  Charles  IV.  he  was  made  a  count,  and  was 
sent  as  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  Congress  of  Ras- 
tadt  in  1797.  In  1808  he  became  minister  of  finances 
under  Joseph  Bonaparte.  Died  in  1810.  His  daughter 
Therese,  a  famous  belle,  became  Marquise  de  Fontenay, 
then  Madame  Tallien,  and  lastly  Princesse  de  Chimay. 

Cabarrus,  (Teresa.)    See  Chimay,  Princess  of. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  6,  \  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,T,  6,  \x,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CABASILAS 


479 


CACCIA 


Ca-bas''i-las,  (Ni'lus,)  [N«Aof  Ka/Jaa^^^a?,]  a  Greek 
archbishop  of  Thessalonica,  wrote  an  able  treatise 
against  the  infallibility  and  supremacy  of  the  pope. 
Died  about  1350. 

Nicholas  Cabasilas,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  whom 
he  succeeded  as  archbishop  in  1350,  was  also  a  zealous 
adversary  of  the  Latin  Church  or  hierarchy,  and  author 
of  several  works  on  theology. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grxca." 

Cabassole,  du,  dii  kt'bt'soK,  (Philippe,)  born  at 
Cavaillon,  in  Provence,  became  bishop  of  his  native 
town  in  1334,  and  was  made  cardinal  by  Urban  V.  in 
1368.  He  is  best  known  as  the  friend  of  Petrarch,  by 
whom  he  was  greatly  esteemed  for  his  talents  and  learn- 
ing.   Died  in  1371. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Cabassut,  kt'bt'su',  (Jean,)  a  French  priest  of  the 
Oratory,  born  at  Aix  in  1604  or  1605,  was  eminent  for  his 
knowledge  of  canon  law.  He  wrote  "  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice of  Canon  Law,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1685. 

Cabat,  kt'bt^  (Louis  Nicolas,)  a  skilful  French 
landscape-painter,  born  in  Paris  in  181 2.  He  produced 
in  1840  an  admired  historical  landscape,  called  "The  Sa- 
maritan," ("Le  Samaritain,")  and  a  view  of  Lake  Nemi 
near  Rome.  He  was  before  that  date  termed  a  realiste ; 
but  his  later  works  indicate  a  change  in  his  manner. 

Cabel  or  Kabel,  van  der,  vtn  der  k^'bel,  (Adrian,) 
an  able  Dutch  painter  of  landscapes,  seaports,  figures, 
etc.,  born  at  Ryswick  in  1631  ;  died  in  1695. 

Cabestan,  kt'bgs't6N',  or  Cabestaing,  de,  deh  kt'- 
bSs't^N',  (Guillaume,)  a  Proven9al  troubadour,  who 
lived  about  1200. 

Cabet,  kt^ba',  (£tienne,)  a  French  socialist,  and  the 
leader  of  the  "  Icariens,"  was  born  at  Dijon  in  1788.  He 
became  an  advocate,  and  lived  in  Paris.  In  1830  he 
was  appointed  procureur-general  for  Corsica,  but  he  was 
recalled  in  1831.  He  became  a  radical  democrat,  and 
was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  In  1842  he 
published  his  peculiar  socialist  or  communist  notions 
in  his  romance  entitled  "  Travels  in  Icaria,"  ("  Voyage 
en  Icarie.")  Having  made  many  proselytes  to  his  Uto- 
pian scheme  among  the  labourers  of  Paris,  he  planted  a 
colony  in  Texas  in  1848.  After  suffering  great  privations 
in  Texas,  Cabet  and  his  Icariens  removed  in  1850  to 
the  city  of  Nauvoo,  which  the  Mormons  had  recently 
deserted.  They  held  their  property  in  common,  and 
were  subject  to  the  sole  authority  of  Cabet.  Died  at 
Saint  Louis  in  1856. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1848. 

Cabeza  (or  Cabega)  de  Vaca.  See  Nunez, 
(Alvarkz.) 

Ca-bi'ri,  written  also  Cabeiri,  [Gr.  KaSeipoi;  Fr.  Ca- 
BIRES,  kt'b^R',]  ancient  divinities  worshipped  in  various 
parts  of  the  world,  especially  at  Samothrace  and  Lcmnos. 
The  fable  of  the  Cabiri  is  very  obscure.  Their  myste- 
ries were  celebrated  with  great  solemnity.  They  were 
believed,  among  other  things,  to  preside  over  metals. 
Some  writers  trace  the  worship  of  the  Cabiri  to  the 
Phoenicians. 

See  Creuzer,  "Synibolik,"  vol.  ii. 

Caboche,  kt'bosh',  (Simonet,)  a  butcher  of  Paris, 
who  became  notorious  about  1412  as  the  chief  of  a  fero- 
cious band  called  Cabochiens.  They  were  partisans  of 
the  Burgundians  in  the  civil  war  between  these  and  the 
Armagnacs,  and  committed  many  outrages  in  Paris. 

See  MiCHELET,  "Histoire." 

Caboos,  Cabus,  or  Cabous,  ka-boos',  surnamed 
the  Sun  in  its  Splendour,  a  prince,  poet,  and  astron- 
omer, began  to  reign  in  Jorjan  in  976  a.d.  He  had  a 
high  reputation  for  virtue,  and  was  a  patron  of  Avicenna. 
He  was  deposed  in  1012,  and  died  soon  after. 

Cab'ot,  (George,)  an  American  Senator,  born  at 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  1751,  was  distinguished  for  his 
knowledge  of  political  economy  and  commercial  affairs. 
He  was  elected  in  1789  to  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  Federalists  and  gained 
the  confidence  of  Washington.  He  was  highly  esteemed 
for  his  probity  and  sound  judgment.  In  1814  he  was 
president  of  the  Hartford  Convention.    Died  in  1823. 

Cab'pt  or  Gabotto,  ga-bot'to,  (Giovanni,)  a  Vene- 


tian pilot  and  navigator,  who  lived  some  time  in  England 
and  distinguished  himself  in  maritime  discovery.  In  1496 
Henry  VII.  granted  a  patent  to  him  and  his  sons  for  the 
discovery  of  unknown  regions.  (See  Cabot,  Sebastian.) 

See  Hakluvt,  "Principal  Navigations  and  Discoveries  of  the 
English  Nation." 

Cab^ot,  (Sebastian,)  [It.  Sebastiano  Gabotto,  si- 
bis-te-d^no  g§.-bot'to,]  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and  a  nav- 
igator of  great  eminence,  was  born  at  Bristol,  England, 
about  1477.  He  made  several  voyages  with  his  father,  of 
which  we  have  no  authentic  account.  In  1497  they  dis- 
covered a  part  of  North  America,  which  some  suppose 
was  Labrador,  and  others  Newfoundland.  A  few  years 
later  he  sailed  southward  as  far  as  Cape  Florida.  From 
15 12  until  151 7  he  was  in  the  service  of  the  King  of 
Spain,  who  made  him  a  member  of  the  Council  of  the 
Indies.  In  1526  he  commanded  a  Spanish  expedition 
which  explored  the  river  La  Plata.  About  1548  he  re- 
turned to  England,  and  obtained  the  favour  of  Edward 
VI.,  who  granted  him  a  pension  and  consulted  him  in 
maritime  affairs.  He  became  governor  of  a  new  com- 
pany formed  to  trade  with  Russia.  He  was  living  in  1557, 
and  probably  died  soon  after  that  date. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Sebastian  Cabot,"  by  Richard  Biddle,  Lon- 
don, 1831  ;  Anderson,  "  History  of  Commerce  ;"  "  Life  of  S.  Cabot," 
in  Sp.-vrks's  "American  Biography,"  vol.  ix.,  First  Series. 

Cabot,  kt'bo',  (Vincent,)  an  eminent  French  jurist, 
born  at  Toulouse  about  1550.  He  professed  law  four- 
teen years  at  Orleans  and  twenty-two  years  at  Toulouse. 
He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Benefices,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1621. 

Cabral,  kS-bR^K,  (Pedro  Alvarez,)  an  eminent 
Portuguese  navigator,  was  chosen  by  Emmanuel,  King 
of  Portugal,  to  command  the  fleet  which  that  prince 
sent  to  the  East  Indies  in  1500.  He  sailed  or  was 
driven  so  far  westward  that,  by  a  fortunate  accident, 
he  discovered  Brazil  in  the  same  year.  Pursuing  his 
voyage,  he  reached  Calicut,  made  conquests,  and  estab- 
lished the  first  Portuguese  factories  in  India.  He  then 
sailed  homeward,  and  arrived  in  June,  1 501. 

See  Ramusio,  "Voyages;"  Lafiteau,  "  Conquetes  des  Portu- 
gais;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Cabral  de  Vasconcellos,  ka-bRM'  da  vis-kon-seK- 
los,  (Paulino,)  a  Portuguese  poet,  who  lived  about  1780. 

See  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Cabrera,  ka-BRa^-S,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  historian,  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  (1619.)  Died  about  1655. 

Cabrera,  (Don  Ramon,)  a  Spanish  general,  noted  for 
his  cruelty  and  audacity,  was  born  at  Tortosa  about  1810. 
In  the  civil  war  between  the  Christinos  and  Carlists  he 
joined  the  lattei",  and  waged  a  successful  guerilla  warfare 
among  the  mountains  of  Aragon  and  Catalonia.  He  ob- 
tained command  of  a  large  force,  took  Valencia  in  1837, 
surprised  Morella  in  1838,  and  was  created  Count  of 
Morella  by  Don  Carlos.  The  victories  of  Espartero 
compelled  him  to  retire  to  France  in  1840.  In  1848  he 
returned  to  Spain  and  instigated  another  rebellion,  but 
was  defeated  and  wounded  at  Pasteral  in  1849,  since 
which  he  has  lived  in  exile. 

See  Lavallee,  "  Histoire  de  I'Espagne;"  B.  de  Cordova,  "  Vida 
de  R.  Cabrera,"  RIadrid,  1844;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Sep- 
tember, 1846. 

Cabrera,  de,  da  ki-BRa^rS,  (Juan  Tomas  Henri- 
QUEZ,)  Duke  of  Medina  del  Rio  Seco,  (mi-dee'n^  dSl 
ree'o  sa'ko,)  a  Spanish  statesman,  and  admiral  of  Cas- 
tile, was  related  to  the  royal  family.  He  was  prime 
minister  under  Charles  II.  in  1693.  In  consequence  of 
his  attachment  to  the  Austrian  interests,  he  was  exiled 
by  Porto  Carrero.    Died  in  1705. 

See  De  la  Torre,  "Memoires  et  Negotiations  secretes." 

Cabrillo,  kd-bReKlo,  (Juan  Rodriguez,)  a  Portuguese 
navigator  in  the  Spanish  service.    Died  in  1543. 

Cabrol,  kt'bRoK,  (Barth^lemi,)  a  French  anatomist, 
born  at  Gaillac  about  1535,  became  professor  at  Mont- 
pellier  in  1590. 

Caccia,  kat^ch§,(GuGLiELMO,)  a  distinguished  painter, 
born  in  Piedmont  about  1568,  was  usually  called  IL  Mon- 
CALVO,  because  he  worked  at  a  place  of  that  name.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  skilful  fresco-painters  of  his  time, 
and  also  executed  admired  pictures  in  oil,  among  which 
is  a  "Deposition  from  the  Cross."  Died  in  1625. 
I      See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 


e  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  t/iis.   (jJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


CACCIANIGA 


480 


CAD  Of^ I  US 


Caccianiga,  kIt-chS-nee'gS,  (Francesco,)  an  able 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Milan  in  1700,  worked  in 
Rome,  where  he  died  in  1781. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Cacciatore,  kdt-chS-to'ri,  (NiccoLO,)  a  Sicilian  as- 
tronomer, born  in  1780,  became  director  of  the  Observa- 
tory of  Palermo  in  181 7.  He  published  several  works 
on  astronomy,  (1807-28.) 

Caccini,  kdt-chee'nee,  (Giulio,)  an  Italian  composer 
and  musician,  born  at  Rome  about  1560  ;  died  in  1635. 

Cachet,  kt'sha',  (Christophe,)  a  Swiss  medical 
writer,  born  at  Neufchatel  in  1572;  died  in  1624. 

Caucus,  a  fabulous  Italian  robber  and  giant,  called  a 
son  of  Vulcan.  He  lived  in  a  cave.  Having  stolen 
some  cattle  of  Hercules,  he  dragged  them  by  their  tails 
into  his  cave,  so  that  they  could  not  be  discovered  by 
their  tracks  ;  but  Hercules  heard  them  bellow,  and  re- 
covered them,  killing  Ca-cus.    (See  "/Eneid,"  book  viii.) 

Cadahalso.    See  Cadalso. 

Ca-da-lous',  (?)  Bishop  of  Parma,  elected  pope  in  1061, 
was  styled  Honorius  II.    He  was  deposecl  in  1064. 

Cadalso,  de,  da  ki-niKso,  written  also  Cadahalso, 
(Jose,)  a  successful  Spanish  poet  and  satirist,  born  at 
Cadiz  about  1740.  He  wrote  "Don  Julian,"  a  tragedy 
of  some  merit,  "Fashionable  Learning,"  a  prose  satire, 
and  anacreontic  verses  which  were  admired.  He  was 
colonel  in  the  army,  and  was  killed  at  the  siege  of 
Gibraltar  in  February,  1782.  His  "  Moorish  Letters," 
a  witty  and  satirical  work,  has  been  often  reprinted. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Longfellow, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Cada  Mosto,  da,  di  ki'di  mos'to,  (Luigi,)  a  navi- 
gator, born  at  Venice  about  1432.  In  the  service  of 
Prince  Henry  of  Portugal,  he  explored  the  west  coast 
of  Africa  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia,  in  1455 
and  1456.  His  account  of  the  voyage  is  said  to  be  in- 
teresting, and  very  well  written.    Died  about  1480. 

See  Ramusio,  "Prima  Navigazione  di  Cada  Mosto;"  Zurla, 
"Dei  Viaggi  e  delle  Scoperte  di  Cada  Mosto,"  Venice,  1815. 

Cadaval,  de,  da  ka-dS-vSK,  (Nunho  Caetano  Al- 
VARES  Pereira  DE  Mello,)  Duke,  a  Portuguese  states- 
man, born  in  1798.  He  became  president  of  the  council 
of  ministers  in  1828.    Died  in  1838  at  Paris. 

Cade,  (John,)  an  Irishman  and  noted  rebel  in  the 
time  of  Henry  VI.,  figures  in  Shakspeare's  play  as  Jack 
Cade.  In  1450,  assuming  the  name  of  Mortimer,  he  led 
a  large  body  of  Kentish  insurgents  towards  London, 
and  defeated  an  army  which  the  king  sent  against  him. 
The  gates  of  the  capital  having  been  opened  to  him  by 
the  citizens  or  the  magistrates,  he  entered  the  city  and 
put  to  death  Lord  Say,  whose  political  course  was 
obnoxious.  After  the  lapse  of  a  few  days,  the  mob  was 
dispersed  by  a  promise  of  pardon,  and  Cade  fled  to 
Lewes,  where  he  was  killed. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England." 

Cadenet,  ktd'na^  (Elias,)  a  troubadour,  born  in 
Provence  about  1 156;  died  about  1280. 

Cader-Billah.    See  Al-Kader-Billah. 

Cadet  de  Gassicourt,  kt'da'  deh  gt'se^kooR', 
(Charles  Louis,)  born  in  Paris  in  1769,  was  a  pharma- 
cist, lawyer,  and  author,  remarkable  for  his  versatile  tal- 
ents and  activity.  He  pleaded  some  causes  with  success, 
espoused  the  popular  side  in  the  Revolution,  and  in  1806 
formed  the  plan  of  a  new  board  of  health,  of  which  for 
many  years  he  was  secretary.  In  the  campaign  of  1809 
he  accompanied  Napoleon,  who  had  appointed  him  his 
first  apothecary.  He  published  many  valuable  and  suc- 
cessful works,  among  which  are  "Memoir  of  Mirabeau," 
*•  The  Supper  of  Moliere,"  a  comedy,  (1798,)  "Domestic 
Chemistry,"  (1801,)  "  History  of  Templars,  Free-Masons, 
and  other  Secret  Societies,"  "  Dictionary  of  Chemistry," 
(1803,)  "Travels  in  Austria,  etc.,"  (1818.)  He  was  a 
member  of  many  scientific  academies.    Died  in  1821. 

See  QuEKARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Cadet  de  Gassicourt,  (Louis  Claude,)  an  eminent 
French  chemist,  father  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris 
in  1 73 1.  He  was  for  some  years  apothecary-in-chief  of 
the  army.  About  1765  he  was  received  into  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  to  which  he  contributed  many  treatises 
on  chemistry.    His  collection  of  drugs  was  regarded  as 


the  finest  in  France.  He  was  appointed  a  commissioner 
of  the  chemical  department  at  the  royal  manufactory  of 
Sevres.    Died  in  1799. 

See  BouLLAY,  "Notice  snr  la  Vie  de  L.  C.  Cadet,"  1805;  EusitBE 
Salverte,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  L.  C.  Cadet,"  1822. 

Cadet  de  Metz,  kt'd^'  deh  mis,  (Jean  Marcel,)  a 
French  mineralogist,  born  at  Metz  in  1751 ;  died  in  1835. 

Cadet  de  Vaux,  ka'da'  deh  vo,  (Antoine,)  a  French 
writer  and  apothecary,  brother  of  Louis  C.  Cadet  de 
Gassicourt,  born  in  Paris  in  1743.  In  conjunction  with 
M.  Suard,  he  established,  in  1777,  the  "Journal  de  Paris." 
He  was  noted  for  practical  benevolence,  and  wrote  many 
useful  treatises  on  domestic  and  rural  economy,  among 
which  was  an  "Essay  on  the  Culture  of  the  Vine,"  and 
one  "  On  the  Means  of  Preventing  Famine."  Died  in 
1828. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Cadijah.    See  Khadijah. 

Cad'mus,  [Gr.  Kad/iof,]  a  hero  or  demi-god  of  Greek 
mythology,  was  the  son  of  Agenor,  King  of  Sidon. 
Having  been  sent  by  his  father  in  search  of  his  sister 
Europa,  with  the  charge  not  to  return  unless  he  found 
her,  he  settled  in  Boeotiaand  founded  the  city  of  Thebes. 
He  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  sixteen  simple  letters  of 
the  Greek  alphabet.  Tradition  adds  that  he  killed  a 
dragon  and  sowed  its  teeth,  from  which  armed  men 
sprang  up.  (See  Ovid's  "Metamorphoses,"  books  iii. 
and  iv.) 

Cadmus,  a  native  of  Miletus,  said  to  have  been  the 
first  Greek  prose  writer,  flourished  about  550  or  600  B.C. 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Ionia,"  which  is  not  extant. 

Ca-do'gan,  (Henry,)  the  son  of  Charles  Sloane,  Earl 
Cadogan,  was  born  in  1780.  He  entered  the  army  in 
1797,  became  lieutenant-colonel  in  1805,  and  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Peninsular  war.  He  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Vittoria  in  1813.  Wellington  in  his  dispatch 
paid  a  high  tribute  to  his  merit,  and  the  Commons  voted 
a  monument  to  his  memory. 

Cadogan,  (William,)  Earl  and  Baron  Cadogan,  an 
able  English  general,  was  a  devoted  friend  of  the  Duke 
of  Marlborough,  under  whom  he  served  at  lilenheim 
(1704)  and  Ramillies.  Having  obtained  the  rank  of 
major-general,  he  rendered  important  services  at  Oude- 
narde  in  1708  and  Malplaquet  in  1709.  He  resigned 
his  commission  when  Marlborough  was  deprived  of  the 
command  about  17 12.  Between  171 5  and  1 718  he  was 
several  times  sent  as  minister  to  Holland.  He  was  cre- 
ated a  baron  in  1716,  and  Earl  Cadogan  about  1718.  In 
1722  he  succeeded  Marlborough  as  commander-in-chief 
of  the  British  army.  He  died  without  issue  in  1726, 
leaving  the  title  of  baron  to  his  brother,  General  Charles 
Cadogan,  whose  son,  Charles  Sloane,  was  afterwards 
made  earl. 

Cadogan,  (William,)  M.D.,  born  in  London  in  17 11, 
was  a  graduate  of  Oxford.  He  published  "  An  Essay  on 
Children,"  often  reprinted,  and  a  "Treatise  on  Gout." 
Died  in  1797. 

Cadogan,  (William  Bromley,)  the  second  son  of 
Earl  Cadogan,  (Charles  Sloane  Cadogan,)  was  born  in 
1 75 1.  Having  taken  orders,  he  became  vicar  of  Saint 
Giles,  Reading,  and  afterwards  rector  of  Chelsea.  Plis 
sermons,  letters,  etc.  were  published.    Died  in  1797. 

Cadore,  de.  Due.    See  Champagny. 

Cadoudal,  kS'doo''dtK,  (Georges,)  a  famous  royalist 
conspirator,  born  in  Brittany  in  1769,  fought  in  the  Ven- 
dean  war  in  1793.  In  1795  and  1796  he  was  one  of  the 
Chouan  chiefs,  and  was  defeated  by  General  Hoche.  He 
instigated  another  unsuccessful  revolt  in  1799.  It  ap- 
pears that  he  refused  the  offers  of  Bonaparte,  who  wished 
to  enlist  him  in  his  service,  in  1800.  Having  formed  with 
Pichegru  a  conspiracy  to  assassinate  or  dethrone  Bona- 
parte, he  went  to  Paris  in  1803,  and  remained  concealed 
there  for  several  months.  In  1804  he  was  arrested,  and 
after  trial  was  executed  with  his  accomplices. 

See  Theodore  Muret,  "Vie  de  G.  Cadoudal,"  1845;  Cr^ti- 
NEAU-JoLY,  "Histoire  militaire  de  la  Vendee;"  Scott,  "  Life  of 
Napoleon." 

Ca-do'vi-us  or  MiilTer,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  theologian 
and  physician,  born  in  1650,  wrote  "Memoriale  Linguae 
Frisicae  Antiquae."    Died  in  1725. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CAD  ROT 


481 


CjESAR 


Cadroy,  kt'dRvvl',  (Pierre,)  a  French  lawyer,  born 
at  Saint-Sever  in  1753,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention 
from  1792  to  '95,  and  a  moderate  Girondist.  He  opposed 
the  execution  of  the  king.  After  the  fall  of  Robespierre 
he  was  one  of  the  commissaries  of  the  Convention  in 
the  south  of  France,  and  took  effectual  measures  against 
the  terrorists  in  Marseilles  and  Toulon.    Died  in  1813. 

Cadwalader,  kad-woKa-der,  (George,)  an  American 
lawyer  and  general,  born  in  Philadelphia.  He  served 
as  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Mexican  war  in  1847.  In 
June,  1861,  he  was  second  in  command  under  General 
Patterson  in  Virginia.  He  was  appointed  a  major- 
general  of  volunteers  in  1862. 

Cadwalader,  written  also  Cadwallader,  (John,) 
an  American  general,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1743.  He 
served  as  brigadier-general  at  Princeton,  Brandyw^'ne, 
Germantown,  and  Monmouth,  1777-78.    Died  in  1786. 

Cadwaladyr,  kad-woKa-der,  the  last  king  of  the 
Britons.    Died  at  Rome  in  703  A.D. 

Cadwaladyr,  a  Welsh  bard  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Cadwallon,  kad-woKlon,  Prince  of  Wales,  the  father 
of  Cadwaladyr,  was  defeated  in  622  A.D.  by  Edwin,  and 
retired  to  Ireland. 

Ca''dy,(  Daniel,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  in  Colum- 
bia county.  New  York,  in  1773.  He  gained  distinction  as 
an  advocate,  became  a  member  of  Congress,  and  after- 
wards a  judge.    Died  at  Johnstown,  New  York,  in  1859. 

Caecilius  Calactinus,  se-siKe-us  ka-lak-ti^nus,  [Kat- 
Ki7iiog  KalanTLVoq,]  a  Greek  rhetorician,  born  at  Calacte, 
in  Sicily,  lived  in  Rome  in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  He 
wrote  many  works  on  grammar  and  rhetoric,  which  were 
approved  by  the  critics  of  the  first  and  second  centuries, 
but  are  not  extant. 

See  Plutarch,  "Lives  of  the  Ten  Orators." 

Caecilius  Metellus.    See  Metellus. 

Caecilius  Metellus,  se-siKe-us  me-teKlus,  a  Roman 
high-priest,  (pontifex  maximus,)  was  twice  elected  con- 
sul. He  gained  a  victory  over  the  Carthaginians  about 
250  B.C.,  and  was  chosen  dictator  in  224  B.C. 

Caecilius  Statius,  se-siKe-us  sta'she-us,  a  popular 
Latin  comic  poet,  the  friend  of  Ennius,  was  born  at 
Milan,  and  was  a  slave  in  his  youth.  He  wrote  forty 
comedies,  of  which  short  fragments  only  are  extant. 
Died  in  168  B.C.  Cicero  censures  his  style  of  Latinity, 
but  admits  that  he  is  perhaps  chief  among  comic  poets. 
Horace  appears  to  have  thought  him  in  some  respects 
superior  to  Plautus  and  Terence.  (Epist.  lib.  ii.  i.) 

See  "Quintilian,"  xi. 

Caecina,  se-si'na,  (  Aulus,)  a  Roman  orator,  was  exiled 
about  48  B.C.  for  a  libellous  work  against  Caesar.  He 
wrote  a  book  on  the  "Etrusca  Disciplina,"  which  Pliny 
cites  as  an  authority  for  his  second  book. 

Caecina  Alienus,  se-si'na  a-le-ee'nus,  (Aulus,)  a 
Roman  general,  called  also  A.  Licinius  Caecina.  In 
68  A.D.  he  deserted  Galba  with  a  body  of  troops,  and 
entered  the  service  of  Vitellius.  In  the  year  69  he 
marched  with  a  large  force  from  Germany  to  Italy,  and 
made  a  junction  with  the  army  of  Valens.  Caecina 
and  Valens  gained  a  victory  over  the  army  of  Otho  at 
Bedriacum,  which  rendered  Vitellius  master  of  Italy. 
Caecina  soon  deserted  to  Vespasian,  and  a  few  years 
later  formed  a  plot  against  him,  for  which  he  was  killed 
by  order  of  Titus  in  79  A.D. 

See  JosEPHUS,  "De  Bello  Judaico." 

_  Caeci'na  Se-ve'rus,  (Aulus,)  a  Roman  general,  dis- 
tinguished in  the  reigns  of  Augustus  and  Tiberius.  He 
was  governor  of  Moesia  in  6  A.D.  As  legate  of  Ger- 
manicus,  he  commanded  an  army  in  Lower  Germany, 
and  defeated  Arminius  (Hermann)  in  15  A.D.  He  lived 
five  years  or  more  after  that  date. 

Caedmon,  kid'mon  or  kad'mon,  styled  "  the  father 
of  English  song,"  is  first  mentioned  by  Bede,  who  repre- 
sents him  as  a  "cowherd"  attached  to  the  monastery  of 
Whitby.  An  ode  composed  by  him  in  praise  of  the  Cre- 
ator is  the  earliest  specimen  of  Anglo-Saxon  metrical 
composition  extant.  Another  and  longer  poem,  treating 
on  the  creation  and  fall  of  man,  is  attributed  to  him.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  died  in  680  A.D.  ,^ 

See  Thomas  Wright,  "  Biographia  Britannica  Literaria;"  Long- 
fellow, '"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Karl  W.  Bouterwek, 
"Dissertatio  de  Caedmone  Poeta,"  1845. 


Caelestius.    See  Celestius. 
Caelius.    See  Ccelius. 

Caelius  (or  Ccelius)  Aurelianus,  see'le-us  au-re-le- 
a'nus,  an  eminent  physician  and  medical  writer,  born  at 
Sicca,  in  Africa,  was  one  of  the  sect  of  Methodici,  He 
probably  lived  between  100  and  300  A.D.  He  left  two 
valuable  Latin  works  on  chronic  and  acute  diseases,  which 
are  extant,  entitled  "  De  Morbis  Chronicis"  and  "De 
Morbis  Acutis."  His  writings  are  said  to  be  more  prac- 
tical than  those  of  any  other  medical  author  of  antiquity. 

See  Carl  J.  Kuehn,  "Programma  de  Cslio  Aureliano,"  1816. 

Caermarthen,  Marquis  of.    See  Danby,  Earl  of. 

Caesalpin  or  Caesalpinus.    See  Cesalpino. 

Caesar,  see^'zar,  [Fr.  Cesar,  sa'ztR' ;  It.  Cesare, 
cha''si-ri,]  the  cognomen  of  a  patrician  family  of  the 
Julia  gens,  which  was  one  of  the  most  ancient  in  the 
Roman  state,  and  claimed  a  descent  from  lulus,  the  son 
of  yEneas.  The  word  is  derived  by  some  scholars  from 
the  Latin  ccesaries,  or  the  Sanscrit  kesa,  which  signify 
"hair."  No  other  name  has  obtained  such  celebrity  in 
profane  history.  The  first  person  bearing  the  name,  who 
occurs  in  history,  was  Sextus  Julius  Caesar,  praetor  in 
208  B.C.  The  name  was  assumed  by  the  emperor  Au- 
gustus, and  by  his  successors  ;  and,  although  the  family 
of  Caesar  became  extinct  with  Nero,  the  succeeding  em- 
perors retained  it  as  a  title.  After  the  time  of  Hadrian, 
the  title  of  Augustus  was  confined  to  the  reigning  prince, 
and  that  of  Caesar  was  given  to  the  heir-presumptive. 

Caesar,  tsa'zSr,  (Aquilinus  Julius,)  a  German  his- 
torian, born  at  Gratz  in  1720.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
Styria,"  (7  vols.,  1788.)    Died  in  1792. 

Caesar,  (Caius.)    See  Caius  Cy*;sAR. 

Caesar,  (Caius  Julius  C^sar  Strabo  Vopiscus,)  a 
distinguished'  Roman  orator  and  poet.  He  commenced 
his  public  career  by  a  speech  against  T.  Albucius  in  103 
B.C.  He  surpassed  all  the  orators  of  his  time  in  wit.  He 
composed  tragedies,  which  were  rather  polished  than 
powerful.  In  88  B.C.  he  was  supported  by  the  aristo- 
cratic party  for  consul ;  but  his  election  was  violently 
prevented  by  the  tribunes.  This  contest  was  one  of 
the  proximate  causes  of  the  civil  war  between  Sulla  and 
Marius.  Caesar  was  killed  at  Rome  by  the  partisans 
of  Marius  in  87  B.C. 

See  Appian,  "  Bellum  Civile." 

Caesar,  (Julius,)  [Fr.  Jules  C^sar,  zhiil  s^'zIr';  It 
GiULio  Cesare,  joo'le-o  cha'si-rk  ;  Ger.  Julius  Casar, 
(or  Caesar,)  yoo'le-tis  tsa'zir,]  or,  more  fully,  Ca'iua 
Ju'lius  Cae'sar,  one  of  the  greatest  generals  and  greatei^t 
men  that  ever  lived,  was  born  in  July,  100  B.C.  He  be 
longed  to  the  Julian  tribe  or  family,  (Julia  gens,)  one  of 
the  most  ancient  in  Rome,  since  it  boasted  its  descent 
from  Julus  or  lulus,  the  son  of  yEneas.  Through  the 
influence  of  Marius,  who  had  married  Caesar's  aunt  Julia, 
he  was  elected  priest  of  Jupiter  ( Flamen  Dialis)  while 
yet  a  mere  boy.  In  83  B.C.  he  married  Cornelia,  the 
daughter  of  Cinna.  This  act  gave  great  off'ence  to 
Sulla,  who  commanded  him  to  divorce  his  wife ;  and,  on 
his  refusing  to  do  so,  he  was  proscribed.  He  escaped 
from  Rome,  and  concealed  himself  for  a  time  in  the 
country  of  the  Sabines.  At  length,  at  the  intercession 
of  some  of  Sulla's  friends,  he  was  reluctantly  pardoned 
by  the  dictator,  who  remarked,  it  is  said,  that  the  young 
Caesar  would  some  day  be  the  ruin  of  the  aristocratic 
party,  adding,  "In  that  boy  there  are  many  Mariuses." 
Soon  after  Caesar  went  to  Nicomedes,  King  of  Bithynia, 
and  subsequently  served  with  distinction  in  the  Roman 
army  in  Cilicia.  Having  heard,  while  here,  of  the  death 
of  Sxilla,  he  returned  at  once  to  Rome.  About  76  B.C., 
while  on  his  way  to  Rhodes  for  the  purpose  of  studying 
oratory  under  Apollonius  Molo,  (who  was  also  the  in- 
structor of  Cicero,)  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  pirates 
with  whom  the  Mediterranean  was  at  that  time  greatly 
infested.  He  was  detained  by  them  more  than  a  month, 
until  his  friends  could  raise  the  sum  demanded  for  his 
ransom.  According  to  Plutarch,  he  treated  his  captors 
with  great  contempt,  and,  whenever  he  wished  to  sleep, 
used  to  send  and  order  them  to  keep  silence.  He  even 
threatened — in  jest,  as  they  supposed — to  crucify  them 
when  he  got  his  liberty.  The  ransom  having  at  length 
been  paid,  he  manned  some  Milesian  vessels,  pursued 
and  took  the  pirates  prisoners  in  their  turn,  and  crucified 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (sJ^=^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CJESAR 


482 


C^SAR 


them  according  to  his  promise.  Having  remained  for 
some  time  in  Rhodes,  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  became 
a  candidate  for  popular  favour.  His  patrimonial  estate 
being  insufficient  to  supply  the  means  for  that  un- 
bounded liberality  by  which  he  sought  to  ingratiate 
himself  with  the  people,  he  borrowed  for  this  purpose 
vast  sums  from  the  usurers.  It  was  cast  upon  him  as 
a  reproach,  by  his  enemies,  that  he  was  always  in  debt, 
and  that  his  poverty  ceased  only  when  he  had  turned  his 
arms  against  Rome  and  robbed  the  public  treasury. 
"  Then  for  the  first  time,"  says  Lucan,  "  Rome  was  poorer 
than  Caesar."* 

Csesar  was  elected  quaestor  in  68  B.C. ;  and  in  the  same 
year  his  wife  Cornelia  died.  In  67  he  married  Pompeia, 
a  relative  of  Pompey  the  Great,  and  granddaughter  of 
Sulla  the  dictator.  This  was  especially  intended  to  con- 
ciliate Pompey  ;  and  by  various  other  means  he  sought 
to  ingratiate  himself  with  that  great  leader.  He  became 
asdile  in  65  B.C.,  and  purchased  the  favour  of  the  popu- 
lace by  the  exhibition  of  public  games  surpassing  in 
magnificence  anything  of  the  kind  ever  before  seen  in 
Rome.  In  64  B.C.  he  was  elected  pontifex  maximus. 
Catiline's  conspiracy  occurred  in  63,  and  Caesar  was  by 
many  suspected  of  being  accessory  to  it.  When  Cicero 
called  for  the  opinion  of  the  senators  as  to  the  punish- 
ment which  should  be  inflicted  on  the  conspirators,  all 
the  others  gave  judgment  in  favour  of  their  death,  until 
it  came  to  Caesar's  turn  to  speak.  He  contended  that  it 
was  contrary  to  justice  and  to  the  usage  of  the  Roman 
commonwealth  to  put  men  of  their  birth  and  dignity  to 
death  without  an  open  trial,  except  in  a  case  of  extreme 
necessity.  He  recommended  that  they  should  be  kept 
in  prison  in  any  of  the  cities  of  Italy  which  Cicero  might 
fix  upon,  and  that  these  cities  should  be  bound  by  the 
severest  penalties  to  keep  them  safely.  Caesar's  argu- 
ments had  great  influence  with  the  senate  ;  but  Cato, 
following  in  an  earnest  and  powerful  speech,  in  which  he 
accused  Caesar  of  being  connected  with  the  conspiracy, 
carried  most  of  the  senators  with  him  :  the  conspirators 
were  condemned  to  death  ;  and  Caesar  himself  narrowly 
escaped.  As  he  was  leaving  the  senate-house,  his  life  was 
threatened  by  some  of  the  Roman  knights  ;  and,  had  it 
not  been  for  the  fear  of  the  common  people,  it  is  proba- 
ble that  he  might  have  been  included  in  the  accusation 
with  Lentulus,  Cethegus,  and  the  rest. 

He  became  prastor  in  62  B.C.,  and  the  next  year  was 
sent  as  propraetor  to  Spain,  where  he  gained  no  little 
distinction  both  as  a  general  and  a  civil  magistrate,  and 
was  saluted  by  his  army  imperator.  He  was  elected  con- 
sul, with  L.  Calpurnius  Bibulus  as  his  colleague,  in  60, 
and  in  59  B.C.  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  office.  One 
of  his  first  measures  was  to  propose  an  agrarian  law,  by 
which  a  rich  tract  of  public  land  was  to  be  distributed 
among  the  poorer  citizens,  especially  those  who  had 
several  children.  Although  this  measure  was  strongly 
opposed  by  his  colleague  Bibulus,  it  was  carried,  chiefly 
through  the  influence  of  Pompey  and  Crassus.  In  order 
that  he  might  strengthen  his  interest  with  Pompey  still 
more,  he  gave  him  his  daughter  Julia  in  marriage, 
although  she  had  previously  been  affianced  to  Servilius 
Caepio.  Soon  after  Caesar  himself  married  Calpurnia, 
the  daughter  of  L.  Piso,  for  whom  he  procured  the  con- 
sulship the  ensuing  year.  He  formed  a  secret  alliance 
with  Pompey  and  Crassus,  known  as  the  first  triumvirate. 
Supported  by  such  influence,  Caesar  had  no  difficulty  in 
carrying  through  the  senate  whatever  measures  he 
pleased.  The  government  both  of  Transalpine  and 
Cisalpine  Gaul,  with  that  of  Illyricum,  was  decreed  to 
him  for  five  years.  The  following  spring,  (58  B.C.,)  when 
L.  Piso  and  A.  Gabinius  were  consuls,  Caesar  left  Rome 
for  Transalpine  Gaul,  and  before  winter  had  ended  tri- 
umphantly two  formidable  wars,  the  one  with  the  Hel- 
vetii,  and  the  other  with  Ariovistus,  a  German  prince 
who  had  some  time  before  crossed  the  Rhine  and,  being 
supported  by  a  powerful  army,  had  established  himself 
in  the  eastern  part  of  Gaul.  The  next  year  he  subdued 
the  various  Belgic  tribes  or  nations  dwelling  between 
the  Rhine  and  the  Seine.    In  56  B.C.,  having  divided  his 


*  "  Pauperiorque  fuit  tunc  primum  Caesare  Roma." 

Pharsalia,  lib.  iii.  1.  168. 


forces,  assigning  a  part  of  them  to  his  different  generals 
[legati)  respectively,  he  overran  nearly  all  the  rest  of 
Gaul,  besides  quelling  the  insurrections  of  several  na- 
tions who  had  been  subdued  the  year  before.  In  55  he 
surprised  and  cut  to  pieces  two  powerful  German  tribes 
who  had  attempted  to  establish  themselves  in  Gaul.  In 
order  more  effectually  to  strike  terror  into  the  Germans, 
he  crossed  the  Rhine  by  a  bridge  which  he  had  con- 
structed for  that  purpose,  and,  after  ravaging  the  territo- 
ries of  the  Sigambri,  he  recrossed  the  river  and  destroyed 
the  bridge.  The  same  year  he  invaded  Britain,  and 
compelled  the  submission  of  several  of  the  tribes.  The 
following  year  he  made  another  expedition  into  Britain, 
defeated  Cassivellaunus,  one  of  their  princes,  who  had 
been  chosen  generalissimo  by  the  different  tribes,  and, 
having  demanded  hostages  and  fixed  the  tribute  which 
Britain  should  pay  to  the  Romans,  he  returned  to  Gaul. 
The  ensuing  autumn  a  most  formidable  revolt  occurred 
among  the  Eburones,  under  their  king  Ambiorix,  who 
succeeded,  by  stratagem  or  treachery,  in  surprising  and 
cutting  to  pieces  a  considerable  body  of  Caesar's  troops 
under  the  generals  Sabinus  and  Cotta.  Fortunately, 
Caesar  had  not  yet  set  out  for  Italy,  as  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  do  on  the  approach  of  winter.  Ambiorix, 
whose  army  had  become  much  increased  in  consequence 
of  his  recent  victory,  was  soon  after  defeated  by  Caesar 
with  great  loss ;  but  the  latter  deemed  it  most  prudent 
to  remain  in  Gaul  through  the  entire  winter.  During 
the  summer  of  53  B.C.  Caesar  was  chiefly  occupied  in  re- 
pressing an  extensive  conspiracy  which  had  been  formed 
among  the  different  Gallic  nations,  and  in  reducing  to 
subjection  such  as  had  broken  out  into  an  open  revolt. 
The  following  year  a  general  insurrection  took  place 
among  the  Gauls.  It  was  headed  by  Vercingetorix,  a 
young  nobleman  of  the  Arverni,  who  proved  himself  to 
be  a  general  of  no  mean  capacity  ;  so  that  Caesar's  situa- 
tion was  for  a  time  extremely  critical.  There  appeared 
to  be  the  greatest  unanimity  among  the  various  Gallic 
nations.  Even  the  .i^ldui,  who,  from  the  time  when 
Caesar  first  obtained  the  government  of  Gaul,  had  been 
faithful  allies  to  the  Romans  until  now,  made  common 
cause  with  the  rest,  and  joined  the  revolt.  They  took 
Noviodunum,  a  walled  town  which  Caesar  had  made  the 
chief  depository  of  his  stores ;  and  he  was  obliged  to 
retreat  to  his  lieutenant  Labienus,  beyond  the  Loire. 
But,  having  received  reinforcements,  he  besieged  Ver- 
cingetorix in  Alesia,  and  at  length  compelled  him  to 
surrender.  In  the  next  year  (51  B.C.)  Caesar  completed 
the  pacification  of  Gaul.  His  daughter  Julia,  the  wife  of 
Pompey,  had  died  in  54  B.C.  Crassus,  the  other  mem- 
ber of  the  triumvirate,  had  lost  his  life  in  the  war  against 
the  Parthians.  A  coldness  had  gradually  sprung  up 
between  him  and  Pompey,  who  appears  to  have  become 
jealous  of  the  recent  brilliant  successes  of  his  colleague. 
From  his  first  entrance  into  public  life  Caesar  had  at- 
tached himself  to  the  popular  party,  and  had  constantly 
studied  how  he  might  reduce  or  overthrow  the  power  of 
the  aristocracy.  Pompey,  on  the  other  hand,  a  favourite 
and  connection  of  Sulla,  had  been  one  of  the  staunch- 
est  adherents  of  the  senatorial  faction,  and,  after  the 
death  of  the  dictator,  was  generally  regarded  as  the 
chief  of  the  aristocratic  party.  And  although,  thrc-ugh 
the  arts  and  influence  of  Caesar,  he  had  been  induced 
for  a  time  to  take  the  other  side,  on  the  breaking  up 
of  their  friendship  he  naturally  fell  back  to  his  former 
position.  There  had  been  for  some  time,  on  the  part  of 
the  aristocracy,  a  growing  jealousy  of  Caesar's  power  and 
influence  in  the  state.  Some  of  the  more  violent  were 
resolved  to  crush  him,  if  possible,  at  all  hazards.  In  the 
year  50  B.C.  it  was  proposed  to  the  senate,  by  Claudius 
Marcellus,  that  Caesar,  having  now  finished  the  Gallic 
war,  should  be  required  to  lay  down  his  command.  But 
the  tribune  Curio,  whom  Caesar  had  by  large  bribes 
gained  over  to  his  interest,  interposed  his  veto.  Caesar 
was,  however,  on  diff"erent  pretexts,  deprived  of  two  of 
his  legions.  Yet,  desirous — or  seeming  to  be  so — of 
avoiding  a  rupture,  if  possible,  he  proposed  to  the  sen- 
ate, through  Curio,  to  resign  his  command  on  condition 
that  Pomj/ey  would  do  the  same.  The  senate,  however, 
refused  even  to  consider  the  proposition.  Afterwards, 
on  the  motion  of  Scipio,  it  was  decreed  that  Caesar 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f3.r,  fill,  f^t;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


C^SAR 


485 


C^BAR 


should  disband  his  army  against  a  certain  day,  otherwise 
he  should  be  held  to  be  an  enemy  of  the  republic.  This 
was  a  virtual  declaration  of  war ;  for  few,  if  any,  could 
suppose  that  Caesar  would  give  up  his  army  without  a 
struggle.  On  being  informed  of  the  resolution  of  the 
senate,  he  assembled  his  soldiers  and  harangued  them 
on  the  subject  of  his  wrongs.  When  he  found  that  they 
eagerly  espoused  his  cause,  he  determined  to  strike  at 
once,  while  his  enemies  were  yet  unprepared.  With  only 
5000  infantry  and  300  horse — for  his  other  forces  were 
still  beyond  the  Alps — he  marched  towards  the  confines 
of  Italy,  which,  with  its  then  limits,  was  separated  on  the 
east  from  Cisalpine  Gaul  by  the  small  river  Rubicon. 
When  he  arrived  at  the  banks  of  this  stream,  as  Plutarch 
informs  us,  he  hesitated  for  some  time,  revolving  in  his 
mind  the  arguments  for  and  against  the  momentous 
step  which  he  was  about  to  take.  At  last,  exclaiming, 
"The  die  is  cast!"  he  crossed  the  river,  and,  advancing 
with  the  utmost  expedition,  he  occupied  successively 
Ariminum,  Arretium,  Pisaurum,  Ancona,  Auximum,  be- 
sides other  places.  Owing  partly  to  his  popularity  and 
partly  to  the  fear  which  his  name  inspired,  all  the  towns 
of  Italy  seemed  ready  to  open  their  gates  at  his  approach. 
His  triumphant  progress  filled  Rome  with  consternation. 
In  the  general  panic,  Pompey,  the  two  consuls,  and  most 
of  the  senators  fled  from  the  city  in  the  direction  of  Capua. 
Pompey  continued  his  flight  to  Brundisium,  whither  he 
was  closely  pursued  by  Caesar.  He  escaped,  however, 
to  Greece.  Caesar,  being  unable  to  follow,  for  want  of 
ships,  returned  to  Rome,  and  not  long  after  set  out  for 
Spain,  where  Afranius  and  Petreius,  Pompey's  lieuten- 
ants, were  at  the  head  of  a  formidable  army.  In  his 
first  engagement  with  them  Caesar  was  worsted ;  but, 
after  encountering  for  a  time  great  hardships  from  the 
want  of  provisions,  he  at  length  triumphed  over  every 
obstacle,  and  compelled  Afranius  and  Petreius  to  sue  for 
peace,  which  he  granted  on  condition  that  they  should 
disband  their  forces  and  not  again  take  arms  against 
him  during  the  war.  Having  overcome  all  opposition 
in  Spain, — the  conquest  of  which  occupied  him  only 
about  forty  days, — and  subsequently  reduced  Massilia, 
(Marseilles,)  he  hastened  to  Rome.  During  his  absence 
in  Spain  he  had  been  declared  dictator  by  the  praetor 
M.  Lepidus.  After  eleven  days,  during  which  time 
several  important  laws  had  been  passed,  he  abdicated 
the  dictatorship,  and  immediately  set  out  for  Brundisium, 
where  he  had  ordered  his  forces  to  assemble.  But  he 
found  it  impossible  to  obtain  vessels  suflicient  for  their 
transportation :  he  was  therefore  under  the  necessity  of 
carrying  over  to  Greece  only  a  part  of  his  troops  at  the 
first  passage.  Meanwhile,  his  situation  was  critical  in  the 
extreme  ;  for  Pompey,  on  account  of  the  multitude  of  his 
ships,  had  command  of  the  sea,  and  a  strict  watch  was 
kept  upon  the  movements  of  Caesar's  vessels,  so  that 
the  forces  of  the  latter  were  for  a  considerable  time 
divided,  one  part  having  been  landed  in  Epirus,  while 
the  other  was  compelled  to  remain  in  Italy.  At  length 
Bibulus,  the  commander  of  Pompey's  fleet,  died  ;  and, 
his  place  not  being  at  once  supplied,  each  of  the  officers 
acted  according  to  his  own  judgment  and  independently 
of  the  others.  After  a  time,  the  vigilance  of  the  block- 
ade having  been  somewhat  relaxed,  the  remainder  of 
Caesar's  forces  were  carried  over,  under  the  conduct  of 
his  faithful  friends  Mark  Antony  and  Fufius  Calenus. 
In  his  first  encounter  with  Pompey,  near  Dyrrachium, 
Caesar  was  repulsed  with  some  loss,  and  compelled  to 
retreat.  He  withdrew  to  Thessaly,  whither  he  was  pur- 
sued by  Pompey.  At  last  the  two  opposing  armies  met 
on  the  plains  of  Pharsalia  ;  and  although  the  forces  of 
Pompey  (consisting  of  about  45,000  infantry  and  7000 
cavalry)  were  more  than  double  those  of  his  rival,  who 
had  about  22,000  foot-soldiers  and  1000  horse,  they 
sustained  a  disastrous  defeat.  According  to  Caesar's 
own  statement,  about  15,000  of  Pompey's  men  fell  in 
the  conflict,  and  more  than  24,000  were  taken  prisoners. 
Pompey  escaped  to  Egypt,  where  he  was  treacherously 
murdered.  (See  Pompey.)  The  result  of  the  civil  war 
may  be  said  to  have  been  decided  by  the  battle  of  Phar- 
salia. But  there  still  remained  a  formidable  army  of  the 
Pompeians  in  Africa,  under  the  command  of  Scipio  and 
Cato.    Caesar  did  not,  however,  proceed  at  once  against 


these  enemies.  Having  followed  Pompey  to  Egypt,  he 
became  involved  in  a  dispute  respecting  the  claims  of 
Ptolemy  and  his  sister  Cleopatra  to  the  throne  of  that 
country.  Captivated  by  the  charms  of  Cleopatra,  he 
supported  her  cause  against  her  elder  brother,  who  per- 
ished during  the  war  which  ensued.  Cleopatra  was  de- 
clared Queen  of  Egypt ;  but  her  younger  brother,  called 
also  Ptolemy,  was  associated  with  her  on  the  throne. 
Before  returning  to  Rome,  Caesar  marched  against  Phar- 
naces,  son  of  Mithridates  the  Great,  King  of  Pontus, 
and  totally  defeated  him  near  Zela.  It  was  concerning 
this  victory  that  he  wrote  to  the  senate  the  famous  letter 
comprised  in  three  words,  ^^Veni,  vidi^  via,''''  ("'I  came, 
I  saw,  I  conquered.")  He  arrived  at  Rome  in  Septem- 
ber, 47  B.C.,  and  before  the  end  of  that  year  set  out  for 
Africa.  The  opposing  armies  met  at  Thapsus,  near  the 
sea-coast,  to  the  southeast  of  Carthage.  The  result  was 
the  total  defeat,  and  ail-but  extermination,  of  the  forces 
under  Scipio.  The  Caesarean  soldiers,  exasperated  by 
the  obstinacy  with  which  the  war  had  been  protracted, 
cut  to  pieces  all  whom  they  overtook,  killing  without 
mercy  even  those  who  offered  themselves  as  prisoners, 
in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  and  entreaties  of  Caesar. 
The  cause  of  the  senatorial  party  having  become  utterly 
desperate,  Scipio,  Juba,  Cato,  and  several  others  of  the 
leaders,  unwilling  to  fall  into  the  power  of  the  conqueror, 
put  an  end  to  their  lives  with  their  own  hands. 

Caesar  returned  to  Rome,  the  undisputed  master  of 
the  world.  But  he  had  scarcely  completed  the  celebra- 
tion of  his  recent  victories,  when  intelligence  arrived 
that  Pompey's  sons,  Cneius  and  Sextus,  had  assembled 
a  powerful  army  in  Spain.  Caesar  hastened  with  his 
usual  promptitude  to  meet  the  new  danger.  He  en- 
gaged his  enemies  near  Munda,  and,  after  a  very  severe 
action,  put  them  to  a  total  rout.  According  to  Plutarch, 
when  Caesar  saw  his  men  hard  pressed  and  making  but 
a  feeble  resistance,  he  rushed  into  the  thickest  of  the 
fight,  exclaiming,  "  Are  you  not  ashamed  to  deliver  up 
your  general  into  the  hands  of  these  boys  .'"' — alluding 
to  the  youth  of  Pompey's  sons.  After  the  battle  he  said 
to  his  friends  that  he  had  often  fought  for  victory ;  but 
then,  for  the  first  time,  he  had  fought  for  his  life.  This 
was  the  last  of  Caesar's  wars. 

Although  he  had  thus  risen  to  the  summit  of  power 
on  the  ruins  of  the  republic,  in  the  exercise  of  that  power 
he  appears  never  to  have  lost  sight  of  the  true  interests 
of  his  country  and  of  the  world.  One  of  the  first  sub- 
jects that  claimed  his  attention  was  the  regulation  of  the 
Roman  calendar.  For  this  purpose,  though  well  versed 
himself  both  in  mathematics  and  astronomy,  he  availed 
himself  of  the  skill  of  the  most  eminent  mathematicians 
of  that  age.  The  improved  mode  of  computing  time 
introduced  by  him  has,  with  some  slight  modifications, 
been  adopted  by  all  civilized  nations,  and  his  name  has 
become  inseparably  associated  with  the  new  calendar, 
both  in  the  name  of  the  month  July,  and  in  the  phrases 
"Julian  year,"  "Julian  period,"  etc.  He  procured  the 
enactment  of  several  important  and  salutary  laws,  and 
was  revolving  in  his  mind  vast  projects  of  public  im- 
provements, including-  the  preparation  of  a  complete 
digest  of  the  Roman  laws,  the  clearing  out  and  enlarging 
of  the  harbour  of  Ostia,  (at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,) 
the  draining  of  the  Pontine  marshes,  the  cutting  of  a 
canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  public  libraries,  when  death  put  an  end  to  his 
labours  and  undertakings. 

After  the  total  overthrow  of  the  partisans  of  Pompey, 
he  had  received  from  the  senate  the  title  of  Imperator 
(whence  comes  our  word  "  emperor")  for  life ;  he  was 
also  declared  dictator,  and  Prcefechis  Mortim,  ("prefect 
of  manners,"  or  "customs,")  both  offices  being  perpetual. 
As  pontifex  maxwms,  or  high -priest,  he  had  control  of 
the  religion  of  the  state.  To  all  these  honours  he  wished 
to  add  the  title  of  king,  {rex,)  and  thus  to  hand  down 
his  power  and  dignities  to  his  successor.  Having  no  le- 
gitimate children,  he  adopted  his  grand-nephew  Octavius, 
whose  mother  Atia  was  the  daughter  of  Julia  the  sister 
of  Caesar,  as  his  successor  and  the  inheritor  of  his  name. 
His  devoted  adherent  Mark  Antony,  on  the  occasion 
of  the  festival  called  Lupercalia,  perhaps  with  a  view 
to  sound  the  feelings  of  the  people,  publicly  offered  to 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Vi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CjESAR 


484 


CMSAR 


Ciesar  a  regal  crown  ;  but  he,  perceivingthat  it  displeased 
the  multitude,  refused  it,  though,  as  it  was  thought,  with 
some  reluctance.  The  name  of  king,  from  the  time  of 
the  Tarquins,  had  always  been,  and  still  was,  peculiarly 
odious  to  all  classes  of  the  Romans ;  and  this  considera- 
tion encouraged  Caesar's  bitter  enemies,  of  whom  there 
were  not  a  few  concealed  among  the  aristocracy,  to  be- 
lieve that  the  taking  of  his  life  would  meet  with  many 
approvers  even  among  the  people.  There  was  at  length 
formed  against  him  a  conspiracy,  in  which  more  than 
sixty  persons  were  implicated.  The  principal  instigator 
and  leader  of  the  enterprise  was  Cassius,  who  had  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  the  lieutenant  of  Crassus  in  the 
Parthian  war.  M.  Brutus  was  also  prominent  among 
the  conspirators.  He  appears  to  have  been  actuated 
by  a  sincere  though  mistaken  patriotism  ;  while  Cassius, 
there  is  leason  to  believe,  was  chiefly  influenced  by  per- 
sonal animosity.  It  is  said  that  Cassar  had  many  warn- 
ings of  his  approaching  fate,  and  that  the  night  before 
his  death  his  wife  Calpurnia  dreamed  that  he  was  mur- 
dered in  her  arms.  In  the  morning  she  entreated  him 
with  te:.rs  not  to  go  to  the  senate-house,  as  he  had  in- 
tended. When  he  had  almost  decided  to  stay  at  home, 
Decimu  j  Brutus,  one  of  the  conspirators,  to  whom,  as 
well  as  to  M.  Brutus,  Caesar  had  shown  many  favours, 
and  in  whom  he  had  the  greatest  confidence,  came  in, 
and  at  length  prevailed  on  him  to  go  with  him  to  meet 
the  senate.  It  had  been  arranged,  as  it  appears,  that 
while  one  of  the  conspirators,  L.  Tillius  Cimber,  was 
presenting  a  petition  to  Ccesar,  some  of  the  others 
should  crowd  around,  as  if  to  urge  the  same  request, 
when  an  attack  upon  him  should  be  made  by  all  at 
once.  At  first  Caesar  resolutely  resisted ;  but,  when  he 
perceived  the  number  of  his  assailants,  he  wrapped  him- 
self in  his  toga  and  resigned  himself  to  his  fate.  Ac- 
cording to  one  account,  Caesar  defended  himself  with 
spirit  until  he  saw  the  dagger  of  M.  Brutus  among  the 
rest,  when  he  exclaimed,  "Et  tu.  Brute  !"  ("Thou  too, 
Brutus  !")  and  yielded  without  any  further  struggle. 
Shakspeare,  in  his  tragedy  of  "Julius  Caesar,"  appears 
to  have  followed  scrupulously  and  minutely  the  popular 
traditions  respecting  the  death  of  Caesar.  After  his 
death  it  was  found  that  his  body  had  been  pierced  with 
twenty-three  wounds.  He  was  assassinated  on  the  Ides 
of  March,  44  B.C.,  in  the  fifty-sixth  year  of  his  age. 

Caesar  was  tall  in  stature,  and  of  a  noble  and  com- 
manding presence.  He  was  naturally  of  a  delicate  con- 
stitution ;  but  by  continual  exercise  and  by  a  frequent 
exposure  to  hardships,  with  the  aid  of  an  indomitable 
will,  he  became  so  hardy  that  few  if  any  could  surpass 
him  in  enduring  the  fatigues  and  privations  of  a  military 
life.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  his  unremitting  men- 
tal exertions  and  anxieties  began  at  last  to  tell  upon  his 
health ;  for  Suetonius  speaks  of  his  suffering  from  ill 
health,  assigning  it  as  a  reason  why  he  was  so  reckless 
of  the  warnings  given  him  by  the  soothsayers,  as  if  his 
life  had  not  been  worth  the  trouble  necessary  for  its 
preservation.  He  was  subject  to  occasional  attacks  of 
epilepsy;  but  they  were  so  rare  that  they  do  not  appear 
to  have  seriously  interfered  with  his  attention  to  his 
multitudinous  affairs. 

Considered  as  a  general,  a  statesman,  and  a  ruler,  we 
must  admit  that  few,  if  any, — even  among  the  most  re- 
markable men  that  ever  lived, — have  equalled  him,  espe- 
cially if  we  take  into  account  the  versatility  as  well  as  the 
greatness  of  his  talents.  "  As  a  soldier,"  says  Suetonius, 
*'  it  is  hard  to  say  whether  he  was  more  cautious  or 
more  daring.  He  never  marched  his  army  where  he  was 
liable  to  any  ambush  from  the  enemy  without  taking  all 
possible  precaution  by  his  scouts.  Nor  did  he  pass  over 
into  Britain  until  he  had  made  due  inquiry  respecting  the 
harbours  and  what  convenience  there  was  for  landing 
his  troops.  Yet  when  information  was  brought  him  of 
the  siege  of  a  camp  of  his  in  Germany,  he  made  his  way 
to  his  men  in  a  Gallic  dress  through  the  enemy's  guards. 
He  also  went  over  from  Brundisium  to  Dyrrachium  in 
winter  in  the  midst  of  the  hostile  fleets."  In  the  fertility 
of  his  resources  he  appears  to  have  been  superior  to 
every  other  commander  of  whom  history  makes  mention. 
He  rarely  if  ever  repeated  the  same  stratagem  ;  but  he 
seems  to  have  had  a  new  expedient  or  invention  for  every 


new  occasion,  and  one  which  was  always  adequate  to  the 
emergency. 

Speaking  of  those  extraordinary  men  who  have  com- 
pelled "nations  unaccustomed  to  control"  to  bow  obe- 
dient to  their  will,  Macaulay  remarks  that  "in  this  class 
three  men  stand  pre-eminent, — Caesar,  Cromwell,  and 
Bonaparte.  The  highest  place  in  this  remarkable  tri- 
umvirate belongs  undoubtedly  to  Caesar.  He  united 
the  talents  of  Bonaparte  to  those  of  Cromwell ;  and  he 
possessed  also  what  neither  Cromwell  nor  Bonaparte 
possessed, — learning,  taste,  wit,  eloquence,  the  senti- 
ments and  the  manners  of  an  accomplished  gentleman." 
(See  his  article  on  Hallam's  "  Constitutional  History,"  in 
the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  1828.)  In  Caesar  the  intel- 
lect, the  passions,  and  the  will  appear  to  have  main- 
tained a  perfect  equipoise.  For,  strong  and  fierce  as 
were  his  passions,  he  never  allowed  them  to  rule  him  ; 
thus  justifying  the  well-known  line  of  Pope's  "  Temple 
of  Fame," — 

"Csesar,  the  world's  great  master,  and  his  own." 
He  never  permitted  personal  pique  or  animosity  to  in- 
terfere in  any  way  with  the  grand  purposes  of  his  life. 
Although  he  was,  it  must  be  confessed,  very  far  from 
being  a  virtuous  man,  even  in  the  pagan  acceptation  of 
the  word,  he  possessed  some  very  noble  and  rare  moral 
qualities.  He  appears  to  have  shunned,  as  by  "  an  im- 
mortal instinct,"  everything  that  was  petty,  narrow,  or 
vindictive.  Generosity  and  magnanimity  seem  to  have 
been  inseparable  parts  of  his  nature.  Suetonius,  who 
certainly  did  not  err  on  the  side  of  partiality,  says  Caesar 
was  always  obliging  and  kind  to  his  friends,  mentioning 
as  an  example  that  when  he  was  on  a  journey  through  a 
wild  country  with  C.  Oppius,  and  the  latter  was  suddenly 
taken  ill,  Caesar  gave  up  to  him  the  only  sleeping-apart- 
ment, and  lay  himself  on  the  ground  in  the  open  air. 
The  same  writer  also  observes  that  he  never  carried  3 
quarrel  so  far  but  that  he  was  always  ready  to  lay  it  down 
when  a  reasonable  occasion  offered.  Plis  clemency  and 
generosity  were  conspicuous  in  every  part  of  his  life,  but 
especially  so  towards  the  conquered  party  in  the  civil 
war.  He  was  not  only  a  perfect  master  in  the  use  of 
arms,  and  a  most  skilful  horseman,  but  he  was  accus- 
tomed, when  occasion  required,  to  swim  across  rivers 
rather  than  permit  the  slightest  delay.  In  oratory  he 
was,  in  that  age,  second  only  to  Cicero  ;  and  it  is  thought 
that  had  he  devoted  himself  more  fully  to  the  study  he 
might  have  surpassed  Cicero  himself  He  is  said  to  have 
been  a  perfect  master  of  all  the  learning  and  science  of 
his  time.  Besides  being  a  general,  statesman,  jurist, 
orator,  and  historian,  he  was  also  a  poet,  a  mathemati- 
cian, an  astronomer,  and  an  architect.  As  a  historian  he 
justly  holds  a  very  high  rank.  His  style  is  distinguished 
for  clearness,  ease,  and  simplicity,  and  is  not  without  ele- 
gance. His  historical  writings  consist  of  the  first  seven 
books  of  the  commentaries  relating  to  the  Gallic  war 
and  the  three  books  concerning  the  civil  war.  Besides 
the  above,  he  wrote  various  other  works,  of  which  only 
fragments  remain.  A  few  of  his  letters  have  been  pre- 
served among  the  letters  of  Cicero. 

See  Plutarch,  "Lives;"  Suetonius,  "Lives  of  the  Twelve 
Caesars;"  Cvesar,  "Commentaries;"  Dion  Cassius,  "History  of 
Rome  ;"  Appian,  "  Bellum  Civile  ;"  Drumann,  "Geschichte  Roms;" 
Julius  Celsus,  "De  Vita  et  Rebus  gestis  C.J.  Caesaris,"  1697;  Ri- 
chard DE  Bury,  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  J.  C^sar,"  2  vols.,  1758; 
Alphonse  de  Beauchamp,  "Vie  de  J.  Cesar,"  1823;  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,  "Precis  des  Guerres  de  J.  Cesar,  ecrit  par  M.  Mar- 
chand  sous  la  Dictee  de  I'Empereur,"  1836 ;  Enrico  Bindi,  "Sulla 
Vita  e  sulle  Opere  diC.  G.  Cesare  discorso,"  1844 ;  P.  van  Limburg- 
Brouwer,  "Cesar  en  zijne  Tijdgenooten,"  4  vols.,  1845-46;  Jacob 
Abbott,  "  Life  of  Julius  Caesar,"  1849;  Napoleon  IIL,  "Histoire 
de  Jules  Cesar,"  2  vols.,  1867-68  ;  Lucan,  "Pharsalia  ;"  also  Byron, 
"Cliilde  Harold,"  canto  iv.,  90th  stanza. 

Caesar,  see'zar,  (Sir  Julius,)  an  eminent  English 
civilian,  born  in  1557.  He  was  the  friend  of  Lord 
Bacon,  and  a  favourite  of  James  I.,  soon  after  whose 
accession  he  was  made  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
He  wrote  the  "Authority  and  Proceedings  of  the  Court 
of  Requests."    Died  in  1636.  * 

See  Edmund  Lodge,  "  Life  of  Sir  Julius  Cassar,"  etc.,  1810. 

Caesar,  (L.  Julius,)  a  Roman  senator,  was  a  nephew 
of  the  orator  Caius  Julius  Caesar,  and  an  uncle  of  Mark 
Antony  the  triumvir,  who  was  the  son  of  his  sister  Julia. 
He  was  consul  in  64  B.C.,  and  in  the  next  year  voted  for 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  skort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m&t;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


485 


CAGNURD 


the  death  of  Catiline's  accomplices,  among  whom  was 
his  sister's  husband,  P.  Lentulus  Sura,  He  took  no 
active  part  in  the  civil  war  which  began  in  49.  After 
the  death  of  the  great  Caesar  in  44  B.C.,  he  joined  the 
senatorial  party  against  Antony,  and  was  included  in  the 
proscription  by  the  triumvirs  in  43,  but  was  pardoned 
through  the  intercession  of  his  sister  Julia. 

Caesar,  (L.  Julius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  fought 
for  Pompey  in  the  civil  war,  and  in  46  B.C.  had  a  com- 
mand at  Utica  under  Cato,  who  at  his  death  committed 
"his  son  to  his  care.  Having  surrendered  Utica,  he  was 
pardoned  by  the  dictator. 

See  CyESAR,  "Bellum  Civile." 

Csesariauus,  se-za-re-a'nus,  (C^sar,)  [It.  Cesare 
Cesariano,  cha's^-ri  chk-si-re-i'no,]  an  architect,  born 
at  Milan,  translated  into  Italian  Vitruvius's  work  on  Ar- 
chitecture, with  a  commentary,  {1521.)    Died  in  1542. 

Ceesarion,  se-za're-on,  [Fr.  Cesarion,  sa^zt^re^dN',] 
the  son  of  Julius  Caesar  and  Cleopatra,  was  born  in 
Egypt  in  47  B.C.  He  probably  accompanied  his  niother 
to  Rome  in  the  year  46.  It  is  said  that  Antony  once 
declared  in  the  senate  that  Caesar  recognized  Caesarion 
as  his  son.  In  the  year  34  he  received  from  Antony 
the  title  of  king  of  kings.  He  was  put  to  death,  by  order 
of  Augustus,  in  30  B.C. 

Caesarius,  se-za're-us,  [Fr.  C^saire,  si'zSR',]  Saint, 
an  eminent  physician,  born  about  330  A.D.,  was  the  son 
of  Gregory  Nazianzen,  who  is  styled  a  Father  of  the 
Church.  He  was  first  physician  to  the  emperor  Con- 
stantius  at  Constantinople  until  his  death  in  360.  Julian 
made  an  exception  in  his  favour  when  he  removed  from 
his  court  the  officers  who  professed  Christianity,  and 
vainly  attempted  to  pervert  him  from  the  faith.  He  was 
a  brother  of  Saint  Gregory  Theologus,    Died  in  369  a.d. 

See  Baii.let,  "Vies  des  Saints." 

Caesarius,  [Fr.  C^saire,]  Saint,  an  eminent  and  in- 
fluential French  prelate,  born  at  Chalons  about  470  a.d., 
was  chosen  Bishop  of  Aries  in  502.  He  strenuously 
opposed  Arianism  and  Semi-Pelagianism.  In  505  he 
was  exiled  for  a  short  time  by  Alaric  the  Goth.  He 
composed  a  "Rule  for  Monastic  Life,"  and  numerous 
sermons  or  homilies,  which  are  still  extant.   Died  in  542. 

Caesius  Bassus,    See  Bassus. 

Caetan.    See  Cajetan. 

Caffa,  kaPfa,  (Melchiore,)  an  able  Italian  sculptor, 
born  in  Malta  about  1632,  was  called  "the  Maltese,"  He 
worked  at  Rome.    Died  in  1687, 

Caffarelli.    See  Gaffarelli. 

Caffarelli,  kt'ft'ra'le',  (Francois  Marie  Auguste,) 
a  general  in  the  French  service,  born  at  Falga  in  1766. 
He  served  as  general  of  division  at  Austerlitz  in  1805, 
and  was  minister  of  war  for  the  kingdom  of  Italy  from 
1806  to  1810,  after  which  he  made  several  campaigns  in 
Spain.  In  1814  he  escorted  the  empress  Maria  Louisa 
to  Vienna.    Died  in  1849. 

See  Trelat,  "  Notice  sur  le  G{5neral  A.  Caffarelli,"  1850. 

Caffarelli  du  Falga,  kt  fft'rcVle'  du  ftKgt',  (Louis 
Marie  Joseph  Maximilien,)  a  French  general,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Langnedoc  in  1756.  He  served 
in  the  army  before  the  Revolution,  escaped  from  the 
proscription  of  1793,  after  a  confinement  of  fourteen 
months,  and  distinguished  himself  near  Dusseldorf  in 
1795,  Having  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  division, 
he  went  to  Egypt  with  Bonaparte  in  1798  as  chief  of  the 
corps  of  engineers.  After  rendering  important  services, 
he  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Acre  in  1799.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Institute,  and  author  of  several  brief  and 
able  scientific  treatises.  Bonaparte  had  a  high  opinion 
of  his  merit. 

See  Degerando,  "Vie  du  General  Caffarelli  du  Falga,"  1802;  F. 
d'Ai.deguier,  "fitude  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  Caffarelli  du  Falga," 
1849. 

Caffaro,  kiffl-ro,  called  also  Taschifellone,  (tSs- 
ke-f|]-lo'ni,)  a  Genoese  historian,  born  about  1080.  He 
joined  the  crusade  in  iioo,  and  fought  in  Palestine.  He 
wrote  a  '^History  of  Genoa,"  in  Latin.    Died  in  1164. 

Cafii,  kSf  fee,  (Ippolito,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Belluno  in  1814,  became  a  resident  of  Rome,  and  de- 
voted himself  to  monumental  views  with  success.  His 
scene  of  the  Carnival  was  exhibited  at  the  Paris  Expo- 
sition of  1855.    He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Perspective." 


Caffiaux,  kt'fe-o',  (Philippe  Joseph,)  a  French  nonk 
and  writer,  born  in  1712;  died  in  1777. 

Caflieri,  kSf-fe-a'ree,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  in  Rome  in  1634;  died  in  France  in  1716. 

Caffieri,  kaf-fe-a'ree  or  kt'fe'a''re',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a 
French  sculptor,  born  probably  in  Paris  in  1723,  was  the 
son  of  Jacques  Caffien,  who  also  was  a  sculptor.  The 
son  became  sculptor  to  the  king,  and  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Painting,  Among  his  finest  works  are  a 
bust  of  Corneille  and  a  statue  of  Moliere,  Died  in  1792. 

See  FoNTENAV,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Cagliari,  k^Kyi-ree,  or  Caliari,  kl'le-i-ree,  (Bene- 
detto,) a  painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  brother  of 
Paul  Veronese,  born  in  1538.  "  Saint  Agatha  in  Prison"'' 
is  called  his  master-piece.    Died  in  1598. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Cagliari  or  Caliari,  (Carlo,)  called  Carletto,  son 
of  Paolo,  noticed  below,  was  a  painter  of  merit,  and  imi- 
tated the  style  of  his  father  with  success.  He  died  in 
1596,  aged  twenty-six,  after  completing  some  woiks 
which  his  father  left  unfinished. 

See  RiDOLFi,  "  Vite  de' Pittori  Veneti ;"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Cagliari  or  Caliari,  (Paolo,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
painter,  called  Paul  Veronese,  (vi-ro-na'si,)  was  born 
at  Verona  about  1530.  He  received  lessons  in  art  from 
his  uncle  Badile,  and  in  the  early  part  of  his  life  went  to 
Venice,  where  he  was  very  successful,  especially  in  the 
ornamental  style.  He  afterwards  worked  in  Rome  and 
other  cities  of  Italy.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "Thf) 
Marriage  at  Cana,"  (in  the  Louvre,)  "  The  Pilgrims  of 
Emmaus,"  and  "The  Rape  of  Europa."  He  was  re- 
markable for  richness  of  imagination,  and  ranks  among 
the  greatest  masters  as  a  colorist.  Died  in  Venice  in  1588, 

"The  sixteenth  century,"  says  Ruskin,  "produced  the 
four  greatest /a////^rj- — that  is  to  say,  managers  of  colour 
— that  the  world  has  seen,  namely,  Tintoret,  Paul  Vero- 
nese, Titian,  and  Correggio."    ("Modern  Painters.") 

See  Carlo  RiDOLFi,  "Vitadi  P.  Cagliari,"  1648;  Lecarpentier, 
"  Notice  sur  P.  Caliari,"  1816  ;  Zabeo,  "  Elogio  di  P.  Cagliari,"  1813. 

Cagliostro,  kSl-yos'tRo,  (Alexander,)  Count,  a 
celebrated  charlatan  and  arch-impostor,  whose  ])roper 
name  was  Giuseppe  Balsamo,  (joo-sep'pa  bSKsa-mo,) 
was  born  at  Palermo,  in  Sicily,  about  1745.  He  assumed 
the  title  of  count,  travelled  in  many  countries  under 
various  names,  professed  alchemy  and  free-masonry, 
practised  medicine  and  sorcery,  and  raised  money  by 
various  forms  of  imposture.  He  was  accompanied  in 
his  adventures  by  his  handsome  vvife  Seraphina,  who 
was  also  a  mason,  "Masonry,"  says  Carlyle,  "with  its 
blazonry  and  miunmery,  sashes,  drawn  sabres,  brothers 
Terrible,  brothers  Venerable,  (the  whole  so  imposing 
by  candle-light,)  offered  the  choicest  element  for  him. 
Accordingly  he  goes  forth  prospering  and  to  prosper," 
(Carlyle's  "  Miscellanies,"  vol.  iv.)  He  travelled  in  his 
own  coach,  with  a  numerous  retinue  in  rich  liveries.  His 
fame  and  fortune  culminated  at  Strasburg  in  1783,  where 
he  made  a  dupe  of  the  Prince  Cardinal  de  Rohan.  In 
1785  this  cardinal  and  Cagliostro  were  imprisoned  in  the 
Bastille,  Paris,  for  complicity  in  the  notorious  affair  of 
the  Diamond  Necklace.  Released  at  the  end  of  nine 
months,  the  coimt  went  to  England,  and  thence  to  Rome, 
where  in  1789  he  was  arrested  and  sentenced  to  per- 
petual imprisonment  for  being  a  free-mason.  He  died 
in  prison  in  1795.  Schiller's  "  Geisterseher"  was  sug- 
gested by  the  history  of  this  personage,  who  was  also 
the  subject  of  Goethe's  drama  "  Gross-Kcphta," 

See  "  Lettres  de  Mirabeau  sur  Cagliostro  et  Lavater,"  1786; 
"  Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'Histoire  du  Comte  de  Cagliosf  o,"  1785  ; 
"  Coinpendio  della  Vita,  etc.  di  Giuseppe  Balsamo  den^  jninato  il 
Conte  Cagliostro,"  1790;  "Life  of  Count  Cagliostro,  with  his  Trial 
before  the  Inquisition,"  1791;  Hildebrandt,  "  Merkwiirdige  Aben-. 
teuerdes  Grafen  Cagliostro  und  Anderer,"  1839;  William  Russell,* 
"  Eccentric  Personages,"  1866. 

Cagnati,  kSn-yi'tee,  (Gilberto,)  an  Italian  botanist, 
born  at  Nocera,  lived  about  1550.  He  published  the 
"Praises  of  Gardens,"  ("  De  Hortorum  Laudibus,") 

Cagnati,  (Marsilio,)  [Lat.  Marsil'ius  Cagna'tus,] 
a  learned  Italian  physician,  born  at  Padua,  published 
several  medical  works,  (1581-1602.)  Died  about  1610. 

Cagniard  de  la  Tour,  ktn^ye-tR'  deh  It  tooR, 
(Charles,)  Baron,  a  Frenchman,  distinguished  for  his 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;     trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.   (JJ^^'See  Explanations,  p,  23.) 


CJGNOLA 


4«6 


CAILLIAUD 


mechanical  inventions,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1777.  After 
181 1  he  was  attached  to  the  council  of  state  and  minis- 
try of  the  interior.  He  invented  a  portable  mill  for 
camps;  the  sirhie,  an  acoustic  instrument;  and  other 
machines.  In  185 1  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  as  successor  to  Gay-Lussac.  Among  his  works 
is  the  suspended  aqueduct  of  Crouzol. 

Cagnola,  kSn-yo'li,  (Luigi,)  Marquis,  an  eminent 
Italian  architect,  born  in  Milan  in  1762.  His  principal 
works  are  the  triumphal  arch  of  the  Porta  del  Ticino 
at  Milan,  (once  called  Porta  di  Marengo,)  the  Campa- 
nile at  Urgnano,  (1829,)  the  churches  at  Vavallo  and 
Ghisalba,  and  the  marble  Porta  del  Sempione,  Milan, 
commenced  in  1807,  and  finished  under  the  name  of 
"Arco  della  Pace,"  ("x^rch  of  Peace,")  about  1835.  This 
is  the  most  magnificent  of  modern  triumphal  arches, 
except  perhaps  the  "  Arc  de  I'fitoile"  at  Paris.  He  was 
chamberlain  to  the  Austrian  emperor,  and  president  of 
the  Institute  of  Milan.    Died  in  1833. 

See  Valery,  "Voyages  historiques,  etc.  en  Italic;"  N.  Gironi, 
"Necrologia  del  Marchese  L.  Cagnola,"  1844. 

Cagnoli,  kin-yo'lee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  geometer, 
born  at  Zante  in  1743.  Pie  passed  some  years  in  Paris, 
where  he  was  attached  to  the  Venetian  embassy,  and 
applied  himself  to  astronomy.  About  1786  he  removed 
to  Verona,  where  he  had  an  observatory.  In  1798  he 
was  chosen  professor  of  mathematics  at  Modena,  and 
he  was  president  of  the  Italian  Society  from  1800  until 
his  death.  He  wrote  an  excellent  "Treatise  on  Trigo- 
nometry," (1786,)  one  on  "Conic  Sections,"  (1801,)  and 
several  other  works.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute 
of  France.    Died  at  Verona  in  1816. 

See  Labus,  "Vita  di  A.  Cagnoli,"  1816;  Carlini,  "Notizie  sulla 
Vita  di  A.  Cagnoli,"  1819;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Ency- 
klopaedie." 

Cahaignes,  kt'an',  or  Cahagnes,  kt'tn',  (Jacques,) 
a  French  medical  writer,  born  at  Caen  in  1 548 ;  died  in 
1612. 

Cahen,  ki'dN',  (Samuel,)  a  French  Jew  and  eminent 
Hebraist,  born  at  Metz  in  1796,  directed  the  consistorial 
school  of  the  Jews  in  Paris  from  1823  to  1836.  He 
published  a  "Manual  of  Universal  History,"  (1836,)  and 
other  works,  the  most  important  of  which  is  a  French 
version  of  the  Old  Testament,  (1851.)    Died  in  1862. 

Caiier-Billah.    See  Al-Kahir-Billah. 

Cahours,  kt'ooR',  (  Augus  te,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
in  1813.  He  has  distinguished  himself  by  his  researches 
in  organic  chemistry,  has  been  a  teacher  of  chemistry 
in  the  Polytechnic  School,  Paris,  and  has  exhibited  the 
actual  state  of  chemical  science  in  a  methodical  and  com- 
plete treatise,  entitled  "Lessons  of  General  Elementary 
Chemistry,"  (1856.) 

Cahusac,  de,  deh  ki'u'ztk',  (Louis,)  a  French  dra- 
matist, born  at  Montauban,  became  a  resident  of  Paris 
and  secretary  to  the  Count  of  Clermont.  He  com- 
posed tragedies,  comedies,  and  operas,  the  last  of  which 
were  successful,  aided  by  the  music  of  Rameau.  Died 
in  1759. 

Caianian,  a  Persian  dynasty.    See  Kaianian. 

Caiaphas,  ka'e-fas,  [Gr.  Kaia^af ;  Fr.  Caiphe,  kt'^P,] 
was  high-priest  of  the  Jews  in  33  a.d.  (See  Matthew 
xxvi.  3  ;  Luke  iii.  2  ;  John  xviii.  13.) 

Caiet.    See  Cayet. 

Caietano.    See  Cajetan. 

Caigniez,  kin'ye-a',  (Louis  Charles,)  a  French  dra- 
matist, born  at  Arr^in  1762,  was  called  the  Racine  of 
the  Boulevards.  His  "  Judgment  of  Solomon"  and  "  Pie 
voleuse"  (181 5)  were  translated  into  several  languages. 
Died  in  1842. 

Cailhava,  ki'ltVa',  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  comic 
writer,  was  born  near  Toulouse  in  173 1.  He  composed 
several  successful  comedies  and  comic  operas,  among 
'  which  are  "The  Guardian  Duped,"  (1765,)  "Harlequin 
Mahomet,"  and  "Egotism,"  a  comedy  in  verse,  (1777.) 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1798.  Died 
m  1813. 

Caillard,  kt'ylR',  (Antoine  Bernard,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  at  Aignan  in  1737.  He  was  ambas- 
sador at  Berlin  in  1795,  and  received  the  portfolio  of 
foreign  affairs  during  the  absence  of  Talleyrand  in  1801. 
Died  in  1807. 


Caillau,  kt'y5',(jEAN  Marie,)  a  French  medical  wi  iter, 
born  at  Gaillac  in  1765  ;  died  in  1820. 

Caille,  de  la,  deh  IS  kSI  or  kS'ye,  (Nicolas  Louis,) 
a  celebrated  French  astronomer,  born  at  Rumigny,  neai 
Rheims,  in  Picardy,  in  March,  1713.  He  was  educated 
for  the  church,  and  obtained  the  title  of  abbe,  but 
speedily  renounced  theology,  and  applied  himself  to 
astronomy  under  J.  Cassini,  who  gave  him  a  lodging  in 
the  observatory  at  Paris.  In  1739  he  was  employed  in 
the  important  work  of  the  verification  of  the  meridian,  and 
before  the  end  of  the  year  he  finished  the  triangulation 
from  Paris  to  Perpignan.  By  this  operation,  and  others 
connected  with  it,  he  demonstrated  that  the  length  of  a 
degree  gradually  increases  from  the  equator  to  the  pole. 
In  1740  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
Mazarin  College,  for  the  use  of  which  he  wrote  treatises 
on  geometry,  mechanics,  astronomy,  and  optics.  He 
undertook  to  rectify  the  catalogue  of  the  stars,  and  in 
1 75 1,  at  the  expense  of  government,  performed  a  voyage 
to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Having  accurately  observed 
about  ten  thousand  stars,  he  returned  to  Paris  in  1754. 
He  proposed  a  form  of  Nautical  Almanac  since  generally 
adopted,  published  "^Principles  of  Astronomy,"  ("As- 
tronomiae  Fundamenta,"  1758,)  "Tables  of  the  Sun," 
and  Ephemerides.  He  died  in  Paris  in  March,  1762,  after 
which  his  Southern  catalogue  ("  Coelum  Australe  Stelli- 
ferum,"  i.e.  "  Southern  Starry  Heaven")  was  published. 

Delambre  says  his  observations  will  compare  favour- 
ably in  accuracy  with  those  of  his  most  celebrated  con- 
temporaries who  had  more  perfect  instruments.  Again, 
he  says,  "  Having  reviewed  and  verified,  with  new  means, 
a  great  part  of  the  labours  of  La  Caille,  ...  I  have  felt, 
at  every  step  with  which  I  traced  his  progress,  increased 
admiration  for  the  savant  who  will  ever  be  the  honour 
of  French  astronomy." 

See  G.  Brotier,  "  Clarissimi  Viri  N.  L.  de  la  Caille,  Vita,"  1763; 
FoucHY,  "filoge  de  La  Caille;"  Baillv,  "filoge  de  La  Caille;" 
Arago,  "  Notices  biographiques,"  tome  iii. 

Caille,  ki'ya^  or  Caillie,  kS'e-ya',  (Ren^:,)  a  French 
traveller,  borli  at  Mauze  (Deux-Sevres)  in  1799.  A  pas- 
sion for  travel  led  him  to  Western  Africa  as  early  as  181 7. 
He  learned  the  Arab  language,  and  pretended  to  be  a 
Mussulman.  About  1827  he  performed  a  journey  from 
Sierra  Leone  to  Timbuctoo,  from  which  he  crossed  the 
desert  with  a  caravan  to  Morocco  in  1828.  He  had 
succeeded  with  his  own  small  resources  in  an  enterprise 
that  had  baffled  the  efforts  of  many  men  aided  by  their 
government.  On  his  return  to  France  he  received  a 
reward  of  ten  thousand  francs  promised  to  any  one  who 
should  visit  Timbuctoo,  and  he  published  a  journal  of  his 
travels.    Died  in  1838. 

See  E.  F.  Jomard,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  Rene  Caill^," 
1839;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1830. 

Caillemote,  ktrmot'  or  ki'ye-mot',  a  French  Prot- 
estant officer,  was  a  younger  son  of  the  Marquis  de 
Ruvigny.  He  was  colonel  of  a  French  regiment  in  the 
service  of  William  III.  of  England,  and  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  the  Boyne  in  1690. 

See  Macaulav's  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iii. 

Caillet,  ki'ycV,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  peasant, 
born  at  Mello,  near  Beauvais,  was  the  leader  of  the 
peasantry  who  in  1358  made  an  insurrection  against  the 
nobles  and  burned  two  hundred  castles.  They  called 
Caillet  "Jacques  Bonhomme,"  and  themselves  "La 
Jacquerie."  The  avowed  object  of  the  insurgents,  whose 
number  was  about  100,000,  was  to  exterminate  the  no- 
bility. Having  been  defeated  by  the  dauphin,  Caillet  was 
taken  and  executed  in  1359. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Fran^ais;"  Froissart,  "Chron 
icles." 

Cailliaud,kt'e-y5',(FR^ DERic),a  distinguished  French 
traveller,  born  at  Nantes  in  1787.  He  went  to  Egypt  in 
181 5,  and  in  the  service  of  Mehemet  Ali  made  explora- 
tions along  the  Upper  Nile.  He  re-discovered  in  Mount 
Zabarah  the  famous  emerald-mines  which  were  worked 
in  ancient  times,  and  procured  in  them  ten  pounds  in 
weight  of  emeralds.  In  1821  a  narrative  of  his  travels, 
entitled  "Journey  to  the  Oasis  of  Thebes,"  ("Voyage 
a  I'Oasis  de  Thebes,"  etc.,)  was  published  by  the  govern- 
ment. Having  returned  to  Paris  in  1822,  he  published 
a  "Journey  to  Meroe,  the  White  River,  the  Oasis  of 
Siwah,"  etc.,  (1823-26,)  and  "Researches  into  the  Arts 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  .s/^cjr/;  a,e,  i,  o,  obsmre;^^,^^\ik\.\  mgt;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


CAILLIE 


487 


CALAMT 


and  Trades  and  the  Civil  and  Domestic  Customs  of  the 
Ancient  Egyptians,  Nubians,  and  Ethiopians,"  (1831,) 
which  are  highly  interesting  works. 
Caillie.    See  Caill6. 

Caillot,  kt'e-yo',  (Joseph,)  a  popular  French  comic 
actor,  born  in  Paris  in  1732.  He  made  Ynsdebtit^A  Paris 
in  1766,  and  performed  many  years  with  success.  In 
1800  he  was  chosen  a  correspondent  of  the  Institute  of 
France.    Died  in  1816. 

Caillouete,  kt'yooW,  (Louis  Denis,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  1791.  His  works  adorn  the  Louvre 
and  other  palaces  of  Paris. 

Cailly,  de,  deh  kt'e-ye',  (Jacques,)  a  French  poet, 
called  also  D'Aceilly,  was  born  at  Orleans  in  1604; 
died  in  1673. 

Cain,  kan,  [Heb.  [Ip.]  the  eldest  son  of  Adam,  was 
the  first  who  committed  homicide.  (See  Genesis,  chap, 
iv.)  In  the  second  century  a  sect  of  heretics  assumed 
the  name  of  Cainites. 

Cain,  kiN,  (Auguste,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris 
in  1822.  Among  his  best  works  are  "  The  Eagle  defend- 
ing his  Prey,"  and  "The  Frogs  wishing  for  a  King." 

Caiphe.    See  Caiaphas. 

Caird,  kSrd,  (James,)  a  Scottish  agriculturist,  born 
at  Stranraer  in  1816,  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  English  Agriculture."  He  was  a  Liberal  member  of 
Parliament  from  1857  to  1865,  and  became  in  1863  chair- 
man of  the  royal  commission  on  the  sea-fisheries. 

Caird,  (Rev.  John,)  a  Scottish  minister  and  eloquent 
pulpit  orator,  born  at  Greenock  about  1822.  He  preached 
at  Edinburgh  and  Errol,and  about  1857  became  minister 
of  the  Park  Church,  Glasgow.  He  published  "Religion 
in  Common  Life,"  (1856,)  and  a  volume  of  Sermons, 
(1858,)  which  had  an  extensive  circulation. 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  1856;  "  Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  August,  1858. 

Cairnes,  kSrnz,  (David,)  an  Irish  lawyer  and  officer, 
who  distinguished  himself  by  his  bravery  at  the  defence 
of  Derry  against  the  forces  of  James  II.  in  1689.  He 
afterwards  represented  that  city  in  Parliament,  and  be- 
came attorney-general.    Died  in  1772. 

Cairns,  karnz,(HuGH  McCalmont,)  commonly  called 
Lord  Cairns,  an  eminent  lawyer  and  orator,  born  near 
Belfast,  in  Ireland,  in  1 819,  has  represented  Belfast  in 
the  House  of  Commons  since  1852,  and  has  been  con- 
spicuous as  one  of  the  ablest  debaters  in  Parliament.  He 
was  solicitor -general  for  a  short  time  in  1858,  became 
attorney-general  on  the  formation  of  a  new  ministry  by 
Lord  Derby  in  July,  1866,  was  appointed  lord  justice  of 
appeal  in  October,  1866,  and  lord  chancellor  of  England 
in  February,  1868.  In  December  of  the  same  year  he 
resigned  with  his  colleagues.  He  is  now  (1869)  leader 
of  the  Conservative  party  in  the  House  of  Lords. 

Cairo,  kl'ro,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter  of  the 
Milanese  school,  born  in  1598,  was  the  favourite  pupil 
of  Morazzone,  whom  he  is  said  to  have  surpassed  in 
design.    Died  in  1674. 

Caiumers  or  Caiumaras.  See  Peshdadian,  (dy- 
nasty.) 

Caius.    See  Gaius. 

Caius,  ka'yus,  a  Christian  writer  on  theology,  lived 
at  Rome  about  210  A.D.    His  works  are  not  extant. 

Caius,  kS'yoos,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  medical 
writer,  born  in  Venice,  flourished  about  1610. 

Caius,  kecz,  written  also  Kaye,  Key,  or  Cay,  (John,) 
an  eminent  English  physician,  born  at  Norwich  in  1 5 10, 
was  a  graduate  of  Cambridge  University.  After  prac- 
tising in  Norwich,  he  settled  in  London,  and  was  ap- 
pointed physician  successively  to  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and 
Elizabeth.  He  founded  at  Cambridge  the  college  which 
bears  his  name.  His  talents  and  learning  as  a'linguist, 
antiquary,  and  physician  were  proved  by  numerous  works 
in  Latin,  among  which  are  a  "Treatise  on  the  Sweating 
Sickness,"  one  "On  British  Dogs,"  one  "On  the  An- 
tiquity of  Cambridge  University,"  and  translations  from 
Hippoceates  and  Galen.    Died  in  1573, 

See  "Lives  of  British  Physicians,"  London,  1857;  Niceron, 
"  Memoires." 

Caius,  ka'yus,  Saint,  a  native  of  Dalmatia,  was  elected 
Bishop  of  Rome  in  283  a.d.  as  successor  to  Eutychian, 
He  died  in  296. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "Vie  de  Saint-Paul." 


Caius,  (Thomas,)  an  English  scholar  and  divine,  was 
a  Fellow  of  All  Souls'  College,  Oxford,  and  ?.fter wards 
prebendary  of  Sarum.  He  wrote,  in  1566,  a  i:reatise  to 
prove  that  Oxford  University  was  more  ancient  than 
Cambridge,  which  was  answered  by  Dr.  John  Caius. 
Died  in  1572. 

Cai'us  Cce'sar,  a  Roman  prince,  born  20  B.C.,  was 
the  son  of  M.  Agrippa  and  Julia,  the  daughter  of  the 
emperor  Augustus.  The  latter  adopted  Caius  and  his 
younger  brother  Lucius  as  his  heirs.  In  i  A.D.  he  was 
sent  as  proconsul  into  Asia,  and  subdued  the  revoked 
Armenians.  He  died  in  Lycia  in  the  year  4.  Lucius 
died  in  2  a.d.,  aged  about  nineteen. 

Cajado,  kS-zhi'do,  (Enrique,)  a  Portuguese  poet, 
who  lived  a  long  time  in  Italy.  He  composed  Latin 
poems,  ("Eclogae  Silva,"  etc.,  1501,)  which  were  praised 
by  Erasmus.    Died  in  1508. 

Cajetan  or  Gaetani,  (Benedetto.)  See  Boniface 
VIII. 

Caj'e-tan,  (or  kl'ye-tan,)  [It.  Cajetano  or  Caietano, 
ki-yi-ta'no,]  (Constantin,)  a  learned  Italian  monk  and 
writer,  born  at  Syracuse  in  1560 ;  died  in  1650. 

Cajetan,  sometimes  written  Caetan,  [Fr.  pron.  kt'- 
a't6N^]  (Enrico,)  an  Italian  prelate,  born  about  1550. 
He  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1585,  and  sent  by  Sixtus  V. 
as  legate  to  France,  where  he  united  with  the  League 
in  opposing  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  When  Paris 
was  besieged  and  suffering  famine,  about  1590,  he  urged 
the  inhabitants  to  hold  out,  but  offered  no  remedy  for 
their  misery  except  preachings  and  processions.  Died 
in  1599. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Cajetan,  [It.  Cajetano  or  Caietano,]  (Thomas  de 
Vio — da  vee'o,)  received  his  surname  of  Cajetan  from 
the  city  Caieta,  (Gaeta,)  at  which  he  was  born  in  1469. 
He  entered  while  young  the  order  of  Saint  Dominic,  of 
which  he  becai^ie  general  in  1508.  Leo  X.  made  him  a 
cardinal  in  151 7,  and  soon  after  sent  him  as  legate  to 
Germany  in  order  to  bring  Luther  back  to  fellowship 
with  the  Church.  He  is  regarded  as  the  first  who  main- 
tained the  infallibility  of  the  pope  without  reserve.  He 
was  made  prisoner  at  the  sack  of  Rome  in  1527.  Died 
in  1534. 

See  P.  Ekerman,  "Dissertatiode  Cardinal! Cajetano,"  Upsal,i76i. 

Cajetano.    See  Cajetan. 

Cajot,  kt^zho',  (Dom  Jean  Joseph,.)  a  French  Bene- 
dictine, born  at  Verdun-sur-Meuse  in  1726.  ^&  pub- 
lished "  The  Antiquities  of  Metz,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1779. 

Cakjamuni.    See  Gautama* 

Q!akya.    See  Gautama. 

Cal  or  Cala.    See  Kala. 

Calaber,  (Quintus.)    See  Quintus  Calaber. 

Calabrese.    See  Pretl 

Calado,  kS-la'do,  (Manoel,)  a  Portuguese  historian, 
born  at  Villa  Vi9osa  about  1584;  died  in  1654. 

Calamatta,  ka-l^-m&t'tS,  (Luigi,)  an  eminent  en- 
graver, born  at  Civita  Vecchia,  Italy,  in  1802,  worked 
many  years  in  Paris,  where  he  exhibited  his  first  produc- 
tion in  1827.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  masque 
of  Napoleon  I.,  (1834,)  and  a  portrait  of  George  Sand, 
after  his  own  design. 

Calame,  kt'ltm',  (Alexandre,)  an  excellent  Swiss 
landscape-painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Vevay  in  1815, 
studied  and  worked  in  Geneva  from  his  early  youth. 
He  painted  Mont  Blanc  and  other  Alpine  scenes,  also 
"The  Ruins  of  Paestum,"  "An  Autumn  Evening,"  and 
"The  Lake  of  the  Four  Cantons."  Among  his  admired 
lithographs  and  etchings  are  Views  of  Lauterbrunnen. 

Cal'a-mis,  [Kiikafug,]  a  celebrated  Greek  sculptor  and 
embosser,  who  flourished  at  Athens  about  450  A.D.  He 
excelled  in  the  imitation  of  horses,  and  worked  both  in 
marble  and  in  bronze.  Among  his  productions  was  a 
colossal  bronze  statue  of  Apollo,  which  was  brought  to 
Rome  by  Lucullus.  He  executed,  in  marble,  another 
Apollo,  which  adorned  the  garden  of  Servilius  in  Rome, 
and  which  some  suppose  to  be  the  same  as  the  Apollo 
Belvedere. 

Cal'a-m^,  (Benjamin,)  D.D.,  a  son  of  Edmund,  no- 
ticed below,  belonged'  to  the  High-Church  party.  He 
was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  king  in  1677,  and  in  1683 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (2!^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CALAMT 


488 


CALDARA 


preached  a  "Discourse  against  a  Scrupulous  Conscience," 
which  made  a  great  sensation.  In  1685  he  became 
prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's.  His  printed  sermons  are 
esteemed.    Died  in  1686. 

Calamy,  (Edmund,)  an  able  English  divine,  born  in 
London  in  1600.  From  1626  to  1636  he  was  one  of  the 
lecturers  of  Bury  Saint  Edmund's.  Having  separated 
from  the  Episcopal  Church  and  become  a  Presbyterian, 
he  was  chosen  in  1639  minister  of  Saint  Mary's,  in  or 
near  London,  where  he  laboured  twenty  years  and  was 
admired  for  his  eloquence.  He  was  one  of  the  five  who 
wrote  "  Smectymnus,"  (1641,)  a  treatise  against  Episco- 
pacy. At  the  restoration  he  was  appointed  chaplain-in- 
ordinary  to  Charles  H.,  and  a  few  years  later  was  com- 
mitted to  Newgate  for  expressing  his  mind  too  freely. 
Died  in  1666. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Calamy,  (Edmund,)  an  eminent  nonconformist  divine, 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1671.  He  becan)e 
minister  at  Blackfriars,  London,  in  1692,  and  at  West- 
minster in  1703.  He  published  many  sermons,  "Bax- 
ter's Life  and  Times,"  "The  Inspiration  of  the  Scrip- 
tures," and  other  esteemed  works.    Died  in  1732. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  pubHshed  by  J.  T.  Rutt,  2  vols.,  1830. 

Calancha,  de  la,  di  li  ka-ian'chS,  (Antonio,)  a 
Peruvian  chronicler  and  monk,  born  at  Chuquisaca; 
died  in  the  seventeenth  century, 

Calandar,  kil-Sn-dar',  {})  a  Mohammedan  saint  and 
scholar,  died  about  1324. 

Calandra,  ka-lin'dRS,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an 
Italian  painter  of  mosaics,  born  at  Vercelli  in  1568; 
died  about  1646. 

Calandrelli,  ka-lSn-dRel'lee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 
astronomer,  born  at  Zagarola  in  1749.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  Rome  in  1774,  and  was  em- 
ployed by  Pius  VII.  to  make  astronomical  observations. 
He  published  several  treatises  on  astrono/hy  and  natural 
philosophy.    Died  in  1827. 

See  B.  BoNCOMPAGNi,  "Biografia  dell'Abate  G.  Calandrelli,"  1840. 

Calandrini,  ki-ian-dRee'nee,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  Swiss 
botanist  and  philosopher,  born  at  Geneva  in  1703,  wrote 
various  scientific  works.    Died  in  1758. 

Calandrucci,  ka-lSn-dRoot'chee,  (Giacinto,)  an  Ital- 
ian painter,  born  at  Palermo  in  1646;  died  in  1707. 

Ca-la'nus,  [Gr.  KdAai^oc]  a  Hindoo  philosopher,  of 
the  sect  which  the  Greeks  named  Gymnosophists.  Plu- 
tarch reports  that  his  proper  name  was  Sphines.  Having 
been  persuaded  to  follow  Alexander  the  Great,  he  be- 
came sick  at  Pasargada,  where,  at  his  own  request, 
he  was  burned  alive  on  a  funeral  pile.  It  is  stated  that 
his  last  words  to  Alexander  were,  "  I  shall  soon  see  you 
again  in  Babylon."  A  few  months  later,  that  prince 
died  in  Babylon. 

See  Arrian,  "Anabasis." 

Calas,  kt'lts'  or  kt'li',  (Jean,)  a  French  Protestant, 
born  in  1698,  was  condemned  by  eight  judges  of  Toulouse 
to  be  broken  on  the  wheel  for  an  alleged  crime  of  which 
he  was  innocent,  and  suffered  death  in  1762.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  courageous  and  generous  efforts  of  Vol- 
taire, the  sentence  against  the  family  was  annulled,  and 
they  were  partially  indemnified.  Louis  XV.  granted  them 
30,000  livres ;  but  their  persecutors  were  not  punished. 

See  Voltaire's  "Works;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Calasanzio,  de,  di  kl-ia-sSn'the-o,  (Jos^,)  a  Spanish 
priest,  born  in  Aragon  in  1556,  was  noted  as  the  founder 
of  the  order  of  chierici  regolarl,  (derici  regidares.)  Died 
at  Rome  in  1648. 

See  Hoffmann,  "Leben  J.  Calasantii,"  1753;  Bartolotti, 
"Vita  del  J.  Calasanzio,"  1749. 

Calasio,  de,  di  kJ-ia'se-o,  (Mario,)  an  Italian  lin- 
guist, born  at  Calasio,  near  Aquila,  in  1550,  became 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Rome.  He  published  a  Hebrew 
Dictionary,  and  spent  about  forty  years  in  preparing  a 
Hebrew  Concordance  of  the  Bible,  which  is  his  most 
important  work.    Died  in  1620. 

Cal-a-ti'nus,  (A.  Atilius,)  a  Roman  dictator  and 
general  in  the  first  Punic  war.  He  was  consul  in  258  B.C., 
and  again  in  254.  In  249  he  was  appointed  dictator  for  the 
purpose  of  prosecuting  the  war  against  the  Carthaginians 
in  Sicily.  Though  the  events  of  his  dictatorship  were 
not  important,  he  left  an  honourable  name  in  history. 


Calatrava,  kS-lS-tRi'va,  (Jos6  Maria,)  a  Spanish 
statesman,  born  at  Merida  in  1781.  He  became  an  emi- 
nent lawyer,  and  an  eloquent  orator  of  the  Liberal  party, 
by  which  he  was  elected  to  the  Cortes  several  times.  He 
was  proscribed  and  exiled  from  1814  to  1820,  and  from 
1823  to  1830.  After  the  accession  of  Isabella,  in  1843, 
he  was  appointed  a  senator.    Died  in  1846. 

Calau,  kS'low,  (Benjamin,)  a  German  painter,  born  in 
Holstein  in  1724,  noted  as  the  discoverer  of  eleodorique, 
a  substance  used  by  ancient  painters.    Died  in  1785. 

Calcagni,  kai-kl.n'yee,  (Tiberio,)  a  sculptor,  born  at 
Florence,  lived  about  1570.  He  was  chosen  by  Michael 
Angelo  to  finish  some  of  his  last  works. 

Calcagnini,  kdl-kan-yee'nee,  (Celio,)  an  Italian  phi- 
losopher and  poet,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1479.  He  was 
professor  of  belles-lettres  in  the  University  of  Ferrara, 
His  chief  work  is  "Three  Books  of  Epistolary  Ques- 
tions," ("  Quaestionum  epistolicarum  Libri  tres,"  1608,) 
in  which  he  discussed  the  great  questions  of  philosophy, 
and  maintained  that  the  earth  revolves  around  the  suii. 
Died  in  1541. 

See  T.  C.  Calcagnini,  "Delia  Vita,  etc.  di  Celio  Calcagnini," 
1818:  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraired'Italie;"  P.  Giovio,  "  Elogia." 

Calcar  or  Calkar,  von,  fon  klKk^R,  or  Calker,  kSK- 

ker,  (Johann,)  an  eminent  painter,  born  at  Calkar,  in 
the  principality  of  Cleves,  in  1500.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
John  de  Bruges,  and  formed  his  style  in  Italy,  where  he 
worked  some  years.  It  is  stated  that  his  works  can 
hardly  be  distinguished  from  those  of  Titian,  whom  he 
imitated.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a  "Mater  Dolo- 
rosa."   He  died  in  Naples  in  1546. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  Vasari, 
"Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Calceolari,  kai-chk-o-li'ree,  or  Cal-ce-o-la'ri-us, 

(Francesco,)  an  Italian  naturalist,  lived  at  Verona  about 
1550.  He  wrote  a  "Journey  on  Mount  Baldo,"  ("  Iter 
Baldi  Montis,"  1566.)  The  genus  Calceolaria  was  named 
in  his  honour. 

See  £loy,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Medecine." 

Cal'-ehas,  [KaA;t'Q^f,]  a  famous  Greek  soothsayer,  who 
acted  a  prominent  part  at  the  siege  of  Troy.  He  was 
consulted  in  the  most  important  affairs  by  the  Grecian 
chiefs. 

Calchi,  k^Kkee,  (Tristan,)  a  historian,  born  in  Milan 
in  1462.  He  was  secretary  to  Duke  Francis  Sforza  and 
his  successors,  and  wrote  a  "History  of  Milan,"  which 
is  commended. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Calcia,  kSKchS,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter  of  the 
last  century,  born  at  Genoa. 

CaFcraft,  (John,)  an  English  politician,  entered  Par- 
liament in  1796,  and  voted  for  the  Reform  Bill  in  183 1. 

Caldaiii,  kM-di'nee,  (Leopoldo  Marco  Antonio,) 
an  eminent  Italian  anatomist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1725. 
He  professed  anatomy  with  success  in  his  native  city, 
where  he  published  the  results  of  his  experiments  on 
Irritability,  (1757.)  In  1771  he  succeeded  Morgagni  as 
professor  of  anatomy  at  Padua.  He  wrote  a  number  of 
treatises  on  anatomy,  physiology,  etc.,  and  published  a 
collection  of  very  accurate  plates,  "  Icones  anatomicae," 
(4  vols.,  1801-14.)    Died  in  1813. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Caldani,  (Petronio  Maria,)  an  Italian  geometer, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  probably  at  Bologna  about 
1735.  In  1763  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Bologna.  He  wrote  several  able  treatises  on  geometry, 
etc.  His  talents  and  attainments  were  highly  commended 
by  D'Alembert.    Died  in  1808. 

See  TiPAi.DO,  "Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Caldara,  ka.l-d3.'ra,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  composer, 
born  at  Venice  about  1675,  composed  the  music  of  eight 
operas  of  Metastasio.    Died  in  1763. 

Caldara,  (Polidoro,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  often 
called  Caravaggio,  (ka-rJ-vad'jo,)  from  the  name  of 
the  place  (in  the  Milanese)  where  he  was  born  in  1492. 
He  went  to  Rome  while  young,  received  lessons  from 
Maturino,  and  soon  became  so  skilful  an  artist  that  Ra- 
phael employed  him  to  paint  the  friezes  in  the  Vatican. 
He  excelled  in  landscapes,  and  painted  some  admired 
historical  pieces,  among  which  is  a  "Christ  bearing  his 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,-^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  ?,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e<  -i,  9.  obscure;  far,  fl.ll,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CALDARONE 


489 


CALDWELL 


Cross."  The  last  years  of  his  life  were  passed  at  Mes- 
sina, where  he  was  murdered  by  his  servant  in  1543. 

Sec  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy." 

Caldarone,  kSl-di-ro'ni,  or  Calderone,  kil-da-ro'- 
jii,  (Giovanni  Giacomo,)  an  Italian  chemist  and  physi- 
cian, born  at  Palermo  in  165 1  ;  died  in  1 73 1. 

Caldas,  de,  di  kaiMSs,  (Francisco  Jos6,)  a  self- 
taught  South  American  philosopher,  born  at  Popayan,  in 
New  Granada,  about  1770.  He  devoted  himself  to  bot- 
any, astronomy,  and  physical  geography,  assisted  Mutis 
in  his  exploration,  and  measured  the  height  of  Chim- 
borazo.  About  1806  he  was  appointed  director  of  the 
observatory  at  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota.  He  published 
some  results  of  his  labours  in  a  periodical  named  the 
*'  Semenario  de  la  Nueva  Granada,"  which  he  began  to 
edit  in  1807.  Having  joined  the  movement  in  favour  of 
national  liberty,  he  was  executed  by  Morillo  in  1816. 

See  J.  AcosTA,  "Breve  Noticia  sobre  Francisco  de  Caldas." 

Caldas  Pereira  de  Souza,  k^KdSs  pi-ra'e-ri  dk 
s5'zi,  (Antonio,)  a  Brazilian  poet  and  ecclesiastic,  born 
at  Rio  Janeiro  in  1762,  was  educated  in  Portugal.  After 
his  death,  which  occurred  in  Brazil  in  1814,  a  volume  of 
his  odes  and  other  verses  was  published,  with  the  title 
of  "Sacred  and  Profane  Poems." 

See  F.  Denis,  "Resume  de  I'Histoire  litteraire  du  Portugal,"  etc. 

Caldenbach,  kiKden-biK^,  (Christoph,)  a  German 
professor,  born  in  Silesia  in  1613.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  "Compendium  of  Rhetoric,"  ("Compen- 
dium Rhetorices,")  which  was  a  popular  school-book. 
Died  in  1698. 

Cai'der,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  Episcopal  clergyman, 
born  at  Elgin  in  1658.  Refusing  to  acknowledge  Wil- 
liam HI.,  he  was  deprived  of  his  curacy  in  1689,  and 
was  imprisoned  for  nearly  a  year  in  Edinburgh  jail.  He 
published  "The  Divine  Right  of  Episcopacy,"  (1705,) 
and  other  works. 

Calder,  (Sir  Robert,)  a  British  admiral,  born  at 
Elgin,  in  Scotland,  in  1745.  Having  obtained  the  rank 
of  captain,  he  contributed  to  the  victory  off  Cape  Saint 
Vincent  in  1797,  and  was  knighted  for  that  service.  He 
was  made  vice-admiral  in  1804.  The  next  year,  in  July, 
he  fought  an  indecisive  battle  against  the  combined 
fleets  of  France  and  Spain,  returning  from  the  West 
Indies,  and  ordered  a  retreat,  for  which  he  was  censured 
by  a  court-martial.  He  afterwards  served  as  post-admi- 
ral in  one  of  the  English  naval  stations.    Died  in  1818. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Calderari,  kSl-di-r^'ree,  (Ottone,)  Count,  an  ex- 
cellent Italian  architect,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1730.  He 
imitated  the  style  of  Palladio  with  great  success,  in 
several  palaces  and  other  edifices  which  he  built  in  Vi- 
cenza and  its  vicinity.  The  Palazzo  Cordellina  (1776)  is 
regarded  by  some  as  his  capital  work.  He  was  an  asso- 
ciate of  the  Institute  of  France,  and  author  of  a  treatise 
on  architecture.  Died  in  1803.  His  plans  ("Opere  di 
Architettura")  were  published  by  Diedo,  1808-17. 

See  J.  LE  Breton,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  d'O.  Cal- 
derari," 1804. 

Calderino,  k^l-di-ree'no,  [Lat.  Calderi'nus,]  (Do- 
Mizio,)  an  eminent  Italian  classical  scholar,  born  near 
Calderio  about  1447.  became  apostolic  secretary 

to  Pope  Sixtus  IV,  He  published  good  editions,  with 
commentaries,  of  Virgil,  Juvenal,  Ovid,  Martial,  and 
Pausanias.  Politian,  Valla,  and  Calderino  were  asso- 
ciated in  a  literary  triumvirate.    Died  in  1478. 

See  Rayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron, 
"Memoires;"  P.  Giovio,  "  Elogia." 

Calderinus,  the  Latin  of  Calderino,  which  see. 

Calderou,  kSrd^i'rAN',  (Philippe  Hermogene,)  a 
painter,  born  at  Poitiers,  in  France,  in  1833.  Among 
his  works  are  "The  Return  from  Moscow,"  and  "The 
Burial  of  Hampden,"  (1864.) 

Calderon,  kai-di-r5n',  (Seraf'in,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  at  Malaga  in  1801.  He  practised  law  for  some 
time  in  his  native  place,  and  was  appointed  civil  governor 
of  Logroiio  in  1836.  He  has  published  "Poems  of  a 
Solitary,"  ("Las  Poesias  del  Solitario,"  1833,)  ai'^  i'"^' 
genious  romance  called  "Christians  and  Moors,"  (1838,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  Madrid  in  1867. 


Calderon,  de,  Count.    See  Calleja. 

Calderon  de  la  Barca,  kSl-di-ron'  da  la  bau'kS, 
Madame,  a  Scottish  authoress,  whose  maiden  name  was 
Frances  In'glis.  She  was  married  in  1838  to  Calderon 
de  la  Barca,  minister  from  Spain  to  the  United  States, 
whom  she  afterwards  accompanied  in  his  mission  to 
Mexico.  In  1843  she  published  "  Life  in  Mexico,"  which 
was  received  with  favour. 

Calderon  de  la  Barca,  kll-di-r6n'  (or  kiKde-ron) 
di  la  baR^kS,  (Pedro,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  dramatic 
author,  born  of  a  noble  family  in  Madrid  about  1600. 
He  received  a  liberal  education  at  the  University  of 
Salamanca.  About  the  age  of  thirteen  he  produced  a 
drama  named  "El  Carro  del  Cielo,"  ("The  Chariot  of 
Heaven.")  His  precocity  was  equalled  by  the  feitility 
of  his  genius,  as  it  is  stated  that  he  produced  at  least 
five  hundred  dramas.  Having  acquired  fame  by  his 
early  works,  he  was  invited  to  court  in  1636  by  Philip 
IV.,  who  made  him  a  knight  of  Santiago.  He  had  pre- 
viously served  as  a  private  soldier  in  several  campaigns 
in  Italy  and  the  Low  Countries,  About  1652  he  entered 
the  church,  and  obtained  a  canonicate  or  chaplaincy  at 
Toledo,  after  which  he  wrote  only  sacred  pieces,  [autos 
sacra??ientales.)  By  some  critics  he  is  regarded  as  equal 
to  Lope  de  Vega,  who  in  the  preceding  age  had  held  the 
highest  rank  among  Spanish  dramatists.  His  brilliant 
imagination  is  not  restrained  by  conventional  rules  or 
dramatic  unities,  and  his  works  present  much  that  is 
absurd  or  extravagant,  while  abounding  in  interesting, 
natural,  and  sublime  passages.  Among  his  most  admired 
productions  are  "The  Constant  Prince,"  ("El  Principe 
constante,")  a  tragedy,  "  The  Devotion  of  the  Cross," 
"  Heraclius,"  "Love  is  no  Joke,"  (which  furnished  to 
Moliere  the  idea  of  his  "Femmes  savantes,")  "The 
Physician  of  his  own  Honour,"  a  tragedy,  and  "  Life  is 
a  Dream."  Several  of  his  best  pieces,  including  "The 
Constant  Prince"  and  "  Life  is  a  Dream,"  were  translated 
into  German  by  Augustus  Schlegel,  and  are  said  to  be 
great  favourites  on  the  German  stage. 

See  an  elaborate  and  able  critique  in  the  twenty-fifth 
volume  of  the  "  Quarterly  Review,"  quoted  and  approved 
by  Hallam,  from  which  we  extract  the  following  :  "  His 
boundless  and  inexhaustible  fertility  of  invention,  his 
quick  power  of  seizing  and  presenting  everything  with 
dramatic  effect,  the  unfailing  animal  spirits  of  his  dramas, 
if  we  may  venture  on  the  expression,  the  general  loftiness 
and  purity  of  his  sentiments,  the  rich  facility  of  his  verse, 
the  abundance  of  his  language,  and  the  clearness  and 
precision  with  which  he  embodies  his  thoughts  in  words 
and  figures,  entitle  him  to  a  high  rank  as  to  the  imagi- 
native and  creative  faculty  of  a  poet ;  but  we  cannot 
consent  to  enrol  him  among  the  mighty  masters  of  the 
human  breast."  "  His  total  want  of  truth  to  nature," 
says  Hallam,  "even  the  ideal  nature  which  poetry  em- 
bodies, justifies  at  least  this  sentence,"  ("Introduction 
to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")    Died  in  1683. 

See  Richard  C.  Trench,  "The  Life  and  Genius  of  Calderon," 
1856;  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  J.  L.  Heiberg,  "Commentatio  de 
Poeseos  dramatics  genere  Hispanico,  pr^cipue  de  P.  Calderone  d2 
la  Barca,"  1817 ;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  December,  1839; 
"Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1849,  and  April,  1857. 

CaPder-wood,  (David,)  an  eminent  Scottish  divine, 
born  in  1575,  became  minister  of  Crelling  in  1604.  For 
his  opposition  to  Episcopacy  he  was  imprisoned  about 
161 7,  and  afterwards  banished.  He  published,  in  Hol- 
land, "The  Altar  of  Damascus,"  and  returned  home  in 
1625.  His  "History  of  the  Church  of  Scotland"  was 
received  with  favour.    Died  about  165 1. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Caldora,  kil-do'ra,  (Jacopo,)  a  famous  Italian  con- 
dottiere  in  the  service  of  the  Queen  of  Naples.  He 
defeated  Braccio  da  Montone  at  the  battle  of  Aquila  in 
1424.    Died  in  1439, 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  R^publiques  Italiennes." 

C&.ld'well,  (Charles,)  an  American  physician,  born 
in  Caswell  county.  North  Carolina,  in  1772,  studied 
medicine  in  Philadelphia  under  Dr.  Rush.  He  became 
professor  of  natural  history  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania about  1816.  In  1819  he  published  "The  Life 
and  Campaigns  of  General  Greene."    He  was  professor 


as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  H,  Vi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    {^^^tt  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CALDWELL 


490 


CALHOUN 


of  medicine  in  Transylvania  University,  Kentucky,  for 
many  years,  ending  in  1837.    He  wrote  and  translated 
various  works,  among  which  was  Blumenbach's  "Ele- 
ments of  Physiology,"  (1795.)    Died  in  1853. 
See  his  "Autobiography,"  1855. 

Caldwell,  (Howard  H.,)  an  American  poet,  born 
at  Newbury,  South  Carolina,  in  183 1.  He  graduated  at 
South  Carolina  College  in  1851,  and  settled  as  a  lawyer 
at  Columbia.  He  has  made  various  contributions  to  the 
periodical  press,  and  is  the  author  of  two  volumes  of 
poems. 

Caldwell,  (Rev.  James,)  an  American  patriot,  born 
in  Charlotte  county,  Virginia,  in  1734.    He  became  pas- 
\    tor  of  a  Presbyterian  church  at  Elizabethtown,  New 
/    Jersey,  and  during  the  Revolution  was  a  zealous  and 
\    very  influential  supporter  of  the  popular  cause.  He 
served  as  chaplain  in  the  army,  and  at  the  same  time 
'    fought  as  a  soldier.    His  wife  was  shot  dead  by  the 
enemy  in  1780.    He  was  killed  by  a  sentinel  in  Novem- 
ber, 1781. 

Caldwell,  (John  C.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Vermont  in  183 1.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  in 
June,  1862,  after  which  he  served  in  Virginia. 

Caldwell,  (Joseph,)  D.D.,  for  thirty  years  president 
of  the  University  of  North  Carolina,  was  born  in  Laming- 
ton,  New  Jersey,  in  1773.  He  graduated  at  Princeton 
with  distinguished  honours  in  1 791,  and  for  several  years 
acted  as  tutor  to  the  college.  In  1796  he  was  elected  to 
the  principal  professorship  in  the  University  of  North 
Carolina,  and  in  1804  was  chosen  its  first  president.  Died 
in  1835. 

Ca'leb,  [Heb.  the  son  of  Jephunneh,  a  He- 

brew warrior,  lived  about  1500  B.C.  He  was  one  of  the 
two  Israelite  emigrants  or  fugitives  from  Egypt  that  were 
favoured  to  enter  the  promised  land.  (vSee  Numbers  xiv. 
24,  30  ;  Deuteronomy  i.  36  ;  Joshua  xiv.  and  xv.) 

Caled.    See  Khaled. 

Calef,  (Robert,)  a  Boston  merchant,  distinguished 
for  his  opposition  to  the  witchcraft  delusion,  published 
in  1700  a  work  entitled  "  More  Wonders  of  the  Invisible 
World,"  in  answer  to  Cotton  Mather's  "  Wonders  of  the 
Invisible  World."  The  book  excited  great  indignation, 
and  was  ordered  to  be  burned  by  Increase  Mather,  the 
president  of  Harvard  College.    Died  in  17 19. 

Calegari,  ki-li-gi'ree,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  at  Brescia  in  1699  ;  died  in  1777. 

Calendario,  kl-l§n-di're-o,  (Filippo,)  a  Venetian 
sculptor  and  architect.    Died  in  1355. 

Ca-le'ni-us,  (Walter,)  a  Welsh  historian,  flourished 
about  1 120. 

Ca-le'nus,  (Quintus  Fufius,)  a  Roman  consul,  who 
was  a  partisan  of  Caesar  in  the  civil  war,  after  having 
served  him  as  legate  in  Gaul  in  51  B.C.  In  the  year  47 
he  was  chosen  consul  through  the  favour  of  Caesar,  after 
whose  death,  in  44,  he  joined  the  party  of  Antony.  He 
commanded  an  army  for  Antony  in  Northern  Italy,  where 
he  died  about  40  B.C. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "History  of  Rome." 

Calenzio,  ka-l§n'ze-o,  [Lat.  Calen'tius,]  (Eliseo,) 
born  in  Apulia,  was  reckoned  among  the  good  Latin 
poets  of  his  time.  He  was  appointed  preceptor  to  Prince 
Frederick,  son  of  Ferdinand  II.  of  Naples.  His  works 
consist  of  epigrams,  elegies,  epistles,  etc.    Died  in  1503. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Calepino,  ki-li-pee'no,  (Ambrogio,)  an  Italian  phi- 
lologist, born  at  or  near  Bergamo  in  1435,  published  a 
good  Latin  Dictionary,  (1502,)  on  which  he  laboured 
nearly  all  his  life.  It  passed  through  many  editions.  The 
French  word  calepin,  signifying  memorandum-  or  scrap- 
book,  is  derived  from  his  name.    Died  in  151 1. 

See  Adelung,  Supplement  to  Jocher's  "Allgemeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon." 

Caletti,  ki-let'tee,  (Giuseppe,)  called  il  Cremonese, 
(^1  kRi-mo-na'sk,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Ferrara  in 
1600.  He  painted  small  historical  pieces,  demi-figures, 
etc.,  with  skill.    Died  about  1660. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Ca'ley,  (John,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  1763. 
He  was  secretary  to  the  National  Record  Comm.ission 
from  1801  to  183 1,  and  was  joint  editor  of  many  works 


on  which  the  commissicners  were  employed.  He  con- 
tributed several  articles  to  the  "Archaeologia."  Died  ia 
1834. 

Calfhill,  kaf il,  written  also  Calfill  and  Cawfield, 

(James,)  an  English  divine,  poet,  and  distinguished 
preacher,  born  in  Shropshire  in  1530.  He  was  appointed 
prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's  in  1562,  and  Bishop  of  Wor- 
cester in  1570,  but  died  in  the  same  year.  One  of  his 
poems  is  called  the  "  Complaint  of  the  Oxford  Academy," 
("Querela  Oxoniensis  Academiae.") 

Calhoun,  kil-hoon',  (John  Caldwell,)  a  distin- 
guished American  statesman,  born  in  Abbeville  district, 
South  Carolina,  in  March,  1782,  was  a  son  of  Patrick 
Calhoun,  an  Irishman.  He  entered  Yale  College  in 
1802,  graduated  with  distinction  in  1804,  and  studied 
law.  In  1807  or  1808  he  was  elected  to  the  legislature 
of  his  State,  in  which  he  served  two  years.  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  Congress  in  1810.  He  entered 
public  life  as  a  Democrat  and  leader  of  the  war  party, 
and  acquired  a  national  reputation  before  he  had  com- 
pleted his  first  term  in  Congress.  In  1816  he  supported 
a  protective  tariff  and  the  United  States  Bank,  for  which 
he  reported  a  bill  in  Congress.  He  was  appointed  secre- 
tary of  war  by  President  Monroe  in  October,  181 7,  and 
was  the  only  member  of  the  cabinet  who  expressed  the 
opinion  that  General  Jackson  transcended  or  violated 
his  orders  by  invading  Florida  in  1818.  Mr.  Calhoun, 
in  common  with  most  Southern  men,  approved  the  Mis- 
souri Compromise  of  1820. 

In  1824  he  was  elected  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States  by  a  large  majority,  receiving  the  votes  of  the  Jack- 
sonians  and  also  the  friends  of  Adams.  Having  identified 
himself  with  the  opposition,  (the  Jackson  party,)  he  was 
re-elected  Vice-President  in  1828,  when  General  Jackson 
was  chosen  President.  Before  this  period,  the  people  of 
South  Carolina  had  adopted  the  opinion  that  the  tariff 
was  injurious  to  their  interests.  Mr.  Calhoun  changed 
his  course  on  this  question,  and  became  the  leader  of  the 
party  of  free  trade.  To  counteract  the  passage  of  the 
tariff-bill  of  1828,  he  asserted  the  doctrine  of  the  sove- 
reignty of  the  States,  and  composed  on  this  subject 
a  paper  entitled  "The  South  Carolina  Exposition,"  in 
which  he  claimed  that  a  State  can  nullify  unconstitu- 
tional laws.  During  the  first  term  of  President  Jackson, 
Calhoun  and  Van  Buren  were  the  prominent  competi- 
tors for  the  Presidency.  "In  the  public  mind,"  says 
Parton,  "  Calhoun  towered  above  his  rival ;  for  he  had 
been  longer  in  the  national  councils,"  etc.  But  General 
Jackson  favoured  Van  Buren  as  his  successor,  and  thus 
incurred  the  enmity  of  Calhoun,  who  was  bitterly  dis- 
appointed by  the  result. 

In  1832  he  resigned  the  office  of  Vice-President,  and 
was  chosen  a  Senator  of  the  United  States.  Under  his 
influence  and  direction,  a  convention,  held  in  South 
Carolina  about  the  end  of  1832,  adopted  an  ordinance 
to  nullify  the  tariff,  and  prepared  to  resist  by  force  the 
collection  of  the  revenue.  But  they  were  overawed  by 
the  firmness  of  General  Jackson,  who  determined  that,  on 
the  first  overt  act  of  treason,  Calhoun  should  be  arrested 
as  a  traitor.  Mr.  Calhoun  supported  Mr.  Clay's  com- 
promise tariff  of  1833,  and  acted  with  the  Whigs  against 
General  Jackson  in  relation  to  the  removal  of  the  de- 
ppsits  from  the  United  States  Bank.  Still  aspiring  to 
the  Presidency,  he  thenceforth  used  the  question  of 
slavery  as  a  means  of  uniting  the  South  in  his  support. 
"Calhoun  failed,"  says  Parton,  "in  all  the  leading  ob- 
jects of  his  public  life  except  one  ;  but  in  that  one  his 
success  will  be  memorable  forever.  He  has  left  it  on 
record  (see  Benton  ii.  698)  that  his  great  aim,  from  1835 
to  1847,  was  to  force  the  slavery  issue  on  the  North." 
He  advocated  the  test-measures  of  Mr.  Van  Buren's 
administration,  and  made  several  speeches  on  slavery, 
which  he  affirmed  to  be  a  positive  political  and  social 
good.  In  March,  1843,  retired  from  the  Senate,  and 
in  March,  1844,  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by 
Mr.  Tyler.  He  signed  in  April  of  that  year  a  treaty  for 
the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  Union,  and  resumed  his 
seat  in  the  national  Senate  in  December,  1845.  He 
spoke  against  the  Mexican  war  in  1846,  and  the  Wilmot 
Proviso.  He  died  at  Washington  in  March,  1850. 
Among  his  principal  writings  is  a  posthumous  "  Treatise 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;    ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  x1,  ^,  short;  a,  9,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CALI  491  CALLCOTT 


on  the  Nature  of  Government,"  in  which  he  advocates 
the  election  of  two  Presidents,  one  for  the  North  and  one 
for  the  South,  each  having  a  veto  on  all  acts  of  Congress. 

See  Jenkins,  "Life  of  J.  C.  Calhoun;"  "National  Portrait-Gal- 
lery of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Benton,  "Thirty  Years' 
View;"  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America ;"  Parton,  "Fa- 
mous Americans  of  Recent  Times,"  1867;  "Democratic  Review"  for 
April,  1838;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1840. 

Cali.    See  KalI 

Caiidasa,  (a  Hindoo  poet.)    See  Kalidasa. 

Ca-lid'i-us,  (Marcus,)  an  eminent  Roman  orator  and 
contemporary  of  Cicero,  whose  recall  from  exile  he  advo- 
cated. He  was  praetor  in  57  B.C.,  and  supported  Miloin 
52  after  the  death  of  Clodius.  He  joined  Caesar  in  the 
civil  war  which  began  in  49.  Died  in  48  B.C.  His  ora- 
tory is  highly  praised  by  Cicero.    (See  "Brutus,"  79.) 

Calignon,  de,  deh  kt'l^n'y6N',  (Pierre  Antoine 
d'Ambesieux — d6N'ba'ze-uh',)  a  French  priest,  born 
near  London  in  1729,  was  educated  in  Paris.  He 
preached  with  success  at  Geneva,  Paris,  Lyons,  etc. 
Besides  other  works,  he  published  a  "  View  of  the  Great- 
ness of  God  in  the  Economy  of  Religion,  the  Order  of 
Society,  and  the  Wonders  of  Nature."    Died  in  1795. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteralre." 

Calignon,  de,  (Soffrey,)  a  French  diplomatist  and 
poet,  born  at  Saint-Jean-de- Voiron  in  1550.  He  aided 
De  Thou  in  the  preparation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  and 
was  employed  by  Henry  IV.  in  difficult  negotiations. 
Died  in  1606. 

Caligny,  de,  deh  kt'l^n'ye',  (Jean  Antenor  Hue,) 
a  French  military  engineer,  born  in  1657  ;  died  in  1731. 

Ca-lig'u-la,  (Caius  C^sar,)  a  Roman  emperor,  born 
in  12  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Germanicus  and  Agrippina, 
who  was  a  granddaughter  of  the  emperor  Augustus. 
His  childhood  and  youth  were  passed  among  the  soldiers, 
with  whom  he  became  a  favourite.  By  deep  dissimula- 
tion he  escaped  from  being  a  victim  to  the  suspicion  of 
Tiberius,  who  was  the  uncle  of  Germanicus  and  had 
adopted  the  latter  as  his  heir.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five 
Caligula  succeeded  Tiberius,  with  a  general  expression 
of  popular  favour.  The  first  acts  of  his  reign  gave  pro- 
mise of  clemency  and  moderation,  by  liberating  prisoners 
of  state,  recalling  exiles,  etc.  Before  many  months  had 
elapsed,  he  became  a  monster  of  cruelty,  and  indulged 
his  vicious  passions  and  appetites  to  the  greatest  excess. 
He  caused  a  temple  to  be  erected  to  himself,  and  claimed 
divine  honours.  It  is  said  that  he  wished  the  Roman 
people  had  but  one  head,  that  he  might  decapitate  them 
at  a  single  blow.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  against  him 
by  Cassius  Chaerea,  who  assassinated  him  in  the  year  41, 
whereupon  his  uncle  Claudius  became  his  successor. 

See  Suetonius,  "  Lives  of  the  Twelve  Cassars ;"  Tacitus,  "An- 
nales;"  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Calippus.    See  Callippus. 

Ca-lix'tus  or  Cal-lis'tus  [Fr.  Calliste,  kt'l^st',  or 

Calixte,  kt'l^kst']  I.,  a  Bishop  of  Rome,  succeeded 
Zephyrinus  in  219  A.D.,  and  died  or  was  killed  in  223. 
There  is  a  doubtful  tradition  that  he  suffered  martyrdom. 

Calixtus  II.,  son  of  William,  Count  of  Burgundy, 
was  elected  as  successor  to  Gelasius  II.  in  11 19,  when 
the  church  was  disturbed  by  a  quarrel  with  the  emperor 
Henry  V.,  and  when  the  anti-pope  Bourdin  or  Gregory 
VIII.  was  supported  by  a  party.  After  restoring  the 
peace  of  the  church,  Calixtus  died  in  11 24. 

Calixtus  III.,  (Alonzo  Borgia — boR^jS,)  a  Spaniard, 
born  at  Valencia,  was  elected  pope  in  1455,  as  successor 
to  Nicholas  V.  He  waged  war  against  the  Turks  with 
little  success,  and  died  in  1458,  when  he  was  succeeded 
by  Pius  II.  His  nephew.  Cardinal  Borgia,  became  Pope 
Alexander  VI. 

See  A.  DE  Montor,  "Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Calixtus,  ka-liks'ttis,  originally  Callisen,  kaKle-zen, 
(Georgius,)  a  Protestant  divine,  eminent  for  his  learn- 
ing and  tolerance,  was  born  at  Meelby,  in  Holstein,  in 
1586.  He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Helmstedt,  and 
wrote  treatises  against  several  doctrines  of  the  Roman 
Catholics.  His  moderation  exposed  him  to  the  charge 
of  crypto-papism,  Calvinism,  and  heresy.  Among  his 
works  is  an  "Epitome  of  Moral  Theology,"  (1634.)  He 
was  among  the  first  who  attempted  to  systematize  theo- 
■••ogy ;  and  he  had  numerous  followers,  called  Calixtines. 


Calixtus  was  involved  in  disputes  known  as  the  Syncre- 
tistic  controversy,  by  which  the  Lutheran  Church  was 
distracted  for  a  long  time.  Died  in  1656.  Bossuet  called 
him  "the  most  able  Lutheran  of  our  time." 

See  W.  C.  DowDiNG,  "Life  of  Calixtus,"  1864;  B.  Cellarius, 
"  Leichenpredigt  auf  G.  Calixtus,"  1656;  J.  Hildebrand,  "Ab- 
dankung  bei  Leichbestattung  G.  Calixti,"  1656;  Henke,  "  G.  Ca- 
lixtus und  seine  Zeit,"  1833. 

Calkar.    See  Calcar. 

Calkoen  (sometimes  written  Calkon)  van  Beek, 

kSKkoon  vtn  bak,  (Jan  Frederik,)  a  distinguished 
Dutch  astronomer,  born  at  Groningen  in  1772.  He  was 
appointed  extraordinary  professor  of  mathematics  and 
astronomy  at  Leyden  in  1799,  and  ordinary  professor  of 
the  same  in  1804.  In  1805  he  became  professor  of  those 
sciences  at  Utrecht.  He  wrote  an  "Inquiry  into  the 
Origin  of  the  Mosaic  and  Christian  Religion,"  to  refute 
Dupuis's  "  Origine  de  tons  les  Cultes,"  and  a  treatise  on 
the  Beautiful,  entitled  "  Euryalus  over  het  Schone,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  181 1. 

See  J.  Heringa,  "  Ter  Nagedachtenisse  van  wijlen  J.  F.  van 
Beek  Calkoen,"  1813. 

can,  (Sir  John,)  an  Englishman,  born  in  1732,  be- 
came chief  engineer  of  the  Coromandel  coast  in  India. 
After  his  return  to  England,  he  was  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment in  1784.    Died  in  1801. 

Call,  van,  vtn  kSl,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  designer  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Nymwegen  in  1655.  He  visited  Rome 
and  Germany,  and  drew  picturesque  views  of  the  Rhine 
and  other  regions.  Having  settled  at  the  Hague,  he 
engraved  with  aqua-fortis  his  own  designs.  His  works 
were  sold  for  high  prices.    Died  in  1703. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Call,  van,  (Pieter,)  an  able  Dutch  landscape-painter, 
son  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1737. 

Cal'la-nan,  (James  Joseph,)  an  Irish  poet,  born  at 
Cork  in  1795.  While  a  student  in  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin, he  produced  a  prize  poem  on  the  accession  of  George 
IV.  After  he  left  college  he  was  employed  as  tutor  in 
private  families  and  in  the  school  of  Dr.  Maginn.  He 
wrote  "The  Recluse  of  Inchidony,"  and  several  success- 
ful lyrics,  among  which  are  "  The  Virgin  Mary's  Bank" 
and  "Gouzane  Barra,"  a  ballad-ode,  much  admired  for 
its  melody  of  rhythm  and  its  spirit-stirring  power.  He 
went  in  1827  ;to  Lisbon,  where  he  died  in  1829. 

Callard  de  la  Duquerie,  kt'ltR'  deh  It  duk're', 
(Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  physician,  born  in  1630,  pub- 
lished an  "Etymological  Medical  Dictionary,"  ("  Lexicon 
Medicum  Etymologicum,"  1673.)    Died  in  1718. 

Cail'cott,  (Sir  Augustus  Wall,)  a  distinguished 
English  landscape-painter,  brother  of  John,  noticed 
below,  born  at  Kensington  in  1779.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1810,  when  he  exhib- 
ited his  admired  view  of  "  Morning."  He  employed  his 
pencil  chiefly  in  scenes  of  quiet  beauty,  and  has  often 
been  called  the  English  Claude.  Among  his  productions 
are  "  Evening,"  "  Returning  from  Market,"  "  The  Ferry," 
and  "Harvest  in  the  Highlands,"  with  figures  by  Land- 
seer,  (1833,)  which  is  esteemed  one  of  his  master-pieces. 
He  was  knighted  in  1837,  and  appointed  conservator  of 
the  royal  pictures  in  1844.  He  died  in  the  same  year, 
(See  Callcott,  Maria.)  "He  painted  everything  tole- 
rably, and  nothing  excellently,"  says  Ruskin. 

Callcott,  (John  Wall,)  one  of  the  most  eminent 
English  composers,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Kensington  in  1766.  Without  a  master,  he  attained  great 
proficiency  in  music,  which  he  adopted  as  his  profession. 
He  received  three  of  the  four  gold  medals  awarded  by 
the  Catch  Club  in  1785,  and  in  1789  won  all  the  four 
prizes.  He  composed  many  admired  anthems,  glees, 
canons,  etc.,  and  published  a  "  Musical  Grammar,"  (1805.) 
About  1806  he  became  lecturer  on  music  at  the  Royal 
Institution,  but  was  soon  compelled  by  ill  health  to  re- 
sign that  office.  He  expended  much  labour  on  a  Musical 
Dictionary,  which  was  never  finished.    Died  in  1821. 

Callcott,  (Maria,)  Lady,  daughter  of  Admiral  George 
Dundas,  born  in  1 788,  was  first  married  to  Captain  Thomas 
Graham,  R.N.  In  1809  she  went  with  him  to  India, 
where  she  passed  two  years.  She  afterwards  travelled 
in  Italy  and  South  America,  and  in  1827  was  married 
to  Sir  A.  W.  Callcott,  noticed  above.  She  published 
"Travels  in  India,"  (1812,)  "  Memoirs  of  Poussin,"  (1820,) 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guthiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (3:^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CALLEJA  492  CALLINUS 


\n  "Essay  towards  the  History  of  Painting,"  (1836,) 
which  is  commended,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1843. 

Calleja,  kal-la^Hd,  or  Callejas,  kSl-la^H^s,  (Don 
Felix  del  Key,)  Count  de  Calderon,  (di  kil-di-r^n^) 
a  Spanish  general,  born  in  1750.  He  commanded  the 
royal  forces  in  Mexico  in  the  civil  war  which  began 
in  1 8 10,  and  was  appointed  Viceroy  of  Mexico  in  181 3. 
Died  after  1820. 

Callenberg,  kaKlen-b^Rc',  (Gerard,)  a  Dutch  ad- 
miral, born  at  Willemstadt  in  1642.  He  commanded  a 
vessel  in  a  battle  against  the  French  near  Sicily,  in  1676, 
when  De  Ruyter  was  killed.  The  command  of  the  fleet 
devolved  on  Callenberg,  who  was  made  vice-admiral 
soon  after.  He  gained  applause  at  the  battle  of  Vigo, 
(1697,)  where  he  had  the  chief  command.  About  1704 
he  bombarded,  with  the  English,  the  fortress  of  Gibraltar, 
which  was  forced  to  surrender.    Died  in  1722. 

See  Chalmot,  "  Biographisch  Wooidenboek." 

Callenberg,  kiKlen-bgRG^  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a 
German  author  and  Lutheran  divine,  born  at  Saxe-Gotha 
in  1694.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Halle 
in  1727,  and  professor  of  theology  there  in  1739.  He 
was  deeply  interested  in  the  missionary  cause,  to  pro- 
mote which  he  published  from  his  own  printing-press 
many  Arabic  and  Hebrew  works.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  the  subject  of  missions  and  on  the  conversion 
of  the  Jews.    Died  in  1760. 

See  Ersch  und  Gkuber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

CaFleu-der,  (James  Thompson,)  a  political  writer, 
born  in  Scotland,  became  editor  of  a  paper  in  Richmond, 
Virginia.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Jefferson,  and  attacked 
"Washington's  administration  with  virulence.  Died  in 
1803. 

Callet,  kt^l^',  (Antoine  Franqois,)  a  French  his- 
torical painter  and  reformer  of  the  French  style,  born  in 
Paris  in  1741  ;  died  in  1823. 

Callet,  (Jean  Franqois,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  at  Versailles  in  1744,  was  educated  in  Paris.  He 
was  chosen  professor  of  hydrography  at  Vannes  in  1788. 
In  1792  he  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  teacher  of  mathematics.  In  1795  he 
published  a  stereotype  edition  of  tables  of  logarithms, 
which  have  been  extensively  used.    Died  in  1798. 

Calliachi,  kil-le-i'kee,  (Niccolo,)  an  Italian  scholar, 
born  in  Candia  in  1645,  wrote  treatises  on  the  antiquities 
of  Greece  and  Rome.    Died  in  1707. 

CaPli-as,  [KaXAmf,]  a  Greek  architect,  who  lived  about 
300  B.C. 

Callias,  a  Greek  historian,  who  wrote  a  "  History  of 
Sicily''  about  310  B.C. 

Callias,  a  Greek  dramatic  poet,  surnamed  Schcenion. 

Cal'li-cles,  [KaAAi/c/l^f,]  a  Greek  sculptor,  born  at 
Megara,  lived  about  400  or  425  B.C. 

Callicles,  a  Greek  painter,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
lived  about  320  B.C. 

Cal-lic'ra-tes,  [Gr.  KaTJuKpaTtig ;  Fr.  Callicrate, 
kt''le''kRtt',]  was  distinguished  as  one  of  the  architects 
of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens,  which  was  finished  438  B.C. 
This  noble  and  perhaps  incomparable  specimen  of 
Grecian  art,  built  under  the  auspices  of  Pericles  and 
decorated  by  the  genius  of  Phidias,  after  serving  as  a 
temple  to  the  Athenians,  a  church  to  the  Christians,  and 

mosque  to  the  Turks,  was  ruined  by  the  explosion  of 

magazine  during  a  siege  in  1687.  It  was  built  of  fine 
hite  marble,  and  surrounded  by  forty-six  columns  of 
he  Doric  order.  (See  Ictinus.) 

See  ViTRUvius,  "De  Architectura ;"  Felibien,  "Recueil  his- 
orique  de  la  Vie  des  plus  celebres  Architectes." 

Callicrates,  a  general  of  the  Achaean  League,  was 
noted  for  his  treachery.    Died  in  149  B.C. 

Cal-li-crat'i-das,  [Ka^At/cpandaf,]  a  Spartan  general, 
who  in  406  B.C.  succeeded  Lysander  in  the  command  of 
the  fleet  during  the  Peloponnesian  war.  He  took  Me- 
thymne  by  assault,  and  gained  a  naval  victory  over 
Conon,  the  Athenian  general,  whom  he  blockaded  in 
Mitylene.  The  Athenians  sent  to  the  relief  of  Conon 
a  large  fleet,  which  defeated  the  Spartans  near  the  Argi- 
nusae,  where  Callicratidas  was  killed  in  406  B.C.  He 
was  a  plain,  blunt  Spartan  of  the  primitive  stamp. 

See  MiTFORD,  "History  of  Greece;"  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Ly- 
sander." 


Callieres,  de,  deh  kt'le-aiR',  almost  ktKyaiR',  (Fran- 
cois,) a  noted  French  writer  and  negotiator,  born  at  Tho- 
rigny  in  1645.  He  became  a  councillor  of  the  king,  and 
minister  plenipotentiary  to  Ryswick,  in  1693.  In  1689  he 
was  received  into  the  French  Academy  in  place  of  Qui- 
nault.  He  published  many  works  on  various  subjects, 
among  which  are  "On  Wit,"  ("  Du  bel  Esprit,")  a 
"  Treatise  on  the  Manner  of  negotiating  with  Princes,'* 
(1716,)  and  "The  Knowledge  of  the  World,"  (1717.) 
Died  in  1 71 7. 

See  D'Alembert,  "Histoire  des  Membres  de  PAcademie  Fran- 
(jaise  ;"  Macaulay,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iv. 

Cal-li-er'gus,  written  also  Calliergi  or  Calloergi, 

(Zacharia,)  a  Greek  scholar,  born  in  the  isle  of  Crete, 
was  educated  in  Venice,  where  in  1499  he  published  a 
"  Dictionary  of  the  Greek  Language,"  which  was  highly 
esteemed.  He  afterwards  lived  in  Rome,  and  edited 
the  works  of  Pindar  and  Theocritus. 

Cal-lim'a-ehus,  [Gr.  KaTOdiiaxog ;  Fr.  Callimaque, 
kt'le'mtk',]  an  Athenian  officer,  who  commanded  the 
right  wing  at  the  battle  of  Marathon,  where  he  was  killed, 
490  B.C. 

Callimachus,  a  celebrated  Greek  sculptor  and  archi- 
tect, was  probably  a  native  of  Corinth  or  Athens.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  flourished  about  400  or  450  B.C. 
The  honour  of  having  invented  the  Corinthian  capital 
is  commonly  ascribed  to  him,  on  the  authority  of  Vi- 
truvius.  His  statues  were  remarkable  for  an  exquisite 
finish ;  but  his  style  was  censured  as  too  artificial. 

See  ViTRUvius,  "De  Architectura." 

Callimachus,  [Gr.  KaXXifiaxog;  Fr.  Callimaque,  kt'- 
le'mtk',]  a  celebrated  Greek  poet  and  grammarian,  was 
born  at  Cyrene,  and  flourished  at  Alexandria  between  260 
and  240  B.C.  He  was  patronized  by  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
phus,  who  gave  him  a  place  in  his  museum.  He  was  chief 
librarian  of  the  famous  Alexandrian  Library.  Among 
his  pupils  were  Eratosthenes  and  Apollonius  Rhodius. 
His  celebrity  surpassed  that  of  nearly  all  the  other  Alex- 
andrine scholars  and  poets.  He  was  a  very  prolific  \vriter. 
Besides  several  important  prose  works,  which  are  lost, 
and  among  which  was  a  history  of  Greek  literature, 
*'  Picture  or  Account  of  Writings  of  all  Kinds,"  {^^Hiva^ 
TravTodaTviov  avyjpafLfLUTtov,'^)  in  one  hundred  and  twenty 
books,  he  composed  epic  poems  called  "  Hecale"  and 
"Galatea,"  several  tragedies,  comedies,  elegies,  epigrams, 
and  hymns.  His  hymns  and  epigrams  are  the  only  por- 
tion of  his  works  that  time  has  spared.  Quintilian  ranks 
him  at  the  head  of  Greek  elegiac  poets.  Ovid  thought  he 
displayed  more  art  than  genius  :  quamvis  ingenio  tion  valet, 
arte  valet.  Few  ancient  authors  have  had  more  numer- 
ous and  able  commentators,  among  whom  were  Vossius 
and  Madame  Dacier. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Poetis  Gra2cis;"  J.  G.  Zierlein,  "Dissertatio 
de  ingenio  Callimachi,"  1770  ;  Schoell,  "  Histoire  de  la  Litterature 
Grecque  ;"  "Blackwood's  RIagazine"  for  December,  1837,  and  March, 
1838;  Cleveland,  "  Compendium  of  Classical  Literature." 

Cal-lim'a-ehus-Ex-pe'ri-ens,  (Philip,)  an  Italian 
historian,  born  in  Tuscany,  was  a  member  of  the  family 
of  Buonaccorsi.  Callimachus  was  an  assumed  name. 
About  1473  he  emigrated  to  Poland,  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed preceptor  to  the  sons  of  Casimir  HI.  Under 
the  reign  of  John  Albert,  which  began  in  1492,  he  was 
a  pow^erful  favourite  at  court.  He  wrote  a  work  on  "  The 
Exploits  of  Attila,"  a  "  History  of  King  Vladislaus,"  and 
a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1496. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron, 
"  Memoires." 

Callimaque,  the  French  of  Callimachus,  which  see. 

Cal-lim'e-don,  [KaAA^//«c5(ji',]  an  Athenian  orator,  who 
lived  about  330  B.C.  He  supported  the  Macedonian  party. 

Cal-li-ui'cus,  [Gr.  ^akXivLKoq^  an  architect,  born  at 
Heliopolis,  in  Egypt,  was  the  inventor  of  the  Greek 
fire,  the  secret  of  which  has  been  lost.  It  is  said  that 
by  this  fire  he  destroyed  a  Saracen  fleet  which  attacked 
Constantinople  about  670  A.D. 

Cal-li'nus  \)LaXhlvoc\  of  Ephesus,  the  most  ancient 
of  Greek  elegiac  poets,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  more 
than  600  years  before  Christ.  Among  the  fragments  of 
his  works  which  have  come  down  to  us  is  part  of  a  mar- 
tial elegy  of  great  beauty.  It  may  be  found  in  various 
collections  of  the  "  Poetae  Graeci  minores," 

See  Brunck,  "Analecta." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;       T,  6,  fi,  J'',  short;  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CALLIOPE 


493 


CALOGERA 


Cal-li'o-pe,  [Gr.  Ka/l/l^orr?/,]  one  of  the  nine  Muses, 
presided  over  epic  poetry,  and  was  represented  as  holding 
a  closely-rolled  parchment  or  tablets.  She  was  the  re- 
puted mother  of  Orpheus  and  Linus.  (See  Mus^.) 

Cal-lip'pus  [Gr.  KoAAiTTTro^]  or  Ca-lip'pus  [Gr.  Ka- 
?U7ZTTo^  ;  Fr.  C  allippe,  kt'l^p']  of  Athens,  was  a  disciple  of 
Plato,  in  whose  school  he  became  acquainted  with  Dion  of 
Syracuse.  After  Dion  had  become  master  of  Syracuse, 
Callippus  entered  his  service  and  obtained  his  confidence. 
He  assassinated  Dion  in  353  B.C.,  and  usurped  the  gov- 
ernment. About  a  year  after  that  event  he  was  expelled 
from  Syracuse,  and  in  351  was  killed  by  Leptines,  one 
of  his  officers. 

See  DioDORUS  Siculus,  book  xvi. 

Callippus  or  Calippus  of  Cyzicus,  a  Greek  as- 
tronomer, lived  about  330  B.C.,  and  was  the  author  of 
the  Calippic  period.  He  was  acquainted  with  Aristotle, 
who  mentions  him  in  his  works.  Perceiving  the  in- 
accuracy of  the  golden  number  or  period  of  Meton, 
(nineteen  years,)  he  invented  a  new  cycle  of  seventy-six 
years,  which  was  adopted  by  astronomers.  The  Calippic 
period  began  in  331  B.C. 

See  Delambre,  "  Histoire  de  I'Astronomie  ancienne." 

Callisen.    See  Calixtus,  (Georgius.) 

Callisen,  kaKle-sen,  (Adolf  Karl  Peder,)  a  Danish 
physician,  born  at  Gllickstadt  in  1786.  He  became  pro- 
fessor in  the  Academy  of  Surgery  of  Copenhagen  in 
1829,  and  received  the  title  of  councillor  of  state  in 
1839.  He  published  an  important  work,  in  German, 
called  "  Dictionary  of  Living  Physicians,  Surgeons,  Phar- 
maceutists, and  Naturalists  of  all  Civilized  Nations," 
("  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon,"  etc.,  33  vols., 
1829-35,)  which  is  said  to  be  an  indispensable  book  for 
every  cultivated  physician  and  naturalist.  He  was  a 
nephew  of  Hendrik  Callisen,  noticed  below. 

Callisen,  (Hendrik,)  an  eminent  Danish  surgeon, 
born  at  Preez,  in  Holstein,  in  1740.  He  was  appointed 
surgeon-in-chief  of  the  fleet  in  1771,  and  professor  of  sur- 
gery in  the  University  of  Copenhagen  in  1773.  Having 
acquired  a  high  reputation,  he  became  physician  to  the 
royal  family  in  1801.  He  published  a  "  System  of  Modern 
Surgery,"  ("  Systema  Chirurgiae  hodiernae,"  1777,)  which 
is  esteemed  a  standard  work,  and  other  professional 
treatises.    Died  in  1824. 

See  Erslevv,  "  Almindeligt  Forfatter-Lexicon  ;"  Rahlff,  "  Lau- 
datio  in  Memoriam  H.  Calliseiiii,"  1825. 

Callisthene.  _  See  Callisthenes. 

Cal-lis'the-nes,  [Gr.  Kalliadivrjc ;  Fr.  Callisthene, 
kt^es't^n',]  a  rhetorician,  born  at  Olynthus,  in  Thrace, 
about  365  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Hero,  a  cousin  or  niece 
of  Aristotle.  Having  accompanied  Alexander  the  Great 
in  his  invasion  of  Persia  in  334  B.C.,  he  rose  to  a  high 
degree  of  favour  with  that  prince,  who  charged  him  to 
write  a  history  of  the  expedition.  This  history,  which 
is  not  extant,  is  said  to  have  been  written  in  a  sycophantic 
spirit.  According  to  Plutarch,  he  offended  Alexander 
by  his  austerity,  boldness  of  speech,  and  refusal  to  pros- 
trate himself  before  the  throne.  He  was  charged  with 
complicity  in  a  conspiracy  against  the  king,  and  some 
historians  state  that  he  was  executed  for  that  crime  about 
328  B.C. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Alexander;"  A.  Westermann,  "De 
Callisthenis  Olynthii  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1838. 

Callisthenes,  [Fr.  CALLTSTHi:NE,  kt'l^s'tin',]  an 
Athenian  orator,  was  one  of  the  eight  orators  whom 
Alexander  the  Great  required  to  be  delivered  to  him 
after  the  destruction  of  Thebes  in  335  B.C.  On  this  oc- 
casion Demosthenes  is  said  to  have  applied  the  fable  of 
the  wolf  which  demanded  from  the  sheep  the  surrender 
of  their  dogs.  The  orators  were  saved  from  that  danger 
hy  the  exertions  of  Demades,  who  interceded  with  the 
victor. 

See  Arrian,  "Anabasis." 

_Cal-lis'to,  [Gr.  YLallLOTu,']  a  daughter  of  Lycaon, 
King  of  Arcadia,  and  a  companion  of  Diana.  Having 
lost  her  chastity,  she  was  transformed  into  a  bear  by 
Diana  or  Jupiter,  and  placed  among  the  constellations, 
under  the  name  of  Arctos  or  Ursa  major. 

Cal-lis'tra-tus,  [Gr.  YLalliaTpaTog ;  Fr.  Callistrate, 
kS'l^s^tRtt',]  the  son  of  Callicrates,  an  Athenian,  was  one 
of  the  most  eloquent  orators  of  his  time.    It  was  the 


success  and  applause  which  attended  one  of  his  forensic 
efforts  (366  B.C.)  that  inspired  the  emulation  of  the 
youthful  Demosthenes  and  determined  him  to  be  an 
orator.  After  having  performed  several  embassies,  he 
was  exiled  from  Athens,  (in  361,)  went  to  Thrace,  and 
founded  the  city  of  Datus,  (or  Datum.)  He  returned 
home  without  leave,  and  was  put  to  death. 
See  Thirlwall,  "History  of  Greece." 

Callistratus,  a  Roman  jurist,  who  lived  in  the  reigns 
of  Severus  and  his  son  Caracalla,  about  200  a.d.  Jus- 
tinian's "  Digest"  was  partly  compiled  from  his  writings. 

Calloigne,  kt'lwdn',  (Jean  Robert,)  a  Flemish 
sculptor,  born  at  Bruges  in  1775;  died  in  1 830. 

CalTon,  [Ka^iAwv,]  a  Greek  sculptor,  born  in  ^gina, 
lived  about  430  B.C. 

Callot,  kt'lo',  (Jacques,)  an  excellent  designer  and 
engraver,  born  at  Nancy,  France,  in  1593.  Having  studied 
in  Rome,  he  returned  to  his  native  place,  and  acquired 
such  a  high  reputation  that,  in  1628,  he  was  invited 
by  Louis  XHI.  to  design  and  engrave  the  siege  of 
Rochelle  and  the  attack  on  the  Isle  of  Rhe.  He  de- 
clined a  pension  of  three  thousand  livres  from  the  King 
of  France.  Though  he  sometimes  used  the  burin,  his 
etchings  are  the  most  admired  of  his  works,  atnong 
which  are  "The  Miseries  of  War,"  "The  Temptations 
of  Saint  Anthony,"  "  The  Fair  of  Florence,"  and  the 
sieges  above  named.  Died  in  1635.  He  was  a  great 
painter  of  manners,  and  was  surpassed  by  few  in  fertility 
of  invention  or  in  the  expression  of  his  figures. 

SeeG.  H.  Green,  "Description  of  the  Works  of  Callot ;"  Maume, 
"  Recherches  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  J.  Callot." 

Cally,  kt^e',  (Pierre,)  a  French  philosopher  and 
ecclesiastic,  born  near  Argentan,  is  said  to  nave  been 
the  first  who  professed  Cartesianism  in  France.  He  was 
chosen  principal  of  the  College  of  Caen  in  1675,  and 
edited,  "  ad  usum  Delphini,"  Boethius  "  De  Consolatione 
Philosophiae,"  ("  On  the  Consolation  of  Philosophy,") 
in  1680.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "Institutes  of  Uni- 
versal Philosophy,"  ("Universae  Philosophise  Institutio.") 
Died  in  1709. 

Calmeil,  ktrmAI'  or  ktl'm^ye,  (Juste  Louis,)  a 
French  physician,  born  at  Poitiers  (Vienne)  in  1798, 
was  appointed  chief  physician  to  the  Asylum  for  the  In- 
sane at  Charenton.  His  principal  work  is  "  On  Insanity 
considered  under  the  Pathological,  Philosophical,  His- 
torical, and  Judicial  Points  of  View,"  (1845.) 

Calmels,  kiVmkV,  (Anatole  C6lestin,)  an  eminent 
French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1822.  He  studied  in 
the  School  of  Fine  Arts,  and  gained  in  1839  one  of  the 
grand  prizes.  Among  his  chief  productions  are  the 
statue  of  Denis  Papin  for  the  fa9ade  of  the  Hotel  de 
Ville,  and  those  of  Calypso  and  of  Massena  for  the  new 
Louvre. 

Calmet,  ktl'mi',  (Augustin,)  a  French  Benedictine 
monk,  born  near  Commercy  (Lorraine)  in  1672,  was  emi- 
nent for  his  learning,  and  for  his  labours  as  a  commentator 
of  Scripture.  He  took  the  monastic  vows  in  1689,  was 
appointed  abbe  of  Saint-Leopold-de-Nancy  in  1718,  and 
ten  years  later  was  transferred  to  the  abbey  of  Senones, 
where  he  passed  the  rest  of  his  life.  Calmet  published 
numerous  works,  among  which  are  "The  Bible  in  Latin 
and  French,  with  a  Literal  and  Critical  Commentary," 
(1707-16,)  a  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible,"  (2  vols,  folio,  1720,)  which  is  regarded  as  his 
best  production,  and  has  been  translated  into  English, 
and  "Universal  History,  Sacred  and  Profane,"  (17 vols., 
1735-71.)    Died  in  Pans  in  1757. 

See  DoM  Fange,  "Vie  de  Dom  Calmet,"  1763  ;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Calmo,  kai'mo,  (Andrea,)  a  facetious  Italian  poet 
and  actor,  born  in  Venice  about  15 10,  He  composed 
"  Rhodiana"  and  other  comedies,  which  were  popular, 
and  published  a  collection  of  sonnets,  stanzas,  canzoni, 
etc.    Died  in  1571. 

Calogera.kl-lo-ja'rS,  or  Calogiera,  k3.-lo-je-a'ra,(AN- 
GELO,)  an  Italian  monk,  eminent  as  a  philologist,  born  at 
Padua  in  1699.  For  many  years  he  was  an  inmate  of 
the  monastery  of  San  Michele,  near  Venice.  With  the  as- 
sistance of  P.  Zeno,  Muratori,  and  others,  he  compiled 
and  published  a  selection  from  the  treatises  read  at 
the  various  scientific  and  philological  academies  of  Italy. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CALOGIERA 


494 


CALVERT 


This  valuable  work,  entitled  "  Raccolta  d'Opuscoli  scien- 
tifici  e  filologici,"  ("Collection  of  Scientific  and  Philo- 
logical Tracts,")  was  issued  periodically  from  1729  to 
1766.    Died  in  1768. 

See  Adelung,  Supplement  to  Jocher's  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon." 

Calogiera.    See  Calogera. 

Caro-Jo-an'nes  or  Joannes  II.  Com-ne'nus,  [Gr. 

KaAo-lwawT^f  6  Kofivrjvog  ;  Fr.  Calo-Jean,  kt'lo'  zhdN, 
or  Jean  Comnene,  zh6N  kom'nin',]  Emperor  of  the  East, 
born  in  1088,  was  a  son  of  Alexis  I.,  whom  he  succeeded 
in  1 1 18.  The  surname  Calo  is  supposed  to  have  re- 
ferred to  his  intrinsic  merit,  as  his  person  was  the  reverse 
of  beautiful.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  wise  and  good 
prince.  He  waged  successful  wars  against  the  Turks  and 
Servians.  After  many  victories  over  these  and  other 
nations  or  tribes,  he  conceived  the  project  of  conquering 
the  Latin  kingdoms  of  Jerusalem  and  Antioch,  and  en- 
tered Cilicia  with  an  army.  While  hunting  wild  boars 
in  that  province,  he  wounded  his  hand  with  a  poisoned 
arrow,  which  produced  his  death  in  1 143.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Manuel. 

See  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire ;"  Nicetas,  "Joannes 
Com  n  en  us." 

Caloniarde,  ki-lo-maR'd^,  (Francisco  Tadeo,)  a 
Spanish  minister  of  state,  born  at  Villel  in  1773.  He 
chose  the  profession  of  law,  became  a  resident  of  Mad- 
rid, and  an  adherent  of  the  absolutist  party.  After  hold- 
ing several  inferior  offices,  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
g^ace  and  justice  in  1823.  For  the  ensuing  ten  years  he 
was  the  most  powerful  member  of  the  cabinet,  and  ap- 
pears to  have  been  partly  responsible  for  the  evil  policy 
and  misrule  of  that  period.  Failing  in  an  attempt  to 
make  Don  Carlos  king  as  successor  to  Ferdinand  VH. 
in  1833,  he  was  disgraced  and  exiled.  Died  at  Toulouse 
in  1842. 

See  Lavallee,  "  Espagne  depuis  I'Expulsion  des  Maures  jusqu'en 
1847;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Calomato,  ki-lo-mi'to,  (Bartolommeo,)  a  Venetian 
painter  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Calonne,  de,  deh  kt'lon',  (Alphonse,)  a  French 
journalist,  born  about  181 5.  He  published,  in  1852, 
*'  Berangere,"  a  tale,  and  in  the  same  year  assisted  to 
establish  the  "  Revue  Contemporaine,"  of  which  he  has 
since  been  director,  and  which  has  obtained  an  important 
place  in  periodical  literature. 

Calonne,  de,  (Charles  Alexandre,)  a  French 
courtier  and  minister  of  state,  born  at  Douai  in  1734. 
Having  studied  law,  he  became  master  of  requests  in 
1763,  and  intendant  of  Metz  in  1768.  In  1783  he  was 
appointed  controller-general  of  finances,  through  the 
influence  of  Vergennes.  The  expenses  of  the  state  were 
greater  than  the  revenue.  Calonne,  who.  was  fertile  in 
resources  and  possessed  great  powers  of  application, 
adopted  the  policy  of  disguising  the  distress  by  a  show 
of  prosperity  and  by  a  profuse  expenditure  of  money. 
He  attempted  to  supply  the  deficit  by  loans  and  tempo- 
rary expedients,  and  in  1786  advised  an  Assembly  of 
Notables,  which  met  next  year,  thus  unintentionally 
giving  the  first  impulse  to  the  Revolution.  The  alarm- 
ing state  of  the  finances  then  became  known,  and  Ca- 
lonne was  dismissed  in  1787.  During  the  Revolution  he 
lived  in  exile,  chiefly  in  London,  and  was  a  zealous  roy- 
alist. He  published  several  able  political  and  financial 
tracts,  of  which  perhaps  the  most  notable  are  a  "  View  of 
Europe  in  November,  1795,"  and  "On  the  Finances  of 
France."    Died  in  1802. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Fran^aise  ;"  J.  L.  Carra, 
"M.  de  Calonne  tout  entier,"  1788;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Calonne,  de,  (Ernest,)  a  French  poet  and  dramatic 
author,  born  in  Paris  in  1822.  He  wrote  "Love  and 
Psyche,"  a  poem,  (1842,)  which  was  received  with  favour, 
and  a  play  in  prose,  called  "  The  Doctor  in  Love,"  ("  Le 
Docteur  ainoureux,")  which  he  ascribed  to  Moliere. 

Calov,  ki'lof,  [Lat.  Calo'vius,]  originally  Kalau, 
ki^ow,  (Abraham,)  a  German  Lutheran  divine,  born  at 
Mohrungen,  Prussia,  in  1612.  He  lectured  on  theology 
at  Wittenberg,  was  a  violent  opponent  of  Calixtus,  and 
was  much  addicted  to  controversy.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  System  of  Theological  Subjects,"  ("  Systema  Loco- 
rum  Theologicorum.")    Died  in  1686. 


Calovius,  the  Latin  of  Calov,  which  see. 

Calprenede,  de  la,  deh  \i.  ktl'pReh-nkK,  (Gauthier 
de  Costes — deh  kost,)  Seigneur,  a  French  writer  of 
fiction,  born  near  Sarlat,  (Dordogne.)  became  a  resident 
of  Paris  about  1632,  and  gentleman  of  the  chamber  to 
the  king  in  1650.  He  wrote  "  Cassandre,"  (1642,)  "  Cleo- 
patra," (10  vols.,  1647,)  and  other  romances,  which  had 
a  temporary  popularity,  and  several  tragedies,  of  which 
"The  Earl  of  Essex"  (1639)  is  said  to  be  the  best. 
Died  in  1663.  "Calprenede,"  says  Hallam,  "had  but  a 
life-estate  in  the  temple  of  Fame,  though  he  was  a  poet 
of  no  contemptible  powers  of  imagination." 

See  La  Harpe,  "Cours  de  Litterature ;"  Malame  de  S4vign6, 
"  Letters." 

Cal-pur'm-a,  a  Roman  lady,  a  daughter  of  L.  Cal- 
purnius  Piso,  (who  was  consul  in  58  B.C.,)  was  the  fourth 
wife  of  Julius  Caesar,  to  whom  she  was  married  in  59, 
and  whom  she  survived.  Alarmed  by  bad  dreams,  she 
entreated  her  husband  not  to  leave  home  on  the  fatal 
Ides  of  March,  44  B.C. 

See  Plutarch,  "  Life  of  Cassar." 

Calpurnia,  a  Roman  lady,  was  the  wife  of  Pliny  the 
Younger,  and  lived  in  the  first  century. 
Cal-pur'ni-us.  (Titus  Julius,)  a  Latin  poet,  who 

was  surnamed  Sic'uLUS,  and  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
in  the  third  century  of  our  era.  Little  is  known  of  his 
history.  Several  of  his  Eclogues  are  extant.  They  have 
some  merit,  and  slightly  resemble  those  of  Virgil  in  style. 
His  versification  is  smooth  and  sonorous,  and  his  diction 
is  nearly  pure. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Calpur'nius  Flao'cus,  a  Latin  rhetorician,  who  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Adrian  and  An- 
toninus Pius. 

Caluso.    See  Valperga  di  Caluso. 

Calvart  or  Calvaert,  kiKv^Rt,  [Fr.  pron.  ktrvtR',] 
written  also  Calvert,  [Fr.  pron.  ktKvaiR',]  (Denis,) 
an  eminent  Flemish  painter,  called  by  the  Italians  IL 
Fiammingo,  (el  fe-S-m^n'go,)  "the  Fleming,"  was  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1555.  He  went  to  Italy  while  young,  studied 
with  Fontana  and  Sabbatini,  and  opened  a  school  in 
Bologna,  which  became  very  celebrated.  The  Bolognese 
regard  him  as  one  of  the  restorers  of  their  school  in 
respect  to  colouring.  His  master-pieces  are  a  "  Saint 
Michael"  and  a  "Purgatory."  Among  his  pupils  were 
Guido,  Domenichino,  and  Albani.  Died  at  Bologna  in 
1619. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Pilkington,  "Dic- 
tionary of  Painters." 

Calvel,  kiVvlV,  (^tienne,)  a  French  writer,  who 
published,  besides  other  works,  several  treatises  on  agri- 
culture.   Died  about  1830. 

Cal-ve'na,  (C.  Matius,)  a  learned  Roman,  usually 
called  Matius,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Cassar  the  die 
tator.  After  the  death  of  the  latter,  in  44  B.C.,  he  joined 
the  party  of  Octavius.  Tacitus  speaks  of  the  power 
and  influence  which  Matius  possessed.  He  was  also 
intimate  with  Cicero,  who  mentions  him  in  his  letters. 
He  was  perhaps  the  same  as  the  C.  Matius  who  trans- 
lated the  "  Iliad"  into  Latin  verse  and  wrote  an  admired 
work  called  "Mimiambi." 

CaFvert,  (Cecil  or  Cecilius,)  second  Lord  Balti- 
more, was  the  first  proprietor  of  Maryland,  and  the  son 
of  the  first  Lord  Baltimore.  The  charter  granted  to 
him,  June  20,  1632,  conferred  ample  political  powers  and 
the  ownership  of  the  soil  on  him  and  his  heirs  forever, 
who,  in  recognition  of  their  fealty  to  the  British  crown, 
were  required  to  pay  annually  two  Indian  arrows  and 
one-fifth  of  all  the  gold  and  silver  ore  which  might  ever 
be  found.  (See  Calvert,  George.)  Lord  Baltimore, 
who  never  resided  in  Maryland  himself,  and  probably 
never  saw  it,  appointed  as  his  lieutenant  his  brother 
Leonard,  who  arrived  in  the  new  colony  in  1634  with 
about  two  hundred  persons,  mostly  Catholics  of  gentle 
birth.  The  colony  formed  under  auspices  so  favourable, 
and  named  in  honour  of  the  queen  Henrietta  Maria, 
made  rapid  progress,  and  for  many  years  enjoyed  a  re- 
markable share  of  peace  and  prosperity.  The  proprietor, 
who  was  "the  heir  of  his  father's  intentions  not  less 
than  of  his  father's  fortunes,"  discharged  his  duties  to 
the  colonists  in  a  most  liberal  spirit,  and  is  entitled  to  a 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


CALVERT 


495 


CALVIN 


share  of  the  honour  which  belongs  to  the  pioneers  of 
civil  and  religious  liberty.  He  died,  at  an  advanced  age, 
in  1676.  Leonard  Calvert  had  died  in  1647.  The  heirs 
of  Lord  Baltimore  for  several  generations  were  proprie- 
tors of  Maryland. 

See  Bancroft,  "History  of  the  United  States;"  Hildreth, 
"History  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  i.  chap.  viii. 

Calvert,  (Denis.)    See  Calvart. 

Calvert,  (Frederick,)  Lord  Baltimore,  born  in  1731, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Charles,  the  sixth  Lord  Baltimore, 
who  died  in  1751.  The  subject  of  this  article  then  be- 
came proprietor  of  Maryland.  He  published  in  1767  a 
"Tour  in  the  East,"  and  soon  after  became  a  resident 
of  Naples,  where  he  died  in  1771.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  work  composed  in  Latin,  English,  and  French, 
entitled  "Gaudia  Poetica,"  ("Poetic  Joys.") 

Calvert,  (George,)  Lord  Baltimore,  the  founder  and 
enlightened  lawgiver  of  Maryland,  born  at  Kipling,  in 
Yorkshire,  England,  about  1580,  was  descended  from  a 
noble  Flemish  family  of  the  same  name.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford  University.  By  his  talents  and  virtues 
he  gained  the  confidence  of  James  I.,  who  appointed  him 
in  1619  one  of  the  principal  secretaries  of  state.  In  1624, 
avowing  his  conversion  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  he 
resigned  his  office  ;  but  the  king  retained  him  in  the  privy 
council,  and  raised  him  to  the  Irish  peerage  as  Baron  of 
Baltimore,  in  Longford  county,  Ireland.  He  had  pre- 
viously obtained  from  James  I.  an  extensive  grant  of 
land  in  Newfoundland,  where  in  1621  he  planted  a  colony 
named  Avalon,  which  he  supervised  in  person  and  sus- 
tained for  a  few  years  at  great  expense.  His  motive  in 
this  enterprise  was  partly  to  obtain  liberty  of  worship  for 
his  fellow-professors,  who  were  subject  to  restraints  and 
disabilities  in  the  mother-country.  His  first  experiment 
having  failed  on  account  of  the  ungenial  climate  and  the 
hostilities  of  the  French,  he  visited  Virginia  in  1628  and 
explored  the  adjacent  regions.  He  returned  to  England, 
and  received  from  Charles  I.  a  grant  of  all  the  territory 
included  in  the  present  State  of  Maryland.  As  Calvert 
died  in  1632,  before  the  grant  was  legally  executed,  the 
charter  was  issued  in  the  name  of  his  son  Cecil,  under 
date  of  June  20,  1632.  This  charter,  which  was  doubtless 
drafted  by  the  first  Lord  Baltimore  himself,  guaranteed 
the  civil  and  religious  liberties  of  the  colonists  and  their 
exemption  from  English  taxation  forever.  "Calvert  de- 
serves to  be  ranked,"  says  Bancroft,  "among  the  most 
wise  and  benevolent  lawgivers  of  all  ages.  He  was  the 
first  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  world  to  seek  for  re- 
ligious security  and  peace  by  the  practice  of  justice  and 
not  by  the  exercise  of  power ;  to  plan  the  establishment 
of  popular  institutions  with  the  enjoyment  of  liberty 
of  conscience  ;  to  advance  the  career  of  civilization  by 
recognizing  the  rightful  equality  of  all  Christian  sects." 
He  wrote  "  The  Practice  of  Princes,"  several  letters  of 
state,  and  a  few  other  works.  Several  of  his  speeches  in 
Parliament  were  published.    (See  Calvert,  Cecil.) 

See  Bancroft,  "  History  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  i.  chap, 
vii. ;  J.  P.  Kennedy,  "Discourse  on  the  Life  and  Character  of 
George  Calvert." 

Calvert,  (George  Henry,)  an  American  author,  and 
a  great-grandson  of  Lord  Baltimore,  was  born  in  Mary- 
land in  1803.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  in 
prose  and  verse,  "Illustrations  of  Phrenology,"  (1832,) 
"Count  Julian,  a  Tragedy,"  (1840,)  and  "Scenes  and 
Thoughts  in  Europe,"  (1846,)  which  were  received  with 
favour. 

Calvert,  (Sir  Harry,)  a  British  general,  descended 
from  the  Calverts  of  Hertfordshire.  In  early  life  he 
served  in  the  United  States  under  Clinton,  Howe,  and 
Cornwallis,  and  was  made  prisoner  at  Yorktown  in  1781. 
He  was  aide-de-camp  to  the  Duke  of  York  in  1794,  in  the 
Low  Countries,  and  becair,e  adjutant-general  in  1799. 
After  assisting  to  organize  the  military  colleges  at  High 
Wycombe  and  Marlow,  he  was  made  major-general  in 
1803,  a  baronet  in  1818,  and  a  general  about  1821.  Died 
in  1826. 

See  "Journals  and  Correspondence  of  Sir  Henry  Calvert,"  by  Sir 
Henry  Verney,  London,  1853. 

Calvert,  (James,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
was  rector  of  TopcliflFe.    Died  in  1698. 

Calvert,  (Leonard,)  the  first  Governor  of  Maryland, 
born  about  1582,  was  a  younger  son  of  George,  Lord 


Baltimore.  He  governed  Maryland  from  1634  until  his 
death  in  1647. 

See  Sparks,  "American  Biography,"  vol.  ix.,  Second  Series. 

Calvert,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dissenting  minister, 
born  at  York  in  1606.  He  became  vicar  of  Trinity,  York, 
and  officiated  in  the  cathedral  during  the  rule  of  the  Pro- 
tector. By  the  Act  of  Uniformity  (1662)  he  was  ejected 
from  his  living.  He  published  "  Honey  of  Heaven," 
("Mel  Cosli,")  an  exposition  of  Isaiah  liii.,  and  a  few 
other  works.    Died  in  1679. 

Calvi,  kSKvee,  (LazzaroJ  a  Genoese  painter,  born 
in  1502  ;  died  in  1607,  at  the  age  of  one  hundred  and  five 
years.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Continence  of  Scipio." 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Calvi,  (Pantaleone,)  a  painter,  brother  of  Lazzaro, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Genoa;  died  in  1595. 

Calvidus  Laetus.    See  Quillett. 

Calvin,  kiKvin,  written  also  Caulvin,  Cauvin,  and 
Chauvin,  (John,)  [Fr.  Jean  Calvin,  zh6N  ktl'v^N', 
(or  Chauvin,  sho'viw' ;)  Ger.  Johann  Calvin,  yo'hSn 
kai-veen';  It.  Giovanni  Calvino,  jo-vin'nee  kSl-vee'no; 
Lat.  Johan'nes  Calvi'nus,]  after  Luther,  the  greatest  of 
the  Protestant  Reformers,  was  born  at  Noyon,  in  Picardy, 
(now  the  department  of  Oise,)  on  the  loth  of  July,  1509. 
His  father,  Gerard  Cauvin,  (ko'viN',)  secretary  of  the 
diocese,  and  fiscal  procureur  of  the  lordship  of  Noyon, 
destined  him  for  the  church,  and  gave  him  a  liberal 
education.  When  only  about  sixteen  years  old,  Calvin 
was  appointed  cure  of  Marteville,  and,  by  exchange,  of 
Pont-l'fiveque,  two  years  later,  while  still  pursuing  his 
studies  in  Paris.  His  relative  Robert  Olivetan  induced 
him,  while  at  the  university,  to  read  the  Bible,  and  pointed 
out  the  contradictions  between  the  doctrines  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures  and  the  theology  taught  by  the  Romish  Church. 
At  Bourges,  where  he  was  studying  law, — having  aban- 
doned the  purpose  of  dedicating  himself  to  the  church, — 
Calvin  became  acquainted  with  Melchior  Wolmar,  who 
instructed  him  in  Greek  and  confirmed  him  in  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Protestant  faith.  He  began  soon  after 
openly  to  profess  and  preach  the  new  doctrines.  In  1532 
he  published  on  Seneca's  treatise  "  De  Clementia"  a 
Latin  commentary,  in  which  he  calls  himself  Johannes 
Calvinlis.  The  design  of  this  work,  it  would  appear, 
was  to  lead  the  French  king  (Francis  I.)  to  the  practice 
of  clemency  or  toleration  towards  the  Protestants ;  but 
it  seems  to  have  had  no  effect.  Having  by  his  zeal  for 
the  new  faith  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  Sorbonne, 
Calvin  retired  from  Paris  to  Angouleme.  For  a  short 
period  he  was  protected  from  persecution  by  the  favour 
of  Margaret  of  Navarre,  sister  to  Francis  I.  But  being 
compelled,  in  1534,  to  fly  from  his  native  country,  he 
found  refuge  in  Bale,  where  he  published  (1536)  his 
"Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  ("Christianas 
Religionis  Institutio,")  which,  in  an  eloquently-written 
preface,  he  dedicated  to  Francis  I.  The  object  of  this 
— Calvin's  most  important  work — was  to  explain  and 
vindicate  the  views  of  the  Reformed  Church.  It  may, 
indeed,  be  pronounced  the  first  systematic  and  thorough 
defence  of  Protestantism  that  had  till  then  appeared. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  having  begun  to 
spread  into  Italy,  Calvin,  with  the  view  of  aiding  in  the 
great  work,  visited  Ferrara,  where  he  was  cordially  re- 
ceived by  the  duchess  Renee,  (Renata,)  daughter  of 
Louis  XII.  of  France,  and  consort  of  Hercules  (Ercole) 
d'Este.  But  even  her  influence  was  unable  to  protect 
him  against  the  power  of  the  Inquisition ;  and  he  was 
again  compelled  to  seek  safety  by  flight.  Returning  to 
Noyon  for  the  last  time,  he  sold  his  paternal  estate,  and, 
accompanied  by  his  brother,  sister,  and  several  devoted 
friends,  withdrew  to  Switzerland.  In  one  of  his  letters 
written  about  this  time,  he  says,  "  I  am  driven  from  the 
land  of  my  birth.  Every  step  towards  its  boundaries 
costs  me  tears.  Perhaps  it  is  not  permitted  to  Truth  to 
dwell  in  France  :  let  her  lot  be  mine."  In  his  flight  he 
had  arrived  at  Geneva,  (August,  1536,)  intending  to  pro- 
ceed to  Germany.  But  Farel,  through  whose  influence, 
chiefly,  the  reformed  religion  had  been  established  at 
Geneva,  (1535,)  earnestly  entreated  Calvin  to  remain 
with  him,  and  boldly  threatened  him  with  the  wrath  of 
Heaven  if  he  "would  not  help  to  carry  on  the  work  of 
God."    Calvin  yielded,  and  was  elected  preacher  and 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (S:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CALVIN 


496 


CALVO 


teacher  of  theology.  Along  with  Fare!,  he  prepared  a 
confession  of  faith  and  a  plan  of  ecclesiastical  discipline, 
which  were  approved  in  a  general  assembly  of  the  peo- 
ple, July,  1537.  But  the  severe  doctrines  and  strict 
discipline  of  the  Reformers  were  very  unpalatable  to  a 
large  number  of  the  Genevese  ;  a  powerful  party  was 
excited  against  Farel  and  Calvin,  and  early  in  the  year 
1538  they  were  banished  from  the  city.  Calvin  withdrew 
to  Strasburg,  where,  under  his  care,  a  Reformed  congre- 
gation was  established,  which  afforded  a  pattern  to  the 
Protestants  of  France.  During  this  period  (1538-41)  he 
produced  the  first  of  his  valuable  contributions  to  exe- 
getical  theology.  He  did  not,  however,  forget  the  Gene- 
vese. During  his  exile,  strenuous  efforts  were  made  by 
Cardinal  Sadolet,  the  champion  of  the  Catholic  cause, 
to  bring  them  back  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  Calvin  was 
instrumental  in  thwarting  these  designs  by  a  masterly  and 
eloquent  refutation  (1539)  of  an  epistle  whicli  had  been 
addressed  to  them  by  Sadolet.  They  already  began  to 
regret  the  absence  of  the  great  Reformer;  and  in  1540 
he  received  from  the  Genevese  senate  a  pressing  invita- 
tion to  return.  He  was,  moreover,  urged  to  this  course 
by  Farel  and  many  others  of  his  friends.  Calvin  appears 
to  have  greatly  enjoyed  the  peaceful  life  which  he  led  at 
Strasburg,  and  was  extremely  reluctant  to  return  to  the 
scene  of  his  former  conflicts  ;  but  as  he  had  never  ceased 
to  feel  the  deepest  and  most  affectionate  solicitude  for 
the  welfare  of  the  church  at  Geneva,  and,  above  all,  as 
he  regarded  that  city  as  the  post  of  duty  to  which  Hea- 
ven had  especially  called  him,  the  final  decision  could 
not  be  doubtful  with  one  whose  devoted  and  only  aim 
was,  not  to  please  himself,  but,  by  every  means  in  his 
power,  to  promote  the  glory  of  God.  On  the  13th  of 
September,  1541,  he  again  entered  Geneva,  and  was  re- 
ceived, both  by  the  magistrates  and  people,  "with  every 
demonstration  of  affection  and  triumj^h."  During  his 
sojourn  at  Strasburg  he  had  married  (1539)  a  widow 
named  Idelette  de  Bures,  who  is  described  as  a  woman 
of  exalted  virtues.  They  had  but  one  child,  a  son,  who 
died  in  infancy.    Calvin's  wife  died  in  1549. 

The  remainder  of  the  life  of  this  great  man  was  spent 
in  untiring  efforts  to  establish  the  Genevese  church  and 
government  on  a  firm  foundation,  and  to  render  the 
former  a  model  for  all  other  Protestant  churches.  Calvin 
died  May  27,  1564,  aged  nearly  fifty-five.  The  effects 
of  his  labours  in  promoting  sound  morality  and  learning, 
to  say  nothing  of  religion,  are  still  felt  in  Geneva,  after  a 
lapse  of  three  hundred  years.  Montesquieu,  referring 
to  the  great  services  which  Calvin  had  rendered  to  that 
state,  says  "the  Genevese  ought  to  observe  the  day  of 
his  arrival  in  their  city  as  a  festival." 

Nothing  relating  to  Calvin  is  more  remarkable  than 
his  contempt  of  riches  and  the  self-denying  simplicity  of 
his  life.  He  received  from  the  Genevese  only  what  was 
sufficient  to  support  him  with  the  greatest  parsimony. 
Although  he  lived  in  such  poverty,  he  would  never  ac- 
cept a  present  except  for  the  poor.  He  repeatedly  re- 
fu.sed  to  take  anything  in  addition  to  his  regular  stipend. 
Once,  during  his  sickness,  the  council  advanced  him  the 
sum  of  twenty-five  thalers,  desiring  him  to  accept  it  as  a 
gift ;  but  Calvin  insisted  on  repaying  it.  When  some  of 
his  friends  urged  that  a  person  occupying  the  conspic- 
uous position  which  he  did  before  all  Europe,  ought  to 
live  in  greater  style,  he  replied  by  simply  referring  them 
to  the  example  of  Christ  and  his  apostles. 

There  is  in  Calvin's  history  one  point  which  must  not 
be  passed  without  notice,  as  it  has  been  made  by  the 
misinformed  and  illiberal  the  ground  of  much  unjust 
censure.  We  refer  to  the  part  which  he  took  in  pro- 
curing the  condemnation  of  Servetus.  The  utmost  that 
can  be  justly  said  against  Calvin  on  this  head  is  that  in 
regard  to  religious  toleration  he  was  not  in  advance  of 
the  age  in  which  he  lived  ;  nor  was  he  one  whit  behind 
it.  The  doctrine  of  toleration  in  its  largest  sense  was 
not  yet  recognized,  even  by  men  the  most  liberal  and 
humane.*    It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  Calvin  was  a 

*  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  Calvin  died  several  years  before 
William  the  Silent,  from  motives  of  policy  rather  than  from  any  higher 
considerations,  recommended  toleration  as  a  wise  measure  of  govern- 
ment, and  more  than  a  century  (and  tliat,  too,  during  a  period  of 
almost  unexampled  progress)  before  William  Penn  taught  the  great 
truth  that  for  their  religious  opinions  men  are  responsible  to  God  alone. 


Statesman  as  well  as  a  preacher  of  the  gospel.  The 
community  which  he  had  so  admirably  organized  at 
Geneva  was  to  him  both  state  and  church,  over  which  he 
felt  it  his  duty  to  watch  with  the  most  jealous  care.  He 
had  reason  to  fear  that  the  errors  of  Servetus,  associated 
as  they  were  with  great  abilities  and  an  arrogant,  reck- 
less spirit,  might  endanger  the  welfare  of  that  community 
to  which  he  had  devoted  his  life,  and  which  was  dearer 
to  him  than  anything  else  on  earth.  He  was  not  merely 
a  watchful  pastor,  but  a  zealous  patriot,  who  sought  to 
defend  his  country  against  what  he  deemed  a  formidable 
enemy.  That  his  hostility  to  Servetus  was  not  so  much 
directed  against  his  religious  opinions  as  against  his 
dangerous  character,  is  at  least  rendered  probable  by  his 
friendly  relations  vyith  Socinus,  whose  theological  views 
were  no  less  objectionable  than  those  of  Servetus. 

While  deeply  regretting  this  blemish  on  his  character, 
(shared  though  it  was  by  all  the  Reformers  of  that  age,) 
we  must  not  omit  to  state  that,  although  Calvin  approved 
of  the  death  of  Servetus,  he  did  not  wish  him  brought  to 
the  stake,  dissenting  in  this  from  Farel  and  some  of  his 
other  friends,  who  exhorted  him  to  be  "firm  and  severe." 
Farel  at  first,  in  opposition  to  Calvin,  distinctly  recom- 
mended that  the  punishment  should  be  death  by  fire. 
Afterwards,  however,  he  repented  of  his  severity,  and 
earnestly  implored  the  council  to  mitigate  the  sentence 
of  Servetus  ;  but  in  vain.* 

The  doctrine  of  unconditional  election  and  reprobation 
was  the  central  idea  in  Calvin's  theological  system  :  it  is 
to  this  doctrine,  and  others  growing  immediately  out  of 
it,  that  the  term  Calvinism  is  usually  applied. 

As  a  theological  writer,  Calvin  is  remarkable  for  clear- 
ness, method,  and  scientific  exactness.  As  a  reasoner, 
he  is  distinguished  for  logical  acuteness.  According  to 
Scaliger,  he  stood  alone  among  theologians,  ("solus  inter 
theologos  Calvinus.")  Among  his  numerous  works  wo 
may  name,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  his  "  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,"  (Geneva, 
1 561,)  his  Commentaries  on  the  New  Testament,  on  the 
Psalms,  etc.  His  other  writings  consist  chiefly  of  tracts 
and  letters. 

See  Paul  Henry,  "  Life  and  Times  of  Calvin,"  an  excellent  and 
exhaustive  work;  "Letters  of  Calvin,"  collected  by  Dr.  Bonnet; 
Theodore  de  Beze,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  la  Mort  de  Calvin," 
1564;  BoLSEC,  "  Historia  de  J.  Calvini  Vita,"  1572;  Masson,  "Vita 
J.  Calvini,"  1598;  Tischer,  "Calvin's  Leben,"  1794;  Mackenzie, 
"Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  J.  Calvin,"  iSog ;  John  Scott,  "Calvin 
and  the  Swiss  Reformation,"  1838  ;  Auuin,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  J. 
Calvin,"  1840;  T.  H.  Dyer,  "Life  of  John  Calvin,"  1849 ;  Maim- 
BOUKG,  "  Histoire  du  Calvinisme;"  Bayi.e,  "  Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary;"  Guizot,  "J.Calvin,"  1844;  Kahnis,  "  Lutheranische 
Dogmatik,"  vol.  ii. ;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1851. 

Cal-vi'nus,  (Cneius  Domitius,)  a  Roman  consul, 
who  entered  public  life  about  62  B.C.  In  the  year  54  he 
offered  himself  as  a  candidate  for  the  consulship,  which 
he  obtained  by  bribery  and  by  the  influence  of  Pompey. 
He  became  a  partisan  of  Caesar  in  the  civil  war,  and 
commanded  the  centre  at  Pharsalia,  (48  B.C.)  In  the 
year  40  he  was  again  elected  consul,  and  afterwards 
commanded  an  army  in  Spain  for  several  years. 

Calvinus,  kai-vee'nus,  (Johann,)  a  German  jurist, 
whose  proper  name  was  Kahl,  (kll,)  lived  about  1630. 
He  published  a  "  Law  Dictionary,"  ("  Lexicon  Juridi- 
cum,"  1609,)  often  reprinted. 

Calvinus,  (Johannes.)    See  Calvin,  John. 

Calvisius,  kSl-vee'ze-iis,  (Seth,)  a  German  astro- 
nomer and  poet,  born  at  Groschleben,  in  Thuringia,  in 
1556.  His  principal  work  is  "  Opus  Chronologicum," 
(1605.)    Died  in  1615. 

Calvo,  kai'vo,  or  Calvi,  kSKvee,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish 
physician  of  the  sixteenth  century,  published  several 
useful  medical  works. 

Calvo,  (Marco  Fabio,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at 
Ravenna,  made  one  of  the  first  Latin  versions  of  Hip- 
pocrates, (1525.)    Died  at  Rome  in  1527. 

Calvo,  de,  deh  ktl'vo',  (Jean  Sauveur,)  surnamed 
THE  Brave,  a  French  general,  born  at  Barcelona  in 
162:;.  He  defended  Maestricht  against  the  Prince  of 
Orange  in  1676.    Died  in  1690. 


*  It  is  a  striking  proof  of  the  universal  intolerance  of  that  age  thai 
the  gentle  and  humane  Melanchthon  approved  of  the  execution  of  the 
sentence  against  Servetus.  (See  Melanchthon's  letters  to  Calvin  and 
Bullinger  on  this  subject.) 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f&r,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nflt;  good;  moon: 


CALFOR 


497 


CAMBRIDGE 


Calvor  or  Calvoer,  Ml'voR,  (Kaspar,)  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Hildesheim  in  1650,  wrote,  in  Latin, 
a  work  on  the  early  history  of  Lower  Saxony.  Died  in 
1725- 

See  J.  J.  Fahsius,  "Vita  G.  Calvoerii,"  1727. 

Calvus.    See  Licinius  Stolo. 
Calvus,  (C.  Licinius  Macer.)    See  Licinius  Cal- 
vus. 

Ca-lyp'so,  [Gr.  KaAvii'tj,]  a  nymph  or  demi-goddess 
of  Greek  mytholog}'.  She  is  described  by  Homer  as  the 
daughter  of  Atlas,  and  proprietor  of  the  island  of  Ogy- 
gia,  on  which  Ulysses  took  refuge  after  a  shipwreck. 
She  detained  him  some  years,  and  promised  him  immor- 
tal youth  if  he  would  remain  ;  but  he  declined  it  for  the 
sake  of  Penelope. 

Calza,  kild'zi,  (Antonio,)  a  landscape-painter  of  the 
Venetian  school,  born  at  Verona  in  1653 ;  died  about 
1 7 14. 

Calzolai,  kSl-zo-l^'ee,  or  Calzolari,  kSI-zo-li'ree, 
(PiETRO,)  an  Italian  monk  and  historian,  born  in  Tus- 
cany about  1500.  Rewrote  a  "  Historia  Monastica," 
(1561.)    Died  in  1580. 

Cam,  kowN,  ( ? )  (Diogo,)  a  Portuguese  navigator, 
who  in  1484  explored  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  south 
of  the  equator. 

Camadeva  or  Camadeo.    See  Kamadeva. 

Camargo,  ki-maR'go,  (Alphonso,)  a  Spanish  navi- 
gator, who  explored  the  Strait  of  Magellan  in  1 540. 

Camargo,  kt^mlR^go',  (Marie  Anne  Cuppi,)  a  fa- 
mous danseuse,  born  at  Brussels  in  1710.  She  per- 
formed in  Paris  from  1726  to  1 751.  Voltaire  addressed 
to  her  verses  beginning,  "Ah  !  Camargo,  que  vous  etes 
brillante  !"    Died  in  1770. 

See  Grimm,  "  Correspondance." 

Camassei,  ki-mis-sa'ee,  (Andrea,)  an  able  Italian 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Bevagna  in  1601,  worked 
in  Rome.    Died  in  1648. 

Cambaceres,  de,  deh  kSN'bS'si'r^ss',  (Abb^:,)  an 
uncle  of  the  distinguished  statesman,  born  at  Montpellier 
in  1 72 1,  was  eminent  as  a  pulpit  orator.  He  pronounced 
before  the  French  Academy,  in  1768,  a  panegyric  on 
Saint  Louis,  which  was  warmly  applauded.  Several 
volumes  of  his  sermons  were  printed.    Died  in  1802. 

Cambaceres,  de,  (Etienne  Hubert,)  a  French  car- 
dinal, brother  of  the  jurist  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Montpellier  in  1756.  He  was  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Rouen  in  1802,  and  the  next  year  became  a  cardinal  and 
grand  cordon  of  the  legion  of  honour.    Died  in  1821. 

Cambaceres,  de,  (Jean  Jacques  Regis— ra'zh^ss',) 
an  able  French  statesman  and  jurist,  born  at  Montpellier 
in  1757.  He  gained  distinction  as  a  lawyer  before  the 
Revolution,  and  in  1792  was  elected  to  the  National  Con- 
vention, in  which  he  performed  a  prominent  part,  but 
with  such  caution  and  wisdom  that  he  was  accused  of 
moderation  and  temporizing.  He  mostly  voted  with  the 
republicans,  except  in  the  trial  of  the  king.  After  the 
fall  of  Robespierre  (July,  1794)  he  was  president  of  the 
committee  of  public  safety,  and  used  his  great  influence 
to  terminate  the  reign  of  terror.  He  passed  into  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1796,  and  was  one  of  the 
first  members  of  the  Institute.  In  1799,  Bonaparte,  then 
first  consul,  appointed  Cambaceres  second  consul. 
Under  the  empire  he  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  his  mas- 
ter, to  whom  he  gave  good  counsels  and  adhered  with 
constant  fidelity.  He  was  made  arch-chancellor,  Duke 
of  Parma,  president  of  the  senate,  president  of  the  coun- 
cil of  state,  grand  eagle  of  the  legion  of  honour,  etc. 
He  had  the  principal  part  in  the  compilation  of  the  Civil 
Code.  During  the  Hundred  Days  he  reluctantly  served 
his  former  chief  as  minister  of  justice,  and  in  1816  was 
exiled,  but  was  permitted  to  return  in  181 8.  He  then 
recovered  his  civil  rights,  with  the  title  of  duke,  but  did 
not  hold  office  under  the  Bourbons.  Died  in  Paris  in  1824. 

See  AuBRiET,  "  Vie  de  Cambaceres,"  1825  ;  Thiers,  "  Histoire  du 
Lonsulat  et  de  I'Empire." 

Cambaceres,  de,  (Marie  Jean  Pierre  Hubert,) 
Due,  a  French  senator,  nephew  of  the  eminent  states- 
man, was  born  at  Montpellier  in  1798.  He  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  in  1837,  and  appointed  a  senator  about 
1852.  Since  that  date  he  has  become  grand  master  of 
ceremonies  in  the  imperial  household. 


Camberlyn  d'Amougies,  kam'ber-lTn'  (or  k6N'b€R'- 
ISn')  dfmoo'zhe',  (Jean  Baptiste  Guillaume,)  a  Bel- 
gian poet,  born  at  Ghent  in  1760 ;  died  in  1833. 

Cambert,  kfiN'baiR',  (Robert,)  a  French  musician, 
who  was  organist  of  the  church  Saint-Honore  in  Paris. 
About  1659  Perrin  and  he  composed  a  comic  opera  which 
had  a  great  success.  It  was  called  the  "premiere  come- 
die  Fran9aise  en  musique."  They  afterwards  produced 
others,  entitled  "Ariane"  and  "  Pomone."  He  died  in 
England  in  1677,  aged  about  fifty. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Cambiagi,  kam-be-i'jee,  (Joachim,)  a  historical 
writer,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1740,  became  a  partner  of 
Gaetano  Cambiagi,  a  noted  printer  of  Florence.  He 
published  a  "History  of  Corsica,"  (1770.) 

Cambiaso,  kSm-be-a'so,  (Luca,)  also  called  Lu- 
CHE'iTO  DA  Genova,  (loo-kef'to  dk  jk-no'vS,)  a  cele- 
brated Italian  painter,  born  at  or  near  Genoa  in  1527. 
He  received  lessons  in  the  art  from  his  father  Giovanni, 
and  became  remarkably  skilful  in  foreshortening.  He 
painted  in  fresco  the  "  Rape  of  the  Sabines,"  which  was 
greatly  admired.  Invited  by  Philip  II.,  he  went  to  Spain 
in  1583,  and  adorned  the  Escurial  with  frescos,  one  of 
which  represents  the  celestial  paradise.  He  worked 
with  great  facility,  both  in  fresco  and  oil.  "The  Martyr- 
dom of  Saint  George,"  at  Genoa,  is  called  his  master- 
piece.   Died  in  1585. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Winckelmann, 
"  Neues  Maler-Lexikon." 

Cambini,  kim-bee'nee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  histo- 
rian, born  at  Florence,  lived  about  1470. 

Cambini,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  composer,  born  at 
Leghorn  in  1746,  produced  a  great  number  of  sympho- 
nies, concertos,  oratorios,  motets,  etc.    Died  about  1832. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Cambis-Velleron,  de,  deh  kSN'be'  verrdN',  (Joseph 
Louis  Dominique,)  Marquis,  a  French  historian,  born 
at  Avignon  in  1706;  died  in  1772. 

Cambon,  kdN'b^N',  (Joseph,)  a  French  republican 
financier,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1756,  was  a  merchant  in 
early  life.  He  was  elected  to  the  National  Assembly  in 
1791,  and  to  the  Convention  of  1792,  in  which  he  voted 
for  the  death  of  the  king.  In  1793  he  was  one  of  the 
committee  of  public  safety,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  government.  He  concurred  in  the  overthrow  of 
Robespierre  in  1794.  As  a  member  of  the  committee  on 
finances,  he  rendered  important  services  to  the  republic,  . 
and  made  many  able  financial  reports.  He  is  said  to 
have  merited  an  enduring  reputation  by  that  report,  . 
which  caused  the  adoption  of  the  great-book,  or  register 
of  the  public  debt.  In  1795  the  rivalry  between  Cambon 
and  Tallien  resulted  in  a  decree  for  the  arrest  of  the 
former,  who  escaped  by  concealment.  Under  the  reign 
of  Napoleon  he  lived  in  a  private  station,  was  exiled 
in  1815,  and  died  in  Belgium  in  1820. 

See  De  Barante,  "Histoire  de  la  Convention  nationale." 

Cambon,  de,  deh  kSN^b^N',  (Jean  Louis  Auguste 
Emmanuel,)  Marquis,  a  French  lawyer,  born  at  Tou- 
louse in  1737.  He  was  first  president  of  the  Assembly 
of  Notables  in  1787.    Died  in  1807. 

Cambray,  kSx^bpi',  (Baptiste,)  a  French  peasant, . 
noted  as  the  inventor  of  a  cotton  or  linen  stuff  called 
cambric.    He  lived  in  Cambresis,  or  Cambray,  in  the. 
thirteenth  century. 

Cambray-Digny,  de,  deh  kSw^bRa'  d^n'ye',  (Loots 
Guillaume,)  a  French  physicist,  born  in  Picard>y  in 
1723,  became  a  citizen  of  Florence.  He  constructed  the 
first  steam-engine  used  south  of  the  Alps.  Died  about 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Cam'bre-leng  or  Cam'bre-ling,  (Churchill  C.,) 
an  American  politician,  born  in  North  Carolina  in  1786. 
He  became  a  merchant  in  New  York,  served  in  Con- 
gress from  1821  to  1839,  was  chairman  of  the  committee 
of  ways  and  means,  and  was  appointed  minister  to  Russia 
in  the  latter  year.    Died  in  1862. 

Cam'bridge,  (Adolphus  Frederick,)  Duke  of, 
the  seventh  son  of  George  III.  of  England,  was  born  in 
1774.  He  entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  French  at  Hondschoote  in 
1793.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Hanover  in  1816, 
and  Viceroy  of  the  same  in  183 1.    Died  in  1850. 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (S^^See  ExplanatJ  )n?,  p.  23.) 

32 


CAMBRIDGE  498  CAMERJRIUS 

 _________  %  


Cambridge,  ^eorge  William  Frederick 
Charles,)  Duke  of,  a  British  general,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  a  cousin  of  Queen  Victoria,  born  at  Hanover 
in  1 8 19.  He  became  a  major-general  in  1845,  and  suc- 
ceeded to  the  dukedom  in  1850.  In  1854  he  commanded 
a  division  in  the  Crimea.  His  conduct  at  Alma  and 
Inkerman  in  1 854  was  applauded.  He  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  British  army  in  1856. 

Cambridge,  (Richard  Owen,)  an  ingenious  English 
writer,  born  in  London  in  17 14.  He  became  a  member 
of  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1737.  He  wrote  the  "  Scribleriad," 
a  heroic  poem,  which  has  been  much  admired  ;  twenty- 
one  of  the  best  papers  in  "  The  World  "  The  Intruder," 
a  poem ;  and  a  "  History  of  the  War  in  India  between 
the  French  and  English  from  1755  to  1 761."  Died  in 
1802. 

See  Gary,  "  Lives  of  English  Poets  from  Johnson  to  Kirke  White." 

Cambronne,  de,  deh  kdN^bRon',  (Pierre  Jacques 
£tienne,)  Baron,  a  French  general,  born  at  Nantes  in 
1770.  He  distinguished  himself  as  colonel  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  1 812  and  1813,  and  accompanied  Bonaparte  to 
Elba  in  1814.  In  181 5  he  was  admitted  into  the  Chamber 
of  Peers.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Waterloo,  where, 
after  being  surrounded,  refusing  to  surrender,  he  was 
severely  wounded  and  taken  prisoner.*  At  the  revolu- 
tion of  1830  he  was  restored  to  his  rank  in  the  army. 
Died  in  1842. 

See  "Victoires  at  Conquetes  des  Fran^ais;"  "Histoire  dii  Gene- 
ra! Ganibronne,"  Paris,  1845. 

Cambry,  kSN'bRe',  (Jacques,)  a  French  litiemteur, 
born  at  L'Orient  in  1749,  was  prefect  of  the  department 
of  Oise.  He  wrote  a  variety  of  learned  works,  among 
which  are  an  "  Essay  on  the  Life  and  Works  of  Poussin," 
(1783,)  and  ''Travels  in  Switzerland  and  Italy."  Died 
in  1807. 

Cambyse,  the  French  of  Cambyses,  which  see. 

Cam-by 'ses,  [Gr.  Ka/Lt6vor]c;  Fr.  Cambyse,  k6N'b6z',] 
King  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  succeeded  his  father, 
Cyrus  the  Great,  about  530  B.C.  Five  years  later  he 
invaded  Egypt,  defeated  Psammenitus,  its  king,  took 
Memphis,  the  capital,  and  in  a  few  months  completed 
the  conquest  of  the  country.  He  then  marched  against 
Ethiopia  ;  but,  having  lost  many  men  by  famine,  he  re- 
turned without  success.  The  cruelties  that  he  after- 
wards committed,  among  which  was  the  execution  of  his 
brother  Smerdis,  are  ascribed  by  some  to  the  loss  of  his 
reason.  He  was  accidentally  wounded  by  his  own  sword, 
and  died  in  consequence  in  521  or  522  B.C.,  leaving  no 
issue. 

See  Herodotus,  "History;"  Justin,  "Historia;"  Valerius 
Maximus;  Ramspeck,  "Specimen  de  Cambyse  Persarum  Rege," 
1740. 

Cam'deii,  (Charles  Pratt,)  first  Earl  of,  an  Eng- 
lish judge  and  statesman  of  great  merit,  born  in  17 14,  was 
the  son  of  Chief- Justice  Sir  John  Pratt.  At  Eton  he 
formed  a  lasting  friendship  with  William  Pitt.  Plaving 
graduated  at  Cambridge,  he  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1738.  For  many  years  he  obtained  but  little  practice, 
until  his  success  in  defending  a  bookseller  charged  with 
a  libel  on  the  House  of  Commons,  in  1752,  brought  him 
into  notice.  He  was  appointed  attorney-general  about 
1 758,  was  returned  to  Parliament,  and  became  chief 
justice  of  the  common  pleas  in  1762.  He  there  found 
the  proper  sphere  for  his  eminent  judicial  talents,  and 
gained  great  po])ularity  by  his  decision  against  the 
legality  of  general  warrants  in  the  case  of  Wilkes. 

In  1765  he  was  created  Baron  Camden,  and  in  the 
next  year  became  lord  chancellor.  He  held  the  great 
seal  nearly  four  years,  and  performed  the  duties  of  that 
office  with  dignity,  firmness,  and  integrity.  "Among 
the  names  that  adorn  the  legal  profession,"  says  Lord 
Brougham,  "  there  are  few  which  stand  so  high  as  that 
of  Camden.  He  was,  however,  more  eminent  in  the 
senate  than  the  forum.  He  brought  into  Parliament  a 
high  professional  reputation,  and  his  talents  were  pecu- 
liarly suited  to  shine  in  debate."  The  constant  and 
powerful  champion  of  constitutional  liberty,  he  opposed 
the  policy  of  Lord  North  in  relation  to  America,  and 
has  been  called  the  right  arm  of  Lord  Chatham,  for  his 

*  He  is  said  to  have  disowned  the  famous  phrase,  "The  Guard 
dies,  and  never  surrenders,"  which  was  attributed  to  him. 


zealous  co-operation  w'"th  that  political  chief  in  his  long 
contest  with  the  court.  He  was  president  of  the  coun- 
cil from  the  accession  of  the  younger  Pitt  as  premier, 
until  his  own  death.  In  1786  he  was  created  Earl  Cam- 
den. In  1792  he  eloquently  and  successfully  maintained 
the  rights  of  juries  in  libel-cases,  against  Thurlow  and 
all  the  other  law  lords.  Fox's  celebrated  Libel  Act  was 
then  carried  through  the  House  of  Peers  by  his  exer- 
tions.   Died  in  1794. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors  ;"  Broug- 
ham, "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  IIL;"  Foss,  "The  Judge? 
of  England." 

Camden,  (John  Jeffreys  Pratt,)  Marquis  of, 
the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1759.  About 
1780  he  was  returned  to  Parliament,  and  appointed  a 
teller  of  the  exchequer.  From  1789  to  1794  he  was  one 
of  the  lords  of  the  treasury  ;  and  in  the  latter  year  he 
inherited  his  father's  title  and  entered  the  House  oi 
Lords.  He  was  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  for  several 
years  previous  to  1798.  He  afterwards  served  the  public 
with  honour  as  secretary  for  the  colonies  and  president 
of  the  council,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  marquis 
about  1 81 2.    Died  in  1840. 

Camden,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  antiquary 
and  author,  born  in  London  in  1 55 1.  Having  graduated 
at  Oxford,  he  became  second  master  of  Westminster 
School  in  1575.  In  1586  he  produced,  in  Latin,  his  most 
celebrated  work,  "  Britannia  sive  Regnorum  Angiias,  Sco- 
tice  et  Hiberniae  ex  intima  Antiquitate  Chorographica 
Descriptio,"  (a  "Description  of  Great  Britain,"  etc.,) 
which  was  the  result  of  his  antiquarian  studies  and  re- 
searches pursued  for  many  years,  and  is  a  very  important 
production.  The  subsequent  editions  have  been  enlarged 
by  various  editors,  and  the  book  has  been  translated  into 
English  by  Gibson  and  Gough.  Camden  was  made  head- 
master of  Westminster  about  1592,  and  Clarencieux  king- 
at-arms  in  1597.  He  published,  besides  a  few  other 
works,  "  Annals  of  the  Reign  of  Elizabeth,"  written  in 
elegant  Latin,  and  admired  for  various  merits.  "  It  is 
written,"  says  Hume,  "with  simplicity  of  expression 
very  rare  in  that  age,  and  with  a  regard  to  truth.  It 
would  not,  perhaps,  be  too  much  to  affirm  that  it  is  among 
the  best  historical  productions  which  have  yet  been 
composed  by  any  Englishman."  He  died  in  1623,  and 
left  an  estate  with  which  the  Camden  professorship  of 
history  at  Oxford  was  founded. 

See  Thomas  Smith,  "Life  of  Camden,"  1691 ;  Molin^eus, 
"Oratio  de  Vita  G.  Camdeni,"  1652;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol. 
ix.,  1824. 

Camdenu.    See  Kamadhenu. 
Camdeo.    See  Kamadeva. 

Camelli,  ka-meKlee,  or  Kamel,  k^'mel,  (Georg 
Joseph,)  a  German  botanist,  born  at  Brunn  about  1690. 
He  passed  some  years  as  a  missionary  in  the  Philippine 
Islands,  the  plants  of  which  he  described  accurately  in 
memoirs  sent  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Linnaeus 
named  the  genus  Camellia  in  his  honour. 

See  Ray,  "  Histoire  universelle  des  Plantes." 

Camenae,  ka-mee'nee,  [Fr.  Cam^:nes,  kt'man',]  the 
general  name  of  four  divinities  or  prophetic  njanphs  in 
early  Roman  mythology,  viz.  :  Antevorta,  Postvorta,  Car- 
menta,  and  Egeria  or  !^geria.  The  Roman  poets  some- 
times applied  this  name  to  the  Muses. 

Canienes,  the  French  of  Camrn/e,  which  see. 

Ca-me-ni-a'ta,  (Joannes,)  VKauevLura  'Icjuwrjc,]  of 
Thessalonica,  a  Greek  writer,  \vTio  witnessed  and  wrote 
an  account  of  the  capture  of  that  city  by  the  Saracens  in 
904  a.d, 

Camenz,  ka^iients,  (Erdmann  Gottfried,)  a  Ger- 
man antiquary,  born  in  Saxony  in  1692  ;  died  in  1743. 

Camerarius,  ka-mi-ra're-iis,  or  Cammermeister, 
kJm'mer-mTs'ter,  (Alexander,)  a  physician,  born  at  Tii- 
bingen  in  1695,  was  a  son  of  Rudolf  Jakob,  whom  he 
succeeded  as  professor.    Died  in  1736. 

Camerarius,  (Elias,)  a  son  of  Elias  Rudolf,  noticed 
below,  born  at  Tiibingen  in  1673,  became  first  physician 
to  the  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg.  He  wrote  many  medical 
works  remarkable  for  singular  ideas.    Died  in  1734. 

See  fir.oY,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Medecine." 

Camerarius,  (Elias  Rudolf,)  a  German  physician 
and  medical  writer,  born  at  Tubingen  in  1641,  was  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  that  city.    Died  in  1695. 


a,  c,    o,  ii,  ,  /o/{<^-:    h,  6,  snme,  less  prolonged :  a,  e,  T,  o,  \\,  y,  s/wrf:  a,  e.  i,  o.  obscure:  fir,  fill,  f^t;  m§t;  n5t;  goo.l,  moon, 


CJMERJRIUS 


499 


CAMILLUS 


Camerarius,  (Joachim,)  one  of  the  most  eminent 
German  scholars  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Bamberg  in 
1500.  His  proper  name  was  Liebhard,  (leep'hiRt.)  He 
was  deputed  in  1530  to  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  where  he 
took  a  prominent  part  as  the  friend  and  coadjutor  of 
Melanchthon.  In  1535  he  became  director  or  principal 
of  the  University  of  Tubingen,  and  in  1541  reorganized 
that  of  Leipsic,  of  which  he  was  rector  for  many  years. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  Latin  works,  a  "Life  of  Me- 
lanchthon," (1566,)  Commentaries  on  Cicero,  Aristotle, 
and  other  classics,  and  "  Commentaries  on  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Tongues,"  ("Commentarii  Linguae  Graecas  et  La- 
tinae,"  1551.)  "Budieus,  Camerarius,  Scaliger,  Casau- 
bon,"  says  Hallam,  "  appear  to  stand  out  as  the  great 
restorers  of  ancient  learning,  and  especially  of  the  Greek 
language."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 
Died  at  Leipsic  in  1574. 

See  P.  Ekerman,  "Fata  et  Merita  J.  Camerarii,"  Upsal,  1761 ; 
AtiGUST  W.  Eknesti,  "Progiamma  de  J.  Camerario,"  1774;  J.  F. 
EcKHARD,  "J.  Camerarii  Memoria,"  1774;  Jocher,  "Allgemeines 
Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Camerarius,  (Joachim,)  a  distinguished  physician 
and  botanist,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Nuremberg 
in  1534.  He  practised  medicine  in  his  native  city,  and 
obtained  possession  of  the  botanical  library  of  Gesner, 
with  fifteen  hundred  wood-engravings  which  he  left.  He 
published  several  botanical  works,  among  which  are  the 
"  Medical  Garden,"  ("  Hortus  Medicus,")  and  "  Epitome 
Mathioli  de  Plantis,"  etc.,  (1586.)    Died  in  1598. 

See  De  Thou,  "Memolres  historiques ;"  M.  Auam,  "Vitze 
Medicorum  Germanicorum." 

Camerarius,  (Ludwig,)  a  German  diplomatist,  son  of 
Joachim  II.,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1573  ;  died  in  1651. 

Camerarius,  (Philipp,)  a  jurist,  son  of  Joachim  I., 
born  at  Nuremberg  in  1537,  was  chosen  vice-chancellor 
of  the  University  of  Altorf  in  1581.  He  wrote  "Leisure 
Hours,"  ("Horse  subsecivse,"  3  vols.,)  which  passed 
through  several  editions.    Died  in  1624. 

See  J.  G.  ScHELHORN,  "  Commentarius  de  Vita,  Fatis  ac  Meritis 
P.  Camerarii,"  1740. 

Camerarius,  (Rudolf  Jakob,)  a  German  physician 
and  botanist,  son  of  Elias  Rudolf,  born  at  Tubingen  in 
1665.  He  was  professor  of  physics  at  Tiibingen  from 
1689  to  1695,  ^'^cl  was  then  appointed  first  professor  of 
medicine,  including  botany,  in  the  same  university.  In 
1694  he  published  a  Latin  letter  on  the  sex  of  plants. 
"The  real  establishment  of  the  sexual  theory,"  says 
Hallam,  "is  due  to  Camerarius,  professor  of  botany  at 
Tiibingen,  whose  letter  on  that  subject  did  much  to 
spread  the  theory  over  Europe."  ("  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe.")    Died  in  1721. 

See  Haixer,  "Bibliotheca  Botanica." 

Camerata,  kl-mi-ra't3,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  archi- 
tect, born  at  Venice  in  1714;  died  in  1793. 

Camerata,  (Giuseppe,)  a  miniature-painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Venice  about  1700.  He  worked  at  Dres- 
den for  the  Elector  of  Saxony.    Died  about  1764. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Camerer,  ki'meh-rer,  (Johann  Frederik,)  a  Danish 
historian,  born  at  Ettingen  in  1720  ;  died  in  1792. 

Cam-e-ri'nus,  a  Latin  poet,  who  was  a  contemporary 
of  Ovid. 

Cam'er-on,  (Sir  Alan,)  a  British  general,  born  pro- 
bably in  Scotland.  In  1793  he  raised  at  his  own  expense 
a  regiment  of  Cameron  Highlanders,  with  which  he 
fought  against  the  French.  He  served  in  the  Peninsula 
as  brigadier-general  in  1808  and  1810.  About  1820  he 
was  made  a  lieutenant-general.    Died  in  1828. 

Cameron,  (Archibald,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  Jacobite, 
born  about  1698,  was  a  brother  of  Donald  Cameron  of 
Lochiel.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  rebellion  of 
1745,  was  tried  for  treason,  and  hung  in  1753. 

Cameron,  (Donald,)  of  Lochiel,  a  Highland  chief- 
tain, who  fought  for  the  Pretender  in  the  rebellion  of 
1745,  was  called  "the  gentle  Lochiel."  He  captured 
Edinburgh  by  surprise,  and  was  wounded  at  the  battle 
of  Culloden,  after  which  he  escaped  to  France  in  1746. 
The  disaster  of  Culloden  forms  the  subject  of  Campbell's 
spirited  poem  entitled  "Lochiel's  Warning."  Lochiel 
died  in  1748.  He  is  commended  as  a  type  and  model 
of  the  Highland  chivalry. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement;)  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  December,  1842. 


Cameron,  (Sir  Evan  or  Ewen,)  of  Lochiel,  a  Scot 
tish  chief,  called  "the  Ulysses  of  the  Highlands,"  was 
born  about  1630.  He  was  a  zealous  Jacobite,  took  arms 
against  William  III.  about  1689,  and  distinguished  him- 
self at  Killiecrankie.    Died  in  17 19. 

Cameron,  (John,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  statesman, 
who  became  keeper  of  the  great  seal,  and  afterwards 
Bishop  of  Glasgow,  (1426.)  He  was  lord  chancellor  under 
James  I.  and  James  II.,  and  represented  the  Church  of 
Scotland  at  the  Council  of  Bale  about  143 1. 

Cameron,  (John,)  a  liberal  Protestant  divine  and 
biblical  scholai",  born  at  Glasgow  about  1580,  became 
eminent  for  learning  and  subtlety  as  a  theologian.  He 
went  to  France  in  1600,  lectured  on  Greek  and  divinity 
at  Bordeaux,  Saumur,  and  Montauban,  and  published 
theological  works,  one  of  which  is  called  "  Myrothecium 
Evangelicum."  He  opposed  the  Calvinistic  dogma  of 
predestination.    Died  at  Montauban  in  1625. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Haag,  "La 
France  protestante." 

Cameron,  (Sir  John,)  a  British  general,  born  in  1773, 
served  in  Spain  with  distinction.    Died  in  1844. 

Cameron,  (Richard,)  a  Scottish  minister,  the  founder 
of  the  sect  of  Cameronians,  or  "Covenanters,"  was  born 
at  Falkland,  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  he  boldly  op- 
posed the  attempt  to  enforce  the  Episcopal  form  of  wor- 
ship, and  became  an  itinerant  field-preacher.  In  1680, 
attended  by  about  twenty  armed  followers,  he  proclaimed 
at  Sanquhar  that  Charles  Stuart  had  forfeited  the  crown. 
A  few  weeks  after  that  event  he  was  killed  in  a  fight  with 
the  royalist  troops  at  Airdsmoss.  The  sect  of  Came- 
ronians has  at  present  numerous  churches  in  Scotland 
and  elsewhere.  They  call  themselves  "  Reformed  Pres- 
byterians." 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
G.  M.  Bell,  "Life  of  Richard  Cameron,"  1843. 

Cam'er-on,  (Simon,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Lancaster  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1799.  He  learned  the 
trade  of  printer,  and  became  editor  of  a  Democratic  jour- 
nal at  Harrisburg  about  1822,  after  which  he  acquired  a 
large  fortune  by  operations  in  banking,  railroads,  etc. 
In  1845  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
for  Pennsylvania.  His  term  in  the  Senate  expired  March 
4,  1849.  Having  separated  from  the  Democratic  party 
about  1855,  he  supported  Fremont  for  the  Presidency  in 
1856,  and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
about  the  end  of  that  year.  He  was  secretary  of  war 
in  the  cabinent  of  Lincoln  from  March  4,  1861,  to  Jan- 
uary, 1862,  and  was  then  appointed  minister  plenipoten- 
tiary to  Russia.  He  returned  home  in  1863,  and  was 
again  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  Pennsylvania  in  1866. 

Camer.s,  ki'mers,  (Giovanni,)  originally  Giovanni 
Ricuzzi  Vellini,  (jo-vin'nee  re-koot'see  vll-lee'nee,) 
an  Italian  monk  and  Greek  scholar,  born  at  Camerino 
about  1460.  He  contributed  to  the  revival  of  learning 
by  publishing  editions  of  Claudian,  Florus,  Eutropius, 
and  other  classic  authors.  At  one  time  he  was  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Padua.    Died  about  1550. 

Cam'idge,  (John,)  an  English  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  at  York  about  1700 ;  died  in  1859. 

Ca-miPIa,  [Fr.  Camille,  lA'mhV  or  kt'me'ye,]  a 
mythical  personage,  celebrated  for  swiftness  of  foot  and 
martial  valour,  was  said  to  be  the  daughter  of  the  Vol- 
scian  king  Metabus,  and  an  attendant  of  Diana.  Ac- 
cording to  Virgil,  she  fought  in  the  army  of  Turnus,  and 
was  killed  by  Aruns.  (See  " /Eneid,"  book  xi.  366-830.) 

Camille,  the  French  of  Camillus  and  Camilla, 
which  see. 

Camilli,  k^-m^Klee,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  vSienna  about  1550. 

Camillo,  ka-meKyo,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  historical 
painter,  born  at  Madrid  in  1610;  died  in  1671. 

Camillo,  ki-mel^'lo,  (Julius,)  surnamed  Delminio, 
(del-mee'ne-o,)  an  Italian  linguist  and  writer,  born  at 
Forli  in  1479.  He  wrote  verses,  and  treatises  on  oratory. 
Died  in  1550. 

Ca-miPius,  (Lucius  Furius,)  a  son  of  Marcus  Furius, 
noticed  below,  was  chosen  dictator  of  Rome  in  350  h.c. 

Camillus,  [Fr.  Camille,  kt'm^F  or  kt'me'ye,']  (Mar- 
cus Furius,)  a  celebrated  Roman  dictator,  whose  history 


€  as  k;  9  as  s:  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


\ 


CAMINADE 


500 


CAMPANELLA 


has  been  embellished  with  many  fabulous  exploits.  After 
serving  as  military  tribune,  he  was  five  times  chosen  dic- 
tator, and  gained  victories  over  the  Falisci,  Capenates, 
Volscians,  and  Fidenates.  In  his  first  dictatorship,  which 
began  in  396,  he  took  Veii,  after  a  long  siege.  About 
390  B.C.  he  was  condemned  for  peculation,  and  was  ex- 
iled to  Ardea.  The  Gauls  under  Brennus  having  pillaged 
Rome,  Camillus  was  recalled,  and,  according  to  the 
popular  account,  gained  two  decisive  victories  over  the 
invaders.  He  was  chosen  dictator,  for  the  fifth  time,  in 
367.  He  is  said  to  have  dissuaded  the  citizens  from 
removing  en  masse  from  Rome  to  Veii  after  the  former 
city  had  been  ruined  by  the  Gauls.  Died  in  364  B.C. 
Plutarch  has  written  a  life  of  Camillus. 

See  Livy,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  Niebuhr,"  History  of  Rome,"  vol. 
i. ;  Obrecht,  "  Dissertatio,  M.  F.  Camillum  reprjesentans,"  1693. 

Caminade,  kt^me'nSd',  (Alexandre  FRANgois,)  a 
French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1783,  was  a  pupil  of 
David.  He  gained  a  grand  prize,  which  procured  for 
him  a  pension  and  the  privilege  of  studying  in  Rome. 
The  "Levite  of  Ephraim"  (1838)  is  called  his  best  work. 
Died  in  May,  1862. 

Caminatzin,  kS-me-n Jt-zeen',  (?)  a  nephew  of  Mon- 
tezuma, was  Prince  of  Texcuco.  He  formed  an  abortive 
design  to  liberate  his  country  from  the  Spaniards,  and 
was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Mexico  in  1521. 

Caminer,  kS-me-naiR',  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  in  Venice  in  1731.  He  issued  a  periodical  entitled 
"Literary  Europe"  ("Europa  Letteraria")  from  176810 
1774,  when  he  changed  the  plan,  and  called  it  "The  En- 
cyclopedic Journal,"  ("  Giornale  Enciclopedico.")  He 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Frederick  II.,"  and  other  historical 
works.    Died  in  1796. 

Caminer,  (Elisabetta,)  a  daughter  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Venice  in  1 75 1,  was  a  scholar  and  linguist.  She 
made  translations  of  the  works  of  Shakspeare,  Marmon- 
tel,  Gessner,  and  others,  some  of  which  are  esteemed. 
She  also  edited  the  journal  above  named,  after  her 
father  relinquished  it  in  1777.    Died  in  1796. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Caminha,  k^-men''yi,  (Pedro  de  Andrade,)  a  Por- 
tuguese poet,  born  at  Oporto;  died  in  1594.  His  poems 
were  published  in  1791. 

Caminha,  de,  da  ka-men'ya,  (Pedro  Vaz,)  a  Portu- 
guese explorer,  went  to  India  with  Cabral  in  1500.  He 
formed  part  of  the  expedition  which  discovered  Brazil, 
and  wrote  a  description  of  that  country,  published  in  181 7. 

Cammerhof,  kim'mer-hof,  (Johann,)  a  German 
philologist  and  Lutheran  minister,  born  at  Brunswick, 
lived  about  1650. 

Cammermeister.    See  Camerarius. 

Camoenae.    See  Camen/E. 

Camoens,  kim'o-ens,  [Port.  DE  Camoens,  di  ka-mo'- 
Sns,]  (Luis  or  Luiz,)  the  most  celebrated  of  P^^rtuguese 
poets,  was  born  of  a  noble  family,  probably  a  Lisbon. 
The  time  of  his  birth  is  variously  stated  at  15 17  an.'  1524. 
He  was  educated  at  Coimbra.  Soon  after  he  left  school, 
a  lady  of  honour  at  court  inspired  him  with  a  passion 
which  became  the  source  of  his  misfortunes  and  per- 
haps also  a  stimulus  to  his  genius.  In  consequence  of 
this  amour  he  was  exiled  to  Santarem,  where  he  sought 
to  beguile  the  pain  of  separation  by  writing  elegiac 
verses.  When  the  King  of  Portugal  sent  an  expedition 
against  Morocco,  Camoens  joined  it,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  courage  in  several  battles.  Finding  that 
liis  poetic  talents  and  martial  merits  were  equally  neg- 
lected and  depreciated  at  court,  he  embarked  for  India 
in  1553,  exclaiming,  with  Scipio,  "  Ungrateful  country  ! 
thou  shalt  not  possess  my  bones  !"  ("  Ingrata  patria,  non 
possidebis  ossa  mea.") 

After  serving  in  several  warlike  enterprises,  he  was 
exiled  from  Goa  to  Macao  for  a  political  satire  which  he 
entitled  "Follies  in  India."  There  he  composed  his 
greatest  work,  "The  Lusiad,"  ("  Os  Lusiadas,")  a  heroic 
poem  (first  printed  in  1572)  commemorating  the  martial 
and  nautical  exploits  of  Vasco  de  Gama  and  other  Por- 
tuguese heroes.  "  The  national  glory  of  the  Portuguese," 
says  Madame  de  Stael,  "is  there  illustrated  under  all 
the  forms  that  imagination  can  devise.  The  versification 
is  so  charming  and  stately  that  even  the  common  people 
know  many  stanzas  by  heart,  and  sing  them  with  delight." 


In  1569  he  returned  to  Lisbon  in  great  poverty,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  his  portion  to  the  end  of  his  life.  His  misfor- 
tunes were  aggravated  by  the  degradation  and  ruin  of  his 
country.  He  died  in  a  hospital  in  1579.  He  has  left  ad- 
mired specimens  of  nearly  every  species  of  poetry,  among 
which  are  numerous  sonnets,  odes,  elegies,  and  songs. 

" Camoens,"  says  Robert  Southey,  "is  the  'wellunde- 
filed'  of  that  fine  language,  which  he  more  than  any 
other  author  enriched  and  refined."  ("  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  April,  1822.) 

See  F.  MoRDANi,  "  Elogio  storico  di  L.  Camoens,"  1841  ;  John 
Adamson,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Luis  de  Camoens," 
1820;  SouzA  BoTELHO,  "  Vida  de  Luiz  Camoens,"  1817;  Barreto- 
Feio,  "Vida  de  Camoens;"  Henriques  Vii.hegas,  "  Elogio  a  Me- 
moria  de  L.  de  Camoens  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1805. 

Camosio,  kS-mo'se-o,  or  Camoti,  ki-mo'tee,  (Gio- 
vanni Battista,)  an  Italian  Hellenist,  born  at  Asolo 
about  1 5 1 5.  He  translated  into  Latin  the  "  Metaphysics" 
of  Aristotle,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1581  or  1 591. 

See  De  Thou,  "Memoires  historiques." 

Campagna,  kim-pin^ya,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Verona  in  1552  ;  died  in  or  after  1623. 

Campagnola,  kSm-pin-yo'lS,  (Domenico,)  a  skilful 
Italian  painter  and  engraver,  born  in  1482,  is  said  to  have 
been  a  pupil  of  Titian,  whom  he  imitated.  He  was  an 
excellent  colorist.  Died  in  1550.  Among  his  engravings 
are  a  "  Holy  Family,"  and  an  "Adoration  of  the  Magi." 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Campagnoli,  kdm-pSn-yo'lee,  (Bartolommeo,)  an 
Italia}!  violinist  of  high  reputation,  born  near  Bologna 
about  1750.  He  composed  instrumental  pieces,  and  pub- 
lished "  Exercises  on  the  Seven  Positions."  Died  in  1827. 

Campailla,  kIm-pl-eKli,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  phi- 
losopher and  naturalist,  born  in  Sicily  in  1668.  His 
chief  work  is  "Adam,  or  the  Creation,"  a  philosophic 
poem,  (1709  ;  5th  edition,  1757.)    Died  in  1740. 

Campan,  kSN^pSN',  (Jeanne  Louise  Henriette 
Genest — zheh-na',)  Madame,  a  French  lady,  eminent  as 
a  teacher,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1 752.  At  the  age  of  fifteen 
she  was  appointed  reader  to  the  three  daughters  of  Louis 
XV.  About  1770  she  became  the  wife  of  M.  Campan, 
and  lady  of  the  bedchamber  to  Marie  Antoinette.  For 
nearly  twenty  years  she  was  the  first  lady  of  the  chamber, 
and  the  most  intimate  confidante  of  that  queen,  and  con- 
tinued to  serve  her  until  the  attack  on  the  Tuileries  by  the 
mob,  August  10,  1792,  when  she  narrowly  escaped  death. 
She  afterwards  opened  a  boarding-school  at  Saint-Ger- 
main, which  became  celebrated,  and  was  patronized  by 
Bonaparte  and  Josephine.  Hortense  and  two  of  Napo- 
leon's sisters  were  her  pupils.  About  1806  the  emperor 
founded  at  Ecouen  a  school  for  the  daughters  and  sisters 
of  the  officers  of  the  legion  of  honour,  and  chose  Madame 
Campan  as  superintendent.  She  was  deprived  of  this 
place  in  18 14  by  the  Bourbons,  and  died  in  1822,  leaving 
curious  and  well-written  "  Memoirs  of  the  Private  I,ife 
of  Marie  Antoinette,"  (3  vols.,  1822,)  and  other  works. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Campana,  klm-pi^n^,  (Antonio  Francesco,)  an 
Italian  physician,  born  at  Ferrara  in  175 1,  obtained  a 
chair  of  physics  at  Ferrara,  and  published  several  medi- 
cal works.    Died  in  1832. 

Campana,  (Cesare,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at 
Aquila  about  1540.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Life  of 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,"  (1608.)    Died- in  1606. 

Campana,  kSN'pt'nt',  (Francois  Fr^d^ric,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Turin  in  1771  ;  died  in  1807. 

Campana,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  engraver,  born  in 
1727  ;  died  in  1765. 

Campanaio,  kam-pi-n^'yo  or  klm-pi-nl'o,  (Lorenzo 
DI  LoDOVico,)  surnamed  Lorenzetto,  (lo-ren-zet'to,)  a 
Florentine  sculptor  and  architect,  born  in  1494,  As 
sculptor  he  was  employed  at  Rome  by  Raphael,  who 
esteemed  him.  He  was  the  architect  of  the  Cafifarelli  pal- 
ace, and  assisted  San  Gallo  in  the  repair  or  completion 
of  Saint  Peter's  at  Rome.    Died  in  1541. 

See  Cicogn'ara,  "  Storia  della  Scultura." 

Campanella,  kam-pa-nel'ld,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian 
philosopher  and  Dominican  monk,  born  at  Stilo,  in  Ca- 
labria, in  1568.  His  superior  mental  powers  were  very 
early  developed.  In  1591  he  published,  at  Naples,  "  Phi- 
losophy demonstrated  by  the  Senses,"  which  excited 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fall,  fit;  m§t;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


CAMPANI 


CAMPBELL 


against  him  the  partisans  of  Aristotle.  Charged  with 
heresy  and  a  conspiracy  against  the  government  in  1599, 
he  was  confined  in  a  dungeon  at  Naples  for  twenty-six 
years,  during  which  he  was  put  to  the  rack  several  times, 
but  confessed  nothing.  He  was  released  in  1626  by  the 
mediation  of  Pope  Urban  VIII.,  and  removed  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  well  treated.  Several  of  his  important 
works  were  written  or  published  while  he  was  in  prison 
at  Naples,  viz.,  "  Introduction  to  Philosophy,"  ("  Pro- 
dromus  Philosophic  instaurandas,"  161 7,)  "  Kealis  Phi- 
losophia  Epilogistica,"  (1623,)  to  which  was  annexed 
*'Civitas  Solis,"  ("The  City  of  the  Sun,  or  the  Idea  of  a 
Philosophic  Republic")  The  *'  Civitas  Solis"  has  often 
been  reprinted  separately,  and  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages. For  greater  security  against  the  cruelty  of  the 
Spaniards,  he  retired  in  1634  to  France,  where  he  was 
kindly  treated  by  Richelieu  and  pensioned  by  the  king. 
He  died  in  Paris  in  1639.  Besides  those  above  named, 
he  was  the  author  of  many  works,  among  which  are  a 
"Treatise  on  Metaphysics,"  (1637,)  "The  Five  Parts  of 
Rational  Philosophy,"  (1638,)  and  an  able  "Discourse  on 
the  Spanish  Monarchy,"  (1640,)  which  produced  much 
sensation  among  politicians.  "  Campanella,"  says  Hallam, 
"  borrowed  his  primary  theorems  from  Telesio,  but  en- 
larged that  Parmenidean  philosophy  by  the  invention  of 
his  own  fertile  and  imaginative  genius.  He  lays  down  the 
fundamental  principle  that  the  perfectly  wise  and  good 
Being  has  created  certain  signs  and  types  ( statiias  afque 
imagines)  of  himself,  all  of  which,  severally  as  well  as 
collectively,  represent  power,  wisdom,  and  love,  and  the 
objects  of  these,  namely,  existence,  truth,  and  excellence, 
with  more  or  less  evidence.  .  .  .  The  strength  of  Cam- 
panella's  genius  lay  in  his  imagination,  which  raises  him 
sometimes  to  flights  of  impressive  eloquence  on  this 
favourite  theme,"  i.e.  the  sensibility  of  all  created  beings, 
including  plants  and  minerals.  ("Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe.") 

See"  Vita e  Filosofia di T.  Campanella,"  by Baldacchini,  Naples, 
1840;  Cyprian,  "Vita  et  Philosophia  T.  Campanellae,"  Anisteidam, 
1705  ;  Dareste,  "Thomas  Moras  et  Campanella,"  Pans,  1843  ;  Ten- 
nemann,  "Histoire  de  la  Philosophie ;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for 
March,  1844. 

Campani,  kam-p3.'nee,  (  Giovanni  Antonio,  )  a 
learned  Italian  bishop,  born  at  Cavelli  in  1427.  He 
wrote  epistles,  orations,  verses,  etc.,  which  were  printed 
in  1495.    Died  in  1477. 

Campani,  (Giuseppe,)  a  brother  of  Matteo,  noticed 
below,  was  an  optician  and  practical  astronomer.  He 
published  some  observations,  (1664.) 

Campani,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  optician,  born  near 
Spoleto,  was  curate  of  a  parish  in  Rome,  in  the  pon- 
tificate of  Alexander  VII.  In  1678  he  published  a  work 
on  the  construction  of  clocks.  He  surpassed  all  the 
artists  of  his  time  in  polishing  telescopic  object-glasses 
of  great  size,  and  made  for  Louis  XIV.  one  of  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-six  feet  focal  length,  with  which  Cassini 
discovered  two  satellites  of  Saturn. 

Campanile,  kam-pS-nee'li,  an  Italian  priest,  born  in 
1762,  laboured  as  a  missionary  in  Kurdistan,  and  wrote 
a  "  History  of  Kurdistan  and  its  Sects."    Died  in  1835. 

Campanius,  kam-pa'ne-us,  (Thomas,)  a  Swedish 
writer,  published  in  1702  "A  Description  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  New  Sweden,  now  called  Pennsylvania,"  which 
contains  historical  and  other  details  of  some  interest. 

Campano,  kdm-pi^no,  [Lat.  Campa'nus,  ]  (Gio- 
vanni,) an  Italian  geometer,  who  first  translated  Euclid 
from  the  Arabic,  (printed  at  Venice  in  1482,)  the  Greek 
text  having  not  yet  been  found  in  his  time.  He  was  a 
native  of  Novara,  and  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the 
eleventh  or  twelfth  century. 

Campanus,  kim-pi^niis,  (Johann,)  a  German  Prot- 
estant theologian,  separated  from  the  Lutherans  in  1530, 
and  formed  a  sect  called  Campanites. 

Campbell,  kim'el,*  the  name  of  an  ancient  and  power- 
ful clan  of  the  Scottish  Highlands,  which  has  performed 
an  important  part  in  history  since  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. Their  original  name  is  said  to  have  been  O'Dub- 
bin.  Among  the  warlike  chiefs  of  the  clan  was  Diarmid, 
from  whom  they  derive  the  appellation  of  the  "sons  of 


*  Some  families  who  write  their  name  as  above  pronounce  it 


Diarmid."  About  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century 
the  chief  of  the  clan  was  Colin  or  Callum,  surnamed 
More,  (the  "  Great.")  Niel  Campbell,  a  son  of  Colin, 
was  an  adherent  of  Robert  Bruce,  whose  sister  he  mar- 
ried. Died  in  1316.  His  son  Colin  fought  for  Edward 
Bruce  in  Ireland,  and  aided  King  David  in  the  expulsion 
of  the  English  from  Scotland.    Died  in  1340. 

Campbell,  kS,n/e],  (Alexander,)  D.D.,  founder  of 
the  religious  sect  known  as  the  "Disciples  of  Christ," 
was  born  in  the  county  of  Antrim,  in  Ireland,  in  1 788.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1809.  His  mind  was  early 
impressed  with  the  importance  of  religion,  but  he  did 
not  find  among  the  various  Christian  sects  any  whose 
religious  system  he  could  entirely  adopt.  He  subse- 
quently declared  against  all  human  creeds,  and  com- 
menced forming  religious  associations  with  the  Bible  as 
their  only  rule  of  faith.  In  1841,  Dr.  Campbell  founded 
Bethany  College,  in  Virginia,  of  which  he  was  long  the 
president,  and  established  the  "Christian  Baptist  and 
Millennial  Harbinger,"  which  became  the  organ  of  his 
peculiar  religious  system.    Died  in  1855. 

See  Richardson's  "Memoirs  of  Alexander  Campbell,"  Philadel- 
phia, 1868. 

Campbell,  (Sir  Alexander,)  a  British  general,  born 
in  Perthshire  in  1759,  entered  the  army  about  1776. 
After  serving  with  distinction  for  several  years  in  India, 
he  became  colonel  in  1803,  and  succeeded  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley  in  the  command  of  Seringapatam,  Mysore,  etc. 
in  1805.  He  was  wounded  at  Talavera  in  1809,  obtained 
the  rank  of  major-general  in  1810,  and  that  of  lieutenant- 
general  in  1814.  In  1820  he  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  at  Madras.    Died  in  1824. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Campbell,  (Archibald,)  second  Earl  of  Argyle,  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Flodden  in  15 13. 

Campbell,  (Archibald,)  fourth  Earl  pf  Argyle,  was 
the  son  of  Colin,  and  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  a  zealous  Protestant,  and  the  first  of  his  family  that 
adopted  the  Reformed  religion.  Died  about  1558.  His 
son  Archibald,  fifth  Earl  of  Argyle,  was  also  a  stren- 
uous promoter  of  the  Reformation.  He  fought  for  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  at  Langside  in  1568,  and  afterwards 
became  lord  chancellor.    Died  without  issue  in  1575. 

Campbell,  (Archibald,)  Marquis  of  Argyle,  a  pa- 
triotic Scottish  peer,  born  in  1598,  was  the  son  of 
Archibald,  seventh  Earl  of  Argyle,  and  was  styled  "Lord 
Lorn"  in  his  youth.  At  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1638, 
he  becaine  Earl  of  Argyle,  and  in  the  same  year  avowed 
himself  an  adherent  of  the  church  in  its  contest  with 
the  court  of  Charles  I.,  signed  the  Covenant,  and  took 
part  in  the  General  Assembly  which  abolished  episco- 
pacy. In  1641  the  king  visited  Scotland,  and,  in  order 
to  strengthen  himself  against  the  English  Parliament, 
courted  the  favour  of  the  Covenanters.  Argyle  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  marquis.  In  the  civil  war  that 
ensued  he  took  arms  against  the  royalists,  became  the 
leader  of  the  Covenanters,  and  commanded  the  army 
sent  against  Montrose,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  in  1644 
and  1645.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  coronation 
of  Charles  II.  at  Scone  in  1651,  and  fought  for  him  against 
Cromwell.  At  the  restoration  of  1660  he  was  convicted 
of  submission  to  the  usurpation  of  the  Protector,  and 
was  executed  in  1661.  He  appears  to  have  possessed 
political  talents  of  a  high  order. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
Hume,  "  History  of  England." 

Campbell,  (Archibald,)  Lord  Lorn,  the  eldest  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  the  ninth  Earl  of  Argyle.  He 
fought  for  the  royal  cause  at  Dunbar  in  1650,  and  on 
other  occasions.  In  1663  the  title  of  earl  and  the  estate 
of  his  father  were  restored  to  him,  and  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  lords  of  the  council.  Beiiig  required  to  take 
the  oath  called  the  Test,  in  1681,  he  added,  by  way  of 
explanation  or  reservation,  "as  far  as  is  consistent  with 
the  Protestant  faith."  For  this  offence  he  was  condemned 
to  death  ;  but  he  escaped  to  Holland.  He  returned  with 
armed  retainers  in  1685,  was  taken  prisoner  and  executed 
the  same  year.  It  is  stated  that  he  slept  soundly  a  few 
hours  before  his  execution. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  i" 
Macaulay,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap.  v. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  ghard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s as z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CAMPBELL 


502 


CAMPBELL 


Campbell,  (Archibald,)  a  sou  of  the  preceding,  tenth 
Earl  of  Argyle,  was  made  a  lord  of  the  treasury  in  1690, 
and  lord  of  sessions  in  1694.  He  was  created  Duke  of 
Argyle  in  1701,  and  died  in  1703,  leaving  his  title  to  his 
son  John. 

Campbell,  (Archibald,)  Earl  of  Islay,  (i'lay,)  and 
third  Duke  of  Argyle,  born  about  1682,  was  a  brother  of 
John  the  second  duke.  He  had  great  influence  in  the 
])olitical  affairs  of  Scotland,  and  was  for  many  years 
keeper  of  the  great  seal.    Died  in  1761. 

Campbell,  (Archibald,)  a  Scottish  divine,  who  be- 
came Bishop  of  Aberdeen  about  1720.  Besides  other 
works,  he  wrote  "The  Doctrines  of  a  Middle  State  be- 
tween Death  and  the  Resurrection." 

Campbell,  (Arthur,)  an  officer  of  the  American 
Revolution,  born  in  Augusta  county,  Virginia,  in  1742. 
He  served,  while  a  boy,  in  the  frontier  wars,  was  made 
pi  isoner  by  the  Indians  and  adopted  by  the  chief,  but 
escaped  after  a  three  years'  captivity.  He  served  through- 
out the  Revolution,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel, 

Campbell,  (Colin,)  first  Earl  of  Argyle,  was  for  a 
long  time  chancellor  of  Scotland.  He  received  the 
title  of  earl,  about  1457,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Archibald. 

Campbell,  (Colin,)  third  Earl  of  Argyle,  was  the 
son  of  Archibald.  He  was  justice-general  in  the  reign 
of  James  V.    Died  in  1542. 

Campbell,  k^m'el,  (Colin,)  an  English  architect, 
became  surveyor  of  the  works  at  Greenwich  Hospital. 
He  published  a  work  on  architecture,  called  "  Vitruvius 
Britannicus,"  (1715.)    Died  in  1734. 

Campbell,  (Colin,)  Lord  Clyde,  a  British  general, 
born  in  Glasgow  in  1792.  He  entered  the  army  in  1808, 
served  in  the  Peninsula  until  1814,  and  obtained  the  rank 
of  major  in  1825.  In  1842  he  became  a  colonel,  and 
served  in  the  expedition  against  the  Chinese.  As  gen- 
eral of  brigade,  he  distinguished  himself  in  India  between 
1848  and  1852.  He  commanded  the  Highland  brigade  in 
the  Crimean  war,  and  contributed  to  the  victories  of  the 
Alma  and  Balaklava  in  1854.  In  this  year  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  in  1855  received 
the  grand  cross  of  the  Bath.  In  July,  1857,  Sir  Colin 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  India, 
and  departed  at  once  to  suppress  the  rebellion  of  the 
Sepoys.  His  relief  of  Lucknow  in  November,  1857, 
is  considered  a. brilliant  achievement.  He  defeated  the 
Sepoys  at  Cawnpore,  and  succeeded  in  crushing  the 
rebellion  in  1858.  He  was  the  same  year  raised  to  the 
peerage,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Clyde.  Died  at  Chatham 
in  1863. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1858. 

Campbell,  (George,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  divine,  emi- 
nent for  talents  and  learning,  born  at  Aberdeen  in  1719. 
He  became  minister  at  Aberdeen  in  1756,  and  principal 
of  Marischal  College  in  1759.  He  published  in  1762  an 
able  "Dissertation  on  Miracles,"  in  answer  to  Hume; 
and  in  1766,  "Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,"  which  is  highly 
commended,  and  said  to  be  his  best  work.  This  was 
followed  by  a  "Translation  of  the  Gospels,  with  Notes," 
"  Lectures  on  Ecclesiastical  History,"  etc.    Died  in  1796. 

See  Keith,  "  Life  of  George  Campbell ;"  Chambers,  "  Biographi- 
cal Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Campbell,  (George  John  Douglas.)  See  Argyll, 
Duke  of. 

Campbell,  (George  W.,)  born  in  Tennessee  in  1768, 
embraced  the  profession  of  law.  From  1803  to  1809 
he  was  a  representative  in  Congress,  and  for  two  years 
chairman  of  the  committee  of  ways  and  means.  He  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1811,  and  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  1815,  but  the  next 
year  resumed  his  seat  in  the  Senate,  in  which  he  served 
until  1818,  when  he  was  sent  by  Mr.  Monroe  as  minister 
to  Russia.    Died  in  1848. 

Campbell,  (James,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in  Phila- 
delphia about  1 81 2.  He  was  appointed  in  1841  judge 
of  the  court  of  common  pleas  of  Philadelphia,  and  in  1852 
attorney-general  of  the  State.  He  became  postmaster- 
general  under  President  Pierce  in  1853. 

See  Livingston's  "Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans." 

Campbell,  (Sir  James,)  a  British  general,  entered  the 
army  about  1794.    Died  in  1835. 


Campbell,  (John,)  second  Duke  of  Argyll,  (Argyle,) 
an  able  commander,  born  in  1678,  was  the  son  of  Archi- 
bald, first  Duke  of  Argyle.  He  inherited  his  father's  title 
in  1703,  and  in  1705  was  created  an  English  peer,  as 
Baron  Chatham  and  Earl  of  Greenwich.  Between  1705 
and  1 710  he  served  with  distinction  at  the  battles  of 
Ramillies,  Oudenarde,  and  Malplaquet,  and  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  George  I.,  Argyle  was  ai^pointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  all  the  forces  in  Scotland.  He  rendered  important 
services  in  suppressing  the  rebellion  of  1 715,  and  opposed 
with  success  at  Dunblane  a  superior  force  of  the  Pre- 
tender under  the  Earl  of  Mar.  He  changed  sides  several 
times  in  politics,  and  was  accused  of  trafficking  or  intri- 
guing with  the  Jacobites.  He  died,  without  male  issue,  in 
1743,  when  the  dukedom  of  Argyle  passed  to  his  brother 
Archibald. 

See  Robert  Campbell,  "Life  of  the  Duke  of  Argyle,"  1745; 
Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Imminent  Scotsmen." 

Campbell,  (John,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  writer  on  his- 
tory, biography,  politics,  etc.,  was  born  in  Edinburgh 
in  1708,  and  was  taken  to  England  in  childhood.  He 
adopted  the  profession  of  author,  in  which  he  obtained 
considerable  success.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
"  History  of  Prince  Eugene  and  the  Duke  of  Marlbo- 
rough," "Lives  of  British  Admirals,"  and  "A  Political 
Survey  of  Britain,"  which  is  variously  estimated,  but  said 
to  be  his  most  important  work.  He  made  many  and 
valuable  contributions  to  the  "Biographia  Britannica" 
and  to  the  "Universal  History."  Died  in  1775.  "I 
think  highly  of  Campbell,"  says  Dr.  Johnson.  "In  the 
first  place,  he  has  very  good  parts  ;  in  the  second  place, 
he  has  very  extensive  reading." 

See  "Biographia  Britannica;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dic- 
tionary of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Campbell,  (John,)  Lord,  an  eminent  British  lawyer 
and  statesman,  born  near  Cupar,  in  Fifeshire,  Scotland, 
in  1779,  was  a  son  of  the  Rev.  George  Campbell,  noticed 
above.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  by  the  Society  of  Lin- 
coln's Inn  in  1806.  In  1830  he  entered  Parliament  as  a 
Whig  and  an  ardent  Reformer.  He  was  appointed  so- 
licitor-general in  1832,  attorney-general  in  1834,  and  lord 
chancellor  of  Ireland  in  1841.  He  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  as  Baron  Campbell,  in  the  latter  year.  In  1846 
he  published  "The  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors  and 
Keepers  of  the  Great  Seal  of  England,"  (7  vols.,)  which 
the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  designates  as  "a  work 
of  sterling  merit,  one  of  very  great  labour,  of  richly  di- 
versified interest,  and,  we  are  satisfied,  of  lasting  value 
and  estimation."  He  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the 
queen's  bench  in  1850.  On  the  accession  of  the  Liberal 
ministry  in  1859  he  became  lord  chancellor  of  England. 
He  published  several  volumes  of  Reports,  and  "Lives 
of  the  Chief  Justices  of  England,"  (3  vols.,  1849-57.) 
Died  in  June,  1861. 

See  the  "Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1845,  and  December, 
1S47:  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
October,  1857. 

Campbell,  (Rev.  John,)  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1766, 
was  pastor  of  the  Independent  Church  in  Kingsland 
from  1804  until  1840,  and  edited  "The  Youths'  Maga- 
zine" for  many  years.  In  1812  he  visited  the  missionary 
stations  of  South  Africa,  and  after  his  return  published 
"Travels  in  South  Africa,"  (1815,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1840. 

Campbell,  (Rev.  John,)  a  Scottish  editor  and  author, 
was  born  in  Forfarshire  about  1794.  He  was  minister 
of  the  Tabernacle,  Moorfields,  London,  for  many  years, 
until  ill  health  induced  him  to  retire  froin  the  pulpit. 
Since  that  time  he  has  edited  the  "British  Banner," 
commenced  in  1849,  "The  Christian  Witness,"  and 
other  successful  journals.  He  has  also  written  "  Jethro," 
a  prize  essay,  "  The  Martyr  of  Erromanga,"  "  Maritime 
Discovery  and  Christian  Missions,"  and  other  religious 
works. 

Campbell,  (John  N.,)  an  eloquent  American  Pres- 
byterian minister,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1798.  He 
preached  at  Albany,  New  York,  from  183 1  until  near  his 
death  in  1864. 

Campbell,  (Sir  Neil,)  a  British  officer,  born  about 
1770,  served  with  distinction  as  colonel  in  the  Peninsula 
,  from  1810  to  1812.    In  March,  1814,  while  charging  the 


a,  e,  T,  0,  il,  y,  hug;  h,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  s/ior^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


CAMPBELL 


CAMPENON 


French  at  Fere-Champenoise,  he  was  wounded  by  a  Cos- 
sack who  mistook  him  for  a  Frenchman.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  chosen  as  commissioner  to  attend  Bonaparte 
to  Elba,  to  reside  with  him  as  a  sort  of  accredited  diplo- 
matist and  to  act  as  a  spy  on  his  movements.  While 
Campbell  was  absent  on  a  visit  to  Florence,  in  February, 
1815,  the  ex-emperor  escaped.  About  1816  he  was  sent 
to  explore  the  sources  of  the  Niger,  and  in  1826  was 
appointed  Governor  of  Sierra  Leone,  where  he  died 
in  1827. 

Campbell,  (Samuel,)  Colonel,  an  American  officer, 
born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1738,  removed  to  the  State 
of  New  York.  He  served  in  the  French  war  and  in  that 
of  the  Revolution.    Died  in  1824. 

Campbell,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  British  poet,  born 
at  Glasgow  in  1777,  was  the  youngest  son  of  a  merchant 
of  that  city.  At  the  university  of  his  native  place  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  a  superior  classical  scholar.  When 
in  his  thirteenth  year,  he  carried  off  a  prize  from  a  com- 
petitor twice  his  age.  His  translations  of  the  Greek 
dramatists  were  regarded  as  the  best  any  pupil  in  the 
university  had  ever  made.  In  1799  he  produced  "The 
Pleasures  of  Hope,"  of  which  the  success  has  perhaps 
had  no  parallel  in  English  literature.  It  passed  through 
four  editions  in  the  first  year,  and  was  pronounced  by 
Lord  Byron  "one  of  the  most  beautiful  didactic  poems 
in  our  language."  "  No  poet  at  such  an  age,"  says  Moir, 
"ever  produced  such  an  exquisite  specimen  of  poetic 
mastery, — that  is,  of  fine  conception  and  high  art  com- 
bined. Sentiments  tender,  energetic,  impassioned,  elo- 
quent, and  majestic  are  conveyed  to  the  reader  in  the 
tones  of  a  music  forever  varied, — sinking  or  swelling  like 
the  harmonies  of  an  ^olian  lyre."  Campbell  visited  the 
continent  in  1800,  and  witnessed  the  battle  of  Hohenlin- 
den,  which  furnished  him  with  the  subject  of  one  of  the 
most  exquisite  lyrics  to  be  found  in  any  language.  On 
his  return  to  Scotland,  after  residing  for  some  time  in 
Edinburgh,  he  removed  to  London.  Soon  after  his  return 
from  the  continent  he  had  published  "  The  Exile  of  Erin," 
"Ye  Mariners  of  England,"  "Lochiel's  Warning,"  and 
other  short  poems. 

In  1803  he  married  his  cousin,  Miss  Sinclair,  and  settled 
near  Sydenham.  The  government  (Fox  then  being  prime 
minister)  granted  him  in  1806  an  annual  pension  of  two 
hundred  pounds.  In  1809  he  published  several  of  his 
finest  poems, — "  Gertrude  of  Wyoming,"  which  surpasses 
the  "  Pleasures  of  Hope"  in  simplicity,  and,  if  less  per- 
fect as  a  work  of  art,  is  perhaps  not  inferior  in  imagi- 
native power;  "O'Connor's  Child,"  which,  for  a  certain 
wild,  romantic  beauty  and  exquisite  pathos,  is  unequalled 
by  any  of  his  other  productions  ;  and  "The  Battle  of  the 
Baltic,"  one  of  the  most  spirited  odes  in  the  language. 
In  1819  Campbell  published  "vSpecimens  of  the  British 
Poets;  with  an  Essay  on  English  Poetry."  From  1820 
to  1830  he  edited  the  "New  Monthly  Magazine,"  which, 
under  the  auspices  of  his  distinguished  name,  was  emi- 
nently successful.  He  was  elected  lord  rector  of  the 
University  of  Glasgow  in  1827,  and  made  a  journey 
to  Algiers  in  1832.  Among  his  later  works  are  a  not 
very  accurate  "Life  of  Mrs.  Siddons,"  "The  Life  and 
Times  of  Petrarch,"  and  "The  Life  of  Frederick  the 
Great."  He  died  in  1844,  and  was  buried  in  Westmin- 
ster Abbey. 

In  a  conversation  with  Washington  Irving,  Scott  ex- 
pressed his  regret  that  Campbell  wrote  so  seldom. 
"He  has,"  says  Scott,  "wings  that  would  bear  him  to 
the  skies,  and  he  does  now  and  then  spread  them  grandly, 
but  folds  them  up  again  and  resumes  his  perch,  as  if  he 
were  afraid  to  launch  away.  The  fact  is,  Campbell  is  in 
a  manner  a  bugbear  to  himself :  the  brightness  of  his 
early  success  is  a  detriment  to  all  his  further  efforts.  He 
is  afraid  of  the  shadow  which  his  OT.vn  fame  casts  before 
hiiyi.''''  "  It  is  on  his  lyrics,"  says  Professor  Aytoun,  "  that 
the  future  reputation  of  Campbell  must  principally  rest. 
They  have  taken  their  place,  never  to  be  disturbed,  in 
the  popular  heart;  and,  until  the  language  in  which  they 
are  written  perishes,  they  are  certain  to  endure." 

See  "The  Life  and  Letters  of  Thomas  Campbell,"  edited  bv 
Wm.  Beattie,  1850,  3  vols.  Svo;  the  "Account  of  Campbell's  Life" 
in  "Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1844;  Gilfillan's  "Essay 
on  the  Genius  and  Character  of  Campbell ;"  also  the  excellent  critique 
on  Campbell  in  Hazlitt's  "  Miscellaneous  Works,"  vol.  v. 


Campbell,  (William,)  Lord,  a  brother  of  the  Duke 
of  Argyle,  was  the  last  royal  governor  of  South  Carolina. 
He  was  expelled  by  the  patriots  in  1776,  and  died  in  1 778. 

Campbell,  (Willl\m,)  an  American  soldier,  born  in 
Virginia  in  1745.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  colonel 
at  the  battle  of  Guilford,  and  was  killed  at  Eutaw  Springs 
in  September,  1781. 

Campbell,  (William  B.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  in  Sumner  county,  Tennessee,  about  1807.  He  was 
elected  Governor  of  Tennessee  in  1851,  after  he  had 
served  as  member  of  Congress.  In  1862  he  was  appointed 
a  brigadier-general  in  the  Union  army.  Died  in  1867. 

Campbell,  (William  W.,)  born  at  Cherry  Valley, 
New  York,  in  1806.  He  became  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  New  York.  He  published  "The  Border  Wars 
of  New  York,"  (1831,)  and  a  "Life  of  De  Witt  Clinton," 
(1849.) 

Campe,  kam'peh,  (Joachim  Heinrich,)  a  German 
philanthropist  and  popular  writer  on  education,  was 
born  at  Deensen,  Brunswick,  in  1746.  Pie  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  schools  in  Brunswick  in  1787,  and  be- 
came proprietor  of  an  extensive  publishing  house.  He 
published  a  good  "  Dictionary  of  the  German  Language," 
(5  vols.,  1807-11,)  and  wrote  many  juvenile  books,  which 
were  received  with  great  favour.  His  "  Robinson  the 
Younger"  ("  Robinson  der  Jiingere")  has  been  translated 
into  many  languages.    Died  in  1818. 

See  Michel  Berk,  "Notice  biographique  sur  Campe,"  1819 ; 
Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Campeggi,  kim-ped'jee,  (Benedetto,)  a  poet,  born 
at  Bologna,  narrated  the  important  events  of  his  time  in 
a  Latin  poem,  "Italidis  Libri  X.,"  (1553.)   Died  in  1566. 

Campeggi,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  in  1438, 
wrote  numerous  works  on  civil  and  canon  law.  Died  at 
Mantua  in  151 1. 

Campeggi  or  Campeggio,  kam-pkFjo,  (Lorenzo,)  a 
learned  Italian  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Bologna  in  1474,  was 
made  a  cardinal  by  Leo  X.,  who  employed  him  in  im- 
portant missions  to  Germany  and  England.  Clement 
VII.  sent  him  as  legate  to  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  famous 
for  its  Protestant  Confession  of  Faith,  and  to  England 
(1528)  as  one  of  the  judges  in  the  question  of  the  divorce 
of  Catherine  of  Aragon.  He  became  Archbishop  of 
Bologna.    Died  in  1539. 

See  Carlo  Sigonio,  "  Vita  L.  Campegii  Cardinalis,"  1581;  Au- 
BERV,  "  Histoire  des  Cardinaux." 

Campeggi  or  Campeggio,  (Tommaso,)  Bishop  of 
Feltri,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1500.  He 
was  nuncio  from  Paul  III.  to  the  Conference  of  Worms 
in  1540,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Trent  in 
1545.  Besides  other  works,  he  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Authority  of  Councils."    Died  in  1564. 

Campeggio  or  Campegio.    See  Campeggl 

Campellensis.    See  Champeaux. 

Campello,  kam-peKlo,  (Bernardino  de'  Conti — d^ 
kon'tee,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Spoleto  in  1595. 
He  wrote  a  "History  of  Spoleto,"  (1672,)^  and  other 
esteemed  works,  in  prose  and  verse.    Died  in  1676. 

See  Tiraboscui,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Campello,  (Paolo  de'  Conti,)  an  Italian  scholar,  5on 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Spoleto  in  1643  >  ^'^^^  i/^S- 
Campen.    See  Kampen. 

Campen,  van,  vtn  kSm'pen,  (Jakob,)  a  Dutch  ar':hi- 
tect,  born  at  Haarlem.  Having  studied  in  Rome,  he 
returned  and  built  the  Hotel  de  Ville  at  Amsterdam,  one 
of  the  grandest  edifices  of  Holland,  and  designed  other 
buildings  in  that  city.    Died  in  1638. 

See  Nagler,  "Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Campen  or  Kampen,  van,  [Lat.  Campen'sis,] 
(Jan,)  called  also  Van  den  Campen,  a  Dutch  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Campen  in  1490.  He  was  pi  ofessoi  of 
Hebrew  at  Louvain  from  15 19  to  1531,  and  produced 
a  Hebrew  Grammar,  and  a  good  Latin  version  or  para- 
phrase of  the  Psalms,  (1532.)    Died  in  1538. 

See  Felix  Neve,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Travaux  de  J.  Cam- 
pensis,"  1845. 

Campenon,  k6N''peh-n6N',  (Vincent,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Guadeloupe  in  1772.  He  was  educated  at  Paris, 
and  afterwards  resided  in  France.  In  1795  he  wrote,  in 
verse  and  prose,  a  "Journey  from  Grenoble  to  Cham- 
bery."    He  became  an  intimate  friend  of  the  poet  Ducis 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  yl, gtittural ;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CAMPENSIS 


CJMPOLONGO 


in  1802,  soon  after  which  he  produced  an  admired  didactic 
poem  called  "The  Country-House,"  ("La  Maison  des 
Champs.")  His  "  Prodigal  Son,"  a  poem,  (181 1,)  was  also 
very  successful.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  place  of  Delille  in  1813.  Died  near  Paris 
in  1843. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Campensis.    See  Campen,  (Jan  van.) 

Camper,  kim'per,  (Pieter,)  a  distinguished  Dutch 
anatomist  and  naturalist,  born  at  Leyden  on  the  nth  of 
May,  1722.  He  studied  medicine  under  Gaubius  and 
Albinus.  Having  graduated,  in  1746  he  visited  Eng- 
land and  France,  associating  with  the  most  eminent  men 
of  science  of  both  countries.  He  filled  successively  the 
chairs  of  philosophy,  anatomy,  and  medicine  at  Amster- 
dam and  Groningen,  where  he  lectured  with  eminent 
ability.  Among  his  discoveries  is  that  of  the  presence  of 
air  in  the  bones  of  birds,  (1771.)  He  wrote  many  works 
on  anatomy,  physiology,  etc.,  among  which  are  "Anato- 
mico-Pathological  Demonstrations,"  ("  Demonstrationes 
anatomico-pathologicae,"  1760-62,)  "  13issertation  on  the 
Natural  Varieties  which  mark  the  Physiognomy  of  Men 
of  Different  Climates,"  and  "The  Sense  of  Hearing  in 
Fishes."  In  1785  he  was  chosen  foreign  associate  of 
the  Academy  of  Paris, — an  honour  which  had  been  con- 
ferred on  only  one  other  Dutchman.*  He  was  also  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Died  at  the 
Hague  in  1789. 

See  CoNDORCET,  "filogede  Camper;"  Vic-d'Azyr,  "  iSloge  de 
Camper;"  A.  G.  Camper,  "  Levensschets  van  P.  Camper,"  1791, 
and  French  version  of  the  same;  "Notice  sur  P.  Camper,"  1803; 
J.  Ml'i.der,  "  Verdiensten  van  p.  Camper,"  Amsterdam,  1809;  "En- 
cyclopedia Britannica." 

Camperdown.    See  Duncan,  Admiral. 

Caiiipesani,  de',  dk  klm-pa-si'nee,  (Benvenuto,)  an 
Italian  poet  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Vicenza 
about  1260.  Only  fragments  of  his  works  are  extant. 
Died  about  1324. 

Campesano,  kim-pa-s§.'no,  (Alessandro,)  an  Ital- 
ian poet,  born  at  Bassano  in  1521 ;  died  in  1572. 

Camphausen,  klmp^how^zen,  (Ludolf,)  a  Prussian 
statesman,  born  at  Hiinshoven  in  1803.  He  was  chosen 
representative  of  Cologne  in  the  diet  of  the  Rhenish 
provinces  in  1842,  and  president  of  the  council  of  minis- 
ters at  Berlin  in  March,  1848.  He  resigned  in  June  of 
the  same  year,  and  was  appointed  minister  of  state,  and 
ambassador  to  the  central  power,  {Centralgetvalt.)  In 
politics  he  was  a  moderate  Liberal.  He  was  the  author 
of  the  circular  of  January  23,  1849,  which  proposed  a 
German  confederation  under  the  direction  of  Prussia. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Camphausen,  (Otto,)  a  brother  of  Ludolf,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Hiinshoven  in  1812.  He  has  filled 
several  offices  in  the  public  service. 

Camphausen,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  painter  of 
battles,  born  at  Dusseldorf  about  1818.  He  enlisted  in 
a  regiment  of  hussars  in  order  to  study  his  art.  Among 
his  works  are  "Cavaliers  and  Roundheads,"  "Charles  I. 
at  Naseby,"  and  "  Prince  Eugene  at  Belgrade." 

Camphuys,  kimp'hois,  (Jan,)  an  able  Dutch  officer, 
born  at  Haarlem  in  1634.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he 
entered  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  in 
1684  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  the  Dutch  pos- 
sessions in  India.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Founda- 
tion of  Batavia."    Died  in  1695. 

See  Zeeman,  "  Leven  en  Daden  van  J.  Camphuys,"  1833. 

Camphuysen,  klmp^hoi'sen,  written  also  Kamp- 
huizen,  (Theodorus  Raphael,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Gorkum  about  1580.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  painter  of  Holland  that  exe- 
cuted landscapes  in  the  proper  manner.  His  sunset  and 
winter  scenes  are  especially  admired.  In  early  life  he 
renounced  painting  for  theology,  joined  the  Socinians, 
and  wrote  a  few  theological  works.    Died  in  1627. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Campi,  kim'pee,  or  Campo,  kSm'po,  (Antonio,)  a 
skilful  Italian  architect  and  painter,  born  at  Cremona. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  Cremona,"  illustrated  with 
engravings  designed  by  himself.    His  favourite  model  in 


*  Boerhaave. 


art  was  Correggio,  whom  he  imitated  with  success.  He 
died  in  or  after  1591. 

Campi,  (Bernardino,)  a  painter,  born  at  Cremona 
about  1525,  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  portraits  and 
historical  pictures.  A  "Nativity"  in  one  of  the  churches 
of  Cremona  is  among  his  master-pieces.  Died  about  1 590. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Campi,  (Galeazzo,)  a  painter,  born  at  Cremona  in 
1475,  ^'^'^  the  father  of  three  eminent  artists,  Giulio, 
Antonio,  and  Vincenzo.    Died  in  1536. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Campi,  (Giulio,)  an  eminent  historical  painter,  born 
at  Cremona  about  1500,  was  the  master  of  Bernardino 
and  brother  of  Antonio.  He  studied  under  Giulio 
Romano,  and  opened  a  successful  school  at  Cremona. 
He  excelled  in  colour,  grace,  and  elevation  of  style.  His 
subjects  are  mostly  taken  from  sacred  history.  Died 
in  1572. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Campi,  (MiCHELE  and  Baldassare,)  two  brothers, 
who  were  botanists,  and  lived  at  Lucca  about  1650.  They 
published  "  Spicilegio  Botanico,"  ('1652.) 

Campi,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Cre- 
mona before  1532,  was  a  brother  and  pupil  of  Giulio 
Campi.  He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  excelled  in  por- 
traits and  pictures  of  fruit.  He  also  painted  religious 
subjects.    Died  in  1591. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Campian.    See  Campion. 

Campidoglio,  kdm-pe-d6Kyo,  (Michelangelo,)  a 
skilful  painter  of  fruits  and  flowers,  born  at  Rome  in 
1610  ;  died  in  1670. 

Campiglia,  kdm-p^KyS,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian 
historian,  who  lived  about  1600.  His  principal  work  is 
a  well-written  history  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  (1614.) 

Campiglia,  (Giovanni  Domenico,)  an  excellent  de- 
signer and  painter,  born  at  Lucca  in  1692,  worked  at 
Rome  and  Florence.  The  engravings  of  the  "Capitoline 
Museum"  were  chiefly  designed  by  him.  Died  about 
1750- 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Cam'pi-on  or  Cam'pi-an,  (Edmund,)  a  Catholic 
priest,  eminent  for  talents  and  eloquence,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1540.  He  took  orders  in  the  Anglican  Church, 
and  was  soon  after  converted  to  that  of  Rome.  In  1573 
he  went  to  Rome,  and  joined  the  Jesuits,  who  in  1580 
sent  him  to  England.  Having  challenged  the  Protest- 
ants to  dispute  with  him  in  print,  and  having,  as  Hume 
says,  "been  detected  in  treasonable  practices,"  a  con- 
fession of  guilt  was  extorted  from  him  by  the  rack,  and 
he  was  hanged  in  1581.  He  left  a  "Universal  Chro- 
nology," a  "  History  of  Ireland,"  and  other  works. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England ;"  Bombino,  "Vita  et  MartyTium 
E.  Campiani,"  1618. 

Campion  or  Champion,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet 
and  musician,  lived  about  1600. 

Campistron,  de,  deh  k6N'pes'tR6N',(jEAN  Galbert,) 
a  French  dramatist,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1656.  He  imi- 
tated Racine,  and  produced  several  successful  tragedies, 
among  which  are  "Andronicus,"  "Alcibiades,"  and  "  Ti- 
ridates."  His  works  ran  througlr-ten  editions.  La  Harpe 
says,  "  His  plans  are  judicious  ;  but  he  has  no  well-marked 
character,  no  striking  situation  nor  nervous  lines."  He 
was  for  many  years  secretary  to  the  Due  de  Vendome, 
and  was  received  into  the  French  Academy  in  1701.  Died 
in  1723. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Campo.    See  Campi,  (Antonio.) 

Campo-Basso,  da,  di  kam'po  bSs'so,  (Niccolo,) 
Count,  a  Neapolitan  condotfiere,  who  about  1476  entered 
the  service  of  Charles  the  Rash  of  Burgundy,  whom  he 
is  said  to  have  betrayed. 

See  Barante,  "  Histoire  des  Dues  de  Bourgogne  ;"  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  "Anne  of  Geierstein." 

Campolo,  k§.m'po-lo,  (Placido,)  a'historical  painter, 
born  at  Messina,  Sicily,  in  1693  ;  died  in  1743. 

Campolongo,  kSm-po-lon'^go,  (Emmanuele,)  an  Ital- 
ian poet  and  antiquary,  born  in  Naples  in  1732.  He 
became  eminent  as  a  professor  of  humanities  in  Naples, 
where  he  began  to  lecture  in  1765.    Among  his  numer- 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s^ort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  xs\lX\  nftt;  good;  moon; 


CAMPOMANES 


SOS 


CANAL 


ous  works  are  "  La  Polifemeide,"  and  "  The  Proteus," 
("  II  Proteo,")  a  collection  of  verses  in  which  he  assumes 
the  form  of  various  celebrated  poets.    Died  in  1801. 

See  M.  RoBERTi,  "  Biographie  de  Campolongo;"  Tipaldo,  "Bio- 
grafia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Campomanes,  kdm  po-mi'nes,  (Pedro  Rodriguez,) 
Count,  a  Spanish  author  and  minister  of  state,  eminent 
for  probity  and  liberality,  was  born  in  Asturias  about 
1720.  Having  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  juriscon- 
sult, he  was  appointed  in  i"]^^  fiscal  of  the  royal  council 
of  Castile.  He  was  made  president  of  the  same  council 
in  1788,  and  afterwards  minister  of  state.  His  writings 
on  political  economy  acquired  for  him  a  European 
reputation,  and  were  commended  by  Robertson  in  his 
*'  History  of  America."  On  the  recommendation  of  Dr. 
Franklin,  he  was  chosen  an  honorary  member  of  the 
Philosophic  Society  of  Philadelphia.  He  wrote  "A  Dis- 
course on  the  Promotion  of  Popular  Industry,"  (1774,) 
"Discourse  on  the  Popular  Education  of  Mechanics," 
an  "Appendix  to  the  Education  of  Mechanics,"  (in  4 
vols.,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1802. 

See  Robertson,  "History  of  America;"  Ersch  und  Gruber, 
"  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedle ;"  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  June,  1831. 

Campra,  kSN^pRt',  (Andr^;,)  an  eminent  French  com- 
poser, born  at  Aix  in  1660,  produced  sacred  music  and 
many  popular  operas.    Died  in  1744. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Campredon,  koN'pRa'doN^  (Jacques  David  Mar- 
tin,) a  French  general,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1761.  He 
was  appointed  minister  of  war  by  Joseph  Bonaparte  in 
1809,  and  served  in  the  Russian  campaign,  (1812.)  Died 
in  1837.  _ 

See  "Vie  du  General  Campredon,"  8vo,  1838. 

Camps.    See  Descamps. 

Camps,  de,  deh  k6N,  (Francois,)  a  French  abbe, 
born  at  Amiens  in  1643,  Ijecame  grand  vicar  of  Serroni, 
the  Archbishop  of  Albi.  He  applied  himself  to  the  study 
of  medals,  of  which  he  made  an  excellent  collection,  and 
wrote  treatises  on  history  and  numismatics.  Died  in  1723. 

Camuccini,  ka-moot-chee'nee,  (Vincenzo,)  a  distin- 
guished painter  of  history,  born  in  Rome  in  1775,  In 
his  youth  he  copied  the  works  of  Raphael  and  other  old 
masters,  and  afterwards  acquired  celebrity  by  a  series  of 
pictures  from  ancient  Roman  history,  among  which  were 
"  lioratius  Codes"  and  "  The  Continence  of  Scipio,"  He 
also  painted  "  The  Conversion  of  Saul,"  and  other  scrip- 
tural subjects.  He  was  chosen  president  of  the  Academy 
of  Saint  Luke,  and  a  member  of  the  Institute  of  France. 
His  style  is  rather  conventional  than  natural.  Died  in 
1844. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Camus,  kt'miis',  (Armand  Gaston,)  a  republican 
legislator  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1740,  He  pub- 
lished in  1783  a  translation  of  Aristotle's  "  Plistory  of 
Animals,"  which  procured  him  admission  to  the  Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions,  Elected  to  the  Constituent  Assem- 
bly in  1789,  he  had  the  principal  part  in  framing  the 
civil  constitution  of  the  clergy.  Pie  was  an  active  mem- 
ber of  the  Convention,  which  appointed  him  in  1792  one 
of  the  committee  of  public  safety.  With  three  other 
commissaries  of  the  Convention,  he  attempted  in  April, 
1793)  to  arrest  Dumouriez  at  the  head  of  his  army;  but 
that  general  sent  them  prisoners  to  the  Austrian  camp. 
In  1795  he  was  exchanged  for  the  daughter  of  Louis 
XVI.,  and  passed  into  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  author  of  several 
able  works,  among  which  is  a  "Journey  through  the 
Departments  recently  united."    Died  in  1804. 

See  Toulongeon,  "  filoge  historique  de  A.  G.  Camus,"  1806; 
Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Camus,  (Charles  Etienne  Louis,)  a  French  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Crecy-en-Brie  in  1699.  In  1727  he 
wrote  a  treatise  on  the  Masting  of  Vessels,  which  opened 
to  him  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  was  one  of  the 
Academicians  who  in  1735  went  to  Lapland  with  Mau- 
pertuis  to  determine  the  figure  of  the  earth.  He  wrote 
a  work  on  Hydraulics,  and  a  Course  of  Mathematics, 
which  was  valued  at  the  time.  The  Royal  Society  of 
London  elected  him  a  Fellow  about  1765.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1768, 

See  Grandjean  de  Fouchy,  "Elogede  C.  E.  L.  Camus." 


Camus,  (Jean  Pierre,)  Bishop  of  Belley,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1582.  He  preached  and  wrote  zealously 
against  the  mendicant  monks.  For  this  Richelieu  repri- 
manded him,  and  added,  "  If  it  were  not  for  this  fault, 
I  should  canonize  you."  Camus  replied,  "We  should 
then  both  have  what  we  wish :  you  would  be  pope,  and 
I  would  be  a  saint."  He  wrote  "  Dorothee,"  and  other 
religious  romances,  which  had  great  success  at  the  time. 
Died  in  1652. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires ;"  Depery,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  K. 
Camus." 

Camus,  de,  deh  kt'miis',  or  des  Camus,  da  kt'miis', 
(Francois  Joseph,)  a  French  mathematician,  born  in 
Lorraine  in  1672,  became  a  resident  of  Paris.  He  was 
admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1 716,  and  pub- 
lished in  1722  a  curious  "Treatise  on  Moving  Forces." 
Died  in  England  in  1732. 

Camus  de  Mezieres,  le,  leh  ki'miis''  deh  \\\\'- 
ze-aiR',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  architect,  born  in  Paris  in 
1721.  He  designed  the  Corn-Market  (Halle  an  ble)  of 
Paris,  and  wrote  "The  Genius  of  Architecture,"  (1780,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1789. 

Camus,  le,  leh  kt'mlis^  (Antoine,)  a  celebrated 
French  physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1722.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  in  the  University  of  Paris  in  1762,  His 
reputation  was  increased  by  his  literary  talents  and  the 
original  character  of  his  medical  works,  among  which 
are  "The  Medicine  of  the  Mind,"  (1753,)  and  "  Maladies 
of  the  Region  of  the  Heart,"  He  wrote  "Love  and 
Friendship,"  a  comedy,  and  "  The  Medical  Amphi- 
theatre," a  poem,  (1745.)    Died  in  1772. 

See  BouRRU,  "filoge  historique  de  M.  le  Camus,"  1772. 

Camus,  le,  (IStienne,)  born  in  Paris  in  1632,  became 
Bishop  of  Grenoble  in  1671,  and  performed  the  duties 
of  that  office  with  great  charity  and  diligence.  On  the 
occasion  of  a  curate's  complaining  to  Camus  that  he 
could  not  prevent  the  people  from  dancing  on  festival- 
days,  the  bishop  replied,  "  Oh,  permit  them  at  least  to 
give  their  misery  a  shake,"  He  received  a  cardinal's 
hat  in  1686.    Died  in  1707. 

See  Lallouette,  "Abrege  de  la  Vie  de  M.  le  Camus,"  1720. 

Camusat,  kt'mii'zt',  (Jean,)  a  learned  French  pub- 
lisher of  Paris,  was  printer  to  the  Actdemie  Fran9aise. 
Died  in  1639. 

Camusat,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  priest  and  antiquary, 
born  at  Troyes  in  1575.  He  was  a  canon  of  the  church 
of  Troyes,  and  author  of  "Melanges  historiques,"  (a 
collection  of  acts,  treaties,  and  letters,  1619,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1655. 

Canaan,  kalian  or  ka'ni-an,  [Heb.  jJ^JD,]  a  patri- 
arch, was  a  son  of  Ham,  and  ancestor  of  the  Canaanites 
who  inhabited  Palestine  before  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Israelites.    (See  Genesis  ix.  18,  and  x.) 

Can'a-Ghus,  [Kava.YOf,]  a  Greek  sculptor,  born  at 
Sicyon,  lived  about  400  B.C.  He  was  a  brother  of 
Aristocles  the  artist,  and  a  pupil  of  Polycletus. 

Canal,  ka-nSK,  or  Canaletto,  k^-na-let'to,  a  Venetian 
painter,  whose  proper  name  was  Bernardo  Belotto, 
(bgR-naR'do  ba-lot'to,)  born  in  Venice  in  1724.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  his  uncle,  Antonio  Canal,  whom  he  imi- 
tated with  success.  He  worked  in  Dresden,  London, 
and  other  places,  and  painted  buildings  and  scenes  in 
the  environs  of  towns.  He  excelled  in  perspecti\e. 
Died  at  Warsaw  in  1780. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Canal  or  Canaletto,  (Antonio,)  an  eminent  Italian 
painter  of  perspective  views,  born  at  Venice  in  1697, 
was  a  scene-painter  in  early  life.  Having  studied  in 
Rome,  he  returned  to  Venice,  and  became  a  successful 
artist.  His  subjects  are  mostly  views  of  the  Venetian 
palaces,  canals,  etc.,  which  are  highly  prized.  As  he 
painted  with  great  facility,  his  works  are  numerous.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  used  the  camera  ob- 
scura  in  painting.  Died  in  1768,  His  pictures  of  Vene- 
tian buildings,  etc.  are  called  admirable  by  some  critics, 
but  by  others  his  art  is  censured  as  mere  mechanism. 
"The  mannerism  of  Canaletto,"  says  Ruskin,  "is  the 
most  degraded  I  know  in  the  whole  range  of  art." 
("Modern  Painters.") 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Vi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CAN ALE 


506 


CANDIANO 


Canale,  kS-nc^'li,  (Niccol6,)  a  Venetian  admiral,  who 
commanded  against  tlie  Turks  in  1469.  He  was  removed 
in  1470  for  his  dilatory  conduct  or  timidity. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes;"  Daru, 
"  Histoiie  de  Venise." 

Canaletto.    vSee  Canal. 

Canani,  l<a-na'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  skilful 
Italian  anatomist,  born  at  Ferrara  in  151 5.  He  is  said 
to  have  observed  the  valves  which  indicate  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood,  about  1545,  and  wrote  an  able 
"Treatise  on  the  Muscles,"  (1572.)  Pope  Julius  IH. 
appointed  him  his  first  physician.    Died  in  1579. 

Cauaples,  de,  deh  kt'ntpK,  Sire,  a  brave  French 
officer,  who  served  with  distinction  in  the  armies  of 
Francis  I.  and  Henry  H.,  (1520-52.) 

See  De  Thou,  "  Memoiies." 

Canard,  kt'ntR^  (Nicolas  FRANgois,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  at  Moulins,  was  professor  in  the 
Lyceum  of  Moulins,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  "  Political 
Economy,"  (1801,)  and  a  work  on  "Equations,"  (1808.) 
Died  in  1833. 

Canaveri,  kl-nl-va'ree,(GiovANNi  Battista,)  Bishop 
of  Vercelli,  an  Italian  prelate,  eminent  for  learning  and 
eloquence,  was  born  at  Borgomaro  in  1753.  He  pub- 
lished "  Pastoral  Letters,"  and  other  works.  He  was 
chaplain  to  the  mother  of  Napoleon  I.    Died  in  1811. 

Canaye,  de,  deh  kS'n^'',  (£tienne,)  a  French  abbe, 
born  in  Paris  in  1694.  He  entered  the  congregation  of 
the  Oratory  in  1716,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions  in  1728.  The  records  of  this  insti- 
tution contain  a  few  able  treatises  written  by  him,  one  of 
which  is  on  the  Areopagus  of  Athens.    Died  in  1782. 

Canaye,  de  la,  deh  "it  kS^n^',  (Philippe,)  Sieur  de 
Fresne,  (deh  fR§n,)  a  French  statesman,  born  in  Paris 
in  1 55 1.  He  served  Henry  IV,  in  diplomatic  missions. 
Died  in  1610. 

See  MoKERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Can''by'  (Edward  R.  S.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Kentucky  about  1818,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1839.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war  in  1846-47,  became 
a  captain  in  1851,  a  major  in  1855,  and  a  colonel  in  May, 
1861.  When  the  civil  war  began,  he  was  in  New  Mexico, 
where  he  defendefl  Fort  Craig  and  defeated  the  Texan 
insurgents  in  February,  1862.  He  was  appointed  a 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  about  March,  1862,  and 
afterwards  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  He 
succeeded  General  Banks,  as  commander  of  the  army  in 
Louisiana  and  of  the  departments  lying  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River,  in  May  or  June,  1864.  He  invested  and 
took  Mobile  in  April,  1865.  Having  been  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army,  July, 
1866,  he  was  assigned  in  August,  1867,  to  the  command 
of  the  second  military  district,  comprising  North  and 
South  Carolina. 

Cancellieri,  k^n-chgl-le-a^ree,  (Francesco,)  an  Ital- 
ian antiquary  and  priest,  born  in  Rome  in  1751.  Having 
gained  reputation  by  some  learned  treatises,  he  became 
librarian  to  Cardinal  Antonelli,  and,  in  1802,  director  of 
the  printing-press  of  the  Propaganda.  As  a  writer  he 
was  very  prolific,  and  displays  more  learning  than  judg- 
ment. His  work  "On  the  Office  of  the  Secretary  to  the 
Basilica  of  the  Vatican"  (1788)  was  received  with  favour. 
He  also  wrote  treatises  on  the  origin  and  design  of  the 
ceremonies  which  are  performed  at  vSaint  Peter's  and  the 
Vatican  on  festival-days.    Died  in  1826. 

SeeTiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri :"  P.  V.  Baraldi, 
"Vita  di  F.  G.  Cancellieri,"  1S27;  Visconti,  "Elogio  di  F.  Cancel- 
lieri," 1827. 

Cancer,  k3,n'thgR,  (Geronimo,)  a  Spanish  writer  of 
comedies  and  facetious  poems,  lived  about  1620-50.  He 
obtained  a  place  at  the  court  of  Philip  IV. 

Canclaux,  de,  deh  kSN'klo',  (Jean  Baptiste  Ca- 
mille,)  Count,  a  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1740. 
As  lieutenant-general  he  defended  Nantes  against  the 
Vendeans  in  1793,  became  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  of  the  west  in  1794,  and  made  prudent  and  success- 
ful efforts  to  pacify  the  royalists.  Under  the  consulate 
of  Bonaparte  he  was  inspector-general  of  cavalry,  and 
in  1804  was  elected  senator.  He  was  created  a  peer  in 
1814.    Died  in  1817. 

See  De  Muv,  "filogedu  Comte  de  Canclaux,"  1818. 


Cancrin,  kin-kReen',  [Lat.  Cancri'nus,]  (Franz 
LUDWIG,)  a  German  mineralogist,  born  in  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt in  1738.  He  was  appointed  in  1783,  by  Catherine 
II.  of  Russia,  councillor  of  the  Imperial  College,  and 
director  of  the  salt-mines  of  Staraya-Roossa.  He  pub- 
lished several  works,  (in  German,)  among  which  is  "The 
Elementary  Principles  of  the  Science  of  Mining  and 
of  Salt- Works."  This  is  said  to  be  the  most  complete 
work  on  that  subject.    Died  in  1816. 

See  Meusel,  "Lexikon  der  jetztlebenden  Deutschen  Schrift- 
steller." 

Cancrin,  (Georg,)  Count,  a  distinguished  financier, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Hanau,  in  Germany,  about 
1775.  He  entered  the  military  administration  of  Russia 
in  1796,  and  was  made  a  councillor  of  state  in  1811.  In 
1812  he  became  intendant-general  of  the  army,  and  in 
1815  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  By  his 
superior  talents  and  probity  he  gained  the  confidence  of 
the  emperor,  who  appointed  him  minister  of  the  finances 
in  1823.  He  held  this  office  twenty-one  years,  and 
managed  the  department  with  decided  ability  and  suc- 
cess. He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Military 
Economy  in  Peace  and  War,"  (1822,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed.    Died  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1845. 

Can'da-9e,  [Gr.  KavdaKYj,]  the  name  or  title  of  several 
ancient  queens  of  Ethiopia,  whose  court  was  in  the  isle 
of  Meroe,  and  of  whom  little  is  known.  One  of  them  is 
mentioned  in  Acts  viii.  27. 

Candale,  kSN'dtK,  (Charles  Louis  Gaston — gts'- 
t6N',)  Duke  of,  born  at  Metz  in  1627,  rose  to  a  high 
command  in  the  army,  and  passed  for  the  most  gallant 
person  of  his  time.  His  mother  Gabrielle  was  a  daugh- 
ter of  Henry  IV.  of  France.    Died  in  1658. 

Candale,  (Henri  de  Nogaret  d'Epernon — deh 
no'gt'xhf  da^p^R^noN',)  DuKE  of,  born  in  1591,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  the  Due  d'Epernon,  and  an  uncle  of  the 
preceding.  In  1614  he  was  chosen  first  gentleman  of 
the  chamber  of  Louis  XIII.,  and  in  162 1  served  with 
distinction  under  the  Prince  of  Orange  against  the 
Spaniards.  Having  entered  the  service  of  Venice  in 
1624,  he  was  appointed  general-in-chief  of  the  Venetian 
armies  about  1634.    Died  in  1639. 

Candamo,  k^n-da^mo,  (Francisco  Bances — bln'- 
thSs,)  a  Spanish  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Sabugo  in  1662. 
He  was  an  imitator  of  Calderon,  and  author  of  several 
successful  comedies,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "The  Slave 
in  Golden  Chains."    Died  in  1709. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Can-dauTes,  [Gr.  YLavdavJ.rj^,']  King  of  Lydia,  was 
also  called  Myr'silus.  According  to  Herodotus,  he 
provoked  the  resentment  of  his  wife  by  exposing  hei 
without  a  veil  to  a  favourite  officer,  named  Gyges.  By 
offering  him  the  alternative  of  the  throne  or  a  violent 
death,  she  induced  Gyges  to  kill  Candaules,  and  then 
received  the  former  as  her  consort. 

Candeille,  koN'daF  or  kSN'da'ye,  (Am6lie  Julie,)  a 
popular  French  singer  and  comic  actress,  born  in  Paris 
in  1767.  In  1792  she  produced  "Catherine  la  belle 
Fermiere,"  a  comedy,  which  was  very  successful  and 
was  followed  by  other  dramas.    Died  in  1834. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Miisiciens." 

Candeille, '(Pierre  Joseph,)  a  musical  composer, 
born  in  Flanders  in  1744.  His  opera  "Castor  and  Pol- 
lux" (1791)  had  great  success.    Died  in  1827. 

Candiac,  de,  deh  kSNMe'tk',  (Jean  Louis  Philippe 
Montcalm,)  a  precocious  French  child,  brother  of  the 
Marquis  de  Montcalm,  was  born  in  1719.  It  is  said  that 
he  could  read  Greek,  Latin,  and  Hebrew.    Died  in  1726. 

Candiano  (kln-de-a^no)  I.,  (Pietro,)  Doge  of  Venice, 
was  killed  in  a  battle  against  the  Sclavonians  in  887  a.d. 

Candiaiio  II.  (Pietro)  was  elected  Doge  of  Venice 
in  932  A.D.  He  extended  the  boundaries  of  the  repub- 
lic by  conquest.    Died  in  939. 

Candiano  III.,  (Pietro,)  a  son  of  Candiano  II.,  was 
elected  Doge  of  Venice  in  942.  Among  the  events  of  his 
administration  was  the  abduction  of  a  party  of  patrician 
brides  from  a  church  by  the  pirates  of  Istria.  The  pirates 
were  pursued  and  slain,  and  the  captives  recoveied. 

Candiano  IV.,  (Pietro,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  be- 
came doge  in  959.  His  tyranny  provoked  a  revolt  of  thft 
people,  by  whom  he  was  killed  in  976. 


a,  e,  1,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fMl,  fdt;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


C  AND  wo 


CANISIUS 


Candido,  kSii'de-do,  (Pjetro,)  a  historical  painter 
and  sculptor,  whose  proper  name  was  Pieter  ue  Witte, 
was  born  at  Bruges  between  1540  and  1548.  He  went  to 
Italy  in  early  youth,  and  worked  in  Florence  and  Rome. 
He  was  invited  by  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  to  Munich, 
where  he  produced  his  principal  works  (in  fresco)  and 
acquired  a  high  reputation.    Died  at  Munich  in  1628. 

See  MiLLiN,  "  Dictiomiaire  des  Beaux-Arts." 

Candido  Decembrio.    See  Decembrio. 

Can'di-diis  I-sau''rus,  [Kav6i6og'laavpog,]  a  Byzantine 
historian,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Anastasius,  (490-518 
A.D.)  He  was  a  person  of  great  influence,  and  wrote  a 
Byzantine  history  of  the  period  from  457  to  491.  His 
work  is  lost ;  but  a  summary  of  its  contents  is  preserved 
by  Photius. 

'Candish.    See  Cavendish,  (Thomas.) 

Candito.    See  Candido,  (Pietro.) 

Cand'Hsh,  (Robert  Smith,)  a  popular  Scottish 
preacher  of  the  present  era,  and  one  of  the  most  influen- 
tial ministers  of  the  Free  Church.  He  was  appointed  to 
Saint  George's  Church,  Edinburgh,  several  years  before 
the  secession  from  the  Established  Church,  which  oc- 
curred in  1843.  In  the  contest  which  resulted  in  that 
disruption  he  took  a  prominent  part  as  coadjutor  of  Dr. 
Chalmers.  He  has  published  sermons,  "  Scripture 
Characters,"  a  "Treatise  on  the  Atonement,"  and  other 
works. 

Candolle,  de,  deh  kSNMoK,  (Augustin  Pyramus,) 
a  distinguished  botanist  and  naturalist,  of  French  extrac- 
tion, was  born  at  Geneva  on  the  4th  of  February,  1778. 
He  was  educated  at  the  College  of  Geneva,  where  he  re- 
ceived lessons  in  philosophy  from  the  celebrated  Saussure. 
In  1 796  he  went  to  Paris,  to  perfect  himself  in  physical  and 
medical  sciences,  and  became  a  favourite  pupil  of  the 
botanist  Desfontaines.  He  also  formed  intimacies  with 
Cuvier,  A.  von  Humboldt,  and  Lamarck.  His  first  pro- 
duction was  "History  of  Fleshy  (or  .Succulent)  Plants," 
("Histoire  des  Plantes  grasses,"  1799-1803.)  He  took 
his  degree  as  doctor  of  medicine  in  Paris  in  1804,  pre- 
senting for  his  thesis  an  able  "  Essay  on  the  Medicinal 
Properties  of  Plants."  He  acquired  a  European  repu- 
tation by  an  improved  edition  of  Lamarck's  "  Flora  of 
France,"  which  he  revised  at  the  request  of  the  author, 
and  the  first  volume  of  which  appeared  about  1805.  In 
1808  he  was  appointed  professor  of  botany  in  the  Faculty 
of  Medicine  at  Montpellier,  and  director  of  the  Botanic 
Garden.  He  published  in  1813  his  "  Elementary  Theory 
of  Botany,"  ("Theorie  elementaire  de  la  Botanique,") 
which  is  remarkable  for  ])rofoundness  of  views,  and 
is  called  by  some  his  master-piece.  In  this  work  he 
developed  his  new  classification  of  plants  according  to 
the  natural  system.  In  1816  he  resigned  his  chair 
and  removed  to  Geneva,  the  citizens  of  which  founded 
for  him  in  181 7  a  chair  of  natural  history.  Having  con- 
ceived the  plan  of  a  great  work  which  should  comprise 
a  description  of  all  known  plants,  he  published  in  1818 
the  first  volume,  with  the  title  of  "  Natural  System  of 
the  Vegetable  Kingdom,"  ("  Regni  vegetabilis  Systema 
naturale.")  After  the  publication  of  the  second  volume, 
(1821,)  he  discontinued  this  work,  the  plan  of  which 
was  too  vast  for  one  man  to  execute.  His  "  Introduction 
to  the  Natural  System  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom," 
("Prodromus  Systematis  naturalis  Regni  vegetabilis,") 
which  he  began  to  publish  in  1824,  but  di"d  not  live 
to  finish,  is  a  modification  of  the  original  plan,  and  is  a 
work  of  great  value.  It  presents  a  methodical  arrange- 
ment of  all  known  plants,  by  orders,  genera,  and  spe- 
cies. He  described  the  organs  of  plants,  with  all  their 
anatomical  details,  and  developed  the  doctrine  of  meta- 
morphosis, in  his  "Vegetable  Organography,"  ("Or- 
ganographie  vegetale,"  1827.)  In  1828  he  was  elected 
a  foreign  associate  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Paris,  being  the  first  botanist  since  Linnaeus  that  had 
received  that  honour,  lie  published  many  other  treat- 
ises on  botany  and  physiology,  and  obtained  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  lecturer.  He  died  at  Geneva  in  September, 
1841.  After  his  death  his  "Prodromus"  was  continued 
by  his  son  and  other  botanists. 

De  Candolle  occupies  the  highest  rank  among  the 
botanists  of  the  nineteenth  century ;  and  among  those 
who  have  propounded  new  botanical  theories  there  has 


been  none  whose  works  have  been  more  influential  in 
promoting  the  philosophical  tendency  of  the  science. 

See  Flourens,  "iSloge  historique  de  P.  de  Candolle,"  1842,  and 
an  English  version  of  the  same,  in  the  "  Smithsonian  Report"  for  1859, 
p.  271 ;  DuNAL,  "iSloged'A.  P.  Decandolle,"  1842  ;Mokken,  "  Notice 
siir  la  Vie  d'A.  P.  Decandolle,"  1843  ;  A.  Brongniart,  "  Notice  sur 
A.  P.  Decandolle,"  1846;  Delarive,  "A.  P.  Decandolle,  sa  Vie  et 
ses  Travaux,"  1851 ;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1833. 

Cane  della  Scala.    See  Scala. 

Canes,  kSn'y^s,  or  Cannes,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish 
monk,  born  at  Valencia,  was  for  many  years  a  missionary 
at  Damascus.  On  his  return  to  Spain  he  published  an 
Arabic  Grammar,  and  a  valuable  "Spanish-Latin-Arabic 
Dictionary,"  ("  Diccionario  Espanol-Latino-Arabigo," 
1787.)    Died  in  1795. 

Canetta,  de,  di  k^-net'tS,  (Don  Andrea  Hurtado 
de  Mendoza — ooR-ti'Do  da  men-do'thi,)  Marquis, 
was  appointed  Viceroy  of  Peru  about  1 550.  He  restored 
order,  and  reduced  several  turbulent  leaders  to  submis- 
sion.   Died  at  Lima  in  1560. 

Canevari,  ka-ni-va'ree,  (Demetrio,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician, distinguished  as  a  waiter,  was  born  at  Genoa  in 
1559 ;  died  in  1625. 

Canga  Argiielles,  king'gl  aR-gw§Fy§s,  (Jose,)  a 
Spanish  statesman,  born  in  Asturias  about  1770.  Under 
the  constitutional  regime  which  was  initiated  by  the  revo- 
lution of  1820,  he  was  minister  of  finance  for  a  short 
period.  In  1823  the  absolutists  obtained  the  ascend- 
ency, and  he  fled  or  was  exiled  to  England,  where  he 
remained  about  seven  years,  and  wrote  several  works. 
His  "Dictionary  of  Finance"  ("  Diccionario  de  Haci- 
enda," 5  vols.,  1828)  is  one  of  his  most  important  pro- 
ductions.   Died  in  1843. 

Cange.    See  Du  Cange. 

Cangiage.    See  Cambiaso. 

Cangiamilla,  ki.n-ja-meKll,  (Francesco  Emmanu- 
ele,)  an  Italian  theologian,  born  at  Palermo  in  1702. 
He  wrote  "  Embryologia  Sacra,"  (1751,)  which  was  trans- 
lated into  several  languages.    Died  in  1763. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Canina,  kl-nee'na,  (Luigi,)  Cavaliere,  an  Italian 
architect  and  anticjuary,  born  at  Casal  in  1793.  He  pub- 
lished several  esteemed  works,  among  which  area  "Topo- 
graphical Plan  ( Indicazione)  of  Ancient  Rome,"  (1831,) 
"Ancient  Architecture  described  and  illustrated  by 
Monuments,"  (9  vols.;  3d  edition,  1844,)  and  "On  the 
Architecture  most  pro])er  for  Christian  Temples,"  ("  Sull' 
Architetture  piu  propria  dei  Tempj  cristiani,"  1843.)  He 
was  professor  of  architecture  in  the  Academy  of  Turin. 
Died  in  1856. 

Canini,  ka-nee'nee,  [Lat.  Canin'ius,]  (Angelo,)  an 
eminent  Italian  linguist  and  grammarian,  born  in  Tus- 
cany in  1 521.  He  taught  Greek,  Hebrew,  Syriac,  etc.  in 
Venice,  Rome,  and  Padua,  and  was  afterwards  professor 
in  the  University  of  Paris.  He  published  a  good  Greek 
Grammar,  and  a  "  Grammar  of  the  Syriac,  Chaldee,  etc.," 
(1554.)    Died  in  1557. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Canini,  (Giovanni  Angelo,)  a  painter  and  engraver, 
born  in  Rome  about  1620,  was  a  pupil  of  Domenichino. 
He  went  to  France  with  Cardinal  Chigi,  and,  under  the 
auspices  of  Colbert,  engraved  a  collection  of  portraits  ot 
the  great  men  of  antiquity.  The  word  "  iconografia," 
("iconography,")  invented  by  him,  was  first  used  in  the 
title  of  this  work.    Died  in  1665. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Canino,  Prince  of.    See  Bonaparte,  (Charles 

LUCIEN.) 

Canisius,  kS-nee'se-us,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Nymwegen,  was  eminent  for  his  learning  in 
church  antiquities.  He  professed  canon  law  at  Ingolstadt 
about  twenty  years,  and  died  in  1610.  His  principal  work 
is  entitled  "Ancient  Lessons,"  ("Antiquae  Lectiones.") 
He  was  a  nephew  of  Petrus  Canisius. 

Canisius,  (Petrus,)  a  Dutch  Jesuit,  whose  proper 
name  was  Pieter  de  Hondt,  (deh  hint,)  was  born  at 
Nymwegen  about  1520.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the 
Council  of  Trent  in  1545,  and  was  appointed  court 
preacher  to  the  emperor  Ferdinand  I.  Among  his  works 
is  "  Summa  Doctrinas  Christianse."    Died  in  1597. 

See  M.  Rader,  "  De  Vita  P.  Canisii,"  1612  ;  J.  Dorigny,  "  Vic  du 
R.  P.  P.  Canisius,"  1692  ;  Fuligatti,  "Vita  del  P.  P.  Canisio,"  1649. 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  K,guthiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2(^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


C J  NISI  us 


508 


CJNO 


Canisius-Cannius,  ka-nee'se-us  kin'ne-us,  (Nico- 
LAAS,)  a  philologist,  born  at  Amsterdam,  was  a  secretary 
and  friend  of  Erasmus,  who  employed  him  in  translation 
from  the  Greek.    Died  in  1555. 

Caiiitz,  von,  fon  ka^iits,  (Friedrich  Rudolf  Lud- 
wiG,)  Baron,  a  German  poet,  born  at  Berlin  in  1654. 
He  was  appointed  a  councillor  of  state,  and  employed 
in  diplomatic  missions  by  the  King  of  Prussia.  He 
died  in  Berlin  in  1699,  and  his  poems,  consisting  of  odes, 
satires,  and  elegies,  were  published  in  1700,  with  the  title 
of  "  Nebenstunden  unterschiedener  Gedichte."  "The 
poems  of  Canitz,"  says  Guizot,  "  have  neither  original- 
ity nor  verve  ;  but  he  had  the  merit  of  being  simple  and 
natural  while  a  fantastic  and  rude  taste  prevailed  among 
his  contemporaries."    ("  Biographic  Universelle.") 

See  Krsch  unci  Gruber,  "  Allgemelne  Encyklopaedie." 

Canitz  und  Dallwitz,  kd^nits  dont  daKv^its,  Baron, 
a  Prussian  statesman  and  soldier,  born  in  1787,  was 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  1846  to  1848.  Died  in 
1850. 

Ca'm-us,  (RuFUS,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Cadiz,  was 
a  friend  of  Martial.    He  was  living  in  88  A.D. 

Canizares,  de,  di  kan-ye-tha'res,  (Jose,)  a  popular 
Spanish  dramatist,  born  in  Madrid.  He  excelled  in 
comedy,  and  presents,  says  Velasquez,  "a  faithful  pic- 
ture of  manners  in  a  very  spirited  style."    Died  in  1750. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Cannabich,  k3,n'na-biK,  (Johann  Gunther  Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  geographer,  born  at  Sondershausen  in 
1777.  He  wrote  a  "  Manual  of  Geography,"  (1816,)  which 
soon  ran  through  twelve  editions,  and  other  works. 

See  E.  Keyser,  "  J.  G.  F.  Cannabich,  in  seinem  Leben,"  etc.,  1854. 

Cannamares,  kin-na-m.Vr§s,  (Juan,)  a  Spaniard, 
who  was  executed  in  1492  for  attempting  to  kill  Ferdi- 
nand V.    It  is  supposed  he  was  insane. 

Canne,  kan,  (John,)  an  English  preacher,  who  be- 
came the  leader  of  the  English  Brownists  at  Amster- 
dam soon  after  the  restoration  of  1660.  He  published 
an  esteemed  edition  of  the  Bible,  with  marginal  notes 
and  references,  (1664,)  which  was  often  reprinted. 

Cannegieter,  kan'neh-gee'ter,  (Hermann,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist,  born  at  Arnheim  in  1725,  wrote  a  work  on 
Roman  law,  ("  Observationes  Juris  Romani,"  1768,) 
which  is  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1804. 

Cannes.    See  Canes. 

Can'ning,  (Charles  Fox,)  Lieutenant-Colonel,  a 
British  officer,  who  was  aide-de-camp  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  in  the  campaigns  of  the  Peninsular  war  and 
at  Waterloo,  (1815,)  where  he  was  killed. 

Canning,  (Charles  John,)  Viscount,  the  son  of 
the  eminent  statesman  George  Canning,  was  born  at 
Brompton  in  1812.  He  succeeded  to  the  title  of  Vis- 
count at  the  death  of  his  mother  in  1837,  and  joined  the 
Conservative  party.  In  1841  he  was  appointed  under- 
secretary of  foreign  affairs.  In  1852  or  1853  he  became 
postmaster-general,  and  a  member  of  Lord  Aberdeen's 
cabinet.  He  succeeded  Lord  Dalhousie  as  Governor- 
General  of  India  in  1855.  His  conduct  in  the  critical 
period  of  the  Sepoy  mutiny  was  severely  censured,  in 
1858,  by  Lord  Ellenborough,  then  a  cabinet  minister; 
but  Canning  vindicated  himself  with  such  success  that 
his  opponent  resigned  his  office.  (See  Ellenborough.) 
He  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Elgin  about  August,  1861,. 
Died  in  England  in  June,  1862. 

Canning,  (George,)  a  distinguished  English  states- 
man, orator,  and  wit,  born  in  London  on  the  iith  of 
April,  1770,  was  the  son  of  George  Canning,  a  lawyer 
without  fortune,  who  died  in  177 1.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  Oxford,  where  he  gained  honours  and  began  to 
write  verses.  In  1793  entered  Parliament  as  a  Tory 
and  supporter  of  Pitt,  to  whom  he  adhered  constantly, 
and  in  1796  was  appointed  under-secretary  of  state.  The 
next  year  Canning,  Ellis,  Frere,  and  others  began  to 
issue  weekly  the  famous  series  of  political  satires  called 
"The  Anti-Jacobin,"  which  some  eminent  critics  have 
pronounced  one  of  the  wittiest  books  in  the  language.  He 
married  a  rich  heiress,  a  daughter  of  General  John  Scott, 
about  1800.  His  success  as  a  parliamentary  debater  was 
very  brilliant,  and  rendered  him  an  efficient  leader  of  his 
party.  On  the  dissolution  of  Pitt's  ministry,  in  1801,  he 
shared  the  fortunes  of  that  chief,  and  afterwards  opposed 


the  administration  of  Addington  for  several  sessions.  In 
April,  1807,  he  was  appointed  secretary  for  foreign  affairs 
in  the  ministry  of  the  Duke  of  Portland,  and  favoured 
the  vigorous  prosecution  of  the  war  against  France.  "  If 
ever  a  man  was  made  for  the  service  and  salvation  of  a 
party,"  says  Brougham,  *'  Canning  seemed  raised  up  for 
that  of  the  Tories."  This  party,  however,  preferred' to 
follow  Lord  Castlereagh,  who  was  secretary  of  war.  A 
dispute  between  these  rivals,  in  1809,  led  to  a  challenge 
from  Castlereagh,  and  an  exchange  of  shots,  by  which 
Canning  was  slightly  wounded.  In  consequence  of  this 
affair  he  retired  or  was  dismissed  from  the  cabinet.  He 
made,  in  1812,  eloquent  pleas  for  Catholic  emancipatiou, 
to  which  cause  at  various  times  he  rendered  important 
services ;  but  he  constantly  opposed  parliamentary  rt- 
form.  The  city  of  Liverpool  elected  him  as  its  repre- 
sentative in  i8i2,  and  at  several  successive  elections. 
He  was  censured  for  serving  under  his  successful  rival 
Castlereagh,  who  in  18 14  gave  him  an  unimportant  mis- 
sion to  Portugal.  He  was  appointed  Governor-Generai 
of  India  in  1822;  but,  while  he  was  preparing  for  the 
voyage,  Castlereagh  committed  suicide,  and  Canning 
succeeded  his  late  rival  as  secretary  of  foreign  affairs  in 
the  cabinet  of  Lord  Liverpool,  in  September,  1822.  His 
policy  in  the  latter  years  of  his  life  was  more  liberal  than 
that  of  other  Tory  leaders.  In  April,  1827,  he  was  ap- 
pointed first  lord  of  the  treasury,  or  premier,  in  place 
of  Lord  Liverpool.  The  Duke  of  Wellington,  Lord 
Eldon,  and  the  other  ministers  having  resigned  in  con- 
sequence of  that  change.  Canning  was  compelled  to  re- 
sort to  the  support  of  the  Whigs,  some  of  whom  accepted 
office  under  him.  His  health  had  been  feeble  for  some 
time  when  he  made  his  last  speech  in  Parliament  in  June, 
1827,  and  he  died  in  August  of  that  year,  leaving  a  son, 
Charles  John,  Lord  Canning. 

"Plis  declamation,"  says  Brougham,  "though  often 
powerful,  always  beautifully  ornate,  never  deficient  in 
admirable  diction,  was  certainly  not  of  the  highest  class. 
Of  his  powers,  of  argumentation,  his  capacity  for  the  pur- 
suits of  abstract  science,  his  genius  for  adorning  the  least 
attractive  subjects,  there  remains  an  imperishable  record 
in  his  celebrated  speeches  on  the  'Currency,'  of  all  his 
efforts  the  most  brilliant  and  the  most  happy,"  He 
made  an  important  change  in  the  foreign  policy  of  Eng- 
land, in  consequence  of  which  that  country  ceased  to  be 
subservient  to  the  designs  of  the  Holy  Alliance. 

See  Robert  Bell,  "  Life  of  Canning,"  1846 ;  A.  G.  Stapleton, 
"The  Political  Life  of  George  Canning,"  1831  and  1859;  "Auto- 
biography of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Brougham,  "  Statesmen  of 
the  Time  of  George  III.;"  W.  T.  Krug,  "Canning's  Denkmal, 
etc.,"  1827;  RuEDER,  "G.  Canning,  seine  Leben,  seine  Politik,  etc.," 
1S27;  Rede,  "Memoirs  of  G.  Canning,"  2  vols.,  182S ;  "Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1822; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly"  for  October,  1831. 

Canning,  (Stratford.)  See  Stratford  de  Red- 
cliffe. 

Cano,  ka'no,  (Alonzo,)  one  of  the  greatest  artists 
that  Spain  has  produced,  born  at  Granada  about  1600, 
was  a  painter,  sculptor,  and  architect.  He  has  been 
called  the  Michael  Angelo  of  Spain.  He  studied  paint- 
ing under  Pacheco  and  Juan  de  Castillo,  and  sculpture 
under  Montanes.  Having  acquired  a  high  reputation, 
he  went  to  Madrid,  and  in  1638  received  from  Philip  IV. 
the  title  of  painter  to  the  king.  He  painted  many  pieces 
for  the  churches  of  Seville,  Madrid,  Granada,  etc.  A 
"Conception  of  the  Virgin,"  at  Granada,  is  called  his 
master-piece.  It  is  reported  that  on  his  death-bed  he  re- 
fused the  crucifix  presented  to  him  by  a  priest,  on  account 
of  its  bad  workmanship.    Died  in  1664. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols  ;"  Bryan, 
"Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Cano,  [Lat.  Ca'nus,]  (Melchior,)  a  Spanish  theo- 
logian, born  at  Tarancon  in  1523,  entered  the  order  of 
Saint  Dominic.  In  1546  he  became  professor  of  theology 
in  the  University  of  Salamanca.  He  opposed  the  Jesuits, 
and  discountenanced  absurd  scholastic  questions.  His 
treatise  "  On  Theological  Subjects"  ("  De  Locis  theo- 
logicis")  is  highly  commended  for  its  sentiments  and 
style.  He  wrote  some  other  works  on  theology.  Died 
in  1560. 

Cano,  del,  dgl  k^'no,  (Sebastian,)  a  Spanish  navi- 
gator, born  in  Guipuzcoa,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
who  circumnavigated  the  globe.    He  was  captain  of  one 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  V,  long;    ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CJNO 


509 


CANTA-GALLINJ 


of  the  ships  under  Magellan  when  the  latter  ^Yas  killed 
at  the  Philippine  Isles,  and,  returning  in  the  Victory  by 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  he  arrived  in  Spain  in  1522. 
Died  in  1526. 

See  F.  DE  Navarrete,  "Relaclones  de  Viages,"  etc. 

Cano  de  Arevalo,  ki'no  da  S-ri-vi'lo,  (Juan,)  a 
Spanish  painter,  born  in  1656 ;  died  in  1696. 

Canoiiica,  ki-non'e-ka,  (Luigi,)  an  eminent  Italian 
architect,  born  at  Milan  about  1742,  designed  several 
theatres  in  Milan,  Mantua,  and  Brescia.  His  most  re- 
markable works  are  the  Palazzo  Orsini,  the  Casa  Ca- 
nonica,  (his  own  mansion,)  and  the  amphitheatre  of  the 
Porta  Vercellina  at  Milan.    Died  in  1834. 

See  Nagler,  "Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Ca-non'i-cus,  an  Indian  chief  of  the  Narragansett 
tribe,  was  born  about  1 565.  He  was  a  friend  of  Roger 
Williams,  to  whom  he  gave  a  large  tract  of  land.  Died 
in  1647. 

Canonieri,  kS-no-ne-a'ree,  [Lat.  Canone'rius.] 
(PiETRO  Andrea,)  an  Italian  physician  and  doctor  of 
law,  born  at  Genoa,  flourished  about  1600. 

Canoppi,  kd-nop'pee,  (Antonio,)  a  skilful  Italian 
scene-painter,  born  in  1773,  practised  his  art  for  several 
years  in  Venice  and  Mantua.  When  Italy  became  sub- 
ject to  the  power  of  the  French,  whom  he  had  opposed, 
Canoppi  fled  to  Vienna.  In  1807  he  removed  to  Mos- 
cow, where  he  decorated  the  hall  of  the  senate  and  some 
private  palaces.  He  painted  for  the  theatre  of  Saint 
Petersburg  many  scenes,  which  are  greatly  admired,  and 
wrote  several  treatises  on  art.    Died  in  1832. 

Ca-no'pus  or  Ca-no''bus,  a  water-god  of  Egyptian 
mythology, whose  figure  was  represented  on  water-vessels. 

Canova,  ki-no'vS,  (Antonio,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Possagno,  in  Venetia,  on  the  ist  of 
November,  1757,  was  the  son  of  P.  Canova,  an  architect 
and  sculptor.  He  received  lessons  in  art  in  the  studios 
of  Torretti  and  Ferrari,  of  Venice.  Having  produced 
about  1778  a  group  of  "  Dadalus  and  Icarus,"  which  was 
much  admired  at  Venice,  he  exhibited  the  same  at  Rome 
the  next  year.  Gavin  Hamilton,  who  was  a  high  author- 
ity in  art,  praised  his  success  in  copying  nature,  and  en- 
couraged his  innate  aspirations  towards  the  classic  and 
ideal  style.  In  1782  he  removed  his  studio  to  Rome, 
and  increased  his  celebrity  by  his  group  of  "Theseus 
and  the  Minotaur,"  which  announced  the  regeneration  of 
modern  sculpture.  Then  followed  a  monument  of  Pope 
Clement  XIV.,  (1787,)  and  numerous  groups  of  subjects 
from  ancient  mythology,  among  which  are  "Cupid  and 
Psyche,"  "The  Graces,"  and  "Venus  and  Adoni.s."  In 
1802  he  was  invited  to  Paris  by  Bonaparte,  of  whom  he 
executed  an  admirable  statue,  which  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  He  was  chosen  an 
associate  of  the  Institute  of  France.  In  1805  he  pro- 
duced an  exquisite  figure  of  "  Venus  Victorious,"  with 
the  features  of  Pauline  Bonaparte.  In  1810  he  went  to 
Paris  to  make  the  portrait  of  the  empress  Maria  Louisa. 
On  his  return  to  Rome  he  was  chosen  president  of  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Luke.  In  1815  the  pope  sent  him  to 
reclaim  the  works  of  art  of  which  the  French  had  de- 
spoiled the  galleries  of  Italy.  Soon  after  this  event  he 
received  the  title  of  Marquis  of  Ischia.  He  afterwards 
executed  a  statue  of  Washington,  which  is  not  unworthy 
of  his  fame.  Having  produced  fifty  statues,  as  many 
busts,  besides  numerous  cenotaphs,  groups,  etc.,  he  died 
at  Venice  in  October,  1822,  with  the  reputation  of  the 
greatest  sculptor  of  his  age. 

See  MissiRiNi,  "Vita  di  Canova,"  1827;  Cicognara,  "Vita  di 
Canova,"  1823;  Quatrem6re  de  Quincv,  "Canova  et  ses  Ou- 
vrages,"  1836;  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Oiivrages  de  Canova," 
by  Reveil  and  De  Latouche,  1825;  J.  S.  Memes,  "Memoirs 
of  Anton;o  Canova,"  Edinburgh,  1825;  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica;" 
Fernow,  "Ueber  den  Hildhauer  Canova,"  1806;  G.  Rosini,  "Saggio 
sulla  Vita  di  A.  Canova,"  1825. 

Canovai,  kl-no-VcVee,  almost  ka-no-vl',  (Stanislao,) 
a  learned  Italian  priest,  born  at  Florence  in  1740.  He 
taught  matnematics  at  Cortona  and  Parma.  In  1788 
he  produced  a  prize  essay  in  support  of  the  claim  of 
Americus  Vespucius  as  the  first  discoverer  of  America. 
Canovai  and  Gaetan  del  Ricco  translated  La  Caille's 
"Elements  of  Mathematics.  He  published  other  es- 
teemed works.    Died  in  1811. 

See  PozzETTi,  "  Elogio  di  S.  Canovai,"  1812. 


Canrobert,  k6N^ro'baiR',  (Francois  Certain,)  a 
French  marshal,  born  in  Brittany  in  1809.  He  entered 
the  army  about  1828,  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege 
of  Constantine  in  1837,  and  was  rapidly  promoted.  He 
fought  many  campaigns  in  Algeria,  and  in  1850  returned 
to  France  with  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade.  Soon 
after  that  date  he  became  aide-de-camp  to  Louis  Napo- 
leon, and  was  made  a  general  of  division  in  1853.  He 
commanded  the  first  division  of  the  army  sent  to  the 
Crimea  in  1854,  and  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  the 
Alma.  On  the  death  of  Saint-Arnaud  in  September, 
the  chief  command  devolved  on  Canrobert,  who,  in  con- 
junction with  Lord  Raglan,  began  the  siege  of  Sebastopol. 
He  was  wounded  at  Inkerman,  November  5,  1854.  The 
ill  success  of  the  allies,  and  the  difticulty  arising  from  a 
divided  command,  rendered  his  position  so  painful  that 
he  resigned  to  Pelissier  the  chief  command  of  the  French 
army  in  May,  1855.  He  received  a  marshal's  baton  in 
1856,  and  in  the  spring  of  1859  was  assigned  to  the  third 
corps  of  the  army  of  the  Alps.  He  commanded  the  re- 
serve at  Solferino,  June,  1859. 

See  Vapereait,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Contemporains." 

Canstatt,  kSn'stat,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German 
physician  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Ratisbon  in  1807, 
became  professor  at  Erlangen.    Died  in  1850. 

Canstein,  von,  fon  kan'stln,  (Carl  Hildebrand,) 
Baron,  a  German  philanthropist,  born  at  Lindenberg  in 
1667,  was  the  founder  of  the  Canstein  Bible  Society  of 
Halle.  Desiring  to  diffuse  Christian  principles,  he  raised 
a  fund  to  print  the  Bible  about  1 712.  The  enterprise  was 
very  successful,  and  millions  of  Bibles  and  New  Testa- 
ments were  printed  and  sold  at  low  prices.  Died  in  1 719. 

See  August  H.  Fraxcke,  "  Memoria  Cansteiniana,"  1722. 

Cant.    See  Kant. 

Cant,  (Andrew,)  an  eminent  Scottish  minister,  who 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  zealously  supported  the  Cove- 
nant. In  1640  he  was  one  of  the  chaplains  of  the  army 
of  Covenanters,  and  about  the  same  time  became  minis- 
ter of  Aberdeen.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  royalist  in 
the  civil  war.  He  died  about  1664.  According  to  the 
"  Spectator,"  No.  147,  the  word  cant  originated  in  his 
affected  tone. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Cant,  kSnt,  (Arend,)  a  Dutch  anatomist,  died  young, 
at  Dort,  in  1723. 

Cantacuzene.    See  Cantacuzenus. 

Can-ta-cu-ze'nus,  Anglicized  as  Can'ta-cu-zene' 
[Gr.  KavraKOv^r/voi^ ;  Fr.  Cantacuzene,  kON'tt'kii'zan',] 
(John,)  a  Byzantine  emperor  of  superior  talents,  prime 
minister  in  the  reign  of  Andronicus  III.,  who  died  in 
1341,  leaving  a  son,  John  Palaeologus,  aged  nine  years, 
during  whose  minority  Cantacuzene  was  regent.  Apo- 
caucus  and  the  empress-mother  Anne  having  conspired 
against  him,  he  appealed  to  arms,  and  was  proclaimed 
emperor  by  his  partisans.  After  a  civil  war  of  several 
years,  Anne  and  her  son  agreed,  in  1347,  to  receive  him 
as  a  partner  in  the  empire.  The  quarrel,  however,  was 
renewed  a  few  years  later,  and  the  nation  fell  into  such 
disorder  that  Cantacuzene  abdicated  in  1355  and  became 
a  monk.  He  wrote  a  work  on  Byzantine  History  from 
1320  to  1357. 

See  Parisot,  "Cantacuzene  Homme  d'fitat  et  Historien,"  1845. 

Cantacuzenus,  (Matthew,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  about  1325.  He  continued  the  civil  war  after  his 
father's  abdication,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  compelled  by 
John  Palaeologus  to  enter  a  cloister. 

Can-ta-cu-ze'nus  or  Can'ta-cu-zene',  (Serban,) 
Prince  of  Wallachia,  claimed  to  be  descended  from  the 
emperor  John  Cantacuzene.  He  designed  to  liberate 
Wallachia  from  the  Turkish  yoke,  and  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  Czar  of  Russia.  While  he  was  preparing  for 
hostilities,  he  died  about  1685  ;  and  it  was  reported  that 
he  was  poisoned  by  his  nephew,  Constantine  Brancovan 
Bessaraba. 

Cantacuzenus  or  Cantacuzene,  (Stephen,)  a  son 
of  Constantine  Cantacuzene,  became  Vaivode  of  Walla- 
chia in  1 7 14.  He  was  deposed  by  the  Turks,  and  put  to 
death,  in  1716. 

Canta-G-allina,  kin'ti  gll-lee'nS,  (Remi,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  engraver,  was,  according  to  some  writers,  the 
master  of  Callot.    Died  at  Florence  about  1630. 


€  as     c  as  s;  g  /lard:  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  giittiiral;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^=-See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CANT  All  CIO 


CANUEL 


Cantalicio,  kin-ti-lee'cho,  [Lat.  CANTALvg'ius,] 
(Giovanni  Battista,)  a  Latin  poet,  surnamed  IL  Va- 
lentino, (el  vd-leii-tee'no,)  was  born  at  Cautalice.  He 
wrote  a  poem  of  which  the  "Great  Captain"  Gonsalvo 
was  the  hero,  and  many  epigrams.    Died  about  1514. 

Cantarini,  k3.n-ta-ree'nee,  (Simone,)  an  eminent  Ital- 
ian painter  and  engraver,  called  THE  Pesarese,  or  Si- 
mone DA  Pesaro,  (se-mo'na  dS.  pa'sa-ro,)  was  born  at 
Pesaro  in  1612.  He  studied  under  Guido  Reni  at  Bo- 
logna, and  in  some  respects  rivalled  that  master.  He 
worked  in  Rome,  Mantua,  and  Verona,  his  quarrelsome 
temper,  it  is  said,  preventing  him  from  remaining  long 
in  one  place.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  "San 
Domenico"  and  a  "  Magdalene."  He  painted  portraits 
with  success,  and  was  an  excellent  colorist.  Died  at 
Verona  in  1648. 

See  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Caiite  del  Gabrielli  d'Agobbio,  khVik  d§l  ga-bRe- 
el'lee  dd-gob'be-o,  an  Italian  leader  of  the  Guelph  party, 
notorious  for  his  cruelty.  He  became  podesta  of  Flor- 
ence in  1301,  and  banished  numerous  citizens,  among 
whom  was  the  poet  Dante. 

Cantel,  kSN^tSK,  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  scholar,  born  in  1645,  was  employed  on  the  editions 
of  Latin  authors  for  the  education  of  the  dauphin.  He 
published  Justin,  (1677,)  and  Valerius  Maximus,  (1679,) 
with  notes.    Died  in  1684. 

Cantemir  or  Kantemir,  kan'teh-mir  or  kan'teh- 
meer,  (Antiochus,)  Prince,  an  eminent  writer,  born  at 
Constantinople  about  1709,  was  a  son  of  Demetrius  Can- 
temir, noticed  below.  He  was  educated  in  Russia.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  satires  which  are  remarkable  for  good 
sense  and  which  contributed  to  polish  the  Russian  lan- 
guage. About  1736  he  was  sent  to  Paris  as  Russian 
ambassador.  He  translated  several  Latin  and  French 
works  into  Russian.  Fie  died  in  1744,  leaving  a  high 
reputation  as  a  poet,  a  diplomatist,  and  a  man.  Brock- 
haus's  "  Conversations-Lexikon"  gives  his  name  as 
Kantemir,  (Constantinos  Demetrios.) 

See  a  "  Notice  sur  Cantemir,"  prefixed  to  Guasco's  French  ver- 
sion of  his  Satires,  1750. 

Cantemir,  (Demetrius,)  an  eminent  historian  and 
Orientalist,  born  in  1673,  ^^^^  a  son  of  the  Vaivode  or 
Governor  of  Moldavia.  In  1 7 10  he  was  appointed  Vai- 
vode of  Moldavia  by  the  Turkish  Sultan,  and  in  171 1  he 
made  ai\  alliance  with  Peter  the  Great,  then  at  war  with 
the  Turks.  He  was  driven  out  of  Moldavia  in  the  same 
year,  and  afterwards  lived  in  Russia.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Origin  and  Decay  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire,"  (in  Latin,)  which  is  highly  esteemed 
and  has  been  translated  into  several  languages.  Died 
in  1723. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gendrale." 

Canter,  kan'ter,  [Lat.  Cante'rus,]  (Theodorus,)  a 
Dutch  scholar,  brother  of  Willem,  noticed  below,  born 
at  Utrecht  in  1545.  He  became  a  consul  in  158S,  and 
governor  in  1594.  He  published  "  Various  Readings," 
("  Varias  Lectiones,"  1574,)  which  was  commended  by 
Scaliger.    Died  in  161 7. 

See  "  Scaligerana;"  Burmann,  "Trajectum  eniditum." 

Canter,  [Lat.  Can  te'rus,]  (Willem,)  an  able  Dutch 
critic  and  philologist,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1542,  is  said  to 
have  had  no  passion  except  for  study.  He  became  a 
resident  of  Louvain,  and  published  several  philological 
works,  one  of  which,  entitled  "New  Readings,"  ("Novae 
Lectiones,")  "deserves  especial  notice  as  almost  the  first 
effort  of  an  art  which,"  says  Hallam,  "has  done  much 
for  ancient  literature, — that  of  restoring  a  corrupt  text, 
through  conjecture  guided  by  skilful  sagacity,  and  upon 
principles  which  we  may  call  scientific."  ("Introduction 
to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  He  also  published  good 
editions  of  ^F^schylus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides.  Died 
at  Louvain  in  1575. 

See  Mei.chior  Adam,  "Vitc-e  Philosophorum ;"  De  Thou, 
"Eloges;"  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Canterbury,  kAn'ter-ber-e,  (Charles  Manners 
Sutton,)  Viscount,  an  English  statesman,  son  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  born  in  1780.  He  entered 
Parliament  in  1807,  and  was  elected  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons  in  1817.  He  performed  the  duties  of  this 
ofilice  with  dignity  until  1835,  and  passed  into  the  House 


of  Lords  w^ith  the  t'tle  of  Viscount  Canterbury.  He 
died  in  1845,  ^^^^  1*^^^  his  title  to  his  son,  Charles  John. 

Canterzani,  kan-t6R-dza''nee,  (Sehastiano,)  an  Ital- 
ian mathematician,  born  at  Bologna  in  1734.  He  was 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of  Bologna 
for  nearly  forty  years,  beginning  at  1760.  He  wrote  able 
elementary  treatises  on  geometry,  arithmetic,  etc.,  and 
became  president  of  the  Institute  of  his  native  city.  Died 
in  1819. 

See  ScHiAssi,  "  Elogium  S.  Canterzani,"  1S19. 

Can'tha-rus,  [Kavdapog,'\  a  Greek  sculptor,  born  at 
Sicyon,  lived  about  260  B.C. 

Cantillon,  koN'te'yoN',  (Philip,)  a  merchant,  who 
removed  from  London  to  Paris,  where  he  established  a 
banking-house  and  became  rich.  It  is  said  he  was  mur- 
dered by  his  valet  in  London  in  1733.  ^'^^^  written  an 
"Essay  on  Commerce,"  and  "Analysis  of  Trade,  Com- 
merce, Coin,  etc.,"  wliich  were  printed  after  his  death. 

See  Gki.mim,  " Correspondance." 

Cantipratenus  or  Cantipratensis.  See  ThOxMAS 
Cantitratensis. 

Can-ti-unc'u-la,  the  Latin  name  of  Claude  Chan- 
SONNETTE,  (kl5d  shSN'so'net'',)  an  eloquent  lawyer,  born 
at  Metz.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Bale  :  the  latter 
city,  in  15 19,  founded  for  him  a  chair  of  law.  Erasmus 
praised  the  purity  and  dignity  of  his  Latin  style.  The 
Emperor  of  Germany  employed  him  in  several  important 
negotiations.  He  died  about  1560,  leaving  a  few  legal 
treatises. 

See  Erasmus,  "De  Cicerone;"  Melchior  Adam,  "Vitse  Juris- 
consultorum  Germanije,"  etc. 

Canton,  kan'ton,  (Johann  Gabriel,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Vienna  in  1710;  died  in  1753. 

Can'ton,  (John,)  an  English  natural  philosopher, 
born  at  Stroud  in  1 718,  lived  mostly  in  London,  where 
he  taught  school  many  years.  He  was  the  first  person 
in  England  who  verified  Franklin's  hypothesis  that  light- 
ning is  identical  with  the  electric  fluid,  (1752.)  He  had 
previously  made  some  discoveries  in  electricity,  which 
procured  him  a  Fellowship  in  the  Royal  Society  about 
1750.  In  1765  that  society  awarded  him  a  gold  medal 
for  his  demonstration  that  water  is  compressible.  He 
wrote  several  treatises,  which  are  inserted  in  the  "  Philo- 
sophic Transactions."    Died  in  1772. 

See  "  Life  of  Canton,"  by  his  son,  in  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Cantoni,  kc^n-to'nee,  (Simone,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Maggio,  became  a  resident  of  Milan,  where  he 
erected  some  fine  edifices,  among  which  are  the  Palazzo 
Serbelloni  and  Palazzo  Mellerio.  He  also  designed  the 
ducal  palace  at  Genoa.    Died  in  1 81 8. 

Cantu,  kSn-too',  (Cesare,)  a  popular  Italian  historiaji, 
born  at  Brivio,  near  Milan,  in  1805.  About  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  became  professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Son- 
drio,  and  afterwards  resided  in  Milan.  He  pul:)lished 
in  1842  an  "Essay  on  the  History  of  Lombardy  in  the 
Seventeenth  Century."  For  the  liberal  ideas  expressed 
in  this,  he  was  imprisoned  one  year.  His  great  work  is 
his  "  Universal  History,"  ("  Storia  universale,"  20  vols., 
1837-42,)  which  has  been  very  successful  and  has  been 
translated  into  English  and  French.  He  also  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Italian  Literature,"  several  popular  hymns 
and  poems,  and  an  educational  work  called  "Juvenile 
Readings,"  ( "  Letture  giovanili,")  which  has  passed 
through  more  than  thirty  editions.  His  style  is  regarded 
as  a  model.  In  the  revolution  of  1848  he  acted  with 
the  Liberal  party. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Cant'well,  (Andrew,)  an  Irish  physician,  born  in 
Tipperary,  graduated  at  Montpellier,  in  France,  in 
1729.  He  was  received  as  doctor  in  the  faculty  of  Paris 
in  1742,  and  was  chosen  professor  of  surgery  in  that  city 
in  1750.  He  wrote  several  professional  treatises.  Died 
about  1764. 

See  Illov,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Medecine." 

Cantwell,  (Andrew  Samuel  Michael,)  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  translated  into  French  Gibbon's  "History," 
and  other  popular  English  works.  He  became  librarian 
to  the  Hopital  des  Invalides,  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1802. 

Canuel,  kt''nu'eK,  (Simon,)  a  French  general,  born  in 
Poitou  in  1767,  was  commandant  at  Lyons  under  the 
Directory.    Died  in  1 841. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  \\,  y,  s/io?'^;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CJNUS 


511 


CAPEL 


Canus.    See  Cano. 

Canut,  the  French  of  Canute,  which  see. 

Canute,  ka-nut^  originally  Cniit,  Knut,  or  Knud, 
[Danish  pron.  knoot  or  knooD ;  Fr.  Ca:nut,  ka'niiM  the 
second  king  of  Denmark  of  that  name,  and  the  conqueror 
of  England,  was  the  son  of  Sweyn,  King  of  Denmark, 
who,  after  subjecting  a  great  part  of  England,  died  in 
1014.  Canute  was  then  proclaimed  king  by  the  Danish 
army,  and  after  the  death  of  Edmund  Ironside,  in  1016, 
the  whole  Anglo-Saxon  nation  submitted  to  his  sway.  He 
married  Emma,  the  widow  of  Ethelred  IL,  and  gained 
the  favour  of  his  subjects  by  his  prudent  policy  and 
monastic  piety.  He  founded  several  monasteries,  and 
made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome.  Denmark  and  Norway 
were  also  under  the  dominion  of  Canute,  who  was  the 
most  powerful  monarch  of  his  time.  The  memorable 
manner  in  which  he  rebuked  the  flattery  of  his  courtiers, 
who  said  that  all  things  were  possible  to  him,  is  thus  re- 
lated by  Hume :  "  He  ordered  his  chair  to  be  set  on  the 
sea-shore  while  the  tide  was  rising,  and,  as  the  waters 
approached,  commanded  them  to  retire,  and  obey  him 
who  was  the  lord  of  the  ocean.  When  the  sea  still  ad- 
vanced, and  began  to  wash  him,  he  turned  to  his  courtiers, 
and  remarked  that  power  resided  with  one  Being  alone, 
who  could  say  to  the  ocean,  'Thus  far  shalt  thou  go, 
and  no  farther,  and  here  shall  thy  proud  waves  be  stayed. ' " 
He  died  in  1036,  leaving  three  sons,  Sweyn,  Harold,  and 
Hardicanute. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap.  ii.  ;  Freeman, 
"  Norman  Conquest,"  vol.  i.  chaps,  v.  and  vi. 

Canute  III.,  a  king  of  Denmark,  known  as  Saint 
Canute,  was  the  son  of  Sweyn  H.,  and  grandson  of  the 
preceding.  He  succeeded  his  elder  brother,  Harold,  in 
1080.  His  partiality  to  the  clergy  and  severity  to  the 
people  produced  great  disaffection,  which  grew  at  last 
into  a  revolt.  Canute  was  assassinated  at  Odense  in 
1086,  and  left  the  crown  to  his  brother,  Eric  the  Good. 

See  Annibale  AnAAri,  "Vita  del  Re  S.  Caniito,"  16S2;  Birche- 
ROD,  "K.  Knud  des  helliges  Historic,"  1773;  Matthew  of  West- 
minster, "  Flores  Historiarum." 

Canute  IV.  (or  V.  according  to  some  authorities)  was 
son  of  Prince  Alagnus,  and  grandson  of  Nicholas,  King 
of  Denmark.  At  the  abdication  of  Eric  in  1147,  Canute 
and  Sweyn  (or  Suenon)  HI.  disputed  for  the  crown  of 
Denmark  by  civil  war,  in  which  the  former  was  defeated, 
but  retained  a  part  of  the  kingdom.  He  was  assassin- 
ated by  order  of  Sweyn  in  11 56. 

Canute  V.,  King  of  Denmark,  the  eldest  son  of  Val- 
demar  I.,  was  born  in  1162,  and  ascended  the  throne  at 
his  father's  death  in  1182.  He  subdued  Mecklenburg, 
and  took  the  title  of  King  of  the  Slaves  and  Vandals. 
He  refused  to  take  part  in  the  crusade  which  the  pope 
promoted  about  1186.  Afterwards  he  waged  a  success- 
ful war  against  Adolph,  Duke  of  Holstein,  whom  he  took 
prisoner.  Under  his  wise  reign  Denmark  was  more 
prosperous  and  powerful  than  it  had  ever  been.  He 
died  in  1202,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Valde- 
mar  II. 

See  HoLBERG,  "Danmarks  Riges  Historic;"  Saxo  Grammati- 
cus,  "  Danoruni  Regum  Historia." 

Canute,  ka-nut',  of  Sweden,  was  the  son  of  Eric  IX., 
King  of  Sweden,  who  was  killed  in  1 160.  Charles  Sver- 
kerson  then  reigned,  by  the  choice  of  the  bishops  and 
nobles,  until  1168,  when  Canute  defeated  him  in  battle, 
killed  him,  and  became  king.  His  reign  was  mostly 
peaceful.    He  died  in  1199,  and  left  a  son,  Eric  X. 

Canuti,  kS-noo'tee,  (Domenico  Maria,)  a  skilful 
Italian  fresco-painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1620,  was  a 
pupil  of  Guido.  He  excelled  in  composition  and  fore- 
shortening, and  was  a  skilful  engraver.    Died  in  1684. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Canz,  kints,  (Israel  Gottlieb,)  a  German  philo- 
sopher, born  at  Heinsheim  in  1690.  "He  was,"  says 
Guizot,  "  one  of  the  most  profound  disciples  of  Wolf,  and 
was  successively  professor  of  eloquence,  philosophy,  and 
theology  in  his  native  city."  According  to  another  ac- 
count, he  occupied  these  chairs  in  Tubingen  instead  of 
Heinsheim.  He  published  many  works,  one  of  which, 
entitled  "  The  Use  or  Advantage  of  the  Leibnitzian  and 
Wojfian  Philosophy  in  Theology,"  ("  Philosophia;  Leib- 
nitzianae  et  Wolfianae  Usus  in  Theologia,")  contributed 


much  to  the  diffusion  of  the  philosophy  of  Leibnitz  and 
Wolf  in  Germany,    Died  in  1753. 

See  Ersch  und  Gkuber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Adei.ung, 
Supplement  to  Jocher's  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Cap,  ktp,  (Paul  Antoine,)  a  French  pharmacist 
and  naturalist,  born  at  Macon  in  1788.  He  published  a 
prize  memoir  "On  the  Classification  of  Medicaments," 
(1823,)  a  "History  of  Pharmacy,"  (i85i,)anda  "Museum 
of  Natural  History,"  (1853.) 

Capaccio,  ka-pat'cho,  (Giulio  Cesare,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Campagna  about  1560,  was  for  thirty  years 
secretary  of  the  city  of  Naples,  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  Naples,"  "  The  Secretai-y,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  163 1. 

Capanee.    See  Capaneus. 

Cap'a-neu.s,  [Gr.  Kanavevg ;  Fr.  Capan^ie,  kt^pt'ni',] 
an  Argive  hero,  was  a  son  of  Hipponous,  and  one  of  the 
seven  chiefs  who  led  an  expedition  against  Thebes  to 
restore  Polynices.  The  poets  relate  that  he  was  killed 
at  Thebes  by  a  thunderbolt  of  Jupiter,  whom  he  had 
offended  by  impiety. 

Capasso,  kS-pa's'so,  (Nigcol6,)  a  Neapolitan  poet, 
born  at  Fratta  in  167 1,  was  professor  of  civil  and  canon 
law  in  the  University  of  Naples.  His  version  of  Plomer's 
"Iliad"  is  called  his  master-piece,  and  displays  original 
genius,  though  not  much  like  the  Iliad  itself,  "Plis 
style,"  says  Ginguene,  "is  regarded  as  among  the  most 
sprightly  and  piquant."    Died  in  1746. 

See  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Capdueil,  de,  deh  ktp'duF  or  ktp'du'ye,  or  Cap- 
duelh,  \<i\YiWlV,  (Pons,)  a  French  troubadour  of  noble 
birth,  who  preached  a  crusade,  in  favour  of  which  he  also 
composed  poems.  He  afterwards  joined  the  crusade 
which  was  conducted  by  Philip  Augustus  about  1190. 

Capece,  ki-pa'cha,  or  Capecio,  kl-pa'cho,  [Lat.  Ca- 
pvg'ius ;  Fr.  Capece,  kt'piss',]  (Scipione,)  an  eminent 
Latin  poet,  was  professor  of  law  in  the  University  of 
Naples,  His  principal  poem,  "  On  the  First  Principles 
of  Things,"  ("De  Principiis  Rerum,"  1546,)  was  much 
admired,  and  compared  to  the  great  w^ork  of  Lucretius. 
The  versification  and  Latinity  are  better  than  the  phi- 
losophy, which  teaches  that  air  is  the  principle  of  all 
things.  He  also  wrote  elegies  and  epigrams,  a  poem  on 
John  the  Baptist,  and  a  legal  treatise.   Died  about  1562. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Capece-Latro,  kd-pa'chilcVtRo,  (Giuseppe,)  a  liberal 
Italian  prelate,  born  in  Naples  in  1744,  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Tarentum.  He  wrote  a  treatise  against  the 
celibacy  of  priests,  which  attracted  much  attention,  and 
other  works.  He  was  minister  of  the  interior  under 
Joseph  Bonaparte  and  Murat  between  1808  and  1815. 
Died  in  1836, 

See  Niccol6  Candia,  "Elogio  storico  di  G.  Capecelatro,"  1837; 
Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Capefigue,  ktpTeg',  (Baptiste  Honor^:  Raymond,) 
a  French  historian  and  editor  of  the  royalist  party,  was 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1801,  He  became  a  resident  of 
Paris  in  1821,  and  soon  after  that  date  editor  of  the  "  Quo- 
tidienne,"  He  subsequently  wrote  for  the  "Temps," 
the  "Courrier,"  the  "Gazette  de  France,"  and  other 
journals,  some  of  which  he  edited.  He  has  produced 
a  great  number  of  historical  works,  among  which  are  a 
"History  of  Philippe  Auguste,"  (1829,)  "Europe  during 
the  Consulate  and  the  Empire,"  (1839-41,)  "Llistory  of 
the  Restoration,"  (1842,)  and  "Europe  since  the  Acces- 
sion of  Louis  Philippe,"  (10  vols.,  1849.)  Before  the 
revolution  of  1848  he  had  free  access  to  the  archives  of 
state.  He  is  charged  with  favouring  absolutism  in  his 
writings. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "  Edmburgh  Review" 
for  April,  1836;  "  London  Quarterly  Review,"  1843. 

Cap'el,  (Arthur,)  Lord,  an  English  cavalier  of 
Hertfordshire,  who  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament 
in  1640,  After  acting  with  the  popular  party,  he  turned 
royalist,  and  was  created  Baron  Capel  in  1641,  In  the 
civil  war  he  held  a  high  command  in  the  royalist  army, 
and  was  appointed  a  counsellor  of  the  Prince  of  Wales. 
After  having  made  peace,  or  "compounded,"  with  Par- 
liament, he  joined  another  revolt  in  1648,  was  taken  by 
Fairfax,  tried  for  treason,  and  executed  in  1649. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England." 


€  as     c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  "K, guttural;  N,  uasal;  K,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23,) 


CAPEL 


512 


CAPISUCCHI 


Capel,  (Arthur,)  Earl  of  Essex,  the  eldest  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1635.  He  was  created  Earl 
of  Essex  by  Charles  II.  in  1661,  and  sent  on  an  embassy 
to  Denmark  in  1670.  In  1672  he  was  made  a  privy 
councillor,  and  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland.  His  eloquence 
and  knowledge  of  law  rendered  him  one  of  the  most 
influential  members  of  the  House  of  Lords.  He  after- 
wards became  an  opponent  of  the  court,  and  in  1683 
was  committed  to  the  Tower  on  a  suspicion  of  compli- 
city in  the  Rye-House  Plot.  A  few  days  after  this  event 
he  was  found  dead,  having,  according  to  the  verdict  of 
the  coroner's  inquest,  committed  suicide. 

See  Macaulay's  "  History  of  England,"  vols.  i.  and  iii. 

Cap'ell,  (Edward,)  an  English  critic,  born  at  Troston, 
Suffolk,  in  1 713,  was  distinguished  as  a  commentator  on 
Shakspeare.  He  lived  chiefly  at  Hastings  and  London, 
and  spent  many  years  in  preparing  an  edition  of  Shak- 
speare, which  was  published  in  1767.  The  text  of  this 
edition  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  purest  extant.  He  wrote 
or  edited  several  other  works,  one  of  which  is  "The 
School  of  Shakspeare."    Died  in  1 781. 

See  "  Biographia  Dramatica;"  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine 
Encyklopaedie." 

Capell,  de,  (Brooke  A.,)  was  author  of  "Travels 
through  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Finmark  to  the  North 
Cape,"  (London,  1823,)  and  other  works. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1823. 

Capell  Lofft.    See  Lofft. 

Capella,  ka-peKla,  (Galeazzo  Flavio  Capra,)  an 
Italian  historian,  born  at  Milan  in  1487.  He  becanie 
secretary  of  state  to  Francis  vSforza,  Duke  of  Milan,  who 
employed  him  in  important  missions.  He  was  the  orator 
of  the  emperor  Maximilian,  and  was  retained  in  his  office 
when  Charles  V.  became  master  of  Milan.  Capella  wrote 
several  valuable  works,  among  which  are  a  "  History  of 
the  Wars  of  the  Milanese  from  1521  to  1530,"  (in  Latin,) 
and  a  "History  of  Francis  Sforza,"  (1535.)  He  died  in 
1537- 

See  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  Littei-aire  d'ltalie." 

Ca-pel'Ia,  (Martianus  Mineus  Felix,)  a  Latin 
writer,  of  whose  personal  history  nothing  is  known,  is 
supi)osed  to  have  lived  about  500  a.d.  His  great  work, 
entitled  "  Satyricon,"  was  a  voluminous  compilation, 
somewhat  like  an  encyclopaedia  of  the  seven  liberal  arts, 
(Grammar,  Dialectics,  Rhetoric,  Geometry,  Astronomy, 
Arithmetic,  and  Music,)  and  was  highly  esteemed  and 
used  in  the  schools  of  the  middle  ages.  It  was  a  medley 
of  prose  and  verse,  written  in  an  unclassic,  pretentious 
style.  Some  persons  suppose  that  Copernicus  found  the 
germ  of  his  system  in  a  passage  of  this  work  which 
teaches  that  Mercury  and  Venus  revolve  around  the  sun. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  mediae  et  infimae  ^tatls;"  Ersch 
und  Gkuber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Capellen,  van,  vtn  kS-peKlen,  (Godard  Alexander 
Gerard  Philipplts,)  Baron,  an  able  Dutch  statesman, 
born  in  1778.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  the  interior 
in  1809  by  Louis  Bonaparte,  and  resigned  on  the  abdi- 
cation of  that  king  in  1810.  In  1814  he  became  minister 
of  the  colonies  under  William  I.  He  was  Governor- 
General  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies  for  five  or  more  years, 
*  ending  in  1826.    In  1838  he  attended  the  coronation  of 

Queen  Victoria  as  ambassador  extraordinary,  and  in  1840 
became  grand  chamberlain  to  William  II.  Died  in  1848. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Capellen,  van,  (Robert  Gaspard  Burne,)  one  of 
the  chiefs  of  the  popular  party  in  Holland,  was  born  at 
Zutphen  in  1743.  He  entered  the  States  of  Guelderland 
in  1 77 1,  and  when  the  Prince  of  Orange  aspired  to  abso- 
lute power  he  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  opposition. 
He  was  sentenced  to  death  as  a  traitor  in  1788;  but  he 
had  escaped  to  France,  where  he  died  in  1798. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Capellen,  van,  (Theodorus  Frederik,)  a  Dutch 
admiral,  of  the  same  family  as  the  preceding,  born  about 
1760.  As  rear-admiral  he  commanded  in  1799  a  Dutch 
fleet,  which,  when  attacked  by  the  English,  he  surren- 
dered without  a  battle.  He  resided  in  England  from 
that  time  until  1813,  when  he  returned  home  with  the 
Prince  of  Orange  and  was  made  vice-admiral.  In  1816 
lie  commanded  the  Dutch  fleet  which  co-operated  with 


the  English  in  the  famous  attack  on  Algiers,  and  was 
praised  by  Lord  Exmouth  for  his  conduct  in  that  action. 
Died  in  1824. 

Capello.   See  Cappello,  (Bernardo  and  Marco.) 

Capello,  ka-peKlo,  (Bianca,)  an  ambitious  and  fas- 
cinating woman,  born  of  a  noble  family  in  Venice.  In 
1563  she  eloped  to  Florence  with  Pietro  Bonaventuri, 
who  had  obtained  her  consent  by  false  pretences.  She 
soon  formed  a  liaisoft  with  Francis  de'  Medici,  Grand  Duke 
of  Tuscany,  to  whom  she  was  privately  married  in  1578. 
This  marriage  was  afterwards  avowed  by  him,  and  am- 
bassadors were  sent  from  Venice  to  Florence  to  solem- 
nize the  adoption  of  Bianca  as  the  daughter  of  Saint 
Mark.  She  is  accused  of  ordering  or  instigating  the 
assassination  of  several  persons.    Died  in  1587. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes;"  G.  R.  de 
San-Severino,  "Storia  della  Vita  e  Morte  di  B.  Capello,"  1776,  and 
French  version  of  the  same,  1779;  Cicogna,  "  B.  Capello;  Cenni 
storici  critici,"  1828;  Siebenkees,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  der  B.  Ca- 
pello," 1789,  and  English  version  of  the  same,  1797;  Carlo  Botta, 
"B.  Capello,"  1838. 

Caperan,  kSp^rSN',  (Arnaud  Thomas,)  a  French 
Orientalist  and  priest,  born  at  Dol  in  1754,  was  preceptor 
of  Chateaubriand.  He  left  several  works  on  Oriental 
languages.    Died  in  1826. 

Campers,  (William,)  an  American  Methodist  bishop, 
born  in  South  Carolina  in  1790,  preached  several  years 
at  Charleston.  He  was  editor  of  the  "  Southern  Chris- 
tian Advocate,"  and  was  elected  a  bishop  of  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church  South  in  1846.    Died  in  1855. 

Carpet,  (Hugh,)  [Fr.  Hugues  Capet,*  hug  krpi',] 
King  of  France,  was  the  head  of  the  third  dynasty,  and 
the  ancestor  of  thirty-two  French  kings.  He  was  the  son 
of  Hugh  the  Great,  Count  of  Paris,  and  was  born  about 
940  a.d.  At  the  death  of  Louis  V.,  the  last  of  the  Car- 
lovingians,  in  987,  he  assumed  royal  power,  and  obtained 
the  suffrages  of  the  assembled  barons  ;  but  his  crown  was 
disputed  by  Charles  of  Lorraine,  the  legitimate  heir  of 
the  last  dynasty.  Having  defeated  Charles  in  battle,  he 
afterwards  possessed  the  throne  in  peace,  and,  by  mode- 
ration and  policy,  confirmed  his  power,  which  at  first  was 
hardly  superior  to  that  of  the  nobles  whose  choice  had 
made  him  king.  Paris  was  chosen  as  the  capital  of  his 
kingdom.  His  posterity  continued  to  reign  in  France 
until  the  Revolution  of  1789.  He  died  in  996,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Robert. 

See  Guillaume  de  Jumieges;  Capefigue,  "  Hu^^ues  Capet  el 
le  troisieme  Race,"  4  vols.,  1836;  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des  Fran- 
gais;"  Devismes,  "  Hugues  Capet ;  Fragment  historique,"  1804. 

Capilupi,  ki-pe-loo'pee,  (Camillo,)  a  native  of  Man- 
tua, wrote  a  famous  work  called  the  "  Stratagem  of 
Charles  IX.  against  the  Huguenots,"  (1572,)  in  which 
he  justified  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew  and 
argued  that  it  was  premeditated.  Cardinal  Lorraine, 
who  was  then  in  Rome,  endeavoured  to  suppress  this 
book,  from  motives  of  policy. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Historia." 

Capilupi,  (Lelio,)  an  Italian  writer,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Mantua  in  1498  ;  died  in  1560. 

Capistrano,  da,  di  ki-pes-tRi'no,  written  also  Ca- 
pistran,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  monk,  eminent  for  his 
talents  and  virtues,  was  born  at  Capistrano,  in  the  Abruzzi, 
in  1385.  He  preached  with  honour  in  the  chief  cities 
of  Italy  and  Germany,  and  was  employed  as  legate  and 
nuncio  by  several  popes.  When  Belgrade  was  besieged 
by  the  Sultan  in  1456,  he  shut  himself  up  in  that  city,  and 
by  his  zeal  contributed  greatly  to  its  successful  defence. 
He  wrote  "The  Mirror  of  Conscience,"  ("  Speculum  Con- 
scientiae,")  and  other  works  on  theology.    Died  in  1456. 

See  Baillet,  "Vies  des  Saints." 

CapiGucchi,  ki-pe-sook'kee,  or  Capizucca,  ki-pkl- 
zook'ka,  (BiAGio  or  Biasio,)  Marquis  of  Monterio,  an 
Italian  general,  born  in  Rome.  He  served  under  the 
Duke  of  Parma  in  the  Low  Countries  in  1584,  and  was 
afterwards  lieutenant-general  of  Ferdinand  I.  de'  Medici, 
Duke  of  Tuscany.    Died  in  1613. 

See  Adami,  "  Elogj  istorici  de'  due  Marches!  Capisucchi  fratelli 
Camillo  et  Biagio,"  1685. 


*  The  name  Capet  is  said  to  have  been  given  to  him  as  a  nick- 
name ;  but  there  is  the  greatest  diversity  in  regard  to  its  signification. 
One  authority  says  it  signifies  "big-headed ;"  another,  a  "jester ;"  and 
so  on. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sho7-t ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fA.t;  mhX;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CAPISUCCHI 


513 


CAPPEL 


Capisucchi,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  general,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Rome  in  1537;  died  in  1597. 

See  Motley,  "  History  of  the  United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  chap.  v. 

Capisucchi,  (Paolo,)  born  in  Rome  in  1479,  became 
Bishop  of  Neocastro.  Clement  VII,  having  referred  to 
him  the  question  of  a  divorce  between  Henry  VIII.  of 
England  and  Queen  Catherine,  Capisucchi  made  a  re- 
port against  Henry.    Died  in  1539. 

Cap'i-to,  (C.  Ateius,)  an  eminent  Roman  jurist,  who 
flourished  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and  was  chosen 
consul  in  5  A.D.  He  was  the  rival  of  Labeo,  and  founder 
of  a  numerous  school  of  lawyers.  He  wrote  books  on 
pontifical  law,  and  other  legal  works.    Died  in  22  A.D. 

See  Tacitus,  "Annales;"  Hoffet,  "  Esquisses  biographiques 
sur  Capiton,''  1850. 

Capito,  ka'pe-to,  [Fr.  Capiton,  kt'pe't6N',]  (Wo'  f- 
GANG  Fabricius,)  an  eminent  German  theologian  and 
Reformer,  born  at  Haguenau  about  1480.  His  original 
name  was  Wolff  Koefstein.  He  became  secretary  of 
Albert,  Archbishop  of  Mentz,  who  gave  him  a  title  of 
nobility  in  1523.  About  this  date  he  was  converted  to 
the  Protestant  faith,  and  became  intimate  with  Bucer. 
He  was  deputed  to  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  in  1530,  and 
five  years  later  had  an  interview  with  Calvin  for  the  pur- 
pose of  effecting  a  union  between  the  Calvinists  and  the 
Lutherans.  He  wrote  "  Hebrew  Institutes,"  ("  Institu- 
tiones  Hebraicae,")  a  "Life  of  CEcolampadius,"  "The 
Six  Days'  Work  of  God  explained,"  ("  Hexaemeron  Dei 
Opus  explicatum,"  1539,)  and  other  works.  Died  at 
Strasburg  in  1 541. 

See  Sax,  "  Onomasticon  ;"  Seckendorf,  "HistoriaLutheranismi." 

Capitolinus.    See  Manlius,  and  Manlia  Gens. 

Cap-i-to-li'nus,  (Julius,)  a  Latin  biographer,  who 
wrote  about  the  end  of  the  third  century,  was  one  of  the 
authors  of  the  "  Historia  Augusta."  The  biographies 
of  the  following  emperors  are  ascribed  to  him  :  Anto- 
ninus Pius,  Marcus  Aurelius,  Lucius  Verus,  Pertinax, 
Clodius  Albinus,  Opilius  Macrinus,  two  Maximins,  three 
Gordians,  Maximus,  and  Balbinus. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  J^istoricis  Latinis ;"  Moller,  "  Dissertatio  de 
J.  Capitolino,"  1689;  G.  Hevne,  "Opuscula  Academica." 

Capiton,  the  French  of  Capito,  which  see. 

Capivaccio,  kd-pe-vSt'cho,  or  Capo  di  Vacca, 
ki'po  de  vSk'kS,  (Geronimo,)  an  Italian  physician,  born 
at  Padua ;  died  in  1589. 

Capizucca.    See  Capisucchl 

Capmani  or  Capmany,  de,  d^i  kip-mJ'nee,  (Anto- 
nio,) an  eminent  Spanish  author  and  philologist,  born  at 
Barcelona  in  1742.  He  resided  in  Madrid  many  years, 
and  held  several  political  offices.  When  the  French 
obtained  possession  of  Madrid  in  1808,  he  retired  to 
Seville.  He  compiled  a  good  French  and  Spanish  Dic- 
tionary, and  wrote  a  variety  of  works,  among  which  are 
"The  Sentinel  against  the  French,"  "  Historico-Critical 
Theatre  of  Spanish  Eloquence,"  and  "  Philosophy  of 
Eloquence  ;"  also  "  Historical  Memoirs  of  Barcelona," 
(1779-92,)  which  is  commended  by  Prescott.  Died  at 
Cadiz  in  1813. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Meusel,  "  Bi- 
bliotheca  Historica;"  Prescott,  "History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
bella," vol.  i. 

Capnion.    See  Reuchltn. 

Capo  de  Peuillide,  kt'po'  deh  fuh'e-yW,  (Jean 
Gabriel,)  a  French  journalist,  born  in  the  Antilles  in 
1800,  removed  to  France  about  1818.  He  has  edited 
several  journals  of  Paris,  and  has  been  republican  and 
royalist  by  turns.  In  1844  he  published  a  "  History  of 
the  People  of  Paris."  He  was  transported  to  Algeria 
for  opposition  to  Napoleon's  coup  d'etat  of  Decernber, 
185 T,  but  returned  to  France  a  few  years  afterwards. 

Capo  d'Istria,  k^'po  dis'tRe-d,  (Augustin,)  Count 
OF,  a  brother  of  John,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Corfu. 
He  was  invited  to  Greece  in  1829  by  his  brother,  who 
gave  him  a  high  position  in  the  army.  He  was  elected 
President  of  Greece  in  December,  1831;  but  the  opposi- 
tion became  so  strong  that  he  resigned  in  April,  1832. 
Died  in  1842. 

Capo  d'Istria  or  Capodistrias,  k^'po-dis'tRe-Ss, 
(John,)  Count,  and  President  of  Greece,  was  born  in 
Corfu  in  1780.  He  entered  the  service  of  Russia  in  1806, 
as  clerk  in  the  foreign  omce,  where  he  was  rapidly  ad- 
vanced.   After  having  been  employed  by  the  Czar  in 


several  diplomatic  missions,  he  represented  Russia  in 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1814-15,  and  signed  the 
treaty  of  peace  at  Paris  in  November,  1815.  The  next 
year  he  was  appointed  foreign  secretary  of  state,  and 
enjoyed  the  confidence  of  the  emperor,  who  found  in 
him  an  unscrupulous  and  able  inini^ter,  devoted  to  the 
cause  of  absolutism.  About  1817  he  received  the  title 
of  count,  and  the  cross  of  the  order  of  Alexander.  In 
April,  1827,  he  was  chosen  (probably  by  Russian  influ- 
ence) President  (for  seven  years)  of  Greece,  which  had 
just  thrown  off  the  Turkish  yoke.  His  administration 
was  arbitrary  and  excited  much  discontent.  He  violated 
the  constitution,  subverted  the  liberty  of  the  press,  and 
aimed,  it  would  appear,  to  make  Greece  subservient  to 
Russia.  Some  writers,  however,  justify  or  excuse  his 
measures  in  consideration  of  the  violent  and  factious 
character  of  the  Greeks.  He  was  assassinated,  October 
9,  1831,  by  George  and  Constantine  Mauromichali. 

See  S.  BuLGARi,  "Notice  sur  J.  Capodistrias,"  Paris,  1832;  A 
Papadopoulos  Vretos,  "Memoires  sur  le  President  de  la  Grece,' 
2  vols.,  1838. 

Ca'pon,  (William,)  an  English  architect  and  scene- 
painter,  born  at  Norwich  in  1757.  His  most  admired 
productions  were  the  scenic  decorations  of  Drury  Lane 
and  Covent  Garden.    Died  in  1828. 

Caponi,  ki-po'nee,  (Agostino,)  a  citizen  of  Florence, 
who  in  1513  engaged  in  a  conspiracy  with  Machiavel  and 
others  to  subvert  the  power  of  the  Medicis.  A  \hX  of 
the  conspirators  dropped  by  him  accidentally  betrayed 
the  secret,  and  Caponi  was  executed. 

Caporali,  kS-po-ri'lee,  (Cesare,)  a  satirical  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Perugia  in  153 1.  He  lived  some  years  at 
Rome  in  the  service  of  several  cardinals,  and  wrote  poems 
remarkable  for  originality  and  elegance,  viz.,  "A  Jonrney 
to  Parnassus,"  "The  Life  of  Maecenas,"  and  "The  Gar- 
dens of  Maecenas."    Died  in  1601. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Cappe,  kap,  (Newcome,)  an  English  Socinian  \iin- 
ister,  born  at  Leeds  in  1732.  He  preached  many  years 
in  his  native  place,  and  had  a  high  reputation  foi'  elo- 
quence. He  published  a  number  of  sermons,  anc^  left 
"  Critical  Remarks  on  many  Important  Passages  of  Scrip- 
ture."   Died  in  1800. 

Cappeil,  kS'p^K,  (Ange,)  a  French  Protestant  jrnist, 
born  in  1537,  was  related  to  Louis,  noticed  below.  He 
became  secretary  to  Henry  IV.,  and  wrote  a  work  01^  the 
abuses  of  litigation,  ("Abus  des  Plaideurs,"  1604.)  He 
translated  several  essays  of  Seneca  into  French.  Died 
in  1623. 

Cappel,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  theologian,  was  an 
uncle  of  Jacques,  who  died  in  1542.  He  was  rector  of 
the  University  of  Paris  in  1491. 

Cappel,  (Guillaume,)  born  in  1530,  was  a  son  of 
Jacques,  and  brother  of  Ange.  He  translated  the  works 
of  Machiavel  into  French.    Died  about  1586. 

Cappel,  (Jacques,)  a  French  jurist,  was  a  councillor 
of  state  under  Francis  I.  He  was  the  father  of  Ange, 
Jacques,  and  Louis  Cappel.    Died  in  1542. 

Cappel,  (Jacques,)  Sieur  de  Tilloy,  (deh  te'lwi',) 
a  French  jurist,  born  in  1525,  embraced  the  Reformed 
religion  in  his  youth.  He  became  a  counsellor  at  Rennes, 
and,  during  the  persecution  of  1 5 72,  found  refuge  at 
Sedan.    D^ed  in  1586. 

Cappel,  [Lat.  Cappel'lus,]  (Jacques,)  a  French  Prot- 
estant minister,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Rennes  in  1570.  He  was  professor  of  Hebrew  and 
theology  in  his  native  place,  and  author  of  several  valu- 
able works,  among  which  are  "  A  Treatise  on  Weights 
and  Coins,"  (1606,)  "A  Treatise  on  Measures,"  (1607,) 
and  "Notes  on  the  Old  Testament."  Died  in  1624. 

Cappel,  (Jacques  Louis,)  born  in  1639,  succeeded 
his  father  Louis  in  the  chair  of  Hebrew  at  Saumur. 
When  the  edict  of  Nantes  was  revoked,  (1685,)  he  took 
refuge  in  England,  where  he  died  in  1722. 

See  Louis  Cappel,  "De  Cappelorum  Gente,"  1689;  Niceron, 
"  Memoires." 

Cappel,  (Louis,)  a  French  Protestant  minister,  born 
in  Paris  in  1534,  was  a  son  of  Jacques,  (who  died  in 
1542.)  He  was  an  intrepid  advocate  of  the  Reformation. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  was  professor  of  theology 
at  Sedan,  where  he  died  in  1586. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hatd;  g  as  J;  g,  H,  Y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.   (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.I 

33 


CAPPEL 


5'4 


CAPRARA 


Cappel,  [Lat.  Cappel'lus,]  (Louis,)  called  the 
Younger,  an  eminent  French  Protestant  divine,  son  of 
Jacques  Cappel  de  Tilloy,  born  at  Sedan  in  1585.  He 
passed  nearly  all  his  life  at  Saumur,  where  he  was  min- 
ister and  professor  of  Hebrew  and  theology.  He  ren- 
dered himself  memorable  by  his  new  system  of  sacred 
criticism  announced  in  his  "  Secret  of  Punctuation  re- 
vealed," ("Arcanum  Punctuationis  revelatum,"  1624,) 
maintaining  that  the  vowel  points  are  a  modern  inven- 
tion. In  1650  he  published  his  principal  work,  "Critica 
Sacra,"  in  pursuance  of  his  project  to  reform  the  Hebrew 
text  of  the  Bible.  These  works,  which  excited  much 
opposition,  are  said  to  form  an  epoch  in  sacred  philology, 
and  gained  for  Cappel  the  title  of  father  of  Hebrew  criti- 
cism.   Died  at  Saumur  in  1658. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Cappel,  kSp'pel,  (Ludwig  Christoph  Wilhelm,) 
a  German  medical  writer,  born  in  1772;  died  in  1804. 

Cappellari,  kip-pgl-ia'ree,  (Gennaro  Antonio,)  an 
Italian  writer,  born  in  Naples  in  1655.  He  wrote  and 
spoke  Latin  with  facility  and  elegance,  and  published 
several  Latin  works,  among  which  are  "The  Praises  of 
Philosophy,"  and  a  poem  on  the  comets  of  1664  and 
1665.  He  was  executed  at  Palermo  in  1702,  on  a  charge 
of  treason.    His  innocence  was  afterwards  recognized. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  fetteratura  Italiana." 

Cappelle,  van,  vin  kap-peKleh,(jAN  Pieter,)  aDutch 
writer,  born  at  Flushing  in  1783,  published  "Researches 
for  the  History  of  the  Netherlands,"  (1827,)  and  other 
works.  He  became  professor  of  history  at  Amsterdam 
in  1819.    Died  in  1829. 

See  David  Jacob  van  Lennep,  "  Gedachtenisrede  op  J.  P.  van 
Cappelle,"  1S30. 

Cappelle,  van  der,  vtn  der  kSp-peKleh,  (Jan,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  painter  of  marine  and  river  views,  sup- 
posed to  have  flourished  about  1680.  We  have  no 
materials  to  compose  his  biography.  He  was  an  excel- 
lent colorist,  and  his  works,  which  include  some  winter 
landscapes,  command  high  prices. 

Cappelli,kap-peKlee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Sassuolo,  was  one  of  the  best  pupils  of  Correggio. 
He  was  living  in  1568. 

Cappelli,  (Marcan TONio,)  an  Italian  Franciscan  monk 
and  theological  writer,  born  at  Este,  was  an  opponent 
of  Pope  Paul  V.  in  the  affair  of  the  interdict  of  Venice. 
Died  about  1630. 

Cappello,  kSp-pel'lo,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Venice  about  1500,  received  lessons  from  Bembo. 
Having  entered  the  public  service,  he  was  banished  in 
1540  to  the  island  of  Arbe,  from  which  he  escaped  about 
1542  to  the  Papal  States.  He  was  afterwards  governor 
of  Orvieto  and  Tivoli.  He  produced  in  1560  a  volume 
of  lyric  poems,  "Rime"  or  " Canzonieri,"  which,  says 
Tiraboschi,  "  are  among  the  most  graceful,  noble,  and 
polished  that  appeared  in  the  sixteenth  century."  Died 
at  Rome  in  1565. 

See  Serrassi,  "Vita  di  Bernardo  Cappello,"  prefixed  to  his 
"Rime;"  Tiraboschi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Cappello,  (Marco,)  an  Italian  poet  and  priest,  born 
at  Brescia  in  1706.  He  had  a  talent  for  improvisation, 
witticisms,  and  burlesque  composition.  Among  his  sa- 
tirical or  burlesque  poems  are  "The  Scarecrow,"  ("La 
Befana,")  and  "The  Cats,"  ("  I  Gatti.")    Died  in  1782. 

Cappellus.    See  Cappel. 

Cap'per,  (James,)  an  English  officer  in  the  service  of 
the  East  India  Company.  He  made  the  journey  from 
Europe  to  India  by  land  in  1778,  and  published  "Obser- 
vations on  the  Passage  to  India,"  (1782.)    Died  in  1825. 

Capperonnier,  ktp^ro'ne-4',  (Claude,)  an  eminent 
French  linguist  and  critic,  born  at  Montdidier  in  167 1, 
was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  in  the  College  of 
France  in  1722.  He  kept  this  place  until  his  death.  He 
published  an  edition  of  Quintilian,  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1744. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Capperonnier,  (Jean,)  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Montdidier  in  1716.  He  succeeded  his  uncle  as 
professor  at  the  College  of  France  in  1743,  and  became 
librarian  to  the  king.  The  Acaderny  of  Inscriptions  was 
opened  to  him  in  1749.  He  published  editions  of  Caesar, 
Plautus,  Justin,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1775. 


Capponi,  kjp-po'nee.  (Gino,)  an  Italian  statesman, 
father  of  Neri,  noticed  below,  born  about  1350.  He  was 
one  of  the  chief  magistrates  of  the  republic  of  Florence, 
and  directed  the  military  administration  with  success  as 
decemvir  of  war.  "The  conquest  of  Pisa,"  (1406,)  says 
Sismondi,  "was  effected  chiefly  by  him."   Died  hi  1420. 

See  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Capponi,  (Gino,)  Marquis  of,  an  elegant  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Florence  in  1792,  was  a  chief  of  the  con- 
stitutional party  in  Tuscany,  and  was  placed  at  the  head 
of  a  brief  ministry  in  1848.  He  produced  a  "History  of 
the  Popes,"  and  a  "  Treatise  on  Education,"  and  wrote 
many  memoirs  for  the  Academy  Delia  Crusca. 

Capponi,  (Gregorio  Alessandro,)  Marquis,  an 
Italian  scholar,  born  in  Rome  about  1685,  was  noted  for 
his  excellent  taste  in  books  and  antiquities.  He  formed 
a  rich  collection  of  medals,  cameos,  etc.,  and  collected  a 
library  of  rare  books,  which  by  his  will  was  added  to 
that  of  the  Vatican.  Died  in  1746.  The  Catalogue  of 
the  Capponi  Library,  with  notes  by  Giorgi,  is  highly 
prized  by  bibliographers. 

See  Adelung,  Supplement  to  Jocher's  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon." 

Capponi,  (Neri,)  one  of  the  chief  magistrates  of  the 
Florentine  republic,  born  in  1388,  was  eminent  for  virtue 
and  talents.  The  victory  of  Anghieri  in  1440  was  as- 
cribed to  his  skill.  He  wrote  a  Commentary  on  his  own 
administration.    Died  in  1457. 

Capponi,  (Pietro,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  filled 
for  many  years  the  highest  offices  in  Florence.  In  1494 
Charles  VIII.  of  France,  having  been  hospitably  ad- 
mitted with  his  soldiers  into  the  city,  assumed  the  part 
of  a  master.  Capponi  boldly  asserted  the  freedom  of 
the  city,  and  by  a  prompt  demonstration  of  a  readiness 
for  battle  deterred  the  king  from  the  execution  of  his 
audacious  purpose.    He  was  killed  at  a  siege  in  1496. 

See  SisvoNDi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Capponi  della  Porreta,  kSp-po'nee  deKli  por-ra't3,, 
(Seraeino  Annirale,)  an  Italian  theologian  and  monk, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1536,  wrote  several  works  in  elucida- 
tion of  the  theology  of  Thomas  Aquinas.   Died  in  1614. 

See  Pio,  "Vita  di  S.  Capponi,"  1625. 

Capra.    See  Benedictis. 

Capra.    See  Capella,  (Galeazzo  Flavto.) 

Capra,  k^'pR^,  (Baldassare,)  an  Italian  astronomer, 
born  at  Milan.  He  disputed  with  Galileo  the  title  of 
inventor  of  the  compass  of  proportion.    Died  in  1626. 

Capranica,  ki-pRS-nee'ki,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian 
cardinal,  born  in  1400,  was  eminent  for  learning  and 
talents,  and  performed  a  prominent  part  in  political 
affairs.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Art  of  Dying,"  and  one  "  On  Contempt  of  the 
World,"  ("  De  Contemptu  Mundi.")    Died  in  1458. 

See  M.  Catalani,  "  Commentarius  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  D.  Capra- 
nicjE,"  1793. 

Caprara,  ki-pR^'r^,  (Alberto,)  Count  of,  an  Italian 
general,  nephew  of  General  Piccolomini,  born  at  Bologna 
in  163 1.  He  entered  the  service  of  Austria,  and  obtained 
the  rank  of  general.  He  was  a  Knight  of  the  Golden 
Fleece,  and  was  employed  in  several  foreign  embassies. 
He  translated  portions  of  Seneca's  works  into  Italian. 
Died  in  1686. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Caprara,  (Enea  Sylvio,)  Count  of,  a  distinguished 
general,  born  at  Bologna  in  163 1,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  and  a  nephew  of  the  famous  Piccolomini.  He 
entered  the  service  of  Austria  about  1650,  and  served  in 
forty-four  campaigns.  He  was  defeated  by  Turenne  in 
Germany  in  1674,  and  was  victorious  over  the  Turks  in 
Hungary  in  1683  and  1685.    Died  in  1701. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Caprara,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  Archbishop  of  Mi- 
lan, and  count,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Bologna  in 
1733.  Having  served  as  nuncio  to  several  capitals  of 
Europe,  he  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1792.  In  1801  he 
was  sent  as  legate  to  Paris,  with  a  view  to  restore  public 
worship,  and  there  performed  the  ceremony  with  which 
the  Concordat  was  celebrated  in  1802.  He  officiated  at 
the  coronation  of  Napoleon  as  King  of  Italy  in  1805. 
Died  in  1810. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  \  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CAPRI  AT  A 


CARADOC 


Capriata,  ki-pRe-i'ti,  (Pietro  Giovanni,)  an  Ital- 
ian historian  and  lawyer,  born  at  Genoa.  He  wrote  a 
"History  of  Italy  from  1613  to  1646,"  (1648,)  which  is 
esteemed  for  its  accuracy.    Died  about  1660. 

Capuro,  ki-poo'ro,  (Francesco,)  a  Genoese  painter, 
who  lived  about  1630. 

Capycius.    See  Capece. 

Caque,  kt'ki',  (Augustin  Armand,)  a  French  en- 
graver of  medals,  born  at  Saintes  in  1793.  He  worked 
some  time  on  the  "Gallery  of  the  Kings  of  France," 
and  in  183 1  became  a  member  of  the  commission  of  the 
mint.  About  1853  he  was  appointed  engraver  of  medals 
for  the  cabinet  of  the  emperor. 

Carabantes,  de.  di  ki-ra-Kin'tls,  (Jos^:,)  a  Spanish 
missionary,  born  in  1628,  published  several  works.  Died 
in  1694. 

See  QuiROGA,  "  Vida  y  Virtudes  de  J.  de  Carabantes,"  1705. 

Car-a-cal'la,  (Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  Bas- 
SIANUS,)  a  Roman  emperor,  born  at  Lyons  in  188  a.D. 
He  was  the  son  of  the  emperor  Septimius  Severus,  who, 
dying  in  212,  left  the  empire  to  Caracalla  and  his  brother 
Geta.  The  latter  was  assassinated  by  order  of  Caracalla, 
who  sought  to  confirm  his  power  by  sacrificing  many 
friends  of  Geta.  Papinian,  the  jurist,  was  one  of  the  vic- 
tims, who,  it  is  said,  amounted  to  thousands.  His  reign 
was  a  series  of  cruelties,  extortions,  and  follies.  He  chose 
for  his  chief  ministers  persons  of  the  vilest  character.  He 
led  his  army  into  Parthia  about  216  A.D.,  ravaged  a  part 
of  the  country,  and  retired  before  he  had  encountered 
the  Parthian  army.  A  conspiracy  having  been  formed 
by  Macrinus,  Caracalla  was  killed  by  one  of  his  soldiers 
near  Edessa,  in  Asia,  in  217  A.D.,  and  Macrinus  reigned 
in  his  stead. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Mefs- 
TER,  "  Dissertatiode  Caracalla,"  1792;  Spartian,  "Vita  Carac;\llse." 

Caracci,  kS-rit'chee,  or  Carracci,  kdr-r^t'chee,  [Fr. 
Carrache,  kt'rSsh',]  (Agostino,)  a  celebrated  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Bologna  about  1558,  was  the  bro- 
ther of  Annibal  and  cousin  of  Ludovico,  noticed  below. 
He  studied  painting  under  Pros]:)ero  Fontana,  and  en- 
graving under  Cornelius  Cort.  He  became  the  partner 
of  the  other  Caracci  in  the  Academy  at  Bologna,  and 
assisted  Annibal  in  the  Farnese  Gallery  at  Rome.  In 
invention  he  was  equal  or  superior  to  either  of  his  kins- 
men. "The  Communion  of  Saint  Jerome,"  at  the 
Louvre,  is  called  the  master-piece  among  his  paintings. 
His  engravings  are  numerous  and  are  highly  prized.  He 
wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Perspective  and  Architecture." 
Died  in  1602. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy Malvasia,  "  Felsina 
pittrice." 

Caracci,  (Annibal  or  Annibale,)  one  of  the  great 
masters  of  the  Bolognese  school  of  painting,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  w^as  born  about  1560,  and  was  the  pupil 
of  Ludovico  Caracci.  He  had  more  energy  and  bold- 
ness, but  less  cultivation,  than  his  brother,  and  is  esti- 
mated the  greatest  painter  of  the  Caracci  family.  The 
paintings  with  which  he  adorned  the  Farnese  Gallery  at 
Rome  (on  which  he  worked  eight  years)  are  regarded 
as  his  master-pieces,  and  nearly  approach  the  grace  of 
the  works  of  Raphael.  He  shares  with  his  cousin  and 
brother  the  honour  of  founding  a  new  school,  which  pro- 
duced many  excellent  artists.  (See  Caracci,  Ludovico.) 
Died  at  Rome  in  1609. 

See  Malvasia.  "Vite  de'  Pittori  Bolognesi ;"  Bryan,  "Diction- 
ary of  Painters  and  Engravers." 

Caracci,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Venice  in  1583,  was  a  son  of  Agostino,  and  a  pupil  of 
Annibal,  his  uncle.  He  executed  some  frescos  in  the 
Vatican,  and  an  oil-painting  of  the  Deluge,  which  is 
much  admired.    Died  in  16 18. 

Caracci,  (Francesco,)  a  brother  of  Annibal,  born 
in  1595,  was  also  a  painter.  After  the  death  of  his  bro- 
thers he  opened  a  school  at  Bologna  in  opposition  to 
Ludovico,  but  was  not  successful.  He  died  in  Rome  in 
1622. 

Caracci,  (Ludovico.)  the  founder  of  the  Bolognese 
school  of  painting,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1555.  His 
instructors  were  Fontana  of  Bologna  and  Tintoretto  of 
Venice.  His  slowness  of  execution  was  such  that  he 
obtained  the  nickname  of  "  the  Ox."  Having  secured  the 


co-operation  of  his  cousins,  above  noticed,  whose  educa- 
tion he  had  partly  directed,  he  opened  an  academy  in 
Bologna,  which  became  very  celebrated,  and  effected  a 
reform  in  the  style  of  art,  which  had  become  languid  and 
degenerate.  He  excelled  in  design,  and  was  remarkable 
for  fidelity  to  nature  and  for  his  ajjtitucle  as  a  teacher 
of  art.  Among  his  pupils  were  Guido  Reni  and  Do- 
menichino.  Of  his  oil-paintings,  "The  Preaching  of 
Saint  John  the  Baptist"  (in  the  Louvre)  is  accounted  the 
master-piece.    Died  in  1619. 

See  Malvasia,  "Vite  de'  Pittori  Bolognesi." 

Caraccio,  kS-rSt'cho,  (Antonio,)  Baron  of  Corano, 
(ko-rS'no,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Nardo  in  1630.  He 
published  lyric  poems,  and  an  epic  poem  entitled  "The 
Empire  Vindicated,"  ("  LTmperio  vendicato,"  1690,) 
much  admired  by  his  contemporaries.    Died  in  1702. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Caraccioli,  ka-rSt'cho-lee  or  kS-rit-cho'Iee,  (Anto- 
nio,) an  Italian  theologian,  born  at  Melfi,  was  a  son  of 
Gianni,  Prince  of  Melfi,  noticed  below.  He  became  abbe 
of  Saint- Victor,  in  France,  about  1543,  and  afterwards 
Bishop  of  Troyes.  A  few  years  later  he  was  converted 
to  Calvinism.  He  wrote  "  The  Mirror  of  True  Religion." 
Died  in  1569. 

Caraccioli,  (DoMENica,)  Marquis,  an  Italian  diplo- 
matist and  wit,  born  at  Naples  in  171 5.  From  1770  to 
1780  he  was  ambassador  from  Naples  to  the  French 
court,  and  in  the  latter  year  became  Viceroy  of  Sicily. 
He  was  chosen  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1786.  Died 
in  1789. 

See  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Caraccioli,  (Francesco,)  Prince,  an  admiral,  a 
relative  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Naples  about  1748. 
He  commanded  the  fleet  of  the  Neapolitan  republic  in 
1799,  and  repulsed  the  Anglo-Sicilian  fleet  between 
Cumae  and  Cape  Miseno.  Soon  after  this  the  roj-alists 
prevailed  at  Naples  :  he  was  arrested,  tried  by  a  court- 
martial,  and  hung  by  order  of  Lord  Nelson. 

Caraccioli,  (Gianni,)  a  favourite  courtier  and  min- 
ister of  Joanna,  Queen  of  Naples,  exercised  almost 
absolute  power  for  about  sixteen  years.  He  was  assas- 
sinated in  1432. 

Caraccioii,  (Gianni,)  Prince  of  Melfi,  born  in  1480, 
fought  alternately  for  the  French  and  the  Spaniards  in 
the  campaigns  of  1528-36,  and  was  made  a  marshal  of 
France  in  1544.    Died  in  1550. 

Caraccioli,  (Luioi  Antonio,)  born  of  a  noble  Ital- 
ian family  in  Paris  in  1721,  became  a  member  of  the 
order  of  the  Oratory,  and  tutor  of  the  sons  of  Prince 
Rewski  in  Poland.  He  afterwards  resided  in  Paris.  He 
published  many  works,  one  of  which  attracted  much 
notice.  It  purported  to  be  a  version  of  Pope  Clement 
the  Fourteenth's  letters,  but  was  suspected  by  many  to 
have  originated  with  Caraccioli.    Died  in  1S03. 

See  Gkimm,  " Correspondance  Htteraire." 

Caraccioli,  (Roberto,)  an  Italian  theologian  and 
pulpit  orator,  born  at  Lecce,  in  Naples,  in  1425,  became 
Bishop  of  Aquino  in  1471.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  "The 
Mirror  of  the  Christian  Faith,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1475. 

See  DoMENico  de  Angelis,  "Vita  di  R.  Caraccioli,"  1703. 

Caracciolo,  ki-rit-cho'lo  or  ki-rit'cho-lo,  or  Ca- 
racciuolo,  kS-r^t-choo-o'lo,  (Giovanni  Battlsta,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  in  Naples,  was  an  admirer  of 
Annibal  Caracci,  whose  works  he  studied  in  Rome 
and  imitated  with  skill.  He  adorned  the  churches 
and  palaces  of  Naples  with  admired  pictures.  Died 
in  1641. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Caracciuolo.    See  Caracciolo. 

Ca-rac'ta-cus,  King  of  the  Silures,  a  tribe  of  ancient 
Britons.  After  resisting  the  Roman  arms  about  nine 
years,  he  was  defeated  by  Ostorius,  and  carried  captive 
to  Rome,  in  51  A.D.  The  Romans  admired  his  manly 
deportment  in  presence  of  the  emperor  Claudius,  who 
spared  his  life  and  sent  him  home  with  presents.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  died  about  54  A.D. 

See  Tacitus,  "Annales." 

Caradoc,  kl-ri'dok,  or  Ca-ra'dog,  [Lat.  Carac'ta- 
cus,]  a  Welsh  chronicler,  born  at  Llancarvan.   He  wrote 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CARADVC 


516 


CARBONARA 


a  "  History  of  the  Welsh  Princes,"  not  extant,  but  of 
which  an  £:nglish  translation  has  been  preserved.  He 
died  about  1 154. 

See  Wkight,  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Caraduc,  kS-ra'duk,  an  ancient  Briton  or  Welsh  bard 
of  unknown  period.  He  wrote  a  lay,  the  scene  of  which 
is  laid  at  the  court  of  King  Arthur. 

Caraffa,  kS-r^Pfa,  a  noble  family  of  Naples,  which, 
since  the  thirteenth  century,  has  produced  many  dukes, 
cardinals,  etc.  Paul  IV.,  elected  pope  in  1555,  was  a 
Caiaffa.  His  efforts  to  exalt  and  enrich  his  kindred 
involved  him  in  a  bloody  war  with  Spain.  He  made  his 
nephe--  Charles  a  cardinal,  and  gave  the  titles  of  Mar- 
quis ;A  Montebello  and  Uuke  of  Palliano  to  his  other 
nephews  Antonio  and  Giovanni,  for  whose  interest  he 
conhscated  the  estates  of  several  nobles.  In  1559  they 
were  disgraced  and  exiled  by  the  same  pontiff.  The 
cardinal  was  put  to  death,  after  a  legal  process,  in  1561. 

Caraffa,  ki-riffd,  (Antonio,)  a  third-cousin  of  Pope 
Paul  IV.,  became  a  cardinal  in  1568,  and  apostolic  libra- 
rian to  Gregory  XIII.  He  edited  the  Greek  Bible  of 
the  Septuagint,  published  in  1587.    Died  in  1591. 

Caraffa,  (Eitore,)  Count  of  Ruvo,  born  at  Naples 
in  1767,  was  the  heir  of  the  Dukes  of  Andria.  He  was 
arrested  in  1796  on  account  of  his  liberal  opinions,  but 
escaped  and  left  the  kingdom.  In  1799  he  returned  with 
the  French  army,  and  as  a  general  fought  bravely  for 
the  Parthenopean  republic.  The  republicans  were  soon 
dispersed,  and  the  whole  country  fell  into  the  power  of 
the  royalists,  by  whom  Caraffa  was  executed  about  1800. 

Caraffa  or  Carafa,  kil-ra'fS,  (Michele,)  an  eminent 
musician  and  composer,  born  in  Naples  about  1785.  He 
removed  to  Paris  in  1821,  and  adopted  France  as  his 
country  a  few  years  later.  He  composed  "  Le  Solitaire," 
(1822,)  "II  Sonnambulo,"  and  other  successful  operas, 
among  which  "Masaniello"  (1828)  is  called  his  master- 
piece.   He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Institute. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Caraglio,  ki-riKyo,  or  Caralio, ki-rS'le-o,  (Giovanni 
GiACOMO,)  a  celebrated  Italian  engraver,  was  born  at 
Verona  about  15 10.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Marcantonio 
Raimondi  in  Rome,  and  afterwards  worked  in  Verona. 
He  engraved  many  of  the  works  of  Raphael,  Titian,  Mi- 
chael Angelo,  Giulio  Romano,  and  other  masters.  Among 
these  are  Raphael's  "  Holy  Family"  and  Titian's  "An- 
nunciation." He  devoted  his  latter  years  to  engraving 
gems,  cameos,  and  medals,  with  great  success,  and  was 
patronized  in  this  branch  of  art  by  Sigismund  I.  of  Po- 
land. Died  about  1570.  He  sometimes  wrote  his  name 
Jacobus  Veronensis,  and  Jacobus  Caralius. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Engravers;"  Ticozzi, 
"  Dizionario." 

Caralio.    See  Caraglio. 

Caramuel  de  Lobkowitz,  ki-ri-moo-eK  d^i  lob- 
ko-vets',  written  also  Caramuele  (ki-rd-moo-a'li)  de 
Lobkowitz,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  ecclesiastic,  born  in 
Madrid  in  1606,  was  noted  for  his  learning,  but  was  defi- 
cient in  judgment.  The  King  of  Spain  sent  him  as  his 
agent  to  the  court  of  Vienna,  where  he  made  himself  so 
agreeable  that  the  emperor  gave  him  two  abbeys,  one  of 
which  was  at  Prague.  In  1657  he  was  made  Bishop  of 
Campagna.  He  wrote  many  works  on  theology,  logic, 
metaphysics,  mathematics,  and  other  sciences.  He  pre- 
tended to  resolve  questions  in  theology  by  the  rules  of 
aiithinetic.    Died  in  1682. 

S<,e  Tadisi,  "Memorie  della  Vita  di  Caramuele  de  Lobkowitz," 
1760;  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Caraman,  de,  deh  kt'ri'mSN',  (Pierre  Paul  de 
Riquet — deh  re^ki',)  Count,  a  French  general,  born  in 
1646,  was  a  son  of  M.  de  Riquet,  who  constructed  the 
canal  of  Languedoc.  He  saved  the  army  at  a  battle  in 
Flanders  between  Nodoue  and  Diest  in  1705,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  Ramillies  in  1706.    Died  in  1730. 

Caram-an,  de,  (Victor  Louis  Charles  de  Riquet,) 
Due,  a  French  general,  born  in  1762,  was  a  son  of  Victor 
Maurice.    Died  in  1839. 

Caranvaii,  de,  (Victor  Maurice  de  Riquet,)  Count, 
father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1727.  He  displayed 
talents  and  courage  in  all  the  campaigns  of  the  Seven 
Vears'  war,  (1756-63,)  during  which  he  rose  to  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-general.  In  1786  he  became  commandant- 


general  of  Provence.  Ha  was  the  principal  owner  of  the 
canal  of  Languedoc  made  by  his  ancestor,  and  lost  an 
immense  fortune  by  the  Revolution.    Died  in  1807. 

Cara-Mustafa,  (or  -Mustapha,)  kS'ri'  md6s't3-ft, 
written  also  Kara-Moustapha,  a  famous  grand  vizier 
of  Turkey,  was  born  at  Merzisoor,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  1634. 
He  became  Pasha  of  Silistria  in  1660,  and  grand  vizier 
in  1676.  He  commanded  the  army  of  two  hundred  thou- 
sand men  which  in  1683  attacked  Vienna  and  besieged 
it  for  sixty  days.  John  Sobieski,  King  of  Poland,  came 
to  the  relief  of  the  besieged,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  Turks.  Cara-Mustafa  was  executed  the  same 
year,  by  order  of  the  Sultan,  Mahomet  IV. 

See  Salvandy,  "  Histoire  de  J.  Sobieski." 

Ca-ra'nus,  \)Lapavoq  or  Kapawf,]  a  Macedonian  gen- 
eral in  the  service  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Carascosa,  ka-rSs-ko'sS,  (Michele,)  Baron,  an  Ital- 
ian general,  born  in  Sicily.  He  served  in  the  army  of 
Joachim  Murat  from  1808  to  1814,  during  which  period 
he  became  a  general.  In  1820  he  commanded  a  body  of 
insurgents,  who  were  dispersed  by  the  Austrians.  He 
was  sentenced  to  death,  but  escaped,  and  went  into  exile. 

Ca-rau'si-us,  (Marcus  Aurelius  Valerius,)  an 
adventurer,  born  at  Menapia,  in  Belgium,  about  250  A.D. 
Having  been  promoted  to  the  command  of  a  Roman 
fleet,  he  made  himself  master  of  Great  Britain  and  as- 
sumed the  title  of  emperor.  After  vain  efforts  to  con- 
quer him,  Diocletian  recognized  him  by  treaty.  He  was 
assassinated  in  293  A.D. 

Caravage.    See  Caravaggio. 

Caravaggio,  da,  da  ki-ra-vSd'jo,  [Fr.  Caravage, 
kt'rt'vtzh',]  (Michel  Angelo,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Caravaggio,  in  the  Milanese,  in  1569. 
His  proper  name  was  Michel  Angelo  Amerighi  or 
MoRiGi.  He  studied  in  Venice  and  Rome,  imitated  no 
model  except  nature,  and  adopted  a  new  manner,  which 
gained  him  much  applause  and  a  crowd  of  imitators. 
He  was  a  skilful  colorist,  especially  in  the  treatment  of 
carnations,  but  lacks  taste  and  elevation  of  ideas.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  a  "  Supper  at  Emmaus,"  and 
"Christ  carried  to  the  Grave  by  Saint  John  and  Nico- 
demus."  He  is  said  to  have  been  involved  by  his  violent 
temper  in  several  bloody  quarrels.    Died  in  1609. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Caravaggio,  (Pietro  Paolo,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
geometer,  born  at  Milan  in  161 7.  He  taught  Greek 
and  mathematics  at  Milan,  and  was  distinguished  as  a 
military  architect.  He  wrote  "  Inno,"  a  poem,  besides 
several  odes  and  sonnets.    Died  in  168. 

Caravaggio  Polidoro.    See  Caldara. 

Cara-Yoosef  (-Yusef  or  -Yousef,)  ki'ra'  yoo'sef, 
written  also  Kara-Yusuf,  the  first  prince  of  the  Tur- 
coman dynasty  of  the  Black  Sheep.  He  made  himself 
master  of  Diarbekir,  Kurdistan,  Azerbaijan,  and  Irak 
about  1410.    Died  in  1420. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "  Histoire  de  TEmpire  Ottoman." 

Carbajal.    See  Carvajal. 

Car'bo,  (Caius  Papirius,)  an  eloquent  Roman  orator 
and  consul.  He  was  a  tribune  of  the  people  in  the  time 
of  Tiberius  Gracchus,  who  was  his  friend.  About  120 
B.C.  he  was  elected  consul.  Being  accused  of  peculation 
by  L.  Crassus,  he  committed  suicide. 

Carbo,  (Cneius  Papiriu.s,)  a  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  a  general  and  a  partisan  of  Marius  in  the 
civil  war.  He  was  chosen  consul,  with  Cinna  for  his 
colleague,  in  86  B.C.,and  raised  forces  as  fast  as  possible 
to  resist  Sulla,  who  was  expected  to  return  soon  from 
the  East.  Carbo  was  again  elected  consul  for  the  year 
82,  after  the  return  of  Sulla  and  after  several  indecisive 
battles  had  been  fought.  In  one  of  these,  Carbo  and 
Sulla  commanded  the  respective  armies  at  Clusium. 
Soon  after  that  action  Carbo  was  defeated  by  Metellus 
at  Faventia,  and  fled  to  Africa.  Having  been  taken 
prisoner,  he  was  put  to  death,  by  order  of  Pompey,  in 
82  B.C. 

See  Plutarch,  "  Sulla"  and  "Pompey.' 
Carbon  de  Flins.    See  Flins. 
Carbonara,  kaR-bo-ni'rS,  (Luigi,)  Count,  an  Italian 
judge,  born  at  Genoa  in  1753.    In  1803  he  was  chosen 
1  judge  of  the  supreme  tribunal  of  the  Ligurian  republic, 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  f^t;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CARBONDJLA  517  CARDUCCI 


and  in  1805  president  of  the  court  of  appeal.  He  be- 
came a  senator  and  count  of  the  French  empire  in  1809. 
After  the  restoration  of  the  Sardinian  king,  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  supreme  court  at  Genoa.    Died  in  1826. 

Carbondala,  kaR-bon-d^'ld,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
surgeon  and  physician,  was  born  at  Santhio,  and  prac- 
tised about  1 270-1300  at  Cremona,  Pavia,  and  Verona. 
He  was  professor  at  Verona  in  1298,  and  wrote  a  treatise 
called  "  De  Operatione  Mannali." 

Carbone,  kaR-bo'ni,  (Giovanni  Bernardo,)  an  ex- 
cellent painter  of  portraits  and  history,  born  at  Albaro, 
near  Genoa,  in  1614.  He  painted  some  frescos  in  Genoa. 
"His  portraits,"  says  Lanzi,  "have  been  mistaken  for 
the  works  of  Van  Dyck."    Died  in  1683. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Carbone,  (Luigi,)  a  Latin  poet  and  orator,  born  at 
Ferrara  in  1436  ;  died  in  1482. 
Carburi.    See  Carburis. 

Car-bu'ris  or  Carburi,  kaR-boo'ree,  (John  Baptist,) 
a  Greek  physician  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Cepha- 
lonia,  was  professor  of  medicine  at  Turin  from  1750  to 
1770.  About  the  latter  date  he  accompanied  the  Count- 
ess of  Artois  to  France,  where  he  was  appointed  phy- 
sician to  the  royal  family.    Died  at  Padua  in  1801. 

Carburis  or  Carburi,  (Marco,)  Count,  a  chemist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Cephalonia  in  1731  ; 
died  in  1808. 

Carburis  or  Carburi,  (Marinp,)  Count,  a  Greek 
engineer,  born  in  Cephalonia,  was  noted  for  his  mechan- 
ical skill.  He  went  to  Russia,  assumed  the  name  of 
Lascaris,  and  became  an  officer  in  the  army.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  transporting  to  the  capital,  in 
1769,  an  enormous  mass  of  granite,  which  supports  the 
equestrian  statue  of  Peter  the  Great.  Having  returned 
to  his  native  place,  he  was  killed  there,  in  1782,  by  his 
own  workmen,  who  broke  into  his  house  in  the  night 
to  rob  him. 

See  Mazurakis,  "Vies  des  Hommes  illustres  de  Cephalonie." 

Carcano,  kaR-kJ'no,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Milan  in  1733,  published  several  esteemed  works 
in  prose  and  verse.    Died  in  1794. 

See  CoRNiANi,  "  Elogio  del  Cavaliere  F.  Carcano,"  1795. 

Carcano,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  physician 
and  writer,  who  was  for  many  years  professor  in  the 
University  of  Pavia,  and  is  said  to  have  made  some 
important  discoveries  in  anatomy. 

Carcano,  (Ignazio,)  an  Italian  physician,  grandson 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Milan  in  1682  ;  died  in  1 730. 

Carcari,  de,  deh  ktR'kt^ve',  (Pierre,)  a  French 
lawyer  and  bibliographer,  born  in  Lyons.  He  became  a 
resident  of  Paris,  and  a  friend  of  Pascal  and  Descartes. 
In  1663  Colbert  gave  him  the  charge  of  the  Royal  Library. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  into  which  he  was  admitted  as  a  mathematician. 
Died  in  1684. 

See  Baillet,  "Vie  de  Descartes." 

Car'gi-nus,  \KapKLvo^,)  an  Athenian  tragic  poet,  lived 
ibout  375  B.C.    Only  fragments  of  his  works  are  extant. 

Cardan,  kar'dan,'f  Fr.  pron,  kSR'dfiN';  Ger.  kaR-d3,n' ; 
H.  Cardano,  kaR-di'no ;  Lat.  Carda'nus,]  (Jerome,) 
an  Italian  physician,  mathematician,  and  author,  cele- 
brated for  his  science,  self-conceit,  and  absurd  vagaries, 
was  born  at  Pavia  in  1 501.  He  graduated  as  doctor  of 
medicine  at  Padua  in  1525,  and  successively  professed 
mathematics  and  medicine  at  Milan  and  Bologna.  His 
reputation  as  a  physician  was  very  extensive.  In  1552 
he  visited  Scotland,  to  attend  the  Archbishop  of  Saint 
Andrew's,  whom  he  cured.  A  few  of  the  last  years 
of  his  life  were  passed  in  Rome,  where  he  received  a 
pension  from  the  pope.  He  dealt  much  in  astrology, 
and  was  a  professed  adept  in  magical  arts.  Among  his 
numerous  writings  are  "  Ars  Magna,"  a  treatise  on  alge- 
bra, "On  the  Subtilty  of  Things,"  ("De  Rerum  Sub- 
tilitate,")  "On  the  Variety  of  Things,"  ("De  Rerum 
Varietate,")  a  "Life  of  Himself,"  ("  De  Vita  propria,") 
and  several  medical  treatises.  His  durable  reputation 
is  founded  on  his  discoveries  in  algebra.  In  1545  he 
published  in  his  "Ars  Magna"  a  method  of  solving 
equations  of  the  third  degree,  which  is  known  by  the 
name  of  "Cardan's  Formula;"  but  he  is  said  to  have 


obtained  this  from  Tartaglia  by  unfair  means.  He  was 
the  first  that  noticed  negative  roots  ;  and  he  made  other 
discoveries.  "Cardan,"  says  Hallam,  "made  a  great 
epoch  in  the  science  of  algebra."  Died  at  Rome  in  1576. 

See  Ckossi.ey,  "  Life  and  Times  of  Cardan,"  1836;  H.  Morley, 
"Life  of  Cardan,"  1854:  Cardan,  "  De  Vita  propria,"  1643;  Ten- 
NEM'\NN,  "  History  ot  Philosophy;"  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Criti- 
cal Dictionary;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^neraie;"  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  June,  1854. 

Cardano  or  Cardanus.    See  Cardan. 

Car'der,  (Peter,)  Captain,  an  English  mariner, 
served  under  Drake,  who,  after  passing  through  the 
Strait  of  Magellan,  (1586,)  sent  back  Carder  to  report 
his  progress.  He  was  wrecked  in  this  homeward  voyage, 
and  after  much  suffering  reached  England. 

Cardi.    See  Cigoli,  (Ludovico.) 

Car'di-gan,  (James  Thomas  Bru'denell,)  Earl 
OF,  a  British  general,  son  of  the  Earl  of  Cardigan,  born 
in  1797.  He  bore  the  title  of  Lord  Brudenell  before 
the  death  of  his  father,  (1837,)  on  which  event  he  en- 
tered the  House  of  Lords.  After  passing  through  the 
inferior  grades  with  distinction,  he  was  appointed  major- 
general  in  1854,  and  commanded  the  light  cavalry  in  the 
Crimean  war.  His  charge  at  the  battle  of  Balaklava 
(October,  1854)  attracted  great  applause  as  a  demon- 
stration of  reckless  courage.    Died  in  April,  1868. 

Cardini,  kaR-dee'nee,  (Ignazio,)  a  Corsican  naturalist, 
born  at  Mariana  in  1562;  died  about  1600.  The  monks, 
whom  he  had  satirized,  burned  nearly  all  the  copies  of  a 
scientific  work  he  had  written. 

Cardon,  ktr'dSN',  (Antoine,)  a  skilful  Flemish  en- 
graver, born  at  Brussels  in  1772.  In  1792  he  settled  in 
London,  where  he  was  employed  to  engrave  the  works 
of  Rubens  and  other  masters.    Died  in  1813. 

See  Nagler,  "Neues  AUgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Cardona,  de,  di  kaR-do'nS,  or  Cardone,  de,  di  k^R- 
do'ni,  (Raimund,)  a  Spanish  general,  was  appointed 
Viceroy  of  Naples  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  in  1509. 
He  was  defeated  by  the  French  at  the  great  battle  of 
Ravenna  in  1512.  Afterwards  he  was  sent  to  chastise 
the  Florentines  and  Venetians,  whom  he  treated  with 
great  cruelty.  He  was  Viceroy  of  Naples  for  some  time 
during  the  reign  of  Charles  V. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Cardonne,  ktR^don',  (Denis  Dominique,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1720.  He  passed  twenty 
years  in  Constantinople,  where  he  acquired  an  exten- 
sive knowledge  of  the  Oriental  languages  and  customs. 
After  his  return,  he  was  professor  of  Persian  and  Turk- 
ish in  the  Royal  College,  interpreter  to  the  king,  royal 
censor,  etc.  He  published  a  "  History  of  Africa  and 
Spain  under  the  Saracens,"  and  a  successful  work  en- 
titled "  Melanges  of  Oriental  Literature,"  selected  and 
translated  from  Arabic  and  Persian  authors.  Died  in 
1783. 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Cardoso,  kaR-do'so,  (Isaac,)  a  learned  Portuguese 
Jew  and  physician,  born  about  1620,  was  one  of  the 
so-called  "compulsory  Christians,"  and  practij^ed  medi- 
cine with  great  success  at  Madrid.  He  afterwards  re- 
nounced the  Christian  faith,  and  removed  to  Italy.  Died 
about  1690. 

Cardoso,  (Jorge,)  an  eminent  Portuguese  author 
and  priest,  born  in  1606.  He  wrote  "  Lives  of  Portu- 
guese Saints,"  etc.,  (1651-57,)  which  is  much  esteemed^ 
Died  in  1669. 

Car-do'zo,  (Isaac  N.,)  an  American  journalist,  born 
at  Savannah,  Georgia,  in  1786,  was  editor  of  the  "South- 
ern Patriot,"  and  other  journals,  in  which  he  advocated 
free  trade.  He  published  "  Notes  on  Political  Economy," 
(1826.) 

Cardross,  Lord.  See  Erskine,  (Henry,.)  and  Ers- 
KiNE,  (David.) 

Carducci,  kaR-doot'chee,  or  Carduccio,  kaR-doot'- 
cho,  in  Spanish  Carducho,  (Bartolommeo,)  a  skilful 
Florentine  painter  in  fresco  and  oil,  was  born  in  1560. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Zucchero,  whom  he  accompanied  to 
Spain.  There  he  was  ])atrojiized  by  Philip  II.,  for  whom 
he  painted  frescos  in  the  Escurial  and  pictures  for  the 
palace  in  Madrid.  His  most  admired  production  is  a 
"  Descent  from  the  Cross,"  which  is  in  a  church  of 


€  as  k;  9  as  /;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  t/iis.    (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CARDUCCIO 


518 


CARET 


Madrid.  After  the  death  of  Philip  II.  he  passed  into  the 
service  of  his  successor.    Died  in  1610. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy  ;"Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario." 

Carduccio,  (Vincenzo,)  a  brother  of  the  precedincj, 
was  an  eminent  artist,  and  became  painter  to  Phih'p  III. 
in  1609.  He  was  the  head  of  a  flourishing  school,  and 
contributed  much  to  promote  the  arts  in  Spain.  He 
painted  a  gallery  in  the  royal  palace  of  Pardo,  and  wrote 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Nature  and  Dignity  of  Painting," 
which  is  highly  commended.  His  illustrations  of  the 
life  of  Saint  Bruno  are  esteemed  his  best  works.  Died 
in  1638. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario." 

Carducho,  the  Spanish  spelling  of  Carduccio.  See 
Carducci. 

Card''well,  (Edward,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  born 
in  1787.  He  became  principal  of  Saint  Alban's  Hall, 
Oxford,  in  183 1.  He  published  several  important  works, 
among  which  are  '*  Documentary  Annals  of  the  Reformed 
Church  of  England,"  (1839,)  and  "  Synodalia,"  (Oxford, 
1842.)  He  delivered  at  Oxford  a  series  of  lectures  on 
the  coinage  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  which  were 
published  in  1832,  and  edited  Aristotle's  "Ethics." 
Died  in  1861. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1843;  "Gentle- 
man's Magazine"  for  August,  1861. 

Cardwell,  (Edward,)  an  English  statesman,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Liverpool  in  1813.  He 
studied  law,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1838.  He 
was  returned  to  Parliament  in  1842,  and  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  treasury  in  1845.  From  1852  to  1855 
he  was  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  since  the 
former  date  has  represented  Oxford  in  Parliament.  He 
was  attached  to  the  Peelite  party  while  it  existed.  In 
1859  he  accepted  office  in  the  Liberal  ministry  of  Pal- 
merston,  as  secretary  of  Ireland.  He  was  appointed 
chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster  in  July,  1861,  retain- 
ing his  seat  in  the  cabinet.  On  the  4th  of  April,  1864,  he 
became  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies.  He  resigned 
with  his  colleagues  in  June,  1866,  and  was  appointed 
secretary  of  war  by  Mr.  Gladstone  in  December,  1868. 

Caregna,  kS-r^n'yS  or  kS-ran^yS,  (Gabriel,)  a  learned 
physician,  born  probably  in  Italy,  wrote  a  compendium 
of  the  various  questions  connected  with  medical  science, 
published  at  Bordeaux  in  1520. 

Carel  de  Saint-Garde,  kS'rgK  deh  siN^gtRd',  (Jac- 
ques,) a  French  poet,  born  at  Rouen,  wrote  an  epic 
poem,  of  which  Childebrand  was  the  hero.  Boileau 
satirized  him  in  these  lines  : 

"  Oh  le  plaisant  projet  d'un  poete  ignorant, 
Qui  de  tant  de  heros  va  choisir  Childebrand !" 
Died  about  1684. 

Carelli,  kS-rel'lee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  as- 
tronomer, born  at  Piacenza,  lived  about  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  He  was  the  author  of  various  astro- 
nomical tables  published  at  Venice  from  1555  to  1577. 

Cardme,  kt'rim',  (Marie  Antoine,)  a  French  adept 
in  the  culinary  art,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1784.  He  be- 
came chief  cook  successively  to  Talleyrand,  the  Czar 
Alexander,  and  George  IV.  of  England.  He  published 
"The  French  Steward,"  "The  Picturesque  Pastry- 
Cook,"  ("  Le  Patissier  pittoresque,")  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1833. 

Careno.    See  Carreno  de  Miranda. 

Carera,  kS-ra'ra,  (Antonio  Rafaello,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  near  Milan,  lived  about  1650.  He  was  the 
autl    -  of  a  satire  against  physicians. 

Carew,  ka-roo',  (Bamfylde  Moore,)  an  English 
adventurer,  called  the  "King  of  the  Beggars,"  was  born 
about  1692.  He  ran  away  from  home  in  boyhood,  and 
joined  a  paity  of  gipsies,  who  elected  him  king.  Died 
after  1758. 

See  GoADBY,  "Life  of  Bamfylde  M.  Carew;"  Wm.  Russell, 
"Eccentric  Personages,"  1866. 

Carew,  (Sir  Benjamin  Hallowell,)  a  British  admi- 
ral, born  about  1760.  His  family  name  was  Hallowell, 
to  which  he.  added  Carew  in  accordance  with  the  will 
of  a  relative.  He  became  a  post-captain  in  1793,  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  battle  of  the  Nile  in  1798,  and 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  French  in  1801.    He  was 


made  a  rear-admiral  in  1811,  and  was  employed  in  the 
Mediterranean  until  the  peace  of  181 5.  In  1830  he  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  a  full  admiral.    Died  in  1834. 

Carew,  (George,)  Earl  of  Totness,  and  Baron  Carew, 
a  British  general,  born  in  1557.  In  the  wars  against  the 
Irish  rebels  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  and 
master  of  ordnance,  and  about  1600  was  appointed  one 
of  the  lords  justices  of  Ireland.  By  his  courage  and  pru- 
dence he  suppressed  a  formidable  revolt,  and  repulsed 
a  Spanish  invasion.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Totness  in 
1625.  A  work  called  "  Pacata  Hibernia"  ("Ireland 
Pacified")  is  ascribed  to  him.    Died  in  1629. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenas  Oxonienses." 

Carew,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  diplomatist,  was 
ambassador  to  the  court  of  P'rance,  from  which  he  re- 
turned home  in  1609,  and  addressed  to  the  king  "A 
Relation  of  the  State  of  France,  with  the  Character  of 
Henry  IV.,  etc."  This  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  per- 
formance.   Died  about  1612. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Carew,  (Sir  Nicholas,)  an  English  courtier,  was  re- 
lated to  Queen  Anne  Boleyn.  He  became  a  favourite 
of  Henry  VIII.,  who  appointed  him  master  of  the  horse. 
He  was  executed  in  1539,  on  a  charge  of  having  conspired 
with  the  Marquis  of  Exeter  and  others  to  raise  Cardinal 
Pole  to  the  throne. 

Carew,  (Richard,)  an  English  lawyer,  brother  of 
Sir  George,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1555.  He  was 
chosen  high-sheriff  of  Cornwall  in  1586,  and  a  member 
of  the  College  of  Antiquaries  in  1589.  He  published- in 
1602  an  excellent  "Survey  of  Cornwall,"  and  translated 
part  of  Tasso's  "Gerusalemme  Liberata."  Died  in  1620. 

See  Wood,  "Athenas  Oxonienses." 

Carew,  (Thomas,)  an  English  nobleman  and  soldier, 
born  in  1368.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Agincourt, 
and  other  engagements  with  the  French. 

Carew,  (Thomas,)  an  English  gentleman,  who  fought 
with  distinction  at  Flodden  in  15 13. 

Carew,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet  and  courtier,  born 
of  a  Gloucestershire  family  in  1589.  He  was  a  gentle- 
man of  the  chamber  in  the  court  of  Charles  I.,  and  wrote 
sonnets  and  other  short  poems,  which  rendered  him  a 
favourite  of  the  literary  and  fashionable  world.  "  Among 
the  poets  that  have  walked  in  the  same  limited  path," 
says  Thomas  Campbell,  "he  is  pre-eminently  beautiful." 
Died  in  1639. 

See  Gibber,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets  ;"  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol. 
vi.,  1822;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  i8io. 

Carey,  (Alice.)    See  Cary. 

Ca'rey,  (George  Saville,)  an  English  song-writer, 
born  about  1743,  was  the  son  of  Henry  Carey,  whose 
musical  talents  he  inherited.  He  supported  himself  by 
entertaining  the  public  in  different  towns  with  songs 
composed  and  sung  by  himself.  It  is  said  that  he  never 
trespassed  against  decorum  or  morality.    Died  in  1807. 

Carey,  (Henry,)  Earl  of  Monmouth,  born  in  1596, 
was  the  son  of  Robert,  first  Earl  of  Monmouth,  whose 
title  he  inherited  in  1639.  He  was  learned  in  modern 
languages,  and  published  many  translations,  among  which 
are  "  Romulus  and  Tarquin,"  by  Malvezzi,  (1637,)  "His- 
torical Relations  of  the  United  Provinces,"  by  Benti- 
voglio,  (1652,)  and  "The  History  of  Venice,"  by  Parata, 
(1658.)    Died  in  1661. 

Carey,  (Henry,)  an  English  poet  and  musician,  was 
supposed  to  be  the  natural  son  of  G.  Saville,  Marquis  of 
Halifax.  He  composed  the  words  and  music  of  several 
popular  songs,  and  wrote  farces  and  other  works,  among 
which  are  "The  Contrivances,"  and  "The  Musical  Cen- 
tury." He  killed  himself  in  1743.  George  S.  Carey, 
noticed  above,  was  his  son. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  Macaulay, 
"History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xx. 

Ca'rey,  (Henry  C.,)  an  eminent  American  political 
economist,  son  of  Mathew  Carey,  noticed  below,  was 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  December,  1793.  He  was  trained 
to  business  in  the  publishing-house  of  his  father,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1821,  as  the  head  of  the  firm  of  Carey 
&  Lea.  In  1824  he  initiated  the  practice  of  periodical 
trade-sales  as  a  medium  of  exchange  between  booksellers. 
He  retired  from  mercantile  business  about  1836,  and 
published  in  that  year  an  "  E.ssay  on  the  Rate  of  Wages," 


a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y.  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  tlr,  f^ll,  fSt;  m&t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CARET 


519 


CARLE 


which  he  expanded  into  "The  Principles  of  Political 
Economy,"  (3  vols.,  1837-40.)  This  work  attracted  much 
attention  in  Europe,  and  was  translated  into  Italian  and 
Swedish.  He  advocates  a  tariff  for  the  protection  of 
domestic  manufactures,  and  maintains  that  the  real  in- 
terests of  classes  are  not  antajjonistic.  He  produced  in 
1838  "The  Credit  System  in  France,  Great  Britain,  and 
the  United  States,"  and  in  1848  a  valuable  work  entitled 
"The  Past,  the  Present,  and  the  Future,"  in  which  he 
presents  some  new  ideas  on  the  progress  of  agriculture, 
wages,  and  society,  and  controverts  the  opinions  of  Mal- 
thus  and  Ricardo.  Among  his  other  important  works 
are  "The  Harmony  of  Interests,  Agricultural,  Manufac- 
turing, and  Commercial,"  and  "The  Principles  of  Social 
Science,"  (3  vols.,  1858-59.)  He  is  recognized  as  the 
founder  of  a  new  school  of  political  economy,  which  sub- 
stitutes for  the  "dismal  science"  of  Malthus  and  Ricardo 
a  philosophy  of  physical,  social,  and  political  progress. 
See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Ca'rey,  (John,)  LL.D.,  an  Irish  scholar,  who  pub- 
lished many  educational  works.  He  edited  fifty  volumes 
of  the  "Regent's  Classics,"  also  "Ainsworth's  Latin 
Dictionary,"  and  "  Schleusner's  Greek  Lexicon."  He 
translated  some  useful  works  from  the  French  and  Ger- 
man.   Died  in  1829. 

Carey,  (Mathew,)  a  distinguished  bookseller  and 
writer,  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1760,  learned  the  trade 
of  printer,  and  emigrated  to  Philadelphia  in  1784.  He 
founded  "The  Pennsylvania  Herald"  in  1785,  and  pub- 
lished "The  American  Museum"  from  1787  to  1793.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  political  affairs,  wrote  numerous 
pamphlets,  and  advocated  the  United  States  Bank.  To 
moderate  the  violence  of  party  spirit,  he  produced  "The 
Olive  -  Branch,"  which  passed  through  ten  editions. 
Among  his  works  are  "Essays  on  Political  Economy," 
and  many  pamphlets  in  advocacy  of  a  protective  tariff. 
He  was  an  influential  and  much-respected  citizen.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  "  Encyclopaedia  Americana,"  (Supplement;)  Hunt's  "Lives 
of  American  Merchants,"  vdl.  i.,  1858. 

Carey  or  Ca'ry,  (Robert,)  first  Earl  of  Monmouth, 
a  British  peer,  born  about  1560,  was  a  relative  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  father  of  Henry  Carey,  noticed  above. 
He  left  manuscript  memoirs  of  his  own  life,  which  were 
published  in  1759  by  the  Earl  of  Cork  and  Orrery.  Died 
m  1639. 

Carey,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  English  Orientalist  and 
Baptist  missionary,  was  born  in  Northamptonshire  in 
1761.  He  went  to  India  in  1794,  laboured  a  few  years 
in  Bengal,  founded  the  Serampore  mission,  and  about 
1800  became  professor  of  the  Sanscrit,  Bengalee,  and 
Mahratta  languages  at  the  College  of  Fort  William. 
He  published  a  "Sanscrit  Grammar,"  a  "Bengalee- 
English  Dictionary,"  and  several  other  works.  He  and 
his  associates  translated  the  Bible  into  Bengalee  and 
many  other  Oriental  dialects.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Asiatic  Society.    Died  in  1834. 

See  Marshman.  "Life  of  W.  Carey,"  1859;  Eustace  Carey, 
"Memoir  of  the  Rev.  W.  Carey,"  1836. 

Carey,  (William  Paulett,)  an  Irish  writer  and 
critic,  brother  of  Mathew  Carey,  noticed  above,  was  born 
in  1768.  He  became  a  resident  of  England,  and  was  an 
able  advocate  of  political  reform.  He  wrote  critical  and 
poetical  articles  for  several  periodicals.    Died  in  1839. 

Carez,  kt'ri',  (Joseph,)  a  French  printer  of  Toul,  who 
made  improvements  in  the  process  of  stereotype  printing, 
and  is  said  to  be  the  inventor  of  clickage,  by  which  he 
printed  a  book  in  1786.    Died  in  1801. 

Car'gill,  (Donald,)  a  zealous  and  uncompromising 
Scottish  Covenanter,  was  born  in  Perthshire  about  1610. 
He  became  minister  of  a  parish  in  Glasgow,  and  on  the 
restoration  in  1660  refused  to  conform  to  the  new  eccle- 
siastical regulations.  He  afterwards  refused  to  accept 
the  indulgence,  and  was  a  partisan  of  Richard  Cameron 
when  the  latter  took  arms  against  the  king  in  1680.  Car- 
gill  was  executed  for  treason  in  1681. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Caribert.    See  Charorert. 

Car'i-bert  [Fr.  pron.  kt're'baiR';  Lat.  Caribkr'tus] 
I.,  the  eldest  son  of  Clotaire  I.,  became  King  of  Paris  in 
561.    Died  in  567  a.d. 


Caribert  II.,  a  son  of  Clotaire  II.,  and  a  youngei 
brother  of  Dagobert,  became  King  of  Aquitaine  in  629. 
Died  in  631  a.d. 

Carignano,  kS-r^n-y^'no,  [Fr.  Carignan,  kt'r^n'- 
ydN',]  (Charles  Emmanuel  Ferdinand  Joseph  Ma- 
rie,) Prince  of,  the  only  son  of  Victor  Amadeus,  was 
born  at  Turin  in  1770.  He  was  taken  to  France  as  a 
hostage  in  1799,  and  died  there  in  1800,  leaving  a  son, 
Charles  Albert,  who  became  King  of  Sardinia  in  183 1. 

Carignano,  [Fr.  Carignan,]  (Thomas  Francis  de 
Savoy,)  Prince  ok,  born  in  1596,  was  a  younger  son 
of  Charles  Emmanuel,  Duke  of  Savoy.  About  1635  he 
obtained  the  command  of  the  Spanish  army  in  the  Low 
Countries,  and  was  defeated  by  the  French  at  Avesnes. 
He  took  arms  against  the  widow  of  Victor  Amadeus  (his 
sister-in-law)  in  1639,  and  expelled  her  from  Turin,  but 
was  reconciled  with  her  in  1642.  He  was  then  appointed 
general-in-chief  of  the  French  and  Savoyard  armies 
in  Italy,  and  defeated  the  Spaniards  at  Mora  in  1645. 
In  1654  he  was  made  grand  master  or  high-steward  of 
France.  He  died  in  1656,  leaving  two  sons, — Emmanuel, 
who  became  Prince  of  Carignano,  and  Eugene  Maurice, 
who  was  the  father  of  the  famous  Prince  Eugene. 

See  ScLOPis,  "  Documenti  intorno  alia  Vita  di  T.  F.  Principe  de 
Carignano,"  1832 ;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Carillo,  kS-r^l'yo,  (Alfonso,)  a  Spanish  prelate,  born 
at  Cuenca  in  the  second  half  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
was  made  a  cardinal  by  the  anti-pope  Benedict  XIII.  in 
1409.    Died  in  1434. 

Carillo,  (Braulio,)  an  able  statesman  of  Central 
America,  born  at  Cartago  in  1800,  became  Dictator  of 
Costa  Rica  in  1838.    He  was  assassinated  in  1845. 

Carillo  d'Acunha,  kS-r^Kyo  (  ? )  dS-koon^yS,  (Al- 
phonso,)  an  ambitious  Spanish  prelate,  of  Portuguese 
descent.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Toledo  in  1446,  and 
was  afterwards  chief  minister  of  Henry  IV.  of  Castile, 
who  began  to  reign  in  1454.  He  rebelled  against  that 
king  in  1465,  took  an  active  part  in  the  civil  war  that 
ensued,  and  was  the  master-spirit  of  the  party  of  Isabella 
of  Castile.  After  her  accession  in  1474  he  changed  sides, 
and  fought  for  Joanna  until  1478,  when  he  submitted  to 
the  successful  party.    Died  in  1482. 

See  Mariana,  "Historia  de  Espana." 

Carin.    See  Carinus. 

Ca-ri'nus,  [Fr.  Carin,  kt'r^N',]  (Marcus  Aure- 
LIUS,)  a  Roman  emperor,  eldest  son  of  the  emperor 
Cams,  who  committed  to  him  the  government  of  Italy, 
Africa,  and  the  West,  when  he  set  out  on  an  expedition 
against  Persia  in  283  A.f).  Carus  died,  or  was  killed,  in 
284,  soon  after  which  Diocletian  was  chosen  emperoi 
by  the  army  in  the  East.  A  battle  was  fought  between 
Carinus  and  his  rival  near  Margum,  in  Moesia,  in  which 
the  latter  was  successful,  and  Carinus,  who  was  detested 
for  his  cruelty,  was  killed  by  his  own  soldiers  in  285. 

See  VoPTSCUS,  "Carinus;"  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire." 

Carissimi,  kS-r^s'se-mee  or  ki-ris'se-mee,  (Giacomo 
or  Giovanni  Giacomo,)  one  of  the  greatest  composers 
of  his  time,  was  born  at  Venice  about  1582.  He  was 
the  first  who  employed  cantatas  for  religious  subjects  ; 
and  he  made  other  reforms  in  sacred  music.  His  motets 
and  cantatas  are  very  celebrated.  He  was  appointed 
master  of  the  pontifical  chapel  in  Rome  about  1649. 
"  The  Sacrifice  of  Jephthah"  is  called  his  master-piece. 
He  formed  many  eminent  pupils,  among  whom  was 
Alessandro  Scarlatti.    Died  in  or  after  1672. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Cariteo,  kS-re-ta'o,  an  Italian  poet,  was  born  at  Barce- 
lona, and  lived  at  Naples.  He  was  a  friend  of  Sannazar, 
and  manifested  his  devotion  to  the  house  of  Aragon  by 
several  odes.    He  died  before  1509. 

Carl,  kaRl,  (Johann  Samuel,)  a  learned  German, 
born  at  Oehringen  in  1676,  was  appointed  first  physician 
to  Christian  VI.  of  Denmark  in  1736.  He  published 
"  Medicina  Universalis,"  (1740,)  a  treatise  "On  the  Use 
and  Abuse  of  Bleeding,"  and  many  other  medical  works. 
Died  in  1757. 

See  Borner.  "  Jetztlebende  Aerzle." 

Carl  der  Grosse.    See  Charlemagne. 
Carle,  1<Sr1,  (Pierre,)  a  French  engmeer,  born  in 
I  the  Cevennes  in  1666.    He  entered  in  1688  the  service 


■€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  H,  yi^ guttural ;  N,  nasal;  K,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (JJI^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


CARLEN 


520 


CARLOMAN 


of  William  of  Orange,  who  employed  him  as  engineer 
in  several  campaigns.  About  1701  he  passed  into  the 
service  of  Portugal,  and  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  suc- 
cession became  lieutenant-general,  and  chief  engineer 
of  the  King  of  Portugal.  In  1720  he  retired  to  London, 
where  he  died  in  1730. 

Carlen,  kaR-lan',  almost  kaR-lTTn',  (Emilie  Flygare,) 
a  popular  Swedish  novel-writer,  whose  maiden  name  was 
Schmidt,  (shmit,)  born  at  Stockholm  about  1808.  She 
was  married  to  Mr.  Carlen,  a  lawyer  of  Stockholm, 
in  1841,  after  the  publication  of  her  first  novel,  "  Wal- 
demar  Klein,"  which  had  a  decided  success.  She 
has  since  written  "The  Professor,"  "The  Rose  of  Tis- 
telon,"  ("Thistle-Island,"  1844,)  "Home  in  the  Valley," 
("  Familier  i  Dalen,"  1850,)  and  other  novels  delin- 
eating Swedish  life.  They  have  been  translated  into 
English,  and  have  acquired  popularity  in  England  and 
America. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon  ;"  W.  and  M.  Howitt, 
"  Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe,"  1852,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
456-60. 

Carleson,  kaR'leh-son,  (Eduard,)  a  Swedish  diplo- 
matist and  economist,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1704.  He 
was  appointed  secretary  of  foreign  affairs  in  1757,  and 
president  of  the  council  of  commerce  in  1762.  He  wrote 
"Travels  in  Palestine,"  (1768,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1767. 

See  Gezelius,  "  Biosraphiskt-Lexikon ;"  A.  Schoenbf.rg,  "Amin- 
nelse-Tal  ofver  E.  Carleson,"  1767. 

Carleson,  (Karl,)  a  Swedish  jurist,  economist,  and 
writer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Stockholm 
in  1703.  He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "Svenska 
Argus,"  a  useful  literary  periodical,  and  wrote  a  "Dic- 
tionary of  Economy,"  and  other  works.  In  1757  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  state.    Died  in  1761. 

See  Gezelius,  "  Biographiskt-Lexikon ;"  P.  Wakgentin,  "Amin- 
nelse-Tal  ofver  C.  Carleson,"  1763. 

Carleton,  karKton,  (Sir  Dudley,)  Lord  Dorchester, 
an  English  statesman,  born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1573.  He 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Venice  in  1610,  to  Holland  in 
1616,  and  to  France  in  1625.  In  1628  Charles  I.  created 
him  Viscount  Dorchester,  and  made  him  secretary  of 
state.    He  wrote  several  political  tracts.    Died  in  163 1. 

Caiieton,  (George,)  a  learned  English  bishop,  born 
at  Norham  Castle,  of  which  his  father  was  governor.  He 
was  sent  by  James  I.  to  the  Synod  of  Dort  in  1618,  and 
appointed  Bishop  of  Chichester  in  1619.  He  wrote  many 
works  on  theology  and  other  subjects,  among  which  are 
a  treatise  against  Astrology,  and  one  "On  Jurisdiction, 
Regal,  Episcopal,  etc."    Died  in  1628. 

Carleton,  (Captain  George,)  wrote  "Memoirs  of  an 
English  Officer,"  (1728,)  which  have  some  historical 
value,  and  were  once  attributed  to  Defoe  or  Swift. 

Carleton,  (Sir  Guy,)  Lord  Dorchester,  a  British 
general,  born  at  Strabane,  Ireland,  in  1724.  After  serving 
several  years  in  America,  he  obtained  the  rank  of  major- 
general  in  1772,  and  was  made  governor  of  Quebec,  which 
he  defended  against  the  Americans  in  December,  1775. 
The  next  year  he  commanded  the  army  which  invaded 
New  York,  and  fought  with  Arnold  on  Lake  Champlain. 
In  1777  he  was  superseded  by  General  Bmgoyne.  He 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief,  vice  Sir  Henry  Clin- 
ton, in  i78i,and,  when  the  peace  was  concluded,  returned 
to  England.  In  1787  he  received  the  title  of  Lord  Dor- 
chester.   Died  in  1808. 

See  Bancroft's  "History  of  the  United  States." 

Carleton,  (James  Henry,)  an  American  officer,  born 
in  Maine,  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  and,  soon  after  the 
breaking  out  of  the  rebellion  of  1861,  became  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers. 

Carleton,  (William,)  an  eminent  Irish  novelist,  born 
at  Clogher,  Tyrone  county,  in  1798.  He  published,  in 
1830,  "Traits  and  Stories  of  the  Irish  Peasantry,"  which 
had  great  success.  After  that  time  he  resided  in  Dublin, 
and  produced  "  Fardorougha  the  Miser,"  (1839,)  "The 
Fawn  of  Spring  Vale,"  (1841,)  "Willie  Reilly,"  (1855,) 
and  other  pojjular  novels.  "Mr.  Carleton  has  caught 
n\ost  acciuately  the  lights  and  shades  of  Irish  life.  His 
tales  are  full  of  vigorous,  picturesque  description  and 
genuine  pathos."  ("  London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
October,  1841.)    Died  in  1869. 


Carletti,  kaR-let'tee,  (Francesco,)  a  Florentine  tra- 
veller, who  between  1597  and  i6oi  visited  India,  China, 
and  Japan.  Having  returned  to  Florence,  he  was  ap- 
pointed steward  by  the  duke,  Ferdinand  I.,  and  wrote  a 
narrative  of  his  travels,  which  wa'-'i  afterwards  printed. 

Carletto.    See  Cagliari,  (Carlo.) 

Carli,  or  Carli  Rubbi,  kaR^ee  roob'bee,  (Gian  Ri- 
naldo,)  Coun  t,  an  Italian  political  economist  and  anti- 
quary, born  at  Capo  d'lstria  in  1720.  He  became  learned 
in  the  exact  sciences  and  ancient  languages.  The  Vene- 
tian senate  founded  a  chair  of  astronomy  and  nautical 
science,  of  which  Carli  was  professor  from  1744  to  1750. 
After  devoting  several  years  to  researches  respecting 
coins  and  currency,  he  published  in  1754  the  first  volume 
of  his  important  work  on  that  subject,"  Of  Italian  Moneys, 
(or  Coins,)  and  of  the  Institution  of  Mints  in  Italy," 
("  Delle  Monete  e  delle  Istituzione  delle  Zecche  d'ltalia.") 
This  work  made  a  great  sensation  in  Italy,  and  its  prin- 
ciples were  adopted  by  the  courts  of  Milan  and  Turin. 
The  court  of  Vienna  having  formed  at  Milan  a  supreme 
council  of  commerce  and  public  economy,  Carli  was 
appointed  its  president.  About  1780  he  produced  two 
remarkable  works,  an  "  Essay  on  the  Natural  and  Civil 
Liberty  of  Man,"  and  "American  Letters,"  which  treat 
of  the  antiquities  of  the  New  World.  His  "Antichita 
Italiche"  ("Italian  Antiquities,"  1788)  was  very  success- 
ful, and  secured  for  him  among  antiquaries  a  rank  equal 
to  that  which  he  had  attained  among  political  economists. 
He  was  author  of  various  other  works.    Died  in  1795. 

See  Bossi,  "  Elogio  siorico  di  Gian  Rlnaldo  Carli,"  Tipaldo, 
"  Biografia  degli  Itaiiani  iliustri ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Carlier,  kiR'le-a',  (Claude,)  a  French  writer,  born 
at  Verberie  in  172^5.  He  studied  natural  history  in 
relation  to  rural  economy,  especially  to  the  business  of 
wool-growing.  He  furnished  many  articles  to  the  "Jour- 
nal des  Savants,"  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Duchy  of 
Valois,"  and  several  treatises  on  the  method  of  raising 
sheep  and  on  the  production  of  wool.    Died  in  1787. 

Car'lin,  (TffoMAS,)  born  in  Kentucky  in  1790,  removed 
to  Illinois  in  1813.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Illinois 
in  1838,  and  was  re-elected  several  times.  Died  in  1852. 

Car'ling-ford,  (Theobald  Taafe — taf,)  Earl  of,  a 
general  who  rendered  important  services  to  Charles  I. 
by  his  efforts  to  suppress  the  rebellion  in  Ireland  about 
1640-46.    Died  in  1677. 

Carlino,  kaR-lee'no,  [Fr.  Carlin,  kSR^liN',]  (Carlo 
Anionfo  Bertinazzi — beR-te-nat'see,)  a  noted  comic 
actor,  born  at  Turin  in  1713  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1783. 

Carlisle,  kar-lil',  (Sir  Anthony,)  an  eminent  English 
surgeon,  born  near  Durham  in  1768.  He  went  to  Lon- 
don to  complete  his  education,  and  attended  the  lectures 
of  John  and  William  Hunter.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  College  of  Surgeons,  professor  of  surgery  and 
anatomy  in  London,  and  surgeon-extraordinary  to  the 
prince-regent,  (George  IV.)  In  1800  he  was  chosen  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  to  which  he  contributed 
several  treatises  on  physiology,  etc.  From  1808  to  1825 
he  lectured  on  anatomy  in  the  Royal  Academy,  and  in 
1829  was  chosen  president  of  the  College  of  Surgeons. 
He  published  numerous  and  able  treatises  on  anatomy, 
and  on  various  sciences  connected  with  medicine,  also 
one  on  "Galvanic  Electricity."    Died  in  1840. 

Carlisle,  Earl  of.  See  Howard,  (Charles,  Fred- 
erick, and  George  William  Frederick.) 

Carlisle,  (Isabella  Byron,)  Countess  of,  born  in 
1 72 1,  was  the  daughter  of  William,  fifth  Lord  Byron, 
and  first-cousin  to  the  poet  Byron's  father.  In  1743  she 
was  married  to  Henry  Howard,  fourth  Earl  of  Carlisle, 
by  whom  she  had  a  son  Frederick,  who  was  a  poet.  Died 
in  1795. 

Carlisle,  (Nicholas,)  a  British  writer  and  antiquary, 
born  in  1771.  He  published  topographical  dictionaries 
of  England,  of  Ireland,  and  of  Scotland,  which  are  said 
to  be  valuable  and  accurate.    Died  in  1847. 

Carlo  Alberto.    See  Charles  Albert. 

Carlo  Magno.    See  Charlemagne. 

Carlo  Quinto.    See  Charles  V.,  (of  Germany.) 

Car'lo-man  or  Karloman,  [Fr.  pron.  ktR'lo'mdN',] 
a  French  prince,  was  the  son  of  Charles  Martel,  and 
elder  brother  of  Pepin  le  Bref.  At  his  father's  death  in 
741  A.D.,  he  obtained  for  his  share  Austrasia,  Suabia, 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,    i,  o, obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CARLO  MAN 


521 


CARLTLE 


and  Thuringia.  After  fighting  for  these  possessions 
with  the  Allemanni  (or  Germans)  and  others,  he  re- 
nounced his  principality  in  favour  of  Pepin,  went  to 
Rome  in  747,  and  became  a  monk.    Died  in  755. 

See  SisMoNDi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Carloman,  the  son  of  Pepin  le  Bref,  and  brother  of 
Charlemagne,  was  born  in  751  A.D.  At  the  death  of  his 
father,  in  "768,  he  became  King  of  Neustria,  Burgundy, 
and  part  of  Aquitaine  or  South  Gaul.  He  died  in  771, 
leaving  two  sons ;  but  Charlemagne  obtained  the  do- 
minions of  his  brother. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Fran^ais." 

Carloman,  a  Carlovingian  prince  of  the  Franks,  was 
the  son  of  Louis  le  Begue.  In  879  A.D.  he  was  crowned 
King  of  Aquitaine  and  of  part  of  Burgundy,  while  his 
brother,  Louis  IIL,  obtained  Neustria,  etc.  They  lived 
in  amity,  and  their  united  arms  were  victorious  over  the 
Normans  and  other  foes.    He  died  without  issue  in  884. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Fraiifais." 

Carloni,  kaR-lo'nee,  written  also  Carlone  and  Car- 
Ion,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  Genoese  painter,  born  in 
1 591.  He  adorned  the  churches  of  Genoa  with  frescos, 
which  are  greatly  admired,  and  worked  also  in  Florence 
and  Milan.  He  excelled  in  brilliancy  of  colour,  facility  of 
composition,  and  grace  of  design.  Died  at  Milan  in  1630. 

Carloni  or  Carlone,  (Giovanni  BA  iTis  rA,)  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  about  1595,  was  an  excellent 
painter,  especially  in  fresco.  The  finest  works  of  the 
two  brothers  (who  often  worked  together)  are  frescos 
in  the  church  of  the  Annunziata  in  Genoa.  The  com- 
positions are  rich  and  original,  and  the  colours  remark- 
ably splendid.  The  works  of  these  brothers  are  similar, 
but  those  of  G.  Battista  are  superior  in  some  respects. 
He  died  in  1680,  leaving  two  sons,  Giovanni  Andrea  and 
Niccolo,  who  were  painters,  but  not  equal  to  their  father. 
Andrea  was  born  in  1639,  and  died  in  1697. 

See  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Car'los,  [Spanish  pron.  kaR'los,]  Don,  Infante  of 
Spain,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1545,  was  the  son  and  heir- 
apparent  of  Philip  II.  and  Maria  of  Portugal.  At  an  early 
age  he  manifested  a  violent  and  unhappy  temper,  which 
his  education  did  not  improve.  His  physical  constitution 
was  also  diseased,  and  his  reason  was  perhaps  affected 
by  a  fit  of  sickness  in  his  youth.  It  is  said  that  he  was 
offended  at  his  father  because  he  married  Elizabeth  of 
France  after  having  negotiated  a  proposal  of  marriage 
between  Carlos  and  that  princess.  Carlos  attempted  to 
strike  the  Duke  of  Alva  with  a  poniard  in  1567  ;  but  the 
blow  was  warded  off.  The  suspicious  king,  imagining 
that  Carlos  had  conspired  against  him,  ordered  his  son 
to  be  arrested  and  judged  by  the  Inquisition.  His  fate 
is  involved  in  mystery.  Many  historians  think  he  was 
executed,  by  order  of  his  father,  in  1568;  others,  that  he 
died  of  disease  in  prison.  His  life  has  furnished  Alfieri, 
Schiller,  and  others  with  the  subject  for  a  tragedy. 

See  Luis  DE Cabrera,  "  RelatioVitae  Mortisqiie  Caroli  Infantis," 
1715;  Saint-Real,  "Histoire  de  Don  Carlos;"  Prescott,  "His- 
tory of  Pliiiip  II.,"  vols.  i.  and  ii. 

Carlos  of  Bourbon,  (boor'bon,)  Don,  Count  de 
Molina,  (di  mo-lee'n^,)  born  in  1788,  was  the  second 
son  of  Charles  IV.,  King  of  Spain.  During  the  French 
empire  he  was  detained  in  France  from  1808  to  1 813,  when 
he  returned  to  Spain.  He  was  heir-presumptive  to  the 
throne  of  his  brother,  Ferdinand  VII.,  until  the  latter 
became  a  father  by  the  birth  of  Isabella  in  1830.  The 
decree  of  the  king  settled  the  succession  on  his  daughter, 
though  the  Cortes  some  years  before  had  restored  the 
Salic  law,  which  excludes  females  from  the  throne.  At 
the  death  of  Ferdinand,  in  1833,  a  civil  war  broke  out 
between  the  partisans  of  Isabella  and  Carlos.  The  latter 
was  the  favourite  of  the  priests  and  absolutists.  In  1839 
the  Carlist  army  was  compelled  to  surrender  to  Espar- 
tero,  who  fought  for  the  queen,  and  Don  Carlos  escaped 
to  France.  (See  Isabella.)  He  abdicated  his  claim  in 
1845  in  favour  of  his  son,  Don  Carlos  Luis  Maria  Fer- 
nando, Count  de  Montemolin.    Died  in  1855. 

See  De  los  Vai.les,  "Career  of  Don  Carlos  since  the  Death  of 
Ferdinand  VII.,"  London,  1835;  Ruv  Sanchez,  "  Historia  de  Don 
Carlos,"  2  vols.,  1844. 

Carlos,  or,  more  fully,  Carlos  Luis  Maria  Fer- 
nando, kaR^is  loo-^ss'  mi-ree'a  fiR-ndn'do,  Count  de 


Montemolin,  (di  mon-ti-mo-l^n',)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  i8i8.  He  is  a  pretender  to  the  Spanish 
throne,  and  a  first-cousin  of  the  late  queen  Isabella.  His 
father  abdicated  in  his  favour  in  1845,  since  which  the 
Carlists  recognize  the  son  as  Carlos  VI.  In  1848  his 
friends  attempted  to  renew  the  civil  war,  but  were  quickly 
defeated. 
Carlostadt.    See  Carlstadt. 

Carlota  de  Bourbon,  kaR-lo'tJ  di  booR-b6n', 
(LuiSA,)  Infanta  of  Spain,  born  in  1804,  was  a  daughter 
of  Francis  I.,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  Maria  Isa- 
bella of  Spain.  She  was  an  aunt  of  Isabella,  the  late 
Queen  of  Spain.  In  1819  she  was  married  to  Don  Fran- 
cisco de  Paul,  a  brother  of  Don  Carlos.  Her  intrigues, 
it  is  said,  procured  the  repeal  of  the  Salic  law,  and  the 
succession  of  Isabella  in  preference  to  Carlos.  She  died 
in  1844,  after  which  her  son  married  Queen  Isabella. 

Carlowitz,  kaR'lo-'^its^  (Aloi'se  Christine,)  Ba- 
roness OF,  a  French  authoress,  of  German  extraction, 
born  at  Fiume  in  1797.  She  has  written  "Caroline," 
(1833,)  "The  Peer  of  France,  or  the  Divorce,"  (1835,) 
and  other  tales.  Her  French  version  of  Schiller's  "  His- 
tory of  the  Thirty  Years'  War"  was  crowned  by  the 
French  Academy. 

Carlstadt,  kaRl'stSt,  written  also  Carlostadt  or 
Carolostadt,  (Andreas  Bodenstein — bo'den-stin',)  a 
German  Reformer,  born  in  Franconia  about  1483.  He 
was  professor  of  divinity  at  Wittenberg  in  his  early  life. 
After  his  conversion  to  the  doctrines  of  Luther  he  became 
an  iconoclast.  About  1524  he  opposed  Luther  in  rela- 
tion to  the  eucharist.    Died  in  1 541. 

See  B.  BiELER,  "Gesammelte  Naclirichten  von  Carlstadts  Leben," 
1738;  J-  C.  I"'uEssi.i,  "  Lebensgeschichte  A.  Bodeiisteins,"  1776. 

Car-lyle',  (Alexander,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  Presby- 
terian divine,  born  in  1721.  He  was  appointed  minister 
of  Inveresk,  near  Edinburgh,  in  1747,  and  became  the 
associate  of  Blair,  Hume,  John  Home,  and  other  emi- 
nent authors.  He  published  a  number  of  sermons  be- 
tween 1779  and  1794,  and  wrote  memoirs  of  his  own 
time,  entitled  "  Autobiography  of  A.  Carlyle,"  (published 
in  i860.)    Died  in  1805. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Carlyle,  (Joseph  Dacre,)  an  English  Orientalist, 
born  at  Carlisle  in  1759,  was  a  Fellow  of  Queen's  College, 
Cambridge.  In  1794  he  was  chosen  professor  of  Arabic 
in  that  university.  About  1800  he  went  to  Constanti- 
nople as  chaplain  to  Lord  Elgin's  embassy,  and  travelled 
in  Asia.  He  published  "Specimens  of  Arabic  Poetry," 
(1796,)  and  undertook  a  new  edition  of  the  Arabic  Bible, 
which  he  did  not  live  to  finish.  He  died  in  1804,  leaving  a 
number  of  admired  poems,  which  were  published  in  1805. 

Carlyle,  kar'lil  or  kar-lil',  (Thomas,)  a  distinguished 
British  essayist,  historian,  and  speculative  philosopher, 
born  at  Eccfefechan,  in  Scotland,  in  1795.  He  entered, 
in  1809  or  1810,  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  where  he 
remained  about  seven  years,  and  distinguished  himself 
in  mathematics.  He  also  became  well  versed  in  the  Ger- 
man language  and  literature.  Having  devoted  himself 
to  the  profession  of  author,  he  contributed  several  bio- 
graphical articles  to  the  "Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia"  in 
1823,  published  a  well-written  "Life  of  Schiller,"  (1824,) 
and  a  translation  of  Goethe's  "  Wilhelm  Meister,"  (begun 
in  1824,)  which  attracted  much  attention.  About  1825 
he  married  a  Miss  Welch,  and  settled  on  a  farm  in  his 
native  county.  Soon  after  that  year  he  began  to  contri- 
bute critical  essays  and  biographical  notices  to  the  "  Edin- 
burgh Review,"  the  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review,"  and 
"Eraser's  Magazine."  In  1834  he  published,  anony- 
mously, a  remarkable  work,  entitled  "  Sartor  Resartus," 
which  he  professed  to  have  translated  from  a  German 
treatise  on  the  "  Philosophy  of  Clothes,"  by  Diogenes 
Teufelsdrockh.  "This  volume,"  says  Alexander  H. 
Everett,  "contains,  under  a  quaint  and  singular  form,  a 
great  deal  of  deep  thought,  sound  principle,  and  fine 
writing.  .  .  .  The  style  is  a  sort  of  Babylonish  dialect, 
not  destitute,  it  is  true,  of  richness,  vigour,  and  at  times 
a  sort  of  felicity  of  expression,  but  very  strongly  tinged 
throughout  with  the  peculiar  idiom  of  the  German  lan- 
guage." ("North  American  Review/'  vol.  xli.,  October, 
1835.)  "  Sartor  Resartus,"  which  first  appeared  in  "  Era- 
ser's Magazine,"  attained  a  rapid  and  wide  popularity. 


€  as  y^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  giUttiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^=^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CARLTLE 


522 


CARMONTELLE 


In  1834  Mr.  Carlyle  removed  to  London,  where  he  re- 
sided many  years.  He  produced  in  1837  a  "  History  of 
the  French  Revolution,"  (3  vols.,)  which  was  generally 
admired.  **  On  the  whole,  no  work  of  greater  genius, 
either  historical  or  poetical,  has  been  produced  in  this 
country  for  many  years."  ("  Westminster  Review"  for 
July,  1837.)  Some  other  critics,  however,  express  a  very 
different  opinion.  "  Never,  indeed,"  says  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  of  July,  1843,  "was  history  written  in  so  mad 
a  vein, — and  that  not  only  as  regards  style,  but  the  pre- 
vailing mood  of  mind  in  which  the  facts  and  characters 
are  scanned.  That  mood  is  for  the  most  part  ironical. 
...  In  fine,  turn  which  way  you  will, — to  philosophy,  to 
politics,  to  religion, — you  find  Mr.  Carlyle  objecting, 
denouncing,  scoffing,  rending  all  to  pieces  in  his  bold, 
reckless,  ironical  manner,  but  teaching  nothing."  In 
1839  he  published  "Chartism,"  in  which  he  treats  of  the 
social  and  political  condition  of  the  English.  In  1840  he 
delivered  in  London  a  course  of  lectures  on  "  Heroes 
and  Hero-Worship,"  which  were  afterwards  published. 
Among  his  favourite  heroes  are  Cromwell,  Napoleon  I., 
Mohammed,  and  Frederick  the  Great.  In  1839  or  1840 
appeared  five  volumes  of  his  essays,  under  the  title  of 
*'  Miscellanies,"  republished  from  various  periodicals. 
He  again  assumed  the  character  of  social  and  political 
reformer  in  his  "  Past  and  Present,"  (1843,)  "Latter- 
Day  Pamphlets,"  (1850.)  Among  the  most  important 
of  his  later  works  are  "Oliver  Cromwell's  Letters  and 
Speeches,"  (1845,)  a  "Life  of  John  Sterling,"  (1851,)  and 
"The  Life  of  Frederick  the  Great,"  (4  vols.,  1858-64.) 
He  has  been  a  constant  opponent  of  the  anti-slavery 
movement,  and  professes  a  great  contempt  for  the  African 
race.  In  1867  he  denounced  the  new  English  Reform 
Bill,  and  the  tendency  of  the  nations  towards  democracy, 
in  a  strange  chaotic  essay  called  "Shooting  Niagara." 

Besides  his  excellent  translations  from  the  German, 
Carlyle  has  contributed  much  in  various  ways  to  promote 
a  knowledge  of  German  literature  among  the  English  ; 
and  the  nation  is  doubtless  more  indebted  to  his  efforts 
in  this  respect  than  to  those  of  any  other  single  person. 
Respecting  the  merit  of  his  original  productions  the  great- 
est diversity  of  opinion,  as  might  naturally  be  expected, 
prevails  among  critics.  Probably  there  never  was  a  writer 
to  whom  the  saying,  "  Ubi  bene  nemo  melius,  ubi  male 
nemo  pejus,"*  could  be  more  justly  applied  than  to  Car- 
lyle. Not  a  few  of  his  thoughts  are  inestimable  gems, 
(although  the  setting  may  seem  rude  or  quaint,)  and 
nearly  all  his  earlier  works  abound  with  passages  illu- 
minated by  flashes  of  rare  insight,  or  enriched  with 
important  truths,  which,  if  not  always  new,  are  at  least 
presented  in  such  a  manner  as  to  arouse  attention  and 
awaken  thought.  It  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say  that  no 
other  author  of  this  century  has  exerted  a  greater  influ- 
ence not  merely  upon  the  literature,  but  upon  the  mind, 
of  the  English  nation,  than  Carlyle.  But,  if  his  merits 
are  of  a  high  order,  his  defects  are,  in  our  judgment, 
neither  few  nor  small.  Not  to  mention  others  of  less 
importance,  it  will  be  enough  to  instance  his  well-known 
admiration  for  successful  power,  however  acquired  or 
exercised,  and  the  want  of  sympathy  evinced  by  him  for 
the  oppressed  and  down-trodden. f  The  glaring  faults 
of  his  style  are  more  conspicuous,  or  at  least  offend  us 
more,  in  his  later  works,  because  unrelieved  by  the 
freshness  of  feeling  and  richness  of  thought  by  which 
his  earlier  writings  are  distinguished. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  December,  1858,  and  December, 
1865  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  1859  ;  "  Foreign  Quar- 
terly" for  September,  1840;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1S59  ; 
"Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1859.  For  some  severe  but  not 
unjust  strictures  on  Carlyle's  political  and  moral  theories,  see  "A 
Letter  to  Thomas  Carlyle,"  by  D.  A.  Wasson,  in  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  for  October,  1863. 


*  "When  [he  writes]  well,  none  [can  write]  better;  when  ill,  none 
worse." 

t  It  is  a  consolation  to  believe  that  these  moral  blemishes  proceed 
from  a  mistaken  theory  rather  than  from  an  unfeeling  or  depraved 
heart.  Carlyle's  works — at  least  his  earlier  ones — afford  abundant 
evidence  that  he  is  capable  of  a  true  and  heartfelt  sympathy  with 
heroic  suffering  ;  and  we  can  only  attribute  it  to  the  influence  of  a  false 
moral  system,  or  to  the  prejudice  of  race,  that  one  who  could  feel  such 
compassion  for  the  misfortunes  of  a  Marie  Antoinette,  or  such  generous 
admiration  for  the  heroism  of  a  Bouille,  should  feel  only  an  unsympa- 
thizing  contempt  for  the  greater  misfortunes  and  sublimer  heroism  of 
a  Toussaint. 


Car-ly'on,  (Clement,)  an  English  physician,  born  at 
Truro  in  1777,  was  a  friend  of  S.  T.  Coleridge.  He 
practised  at  Truro,  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Early  Years  and  Late  Reflections,"  (4  vols.,  1836-58.) 
Died  in  1864. 

Carmagnola,  kaR-mSn-yo'ia,  [  Fr.  Carmagnole, 
kSR'mSn'yoK,]  an  able  Italian  general,  whose  proper 
name  was  Francesco  Bussone,  (fRin-ch^s'ko  boos-so'- 
ni,)  was  born  at  Carmagnola  in  1390.  In  the  service  of 
Visconti,  Duke  of  Milan,  he  rose  to  the  chief  command 
of  the  army,  and  by  his  military  successes  restored  the 
declining  power  of  that  prince,  who  made  him  a  count. 
In  1424,  Visconti,  prompted  by  jealousy,  deprived  him 
of  his  coinmand.  The  general,  who  had  assumed  the 
name  of  Carmagnola,  then  passed  into  the  service  of 
Venice,  which  declared  war  against  the  Duke  of  Milan 
in  1426.  Carmagnola  was  chosen  captain-general,  and 
defeated  the  Milanese  army  in  1427.  Having  suffered 
some  reverses  in  the  ensuing  campaigns,  he  was  perfidi- 
ously seized  and  executed  by  the  Council  of  Ten  in  1432. 
His  life  is  the  subject  of  Manzoni's  tragedy  "II  Conte  di 
Carmagnola." 

See  SiSMONui,  "  Histolre  des  Republiques  Italiennes  ;"  Sanuto, 
"  Vite  de'  Duchi  di  Venezia ;"  Luigi  Cibrario,  "  La  Morte  del  Conte 
di  Carmagnola  illustrata,"  etc.,  1834. 

Carmagnole,  the  French  of  Carmagnola,  which  see. 

Carmarthen.    See  Caermarthen. 

Carmath  and  Carmatians.    See  Karmat. 

Carmeli,  kaR-ma'lee,  (Michel  Angelo,)  an  Italian 
monk,  noted  as  a  Hebrew  and  Greek  scholar,  was  born 
at  Cittadella  about  1700.  He  was  appointed  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  at  Padua  in  1744.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  an  edition  of  Euripides  with  notes 
and  an  Italian  version,  (1743-54,)  and  a  "  History  of  the 
Various  Customs,  Sacred  and  Profane,  which  have  been 
transmitted  from  the  Ancients  to  the  Present  Times," 
(1750.)    Died  at  Padua  in  1766. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri ;"  Fanzago,  "Elo- 
gio  storico  del  P.  M.  Carmeli,"  1779. 

Car-men'ta,  [Fr.  Carmente,  ktR'mSNt',]  a  pro- 
phetic divinity  of  ancient  Italy,  was  one  of  the  Camenae, 
and  supposed  to  be  the  mother  of  Evander.  She  was 
worshipped  by  the  Roman  matrons  at  a  festival  called 
"  Carmentalia." 

Carmer,  kaR'mer,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  Prussian 
lawyer  and  chancellor,  born  in  1721  ;  died  in  1801. 

Carmichael,  kar'mi-kel,  (Gerrhom,)  a  Scottish  pro- 
fessor of  moral  philosophy,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1682; 
died  in  1738. 

Carmichael,  (Richard,)  an  Irish  surgeon  and  medi- 
cal writer,  born  in  Dublin  in  1779;  died  in  1849. 

Carmignani,  kaR-m6n-yi'nee,  (Giovanni  Alessan- 
DRO,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  near  Pisa  in  1768.  He 
practised  law  in  Florence  with  success,  and  was  reputed 
one  of  the  greatest  forensic  orators  of  that  city.  He 
])ublished  "Theory  of  Civil  Laws,"  (1797,)  "Elements  of 
Criininal  Law,"  (1803,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1847. 

Carminati,  kaR-me-n^'tee,  (  Bassiano,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Lodi  in  1750.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  therapeutics,  etc.  at  Pavia,  and  afterwards 
became  professor  emeritus  in  the  same  university.  His 
"  Hygiene,  Therapeutics,  and  Materia  Medica,"  written 
in  Latin,  is  a  work  of  great  merit.    Died  in  1830. 

See  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Carmoly,  ktR^mo'le',  (fiLiACiN,)  a  French  Jew,  born 
in  1805.  He  has  published  a  "Biography  of  the  Israel- 
ites, Ancient  and  Modern,"  (1829,)  "Literary  History 
of  Jewish  Authors  from  the  Twelfth  to  the  Sixteenth 
Century,"  (1850,)  and  many  other  works. 

Carmona,  kaR-mo'nS,  (Salvador,)  a  distinguished 
Spanish  engraver,  born  at  Madrid  about  1730,  was  a 
pupil  of  Dupuis  of  Paris,  and  was  patronized  by  the 
King  of  Spain.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Virgin  and 
Child,"  after  Van  Dvck.    Died  in  1807. 

Carmontelle,  ktR''m6N't$K,  an  ingenious  French 
dramatic  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1 71 7.  In  1768  he  pub- 
lished "  Dramatic  Proverbs,"  (6  vols.,)  on  which  his  liter- 
ary reputation  is  founded.  These  short  comedies  were 
favourites  with  the  performers  of  private  theatres.  This 
work  is  said  to  be  a  mine  from  which  several  comic 
authors  have  borrowed  freely.     He  had  a  talent  for 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  3?, 


short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CJRMOUCHE 


523 


CAR  NOT 


painting,  and  painted  portraits  of  the  most  distinguished 
persons  of  the  eighteenth  century.    Died  in  1806. 
See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Carmouche,  ktR''moosh',  (Pierre  Frederic  Adol- 
PHE,)  a  French  dramatic  author,  born  at  Lyons  in  1797. 
He  produced  many  successful  plays,  among  which  are 
the  "Honey-Moon,''  ("Lune  de  Miel,")  "The  Vampire," 
(1820,)  and  "The  Dreams  of  Matheus,"  ("Les  Reves  de 
Matheus,"  1852.)  He  has  also  written  fugitive  poems 
and  songs.    Died  in  December,  1868. 

Car-nar'von,  (Henry  Howard  Molyneux  (moKe- 
j\ooks)  Herbert,)  fourth  Earl  of,  the  eldest  son  of  the 
third  earl,  was  born  in  1 83 1.  He  published  m  i860  "  The 
Druses  of  Mount  Lebanon."  He  became  secretary  of 
state  for  the  colonies  in  June,  1866.  Disagreeing  with 
Lord  Derby  and  Disraeli  on  the  Reform  Bill,  he  resigned 
in  March,  1867. 

Carnarvon,  (Henry  John  George  Herbert,)  third 
Earl  of,  an  English  author,  boin  in  1800.  He  published 
"  Don  Pedro,"  a  tragedy  ;  "  Moor,"  a  poem  ;  and  "  Notes 
on  Portugal,  Galicia,  etc."  The  last  work  is  said  to  be 
one  of  superior  ability  and  interest.    Died  in  1849. 

Carne,  karn,  (John,)  a  British  traveller  and  writer, 
who  passed  several  years  in  Asia,  and  wrote  "  Recollec- 
tions of  Travels  in  Syria  and  Palestine,"  (1830,)  and  "  Let- 
ters from  the  East."    Died  in  1844,  aged  about  fifty-five. 

Carne,  de,  deh  kSR^na',(Louis  Marcein — mSR^s^N',) 
Count,  a  French  publicist,  born  at  Quimper  in  1804. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1839,  and 
at  first  acted  with  the  opposition  against  Guizot.  In 
1847  he  accepted  in  the  Foreign  Office  the  place  of 
Drouyn  de  I'Huys,  removed  from  his  functions  of  di- 
rector for  supporting  a  motion  of  Carne  himself  against 
Guizot.  He  was  deprived  of  this  office  by  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1848.  He  has  published  "Views  on  Contem- 
porary History,"  (1833,)  and  other  political  works.  In 
1863  he  was  elected  to  the  Institute  in  place  of  Biot. 

See  QuHRARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Carneade.    See  Carn fades. 

Car-ne'a-des,[Gr.  Kapveudrig;  Fr.  Carn6ade,  ktR''ni'- 
tcV,]  a  Greek  jihilosopher  and  orator,  born  at  Cyrene,  in 
Africa,  about  215  B.C.,  was  the  founder  of  a  school  called 
the  New  Academy.  He  opposed  the  dogmas  of  the 
Stoics,  and  maintained  that  the  human  mind  cannot 
ascertain  the  truth.  He  was  celebrated  for  his  subtle 
and  powerful  eloquence,  which  his  antagonists  were  un- 
able to  gainsay  or  successfully  resist.  In  154  B.C.,  having 
been  sent  as  ambassador  from  Athens  to  Rome,  he 
charmed  the  young  men  of  the  latter  city  by  his  eloquent 
discourses,  so  that  many  were  quite  possessed  with  an 
enthusiastic  love  of  philosophy.  After  he  had  harangued 
one  day  in  favour  of  justice,  on  the  next  clay  he  displayed 
his  specious  and  audacious  eloquence  in  refuting  his 
former  arguments  and  in  confounding  the  distinctions 
of  good  and  evil.  Cato  the  Censor  took  prompt  meas- 
ures to  protect  the  youth  from  this  sophistry,  and  Car- 
neades  was  dismissed  from  the  city.  He  died  about  the 
age  of  ninety. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius;  J.  Roulez,  "  De  Carneade  Philoso- 
pho;"  Verbukg.  "De  Carneade  Romam  lepato,"  1S26;  Gouraud, 
"Dissertatio  de  Carneadis  Philosophi  Vita  et  Placitis,"  1848 ;  Cicero, 
"Academica"  and  "De  Natiira  Deoriim." 

Carneau,  kiR'no',  (£tienne,)  a  French  poet  and 
monk,  born  at  Chartres  ;  died  in  1671. 

Car'ne-gie,  (Sir  Robert,)  of  Kinnaird,  a  Scottish 
negotiator,  was  minister  to  France  about  1550,  and  after- 
wards held  several  high  offices  in  Scotland.  Having 
joined  the  Reformers,  he  was  sent  by  the  lords  of  the 
Congregation  on  missions  to  England  and  France.  Died 
in  1566. 

Carneiro,  kaR-na^-ro,  or  Carnero,  kaR-na'ro,  (An- 
tonio,) a  Portuguese  historian,  born  near  Elvas.  He 
was  commissary  and  treasurer  of  the  Spanish  army  sent 
to  Flanders  in  1585,  and  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Civil 
Wars  of  the  Low  Countries  from  1559  to  1609,"  (1612.) 

Carnero.    See  Carneiro. 

Carnevale,  kaR-ni-vi'li,  (Bartolommeo  Corra- 
DINO,)  a  celebrated  painter  of  the  Roman  school,  born 
at  Urbino.  Having  become  a  friar,  he  was  usually  called 
Fra  Carnevale.    Died  about  1478. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 


Carnio,  kaR'ne-o,  (Antonio,)  a  painter,  born  in  Friuli, 
was  considered  superior  to  any  painter  whom  that  countr) 
had  produced  since  Pordenone.    Died  in  or  after  1680. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Carnochan,  kar'noH-an  or  kar'nok-en,  (John  Mur- 
ray,) a  skilful  American  surgeon,  born  at  Savannah, 
Georgia,  in  1 81 7,  studied  under  Dr.  Valentine  Mott. 
He  became  in  1851  professor  of  surgery  in  the  Medical 
College  of  New  York. 

Carnot,  ktR'no^  (Joseph  Francois  Claude,)  a 
French  jurist,  brother  of  the  great  statesman  Carnot, 
born  at  Nolay  in  1752.  He  was  a  warm  friend  of  the 
reforms  made  in  1789,  and  was  appointed  attorney-gene- 
ral of  his  department  in  1796.  He  was  judge  of  the 
tribunal  of  cassation  from  1801  until  1835.  He  published 
valuable  commentaries  on  the  penal  code,  and  other  legal 
works.    Died  in  1835. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Carnot,  (Lazare  Hippolyte,)  a  French  radical  poli- 
tician, a  son  of  the  famous  war-minister  of  the  republic, 
was  born  at  Saint-Omer  in  1801.  He  spent  several  years 
in  exile  with  his  father,  and  returned  to  France  in  1823. 
In  his  youth  he  was  a  partisan  of  Saint-Simon,  and  ad- 
vocated socialism  in  the  "Revue  Encyclopedique."  He 
was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  by  the  radical 
opposition  in  1839,  1842,  and  1846.  In  February,  1848, 
he  was  appointed  minister  of  public  instruction  by  the 
provisional  government,  but  resigned  in  July  of  that  year. 
During  this  brief  term  of  office  he  improved  the  condi- 
tion of  teachers,  and  procured  a  decision  that  the  normal 
school  should  be  gratuitotis.  Carnot  and  Cavaignac  were 
elected  by  the  republican  voters  of  Paris  to  the  Legis- 
lative Assembly  in  1852  ;  but,  as  they  refused  to  take 
the  oath  to  Louis  Napoleon,  they  were  excluded  from 
their  seats. 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Revolution  of  1848." 

Carnot,  (Lazare  Nicolas  Marguerite,)  an  emi- 
nent French  statesman,  geometer,  and  military  adminis- 
trator, was  born  at  Nolay,  in  Burgundy,  on  the  13th 
of  May,  1753.  He  received  lessons  from  Monge  at  the 
military  school  of  Mezieres,  which  he  entered  in  1771 
and  quitted  in  1773  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant  of  en- 
gineers. In  his  youth  he  wrote  several  poems,  which 
have  some  merit.  He  gained  a  jirize  for  his  "Eloge  de 
Vauban"  in  1783,  and  published  in  the  same  year  an 
important  "Essay  on  Machines,"  containing  a  new  theo- 
rem on  the  loss  of  force,  which  is  ranked  among  the 
finest  discoveries  of  mechanical  science. 

Having  espoused  with  ardour  the  popular  cause,  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  by 
the  voters  of  Pas-de-Calais  iri  1791,  and  acquired  a  great 
authority  in  that  body.  In  1792  he  was  elected  to  the 
National  Convention,  in  which  he  voted  for  the  execu- 
tion of  Louis  XVI.  and  kept  himself  aloof  from  all  in- 
trigues and  contentions  of  party.  He  was  neither  a 
Jacobin  nor  a  Girondist,  but  an  inflexible  patriot  and 
republican  J>zir  et  simple.  In  August,  1793,  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  committee  of  public  safety,  and 
found  the  proper  sphere  for  his  genius  in  the  functions 
of  war-minister  of  the  republic.  The  formation  of  plans 
of  the  campaigns,  the  selection  of  generals,  the  organi- 
zation of  the  army,  etc.  imposed  on  him  an  immense 
and  arduous  labour,  which  he  performed  with  such  suc- 
cess that  it  was  said  that  he  had  "  organized  victory." 
He  displayed  not  only  the  talents  of  an  administrator  of 
the  first  order,  he  showed  also  the  science  and  genius  of 
a  great  general  in  the  direction  of  fourteen  armies  at  once 
so  as  to  insure  co-operative  action. 

Absorbed  in  the  urgent  labours  of  defending  France 
from  invading  armies,  he  had  no  share  in  the  proscrip- 
tions and  cruelties  of  the  reign  of  terror.  He  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Institute  in  179^-  After  the  dissolution 
of  the  Convention,  he  was  chosen  at  one  time  as  repre- 
sentative by  fourteen  departments.  Although  he  op]:)osed 
the  establishment  of  the  Directory,  he  was  elected  one 
of  the  Directors  in  1795,  and  again  acted  as  minister  of 
war.  Having  opj^osed  the  measures  of  Barras  and  the 
majority  of  the  Directors,  he  was  proscribed  in  1797,  and 
condemned  to  deportation  ;  but  he  escaped  to  Germany. 
He  returned  about  the  end  of  1799,  and  was  minister  of 
war  for  a  short  time  in  1800.    In  1802  he  became  a 


c  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2[^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CARNOT 


CJRON 


member  of  the  Tribunat,  in  which  he  opposed  Bona- 
parte's assumption  of  imperial  power,  deeming  it  absurd 
to  reward  the  restorer  of  liberty  by  the  ruin  or  subversion 
of  that  very  liberty.  He  declined  to  hold  office  under 
the  empire  until  1814,  when  he  served  as  governor  of 
Antwerp.  The  small  fortune  with  which  he  retired  from 
office  is  mentioned  as  an  evidence  of  his  rare  probity. 
Carnot  was  appointed  minister  of  the  interior  during  the 
Hundred  Days  of  Napoleon,  who  felt  the  necessity  of 
giving  some  pledges  to  the  friends  of  liberty.  He  was 
also  a  member  of  the  provisional  government  formed 
in  June,  181 5.  On  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVHI.  he 
was  proscribed,  and  became  an  exile  in  Germany.  He 
died  at  Magdeburg  in  1823. 

He  published  several  excellent  mathematical  works, 
among  which  are  "  Reflections  on  the  Metaphysics  of 
the  Infinitesimal  Calculus,"  (1797,)  and  "Geometry  of 
Position,"  (1803,)  in  which  he  gives  many  entirely  new 
theorems.   He  was  also  author  of  some  political  treatises. 

See  D.  F.  Arago,  "Biographic  de  Carnot,"  1850;  Wii.helm 
KoRTE,  "Das  Leben  Caniots,"  1820;  P.  F.  Tissor,  "  Memoires 
historiqiies  sur  Carnot,"  1S24 ;  C.  Doris,  "Vie  privee,  politique  et 
morale  de  Carnot,"  1816;  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution;" A.  Serievs,  "Carnot,  sa  Vie  politique  et  privee,"  1816; 
"North  British  Review"  for  1851. 

Carnot-Feulins,  kSii'no'  fuh'l^N',  (Claude  Marie,) 
a  French  officer,  born  at  Nolay  in  1755,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  a  captain  of  engineers  when 
the  Revolution  began,  and  was  elected  to  the  Legislative 
Assembly  in  1 791.  In  1792  he  was  chosen  director  of 
the  department  of  fortifications,  and  performed  several 
important  military  missions.  He  was  proscribed  with 
his  brother  in  1797,  but  was  restored  on  the  fall  of  the 
Directory  in  1799.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of 
brigade,  but  resigned  about  1802,  and  did  not  return  to 
the  service  until  the  restoration.  In  1815  he  retired 
from  the  army,  with  the  rank  and  pension  of  lieutenant- 
general.    Died  in  1836. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Blographie  G^nerale." 

Caro,  ki'ro,  (Annibale,)  one  of  the  most  popular 
Italian  authors  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Citta  Nova,  in 
the  March  of  Ancona,  in  1507.  In  1543  he  became  sec- 
retary to  Farnese,  Duke  of  Parma,  and  from  1548  until  his 
death  he  was  secretar}?^  to  Cardinal  Farnese.  He  wrote  a 
pure  and  elegant  Italian  style  in  prose  and  verse,  wliich 
spread  his  reputation  throughout  Italy.  His  principal 
production  is  a  poetical  version  of  Virgil's  "  y^ineid," 
which  is  called  one  of  the  master-pieces  of  the  language, 
and  is  a  model  of  elegance  and  grace.  He  wrote  also 
original  poems  and  letters,  which  were  greatly  admired. 
An  ode,  or  canzone,  which  he  composed  in  honour  of 
the  King  of  France,  was  criticised  by  Castelvetro,  which 
occasioned  an  intemperate  and  rather  scandalous  war  of 
words  between  that  critic  and  the  author.  Died  at  Rome 
in  1566. 

See  Crasso,  "  Elogj  d'Uomini  letterati ;"  Seghezzi,  "Vita  del 
Caro,"  1742;  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Caro,  kt'ro',  (Elme  Marie,)  a  French  littemteur, 
born  at  Rennes  in  1825.  He  is  one  of  the  editors  of 
the  "Revue  Contem)Doraine,"  and  has  published, besides 
a  few  other  works,  "  Moral  vStudies  on  the  Present  Time," 
(1855,)  which  was  crowned  by  the  French  Academy. 

Caro,  k3.'ro,  (Don  Ventura  or  Bonaventura,)  a 
Spanish  general,  born  at  Valencia  about  1742.  He  re- 
ceived cdmmand  of  the  Spanish  army  in  1793,  when  war 
was  declared  against  the  French,  and  obtained  some 
successes  on  the  frontier.  In  1802  he  was  promoted  to 
the  high  rank  of  captain-general  of  the  armies.  He  died 
in  or  soon  after  1808. 

Carolan.    See  O'Carolan. 

Carolina  Maria,  ki-ro-lee'ni  mi-ree'S,  Queen  of  Na- 
ples, born  in  1752,  was  the  daughter  of  Francis  I.  and 
Maria  Theresa  of  Austria.  In  1768  she  was  married  to 
Ferdinand,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  Being  ambitious 
and  high-spirited,  she  acquired  a  paramount  and  evil 
influence  over  that  imbecile  prince.  She  induced  him 
to  join  the  coalition  against  Bonaparte  about  1805,  in 
consequence  of  which  they  were  expelled  from  Naples 
in  1806,  and  retired  to  the  island  of  Sicily.  She  died  in 
Vienna  in  1814.  Her  daughter  had  become  the  wife  of 
the  Emperor  of  Austria,  Francis  I. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 


Car'o-line,  Queen  01  England,  was  a  daughter  of 
John  Frederick,  Margrave  of  Brandenburg- Anspach.  She 
was  married  in  1705  to  the  Electoral  Prince  of  Hanover, 
who  became  George  II.  of  P^ngland,  She  had  great  in- 
fluence over  the  king  as  long  as  she  lived,  and  was  popu- 
lar with  the  nation.  "  Her  character,"  says  Lord  Mahon, 
"was  without  a  blemish,  and  her  conduct  always  marked 
by  judgment  and  good  sense."  She  was  the  mother  of 
four  daughters  and  two  sons,  Frederick  and  William. 
Died  in  1737. 

See  an  excellent  notice  of  her  character  in  "  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  February,  1868. 

Car'o-line  A-me'li-a  E-liz'a-beth,  Queen  of  Eng- 
land, born  in  1768,  was  the  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick,  and  Augusta  of  England,  who  was  the  sister 
of  George  III.  In  1795  she  was  married  to  her  cousin 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  George  IV.,  who  was  a 
reluctant  party  to  the  union.  His  aversion  became  so 
decided  that  a  complete  separation  took  place  in  1796, 
after  the  birth  of  the  princess  Charlotte.  In  1814  she 
left  England,  and  passed  the  ensuing  years  on  the  con- 
tinent, until  the  accession  of  George  IV.  in  1820,  when 
she  returned  to  London.  The  king  then  instituted  against 
her  a  trial  for  adultery,  which  made  a  great  excitement. 
The  people  mostly  sympathized  with  the  queen.  Caro- 
line was  defended  by  Henry  (afterwards  Lord)  Brougham, 
who  gained  great  applause  by  his  successful  efforts  in 
her  behalf,  and  the  government  abandoned  the  prosecu- 
tion.   She  died  in  1821. 

See  Thomas  Ashe,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Princess  Caroline," 
1812  ;  Brougham's  Works,  vols.  ix.  and  x.;  "  Memoireset  Documents 
sur  la  Vie  et  le  Proems  de  la  Reine  Caroline,"  Paris,  4  vols.,  1821. 

Car'o-line  Ma-tiPda,  [Dan.  Caroline  Mathilde, 
kS-ro-lee'neh  mS-til'deh,]  Queen  of  Denmark,  born  in 
1751,  was  a  sister  of  George  III.  of  England.  In  1766 
she  was  married  to  Christian  VII.  of  Denmark,  a  weak 
and  profligate  prince,  by  whom  she  was  neglected  or 
ill  treated.  Struensee,  an  ambitious  physician,  acquired 
great  influence  over  her  and  the  king,  and  became  prime 
minister.  A  conspiracy  or  coup  cfetat  in  1772  resulted  in 
the  execution  of  that  favourite,  and  the  banishment  of 
Caroline  Matilda  to  Zelle,  where  she  died,  asserting  her 
innocence,  in  1775.    (See  Struensee.) 

See  Lenzen,  "Die  letzten  Stunden  der  Konigin  Caroline  Ma- 
thilde,"  1775;  Heimburger,  "Caroline  Matliilde  Konigin  von  Dane- 
mark,"  1851. 

Carolostadt.    See  Carlstadt. 
Carolus  Magnus.    See  Charlemagne. 
Caron.    See  Beaumarchais. 

Caron,  kS^oN',  (Augustin  Joseph,)  a  French  officer 
and  Bonapartist,  born  in  1774.  He  served  in  the  army 
during  the  first  republic  and  the  empire,  and  rose  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  in  1814.  In  1822  he  formed 
a  plot  to  rescue  some  prisoners  who  were  accomplices 
in  the  Befort  conspiracy.  He  failed,  was  tried  by  a 
council  of  war,  and  shot  at  Strasbourg,  in  1822. 

Caron,  kt'r^N',  (Francois,)  born  in  Holland,  of 
French  parents,  went  to  Japan  in  his  youth,  and  lived  there 
some  years.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Dutch  Council 
of  the  Indies.  Having  entered  the  service  of  the  French, 
he  was  appointed  by  Colbert  director-general  of  French 
commerce  in  India  in  1666.  In  1674  he  was  recalled  to 
Europe,  and  was  drowned  at  Lisbon  just  as  he  arrived. 
He  had  published  a  "Description  of  Japan,"  (1636.) 

Caron,  (Jean  Charles  F6lix,)  a  French  surgeon, 
born  at  Amiens  in  1745.  He  practised  in  Paris,  and  be- 
came chief  surgeon  of  the  Cochin  Hospital  in  1782.  He 
wrote  treatises  on  Respiration,  on  the  Croup,  etc.  Died 
in  1824. 

Caron,  (Jean  Marie,)  a  meritorious  French  judge, 
born  at  Pornic  in  1798.  He  officiated  as  judge  in  sev- 
eral places,  and  afterwards  was  justice  of  the  peace 
(jit,s^e  de  paix)  at  Nantes.  He  wrote,  besides  other  legal 
works,  one  "On  the  Civil  Jurisdiction  of  Justices  of  the 
Peace."    Died  in  1841. 

Car'on,  (Raymond,)  an  Irish  Catholic  priest,  born  in 
1605,  passed  some  years  on  the  continent.  He  defended 
the  doctrine  of  the  Gallican  Church  on  the  independence 
of  kings  and  against  the  infallibility  of  the  pope,  in  a 
Latin  work  entitled  "  Remonstrance  of  the  Hibernians 
against  the  Ultramontane  Censiires,"  (1665,)  which  made 
much  noise  at  the  time.    Died  in  1666. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  5^,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  tit;  m^t;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


CJROMDELET 


525 


CARPI 


Carondelet,  kfrixcl'l^'  or  kfroN^deh-l^',  (Jean,)  a 
Burgundian  prelate  and  writer,  born  at  Dole  in  1469.  He 
was  appointed  by  Charles  V,  president  of  the  Council  of 
Brussels  in  1527.  He  subsequently  became  Chancellor 
of  Flanders,  secretary  to  the  emperor,  and  Archbishop 
of  Palermo.  Erasmus,  who  was  his  friend,  dedicated  to 
him  his  "  Saint-Hilaire."    Died  in  1544. 

See  M.  C.  Murray,  "Memoire  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  de 
Carondelet,"  1786;  Foppens,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Caroprese,  ki-ro-pRa'si,  (Gregorio,)  a  learned  Ital- 
ian writer  and  critic,  born  near  Cosenza  in  1620.  He 
resided  mostly  in  Rome  and  Naples.  He  wrote  a  refu- 
tation of  Machiavel's  "  Prince,"  a  letter  on  "  Orlando 
Furioso,"  and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1 715. 

Caroselli,  ka-ro-seflee,  (  Angiolo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  in  Rome  in  1585.  He  had  a  remarkable  talent  for 
imitating  the  manners  of  different  masters.  Skilful 
connoisseurs  were  deceived  by  his  imitations  of  Titian, 
Raphael,  etc.  He  also  painted  portraits  with  success. 
Died  in  1653. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Carotto,  ki-rot'to,  or  Caroto,  ki-ro'to,  (Giovanni 
Francesco,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  at  Verona 
in  1470,  was  a  pupil  of  A.  Mantegna.  whom  he  surpassed 
in  majesty  and  harmony.  He  excelled  in  portraits. 
Died  in  1546. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Giovanni  Carotto,  a  younger  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  distinguished  as  an  architect. 

Carouge,  kt'roozh',  (Bertrand  Augustin,)  a  French 
astronomer,  born  at  Dol  in  1741.  He  went  to  Paris  and 
associated  himself  with  Lalande,  for  whom  he  made  cal- 
culations which  were  inserted  in  Lalande's  "Astronomy." 
He  prepared  tables  for  calculating  the  phases  of  the 
moon  for  sixty  years,  which  were  published  in  the  "Con- 
naissances  des  Temps,"  (1801.)  In  1795  he  was  ap- 
pointed admini5t7'ateur -general  des  fostes.    Died  in  1798. 

Carove,  kS'ro'vi',  (Friedrich  Wilhf.lm,)  a  German 
critic  and  philosophical  writer,  born  at  Coblentz  in  1789  ; 
died  in  1852. 

Carpaccio,  kaR-pSt'cho,  [Lat.  Carpa'thius,]  (Vit- 
TORE,)  an  Italian  painter,  sometimes  called  Scarpazza, 
born  about  1450.  He  worked  in  Venice,  and  was  a  rival 
of  Bellini.  By  some  writers  he  is  ranked  among  the 
first  painters  of  his  time. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Carpani,  kaR-pJ'nee,  (Giu.seppe,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
theologian,  born  at  Rome  in  1683.  He  wrote  several 
Latin  tragedies,  and  other  works.    Died  about  1765. 

Carpani,  (Giuseppe,)  an  eminent  Italian  dramatic 
poet,  born  at  Villa  Albese,  in  the  Milanese,  in  1752. 
He  became  editor  of  the  "Gazette"  of  Milan  in  1792, 
and  wrote  against  the  French  Revolution.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  French  invasion  in  1796,  he  removed  to 
Vienna,  where  he  settled  permanently  about  1810.  He 
became  a  friend  of  Haydn,  whose  oratorio  of  the  "Crea- 
tion" he  successfully  rendered  into  Italian.  In  1812  he 
published  "  Le  Haydine,"  or  "  Letters  on  the  Life  and 
Works  of  Haydn,"  which  are  commended  as  elegant 
and  interesting.  He  produced  numerous  operas,  dramas, 
and  cantatas,  among  which  are  "La  Camilla,"  a  drama, 
and  "The  Judgment  of  Apollo,"  a  cantata.  Died  in 
Vienna  in  1825. 

SeeTiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri ;"  Fetis,  "Biogra- 
phie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Car'pen-ter,  (George,)  Lord,  an  English  general, 
born  in  Herefordshire  in  1657,  entered  the  army  in  1672. 
In  1707  he  commanded  the  cavalry  at  the  battle  of  Al- 
manza,  Spain,  where  his  conduct  was  applauded.  He 
was  made  a  lieutenant-general  in  1 7 10,  and  was  second 
in  command  at  the  battle  of  Almenara.  In  171 5  he  com- 
manded the  army  which  defeated  the  adherents  of  the 
Pretender  at  Preston.  A  few  years  later  he  received  the 
title  of  Baron.    Died  in  1731. 

See  "  Life  of  George  Lord  Carpenter,"  London,  1736. 

Carpenter,  (Lant,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Kid- 
derminster in  1780,  was  the  father  of  Dr.  W.  B.  Carpen- 
ter the  physiologist.  From  1805  to  181 7  he  officiated  as 
Unitarian  minister  at  Exeter,  and  during  that  period  he 
published  his  "Introduction  to  the  Geography  of  the 


New  Testament,"  and  "  Unitarianism  the  Doctrine  of 
the  Gospel."  He  became  minister  of  the  Unitarian 
church  at  Bristol  in  181 7.  In  1839  he  visited  the  con- 
tinent on  account  of  his  health.  While  passing  from 
Naples  to  Leghorn,  he  was  drowned,  in  April,  1840.  He 
left  numerous  works,  among  which  his  "Apostolical 
Harmony  of  the  Gospels"  (1838)  is  perhaps  the  principal. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Rev.  Lant  Carpenter,"  by  his  son,  1842. 

Carpenter,  (Margaret  Geddes,)  an  English  por- 
trait-painter, born  at  Salisbury  in  1793.  She  was  mar- 
ried to  W.  H.  Carpenter,  noticed  below,  in  181 7. 

Carpenter,  (Mary,)  an  English  philanthropist,  daugh- 
ter of  Lant  Carpenter,  was  born  about  1820.  She  founded 
a  reformatory  institution  for  females  at  Bristol,  and  wrote 
several  works  on  education,  etc. 

Carpenter,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  scholar  and 
clergyman,  born  in  Devonshire  in  1588.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "Philosophia  Libera,"  (1621,)  one 
of  the  first  attacks  on  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle.  He 
lived  some  years  in  Dublin,  where  he  died  about  1630. 

See  Wood,  "Athenje  Oxonienses." 

Carpenter,  (Richard,)  an  English  priest,  who  twice 
or  thrice  was  converted  from  Protestantism  to  Catholi- 
cism. He  published  several  works,  one  of  which  is 
entitled  "Experience,  History,  and  Divinity,"  (1642.) 
He  also  wrote  "The  Pragmatical  Jesuit,"  a  comedy. 

See  Wood,  "Athenas  Oxonienses." 

Carpenter,  (William,)  an  English  author  and  bibli- 
cal critic,  born  in  London  about  1798,  published  several 
valuable  works,  among  which  are  "Calendarium  Pales- 
tinae,"  (1825,)  "  Scripture  Natural  History,"  (1828,)  and 
"A  Guide  to  the  Practical  Reading  of  the  Bible,"  (1830.) 

Carpenter,  (William  Benjamin,)  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish physiologist,  son  of  Lant  Carpenter,  noticed  above, 
was  born  about  1812.  He  became  a  student  of  medicine 
in  University  College,  London,  in  1833,  and  graduated 
in  Edinburgh  in  1839,  before  which  date  he  had  pub- 
lished a  treatise  "  On  the  Unity  of  Function  in  Organized 
Beings,"  and  a  few  other  short  works.  In  1839  he  pub- 
lished an  important  and  remarkable  work,  entitled  "  Prin- 
ciples of  General  and  Comparative  Physiology."  About 
1840  he  settled  in  Bristol.  He  produced,  in  1846,  "  Princi- 
ples of  Human  Physiology,"  a  work  of  great  merit,  and 
scarcely  equalled  by  any  other  on  that  subject.  "We 
know  of  no  work  on  physiology  from  which  the  student 
is  likely  to  derive  so  much  advantage."  ("British  and 
Foreign  Medical  Review.")  Dr.  Carpenter  is,  or  was, 
professor  of  medical  jurisprudence  in  University  Col- 
lege, London,  and  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Among 
his  later  publications  are  "Zoology  and  Instinct  in  Ani- 
mals," (1848,)  and  "On  the  Microscope:  its  Revelations 
and  Uses,"  (1856.)  In  1849  he  received  a  prize  of  one 
hundred  guineas  for  an  "Essay  on  Alcoholic  Liquors." 
His  brother,  Russell  Lant  Carpenter,  was  Unitarian 
minister  at  Birkenhead,  and  published  memoirs  of  his 
father,  the  Rev.  Lant  Carpenter. 

See  "Westminster  Review"  for  July,  1863. 

Carpenter,  (William  H.,)  born  in  London  in  1792, 
became  in  1845  keeper  of  the  prints  and  drawings  of 
the  British  Museum. 

Carpentier,  kSR'p6N'te-i',  (Pierre,)  a  French  Bene- 
dictine friar  and  antiquary,  noted  for  his  learning,  was 
born  at  Charleville  in  1697.  He  performed  the  principal 
part  of  the  improved  edition  of  Du  Gauge's  "Glossarium 
mediae  et  infimae  Latinitatis,"  (1736.)  In  1766  he  pub- 
lished a  valuable  supplement  to  the  work  above  named, 
with  the  title  of  "  Glossarium  novum,"  etc.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1767. 

See  Tassin,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  la  Congregation  de  Saint- 
Maiir." 

Carpi,  da,  d^  kaR'pee,  (Girolamo,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter  and  architect,  born  at  Ferrara  about  1500.  He 
imitated  Correggio  with  such  success  that  some  of  his 
copies  passed  for  the  original  works  of  that  artist.  He 
adorned  the  churches  of  Bologna  and  Ferrara  with  fres- 
cos and  oil-paintings.  "The  Adoration  of  the  Magi"  is 
called  one  of  his  master-pieces.    Died  in  1556. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,  Sculptors,  etc.;"  Baruf- 
FALDi,  "  Vitadi  G.  da  Carpi  Pittore,"  1841. 

Carpi,  da,  (Ugo,)  an  eminent  Italian  wood-engraver 
and  painter,  is  said  to  have  been  born  in  Rome  about 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2!^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CARP  IN 


526 


CJRR 


i486.  He  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  clair-obscur  en- 
graving, or  printing  in  light  and  shade.  Among  his 
works  are  "  Diogenes  and  his  Tub,"  after  Parmegiano, 
and  "^neas  bearing  off  Anchises,"  after  Raphael.  He 
used  three  blocks,  the  first  for  the  outline,  the  second 
for  the  middle  tints,  and  the  last  for  the  shadows. 

Carpin,  kaR-peen',  or  Carpini,  kaR-pee'nee,  (Johan'- 
NES  DE  Pla'ko,)  an  Italian  monk,  noted  for  his  travels 
and  adventures  among  the  Tartars  or  Mongols  who  had 
ravaged  the  eastern  parts  of  Christendom.  In  1246  he 
was  sent  by  Pope  Innocent  IV.  on  a  mission  to  Tartary, 
with  the  design  to  pacify  those  barbarians  or  convert 
them  to  Christianity.  With  great  courage  and  patience 
he  penetrated  to  the  court  of  the  Grand  Khan,  whom  he 
calls  Kujak,  and  who  dismissed  him  with  a  letter  to  the 
pope.  On  his  return  home,  in  1248,  he  wrote  a  narrative 
of  his  journey,  which  is  considered  tolerably  faithful  and 
accurate,  (making  allowance  for  the  prevalent  ignorance, 
etc.,)  and  imparted  to  Europeans  their  first  knowledge 
of  the  country  of  the  Mongols.  Hakluyt  translated  it, 
and  inserted  it  in  his  "  Collection  of  Voyages,"  etc.  Car- 
pini afterwards  was  provincial  of  Germany,  and  preached 
the  gospel  in  Bohemia,  Norway,  and  Denmark. 

See  De  Guignes,  "  Histoire  generale  des  Huns." 

Carpioni,  kaR-pe-o'nee,  (Giulio,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Venice  in  161 1.  He  painted  fabu- 
lous and  fantastic  subjects  with  success.    Died  in  1674. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Carpocrate.    See  Carpocrates. 

Car-poc'ra-tes,  [Fr.  Carpocrate,  ktR'po^kRtt',]  a 
heresiarch  of  Alexandria,  lived  in  the  reign  of  Adrian, 
in  the  second  century.  He  is  said  to  have  taught  that 
the  world  was  created  by  angels,  that  Christ  was  only  a 
human  being  of  pre-eminent  goodness,  and  that  the  souls 
of  men  existed  before  their  entrance  into  this  world. 
He  also  taught  doctrines  subversive  of  morality,  a  kind 
of  Gnostic  Antinomianism,  and  had  numerous  followers. 

See  Matter,  "Du  Gaosticisme,"  2d  edition,  1S3S. 

Carpov,  kaR'pof,  ([akob,)  a  German  theologian,  born 
at  Goslar  in  1699.  He  lectured  at  Jena,  where  he  made 
many  enemies  by  attempting  to  treat  theology  according 
to  philosophic  methods.  Having  removed  to  Weimar, 
he  was  there  chosen  professor  of  mathematics  in  1742. 
He  wrote  an  "  Inquiry  whether  the  Earth  is  a  Machine 
or  an  Animal,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1768. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  '*  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Carpzov,  kaRp'tsof,  [Lat.  Carpzo'vius,]  (August,) 
a  German  diplomatist,  son  of  Benedict,  noticed  below, 
born  at  Colditz  in  1612.  He  became  chancellor  of  the 
high  court  of  Saxony,  and  represented  that  power  at  the 
treaty  of  Westphalia,  (1648.)  In  1675  he  was  appointed 
a  privy  councillor  at  Gotha.    Died  in  1683. 

See  Stltrz,  "  Commentatio  de  Vita  A.  Carpzovii,"  1750. 

Carpzov,  (Benedict,)  a  distinguished  German  juris- 
consult, born  in  Brandenburg  in  1565.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  law  at  Wittenberg  in  1599,  and  wrote  seve- 
ral volumes  of  "Legal  Disputations,"  ("  Disputationes 
JuridiccE.")  He  died  in  1624,  leaving  several  sons,  who 
gained  distinction  in  the  same  career. 

Carpzov,  (Benedict,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Wittenberg  in  1595,  was  a  more  able  jurisconsult 
than  his  father.  He  was  a  privy  councillor  to  the  Elector 
of  Saxony,  and  author  of  many  works,  among  which  is 
"  Practice  in  Criminal  Causes,"  ("  Practica  Rerum  cri- 
minalium,"  1635.)  "  He  deserved  to  be  regarded,"  says 
Boissonade,  *'  as  the  first  of  German  practitioners."  Died 
in  1666. 

See  Lange,  "  Predigt  bei  der  Leichen-Bestattung  B.  Carpzovii," 
1667;  Kromayer,  "  Programma  in  B.  Carpzovii  finiere,"  1666. 

Carpzov,  (Johann  Benedict,)  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Rochlitz  in  1607. 
He  was  professor  at  Leipsic.    Died  in  1657. 

Carpzov,  (Johann  Benedict,)  an  Orientalist,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1639,  was  professor 
of  Hebrew,  etc.  in  that  city.  He  wrote  treatises  on 
sacred  ])hilology.    Died  in  1699. 

PUs  brother,  Friedrich  Benedict,  (1649-99,)  was 
notea  as  a  philologist.  He  contributed  to  the  "Acta 
Eruditorum." 

See  JoLHRR,  "  Allgeineines  Gelehrten-Lexikon  ;"  Cyprian,  "  Pro- 
gramma in  funere  J.  B.  Carpzovii,"  1699;  Crell,  "Oratio  F.  B. 
Carpzovii  IMemorije  sacra,"  1700. 


Carpzov,  (Johann  Benedict,)  a  historian  and  jurist, 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Dresden  in  1675.  He 
published  several  works.    Died  in  1739. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  Ernst 
F.  Haupt,  "Ueber  J.  B.  Carpzov  als  Historiker,"  1842. 

Carpzov,  (Johann  Gottlob,)  a  Lutheran  theologian, 
born  at  Dresden  in  1679.  He  was  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Leipsic  from  1719  to  1730,  and  in  the  last 
year  removed  to  Lubeck,  where  he  preached  many  years. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Sacred  Criticism  on 
the  Old  Testament,"  ("Critica  sacra  Veteris  Testa- 
menti.")    Died  in  1767. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  Peter 
H.  Becker,  "  Leben  G.  Carpzovs,"  1767;  Overbeck,  "  Memoria 
Vitae  J.  G.  Carpzovii,"  1767. 

Carpzovius.    See  Carpzov. 

Carr,  (Eugene  A.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Erie  county,  New  York,  about  1830,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1850.  He  became  a  captain  about  1858,  com- 
manded a  division  at  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862,  and  was 
appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  the  same 
month.    He  served  in  Arkansas  in  1864. 

Carr,  (George,)  a  minister  of  the  Anglican  Church, 
born  at  Newcastle,  England,  in  1704.  From  1737  to  1776 
he  was  senior  clergyman  of  the  Episcopal  Chapel,  Edin« 
burgh.  Several  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  published. 
"To  his  merits  as  a  preacher,  great  as  they  were,"  says 
r^r.  Beattie,  "the  lustre  of  his  private  character  was  still 
superior."    Died  in  1776. 

Carr,  (John,)  an  English  architect,  born  near  Wake- 
field, Yorkshire,  in  1721.  He  gained  an  extensive  prac- 
tice in  the  north  of  England,  where  he  erected  many  fine 
edifices.  Among  them  are  the  Town-Hall  of  Newark, 
Harewood  House,  Yorkshire,  and  the  mausoleum  of 
Lord  Rockingham  at  Wentvvorth.  He  was  chosen  lord 
mayor  of  York  in  1770,  and  again  in  1785.    Died  in  1807. 

Carr,  (John,)  LL.D.,  an  English  schoolmaster,  born 
in  the  county  of  Durham  in  1732.  He  taught  a  grammar- 
school  at  Hertford  for  many  years  with  credit,  and  made 
a  translation  Of  Lucian's  "Dialogues,"  which  is  said 
to  be  excellent.  He  also  wrote  other  works.  Died  in 
1807. 

Carr,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  writer  of  travels,  born  in 
Devonshire  in  1772,  was  educated  for  the  law.  During 
the  brief  peace  which  followed  the  treaty  of  Amiens  he 
visited  France,  and  produced  in  1803  "  The  Stranger  in 
France,"  which  was  very  successful,  partly  because  for 
many  ensuing  years  the  scenes  which  he  described  were 
inaccessible  to  English  tourists.  He  afterwards  pub- 
lished "  Northern  Summer,  or  Travels  around  the  Baltic," 
a  "Tour  through  Holland,"  and  a  few  other  works.  He 
was  knighted  about  1806.    Died  in  1832. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1807. 

Carr,  (Joseph  B.,)  an  American  officer,  born  at  Albany 
about  1825,  served  in  the  campaigns  of  1861-62,  and  was 
made  a  brigadier-general  in  1862. 

Carr,  written  also  Carre  or  Ker,  (Robert,)  Earl  of 
Somerset,  a  Scottish  courtier,  born  about  1589.  In  1610 
his  handsome  person  attracted  the  notice  of  the  king, 
James  I.,  of  whom  he  soon  became  the  prime  favourite. 
"James  created  him  Viscount  Rochester,"  says  Hume, 
".  .  .  and  bestowed  on  him  the  supreme  direction  of 
all  his  business  and  political  concerns."  In  1613  Carr 
married  Lady  Frances  Howard,  lately  divorced  from 
the  Earl  of  Essex,  and  was  created  Earl  of  Somerset. 
He  was  for  some  time  on  very  intimate  terms  with  Sir 
Thomas  Overbury ;  but  they  afterwards  quarrelled, 
and  in  1616  Somerset  and  his  wife  were  convicted  cf 
procuring  the  death  of  Overbury  by  poison,  but,  through 
the  favour  of  the  king,  they  escaped  the  just  penalty  of 
their  crime.  After  an  imprisonment  of  several  years,  he 
was  released,  and  died  in  obscurity. 

See  Gardiner's  "  History  of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  vol.  ii. 
chaps.  X.,  xi.,  and  xiii. ;  Hume's  "History  of  England,"  chap,  xlvii. 

Carr,  (Sir  Robert,)  one  of  the  royal  commissioners 
of  New  England,  appointed  in  1664  by  Charles  II.  In 
conjunction  with  Nicolls,  he  took  New  Amsterdam  from 
the  Dutch,  and  changed  the  name  of  that  city  to  New  York, 
in  honour  of  the  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II. 

Carr,  (Rev.  Wflliam  Hoiavell,)  an  English  patron 
of  the  fine  arts,  born  in  1759.  He  bequeathed  many 
pictures  to  the  National  Gallery.    Died  in  1830. 


a.  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lottg;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CARRA 


527 


CARREL 


Carra,  kt'rS',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  revolutionist, 
born  at  Pont-de-Vesle  in  1743.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1789, 
and  became  the  editor  of  a  journal  called  "Annales 
Patriotiques,"  which  was  very  radical  in  politics.  p{e 
was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  and,  having  joined 
the  Girondists,  was  proscribed  by  Robespierre,  and  exe- 
cuted in  October,  1793.  "  He  took  refuge  in  the  Gironde," 
says  Lamartine,  "to  oppose  the  excesses  of  the  people." 
He  had  published  several  historical  and  scientific  works. 

See  Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Girondists." 

Carra  Saint-Cyr,  ki'rt'  siw's^R',  (Jean  FRANgois,) 
Count,  a  French  general,  born  in  1756.  As  general  of 
brigade,  he  contributed  to  the  victories  of  Marengo  and 
Hohenlinden,  (1801.)  He  became  a  general  of  division 
in  1801,  and  commanded  the  army  of  occupation  in 
Naples  in  1805.  He  was  Governor  of  French  Guiana 
in  181 7-19.    Died  in  1834. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conqueles  des  Fran^ais." 

Carracci.    See  Caracci. 

Carrach,  kSr'raK,  (Johann  Tobias,)  a  Prussian  jurist, 
born  at  Magdeburg  in  1702.  In  1763  he  was  chosen 
rector  of  the  University  of  Halle,  in  which  he  had  pre- 
viously been  professor  of  law.  He  published  many  legal 
treatises.    Died  in  1775. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Konig, 
"Leben  und  Schriften  des  Herrn  J.  T.  Carrach,"  1776. 

Carrache.    See  Caracci. 

Carradori,  kSr-ri-do'ree,  (Gioachino,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Prato,  in  Tuscany,  in  1758.  About 
1802  he  wrote  a  prize  essay  "On  Fertility  of  Land," 
■which  is  regarded  as  a  classic  work.  He  contributed 
able  scientific  articles  to  the  journals  of  Milan  and  Pavia, 
and  published  a  treatise  on  Galvanism.    Died  in  1818. 

See  Sii-VESTRi,  "  Elogio  de  G.  Carradori,"  1818  ;  Tipaldo,  "  Bio- 
grafia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Carranza,  kir-rin'thi,  (Bartolom6.)  a  Spanish  pre- 
late, born  at  Miranda  in  1503.  Charles  V.  sent  him  to 
the  Council  of  Trent  in  1546.  He  accompanied  Philip 
II.  to  England,  where  he  becaine  confessor  to  Queen 
Mary  and  displayed  a  fanatical  zeal  against  the  Prot- 
estants. About  1556  he  was  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Toledo.  This  promotion  appears  to  have  excited  the 
envy  of  his  enemies,  who  obtained  from  the  Inquisition 
a  censure  of  a  Catechism  which  he  published,  and  ac- 
cused him  of  perverting  the  mind  of  Charles  V.  in  his 
last  illness.  He  was  confined  in  prison  ten  years  or 
more,  and  soon  after  his  release  he  died,  in  1576. 

See  Salazar  de  Mendoza,  "Vida  y  Sncesos  de  B.  de  Carran/.a 
y  Miranda,"  1788  ;  Prescott,  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  vols.  i.  andii. 

Carrara,  (Giovanni  Michele  Alberto,)  an  Italian 
physician  and  author,  born  at  Bergamo,  was  one  of  the 
most  learned  and  prolific  writers  of  his  time.  Among 
his  works  are  a  "  History  of  Italian  Affairs  in  his  Own 
Times,"  and  a  Latin  poem  "On  the  Venetian  War." 
In  1488  the  emperor  Frederick  III.  made  him  a  count 
palatine.    Died  in  1490. 

See  Vo.ssius,  "De  Historicis  Latinis;"  A.  Suardi,  "Vitadi  G. 
M.  A.  Carrara,"  1784. 

Carrara,  (Pietro  Antoni*o,)  a  native  of  Bergamo, 
published,  in  1701,  a  version  of  Virgil's  "/Eneid"  in 
ottava  rima. 

Carrara,  (Ubertino,)  an  Italian  poet  and  Jesuit,  born 
at  Sora  about  1640.  He  was  for  many  years  professor 
of  belles-lettres  in  the  Roman  College,  and  wrote  a 
heroic  poem  called  "Voyage  of  Columbus,"  of  which  the 
invention  is  more  poetic  than  the  style.    Died  in  1715. 

Carrara,  da,  di  kSr-r^'ra,  a  noble  family  of  Italy, 
which  ruled  over  Padua  in  the  middle  ages  and  adhered 
to  the  Guelph  party. 

Jacopo  da  Carrara,  after  commanding  the  army  in 
the  war  against  Can  della  Scala,  was  elected  Lord  of 
Padua  in  1318.  Died  in  1324.  His  nephew,  Marsilio, 
who  succeeded,  made  an  alliance  with  Can  della  Scala, 
of  Verona,  to  whom  in  1328  he  transferred  the  title  of 
Lord  of  Padua;  but  he  contintied  to  be  the  actual  ruler. 
The  heirs  of  Della  Scala  were  expelled  in  1337.  Mar- 
silio died  in  1338,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew, 
Ubertino.  During  his  government  hostilities  were 
renewed  with  the  Lord  of  Verona,  and  were  terminated 
by  a  peace  in  1343.  He  died,  without  issue,  in  1345. 
Francesco  I.,  a  grand-nephew  of  Jacopo,  above  no- 
ticed, obtained  the  chief  power  in  1355,  and  at  the  same 


time  was  chosen  to  command  the  army  of  the  league 
formed  by  Ferrara,  Mantua,  Verona,  and  Padua  against 
the  Visconti  of  Milan.  After  several  indecisive  battles, 
peace  was  made  in  1358.  In  1378  he  joined  the  Geno- 
ese in  a  war  against  Venice,  which  brought  the  latter 
state  to  the  brink  of  ruin.  About  1387  he  was  deposed 
by  Gian  Galeazzo  Visconti,  and  confined  in  prison  until 
his  death  in  1393. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Carrara,  da,  (Francesco  II.,)  called  Novello,  (no- 
veKlo,)the  son  of  Francesco  I.,  noticed  above,  recovered 
the  lordship  of  Padua  in  1390,  by  the  favour  of  the  Vene- 
tians. He  waged  war  against  the  Visconti,  and,  by 
seizing  Verona  in  1404,  involved  himself  in  war  with 
Venice.  Having  been  vanquished  by  that  power,  he  was 
taken  prisoner  and  put  to  death,  with  his  sons,  in  1406, 
after  which  Padua  was  annexed  to  Venice. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Carre.    See  Carr. 

Carre  or  Carree,  kt'ri',  (FRANgois,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
father  of  Hendrik,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Friesland 
in  1636 ;  died  in  1669. 

Carre,  kt'ri',  (Guillaume  Louis  Julien,)  a  French 
jurisconsult,  born  at  Rennes  in  1777.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  in  the  Faculty  of  Rennes  in  1806,  and 
gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  lecturer.  He  published 
"Laws  of  Civil  Practice,"  (1824,)  and  other  works  of 
merit.    Died  in  1832. 

See  A.  Chauveau,  "  Notice  sur  Carr^,"  1841. 

Carre,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter,  born 
about  1656,  was  a  pupil  of  J.  Jordaens.  He  became  a 
resident  of  Amsterdam,  where  he  worked  many  years 
with  success.  Descamps  praises  his  colour  and  touch. 
Died  in  1721. 

See  Descamp.s,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Carr^,  (Jean  Baptiste  Louis,)  a  French  writer  and 
tactician,  born  at  Varennes  in  1749.  Besides  other  works, 
he  published  one  entitled  "Panoply,"  (Panoplie,"  1795,) 
a  treatise  on  armour,  weapons,  and  military  affairs  in 
general.    Died  in  1S35. 

See  Qu^rard,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Carre,  (Louis,)  a  French  geometer,  born  at  a  village 
in  Brie  in  1663.  After  having  served  Malebranche  as 
amanuensis,  he  became  a  teacher  of  mathematics  and 
philosophy.  In  1697  he  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  Method  for  the 
Measurement  of  Surfaces,  Solids,"  etc.,  which  was  once 
highly  prized.    Died  in  171 1. 

See  Fontenelle,  "J!loge  de  Carre;"  NiciSron,  " M^moires." 

Carre,  (Michael,)  a  brother  of  Hendrik,  born  about 
1658,  was  a  pupil  of  N.  Berghem,  and  a  skilful  painter. 
He  was  employed  by  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia,  after  whose 
death  he  returned  to  Amsterdam.    Died  in  1728. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Carre,  (Narcisse  Epaminondas,)  a  French  jin-ist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1794,  was  councillor  in  the  Cour  Impe- 
riale  of  Paris.  He  published  an  edition  of  the  works  of 
Domat,  (9  vols.,  1822,)  and  a  "Code  des  Femmes,"  (1828.) 

Carre,  (Pierre  Laurent,)  a  French  litterateitr,  born 
in  Paris  in  1758,  obtained  the  chair  of  rhetoric  at  Tou- 
louse, where  he  lectured  with  eclat.  He  wrote  an  epistle 
to  his  friend  Delille  the  poet.  He  left  many  odes,  epis- 
tles, and  other  poems.    Died  in  1825. 

Carrel,  kt'reK,  (Nicolas  Armand,)  a  celebrated 
French  journalist  and  publicist,  was  born  at  Rouen  in 
1800.  He  entered  the  army  as  sub-lieutenant  about  1820, 
with  sentiments  of  hostility  to  the  dynasty  restored  by 
foreign  troops.  "When  the  government  sent  an  army  to 
Spain  to  support  the  cause  of  absolutism,  he  resigned 
in  1823,  and  joined  the  army  of  Spanish  liberals.  Hav- 
ing been  inade  prisoner,  he  was  sentenced  to  death  by  a 
council  of  war;  but,  on  account  of  informalities  in  the 
process,  he  was  released.  Finding  himself  destitute  of 
resources  except  in  his  literary  talents,  he  became  secre- 
tary of  the  historian  Augustin  Thierry,  He  soon  quitted 
this  service,  which  imposed  too  much  .constraint  on  his 
independent  spirit,  and  began  to  write  for  the  "Constitu- 
tionnel,"  the  "  Revue  Francaise,"  and  other  journals  and 
reviews  of  Paris.  About  1828  he  published  a  "  Resume 
of  the  History  of  Modern  Greece,"  and  a  "  History  of 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  k, giitiitral ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  tkis.    (J^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CAR  RENO 


528 


CJRRO 


the  Counter-Revolution  in  England,"  which  is  highly 
esteemed.  '*  The  reigns  of  the  last  two  Stuarts,"  says 
the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  "have  been  written  with  the 
mind  of  a  statesman  and  the  hand  of  a  vigorous  writer, 
by  Armand  Carrel."  In  1830  Thiers  and  Carrel  became 
chief  editors  of  the  '*  National,"  a  daily  journal,  which 
the  latter  first  projected,  and  which  was  the  organ  of 
the  liberal  opposition.  After  the  revolution  of  1830,  (in 
which  Carrel  took  a  prominent  part,)  Thiers  entered  the 
new  ministry,  and  left  the  chief  control  of  the  journal  to 
his  late  colleague,  whose  eloquence  and  judgment  soon 
raised  the  "National"  to  the  highest  point  of  influence 
and  popularity.  He  gained  much  applause  by  the  utter- 
ance of  his  indignant  abhorrence  of  the  execution  of 
Marshal  Ney,  while  he  was  pleading  a  cause  before  the 
Chamber  of  Peers,  the  majority  of  which  had  pronounced 
the  sentence  in  that  case.  He  was  imprisoned  by  the 
government  of  Louis  Philippe  on  account  of  his  writings, 
although  he  was  the  moderator  as  well  as  the  champion 
of  the  popular  party.  He  was  killed  in  a  duel  by  Emile 
de  Girardin,  editor  of  the  "  Presse,"  in  July,  1836.  "  His 
sterling  honesty,"  says  Brougham,  "was  only  exceeded 
by  his  brilliant  talents." 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale ;"  Carl  Boelsche,  "  Zwei 
Republikaner,"  (containing  the  life  of  Carrel  and  L.  Borne,  1850;)  C. 
Nisard's  article  in  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  for  October  i, 
1837. 

Carreno  de  Miranda,  kir-rin'yo  dk  me-rSn'dS, 
(Don  Juan,)  a  skilful  Spanish  painter  of  history  and 
portraits,  was  born  in  Asturias  in  1614.  In  1669  Philip 
IV.  gave  him  the  title  of  First  Painter  to  the  King, 
which  he  retained  under  Charles  II.  His  works,  which 
illustrate  scriptural  subjects,  are  at  Madrid,  Toledo,  etc. 
Died  in  1685.  He  was  an  excellent  colorist,  in  which 
respect  he  is  ranked  by  Spaniards  between  Titian  and 
Van  Dyck. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols;"  Bryan, 
"  Dictionary  of  Painters ;"  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler- 
Lexikon." 

Carrer,  kSr-raa',  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  lyric  poet,  born 
at  Venice  in  1801,  wrote,  besides  other  poems,  "The 
Ring  of  Seven  Gems."    Died  in  1850. 

CaxTera,  kdr-ra'rS,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  in  Sicily  in  1571,  wrote  "Ancient  Syracuse  illus- 
trated," and  other  works.    Died  in  1647. 

Carrera,  kSr-ra'ri,  (Rafael,)  a  statesman,  of  Indian 
extraction,  born  at  Guatemala  about  1814.  In  the  civil 
war  (1837-39)  he  fought  with  success  against  the  Fede- 
ral government,  and  became  commander-in-chief  of  the 
insurgents.  He  was  elected  President  of  Guatemala  in 
1847,  arid  re-elected  in  1851. 

Carreras,  kar-ra'ris,  (]os±  Miguel,  Juan,  and  Luis,) 
three  brothers,  citizens  of  Chili,  who  were  noted  as 
patriots,  and  took  part  in  the  war  of  independence 
against  Spain  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century. 
Juan  and  Luis  were  put  to  death  in  1818,  and  Jose 
Miguel  in  1822. 

Carrere,  ki'raiR',  (Joseph  Barth6lemi  Franqois,)  a 
French  physician,  born  in  1740  at  Perpignan.  In  1773  he 
settled  in  Paris,  and  was  appointed  inspector-general  of 
the  mineral  waters  of  Roussillon,  and  royal  censor.  He 
published  many  professional  works,  among  which  are 
"  A  Manual  for  the  Service  of  the  Sick,"  a  "  Treatise  on 
Inflammatory  Diseases,"  (1774,)  and  a  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Medical  Writers,"  (2  vols.,  1776,)  which 
was  continued  only  to  "Coivart."    Died  in  1802. 

See  ^Lov,  "Dictionnaire  de  la  M^decine ;"  "Biographic  M^di- 
cale  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Carrere,  (Thomas,)  a  French  physician,  father  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Perpignan  in  17 14;  died  in  1764. 

Carreri,  kir-ra'ree,  (Giovanni  Francesco  Gemellt,) 
an  Italian,  born  in  Naples,  visited  Asia  in  1693,  and 
published  "Tour  of  the  World,"  (1699.) 

Carrero,  kir-ra'ro,  (Pedro  Garcias,)  a  skilful  Span- 
ish physician,  born  at  Calahorra,  lived  about  1600,  ac- 
quired a  high  reputation,  and  became  physician  to  Philip 
III.  His  commentaries  on  Galen  and  Avicenna  prove 
him  to  have  been  a  man  of  extensive  learning. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Carretto,  del,  d§l  kSr-ret'to,  (Francesco  Saverio,) 
Marquis,  a  Neapolitan  minister  of  state,  born  at  Sa- 
lerno.   In  his  youth  he  served  in  the  army  with  distinc- 


tion, and  rose  to  a  high  rank.  He  was  chosen  minister 
of  police  in  183 1,  and  rendered  himself  odious  by  the 
severe  and  tyrannical  measures  with  which  he  suppressed 
popular  revolts.  In  consequence  of  a  transient  success 
of  the  popular  party  in  1848,  he  was  banished  by  Fer- 
dinand II.;  but  he  was  soon  recalled,  and  loaded  with 
favours,  by  that  king. 

Carrier,  ki're-i',  almost  ktR'yk',  (Jean  B.,)  a  French 
Jacobin  of  infamous  memory,  was  born  in  1756.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  and  in  the  next  year 
was  sent  to  Nantes,  to  execute  the  bloody  will  of  the 
dominant  party.  He  sacrificed  great  numbers  of  prison- 
ers and  citizens  without  trial,  and  spared  neither  women 
nor  children.  Multitudes  were  crowded  into  boats  and 
sunk  in  the  river  Loire,  and  others  were  shot  or  guillo- 
tined. The  first  mode  of  destruction  was  called  republi- 
can baptism.  Soon  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre  the  public 
voice  called  for  justice  against  Carrier,  who,  after  a  trial 
by  the  tribunal  at  Paris,  was  executed  in  1794. 

See  De  Barante,  "  Melanges ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^- 
rale." 

Carriera.    See  Rosalba. 

Carriere,  kfre-aiii',  (Denis  Di^sir^,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1813  ;  died  in  1853. 

Carriere,  (Joseph,)  a  French  theologian,  born  in 
1795.  He  became  professor  of  theology  in  the  seminary 
of  Saint-Sulpice,  Paris.  He  has  published  an  esteemed 
work  on  theology,  written  in  Latin,  comprising  the  fol- 
lowing subjects :  "  On  Matrimony,"  "  On  Justice  and 
Law,"  and  "On  Contracts." 

Carriere,  kS're-aiR',  (Moritz,)  a  German  philosophi- 
cal writer,  was  bornat  Griedel,in  Hesse,  in  181 7.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  Giessen  in  1849. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  a  treatise  "  On  Aristotle 
the  Friend  of  Plato,"  in  Latin,  (1837,)  "The  Philosophic 
Contemplation  of  the  World  at  the  Time  of  the  Refor- 
mation,"  (1847,)  and  a  poem,  "The  Last  Night  of  the 
Girondists,"  ("Die  letzte  Nachtder  Girondisteu,"  1849.) 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Carriferes, de, deh  kt're-aiR',  (Louis,)  a  French  bib- 
lical commentator,  born  near  Angers  in  1662.  His  com- 
mentary was  inserted  in  the  French  version  of  the  Bible 
by  Sacy.    Died  in  171 7. 

Carrillo,  kSr-r6l'yo,  (Martin,)  a  Spanish  historian, 
born  at  Saragossa;  died  about  1630. 

Car'ring-ton,  (Noel  Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  born 
at  Plymouth  in  1777.  After  serving  a  short  time  in  the 
royal  navy,  which  he  left  about  1797,  he  taught  school 
at  Maidstone  and  Devonport.  He  wrote  several  didactic 
poems  of  some  merit,  among  which  are  "The  Banks  of 
Tamar,"  (1820,)  "  Dartmoor,"  (1826,)  and  "My  Native 
Village."  "  Dartmoor,"  which  is  called  his  best  work, 
was  received  with  great  favour.    Died  in  1830. 

See  "Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  ii. 

Carrion,  kt're'6N',  (Louis,)  a  Flemish  critic,  born  at 
Bruges  about  1547.  He  became  professor  of  civil  law 
and  of  canon  law  at  Louvain,  where  he  died  in  1595. 
Among  his  works  are  an  edition  of  the  "Attic  Nights" 
of  Aulus  GelHus,  and  "  Commentaries  on  Ancient  Read- 
ings," ("Antiquarum  Lectionum  Commentarii.") 

Carrion,  de,  di  kir-re-6n',  (Manuel  Ramirez,)  a 
learned  Spaniard,  born  about  1590.  He  attained  great 
success  in  the  instruction  of  deaf-mutes,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  who,  in  Spain,  taught  letters  to  that 
class. 

Carrion-Nisas,  ki're-6N' ne^zJ',  (Antoine  Henri 
FRANgois,)  a  French  author,  born  at  Lezignan  in  1794. 
He  has  published  a  "  Roman  History  from  the  Foun- 
dation of  Rome  to  the  Reign  of  Constantine,"  (1815,) 
"Principles  of  Political  Economy,"  (1824,)  and  other 
works. 

Carrion-Nisas,  de,  deh  kt're-6N'  ne'zJ',  (Marie 
Henri  Franqois,)  Marquis,  a  French  politician  and 
military  officer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1787,  was  the 
father  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1841. 

Carro,  de,  deh  kt'ro',  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  physician,  born 
at  Geneva  in  1770.  He  practised  many  years  in  Vienna, 
and  was  noted  for  his  zealous  efforts  to  propagate  vac- 
cination, on  which  he  published  a  work,  (1801.)  He  lived 
at  Carlsbad  from  1825  until  his  death  in  1857. 

See  Weitenweber,  "Biographic  des  Dr.  J.  de  Carro,"  1844. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  11, )  ^ong;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CARROLL 


CARTE 


Car'rpU,  (Charles,)  of  Carrollton,  an  American  pa- 
triot, born  at  Annapolis,  Maryland,  in  1737.  He  was 
educated  as  a  Roman  Catholic  in  France,  and  studied 
law  in  Paris  and  London.  Having  returned  to  America 
about  1764,  he  inherited  a  very  large  estate  in  land  in  his 
native  province,  and  was  reputed  to  be  the  richest  man 
in  Maryland.  Before  the  Revolution  began,  he  defended, 
by  his  writings,  the  rights  of  the  colonies  against  the 
oppressive  measures  of  the  British  ministry.  He  was 
elected  a  delegate  to  the  Provincial  Convention  in  1775, 
and  a  delegate  to  Congress  in  July,  1776.  He  signed 
the  declaration  of  Independence,  and,  in  order  to  iden- 
tify himself  more  fully  with  the  danger  as  well  as  honour 
resulting  from  that  manifesto,  wrote  his  name  Charles 
Carroll  of  Carrollton,  after  some  one  had  remarked 
that  there  were  several  persons  named  Charles  Carroll. 
He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  vStates  for  Mary- 
land in  1788.  In  1810  he  retired  from  public  life.  He 
was  the  last  surviving  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. Having  attained  the  age  of  ninety-five  years, 
he  died  in  1832. 

See  Goodrich,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence ;"  "National  Portrait- Gallery,"  vol.  i.,  1S39. 

Carroll,  (John,)  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  born 
in  Maryland  in  1735,  a  cousin  of  the  preceding. 
He  joined  the  order  of  Jesuits.  In  1776  he  went  to 
Canada,  at  the  request  of  Congress,  in  company  with 
Benjamin  Franklin  and  two  others,  who  were  sent  on  a 
political  mission.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Baltimore 
in  1789,  and  afterwards  received  the  title  of  Archbishop. 
Died  in  1815. 

See  "  Encyclopaedia  Americana." 

Carron,  kt'r6N',  (Gui  Toussaint  Julien,)  Abb6,  a 
French  priest  and  moralist,  noted  for  his  works  of  cha- 
rity and  benevolence,  was  born  at  Rennes  in  1760.  Re- 
fusing to  take  the  prescribed  oath  in  1791,  he  was  exiled 
to  Jersey,  and  thence  removed  to  London.  In  each  of 
these  places  he  founded  schools,  hospitals,  etc.  In  1814 
he  returned  to  Paris,  and  took  part  in  various  benevolent 
enterprises.  He  published  "Christian  Thoughts,"  Lives 
of  the  Just,"  '*  The  Confessors  of  the  Faith  in  France," 
and  many  other  works.    Died  in  1821. 

See  "  Notice  sur  Carron,"  prefixed  to  his  works. 

Carroza.kir-rod'za,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  at  Messina  in  1678;  died  after  1730. 
Carrucci.    See  Pontormo. 

Cars,  kin,  (Laurent,)  a  skilful  French  engraver, 
born  at  Lyons  in  1703,  was  a  pupil  of  Lemoyne  in  Paris. 
He  was  received  into  the  Royal  Academy  in  1733. 
"  Hercules  and  Omphale"  is  one  of  his  master-pieces. 
Died  in  1771. 

Car''son,  (Christopher,)  commonly  known  as  Kit 
Carson,  a  famous  trapper  and  mountain-guide,  born  in 
Kentucky  in  1809,  passed  a  large  portion  of  his  time  in 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  adjacent  territories.  He 
rendered  important  services  as  a  guide  to  Fremont  in  his 
explorations.  In  1847  he  was  made  lieutenant  in  the 
rifle-corps  of  the  United  States  army.    Died  in  1868. 

Car'stairs  or  Car'stares,  (William,)  a  Scottish 
theologian  and  negotiator,  born  at  Cathcart  in  1649. 
Having  received  a  good  education  and  studied  theology 
at  Utrecht,  he  became  chaplain  and  private  secretary  to 
^vill  iam,  Prince  of  Orange,  who  sent  him  to  England  on 
r  a  secret  mission  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  As  acces- 
sary to  the  conspiracy  of  Monmouth's  friends,  he  was 
arrested  and  put  to  the  torture,  which  he  bore  with  for- 
titude, and  confessed  nothing  important.  After  the 
Prince  of  Orange  became  King  of  England,  in  1688, 
Carstairs  enjoyed  his  confidence,  and  had  great  influence 
in  the  affairs  of  Scotland.  It  is  stated  that  by  strenuous 
efforts  he  dissuaded  the  king  from  severe  and  impolitic 
measures  against  the  Scottish  Presbyterians.  In  1704 
ne  was  chosen  principal  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
and  became  minister  of  the  Grey-Friars'  Church  in  that 
city.    Died  in  1 71 5. 

"William  had,"  says  Macaulay,  "one  Scottish  adviser 
who  deserved  and  possessed  more  influence  than  any  of 
the  ostensible  ministers.  This  was  Carstairs,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  men  of  that  age.  He  united  great 
scholastic  attainments  with  great  aptitude  for  civil  busi- 
ness, and  the  firm  faith  and  ardent  zeal  of  a  martyr  *'ith 


the  shrewdness  and  suppleness  of  a  consummate  politi- 
cian." 

See  Macaui-av,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap,  ix.,  and  vol. 
ill.  chap.  xiii.  ;  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen;"  McCormick,  "Life  of  W.  Carstairs,"  1774. 

Carstares.    See  Carstairs. 

Carstens,  kaR'stens,  (Adolf  Gothard,)  a  Danish 
writer  and  critic,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1713  ;  died  in 
1795- 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Carstens,  (Asmus  Jakou,)  an  excellent  Danish  his- 
torical painter,  born  near  Sleswick  in  1754.  After  he 
left  school  he  was  compelled  to  serve  an  apprenticeship 
of  five  years  to  a  wine-merchant,  and  on  obtaining  his 
liberty  went  to  Copenhagen,  in  the  Academy  of  which 
he  studied  painting  a  few  years.  In  1783  he  performed 
a  pedestrian  journey  to  Milan,  intending  to  visit  Rome ; 
but  want  of  funds  compelled  him  to  return  before  he 
reached  that  point.  He  worked  in  Lubeck  about  five 
years,  during  which  he  supported  himself  by  painting 
])ortraits,  and  thence  removed  to  Berlin,  where  he  pro- 
duced "  The  Fall  of  the  Angels."  The  merit  of  this 
procured  his  appointment  as  professor  in  the  Academy 
of  that  city.  In  1792  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  studied 
with  fond  admiration  the  works  of  Michael  Angelo  and 
Raphael  and  acquired  a  wide  reputation  by  his  com- 
positions. Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  The  Visit  of 
the  Argonauts  to  the  Centaur  Chiron,"  and  "Gidipus 
Tyrannus."  Died  in  Rome  in  1798.  His  subjects  were 
mostly  taken  from  the  great  poets,  ancient  and  modern. 

See  Fernow,  "  Leben  des  Kiinstler  Carstens,"  1806;  Nagler, 
"  Neues  AUgemeines  Kiinstler- Lexikon." 

Carsughi,  kaR-soo'gee,  (Raniero,)  an  Italian  Jesuit 
and  Latin  poet,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1647;  died  at  Rome 
in  1709. 

Cartagena,  de,  di  kaR-ti-ha'ni,  (Alonso,)  a  Spanish 
poet,  who  became  Archbishop  of  Burgos.   Died  in  1456. 
See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Cartajo,  kaR-tl'yo,  (Antonio  Maria,)  an  Italian 
poet,  lived  about  1530. 

Cartari,  kaR-t^'ree,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Reggio,  lived  about  1550.  Little  is  known  of 
his  life,  except  that  he  was  in  the  service  of  Cardinal 
Ippolito  d'Este.  He  wrote  a  popular  work,  entitled 
"Images  of  the  Gods  of  the  Ancients,"  etc.,  ("  Le  Im- 
magini  degli  Dei  degli  Antichi,"  1556.) 

See  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Cartaud  de  la  Vilate,  ktR^to'  deh  13  veitt',  (Fran- 
(^Ois,)  a  French  author  and  priest,  born  at  Aubusson 
about  1700.  He  published  in  1736  a  "  Historical  and 
Philosophical  Essay  on  Taste,"  an  ingenious  and  elo- 
quent work,  which  attracted  much  attention.  He  dis- 
played a  fondness  for  paradox  in  his  "Thoughts  on 
Mathematics."    Died  in  Paris  in  1737. 

Cartaux  or  Carteaux,  ktR'to',  (Jean  Francois,)  a 
French  general,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1751.  In 
1793  he  defeated  the  royalists  at  Orange,  for  which  ser- 
vice he  was  made  on  the  same  day  general  of  brigade 
and  of  division.  He  commenced  the  siege  of  Toulon, 
where  Bonaparte  served  under  his  orders,  but  was  de- 
prived of  the  command  before  the  place  was  taken,  in 
1793.  During  the  empire  he  was  not  in  active  service. 
Died  in  1813. 

See  Thiers,  "Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Fran^aise." 

Carte,  kart,  (Samuel,)  an  English  divine  and  anti- 
quary, born  at  Coventry  in  1653,  became  prebendary  of 
Lichfield.  He  published  a  "Chronological  Table  of 
Archiepiscopal  and  Episcopal  Sees  in  England  and 
Wales,"  also  several  sermons.    Died  in  1740. 

Carte,  (Thomas,)  an  English  historian,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Clifton  in  1686.  Having  entered 
into  holy  orders,  he  became  reader  in  the  Abbey  Church, 
Bath.  From  his  partiality  to  the  house  of  Stuart,  he 
refused  to  take  the  oaths  on  the  accession  of  George  I. 
In  1715  orders  were  issued  to  arrest  him  as  a  party  to 
the  rebellion  ;•  but  he  escaped  to  France,  where  he  re- 
mained about  twelve  years.  After  his  return  to  England, 
he  published  a  "History  of  the  Life  of  James,  Duke  of 
Ormond,"  which,  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "is  considered  as  a 
book  of  authority  ;  but  it  is  ill  written.  There  is  no  ani- 
mation, no  compression,  no  vigour."    He  also  wrote 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 

34 


CARTE  AUX 


530 


CART  I  GEY  A 


a  "History  of  England,"  (4  vols.,  1747-55,)  which  was 
coldly  received.    Hume  refers  to  Carte  as  an  "author 
of  great  industry  and  learning,  but  full  of  prejudices." 
Died  in  1754. 
Carteaux.    See  Cartaux. 

Cartellier,  ktR^ti'le-i,',  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French 
sculptor,  born  in  1757  in  Paris,  was  a  pupil  of  C.  A. 
Bridan.  His  reputation  was  established  by  the  figure 
of  War  which  adorns  the  palace  of  the  Luxembourg. 
His  statues  of  Aristides  and  Vergniaud  were  greatly 
admired,  but  exist  only  in  plaster  models.  In  i8io 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  about 
that  time  produced  statues  of  Napoleon  and  of  Louis 
Bonaparte.  He  executed  many  other  excellent  works. 
Several  distinguished  artists  were  formed  in  his  school. 
Died  in  1831. 

See  QuATREM^RE  DE  QuiNCY,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de 
Cartellier." 

Car'ter,  (Elizabeth,)  an  English  lady,  distinguished 
as  a  profound  classical  scholar  and  an  authoress,  was 
born  at  Deal,  Kent,  in  171 7.  Her  father,  Nicholas  Car- 
ter, D.D.,  curate  of  Deal,  was  a  good  classical  scholar, 
and  instructed  her  in  the  learned  languages.  She  also 
made  herself  mistress  of  Italian,  German,  French,  and 
Spanish.  In  1738  she  published  anonymously  a  small 
volume  of  poems,  and  the  next  year  acquired  reputation 
by  translating  a  work  on  Newton's  philosophy  from  the 
Italian  of  Algarotti.  Her  "Ode  to  Wisdom"  (1746)  is 
one  of  her  best  poems.  At  an  early  period  of  her  author- 
ship she  became  a  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson,  for  whom  she 
wrote  Nos.  44  and  100  of  the  "  Rambler."  He  once 
remarked  r>f  some  eminent  scholar,  "Sir,  he  is  the  best 
Greek  scholar  in  England  except  Elizabeth  Carter." 
Her  translation  of  Epictetus  from  the  Greek  (1758)  ex- 
tended her  celebrity  beyond  the  limits  of  her  own  coun- 
try. Warton  expressed  the  opinion  that  "it  excels  the 
original."  She  was  never  married.  Her  character  was 
adorned  by  modesty,  piety,  and  other  Christian  graces. 
Several  volumes  of  her  Letters  have  been  published. 
Died  in  London  in  1806. 

See  Pennington,  "Memoirs  of  E.  Carter;"  Mrs.  Elwood, 
"Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England,"  etc.,  vol.  i.,  1843. 

Carter,  (Francis,)  an  English  writer,  who  resided 
some  vears  in  Spain,  and  published  "  A  Journey  from 
Gibraltar  to  Malaga,"  (1777.)  He  left  a  work  in  manu- 
script, entitled  "  Historical  and  Critical  Account  of  Early- 
Printed  Spanish  Books."    Died  in  1783. 

Car'ter,  (James  Gordon,)  an  American  educationist, 
born  at  Leominster,  Massachusetts,  in  1795,  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1820.  He  furnished  some  valuable  con- 
tributions on  the  subject  of  education  to  the  "  Boston 
Patriot"  in  1823.  As  chairman  of  the  committee  on  edu- 
cation, in  the  Massachusetts  legislature,  he  did  much  to 
promote  the  interest  of  free  schools.  He  drafted  the  bill 
establishing  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  of 
which  he  was  appointed  chairman  by  Governor  Everett. 
Died  in  1849. 

Carter,  (John,)  an  eminent  architect  and  antiquary, 
born  in  London  in  1748.  From  1780  to  1794  he  issued, 
in  numbers,  "Specimens  of  Ancient  Sculpture  now  re- 
maining in  England,"  which  was  followed  by  "  Views  of 
Ancient  Buildings  in  England."  He  was  employed 
more  than  twenty  years  on  an  important  national  work, 
entitled  "The  Ancient  Architecture  of  England,"  (1795 
-1816,)  which  is  highly  prized  by  students  of  that  art. 
Died  in  1817  or  1818. 

Carter,  (John,)  a  silk-weaver,  born  at  Coggeshall, 
England,  in  1815.  By  injuries  received  in  falling  from 
a  tree,  his  body  below  his  neck  became  paralyzed.  He 
lived  for  eighteen  years  in  this  condition,  and  learned 
to  draw  with  wonderful  skill,  holding  the  brush  in  his 
^outh.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  Rat-Catcher  and  his  Dogs," 
the  design  and  execution  of  which  have  been  full  of 
interest  to  the  leading  artists;  and  all  his  productions 
exhibit  great  sesthetic  powers.    Died  in  1850. 

See  William  James  Dampier,  "  Memoir  of  John  Carter,"  Lon- 
don, 1850;  Frederick  J.  Mills,  "Life  of  John  Carter,"  New 
York,  1868. 

Carter,  (Nathaniel  H.,)  an  American  writer,  born 
at  Concord,  New  Hampshire,  in  1787  or  1788.  He  be- 
came, about  1820,  editor  of  the  New  York  "  Statesman," 
which  supported  De  Witt  Clinton,    He  published,  after 


a  visit  to  Europe,  "Letters  from  Europe,"  (2  vols.,  1827.) 
Died  at  Marseilles  in  1830. 

Carter,  (Samuel  P.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
East  Tennessee  in  1819,  served  in  the  navy  in  his  youth. 
He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  about  May,  1862. 
He  commanded  a  division  under  Schofield,  in  North 
Carolina,  in  February,  1865. 

Car't^r,  (Thomas,)  an  Irish  musician  and  composer 
of  vocal  music,  born  about  1768;  died  about  1802. 

Car'tfr-et,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  naval  officer, 
born  about  1600,  was  an  adherent  of  Charles  I.  and 
Charles  II.  in  the  civil  war.    Died  in  1679. 

Carteret,  (John,)  Viscount  Carteret  and  Earl  Gran- 
ville, an  able  English  statesman  and  orator,  born  in  1690, 
was  the  son  of  George,  Lord  Carteret,  of  Bedfordshire. 
He  graduated  with  high  honours  at  Oxford,  and  in  17 11 
entered  the  House  of  Lords,  where  he  soon  became 
prominent  as  a  speaker  and  a  supporter  of  the  Whig 
ministry.  He  represented  England  at  the  Congress  of 
Cambrai  in  1720,  and  was  made  secretary  of  state  in 
1721.  Between  1724  and  1730  he  was  lord  lieutenant 
of  Ireland,  and  after  the  latter  date  he  acted  with  the 
o])position.  "Of  all  the  members  of  the  cabinet,"  says 
Macaulay,  "  Carteret  was  the  most  eloquent  and  accom- 
plished. His  talents  for  debate  were  of  the  fiist  order; 
and  his  knowledge  of  foreign  affairs  superior  to  that  of 
any  living  statesman.  But  there  was  not  room  in  the 
government  for  him  and  Walpole,  and  Carteret  retired." 
After  the  defeat  of  Walpole  (1741)  he  became  secretary 
of  state,  and  for  some  months  was  chief  minister, — or 
sole  minister.  In  1744  he  was  removed  by  the  influence 
of  the  Pelham  party.  About  1750  he  was  appointed 
president  of  the  council.  The  historian  above  named 
says,  "  His  knowledge  of  modern  languages  was  prodi- 
gious. No  public  man  had  such  profound  and  extensive 
learning."  His  temper  was  bold,  open,  and  impetuous. 
Died  in  1763. 

See  Macaulay,  "Essay  on  Walpole's  Letters  to  Sir  Horace 
Mann,"  1833;  also  his  article  entitled  "Thackeray's  History  of  the 
Earl  of  Chatham,"  1834. 

Carteret,  (Philip,)  Captain,  an  English  navigator, 
who,  in  1766,  commanded  one  of  the  two  vessels  sent 
out  to  make  discoveries  in  the  South  Sea,  under  the 
orders  of  Captain  Wallis.  Having  discovered  numerous 
small  islands,  one  of  which  bears  his  name.  Captain  Car- 
teret returned  home  in  1769,  after  which  Hawkesworth 
published  an  account  of  the  voyage. 

Carteromacho.    See  Forteguerrl 

Cartesius,  or  Cartes,  Des.    See  Descartes. 

Carthaeuser.    See  Carthauser. 

Car'tha-lo  or  Car'tlia-lon,  a  Carthaginian  general 
of  the  first  Punic  war.  He  commanded  a  fleet  which 
was  sent  against  the  Romans  in  249  B.C.  Before  any 
general  action  was  fought,  the  Roman  fleet  was  destroyed 
by  a  storm,  from  which  the  superior  skill  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians saved  them. 

Carthalon,  a  commander  of  the  cavalry  of  Hannibal 
in  his  invasion  of  Italy,  and  at  Cannae  in  216  B.C.  Soon 
after  that  action  he  was  sent  to  Rome  to  negotiate  for 
the  ransom  of  prisoners,  but  was  ordered  by  a  lictor  to 
quit  the  Roman  territory  before  sunset.  He  was  taken 
prisoner  in  208  B.C.,  and  killed  by  a  Roman  soldier. 

Carthauser,  Carthaeuser,  or  Cartheuser,  pro- 
nounced alike  k^Rt'hoi'zer,  (  Friedrich  August,)  a 
German  physician,  son  of  Johann  Friedrich,  noticed  be- 
low, was  born  at  Halle  in  1734.  He  became  professor  of 
medicine  and  surgery  at  Giessen  in  1766.  He  ]-)ublished 
"Elements  of  Mineralogy,"  "  Rudiments  of  Hydrology," 
(both  in  Latin,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1796. 

Carthauser,  Carthaeuser,  or  Cartheuser,  (Johann 
Friedrich,)  a  learned  German  physician,  born  at  Hayn 
in  1704.  He  experimented  on  many  plants  and  medica- 
ments, and  made  a  reform  in  the  materia  medica.  In 
1740  he  was  chosen  professor  of  chemistry,  jDharmacy, 
etc.  in  the  University  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  He 
published  (in  Latin)  "Elements  of  Experimental  Chem- 
istry, etc.,"  (1736,)  "Elements  of  Materia  Medica,  Gene- 
ral and  Special,'"  (1749,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1777. 

See  ^LOY,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Medecine;"  "Biographie  Medi- 
cale." 

Carticeya  or  Cartikeya.    See  Kartikey.\. 


.a,  e,  1, 6,  xxy'^ylang;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


C  ARTIER 


531 


CARVAJAL 


Cartier,  kta'te-i',  (Jacques,)  a  French  navigator, 
the  first  discoverer'of  the  Saint  Lawrence  River,  was 
born  at  Saint-Malo  in  1494.  Being  sent  by  Francis  I.  to 
explore  North  America  in  1534,  he  entered  the  Gulf  of 
Saint  Lawrence,  advanced  as  far  as  Gaspe  Bay,  and  re- 
turned to  France.  He  renewed  the  enterprise  in  1535, 
and  ascended  the  river  as  far  as  the  site  of  Montreal. 
Being  kindly  treated  by  the  natives,  he  passed  the  winter 
in  Canada,  and  arrived  at  Saint-Malo  in  July,  1536.  A 
narrative  of  the  voyage  was  published. 

See  "  Voyage  de  Decouvertes  au  Canada,  etc,"  Quebec,  1843. 

Cartier,  (Louis  Vincent,)  a  French  physician  and 
writer  on  surgery,  born  in  Dauphine  in  1768  ;  died  at 
Lyons  in  1839. 

'Car-ti-mand'u-a  or  Car-tis-man'du-a,  Queen  of 
the  Brigantes  in  Britain,  lived  about  50  A.D.  She  be- 
trayed Caractacus  to  the  Romans. 

Cartouche,  ktR'toosh',(Louis  Dominique,)  a  French 
robber  of  extraordinary  skill  and  audacity,  born  in  Paris 
in  1693,  was  executed  in  1721. 

Carfwright,  (Christopher,)  a  learned  Englishman, 
born  in  1602,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  applied 
the  more  ancient  uninspired  writings  of  the  Jews  to  the 
illustration  of  the  Bible.  He  published  several  theolo- 
gical works,  including  one  on  the  Targum,  (1648.)  Died 
in  1658. 

Ceurtwright,  (Edmund,)  the  inventor  of  the  power- 
loom,  was  born  at  Marnham,  England,  in  1743.  Having 
taken  orders,  he  obtained  the  living  of  Brampton,  and 
afterwards  that  of  Goadby-Marwood.  He  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  poems,  among  which  were  "The  Prince  of  Peace" 
and  "  Armina  and  Elvira."  The  latter,  a  poetical  legend, 
passed  through  nine  editions.  About  1785  he  invented 
the  power-loom,  the  use  of  which  was  opposed  by  the 
weavers,  who  destroyed  five  hundred  of  his  machines. 
He  obtained  patents  for  many  other  inventions.  In  1809 
Parliament  voted  him  _;^io,ooo  for  the  service  he  had 
rendered  the  public  by  the  invention  of  the  power- 
loom.    Died  in  1823. 

See  "Memoirs  of  (he  Life,  Writings,  and  Mechanical  Inventions 
of  Edmund  CartwTight, "  London,  Svo,  1843;  "  Pursuit  of  Knowledge 
under  Difficulties,"  vol.  ii.,  1839. 

Cartwright,  (George,)  an  English  traveller,  born  at 
Marnham  in  1739.  In  the  Seven  Years'  war  he  served 
in  Germany  and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain.  He  after- 
wards made  several  voyages  to  Labrador,  and  in  1792 
published  a  "Journal  of  a  Residence  of  Sixteen  Years 
on  the  Coast  of  Labrador."  "The  annals  of  his  cam- 
paigns among  the  foxes  and  beavers,"  savs  Coleridge, 
"interested  me  more  than  ever  did  the  exploits  of  Marl- 
borough or  Frederick."    Died  in  1819. 

Cartwright,  (John,)  Major,  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Marnham  in  1740,  and  passed  some 
years  in  the  royal  navy  previous  to  the  American  war. 
Prompted  by  his  love  of  liberty,  he  refused  to  fight 
against  the  United  States,  and  wrote  "  Letters  on  Ameri- 
can Independence,"  (1774,)  besides  other  political  tracts. 
He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  parliamentary  reform  and 
universal  suffrage.  Charles  J.  Fox  thought  him  "one 
whose  enlightened  mind  and  profound  constitutional 
knowledge  placed  him  in  the  highest  rank  of  public 
character,  and  whose  purity  of  principle  and  consistency 
of  conduct  commanded  the  most  respectful  attention  to 
his  opinions."  He  was  a  coadjutor  of  Tooke,  Hardy, 
etc.  in  the  cause  of  reform.    Died  in  1824. 

See  F.  D.  Cartwright,  "Life  of  Major  J.  Cartwright,"  1826. 

Cart'wright,(  Peter,)  an  eminent  Methodist  preacher, 
born  in  Amherst  county,  Virginia,  in  1785.  While  he 
was  still  a  child,  his  parents  removed  with  him  to  Ken- 
tucky. When  scarcely  sixteen  years  old,  he  was  con- 
verted, and  joined  the  Methodist'Episcopal  Church.  At 
an  early  age  he  began  to  preach,  and  continued  to  labour 
in  the  cause  with  great  zeal  and  success  for  more  than 
fifty  years.  It  is  estimated  that  he  preached  in  all  not 
fewer  than  fifteen  thousand  sermons. 

See  "  Autobiographv  of  Peter  Cartwright,  the  Backwoods 
Preacher,"  edited  by  W.  P.  Strickland,  New  York,  1856. 

Cartwright,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Puritan  divine, 
eminent  for  learning  and  talents,  was  born  in  Hertford- 
shire about  1535.  ""He  became  a  Fellow  of  a  college  at 
Cambridge  in  1560,  and  professor  of  divinity  there  in 


1570.  A  few  years  later  he  was  deprived  of  these  offices, 
and  imprisoned  several  times,  for  his  Puritanism.  He 
published  a  "  Body  of  Divinity,"  (1616,)  a  "  Directory  for 
Church  Government,"  commentaries  on  seveial  books 
of  the  Bible,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1603. 

See  B.  Brook,  "Memoir  of  the  Life  of  T.  Cartwright,"  1845. 

Cartwright,  (Thomas,)  born  in  1634,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Chester  in  16S6,  and  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners who  seconded  James  II.  in  his  despotic  attempt 
to  impose  a  Roman  Catholic  president  on  the  Fellows 
of  Magdalen  College.    Died  in  1689. 

See  AL^CAULAV.  "History  of  England,"  vols.  ii.  and  iii. 

Cartwright,  (William,)  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Northway  in  161 1.  He  gradi^ated  at  Oxford,  took  orders 
in  1638,  and  became  an  eloquent  preacher.  Wood  calls 
him  "  the  most  florid  and  seraphical  preacher  in  the 
university."  He  w^as  chosen  junior  proctor  of  Oxford 
University,  and  reader  in  metaphysics  in  1643,  died 
the  same  year.  He  left  tragi-comedies  and  other  poems, 
which  were  greatly  admired  by  his  contemporaries,  but 
are  now  neglected,  except  soine  of  his  dramas,  one  of 
which  is  entitled  "  The  Ordinary." 

See  Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets  ;"  Baker,  "  Bio- 
graphia  Dramatica ;"  "  Retrosjjective  Review,"  vol.  ix.,  1824. 

Ceirus,  ki'rus,  (Friedrich  August,)  a  Protestant 
German  theologian,  born  at  Bautzen  in  1770.  He  ac- 
quired distinction  as  professor  of  philosophy  in  the 
University  of  Leipsic,  (1796  to  1807.)  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Psychology,"  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Psychology  of  the  Hebrews,"  which 
is  said  to  be  a  profound  and  well-written  work.  Died 
in  1807. 

See  ScHWARZE,  "Zum  Andenken  des  Professor  Cams;"  Schott, 
"Recitatio  de  F.  A.  Cari  Virtutibus,"  etc.,  1S08. 

Carus,  (Karl  Gustav,)  an  eminent  German  physi- 
ologist and  physician,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1789.  He  w-as 
appointed  assistant  professor  of  anatomy  in  his  native 
city  in  1811,  and  professor  of  obstetrics  at  Dresden  in 
1815.  In  1827  he  became  physician  to  the  King  of 
Saxony,  with  the  title  of  privy  councillor.  He  also 
practised  painting  with  success.  Among  his  principal 
writings  are  an  "Essay  on  the  Nervous  System,"  (1814,) 
a  "Manual  of  Zootomy,"  (1818,)  "Principles  of  Com- 
parative Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  (3  vols.,  1828,)  and 
a  "System  of  Physiology,"  (3  vols.,  1838-40.) 

See  Callisen,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Ca'rus,  (Marcus  Aurelius,)  a  Roman  emperor,  born 
at  Narbo,  (now  Narbonne.)  Under  the  emperor  Probus 
he  held  the  high  office  of  prefect  of  the  prastorium.  At 
the  death  of  Probus  in  282  A.D.,  Carus  was  elected  his 
successor  by  the  army.  In  283  he  marched  against  the 
Persians,  leaving  his  son  Carinus  to  govern  Italy.  Having 
taken  Seleucia  and  Ctesiphon,  he  was  about  to  pursue 
his  conquests,  when  he  died  suddenly,  (283,)  or,  as  some 
report,  was  killed  by  lightning. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  VoPiscus, 
"  Carus." 

Ceiruso,  ki-roo'so,  or  Carusio,  ki-roo'se-o,  (Giovan- 
ni Battist.^,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  near  Palermo 
in  1673.  He  published  "Historical  Memoirs  of  Sicily," 
(3  vols.,  1716-45.)    Died  in  1724. 

Caruso,  (Luigi,)  a  popular  Italian  composer  of  operas, 
born  in  Naples  about  1750.    He  was  living  in  1800. 

Carvajal,  kaR-vi-HiK,  or  Carbajal,  kaR-Bi-Hai', 
(Tomas  Jos6  Gonzalez,)  a  Spanish  writer  and  states- 
man, born  at  Seville  in  1753.  He  was  chosen  president 
of  the  junta  of  finances  in  1812.  At  the  restoration  in 
1814  he  was  imprisoned  for  political  reasons.  In  1819 
he  produced  a  Spanish  version  of  the  Psalms,  which  is 
greatly  admired.  He  afterwards  held  several  high  civil 
offices,  among  which  was  that  of  a  member  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  the  Indies,  and  became  a  peer  in  1834.  He  died 
the  same  year. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Carvajal,  de,  di  kaR-vS-niK,  or  Carbajal,  kaR-B^- 
hIK,  (Bernardino,)  born  at  Palencia,  in  Spain,  about 
1456,  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1493.  In  15 11  he  supported 
the  interest  of  Louis  XII.  of  France  against  Pope  Julius 


€  as     c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CARVAJAL 


532 


CJSJBIANCA 


II.,  for  which  ofifence  he  was  excommunicated.  Having 
confessed  his  fault,  he  obtained  pardon  in  15 13.  Died 
in  1523. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vita  Leonis  X. ;"  Paolo  Giovio,  "Elogia." 

Carvajal,  de,  or  Carbajal,  (Francisco,)  a  famous 
Spanish  captain,  born  about  1464,  was  conspicuous  for 
courage  at  the  battle  of  Pavi'a  in  1525,  and  at  the  sack 
of  Rome  in  1527.  He  afterwards  went  to  Mexico  and 
Peru,  and  in  1542  became  a  major-general.  He  joined 
the  party  of  Gonzales  Pizarro  in  his  revolt  against  the 
King  of  Spain,  and  gained  several  victories  over  the 
royalists  about  1546.  In  1548  he  was  made  prisoner 
a. id  hung.    He  was  notorious  for  cruelty. 

See  Robertson,  "History  of  America." 

Carvajal,  de,  or  Carbajal,  written  also  Caravajal, 
de,  (  [UAN,)an  eminent  Spanish  prelate,  born  at  Truxillo, 
was  made  a  cardinal  in  1446.  He  gained  a  high  reputa- 
tion by  his  missions  as  papal  legate  in  Germany  and 
Hungary.    Died  at  Rome  in  1469. 

See  Ei?scH  and  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Carvajal  or  Carbajal,  de,  (Lorenzo  Galindez,) 
was  born  at  Placencia  in  1472.  He  was  professor  of 
law  at  Salamanca,  was  a  councillor  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  and  held  high  offices  under  Charles  V.  He 
left  unfinished  a  "  History  of  Spain,"  which,  with  other 
works,  remained  in  manuscript.    Died  in  1527. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  iii. 
chap.  XXV. 

Carvalho.    See  Freire  de  Carvat.ho. 

Carvalho,  kaR-vSKyo,  (Antonio  Nunez,)  a  Portu- 
guese bibliographer,  born  about  1790,  was  living  in  1855. 

Carvalho,  (jozE  da  Silva,)  a  Portuguese  minister 
of  state,  born  in  17S2;  died  in  1845, 

Carvalho  d'Acosta,  kaR-vdl'yo  dS-kos'tS,  (Anto- 
nio,) a  Portuguese  geographer  and  priest,  born  in  Lis- 
bon in  1650.  He  published  in  1706  a  "  Topographical 
Description  of  Portugal,"  which  treats  of  the  natural 
and  civil  history  of  the  principal  places,  and  is  esteemed 
the  best  work  on  that  subject.  He  also  wrote  a  "  Com- 
pend  of  Geography,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1715. 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "  Bibliotheca  Lusitana." 

Carvalho  e  Mello.    See  Pombal. 

Carvallo,  kaR-vil'yo,  (Manuel,)  a  South  American 
jurist  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Santiago,  in  Chili,  in  1808, 
was  charge-d'affaires  at  Washington. 

Carvaxal.    See  Carvajal. 

Car'ver,  (John,)  the  first  governor  of  Plymouth  col- 
ony, was  born  in  England.  He  was  one  of  a  company 
of  Puritans  who  emigrated  to  Holland,  and  came  over 
in  the  Mayflower  in  1620.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a 
prudent  and  able  governor.    Died  in  1621. 

Carver,  (Jonathan,)  an  American  traveller,  born  in 
Connecticut  in  1732,  served  as  captain  in  the  war  against 
the  French  in  Canada.  He  passed  about  three  years 
(1766-68)  in  the  exploration  of  North  America,  which 
he  crossed  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  i^ublished  in  1778 
"  Travels  through  the  Interior  Parts  of  North  America." 
Died  in  London  in  1780. 

Ca'ry,  (Alice,)  an  American  authoress,  born  near 
Cincinnati,  Ohio,  about  1822.  She  first  attracted  atten- 
tion by  her  contributions  to  the  "National  Era,"  under 
the  title  of  Patty  Lee;  and  she  afterwards  published 
several  volumes  of  poems  and  other  works,  including 
three  novels, — "  Hagar,  a  Story  of  To-Day,"  '*  Married 
not  Mated,"  and  "  Hollywood."  Her  sketches  of  West- 
ern life,  entitled  "  Clovernook,"  have  obtained  extensive 
popularity  both  in  America  and  Europe.    Died  in  1871. 

Phcehe  Cary,  a  sister  of  Alice,  has  also  contributed 
to  periodical  literature,  and  in  1854  published  a  volume 
entitled  "  Poems  and  Parodies." 

See  Griswoi,d's  "Female  Poets  of  America;"  Cleveland's 
"  Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Cary,  (Colonel  Archibald,)  a  Virginian  patriot,  born 
about  1730.  He  favoured  the  cause  of  independence, 
and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Convention  of  1776 
which  framed  the  constitution  of  Virginia.  He  was 
afterwards  a  member  of  the  Senate  of  Virginia.  Died 
in  1786. 

Cary,  Earl  qf  Monmouth.  See  Carey,  (Henry 
and  Robert.) 


Cary,  kt're',  (F6lix,)  a  French  antiquary  and  numis- 
matist, born  at  Marseilles  in  1699,  formed  a  fine  collec- 
tion of  antique  medals.  His  principal  production  is  a 
"  History  cf  the  Kings  of  Thrace  and  of  the  Cimmerian 
Bosphorus,"  which  is  regarded  as  a  classic  work.  In 
1752  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  chose  him  as  a  corre- 
spondent.   Died  in  1754. 

Cafxf,  (Rev.  Henry,)  an  English  scholar  and  writer, 
son  of  Henry  F.  Cary  the  translator  of  Dante.  He  has 
published  "Testimonies  of  the  Fathers,"  (Oxford,  1835,) 
and  "  Memorials  of  the  Great  Civil  War  in  England 
from  1646  to  1652,"  (1842.)  He  has  also  edited  his 
father's  version  of  Dante,  "  Early  French  Poets,"  etc. 

Cary,  (Rev.  Henry  Francis,)  an  English  poet,  emi- 
nent as  the  translator  of  Dante,  was  born  at  Birmingham 
in  1772.  While  a  student  at  Oxford,  he  gave  much  at- 
tention to  Greek,  Latin,  French,  and  Italian,  and  before 
he  left  college  he  had  published  a  number  of  sonnets  and 
odes.  In  1797  he  was  appointed  vicar  of  Bromley  Ab- 
bot's. He  produced  in  1806  an  excellent  translation,  in 
blank  verse,  of  Dante's  "  Inferno,"  and  in  1814  completed 
the  other  portions  of  the  "  Divina  Commedia."  This 
version  is  highly  applauded  by  the  most  eminent  judges, 
including  Southey,  who  said  it  was  "  a  translation  of 
magnitude  and  difficulty,  executed  with  perfect  fidelity 
and  admirable  skill."  He  afterwards  published  "The 
Early  French  Poets,  a  Series  of  Notices  and  Transla- 
tions," and  other  works.    Died  in  1844. 

See  "Memoir  of  H.  F.  Cary,"  by  his  son,  Henry  Cary,  2  vols., 
1847;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1847. 

Cary,  (John,)  of  Bristol,  an  Englishman,  published, 
between  1695  and  1745,  "Treatises  on  Political  Econo- 
my, etc."  His  "Discourse  on  Trade,"  a  work  of  little 
merit,  was  made  the  basis  of  a  better  work,  published  in 
French,  at  Paris,  1755. 

Cary,  (Lorr,)  an  African  preacher,  was  born  a  slave 
in  Virginia,  and  accompanied  the  first  emigrants  sent 
to  Liberia  by  the  American  Colonization  Society  in 
1 82 1.  He  officiated  as  pastor,  physician,  and  soldier  to 
the  colony,  was  elected  vice-agent  in  1826,  and  on  the 
withdrawal  of  Mr.  Ashmun,  whose  entire  confidence  he 
enjoyed,  discharged  for  about  six  months  the  duties  of 
governor.  He  was  killed  in  November,  1828,  by  the 
accidental  explosion  of  a  magazine. 

Cary,  (Lucius.)    See  Falkland,  Lord. 

Cary,  (Robert.)    See  Carey,  (Robert.) 

Cary,  (Robert,)  a  learned  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Devonshire  about  161 5.  He  became  Archdeacon  of 
Exeter  in  1662,  and  wrote  an  esteemed  work  entitled 
"  Palaeologia  Chronica."    Died  in  1688. 

Car'yl,  (John,)  of  Sussex,  an  English  dramatic  wri- 
ter, was  intimate  with  Pope  the  poet.  He  wrote  "  The 
English  Princess,"  a  tragedy,  and  a  few  other  works. 
He  was  secretary  to  Mary,  queen  of  James  II.,  whom 
he  followed  into  exile  in  1688,  and  who  gave  him  the 
empty  title  of  Earl  Caryl. 

Caryl,  (Joseph,)  an  English  divine  of  the  sect  of 
Independents,  born  in  London  in  1602,  was  ejected  for 
nonconformity  in  1662.  His  principal  work  is  an  "Ex- 
position of  Job,"  (in  12  vols.,)  which  is  much  praised. 
Died  in  1673. 

See  Nral's  "  History  of  the  Puritans." 

Caryophilus.    See  Garofalo,  (Blaise.) 

Casa,  della,  del'ld  ki'sS,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  priest,  born  near  Florence  in  1503,  was  one  of 
the  most  elegant  writers  of  his  time.  He  became  a  re- 
sident of  Rome,  and  in  1544  Archbishop  of  Benevento. 
Paul  IV.  on  his  election  to  the  papal  see  made  Casa  his 
secretary  of  state.  He  wrote  lyric  poems  in  Italian, 
which  were  much  admired,  and  were  compared  to  those 
of  Bembo  for  purity  of  style.  The  first  edition  api^eared 
in  1558.  His  most  popular  prose  work  is  "Galateo, 
ovvero  de'  Costumi,"  which  treats  of  the  rules  of  j^olite- 
ness.  He  translated  Plato  into  Latin,  and  wrote  Latin 
"Carmina,"  and  other  works.  Died  at  Rome  about  1556. 

See  "  Life  of  Della  Casa,"  prefixed  to  his  works,  by  G.  B.  Casotti, 
(edition  of  1707  :)  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  Fi- 
Lippo  Gerardi,"  Biografia  di  Giovanni  della  Casa,"  1836 ;  Ginguenk, 
"  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  Er.sch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine 
Encyklopaedie;"  Nicif,RON,  "Memoires." 

Casablanca,  ka'sS-be-an'ka,  (Louis,)  a  naval  officer, 
born  at  Bastia  about  1755.    He  was  sent  as  a  deputy  to 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CASABUNCA 


533 


CAS  AV BON 


the  French  National  Convention  in  1792,  and  voted  for 
the  detention  of  the  king.  In  1798  he  was  captain  of 
L'Orient,  the  flagship  of  the  fleet  which  conveyed  Bona- 
parte and  his  army  to  Egypt.  At  the  battle  ot  the  Nile, 
August  I,  1798,  after  he  was  mortally  wounded,  he  made 
a  heroic  defence  of  the  burning  ship,  which  finally  was 
destroyed  by  a  terrific  explosion. 

Casabiaiica,  (Raphael,)  a  French  general,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Corsica  in  1738,  and  be- 
came general  of  division  in  1794.  In  1806  he  was  made 
a  count.    Died  in  1825. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Histoire  des  Generaux  Frangais." 

Casa-Irujo,  de,  di  ki'sS  e-roo'Ho,  (Carlos  Maria 
Martinez,)  Marquis,  a  Spanish  statesman,  born  at 
Cartagena  in  1765.  From  1795  to  1808  he  was  minis- 
ter to  the  United  States,  where  he  married  the  daughter 
of  Thomas  McKean.  He  was  plenipotentiary  at  the 
Congress  of  Aix-Ia-Chapelle  in  181 8,  and  ambassador 
to  Paris  in  1821.  In  1823  he  was  appointed  minister 
of  foreign  affairs,  and  president  of  the  council.  Died 
in  1824. 

Casal,  ki-siK,  (Gaspar,)  Bishop  of  Leiria,  in  Portugal, 
born  at  Santarem  in  15 10.  He  became  counsellor  and 
confessor  of  John  III.,  whose  j^receptor  he  had  once 
been.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  the  Justification  of  Man," 
(in  Latin,)  and  other  works.    Died  about  1580. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Casal,  de,  di  ki  sSK,  or  Cazal,  ka-zAK,  (Manuel 
Ayres,)  a  Portuguese  geographer,  who  emigrated  to 
Brazil  in  his  youth,  explored  parts  of  that  region,  and 
lived  for  some  time  in  Rio  Janeiro.  In  181 7  he  jiublished 
a  valuable  "Historical  and  Geographical  Description  of 
Brazil."    He  died  in  Lisbon  many  years  after  181 7. 

Casali,  kS-sA'lee,  (Giovanni  'Battista,)  a  Roman 
antiquary,  who  published  a  treatise  *'  On  the  Sacred  and 
Profane  Rites  of  the  Ancients,"  **  The  Splendour  of 
Rome  and  the  Roman  Empire  in  Ancient  Times,"  (1650,) 
and  other  esteemed  works. 

Casali,  (Giuseppe,)  an  antiquary  and  priest,  born  in 
Rome  in  1744.  He  formed  a  rich  collection  of  medals  and 
antique  remains,  was  a  liberal  patron  of  artists,  and  wrote 
a  few  treatises  on  numismatics.    Died  in  1797. 

Casanova,  ki-sa-no'vd,  (Francesco,)  a  painter,  born 
of  Italian  parents,  in  London,  about  1728.  At  the  age 
of  twenty-five  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  gained  a  high 
reputation  for  his  battle-pieces  and  landscapes,  and  was 
admitted  into  the  Royal  Academy.  He  afterwards 
worked  in  Vienna,  where  the  Empress  of  Russia  em- 
ployed him  to  illustrate  her  victories  over  the  Turks. 
Died  in  1805. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Casanova,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  painter, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Venice  about 
1725.  He  was  a  pupil  of  R.  Mengs,  and  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  of  Dresden.  He  gained  dis- 
tinction by  his  "  Dissertations  on  Ancient  Monuments  of 
Art."    Died  in  1798. 

Casanova,  (Giovanni  Giacomo  de  Seingalt — deh 
Mn'gilt  or  deh  s^N'gtlt',)  a  celebrated  Italian  adven- 
turer, remarkable  for  his  wit,  accomplishments,  learning, 
and  intrigues,  was  born  in  Venice  in  1725,  and  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  His  parents  were  play-actors. 
For  many  years  he  led  a  wandering  and  dissipated  life 
in  the  various  cajjitals  of  Europe,  frequenting  the  most 
aristocratic  society,  and  having  no  regular  business.  He 
was  confined  about  two  years  in  the  dungeon  of  Venice, 
(1755-57,)  and  escaped  by  stratagem.  In  the  course  of 
his  life  he  fought  several  duels.  He  became  librarian  to 
Count  Waldstein,  a  Bohemian  grandee,  with  whom  he 
passed  the  last  fourteen  years  of  his  life,  and  died  in 
1803,  leaving  "Memoirs  of  his  Life,"  which  are  sprightly 
and  entertaining.  He  translated  the  "  Iliad"  into  ottava 
rima,  and  wrote  a  few  other  works. 

See  Casanova,  "  Memoirs,"  in  German  and  French,  8  vols.,  1830 ; 
Barthold.  "Die  geschichtlichen  Personlichkeiten  in  J.  Casanova's 
Memoiren,"  Berlin,  2  vols.,  1846;  see,  also,  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Casanova,  (Marcantonio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Rome  in  1476.  He  wrote  epigrams  against  Clement  VII. 
Died  about  1527. 

Casar.    See  C^sak. 


Casaregi,  kS-si-ra'jee,  [Lat.  Casare'gis,]  (Giovanni 
Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Genoa  in  1676, 
was  a  brother  of  the  jurist  noticed  below.  He  lived  at 
Rome  and  afterwards  at  Florence,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  Academy  della  Crusca.  He  wrote  elegant  lyric  poems, 
'*  Sonnetti  e  Canzoni,"  and  translated  the  Proverbs  of 
Solomon  into  verse.    Died  in  1755. 

See  Longfellow's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe.* 

Casaregi,  [Lat.  Casare'gis,]  (Giuseppe  Lorenzo 
Maria,)  a  distinguished  Italian  jurist,  born  at  Genoa  in 
1670.  He  was  reputed  a  high  authority  in  questions  of 
commercial  law,  on  which  he  wrote  several  treatises, — 
"  Discursus  legales  de  Commercio."    Died  in  1737. 

Casaregis.    See  Casaregi. 

Casas,  de  las,  dh.  lis  ka'sis,  (Bartolome,)  a  be- 
nevolent Spanish  missionary,  noted  for  his  zeal  in  behalf 
of  the  oppressed  Indians,  was  born  at  Seville  in  1474. 
In  1493  accompanied  Columbus  in  his  second  voyage 
to  America.  Some  years  later,  having  become  a  Domin- 
ican friar,  he  went  to  Hispaniola  as  a  missionary,  preach- 
ing the  gospel  to  the  natives,  and  humanity  to  the  Spanish 
conquerors  who  had  enslaved  them.  His  efforts  to  ame- 
liorate the  condition  of  this  class  having  been  opposed 
and  frustrated,  he  visited  the  court  of  Spain  in  15 16, 
and  afterwards  repeatedly  crossed  the  ocean  to  plead 
their  cause.  He  also  addressed  to  Charles  V.  several 
letters  or  treatises  on  the  subject.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Chiapa,  in  Mexico,  some  years  before  1550. 
In  1 55 1  he  returned  to  Spain,  where  he  died  in  1566, 
leaving  a  "  History  of  the  Indies,"  still  in  manuscript. 
The  charge  that  he  advised  the  importation  of  negro 
slaves  as  a  substitute  for  Indians  appears  to  be  without 
foundation:  "it  has,"  says  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale,"  "been  completely  refuted  by  M.  Gregoire." 

See  Arthur  Helps.  "  Life  of  Las  Casas,"  1S68 ;  Ravnal,  "  His- 
toire pliilosopliique  des  Deux  Indes;"  Gregoire,  "Apologie  de  Las 
Casas,"  (published  in  the  "Memoires"  of  the  Institute;)  Moreki, 
"  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  Michael  Pig,  "  Vie  de  Las  Casas,"  1618. 

Casati,  kS-s3.'tee,  (Paolo,)  a  learned  Italian  Jesuit, 
born  at  Piacenza  in  161 7.  He  taught  mathematics  and 
theology  at  Rome,  and  is  said  to  have  converted  Queen 
Christina  of  Sweden  to  the  Catholic  faith.  He  wrote 
treatises  on  Mechanics,  on  Optics,  and  on  Fire.  The  last 
is  commended.    Died  at  Parma  in  1707. 

See  Niceron,  "  Memoires." 

Ca-sau'bon,  [Fr.  pron.  kt'z6'b6N';  Lat.  Casaubo'- 
Nus,  I  (Isaac,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  critics  and  scholars 
of  his  time,  was  born  of  French  Protestant  parents,  at 
Geneva,  on  the  8th  of  Febuary,  1559.  In  1582  he  became 
a  professor  of  Greek  iii  the  College  of  Geneva,  and  soon 
after  began  to  publish  the  editions  of  Greek  authors 
which  caused  his  celebrity  as  a  critic.  His  "Athenaeus" 
(1600)  "has  always  been  deemed,"  says  Hallam,  "a  noble 
monument  of  critical  sagacity  and  extensive  erudition. 
In  conjectural  emendation  of  the  text,  no  one  hitherto 
had  been  equal  to  Casaubon."  He  married  Florence,  a 
daughter  of  the  eminent  scholar  Henry  £tienne,  about 
1585.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  at  Montpellier  from 
1596  to  1599.  In  1600  Henry  IV.  invited  him  to  Paris 
to  give  lessons  in  Greek,  and  appointed  him  royal  libra- 
rian. He  published  an  excellent  Edition  of  Polybius  in 
1609.  In  1610  he  removed  to  England,  where  he  was 
received  with  favour  by  James  I.,  who  made  him  pre- 
bendary of  Canterbury.  Joseph  Scaliger  once  said  of 
Casaubon,  "  He  is  the  most  learned  man  now  living," 
although  he  himself  was  equal  to  Casaubon  in  general 
learning,  but  not  in  a  critical  knowledge  of  Greek.  Ca- 
saubon died  in  London  in  16 14.  He  was  a  moderate 
Protestant,  and  wrote  a  treatise  "  De  Libertate  eccle- 
siastica,"  ("  On  Ecclesiastical  Liberty.")  Among  his 
productions  were  editions  of  Aristotle's  Works,  (1590,) 
and  of  the  "Characters"  of  Theophrastus,  (1592.) 

See  Almkloveen,  "Vie  de  Casaubon  :"  C.  Nisard,  "  Le  Trium- 
virat  litteraire,  Juste-Lipse,  Scaliger  et  Casaubon,"  1851  :  Wolf, 
" Casauboniana,"  Hamburg,  1710:  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October, 
1853. 

Casaubon,  (Mertc,)  the  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Geneva  in  1599.  He  took  orders  in  the  Anglican 
Church,  and  obtained  the  living  of  Ickham,  and  in  1628 
a  prebend  in  the  church  of  Canterbury.  During  the  civil 
war  he  was  deprived  of  these  places,  and,  it  is  said, 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  H,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CASJUBONUS 


534 


CJSPJRl 


declined  the  proffered  gifts  and  patronage  of  Cromwell, 
who  desired  him  to  write  a  history  of  the  war.  At  the 
restoration  of  1660  he  recovered  his  benefices.  He  was 
a  writer  of  moderate  ability,  and  published  a  variety  of 
works,  among  which  are  a  "Treatise  on  Enthusiasm," 
and  one  "On  Credulity  and  Incredulity,"  Died  in  1671. 
See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxoiiienses;"  Nicekon,  "Memoires." 

Casaubonus.    See  Casaubon. 

Cas'ca,  (P.  Servilius,)  a  Roman  conspirator,  was  a 
tribune  of  the  people  when  he  assisted  at  the  assassina- 
tion of  Caesar  in  44  B.C.  He  fought  at  the  battle  of 
Philippi,  (42  B.C.,)  and  died  shortly  afterwards. 

Cas-gel'li-us,  (Aulus,)  an  eminent  and  eloquent 
Roman  jurist,  was  a  contemporary  of  Cicero  and  Tre- 
batius.  He  was  a  firm  and  consistent  republican,  and 
shewed  his  independent  spirit  by  refusing,  in  41  B.C.,  to 
sa.iction  by  legal  forms  the  spoliations  of  the  triumvirs. 
Horace  (in  "De  Arte  Poetica,"  1.  371)  speaks  of  Cascel- 
lius  as  a  jurisconsult  of  rare  learning. 

Sie  Gkotius,  "Vitse  Jiirisconsultoruin ;"  Lagemans,  "Disser- 
tatio  de  A.  Cascellio,"  1823. 

Case,  (John,)  M.D.,  born  at  Woodstock,  England, 
was  noted  as  a  disjiutant  and  philosopher.  He  taught 
philosophy  at  Oxford,  and  published  the  "  Mirror  of 
Moral  Questions,  according  to  the  Ethics  of  Aristotle," 
("Speculum  Moralium  Questionum  in  Ethicam  Aristo- 
telis,")  and  other  works.     Died  in  1600. 

Case,  (John,)  a  famous  English  astrologer  and  quack, 
born  at  Lyme- Regis.  He  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Anne,  (i  701-14,)  and  was  the  successor  of  Lilly  in  astro- 
logy.   He  inscribed  on  his  sign, 

"  Within  this  place 
Lives  Doctor  Case," 

and  is  said  to  have  made  more  money  by  that  distich 
than  Dryden  received  for  all  his  works.  He  published 
"Compendium  Anatomicum,"  and  a  few  other  works. 

Case,  (Thomas,)  an  English  nonconformist  minister, 
born  in  Kent  about  1598,  was  ejected  from  Erpingham, 
Norfolk.  He  was  afterwards  rector  of  Saint  Giles-in- 
the- Fields.    Died  in  1682. 

Casearius,  kS-se-i're-us,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  botanist,  who 
lived  in  India  about  1670,  and  was  one  of  the  authors 
of  the  "  Hortus  Malabaricus." 

Casel.    See  Caselius. 

Caselius,  ki-za'le-us,  [Ger.  Casel,  kS'zel ;  Fr.  Ches- 
SEL,  shi'sel',]  (Johannes,)  an  eminent  German  philolo- 
gist and  writer,  born  at  Gottingen  in  1533.  He  was 
professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Helmstedt 
from  1590  to  1613.  He  wrote  Latin  with  elegance,  and 
was  author  of  many  works  on  philosophy  and  other 
subjects.  The  most  generally  known  of  his  productions 
were  Letters,  (in  Latin,)  which  were  addressed  to  his 
eminent  contemporaries,  and  which  are  admired  for 
ingenious  thoughts  and  graces  of  style.    Died  in  1613. 

See  M.  Adam,  "  Vitze  Eruditorum ;"  J.  Sigfried,  "De  Vitaet 
Obitu  J.  Caselii,"  1613. 

Caseneuve,  de,  deh  ktz'nuv',  [Lat.  Caseno'va,] 
(Pierre,)  a  French  priest  and  philologist,  born  at  Tou- 
louse in  1591.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Freehold,"  and 
a  dictionary,  entitled  "  Origin  of  the  French  Language," 
("Origines  de  la  Langue  Fran9aise.")    Died  in  1652. 

See  Medon,  "Vita  Viri  illustris  Casanova,"  1656. 

Cases,  ktz,  (Pierre  Jacques,)  a  skilful  French  painter 
of  history,  born  in  Paris  in  1676.  Among  his  master- 
pieces is  a  "Holy  Family."    Died  in  Paris  in  1754. 

Cases,  Las.    See  Las  Cases. 

Ca'sey,  (Silas,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Rhode 
Island  in  1807,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1826.  He 
served  as  captain  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and 
became  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  1855.  ^^'^^  appointed 
a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  August,  1861,  and  a 
colonel  of  the  regular  army  in  October,  and  commanded 
a  division  at  Fair  Oaks,  May  31,  1862. 

Cas'i-mir  [Polish,  Kazimierz,  ka^ze-me-^Rzh']  I.  of 
Poland,  surnamed  the  Pacific,  was  still  an  infant  when 
his  father,  Micislaus  (Mieczislaw)  II.,  died  in  1034.  His 
mother  carried  him  to  France,  where  he  took  the  mo- 
nastic vows  in  the  abbey  of  Cluny.  Having  been  invited 
by  the  Poles  to  reign  over  them,  he  was  crowned  in  1041, 
and  married  the  sister  of  Yaroslaf,  Duke  of  Russia.  His 


reign  promoted  the  prosperity  and  civilization  of  Poland. 
Died  in  1058,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son,  Boleslaus  II. 

Casimir  II.,  King  of  Poland,  born  about  1137,  was  a 
younger  son  of  Boleslaus  III.  In  11 77  his  brother  Micis- 
laus was  deposed,  and  Casimir  was  chosen  king.  He  is 
said  to  have  ruled  with  wisdom,  and  to  have  gained  the 
favour  of  the  people.  He  waged  a  successful  war  against 
the  Prussians,  who  procured  peace  by  paying  tribute.  He 
died  in  1194,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Lesko  V. 

Casimir  III.,  surnamed  the  Greai",  became  King 
of  Poland  at  the  death  of  his  father,  Vladislaus,  (or  Ladis- 
laus,)  in  1333.  He  married  Anne,  daughter  of  the  Duke 
of  Lithuania.  About  1345  he  defeated  the  King  of  Bo- 
hemia, and  in  1366  subdued  Red  Russia.  He  founded 
hospitals,  colleges,  etc.  He  died  in  1370,  and  was  the 
last  of  the  royal  line  of  Piast.  His  nephew,  Louis  of 
Hungary,  was  his  successor. 

See  "Nouvelle  Blographie  Generale." 

Casimir  IV.  of  Poland,  born  about  1425,  was  the 
second  son  of  Vladislaus  IV.  or  V.,  (who  before  his  ac- 
cession was  Yagello,  Duke  of  Lithuania.)  He  succeeded 
his  elder  brother,  Vladislaus,  in  1445,  and  married  the 
daughter  of  the  emperor  Albert  II.  He  waged  a  long 
war  against  the  Teutonic  knights,  who  were  finally  de- 
feated in  1466,  when  Casimir  became  master  of  a  great 
part  of  Prussia.  In  this  reign  the  constitution  of  the 
Diet  was  changed  by  the  admission  of  deputies  who  were 
not  nobles.  He  died  in  1492,  leaving  five  or  six  sons, 
three  of  whom  became  successively  kings  of  Poland, 
— John  Albert,  Alexander,  and  Sigismund. 

Casimir  V,  of  Poland,  second  son  of  Sigismund  III. 
and  Constance  of  Austria,  was  born  in  1609.  About  1645 
he  was  made  a  cardinal.  In  1648  he  was  elected  king  on 
the  death  of  his  brother  Vladislaus.  He  was  involved 
in  a  war  wi*:!!  the  allied  Cossacks  and  Russians,  whom 
he  defeated.  Poland  was  afterwards  invaded  by  Charles 
Gustavus  of  Sweden,  who  took  Warsaw  after  a  victory 
over  the  Poles  ;  but  his  progress  was  arrested  by  a  coali- 
tion of  several  powers,  and  peace  was  concluded  in  1660. 
Weary  of  contending  against  his  foreign  and  domestic 
enemies,  he  abdicated  in  1668,  and  died  in  France  in  1672. 

See  "  Lebensbeschreibung  Casimiri  V.,  weyland  Konigs  in  Polen," 
Nuremberg,  1680;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Histoire 
generale  de  Pologne,  d'apres  les  Historiens  Polonais." 

Cas'I-mir  Sar-bi-e'vi-us,  a  Latin  lyric  poet  and 
Jesuit,  born  in  Poland  in  1595,  lived  some  years  at  Rome. 
His  verses  were  praised  by  Rapin  the  poet.  According 
to  Hallam,  he  obtained  a  much  higher  reputation  than 
Sidonius  Hoschius.    Died  about  1640. 

Casiri,  k^-see'ree,  (Michael,)  a  learned  Orientalist 
and  Maronite,  born  at  Tripoli,  in  Syria,  in  1710.  He 
removed  to  Spain  in  1748,  and  became  chief  librarian 
of  the  Escurial  in  1763.  His  principal  work  is  "Biblio- 
theca  Arabico-Hispana  Escurialensis,"  ("Arabic-Spanish 
Library  of  the  Escurial,")  which  is  said  to  be  an  in- 
dispensable treasure  to  students  of  Oriental  literature. 
Died  in  1791. 

See  Zenker,  "  Bibliotheca  Orientalis." 

Cas'ley,  (David,)  an  English  bibliographer,  published 
a  "Catalogue  of  the  MSS.  in  the  King's  Library,"  1734. 

Cas'lpn,  (William,)  an  English  letter-founder  and 
engraver,  born  at  Hales-Owen  in  1692;  died  in  1766. 

Casmann,  kSs'mSn,  (Otho,)  a  German  theologian, 
who  was  rector  at  Stade,  in  Hanover.    Died  in  1607. 

Casolani,  kS-so-lS'nee,  (Alessandro,)  an  eminent 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Sienna  in  1552.  He  excelled  in 
design  and  composition.    Died  in  1606. 

Casotti,  ki-sot'tee,  (Giovanni  Batitsta,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Prato,  in  Tuscany,  in  1669.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  and  history  in  Florence,  and  author 
of  several  learned  works,  among  which  was  "  Historical 
Notices  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  Giovanni  della  Casa." 
Died  in  1737. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Caspari,  kis'pd-ree.  (Karl  Paul,)  a  learned  German 
biblical  critic,  born  at  Dessau  in  1814.  He  became 
and  member  of  the  faculty  in  the  University  of  Chris- 
tiania.  He  has  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Studies 
of  Biblical  Theology  and  Apologetic  Criticism,"  (1842,) 
and  an  "Introduction  to  the  Book  of  Isaiah  and  the 
History  of  his  Time,"  (1848.) 


1,  e,  J,  6,  u,  y,  /ono;;     h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon- 


CASPER 


535 


CASS  ER 10 


Casper,  kls'per,  (Johann  Ludvvig,)  a  distinguished 
German  physician,  born  in  1796.  He  became  assistant 
professor  in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1825,  and  ge- 
heifn-tnedicinalrath  in  1834.  In  1833  he  began  to  edit 
the  '  Weekly  Journal  of  Medicine."  He  was  appointed 
proff  ssor  of  medicine  in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1839. 
He  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  renowned  practitioners 
of  Germany.  Among  his  works  is  "  Essays  on  Medical 
Statistics  and  Officinal  Medicine,"  (1825-37.) 

Cass,  (Jonathan,)  an  American  officer  in  the  war  of 
the  Revolution,  was  born  in  Salisbury,  Massachusetts,  in 
1753.  He  entered  the  army  in  1775,  obtained  the  rank 
of  captain,  and  served  until  the  end  of  the  war.  Died 
in  1830. 

Cass,  (Lewis,)  an  American  patriot  and  statesman,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Exeter,  New  Hamp- 
shire, in  October,  1782.  He  studied  law  at  Marietta, 
Ohio,  and  began  to  practise  at  Zanesville  about  1802.  In 
1812  he  became  colonel  of  a  regiment  which,  under  the 
command  of  General  Hull,  invaded  Canada.  The  cam- 
paign was  ended  by  the  disgraceful  surrender  of  Hull  at 
Detroit  in  August,  1812.  Colonel  Cass  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  about  March,  1813,  and 
was  appointed  Governor  of  Michigan  in  1814.  While 
he  governed  that  unsettled  territory,  he  was  also  for 
many  years  Superintendent  of  Indian  Affairs,  and  nego- 
tiated many  treaties  with  the  Indians.  He  resigned  the 
office  of  Governor  in  1831,  and  was  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Jackson  secretary  of  war  the  same  year.  In  1836 
he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  France,  and  jiublished  in 
1840  a  work  entitled  "France,  its  King,  Court,  and  Gov- 
ernment." He  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1842, 
and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  Michigan  in  the  winter  of  1844-45.  In 
his  letter  to  Mr.  Nicholson,  dated  December,  1847,  he 
opposed  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  and  questioned  the  power 
of  the  Congress  to  exclude  slavery  from  the  territories. 
*'  This  letter,"  says  Mr.  Greeley,  "  is  notable  as  the  first 
clear  enunciation  of  the  doctrine  termed  "  Popular  (other- 
wise Squatter)  Sovereignty."  ("American  Conflict.") 
Cass  was  nominated  as  the  Democratic  candidate  for 
the  Presidency  by  the  Baltimore  Convention  in  1848,  but 
was  defeated  in  the  ensuing  election  by  General  Taylor, 
the  Whig  candidate,  who  received  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
three  electoral  votes,  General  Cass  receiving  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-seven.  About  185 1  he  was  again  elected 
to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  for  six  years.  He 
voted  for  Douglas's  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  in  1854.  He 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  President  Buchanan, 
March,  1857.  He  resigned  this  office  in  December,  i860, 
on  account  of  his  dissatisfaction  with  the  do-nothing 
policy  of  Buchanan,  who,  even  after  the  secession  of 
South  Carolina,  declined  to  reinforce  the  garrison  of 
Fort  Sumter.    Died  in  June,  1866. 

See  H.  R.  Schoolcraft,  "Life  of  General  Cass,"  1848;  W.  L. 
G.  Smith,  "The  Life  and  Times  of  Lewis  Cass,"  1856. 

Cassagnes,  kS'stfi',  or  Cassaigne,  kt'scin',(  Jacques,) 
a  French  writer  and  priest,  born  at  Nimes  in  1636.  His 
early  poems  opened  for  him  the  French  Academy  in  1662. 
He  was  afterwards  librarian  of  the  Royal  Library,  and  one 
of  the  four  first  members  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions. 
He  published  a  translation  of  Sallust,  and  a  few  other 
works.    Died  in  1679. 

Cassaigne.    See  Cassagnes. 

Cassana,  kSs-s^Vna,  (Giovanni  Agostino,)  called 
Abb^;  Cassana,  a  successful  Italian  painter  of  portraits 
and  animals,  born  about  1658  ;  died  at  Genoa  in  1720. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Cassana,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  a  historical  painter 
of  the  Genoese  school,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Cassana  in  1611.  He  worked  in  Venice  and  Miran- 
dola,  and  gained  a  high  reputation.    Died  in  1691. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Cassana,  (Niccol6,)  a  portrait-painter,  born  at  Venice 
about  1656,  was  the  son  and  pupil  of  the  preceding. 
Having  acquired  a  high  reputation,  he  was  invited  to 
England  by  Queen  Anne,  whose  portrait  he  painted,  and 
who  appointed  him  her  first  painter.    Died  in  17 13. 

Cas-san'der,  [Gr.  Y^aaaav^poq ;  Fr.  Cassandre, 
kt'sdNdk',]  a  Macedonian  prince,  was  the  son  of  An- 
tipater,  who,  at  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  ob- 


tained the  regency  or  government  of  Macedonia.  In  318 
B.C.  Antipater  died,  having  appointed  Polysperchon  his 
successor,  in  preference  to  his  own  son.  A  war  ensued 
between  these  two  parties,  and  Cassander,  aided  by  An- 
tigonus,  soon  became  master  of  Athens,  where  he  re- 
stored the  aristocracy  under  Demetrius  Phalereus  about 
316.  Cassander  then  invaded  Macedonia  with  success, 
obtained  possession  of  the  infant  son  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  and  married  Thessalonice,  the  sister  of  the  latter 
prince.  In  311,  Antigonus  and  other  generals  signed  a 
treaty  stipulating  that  Cassander  should  be  regent  of 
Macedonia  and  Greece  until  the  young  prince  should 
attain  his  majority.  In  309  he  put  to  death  that  prince 
and  his  mother  Roxana,  and  usurped  the  throne.  He 
died  in  297  B.C.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Philip, 
See  Akrian,  "Anabasis;"  Thiklwall,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Cassander,  kis-sanMer,  [Fr.  CASSANDRE,kt's6NdR',] 
(George,)  a  learned  theologian,  born  in  the  isle  of  Cad- 
sand,  Flanders,  about  151 5.  The  emperor  Ferdinand 
referred  to  him  as  a  mediator  the  chief  points  in  the 
controversy  between  the  Reformers  and  the  Catholics  ; 
and,  with  a  view  to  reconcile  them,  Cassander  wrote  his 
famous  "Consultation  on  the  Articles  of  Faith  contro- 
verted between  Papists  and  Protestants,"  ("  Consultatio 
de  Articulis  Fidei  inter  Papistas  et  Protestantes  con- 
troversis.")  He  was  one  of  the  most  moderate  of  the 
Catholic  writers  of  that  time.    Died  in  1566. 

See  Arnold,  "  Kirchen-  und  Ketzer-Historie  ;"  Niceron,  "  Me- 
moires;"  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Cas-san'dra,  [Gr.  Kacr(7uff5pa ;  Fr.  Cassandre,  kt'- 
s6NdR',J  a  daughter  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  was  celebrated 
for  her  prophetic  powers  ;  but,  according  to  tradition, 
Apollo  had  ordained  that  her  prophecies,  though  true, 
should  be  disbelieved.  During  the  siege  of  Troy  she 
])redicted  the  impending  calamities,  but  was  treated  as 
a  lunatic  by  Priam  and  others.  Agamemnon  became 
enamoured  of  her,  and  took  her  to  Mycenae,  where  she 
was  killed  by  Clytemnestra. 

Cassandre.    See  Cassander  and  Cassandra. 

Cassandre,  kt's6NdR',  (Francois,)  a  French  writer, 
principally  known  by  his  excellent  translation  of  Aris- 
totle's "  Rhetoric,"  which  was  highly  prized  by  Boileau. 
He  wrote  several  other  works,  in  prose  and  verse.  Died 
in  1695.  His  whole  life  was  passed  in  poverty, — which 
Voltaire  ascribes  to  his  morose  temper  and  unsocial 
habits. 

Cassard,  kt'stR',(jACQUES,)  a  brave  and  skilful  French 
naval  officer,  was  born  at  Nantes  in  1672.  As  captain  of  a 
privateer,  he  took  many  prizes  from  the  English.  Having 
obtained  command  of  a  small  squadron,  he  reduced  the 
Ca'i^e  Verd  Islands  and  captured  Surinam  in  1712.  After 
the  peace  of  17 13  he  presented  claims  for  money  which 
he  had  advanced  ;  but  they  were  disregarded,  ancl  he  was 
confined  in  the  castle  of  Ham  for  offensive  language  to 
the  minister.    Died  at  Ham  in  1740. 

See  Graincourt,  "  Homnies  illustres  de  la  Marine  Franfaise;'' 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Cassas,  kt'sSs',  (Louis  FRANgois,)  an  eminent  French 
landscape-painter  and  architect,  born  in  the  department 
of  Indre  in  1756.  He  accompanied  to  Constantinople 
the  ambassador  Choiseul-Goufifier,  who  employed  him 
to  illustrate  his  "Travels  in  Greece."  He  afterwards 
visited  and  sketched  the  monuments  of  Baalbec,  Palmyra, 
and  the  Holy  Land.  In  1799  he  began  to  publish  these 
sketches,  in  his  "Voyage  pittoresque  de  la  Syrie,  de  la 
Palestine  et  de  la  Basse-Egypte."  He  also  published 
"Picturesque  Views  of  the  Principal  Sites  and  Monu- 
ments of  Greece,  of  Sicily,  and  of  the  Seven  Hills  of 
Rome,"  (1813.)    Died  in  1827. 

See  Nagi.er,  "  Neues  Ailgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Cassel,  kSs'sel,  (Johann  Philipp,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  in  1707  at  Bremen,  where  he  became  professor 
of  eloquence.  He  published  "Historical  Notices  and 
Documents  of  Bremen,"  (1766,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1783. 

See  Charles,  "Vie  de  Cassel;"  Meusel,  "Gelehrtes  Deutsch- 
land." 

Cassentino.    See  Casentino. 

Casserio,  kJs-sa're-o,  (Giui.io,)  an  eminent  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Piacenza  in  1556.  He  became  a  lesi- 
dent  of  Padua,  where  he  acquired  a  high  reputation,  and 


■€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  ha7-d;  g  as 0,11,  Y^, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CJSSIJN 


536 


CASSIUS 


\n  1609  was  appointed  professor  of  surgery  in  the  uni- 
versity.   He  left,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise  on  the 
anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  senses,  and  "  Anatomical 
Plates."    Died  in  i6i6. 
See  Thomasini,  "Elogia." 

Cassian,kash'e-an,  [Fr.  Cassien,  kt^se'^N';  Lat.  Cas- 
sia'nus,]  (John,)  a  monk,  born  probably  in  Provence 
about  350  a.d.  In  415  a.D.  he  went  to  Marseilles,  where 
he  founded  the  monastery  of  Saint-Victor.  He  wrote  an 
esteemed  work  on  "  Monastic  Institutions,"  and  a  "  Treat- 
ise on  the  Incarnation."  His  doctrines  on  grace  were 
opposed  by  Saint  Augustine,  as  a  modified  Pelagianism. 
Died  about  433. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis  ;"  Photius,  "  Bibliotheca ;" 
Louis  F.  Meyer,  "J.  Cassien  ;  sa  Vie  et  ses  ficrits,"  1840. 

Cassiani,  kSs-se-S'nee,  (Giuliano,)  an  Italian  lyric 
poet,  born  at  Modena  in  1712,  became  professor  of  elo- 
quence in  the  university  of  his  native  city.  He  wrote 
sonnets  and  other  verses,  which  were  much  admired, 
especially  "  The  Rape  of  Proserpine,"  ("  II  Ratto  di 
Proserpina.")    Died  in  1778. 

Cas-si-a'nus  Bas'sus,  a  Greek  writer  of  the  third  or 
fourth  century,  was  a  native  of  Bithynia.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  author  of  an  extant  work  on  agriculture 
and  rural  economy,  entitled  "  Geoponica,"  (printed  in 
Greek  in  1539.) 

Cassibelan.    See  Cassivelaunus. 

Cassibelaunus.    See  Cassivelaunus. 

Cassien.    See  Cass i an. 

Cas'sin,  (John,)  an  American  ornithologist,  born  in 
Delaware  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1813.  He  resided 
many  years  in  Philadelphia,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  He  published  "  Illus- 
trations of  the  Birds  of  California,  Texas,  Oregon,  British 
and  Russian  America,"  (1855,)  "  Mammalogy  and  Orni- 
thology of  the  United  States  Ex])loring  Expedition  under 
lieutenant  Wilkes,"  and  "American  Ornithology:  A 
General  Synopsis  of  North  American  Ornithology  ;  con- 
taining Descriptions  and  Figures  of  all  North  American 
Birds  not  given  by  former  American  Authors,  etc.," 
(1856.)    Died  in  January,  1869. 

Cassini,  kSs-see'nee,  [Fr.  pron.  kt'se'ne',]  (C^:sar 
Francois,)  usually  called  Cassini  de  Thury,  (deh 
tii're',)  born  in  Paris  in  1714,  was  the  son  of  Jacques, 
noticed  below.  As  an  astronomer,  he  was  received  into 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  and 
in  1756  he  became  director  of  the  Observatory.  His 
most  important  contribution  to  science  was  the  trian- 
gulation  or  geometrical  description  of  France,  accom- 
panied with  an  excellent  map  of  France.  This  is  said 
to  be  the  greatest  piece  of  topography  ever  executed. 
He  published  "The  Meridian  of  Paris  verified,  etc.,"  in 
1744;  and  the  records  of  the  Academy  contain  many 
of  his  writings.    Died  in  1784. 

See  CoNUORCET,  "  filoge  de  C.  F.  Cassini  ;"  Montucla,  "  His- 
toire  des  Mathematiques  ;"  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Cassini,  kis-see'nee,  (Giovanni  Domenico,  or  Jean 
Dominique,)  a  celebrated  astronomer,  born  near  Nice 
on  the  8th  of  June,  1625.  After  leaving  college  in  Genoa, 
he  pursued  the  study  of  astronomy  with  success,  and  in 
1650  became  professor  of  that  science  in  Bologna.  In 
1665  he  made  the  important  discovery  that  the  rotation 
of  Jupiter  is  performed  in  nine  hours  and  fifty-six  min- 
utes, and  soon  after  ascertained  the  diurnal  periods  of 
Mars,  Venus,  and  the  Sun.  He  published  in  1668  his 
Ephemerides  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  which  Biot 
calls  "  an  immense  and  admirable  work."  Colbert 
wished  to  enlist  the  talents  of  Cassini  in  the  service 
of  the  new  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris,  whither  the 
latter  removed  in  1669.  For  more  than  one  century 
subsequent  to  that  date,  Cassini  and  his  descendants  of 
three  generations  presided  over  the  Observatory  of  Paris. 
His  celebrity  was  extended  in  1684  by  the  discovery  of 
four  satellites  of  Saturn,  of  which  Huyghens  had  before 
discover<^d  one.  A  royal  medal  was  struck  to  comme- 
morate this  event.  He  was  more  remarkable  for  his 
activity  and  success  as  an  observer  than  for  his  power 
as  a  philosopher,  and  appears  to  have  been  the  most 
popular  astronomer  of  his  time,  because  his  discoveries 
were  level  to  the  most  common  capacity.  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  he  was  employed  for  several  years  in  the 


measurement  of  an  arc  cf  the  meridian.  He  is  reputed 
the  discoverer  or  first  observer  of  the  zodiacal  light. 
His  writings  on  astronomy  are  numerous.    Died  in  1712. 

See  "Vie  de  J.  D.  Cassini,  ecrite  par  lui-nieme  ;"  Fontenelle, 
"  filoge  de  J.  D.  Cassini ;"  Nicekon,  "  Memoires  ;"  and  Dr.  Hoe- 
fer's  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Cassini,  (Jacques,)  an  astronomer,  and  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  about  1670.  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1694, 
and  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  in  1696. 
In  1 71 2  he  succeeded  his  father  as  director  of  the  Ob- 
servatory in  Paris,  where  he  made  some  discoveries  re- 
specting the  orbits  of  the  moons  of  Saturn,  the  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic,  etc.  He  is  principally  known  by  his 
efforts  to  determine  the  figure  of  the  earth.  About  1700 
he  co-operated  with  his  father  in  measuring  the  arc  of 
the  meridian  southward  to  Canigou,  and  in  171 8  he  alone 
continued  the  work  northward  to  Dunkirk.  He  pub- 
lished in  1720a  treatise  "On  the  Magnitude  and  Figure 
of  the  Earth,"  containing  results  which  have  since  been 
corrected  by  La  Caille  and  Delambre.  He  died  in  1756, 
leaving  a  few  other  works,  among  which  is  "  Elements 
of  Astronomy."  His  son  Cesar  Fran9ois,  noticed  above, 
was  his  successor  in  the  Observatory. 

See  Delambre,  "  Histoire  de  I'Astrononiie  moderne  ;"  Fouchv, 
"  filoge  de  J.  Cassini,"  in  "  Histoire  de  I'Academie  des  Sciences." 

Cassini,  de,  deh  kS^se^ie',  (Alexandre  Henri  Ga- 
briel,) Coun  t,  a  French  botanist,  born  in  Paris  in  1784, 
was  the  son  of  Count  J.  D.  Cassini,  astronomer  royal. 
Having  studied  law,  he  was  made  in  1810  a  judge  of  one 
of  the  Parisian  tribunals.  In  1816  he  became  a  judge 
of  the  royal  court.  In  1827  he  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  as  a  botanist.  He  wrote 
several  botanical  treatises.    Died  in  1832. 

See  GossiN,  "  Notice  siir  A.  H.  G.  de  Ca.stiini,"  1832. 

Cassini,  de,  (Jacques  Dominique,)  Count,  a  French 
astronomer,  son  of  Cassini  of  Thury,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1748.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Acadeiny  in  1770, 
and  succeeded  his  father  as  director  of  the  Observatory 
in  1784.  He  was  the  first  of  the  family  that  fully  adopted 
the  physical  principles  of  Newton.  In  1793  the  Conven- 
tion decreed  that  the  direction  of  the  Observatory  should 
be  committed  to  four  persons,  who  should  officiate  in  ro- 
tation. Cassini  was  one  of  the  newly-chosen  directors; 
but,  being  displeased  with  this  innovation,  he  resigned 
in  September,  1793.  He  was  imprisoned  for  several 
months  by  the  terrorists  in  the  next  year,  and  thenceforth 
renounced  the  pursuit  of  astronomy.    Died  about  1845. 

See  Devic,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Travaux  de  J.  D.  Cassini," 
1851  ;  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Cas-si-o-do'rus,  [Fr.  Cassiodore,  kt'se^o'doR',] 
(Magnus  Aurelius,)  a  Latin  historian  and  minister  of 
state,  born  at  Scylacium,  (Squillace,)  in  Italy,  about  470 
A.D.  He  held  a  high  office  under  Odoacer,  who  was 
deposed  and  killed  by  Theodoric  the  Goth  in  493,  and 
he  afterwards  became  secretary  or  chief  minister  of  Theo- 
doric. He  resigned  his  office  in  524,  but  was  again  in 
the  public  service  under  the  successor  of  Theodoric,  and 
left  the  reputation  of  an  eminent  scholar  and  wise  min- 
ister. He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Goths,"  of  which 
only  an  abridgment  is  now  extant,  treatises  on  grammar, 
logic,  arithmetic,  music,  and  other  works.  He  died  about 
the  age  of  one  hundred,  at  the  monastery  of  Viviers, 
which  he  had  founded. 

See  Sainte-M arthe,  "Vie  de  Cassiodore,"  1694;  A.  Olleris, 
"Cassiodore,  Conservateiir  des  Livres  de  TAntiquite  Latine,"  1841. 

Cas-si-o-pe'i-a,  Cas-si-e-pe'i-a,  or  Cas-si'o  pe, 

[Gr,  KaaoLoneia,  Kaaatemia,  or  KaamoTTTj ;  Fr.  CasSIOPI^ 
or  Cassiop^e,  kt'se''o'pi',]  the  wife  of  Cepheus,  and 
mother  of  Andromeda.  According  to  classic  mythology, 
she  was  placed  among  the  stars,  forming  the  constellation 
which  bears  her  name. 

Cassito,  k^s-see'to,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
jurist  and  litterateur,  born  at  Bonito  in  1763  ;  died  in  1822. 

Cassius.    See  Cassius  Longinus. 

Cassius,  kash'e-us,  an  ancient  Roman  physician,  who 
practised  in  Rome  under  the  reign  of  Tiberius  and  was 
employed  professionally  by  that  emperor.  Celsus  calls 
him  "  the  most  ingenious  physician  of  his  age  ;"  and  Galen 
also  highly  praises  him.  Some  scholars  have  ascribed 
to  him  the  authorship  of  a  medical  work  called  "  Medi- 
cinales  Quaestiones,"  etc. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ia,  y,  short;  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fall,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


CJSSIUS 


537 


CASTEL 


Cassius,  kash'e-us,  [Ger.  pron.  kSs'se-us,]  (Andreas,) 
a  German  cliemist^id  physician,  born  at  Slesvvick.  He 
graduated  as  doctor  of  medicine  in  1668,  and  practised 
at  Hamburg  with  much  success.  He  invented  the  mode 
of  producing  the  oxide  of  gold,  which  bears  his  name 
(purple  of  Cassius)  and  affords  a  fine  purple  colour  to 
painters  on  porcelain. 

See  HoEFER,  "Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 
Cassius,  (AviDius,)  a  Roman  general,  noted  for  au- 
dacity and  severity  of  discipline.  He  gained  several 
victories  over  the  Parthians  in  the  reign  of  Marcus 
Aurelius,  against  whom  he  rebelled  in  175  A.D.  He  was 
proclaimed  emperor  by  his  army,  but  a  few  months  later 
he  was  killed  by  some  soldiers  who  conspired  against  him. 

Cassius,  (Christian,)  brother  of  Andreas,  noticed 
above,  was  chancellor  of  the  Bishop  of  Lubeck,  and  a 
friend  of  Grotius.  He  performed  several  diplomatic  mis- 
sions with  honour.    Died  in  1676. 
Cassius  Chaerea.    See  Chorea. 
Cassius  Dion.    See  Dion  Cassius. 
Cas'sius  Fe'lix,  surnamed  Iatrosophis'ta,  a  Greek 
medical  writer,  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  first  century. 
Cassius  Hemiiia.    See  Hemina. 
Cas'sius  Lon-gi'nus,  (Caius,)  a  Roman,  elected  con- 
sul in  171  B.C.,  and  censor  in  154.    He  erected  a  theatre 
which  was  demolished  by  the  senate. 

Cassius  Longinus,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  jurist  of  high 
reputation,  flourished  about  50  A.D.,  and  wrote  "De  Jure 
Civili."    He  was  banished  by  Nero  in  66  A.D. 

Cassius  Longinus,  (Caius,)  a  famous  Roman  patriot 
and  general,  who  conspired  with  Brutus  against  Caesar. 
His  early  zeal  for  liberty  was  manifested  at  school,  where 
he  struck  Faustus,  the  son  of  Sulla,  for  boasting  of  his 
father's  absolute  power.  He  married  a  sister  of  his 
friend  M.  Brutus.  He  acted  as  quaestor  of  Crassus  in 
his  disastrous  expedition  against  the  Parthians  in  53  B.C., 
and,  after  the  defeat  of  the  Romans,  saved  the  remains 
of  the  army  by  a  skilful  retreat.  Having  resumed  the 
offensive,  he  signally  defeated  the  Parthians  in  Syria. 
In  the  civil  war  he  commanded  a  fleet  for  Pompey,  and, 
after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  (48  B.C.,)  surrendered  to 
Caesar.  After  the  fatal  event  of  the  Ides  of  March,  44 
B.C.,  (see  C/ESAR  and  Brutus,)  he  commanded  in  Syria 
with  success  against  Dolabella,  captured  Rhodes,  then, 
effecting  a  junction  with  the  army  of  Brutus,  was  finally 
defeated  at  Philippi  by  Antony,  and  killed  himself  in  42 
B.C.  Brutus  is  said  to  have  called  him  "the  last  of  the 
Romans."  Cassius  forms  a  conspicuous  character  in 
Shakspeare's  "Julius  Caesar." 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Brutus;"  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of 
Rome  ;"  Drumann,  "  Geschichte  Roms." 

Cassius  Longinus,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  judge,  noted 
for  his  strictness  or  severity.  He  became  consul  in  625 
A.U.C,  or  127  B.C.,  and  censor  two  years  later.  Having 
been  chosen  praetor,  he  was  sent  in  641  to  Numidia,  to 
bring  Jugurtha  to  Rome,  in  which  he  was  successful. 
Rigid  judges  were  called,  after  him,  Cassiani  jtidices. 

Cassius  Longinus,  (Quintus,)  a  rapacious  Roman 
officer,  was  quaestor  in  Spain  in  54  B.C.,  and  tribune  of 
the  people  in  49  B.C.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Caesar  in 
the  civil  war.    Died  about  46  B.C. 

Cas'sius  Par-men'sis,  a  Latin  poet,  whose  name  is 
sometimes  written  Ca'ius  Cas'sius  Seve'rus,  was  pro- 
bably born  at  Parma.  By  some  critics  he  has  been 
confounded  with  Cassius  Etruscus,  who  was  ridiculed  by 
Horace,  (Serm.  i.  10,  61.)  He  was  one  of  the  conspira- 
tors who  killed  Caesar  the  Dictator,  and  in  the  war  that 
ensued  fought  under  Brutus.  After  the  defeat  and  death 
of  Brutus  he  entered  the  service  of  Antony,  and  fought 
against  Octavius,  by  whose  order  he  was  put  to  death 
about  30  B.C.  He  wrote  epigrams  and  elegies  of  some 
merit,  of  which  only  small  fragments  are  extant. 

See  A.  Nicolas,  "De  Cassio  Parmensi  Poeta,"  1852;  A.  Wei- 
chert,  "  Commentationes  II.  de  Cassio  Parmensi  Poeta,"  1834. 

Cas'sius  Se-ve'rus  Lon-gu-la'nus,  a  Roman  orator, 
born  at  Longula  about  50  B.C.,  was  noted  for  his  libels 
against  patricians.  He  introduced  a  new  style  of  oratory. 
It  is  supposed  that  the  sixth  epode  of  Horace  is  directed 
against  him. 

Cas'sius  Vis-cel-li'nus,  ( S pu r i u s, )  a  Roman  general , 
who  was  thrice  chosen  consul,  and  proposed  an  agrarian 


law.  On  a  charge  of  aspiring  to  supreme  power,  he  was 
put  to  death  in  485  B.C. 

Cas-sl-ve-lau'nus  or  Cas-si-be-lau'nus,sometimes 
Anglicized  as  Cas-sib'e-lan,  a  British  chief,  wlio  ruled 
the  country  which  lies  on  the  north  side  of  the  Thames. 
He  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  Britons  when  Caesar 
invaded  their  island  in  54  B.C.;  and  he  made  a  brave  re- 
sistance. Having  obtained  information  from  the  Trino- 
bantes,  Caesar  made  a  successful  attack  on  the  capital 
of  Cassivelaunus,  which  was  surrounded  with  forests, 
and  compelled  him  to  submit  and  pay  tribute. 

See  C^sar,  "De  Bello  Gallico." 

Castaglione,  kis-til-yo'ni,  or  Castiglione,  kSs-t^l- 
yo'ni,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Ancona ; 
died  in  1616. 

Castagniza,  de,  di  kSs-tag-nee'thS,  or  Castaniza, 

kis-tS-nee'tha,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  monk,  who  became 
almoner  of  Philip  II.,  censor  of  theology,  etc.,  and  wrote 
"The  Perfection  of  the  Christian  Life,"  which  is  said 
to  be  the  original  of  a  famous  work  called  "  Spiritual 
Conflict."    Died  in  1598. 

Castagno,  del.dSl  kis-tin'yo,  (Andrea,)  a  celebrated 
Florentine  painter,  born  at  Castagno  about  1408.  He 
adorned  several  churches  of  Florence  with  his  works,  the 
best  of  which  have  been  destroyed.  He  learned  from 
Domenico  of  Venice  the  process  of  oil-painting,  which 
had  recently  been  invented,  and  then  murdered  that  artist 
in  the  dark.  This  crime  was  confessed  by  him  on  his 
death-bed.  He  excelled  most  of  his  predecessors  in  per- 
spective and  foreshortening.    Died  about  1480. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Me- 
moirs of  Early  Italian  Painters." 

Castaldi,  kis-tlKdee,  (Cornelio,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Feltre  in  1480;  died  in  1536. 

Cas-taTi-o  or  Castalion,  kts'tt'le'^N',  sometimes 
written  Castellio,  (S^bastien,)  a  liberal  Protestant 
divine,  whose  family  name  was  ChAteillon,  (sht^ti^- 
y6N',)  born  in  Dauphine  about  1515.  He  became  inti- 
mate with  Calvin,  who  procured  for  him  a  chair  in  the 
College  of  Geneva  about  1542.  Dissenting  from  Calvin 
in  relation  to  reprobation,  etc.,  he  resigned  or  was  de- 
prived of  this  place,  and  went  to  Bale,  where  he  taught 
Greek.  He  is  said  to  have  written  a  tract  against  the 
persecution  of  heretics.  He  published  a  new  Latin  ver- 
sion of  the  Bible,  (1551,)  which  is  censured  for  its  devia- 
tion from  the  simplicity  of  the  original.  He  also  wrote 
"  Sacred  Dialogues  for  the  Instruction  of  Youth,"  and 
other  esteemed  works.    Died  at  Bale  in  1563. 

See  Sainte-Marthe,  "  Elogia  Gallorum  ;"  Bavle,  "Historical 
and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Arnold,  "  Kirchen-  und  Ketzer-Historie ;" 
J.  C.  FuEssLi,  "  Lebensgeschichte  S.  Castellio's,"  1775. 

Castalion.    See  Castalio. 

Castanheda,  kas-tin-ya'c^a,  (Fernando  Lopez,)  a 
Portuguese  historian,  born  about  1500.  He  went  to 
India  while  young,  and  spent  many  years  in  collecting 
materials  for  a  history  which  he  published  in  1551,  viz., 
"  A  History  of  the  Conquest  of  India  by  the  Portuguese." 
It  is  esteemed  for  fidelity. 

Castaniza.    See  Castagniza. 

Castafios,  de,  d^  kds-tin^yis,  (Francisco  Xavier,) 
Duke  of  Baylen,  (bT-l§n',)  an  able  Spanish  general,  born 
at  Madrid  or  in  Biscay  about  1755.  He.  became  a  lieu- 
tenant-general in  1798,  soon  after  which  he  was  exiled 
from  Madrid  by  Godoy,  whom  he  had  opposed.  In 
1808  he  obtained  command  of  a  corps,  and  defeated  the 
French  under  Dupont  at  Baylen,  where  he  took  about 
18,000  prisoners.  He  was  appointed  general-in-chief  of 
the  fourth  corps  of  the  army  in  181 1,  and  displayed  great 
skill  at  the  battle  of  Vittoria,  June,  1813.  Pie  became 
captain-general  in  1823,  and  councillor  of  state  in  1825, 
and  favoured  a  policy  of  moderation.  After  the  fall  of 
Espartero,  in  1 843,  he  was  guardian  of  Queen  Isabella. 
Died  in  1852. 

Casteels,  kSs'tals,  (Pieter,)  a  Fle-nish  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1684,  went  to  England  in 
1708.    He  painted  birds,  flowers,  etc.    Died  in  1749. 

Castel,  kts'tSK,  (Louis  Bertrand,)  a  French  mathe- 
matician and  Jesuit,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1688.  He 
became  a  resident  of  Paris  in  1720,  and  acquired  repu- 
tation by  his  writings,  among  which  are  a  "Treatise 
on  Universal  Gravity,"  (1724,)  and  "Universal  Mathe- 


€  as  /6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  Yi^  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (jj!^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CASTEL 


538 


CASTELNAU 


matics,"  (1728.)  The  latter  gained  for  hiin  admission 
into  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He  wrote  many 
articles  for  the  "Journal  de  Trevoux,"  and  invented  a 
machine  named  "ocular  harpsichord."    Died  in  1757. 

See  Abb^  de  la  Port,  "  Esprit  et  Singularit^s  de  L.  B.  Castel," 
1763. 

Castel,  (Ren6  Richard  Louis,)  a  French  poet  and 
botanist,  born  at  Vire  in  1758,  was  educated  in  a  Parisian 
college.  He  was  a  moderate  member  of  the  Legislative 
Assembly,  (1791.)  About  1797  he  published  a  descrip- 
tive poem  on  plants,  ("Des  Plantes,)  which  was  much 
admired  and  gained  the  decennial  prize.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  in  the  Imperial  Lyceum  of  Paris  about 
ten  years,  and  inspector-general  of  the  university  from 
1808  to  1814.  He  wrote  a  poem  entitled  "The  Forest  of 
Fontainebleau,"  and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1832. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Geneiale." 

Castel-Cicala.    See  Ruffo,  (Fabrizio.) 

Castel-Mellior,  de,  di  k3.s-tel-mgl-y5r',  (Joao  Ro- 
DR.GO  de  Vasconcellos — dk  vis-kon-seKl6s,)  Count, 
a  Portuguese  general,  who  repulsed  the  Spanish  army  in 
1643,  and  was  commander-in-chief  in  1645.  Died  in  1658. 
His  son,  Luis  SouzA,  was  the  favourite  of  Alfonso  VL, 
and  prime  minister  from  1663  to  1667. 

Casteleyn,  de,  deh  kSs'teh-lIn',  (Mathieu,)  a  Flem- 
ish poet,  born  at  Ouclenarde,  lived  about  1550.  He  wrote 
an  "Art  of  Poetry,"  ("De  Konst  van  Rhetoriken,"  etc., 
I555-) 

Cas'tell,  (Edmund,)  an  English  Orientalist,  was  born 
in  Cambridgeshire  in  1606.  After  graduating  at  Cam- 
bridge, he  resided  there  many  years,  while  compiling  his 
great  work,  a  "  Lexicon  of  the  Hebrew.  Chaldee,  Syriac, 
Arabic,  Samaritan,  Persian,  and  Ethiopian  Languages," 
(1669,)  on  which  he  spent  ;^i2,ooo,  to  the  ruin  of  his  for- 
tune. "This  work,"  says  Dibdin,  "has  long  challenged 
the  admiration  and  defied  the  competition  of  foreigners." 
In  1666  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  king,  and  pro- 
fessor of  Arabic  at  Cambridge.    Died  in  1685. 

See  Wood,  "Athense  Oxonienses." 

Castellan,  kSs't^'ldN',  (Antotne  Louis,)  a  French 
landscape-painter  and  architect,  born  at  Montpellier  in 
1772.  Having  visited  Italy  and  Greece,  he  published 
several  interesting  works,  illustrated  by  himself,  among 
which  are  "Letters  on  the  Morea,"  (1808,)  "  Manners 
and  Customs  of  the  Ottomans,"  (1812,)  and  "Letters 
on  Italy,"  (1819.)  He  wrote  numerous  articles  for  the 
"Biographie  Universelle,"  and  "Studies  on  the  Chateau 
of  Fontainebleau,  considered  as  one  of  the  Types  of  the 
Renaissance  of  the  Arts  in.  France,"  (1840,)  which  is 
called  an  excellent  work.    Died  in  1838. 

See  Heinecken,  " Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Castellane,  de,  deh  kis't^'ltn',  (  Esprit  Victor 
ELISA13ETH  Boniface,)  Count,  a  French  marshal,  born 
in  Paris  in  1788.  He  entered  the  army  as  a  private  in 
1804,  fought  at  Eckmuhl,  Essling,  and  Wagram,  (1809,) 
and  distinguished  himself  in  the  Russian  campaign, 
(1812.)  After  the  restoration  he  served  in  Spain,  became 
marechal-de-camp  in  1824,  and  lieutenant-general  in  1833. 
He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1837.  Amidst  the  agi- 
tation which  followed  the  revolution  of  1848,  he  main- 
tained order  in  Rouen  by  his  firmness.  He  was  created 
a  marshal  of  France  in  1852.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
war  against  Austria  in  Italy,  April,  1859,  Castellane  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  army  of  Lyons.  Died  in 
September,  1862. 

See  Charras,  "  Les  trois  Mar^chaux,  Saint-Arnaud,  Maguan  et 
Castellane,"  1853. 

Castellani,kls-t51-lS'nee.  (Luigi  Francesco,)  an  Ital- 
ian medical  writer,  born  near  Mantua,  lived  about  1770. 

Castellanus.    See  Duchatel,  (Pierre.) 

Castellesi,  kis-t^l-la'see,  (Adrian  or  Adriano,)  an 
Italian  prelate  and  accomplished  Latin  writer,  born  in 
Tuscany.  He  published  treatises,  in  Latin,  "On  True 
Philosophy,"  (1507,)  and  "On  the  Latin  Language," 
(1513.)  He  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against  Leo  X., 
and  was  detected  and  fined. 

Castelli,  the  Italian  of  Chasteau,  which  see. 

Castelli,  kls-teKlee,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician, born  at  Messina,  published  a  "  Lexicon  Medicum 
Graeco-Latinum,"  (1607,)  often  reprinted. 


Castelli  or  Castellio,  kis-tel'le-o,  (Benedetto,)  an 
Italian  monk,  and  an  eminent  disciple  of  Galileo  in 
philosophy,  was  born  at  Brescia  in  1577.  He  taught 
mathematics  with  honour  at  Pisa,  and  at  the  college  di 
Sapienza,  in  Rome.  He  is  regarded  as  the  author  of  a 
new  branch  of  hydraulics,  the  theory  of  running  waters. 
Pope  Urban  VIII.  applied  to  him  for  an  improved  plan 
of  confining  the  rivers  which  damaged  his  territories, 
on  which  occasion  he  wrote  a  valuable  treatise  "On 
the  Mensuration  of  Running  Waters,"  ("Delia  Misura 
deir  Acque  correnti.")  He  left  other  scientific  works. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1644. 

See  "Vita  Benedicti  Castelli,"  Dresden,  1746;  Tanfoglio, 
"  Elogio  di  B.  Castelli,"  1819. 

Castelli  or  Castello,  kSs-tel'lo,  (Bernardo,)  an 
eminent  painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  1557.  He  became  a 
resident  of  Rome,  where  the  pope  employed  him  to  paint 
a  picture  for  Saint  Peter's.  He  was  a  friend  of  Tasso, 
for  whose  great  poem  he  made  some  designs,  which  were 
engraved  by  Agostino  Caracci.    Died  in  1629. 

SeeMoscHiNi,  "  Memoria  sulla  Vita  del  PittoreB.  Castelli,"  1810. 

Castelli  or  Castello,  (Gab  riello  Lancelotto,)  an 
Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Palermo  in  1727;  died  about 
1792. 

Castelli,  (Giovanni  Battista.)    See  Castello. 

Castelli,  kAs-tel'lee,  (Ignaz  Friedrich,)  a  popular 
German  dramatic  author,  born  in  Vienna  in  1781.  He 
produced  a  great  number  of  comedies,  some  of  which 
are  said  to  be  imitations  of  Eugene  Scribe.  In  1809  he 
composed  war-songs  for  the  Austrian  anny,  which  were 
distributed  by  the  government  and  were  very  popular. 
Died  in  1862. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Castelli,  (Pietro,)  a  learned  physician  and  botanist, 
born  at  Messina.  He  became  a  professor  of  medicine  in 
a  college  of  Rome,  and  afterwards  professor  of  botany  in 
Messina.  He  wrote  several  popular  works  on  medicine, 
chemistry,  and  botany.    Died  about  1656. 

Castelli,  (Valerio,)  born  in  1625,  was  a  son  of  Ber- 
nardo, noticed  above,  and  was  a  successful  painter,  espe- 
cially of  battle-pieces.  He  worked  in  Genoa,  the  palaces 
and  churches  of  which  he  adorned.  His  works  were  in 
request  among  the  French  and  English.  His  design  and 
colour  are  praised.    Died  in  1659. 

See  Ratti,  "  Vite  de'  Pittori  Genovesi." 

Castellio,  (Benedetto.)    See  Castelll 
Castellio,  (Siibastien.)    See  Castalio. 
Castello.    See  Castelli. 

Castello,  kas-tel'lo,  or  Castelli,  kls-tel'lee,  (Gio- 
vanni Battista,)  a  skilful  Italian  painter  and  architect, 
born  at  or  near  Bergamo  about  1506,  was  surnamed  IL 
Bergamasco,  (^1  b^R-gi-mis'ko.)  He  is  said  to  have 
been  a  pupil  of  Michael  Angelo.  He  studied  in  Rome, 
where  he  formed  a  friendship  with  Luca  Cambiaso,  and 
he  worked  with  that  artist  in  Genoa.  After  he  had 
painted  some  admirable  frescos  in  Genoa,  he  went  to 
Madrid,  and  became  painter  to  the  king.  He  died  at 
Madrid  about  1575.  His  design  was  correct,  and  his 
colouring  excellent. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy :"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario." 

Castelnau,  de,  deh  \As'ilVnb',  (Jacques,)  Marquis, 
a  French  general,  born  in  1620,  served  with  distinction  in 
many  campaigns  against  the  Spaniards  and  Imperialists. 
At  Friburg  he  received  six  wounds  without  leaving  his 
post.  In  1655  he  commanded  with  success  in  Hainault, 
and,  in  the  absence  of  Turenne,  in  1656,  commanded  the 
army  of  Flanders.  He  obtained  a  marshal's  baton  in 
1658,  and  was  killed  at  Dunkirk  the  same  year. 

Castelnau,  de,  (Michel,)  an  able  French  diplomatist 
and  general,  grandfather  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Touraine  about  1520.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  he  per- 
formed missions  to  several  foreign  courts.  In  the  civil 
wars  that  began  about  1560  he  fought  against  the  Prot- 
estants at  Rouen,  Dreux,  etc.  He  was  minister  to  Eng- 
land from  1574  to  1584.  After  the  accession  of  Henry 
IV.  he  obtained  a  high  command  in  the  army.  He  died 
in  1592,  leaving  "Memoirs"  of  the  events  from  1559  to 
LS7o<  (3  vols.,  1731,)  which  are  said  to  be  impartial  and 
trustworthy. 

See  Le  LAnouREiJR,  "Vie  de  Michel  de  Castelnau,"  1659;  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 


a,  c,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  ^,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CASTELVETRO 


539 


CASTILLO 


Castelvetro,  kSs-tgl-va'tRO,  (Ludovico,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  critic,  born  at  Modena  in  1505.  His  severe  criti- 
cism on  a  canzone  of  Caro  about  1555  occasioned  a  noto- 
rious and  acrimonious  controversy  between  the  poet  and 
the  critic.  About  1558  he  was  imprisoned  in  Rome  on 
suspicion  of  favouring  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformers. 
Having  escaped  by  night,  he  was  condemned  as  a  contu- 
macious heretic  in  1 561,  and  took  refuge  in  Lyons  and 
Geneva.  His  greatest  work  is  a  commentary  on  tlie 
"Poetics"  of  Aristotle,  (1570,)  which,  tliough  marred  by 
sophisms  and  minute  subtleties,  "may  justly  claim  re- 
spect," says  Hallam,  "not  only  as  the  earliest  exposition 
of  the  theory  of  criticism,  but  for  its  acuteness,  erudition, 
and  independence."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.")    Died  in  1571. 

See  MuRATORi,  "Vie  de  Castelvetro,"  prefixed  to  his  "Opera 
varie  criiiche,"  1727;  J.  B.  Venturi,  "  Elogio  di  L.  Castelvetro," 
1778;  Glnguene,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie ;"  Lebret,  "Anec- 
dota  de  L.  Castelvetro  ejusque  Scriptis,"  1763;  Niceron,  "Me- 
inoires." 

Castex,  kts't^ks',  (Bertrand  Pierre,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1771 ;  died  in 
1843. 

Casti,  kds'tee,  (Giovanni  Battista,  or  Giambat- 
TISTA,)  a  popular  Italian  poet  and  priest,  born  in  the 
Roman  States  in  1721.  In  his  early  years  he  was  a  pro- 
fessor in  an  academy  at  Montefiascone.  About  1769  he 
was  presented  to  Joseph  II.  of  Austria,  who  was  pleased 
with  his  witty  conversation.  Casti  accompanied  embas- 
sies from  Vienna  to  several  courts  of  Europe,  and,  having 
returned  to  Austria,  was  appointed  court  poet  in  1782. 
In  1793  he  published  "  Novelle  galanti,"  poetical  tales, 
which  are  admired  for  vivacity,  originality,  and  elegance. 
Between  1790  and  1796  he  left  Vienna,  and  became  a 
resident  of  Florence  and  Paris.  His  most  celebrated 
work  is  a  poem  called  "Speaking  Animals,"  ("Animali 
parlanti,"  1802,)  a  political  satire,  which  Mr.  Rose  trans- 
lated or  imitated  in  his  "Court  and  Parliament  of  Beasts." 
He  also  wrote  burlesque  dramas,  and  an  amusing  poem 
entitled  "The  Three  Groats,"  ("  I  tre  Giulj,")  which  was 
translated  into  English,  (London,  1826.)  Died  in  Paris 
in  1803. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  "  Narrative  and 
Romantic  Poetry  of  the  Italians,"  in  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  April,  1819. 

Castiglione,  kSs-t^l-yS'ni,  (Baldassare,)  one  of  the 
most  elegant  Italian  writers  of  his  time,  was  born  at 
Casatico,  near  Mantua,  in  1478.  In  early  life  he  became 
one  of  the  ornaments  of  the  polished  court  of  the  Duke 
of  Urbino,  by  whom  in  1505  he  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  England.  He  was  several  times  employed  on  mis- 
sions to  Popes  Leo  X.  and  Clement  VII.  In  1525  the 
latter  sent  him  as  ambassador  to  Charles  V.  at  Madrid. 
He  died  at  Toledo  in  1529.  His  principal  work  is  "The 
Courtier,"  ("II  Cortegiano,"  1528,)  which  is  regarded  as 
excellent  in  thought  and  style.  He  wrote  several  small 
poems  in  Latin  and  Italian,  which  are  esteemed  models 
of  elegance. 

See  Serassi,  "Vita  del  Castiglione,"  in  an  edition  of  his  poems, 
Rome,  1760;  GiNGUKN^,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie  ;"  P.  Giovio, 
"Elogia;"  Niceron,  "  Memoires ;"  Girolamo  Ferri,  "DeVitaet 
Scriptis  B.  Castiglionis,"  1780. 

Castiglione  or  Castiglioni,  kSs-til-yo'nee,  (Carlo 
Ottavio,)  Count,  an  eminent  Italian  linguist  and  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Milan  about  1790.  He  directed  his 
attention  to  languages  and  numismatics,  and  published 
in  1819  a  "Description  of  the  Cnfic  Coins  of  the  Mu- 
seum of  Milan."  In  the  same  year  Angelo  Mai  and 
Castiglione  published  fragments  of  a  Gothic  version  of 
the  New  Testament,  by  Bishop  Ulphilas,  which  Mai  had 
recently  found  in  palimpsests.  Castiglione  produced  in 
1826a  valuable  work  entitled  "Geographical  and  Numis- 
matical  Memoir  on  the  Part  of  Barbary  called  by  the 
Arabs  Afrikiah." 

See  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Castiglione,  (Giovanni  Benedetto,)  an  excellent 
Italian  painter  and  engraver,  surnamed  IL  Grechetto, 
{h\  gRi-ket'to,)  was  born  at  Genoa  in  1616.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  G.  B.  Paggi  and  of  G.  Andrea  de'  Ferrari.  He 
worked  at  Florence,  Genoa,  Venice,  Rome,  and  Mantua, 
and  excelled  in  history,  portraits,  landscapes,  and  ani- 
inals.    As  a  painter  of  animals  he  was  not  surpassed  by 


any  artist  of  Italy.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a  "  Na- 
tivity," in  a  church  of  Genoa.  He  produced  numerous 
admirable  etchings,  among  which  are  "  Diogenes  with 
his  Lantern,"  and  "The  Entrance  of  the  Animals  into 
the  Ark."    He  died  at  Mantua  in  1670. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Soprani,  "  Vite 
de'  Pittori  Genovesi  ;"  Bryan,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Castiglione,  (Valerio,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  wri- 
ter, born  at  Milan  in  1593.  He  wrote  "  Clio,"  a  poem, 
(1616,)  a  "  History  of  the  Revolution  of  Piedmont,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1668. 

Castiglione,  de,  Due.    See  Augereau. 

Castiglioni.    See  Castiglione. 

Castil-Blaze.    See  Blaze. 

Castilho,  de,  di  kSs-t^Kyo,  (Antonio  FELiciANO,)a 
popular  Portuguese  poet,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1800,  is  some- 
times called  "the  Blind  Poet  of  Portugal."  About  182c 
he  published  "  Letters  from  Echo  to  Narcissus,"  a  poem, 
which  had  great  success.  Among  his  other  works  are 
"Day  in  the  Spring,"  (1822,)  "Night  at  the  Castle," 
("Noite  do  Castello,"  1830,)  and  "Poetical  Medita- 
tions." He  is  considered  the  most  pure  and  harmonious 
of  modern  Portuguese  poets.  He  has  written  several 
prose  works,  one  of  which  is  "  Historical  Portraits  of 
Portugal,"  ("  Quadros  historicos  de  Portugal.") 

Castilhon  or  Castillon,  kts'te'ydN',  (Jean  Louis,) 
a  French  litteratezir,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1720.  He 
wrote  for  many  periodicals,  and  published  numerous 
works,  among  which  are  a  "  History  of  Philosophic 
Dogmas  and  Opinions  from  Ancient  Times  to  the  Pres- 
ent," (3  vols.,  1769,)  and  "The  Last  Revolutions  of  the 
Globe."   Died  about  1793. 

Castilla,  kSs-t^Ky^,  (Don  Ramon,)  a  Peruvian  gen- 
eral and  statesman,  born  at  Tarapaca  about  1795.  He 
fought  against  the  King  of  Spain  in  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence which  began  in  1821.  He  was  made  a  gen- 
eral of  brigade  in  1834,  and  served  in  the  civil  war  that 
ensued.  In  1845  he  was  elected  President  of  Peru.  He 
has  the  credit  of  restoring  order  and  peace  to  that  coun- 
try. In  1851  he  transmitted  the  government  to  his  suc- 
cessor, Jose  Rufino  Echenique.  In  1855  he  usurped  or 
obtained  the  chief  power.  He  was  re-elected  President 
in  1858.    Died  in  1867. 

Castille,  kSs't6I'orkts''te'ye,  (Charles  Hippolyte,) 
a  French  political  writer  and^T^velist,  born  at  Montreuil- 
sur-Mer  in  1820.  He  published  "  The  Chase  after  Chime- 
ras," (1854,)  and  other  novels,  and  wrote  political  articles 
for  several  journals.  His  most  considerable  work  is  a 
"  History  of  the  Second  French  Republic,"  (1855,)  in 
which  absolutism  and  the  Revolution  are  represented 
as  natural  allies. 

Castillejo,  de,  di  kSs-t^l-ya'Ho,  (Cristoval,)  a 
Spanish  poet,  born  at  Ciudad  Rodrigo  in  1404.  He 
passed  much  of  his  life  at  the  court  of  Don  Ferdinand, 
brother  of  Charles  V.  He  wrote  canzones  of  a  playful 
and  witty  character,  and  satires.    Died  in  1556. 

See  TicKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Longfellow 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Castillo,  de,  di  kSs-t^Kyo,  (Augustin,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Seville  in  1565  ;  died  in  1626. 

Castillo,  de,  (Enriquez,)  a  Spanish  historian,  born 
at  Segovia,  was  chaplain  and  historiographer  to  Henry 
IV.,  and  a  member  of  his  privy  council.  He  wrote  a 
"Chronicle  of  the  Reign  of  Henry  IV.,"  which  was  re- 
cently published  by  Don  J.  M.  de  Flores,  secretary  of 
the  Spanish  Academy  of  History. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i 
part  i. 

Castillo,  de,  (Fernando,)  a  Spanish  Dominican,  born 
at  Granada  about  1529,  wrote  a  "History  of  San  Do- 
mingo and  his  Order,"  (1584.)    Died  in  1593. 

Castillo,  del,  c\h\  kls-t'^Kyo,  (Bernal  Diaz,)  a  Span- 
ish officer,  born  at  Medina  del  Campo.  He  assisted 
Cortez  in  the  conquest  of  Mexico,whither  he  went  about 
1520,  and  afterwards  settled  in  that  countrv.  He  wrote 
a  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  New  Spain,"  which  is 
said  to  have  some  merit,  though  the  style  is  far  from 
elegant 

See  "Memoirs  of  Bernal  Diaz  del  Castillo,"  by  himself,  trans- 
lated by  J.  Ingraham  Lockhart,  1844;  Prescott,  "  History  of 
the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  ii.  book  v. 


<  as  ;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as J;  o,  h,  k,  ^ittural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CASTILLO 


CASTRO 


Castillo,  del,  ( Jos6  Maria,)  a  South  American  jurist, 
was  appointed  by  Bolivar  president  of  the  council  of 
state,  (1828.) 

Castillo,  del,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  historical  painter, 
brother  of  Augustin,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Seville 
in  1584,  and  was  the  master  of  Murillo  and  Alonzo  Cano. 
Died  in  1640. 

Castillo  Solorzano,  del.d^l  kJs-t^l'yo  so-loR-thi'no, 
(Alonzo,)  a  famous  Spanish  romance-writer  and  poet 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  who  was  highly  praised  by 
Lope  de  Vega.  He  produced  numerous  works  in  prose 
and  verse,  among  which  are  "  La  Garduiia  de  Sevilla," 
and  the  "  Hall  of  Recreation,"  ("  Sala  de  Recreacion," 
1629,)  a  novel. 

See  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Castillo  y  Saavedra,  del,  dl\  k.^s-t6Kyo  e  sl-va'- 
DRi,  (Anton  10,)  a  Spanish  painter  of  history,  portraits, 
and  landscapes,  born  at  Cordova  in  1603,  excelled  in 
design  and  composition.  In  1666  he  visited  Seville,  where 
the  works  of  Murillo  appeared  to  him  so  inimitable  that 
he  gave  up  in  despair,  and  died  in  less  than  a  year. 

See  Quii.LiET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Castillon.    See  Castilhon. 

Castillon,  de,  deh  kts't^Ky^N'  or  kts'te'y^N',  (Gio- 
vanni Francesco  Salvemini,)  an  able  geometer,  born 
at  Castiglione,  in  Tuscany,  in  1709,  became  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Utrecht  in  1751.  Frederick  the  Great  in- 
vited him  to  Berlin,  and  made  him  a  professor  of  mathe- 
matics. In  1787  he  succeeded  La  Grange  as  director  of 
the  mathematical  class  in  the  Academy  of  Berlin.  He 
translated  into  French  Locke's  "  Elements  of  Physics," 
Cicero's  "  Academics,"  ("Academicae  Questiones,")  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1 791. 

See  QuiSRARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Castillon,  de,  deh  kts'te'ydN',  (Jean  Francois 
Andr6  Le  Blanc,)  a  French  lawyer,  eminent  for  his 
learning,  eloquence,  and  philosophic  spirit,  born  at  Aix 
in  1719.  He  became  attorney-general  of  the  parliament 
of  Provence.    Died  in  1800. 

Castleniain,  kas's'l-man',  (Roger  Palmer,)  Earl 
OF,  was  the  husband  of  the  Duchess  of  Cleveland,  and 
amiiassador  from  James  II.  of  England  to  the  pope  about 
1686.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "An  Account  of 
the  Present  War  between  the  Venetians  and  Turks," 
(1666.)    Died  in  1705. 

Castlereagh,  kasVl-ra',  (Robert  Stewart,)  Lord 
Viscount,  Marquis  of  Londonderry,  a  British  statesman, 
born  in  the  county  of  Down,  Ireland,  in  1769,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Robert  Stewart,  first  Marquis  of  London- 
derry, and  Sarah  F.  Seymour,  daughter  of  the  Marquis 
of  Hertford.  In  1794  he  entered  the  British  House  of 
Commons,  with  a  strong  tendency  to  Toryism.  By  the 
promotion  of  his  father  in  1796,  he  became  Viscount 
Castlereagh.  He  was  chosen  keeper  of  the  privy  seal 
for  Ireland  in  1797,  and  secretary  to  the  lord  lieutenant 
in  1798.  He  performed  a  prominent  part  in  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Irish  rebellion  of  the  latter  year.  "  The  union 
of  Ireland  with  Great  Britain,"  (1800,)  says  Alison,  "was 
carried  in  the  Irish  Parliament  chiefly  through  the  power- 
ful abilities  of  Lord  Castlereagh."  ("  History  of  Europe.") 
In  1802  he  was  appointed  by  Pitt  president  of  the  board 
of  control,  and  in  1805  secretary  of  state  for  the  depart- 
ment of  war  and  the  colonies.  The  failure  of  the  Wal- 
cheren  expedition  in  1809  exposed  him  to  censure,  and 
occasioned  a  duel  between  him  and  Canning,  his  col- 
league in  the  ministry.  Just  before  the  duel  the  parties 
resigned  office.  In  February,  1812,  Lord  Castlereagh  be- 
came secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  (in  the  ministry 
of  Lord  Liverpool,)  and  the  leader  of  the  Tory  party,  in 
preference  to  his  rival  Canning.  He  represented  Eng- 
land at  the  peace  of  Paris  and  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in 
1814,  at  the  Congress  of  Paris  in  1815,  and  at  that  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle  in  1818.  He  was  one  of  the  master-spirits 
of  the  coalition  against  Bonaparte.  In  1821,  by  the  death 
of  his  father,  he  became  Marquis  of  Londonderry.  After 
showing  symptoms  of  insanity,  he  committed  suicide  in 
August,  1822.  As  he  left  no  issue,  the  title  passed  to  his 
half-brother  Charles.  (See  Londonderry.)  His  success 
as  a  statesman  is  ascribed  to  great  talents  for  business, 
invincible  firmness  or  moral  courage,  and  adroitness  in 


the  management  of  men.  As  he  had  obtained  nobility 
only  in  the  Irish  peerage,  his  parliamentary  services  were 
confined  to  the  House  of  Commons.  His  "  Memoirs  and 
Correspondence"  (8  vols.,  1848)  forms  a  very  valuable 
contribution  to  modern  history. 

See  Alison,  "  History  of  Europe  ;"  Harriet  MARTrwEAU,  "His- 
tory of  tlie  Thirty  Years'  Peace;"  "  Noiivelle  Biograpliie  Gen^rale;" 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1S48,  and  Jaiuiary,  1862; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1S62  ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly"  for  July, 
1831;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  March,  1862;  " Eraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  December,  1848. 

Cas'tor  and  PoFlux  or  Pol-y-deu'9e§,  [Gr.  Kuarup, 
and  UoXvdevKTjg,]  heroes  of  the  Greek  mythology,  called 
also  Dioscu'ri,  ("sons  of  Jove,")  were,  according  to  one 
account,  twin-brothers,  sons  of  Leda  and  Tyndareus,  and 
brothers  of  Helen,  whence  they  were  called  Tyndar''idae. 
According  to  another  legend,  they  were  the  sons  of  Leda 
and  Jupiter.  Castor  was  an  expert  horseman  and  cha- 
rioteer, and  Pollux  a  renowned  pugilist.  They  took  part 
in  the  Calydonian  hunt,  in  the  Argonautic  expedition, 
and  other  famous  enterprises.  The  ancient  poets  feigned 
that  Pollux  was  immortal,  and  that  when  Castor  was 
killed  in  a  fight  Pollux  offered  to  share  his  fate.  It  was, 
therefore,  permitted  that  the  boon  of  immortality  should 
be  divided  between  them,  and  that  they  should  exchange 
places  every  day,  dying  and  reviving  alternately. 

See  Keightlev's  "Mythology." 

Castor  [KuaTup]  of  Rhodes,  a  Greek  grammarian, 
who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  150  B.C. 

Castor,  (Antonius,)  a  Roman  or  a  Greek  physician, 
who  lived  at  Rome  one  hundred  years,  from  the  reign 
of  Augustus  to  that  of  Titus,  (80  A.D.)  Pliny  speaks  of 
his  high  reputation,  and  of  his  botanic  garden,  which  is 
the  first  mentioned  in  history. 

Castracani.    See  Castruccio, 

Castrejon,  kas-tRi-Hon',  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  in  Madrid  in  1625.  He  was  an  excellent 
colorist,  and  had  great  facility  of  invention,  which  en- 
abled him  to  succeed  equally  in  heroic  subjects  and  in 
domestic  or  familiar  scenes.  His  "Michael  contending 
with  the  Dragon"  is  one  of  his  master-pieces.  Died  in 
1690. 

See  Qun.LiET,  "Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Castren,  kis-tran'  or  k^s-trnn',  (Matthias  Alex- 
ander,) an  eminent  philologist,  born  in  the  province  of 
Uleaborg,  Finland,  in  1813.  He  was  a  diligent  student 
of  the  Finnish  language  and  literature,  in  the  illustration 
of  which  he  spent  his  life.  In  1838  he  travelled  through 
Lapland  on  foot  to  obtain  information  about  the  ancient 
mythology  and  language  of  that  region.  In  1841  he 
produced  a  Swedish  translation,  in  verse,  of  the  popu- 
lar Finnish  poem  "  Kalevala,"  which  attracted  much 
admiration.  Between  1844  and  1849  he  pursued  his 
researches  among  the  Samoieds  on  the  Arctic  Sea.  In 
1 85 1  he  was  appointed  jDrofessor  of  the  Finnish  lan- 
guage at  Helsingfors,  where  he  died  in  1852  from  the 
effects  of  his  last  journey.  He  left  grammars  of  several 
dialects  of  Northern  Russia,  and  other  works. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1854. 

Castries,  kts'tRe',  (Charles  Eugene  Gabriel  de 
la  Croix — deh  It  kRwk,)  Marquis  of,  an  able  French 
general,  born  in  1727.  Having  distinguished  himself  in 
many  campaigns,  he  was  made  lieutenant-general  in 
1758,  and  gained  an  important  victory  at  Wesel  in  1760. 
He  was  afterwards  Governor-General  of  Flanders,  minis- 
ter of  marine  in  1780,  and  marshal  of  France  in  1783. 
In  the  Revolution  of  1789  he  emigrated,  found  an  asylum 
with  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  and  died  in  1801. 

Castriot,  (George.)    See  Scander-Beg. 

Castro,  kis'tRo,  (Jos6  Rodrigo,)  a  Portuguese  Jew 
and  physician,  born  about  1545,  settled  in  1596  in  Ham- 
burg, where  he  became  professor  of  philosophy  and  medi- 
cine. He  published  several  valuable  works.  Died  in  1627. 

Castro,  da,  d^  kSs'tRo,  (Paolo,)  an  eminent  juriscon- 
sult, born  at  Castro,  in  Italy.  He  professed  Roman  law 
at  Padua,  Florence,  Bologna,  etc.,  and  wrote  treatises  on 
the  Digest  and  Code.    Died  about  1450. 

Castro,  de,  di  kis'tRo,  (Alfonso,)  a  noted  Span- 
ish theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Zamora  about 
1495,  entered  the  order  of  Saint  Francis.  He  accompa- 
nied Philip  II.  to  England  when  he  went  to  marry  Queen 
Mary.    In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  resided  in  the 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  /on^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,    short;    e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fJr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CASTRO 


54> 


CATALDI 


Low  Countries.  His  principal  work  is  a  Latin  treatise 
on  "Heresies,"  (1534,)  whicli  was  very  successful,  and 
passed  through  ten  editions  in  twenty-two  years.  Died 
in  1558. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Castro,  de,  (Don  Alfonso  Nunes,)  a  Spanish  his- 
torian, who  lived  about  1670.  He  was  historiographer 
to  Philip  IV.,  and  wrote  a  "Chronicle  of  the  Goths, 
Castilians,  and  Austrians,"  ("Coronica  Gothica,  Cas- 
tillana  y  Austriaca,"  1708.) 

Castro,  de,  (Alvarez  Gomez,)  a  Spanish  writer, 
born  in  the  diocese  of  Toledo  in  1521.  He  became 
professor  of  Greek  in  Toledo,  and  wrote,  in  prose  and 
verse,  numerous  works,  among  which  are  "The  Life  of 
Francis  Ximenes,"  (1569.)    Died  in  1586. 

Castro,  de,  di  kis'tRo,  (Esteban  Rodrigo,)  a  re- 
nowned Portuguese  physician,  born  at  Lisbon  about 
1560.  He  emigrated  to  Italy,  and  was  professor  of  me- 
dicine in  the  University  of  Pisa  for  twenty-two  years. 
He  composed,  in  Latin,  many  works,  among  which  are 
"  De  Complexu  Morborum,"  (1624,)  "  Posthuma  Varie- 
tas,"  (1639,)  and  "  Medical  Consultations,"  ("  Medicae 
Consultationes,"  1644.)  He  was  styled  "the  Phoenix 
of  Medicine."    Died  in  1637. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova;"  Van  der  Lin- 
den, "De  Scriptoribus  medicis." 

Castro,  de,  (Felipe,)  an  eminent  Spanish  sculptor, 
born  at  Noya  (Galicia)  in  1711.  He  studied  in  Rome, 
and  gained  the  first  prize  of  the  Academy  of  Saint  Luke 
in  1739.  He  afterwards  worked  in  Madrid,  and  was 
ranked  among  the  greatest  Spanish  sculptors  of  the  age. 
Died  in  1775. 

Castro,  de,  (Gabriel  Pereira,)  a  Portuguese  poet 
a^d  jurist,  born  at  Braga.  He  became  a  senator  at 
Lisbon,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  heroic  poem 
called  "  Ulisea,"  (1636.)  He  has  been  ranked  among 
the  fine  geniuses  of  Portugal.    Died  in  1630. 

Castro,  de,  (Guillem,)  a  Spanish  dramatist,  born  at 
Valencia  about  1569.  He  was  for  some  time  commander 
of  a  citadel  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  passed  the 
latter  years  of  his  life  in  Madrid,  where  he  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  Lope  de  Vega.  He  acquired  a  European 
celebrity  by  his  "  Spanish  Cid,"  a  drama,  which  was  the 
original  of  Corneille's  tragedy  of  the  same  name.  Cor- 
neille  acknowledged  that  he  owed  part  of  the  beauty  of 
his  piece  to  Castro.  The  latter  wrote  "  Dido  and  ^^^neas," 
"Payar  en  propria  Moneda,"  and  other  dramas,  a  vol- 
ume of  which  was  printed  in  1621.  Died  in  1631.  Some 
account  of  his  life  was  published  by  Lord  Holland  in 
1817. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Castro,  de,  (Inez.)    See  Inez  de  Castro. 

Castro,  de,  (Joao,)  a  celebrated  Portuguese  general 
and  navigator,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1500.  He  studied  ma- 
thematics under  Pedro  Nuiiez,  and  became  profoundly 
versed  in  that  science,  as  well  as  in  ancient  languages. 
About  1538,  as  commander  of  a  vessel,  he  made  a  voy- 
age to  India  with  the  viceroy  Garcia  de  Noronha.  He 
accompanied  the  expedition  which,  under  Estevao  da 
Gama,  explored  the  Red  Sea  in  1540.  He  wrote  an 
exact  scientific  description  of  that  sea,  of  which  he  also 
made  charts.  The  results  of  these  hydrographic  labours 
were  first  published  in  1833,  with  the  title  of  "The  Log- 
Book  of  Don  John  de  Castro  on  the  Voyage  which  the 
Portuguese  made  to  the  Red  Sea,"  ("  Roteiro  de  Dom 
Joam  de  Castro  da  Viagem  que  fizeram  os  Portuguezes 
ao  Mar  roxo.")  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  India 
'".1545'  and  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Moors  at 
Diu,  after  performing  prodigies  of  valour.  He  received 
the  title  of  Viceroy  of  India  in  1547,  and  died  in  1548,  in 
the  arms  of  Saint  Francis  Xavier.  He  left  in  manuscript 
a  "  Journal  of  a  Voyage  from  Lisbon  to  Goa." 

See  J.  Freyre  de  Andrada,  "  Vida  de  Joani  de  Castro,"  1651, 
and  English  version  of  the  same,  1664;  Faria  v  Souza,  "Asia 
Portugiieza  ;"  Lindau,  "Juan  de  Castro;  Gemalde  eines  Helden- 
lebens,"  1813;  JoSo  de  Barros,  "Decada  secunda  da  Asia;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Castro,  de,  (Jos6  Rodrigo,)  a  Spanish  Orientalist 
and  bibliographer,  born  in  Galicia  in  1739.  He  wrote 
three  poems,  (1759,)  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin,  on  the 
accession  of  Charles  III.,  to  whom  he  became  librarian. 


In  1781  he  published  the  first  volume  of  "Bibliotheca 
Espanola,"  ("  Spanish  Library,")  which  had  great  success- 
The  second  volume  appeared  in  1786.    Died  about  1798. 
See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Castro,  de,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  painter  of  still  life, 
excelled  in  colouring  and  perspective.    Died  in  1663. 

Castro,  de,  (Vaca,)  a  Spanish  officer,  born  at  Leon, 
became  a  judge  of  the  royal  court,  at  Valladolid.  In 
1540  Charles  V.  sent  him  as  governor  to  Peru,  which 
was  then  disturbed  by  the  rebellion  of  Almagro.  In 
1542  a  battle  was  fought  at  Chupas,  in  which  Almagro 
was  defeated  and  made  prisoner.  By  the  order  of  Cas- 
tro, he  was  executed  on  the  spot.  Castro  was  superseded 
in  1544,  and  returned  to  Spain,  where  he  was  imprisoned 
several  years.    Died  in  1558. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  i. 

Castro-Sarmento,  de,  di  kJs'tRo  saR-mln'to,(jAGO,) 
a  Portuguese  physician,  born  about  1692,  practised  in 
London,  and  became  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He 
wrote  "Letters  on  the  Diamonds  of  Brazil,"  and  "Ma- 
teria Medica,"  etc.,  (1758.)    Died  in  1762. 

Castriicci,  kSs-tRoot'chee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  com- 
poser, born  at  Rome  about  1690,  served  Hogarth  as  the 
model  of  his  "Enraged  Musician."  Died  in  London  in 
1769. 

Castruccio-Castracani,  k.^s-tRoot'cho  kSs-tRi-ki'- 
nee,  a  chief  of  the  Ghibeline  party,  born  in  Lucca  about 
1282.  His  family  name  was  Antelminelli  or  Inter- 
MINELLI.  In  consequence  of  a  revolution  in  1316,  he  be- 
came master  or  seigneur  of  Lucca,  from  which  he  expelled 
the  Guelphs.  He  waged  a  successful  war  against  the 
Florentines,  (1320-25,)  .gained  a  great  victory  over  their 
general,  Raymond  de  Cardona,  in  1325,  and  by  his  cour- 
age and  political  talents  became  a  powerful  prince.  The 
emperor  Louis  recognized  him  as  Duke  of  Lucca,  Pistoia, 
Volterra,  and  Lunigiano,  and  created  him  a  count  pala- 
tine. He  died  in  1328,  leaving  several  minor  sons,  who 
did  not  inherit  any  share  of  his  power.  Macchiavelli  has 
written  a  romance  purporting  to  be  a  life  of  Castruccio, 
but  in  which  historic  truth  is  not  respected.  "  He  joined 
craft  and  duplicity,"  says  Sismondi,  "to  the  most  bril- 
liant valour  and  to  extraordinary  talents." 

See  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes;"  Negrini, 
"Vita  Castruccii  Castracani,"  1496;  Macchiavelli,  "Vita  di  Cas- 
truccio-Castracani," 1534,  and  French  translation  of  tl>e  same,  by 
Dkeux  du  Radier,  1753;  Aldo  Manucci,  "Azioni  di  Castruccio- 
Castracani,"  1590  and  1.S20. 

Cas'well,  (Richard,)  an  American  lawyer  and  gene- 
ral, born  in  Maryland  in  1729,  removed  to  North  Caro- 
lina in  his  youth.  He  was  chosen  Governor  of  North 
Carolina  in  1777,  and  was  re-elected  several  times.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  convention  which  formed  the 
Federal  Constitution  in  1787.    Died  in  1789. 

Caswini.    See  Cazweenee. 

Casy,  k^'ze',  (Joseph  Gr^goire,)  born  in  1787,  be- 
came  vice-admiral  of  France  in  1845,  and  senator  in  1852. 
Casyapa.    See  Kasyapa. 
Cat,  Le.    See  Le  Cat. 

Catalan,  kS'tS'l^N',  (Eugene  Charles,)  a  French 
geometer,  born  in  18 14.  He  acquired  distinction  as  a 
teacher,  and  ]niblished  several  ajjproved  works,  among 
which  are  "Elements  of  Geometry,"  (1843,)  "  Manual 
for  Candidates  for  the  Polytechnic  School,"  (1858.) 

Catalani,  kd-tS-l^'nee,  (Angelica,)  a  famous  Italian 
vocalist,  born  at  Sinigaglia  about  1782.  She  made  her 
debut  at  Rome  in  1802  with  iminense  success,  which  was 
repeated  in  the  principal  cities  of  Italy.  Her  concerts 
were  applauded  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm  in  Paris 
and  London.  She  was  married  to  a  Frenchman  named 
Valabregue,  and  passed  many  years  in  England  and 
Paris.  She  retired  from  the  stage  about  1830,  after  which 
she  resided  at  Florence.  Her  merit  consisted  principally 
in  a  voice  of  extraordinary  volume  and  power.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1849. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiclens." 

Catalani,  (Michele,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at 
Fermo,  in  the  March  of  Ancona,  in  1750  ;  died  after  1800. 

Catalano,  kS-tS-lS'no,  (Antonio,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Messina  in  1560;  died  in  1630. 

Cataldi,  kS-taiMee,  Cataldo,  kS-tiKdo,  written  also 
Catuldi,  (Pietro  Antonio,)  an  able  Italian  mathema- 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  H,  Yi, guitttral ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  2;^.) 


CATALDO 


542 


CATHERINE 


tician,  born  at  Bologna  about  1548.  He  was  for  many 
years  professor  of  mathematics  in  Bologna,  and  wrote 
several  works,  which  display  an  inventive  genius  and 
extensive  learning.  One  of  them  is  entitled  "  Algebra 
Applicata,"  (1622.)    Died  in  1626. 

Cataldo.    See  Cataldi. 

Cataneo.    See  Cati  aneo. 

Cat'cptt,  (Alexander,)  an  English  theologian,  pub- 
lished in  1762  a  "Treatise  on  the  Deluge,"  and  a  volume 
of  sermons.  He  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the 
Hutchinsonian  philosophical  school. 

Catel,  kS't^K,  (Charles  Simon,)  a  French  musical 
composer,  born  at  L'Aigle  (Orne)  in  1773,  became  pro- 
fessor of  harmony  in  the  Conservatory  of  Paris  in  1795. 
He  composed  the  music  of  "  Semiramis,"  (1802,)  "  Wal- 
lace," (1817,)  and  other  operas;  also  a  "Traite  de  Har- 
monic," (1802.)  In  1815  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Institute.    Died  in  1830. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Uiiiverselle  des  Musicians  " 

Catel,  ki'tel,  (F'ranz,)  a  German  painter  of  landscapes, 
history,  and  genre,  born  at  Berlin  in  1778;  died  in  1856. 

Catel,  (GuiLLAUME,)  a  French  historian,  born  at 
Toulouse  in  1560.  He  was  a  councillor  in  the  parliament 
of  Toulouse,  and  author  of  an. esteemed  history  of  Lan- 
guedoc.    Died  in  1626. 

Catel,  (Samuel  Heinrich,)  a  German  scholar,  born 
at  Halberstadt  in  1758.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  in 
the  French  gymnasium  of  Berlin.  He  published  Bion, 
Moschus,  Anacreon,  and  Sappho,  in  German  verse,  and 
other  works.    Died  about  1835. 

Catelan,  kit'ldw',  sometimes  written  Catalan,  (Lau- 
ren r,)  a  French  ])harmacist,  published  a  "Discours  sur 
la  Theriaque,"  (1614.)    Died  after  1639. 

Catelinot.    See  Cathelinot. 

Catellan-Caunioiit,de,  deh  kt''ti'16N'k5'm6N',(jEAN 
Antoine,)  Marquis,  a  meritorious  French  judge,  born 
at  Toulouse  in  1759;  died  in  1834. 

Catellan  de  la  Masquere,  kt'ti'lSN'  deh  It  mts'- 
kaiR',  (Claire  Priscille  Marguerite,)  a  French  poet- 
ess, born  at  Narbonne  in  1662;  died  in  1745. 

Catellano,  ki-tgl-la'no,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Leghorn;  lived  about  1750.  He  produced  a 
version  of  Anacreon,  (1753.) 

Catena,  ki-ta'nd,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  mathematician, 
born  in  Venice,  wrote  several  works.    Died  in  1577. 

Catena,  (Vincenzo,)  a  distinguished  Italian  painter 
of  history,  born  at  Venice  in  1470.  Several  of  his  works 
are  preserved  in  Venice.  His  style  resembles  that  of 
Giorgione.    Died  in  1530. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Caterino,  ka-t^-ree'no,  (Luioi,)  an  Italian  scholar, 
born  at  Saint  Cyprian  in  1786  ;  died  at  Naples  in  1834. 

Catesby,  kats'be,  (Mark,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish naturalist  and  artist,  born  about  1680.  He  visited 
Virginia  in  1712,  and  returned  home  in  1719.  Sir  Hans 
Sloane  and  others  persuaded  him  in  1722  to  go  to  Caro- 
lina to  delineate  its  plants  and  animals.  He  returned 
to  England  in  1726,  and  in  1731  began  to  publish  his 
"Natural  History  of  Carolina,  Florida,  and  the  Bahama 
Islands,"  with  coloured  figures  drawn  and  etched  by 
himself, — the  finest  work  of  the  kind  that  had  appeared 
in  England.  He  wrote  "  Hortus  Britanno-Americanus," 
and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  London  in  1749. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Catesby,  (Robert,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic  and 
conspirator,  who  originated  the  Gunpowder  Plot  of  1605. 
He  is  called  "a  gentleman  of  good  parts"  by  Hume, 
who  says  he  "  first  thought  of  a  most  extraordinary  method 
of  revenge,  and  opened  his  intention  to  Percy."  When 
Fawkes  was  arrested,  Catesby  and  his  accomplices  hur- 
ried down  to  Warwickshire,  where  they  resolved  to  make 
a  desperate  stand.  Catesby  was  killed  in  the  act  of  re- 
sisting the  officers  who  came  to  arrest  him,  in  November, 
1605.    (See  Fawkes,  Guy.) 

Cathala-Coture,  de,  deh  kt^ta'li'ko'tiiR',  (Antoine,) 
a  French  antiquary  and  jurist,  born  at  Montauban  in 
1632.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Quercy,"  (3  vols.,  1785.) 
Died  in  1724. 

Cathalan,  kt'tt15N',  (Jacques,)  a  French  Jesuit,  dis- 
tinguished as  a  pulpit  orator,  was  born  at  Rouen  in  167 1  ; 
died  in  1757. 


Catharin.    See  Catharinus. 

Ca-tha-ri'nus,  [Fr.  Catharin,  kt'tS'rdN',]  (Ambro- 
sius,)  an  Italian  theologian,  born  at  Sienna  in  1483. 
His  original  name  was  Lancelot  Politus  or  Politi, 
(po-lee'tee,)  which  he  changed  when  he  became  a  monk. 
He  acquired  celebrity  by  his  numerous  writings,  among 
which  are  "Treatises  on  Original  Sin,"  and  "On  Grace." 
He  affected  to  forsake  the  beaten  routes,  and  disowned 
the  authority  of  Saint  Thomas  and  the  Fathers.  In  1552 
he  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Conza.    Died  in  1553. 

See  NiCERON,  "  M^moires ;"  Touron,  "  Hommes  illustres  de 
rOrdre  de  Saint-Dominique." 

Cath'cart,  (Charles  Murray,)  second  Earl  of,  a 
British  general,  eldest  son  of  William,  the  first  Earl, 
born  in  1783.  In  the  Peninsular  war  he  distinguished 
himself  at  Salamanca  and  Vittoria,  (June,  1813.)  He 
led  a  regiment  of  cavalry  at  Waterloo,  (1815.)  He  was 
Governor  of  Canada  some  time  between  1840  and  1846. 

Cathcart,  (Hon.  Sir  George,)  a  brave  English  gene- 
ral, born  in  London  about  1790,  was  the  third  son  of  the 
Earl  of  Cathcart,  noticed  below.    He  went  to  Russia  in 

1812  as  aide-de-camp  of  his  father,  who  was  ambas- 
sador to  that  country.    He  made  the  campaigns  of 

1813  and  1814  with  the  allied  army,  and  witnessed  the 
battles  of  Lutzen,  Dresden,  Leipsic,  etc.  In  1815  he 
became  aide-de-camp  to  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  whom 
he  attended  at  Waterloo.  He  served  several  years  with 
honour  in  Jamaica,  Canada,  etc.  In  1852  he  was  Gov- 
ernor of  Cape  Colony,  and  the  next  year,  having  obtained 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  he  was  sent  to  the  Crimea. 
He  was  killed  at  Inkerman,  November  5,  1854.  His 
"Commentaries  on  the  War  in  Russia  and  Germany  in 
1812-13"  are  highly  commended. 

Cathcart,  (William  Shaw,)  first  Earl  of,  a  British 
general  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Petersham  in  1755. 
He  took  part  in  the  American  war,  and  in  1778  became 
aide-de-camp  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  In  1788,  and  at 
several  subsequent  periods,  he  was  chosen  one  of  the 
representatives  of  the  Scottish  peerage.  He  was  made 
major-general  in  1794,  and  served  against  the  French  in 
Holland,  etc.  In  1807  he  commanded  the  expedition 
which  captured  the  fleet  and  capital  of  Denmark,  and 
was  created  a  British  peer,  with  the  title  of  Viscount 
Cathcart.  He  was  ambassador  to  Saint  Petersburg  in 
1813,  and  became  an  earl  in  1814.    Died  in  1843. 

Cathelineau,  ktt'le'no^  (Jacques,)  a  French  peasant, 
born  near  Saint-Florent  about  1760,  was  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  royalist  insurrection  which  broke  out  in 
La  Vendee  in  1793.  By  his  virtue,  eloquence,  and  talent 
for  command  he  acquired  great  influence  over  the  in- 
surgents. Just  after  the  Vendeans  had  gained  a  great 
victory  at  Saumur,  (June,  1793,)  where  they  took  eighty 
pieces  of  cannon,  Cathelineau  was  chosen  general-in-chief. 
A  few  days  later  he  was  killed  in  an  attack  on  Nantes. 

See  MuRET,  "Vie  populaire  de  Cathelineau,"  1845;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Cathelinot  or  Catelinot,  kSt'le'no',  (Dom  Ilde- 
FONSE,)  a  French  monk,  noted  for  learning,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1670.  He  left  many  works  in  manuscript.  Died 
in  1756. 

Catherine,  kath'er-in,  [in  Russian,  Ec.a.tarina,  i-ki- 
ti-ree'nS,]  I.,  Empress  of  Russia,  was  born,  of  poor 
parents,  at  Marienburg,  in  Livonia,  about  1688.  Several 
contradictory  versions  of  her  romantic  story  have  been 
published.  She  was  taken  captive  at  Marienburg  by  the 
Russians  in  1702,  after  having  been  married  to  a  subal- 
tern Swedish  oflicer.  Her  beauty  attracted  the  notice 
of  Peter  the  Great,  who  in  171 1  recognized  her  as  his 
wife.  She  accompanied  him  in  a  campaign  against  Tur- 
key in  1711,  and  rendered  him  an  important  service  by 
negotiating  a  treaty  when  the  Russian  army  was  in  a 
critical  position.    Peter  caused  her  to  be  crowned  in 

1724.  She  was  proclaimed  empress  at  his  death  in 

1725,  and  died  in  1727.  She  had  several  children  by 
her  second  marriage,  one  of  whom  became  the  empress 
Elizabeth. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Histoire  de  Russie,"  and  "  Histoire  de  Charles 
XII  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Catherine  [in  Russian,  Ecatarina]  II.,  Empress  of 
Russia,  born  at  Stettin  in  1729,  was  the  daughter  of  the 
Prince  of  Anhalt-Zerbst.  Her  original  name  was  Sophia 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  filt;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  moon, 


CATHERINE 


CATILINE 


AUGUbTA.  In  1745  she  was  married  to  the  nephew  of 
Elizabeth,  Empress  of  Russia,  and  then  took  the  name 
of  Catherine  Alexievna.  Her  husband,  who  was  much 
inferior  to  her  in  abilities,  became  emperor  in  1762,  under 
the  title  of  Peter  III.  He  had  long  been  estranged 
from  her,  and  now  proposed  to  repudiate  her  ;  but,  by 
a  conspiracy  of  her  friends,  he  was  deposed  in  Ju]}^,  1762, 
when  she  became  mistress  of  the  empire.  (See  Peter 
III.)  Though  extremely  profligate  and  cruel,  she  had 
too  strong  a  mind  to  be  enslaved  by  her  passions  or 
to  allow  them  to  interfere  with  her  ambitious  policy. 
She  promoted  agriculture,  commerce,  and  education,  and 
liberally  j)atronized  scientific  men,  such  as  Diderot  and 
Euler.  Ill  1772  she  became  a  party  to  the  infamous 
partition  of  Poland,  by  which  she  obtained  Polotsk 
and  Mohi'-elev,  (Mohilev.)  She  waged  a  successful  war 
against  the  Turks,  and  extended  her  dominions  on  the 
Black  Sea.  In  1793,  by  a  new  partition  of  Poland,  she 
acquired  Volhynia  and  Podolia.  She  died  in  1796,  and 
was  succeeded  by  her  son,  Paul  I.  "  Her  capacity," 
says  Brougham,  "  was  of  an  exalted  order.  Her  judg- 
ment was  clear  and  sure  ;  her  apprehension  extraordi- 
narily quick  ;  her  sagacity  penetrating ;  her  providence 
and  circumspection  comprehensive.  There  have  been 
few  abler  monarchs  in  any  part  of  the  world  ;  and  the 
history  of  princes  affords  few  examples  of  such  talents 
and  such  force  of  character  on  a  throne,  perverted  to 
the  working  of  so  much  mischief"  She  wrote  "  In- 
structions to  the  Commission  for  composing  a  Code  of 
Laws,"  and  various  other  works. 

See  Caster  A,  "Vie  de  Catherine  II,"  T796;  Struve,  "Vita 
Catherinae  II.,"  1798;  TfX)KE,  "History  of  Catherine  II.,"  1803; 
Tannenberg,  "  Leben  Catherinens  II.,"  1797;  C.J  de  Ligne, 
*' Portrait  de  Catherine  II,"  1797;  Segur,  "History;"  Brougham, 
"Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  Georsre  III.,"  vol.  ii.;  Auguis,  "  His- 
toire  de  Catherine  II  et  de  Paul  I,"  1813;  N.  Karamzin,  "Lob- 
red"  3"f  Catherine  II.,"  translated  into  German  from  the  Russian 
by  J  G.  RiCHTER,  1820;  JoHANN  R.  F  oRSTER,  "  Kufzc  Ucbersicht 
des  Lebens  der  Kaiserin  von  Russland  Caiharina  II.,"  1797. 

Catherine  (or  Catharine)  of  Aragon,  written  also 
Katharine,  Queen  of  England,  born  in  i486,  was  the 

daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain.  She  was 
married  in  1501  to  Arthur,  the  eldest  son  of  Henry  VII. 
of  England.  Arthur  died  in  1502,  and  the  next  year  she 
was  affianced  to  his  brother,  Prince  Henry,  who  was  six 
years  younger  than  herself.  Soon  after  he  ascended  the 
throne  (1509)  the  marriage  was  solemnized.  In  I5i6she 
gave  birth  to  a  daughter,  Mary,  who  afterwards  became 
queen.  In  1527  Henry  raised  the  question  of  divorce, 
which  was  pending  several  years.  (See  Henry  VIII.) 
She  died  in  1536,  much  respected  for  her  many  virtues. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England  ;"  Lingard,  "  History  of  Eng- 
land;" Strickland,  "Queens  of  Enp.land ;"  Froude,  "History 
of  England;"  Shakspeare,  "Henry  VIII." 

Catherine  of  Bourhon,  (boor'bpn,)  [Fr.  Cathe- 
rine DE  Bourbon,  ktt'r^n'  deh  booR'b^N',]  Princess 
of  Navarre  and  Duchess  of  Bar,  born  in  Paris  in  1558, 
was  a  sister  of  Henry  IV.  of  France.  She  was  married 
to  the  Due  de  liar  in  1599.    Died  in  1604. 

Catherine,  of  France,  Queen  of  England,  born  in 
1401,  was  the  daughter  of  Charles  VI.  of  France  and 
Isabella  of  Bavaria.  In  1420  she  was  married  to  Henry 
V.  of  England,  and  became  the  mother  of  Henry  VI. 
Soon  after  the  death  of  Henry  V.  (1422)  she  became  the 
wife  of  a  Welsh  gentleman,  Owen  Tudor ;  and  from  this 
union  descended  Henry  VII.  and  the  house  of  Tudor. 
Died  in  1438. 

Catherine,  of  Portugal  or  Braganza,  Queen  of 
England,  the  daughter  of  John  IV.  of  Portugal,  was  born 
in  1638.  She  was  married  to  Charles  II.  of  England  in 
1661,  but  did  not  succeed  in  gaining  his  affection.  In 
1693,  after  Charles's  death,  she  returned  to  Lisbon,  and 
in  1 704  was  appointed  Regent  of  Portugal  by  her  brother 
Pedro.  (See  Charles  II.)    Died  in  1705. 

See  Macaulay's  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i. 

Catherine,  Saint,  of  Alexandria,  supposed  to  have 
suffered  martyrdom  under  the  reign  of  Maximin,  about 
307  A.D.,  was  regarded  as  the  patroness  of  philosophy, 
learning,  and  eloquence  ;  and  her  history  has  been  illus- 
trated by  many  artists  of  the  middle  ages. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Catherine,  [It.  Caterina,  ki-ti-ree'na,]  Saint,  of 
Genoa,  born  about  1448,  was  the  daughter  of  Giacopo 


Fieschi,  who  was  Viceroy  of  Naples.  She  became  the 
wife  of  Julian  Adorno,  a  dissolute  and  prodigal  patrician, 
whom,  after  many  years  of  sorrow,  she  converted  from 
the  error  of  his  ways.  She  devoted  her  latter  years  to 
the  service  of  the  sick  in  the  hospital  of  Genoa,  and  died 
in  1 5 10,  leaving  two  works  which  were  esteemed  by  the 
mystics. 

See  Miratoli,  "Vita  della  R.  Caterina  di  Genova,"  1580. 

Catherine,  Saint,  of  Sienna,  born  at  Sienna  in  1347, 
took  the  habit  of  a  nun  about  1366,  and  became  distin- 
guished for  her  fervent  charity  and  devc^tion.  She  medi- 
ated a  peace  between  the  Horentines  and  Pope  Urban 
VI.  in  1378.  She  favoured  the  same  pope  when  his  autho- 
rity was  contested  by  Clement  VII.,  and  made  strenuous 
efforts  to  terminate  the  scandalous  schism.  She  died 
in  1380,  and  was  canonized  in  1461.  Her  letters,  and 
other  writings,  are  admired. 

See  Chavan  de  Malan,  "  Histoire  de  S.  Catherine  de  Siennp,  ' 
2  vols.,  1846:  Raymond  de  Capoue,  "Vie  de  S.  Catherine  dc 
Sienne,"  1853. 

Catherine  (or  Catharine)  HSw'ard,  Queen  of 
Henry  VIII.,  was  the  daughter  of  Edmund,  Lord  How- 
ard, who  was  a  son  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  She  was 
married  to  Henry  in  August,  1540,  and  was  executed  in 
February,  1542,  on  the  charge  of  unchastity  before  her 
marriage,  and  adultery  afterwards. 

See  Froude,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chap,  xix.;  Strick- 
land, "Queens  of  England." 

Catherine  de'  Medici,  (di  mSd'de-chee,)  [Fi .  Ca- 
therine de  M6DICIS,  kSt'ren'  deh  mi^de's^ss',]  born 
at  Florence  in  15 19,  was  the  daughter  of  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  Duke  of  Urbino,  who  was  a  nephew  of  Leo  X. 
In  1533  she  was  married  to  Henry  of  France,  who  in 
1547  became  King  Henry  II.  She  had  five  sons,  three 
of  whom  became  kings  of  France, — namely,  Francis  II., 
Charles  IX.,  and  Henry  III.  The^death  of  Francis  II., 
in  1560,  rendered  her  mistress  of  the  kingdom,  with  the 
title  of  regent  for  Charles  IX.,  who  was  a  minor.  She 
was  artful,  perfidious,  and  cruel.  To  increase  her  po- 
litical influence,  she  corrupted  the  morals  of  her  sons. 
She  fomented  civil  war  among  her  subjects,  and  insti- 
gated the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  August,  1572. 
(See  Charles  IX.)  The  palace  of  the  Tuileries  is  a 
monument  of  her  munificence  as  a  patron  of  art, — per- 
haps the  only  respectable  trait  of  her  character.  Died 
in  1589. 

See  Motley,  "History  of  the  United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  p. 
44,  and  vol.  ii.  pp.  426  and  559 ;  also  his  "  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Reputs- 
lic,"vol.  iii.  pp.  577  and  578;  Eugenic  Alberi,  "Vita  di  Caterina 
de*  Medici,"  1834  ;  German  version  of  the  same,  by  Beck,  1847  •  J- 
F.  Destigny,  "Histoire  mysterieuse  de  Catherine  de  M^clicis," 
1847;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1840. 

Catherine  (or  Catharine)  Parr,  the  sixth  and  last 
wife  of  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  was  the  widow  of  Lord 
Latimer  when,  in  1543,  she  was  married  to  that  king. 
She  once  offended  him,  it  is  said,  by  dissenting  from  his 
opinions  in  theology,  so  that  her  life  was  in  peril ;  but  she 
dexterously  averted  the  storm  by  feigning  that  she  did 
this  to  afford  him  the  pleasure  of  refuting  her,  and  to 
render  their  conversation  more  animated.  "Is  it  so, 
sweet-heart  ?"  said  the  king  :  "  then  we  are  perfect  friends 
again."  She  survived  Henry,  and  in  1548  married  Tho- 
mas, Lord  Seymour,  Admiral  of  England.  Died  in  1548. 

See  Strickland,  "Queens  of  England." 

Catherine  Paulowna,  [Ger.  pron,  kS-teh-ree'neh 
pow-lov'nS,]  Queen  of  Wiirtemberg,  daughter  of  Paul, 
Emperor  of  Russia,  was  born  in  1788.  In  1809  she  was 
married  to  the  Duke  of  Oldenburg,  who  died  in  1812. 
She  was  a  favourite  sister  of  the  Czar  Alexander,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  endowed  with  noble  and  amiable  quali- 
ties. She  was  married  in  1816  to  the  Prince  of  "VViir- 
temberg,  who  became  King  William  I.    Died  in  1819. 

Catherinot,  ktt're'no',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  anti- 
quary, born  near  Bourges  in  1628;  died  in  1688. 

Cat'i-line,  [Lat.  Catili'na,]  (Lucius  Sergius,)  a 
famous  Roman  demagogue  and  conspirator,  born  of  a 
patrician  family  about  108  B.C.  He  first  appears  in  his- 
tory as  a  partisan  of  Sulla  in  the  civil  war,  and  rendered 
himself  infamous  by  his  complicity  in  the  murders  and 
robberies  that  followed  the  success  of  his  party.  In  68 
B.C.  he  was  chosen  prsetor  at  Rome.  Four  years  later 
he  began  to  canvass  for  the  consulship,  and  to  organize  a 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  giittiiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    O^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CJTINAT 


544 


CATO 


faction  of  desperate  and  profligate  men  like  himself.  A 
remarkable  union  of  audacity  and  craft,  joined  with  elo- 
quence and  other  popular  qualities,  rendered  him  a  fit 
leader  of  such  a  party.  Defeated  in  the  election  for  con- 
sul, he  formed  a  conspiracy  against  the  republic  in  63  B.C., 
(690A.  (J.c.)  Our  knowledge  of  this  atfair  is  derived  chiefly 
from  the  partial  statements  of  Cicero  and  from  the  his- 
tory of  Sallust,  who,  however,  agree  in  representing  that 
Catiline  designed  nothing  less  than  a  general  massacre 
and  conflagration.  Cicero,  who  was  then  consul,  having 
received  notice  of  the  plot  from  Curius,  denounced  the 
treason  of  Catiline  to  the  senate  in  October,  and  the 
consuls  were  invested  pro  tempore  with  absolute  power 
for  the  emergency.  On  November  8,  Cicero  uttered  in 
the  senate  an  oration  of  great  power  against  Cataline, 
who  attempted  to  reply ;  but  the  senate  refused  to  hear 
him.  He  then  hastily  left  Rome  and  joined  the  army 
of  his  partisans,  which  had  been  mustered  in  Etruria, 
leaving  Lentulus  and  other  conspirators  in  Rome.  Cer- 
tain deputies  from  Gaul,  who  had  been  tampered  with, 
aided  Cicero  in  obtaining  more  positive  evidence,  by 
which  Lentulus  and  others  were  convicted  and  executed. 
The  army  of  the  senate  overtook  the  rebels  near  Pis- 
toria  (now  Pistoia)  in  62  B.C.  Catiline  animated  his  men 
with  an  eloquent  harangue,  and  fought  the  battle  with 
skill  and  determined  valour,  but  was  defeated,  and  fell  in 
the  thickest  of  the  fight,  with  about  three  thousand  of 
his  partisans. 

See  Sallust,  "Bellum  Catilinarium ;"  Cicero,  "Orationes,  in 
Catilinam  ;"  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome ;"  H.  Wolf,  "Cati- 
lin^e  Conjuratio  ex  Fontibus  narrata,"  1803;  Rose,  "History  of 
Catiline's  Conspiracy,"  1813;  G.  F.  Sidney,  "History  of  Catiline's 
Conspiracy,"  1795;  Muksinna,  "Catilina;  historisches  Gemalde," 
1797- 

Catinat  de  la  Fauconnerie,  kt'te^nt'  deh  It  ib'- 
kon're',  commonly  called  simply  Catinat,  (Nicolas,)  a 
marshal  of  France,  eminent  for  talents,  integrity,  and 
generosity,  born  in  Paris  in  1637.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  the  campaigns  against  the  Spanish  and  Aus- 
trians  in  Flanders  between  1667  and  1678,  and  was 
wounded  at  Seneffe  in  1674.  Having  been  made  lieu- 
tenant-general, he  commanded  the  army  which  invaded 
Savoy,  and  gained  the  battle  of  Staffarda  in  1690.  In 
1693  he  received  a  marshal's  baton.  Louis  XIV.,  in 
reading  a  list  of  the  marshals,  exclaimed,  at  the  name 
of  Catinat,  "Here  is  Virtue  crowned  !"  In  1701  he  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  Italy,  as  antagonist  to 
Prince  Eugene,  but  was  soon  superseded  by  Villeroi. 
Died  in  1712. 

See  "  Memoires  pour  servir  k  la  Vie  de  Catinat,"  par  M.  D.  C, 
Paris,  1775:  GuiBERT,  "  filoge  de  Catinat;"  La  Harpe,  "  fi'.oge  de 
N.  de  Catinat,"  1775;  Lebouyer  de  Saint-Gekvais,  "Memoires 
et  Correspondance  de  Catinat,"  3  vols.,  1818;  "  Nouvelie  Biographie 
Generale." 

Catineau  -  Laroche,  kt'te^i5'  It'rosh',  (Pierre 
Marie  S6bastien,)  a  French  civil  officer,  born  at  Saint- 
Brieuc  in  1772.  After  holding  several  offices,  he  was 
appointed  chief  clerk  in  the  bureau  of  commerce  and  the 
colonies  in  1826.  He  published  a  "  Portable  Vocabulary 
of  the  French  Langruage,"  (1797,)  and  an  "Account  of 
French  Guiana,"  (1^822.)    Died  in  1828. 

Catius,  ka'she-us,  an  Epicurean  philosopher,  born  in 
Gaul,  (Transpadane.)    Died  about  45  B.C. 

Cat'lin,  (George,)  an  American  traveller  and  artist, 
born  in  Pennsylvania.  He  acquired  distinction  by  his 
adventures  and  studies  among  the  North  American 
Indians,  with  whom  he  passed  about  eight  years.  He 
represented  the  character  and  life  of  the  red  men  in  a 
series  of  paintings,  and  published  "  Illustrations  of  the 
Manners,  Customs,  and  Condition  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can Indians,"  with  engravings,  (2  vols.,  1841,)  which, 
according  to  the  London  "Athenaeum,"  "is  a  book  of 
extraordinary  interest  and  value."  Having  exhibited 
his  Indian  Gallery  and  collection  in  Europe,  he  pub- 
lished "Notes  of  Eight  Years'  Travel  and  Residence  in 
Europe,"  (2  vols.,  1848.) 

See  TucKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists;"  "Edinburgh  Review" 
for  January,  1842. 

Ca'to,  (DiONYSius,)  a  Latin  moralist,  for  whose  bio- 
graphy no  materials  exist,  and  respecting  whom  many 
conflicting  opinions  have  been  adopted.  His  name  is 
connected  with  a  small  work  entitled  "Disticha  de 
Moribus  ad  Filium,"  which  was  extensively  employed 


as  a  catechism  of  morals  in  the  schools  of  the  middle 
ages,  and  was  commended  for  its  literary  merit  by  Eras- 
mus and  Scaliger.  It  consists  mostly  of  moral  i>recepts, 
each  of  which  is  expressed  in  two  hexameter  verses. 
See  Fabkicius,  "  Biblioiheca  Latina." 

Cato,  [Gr.  Kurwv  .•  Fr.  Caton,*  kt't6N';  It.  Catone, 
k^-to'ni,]  (Marcus  Porcius,)  often  called  Ca'io  Cen- 
so'rius,  (or  Censori'nus,)  i.e.  "Cato  the  Censor,"  also 
surnamed  the  Elder,  an  eminent  Roman  patriot  and 
statesman,  was  born  of  a  plebeian  family  at  Tusculum  in 
234  B.C.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  served  in  the  army 
against  Hannibal,  and  in  209  he  took  part  in  the  siege  of 
Tarentum  under  Fabius.  He  contributed  to  the  victory 
over  Hasdrubal  on  the  Metaurus  in  207.  In  the  intervals 
of  war  he  worked  on  his  Sabine  farm,  and  accustomed 
himself  to  a  hardy,  simple  mode  of  life,  disciplined  in  aus- 
tere virtues  and  in  all  branches  of  practical  and  useful 
knowledge.  By  pleading  causes  for  the  poor,  he  had 
become  an  oracle  among  his  rustic  neighbors,  when  Va- 
lerius Flaccus,  a  liberal  patrician,  recognized  his  merit, 
and  persuaded  him  to  seek  in  the  Forum  of  Rome  an 
ampler  sphere  of  usefulness.  He  soon  gained  eminence 
as  an  orator,  and  became  a  candidate  for  office.  He 
was  elected  qusestor  (paymaster)  in  204,  and  prsetor  in 
198  B.C.,  when  he  obtained  Sardinia  as  his  province. 
In  195  he  was  raised  to  the  consulship,  with  his  early 
patron,  V.  Flaccus,  for  his  colleague,  and  commanded 
the  army  in  Spain  with  ability  and  success,  for  which  he 
received  a  triumph  on  his  return.  Elected  censor  in  184, 
he  reformed  many  abuses,  and  enforced  his  principles 
of  economy  and  sobriety  with  a  severity  which  pro- 
cured him  many  enemies.  He  was  one  of  the  chief  ad- 
visers of  the  third  Punic  war,  and  author  of  the  phrase 
(which  he  often  repeated  in  the  senate)  Delenda  est  Car- 
thago, ("Carthage  must  be  destroyed."^  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  agriculture,  ("  De  Re  rustica,")  which  is 
extant.  His  son,  M.  Porcius  Cato,  became  an  eminent 
jurist.  Died  in  149  B.C.  In  Plutarch's  parallels,  Cato 
the  Censor  is  the  counterpart  of  Aristides.  Few  names 
occur  in  the  Latin  classics  oftener  than  that  of  Cato, 
who  was  venerated  as  a  model  of  pristine  Roman  virtue. 

See  Plutarch,  "Lives;"  Livy,  "  History  of  Rome;"  Corne- 
lius Nepos,  "  Cato  ;"  Cicero,  "  Cato  Major,  seu  de  Senectute  ;" 
Drumann,  "  Geschichte  Roms  ;"  E.  Sciiober,  "De  M.  P.  Catone 
Censorino,"  1825  ;  Weber,  "  Programma  de  M.  P.  Catonis  Vita  et 
Moribus,"  1831. 

Cato,  (Marcus  Porcius,)  a  Roman  general,  was  an 
uncle  of  Cato  of  Utica.  Pie  was  tribune  of  the  people 
in  100  B.C.,  and  in  that  office  opposed  Apuleius  Satur- 
ninus.  He  defeated  the  Etruscans  in  the  year  90,  and 
was  consul  in  89  B.C.  He  was  killed  in  a  skirmish  with 
the  Marsians. 

Cato,  (Marcus  Porcius,)  surnamed  the  Younger, 
and  Uticen'sis,  {i.e.  "of  Utica,")  a  celebrated  Roman 
Stoic  philosopher  and  patriot,  born  in  95  B.C.,  was  a  great- 
grandson  of  Cato  the  Censor,  whom  he  took  for  his  model 
in  private  and  public  life.  He  studied  the  doctrines  of  the 
Stoics  under  Antipater,  and  inured  himself  to  hardships 
and  privations.  His  first  campaign  was  in  the  servile  war 
against  Spartacus,  (72  B.C.,)  in  which  he  gave  proof  of 
courage  ;  but  martial  pursuits  did  not  prove  congenial  to 
his  taste.  After  performing  the  duties  of  quaestor  with 
honour,  he  was  elected  tribune  of  the  people  in  the  same 
year  that  Cicero  was  consul.  He  appears  to  have  been 
the  only  eminent  Roman  that  heartily  seconded  Cicero 
in  opposing  the  traitorous  designs  of  Catiline,  690  A.U.a 
His  sincere  devotion  to  liberty  prompted  him  to  strenu- 
ously oppose  the  ambitious  coalition  of  Caesar,  Pompey, 
and  Crassus  ;  but  his  success  was  perhaps  hindered  by 
his  inflexible  and  uncompromising  policy.  In  54  B.C.  he 
was  elected  praetor,  and,  by  his  efforts  to  prevent  bri- 
bery at  elections,  gave  great  offence  to  the  politicians. 
He  failed  in  his  candidacy  for  the  consulship,  because  he 
would  not  resort  to  corrupt  means  to  procure  his  elec- 
tion. When  the  rivalry  of  Pompey  and  Caesar,  whom 
he  vainly  attempted  to  reconcile,  ripened  into  civil  war 
in  49  B.C.,  Cato  joined  the  party  of  the  former  as  the 
lesser  evil,  and,  after  the  death  of  Pompey,  commanded 
an  army  in  Africa.  He  resigned  the  coinmand  to  Scipio, 

*  The  manusci  ipts  of  Chaucer  have  Caton  and  Catoun.  (See  the 
"Tale  of  Melibeus,"  and  the  "  Nonnes  Prestes  Tale.") 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


CATO 


545 


CATULLE 


who  was  defeated  in  the  year  46.  Cato  then  wished  to 
defend  Utica  against  the  victor ;  but  other  counsels  pre- 
vailed. Unwilling  to  survive  the  ruin  of  the  republic, 
which  he  had  predicted  and  opposed  with  all  his  power, 
he  died  at  Utica  by  his  own  hand,  in  his  forty-ninth  year. 
Cxsar,  on  hearing  of  the  event,  exclaimed,  "Cato,  I  envy 
thee  thy  death,  since  thou  hast  deprived  me  of  the  honour 
of  saving  thy  life."  Cato  has  generally  been  regarded  as 
one  of  the  purest  and  noblest  of  all  the  Romans.  His 
lofty  and  spotless  virtue  (as  virtue  was  then  understood) 
seemed  almost  to  justify  that  fine  though  somewhat  ex- 
travagant line  of  Lucan's  "Pharsalia  :" 

"  Victrix  causa  Deis  placuit,  sed  victa  Catoni."* 
Plutarch  makes  a  comparison  between  Cato  and  Pho- 
cion,  whose  virtues,  he  says,  were  perfectly  similar  in 
form  and  colour.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  rhe 
former  excelled  in  active,  the  latter  in  passive,  virtues. 
Cato's  son  Marcus  was  killed  at  Philippi,  fighting  for 
Brutus  and  Cassius. 

See  Tacitus,  "History,"  iv.  8;  Valerius  Maximus,  vi. ;  Dru- 
MANN,  "Geschichte  Roms,"  vol.  v. 

Cato,  (Valerius,)  a  Roman  poet  and  grammarian, 
who  flourished  at  Rome  in  the  first  century  B.C.  He  had 
a  high  reputation  for  his  skill  as  a  teacher,  and  wrote 
several  treatises  on  grammar.  His  poems  entitled 
"  Lydia"  and  "  Diana"  were  his  most  celebrated  works ; 
but  they  have  not  come  down  to  us.  There  is  extant, 
under  his  name,  a  small  poem  called  "Dirae,"  which 
some  persons  ascribe  to  Virgil. 

See  Suetonius,  " De  Grammaticis  illustribus ;"  Bukmann,  "An- 
thologia." 

Cato  Ceusorius  or  Censorinus.  See  Cato  (M. 
PoRCius)  THE  Censor. 

Ca'to  Li-9iii-i-a'nus,  (Caius  Porcius.)  a  son  of 
Marcus  Porcius,  noticed  below,  became  consul  in  the 
year  1 14  B.C.,  and  commanded  an  army  in  Thrace,  where 
he  was  defeated.  He  was  afterwards  employed  as  legate 
in  Africa,  and  was  charged  with  a  dishonourable  intrigue 
with  Jugurtha. 

Cato  Licinianus,  (Marcus  Porcius,)  an  eminent 
Roman  jurist,  was  the  son  of  Cato  the  Censor  by  his  first 
wife,  and  was  esteemed  a  wise  and  virtuous  man.  He 
entered  the  army  in  his  youth,  and  distinguished  himself 
at  the  battle  of  Pydna  m  168  B.C.,  soon  after  which  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  law.  He  wrote  several  legal 
works.    Died  in  152  B.C. 

Cato  Uticensis.  See  Cato  (M.  Porcius)  the 
Younger. 

Caton,  the  French  of  Cato,  which  see. 

Catone,  the  Italian  of  Cato,  which  see. 

Catrou,  kt'tRoo',  (Francois,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1659.  He  edited  the  "Journal 
de  Trevoux"  about  twelve  years,  (i  701-12,)  with  a  fair 
reputation  as  a  critic.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "History  of  Aurung-Zeb,"  (1702,)  and  a  "Roman 
History,"  in  twenty-one  volumes,  which  was  popular  at 
the  time.    Died  in  1737. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Catrufo,  ki-tRoo'fo,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  composer, 
born  at  Naples  in  1771.    He  composed  comic  operas. 

Cats,  kats,  (Jakob,)  sometimes  spelled  Catz,  [Lat. 
Cat'sius,]  an  eminent  and  popular  Dutch  poet,  born  at 
Brouwershaven,  in  Zealand,  in  1577,  holds  a  conspicuous 
place  among  the  creators  of  Dutch  poetry  and  literature. 
He  studied  law,  which  he  practised  with  success  ;  and 
he  performed  with  credit  the  highest  functions  in  the 
public  service.  He  was  ambassador  to  England  in  1627 
and  in  1651.  From  1636  to  1651  he  served  as  grand 
pensionary  of  Holland.  He  wrote  a  poem  entitled 
"Country  Life,"  (  "  Buitenleven," )  and  numerous  "Mo- 
ral Emblems,"  fables,  allegories,  songs,  etc.,  which  are 
admired  for  ease,  simplicity,  and  clearness  of  style,  and 
display  a  deep  knowledge  of  the  human  heart.  Bilder- 
dijk,  one  of  the  greatest  of  Dutch  poets,  says, 
"Dear  Father  Cats, 
What  endless  treasures  dost  thou  not  contain  !"t 

"  His  imagination,"  says  Hallam,  "  is  gay,  his  morality 

*  "The  victorious  cause  was  favoured  by  the  gods,  but  the  con- 
quered by  Cato." 

t  "  Dierbre  Vader  Cats, 
Wat  behelst  ge  niet  al  schats." 


popular  and  useful.  No  one  was  more  read  than  Father 
Cats,  as  the  people  call  him  ;  but  he  is  often  trifling  and 
monotonous."    Died  in  1660. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  Alsche, 
"  Commentatio  de  J.  Catsio,"  1828;  Siegendeek,  "  Over  de  Ver- 
diensten  van  J.  Cats  als  Staatsman,"  1836  :  Foppens,  "  Bibliotheca 
Belgica;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1854. 

Cattaneo,  kit-tS'ni-o,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  economist 
and  able  writer  on  philosophy,  statistics,  and  politics, 
born  at  Milan  about  1815.  He  is  a  republican,  and  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  revolution  at  Milan  in  1848. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Insurrection  at  Milan  in 
1848,"  and  "Natural  and  Political  Account  of  Lom- 
bardy,"  ("  Notizie  naturali  e  civili  della  Lombardia.") 

Cattaneo,  (Danese,)  an  Italian  sculptor  and  poet, 
born  at  Carrara  about  1500.  He  worked  in  Venice  and 
Verona,  and  was  eminent  as  an  artist  and  poet.  He 
was  author  of  a  poem  called  "The  Love  of  Marfisa," 
("L'Amor  di  Marfisa.") 

Cattaneo,  (Felice,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Milan,  lived  about  1730. 

Cattaneo  or  Cataneo,  kJ-ti-na'o,  (Giovanni  Ma- 
ria,) a  learned  Italian  writer,  born  at  Novara,  became  a 
resident  of  Rome.  In  early  youth  he  composed  a  com- 
mentary on  Pliny  the  Younger,  which  was  admired,  and 
was  printed  in  1500.  He  left  an  unfinished  poem  on  the 
"  Conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Crusaders."  Died  about 
1528. 

Cattani,kat-t§,'nee,  (Gaetano,)  an  Italian  missionary, 
born  at  Modena  in  1696.  He  went  to  Paraguay  in  1729, 
and  afterwards  wrote  three  long  letters  on  that  country, 
which  Muratori  inserted  in  his  collection  with  high  and 
merited  praise.    Died  in  1733. 

Cattani  da  Diacceto,  kit-ti'nee  di  de-it-cha'to, 
(Francesco,)  an  Italian  philosopher  and  writer,  born  at 
Florence  in  1446.  He  succeeded  Marsilio  Ficino  as 
professor  of  philosophy.    Died  in  1522. 

See  B.  Varchi,  "Vita  di  F.  Cattani  da  Diacceto,"  1561  and  1843 

Cattapane,  kat-ta-p^nk,  (Luca,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Cremona,  lived  about  1500. 

Catteau-Calleville,  kfto'  ktKv61',  (Johann  Peter 
Wii.HELM,)  a  historian  and  geographer,  of  French  origin, 
born  at  Angertnunde,  in  Prussia,  in  1759.  He  became 
minister  of  the  French  Protestant  church  at  Stockholm 
in  1783,  and  settled  in  Paris  in  1810.  He  published  a 
"General  Description  of  Sweden,"  (1789,)  "Travels  in 
Germany  and  Sweden,"  (1810,)  a  "History  of  Christina, 
Queen  of  Sweden,"  (1815,)  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1819. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Cattenburg,  van,  vtn  kSt'ten-buRG,  (Adriaan,)  a 
Dutch  theologian,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1664,  He  was 
one  of  the  chief  men  of  the  sect  of  Remonstrants  or  Ar- 
minians,  and  author  of  several  works,  among  which  were 
a  "Life  of  Hugo  Grotius,"  (1727,)  and  "Treatise  on  the 
Wisdom  of  Moses,"  ("  Syntagma  Sapientiae  Mosaicae," 
1737.)    Died  about  1737. 

See  Feller,  "Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Cat'ter-mole,  (George,)  an  eminent  English  painter, 
born  at  Dickleburgh,  Norfolk,  in  1800,  His  works  are 
mostly  paintings,  in  water-colours,  of  subjects  derived 
from  history  or  from  the  imaginations  of  Shakspeare  and 
Scott.  Among  his  capital  productions  is  a  large  picture 
of  "  Luther  at  the  Diet  of  Spire."  At  the  Exposition 
of  Paris  in  1855  he  received  a  first-class  medal.  After 
that  date  he  painted  chiefly  in  oil.    Died  in  1868. 

Cattermole,  (Rev,  Richard,)  an  English  author,  bro- 
ther of  the  preceding,  became  vicar  of  Little  Marlow,  in 
the  county  of  Bucks.  He  published  "The  Literature 
of  the  Church  of  England,"  (2  vols.,)  "Illustrated  His- 
tory of  the  Great  Civil  War  of  the  Times  of  Charles  I. 
and  Cromwell,"  (2  vols.,  1846-52,)  and  other  valuable 
works. 

Cattho  or  Catto,  kSt-to',  (  Angelo,)  a  learned  bishop, 
born  at  Taranto,  became  chaplain  to  Louis  XI.  of  France. 
He  was  reputed  to  be  skilful  in  astrology  and  the  pre- 
diction of  future  events.    Died  in  1494. 

Cattier,  kt'te-i',  (Isaac,)  a  French  medical  writer, 
born  in  Paris,  lived  about  1640. 

CatuldL    See  Cataldi. 

CatuUe.    See  Catullus. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  zsj;  o,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

35 


CATULLUS 


546 


CAULAIN  COURT 


Ca-tuFlus,  [Fr.  Catulle,  kt'tuK,]  (Caius  Valerius,) 
an  eminent  Latin  poet,  born  at  or  near  Verona  about 
77  B.C.,  (some  authorities  say  87  B.C.)  He  went  to  Rome 
at  an  early  age,  and  by  his  literary  merit  obtained  ad- 
mission into  the  society  of  Cicero,  Caesar,  Poliio,  and 
others.  His  indulgence  in  vicious  and  expensive  pleas- 
ures soon  reduced  him  to  poverty,  which,  however,  did 
not  subdue  his  hilarity.  His  superior  genius  as  a  poet  is 
generally  admitted  by  ancient  and  modern  critics.  He 
wrote  numerous  poems,  which  are  still  extant,  including 
odes  and  epigrams  of  great  beauty  and  pathos.  He  also 
excelled  in  heroic  verse,  and  was  the  first  Roman  that 
cultivated  lyric  poetry  with  success.  His  longest  poem 
is  "  The  Nuptials  of  Peleus  and  Thetis,"  in  hexameter 
verse.  Some  critics  estimate  the  "  Atys"  as  the  great- 
est of  his  works.  "  His  '  Atys,'  "  says  Professor  William 
Ramsay,  "is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  poems  in  the 
whole  range  of  Latin  literature.  Rolling  impetuously 
along  in  a  flood  of  wild  passion,  bodied  forth  in  the 
grandest  imagery  and  the  noblest  diction,  it  breathes  in 
every  line  the  fiery  vehemence  of  the  Greek  dithyramb. 
.  .  .  We  admire  by  turns,  in  the  lighter  efforts  of  his 
muse,  his  unaffected  ease,  playful  grace,  vigorous  sim- 
plicity, pungent  wit,  and  slashing  invective."  He  imi- 
tated Greek  models,  and  seemed  like  a  Greek  poet 
writing  in  Latin.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about 
45  B.C.  ;  though  Scaliger  maintains  that  he  lived  about 
thirty  years  after  that  date. 

See  Sellar,  "Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic,"  chap.  xil. ;  Fa- 
rRicius,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;" 
'Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1842;  "  Fraser's  Magazine" 
for  March,  1849. 

Cat'u-lus,  tCAius  LuTATius,)  a  Roman  commander, 
was  chosen  consul  for  the  year  242  B.C.,  when  the  first 
Punic  war  had  been  waged  more  than  twenty  years. 
The  Roman  navy  had  been  defeated  in  several  battles, 
and  was  nearly  annihilated.  Catulus  took  command  of 
a  new  fleet,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Hanno  in 
241  B.C.  He  then  terminated  the  war  on  terms  favour- 
al)le  to  Rotne. 

Catulus,  (QuiNTUS  Lutatius,)  a  Roman  general  and 
scholar,  noted  for  the  purity  and  grace  with  which  he 
spoke  and  wrote  Latin.  After  several  repulses,  he  was 
elected  consul  with  C.  Marius  for  the  year  102  B.C.,  when 
Italy  was  threatened  by  the  victorious  Cimbri.  Two 
Roman  armies,  commanded  by  Catulus  and  Marius, 
united  and  defeated  the  Cimbri  in  a  great  battle  near 
Vercelli  in  loi  B.C.  Plutarch  says  the  whole  honour  of 
the  day  was  ascribed  to  Marius,  although  the  chief  brunt 
of  the  battle  fell  on  the  army  of  Catulus.  He  became 
a  partisan  of  Sulla  in  the  civil  war,  was  proscribed  by 
Marius  in  87  B.C.,  and  killed  himself  He  left  a  his- 
torical work  on  the  Cimbrian  war,  and  several  poems. 
Except  two  epigrams,  none  of  his  works  are  extant. 

See  Appian,  "  Bellum  Civile;"  Plutarch,  "Marius"  and 
"  Sulla  ;"  Cicero,  "  De  Oratore." 

Catulus,  (QuiNTUS  Lutatius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  a  prominent  leader  of  the  aristocracy,  and  one  of  the 
most  moderate  and  pure  of  the  statesmen  of  his  time. 
He  was  consul  in  78  B.C.,  and  censor  in  65.  He  was  called 
"illustrious"  ("  vir  clarissimus")  by  Cicero  in  his  oration 
"pro  Lege  Manilia."  Catulus  was  a  strong  supporter  of 
Cicero  in  his  efforts  to  defeat  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline 
in  63  B.C.  According  to  Sallust,  he  urged  Cicero  to 
include  Caesar  among  the  conspirators.  Died  in  60  B.C. 

See  Sallust,  "Bellum  Catilinarium ;"  Tacitus,  "Historia." 

Cauclie,  kosh,  (pRANgois,)  a  French  traveller,  born 
at  Rouen,  lived  about  1650.  He  passed  several  years 
in  Madagascar.  On  his  return  to  France,  he  published 
"An  Account  of  the  Voyage  of  F.  Cauche  to  Madagas- 
car," (165 1,)  which  was  commended  by  Du  Petit-Thouars. 

Cauchois  -  Lemaire,  ko'shwd'  leh-m^R',  (Louis 
FRANgois  AUGUSTF,,)  a  French  journalist,  born  in  Paris 
in  1789.  He  wrote  for  the  "  Constitutionnel"  from  1820 
to  1832,  and  was  noted  for  his  bold  and  sarcastic  political 
articles.  In  1832  he  became  chief  editor  of  the  "Good 
Sense,"  ("Bon  Sens,")  a  democratic  journal.  He  was 
imprisoned  several  times  for  his  writings  between  1820 
and  1830.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Revolution  of 
.1830,"  and  other  works,  mostly  political.    Died  in  1862. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 


Cauchoix,  ko'shwi',  (Robert  Aglae,)  a  French  op- 
tician,  born  in  Seine-et-Oise  in  1776.  His  telescopes  are 
said  to  be  among  the  best  in  use. 

Cauchon,  k6'sh6N',  (Pierre,)  Bishop  of  Beauvais, 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  was  a  fanatical  partisan  of  the 
English.  He  rendered  his  memory  infamous  as  judge  of 
Joan  of  Arc  (1431)  by  the  perfidious  means  he  used  to 
effect  her  condemnation  and  by  the  atrocious  sentence 
which  he  pronounced  upon  her.    Died  in  1443. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Fran^ais  ;"  J.  des  Ursins,  "His- 
toire  de  Charles  VII." 

Cauchy,  ko'she',  (Augustin  Louis,)  a  French  mathe- 
matician, son  of  Louis  Fran9ois,  noticed  below,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1789.  After  gaining  the  first  prize  for  Latin 
poetry  in  the  Central  School,  he  entered  the  Polytechnic 
School  as  second  scholar  in  1805.  He  passed  from  that 
to  the  School  of  "  Ponts  et  Chaussees,"  and  was  after- 
wards employed  as  engineer  at  the  port  of  Cherbourg. 
In  his  youth  he  was  distinguished  for  his  researches  into 
difficult  questions,  and  demonstrated  Euclid's  celebrated 
theorem  respecting  polyhedra.  In  181 5  the  Institute 
awarded  him  the  grand  prize  for  his  "  Memoir  on  the 
Theory  of  Waves,"  which  was  destined  to  become  the 
basis  of  an  admirable  theory  of  light.  He  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  professor  of 
mechanics  in  the  Polytechnic  School  in  1816.  He  pub- 
lished for  his  pupils  a  "Course  of  Analysis,"  (1821,) 
"  Lectures  on  the  Differential  Calculus,"  (1826,)  and 
other  works.  Refusing  to  swear  allegiance  to  Louis 
Philippe  in  1830,  he  lost  his  professorship.  In  1833  he 
became  tutor  to  the  Duke  of  Bordeaux  at  Prague.  He 
returned  to  Paris  in  1838,  and  resumed  his  place  in  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  for  which  he  wrote  many  ingenious 
memoirs.  In  1849  he  succeeded  Biot  as  professor  of 
physical  astronomy  in  the  Faculty  of  Sciences.  Among 
his  later  works  was  a  "  Memoir  on  the  Dispersion  of 
Light,"  (1836.)  He  displayed  considerable  poetic  power 
in  his  verses  "On  Charles  V.  in  Spain,"  (1834.)  Died 
in  1857. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale ;"  Qu^rard,  "  La  France 
Litteraire." 

Cauchy,  (Louis  Francois,)  a  French  poet,  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rouen  in  1755.  He  com- 
posed an  "Ode  to  the  First  Consul,"  (1802,)  and  "The 
Battle  of  Austerlitz,"  (1806,)  both  in  Latin.  He  was 
successively  archivist  of  the  senate  and  of  the  Chamber 
of  Peers.    Died  in  1847. 

Caulaincourt,  k5'ldN'kooR',  (Auguste  Jean  Ga- 
briel,) a  French  general,  brother  of  Armand  Augustir 
Louis,  noticed  below,  born  in  the  department  of  Somme 
in  1777.  He  was  wounded  at  Marengo  in  1800,  and 
fought  in  the  Peninsula  as  general  of  brigade.  For  his 
services  in  the  passage  of  the  Tagus  in  1809  he  was  made 
a  general  of  division.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Borodino,  September  7,  1812.  He  was  equally  distin- 
guished for  courage  and  talents. 

See  Segur,  "  Histoire  de  la  Campagne  de  Russia." 

Caulaincourt,  de,  deh  ko'liN^kooR',  (Armand  Au- 
gustin Louis,)  Duke  of  Vicenza,  (ve-ch^n'zi,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  of  an  ancient  family  of  Picardy  in 
1773.  H^e  entered  the  army  as  a  private  soldier,  became 
colonel  in  1799,  and  made  the  campaign  of  1800  under 
Moreau  with  distinction.  Bonaparte  sent  him  on  a  mis- 
sion to  Russia  in  1801,  and  after  his  return  employed 
him  as  aide-de-camp  and  grand  equerry  of  the  palace, 
(1804.)  In  the  latter  function  he  acquitted  himself  with 
dignity.  About  1808  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Rus- 
sia, where  he  performed  his  duties  with  loyalty  and 
address  until  1811,  when  he  asked  to  be  recalled.  He 
appears  to  have  warned  his  infatuated  master  against 
the  invasion  of  Russia,  in  which  he  took  part.  The 
emperor  signified  his  continued  confidence  by  choosing 
Caulaincourt  as  his  companion  in  his  hurried  return  to 
Paris  in  December,  1812.  In  1813  he  was  chosen  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs,  which  were  in  such  a  desperate 
state  that  no  diplomacy  could  avail ;  but  he  shared  the 
fortunes  of  Napoleon  to  the  last,  and,  after  the  battle  of 
Waterloo,  retired  with  honour  to  private  life.  He  had 
been  made  Duke  of  Vitenza  in  1808.    Died  in  1827. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire;"  "  NouvelU 
Biographie  Generale." 


4,^;,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long:  \,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon 


CAULET 


547 


CAVAIGNAC 


Cavilet,  de,  deh  ko'li',  (Etienne  FRANgois,)  a  French 
bishop,  (of  Pamiers,)  born  in  1610;  died  in  1680. 

Caiilfield.    See  Charlemont,  Earl  of, 

Caul'field,  (James,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Lon- 
don about  1764,  became  a  dealer  in  engravings.  He 
published  "  Portraits  and  Memoirs  of  Remarkable  Per- 
sons," (1794,)  a  "  Gallery  of  British  Portraits,"  and  other 
illustrated  works. 

Catiliac.    See  Chauliac. 

Cauls.    See  Caus,  (Salomon.) 

Caulvin.    See  Calvin. 

Caumartin,  de,  deh  kS'mtR^tiN',  (Jean  Francois 
Paul  Lefevre,)  born  at  Chalons-sur-Marne  in  1668, 
became  Bishop  of  Vannes  and  of  Blois.  He  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  French  Academy  in  1694.  Died  in  1733. 

Se^  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Caumartin,  de,  (Louis  Urbain  Lefevre,)  a  French 
statesman,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1653,  was 
successively  master  of  requests,  intendant  of  finances, 
and  councillor  of  state.  At  his  chateau  of  Saint-Ange, 
Voltaire  first  formed  the  idea  of  his  "  Henriade."  Died 
in  1720. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "  Memoires." 

Caumont.    See  Force,  (Marshal,)  and  Lauzun. 

Caumont,  de,  deh  k6'm6N',  (  Arcisse,)  a  French  anti- 
quary, born  at  Bayeux  (Calvados)  in  1802.  He  founded 
about  1833  the  Scientific  Congress,  a  reunion  of  savants, 
who  meet  annually  in  different  cities  of  France,  and  a 
"Society  for  the  Conservation  of  Monuments."  He  has 
published  several  important  works,  among  which  are 
"Lectures  on  Monumental  Antiquities,"  (lovols.,  1830,) 
and  a  "  History  of  Art  in  the  West  of  France,"  (1831-40.) 

See  RiCHELET,  "  Notice  sur  M.  de  Caumont." 

Caumont,  de,  (Joseph  de  Seytres — deh  sitR  or 
sStR,)  Marquis,  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Avignon 
in  1688.  His  various  and  extensive  acquirements  caused 
him  to  be  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London,  and  correspondent  of  the  French  Academy  of 
Inscriptions.    Died  in  1 745. 

Caurroy,  du,  dii  ko'rwi',  (FRANgois  Eustache,)  a 
French  musician  and  famous  composer,  born  in  Picardy 
in  1549;  died  in  1609. 

Caus,  ko,  (Isaac,)  a  French  engineer,  a  relative  of 
Salomon  Caus,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Dieppe. 
He  published  an  interesting  work,  in  French,  entitled  a 
"  New  Invention  to  raise  Water  higher  than  its  Source," 
(London,  1644.) 

Caus,  Cauls,  or  Caux,  de,  deh  k5,  (Salomon,)  a 
celebrated  French  engineer  and  architect,  born  in  Nor- 
mandy. He  was  in  the  service  of  Charles,  Prince  of 
Wales,  in  London  in  1612.  From  1614  to  1620  he  lived 
at  Heidelberg  as  engvneer  of  the  Elector  Palatine  Frede- 
rick. In  161 5  he  published  a  work  on  motive  powers, 
"  Les  Raisons  des  Forces  mouvantes  avec  diverses  Ma- 
chines," etc.,  which  contains  a  theorem  on  the  expansion 
and  condensation  of  steam.  The  French  maintain  that 
the  Marquis  of  Worcester  derived  from  Caus  the  dis- 
covery of  the  utility  of  steam  as  a  motive  power.  Arago 
calls  him  "a  man  whom  posterity  will  perhaps  regard  as 
the  first  inventor  of  the  machine  h  fen,'''  (steam-engine.) 
Caus  is  supposed  to  have  died  in  France  about  1630. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Causeur,  ko'zUR',  (Jean,)  a  French  peasant,  noted 
for  longevity,  was  born  at  Lanfenot  in  1638,  and  died  in 
1775,  at  the  age  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven.  His 
habits  were  temperate. 

Caussidiere,  k6'se'de3iR',  (Marc,)  a  French  radical 
politician,  born  at  Lyonsabout  1809.  He  fought  on  the 
side  of  the  revolutionists  of  Paris  in  February,  1848, 
was  appointed  prefect  of  police  by  the  provisional  gov- 
ernment which  was  then  formed,  and  was  afterwards 
elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly.  In  August,  1848, 
the  Assembly  passed  a  vote  of  accusation  against  him  in 
relation  to  the  revolt  of  Mav  15,  which  he  was  suspected 
of  secretly  favouring.  He'escaped  to  London.  "His 
heart  was  honest  and  generous,"  says  Lamartine  :  "one 
could  confide  in  his  nature,  if  not  in  his  opinions."  Died 
in  1 86 1. 

Caussin,  ko's^N',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  writer  and 
priest,  born  at  Troyes  about  1582,  joined  the  Jesuits  in 


1607.  His  success  as  a  preacher  attracted  the  notice  of 
Richelieu,  who  made  him  confessor  to  Louis  XIII.  For 
attempting  to  supplant  Richelieu  in  the  favour  of  the 
king,  he  was  dismissed  nine  months  after  his  appoint- 
ment. He  published,  besides  other  devotional  works, 
"The  Holy  Court,"  (5  vols.,)  which  had  an  immense 
circulation.    Died  in  1651. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Caussin  de  Perceval,  ko's^N'  deh  p^Rs'vtK,  (Ar- 
MAND  Pierre,)  a  French  Orientalist,  son  of  Jean  Jacques 
Antoine,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1795.  He 
studied  and  travelled  in  Turkey  and  Syria  several  years, 
and  about  1822  was  appointed  professor  of  Arabic  in 
the  College  of  France.  In  1824  he  became  Arabic  in- 
terpreter to  the  ministry.  He  published  an  "Arabic 
Grammar,"  and  "  Essays  on  the  History  of  the  Arabs 
before  Islamism,  during  the  Time  of  Mohammed,  and 
down  to  the  Reduction  of  all  the  Tribes  under  his  Do- 
minion," (1847.)  He  became  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions  in  1849. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Caussin  de  Perceval,  (Jean  Jacques  Antoine,)  a 
French  scholar,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Montdidier  in  1759.  In  1783  he  became  professor  of 
Arabic  in  the  College  of  France,  Paris,  and  in  1809  a 
member  of  the  Institute.  He  translated  from  the  Arabic 
a  "Sequel  to  the  Thousand  and  One  Nights,"  and  other 
works.  He  published  a  good  edition  of  the  Fables  of 
Lokman.    Died  in  1835. 

Cauvin.    See  Calvin. 

Cau'vin,  (Joseph,)  an  English  scholar,  chiefly  known 
as  an  assistant  editor  of  Brande's  "  Dictionary  of  Science, 
Literature,  and  Art,"  (1842.)  (See  Brande,'W.  T.)  He 
published  an  improved  edition  of  "Lempriere's  Classical 
Dictionary,"  (1845.) 

Caux.    See  Caus,  (Salomon.) 

Caux,  de,  deh  ko,  (Gilles,)  a  French  poet,  born  about 
1682,  was  a  descendant  of  the  great  Corneille.  His  best 
works  are  the  tragedy  of  "Marius,"  (1715,)  and  "The 
Hour-Glass,"  a  small  poem.    Died  in  1733. 

Caux  de  Cappeval,  ko  deh  ktp'vtK,  a  mediocre 
French  poet,  born  near  Rouen.  He  published  "  Par- 
nassus, or  an  Essay  on  the  Campaigns  of  the  King," 
(1752,)  and  other  poems,  and  produced  a  Latin  version 
of  V^oltaire's  "Henriade."    Died  in  1774. 

See  Grimm,  "  Correspondance." 

Cavacci,  kS-vSt'chee,  (Jacopo,)  a  historian  and  monk, 
born  at  Padua  in  1567;  died  in  1612. 

Cavaceppi,  kS-vi-chep'pee,  (Bartolommeo,)  a  Ro- 
man sculptor,  who  flourished  about  1770. 

Cavagna,  kS-vin^yd,  (Giovanni  Paolo,)  a  skilful 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Bergamo  about  1560.  He  took 
Paul  Veronese  for  his  model.    Died  in  1627. 

Cavaignac,  kS'vin'ytk',  (Godefroy,)  a  French  re- 
publican chief,  brother  of  General  Louis  Eugene  Cavai- 
gnac, was  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  fought  on  the  side  of 
the  revolutionists  in  the  three  days  of  July,  1830,  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  "  Society  of  the  Friends  of  the  Peo- 
ple," and  became  one  of  the  most  popular  leaders  of  his 
party.  In  1834  he  was  imprisoned  for  political  reasons, 
but  escaped  in  1835  and  went  into  exile.  He  returned  to 
France  in  1841,  and  became  assistant  editor  of  the  journal 
called  "La  Reforme."  He  died  in  1845.  "Godefroy 
Cavaignac,"  says  Lamartine,  "was  a  name  equal  to  the 
name  of  Carrel  in  republican  estimation.  He  had  died 
before  the  triumph  ( avenement)  of  his  idea,  and  that  idea 
rendered  homage  to  him  [in  1848]  in  the  person  of  his 
brother."  He  published  a  work  called  "Cardinal  Du- 
bois ;  or,  Every  Road  leads  to  Rome." 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Cavaignac,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  revolutionist, 
born  at  Gordon  in  1762,  was  the  father  of  General  Louis 
Eugene  Cavaignac.  In  1792  he  represented  Haute-Ga- 
ronne  in  the  Convention,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  the 
king.  In  the  insurrection  of  the  sections  of  Paris  against 
the  Convention,  October,  1795,  he  was  chosen  to  co-ope- 
rate with  Barras  in  directing  the  army  of  the  Convention. 
He  was  one  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundied  in  1796. 
The  fall  of  his  friend  Barras,  in  1799,  injured  his  political 
prospects.    He  was  afterwards  councillor  of  state  under 


c  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled; I  as. a;  th  as  in  this.   (S:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CAVAIGNAC 


548 


CAVALLVCCI 


Murat,  King  of  Naples.  He  was  exiled  from  France  as 
a  regicide  in  1816,  and  died  in  Brussels  in  1829. 

See  GoNON,  "  Biographic  de  J.  B.  Cavaignac,"  1848. 

Cavaignac,  (Louis  Eugene,)  a  distinguished  French 
general  and  republican  statesman,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1802.  He  entered  the  Polytechnic 
School  in  1820.  In  1828  and  1829  he  served  in  the  Morea 
as  captain  of  engineers.  He  was  sent  to  Africa  in  1832, 
and  soon  became  eminent  for  the  best  qualities  of  a 
soldier  and  an  officer.  In  1836  he  was  selected  for  the 
perilous  post  of  commander  of  the  garrison  of  Tlemcen, 
which  he  defended  with  success  for  more  than  a  year. 
He  became  a  lieutenant-colonel  of  zouaves  in  1840,  and 
colonel  in  1841.  For  his  services  at  Isly  in  1844  he 
obtained  the  rank  of  marechal-de-camp.  He  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  the  province  of  Oran  in  1847,  and 
was  in  Algeria  when  the  revolution  of  1848  occurred. 
In  March  of  that  year  the  provisional  government  ap- 
pointed him  Governor-General  of  Algeria,  with  the  rank 
of  general  of  division.  In  April,  Lamartine,  through  the 
mediation  of  Madame  Cavaignac,  (who  was  called  "the 
mother  of  the  Gracchi,")  invited  General  Cavaignac  to 
come  to  Paris  for  the  defence  of  the  government  against 
the  mob.  He  arrived  in  Paris  on  the  17th  of  May,  two 
days  after  a  great  insurrection  had  begun,  and  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  war  when  that  office  was  generally 
considered  an  unenviable  position.  As  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  and  of  the  national  guard,  he  defeated 
the  insurgents  in  a  great  battle  in  Paris  which  began  on 
the  23d  of  June  and  continued  three  days.  He  was  ap- 
pointed dictator  by  the  Assembly  on  the  24th,  and  dis- 
played great  skill  and  energy  on  that  occasion.  Having 
resigned  the  dic^?*orship,  he  was  recalled  to  power  on 
the  28th  of  June,  with  the  title  of  chef  du  pouvoir  exectc- 
tif,  or  President  of  the  republic. 

He  maintained  order  in  the  capital,  and  pursued  a 
moderate  policy,  by  which  many  ultra-republicans  were 
alienated  from  his  support.  The  Assembly  on  the  25th 
of  November  declared  that  he  had  deserved  well  of  the 
country.  About  this  time  an  election  for  President  by 
universal  suffrage  resulted  in  the  choice  of  Louis  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte,  who  received  about  6,000,000  votes, 
while  Cavaignac  received  1,448,302.  On  the  20th  of 
December,  1848,  Cavaignac  retired  from  power,  and 
took  his  seat  in  the  Assembly  among  the  moderate  re- 
publicans. He  was  arrested  in  December,  1851,  and 
detained  a  few  days.  In  1852  he  was  elected  a  deputy 
by  the  voters  of  Paris ;  but,  as  he  refused  to  swear  alle- 
giance to  the  emperor,  he  did  not  obtain  the  seat,  and 
retired  from  political  life.  He  was  again  elected  a 
deputy  from  Paris  to  the  corps  legislatif,  but  died  a  few 
weeks  later,  in  October,  1857.  He  had  published  in 
1839  a  work  entitled  "  De  la  Regence  d' Alger."  Few 
men  who  have  possessed  the  chief  power  in  difficult 
circumstances  have  preserved  so  pure  a  reputation. 

See  Henri  Montfort,  "  Hiographie  du  General  Cavaignac," 
1848  ;  *'  Lebensbeschreibung  des  Generals  Cavaignac,"  Strasburg, 
1848  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Cavaignac,  de,  deh  kS'vin'ytk',  (Jacques  Marie,) 
ViCOMTE,  a  P'rench  general,  born  at  Gordon  in  1773, 
was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  He  served  with  distinction 
in  the  armies  of  the  republic  in  Italy,  and  in  1806  was 
nominated  by  Napoleon  commandant  of  the  legion  of 
honour  at  the  battle  of  Austerlitz.  As  general  of  brigade, 
he  took  part  in  the  expedition  to  Moscow  in  1812.  He 
was  afterwards  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general. 
The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

Cavalca,  ka-vSKkl,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  ascetic 
writer,  born  in  Tuscany,  was  contemporary  with  Dante. 
He  wrote  "The  Fruits  of  the  Tongue,"  and  other 
works,  which  are  cited  by  the  Academy  Delia  Crusca  as 
authority.    Died  about  1340. 

Cavaicabo-Baroni,  kS-vai-ka'bo  hi  -ro'nee,  (Gas- 
PARo  Antonio,)  a  painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  born 
near  Roveredo  in  1682  ;  died  in  1759. 

Cavalcanti,  ka-vSl-kdn'tee,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Ital- 
ian writer,  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Florence  in  1503. 
Having  removed  to  Ferrara,  he  was  sent  by  Cardinal  Ip- 
polito  II.  on  a  mission  to  the  French  court.  Pope  Paul  III. 
also  employed  him  as  a  negotiator.  He  wrote  a  "  Treatise 
on  Rhetoric,"  (1559,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1562. 


Cavalcanti,  (Guido,)  a  Florentine  poet,  was  a  friend 
of  Dante,  and  an  ardent  Ghibeline.  Pie  was  one  of  the 
poets  of  that  age  who  made  the  nearest  approach  to  a 
good  style.  His  canzone  on  "  Love"  was  the  most  popu- 
lar of  his  works.    Died  in  1300. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "Histoire  Litt^raire  d'ltalie." 

Cavaleri.    See  Cavalieri. 

Cavalier,  kt'vt'le-i',  (Jean,)  a  French  peasant,  born 
at  Ribaute  in  1679,  was  the  most  able  and  popular  chief 
of  the  Camisards,  (persecuted  Protestants  of  Cevennes,) 
who  revolted  in  1702.  By  his  courage  and  skill  he  foiled 
the  generals  of  the  king  and  obtained  an  honourable 
treaty  from  Villars,  (1704.)  He  afterwards  entered  the 
service  of  the  English,  fought  at  Almanza  in  1707,  and 
became  a  general  in  the  English  army.    Died  in  1740. 

See  Antoine  Court,  "  Histoire  des  Camisards." 

Cavaliere,  ki-vd-le-a'ri,  or  Cavalieri,  ki-vi-le-a'ree, 
an  Italian  composer,  born  about  1550,  made  some  im- 
provements or  inventions  in  music.    Died  about  1600. 

Cavalieri,  kd-vA-le-a^ree,  or  Cavaleri,  kS-vi-la'ree, 
(Bonaventura,)  an  eminent  Italian  geometer,  born  in 
Milan  in  1598,  was  one  of  the  few  whose  discoveries 
form  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  geometry.  He  entered 
the  order  of  Hieronymites  or  Jesuates,  and  became  a 
pupil  of  Galileo  at  Pisa.  Having  devoted  himself  to 
researches  respecting  the  proportions  of  different  solids, 
he  discovered,  about  1626,  his  method  of  indivisibles. 
He  conceived  that  a  line  is  formed  of  an  infinite  number 
of  points,  a  surface  of  an  infinity  of  lines,  etc.,  and  pub- 
lished in  1635  his  "  Geometry  of  Indivisibles."  A  few 
years  earlier  he  had  been  chosen  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Bologna.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Conic 
Sections,"  and  several  other  works.  Died  at  Bologna 
in  1647. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "Histoire  des  Math^matiqiies ;"  Paolo  Frisi, 
"  Elogio  di  Galileo  Galilei  e  di  B.  Cavalieri,"  1776;  G.  Piola, 
"  Elogio  storico  di  B.  Cavalieri,"  1844. 

Cavallerii,  da,  di  ki-vSl-la're-ee,  (Giovanni  Bat- 
TTSTA,)  a  mediocre  Italian  engraver,  born  at  Lagherino 
about  1530,  engraved  many  works  after  Raphael,  Michael 
Angelo,  and  Titian.    Died  in  1597. 

Cavallero.    See  Caballero. 

Cavallero,  ki-vai-ya''ro,  or  Caballero,  ki-Bil-ya'ro, 
(Don  Juan,)  a  Spanish  general,  born  in  Naples  in  1712, 
commanded  the  engineers  at  the  siege  of  Gibraltar  in 
1779.    Died  in  1791. 

Cavalli,  ki-vSKlee,  (Francesco,)  born  at  Venice,  was 
an  organist,  and  one  of  the  first  composers  of  his  time. 
He  became  chapel-master  of  the  church  of  Saint  Mark, 
and  was  one  of  the  first  who  composed  grand  operas. 
Between  1637  and  1669  he  produced  thirty-eight  success- 
ful operas.    Died  in  1676. 

See  F^Tis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Mus'ciens." 

Cavallini,  ki-vil-lee'nee,  (Pietro,)  a  celebrated 
painter  and  sculptor,  born  in  Rome  about  1270,  is  said 
to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Giotto.  He  adorned  with  frescos 
the  churches  of  Rome,  Florence,  and  Assisi,  where  some 
of  them  may  still  be  seen.  His  "Crucifixion"  at  Assisi 
is  well  preserved,  and  is  called  his  master-piece.  Died 
about  1350. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Vasari,  "Lives  of 
the  Painters,"  etc. 

Cavallino,  kS-vSl-lee'no,  (Bernardo,)  a  historical 
painter,  born  in  Naples  about  1620.  His  works  are  ad- 
mired for  grace,  colouring,  and  charming  expression.  He 
excelled  most  in  pictures  of  small  proportions.  Died 
in  1656. 

Cavallo,  kS-vil'lo,  (Tiberio,)  a  philosopher,  distin- 
guished for  his  experiments  in  electricity,  was  born  at 
Naples  in  1749.  In  1771  he  went  to  London,  where  he 
passed  the  most  of  his  mature  years.  Having  made  dis- 
coveries or  inventions  in  electricity  and  magnetism,  he 
was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1779.  He 
invented  a  micrometer,  an  electrometer,  and  a  condenser 
of  electricity,  and  made  interesting  experiments  with  a 
kite  in  relation  to  the  electric  state  of  clouds.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "  A  Complete  Treatise  on  Elec- 
tricity," and  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Nature  and  Properties 
of  Air."    Died  in  1809. 

Cavallucci,  ki-vai-loot'chee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
historical  painter  and  excellent  colorist,  born  at  Sermo- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mlt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


CAVAM 


549 


CAFENDISH 


neta  in  1752.  A  picture  of  "Saint  Bona  taking  the  Veil," 
at  Pisa,  is  called  his  master-piece.   Died  in  Rome  in  1795. 
See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Cavam-(or  Cawam-)ed-Dowlah,  ki-vlm'ed-dow'- 
]ah,  originally  Ket-bo'ga,  Prince  of  Mosul,  a  Turkish 
general,  defeated  by  the  crusaders  at  Antioch  in  1098. 

Cavanilles,  ki-vi-n^Ky^s,  (Antonio  Jos6,)  a  Spanish 
priest  and  eminent  botanist,  was  born  at  Valencia  in  1745. 
He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Murcia,  when  he  was 
chosen  preceptor  of  the  children  of  the  Duke  del  In- 
fantado,  ambassador  to  Paris.  He  passed  twelve  years 
in  Paris,  {1777  to  1789,)  in  which  time  he  produced  his 
dissertations  on  the  class  Monadelphia.  Having  re- 
turned to  Spain,  he  published  "  Icones  et  Descriptiones 
Plantarum,"  etc.,  an  excellent  description  of  Spanish 
plants,  with  fine  engravings  drawn  by  himself,  (6  vols., 
1791.)  This  was  followed  by  "Observations  on  the 
Natural  History,  Geography,  etc.  of  Valencia,"  (2  vols., 
1795-97,)  which  is  said  to  be  the  most  useful  work  of 
that  kind  ever  published  in  Spain.  In  1801  he  was 
chosen  director  of  the  royal  botanic  garden  of  Madrid. 
He  adhered  to  the  artificial  or  Linnaean  system  of  botany. 
Died  at  Madrid  in  1804. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Cavarazzi,  ki-vi-rit'see,  (Bartolommeo,)  called 
Crescenzi,  (kRi-sh^n'zee,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Viterbo  about  1590 ;  died  in  1625. 

Cavazzi,  ki-vdt'see,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
monk,  born  at  Montecuculo.  He  was  sent  as  a  missionary 
to  Congo  in  1654.  In  1670  he  was  chosen  superior-gen- 
eral of  the  missions  in  Congo,  Angola,  etc.,  where  he 
laboured  many  years.  He  published  a  "Description  of 
Congo,  Angola,  and  Matamba."  Died  at  Genoa  in  1692. 

Cave,  (Edward,)  an  English  printer,  born  at  Newton 
in  1691,  is  memorable  as  the  founder  of  "The  Gentle- 
man's Magazine,''  first  issued  in  January,  1731,  under 
the  name  of  Sylvanus  Urban.  It  was  very  successful  in 
his  hands  until  his  death,  and  still  flourishes,  with  a  high 
reputation.  He  patronized  Dr.  Johnson  when  the  latter 
was  a  young  and  needy  author ;  and  Johnson  wrote  a 
biography  of  Cave.    Died  in  1754. 

See  Dr.  Johnson's  Works. 

Cave,  (William,)  D.D.,  a  learned  English  divine  and 
scholar,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1637,  became  vicar  of 
Islington  in  1662,  canon  of  Windsor  in  1684,  and  vicar 
of  Isleworth  in  1690.  He  devoted  much  attention  to 
ecclesiastical  antiquities,  and  wrote  many  esteemed 
works,  among  which  are  "Primitive  Christianity," 
(1672,)  "  History  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles,"  (1675,) 
"Lives  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  in  the  Fourth 
Century,"  (1682,)  and  "  Literary  History  of  Ecclesiastic 
Writers  from  the  Birth  of  Christ  to  the  Fourteenth 
Century,"  ("Scriptorum  ecclesiasticorum  Historia  lit- 
teraria,"  2  vols.,  1688-89.)  The  three  first  named  are 
said  to  be  the  best  works  on  those  subjects.  Died  in  17 13. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica  ;"  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Cavedone,  ki-vi-do'ni,  (Gi.\COMO,)  an  eminent  Ital- 
ian painter,  born  at  Sassuolo,  near  Modena,  in  1577. 
He  studied  under  the  Caracci  and  Guido,  and  worked  at 
Bologna,  both  in  oil  and  fresco.  He  excelled  in  design 
and  colouring,  and  had  great  facility  of  execution.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  a  "Nativity,"  a  "Virgin  and  Child 
borne  upon  the  Clouds,"  a  "  Holy  Family,"  and  "The 
Adoration  of  the  Magi."    Died  at  Bologna  in  1660. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Cayeirac,  de,  deh  kt'v&'rtk',  (Jean  Novi,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Nimes  in  1713.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "An  Apology  for  Louis  XIV.  and  his 
Council  in  Relation  to  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes,  with  Observations  on  Saint  Bartholomew," 
(1758.)  Voltaire  designated  this  work  an  "Apology  for 
Saint  Bartholomew."    Died  in  1782. 

Cavelier.    See  Lasali.e,  (Robert.) 

Cavelier,  ktv'le-i',  (Pierre  Jules,)  an  eminent 
French  sculptor,  boiMi  in  Paris  in  1814,  was  a  pupil  of 
David  of  Angers  and  of  Delaroche.  He  obtained  in 
1842  the  grand  prize  of  sculpture,  and  passed  the  five  en- 
suing years  in  Rome.  In  1849  he  produced  "Penelope 
Asleep,"  which  was  greatly  admired,  and  in  1853  a 


statue  of  "Truth,"  which  was  placed  in  the  palace  of 
Luxembourg.  His  works  are  remarkable  for  elegance 
of  form  and  grace  of  attitude. 

Cav'fii-dish,  (Charles,)  a  younger  son  of  the  sec- 
ond Earl  of  Devonshire,  born  in  London  in  1620,  was  a 
royalist  general  in  the  civil  war.  He  defeated  the  army 
of  Parliament  at  Donnington  in  1643,  and  was  killed 
soon  after  in  an  engagement  with  Cromwell  near  Gains- 
borough. 

Cavendish,  (Lord  Frederick,)  a  British  general, 
born  about  1730,  was  a  younger  son  of  the  third  Duke 
of  Devonshire.    Died  in  1803. 

Cavendish,  (Georgp.,)  of  Glemsford,  an  English 
writer,  a  brother  of  Sir  William  Cavendish,  noticed  be- 
low. He  is  said  to  have  been  the  author  of  a  well-written 
"  Life  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,"  which  was  once  ascribed  to 
Sir  William.    It  was  first  printed  in  1641. 

Cavendish,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  English  chemist 
and  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Nice  in  1730  or  1731, 
was  the  younger  son  of  Lord  Charles  Cavendish,  and 
grandson  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire.  Having  been 
educated  at  Cambridge,  he  devoted  himself  exclusively 
to  scientific  pursuits,  renounced  society,  and  was  re- 
markable for  his  eccentric  habits.  He  was  a  profound 
mathematician,  and  ranks  among  the  first  of  chemical 
philosophers.  He  first  discovered  the  distinctive  prop- 
erties of  hydrogen  gas.  laid  the  foundation  of  pneumatic 
chemistry,  and  demonstrated  the  proportions  of  oxygen 
and  nitrogen  in  common  air,  (1783.)  By  burning  oxy- 
gen and  hydrogen  in  a  tight  glass  vessel,  he  made  the 
brilliant  discovery  of  the  composition  of  water,  in  1784. 
The  results  of  his  experiments  (which  had  never  been 
surpassed  in  accuracy)  were  published  in  the  "  Philo- 
sophical Transactions"  from  1766  to  1809.  He  was 
chosen  an  associate  of  the  French  Institute  in  1803. 
About  1773  ^'-^^  inherited  an  immense  fortune  from 
an  uncle.  He  was  never  married.  Died  in  London 
in  1810.  "  Whatever  he  accomplished,"  says  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy,  "was  perfect  at  the  moment  of  its  pro- 
duction. His  processes  were  all  of  a  finished  nature. 
.  .  .  The  accuracy  and  beauty  of  his  earliest  labours 
have  remained  unimpaired  amidst  the  progress  of  dis- 
covery, and  their  merits  have  been  illustrated  by  discus- 
sion and  exalted  by  time."  ("Chemical  Philosophy.") 
"  He  was  well  versed  in  high  geometry,"  says  Biot,  "and 
made  a  happy  application  of  this  knowledge  in  a  very 
important  question  of  physics, — the  determination  of 
the  mean  density  of  our  globe." 

See  G.  Wii.soN,  "  Life  of  H.  Cavendish  ;"  F.  Hoefer,  "  Histoire 
de  la  Cliimie,"  tOTne  ii.  ;  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

Cavendish,  (Lord  John,)  an  English  Whig  states- 
man, brother  of  Frederick,  noticed  above.  He  was  an 
opponent  of  Lord  North,  whom  he  succeeded  as  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer  in  1782.    Died  in  1796. 

Cavendish,  (Margaret,)  an  English  authoress,  was 
the  daughter  of  Sir  Charles  Lucas,  and  wife  of  William 
Cavendish,  Duke  of  Newcastle.  She  wrote  various 
works,  among  which  are  poems  and  plays,  remarkable 
for  absurdity  and  bad  grammar.  She  became  a  maid  of 
honour  to  the  queen  of  Charles  I.  in  1643,  and  was 
married  in  1 645.  Horace  Walpole  calls  her  "a  fertile 
pedant,  with  an  unbounded  passion  for  scribbling."  Died 
in  1673. 

See  Rev.  Alexander  Dyce,  "Specimens  of  British  Poetesses  ;" 
Sir  E.  Bryucjes,  "Imaginative  Biography;"  and  "Retrospective 
Review,"  vol.  i.,  1853. 

Cavendish,  (Sir  Robert  Spencer,)  an  English  naval 
officer,  born  in  1791.  He  served  against  the  French  and 
the  Americans,  1812-14.    Died  in  1830. 

Cavendish  or  Can'dish,  (Thomas,)  an  English 
navigator,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1564,  was  the  second  of  his 
nation  that  circumnavigated  the  globe.  In  July,  1586, 
he  sailed  with  three  small  ships,  chiefly  fitted  out  at  his 
expense,  with  the  design  to  plunder  the  Spaniards  in 
Peru,  Chili,  etc.  Having  taken  rich  prizes,  among  which 
was  the  Spanish  galleon  laden  with  silver,  he  crossed 
the  Pacific,  and,  returning  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
reached  England  in  September,  1588.  He  rendered  some 
services  to  the  sciences  of  geography  and  hydrography. 
Died  in  1593. 

See  J.  Barrow,  "Memoirs  of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Reign,"  1845. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  o,  H,  Y.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CAVENDISH  550 


Cavendish,  (William,)  Duke  of  Newcastle,  an  Eng- 
lish general  and  author,  born  in  1592.  He  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  about  1620,  as  Baron  Ogle,  and  in  1643  be- 
came Marquis  of  Newcastle.  In  the  civil  war  he  com- 
manded the  king's  army  in  the  north,  and  gained  several 
battles  in  1643,  especially  at  Atherton  Moor.  In  1644 
Prince  Rupert  effected  a  junction  with  the  army  at  York, 
and,  pretending  positive  orders  from  the  king,  involved 
the  royalists  in  a  decisive  defeat  at  Marston  Moor,  against 
the  advice  of  Newcastle.  The  latter  then  abandoned  the 
cause  and  went  to  France.  He  returned  home  in  1660, 
and  was  made  a  duke  in  1664.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on 
horsemanship,  several  bad  comedies,  and  other  works. 
Hume  represents  him  as  "  the  ornament  of  the  court  and 
of  his  order,  polite  and  elegant  in  his  taste."  Died  in 
1676. 

See  Clarendon's  "  History  of  the  Great  Rebellion." 

Cavendish,  (William,)  first  Duke  of  Devonshire,  an 
eminent  English  statesman,  eldest  son  of  the  third  Earl 
of  Devonshire,  was  born  in  1640.  In  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.  he  represented  Derby  in  the  Commons,  with  the  title 
of  Lord  Cavendish,  and  opposed  the  measures  of  the 
court.  In  1679  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  new  privy 
council.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1684,  he  became 
Earl  of  Devonshire.  He  promoted  the  accession  of 
William  III.,  who  appointed  him  lord  steward  of  the 
royal  household  in  1689,  and  created  him  a  duke  in  1694. 
He  wrote  an  *'  Ode  on  the  Death  of  Queen  Mary,"  which 
Dryden  is  said  to  have  praised,  and  other  works.  His 
mansion  at  Chatsworth  is  an  admired  monument  of  art 
and  taste.    Died  in  1707. 

See  Macaulay's  "  History  of  England." 

Cavendish,  (Sir  William,)  the  founder  of  the  Eng- 
lish house  of  Devonshire,  was  born  about  1505.  After 
he  had  served  Cardinal  Wolsey  as  gentleman-usher,  he 
became  a  privy  councillor  of  Henry  VIII.  about  1546. 
He  is  the  reputed  author  of  a  "Life  of  Wolsey."  (See 
Cavendish,  George.)    Died  in  1557. 

Cavendish,  (William  Charles.)    See  Bentinck. 

Caventou,  kt'vdN''too',  (Joseph  Bienaime,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  at  Saint-Omer  in  1797,  became  a  resident  of 
Paris.  He  published  a  "New  Chemical  Nomenclature," 
(1816,)  and  an  "Elementary  Treatise  on  Pharmacy," 
(1819.)  He  was  associated  with  Pelletier  in  the  discovery 
of  sulphate  of  quinine  about  182  ■),  for  which  the  Institute 
awarded  them  a  prize  of  10,000  francs  in  1827. 

See  QuEUARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Caviceo,  ki-ve-cha'o,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian  priest,  born 
at  Parma  in  1443.  He  wrote  "II  Peregrino,"  a  romance. 
Died  in  151 1. 

Cavino,  kS-vee'no,  (Giovanni,)  a  skilful  Italian  en- 
graver, surnamed  "the  Paduan,"  and  "the  prince  of  for- 
gers." Antique  medals  being  sought  for  with  avidity  by 
students  in  his  time,  he  employed  his  talents  in  counter- 
feiting them  with  success.  About  1565  he  and  Bassiano 
fabricated  a  great  number  of  spurious  medals,  which 
were  bought  by  the  antiquaries  as  genuine. 

Cavoie,  de,  deh  kS'vwS',  (Louis  d'Oger,)  Marquis, 
a  French  courtier,  born  in  1640.  He  was  celebrated  for 
his  bravery,  honour,  and  politeness,  and  was  admired  at 
court  as  "the  glass  of  fashion  and  the  mould  of  form." 
He  accompanied  Louis  XIV.  in  his  campaigns,  and 
shared  his  bounty.  He  was  the  friend  of  Turenne  and 
of  Racine.    Died  in  17 16. 

See  Saint-S:mon,  "Memoires." 

Cavolini,  kl-vo-lee'nee,  (Filtppo,)  an  Italian  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Naples  in  1756.  He  became  professor  of 
zoology  in  the  University  of  Naples,  and  was  distinguished 
for  his  researches  in  inarine  polypi.  He  wrote  a  "  Treat- 
ise on  Marine  Polypi,"  one  on  the  "Generation  of  Fish," 
(1787,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1810. 

See  MoNTiCELLi,  "Vita  Philippi  Cavolini,"  1812;  Tipaldo, 
"  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Cavour,  di,  de  kS-vooR',  (Camillo  Benso,)  Count, 
an  illustrious  Italian  statesman,  born  at  Turin  on  the 
loth  of  August,  1810,  was  a  son  of  the  Marquis  Michele 
Giuseppe  Benso  di  Cavour,  a  merchant  of  Nice,  who  ac- 
quired a  large  fortune  in  trade  and  was  ennobled  by  King 
Charles  Albert.  His  mother  was  a  Swiss  or  French  lady 
of  Geneva,  named  Adelaide  Sellon.  The  French  was  the 


CAKTON 


language  of  his  infancy.  In  his  youth  he  assisted  his 
father  in  the  grain-trade,  and  passed  several  years  in 
foreign  travel.  In  1847  he  founded,  with  Count  Balbo, 
a  liberal  journal,  "II  Risorgimento,"  ("The  Uprising,") 
which  was  very  successful.  During  the  war  against 
Austria  in  1848-49,  he  defended  the  cause  of  Italian  in- 
dependence in  his  speeches  and  editorial  articles.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1849,  proved 
himself  to  be  a  powerful  debater,  and  succeeded  in  uni- 
ting the  moderate  democrats  and  liberal  conservatives 
in  a  party  of  which  he  became  the  leader.  He  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  commerce  in  1850,  and  minister  of 
finance  in  1851.  In  1852  he  became  president  of  the 
council,  or  prime  minister  of  Sardinia.  He  secured  the 
liberty  of  the  press,  and  favoured  religious  toleration  and 
free  trade.  Among  the  important  measures  of  his  admin- 
istration were  his  rebellion  against  papal  domination,  and 
his  alliance  with  France  and  England  in  the  war  against 
Russia  in  1855.  After  the  close  of  that  war  he  devoted 
his  efforts  to  the  liberation  and  unity  of  Italy,  undismayed 
by  the  angry  ful  mi  nations  of  the  Vatican. 

With  the  aid  of  the  French  emperor,  he  waged,  in 
1859,  a  war  against  Austria,  which  resulted  in  the  an- 
nexation of  Lombardy,  Tuscany,  Parma,  and  Modena  to 
Sardinia.  Cavour  resigned  in  July,  1859,  because  he  was 
displeased  with  the  treaty  of  Villa-Franca.  He  resumed 
the  place  of  premier  in  January,  i860,  and,  after  the  con- 
quests of  Garibaldi  in  Sicily  and  Naples,  was  the  first 
minister  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  In  the  new  parliament, 
which  met  about  the  beginning  of  1861,  his  policy  and 
ascendency  were  fully  maintained.  A  serious  disagree- 
ment occurred  between  Cavour  and  Garibaldi  on  the 
question  of  the  attack  on  Venetia  which  the  latter  pro- 
posed ;  but  they  were  reconciled  by  the  mediation  of 
Victor  Emmanuel.  Cavour  died,  after  an  illness  of  a  few 
days,  on  the  6th  of  June,  1861.  His  death  was  generally 
deplored  as  an  irreparable  loss  to  Italy.  On  the  next  day 
after  his  death.  Lord  Palmerston,  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, paid  the  following  tribute  to  his  memory:  "The 
moral  which  is  to  be  drawn  from  the  life  of  Count  Cavour 
is  this, — that  a  man  of  transcendent  talents,  of  indomi- 
table energy,  and  inextinguishable  patriotism,  may,  by 
the  impulses  which  his  own  single  mind  may  give  to  his 
countrymen,  aiding  a  righteous  cause,  and  seizing  favour- 
able opportunities,  notwithstanding  difficulties  that  at 
first  sight  appear  insurmountable,  confer  on  his  country 
the  greatest  and  most  inestimable  benefits."  "  His  great- 
ness," says  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1 861,  "wore 
the  unassuming  garb  of  common  sense, — but  a  common 
sense  of  colossal  proportions,  exalted  by  perpetual  direc- 
tion to  the  pursuit  of  what  was  great  and  lofty."  He  was 
never  married. 

See  "  Reminiscences  of  the  Life  and  Character  of  Cavour,"  trans- 
lated from  the  French  by  Edward  Romillv;  "Cavour,  a  Me- 
moir," by  Edward  Dicey;  "Cavour,  sein  Leben  und  Wirken,"  in 
the  "  Jahrbuch  zum  Conversations- Lexikon"  for  1859,  (published  by 
Brockhaus,  Leipsic ;)  "London  Quarterly  Review,"  July,  1861. 

Caw'thorne,  (James,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Shef- 
field in  1719,  became  master  of  Tunbridge  School  about 
1744.  Among  his  poems  is  "The  Perjured  Lover." 
Died  in  1761. 

Caw'tpn,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Puritan  divine  and 
Orientalist,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1605.  He  assisted  Wal- 
ton in  his  "  Polyglot  Bible,"  and  Castell  in  his  "  Lexicon." 
He  preached  for  some  time  in  London.    Died  in  1659. 

His  son  Thomas,  born  in  Essex  in  1637,  was  a  cler- 
gyman, and  was  learned  in  Oriental  languages.  He  wrote 
a  "  Dissertation  on  the  Use  of  the  Hebrew  Tongue  in 
Philosophy."    Died  in  1677. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Caxes  or  Cajes,  ki'nes,  (Eugenio,)  a  Spanish  paint- 
er, was  born  at  Madrid  in  1577.  He  obtained  the  title  of 
painter  to  the  king  in  1612.    Died  in  1642. 

Cax'ton,  (William,)  an  English  scholar  and  printer, 
celebrated  as  the  first  who  introduced  printing  into  Eng- 
land, was  born  in  Kent  about  141 2.  He  was  a  prominent 
merchant  of  London,  and  about  1442  visited  the  Low 
Countries  as  a  commercial  agent.  In  1464  he  was  em- 
ployed by  Edward  IV.  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  commerce 
with  the  Duke  of  Burgundy.  He  received  an  appoint- 
ment in  the  court  of  the  Duchess  of  Burgundy  in  1468, 


a, e,  1, 6,  u,  y, long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a, e,  1, 6,  u, y,  short;  a, e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^l,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


551 


CEAN-BERMUDEZ 


and  by  her  order  translated  from  the  French  a  **  History 
of  Troy,"  which  he  printed  about  1474.  This  was  the 
first  book  printed  in  the  English  language.  The  time 
of  his  return  to  England  is  supposed  to  have  been  be- 
tween 1474  and  1476.  He  established  a  printing-office 
in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  printed  sixty-four  different 
books,  many  of  which  were  translated  by  himself  An 
attempt  was  made  by  Richard  Atkyns  (1664)  to  deprive 
Caxton  of  the  honour  of  being  the  first  to  introduce 
printing  into  England  ;  but  the  documents  on  which  that 
writer  relies  to  establish  his  point  are,  beyond  all  reason- 
able question,  either  erroneous  or  spurious.  Died  in  1492. 

See  J.  Lewis,  "Life  of  Caxton,"  1738  ;  Charles  Knight,  "  W. 
Caxton:  a  Biography,"  1844. 

Cay.    See  Caius. 

Cayet,  kt'y^',  (Pierre  Victor  Palma,)  a  French 
theologian,  born  in  Touraine  about  1520.  He  was  a 
Protestant  in  his  youth,  and  was  employed  as  chaplain 
by  Catherine  de  Bourbon,  who  took  him  to  court  about 
1590.  He  abjured  Calvinism  in  1595,  and  in  the  next 
year  was  chosen  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  College  of 
Navarre,  Paris.  He  wrote  many  polemical  and  other 
works,  among  which  is  a  "  History  of  the  War  under 
Henry  IV.  from  1589  to  1598."    Died  in  1610. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary." 

Cayla,  kk'lt',  (Jean  Mamert,)  a  French  litterateur 
and  journalist,  born  at  Vigan  (Lot)  in  1812.  He  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  a  volume  of  "  European  Cele- 
brities," and  a  "History  of  the  City  of  Constantinople." 

Cay'ley,  (Arthur,)  an  English  writer,  published 
"The  Life  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,"  (1805,)  and  a  "Me- 
moir of  Sir  Thomas  More,"  (1808.) 

Cayley,  (Arthur,)  an  English  mathematician,  born 
at  Richmond,  Surrey,  in  1821,  became  a  Fellow  of 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  Having  studied  law,  he 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1849,  after  which  he  devoted 
much  time  to  pure  mathematics.  In  1852  he  was  chosen 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Among  his  works  is  a 
treatise  "On  the  Theory  of  Linear  Transformations." 

Cayley,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  scientific  writer, 
born  about  1773.  He  wrote  on  aerial  navigation,  and 
other  subjects.    Died  in  1857. 

Caylus,  de,  deh  ki'liiss',  (Anne  Claude  Philippe 
de  Tubiere.s,  (deh  tii'be-aiR',)  de  Grimoard,  (gne'mo- 
Ir',)  de  Pestels,  (])§s't^,)  de  Levi,  (li've',))  Count, 
Marquis  of  Esternay,  (Ss't^R^i^',)  a  French  author,  born 
in  Paris  in  1692.  He  ajiplied  himself  with  success  to 
the  study  of  antiquities  and  fine  arts,  of  which  he  was  a 
liberal  patron.  In  1742  he  was  admitted  into  the  Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions,  for  which  he  wrote  many  valuable 
antiquarian  treatises.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a 
"Collection  of  Egyptian,  Etruscan,  Greek,  Roman,  and 
Gallic  Antiquities,"  (7  vols.,  1752-67,)  "Tableaux  drawn 
from  the  Iliad,  Odyssey,  and  ^neid,"  (1757,)  and  a 
"Collection  of  Ancient  Paintings  after  the  Designs  of 
Bartoli,"  with  beautiful  coloured  engravings.  Some  of 
his  works  are  illustrated  with  fine  plates  engraved  by 
himself.  He  wrote  "  Fairy  Tales,"  and  other  works  of 
fiction.    Died  in  1765. 

See  Skrievs,  "Souvenirs  du  Comte  de  Caylus,"  1805:  C.  Le 
Beau,  "filoge  historique  de  M.  le  Comte  de  Caylus,"  1766. 

Caylus,  de,  (Marthe  Marguerite  de  Villette,) 
Marquise,  an  accomplished  French  lady,  mother  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Poitou  in  1673.  '^^'^^  was  educated  at 
court  as  the  protegee  of  her  aunt,  Madame  de  Maintenon, 
and  in  1686  was  married  to  the  Marquis  de  Caylus,  who 
died  in  1704.  She  left  a  work,  which  was  edited  by  Vol- 
taire in  1770, entitled  "Souvenirs  de  Madame  de  Caylus," 
in  which  she  relates  what  she  had  witnessed,  with  great 
candour  and  naivete  and  in  an  agreeable  style.  Died 
in  1729. 

See  Sainte-Reuve,"  Causeries  du  Lundi :"  and  a  Notice  prefixed 
to  an  edition  of  her  "  Souvenirs"  by  L.  S.  Auger,  1803. 

Cayot-Delandre,  kt'yo' di'lSNdR',  (Francois  Ma- 
rie,) a  French  antiquary^  born  at  Rennes  in  1796.  He 
wrote  on  French  history  and  antiquities.    Died  in  1848. 

^  Cayx,  ki,  (R^mi  Jean  Baptiste  Charles,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Cahors  about  1795.  He  published  a 
"History  of  France  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1835,)  and  an 
"Epitome  of  the  History  of  Alexander's  Successors,"! 


which  were  approved  by  the  council  of  the  universit) 
and  used  in  colleges.  About  1840  he  was  elected  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  in  1845  was  appointed  in- 
spector-general of  studies. 

Cazal.  See  Casal,  (Manuel  Ayres.) 
Cazales,  de,  deh  kS'zt'l^s',  (Edmond,)  a  French 
writer  and  ecclesiastic,  son  of  Jacques  Cazales,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Grenade-sur-Garonne  in  1804.  He 
became  professor  of  history  at  Louvain  in  1835,  and  a 
deputy  to  the  National  Assembly  in  1848.  He  con- 
tributed articles  on  political  history  and  literary  criticism 
to  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  and  published  "  His- 
torical Studies  on  Contemporary  Germany,"  (1853.) 

Cazales,  de,  (Jacques  Antoine  Marie,)  an  eloquent 
French  royalist,  was  born  at  Grenade-sur-Garonne  in 
1752.  In  1789  he  was  deputed  by  the  noblesse  to  the 
States-General,  and  soon  became  one  of  the  ablest 
champions  of  monarchy.  He  had  never  made  a  public 
speech  in  his  life  until  the  chance  which  raised  him  upon 
the  tribune  disclosed  to  him  that  he  was  an  orator.  He 
refused  to  follow  his  order  when  it  joined  the  Tiers-Etat 
in  the  National  Assembly,  but  afterwards  obeyed  the 
command  of  that  body  to  take  part  in  its  deliberations. 
His  speech  in  defence  of  the  clergy  was  one  of  his  most 
brilliant  efforts.  "The  character  of  his  eloquence,"  says 
Lamartine,  "  was  that  of  a  desperate  cause.  He  pro- 
tested more  than  he  debated ;  he  opposed  to  the  violent 
triumphs  of  the  Left  (gauche)  his  ironical  defiance,  his 
bitter  indignation."  ("  History  of  the  Girondists.")  He 
emigrated  in  1792,  travelled  in  Italy,  England,  etc.,  and 
returned  to  France  in  1801.    Died  in  1805. 

See  M.  Chare,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Cazales,"  prefixed  to  his 
speeches,  1821;  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Cazalet,  kt^zt'li',  (Jean  Andr^:,)  a  French  chemist, 
born  in  Medoc  in  1750  ;  died  in  1821. 

Caze,  kSz,  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French  publicist,  born 
at  Montauban  in  1781;  died  at  Madrid  in  185 1. 

Cazes,  kSz,  (Pierre  Jacques,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1676,  was  a  pupil  of  Boullongne 
the  elder.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  in  1704, 
and  acquired  a  high  reputation,  though  he  did  not  attain 
the  first  rank.  He  adorned  many  of  the  churches  of 
Paris  with  his  works,  among  which  are  an  "  Adoration 
of  the  Magi,"  and  "  Tabitha  raised  from  the  Dead." 
His  composition,  design,  and  colouring  are  praised. 
Died  in  1754. 

See  Heinecken,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 
Cazotte,  kt'zot',  (Jacques,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Dijon  in  1720.  His  principal  works  are  "  OUivier,"  a 
poem,  and  the  "  Lord  Impromptu,"  which  were  success- 
ful. His  verses  entitled  "The  English  Brunette"  were 
ascribed  to  Voltaire.  As  a  royalist,  he  was  executed  by 
the  terrorists  in  1 792. 

See  Sainte-Beuve.  "  Causeries  du  Lundi." 
Cazweenee  or  Cazwini,  kiz-wee'nee,  written  also 
Cazouyny,  Cazwyiiy,  or  Caswini,  (Zacharia  ben 
Muham'mkd,)  an  Arabian  naturalist,  born  at  Casbin,  (or 
Cazwin,  whence  he  derived  his  name,)  in  Persia,  is  called 
"the  Pliny  of  the  Orientals."  He  wrote  an  important 
treatise  entitled  "  The  Wonders  of  Nature,"  designed 
to  be  a  resume  or  summing  up  of  all  the  best  previous 
works  on  natural  science.  This  plan  is  executed  in 
such  a  philosophic  spirit  that  the  work  is  preferred  to 
the  originals  which  treat  of  the  same  subjects.  Died  in 
1283. 

See  Haji-Khalfa,  "Bibliographical  Dictionary." 

Cean-Bermudez,  thi-^n'  b^R-moo'D^th,  (Juan  Au- 
GUSTIN,)  a  Spanish  writer  on  art,  born  at  Gijon,  in  As- 
turias,  in  1749.  He  became  a  resident  of  Madrid,  and 
a  student  of  architecture  and  design.  Having  devoted 
himself  to  the  history  of  Spanish  art,  he  published  a 
"  Dictionary  of  the  most  Eminent  Professors  of  the  Fine 
Arts  in  Spain,"  ("  Diccionario  Historico,"  etc.,  6  vols., 
1800,)  a  "  Dialogue  on  the  Art  of  Painting,"  "  Notices  of 
Spanish  Architects  and  Architecture,"  (4  vols.,  1829,) 
and  other  works.  He  founded  an  Academy  of  Painting 
at  Seville.    Died  about  1830. 

See  Sebastian  de  Minano,"  Viede  Cean-Bermudez  :"  Ticknor, 
"History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
1  March,  1846. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  {^^^Stt  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CEBA 


5 


CELAKOWSKY 


Ceba,  cha'bS,  (Ansaldo,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Genoa  in  1565,  published  many  mediocre  works  in  prose 
and  verse,  and  two  popular  tragedies,  entitled  "  Alcippo" 
and  "Gemelle  Capuane."    Died  in  1623. 

9e'be§,  [Gr.  Ke/iw;  Fr.  C^:hes,  sa'bis',]  sometimes 
written  Kebes,  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Thebes, 
was  the  disciple  and  friend  of  Socrates.  He  is  introduced 
by  Plato  as  one  of  the  interlocutors  in  the  "Phasdon." 
He  wrote  several  works,  one  of  which  is  extant,  namely, 
"  Pinax,"  (" The  Tablet,"  or  "Picture,")  a  dialogue  on 
human  life,  its  trials,  etc.,  and  which  has  been  often  re- 
printed. Its  spirit  and  style  are  said  to  be  worthy  of  a 
disciple  of  Socrates. 

See  A.  Knoi-l,  "  Kebes  des  Thebaners  Gemalde ;"  Flade, 
"  Ueber  den  Cebes." 

Cecchi,  chek'kee,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  eminent 
Italian  comic  poet  and  lawyer,  born  at  Florence  in  15 17. 
He  wrote  ten  comedies,  which  were  printed,  and  a  mul- 
titude of  dramas,  (in  manuscript.)  Among  his  published 
plays  are  "II  Corredo,"  ("The  Feast,")  and  "  II  Don- 
zello,"  ("The  Bachelor.")  Died  in  1587.  " This  author," 
says  Ginguene,  "is  worthy  to  be  placed  nearly  in  the 
same  rank  as  Machiavel  and  Ariosto,  for  truth  of  cha- 
racter, vivacity  of  dialogue,  and  comic  power." 

See  Ginguene,  "Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  Negri,  "Istoria 
degli  Scrittori  Fiorentini." 

Cecchini,  ch§k-kee'nee,  (Pietro  Maria,)  an  Italian 
comic  author  and  actor,  born  at  Ferrara,  lived  about 
1620-50. 

Cecco  d'Ascoli,  chek'ko  dSs'ko-lee,  a  learned  Italian 
astrologer,  originally  named  Francesco  Stabili,  (sti'- 
be-lee,)  was  born  at  Ascoli.  He  taught  astrology  at  Bo- 
logna, from  which  he  removed  to  Florence  in  1325.  He 
wrote  a  Latin  commentary  on  Sacrobosco's  "Sphaera 
Mundi,"  and  a  poem  called  "Acerba,"  which  passed 
through  many  editions.  It  treats  of  natural  science, 
philosophy,  astrology,  etc.  He  was  condemned  as  a 
heretic  by  the  Inquisition,  and  was  burnt  alive  in  1327. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "Storiadella  Letteratura  Italiana ;"  Bernini, 
"Storie  degli  Eretici,"  1707. 

Cecil,  ses'il  or  sfs'il,  (Richard,)  an  English  clergy- 
man, born  in  London  in  1 748,  was  ordained  a  priest  in 
1777.  He  became  eminent  as  a  preacher,  and  in  1780 
accepted  a  call  to  Saint  John's,  in  London.  In  1800  he 
was  presented  to  the  livings  of  Chobham  and  Bisley,  in 
Surrey.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  the  Rev.  John  Newton," 
one  of  "John  Bacon  the  Sculptor,"  and  a  collection  of 
sermons.    Died  in  18 10. 

Cecil,  (Robert,)  Earl  of  Salisbury,  (saulz'ber-e,)  an 
able  English  statesman,  born  about  1560,  was  the 
second  son  of  Lord  Burleigh,  and  first-cousin  of  Lord 
Bacon.  He  was  appointed  second  secretary  of  state  in 
1596,  after  having  been  initiated  in  the  mysteries  of  diplo- 
macy and  court  intrigue.  At  the  death  of  his  father,  in 
1598,  he  succeeded  him  as  prime  minister.  James  I., 
who  ascended  the  throne  in  1603,  retained  Cecil  as  prime 
minister,  and  created  him  Viscount  Cranborne  in  1604, 
and  Earl  of  Salisbury  in  1605.  In  1608  he  succeeded 
Lord  Dorset  as  lord  treasurer  of  England.  He  was  an 
adroit  negotiator,  and  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  ablest 
statesmen  of  his  time.  His  disposition  is  said  to  have 
been  cold  and  selfish.  He  is  censured  for  promoting  the 
ruin  of  Raleigh  and  Essex,  who  were  his  rivals.  He  is 
charged  with  having  received  a  pension  from  the  Span- 
ish government  on  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  between 
England  and  Spain  in  1604.  He  wrote  the  "State  and 
Dignity  of  a  Secretary  of  State."    Died  in  1612. 

See  Motley,  "History  of  the  United  Netherlands,"  vol.  ii.  chap, 
xviii.  p  359  et  seq.  ;  Gardner,  "  History  of  England  from  1603  to 
i6i6,"  particularly  chaps,  ii.  and  x. 

Cecil,  (Lord  Robert.)    See  Cranborne,  Lord. 

Cecil,  (William,)  Baron  Burleigh  or  Burghleigh, 
(biir'le,)  an  eminent  English  statesman,  who  was  prime 
minister  of  England  for  about  forty  years,  was  born  at 
Bourne,  in  Lincolnshire,  in  1520.  After  graduating  at 
Cambridge,  he  studied  law  at  Gray's  Inn,  and  married 
Mildred,  daughter  of  Sir  Anthony  Cook,  director  of  the 
king's  studies.  He  was  appointed  master  of  requests  in 
1 547,  and  secretary  of  state  in  1548  by  Lord- Protector 
Somerset.  He  refused  to  co-operate  in  the  exclusion  of 
Mary  and  Elizabeth  from  the  throne,  but  signed  as  a 


witness  an  instrument  to  that  effect.  On  the  accession 
of  Mary  in  1553  he  retired  from  office  and  entered  Par- 
liament, where  he  opposed  the  measures  of  the  court. 
When  Elizabeth  became  queen,  in  1558,  she  appointed 
Cecil  secretary  of  state  ;  and  from  that  time  until  his 
death  he  was  the  principal  director  of  the  government. 
"Sir  William  Cecil,"  says  Hume,  "was  the  most  vigi- 
lant, active,  and  prudent  minister  ever  known  in  Eng- 
land ;  and,  as  he  was  governed  by  no  views  but  the  in- 
terests of  his  sovereign,  his  authority  over  her  became 
every  day  more  predominant."  He  was  created  Baron 
Burleigh  in  1571,  and  lord  treasurer  in  1572.  He  died 
in  1598,  leaving  two  sons,  Thomas,  Earl  of  Exeter,  and 
Robert,  Earl  of  Salisbury ;  also  three  hundred  distinct 
landed  estates.  "Lord  Burleigh,"  says  Macaulay,  "can 
hardly  be  called  a  great  man.  He  was  not  one  of  those 
whose  genius  and  energy  change  the  fate  of  empires. 
Nothing  that  is  recorded  either  of  his  words  or  actions 
indicates  intellectual  or  moral  elevation.  But  his  talents, 
though  not  brilliant,  were  of  an  eminently  useful  kind. 
He  had  a  cool  temper,  a  sound  judgment,  great  powers 
of  application,  and  a  constant  eye  to  the  main  chance. 
He  never  deserted  his  friends  until  it  was  very  inconve- 
nient to  stand  by  them,  and  was  an  excellent  Protestant 
when  it  was  not  very  advantageous  to  be  a  papist."  In 
sagacity  and  foresight  he  seems  to  have  been  far  inferior 
to  Walsingham  and  other  statesmen  of  that  age.  Lord 
Bmieigh  left  numerous  state  papers,  letters,  etc.,  many 
of  which  have  been  published. 

See  Motley,  "  History  of  the  United  Netherlands,"  especially 
chaps,  vi.,  viii.,  and  xviii.  ;  Froude,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  v. 
chap.  XXV. ;  Arthur  Collins,  "  Life  of  William  Cecil,"  1732;  Ed- 
ward Nares,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  W.  Cecil,"  3  vols., 
182S-32;  also  Hume,  "  History  of  England." 

Cecile.    See  Cecilia. 

Ce-9iPi-a,  [Fr.  Cecile,  si's^l',]  Saint,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  Roman  virgin  who  suffered  martyrdom  in 
the  second  or  third  century.  Fortunatus  of  Poitiers,  the 
most  ancient  author  that  speaks  of  her,  states  that  she 
died  in  Sicily  about  180  A.D.  She  is  regarded  as  the 
patroness  of  musicians,  and  is  the  subject  of  celebrated 
paintings  by  Raphael  and  Domenichino. 

See  Baillet,  "Vies  des  Saints;"  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Sacred  and 
Legendary  Art." 

Cecilianus,    See  Donatus,  Bishop. 
Cecilius.    See  C/ecilius. 

Cecille,  si'siK,  (Jean  Baptlste  Thomas  M^d6e,)  a 
French  vice-admiral,  born  at  Rouen  in  1 787.  He  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  senator  in  1852. 

Cecina.    See  C/^:cina. 

9e'crop,s  or  Ke'krops,  [Gr.  KinpuTp  ;  Fr.  C:6crops, 
Sci'kRops',]  a  hero  of  the  Pelasgian  race,  who,  according 
to  ancient  legends,  was  the  first  king  and  legislator  of 
Attica.  He  was  regarded  as  the  author  of  the  earliest 
civilized  customs  and  institutions  of  the  Athenians,  whom 
he  instructed  in  marriage,  agriculture,  navigation,  and  the 
worship  of  Jupiter.  The  people  of  Attica  were  some- 
times called  Cecrop'idae. 

See  Thirlwall's  "  History  of  Greece." 

Cedmon.    See  C^edmon. 

Ce-dre'nus,  (Gp:orgius,)  \Teo)pyioc  6  Ke6p7]v6^,]  a 
Greek  monk,  supposed  to  have  been  the  author  or  com- 
piler of  a  chronicle  from  the  creation  to  1057  A.D.,  en- 
titled Xvvo}pig  LGTopiuv,  "A  Synopsis  of  History."  It  is 
written  without  judgment  and  in  a  barbarous  style. 

Cei,  cha'ee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  poet,  was  born 
at  Florence.  His  contemporaries  ranked  him  with  Pe- 
trarch, but  his  fame  has  since  declined.  He  wrote 
sonnets,  canzone,  etc.    He  died  in  or  after  1523. 

Ceillier,  si'ye-i',  (R]^:mi,)  a  French  Benedictine  monk, 
born  at  Bar-le-I)uc  in  1688.  He  became  titular  prior  of 
Flavigny,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  Sacred  and  Ecclesi- 
astic Authors,"  (23  vols.,  1729-63,)  which  is  esteemed 
for  accuracv,  and  is  more  complete  than  that  of  Dupin. 
Died  in  1761. 

See  QuiiRARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Celakowsky,  chi-lS-kov'skee,  (Frantisek  LADHi- 
LAVV,)  a  Bohemian  poet  and  philologist,  born  at  Strako- 
nice,  or  vStrakonitz,  in  1799.  He  became  an  enthusiastic 
student  of  the  Slavonic  languages,  and  in  1822  began  to 
publish  a  collection  of  Slavonic  national  songs.    A  few 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,        k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y. 


sAor^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CELER 


553 


CELSIUS 


{ears  later  he  was  professor  of  Bohemian  literature  in  the 
Jniversity  of  Prague.  About  1832  he  was  deprived  of  this 
place  for  having  censured  the  Czar  Nicholas  in  one  of  his 
writings.  He  translated  some  Russian  national  songs, 
and  published  popular  original  poems,  one  of  which  is 
"The  Hundred-Leaved  Rose."  From  1842  to  1848  he 
was  professor  at  Breslau.    He  died  at  Prague  in  1852. 

Ce'ier,  a  Roman  architect  of  the  first  century,  em- 
ployed by  Nero.  Celer  and  Severus  were  the  architects 
of  the  famous  palace  called  the  Golden  House,  built  by 
order  of  Nero  on  Mounts  Palatine  and  Esquiline.  Its 
site  was  afterwards  occupied  by  the  Coliseum. 

Celeste,  si'list',  or  Celeste-Elliot,  (Madame,)  a 
famous  dansetise  and  actress,  born  in  Paris  about  18 14. 
At  the  age  of  fifteen  she  made  a  successful  debut  in  the 
United  States,  where  she  was  married  to  Mr.  Elliot.  She 
next  visited  England,  and  performed  in  London  with 
applause.  Since  1837  she  has  lived  in  London,  and  has 
taken  a  part  in  the  dramas  at  Drury  Lane  and  other 
theatres. 

Celesti,  chk-]§s'tee,  (Andrea,)  Cavaliere,  an  emi- 
nent painter,  born  at  Venice  in  1637.  He  painted  history, 
landsca])es,  and  genre,  (at  Venice,)  and  excelled  in  rich- 
ness of  colouring  and  in  design.  Among  his  works  are 
"The  Pool  of  Bethesda,"  and  an  "Adoration  of  the 
Magi."  His  landscapes  are  highly  prized.  Died  in  1706. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Celestin.    See  Cei.estine. 

Cel'es-tine  or  Cel-es-ti'nus,  [Fr.  Celestin,  sil^s'- 
tiN';  It.  Celestino,  ch4-l§s-tee'no,]  a  Roman  by  birth, 
was  chosen  pope  in  422  a.d.  as  successor*  to  Boniface  I. 
By  his  influence  a  council  was  called  at  Ephesus,  and 
Nestorius  was  there  deposed.  He  died  in  432,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Sixtus  III. 

Celestine  II.,  Pope,  was  originally  called  Guido  di 
Casieli.o,  from  his  birthplace,  Citta  di  Castello,  in 
Tuscany.  He  succeeded  Innocent  II.  in  September, 
1 143,  and  died  in  March,  1144. 

Celestine  III.,  (Giacinto  Orsini — oR-see'nee,)  suc- 
cessor of  Clement  III.,  was  elected  pope  in  1 191,  at  the 
age  of  eighty-five.  He  crowned  the  emperor  Henry  VI., 
stimulated  the  princes  of  Europe  to  join  the  crusade, 
and  excommunicated  Leojjold,  Duke  of  Austria,  for  de- 
taining in  prison  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion.    Died  in  1198. 

Celestine  IV.,  a  native  of  Milan,  was  elected  as  suc- 
cessor to  Gregory  IX.  in  September,  1241,  but  died  about 
three  weeks  later,  before  he  had  been  crowned.  His 
original  name  was  Goffredo  Castiglione,  (gof-fRa'do 
kSs-til-yo'ni.) 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Celestine  V.  (Pietko  da  Murrone  (di  moor-ro'ni) 
or  Morone)  was  born  in  Apulia  in  121 5.  After  the 
death  of  Nicholas  IV.  the  cardinals  failed  to  unite  on  a 
successor  for  twenty-seven  months.  In  1294  they  chose 
an  ignorant  monk  or  hermit,  who  took  the  name  of  Cel- 
estine. A  few  months  after  his  election,  he  abdicated 
his  office,  which  was  too  heavy  a  burden  for  him.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Boniface  VIII.,  who  confined  him  in 
prison  until  he  died,  in  1296. 

See  V.  Spinei.ii,  "Vita  del  S.  Pietro  del  Morone  Papa,"  1664; 
L.  Marino,  "Vita  di  S.  Celestino  V.,"  1637. 

Celestino  or  Celestinus.    See  Celestine. 
Ce-les'tl-us,  written  also  Coelestius  or  Caelestius, 

a  friend  and  coadjutor  of  Pelagius.  He  went  from 
Rome  to  Carthage  in  409  A.D.,  soon  after  which  he  was 
condemned  by  the  Council  of  Carthage  for  denying  the 
dogma  of  original  sin,  and  other  doctrines.  He  appealed 
to  the  pope,  Zosimus,  who  at  first  recognized  that  his  con- 
fession of  faith  was  Catholic,  but  afterwards  concurred 
with  the  Council  of  Carthage.  He  found  a  protector  in 
Nestorius,  at  Constantinople,  and  presented  himself  at 
the  Council  of  Ephesus  in  430  a.d.,  but  was  not  received. 
(See  Pklaghjs.) 

Celio  Magno,  cha'le-o  min'yo,  au  eminent  Italian 
lyric  poet,  who  flourished  about  1600. 

Celius.    See  CyEuus. 

Cellamare,  ch^l-la-mi'ri,  (Antonio  Giudice,)  Duke 
of  Giovenazzo,  (jo-vi-njt'so,)  Prince  of  Cellamare,  a  dis- 
tinguished politician,  born  in  Naples  in  1657.  In  the 
war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  which  began  in  1701,  he 
fought  for  Philip  V.,  and  in  1 7 12  was  made  a  cabinet 


minister.  He  was  sent  in  171 5  as  ambassador  to  France, 
where  he  was  the  master-spirit  of  a  conspiracy  against 
the  regent  Orleans.  Having  been  detected,  he  was  sent 
home  in  1 7 18,  and  became  captain-general  of  Old  Castile, 
Died  in  1733. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "  Memoires  :"  Vatout,  "La  Conspiration  de 
Cellamare,  episode  de  la  Regence,"  1832. 

Cellarius,  s&l-ld're-vis,  (Andreas,)  a  German  geo- 
grapher and  mathematician,  originally  named  Keller, 
(kel'ler,)  became  rector  of  the  College  of  Horn.  He 
published  "Military  Architecture,"  (1656,)  and  a  "De- 
scription of  Poland,"  (1659.) 

Cellarius,  (Christoph,)  an  eminent  German  phi- 
lologist and  author,  whose  proper  name  was  Keller, 
(keKler,)  born  at  Schmalkalden  in  1638,  was  appointed 
rector  of  the  College  of  Weimar  in  1673,  and  professor 
of  eloquence  and  history  in  the  University  of  Halle  in 
1693.  He  published  good  editions  of  many  Latin  classics, 
and  several  original  works.  His  "Antibarbarus  Latinus," 
on  the  Latinity  of  the  middle  ages  and  subsequent  period, 
appeared  in  1695.  His  most  celebrated  work  is  "  An- 
cient Geography,"  ("Notitia  Orbis  Antiqui,"  1 701,)  which 
was  more  complete  and  extensive  than  any  previous 
work  on  that  subject.  "  The  merit  of  this  work,"  says 
Walckenaer,  "does  not  respond  to  its  celebrity."  Died 
at  Halle  in  1707. 

See  August  Hermann  Francke,  "  Leichenpredigt  auf  C.  Cel- 
larium,  nebst  dessen  Lebenslauf,"  1708. 

Cellarius,  (Johann,)  a  German  Protestant  scholar, 
born  at  Kundstadt  in  1496,  was  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Louvain,  Tiibingen,  and  Wittenberg.  He  became 
eminent  as  a  preacher  at  Leipsic,  and  wrote  several 
works  on  theology.    Died  at  Dresden  in  1542. 

See  JocHER,  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Cellini,  ch^l-lee'nee,  (Benvenuto,)  a  celebrated  Ital- 
ian artist,  born  at  Florence  in  1500.  He  learned  music 
in  obedience  to  his  father's  will  ;  but  he  preferred  the 
arts  of  gold-worker,  engraver,  and  sculptor,  in  which  he 
excelled.  Having  wounded  a  man  in  a  quarrel,  he  fled 
from  Florence  to  Rome,  and  fought  in  defence  of  that 
city  in  1527,  when  it  was  stormed  by  Constable  Bourbon, 
whom  he  boasted  of  having  killed  on  that  occasion.  He 
was  employed  by  Pope  Clement  VII.  as  engraver  to  the 
mint,  and  he  engraved  medals  with  great  success.  He 
afterwards  worked  in  Paris  for  Francis  I.,  and  in  Flor- 
ence for  Cosimo  de'  Medici.  Among  his  master-pieces 
is  a  bronze  group  of  "Perseus  and  Medusa."  He  died 
at  Florence  in  1570,  leaving  an  entertaining  and  curious 
autobiography,  ("Vita  di  B.  Cellini,"  1720,)  which  was 
translated  into  German  by  Goethe,  (1811,)  into  French 
by  Farjasse,  (1833,)  and  into  English  by  Roscoe,  (1822.) 

See,  also,  B.  Gamba,  "  Raccordi  di  B.  Cellini,"  1831 ;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Celnart,  sSKntR',  (Elisabeth  F^licie,)  a  French 
writer  of  educational  works,  born  at  Moulins  in  1796. 

Cels,  sSl,  (Jacques  Martin,)  a  French  botanist,  born 
at  Versailles  in  1743.  He  formed  a  fine  botanic  garden 
near  Paris,  which  furnished  Ventenat  the  subject  of  his 
book  entitled  "  Jardin  de  Cels."  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Institute,  had  a  large  part  in  the  preparation  of  the 
rural  code,  and  published  "Instructions"  on  agriculture. 
Died  in  1806. 

See  Silvestre,  "Notice  sur  Cels,"  1806. 

Celse.    See  Celsus. 

Celsius,  seKse-us  or  sgl'she-us,  (Anders,)  a  Swedish 
astronomer,  a  grandson  of  Magnus,  noticed  below,  was 
born  at  Upsal  in  1 701.  He  was  chosen  professor  of  astro- 
nomy at  Upsal  in  1730.  In  1736  he  was  selected  by  the 
French  government  to  assist  Maupertuis  and  others  in 
the  measurement  of  the  length  of  a  degree  in  Lapland. 
He  afterwards  erected  an  observatory  at  Upsal,  where 
he  extended  his  reputation  by  his  observations  and  by  his 
writings  on  astronomy.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  and  a  member  of  other  learned  socie- 
ties or  institutions.    Died  in  1744. 

See  HoEPKEN,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  A.  Celsius,"  1745. 

Celsius,  (Magnus  Nils,)  a  Swedish  savant,  born  in 
Helsingland  in  162 1.  He  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  Upsal,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  Fish,  and  an- 
other on  the  Plants  of  Upsal.    Died  in  1679. 


■e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,  (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CELSIUS 


554 


CENTO  RIO 


Celsius,  (Olaus,)  a  Swedish  botanist  and  divine,  born 
at  Upsal  in  1670,  was  the  son  of  the  preceding,  and  the 
father  or  uncle  of  Andrew,  above  noticed.  He  became 
professor  of  theology  and  Oriental  languages  in  Upsal, 
and  gained  distinction  by  his  researches  to  identify  plants 
mentioned  in  the  Bible.  His  capital  work,  "  Sacred  Bo- 
tany," ("  Hierobotanicon,"  1745,)  contains  the  results  of 
those  labours,  and  displays  great  erudition.  He  is  re- 
garded as  the  founder  of  natural  history  in  Sweden, 
and  had  the  honour  of  directing  the  early  studies  of 
Linnasus,  whom  he  received  into  his  family.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  Flora  of  Upsal,"  and  several  works  on  theo- 
logy, antiquities,  etc.    Died  in  1756. 

See  A.  Baeck,  "  Aniinnelse-Tal  ofver  O.  Celsius,"  1758. 

Celso.    See  Celsus. 

Cel'sus,  [Fr.  Celse,  slls ;  It.  Celso,  chSKso,]  an 
Epicurean  philosopher,  who  lived  in  the  second  cen- 
tury, in  the  reign  of  the  Antonines,  and  was  probably  a 
Roman.  He  was  a  friend  of  Lucian.  He  is  supposed 
to  be  the  author  of  the  attack  on  Christianity  called 
"  A6}of  aA?7&7f,"  (a  "True  Discourse,")  which  was  ably 
confuted  by  Origen,  and  which  has  not  come  down  to 
us.  Some  have  regretted  that  the  early  Christians  in 
their  zeal  destroyed  the  work  of  Celsus,  which  might 
now  be  used  to  refute  some  arguments  of  infidels.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  pagan  author  that  wrote 
against  the  Christian  religion,  and  to  have  used  the 
weapons  of  sophistry  and  irony  with  formidable  power. 

See  Origen,  "Adversus  Celsum  ;"  Neander,  "  Geschlchte  der 
Christliche  Kirche." 

Celsus,  (Aurelius  Cornelius,)  a  celebrated  Latin 
writer  on  medicine,  of  whose  history  little  is  known. 
It  is  supposed  that  he  lived  in  Rome  in  the  reigns  of 
Augustus  and  Tiberius.  Of  numerous  works  which  he 
wrote  on  rhetoric,  agriculture,  medicine,  etc.,  only  one 
has  been  preserved, — namely,  his  excellent  treatise  "  De 
Medicina,"  in  eight  books.  His  style  is  elegant,  con- 
cise, clear,  and  equal  in  purity  to  that  of  the  classic 
authors  of  the  Augustan  age.  He  adopts  mostly  the 
doctrines  of  Hippocrates  and  Asclepiades,  (of  Bithy- 
nia,)  and  treats  impartially  the  prevailing  sects  of  his 
time,  the  Empirics,  Methodists,  and  Dogmatics.  His 
treatise  has  been  much  used  as  a  text-book  in  modern 
times.  Fifteen  editions  were  issued  in  the  sixteenth 
century. 

See  C.  Kissel,  "Celsus,  eine  historische  Monograpbie,"  1844; 
M.  W.  Schilling,  "Quaestio  A.  C.  Celsi  Vita,"  1824;  F.  Valori, 
"  Dissertatio  de  A.  C.  Celso,"  1835;  Haller,  "Bibliotheca  Medica 
Practica." 

Celsus,  (Minos,)  [It.  Minio  Celsi,  mee'ne-o cheKsee,] 
a  learned  Italian  Protestant,  was  born  at  Sienna  about 
1500.  He  resided  at  Bale  as  corrector  of  the  press,  and 
published  a  Latin  treatise  against  the  capital  punishment 
of  heresy,  (1577.) 

Celsus,  (P.  Juventius,)  a  Roman  jurist  of  the  second 
century,  was  the  son  of  Juventius  Celsus,  who  was  also  a 
jurist,  mentioned  by  Uljiian.  Celsus  the  Younger  was 
a  favourite  of  Nerva  and  of  Trajan,  and  was  consul  the 
second  time  in  129  A.D.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"Digesta,"  fragments  of  which  are  preserved  in  the 
compilation  of  Justinian. 

Celsus,  (P.  Marius,)  a  Roman  general,  who  became 
consul  in  62  A.D.  In  the  year  68  he  obtained  command 
of  an  army  under  Galba,  after  whose  death  he  gained  the 
favour  of  Otho,  whom  he  served  with  fidelity  in  the  war 
against  Vitellius.  He  was  one  of  the  generals  defeated 
by  Caecina  and  Valens  at  Bedriacum  in  69  A.D. 

Cel'sus  Al-bin-o-va'nus,  a  Roman  poet,  was  a  friend 
of  Horace,  who  addressed  to  him  one  of  his  Epistles. 

Celtes,  tslKt^s,  (Conrad,)  a  German  poet  and  scholar, 
surnamed  PRO  rucrus,  (pRO-toot'se-iis,)  was  born  at  Wip- 
feld  in  1459.  His  family  name  was  Meissel,  (mTs's&l.) 
He  received  the  title  of  imperial  poet,  or  poet-laureate, 
about  1487.  He  was  afterwards  professor  of  eloquence 
in  Vienna.  He  wrote  the  "Art  of  Making  Verses,"  ("Ars 
Versificandi,")  a  volume  of  Odes,  a  poem  on  the  customs 
of  Germany,  ("  De  Situ  et  Moribus  Germaniae,")  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1508. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Latinis;"  Melchior  Adam,  "Vitae 
Eruditorum  ;"  P.  Ekrrman,  "  Dissertatio  de  C.  Celle  ejiisque  Sodali- 
tate  literaria,"  1:763  ;  Kluepfel,  "  Programmata  II.  de  Vitaet  Scriptis 
C.  Celtis  Protucii,"  1827. 


Cenci,  ch^n'chee,  (Beatrice,)  a  Roman  lady  of  patri- 
cian birth,  famous  for  her  beauty  and  tragical  fate.  Her 
father  was  an  infamous  person,  who  treated  his  family 
with  such  cruelty  that  several  of  them  conspired  and 
caused  him  to  be  assassinated.  She  was  executed  for 
that  crime  at  Rome  in  1599.  Her  story  has  been  dra- 
matized by  Shelley. 

See  MuRATORi,  " Annalcs;"  "Vita  de  B.  Cenci  tratta  dal  Mano- 
scritto  antico,"  Rome,  1849. 

Cennini,  ch^n-nee'nee,  (Bernardo,)  a  Florentine 
goldsmith,  is  reputed  to  have  been  the  first  who  intro- 
duced the  art  of  printing  into  Florence.  A  "Commen- 
tary of  Servius  on  Virgil"  (1471)  is  the  only  extant  work 
printed  by  him. 

See  F.  Fantozzi,  "  Memorie  biografiche  di  B.  Cennini,"  1839. 

Cennini,  (Cennino,)  an  old  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Colle,  in  Tuscany,  about  1360.     He  wrote  an  esteemed 
"Treatise  on  Painting,"  first  printed  in  Rome  in  1821.  ^ 
He  was  living  in  1437. 

Cen-so-ri''nus,  a  Latin  grammarian,  who  lived  in  the 
reigns  of  Alexander  Severus  and  Gordian,  and  wrote, 
about  238  A.D.,  a  small  work,  entitled  "On  the  Natal 
Day,"  ("De  Die  natali,")  which  is  useful  in  chronology. 
It  displays  learning  and  good  judgment. 

Censorinus,  (Appius  Claudius,)  was  chosen  by  the 
army  Emperor  of  Rome  in  269  A.D.,  after  having  been 
twice  consul.  He  was  killed  by  his  mutinous  soldiers  a 
few  days  after  his  elevation. 

Censorinus,  (C.  Marcius,)  a  Roman  general,  was  a 
partisan  of  Marius  in  the  civil  war.  He  killed  the  con- 
sul Octavius  in  87  B.C.,  and  commanded  an  army  which 
was  defeated  by  Pompey  in  the  year  82,  soon  after  which 
he  was  taken  prisoner  and  killed. 

Cen-tau'ri,  [  Eng.  Cen'taurs  ;  Fr.  Centaures, 
s&N't5R';  Gr.  KevravpoL,  supposed  to  be  derived  from 
KEVTeu,  to  "pierce"  or  "goad,"  and  ravpog,  a  "bull,"  in 
allusion,  perhaps,  to  their  driving  off  the  cattle  of  the 
neighbouring  districts,]  a  fabulous  race  of  animals,  half 
men  and  half  horses,  said  to  have  been  the  offspring  of 
Ixi^on  and  a  cloud,  (see  IxiON,)  and  to  have  lived  in  Thes- 
saly.  The  battle  of  the  Centaurs  and  the  Lapithae  was 
a  favourite  subject  with  the  ancient  Greek  artists.  In  the 
"Iliad"  the  Centaurs  are  called  <!>^pec,  i.e.  drjpe^,  or  "wild 
beasts  :"  the  idea  of  their  compound  nature — of  their  being 
half  men  and  half  horse — was  the  invention  of  a  later  age. 
It  has  been  conjectured  that  the  fable  of  the  Centaurs 
originated  among  a  people  who  had  never  seen  men  on 
horseback,  and  who  mistook  the  horse  and  rider  for  one 
animal.    (See  Palaephatus,  "  De  Incredibilibus.") 

Centenera,  thgn-ti-na'rS,  (Martin  del  Barco,)  a 
mediocre  Spanish  poet,  born  in  Old  Castile.  He  took 
part  in  a  military  expedition  to  South  America  in  1573, 
and  wrote  a  description  of  the  same  in  Spanish  verse. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Centeno,  th§n-ta'no,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  officer,  born 
in  Castile  in  1505,  obtained  command  of  an  army  in  Peru, 
and  was  defeated  at  Guarina  (or  Huarina)  by  Gonzalo 
in  1547.    Died  in  1549. 

Centlivre,  sent-liv'er  or  sent-lee'ver,  (Susanna,)  an 
English  dramatic  writer,  born  about  1675,  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  Mr.  Freeman,  of  Lincolnshire.  She  was  thrice 
married,  and  her  third  husband  was  J.  Centlivre,  chief 
cook  to  Queen  Anne.  She  wrote  numerous  successful 
comedies,  among  which  were  "The  Busybody,"  "The 
Wonder,"  "A  Bold  Stroke  for  a  Wife,"  also  "The  Per- 
jured Husband,"  a  tragedy.  She  was  noted  for  wit  and 
beauty.    Died  about  1723. 

See  CiBBER,  "  Lives  of  tlie  Poets;"  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dra- 
matica  ;"  "Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  Louisa  S. 
Costello,  1844. 

Centofanti,  chln-to-fln'tee,  (Silvestro,)  an  Italian 
professor  and  writer,  born  at  Calci,  near  Pisa.  He 
published  a  poem  "On  Perfect  Sovereignty,"  (1814,) 
in  honour  of  Ferdinand  III.,  "QEdipus,"  a  tragedy, 
(1830,)  "  Stanzas  on  Dante,"  and  other  minor  works. 
He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  professor  of  history 
and  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Pisa  from  1842  to 
1848,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  deprived  of  the  chair 
on  account  of  his  liberal  political  principles. 

Centorio  degli  Ortensi,  chln-to're-o  diKyee  or- 
tSn'see,  (Ascagno,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Rome, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  /on^;  h,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,    short;  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fSU,  fdt;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


) 


CEO 


555 


CERESOLA 


served  in  the  army  many  years  with  honour.  He  wrote 
a  volume  of  verses,  ("Amorose  Rime,")  and  two  esteemed 
works,  entitled  "  Memoirs  of  the  War  of  Transylvania," 
{1565,)  and  "Memoirs  of  the  Affairs  of  Europe,"  (1569.) 
See  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Ceo,  do.dosa'o,  [Fr.  Du  Ciel,  dii  se-§K,]  (Violante,) 
a  Portuguese  poetess,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1 601,  was  called 
"  the  Tenth  Muse."  She  produced  the  "  Portuguese  Par- 
nassus of  Divine  and  Human  Poetry,"  {"  Parnaso  Lusi- 
taneo  de  divinos  et  humanos  Versos,")  and  other  admired 
poems.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  she  entered  a  convent. 
Died  in  1693. 

See  BowRiNG,  "Ancient  Poetry  and  Romances  of  Spain ;"  Long- 
fellow, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Ceolfrid,  choKfrid,  (?)  or  Ceolfirth,  an  Anglo-Saxon 
writer,  born  in  Northumbria  about  642  A.D.;  died  in  716. 
'    Cephale.    See  Cephalus. 

Ce-phaTi-on  or  Ceph-a-lae'on,  [Kf^aA/wv  or  Kf(^a- 
"kaiuv,]  a  Greek  historian,  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the 
second  century.  He  wrote  an  epitome  of  general  history 
from  the  time  of  Ninus  to  that  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Ceph'a-lus,  [Gr.  Ke^aAof ;  Fr.  Cephale,  si'fil',]  a 
personage  of  the  Greek  mythology,  was  the  husband  of 
Procris.  Incited  by  jealousy,  she  watched  him  when  he 
was  hunting,  and  he  killed  her  by  accident. 

Cephalus,  [Kc0a?.of,]  an  eminent  Athenian  orator, 
who  flourished  about  400  B.C.  and  contributed  largely  to 
the  overthrow  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants.  According  to  some, 
he  was  the  father  of  Lysias  the  orator. 

Cephisodore.    See  Cephisodorus. 

Ce-phis-o-do'rus,  [Gr.  Kr/cptaodupoc;  Fr.  Cephiso- 
dore, sa'fe'zo'doR',]  an  eminent  Athenian  orator,  was  a 
disciple  of  Isocrates,  for  whom  he  wrote  an  apology  against 
Aristotle.  He  was  perhaps  the  same  with  Cephisodorus, 
author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Sacred  War." 

Cephisodorus,  a  celebrated  Greek  painter,  men- 
tioned by  Pliny,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  420  B.C. 

Cephisodote.    See  Cephisodotus. 

Ceph-i-sod'o-tus,  [Gr.  K/^<pia6doToc ;  Fr.  Cephiso- 
dote, si'fe'zo'dot',]  a  celebrated  Athenian  sculptor,  who 
flourished  about  370  B.C.  His  sister  was  the  wife  of 
Phocion.  Pliny  speaks  with  admiration  of  his  works, 
among  which  was  a  group  of  the  nine  Muses.  His  style 
was  more  graceful  and  less  majestic  than  that  of  Phidias. 

Cephisodotus,  an  Athenian  general,  whose  talent 
for  oratory  is  praised  by  Demosthenes.  He  was  sent 
to  negotiate  a  peace  with  Sparta  about  370  B.C. 

Cephisodotus  the  Younger,  an  excellent  sculptor 
of  Athens,  son  of  the  famous  Praxiteles,  lived  about 
300  B.C.  In  his  youth  he  worked  with  his  brother  Ti- 
marchus  in  Athens  and  Thebes.  His  statues  of  Latona, 
Diana,  and  Venus  were  among  his  master-pieces.  He 
was  also  distinguished  in  portrait-sculpture.  His  works 
are  all  lost ;  but  some  critics  consider  the  group  of  two 
wrestling  youths  at  Florence  an  imitation  of  his  "Sym- 
plegma." 

See  WiNCKELMANN,  "  Gcschichte  der  Kunst." 

Ce-phis'o-phpn,  [Kritpiaotpuv,]  a  Greek  actor,  was  a 
friend  of  Euripides,  in  whose  dramas  he  performed  im- 
portant ro/es.  He  is  said  to  have  aided  Euripides  in  the 
composition  of  his  works. 

Ce'pi-o,  [Fr.  CEpion,  si'pe'6NM  (Quintus  Servi- 
Lius,)  a  Roman  general,  defeated  by  the  Cimbri,  105  B.C. 

Ceracchi,  chi-rSk'kee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  sculp- 
tor, born  about  1760.  When  Bonaparte  invaded  Italy 
in  1796,  he  made  a  statue  of  the  French  general.  In 
1800,  having  formed,  with  Arena  and  others,  a  design  to 
assassinate  the  First  Consul,  he  proposed  to  make  an- 
other statue  ;  but  the  plot  was  detected,  and  the  con- 
spirators were  executed,  in  1802. 

See  MoNTANARi,  "  Elogio  storico  della  Vita  di  G.  Ceracchi,"  1841. 

Cerano.    See  Crespi,  (Giovanni  Batiista.) 
Cerasola.    See  Ceresola. 

Ceratinus,  si-ra-tee'nus,  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  scholar 
and  Hellenist,  born  at  Hoorn,  was  professor  of  Greek  at 
Tournay  and  Louvain,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Lexicon  Graeco-Latinum,"  (1524.)    Died  in  1530. 

ger'ber-us,  [Gr.  KcpSepof ;  Fr.  Cerbere,  sCR'baiR';  It. 
Cekbero,  ch&R'bi-ro,]  the  name  of  the  triple-headed  dog 
which  guarded  the  entrance  to  Hades.    (See  Pluto.) 

Cerceau.    See  Androuet. 


Cerceau,  du,  dii  s^r'so',  (Jean  Antoine,)  a  French 
poet  and  Jesuit,  born  in  Paris  in  1670.  He  produced 
successful  dramas,  among  which  were  the  *'  Prodigal 
Son,"  and  the  "Inconveniences  of  Greatness."  He  in- 
creased his  reputation  by  epistles,  fables,  tales,  and  vari- 
ous poems.  "  These  poems,"  says  Voltaire,  "  are  of  a 
mediocre  quality."  His  "  Conspiracy  of  Rienzi"  (in  prose) 
is  commended.  He  was  killed  by  the  accidental  discharge 
of  a  gun  in  1 730. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Cerda,  de  la,  di  \l  seR'dS,  (Dona  Bernarda  Fer- 
reira — fer-ra'e-ri,)  a  Portuguese  poetess,  born  at  Oporto, 
was  learned  in  languages,  philosophy,  etc.,  and  music. 
Philip  HI.  of  Spain  employed  her  to  teach  Latin  to  the 
princes  Charles  and  Ferdinand.  She  wrote  "  S])ain  liber- 
ated," ("Espana  libertada,")  and  other  poems.  Died 
about  1644. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Cerda,  de  la,  dk  li  th^R^dS,  (Juan  Luis,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  critic  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Toledo  about  1560, 
became  professor  of  theology,  logic,  and  eloquence  at 
Toledo.  He  wrote  a  voluminous  and  learned  commen- 
tary on  Virgil,  which  has  many  defects.  Among  his  best 
works  is  "  Sacred  Note-Books,"  ("Adversaria  Sacra," 
1626,)  in  which  he  explains  many  passages  of  Scripture. 
Died  at  Madrid  in  1643. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Cerda  y  Rico,  th^R'd^  e  ree'ko,  (Don  Francisco,) 
a  Spanish  scholar,  born  about  1730.  He  rendered  a  ser- 
vice to  Spanish  literature  by  making  good  editions  of 
Lope  de  Vega,  and  other  old  authors.  He  was  one  of  the 
principal  compilers  of  the  "Cronicas  de  Castilla."  Died 
in  1792. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Cer'dic,  a  Saxon  chief,  invaded  Britain,  and,  after 
gaining  several  victories  over  the  natives,  founded  the 
kingdom  of  Wessex  about  519  A.D.    Died  about  534. 

Cer'don  or  Cer'do,  [Gr.  Kepduv,]  a  heresiarch  or 
dissenter  of  the  second  century,  the  master  of  Marcion, 
was  a  native  of  Syria.  He  is  said  to  have  rejected 
the  Old  Testament,  and  to  have  held  other  doctrines  of 
the  Marcionites.  Saint  Augustine  regarded  him  as  the 
precursor  of  the  Manichaeans. 

Cere,  si'ri',  (Jean  Nicolas,)  a  meritorious  French 
naturalist,  born  in  the  He  de  France  in  1737,  finished 
his  studies  in  Paris.  In  1775  he  was  chosen  director  of 
the  royal  botanic  garden  in  his  native  isle,  where  he 
propagated  the  clove-,  cinnamon-,  and  nutmeg-trees  with 
success.  He  also  widely  extended  the  cultivation  of 
these  spices  in  other  islands,  and  wrote  scientific  treatises 
which  he  sent  to  Buffon  and  others.  Napoleon  con- 
firmed him  in  his  oflice  by  a  decree  dated  at  Austerlitz, 
1805.    Died  in  1810. 

See  Jean  Coudrav,  "Notice  sur  M.  J.  N.  Cere,"  1S19. 

Ce-re-a'lis  or  Ce-ri-aTis,  (Petilius,)  a  Roman 
general,  a  near  relative  of  Vespasian,  became  a  general 
in  the  army  of  that  emperor  in  69  A.D.  In  the  year 
70  he  commanded  the  army  sent  against  Civilis,  the 
renowned  chief  of  the  Batavi,  who  were  aided  by  the 
Germans.  Cerealis  defeated  Civilis  on  the  Moselle,  and 
in  another  battle  near  Cologne,  and  soon  suppressed  the 
revolt.  In  71  A.D.  he  was  appointed  governor  or  con- 
sular legate  of  Britain,  where  he  gained  several  victories 
over  the  natives. 

See  Tacitus,  "History." 

Ce'res,  [Fr.  Ci^Rfes,  sk'rkss^  or  si'r^s',]  the  Roman 
name  of  the  goddess  of  agriculture,  and  especially  of  corn 
or  breadstuffs,  was  the  reputed  daughter  of  Cronos 
(Saturn)  and  Rhea.  The  Greeks  called  her  Deme'ter, 
{Arjfii/TTjp.)  She  was  the  mother  of  Proserpine,  (and,  ac- 
cording to  some  authorities,  of  Dionysus.)  The  most 
remarkable  part  of  the  myth  of  Ceres  is  the  rape  of  her 
daughter  by  Pluto.  (See'PROSERPiNE.) 

See  Stockmann,  "Dissertatio  de  Cerere  legifera,"  1782;  Gui- 
GNIAUT,  "Religions  de  i'Antiqiiite,"  Paris,  1825-29,  vol.  ii.  book  v. 
chap.  ii. ;  Keightlev,  "Mythology." 

Ceresola,  chi-ri-.so'ia,  or  Cerasola,  chi-rS-so'lS, 
(DoMENiCO,)  an  Italian  versifier,  born  at  Bergamo  in 
1683,  imitated  with  facility  the  style  of  Petrarch,  and  had 
an  excellent  talent  for  improvisation.    Died  in  1746. 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as j;  g,  H,  K,gutiural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (g^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CEREZO  556 


CERVANTES 


Cerezo,  thi-ra'tho,  (  Mateo,  )  a  skilful  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Burgos  in  1635,  was  a  pupil  of  Juan 
Carreno  de  Miranda,  whom  he  imitated  and  perhaps 
equalled.  He  worked  at  Madrid,  excelled  in  colour  and 
design,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  facility.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  a  "  Visitation  of  Saint  Elizabeth,"  and 
the  "Miracle  at  Emmaus."    Died  in  1685. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols.' 

Cerialis.    See  Cerealis. 

Cerini,  chi-ree'nee,  or  Cerrini,  ch§r-ree'nee,  (Gio- 
vanni DoMENico,)  sometimes  called  IL  Cavaliere 
Perugino,  (^1  kd-vd-le-a'ri  p4-roo-jee'no,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Perugia  in  1606,  was  a  pupil  of  Guido 
and  Domenichino.    Died  in  i68r. 

Cerini,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  poet  and  lawyer,  born 
at  Solferino  in  1738.  He  became  a  resident  of  Milan,' 
where  in  1772  he  produced  "Clary,"  a  drama,  which 
was  acted  with  brilliant  success.  His  reputation  was 
widely  extended  by  a  volume  of  lyric  verses,  displaying 
a  gay  and  genial  imagination.    Died  in  1 779. 

Cerinthe.    See  Cerinthus. 

QJe-rin'thus,  [Gr.  Kf/pLvdog ;  Fr.  C]6rinthe,  si^riNt',] 
a  distinguished  heretic  of  the  first  century^,  the  founder 
of  a  sect  called  Cerinthians,  lived  mostly  m  Asia  Minor 
or  Syria.  But  little  is  known  of  his  history.  He  taught 
that  the  world  was  created  by  angels,  and  that  the  pre- 
siding spirit  among  them  was  so  inferior  to  the  Supreme 
Being  as  to  be  ignorant  of  his  character  ;  that  Jesus  was 
the  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary  by  ordinary  generation,  and 
selected  to  be  the  Messiah  on  account  of  his  wisdom  and 
piety;  that  the  righteous  would  arise  from  the  grave  to 
inherit  an  earthly  paradise  or  millennium.  Irena^us  con- 
siders him  a  thorough  Gnostic,  and  states  that  Saint 
John  wrote  his  Gospel  for  the  purpose  of  counteracting 
the  errors  of  Cerinthus. 

See  Neander,  "  History  of  the  Church  ;"  Lardner,  "  History 
of  Heretics;"  Paulus,  "  Historia  Cevinthi,"  1799;  Matter,  "  His- 
toire  dii  Gnosticisme,"  2d  edition,  183S. 

Cerisantes,  si're'zfiNt',  (Marc  Duncan,)  a  French 
officer  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Saumur  about  1600,  was 
a  son  of  Mark  Duncan,  a  Scottish  physician,  noticed  in 
this  work.  Having  gained  distinction  by  his  Latin  poems, 
he  went  to  seek  his  fortune  at  the  court  of  Sweden,  and 
about  1642  was  sent  by  Oxenstiern  as  envoy  to  the  court 
of  France.  He  was  soon  recalled  for  sending  a  challenge 
to  the  Duke  of  Candale.  He  fought  for  the  Neapolitan 
insurgents  under  the  Duke  of  Guise,  and  was  killed  in 
battle  at  Naples  in  1648.  His  poetry  is  highly  praised 
by  the  poet  Rapin,  who  says,  "his  odes  combine  eleva- 
tion and  purity  of  style,"  ("il  a  joint  dans  ses  odes  ele- 
vation et  purete.") 

See  Si'^MONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Cerisier,  seh-re'ze-i',  (Antoine  Marie,)  a  French 
historian,  who  was  borii  at  Chatillon-les-Dombes  in  1749. 
He  was  secretary  of  legation  at  the  Hague,  and  afterwards 
published  a  "History  of  the  United  Provinces,"  (1778,) 
which  is  said  to  be  the  best  French  work  on  that  sub- 
ject. About  1790  he  began  to  issue  in  Paris  the  "  Gazette 
Universelle,"  of  which  he  and  Michaud  were  the  editors. 
He  was  imprisoned  in  the  reign  of  terror,  and  released 
on  the  9th  Thermidor,  1794.  He  wrote  several  political 
works,  one  of  which  was  "The  Destiny  of  America," 
(1782.)    Died  in  1828. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire." 

Cerisiers,  de,  deh  seh-re'ze-i',  (Ren6,)  a  French 
writer  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Nantes  about  1605,  became 
almoner  to  Louis  XIV.  He  wrote  numerous  historical 
and  religious  works,  and  a  kind  of  s])iritual  romance, 
called  "The  Life  of  Saint  Genevieve  of  Brabant,"  (1640.) 
Died  about  1662. 

Cerisy.    See  Habert. 

Cerito,  chi-ree'to,  (Francesca,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
opera-dancer,  born  at  Naples  in  1823. 

Cermeiiatt  de,  d^  chgR-mi-ni'tee,  (Giovanni,)  an 
Italian,  who  lived  about  1310,  and  wrote  a  "History  of 
Milan." 

Cernitori,  ch§R-ne-to'ree,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  bib- 
liographer, born  at  Rome  in  1746;  died  in  1816. 

Ceroni,  chi-ro'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Verona  in  1773,  wrote  a  poem  "On  the  Capture  of 
Tarragona,"  (1811.)    Died  in  1814. 


Cerquozzi,  ch^R-kwot'see,  (Michelangelo,)  an 
Italian  painter  and  engraver,  born  in  Rome  in  1602,  was 
called  Michelangelo  delle  Battaglie,  ("  of  battles.") 
He  excelled  in  battle-pieces  and  in  the  familiar  scenes 
called  bambochades.  He  is  said  to  have  surpassed  Laer 
in  figures,  and  left  some  etchings,  which  are  highly  prized. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1660. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Cerrato,  ch^r-ri'to,  [Lat.  Cerra'tus,]  (Paolo,)  a 
Latin  poet,  born  in  Montferrat,  Italy,  is  said  to  equal 
Vida  in  majesty  of  style  and  purity  of  language.  His 
poem  "On  Virginity"  ("De  Virginitate")  is  one  of  his 
principal  works.     Died  about  1538. 

Cerretti,  ch^r-rei'tee,  or  Ceretti,  chi-ret'tee,  (Luigi,) 
a  popular  Italian  poet,  born  at  Modena  in  1738,  became 
professor  of  history  and  eloquence  in  his  native  city, 
where  he  lectured  with  brilliant  success.  He  favoured* 
the  Cisalpine  republic  in  1796,  and  went  to  France  in 
1799.  In  1804  he  obtained  the  chair  of  eloquence  in 
the  University  of  Pavia.  He  wrote  admired  odes,  epi- 
grams, and  satires,  among  which  is  an  ode  to  Posterity, 
("Alia  Posterita.")    Died  in  1808. 

SeeTiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri ;"  Fattori,  "  Elogio 
storico  di  L.  Cerretti,"  1808. 

CerrinL    See  Cerini,  (Giovanni  Domenico.) 

Certon,  s^R't6N',  (Salomon,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Gien  about  1550,  became  royal  secretary.  He  produced 
in  1604  a  poetical  version  of  the  "Odyssey"  of  Homer, 
which  was  favourably  received.  The  Abbe  Terrasson 
published  a  revised  edition  of  it,  with  a  version  of  the 
"  Iliad,"  in  161 5.  Certon  is  supposed  to  have  originated 
the  verses  called  "lipograms,"  in  which  a  certain  letter 
of  the  alphabet  is  omitted  by  design.    Died  about  1610. 

Ceruti,  chi-roo'tee,  (Frederico,)  an  Italian  scholar 
and  critic,  born  at  Verona  in  1541  ;  died  in  1579. 

Cerutti,  chi-root'tee,  (Giuseppe  Antonio  Gioa- 
CHIMO,)  an  ingenious  writer  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Turin  in 
1738.  He  resided  mostly  in  France,  and  wrote  in  French. 
About  1 76 1  he  wrote  an  anonymous  essay  on  ancient  and 
modern  republics,  which  was  ascribed  to  Rousseau,  and 
an  "Apology  for  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits,"  which  attracted 
much  notice.  He  was  in  Paris  in  1789,  and,  having 
warmly  espoused  the  popular  cause,  he  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Assembly  in  1791.  He  was  intimate  with 
Mirabeau,  whom  he  assisted  in  his  political  labours.  He 
wrote  "  The  Gardens  of  Betz,"  and  other  mediocre  poems, 
and  many  prose  works.    Died  in  1792. 

See  CuKiERES  dr  Pai.mezeaux,  "Coup-d'oeil  rapide  sur  J.  A.  J. 
Cerutti,"  1792;  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Cervantes,  ser-van'tes,  [Sp.  pron.  thiR-vSn'tgs,]  or, 
more  fully,  Cervantes  Saavedra,  de,  di  th^R-vin't^s 
sS-va'DRi,  (Miguel,)  the  celebrated  author  of  "Don 
Quixote,"  was  born  at  Alcala  de  Henares,  in  Spain,  on  the 
9th  of  October,  1547.  He  studied  in  the  Universities  of 
Salamanca  and  Madrid,  and  cultivated  poetry  in  his  youth 
without  much  success.  About  1570  he  entered  as  a  vol- 
unteer the  papal  army  under  Marcantonio  Colonna,  and 
in  1 57 1  he  signalized  his  courage  at  the  famous  battle  of 
Lepanto,  where  he  was  wounded.  In  1575  he  was  taken 
by  an  Algerine  corsair  and  carried  as  a  slave  to  Algiers. 
After  risking  his  life  in  gallant  efforts  to  liberate  his  fel- 
low-captives, and  after  terrible  sufferings,  he  was  ransomed 
in  1580  for  five  hundred  ducats,  and  returned  to  Madrid. 
In  1584  he  jjublished  "Galatea,"  a  pastoral  romance  of 
soine  merit.  The  same  year  he  married  Catalina  de  Pala- 
cios  Salazar  y  Vozmediano.  He  wrote  numerous  dramas, 
which,  he  informs  us,  were  performed  with  success  ;  but 
neither  these  nor  his  other  earlier  works  sufficed  to  relieve 
him  from  poverty.  At  length,  in  1605,  he  published  the 
first  part  of  the  inimitable  "  Don  Quixote  de  la  Mancha," 
which  soon  became  immensely  popular,  and  ran  through 
four  editions  in  the  first  year.  From  this  time  he  con- 
tinued to  reside  in  Madrid  until  his  death.  He  produced 
in  1613  his  "Novelas  exemplares,"  ("Moral  Tales,") 
which  were  much  admired,  and  in  1614  his  "  Viaje  al 
Parnaso,"  ("Journey  to  Parnassus,")  a  poem  which  some 
regard  as  a  master-piece.  The  second  part  of  "Don 
Quixote"  appeared  in  161 5.  Cervantes  died  on  the  same 
day  as  Shakspeare,  April  23,  1616. 

"'Don  Quixote,'"  says  Hallam,  "is  the  only  book  in 
the  Spanish  language  which  can  now  be  said  to  possess 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  %  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fJr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CERVANTES 


557 


CESIO 


much  of  a  European  reputation.  ...  It  is  to  Europe  in 
general  what  Ariosto  is  to  Italy,  and  vShakspeare  to  Eng- 
land,— the  one  book  to  which  the  slightest  allusions  may 
be  made  without  affectation,  but  not  missed  without  dis- 
credit. Numerous  translations,  and  countless  editions 
of  them,  in  every  language,  bespeak  its  adaptation  to 
mankind ;  and  no  critic  has  been  found  paradoxical 
enough  to  withhold  his  admiration.  .  .  .  Few  books  of 
moral  philosophy  display  as  deep  an  insight  into  the 
mechanism  of  the  mind  as  'Don  Quixote.'  And  when 
we  look  also  at  the  fertility  of  invention,  the  general 
probability  of  the  events,  and  the  great  simplicity  of  the 
story,  we  shall  think  Cervantes  fully  deserving  of  the 
glory  that  attends  this  monument  of  his  genius." 

See  T.  RoscoE,  "Life  and  Writings  of  Cervantes,"  1839;  Lock- 
hart,  "Life  of  Cervantes,"  1822;  Longfkllow,  "Poets  and  Poetry 
ofEurope;"  Prescott,  "Miscellanies,"  article  "Cervantes;"  Pel- 
LiCER,  "Vida  de  Cervantes,"  1800;  Mayans  y  Ciscar,  "Vida  de 
Cervantes,"  1750;  Fern,  ue  Navarete,  "  Vida  de  Cervantes,"  1819; 
Merimee,  "Notice  siir  Cervantes,"  1806;  Viardot,  "Notice  sur 
la  Vie  de  Cervantes;"  Ticknor,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature," 
vol.  ii.  ;  L.  S.  Auger,  "Essai  sur  la  Vie  de  Cervantes,"  1825. 

Cervantes  de  Salazar,  thlR-vSn't^s  di  sS-li-thaR', 
(Francisco,)  a  Spanish  litterateur,  for  whose  biography 
we  have  no  materials.  He  wrote  moral  works,  which 
were  praised  by  A.  Morales,  and  were  published  in  1546. 

Cervetto,  cheR-v^t'to,  (Jacopo  Ba.ssevi,)  a  famous 
Italian  musician,  born  about  1680,  performed  in  London. 
Died  in  1783. 

Cervole  or  CervoUe,  de,  deh  s§r'vo1',  (Arnauld,) 
a  famous  French  warrior,  born  in  Perigord,  was  wounded 
at  Poitiers  in  1356.  He  became  a  chief  of  brigands,  and 
sometimes  fought  for  the  dauphin.    Died  in  1366. 

CervoUe.    See  Cervole. 

Cervoni,  chgR-vo'nee  or  sCRVo'ne',  (Jean  Baptiste,) 
an  able  general  in  the  French  service,  born  in  Sardinia  in 
1768.  As  general  of  brigade,  he  distinguished  himself  at 
Lodi  in  1796,  and  in  1799  became  a  general  of  division. 
He  was  appointed  chief  of  the  staff  of  Marshal  Lannes 
in  1809,  and  was  killed  at  Eckmiihl  in  that  year. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Fran^ais." 

Cesalre.    See  C/esakius. 

Cesalpino,  chi-sdl-pee'no,  [Lat.  C^salpi'nus  ;  Fr. 
Cesalpin,  si'ztl'piiN'',  often  Anglicized  as  CtSALPiN 
or  Cesalplnk,  s§s-iKpin,|  (A.ndrea,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  physiologist,  was  born  at  Arezzo,  in  Tuscany,  in 
15 19.  He  applied  himself  particularly  to  the  study  of 
medicine,  but  was  also  learned  in  various  sciences,  and 
especially  in  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle.  After  having 
been  professor  of  medicine  and  botany  at  Pisa  for  many 
years,  he  became  first  phy.sician  to  Pope  Clement  VIII., 
(about  1595.)  He  published  "  Quaestiones  Peripateticae," 
(1569,)  a  treatise  on  metaphysics,  founded  professedly 
on  Aristotle's  principles,  with  a  tendency  to  pantheism, 
and  several  medical  works,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "  Ars 
Medica,"  (1601.)  His  most  important  service  to  science 
consists  in  an  improved  system  of  botany,  which  was 
developed  in  his  great  work  "On  Plants,"  ("De  Plantis," 
1583.)  He  was  the  first  who  attempted  to  establish  a 
natural  order  of  classification  on  philosophical  principles. 
He  founded  it  chiefly  on  the  number,  figure,  and  position 
of  the  organs  of  fructification.  He  announced  several 
new  ideas  in  physiology,  including  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  the  truth  of  which  was  not  recognized  until  a  long 
time  afterwards.    Died  in  1603. 

See  FucHs,  "Andreas  Caesalpinus,  de  ejus  Ingenio,"  etc.,  Marburg, 
1798 ;  Bayi.e,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Nic^ron,  "  Me 
moires;"  Sprengel,  "  Historia  Rei  herbarias." 

Cesar,  the  French  of  C^^isar,  which  see. 

Cesare,  the  Italian  of  CtSAR,  which  see. 

Cesare,  di,  dee  cha'sl-ri,  (Giuseppe,)  Cavaliere, 
an  Italian  historian,  born  in  Naples  in  1783.  In  1837  he 
produced  his  chief  work,  "  The  History  of  Manfred,  King 
of  Sicily  and  Apulia,"  which  had  great  success.  He  pub- 
lished "Roman  Letters,"  an  "Essay  on  the  Philosophy 
of  History,"  and  many  other  works.    Died  in  1856. 

Cesari,  cha'sS-ree,  (Alessandro,)  surnamed  the 
Greek,  a  skilful  Italian  engraver,  who  lived  about  1500- 
40.  He  worked  in  Rome,  and  was  employed  by  several 
pontiffs  to  engrave  medals  and  gems.  Vasari  considers 
the  cameo  representing  the  head  of  Phocion  as  his  mas- 
ter-piece. 


Cesari,  (Antonio,)  an  able  Italian  critic  and  ecclesi- 
astic, born  at  Verona  about  1750.  He  published  good 
editions  of  Dante's  great  poem,  of  the  "Dictionary  Delia 
Crusca,"  and  other  works.  His  translations  of  the  Odes 
of  Horace  and  of  the  Letters  of  Cicero  are  admired. 
He  also  wrote  popular  tales  or  novels.    Died  in  1828. 

See  Manuzzi,  "  Cenni  sulla  Vita  esulle  Opere  di  A.  Cesari,"  1829; 
G.  Bonfanti,  "Vita  di  A.  Cesari,"  1832;  F.  Vii.lardi,  "  Vita  del 
P.  A.  Cesari,"  1832;  F.  Mordani,  "  Elogio  del  P.  A.  Cesari,"  1842. 

Cesari,  (Giuseppe,)  a  celebrated  Italian  historical 
painter,  sometimes  called  IL  Cavaliere  d'Arpino,  (^1 
ki-vi-le-a'ri  daR-pee'no,)  or  Giuseppino,  (joo-s^p-pee'- 
no,)  and  by  the  French  le  Jos^pin,  (leh  zho'z^'piN',) 
born  at  Arpino  or  Rome  about  1565,  (some  say  1560.) 
He  was  patronized  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  and  by  seve- 
ral of  his  successors,  and  was  for  many  years  the  most 
fashionable  painter  of  Rome.  He  is  said  to  have  neg- 
lected nature  and  skimmed  the  surface  of  art,  thus  pro- 
moting the  depraved  taste  of  the  time.  His  works  have 
an  appearance  of  grandeur  and  animation  in  composition, 
but  want  correctness  of  design.  He  once  challenged 
Annibal  Caracci  to  fight;  but  that  artist  replied,  "My 
weapon  is  the  pencil,  and  not  the  sword."  Among  his 
works  are  frescos  in  the  Capitol  at  Rome,  representing 
events  of  ancient  Roman  history.    Died  in  1640. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy  ;"  Ticozzi,"  Dizionario." 

Cesarini,  chi-si-ree'nee,  (Giuliano,)  an  Italian  car- 
dinal and  negotiator.    Died  in  1444. 

Cesarini,  [Lat.  C^sari'nus,]  (Virginio,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  probably  at  Rome  in  1595.  He  was  remark- 
able for  the  universality  of  his  scholarship,  and  was  an 
eloquent  orator.  Pope  Urban  VIII.  gave  him  an  office 
in  the  pontifical  chamber.  His  Latin  and  Italian  poems 
were  published  in  1662.    Died  in  1624. 

See  A.  Favorinus,  "  Vita  V.  Caesarini,"  1677;  Rycquius,  "De 
Vita  V.  Caesarini,"  1629. 

Cesarion,  the  French  of  C^^isarion,  which  see. 

Cesarotti,  chi-sS-rot'tee,  (Melchior,)  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  Italian  poets  and  litterateurs  of  his  time, 
was  born  at  Padua  in  1730.  He  became  professor  of 
rhetoric  in  Padua  about  1750.  In  1762  he  removed  to 
Venice,  where  he  produced  an  admirable  translation  of 
Ossian  into  Italian  verse,  (1763,)  and  versions  of  several 
tragedies  of  Voltaire.  He  was  chosen  professor  of  Greek 
ancl  Hebrew  in  the  University  of  Padua  in  1768.  After 
this  date  he  published  a  good  translation  of  Demosthenes, 
and  the  "  Death  of  Hector."  He  also  made  a  literal  prose 
version  of  Homer  with  notes,  which  is  said  to  be  one  of 
the  most  complete  and  exact  works  by  which  that  poet 
has  been  illustrated.  Among  his  best  critical  works  is 
an  "  Essay  on  the  Philosophy  of  Language,  applied  to 
the  Italian  Language,"  (1785.)  His  style  is  remarkably 
spirited  and  powerful,  but  lacks  purity  and  is  marred  by 
neologisms.  The  version  of  Ossian  is  regarded  by  some 
critics  as  his  master-piece.    Died  in  1808. 

See  G  Barbirri,  "  Memorie  sulla  Vita  e  sugli  Studj  dell'Abbate 
M.  Cesarotti,"  1810. 

Cesena,  si'zi'nS',  (S^bastien  Gayet — gi'yi',)  sur- 
named Rh6al,  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Beaujeu  in 
1 81 5.  His  most  important  work  is  a  French  translation 
of  the  complete  works  of  Dante,  (1843-53.) 

Cesi,  cha'see,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1557.  He  painted  after  nature,  and 
acquired  a  high  reputation  at  Bologna  and  Rome.  His 
subjects  were  mostly  scriptural.    Died  in  1629. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Cesi,  (Federigo,)  Prince,  Duke  of  Acqua-Sparta,  an 
eminent  Italian  naturalist,  born  in  Rome  in  1585.  At 
the  age  of  eighteen  he  founded  in  Rome  the  renowned 
Lincean  Academy  for  the  promotion  of  natural  history 
and  philosophy.  During  his  life  he  defrayed  the  ex- 
penses of  this  academy.  He  first  discovered  the  spores 
of  ferns.  He  wrote  able  scientific  treatises,  among 
which  were  "The  Theatre  of  Nature,"  ("Naturae  Thea- 
trum,")  and  an  "  Explanation  of  Natural  Prodigies  or 
Phenomena."    Died  in  1630. 

See  B.  Odescalchi,  "Memorie  istorico-critiche  deH'Accademia 
dei  Lincei  e  del  Principe  F.  Cesi,"  1806;  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della 
Letteratura  Italiana." 

Cesio,  cha'se-o,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  near  Rome  in  1626,  was  a  pupil  of  Pietro 


■;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ((J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CESPEDES 


558 


CHABAUD 


da  Cortona.  He  painted  frescos  in  several  churches  of 
Rome,  and,  in  the  gallery  of  the  Quirinal,  a  picture  of 
the  Judgment  of  Solomon."  He  was  a  correct  designer 
and  a  skilful  etcher.  Among  his  works  in  this  branch 
of  art  is  the  '*  Gallery  of  the  Farnese  Palace"  at  Rome. 
Died  in  1686. 

See  LanZi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Cespedes,  de,  dk  thes-pa'D^s,  (Pablo,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  painter,  scholar,  and  writer  on  art,  was  born  at 
Cordova  in  1538.  He  was  learned  in  Greek,  Latin, 
Hebrew,  and  Arabic.  Having  studied  art  in  Rome,  he 
returned  to  Cordova  about  1576,  and  adorned  the 
churches  of  that  city  and  of  Seville  with  paintings.  He 
excelled  in  colour,  invention,  and  composition.  A  "Last 
Supper,"  at  Cordova,  is  one  of  his  most  admired  works. 
He  wrote  a  poem  on  Painting,  a  "Comparison  between 
Ancient  and  Modern  Art,"  and  a  few  other  works.  Died 
at  Cordova  in  1608. 

See  QuiNTANA,  "Tesoro  del  Parnaso  Espanol." 

Cessac,  de.    See  Lacu^e,  Count. 

Cessart,  de,  deh  si'stii',  (Louis  Alexandre,)  a 
French  engineer,  born  in  Paris  in  1 7 19.  In  1781  he  was 
chosen  to  direct  the  great  naval  works  at  Cherbourg, 
where  he  invented  a  valuable  process  of  hydraulic  archi- 
tecture. He  wrote  a  treatise  on  hydraulic  works,  which 
is  highly  prized.    Died^in  1806. 

Cessoles,  de,  deh  si'soK,  (Jacques,)  a  French  monk 
and  moralist,  who  lived  about  1280,  and  wrote,  in  Latin, 
"The  Game  of  Chess  moralized,"  which  was  once  very 
popular.  An  English  version  was  printed  by  Caxton, 
(I474-) 

Cesti,  ch^s'tee,  (Marcantonio,)  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated musicians  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Arezzo  or 
Florence  about  1620.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Carissimi, 
whose  cantatas  (composed  for  the  church)  he  adapted  or 
transplanted  to  the  theatre.  He  produced  on  the  theatre 
of  Venice,  between  1649  1669,  "Titus  Argenne," 
and  six  other  operas,  which  were  very  successful.  Died 
about  1680. 

Cestoni,  ch§s-to'nee,  (Gfacinto,)  an  Italian  natural- 
ist, born  in  the  March  of  Ancona  in  1637.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  natural  history,  which  were  the  re- 
sults of  his  own  observations,  and  were  printed  with  the 
works  of  his  friend  Vallisnieri.    Died  in  17 18. 

See  Sangiorgio,  "  Elogio  di  G.  Cestoni,"  i8ii. 

Ce-tlie'gus,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  senator,  and  accom- 
plice in  Catiline's  conspiracy,  was  a  person  of  infamous 
character.  Convicted  on  the  evidence  of  his  letter  to  the 
AUobroges,  and  of  numerous  deadly  weapons  found  in 
his  house,  he  was  executed  by  Cicero  in  690  a.u.c, 
(63  B.C.) 

Cethegus,  (Marcus  Cornelius,)  a  Roman  general 
and  orator,  was  chosen  censor  in  209  B.C.,  and  consul  in 
204.  In  the  next  year,  as  proconsul,  he  commanded  in 
Cisalpine  Gaul,  where,  with  the  aid  of  Varus,  he  de- 
feated Mago,  the  Carthaginian  general.  He  had  a  high 
reputation  for  eloquence,  and  was  called  by  Ennius 
"the  Marrow  of  Persuasion,"  ("Suadae  Medulla,") 

Cetina,  de,  di  tha-tee'nl,  (Gutierrez,)  a  Spanish 
poet  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Seville,  wrote  madrigals 
and  anacreontic  poems.  He  is  praised  by  Velasquez 
and  Herrera,  the  latter  of  whom  compares  him  to  Gar- 
cilasso  for  elegance.  Many  of  his  verses  appear  to  have 
been  lost. 

Cetti,  chet'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  naturalist 
and  Jesuit,  born  at  Como  in  1726.  He  published  several 
treatises  on  the  Quadrupeds,  the  Fish,  and  other  Animals 
of  Sardinia,  (1774-77.)    Died  about  1780. 

Cetti,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Lu- 
gano, made  several  translations  from  the  Russian  of 
Karamzin  into  Italian.    Died  in  181 7. 

Ceulen.    See  Keulen. 

Ceva,  cha'vJ,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  geometer,  born 
probably  at  Milan.  He  published  several  Latin  works 
of  merit,  entitled  "  Opuscula  Mathematica,"  (1682,)  "  The 
Geometry  of  Motion,"  ("Geometria  Motiis,"  1692,)  "  Hy- 
drostatica,"  (1728,)  etc. 

Ceva,  (ToMMASo,)  an  Italian  poet  and  distinguished 
geometer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Milan 
in  1648,  and  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits  in  his  youth. 
He  invented  an  instrument  to  perform  the  trisection  of 


an  angle,  (1695,)  and  published  mathematical  writings, 
("Opuscula  Mathematica.")  Among  his  Latin  poems 
is  "  Philosophia  novo-antiqua,"  which  is  extolled  by 
Corniani.    Died  in  1736. 

Cevallos,  thi-vSKyds,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  politician, 
born  at  Santander  in  1764,  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  under  Charles  IV.  About  1808  he  was  sent  to 
London  on  a  political  mission  by  the  Junta,  and  pub- 
lished there  a  work  which  is  said  to  have  had  great 
influence  in  exciting  the  Spaniards  against  Bonaparte. 
He  was  successively  secretary  of  state  and  minister  to 
Vienna  between  1814  and  1820,  after  which  he  was  ex- 
cluded from  political  employment.    Died  about  1838. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- I^exikon." 

C6zelli,  si'zi'le',  (Constance,)  a  French  lady,  noted 
for  her  heroic  and  successful  defence  of  Leucate  in  1590. 

Chabanne.s.    See  Palice,  de  la. 

Chabannes,  de,  deh  sht'b^n',  (Antoine,)  Comte  de 
Dammartin,  (deh  dS'mtR'tiN',)  an  able  and  successful 
French  general,  brother  of  Jacques,  noticed  below,  born 
about  1410,  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Or- 
leans in  1428,  and  fought  under  the  banners  of  Joan  of 
Arc  in  other  battles.  He  became  a  favourite  of  Charles 
VII.,  who  died  in  1461  ;  he  was  then  disgraced  and  im- 
prisoned by  Louis  XI.  In  1468  he  was  pardoned,  and 
gained  the  favour  of  Louis,  who  appointed  him  grand 
m^iSt^r  ( grand-matt7'e )  of  France.  He  was  commander- 
in-chief  in  the  war  against  Charles  the  Bold  in  1471. 
Died  in  1488. 

See  Du  Plessis,  "  Les  Vies  de  Jacques  et  Antoine  de  Chabannes," 
1612;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Chabannes,  de,  (Jacques,)  Seigneur  de  la  Palice, 
(deh  It  pS'l^ss',)  a  French  general,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  about  1400.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  wars  against  the  English,  and  became  grand  master 
( grand-maitre)  of  France,  (1451.)  He  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Castillon  in  1453. 

See  Du  Plessis,  "  Les  Vies  de  Jacques  et  Antoine  de  Chabannes." 

Chabannes,  de,  (Jean,)  Seigneur  de  Vandenesse, 
a  brave  general,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  and  a 
brother  of  Marshal  de  la  Palice.  (See  Palice.)  He 
was  a  companion  of  Bayard,  and  was  surnamed  the 
Little  Lion.  He  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Ma- 
rignano  in  15 15,  and  commanded  the  artillery  when  he 
was  killed  with  Bayard  near  the  Sesia  in  1524. 

See  Brantome,  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaines." 

Chabannes,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste  Marie,)  Marquis, 
a  French  politician,  born  in  1770,  was  a  descendant  of 
Marshal  de  la  Palice.  He  became  a  royalist  emigrant 
about  1790.  At  the  restoration  in  181 5  he  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  He  published  many 
political  pamphlets,  among  which  was  "The  Deceitful 
Beacon,"  ("  Le  Phare  trompeur,  ou  la  Chartomanie," 
1 82 1.)    Died  in  1835. 

Chabannes-la-Palice,  de,  deh  sht'b^n'  It  pt^l^ss', 
(Alfred  Jean  Eginhard,)  Count,  a  French  general, 
born  in  1799.  He  served  several  campaigns  in  Algeria, 
was  appointed  aide-de-camp  to  the  king  about  1838,  and 
a  general  of  brigade  in  1840.  In  1848  he  retired  from 
the  service,  and  went  into  exile  with  Louis  Philippe. 

Chabanon,  de,  deh  sht'bt'ndN',  (Michel  Paul 
Gui,)  an  able  French  writer,  born  in  the  island  of  Saint 
Domingo  in  1730,  became  a  resident  of  France.  Among 
his  best  works  are  a  "Life  of  Dante,"  (1773,)  and  a 
"Treatise  on  Music  considered  in  itself  and  in  its  Re- 
lations with  Language,  Poetry,  etc.,"  (1785.)  His  version 
of  the  Pythic  Odes  of  Pindar  was  praised  by  Voltaire. 
He  also  made  a  good  prose  version  of  Theocritus,  and 
left  Memoirs  of  his  own  life,  (1795.)    Died  in  1792. 

See  his  Autobiography,  entitled  "Tableau  de  quelques  Circon- 
stances  de  ma  Vie,"  1795;  Fontanes,  "Notice  sur  Chabanon;" 
Querard,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Chabans,  de,  deh  sht'bSN',  (Louis  du  Maine — dii 

min,)  Baron,  a  French  writer  on  morals,  lived  about 
1610.  He  was  killed  in  a  duel  by  the  father  of  Ninon 
Lend  OS. 

Chabaud,  sht'bo',  (Antoine,)  a  French  engineer, 
born  at  Nimes  in  1727.  He  projected  a  canal  in  Pirardy, 
which  was  approved  by  Turgot,  but,  owing  to  the  removal 
of  that  minister,  it  was  not  made.  He  published  a  "  Me- 
moir on  Volcanoes  and  Earthquakes,"    Died  in  1791. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, !,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f4t;  mgt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


CHABAUD 


559 


CHACON 


Chabaud  de  la  Tour,  sht'bo'  deh  It  tooR,  (An- 
ToiNE  George  Francois,)  Baron,  a  French  Protestant 
legislator,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1767, 
was  an  officer  in  the  army  when  the  Revolution  began. 
He  was  chosen  one  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  in 
1797,  a  member  of  the  Tribunat  about  1800,  and  of  the 
legislative  body  in  1807.  From  181 7  to  1828  he  served 
with  credit  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.    Died  in  1832. 

Chabaud-Latour,  de,  deh  sht'bo'  It'tooR',  (Fran- 
QOTS  Ernest  Henri,)  Baron,  a  French  general,  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Nimes  in  1804.  He  chose 
the  profession  of  military  engineer,  and  became  a  cap- 
tain in  1827.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  from  1827  to  1848,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
general  of  brigade  in  1853. 

Chabert,  sht'baiR',  (J.  Xavier,)  a  French  adventurer, 
known  as  "the  Fire  King,"  exhibited  himself  in  London 
and  the  United  States  about  1830.  He  is  said  to  have 
entered  an  oven  heated  to  380^  Fahr. 

Chabert,  (Theodore,)  a  French  general,  born  at 
Villefranche  in  1758.  He  served  in  Germany  and  Italy, 
and  in  1808  commanded  the  vanguard  at  Baylen,  where 
the  French,  under  Dupont,  were  defeated  with  dishonour 
by  the  Spaniards,  for  which  he  was  dismissed  from  the 
service.  In  1814  he  took  sides  with  Bonaparte,  who  made 
him  a  lieutenant-general.    Died  about  1830. 

Chabert,  de,  deh  sht'baiR',  (Joseph  Bernard,) 
Marquis,  an  eminent  French  naval  officer,  savant,  and 
hydrographer,  born  at  Toulon  in  1723.  He  entered  the 
navy  in  his  youth,  and,  after  important  services,  became 
vice-admiral  in  1792.  His  "Account  of  a  Voyage  made 
on  the  Coasts  of  North  America  in  1750"  forms  part  of 
the  records  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  prepared 
charts  of  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  made 
other  improvements  in  hydrography.  He  was  an  asso- 
ciate of  nearly  all  the  great  Academies  of  Europe.  He 
emigrated  in  the  reign  of  terror,  returned  home  in  1802, 
and  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  bureau  of  longitudes 
in  1803.    Died  in  1805. 

S^ee  "Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Chabot,  sht'bo',  (  Francois,  )  a  fanatical  French 
Jacobin  and  demagogue,  born  in  Rouergue  in  1759,  be- 
came a  Capuchin  monk  noted  for  his  vicious  morals  and 
shabby  attire.  About  1790  he  was  deputed  to  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly,  in  which  he  acquired  influence  by 
his  audacity  and  facility  of  speech.  He  was  one  of  the 
instigators  of  the  massacres  of  August  and  September, 
1792.  The  adoption  of  the  term  "  Montagnards"  by 
bis  party  is  said  to  have  been  suggested  by  him.  He 
became  obnoxious  to  Robespierre,  by  whose  orders  he 
was  executed  in  1794. 

See  De  Barante,  "  Histoire  de  la  Convention  Nationale." 

Chabot,  (Louis  FRANgois  Jean,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Niort  in  1757,  served  in  Flanders  and  La  Vendee, 
and  became  a  general  of  division  in  1794.   Died  in  1837. 

See  J.  Richard,  "  Memoire  biographique  sur  le  General  Chabot," 
1844. 

Chabot,  de,  deh  shtW,(PHiLippE,)  Comte  de  Charni, 
(deh  shtR'ne',)  sometimes  called  "Admiral  de  Brion,"  a 
French  general,  born  of  a  noble  family  of  Poitou.  He  was 
a  rival  of  Constable  Montmorency,  and  the  head  of  a  party 
at  court  in  the  reign  of  Francis  I,  He  was  made  prisoner 
at  the  battle  of  Pavi'a  in  1525,  and  succeeded  Bonnivet 
(who  was  killed  in  that  action)  as  admiral  of  France.  In 
1535  he  had  the  chief  command  in  the  war  against  the 
Duke  of  Savoy,  and  was  so  successful  that  Turin  and 
nearly  all  Piedmont  submitted.  The  colony  of  Canada 
was  planted  under  his  auspices  by  Cartier.  Died  in  1543. 

See  Brantome,  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaines." 

Chabot  de  TAUier,  shS'bo'  deh  iS'le-i',  (Georges 
Antoine,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Moirnu9on  in  1758. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1794,  and 
of  the  Council  of  Elders  in  1799.  Being  a  member  of 
the  Tribunat  when  the  treaty  of  Amiens  was  announced, 
in  1802,  he  moved  that  Bonaparte  be  appointed  consul 
for  life.  He  afterwards  served  in  the  legislative  body, 
and  was  chosen  a  judge  in  the  court  of  cassation  in  1809. 
He  wrote  an  esteemed  work  "  On  the  Law  of  Succes- 
sions," (1804.)    Died  in  1819. 

See  Moulin,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  Chabot." 


Chabran,  sht'bRdN',  (Joseph,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Cavaillon  in  1763.  He  fought  at  Marengo  in 
1800,  after  which  he  had  the  command  in  Piedmont.  He 
was  created  a  count  in  December,  1814.    Died  in  1843. 

Chabr^e,  sht'bRi',  (Dominique,)  a  French  botanist, 
born  at  Geneva,  practised  medicine  at  Yverdun  about 
1650.  He  supervised  the  publication  of  J.  Bauhin's  "  His- 
tory of  Plants,"(  165  r,)  which  the  author  left  in  manuscript; 
and  fifteen  years  later  he  published  in  his  own  name  an 
abridgment  of  the  same,  "  Stirpium  icones  et  sciagraphia," 
(1666.)    He  is  supposed  to  have  died  in  1667. 

■Cha'brl-as,  [KaSinag,]  an  able  Athenian  general,  who 
first  appears  in  history  as  the  commander  of  the  army 
of  Athens  at  Corinth  in  392  B.C.  He  rendered  efficient 
services  to  Evagoras  of  Cyprus  against  the  Persians  in 
388.  In  a  campaign  against  Agesilaus  in  378  he  ac- 
quired celebrity  by  the  invention  of  a  new  manoeuvre. 
He  ordered  his  men  to  await  the  charge  of  the  enemy 
with  presented  spears,  and  with  the  left  knee  sup- 
ported against  the  shield.  In  376  he  gained  a  decisive 
naval  victory  over  the  Spartans  at  Naxos.  In  the  Social 
war,  which  began  in  357  B.C.,  he  commanded  a  fleet  co- 
operating with  an  army  under  Chares.  Having  exposed 
himself  rashly  at  the  siege  of  Chios,  he  was  killed  in  the 
same  year. 

See  Carl  Rehdantz,  "Vitas  Iphicratis,  Chabrias  et  Timothei 
Atheniensium,"  1845;  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Phocion  ;"  Cornelius 
Nepos,  "Chabrias." 

Chabrit,  sht'bRe',  (Pierre,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
about  1740,  was  an  advocate  in  the  Parliament  of  Paris. 
He  published  a  work  "  On  the  French  Monarchy  and 
Laws,"  (1783,)  for  which  he  received  from  the  French 
Academy  a  prize  founded  by  V albelle  for  the  most  useful 
work.    Died  in  1785. 

Chabrol  de  Crouzol,  sht'bRoK  deh  kRoo'zoK , 
(Andr^:  Jean,)  Count,  a  French  minister  of  state,  born 
at  Riom  in  177 1,  was  prefect  of  the  Rhone,  at  Lyons, 
from  1814  to  181 7.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  the 
marine  in  1824,  and  was  minister  of  finances  from  August, 
1829,  till  May,  1830.    Died  in  1836. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Chabrol  de  Volvio,  slii^bRoK  deh  vol'v^k',  (Gil- 
bert Joseph  Gaspard,)  Count,  a  French  civil  officer, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Riom  in  1773.  He  ac- 
companied the  expedition  to  Egypt  in  1798,  as  a  member 
of  the  commission  of  arts  and  sciences.  On  his  return 
he  published  a  volume  "On  the  Manners  and  Customs 
of  the  Modern  Egyptians."  He  was  appointed  in  1812 
prefect  of  the  department  of  the  Seine,  and  held  that  im- 
portant office  eighteen  years,  during  which  he  constructed 
in  Paris  many  bridges,  markets,  churches,  schools,  and 
the  Bourse.    Died  in  1843. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Chabroud,  sht'bRoo',  (Charles,)  a  French  lawyer 
and  republican,  born  at  Vienne  in  1750,  was  deputed  to 
the  States-General  in  1789.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
the  National  Assembly,  of  which  he  was  chosen  presi- 
dent in  April,  1 791.  From  1794  to  1797  he  was  a  judge 
of  the  court  of  cassation  in  Paris.    Died  in  18 16. 

Chabry,  sht'bRe',  (Marc,)  a  French  painter  and  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Lyons  in  1660,  worked  with  success  in  his 
native  city.  The  king,  after  seeing  his  statue  of  Hercu- 
les, appointed  him  his  sculptor  at  Lyons.    Died  in  1727. 

Chacaton,  shS'kS't6N',  (Jean  Nicolas  Henri,)  a 
French  painter  of  history  and  landscapes,  born  at  Chezy 
in  1813.  Among  his  productions  are  "The  Prisoner  rf 
Chillon,"  (1835,)  and  "Souvenirs  of  Smyrna,"  admitted 
into  the  great  Exposition  of  Paris  in  1855. 

Chacon,  chS-kin',  [It.  Ciacone,  chi-ko'ni  ;  Lat.  CiA- 
co'nius,]  (Alonzo,)  a  Spanish  priest,  born  in  the  king- 
dom of  Granada  in  1 540,  was  very  learned  in  ecclesiastical 
history  and  antiquities.  He  lived  some  years  in  Rome, 
and  was  apostolic  penitentiary  under  Gregory  XIII. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "History  of  the  Popes  and  Car- 
dinals," (1601.)    Died  in  1599. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Chacon,  [Lat.  Ciaco'nius,]  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish 
priest,  eminent  for  his  learning,  and  called  "  the  Varro 
of  his  age,"  was  born  at  Toledo  in  1525.  He  became 
a  resident  of  Rome,  and  was  employed  by  Gregory  XIII. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as/;  o,  h,  k, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (^[^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CHADERTON 


CHAILAN 


to  revise  the  Bible  and  the  Fathers.  He  annotated  Isi- 
dore, TertuUian,  Sallust,  Varro,  Pliny,  etc.,  and  wrote  a 
treatise  on  the  Roman  manner  of  reclining  at  table,  ("De 
Triclinio  Romano,")  and  other  works,  iiis  immense  eru- 
dition was  extolled  by  Vossius,  De  Thou,  and  Casaubon. 
Died  in  Rome  in  1581. 

See  DupiN,  "  Bibliotheque  des  Auteurs  eccl^siastiques,"  etc. 

Chad'fr-tpn,  (Lawrence,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine, 
born  in  Lancashire  in  1546.  In  1584  he  was  chosen  first 
master  of  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge.  He  assisted 
in  the  version  of  the  Bible  made  by  order  of  James  I., 
and  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  Justification."    Died  in  1640. 

See  Dillingham,  "Vita  L.  Chadertoni,"  1700. 

Chadidscha.    See  Khadijah. 

Chaduc,  sht'diik',  (Louis,)  a  French  antiquary,  born 
at  Riom  in  1560.  He  formed  a  collection  of  two  thou- 
sand engraved  gems.    Died  in  1638. 

Chad'-wick,  (Edwin,)  an  English  reformer  and  sta- 
tistician, whose  life  has  been  devoted  to  sanitary  reform 
and  the  prevention  of  pauperism,  was  born  in  the  en- 
virons of  Manchester  in  1801.  He  removed  to  London 
in  his  youth,  and  became  a  student  in  the  Inner  Temple. 
In  1828  he  published  in  the  "  Westminster  Review"  an 
important  article  "On  Life  Assurance,"  and  in  1829  in 
the  "London  Review" a  paper  "On  Preventive  Police," 
which  procured  him  the  friendship  of  Jeremy  Bentham. 
He  was  appointed  in  1834  secretary  to  the  poor-law 
commission,  and  continued  in  that  office  until  1847. 
From  masses  of  evidence  collected  for  this  commission 
he  prepared  a  "  Report  on  the  Sanitary  Condition  of 
the  Labouring  Population  of  Great  Britain,"  (1842,) 
which  produced  a  great  sensation.  In  consequence  of 
this  sanitary  movement  a  public-health  act  was  passed 
in  1848,  and  a  general  board  of  health  was  appointed, 
of  which  board  Mr.  Chadwick  was  a  member  from  1848 
to  1854.  "No  public  man  of  the  present  day,"  says  the 
"North  British  Review,"  (1850,)  "is  more  justly  an  ob- 
ject of  general  attention  and  interest  than  Edwin  Chad- 
wick. It  would  be  difficult  to  mention  another  public 
man  possessing  so  pre-eminently  the  passion  and  genius 
of  rectification." 

See  "Brief  Biographies,"  by  Samuel  Smiles;  "North  British 
Review"  for  May,  1850. 

Chaerea,  kee're-a,  (C.  Cassius,)  a  Roman  tribune  of 
the  praetorian  cohort  in  the  reign  of  Caligula.  Having 
been  insulted  or  ridiculed  by  that  tyrant,  and  perhaps 
impelled  by  the  love  of  liberty,  he  formed  a  conspiracy 
and  assassinated  Caligula  in  41  a.d.  Within  a  few  days 
after  this  event  he  was  executed  by  Claudius. 

See  Tacitus,  "Annales." 

Chgeremon,  ke-ree'mon,  [Gr.  Xaiprjiiuv;  Fr.  Ch6r6- 
MON,  ki'ri''m6N',]  an  Athenian  tragic  poet,  who  is  sup- 
posed to  have  flourished  between  400  and  350  B.C.  He 
imitated  the  defects  of  Euripides,  and  displayed  the  bad 
taste  which  belongs  to  an  age  of  decadence.  He  excelled 
in  the  description  of  sensuous  beauty.  Fragments  of 
his  plays  have  come  down  to  us. 

See  Bartsch,  "De  Cha;remone,  Poeta  tragico." 

Chaeremon,  a  Stoic  philosopher  and  historian,  lived 
in  the  first  century  of  our  era.  He  was  librarian  of  the 
great  Alexandrian  Library,  and  afterwards  a  preceptor  of 
Nero  in  Rome.  His  chief  work  was  a  "  Sacred  and  Profane 
History  of  Egypt,"  of  which  only  a  fragment  is  extant. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Gr«eca." 

Chaerephon,  k§r'e-fon,  [Gr.  Xaipe<pC)v;  Fr.  Ch6r6- 
PHON,  ki'rkT^N',]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  about  480 
B.C.,  was  a  friend  of  Socrates,  and  is  often  noticed  favour- 
ably in  the  works  of  Plato. 

Chafei,  (Mohammed-Ben-Idrys.)  See  Shafey-Ibn- 

I  DREES. 

Chah.    See  Shah. 
Chahyn-Gherai.    See  Shaheen. 
Chaillu.    See  Du  Chaillu. 

Chais,  shi,  (Pierre,)  a  Swiss  divine  and  pulpit  orator, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1 701,  became  minister  at  the  Hague 
in  1728.  He  founded  a  hospital  or  almshouse  at  the 
Hague,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Com- 
mentary on  the  Old  Testament,"  (7  vols.,)  and  "  Theology 
of  the  Bible,"  (1752.)    Died  at  the  Hague  in  1785. 

Chaise,  La.    See  La  Chaise. 


Chaix  d'Est- Ange,  sh  ^'di'tdNzh',  ( V  ictor  Char  les,) 
an  eloquent  P>ench  advocate,  born  at  Rheims  in  1800, 
was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1831,  1837, 
and  1844.  About  the  end  of  1857  he  became  procureur- 
general  at  the  imperial  court  of  Paris. 

Chalais,  de,  Prince.  See  Talleyrand,  (Henri  de.) 

Chalbos,  shtl'bo',  (Francois,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Cubieres  ;  died  in  1803. 

■€Jhal-9id'I-us,  a  Platonic  philosopher,  of  whose  na- 
tivity and  life  nothing  is  known.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  between  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  and  the 
end  of  the  sixth  century.  He  produced  a  Latin  version 
of  the  first  part  of  Plato's  "Timaeus,"  with  a  learned 
commentary  on  the  same.  It  is  doubtful  whether  he  was 
a  Christian  or  a  pagan. 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Chalcondylas.    See  Chalcondyles. 

•ehal-con'dj^-las,  [Fr.  Chalcondyle,  ktl'k6N'dll' ] 
(Dembitrius,)  a  learned  Greek,  born  at  Athens  about 
1424.  Invited  by  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  he  went  to  Flor- 
ence about  1480,  and  there  taught  Greek  until  the  death 
of  that  prince  in  1492.  He  then  became  professor  oi 
Greek  in  Milan,  where  he  died  about  15 10.  The  first 
edition  of  Homer  ever  printed  was  edited  by  Chalcon- 
dylas in  1488. 

See  P.  Giovio,  "  Elogia ;"  C.  F.  Borner,  "  Programma  de  D. 
Chalcondyle,"  1711. 

Chalcondyle.    See  Chalcondylas. 

■ehal-con''dy-le§  or  -ehal-con'dy-las,  (Laon'icus 
or  Nicola'us,)  [Gr.  AaoviKoc  or  NiKo'Auog  Xa/iKovdv'Ar/^,] 
an  able  Byzantine  historian  and  statesman,  was  a  native 
of  Athens,  and  a  relative  of  Demetrius,  noticed  above. 
In  1446  he  was  ambassador  from  John  VII.  Palaeologus 
to  Sultan  Murad  II.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Turks 
and  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  from  1298  to  1463,"  which 
is  an  important  work  and  considered  reliable.  His  name 
is  sometimes  written  Chalcocondyles. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  Von  Hammer,  "Histoiro 
de  I'Empire  Ottoman." 

Chales.    See  Challes,  (Claude  F.  Millet  de.) 
Chaies.    See  Chasles. 

Chalgrin,  shtl'gRiN',  (Jean  FRANgois  Th^ir^se,)  an 
eminent  French  architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1739.  Hav- 
ing gained  the  grand  prize  of  the  Academy,  he  went  to 
Italy  with  a  royal  pension.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  the  College  of  France,  many  hotels  of  Paris,  the 
restoration  of  the  Luxembourg  Palace,  and  the  "Arc 
de  rfitoile,"  a  magnificent  triumphal  arch  at  Paris.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Institute.    Died  in  1811. 

See  Viei^  "Notice  sur  J.  F.  T.  Chalgrin,"  1814. 

Chalier,  sht'le-i',  (Marie  Joseph,)  a  violent  French 
Jacobin,  born  near  Suza,  Piedmont,  in  1747.  He  was  a 
merchant  in  Lyons  when  the  Revolution  began.  He 
became  the  leader  of  the  Jacobins  of  that  city,  and  a  fa- 
natical admirer  of  Marat.  A  plot  which  he  had  formed 
to  massacre  the  aristocrats  having  been  detected,  he  was 
guillotined  at  Lyons  in  1793. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  de  la  Revolution." 

Chalkhill,  chauk'il,  (John,)  the  supposed  author  of  a 
pastoral  poem  published  in  1683  by  Izaak  Walton,  with 
the  title  of  "Thealma  and  Clearchus."  Some  critics 
believe  this  work  was  written  by  Walton,  as  his  state- 
ment respecting  the  authorship  is  not  supported  by  other 
evidence. 

Chalkley,  chauk'le,  (Thomas,)  a  minister  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Friends,  born  in  London  in  1675,  removed  to 
Pennsylvania  about  1700.  He  resided  at  Frankford, 
near  Philadelphia.  While  on  a  religious  visit  to  the 
West  Indies,  he  died  in  Tortola  about  1742,  leaving  an 
interesting  journal  of  his  life,  which  was  published  in 
1747. 

Challamel,  sht'lS'mgK,  (Jean  Baptiste  Marie  Au- 
GUSTIN,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1818, 
published  "A  Summer  in  Spain,"  (1843,)  a  "Popular 
History  of  France,  the  Revolution,  and  Napoleon," 
(1851,)  and  other  works.  ■. 

Challan,  sht'16N',( Antoine  Didier  Jean  Baptiste,) 
a  French  lawyer,  born  at  Meulan  in  1754.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1798,  was 
president  of  the  Tribunat  in  1802,  and  served  in  the 
legislative  body  from  1807  to  1814.    He  was  the  author 


e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f3r,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CHALLE 


$6i 


CHJLONER 


or  redadeur  of  the  act  by  which  the  latter  declared  that 
Bonaparte  was  deposed  in  1814.    Died  in  1831. 

Challe,  shSl,  (Charles  Michel  Ange,)  a  painter 
and  architect,  born  in  Paris  in  17 18.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  perspective  in  the  Academy,  (i753>)  and  de- 
signer for  the  cabinet  of  the  king.  His  fine  taste  and 
skill  in  antique  monuments  procured  for  him  also  the 
direction  of  public  festivals.    Died  in  1778. 

Challes,  de,  deh  shtl,  (Claude  Francois  Milliet,) 
a  Frencli  mathematician,  born  at  Chambery  in  1621,  was 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Jesuits'  College  at  Lyons. 
His  principal  work  is  a  *'  Course  of  Mathematics,"  (1674,) 
which  was  highly  prized  at  the  time.    Died  in  1678. 

See  MoRERi,  " Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Chal'lis,  (Rev.  James,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
1803,  became  professor  of  astronomy  in  the  University 
of  Cambridge  about  1836.  He  published  a  work  entitled 
"Creation  in  Plan  and  Progress,"  (1861.) 

Chal'lpn-^r,  (Richard,)  an  English  Catholic  writer, 
born  at  Lewes,  Sussex,  in  169 1.  He  was  made  coadjutor 
to  Petre,  the  titular  Bishop  of  London,  in  1 741,  and  suc- 
ceeded him  in  1758.  He  wrote  a  "Church  History," 
the  "Grounds  of  the  Old  Religion,"  and  other  works 
against  the  Protestants.    Died  in  1781. 

See  J.  Barnard,  "Life  of  R.  Challoner,"  1784. 

Chalmel,  shSl'm^K,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  repub- 
lican and  historian,  born  at  Tours  in  1756;  died  in  1829. 

Chalmers,  chiKmerz  or  chaw'merz,  (Alexander,)  a 
British  editor  and  critic,  born  at  Aberdeen  in  1 759.  About 
1778  he  came  to  London,  where  he  wrote  for  literary 
periodicals,  and  edited  the  "Spectator,"  "Tatler,"  and 
various  other  works.  His  edition  of  Shakspeare  (1809) 
is  commended.  He  edited  a  "General  Biographical 
Dictionary,"  (32  vols.,  1812-17.)    Died  in  1834. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  February,  1835;  Chambers, 
"  Bio5;raphical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement.) 

Chalmers,  (George,)  a  Scottish  writer  and  lawyer, 
born  at  Fochabers  in  1742.  He  resided  many  years  in 
London,  and  was  a  clerk  of  the  board  of  trade  from  1786 
until  his  death.  He  wrote  "  Political  Annals  of  the  United 
Colonies,"  a  "  Life  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,"  and  various 
other  works.  He  devoted  many  years  to  a  great  topo- 
graphical and  historical  account  of  Great  Britain,  called 
"Caledonia,"  (1807-24,)  which  is  said  to  be  more  elabo- 
rate and  copious  than  any  work  on  British  history  or 
antiquities  which  ever  came  from  one  author.  ("London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1810.)    Died  in  1825. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Chal'm^rs,  [Scottish  pron.  chaw'merz,]  (Rev.  Tho- 
mas,) the  most  eminent  Scottish  divine  of  the  present 
century,  was  born  at  Anstruther,  in  Fifeshire,  on  the 
17th  of  March,  1780.  He  was  a  son  of  John  Chalmers,  a 
dyer,  ship-owner,  and  general  merchant.  He  entered  the 
University  of  Saint  Andrew's  in  1791,  and  acquired  great 
proficiency  in  mathematics,  which  was  his  favourite  sci- 
ence. Even  after  he  had  been  enrolled  as  a  student  of 
divinity,  (1795,)  he  gave  more  attention  to  geometry  than 
to  theology.  He  was  licensed  as  a  minister  of  the  .Scot- 
tish Church  in  1799;  after  which  he  passed  two  winters 
in  attending  the  lectures  of  Dugald  Stewart,  Robison, 
Playfair,  and  Hope  in  Edinburgh.  At  this  time  his  thirst 
for  literary  distinction  was  greater  than  his  interest  in 
vital  religion.  \\\  the  autumn  of  1802  he  became  assistant 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Saint  Andrew's,  and  "threw 
himself  into  the  duties  of  the  mathematical  classes,"  says 
Mr.  Hanna,  "  with  all  the  fervour  of  an  overflowing  enthu- 
siasm."   He  was  ordained  minister  of  Kilmany  in  1803. 

In  1807  he  published  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Extent  and 
Stability  of  the  National  Resources,"  which  was  received 
with  favour,  and  in  1809  became  a  contributor  to  the 
"  Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia,"  for  which  he  wrote  an  ex- 
cellent article  "On  Christianity."  About  this  time  a 
great  change  was  effected  in  his  spiritual  life,  and  in  his 
religious  principles,  which  had  been  anti-Evangelical. 
He  married  Miss  Grace  Pratt  in  1812.  Having  acquired 
a  wide  reputation  for  eloquence  and  wisdom,  he  was 
elected  minister  of  the  Tron  Church  in  Glasgow,  to  which 
he  removed  in  1815.  In  1816  he  delivered,  on  Astronomy 
in  its  Connection  with  Religion,  a  series  of  discourses, 
which  were  greatly  admired.  They  were  published  in 
1817,  and  ran  through  nine  editions  within  the  first  year. 


**To  this  day,"  says  his  biographer,  "they  command  a 
larger  sale  than  any  other  portion  of  Dr.  Chalmers's  writ- 
ings." He  became  the  most  celebrated  pulpit  orator 
of  Scotland,  or  probably  of  Great  Britain,  during  the 
eight  years  which  he  passed  in  Glasgow.  He  appears  ro 
have  wisely  estimated  the  popular  applause  which  he  so 
largely  shared,  the  dangers  of  which  lie  thus  described  : 
"There  is  a  far-sounding  popularity,  which  is  a  most 
worthless  article,  .  .  .  which,  by  elevating  man  above 
his  fellows,  places  him  in  a  region  of  desolation,  where 
he  stands  a  conspicuous  mark  for  the  shafts  of  malice, 
and  envy,  and  detraction, — a  popularity  which,  with  its 
head  among  storms  and  its  feet  on  the  treacherous 
quicksands,  has  nothing  to  lull  the  agonies  of  its  totter- 
ing existence  but  the  hosannas  of  a  drivelling  generation." 
In  1819  he  was  translated  to  the  parish  of  Saint  John's, 
Glasgow.  He  accepted  in  1823  the  chair  of  iTJoral  philo- 
sophy at  Saint  Andrew's,  where  he  remained  about  five 
years.  From  1828  to  1843  ^^^^  professor  of  theology 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  During  this  period  he 
produced  many  important  works,  among  which  are  his 
"  Political  Economy,"  (1832,)  and  the  Bridgewater  treat- 
ise "  On  the  Adaptation  of  External  Nature  to  the  Moral 
and  Intellectual  Constitution  of  Man,"  (1833.)  Dr.  Chal- 
mers was  the  principal  chief  of  the  "  Evangelical"  party 
in  the  controversy  which  resulted  in  the  disruption  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland  in  1843.  He  and  his  friends 
then  seceded  from  the  Established  Church,  and  organized 
what  is  known  as  the  "Free  Church."  He  was  a  cor- 
responding member  of  the  French  Institute.  Died  in 
Edinburgh  in  May,  1847. 

See  "Memoirs  of  his  Life  and  Writings,"  4  vols.,  1850-52,  pub- 
lished by  his  son-in-law,  Mr.  Hanna,  who  has  also  edited  his  posthu- 
mous works  ;  Francis  Wavland,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Christian  La- 
bours of  Thomas  Chalmers  ;"  "  North  British  Review"  for  August, 
1847,  February,  1848,  May,  1852,  and  November,  1S56 ;  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1832;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  Oc- 
tober, 1852;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  May,  1853;  "Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  August,  1S47,  and  July,  1852;  Rev.  Robert  Steel, 
"Burning  and  Shining  Lights." 

Chal'on,  (Alfred  Edward,)  an  English  portrait  and 
historical  painter  of  the  present  century.  He  painted 
the  portrait  of  Lady  Russell,  and  designed  some  of  the 
figures  of  Finden's  "Gallery  of  the  Graces,"  (London, 
1832.)  He  has  also  designed  illustrations  for  the  works 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Chal'ou  or  CharTon,  (John  James,)  an  English 
painter  of  genre,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  about 
1785  ;  died  in  1854. 

Chal'pn-^r,  (Edward,)  D.D.,  son  of  Sir  Thomas, 
born  at  Chiswick  in  1590,  became  chaplain  to  James  I., 
and  principal  of  Alban  Hall,  Oxford.    Died  in  1625. 

Chaloner,  (James,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  wrote 
a  "Description  of  the  Isle  of  Man."  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Long  Parliament,  and  one  of  the  judges  who  tried 
Charles  I.    Died  in  1661. 

Chaloner,  (Thomas,)  a  brother  of  Edward  and  James, 
noticed  above,  became  a  member  of  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment, and  sat  as  judge  in  the  trial  of  Charles  I.  At  the 
restoration  (1660)  he  was  excepted  as  a  regicide  from 
the  amnesty,  and  escaped  to  Holland,  where  he  died,  it 
is  supposed,  about  1662. 

See  Wood,  "  Athens  Oxonienses." 

Chaloner,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  states- 
man and  author,  born  in  London  about  15 15.  About 
1 541  he  accompanied  Charles  V.  in  his  disastrous  expe- 
dition against  Algiers,  and  nearly  perished  by  shipwreck. 
For  his  gallant  conduct  at  Musselburgh  in  1547  he  was 
knighted.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  (1558) 
he  was  employed  with  credit  as  ambassador  to  Ferdinand 
I.  of  Germany,  and  a  few  years  later  became  minister  at 
the  court  of  Spain.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  work  "On 
the  Right  Ordering  of  the  English  Commonwealth,"  and 
some  Latin  verses.    Died  in  1 565. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Chaloner,  (Sir  Thomas,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and 
father  of  Edward,  James,  and  Thomas,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  1559.  He  became  a  favourite  of  James  I., 
who  appointed  him,  in  1603,  director  of  the  education 
and  household  of  Prince  Henry,  which  position  he  held 
until  the  death  of  Henry.  He  was  author  of  a  treatise 
on  the  virtue  of  Nitre.    Died  in  161 5. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

36 


562  CHAMBERS 


CH  A  LOT  A  IS 


Chalotais,  de  la,  d?h  It  sht'lo't^',  (Louis  Reni^  de 
Caradeuc,  deh  kt'rt'duk',)  a  French  lawyer  and  magis- 
trate, born  at  Rennes  in  1701,  became  attorney-general 
at  that  place.  He  contributed  to  the  suppression  of  the 
Jesuits  by  a  compte-retidu  which  he  read  before  the  par- 
liament at  Rennes  in  1761.  It  produced  much  excitement. 
For  his  part  in  a  quarrel  between  the  court  and  parliament 
he  was  imprisoned  in  1765,  and,  after  a  long  and  famous 
trial,  was  exiled  to  Saintes.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on 
National  Education,"  which  was  praised  by  Vpltaire  and 
Grimm.    Died  in  1785, 

Chalvet,  shSl'vi',  [Lat.  Calven'tius,]  (Mathieu,) 
a  French  scholar,  born  in  Auvergne  in  1528,  produced 
a  translation  of  Seneca.    Died  in  1607. 

Chalybaeus.    See  Chalyhaus. 

Chalybaus  or  Chalybaeus,  Ka-le-ba'us,  (Heinrich 
MoRiTZ,)  a  German  philosopher,  born  at  Pfaffroda,  in 
Saxony,  in  1796.  He  published  in  1836  a  "History  of 
the  Development  of  Speculative  Philosophy  from  Kant 
to  Hegel,"  which  was  well  received.  In  1839  he  became 
professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Kiel.  His 
principal  work  is  a  "  System  of  Speculative  Ethics,  or 
Philosophy  of  the  Family,  of  the  State,  and  of  Morality 
as  connected  with  Religion,"  (1850,  2  vols.) 

Cham.    See  Ham. 

Chambard,  shdN'btR',  (Louis  Leopold,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Saint-Amour  (Jura)  about  1812,  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1837.  Among  his  works  are  "A  Girl 
"listening  to  the  Murmur  of  a  Shell,"  and  a  '*  Cupid 
Chained,"  (1857.) 

Chambarlhac,  de,  dehshSN'bSR^ltk',  (Jean  Jacques 
Vital,)  a  French  general,  born  in  1754;  died  in  1826. 

Cham'ber,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  who  prac- 
tised in  London  about  1520.  He  became  physician  to 
Henry  VIII.,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  College 
of  Physicians.    Died  in  1549. 

Chamberet,  sh6N'bRi',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Limoges  in  1779.  He  was  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  "  Dictionary  of  Medical  Sciences," 
and  of  the  "Encyclopedic  Methodique." 

Chamberlain.    See  Chamberlen,  (Hugh.) 

Chamberlain  or  Chamberlayne,  cham'ber-lin, 
(Robert,)  an  English  poet,  wrote  epigrams,  comedies, 
pastorals,  etc.    Died  in  1637. 

Chamberlain  or  Chamberlayne,  (William,)  an 
English  poet  and  physician,  born  in  Dorsetshire  in  161 9. 
He  wrote  "Love's  Victory,"  a  tragi-comedy,  (1658,)  and 
"Pharronida,  a  Heroic  Poem,"  (1659.)  Southey  calls 
him  "a  poet  who  has  told  an  interesting  story  in  uncouth 
rhymes,  and  mingles  sublimity  of  thought  and  beauty 
of  expression  with  the  quaintest  conceits  and  most 
awkward  inversions."    Died  in  1689.  ;v^ii>xlU 

See  Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets."     '        '  ** 

Chamberlaine  or  Chamberlayne,  cham'ber-lin, 
(Edward,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Gloucestershire 
in  1616,  was  tutor  to  the  Duke  of  Grafton.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Present  State  of  England," 
(1668,)  partly  statistical,  (often  reprinted.)  Died  in 
1703- 

Chamberlaine,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  a  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  an  excellent  linguist.  He  translated  several 
works  from  the  Dutch  and  French,  among  others,  "The 
Lives  of  French  Philosophers,"  by  Fontenelle ;  and  he 
continued  the  publication  of  his  father's  work,  above 
named.    Died  in  1723. 

Chamberlayne.  See  Chamberlain  and  Cham- 
berlaine. 

Cham'ber-len  or  Chamberlain,  (Hugh,)  an  Eng- 
lish physician,  born  in  1664,  was  the  inventor  of  an 
obstetric  forceps,  and  practised  in  London  with  success. 
He  was  noted  for  his  skill  as  an  accoucheur.  He  wrote 
several  treatises,  one  of  which  is  named  "  Practice  of 
Phvsic."    Died  in  1728. 

dham'bers,  (David,)  a  Scottish  historian,  born  about 
•1530.  He  was  an  adherent  of  Queen  Mary,  who  in  1564 
created  him  a  privy  councillor  and  lord  of  session,  with 
the  title  of  Lord  Ormond.  About  1568  he  was  removed 
from  office,  and  retired  to  France,  where  he  published,  in 
French,  a  "  History  of  the  Kings  of  France,  England,  and 
Scotland,"  and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1592. 

See  CyAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 


Cham'b^rs,  (Ephraim,)  the  author  of  Chambers's 
"  Cyclopaedia,"  was  born  at  Kendal,  in  England.  He 
served  an  apprenticeship  with  Senex,  a  globe-maker  of 
London.  In  1728  he  produced  the  first  edition  of  his 
"  Cyclopaedia,"  in  two  volumes,  which  was  very  success- 
ful and  speedily  procured  him  a  Fellowship  in  the  Royal 
Society.  It  was  the  most  complete  and  extensive  work 
of  the  kind  that  had  appeared,  and  suggested  the  idea 
of  the  great  French  "  Encyclopedic"  of  Diderot.  The 
most  of  the  articles  were  written  by  the  editor  himself, 
who  was  a  learned  and  very  industrious  compiler.  The 
sixth  edition  was  enlarged  by  Dr.  Rees,  (1785,)  who  also 
made  Chambers's  work  the  basis  of  a  more  extensive  one, 
called  "  Rees's  Cyclopaedia."    Died  in  1740. 

Chambers,  (George,)  an  English  painter,  who  ex- 
celled in  marine  views,  was  born  at  Whitby  about  1780. 
Having  learned  the  trade  of  house-painter,  he  went  to 
London,  where  he  worked  seven  years  on  Horner's 
Panorama  of  London.  He  painted  battle-scenes,  which 
were  much  admired,  and  was  appointed  marine  painter 
to  William  IV.  and  to  his  queen.  Among  his  works  is 
the  "Bombardment  of  Algiers  in  1816."    Died  in  1840. 

Chambers,  (Robert,)  LL.D.,  a  well-known  Scottish 
writer  and  publisher,  born  at  Peebles  in  1802.  He  be- 
came in  his  youth  a  bookseller  in  Edinburgh,  and  pub- 
lished, in  1824,  "Traditions  of  Edinburgh,"  which  was 
followed  by  several  popular  works  on  Scottish  history. 
In  1832  he  entered  into  partnership  with  his  brother 
William  in  the  publication  of  "The  Edinburgh  Journal," 
(published  weekly,)  which  was  very  successful.  (See 
Chambers,  William,  2d.)  They  subsequently  issued 
popular  books,  entitled  "Information  for  the  People," 
"  Chambers's  Miscellany,"  "Papers  for  the  People,"  etc. 
Nearly  two  hundred  thousand  copies  of  "  Information  for 
tlie  People"  have  been  sold  in  England  and  the  United 
States.  Robert  published  a  valuable  "  Biographical  Dic- 
tionary of  Eininent  Scotsmen,"  with  portraits,  (1835.)  He 
was  principal  editor  of  the  "Cyclopaedia  of  English  Lit- 
erature :  Selections  from  the  Works  of  English  Authors, 
connected  by  a  Critical  and  Biographical  History," 
(1844,)  which  obtained  a  large  circulation.  Died  in  1871. 

Chambers,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer, 
born  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne  in  1737.  In  1762  he  suc- 
ceeded Sir  William  Blackstone  as  Vinerian  professor  of 
law  at  Oxford.  He  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  judicature  in  Bengal  in  1774,  and  chief  justice 
of  the  same  in  1 791.  He  returned  home  in  1799,  and 
died  in  1803. 

Chambers,  (Sir  William,)  an  eminent  architect,  of 
Scottish  descent,  born  at  Stockholm,  Sweden,  in  172^. 
At  an  early  age  he  settled  in  London,  where  he  was  suc- 
cessful in  his  profession.  George  III.,  who  had  received 
lessons  in  drawing  from  Chambers,  employed  him  to  lay 
out  the  royal  gardens  at  Kew.  His  principal  works  are 
Somerset  House,  in  London,Milton  Abbey  in  Dorsetshire, 
and  the  Marquis  of  Abercorn's  mansion,  near  Edinburgh. 
The  first  of  these,  begun  about  1775,  is  greatly  admired. 
He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Civil  Architecture,"  (1759,) 
which,  says  Horace  Walpole,  "is  the  most  sensible  book 
ever  written  on  that  science,"  and  a  "Dissertation  on 
Oriental  Gardening,"  (1774.)    Died  in  1796. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  March,  1796. 

Chambers,  (William,)  a  Scottish  editor,  brother 
of  Robert  Chambers,  noticed  above,  distinguished  for 
successful  enterprise  in  the  publication  of  cheap  and  useful 
literature,  was  born  at  Peebles  in  1800.  In  1830  he  pro- 
duced "The  Book  of  Scotland,"  a  description  of  the 
custotns,  laws,  and  institutions  of  that  country.  In  1832 
William  and  Robert  Chambers  began  to  edit  "Cham- 
bers's Edinburgh  Journal,"  which  obtained  a  circulation 
of  fifty  thousand  in  1834.  Having  entered  into  partner- 
ship, they  established  a  publishing-house,  which  has 
become  one  of  the  most  extensive  in  Scotland.  They 
have  compiled  and  published  numerous  works  which 
are  well  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  masses.  (See 
Chambers,  Robert.)  Among  the  most  important  of 
their  recent  publications  is  "Chambers's  Encyclopjedia 
for  the  People,"  begun  in  1859  and  completed  in  1868. 
William  is  the  author  of  a  volume  called  "Things  as 
they  are  in  America."  In  1865  he  was  made  lord  pro- 
vost of  Edinburgh. 


a,  e,  r,  o,  n,  y,  Jc7ig;  \  h,  6.  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sJkort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CHAM  BERT 


563 


CH AMOR  IN 


Chambert,  sh6N'baiR',  (Germain,)  a  French  en- 
graver, born  in  Languedoc  in  1784  ;  died  in  182 1. 

ChamboUe,  shdN^boK,  (Adolfhk,)  a  French  jour- 
nalist, born  at  La  Chataigneraye  in  1802,  was  chief  editor 
of  the  "  Siecle"  from  1837  to  1848.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1838,  and  to  the  Constituent 
and  Legislative  Assemblies  of  1848.  Having  voted  against 
President  Napoleon,  he  was  exiled  for  a  few  months  in 
1852. 

Chambon,  shftN'bdN',  (Antoine  BENotr,)  a  French 
republican,  who  was  deputed  from  Correze  to  the  Con- 
vention in  1792.  He  was  one  of  the  proscril^ed  Girond- 
ists who  escaped  from  the  Convention  on  the  31st  of  May, 
1793.  Having  been  declared  a  traitor  by  the  terrorists, 
he  was  arrested  near  Lubersac,  and  executed,  in  1793. 

Chambon  de  Montaux,  sh6N'b<!)N'  deh  m6N'to', 
(Nicolas,)  a  French  physician,  and  mayor  of  Paris,  was 
born  at  Brevannes,  in  Champagne,  in  1748.  Before  the 
Revolution  he  had  been  first  physician  of  the  army,  and 
inspector-general  of  the  military  hospitals.  Having  be- 
come a  politician,  and  a  moderate  partisan  of  the  new 
regime,  he  was  elected  mayor  of  Paris  in  place  of  Petion 
in  the  autumn  of  1792.  He  resigned  his  ofiSce  early  in 
1793.  He  published  numerous  medical  treatises,  and 
wrote  articles  for  the  Encyclopedic  Methodique." 
Died  in  1826. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Chambord,  Comte.    See  Bordeaux,  Due  de. 

Chambray,  de,  deh  shdN^bni',  (Georges,)  Mar- 
quis, a  French  officer  and  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1783, 
served  in  several  campaigns  in  Germany,  and  in  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1 81 2,  when  he  was  taken  prisoner 
at  Wilna.  He  returned  to  France  in  1 81 5,  and,  having 
been  made  marechal-de-camp,  he  retired  from  service 
about  1830.  He  published  an  important  work,  entitled  a 
"  History  of  the  Expedition  to  Russia,"  (1833,)  which 
was  received  with  great  favour  in  France  and  foreign 
countries.    Died  about  1850. 

See  Raymond-Bordeaux,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  le  G^n^ral 
de  Chambray,"  1850. 

Chambray,  de,  (Jacques  Francois,)  born  at  fivreux, 
in  France,  in  1687,  became  grand-cross  of  the  order  of 
Saint  John,  and  commandant  of  the  troops  of  Malta.  He 
was  one  of  the  ablest  naval  officers  of  his  time,  and  often 
fought  against  the  Turks  and  Algerines.    Died  in  1756. 

See  Hennequin,  "Biographie  maritime." 

Chambray  or  Chambrai,  de,  (Roland  Fr^ard,) 
SiEUR,  a  learned  French  artist  and  writer  on  art,  born  at 
Mans.  He  translated  into  French  Palladio's  work  on 
Architecture,  and  published  a  "  Comparison  between 
Ancient  and  Modern  Architecture,"  (1650,)  which  had 
great  success.    Died  in  1676. 

See  Bi,ON'DEAU,  "  Les  Hommes  illustres  de  Maine." 

Chambre,  de  la,  deh  IS  shSNbR,  (Marin  Cureau — 
kii'ro',)  a  French  physician  and  philosophic  writer,  born 
at  Mans  in  1594.  Having  gained  a  brilliant  reputation 
by  his  talents  and  attainments,  he  was  chosen  in  1635  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy.  He  was  afterwards 
physician  to  Louis  XIV.,  who  often  consulted  him  in 
physiognomy.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
very  successful  one,  called  "The  Characters  of  the 
Passions,"  (5  vols.,  1640-62,)  and  another  entitled  "The 
Art  of  Judging  Men,"  (1659.)    Died  about  1670. 

Chambure,  de,  deh  sh^iN^biiR',  (Auguste  Lepelle- 
tier — leh-p§rte-i',)  a  French  officer,  noted  for  his  daring 
actions,  was  borrT  at  Vitteaux  in  1789  ;  died  in  1832. 

Chamfort,  shSN'foR',  (S^:bastien  Roch  Nicolas,) 
a  successful  and  satirical  French  author,  born  near  Cler- 
mont in  Auvergne  in  1741,  lived  mostly  in  Paris.  Li 
1769  his  "Eloge"  on  Moliere  gained  the  prize  of  the 
French  Academy.  About  1776  he  published  a  "  Drama- 
tic Dictionary,"  and  a  tragedy  named  "Mustapha  and 
Zeangir,"  which  was  performed  with  applause  before  the 
court.  His  eulogy  on  La  Fontaine  gained  a  prize  for 
which  La  Harpe  competed.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
French  Academy  in  1781,  and  soon  after  was  appointed 
reader  or  secretary  to  Madame  Elizabeth,  the  king's  sister. 
He  favoured  the  Revolution  in  its  first  stages,  and  was  a 
personal  and  political  friend  of  Mirabeau,  who  addressed 
a  series  of  letters  to  him.  In  1790  he  commenced  a  large 
collection  or  book  called  "Tableaux  of  the  Revolution"," 


and  was  chosen  librarian  of  the  National  Library.  Having 
been  arrested  in  the  reign  of  terror,  he  died  in  1794, 
after  having  failed  in  an  attempt  to  commit  suicide.  His 
"Maxims  and  Thoughts"  is  part  of  an  unfinished  work 
which  Ginguene  thinks  would  have  placed  him  among 
the  great  painters  of  manners.  Mirabeau  called  him 
ufie  tete  electrique. 

See  GiNGUEN^,  "Vie  et  Merits  de  Chamfort,"  prefixed  to  an  edi- 
tion of  his  works,  4  vols.,  1795;  AuGUis,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de 
Chamfort,"  prefixed  to  his  collected  works,  5  vols.,  1825;  Ars^ne 
HoussAYE,  "  Philosophers  and  Actresses,"  vol.  ii.  ;  "  Fraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  September,  1852. 

Chamier,  sht'me-a',  (Daniel,)  a  French  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Montelimart  about  1570,  was  a  very 
learned  and  staunch  champion  of  his  creed.  After  preach- 
ing some  years  at  Montpellier,  he  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Montauban  in  1612.  He  was  killed  in  the 
civil  war  at  the  siege  of  Montauban  in  162 1.  He  had 
written  several  polemical  works,  and,  according  to  Va- 
rillas,  was  the  chief  redadeur  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  His 
learning  excited  the  admiration  of  Scaliger. 

See  "Memoir  of  D.  Chamier,  Minister  of  the  Reformed  Church," 
etc.,  London,  1852;  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;" 
MM.  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Cham'ier,  (Frederick,)  an  English  novelist,  born  in 
London  in  1796.  He  wrote  several  popular  novels, 
among  which  are  "  Ben  Brace,"  (1835,)  "The  Arethusa," 
(1836,)  and  "Trevor  Hastings,"  (1841.)    Died  in  1870. 

Chamillard,  sht'me'ytR',  (Michel,)  a  French  min- 
ister of  state,  born  in  165 1.  He  was  appointed  controller- 
general  of  finances  in  1699,  when  his  modesty  prompted 
him  to  decline  the  honour;  but  Louis  XIV.  urged  him, 
saying,  "I  will  second  you."  In  1701  he  becatne  min- 
ister of  war,  probably  through  the  influence  of  Madame 
de  Maintenon.  He  proved  to  be  incompetent  for  that 
office,  and  was  driven  by  the  force  of  public  opinion  to 
resign  the  ministry  of  finances  in  1708,  and  that  of  war 
in  1709.    Died  in  1721. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoircs." 

Chamillart,  sht'me'ytR',  or  Chamillard,(£TiENNE,) 

a  French  Jesuit  and  antiquary,  born  at  Bourges  in  1656, 
edited  Prudentius  "ad  usum  Delphini."    Died  in  1730. 
See  MoR^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Chamilly,  de,  deh  shS'me'ye',  (Noel  Bouton,) 
Marquis,  an  able  French  general,  born  at  Chamilly  in 
1636.  After  passing  through  all  the  grades,  he  greatly 
distinguished  himself  in  1675  by  the  defence  of  Grave, 
the  siege  of  which  lasted  four  months.  He  surrendered 
at  last  to  the  Prince  of  Orange.  In  1703  he  obtained  a 
marshal's  baton.  Certain  love-letters  addressed  to  him 
by  a  Portuguese  nun  added  to  his  celebrity,  and  were 
often  printed.    (See  Alcaforada.)    Died  in  1715. 

His  brother  H6rard,  Count  de  Chamilly,  served 
under  the  Prince  of  Conde  in  many  campaigns,  and  be- 
came lieutenant-general.    Died  in  1673. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "  Memoires." 

Chamisso,  von,  fon  sht'me'so',  ( Adelbert,)  or  more 
properly  Louis  Charles  Adelaide  de  Chamisso,  a 
popular  poet  and  naturalist,  was  born  in  Champagne,  in 
France,  in  1781.  About  1790  he  emigrated  with  the 
family  to  Berlin,  where  he  became  a  page  to  the  Queen 
of  Prussia,  and  made  himself  master  of  the  German  lan- 
guage, in  which  his  works  are  written.  Having  served 
several  years  in  the  Prussian  army,  he  quitted  the  pro- 
fession of  arms  about  1808,  and  applied  himself  to  natu- 
ral sciences.  He  wrote  numerous  popular  lyric  poems, 
and  "Peter  Schlemihl,"  (1814,)  a  singular  and  interesting 
story  of  a  man  who  lost  his  shadow.  In  18 14  he  was  se- 
lected by  Count  Romanzoff  to  accompany,  as  naturalist, 
a  scientific  expedition  round  the  world,  of  which  he  wrote 
a  valuable  account,  "Observations  during  a  Voyage  round 
the  World,"  (1827.)  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  of  Berlin,  and  author  of  a  "  Survey  of  the 
Plants  of  Northern  Germany,"  (1827.)    Died  in  1838. 

See  J.  E.  HiTZiG,  "  Leben  and  Briefe  von  A.  v.  Chamisso,"  2 
vels.,  1839  ;  AMpfeRE,  article  in  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  for 
May  15,  1840;  Qu^rard,  "La  France  Litteraire."  (Supplement;) 
Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  January,  1S46. 

Chamorin,  sht'mo'riN',  (Vital  Joachim,)  Baron, 
a  French  general,  born  at  Bonnelles  (Seine-et-Oise)  in 
1773.    He  had  two  horses  killed  under  him  at  Marengo 


€  as  ^;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^='See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


CHAMORRO 


564 


CHJMPIONNET 


in  1800.  As  major  he  made  the  campaigns  of  1805,  '06, 
and  "07,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Jena  and  Eylau. 
He  became  general  of  brigade  in  181 1,  and  was  killed 
at  Campo-Mayor,  in  Spain,  the  same  year. 

See  "  Notice  historique  sur  le  General  Chamorin,"  Paris,  1844, 
Chamorro,  chi-mor'ro,  (Fruto,)  a  Central  American 
statesman  and  general,  born  at  Guatemala  in  1806,  was 
elected  supreme  director,  or  president,  in  1853.  Died 
in  1855. 

Chamousset,  de,  deh  shS'moo's^',  (Claude  Hum- 
bert PiARRON,)  Chevalier,  1  Frenchman,  noted  for 
practical  philanthropy,  was  born  in  Paris  in  171 7.  He 
turned  his  house  into  a  hospital  for  the  poor,  for  whose 
benefit  he  employed  physicians,  and  was  instrumental 
in  reforming  the  public  hospital,  (Hotel-Dieu.)  He  wrote 
several  humanitarian  treatises,  first  proposed  fire-insu- 
rance companies,  and  became  intendant-general  of  the 
military  hospitals.    Died  in  1773. 

Champagne,  shSN'ptn',  (Jean  Baffiste,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Brussels  in  1643,  ^  nephew  and 
pupil  of  Philippe,  noticed  below,  whom  he  assisted  in 
many  works  at  Paris.  He  was  employed  by  Louis  XIV. 
at  Versailles.    Died  in  1688. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Champagne,  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French  professor, 
born  at  Semur  in  1751.  He  was  principal  of  the  Col- 
lege of  Louis  le  Grand,  in  Paris,  for  about  fifteen  years, 
beginning  in  1791.  A  translation  of  Aristotle's  "  Politics" 
opened  to  him  the  Institute  in  1797.    Died  in  1813. 

Champagne,  de,  deh  shSN'ptn',  or  Champaigne, 
sh6N'p4n',  (Philippe,)  an  eminent  Flemish  painter  of 
history,  born  at  Brussels  in  1602,  was  a  pupil  of  Fou- 
quieres.  At  the  a^s  of  nineteen  he  went  to  Paris,  where 
he  was  instructed  by  Nicholas  Poussin,  became  painter 
to  the  queen,  Anne  of  Austria,  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation.  He  worked  with  great  facility,  and  adorned 
the  royal  palaces  and  the  churches  of  Paris  with  many 
works,  of  which  a  "  Mary  Magdalene  in  the  House  of 
Simon  the  Pharisee"  is  one  of  the  best.  He  made 
excellent  portraits  of  Louis  XIII.,  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
Mazarin,  and  others.    Died  in  1674. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. ;  F^libien, 
"  Entretiens  sur  les  plus  celebres  Peintres." 

Champagne,  de,  (Thibaud.)    See  Thibaud. 

Champagney,  de,  deh  sh&N'ptn^ya',  (Fr6d6ric  Per- 
renot — pa''reh-no',)  a  Flemish  statesman,  a  younger 
brother  of  Cardinal  Granvelle,  was  born  about  1530. 
He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Antwerp,  and  head  of 
the  Council  of  Finance  in  Flanders.    Died  in  1595. 

See  Motley,  "  United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  chap.  i.  et  seq. 

Champagny,  de,  deh  shftN'ptn^ye',  (FRANgois  Jo- 
seph Marie  Th^r^se,)  Count,  born  at  Vienna  in 
1804,  was  a  son  of  the  Due  de  Cadore.  He  is,  or  was, 
attached  to  the  political  and  religious  school  of  Monta- 
lembert,  and  has  contributed  to  the  "  Correspondant" 
and  other  periodicals.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  History  of 
the  Caesars,"  (1843.) 

Champagny,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste  Nompere — n^N'- 
paiR',)  Due  de  Cadore,  (ktMoR',)  a  French  courtier  and 
negotiator,  was  born  in  1756.  He  was  deputed  by  the 
noblesse  of  Forez  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and, 
uniting  with  the  Tiers-fitat,  became  a  prominent  and  mo- 
derate member  of  the  National  Assembly.  As  chairman 
of  the  marine  committee,  he  rendered  valuable  services  in 
1790  and  1791.  Having  passed  several  years  in  private, 
he  became  in  1800  councillor  of  state,  and  in  1801  ambas- 
sador to  Vienna.  He  gained  the  favour  of  Napoleon  by 
his  address  in  negotiation  and  his  pliability  of  character. 
In  1804  he  was  appointed  minister  of  the  interior,  count 
of  the  empire,  and  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour. 
He  succeeded  Talleyrand  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
in  1807,  and  the  next  year  was  made  Due  de  Cadore.  In 
the  campaign  of  1809  he  attended  Bonaparte  in  Austria, 
and  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Vienna.  He  ceased  to  be 
foreign  minister  in  1811.  During  the  absence  of  the 
emperor  in  1812  and  1813,  he  was  secretary  of  state.  In 
1819,  after  passing  a  few  years  in  private  life,  he  was 
restored  to  the  Chamber  of  Peers,  where  he  voted  with 
the  Right  Centre.    Died  in  1834. 

See  his  " Souvenirs,"  1846 ;  "  M^molres  de  Mirabeau;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 


Champaigne.    See  Champagne. 

Champe,  champ,  (John,)  an  American  officer,  noted 
for  his  daring  attempt  to  capture  the  traitor  Arnold,  was 
born  in  Loudon  county,  Virginia,  about  1752.  In  1780 
he  was  sent  by  Washington  to  New  York,  in  the  guise 
of  a  deserter,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  off  Arnold  in 
time,  if  possible,  to  save  Andre.  He  formed  a  plan  to 
seize  him  while  walking  in  his  garden,  and  drag  him  as  a 
drunken  soldier,  between  two  men,  to  a  boat  on  the  Hud- 
son. The  plan  failed  in  consequence  of  Arnold's  moving 
his  quarters  the  day  preceding.    Died  about  1795. 

Champeaux,  de,  deh  sh6N'p6',  [Lat.  Campellen'- 
sis,]  (Guillaume,)  a  celebrated  French  professor  and 
scholastic  philosopher,  born  at  Champeaux.  He  taught 
rhetoric,  logic,  etc.,  in  Paris,  with  great  success,  but  was 
eclipsed  by  his  pupil  Abelard,  who  became  his  rival.  In 
1 1 13  he  became  Bishop  of  Chalons-sur-Marne.  He  died 
in  1 121,  and  left  some  works  on  theology. 

See  B.  Haur^au,  "De  la  Philosophie  scolastique ;"  "Histoire 
Littdraire  de  France." 

Champein,  shftN^p^N',  (Stanislas,)  a  French  com- 
poser, born  at  Marseilles  in  1753.  He  composed  suc- 
cessful operas.    Died  in  1830. 

Champfleury,  shSN^fluh're',  the  assumed  name  ol 
Jules  Fleury,  (zhiil  flul/re',)  a  French  writer  of  fiction, 
born  at  Laon  in  1821.  He  has  published  several  dramas 
and  many  novels,  among  which  we  may  name  "Les 
Bourgeois  de  Molinchart." 

Champier,  shdN^pe-k',  (Symphorien,)  an  eminent 
French  physician,  born  in  the  Lyonnais  in  1472.  Having 
graduated  as  M.D.,  he  settled  at  Lyons,  where  he  founded 
a  medical  college  and  other  useful  institutions.  He 
received  or  assumed  the  title  of  physician  to  Louis 
XII.,  and  wrote  many  works  on  medicine  and  history,  of 
which  the  former  are  the  best,  especially  his  *'  Hortus 
Gallicus."    Died  in  1539. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires;"  "Biographie  M^dicale." 

Champigny,  de,  deh  shSN^p^n^ye',  (Jean,)  a  French 
litterateur,  published  a  "  History  of  England,"  (1777,) 
and  several  other  historical  works,  and  translated 
Schlegel's  "History  of  Danish  Kings."  Died  about 
1787. 

Champin,  shSN^piN',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Sceaux,  near  Paris,  in  1796. 
He  executed  numerous  fine  lithographs,  and  paintings  in 
water-colours.  In  conjunction  with  Regnier,  he  published 
"  The  Homes  of  Celebrated  Persons,"  illustrated. 

Cham'pi-on,  (Anthony,)  an  English  writer,  born  at 
Croydon  in  1724-25.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in 
1754,  and  again  in  1761.  A  volume  of  his  Miscellanies, 
in  prose  and  verse,  was  published  by  his  friend  Lord 
Lyttleton  in  1801.    Died  in  1801. 

Champion,  sh6N'pe-6N',  (Edme,)  a  French  philan- 
thropist, born  in  Yonne  in  1764;  died  in  1852. 

See  C.  L.  Chassin,  "  La  Legende  historique  du  Petit  Manteau 
Bleu,"  {i.e.  E.  Champion,)  1852. 

Champion  de  Pontalier,  shSN^pe-oN'  deh  p6N'tt'- 
le-i',  (Franqois,)  a  French  priest,  born  at  Rennes  in 
i^i,  resided  in  Paris  and  Orleans.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "  Pious  Readings,  adapted  to  all  States," 
(4  vols.,  1804,)  which  is  said  to  be  excellent.  Died  ini8i2. 

His  brother,  Charles  Franqois  Champion  de  Ni- 
lon,  (ne^l6N',)  born  in  1724,  was  professor  of  theology  at 
the  Jesuits'  College  of  La  Fleche.  He  wrote  an  approved 
catechism,  and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1794. 

Championnet,  sh6N'pe-o''na',  (Jean  £tienne,)  an 
able  French  general,  born  at  Valence  in  1762.  About 
1790  he  obtained  command  of  a  battalion,  and,  having 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Palatinate  in  1793,  he  was 
made  general  of  division.  From  1794  to  1797  he  took 
part  in  the  principal  actions  on  the  Lower  Rhine.  In 
1798  he  obtained  the  chief  command  of  the  army  sent 
to  defend  the  Roman  republic  against  Naples.  Having 
defeated  General  Mack,  he  entered  Naples  in  triumph  in 
January,  1799,  and  organized  the  Parthenopean  repub- 
lic. In  August  he  succeeded  Joubert  as  commander  of 
the  army  of  Italy,  and  was  defeated  by  a  superior  force 
of  Austrians  at  Genola  in  November.  He  died  of  an 
epidemic  in  December,  1799,  or  January,  1800. 

See  "Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Frangais ;"  Chateauneuf, 
"Histoire  du  General  Championnet,"  1806;  Henri  Dourille, 
"Histoire  de  Championnet,"  1839. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,    short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


CHAMPIONNIERE  565 


CHANDLER 


Champiouniere,  shdN'pe'o'ne-aiR',  (Paul  Lucas,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Nantes  in  1798  ;  died  in  1851. 

Champlain,  sham'plan',  [Fr.  pron.  sh^N'pliN',] 
(Samuel,)  the  founder  of  Quebec,  and  first  Governor  of 
Canada,  was  born  at  Brouage,  in  France.  For  his  services 
in  the  navy  in  the  war  against  the  Spaniards  he  was  pen- 
sioned by  Henry  IV.,  under  whose  auspices  he  made 
his  first  voyage  to  Canada  in  1603.  Renewing  the  en- 
terprise in  1608,  he  ascended  the  Saint  Lawrence  to  the 
site  of  Quebec,  where  he  planted  a  colony.  In  16 10  he 
discovered  the  lake  which  bears  his  name,  and  spent 
several  ensuing  years  in  fostering  the  fur-trade  and  in 
exploring  the  region  of  the  great  lakes.  In  1620  he  was 
appointed  Governor  of  Canada.  The  English  captured 
Quebec  about  1628,  but  restored  it  to  the  French  soon 
after  the  treaty  of  peace  which  was  made  in  1629  or 
1630.  Champlain  returned  to  Quebec  in  1633,  and  died 
there  in  1635.  History  represents  him  as  brave,  honour- 
able, and  capable.  He  wrote  several  narratives  of  his 
voyages  and  discoveries,  which  were  published  in  1632. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  Charlevoix,  "  Hisloire 
de  la  Nouvelle  France." 

Champmesle,  shSN'mi^li',  (Marie  Desmares — 
da'mSa',)  a  popular  French  actress,  born  at  Rouen  in  1644. 
She  acted  in  Paris  with  great  success  from  1670  to  1698, 
and  is  said  to  have  created  many  roles,  among  which  were 
Berenice,  Iphigenia,  Monimia,  and  Medea.  Her  features 
were  radiant  with  sensibility,  and  her  voice  excelled  in 
the  expression  of  pathos.  She  was  very  intimate  with 
the  poet  Racine.    Died  in  1698. 

Champmesle,  de,  deh  shdN^mi'li',  (Charles  Che- 
villet — sheh've'la',)  Sieur,  the  husband  of  Marie  Des- 
mares, noticed  above,  was  an  actor  of  moderate  ability, 
and  author  of  several  dramas,  of  which  "Crispin  Cheva- 
lier" is  called  the  best.    Died  in  1701. 

Champollion,  sham-poKle-on,  [Fr.  pron.  shfin'po'- 
le-6N',]  (Jean  FRAwgois,)  a  French  savant  and  linguist, 
celebrated  as  the  interpreter  of  the  symbols  by  which 
ancient  Egypt  sought  to  eternize  its  annals  and  its  in- 
stitutions, was  born  at  Figeac,  in  the  department  of 
Lot,  in  December,  1791.  In  1807  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  studied  Oriental  languages  and  antiquities. 
He  was  appointed  assistant  professor  of  history  in  the 
Academy  of  Grenoble  in  1809,  and  then  began  his  re- 
searches into  the  history  and  language  of  ancient  Egypt. 
In  1 81 2  he  became  principal  professor  of  history  at 
Grenoble.  He  published  in  1814  a  "Geographical  De- 
scription of  Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs."  From  the 
inscriptions  of  the  famous  Rosetta  stone  he  derived  a 
key  to  the  hieroglyphic  writing,  and  discovered  that  the 
symbols  are  occasionally  used  as  phonetic  signs,  and 
each  phonetic  sign  represents  the  initial  sound  of  the 
object  signified  by  the  hieroglyphic.  Thus,  the  mouth  is 
the  sign  of  r,  because  in  Coptic  the  mouth  is  called  Ro. 
Having  obtained  the  equivalents  of  twenty-one  letters 
of  the  Greek  alphabet,  he  announced  his  discovery  to 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1822.  It  produced  a 
great  sensation,  and  its  importance  was  highly  ap- 
preciated. In  1824  he  published  a  "  Precis  du  Systeme 
hieroglyphique  des  anciens  figyptiens,"  ("  Summary  of 
the  Hieroglyphic  System  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,")  in 
which  he  proves  that  the  phonetic  alphabet  was  used  in 
the  royal  legends  of  all  epochs  and  is  the  key  to  the 
whole  hieroglyphic  system.  In  1826  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  Royal  Egyptian  Museum  of  Paris,  and  in 
1828  was  employed  at  the  expense  of  the  government  in  an 
expedition  to  Egypt,  whose  monuments  he  explored  for 
sixteen  months  in  company  with  Rosellini,  who  was  sent 
by  the  Duke  of  Tuscany.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Institute  (Academy  of  Inscriptions)  in  1830,  and  a  chair 
of  iLgyptian  antiquities  was  founded  for  him  in  the  Col- 
lege of  France.  He  died  in  March,  1832,  while  preparing 
to  publish  the  results  of  his  researches  in  Egypt.  This 
great  work,  in  which  Rosellini  co-operated,  has  since 
appeared,  with  the  title  of  "  Monuments  of  Egypt  and 
Nubia,  considered  in  Relation  to  History,  Religion,  etc.," 
)^835~45-)  Among  his  most  important  productions  are 
an  "  Egyptian  Grammar"  and  a  "  Hieroglyphic  Diction- 
ary," (published  since  his  death,)  which  are  said  to  place 
him  in  the  highest  rank  of  Egyptologists.  But  little  pro- 
gress has  been  made  in  this  department  of  learning  since 


the  death  of  Champollion.  The  English  claim  that  his 
great  discovery  was  anticipated  by  Dr.  Young,  but  admit 
that  the  crude  notions  of  Young  were  corrected  by  the 
French  savant.  Chevalier  Bunsen  has  written  in  favour 
of  Champollion,  and  calls  his  discovery  of  the  Egyptian 
alphabet  the  greatest  discovery  of  the  century. 

See  SiLVESTRE  DE  Sacv,  "  Notice  sur  Champollion  lue  k  la  Seance 
publique  de  I'lnstitut,"  1833;  Rosellini,  "Tribute  di  Ricono- 
scenza  alia  Menioria  di  G.  F.  Champollion,"  1832. 

Champollioii-Figeac,sh6N'po'le-6N'  fe'zhtk',  (Jean 
Jacques,)  a  French  linguist  and  antiquary,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Figeac  in  1778.  He  became  in 
his  youth  professor  of  Greek  at  Grenoble,  and  published, 
in  1807,  "Antiquities  of  Grenoble."  His  "  Annales  des 
Lagides"  ("Chronicles  of  the  Greek  Kings  of  Egypt") 
obtained  a  prize  from  the  Institute  in  1819.  From  1828 
to  1848  he  was  keeper  of  the  manuscripts  of  the  Royal 
Library,  in  Paris.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Archaeo- 
logy," (1843,)  ^""i  various  other  works,  and  edited  sev- 
eral posthumous  works  of  his  brother.  From  1849 
was  librarian  to  Napoleon  HI.    Died  in  May,  1867. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Champs.    See  Deschamps. 

Chancel.  See  La  Grange,  (Joseph  de  Chancel.) 

Chan'cel-lor,  (Richard,)  an  English  navigator,  who 
made  an  exploring  voyage  to  the  White  Sea  in  1553. 
He  was  drowned  on  the  coast  of  Scotland  in  1556. 

Chandieu,sh6N'de-uh',  or  Sadeel,  sS'daK,  (Antoine 
LA  Roche,)  an  eminent  Protestant  minister,  l3orn  in  the 
Maconnais,  in  France,  about  1534.  He  began  to  preach 
in  Paris  at  the  age  of  twenty,  and  became  noted  for  his 
zeal  and  eloquence.  He  officiated  in  the  army  of  Henry 
IV.  in  1587,  and  became  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Geneva 
in  1589.    Died  in  1591. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  J.  Lectius, 
"Vita  A.  Sadeelis,"  prefixed  to  his  works. 

Chand'ler,  (Ariel,)  a  Boston  merchant,  born  in  Con- 
cord, New  Hampshire,  about  1778.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1806.  Died  in  185 1.  He  bequeathed  fifty 
thousand  dollars  to  Dartmouth  College  for  founding  a 
scientific  department  of  instruction,  and  the  remainder  of 
his  estate  to  the  New  Hampshire  Asylum  for  the  Insane. 

Chaiid'ler,  (Edward,)  D.D.,  an  English  bishop,  born 
in  Dublin.  He  was  nominated  to  the  see  of  Lichfield  in 
1 71 7,  and  translated  to  Durham  in  1730.  He  published 
a  learned  "Defence  of  Christianity  from  the  Prophecies 
of  the  Old  Testament,"  (1725.)    Died  in  1750. 

Chandler,  (Elizabeth  Margaret,)  an  Ainerican 
poetess  and  philanthropist,  born  near  Wilmington,  Dela- 
ware, in  1807.  She  wrote  "  The  Slave-Ship,"  and  other 
poems  on  moral  and  religious  subjects.  Died  in  Michi- 
gan in  1834.  A  volume  of  her  poems,  with  a  memoir  of 
her  life,  appeared  in  1836. 

See  Griswold's  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

Chandler,  (Mary,)  an  English  poetess,  born  in  Wilt- 
shire in  1687,  became  a  resident  of  Bath.  She  published 
a  "  Description  of  Hath,"  and  other  poems.  Died  in  1745. 

See  Gibber's  "  Lives  of  the  Poets,"  etc. 

Chandler,  (Richard,)  D.D.,  an  English  antiquary 
and  writer  of  travels,  born  at  Elson,  in  Hampshire,  in 
1738.  In  1764,  as  an  agent  of  the  Dilettanti  Society,  he 
visited  and  explored  Asia  Minor  and  Greece  in  company 
with  the  artists  Revett  and  Pars.  The  results  of  their 
enterprise  appeared  in  "  Ionian  Antiquities,  or  Ruins  of 
Famous  Buildings  in  Ionia,"  (1769.)  He  afterwards  pub- 
lished "Travels  in  Asia  Minor,"  (1775,)  and  "Travels 
in  Greece,"  (1776,)  which  are  highly  esteemed,  and  other 
works.  He  became  rector  of  Tylehurst  in  1800,  and 
died  in  18 10. 

See  Walckenaer,  "Vies  de  plusieurs  Personnes  celebres ;" 
Ersch  und  Gritber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Chandler,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  dis- 
senting minister,  born  at  Hungerford  in  1693.  In  17 16 
he  became  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church  at  Peckham. 
He  afterwards  removed  to  London,  where  he  preached 
many  years  at  the  Old  Jewry,  and  gained  a  wide  reputa- 
tion by  his  religious  writings.  His  "Critical  History  of 
the  Life  of  David"  (1766)  is  regarded  by  some  as  hi.s 
best  work.    Died  in  1766. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  o,  H,  v.,  gicttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CHANDLER 


566 


CHANNING 


Chandler,  (Thomas  Bradbury,)  an  Episcopal  cler- 
gyman and  writer,  born  at  Woodstock,  Connecticut,  in 
1726,  preached  at  Elizabethtown,  New  Jersey.  Having 
joined  the  royalist  party  in  the  Revolution,  he  retired 
lor  safety  to  England  in  1775,  but  returned  to  his  former 
post  in  1785.    Died  in  1790. 

Chan'dos,  (John,)  after  the  Black  Prince,  the  most 
famous  English  captain  of  his  time,  was  lieutenant-gen- 
eral of  all  the  provinces  of  France  which  were  subject 
to  the  English.  In  1364  he  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  Du  Guesclin  at  Auray.  Chandos  and  the  Black 
Prince  defeated  the  same  able  general  at  Navarette  in 
1366.    He  was  killed  in  battle  at  Leusac  in  1369. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Fran^ais." 

Chan'dra,  [common  Hindoo  pron.  chun'dra  or  chun'- 
der,]  called  also  So'ma,  in  Hindoo  mythology,  the  god 
or  regent  of  the  moon.  He  is  usually  represented  as 
riding  in  a  car  drawn  by  antelopes,  (or  an  antelope,)  his 
head  being  adorned  with  a  crescent. 

See  Moor,  '*  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  Coleman,  "  Hindu  Mythology." 

Chandragupta  or  Chandragoupta.  See  Sandro- 

COTTUS. 

Chanfary.    See  Shanfaree. 

Changarnier,  shSx'gtR'ne-i',  (Nicolas  AnneTh:6o- 
DULE,)  a  celebrated  French  general,  was  born  at  Autun 
in  1793.  He  distinguished  himself  as  lieutenant  in  Spain 
in  1823,  and  joined  the  expedition  to  Algeria  in  1830,  with 
the  rank  of  captain.  After  several  remarkable  exploits 
in  Africa,  he  was  made  a  colonel  in  1838,  and  a  marechal- 
de-camp  in  1840.  He  was  wounded  near  Medeah  in  1841, 
and  for  his  important  services  in  the  expedition  to  the 
mountains  of  Ouarencenis  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
general  of  division  in  1843.  In  1847  he  was  appointed 
by  the  Due  d'Aumale  commander  of  the  division  of 
Algiers.  He  returned  to  France  soon  after  the  revo- 
lution of  1848,  and  was  nominated  minister  to  Berlin, 
but  was  detained  at  Paris  by  the  dangers  that  menaced 
the  government,  and  in  May  went  to  Algeria  as  Governor- 
General  in  place  of  Cavaignac.  Before  the  end  of  1848 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  national 
guard  of  Paris,  and  of  the  first  military  division.  He 
acquired  great  political  influence,  and  strenuously  sup- 
ported the  administration  of  Louis  Napoleon  in  1849 
and  1850.  He  is  said  to  have  been  opposed  to  the  re- 
publican form  of  government,  or,  at  least,  to  a  French 
republic.  In  January,  1851,  he  was  deprived  of  the 
command  of  the  army  by  Napoleon,  who  appears  to 
have  regarded  him  as  his  rival.  His  efforts  and  designs 
to  support  the  National  Assembly  were  defeated  by 
the  coup  d'etat  oi  December  2,  1851.  He  was  arrested  on 
that  day,  and  exiled  in  January,  1852,  since  which  he  has 
resided  mostly  in  Belgium. 

See  "Le  General  Changarnier,"  Paris,  1848;  Lamartine,  "  His- 
toire  de  la  Revolution  de  1848;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Changeux,  shdN^zhuh',  (Pierre  Jacques,)  a  French 
savant,  born  at  Orleans  in  1740.  He  cultivated  the  exact 
sciences,  made  improvements  in  the  barometer,  and  wrote 
numerous  works,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  is  an 
ingenious  "  Treatise  on  Extremes,  or  Elements  of  the 
Science  of  Reality,"  (2  vols.,  1767.)    Died  in  1800. 

Chan'ning,  (Edward  Tyrrel,)  an  American  scholar 
and  writer,  born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1790, 
graduated  at  Harvard.  He  studied  law  with  his  brother, 
Francis  D.  Channing.  About  181 5  he  aided  to  found 
the  "North  American  Review,"  which  he  edited  for  a 
short  time  in  1819  and  to  which  he  contributed  many 
critical  and  biographical  articles.  He  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  and  oratory  in  Harvard  University  in 
the  latter  year,  and  continued  to  fill  this  position  about 
thirty-two  years,  with  much  ability.    Died  in  1856. 

Channing,  (Walter,)  an  American  physician,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1786. 
He  entered  Harvard  in  1804,  graduated  as  M.D.  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  studied  afterwards  in  Edin- 
burgh, and  began  to  practise  in  Boston  in  181 2.  He  was 
professor  of  obstetrics  and  medical  jurisprudence  at  Har- 
vard from  1815  to  1854.  He  ])ublished  "Etherization 
in  Childbirth,"  (1848,)  "Miscellaneous  Poems,"  (1851,) 
and  other  works. 

Channing,  (William  Ellery,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished 
Unitarian  divine,  and  one  of  the  most  eloquent  writers 


America  has  produced,  was  born  at  Newport,  Rhode 
Island,  April  7,  1780.  Both  his  parents  are  said  to 
have  possessed  rare  moral  worth  as  well  as  superior 
intellectual  powers,  and  the  early  influences  of  his  home 
appear  to  have  been  eminently  favourable  to  the  de- 
velopment of  that  delicacy,  purity,  and  elevation  of  sen- 
timent which  formed  perhaps  the  most  striking  feature 
of  his  character.  Even  as  a  child  he  was  remarkable 
for  a  certain  moral  dignity  which  caused  his  playfellows 
always  to  look  up  to  him  with  respect.  Before  he  had 
completed  his  thirteenth  year,  his  father  died.  The  im- 
pression made  upon  his  mind  by  this  solemn  event, 
strengthened  as  it  was  by  the  influence  of  a  "revival" 
which  occurred  about  the  same  time,  may  be  said  to 
mark  the  commencement  of  his  religious  life.  In  1794 
he  entered  Harvard,  where  he  was  distinguished  for 
his  varied  acquirements  as  well  as  for  the  versatility  of 
his  powers.  At  his  graduation,  the  English  oration, 
regarded  as  the  highest  honour,  was  assigned  to  him. 
His  effort  on  this  occasion  was  brilliantly  successful, 
and  was  received  by  the  audience  with  enthusiastic  and 
tumultuous  acclamation. 

The  range  of  Channing's  studies  was  very  extensive. 
His  mind,  indeed,  was  powerfully  attracted  by  every  form 
of  moral  beauty  or  moral  grandeur,  wherever  found, 
— whether  in  the  stern  virtue  of  the  Stoics,  the  lofty 
and  heroic  morality  of  Fichte,  or  the  divine  purity  and 
sublime  simplicity  of  the  teachings  of  the  gospel.  His 
favourite  poets  were  Shakspeare  and  Wordsworth.  He 
appears  especially  to  have  syinpathized  with  the  power 
of  the  latter  poet  to  detect  beauty  in  the  simplest  of 
Nature's  works,  and  to  recognize  greatness  under  every 
disguise  and  in  the  lowliest  situations. 

Soon  after  leaving  college,  he  accepted  an  invitation 
to  become  tutor  in  a  family  residing  in  Richrnond,  Vir- 
ginia. He  seems  to  have  been  very  painfully  impressed 
with  what  he  saw  of  slavery,  and  declared  in  a  letter 
that  this  alone  would  prevent  him  from  ever  settling  in 
the  South.  During  this  period  his  views  of  the  great 
importance  of  religion  appear  to  have  acquired  addi- 
tional distinctness  and  force ;  for  he  says,  in  one  of  his 
letters,  "  l^eligion  is  the  only  treasure  worth  pursuing.  I 
consider  the  man  who  recommends  it  to  society  as  more 
useful  than  the  greatest  sage  and  patriot  who  adorns 
the  page  of  history."  In  the  same  letter  he  says,  also, 
"  I  long  most  earnestly  to  be  such  a  minister  as  Fene- 
lon  describes."  The  foregoing  sentences  seem  clearly 
to  indicate  the  purpose  of  his  life.  In  July,  1800,  he 
returned  to  Newport.  The  vessel  in  which  he  sailed  was 
damp  and  leaky,  and  manned  by  a  drunken  captain  and 
crew.  From  the  exposure  and  hardships  of  that  voyage 
may  be  dated  that  permanent  physical  derangement  with 
which  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  one  long  unceasing 
struggle.  Having  pursued  his  studies  for  more  than  a 
year  at  Newport,  he  removed  in  the  beginning  of  1802 
to  Cambridge.  While  here,  he  filled  the  office  of  regent 
in  the  college,  carrying  on  at  the  same  time  his  theolo- 
gical studies.  He  was  installed  in  the  Federal  Street 
Church  in  Boston  in  1803.  At  what  time  he  definitely 
adopted  the  theological  views  which  he  subsequently 
taught,  it  is  impossible  to  say :  there  is  but  little  ques- 
tion, however,  that  they  were  developed  gradually, 
through  years  of  examination  and  reflection.  On  one 
point,  indeed,  we  are  not  left  in  doubt ;  for  he  expressly 
tells  us  that  he  was  "never  in  any  sense  a  Trinitarian." 

His  first  efforts  as  a  preacher  attracted  much  attention  ; 
and  it  was  not  long  before  he  was  generally  acknowledged 
to  be  the  most  eloquent  minister  and  most  influential 
leader  among  the  Unitarians.  In  1814  he  delivered  a 
discourse  on  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  and  "the  goodness 
of  God  in  delivering  the  Christian  world  from  military 
despotism,"  which  is  regarded  as  among  the  most  splen- 
did of  all  his  efforts  as  a  pulpit  orator.  The  same  year 
he  was  married  to  Miss  Gibbs,  of  Newport.  In  1820 
he  received  from  Harvard  College  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  divinity.  At  the  request  of  his  friends,  who  were 
anxious  that  he  should  have  some  respite  from  his  ar- 
duous and  unremitting  labours,  he  sailed  for  Europe  in 
1822;  and  after  making  in  England  many  interesting 
acquaintances,  among  whom  were  Wordsworth  and 
Coleridge,  and  visiting  France,  Switzerland,  and  Italy, 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  yy  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  filr,  fSLU,  f2.t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CHANNING 


567 


CHANTONJT 


he  returned  home  in  the  autumn  of  1823.  Coleridge  said 
of  him,  "  He  has  the  love  of  wisdom,  and  the  wisdom 
of  love."  Dr.  Channing  took  a  deep  interest  in  every 
enterprise  having  for  its  object  the  relief  of  suffering  or 
the  promotion  of  knowledge  and  virtue  among  mankind. 
He  gave  his  earnest  sympathy  and  support  to  the  peace- 
movement  inaugurated  by  Noah  (afterwards  Doctor) 
Worcester,  and  in  1816  preached  a  sermon  on  war  be- 
fore the  Convention  of  the  Congregational  ministers  of 
Massachusetts.  It  was  published  and  extensively  cir- 
culated, and  contributed  much  to  prepare  the  way  for 
the  formation  of  peace  societies  in  different  parts  of  the 
United  States.  He  did  not,  however,  take  the  ground 
of  absolute  non-resistance  ;  he  did  not  maintain  that 
war  could  be  wholly  dispensed  with,  in  the  present  con- 
dition of  the  world  ;  but  he  believed  that  by  dissipating 
the  false  ideas  of  national  glory  which  now  prevail, — by 
enlightening  and  elevating  the  minds  of  the  people, — wars 
must  of  necessity  become  less  and  less  frequent  as  well 
as  less  cruel. 

In  1828  he  published,  in  the  "Christian  Examiner," 
"Remarks  on  the  Life  and  Character  of  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte." Probably  none  of  his  writings  has  contributed 
so  much  as  this  to  spread  his  fome  to  every  part  of  the 
civilized  world.  His  lectures  on  "  Self-Culture"  and  on 
the  "Elevation  of  the  Labouring  Classes"  had  an  exten- 
sive circulation,  and  were  republished  in  England.  Dr. 
Channing  sympathized  deeply  with  the  temperance  cause 
and  with  the  anti-slavery  movement.  Having  visited 
the  West  Indies  for  his  health  in  the  autumn  of  1830, 
he  remained  there  until  the  following  spring,  and  during 
this  period  he  commenced  a  work  on  slavery,  which  was 
published  some  years  later.  In  1837  he  addressed  a 
public  letter  to  Henry  Clay  against  the  annexation  of 
Texas,  the  acquisition  of  which  was  earnestly  advocated 
by  many  Southern  politicians  on  the  ground  that  it 
would  afford  fresh  territory  for  the  extension  of  slavery. 
His  last  public  address  was  delivered,  August  i,  1842, 
at  Lennox,  Massachusetts,  in  commemoration  of  the 
abolition  of  slavery  in  the  British  West  Indies.  He  died 
the  2d  of  October  of  the  same  year.  He  was  buried  at 
Mount  Auburn,  where  his  grave  is  marked  by  a  monu- 
ment designed  by  his  friend  Washington  Allston. 

As  a  writer.  Dr.  Channing's  merits  are  of  a  very  high 
order.  His  style,  always  clear,  forcible,  and  elegant,  not 
linfrequently  rises  into  a  strain  of  lofty  and  spirit-stirring 
eloquence.  A  critic  in  "Eraser's  Magazine"  remarks, 
"  Channing  is  unquestionably  the  finest  writer  of  the  age. 
From  his  writings  may  be  extracted  some  of  the  richest 
poetry  and  richest  conceptions,  clothed  in  language,  un- 
fortunately for  our  literature,  too  little  studied  in  the 
day  in  which  we  live."  Among  his  theological  discourses, 
his  lecture  on  the  "Evidences  of  Christianity,"  delivered 
at  Harvard  in  1 82 1,  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable. 
It  would,  we  think,  be  difficult  to  point  out  anything 
more  admirable  on  the  same  subject  in  the  whole  com- 
pass of  English  literature.  Of  his  character  as  a  man 
there  can  be  among  candid  judges  but  one  opinion.  A 
writer,  well  qualified  to  form  a  just  estimate  of  his  rare 
qualities,  observes,  "  Perhaps  that  which  gives  the  high- 
est idea  of  his  character  was  the  fact  that  he  occupied  a 
constantly  growing  place  in  your  respect  as  you  knew 
him  more  intimately.  .  .  .  His  writings  were  not  excep- 
tions to  his  life,  but  the  natural,  unforced,  and  often  inci- 
dental expression  of  his  ordinary  state  of  mind.  His 
common  conversation  was  more  genial  and  varied,  but 
it  was  pitched  on  the  same  moral  key  with  his  writings. 
.  .  .  His  life  was  a  pubh'c  one  ;  but  he  had  no  sensitive- 
ness to  public  opinion  so  far  as  it  affected  himself  I  do 
not  believe  there  is  a  line  in  all  his  writings  which  ever 
received  a  different  colouring  from  any  thought  of  its 
influence  on  his  own  reputation.  .  .  .  lie  wrote,  not  for 
himself,  but  as  one  dedicated  to  truth."  (See  Letter  from 
Dr.  Peabody,  in  Sprague's  "  Annals  of  the  American 
Pulpit,"  vol.  viii.  pp.  376-378.)  One  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful and  admirable  traits  in  Dr.  Channing's  character 
was  his  anxiety  not  to  allow  the  spirit  of  controversy  or 
pride  of  opinion  to  hinder  in  any  way  the  reception  of 
new  truth.  For  this  reason  he  not  only  avoided  contro- 
versy as  much  as  possible,  lest  it  might  in  some  sense 
"commit"  him  to  the  support  of  certain  opinions,  but 


he  was  most  anxious  to  avoid  that  personal  influence 
(whether  arising  from  his  acknowledged  intellectual 
power,  or  from  his  superior  power  of  expression)  which 
might  interfere  with  the  perfect  freedom  of  those  with 
whom  he  conversed.  He  desired,  not  that  they  should 
adopt  his  thoughts  and  convictions,  but  be  true  to  their  own. 
So  great  was  his  sense  of  the  sacredness  of  the  human 
heart  and  conscience,  that  he  would  not  willingly  force 
them,  even  with  the  gentle  force  of  irresistible  persuasion. 
For  illustrations  of  his  extraordinary  gentleness,  fairness, 
and  magnanimity  towards  those  who  were  opposed  to 
him,  the  reader'  is  referred  to  the  "  Memoir,"  by  his 
nephew,  (vol.  ii.  pp.  88-90.) 

In  addition  to  his  merits  as  a  writer  and  orator.  Dr. 
Channing  is  said  to  have  possessed  rare  taste  and  judg- 
ment in  regard  to  works  of  art.  Washington  Allston 
once  said  that  he  valued  no  one's  opinions  of  his  pictures 
so  much  as  Dr.  Channing's. 

Channing's  collected  works  have  been  published  in  six 
i2mo  vols.,  (Boston,  1846,)  and  republished  in  London, 
in  crown  8vo,  (1855.)  Several  of  his  essays  and  other 
writings  have  been  translated  into  French  and  German. 
A  notice  of  Dr.  Channing,  from  the  eloquent  pen  of  M. 
Laboulaye,  appeared  in  the  "Journal  des  Debats"  in 
1852. 

.See  "  Memoirs  of  William  Ellery  Channing,  with  Extracts  from 
his  Correspondence  and  Manuscripts,"  by  his  nephew,  the  Rev. 
William  H.  Channing,  Boston,  1848;  Sprague,  "Annals  of  the 
American  Unitarian  Pulpit,"  i  vol.  8vo,  New  York,  1865;  also 
"North  American  Review"  for  October,  1835,  (by  Alexander  H. 
Everett;)  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  May  and  September,  1838, 
(vols.  xvii.  and  xviii. ;)  "Channing,  sa  Vie  et  ses  OEuvres,  avec  una 
Preface  de  M.  Charles  de  Remusat,"  Paris,  1857;  "Foreign  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  January,  1840  ;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  January, 
1849,  vol.  1.  ;  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Channiiig,  (William  Henry,)  an  eloquent  Unitarian 
minister,  a  nephew  of  William  Ellery  Channing,  and  a 
son  of  Francis  D.  Channing,  was  born  in  Boston  in  1810. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1829,  after  which 
he  studied  divinity.  He  ofificiated  as  minister  in  New 
York  Citv,  Cincinnati,  Boston,  and  Liverpool,  England. 
He  contributed  articles  to  the  "  Christian  Examiner," 
the  "  North  American  Review,"  and  other  periodicals. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  Memoir  of  William  Ellery 
Channing,"  (3  vols.,  1848,)  and  a  work  "On  the  Chris- 
tian Church  and  .Social  Reform." 

Chantal,  de,deh  shds'ttK,  (Jeanne  FRANgoisE  Fre- 
miot — freh-me-o',)  a  French  lady,  and  a  saint  of  the 
Roman  Church,  born  at  Dijon  in  1572,  became  the  wife 
of  Baron  de  Chantal.  She  founded  and  superintended 
many  convents  of  the  order  of  Visitation,  between  16 10 
and  1630.  Died  in  1641.  Her  son  was  the  father  of 
Madame  de  Sevigne. 

See  Beaufils,  "Viede  J.  F.  Fremiot  de  Chantal,"  1752;  Mau- 
PAs  Dii  Tour,  "Viede  J.  F.  Fremiot  de  Chantal,"  1753:  Jannart, 
"Abr^^^  de  la  Vie  de  Sainte-Chantal,"  1752;  Marsollikr,  "Vie 
de  la  M^re  de  Chantal,"  1715:  William  H.  Coombes,  "History  of 
the  Life  of  S.  J.  F.  Chantal,"  2  vols.,  1830. 

Chanteclair,  de,  deh  shftNt'kliR',  [Lat.  Cantocla'- 
RUS,]  (CfL\RLES,)  a  French  jurist  and  distinguished  Latin 
scholar,  died  in  Paris  in  1620. 

Chaiitelauze,  de,  deh  shSNtIoz',  (Jean  Claude 
Balthazar  Victor,)  a  French  politician,  born  at  Mont- 
brison  (Loire)  in  1787.  He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  in  1827,  and  in  May,  1830,  was  appointed 
keeper  of  the  seals,  or  minister  of  justice.  Having 
shared  with  Polignac  the  responsibility  of  the  measures 
which  provoked  the  revolution  of  1830,  he  was  tried  by 
the  peers  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life.  He 
was  released  by  the  king  about  1838. 

See  Lamartine,  "  Histoire  de  la  Restauration  " 

Chantereau-Lefebvre,  sh&Nt'ro' leh-f&vR',  (Louis,) 
a  learned  French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1588,  wrote 
on  the  genealogy  of  the  house  of  Lorraine.  Died  in  1658. 

Chantonay,  de,  deh  sh6N'to'n|',  (Thomas  Perre- 
NOT,)  a  courtier,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1514,  was  a  son  of 
Chancellor  Granvelle.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  by 
Philip  II.  of  Spain  to  Paris,  in  order  to  watch  the  designs 
of  Catherine  de  Medicis.  Supported  by  the  Guises,  he 
assumed  the  part  of  a  minister  of  state  at  the  French 
court.  Catherine  requested  that  he  should  be  recalled, 
( 1 563  ;)  but  he  remained  two  years  longer.    Died  in  1 575. 

See  Slsmondi,  "Histoire  des  Fran^ais." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (2!^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23,) 


CHANTREAU 


568 


CHAPMAN 


Chaiitreau,  shtN'tRo',  (Pierre  Nicolas,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1 741.  Besides  otiier  works, 
he  published  a  Spanish-French  Grammar,  and  "The 
Science  of  History,"  {1803,)  containing  directions  for  the 
study  of  history.    Died  in  1808. 

Chaii'trey,  (Sir  Francis,)  an  eminent  Engh'sh  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Norton,  Derbyshire,  in  1782.  Having  learned 
the  trade  of  carver  in  Sheffield,  he  went  to  London  about 
1804,  and  became  a  sculptor.  Nollekens  was  among  the 
first  to  recognize  his  merit  and  to  promote  his  success, 
which  soon  became  brilliant,  especially  in  portraits  and 
monumental  sculpture.  In  1 81 6  he  was  chosen  an  asso- 
ciate, and  in  1818  a  member,  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He 
visited  Italy  in  1819.  He  was  knighted  about  1836. 
Among  his  most  admired  works  are  a  bronze  statue  of 
William  Pitt,  London  ;  a  statue  of  Bishop  Heber,  at 
Calcutta  ;  of  Canning,  at  Liverpool  ;  of  Washington,  at 
Boston,  Massachusetts;  and  "The  Sleeping  Children," 
in  Lichfield  Cathedral.  His  busts  of  eminent  contem- 
poraries are  very  numerous.  He  died  in  1 841,  leaving 
a  wife,  but  no  children. 

See  Geokge  Jones,  "Life  of  F.  Chantrey,"  1850;  John  Hol- 
land, "Memorials  of  Sir  F.  Chantrey,"  1851;  "Men  I  have 
known,"  by  William  Jerdan,  1866;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for 
April,  1850. 

Chanut,  shS'nii',  (Pierre,)  an  able  French  diploma- 
tist, born  at  Riom  in  1600,  was  a  friend  of  Descartes. 
Died  in  1662. 

Chanvalon,  de,  deh  sh6N''vt'16N',  (Jean  Baptiste 
Thibaut,)  a  French  savant,  born  at  Martinique  about 
1725,  was  educated  in  Paris,  by  Jussieu,  Reaumur,  etc. 
He  published  in  1763  a  description  of  his  native  island, 
entitled  "Voyage  a  la  Martinicfue."    Died  in  1785. 

CIiao-Hao.    See  Shao-Hao. 

Chao-Kang.    See  Shao-Kang. 

■eha'os,  [Gr.  Xuof,]  a  name  originally  applied  to  the 
infinite  void  which  the  ancients  supposed  to  have  ex- 
isted before  the  creation  of  the  world.  Ovid  represents 
it  as  a  confused  heterogeneous  mass,  containing  the 
primitive  elements  out  of  which  all  the  subsequent  ma- 
terial creations  were  formed.  According  to  Hesiod, 
Chaos  was  the  parent  of  Erebus  and  Nox.  Some  of 
the  poets  personified  Chaos  as  the  monarch  or  ruler  of 
the  primeval  void. 

Chapelain,  shSp'liN',  (Andr6,)  a  French  priest  of 
the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century,  wrote  "De  Arte 
amatoria." 

Chapelain,  (Jean,)  a  French  poet  and  critic,  born  in 
Paris  in  1595.  He  was  one  of  a  small  company  of 
literati  who  in  1635  organized  themselves  under  the 
auspices  of  Richelieu  with  the  title  of  the  "French  Acad- 
emy." The  Dictionary  of  the  Academy  was  planned  by 
him.  He  was  regarded  as  an  oracle  in  the  literary  world. 
His  epic  poem  "La  Pucelle"  was  extolled  in  advance  as 
the  greatest  triumph  of  human  genius ;  but  its  glory 
quickly  faded  under  the  sarcastic  wit  and  ridicule  of 
Boileau,  and  it  sank  into  merited  neglect.  "He  began 
by  being  the  oracle  of  authors,"  says  Voltaire,  "and 
ended  by  being  their  shame."    Died  in  1674. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV." 

Chapelier,  le,  leh  shtp'le-^',  (Isaac  Ren6  Gut,)  an 
eminent  French  lawyer,  borrTat  Rennes  in  1754,  was 
deputed  to  the  States-General  in  1789.  He  was  among 
the  ablest  orators  of  this  body,  in  which  he  often  pre- 
sided. As  a  member  and  reporter  of  the  committee  on 
the  first  constitution,  he  drafted  the  decree  which  abol- 
ished nobility.  His  political  affinities  were  with  the 
Feuillants,  or  the  friends  of  the  constitution.  He  was 
condemned  to  death  on  a  charge  of  having  conspired  in 
favour  of  royalty,  and  executed  in  1794. 

Chapelle,  shS^p^l',  (Claude  Emma.nitel  Luillier — 
lii-e'ye-A',)  a  witty  French  versifier,  born  at  Chapelle, 
near  Paius,  in  1626.  Gassendi,  who  frequented  his  father's 
house,  gave  him  lessons  in  philosophy,  to  which  Moliere, 
the  future  dramatic  poet,  was  admitted.  Chapelle  is  said 
to  have  aided  Moliere,  Racine,  and  Boileau  in  the  compo- 
sition of  their  poems.  He  wrote  some  pieces  of  verse 
which  were  much  admired.  He  was  one  of  a  famous 
supper-party  of  Auteuil  who,  after  copious  potations, 
moralized  so  eloquently  on  the  miseries  of  life  that  they 
resolved  to  take  their  quietus  at  the  bottom  of  the  river. 


They  were  diverted  from  the  instant  execution  of  that 
purpose  by  Moliere's  suggestion  that  broad  daylight 
should  shine  upon  and  witness  so  noble  an  action.  Died 
in  1686. 

See  Voltaire,  "Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  D'Alembert,  "  £loge 

de  Chapelle." 

Chapelle,  La.    See  La  Chapelle. 

Chaperon,  shSp'riw',  (Nicolas,)  a  skilful  French 
engraver,  born  at  Chateaudun  in  1596.  He  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  etched  the  pictures  in  the  Vatican 
which  are  known  by  the  name  of  the  "  Bible  of  Raphael." 
These  engravings  (fifty-two  in  number)  were  published 
in  1638,  and  are  called  good  copies.  He  afterwar-Js 
worked  in  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1647. 

Cha'pin,  (Calvin,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  for 
upwards  of  thirty  years  secretary  to  the  American  Board 
of  Missions,  born  at  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  about 
1764;  died  at  Wethersfield,  Connecticut,  in  1851.  He 
was  a  zealous  advocate  of  temperance,  and  author  of  an 
essay  recommending  the  substitution  of  water  for  wine 
in  the  Lord's  Supper. 

Chapin,  (Edwin  Hubbell,)  D.D.,  an  American  Uni' 
versalist  divine  and  distinguished  orator,  was  born  in 
Washington  county.  New  York,  in  1814.  He  preached 
for  several  years  at  Charlestown,  near  Boston,  and  about 
1848  removed  to  the  city  of  New  York.  As  a  popular 
and  eloquent  preacher  he  is  unrivalled  among  the  min- 
isters of  his  own  denomination,  and  has  few  if  any  su- 
periors among  those  of  any  class  in  our  country.  He 
has  also  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  ablest  and 
most  attractive  lecturers  in  the  United  States.  He  has 
published,  besides  several  volumes  of  sermons  and 
discourses,  "The  Crown  of  Thorns,"  and  "Humanity 
in  the  City,"  (1854.) 

See  "Golden  Age  of  American  Oratory,"  by  E,  G.  Parker,  Bos- 
ton, 1857. 

Chapin,  (Stephen,)  an  American  Baptist  minister, 
born  in  Milford,  Massachusetts,  in  1778,  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1804.  He  was  president  of  Columbian  Col- 
lege, at  Washington,  from  1828  to  184L    Died  in  1845. 

Chapin,  (William,)  an  American  teacher  of  the 
blind,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1802.  He  became  prin- 
cipal of  the  Pennsylvania  Institution  for  the  Blind  in 
1849. 

Chap'lin,  (Jeremiah,)  an  American  Baptist  minister, 
born  at  Rowley,  Massachusetts,  in  1776.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  Waterville  College,  Maine,  from  1820  till  1832. 
Died  in  1841. 

Chapman,  chlp'min,  (.>)  (Frederick  Henry,)  a 
Swedish  vice-admiral  and  skilful  naval  architect,  born  in 
1 721.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Naval  Architec- 
ture," (1775,)  which  was  translated  into  many  languages. 
Gustavus  III.  appointed  him  to  direct  the  construction 
of  vessels  for  his  navy.    Died  in  1808. 

See  Hallstroem,  "Minne  ofver  F.  H.  Chapman,"  1817. 

Chap'man,  (George,)  an  English  dramatic  poet,  and 
the  earliest  English  translator  of  Homer,  was  born  in  1557, 
at  what  place  is  not  known.  Having  become  a  resident 
of  London,  and  an  author  by  profession,  he  enjoyed 
the  society  and  friendship  of  Spenser  and  Shakspeare. 
His  most  memorable  production  is  the  translation  of 
Homer  into  English  verse.  The  "Iliad"  appeared  in 
1598,  the  "Odyssey"  in  1614.  These  versions  were  ad- 
mired by  Dr.  Johnson,  Pope,  and  Coleridge.  "  A  daring, 
fiery  spirit,"  says  Pope,  "animates  his  translation,  which 
is  something  like  what  one  might  imagine  Homer  to  have 
written  before  he  had  arrived  at  years  of  discretion." 
He  wrote  many  comedies  and  tragedies,  which  are  now 
forgotten.  "The  drama,"  says  Campbell,  "owes  him 
very  little."  "  His  '  Bussy  d'Amboise'  is  a  piece  of  frigid 
atrocity."    Died  in  London  in  1634. 

See  Gibber,  "Lives  of  the  Poets,"  etc.;  "Minor  Elizabethan 
Dramatists,"  in  the  ''Atlantic  Monthly"  for  Dece<nber,  1867;  "Re- 
trospective Review"  for  1821.  vol.  iv. 

Chapman,  (George,)  a  Scottish  school-master,  born 
at  Alvah  in  1723,  taught  in  Dalkeith  and  Dumfries,  and 
wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  Education,"  which  was  often  re- 
printed.   Died  in  1806. 

See  a  "  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  G.  Chapman,"  London,  180S. 

Chapman,  (John,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born  in 
1704.    He  published  a  work  called  "Eusebius,"  (1739,) 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  3?,  short;  9,  ?,  j,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


CHAPMAN 


569 


CHARBONNIERES 


in  answer  to  Morgan  and  Tindal.  In  1741  he  became 
Archdeacon  of  Sudbury.  He  subsequently  published 
numerous  sermons,  several  antiquarian  treatises,  and  a 
letter  to  Dr.  Middleton,  (1744,)  in  which  he  corrected 
some  errors  committed  by  that  author  in  his  "  Lite  of 
Cicero."    Died  in  1784. 

Chapman,  (John  Gadsby,)  an  American  painter, 
born  in  Alexandria,  Virginia.  He  became  a  resident  of 
Rome  about  1848,  before  which  date  he  had  painted 
"  The  Baptism  of  Pocahontas"  for  the  Rotunda  of  the 
Capitol  at  Washington.  He  has  also  published  a  "  Draw- 
ing-Book" of  great  merit. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Chapman,  (Nathaniel,)  an  American  physician, 
born  in  Fairfax  county,  Virginia,  in  1780,  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1800.  He  began  to 
practise  in  Philadelphia  in  1804,  and  obtained  the  chair 
of  materia  medica  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1813.  In  1816  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  theory 
and  practice  of  medicine  in  the  same  institution.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  Elements  of  Thera- 
peutics and  Materia  Medica."  He  was  president  of 
the  American  Philosophical  Society  from  1846  until  his 
death.    He  died  January  i,  1853. 

See  S.  D.  Gross,  "American  Medical  Biography;"  "Discourse 
commemorative  of  Nathaniel  Chapman,"  by  Dr.  S.  Jackson,  1854. 

Chapman,  (Thomas,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
Durham  county  in  1 71 7,  became  master  of  Magdalen 
College,  Cambridge,  in  1746.  He  published  an  "Essay 
on  the  Roman  Senate,"  (1750.)    Died  in  1760. 

Chapone,  sha-pon',  (Hester,)  an  English  authoress 
of  great  merit,  born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1727,  was 
the  daughter  of  Thomas  Mulso.  In  1760  she  was  mar- 
ried to  Mr.  Chapone,  who  died  ten  months  after  the 
union.  She  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Elizabeth  Carter 
and  Mrs.  Montague.  She  contributed  to  the  "Adven- 
turer" the  story  of  "  Fidelia,"  (1753,)  and  wrote  an  "Ode 
to  Peace,"  and  other  admired  poems.  Her  "  Letters 
on  the  Improvement  of  the  Mind"  (1773)  are  highly 
esteemed.  She  also  published  "Miscellanies  in  Prose 
and  Verse,"  and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1801. 

See  Mrs.  Etwrnjo,  "Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England 
from  tlie  Commencement  of  the  Last  Century,"  1843. 

Chapour,  (a  king  of  Persia.)    See  Sapor. 

Chappe,  shtp,  (Claude,)  an  inventor  of  a  telegraph, 
born  at  Brulon,  in  France,  in  1763,  was  a  nephew  of 
Abbe  Chappe  d'Auteroche.  In  1791  he  conceived  the 
project  of  communicating  with  his  absent  friends  by 
means  of  signals.  In  1792  he  presented  to  the  National 
Assembly  a  machine  which  he  called  a  telegraph,  which 
was  tried  with  success  between  Paris  and  Lille,  where 
a  dispatch  was  transmitted  through  forty-eight  leagues 
in  thirteen  minutes  and  forty  seconds.  The  importance 
of  the  invention  was  immediately  recognized,  and  the 
telegraph  soon  came  into  general  use.  Chappe  is  re- 
garded as  the  first  who  operated  successfully  with  the 
telegraph,  although  the  idea  did  not  originate  with  him. 
Died  in  1S05. 

Chappe  d'Auteroche,  shSp  dot'rosh',  (Jean,)  Abb^:, 
a  French  astronomer,  born  at  Mauriac  in  1722.  In  1760 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  of  which  he  was  a  member, 
sent  him  to  Tobolsk  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus 
\yhich  occurred  in  June  6,  1761.  On  his  return  he  pub- 
lished a  "Narrative  of  his  Journey  in  Siberia."  He 
went  to  California  to  observe  another  transit  of  Venus, 
and  died  there  in  1769. 

Chap'pel,  (William,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
in  Nottinghamshire  in  1582,  became  provost  of  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  in  1637,"  and  Bishop  of  Cork  in  1638. 
He  published  "The  Use  of  the  Holy  Scripture,"  (1653,) 
and  other  works,  and  was  one  of  those  to  whom  "The 
Whole  Duty  of  Man"  has  been  ascribed.    Died  in  1649. 

See  "Vita  seipso conscripta,"  (Autobiography,)  1715. 

Chap-peTow,  (Leonard,)  an  eminent  English  Ori- 
entalist, born  in  1683,  became  professor  of  Arabic  at 
Cambridge  in  1720,  and  promoted  the  study  of  Oriental 
literature  in  England.  Among  his  works  are  "Ele- 
ments of  the  Arabic  Language,"  and  a  translation  of 
the  "Traveller,"  an  Arabic  poem.    Died  in  1768. 

Chappuzeau,  shSp^pu'zo',  (Samuel,)  a  Swiss  littera- 
teur, born  at  Geneva  about  1625;  died  in  1701. 


Chapsal,  shSp'stK,  (C.  P.,)  a  French  grammarian, 
born  about  1790,  published  "Lessons  of  Logical  Analy- 
sis," (14th  edit.,  1842,)  and  a  "New  French  Grammar," 
in  which  he  was  aided  by  M.  Noel.  The  latter  work  is 
said  to  have  made  the  fortune  of  the  authors. 

Chaptal,  shSp'tSK,  (Jean  Antoine,)  Comte  de 
Chanteloup,  (sh6Nt'loo',)  a  distinguished  French  che- 
mist and  statesman,  born  at  Nogaret  (Lozere)  in  June, 
1756.  Having  graduated  as  a  physician  at  Montpellier 
in  1777,  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  pursued  the  study  of 
chemistry  and  other  sciences.  In  1 781  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  chetnistry  at  Montpellier,  where  he  at  the 
same  time  rendered  valuable  services  to  the  state  by  the 
manufacture  of  certain  chemicals  for  which  France  had 
previously  been  indebted  to  foreigners.  He  favoured 
the  popular  cause  in  the  Revolution,  but  was  imjirisoned 
by  the  dominant  party  in  1793.  After  a  brief  detention, 
he  was  called  to  Paris  by  the  government  to  superintend 
the  manufacture  of  saltpetre,  in  which  he  was  very  suc- 
cessful. About  1796  he  became  a  member  of  the  Insti- 
tute, just  founded.  Bonaparte  appointed  him  a  council- 
lor of  state  in  1800,  and  minister  of  the  interior  in  1801. 
It  is  said  that  this  department  was  never  administered 
more  efficiently  for  the  prosperity  of  France  than  during 
the  four  years  of  Chaptal's  ministry.  In  1805  he  was 
made  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour,  and  a  senator. 
A  few  years  later  he  became  a  count.  He  opposed  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  and  retired  from  public 
service  in  1815,  but  was  restored  to  the  Chamber  of 
Peers  in  1819.  In  1806  he  had  published  "  Chemistry 
applied  to  the  Arts,"  ("La  Chimie  applique  aux  Arts,") 
an  excellent  work,  which  was  translated  into  all  the  lan- 
guages of  Europe  and  is  still  much  consulted.  He  also 
wrote  "Elements  of  Chemistry,"  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Culture  of  the  Vine  and  the  Art  of  making  Wine,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  Paris  in  1 832. 

See  Flourens,  "  filoge  historique  de  Chaptal,"  1835  ;  J.  S.  Julia- 
FoNTENELLE,  "  Eloge  dc  J.  A.  Chaptal,"  1833;  Thiers,  "  Histoire 
du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Chapuis,  shS'pii-e',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  writer,  born 
at  Amboise  in  1546.  He  succeeded  Belleforest  as  his- 
toriographer of  France,  and  in  1596  became  Spanish 
interpreter  to  the  king.  He  translated  from  the  Spanish 
into  French  "Amadis  de  Gaul,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  161 1. 

Chapus,  sht'piis',  (Eugene,)  a  French  writer  on  hunt- 
ing, horse-racing,  etc.,  was  born  in  Paris  about  1800. 
Among  his  works  are  "  The  Turf,"  (1853,)  and  "  Le  Sport 
a  Paris,"  (1854.) 

Chapuys  de  Montlaville,  sht'pii-e'  deh  m6N''lt'v^l', 
(BKNof  r  Marie  Louis,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Tournus 
in  1801.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
from  1832  to  1848,  and  was  appointed  a  senator  in  1853. 
He  has  written  a  "  History  of  Dauphiny,"  (1827,)  a  "  Life 
of  Lamartine,"  (1843,)  and  other  works. 

Charas,  shS'rts',  (Moise,)  an  eminent  French  phy- 
sician and  Protestant,  born  at  Uzes  in  1618.  He  taught 
chemistry  for  nine  years  in  the  Royal  College  of  Paris. 
The  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  (1685)  forced  him 
to  emigrate.  After  practising  in  England  and  Holland, 
he  went  to  Spain  to  attend  Charles  II.,  and  was  induced- 
by  the  terrors  of  the  Inquisition  to  turn  Catholic.  He- 
returned  to  Paris  about  1692,  and  died  there  in  1698. 
He  had  published  in  1676  a  "Pharmacopoeia,"  which 
was  extensively  used.  Voltaire  says,  "  he  was  the  first 
who  wrote  well  on  Pharmacy." 

See  £lov,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Medecine ;"  Cap,  "  loge  de  Moise 
Charas,"  1840. 

Charbonnel,  shtR'bo'n^K,  (Joseph  Claude  Mar- 
guerite,) Count,  a  French  general,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1775.  He  displayed  skill  and  courage  at  Jena  in  1806, 
and  in  various  actions  in  Prussia,  Spain,  and  Russia. 
As  general  of  division,  he  took  part  in  the  battles  of 
Lutzen  and  Bautzen,  ( 1813.)  He  became  a  peer  of  France 
in  1 84 1.    Died  in  1846. 

Charbonnet,  shtR^bo'nk',  (Pierre  Matthias,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Troves  in  1733.  In  August, 
1792,  he  was  intrusted  with  the  surveillance  of  the  royal 
family  confined  in  the  Temple.    Died  in  181 5. 

Charbonnieres,  de,  deh  shtR'bo^ne'aiR',  (Alexis,) 
Chevalier,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Auvergne  about 


«.  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CHARD  IN 


570 


CHARLEMAGNE 


1778.  He  composed  "  The  Battle  of  Austerlitz,"  a  drama, 
a  poem  entitled  an  "Essay  on  the  Sublime,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1819. 

Chardin,  shta'diw',  (Jean  Baptiste  Simeon,)  a 
skilful  French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1699.  He  repre- 
sented familiar  scenes  with  admirable  beauty  and  fidelity, 
and  was  employed  to  decorate  the  salon  of  the  Louvre. 
Many  of  his  works  have  been  engraved.    Died  in  1779. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Chardin,  shar'din  or  shtR^diN',  (Sir  John,)  a  cele- 
brated traveller,  born  in  Paris  in  1643,  was  a  jeweller  by 
trade,  and  a  Protestant.  In  1664  he  made  a  journey  to 
India  and  Persia,  partly  on  account  of  business,  and  re- 
mained six  years  at  Ispahan,  where  he  diligently  studied 
the  language,  history,  politics,  customs,  etc.  of  Persia. 
He  was  employed  by  the  Persian  king  as  an  agent  for 
the  purchase  of  jewels.  In  1670  he  revisited  Paris;  but, 
finding  that  his  religion  was  an  insuperable  obstacle  to 
his  preferment,  he  resolved  in  167 1  to  return  to  the 
East.  He  passed  the  ensuing  ten  years  mostly  in  Per- 
sia, and  in  168 1  became  a  resident  of  London.  He  was 
knighted  by  Charles  II.,  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  was  sent  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Hol- 
land about  1682.  In  1686  he  published  the  first  part 
of  h^  "  Travels  in  Persia  and  the  East  Indies,"  (3  vols. 
4to,  1686-171 1,)  which,  says  Sir  William  Jones,  "is  the 
best  account  of  Mohammedan  nations  ever  published." 
"  The  faculty  of  seizing  by  a  rapid  and  comprehensive 
glance  the  character  of  a  country  and  people,"  says  Sir 
James  Mackintosh,  "  was  possessed  in  the  highest  degree 
by  Chardin,  and  secures  him  an  undisputed  supremacy 
in  that  department  of  literature."  Died  near  London 
in  1713. 

See  Langl^s,  "Voyage  du  Chevalier  Chardin  en  Perse  ;"  Nice- 
RON,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Chardon  de  la  Rochette,  shtR'd6N'  deh  It  ro'sh^t', 
(Simon,)  a  French  philologist  and  Hellenist,  born  in  Ge- 
vaudan  in  1753,  ^^^^  one  of  the  principal  contributors  to 
the  "  Magasin  Encyclopedique"  of  Milan,  for  which  he 
wrote  many  able  critical  dissertations.  His  most  im- 
portant work  is  a  "  Greek  Anthology,"  which  cost  the 
labour  of  twenty-five  years  and  was  left  unfinished. 
Died  in  1814. 

Charenton,shS'r6N't6N',(JosEPH  Nicolas,)  a  French 
writer  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Blois  in  1649.  He  was  a  mis- 
sionary in  Persia  for  fifteen  years.  By  order  of  Philip  V. 
of  Spain,  he  made  a  good  French  translation  of  Mari- 
ana's "  History  of  Spain,"  (1725,)  with  a  supplement. 
His  version  was  so  successful  that  it  prevented  the  pub- 
lication of  two  others  that  were  in  progress.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1735. 

•CJha'res,  [Xup???-,]  an  Athenian  general,  whose  extor- 
tions provoked  the  social  war  which  began  in  358  B.C. 
By  party  influence  and  corruption,  he  was  chosen  general- 
in-chief  in  this  war,  and  besieged  Chios  without  success. 

Chares,  a  Greek  statuary,  born  at  Lindus,  lived  about 
300  B.C.,  was  a  pupil  of  Lysippus,  and  the  chief  founder 
of  the  Rhodian  school  of  sculpture.  He  constructed, 
near  the  port  of  Rhodes,  the  famous  Colossus,  one  of 
the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  World.  It  was  a  bronze  statue 
of  Apollo,  seventy  cubits  in  height,  (about  one  hundred 
English  feet,)  and  was  thrown  down  by  an  earthquake 
about  224  B.C., fifty-six  years  after  its  erection.  The  frag- 
ments remained  on  the  spot  more  than  nine  hundred  years. 

Chares  of  Mitylene  was  master  of  ceremonies,  or 
gentleman-usher,  to  Alexander  the  Great.  He  recorded 
facts  and  anecdotes  in  the  life  of  that  prince,  in  a  work 
of  which  only  small  fragments  are  extant.  In  340  he 
commanded  an  army  sent  to  aid  Byzantium  against 
Philip  of  Macedon  ;  but  he  failed  to  effect  his  object,  and 
was  super.seded  by  Phocian.  He  was  one  of  the  com- 
manders of  the  Athenians  at  the  battle  of  Chaeronaea, 
338  B.C.,  the  loss  of  which  was  ascribed  to  his  incapacity. 
He  survived  that  event  five  years  or  more.  His  char- 
acter was  extremely  profligate  and  corrupt. 

See  Plutarch,  "Phocion." 

Charette  de  la  Contrie,  sht'r^t'  deh  li  k^N^tRe', 
(Athanase,)  a  French  royalist  chief,  nephew  of  Fran9ois 
Athanase,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Nantes  in  1796. 
He  fought  for  the  Bourbons  in  the  west  of  France  in 
181 5.    He  went  into  exile  with  Charles  X.  in  1830,  and 


in  1832  raised  an  unsuccessful  revolt  in  the  west.  He 
published  a  "Military  Journal,"  (1842.)    Died  in  1848. 
See  Louis  Blanc,  "Histoire  de  dix  Ans." 

Charette  de  la  Contrie,  (Francois  Athanase,) 
a  brave  Vendean  general,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1763.  He 
was  chosen  as  their  leader  by  the  insurgent  peasants  in 
1793,  and  displayed  remarkaole  talents  for  guerilla  war- 
fare. He  gained  several  victories  over  the  republicans 
in  1793-94,  and  maintained  the  contest  after  the  other 
Vendean  chiefs  had  fallen.  "  All  the  princes  of  Europe," 
says  Alison,  "looked  to  him  as  the  only  man  capable  of 
restoring  the  royal  cause."  In  April,  1795,  he  signed  a 
treaty  of  pacification,  which  he  soon  violated.  "The  re- 
newal of  hostilities,"  says  Alison,  "was  owing  to  the 
delusive  hopes  held  out  by,  and  ill-judged  assistance  of, 
Great  Britain."  At  the  request  of  Count  d'Artois,  Cha- 
rette resumed  the  command,  but  was  unable  to  resist 
General  Hoche,  who  is  said  to  have  offered  him  a  mil- 
lion francs  to  leave  the  country  in  peace.  He  refused 
these  terms,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  shot  in  March,  1796. 

See  Le  Bouvier-Desmortiers,  "Vie  de  Charette;"  T.  Muret, 
"Vie  populaire  de  Charette,"  1845. 

Charideme.  See  Charidemus. 

•Char-i-de'mus,  [Xapidriiioq,]  a  Greek  general,  born 
in  Euboea  about  400  B.C.,  became  the  leader  of  an  army 
of  mercenaries.  He  entered  the  service  of  Cotys,  King 
of  Thrace,  and  opposed  the  Athenians  in  their  attempt 
to  conquer  Chersonesus.  He  obtained  command  of  an 
Athenian  army  in  349  B.C. 

Charidemus,  [Fr.  Charideme,  kt're'dkm',]  an  Athe- 
nian orator,  born  about  390  B.C.,  was  a  political  friend 
of  Demosthenes.  He  was  ambassador  to  the  court  of 
Macedon  when  Philip  was  killed  in  the  year  336,  and  was 
one  of  the  eight  orators  whom  Alexander  required  to 
be  delivered  to  him  after  the  reduction  of  Thebes.  To 
escape  this  danger,  he  fled  to  Persia,  where  he  was  put 
to  death  by  Darius  in  333  B.C. 

See  Thirlwall,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Charis.    See  Charites. 

Charisi.    See  Charizi. 

Charisius,  ka-rish'e-us,  (Aurelius  Arcadius,)  a 
Roman  jurist,  supposed  to  have  lived  about  350  a.d.  He 
wrote  "  De  Testibus,"  ("  On  Witnesses,")  and  other  legal 
works,  extracts  of  which  are  preserved  in  the  "Digest." 

Charisius,  (FlaVius  Sosip'ater,)  a  Latin  gramma- 
rian, born  in  Campania,  lived  about  the  fifth  century. 

■ehar'i-tes,  singular  -Cha'ris,  [Gr.  Xapi^,  Xaptreg;  Fr. 
Les  Graces,  li  gRiss ;  Lat.  Gra'tI/^:,]  the  Graces  of 
classic  mythology,  were  the  daughters  of  Jupiter.  They 
were  supposed  to  bestow  grace,  beauty,  and  refinement, 
and  to  preside  over  social  enjoyments,  dances,  and  festi- 
vals. They  were  also  patrons  of  poetry  and  art.  They 
were  three  in  number, — namely,  Aglaia,  Euphrosyne, 
and  Thalia. 

See  Keightlev's  "Mythology." 

•Char'i-ton,  [Gr.  Xaphov,]  author  of  a  Greek  romance 
entitled  "The  Loves  of  Chaereas  and  Callirrhoe,"  was 
a  native  of  Aphrodisias,  in  Caria.  His  epoch  is  unknown  ; 
but  he  lived,  it  is  supposed,  in  or  after  the  fourth  century 
of  our  era.    The  chief  merit  of  his  work  is  in  the  style. 

Charizi,  chS-ree'thee,  (?)  (Judah,)  a  Spanish  poet  and 
Jewish  rabbi,  born  at  Xeres  ;  died  about  1235. 

Charke,  chark,  (Charlotte,)  an  English  actress^ 
was  a  daughter  of  Colley  Gibber.    Died  in  1760. 

See  "  Narrative  of  the  Life  of  Mrs.  Charlotte  Charke,"  by  herself, 
London,  1827. 

Charlemagne,  shar^e-man',  [Fr.  pron.  shtRrmtn'; 
Ger.  Carl  (or  Karl)  der  Grosse,  kaRl  d§R  gRos'seh  ; 
It.  Carlo  Magno,  kaR'lo  min'vo  ;  Lat.  Car'olus  Mag'- 
nus,  i.e.  "Charles  the  Great,"]  or  Charles  I.,  King  of 
France  and  Emperor  of  the  West,  born  at  the  castle  of 
Salzburg,  in  Bavaria,  in  742  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Pepin  le 
Bref,  King  of  the  Franks.  At  the  death  of  Pepin,  in  768, 
Charlemagne  became  King  of  Austrasia,  Neustria,  etc., 
while  his  brother  Carloman  obtained  the  rest  of  his  father's 
dominions.  In  771  Carloman  died,  and  Charlemagne  be- 
came master  of  the  whole.  His  kingdom  then  included 
France  and  a  large  part  of  Germany.  He  married  Desiree 
or  Desiderata,  a  daughter  of  Desiderius  of  Lombardy.  In 
772  he  began  a  war  against  the  Saxons,  who,  after  a  long 
and  obstinate  resistance,  were  finally  subdued  about 


ai  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  /ong;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  li,  f,  short;  a,  9,  |,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fSt;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CHARLEMONT 


571 


CHARLES 


thirty  years  later.  Having  defeated  Desiderius,  King  of 
the  Lombards,  he  was  crowned  King  of  Lombardy  in 
774.  Having  divorced  his  first  wife,  he  married  Hilde- 
garde  or  Ildegerda.  Returning  from  an  invasion  of 
Spain  in  778,  he  suffered  a  reverse  at  Roncesvalles, 
where  Roland  and  other  famous  paladins  fell  by  the  hands 
of  the  Saracens.  The  revolts  of  his  subjects  gave  him 
many  opportunities  for  the  successful  exercise  of  his 
military  talents.  In  800  he  was  crowned  at  Rome  by  Pope 
Leo  HI.  as  Emperor  of  the  West,  with  the  title  of  Caesar 
Augustus.  His  son  Pepin,  whom  he  had  made  King  of 
Italy,  died  in  810.  In  813  he  associated  his  son,  Louis 
le  Debonnaire,  with  himself  in  the  empire.  He  died  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  his  capital,  in  January,  814,  leaving  a 
great  reputation  as  a  statesman,  legislator,  and  founder 
of  the  Germanic  Empire.  He  established  churches, 
monasteries,  and  schools,  and  promoted  learning,  arts, 
and  civilization.  He  was  the  most  powerful  monarch  of 
his  time.  His  empire  comprised  all  the  region  between 
the  Elbe  and  the  Ebro,  extending  eastward  to  Hungai7 
and  southward  to  Calabria.  By  his  will,  made  in  806, 
he  divided  the  empire  between  his  three  sons,  Charles, 
Pe]3in,  and  Louis,  the  last  of  whom  only  survived  Char- 
lemagne, and  became  his  successor.  His  descendants 
are  denominated  Carlovingians,  constituting  the  second 
dynasty  of  French  kings. 

See  Haureau,  "Charlemagne  et  sa  Cour,"  1854;  Gaillard, 
"Histoire  de  Cliarlemagne,"  1782;  Arn.  Scheuffer,  "Caroli  Magni 
Vita  togata;"  G.  P.  R.  James,  "  Life  of  Charlemagne,"  1832;  Do- 
natus  AcciAjuoLi,  "De  Vita  Caroli  Magni  Cominentarius  ;"  Reine- 
Rus  Reineccius,  "Annales  de  Gestis  Caroli  Magni;"  Eginhard, 
"Vita  Caroli  Magni,"  first  published  in  1521  ;  Capefigue,  "Charle- 
magne," 1840;  Theodore  Nisard,  "Histoire  de  Charlemagne," 
1843;  Heinrich  C.  von  Gagern,  "Carl  der  Grosse,"  1845 ;  Bre- 
Dow,  "Carl  der  Grosse,"  1814;  Schroeder,  "  Geschichte  Carls  des 
Grossen."  1850 ;  Dippold,  "  Leben  Kaiser  Carl's  des  Grossen,"  i8io ; 
Sporschil,  "Carl  der  Grosse,  sein  Reich  und  sein  Haus,"  1846. 

Char'le-mont,  (James  Caulfield,)  Earl  of,  a  lite- 
rary and  patriotic  Irish  nobleman,  born  in  Dublin  in 
1728,  was  the  son  of  Viscount  Charlemont,  and  a  friend 
of  Edmund  Burke.  He  was  president  of  the  Roval  Irish 
Academy,  and  author  of  a  "History  of  Italian  Poetry." 
He  had  great  influence  in  the  public  affairs  of  Ireland. 
Died  in  1799. 

vSee  Francis  Hardy,  "Memoirs  of  the  Political  and  Private  Life 
of  James  Caulfield,  Earl  of  Charlemont,"  1810  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  November,  i8ii;  "London  Quarterly  Review,"  October,  1811. 

^;^="The  following  order  has  been  adopted  in  regard 
to  rulers  or  princes  having  the  name  of  Charles  :  first, 
Emperors  ;  secondly.  Kings,  (arranged  according  to  the 
alphabetical  order  of  their  respective  countries,  England 
being  placed  first,  France  next,  and  so  on  ;)  thirdly,  Arch- 
dukes ;  fourthly,  Dukes, 

Charles  I.,  Emperor.    See  Charlemagne. 

Charles  II.,  Emperor.  See  Charles  the  Bald, 
King  of  France. 

Charles  III.,  or  the  Fat,  [Fr.  Charles  le  Gros, 
shtRl  leh  gRo,]  Emperor  of  the  Franks,  born  about  832 
A.D.,  was  the  third  son  of  Louis  II.,  (le  Germanique,) 
and  among  the  German  emperors  is  reckoned  Charles 
III.  Louis  II.,  at  his  death  in  876,  divided  the  empire 
among  his  sons,  Carloman,  Louis,  and  Charles.  The 
first  and  second  having  died  without  lawful  issue  within 
six  years  ensuing,  Charles  inherited  their  portions.  In 
884  he  became  King  or  Regent  of  France,  the  legitimate 
heir  of  which  was  a  minor.  His  dominions  were  much 
too  large  for  his  capacity,  and  his  power  was  little  more 
than  nominal.  He  was  unable  to  relieve  Paris  from  the 
besieging  Normans  in  886,  except  by  paying  them  to 
transfer  their  ravages  to  another  part  of  France.  He 
was  deposed  by  his  nephew,  Arnulph  or  Arnolph,  in 
888,  and  died  the  same  year. 

Charles  IV.,  of  the  house  of  Luxembourg,  born  in 
13 16,  was  a  son  of  John  de  Luxembourg,  King  of  Bo- 
hemia. He  was  elected  Emperor  of  Germany  in  1346, 
as  successor  to  Louis  V.,  whom  the  pope  had  excom- 
municated, and  who  died  in  1347.  He  is  reproached 
for  his  subservience  to  the  pope.  About  1356  he  issued, 
at  Nuremberg,  the  Golden  Bull,  which  was  the  funda- 
mental law  of  the  empire  for  more  than  four  hundred 
years.  This  Bull  determined  that  the  election  of  empe- 
ror should  be  made  by  seven  electors,  viz.,  four  secular 


princes  and  three  ecclesiastics.  He  died  in  1378,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Wenceslaus. 

See  Pelzel,  "Geschichte  Kaiser  Karls  IV.,"  1780. 

Charles  V.,  [Ger.  Karl  (or  Carl)  der  Funfte, 
kaRl  dcR  fiinfteh;  Fr.  Charles  Quint,  shtRl  k^N  ;  It. 
Carlo  Quinto,  k^R'lo  kw^n'to,]  Don  Carlos  I.  of 
Spain,  afterwards  Emperor  of  Germany,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  the  archduke  Philip  of  Austria,  and  grandson  of  the 
emperor  Maximilian  I.  and  Mary,  Duchess  of  Burgundy. 
His  mother  was  Joanna,  the  daughter  and  sole  heiress  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  the  sovereigns  of  Aragon  and 
Castile.  He  was  born  at  Ghent  in  February,  1500,  and 
educated  in  Flanders,  under  the  care  of  William  de  Croy 
as  governor  and  Adrien  of  Utrecht  as  preceptor.  He  in- 
herited from  his  father,  who  died  in  1506,  the  Low  Coun- 
tries and  Franche-Comte.  The  death  of  Ferdinand  of 
Spain  in  January,  1516,  rendered  Charles  master  of  an 
empire  more  vast  than  any  monarch  had  ruled  since 
Charlemagne.  He  removed  his  court  from  Flanders  to 
Spain  in  15 17,  and  dismissed  Cardinal  Ximenes  from  the 
regency.  In  1519  Charles  was  elected  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, as  successor  to  Maximilian,  after  a  long  contest 
with  Francis  I.  of  France.  Having  appointed  Adrien 
of  Utrecht  Regent  of  Castile,  he  departed  from  Spain, 
and  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  October,  1520. 
In  order  to  concert  measures  to  check  the  progress  of 
the  Lutheran  doctrines,  he  assembled  a  Diet  at  Worms 
in  1521.    (See  Luther,  Martin.) 

Foreseeing  that  a  war  was  impending  between  himself 
and  the  French  king,  Charles  made  a  secret  alliance  with 
Pope  Leo  X.  and  Henry  VIII.  of  England.  In  his 
absence  the  people  of  Castile,  led  by  Juan  de  Padilla,  re- 
volted against  the  regent,  and  were  successful  in  several 
battles  in  1520  and  1521.  Charles  returned  to  Spain  in 
1522,  and  by  a  wise  moderation  ended  the  civil  war.  In 
the  mean  time  hostilities  had  commenced  between  the 
allies  and  the  French,  who  were  driven  out  from  the 
Milanese  in  1522  by  Colonna.  An  imperialist  army 
which  invaded  Provence  in  1524  was  repulsed  by  Fran- 
cis, who  again  marched  into  Italy,  and  was  defeated  and 
made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Pavia  in  1525.  The  war 
was  suspended  by  the  treaty  of  Madrid  in  1526.  (See 
Francis  I.)  In  1526  he  married  Isabella  of  Portugal, 
a  daughter  of  King  Emmanuel.  A  league  having  been 
formed  by  Francis  I.  and  the  pope,  Clement  VII.,  against 
Charles,  the  war  was  renewed  in  1527,  when  the  impe- 
rial army,  under  Constable  Bourbon,  took  Rome  by  as- 
sault, made  the  pope  a  prisoner,  and  committed  great 
outrages  on  the  citizens.  This  event  excited  general 
horror  in  Europe,  and  influenced  Henry  VIII.  to  join 
the  league  against  the  emperor.  Peace  was  restored  by 
the  treaty  of  Cambrai  in  1529. 

In  1530  Charles  attended  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  which 
he  had  appointed  to  oppose  the  progress  of  the  Refor- 
mation, and  which  decreed  that  severe  penalties  should 
be  enforced  against  the  Protestants.  The  emperor,  how- 
ever, after  the  Protestant  chiefs  had  united  in  the  League 
of  Schmalkalden  for  a  common  defence,  granted  them 
favourable  terms  of  peace  or  compromise  in  1531.  In 
1535  he  acquired  great  renown  by  the  defeat  of  Barba- 
rossa  and  the  conquest  of  Tunis,  with  a  large  armament 
which  he  commanded  in  person.  He  invaded  France 
from  the  south  in  1536,  and  besieged  Marseilles  ;  but, 
foiled  by  the  cautious  and  defensive  policy  of  Montmo- 
renci,  he  was  forced  to  retreat,  after  he  had  lost  half  of 
his  army.  A  truce  of  ten  years  having  been  negotiated 
in  1538,  Charles  asked  and  received  a  safe-conduct  to 
pass  through  France  in  1539.  In  1541  he  conducted 
against  Algiers  an  enterprise  which,  in  consequence  of 
a  storm  at  sea,  and  disease  in  the  army,  resulted  disas- 
trously. 

The  truce  between  Charles  and  Francis  having  been 
broken  in  1542,  the  former  courted  the  favour  of  the 
Protestants,  from  whom  he  obtained  material  aid  for  the 
war.  In  1544  the  French  gained  a  decisive  victory  at 
Cerisoles,  soon  after  which  Charles  and  Francis  made 
a  treaty  of  peace  at  Crespy,  (Crepy,)  and  secretly  agreed 
to  exterminate  heresy  in  their  respective  dominions.  In 
1546  he  published  the  ban  of  the  empire  against  the 
Elector  of  Saxony  and  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  the 
chiefs  of  the  Protestant  league,  who  promptly  declared 


•e  as    9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Yi.guthiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CHARLES 


S7^ 


CHARLES 


war  against  him.  Their  offer  of  battle  having  been  de- 
clined by  Charles,  their  armies  were  dispersed  or  dis- 
banded in  1547.  He  then  obtained  an  easy  conquest, 
and  subjected  the  Protestants  to  cruel  oppression  and 
exactions.  Maurice  of  Saxony,  who  had  hitherto  fought 
for  Charles,  took  the  field  against  him  in  1552,  at  the 
head  of  a  powerful  league  and  supported  by  Henry  H. 
of  France.  Surprised  by  this  sudden  danger,  and  un- 
able to  resist,  his  army  fled  in  confusion  from  Innspruck, 
and  Charles,  in  August,  1552,  signed  the  memorable 
treaty  of  Passau,  "which,"  says  Robertson,  "overturned 
the  vast  fabric  in  erecting  which  Charles  had  employed 
so  many  years,  and  established  the  Protestant  Church 
upon  a  firm  and  secure  basis."  To  the  great  astonish- 
ment of  Europe,  he  resigned  with  imposing  ceremonies 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Netherlands,  Spain,  and  his  other 
hereditary  dominions  to  his  son  Philip  in  the  autumn  of 
1555.  He  assigned  as  his  motive  that  his  vigour  was 
exhausted  by  an  incurable  distemper,  the  gout.  He  re- 
signed the  imperial  crown  to  his  brother  Ferdinand,  and 
retired  to  the  monastery  of  Saint  Yuste,  near  Plasencia, 
in  Spain.  "  He  was  particularly  curious,"  says  Robert- 
son, "  with  regard  to  the  mechanism  of  clocks  and 
watches ;  and  having  found,  after  repeated  trials,  that  he 
could  not  bring  any  two  of  them  to  go  exactly  alike,  he 
reflected,  it  is  said,  with  a  mixture  of  surprise  and  regret 
on  his  own  folly  in  having  bestowed  so  nmch  time  and 
labour  on  the  more  vain  attempt  of  bringing  mankind 
to  a  precise  uniformity  of  sentiment  concerning  the  pro- 
found and  mysterious  doctrines  of  religion."  Unfor- 
tunately, this  passage,  so  full  of  interest  and  instruction, 
rests  upon  no  trustworthy  foundation,  and  is  inconsistent 
with  the  views  which  Charles  is  known  to  have  held  a 
little  before  his  death.    He  died  September  21,  1558. 

See  Robertson,  "History  of  the  Reign  of  Charles  V.,"  1769; 
Prescott,  "  History  of  Philip  1 1.,  King  of  Spain,"  vol.  i.  chaps,  i.  and 
ix.;  Ulloa,  "  Vita  di  Carolo  V.,"  1559 :  G.  Leti,  "  Vita  del  Imperatore 
Carolo  v.,"  4  vols.,  1700;  LuiGi  Dolce,  "Vitadi  Carolo  V.,"  1561  ; 
Sandov.al,  "  Historia  de  la  Vida  de  Carlos  V.,"  1606;  Masenius, 
"Historia  Caroli  V.,"  1672;  A.  Pichot,  "Charles  Quint,"  1854; 
Stirling,  "The  Cloister  Life  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,"  1852; 
French  version  of  G.  Leti's  work,  above  noticed,  1704;  Johann 
GusTAV  Dkoysen,  "Zwei  Verzeichnisse,  Kaiser  Karls  V.,  seiner 
Lande  und  seiner  grossen  Einkiinfte,"  etc.,  1854;  F.  A.  A.  Mignet, 
"Charles  V;  sou  Abdication,  son  Sejour  et  sa  Mort  an  Monastere 
de  Yiiste,"  1854;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1853: 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1855;  "Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  July,  1857. 

Charles  VI.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  born  in  1685, 
was  the  second  son  of  the  emperor  Leopold  I.  Leo- 
pold claimed  a  right  to  succeed  Charles  II.  of  Spain, 
who  was  his  first-cousin,  and  who  had  no  issue  ;  but  he 
waived  his  pretensions  in  favour  of  the  subject  of  this 
article.  By  the  will  of  the  Spanish  king,  who  died  in 
1700,  the  French  Duke  of  Anjou  was  appointed  his  heir. 
In  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession  which  followed,  the 
claim  of  Charles  was  enforced  by  Austria,  England,  Por- 
tugal, etc.,  while  the  French  and  a  majority  of  the  Span- 
iards fought  for  his  rival,  Philip  V.  Charles  entered 
Madrid  with  an  army  in  1706,  but  was  soon  driven  out  of 
that  city.  The  French  gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Al- 
manza  in  1707,  and  Philip  remained  master  of  Spain.  In 
171 1  he  succeeded  his  brother,  Joseph  I.,  as  Emperor  of 
Germany  and  King  of  Hungary.  He  renounced  his  claim 
to  Spain,  by  the  treaty  of  Rastadt,  in  1 7 14.  He  was  the 
last  descendant  in  the  male  line  of  the  house  of  Austria, 
(Hapsburg,)  and  had  no  issue  except  a  daughter,  Maria 
Theresa,  for  whom  and  her  heirs  he  wished  to  secure  his 
crowns.  With  this  view,  he  promulgated  in  1724  a  new 
law  of  succession,  the  famous  "  Pragmatic  Sanction." 
In  the  ensuing  years  of  his  reign,  all  the  plans  of  his 
cabinet  were  directed  to  the  settlement  of  the  succession 
according  to  the  Pragmatic  Sanction.  A  war  which  Aus- 
tria waged  against  France  and  Spain  was  terminated  in 
1735  by  a  treaty  in  which  Charles  ceded  Naples  to  Don 
Carlos  of  Spain.  He  died  in  October,  1740,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Maria  Theresa. 

See  ScHiRACH,  "Biographic  Kaiser  Karls  VL,"  1778;  Zschack- 
wiTZ,  "Leben  und  Thaten  Kaiser  Caroli  VL,"  1723;  Pierre  Mas- 
suet,  "  Histoire  de  I'Empereur  Charles  VL"  1742. 

Charles  VII.,  (Charles  Albert,)  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, born  at  Brussels  in  1697,  was  a  son  of  Maximilian 
Emanuel,  Elector  of  Bavaria.  He  married  a  daughter 
of  the  emperor  Joseph  I.  in  1722,  and  succeeded  his 


father  as  Elector  of  Bavaria  in  1726.  In  1740  he  became 
a  competitor  of  Maria  Theresa  for  the  throne  of  Austria, 
(or  part  of  the  dominions  attached  to  it,)  and  was  sup- 
ported by  France,  Prussia,  and  other  powers  in  the  war 
of  the  Austrian  succession.  He  was  elected  emperor 
in  1742.  His  armies  were  defeated  by  the  Austrians, 
and  he  was  driven  from  Bavaria  for  a  time.  He  died  in 
1745,  leaving  a  son,  Maximilian  Joseph,  who  succeeded 
him  as  Elector. 

See  J.  J.  Moser,  *' Staatshistorie  Deutschlands  unter  der  Regie- 
rung  Karls  VIL,"  2  vols.,  1743. 

Charles  I.,  (Charles  Stuart,)  King  of  England,  the 
third  son  of  James  I.  and  Anne  of  Denmark,  was  born 
at  Dunfermline,  Scotland,  on  the  19th  of  November, 
1600.  At  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  Henry  in  1612, 
he  became  heir-apparent  to  the  crown,  having  previously 
been  styled  Duke  of  York  and  Cornwall.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  March  27,  1625,  and  in  the  same  year 
married  Henrietta  Maria,  daughter  of  Henry  IV.  of 
France.  His  father's  favourite,  the  unpopular  and  in- 
competent Buckingham,  was  retained  as  chief  minister, 
and  acquired  an  ascendency  over  Charles  which  involved 
him  in  a  long  series  of  errors  and  disasters.  The 
growing  spirit  of  liberty  rendered  it  difficult  to  govern 
by  the  former  arbitrary  methods,  to  which  the  king  ad- 
hered with  fatal  obstinacy.  In  the  first  year  of  his  reign 
he  was  involved  in  a  contest  with  Parliament,  which  re- 
solved not  to  grant  supplies  without  obtaining  a  redress 
of  grievances,  or  concessions  in  favour  of  liberty.  Be- 
tween June,  1625,  and  March,  1629,  three  Parliaments 
were  successively  assembled  and  dissolved.  He  then 
resolved  to  govern  without  Parliaments,  and  resorted  to 
new  and  tyrannical  measures  for  raising  money.  Patents 
of  monopoly  were  granted.  The  Petition  of  Rights,  to 
which  he  had  given  his  assent,  was  violated.  The  Puri- 
tans were  imprisoned,  whipped,  and  mutilated  for  their 
opinions.  Buckingham  having  been  assassinated  in  1628, 
Laud  and  the  Earl  of  Strafford  became  his  chief  advisers. 
A  war  with  Spain,  which  had  added  nothing  to  British 
glory,  wasended  by  peace  in  1630.  In  1637  John  Hamp- 
den gained  celebrity  by  his  resistance  to  the  illegal  levy 
of  ship-money.  By  his  attempt  to  impose  the  Episcopal 
liturgy,  etc.  on  the  Scottish  people,  Charles  provoked  a 
rebellion  and  civil  war  in  Scotland  in  1638.  A  new  Par- 
liament was  assembled  in  April,  1640,  and  was  violently 
dissolved  in  the  following  May.  In  August,  England  was 
invaded  by  a  victorious  Scottish  army.  Defeat,  financial 
distress,  and  general  disorganization  compelled  the  king 
to  call  another  Parliament,  which  met  in  November,  1640, 
and  became  the  famous  Long  Parliament  In  1641  Charles 
reluctantly  consented  to  the  execution  of  the  Earl  of 
Strafford,  by  which  he  made  himself  liable  to  the  charge 
of  ingratitude.  In  January,  1642,  he  failed  in  a  rash  at- 
tempt to  seize  five  members  of  the  Commons,  which 
attempt  was  the  proximate  cause  of  the  civil  war.  (See 
CROMWKLLand  Hampden.)  "  From  that  moment,"  says 
Macaulay,  "it  must  have  been  evident  to  every  impartial 
observer,  that,  in  the  midst  of  professions,  oaths,  and 
smiles,  the  tyrant  was  constantly  looking  forward  to  an 
absolute  sway  and  a  bloody  revenge."  In  the  first  and 
second  years  of  the  war  the  royalists  gained  numerous 
victories  ;  but  the  tide  was  turned  at  Marston  Moor  in 
1644,  and  the  royal  army  was  again  defeated  in  1645,  at 
the  decisive  battle  of  Naseby,  where  Charles  commanded 
in  person.  In  1646  he  gave  himself  up  to  the  Scottish 
army,  which  delivered  him  to  the  English  Parliament 
in  1647.  Having  been  subjected  to  a  form  of  legal  pro- 
cess by  the  Parliament,  he  was  condemned,  and  beheaded 
on  January  30,  1649.  "It  would  be  absurd  to  deny," 
says  Macaulay,  "  that  he  was  a  scholar  and  a  gentleman, 
a  man  of  exquisite  taste  in  the  fine  arts,  a  man  of  strict 
morals  in  private  life.  He  was  as  good  a  writer  and 
speaker  as  any  modern  sovereign  has  been." 

See  Macaulay,  Review  of  Hallam's  "Constitutional  History;" 
Hume,  "History  of  England,"  chaps.  I.  to  lix.:  Macaulay,  "  His- 
tory of  En,c;!ai>d,"  vol.  i.  chap.  i.  ;  Pkter  Heylin,  "  Life  of  Charles 
L,"  165S;  William  Harris,  "  Life  of  Charles  L,"i758;  Disraeli, 
"Life  and  Character  of  Charles  L,"  1828;  Sir  Philip  Warwick, 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of  Charles  L;"  Lucy  Aikin,  "  Memoirs 
of  the  Court  of  King  Charles  L" 

Charles  II.,  King  of  England,  the  eldest  surviving 
son  of  Charles  I.,  was  born  on  the  29th  of  May,  1630. 


a*  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  lai,    j,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  f^ll,  fit;  mlX;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CHARLES 


CHARLES 


After  the  decisive  triumph  of  the  Parliament  at  Naseby, 
in  June,  1645,  he  retired  to  Jersey,  and  the  next  year  he 
joined  his  mother  in  Paris.  In  1649  he  was  proclaimed 
king  by  the  Scottish  Parliament,  "on  condition  of  his 
good  behaviour."  Having  received  an  invitation  from  the 
Covenanters  and  signed  the  Covenant,  he  landed  in  Scot- 
land in  June,  1650,  and  was  crowned  at  Scone  about  the 
first  of  the  next  year.  The  austere  religionists  of  Scot- 
land required  him  to  sign  "articles  of  repentance,"  and 
treated  him  as  a  captive  rather  than  a  king,  Cromwell 
having  defeated  the  royalist  army  at  Dunbar  and  re- 
duced a  great  part  of  Scotland,  Charles  marched  with 
his  Scottish  army  into  England,  closely  pursued  by  the 
enemy.  His  hopes  that  the  English  would  rally  to  his 
standard  were  disappointed,  and  the  enterprise  termi- 
nated in  his  signal  defeat  at  Worcester,  September  3, 
165 1.  Charles  escaped  by  flight,  and,  after  many  ad- 
ventures in  various  disguises,  he  embarked  in  October 
and  found  safety  in  France. 

The  restoration  of  Charles  to  the  throne  is  ascribed  to 
the  loyalty  and  prudence  of  General  Monk,  seconded  by 
the  favour  of  the  people  and  the  law  of  reaction.  Charles 
entered  London  in  May,  1660,  with  ample  demonstrations 
of  popular  joy.  He  appointed  Hyde,  Earl  of  Clarendon, 
prime  minister.  In  1662  he  married  Catherine  of  Bra- 
ganza,  daughter  of  the  King  of  Portugal.  Episcopacy 
was  restored,  and  the  Presbyterian  clergy  were  ejected. 
In  1665  Charles  declared  war  against  the  Dutch,  who, 
after  losing  several  naval  battles,  entered  the  Thames 
and  burned  some  ships  of  war  at  Chatham.  Peace  was 
restored  by  the  treaty  of  Breda  in  1667.  The  next  year, 
England,  Holland,  and  Sweden  formed  against  Louis 
XIV.  of  P'rance  a  coalition,  called  the  Triple  Alliance, 
which  was  very  popular  with  the  English.  The  counsels 
of  the  ministry  called  the  Cabal  (a  word  which  the  initial 
letters  of  their  names  happened  to  compose)  soon  effected 
a  change  of  policy  and  a  secret  treaty  with  Louis  XIV., 
who  supplied  Charles  with  revenues,  so  that  he  might 
reign  more  absolutely  and  be  independent  of  Parliaments. 
War  was  again  declared  against  the  Dutch  in  1672,  and 
several  doubtful  battles  were  fought  at  sca.  Public  opin- 
ion in  England  compelled  the  court  to  make  peace  in 
February,  1674. 

The  popularity  with  which  Charles  had  begun  his  reign 
had  long  been  expended.  He  was  suspected  of  leaning 
towards  popery,  and  he  had  actually  in  secret  entered 
the  Catholic  communion,  which  he  avowed  at  the  hour 
of  death.  A  rumoured  popish  plot  in  1678  convulsed  the 
nation  with  fear  and  furious  excitement.  The  Parliament, 
which  had  existed  since  1661,  became  so  insubordinate 
that  the  king  dissolved  it  in  1678.  In  1679  the  habeas- 
corpus  act  was  passed.  About  this  time  the  words  whig 
and  tory  originated,  and  were  applied  respectively  to  the 
opponents  and  the  partisans  of  the  court.  Charles  died  in 
February,  1685,  without  lawful  issue,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother,  James  II.  His  reign  was  remarkable  as 
an  era  of  libertinism  in  morals  and  of  servility  in  politics. 
He  was  sensual,  indolent,  unambitious,  and  good-tem- 
pered. "Honour  and  shame,  to  him,"  says  Macaulay, 
"were  scarcely  more  than  light  and  daikness  to  the 
blind." 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England,"  chaps.  Ixiii.  to  Ixix.;  Mac- 
aulay, "History  of  England,"  vol.  i.;  William  Harris,  "Life 
01  Charles  II.,"  1765:  Morlrv,  "Character  of  King  Charles  II.," 
1660;  McCoRMicK,  "History  of  King  Charles  II.,"  1740:  Lord 
Halifax,  "Character  of  Charles  II.,"  1750;  Count  Grammont, 
'Memoirsof  the  Court  of  Charles  II.;"  Armand  Carrel,  "His 
toire  de  la  Contre  revolution  en  Angleterre  sous  Charles  II  et 
James  II,"  1827  ;  George  Brodie,  "History  of  the  British  Empire 
from  the  Accession  of  Charles  I.  to  the  Restoration  of  Charles  II.," 
1822. 

Charles  the  Bat.d,  [Fr.  le  Chauve,  leh  shov,]  or 
Charles  L,  King  of  France,  the  fourth  son  of  Louis  le 
Debonnaire,  was  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  823 
A.D.  His  father  died  in  840,  after  dividing  his  empire 
among  his  sons,  Lothaire,  Louis,  and  Charles,  the  last 
of  whom  had  all  of  France  lying  west  of  the  Khone. 
Lothaire  having  claimed  the  pre-eminence,  the  other  two 
united  against  him,  and  defeated  him  at  the  great  battle 
of  Fontenai,  in  842.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Bald, 
France  was  ravaged  by  the  Normans,  who  took  Paris, 
Rouen,  and  other  cities.  Charles,  being  unable  to  expel 
them  by  arms,  was  twice  reduced  to  purchase  peace  from 


them,  in  845  and  861.  On  the  death  of  Louis  II.  of  Italy 
without  issue,  Charles  invaded  Italy  in  875,  and  was 
crowned  emperor  by  Pope  John  VIII.,  after  defeating 
the  army  of  his  brother,  Louis  le  Germanique.  He  was 
continually  at  war  with  his  neighbours  or  subjects.  His 
empire  comprised  Italy  and  all  France  except  Lorraine, 
Alsace,  and  part  of  Burgundy.  He  died  in  877,  leaving 
the  throne  to  his  son,  Louis  le  Begue.  As  emperor,  he 
is  reckoned  Charles  II. ;  as  King  of  France,  Charles  I. 

See  Michelet,  "Histoire  de  France;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des 
Fran^ais." 

Charles  III.  of  France,  called  the  Simple,  [Fr.  ll 
Simple,  leh  sdMpl,]  born  in  879  a.d.,  was  a  younger  soti 
of  Louis  le  Begue,  who  died  in  that  year.  Two  elder 
brothers  having  died  before  he  had  attained  his  majority, 
Eudes,  Count  of  Paris,  was  chosen  king  by  the  nobles  in 
888.  Charles  was  crowned  by  his  partisans  in  893,  and 
at  the  death  of  Eudes,  in  898,  he  became  nominally  sok 
king ;  but  his  power  was  greatly  restricted  by  the  growing 
spirit  of  feudality.  The  remarkable  event  of  his  reign 
was  the  treaty  by  which  Rollo,  a  Norman  chief,  acquired 
the  sovereignty  of  Neustria,  (Normandy.)  About  920, 
Robert,  Duke  of  France,  aspired  to  the  crown,  and  a 
civil  war  ensued,  in  which  Robert  was  killed  ;  but  his 
party  gained  the  victory,  and  elected  Raoul  or  Rodolph 
of  Burgundy  king  in  923.  Charles  was  treated  as  a 
captive  until  his  death  in  929.  He  left  a  son,  Louis 
Outremer. 

See  Sis.MONDi,  "Histoire  des  Fran9ais;"  A.  Borgnet,  "  Sur  le 
R^gne  de  Charles  le  Simple,"  1843. 

Charles  IV.  of  France,  surnamed  le  Bel,  (leh  b§l,) 
"the  Handsome,"  was  the  third  son  of  Philippe  le  Bel, 
and  was  Count  de  la  Marche  when,  on  the  death  of  his 
brother,  Philippe  le  Long,  in  1322,  he  became  king.  He 
married  Marie,  daughter  of  the  emperor  Henry  VII. 
He  was  involved  in  war  with  Edward  II.  of  England, 
from  whom  he  claimed  homage  for  the  duchy  oi  Gui- 
enne.  Edward's  queen  Isabella,  who  was  the  sister  of 
Charles,  went  to  France  to  negotiate  the  question,  and 
there  obtained  the  means  by  which  her  husband  was 
deposed.  The  efforts  of  Charles  to  procure  his  election 
as  Emperor  of  Germany  were  not  successful.  He  died, 
without  male  issue,  in  1328,  and  Philippe  of  Valois  be- 
came king. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Franfais;"  Michelet,  "Histoire 
de  France." 

Charles  V.,  called  the  Wise,  [Fr.  le  Sage,  leh  sSzh,] 
King  of  France,  born  at  Vincennes  in  1337,  was  the  son 
of  John  II.,  who  was  made  prisoner  by  the  Black  Prince 
at  Poitiers.  He  acted  as  regent  while  his  father  was  a 
captive  from  1356  to  1360,  and  at  the  death  of  his  father, 
in  1364,  became  king.  He  frequently  summoned  the 
States-General  to  obtain  subsidies  for  the  war  which  he 
waged  against  the  English  invaders.  This  war,  after  a 
truce  of  several  years,  was  renewed  in  1370,  Charles 
resolved  not  to  lead  his  armies  in  person,  and  ordered 
his  generals  to  avoid  a  general  action.  This  policy  was 
very  successful.  The  French  general  Du  Guesclin  gained 
frequent  advantages,  and  expelled  the  English  from  Poi- 
tou,  Saintonge,  and  other  provinces.  Before  his  death, 
Charles  had  recovered  nearly  all  the  territory  which  had 
been  conquered  by  Edward  III.,  except  Calais  and  Bor- 
deaux. He  had  married  Jeanne  de  Bourgogne,  and  had 
several  sons,  one  of  whom  succeeded  him  as  Charles  VI. 
He  patronized  learning,  and  founded  the  Royal  Library 
of  Paris.    Died  in  1380. 

See  E.  Roy,  "Histoire  de  Charles  V,"  1849 ;  Michelet,  "His- 
toire de  France;"  La  Harpe,  "  £  loge  de  Charles  V,"  1767 ;  Jean 
Sylvain  Bailly,  "£loge  de  Charles  V,"  1770. 

Charles  VI.,  called  the  V^^ell-Beloved,  [Fr.  le 
Bien-aime,  leh  be'iN'  i'mi',]  King  of  France,  born  at 
Paris  in  1368,  was  the  son  of  Charles  V.  He  was  the  first 
French  prince  that  bore  the  title  of  Dauphin,  which  he 
derived  from  the  province  of  Dauphine,  given  to  him  as 
an  apanage.  His  reign  nominally  began  in  1380,  when  his 
uncles,  the  Dukes  of  Anjou,  Burgundy,  and  Berry,  dis- 
puted with  each  other  for  the  power  of  regent.  Charles 
married  Isabelle,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  in 
1385,  and  in  the  next  year  he  fitted  out  a  great  arma- 
ment against  the  English.  The  number  of  vessels  of  his 
fleet  is  stated  at  1287.   The  designed  invasion,  however, 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  K,^ttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CHARLES 


574 


CHARLES 


was  quickly  abandoned.  In  1388  he  assumed  the  func- 
tions of  royalty,  which  had  before  been  shared  by  his 
uncles.  Charles  became  deranged  in  1392,  and  the 
prosperity  of  the  kingdom  was  sacrificed  to  the  rivalry 
of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  the 
king's  brother.  The  former  had  the  ascendency  for 
several  years  preceding  his  death,  in  1404.  His  son  Jean, 
inheriting  his  title  and  ambition,  caused  Orleans  to  be 
assassinated  in  1407,  and  jjrovoked  a  civil  war  which 
raged  between  the  Burgundians  and  the  Armagnacs.  In 
1413  the  dauphin  Louis  seized,  or  attempted  to  seize, 
the  throne.  Henry  V.  of  England,  taking  advantage  of 
these  intestine  troubles,  invaded  France,  and  in  October, 
141 5,  won  the  great  battle  of  Agincourt.  The  dauphin 
having  died  in  141 5,  his  brother  Charles,  who  favoured 
the  Armagnac  faction,  became  dauphin.  The  civil  war 
still  continued.  The  Burgundians,  supported  by  Queen 
Isabelle,  with  a  shameful  disregard  of  the  claims  of  their 
country,  made,  in  1420,  a  treaty  with  Henry  V.,  which 
stipulated  that  he  should  be  King  of  France  on  the  death 
of  Charles  VI.    The  latter  died  in  1422. 

See  DovAL-PiNEU,  "  Histoire  de  France  sous  le  R^gne  de  Charles 
VI,"  2  vols.,  1842;  Juvenal  des  Uksins,  "Histoire  de  Charles 
VI,"  1614;  Le  Laboureur,  "Histoire  de  Charles  VI,"  1663;  De 
LussAN,  (Baudot  de  Juilly,)  "Histoire  de  Charles  VI ;"  Saint- 
Remv,  "Histoire  de  Charles  VI,"  1663. 

Charles  VII.,  the  Victorious,  [Fr.  le  Victo- 
RIEUX,  leh  v^k^to're'uh',]  born  in  1403,  was  the  son 
of  Charles  VI.  He  became  dauphin  in  1416,  and  king 
in  October,  1422,  when  "malice  domestic  and  foreign 
levy"  grievously  afflicted  France,  (^ee  Charles  VI.) 
Death  had  just  removed  his  most  formidable  rival,  Henry 
V.  of  England  ;  but  the  son  of  the  latter  was  recognized 
by  a  ])owerful  French  faction,  who  were  masters  of  the 
capital.  In  1428  the  English  besieged  Orleans,  which 
was  bravely  defended  by  the  citizens,  who  were  loyal 
Armagnacs,  and,  after  a  long  siege,  was  delivered  in  1429 
by  the  heroism  of  Joan  of  Arc,  the  "  Maid  of  Orleans." 
The  enthusiasm  which  she  inspired  into  the  French 
armies  rendered  them  victorious  in  many  succeeding 
encounters.  Charles  was  crowned  again  at  Rheims  in 
1429,  made  peace  with  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  in  1435, 
and  entered  Paris  without  opposition  in  1436.  Nor- 
mandy was  reconquered  in  1450,  and  Guienne  in  145 1, 
and  a  few  years  later  Calais  was  the  only  place  in  France 
which  the  English  retained.  In  the  early  part  of  his 
reign  he  had  married  Marie  of  Anjou.  He  displayed 
much  political  ability  in  the  various  difficulties  which 
beset  his  reign,  and  is  reckoned  among  the  kings  to 
whom  France  owes  great  obligations.  By  the  "  Prag- 
matic Sanction"  (1438)  he  protected  the  liberties  of  the 
Gallican  Church  against  papal  usurpation.  He  also 
made  an^important  reform  in  the  army,  which  before 
his  time  was  a  scourge  to  the  citizens  and  peasants  of 
France.  He  died  in  146 1,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Louis  XI. 

See  Baudot  de  Juilly,  "  Histoire  de  Charles  VII,"  1697  and 
T754  ;  P.  Clement,  "Jacques  Coeur  et  Charles  VII ;  ou  la  France  au 
XVe  Si^cle,"  1853. 

Charles  VIII.,  King  of  France,  surnamed  the 
Affahle,  was  the  son  of  Louis  XI.  and  Charlotte  of 
Savoy,  and  was  born  at  Amboise  in  June,  1470.  He 
ascended  the  throne  in  1483.  During  his  minority  his 
sister  Anne  of  France  was  invested  with  the  chief  power. 
In  1491  he  married  Anne,  Duchess  of  Brittany,  who  was 
previously  affianced  and  married  by  proxy  to  Maxi- 
milian of  Austria.  The  latter,  resenting  this  affront, 
declared  war,  and  formed  a  coalition  with  Henry  VII. 
of  England.  Charles  hastened  to  settle  this  difficulty 
by  negotiation,  in  order  that  he  might  be  at  liberty  to 
pursue  his  favourite  design  of  the  conquest  of  Naples, 
which  was  ruled  by  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Aragon. 
In  1494,  with  an  army  of  30,000  men,  he  marched  into 
Italy,  found  an  ally  in  Ludovico  Sforza,  and  in  February, 
1495,  took  Naples  without  serious  resistance.  Ferdinand 
of  Spain,  the  emperor,  and  several  Italian  powers,  com- 
bined against  Charles,  who,  after  staying  a  few  months 
in  Naples,  marched  homeward  with  8000  men,  and 
defeated  a  much  larger  army  of  the  allies  at  Fornovo. 
The  small  army  which  he  had  left  in  Naples  was  soon 
expelled  by  the  Spaniards.  Charles  is  represented  as 
having  been  amiable  and  gracious  in  the  highest  degree. 


He  died  in  1498;  and,  as  he  left  no  children,  the  crown 
passed  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  Louis  XII. 

See  T.  GoDEFROv,  "Histoire  de  Charles  VIII;"  Philippe  de 
Segur,  "Histoire  de  Charles  VIII,"  1835:  Antoine  Varillas, 
"Histoire  de  Charles  VIII,"  1691 ;  Philippe  d&  Comines,  "M^- 
moires." 

Charles  IX.,  King  of  France,  the  second  son  of 
Henry  II.  and  Catherine  de  Medicis,  was  born  at  Saint- 
Germain-en-Laye  in  1550.  Succeeding  his  brother, 
Francis  II.,  he  ascended  the  throne  in  December,  1560. 
During  his  minority  his  mother  was  the  master-spirit 
of  the  government,  and  Antoine  de  Bourbon,  King  of 
Navarre,  was  lieutenant-general.  Before  his  accession 
the  question  of  religious  reform  had  arrayed  against 
each  other  two  powerful  parties,  the  Catholics  and  the 
Huguenots,  the  latter  of  whom  had  been  persecuted  in 
the  preceding  reign  and  were  determined  to  assert  by 
force  their  religious  liberty.  The  Duke  of  Guise  was 
the  leader  of  the  Catholic  party,  which  was  supported 
by  the  court  and  the  people  of  Paris.  The  Protestants, 
led  by  the  Prince  of  Conde,  by  Coligni,  etc.,  formed  the 
majority  in  the  south  and  west  of  France. 

Catherine,  who  was  jealous  of  the  influence  of  the 
Guise  family,  adopted  the  subtle  policy  of  holding  the 
balance  of  power ;  and  her  intrigues  tended  rather  to 
foment  the  civil  war,  which  began  in  1562.  The  King 
of  Navarre,  who  commanded  the  Catholic  army,  was 
killed  at  the  siege  of  Rouen,  in  the  same  year.  In  Feb- 
ruary of  the  next  year  the  Duke  of  Guise  was  assas- 
sinated while  pressing  the  siege  of  Orleans ;  and  a  few 
weeks  later  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  between  the 
two  factions.  Charles  was  declared  of  age  in  1563  ;  but 
he  remained  under  the  control  of  his  mother,  who  had 
infused  into  him  her  perfidious  principles.  The  war  was 
several  times  renewed,  and  suspended  by  treaties  in 
which  neither  party  had  confidence.  The  Protestants 
were  defeated  at  Saint-Denis,  (1567,)  and  Jarnac,  (1569,) 
where  the  Prince  of  Conde  was  killed. 

In  1570  Charles  married  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of 
the  emperor  Maximilian  II.,  and  made  overtures  which 
resulted  in  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  Huguenots.  The 
terms  were  favourable  to  the  latter ;  but  it  is  generally 
believed  that  the  treaty  was  part  of  a  scheme  of  deeply- 
meditated  treachery,  on  the  part  of  Catherine  at  least. 
If  Charles  was  accessary  to  the  plot,  he  must  have  acted 
the  part  of  a  consummate  dissembler.  He  invited  Co- 
ligni and  the  other  chiefs  of  that  party  to  court,  treated 
them  with  favour  and  apparent  cordiality,  and  succeeded 
in  allaying  their  suspicions,  especially  after  he  had  con- 
tracted a  marriage  between  his  sister  Margaret  and 
Henry  of  Navarre,  which  was  celebrated  in  August,  1572. 
While  the  Protestant  chiefs  were  sharing  the  nuptial 
festivities  in  Paris,  on  the  night  of  August  24,  ("  Saint 
Bartholomew's  Day,")  the  signal  for  the  massacre  was 
given.  The  fanatical  populace  of  Paris,  instigated  by 
princes,  nobles,  and  the  high  officers  of  the  court,  be- 
came willing  agents  in  the  murderous  work.  The  mas- 
sacre continued  several  days  in  Paris,  where  the  number 
of  victims  was  computed  at  about  ten  thousand ;  and 
similar  scenes  were  enacted  in  the  provinces.  Charles 
admitted  that  he  had  consented  to  this  enormous  crime, 
but  sought  to  palliate  it  by  affirming  that  a  conspiracy 
against  his  life  had  been  detected.  His  brother,  the 
Duke  of  Anjou,  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  prime 
managers  of  the  plot.  After  suffering  the  agonies  of 
remorse,  Charles  died,  without  issue,  in  1574,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  Duke  of  Anjou  as  Henry  III. 

See  Varillas,  "  Histoire  de  Charles  IX,"  1683:  Sismondi  and 
H.  Martin,  "  Histoire  de  France  ;"  Walter  Anderson,  "  History 
of  France  during  the  Reigns  of  Francis  II.  and  Charles  IX.,"  5 
vols.,  1769-82. 

Charles  X.,  King  of  France,  born  at  Versailles  in 
October,  1757,  was  the  son  of  the  dauphin,  (who  was 
eldest  son  of  Louis  XV.,)  and  was  the  youngest  brother 
of  Louis  XVI.  He  received  at  birth  the  name  of  Charles 
Philippe  and  the  title  of  Comte  d'Artois.  In  1773  he 
married  Maria  Theresa  of  Savoy,  daughter  of  the  King 
of  Sardinia,  by  whom  he  had  two  sons,  the  Due  d'An- 
gouleme  and  the  Due  de  Berry.  He  constantly  opposed 
all  concessions  to  the  Revolution  from  the  first,  and  was 
one  of  the  foremost  to  join  in  the  royalist  emigration  of 
1789.    In  the  ensuing  years  he  visited  several  courts  of 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    ky  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  (1.11,  ftt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


CHJRLES 


575 


CHARLES 


Europe,  soliciting  aid  and  levying  war  against  the  French 
republic.  After  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  he  received 
the  title  of  Monsieur.  Having  persuaded  Charette,  the 
Vendean  chief,  to  renew  the  civil  war,  and  having  ob- 
tained an  army  in  England,  he  commanded  the  expedition 
of  Quiberon  in  1795,  which  was  a  disastrous  failure. 
Without  landing  on  the  soil  of  France,  he  returned  to 
England;  and  Charette  wrote  to  Louis  XVIIL,  "The 
cowardice  of  your  brother  has  ruined  all." 

Bonaparte  having  ceased  to  reign,  the  Count  d'Artois 
entered  Paris  with  the  allied  army  in  April,  1814,  and 
exclaimed,  "  There  is  nothing  changed  in  France  :  there  is 
only  one  Frenchman  the  more!"*  He  ascended  the  throne, 
September  16,  1824,  under  favourable  circumstances,  and 
his  accession  was  attended  with  general  rejoicing.  Vil- 
lele  and  other  ministers  of  the  late  king  were  retained  ; 
but  a  conclave  of  ecclesiastics  obtained  an  ascendency  in 
the  royal  council,  to  which  the  misfortunes  of  his  reign 
are  ascribed.  In  1825  the  sacerdotal  party  procured  the 
passage  of  a  law  against  sacrilege,  punishing  with  death 
the  profanation  of  "sacred  vases"  and  "holy  wafers." 
This  excited  much  indignation.  In  1827  Charles  dis- 
banded the  national  guard,  which  had  shown  symptoms 
of  disaffection.  In  January,  1828,  the  ministry  of  Villele 
was  superseded  by  that  of  M.  de  Martignac,  which  was 
formed  by  a  compromise  between  the  extreme  royalists 
and  the  liberals,  and  did  not  enjoy  the  confidence  of  the 
king,  w  ho  said  to  them,  "  Villele's  system  was  mine  ;  and 
I  hope  you  will  conform  yourselves  to  it."  The  ministers 
having  been  defeated  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  Charles 
dismissed  them  in  August,  1829,  and  formed  an  extreme 
royalist  ministry,  at  the  head  of  which  was  the  Prince 
de  Polignac,  who  was  also  the  confidant  of  the  king. 
The  Chamber,  which  met  in  March,  1830,  voted  an  ad- 
dress hostile  to  the  ministers,  who,  having  appealed  to 
the  country  by  a  new  election,  were  defeated  by  a  large 
majority.  The  king  and  cabinet  then  resolved  on  a  coup 
d'elnt.  On  the  25th  of  July,  1830,  they  issued  the  ordi- 
nances which  infringed  the  charter  and  caused  an  ex- 
plosion of  the  monarchy.  After  a  bloody  contest  of  three 
days'  duration  m  the  streets  of  Paris,  between  the  people 
and  the  army  inider  Marmont,  the  revolution  was  com- 
pleted, on  the  30th  of  July,  and  the  Bourbon  dynasty 
ceased  to  reign.  Charles  abdicated  in  favour  of  his 
grandson,  the  Due  de  Bordeaux,  retired  to  England, 
and  died  at  Goritz  in  October,  1836.  The  qualities  of 
his  heart  are  eulogized  by  Lamartine  and  others  ;  but 
his  intellectual  capacity  was  small.  Lord  Brougham 
represents  him  as  a  furious  bigot  and  a  declared  enemy 
of  liberty. 

See  Vaui.abei.le,  "Histoire  des  deux  Restaurations  Mont- 
BRi.,  "Derniere  fipoque  de  I'Histoire  de  Charles  X  ;"  Lamaktine, 
"  History  of  the  Restoration  ;"  Baili.eul,  "La  France  sous  le  R^gne 
de  Charles  X,"  1824;  Lorieux,  "Histoire  du  Regne  de  Charles 
X"z834. 

Charles  I.  of  Anjou,  King  of  Naples,  Count  of  An- 
jou  and  Provence,  born  about  1220,  was  the  youngest 
son  of  Louis  VIII.  of  France.  He  married  Beatrice, 
daughter  of  Raimond  Berenger,  Count  of  Provence,  -who 
appointed  him  the  heir  of  his  dominions.  He  joined 
his  brother.  Saint  Louis  of  France,  in  a  crusade  against 
the  Saracens  of  Egypt,  about  1250.  Instigated  by  Pope 
Urban  IV.  and  his  successor,  Clement  IV.,  he  attacked 
Manfred,  King  of  Naples,  defeated  him  in  1266,  and  ob- 
tained his  throne.  (See  Manfred.)  He  was  an  able  but 
tyrannical  ruler,  and  was  the  head  of  the  Guelph  party. 
His  cruelties  or  extortions  provoked  the  people  of  Sicily, 
who  revolted,  and  massacred  several  thousand  French- 
men at  Palermo,  on  the  30th  of  March,  1282.  This  event 
is  called  "the  Sicilian  Vespers."  He  died  in  1285,  after 
he  had  failed  to  repress  the  rebellion  in  Sicily. 

See  Saint-Priest,  "Histoire  de  la  Conquete  de  Naples  par 
Charles  d' Anjou." 

Charles  II.,  King  of  Naples,  the  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1248.  He  was  more  humane  and  just  than 
his  father.  He  married  Mary,  daughter  of  the  King  of 
Hungary;  and  their  eldest  son,  Charles  Martel, obtained 
the  crown  of  Hungary  in  1290.  Charles  II.  died  in  1309, 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  son  Robert. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Fran^ais." 

*  This  famous  saying  was  the  suggestion  of  Talleyrand. 


Charles  III.,  sometimes  called  Durazzo,  (doo-rSt'so,) 
King  of  Naples,  was  a  descendant  of  Charles  II.  In 
1378  he  commanded  the  army  which  Louis  of  Hungary 
sent  against  the  Venetians.  The  pope.  Urban,  invited 
him  to  conquer  Naples,  which  was  then  ruled  by  Joanna 
(or  Joan)  I.  He  entered  Naples  with  an  army  in  1381, 
and,  having  put  Joanna  to  death,  made  himself  master 
of  the  kingdom.  About  1385  a  party  in  Hungary  offered 
him  the  crown  of  that  country,  which  he  accepted.  Soon 
after  he  had  taken  possession  of  his  new  kingdom,  he 
was  assassinated,  in  1386. 

Charles  II.,  surnamed  the  Bad,  [Fr.  le  Mauvais, 
leh  mo'vy,]  King  of  Navarre,  born  in  1332,  was  the  son 
of  Philip,  third  King  of  Navarre,  and  Jeanne  of  France, 
who  was  a  daughter  of  Louis  X.  He  became  king  in 
1350,  and  married  the  daughter  of  King  John.  He  was 
distinguished  for  talents,  courage,  and  address.  Having 
allied  himself  with  the  King  of  England,  he  waged  war 
against  Charles  V.  of  France.  His  life  was  nearly  all 
passed  in  wars  and  plots,  which,  though  not  successful, 
inflicted  great  calamities  on  France.    Died  in  1387. 

See  Secousse,  "  Histoire  de  Charles  le  Mauvais." 

Charles  III.,  King  of  Navarre,  surnamed  the  Noble, 
born  about  1360,  was  the  son  of  Charles  the  Bad,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1387.  In  1404  he  signed  a  treaty  with 
the  French  court,  by  which  he  renounced  his  claims  to 
Champagne,  Brie,  and  Evreux,  and  obtained  Nemours, 
with  the  title  of  duke.    Died  in  1425. 

Charles  IV.,  King  of  Navarre,  born  in  142 1,  was  a 
son  of  John  II.  His  mother,  Blanche,  was  a  daughter 
of  Charles  III.  He  was  a  good  scholar,  and  translated 
the  "  Ethics"  of  Aristotle  into  Spanish.    Died  in  1461. 

Charles  (Carlos)  I.  of  Spain.    See  Charles  V. 

Charles  (or  Carlos)  II,,  King  of  Spain,  the  son  of 
Philip  IV.,  was  born  in  November,  i66l  He  was  pro- 
claimed king  in  October,  1665,  under  the  regency  of  his 
mother,  Anne  of  Austria.  A  war  between  Spain  and 
France  was  terminated  by  the  treaty  of  Nymwegen  in 
1678,  when  Charles  married  Louise  d'Orleans,  a  niece 
of  Louis  XIV.  He  was  a  feeble  and  indolent  ruler,  and 
left  the  direction  of  affairs  to  his  ministers.  In  1689  he 
joined  a  coalition  of  the  great  powers  against  Louis  XIV., 
his  brother-in-law.  The  peace  of  Ryswick  in  1697  ended 
this  war,  in  which  th^  Spanish  armies  had  been  unfortu- 
nate. As  he  was  childless,  and  as  distempers  of  body  and 
mind  foreboded  his  early  death,  he  became  anxious  about 
the  succession  to  his  crown.  He  made  a  will  in  favour 
of  the  Prince  of  Bavaria  ;  but  the  will  had  scarcely  been 
signed  when  that  prince  died.  The  principal  claimants 
now  were  Philip  of  France,  Duke  of  Anjou,  and  the 
Archduke  Charles  of  Austria.  The  court  of  Madrid 
was  divided,  and  the  dying  king  was  distracted  by  a  long 
contest  between  their  partisans.  At  last  he  signed,  in 
1700,  the  meiTiorable  testament  which  recognized  the 
claim  of  the  Bourbon  prince,  who  became  Philip  V.,  and 
caused  the  long  European  war  of  the  Spanish  succession. 
Died  in  November,  1700. 

See  Macaulay,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.;  John  Dunlop, 
"  Memoirs  of  Spain  during  the  Reigns  of  Philip  IV.  and  Charles  IL," 
2  vols.,  1834;  "Spain  under  Charles  IL :  Extracts  from  the  Corre- 
spondence of  Alexander  Stanhope,"  edited  by  Philip  Henry  Ma- 
HON,  1840;  "  Leben  S.  M.  Caroli  II.  Kbnigsin  Spanien,"  Leipsic,  1708. 

Charles  III.,  King  of  Spain,  the  second  son  of  Philip 
V.  and  Elizabeth  Farnese,  was  born  in  January,  1716. 
His  father  ceded  to  him  the  crown  of  the  Two  Sicilies 
in  1734.  He  married  Amelia,  a  Saxon  princess.  His 
reign  in  Naples  was  rather  prosperous  and  peaceful  until 
he  ascended  the  throne  of  Spain,  left  vacant  by  the  death 
of  his  elder  brother,  Ferdinand  VI.,  in  August,  1759.  He 
became  the  ally  of  France  in  the  war  against  England  in 
1762,  in  accordance  with  the  Family  Compact  which  had 
been  formed  between  the  branches  of  the  house  of  Bour- 
bon. He  directed  his  attention  to  the  improvement  of 
the  condition  of  his  subjects,  by  promoting  industry, 
arts,  and  education,  in  which  he  was  seconded  bv  his 
ministers  Florida,  Blanca,  and  Campomanes.  When 
his  reforms  excited  a  sedition  atnong  the  populace  of 
Madrid,  Charles  said,  "  My  subjects  are  like  infants,  that 
cry  when  one  goes  to  wash  them."  He  restricted  the 
power  of  the  Inquisition,  and  expelled  the  Jesuits  en 
masse  from  Spain  and  all  his  dominions,  in  1767.  In 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CHARLES 


576 


CHARLES 


1779  Charles  declared  war  against  England,  which  was 
then  involved  in  a  contest  with  France.  The  combined 
fleets  and  armies  of  France  and  Spain  failed  to  capture 
Gibraltar,  after  a  long  siege  ;  but  Spain  recovered  Mi- 
norca and  Florida  from  the  English.  He  died  in  1788, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles  IV.  His  reign 
appears  to  have  been  beneficial  to  Spain.  He  possessed 
a  good  disposition  and  sound  judgment. 

See  Beccatini,  "Storia  del  Regno  di  Carlo  III.,"  1796;  Cabar- 
rus, "  Elosio  de  Carlos  III.,"  1789;  Coxe,  "Memoirs  ot  the  Kings 
of  Spain  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,"  1813. 

Charles  IV.,  King  of  Spain,  the  second  son  of  Charles 
in.  and  Maria  Amelia  of  Saxony,  was  born  in  Naples 
in  November,  1748.  He  followed  his  father  to  Spain  in 
1759,  and  then  received  the  title  of  Prince  of  the  Asturias. 
In  1765  he  married  his  cousin,  Maria  Louisa  Theresa 
of  Parma,  a  woman  of  very  vicious  morals.  He  became 
king  in  December,  1788,  and  retained  Florida  Blanca  as 
prime  minister.  In  1792  the  latter  was  disgraced  by  the 
influence  of  the  queen,  and  his  place  was  supplied  by 
her  unworthy  favourite,  the  upstart  Godoy.  In  March, 
1793,  the  French  republic  declared  war  against  Charles, 
who  had  shown  his  hostility  by  expelling  French  resi- 
dents from  Spain.  The  French  defeated  the  Spanish  in 
many  battles,  and  reduced  them  to  sue  for  peace,  which 
was  concluded  in  July,  1795,  when  the  French  conquests 
in  Spain  were  restored.  Charles  testified  his  joy  at  this 
result  by  creating  Godoy  Prince  of  Peace,  generalissimo, 
etc.  Tiirough  the  influence  of  French  diplotnacy,  the 
Spanish  court  declared  war  against  England  in  1796,  and 
Charles  gave  up  the  direction  of  the  government  to  the 
queen  and  her  favourite.  His  son  and  heir,  Ferdinand, 
in  1807,  wrote  to  Bonaparte  complaining  of  Godoy's 
misrule  and  asking  protection.  After  scandalous  dis- 
sensions in  the  royal  family,  Charles  resigned  the  throne 
in  favour  of  his  son  in  March,  1808.  Bonaparte  then 
procured  an  interview  with  Charles  and  his  son  at 
Bayonne,  and  extorted  from  both  a  renunciation  of  the 
Spanish  crown.  Charles  received  a  liberal  pension, 
became  a  resident  of  Rome  in  181 1,  and  died  in  1819. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire;"  Scott, 
"Life  of  Napoleon  Buonaparte." 

Charles  [Sw.  Karl  or  Carl,  kaRl]  VII.,  King  of 
Sweden,  ought  perhaps  to  have  been  designated  Charles 
the  First.  Historians  generally  agree  that  the  first  six 
Charleses,  mentioned  by  Magnus,  are  imaginary  per- 
sonages ;  yet  they  have  followed  usage  in  recognizing 
their  existence.  Charles  VII.  was  the  son  of  Sverker  I., 
King  of  Gothland.  King  Eric  IX.  having  been  assas- 
sinated in  1 160,  the  Swedes  elected  Charles  as  his  suc- 
cessor. He  married  Christina,  a  niece  of  the  King  of 
Denmark.  Canute,  a  son  of  Eric  IX.,  supported  by  a 
faction  of  Swedes,  killed  Charles  in  1168  and  reigned  in 
his  stead. 

Charles  VIII.,  King  of  Sweden,  called  Canutson  or 
Knutson,  (knoot'sQn,)  was  the  son  of  Canute  Bonde,  and 
descended  from  Eric  IX.  At  the  age  of  twenty-seven 
he  became  marshal  of  the  kingdom.  Eric  XIII,  having 
been  dethroned  about  1438,  Charles  was  chosen  admin- 
istrator of  Sweden  in  1440.  On  the  death  of  Christo- 
pher, in  1448,  he  was  elected  his  successor.  Christian, 
King  of  Denmark,  by  the  aid  of  his  partisans  in  Sweden, 
expelled  Charles  in  1457.  and  usurped  the  throne. 
Charles  was  restored  in  1467,  and  reigned  until  his  death 
in  1470.    His  successor  was  Stenon  Sture,  his  nephew. 

See  Gever,  "  Histoire  de  la  Suede." 

Charles  IX.,  King  of  Sweden,  born  in  1550,  was  the 
fourth  son  of  Gustavus  Vasa.  About  1568  he  co-oper- 
ated with  his  brother  John  and  other  nobles  in  dethron- 
ing Eric  XIV.  When  John  died,  in  1592,  Charles  be- 
came a  competitor  for  the  crown  against  Sigistnund,  (the 
son  of  John,)  who  was  a  Catholic  and  had  been  chosen 
King  of  Poland.  In  1593  the  legislature  decreed  that 
Lutheranism  only  should  be  tolerated  in  Sweden.  Charles 
gained  a  victory  over  the  army  of  Sigismund  in  1598,  and 
was  soon  after  declared  regent.  In  1604  he  was  elected 
king  by  the  States.  He  waged  war  against  Russia  with 
success,  and  founded  Gothemburg  and  other  cities.  He 
died  in  161 1,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son,  Gustavus 
Adolphus. 

See  Anders  Frvxell,  "Carl  IX.,"  1831. 


Charles  X.,(or  Charlee  GuBta'vus,)King  of  Sweden, 
born  at  Nykoping  in  1622,  was  the  son  of  John  Casimir, 
Prince  of  Deux-Ponts,  and  Catherine,  a  daughter  of 
Charles  IX.  In  his  youth  he  learned  the  art  of  war 
under  Torstenson,  commander  of  the  Swedish  army. 
The  Estates  of  the  kingdom,  in  1649,  in  accordance  with 
the  will  of  Christina,  the  queen-regnant,  declared  him 
the  heir-apparent.  On  the  abdication  of  Christina,  in 
June,  1654,  he  began  his  enterprising  and  eventful  reign. 
The  genius  of  his  uncle  Gustavus  Adolphus  had  raised 
Sweden  to  a  high  rank  among  European  powers.  The 
pretensions  made  by  the  King  of  Poland  to  the  Swedish 
crown  having  provoked  a  war,  Charles,  in  1655,  invaded 
Poland,  took  Warsaw,  the  capital,  and  in  three  months 
became  master  of  the  whole  kingdom.  While  he  was 
absent,  the  Danes  attacked  Sweden.  He  then  made  a 
rapid  march  against  the  new  enemy,  and,  crossing  the 
ice  in  January,  1658,  dictated  to  the  vanquished  Danes  a 
treaty  of  peace,  by  which  he  acquired  Scania  and  other 
provinces.  He  died  in  February,  1660,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Charles,  whose  mother  was  Hedwige 
Eleonor  of  Holstein-Gottorp. 

See  S.  PuFFENDORF,  "De  Rebus  gestis  Caroli  Gustavi,"  1696; 
LuNDBLAD,  "Konung  Carl  X.  Gustafs  Historia,"  2  vols.,  1823-29. 

Charles  XI.,  King  of  Sweden,  the  son  of  Charles  X., 
was  born  in  December,  1655.  In  1660  a  treaty  of  peace 
was  made  with  the  restored  King  of  Poland,  by  which 
the  Swedes  retained  their  conquests  on  the  east  shore 
of  the  Baltic.  Charles  began  to  exercise  royal  power  in 
1672,  and  made  an  alliance  with  Louis  XIV.  of  France, 
which  in  1674  involved  him  in  a  war  with  Prussia  and 
other  powers.  Charles  defeated  the  Danes,  who  invaded 
Sweden  in  1677,  but  suffered  reverses  in  his  German 
provinces.  In  1679  he  concluded  a  peace,  and  married 
Ulrica  Eleonora,  sister  of  the  King  of  Denmark.  He 
then  resolved  to  observe  neutrality  in  the  wars  of  Europe, 
and  the  rest  of  his  reign  was  peaceful  and  prosperous, 
though  rather  despotic.  He  promoted  manufactures, 
commerce,  sciences,  and  arts,  subverted  the  power  of 
the  senate,  and  when  he  died,  in  1697,  left  a  flourishing 
kingdom  to  his  son,  Charles  XII.  ^ 

See  John  Robinson,  "Account  of  Sweden,"  1717;  E.  Puffen- 
DORF,  "Anecdotes  de  Suede." 

Charles  XII.,  King  of  Sweden.a  celebrated  conqueror, 
born  at  Stockholm,  June  27,  1682,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Charles  XI.  and  Ulrica  Eleonora  of  Denmark.  He  was 
invincibly  obstinate  from  childhood.  The  only  way  of 
moving  his  will  was  through  the  sentiment  of  honour. 
He  made  himself  master  of  Latin,  French,  and  German. 
He  succeeded  his  father  in  April  15,  1697,  and  followed 
the  counsels  of  Count  Piper,  who  was  in  fact,  though 
not  in  name,  the  prime  minister.  An  opportunity  to 
exert  and  develop  his  extraordinary  martial  genius  was 
soon  presented  by  the  cupidity  of  three  kings,  who  pro- 
posed to  take  advantage  of  his  youth  and  to  partition  his 
dominions  among  themselves.  These  were  Peter  T.  of 
Russia,  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark,  and  Augustus,  King 
of  Poland,  who,  in  1700,  formed  a  league  against  him. 
With  intrepid  alacrity  he  prepared  for  the  unequal 
contest.  He  became  extremely  frugal  in  his  dress,  food, 
and  mode  of  living.  His  body,  by  severe  exercise,  was 
made  proof  against  fatigue.  Denmark  having  begun  the 
war  by  attacking  the  Duke  of  Holstein,  Charles,  at  the 
head  of  his  well-disciplined  army,  left  Stockholm  (to 
which  he  never  returned)  in  May,  1700.  Having  effected 
a  descent  on  the  isle  of  Zealand,  he  besieged  Copen- 
hagen until  the  Danish  king  sued  for  peace,  which  was 
concluded  in  August,  1700.  Without  delay  he  marched 
with  20,000  Swedes  against  the  Czar  Peter,  who,  with 
about  80,000  men,  was  besieging  Narva,  Before  the 
arrival  of  his  main  army,  Charles  began  the  attack  with 
8000  men,  and  gained  in  November,  1700,  a  complete 
victory,  which  filled  his  adversaries  with  consternation. 

In  the  next  campaign  he  invaded  Poland,  and,  after 
several  victories,  formed  the  design  of  deposing  Augustus, 
which,  by  the  aid  of  a  strong  domestic  faction,  he  easily 
eff"ected.  He  designated  for  his  successor  Stanislas 
(or  Stanislaus)  Leczinski,  who  began  to  reign  in  1704. 
Augustus  having  retired  to  Saxony,  of  which  he  was 
Elector,  Charles  invaded  that  country,  fixed  his  camp 
near  Leipsic,  and  in  1707  dictated  conditions  of  peace 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,    y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fllr,  fllll,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


CHARLES 


sn 


CHARLES 


to  the  Elector,  who  then  renounced  the  crown  of  Poland. 
He  received  here  the  ambassadors  of  various  powers, 
and  among  them  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  who  came 
to  sound  his  intentions.  In  September,  1707,  with  an 
army  of  43,000  men,  he  marched  towards  Moscow  to 
dethrone  the  Czar,  whose  armies,  in  the  absence  of 
Charles,  had  seized  Ingria  and  invaded  Poland.  In 
June,  1708,  he  crossed  the  Berezina,  the  passage  of 
which  Peter  disputed  without  success,  and  soon  after 
gained  some  advantages  over  the  Russians.  About  this 
time,  according  to  Voltaire,  Peter  made  overtures  for 
peace,  to  which  Charles  answered,  "  1  will  treat  with  the 
Czar  at  Moscow." 

At  Smolensko  he  changed  his  course,  and  marched 
southward  to  the  Ukraine,  where  he  found  an  ally  in 
Mazeppa,  hetman  of  the  Cossacks.  In  this  march  many 
of  his  men  perished  from  cold  and  want  of  provisions. 
His  operations  were  suspended  in  the  winter  of  170S-09, 
which  was  more  severe  than  usual.  In  the  spring  his 
army  was  reduced  to  18,000  Swedes  and  about  as  many 
Cossacks  ;  but  he  persisted  in  his  design.  While  he  was 
pressing  the  siege  of  Pultowa,  and  just  after  he  had  re- 
ceived a  wound  in  the  foot,  the  Czar,  with  70,000  men, 
came  to  the  relief  of  the  city.  In  the  decisive  battle  of 
Pultowa,  July  8,  1709,  Charles  was  defeated,  with  a  loss 
of  9000  killed  and  6000  j^risoners.  With  a  small  body 
of  men  he  retreated  to  Turkey,  where  he  was  received 
hospitably  by  the  Sultan,  who  gave  him  an  asylum  at 
Bender.  The  agents  of  Russia  urged  the  Sultan  to  drive 
him  out  of  Turkey.  When  the  Turks  attempted  to  re- 
move him,  in  February,  1 713,  he  fought  madly  and  des- 
perately in  resistance,  was  made  prisoner,  and  taken  to 
Demotica.  There,  feigning  to  be  sick,  he  kept  his  bed 
about  ten  months.  At  last  he  quitted  Turkey,  and,  pass- 
ing through  Hungary  and  Germaiiy  incognito,  arrived  with 
one  attendant  at  Stralsund  in  November,  17 14.  The 
Danes,  Prussians,  and  Russians  besieged  Stralsund, 
which  Charles  was  forced  to  surrender  in  December, 
1715.  WHiile  Sweden  was  threatened  with  invasion  by 
the  allies,  Charles  invaded  Norway,  and  was  killed  by  a 
ball  at  the  siege  of  Frederikshall  on  the  nth  of  Decem- 
ber, 1718.  He  was  never  married.  His  sister,  Ulrica 
Eleonora,  the  wife  of  Frederick  of  Hesse-Cassel,  was 
chosen  as  his  successor. 

See  Voltaire,  "Life  of  Charles  XII.  ;"  Adlerfeld,  "  Histoire 
de  Charles  XII,"  1740;  Nokdberg,  "Karls  XII.  Historia,"  1740; 
Samuel  Faber,  "  Ausfiihrliche  Lebensbeschreibung  Konig  Karls 
XII.  von  Schweden,"  10  vols.,  1705-19;  Lundblad,  "  Konung  Carls 
XII.  Historia,"  2  vols.,  1830  ;  Jacob  le  Long,  "  Leven  van  de  held- 
haftigen  Karel  XII.,"  6  vols.,  1722;  Po.sselt,  "Geschiclite  Carl's 
XII.,"  1S04;  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  "Reflexions  sur  les  Talents 
militaires  et  sur  le  Caractere  de  Charles  XII,"  17S6. 

Charles  XIII.,  King  of  Sweden,  born  October  7, 
1748,  was  the  second  son  of  King  Adolphus  Frederick 
and  of  Louisa  Ulrica,  who  was  a  sister  of  Frederick  the 
Great  of  Prussia.  He  was  educated  for  the  navy,  having 
been  made  titular  grand  admiral  in  his  infancy.  In  1772 
he  seconded  his  brother,  Gustavus  HI.,  in  the  revolution 
by  which  he  depressed  the  aristocracy  and  initiated  a 
more  liberal  constitution.  For  this  service  he  was  made 
Duke  of  Sudermania.  He  commanded  the  fleet  in  the 
war  against  Russia,  1788-90,  and  fought  several  indeci- 
sive battles.  In  1792  he  was  chosen  regent  during  the 
minority  of  his  nephew,  Gustavus  IV.  He  favoured  the 
French  Revolution,  and  refused  to  join  a  coalition  against 
France.  In  1796  he  resigned  the  government  to  Gusta- 
vus JV.  By  his  insane  and  fanatical  conduct  the  latter 
proAcked  the  States  of  Sweden  to  dethrone  him,  and 
Charles  was  chosen  king,  June  5  or  6,  1809.  As  Charles 
had  no  heir,  the  Swedish  Diet  in  1810  designated  as  his 
successor  the  French  general  Marshal  Bernadotte,  who 
accepted  the  dignity  of  crown-prince  and  was  adopted 
as  a  son  by  Charles  XIII.  In  1812  the  King  of  Sweden 
acquired  Norway  by  a  treaty  with  Russia  and  with  the 
assent  of  several  other  powers.  Died  in  February,  1818. 

See  Geyer,  "Histoire  de  Suede;"  LindgrEiN,  "Menioria  divi 
CaroH  XIII.,"  1818. 

Charles  XIV.  of  Sweden.    See  Bernadotte. 

Charles  (or  Carl)  XV.,  (Louis  Eugene,)  the  son 
of  Oscar  I.,  King  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  was  born  in 
1826.  He  married  Wilhelmina,  a  daughter  of  Prince 
Frederick  of  the  Netherlands,  in  1850,  and  succeeded 
his  father  in  July,  1859, 


Charles,  (or  Karl,)  Archduke  of  Austria,  a  celebrated 
general,  born  at  Florence  in  I77i,was  a  younger  son  of 
Leopold  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany.  He  joined  the  armv 
in  1793,  fought  against  the  French  in  Flanders,  and  com'- 
manded  a  wing  at  the  battle  of  Neerwinde.  In  the  spring 
of  1796  he  vi^as  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
of  the  Rhine.  In  this  campaign  he  defeated  the  French 
under  Jourdan  at  Wurtzbuig  and  other  places,  and,  by 
his  skilful  generalship,  forced  Moreau  to  repass  the 
Rhine.  He  commanded  the  Austrians  and  their  allies 
in  Germany  and  Switzerland  in  1799.  In  1800  he  retired 
from  service  on  account  of  ill  health.  He  was  command- 
ing in  Italy  when  Bonaparte  invaded  Austria  in  1805, 
and,  on  learning  the  successes  of  the  French,  marched 
his  army  of  80,000  men  to  cover  Vienna,  but  did  not 
arrive  until  after  the  capture  of  that  city  and  after  the 
battle  of  Austerlitz.  In  1806  he  became  chief  of  the 
Aulic  Council  and  generalissimo  of  the  Austrian  armies. 
In  1809  he  invaded  Bavaria,  where  he  encountered  Na- 
poleon and  was  defeated  at  Eckmiihl  in  April.  He  was 
compelled  to  retreat  into  Bohemia,  while  the  French  army 
entered  Vienna  in  triumph.  He  commanded  at  the  bat- 
tie  of  Aspern,  (May,  1809,)  which,  says  Alison,  "was  the 
first  great  action  in  which  Napoleon  had  been  defeated." 
He  maintained  his  reputation  at  the  great  battle  of  Wa- 
gram,  (July,  1809,)  where  the  loss  was  nearly  equal,  but 
the  French  remained  masters  of  the  field.  Soon  after 
that  event  he  obtained  an  armistice  from  the  victor,  and 
resigned  the  command.  He  wrote  two  excellent  works, 
namely,  "Principles  of  Strategy,"  (1814,)  and  a  "His 
tory  of  the  Campaign  in  Germany  and  Switzerland  in 
1799,"  (1819.)  Died  in  1847.  His  son,  Archduke  Al- 
bert, has  also  distinguished  himself  as  a  general. 

See  Thiers,  "Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire;"  Eduarh 
Duller,  "  Erzherzog  Carl,"  1845  ;  Scott,  "  Life  of  Napoleon  Buona- 
parte;" Schneidawind,  "Carl  Erzherzog  von  Oesterreich,"  1840; 
"Erzherzog  Carl,  sein  Leben,"  etc.,  Berlin,  1847;  "London  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  March,  1S20. 

Charles  de  Blois,  shtRl  deh  blw^,  or  de  Chatillon, 

deh  shi'te^'y^N',  Duke  of  Bretagne,  (breh-ttn',)  was  a 
nephew  of  Philip  of  Valois,  King  of  France.  Having 
married  Jeanne  of  Bretagne,  he  claimed  the  dukedom  of 
Bretagne  at  the  death  of  Duke  Jean  HI.,  (1340.)  'J'his- 
claim  was  disputed  by  Count  de  Montfort,  a  brother', 
of  the  late  duke,  and  occasioned  a  war  of  twenty-three.- 
years,  in  which  De  Montfort  was  aided  by  Edward  HI. 
of  England.  The  army  of  Charles,  commanded  by  Du  ^ 
Guesclin,  was  defeated  in  1364,  at  the  battle  of  Aurai,  in^ 
which  Charles  was  killed. 
See  Froissart,  "Chronicles." 

Charles,  Duke  of  Bkun.swick.    See  Brunswick. 

Charles  the  Bold,  [Fr.  Charles  le  Hardy,  (or 
Hard:,)  shtRl  leh  hlR^e';  Ger.  Karl  (or  Carl)  der 
KiiHNE,  kaRl  deR  kii'neh ;  Lat  Car'olus  Puc/nax,  i.e. 
"Charles  the  Quarrelsome"  or  "Warlike,"]  sometimes 
called  Charles  the  Rash,  [Fr.  Charles  le  Tem^- 
RAIRE,  leh  ta'ma^r^R',]  Duke  of  Burgundy,  born  at  Dijon 
in  1433,  ^'^s  the  son  of  Philippe  "the  Good"  and  Isa- 
bella of  Portugal.  He  was  styled  Count  de  Charolais 
before  the  death  of  his  father.  In  1467  he  succeeded  his 
father,  and  the  next  year  married  Margaret,  the  sister 
of  Edward  IV.  of  England.  His  violence  and  ambition 
rendered  him  the  scourge  of  adjoining  nations.  He 
waged  war  against  Louis  XI.  of  France,  and  Rene,  Duke 
of  Lorraine.  Having  invaded  Lorraine,  he  was  defeated  , 
and  killed  in  battle  near  Nancy,  in  1477,  by  Rene  and  his 
Swiss  allies.  His  daughter  Mary  was  the  heiress  of  his 
dominions,  (which  included  the  Low  Countries,)  and 
became  the  wife  of  the  emperor  Maximilian  I.  She  was 
a  grandmother  of  the  emperor  Charles  V. 

See  Kirk,  "  History  of  Charles  the  Bold,"  1863  ;  Comines,  "  Me- 
molres;"  Slsmondi,  "Histoire  des  Fran^ais ;"  Jules  Michhi.et, 
"Louis  XI  et  Charles  le  Temeraire,"  1853;  Becker,  "  Kari  der 
Kuhne,  Herzog  von  Burgiind,"  1792. 

Charles  (de  Franck,)  shtRl  dehfR6Nss,  Charles  I.  of 
Lorraine,  (lo'rin^)  second  son  of  Louis  IV.  Outremer, 
was  born  in  953,  and  became  Duke  of  Lorraine.  He 
waged  war  with  Hugh  Capet  for  the  throne  of  France, 
was  made  prisoner  and  confined  until  his  death  in  993. 

Charles  II.,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  born  at  Toul  about 
1364,  was  the  son  of  Jean  I.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1390. 
About  1396  he  fought  for  the  Teutonic  knights  against 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  itasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  2 j.) 

37 


CHARLES 


578 


CHARLES 


the  King  of  Prussia,  whom  he  took  prisoner.  He  fought 
at  Agincourt  in  1415,  after  which  he  was  chosen  Con- 
stable of  France.  He  died  in  143 1.  His  daughter  and 
heiress  was  married  to  Rene  of  Anjou. 

Charles  III,  called  the  Great,  Duke  of  Lorraine, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1543,  was  the  son  of  Francis  I.,  who 
died  in  1545.  He  married  Claude,  the  daughter  of  Henry 
H.  of  France,  in  1559.  He  died  in  160S,  leaving  the  duchy 
to  his  son  Henry. 

Charles  I.,  (or  Charles  Frederick,)  Duke  of  Hol- 
stein-Gottorp,  (hoKstIn  got'toRp,)  born  at  Stockholm  in 
1700,  was  the  son  of  Frederick  IV.,  whom  he  succeeded 
in  1702.  He  married,  in  1725,  Anne  of  Russia,  a  daughter 
of  Peter  the  Great.  He  lost  Sleswick,  which  was  con- 
quered by  the  Danes.    Died  in  1739. 

Charles  of  Anjou,  Count  of  Maine  (man)  and  Duke 
of  Calabria,  a  French  prince  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was 
the  son  of  Charles,  Count  of  Maine,  and  was  a  nephew 
of  Rene,  King  of  Sicily,  by  whose  will,  in  1480,  he  be- 
came Count  of  Provence.  Charles  died  in  1481,  and 
bequeathed  Provence  to  Louis  XL  of  France. 

Charles  of  Denmark,  Count  of  Flanders,  was  the 
son  of  Canute,  King  of  Denmark.  At  an  early  age  he 
distinguished  himself  in  the  crusade  against  the  Saracens 
of  Palestine,  and  in  1 1 19  became  Count  of  Flanders,  at  the 
death  of  Baldwin,  who  chose  him  for  his  heir.  His  repu- 
tation for  piety  and  virtue  was  such  that  the  throne  of  Jeru- 
salem was  offered  to  him  during  the  captivity  of  Baldwin 
II.;  but  he  declined  it.    He  was  assassinated  in  1127. 

Charles  of  Lorraine.    See  Lorraine. 

Charles  (Carlo)  II.,  (Louis  de  Bourbon — deh 
booR^bdN^,)  Prince  of  Parma,  etc.,  born  in  1799,  is  a  son 
of  Louis,  King  of  Etruria,  and  of  Maria  Louisa  of  Spain. 
He  inherited  the  duchy  of  Lucca  in  1824,  and  ceded  the 
same  to  Tuscany  in  1847.  At  the  death  of  Maria  Louisa 
(ex-Empress  of  France)  in  1847,  ^''^  became  Archduke 
or  Prince  of  Parma.  He  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son, 
Carlo  III.,  in  1849. 

Charles  (Carlo)  III.,  (Ferdinand  Joseph  Victor 
Balthasar  de  Bourbon,)  Duke  of  Parma,  the  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1823.  He  became  duke  in 
1849,  before  which  he  had  married  a  French  princess, 
daughter  of  the  Due  de  Berry,  and  granddaughter  of 
Charles  X.    He  was  assassinated  in  Parma  in  1854. 

Charles  (Carlo)  I.,  Duke  of  Sav^oy,  born  in  1458, 
succeeded  his  brother,  Philibert  I.,  about  1472.  Died 
in  1489. 

Charles  (Carlo)  II.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1489  ;  died  in  1497. 

Charles  (Carlo)  III.,  Duke  of  Savoy,  was  born  in 
Bugey  in  i486,  and  succeeded  his  brother,  Philibert  II. 
He  was  an  uncle  of  Francis  I.  of  France.  In  152 1  he  mar- 
ried Beatrix,  a  daughter  of  Emmanuel,  King  of  Portugal. 
She  was  a  sister  of  the  queen  of  the  emperor  Charles  V., 
and  influenced  her  husband  to  become  the  ally  of  Charles 
in  the  war  against  Francis  I.  The  army  of  the  latter 
overran  Savoy  in  1535,  and  Geneva  shook  off  the  yoke 
of  the  duke,  who  thus  lost  the  greater  part  of  his  do- 
minions. Died  in  1553.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Emanuel  Philibert. 

See  Vincent,  "  Histoire  de  Savole." 

Charles,  shtRl,  (Claude,)  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Nancy  in  1661  ;  died  in  1747. 

CIiarle.s,  (Jacques  Alexandre  Cesar,)  a  PVench 
savant,  noted  for  his  experiments  in  electricity  and  bal- 
loc^ning,  was  born  at  Beaugen'cy  in  1746.  He  acquired 
a  wide  reputation  by  repealing  Franklin's  experiments 
which  proved  the  identity  of  lightning  with  the  electric 
fluid,  and  became  a  popular  lecturer  on  physical  science 
in  Paris.  He  made  a  great  improvement  in  the  balloon 
which  Montgolfier  invented,  by  substituting  hydrogen 
gas  for  heated  air.  He  and  M.  Robert  were  the  first 
persons  who  ventured  to  ascend  in  a  balloon.  They 
ascended  from  the  Tuileries  in  December,  1783,  to  the 
height  of  7000  feet,  and  came  down  safely  nine  leagues 
from  the  place  of  ascent.  He  was  a  member  of  the  In- 
stitute, and  was  pensioned  by  Louis  XVI.  Died  in  1823. 

Charles,  (Elizaisetii  Rundle,)  a  popular  English 
writer,  the  only  child  of  the  late  John  Rundle,  formerly 
member  of  Parliament  for  Tavistock,  Devonshire,  was 
born  about  1826.  She  was  married  about  185 1  to  Andrew 


P.  Charles,  Esq.,  of  London.  She  has  published  a  num- 
ber of  fictitious  works,  which  have  enjoyed  an  extensive 
and  deserved  popularity.  Among  the  most  important 
of  these  are  the  "Chronicles  of  the  Schonberg-Cotta 
Family,"  (1863,)  and  the  "  Diary  of  Mrs.  Kitty  Trevylyan," 
(1864.)  She  has  also  written  "The  Martyrs  of  Spain 
and  Liberators  of  Holland,"  and  other  works. 

Charles  APbert,[  It.  Carlo  Alberto,  kaii'lo  Sl-blR'- 
to,]  King  of  Sardinia,  born  in  1798,  was  a  son  of  Prince 
Charles  Emanuel  of  Savoy-Carignan.  He  married  in  1817 
Maria  Theresa,  a  daughter  of  the  grand  duke  Ferdinand 
of  Tuscany.  In  1829  he  was  appointed  Viceroy  of  the 
island  of  Sardinia.  He  succeeded  Charles  Felix  as  king 
in  April,  183 1,  and  made  some  liberal  reforms  in  the 
government.  About  the  time  of  the  election  of  Pope 
Pius  IX.  he  granted  a  constitution  to  his  subjects,  and 
rendered  himself  popular.  He  put  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  movement  for  Italian  independence  in  the  spring 
of  1848.  After  gaining  several  victories  over  the  Aus- 
trians,  his  army  was  entirely  defeated  at  Novara,  March, 
1849.  He  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son,  Victor  Eman- 
uel, and  died  in  July,  1849. 

See  Andrhozzi,  "Vitadi  Carlo  Alberto,"  1850 ;  Martini,  "Me- 
inorie  intonio  alia  Vita  del  Re  Carlo  Alberto,"  1850. 

Charles  Au-gus'tus,  (of  Sleswick  Holstein  Sonder- 
burg,)  Prince-Royal  of  Sweden,  and  Prince  of  Augusten- 
burg,  was  born  about  1766.  He  commanded  a  Danish 
army  against  the  Swedes  in  1808,  and  gained  the  esteem 
of  the  latter.  In  1809  he  was  adopted  as  son  by  Charles 
XIII.,  and  designated  as  the  heir  to  the  throne  by  the 
States  of  Sweden.    Died  in  1810. 

Charles  d'Orleans,  shtRl  doR'la'SN',  Comte  d'An- 
gouleme,  (d6N'goo^l§m'',)  born  in  J^aris  in  1391,  was  the 
son  of  Louis,  lJuke  of  Orleans,  who  was  the  brother  of 
Charles  VI.  of  France.  In  the  civil  war  of  the  Arma- 
gnacs  and  Burgundians  he  was  a  leader  of  the  former. 
At  the  battle  of  Agincourt,  in  141 5,  he  was  made  ])risoner, 
and  as  such  detained  in  England  until  1440.  He  com- 
posed numerous  verses  admired  for  elegant  simplicity, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  best  writers  of  his 
time.  He  died  in  1465,  leaving  a  son,  who  became  King 
Louis  XII. 

Charles  de  Valois.shtRl  deh  vt'lwi',  Count  of  Maine 
and  Anjou,  born  in  1270,  was  the  third  son  of  Philip  HI. 
of  France.  He  was  reputed  one  of  the  greatest  captains 
of  his  time.  He  drove  out  of  Florence  the  Ghibelines, 
including  Dante,  waged  war  against  Frederick  of  Aragon, 
and  conquered  part  of  Sicily.  He  commanded  with  suc- 
cess against  the  English  in  Guienne  a  short  time  before 
his  death,  which  occurred  in  1325. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Francais." 

Charles  Edward  Stuart,  called  the  Pretender, 
born  at  Rome  in  1720  or  1 721,  was  a  grandson  of  James 
II.  of  England.  His  father  James  having  resigned  his 
claim  to  the  throne  in  favour  of  Charles  Edward,  the 
latter  passed  from  France  to  Scotland,  with  a  few  attend- 
ants, in  July,  1745.  Plis  standard  was  joined  by  a  large 
body  of  Highlanders,  and  he  entered  Edinburgh  on  the 
17th  of  September.  A  few  days  later  they  encountered 
at  Preston  Pans  a  royal  army,  which  was  seized  with  a 
panic  and  fled  in  disorder.  The  Pretender  marched  south 
as  far  as  Derby,  then  retreated  to  Scotland,  pursued  by 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  who  defeated  the  rebels  at 
Culloden  in  April,  1746.  Charles  Edward  concealed 
himself  in  the  Western  Isles,  had  many  romantic  adven- 
tures, and,  by  the  aid  of  Flora  Macdonald,  escaped  from 
his  pursuers  to  France  in  September,  1746,  He  passed 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  at  Rome,  became  intemperate, 
and  died  in  1788.  His  wife  was  afterwards  married  to 
Alfieri. 

See  Amedee  Pichot,  "  Histoire  de  Charles  fidouard,"  etc. 

Charles  Eman'uel  I.,  Duke  of  Sav'oy,  surnamed 
THE  Great,  born  in  1562,  succeeded  his  father,  Philibert 
Emanuel,  in  1580.  He  married  Catherine,  the  daughter 
of  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  He  was  ambitious  and  warlike, 
and  waged  a  long  war  against  Henry  IV.  of  France. 
Died  in  1630. 

His  son,  Vic  TOR  Amadeus  I.,  succeeded  him.  Another 
son,  Thomas,  Prince  of  Carignano,  was  a  distinguished 
general. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Francais." 


a.  c,  T,  o,  u,  V,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ilx,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good ;  moua- 


CHARLES 


579 


CHARLOTTE 


Charles  Emanuel  II.,  Duke  of  Savoy,  born  about 
1633,  was  the  son  of  Victor  Amadeus  I.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1638.  His  reign  was  mostly  pacific.  Died  in 
1675. 

Charles  Emanuel  III.,  King  of  Sardmia,  the  son 
of  Victor  Amadeus  II.,  was  born  at  Turin  in  1701,  and 
succeeded  his  father  in  September,  1730.  In  1733  he 
joined  France  and  Spain  in  a  war  against  Austria,  and, 
at  the  head  of  the  allied  armies,  conquered  the  Milanese. 
Ill  the  general  war  which  began  in  1741  he  declared  for 
Maria  Theresa  of  Austria,  and  fotight  against  the  French 
and  Spaniards,  who  defeated  him  at  Coni  in  1744.  He 
died  in  1773,  with  the  reputation  of  a  wise  and  able  ruler, 
and  left  the  throne  to  his  son,  Victor  Amadeus  HI. 

See  Semeria,  "Storia  del  di  Sardegna  Carlo  Emmanuele," 
2  vols.,  iS^r. 

Charles  Emanuel  IV.,  King  of  Sardinia,  the  eldest 
son  of  Victor  Amadeus  HI.,  was  born  at  Turin  in  May, 
1 75 1.  In  1775  he  married  Marie  Clotilde,  a  sister  of 
Louis  XVI.  of  France.  In  1792  Savoy  and  Nice  were 
conquered  by  the  French,  who,  in  1796,  dictated  the 
terms  of  peace.  Charles  Emanuel  became  king  in  Oc- 
tober, 1796,  and  found  the  kingdom  in  a  miserable  con- 
dition. His  reign  was  disturbed  by  insurrections  proba- 
bly fomented  by  the  French  Directory.  His  fortresses, 
arsenals,  etc.  having  been  seized  by  French  troops,  he 
was  compelled  to  abdicate  in  December,  1798,  when  he 
retired  to  the  island  of  Sardinia.  In  1802  he  abdicated 
in  favour  of  his  brother,  Victor  Emanuel  I.  Died  at 
Rome  in  1819. 

See  Bettoli,  "Elogio  storico  di  Sua  Maesta  Carlo  Emmanuele," 
1814. 

Charles  Fe'lix  [It.  Carlo  Felice,  kaR'lo  fi-lee'- 
cha]  I.,  King  of  Sardinia,  born  at  Turin  in  1765,  was  the 
fourth  son  of  Victor  Amadeus  HI.,  and  was  styled  Due 
de  Genes,  (or  Genoa.)  In  1807  he  married  Maria  Chris- 
tina, daughter  of  the  King  of  Naples.  When  his  brother, 
Victor  Emanuel,  recovered  Piedmont  in  1814,  Charles 
Felix  remained  in  the  island  of  Sardinia  as  vicero}-.  In 
March,  1821,  a  revolution  occurred  in  Piedmont,  and 
Victor  Emanuel,  rather  than  accept  the  constitution  of- 
fered by  the  insurgents,  abdicated  the  crown,  to  which 
Charles  Felix,  as  the  lawful  heir,  succeeded.  He  sup- 
pressed the  revolt  by  vigorous  measures,  and  reigned  in 
peace  until  his  death  in  183 1.  He  left  no  issue,  and  was 
the  last  king  of  the  elder  branch  of  the  house  of  Savoy. 
The  crown  then  passed  to  Charles  Albert,  Prince  of 
Carignano. 

Charles  Gustavus,  See  Charles  X.,  King  of 
Sweden. 

Chai-les  le  Chauve.    See  Charles  I.  of  France. 

Charles  le  Gros.    See  Charles  HI.,  Emperor. 

Charles  le  Hardy,  (or  Hardi.)  See  Charles  the 
Bold,  page  577. 

Charles  le  Mauvais.  See  Charles  the  Bad,  King 
of  Navarre. 

Charles  le  Sage.    See  Charles  V.  of  France. 

Charles  le  Simple.    See  Charles  HI.  of  France. 

Charles  le  Temeraire.    See  Charles  the  Bold. 

Charles  Mar'teF,  [Fr.  pron.  shtid  mtR'tSK,]  King 
of  the  Franks,  and  grandfather  of  Charlemagne,  was  born 
about  694  A.D.  Pie  was  the  son  of  Pepin  d'Heristal, 
Duke  of  Austrasia,  and  mayor  of  the  palace  under  the  last 
Merovingian  kings.  About'715  he  succeeded  his  father  as 
mayor  of  the  palace,  and  king  in  reality,  while  Chilperic 
II.  was  only  the  phantom  of  royalty.  'A  large  army  of 
Saracens  from  Spain  having  invaded  his  kingdom,  he 
gained  an  important  victory  over  them  near  Poitiers  in 
732.  He  received  his  surname  of  Mar  tel  (hammer)  in 
consequence  of  this  victory,  which  gave  a  fatal  blow  to 
the  power  of  the  Saracens.  He  was  successful  in  wars 
against  the  Saxons  and  other  German  tribes.  He  died 
in  741  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  sons  Carloman 
and  Pepin  le  Bref. 

See  Eduard  Cauer,  "Dissertatio  de  Karolo  Martello,"  1848; 
SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais;"  Hakon  de  Nilinse,  "  Charles 
Martel:  Histoire  des  Maires  du  Palais,"  1851. 

Charles  Martel  of  Hungary,  was  a  son  of  Charles 
II.  of  Naples,  and  Mary,  Princess  of  Hungary.  He  ob- 
tained the  crown  of  Hungary  in  1290,  and  died  in  1295, 
leaving  it  to  his  son  Charobert. 


Charles  PhiPip,  Duke  of  Suderma''nia,  etc.,  born  at 
Revel  in  1601,  was  the  son  of  Charles  IX.  and  brother 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  The  Swedish  army,  having  con- 
quered many  provinces  of  Russia,  the  regency  of  Novo- 
gorod  offered  the  throne  to  Charles  Philip  in  161 1. 
After  a  long  delay,  he  went  to  Viborg  to  accept  the  offer; 
but  Michael  Romanow  was  proclaimed  king  at  Moscow. 
Charles  formally  renounced  the  crown  in  1614,  and  died 
in  1622. 

Charles  Quint.  See  Cilvrles  V.,  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many. 

Charles  Robert.    See  Charobert. 

Charles  the  Rash.  See  Charles  the  Bold, 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  page  577. 

Charlet,  sWtvi'lk',  (Nicolas  Toussaint,)  a  French 
painter,  designer,  and  lithographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1792. 
Plis  painting  of  an  "  Episode  of  the  Russian  Campaign" 
is  highly  praised.    Died  in  1845. 

See  Jules  Janin,  "N.  T.  Charlet,  Artiste,"  1847. 

Charleston,  (Lewis,)  an  English  bishop,  (of  Here- 
ford,) noted  for  learning.    Died  in  1369. 

Charle'tpn  or  CharPton,  (Robert  M.,)  an  American 
lawyer  and  poet,  born  at  Savannah,  Georgia,  in  1807. 
Pie  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1838,  and  was  elected 
United  States  Senator  in  1852.    Died  in  1854. 

Charleton  or  Charlton,  (Walter,)  F.R.S.,  an  emi- 
nent and  learned  English  '  physician,  born  at  Shepton- 
Mallet  in  1619.  Having  graduated  in  1642,  he  became 
physician  to  Charles  I.,  and  practised  some  years  in 
London.  After  the  restoration  (1660)  he  was  physician- 
in-ordinary  to  Charles  II.  In  1689  he  was  chosen  pres- 
ident of  the  College  of  Physicians.  He  wrote,  besides 
professional  works,  "Epicurus  his  Morals,"  "Chorea 
Gigantum,"  a  treatise  on  Stonehenge,  and  "  Onomasti- 
con  Zoicon,"  a  valuable  work,  in  which  he  attempts  to 
determine  the  class,  order,  genus,  and  species  of  animals 
vaguely  designated  by  authors  under  diverse  names. 
Died  in  1707. 

See  NiCEKON,  "  Memoires  ;"  fii.ov,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Mede- 
cine." 

Charleval,  de,  deh  shtRl\tK,  (Charles  Faucon 
de  Ris — f6'k6N'  deh  re,)  Seigneur,  a  P'rench  versifier, 
born  in  Normandy  about  1612.  "  He  was  one  of  those," 
says  Voltaire,  "  who  acquired  celebrity  by  the  delicacy 
of  their  wit,  without  devoting  themselves  ( se  livrer  trop) 
to  the  public."  He  wrote  fugitive  poems,  and  the  famous 
"  Conversation  of  Marshal  d'Hocquincourt  with  P.  Ca- 
naye,"  printed  in  the  works  of  Saint-Evremond.  Died 
in  1693. 

See  Feller,  "Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Charlevoix,  de,  deh  shtR-leh-vw3.'  or  shtRPvwl', 
(Pierre  Francois  Xavier,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  author, 
born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1682.  Pie  went  to  Canada  as 
a  missionary  in  1720,  explored  Lakes  Huron  and  Michi- 
gan, descended  the  Mississippi  to  its  mouth,  and  re- 
turned to  P^rance  by  way  of  Saint  Domingo  in  1722.  He 
wrote  many  years  for  the  "Journal  de  Trevoux,"  and 
compiled  a  "  History  and  Description  of  Japan,"  (171 5,) 
and  a  "  History  of  Canada,"  (3  vols.,  1744,)  the  latter 
containing  a  journal  of  his  travels.  These  works  are 
valuable,  though  not  free  from  partiality  and  credulity. 
Died  in  1761. 

See  Feller,  "Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Charlier,  shtRHe-a.'',  (Charles,)  a  French  Jacobin, 
born  at  Laon,  was  a  member  of  the  National  Conven- 
tion in  1792.    Died  in  1797. 

Charlier,  (Jean.)    See  Gerson. 

Charlotte  (shar'lot)  of  Cyprus,  was  the  daughter  of 
John  HI.  of  Lusignan,  King  of  Cyprus.  She  was  married, 
in  1459,  to  Louis  of  Savo}'.  She  failed  in  her  attempt 
to  obtain  the  throne  of  Cyprus,  of  which  she  was  the 
legal  heiress.    Died  in  1487. 

See  E.  DE  Lusignan,  "Histoire  de  Chypre." 

Char'lotte  Au-gus'ta,  Princess  of  Wales,  commonly 
known  as  Princess  Charlotte,  the  daughter  of  George 
IV.  of  England  and  his  queen  Caroline,  was  born  at 
Carlton  House  in  1796.  When  a  final  separation  took 
place  between  the  king  ,  and  queen,  she  was  regarded 
as  the  future  queen  of  England.  The  English  court 
favoured  a  marriage  between  Charlotte  and  the  Prince 


%  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  H,     guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this,    (2i:^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CHARLOTTE 


580 


CHARPENTIER 


of  Orange ;  but  she  preferred  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg,  to 
whom  she  was  married  in  1816.  She  died  in  childbirth 
in  November,  181 7,  universally  regretted  by  the  British 
people. 

See  "  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  the  Princess  Charlotte,"  by  Robert 
HuisH,  London,  1818  ;"  Autobiography  of  Miss  Cornelia  Knight," 
London,  1861  ;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1862. 

Charlotte  Elizabeth.    See  Tonna,  Mrs. 
Charlton.    See  Charlkton. 

Charma,  shSR'mt',  (Antolne,)  a  French  writer,  born 
in  the  department  of  Nievre  in  180 1,  became  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Caen  about  1830.  He  published  "Lessons 
of  Social  and  Logical  Philosophy,"  (1840,)  an  "Essay 
on  Oriental  Philosophy,"  (1842,)  and  other  works. 

Charmeil,  shtR'maF  or  shSR^ma'ye,  (Pierre  Marie 
Joseph,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  in  1782  ;  died  in  1830. 

Charmetton,  shtR'ma'toN^  (Jean  Baptiste,  )  a 
French  surgeon,  born  at  Lyons  in  1710;  died  in  1781. 

See  FiGUET,  "Vie  de  M.  Charmetton,"  1781. 

•ehar'mi-des,  [Xap//i(%f,]  an  Athenian  philosopher, 
born  about  450  K.c,  was  a  maternal  uncle  of  Plato,  and 
first-cousin  of  Critias,  one  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  Socrates.  Having  been  appointed  one  of  the 
ten  tyrants  whom  Lysander  established  in  the  Piraeus, 
he  was  killed  in  battle  by  the  army  of  Thrasybu'lus  about 
404  B.C. 

See  Plato,  "Charmides;"  Xenophon,  "Memorabilia." 

■ehar'mis,  a  physician,  born  at  Marseilles,  settled  at 
Rome  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  His  favourite  remedy  was 
the  cold  bath. 

Charnace,  de,  deh  shtR^nt'sa',  (Hercule  Girard,) 
Baron,  an  able  French  di])lomatist,  born  in  Anjou  or, 
according  to  some  authorities,  Bretagne.  Through  the 
influence  of  Richelieu,  he  was  appointed  ambassador  to 
Sweden  in  1628,  and  negotiated  an  important  alliance 
with  Gustavus  Adolphus.  He  was  killed  at  the  siege 
of  Breda,  (1637,)  where  he  fought,  with  the  rank  of 
colonel,  for  the  Prince  of  Orange. 

See  Bayi.e,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  G^nerale." 

Charnage.    See  Dunod. 

Charlies,  de,  deh  shtRn,  (Jean  Antoine,)  a  French 
abbe,  born  at  Avignon  in  1641,  was  preceptor  of  the  son 
of  Louvois  in  Paris.  He  published  a  "Life  of  Tasso," 
abridged  from  the  Italian  of  G.  B.  Manso.  Died  in  1728. 

Char'nock,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  1756. 
After  leaving  Oxford,  he  studied  naval  and  military 
tactics,  and  served  some  time  in  the  navy.  He  wrote 
several  esteemed  works,  viz.,  "  Naval  Biography,"  ("Bio- 
graphia  Navalis,"  6  vols.,  1796,)  a  "History  of  Marine 
Architecture,"  (1800,)  and  a  "Life  of  Nelson,"  (1806.) 
Died  in  1807. 

Charnock,  (Stephen,)  an  eminent  English  noncon- 
formist divine,  born  in  London  in  1628.  After  preaching 
some  time  in  Dublin,  he  was  ejected  for  nonconformity 
in  1662.  For  about  fifteen  years  he  was  a  popular  min- 
ister of  a  dissenting  congregation  in  London.  He  wrote 
"  Discourses  on  the  Existence  and  Attributes  of  God," 
(1682,)  a  powerful  and  original  work,  highly  commended 
by  competent  critics,  and  a  "  Discourse  on  the  Salvation 
of  Sinners."  Two  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  pub- 
lished in  1682-83.  His  style  is  a  model  of  sententious 
brevity.    Died  in  1680. 

Chamois,  de,  deh  shtR'nwS',  (Jean  Charles  Leva- 
cher — leh-vt'sha^)  a  French  journalist  and  litterateur, 
born  in  Paris  about  1750.  He  was  executed  in  Septem- 
ber, 1792. 

Charobert,  shS''ro''baiR',  Caribert,  ktVe^baiR',  or 
Charles  Robert,  King  of  Hungary,  was  a  son  of  King 
Charles  Martel,  and  a  grandson  of  Charles  H.,  King  of 
Naples.  He  began  to  reign  in  13 12,  and  raised  Hungary 
to  a  high  degree  of  power  and  splendour.  He  died  in 
1342,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son,  Louis  I. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Charolais,  Count  de.    See  Charles  the  Bold. 

•€Jha''ron,  [Gr.  Xapwv,]  the  ferryman  who  conveyed 
the  souls  of  the  dead  across  the  rivers  of  Hades.  The 
}oets  represent  him  as  the  son  of  Erebus  and  Nox. 

See  ViKjZL's  "^Eneid,"  book  vi. 

Charon  [Xf/pwv]  of  Lampsacus,  an  ancient  Greek 
historian,  who  was  anterior  to  Herodotus,  and  lived 


probably  about  500  B.C.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Persia," 
and  several  other  histories,  of  which  only  small  fragments 
are  extant. 

Charon  of  Thebes  was  a  ])rominent  actor  in  the  con- 
spiracy or  revolution  which,  under  the  direction  of  Pelo- 
pidas,  subverted  the  power  of  the  aristocratic  party  in 
Thebes  in  379  B.C.  Pelopidas,  Charon,  and  Melon  were 
then  chosen  chief  magistrates  of  that  state. 

Charon,  sht'roN^  (Viala,)  a  French  general  and 
senator,  born  in  Paris  in  1794.  He  served  in  Algeria  as 
officer  of  engineers  with  distinction  from  1835  to  1845,  '^"cl 
after  the  fall  of  Louis  Philippe,  in  1848,  became  general 
of  division.  He  was  afterwards  chosen  president  of  the 
committee  of  fortifications,  and  a  senator. 

■eha-ron'das,  [XapwvtJaf,]  an  emir^ent  Greek  legisla- 
tor, born  at  Catania,  in  Sicily,  lived  about  650  B.C.  His 
laws,  which  were  in  verse,  were  adopted  by  the  Athe- 
nians and  other  nations. 

See  Aristotle,  "Politica;"  Cicero,  "De  Legibus." 

Charost,  de,  deh  sht'ro',  (Armand  Joseph  de  Be- 
thuue — deh  ba'tiin',)  Due,  an  opulent  French  philan- 
thropist and  economist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1728,  was 
a  descendant  of  the  statesman  Sully.  He  served  in  the 
army  from  1745  to  1763,  and  became  a  lieutenant-general, 
He  founded  hos])itals  and  other  benevolent  institutions, 
and  made  improvements  in  agriculture,  on  which  he  pub- 
lished several  treatises.  Louis  XV.  once  said,  pointing 
to  him,  "  There  is  a  man  who  vivifies  three  of  my  pro- 
vinces." In  the  reign  of  terror  he  was  imprisoned  for 
six  months,  ending  on  the  9th  Thermidor,  1794.  Died 
in  1800. 

See  De  Saint-Amand,  "Biographic  du  Due  de  Bethune-Cha- 
rost;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Charpentier,  shtR^pdN'te-a',  (Franqois,)  a  French 
author,  born  in  Paris  in  1620.  He  became  in  165 1  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy,  of  which  he  was  also 
perpetual  director.  He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  the  principal  designer 
of  the  medals  struck  in  1702  to  commemorate  the  events 
of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  Among  his  numerous  works, 
which  display  talents  and  learning,  are  "  A  Life  of  Socra- 
tes," (1650,)  "The  Excellence  of  the  French  Language," 
(1695,)  and  "A  Journey  to  the  Tranquil  Valley,"  a  tale. 
Died  in  1702.  He  warmly  maintained  that  inscriptions 
on  monuments  in  France  should  be  in  French  rather 
than  in  Latin. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Charpentier,  (FRANgois  Philippe,)  an  ingenious 
French  mechanician,  born  at  Blois  in  1734,  invented  a 
process  for  making  coloured  engravings  from  paintings, 
which  procured  him  the  title  of  mechanician  to  the  king; 
also,  a  fire-engine,  which  was  generally  used.  Died  in 
1817. 

Charpentier,  (Henri  FRANgois  Marie,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Soissons  in  1769,  entered  the  army  in 
1 791.  For  his  services  at  Marengo  in  1800  he  was  made 
general  of  division.  He  made  the  campaign  of  Austria 
in  1809,  and  contributed  to  the  victories  of  Lutzen  and 
Bautzen  in  1813.  Soon  after  the  restoration  he  was  made 
a  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour.    Died  in  1831. 

See  De  Courcelles,  " Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais." 

Charpentier,  [Lat.  Carpenta'rius,]  (Jacques,)  a 
French  physician,  born  at  Clermont  in  1524.  He  be- 
came professor  of  mathematics  in  the  College  Royal, 
Paris,  in  1566,  and  physician  to  Charles  IX.  As  a  par- 
tisan of  Aristotle,  he  wrote  several  discourses  against 
Ramus.  He  published,  in  Latin,  a  "  Description  of 
Nature,  after  Aristotle,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1574. 

Sec  INIoRERi,  "Dictionnaire  Historique;"  Jean  Papire  MassoNj 
"Vita  J.  Carpentarii,"  1574. 

Charpentier,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  learned  and  accom- 
plished French  critic,  was  born  at  Saint-Prest  (Eure-et- 
Loire)  in  1797.  He  was  professor  of  eloquence  in  the 
Faculty  of  Paris  for  many  years.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  an  "Essay  on  the  Literary  History  of  the 
Middle  Ages,"  Moyen  Age,'' )  (1833,)  a  "  History  of  the 
Renaissance  of  Letters  in  Europe  in  the  Fifteenth  Cen- 
tury," (1843,)  and  a  translation  of  Virgil's  "Bucolics" 
and  "  Georgics." 

Charpentier,  (Marc  Antoine,)  an  excellent  French 
musician  and  composer,  born  in  Paris  in  1634.    After  he 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  lo7ig;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  net;  n6c;  go<  d:  moon; 


CHARPENTIER 


581 


CHASE 


had  gained  a  high  reputation  in  Italy,  he  returned  to  Paris, 
where  he  became  a  rival  of  LuUy,  and  director  of  the 
music  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans.    He  composed  the  music 
of  "Medea"  and  other  operas.    Died  in  1702. 
See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Charpentier,  [Lat.  Carpenta'rius,]  (Pierre,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Toulouse.  He  became  a  Calvin- 
ist,  and  lectured  on  law  at  Geneva.  Having  quarrelled 
with  Beza,  he  removed  to  Paris  just  before  the  massacre 
of  1572,  during  which  he  found  refuge  in  the  house  of 
Bellievre.  He  published  in  1572  an  apology  for  the 
Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  and  was  rewarded  with 
the  office  of  royal  advocate. 

See  De  Thou,  "Histoire." 

Charras,  sht'rSs',  (Jean  Baptists  Adolphe,  )  a 
French  officer  and  military  writer,  born  at  Puy-deT)6me 
in  1808.  He  was  a  republican  member  of  the  Constituent 
Assembly  in  1848-49.  He  wrote  a  masterly  strategic 
work — "Histoire  de  la  Canipagne  de  1815 — Waterloo," 
(2  vols.  8vo,  1858;  5th  edition,  1863.)    Died  in  1865. 

Charrierde  la  Roche,  sht're-a' deh  larosh,  (Louis,) 
a  French  bishop,  born  at  LyonsTn  1738,  was  elected  to 
the  States-General  in  1789.  He  became  first  almoner 
of  Napoleon  in  1804.    Died  in  1827. 

Charriere,  sht're-iik',  (Ernest,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Grenoble  in~r8o5,  published  "Saint  Helena,"  a 
lyric  poem,  (1826,)  and  a  work  on  political  history, 
entitled  "La  Politique  de  I'Histoire,"  (1842.) 

Charriere  or  Charrieres,  de,  deh  sht^re-aiR',  (Ma- 
dame Saint-Hyacinthe,)  a  novelist,  who  was  born  in 
Holland  about  1746.  She  married  M.  de  Charriere,  and 
settled  nfear  Neufchatel,  about  1766.  She  was  a  friend 
of  Madame  de  Stael,  and  was  highly  gifted,  morally  and 
intellectually.  She  wrote  several  works  of  fiction,  among 
which  "Calliste"  (1786)  is  said  to  be  the  most  remarka- 
ble. Her  pictures  of  life  are  faithful  and  very  diversified. 
Died  in  1805. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  des  Feinmes,"  1844. 

Charrieres.    See  Charriere. 

Charrin,  sht'r^N',  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French  drama- 
tist and /////r^z/^'z/r,  born  at  Lyons  in  1784,  wrote  melo- 
dramas, songs,  etc. 

Charron,  shi''r6N',  (Pierre,)  a  French  philosopher 
and  Catholic  priest,  born  in  Paris  in  1531.  He  became 
eminent  as  a  preacher,  and  was  successively  theologal,  or 
lecturer,  at  Lectoure,  Agen,  Bordeaux,  Cahors,  and  Con- 
dom. He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Montaigne,  from 
whose  Essays  he  has  borrowed  largely.  In  1594  he  pub- 
lished a  religious  book,  called  "  Treatise  on  the  Three 
Truths,"  ("  Traite  des  trois  Verites.")  His  principal  work 
is  a  "Treatise  on  Wisdom,"  ("Traite  de  la  Sagesse," 
1601,)  which  was  censured  as  irreligious  or  skeptical  by 
the  Jesuits  and  others,  but  had  great  popularity.  Died 
in  Paris  in  1603.  "  It  becomes  difficult,"  says  Hallam, 
"to  estimate  the  place  of  Charron  as  a  philosopher, 
because  we  feel  a  good  deal  of  uncertainty  whether  any 
passage  be  his  own.  He  appears  to  be  a  man  formed 
in  the  school  of  Montaigne, — not  much  less  bold  in 
pursuing  the  novel  opinions  of  others,  but  less  fertile 
in  original  thoughts,  .  .  .  with  more  reading  than  his 
model,  with  more  disciplined  habits,  as  well  of  arranging 
and  distributing  his  subject  as  of  observing  the  sequence 
of  an  argument ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  with  far  less  of 
ingenuity  in  thinking  and  of  sprightliness  of  language." 
("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  Luchet,  "Analyse  raisonnee  de 
la  Sagesse  de  Chanon,"  1763;  Brucker,  "  Historia  Philosophise." 

Chartier,  shtR'te-i^  (Alain,)  a  French  poet  of  great 
celebrity  in  his  timeTwas  born  in  Normandy  about  1385. 
He  was  confidential  secretary  to  Charles  VI.  and  to 
Charles  VII.,  and  appears  to  have  been  idolized  by  cul- 
tivated men  of  that  age.  A  majority  of  French  critics 
agree  that  their  language  owes  great  obligations  to  him  ; 
and  he  appears  to  have  contributed  to  the  moral  and 
political  reformation  of  his  country.  Among  his  French 
poems  are  the  "  Breviary  of  the  Nobles,"  and  the  "  Book 
of  the  Four  Ladies,"  ("  Le  Livre  des  quatre  Dames.") 
He  wrote  "  Le  Curial,"  and  other  prose  works.  Died 
about  1455. 

See  G.  Mancel,  "Alain  Chartier :  iStiide  bibliographique,"  1850  ; 
Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 


Chartier,  (Guillaume,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  I3ayeux  about  1400,  became  Bishop  of  Paris  in 
1447.    Died  in  1472. 

Chartier,  (Jean,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  received 
from  Charles  VII.  the  title  of  historiographer.  He  pub- 
lished "  Chronicles  of  France,"  and  a  "  History  of  the 
Reign  of  Charles  VII.,"  both  of  which  are  esteemed. 
Died  in  or  after  1461. 

Chartier,  (Jean,)  a  son  of  Rene,  noticed  below,  born 
in  Paris  in  1600,  graduated  in  1634,  and  became  physi- 
cian to  the  king.  Died  in  1662.  Philippe,  a  younger 
brother  of  Jean,  was  also  physician  to  the  king,  and  pro- 
fessor in  the  College  Royal.  Died  in  1669,  aged  thirty-six. 

Chartier,  (Rene,)  [Lat,  Rena'tus  Charte'rius,]  a 
French  physician,  born  at  Vendome  in  1572.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Paris  in  1608,  was  appointed  physician-in-ordinary 
to  the  king  in  16 13,  and  professor  of  surgery  at  the  Col- 
lege Royal  in  161 7.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  by 
an  excellent  edition,  in  Greek,  of  Hippocrates  and  Galen, 
with  a  Latin  version  and  notes,  (1639-79.)  Died  in  1654. 

See  "Nouvelie  Biographic  Generale." 

Charton,  shtk'toN',  (£douard,)  a  French  litteratetir, 
born  at  Sens  in  1807.  He  established  in  1833  the  "  Pic- 
torial ( Pittorcsqiie)  Magazine,"  which  he  conducted  more 
than  twenty  years.  In  1848  he  was  elected  to  the  Na- 
tional Assembly.  He  contributed  to  several  journals 
of  Paris,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "Ancient 
and  Modern  Voyagers,"  (1855.) 

Chartran,  shtR'tudN',  (J.  H.  S.,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Carcassonne  in  1779.  He  was  made  a  general  of 
brigade  for  his  services  at  Culm  in  1813,  and  was  put  on 
half-pay  by  the  Bourbons  in  1814.  He  took  the  field  for 
Bonaparte  in  181 5,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Waterloo. 
He  was  tried  by  a  military  court,  and  executed  in  1816. 

Chartres,  Duke  of.  Several  French  princes  have 
borne  this  title.  (See  Louis  Philippe;  and  Orleans, 
Philippe,  Duke  of.) 

Chartres,  de,  deh  shtRtR,  (Renaud  or  Reginald,) 
Archbishop  of  Rheims,  was  born  about  1380.  He  was 
appointed  chancellor  of  France  in  1428,  and  acquired 
great  influence  with  the  king,  Charles  VII.  He  was 
jealous  of  Joan  of  Arc,  whose  bold  and  extraordinary 
measures  did  not  accord  with  his  mean  and  tortuous 
policy,  and  made  no  effort  to  prevent  her  tragical  death. 
Died  in  1444. 

Chas,  shis,  (J.,)  a  prolific  French  writer  and  compiler 
of  history,  biography,  etc.,  was  born  at  Nimes  about 
1750  ;  died  about  1830. 

Chase,  (Irah,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine  and  theologian, 
born  in  Stratton,  Vermont,  in  1793.  He  was  the  ])rin- 
cipal  founder,  in  1825,  of  the  Baptist  Theological  Semi- 
nary at  Newton,  Massachusetts,  and  professor  in  that 
institution  until  1845.    I^ied  in  1864. 

Chase,  (Philander,)  an  American  Episcopal  bishop, 
born  in  Cornish,  New  Hampshire,  in  1775,  gi'^iduated  at 
Dartmouth  College  in  1795.  He  became  rector  of  a 
church  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  about  1812,  and  in 
181 7  began  to  labour  as  a  missionary  in  Ohio,  where  he 
planted  the  Episcopal  Church.  In  1819  he  was  elected 
Bishop  of  Ohio,  and  in  1835  became  Bishop  of  Illinois. 
He  founded  Kenyoii  College,  in  Ohio,  and  Jubilee  Col- 
lege, in  Illinois.    Died  in  1852. 

See  "Reminiscences  of  Bishop  Chase:  an  Autobiography." 

Chase,  (Salmon  Portland,)  an  eminent  American 
statesman,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Cornish,  New  Hampshire,  on  the  13th  of  January,  1808. 
He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1826,  taught  a 
classical  school  at  Washington,  District  of  Columbia, 
from  1826  to  1829,  studied  law  under  William  Wirt,  and 
settled  at  Cincinnati  about  1830.  He  attained  eminence 
as  a  lawyer,  supported  General  Harrison  in  the  Presi- 
dential election  of  1840,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  formation  of  the  Liberty  party  about  1841.  He  was 
one  of  the  chief  promoters  of  the  convention  of  Free- 
soilers  which  met  at  Buffalo  in  1848  and  nominated 
Martin  Van  Buren  for  the  Presidency,  He  acted  as 
counsel  for  the  defence  of  several  fugitive  slaves. 

In  February,  1849,  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  by  the  Democratic  members  of  the  legis- 
lature of  Ohio.  He  made  in  the  Senate  a  speech  against 
the  Compromise  Bill  in  1850.    On  the  nomination  of 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  K,  giittitral;  n,  nasal;  R, 


trilted;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


CHASE 


582 


CHASSELOUP 


Mr.  Pierce  in  1852,  he  separated  from  the  Democratic 
party,  which  was  then  committed  to  the  support  and  ex- 
tension of  slavery.  He  opposed  the  Nebraska-Kansas 
Bill,  by  which  the  Missouri  Compromise  was  repealed 
in  1854,  and  offered  several  amendments  to  the  same. 
He  proposed  to  add  a  clause  that  "  the  people  of  the 
territory,  through  their  appropriate  representatives,  may, 
if  they  see  fit,  prohibit  the  existence  of  slavery  therein." 
This  amendment  was  rejected  by  a  vote  of  ten  yeas  and 
thirty-six  nays.  He  advocated  the  Homestead  Bill,  and 
maintained  that  the  Federal  Government  should  aid  in 
the  construction  of  a  railroad  to  the  Pacific. 

He  was  elected  Governor  of  Ohio  for  two  years  by 
the  Republicans  in  October,  1855,  and  supported  J.  C. 
Fremont  for  the  Presidency  in  1856.  In  1857  he  was 
re-elected  Governor.  At  the  National  Republican  Con- 
vention which  met  in  Chicago  in  May,  i860.  Governor 
Chase  received  forty-nine  votes  for  the  office  of  Presi- 
dent on  the  first  ballot.  Having  been  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Peace  Conference  which  met  at  Washington 
in  February,  1861,  he  there  made  a  speech  on  the  subject 
of  fugitive  slaves,  and  proposed  that  the  Northern  States 
should  compensate  their  masters  for  them.  "  We  cannot 
surrender  [them,"]  said  he,  "but  we  can  compensate." 
He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  the  cabinet 
of  Lincoln,  March  4,  1861.  In  January,  1862,  he  recom- 
mended that  the  notes  of  the  United  States  should  be 
made  a  legal  tender.  When  he  accepted  the  office  of 
secretary,  the  public  credit  was  low,  and  the  public  reve- 
nue was  scarcely  sufficient  to  support  the  government 
even  in  a  state  of  peace.  He  raised  money  by  the  issue 
of  treasury  notes,  called  "greenbacks,"  which  bore  no 
interest,  and  by  loans  which  were  taken  at  moderate 
rates,  mostly  by  the  people  of  the  United  States. 

His  services  as  a  financier  are  eulogized  by  Horace 
Greeley  in  these  terms:  "Governor  Chase  had  filled  in 
the  public  service,  through  years  of  doubt,  depression, 
and  disaster,  the  second  place  in  importance,  and  the 
first  in  the  magnitude  of  its  requirements,  and  had  dis- 
charged its  duties  with  pre-eminent  ability,  energy,  and 
courage."  ("  American  Conflict.")  He  resigned  his  office 
on  the  30th  of  June,  1864,  about  which  time  his  friends 
made  a  movement  to  procure  his  nomination  as  candidate 
for  the  Presidency,  but  without  success.  He  was  re- 
garded with  special  favour  by  the  radical  Republicans. 
He  supported  the  re-election  of  President  Lincoln,  who 
appointed  him  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of 
the  United  States,  in  the  place  of  Roger  B.  Taney,  who 
died  in  October,  1864.  In  the  controversy  about  the 
reconstruction  of  the  seceded  States  he  did  not  take  a 
decided  or  prominent  part ;  but  in  1865,  after  the  end  of 
the  civil  war,  he  made  a  tour  of  observation  in  several 
of  the  Southern  States,  and  made  speeches  to  the  freed- 
men.  He  identified  himself  with  the  Radicals  on  the 
question  of  impartial  suffrage.  He  presided  over  the 
court  of  impeachment  (March,  1868)  for  the  trial  of  Presi- 
dent Johnson.  He  is  understood  to  have  favoured  the 
acquittal  of  the  President,  and  by  his  course  on  that 
occasion  gave  much  offence  to  the  radical  Republicans. 
He  was  an"  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  Democratic 
nomination  for  President  in  July,  1868. 

See  Mrs.  Stovve's  "Men  of  our  Times." 

Chase,  (Samuel,)  an  American  judge  and  eloquent 
lawyer,  born  in  Somerset  county,  Maryland,  in  1 741.  Pie 
became  a  leader  of  the  patriots  of  Maryland  in  the  Revo- 
lution, was  a  delegate  in  Congress  from  1774  to  1778, 
and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence  in  1776.  In 
1791  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  general  court 
of  Maryland,  and  in  1796  was  nominated  an  associate 
justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States.  He 
was  impeached  in  1804  for  misdemeanour  in  relation 
to  certain  political  trials.  John  Randolph  of  Roanoke 
instigated  and  conducted  this  impeachment,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  acquittal  of  Judge  Chase  in  March,  1805. 
Died  in  181 1. 

See  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv.  ;  "  Encyclopaedia  Americana." 

Chasles  or  Chiles,  shdl,  (Louis,)  a  French  Jacobin 
and  priest,  born  at  Chartres  in  1754,  was  a  member  of 
the  Convention,  (1792-95,)  and  voted  for  the  death  of  the 
king.    Died  in  1826. 


Chasles,  (Michel,)  an  eminent  French  geometer, born 
at  lijiernon  (Eurc-et-Loire)  in  1793.  He  entered  the 
Polytechnic  School  in  1812.  In  1837  he  published  a 
resume  his  previous  works,  in  a  volume  entitled  "His- 
torical View  ( Apejyu )  of  the  Origin  and  Development  of 
Methods  in  Geometry,"  followed  by  a  "  Memoir  on  two 
General  Principles  of  the  Science,  Duality  and  Homog- 
raphy."  In  this  work  he  established  the  basis  of  a  new 
theory  of  conic  sections  and  of  surfaces  of  the  second 
order.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  astronomy  and 
mechaiiics  in  the  Polytechnic  School  in  1841.  He  was 
very  successful  in  researches  in  pure  geometry,  several 
important  theories  of  which  he  extended  and  simplified. 
In  1846  he  obtained  the  chair  of  higher  geometry  in  the 
Faculty  of  Sciences,  Paris,  and  in  1852  published  a 
"Treatise  on  Higher  Geometry,"  ("Traite  de  Geometrie 
superieure.")  He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in 
1851.  By  an  ingenious  algorithm  he  has  introduced  the 
principle  of  signs  into  pure  geometry,  and  has  created 
a  new  branch  of  mathematics,  characterized  by  uniformity 
of  method. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Chasles,  (Victor  Euphemion  Philarete,)  a.  suc- 
cessful French  Uttemtenr,  a  son  of  Louis  Chasles,  noticed 
above,  was  born  near  Chartres  in  1799.  He  has  been  for 
more  than  twenty  years  an  editor  of  the  "Journal  des 
Debats,"  and  has  contributed  to  the  "  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes."  His  principal  articles,  written  for  these  and 
other  periodicals,  have  appeai'ed  under  the  general  title 
of  "Studies  on  Comparative  Literature,"  (in  11  vols.,) 
among  which  are  "  Studies  on  Spain,"  "  Studies  on  Ame- 
rica," etc.  He  is,  or  was  recently,  professor  of  foreign 
languages  and  literature  in  the  College  of  France.  He 
has  shown  himself  an  able  critic  of  English  literature, 
and  has  reproduced  for  the  "  Revue  Britannique"  many 
articles  from  English  reviews.  He  published,  in  1862, 
"Galileo,  sa  Vie,  son  Proces  et  ses  Contemporains." 

See  QuER.'VRD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Chasles  or  Challes,  de,  deh  sh^l,  (Gr^goire,)  a 
French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1659.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Illustrious  Frenchwomen,"  ("Les  illustres  Fran- 
9aises,"  17 13,)  often  reprinted.    Died  about  1720. 

Clrasles  de  la  Touche,  shai  deh  It  toosh,  (Theo- 
dore Gaston  Joseph,)  a  P'rench  historical  writer,  born 
at  Le  Teil  in  1787;  died  in  1848. 

Chassaignac,  sht'san'ytk',  (E  ....,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Nantes  in  1805,  published  several  works 
on  anatomy. 

Chasse,  sht'sk',  (David  Hendrik,)  Baron,  a  brave 
Dutch  general,  born  at  Thiel  in  1765,  entered  the  French 
service  about  1790.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Prussian  campaign  of  1806,  and  displayed  great  bravery 
in  Spain  in  1808-09.  He  was  created  a  baron  about 
181 1,  and  became  a  general  of  division  in  1814.  He 
fought  for  the  allies  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  (1815,) 
after  which  he  became  governor  of  Antwerp.  His  reso- 
lute defence  of  Antwerp  against  the  French  in  1832  was 
much  admired.    Died  in  1849. 

See  Campo,  "Life  of  Chasse." 

Chassel,  sht^seK,  (Charles,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
at  Nancy  in  1612,  became  a  resident  of  Paris.  He  re- 
ceived the  title  of  sculptor  to  Louis  XIV.,  for  whom  he 
made  a  mimic  army  when  that  prince  was  a  boy. 

Chassel,  (REmi  Francois,)  a  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Metz  in  1666,  worked  at  Nancy,  and  was 
successful  in  monumental  sculpture.    Died  in  1752. 

Chasseloiip-Laubat,  de,  deh  shts'loo'  lo'bt', 
(FRANgois,)  Marquis,  a  French  general,  born  near 
Marennes  in  1754.  As  chief  engineer,  he  served  with 
applause  under  I^onaparte  in  Italy  in  1796  and  1797.  In 
1799  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  general  of  division. 
He  was  employed  for  several  years  in  fortifying  Mantua, 
Alessandria,  and  other  cities  of  Italy.  In  1812  he  ob- 
tained for  the  seventh  time  the  chief  command  of  the 
engineers  of  the  grand  army.  After  the  restoration  he 
received  the  title  of  Marquis.    Died  in  1833. 

See  "Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Frar.gois." 

Chasseloup-Laubat,  de,  (Justin  Prudent,)  Mar- 
quis, a  French  general,  son  of  the  preceding,  i3orn  in 
Paris  in  1800.    He  became  a  captain  of  cavalry  in  1830, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fdr,  fill,  f4t;  mit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CHASSENEUX 


583 


CHATEAUBRIAND 


and  a  few  years  later  accompanied  General  Maison  as 
aide-de-camp  in  an  embassy  to  Vienna.  From  1837 
to  1848  he  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
He  was  made  a  general  of  division  in  1853. 

His  brother,  Count  Justin  Napoleon,  a  lawyer  and 
a  Bonapartist  politician,  was  born  in  1805.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Assembly  in  1849,  and  afterwards  of  the 
Corps  Legislatif  In  November,  i860,  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  state  for  the  marine  and  the  colonies. 

Chasseneux,  shts'nuh',  (Barth^lemf,)  a  learned 
French  judge  and  legal  writer,  born  near  Autun  in  1480. 
He  was  appointed  president  of  the  parliament  of  Pro- 
vence in  1 532.  He  wrote,  among  otlier  works,  "  Con- 
silia,"  and  "Catalogus  Gloriae  Mundi,"  a  work  designed 
to  explain  and  determine  questions  of  rank,  precedence, 
etc.    Died  in  1541. 

Chasseriau,  sht'si're-o',  (Theodore,)  a  French 
painter,  born  at  Samana,  in  Hayti,  in  1 819,  worked  in 
Paris,  where  he  received  several  medals  between  1836 
and  1855.  His  works,  among  which  is  "The  Supper  of 
Macbeth,"  are  said  to  display  a  fine  imagination.  Died 
in  1856. 

Chassignet,  de,  deh  sht''s^n'ya',  (pRANgois,)  Baron, 
was  born  at  Besancon,  France,  in  165 1.  Having  entered 
the  Austrian  service,  he  Cjuickly  rose  to  a  high  rank  in 
the  army.  He  became  the  preceptor  of  the  emperor  Leo- 
pold's eldest  son,  (Joseph  I.)  In  1700  he  was  sent  to 
Naples  to  manage  a  conspiracy  against  the  Spanish 
government.  He  failed  in  this  attempt,  was  arrested 
and  confined  in  the  French  Bastille  until  1 7 14. 

Chassiron,  de,  deh  sht'se'roN^  (Pierre  Charles 
Martin,)  Baron,  a  French  economist,  noted  for  his  im- 
provements in  agriculture,  was  born  at  La  Rochelle  in 
1753.  He  wrote  several  esteemed  letters  on  agriculture, 
and  articles  for  Rozier's  "  Cours  d'Agriculture."  Diecl 
in  1825. 

See  Sii.vESTRE,  "  Notice  sur  le  Baron  Chassiron,"  1826. 

Chasteau,  sh^'to',  [It.  Castelli,  k^s-teKlee,]  (Guil- 
LAUME,)  a  French  engraver,  born  at  Orleans  in  1635. 
He  studied  and  worked  in  Italy,  and  afterwards  removed 
to  Paris,  where  he  was  patronized  by  Colbert.  He  en- 
graved after  Poussin,  Annibale  Caracci,  and  other  mas- 
ters.   Died  in  1683. 

See  By\SAN,  '"Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Chastel.    See  Chatel. 

Chastel,  sha'teK,  (Pierre  Louis  Aim^,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Vergi,  in  Chablais,  in  1774. 
While  serving  in  the  army  of  Egypt,  in  1798,  he  dis- 
covered the  zodiac  of  Denderah.  He  dis])layed  courage 
and  capacity  in  the  campaigns  of  Austerlitz  and  Jena, 
and,  as  general  of  division,  distinguished  himself  at  Boro- 
dino in  1 812.  After  the  campaign  of  181 5  in  l')elgium,  he 
retired  to  private  life.    Died  at  Geneva  in  1826. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Fran9ais." 

Chastel,  du.    See  Duchatel. 

Chastelain,  shat'l^N'',  (Claude,)  a  French  liturgist, 
born  in  Paris  about  1640;  died  in  1712. 

Chastelain,  shitldN',  (Georges,)  a  celebrated  Flem- 
ish chronicler,  born  in  Flanders  in  1403.  He  lived  at 
the  court  of  Philip,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  of  his  son, 
Charles  the  Bold  His  chief  work  is  a  "  General  Chroni- 
cle of  Events  from  1420  to  1474."    Died  in  1475. 

Chastelard,  de,  deh  shat'ltR',  (Pierre  de  Bosco- 
sel — deh  bos''ko'zeK,)  a  French  poet,  born  about  1540. 
He  became  enamoured  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  con- 
cealed himself  in  her  bedchamber,  and  was  detected. 
Having  repeated  the  offence,  he  was  executed  at  Edin-^ 
burgh  in  1563. 

See  MiGNET,  "Histoire  de  Marie  Stuart;"  Brantome,  "M6- 
moires." 

Chasteler,  du,  dii  shSt'li',  (Jean  Gabriel,)  Mar- 
quis, an  eminent  general  in  the  Austrian  service,  born 
at  Mons  iii  1763.  He  entered  the  army  at  the  age  of 
fifteen,  and,  after  serving  several  campaigns  in  Flanders 
and  Italy,  was  made  quartermaster-general  in  1799.  In 
1805  he  was  chief  of  the  staff  of  the  Archduke  Charles 
in  Italy.  In  1808  he  commanded  in  the  Tyrol  against 
the  French,  and  in  1813  became  general  of  artillery. 
About  1 81 5  the  emperor  aj^pointed  him  governor  of 
Venice,  where  he  died  in  1825. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


Chastelet  or  Chatelet,  du,  dii  shat'li',  (Paul  Hay,) 
Sieur,  an  eloquent  French  lawyer,  born  in  Bretagne 
in  1592,  became  attorney-general  at  Rennes,  and  coun- 
cillor of  state.  He  was  the  first  secretary  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "Life  of  Du 
Guesclin."    Died  in  1636. 

Chastellet,  du,  dii  sh§,^ti^la',  or  Chatelet-Lomont, 
du,  dii  shit'lk'  lo'm^N^  (Florent  Louis  Marie,)  Due, 
the  son  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Semur,  France, 
in  1727.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  army,  was 
created  a  duke  in  1777,  and  afterwards  became  colonel 
of  the  French  guards.  In  the  States-General  of  1789 
he  was  a  moderate  royalist.  He  was  proscribed  in  the 
reign  of  terror,  and  executed  in  December,  1793. 

Chastellet,  du,  or  Chitelet,  shat'la',  (Gabrielle 
Emilie  le  Tonnelier  de  Breteuil — leh  ton'le-a'  deh 
bReh-tuF  or  bReh-tu'ye,)  Marquise,  a  ceiebratedTi-ench 
savante,  born  in  1706.  She  was  learned  in  mathematics 
and  other  sciences,  and  in  Latin,  English,  and  Italian. 
In  1740  she  published  a  work  on  Physical  Philosophy, 
entitled  "  Institutions  de  Physique."  She  afterwards 
made  a  good  French  translation  of  Newton's  *'  Prin- 
cipia,"  which  was  revised  by  Clairaut.  In  early  youth 
she  was  married  to  the  Marquis  du  Chastellet-Lomont. 
She  lived  some  years  with  Voltaire  at  Cirey  between 
1735  and  1747.  Her  liaison  with  Voltaire  injured  her 
reputation,  and  will  probably  be  remembered  after  her 
writings  are  forgotten.    Died  in  1749. 

Chastellux,  de,  deh  shS'ta^liiks^  (Francois  Jean,) 
Marquis,  a  French  general  and  author,  born  in  Paris  in 
1734.  He  wrote  an  admired  "Essay  on  Public  Happi- 
ness," ("De  la  Felicite  publique,"  1772,)  which  Voltaire 
preferred  to  Montesquieu's  "Spirit  of  I^aws."  In  1775 
he  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy.  In  1780  he 
went  to  the  United  States,  where  he  served  with  honour 
as  major-general  in  the  army  of  Rochambeau  for  three 
years.  He  published,  among  other  works,  "Travels  in 
North  America,"  (2  vols.,  1786.)  He  was  a  personal 
friend  of  Washington.    Died  in  1788. 

See  Grimm,  "  Correspondance  Litt^raire ;"  Alfred  de  Chas- 
tellux, "Notice  sur  le  Marquis  de  Chastellux,"  1822. 

Chastilloii.    See  Chatillon. 

Chastillon,  de,  deh  shi^te''y6N',  (Alexis  Madeleine 
Rosalie,)  Due,  born  in  1680,  was  a  descendant  of 
Gaucher,  noticed  below,  and  became  marechal-de-camp 
in  1719.  As  lieutenant-general,  he  commanded  the  cav- 
alry at  Guastalla  in  1734.  In  1735  he  was  appointed 
governor  of  the  dauphin,  the  son  of  Louis  XV.  Died 
in  1754- 

Chastillon,  de,  (Eudes.)    See  Urban  II.,  Pope. 

Chastillon,  de,  (Gaucher,)  Count  of  Crecy,  a  French 
general,  born  in  1250,  fought  bravely  at  Courtray  in 
1302,  and  was  made  Constable  of  France  in  the  same 
year.  He  gained  a  victory  at  Cassel  in  1328.  Died 
in  1329, 

Chateau.    See  Chasteau,  (Guillaume.) 

Chateaubriand,  de,  deh  sha'to'bRe'SN^  (Franqois 
AuGUSTE,)  Viscount,  the  most  celebrated  of  the  French 
authors  who  wrote  during  the  first  empire,  was  born  of 
a  noble  family,  at  Saint-Malo,  in  September,  1768.  He 
was  educated  at  Dol  and  at  Rennes,  where  he  made  great 
progress  in  the  ancient  languages  and  in  mathematics. 
His  youth  was  passed  mostly  on  the  shore  of  the  ocean, 
where  his  imagination  was  nourished  by  lonely  reveries 
among  the  winds  and  waves.  "  A  divine  breath,"  says 
he,  "passed  over  me.  I  began  to  lisp  forth  verses  as  if 
they  had  been  my  natural  language.  I  wrote  for  a  long 
time  in  verse  before  attempting  prose."  He  was  des- 
tined for  the  church,  but  preferred  the  army,  which  he 
entered  as  sub-lieutenant  in  1786.  He  was  in  Paris  and 
a  spectator  of  the  capture  of  the  Bastille  in  1789,  but  did 
not  partake  of  the  popular  enthusiasm.  "I  had  neither 
adopted  nor  rejected  the  new  opinions,"  says  he.  "  I 
wished  neither  to  emigrate  nor  to  follow  the  military  pro- 
fession. I  retired."  Impelled  by  a  desire  to  travel,  he 
sailed  for  the  United  States  in  1791,  ostensibly  in  search 
of  a  Northwest  passage.  He  dined  in  Philadel])hia  with 
Washington,  of  whom  he  says,  "There  is  virtue  in  the 
look  of  a  great  man.  I  felt  myself  warmed  and  refreshed 
by  it  during  the  rest  of  my  life."  H  avinsr  traversed  the 
primeval  forests  from  Niagara  to  Florida,  he  returned 


c  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  y., guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Jj^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


CHATEAUBRIANT 


584 


CHATELET 


to  France  in  1792.  He  had  not  found  a  Northwest  pas- 
sage, but  he  had  discovered  the  germs  of  a  new  and 
romantic  literature.  To  please  his  sister,  he  married 
Mademoiselle  de  Lavigne,  whom  he  appears  not  to  have 
found  a  very  congenial  companion.  In  1792  he  joined 
the  army  of  royalist  emigrants,  was  wounded  at  Thion- 
ville,  and  left  for  dead  in  a  ditch.  From  1793  until  1800 
he  was  an  exile  in  England,  where  he  was  reduced  to 
extreme  poverty,  and  partly  supported  himself  by  trans- 
lations for  the  booksellers. 

Having  been  converted  from  skepticism  by  the  death 
of  his  mother,  in  1798,  he  began  to  compose  his  celebrated 
work,  "The  Genius  of  Christianity,"  ("Genie  du  Chris- 
tianisme,")  He  returned  to  France  in  1800,  and  pub- 
lished in  1801  his  romance  of  "Atala,"  a  picture  of  abori- 
ginal American  life,  which  extorted  from  Europe  a  general 
exclamation  of  surprise  and  admiration.  In  1802  ap- 
peared his  "Genie  du  Christianisme,"  to  which  "  Rene," 
a  romance,  was  attached  as  an  episode.  The  publication 
of  these  brilliant  works  made  a  revolution  in  French 
literature,  and  caused  him  to  be  recognized  as  the 
literary  glory  of  his  age.  He  ijerformecl,  in  1806  and 
1807,  a  tour  through  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Palestine,  and 
Spain,  partly  with  a  view  to  familiarize  himself  with  the 
regions  in  which  he  proposed  to  lay  the  scene  of  a  new 
work.  This  was  a  prose  epic,  entitled  "The  Martyrs, 
or  the  Triumph  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  which  ap- 
peared in  1809. 

In  181 1  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy, and  published  his  "  Itinerary  from  Paris  to  Jerusa- 
lem." His  long  and  implacable  enmity  to  the  emperor 
found  utterance  in  his  famous  and  eloquent  pamphlet, 
"  Bonaparte  and  the  Bourbons,"  (1814.)  Under  the  resto- 
ration, from  1 814  to  1824,  he  showed  himself  an  ultra- 
royalist.  He  was  ambassador  to  Berlin  in  1820,  and  to 
London  in  1822,  after  he  had  fiercely  and  effectively  op- 
posed the  Liberal  minister  Decazes,  whose  feet,  he  said, 
"  had  slipped  in  blood."  He  was  appointed  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  in  1823,  and  dismissed  by  his  rival,  Vil- 
lele,  in  June,  1824,  after  which  he  became  a  formidable 
assailant  of  the  ministry  in  the  "Journal  des  Debats." 
In  1828  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome  by  Mar- 
tignac  ;  but  he  resigned  the  embassy  on  the  accession  of 
Polignac  as  prime  minister.  After  the  revolution  of 
1830  he  refused  to  take  the  oath  to  Louis  Philippe,  and 
defended  the  exiled  Bourbons  in  several  tracts,  for  which 
he  was  prosecuted  and  im])risoned  a  short  time  in  1832. 
His  waywardness  and  inconsistency  in  politics  were  thus 
indicated  in  his  own  words :  "  I  am  a  Bourbonist  by 
honour,  a  royalist  by  reason  and  conviction,  and  a  repub- 
lican by  taste  and  character."  He  died  on  the  4th  of 
July,  1848,  after  seeing  the  advent  of  the  second  repub- 
lic. He  left  posthumous  memoirs,  ("  Memoires  d'Outre- 
Tombe,")  1849,  which  attracted  general  attention  as  a 
rare  combination  of  genius  and  egotism.  He  had  no 
children.  His  last  years  were  passed  in  retirement  and 
in  a  despondency  which  even  the  charming  society  and 
devoted  attentions  of  Madame  Recamier  could  not  ex- 
hilarate. 

See  Vii.i.EMAiN,"  M.  de  Chateaubriand,  sa  Vie,  ses  Merits,  son  In- 
liience,"  etc.,  1858;  Count  de  Marcellus,  "Chateaubriand  et 
-.on  Temps,"  1859:  L.  de  Lomenie,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporalns 
Uustres,"  tome  i.;  Scipion  Marin,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Ou- 
vrages  de  Chateaubriand,"  1833;  Cesare  Cantij,  "  Cliateaubriand, 
Discorso,"  Milan,  1835;  F.  Z.  Collombet,  "Chateaubriand,  sa 
Vie  et  ses  ficrits,"  1851  ;  Ancei,ot,  "Vie  de  ChSteaubriand,"  4to, 
1853  ;  Sainte  Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tomes  i.  and  ii.;  Pres- 
COTT,  "Miscellanies;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1816; 
"Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  June,  1837,  September,  1849,  and  July, 
1850;  "  Fore.gn  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1831,  October,  1832, 
and  April  and  January,  1837  ;  "  North  British  Review"  for  August, 
185S ;  "Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of  Madame  Recamier," 
translated  from  the  French  and  edited  by  Miss  Luvster,  Boston, 
1867. 

Chateaubriant,  de,  deh  sha'to'bRe'SN',  (FRANg;oiSE,) 
CouNi'KSs,  a  i)eautiful  French  lady,  born  in  1475,  ^^"^^ 
the  daughter  of  the  Count  de  Foix,  and  sister  of  Marshal 
Lautrec.  After  her  marriage  with  Seigneur  de  Chateau- 
briant,  she  became  an  ornament  of  the  court  of  Francis 
I.,  who  said  that  a  court  without  ladies  "is  like  a  year 
without  spring  and  a  spring  without  roses."  The  current 
rumour  that  she  was  the  mistress  of  Francis  is  denied 
oy  some  writers.    Died  in  1537. 

See  Varillas,  "Histoire  de  Frangois  I." 


Chateaubrun,  de,  deh  shi'to'bRuN',  (Jkan  Baptiste 
Vivien,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1686. 
He  composed  dramas,  which  for  many  years  he  refused 
to  present  on  the  stage,  through  fear  of  displeasing  the 
Due  d'Orleans,  to  whom  he  was  attached  as  maitre- 
d' hotel,  (steward.)  He  was  received  into  the  French 
Academy  in  1753.  The  next  year  his  tragedy  "The 
Trojan  Women"  was  performed,  and  was  received  with 
great  favour.    Died  in  1775. 

Chateauneuf,  de,  deh  sha't5'nuf,  (L'fipiNE,)  a 
French  diplomatist,  born  about  1753,  was  a  cousin  of 
General  Dumouriez.  He  was  consul-general  at  Tunis 
in  1787,  and  minister  to  Geneva  a  short  time  about  1792. 
He  translated  the  "  Idyls"  of  Theocritus  into  French 
verse.    Died  in  1800. 

Chateauneuf-Randon,  de,  dehshi^to'nuf'rSN'd^N', 
(Alexandre,)  Count,  a  French'  Jacobin  and  regicide, 
born  probably  in  Gevaudan.  In  1789  he  was  deputed 
by  the  noblesse  of  Mende  to  the  States-General,  and  in 
1792  to  the  Convention,  in  which  he  voted  for  the  exe- 
cution of  the  king.  He  made  himself  notorious  for  his 
cruelty  and  crimes  at  Lyons,  whither  he  was  sent  by  the 
Convention  in  1793.    Died  in  obscurity  in  1816. 

Chateau-Regnaud,  de,  deh  shi'to'  reh-no^  also 
written  Chateau-Renaud  and  Chiteau-Regnard, 
(FRANgois  Louis  de  Rousselet,)  Count,  a  French  vice- 
admiral  and  marshal,  born  in  1637.  As  chef-d'escadre,  or 
commodore,  he  defeated  the  Dutch  fleet  under  De  Ruyter 
in  1673.  In  1678  he  gained  a  victory  near  Cadiz  over 
Eversen,  a  Dutch  admiral.  He  defeated  the  English  in 
the  Bay  of  Bantry,  and  was  appointed  lieutenant-general 
of  the  naval  armies,  in  1688.  In  1701  Philip  V.  of  Spain 
gave  him  the  title  of  Captain-General  of  the  Ocean.  He 
received  a  marshal's  baton  in  1703.    Died  in  17 16. 

Chateauroux,  shd'to'roo',  (Marie  Anne,)  Duchess 
of,  was  born  of  the  noble  family  of  Nesle.  After  the 
death  of  her  husband,  the  Marquis  de  la  Tournelle,  she 
became  the  favourite  of  Louis  XV.  of  France,  who  gave 
her  the  title  of  Duchess.  She  retained  influence  over 
him  until  her  death  in  1744. 

Chatel.    See  Duchatel. 

Chatel  or  Chastel,  sha'tgK,  (Jean,)  a  Frenchman, 
born  in  Paris  about  1575.  In  December,  1594,  he  en- 
tered tlie  Louvre  and  attempted  to  kill  Henry  IV.  with 
a  knife,  but  only  inflicted  a  slight  wound.  He  was  ar- 
rested, and,  when  questioned  respecting  his  motive,  said 
that  he  had  been  taught  at  a  college  of  Jesuits  that  it 
was  lawful  to  kill  a  heretical  king.  He  was  executed, 
and  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  Paris.  " 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Chatel,  du,  dii  shi't^K,  (Franqois,)  a  skilful  Flemish 
historical  painter,  born  at  Brussels  in  1626.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Teniers,  whose  style  he  imitated  with  success  ; 
and  he  excelled  in  design  and  colouring.  A  picture  of 
the  King  of  Spain  receiving  the  Oath  from  the  Estates 
of  Flanders  in  1666  is  one  of  his  most  admired  works. 
He  often  chose  for  his  subject  a  festival,  a  social  assem- 
bly, or  a  family  group. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Chatel,  du,  (Tanguy  or  Tanneguy,)  a  French  gene- 
ral, who  served  at  Agincourt  in  141 5,  and  was  chief  of 
the  Armagnac  party.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of 
Provence  by  Charles  VII.  in  1446.  He  died  at  the  age 
of  ninety. 

Chatelain,  shat'eh-lan',  ( ? )  (John  Baptist,)  a  skilful 
designer  and  engraver,  born  in  London  in  1710.  He  was 
reckoned  among  the  best  engravers  of  landscapes,  many 
of  which  he  executed  after  Gaspard  Poussin,  N.  Pous- 
sin,  and  Cortona.  He  also  engraved  his  own  flesigns. 
Died  in  London  in  1771. 

See  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Chatelain,  (Ren^:  Th6ophile,)  a  French  writer, 
born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1790,  served  in  the  army  from 
1808  to  1815.  In  1819  he  became  chief  editor  of  the 
"Courrier  Frangais,"  a  paper  of  liberal  politics,  and 
acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  journalist.  His  princi- 
pal work  is  entitled  "  Letters  of  Sidi  Mahmoud,"  (1825.) 
Died  in  1838. 

Chatelet.    See  Chastellet  and  Chastelet. 

Chatelet-Lomont.    See  Chastellet. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    ^,    same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CHATHAM 


585 


CHAUDR UC 


Chatham,  chat'am,  (John  Pitt,)  Earl  of,  born  in 
1756,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  great  Earl  of  Chatham. 
He  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  the  ministry  of  his 
brother,  William  Pitt,  and  commanded  the  unfortunate 
expedition  against  Walcheren  in  1809.  He  died,  without 
issue,  in  1S35. 

Chatham,  Lord.    See  Pitt,  (William.) 

Chatillou.  See  Chastillon  and  Charles  de  Blois. 

Chatillon,  sha'te'yoN'',  (Andre  Marie,)  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1782,  gained  the  grand  prize 
(de  Rome)  in  1809. 

Chatillon  or  Chastillon,  (Nicolas  Claude,)  born 
at  Chalons,  in  Champagne,  in  1547,  was  reputed  one  of 
the  ablest  engineers  of  France,  He  was  employed  as 
engineer  by  Henry  IV.  and  Louis  XHI.  He  built  the 
Pont-Neuf  (New  Bridge)  in  Paris,  and  left  a  work  entitled 
"  French  Topography,"  containing  views  of  castles,  cities, 
etc.    Died  in  1616. 

Chat'ter-ton,  Lady,  a  British  authoress  of  the  pres- 
ent century.  She  has  published  "  Rambles  in  the  South 
of  Ireland^"  (1838,)  "A  Good  Match,"  a  novel,  (1839,) 
"The  Reigning  Beauty,"  (1858,)  and  other  works. 

Chatterton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  celebrated 
for  his  genius,  precocity,  and  literary  impostures,  was 
born  at  Bristol  in  1752.  His  father  was  sexton  of  Red- 
cliffe  Church.  In  childhood  he  was  averse  to  study,  and 
was  pronounced  by  his  teacher  a  dull  boy.  After  he 
attained  the  age  of  eight,  he  made  rapid  progress,  and 
became  fond  of  antiquarian  pursuits.  About  the  age  of 
twelve  he  wrote  verses  which  evinced  talent.  In  1767 
he  was  apprenticed  to  an  attorney  of  Bristol,  When  the 
new  bridge  was  opened  in  1768,  Chatterton  published 
a  "  Description  of  the  Friars  first  passing  over  the 
Old  Bridge,"  which  he  professed  to  derive  from  ancient 
manuscripts  found  in  the  muniment-room  of  Redcliffe 
Church,  He  soon  produced  poems,  which  he  ascribed 
to  Rowley,  a  monk  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  other  in- 
genious fabrications,  which  excited  among  literary  men 
no  little  sensation.  A  long  and  animated  controversy 
ensued  respecting  the  authenticity  of  the  Rowleian 
poems,  which  the  majority  pronounced  to  be  forgeries. 
In  April,  1770,  he  went  to  London  in  search  of  literary 
employment,  and  was  at  first  successful.  He  was  em- 
ployed by  several  booksellers,  and,  in  letters  to  his 
mother,  represented  his  prospects  as  extremely  brilliant. 
He  wrote  sermons,  songs,  and  political  articles  for  the 
public  journals.  He  soon  became  despondent,  was  re- 
duced to  a  state  of  starvation,  and  in  August,  1770,  was 
found  dead,  probably  by  suicide.  It  appears  that  he  had 
shown  symptoms  of  insanity  for  some  years  before  his 
death.  His  principal  poems  are  "  The  Tragedy  of  Ella," 
"The  Battle  of  Hastings,"  "Ode  to  Ella,"  "  The  Tour- 
nament," and  a  "  Description  of  Canynge's  Feast." 
"  This  youth,"  says  T.  Warton,  "  was  a  prodigy  of  genius, 
and  would  have  proved  the  first  of  English  poets  had 
he  reached  a  mature  age."  "  No  English  poet,"  says 
Thomas  Campbell,  "  ever  equalled  him  at  the  same 
age,  Tasso  alone  can  be  compared  to  him  as  a  juvenile 
prodigy.  His  thirst  for  knowledge  was  that  of  a  being 
taught  by  instinct  to  lay  up  materials  for  the  exercise 
of  great  and  undeveloped  powers." 

See  Warton,  "  History  of  English  Poetry;"  Campbell,  "Speci- 
mens of  the  British  Poets  :"  John  Dix,  "Life of T.  Chatterton,"  1837  ; 
George  Gregory,  "Life  of  T.  Chatterton,"  1789;  "  Biographia 
Britannica  ;"  H.  Puettmann,  "Chatterton,"  Barmen,  2  vols.,  1840; 
Gary,  "Lives  of  English  Poets  from  Johnson  to  Kirke  White;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1804,  (by  Sir  Walter  Scott.) 

Chau'cer,  [Lat.  Chaucf/rus,]  (Geoffrey,)  the 
father  of  English  poetry,  was  born  in  London  in  1328. 
The  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  both  claim 
him  as  their  alumnus.  He  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Edward 
HI.,  and  passed  much  time  at  court.  About  1358  he 
served  in  the  army  which  invaded  France,  where  he  was 
made  prisoner.  In  1373  he  was  employed  on  an  em- 
bassy to  Genoa,  where  perhaps  occurred  the  interview 
with  Petrarch  which  he  mentions  in  his  works.  Soon 
after  his  return  he  was  appointed  comptroller  of  customs 
in  London.  He  was  elected  a  knight  of  the  shire  for 
Kent  in  1386,  and  about  that  time  is  said  to  have  been 
persecuted  as  a  Wickliffite.  He  received  an  annual  pen- 
sion from  1367  until  his  death,  excepting  a  few  years 
when  he  was  out  of  favour.    In  the  latter  part  of  his  life 


he  wrote  his  principal  work,  the  celebrated  "  Canterbury 
Tales,"  in  a  language  so  different  from  modern  English 
that  few  persons  can  now  enjoy  their  beauties.  The  plot 
is  thought  to  be  taken  from  the  "  Decameron"  of  Boc- 
caccio ;  and  the  work  purports  to  be  a  series  of  stories 
told  by  pilgrims  travelling  in  company  to  Canterbury. 
Among  his  other  poems  are  "The  Court  of  Love,"  "The 
Legend  of  Good  Women,"  "The  House  of  Fame,"  and 
"Troilus  and  Cresseide."    He  died  in  1400. 

"  Our  greatest  poet  of  the  middle  ages,  beyond  com- 
parison," says  Hallam,  "was  Chaucer;  and  I  do  not 
know  that  any  other  country  except  Italy  produced  one 
of  equal  variety  in  invention,  acuteness  of  observation, 
or  felicity  of  expression."  ("Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  Europe.")  "  I  take  unceasing  delight  in  Chaucer," 
says  Coleridge.  "  His  manly  cheerfulness  is  especially 
delicious  to  me  in  my  old  age.  How  exquisitely  tender 
he  is,  yet  how  free  from  the  least  touch  of  sickly  melan- 
choly or  morbid  drooping  !"  "  Chaucer  stands  in  the 
first  rank,"  says  Southey,  "  with  Spenser,  Shakspeare, 
and  Milton."  He  had  a  son.  Sir  Thomas,  who  became 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  a  daughter  Alice, 
who  married  the  Duke  of  Suffolk.  The  poet  himself  had 
married  Philippa  Rouet,  a  maid  of  honour  to  the  queen, 
and  sister-in-law  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster. 

See  W.  Godwin,"  Life  of  Chaucer,"  1804;  Todd,  "Lives  of  Gower 
and  Chaucer,"  1810;  H.  Nicholas,  "Life  of  Chaucer,"  1843;  H. 
GoMONT,  "G.  Chaucer,  Poete  Anglais,"  1847;  Villemain,  "  Cours 
de  Litterature  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1815  ;  "Retrospective 
Review,"  vol.  ix.,  1824,  and  vol.  xiv.,  1826;  article  on  Chaucer  (by 
Sir  Walter  Scott)  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  Jaiiuary, 
1804;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1856. 

Chaucerus.    See  Chaucer. 

Chaudesaigues,  shod'zig',  (Charles  Barthelemi,) 
a  French  writer  of  songs,  born  in  Paris  in  1799. 

Chaudet,  sho'di',  (Antoine  Denis,)  an  eminent 
French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1763,  was  a  pupil  of 
Stouf.  In  1784  he  gained  the  grand  prize  of  the  Acad- 
emy for  a  bas-relief  of  "  Joseph  sold  by  his  Brethren." 
Having  studied  several  years  in  Rome,  he  returned  to 
Paris  in  1789,  and  soon  acquired  the  reputation  of  one  of 
the  first  of  modern  sculptors.  About  1805  he  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  one  of  the  committee  on 
the  "Dictionary  of  the  Language  of  the  Fine  Arts." 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  an  "  CEdipus,"  a  statue  of 
"Napoleon,"  "Paul  and  Virginia,"  and  "  Cincinnatus." 
He  was  also  a  skilful  painter.    Died  in  1810. 

See  Nagler,"  Neues  AllgemeinesKiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Chaudet,  (Jeanne  Elisabeth,)  a  French  painter, 
wife  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1767 ;  died  about  1830. 

Chaudon,  sh6^d6N',  (Esprit  Joseph,)  a  French  lit- 
terateiir,  born  at  Valensole  (Lower  Alps)  in  1738.  He 
became  a  priest  of  the  Oratory,  and  taught  in  several 
colleges  of  that  order.  He  published  a  useful  work, 
called  "The  Library  ( Bibliotheque)  of  a  Man  of  Taste, 
or  Advice  on  the  Choice  of  the  Best  Books  in  our  Lan- 
guage," (1772,)  and  a  "Dictionary  of  the  Latin  Names 
in  Ancient  and  Modern  Geography,"  (1778.)  Died  in 
1800. 

See  Qu^rard,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Chaudon,  (Louis  Ma'ieul — mt'yuK,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Valensole,  near  Riez,  in  1737,  was  emi- 
nent as  a  biographer.  He  was  a  monk  of  the  fraternity 
of  Cluny,  and  is  usually  called  Don  Chaudon.  In  1766 
he  produced  a  "New  Historical  Dictionary,"  which  was 
superior  to  any  work  of  that  kind,  and  was  very  success- 
ful. The  ninth  edition,  enlarged  to  twenty  volumes, 
appeared  about  1810.  He  afterwards  published  anony- 
mously the  "Anti-Philosophic  Dictionary,"  (2  vols., 
1769,)  to  refute  the  skeptical  doctrines  of  Voltaire,  "Lec- 
tures on  History  and  Chronology,"  (2  vols.,  1781,)  and 
other  works.  He  assisted  his  brother  in  the  "  Library  of 
a  Man  of  Taste,"  (1772.)    Died  in  1817. 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Chaudron-Rousseau,  sh6''dR6N'  roo^so',  (  Pierre 
GuiLLAUME,)  a  French  general,  born  in  1775,  was  killed 
at  Chiclana  in  1811. 

Chaudruc  de  Crazannes,  shoMRlik'  deh  kRt'ztn', 
(Jean  C^;sar  Marie,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  near 
Saintes  in  1782, 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23,) 


CHAUFFARD 


586 


CHAUNCr 


Chauffard,  sho'tlr/,  (Marie  Denis  Etienne,)  a 
Frencli  medical  writer,  born  at  Avignon  in  1796.  He 
published  ''\Nox\^^  ( (Euvi-es)  of  Practical  Medicine," 
(3,  vols.,  1848,)  which  were  received  with  favour. 

Chaiiffepie,  de,  deh  shof  pe-i^  (Jacques  George,)  a 
Dutch  Protestant  minister,  of  French  descent,  born  at 
Lee u warden  in  1702.  He  preached  at  Flushing  and  Delft 
for  some  years.  From  1743  until  his  death  he  was  em- 
ployed in  Amsterdam.  He  published  in  1750  "A  New 
Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary,  supplementary  to  that 
of  Bayle,"  (4  vols.,)  a  valuable  work,  in  which  he  gives 
proof  of  much  erudition.  He  translated,  from  the  Eng- 
lish, part  of  a  "Universal  History"  (46  vols.)  composed 
by  a  society  of  literary  men.  Died  at  Amsterdam  in  1 7S6. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Cliauliac,  de,  deh  sh50e-tk',  ( Gui, )  an  eminent 
French  surgeon,  born  at  Chauliac.  He  lived  in  Avignon, 
where  he  was  successively  physician  to  Popes  Clement 
VI.,  Innocent  VI.,  and  Urban  V.,  between  1340  and  1370. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  an  excellent  treatise  on  Surgery, 
("  Inventarium  Partis  chirurgicalis  Medicinas,"  1363,) 
which  for  about  two  centuries  was  considered  a  classic 
and  standard  work.  A  French  writer,  Chaumeton, 
says  he  did  more  than  any  one  to  render  surgery  a  regu- 
lar art.  The  great  Haller  observes  that  "his  work  may 
be  regarded  as  an  excellent  historical  sketch  of  surgery 
down  to  his  epoch." 

See  I5loy,  "  Dictioiinaire  de  la  Medecine." 

Chaulieu,  de,  deh  sho'le-uh',  (Guillaume  Amfrye,) 
a  French  lyric  poet,  was  born  at  Fontenay,  in  Normandy, 
in  1639.  He  was  patronized  by  the  Dukes  of  Vendome, 
who  caused  him  to  be  appointed  Abbe  d'Aumale  and 
procured  him  other  rich  benefices.  He  became  distin- 
guished for  his  wit,  fine  taste,  and  Epicurean  morals,  and 
was  called  the  "  Anacreon  of  the  Temple."  "  Chaulieu," 
says  Hallam,  "was  an  original  genius.  His  poetry  is 
a  happy  mixture  of  a  gentle  and  peaceable  philosophy 
with  a  lively  imagination.  His  verses  flow  from  the  soul, 
and,  though  often  negligent  through  indolence,  are  never 
in  bad  taste  or  affected."  ("Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  Europe.")  Voltaire  praises  him  in  his  "Temple 
du  Gout,"  the  presiding  genius  of  which  advises  Chaulieu 
not.  to  estimate  himself  as  the  first  of  good  poets,  but  the 
first  of  negligent  poets,  (poetes  negliges.)  He  wrote  an 
"  Ode  to  Inconstancy,"  "  Stanzas  on  the  Solitude  of 
Fontenay,"  "La  Goutte,"  and  other  poems.  Died  in 
1720. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire  ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Cause- 
ries  du  Lundi  ;"  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance." 

Chaulnes,  de,  deh  shon,  (Honore  d' Albert — dtK- 
baiR^,)  Due,  a  French  general,  a  brother  of  Luynes, 
the  favourite  of  Louis  XIII.,  became  a  marshal  of 
France  in  1619,  and  was  created  Due  de  Chaulnes  in 
1 62 1.  He  was  made  Governor  of  Picardy  in  1633,  and 
commanded  against  the  Spaniards  in  Artois  in  1635. 
Died  in  1649. 

Chaulnes,  de,  (Louis  Auguste  d'Albert  d'Ailly 

— dtKbaiR'  dt'ye',)  Due,  a  French  general,  born  in 
1676,  was  the  father  of  Michel  Ferdinand,  noticed  below. 
Died  in  1744. 

Chaulnes,  de,  (Marie  Joseph  Louis,)  Due,  a  French 
savant,  son  of  Michel,  noticed  below,  born  in  1741,  cul- 
tivated the  physical  sciences  with  success,  and  became 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.   Died  in  1793. 

Chaulnes,  de,^(MieHEL  Ferdinand  d'Albert 
d'Ailly,)  Due,  a  French  general,  born  in  1714.  He 
was  noted  as  a  patron  and  votary  of  physical  science, 
and  spent  a  large  revenue  in  constructing  apparatus  and 
forming  collections.  In  1743  he  was  chosen  an  honorary 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  wrote  several 
ingenious  treatises,  which  were  published  by  that  acad- 
emy.   Died  in  1769. 

Chaumeix,  de,  deh  sho'mi',  (Abraham  Joseph,)  a 
French  critic,  born  near  Orleans  about  1730,  was  noted 
for  his  zeal  against  the  skeptical  philosophers.  Lie  pub- 
lished a  refutation  of  the  "Encyclopedic,"  and  was 
satirized  by  Voltaire  in  "The  Poor  Devil,"  ("Le  pauvre 
Diable.")    Died  in  1790. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Chaumeton,  sh5m't6N',  (  Franqois  Pierre,  )  a 
French  physician,  eminent  as  a  writer  and  a  critic,  born 


at  Chouze,  on  the  Loire,  in  1775.  He  devoted  much 
attention  to  the  literary  history  of  medicine,  and  wrote 
many  able  articles  for  the  "  Magasin  Encyclopedique," 
the  "  Bibliotheque  Medicale,"  and  other  scientific  jour- 
nals. For  the  "Biographic  Universelle"  he  furnished 
notices  of  many  eminent  physicians.  Pie  undertook  the 
"  Medical  Flora,"  of  which  he  composed  the  text  as  far 
as  the  letter  G.    Died  in  1819. 

See  ViREY,  "  Notice  siir  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Chaumeton." 

Chaumette,  sho'mit',  (Pierre  Gaspard,)  a  French 
demagogue  and  Jacobin  of  infamous  memory,  born  at 
Nevers  in  1763.  In  1789  he  joined  the  Cordeliers  Club 
in  Paris,  and  acquired  influence  over  the  populace  by 
his  violent  harangues.  As  procureur  of  the  commune, 
(1792,)  he  was  accessary  to  the  worst  crimes  of  that 
])eriod.  He  was  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  atheistical 
faction  called  Hebertists,  and  was  the  author  of  the 
Festivals  of  Reason.  As  chief  priest,  he  officiated  at  the 
profane  orgies  by  which  the  worship  of  Reason  as  the 
only  national  religion  was  inaugurated  in  the  cathedral 
of  Notre-Dame,  December,  1793.  He  was  proscribed 
by  Robespierre,  and  executed  in  1794. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Chaumonot,  sh5'mo'no',  (Pierre  Marie  Joseph,} 
a  French  Jesuit,  born  in  161 1,  laboured  as  a  missionar} 
among  the  Indians  of  Canada.    Died  in  1693. 

Chaumont,  de,  deh  sh6^m6N',(CHARLES  d'Amboise 
— dSN^bwSz',)  Seigneur,  a  French  general,  nephew  of 
the  Cardinal  d'Amboise,  was  born  in  1473.  ^'^'^ 
appointed  governor  of  Milan  in  1500,  and  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Agnadello.  In  1510  he  invested 
Pope  Julius  II.  in  Bologna,  and  would  have  captured 
him  if  he  had  not  resorted  to  negotiations.    Died  in  151 1. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Chaumont,  de,  (Paul  Philippe,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic and  author,  succeeded  his  father  as  keeper  of  the 
books  of  the  king's  cabinet,  (1667.)  In  1654  he  was 
admitted  into  the  French  Academy,  and  in  1671  became 
Bishop  of  Apt.  He  wrote  an  esteemed  work  entitled 
"  Reflections  on  the  Christianity  taught  in  the  Catholic 
Church,"  (1693.)    Died  in  1697. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Chauncey  or   Chauncy,  chin'se    or  chawn'se, 

(Charles,)  a  distinguished  lawyer,  born  at  Durham, 
Connecticut,  in  1747.  He  taught  jurisprudence  for  many 
years,  and  became  a  judge  of  the  superior  court  of  Con- 
necticut in  1789.    Died  in  1823. 

Chauncey,  (Charles,)  an  eminent  American  lawyer, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  New  Haven,  Con- 
necticut, in  1777.  He  removed  about  1798  to  Philadel- 
phia, where  he  soon  rose  to  distinction,  although  he  had 
among  his  competitors  several  of  the  most  accomplished 
lawyers  in  the  United  States.    Died  in  1849. 

See  an  interesting  notice  of  his  characler  as  a  lawyer  and  a  man, 
by  Horace  Binney,  in  "Wallace's  Reports,"  vol.  ii.,  1854,  p.  xii. 
et  seq. 

Chauncey,  (IsAAe,)  an  American  commodore,  born  in 
Connecticut  about  1772.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  cap- 
tain about  1806,  ancl  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
naval  forces  on  the  northern  lakes  in  1812.  His  squadron, 
aided  by  a  land  army  under  General  Pike,  took  York 
(Toronto)  in  April,  1813.  He  defeated  the  British  fleet 
on  Lake  Ontario  in  September,  1813,  and  gained  a  high 
reputation  for  ability.    Died  in  1840. 

Chauncy,  (Charles.)    See  Chauncey,  (Charles.) 

Chauncy  or  Chauncey,  ch^n'se  or  chawn'se, 
(Charles,)  an  English  Puritan,  born  in  Hertfordshire 
in  1592,  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge,  and 
vicar  of  Ware.  He  emigrated  to  Massachusetts  in  1638, 
preached  some  years  at  Scituate,  and  became  president 
of  Harvard  College  in  1654.    Died  in  1672. 

Chauncy,  (Charles,)  a  writer  on  theology,  a  de- 
scendant of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1705.  He  was 
minister  of  a  church  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  for  many 
years.    Died  in  1787.  . 

Chauncy,  (Sir  Henry,)  a  British  antiquary  and  law- 
yer, born  in  1632,  became  reader  and  treasurer  of  the 
Middle  Temple,  and  ])ublished  "  Historical  Antiquities 
of  Hertfordshire,"  (1700.)  In  1688  he  was  made  a  Welsh 
judge.    Died  in  17 19. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lotig;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon«. 


CHAUPr 


587 


CHAZELLES 


Chaupy,  de,  deh  i;h6''pe',  (Capmartin  Bertrand,) 
a  French  antiquary  and  priest,  born  near  Toulouse  in  1720. 
In  1756  he  removed  to  Rome,  where  he  sp§>nt  ten  years 
in  collecting  materials  for  a  "Description  of  Ancient 
Italy,"  a  part  of  which  was  published.    Died  in  1798. 

Chaussard,  sho'stR'',  (Pierre  Jean  Baptiste,)  an 
ingenious  and  prolific  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1766.  He  was  an  ardent  partisan  of  the  Revolution,  and 
obtained  the  important  place  of  chef  des  bureaux  of  the 
committee  of  public  safety  about  1792.  In  1805  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  literature  at  Nimes,  and  two  years 
later  he  was  authorized  by  Fontanes  to  reside  in  Paris 
as  director  of  classical  studies,  retaining  his  title  and 
sa'ary.  lie  wrote  an  admired  ode  *'  On  Industry  and 
Arts,'"  "Theory  of  Criminal  Laws,"  (1789,)  " Esprit  de 
Mirabeau,"  (2  vols.,  1797,)  and  various  other  works.  In 
his  youth  he  adopted  the  name  of  Publicola.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1823. 

See  Hereau,  "Notice  sur  Chaussard." 

Chausse.    See  La  Chausse. 

Chau.sse,  de  la,  deh  It  shoss,  (Michel  Ange,)  a 
French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  about  1660,  became  a 
resident  of  Rome.  He  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his 
antiquarian  works,  among  which  are  "  Romanum  Mu- 
seum," an  illustrated  treatise  on  ancient  gems,  images, 
insignia,  etc.,  (1690.)    Died  after  1738. 

Chaussee,  de  la,  deh  It  sho^sa^  (Pierre  Claude 
Nivelle,)  a  French  dramatic  author,  born  in  Paris  in 
1692.  In  1732,  in  partnership  with  La  Faye,  he  wrote  an 
'•Epistle  from  Clio,"  ("Epitre  de  Clio,")  in  verse.  His 
pathetic  or  sentimental  comedy  "Prejuge  a  la  mode" 
("Prejudice  a  la  mode,"  in  verse,  1735)  obtained  a  tri- 
umph which  time  has  confirmed.  La  Chaussee  first 
introduced  what  the  French  call  the  ge7ire  larmoya)it, 
(pathetic  comedy.)  He  wrote  other  popular  dramas, 
among  which  we  may  name  "  False  Antipathy."  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Frencli  Academy.    Died  in  1754. 

See  La  Harpe,  "Coiirs  de  Litteiature." 

Chaussier,  sho'se-a',  (Francois,)  a  celebrated  French 
physician,  was  born  at  Dijon  in  1746,  and  graduated  in 
1780.  He  had  taught  anatomy  and  chemistry  at  Dijon  for 
some  years,  when  the  government  called  him  to  Paris,  in 
1794,  to  aid  Fourcroy  in  reorganizing  the  medical  insti- 
tutions. The  result  was  the  "Ecole  de  Sante,"  in  which 
he  obtained  the  chair  of  anatomy.  In  1804  he  became 
professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Polytechnic  School,  where 
he  lectured  until  1815.  He  wrote  many  medical  and 
scientific  treatises,  which  were  inserted  in  various  peri- 
odicals, and  rendered  impoitant  services  to  legal  medi- 
cine and  physiology.  Among  his  most  useful  works  is  a 
series  of  "  Synoptical  Tables  on  Zoonomy,"  (1799-1826.) 
Died  in  Paris  in  1828. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Chauveau,  sh6^•6',  (  Adolphe,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
about  1790,  became  professor  of  law  in  Toulouse  in  1821. 
He  published  a  "Theory  of  the  Penal  Code,"  (1834-43,) 
and  a  "General  Formulary,"  (1853.)  In  the  former  work 
M.  Helie  co-operated. 

Chauveau,  (Franqois,)  a  skilful  French  designer  and 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  about  1620.  He  engraved  works 
of  Raphael,  Poussin,  Giulio  Romano,  etc.    Died  in  1676. 

See  Heinecken,  " Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Chauveau,  (Rene,)  an  ingenious  French  sculptor  and 
architect,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1663. 
Louis  XIV.  employed  him  in  various  works  for  the  de- 
coration of  his  ])alaces.    Died  in  1722. 

Chauveau-Lagarde,sh5'v5'  lt'gtKd'',(CLAUDE  Fran- 
cois,) an  eloquent  and  courageous  P'rench  lawyer,  born 
at  Chartres  about  1760.  After  having  gained  reputation 
by  defending  Miranda  and  Brissot  'in  times  when  the 
advocate  shared  the  peril  of  the  accused,  he  was  desig- 
nated by  the  judge  to  be  counsel  for  Charlotte  Corday. 
He  was  one  of  the  counsel  chosen  by  the  queen  Marie 
Antoinette,  for  whom  he  made  an  unavailing  plea,  in 
October,  1793.  Soon  after  this  date  he  was  committed 
to  prison,  and  detained  until  Juty,  1794.  In  the  reign  of 
Napoleon  he  was  advocate  of  the  Council  of  State.  He 
published  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Trial  of  Marie  Antoinette," 
(1816.)    Died  in  1841. 

See  Louis  Aime  Martin,  "Quelques  Esquisses  sur  la  Vie  de 
Chauveau- Lagarde,"  1841. 


Chauvelin,  sh5v0iN',  (Henri  Philippe,)  Abbe,  a 
French  lawyer,  son  of  Germain  Louis,  noticed  below, 
acquired  reputation  by  his  bold  and  successful  attacks  on 
the  Jesuits,  which  resulted  in  the  suppression  of  the 
order  about  1762.  He  was  canon  of  Notre-Dame,  and 
a  counsellor  in  the  Parliament  of  Paris.  Died  in  1770, 
aged  fifty-four. 

Chauvelin,  de,  deh  shov'liN',  (FRANgois  Bernard,) 
an  able  French  politician,  born  in  1766.  He  favoured 
the  popular  party  in  1789,  and  in  1792  he  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  London  in  company  with  Talleyrand,  who, 
though  not  formally  accredited,  was  the  real  director 
of  the  negotiations.  When  the  death  of  Louis  XVI. 
became  known  in  England,  Chauvelin  was  ordered  to 
leave  the  island  within  eight  days.  Under  the  regime  of 
Bonaparte  he  served  as  member  of  the  Tribunat  and 
prefect  of  Lys,  and  received  the  title  of  Count.  After  the 
restoration  (1816)  he  was  for  about  ten  years  a  prominent 
member  and  speaker  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in 
which  he  actecl  with  the  Liberals.    Died  in  1832. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Chauvelin,  de,  (Germain  Louis,)  an  able  French 
minister  of  state,  born  in  1685.  In  1727  he  became 
keeper  of  the  seals  and  secretary  of  foreign  affairs.  He 
was  thenceforth  the  second  and  confidant  of  Cardinal 
de  Fleury,  the  prime  minister,  to  whom  he  is  said  to  have 
been  superior  in  political  talent.  He  was  removed  from 
office  in  1737,  and  died  in  1762. 

Chauvin,  sho'vclN',  (Etienne,)  a  learned  French 
Protestant  divine,  born  at  Nimes  in  1640.  He  became 
an  exile  about  1685,  and  went  to  Rotterdam,  where  in 
1688  he  taught  philosophy  in  place  of  Bayle  during  the 
long  illness  of  the  latter.  He  published  the  results  of 
his  studies  in  the  history  of  philosophy,  in  a  work  called 
"  Rational  Lexicon,  or  Philosophical  Treasury,"  ("  Lexi- 
con Rationale,  sive  Thesaurus  Philosophicus,"  1692.)  In 
1695  he  obtained  the  chair  of  philosophy  in  the  royal 
French  College  of  Berlin.    Died  in  Berlin  in  1725. 

See  MINL  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Chauvin,  (Jean.)    See  Calvin. 

Chavagnac,  de,deh  sht'vtn^ytk',(GASPARD,)CoMTE, 
a  French  officer,  born  in  1624,  published  a  volume  ul 
Memoirs,  (1699.) 

Chavee,  sht'vi',  (Honore  Joseph,)  a  Belgian  lin 
guist,  born  at  Namur  in  181 5.  He  attempted  to  d.s- 
]irove  the  unity  of  the  human  race  in  his  "Lexicologie 
Indo-Europeeime,"  or  Essay  on  the  Knowledge  of  San- 
scrit, Greek,  Latin,  French,  and  Russian  Words,  (1849.) 

Chaves,  de,  di  shcVvgs,  (Manuel  de  Silveyra 
Pinto  de  Fonseca — da  sel-va'e-r3,  p^n'to  da  fon-sa'- 
ka,)  Marquis,  and  Count  of  A^rante,  ( ^-ma-r^n^ti, ) 
a  Portuguese  general,  born  at  Villareal.  He  served  in 
the  Peninsular  war  from  1809  to  1814.  In  the  civil  war 
of  1823  he  was  a  prominent  partisan  of  Don  Miguel  and 
the  absolutists,  for  whom  he  gained  a  victory.  He  again 
raised  the  standard  of  absolutism  in  1827,  and  was 
defeated  by  Villaflor  near  Coimbra  and  Oporto.  Died 
in  1830. 

Chavignard.    See  Chavigny. 

Chavigny,  sht'v^n^ye',  or  Chavignard,  sht^'^n^'tR', 
(Theodore,)  a  French  diplomatist,  and  one  of  the  most 
able  negotiators  of  his  time,  born  at  Beaune,  in  Bur- 
gundy, was  an  uncle  of  Count  de  Vergennes,  He  rep- 
resented France  at  the  Congress  of  Ratisbon,  and  was 
minister  to  England  in  1731.  About  1745  he  negotiated, 
at  Frankfort,  the  treaty  of  alliance  between  the  emperor 
Charles  VII.,  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  other  powers. 
Died  in  1771. 

Chazal,  sht'ztK,  (Antoine,)  a  French  painter  and 
designer,  born  in  Paris  in  1793,  was  one  of  the  most 
eminent  painters  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History 
of  Paris,  He  designed  the  plates  for  the  "Floie  Pitto- 
resque,"  and  for  several  scientific  works. 

Chazelles,  de,  deh  sht'zIK,  (Jean  Mathieu,)  a 
French  mathematician  and  hydrographer,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1657,  became,  in  1685,  professor  of  hydrography  at 
Marseilles,  where  he  made  a  chart  of  the  coast  of  Pro- 
vence. In  1693  he  visited  Greece  and  Egypt,  where  he 
measured  the  Pyramids  and  observed  that  the  sides  of 
one  faced  the  cardinal  points.  In  1695  he  became  an 
Associate  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.    Died  in  1710. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Y^.guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CHEATHAM 


588 


CHEMNITZER 


Cheatham,  cheet'am,  (Benjamin  F.,)  an  American 
general,  born  at  Nashville,  Tennessee.  He  took  arms 
against  the  Union  in  1861,  commanded  a  division  at 
Perryville,  October,  1862,  at  Stone  River,  December 
31,  1862,  to  January  2,  1863,  and  at  Chickamauga,  Sep- 
tember 19  and  20,  1863. 

Chedeaux,  sheh-do',  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French 
economist,  born  at  Metz  in  1767;  died  in  1832. 

Chedel,  sheh'd^K,  (Quentin  Pierre,)  a  French  en- 
graver, born  at  Chalons,  in  Champagne,  in  1705.  He 
etched  landscapes  after  the  best  Dutch  painters.  His 
works  are  numerous  and  much  admired.    Died  in  1762. 

See  Heinecken,  " Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Chee'ver,  (Ezekiel,  )  an  eminent  New  England 
teacher,  born  in  London  in  1615.  Having  received  a 
superior  classical  education,  he  came  to  America  in  1638, 
and  assisted  in  founding  the  colony  in  New  Haven,  of 
which  he  was  a  teacher  for  twelve  years,  and  in  1646  was 
a  representative  in  the  General  Assembly.  He  was 
subsequently  for  eleven  years  a  teacher  in  Ipswich, 
•  Massachusetts,  nine  years  in  Charlestown,  and  thirty- 
eight  years  in  Boston,  where  he  died  in  1708. 

Cheever,  (George  B.,)  an  American  author  and 
preacher,  born  at  Hallowell,  Maine,  in  1807,  graduated 
at  Bowdoin  College  in  1825.  He  was  ordained  minister 
of  a  Congregational  church  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in 
1832.    About  1835  he  wrote  a  satirical  allegory  called 

l3eacon  Giles's  Distillery,"  for  which  he  was  prosecuted 
on  a  charge  of  libel  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for 
thirty  days.  He  became  a  resident  of  New  York  City  in 
1839,  and  preached  in  the  Allen  Street  Church.  He 
published  "Studies  in  Poetry,"  (1830,)  "Lectures  on  Pil- 
grim's Progress,"  (1843,)  "  Wanderings  of  a  Pilgrim  in 
the  Shadow  of  Mont  Blanc,"  (1846,)  and  other  works. 
Since  1846  he  has  been  pastor  of  the  Congregational 
Church  of  the  Puritans,  New  York.  He  has  particularly 
distinguished  himself  as  an  opponent  of  slavery  and  an 
advocate  of  temperance. 

See  Griswoi.d,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Cheever,  (Henry  T.,)  an  author  and  Congregational 
minister,  brother  of  the  preceding,  has  published,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Island-World  of  the  Pacific,"  (1851.) 

Cheffontaines,  de,  deh  sha-f6N'tan',  (Christophe,) 
a  French  theologian,  born  in  Brittany  about  1532,  be- 
came Archbishop  of  Caesarea  about  1586.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Defence  of  the  Faith  of  our  An- 
cestors," (1570,)  and  a  "  Treatise  against  certain  Dogmas 
of  Scholastic  Theology,"  (1586.)   Died  at  Rome  in  1595. 

Chegaray,  shi'gt^a',  (Michel  Charles,)  a  French 
advocate  and  legislator,  born  at  Bayonne  in  1802.  He 
became  a  judge  of  the  court  of  cassation  in  1853. 

Cheiron.    See  Chiron. 

Cheke  or  Cheeke,  (Sir  John,)  an  eminent  English 
scholar  and  Hellenist,  born  at  Cambridge  in  1514.  He 
became  in  1540  the  first  professor  of  Greek  in  the  uni- 
versity of  that  city.  In  1544  he  was  appointed  Latin 
tutor  to  Prince  Edward.  About  1550  he  was  knighted  by 
his  former  pupil,  Edward  VI.,  and  in  1553  was  chosen 
secretary  of  state.  As  a  zealous  Protestant,  he  favoured 
the  attempt  to  raise  Lady  Jane  Grey  to  the  throne.  After 
the  accession  of  Mary  he  retired  to  the  continent,  to  es- 
cape persecution.  In  1556,  by  order  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
he  was  arrested  in  Flanders  and  conveyed  to  the  Tower 
of  London.  Being  required  to  choose  between  death  by 
fire  and  conversion  to  the  Catholic  faith,  he  accepted  the 
latter.  Remorse  for  this  act  hastened  his  death,  which 
occurred  in  1557.  He  had  translated  several  religious 
works  into  elegant  Latin,  and  contributed  much  to  the 
levival  of  learning  in  England. 

See  Strype,  "Life  of  Cheke,"  1705. 

Chelard,  sheh-ltR',  (Hippolyte  Andri^;  Jean  Bap- 
TISTE,)  a  French  musician  and  composer,  born  in  Paris 
in  1789.  His  opera  "Macbeth"  (with  words  by  Rouget 
de  Lisle)  was  very  successful,  and  procured  for  him  the 
place  of  chapel-master  to  the  King  of  Bavaria.  He  pro- 
duced other  operas,  cantatas,  etc. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musicians." 

Chelius,  Ka'le-us,  (Maximilian  Joseph,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Manheim  in  1794,  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  in  the  University  of  Heidelberg  in 


1819,  and  privy  councilloi  in  1826.  His  principal  work 
is  a  "  Manual  of  Surgery,"  which  has  been  extensively 
used.    The  Seventh  edition  appeared  in  1851. 

Chelmsford,  chSmz'ford,  (Sir  Frederick  Thesiger 
— thes'e-jer,)  Lord,  an  eminent  English  lawyer,  born 
in  London  in  1794.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament  in 
1840,  after  practising  some  years  as  leader  of  the  home 
circuit,  became  solicitor-general  in  1844,  ^^^^  attorney- 
general  under  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1845.  resigned 
his  office  in  1846,  and  was  reappointed  in  1852.  On 
the  accession  of  the  Conservative  party  in  1858,  he  was 
appointed  (by  Lord  Derby)  lord  chancellor  of  England, 
and  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord  Chelmsford.  Pie 
resigned,  in  consequence  of  the  defeat  of  the  Derby  min- 
istry, in  June,  1859,  and  was  lord  chancellor  again  from 
July,  1866,  to  February,  1868. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  ix. 

CheFsum,  (James,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
Westminster  in  1740,  published  "Remarks  on  Gibbon's 
History,"  (1772.)    Died  in  1801. 

Chemin,  du,  dii  sheh-m^N',  (Catherine,)  a  French 
flower-painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1630  ;  died  in  1698. 

Chemiiiais  de  Montaigu,  sheh-me'na'  deh  mciN'- 
ta'gii',  (Timol^on,)  a  French  Jesuit,  distinguished  as  a 
pulpit  orator,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1652.  Pie  preached 
in  several  pulpits  of  Paris  and  Versailles  until  he  was 
disabled  by  ill  health,  but  for  which  he  would  probably 
have  become  one  of  the  greatest  orators  of  his  age. 
Died  in  1689.  "Many  persons,"  says  Bayle,  "esteem 
his  sermons  as  highly  as  those  of  Bourdaloue." 

Chemineau,  sheh-me'n5',  (Jean,)  a  French  general, 
born  inLaCharente  in  1775.  He  lost  a  leg  at  the  battle 
of  Lutzen  in  1813,  and  in  the  same  year  became  a  general 
of  division,  and  governor  of  Strasbourg.    Died  in  1852. 

See  General  Foy,  "Histoire  de  la  Guerre  de  la  Peninsule." 

Chemnitius,  (Martin.)    See  Chemnitz. 

Chemnitz,  K^m'nits,  (Johann  Jerome,)  of  Magde- 
burg, a  German  naturalist  and  divine,  born  in  1730.  He 
published,  in  German,  several  works  which  contributed 
to  the  progress  of  natural  history,  especially  of  concho- 
logy.  His  "  Systematic  Cabinet  of  Shell-Fish,"  (12  vols. 
1776-1800,)  says  Du  Petit-Thouars,  "is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  complete  works  of  that  kind."  Died  in  1800. 

Chemnitz,  [Lat.  Chemnit'ius,]  (Martin,)  an  emi- 
nent German  Protestant  divine,  born  at  Treuenbrietzen, 
in  Brandenburg,  in  1522.  He  studied  mathematics,  as- 
tronomy, and  theology  at  Wittenberg,  and  about  1550 
was  chosen  librarian  to  Duke  Albert  of  Prussia.  In 
1554  he  became  minister  of  a  church  at  Brunswick.  He 
published  in  1565  "  Examen  Concilii  Tridentini,"  a  sound 
and  acute  argument  against  the  doctrines  asserted  by 
the  Council  of  Trent.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  formation  of  the  doctrinal  system  of  the  Protestant 
Church.  Chemnitz  and  Morlin  composed  the  "  Corpus 
Doctrinae  Prutenicae,"*  (1566.)  He  was  chosen  superin- 
tendent at  Brunswick  in  1567,  and  wrote  a  confession  of 
faith,  which  was  adopted  by  the  churches  of  Lower  Sax- 
ony in  1571.  His  "Theological  Topics"  ("Loci  Theo- 
logici,"  1591)  was  esteemed  high  authority  among  his 
contemporaries,  and  regarded  as  superior  to  all  similar 
works  in  learning  and  method.  He  died  at  Brunswick 
in  1586,  leaving  unfinished  a  "  Harmonia  Evangelica," 
which  was  published  about  1600. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon  ;"  Johann  H.  Wolff, 
"  Programnia,  M.  Chemnitius  ipsiusque  in  Ecclesiani  Lutheranain 
Merita,"  1719  ;  Jocher,  "Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Chemnitz,  von,  fon  K^m^iits,  (Philipp  Bogislav — 
bo'gis-l§.v,)  a  historian,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Stettin  in  1605.  He  entered  the  service  of  Christina 
of  Sweden,  who  ennobled  him  and  gave  him  the  office 
of  councillor.  He  wrote,  in  German,  a  valuable  history 
of  the  war  waged  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  Germany, 
(1648-52,)  and  a  political  work  on  the  theory  or  method 
of  government  in  the  German  Empire.   Died  in  1678. 

Chemnitzer,  Kem-'nit-ser,  (Ivan  Ivanovi  tch,)  a  Rus- 
sian fabulist,  of  German  descent,  born  in  Saint  Petersburg 
in  1744.  After  serving  for  some  time  in  the  army,  he 
retired  about  1778  from  the  service,  in  order  to  indulge 


*  "  Body  of  Prussian  doctrine ;"  so  called  because  it  was  prepared 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Duke  of  Prussia. 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon, 


CHEMNIZER 


589 


CHE  RON 


his  taste  for  literature,  and  then  published  a  part  of  his 
fables,  which  the  Russians  compare  to  those  of  La  Fon- 
taine. He  excels  in  vivacity  of  dialogue  and  naivete  of 
expression.  He  was  appointed  consul-general  to  Smyrna 
in  17S2,  and  died  there  in  1784. 

See  Otto,  "  Lehrbuch  der  Russischen  Literatur." 

Chemnizer.    See  Chemnitzer. 

Chenard,  sheh-ntk',  (Simon,)  a  French  actor  and 
singer,  l)orn  at  Auxerre  in  1758;  died  in  1831. 

Chenavard,  sheh-nS'vtR',  (Paul,)  an  eminent  French 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Lyons  in  1808.  He  studied 
some  years  in  Italy,  and  acquired  a  reputation  by  his 
picture  of  "  Mirabeau  rei)lying  to  the  Marquis  de  Dreux- 
Breze."  After  the  revolution  of  1848  he  received  a  com- 
mission to  paint  fifty  large  compositions  for  the  decora- 
tion of  the  Pantheon.  Among  these  are  "  The  Deluge" 
and  "The  Passage  of  the  Rubicon."  The  Pantheon 
having  been  restored  to  the  Catholic  worship,  he  was 
not  permitted  to  finish  the  task. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Chenedolle,  de,  deh  shin'do^la',  (Charles  Julien 
Pioult — i)e^oo^)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Vire  in  1769. 
He  emigrated  in  1 791,  served  in  the  royalist  army,  and 
returned  to  France  about  1800,  before  which  date  he  had 
composed  several  odes.  He  became  intimate  with  Fon- 
tanes  and  Chateaubriand.  In  1807  he  produced  "The 
Genius  of  Man,"  ("Le  Genie  de  I'Homme,")  a  poem, 
which  is  admired  for  elevated  thought  and  brilliant  style. 
He  was  appointed  professor  at  Rouen  in  1810.  Iw  1820 
he  published  a  volume  of  his  early  odes,  with  some  new 
poems,  among  which  were  "The  Last  Day  of  Harvest" 
and  "  Moonlight  in  May,"  containing  fine  descriptions 
of  nature.  He  was  chosen  inspector-general  of  the 
university  in  1830.    Died  in  1833. 

See  Louis  Blanc,  "Histoire  de  dix  Ans;"  Chateaubriand, 
"  Memoires  d'Outre-Tombe  ;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of 
Europe;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  for  June, 
1849- 

Chen'e-vix,  (Richard,)  an  Irish  writer,  noted  for 
versatility  of  talents.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Societies  of  London  and  Edinburgh.  He  published 
various  esteemed  works,  among  which  are  "  Chemical 
Nomenclature,"  (1802,)  an  "Essay  on  National  Charac- 
ter," (published  after  his  death,)  and  "  Henry  Seventh,"  a 
tragedy,  (1812,)  "  which,"  says  the  "Edinburgh  Review," 
"is  the  most  successful  imitation  of  the  general  style, 
taste,  and  diction  of  our  elder  dramatists,  that  has  ap- 
peared in  the  present  times."    Died  in  1830. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1812. 

Chenier,  shi'ne-i',  (Marie  Joseph,)  a  popular  French 
poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Constantinople  in  1764,  was 
a  brother  of  Andre  Chenier.  He  was  educated  in  Paris, 
where  he  also  resided.  He  produced  in  1789  "Charles 
IX.,"  a  tragedy,  which  had  prodigious  success,  especially 
with  the  popular  party.  In  1792  he  became  a  prominent 
republican  member  of  the  Convention.  He  served  the 
interests  of  liberty  and  order  in  the  several  Legislative 
Assemblies  of  the  ensuing  ten  years.  His  tragedy  of 
"Timoleon,"  in  verse,  (1794,)  after  being  performed  once 
with  applause,  was  prohibited  by  the  ruling  powers.  He 
composed  other  tragedies,  and  admirable  odes,  satires, 
and  songs,  in  which  he  displayed  a  great  variety  of 
talent.  His  patriotic  "Song  of  Departure"  ("Chant 
du  Depart,"  1794)  was  said  to  be  more  popular  than 
any  other  except  the  **  Marseillaise."  He  wrote,  besides 
other  prose  works,  an  excellent  "  Historical  Treatise  (  Ta- 
bleau) on  the  State  and  Progress  of  French  Literature 
since  1789,"  (1808.)  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
Died  in  1811. 

See  Lingay,  "filo2;e  de  M.  J.  Chenier;"  Arnault,  "  Sur  J. 
Chenier;"  Daunow,  "  Notice  sur  M.  J.  Chenier,"  in  his  Complete 
Works,  8  vols.,  1823-26  ;  Felix  Pyat,  "M.  J.  Chenier  et  le  Prince 
des  Critiques,  (Jules  Janin,)"  1844. 

Chenier,  de,  deb  shi'ne-i',  (Andr6,)  an  admirable 
French  i)oet,  born  in  Constantinople  in  October,  1762, 
was  the  son  of  Louis  Chenier,  noticed  below.  He  was 
educated  in  Paris,  and  became  an  excellent  classical 
scholai".  He  began  his  literary  career  by  beautiful 
eclogues  of  antique  simplicity,  and  elegies  admired  for 
sensibility.  In  1787  he  went  to  England  as  secretary 
of  legation.  In  the  Revolution  he  pursued  a  moderate 
course.    Some  letters  which  he  published  in  the  "Jour- 


nal de  Paris"  rendered  him  obnoxious  to  the  dominant 
party;  and  he  was  committed  to  prison  as  a  Girondist 
"There,"  says  Lamartine,  "  his  ideal  reveries  found  their 
reality  in  Mademoiselle  de  Coigny,  confined  in  the  same 
prison.  He  addressed  to  her  those  immortal  verses, 
'The  Young  Captive,'  ('La  jeune  Captive,')  the  most 
melodious  sigh  that  ever  issued  from  the  crevices  of  a 
dungeon."  He  was  executed  in  July,  1794,  two  days  be- 
fore the  fall  of  Robespierre.  He  left  unfinished  poems, 
entitled  "  Hermes,"  and  "America,"  and  a  completed 
poem,  "  L'Invention,"  which  is  praised  by  Villemain. 

See  H.  DE  Latouche,  "  Notice  sur  Andre  Chenier  ;"  Bibliophile 
Jacob,  "Notice  sur  Andre  Chenier;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries 
da  Lundi,"  tome  iv.,  and  "Portraits  contemporains,"  tome  iii. 
(Sainte-Beuve  estimates  Andr^  Chenier  as  "the  greatest  French 
classic  in  verse  since  Racine  and  Boileau;'")  article  by  Leo  Jou- 
bert,  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Chenier,  de,  (Louis,)  a  French  historian,  born  at 
Montfort,  in  Languedoc,  in  1723,  was  the  father  of  the 
two  poets  Andre  and  M.  J.  Chenier.  He  was  consul- 
general  at  Constantinople  from  1753  to  1764.  For  several 
years  preceding  1784  he  was  charge-d'affaires  at  Morocco. 
He  composed  two  works  of  merit, — viz.,  "Researches 
in  the  History  of  the  Moors,"  and  "  Revolutions  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire,"  (1789.)    Died  in  1796. 

Chenier,  de,  (Louis  Joseph  Gabriel,)  a  French 
military  writer,  a  nephew  of  the  poet  Andre  Chenier, 
was  born  in  1800.  He  published  a  "Manual  for  Coun- 
cils of  War,"  (183 1,)  and  other  works  on  the  criminal 
legislation  for  the  army. 

Chenot,  sheh-no',  (Claude  Bernard  Adrien,)  a 
French  engineer,  born  at  Bar-sur-Aube  in  1803.  In  1832 
he  invented  an  apparatus  for  the  fabrication  of  metallic 
sponges.  About  ten  years  later  he  began  a  series  of 
important  researches  relative  to  a  new  system  of  metal- 
lurgy, the  first  results  of  which  appeared  at  the  Industrial 
Exhibition  of  1849.    Died  in  1855. 

Chenu,  sheh-nu',  (Jean  Charles,)  a  French  physi- 
cian and  naturalist,  born  at  Metz  in  1808.  He  published 
"An  Essay  on  the  Action  of  Mineral  Waters,"  (1841,) 
"  Illustrations  of  Conchology,"  (1842-45,)  and  an  "  Ency- 
clopaedia of  Natural  History,"  (14  vols.,  1858.) 

■Ghe'ops,  [Gr.  Xeot/;,]  King  of  Egypt,  is  supposed  to 
have  begun  his  reign  about  1 178  B.C.  "  He  changed  the 
government,"  says  Herodotus,  "into  a  despotism,  and 
oppressed  his  subjects  with  forced  labour  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  great  pyramid  which  bears  his  name."  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Cephren  or  Chephren. 

Cherbonneau,  sh^R'bo^no^  (Jacques  Auguste,)  a 
French  Orientalist,  born  in  Inclre-et-Loire  in  1813.  He 
has  published  "The  Fables  of  Lokman,"  (1846,)  and  other 
works. 

Cherbuliez,  sheR^bii^le-a',  (Victor,)  a  French  writer, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1832,  has  produced  several  popular 
romances,  among  which  are  "  Le  Comte  Kostia,"  "  Le 
Prince  Vitale,"  "  Paul  Mere,"  and  "  Le  Roman  d'une 
honnete  Femme." 

Cherea,  the  French  of  Chorea,  which  see. 

Chereau,  sha''r6',  (Francois,)  a  skilful  French  en- 
graver, born  at  Blois  in  1680,  executed  portraits  and 
historical  subjects.  He  became  engraver  of  the  royal 
cabinet.    Died  in  1729. 

Chcremon.    See  Ch^eremon. 

Cherephon.    See  Ch^rephon. 

Cherile.    See  Chcerilus. 

Cherin,  shi'r^N',  (Louis  Nicolas  Henri,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  Paris  in  1762.  He  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  guard  of  the  Directory  in  Sep- 
tember, 1797,  and  chief  of  the  staff  of  the  army  of  the 
Danube  in  1799.   He  was  killed  at  Zurich  in  that  year. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Francais." 

Cherler,  sh^R^la',  (Jean  Henri,)  a  physician  and 
botanist,  was  a  citizen  of  Bale.  He  married  the  daughter 
of  J.  Bauhin,  the  eminent  botanist,  whom  he  aided  in  the 
composition  of  his  "General  History  of  Plants,"  which 
appeared  in  1650,  some  years  after  the  death  of  Cherler. 

See  ISloy,  "  D'ctionnaire  de  la  Medecine." 

Cheron,  sha'r^N',  (Charles,)  a  skilful  French  en- 
graver, born  at  Luneville  in  1635.  He  was  invited  to 
Paris  by  Louis  XIV.,  who  gave  him  a  pension,  and 
employed  him  to  engrave  the  medals  which  were  struck 
to  commemorate  his  actions.    Died  in  1698. 


€  a.s  k;  9  as  s:  g  Juird : '^-^i^ J;  g,  h,  ■^.guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.     (Si^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CHER  ON 


CHESTERFIELD 


Cheron,  (Elisabeth  Sophie,)  a  skilful  French  artist 
and  poet,  born  at  Paris  in  1648.  She  excelled  in  music, 
painting,  and  engraving,  and  wrote  agreeable  verses. 
She  was  very  successful  in  portraits  and  in  history.  The 
exact  likeness,  it  is  said,  was  the  least  merit  of  her  por- 
traits. In  1672  she  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of 
Painting.  She  executed  a  series  of  engravings  called 
"Gems  drawn  from  the  Principal  Cabinets  of  France." 
Died  in  1711. 

See  FoNTENAY,  "Dictionnairedes  Artistes;"  Fermelhuis," filoge 
de  E.  S.  Cheron,"  171 2. 

Cheron,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris 
in  1764.  He  became  director  of  the  "  Mercure"  in  1815. 
He  composed  an  ode  entitled  "  Napoleon,  ou  le  Corse 
devoile,"  ("The  Corsican  unveiled,"  1814,)  and  a  few 
other  works.    Died  in  1828. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Cheron,  (Louis,)  a  French  painter  and  engraver, 
brother  of  Elisabeth  Sophie,  noticed  above,  born  in  Paris 
in  1660.  Compelled  to  leave  France  as  a  Protestant  about 
1690,  he  went  to  England,  where  he  was  successful  as  a 
painter  of  history  and  a  designer.    Died  in  1723. 

See  Heinecken,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Cheron,  (Louis  Claude,)  a  French  writer  of  prose 
and  verse,  a  brother  of  Fran9ois,  noticed  above,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1758.  In  1791  he  was  elected  to  the 
Legislative  Assembly,  where  he  supported  moderate 
measures.  In  1805  he  was  chosen  prefect  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Vienne.  He  produced,  besides  other  dramas, 
an  imitation  of  Sheridan's  "  School  for  Scandal,"  entitled 
"  Le  Tartufe  des  Moeurs,"  which  was  successful,  and 
translated,  from  the  English,  Fielding's  "Tom  Jones." 
Died  in  1807. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Cherrier,  de,  deh  shk're-k/,  (Charles  Joseph,)  a 
French  officer  and  writer,  born  at  Neufchateau  (Vosges) 
in  1785.  He  published  in  1841  a  "History  of  the  Con- 
test between  the  Popes  and  the  Emperors  of  the  House 
of  Suabia." 

Cher'ry,  (Andrew,)  an  Irish  actor  and  comic  writer, 
born  in  1762.  He  produced  "The  Soldier's  Daughter," 
and  other  comedies.    Died  in  1812. 

■eher'si-phron,  [Gr.  Xepo'uppcjv,]  a  famous  Cretan 
architect,  whose  name  is  sometimes  written  Ctesiphon, 
flourished  about  600  B.C.  He  was  the  first  architect  and 
designer  of  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  one  of  the 
Seven  Wonders  of  the  World.  After  his  death,  the  un- 
finished work  was  directed  by  his  son  Metagenes,  and 
others.  This  temple  was  adorned  by  one  hundred  and 
twenty-seven  Ionic  columns  of  solid  marble,  sixty  feet 
high.  Its  length  was  four  hundred  and  twenty-five 
Roman  feet,  and  its  breadth  two  hundred  and  twenty. 
It  is  said  that  two  hundred  years  elapsed  during  its 
construction.  The  roof  was  burned  by  the  agency  of 
Erostratus  in  356  B.C. ;  but  the  edifice  was  soon  restored 
to  its  former  splendor. 

See  HiRT,  "Tempel  der  Diana  von  Ephesus,"  1807. 

Cherubin,  sha'rii'b^N',  Le  Pere,  a  Capuchin  friar 
of  Orleans,  France,  noted  as  a  geometer  and  optician, 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  He  made  an  improve- 
ment in  the  binocular  telescope,  and  wrote  a  valuable 
treatise  on  "Ocular  Dioptrics,"  (167 1.) 

Cherubini,  ka-roo-bee'nee,  (  Maria  Luigi  Carlo 
Zenobi  Salvador,)  a  celebrated  Italian  musical  com- 
poser, born  at  Florence  in  1760.  He  was  instructed  in 
music  by  the  Felicis  and  by  Bizzari  and  Sarti.  About 
the  age  of  fourteen  he  began  to  attract  attention  by  his 
productions.  He  visited  London  in  1784,  and  there  pro- 
duced the  successful  operas  "  The  Pretended  Princess" 
("La  finta  Principessa")  and  "Giulio  Sabino."  After 
1786  he  resided  mostly  in  Paris,  where  his  opera  "  Lo- 
doiska"  was  performed  with  great  ajiplause  in  1791. 
Soon  after  that  date  he  produced  "Elisa,"  "Medee," 
"  Anacreon,"  etc.  As  a  composer  of  sacred  music  he 
attained  the  highest  rank.  Among  his  best  works  in 
this  department  are  his  "  Requiem,"  and  his  mass  it 
trois  voix.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
and  a  professor  in  the  Conservatory,  of  which  he  was 
director  for  twenty  years.  His  last  dramatic  work  was 
the  opera  "  Ali  Baba,"  (1833.)  •  Died  in  1842.  Haydn 


and  Beethoven  pronounced  him  the  first  dramatic  com- 
poser of  his  time. 

See  Louis  de  Lomenie,"  M.  Cherubini,  parun  Homme  dc  Rien," 
1841;  MiEi,,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Cherubini,"  1842;  Raoul- 
Rochette,  "  Notice  sur  ia  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Cherubini;"  L. 
PiccHiANTi,  "Notizie  sulla  Vita  e  sulle  Opere  di  L.  Cherubini," 
1843;  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Cheruel,  sha'rii^eK,  (Auguste,)  a  French  historian, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1809,  published  a  "  History  of  Rouen," 
and  a  "Historical  Dictionary  of  the  Institutions,  Man- 
ners, and  Customs  of  France,"  (1855.) 

Chervin,  shgR'v^N',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  near  Lyons  in  1783  ;  died  in  1843. 

Chery,  sha're',  (Philippe,)  a  skilful  French  i^ainter 
of  history,  born  in  Paris  in  1759,  was  a  pupil  of  Vien. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  in  1791,  when  he 
exhibited  the  "  Death  of  Alcibiades."  In  a  concourse  for 
the  representation  of  the  peace  of  Amiens,  he  obtained 
the  prize  in  1803.  He  was  patronized  by  Napoleon,  who 
charged  him  to  paint  a  scene  on  the  battle-field  of  Jena. 
Died  in  1838. 

Cheryf-Ed-Dyn-Aly.    See  Shereef-ed-Deen. 

Cheseaux,  de,  deh  sha^zS',  (Jean  Philippe  Loys,) 
a  Swiss  savant,  born  at  Lausanne  in  17 18.  He  wrote 
"Essays  on  Physics,"  (1743,)  "Treatises  on  Natural 
History,"  and  several  memoirs  on  astronomy,  (1764.) 
Died  in  Paris  in  1751. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruher,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Chesebro',  cheez'bro,  (Caroline,)  an  authoress,  born 
at  Canandaigua,  New^  York.  Among  her  works  is 
"Dream-Land  by  Daylight,"  (1851,)  and  a  novel  entitled 
"Victoria,  or  the  World  Overcome,"  (1856.) 

Ches'el-den,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  surgeon 
and  anatomist,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1688.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  the  great  anatomist  Cowper.  About  1711  he 
began  to  lecture  on  anatomy  in  London,  and  was  chosen 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  before  he  was  twenty-five, 
(one  account  says  at  thirty-three.)  He  published  in 
1713  "The  Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body,"  which  was 
generally  used  as  a  text-book  for  many  years.  After 
that  date  he  was  appointed  chief  surgeon  of  Saint 
Thomas's  Hospital,  consulting  surgeon  to  Saint  George's 
and  to  the  Westminster  Hospital,  and  surgeon  to  Queen 
Caroline.  He  was  one  of  the  most  skilful  operators  of 
his  time,  and  excelled  especially  in  lithotomy.  His  fame 
was  extended,  in  1728,  by  an  operation  which  restored 
sight  to  a  young  person,  whose  novel  sensations  afforded 
to  Locke  and  Diderot  a  subject  of  metaphysical  obser- 
vations. He  published  in  1733  his  "Anatomy  of  the 
Bones,"  a  valuable  work.  Died  at  Bath  in  1752.  Pope, 
who  was  his  intimate  friend,  says,  "  He  is .  the  most 
noted  and  most  deserving  man  in  the  whole  profession 
of  chirurgery." 

See  Hutchinson,  "  Biographia  Medica;"  ^loy,  "Dictionnaire 
historique  de  la  Medecine." 

Chcsnaye-Desbois,  de  la,  deh  It  sha'na'  dcVbwd', 
(Franqois  Alexandre  Aui?ert,)  a  French  writer,  born 
in  Maine  in  1699.  Of  all  the  compilers  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  he  published  the  greatest  number  of  diction- 
aries. Among  these  is  a  "Military  Dictionary,"  and  a 
"  Genealogicai  and  Historical  Dictionary,"  (7  vols.,  1757- 
65.)  All  his  works  are  mediocre.  He  diecl  in  a  hospital 
at  Paris  in  1784. 

Chesne.    See  Duchesne. 

Ches'ney,  (Francis  Rawdon,)  an  ofiicer  distin- 
guished for  his  explorations  in  the  East,  was  born  in 
Ireland  in  1789.  About  1830  he  began  to  explore  a  route 
from  Europe  by  the  Red  Sea  to  India.  Having  received 
aid  from  the  government,  and  having  been  appointed 
commander  of  an  expedition,  he  descended  the  P^u- 
phrates  in  a  steamer,  in  1836,  from  Beer  (Bir)  to  its 
mouth.  In  1850  he  published  "The  Expedition  for  the 
Survey  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,"  (4  vols.)  He  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  major-general  in  1855.  He  wrote  a 
work  on  "The  Russo-Turkish  Campaigns  of  1828-29." 

Chessel.    See  Caselius. 

Ches''ter-field,  (Philip  Dormer  Stanhope,)  fourth 
Earl  of,  an  English  courtier,  orator,  and  wit,  renowned 
as  a  model  of  politeness  and  an  oracle  of  taste.  He  was 
born  in  London  in  September,  1694,  and  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Philip,  third  Earl  of  Chesterfield,  and  Elizabeth 
Saville,  who  was  daughter  of  the  Marquis  of  Halifax. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long ;        6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon 


CHETARDIE  591  CHEFREUL 


flaving  gracluafed  at  Cambridge,  he  made  the  tour  of 
Europe  in  17 14,  during  which  he  contracted  an  invete- 
rate passion  for  gaming.  In  1715,  through  the  influence 
of  his  uncle,  General  Stanhope,  he  was  appointed  a  gen- 
tleman of  the  bedchamber  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  and 
was  elected  to  Parliament.  He  supported  the  party  of 
the  heir-apparent  in  the  quarrel  between  the  latter  and 
his  father,  George  I.  He  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
and  effective  debaters  of  that  period.  Walpole  says 
that  on  one  occasion  Chesterfield  made  "the  finest 
oration  he  ever  heard."  On  the  death  of  his  father,  in 
1726,  he  passed  into  the  House  of  Lords,  and  in  1728 
was  ambassador  to  Holland.  A  few  years  later  George 
n.  appointed  him  lord  steward  of  the  household.  "  He 
was  at  the  head  of  ton,'"  says  Macaulay,  "in  days  when 
in  order  to  be  at  the  head  of  tojt  it  was  not  sufficient  to 
be  dull  and  supercilious."  In  1733  he  married  Melusina 
Schulemburg,  Countess  of  Walsingham.  Though  a  Whig 
in  politics,  he  was  dismissed  from  office  by  Walpole  in 
1734,  and  joined  the  opposition.  In  1745  he  was  lord 
lieutenant  of  Ireland,  where  his  conduct  was  discreet 
and  very  popular.  He  accepted  the  office  of  principal 
secretary  of  state  in  April,  1746,  which  he  resigned  in 
1748.  He  was  intimate  with  Pope,  Swift,  Voltaire,  Mon- 
tesquieu, etc.  His  intercourse  with  Dr.  Johnson  was 
abruptly  closed  by  a  well-known  indignant  letter  from 
the  lexicographer.  Chesterfield's  fame  as  an  author  is 
founded  chiefly  on  his  "Letters  to  his  Son,"  which  ap- 
peared in  1774  and  were  admired  for  the  beauty  of  the 
style  and  prized  for  the  knowledge  of  the  world  which 
they  teach.  "  Take  out  the  immorality,"  says  Dr.  John- 
son, "and  it  should  be  put  into  the  hands  of  every 
gentleman."  Lord  Chesterfield  wrote  two  numbers  of 
"The  World,"  and  other  brief  productions,  which  were 
published  under  the  title  of  "  Miscellanies"  in  1777.  He 
died  in  1773.    His  only  son  had  died  in  1768. 

See  Maty,  "  Life  of  the  late  Earl  of  Chesterfield,"  London,  2 
vols.,  1774;  for  a  very  interesting  notice  of  Chesterfield,  see  "  Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  May.  iS58 ;  see  also  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for 
October,  1845;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1845. 

Chetardie,  de  la,  deh  It  shi'tSa'de',  (Joachlm 
Jacques  Troiti,)  Marquis,  a  French  diplomatist,  born 
in  1705.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Russia  in  1739, 
and  became  the  favourite  of  the  empress  Elizabeth.  In 
1744  she  dismissed  him  abruptly  and  ordered  him  to 
leave  the  country.  He  afterwards  had  a  command  in 
the  French  army.    Died  in  1758. 

See  Levesque,  "  Histoire  de  Russia." 

Chet'ham,  (Humphrey,)  an  English  merchant,  noted 
as  the  founder  of  a  college  and  public  library  at  Man- 
chester, was  born  about  1580;  died  in  1653. 

Chet'tle,  (Henry,)  an  English  dramatist,  who  was  a 
contemporary  of  Shakspeare,  and  flourished  about  1600. 
He  wrote  numerous  plays,  of  which  only  four  have  been 
preserved.    One  of  these  is  "  Hoffman,"  a  tragedy. 

Chet'wood,  (Knighi'LY,)  born  at  Coventry  in  1652, 
became  Dean  of  Gloucester  about  1707.  He  wrote  seve- 
ral biographies  and  small  poems.    Died  in  1720. 

Chetwood,  (William  Rufus,)  an  English  drama- 
tist.   Died  in  1766. 

Chet'wynd,  (  ? )  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
Somersetshire  in  1623,  published  "Anthologia  Historica," 
(1674.)    Died  in  1692. 

Chevalier.    See  Lechevalier. 

Chevalier,  sheh-vt1e-^^  almost  shvtlejj,',  (Antotxe 
RoDOLPHE,)  a  noted  French  Protestant^d  Hebraist, 
born  near  Vire  in  1507.  While  he  was  an  exile  in  England 
he  gave  French  lessons  to  Queen  Elizabeth  before  her 
accession.  He  was  afterwards  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
Geneva,  and  was  employed  by  Calvin  as  interpreter  of 
books  in  that  language.  He  published  a  Hebrew  Gram- 
mar.   Died  in  1572. 

Chevalier,  (Charles  Lours,)  a  French  optician,  born 
in  Paris  in  1804.  He  invented  and  improved  instruinents 
used  in  optics  and  natural  philosophy.    Died  in  1859. 

Chevalier,  (fixiENNE,)  born  about  1410,  became  trea- 
surer of  France  in  1452.    Died  in  1474. 

Chevalier,  (Michel,)  a  celebrated  French  economist, 
born  at  Limoges  in  1806.  About  1833  he  was  sent  by 
M.  Thiers  on  a  mission  to  the  United  States  to  exainine 
the  subject  of  railroads.    In  1836  he  published  "  Letters 


on  North  America,"  which  were  highly  commended.  He 
produced  in  1838  an  important  work  "On  the  Material 
Interests  of  France,"  ("Des  Interets  matcriels  en 
France,")  which  was  often  reprinted.  About  1840  he  was 
chosen  a  councillor  of  state,  professor  of  political  economy 
in  the  College  of  France,  and  chief  engineer  of  mines. 
His  "History  and  Description  of  the  Ways  of  Commu- 
nication in  the  United  States"  appeared  in  1840.  He 
has  greatly  contributed  to  the  triumph  of  free  trade  in 
France.  In  1851  he  was  elected  to  the  Institute,  (class 
of  moral  and  political  sciences.) 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Chevalier,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  antiquary  and  Prot- 
estant minister,  born  at  Sedan,  emigrated  to  Holland 
after  the  edict  of  Nantes  was  revoked  in  1685.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "History  of  William  III.  of  England," 
and  other  works.    Died  about  1740. 

Chevalier,  (Paul.)    See  Gavarnl 

Chevallier,  sheh'vt'le-a,  (Jean  Baptiste  Al- 
PHONSE,)  a  chemist,  was  born  at  Langres,  in  France,  in 
1793,  and  was  for  many  years  editor  of  the  "Journal  of 
Medical  Chemistry."  He  has  given  special  attention  to 
questions  relative  to  public  hygiene,  and  has  published  a 
"Dictionary  of  Adulterations  of  Alimentary,  Medicinal, 
and  Commercial  Substances,"  (1852.) 

Chevanes,  sheh-vtu',  (Jacques  Auguste;)  a  French 
jurisconsult,  born  at  Dijon  in  1624;  died  in  1690. 

Chevert,  de,  deh  sheh-vaiR',  (FRANgois,)  a  successful 
French  general,  born  at  Verdun,  on  the  Meuse,  in  1695, 
distinguished  himself  at  Prague  in  1742,  and  was  made 
lieutenant-general  in  1748.  The  victory  at  Hastembeck, 
in  1757,  was  ascribed  to  him.    Died  in  1769. 

Cheverus,  sh§v'e-rus,  [Fr.  de  Cheverus,  deh  sheh- 
vRus^]  (Jean  Louis  Anne  Madeleine  Lefebvre,)  a 
French  cardinal  and  philanthropist,  born  at  Mayenne  in 
1768.  He  visited  the  United  States  as  a  missionary  in 
1795,  and,  having  spent  some  time  among  the  Indians 
of  Maine,  was  made  first  Bishop  of  Boston  by  Pius  VII. 
in  1808.  During  the  prevalence  of  the  yellow  fever  in 
Boston  he  was  conspicuous  for  his  efforts  in  behalf  of 
the  sufferers.  He  afterwards  returned  to  Prance,  and 
became  Archbishop  of  Bordeaux  in  1S26,  and  a  cardinal 
in  1836.    He  died  the  same  year. 

See  HuEN-DuBOURG,  "Vie  du  Cardinal  de  Cheverus,"  (1838,) 
and  an  English  translation,  by  Mr.  Walsh,  Philadelphia,  1839. 

Cheves,  cheevz,  (Langdon,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Abbeville  district.  South  Carolina,  in  1776.  He 
studied  law,  and  became  eminent  in  that  profession.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  about  1811,  and  served 
two  or  more  terms  in  that  body.  He  was  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  in  the  second  session  of  the 
Thirteenth  Congress,  (1814-15,)  and  gave  a  casting  vote 
against  the  re-charter  of  the  United  States  Bank  in  1815. 
The  bank  having  been  re-chartered  in  1816,  he  afterwards 
became  its  president,  which  position  he  held  for  about 
three  years.    Died  in  1857. 

Chevillard,  sheh-ve'ytR',  (Franqois,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Orleans.  He  excelled  in  elegiac  verse.  Died  in 
1678. 

Chevillier,  sheh-ve'ye-i',  (Andr^,)  a  learned  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Pontoise  in  1636.  He  wrote  a  "  Criti- 
cal Dissertation  on  the  Origin  of  Printing  in  Paris,"  (1694.) 
Died  in  1700. 

Chevreau,  sheh-vRo',  (Urbain,)  an  ingenious  French 
writer,  born  at  Loudun  in  1613.  He  was  versed  in  many 
languages  and  sciences,  and  travelled  extensively.  About 
1652  he  was  secretary  to  Christina  of  Sweden,  and  after- 
wards was  councillor  to  the  Elector  Palatine  at  Heidel- 
berg. His  "  History  of  the  World,"(i686,)  poems,  dramas, 
and  "  Chevraeana,"  had  a  transient  popularity.  Died  in 
1701. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Chevret,  sheh-vRi',  (Jean,)  a  French  moralist  and 
writer,  born  at  IVIeulan  in  1747  ;  died  in  1820. 

Chevreul,  sheh-vRuK,  (Michel  Eugene,)  an  eminent 
French  chemist,  born  at  Angers  in  1786,  studied  under 
Vauquelin  in  Paris.  He  became  successively  professor 
in  the  College  Charlemagne,  examiner  at  the  Polytechnic 
School,  and  professor  of  special  chemistry  at  the  Gobe- 
lins. In  1823  he  published  an  analytical  treatise,  called 
"  Chemical  Researches  on  Fat  Substances  of  Animal 


e  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  giitttiral ;  n,  ftasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^5^=See  Explanations,  j).  23.) 


CHEFREUSE  592  CHICHELE 


Origin,"  which  established  his  reputation,  and  announced 
discoveries  that  produced  important  results  in  the  arts. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1826, 
and  succeeded  Vauquelin  as  professor  of  applied  chem- 
istry in  the  "Jardin  des  Plantes"  in  1829.  In  1831  he 
published  "Lectures  on  Chemistry  applied  to  the  Art  of 
Dyeing,"  and  in  1839  a  remarkable  work  "  On  the  Law 
of  the  Simultaneous  Contrast  of  Colours,  and  on  the 
Distribution  ( Assortiment)  of  Coloured  Objects,"  which 
is  highly  esteemed.  He  contributed  many  memoirs  to 
the  "Annales  de  Chimie,"  and  to  the  collections  of  the 
Institute.  In  1852  the  Societe  d'Encouragement  awarded 
him  a  prize  of  12,000  francs  for  his  work  on  "  Fat  Sub- 
stances," ("Corps  gras,")  above  noticed. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Chevreu.3e,  de,  deh  sbeh-vRuz^  (Marie  de  Rohan 
— deh  ro'6N'',)  Duchesse,  a  fascinating  French  lady, 
noted  for  her  political  ambition  and  influence,  was  born 
in  1600.  She  was  married  to  Claude,  Duke  of  Chev- 
reuse,  about  1622.  Having  intrigued  against  Richelieu, 
she  was  sent  into  exile,  from  which  she  returned  at  his 
death.  During  the  troubles  of  the  Fronde  she  acted 
with  the  enemies  of  Mazarin.    Died  in  1679. 

See  Retz,  "Memoires." 

Chevrier,  sheh-vRe-i',  ( FRANgois  Antoine,  )  a 
French  writer,  born  about  1720  at  Nancy.  He  removed 
to  Paris  in  his  youth,  and  indulged  too  freely  his  pro- 
pensity to  satire  in  several  pamphlets,  by  which  he  made 
many  enemies.  He  published  a  libellous  book  called 
"Le  Colporteur,"  which  had  some  success,  and  various 
other  works.    Died  at  Rotterdam  in  1762. 

See  Gkimm,  "  Correspondance." 

Cheyne,  chan  or  cheen,  (George,)  an  eminent  Scot- 
tish physician,  born  about  1670,  was  a  pupil  of  Dr.  A. 
Pitcairn.  About  the  year  170c  he  settled  in  London. 
His  treatise  on  Fluxions  (1705)  procured  his  election  as 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  wrote  a  work  called 
"  Philosophical  Principles  of  Natural  Religion."  In  1725 
he  produced  his  "  Essay  on  Health  and  Long  Life," 
which  was  successful,  and  was  followed  by  a  popular 
work  on  nervous  diseases,  entitled  "The  English  Mal- 
ady," (1733.)  His  writings  are  pervaded  with  a  sincerely 
religious  spirit.    Died  in  1742. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "Dr.  Cheyne's  own  Account  of  Himself," 
1743;  "  Blographia  Britannica;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Diction- 
ary of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Cheyne,  (James,)  a  learned  Scottish  philosopher, 
born  in  Aberdeenshire.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy 
in  the  Catholic  College  of  Douay,  France,  and  author 
of  several  scientific  works.    Died  in  1602. 

Cheyne,  (John,)  a  Scottish  physician,  born  at  Leith 
in  1777.  He  settled  in  Dublin  in  1809,  and  there  prac- 
tised with  great  success  until  1830,  when  his  health 
failed.  From  1820  to  1830  his  annual  receipts  amounted 
to  a,bout  five  thousand  pounds.  He  published  "  Treatises 
on  the  Diseases  of  Children,"  (1801,)  and  other  medical 
works.    Died  in  1836. 

Chey'nell,  (Francis,)  an  English  nonconformist  di- 
vine, born  at  Oxford  in  1608.  He  became  rector  of 
Petworth  in  1643,  and  published  "The  Rise,  Growth, 
and  Danger  of  Socinianism,"  (1643,)  in  which  he  accused 
Chiilingworth  of  heresy.  He  rendered  himself  notorious 
by  his  animosity  towards  Chiilingworth,  at  whose  funeral 
he  made  a  violent  speech.  He  also  threw  into  the  grave 
a  book  of  the  deceased  author.    Died  in  1665. 

See  Dk.  Johnson's  Works. 

Cheay,  shi'ze',  (Antoine,)  an  eminent  French  civil 
engineer,  born  at  Chalons-sur-Marne  in  1718.  The  canal 
of  Burgundy  was  one  of  his  works.    Died  in  1798. 

Chezy,  de,  deh  sha'ze',  (Antoine  Leonard,)  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Neuilly  in  1773,  was  an  eminent 
Oriental  scholar,  and  a  pupil  of  De  Sacy.  He  spoke 
Persian  and  Arabic  with  facility,  and  understood  Hebrew, 
Syriac,  Sanscrit,  Greek,  etc.  A  violent  illness  prevented 
him  from  accompanying  the  expedition  to  Egypt  in  1798, 
which  Bonaparte  had  invited  him  to  join.  Students  of 
all  Euroi^ean  countries  resorted  to  Paris  to  receive  from 
him  lessons  in  Sanscrit,  which  he  esteemed  the  most 
beautiful  and  perfect  language  of  the  world.  In  1815  a 
chair  of  Sanscrit  was  founded  for  him  at  Paris.  W. 
Humboldt  and  A.  Schlegel  were  among  his  pupils.  He 


published  admirable  translations  of  "Medjnoun  and 
Leila,"  and  of  the  Sanscrit  poem  "  Sakoontala,"  by  Cali- 
dasa,  (1830.)  He  also  left  in  manuscript  an  "Analysis 
of  the  Ramayana,"  a  "Persian  Anthology,"  a  Sanscrit 
grammar,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1832. 

See  SiLVESTRE  DE  Sacv,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de 
M.  de  Chezy,"  8vo,  1835;  Querard,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Chezy,  von,  fon  shk'ze',  (Wilhelm,)  a  German 
author,  born  in  1806,  wrote  "The  Travelling  Student," 
("Der  fahrende  Schiiler,"  1835,)  and  other  novels. 

Chezy,  von,  (Wilhelmine  Christine,)  a  German 
authoress,  born  in  Berlin  in  1783,  was  the  mother  of  the 
preceding.  She  was  married  to  the  French  Orientalist 
above  noticed,  about  1803,  and  separated  from  him  in 
1811.  She  produced,  in  German,  successful  romances, 
tales,  and  lyric  poems,  among  which  were  "Euryanthe," 
(1823,)  and  "  Stundenblumen,"  (1824.) 

Chiabrera,  ke-d-bRa'ri,  (Gabriello,)  a  celebrated 
lyric  poet  of  Italy,  born  at  Savona,  near  Genoa,  June  8, 
1552,  was  the  founder  of  a  new  school  of  poetry.  He 
was  educated  in  Rome,  where  he  resided  some  years,  in 
the  service  of  Cardinal  Cornaro.  His  poetical  genius  was 
not  developed  early.  An  admiration  of  Pindar  rendered 
him  an  imitator  of  that  great  model,  after  which  he 
formed  a  stjde  which  distinguishes  him  from  other 
Italian  lyric  poets.  His  sublime  odes  and  canzoni  soon 
extended  his  fame  throughout  Italy.  After  he  became 
an  author  he  resided  chiefly  in  Florence  and  Genoa,  and 
received  many  honours  from  several  Italian  rulers.  In 
allusion  to  his  innovations  in  style,  he  compared  himself 
to  Columbus,  and  said,  "  I  resolved  to  discover  a  new 
world  or  perish  in  the  attempt."  He  wrote  much,  and 
in  many  varieties  of  verse.  Died  at  Savona  in  October, 
1637.  "  He  borrowed  from  Pindar,"  says  Hallam,  "thai 
grandeur  of  sound,  that  pomp  of  epithets,  that  rich  swell 
of  imagery,  that  unvarying  majesty  of  conception,  which 
distinguish  the  odes  of  both  poets."  ("Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  Europe.")  He  rivalled  Anacreon  in  his 
lighter  odes,  which  are  exceedingly  beautiful,  graceful, 
and  spirited. 

See  Larcher,  "  Lives  of  Literary  and  Scientific  Men  of  Italy  ;" 
Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Lives  of  the  Italian 
Poets,"  by  Rev.  Henry  Stebbing,  London,  1831;  "Vita  di  G. 
Chiabrera,"  (written  by  himself,)  Milan,  Svo,  1821 ;  Tiraboschi, 
"Storia  della  Letreratura  Italiana." 

Chiaramonti,  (B.  Luigi.)    See  Pius  VI 1. 

Chiaramonti,  ke-i-ri-mon'tee,  (Giovanni  Bat- 
TISTA,)  an  agreeable  Italian  writer,  born  at  Brescia  in 
1731,  published  an  "Essay  on  the  Paternal  Power  of  the 
Ancient  Romans,"  (1754,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1796. 

Chiaramonti,  (Scipione,)  an  Italian  astronomer, 
born  at  Cesena  in  1565,  became  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Pisa.  He  wrote  against  Tycho  Brahe  a  treatise  on 
comets,  entitled  "Anti-Tycho,"  (1621,)  a  Latin  "History 
of  Cesena,"  (1641,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1652. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires." 

Chiari,  ke-S,^ree,  (Fahrizio,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Rome  in  1621;  died  in  1695. 

Chiari,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Rome 
in  1654,  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo  Maratta,  whose  style  he 
imitated  successfully.  Many  of  his  easel-pictures  are  dis- 
persed in  Italy  and  England.  His  frescos  in  the  Barberini 
palace  and  the  Colonna  Gallery  at  Rome  are  commended. 
Died  in  1727. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Chiari,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  comic  poet  and  ])riest, 
born  at  Brescia.  He  produced,  in  rivalry  with  Goldoni, 
many  mediocre  comedies,  among  which  was  "The  Chi- 
nese Slave."    Died  about  1788. 

Chiarini,  ke-a-ree'nee,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastic 
and  philologist,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1789.  He  published 
a  "Theory  of  Judaism  applied  to  the  Reform  of  the  Is- 
raelites," etc.    Died  at  Warsaw  in  1832. 

Chiaverini,  ke-^-vi-ree'nee,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician, born  at  Palena  in  1777  ;  died  at  Naples  in  1834. 

Chiavistelli,  ke-^-v^s-teKlee,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1618;  died  in  1698. 

Chichele  or  Chichely,  chitch'e-le,  (Henry,)  an  emi- 
nent English  prelate,  born  about  1362,  w^as  noted  as  the 
founder  of  All  Souls'  College,  Oxford.  He  performed 
several  diplomatic  missions  to  France.  About  1414  he 
was  chosen  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.   He  opposed  the 


a,  c,  1,  o,  u,  y,  lofi^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  f^t;  m§t;  n6t;  good,:  moon; 


CHICHESTER 


593 


CHILD  ERIC 


growing  pretensions  of  the  court  of  Rome,  and  also  the 
principles  of  Wickliffe.    Died  in  1443. 

See  Arthur  Duck,  "  Life  of  H.  Chichele,"  1699:  O.  L.  Spencer, 
"Life  of  H.  Chichele,"  1783 ;  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Arch- 
bishops of  Canterbury,"  vol.  v.  chap,  xviii. 

Chich'es-ter,  (Arthur,)  an  English  military  officer, 
born  near  Barnstaple.  He  was  appointed  lord  deputy 
of  Ireland  about  1604,  and  received  the  title  of  Baron  of 
Belfast  in  1612.    Died  in  1624  or  1625. 

Chichester,  Earl  of.    See  Pelham,  (Thomas.) 

Chick'er-ing,  (Jonas,)  an  American  manufacturer 
of  piano-fortes,  born  at  New  Ipswich,  New  Hampshire, 
in  1798,  lived  in  Boston  ;  died  in  1853. 

Chicoyneau,  she'kwS^no',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  phy- 
sician and  botanist,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1672,  was  a 
son-in-law  of  Pierre  Chirac.  He  became  a  professor  in 
his  native  city,  and  in  1720  was  honoured  for  his  services 
in  Marseilles  during  the  prevalence  of  the  plague.  He 
was  first  physician  to  the  king  from  1732  to  1752,  and 
author  of  a  work  on  the  plague.    Died  in  1752. 

Chicoyneau,  (pRANgois,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1699.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  professor 
of  medicine  at  Montpellier.    Died  in  1740. 

Chiesa,  ke-a''sa,  (Silvestro,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Genoa  in  1625  ;  died  in  1657. 

Chievres,  she'ivR',  (  Guillaume  de  Croy — deh 
kRwS,)  Lord  of,  a  Flemish  courtier  and  general,  born 
about  1458.  He  distinguished  himself  under  Charles 
VIII.  and  Louis  XII.  of  France  in  the  conquest  of  Naples 
and  Milan.  About  1508  he  was  appointed  governor  of 
the  prince,  afterwards  Charles  V.  He  gained  the  favour 
of  his  pupil,  and  was  his  prime  minister  from  his  acces- 
sion, in  1516,  until  1521.  He  offended  the  Spaniards  by 
his  avidity  for  money,  and  by  the  preference  which  he 
showed  for  the  Flemings.  He  attended  Charles  V.  to 
Germany  in  1520,  and  died  in  1 52 1. 

Chifflet,  she'fli',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  learned  physician, 
born  at  Besan9on,  in  France,  in  1588.  Having  become 
eminent  in  his  profession,  he  was  invited  to  Spain  by 
Philip  IV.,  whom  he  attended  as  his  first  physician. 
He  wrote  a  "History  of  Besan9on,"  political  tracts 
against  France,  a  "Treatise  on  the  Tomb  of  Childeric 
I.,"  discovered  in  1653,  and  other  works.  He  was  the 
most  eminent  of  a  family  which  produced  many  learned 
men.    Died  in  1660. 

Chifflet,  (Philippe,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Besan9on  in  1597.  He  published  "Notes  on  the 
Council  of  Trent,"  and  translated  "The  Imitation  of 
Christ"  into  French.    Died  about  1658. 

Chifflet,  (Pierre  Franqois,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  1592,  was  professor  of  Hebrew,  and 
keeper  of  the  medals  of  the  King  of  France.  He  wrote 
some  religious  works.    Died  in  1682. 

Child,  (Sir  Josiah,)  an  English  merchant,  eminent  as 
a  writer  on  commerce  and  political  economy,  was  born 
in  London  about  1630.  He  became  very  wealthy,  and 
was  one  of  the  directors  of  the  East  India  Company. 
In  1668  he  published  "  Observations  concerning  Trade 
and  the  Interest  of  Money,"  in  which  he  argues  that  the 
rate  of  interest  should  be  reduced  or  kept  low  by  legal 
restrictions.  About  that  time  he  became  chairman  and 
autocrat  of  the  East  India  Company.  He  afterwards 
wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the  East  India  Trade,"  and  a  few 
other  works.  "  Some  of  the  principles  advanced  by 
Child,"  says  McCulloch,  "are  so  sound,  and  so  forcibly 
and  concisely  expressed,  that  they  assume  the  shape  of 
maxims."  Died  in  1699.  He  left  several  children,  who 
intermarried  with  various  noble  families  of  England. 

Child,  (Mrs.  Lydia  Maria,)  a  popular  American 
writer,  whose  maiden  name  was  Francis,  was  born  at 
Med  ford,  Massachusetts,  in  1802.  Her  first  publication 
was  "Hobomok,  an  Indian  Story,"  (1824,)  which  was 
followed  by  "The  Rebels:  a  Tale  of  the  Revolution," 
(1825.)  In  1826  she  became  editor  of  the  "Juvenile 
Miscellany,"  which  she  conducted  with  ability  and  suc- 
cess  for  eight  years.  She  was  married  in  1828  to  Mr. 
David  Lee  Child,  an  able  lawyer  of  Massachusetts. 
Soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  anti-slavery  agita- 
tion she  published  an  "Appeal  in  behalf  of  that  Class 
of  Americans  called  Africans,"  esteemed  one  of  the 
most  valuable  works  on  that  subject.    She  was  editor 


of  the  "National  Anti-Slavery  Standard"  (New  York) 
from  1841  to  1843,  during  which  she  wrote  her  "Letters 
from  New  York,"  (published  in  2  vols.,  1844.)  Among 
her  other  productions  may  be  named  "The  Mother's 
Book,"  "The  Oasis,"  "Flowers  for  Children,"  "Fact 
and  Fiction,"  and  "  Philothea :  a  Grecian  Romance." 
She  has  also  published  "  Progress  of  Religious  Ideas," 
(3  vols.  8vo,  1855,)  which,  though  giving  proof  of  some 
learning  and  of  great  diligence,  is  a  work  of  doubtful 
merit* 

See  Griswold's  "  Prose  Writers  of  America;"  "  North  American 
Review"  for  July,  1833,  to  January,  1S37. 

Child,  (William,)  an  English  musical  composer, 
born  at  Bristol  in  1607  ;  died  in  1697. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musicians." 

ChiPde-bert  [Fr.  pron.  sh^Kdeh^baiR']  I.,  King  of 
the  Franks,  was  the  third  son  of  Clovis  and  Clotilde. 
He  inherited  the  kingdom  of  Paris,  and  began  to  reign 
in  511  a.d.  In  league  with  his  brothers  Clotaire  and 
Clodomir,  he  conquered  Sigismund,  King  of  Burgundy. 
He  died  in  558;  and,  as  he  left  no  male  issue,  Clotaire 
became  sole  King  of  the  Franks.  This  was  the  first 
precedent  in  French  history  of  a  custom  or  regulation 
which  was  afterwards  recognized  as  the  "Salic  law." 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Childebert  II.,  King  of  Austrasia,  born  in  570  a.d., 
succeeded  his  father  Sigebert  in  575.  His  mother, 
Brunehaut,  was  regent  during  a  part  of  his  minority. 
By  the  will  of  his  uncle  Gontran,  he  acquired  Orleans 
and  Burgundy.  He  died  in  596,  leaving  an  infant  heir, 
Thierri,  whose  kingdom  was  usurped  by  Clotaire  II. 

See  MiCHELET,  "Histoire  de  la  France." 

Childebert  III.,  the  son  of  Thierri  III.,  was  born 
about  683  A.D.  In  695  he  succeeded  his  brother,  Clovis 
III.,  as  nominal  King  of  France,  the  real  power  being 
exercised  by  the  mayor  of  the  palace,  Pepin  le  Gros.  He 
died  in  711,  leaving  a  son,  Dagobert  III.,  who  was,  like 
his  father,  one  of  the  rois  faineants^  (idle  or  mimic  kings.) 

Chn'de-brand,  [Fr.  pron.  sh^l'deh'bRON',]  a  Frank- 
ish  prince,  whose  history  is  very  obscure,  and  on  whom 
much  has  been  written  by  modern  historians  and  gene- 
alogists. He  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  son  of  Pepin  1 
le  Gros,  and  a  brother  of  Charles  Martel,  whom  he  ac- 
companied in  737  A.D.  in  an  expedition  against  the 
Saracens. 

See  Sainte-Marthe,  "Histoire  gen^alogique  de  la  France." 

Childeric,  chilMer-ik,  [  Fr.  pron.  sh^Kdi'r^k',]  I.. 
King  of  the  Franks,  is  reckoned  the  fourth  king  of  the 
Merovingian  race.  He  succeeded  his  father  Merovee 
(or  Merovaeus)  in  458  A.D.  We  have  little  authentic 
history  of  his  reign.  He  is  said  to  have  died  about  480, 
leaving  the  kingdom  to  his  son,  Clovis  I.  His  tomb, 
found  near  Tournai  in  1653,  contained  his  seal,  medals, 
arms,  etc.,  an  account  of  which  was  published  by  J.  J. 
Chifflet,  (1655.) 

Childeric  II.  was  the  second  son  of  Clovis  II.  He 
inherited  the  kingdom  of  Austrasia,  and  began  to  reign 
in  660,  at  the  age  of  seven.  At  the  death  of  his  elder 
brother,  Clotaire  III.,  he  annexed  to  his  realm  Neustria 
and  Burgundy.  He  was  assassinated  in  673,  when  his 
eldest  son  was  also  killed.  His  younger  brother,  Thierri, 
then  became  king. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Fran^ais." 

Childeric  III.,  the  son  of  Chilperic  II.,  was  the  last 
King  of  France  of  the  first  race,  (Merovingians.)  He 
is  called  Childeric  II.  by  some  historians.    He  was  perT 


*  The  imaginative  and  philanthropic  writings  of  Mrs.  Child,  unitins; 
as  they  do  with  fine  powers  of  delineation  a  most  genial,  kindly,  awd 
liberal  spirit,  command  our  heartfelt  respect  and  sympathy.  We  regret 
all  the  more  that  she  should  have  expended  so  much  time  and  labour 
on  a  work  affording  little  or  no  opi^-ortunity  for  the  exercise  of  those 
gifts  which  have  been  the  delight  of  so  many  readers,  but  demanding 
qualifications  of  a  totally  different  kind.  To  render  such  a  work  as 
the  "  Progress  of  Religious  Ideas"  of  any  real  value,  the  writer  should 
possess  not  only  accurate,  profound,  and  varied  learning,  but  also  a 
sound  critical  judgment ;  because  in  such  an  undertaking  it  is  no  less 
important  to  reject  what  is  false  than  to  present  what  is  true.  1"he 
work,  as  we  now  have  it,  contains,  along  with  a  great  deal  of  correct 
information,  much  that  is  totally  untrustworthy;  and  this  intermixture 
vitiates  the  whole.  As  the  authorities  on  which  the  various  statements 
rest  are  given  only  occasionally,  the  ordinary  reader  is  without  the 
means  of  forming  any  correct  judgment  as  to  their  comparative  value, 
and  is  quite  as  likely  to  accept  the  false  as  the  true. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23 .) 

38 


CHILD  ERS 


594 


CHIPMAN 


mitted,  in  742  A.D.,  to  assume  the  name  and  form  of  roy- 
alty by  Pepin  le  Bref  and  Carloman,  but  was  deposed  by 
them  about  750,  and  died  in  a  monastery  a  few  years  later. 

ChiFders,  (Hugh  Culling  Eardley,)  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1827,  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1850.  He  was 
returned  to  Parliament  for  Pontefract  in  i860,  became  a 
lord  of  the  admiralty  in  1864,  and  in  1865  financial  secre- 
tary to  the  treasury.  In  December,  1868,  he  was  ap- 
pointed first  lord  of  the  admiralty. 

CluPdren,  (John  George,)  an  English  chemist  and 
electrician,  born  at  Tunbridge  in  1777.  He  was  chosen 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1807.  He  constructed 
a  galvanic  battery,  with  plates  of  extraordinary  size, 
(four  feet  long  by  two  wide,)  by  which  he  demonstrated 
that  the  quantity  of  electricity  is  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  plates,  while  its  intensity  depends  on  the 
number  of  plates.  Among  the  results  of  his  interesting 
experiments  with  the  battery  was  the  formation  of  steel 
by  the  combination  of  iron  with  diamond.  Died  in  1852. 

Chil'drey,  (Joshua,)  an  English  clergyman  and  natu- 
ral philosopher,  born  in  1623  ;  died  in  1670. 

Childs,  (George  W.,)  an  American  publisher,  distin- 
guished for  his  liberality  and  enterprise,  was  born  in 
Baltimore,  Maryland,  in  1829.  He  came  to  Philadelphia 
at  an  early  age,  and  about  1849  became  a  member  of  a 
publishing  firm  afterwards  known  as  that  of  Childs  & 
Peterson.  In  1864  he  became  the  proprietor  of  the 
"  Public  Ledger,"  which  has  been  very  successful  under 
his  able  management. 

ChiPling-worth,  (William,)  a  celebrated  English 
writer  and  divine  of  the  Arminian  school  of  theology, 
was  born  at  Oxford  in  1602.  His  father,  of  the  same 
name,  was  mayor  of  Oxford.  At  college  he  was  noted 
for  his  subtlety  and  acuteness  as  a  disputant  in  theology. 
About  1630  he  was  converted  to  the  dogmas  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  by  a  Jesuit,  John  Fisher,  alias 
John  Perse,  and  entered  the  Jesuit  College  at  Douay. 
But  by  the  agency  of  Laud,  then  Bishop  of  London,  he 
was  restored  to  the  Protestant  communion,  and  he  re- 
turned to  Oxford  in  163 1.  In  1637  he  published  his  great 
work,  "  The  Religion  of  Protestants  a  Safe  Way  to  Sal- 
vation," in  answer  to  a  Jesuit  named  Knott.  Although 
he  had  scruples  against  some  of  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles, 
he  was  induced  to  subscribe  to  that  creed  as  a  bond  of 
peace  and  union,  and  was  made  chancellor  of  Salisbury 
and  prebendary  of  Brix worth.  He  was  a  zealous  roy- 
alist in  the  civil  war.  In  1643  he  was  taken  prisoner, 
and,  while  thus  detained,  died,  in  January,  1644.  Lord 
Mansfield  esteemed  Chillingworth  "a  perfect  model 
of  argumentation."  Tillotson  styled  him  "the  incom- 
parable Chillingworth,  the  glory  of  this  age  and  nation." 
"  His  chief  excellence,"  says  Hallam,  "  is  the  close  rea- 
soiiing  which  avoids  every  dangerous  admission,"  etc. 
"  His  work  may  be  understood  and  appreciated  without 
reference  to  any  other, — the  condition  perhaps  of  real 
superiority  in  all  productions  of  the  mind."  ("Intro- 
duction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Des  Maizeaux,  "Life  of  Chillingworth,"  1725;  Dr.  Birch, 
"  Life  of  Chillingworth,"  prefixed  to  his  works,  1742  ;  "  Retrospective 
Review,"  vol.  vii.,  1823;  August  Neander,  "  Erinnerung  an  den 
evangelischen  Gottesgelehrten  W.  Chillingworth,"  Berlin,  4to,  1832; 
KiPPis,  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

CliiPmead,  (Edmund,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
Gloucestershire  about  1610.  He  was  chaplain  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  from  1632  to  1648.  He  wrote  a  Latin 
treatise  "  On  Ancient  Greek  Music,"  and  translated 
several  works  from  the  French  and  Spanish  into  English. 
Died  in  1653. 

■ehiTo  or  ■ehi'loii,  [Gr.  X<A(jv  or  XeiAwv,]  a  Spartan, 
who  is  reckoned  as  one  of  the  Seven  Wise  Men  of 
Greece.  He  became  one  of  the  ephori  of  Sparta  in 
556  B.C.,  and  died  of  joy  caused  by  the  victory  of  his 
son  at  the  Olympic  games.  His  recorded  maxims  jus- 
tify his  reputation  for  wisdom. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius  ;  J.  F.  Buddeus,  "Dissertatio  de  Ethica 
Chilonis,"  Halle,  1699. 

Chilpei'ic,  chlKper-ik,  [Fr.  pron.  sh^Kpi'r^k',]  I.,  King 
of  the  Franks,  was  the  youngest  son  of  Clotaire  I.  After 
the  death  of  his  father  he  obtained  the  kingdom  of  Sois- 
sons  in  561  A.D.  He  married  the  ambitious  and  wicked 
Fredegonde,  and  waged  war  with  his  brothers  Sigebert 
and  Gontran.    Ancient  writers  called  him  the  Nero  and 


Herod  of  his  times.  He  was  assassinated  in  584,  at  the 
age  of  forty-five,  and  left  an  infant  son,  Clotaire  II. 

Chilperic  II.,  King  of  France,  the  son  of  ChildericIL, 
was  born  about  670  A.D.  After  passing  his  youth  in  a 
monastery,  he  was  proclaimed  king  in  715.  He  was  de- 
feated in  battle  in  718  by  his  rival,  Charles  Martel,  who 
permitted  him  to  act  the  part  of  roi  fameant  until  he 
died  in  720.    He  left  a  son,  who  was  Childeric  III. 

See  AuGUSTiN  Thierry,  "R^cits  des  Temps  Merovingiens." 

Chimaera,  ke-mee'ra,  [Gr.  Xl/uatpa;  Fr.  Chi  mere, 
she'maiii',]  a  fire-breathing  monster  of  the  Greek  my- 
thology, having  the  head  of  a  lion,  the  body  of  a  goat, 
and  the  tail  of  a  dragon.  According  to  Hesiod,  she  was 
a  daughter  of  Typhon,  and  was  killed  by  Bellerophon. 

Chiniay,  de,  deh  she'ma',  (Jeanne  Marie  Ignace 
Thi&rese  de  Cabarrus — deh  kt'bt'rlis'',)  Princess, 
born  at  Madrid  or  Saragossa  in  1773,  was  the  daughter 
of  Count  Cabarrus,  noticed  in  this  work.  She  was  mar- 
ried in  1789  to  the  Marquis  de  Fontenay,  a  French  lawyer. 
Having  parted  from  him,  she  was  going  to  Spain,  to 
live  with  her  father,  in  1793,  but  at  Bordeaux  was  im- 
prisoned by  the  terrorists.  There  her  dazzling  beauty, 
her  grace  and  wit,  fascinated  Tallien,  the  dreaded  repre- 
sentative of  the  Convention,  the  arbiter  of  life  and  death. 
Her  influence  over  him  rescued  many  persons  from  the 
scaffold  and  the  prisons.  In  1794  she  herself  was  im- 
prisoned in  Paris,  where  Josephine  Beauharnais  was  her 
fellow-captive.  Tallien,  who  then  owned  her  as  his  wife, 
stimulated  by  her  peril,  conspired  with  success  against 
Robespierre.  On  the  fall  of  the  latter  she  was  released. 
Madame  Tallien  became  the  friend  of  Madame  Bona- 
parte, and  her  sa/on  was  one  of  the  most  fashionable  in 
Paris.  She  was  divorced  from  Tallien  in  1802,  and  mar- 
ried, in  1805,  Count  de  Caraman,  who  soon  after  became 
Prince  de  Chimay,  She  had  children  by  each  of  her 
husbands.    Died  in  1835. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  Madame 
d'Abrantes,  "  Memoires." 

Chimay,  de,  deh  she'm^',  (Joseph  Philippe  Fran- 
cois Riquet  de  Caraman — re'ka'  deh  kt'rt'mSN',) 
Prince,  a  distinguished  Belgian  diplomatist,born  in  1808. 

Chimere.    See  Chimera. 

Chiminello,  ke-me-neKlo,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Marostica  in  1741,  lived  at 
Padua.    Died  in  1815. 

Chinard,  she^iiR^,  (Joseph,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
at  Lyons  in  1756,  studied  in  Italy,  and  in  1786  won  a 
prize  offered  at  Rome  for  a  "  Perseus  liberating  Andro- 
meda." He  returned  to  Lyons  about  1790.  Among  his 
works  are  admired  busts  of  General  Desaix,  of  Napo- 
leon, etc.  He  had  much  facility,  richness  of  imagmation, 
and  good  taste.    Died  in  1 813. 

See  Jean  Baptiste  Dumas,  "  Notice  sur  J.  Chinard,"  1814. 

Chinchon,  ch^n-ch6n',  commonly  but  incorrectly 
written  Cinchon,  Countess  of,  was  the  wife  of  the 
Spanish  Viceroy  of  Peru.  On  her  return  to  Spain,  in 
1632,  she  introduced  the  Peruvian  bark,  which  she  had 
found  to  be  efficacious  in  fevers.  To  perpetuate  the 
remembrance  of  this  important  service,  Linnaeus  gave 
to  that  plant  the  name  of  Cinchona. 

See  Sebastian  Badus,  "Anastasis  Corticis  Peruviani,  seu  Chinae 
Defensio,"  Genoa,  1661. 

Chiiigiz.    See  Jengis. 

Chiniac  de  la  Bastide-Duclaux,  she'ne^tk'  deh  IS 
bSs't^d'  dii^klo',  (Pierre,)  a  French  writer  and  lawyer, 
born  at  Alassac  in  1741.  He  published  an  "Essay  on 
Moral  Philosophy,"  (5  vols.,  1802.)  Died  soon  after  1800. 

Chin-Koung.    See  Shin-Koong. 

Chiocco,  ke-ok'ko,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  at  Verona,  wrote  a  work  on  natural  history,  called 
"Museum  Francisci  Calceolarii  Junioris,"  (1622,)  and 
"  Philosophical  and  Medical  Inquiries."    Died  in  1624. 

Chiodini.    See  Claudini. 

•Chi'on,  |Xi(jj',]  a  Greek  philosopher  of  Heracle:i,  lived 
about  350  B.C.,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Plato. 

Chip'maii,  (Daniel,)  a  jurist,  born  in  Salisbury, 
Connecticut,  in  1762.  He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  the  Law 
of  Contracts,"  (1822.)    Died  in  1850. 

Chipman,  (Nathaniel,)  a  jurist,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Salisbury,  Connecticut,  in  1752. 
He  became  chief  justice  of  Vermont  in  1 789,  judge  of 


C,  T,  o,  u,  V,  /o't^:  h,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  f^r,  fill,  fit;m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon. 


CHIRAC 


595 


CHOATE 


the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  in  1791,  and  a 
Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1797.  He  published 
"  Principles  of  Government,"  1833.    Died  in  1843. 

See  D.  Chipman,  "Life  of  N.  Chipman,"  1846. 

Chirac,  she'rtk',  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French  physi- 
cian, born  at  Conques  in  1650,  became  a  professor  at 
Montpellier  in  1687.  In  171 5  he  was  chosen  first  phy- 
sician to  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  He  was  made  a  free 
associate  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  director  of 
the  royal  garden  about  17 18.  In  173 1  he  received  the 
title  of  chief  physician  to  Louis  XV.  Died  in  1732.  He 
left  several  medical  works,  of  which  the  most  remarkable 
is  a  "Treatise  on  Malignant  Fevers,"  (1742.) 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  Noticc  sur  Chirac,"  in  the  "Memoires  de 
I'Academie  des  Sciences,"  1732;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Chirinos,  de,  dk  che-ree'n6s,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Madrid  about  1565  ;  died  in  1620. 

■ehi^'ron  or  -Chei'ron,  [Gr.  Xe/pcjv,]  the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  Centaurs,  said  to  be  a  son  of  Saturn,  or 
Cronos.  He  was  renowned  for  his  skill  in  surgery,  medi- 
cine, music,  and  hunting,  and  was  the  instructor  of 
Achilles,  Hercules,  and  ^sculapius. 

Chischkof.    See  Shishkov. 

Chisholm,  chiz'om,  (Mrs.  Caroline,)  a  philanthro- 
pic Englishwoman,  born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1810. 
About  1830  she  became  the  wife  of  Captain  Chisholm, 
of  the  army,  whom  she  accompanied  to  Madras  and  in 
1838  to  Australia.  She  devoted  herself  to  the  welfare 
of  young  women  who  arrived  at  Sydney  in  search  of  em- 
ployment, established  the  "  Female  Immigrants'  Home," 
and  made  journeys  into  the  interior  to  provide  places 
for  them.  About  1846  she  visited  England,  and  founded 
there  "The  Family  Colonization  Society,"  to  encourage 
emigration  by  families.  She  returned  with  her  husband 
to  Australia  in  1854. 

See  S.  Smiles,  "  Brief  Biographies." 

Chisholm,  chiz'om,  (James,)  an  Episcopal  clergy- 
man, born  in  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  181 5.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  in  1836,  and  in  1842  became  rector  of  a 
parish  in  Berkeley  county,  Virginia.  In  1850  he  removed 
to  Portsmouth,  and  during  the  terrible  ravages  of  the 
yellow  fever  in  1855  his  church  was  the  only  one  kept 
open.  While  attending  a  funeral,  he  himself  was  attacked 
with  the  disease,  of  which  he  died  in  vSeptember,  1855. 

Chis'huU,  (Edmund,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Bedfordshire.  He  was  chaplain  to  the  English  factory 
at  Smyrna  from  1698  until  1702,  and  became  rector  of 
South  Church,  Essex,  in  1731.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "Asiatic  Antiquities,"  (1728.)    Died  in  1733. 

Chit'ten-den,  (Martin,)  a  son  of  the  following,  was 
born  in  Connecticut  in  1776.  Pie  was  a  member  of 
Congress  from  1803  to  181 3,  and  was  Governor  of  Ver- 
mont in  1813  and  1814.    Died  in  1840. 

Chittenden,  (Thomas,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
at  East  Guilford,  Connecticut,  in  1730.  He  removed  to 
Vermont  in  1774,  and  was  one  of  the  principal  founders 
of  that  State,  of  which  he  was  chosen  the  first  Governor 
in  1778.  He  was  re-elected  several  times,  and  held  that 
office  (except  one  year)  until  his  death.  He  was  a  man 
of  superior  talents  and  virtues.    Died  in  1797. 

Chit'ty,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  English  legal  author 
and  special  pleader,  born  in  1776.  He  published  nume- 
rous highly-esteemed  legal  works,  among  which  are 
"Pleadings  and  Parties  to  Actions,"  (1808,)  "Law  of 
Nations  relative  to  Belligerents  and  Neutrals,"  (1812,) 
a  "Practical  Treatise  on  the  Criminal  Law,"  (1818,) 
"Treatise  on  Medical  Jurisprudence,"  (1834,)  said  to 
be  an  indispensable  book,  and  "General  Practice  of  the 
Law  in  all  its  Departments,"  (3d  edition,  1837-42.)  "  The 
last,"  says  Warren,  "is  well  calculated  to  become  a 
companion  to  Blackstone's  'Commentaries.'"  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  by  the  Society  of  the  Middle  Temple  in 
1816.    Died  in  1841. 

Chiverny,  de,  deh  she^'gR'ne^  (Philippe  Hurault 
— hu'ro',)  Count,  a  French  statesman,  born  at  Chiverny 
in  1528.  Having  rendered  services  to  Henry  IV.  in  the 
subjection  of  his  revolted  capital  in  1594,  he  was  rewarded 
with  the  office  of  chancellor,  and  enjoyed  the  constant 
favour  of  the  king.  He  died  in  1599,  leaving  memoirs, 
which  were  published  in  1636,  under  the  title  of  "Me- 
moires d'Estat,"  and  often  reprinted. 


Chivot,  shelve',  (Marie  Antoine  Francois,)  a 
French  linguist,  born  in  Picardy  in  1752.  Pie  became 
eminent  as  professor  of  humanities  in  Paris,  and  devoted 
his  attention  chiefly  to  the  study  of  languages.  He  died 
prematurely  in  1786,  after  he  had  commenced  a  work 
entitled  "De  I'Esprit  ou  de  la  Filiation  des  Langues." 

Chladni,  Kiad'nee,  (Ernst  Florens  Friedrich,) 
a  distinguished  philosopher  and  inventor,  born  at  Wit- 
tenberg in  1756.  He  studied  natural  philosophy  and 
mathematics,  by  the  aid  of  which  he  perfected  the 
theory  of  sound.  He  gained  a  wide  reputation  by  his 
"Discoveries  on  the  Theory  of  Sound,"  (17S7,)  and 
his  "Treatise  on  Acoustics,"  (1802.)  He  also  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  Fiery  Meteors,"  (1819,)  and  other  works. 
He  invented  the  musical  instruments  called  "  euphone" 
and  "  clavicylinder."    Died  at  Breslau  in  1827. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Chlapowski,  Kli-pov'skee,  (Desiderius,)  a  Polish 
general,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Posen  in  1788.  He  fought 
with  distinction  for  Napoleon  in  Spain,  Austria,  and 
Russia.  Having  joined  the  Polish  army  in  1830  and 
obtained  a  high  command,  he  gained  some  successes  in 
Lithuania  in  1831,  and  was  received  as  a  liberator  by 
the  people.  Through  the  incapacity  of  Gielgud,  who 
assumed  the  command,  the  Polish  army  was  defeated, 
and  Chlapowski  retired  to  Prussia  in  1831. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

•Chlo'e,  [Gr.  Xaot/,]  a  surname  given  to  Ceres  by  the 
Athenians,  signifies  "verdant,  or  blooming." 

Chlopicki,  Klo-pits'kee,  (Joseph,)  a  Polish  general, 
born  in  Podolia  in  1772.  He  entered  the  French  army 
about  1796,  and  commanded  four  regiments  in  the  Rus- 
sian campaign  of  1812.  After  the  fall  of  Bonaparte  he 
entered  the  Russian  service  (1814)  as  general  of  division, 
but  resigned  in  1818.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Polish 
Revolution,  in  December,  1830,  he  was  chosen  dictator. 
Fie  preferred  negotiation  to  active  hostilities,  was  ac- 
counted deficient  in  zeal,  and,  on  the  approach  of  the 
Russian  army,  resigned  the  dictatorship  in  January,  183 1. 
He  was  severely  wounded  in  a  battle  in  February,  1831, 
and  then  retired  from  the  service.    Died  in  1854. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

■Chlo'ris,  [X/lwpiV,]  the  goddess  of  flowers  in  the  Greek 
mythology,  was  identical  with  the  Roman  Flora.  She 
was  the  wife  ofZephyrus,  (the  west  wind.)  See  Flora. 

Chloris,  a  daughter  of  Amphi^on  and  Ni'obe,  is  said 
to  have  escaped  when  her  brothers  and  sisters  were 
massacred.  Another  Chloris  was  the  mother  of  Nestor, 
the  Pylian  sage. 

Chmel,  Km§l,  (Joseph,)  a  German  historian,  born  at 
OIniutz  in  1798,  was  appointed  first  archivist  of  Vienna 
in  1840.  He  published  "Materials  for  the  History  of 
Austria,"  (1832-40,)  and  a  "History  of  Frederick  IV.," 
(1843.)    Died  in  1858. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Chmelnitzky,  Kmgl-nits'kee,(NicoLAY  Ivanovitch,) 
a  Russian  comic  poet,  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1789. 
He  was  Governor  of  Smolensk,  and  afterwards  of  Arch- 
angel. He  produced  successful  comedies,  among  which 
are  "Castles  in  Spain"  and  "The  Quarantine."  Died 
in  1846. 

See  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Chmielnicki,  Kme-el-nits'kee,  (Bogdan  or  Theo- 
PHILUS,)  a  Cossack  chief,  born  in  1593,  induced  the  Cos- 
sacks to  revolt  against  the  King  of  Poland.  Died  in  1657. 

Choate,  chot,  (Rufus,)  the  most  eminent  advocate 
of  New  England, — if  we  should  say  of  America,  perhaps 
the  claim  would  not  be  disputed, — was  born  in  what  was 
then  called  Ipswich,  (now  Essex,)  Massachusetts,  October 
I,  1799.  Both  his  father  and  mother  were  noted  for 
quickness  of  mind  as  well  as  for  weight  of  character. 
Rufus  was  the  second  son,  and  the  fourth  of  six  children. 
As  a  boy,  besides  possessing  unusual  quickness,  elastic- 
ity, and  vigour,  he  was  remarkable  for  a  love  of  reading, 
and,  before  he  was  ten  years  old,  had  about  exhausted 
the  village  library,  though  it  contained  some  pretty  pon- 
derous works.  He  entered  Dartmouth  College  in  181 5, 
and  soon  took  his  place  at  the  head  of  what  proved  to 
be  an  able  and  studious  class.  No  one  ever  occupied 
such  a  position  more  free  from  the  shafts  of  envy  or  with 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  y., guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (g^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CHOATE 


596 


CHOISEUL 


the  more  hearty  votes  of  his  classmates.  After  gradu- 
ating, he  spent  a  year  at  the  college  as  tutor,  and  then 
entered  upon  the  study  of  his  profession  in  the  law  school 
at  Cambridge,  from  which  he  went  to  the  office  of  Mr. 
Wirt,  then  attorney-general  of  the  United  States,  in 
Washington.  He  here  enlarged  his  knowledge  of  pub- 
lic affairs  and  fixed  his  standard  of  professional  excel- 
lence. He  saw  Marshall  upon  the  bench,  and  heard 
Pinkney  in  the  Senate  and  in  the  court. 

After  such  preparation,  he  entered  upon  the  practice 
of  the  law  at  Danvers,  Massachusetts,  from  which  he 
removed  to  Salem,  and  subsequently  to  Boston.  Before 
leaving  Salem,  however,  he  was  chosen  to  represent  the 
Essex  south  district  in  Congress,  which  he  did  for  one 
term  and  part  of  a  second.  On  taking  up  his  residence 
in  Boston,  he  devoted  himself  assiduously  to  his  profes- 
sion, and  soon  gained  the  highest  position  as  a  powerful 
advocate.  In  1841  he  was  chosen  Senator  in  place  of 
Mr.  Webster,  who  had  accepted  the  office  of  secretary 
of  state  under  President  Harrison.  While  in  the  Senate 
he  spoke  with  great  freedom  and  power  on  most  of  the 
important  questions  which  came  before  that  body.  Among 
the  most  able  of  his  speeches  were  those  on  the  M'Leod 
case,  the  Fiscal  Bank  Bill,  Oregon,  the  Tariff,  and  the 
Smithsonian  Institution.  On  leaving  the  vSenate  in  1845, 
he  returned  again  to  his  profession,  and  thenceforward 
resisted  all  temptations  to  public  life.  Often  solicited, 
the  pressure  of  his  private  business  compelled  him  to 
decline  office,  though  he  always  gave  great  attention  and 
interest  to  questions  affecting  the  country,  and  especially 
the  welfare  of  the  Union.  After  Mr.  Webster's  death,  he 
was  acknowledged  to  be  the  leader  of  the  Massachusetts 
bar,  and  was  regarded,  especially  by  the  younger  members 
of  the  profession,  with  a  love  equal  to  their  reverence. 

During  the  year  1858  Mr.  Choate's  health  became 
much  impaired,  and  early  the  next  year  he  was  obliged 
to  withdraw  from  active  business.  A  voyage  was  advised 
by  physicians,  and  he  sailed  for  Europe,  accompanied 
by  his  son.  On  reaching  Halifax  it  became  evident  that 
he  could  proceed  no  farther.  He  therefore  took  lodgings, 
hoping  to  recover  so  far  as  to  be  able  to  return  to  Boston. 
He  seemed  to  rally,  was  able  to  enjoy  reading,  and  was 
hopeful  of  soon  leaving  for  home,  when  he  suddenly  died, 
on  the  13th  of  July. 

In  person,  Mr.  Choate  was  tall  and  commanding,  with 
a  countenance  capable  of  uncommon  power  of  expression. 
In  speaking,  his  voice  was  rich,  musical,  aiid  sympathetic, 
his  action  often  intense,  his  gestures  full  of  variety  and 
force.  Few  men  had  a  quicker  insight  into  the  character 
of  those  he  addressed,  or  a  more  instinctive  knowledge 
of  the  methods  by  which  the  mind  is  moved.  His  speech, 
often  close  and  exact  in  argument,  was  marked  by  extra- 
ordinary amplitude,  exuberance,  and  brilliancy,  and  was 
wonderfully  persuasive.  Whether  he.  addressed  a  jury 
of  twelve  men,  or  a  crowded  audience,  he  seemed  to  bend 
their  minds  almost  at  will.  Mr.  Choate's  studies  were 
extensive  and  various.  Literature  in  all  its  departments 
was  his  unfailing  solace  and  delight.  Political  philosophy, 
especially  as  illustrated  in  history  and  in  the  unwritten 
aniials  of  our  own  country,  was  the  subject  of  his  constant 
meditation.  A  high  and  unselfish  patriotism,  the  love  of 
the  Union,  the  dangers  to  which  he  foresaw,  a  thorough 
belief  in  the  future  greatness  of  our  national  power,  pro- 
vided that  passion  could  be  kept  obedient  to  reason  and 
law,  and  a  hope  that  conciliatory  counsels  might  prevail 
till  the  sentiment  of  union  should  become  so  strong  that 
nothing  could  destroy  it, — these  were  the  controlling  ideas 
of  his  life,  especially  of  the  latter  years  of  it.  Of  gracious 
and  winning  manners  and  a  most  affectionate  temper,  he 
drew  to  himself  his  associates  with  a  strange  attraction, 
and  his  death  seemed  to  almost  all  who  knew  him  like 
the  loss  of  a  personal  friend.  With  his  large  and  sound 
learning,  his  exuberant  imagination,  the  magnetism  of 
his  address,  his  fertility  and  prodigious  resources,  there 
needed  only  the  larger  sphere,  the  graver  and  more  ex- 
citing questions  of  civil  commotions,  to  place  him  as  an 
advocate  and  as  an  orator  quite  on  a  level  with  the  most 
distinguished  masters  of  modern  eloquence. 

See  "Works  of  Rufus  Choate,  with  a  Memoir  of  his  Life,"  by 
Samuel  Oilman  Brown,  Boston,  1862;  "  Life  of  Rufus  Choate;" 
"Golden  Age  of  American  Orator}',"  by  E.  O.  Parker,  Boston, 
1857;  "North  American  Review"  for  January,  1863. 


Chodowiecki,  Ko-do-ve-§ts'kee,  (Daniel  Niko- 
LAUS,)  an  excellent  engraver  and  miniature-painter,  born 
at  Dantzic  in  1726.  He  went  to  Berlin  in  1743,  and  was 
employed  some  time  as  a  tradesman's  assistant.  A  few 
years  later  he  studied  design,  and  became  one  of  the 
most  skilful  etchers  of  his  time.  He  designed  most  of 
the  figures  of  Lavater's  "  Physiognomy,"  and  etched  a 
great  number  of  engravings,  frontispieces,  vignettes,  etc. 
for  the  booksellers.  His  designs  display  great  origi- 
nality and  a  satirical  genius,  on  account  of  which  he  has 
been  called  "the  Hogarth  of  Germany."  Died  in  Berlin 
in  180L 

See  Nagler,  "Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Chodzko,  Kodz'ko,  (AlexandIer,)  a  Polish  Oriental- 
ist and  poet,  born  at  Krzywicze  in  1804.  He  resided  in 
Persia  from  1829- to  1841,  as  consul  and  dragoman.  He 
afterwards  passed  some  years  in  France.  He  published 
"  Specimens  of  the  Popular  Poetry  of  Persia,"  (translated 
by  him  into  English,  1842,)  "The  Theatre  in  Persia,"  (in 
French,  1845,)  and  a  "Persian  Grammar,"  (1852.) 

Chodzko,  (Jacques  Leonard,)  a  Polish  historian, 
who  was  born  in  1800.  He  became  a  resident  of  Paris 
in  1826,  and  was  an  aide-de-camp  of  La  Fayette  in  1830. 
He  was  afterwards  librarian  of  the  ministry  of  public 
instruction.  He  has  published,  in  French,  several  useful 
works,  among  which  are  "The  Poles  in  Italy,"  (1829,) 
"Tableau  of  Poland,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  (1830,)  and 
"Poland,  its  History,  Literature,  Monuments,  etc.," 
("  La  Pologne,  historique,  litteraire,  monumentale,  pit- 
toresque  et  illustree,"  1834-47.) 

Choerilus,  k^r'e-lus,  [Gr.  Xot(/L?.oc  or  XoipiXXog;  Fr. 
Cherile,  ka'r^K,]  an  Athenian  tragic  poet,  who  flou- 
rished between  525  and  475  B.C.  He  gained  the  prize 
thirteen  times,  and  composed  one  hundred  and  fifty 
dramas,  none  of  which  are  extant.  He  was  a  competitor 
with  ^schylus  in  a  tragic  contest,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  first  author  of  written  tragedies. 

See  Meineke,  "  Fragmenta  Comicorum  Gra;corum." 

Choerilus,  a  Greek  bard  of  little  merit,  who  followed 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  flattered  him  in  bad  verses, 
which  Horace  intimates  were  received  with  favour. 

See  Brunck,  "Analecta." 

ChcEi'ilus  of  Samos,  a  Greek  epic  poet  of  high  repu- 
tation, who  lived  about  450  B.C.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Herodotus,  with  whom  he  resided  some  time. 
His  last  days  were  spent  at  the  court  of  Archelaus,  King 
of  Macedon.  He  wrote  an  epic  poem  on  the  wars  of 
the  Greeks  against  Xerxes  and  Darius,  of  which  small 
fragments  are  extant. 

See  SuiDAS,  "Choerilus." 

Choffard,  shoTtR',  (Pierre  Philippe,)  a  French 
artist,  born  in  Paris  in  1730,  designed  and  engraved 
charming  vignettes,  etc.  for  the  works  of  Rousseau,  La 
Fontaine,  and  others,  and  wrote  a  "  Historical  Notice 
of  the  Art  of  Engraving,"  (1895.)    Died  in  1809. 

Choffin,  shoTiN^,  (David  Etienne,)  a  French  littc7'a- 
tetir,  born  at  Hericourt  in  1703  ;  died  in  1773. 

Choiseul,  de,  deh  shwi'zuK,  (Cesar,)  Duke,  Sieur 
du  Plessis-Praslin,  (dii  plk'se'  pRts^l^N',)  a  French  gene- 
ral, born  in  Paris  in  1598,  distinguished  himself  at  the 
siege  of  Rochelle  in  1628.  After  gaining  several  vic- 
tories over  the  Spaniards  in  Italy  and  Spain,  he  was  made 
a  marshal  of  France  in  1645.  During  the  war  of  the 
Fronde  he  commanded  the  king's  army,  and  defeated 
Turenne  at  Rethel  about  1650.  He  was  created  duke  in 
1663.    Died  in  1675. 

Choiseul,  de,  (Charles,)  Count  of  Plessis-Praslin, 
an  able  French  general,  born  in  1563,  was  the  son  of 
Ferri  de  Choiseul,  and  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  After 
fighting  for  the  League,  he  was  one  of  the  first  Catholic 
chiefs  that  recognized  Henry  IV.,  who  made  him  captain 
of  his  guards  in  1594.  He  became  marshal  of  France 
in  1619,  after  which  he  commanded  with  success  against 
the  rebels.    Died  in  1626. 

See  Bazin,  "  Histoire  du  Regne  de  Louis  XIIL" 

Choiseul,  de,  (Claude  Antoine  Gabriel,)  Due, 
born  in  1760,  was  a  relative  of  the  eminent  statesman 
of  that  name.  He  became  colonel  of  the  royal  dragoons 
in  1789,  and  in  1791  was  chosen  to  guard  the  king  in  his 
escape  to  the  frontier  ;  but  he  did  not  arrive  at  Varennes 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fdll,  fAt;  m^t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


CHOISEUL 


597 


CHORIS 


until  after  the  king  was  arrested.  He  emigrated  about 
1793,  and  returned  to  France  about  1804.  After  the 
restoration  of  1815  he  entered  the  Chanaber  of  Peers, 
in  which  he  supported  constitutional  principles.  Died 
in  1838. 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Restoration." 

Choiseul,  de,  (fixiENNE  Francois,)  Due  de  Choiseul 
et  d'Amboise,  (dON'bwiz',)  an  eminent  French  states- 
man, born  in  17 19.  In  his  youth  he  served  in  the  army, 
and,  before  he  left  it,  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.  He  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Vienna  in 
1756,  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1758.  By  the 
influence  of  Madame  de  Pompadour,  he  soon  became 
the  favourite  and  chief  minister  of  Louis  XV.,  and  was 
created  a  duke.  In  1761  he  negotia-ted  with  the  Bourbon 
King  of  Spain  a  secret  treaty  called  the  "  Family  Com- 
pact," which  was  considered  a  master-piece  of  diplo- 
macy. About  1762  he  suppressed  the  order  of  Jesuits, 
who  were  banished  from  France.  In  the  Seven  Years' 
war  (1756-63)  the  French  fought  for  Maria  Theresa 
against  the  King  of  Prussia.  By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  in 
1763,  he  terminated  a  war  with  England,  which  had 
been  disastrous  to  the  French.  Though  he  was  popular 
with  the  nation,  a  party  at  court,  aided  by  Madame  du 
Barry,  procured  his  dismissal  from  office  in  1770.  He 
died  in  1785,  and  left  no  posterity.  He  was  a  liberal 
patron  of  literary  men. 

See  "Menioires  de  M.  le  Due  de  Choiseul,  ecrltes  par  hil-meme," 
2  vols.,  1790;  SouLAViE,  "Menioires  de  M.  le  Due  de  Clioiseul  ;" 
Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XV;"  Paulin  de  Champrobert, 
"  Notiee  historique  sur  le  Due  de  Choiseul,"  1836;  Sismondi,  "  His- 
toire  des  Fran^ais." 

Choiseul,  de,  (Gilbert,)  Bishop  of  Tournai,  born 
in  1613,  was  a  brother  of  Cesar,  noticed  above.  In  1682 
he  co-operated  with  Bossuet  in  the  celebrated  declaration 
of  the  clergy  of  France.    Died  in  1689. 

Choiseul-d'Aillecourt,  de,  deh  shw^VzuK  dt^ye'- 
kooR',(ANNE  Maxime  Urrain,)Count,  a  French  writer, 
nephew  of  Choiseul-Goufifier,  born  about  1782.  He  pub- 
lished in  1809  a  work  "  On  the  Influence  of  the  Crusades 
on  the  Condition  of  European  Nations."    Died  in  1854. 

Choiseul-Francieres.de,  deh  shw^''zuK  fRdN^se-aiR'', 
(Claude,)  Count,  a  distinguished  French  generaiTlSorn 
in  1632.  Having  served  under  Turenne  and  Conde  in 
Flanders,  he  was  made  lieutenant-general  in  1676.  He 
commanded  with  success  against  the  Elector  of  Bavaria 
in  1689,  and  was  rewarded  with  a  marshal's  baton  in 
1693.    He  died,  without  issue,  in  171 1. 

See  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Choiseul-Goufiier,  de,  deh  shwi'zuK  goo'fe-a', 
(Marie  Gabriel  Florent  Auguste,)  Count,  a  French 
scholar  and  traveller,  born  in  Paris  in  1752.  Having 
married  a  rich  heiress,  he  annexed  her  name  (Goufifier) 
to  his  own  family  name.  In  1776  he  visited  Greece  and 
Asia  Minor,  and  on  his  return  published  his  magnificent 
work  entitled  "Picturesque  Journey  in  Greece,"  ("Voy- 
age pittoresque  en  Grece,"  1782,)  elegantly  illustrated. 
He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions in  1779,  and  of  the  French  Academy,  as  successor 
to  D'Alembert,  in  1784.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed ambassador  to  Constantinople,  and  took  with 
h::u  several  artists  and  savants  and  the  poet  Delille. 
He  returned  to  France  in  1802,  and  produced,  a  few 
years  later,  a  second  volume  of  his  "  Voyage  pitto- 
resque," which  describes  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  After 
the  restoration  of  1816  he  became  a  peer  and  a  minister 
of  state.    Died  in  181 7. 

See  Bon  Joseph  Dacier,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  le 
Comte  Choiseul-Gouffier,"  1819. 

Choisy,  de,  deh  shwi'ze',  (Franqois  Timol^on,) 
Abbe,  a  French  priest  and  author,  born  in  Paris  in 
1644.  He  published,  in  1684,  "  Dialogues  on  the  Im- 
mortality of  the  Soul,"  etc.,  which  had  much  success. 
He  afterwards  went  to  Siam,  and  made  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  convert  the  king  of  that  country.  He  pub- 
lished a  "History  of  the  Church,"  (11  vols.,  1727.)  He 
was  Dean  of  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1724. 

See  Abbe  d'Olivet,  "Vie  de  M.  I'Abbe  de  Choisy;"  D'Alem- 
bert,"' filoge  de  I'Abb^  de  Choisy ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  ''  Causeries  du 
Lundi." 

Chokier,  sho'ke-i',  (John  Ernest,)  a  Flemish  author 
ar.d  ecclesiastic, born  at  Liege  in  1571,  wrote  "Treasury 


of  Political  Aphorisms,"  ("  Thesaurus  Aphorismorum 
Politicorum,"  1610,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1650. 

Chomel,  sho'mSK,  (Auguste  FRANgois,)  a  French 
physician,  born  about  1788.  He  became  eminent  as  a 
practitioner  in  Paris,  and  in  1827  succeeded  Laennec  as 
professor  in  the  Ecole  de  Medecine.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  Treatise  on  Fevers  and  Pestilential  Diseases," 
(1821.)    Died  in  1858. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Chomel,  (Jacques  Fran(;ois,)  a  French  physician 
and  writer,  born  in  Paris,  lived  between  1700  and  1750. 

Chomel,  (Jean  Baptiste  Louis,)  a  French  physician, 
born  about  1700,  was  a  son  of  Pierre  Jean  Baptiste,  no- 
ticed below.  He  wrote  several  esteemed  works,  among 
which  is  a  "  Historical  Essay  on  Medicine  in  France," 
(1762.)    Died  at  Paris  in  1765. 

See  "Biographie  Medicale;"  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Chomel,  (Pierre  Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  phy- 
sician and  botanist,  born  in  Paris  in  167 1,  was  a  pupil 
and  friend  of  Tournefort.  In  order  to  assist  the  latter  in 
a  projected  history  of  plants,  Chomel  in  1700  traversed 
Auvergne,  Bourbonnais,  etc.  in  search  of  new  plants. 
In  1707  he  was  appointed  by  Louis  XIV.  medeciii  de 
quartier.  His  principal  work  is  an  "  Abrege  de  Plantes 
usuelles,"  (1712,)  a  popular  treatise  on  medicinal  plants, 
with  directions  for  their  use.  He  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1720,    Died  in  1740. 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "Biographie  Medicale." 

Chomiakov  or  Chomiakow.    See  Khomiakov. 

Chompre,  shoN'pRa^  (Nicolas  Maurice,)  a  French 
scientific  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1750.  He  composed 
"Elements  of  Arithmetic,  Algebra,  and  Geometry,"  and 
other  esteemed  works.    Died  in  1825. 

Chompre,  (Pierre,)  a  French  teacher,  born  near 
Chalons-sur-Marne  in  1698;  died  in  1760. 

Chopart,  sho^ptR^  (FRANgois,)  a  French  surgeon, 
born  in  Paris  about  1750,  and  graduated  in  1770.  He 
and  Desault  published,  in  1789,  a  "Treatise  on  Surgical 
Maladies."    Died  in  1795. 

Chopin,  Ko'pin?(FREDERiCK,)  a  distinguished  Polish 
pianist  and  composer,  born  near  Warsaw  in  1810.  He 
became  a  resident  of  Paris  about  1832.  He  composed 
concertos,  waltzes,  mazurkas,  etc.,  and  was  very  popular 
as  a  performer.    Died  in  Paris  in  1849. 

See  Franz  Liszt,  "F.  Chopin,"  1852. 

Chopin,  sho''piN',  (J.  N.,)  a  French  litterateur,  brother 
of  a  distinguished  painter  who  writes  his  name  Schopin, 
was  born  about  1800.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
one  "On  the  Present  State  of  Russia,"  (1822.) 

Chopin  or  Choppin,  sho^i^^N',  (Rene,)  an  eminent 
French  jurist,  born  near  La  Fleche  in  1537.  He  united 
a  solid  judgment  to  a  prodigious  memory.  In  the  reign 
of  Henry  III.  he  was  an  ardent  partisan  of  the  League  ; 
but  he  changed  sides  when  Henry  IV.  became  master 
of  Paris.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Commentary  on  the 
Common  Law  of  Anjou,"  and  a  "Traite  du  Domaine." 
Died  in  1606. 

See  J.  Papire  Masson,  "R.  Chopini  Vita,"  i6o6;  Niceron» 
"Honimes  illustres." 

Choppin,    See  Chopin,  (Ren^:.) 

Choque,  shok,  (Pierre,)  called  Bretagne,  a  French 
writer,  flourished  about  1500,  and  was  chief  herald  and 
king-at-arms  to  Anne  of  Brittany. 

Choricius,  ko-rish'e-us,  [Xopkwf,]  a  Greek  Sophist, 
born  at  Gaza,  lived  about  520  A.D.  He  composed  ora- 
tions, some  of  which  were  printed  at  Paris  in  1846. 

Chorier,  sho^re-i',  (Nicolas,)  a  mediocre  French 
writer,  born  at  Vienne  in  1609,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Dau- 
phine,"  (1661,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1692. 

Choris,  Ko'ris,  (Louis,)  an  eminent  Russian  painter 
and  traveller,  born  at  Ekaterinoslav  in  1795.  He  accom- 
panied as  artist  Count  Romanzof's  expedition  under 
Captain  Kotzebue,  round  the  world,  1815-18.  Chamisso 
the  author  was  his  companion  in  this  voyage.  After  his 
return  he  worked  some  years  in  Paris,  where  he  pub- 
lished, in  French,  his  "  Picturesque  Voyage  round  the 
World,"  (182 1.)  It  is  accompanied  with  descriptions  of 
mammifera  by  Cuvier,  and  illustrated  with  faithful  pic- 
tures of  human  figures,  landscapes,  etc.  by  himself.  He 
also  published  "Views  and  Landscapes  of  the  Equinoc- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  H,  vl,  guttural ;  n,  fiasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2:^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CHORLET 


598 


CHRISTIAN 


tial  Regions,"  (1826.)  In  1827  he  visited  America.  On 
the  way  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Mexico,  he  was  killed  by 
robbers  in  March,  1828. 

See  QuEKAKD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Chor'ley,  (Henry  F.,)  an  English  author  of  the  pre- 
sent century.  He  has  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Music  and  Manners  in  France  and  Germany,"  (1841,) 
"  Pomfret,"  (3  vols.,  1845,)  "  Memorials  of  Mrs.  Hemans," 
and  "The  Authors  of  England." 

Chorluli  Ali  Pasha.    See  Alee-Chorleelee. 

Choron,  sho'r6N',  (Alexandre  £tienne,)  a  French 
musician  and  writer  on  music,  born  at  Caen  in  1771.  He 
made  such  progress  in  mathematics  that  Monge  chose 
him  in  1793  as  assistant  professor  of  descriptive  geometry 
in  the  Normal  School.  In  1808  he  produced  his  chief 
work,  "  Principles  of  Composition  of  the  Schools  of 
Italy."  Died  in  1834.  Choron  and  Fayolle  published  a 
"  Historical  Dictionary  of  Musicians,"  (1810.) 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  L.  E.  Gau- 
TiER,  "^filoge  d'A.  E.  Choron,"  Paris,  1846. 

Chosroes.    See  Khosroo. 

Chouan,  shoo''6N',  a  word  signifying  "  owl,"  was  ap- 
plied as  a  surname  or  nickname  to  the  family  of  Cotte- 
reau,  (kot'ro',)  and  adopted  by  the  royalist  insurgents  of 
Maine,  Bretagne,  etc.,  after  Jean  Cottereau  became  their 
chief.  He  was  a  peasant,  born  in  Mayenne  in  1757,  and 
became  a  smuggler.  In  1792  he  took  arms  against  the 
French  Convention,  and  was  chosen  as  chief  of  the  un- 
disciplined rustics  called  "La  Chouannerie."  He  united 
his  troops  with  the  Vendeans  after  the  latter  passed  the 
Loire,  and  he  shared  their  defeat  at  Mans,  December, 
1793.-    He  was  killed  in  a  fight  or  retreat  in  July,  1794. 

Choudieu,  shoo'de-uh',  (Pierre,)  a  French  regicide 
and  Jacobin,  iDorn  at  Angers  ;  died  in  1840. 

Choudja-ed-Doulah.    See  Suja-Dowlah. 

Chouet,  shoo^y,  (Jean  Robert,)  born  at  Geneva  in 
1642,  became  professor  of  philosophy  in  his  native  city 
in  1669,  and  was  the  first  who  taught  the  doctrines  of 
Descartes  in  Switzerland.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
Geneva,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1 731. 

Choul.    See  Duchoul. 

Choulant,  shooOSN',  (Ludwig,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man physician,  born  at  Dresden  in  179L  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  medicine  at  Dresden  in  1828,  and 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Medicine  in  1842.  He  was 
successful  as  a  practitioner  and  professor,  and  published 
many  approved  works,  among  which  are  a  "Manual 
of  Special  Pathology  and  Therapeutics,"  (1831,)  and  an 
"Introduction  to  Practical  Surgery,"  (1836.) 

See  Callisen,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon,"  (Supple- 
ment.) 

Choules,  cholz,  (John  Overton,)  a  writer  and  Baptist 
minister,  born  at  liristol,  England,  in  1801.  He  came  to 
the  United  States  in  1824,  and  settled  in  New  York  City 
in  1841.  He  edited  Neal's  "History  of  the  Puritans," 
and  wrote  several  works.    Died  at  New  York  in  1856. 

Choumara,  shoo^mtW,  (Pierre  Marie  Theodore,) 
a  French  military  writer,  born  in  1787,  published  "Me- 
moirs on  Fortifications,"  and  other  works. 

Chouteau,  shoo'to',  (Auguste,)  a  citizen  of  New 
Orleans,  who,  in  conjunction  with  his  brother  Pierre, 
founded  the  city  of  Saint  Louis,  in  Missouri,  (1764.) 
Auguste  died  in  1829,  and  Pierre  in  1849.  A  son  of 
P.  Chouteau,  of  the  same  name,  born  in  1789,  became 
a  prominent  merchant  in  the  fur-trade  at  Saint  Louis. 

Chouvaloff.    See  Shoovalof. 

Chrestien.    See  Chretien. 

Clirestien  de  Troyes,  kR^te-dN^deh  tRwi,  a  French 
poet,  wrote  a  number  of  romantic  tales  and  poems,  some 
of  which  are  extant    Died  about  1196. 

Chretien,  kRk''te-iN^  sometimes  written  Chrestien, 
(Florent,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Orleans  in  1541,  was 
educated  a  Protestant.  He  learned  Greek  of  Plenry 
Estienne,  and  became  the  tutor  of  the  Prince  of  Beam, 
(Henry  IV.)  He  wrote  an  "Ode  on  the  l^irthday  of  the 
Count  de  Soissons,"  the  "  Judgment  of  Paris,"  and  part 
of  the  "  Satire  Menippee."  He  translated  into  Latin 
verse  Epigrams  selected  from  the  Greek  Anthology  and 
other  Greek  works.    Died  in  1596. 

Chretien,  (Gilles  Louis,)  a  French  musician,  born 
at  Versailles  in  1754;  died  in  1811. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 


Christ,  kidst,  (Joiiann  Friedrich.)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Coburg  in  1700.  He  became  professor 
of  history  at  Jena  about  1730,  and  professor  of  poetry 
at  Leipsic  in  1740.  He  wrote  able  dissertations  on  phi- 
lology, and  other  works.    Died  in  1756. 

Christian,  krls'che-an,  or  Christiern,  kRis'te-§Rn^,  L. 
King  of  Denmark,  born  in  1425,  was  the  son  of  Theodo- 
ric,  Count  of  Oldenburg,  and  Hedwige,  who  was  heiress 
of  Sleswick  and  Holstein.  Christopher  HI.  having 
died  without  issue  in  1448,  Christiern  was  chosen  his 
successor.  He  attempted  to  acquire  by  force  the  crown 
of  Sweden,  from  which  he  expelled  his  rival,  Charles 
Canutson,  in  1456.  The  latter  was  recalled  by  the  Swedes 
about  1465,  and,  after  a  war  of  several  years,  Christiern 
renounced  his  claim  to  Sweden.  Historians  give  him 
credit  for  liberality  and  humanity.  He  died  in  1481,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  John. 

See  HuiTFELD,  "  Historiske  Beskrivelse  af  Konung Christiern  L," 
1599- 

Christian  (or  Christiern)  II.,  King  of  Denmark,  born 
in  1481,  was  the  . son  of  John,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1513. 
He  married  Isabella,  sister  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  in 
15 15.  In  1520  he  invaded  Sweden,  then  distracted  by 
intestine  dissensions,  and  made  himself  master  of  that 
kingdom.  He  disgraced  himself  by  the  execution  of 
numerous  nobles  and  senators  of  Stockholm  who  were 
innocent,  and  by  other  acts  of  cruelty,  for  which  he  was 
called  "  the  Nero  of  the  North."  Gustavas  Vasa  liberated 
Sweden  about  1522.  Near  the  close  of  that  year  the 
Danes  deposed  their  tyrant,  and  elected  as  his  successor 
his  uncle,  Frederick  I.  Christiern  retired  to  Flanders 
in  1523.  He  returned  with  an  army  in  1531,  and,  having 
failed  in  an  attempt  to  recover  the  throne,  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  kept  in  prison  until  his  death  in  1559. 

See  Behrmann,  "Kong  Christiern  IL  Historie,"  1815;  C.  F. 
Allen,  "  Commentatio  de  Rebus  Christiani  IL,"  1844. 

Christian  (or  Christiern)  III.,  King  of  Denmark,  the 
son  of  Frederick  I.,  was  born  in  1503,  and  was  educated 
as  a  Protestant.  Soon  after  the  death  of  his  father,  in 
1533,  he  was  proclaimed  king.  He  adopted  severe 
measures  to  suppress  the  Catholic  religion.  In  1543 
he  terminated  a  war  with  Charles  V.  by  the  treaty  of 
Spire,  after  which  he  reigned  in  peace.  He  is  regarded 
as  a  humane  and  wise  ruler.  He  died  in  1559,  leaving 
his  throne  to  his  son,  Frederick  II. 

See  PoNTANUS,  "Vita  Christiani  IIL,"  1729. 

Christian  (or  Christiern)  IV.,  King  of  Denmark, 
born  in  1577,  was  the  son  of  Frederick  II.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1588.  He  was  declared  of  age  in  1596,  and 
married  Anne  Catherine  of  Brandenburg  in  1598.  In 
161 1  he  declared  war  against  Sweden,  with  which  he  made 
peace  in  1613.  He  was  chosen,  in  1625,  commander 
of  the  army  of  the  allies  in  a  war  against  Austria.  In 
1626  he  was  defeated  by  the  Austrians,  under  Tilly,  at 
Lutter,  and  peace  was  restored  in  1629.  From  1641 
to  1645  he  waged  war  against  Sweden,  without  decisive 
results.  He  displayed  superior  talents  for  war  and  civil 
affairs,  and  acquired  the  favour  of  his  subjects  in  a  high 
degree  by  his  magnanimity  and  other  qualities.  Died  in 
1648.    His  son,  Frederick  HI.,  was  his  successor. 

See  Rasmus  Nyerup,  "  Charakteristik  af  Kong  Christian  IV.,'- 
1816;  Niels  SLANGEor  Slangen,  "  Kong  Christiern  IV.  Historie," 
1749;  H.  Nyerup,  "Kong  Christiern  IV.  Dagboger,"  1825;  F.  H. 
Jahn,  "Christiern  IV.  Krigshistorie,"  1822. 

Christian  (or  Christiern)  V.,  King  of  Denmark  and 
Norway,  born  in  1646,  was  the  son  of  Frederick  IIL, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1670.  In  1673  he  made  a  treaty 
of  alliance  with  the  Dutch  against  France  and  Sweden, 
After  a  war  with  Sweden,  in  which  he  was  victorious  in 
Pomerania  and  was  defeated  in  Scania,  peace  was  con- 
cluded in  1679.  He  published  in  1693  a  code  which 
bears  his  name.  He  died  in  1699,  of  a  wound  received 
in  hunting,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Frederick  IV. 

See  Friedenreich,  "Kong  Christiern  V.  Krigshistorie,"  1758  to 
1765- 

Christian  (or  Christiern)  VI.,  King  of  Denmark  and 
Norway,  born  in  December,  1699,  succeeded  his  father, 
Frederick  IV.,  in  1730.  In  1734  he  made  a  defensive 
alliance  with  Sweden,  which  lasted  many  years.  He 
improved  the  condition  of  the  country,  promoted  in- 
dustry and  commerce,  and  by  his  zeal  for  Protestantism 


a,  e,  T,  o,  %  y,  long;  i,  hy  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr;  fill,  fit,  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CHRISTIAN 


599 


CHRISTINE 


acquired  the  surname  of  Pious.  Alarmed  by  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  house  of  Holstein-Gottorp  on  the  thrones 
of  Sweden  and  Russia,  he  formed  in  1745  a  defensive 
alliance  with  France.  He  died  in  1746,  leaving  the 
throne  to  his  son,  Frederick  V. 

See  RiEGELS,  "Account  of  the  Reign  of  Christian  VI.,"  1798. 

Christian  (or  Christiern)  VII.,  King  of  Denmark, 
born  in  January,  1749,  was  the  son  of  Frederick  V., 
whom  he  succeeded  in  January,  1766.  His  mother  was 
Louisa,  daughter  of  George  II.  of  England.  He  married 
in  1766  his  cousin  Caroline  Matilda,  a  sister  of  George 
III.  of  England.  His  physician,  Struensee,  who  acquired 
a  paramount  influence  over  him,  became  chief  minister 
in  1770,  but  was  deprived  of  power  and  life  by  a  hostile 
party  in  1772.  The  king,  whose  reason  was  impaired 
by  disease,  had  no  part  in  the  government  for  many  years 
before  his  death.  In  1784  his  son  Frederick  became 
regent.  Christian  died  in  1808,  and  was  succeeded  by 
the  son  just  named.  (See  Struensee,  and  Caroline 
Matilda.) 

See  G.  L.  Baden,  "Christiern  VII.  Regierings  Aarbog,"  1833; 
Mynster,  "Sbrgetale  over  Kong  Christian  VII.,"  1814. 

Christian  (or  Christiern)  VIII.,  King  of  Denmark, 
the  son  of  the  hereditary  Prince  Frederick,  was  born  in 
1786.  About  1812  he  was  appointed  Governor  or  Vice- 
roy of  Norway.  The  King  of  Denmark  was  obliged  to 
cede  Norway  to  Sweden  in  1814;  but  the  people  of  Nor- 
way protested  against  that  act,  and  chose  Prince  Chris- 
tian as  their  king.  On  the  approach  of  Bernadotte 
with  an  army,  he  abdicated,  in  October,  18 14.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  cousin,  Frederick  VI.,  in  1839,  and  took 
measures  to  prepare  Denmark  for  the  free  institutions 
which  were  established  in  the  next  reign.  He  died  in 
January,  1848,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son,  Frederick 
VII. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Christian  (or  Christiern)  IX.,  King  of  Denmark, 
son  of  Duke  Friedrich  Wilhelm  of  Sleswick-Holstein, 
etc.,  was  born  in  1818.  He  ascended  the  throne  in  No- 
vember, 1863.  In  the  early  part  of  1864  he  waged  a 
very  unequal  war  against  Austria,  Prussia,  and  other 
German  powers  which  claimed  Sleswick  and  Holstein  as 
part  of  Germany.  In  August,  1864,  he  signed  a  treaty 
of  peace,  and  ceded  Sleswick,  Holstein,  and  Lauenburg 
to  the  victors. 

Christian,  (Andrew,)  a  Danish  medical  writer,  born 
at  Ripen  in  1551  ;  died  in  1606. 

Christian  or  Christien  Reisen,  (Charles,)  an 
excellent  engraver  of  gems,  born  in  London,  of  Danish 
parents,  about  1695.  He  is  ranked  among  the  first  mod- 
ern engravers  of  precious  stones,  and  executed  many 
works,  which  are  in  great  request.  Among  them  is  a 
portrait  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden.    Died  in  1725. 

Chris'tian,  (Edward,)  professor  of  the  laws  of  Eng- 
land in  the  University  of  Cambridge.  He  published  an 
edition  of  "  Blackstone's  Commentaries,"  with  notes, 
(i795))  "Origin  of  the  Two  Houses  of  Parliament," 
(1810,)  "Bankrupt  Laws,"  and  other  legal  works.  Died 
in  1823. 

Christ'ian  Augus'tus,  [Ger.  Christian  August, 
kRis'te-^n  ow'gdost,]  Duke  of  Sleswick-Holstein-Son- 
derburg-Augustenburg,  was  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1798. 
He  succeeded  his  father,  Frederick  Christian,  in  1814, 
and  became  the  chief  of  a  party  which  attempted  to 
separate  Sleswick  and  Holstein  from  Denmark  about 
1848.  After  the  victories  of  the  Danes  (1850)  he  was 
banished. 

Christian  von  Hamle,  KRis'te-Sn  fon  himOeh,  a 
German  minnesinger,  who  lived  about  1250. 
See  LoNGFELLOV;''s  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Christiani,  kRis-te-i'nee,  (William  Ernest,)  a  Dan- 
ish historian,  born  at  Kiel  in  173 1.  He  was  professor 
of  eloquence  and  public  law  at  Kiel,  and  author  of  a 

History  of  Sleswick  and  Holstein,"  which  is  highly 
coromended.    Died  in  1793. 

Christie,  kris'te,  (James,)  an  English  antiquary  and 
auctioneer  of  London.  He  published  in  1806  a  treatise 
on  Etruscan  Vases,  and  in  1815  an  "Essay  on  the 
Earliest  Species  of  Idolatry,  the  Worship  of  the  Ele- 
ments."   Died  in  183 1. 


Christie,  (Samuel  Hunter,)  F.R.S.,  an  English 
magnetist,  born  in  London  in  1784.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  the  Royal  Military  Academy, 
Woolwich,  about  1838.  He  contributed  many  papers  on 
magnetism  to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions."  Died 
in  1865. 

Christie,  (Thomas,)  an  ingenious  Scottish  writer, 
born  at  Montrose  in  1761,  lived  in  London  and  Paris. 
As  an  adversary  of  Burke,  he  wrote  "Letters  on  the 
French  Revolution,"  (1791.)  He  also  published  "  Mis- 
cellanies, Philosophical,  Medical,  and  Moral,"  and  edited 
the  "Analytic  Review,"  founded  by  him  in  1788.  For 
commercial  purposes,  he  went  to  Surinam,  where  he  died 
in  1796. 

Christiern.    See  Christian,  (of  Denmark.) 

Christin,  kR^s''tiN',  (Charles  Gabriel  Frederic,) 
a  French  jurist,  born  at  Saint-Claude  in  1744;  died  in 
1799. 

Christina,  Queen  of  Spain.    See  Maria  Christina. 

Christina,  kR!s-tee'na,  [Fr.  Christine,  kR^s'ten',] 
Queen  of  Sweden,  born  on  the  8th  of  December,  1626, 
was  the  only  surviving  child  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  and 
Maria  Eleonora,  Princess  of  Brandenburg.  She  received 
a  careful,  solid,  and  masculine  education.  At  the  death 
of  Gustavus,  in  1632,  she  was  proclaimed  queen,  and  the 
regency  was  confided  to  Oxenstiern  and  four  other  digni- 
taries, who  directed  her  education  in  accordance  with  the 
plan  of  her  father.  She  learned  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
history,  politics,  and  other  sciences,  neglecting  the  usual 
feminine  accomplishments.  Her  favourite  recreations 
were  horseback-riding  and  the  chase.  Her  mind  was 
strong,  her  character  eccentric  and  impatient  of  the 
etiquette  of  courts.  In  1644  she  assumed  the  direction 
of  the  government,  and,  pursuing  a  pacific  policy,  took 
part  in  the  important  treaty  of  Westphalia  in  1648,  by 
which  Sweden  acquired  Pomerania,  Bremen,  and  Verden. 
Her  subjects  were  proud  of  her,  as  the  worthy  daughter 
of  a  hero,  and  desired  that  she  would  choose  a  husband  ; 
but  she  evinced  a  constant  aversion  to  the  conjugal  yoke. 
The  States  of  Sweden,  with  the  assent  of  Christina,  in 
1649  designated  as  her  successor  her  cousin  Charles 
Gustavus,  who  had  aspired  to  her  hand.  Soon  after 
this  event  she  proposed  to  abdicate,  but  was  induced  by 
her  ministers  to  change  her  purpose  or  postpone  its 
execution.  Her  eccentricity  appeared  in  the  extravagant 
patronage  of  literary  men,  pedants,  buffoons,  artists,  etc. 
Among  the  eminent  persons  whom  she  attracted  to  her 
court  were  Descartes,  Grotius,  Salmasius,  Naude,  Vos- 
sius,  and  Bochart.  In  June,  1654,  she  gave,  while  still 
in  the  bloom  of  youth,  a  remarkable  example  of  contempt 
for  a  throne,  by  a  formal  abdication,  which  is  variously 
ascribed  to  vanity,  levity,  or  magnanimity.  According 
to  Voltaire,  "she  preferred  to  live  with  men  who  think, 
rather  than  reign  over  men  without  learning  or  genius." 
Some  suppose  she  was  ambitious  to  make  a  sensation 
by  an  extraordinary  act  of  self-denial.  She  abjured  the 
Protestant  for  the  Catholic  religion,  and,  followed  by  a 
numerous  suite,  became  a  resident  of  Rome,  where  she 
busied  herself  in  the  promotion  of  arts  and  in  political 
affairs.  On  the  death  of  the  King  of  Sweden  in  1660, 
she  visited  Stockholm,  and,  it  is  said,  wished  to  recover 
the  crown ;  but,  receiving  no  encouragement,  she  soon 
returned  to  Rome.  She  had  reserved  the  power  of  life 
and  death  over  the  persons  who  remained  in  her  service. 
Her  memory  is  stained  with  the  charge  of  cruelty  to 
Monaldeschi,  her  grand-equerry,  whom  she  accused  of 
treason  and  caused  to  be  put  to  death,  in  Paris,  in  1656. 
She  founded  an  academy  in  Rome,  and  made  rich  col- 
lections of  medals  and  productions  of  art.  Her  superior 
mind  and  cultivation  did  not  preserve  her  from  chi- 
merical projects  and  the  vain  dreams  of  astrology.  She 
composed  a  volume  of  "  Maxims  and  Sentences,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1689. 

See  Lacombe,  "  Histoire  de  Christine,"  1762;  Catteau-Calle- 
viLi.E,  "Histoire  de  Christine  Reine  de  Suede,"  1815;  Akchen- 
HOLZ,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Christina,"  Stockholm,  4  vols.,  1751, 
in  French;  John  Burbery,  "  History  of  Christina,  Queen  of  Swede- 
land,"  1658;  Anders  Frvxell,  "Drottning  Christinas  forniyn- 
dare,"  1838 ;  Henry  Woodhead,  "  Memoirs  of  Christina  of  Sweden," 
1863. 

Christine  de  France,  kR^s^t^n'  deh  fR6Nss,  Duchess 
of  Savoy,  and  daughter  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  was 


€  as     9  as  j;  g  Aarci;  g  as j;  g,  h,  y.,  giitticral ;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (S^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CHRISTINE 


600 


CHROSCIENSKI 


married  in  1619  to  Victor  Amadeus  II.  of  Savoy.  At  his 
death,  in  1637,  she  became  regent  and  governess  of  the 
princes.  The  brothers  of  the  late  king  rebelled,  and 
drove  her  out  of  Turin,  to  which  she  was  restored  by 
the  French  in  1640.  Died  in  1663.  She  was  a  very 
accomplished  lady. 

Christine  de  Pisan,  kRes't^n'  deh  pe'z6N',  a  poetess, 
born  at  Venice  about  1363,  was  daughter  of  Thomas  de 
Pisan,  who  was  in  the  service  of  Charles  V.  of  France 
as  astronomer.  She  was  educated  at  the  French  court, 
married  fitienne  du  Caste),  and  lived  mostly  in  France. 
She  gained  renown  by  her  poems,  ballads,  lays,  and 
rondeaux,  and  wrote  some  prose  works. 

See  R.  Thomassy,  "  Essai  sur  les  iScrits  politiques  de  Christine 
de  Pi-san;"  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

■eiiris'ti-son,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  physician,  son  of 
Professor  Alexander  Christison,  born  at  Edinburgh  about 
1798.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  medical  jurispru- 
dence in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  about  1823,  and 
pro^ssor  of  materia  medica  in  the  same  in  1832.  He 
attained  a  high  reputation  as  a  teacher  of  medicine  and 
»  as  a  practitioner.  In  1829  he  published  a  "Treatise  on 
Poisons,"  a  standard  work  of  the  highest  authority. 
He  has  also  published  a  "Dispensatory,"  (1842,)  and 
several  other  works. 

Christman,  kRlst^m^n,  (Jakob,)  a  learned  German 
philologist  and  mathematician,  born  near  Mentz  in  1554. 
He  was  successively  professor  of  Plebrew,  of  logic,  and 
of  Araljic  in  the  College  of  Heidelberg  between  1592 
and  1613.  He  composed  several  treatises  on  Chronology, 
and  other  Latin  works,  among  which  were  "Solar  Ob- 
servations," and  a  "Theory  of  the  Moon,"  (161 1.)  Died 
in  1613. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Mathematicis ;"  M.  Adam,  "Vitse  Philoso- 
phorum  Germanorum." 

•Christ'mas,  (Rev.  Henry,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  London  in  181 1.  Among  his  various  works  are 
"Christian  Politics,"  "Echoes  of  the  Universe,"  and 
"  Universal  Mythology." 

Christophe,  the  French  of  Christopher,  which  see. 

Christophe,  kR^s'tof ,  (Henri,)  a  negro  king  of  Hayti, 
born  in  1767.  In  the  insurrection  which  began  about  1790 
he  fought  against  the  French,  and  by  his  courage  and  tal- 
ents attracted  the  notice  of  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  who 
made  him  a  general  of  brigade.  After  Toussaint  had  been 
transported  to  France,  Christophe  fought  under  Dessa- 
lines,  who  assumed  the  title  of  emperor  in  1804.  When, 
in  October,  1806,  Dessalines  was  assassinated,  Chris- 
tophe became  ruler  of  the  northern  part  of  the  island. 
A  rivalry  between  him  and  Pethion,  who  favoured  a 
representative  system,  led  to  civil  war.  After  several 
hidecisive  battles,  Pethion  retained  the  southwest  part  of 
the  island,  and  Christophe  in  1811  was  crowned  King  of 
Hayti,  as  Henri  I.  He  established  the  Catholic  religion, 
and,  in  mimicry  of  European  courts,  created  a  nobility, 
with  such  titles  as  Duke  of  Marmalade  and  Count  of 
Lemonade,  these  names  having  formerly  been  those  of 
different  plantations.  In  1814,  Louis  XVIII.  of  France 
sent  emissaries  to  Hayti  with  a  design  to  recover  that 
island,  but  without  success.  His  cruelties  having  ren- 
dered him  unpopular,  Christophe  was  unable  to  suppress 
a  revolt,  and  shot  himself  in  October,  1820.  Boyer 
then  became  President  of  Hayti. 

See  De  Vastey,  "Memoires;"  General  P.  La  Croix,  "  His- 
toire  de  I'Expedition  de  Saint-Dominique." 

Christophe,  kR^s^tof,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
historical  writer,  born  at  Amplepuis  (Rhone)  in  1809. 
He  became  curate  of  a  parish  near  Lyons,  and  published 
in  1852  a  "  History  of  the  Papacy  during  the  Fourteenth 
Century,"  which  is  said  to  be  a  work  of  merit. 

Christophe  or  Christoph,  kRis'tof,  (Joseph,)  a 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1498,  was  a  pupil  of 
Antonio  Moro.  He  painted  history  and  portraits  with 
equal  success,  and  excelled  most  artists  of  his  time  in 
'  perspective.  He  worked  some  time  for  John  III.  of 
Portugal,  at  Lisbon,  where  he  died  in  1557. 

Chris'to-pher,  Emperor  of  the  East,  was  a  son  of 
Romanus  Lecapenus,  and  a  brother-in-law  of  Constan- 
tine  Porphyrogenitus.  He  was  associated  with  his  father 
in  the  empire  in  920  a.d.  He  died  in  931,  leaving  a  son, 
Michael,  who  became  a  priest. 


■€hris'to-pher,  [Gr.  Xptoro^opog ;  Lat.  Chrisi  oph'- 
ORUS  ;  Fr.  Christophe,  kR^s'tof ,]  Saint,  a  native  of 
Syria  or  Palestine,  supposed  to  have  suffered  martyrdom 
in  the  third  century. 

See  SiEGMUND  Meyer,  "Dissertatio  de  magno  Christophoro," 
1688  ;  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

•ehris'to-pher  I.,  King  of  Denmark,  was  the  son  of 

Waldemar  II.  He  began  to  reign  about  1250,  as  suc- 
cessor to  his  brother  Abel,  and  soon  became  involved 
in  a  contest  with  rebellious  bishops,  who  owned  alle- 
giance to  the  pope  alone.  He  died  in  1259,  leaving  the 
kingdom  to  his  son,  Eric  VII. 

Christopher  II.,  King  of  Denmark,  born  in  1276, 
was  the  son  of  Eric  VI.  He  succeeded  his  elder  brother, 
Eric  VII.,  who  died  in  13 19.  His  subjects  revolted  and 
dethroned  him  in  1326.  After  fighting  for  the  throne 
several  years  against  Gerhard  of  Rendsborg,  he  died  in 
1333.    His  son  Waldemar  became  his  successor. 

Christopher  III.  of  Denmark  was  the  son  of  John, 
Duke  of  Bavaria,  and  Catherine,  sister  of  Eric  XIII., 
who  reigned  over  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Norway.  The 
latter  having  been  deposed  in  1439,  Christopher  was 
elected  his  successor  in  1440  by  the  Danes,  and  soon 
afterwards  by  the  Swedes  and  Norwegians.  He  chose 
Copenhagen  as  his  capital.  His  reign  was  mostly  peace- 
ful. He  published  a  code  of  laws  which  were  in  force 
in  Sweden  until  the  eighteenth  century.  He  died,  with- 
out issue,  in  1448,  and  was  succeeded  by  Christian  I. 

See  Holberg,  "  Danemarks  Riges  Historle;"  Mallet,  "  His- 
toire  de  Danemarck." 

■eiiris'to-pher,  [Ger.  Christoph,  KRis'tof,]  Duke  of 
Wurtemberg,  born  in  15 15,  was  a  son  of  Duke  Ulric, 
who  was  deprived  of  his  dominions  in  1519  or  1^20. 
The  efforts  to  restore  Ulric  were  opposed  by  the  em- 
peror Charles  V.  with  success,  until  the  Austrians  were 
defeated  at  Laufen  by  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  in  1534. 
Christopher  succeeded  his  father  in  1550,  and  established 
the  Protestant  religion  in  the  duchy  about  1552.  He  is 
entitled  to  credit  for  appropriating  the  property  of  the 
old  church  to  the  support  of  schools  and  of  the  clergy, 
while  other  Protestant  princes  converted  the  church 
revenues  to  their  own  use.    Died  in  1568. 

See  J.  C.  Pflster,  "  Herzog  Christoph  zu  Wurtemberg,"  2  vols., 
1818-20;  J.  F.  RoESLiN,  "Leben  Herzogs  Christoph  von  Wurtem- 
berg," 1739. 

■Chris'to-pher-son,  (John,)  an  English  bishop  and 
scholar,  translated  into  barbarous  English  the  ecclesias- 
tical histories  of  Eusebius,  Socrates,  Sozomen,  etc.  On 
the  accession  of  Mary,  in  1552,  he  became  Bishop  of 
Chichester.    Died  in  1558. 

Christophorus,  the  Latin  of  Christopher,  which 
see. 

Christopoulos,  Kr^s-to-poo'los,  (Athanasius,)  a 
modern  Greek  lyric  poet,  born  at  Castoria  about  1772. 
He  published  a  "  Grammar  of  Modern  Greek"  about 
1805,  and  afterwards  his  popular  lyric  and  erotic  poems, 
which  are  his  chief  title  to  fame.  He  lived  mostly  in 
Constantinople  and  Moldavia.    Died  in  1847. 

Christovao  de  Lisboa,  kR^s-to-v6wN'  da  l^s-bo'd, 
(Frey,)  a  Portuguese  ecclesiastic,  who  in  1623  went  as  a 
missionary  to  South  America. 

Christyn,  kR!s-tTn'  or  kR^s^taN',  (Jean  Baptiste,) 
a  Flemish  jurist,  born  at  Brussels  in  1622,  became  a  privy 
councillor  of  the  King  of  Spain,  whom  he  represented  at 
the  Congress  of  Nymwegen  in  1678.  He  wrote  able 
works  on  heraldry,  one  of  which  is  called  "  Jurispruden- 
tia  heroica,"  and  "Les  Delices  des  Pays-Bas,"  ("The 
Delights  of  the  Low  Countries.")    Died  in  1690. 

Christyn,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Flemish  jurist,  born 
at  Brussels  in  1635  ;  died  in  1707. 

Chronicle,  kron'e-k'l,  (William,)  an  American  sol- 
dier of  the  Revolution,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1755, 
became  a  major  in  1780,  and  was  killed  the  same  year  at 
the  battle  of  King's  Mountain. 

Chroscienski,  KRo-she-^n'skee,  written  also  Chro- 
scinsky,  (Adalbert  Stanislas,)  secretary  of  Prince 
James  Sobieski,  was  reputed  the  best  Polish  poet  of  his 
time.  He  translated  Lucan's  "Pharsalia"  into  verse, 
and  composed  poems  entitled  "Esther,"  "Joseph  De- 
livered," and  "The  Victory  over  the  Turks  at  Vienna," 
(1684.)    Died  about  1737. 


a,  0,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /ong;  h,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CHRTSJNDER 


60 1 


CHURCH 


Chrysander,  kRe-sSn'der  or  kRe-zin'der,  or  Gold- 
manu,  golt^iian,  (Wilhelm  Christian,)  a  German 
professor  of  Oriental  languages,  philosophy,  etc.,  born 
at  Halberstadt  in  1718.  Among  his  works  is  a  poem  on 
the  "Memorable  Events  of  1740,"  ("Memorabilia  Anni 
1740.")    Died  in  1788. 

Chrysippe.    See  Chrysippus. 

■ehry-sip''pus  [Gr.  XpvoLmroc ;  Fr.  Chrysippe,  k^e'- 
z^p']  of  Cnidos,  a  Greek  physician,  often  quoted  by 
Galen,  lived  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Eudoxus  of  Cnidos,  and  the  teacher  of  Erasistratus. 

Chrysippus,  an  eminent  Stoic  philosopher,  born  at 
Soli,  in  Cilicia,  in  280  B.C.,  was  a  son  of  Apollonius  of 
Tarsus,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Cleanthes.  He  was  noted 
for  his  skill  in  dialectics  and  his  subtlety  as  a  reasoner, 
and  used  to  say  to  Cleanthes,  "Teach  me  only  your  doc- 
trines, and  I  will  find  the  arguments  to  defend  them." 
There  was  a  common  saying  "that,  if  the  gods  use  any 
logic,  it  is  doubtless  that  of  Chrysippus."  He  was  par- 
tial to  the  Sorites,  which  he  is  said  to  have  invented. 
He  wrote  on  various  subjects  several  hundred  volumes, 
none  of  which  are  extant.  Chrysippus  was  the  most  emi- 
nent philosopher  of  his  sect  except  Zeno,  and  was  re- 
garded as  an  oracle  by  the  later  Stoics.  Died  in  207  B.C. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius;  Ritter,  "  Geschichte  der  Philoso- 
phie;"  J.  F.  Richter,  "Dissertatio  de  Chrysippo  Stoico,"  1738;  F. 
N.  G.  Baguet,  "  Commentatio  de  Chrysippi  Vita  et  Doctrina,"  1822  ; 
C.  Petersen,  "  Philosophic-e  Chrysippese  Fiindamenta,"  1827. 

■€hrys-o-coc'9es,  (George,)  [Gr.  Teupyio^  6  Xpvao- 
KUKKr/i^,]  a  learned  physician,  who  lived  at  Constanti- 
nople about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century.  He 
composed,  in  Greek,  a  treatise  on  the  astronomy  of  the 
Persians,  which  exists  in  manuscript  in  the  Imperial 
Library  of  Paris,  and  is  a  w^ork  of  some  value. 

Chrysologue,  kRe'zo'log',  (Noel  Andr6,)  a  French 
friar  and  geographer,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1728. 
He  published  a  "Celestial  Planisphere,"  (1778,)  which 
was  approved  by  the  Academy,  and  a  very  correct  "Map 
of  the  World."  In  1806  he  produced  "Researches  on 
the  Time  and  Agent  of  the  Actual  Arrangement  of  the 
Earth's  Surface,"  commended  by  Cuvier.   IJied  in  1808. 

•€hrys-o-lo'ras,  (Demetrius,)  [Ae/ir/TpLo^  6  XpvooTicj- 
pag,]  a  Greek  theologian  and  philosopher  of  superior 
talents,  was  a  native  of  Thessalonica,  and  flourished 
about  1400.  He  was  employed  by  the  emperor  Manuel 
II.  in  important  affairs  of  state,  and  was  sent  on  several 
foreign  embassies.  One  hundred  letters  from  him  to 
Manuel  are  extant  in  manuscript.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  theology,  among  which  is  a  "  Treatise  on  the 
Procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit." 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Chrysoloras,  (Emanuel  or  Manuel,)  a  Greek  scho- 
lar, memorable  as  the  restorer  of  Greek  literature  in 
Italy,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  in  Constantinople. 
After  having  performed  an  embassy  from  the  Byzantine 
emperor  to  the  Western  Powers,  he  became  a  public 
teacher  of  Greek  in  Florence  about  1395.  He  also 
taught  in  Milan,  Pavi'a,  Venice,  etc.,  ancf  had  many 
eminent  pupils.  His  Greek  grammar  was  for  a  long 
time  the  only  one  in  use.    Died  in  141 5. 

His  nephew  John,  a  professor  of  Greek,  died  in  Con- 
stantinople about  1426. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grseca." 

Chrysostom,  (Dion.)    See  Dion. 

■€hrys'os-tom,  [Gr.  XpvaoGTOfiog,  (/.  e.  "  Golden- 
mouthed;")  Lat.  Chrysos''tomus  ;  Fr.  Chrysostome, 
kRe'zos'tom',]  (John,)  a  pre-eminent  Greek  Father  of  the 
Church,  was  born  at  Antioch,  in  Syria,  about  350  A.D.  His 
father,  Secundus,  was  commander  of  the  imperial  army 
in  Syria.  He  studied  eloquence  under  the  famous  orator 
Libanius,  whom  he  soon  surpassed,  and  subsequently 
received  lessons  in  philosophy  at  Athens.  At  an  early 
age  he  devoted  himself  to  religion,  and  in  a  monastery 
near  Antioch  inured  himself  to  a  severe  ascetic  discipline. 
It  is  said  that  he  passed  two  years  alone  in  a  damp,  un- 
wholesome cavern  in  committing  the  Bible  to  memory. 

In  381  he  was  ordained  deacon  by  Meletius  of  Antioch, 
where  he  soon  became  noted  as  an  eloquent  preacher 
and  writer.  He  was  admitted  to  the  station  of  priest  in 
386  by  Bishop  Flavian,  who  a  few  years  later  appointed 
him  his  vicar. 


In  397  A.D.  he  was  chosen  Archbishop  of  Constanti- 
nople. There  he  founded  hospitals,  converted  many 
pagans,  and  made  zealous  efforts  to  reform  the  morals 
of  the  clergy.  Socrates  the  historian  represents  him  as 
"tempei'ate,  sincere,  and  simple,  but  peevish,  intolerant, 
and  extremely  ready  to  excommunicate."  As  the  style 
of  his  preaching  was  declamatory,  and  the  tenor  of  his 
theology  practical,  he  made  many  enemies  at  court  and 
among  the  higher  classes.  By  the  influence  of  the  em- 
press Eudoxia  and  Theophilus,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria, 
a  synod  was  assembled  at  Chalcedon  in  403,  and  Chrys- 
ostom was  deposed  on  trivial  charges,  one  of  which  was 
that  he  favoured  Origenism.  He  was  exiled  first  to 
Nicsea  and  then  to  Cucusus.  The  common  people,  among 
whom  he  was  very  popular,  raised  a  sedition  on  his  ac- 
count, and  burned  the  church  of  Saint  Sophia.  He  died 
at  Comana  in  407.  His  voluminous  works  consist  of 
commentaries,  homilies,  epistles,  and  doctrinal  treatises. 
He  has  great  merit  as  an  expositor  of  Scripture.  His 
works  are  also  prized  for  the  light  they  shed  on  the  man- 
ners and  social  condition  of  the  times  in  which  he  lived. 
By  Augustine  and  many  others  he  was  regarded  as  the 
most  illustrious  orator  and  doctor  of  the  early  Church. 
Among  the  ancient  biographers  of  Chrysostom  are  Pal- 
ladius,  Photius,  and  Sozomen. 

See,  also,  Gouefroi  Hermant,  "Vie  de  Saint  J.  Chrysostome," 
1664;  J.  A.  W.  Neander,  "Life  of  Chrysostom,"  (in  German,  2 
vols.,  1821  ;)  Menard,  "Vie  de  Saint-Chrysostome,"  1665;  "Noii- 
velle  Biographie  Generale;"  Perthes,  "  Life  of  Chrysostom,"  1854. 

Chrysostome.    See  Chrysostom. 

Chrysostomus.    See  Chrysostom. 

Chrzanowski,  kzhi-nov'skee,  (Adalbert,)  a  Polish 
general,  born  in  the  palatinate  of  Cracow  in  1788,  entered 
the  Russian  army  about  1820.  He  rendered  important 
services  to  the  Poles  in  their  revolt  against  Russia  in 
1830  and  1 83 1.  His  retreat  to  and  from  Zamosc  was 
regarded  as  a  masterly  movement,  and  procured  him  the 
rank  of  general  of  division  in  1831.  After  the  capture 
of  Warsaw  by  the  Russians  in  that  year,  he  went  into 
exile.  He  commanded  the  Sardinian  army  which  was 
defeated  by  the  Austrians  at  Novara  in  1849.  Died  in 
1861. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Chubb,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Unitarian  writer  and 
controversialist,  born  near  Salisbury  in  1679.  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  "The  Supremacy  of  the  Father 
asserted,"  (1715,)  "Discourse  on  Reason  as  a  Guide  in 
Religion,"  and  "The  True  Gospel  of  Jesus  asserted." 
He  was  for  some  time  steward  of  Sir  Joseph  Jekyl  in 
London.  Died  in  1746.  His  books  were  answered  by 
Caleb  Fleming  and  others. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Chudleigh,  chud^e,  (Lady  Mary,)  an  English  author- 
ess, whose  maiden  name  was  Lee,  born  in  Devonshire 
in  1656,  became  the  wife  of  Sir  George  Chudleigh.  She 
published  "Essays  in  Prose  and  Verse,"  (1710,)  which 
are  commended,  and  composed  tragedies  and  other 
works  which  remain  in  manuscript.  Died  in  1710.  Her 
writings  indicate  piety  and  good  sense. 

See  Ballard,  "  Learned  Ladies  ;"  Gibber,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Chumacero,  choo-m^-tha'ro,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  jurist, 
born  in  Estremadura  about  1610,  became  president  of 
the  supreme  council  of  Castile.    Died  in  1660. 

•Chum'nus,  (Nicephorus,)  a  renowned  Byzantine 
writer  and  statesman,  held  high  offices  under  the  emperor 
Andronicus  Palseologus  at  Constantinople.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  philosophy  and  religion,  among  which  is 
"  De  Mundi  Natura,"  ("  On  the  Nature  of  the  World,") 
and  letters  which  possess  historic  interest.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  died  about  1330. 

Chun.    See  Shun. 

Chun-Chi.    See  Shun-Tchee. 

Chund  or  Chand,  a  Hindoo  poet,  called  the  "  Homer 
of  the  Rajpoots."    The  time  when  he  lived  is  unknown. 

Chundra  or  Chundur.    See  Chandra. 

Chungiz.    See  Jengis. 

Chung-Ne,  written  also  Tohoung-Ni,  a  name  some- 
times applied  to  CoNFUCius,  which  see. 

Church,  (Benjamin,)  an  American  soldier,  born  at 
Duxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1639,  served  with  distinction 
as  an  officer  in  the  Indian  wars.    Died  in  17 18. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  kard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CHURCH 


602 


CI  AMP  1 


Church,  (Ben'Jamin,)  a  physician  and  active  Whig 
j>olitician  of  Boston,  was  convicted  of  a  treasonable  cor- 
respondence with  Governor  Gage  in  1775,  and  was  ini- 
nrisoned  for  that  offence,  but  was  released  in  1776. 

Church,  (Frederick  Edwin,)  an  eminent  American 
'andscape-painter,  born  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  1826, 
was  a  pupil  of  Thomas  Cole.  His  earliest  productions 
were  views  of  the  Catskill  Mountains,  among  which  he 
resided,  and  a  view  of  East  Rock,  near  New  Haven, 
which  attracted  very  favourable  notice.  In  1853  he  visited 
South  America,  and  found  in  the  magnificent  scenery  of 
that  country  materials  for  several  of  his  most  admired 
pictures.  After  his  return  he  executed  his  "  View  of 
Niagara  Falls  from  the  Canadian  Shore,"  regarded  by 
many  as  the  most  successful  representation  of  the  great 
cataract.  "  In  the  rush  of  water,  and  the  fine  atmos- 
pheric effects,"  says  a  foreign  critic,  "  it  realizes  the  idea 
of  sound  as  well  as  of  motion."  Among  his  other  works 
are  "The  Heart  of  the  Andes,"  "Cotopaxi,"  "Morning 
on  the  Cordilleras,"  "  Under  Niagara,"  "The  Icebergs," 
and  "  Sunrise  on  Mount  Desert  Island." 

See  TucKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Church,  (John  Hubbard,)  an  American  Congrega- 
tional divine,  born  at  Rutland,  Massachusetts,  in  1772, 
preached  at  Pel  ham.  New  Hampshire.    Died  in  1840. 

Church,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  general,  born 
about  1785,  served  in  the  British  army  in  his  youth.  In 
1827  he  was  chosen  by  the  insurgent  Greeks  commander 
of  their  land  army ;  but  peace  was  made  before  he  had 
performed  any  very  important  actions.  He  was  ordered 
to  leave  Greece  in  1830  by  Capo  d'lstrias,  whose  enmity 
he  had  incurred.  After  the  death  of  Capo  d'lstrias,  in 
183 1,  he  was  again  for  a  short  time  at  the  head  of  the 
army.    Died  in  1850. 

Church,  (Samuel,)  a  jurist,  born  in  Salisbury,  Con- 
necticut, in  1785.  He  became  a  judge  of  the  superior 
court  in  1833,  and  chief  justice  of  Connecticut  in  1847. 
Died  in  1854. 

Church,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
1707  ;  died  in  1756. 

Church'ill,  (Charles,)  a  popular  English  poet  and 
satirist,  born  at  Westminster  in  1731.  At  school  he 
was  the  fellow-student  and  friend  of  William  Cowper. 
He  married  a  Miss  Scott  privately  when  he  was  about 
seventeen,  and  soon  after  applied  for  a  studentship  at 
Oxford,  but  was  rejected.  Against  his  own  inclination, 
he  unwisely  adopted  the  profession  of  his  father,  who 
was  a  curate.  In  1756  he  was  ordained  priest,  and  began 
to  officiate  at  Rainham.  Two  years  later  he  succeeded 
his  father  as  curate  and  lecturer  of  Saint  John's,  West- 
minster. It  is  usually  stated  that  a  sudden  or  total 
change  occurred  in  his  habits  at  this  period,  after  which 
he  became  dissipated  and  licentious.  Macaulay,  who 
dissents  from  this  opinion,  thinks  he  never  was  or  pro- 
fessed to  be  religious,  and  intimates  that,  "  with  violent 
recoil  from  the  hypocrisies,  he  outraged  the  proprieties 
of  life,"  because  his  youth  had  been  misdirected  to  a 
profession  from  which  his  heart  was  estranged. 

Resolving  to  abandon  that  profession,  he  produced, 
about  1760,  two  poems,  "The  Bard"  and  "The  Con- 
clave." His  "  Rosciad,"  a  pungent  satire  on  the  per- 
formers and  managers  of  the  stage,  appeared  in  1761, 
and  was  successful  beyond  his  most  sanguine  hopes. 
He  vindicated  himself  against  the  malice  of  the  "  Critical 
Reviewers"  by  the  "  Apology,"  a  poem,  which  is  much 
admired.  He  became  very  intimate  with  John  Wilkes, 
the  profligate  pseudo-patriot,  whom  he  assisted  in  "  The 
North  Briton."  In  1763  he  produced  "The  Prophecy 
of  Famine,"  a  political  satire  on  the  Scotch,  which  was 
immensely  popular.  "  The  Conference,"  a  poem,  is 
one  of  his  master-pieces.  While  on  a  visit  to  France, 
he  died  in  1764.  "His  vices  were  not  so  great  as  his 
virtues,"  says  Macaulay.  Besides  the  works  already 
noticed,  he  wrote  "  The  Author,"  "  Gotham,"  and  other 
poems.  Cowper  was  a  warm  admirer  of  his  poetry, 
and  said  that  "he  well  deserved  the  name  of  'the  great 
Churchill.'" 

See  TooKE,  "  Life  of  Churchill ;"  Macaulay's  Essay  entitled 
"Charles  Churchill,"  1845;  John  Forster,  "Historical  and  Bio- 
graphical Essays,"  vol.  ii. ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1845 

Churchill,  (John.)    See  Marlborough. 


Church'ill,  (Sylvester,)  an  American  officer,  born 
at  Woodstock,  Vermont,  about  1783.  He  became  in- 
spector-general of  the  army  about  1841. 

Churchill,  (Sir  Winston,)  born  in  Dorsetshire,  Eng- 
land, in  1620,  was  the  father  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough. 
He  was  a  royalist  in  the  civil  war,  and  was  knighted  by 
Charles  II.  about  1662.  He  wrote  a  work  of  little  merit 
on  the  lives  of  British  kings,  entitled  "  Divi  Britannici." 
Died  in  1688.    He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Church^man,  (William  H.,)  a  blind  man,  born  in 
Baltimore  in  1818,  was  educated  in  the  Pennsylvania 
Institution  for  the  Blind.  He  has  been  successively 
superintendent  of  similar  institutions  in  Tennessee,  In- 
diana, and  Wisconsin. 

Church'yard,  (Thomas,)  an  English  versifier,  born 
at  Shrewsbury  about  1520,  became  a  domestic  of  the 
Earl  of  Surrey,  after  whose  death  he  served  in  the  army. 
He  wrote  a  "  Legend  of  Jane  Shore,"  and  other  poems. 
Died  in  1604. 

See  CiBBER,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  Disraeli,  "Calamities  of 
Authors." 

Churruca  y  Elorza,  de,  dk  choor-roo'ki  e  i-loR'- 
tha,  (C.  Damian,)  an  able  and  meritorious  Spanish  naval 
officer,  was  born  in  Guipuzcoa  in  1761.  He  was  em- 
ployed in  an  expedition  sent  to  survey  the  Straits  of 
Magellan,  and  wrote  a  valuable  "Diary  of  the  Explora- 
tion of  Terra  del  Fuego,"  which  was  published  in  1793, 
He  commanded  an  exploring  expedition  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  in  1791,  from  which  resulted  numerous  charts  of 
the  coasts.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,(i8o5.) 

Chur^'tpn,  (Edward,)  an  English  theologian  and 
writer,  son  of  Rev.  Ralph  Churton,  born  about  1800. 

Churton,  (Ralph,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
Cheshire  in  1 754.  He  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Saint 
David's  in  1805,  and  published  sermons,  and  several 
well-written  biographies.    Died  in  183 1. 

Chyr-Shah.    See  Sher-Shah. 

Chytraus,  Ke-tRa'us,  [Fr.  Chytr^;e,  she'tkk';  Lat. 
Chytr^'us,]  (David,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian 
and  scholar,  whose  proper  name  was  Kochhaff,  (koK'- 
hdf,)  was  born  at  Ingelfingen,  Suabia,  in  1530.  He  was 
a  favourite  disciple  of  Melanchthon,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Rostock  in  1 55 1.  He  published 
a  large  number  of  Latin  works,  among  which  are  a 
"  History  of  the  Augsburg  Confession,"  (1578,)  and  a 
"Chronicle  of  Saxony,"  (1593.)    Died  in  1600. 

See  Ulrich  Chytraus,  "Vita  D.  Chytrsei,"  1601. 

Chytraus  or  Chytraeus,  (Nathan,)  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Menzingen  in  1543.  He  was 
professor  of  Latin  and  of  poetry  at  Rostock,  and  author 
of  "Iter  Italicum  et  Gallicum,"  ("Journey  to  Italy  and 
France,")  and  other  poems  in  Latin.    Died  in  1598. 

Ciacone  and  Ciaconius.    See  Chacon. 

Cialderi,  chal-da'ree,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Urbino  in  1593. 

Cialdini,  ch3.1-dee'nee,  (Enrico,)  an  able  Italian  gen- 
eral, born  at  Modena  about  1814.  He  served  in  the 
campaign  of' 1848  against  the  Austrians,  and  fought  by 
the  side  of  Charles  Albert  at  Novara  in  1849.  As  gen- 
eral of  division,  he  gained  an  advantage  over  the  Aus- 
trians at  Palaestro  in  June,  1859.  He  defeated  the  papal 
army  under  Lamoriciere  at  Castelfidardo  in  1S60,  and 
commanded  the  Sardinians  at  the  siege  of  Gaeta,  which 
he  took  in  February,  1861.  In  June,  1861,  he  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant-general  of  Naples,  then  disturbed  by 
brigands  and  rebels.  He  commanded  one  of  the  armies 
operating  against  the  Austrians  in  1866,  and  became  chief 
of  the  royal  staff  in  August  of  that  year. 

Ciamberlani,  cham-bgR-l^'nee,  or  Ciamberlano, 
cham-bgR-ia'no,  (LuCA,)  an  Italian  painter  and  skilful 
engraver,  born  at  Urbino  about  1580;  died  in  1641. 

Ciampelli,  chdm-peFlee,  (  Agostino,  )  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1578.  He  was  employed 
by  Clement  VIII.  in  the  Vatican,  and  was  successful  in 
fresco  and  oil.  His  style  is  noble  and  his  design  correct. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1640. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Ciampi,  chSn/pee,  (Sebastiano,)  an  Italian  littera- 
teur, born  at  Pistoia  in  1769.  Among  his  works  are 
"  Memoirs  of  Cino  da  Pistoia,"  and  "  Carteromaco." 
Died  in  1847. 


a,  e,  T,  o  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;       i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  mooni 


CIAMPINI 


603 


CICERO 


Ciampini,  chSm-pee'nee,  (Giovanni  Giustino,)  a 
learned  Italian  writer  and  antiquary,  born  at  Rome  in 
1633.  He  obtained  an  office  in  the  apostolic  chancery. 
He  studied  sciences  and  belles-lettres  with  success,  and, 
under  the  auspices  of  Christina  of  Sw^eden,  founded  at 
Rome,  in  1677,  an  academy  of  natural  and  exact  sciences. 
He  composed  several  esteemed  works,  among  which  are 
"The  Sacred  Editices  built  by  Constantine,"  (1693,)  and 
"Vetera  Monumenta,"  a  treatise  on  ancient  buildings, 
mosaics,  and  rites.    Died  in  1698. 

See  NiCERON,  "  j\Iemoires ;"  Fabiani,  "  Vitadi  G.  G.  Ciampini." 

Ciampoli,  cham'po-lee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an 
Italian  lyric  poet,  born  at  Florence  in  1589.  He  studied 
philosophy  under  Galileo  at  Padua.  His  youthful  essays 
in  poetry  procured  for  him  the  favour  of  Cardinal  Bar- 
berini.  Having  removed  to  Rome,  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  briefs  by  Pope  Gregory  XV.  His  poems, 
which  appeared  in  1628,  though  marred  by  inflation  and 
affectation,  were  received  with  applause.  As  an  adherent 
of  Galileo,  he  was  disgraced  and  exiled  from  Rome  in 
the  pontificate  of  Urban  VIII.    Died  in  1643. 

See  Crasso,  "  Elogi  d'Uoniini  letterati." 

Cianchettini,  chJn-ket-tee'nee,  (Pio,)  a  musical  com- 
poser, of  Italian  extraction,  born  in  London  in  1799. 

Cianci,  chan'chee,  (Ignazio,)  a  Neapolitan  poet  and 
theologian,  lived  about  1720-60. 

Cianfanini,  ch&n-fS-nee'nee,  (Benedetto,)  an  Italian 
painter,  who  was  esteemed  one  of  the  best  pupils  of  Fra 
Bartolommeo  di  San  Marco. 

Ciarpi,  chaR'pee,  (Baccio,  bSt'cho,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Florence  in  1578;  died  in  1642. 

Ciassi,  chls'see,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Italian  bota- 
nist, born  at  Treviso  in  1654.  He  advanced  some  sound 
opinions  on  the  phenomena  of  germination  in  his  "  Me- 
ditations on  the  Nature  of  Plants,"  ("  Meditationes  de 
Natura  Plantarum,"  1677.)    Died  in  1679. 

Cib'ber,  (Caius  Gabriel,)  a  successful  sculptor,  born 
in  Holstein,  (Denmark,)  became  a  resident  of  London  a 
short  time  before  the  restoration  of  1660.  He  executed 
the  bas-reliefs  of  the  London  Monument,  and  the  two 
figures  of  Madness  in  Bethlehem  Hospital.  He  was 
the  father  of  Gibber  the  dramatist.    Died  about  1700. 

Cib'ber,  (Colley,)  a  witty  English  dramatic  author 
and  actor,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  London  in 
167 1.  He  became  a  comic  actor  in  1689.  In  1695  he 
produced  his  first  play,  "  Love's  Last  Shift,  or  the  Fool 
in  Fashion,"  which  was  very  successful.  "  The  Careless 
Husband,"  which  is  considered  his  best  production,  was 
performed  with  great  applause  in  1704,  Gibber  himself 
enacting  a  principal  role.  His  comedy  the  "Nonjuror," 
(1717,)  an  imitation  of  Moliere's  "Tartuffe,"  procured 
him  a  pension  of  £200  from  George  I.  He  was  one  of 
the  managers  of  Drury  Lane  for  many  years.  In  1730  he 
was  chosen  poet-laureate.  He  wrote  an  amusing  "  Apo- 
logy for  the  Life  of  Colley  Gibber,"  which  Dr.  Johnson 
pronounced  "very  well  done."  Gibber  is  a  prominent 
hero  of  the  "Dunciad."    Died  in  1757. 

See  Pope's  "  Dunciad,"  books  i.,  ii.,  iii.;  "Retrospective  Re- 
view," vol.  i.,  1820. 

Gibber,  (Susanna  Maria,)  a  celebrated  English  ac- 
tress, born  probably  in  London  in  1716,  was  the  sister 
of  Dr.  Arne  the  musician.  She  became  the  wife  of 
Theophilus  Gibber  in  1734.  She  made  hex  debzit  m  1736, 
and  was  very  successful  in  tragedy.    Died  in  1766. 

Gibber,  (Theophilos,)  an  English  comedian,  son  of 
Colley  Gibber,  born  in  London  in  1703.  He  was  a  suc- 
cessful actor,  but  a  very  immoral  and  prodigal  man.  He 
altered  several  plays  from  Shakspeare,  and  published  in 
1753  "Lives  of  the  British  Poets,"  said  to  have  been 
chiefly  written  by  Robert  Shiels.  Gibber  perished  by 
shipwreck  in  a  voyage  to  Ireland  in  1758. 

See  Baker,  "Biographia  Dramatica." 

Gibo.    See  Cybo. 

Gibot,  se^bo',  (  Francois  Barth^lemy  Michel 
Sdouard,)  a  French  painter  of  history  and  genre,  born 
in  Paris  in  1799.    He  obtained  a  first  medal  in  1843. 

Gibot,  (Pierre  Martial,)  a  French  missionary  and 
Jesuit,  born  at  Limoges  in  1727,  was  learned  in  the 
sciences  and  languages.  From  1760  to  1780  he  was  em- 
ployed at  Pekin,  where  he  wrote  valuable  treatises  on 
the  arts,  manners,  etc.  of  the  Chinese.    Died  in  1780. 


Gibrario,  che-bRl're-o,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  historian 
and  jurist,  born  at  Turin  in  1802,  was  employed  by  King 
Charles  Albert  as  a  diplomatist.  Among  his  v/orks 
are  a  "History  of  the  Princes  of  Savoy,"  (1825,)  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Monarchy  of  Savoy,"  (1840,)  and  "Novels," 
("Novelle,"  1836.) 

Giccarelli,  ch^k-ki-reKlee,  (Alphonso,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Bevagna.  He  was  put  to  death  for 
forgery  in  1580. 

Cicci,  chlt'chee,  (Maria  Luisa,)  an  Italian  poetess, 
born  at  Pisa  in  1760;  died  in  1794. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Giccione,  ch^t-cho'na,  (Andrea,)  an  eminent  Italian 
sculptor  and  architect,  born  at  Naples ;  died  about 
1440. 

Giceri,  s^s''re'',  (Pierre  Luc  Charles,)  a  French 
scene-painter  of  wide  reputation,  was  born  at  Saint- 
Cloud  in  1782.    He  worked  in  Paris  and  other  places. 

Gig'e-ro,  [Gr.  Kmepuv;  It.  Cicerone,  che-chi-ro'nk ; 
Fr.  Ciceron,  se'sa'r5N';  Ger.  Cicero,  tsits'g-ro;  Sp. 
Ciceron,  the-thi-ron',]  (Marcus  Tullius,)  often  called 
Tully  by  English  writers,  an  illustrious  Roman  orator, 
philosopher,  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Arpinum,  (now 
Arpino,)  about  seventy  miles  east-southeast  of  Rome, 
on  the  3d  of  January,  106  B.C.,  (647  A.u.c.)  He  was  a 
son  of  Marcus  Tullius  Cicero,  an  opulent  citizen  of  the. 
equestrian  order,  who  owned  an  estate  near  Arpinum  and 
devoted  much  time  to  literary  pursuits.  His  mother's 
name  was  Helvia.  His  early  education  was  directed  by 
Archias  the  Greek  poet,  Q.  ^lius  the  grammarian,  and 
other  teachers,  at  Rome.  During  his  minority  he  com- 
posed a  number  of  poems,  among  which  was  "  Pontius 
Glaucus,"  which  is  lost.  •  His  disposition  was  genial  and 
amiable.  He  learned  to  speak  Greek  fluently,  and  was 
profoundly  versed  in  Greek  literature  and  philosophy. 
Having  assumed  the  manly  gown  (toga  virilis)  in  his 
sixteenth  year,  (91  B.C.,)  he  applied  himself  to  the  study 
of  law  under  Mucius  Scaevola  the  Augur,  an  eminent 
jurist  and  statesman. 

In  the  year  89  B.C.  he  served  a  campaign  under  Gneius 
Pompeius  Strabo  in  the  Social  war,  in  obedience  to  the 
law  which  then  required  every  citizen  to  perform  military 
service.  During  the  six  ensuing  years  after  this  cam- 
paign he  passed  his  life  in  studious  retirement,  and  took 
no  part  in  the  bloody  civil  war  between  Marius  and 
Sulla.  He  attended  the  lectures  of  the  Greek  philoso- 
pher Philo,  the  chief  of  the  New  Academy,  studied  logic 
with  Diodotus  the  Stoic,  and  was  instructed  in  rhetoric 
by  Apollonius  Molo  of  Rhodes.  "  He  had,"  says  Plu- 
tarch, "both  the  capacity  and  inclination  to  learn  all  the 
arts,  nor  was  there  any  branch  of  science  that  he  de- 
spised :  yet  he  was  most  inclined  to  poetry.  ...  In 
process  of  time  he  was  looked  upon  as  the  best  poet  as 
well  as  the  greatest  orator  in  Rome.  His  reputation  for 
oratory  still  remains  ;  .  .  .  but,  as  many  ingenious  poets 
have  appeared  since  his  time,  his  poetry  has  lost  its 
credit  and  is  now  neglected."  In  his  admirable  oration 
"  Pro  Archia,"  Cicero  informs  us  that  Archias  the  poet 
exerted  great  influence  over  the  formation  of  his  taste 
and  the  development  and  direction  of  his  genius.  Among 
his  early  productions  was  a  heroic  poem  entitled  "Ma- 
rius," which  is  not  extant :  also  a  treatise  on  rhetoric, 
entitled  "  De  Inventione  Rhetorica." 

Having  laid  a  solid  foundation  for  his  fame  by  the 
severe  and  systematic  discipline  of  his  rare  talents,  and 
by  assiduous  efforts  to  perfect  his  elocution  by  the  prac- 
tice of  declamation,  he  began,  at  the  age  of  twenty-five, 
his  career  as  a  pleader  in  the  Forum.  An  argument 
which  he  made  in  81  B.C.  for  his  client  P.  Quinctius,  in  a 
civil  suit,  is  still  extant.  The  first  important  criminal 
trial  in  which  he  was  employed  was  that  of  Sextus  Roscius 
Amerinus,  who  was  accused  of  parricide  by  an  agent  of 
the  dictator  Sulla,  the  dread  of  whose  power  and  cruelfy 
was  so  great  that  all  the  other  advocates  declined  to  ap- 
pear for  the  defence.  Cicero  defended  him  with  success, 
denounced  the  malice  and  iniquity  of  the  prosecutor,  and 
gained  great  applause  by  his  courage  and  eloquence. 
This  event  occurred  in  the  twenty-seventh  year  of  his 
age.  His  physical  constitution  in  his  youth  was  so  deli- 
cate that  his  medical  friends  advised  him  to  abandon 
the  bar.    "My  body,"  says  he,  "was  very  weak  and 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  v.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CICERO 


CICERO 


emaciated,  my  neck  long  and  small,  which  is  a  habit 
thought  liable  to  great  risk  of  life,  if  engaged  in  any 
fatigue  or  labour  of  the  lungs."  He  therefore  resolved 
to  improve  his  health  by  travel,  and  to  linish  his  educa- 
tion by  visits  to  the  famous  seats  of  learning  and  art  in 
Greece  and  Asia.  Having  departed  from  Rome  in  79 
i;.c.,  he  spent  about  six  months  in  Athens,  where  he 
pursued  his  favourite  studies  with  Antiochus  of  Ascalon, 
Zeno  the  Epicurean,  and  Demetrius  Syrus.  He  also 
enjoyed  in  Athens  the  society  of  Pomponius  Atticus, 
with  whom  he  formed  a  lasting  and  memorable  friend- 
ship. He  afterwards  travelled  extensively  in  Asia  Minor. 
"  He  came  back  again  to  Italy,"  says  Middleton,  "  after 
an  excursion  of  two  years,  extremely  improved,  and 
changed,  as  it  were,  into  a  new  man  :  the  vehemence  of 
his  voice  and  action  was  moderated,  the  redundancy  of 
his  style  and  fancy  corrected,  his  lungs  strengthened, 
and  his  whole  constitution  confirmed." 

In  76  B.C.  he  was  elected  quaestor  (paymaster)  by 
the  unanimous  suffrage  of  all  the  tribes.  The  quaestors 
were  sent  annually  into  the  several  provinces,  one  with 
every  proconsul  or  governor,  to  whom  he  was  next  in 
authority.  The  office  of  quaestor  was  the  first  step  in  the 
gradation  of  public  honours,  and  entitled  him  to  an  ad- 
mission into  the  senate  for  life.  He  officiated  as  quaestor 
in  Sicily,  and  performed  his  duties  with  such  integrity, 
moderation,  and  humanity  that  he  won,  it  is  said,  the 
love  and  admiration  of  all  the  Sicilians.  As  he  was  re- 
turning to  Rome  (74  B.C.)  somewhat  elated  with  his  suc- 
cess, and  entertaining  the  idea  that  the  great  capital  was 
resounding  with  his  praises,  he  met  one  of  his  acquaint- 
ances, a  person  of  eminence,  and  inquired  what  they  said 
and  thought  of  his  actions  in  Rome.  The  answer  was, 
"  Why,  where  have  you  been,  then,  Cicero,  all  this  time  ?" 
He  then  perceived  that  the  reports  of  his  conduct  and 
services  had  been  lost  in  Rome,  as  in  an  immense 
sea,  and  had  added  little  or  nothing  to  his  reputation. 
About  76  B.C.  he  married  a  rich  heiress,  named  Terentia. 
The  law  prescribed  that  five  years  should  elapse  after  his 
election  to  the  quaestorship  (or  that  he  must  attain  the 
age  of  thirty-eight)  before  he  could  hold  the  office  of 
aedile,  which  was  the  next  in  the  ascending  scale.  •  The 
orations  which  he  pronounced  during  this  period  have 
not  been  preserved.  His  principal  rival  in  forensic  elo- 
quence was  Hortensius,  whom  he  soon  surpassed.  Ac- 
cording to  Plutarch,  "it  was  not  by  slow  and  insensible 
degrees  that  he  gained  the  palm  of  eloquence  :  his  fame 
shot  fojth  at  once,  and  he  was  distinguished  above  all 
the  orators  of  Rome."  He  excelled  in  sarcasm  and 
witty  repartees,  \vith  which  he  often  seasoned  his  forensic 
arguments.  All  the  resources  of  his  genius,  his  art,  his 
learning  and  influence  were  freely  devoted  to  the  defence 
of  those  whose  lives  or  dignity  or  reputations  were 
judicially  assailed.  He  received  no  pay  for  his  services 
as  an  advocate.  He  deviated  from  his  general  rule  and 
practice  of  pleading  for  the  defendant,  in  the  case  of  the 
infamous  Caius  Verres,  who  in  70  B.C.  was  impeached 
by  the  Sicilians  for  atrocious  acts  of  cruelty  and  rapine, 
but  was  supported  by  the  most  powerful  families  of 
Rome,  including  the  Metelli.  At  the  urgent  request  of 
the  Sicilians,  Cicero  conducted  the  prosecution  of  Ver- 
res, who  employed  Hortensius  to  defend  him ;  but  the 
evidence  against  the  accused  was  so  overwhelming  that 
his  counsel  declined  to  plead,  or  had  nothing  to  say,  the 
defence  suddenly  collapsed,  and  Verres  himself,  antici- 
pating his  sentence,  went  into  exile.  Cicero,  therefore, 
actually  spoke  only  two  of  his  seven  celebrated  orations 
against  Verres ;  but  the  others  were  published,  and  re- 
main a  noble  and  imperishable  monument  of  his  versatile 
and  almost  universal  genius. 

Having  acquired  great  popularity,  he  was  elected  to 
the  aedileship,  in  70  B.C.,  by  a  majority  of  the  voters  of 
every  tribe.  As  asdile,  he  had  the  care  of  the  sacred 
edifices,  and  was  required  by  law  or  usage  to  gratify  the 
people  with  public  games  and  shows  and  costly  page- 
ants, partly  at  his  own  expense.  In  the  year  67  he 
offered  himself  as  a  candidate  for  the  office  of  praetor, 
which  was  one  grade  higher  than  that  of  aedile,  and  next 
in  dignity  to  the  consulship.  Although  he  had  several 
eminent  competitors,  he  was  elected  the  first  praetor 
urbanus  by  the  suffrages  of  all  the  centuries.    The  duty 


of  the  praetors  was  to  preside  as  judges  in  the  highest 
courts,  and  their  jurisdictions  were  assigned  to  them  by 
lot,  which  decided  that  Cicero  should  judge  in  cases  of 
extortion  and  rapine  of  which  governors  of  provinces 
were  accused.  "As  a  president  in  the  courts  of  justice, 
he  acted  with  great  integrity  and  honour."  (Plutarch's 
"Life  of  Cicero.")  While  he  held  the  office  of  praetor 
(66  B.C.)  he  made  an  important  and  famous  political  ora- 
tion for  the  Manilian  Law,  ("Pro  Lege  Manilla,")  the 
design  of  which  was  to  appoint  Pompey  commander- 
in-chief  in  the  war  against  Mithridates  the  Great.  This 
was  the  first  occasion  on  which  Cicero  ever  mounted 
the  rostrum.  The  Manilian  Law,  although  strenuously 
opposed  by  the  nobles,  or  optimates,  and  many  powerful 
senators,  was  adopted.    In  the  same  year  he  defended 

A.  Cluentius,  (who  was  accused  of  poisoning  his  father- 
in-law,)  in  a  plea  which  is  still  extant. 

At  the  expiration  of  his  praetorship,  Cicero  would  not 
accept  the  government  of  a  foreign  p'rovince,  which,  says 
Middleton,  "  was  the  usual  reward  of  that  magistracy, 
and  the  chief  fruit  which  the  generality  proposed  from 
it.  .  .  .  The  glory  which  he  pursued  was  to  shine  in  the 
eyes  of  the  city  as  the  guardian  of  its  laws,  and  to  teach 
the  magistrates  how  to  execute,  the  citizens  how  to  obey 
them.  But  he  was  now  preparing  to  sue  for  the  consul- 
ship, the  great  object  of  all  his  hopes."  The  most  for- 
midable obstacle  to  his  ambition  was  the  jealousy  of  the 
nobles  or  aristocrats,  who  regarded  the  highest  office  as 
their  birthright,  and  who  would  oppose  the  election  of  a 
"  new  man,"  ( novus  hoi?io,)  as  they  called  all  men  whose 
ancestors  were  mere  private  citizens.  He  offered  him- 
self as  a  candidate  for  the  consulship  in  his  forty-third 
year,  64  B.C.,  with  six  competitors,  among  whom  were 
P.  Sulpicius  Galba,  C.  Antonius,  and  L.  Sergius  Catilina. 
The  last  two  formed  a  coalition  against  Cicero,  and  were 
favoured  by  Caesar  and  Crassus.  During  the  canvass 
Cicero  uttered  a  severe  invective  on  the  habits  and  char- 
acters of  Catiline  and  Antonius,  in  his  oration  "In  Toga 
Candida."  The  election  resulted  in  the  choice  of  Cicero 
andC.  Antonius,  the  former  of  whom  received  the  votes 
of  all  the  centuries,  and  was  the  only  "  new  man"  that 
had  been  chosen  consul  in  forty  years.  Among  the 
events  of  this  year  was  the  birth  of  his  only  son.  He 
had  also  a  daughter,  Tullia,  who  was  born  several  years 
earlier  and  was  the  object  of  his  warmest  affection.  She 
was  a  very  amiable  and  accomplished  woman. 

He  entered  upon  the  office  on  the  ist  of  January,  63 

B.  C.,  and  found  the  republic  in  a  very  critical  and  peril- 
ous condition,  distracted  by  pestilent  laws  and  seditious 
harangues  and  undermined  by  pervading  corruption  and 
traitorous  conspiracies.  The  difficulty  was  increased  by 
the  fact  that  his  colleague  Antonius  was  a  man  of  bad 
(though  feeble)  character  and  was  opposed  to  the  policy 
of  Cicero.  The  latter,  however,  secured  the  co-opera- 
tion, or  at  least  the  neutrality,  of  Antonius,  by  a  bargain 
that  he  should  have  the  best  and  most  lucrative  of  the 
provinces  which  were  to  be  assigned  to  the  consuls  at 
the  expiration  of  their  term.  He  promoted  the  cause 
of  liberty  and  order  by  another  capital  stroke  of  policy 
when  he  induced  the  senators  and  the  equites  (knights) 
to  form  a  political  alliance  and  unite  in  a  common  party. 
"  He  was,"  says  Middleton,  "  the  only  man  in  the  city 
capable  of  effecting  such  a  coalition,  being  now  at  the 
head  of  the  senate,  yet  the  darling  of  the  knights."  By 
an  artful  and  powerful  speech  he  persuaded  the  people 
to  reject  an  agrarian  law  proposed  by  Rullus,  a  tribune 
of  the  people.  According  to  Niebuhr,  this  was  "  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  achievements  of  eloquence."  He  de- 
fended Rabirius,  (accused  of  the  murder  of  L.  Saturninus, 
who  had  been  dead  about  forty  years,)  in  an  oration  which 
is  extant. 

The  most  memorable  part  of  his  administration  ap- 
pears in  the  ability,  courage,  and  elastic  energy  with 
which  he  detected  and  baffled  the  nefarious  designs  of 
Catiline  and  his  accomplices.  Catiline  was  a  candidate 
for  the  consulship  in  the  election  of  63  B.C.,  and  hired 
assassins  to  kill  Cicero  in  the  Campus  Martins  when  he 
should  come  to  preside  at  the  election  ;  but,  as  the  con- 
sul came  guarded  by  armed  men,  the  plot  failed,  and 
Catiline  was  not  elected.  This  second  repulse  rendered 
him  furious.    He  conspired  to  seize  the  chief  power  by 


a,  e,  T,  o,  il,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  s/ior^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CICERO 


4 


CICERO 


the  burning  of  the  city  and  a  general  massacre  of  the 
senators  and  the  friends  of  order.  His  capacity  and 
resources  for  such  an  enterprise  were  very  great,  and 
he  was  abetted  by  vast  numbers  of  disaffected  and  des- 
perate men,  some  of  whom  were  of  high  rank  and  great 
influence.  The  leaders  of  this  plot  met  on  the  6th  of 
November,  and  arranged  the  immediate  execution  of 
the  same ;  but  their  plans  were  revealed  to  Cicero  by 
Fulvia,  the  mistress  of  one  of  the  conspirators,  and  when 
two  of  them  went  to  his  house  next  morning  to  assas- 
sinate the  consul  they  found  it  well  guarded.  On  the 
8th  of  November,  Cicero  delivered  in  the  senate  the  first 
of  his  famous  orations  against  Catiline,  who  was  present, 
and,  at  the  end  of  that  grand  explosion  of  indignant 
eloquence,  rose  to  speak;  but  his  voice  was  drowned  by 
cries  of  "Traitor!"  and  "Parricide!"  Catiline  hastily 
quitted  Rome  in  the  ensuing  night,  to  join  his  army  in 
Etruria,  and  Cicero  on  the  next  day  addressed  to  the 
assembled  people  his  second  Oration  "In  Catilinam." 

After  he  had  delivered  two  more  orations  on  the  sub- 
ject, Lentulus,  Cethegus,  and  several  other  conspirators 
were  condemned  to  death  by  the  senate,  and  executed 
by  the  order  of  the  consul,  who  was  censured  by  many 
for  putting  citizens  to  death  without  a  trial.  During 
this  perilous  crisis,  and  before  Catiline  was  defeated 
and  killed,  Cicero  defended  Murena  against  a  charge 
of  bribery,  in  an  oration  remarkable  for  wit  and  good- 
humoured  raillery.  For  his  preservation  of  the  state 
from  this  conspiracy  Cicero  received  unbounded  hon- 
ours. He  was  saluted  as  the  father  of  his  country  by 
Catulus  and  Cato,  and  hailed  as  the  saviour  of  Rome  by 
the  people  : 

"Roma  Patrem  Patriae  Ciceronem  libera  dixit." 

Juvenal,  Sat.  viii. 

When  he  ceased  to  be  consul  at  the  end  of  the  year, 
he  declined  the  government  of  a  province,  and  remained 
at  Rome  as  a  private  senator.  He  now  purchased  an 
elegant  mansion  on  the  Palatine  Hill.  His  favourite 
country  residence  was  the  Tusculan  Villa,  a  few  miles 
from  Rome.  He  also  owned  villas  near  Arpinum,  For- 
miae,  Cumae,  and  other  places. 

When  P.  Clodius  was  tried  for  polluting  the  mysteries 
of  the  Bona  Dea  by  his  presence,  Cicero  appeared  as  a 
witness  against  him,  and  thus  incurred  his  bitter  enmity. 
Soon  after  this  event,  Cicero  defended  the  poet  Archias, 
his  teacher,  in  an  oration  which  is  much  admired.  About 
the  end  of  the  year  60,  Cajsar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus 
united  to  form  the  first  Triumvirate,  which  Cicero  was 
urged  to  join  by  one  or  more  of  the  parties  ;  but  he 
declined,  as  he  regarded  the  coalition  of  the  triumvirs 
as  dangerous  to  the  public  liberty.  He  was  on  friendly 
terms  with  Pompey,  who  he  hoped  would  prove  loyal. 
Forsyth,  who  thinks  that  Cicero  always  distrusted  Pom- 
pey, and  that  Pompey  disHked  Cicero,  states  that  the 
latter  "  held  aloof,  determined  to  temporize."  His  enemy 
Clodius,  who  became  tribune  of  the  people  in  December, 
59  B.C.,  and  who  was  supported  by  Caesar  and  Pompey, 
now  manifested  his  vindictive  malice  against  Cicero  by  a 
law  which  he  proposed,  "that  whoever  has  put  to  death 
a  Roman  citizen  without  due  form  of  trial  shall  be  in- 
terdicted from  fire  and  water."  According  to  custom, 
Cicero  put  on  mourning  and  appealed  to  the  compassion 
of  the  people.  It  is  said  that  20,000  young  nobles  and 
equites  expressed  their  sympathy  with  him  by  a  change 
of  dress ;  but,  as  the  consuls  were  his  enemies,  he  an- 
ticipated the  passage  of  the  law,  and  retired  into  exile 
in  April,  58  B.C.  Several  writers  censure  him  for  the 
abject  spirit  which  they  say  he  now  exhibited  in  adver- 
sity. He  was  banished  by  law,  his  property  was  confis- 
cated, and  his  house  on  the  Palatine  Hill  was  burned  by 
Clodius.  He  chose  Greece  as  his  place  of  exile,  which 
he  did  not  endure  with  the  fortitude  or  apathy  of  a  stoic ; 
on  the  contrary,  he  appears  from  his  letters  of  this 
period  to  have  been  extremely  dejected.  In  a  letter  to 
his  wife,  Terentia,  he  wrote,  "  It  is  not  my  crimes,  but 
my  virtue  that  has  crushed  me." 

The  violence  and  excessive  insolence  of  Clodius  soon 
produced  a  reaction  :  the  tribunes  who  entered  office  in 
the  year  57  were  mostly  friends  of  Cicero,  whose  recall 
was  demanded  by  the  senate,  by  Pompey,  and  by  the 
new  consuls.    In  August  a  bill  for  his  restoration  was  ap- 


proved by  the  almost  unanimous  suffrage  of  the  people 
of  all  Italy,  voting  by  centuries.  "There  had  never 
been  known  so  numerous  and  solemn  an  assembly  of 
the  Roman  people  as  this."  (Middleton.)  His  return 
to  Rome  in  September,  57  B.C.,  was  like  a  triumphal 
progress,  and  was  hailed  with  almost  universal  enthu- 
siasm. That  day,  he  said,  seemed  to  him  like  immortality ; 
"unus  ille  dies  mihi  quidem  immortalitatis  instar  fuit, 
quo  in  patriam  redii."    ("  Oratio  in  Pisonem.") 

During  the  period  of  five  years  that  followed  his  re- 
turn, he  pleaded  a  number  of  causes  and  wrote  two  im- 
portant political  works,  entitled  "  De  Republica,"  ("On 
the  Republic,  or  the  Principles  of  Government,")  and 
"  De  Legibus,"  a  philosophical  treatise  on  the  origin, 
principles,  and  perfection  of  law.  The  former  of  these 
treats  on  the  best  form  of  government  and  the  duties  of 
the  citizen.  This  work,  which  was  one  of  his  greatest 
productions,  is  lost,  except  a  large  fragment  discovered 
by  Angelo  Mai  on  a  palimpsest  about  1820.  He  also 
wrote,  about  55  B.C.,  his  "De  Oratore,"  a  systematic 
work  on  oratory,  which  is  extant.  In  52  B.C.  he  com- 
posed a  celebrated  oration  in  defence  of  T.  Annius  Milo, 
who  was  tried  for  killing  P.  Clodius  ;  but  this  oration  was 
not  actually  delivered  in  the  court.  He  wrote  a  history 
of  his  consulship,  in  verse,  which  has  not  come  down  to  us. 

About  the  end  of  the  year  52  Cicero  was  appointed  pro- 
consul or  governor  of  Cilicia,  Pisidia,  etc.  He  accepted 
this  office  with  reluctance,  regarding  it  as  a  kind  of  hon- 
ourable exile.  He  had  under  his  command  in  his  province 
an  army  of  about  fourteen  thousand  men,  which  he  di- 
'rected  in  successful  operations  against  some  predatory 
tribes,  and  was  saluted  by  his  soldiers  with  the  title  oi 
"Imperator."  His  adm-inistration  is  extolled  as  a  rare 
model  of  purity,  moderation,  and  clemency.  Having 
governed  that  province  for  one  year,  he  returned  to  Rome 
about  the  end  of  50  B.C.,  and  found  the  country  on  the 
verge  of  civil  war  between  the  senate  and  Julius  Caesar. 
He  offered  himself  as  a  mediator,  advising  the  senate 
to  make  concessions  to  Cassar ;  but  after  the  latter  had 
crossed  the  Rubicon  he  joined  the  army  of  Pompey  and 
the  senate,  not  without  much  hesitation.  "He  fluc- 
tuated greatly,"  says  Plutarch,  "and  was  in  the  utmost 
anxiety;  for  he  says  in  his  letters,  'Whither  shall  I 
turn  ?  Pompey  has  the  more  honourable  cause ;  but 
Caesar  manages  his  affairs  with  the  greatest  address,  and 
is  most  able  to  save  himself  and  his  friends.  In  short,  I 
know  whom  to  avoid,  but  not  whom  to  follow.'  "  Whec 
Pompey  asked  him,  "Where  is  your  son-in-law?"  (Dola- 
bella,)  Cicero  answered,  "  He  is  with  your  father-in-law.'* 
To  one  who  reproached  him  for  coming  late  to  the  camp 
of  Pompey,  he  said,  "  By  no  means  late  ;  for  I  find  nothing 
ready  here."  He  wrote  almost  daily  to  Atticus,  with 
whom  he  always  corresponded  frequently,  (except  when 
they  lived  at  the  same  place,)  and  expressed  his  opinions 
without  reserve. 

After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  (August,  48  B.C.,)  in  which 
he  took  no  part,  Cicero  returned  to  Italy  and  submitted 
to  the  power  of  Caesar,  who  treated  him  with  much 
clemency  and  respect.  He  devoted  himself  to  studious 
retirement  and  composition,  and  produced  in  the  next 
four  years  numerous  important  works  on  philosophy  and 
rhetoric,  which  demonstrate  his  immense  intellectual 
activity  and  his  vast  learning,  as  well  as  the  versatility 
of  his  mind.  The  following  works  are  preserved  entire  : 
"  De  Finibus  Libri  v.,"  ("An  Inquiry  into  the  Supreme 
Good,")  "  Cato  Major,  seu  De  Senectute,"  ("  Essay  on 
Old  Age,")  "Brutus,  seu  De  Claris  Oratoribus,"  (a 
critical  history  of  Roman  orators,  in  the  form  of  a  dia- 
logue,) "De  Natura  Deorum  Libri  iii.,"  ("On  the  Na- 
ture of  the  Gods,")  "De  Amicitia,"  ("A  Dialogue  on 
Friendship,")  "  Tusculanarum  Disputationum  Libri  v.," 
(Discussions  on  various  questions  in  Philosophy,)  "Ora- 
tor, seu  de  optimo  Genere  Dicendi,"  ("The  Orator, 
or  on  the  Best  Manner  of  Speaking,")  "De  Partitione 
Oratoria,"  ("Analysis  of  Oratory,"  or  Rhetorical  Cate- 
chism,) "  De  optimo  Genere  Oratorum,"  "  De  Divina- 
tione  Libri  ii.,"  ("  On  Divination,")  and  "  De  Ofificiis  Libri 
iii.,"  ("On  Duties,")  an  excellent  treatise  on  ethics.  He 
also  wrote  "Academicorum  Libri  iv.,"  and  "De  Fato," 
("On  Fate,")  both  of  which  remain  in  a  mutilated  state. 
His  treatises  "  De  Gloria  '  ("  On  Glory")  and  "  De  Virtu- 


€  as     c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


CICERO 


606 


CICOGNINI 


tibus"  ("On  the  Virtues")  are  lost,  except  small  frag- 
ments. In  philosophy  he  preferred  the  principles  of  the 
New  Academy. 

In  the  year  47  he  uttered  in  the  senate  a  beautiful  oration 
for  Marcus  Marcellus,  and  in  the  next  year  he  defended 
Ligarius  with  success  before  Caesar,  who  is  said  to  have 
trembled  and  changed  colour  as  he  heard  this  speech. 
Cicero  divorced  his  wife  Terentia  in  46  B.C.,  and  married  a 
young  lady  named  Publilia,  who  was  his  ward  ;  but  he  re- 
pudiated her  also  in  the  year  45.  He  was  not  an  accom- 
plice in  the  assassination  of  Ccesar,  (March,  44  15, c. ;) 
iDut  he  afterwards  applauded  that  action,  which  he  had 
witnessed.  He  boldly  denounced  the  ambitious  and  cor- 
rupt conduct  of  Mark  Antony,  in  a  series  of  fourteen 
orations,  called  Philippics,  the  first  of  which  was  spoken 
in  the  senate  in  September,  44,  and  is  considered  one 
of  his  master-pieces.  The  second  Philippic  was  not  in- 
ferior to  the  first,  but  it  was  not  spoken.  His  favour  was 
courted  by  young  Octavius,  with  whom  he  co-operated 
after  Antony  had  fled  from  the  capital.  Between  the 
months  of  December,  44,  and  May,  43,  B.C.,  he  delivered 
the  last  twelve  Philippics,  which  were  greatly  applauded. 
"His  power  at  this  time,"  says  Plutarch,  "was  at  its 
greatest  height;  he  carried  every  point  that  he  desired." 
The  coalition  of  Octavius,  Antony,  and  Lepidus,  which 
was  formed  in  November,  rendered  his  patriotic  efforts 
unavailing.  He  was  proscribed  by  the  triumvirs,  and 
was  killed  by  the  soldiers  of  Antony,  near  his  Formian 
villa,  on  the  7th  of  December,  43  B.C.  It  appears  that  he 
made  little  effort  to  escape,  and  met  death  with  fortitude. 

Cicero  was  tall  in  stature,  with  features  regular  and  well 
formed.  His  gestures  were  natural  and  graceful,  his  pres- 
ence manly  and  commanding.  No  greater  master  of  com- 
position and  of  the  music  of  speech  has  ever  appeared 
among  men.  He  invented  a  style  which  adapts  itself 
with  rare  felicity  to  every  class  of  subjects,  and  which 
has  been  the  model  of  succeeding  ages.  In  his  "  Intro- 
duction to  the  Literature  of  Europe,"  Mr.  Hallam  ex- 
presses his  admiration  of  the  "consummate  grace  and 
richness  which  enchants  every  successive  generation  in 
the  periods  of  Cicero."  His  orations  display  a  profound 
knowledge  of  human  nature,  as  well  as  a  consummate 
art  in  the  use  of  words.  His  diction  is  copious  and 
flowing,  his  periods  are  sonorous,  and  the  structure  of 
his  sentences  is  eminently  ingenious  and  exact.  He 
amplifies  everything,  and  is  more  diffuse  than  Demos- 
thenes. His  chief  foible  was  his  vanity,  manifested  in  a 
habit  of  self-laudation,  which  he  indulged  to  an  excess- 
ive degree.  But  there  is  a  certain  grace  and  charm 
even  in  these  exhibitions  of  his  vanity.  "  How  shocking 
soever,"  says  Addison,  "this  great  man's  talking  of  him- 
self might  have  been  to  his  contemporaries,  I  must  con- 
fess I  am  never  better  pleased  than  when  he  is  on  this 
subject."  ("  Spectator,"  No.  562.)  According  to  Niebuhr, 
"  the  predominant  and  most  brilliant  faculty  of  his  mind 
was  his  wit.  In  what  the  French  call  esp-it — light,  un- 
expected, and  inexhaustible  wit — he  is  not  excelled  by 
any  among  the  ancients."  About  fifty  of  his  orations  are 
extant,  besides  fragments  of  many  others.  The  titles  of 
those  which  have  not  been  already  named  in  this  article 
are  the  following  :  "  Pro  Scamandro,"  "Pro  C.  Mustio," 
"In  Q.  Ca2cilium,"  "Pro  A.  Csecina,"  "De  Lege  Agra- 
ria,"  "Pro  P.  Cornelio  Sulla,"  "Pro  Scipione  Nasica," 
"  Pro  L.  Valerio  Flacco,"  "  Post  Reditum  in  Senatu," 
"  Post  Reditum  ad  Quirites,"  "  Pro  Domo  Sua,"  "  Pro 
P.  Sextio,"  "Pro  M.  Coelio  Rufo,"  "Pro  L.  Cornelio 
Balbo,"  "  De  Provinciis  Consularibus,"  "  In  L.  Pisonem," 
"  Pro  Cn.  Plancio,"  and  "  Pro  Rege  Dejotaro."  Among 
his  extant  works  are  more  than  eight  hundred  letters  on 
politics,  literature,  domestic  affairs,  etc.,  which  are  con- 
sidered as  equal  in  value  to  any  of  his  productions,  and 
are  rich  in  materials  for  a  history  of  his  time.  They  are 
also  highly  prized  as  models  of  exquisite  Latinity,  and  as 
exhibiting  a  freshness  and  vivid  reality  which  are  seldom 
if  ever  found  in  a  historical  narrative.  William  Melmoth 
published  an  English  version  of  about  four  hundred  and 
twenty  "  Letters  of  Cicero  to  several  of  his  Friends  ;"  and 
his  letters  to  Atticus  have  been  translated  by  William 
Heberden,  M.D.  Among  the  best  editions  of  his  com- 
plete works  are  those  of  Ernesti,  Halle,  5  vols.  8vo, 
^IIA-n Elzevir,  Leyden,  10  vols.,  1642;  Olivet,  Paris, 


9  vols.  4to,  1742  ;  Schiitz,  Leipsic,  20  vols.  8vo,  1814-23  , 
and  Orelli,  Zurich,  9  vols.  8vo,  1826-37,  which  is  said  to 
surpass  them  all. 

See  CoNYERs  Middleton,  "  History  of  the  Life  of  Cicero,"  1741; 
Plutarch,  "Life  of  Cicero;"  F.  Fabricius,  "  Historia  Ciceronis," 
1563;  Facciolati,  "Vita  Ciceronis  Literaria,"  1760;  Meierotto, 
"Ciceronis  Vita,  exipsiiisejusScriptisexcerpta,"  Berlin, 1783;  Orelli, 
"Onomasticum  Tullianum;"  Pekicaud,  "  Ciceroniana,"  1812;  Dku- 
mann,  "  Geschiclite  Roms ;"  Niebuhr,  "  Roman  History  ;"  Abeken, 
"Cicero  in  seinen  Briefen,"  1835,  (one  of  the  best  works  on  the  sub- 
ject;)  English  version  of  the  same,  1854;  William  Forsyth,  "Life 
of  M.  T.  Cicero,"  2  vols.,  1864;  Mommsen,  "  Romische  Geschichte," 
2  vols.,  1854;  J.  MoRABiN,  "  Histoire  de  Ciceron,"  3  vols  ,  1745  ;  De 
QuiNCEY,  "Historical  and  Critical  Essays,"  vol.  i. ;  Peter  Kker- 
MAN,  "  Dissertatio  de  Cicerone,"  1758  ;  A.  F.  Gautier,  "Ciceron  et 
son  Siecle,"  1842;  Linsen,  "Momenta  Vitse  M.  T.  Ciceronis,"  1839; 
Lamartine,  "Ciceron,"  1852;  Hollings,  "Life  of  Cicero,"  1839; 
"Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Characters,"  (1856,)  by  Lamartine; 
also  the  article  "  Ciceron"  in  the  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  (from  the 
masterly  pen  of  M.  Villemain;)  "Westminster  Review"  for  Octo- 
ber, 1855. 

Cicero,  (Marcus  Tullius,)  the  only  son  of  the  great 
orator  and  Terentia,  born  in  65  B.C.  He  served  in  the 
army  of  Pompey  in  the  year  49,  after  which  he  studied 
at  Athens  under  Cratippus.  After  the  death  of  Caesar 
he  was  appointed  military  tribune  by  Brutus,  and  de- 
feated C.  Antonius.  In  the  year  30  B.C.  he  became  con- 
sul as  colleague  of  Octavius.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
dissipated  and  intemperate. 

Cicero,  (Quintus  Tullius,)  a  brother  of  the  great 
Roman  orator,  was  born  about  100  B.C.  He  was  elected 
praetor  about  the  year  62,  and  obtained  the  government 
of  Asia,  which  he  held  for  three  years. ,  As  legate  or  lieu- 
tenant, (legahis,)  he  accompanied  Caesar  to  Britain  in  55. 
While  commanding  a  legion  in  winter  quarters  (54  B.C.) 
he  defended  his  camp  with  great  courage  and  skill  against 
the  forces  of  the  Gauls  under  Ambiorix  until  the  arrival 
of  Csesar,  (See  Csesar,  "  De  Bello  Gallico,"  lib.  v.)  In 
the  year  51  he  served  as  legate  to  his  brother  Marcus  in 
Cilicia.  He  fought  on  the  side  of  Pompey  in  the  civil 
war,  and  made  his  peace  with  Cjesar  in  47  B.C.  Having 
been  proscribed  by  the  triumvirs,  he  was  killed,  by  the 
orders  of  Antony,  in  43  B.C.  He  had  composed  several 
tragedies,  which  are  lost,  and  a  few  small  poems. 

Cicero,  (Q.  Tullius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  about  66  B.C.  His  mother  was  a  sister  of  Pompo- 
nius  Atticus.  He  served  under  his  uncle,  the  great 
orator,  in  Cilicia,  in  the  year  51.  After  the  battle  of 
Pharsalia  (48  B.C.)  he  violently  denounced  his  uncle, 
with  the  design,  it  is  supposed,  of  courting  the  favour  of 
the  victor,  by  whom  he  was  pardoned.  Having  joined 
the  party  of  Brutus  and  Cassius,  he  was  proscribed  by 
Antony,  and  put  to  death  in  43  B.C. 

Cicogna,  che-k6n''yS,  (Emmanuel  Antonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian litteratetir^hoxw  at  Venice  in  1789.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Venetian  Inscriptions,"  ("  Iscri- 
zioni  Veneziani,"  10  vols.) 

Cicogna,  (Pasquale,)  Doge  of  Venice,  succeeded 
Nicholas  da  Ponte  in  1585.  In  his  reign  Henry  IV.  of 
France  was  recognized  king  by  the  Venetians,  the  Rialto 
was  built,  and  the  superb  edifices  on  the  Piazza  of  Saint 
Mark  were  finished.    Died  in  1595. 

See  Daru,  "Histoire  de  Venise." 

Cicognara,  da,da  che-k6n-ya'ra,(LEOPOLDO,)  Count, 
an  eminent  Italian  antiquary  and  writer  on  art,  was  born 
at  Ferrara  in  1767.  He  studied  the  fine  arts  in  Rome, 
and  settled  at  Modena  about  1795.  Between  that  date 
and  1808  he  was  minister  from  the  Cisalpine  republic  to 
Turin,  and  councillor  of  state.  He  published  in  1808 
"  Del  Bello  Ragionamenti,"  (a  "  Treatise  on  the  Beauti- 
ful.") About  this  time  he  was  appointed  president  of  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Venice,  over  which  he  pre- 
sided many  years.  His  capital  work  is  a  "  History  of 
Sculpture  from  the  Renaissance  of  that  Art  to  the  Pres- 
ent Century,"  ("  Storia  della  Scultura  dal  suo  Risorgi- 
mento  in  Italia,"  3  vols.,  1813-18,)  which  procured  him 
a  European  reputation.  He  afterwards  produced  two 
splendidly  illustrated  volumes  of  the  "Remarkable  Edi- 
fices of  Venice,"  ("  Le  Fabbriche  piu  conspicue  di  Vene- 
zia,"  1815-20,)  and  other  works.  Died  at  Venice  in  1834. 

See  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  Becchi,  "  Elogio 
del  L.  Cicognara,"  1837;  Zanetti,  "Cenni  puramente  biografici 
di  L.  Cicognara,"  1834. 

Cicogiiini,  che-k6n-yee'nee,  (jACOPO,)an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Florence  about  1610. 


a,  e,  1,  0,  u,  y,  loug;  i,  h.,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good,  moon; 


CID 


607 


CIMON 


Cid,  sid,  [Sp.  pron.  th^D,]  the  Moorish  appellation 
of  a  celebrated  Castilian  hero,  who  was  born  at  Burgos 
about  1040,  and  whose  proper  name  was  Rodrigo  or 
Ruy  Diaz  de  Bivar.  He  was  also  surnamed  Cam- 
PEADOR,  (the  "Champion.")  After  he  had  fought  with 
distinction  under  Sancho  II.  of  Castile,  he  was  excluded 
from  the  favour  of  his  successor,  Alphonso  VI.,  who 
banished  him  from  court.  He  gained  a  victory  over  five 
Moorish  kings  who  invaded  Rioja,  and  was  recalled  to 
court.  He  afterwards  performed  many  martial  exploits, 
which  are  celebrated  in  poems  and  chronicles  and  em- 
bellished by  fabulous  inventions.  These  have  furnished 
Corneille  the  subject  of  an  admired  tragedy.  A  poem 
of  which  the  Cid  is  the  subject,  composed  by  "the  Ho- 
mer of  Spain,"  an  author  whose  name  is  unknown,  is 
thought  to  be  the  oldest  poem  in  the  Spanish  language. 
Died  in  1099. 

See  "Vie  du  Cid,"  1837,  translated  from  the  Spanish  of  M.  J. 
QuiNTAKA,  whose  original  work  is  found  in  his  "Vidas  de  Espa- 
noles  celebres,"  1807;  Belorado,  "Coronica  del  famoso  Cavallero 
Cid,"  1498;  Robert  Southey,  "Chronicles  of  the  Cid,"  1808; 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1807;  Ticknor,  "His- 
tory of  Spanish  Literature,"  vol.  i.  chap.  ii. 

Ciega  de  Leon.    See  Cieza. 
Ciel.    See  Ceo. 

Cienfuegos,  ///e-?n-fwa'gAs,  (Alvarez,)  a  Spanish 
Jesuit,  born  in  Asturias  in  1657.  He  was  employed  in 
negotiations  by  the  emperors  Joseph  I.  and  Charles 
VI.,  and  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1720.  He  wrote  "The 
Life  of  Francis  Borgia,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1739. 

Cienfuegos,  (Bernardo,)  a  Spanish  botanist,  born 
at  Tarragona  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Alcala,  and  left  in  manuscript 
a  "History  of  Plants,"  with  excellent  figures. 

Cienfuegos,  de,  di  ///e-^n-fwa'g6s,  (Nicasto  Alva- 
rez,) a  Spanish  poet  and  dramatist  of  brilliant  promise, 
was  born  at  Madrid  about  1764.  He  was  a  friend  and 
imitator  of  Melendez.  In  1798  he  published  a  volume 
of  poems,  among  which  were  odes,  epistles,  elegies,  etc. 
His  drama  "Pitaco"  was  successful,  and  opened  to  him 
the  Spanish  Academy.  He  was  editor  of  the  official 
gazette  in  Madrid  when  Spain  was  invaded  by  the 
French  in  1808;  and,  as  he  refused  to  comply  with  the 
directions  of  Murat,  he  was  condemned  to  death.  This 
sentence  was  commuted  into  transportation  to  France, 
where  he  died  in  1809. 

See  T  iCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature,"  vol.  iii.  chaps,  v., 

vi. 

Cieza  or  Ciega  de  Leon,  ///e-a'thS  di  li-6n',  (Pedro,) 
a  Spanish  historian,  born  at  Seville  about  1520.  He 
served  under  Pizarro  in  the  West  Indies,  and  resided 
many  years  in  Peru.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Cronica 
del  Peru,"  (1553,)  which  is  commended  by  Prescott.  It 
is  said  to  be  more  geographical  than  historical. 

See  Prescott,  "Conquest  of  Peru,"  vols,  i.,  ii. 

Cifra,  chee'fRS,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  composer,  born 
about  1575  ;  vvas  living  in  1629. 

Cigna,  ch^n'yS,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  eminent 
Italian  physician  and  anatomist,  born  at  Mondovi  in  1734, 
was  a  nephew  of  Beccaria  the  jurist.  In  1770  he  became 
professor  of  anatomy  at  Turin,  He  published  treatises 
on  Electricity,  Respiration,  etc.    Died  in  1790. 

Cignani,  ch^n-y^'nee,  (Carlo,)  Count,  an  eminent 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1628,  was  a  pupil  of 
Albano,  whom  in  some  respects  he  surpassed.  He  worked 
in  fresco  and  oil  at  Bologna,  Parma,  and  Forli.  In  design 
he  almost  rivalled  Correggio.  He  was  a  good  colorist, 
and  excelled  in  chiarosairo.  In  1708  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Clementine  Academy.  His  master- 
piece is  a  large  fresco  at  Forli  of  the  "  Assumption  of 
the  Virgin."    Died  at  Forli  in  1719. 

See  Zanettf,  "Vita  del  eran  Pittore  C.  Cie^iani,"  1722;  Ersch 
und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Tardini,  "Vitadi  C. 
Cignani,"  1722. 

Cignani,  (Felice,)  an  able  painter  of  Bologna,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1660 ;  died  ni  1724. 

Cignani,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  painter,  nephew  of  Carlo, 
was  born  at  Bologna  in  1709  ;  died  in  1764. 

Cignaroli,  ch^n-y^-ro'lee,  (Giovanni  Bettino,)  one 
of  the  most  renowned  Italian  painters  of  his  time,  born 
near  Verona  in  1 706,  was  a  pupil  of  Balestra.  He  painted 
almost  exclusively  in  oil.    Among  his  master-pieces  are 


a  "  Flight  to  Egypt,"  at  Parma,  and  a  "Transfiguration,'' 
at  Verona.  He  declined  the  invitations  of  several  sove- 
reigns, and  passed  most  of  his  life  at  Verona.  He  com- 
posed verses,  and  wrote  short  essays  on  art,  which  proved 
him  to  be  a  good  critic  and  scholar.    Died  in  1770. 

See  Bevilacqua,  "  Memoriedella  Vitadi  Cignaroli,"  1771 ;  Lanzi, 
"History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Cigoli,  da,  dJ  chee'go-lee,  (LuDovico  Cardi,)  Cava- 
LIERE,  sometimes  called  Civoli,  a  celebrated  painter, 
born  at  Cigoli,  in  Tuscany,  in  1559.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Santo  di  Titi,  and  a  successful  imitator  of  Correggio. 
He  worked  at  Florence,  Rome,  etc.,  and  was  patronized 
by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.  As  a  colorist  he  ranks 
with  Rubens  and  Van  Dyck.  His  subjects  are  mostly 
scriptural.  Among  his  most  admired  productions  are 
"The  Lame  Man  healed  by  Saint  Peter,"  at  Rome  ;  .an 
"  Ecce  Homo,"  and  "  The  Martyrdom  of  Stephen,"  both 
at  Florence.  He  was  also  an  architect,  and  wrote  a  treat- 
ise on  Perspective.  He  has  been  called  "  the  Florentine 
Correggio."    Died  in  1613. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Cilano,  de,  da  se-Ii'no,  (George  Christian  Mar- 
TENUS,)  a  physician,  born  at  Presburg,  in  Hungary,  in 
1696.  He  published  Latin  treatises  on  natural  philo- 
sophy, Roman  antiquities,  etc.    Died  in  1773. 

Cima,  chee'mS,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
painter,  called  le  Conegliano,  (li  ko-nil-y&'no,)  was 
born  at  Conegliano,  in  the  March  of  Treviso,  about  1460. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Bellini,  whom  he  re- 
sembles in  manner.  Among  his  works  are  several  Ma- 
donnas and  saints  at  Venice,  Milan,  etc.  He  was  living 
in  151 7. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Cimabue,  che-mS-boo'i,  (Giovanni,)  a  historical 
painter,  celebrated  as  the  restorer  of  painting  in  modern 
times,  was  born  in  Florence  in  1240.  He  received  his 
first  lessons  in  design  from  two  Greeks  who  worked  at 
Florence.  Having  acquired  reputation  by  his  reforms, 
which  tended  to  a  natural  style,  he  was  employed  to 
adorn  the  church  of  Saint  Francis  at  Assisi.  At  Flor- 
ence he  painted  a  Madonna  which  excited  general  en- 
thusiasm. He  worked  in  fresco  and  distemper,  and 
excelled  in  design  and  composition,  but  was  ignorant  of 
perspective.  A  few  of  his  works  are  still  extant.  Giotto 
was  his  pupil.  A  noble  style,  a  severe  and  correct  de- 
sign, and  a  natural  expression  are  the  chief  merits  of 
Cimabue.    Died  about  1300. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy;"  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters." 

Cinialine,  che-mS-lee'ni,  (Giovanni,)  a  Florentine 
painter,  who  flourished  about  1300. 

Cimarosa,  che-m^-ro'sS,  (Domenico,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  composer,  born  in  Naples  in  1755,  was  a  pupil  of 
Durante.  Before  he  was  twenty-five  he  had  obtained 
many  successes  on  the  princi])al  theatres  of  Italy.  His 
comic  operas  are  especially  remarkable  for  verve  and 
originality.  "The  Secret  Marriage"  ("II  Matrimonio 
segreto")  is  still  popular.  He  also  produced  admired 
serious  operas,  among  which  are  "  The  Horatii  and 
Curiatii,"  and  "  L'Olimpiade."  He  passed  several  years 
at  Saint  Petersburg,  whither  he  was  invited  by  Cathe- 
rine II.  in  1787.    Died  at  Venice  in  1801. 

See  Feti.s,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  Arnold, 
"D.  Cimarosa's  kurze  Biographie,"  1809. 

Cim'ber,  (L.  Tillius,)  a  Roman,  who  was  a  partisan 
of  Caesar  in  the  civil  war  which  began  in  49  B.C.  He  en- 
tered into  the  conspiracy  against  the  dictator,  and  gave 
the  signal  for  his  assassination  by  seizing  Caesar's  robe. 

^i'mon  or  Ki'mon,  [K/^wv,]  an  eminent  Athenian 
general  and  statesman,  born  about  500  B.C.,  was  the  son 
of  Miltiades  the  victor  of  Marathon,  and  Hegesijiyle,  a 
Thracian  princess.  He  paid  the  fine  imposed  on  his  father, 
who  died  in  prison  about  489.  He  distinguished  himself 
at  the  battle  of  Salamis.  Cimon  and  Aristides  commanded 
the  forces  which  Athens  sent  to  co-operate  with  other 
Greeks  against  the  Persians,  476  B.C.  These  two  Athe- 
nians were  elected  to  the  chief  command  by  the  allies  in 
preference  to  Pausanias  of  Sparta  ;  and,  as  Aristides  soon 
returned  to  Athens,  Cimon  became  sole  general-in-chief. 
He  defeated  the  Persians  on  the  Strymon,  and  in  466 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  gidtiiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CIMON 


608 


CINQ-MARS 


B.C.  gained  another  great  victory,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Eurymedon,  in  Pamphylia,  where  he  sunk  or  captured 
two  hundred  ships.  On  the  same  day  he  defeated  an 
army  on  land,  and  thus  effectually  humbled  the  power 
of  Persia.  At  home  he  made  a  munificent  use  of  his 
riches,  and  improved  Athens  by  planting  trees,  building 
walls  from  the  city  to  the  Piraeus,  etc.  He  opposed  the 
attem]:)ts  of  Themistocles  and  Pericles  to  increase  the 
power  of  the  people.  In  the  year  461  he  was  exiled  by 
ostracism  for  ten  years,  but  was  recalled  in  456,  with  the 
concurrence  of  his  rival  Pericles.  In  449  he  obtained 
command  of  a  large  fleet  destined  for  Egypt ;  but  he  first 
besieged  Citium,  in  Cyprus,  where  he  died  in  that  year. 
According  to  most  authors,  he  died  a  natural  death.  He 
was  a  liberal  conservative  in  politics,  and  left  the  reputa- 
tion of  an  honest  and  able  statesman.  His  life  has  been 
written  by  Plutarch,  who  draws  a  comparison  between 
him  and  Lucullus. 

See,  also,  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  Thirlwall,  "History 
of  Greece;"  Cornelius  Nepos,  "Cimon;"  Diodokus  Siculus, 
books  xi.  and  xii.  ;  C.  T.  H.  Lucas,  "  Versuch  einer  Charakteristik 
Cimon's,"  18^5. 

Q!imon  [Kiiiidv]  of  Cleonae,  a  celebrated  Greek  painter, 
who  lived  about  700  B.C.  Pliny  attributes  to  him  an 
invention  which  he  calls  "  catagrapha,"  and  which  he 
explains  by  these  words:  "hoc  est,  obliquae  imagines." 
By  this  some  understand  foreshortening. 

Qin''a-don,  [Gr.  Ktvu^uv,]  the  leader  of  a  conspiracy 
against  the  Spartan  oligarchy,  was  put  to  death  by  the 
ephori  in  397  B.C. 

Cinamus.    See  Cinnamus. 

Cinchon.    See  Chinchon. 

Cincinato.    See  Cincinnato. 

Ciiicinnato,  ch^n-chfen-ni'to,  or  Cincinato,  ch^n- 
che-na'to,  (Romulo  or  RoMOLO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Florence  about  1525.  He  was  employed  many  years 
by  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  for  whom  he  painted  beautiful 
frescos  in  the  Escurial.  His  "  Circumcision,"  at  Cuenca, 
is  a  celebrated  picture.    Died  in  Madrid  about  1600. 

His  son,  Diego  Romulo,  was  a  successful  portrait- 
painter.    Died  in  Rome  in  1626. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Cin-cin-na'tus,  (Lucius  Quintus,)  a  celebrated 
Roman  patriot,  patrician,  and  dictator,  born  about  520 
B.C.  Having  reduced  himself  to  poverty  by  paying  a 
fine  for  his  son,  he  was  cultivating  with  his  own  hands  a 
small  farm,  when  he  was  chosen  consul  in  457  B.C.  He 
was  a  strenuous  opponent  of  the  plebeian  party.  At 
the  end  of  his  official  term  he  returned  to  his  former 
employment.  The  Romans,  having  been  unfortunate 
in  war  with  the  ^qui,  chose  Cincinnatus  dictator  about 
the  year  456  B.C.  He  gained  a  decisive  victory,  and 
then  abdicated  the  dictatorship,  which  he  had  held  only 
fifteen  days.  About  the  age  of  eighty  he  again  reluc- 
tantly acted  as  dictator,  on  the  occasion  of  the  treason 
of  Spurius  Melius,  who  was  promptly  defeated  and  slain. 
Niebuhr  is  skeptical  as  to  the  cause  of  his  poverty  above 
assigned. 

See  Livv,  "History  of  Rome;"  Niebuhr,  "History  of  Rome." 

Cincius  Alimentus,  (Lucius.)    See  Aijmentus. 

Qin'e-as,  [Gr.  Ktveaj-,]  a  Thessalian  orator  and  nego- 
tiator, studied  rhetoric  under  Demosthenes,  and  was  re- 
nowned for  eloquence.  He  visited  Epirus,  and  became 
a  favourite  minister  of  King  Pyrrhus,  with  whom  he 
held  a  well-known  conversation  respecting  his  ambitious 
projects.  After  Pyrrhus  had  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Romans  (280  B.C.)  he  sent  Cineas  to  Rome  to  negotiate 
an  alliance  with  them  ;  but  his  art  was  bafiled  by  Appius 
Claudius.  On  his  return  he  reported  to  Pyrrhus  that 
the  senate  appeared  to  him  like  an  assembly  of  kings. 
He  was  living  in  278  B.C.,  after  which  he  is  not  mentioned 
in  history. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Pyrrhus." 

Cinelli  Calvoli,  che-nel'lee  kai-vo'lee,  (Giovanni,) 
an  Italian  physician,  born  at  Florence  in  1625.  Having 
free  access  to  the  library  of  the  grand  duke,  he  made 
researches  in  literary  history,  the  results  of  which  ap- 
peared in  his  "  Biblioteca  Volante,"  (1678-82,)  which 
consists  of  the  titles  of  rare  and  fugitive  works,  with 
notes  by  the  editor.    Died  in  1706. 

See  Cagliardi,  "Vita  di  G.  Cinelli  Calvoli,"  1736. 


Qi-ne'si-as,  [KLvrjaia^,]  an  Athenian  dithyrambic  poet, 
lived  about  400  B.C. 

Cingaroli,  ch^n-gd-ro'lee,  (Martino,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Verona  in  1667,  produced  admirable 
landscapes  with  figures.    Died  in  1729. 

Cin-get'o-rix,  a  chief  of  the  Treviri, noticed  in  Caesar's 
"Commentaries,"  ("  Eello  Gallico,"  lib.  v.) 

Cini,  chee'nee,  (Giovanni  P)A'rTiSTA,)  an  Italian  writer 
of  dramas,  poems,  etc.,  born  at  Florence  about  1530. 

Cin'na,  (C.  Helvius,)  a  Roman  poet,  was  a  com- 
panion and  friend  of  Catullus,  who  admired  his  poetry. 
He  is  supposed  to  be  the  Cinna  favourably  mentioned 
by  Virgil  in  his  ninth  Eclogue.  Plis  chief  work  was  an 
epic  poem  called  "  Smyrna,"  of  which  only  a  few  lines 
are  extant.  We  are  not  informed  what  the  subject  of 
this  poem  was.  On  the  day  of  the  funeral  of  Julius 
Cffisar,  (44  B.C.,)  Cinna,  though  a  friend  of  the  dictator, 
waslcilled  by  a  Roman  mob  which  met  him  in  the  street 
and  mistook  him  for  L.  Cornelius  Cinna,  an  accomplice 
of  Brutus. 

See  Suetonius,  "  De  illustribus  Grammaticis Appian,  "Belliim 
Civile;"  August  Weichert,  " Commentationes  IL  de  C.  H.  Cinna 
Poeta,"  1S22-23. 

Cinna,  (Lucius  Cornelius,)  a  Roman  demagogue 
of  patrician  rank,  who,  as  the  partisan  of  Marius,  acted 
a  prominent  part  in  the  civil  war  between  the  latter 
and  Sulla.  Having  been  elected  consul  (665  a.u.c.)  in 
86  or  87  B.C.,  he  attempted  to  reinstate  Marius,  who  was 
in  exile.  A  fight  between  the  two  parties  resulted  in 
the  expulsion  of  Cinna  from  the  city.  While  Sulla  was 
absent  in  Asia,  Cinna  raised  an  army  and  besieged  Rome 
in  concert  with  Marius,  who  had  just  returned  from  Africa. 
Having  become  masters  of  the  city,  they  massacred  a 
large  number  of  the  opposite  party.  Cinna  was  again 
chosen  consul  with  Marius,  and  was  about  to  lead  an 
army  against  Sulla  returning  from  the  Mithridatic  war, 
when  he  was  killed  by  his  mutinous  soldiers  in  668  a.u.c, 
or  84  B.C.  His  daughter  Cornelia  became  the  wife  of 
Julius  Caesar.  . 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome ;"  Plutarch,  "Pompey,"  "Ma- 
rius," and  "  Sylla." 

Cinna,  (L.  Cornelius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
a  brother-in-law  of  the  dictator  Caesar,  and  a  son-in-law 
of  Pompey  the  Great.  He  was  chosen  praetor  in  44  B.C., 
and  was  privy  to  the  conspiracy  against  Caesar  in  that 
year.  His  son  Cn.  Cornelius  Cinna  was  a  partisan  of 
Antony  in  his  contest  with  Octavius,  but  was  pardoned 
by  the  latter,  and  was  chosen  consul  in  5  B.C. 

9in'na-mus,  written  also  Cinamus  or  Sinnamus, 
(Joannes,)  [Gr.  'louwrjg  Kivvafiog  or  'Llvvafio^;  Fr.  Cin- 
NAME,  se^ntm',]  an  able  Byzantine  historian  and  states- 
man, who  flourished  between  1140  and  1180.  He  was 
an  imperial  notary  of  Manuel  Comnenus,  whom  he  ac- 
companied in  his  military  expeditions.  As  a  historian 
he  is  considered  to  have  surpassed  all  his  contemporaries. 
His  History  (in  Greek)  comprises  the  reigns  of  Calo- 
Joannes  and  his  successor,  Manuel  Comnenus,  and  the 
period  from  11 18  to  11 76.  It  displays  great  political 
knowledge  and  considerable  critical  ability. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Cino  da  Pistoia,  chee'no  dS  p6s-to'y3,  a  noted  Ital- 
ian jurist  and  poet,  whose  family  name  was  Sinibaldi, 
was  born  at  Pistoia  in  1270.  He  published  in  13 14  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Code,  which  had  a  great  reputation,  and 
afterwards  professed  civil  law  at  Perugia  and  Florence. 
He  wrote  verses  in  praise  of  a  lady  named  Selvaggia, 
and  was  reputed  one  of  the  best  poets  of  his  time.  He 
was  a  friend  of  Dante.    Died  about  1326. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie  ;"  S.  Ciampi,  "  Me- 
moria  della  Vita  di  Cino  da  Pistoja,"  1808. 

Cinq-Arbres  or  Cinquarbres,  s^Nk^tRbR',  (Jean,) 
a  French  Orientalist,  born  "at  Aurillac.  He  translated 
some  works  of  Avicenna  into  Latin,  (2  vols.,  1572,)  and 
taught  Hebrew  in  Paris.    Died  in  1587. 

Cinq-Mars,  de,  deh  saNk^nSRss',(HENRY  Coifiier  de 
Ruze — kw&^fe-a'  deh  rii^za',)  Marquis,  a  French  cour- 
tier, a  son  of  Antoine,  Marquis  d'Effiat,  (da^fe^S',)  born 
in  1620.  He  became  a  favourite  of  Louis  XIII.,  and  was 
made  grand  equerry  of  France  at  the  age  of  nineteen. 
Richelieu,  hoping  to  find  in  him  a  compliant  instrument, 
favoured  his  promotion  at  first ;  but  they  soon  became 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  /mg-;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y. 


short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsaire;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CINpUARBRES 


609 


CIVITALI 


rivals  and  enemies.  On  a  charge  of  complicity  in  the 
treasonable  designs  of  Gaston,  the  king's  brother,  Cinq- 
Mars  was  executed  in  1642. 

See  Alfred  de  Vigny  "  Ciiiq-Mars,  ou  una  Conjuration,"  1826; 
Capefiglk,  ••R.che)ieu,  Mazarin,  ia  t'ronde,"  etc.,  8  vols.,  1S36; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  lor  February,  1820. 

Cinquarbies.    See  CiNcj-ARBRES. 

Cintra,  de,  di  s^n^ki,  (GoNgALO,)  a  Portuguese 
navigator,  discovered  the  Bay  of  Cintra,  on  the  coast  of 
Africa.    Died  in  1445. 

Ciofano,  cho-fa'no,  (Ercole,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
critic,  b(^rn  at  Suhnona,  wrote  admired  "Commentaries 
on  the  Works  of  Ovid,"  (1575,)  and  other  short  works. 

Cionacci,  cho-nit'chee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Florence  in  1633  ;  died  in  1714. 

Cione,  (Andrea.)    See  Okcagna. 

Cipelii.    See  Egnazio. 

Cipierre,  de,  deh  se'pe-aiR',  (Philibert  de  Mar- 
silly — deh  mtR'se'ye',)  Seigneur,  a  French  general 
who  served  in  the  Catholic  army  in  the  civil  war,  (1562.) 
He  was  governor  of  the  king's  son,  who  became  Charles 
IX.  De  Thou  represents  him  as  an  able  general  and  a 
good  man.    Died  in  1566. 

See  De  Thou,  "Histoire  Universelle." 

Cipriani,  che-pRe-l'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a 
skilful  Italian  artist,  born  at  Florence  about  1730.  He 
removed  to  London  about  1755,  after  which  he  devoted 
himself  principally  to  engraving.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  members  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  London.  His 
paintings  are  not  numerous.  His  designs,  engraved 
partly  by  himself  and  partly  by  Bartolozzi,  are  admired 
for  correctness  and  grace.  Among  his  engravings  are 
"The  Death  of  Cleopatra,"  after  Cellini,  and  a  "De- 
scent from  the  Cross,"  after  Van  Dyck.   Died  in  1785. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Qir'ge,  [Kfp/c??,]  a  sorceress  of  the  Greek  mythology, 
celebrated  for  her  skill  in  magic  arts,  was  said  to  be  a 
daughter  of  the  Sun.  She  lived  on  the  island  .^laea,  and 
tempted  voyagers  with  a  beverage  which  transformed 
those  who  drank  it  into  swine.  (See  the  "  Odyssey," 
book  X.) 

Circignano,  ch^R-ch^n-yi'no,  or  Circignani,  ch^R- 
ch^n-ya'nee,  (NiCCOLO,)  a  painter,  born  at  Pomerance, 
in  Tuscany,  in  15 16,  was  called  IL  Pomerancio.  He 
painted  some  halls  of  the  Vatican.  His  manner  was 
grand,  his  design  pure  and  correct.    Died  about  1590. 

His  son,  Antonio,  was  an  able  painter.  He  worked 
at  Rome  with  his  father.    Died  about  1620. 

Cirillo,  che-r^Klo,  (Do.menico,)  an  Italian  physician 
and  savant  of  great  merit,  born  at  Grugno  in  1734.  In 
his  youth  he  accompanied  Lady  Walpole  to  England, 
and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don. On  his  return  to  Italy  he  became  professor  of 
medicine  and  an  eminent  practitioner  in  Naples.  He 
published  an  excellent  work  on  botanical  philosophy, 
"Fundamenta  Botanica,"  (1771,)  which  displays  great 
knowledge  of  physiology ;  a  Flora  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Nai)les,  ("  Plantarum  rariorum  Regni  Neapolitani," 
1788-93,)  and  several  other  scientific  and  medical  treat- 
ises. In  1799  he  was  chosen  a  legislator  in  the  new 
Parthenopean  republic;  but  the  royalists  recovered 
power,  and  he  was  put  to  death  in  the  same  year.  The 
king  offered  him  his  life  if  he  would  beg  for  pardon  ;  but 
this  he  refused,  saying  that  he  did  not  fear  death. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Cirillo,  (N1CCOL6,)  born  in  Naples  in  1671,  became 
professor  of  medicine  in  that  city  in  1706.  He  wrote  a 
"Memoir  on  Earthquakes,"  published  in  the  Loudon 
"  Pnilosophical  Transactions."    Died  in  1734. 

Giro,  the  Italian  of  Cyrus,  which  see. 

Giro  Ferri.    See  Ferri,  (Ciro.) 

Giruelo,  the-roo-a'lo,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  mathema- 
tician and  writer,  born  in  Aragon,  was  one  of  the  pre- 
ceptors of  Philip  II.    Died  about  1550. 

Gisinge,  de,  deh  se'ziNzh',  (Jean,)  commonly  called, 
in  Latin,  Ja'nus  Panno'nius,  a  Latin  poet, ''born  in 
Hungary  in  1434.  At  the  age  of  twenty-six  he  was 
chosen  Bishop  of  Fiinfkirchen.  His  poems  have  passed 
through  many  editions.    Died  in  1472. 

Cisner,  tsis'ner,  (Nicholas,)  a  German  historian,  born 
at  Morbach  in  1529.    He  became  professor  of  law  at 


Heidelberg,  and  was  afterwards  councillor  of  the  im? 
perial  court  at  Spire  for  fourteen  years.  He  wi  jte  good 
Latin  verses,  and  published  historical  works,  among 
which  is  an  edition  of  Krantz's  "  History  of  Saxony." 
Died  in  1583. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Cisneros.    See  Ximenes,  Cardinal, 

Citois,  se'tw^',  [Lat.  CiTo''sius,](FRANgois,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Poitiers  in  1572  ;  died  in  1652. 

Citolini,  che-to-lee'nee,  (Ai.essandro,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Seravalla  about  1520. 

Citri  de  la  Guette,  se'tRe'  deh  It  g^t,  an  authoi 
whose  nationality  is  unknown,  lived  about  16S0-1700. 
He  published  in  Paris  several  esteemed  works,  viz., 
"  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  Saladin," 
(1679,)  "History  of  the  Two  Triumvirates,"  (1681,)  and 
"  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  translated  from 
the  Spanish,  (1691.) 

Cittadella.    See  Lombardt,  (Alfonso.) 

Cittadella,  ch^t-ta-deKl^,  (Giovanni,)  Count,  an 
Italian  historian,  born  at  Padua  in  1806.  His  principal 
work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Domination  [of  the  family]  of 
Carrara,"  ("  Storia  della  Dominazione  Carrarese,"  1S42.) 

Gittadini,  chet-ti-dee'nee,  (Celso,)  one  of  the  most 
learned  Italian  writers  of  his  time,  born  in  Rome  in  1553, 
published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Origin  and  Progress  of 
our  Language,"  "  Rime  Platoniche  del  Celso  Cittadini," 
("  Platonic  Rhymes,"  etc.,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1627. 

See  "Vita  di  C.  Cittadini,"  prefixed  to  his  works  by  G.  Gigli, 
Rome,  1721. 

Cittadini,  (Pietro  Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Milan  about  1615,  and  surnamed  IL  Milanese, 
was  a  pupil  of  Guido.  After  painting  a  few  historical 
pieces,  which  gave  promise  of  high  excellence,  he  re- 
nounced tliat  branch  of  art,  and  confined  himself  to  easel- 
pictures  of  animals,  flowers,  fruit,  etc.    Died  in  1681. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

QJiva.    See  Siva. 

Civerchio,  che-veR'ke-o,  (Vtncenzo,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  engraver,  called  IL  Vkcchio  di  Crema,  (^1 
vek'ke-o  dee  kRa'm.^,)  was  born  at  Crema,  and  flourished 
about  1500-30.    He  worked  mostly  at  Milan. 

See  V.ASARi,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Civiale,  se've'tK,  (Jean,)  a  French  physician,  born 
at  Thiezac  (Cantal)  in  1792.  He  distinguished  himself 
by  discoveries  or  improvements  in  the  operation  of  li- 
thotrity,  and  published  several  works  on  that  specialty, 
among' which  is  a  "Treatise  on  the  Calculous  Disease,* 
("Traite  de  I'Affection  calculeuse,"  1838.)  He  was 
elected  to  the  Institute  in  1847.    Died  in  June,  1867. 

Ci-vi'lis,  (Claudius,)  a  chief  of  the  Batavi,  who  served 
twentv-five  years  in  the  Roman  army,  and  was  converted 
into  an  enemy  of  Rome  by  the  unjust  execution  of  his 
brother,  lulius  Paulus,  and  the  ill  treatment  of  himself. 
His  remarkable  heroism  and  exploits  are  elaborately 
described  bv  Tacitus,  who  devotes  to  the  subiect  a  large 
part  of  the  last  two  books  of  his  history.  ^Vhile  Vitel- 
lius  and  Vespasian  contended  for  the  empire  of  Rome, 
some  partisans  of  the  latter  persuaded  Civilis  to  make  a 
show  of  insurrection,  in  order  to  detain  in  Gaul  the 
Roman  army,  which  was  mostly  favourable  to  Vitellius. 
Having  raised  a  large  force,  69  A.D.,  he  rebelled  in 
earnest,  was  joined  by  many  Germans  and  Gauls,  gaired 
several  victories,  and  was  hailed  as  the  liberator  of  his 
country.  Vespasian  sent  another  army,  under  Cerealis, 
who,  after  defeating  Civilis  in  battle,  induced  him,  by  a 
promised  amnesty,  to  desist  from  hostilities,  in  70  a.d. 
The  history  of  Tacitus  ends  abruptly  in  the  midst  of  a 
speech  of  Civilis,  in  his  interview  with  Cerealis,  on  a 
bridge  across  the  Vahalis  or  Nabalia.  "There  is,"  says 
Motley,  "more  than  a  fanciful  resemblance  between 
Civilis  and  William  the  Silent, — two  heroes  of  ancient 
German  stock."  ("Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  vol.  i.) 

See,  also,  "  Levensgeschiedenis  van  C.  Civilis,"  the  Hague,  1841 ; 
J.  ^L\RCH.^L,  "Notice  sur  ITnsurrection  de  Civilis,"  1846. 

Civitali,  che-ve-ti'lee,  (Matteo,)  an  eminent  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Lucca  about  1435.  He  was  a  barber 
until  he  had  attained  the  age  of  thirty,  after  which  he 
became  so  skilful  in  art  that  his  works  were  compared 
to  those  of  Michael  Angelo.    He  worked  in  Lucca  and 


€  as     c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    ( J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

39 


CIVOLI 


6io 


CLAPPERTON 


Genoa,  the  cathedral  of  which  contains  several  statues 
by  him.    Died  about  1500. 

See  Vasaki,  "Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors." 

Civoli.    See  Cigoli. 

Claesson,  klas'son,  (Arnold,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Leyden  in  1498;  died  in  1564. 

Clag'ett,  (Nicholas,)  U.D.,  an  English  divine,  born 
in  1654,  became  Archdeacon  of  Sudbury  in  1693,  He 
published  "Truth  Defended,"  in  answer  to  Whiston, 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1726. 

Clagett,  (William,)  D.D.,  born  in  1646,  wrote  many 
theological  works,  chiefly  controversial.    Died  in  1688. 

Clag'gett,  (John  Thomas,)  born  in  Prince  George 
county,  Maryland,  in  1742,  became  in  1792  the  first 
Episcopalian  bishop  in  that  State.    Died  in  1818. 

Clai  or  Clay,  klT,  [Lat.  Cla'jus,]  (Johann,)  a  Ger- 
man poet  and  philologist,  born  at  Herzberg,  Saxony, 
about  1533.  He  was  professor  of  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew  in  several  colleges  in  Saxony  and  Silesia. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  a  "  Grammar  of  the  German 
Language,"  the  best  that  had  then  appeared,  and  "Al- 
kumistica,"  (1586,)  a  poem  against  the  alchemists,  prized 
as  a  monument  of  early  German  poetry.    Died  in  1592. 

See  GoTTscHED,  "Kritische  Beitrage." 

Claiborne,  kla'burn,  (William  C.  C.,)  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  Virginia,  became  Governor  of  Mis- 
sissippi Territory  in  1801,  and  in  1803  Governor-General 
and  Intendant  of  Louisiana.  Died  in  181 7,  aged  forty-two. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Clairac,  de,  deh  kla'rtk',  (Louis  Andre  de  la  Ma- 
mil,)  a  French  writer  and  engineer,  born  about  1690. 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Revolutions  of  Persia,"  and 
a  "Treatise  on  Fortification."    Died  in  1750. 

Clairault.    See  Clairaut. 

Ciairaut  or  Clairault,  khVrS',  (Alexis  Claude,)  an 
eminent  French  geometer,  born  in  Paris  in  17 13.  About 
the  age  of  ten  he  mastered  L'Hopital's  analysis  of  "  Li- 
finitesimals,"  ("  Infiniment  Petits,")  and  in  his  thirteenth 
year  presented  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  a  Memoir 
on  Four  Remarkable  Curves.  In  1731  he  produced  his 
"Researches  on  Curves  of  Double  Curvature."  Though 
under  the  regular  age,  he  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  the  same  year.  He  assisted  Maupertuis 
in  measuring  a  degree  of  the  meridian  in  Lapland  in 
1735,  and  published  in  1743  his  "Theory  of  the  Figure 
of  the  Earth."  His  "  Theory  of  the  Moon  derived  from 
the  Simple  Principle  of  Attraction"  (1750)  is  another  of 
his  titles  to  celebrity  as  the  successor  of  Newton.  He 
was  the  first  who  ajjplied  the  theory  of  Newton  to  esti- 
mate the  perturbing  influence  of  planets  on  the  motions 
of  comets.  Aided  by  Lalande  and  others  in  his  immense 
calculations  of  the  action  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  he  pre- 
dicted the  return  of  Halley's  comet  in  1759,  and  missed 
the  exact  time  by  about  twenty-two  days, — part  of  this 
error  being  caused  by  the  action  of  Uranus,  then  un- 
known. Fur  this  grand  demonstration  he  had  prepared 
the  formulas  with  the  simplicity  and  clearness  which 
characterize  all  his  works.  He  published  in  1760  a 
"Theory  of  the  Motion  of  Comets."  In  addition  to  the 
books  which  we  have  named,  he  published  two  admirable 
works,  entitled  "Elements  of  Geometry"  and  "Elements 
of  Algebra."    Died  in  1765. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "Biographic  Univer- 
selle  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  GeneraiC." 

Claire,  kli^ra',  (Martin,)  a  French  poet,  born  in 
1612,  wrote  elegant  Latin  hymns.    Died  in  1690. 
Clairfait.    See  Clerfayt. 

Clairfontaine,  de,  deh  klaR''f6N'tin',  (Pierre  Andr^: 
Peloux — ]ieh-loo',)  a  French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris 
in  1 727.  He  composed  about  1 750  the  tragedy  of  "  Hec- 
tor," the  style  of  which  is  admired.    Died  in  1788. 

Clairon,  kbVroN^  (Mademoiselle  Claire  Josephe 
Leyris  de  la  Tude,  bVre'  deh  It  tiid,)  a  famous  French 
actress,  born  near  Conde  (Flanders)  in  1723.  She  made 
her  debut  at  the  Opera  of  Paris  in  1 743,  and  before  the  end 
of  that  year  at  the  Comedie  Fran9aise,  where  her  success 
was  complete.  She  retired  from  the  stage  in  1765,  and 
died  in  1803,  leaving  a  volume  of  "Memoirs,"  (1799.) 

See  Lemontey,  "Notice  sur  Mile.  Clairon,"  1823;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  G^n^rale  ;"  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  September,  1853. 

1,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y, 


Clairval,  kliR'vtK,  the  assumed  name  of  Jean  Bap- 
TiSTE  Guignard,  (zhftN  btp't^st'  ghn'yiK',)  a  popular 
French  actor,  born  at  fitampes  in  1735.  He  performed 
in  Paris  from  1758  to  1792.    Died  in  1795. 

Clairville,  klaR'v^l',  (Louis  Francois  Nicolaie,)  a 
French  dramatist,  born  at  Lyons  in  181 L  He  has  pro- 
duced a  great  number  of  successful  farces,  vaudevilles, 
etc.,  among  which  are  "  Clarissa  Harlowe,"  (1846,)  "The 
Bourgeois  of  Paris,"  (1850,)  and  "The  Side-Scenes 
iisses)  of  Life,"  (1852.) 

Claissens,  kli's6N',  (Antoine,)  a  Flemish  pannte'- 
who  lived  about  1490,  was  a  pupil  of  Quentin  Mat.sys  of 
Antwerp.  He  painted  two  pictures  of  the  "Judgment  o.' 
Cambyses."  They  were  taken  to  the  Museum  of  Paris 
in  the  reign  of  Napoleon  I. 

Clajus,  the  Latin  of  Clai,  which  see. 

Clamenges,  de,  deh  klt'm6Nzh',  or  Clemangis,  kli'- 
mSN'zhiss',  (Mathieu  Nicolas,)  a  French  theologian, 
was  born  at  Clamenges,  near  Chalons,  about  1360.  He 
was  chosen  rector  of  the  University  of  Paris  in  1393. 
Among  his  works  (in  Latin)  is  one  "On  the  Corrupt 
State  of  the  Church."  He  wrote  an  elegant  style,  and 
had  as  high  a  reputation  as  any  writer  of  that  age. 
Died  about  1440. 

See  Adolphe  Muntz,  "  N.  de  Clemangis;  sa  Vic  et  ses  Merits," 
1846;  Cave,  "Scriptorum  ecclesiasticorum  Literaria  Historia." 

Clam-Martinitz  or  Clam-Martinicz,  klim-mlR- 
tee'nitz,  (Karl  Joseph,)  Count,  an  Austrian  general, 
born  at  Prague  in  1792.  He  accompanied  Napoleon 
to  Elba  in  1814,  and  was  called  to  take  part  in  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna,  (1815.)  About  1824  he  was  sent  on  a 
diplomatic  mission  to  St.  Petersburg.  He  became  first 
aide-de-camp  to  the  Austrian  emperor  in  1835,  and 
field-marshal-lieutenant  in  1837.    Died  in  1840. 

Clan'cy,  (Michael,)  M.D.,  an  Irish  dramatist,  wrote 
"  The  Sharpers,"  ( 1 737,)  and  other  plays.  Died  about  1 760. 

Clanricarde,  klai/re-kard,  (Ulick,)  Marquis  of, 
and  Earl  of  Saint  Alban's,  born  in  London  in  1604, 
was  the  chief  of  the  noble  family  of  Burgho  or  De  Burgh. 
He  was  appointed  governor  of  Galway  in  1641.  In  the 
civil  war  he  supported  Charles  I.  and  held  a  high  com- 
mand in  Ireland.  He  died  about  1658,  leaving  "  Memoirs 
respecting  the  Rebellion  in  Ireland,"  (1737.) 

Clap,  (Thomas,)  a  clergyman,  born  in  Scituate,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1703.  In  1739  he  was  elected  president 
of  Yale  College,  to  which  he  rendered  important  ser- 
vices.   Died  in  1767. 

Claparede,  klt^pt'rid'.  Count,  a  French  general, 
born  at  Gignac  (Herault)  in  1774.  He  commanded  a 
brigade  at  Austerlitz,  (1805,)  and  at  Jena,  (1806.)  About 
1808  he  was  made  a  general  of  division.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  Ebersberg,  Essling,  and  Wagram,in  1809,  and 
was  wounded  at  the  passage  of  the  Berezina  in  181 2. 
He  became  inspector-general  of  infantrv  about  1816,  and 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  by  Louis  XVIII.  Died  in  1841 
or  1842. 

See  De  Courceli.es,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Gdneraux  Frangais;" 
"Notice  sur  le  General  Claparede,"  1843. 

Clapisson,  klt'pe's6N',  (Louis,)  a  French  composer 
of  successful  operas,  was  born  at  Naples  in  1809. 

Clapp,  (Theodore,)  an  eloquent  Unitarian  minister, 
born  in  Easthamjiton,  Massachusetts,  in  1792,  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1814.  In  1822  he  became  pastor  of 
a  church  in  New  Orleans,  where  he  preached  about 
thirty-five  years,  during  the  prevalence  of  many  fatal 
epidemics.  He  published,  in  1858,  "Autobiographical 
Sketches."    Died  in  1866. 

Clapp,  (William  W.,)  Jr.,  an  American  journalist, 
born  in  Boston  in  1826,  succeeded  his  father  in  1847  as 
editor  of  the  Boston  "Saturday  Evening  Gazette." 

Clap'per-tpn,  (Hugh,)  Captain,  a  Scottish  traveller 
and  explorer  of  Africa,  was  born  at  Annan,  Dumfries- 
shire, in  1788.  He  served  some  years  in  the  British  navy. 
In  1822,  under  the  auspices  of  Lord  Bathurst,  he  was 
associated  with  Dr.  Oudney  and  Dixon  Denham  in  an 
expedition  to  Timbuctoo.  They  arrived  in  February, 
1823,  at  Lake  Tchad,  where  Clapperton  parted  from 
Denham  and  pursued  his  journey  until  he  reached  Sac- 
catoo.  From  that  point  he  returned  homeward  by  the 
same  route,  and  arrived  in  England  in  1825.  (See  Den- 
ham, Dixon.)    In  the  same  year  hi  was  raised  to  the 

short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


CLARAC 


6ii 


CLARENDON 


rank  of  captain,  and  renewed  the  perilous  enterprise 
with  a  more  numerous  party,  among  whom  was  his 
faithful  servant,  Richard  Lander,  Approaching  tiiis  time 
from  the  west,  he  penetrated  the  Bight  of  Benin  to  Sac- 
catoo  in  the  spring  of  1826,  There  he  was  detained 
about  a  year  by  the  native  prince  ;  and  he  died  of  dys- 
/  entery  near  that  town  in  April,  1827.  An  interesting 
journal  of  his  second  expedition  was  published  in  1829. 
Denham  and  Clapperton  made  important  contributions 
to  the  geography  of  Africa,  though  they  failed  in  the 
chief  object  of  their  exjjedition, — to  discover  the  course 
and  termination  of  the  Niger. 

See  Lander,"  Records  of  Captain  Clapperton,"  1830 ;  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Clarac,  de,deh  klt'rSk',  (Charles  Othon  FRiiD^Ric 
Jean  Baptiste,)  Count,  a  French  antiquary  and  artist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1777.  After  a  visit  to  South  America, 
from  which  he  brought  many  designs,  he  was  appointed 
keeper  of  the  Museum  of  Antiques  in  the  Louvre  about 
1816.  His  most  important  work  is  called  "Museede 
Sculpture,"  (1826-52,)  in  which  a  vast  number  of  antique 
statues,  etc.  are  reproduced  by  engravings.   Died  in  1847. 

See  Hericart  de  Thury,  "  Notice  sur  le  Comte  de  Clarac,"  1848. 

Claramonte,  de,  dakli-ri-mon'ti,  (Andres,)  a  Span- 
ish dramatist,  whose  reputation  was  founded  chiefly  on 
a  comedy  called  "The  Brave  Negro  in  Flanders,"  ("El 
Negro  valiente  en  Flandes.")    Died  at  Murcia  in  1610. 

Clare,  (John,)  an  English  peasant  and  poet,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1793,  was  a  son  of  a  poor  labourer. 
A  "Sonnet  to  the  Setting  Sun"  (1818)  was  the  first  of 
his  works  that  attracted  public  attention.  He  published 
in  1820  "Poems  descriptive  of  Rural  Life  and  Scenery," 
which  have  considerable  merit.  A  small  annuity  was 
settled  on  him  by  subscription  ;  but  he  failed  to  support 
his  increasing  family,  and  fell  into  a  state  of  despondency, 
followed  by  mental  derangement.    Died  in  1864. 

See  Samuel  Smii.ks,  "Brief  Biographies;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  lor  May,  1820. 

Clare,  (John  Hollis,)  Earl  of,  a  learned  nobleman 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  father-in-law  of  the 
famous  Earl  of  Strafford.  He  wrote  comments  on 
Bacon's  "  Essay  on  Empire,"  and  other  works. 

Clarence,  Dukk  of.   See  William  IV.  of  England. 

Clar'en-don,  (Edward  Hyde,)  first  Earl  of,  an 
eminent  English  historian  and  statesman,  born  at  Dintcn, 
Wiltshire,  in  1608,  was  the  third  son  of  Henry  Hyde,  of 
that  place.  After  leaving  Oxford  University  he  studied 
law,  under  the  direction  of  his  uncle,  Nicholas  Hyde, 
who  was  afterwards  chief  justice.  In  1632  he  marViod 
Frances  Aylesbury,  by  whom  he  had  several  children. 
In  his  youth  he  made  it  a  rule  to  associate  only  with 
persons  eminent  for  rank,  fortune,  or  other  advantages. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  the  spring  of  1640, 
and  again  to  the  Long  Parliament,  which  met  near  the 
end  of  that  year.  During  the  first  year  of  his  political 
course  he  acted  with  popular  party  in  their  efforts 
for  reform,  and  in  the  impeachment  of  Strafford  ;  but  in 
the  great  crisis  of  1642  he  espoused  with  zeal  the  royalist 
cause.  He  soon  became  one  of  the  confidential  advisers 
of  the  king,  who  requested  him,  with  two  others,  to  con- 
duct his  affairs  in  the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  the 
author  of  the  able  state  papers  issued  by  the  king  about 
the  beginning  of  the  civil  war,  (1642.)  In  1643  he  was 
appointed  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  and  privy  coun- 
cillor. He  was  selected  in  1645  as  a  counsellor  to  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  whom  he  followed  in  his  flight  to  Jersey 
in  1646.  Remaining  there  when  Prince  Charles  went 
to  France,  Hyde  began  his  great  work,  the  "  History  of 
the  Rebellion  and  Civil  Wars."  After  the  execution  of 
the  king  he  received  the  title  of  lord  chancellor,  and  was 
employed  in  the  service  of  Charles  II.,  and  became  his 
chief  adviser  while  he  was  an  exile  in  France,  Holland,  etc. 

At  the  restoration  of  1660  Hyde  became  prime  minis- 
ter of  Charles  II.,  lord  chancellor  of  England,  and  in 
1661  Earl  of  Clarendon.  Soon  after  his  promotion  it 
was  announced  that  his  daughter,  Anne  Hyde,  was  rec- 
ognized as  the  wife  of  the  king's  brother,  the  Duke  of 
York.  "  For  some  time,"  says  Hume,  "  no  minister  was 
ever  possessed  of  more  absolute  authority,  and  all  the 
counsels  which  he  gave  the  king  tended  equally  to  pro- 
mote the  interest  of  prince  and  people."   In  the  opinion 


of  Macaulay,  "the  circumstance  that  he  had  long  been 
an  exile  completely  disqualified  him  for  the  supreme 
direction  of  affairs.  .  .  .  His  virtues  and  vices  alike  con- 
tributed to  his  ruin."  By  opposing  popery  he  lost  the 
favour  of  Charles,  and  by  various  measures  he  ruined 
his  popularity  with  the  nation.  He  was  deprived  of  the 
great  seal  in  August,  1667,  and  was  impeached  by  the 
Commons  ;  but  before  the  case  was  decided  he  retired 
to  France,  and  was  doomed  by  act  of  Parliament,  De- 
cember, 1767,  to  perpetual  exile.  After  passing  four 
years  at  Montpellier,  he  died  at  Rouen  in  December, 
1674,  leaving  his  title  to  his  son  Henry,  noticed  below. 
Two  of  his  granddaughters,  Mary  and  Anne  Stuart,  be- 
came queens  of  England.  His  celebrated  History  was 
published  in  1702.  "His  majesty  and  eloquence,"  says 
Horace  Walpole,  "his  power  of  painting  characters,  his 
knowledge  of  the  subject,  rank  him  in  the  first  class  of 
writers  :  yet  he  has  both  great  and  little  faults."  "  His 
style  is  prolix  and  redundant,"  says  Hume,  "but  it  dis- 
covers imagination  and  sentiment,  and  it  pleases  us  at 
the  same  time  that  we  disapprove  of  it"  "He  was 
wise,"  says  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1839, 
"  neither  for  himself  nor  for  his  country.  Belonging 
to  the  past  rather  than  the  future,  he  associated  himself 
with  causes  which  must  fail  and  with  parties  whom  he 
despised." 

See  "  Life  of  Edward,  Earl  of  Clarendon,"  by  himself,  1759  ;  T. 
H.  Lister,  "Life  of  Lord  Clarendon,"  3  vols.,  1838;  AIacaulay, 
"  History  of  England  ;"  Hume,  '*  History  of  England  ;"  George  A. 
Ellis,  "  Historical  Inquiries  respecting  the  Character  of  Edward 
Hyde,"  etc.  ;  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Chancellors  ;"  Foss,  "The 
Judges  of  England  ;"  "Monk's  Contemporaries,"  by  Guizot. 

Clarendon,  (George  William  Frederick  Vil- 
liers,)  fourth  Earl  of,  an  eminent  English  statesman, 
the  eldest  son  of  the  Hon.  George  Villiers,  who  was 
a  younger  son  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon,  was  born  in 
January,  1 800.  He  was  minister  plenipotentiary  at  the 
court  of  Madrid  about  five  years,  (1833-38.)  In  1838 
he  succeeded,  by  the  death  of  his  uncle,  to  the  title  of 
Earl,  and  in  1840  was  appointed  lord  privy  seal  in  the 
Whig  ininistry.  He  married  in  1839  a  sister  of  the  Earl 
of  Verulam.  He  retired  from  office  on  the  formation  of 
a  new  ministry  by  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1841,  and  became 
])resident  of  the  Board  of  Trade  on  the  return  of  the 
Whigs  to  power  in  1846.  He  was  loid  lieutenant  of 
Ireland  from  May,  1847,  until  February,  1852.  His 
administration  of  that  country,  then  greatly  agitated, 
displayed  a  union  of  moderation,  energy,  and  prudence. 
In  January,  1853,  he  accepted  the  office  of  secretary 
of  foreign  affairs  in  the  ministry  of  Lord  Aberdeen.  He 
maintained  his  high  reputation  as  a  diplomatist  in  the 
negotiations  which  resulted  in  a  coalition  against  Russia, 
and  was  retained  in  the  foreign  department  when  a  new 
ministry  was  formed  by  Lord  Palmerston  in  February, 
1855.  He  was  the  principal  negotiator  on  the  part  of 
Great  Britain  at  the  Congress  of  Paris  by  which  peace 
was  concluded  between  the  allies  and  Russia  in  1856. 
Lord  Clarendon  resigned  office  with  Palmerston  on  the 
defeat  of  the  latter  in  1858.  He  succeeded  Earl  Russell  as 
secretary  of  foreign  affairs,  November  3,  1865.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  defeat  of  the  Reform  Bill,  he  resigned,  with 
his  colleagues,  in  June,  1866,  and  refused  to  take  office 
in  the  coalition  ministry  which  Lord  Derby  attempted 
to  form.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  foreign  affairs  by 
Mr.  Gladstone  in  December,  1868.    Died  in  1870. 

Clarendon,  (Henry  Hyde,)  second  Earl  of,  the 
eldest  son  of  the  historian,  was  born  in  1638.  After  the 
banishment  of  his  father,  he  opposed  the  court  party. 
In  1685  his  brother-in-law,  James  II.,  appointed  him 
lord  privy  seal,  and,  a  few  months  later,  lord  lieutenant 
of  Ireland.  His  brother,  the  Earl  of  Rochester,  was 
then  prime  minister  ;  but  because  he  refused  to  renounce 
his  religion  he  was  dismissed  in  1687,  and  Clarendon, 
though  a  very  obsequious  courtier,  was  involved  in  his 
fall.  "The  dismission  of  the  two  brothers,"  says  Mac- 
aulay, "is  a  great  epoch  in  the  reign  of  James."  In 
December,  1688,  he  deserted  James,  and  joined  the 
party  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  The  next  year  he  re- 
fused to  take  the  oath  to  William  HI.,  and  in  1690,  lor 
complicity  in  a  Jacobite  plot,  was  confined  in  the  Tower 
about  six  months.  He  died  in  1709,  leaving  a  son  Henry, 
who  was  Lord  Cornbury.    In  1828  was  published  "The 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S:^==See  Explanations,  p.  23 


CLARET 


CLARKE 


Clarendon  Papers,"  a  work  of  great  historical  value, 
consisting  of  the  correspondence  of  Henry  Hyde  with 
his  brother,  the  Earl  of  Rochester. 

See  Macau  LAV,  "  History  of  England,"  especially  vols.  ii.  and 
iii.  ;  and  "  Monk's  Contemporaries,"  by  Guizot. 

Claret  de  Fleurieu.    See  Flkurieua 

Clari,  kla'ree,  (Gian  Carlo  Maria,)  an  Italian  mu- 
sician and  composer,  born  at  Pisa  in  1669.  He  com- 
posed vocal  duets  and  trios,  published  in  1720. 

Clarici,  klS^'re-chee,  (  Paolo  Bar  tolommeo,  )  an 
Italian  botanist  and  priest,  born  at  Ancona  in  1664.  He 
died  at  Padua  in  1724,  leaving  unfinished  works  on  his- 
tory and  geography,  and  a  valuable  treatise  on  botany, 
entitled  "History  and  Culture  of  Plants  which  are  most 
desirable  for  the  Flowers,"  etc.,  (1726.) 

Clai'^idge,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  writer  and  minister 
(  f  the  Society  of  Friends,  born  at  Farmborough,  Eng- 
land, in  1649.  Plaving  graduated  at  Oxford,  he  took 
orders,  and  became  rector  of  Peopleton  in  1673.  In 
1697  he  joined  the  Society  of  Friends,  among  whom  he 
became  an  esteemed  minister.  He  published  several 
religious  works,  one  of  which  was  entitled  "Gospel 
Light,"  ("Lux  Evangelica.")    Died  in  1723. 

See  Joseph  Hesse,  "  Life  of  R.  Claridge,"  1726. 

Clarisse,  klS-ris'seh,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  theologian,  born 
in  1770 ;  died  in  1846. 

Cla'ri-us  or  Clario,  klS're-o,  (Isidore,)  a  learned 
Italian,  born  near  Brescia  in  1495,  Bishop  of  Foligno. 
He  distinguished  himself  by  his  talents  and  eloquence  at 
the  Council  of  Trent,  (1546,)  which  followed  his  advice 
in  recognizing  the  Vulgate  version  of  Scripture  as  the 
most  authentic.  He  published  a  revised  edition  of  the 
Vulgate.    Died  in  1555. 

See  Nici^RON,  "Memoires;"  De  Thou,  "filoges." 

Clark,  (Ahraham,)  an  American  patriot,  born  at 
Elizabethtown,  New  Jersey,  in  1726.  He  was  elected 
in  1776  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress,  in 
which  he  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
was  re-elected  to  Congress  several  times.  Died  in  1794. 

Clark,  (Alvan,)  an  American  portrait-painter  and 
mechanician,  born  in  Ashfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1804. 
He  distinguished  himself  as  a  fabricator  of  telescopes 
and  achromatic  object-glasses. 

Clark,  (Davis  W.,)  a  Methodist  minister,  born  on  the 
island  of  Mount  Desert,  Maine,  in  1812.  He  was  elected 
editor  of  books  at  the  "  Methodist  Book  Concern"  in  Cin- 
cinnati in  1852.    He  wrote  several  works  on  theology,  etc. 

Clark  or  Clarke,  (George  Rogers,)  an  American 
general,  born  probably  in  Virginia  about  1752.  He  took 
a  British  fort  and  garrison  at  Vincennes  in  1779,  and 
built  Fort  Jefferson,  on  the  Mississippi  River.  In  1780 
he  fought  against  Benedict  Arnold  in  Virginia.  He  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  1781,  and,  after 
the  end  of  the  war,  settled  in  Kentucky.  He  died  in 
1808,  or,  as  some  say,  181 7. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Clark,  (Sir  James,)  a  distinguished  British  physician, 
born  at  Cullen,  Banffshire,  in  1788.  He  was  educated 
at  Aberdeen,  Edinburgh,  and  London,  practised  eight 
years  in  Rome,  between  i8i8  and  1826,  and  settled  in 
London  about  1828.  In  1829  he  published  his  valuable 
work  "On  the  Sanative  Influence  of  Climate,"  which  is 
perhaps  the  most  ])hilosophical  treatise  on  that  subject. 
He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1832, 
and  became  physician  to  the  Duchess  of  Kent  and  the 
Princess  Victoria  in  1835.  His  "Treatise  on  Pulmonary 
Consumption  and  Scrofulous  Diseases"  (1835)  is  highly 
commended.  On  the  accession  of  Victoria,  in  1837.  he 
was  api^ointed  her  physician-in-ordinary.  He  was  made 
a  baronet  in  1838.    Died  in  1870. 

Clark,  (John.)    See  Clarke. 

Clark,  (John,)  a  Scottish  physician,  born  at  Roxburgh 
in  1744.  He  was  for  some  years  surgeon  in  the  service 
of  the  East  India  Company,  and  also  practised  at  New- 
castle. He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  Fevers,"  and  other 
professional  works.    Died  in  1805. 

Clark,  (John,)  an  English  critic  and  scholar,  was 
master  of  a  grammar-school  at  Hull.  He  published  an 
"Essay  on  Study,"  and  edited  several  Latin  authors. 
Died  in  1734. 


Clark,  (Jonas,)  a  patriotic  clergyman,  born  at  New- 
ton, Massachusetts,  in  1730.  He  preached  for  many 
years  at  Lexington,  in  that  State.    Died  in  1805. 

Clark,  (Lewis  Gaylord,)  an  American  writer,  born 
at  Otisco,  New  York,  in  1810.  He  became  in  1834 
editor  of  the  "  Knickerbocker  Magazine,"  which  he  con- 
ducted many  years  with  ability  and  success.  He  jjub- 
lished,  in  1852,  "  Knick-Knacks  from  an  Editor's  Table." 

Clark,  (Sheldon,)  born  at  Oxford,  Connecticut,  in 
1785.  He  gave  to  Yale  College  a  large  sum  of  money, 
with  directions  that  twenty  thousand  dollars  should  be 
applied  to  found  a  professorship  of  moral  philosophy. 
Died  in  1840. 

Clark,  (William,)  an  American  general  and  explorer, 
born  in  Virginia  in  1770,  was  a  brother  of  George  Rogers 
Clark.  Captain  M.  Lewis  and  he  were  the  leaders  of  an 
exploring  expedition  which  by  order  of  the  government 
crossed  the  continent  from  Saint  Louis  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Columbia  River  in  1804.  He  was  afterwards  ap- 
pointed a  brigadier-general,  and  was  Governor  of  Mis- 
souri Territory  from  1813  to  1820.  Died  at  Saint  Louis 
in  1838. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1815. 

Clark,  (William  Tierney,)  F.R.S,,  an  English  civil 
engineer,  born  at  Sion  House,  Somerset,  in  1783.  In 
181 1  he  became  engineer  of  West  Middlesex  Water- 
works. He  built  a  suspension  bridge  over  the  Thames 
at  Hammersmith,  finished  about  1827.  The  principal 
monument  of  his  skill  is  the  suspension  bridge  across 
the  Danube  between  Buda  and  Pesth,  finished  about 
1850.    Died  in  1852. 

Clark,  (Willis  Gaylord,)  an  American  poet,  born 
at  Otisco,  New  York,  in  1810,  was  a  twin-brother  of 
Lewis  Gaylord,  noticed  above.  He  produced  in  1833 
"The  Spirit  of  Life,"  his  longest  poem,  and  about  that 
time  became  associate  editor  of  the  "Columbian  Star." 
He  contributed  to  the  "  Knickerbocker  Magazine"  a 
series  of  amusing  papers  called  "  Ollapodiana."  During 
the  last  years  of  his  life  he  was  editor  and  owner  of  the 
"  Philadelphia  Gazette."    Died  in  1841. 

See  Griswolu'.s  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Clarke,  (Adam,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  Methodist  min- 
ister, particularly  distinguished  as  a  biblical  commen- 
tator, was  born  near  Londonderry,  Ireland,  in  1762.  He 
was  educated  in  the  principles  of  the  Methodists,  and,  by 
the  favour  of  John  Wesley,  was  admitted  into  a  school  at 
Kingswood,  near  Bristol.  In  1782  he  became  an  itinerant 
preacher,  and  for  more  than  twenty  years  he  continued 
to  preach  with  accejitance  in  various  parts  of  England. 
About  1805  he  settled  in  London,  and  began  his  princi- 
pal work,  a  "Commentary  on  the  Holy  Bible,"  which  was 
published  between  1810  and  1826,  and  is  a  wonderful 
monument  of  his  learning  and  industry.  Some  persons, 
however,  think  that  he  is  too  fond  of  innovations,  and 
that  many  of  his  comments  are  exceptionable.  He  was 
the  author  of  other  esteemed  works,  among  which  are  a 
"Bibliographical  Dictionary,"  (1802,)  "The  Succession 
of  Sacred  Literature,"  (1807,)  "Memoirs  of  the  Wesley 
Family,"  and  "  The  Eucharist."  He  had  been  from  child- 
hood eager  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  and  had  acquired 
extensive  Oriental  learning,  although  he  never  had  the 
advantage  of  a  systematic  or  collegiate  education.  Died 
of  cholera  in  London  in  1832. 

See  J.  P..  Clarke,  "  Relierious  and  Literary  Life  of  Adam  Clarke,* 
1833;  James  Everett,  "Adam  Clarke  Portrayed,"  3  vols.,  1850. 

Clarke,  (Alured,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
1696,  was  Dean  of  Exeter.    Died  about  1740. 

Clarke,  (Sir  Arthur,)  an  English  or  Irish  medical 
writer  and  philanthropist,  born  in  1773.  He  wrote  an 
"Essay  on  Bathing,"  "Diseases  of  the  Skin,"  and  other 
works.   He  founded  a  hospital  in  Dublin.    Died  in  1857. 

Clarke,  (Edward,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
1730,  became  rector  of  Pepperharrow  in  1758.  Having 
visited  Spain  as  chaplain  to  an  embassy,  he  published 
"Letters  concerning  the  Spanish  Nation,"  (1765,)  which 
treat  of  antiquities  and  literature.    Died  in  1786. 

Clarke,  (Edward  Daniel,)  LL.D.,  a  distinguished 
English  traveller,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Wil- 
lingdon,  in  Sussex,  in  1769.  In  1790  he  became  tutor  to 
a  nephew  of  the  Duke  of  Dorset,  with  whom  he  made 
the  tour  of  Great  Britain.    As  companion  to  Lord  Ber- 


3i  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAor^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CLARKE 


613 


CLARKE 


wick,  he  visited  France,  Switzerland,  and  Italy  in  1792. 
About  1798  he  was  elected  a  fallow  of  Jesus  College,  at 
Cambridge.  In  1799,  in  company  with  Mr.  Cripps,  he 
started  on  the  extensive  tour  by  the  description  of  which 
he  has  acquired  such  merited  and  durable  celebrity. 
They  were  absent  more  than  three  years,  during  which 
they  traversed  Northern  Europe,  Asia  Minor,  Syria, 
Palestine,  Egypt,  Greece,  Turkey,  etc.  He  published 
in  1810  the  first  volume  of  his  "Travels  in  Various 
Parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,"  (6  vols.,)  one  of  the 
most  delightful  and  popular  books  of  travel  that  have 
ever  appeared.  In  1808  Cambridge  University  founded 
for  him  a  professorship  of  mineralogy,  in  which  he  was 
well  versed,  and  on  which  he  published  a  treatise,  "The 
Mineral  Kingdom."  Having  taken  orders,  he  obtained 
the  living  of  Yeldham  about  1810.    Died  in  1822. 

See  William  O'iter,  "Life  and  Remains  of  Edward  Daniel 
Clarke,"  London,  1824;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  August, 
1810,  and  March,  1813;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  August,  1810,  and 
June,  1S26. 

Clarke,  (Elijah,)  an  American  general,  born  in  North 
Carolina.  He  served  in  the  Revolutionary  war.  Died 
about  1800. 

Clarke,  (George  Rogers.)    See  Clark. 

Clarke,  klikk,  (Henri  Jacques  Guillaume,)  Due 
de  Feltre,  (feltK,)  an  able  French  general  and  minister 
of  state,  was  born  at  Landrecies  in  1765.  As  lieutenant- 
colonel  he  served  in  the  campaign  of  1792,  and  had  be- 
come general  of  brigade,  when  the  Convention  in  1793 
deprived  him  of  his  command  on  account  of  his  being  a 
noble.  In  1794,  by  the  influence  of  Carnot,  he  was  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  topographical  bureau  in  the  ministry 
of  war.  For  his  important  services  in  this  office  he  was 
made  general  of  division  in  1795.  The  next  year  the 
Directory,  alarmed  at  the  success  of  l)(jnaparte  in  Italy, 
sent  Clarke  to  negotiate  with  Austria,  and  to  oversee 
or  control  the  victorious  general,  who  soon  won  him 
over  to  his  interest.  About  1804  l>()naparte  appointed 
him  councillor  of  state,  and  employed  him  in  his  cabinet 
as  secretary.  On  the  capture  of  Vier:na  by  the  French, 
(1805,)  he  was  appointed  governor  of  that  city  and  of 
several  Austrian  provinces,  which  he  ruled  with  probity 
and  moderation.  In  1806-07  he  was  governor  of  Berlin. 
From  1807  to  i8i4he  performed  the  functions  of  minister 
of  war  with  such  success  that  he  received  the  title  of 
Due  de  Feltre  in  1809.  Having  concurred  in  the  depo- 
sition of  Napoleon  in  1814,  he  was  created  a  peer  by 
Louis  XVTII.,  whom  he  served  as  minister  of  war  in 
181 5  and  1816,  and  who  made  him  a  marshal  of  France. 
Died  in  i8i8. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Francais  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bioeranhie 
G^n^rale." 

Clarke,  (Henry,)  an  English  mathematician,  born  at 
Salford,  near  Manchester,  in  1745.  After  he  had  lec- 
tured on  mathematics  and  natural  philoso])hy  at  Man- 
chester, he  was  chosen  professor  in  the  Royal  Military 
College  at  Marlow  aj^out  1802.  He  published  "The 
Summation  of  Series,"  "  Practical  Perspective,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  181 8. 

Clarke,  (Henry  Hyde,)  an  English  philologist  and 
writer,  born  in  London  in  1815,  became  a  civil  engineer. 
He  published  in  1855  a  "New  Dictionary  of  the  English 
Tongue,"  which  is  very  complete.  He  has  written  va- 
rious scientific  works. 

Clarke,  (James  Freeman,)  an  American  writer  and 
Unitarian  minister,  born  in  1810.  He  has  preached  for 
many  years  in  Boston,  and  has  distinguished  himself  as 
an  opjjonent  of  slavery.  Among  his  works  are  "The 
Christian  Doctrine  of  Forgiveness,"  (1852,)  and  "The 
Christian  Doctrine  of  Prayer,"  (1854,)  also  several  poems. 

Clarke,  (James  Stanier,)  an  English  writer,  a  brother 
of  Edward  D.  Clarke,  noticed  above.  He  attended  Lord 
Nelson  as  chajjlain  at  Trafalgar,  and  was  afterwards  do- 
mestic chaplain  of  George  IV.,  and  canon  of  Windsor. 
He  ])ublished  "The  Progress  of  Maritime  Discovery," 
"The  Life  of  James  II.,"  and  other  works.  He  assisted 
Dr.  McArthur  in  a  "Life  of  Lord  Nelson."  Died  in 
1834- 

Clarke,  (Jeremiah,)  an  English  composer  of  church- 
music.  He  became  organist  of  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral 
a  few  years  before  1700.  He  published  "Lessons  for 
the  Harpsichord,"  and  composed  the  admired  anthems 


"  I  will  love  thee,"  and  "  Bow  down  thine  ear."  Having 
been  unfortunate  in  love,  he  killed  himself  in  1707. 
Clarke,  (John.)  See  Clark,  (John.) 
Clarke,  (John,)  one  of  the  founders  of  Rhode  Island, 
was  born  in  England.  He  emigrated  to  Rhode  IslancJ 
about  1638,  and  founded  at  Newport  a  Baptist  church, 
of  which  he  was  pastor.  In  165 1  he  was  sent  to  Eng- 
land with  Roger  Williams  as  an  agent  of  the  colony,  for 
which  he  procured  a  new  charter.    Died  in  1676. 

Clarke,  (John,)  a  Scottish  engraver  of  portraits, 
born  about  1650,  worked  in  Edinburgh.    Died  in  1721. 

Clarke,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Norwich,  was  a  brother  of  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke,  (born  in 
1675.)  He  became  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  the  king,  and 
finally  Dean  of  Sarum.  He  published  "Sermons  at  the 
Boyle  Lecture,"  and  translated  into  English  Rohault's 
"Physics"  and  Grotius  on  the  "Truth  of  the  Christian 
Religion."    Died  in  1759. 

Clarke,  (John,)  an  American  officer,  a  son  of  Elijah, 
noticed  above,  was  born  in  1766.  He  served  in  the 
Revolutionary  war,  and  became  Governor  of  Georgia 
after  18 16.    Died  in  1832. 

Clarke,  (MacDonald,)  an  American  writer,  known 
for  many  years  in  New  York  as  "  the  Mad  Poet,"  was  born 
in  1798.  He  published  in  1820  his  "  Review  of  the  Eve 
of  Eternity,  and  other  Poems,"  which  was  followed  by 
"The  Elixir  of  Moonshine:  a  Collection  of  Prose  and 
Poetry,  by  the  Mad  Poet,"  in  1822.    Died  in  1842. 

Clarke,  (Mary  Cowden,)  an  English  authoress,  born 
in  London  in  1809,  was  a  daughter  of  Vincent  Novello, 
the  composer.  She  was  married  in  1828  to  Charles 
Cowden  Clarke,  the  associate  of  Lamb,  Keats,  Shelley, 
etc.,  and  soon  after  began  "The  Complete  Concordance 
to  Shakspeare,"  (1846.)  This  work,  on  which  she  spent 
the  labour  of  sixteen  years,  was  very  successful.  She  also 
published  "World-Noted  Women,"  New  York,  1858. 

Clarke,  (Richard,)  an  Episcopalian  divine,  born  in 
England,  became  rector  of  Saint  Philip's,  Charleston, 
South  Carolina,  about  1750.  He  wrote  several  theolo- 
gical works. 

Clarke,  (Samuel,)  an  English  theological  writer,  born 
at  Woolstf)n  in  1599.  He  preached  successively  at  War- 
wick, Alcester,  and  in  London.  In  1662  he  was  ejected 
for  nonconformity,  and  thenceforward  ceased  to  appear 
in  the  pulpit  He  published  a  "  Mirror  for  Saints  and 
Sinners,"  (1645,)  ^  "General  Martyrology,"  (1651,)  and 
"Lives  of  Sundry  Eminent  Persons,"  (1683,)  which  are 
considered  valuable  works.    Died  in  1682. 

Clarke,  (Samuel,)  an  English  scholar  and  Oriental- 
ist, was  born  at  Brackley  in  1623.  About  1655  he  was 
master  of  a  boarding-school  at  Islington,  and  at  the  same 
time  assisted  Walton  in  his  "  Polyglot  Bible."  He  pub- 
lished "  Various  Readings  and  Notes  on  the  Chaldaic 
Paraphrase,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1669. 

Clarke,  (Samuel,)  an  English  divine,  son  of  Samuel, 
( 1 599-1682,)  born  in  1626,  was  a  Fellow  of  Pembroke 
Hall,  Cambridge.  He  expended  the  labour  of  many 
years  on  "Annotations  on  the  Scriptures,"  (1690,)  a 
work  which  has  been  recommended  by  Owen,  Baxter, 
Howe,  and  Calamy.    Died  about  1700. 

Clarke,  (Dr.  Samuel,)  a  celebrated  English  philoso- 
pher, metaphysician,  and  divine,  born  at  Norwich  in 
October,  1675,  was  the  son  of  Edward  Clarke,  alderman 
of  that  city.  In  1691  he  entered  Caius  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  made  great  progress  in  mathematics, 
and  about  the  age  of  twenty-one,  by  an  ingenious  strata- 
gem, substituted  the  Newtonian  for  the  Cartesian  phi- 
losophy. He  effected  this  change  by  producing  a  more 
classical  Latin  version  of  Kohault's  "  Physics,"  (the  text- 
book used  at  Cambridge,)  with  notes  that  virtually  re- 
futed the  text.  Having  diligently  studied  theology' and 
the  ancient  languages,  and  been  ordained,  he  became 
I  chaplain  to  More,  Bishop  of  Norwich,  in  1698.  The  next 
j  year  he  published  three  essays  on  Confirmation,  Baptism, 
and  Re])entance,  which  were  followed  by  his"  Paraphrase 
on  the  Four  Gospels,"  (1701.)  About  this  time  he  be- 
came rector  of  Drayton.  In  1705  appeared  his  celebrated 
"Demonstration  of  the  Being  and  Attributes  of  God," 
consisting  of  eight  sermons  preached  at  the  Boyle  Lec- 
ture, Oxford,  and  designed  as  a  confutation  of  Hobbes 
and  Spinoza  by  the  argument  a  priori.    The  merit  of 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


CLARKE 


614 


CLAUDE 


this  performance  is  variously  estimated  by  orthodox 
divines  ;  and  Pope  thus  alludes  to  it  in  the  "Dunciad  :" 

"  We  nobly  take  the  high  priori  road, 
And  reason  downward  till  we  doubt  of  God."^ 

He  translated  Newton's  "Optics"  into  Latin  in  1706. 
Through  the  patronage  of  Bishop  More,  he  became,  about 
1709,  rector  of  Saint  James's,  London,  and  chaplain  to 
Queen  Anne.  In  17 12  he  produced  a  good  edition  of 
Caesar's  '*  Commentaries,"  and  "The  Scripture  Doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,"  which  occasioned  a  long  controversy  and 
exposed  him  to  the  charge  of  Arianism.  He  wrote  in 
defence  of  the  Newtonian  philosojihy  against  Leibnitz, 
with  whom  he  had  a  discussion  on  Philosophical  Liberty 
and  Necessity.  Li  1724  he  was  chosen  master  of  Wigs- 
ton  Hospital,  and  published  a  volume  of  sermons.  He 
contributed  mathematical  treatises  to  the  "  Philosophical 
Transactions"  in  1728,  and  published  in  1729  an  edition 
of  Homer,  with  a  Latin  version  and  notes,  which  long 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation,  and  is  still  used  by  students  of 
Homer.    He  died  in  May,  1729. 

Addison  calls  Dr.  Clarke  "one  of  the  most  accurate, 
learned,  and  judicious  writers  this  age  has  produced." 
Voltaire  regarded  him  as  a  mere  reasoning-machine,  ( tin 
moulin  a  raisonmment.)  "  With  a  mind,"  says  Dugald 
Stewart,  "  far  inferior  to  that  of  Locke  in  comprehensive- 
ness, originality,  and  fertility  of  invention,  he  was  never- 
theless the  more  wary  and  skilful  disputant  of  the  two." 

See  HoAULY,  "Life  of  S.  Clarke;"  Wii.ijam  Whiston,  "  His- 
torical Memoirs  of  Samuel  Clarke,"  174S;  D.  Sthwart,  "  Prelimi 
nary  Dissertation"  in  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

Clarke,  (Samuei,,)  D.D.,  a  grandson  of  Dr.  Samuel 
Clarke  of  Norwich,  was  pastor  to  a  congregation  of  dis- 
senters at  Saint  Alban's.  He  published  a  " Collection 
of  the  Promises  of  Scripture  under  their  Proper  Heads," 
Died  in  1769. 

Clarke,  (Sarah  J.)    See  Lippincott. 

Clarke,  (William,)  an  English  priest  and  antiquary, 
born  in  Shropshire  in  1696.  He  became  rector  of  Bux- 
ted  in  1724,  and  prebendary  of  Chichester  in  1738.  He 
published  "  The  Connexion  of  the  Roman,  Saxon,  and 
English  Coins."  Diedini77i.  Edward  Clarke,  author 
of  "  Letters  on  the  Spanish  Nation,"  was  his  son. 

Clark'son,  (David,)  an  eminent  nonconformist  di- 
vine, born  at  Bradford,  England,  in  1622.  He  was  ejected 
from  the  living  of  Mortlake  in  1662,  and  succeeded  Dr. 
Owen  in  1683.  Baxter  calls  him  "a  diviiie  of  extraor- 
dinary worth."  He  published  sermons  and  other  theo- 
logical treatises.    Died  in  1686. 

Clarkson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  philanthropist, 
vv^hose  name  is  memorably  identified  with  the  abolition 
of  the  slave-trade,  was  born  at  Wisbeach,  Cambridge- 
shire, in  1760.  He  gained  the  first  prize  for  a  Latin  dis- 
sertation in  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1784. 
In  the  next  year  his  interest  was  first  excited  in  the 
question  of  slavery,  when  the  vice-chancellor  announced 
that  the  senior  bachelors  would  compete  for  the  prize 
by  Latin  essays  on  this  subject :  "  Is  involuntary  ser- 
vitude justifiable  ?"  He  composed  an  essay,  which  vfas 
successful ;  and  he  was  so  deeply  impressed  with  the 
iniquity  and  miseries  of  the  slave-trade  that  he  con- 
tinued to  meditate  on  and  investigate  the  subject,  until, 
from  a  sense  of  duty,  he  resolved  to  devote  himself  en- 
tirely to  the  cause  of  the  slaves.  His  essay  led  him  into 
communion  with  William  Dillwyn,  George  Harrison, 
and  a  few  other  "  Friends'"  of  London,  who  as  early  as 
1783  had  formed  themselves  into  an  anti-slavery  com- 
mittee. The  Society  of  Friends  had  been  the  earliest 
pioneers  in  this  reform,  having  in  1760  refused  the  privi- 
leges of  fellowship  to  all  who  took  part  in  the  "guilty 
traffic."  Clarkson  collected  and  diflfused  information  on 
the  subject  with  unwearied  zeal  and  diligence,  and  never 
quailed  before  the  violence  and  threats  of  those  whom 
self-interest  made  his  enemies.  He  found  a  ])Owerful 
coadjutor  in  Wilberforce,  who  in  May,  1789,  made  an 
eloquent  speech  in  the  House  of  Commons  against  the 
traffic.  In  1790  he  spent  several  months  in  Paris,  where 
he  conferred  with  Mirabeau,  who  asked  and  received 
from  him  amjjle  assistance  in  composing  a  speech  on 
the  subject.  The  immense  efforts  of  Clarkson  and  his 
friends  were  often  defeated  in  Parliament ;  and  the  tri- 
umph of  the  cause  was  reserved  to  the  ministry  of  Fox. 


In  March,  1807,  the  "Magna  Charta  of  Africa  was  com 
pleted."  In  1808  he  published  "The  History  of  the 
Abolition  of  the  Slave-Trade,"  (2  vols.)  He  was  chosen 
in  1823  vice-president  of  the  Anti-Slavery  Society,  just 
formed,  and  lived  to  witness  the  abolition  of  slavery 
in  the  West  Indies  in  1838.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  Portraiture  of  Quakerism,"  and  of  "  Memoirs  of  the 
Life  of  William  Penn,"  (1813.)    Died  in  1846. 

See  Thomas  Taylor,  "  Life  of  T.  Ciarkson  ;"  "Thomas  Clark- 
son:  a  Monograph,"  by  James  Elmes,  London,  1854. 

Clarus,  kli'rus,  (Johann  Christian  August,)  a 
German  physician,  born  at  Buch-am-Forst,  in  Franconia, 
in  1775.  He  was  professor  of  medicine  at  the  University 
of  Leipsic  for  nearly  forty  years,  beginning  in  18 10.  He 
published  "  Views  on  the  Progress  of  the  Cholera," 
(1831,)  and  other  works. 

Cla'son,  (Isaac,)  an  American  poet  and  actor,  born 
in  New  York  in  1789.  He  produced  a  continuation  of 
Byron's  "  Don  Juan,"  (1825,)  and  a  collection  of  poems, 
entitled  "  Horace  in  New  York,"  (1826.)  He  committed 
suicide  in  London  in  1834. 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Clauberg,  klow'beRG,  (Juhann,)  a  Cartesian  philo- 
sopher, born  at  Solingen,  in  Westphalia,  in  1622.  He 
taught  at  Herborn  and  Duisburg.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  profound  disciples  of  I^escartes.  His  works  were 
published  under  the  title  of  "Opera  Philosophica,"  (2 
vols.,  1691.)    Died  in  1665. 

See  MoRHOF,  "  Polyhistor  Literarius." 

Claude,  the  French  of  Claudius,  which  see. 

Claude,  kiod,  (Jean,)  an  eminent  French  Protestant 
minister,  born  at  La  Sauvetat,  near  Agen,  in  1619.  He 
preached  at  Niuies  and  Montauban,  and  in  1666  became 
pastor  of  Charenton,  near  Paris.  His  eloquence  and 
wisdom  rendered  him  one  of  the  most  influential  leaders 
of  the  Protestant  cause  in  France.  He  had  several  dis- 
putes with  Bossuet  and  Arnauld  on  theology.  When 
the  edict  of  Nantes  was  revoked,  (1685,)  he  retired  to 
the  Hague,  where  he  died  in  1687.  "  Bossuet,"  says 
Hallam,  "  was  the  acknowledged  champion  of  the  Roman 
Church  in  France  ;  Claude  was  in  equal  pre-eminence 
on  the  other  side."  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Defence 
of  the  Reformation,"  (1673,)  and  many  other  works. 

See  Abel  Rodoi.phe  de  Laderizk,  "  Abrepe  de  la  Vie  de  M. 
Claude,"  1687;  F>avle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic6- 
RON,  "  Memoires." 

Claude,  (Jean  Jacqites,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  the  Hague  in  1684.  He  became  pastor  of 
the  French  church  in  London  in  1710,  and  died  in  1712. 

Claude  de  France,  klod  deh  fR6Nss,  the  daughter 
of  Louis  XII.,  was  born  at  Romorantin  in  1499.  She 
was  married  to  Francis  I.  in  15 14.  Historians  praise 
her  eminent  virtues.    Died  in  1524. 

Claude  de  Turin.    See  Claudius  of  Turin. 

Claude  Lorrain,*  klaud  (or  klod)  lor-rai/,  [Fr.  pron. 
klod  lo'r^N',]  the  prince  of  landscape-painters,  was  born 
at  the  Chateau  de  Chamagne,  in  Lorraine,  in  1600.  His 
proper  name  was  Claude  Gelee,  (zheh-li'.)  He  went 
to  Rome  in  early  youth,  and  studied  u.  der  G.  Waals  at 
Naples  about  two  years.  He  then  beiame  a  pupil  of 
Agostino  Tassi,  a  landscape-painter  of  Rome.  There 
is  a  doubtful  tradition  that  he  served  Tassi  as  cook, 
also  that  he  was  originally  an  apprentice  to  a  pastry- 
cook. He  observed  with  constant  attention  the  Italian 
scenery,  and  the  phenomena  of  nature  rs  modified  by 
the  ever-changing  hours  and  seasons.  After  a  tour  of 
two  years  in  France  and  Gerni-iry,  he  returned  to  Rome 
in  1627,  was  patronized  bv  Urban  VIII.,  and  rose  rapidly 
to  pre-eminence  in  h^s  department  of  art.  His  works  are 
not  exact  transcripts  of  real  nature,  but  combinations 
of  picturesque  scenes,  selected  with  taste  and  idealized 
with  inimitable  art.  "  Every  period  of  the  day,  with  all 
its  elemental  vicissitudes,  has  been  successfully  embodied 
by  his  magic  pencil."  His  colouring  is  rich,  delicate,  and 
harmonious.    His  aerial  perspective  has  probably  nevei 


*  The  last  part  of  this  name  is  often  incorrectly  written  Lorraine. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  it  is  an  adjective,  agreeing  with  Claude, 
in  the  masculine  gender,  which  is  always  without  the  final  e.  The 
whole  name  signifies  "  Claude  the  Lorrainer."  In  case  we  should 
say  Claude  of  Lorraine,  it  should  then  be  written  w'Xh  the  e,  as  refer- 
ence is  made  to  the  province  of  Lorraine,  wliich  is  feminine. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  ^,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  5^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


CLAUDER 


615 


CLAUDIUS 


been  equalled.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "Esther 
and  Ahasuerus,"  "A  Seaport  at  Sunset,"  and  "The 
Embarkation  of  Saint  Ursula."    Died  in  Rome  in  1682. 

In  respect  to  the  merit  of  Claude,  Ruskin,  the  "  Magnus 
Apollo"  of  art  and  prince  of  parodox,  dissents  from  the 
great  majority  of  critics.  "  Claude's  capacities,"  says  he, 
"  were  of  the  most  limited  kind  ;  but  he  had  tenderness 
of  perception  and  sincerity  of  purpose,  and  he  effected 
a  revolution  in  art.  This  revolution  consisted  mainly 
in  setting  the  sun  in  heaven.  Till  his  time,  no  one  had 
seriously  thought  of  painting  the  sun  but  conventionally. 
.  .  .  Claude  made  the  sun  his  subject,  and  painted  the 
effects  of  misty  shadows  cast  by  his  rays  over  the  land- 
scape, and  other  delicate  aerial  transitions,  as  no  one 
had  ever  done  before,  and,  in  some  respects,  as  no  one 
has  done  in  oil-colour  since.  There  was  a  certain  fool- 
ir.h  elegance  in  his  work  ;  but  it  resembled  nothing  that 
ever  existed  in  the  world."  Reynolds  used  to  say  that 
"there  would  be  another  Raphael  before  there  was  an- 
other Claude." 

See  Ruskin,  "Modern  Painters;"  Bryan,  "Dictionary  of 
Painters;"  Dussieux,  "  Les  Artistes  Franfais  a  I'fitranger." 

Clauder,  klow'der,  (Gabriel,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1633  ;  died  in  1691. 

Clau'di-a  Gens,  a  patrician  house  of  Rome,  which 
produced  many  dictators,  consuls,  censors,  etc.,  and 
from  which  the  emperors  Tiberius  and  Claudius  were 
descended.  The  surnames  of  the  patrician  Claudii  were 
Caecus,  Crassus,  Pulcher,  Sabinus,  etc.  They  were  dis- 
tinguished for  their  pride  and  despotic  character. 

Clau'di-an,  (It.  Claudiano,  klow  -  de -i'no  ;  Fr. 
Claudien,  Ido'de-dN',]  (Claudius  Claudianus,)  a  dis- 
tinguished Latin  epic  poet,  born  at  Alexandria  about  365 
A.D.  He  became  a  resident  of  Rome,  and  a  favourite  of 
Stilicho,  who  was  regent  duri)ig  the  minority  of  Arcadius 
and  Honorius.  He  acquired  by  his  poems  such  celebrity 
that  a  statue  was  erected  to  him  in  the  Forum  of  Trajan 
by  the  emperor  and  the  senate.  His  princijDal  works 
are  "The  Raj^e  of  Proserpine,"  a  "Eulogy  of  Stilicho," 
("De  Laudibus  Stilichonis,")  "The  War  against  the 
Getae,"  ("  De  Bello  Getico,")  and  satires  against  Eutro- 
pius  and  Rufinus.  Some  ])ortions  of  these  have  been 
lost.  He  has  a  rich  imagination,  a  picturesque  style, 
and  harmonious  versification.  In  his  religious  opinions 
he  appears  to  have  been  a  pagan.  The  date  of  his  death 
is  unknown  ;  but  he  was  living  in  408  A.D.  He  is  regarded 
as  the  last  of  the  Latin  classic  poets. 

SeeT.  Mazzo,  "Vita  di  Claudiano,"  166S  ;  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  chap.  xxx.  ;  Ersch  und  Gkuber, 
"AUgemeine  Encyk'opaedie,"  and  the  prefatory  remarks  in  J.  M. 
Gesnek's  edition  of  Claudian's  Works,  1759. 

Claudiano.    See  Claudian. 
Claudien.    See  Claudian. 

Claudini,  klovv-dee'nee,  or  Chiodini,  ke-o-dee'nee, 
(GiULio  Cesare,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at  Rologna, 
won  a  high  reputation  by  his  writings,  among  which  are 
"Crises  and  Critical  Days,"  (1612,)  and  "  Rational  Prac- 
tice," ("  Empirica  rationalis,"  1653.)    Died  in  1618. 

Clau'di-us,  [Fr.  Claude,  klod,]  or,  more  fully,  Tibe- 
rius Claudius  Drusus  Nero,  fourth  Emperor  of 
Rome,  born  at  Lyons  in  10  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Drusus 
Nero  by  Antonia  Minor,  (who  was  a  daughter  of  Mark 
Antony,)  and  was  a  nephew  of  the  emj^eror  Tiberius. 
Being  feeble  in  mind  and  body,  he  took  no  part  in  pub- 
lic affairs  during  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  Caligula,  who 
was  his  nephew,  gave  him  the  office  of  consul  in  37 
A.D.  On  the  death  of  Caligula,  in  41,  Claudius  was  pro- 
claimed emperor  by  the  mutinous  soldiers  ;  and  the  sen- 
ate, though  they  preferred  a  republic,  acquiesced  in  the 
choice  of  the  army.  His  accession,  as  usual,  was  sig- 
nalized by  acts  of  justice  and  clemency.  He  recalled 
exiles,  diminished  taxes,  and  built  an  aqueduct  in  Rome. 
The  prmcipal  military  event  of  his  reign  was  his  success- 
ful invasion  of  liritain  in  person.  His  wife,  the  infamous 
Messalina,  acquired  an  ascendency  over  him,  and  caused 
senators  and  other  innocent  persons  to  be  put  to  death. 
After  she  became  so  shameless  as  to  marry  Caius  Silius, 
she  was  executed,  by  the  order  or  permission  of  Clau- 
dius. He  afterwards  married  his  niece,  Agrippina  the 
Younger,  who  by  a  former  husband  had  a  son,  L.  Do- 
mitius.    Having  persuaded  him  to  adopt  this  son,  she 


poisoned  Claudius  in  54  A.D.,  when  her  son,  assuming 
the  name  of  Nero,  became  emperor. 

See  Suetonius,  "Claudius;"  Tacitus,  "Annales;"  Dion  Cas- 
sius,  "  History." 

Claudius,  (Apriys,)  surnamed  Crassus,  a  Roman 
decemvir  of  patrician  rank,  was  elected  consul  in  451 
B.C.,  soon  after  which  he  became  one  of  the  decemviri. 
He  was  notorious  for  his  nefarious  attempt  to  enslave  and 
dishonour  Virginia,  who  was  rescued  from  his  power  bv  a 
tragical  death.  (See  Virginia.)  Appius  was  imprisoned, 
and,  according  to  Livy,  committed  suicide. 

Claudius,  (Marcus  Aurelius,)  surnamed  Goth'i- 
cus,  an  emperor  of  Rome,  was  born  in  Illyricum  in  214 
A.D.  After  having  a  high  cominand  under  Valerian,  he 
was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  army  at  the  death  of 
Gallienus,  in  268.  The  senate  confirmed  this  choice. 
The  same  year  he  defeated  the  rebel  Aureolus  in  battle. 
In  269  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Goths  or 
Scythians  near  Nissa,  in  Servia,  and  assumed  the  name  of 
GoTHicus.  He  died  of  an  epidemic  disease  at  Sirmium 
in  270,  leaving  a  good  reputation  for  virtue  and  talents. 
His  brother,  Quintilius,  was  proposed  as  his  successor ; 
but  the  army  preferred  Aurelian. 

See  Trebellius  Poi.lio,  "  Claudius,"  in  the  "  Historia  Augusta ;" 
TiLLEMONT,  "Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Claudius,  klow'de-us,  (Matthias,)  surnamed  Asmus, 
and  THE  Messenger  of  Wandsbeck,  a  popular  German 
poet  and  prose  writer,  born  at  Rheinfeld,  near  Lubeck, 
in  1743.  Pie  was  appointed  controller  (revisor)  of  the 
Bank  of  Altona  in  1778,  and  resided  mostly  at  Wands- 
beck. His  works  consist  of  essays,  fables,  epigrams, 
humorous  and  serious  poems,  etc.  He  was  the  author 
of  the  famous  "Rhine-Wine  Song,"  ("  Rheinweinlied.") 
Died  at  Hamburg  in  181 5. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale  ;"  Hennings,  "Asmus:  Beitrag  zur  Geschichte 
der  Literatur,"  etc.,  1798. 

Clau'di-us  of  Turin  [Lat.  Clau'dius  Tauri'nus; 
Fr.  Claude  de  Turin,  kl5d  deh  tii'rclN']  was  born 
in  Spain  towards  the  close  of  the  eighth  century.  He 
became  the  chaplain  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  who  ap- 
pointed him  Bishop  of  Turin.  He  was  very  zealous  in 
his  efforts  to  reform  the  abuses  which  had  gradually  crept 
into  the  Church,  and  vehemently  opposed  the  worship  of 
images  and  of  the  cross  ;  in  consequence  of  which  he  has 
been  styled  "the  Protestant  of  the  ninth  century."  He 
was  a  man  of  great  learning,  and  wrote  commentaries  on 
various  portions  of  vScripture.  He  was  publicly  charged 
with  heresy  ;  but  his  death,  which  occiu  red  about  840, 
saved  him,  probably,  from  a  determined  persecution. 

See  Hodgson,  "Reformers  and  Martyrs  before  and  after  Luther," 
Philadelphia,  1867;  Neandek,  "Church  History." 

Claudius  Albinus.    See  Albinus. 

Clau'dius  Cae''cus,  (see'kus,)  (Appius,)  a  Roman 
patrician,  who  was  censor  from  312  to  308  B.C.  During 
this  period  he  constructed  the  Appian  Way  from  Rome 
to  Capua.  He  was  afterwards  consul,  and  interrex,  (or 
regent,)  and  became  blind,  as  his  surname  indicates. 
He  wrote  a  poem,  and  a  legal  work  in  prose. 

Claudius  Civilis.    See  CiviLis. 

Claudius  Claudianus.    See  Claudian. 

Claudius  Herodes.    See  Herodes,  (Atticus.) 

Claudius  Marius  Victor.    See  Vic  tor. 

Claud'i-us  PuPcher,  (Appius,)  a  son  of  Publius 
Claudius  Pulcher,  was  chosen  praetor  in  215  B.C.,  and  in 
the  next  year  was  legate  under  Marcellus  in  Sicily.  He 
was  elected  consul  in  212,  and  commanded  an  army  in 
the  second  Punic  war.  He  was  killed  in  a  battle  with 
Hannibal  at  Capua  about  210  B.C. 

Claudius  Pulcher,  (Appius,)  a  brother  of  theClodius 
killed  by  Milo,  was  praetor  in  57  B.C.  and  cotisul  in  53,  after 
which  he  misgoverned  Cilicia  about  two  years.  On  his 
return  he  was  prosecuted  by  Dolabella,  but  was  acquitted 
by  the  influence  of  Pompey  and  Hortensius.  He  became 
censor  in  the  year  50,  and  in  the  exercise  of  that  office  ex- 
pelled Sallust  and  others  from  the  senate.  Having  taken 
the  side  of  Pompey  against  Csesar^he  obtained  conmiand 
in  Greece,  where  he  died  about  48  B.C. 

Claudius  Pulcher,  (Publius,)  a  Roman  general,  son 
of  Api^ius  Claudius  Caecus,  noticed  above,  was  distin- 
guished for  his  insolence  and  pride.    He  was  ele:ted 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g>  h,  Kygtitttcral;  n,  nasal;  R>  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CLAUDIUS 


616 


CLAXTON 


consul  in  249  B.C.,  during  the  first  Punic  war.  He  took 
command  ot  the  fleet,  and,  though  the  auspices  were 
unfavourable,  attacked  the  Carthaginians,  who  gained  a 
decisive  victory.  Soon  after  this  event  he  was  deprived 
of  office  and  disgraced. 

Claudius  Tauriuus.    See  Claudius  of  Turin. 

Ciaugh'ton,  (Rev.  Thomas  Le(;h,)  an  English  clas- 
sical scholar,  born  about  1808.  He  was  professor  of 
:)oetry  at  Oxford  from  1852  to  1857. 

Ciausade,  de,  deh  klo'zad',  (George  Jacques  Am^;- 
DEK,)  a  French  lawyer  and  writer,  born  in  1809.  Among 
his  works  is  a  "Voyage  to  Stockholm."    Died  in  1847. 

Clausberg,  klovvs'bSKG,  (Chrisilieb,)  a  German 
mathematician,  born  in  1689,  was  preceptor  of  the  prince- 
royal  at  Copenhagen,  and  published  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Law  of  Commerce,"  and  an  excellent  "Demonstrative 
Arithmetic,"  (1732.)    Died  in  1751. 

Clausel,  klo'zeK,  (Berirand,)  Count,  a  French 
marshal,  born  at  Mirepoix  (Ariege)  in  1772.  He  be- 
came general  of  brigade  in  1799,  and  general  of  division 
about  1804.  He  served  with  distinction  in  Austria  in 
1809,  and  commanded  with  eclat  at  Salamanca  (where 
he  was  severely  wounded)  in  181 2.  Having  fought  for 
Napoleon  during  the  Hundred  Days,  he  was  forced  to 
fly  for  his  life,  and  went  to  the  United  States  in  1815. 
He  returned  to  France  in  1820,  obtained  conmiand  of 
the  army  in  Africa  in  1830,  received  a  marshal's  baton 
in  1S31,  and  became  Governor-General  of  Algeria  in  1835. 
For  his  ill  success  in  an  expedition  against  Constantine, 
he  was  recalled  in  1837.    Died  in  1842. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Clausel  de  Coussergues,  kia'zeK  deh  koo^s^Rg', 
(Jean  Claude,)  a  French  politician,  noted  for  intoler- 
ance, was  born  in  Aveyron  in  1759.  He  emigrated  about 
1790,  and  returned  about  i8oo.  After  the  restoration  he 
became  an  ultra-royalist,  and  was  chosen  a  judge  of  the 
court  of  cassation  in  181 5.    Died  in  1846. 

Clausen,  klow'zen,  (Henrik  Georg,)  an  eminent 
Danish  preacher,  born  in  Slesvvick  in  1759.  He  became 
pastor  of  a  church  of  Copenhagen  in  1797,  and  con- 
tinued to  preach  there  about  forty  years.    Died  in  1840. 

See  Ekslew,  "  Fortatler- Lexicon." 

Clausen,  (Henrik  Nicolai,)  a  Danish  theologian  and 
statesman  of  great  ability  and  influence,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Maribo,  on  the  island  of  Laaland,  in 
1793.  He  became  professor  of  theohjgy  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Copenhagen  in  1820,  and  developed  his  rational- 
istic doctrines  in  many  works  remarkable  for  learning 
and  eloquence.  Among  them  are  "  Aiigustin  of  Hippo 
the  Interpreter  of  Scripture,"  ("Augustinus  Hipponensis 
Sacrae  Scripturae  Interjires,"  1826,)  "  Popular  Discourses 
on  the  Reformation,"  (1836,)  and  "The  Augsburg 
Confession  explained  Historically  and  Dogmatically," 
(both  in  Danish,  1851.)  In  politics  he  is  a  champion  of 
liberal  principles  and  Danish  nationality.  He  was  elected 
a  de|)uty  to  the  States  in  1840,  and  was  the  leader  of  the 
movement  which  resulted  in  the  constitutional  reform  of 
1848.  About  the  end  of  that  year  he  was  appointed  privy 
councilU)r  and  minister  without  a  portfolio.  He  re- 
signed office  in  185 1. 

See  Erslkvv,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Clausewitz,  von,  ton  klow'zeh-wits^,  (Karl,)  a  dis- 
tinguished Prussian  general  and  writer  on  war,  born  at 
Burg  in  1780.  He  entered  the  service  of  Russia  in  1812, 
served  on  the  staff  in  the  Russian  army  in  1813,  and 
published  in  1814  an  "Account  of  the  Campaign  of 
1813,"  which  was  favourably  received.  He  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  the  Military  Academy  ( allgemeine 
Kriegschiile )  of  Prussia  in  1818,  with  the  title  of  major- 
general.  He  died  in  1831,  after  which  ai)peared  his 
"Posthumous  Works,"  (10  vols.,  1832-37.)  Among  these 
is  a  treatise  entitled  "On  War,"  ("  Vom  Kriege,")  which 
is  said  to  be  a  work  of  extraordinary  merit. 

See  Bkockhaus,  "  Coaversations-Lexikon." 

Clavena,  kli-va'ni,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  botanist, 
born  at  Belluno,  lived  about  1600. 

Claver,  kld-vaiR',  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  missionary, 
born  about  1582.  He  laboured  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
was  noted  for  his  kindness  to  the  slaves.    Died  in  1654. 

See  Su  AREz.  "  Vida  del  P.  P.  Claver,"  1657  :  Fleuriau,  "  Vie  du 
R.  P.  Claver,"  1751. 


Claveret,  kltv'ri',  (Jean,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
at  Orleans  in  1590  ;  died  in  1666. 

Claverhouse.    See  Graham,  (John.) 

Clavier,  ki^'ve-i',  (EriENNE,)  a  French  Hellenist 
and  judge,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1762.  He  was  judge  of 
the  crinrinal  ct)urt  in  Paris  under  the  Directory  and  under 
the  empire  until  1811.  When  the  judges  were  urged  to 
condemn  Moreau  to  death,  and  were  assured  by  Murat 
that  the  executive  would  pardon  him,  Clavier  repelled 
the  idea,  saying,  "  But  who  will  pardon  us.-*"  In  1809 
he  was  admitted  into  the  Institute.  He  contributed  to 
the  "  Biograjihie  Universelle,"  and  published  several 
works,  among  which  is  "  Pausanias,  Description  de  la 
Grece,"  (6  vols.,)  an  edition  of  the  Greek  text,  with  a 
good  French  version.    Died  in  1817. 

Claviere,  klt've-aiR^,  (Etienne,)  a  Swiss  financier 
and  author,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1735.  He  removed 
to  Paris,  where,  before  the  Revolution,  he  was  engaged 
in  banking.  About  1789  he  became  a  political  associate 
of  Mirabeau,  who  had  a  high  opinion  of  his  talents,  and 
who  availed  himself  of  those  talents  in  composing  his 
speeches,  essays,  etc.  In  1791  he  was  chosen  deputy 
suppliant  to  the  National  Assembly,  and  was  the  Giron- 
dist minister  of  finance  from  March  to  June  in  1792. 
Having  been  thrown  into  prison  by  the  Jacobins,  and 
doomed  to  die,  he  killed  himself  in  December,  1793.  He 
wrote  treatises  on  Finance.  "  He  was,"  says  Dumont,  "a 
man  of  superior  intellect,  and  was  the  author  of  almost 
all  Mirabeau's  works  on  finance."  ("Recollections  of 
Mirabeau.") 

See  Vii.LAUME,  "  Histoire  de  la  Revolution." 

Clavigero,  kli-ve-Ha'ro,  (Francisco  Saverio,)  a 
Mexican  historian,  hoxw  at  Vera  Cruz  about  1720.  He 
was  employed  about  thirty  years  as  a  Jesuit  missionary 
among  the  Indians  of  Mexico,  whose  history  and  tra- 
ditions he  diligently  studied.  In  consequence  of  the 
suppression  of  the  Jesuit  order  about  1767,  he  went  to 
Europe,  and  found  an  asylum  at  Cesena,  Italy,  where  he 
published,  in  Italian,  his  "Ancient  History  of  Mexico," 
(1780.)  It  is  the  most  complete  account  that  has  been 
written  of  the  history,  religion,  customs,  arts,  and  natural 
history  of  that  country.    Died  in  1793. 

See  P'eli.kr,  "Biographic  Universelle;"  Prescott,  "Conquest 
of  Mexico,"  vol.  i.  book  i. 

Clavijo,  de,  d4  kli-vee'no,  (Ruy  Gonzalez,)  a  Span- 
iard, who  in  1403  was  sent  by  Henry  HI.  of  Castile  as 
ambassador  to  Tamerlane,  whom  he  found  at  Samarcand. 
Having  returned  home  in  1406,  he  published  a  "  History 
of  Tamerlane,"  with  an  account  of  the  journey,  which 
is  said  to  be  veracious  and  valuable. 

See  Mariana,  "  Historia  de  Espana." 

Clavijo  y  Fajardo  or  Faxardo,  kll-vee'iio  e  fJ- 
HaR'do,  (Jose,)  a  Spanish  writer,  born  in  one  of  the 
Canary  Islands  in  1726.  He  published  in  Madrid  a 
successful  periodical,  "The  Thinker,"  ("  El  Pensador,") 
and  was  appointed  officer  or  keeper  of  the  archives  in 
the  department  of  state.  It  appears  that  about  1764  he 
was  gjilty  of  a  breach  of  promise  to  Marie  Caron,  a 
French  lady,  whose  brother,  the  famous  Beauniarchais, 
appealing  to  the  code  of  honour,  obtained  some  revenge 
or  satisfaction  and  published  his  version  of  the  affair. 
This  story  has  been  dramatized  by  Goethe.  Clavijo  was 
editor  of  the  "  Mercurio,"  a  political  journal,  from  1773' 
to  1793.    Died  in  1806. 

See  Beaumarchais,  "Fragment  de  mon  Voyage  d'Espagne  en 
1764." 

Clavius,  kli've-iis,  (Christoph,)  a  learned  German 
mathematician  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Bamberg  in  1537. 
Having  visited  Rome,  he  was  employed  in  1581  by  Gre- 
gory XIII.  to  reform  the  calendar.  He  enjoyed  a  great 
reputation  in  his  time;  though  he  was  criticised  with 
much  acrimony  by  Scaliger.  He  published  many  works, 
which  were  often  reprinted,  and  among  which  were 
"Geometria  Practica,"  (1604,)  and  an  "Explanation 
of  the  R(nnan  Calendar  of  Gregory  XIII.,"  in  Latin, 
(1603.)    Died  in  1612. 

See  Baillv.  "Histoire  de  I'Astronomie  moderne;"  Bavle, 
"Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Clax'tou,  (Alexander,)  a  commodore  in  the  United 
States  navy,  born  in  Maryland  about  1790;  died  on  the 
coast  of  Chili  in  1841. 


a,  e,  s  6,  u, y,  long;    6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  \  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  flr,  fill,  fit;  met;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


CLAY 


617 


CLAT 


Clay,  (Cassius  Marcellus,)  an  American  statesman, 
a  son  of  General  Green  Clay,  noticed  below,  was  born 
in  Madison  county,  Kentucky,  in  1810.  He  studied  law, 
and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  legislature  of  Kentucky 
several  times  between  1835  and  1841.  His  acknowledged 
abilities  and  rare  force  of  character  seemed  to  anticipate 
a  distinguished  political  career  ;  but  his  anti-slavery  prin- 
ciples prevented  the  brilliant  success  he  might  other- 
wise have  achieved.  He  raised  his  voice  boldly  against 
slavery,  and  opposed  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the 
Union.  He  advocated  the  election  of  Henry  Clay  to  the 
Presidency  in  1844  by  speeches  in  the  Northern  States. 
In  1845  began  to  edit  "The  True  American,"  an 
anti-slavery  paper,  published  at  Lexington,  Kentucky. 
He  encountered  violent  opposition,  and  defended  him- 
self courageously  against  the  mob  in  several  bloody  con- 
flicts. He  served  as  captain  in  the  Mexican  war  with 
distinction,  (1846-47.)  About  1850  he  separated  from 
the  Whig  party.  He  favoured  the  election  of  Abraham 
Lincoln  to  the  Presidency  in  i860,  and  received  a  com- 
mission as  general  of  volunteers  in  1861.  In  1862  or 
1863  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Russia,  which  position 
he  held  until  the  spring  of  1869,  when  Governor  Curtin, 
of  Pennsylvania,  was  ap])ointed  in  his  place.  His  writings 
and  speeches  were  edited  and  published  by  Horace 
Greeley  in  1848. 

Clay,  (Clkment  C.,}an  American  lawyer  and  Senator, 
born  in  Halifax  county,  Virginia,  in  1789,  removed  to 
Alabama  about  1812.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Ala- 
bama by  the  Democrats  in  1835,  and  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  in  1837.    Died  in  1866. 

Clay,  (Clemkn  t  C.,)  Jr.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Madison  county,  Alabama,  in  1819.  He  practised 
law,  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  in 
1853  by  the  Democrats,  and  re-elected  about  1857.  He 
was  a  zealous  disunionist  in  1860-65. 

Clay,  (Green,)  General,  a  pioneer  and  legislator, 
born  in  Powhatan  county,  Virginia,  in  1757.  He  mi- 
grated to  Kentucky  about  1776,  and  served  many  years 
in  the  legislature  of  that  State.  In  1813  he  defended 
Fort  Meigs  with  success  against  a  strong  force  of  British 
and  Indians.    Died  in  1826. 

Clay,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  American  statesman  and 
•orator,  born  in  a  district  called  "  the  Slashes,"  in  Hanover 
county,  Virginia,  on  the  12th  of  Ajiril,  1777.  He  was  a 
son  of  John  Clay,  a  Baptist  minister,  who  died  about 
1782,  and  who  left  but  little  property  to  his  children. 
Having  acquired  the  rudiments  of  education  in  a  com- 
mon school,  Henry  became,  in  1792,  a  co]->ying  clerk  in 
the  court  of  chancery  at  Richmond,  and  there  attracted 
the  notice  of  the  eminent  judge  George  Wythe,  from 
whose  counsels  and  influence  he  derived  much  benefit. 
He  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1797,  and 
removed  in  the  same  year  to  Lexington,  Kentucky,  where 
his  practice  was  crowned  with  a  rapid  and  brilliant  suc- 
cess. In  1799  he  married  a  daughter  of  Colonel  Thomas 
Hart,  of  Lexington.  When  the  people  of  Kentucky  were 
about  to  adopt  a  State  Constitution,  in  1799,  Mr.  Clay, 
by  his  writings  and  speeches,  advocated  the  gradual 
abolition  of  slavery.  He  began  his  political  career  as  a 
Jeffersonian  Democrat,  was  elected  to  the  legislature 
of  his  State  about  1804,  and  was  sent  in  1806  to  fill  for  a 
short  term  a  seat  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States, 
made  vacant  by  the  resignation  of  a  Senator.  Having 
been  again  chosen  a  Senator  in  1809,  he  made  a  speech 
in  favour  of  the  protection  of  American  manufactures, 
and  one  against  the  United  States  Bank.  His  term  in 
the  Senate  having  expired  in  181 1,  he  was  then  chosen 
a  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  was 
elected  Speaker  of  the  House  in  November  of  that  year. 
He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  war  of  1812,  and  pro- 
bably contributed  more  than  any  other  man  to  the  suc- 
cess of  the  war  party.  He  was  re-elected  Speaker  of 
the  House  in  May,  1813,  resigned  that  office  in  January, 
1814,  and  was  then  sent  to  Europe  as  a  commissioner  to 
treat  for  peace  with  Great  Britain.  The  treaty  of  Ghent 
having  been  signed  by  Mr.  Clay  and  his  colleagues  in 
December,  1814,  he  returned  home  in  September,  1815. 
In  Dfcember,  181 5,  (and  thrice  afterwards,)  he  was  again 
elec  t'jd  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  He 
supported  in  1816  the  bill  to  charter  a  Bank  of  the 


United  States,  on  which  question  he  acknowledged  that 
he  had  changed  his  opinions.  In  1818  he  made  a  great 
speech  for  the  recognition  of  the  South  American  re- 
publics. He  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  supporters 
of  the  Missouri  Compromise,  by  which,  in  1821,  after  a 
long  and  exciting  contest,  Missouri  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  with  slavery,  and  slavery  was  prohibited  in  the 
territories  north  of  36''  30'  north  latitude.  Before  this 
time  he  had  acquired  great  popularity  as  a  statesman 
and  an  orator.  "At  thirty,"  says  Parton,  "he  was,  to 
use  the  language  of  the  stump,  'Kentucky's  favourite 
son,'  and  incomparably  the  finest  orator  in  the  Western 
country.  Kentucky  had  tried  him,  and  found  him  per- 
fectly to  her  mind.  .  .  .  In  familiar  conversation  he  used 
language  of  the  most  Western  description  ;  and  he  had 
a  singularly  careless,  graceful  way  with  him,  that  was  in 
strong  contrast  with  the  vigour  and  dignity  of  his  public 
efforts.  During  the  thirteen  years  of  his  Speakership 
not  one  of  his  decisions  had  been  reversed,  and  he  had 
presided  over  the  turbulent  and  restive  House  with  that 
perfect  blending  of  courtesy  and  firmness  which  at  once 
restrains  and  charms." 

Mr.  Clay  was  one  of  the  four  candidates  for  the  Presi- 
dency of  the  United  States  in  1824,  and  received  thirty- 
seven  electoral  votes.  When  the  election  of  President 
devolved  on  the  House  of  Representatives,  he  preferred 
Mr.  Adams  to  General  Jackson,  and  his  influence  de- 
cided the  result.  He  thus  gave  the  partisans  of  Jackson 
some  pretext  for  the  calumnious  charge  of  "bargain  and 
corruption"  which  impaired  his  popularity  for  a  time. 
In  March,  1825,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state. 
In  April,  1826,  he  fought  a  bloodless  duel  with  John 
Randolph,  who  had  spoken  of  the  coalition  of  Mr.  Adams 
and  Mr.  Clay  as  a  "combination  of  the  Puritan  and  the 
blackleg."  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
for  six  years,  1831-37,  and  was  the  candidate  of  the  anti- 
Jackson  party  in  the  Presidential  election  of  1832.  He 
received  the  votes  of  only  six  States,  viz.,  Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  Delaware,  Maryland,  and 
Kentucky.  Mr.  Clay  was  the  author  of  the  Compromise 
Tariff  of  1832-33,  occasioned  by  the  danger  of  a  violent 
collision  between  the  nullifiers  of  South  Carolina  and 
the  Federal  government.  Although  he  was  the  favourite 
leader  of  the  Whig  party  recently  organized,  he  declined 
to  be  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency  in  1836.  About  the 
end  of  that  year  he  was  re-elected  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States.  He  su|)ported  General  Harrison  as  a  candidate 
for  the  office  of  President  in  1840.  In  the  Senate  he  ad- 
vocated a  national  bank  and  the  distribution  of  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  public  lands  among  the  States.  He  resigned 
his  seat  in  the  Senate  early  in  1842,  and  rethed  to  his 
residence  at  Ashland,  near  Lexington.  The  Whig  Na- 
tional Convention  of  May,  1844,  with  great  unanimity, 
nominated  him  for  the  Presidency,  He  opposed  the  an- 
nexation of  Texas,  (which  was  advocated  by  Mr.  Polk, 
the  Democratic  candidate,)  and  declared  that  no  earthly 
power  should  ever  induce  him  to  consent  to  the  addition 
of  one  acre  of  slave  territory  to  the  United  States.  Mr. 
Clay  received  one  hundred  and  five  electoral  votes,  cast 
by  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  Vermont, 
New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland,  North  Carolina,  Ohio, 
Kentucky,  and  Tennessee  ;  but  he  was  not  elected. 

He  joined  the  Protestant  E])iscopal  Church  in  1847. 
In  December,  1848,  he  was  again  elected  to  the  national 
Senate,  in  which  he  afterwards  made  numerous  speeches, 
especially  on  the  controversy  occasioned  by  slaverv.  The 
Compromise  of  1850,  which  postponed  for  ten  } ears  the 
conflict  between  freedom  and  slavery,  was  chiefly  his 
work.  In  one  of  his  speeches  on  the  Compromise  Bill 
he  said,  "  I  owe  a  paramount  allegiance  to  the  whole 
Union, — a  subordinate  one  to  my  own  State."  He  died 
at  Washington,  June  29,  i8$2.  He  had  five  sons  and 
six  daughters.  "Take  him  for  all  in  all,"  says  Parton, 
"we  must  regard  him  as  the  first  of  American  orators; 
but  posterity  will  not  assign  him  that  rank,  because  pos- 
terity will  not  hear  that  matchless  voice,  will  not  see  those 
large  gestures,  those  striking  attitudes,  that  grand  man- 
ner, which  gave  to  second-rate  composition  first-rate 
effect.  .  ,  .  His  speeches  will  long  be  interesting  as  the 
relics  of  a  magnificent  and  dazzling  personality,  and  for 
the  light  they  cast  upon  the  history  of  parties  ;  but  they 


€  as  /'/  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,gtittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (St^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CLJT 


6i8 


CLEEF 


add  scarcely  anything  to  the  intellectual  property  of  the 
nation." 

See  Parton,  "  Famous  Americans  of  Recent  Times,"  1867  ;  Epes 
Sargent,  "  Life  of  Henry  Clay,"  1844;  Calvin  Colton,  '"Life  of 
Henry  Clay,"  2  vols.,  1846;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distin- 
guished Americans,"  vol.  i.;  "  North  American  Review"  for  October, 
1827,  October,  1831,  (by  A.  H.  Everett,)  and  January,  1866;  "Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1840;  Edward  G.  Parker, 
"Golden  A^e  of  American  Oratory,"  Boston,  1857. 

Clay,  (James  B.,)  a  son  of  Henry  Clay,  was  born  in 
181 7.  He  joined  the  Democratic  party,  and  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress  in  1857  to  represent  a  district  in 
Kentucky.   He  was  a  secessionist  in  1861.  Died  in  1864. 

Clay,  (  JoHANN.)    See  Clal 

Clayborne,  kla'bprn,  (William,)  an  early  settler  and 
explorer  of  Virginia,  occupied  Kent  Island,  in  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  about  163 1.  He  was  involved  in  disputes 
and  violent  conflicts  with  Lord  Baltimore  and  Leonard 
Calvert.    He  became  secretary  of  state  about  1652. 

Clay'tpn,  (AuGUsriN  Smuh,)  born  at  Fredericks- 
burg, Virginia,  in  1783,  became  a  judge  of  the  superior 
court  of  Georgia  in  1819,  and  a  member  of  Congress 
about  1832.    Died  in  1839. 

Clay'ton,  (John,)  an  English  botanist,  born  in  Kent 
about  1690.  lie  emigrated  in  1705  to  Virginia,  where 
he  practised  medicine  and  botanized  extensively.  He 
wrote  articles  on  the  natural  history  of  Virginia,  which 
were  published  by  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  In 
1739  Linnaeus  and  Gronovius  published  a  "Flora  of 
Virginia,  exhibiting  the  Plants  which  J.  Clayton  has 
collected."  A  genus  of  herbaceous  plants  was  named 
Chiyfonia  in  his  honour  by  Gronovius.    Died  in  1773. 

Clayton,  (John  Middlkton,)  an  American  states- 
man, born  in  Sussex  county,  Delaware,  in  1796.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1815,  and  studied  law, 
which  he  practised  with  success  in  Delaware.  He 
gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  pleader.  In  1829  he  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  for  Delaware. 
Having  joined  the  Whig  party,  he  was  re-elected  to  the 
Federal  Senate  in  1835.  He  was  chief  justice  of  Dela- 
ware from  1837  to  1839,  and  represented  that  State  in 
the  United  States  Senate  from  1845      i^49-    ^'^  March, 

1849,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  President 
Taylor.  He  negotiated  with  the  British  government 
in  1850  the  celebrated  "  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty."  He 
resigned  office  on  the  death  of  President  Taylor,  July, 

1850,  and  was  again  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  for  six  years,  1851-57.  He  married  in  early  life, 
and  had  several  children,  whom  he  survived.  He  died 
in  November,  1856,  leaving  a  fair  reputation  for  ability 
•and  integrity. 

Clay'toii,  (Robert,)  F.R.S.,  a  learned  Irish  divine, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1695.  He  became  Bishop  of  Killala 
in  1730,  of  Cork  in  1735,  and  of  Clogher  in  1745.  He 
published  an  "Introduction  to  the  History  of  the  Jews," 
and  other  works.  His  "  Essay  on  Spirit"  (1751)  gave 
much  offence  to  the  Anglican  Church  by  its  advocacy 
of  Arian  or  Unitarian  doctrines.    Died  in  1758. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Cle-an'der,  [Gr.  KAmv(5pof;  Fr.  Cl^andre,  kli'- 
6NdR',]  a  corrupt  prime  mii^ister  of  Commodus,  Em- 
peror of  Rome,  was  originally  a  Phrygian  slave.  He 
was  put  to  death  about  189  A.D. 

Cle-a'nor,  [KAmj^wp,]  a  Greek  officer,  born  in  Arcadia, 
lived  about  400  B.C.  He  entered  the  service  of  Cyrus 
the  Younger,  and  was  one  of  the  chiefs  of  that  army  of 
10,000  whose  famous  retreat  is  described  by  Xenophon. 

Cleanthe.    See  Cleanthks. 

Cle-an'thes,  [Gr.  Y^UavQnq ;  Fr.  CL^iAN'rHE,  kli'SNt',] 
a  Greek  Stoic  philosopher,  born  at  Assos,  in  Asia  Minor, 
about  300  B.C.  He  became  a  resident  of  Athens,  and  a 
pu|)il  of  Zeno,  with  whom  he  studied  many  years,  sup- 
porting himself  by  drawing  water  and  other  hard  labour. 
At  the  death  of  Zeno,  about  260  H.c,  he  became  his  suc- 
cessor as  head  of  the  Stoic  school.  He  wrote  many 
works,  which  are  nearly  all  lost,  except  a  hymn  to  Jupi- 
ter, remarkable  for  elevation  and  grandeur  of  thought. 
Chrysij^pus  was  his  pujiil  and  successor.  The  original  oc- 
cupation of  Cleanthes  was  that  of  athlete.  He  was  solid 
rather  than  brilliant,  practical  rather  than  sj^ecnlative. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius  :  W.  T  Kkug,  "  Dissertatio  de  Cle- 
anthe," 1819:  Cicero,  "  De  Natura  Deorum." 


Cle-ar'-ehus,  [Gr.  KAfap;\;of ;  Fr.  Cl6auque,  kli'Suk','^ 
a  Spartan  general,  who,  having  been  condemned  to  death 
for  crimes  committed  while  he  commanded  at  Byzan- 
tium, escaped,  and  entered  the  service  of  Cyrus  the 
Younger.  He  commanded  a  body  of  Greeks  in  the  war 
between  Cyrus  and  his  brother  Artaxerxes.  After  the 
battle  of  Cunaxa,  in  which  Cyrus  was  killed,  the  King 
of  Persia  by  treachery  obtained  possession  of  Clearchus 
and  the  other  Grecian  generals,  and  put  them  to  death 
about  400  B.C.  New  generals  were  then  chosen,  under 
whose  direction  the  Greeks  successfully  accomplished 
the  famous  retreat  known  as  *'the  Retreat  of  the  Ten 
Thousand." 

See  Xenophon,  "Anabasis." 

Clearchus,  tyrant  of  Heraclea,  a  Greek  city  of  Pon- 
tus,  had  been  a  pupil  of  Plato  at  Athens.  After  he 
had  reigned  twelve  years,  and  committed  many  acts  of 
cruelty,  he  was  assassinated  by  Chion  and  others,  about 
352  B.C. 

Clearchus,  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  lived  probably 
in  the  third  century  B.C. 

Clearchus  of  Soli,  a  Greek  philosopher,  and  a  pupil 
of  Aristotle,  wrote  on  various  subjects  numerous  works 
which  have  not  come  down  to  us.  Among  the  titles 
were  "On  Friendship,"  ("  Philia,")  "On  Paintings,"  "Oh 
Anatomy,"  and  "On  Sleep." 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  Vossius,  "De  Historicis 
Gr^cis." 

Clearque.    See  Clearchus. 

Cleaveland,  Cleveland,  or  Clieveland,  kleev'land, 
(John,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Loughborough  in  1613. 
He  was  once  a  tutor  at  a  college  in  Cambridge.  In  the 
civil  war  he  fought  for  the  royal  cause.  He  wrote  the 
"Rustic  Rampant,"  "The  King's  Disguise,"  and  other 
poems,  which  were  greatly  admired  by  many  in  his  own 
time,  but  are  marred  by  perverse  conceits,  and  are  now 
neglected.    Died  in  1659. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  xii.,  1825. 

Cleaveland,  kleev'land,  (Parker,)  LL.D.,  an  emi- 
nent American  mineralogist,  was  born  in  Massachusetts 
in  1780.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1799,  and  from 
1805  till  his  death  was  professor  of  chemistry,  mineral- 
ogy, etc.  in  Bowdoin  College,  Maine.  His  work  on 
"  Mineralogy  and  Geology,"  (2  vols.  8vo,)  issued  in  1816, 
introduced  him  to  the  notice  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy, 
Cuvier,  and  other  illustrious  scientific  men,  with  several 
of  whom  he  corresponded.  At  his  death  he  was  an 
honorary  member  of  the  principal  scientific  associations 
in  Europe.    Died  in  1858. 

Cleaver,  klee'ver,  (William,)  an  English  divine, 
born  in  1742,  became  successively  Bishop  of  Chester, 
(1787,)  of  Bangor,  (i8cG,)  and  of  Saint  Asaph,  (1806.) 
He  was  editor  of  an  Oxford  edition  of  Homer,  and 
published,  besides  other  works.  Sermons,  and  "  De 
Rhythmo  Graecorum  Liber,"  (1789.)    Died  in  1815. 

Cle'burn  or  Cle'burne,  (Patrick,)  a  general,  born 
in  Ireland  about  1828.  He  was  a  lawyer  in  Arkansas 
before  the  civil  war,  in  which  he  fought  against  the  Union. 
He  commanded  a  division  at  Stone  River,  December 
31,  1862-January  2,  1863,  and  at  Chickamauga,  Sep- 
tember, 1863.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Franklin, 
November  31,  1864.  "The  loss  of  Patrick  Cleburne — 
the  '  Stonewall  Jackson  of  the  West,'  " — says  Greeley, 
"would  of  itself  have  been  a  rebel  disaster."  ("Ame- 
rican Conflict.") 

Cleef,  van,  vtn  klaf,  or  Cleeve,  kla'veh,  (Hendrik,) 
a  skilful  Flemish  landscape-painter,  born  at  Antwerp 
about  1 5 10.   He  spent  some  years  in  Italy.  Died  in  1589. 

His  brother  Mar  tin,  born  about  1520,  was  a  historical 
l^ainter  of  merit,  and  was  employed  by  several  landscape- 
painters  to  paint  the  figures  of  their  works.  Tlie  two 
brothers  sometimes  worked  on  the  same  piece  of  canvas. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Cleef,  van,  (Jan,)  an  eminent  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Venloo  in  1646,  was  a  puj^il  of  Caspar  de  Crayer. 
He  became  one  of  the  most  skilful  Flemish  artists  of  his 
time,  and  adorned  the  churches  of  Antwerp,  Ghent,  etc. 
He  excelled  many  or  all  Flemish  painters  in  the  treat- 
ment of  drapery.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  "The 
Redemption  of  the  Captives."    Died  in  Ghent  in  17 16. 

See  Descamps.  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,    short;  a,  9,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon. 


CLEEF 


6i 


9 


CLEMENT 


Cleef,  van,  (Joosr,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Ant- 
werp about  1490.  He  was  an  excellent  colorist.  In 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  worked  in  Madrid,  and  is 
said  to  have  become  insane. 

His  father,  VVili.em,  was  a  skilful  historical  painter. 

Cleeve.    See  Clkef. 

Cleg'horn,  (George,)  an  able  Scottish  physician, 
born  in  Edinburgh  in  17 16.  Having  passed  thirteen 
years  in  Minorca,  he  published  "The  Diseases  of  Mi- 
norca," (1751,)  which  Dr.  Fothergill  calls  "a  just  model 
for  future  writers."  It  treats  on  the  botany,  climate,  etc. 
of  that  island.  In  175 1  he  settled  in  Dublin,  where  he 
practised  with  success,  and  became  professor  of  anatomy 
in  the  university.    Died  in  1787. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Cleisthenes.  See  Clisthenes. 
Cleitarchus.  See  Clitarchus, 
Cleitus.    See  Clitus. 

Cle'land,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  born  about  17 10, 
was  the  son  of  Colonel  C'eland,  the  original  of  the  Spec- 
tator's "  Will  Honevcomb."  In  his  youth  he  was  consul 
at  Smyrna.  Beside.)  other  works,  he  wrote  "The  Man 
of  Honour,"  and  "I'he  Way  to  Things  by  Words,  and 
to  Words  by  Things."    Died  in  1789. 

See  Nichols,  "  Literary  Anecdotes,"  etc. 

Cle'land,  (Lieutenant-Colonel  Wili.tam,)  a  Scottish 
poet,  born  about  1660,  was  a  zealous  Covenanter.  He 
was  lieutenant-colonel  of  Lord  Angus's  regiment,  and 
was  killed  in  battle  at  Dunkeld  in  1689.  His  poems 
were  published  in  1697. 

See  Macaulay's  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  xiii. 

Clemangis  or  Clemangius.    See  Ci.amenges. 

Clemence  Isaure,  kli'm^Nss'  c'zor',  a  French  lady, 
who  lived  at  Toulouse  about  1470.  vShe  reaniniated  the 
literary  spirit  of  her  countrymen  by  instituting  or  en- 
dowing the  Floral  Games,  (Jeiix  floranx,)  which  were 
held  annually  on  the  ist  of  May  at  Toulouse.  She 
bequeathed  a  fund,  part  of  which  was  to  be  paid  in 
prizes  for  the  best  poems.  Her  death  is  supposed  to 
have  occurred  soon  after  1500. 

See  Salvan,  "  C.  Isaure,  fitude  historique."  i?53  :  J.  B.  Noulet, 
"Dame  Clemence  Isaure,"  etc.,  1852;  Longfellow,  "Poets  and 
Poetry  of  Europe." 

Clemencet,  kli'miN^sJ',  (Charles,)  a  French  Bene- 
dictine, born  at  Painblanc  in  1703.  He  ])ublished,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  "  History  of  Port-Royal,"  (10  vols., 
1756,)  and  "The  Art  of  Verifying  Dates,"  (1750,)  which 
displays  great  erudition.    Died  in  1778. 

Clemencin,  klk-mgn-th6i/,  (DiF.r.o,)  a  Spanish  states- 
man and  author  of  merit,  born  at  Murcia  in  1765.  Soon 
after  he  left  college  he  was  employed  as  tutor  in  the 
family  of  the  Duke  of  Osuna,  and  became  a  resident 
of  Madrid.  He  was  editor  of  the  Official  Gazette  in 
Madrid  in  1808,  and  a  member  of  the  Cortes  of  Cadiz 
in  1812.  When  the  Constitutional  party,  with  which  he 
was  identified,  prevailed  in  1820,  he  was  elected  to  the 
Cortes,  of  which  he  became  president.  In  1823  he  was 
banished  from  Madrid  by  the  Absolutists.  About  1833 
he  was  appointed  librarian  to  the  queen  and  was  made 
a  peer  of  the  kingdom.  Among  his  principal  writings 
are  a  "Eulogy  on  Isabella  of  Castile,"  (1821,)  which 
was  then  the  best  w^rk  on  the  subject,  and  an  excellent 
"Commentary  on  Don  Quixote,"  (1833,)    Died  in  1834. 

Clemens,  kla'mgns,  (Friedkich,)  a  German  poet, 
born  in  Westphalia  about  1800.  Among  his  works 
are  "The  Eccentric  People,"  and  "The  Manifesto  of 
Reason,"  ("Manifest  der  Vernunft,"  1836.) 

Cle'mens,  (T.  Flavius,)  a  Roman  consul,  was  a 
cousin-german  of  the  emperor  Domitian,  and  his  col- 
league in  the  consulship,  95  a.D.  He  is  reckoned  among 
the  Christian  martyrs,  having  been  put  to  death  by  order 
of  Domitian  on  a  charge  of  impiety  towards  the  heathen 
gods. 

Clemens  Romanns.    See  Clement  T. 

Clem'ent  [Lat.  Ci.e/mens,  or,  more  fullv,  Trrus  Fla- 
vius Clemens;  Fr.  Clement,  kl4'm6N']'oE  Alexan- 
dria, an  eininent  Father  of  the  Christian  church,  born 
about  the  middle  of  the  second  century.  According  to 
some  writers,  he  was  a  native  of  Athens,  and  in  his 
youth  a  disciple  of  the  Platonic  philosophy.  After 
studying  with  various  pagan  teachers,  he  became  a 


disciple  of  Pantaenus,  who  was  master  of  a  Christian 
school  in  Alexandria.  He  succeeded  Pantaenus,  and  was 
ordained  a  presbyter  in  the  church  of  that  city.  It  is 
stated  that  in  202  A.D.,  to  escape  irom  persecution,  he 
retired  to  Syria,  and  preached  in  Antioch  and  other 
cities.  A  few  years  later  we  find  him  again  employed 
as  teacher  of  catechumens  in  Alexandria.  He  died  about 
the  year  220.  Eusebius,  Chrysostom,  and  others  extol 
his  learning,  wisdom,  and  virtue.  Origen  was  the  most 
eminent  of  his  pupils.  Clement  left  several  esteemed 
works,  written  in  Greek,  which  are  still  extant,  and  which 
afford  various  information  on  religion,  history,  and  phi- 
losophy, viz.,  "  Exhortation  to  the  Greeks,"  "  Paedago- 
gus,"  and  "Stromata,"  (Gr.  2rp(j//are/f.)  The  last  is  a 
medley  of  Christian  thoughts,  maxims  of  philosophy, 
anecdotes,  etc.,  without  methodical  arrangement.  He 
is  more  addicted  to  speculation,  and  more  favourable  to 
the  ancient  Greek  philosophy,  than  many  of  the  other 
Christian  Fathers. 

See  Eusebius,  "  Ecclesiastical  History  ;"  Kaye,  "Account  of  the 
Writings,  etc.  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,"  London,  1835;  Matter, 
"  Essai  historique  sur  rficole  d'Alexandrie ;"  Neandek,  "History 
of  the  Church  ;"  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria;"  Reinkens,  "De  Cle- 
mente  Presbytero  Alexandrino,"  1851. 

Clement  I.,  (or  Cle'mens  Roma'nus,)  a  bishop  of 
Rome,  of  whom  we  have  little  ])ositive  information.  Ac- 
cording to  various  authorities,  he  succeeded  Linus  in  67 
A.D.,  or  Anacletus  in  the  year  91.  He  is  supposed  to  be 
the  Clement  whom  Saint  Paul  calls  his  fellow-labourer, 
(Philip,  iv.  3.)  Eusebius  states  that  he  died  in  100  A.D., 
having  been  bishop  nine  years.  He  is  reckoned  among 
the  martyrs  ;  but  there  is  some  doubt  whether  he  died 
a  violent  or  a  natural  death.  On  the  occasion  of  a  dis- 
sension in  the  church  of  Corinth,  Clement  wrote  to  that 
church  an  excellent  epistle,  which  is  still  extant,  and  is 
highly  prized  as  a  monument  of  antiquity  and  memorial 
of  the  primitive  Church.  It  was  often  read  publicly  in 
the  churches  as  late  as  the  fourth  century.  Eusebius 
informs  us  that  the  other  works  ascribed  to  Clement  are 
not  genuine.  His  epistle  is  divided  into  more  than  fifty 
chapters.  His  authority  tends  to  prove  the  genuineness 
of  certain  books  of  the  New  Testament  which  he  quotes, 
viz.,  Matthew,  Luke,  and  several  epistJes. 

See  Neander,  "History  of  the  Church;"  Tillemont,  "  Me- 
moires." 

Clement  II.,  a  native  of  Saxony,  whose  name  was 
Suid'ger,  was  elected  pope  in  1046  as  successor  to 
Gregory  VI.  He  crowned  as  emperor  Henry  HI.  in  the 
same  year,  and  died  in  October,  1047,  when  Benedict 
IX.  was  chosen  pope. 

Clement  III.,  a  Roman  by  birth,  was  elected  pope 
at  Pisa  in  December,  1187,  after  the  death  of  Gregory 
VIII.  Jerusalem  having  just  fallen  into  the  power  of 
Saladin,  Clement  made  successful  efforts  to  enlist  the 
Christians  in  another  crusade  against  the  Saracens, 
which  was  led  by  Richard  I.  of  England  and  Philip  of 
France.  He  died  in  March,  1 191,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Celestine  HI. 

Clement  IV.  (Guy  Foulques,  or  Guido  Fulcodi) 
was  born  at  Saint-Gilles,  in  France.  He  had  been  secre- 
tary to  Louis  IX.,  whom  he  served  many  years  in  im- 
portant affairs.  In  February,  1265,  he  succeeded  Urban 
IV.  He  favoured  Charles  of  Anjou  in  his  conquest  of 
Naples,  which  was  then  ruled  by  Manfred,  and  which  the 
last  pontiff  had  granted  or  given  to  Charles.  He  died  in 
1268,  and  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  X. 

Clement  v..  Pope  of  Rome,  succeeded  Benedict  XT. 
in  June,  1305.  He  was  a  Frenchman,  named  Ber  trand 
DE  Got.  In  1299  he  had  been  made  Archbishop  of 
Bordeaux.  He  was  crowned  as  pope  at  Lyons,  and  to 
gratify  his  patron,  Philippe  le  Bel,  he  chose  Avignon 
as  his  residence  and  the  capital  of  the  popedom.  This 
innovation  caused  great  discontent,  and  was  the  origin 
of  a  long  division  in  the  Church.  He  co-operated  with 
Philippe  le  Bel  in  his  cruel  persecution  of  the  Tem])lars. 
He  is  represented  as  immoral  and  venal.  He  died  in 
1314.  John  XXII.  was  chosen  as  his  successor  in  1316. 

See  De  Guasco,  "  Histoire  du  Pape  Clement  V,"  2  vols.,  1756. 

Clement  VI.,  elected  pope  in  1342,  succeeded  Bene- 
dict XH.  at  Avignon.  He  was  a  native  of  Limousin,  in 
France,  and  was  named  Pierre  Roger,  (ro'zhi'.)  He 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  K^giitttiral;  N,  nasal;  R, 


trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CLEMENT 


620 


CLEMENT 


purchased  from  Joanna  of  Naples  the  sovereignty  of 
Avignon.  During  his  pontificate  the  famous  Rienzi 
attempted  to  effect  a  revolution  in  Rome,  but  failed. 
Clement  ordained  the  celebration  of  a  jubilee  every  fifty 
years.  He  died  in  1352,  and  was  succeeded  by  Innocent  VI. 
See  Aktaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Clement  "VII.,  (Giulio  de'  Medici — m^d'e-chee,)  a 
natural  son  of  Giuliano  de'  Medici,  and  a  cousin  of  Leo 
X.,  succeeded  Adrian  VI.  in  November,  1523.  In  the 
pontificate  of  Leo  X.  he  had  been  made  Archbishop  of 
Florence,  and  received  a  cardinal's  hat.  Alarmed  at 
the  growing  power  of  Charles  V.,  he  made  a  league 
against  him  with  the  Venetians  and  Francis  I.  of  France. 
The  army  of  Charles  V.,  commanded  by  Constable 
Bourbon,  took  Rome  by  assault  in  1527,  treated  the 
citizens  with  great  cruelty,  and  made  the  pope  a  prisoner. 
His  dispute  with  Henry  VIII.  of  England  respecting  the 
divorce  of  Queen  Catherine  produced  results  of  great 
political  importance.  He  issued  a  famous  bull  against 
Henry  in  1534.  He  died  in  September  of  that  year,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Paul  HI. 

See  GuicciARDiNi,  "  Historia  d'ltalia,"  1564;  Ranke,  "History 
of  tlie  Popes." 

Clement  VIII.  (Ippolito  Aldobrandini — il-do- 
bRSn-dee'nee)  succeeded  Innocent  IX.  in  January,  1592. 
He  was  a  native  of  Fano,  in  Italy,  and  became  cardinal 
in  1585.  He  negotiated  with  Henry  IV.  of  France  with 
respect  to  his  abjuration  of  Protestantism,  which  occurred 
in  1595.  During  his  pontificate  commenced  the  dispute 
on  the  doctrine  of  grace,  which  caused  the  long  and  angry 
controversy  between  the  Molinists  and  the  Jansenists  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  Clement  a]D])ears  to  have  been 
neutral  in  this  question.  He  annexed  the  duchy  of 
Ferrara  to  the  Papal  States.  He  died  in  1605,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Leo  XI. 

See  CiCARELLA,  "  De  Vita  Clementis  VIII.;"  Luc  Wadding, 
*'  Vita  Clementis  VIII.,"  1723  ;  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis. " 

Clement  IX.,  elected  pope  in  June,  1667,  succeeded 
Alexander  VII.  He  was  born  at  Pistoia  in  1600,  and  was 
originally  named  GiULio  DE  Rospigliosi,  (ros-j^^l -yo'- 
see.)  He  was  made  a  cardinal  by  Alexander  VH.  One 
of  the  principal  events  of  his  short  pontificate  was  a  com- 
promise or  transient  ])eace  which  he  made  between  the 
Jesuits  and  Jansenists  of  France.  He  died  in  Decem- 
ber, 1669,  regretted  on  account  of  his  probity  and  other 
virtues.    His  successor  was  Clement  X. 

See  Artaud  ue  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Clement  X.  (Emilio  Altieri — ll-te-a'ree)  succeeded 
Clement  IX.  in  1670,  at  the  age  of  eighty.  He  was  an  Ital- 
ian, and  probably  a  native  of  Rome.  He  had  been  made 
a  cardinal  by  the  preceding  pontiff.  Cardinal  Paluzzi 
Altieri  had  the  chief  control  of  affairs  in  this  pontificate, 
the  events  of  which  were  not  very  important.  Clement 
died  in  1676,  and  was  succeeded  by  Innocent  XI. 

Clement  XI.  (Gian  Francesco  Albani — i1-ba'- 
nee)  was  born  at  Pesaro,  in  Central  Italy,  in  1649.  He 
was  made  a  cardinal  in  1690,  and  elected  pope  in  No- 
vember, 1700,  after  the  death  of  Innocent  XII.  About 
1707  he  was  involved  in  war  with  the  Emi^eror  of  Austria, 
whose  army  entered  the  States  of  the  Church  and  com- 
pelled the  pope  to  sue  for  peace.  In  his  pontificate  the 
Jansenist  controversy  was  renewed  in  France  by  the  bull 
Vineam  Domini,  which  denounced  the  Jansenist  doctrines 
as  heretical.  In  17 13  he  raised  a  great  commotion  among 
the  French  religionists  by  the  famous  bull  Unigeiiittis, 
which  condemned  one  hundred  and  one  propositions  of 
a  book,  written  by  Pere  Quesnel,  on  Grace  and  Predes- 
tination. This  bull  was  supported  by  the  [esuits  and 
the  cotu't,  and  opposed  by  the  Jansenists.  The  book  of 
Quesnel  had  been  approved  by  De  Noailles,  Archbishop 
of  Paris.  Clement  assisted  the  Pretender  in  his  attempt 
to  obtain  the  British  crown  in  1715,  and  after  his  failure 
received  him  with  regal  honours  at  Rome.  He  died  in 
March,  1721,  leaving  a  fair  reputation  for  morality  and 
learning.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  art  and  literature. 
His  successor  was  Innocent  XIII. 

See  Artaud  DE  Montor,  "Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes;" 
Lafitau,  "Vie  de  Clement  XI,"  1752;  Battelu,  "Vita  de- 
mentis XI.,"  1723. 

Clement  XII.  (Lorenzo  Corsini — koR-see'nee) 
was  born  at  Florence  in  1652,  and  received  a  cardinal's 


hat  in  1706,  before  which  he  had  been  treasurer  of  the 
apostolic  chamber.  He  succeeded  Benedict  XIII.  in 
July,  1730.  He  failed  in  an  attempt  to  make  himself 
master  of  Parma  and  Piacenza.  He  died  in  1740,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Benedict  XIV. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes 
Romains  ;"  A.  Fabroni,  "De  Vita  et  Rebus  gestis  Clementis XIL," 
1760. 

Clement  XIII.  (Carlo  Rezzonico — rgt-so-nee'- 
ko.'')  succeeded  Benedict  XIV.,  July,  1758.  He  was  born 
in  Venice  in  1693,  '^"'^^  became  a  cardinal  in  1737.  In 
1762  he  formally  condemned  Rousseau's  "  Emile"  as 
heretical.  By  impolitic  attempts  to  assert  his  prerogatives 
he  provoked  the  hostility  of  France,  Spain,  and  other 
powers.  After  the  Jesuits  had  been  proscribed  in  France 
and  Spain,  about  1767  he  issued  a  bull  in  their  favour 
and  for  their  full  justification.  He  was  deprived  of 
Avignon  by  the  French  and  of  Benevento  by  the  Kuig 
of  Naples,  and  the  papal  authority  in  his  reign  was 
greatly  reduced.  His  private  character  is  said  to  have 
been  virtuous.  He  died  in  1769,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Clement  XIV. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Clement  XIV.  (Giovanni  Vincenzo  Antonio 
Ganganelli — g&n-gi-nel'lee)  was  born  at  Saint  Arcan- 
gelo,  near  Rimini,  in  1705.  Having  become  eminent  for 
his  learning,  he  was  made  a  cardinal  by  Clement  XIII., 
whom  he  succeeded  in  May,  1769.  The  Catholic  powers 
watched  with  great  interest  this  election,  which  was 
protracted  for  several  months  by  party  intrigues.  He 
took  prompt  measures  to  conciliate  the  various  courts 
which  Clement  XIII.  had  offended,  and  adopted  a  more 
moderate  policy.  The  most  memorable  act  of  his  pon- 
tificate was  the  suppression  of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits, 
which,  after  weighing  the  subject  in  the  "balance  of  the 
sanctuary"  for  several  years,  he  formally  decreed  in  July, 

1773.  He  died  so  soon  after  this  event,  in  September, 

1774,  that  suspicion  of  poison  was  excited;  but  no  evi- 
dence of  the  crime  was  discovered.  He  had  respectable 
abilities,  and  was  more  liberal  and  enlightened  than 
many  of  the  popes.  His  habits  were  moral  and  simple. 
The  Clementine  Museum  is  an  evidence  of  his  munifi- 
cence and  taste  for  the  arts. 

See  Caraccioli,  "Vie  de  Clement  XIV,"  1775;  Theiner, 
"Ge.schichle  des  Pontificals  Clements  XIV.,"  3  vols.,  1853,  and 
French  version  of  llie  same,  "  Histoire  du  Pontificat  de  Clement 
XIV  ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June, 

Clement  VII.,  Anti-Pope,  was  elected  by  a  party 
of  cardinals,  as  a  rival  of  Urban  VI.,  about  1378. 

Clement,  a  learned  Irish  ecclesiastic,  was  one  of  the 
scholars  whom  Charlemagne  invited  to  his  court  and 
employed  as  a  teacher.    Died  after  800  a.d. 

Clement,  kli'mSN',  (Amhroise,)  a  French  economist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1805.  He  published  in  1846  a  work 
entitled  "Researches  into  the  Causes  of  Indigence^" 
which  is  highly  commended.  He  was  one  of  the  chief 
authors  or  compilers  of  the  "  Dictionary  of  Political 
Economv,"  (1852-53.)    Died  in  September,  1862. 

Clement,  kla'ment,  (David,)  a  bibliographer  of  great 
erudition,  was  born  at  Hofgeismar,  Hesse,  in  1701.  He 
became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Hanover  in  1743.  He  pub- 
lished, in  French,  a  work  called  "Catalogue  raisonne  of 
Books  Difficult  to  Find."  (9  vols.,  1750-60.)  Died  in  1760. 

See  Sax,  "  Onomasticon." 

Clement,  (Dom  Franqots,)  a  learned  French  Bene- 
dictine, born  near  Dijon  in  17 14.  He  was  called  by  his 
superiors  to  Paris  to  work  at  the  continuation  of  the 
"Literary  History  of  FVance."  He  afterwards  published 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  volumes  of  "The  Collection 
of  the  Historians  of  France,"  and  "The  Art  of  Veri- 
fying Dates,"  which  was  very  successful.  In  1783-87 
he  produced  an  improved  edition  of  the  latter  work,  (in 
3  vols.,)  which  Jourdain  calls  "the  finest  monument 
of  erudition  of  the  eighteenth  century."  He  was  a 
"free  associate"  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  Died 
in  1793. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Clement,  (Jacques,)  a  fanatical  French  monk  and 
regicide,  born  at  S  )rbonne  about  1566.  When  Henry  III. 
was  besieging  Paris,  then  occupied  by  the  forces  of  the 
Catholic  League,  Clement  conceived  a  design  to  assassi- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  J,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f3,r,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CLEMENT 


621 


CLEOMENES 


nate  hirr.:  in  which  he  was  encouraged  by  his  superiors 
and  by  the  Duke  of  Mayenne.  Having  been  admitted 
to  the  palace  as  the  bearer  of  a  letter  to  the  king,  he 
stabbed  him  with  a  knife,  on  August  I,  1589.  The  as- 
sassin was  killed  on  the  spot  by  the  king's  attendants. 
See  SiSMONUi,  "Histoire  des  Franyais;"  De  Thou,  "  Histoire." 

Clement,  (Jean  Marie  Bernard,)  a  French  littera- 
and  critic,  born  at  Dijon  in  1742.  He  was  noted 
for  the  severity  of  his  criticisms  and  for  his  attacks  on 
Voltaire,  who  surnamed  him  "Inclement."  Among 
his  best  works  are  an  "  Essay  on  Tragedy,"  and  an 
**  Essay  on  the  Manner  of  Translating  Poets  into  Verse." 
He  also  wrote  satires  and  poems.    Died  in  181 2. 

See  Grimm,  "  Correspondance." 

Clem'ent,  (John,)  a  learned  English  physician,  born 
about  1490.  In  1529  he  was  sent  by  Henry  VIII.  to 
attend  Cardinal  Wolsey,  who  was  then  sick.  He  trans- 
lated some  Latin  epigrams,  and  the  "  Letters  of  Gregory 
Nazianzen."    Died  in  1572. 

Clement,  (Julien,)  a  French  surgeon  and  accoucheur, 
born  at  Aries,  was  patronized  by  Louis  XIV.  Died  at 
Paris  in  1729. 

Clement,  kla'm^nt,  (Knut  Jungbohn,)  a  Danish 
linguist,  born  in  the  isle  of  Amram  in  1803,  settled  in 
1835  at  Kiel,  where  he  lectured  several  years.  Among 
his  works  are  one  "On  the  Origin  of  the  Teutons," 
(1836,)  a  "Journey  through  Holland  and  Germany," 
(1847,)  ^"fl  "The  French  and  their  Language,"  (1848.) 

Clement,  (Margaret,)  an  English  lady  and  Latin 
scholar,  born  in  1508,  was  a  niece  of  Sir  Thomas  More. 
Died  in  1570. 

Clement,  (Nicolas,)  born  at  Toul,  in  France,  in 
1647,  was  assistant  librarian  in  the  Royal  Library.  Died 
in  1 712. 

Clement,  kli'mftN',  (Pierre,)  a  critic  and  dramatist, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1707,  was  a  preacher  in  Paris  in  his 
youth.  In  1748  he  began  to  issue  a  critical  review,  called 
"Nouvelles  litteraires  de  France,"  which  he  continued 
about  five  years.  His  criticisms  are  said  to  be  judicious 
and  liberal.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Merope,"  a  tragedy. 
Died  in  1767. 

See  Senebier,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  Geneve." 

Clement,  (Pierre,)  a  French  advocate  of  free  trade, 
and  a  member  of  the  Institute,  was  born  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Var  in  1809.  He  published  in  1846  a  "  History 
of  the  Life  and  Administration  of  Colbert,"  which  was 
crowned  by  the  French  Academy  and  followed  by  other 
successful  works  on  French  history  and  finances. 

Clementi,  kli-men'tee,  (Muzio,)  a  celebrated  pianist 
and  composer,  born  in  Rome  in  1752.  At  the  age  of 
nine  or  ten  his  skill  was  such  that  he  obtained  a  place 
as  organist  in  Rome.  After  this  period  he  became  a 
pupil  of  Santarelli  and  Carjiini.  About  the  age  of  thir- 
teen he  went  to  England  with  Mr.  P.  Beckford,  who  made 
to  his  father  a  generous  offer  in  respect  to  his  education. 
He  learned  ancient  and  modern  languages  and  various 
sciences,  without  neglecting  music.  At  the  age  of  eigh- 
teen he  surpassed  all  his  contemporaries  on  the  piano, 
and  composed  his  "  Opera  2,"  which  is  regarded  as  "  the 
basis  on  which  the  whole  fabric  of  modern  sonatas  for 
the  piano  has  been  founded."  In  1780  and  1781  he 
performed  with  great  applause  in  Paris  and  Vienna.  He 
played  alternately  with  Mozart  before  the  Austrian  em- 
peror. In  1800  he  became  the  head  of  a  firm  which  was 
successful  in  the  publication  of  music  and  the  fabrication 
of  pianos  in  London.  He  wrote  "  Practical  Harmony" 
and  "  Gradus  ad  Parnassum,"  and  composed  one  hundred 
and  six  Sonatas.    Died  in  1832. 

See  Fetis,  "  Riogiaphie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  Tipaldo, 
"  Biografia  decli  Italiani  illustii." 

Clementi,  (Prospero,)  an  eminent  Italian  sculptor, 
born  at  Reggio.  Several  of  the  family  were  noted  as 
sculptors  before  him.  Many  of  his  works  are  at  Reg- 
gio, Parma,  and  Mantua.  A  monument  to  Bishop  An- 
dreassi  is  called  his  master-piece.  Died  in  1584.  He 
was  styled  "the  Correggio  of  Sculpture"  by  Algarotti. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Clementone.    See  Bocciardo. 

Clenard,  kli'ntii',  Cleynaerts  or  Kleinarts,  kll'- 
n^Bts,  (Nicholas,)  a  Flemish  grammarian,  born  in  Bra- 
bant in  1495.    After  he  had  been  professor  of  Hebrew 


and  Greek  in  Louvain,  he  was  employed  by  John  III. 
of  Portugal  to  finish  the  education  of  his  brother,  who 
was  afterwards  Henry  I.  Died  in  1542.  His  Greek 
Grammar  (1530)  had  great  success. 

Clen'nell,  (Luke,)  an  English  painter  and  engraver, 
born  near  Morpeth  in  1781,  was  a  pupil  of  Bewick  the 
engraver.  He  wc^rked  in  London,  and  painted  history, 
landscapes,  etc.    Died  in  a  lunatic-asylum  in  1840. 

Cle'o-bis  and  Ei'ton  [Gr.  KAfo/3if  and  Birwr]  were 
sons  of  the  priestess  of  Juno  at  Argos,  and  once  drew 
her  chariot  to  the  temple.  Their  mother  having  prayed 
that  the  goddess  would  reward  them  with  the  greatest 
of  blessings,  they  fell  asleep  and  never  awoke. 

Cleobule.    See  Cleobulus. 

Cle-o-bu'lus,  [Gr.  IL'Kw^ov'koq;  Fr.  Cleobule,  kliV- 
biil',]  one  of  the  Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece,  was  King 
of  Lindus,  in  Rhodes,  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.  He 
claimed  a  descent  from  Hercules.  His  favourite  maxim, 
"kpLGTov  fierpov,  inculcates  "Moderation  in  all  things." 
Another  of  his  sayings  was,  "  Be  swift  to  hear,  and  slow 
to  speak."  His  daughter  Cleobuline  was  celebrated  for 
her  skill  in  enigmas  and  in  poetry. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Cleombrote.    See  Cleomhrotus. 

Cle-om'bro-tus  or  Kle-om'bro-tus,  [Gr.  KAfo//- 
(ipoTog ;  Fr.  Cleombrote,  kia'SN'bRot',]  the  fourth  son 
of  Anaxandrides,  King  of  Sparta,  was  the  brother  of 
Leonidas,  the  hero  of  Thermopylae.  He  commanded  the 
army  after  the  death  of  Leonidas,  480  B.C.  Pausanias, 
the  victor  at  Plataea,  was  his  son. 

Cleombrotus  I.,  King  of  Sparta,  was  the  son  of  Pau- 
sanias, and  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He  ascended  the 
throne  at  the  death  of  his  brother  Agesipolis,  380  B.C. 
In  371  B.C.  he  commanded  the  Spartans  at  the  battle  of 
Leuctra,  where  he  was  defeated  and  killed  by  the  The- 
bans  under  Epaminondas.  He  left  two  sons,  Agesipolis 
II.  and  Cleomenes  II. 

Cleombrotus  II.  was  the  son-in-law  of  Leonidas  II., 
King  of  Sparta.  By  the  aid  of  Agis  and  Lysander,  he 
succeeded  in  deposing  Leonidas  about  243  B.C.,  and 
reigned  for  a  short  time  in  his  place.  Leonidas  was 
restored,  and  his  rival  was  exiled,  about  240. 

Cleombrotus  of  Ambracia,  a  Greek  Academic  phi- 
loso])her,  drowned  himself  in  the  sea  after  reading  the 
"  Phaedon"  of  Plato,  in  his  eagerness  to  verify  the  doc- 
trine of  a  future  state. 

Cleomede.    See  Cleomedes. 

Cle-o-me'des,  [Gr.  K'Aeo/if/Srjc :  Fr.  Cl^:omede,  kli' 
o^mid',]  a  Greek  astronomer,whose  birthplace,  residence, 
and  era  are  unknown.  He  is  the  author  of  an  interesting 
treatise  on  astronomy  and  cosmography,  entitled  "The 
Circular  Theory  of  the  Heavenly  Bodies,"  ("Kv/i^f/c^ 
deupia  fi£Teo)puv.'''')  He  maintains  that  the  form  of  the 
earth  is  spherical,  that  the  number  of  the  fixed  stars  is 
infinite,  and  that  the  moon's  rotation  on  its  axis  is  per- 
formed in  the  same  time  as  its  synodical  revolution. 
The  refraction  of  light  is  noticed  in  this  work  for  the 
first  time.  He  ridicules  the  physical  theories  of  the 
Epicureans,  and  often  quotes  from  Posidonius,  who  lived 
in  the  first  century  B.C.  His  work  has  been  printed 
several  times. 

See  Delamhrr,"  Histoire  del' Astronomic  ancienne  ;"  Fabricius, 
"Bibliotheca  Gizeca;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale. " 

Cleomene.  _  See  Cleomenes. 

Cle-om^e-nes  or  Kle-om'e-nes  [Gr.  KleofjEvrj^ ;  Fr. 
Cl^:omene,  kli'o'min']  I.,  King  of  Sparta,  was  the  son 
of  Anaxandrides,  whom  he  succeeded  about  518  B.C. 
Demaratus  at  the  same  time  reigned  jointly  with  him. 
In  510  he  liberated  Athens  from  the  rule  of  the  Pisis- 
tratidas,  whom  he  expelled  by  arins  ;  but  he  afterwards 
made  an  abortive  attempt  to  restore  Hippias.  In  500  he 
refused  a  large  bribe  offered  to  induce  him  to  aid  the 
lonians  against  Persia.  About  491  the  Spartans  sent 
him  to  punish  the  people  of  ^gina  for  giving  earth  and 
water  as  signs  of  homage  to  Darius.  By  tampering  with 
the  priestess  of  Delphi,  he  caused  Demaratus  to  be  de- 
throned. Herodotus  says  that  he  killed  himself,  in  a 
fit  of  insanity,  in  489  B.C.  His  half-brother  Leonidas 
succeeded  him. 

See  Herodotus,  "History;"  Grote,  "History  of  Greece;' 
Thirlwall,  "History  of  Greece." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  o,  h,  y^, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled,  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CLEOMENES 


6^4 


CLERC 


Cleomenes  II.,  King  of  Sparta,  of  the  elder  branch, 
succeeded  his  brother  Agesipolis  II.  in  370  B.C.  He  died 
in  309  B.C.,  and  left  the  throne  to  his  grandson  Areus. 

Cleomenes  III.,  King  of  Sparta,  of  the  Agidae  line, 
succeeded  his  father  Leonidas  II.  in  236  B.C.  He  had 
before  married  Agiatis,  the  widow  of  Agis  IV.,  and 
daughter  of  Gylippus.  Having  formed  a  design  to  re- 
stcne  the  ancient  Spartan  virtue  and  discipline,  he  de- 
clared war  against  the  Achaean  League,  with  the  idea 
that  war  was  conducive  to  his  purpose.  He  gained  a 
signal  victory  over  Aratus  near  Megalopolis  in  226  B.C. 
Finding  the  powers  of  the  ephori  an  obstacle  to  his 
design,  he  put  them  all  to  death  except  Agesilaus,  who 
escaped.  He  then  made  a  new  division  of  property  or 
land,  restored  the  old  social  system,  abolished  the  office 
of  ephorus,  and  made  his  brother  Euclidas  his  partner 
in  the  throne.  He  afterwards  defeated  the  Achaeans  in 
several  battles,  until  the  latter  were  reinforced  by  Anti- 
gonus,  King  of  Macedon,  who  obtained  a  decisive  victory 
over  Cleomenes  at  Sellasia  in  222  B.C.  He  then  fled  to 
P2gypt,  where  he  killed  himself  in  the  year  220.  Plutarch 
extols  his  magnanimity,  and  says,  '*  he  showed  himself 
in  all  respects  the  great  man."  He  may  be  justly  ac- 
counted the  last  great  man  of  Sparta. 

See  Plutarch,  "Cleomenes"  and  "Aratus;"  Franz  van  Cap- 
PEI.LE,  "  Dissertatio  de  Cleomeiie  Lacedsmoniorum  Rege,"  1845; 
Dkoysen,  "  Gescliichte  der  Hellenen." 

Cleomenes,  [Fr.  Cl6om^:ne,]  a  Greek  sculptor,  is 
mentioned  by  no  ancient  author  except  Pliny,  who  says 
the  group  of  Muses  placed  by  Pollio  in  his  house  in 
Rome  was  the  work  of  Cleomenes.  His  name  would 
perhaps  have  been  forgotten  if  it  had  not  been  carved  on 
that  exquisite  tvpe  of  grace  and  beauty,  the  Venus  de  Me- 
dici, thus  :  KAE0MENH2  AnOAAOAS2POT  AGHNAIOS 
Eni2IH2EN,  "Cleomenes,  son  of  Apollodorus,  an  Athe- 
nian, made  [this.]"  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about 
200  or  300  B.C. 

See  ViscoNTi,  "  Notice  critique  sur  les  Sculpteurs  Grecs  qui  ont 
porte  le  Noni  de  Cleomenes." 

Cleomenes,  a  Greek  of  Naucratis,  in  Egypt,  was 

appointed  by  Alexander  the  Great  receiver-general  of 
tribute  in  Egypt,  and  was  notorious  for  his  rapacity. 
He  was  also  employed  to  superintend  the  building  of 
Alexandria.  He  was  put  to  death  by  King  Ptolemy  about 
322  B.C. 

Cle'on  or  Kle'on,  [K/lewv,]  an  Athenian  demagogue, 
noted  for  his  insolence,  venality,  and  facility  of  speech, 
first  appears  in  history  about  428  B.C.  He  was  a  favour- 
ite and  leader  of  the  popular  party,  or  lower  classes,  while 
Nicias  was  the  chief  of  the  opposite  party.  He  conducted 
a  successful  expedition  against  the  Spartans  at  Pylos  in 
425,  which  raised  his  credit  and  filled  him  with  presump- 
tion. Though  he  was  ignorant  of  the  military  art,  he 
again  obtained  command  of  an  army  sent  against  the 
Spartan  general  Brajidas,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  at 
Amphipolis  in  422  B.C.  Cleon  and  Brasidas  both  fell  in 
this  action. 

See  Grote,  "History  of  Greece;"  Thucvdides,  "History;" 
Plutarch,  "  Pericles"  and  "  Nicias." 

Cleon,  a  Greek  sculjitor,  born  at  Sicyon,  was  a  pupil 
of  Antiphanes.  He  flourished  about  388  B.C.  Pliny 
speaks  of  a  statue  of  Admetus  as  his  master-piece.  Cleon 
made  two  bronze  statues  of  Jupiter  for  the  temple  at 
Olympia. 

Cle'o-pas  or  Cle'o-phas,  one  of  the  primitive  and 
immediate  disciples  of  Christ.  (See  Luke  xxiv.  18;  John 
xix.  25.) 

Cle-o-pa'tra,  [Gr.  KAeoTrarpa,]  the  daughter  of  Philip 
of  Macedon  and  Olympias,  was  the  sister  of  Alexander 
,the  Great.  In  336  B.C.  she  became  the  wife  of  Alexander, 
King  of  Epirus,  her  maternal  uncle.  After  the  death  of 
her  brother  she  was  assassinated  by  order  of  Antigonus. 

Cleopatra,  the  daughter  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  was 
married  to  Ptolemy  Epiphanes  of  Ii^gypt  in  193  B.C. 

Cleopatra,  an  ambitious  queen  of  Syria,  was  the 
daughter  of  Ptolemy  Philometor.  She  was  the  wife  of 
three  successive  kings  of  Syria, — Alexander  Balas,  De- 
metrius Nicator,  and  Antiochus  Sidetes.  It  is  said  that 
she  caused  the  second  to  be  killed. 
^  Cleopatra,  Queen  of  Egypt,  a  daughter  of  Ptolemy 
Ei)iphanes,  was  married  first  to  Ptolemy  Philometor,  and 
next  to  Ptolemy  Physcon. 


Cleopatra,  Queen  of  Egypt,  a  daughter  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  married  to  Ptoleiuy  Physcon.  Died  89  B.C. 
She  had  a  daughter  Cleopatra,  who  became  the  queen 
of  Ptolemy  Lathyrus. 

Cleopatra,  [Gr.  KAcoTrarpa;  Fr.  Cl^opatre,  kli'o'- 
pitk',]  a  queen  of  Egypt,  celebrated  for  her  personal 
charms,  her  various  accomplishments,  and  her  dramatic 
history,  was  the  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Auletes,  and  was 
born  in  69  B.C.  Her  father  died  in  the  year  51,  leaving 
the  throne  to  her  in  partnership  with  her  brother  Ptol- 
emy. She  was  richly  endowed  with  mental  qualities  and 
captivating  graces,  and  was  mistress  of  many  languages 
besides  the  Greek,  her  mother-tongue.  In  48  B.C.,  Julius 
Caesar,  who  had  entered  Egypt  with  a  small  army,  having 
been  caught  "in  her  strong  toils  of  grace,"  restored  her 
to  the  throne,  from  which  her  brother  had  expelled  her. 
War  ensued  between  Caesar  and  Ptolemy,  who  was  de- 
feated and  killed.  She  then  became  the  actual  sovereign, 
though  her  young  brother  nominally  shared  the  throne. 
She  followed  Caesar  to  Rome  in  the  year  46,  and  was  an 
inmate  of  his  palace  until  his  death  in  44  B.C.,  when  she 
returned  to  Egypt.  Her  brother,  above  mentioned,  was 
killed  about  this  time, — it  is  said,  by  her  order.  In  the 
year  41  she  formed  a  liaison  with  the  triumvir  Mark  An- 
tony, who  became  her  devoted  admirer,  and  oflered,  as 
Plutarch  says,  at  her  shrine  of  luxury  the  sacrifice  of  his 
precious  time.  The  great  modern  dramatist  has  described 
his  infatuation  and  his  dalliance  with  the  voluptuous  and 
dusky  Egyptian  while  the  empire  of  the  world  was  passing 
into  the  hands  of  Octavius.  Cleopatra  was  present  at 
the  naval  battle  of  Actium,  in  31  B.C.,  and  was  the  first 
to  order  a  retreat,  in  which  Antony  followed.  After  An- 
tony had  killed  himself,  she  became  the  prisoner  of  Octa- 
vius, with  whom  she  had  an  interview,  and  whose  favour 
she  failed  to  gain.  Intending  to  lead  her  as  a  captive  in 
his  triumph  in  Rome,  he  took  strict  measures  to  secure 
her  from  suicide  ;  but,  according  to  Plutarch,  she  effected 
her  purpose  by  means  of  an  asp,  which  was  conveyed  to 
her  in  a  basket  of  fruit,  and  died  in  30  B.C.,  leaving  a 
son,  Caesarion,  (whose  reputed  father  was  Julius  Caesar,) 
besides  several  other  children.  She  was  the  last  of  her 
dynasty  that  reigned  in  Egypt. 

See  Plutarch,  "Antony;"  C.«:.sar,  " Bellum  Civile;"  Giulio 
Landi,  "  Vita  di  Cleopatra,"  1551  ;  J.  F.  Kinoerling,  "  Hekubaund 
Cleopatra,"  1S04;  Dion  Cassius,  books  xlii.,  xliii.,  xlviii.,  and  xlix. 

Cleopatra  surnamed  Sele'ne,  the  daughter  of  Mark 
Antony  and  Cleopatra,  Queen  of  Egypt,  was  taken  to 
Rome  at  the  death  of  her  parents,  30  B.C.  She  became 
the  wife  of  Juba,  King  of  Mauritania. 

Cleop^tre.    See  Cleopatra. 

Cle-o-phan'tus,  [KXeb^avTog,']  a  Corinthian,  whom 
Greek  tradition  commemorates  as  the  first  who  applied 
colour  to  designs.  Respecting  the  time  in  which  he  lived 
we  have  nothing  but  conjecture. 

Cle'o-phon  or  Kle'o-phon,  [KAco^wv,]  an  Athenian 
demagogue,  who  dissuaded  the  people  from  acceptmg 
the  terms  offered  by  the  Lacedemonians  after  the  battle 
of  Arginusae.  He  was  condemned  and  executed  by  the 
senate  in  405  B.C. 

Cleostrate.    See  Cleostratus. 

Cle-os'tra-tus  or  Kle-os'tra-tus,  [Gr.  KXeoaTpan)^; 
Fr.  Cleostrate,  kli'o'stRtt',]  a  Greek  astronomer,  born 
in  Tenedos,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  500  B.C. 
He  is  said  to  have  divided  the  zodiac  into  signs. 

Clerc,  klaiR,  (Nicolas  Gabriel,)  a  French  physician, 
born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1726.  He  became  first  phy- 
sician of  the  French  army  in  Germany  in  1757.  A  few 
years  later  he  went  to  Russia,  where  he  had  the  title  of 
chief  physician  to  the  grand  duke.  He  published  seve- 
ral medical  works,  one  of  which  was  very  successful, 
namely,  "Medicine  restored  to  its  First  Simplicity,"  and 
a  "  History  of  Russia,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  (6  vols., 
1783-94,)  which,  says  M.  Weiss,  (in  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle,")  "is  still  the  most  complete  work  we  have 
on  that  subject."   Died  at  Versailles  in  1798. 

See  Qu^rakd,  "La  France  Litt^raire  ;"  fiLOV,  " Dictionnaire  de 
la  Medecine." 

Clerc  de  la  Forrest,  le,  leh  klaiR  deh  It  fo^ri'. 

(Antoine,)  a  French  scholar,  noted  for  his  beneficence, 
was  born  at  Auxerre  in  1563.  Among  his  works  are 
"Letters  and  Maxims,"  (1644.)    Died  in  1628. 

See  his  life,  entitled  "The  Perfect  Layman,"  (in  French,)  1644. 


a,  e,  J,  5,  u,  y,  lono-;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  n,  y,  sAorf :  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CLERC 


623 


CLEVES 


Clerc,  Le.    See  Le  Clerc. 

Clerc,  le,  leh  klaiR,  (Jean,)  surnamed  le  Chevalier, 
(leh  .sheh-vS'le-4',)  a  French  painter,  a  pupil  of  Carlo 
Veneziano,  was  born  at  Nancy  in  1587.  He  worked  for 
many  years  at  Venice.    Died  in  1633. 

Clei'ck,  k'.eRk,  (Karl,)  a  Swedish  entomologist,  and 
pupil  of  IJnnasus,  was  the  author  of  esteemed  works, 
entitled  "Swedish  Spiders,"  ("Aranei  Suecici,"  1757,) 
and  *'  Figures  of  Rare  Insects,"  ("  Icones  Insectorum 
rariorum,")  which  was  highly  praised  by  Linnsus  in  a 
note  to  his  "  Systema  Naturae." 

Clerembault,  de,  deh  klk'rSN'bo',  (Philippe,)  Count 
de  Palluau,  (pt'lii^o',)  a  marshal  of  France,  born  in  1606; 
died  in  1665. 

Clerfayt  or  Clairfait,  de,  pron.  alike  deh  kl^R'fi', 
(FRAxgois  Sekastien  Charles  Joseph  de  Croix — deh 
IcRwl,)  Count,  an  eminent  Austrian  general,  born  near 
Binche,  in  Flanders,  in  1733.  He  fought  against  the  Prus- 
sians in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  (1755-62,)  and  became 
general-major  in  1773.  For  his  victory  over  the  Turks, 
near  Korammeck,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  gen- 
eral of  artillery  in  1790.  He  commanded  a  division  at 
the  battle  of  Jemmapes,  (November,  1792.)  The  victory 
of  the  Austrians  at  Neerwinden,  (1793,)  where  he  com- 
manded the  left  vving,  is  attributed  to  him.  He  was  de- 
feated near  Tournay  in  1794.  He  received  the  baton  of 
field-marshal,  with  the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine, 
in  1795,  forced  Jourdan  to  repass  the  Rhine,  and  gained 
a  victory  over  another  French  army  at  Mentz.  In  1796 
he  was  superseded  by  the  Archduke  Charles,  and  became 
a  member  of  tlie  council  of  war  in  Vienna.   Died  in  1798. 

See  JoMiNi,  "  Histoire  critique,  etc.  des  Guerres  de  la  Revolution." 

Clerion,  kli're'oN',  (Jacques,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  near  Aix  in  1640.  His  principal  works  are  in  the 
park  of  Versailles.    Died  in  1714. 

Clerisseau,  kli're'so',  (Charles  Louis,)  a  successful 
French  painter  and  architect,  born  in  1720,  built  the 
Hotel  of  the  Govenmient  at  Metz,  and  published  "An- 
tiquities of  France."    Died  in  1820. 

Clerjoii,  kllR'zh^N',  (Pierre,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Vienne  in  1800,  wrote  a  "History  of  Lyons," 
(1831,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1832. 

Clerk,  (John,)  a  Scottish  naval  tactician,  born  at 
Eldin  about  1730.  He  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  the 
manoeuvre  in  naval  tactics  called  "breaking  the  line," 
which  was  first  tried  with  success  by  Sir  George  Rod- 
ney in  April,  1782,  when  he  defeated  De  Grasse  in  the 
West  Indies.  He  published,  in  1782,  an  "  Essay  on 
Naval  Tactics."    Died  in  1812. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Clerk,  (John,)  Lord  Eldin,  a  Scottish  judge  and 
eloquent  advocate,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  about 
1757.    He  lived  in  Edinburgh.    Died  in  1832. 

Clerke,  (Charles,)  an  able  English  navigator,  born 
in  1 741.  He  accompanied  Captain  Cook  in  his  voyages 
around  the  world  between  1768  and  1776,  and  upon  the 
death  of  Cook  he  became  commander  of  the  expedition. 
He  died  at  sea  in  1779. 

See  Cook,  "Voyages;"  W.  Smith,  "  Voyages  around  the  World." 

Clermont,  de,  deh  klgii'moN',  (Louis  de  Bourbon 
Conde— deh  booR'bdN'  koN'da',)  Comte,  a  French 
prince,  born  in  1709.  He  displayed  courage  and  ability 
in  several  campaigns  between  1 733  and  1 750.  About  1 754 
he  was  admitted  into  the  P  rench  Academv.  He  com- 
manded the  army  in  Hanover  in  1758,  and  was  defeated 
at  Crevelt.    Died  in  1770. 

Clermont-Tonnerre,  de,  deh  kleR'm6N'  to'naiR', 
(Aim6  Marie  Gaspard,)  Due,  a  French  minister  of 
state,  born  in  Paris  in  1780,  was  a  son  of  Gaspard  Paulin, 
and  nephew  of  the  cardinal.  He  entered  the  Chamber 
of  Peers  in  1815,  was  appointed  minister  of  the  marine 
in  1821,  and  was  minister  of  war  from  1823  until  1827. 

Clermont-Tonnerre,  de,  (Anne  Antoine  Jules,) 
Cardinal,  born  in  Paris  in  1749,  was  a  son  of  Jules 
Charles  Henri,  noticed  below.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Chalons  in  1782,  and  acted  with  the  royalists  in  the 
States-General  of  1789.  In  1820  he  was  made  Archbishop 
of  Toulouse,  and  a  cardinal  in  1822.    Died  in  1830. 

Clermont-Tonnerre,  de,  (FRANgois,)  a  Frenchman, 
born  in  1629,  became  Bishop  and  Count  of  Noyon.  He 
was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1694,  and 


founded  the  annual  prize  of  poetry  offered  by  that  insti- 
tution.   Died  in  1701. 

See  Saint-Simon.  "Memoires." 

Clermont-Tonnerre,  de,  (Gaspard,)  Marquis,  a 
French  general,  born  in  1688.  He  commanded  the  left 
wing  at  Fontenoy,  and  had  a  prominent  part  in  the  battle 
of  Laufeld  in  1746.  In  the  same  year  he  was  made 
marshal  of  France.    Died  in  1781. 

Clermont-Tonnerre,  de,(S  rANiSLAS,)CoMTE,  grand- 
son of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1 747.  He  was  elected  by 
the  noblesse  of  Paris  to  the  States-General  in  1789.  He 
was  liberal  in  politics,  and  was  one  of  those  nobles  who 
joined  the  Tiers-Etat.  By  his  eloquence  and  other  talents 
he  acquired  much  influence  in  the  Assembly,  but  was  too 
moderate  to  please  the  party  which  became  dominant. 
He  advocated  the  absolute  veto,  and  the  civic  equality 
of  Protestants  with  all  other  Frenchmen.  He  perished 
in  the  massacre  of  August  10,  1792.  "Clermont-Ton- 
nerre and  Malhouet,"  says  Lamartine,  "were  statesmen 
rather  than  orators  :  their  sure  and  deliberate  speech 
impressed  the  reason  only.  They  sought  an  equilibrium 
between  liberty  and  monarchy,  and  believed  they  had 
found  it  in  the  English  system  of  two  chambers."  ("  His- 
tory of  the  Girondists.") 

Clerselier,  klgR'sa'le-i',  written  also  Clersellier, 
(Claude,)  a  French  metaphysician,  born  in  1614,  was  a 
partisan  of  the  Cartesian  philosophy.  He  edited  the 
"Principles  of  Philosophy"  and  other  works  of  Descartes, 
l^ayle  calls  him  the  "ornament  and  pillar  of  Cartesian- 
ism."    Died  in  1684. 

Clery,  kli're',  (Jean  Baptiste  Cant  Hanet,)  the 
last  servant  of  Louis  XVI.  of  France,  was  born  at  Ver- 
sailles in  1759.  He  served  that  king  as  valet-de-chambre 
in  prison,  and  published  a  "Journal  of  the  Captivity  of 
Louis  XVI.  in  the  Temple."  Died  near  Vienna  in  1809. 

See  Madame  Campan,  *' JMemoires Vigee  le  Bkun,  "Sou- 
venirs." 

Clesinger,  kleh-z3,N'zhi',  (Jean  Baptiste  Auguste,) 
a  successful  French  sculptor,  born  at  Besan9on  about 
1820.  His  statue  of  a  "Woman  bitten  by  a  Serpent" 
(1847)  is  called  one  of  his  best  works.  About  1856  he 
exhibited  in  Paris  an  equestrian  statue  of  Francis  T. 

Cleve,  van,  vtn  kliv,  (Cornelius,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor, of  Dutch  extraction,  born  in  Paris  in  1645.  After 
studying  at  Rome  six  years,  he  returned  home  in  1677, 
and  worked  in  Paris  with  success.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Academy.    Died  in  1732. 

Cleveland.    See  Cleaveland. 

Cleveland,  kleev'land,  (Charles  Dexter,)  an  Ame- 
rican scholar  and  writer,  born  in  Salem,  Massachusetts, 
in  1802.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  1827,  and  in 
1830 .was  appointed  Latin  and  Greek  professor  in  Dick- 
inson College,  Pennsylvania.  In  1834  he  established  a 
Young  Ladies'  Seminary  in  Philadelphia,  which  soon 
acquired  a  high  rej^utation.  He  has  published,  besides 
other  works,  "A  Compendium  of  Grecian  Antiquities, 
with  Maps  and  Illustrations  ;"  "  Compendium  of  F^nglish 
Literature  from  Sir  John  Mandeville  to  William  Cow- 
per,"  (1850;)  "English  Literature  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century,"  (1851  ;)  a  critical  edition  of  Milton's  Poetical 
Works,  (1853;)  a  "Compendium  of  American  Litera- 
ture," (1858 ;)  and  a  "Compendium  of  Classical  Litera- 
ture," (1861.)  All  the  last-named  works  have  enjoyed  an 
extensive  and  deserved  popularity.   Died  in  1869. 

CleV'en-ger,  (Shobal  L.  Vail,)  an  American  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Middletown,  Ohio,  in  1812.  He  learned 
the  trade  of  a  stonecutter,  which  he  followed  in  Cincin- 
nati. Having  attracted  attention,  he  removed  to  Boston, 
where  he  made  busts  of  Webster,  Clay,  and  others, 
which  were  much  admired.  He  afterwards  studied  for 
several  years  in  Italy,  and  died  at  sea,  while  on  his 
passage  home,  in  September,  1843. 

See  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists;"  "Democratic  Review" 
for  February,  1844. 

Cleves,  de,  deh  kl^v,  (Marie,)  Duchess  of  Orleans, 
born  in  1426,  was  a  daughter  of  Adolphus  IV.,  Duke  of 
Cleves,  and  a  niece  of'Philip  the  Good  of  Burgundy. 
She  was  married  in  1440  to  Charles  d'Orleans  the  poet. 
She  wrote  ballads  and  other  verses.  Her  son  became 
Louis  XII.,  King  of  France.    Died  in  1487. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this,    (gi^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CLEVER 


624 


CLINTON 


Cleyer,  klT'er,  (Andreas,)  a  German  botanist,  born 
at  Cassel,  passed  some  years  in  Java,  and  enriched  the 
science  of  botany  with  his  observations  and  memoirs. 
Du  Petit- Thouars  says  he  visited  China  and  Japan  and 
returned  to  hlurope  about  i68o. 

Cieyn,  kiln,  (Franz,)  a  Danish  painter,  born  at  Ros- 
tock, worked  in  England,  and  received  a  pension  from 
James  I.    Died  in  1658. 

Cleynaerts.    See  Cl^nard. 

Clichtove,  kliK'to'veh,  (Jossk,)  a  Flemish  theologian, 
born  at  Nieuwpoort.  He  Ijecame  professor  of  theology 
in  Paris,  and  acquired  a  high  rejiutation  as  a  preacher  and 
writer.  His  most  popular  work  was  an  argument  against 
Lutiier's  doctrines,  called  '*  Anti-Lutherus,"  (1524.)  His 
writings  were  commended  by  Erasmus  as  "  uberrimus 
rerum  oplimarum  fons,"  ("  an  abundant  fountain  of  the 
best  things.")    Died  in  1543. 

Clicquot  de  Blervache,  kle'ko'  deh  bl^R^tsh', 
(SiM(JN,)  a  meritorious  French  economist,  born  at  Rheims 
in  1 723,  became  inspector-general  of  commerce  in  1765. 
He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  vState  of  Commerce  in  France 
from  Hugh  Capet  to  Francis  I.,"  (1756.)    Died  in  1796. 

Clieveland.    See  Cleavkland. 

Clifford.    See  Cliffort. 

CiiFford,  (.\nne,)  Countess  of  Dorset,  an  Engb'sh 
lady,  eminent  for  her  virtue,  intelligence,  and  high  spirit, 
born  at  Skipton  Castle  in  1589,  was  the  daughter  of 
George  Clifford,  Earl  of  Cumberland.  She  was  married 
first  to  the  Earl  of  Dorset,  and  then  to  Philip  Herbert, 
Earl  of  Pembroke.  She  built  two  hospitals  and  several 
churches.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  H.  Sir  Jt)seph  Wil- 
liamson nominated  to  her  a  candidate  whom  he  wished 
to  be  returned  to  Parliament  for  Appleby.  In  reply 
she  wrote  this  famous  letter:  "I  have  been  bullied  by 
an  usurper,  I  have  been  neglected  by  a  court,  but  I  will 
not  be  dictated  to  by  a  subject :  your  man  sha'n't  stand." 
Died  in  1676. 

See  "Autobiographic  Memorials;"  L.  S.  Costello,  "Memoirs 
of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  London,  1844;  Hartley  Colekiuge, 
"Lives  of  Distinguished  Northerns,"  vol.  ii. 

Clifford,  (Arthur,)  an  English  writer,  born  of  a  noble 
family  in  1778.  He  was  author  or  editor  of  several  works, 
among  which  are  "  Carmen  Seculare,"and  "  State  Papers 
and  Letters  of  Sir  Ralph  Sadler."    Died  in  1830. 

Clifford,  (George,)  third  Earl  of  Cumberland,  born 
in  England  in  1558,  was  famous  for  his  gallantry.  He 
was  often  the  champion  of  Queen  Elizabeth  in  tourna- 
ments. In  1588  he  fought  as  captain  against  the  In- 
vincible Armada.  He  afterwards  commanded  several 
expeditions  against  the  Spaniards.    Died  in  1605. 

See  J.  Barrow,  "Memoirs  of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Reign,"  1845;  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  British  Ad- 
mirals." , 

Clifford,  (John,)  Lord,  called  Black  CLiFFORn,  an 
English  warrior,  notorious  for  cruelty,  fought  for  the 
house  of  Lancaster  in  the  war  of  the  Roses.  He  was 
killed  in  146L    See  Shakspeare's  "Henry  VI." 

Clifford,  (Martin,)  an  English  writer,  published 
"Observations  on  Human  Reason,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1677. 

Clifford,  (Thomas,)  eighth  Lord,  an  English  Lancas- 
trian chief,  performed  an  important  part  in  the  war  of 
the  Roses.  He  was  the  father  of  the  "  Black  Clifford" 
noticed  above.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Saint 
Alban's  in  1455.   (See  Shakspeare's  "  Henry  VI.") 

Clifford,  (  f  HOMAS,)  Lord,  an  English  politician,  born 
in  1630,  became  in  1660  a  member  of  Parliament,  in  which 
he  distinguished  himself.  In  1668  he  was  chosen  a  com- 
missioner of  the  treasury,  and  in  1671  he  with  four  others 
formed  the  notorious  cabinet  called  the  Cabal  because 
the  initial  letters  of  their  names  happened  to  form  that 
word.  He  was  created  Baron  in  1672,  and  was  lord 
treasurer  for  a  short  time,  but  resigned  office  in  1673. 
Macaulay  calls  hii  i  the  most  respectable  member  of  the 
Cabal.    Died  in  1673. 

See  Macaulay's  "History  of  England." 

Cliffort,  kliFfort,  or  Clifford,  (George,)  a  rich  banker 
of  Amsterdam,  whose  name  is  rendered  memorable  by 
nis  connection  with  Linnaeus.  Having  a  taste  for  natural 
history,  he  formed  near  Amsterdam  a  fine  garden,  with 
a  rich  collection  of  objects  in  natural  history.  When  Lin- 
naeus was  a  poor  student,  he  was  employed  to  arrange  and 


direct  this  museum  and  garden,  which  he  described  in  his 
"  Hortus  Cliffortianus,"  (1737,)  a  richly-illustrated  work. 

Clift,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  an  Engli.sh  naturalist,  born 
near  Kodmm  in  1775,  was  employed  as  artist  and  clerk 
by  the  great  John  Hunter.  He  became  conservator  of 
the  Hunterian  Museum  about  1800.    Died  in  1849. 

Clirt9n,( Francis,)  F,R.S.,an  English  physician,  prac- 
tised in  London  with  a  high  reputation,  and  became 
physician  to  the  Prince  of  Wales.  He  translated  several 
treatises  of  Hippocrates,  and  wrote  "The  State  of  Physic, 
Ancient  and  Modern,"  (1732.) 

Clifton,  (William,)  an  American  poet,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1772.  He  left  an  unfinished  poem,  caJled 
"The  Chimeriad,"  a  "Poetical  Epistle  to  William  Gif- 
ford,"  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1799. 

See  Griswold's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Climaque.    See  Climacus. 

Clim'a-cus,  (Joannes,)  [Gr.  'luawrj^  6  Kll^aKOQ ;  Fn 
Climaque,  kle^mtk',]a  monk,  noted  for  his  learning  and 
ascetic  writings,  was  born  about  525  a.d.,  and  received 
the  surname  of  Scholastic  us.  He  passed  many  years 
as  a  hermit  in  the  deserts  of  Sinai.  In  600  he  was 
chosen  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Mount  Sinai.  He 
wrote  (in  Greek)  several  works,  one  of  which  is  called 
"Climax,  or  the  Ladder  of  Paradise,"  and  has  often  been 
reprinted.    Died  in  605. 

See  Fabrich;s,  "  Bibliotheca  Gra:ca." 

Clinchamp,  kliN'shSN',  (FRANgois  Etienne  Vic- 
tor,) a  French  writer  and  historical  painter,  born  at 
Toulon  in  1787.  He  published  a  "Complete  Course  of 
Perspective,  Linear  and  Aerial,"  (1840,)  and  "  The  Id'om 
of  Painting,"  etc. 

Cline,  (  Henry,)  an  English  surgeon,  born  in  London 
about  1750,  wrote  an  esteemed  "  Essay  on  the  Form  and 
Breeding  of  Domestic  Animals,"  (1815.)    Died  in  1827. 

Cling'man,  (Thomas  L.,)  born  in  Surry  county, 
North  Carolina,  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1843,  as  a  Whig,  and  was  re-elected  several  times. 
Having  joined  the  Democratic  party,  he  was  elected  to 
the  Senate  of  the  United  States  in  1858. 

Clin'i-as,  the  father  of  Alcibiades,  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Coronea  in  447  B.C. 

Clinias,  a  Pythagorean  philosopher,  and  friend  of 
Plato,  born  at  Tarentum,  lived  about  400  B.C. 

Cli-nom'a-ehus,  [Fr.  Clinomaque,  kle^no'mtk',]  a 
philosopher  of  the  school  of  Megara,  was  born  at  Thu- 
rium,  and  lived  about  350  B.C. 

Clin'tpn,  (Charles,)  Colonel,  the  father  of  Gov- 
ernor George  Clinton,  was  born  in  1690  in  Longford,  Ire- 
land. He  emigrated  to  America  in  1729,  and  settled  in 
Ulster  county.  New  York.  He  was  judge  of  the  county 
court,  and  a  lieutenant  under  Bradstreet  at  the  capture 
of  Fort  Frontenac.    Died  in  1773. 

Clin'ton,  (Charles  John  Fynes,)  an  English  clergy- 
man, born  in  1799,  edited  or  published  "The  Literary 
Remains  of  Henry  Fynes  Clinton,"  (1854.) 

Clin'ton,  (De  Witt,)  an  eminent  American  states- 
man, born  at  Little  Britain,  Orange  county.  New  York, 
March  2,  1769,  was  a  son  of  General  James  Clinton 
and  Mary  De  Witt.  He  was  a  nephew  of  George  Clin- 
ton who  was  chosen  Vice-President  of  the  United  vStates 
in  1804.  He  graduated  at  Columbia  College,  New  York, 
in  1786,  and  studied  law,  but  never  practised  it  to  much 
extent.  About  1790  he  became  private  secretary  of  his 
uncle,  George  Clinton,  then  Governor  of  New  York. 
"The  life  of  Clinton,"  says  Renwick,  "was  from  this 
moment  one  of  political  strife,  into  which  he  threw  all 
the  force  of  his  ardent  temperament  and  brilliant  talents." 
He  began  his  career  as  a  Republican  or  Anti-Federalist. 
He  married,  about  1796,  Maria  Franklin,  of  New  York 
City.  In  1797  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  legisla- 
ture, and  in  1798  a  Senator,  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
Among  other  pursuits,  he  applied  himself  with  ardour  to 
the  study  of  natural  history  and  other  sciences. 

Having  become  the  most  influential  leader  of  the 
Democrats  of  New  York,  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States  in  1801  or  1802.  He  made  a  powerful 
speech  on  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi,  and  opposed 
a  war  against  Spain,  which  disputed  the  right  of  the 
Americans  to  navigate  that  river.  He  possessed  in  high 
perfection  the  gift  of  commanding  eloquence.  Accord- 


5,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  it,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


CLINTON 


625 


CLINTON 


ing  to  Professor  Renwick,  "he  was  on  all  sides  looked 
u]j  to  as  the  most  rising  man  in  the  Union,"  when  he 
was  appointed  mayor  of  the  city  of  New  York  in  1803. 
This  office  was  then  more  important  than  it  is  at  the 
present  time  ;  for  the  mayor  was  also  the  president  of 
the  council  and  chief  judge  of  the  common  pleas  and  of 
the  criminal  court.  He  continued  to  serve  as  mayor 
until  1807,  was  again  appointed  in  1809,  and  removed  in 
iSio.  He  filled'"the  same  office  from  181 1  to  1814  in- 
clusive, and  by  his  wise  and  efficient  administration  con- 
tributed much  to  the  prosperity  of  the  city.  Under  his 
auspices  the  Historical  Society  and  the  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  were  established.  He  also  served  as  Lieutenant- 
Governor  for  two  years,  1811-13.  He  was  one  of  seven 
commissioners  apj^ointedin  1809  to  examine  and  survey 
a  route  for  a  canal  from  the  Hudson  to  the  lakes. 

De  Witt  Clinton  and  Aaron  Burr  were  political  rivals  ; 
and,  after  the  latter  fell  into  disgrace,  Daniel  D.  Tomp- 
kins became  a  competitor  for  the  leadership  of  the  New 
York  Democracy.  Tompkins  excelled  in  the  art  of 
gaining  the  favour  of  the  people,  while  Clinton  was 
deficient  in  popular  arts  and  found  it  more  difficult  to 
ingratiate  himself  with  strangers.  His  popularity  was 
impaired  by  his  disagreement  with  President  Madison 
in  relation  to  the  war  of  1812,  for  which  he  thought  the 
country  was  not  well  prepared.  He  was  nominated  for 
the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States  in  181 2,  and 
received  eighty-nine  electoral  votes,  cast  by  New  Hamp- 
shire, Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Maryland,  but  was 
defeated  by  James  Madison, 

He  was  the  first  president  of  the  Literary  and  Philo- 
sophical Society,  founded  about  1814.  According  to  Mr. 
Renwick,  "the  charge  of  being  opposed  to  a  war  with 
Great  Britain,  which  has  been  so  often  urged  against 
him,  is  devoid  of  foundation."  Li  1815  he  gave  a  new 
impulse  to  internal  improvement  by  an  able  memorial  in 
favour  of  the  immediate  construction  of  the  Erie  Canal. 
The  merit  of  this  memorial,  together  with  his  subsequent 
services,  was  such  as  to  entitle  him  to  stand  first  in  the 
list  of  the  promoters  of  this  vast  and  beneficent  enter- 
prise, on  which  his  political  prospects  and  reputation 
were  staked.  Li  the  spring  of  181 7  a  bill  authorizing 
the  construction  of  the  Erie  Canal  passed  the  legislature. 
Mr.  Clinton  was  almost  unanimously  elected  Governor 
of  New  York  about  May,  181 7  ;  but  his  opponents  soon 
formed  against  him  a  powerful  party,  called  "  Bucktails," 
who  denounced  the  projected  canal  as  visionary  and 
impracticable.  The  canal  policy  was  the  chief  point  at 
issue  in  the  election  of  1820,  and  Governor  Clinton 
was  then  re-elected  in  preference  to  his  old  rival,  Daniel 
D.  Tompkins;  but  the  opponents  of  Clinton  obtained 
majorities  in  both  branches  of  the  legislature. 

He  was  pre-eminent  among  statesmen  for  his  compre- 
hensive views  and  his  liberal  patronage  of  learning  and 
schools.  In  a  message  to  the  legislature  he  affirmed, 
"It  cannot  be  too  forcibly  inculcated,  nor  too  generally 
understood,  that  in  promoting  the  great  interests  of  moral 
and  intellectual  cultivation  there  can  be  no  prodigality 
in  the  application  of  the  public  treasure."  While  he 
filled  the  office  of  Governor  he  was  also  president  of  the 
Board  of  Canal  Commissioners.  Having  lost  his  first 
wife  in  1818,  he  married  Catherine  Jones  about  1820. 
He  declined  to  be  a  candidate  for  Governor  in  1822,  and 
the  election  of  that  year  resulted  in  the  success  of  his 
adversaries,  who  removed  him  from  the  office  of  canal 
commissioner  in  1824.  This  act  excited  the  just  indig- 
nation of  the  people,  who  elected  him  Governor  in  the 
autumn  of  1824  by  a  majority  of  about  16,000,  a  greater 
majority  than  any  candidate  had  ever  received.  The 
Erie  Canal  was  completed  in  1825,  and  Governor  Clinton 
lived  to  witness  the  unexampled  prosperity  which  it  pro- 
duced. The  opening  of  the  canal  was  celebrated  with 
pomp  in  October,  1825,  when  the  Governor  was  conveyed 
in  a  barge  through  a  triumphal  progress  from  Lake  Erie 
to  the  city  of  New  York.  He  was  re-elected  Governor 
for  two  years  in  1826.  In  1825  he  declined  the  position 
of  minister  to  England,  offered  to  him  by  President 
Adams.  He  wrote  several  short  treatises  on  natural  his- 
tory, which  were  published  in  the  "Transactions"  of  the 
Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  (of  New  York,)  and 


contributed  to  the  Historical  Society  a  valuable  discourst 
on  the  history  of  the  Indians  of  New  York.  He  died 
at  Albany  in  February,  1828,  leaving  several  sons  and 
daughters.  His  stature  was  tall,  his  person  well  formed, 
his  manners  dignified,  and  his  presence  majestic. 

See  James  Renwick,  "  Life  of  De  Witt  Clinton,"  1840  ;  "  National 
Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii.  ;  "  Life  of  De 
Witt  C'linton,"  by  William  W.  Campbell,  1849;  "  Memoir  of  De 
Witt  Clinton,"  by  David  Hosack,  1829 ;  "  North  American  Review" 
for  October,  1829. 

Clinton,  (Edward.)    See  Lincoln,  Earl  of. 

Clinton,  (George,)  fourth  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States,  youngest  son  of  Colonel  Charles  Clinton, 
was  born  in  Ulster  county,  New  York,  in  1739.  He 
practised  law  with  success,  and  became  the  head  of  the 
Whig  party  in  the  Colonial  Assembly  of  New  York. 
Elected  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1775,  he  voted 
for  the  Declaration  of  Independence  ;  but,  being  called 
shortly  after  to  take  command  of  a  brigade  of  New  York 
militia,  his  name  does  not  appear  among  the  signers  of 
that  instrument.  Chosen  Governor  of  New  York  at  the 
first  election  under  the  State  Constitution  in  1777,  he 
held  the  office,  by  successive  re-elections,  for  eighteen 
years.  In  1788  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  conven- 
tion called  to  adopt  or  reject  the  Federal  Constitution, 
which  he  opposed,  as  giving  too  much  power  to  the  cen- 
tral government  and  too  little  to  the  States.  Governor 
Clinton  was  thenceforth  the  leader  of  the  Republican 
parly  in  New  York,  and  at  the  close  of  Washington's 
first  term,  in  1792,  received  fifty  electoral  votes  for  Vice- 
President.  He  was  again  chosen  Governor  of  New 
York  in  1801,  and  in  1804  he  was  elected  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States,  with  Jefferson  as  President.  In 
the  national  canvass  of  1808  he  was  re-chosen  Vice-Presi- 
dent, James  Madison  being  President.  As  President  of 
the  Senate  by  virtue  of  this  office,  he  gave  the  casting 
vote  against  the  re-charter  of  the  United  States  Bank  in 
181 1.    Died  at  Washington  in  April,  1812. 

See  "Encyclopaedia  Americana." 

Clinton,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  general,  born  about 
1738,  was  a  grandson  of  Francis  Clinton,  sixth  Earl  of 
Lincoln.  He  became  a  captain  in  the  Guards  in  1758, 
and  had  risen  to  the  rank  of  major-general  in  1775,  when 
he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill. 
In  January,  1778,  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief 
instead  of  General  Howe,  who  was  recalled.  He  evacu- 
ated Philadelphia  in  June,  and  retired  through  Jersey 
to  New  York  City.  He  sent  an  expedition  against 
Savannah,  which  was  successful,  in  1779,  and  he  led  an 
army  against  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  which  he  cap- 
tured in  May,  1780.  In  the  same  year  he  negotiated 
with  General  Arnold,  and  co-operated  with  him  in  his 
treasonable  project.  He  was  superseded  by  General 
Carleton  in  1781,  and  returned  to  England  in  1782.  Died 
at  Gibraltar  in  1795. 

See  Bancroft,  "History  of  the  United  States;"  "Encyclopaedia 
Americana." 

Clinton,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  general,  born  about 
1765.  In  1798  he  acted  as  aide-de-camp  of  Lord  Corn- 
wallis  in  Ireland.  He  was  made  adjutant-general  in  1802, 
and  served  in  the  East  Indies  until  1805.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  major-general  in  1810,  and  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  several  campaigns  in  the  Peninsula  under  Wel- 
lington. As  lieutenant-general,  he  commanded  a  division 
at  Waterloo  in  1 81 5.  For  his  conduct  on  this  occasion 
he  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  knight  of  various  orders. 
Died  about  1830. 

Clinton,  (Henry  Fynes,)  an  eminent  English  clas- 
sical scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Gamston,  Notting- 
hamshire, in  1 781,  was  a  descendant  of  the  second 
Earl  of  Lincoln.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1805.  He 
represented  Aldborough  in  Parliament  for  about  twenty 
years  previous  to  1826.  After  long  and  close  application 
to  the  study  of  Greek  and  Roman  authors,  he  produced 
in  1834  an  important  work,  entitled  "Fasti  Hellenici  : 
the  Civil  and  Literary  Chronology  of  Greece,"  which 
is  indispensable  to  students  of  ancient  history.  His 
"Chronology  of  Rome"  ("Fasti  Romani,"  1845-50)  is 
also  highly  prized.    Died  in  1852. 

See  "Literary  Remains  of  H.  F.  Clinton,"  by  C.  J.  F.  Clinton, 
1854. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  H,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (^(^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

40 


CLINTON 


626 


CLODIUS 


Clinton,  (Henry  Pelham.)  See  Newcastle,  Duke 

OF. 

Clinton,  (James,)  a  distinguished  ofificer  in  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution,  fourth  son  of  Colonel  Charles  Clinton, 
and  father  of  De  Witt  Clinton,  was  born  in  Ulster  county, 
New  York,  in  1736,  He  greatly  distinguished  himself 
in  the  English  and  French  war,  was  appointed  by  Con- 
gress a  colonel  at  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution  in 
1775,  and  the  same  year  accompanied  Montgomery  in 
his  expedition  to  Canada.  In  1777  he  commanded,  as 
brigadier-general,  under  his  brother  George,  noticed 
above,  at  the  defence  of  Fort  Clinton  against  Sir  Henry 
Clinton,  with  a  force  of  3000.  He  afterwards  rendered 
valuable  service  in  Sullivan's  expedition  against  the  In- 
dians, and  was  for  a  long  time  stationed,  in  command  of 
the  Northern  department,  at  Albany.  In  1781  he  assisted 
at  the  siege  of  Vorktown.  After  the  war  he  filled  various 
important  civil  offices  in  New  York.    Died  in  1812. 

See  "Encyclopaedia  Americana." 

Cli'o,  [Gr.  KTiSicj,]  one  of  the  nine  Muses,  presided 
over  history,  and  was  represented  as  holding  in  one  hand 
a  half-opened  roll,  and  in  the  other  a  harp,  (cithara.) 
See  Mus.^. 

Clisson,  de,  deh  kle'sdn',  (Olivier,)  a  famous  French 
captain,  born  in  l^retagne  about  1335.  He  became  in 
1370  a  companion-in-arms  of  Du  Guesclin,  and  in  1380 
was  made  Constable  of  France.  In  1382  he  commanded 
the  vanguard  at  the  battle  of  Rosbecq.  He  was  deprived 
of  the  command  in  1391,  and  died  in  1407,  leaving  a  repu- 
tation tarnished  by  an  unscrupulous  avidity  for  money. 

See  La  Fontenelle  de  Vauxdore,  "  Histoire  d'Olivier  de  Clis- 
son,"  1825. 

Clisthene.    See  Clisthenes. 

Clis'the-nes,  a  tyrant  of  Sicyon,  waged  war  against 
Argos,  and  prohibited  his  subjects  from  singing  the 
poetry  of  Homer.    Died  about  5S0  B.C. 

Clisthenes,  Cleis'the-nes,  or  Kleisthenes,  [Gr. 

Kleiadevrjg;  Fr.  Clis  thene,  kl^s'tan',]  an  Athenian  states- 
man, who  flourished  about  500  B.C.,  was  the  grandfather 
of  Pericles,  and  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He  made  im- 
portaiit  changes  in  the  constitution,  tending  to  increase 
the  power  of  the  commons,  and  thus  became  very  popular. 
He  changed  the  number  of  tribes  of  Attica  from  four  to 
ten.  After  his  rival  Isagoras  was  exiled,  Clisthenes  was 
for  some  time  the  foremost  man  in  the  state.  It  is  said 
that  the  mode  of  banishing  by  ostracism  was  instituted 
by  him. 

See  Herodotus,  "  History,"  books  v.  and  vi.  ;  Grote,  "  History 
of  Greece;"  Thirlwall,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Cli-tar'-ehus  or  Clei-tar'-ehus,  [Gr.  YUehapxog Fr. 
Clitarque,  kle''tiRk',]  a  son  of  Dinon  the  historian, 
lived  about  330  B.C.  He  followed  Alexander  the  Great 
in  his  expedition  to  Asia,  and  wrote  a  history  of  the 
same,  which  has  not  come  down  to  us.  The  veracity  of 
this  work  is  discredited  by  Quintilian  and  Cicero. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Graecis." 

Clitarque.    See  Clitarch us. 

Cli-tom'a-Ghus,  [Gr.  KAar6/za,Yor-,]  a  Carthaginian 
philosopher,  who  about  150  B.C.  became  a  resident  of 
Athens  and  a  disciple  of  Carneades.  At  the  death  of 
the  latter,  in  130  B.C.,  he  succeeded  him  as  the  head  of 
the  Academy.  He  wrote  numerous  works,  which  are 
not  extant.    Cicero  often  quotes  him  with  respect. 

See  Brucker,  "History  of  Philosophy." 

Clit'o-phon,  [K/lfiro^wi',]  a  Greek  historian  of  an 
uncertain  epoch,  was  born  at  Rhodes.  Plutarch  quotes 
or  borrows  from  several  of  his  works. 

Cli'tus  or  Clei'tus,  [Gr.  Kldrog,]  a  Macedonian  offi- 
cer, who  accompanied  Alexander  in  the  invasion  of 
Persia.  He  saved  the  life  of  that  prince  at  the  battle  of 
the  Grani^cus,  (334  B.C.,)  and  afterwards  obtained  com- 
mand of  a  division  of  the  royal  guards.  In  the  year  328 
he  was  appointed  Satrap  of  Bactria.  At  a  feast  given 
in  honour  of  the  Dioscu'ri  in  that  year,  an  angry  dispute 
arose  between  Clitus  and  Alexander,  who,  being  excited 
with  wine,  killed  the  former  with  a  spear. 

See  Plutarch,  "Alexander." 

Clive,  (Catherine,)  an  eminent  English  actress,  born 
in  1711,  made  htx  delnit  at  Drury  Lane  about  1730.  She 
performed  in  comedy  for  about  thirty  years,  with  distin- 


guished success.    She  was  married  early  to  a  Mr.  Clive, 
from  whom  she  soon  separated.    Died  in  1785. 

Clive,  (Robert,)  Lord,  the  founder  of  the  British 
empire  in  India,  an  able  and  successful  general  and 
statesman,  was  born,  of  rather  poor  parents,  near  Market 
Drayton,  Shropshire,  in  1725.  At  school  he  made  little 
progress  in  study,  and  was  noted  for  his  fiery  passions 
and  propensity  to  mischief.  In  his  eighteenth  year  he 
went  to  Madras,  as  a  writer  in  the  service  of  the  East 
India  Company,  then  merely  a  trading  corporation  own- 
ing but  a  few  acres  of  Indian  ground.  /Vs  his  pay  was 
small  and  his  health  was  impaired  by  the  climate;  he 
became  so  weary  of  life  that  he  attempted  to  kill  himself; 
but  his  pistol  twice  missed  fire.  About  that  time  war 
began  between  the  English  and  French  in  India;  and 
Clive  entered  the  service  of  the  Com]: any  as  ensign  in 
1747.  By  his  courage  and  sagacity  he  lose  rapidly  to 
distinction.  The  brilliant  successes  of  the  French  gov- 
ernor Dupleix  alarmed  the  English,  and  produced  a  crisis 
in  the  politics  of  India.  Captain  Clive,  having  obtained 
command  of  a  few  hundred  men  in  1750,  turned  the  tide 
of  fortune  at  Arcot,  and  gained  several  victories  over  the 
French  and  native  armies  combined.  Having  married 
Miss  Maskelyne,  a  sister  of  the  astronomer-royal,  he 
returned  to  England  for  his  health  in  1753,  and  found 
himself  an  object  of  general  favour  and  applause. 

In  1755  the  directors  sent  him  back  as  governor  of 
Fort  Saint  David.  The  next  year  Surajah  Dowlah,  Na- 
bob of  Bengal,  captured  the  British  garrison  of  Fort 
William,  and  smothered  them  in  the  "Black  Hole"  of 
Calcutta.  Clive  was  sent  to  avenge  this  outrage.  He 
recovered  Calcutta,  and  compelled  the  nabob  to  sue  for 
peace  in  1757.  But  the  war  was  quickly  renewed,  and 
in  June,  1757,  the  fate  of  India  was  decided  at  the  battle 
of  Plassey,  where  Clive  with  3000  men  defeated  about 
60,000  of  the  enemy.  Surajah  was  deposed,  and  was 
put  to  death  by  order  of  Meer  Jaffier,  who  had  been 
raised  to  the  throne  of  Bengal  in  place  of  Surajah  Dow- 
lah. In  the  negotiations  which  preceded  the  battle  of 
Plassey,  Clive  is  censured  for  a  breach  of  faith,  which  is 
not  denied  by  his  friends.  The  directors,  on  receiving 
news  of  his  victory,  appointed  Clive  Governor  of  Bengal. 
In  1759  he  defeated  a  Dutwh  armament  which  had  en-  ' 
tered  the  Hoogly.  In  the  next  year  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land, immensely  rich,  and  was  raised  to  the  Irish  peerage 
as  Lord  Clive,  Baron  of  Plassey.  He  was  elected  to 
Parliament,  where  he  acquired  great  influence.  In  1764 
he  was  again  sent  to  India,  with  supreme  command,  and 
remained  about  a  year  and  a  half.  He  returned  home 
in  ill  health  in  1767.  His  enemies  arraigned  his  official 
conduct,  and  Burgoyne  in  1773  accused  him  in  the  House 
of  abusing  his  power  in  the  acquisition  of  riches.  The 
result  of  the  inquest  was  that  they  "tempered  a  gentle 
censure  with  a  liberal  eulogy."  PVom  his  youth  he  had 
been  subject  to  fits  of  constitutional  gloom,  which  were 
now  aggravated  by  physical  maladies.  He  resorted  to 
the  use  of  opium  for  relief,  and  gradually  became  enslaved 
by  its  insidious  power.  In  November,  1774,  he  died  by 
suicide.  "  His  name,"  says  Macaulay,  in  a  strain  of  some- 
what exaggerated  eulogy,  "stands  high  on  the  roll  of 
conquerors.  But  ijj,is  found  in  a  better  list, — in  the  list 
of  those  who  have  clone  and  suffered  much  for  the  hap- 
piness of  mankind." 

See  Macaulay,  "Essays;"  Sir  John  Malcolm,  "Life  of  Lord 
Clive,"  3  vols.,  1836;  G.  R.  Gleig,  "Life  of  Lord  Clive,"  184S; 
"  Biographia  Britannica ;"  C.  Caraccioli,  "Life  of  Lord  Clive,' 
4  vols.,  1776. 

Clodion,  klo'de'dw',  (Claude  Michel,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Nancy  about  1745  ;  died  in  1814. 

Clodius,  kloMe-us,  (Christian  August,)  a  German 
poet  and  professor,  born  at  Annaberg,  in  Saxony,  in  1738, 
was  a  son  of  Christian  Clodius,  who  published  several 
works  in  prose  and  verse.  He  obtained  the  chair  of 
philosophy  at  Leipsic  in  1764,  and  that  of  logic  in  1778. 
He  became  professor  of  ]-)oetry  in  the  same  city  in  1782. 
His  writings  display  a  brilliant  imagination,  good  taste, 
and  extensive  knowledge  of  the  ancients.  Among  his 
chief  works  are  "Essays  on  Literature  and  Morality," 
(1769,)  "Latin  Poems,"  (1787,)  and  "  New^  Miscellanies," 
("  Neue  vermischte  Schriften.")    Died  at  Leipsic  in  1 784. 

See  Ernrstl  "Elogium  C.  A.  Clodius:"  Mkusel,  "  Lexiko  der 
vom  Jahr  1750  bis  1800  verstorbenen  Deutschen  Schriftsteller." 


a.,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  long;  i,  k,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f4t;  mit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CLODIUS 


627 


CLOUET 


Clodiiis,  (JoHANN  Christian,)  a  German  Orien- 
talist, wlio  became  professor  of  Arabic  at  Leipsic  in  1724. 
He  publislied  a  work  on  the  Arabic  language,  entitled 
"Theoria  et  Praxis  Linguae  Arabicse,"  and  a  "Hebrew 
Lexicon,"  (1744.)    Died  in  1745. 

Clodius,  (Juliana  Stolzel,)  the  wife  of  Christian 
August,  noticed  above,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1755,  was 
eminent  for  her  literary  talents  and  attainments.  Died 
in  1805. 

Clo'di-us,  (LiCiNius,)  a  Roman  historian,  who  lived 
probably  about  100  B.C.,  wrote  a  work  called  "'E.Txyxog 
Xpovcjv,  ("Trial  of  the  Times.") 

Clodius,  (PuBLius,)  surnamed  Pul'cher,  a  Roman 
demagogue  of  very  profligate  character,  was  descended 
from  the  patrician  house  of  Claudia,  and  was  a  brother 
of  Appius  Clludius  Pulcher,  noticed  in  this  work.  In 
his  youth  he  served  in  Asia  under  Lucullus,  his  brother- 
in-law.  In  62  B.C.  he  committed  an  act  of  sacrilege  by 
procuring  admission  to  the  mysteries  of  Bona  Dea  in  the 
disguise  of  a  woman.  For  this  he  was  tried,  but  ac- 
quitted by  means  of  bribery ;  and  he  became  a  violent 
enemy  of  Cicero,  who  had  appeared  in  evidence  against 
him.  He  was  chosen  tribune  of  the  people  in  59,  and 
in  the  next  year  caused  Cicero  to  be  proscribed  and 
driven  into  exile.  (See  Cicero.)  He  raised  several 
bloody  riots  against  the  friends  of  Cicero  when  they 
proposed  and  passed  the  decree  for  his  restoration,  57 
B.C.  Milo,  who  succeeded  Clodius  as  tribune,  and  was 
a  partisan  of  Cicero,  had  several  conflicts  with  the  former. 
While  Clodius  was  a  candidate  for  the  praetorship,  and 
Milo  for  the  consulship,  they  casualty  encountered  each 
other  with  their  armed  retainers,  and  Clodius  was  killed, 
in  the  year  52  B.C. 

See  Cicero,  "Oratio  pro  Milone;"  Drumann,  "Geschichte 
Roms." 

Clo'di-us  Ma'cer,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  general,  who, 
on  the  death  of  Nero,  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  in 
Africa,  and  aspired  to  the  power  of  emperor.  He  was 
put  to  death  by  order  of  Galba  in  68  a.d. 

Clo'do-mir,  [Fr.  pron.  klo'do''m^R',]  the  second  son 
of  Clovis,  King  of  the  Franks,  became  King  of  Orleans 
in  511  A.D.  He  was  killed  in  battle  with  the  Burgundians 
in  524.  He  left  three  sons,  two  of  whom  were  put  to 
death  by  their  uncles,  and  the  third,  Clodoald,  (Saint- 
Cloud,)  became  a  monk. 

Clodovaeus.    See  Clovis. 

Clodwig.    See  Clovis. 

Clonard,  de,  deh  klo''nSR',  (Joseph  Ernest,)  a 
French  dramatist,  born  in  1765,  wrote  numerous  come- 
dies.   Died  in  1816. 

Clon-cur'ry,  (Valentine  Lawless,)  Lord,  an  Irish 
politician,  born  at  Dublin  in  1773,  was  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  United  Irishmen,  and  a  friend  of  Emmet  and 
Grattan.  He  wrote  "Thoughts  on  the  Projected  Union 
between  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,"  (1797.)  Died  in  1853. 

See  "Personal  Recollections  of  the  Life  and  Times  of  Lord  Clon- 
curry." 

Clootz,  de,  deh  klots,  (Anacharsis,)  Baron,  a  Prus- 
sian enthusiast,  born  near  Cleves  in  1755,  ^^^■'^  ^  ne])hew 
of  Cornelius  de  Pauw.  Having  inherited  a  large  fortune, 
he  became  a  resident  of  Paris,  and  a  fanatical  partisan  of 
the  Revolution.  Assuming  the  title  of  the  "  orator  of  the 
human  race,"  he  appeared  at  the  bar  of  the  Assembly 
in  1790,  at  the  head  of  a  pretended  deputation  from 
foreign  nations.  In  1792  he  was  elected  to  the  Con- 
vention by  the  dominant  party.  He  was  proscribed  by 
Robespierre,  and  executed  in  March,  1794. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Clopinel.    See  Meun. 

Cloquet,  klo'ki^  (Hippolyte,)  a  distinguished  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1787.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Descriptive  Ana- 
tomy," (1815.)    Died  about  1840. 

Cloquet,  (Jules  Germain,)  an  eminent  French  phy- 
sician and  surgeon,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1790.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  professor,  writer,  and  practitioner.  In  1831  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  clinical  surgery  in  the  Faculty 
of  Paris.  He  wrote  "Human  Anatomy,"  ("Anatomic 
de  I'Homme,"  5  vols.,  1821-30.)  and  other  professional 
works.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1855. 


Clos.    See  Laclos. 

Close,  (Francis,)  an  eloquent  English  preacher,  born 
about  1798,  was  for  many  years  vicar  of  Cheltenham. 
He  published  "Discourses  on  Genesis,"  (1826,)  several 
volumes  of  sermons,  and  other  works,  which  maintain 
the  doctrines  of  the  Evangelical  school.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  deanery  of  Carlisle  about  1856. 

Closs,  klos,  or  Clossius,  klos''se-us,  (Johann  Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  physician  and  poet,  born  at  Marbach 
in  1735.  He  wrote  several  Latin  poems  on  medical 
subjects.    Died  in  1787. 

Closterman,  klos'ter-mJn'',  (Johann,)  a  German 
portrait-painter,  born  at  Osnaburg  in  1656,  worked  in 
England.    Died  in  London  in  17 10. 

Clostermann.    See  Klostermann. 

Clot,  klo,  or  Clot-Bey,  klo  bi,  (Antoine,)  a  French 
physician,  born  near  Marseilles  about  1796.  He  became 
chief  surgeon  of  Mehemet  Ali,  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  about 
1823,  and  founded  a  medical  school  in  that;  country.  He 
published  "Observations  on  Egypt,"  (2  vols.,  1840.)  In 
1849  I'le  returned  to  France.    Died  in  1868. 

See  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1841. 

Clot-Bey.    See  Clot,  (Antoine.) 

Clotaire,  klo't^R^  [Lat.  Clota'rius,]  I.,  the  fourth 
son  of  Clovis,  King  of  the  Franks,  was  born  in  497  a.d. 
At  the  death  of  Clovis,  in  511,  he  became  King  of  Sois- 
sons.  He  extended  his  dominions  by  murdering  his 
nephews,  the  heirs  of  the  kingdoms  of  Orleans  and 
Austrasia,  and  before  his  death  he  became  ruler  over  all 
the  territory  which  Clovis  had  divided  among  his  sons. 
Paris  was  his  capital  after  558.  He  died  about  560  a.d., 
leaving  four  sons, — Caribert,  Gontran,  Sigebert,  and 
Chilperic  I. 

See  Jean  Bouchet,  "  Histoire  et  Chronique  de  Clotaire  I,"  1584; 
SiSMONUi,  "Histoire  des  Fran^ais." 

Clotaire  II.,  the  son  of  Chilperic  I.  and  of  Frede- 
gonde,  was  an  infant  when  he  became  heir  to  the  king- 
dom of  Soissons  in  584  a.d.  His  mother  was  regent 
until  her  death  in  597.  By  dethroning  Brunehaut,  Queen 
of  Austrasia,  whom,  with  her  sons,  he  put  to  death,  he 
made  himself  master  of  all  France  about  615.  He  was 
the  first  who  conceded  to  the  mayor  of  the  palace  a  ten- 
ure of  office  for  life.  His  abilities  and  success  procured 
him  the  surname  of  "the  Great."  He  died  in  628,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Dagobert. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Fran^ais." 

Clotaire  III.,  the  eldest  son  of  Clovis  II.,  King  of 
the  Franks,  was  a  minor  when  his  father  died,  in  655 
A.D. ;  and,  the  kingdom  being  divided  into  two  portions, 
he  inherited  Neustria  and  Burgundy.  He  died,  without 
issue,  about  the  age  of  eighteen, 

Clotaire  IV.,  King  of  Austrasia,  was  raised  to  the 
throne  in  717  A.D.  by  the  policy  of  Charles  Martel,  but 
was  only  a  nominal  king.  It  is  not  known  who  was  his 
father.    Died  in  720. 

See  AuGUSTiN  Thierry,  "Recits  Merovingiens." 

Clotho.    See  Parc^. 

Clo-til'da,  [Fr.  Clotilde,  klo't^ld',]  Saint,  Queen 
of  France,  the  daughter  of  Chilperic,  King  of  Burgundy, 
became  the  wife  of  Clovis  I.  in  493  a.d.  By  her  beauty 
and  virtue  she  acquired  much  influence  over  Clovis,  and 
was  instrumental  in  converting  him  to  the  profession 
of  Christianity.  She  adhered  to  the  Catholic  creed  in 
opposition  to  Arianism,  which  was  then  very  prevalent. 
Died  in  545. 

See  Renaud  de  Rouvray,  "Histoire  de  Sainte-Clotilde,"  1840; 
J.  Desmay,  "Viede  Sainte-Clotilde,"  1613;  Madame  de  Renne- 
viLLE,  "Vie  de  Sainte-Clotilde,"  1809. 

Clotilde.    See  Clotilda. 

Clotilde  de  Vallon-Chalis.    See  Surville. 

Clotz.    See  Klotz. 

Cloud,  kloo,  or  Clo'do-ald,  Saint,  youngest  son  of 
Clodomir,  became  an  ecclesiastic,  and  founded  a  monas- 
tery at  Nogent-sur-la-Riviere,  since  called  by  his  name. 
Died  about  560. 

Clouet,  kloo'i',  an  able  French  chemist,  born  at 
Singly,  near  Mezieres,  in  1 751,  became  professor  of 
chemistry  at  Mezieres.  He  discovered  the  important 
secret  of  making  cast  steel,  which  the  English  had 
found  out  before.  Having  gone  to  Cayenne  to  make 
some  scientific  inquiries,  he  died  of  fever  in  1801. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  Aar(/;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (S:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CLOUET 


628 


CLVVER 


Clouet,  (FRANgois,)  an  eminent  French  painter,  called 
Janet,  (zhS'ny,)  born  about  1510,  was  valet-de-chambre 
and  painter  to  the  king.  His  works  are  extolled  by 
Konsard  and  other  poets.  Died  about  1580.  His  por- 
trait of  Henry  H.  is  regarded  as  a  master-piece.  His 
lather,  Jkan,  (1485-1545,)  was  also  distinguished  as  a 
painter. 

Clouet,  klow'et, written  alsoClowet,  Clouvet,  kloo^- 
vV,  or  Clovet,  (Peter,)  a  Flemish  engraver,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1606.  He  engraved  history,  landscapes,  and 
portraits  witli  success,  and  worked  mostly  in  his  native 
city.  The  works  of  Rubens  employed  much  of  his  time 
and  talent,  and  the  "  Death  of  Saint  Anthony"  is  called 
his  master-piece.  Died  about  1670.  His  nephew,  Al- 
HEK  i',  born  at  Antwerp  in  1624,  was  a  skilful  engraver. 
He  worked  in  Rome  and  Florence.    Died  in  1687. 

See  Nac.i.er,  "Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Clough,  kliif,  (Arthur  Hugh,)  an  English  poet,  born 
in  Liverpool  in  1819  or  1820.  He  was  educated  at 
Rugby  and  Oxford,  and  was  a  tutor  in  Oriel  College.  He 
produced  in  1848  "  Bothie  of  Tober-na-Vuolich  :  a  Long 
Vacation  Pastoral,"  (2  vols.,)  which  is  much  admired. 
Between  1849  ^^''d  1852  he  was  professor  of  English  lite- 
rature in  University  College,  London.  In  1852  he  visited 
the  United  States,  where  he  gained  the  friendship  of 
Longfellow  and  other  poets.  Among  his  works  are  a 
version  of  Plutarch's  "Lives,"  (Boston,  5  vols.,  1859,) 
and  poems  called  "  Ambarvalia."  Died  at  Florence  in 
November,  1861.  The  "Long  Vacation  Pastoral,"  says 
the  "Spectator,"  "belongs  to  a  class  of  poems  of 
which  Goethe's  '  Hermann  and  Dorothea'  is  perhaps  the 
most  perfect  specimen  ;  though  in  vigour  and  breadth 
of  imagination  Mr.  Clough's  pastoral  is  certainly  not 
inferior.  .  .  .  Here  we  must  close  our  notice  of  a  truly 
noble  poem — not  without  threads  of  unhealthy  sentiment, 
but  still  broad,  bright,  buoyant,  and  tender." 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1862;  "Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  January,  1849  :  North  American  Review"  for  Octo- 
ber, 1867. 

Clouvet.    See  Clouet. 
Clovet.    See  Clouet. 

Clovio,  klo've-o,  (Don  GiULio,)  an  eminent  Italian 
painter,  born  in  Croatia  in  1498,  was  a  pupil  of  Giulio 
Romano.  He  is  considered  the  most  excellent  minia- 
ture-painter that  Italy  has  produced.  He  also  painted 
some  historical  works,  among  which  is  a  "  Descent  from 
the  Cross."  "His  portraits,"  says  Landon,  "may  be 
compared  to  those  of  Titian  for  vigour  and  natureiy 
Died  in  1578. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

CloVis  [Fr.  pron.  kh/v^ss' ;  Lat.  Clodov.e'us]  I., 
called  also  Chlodwig  and  Hlodwig,  (which  is  said  to 
have  become  corrupted  into  Ludwig,  Ludovicus,  Louis, 
etc.,)  King  of  the  Franks,  was  born  about  466  A.D.,  and 
educated  as  a  pagan.  In  481  he  succeeded  his  father 
Childeric,  who  reigned  over  the  Salian  Franks  at  Tour- 
nay.  By  a  victory  over  the  Romans  and  Gauls  in  486  he 
became  master  of  Soissons,  which  he  chose  for  his  capital. 
In  493  he  married  Clotilda,  a  fair  Christian  princess, 
and  in  496  he  became  a  convert  to  her  religion.  This 
change  induced  the  cities  of  Armoricato  place  themselves 
under  his  dominion  and  protection.  In  507  he  fixed  his 
court  at  Paris.  Alaric,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  then  pos- 
sessed the  region  between  the  Loire  and  the  Pyrenees. 
Clovis  defeated  and  killed  him  in  a  great  battle  near  Poi- 
tiers in  507,  and  added  Aquitaine  to  his  kingdom.  He  died 
in  511,  leaving  four  sons,  Thierri,  Clodomir,  Childeric, 
and  Clotaire,  among  whom  France  was  divided.  "With 
the  reign  of  Clovis,"  says  Walckenaer,  "commence  the 
glory,  empire,  religion,  laws,  and  usages  of  the  French." 
W\%  glory,  however,  was  tarnished  by  many  acts  of  cruelty. 
His  descendants  are  called  Merovingians,  from  Merovig, 
(in  Latin,  Merovaeus,)  the  grandfather  of  Clovis. 

See  ViAi.LOK,  "Clovis  le  grand  premier  Roi  cbrelien,"  3  vols., 
1788;  Aug.  Thierkv,  "  Recits  Merovingiens  ;"  Sismondi,  "  His- 
toire  des  Frangais;"  "Biographic  Universelle ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  (^enerale." 

Clovis  II.,  the  second  son  of  Dagobert  I.,  King  of  the 
Franks,  was  born  about  633  A.D.,  and  became  King  of 
Neiistria  and  Burgundy  in  638.  Little  is  known  of  his 
reign,  except  that  by  revolts  against  the  royal  family  of 


Austrasia  he  became  sole  ruler  of  the  heritage  of  Clovis 
I.  He  died  in  655,  leaving  two  sons,  Clotaire  III.  and 
Childeric  II. 

Clovis  III.,  soji  of  Thierri  I.,  King  of  France,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  691  A.D.,  at  the  age  of  nine.  Pepin 
le  Gros  was  in  reality  king,  under  the  title  of  Mayor  of 
the  palace.  Clovis  died  in  695,  leaving  the  title  to  his 
brother,  Childebert  III. 

See  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Franpais." 

Clowes,  klouz,  (John,)  an  English  Swedenborgian 
writer,  born  at  Manchester  in  1743.  He  was  rector  of 
Saint  John's  in  Manchester  about  sixty  years.  He  trans- 
lated Swedenborg's  "Celestia  Arcana,"  and  published 
several  works,  one  of  which  is  "  Restoration  of  the  Pure 
Religion."    Died  in  1831. 

See  De  Quincey,  "Autobiographic  Sketches,"  and  "Literary 
Reminiscences,"  vol.  i. 

Clowes,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  surgeon, 
who  practised  in  London  between  1570  and  1600,  and 
was  for  some  years  chief  surgeon  of  Bartholomew's 
Hospital.  Fie  published  several  professional  treatises, 
the  principal  of  which  is  "The  Approved  Practice  for  all 
Young  Surgeons,"  (1591.) 

Clowes,  (William,)  an  enterprising  English  printer, 
born  at  Chichester  in  1779.  He  became  a  master-printer 
in  London  about  1804,  and  twenty  years  later  began  to 
print  by  steam.  His  establishment  eventually  became, 
it  is  said,  the  largest  and  most  complete  in  the  world. 
Among  the  productions  of  his  presses  were  the  "  Penny 
Magazine"  and  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia."  He  operated 
more  than  twenty  steam-presses  at  once.    Died  in  1847. 

Clowet.    See  Clouet. 

Cliibbe,  kliib,  (John,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
1703,  was  rector  of  Wheatfield.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Ancient 
Villa  of  Wheatfield  or  Whatfield,"  (1758,)  an  excellent 
piece  of  satire,  directed  against  modern  antiquaries. 
Died  about  1772. 

See  Nichols,  "Literary  Anecdotes,"  etc. 

Clubbe,  (William,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  vicar 
of  Brandeston.  He  published  a  translation  of  six  Satires 
of  Horace,  (1795,)  "The  Epistle  of  Horace  on  the  Art 
of  Poetry,  translated  into  English  Verse,"  (1797,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1814. 

Clugny  de  Nuis,  kliin'ye'  deh  nii-e',  (Jean  £tienne 
Bernard,)  a  French  financier,  succeeded  Turgot  as 
controller-general  of  finances  in  April,  1776.  He  coun- 
teracted the  policy  of  Turgot,  and  resorted  to  a  royal 
lottery  as  a  source  of  revenue.  He  died  in  office  in 
October,  1776. 

Clu'ny,  (Alexander,)  was  the  author  of  the  "Ame- 
rican Traveller,"  London,  1769,  said  to  have  been  pub- 
lished under  the  auspices  of  Lord  Chatham.  It  excited 
much  interest  in  England  and  America  at  the  time. 

Cluseret,  klii'zeh-ri',  (Gustave  Paul,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  Paris  in  1823.  He  served  in  the  Cri- 
mean war,  and  gained  the  rank  of  captain.  In  1859  he 
enlisted  in  the  army  of  Garibaldi,  under  whom  he  fought 
with  the  rank  of  major.  He  offered  his  services  to  the 
United  States,  and  became  a  colonel  in  the  Union  army 
about  January,  1862.  He  commanded  the  advance  of 
Fremont's  army  at  Strasburg  and  Cross  Keys,  June,  1862. 

Clusius.    See  Lecluse. 

Clutius.    See  Cluyt. 

Clut'ter-buck,  (Rohert,)  an  eminent  English  an- 
tiquary, born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1772.  He  published 
a  complete  "History  and  Antiquities  of  the  County  of 
Hertford,"  (1815-27,)  with  excellent  plates.  He  resided 
mostly  at  Watford,  his  native  place.    Died  in  1831. 

Cluver,  kloo-vaiR',  or  Cluwer,  [Fr.  Cluvier,  klii'- 
ve-i';  Lat.  Cluvf/rius,]  (Philip,)  a  learned  linguist  and 
geographer,  was  born  at  Dantzic  in  1580.  He  visited 
England,  France,  Germany,  and  Italy  in  pursuit  of  in- 
formation, and  of  materials  for  his  works,  among  which 
are  "  Germania  Antiqua"  and  "Italia  Antiqua,"  (1624.) 
The  latter  is  commended  for  accuracy.  Died  in  1623. 
"His  works,"  says  Hallam,  "form  a  sort  of  epoch  in 
ancient  geography."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe.") 

See  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  Daniel  Heinsius,  "  Oratio  in  P. 
Cluverii  Obitum,"  1623. 


e,  T,  o,.  u,  y,  lojtg',  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,    short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CLUFERIUS 


629 


COBBETT 


Cluverius.    See  Cluver. 
Cluvier.    See  Cluver. 

Cluyt,  kloit,  (Auger,)  a  Dutch  botanist,  a  son  of 
Theodore,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Leyden  about  1590. 
After  making  botanical  researches  in  several  countries, 
he  became  director  of  the  botanical  garden  at  Leyden. 
He  wrote  *'  Instructions  for  packing  and  conveying  Trees, 
Plants,  etc.  to  a  Distance,"  (1631,)  and  a  few  other  works. 

See  "Biographic  Medicale." 

Cluyt,  [Lat.  Clu'tius,]  {Theodore  Auger,)  a  Dutch 
botanist,  was  director  of  a  public  botanical  garden 
founded  at  Leyden  in  1577,  which  became,  under  his 
charge,  one  of  the  best  that  then  existed.  He  wrote  a 
"History  of  Bees,"  (1598.) 

Clym''e-ne,  [Gr.  KAv/uev?];  Fr.  Climene  or  Clymene, 
kle'min',]  an  ocean  nymph,  regarded  as  a  daughter  of 
Oceanus,  the  wife  of  Japetus,  and  the  mother  of  Atlas, 
Prometheus,  and  Epimetheus. 

Cly'mer,  (George,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1739.  He  became  about  1773  an  active 
supporter  of  the  pojjular  cause,  was  chosen  a  member 
of  Congress  in  1776,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence. In  1780  he  was  re-elected  to  Congress.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  convention  which  framed  the 
Federal  Constitution  in  1787,  and  was  the  founder  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Agricultural  Society.    Died  in  1813. 

See  GooDKiCH,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence." 

Clyt-em-nes'tra,  [Gr.  Klvraifiv^aTpa ;  Fr.  Clytem- 
NESTRE,  kle't^m'n§stR',J  the  wife  of  Agamemnon,  and 
the  sister  of  Castor.  Having  formed  a  guilty  connection 
with  yEgisthus  during  the  absence  of  her  husband,  she 
murdered  the  latter  on  his  return  from  Troy.  She  was 
killed  by  her  son  Orestes. 

Clytemuestre.    See  Clytemnestra. 

Ciyfi-a  or  Clyt'I-e,  [Gr.  KAyna  or  KAkt/t;,]  a  nymph 
beloved  by  Apollo,  (the  sun  :)  having  been  deserted  by 
her  lover,  she  was  changed  into  a  heliotrope. 

See  Ovid,  "  Metamorphoses,"  book  iv. 

Cuut.    See  Canute. 
Cnutzen.    See  Knutzen. 

Coad,  kod,  (John,)  an  English  carpenter,  who  was 
engaged  in  the  rebellion  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  in 
1685,  for  which  he  was  transported  to  Jamaica.  He 
wrote  a  curious  narrative  of  his  adventures. 

See  "Memorandum  of  the  Wonderful  Providences  of  God,"  etc., 
by  John  Coad. 

Cobad.    See  Cabades. 

Cobb,  (Howell,)  an  able  American  politician,  born 
in  Jefferson  county,  Georgia,  in  181 5.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  by  the  Democrats  in  1843,  twice 
re-elected.  In  December,  1849,  was  chosen  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives,  He  was  Governor  of 
Georgia  in  1851  and  1852,  and  was  apjjointed  secretary 
of  the  treasury  by  President  Buchanan  in  March,  1857. 
He  resigned  before  the  end  of  i860,  was  president  of  the 
Congress  of  secessionists  which  met  in  February,  1861, 
and  became  a  major-general  in  the  Confederate  service. 
Died  in  1868. 

Cobb,  (Howell,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  at  Sa- 
vannah, Georgia,  in  1795.  He  published,  in  1845,  ^ 
work  on  legal  forms. 

Cobb,  (James,)  an  English  dramatic  poet,  born  in 
1756.  He  was  employed  as  clerk  or  secretary  by  the 
East  India  Company  about  1772.  He  composed  "The 
Humorist,"  "The  Strangers  at  Home,"  (1786,)  and  other 
dramas.    Died  in  1813. 

See  Baker,  "Biographia  Dramatica." 

Cobb,  (Joseph  Beckham,)  son  of  Thomas  W.,  no- 
ticed below,  was  born  in  Oglethorpe  county,  (Jeorgia,  in 
1819.  lie  was  a  contributor  to  the  "American  Review," 
and  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  novel  entitled  "The 
Creole."    Died  in  1858. 

Cobb,  (Nathaniel  R.,)  a  philanthropic  merchant  of 
Boston,  was  born  in  Falmouth,  Maine,  in  1798;  died 
in  1834. 

Cobb,  (Samuel,)  an  English  poet,  who  graduated  at 
Cambridge  in  1702.  He  published  a  volume  of  poems, 
(1707,)  "The  Oak  and  Brier,"  a  tale,  and  the  "Female 
Reign."    Died  in  1713. 


Cobb,  (Thomas  R.  R.,)  a  lawyer,  born  in  Jeffersotv 
county,  Georgia,  in  1820,  published  in  1851  a  "Digest 
of  the  Laws  of  Georgia."  He  became  a  general  in  the 
Confederate  service,  and  was  killed  at  Fredericksburg  in 
December,  1862. 

Cobb,  (Thomas  W.,)  born  in  Columbia  county, 
Georgia,  in  1784.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1816, 
and  became  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1824.  In 
1828  he  was  made  a  judge  of  the  superior  court.  Died 
in  1830. 

Cobbe,  kob,  (Frances  Power,)  a  rationalistic  writer 
on  religion  and  morals,  a  descendant  of  Charles  Cobbe, 
Archbishop  of  Dublin,  was  born  in  that  city  in  1822.  In 
early  youth  Miss  Cobbe  seems  to  have  been  left  very 
much  to  herself.  She  read  not  only  the  Bible  and  "Pil- 
grim's Progress,"  but  also  some  books  of  a  very  different 
character.  Shelley  appears  to  have  been  a  special  favourite 
with  her.  We  need  not  be  surprised  that,  with  such  com- 
panions for  her  solitude,  her  mind  should  sometimes 
become  a  prey  to  universal  doubt.  As  she  was  one  day 
musing  on  the  great  problem  of  existence,  she  said  to 
herself  that,  although  she  knew  nothing  of  God,  or  of 
any  law  beyond  her  own  soul,  she  would  at  least  be  true 
to  that  and  merit  the  approbation  of  her  own  conscience. 
This  resolution,  we  are  told,  brought  almost  immediately 
a  renewed  faith  in  God, — "a  sense  that  somehow  such 
an  effort  must  be  pleasing  to  her  Creator,  who  had  given 
her  that  iniier  law."  From  that  hour  slie  was  a  theist. 
Meeting  not  long  afterwards  with  some  of  'I'heodore 
Parker's  writings,  she  read  them  with  great  avidity  and 
delight.  Her  mother's  death  having  vividly  ])resented 
to  her  mind  the  great  question  of  a  future  life,  she  wrote 
to  Mr.  Parker,  asking  him  why  he  believed  in  immor- 
tality. His  "Sermon  of  the  Immortal  Life"  was  his 
reply.  (See  Parker,  Theodore.) 

Among  the  most  important  of  Miss  Cobbe's  produc- 
tions are  her  "Intuitive  Morals,"  (London,  1855,)  and 
her  "  Religious  Duty,"  both  of  which  works  evince 
strong  powers  of  reasoning,  joined  with  great  earnest- 
ness of  character.  Miss  Cobbe  has  been  pronounced  the 
best  interpreter  of  the  views  of  Theodore  Parker;  and 
"since  his  death,"  says  Mr.  Chadwick,  "  no  one  has  done 
more  to  perpetuate  his  influence  aiul  increase  his  fame." 

See  "Cliristian  Examiner"  for  November,  1867. 

Cob'bett,  (John  Morgan,)  a  son  of  William  Cobbett, 
noticed  below.  He  published  a  selection  of  his  father's 
political  works,  in  6  volumes,  (1842.)  In  1852  he  was 
elected  a  Liberal  member  of  Parliament  for  Oldham. 

Cobbett,  (William,)  a  popular  and  vigorous  poli- 
tical writer,  born  at  Farnham,  England,  in  1762.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  farmer,  and  was  self-educated.  About 
1784  he  enlisted  in  the  army,  and  served  with  honour  in 
North  America  until  1791.  Having  left  the  service,  he 
emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1792,  and  became  a 
resident  of  Philadelphia,  where  he  issued  "Peter  Porcu- 
pine's (Jazette,"  a  Federalist  paper.  He  was  fined  $5000 
for  a  libel  on  Dr.  Rush.  In  1800  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land, and  established  in  London  "The  Weekly  Poli- 
tical Register,"  which  at  first  was  a  Tory  paper ;  but 
after  the  lapse  of  several  years  he  became  a  strenuous 
opponent  of  Pitt  and  of  the  Tories.  For  his  political 
libels  or  satires  on  members  of  government  he  was 
several  times  fined  heavily,  and  in  1810  was  sentenced 
to  imprisonment  for  two  years.  He  continued  to  issue 
the  "  Register"  for  thirty-three  years.  After  two  unsuc- 
cessful attempts  to  enter  Parliament  for  Oldham,  he  was 
finally  returned  in  1832,  and  again  in  1834.  He  died  in 
1835.  He  was  the  author  of  many  successful  works, 
among  which  are  "The  Emigrant's  Guide,"  "Cottage 
Economy,"  "Advice  to  Young  Men  and  Women,"  and 
"Rural  Rides."  His  style  is  described  as  "the  perfec- 
tion of  the  rough  Saxon  English."  He  was  remarkable 
for  his  mastery  of  the  weapons  of  sarcasm  and  the  re- 
sources of  conmion  sense,  and  had  great  powers  of  ob- 
servation and  description.  "Cobbett,"  says  Hazlitt, 
"  is  a  very  honest  man,  with  a  total  want  of  principle. 
I  mean,  he  is  in  downright  earnest  in  the  part  he  takes 
at  the  time  ;  but  in  taking  that  part  he  is  led  entirely 
by  headstrong  obstinacy,  caprice,  novelty,  pique,  or 
personal  motive  of  soine  sort.  He  has  no  comfort  in 
fixed  principles.    As  soon  as  anything  is  settled  in  his 


€  as  /6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  VL, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


COBDEN 


630 


CO  CC  EJUS 


own  mind,  he  quarrels  with  it.  If  nobody  else  can  argue 
against  him,  he  is  a  very  good  match  for  himself." 

See  the  piquant  but  not  ill-natured  article  on  Cobbett,  in  Haz- 
litt's  "  Miscellaneous  Works,"  vol.  v. ;  "  Life  of  William  Cobbett," 
Philadelphia,  1831  ;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1807,  and  Febru- 
ary, 1S23  ;  "Blackwood's  Maj^azine"  for  September,  1823;  "Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  August  and  October,  1835;  "Westminster  Review" 
for  October,  1835;  Sik  H.  L.  Bulwek,  "Historical  Characters," 
London,  1868 

Cob'den,  (Edward,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  who 
became  prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's,  and  obtained  several 
livings  in  London.  He  published  Sermons,  Poems,  and 
Essays.    Died  in  1764. 

Cobden,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  English  Liberal 
statesman  and  economist,  was  born  at  Dunford,  near 
Midhurst,  Sussex,  in  June,  1804.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
farmer  who  owned  a  small  estate  in  land.  After  having 
been  initiated  in  business  in  the  warehouse  of  his  uncle 
in  Loridon,  he  removed  to  Manchester  and  established 
a  manufactory  of  fine  cotton  goods,  (prints,)  in  which  he 
was  successful.  Between  1834  and  1838  he  visited  Egypt, 
Greece,  the  United  States,  France,  and  Germany.  He 
published,  about  1836,  a  ])amphlet  entitled  "England, 
Ireland,  and  America,"  and  another  on  Russia.  He  be- 
came in  1838  a  prominent  advocate  of  the  free  importa- 
tion of  bread-stuffs,  and  was  soon  known  as  the  principal 
champion  and  orator  of  the  National  Anti-Corn-Law 
League,  a  powerful  political  organization,  formed  in  1839. 
In  1841  he  was  elected  member  of  Parliament  for  vStock- 
port.  On  this  new  arena  he  acquired  great  influence  by 
his  extensive  information,  oratorical  talents,  and  indomi- 
table energy.  He  also  addressed  many  public  meetings 
of  the  Anti-Corn-Law  League,  until  the  contest  ended 
in  the  repeal  of  the  Corn-Laws  in  June,  1846.  On  this 
occasion  Sir  Robert  Peel  made  a  remarkable  speech,  in 
which  he  generously  declared  that  the  merit  of  this  im- 
portant reform  belonged  to  Mr.  Cobden  more  than  to 
any  other  man.  After  the  close  of  the  session  he  per- 
formed an  extensive  journey  on  the  continent,  and  during 
his  absence  (1847)  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  including  Leeds  and  Shef- 
field. He  was  an  active  member  of  the  Peace  Congress 
of  Paris  in  1849,  and  of  that  held  at  Frankfort  in  1850. 

Mr.  Cobden  and  John  Bright  were  the  leaders  of  the 
Manchester  party  or  school,  which  holds  an  independent 
position  with  respect  to  the  Whigs  and  Tories.  He  was 
in  favour  of  the  vote  by  ballot,  of  electoral  reform,  of 
the  French  alliance,  of  a  pacific  foreign  policy,  and  of 
non-intervention  in  foreign  quarrels.  He  opposed  the 
war  against  Russia,  (1854,)  and  the  Chinese  policy  of 
Palmerston  in  1857,  with  such  a  loss  of  popularity  that 
h(i  was  defeated  at  the  election  of  1857  as  candidate  for 
Hnddersfield.  He  was,  however,  elected  by  the  voters 
of  Rochdale  in  1859.  While  he  was  absent  on  a  visit  to 
the  United  States,  in  1859,  a  new  ministry  was  formed 
by  Lord  Palmerston,  who  offered  him  a  seat  in  the 
cabinet,  (as  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade,)  which  he 
declined.  As  British  commissioner,  he  negotiated,  in 
i860,  an  important  commercial  treaty  with  the  French, 
which  has  greatly  increased  the  trade  between  England 
and  France.  Referring  to  this  treaty,  Mr.  Gladstone 
(August,  1866)  said,  "I  don't  believe  that  the  man 
breathed  upon  earth  at  that  epoch,  or  now  breathes  upon 
earth,  that  could  have  effected  that  great  measure,  with 
the  single  exception  of  Mr.  Cobden."  He  was  one  of 
the  few  British  statesmen  who  cordially  favoured  the 
cause  of  liberty  and  humanity  in  the  United  States 
during  the  civil  war.    Died  April  2,  1865. 

See  Loi;is  de  Lomenie,  "  R.  Cobden,  ywr  iin  Homme  de  Rien," 
1844:  "  Life  of  Richard  Cobden,"  by  J.  McGilchrist,  1865;  Joseph 
Garnier,  "  R.  Cobden,  les  Lii^ueurs  et  la  Ligue,"  1846;  "  Brief  Bio- 
graphies," by  Samuel  Smiles:  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for 
January,  i866;  "North  British  Review"  for  March,  1867. 

Cobenzl,  von,  fon  ko-blnt'sl,  or  Cobentzel,  ko- 

bdnt^sel,  (JoHANN  Philipi',)  Count,  a  diplomatist,  born 
at  Laybach  in  1741  ;  died  in  18 10. 

Cobenzl  or  Cobentzel,  von,  (Karl,)  Count,  an 
Austrian  diplomatist,  born  at  Laybach  in  1712.  He  was 
placed  in  1753  at  the  bead  of  the  government  of  the 
Austrian  Netherlands.    Died  in  1770. 

Cobenzl  or  Cobentzel,  von,  (Louis,)  Count,  an 
Austrian  diplomatist,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Brussels  in  1753.    He  was  ambassador  to  Russia  in  1780, 


and  signed  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  in  1797.    In  1801 
he  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Luneville  with  the  French,  and 
became  a  minister  of  state  at  Vienna.    Died  in  1808. 
See  Segur,  "Memoires." 

Cobham,  kob'am,  (Sir  John  Oldcastle,)  Lord,  an 
English  nobleman,  was  the  head  of  the  sect  of  Lollards, 
whom  the  Catholics  stigmatized  as  heretics.  "  His  high 
character,  and  his  zeal  for  the  new  sect,"  says  Hume, 
"  pointed  him  out  as  the  proper  victim  of  ecclesiastical 
severity."  He  was  condemned  to  the  flames  in  1413,  but 
escaped,  and  instigated  his  friends  to  an  open  rebellion. 
Hume  states  that  he  designed  to  seize  the  king  at  Eltham. 
The  insurgent  Lollards  were  overpowered  in  1414;  but 
Cobham  escaped  until  1418,  when  he  was  hanged.  (See 
Lollard.) 

See  T.  Gapsey,  "Life  and  Times  of  the  Good  Lord  Cobham,'* 
London,  1844. 

Cobo,  ko'Bo,  (Barnab6,)  a  Spanish  missionary,  born 
at  Lopera  in  1582,  passed  fifty  years  in  Peru,  Mexico, 
etc.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  natural  history  of  those 
countries,  (still  in  manuscript.)    Died  in  1657. 

Cobo,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  monk  and  missionary,  born 
near  Toledo.  He  went  to  Manilla  in  1586,  learned  the 
Chinese  language,  and  compiled  a  dictionary  of  the 
same.  In  1592  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Japan,  with 
the  ruler  of  which  he  negotiated  a  treaty  favourable  to 
the  Spaniards.  On  his  return  the  ship  was  wrecked  at 
Formosa,  and  he  was  massacred  by  the  natives,  in  1592. 

Cobourg.    See  Coburg. 

Co'burg,  written  also  Cobourg,[Ger.pron.  ko'bdoRG,] 
(JosiAS,)  Prince,  an  Austrian  general,  born  in  1737. 
He  commanded  the  Austrian  army  which,  with  the  aid 
of  Suwarrovv,  defeated  the  Turks  in  1789.  In  the  spring 
of  1793  he  was  appointed  generalissimo  of  the  army 
of  the  allies,  and  gained  a  victory  over  the  French  at 
Neerwinden.  He  invaded  France  the  same  year,  and 
took  Conde  and  Valenciennes.  Having  been  defeated  by 
Jourdan  at  Wattignies  in  October,  1793,  he  resigned  the 
command.  Died  in  1815.  "He  belonged,"  says  Alison, 
"to  the  old  methodical  school  of  Lacey,  and  was  des- 
titute of  either  decision  or  character."  ("History  of 
Europe.") 

Coccaie,  (Merlin.)    See  Folengo. 

Coccapani,  kok-kS-pi'nee,  (Sigismondo,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  architect,  born  at  Florence  in  1585.  He  was 
one  of  the  architects  employed  on  the  fafade  of  the 
Duorno  of  Florence.    Died  in  1642. 

Cocceius.    See  Coccejus,  (John.) 

Coc-ge'ius,  (kok-see'yiis,)  (Ner'va,)  an  eminent  Ro- 
man jurisconsult,  who  was  chosen  consul  in  22  a.d.  He 
was  the  grandfather  of  the  emperor  Nerva.  He  obtained 
the  favour  and  confidence  of  Tiberius,  whose  measures,  it 
seems,  he  did  not  approve.  His  legal  learning  is  highly 
extolled  by  Tacitus,  and  he  is  often  cited  in  the  Digest. 
He  died  by  voluntary  starvation  about  33  a.d.  His  son, 
of  the  same  name,  was  a  distinguished  jurist,  the  author 
of  several  treatises,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
father  of  the  emperor  Nerva. 

Cooceji.    See  Coccejus. 

Coccejus,  von,  fon  kot-sa'yus,  or  Cocceji,  kot-sa'- 
yee,  (  Heinrich,)  Baron,  a  German  jurist,born  at  Bremen 
in  1644.  He  was  professor  of  law  at  Heidelberg  and  at 
Utrecht,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  commentary 
on  Grotius  "  De  Jure  Belli  et  Pacis,"  published  by  his 
son,  (1744-48.)    Died  in  17 19. 

See  LucAN'us,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  des  H.  von  Cocceji,"  1741. 

Coccejus,  Cocceius,  or  Cock,  (John,)  an  emi- 
nent theologian,  born  at  Bremen  in  1603.  He  became 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Franeker  in  1636,  and  from  1649 
to  1669  was  professor  of  theology  at  Leyden.  He  was 
the  founder  of  a  school  of  theologians  which  became 
numerous  in  the  United  Provinces  under  the  name  of 
"Coccejans."  He  carried  the  system  of  figurative  in- 
terpretation to  the  extreme.  His  fundamental  rule  of 
interpretation  was  that  we  should  understand  the  words 
and  phrases  of  Scripture  in  all  the  senses  of  which  they 
are  susceptible,  and  that  almost  every  passage,  in  addi- 
tion to  its  literal  meaning,  had  a  figurative  signification. 
"Two  natives  of  Holland,"  says  Hallam,  "opposite  in 
character,  in  spirit,  and  principles  of  reasoning,  and 
consequently  the  founders  of  opposite  schools  of  dis- 


sL,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon- 


COCCEJUS 


6^1 


COCKBURN 


ciples,  stand  out  from  the  rest, — Grotius  and  Coccejus." 
("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  He  pub- 
lished "  Summa  Doctrinae  de  Foedere  et  Testamento," 
(1648,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1669. 

See  JoNCOURT,  "  Eiitretiens  sur  las  Cocceiens;"  Niceron,  "Me- 
moires ."  Mosheim,  "Ecclesiastical  History." 

Coccejus  or  Cocceji,  (Samuel,)  a  German  jurist,  a 
son  of  Heinrich,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Heidelberg 
in  1679.  He  was  appointed  by  the  King  of  Prussia  min- 
ister of  state  and  of  war  in  1727,  and  grand  chancellor 
in  1746.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  the  new 
code  of  laws  which  he  composed,  by  order  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  about  1746.    Died  in  1755. 

See  Mei'sel,  "  Lexikon  der  verstorbenen  Gelehrten." 

Cocchi,  kok'kee,  (Antonio,)  a  learned  Italian  phy- 
sician, born  at  Benevento  in  1695,  was  professor  of 
medicine  at  Pisa,  and  subsequently  of  philosophy  at 
Florence.  He  published  several  works  on  medicine 
and  other  subjects.  Died  in  1758.  He  had  been  a 
regular  correspondent  with  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrir.a  excellentium." 

Coccia,  kot'chi,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  composer,  born 
at  Naples  in  17S9.  Among  his  most  popular  works  are 
the  operas  "  Clotilde"  and  "Maria  Stuart." 

Coccopani,  kok-ko-pi'nee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
artist,  born  at  Florence  in  1582,  was  versed  in  many 
sciences  and  arts.  In  1622  he  was  invited  to  Vienna 
by  the  emperor,  who  employed  him  as  a  military  engi- 
neer. He  afterwards  designed  the  palace  called  Villa 
Imperiale  at  Florence.    Died  in  1649. 

Cochard,  ko'shtii',  (Nicolas  Fkanqois,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  near  Lyons  in  1 763;  died  in  1834. 

Cochereau,  kosl/ro',  (Mathieu,)  a  P>ench  painter 
of  genre,  born  at  Montigny,  became  a  pupil  of  David  in 
1807.    He  died  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven. 

Cochet,  ko'shi',  (Jean,)  born  at  Faverges,  in  Savoy, 
became  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  College  Mazarin 
of  Paris.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise  on 
Logic,  said  to  have  been  the  best  elementary  work  on 
that  subject  that  had  appeared  in  French.   Died  in  1771. 

Cochin,  ko^shi.N',  (Charles  Nicolas,)  a  skilful 
French  artist,  born  in  Paris  in  1688.  He  engraved  with 
the  burin  and  point  his  own  designs,  and  some  works 
of  Lemoine,  Coypel,  and  Watteau.    Died  in  1754. 

Cochin,  (Charles  Nicolas,)  an  eminent  French 
designer  and  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  171 5,  was  the 
son  and  pupil  of  the  preceding.  He  was  chosen  keeper 
of  the  designs  of  the  king's  cabinet  in  1752.  In  1756 
he  published  an  excellent  work,  entitled  "  Picturesque 
Journey  in  Italy,"  ("Voyage  pittoresque  d'ltalie,") 
which  was  often  reprinted.  Louis  XV.  granted  to  him 
letters  of  nobility.  Cochin  etched  a  great  number  of 
his  own  designs,  and  some  works  of  Vernet  and  other 
masters.  The  number  of  his  designs  and  engravings 
is  about  fifteen  hundred.    Died  in  1790. 

See  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Cochin,  (Henri,)  an  eminent  French  advocate  and 
orator,  born  in  Paris  in  1687,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1706.  Though  very  eloquent  in  public,  he  was  taciturn 
and  timid  in  conversation.  Several  volumes  of  his  pleas 
have  been  published.    Died  in  1747. 

See  C.  Lenormand,  "  ^loge  de  Cochin,"  1825. 

Cochin,  (Jacques  Denis,)  a  French  priest,  writer, 
and  founder  of  the  hospital  which  bears  his  name,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1726;  died  in  1783. 

Cochlaeus.    See  Cochlaus. 

Cochlaus,  koK  la'us,  [Fr.  Cochl^e,  kok'li';  Lat. 
CocHL^'us,]  (JoHAN.N,)  a  German  theologian  and  con- 
troversialist, born  near  Nuremberg  in  1479.  He  became 
a  canon  of  Worms,  Mentz,  and  Ureslau.  He  was  a  zeal- 
ous op])nnent  of  the  Protestant  Reformation,  and  wrote 
"  Remarks  (  Coyyinientaria )  on  the  Actions  and  Writings 
of  Luther,"  (1549,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1552. 

See  Spckendorf,  "  Historia  Liitheranismi Bayle,  "  Historical 
and  Critical  Dictionary;"  De  Thou,  "  History." 

Cochlee.    See  Cochlaus. 

Cochcn  de  Lapparent,  ko'sh^N'  deh  Ifj^iS'rSN', 
(Cf)unt  Charles,)  a  French  jjolitician,  born  in  1749. 
He  was  a  deputy  from  Poitiers  to  the  States-General 
in  1789,  and  afterwards  a  prominent  republican  member 


of  the  Convention.  He  was  appointed  prefect  at  Ant- 
werp in  1804,  and  a  member  of  the  senate  in  1809. 
Died  in  1825, 

Co-eh'ran,  (William,)  a  Scottish  painter  of  history 
and  portraits,  Ijorn  at  Strathaven  in  1738 ;  died  at  Glas- 
gow in  1785. 

Cochrane.    See  Dundonald,  Earl  of. 

Cochrane,  kok'ran,  (Alexander  Dun  das  Baillie,) 
a  British  writer,  son  of  Admiral  Sir  Thomas  John  Coch- 
rane, born  in  1814,  became  a  member  of  Parliament  in 
1841.  lie  published  "The  Morea,  with  Remarks  on 
Greece,"  (1841,)  "Young  Italy,"  (1850,)  and  "Ernest 
Vane,"  a  novel. 

Cochrane,  (Sir  Alexander  Inglis,)  a  British  admi- 
ral, brother  of  Archibald,  noticed  below,  born  in  1758. 
He  was  made  a  post-captain  in  1782,  and  rear-admiral 
in  1804.  For  his  services  in  a  battle  against  the  French 
in  1806,  near  Hayti,  he  was  knighted.  In  1809  he 
obtained  the  rank  of  vice-admiral,  and  in  1815  assisted 
the  British  land-forces  in  the  attack  on  New  Orleans. 
He  became  admiral  of  the  blue  in  1819.    Died  in  1832. 

Cochrane,  (Archibald,)  Earl  of  Dundonald,  a  Brit- 
ish chemist,  born  in  1749,  was  the  son  of  Thomas,  Earl 
of  Dundonald,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1778.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Treatise  on  Coal-Tar,"  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Connexion  of  Agriculture  and  Chemistry,"  (1795,)  and 
a  valuable  work  on  "The  Application  of  Chemistry 
to  Agriculture."  Died  in  1831.  His  son  was  a  distin- 
guished admiral,  Lord  Cochrane.  (See  Dundonald, 
Earl  of.) 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 
Co-eh'rane,  (John,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Montgomery  county.  New  York,  about  1813,  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  Congress  by  the  voters  of  New 
York  City  in  1856  and  1858.  He  was  appointed  a  bri- 
gadier-general about  July,  1862. 

Cochrane,  (John  Dun  das,)  Captain,  an  eccentric 
British  naval  officer,  surnamed  "  the  Pedestrian  Travel- 
ler," was  born  about  1780.  In  1820  he  resolved  to  per- 
'  form  a  journey  around  the  world  on  foot,  in  pursuance 
j  of  which  design  he  traversed  Russia  and  Siberia  as  far 
!  as  Kamtchatka.  Having  married  a  native  of  that  region, 
j  he  changed  his  mind,  and  returned  by  way  of  Russia 
I  to  England  in  1823.  Of  this  journey  he  ])ublished  a 
I  narrative,  which  is  said  to  be  curious  aiid  amusing.  Died 
j  in  South  America  in  1825. 

I     Cochrane,  (Sir  Thomas  John,)  a  British  admiral, 
son  of  Admiral  Sir  Alexander  Inglis  Cochrane,  born 
about  1790,  served  as  captain  under  his  father  in  the  war 
against  the  United  States  in  1814.    He  was  elected  to 
I  Parliament  in  1837.     Having  been  made  a  rear-ad- 
\  miral,  he  commanded  on  the  East  India  station  from  1842 
;  to  1846,  and  became  a  vice-admiral  about  1850. 
j     Cock,  kok,  (Jerome,)  a  Flemish  engraver  and  dealer 
!  in  prints,  was  born  at  Antwerp  about  15 10.    He  pub- 
j  lished  several  collections  of  his  engravings,  among  which 
are  many  portraits  of  historical  personages.    Some  of 
I  his  works  are  highly  prized.    Died  in  1570. 
Cock,  (John.)    See  Coccejus. 

Cock  or  Cocke,  (Matthew,)  a  landscape-painter 
of  Antwerp,  born  about  1500,  was  a  brother  of  Jerome, 
noticed  above.  He  was  one  of  the  first  Flemish  painters 
that  abandoned  the  Gothic  style.    Died  in  1554. 

Cockaine.    See  Cokaine. 

Cockburn,  ko'bern,  (Catherine,)  an  English  dra- 
matic writer,  whose  maiden  name  was  Trotter,,  was 
born  in  London  in  1679.  She  became  in  1708  the  wife 
of  the  Rev.  Patrick  Cockburn.  She  composed  suc- 
cessful tragedies,  entitled  "Agnes  de  Castro,"  "Fatal 
Friendship,"  etc.  In  1747  she  produced  "Remarks 
on  the  Nature  and  Obligations  of  Virtue,"  which  was 
praised  by  Warburton.    Died  in  1749. 

See  Cibber,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Cockburn,  ko'bern,  (Sir  George,)  G.C.B.,  a  British 
adtniral,  born  about  1772,  was  a  relative  of  Lord  Cock- 
burn, noticed  below.  He  entered  the  navy  in  early  youth, 
and  about  1812  obtained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  He 
took  part  in  the  capture  of  Washington  City  in  1814,  and 
conveyed  Napoleon  to  Saint  Helena  in  1815.  He  was 
a  lord  of  the  admiralty  from  1818  to  1828,  and  sat  in 
Parliament  for  many  years.    Died  in  1853. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  giittttral ;  N,  nasal;  R>  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


COCKBURN 


632 


COEHORN 


Cockburn,  (Henry  Thomas,)  Lord,  an  able  Scot- 
tish judge,  born  in  1779.  He  was  ai^pointed  solicitor- 
general  tor  Scotland  in  1830,  and  became  one  of  the 
Lords  of  Session  in  1834.  He  wrote  articles  for  the 
"Edinburgh  Review,"  and  j^ublished  "The  Life  and 
Correspondence  of  Lord  Jeffrey,"  (1852.)    Died  in  1854. 

See  "North  British  Review"  for  November,  1856;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1852;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January, 
1857  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  September  and  October,  1S52. 

Cockburu,  (Patrick,)  a  Scottish  linguist,  born  at 
Langton,  was  for  some  years  professor  of  Hebrew  and 
Syriac  in  the  University  of  Paris.  Having  become  a 
Protestant,  he  returned  to  Scotland,  and  jDreached  at 
Haddington.  He  was  reckoned  one  of  the  first  scholars 
of  his  time,  and  wrote  several  religious  works  in  Latin, 
one  of  which  is  "The  Utility  and  Excellence  of  the  Word 
of  God."    Died  in  1559. 

Cockburn  or  Cockburne,  (William,)  an  English 
medical  writer,  born  about  1650 ;  died  about  1736. 

Cocke,  kok,  (Philip  Saint  George,)  a  general, 
born  in  Virginia  about  1808,  graduated  at  W^e-st  Point 
in  1832.  He  took  arms  against  the  Union,  and  became 
a  brigadier-general  in  1861.  He  killed  himself  in  De- 
cember of  the  same  year. 

Cock''er,  (Edward,)  an  English  teacher  and  educa- 
tional writer,  born  in  1632,  was  a  resident  of  London. 
His  "  Arithmetic"  obtained  a  very  large  circulation,  and 
passed  through  fifty-five  editions  between  1677  and  1758. 
Died  about  1677. 

Cock'er-ell,  (Charles  Robert,)  an  eminent  English 
architect,  born  in  London  in  1788.  He  was  elected  a 
Royal  Academician  in  1836,  and  became  professor  of 
architecture  in  the  Royal  Academy  in  1840.  He  de- 
signed the  New  Library  at  Cambridge  in  1840,  the  Uni- 
versity Galleries  at  Oxford,  the  College  of  Lampeter, 
and  other  public  edifices.  He  was  for  some  years  chief 
architect  of  the  Bank  of  England,  in  which  he  made 
considerable  alterations.  Mr,  Cockerel!  was  partial  to 
the  classic  style  of  architecture.  He  was  a  foreign  asso- 
ciate of  the  Institute  of  France.    Died  in  1863. 

Cock'er-ill,  (John,)  a  Belgian  engineer  and  machinist, 
noted  for  his  enterprise  and  talents,  was  born  of  English 
parents  in  1790.  He  fabricated  steam-engines,  etc.  at 
the  great  iron-foundry  of  Seraing,  in  which  King  William 
of  Holland  was  once  a  partner.    Died  in  1840. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Cock'son,  (Thonl\S,)  an  English  engraver  of  por- 
traits, flourished  about  1620-30. 

Cock'ton,  (Henry,)  an  English  writer,  born  about 
1808.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "The  Ven- 
triloquist :  being  the  Life  and  Adventures  of  Valentine 
Vox,"  (1840.)    Died  in  1853. 

Co'cles,  (HoRAi  ius,)  a  Roman  hero,  who  acquired 
renown,  about  500  B.C.,  by  the  defence  of  the  Sublician 
bridge  against  the  army  of  Porsena  while  the  Romans 
were  cutting  off  the  communication  with  the  opposite 
shore.  When  the  bridge  had  been  made  impassable,  he 
plunged  into  the  river  and  saved  himself  by  swimtiiing. 
This  legend  forms  the  basis  of  Macaulay's  spirited 
ballad  in  his  "Lays  of  Ancient  Rome." 

See  NiEBUHR,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Coco,  ko'ko,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Carnpomarano  in  1770,  lived  mostly  in  Naples.  He  pub- 
lished a  i^hilosophic  romance  called  "Plato  in  Italy," 
{3  vols.,  1806,)  which  was  very  successful,  and  a  "  History 
of  the  Revolution  of  Naples."    Died  at  Naples  in  1823. 

See  TiPAi.DO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Cocoli,  kok'o-lee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  geometer, 
born  at  Brescia  in  1747,  was  for  thirty  years  professor 
of  natural  philosophy  and  mathematics  in  his  native  city. 
He  published  "  Elements  (jf  (Geometry  and  Trigonome- 
try," and  f)ther  works.    Died  in  1812. 

Cocquard,  ko'ktk',  (Franqols  P)ERNARn,)  a  French 
poet  and  prose-writer,  born  at  Dijon  in  1700;  died  in  1772. 

Coda,  ko'dl,  (Bknedei  to,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Ferrara  about  1460  ;  died  about  1520. 

His  son,  Bar  tolommeo,  born  at  Ferrara,  was  a  painter 
of  good  reputation.    He  was  living  in  1558. 

Codagora,  ko-da-go'rS,  (  Vivian<3,)  an  Italian  painter, 
who  lived  about  1650,  excelled  in  perspective  and  in  pic- 
tures of  ruined  buildings. 


Codazzi,  ko-ddt'see,  ( Ac.osriNO,)  an  Italian  erigineer 
and  geographer,  born  at  Lugo  in  1792.  He  emigrated 
to  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota,  in  South  America,  about  1826, 
and  was  afterwards  employed  in  the  sin  vey  of  Venezuela. 
The  results  of  his  labours  were  published  in  a  work  on 
the  "Geography  of  Venezuela,"  with  maps,  ("  Resumen 
de  la  Cieografia  de  Venezuela,"  184L) 

Cod' ding-ton,  (William,)  the  founder  of  the  colony 
of  Rhode  Island,  was  born  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  in 

1601.  He  emigrated  to  Massachusetts  in  1630,  and,  in 
consequence  of  a  disagreement  with  Governor  VVinthrop 
on  religious  subjects,  removed  with  a  party  of  settlers  to 
Rhode  Island  in  1638.  In  1640  he  was  chosen  governor 
of  that  colony,  which  position  he  held  for  seven  years. 
Pie  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  Died  in 
1678. 

Co-di'nus,  (Georgius,)  [Teupyiog  Ki^kvog  b  KvpoiraTui- 
r??f,]  surnamed  Curofala'tes,  a  Greek  compiler,  who 
lived  at  Constantinople  about  1450.  He  compiled  two 
works,  which  treat  of  the  public  offices  in  church  and 
state,  and  of  the  antiquities  of  Constantinople. 

Codomannus.    See  Darius  HI. 

Co-dra'tus,  [Ki'j^paTog,]  a  Greek  physician  and  Chris- 
tian martyr,  born  at  Corinth,  was  put  to  death  about 

258  A.D. 

CodMng-ton,  (Christopher,)  a  British  officer,  born 
at  Barbadoes  in  1668,  wrote  some  Latin  verses,  and  gave 
;/^io,ooo  to  form  a  library  at  Oxford.   Died  in  1710. 

Codrington,  (Sir  Edward,)  G.C.B.,  an  English  ad- 
miral, born  in  1770.  He  was  made  a  captain  in  1794, 
and  received  a  medal  for  his  conduct  at  Trafalgar  in  1805. 
He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1814,  and 
served  at  the  battle  of  New  Orleans  in  1815.  In  1821 
he  became  vice-admiral.  He  commanded  the  fleet  of 
the  English,  French,  and  Russians  which  defeated  the 
Turks  at  Navarino  in  1827.  He  obtained  the  rank  of 
full  admiral  in  1837.    Died  in  1851. 

See  Campbell's  "  Lives  of  British  Admirals." 

Codrington,  (Robert,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 

1602,  wrote  a  "Life  of  Robert,  Earl  of  Essex,"  and  made 
translations  from  the  Latin  and  French.    Died  in  1665. 

Codrington,  (Sir  William  John,)  K.C.B.,  an  Eng- 
lish general,  son  of  Admiral  Sir  Edward  Codrington, 
born  in  1800,  entered  the  army  in  1821,  became  colonel 
in  the  Coldstream  Guards  in  1846,  and  major-general  in 
June,  1854.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  Alma  and 
at  Inkerman,  (1854,)  and  was  promoted  to  the  command 
of  the  light  division.  He  directed  the  attack  on  the 
Redan  of  Sevastoi^ol  in  September,  1855.  In  November 
of  the  same  year  he  succeeded  General  Simpson  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  British  army  in  the  Crimea,  and 
was  appointed  governor  of  Gibraltar  in  1859. 

Codronchi,  ko-dRoi/kee,  (BArrisrA,)  an  eminent 
Italian  physician  and  writer,  born  at  Imola  about  1550. 

Co'drus  or  Ko'drus,  [Kof5pof,]  the  last  king  of  Athens, 
is  supposed  to  have  reigned  about  1060  B.C.  An  oracle 
having  declared  that  the  Dorians  would  be  victorious 
in  war  against  the  Athenians  provided  they  spared  the 
life  of  the  Athenian  king,  Codrus  went  in  disguise  to  the 
Dorian  camp  and  provoked  a  quarrel,  in  which  he  was 
killed.    His  son,  Medon,  became  archon  of  Athens. 

Codrus,  a  Roman  poet,  was  a  contemporary  of  Virgil, 
who  mentions  him  in  his  seventh  Eclogue. 

Coeberger.    See  Koeherger. 

Coeck,  (Peter.)    See  Koeck. 

Coeifeteau,  ko'lfto',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  Dominican 
and  theologian,  born  in  Maine  in  1574.  Henry  IV.  gave 
him  the  title  of  his  preacher.  At  the  request  of  Gregory 
XV.,  he  wrote  a  work  to  refute  A.  de  Dominis,  who  had 
attacked  the  papal  power.  In  161 7  he  became  titular 
Bishop  of  Dardania.  His  version  of  the  history  of  Florus 
was  highly  praised  as  a  master-piece  of  French  style. 
Died  in  1623. 

See  NiCEKON,  "  Hommes  illustres." 

Coehorn  or  Cohoi'n,  ko'horn,  [Fr.  pron.  ko'oRn',] 
(Louis,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1771,  was 
a  relative  of  Menno  van  Coehorn,  noticed  below.  He  was 
made  a  general  of  brigade  in  1807,  was  wounded  at  Fried- 
land,  and  displayed  great  bravery  at  Ebersberg  in  1809. 
He  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Aspern,  Wagram,  and 
Lutzen,  and  was  mortally  wounded  at  Leipsic  in  1814. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/ior^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far;  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CO  E  HORN 


633 


COHEN 


Coehorn,  van,  vtn  koo'hoin.  written  also  Cohorn, 
(MKNNOor  Mennun,)  Baron,  a  famous  Dutch  engineer 
and  general,  born  in  Friesland  in  1632,  or,  as  some  say, 
in  1641.  Having  acquired  skill  in  mathematics,  he  en- 
tered the  army  as  captain  at  an  early  age,  and  served 
with  distinction  in  the  campaigns  of  1673  and  1674.  At 
the  siege  of  Namur,  (1692,)  which  city  he  had  fortified, 
he  was  opposed  to  the  French  engineer  Vauban.  Three 
years  later  he  was  employed  as  engineer  in  the  recapture 
of  Namur.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  the  fortresses 
of  Nymwegen,  Breda,  Namur,  and  Bergen-op-Zoom. 
He  became  lieutenant-general  in  1703,  and  published 
his  "New  Method  of  Fortification,"  an  excellent  work. 
According  to  some  biographers,  this  was  published  in 
1685.    Died  at  the  Hague  in  1704. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Macau- 
i.AY,  "  Hi.story  of  Engiaiid,"  vol.  iv. ;  Nicolaus  Ypky,  "Narratio  de 
Rebus  gestis  Mennoiiis  Cohorni,"  1771 ;  Dutch  version  of  the  same, 
1772. 

Ccelestinus,  Pope.    See  Celestine. 
Ccelestius.    See  Celkstius. 
CcBlius.    See  Rufus  Ccei.ius. 

Cce'xi-us  or  Cae'ii-us  (see'le-us)  An-tip'a-ter,  (Lu- 
cius,) a  Roman  historian  and  jurist,  who  wrote,  about 
125  li.C,  a  "  History  of  the  Second  Punic  War,"  which 
was  highly  esteemed  until  it  was  surpassed  by  Livy. 
Only  fragments  o{  it  are  extant.  Coelius  was  the  first 
Roman  historian  that  aimed  at  the  ornaments  of  style. 
Marcus  Brutus  valued  his  work  so  highly  that  he  made 
an  abridgment  of  it. 

Coello,  ko-iKyo,  (Alonzo  Sanchez,)  a  skilful  Spanish 
painter,  born  in  15 1 5.  He  studied  at  Rome  in  the  school 
of  Raphael,  and  was  afterwards  em])loyed  by  Philip  H. 
of  Spain  to  adorn  the  Escurial.  He  also  painted  por- 
traits of  that  king  and  his  courtiers.    Died  in  1590. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Coello,  (Claudio,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  painter,  born 
at  Madrid  in  162 1.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Ricci.  Abcjut 
1680  he  was  chosen  painter  to  the  king,  (Charles  H.) 
His  master-piece  is  the  "Collocation  of  the  Host," 
which  adorns  the  sacristy  of  the  Escurial,  and  which  is 
sufficient  to  immortalize  his  name.  He  is  said  to  equal 
Cant)  in  design,  Murillo  in  colour,  and  Velasquez  in  effect. 
Died  at  Madrid  in  1693. 

See  QuiM.iET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Coelmans,  kooKmins,  (Jacques,)  a  Flemish  engraver, 
boni  at  Antvvtr])  in  1670;  died  at  Aix,  France,  in  1735. 

CoeLii.    See  Coln. 

Ccelus.    See  Uranus. 

Coen,  koon,  (John  Peterson  or  Pieterzon,)  a  Dutch 
colonial  governor,  born  at  Hoorn  about  1587.  He  founded 
Batavia  in  1619,  and  was  chosen  president  of  Bantam. 
Died  in  1629. 

Coenrads.    See  Conrad,  (Abraham.) 

^oenus,  see'nus,  [Gr.  KoZrof,]  an  able  Macedonian 
general,  a  son-in-law  of  Parmenio,  accompanied  Alex- 
ander the  Great  in  the  invasion  of  Persia,  334  H.c.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Issus,  and,  when 
Alexander  proposed  to  march  beyond  the  Hyphasis,  he 
insisted  on  returning.    He  died  in  India  in  327  H.C. 

Ccessin,  ko^^^sdw',  (F.  G.,)  a  French  ultramontane 
religionist,  born  at  Lisieux  in  1782,  was  noted  for  his 
eccentric  mysticism.    Died  about  1842. 

Ccetlogon,  de,  deh  ko'^i'lo'g6N',  (Alain  Emma- 
N'UEL.)  Marquis,  a  French  admiral  and  marshal,  born 
in  1646  ;  died  i\i  1730. 

Cce-logon,  de,  (Jean  Bapttste  F^i-icit^;,)  Count, 
a  French  poet,  born  at  Versailles  in  1773.  He  wrote 
an  epic  poem,  entitled  "David,"  (1820,)  which  the  royal 
council  of  instruction  judged  worthy  to  be  given  as  a 
prize  to  students.    Died  in  1827. 

Ccetlosquet,  de,  deh  ko'et^los^ki',  (Jean  Gii.les,)  a 
French  priest,  born  at  Saint-Pol-de-Leon  in  1700.  He 
became  Bishf)p  of  Limoges  in  1739,  and  preceptor  of 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy  in  1758.  He  was  also  preceptor 
of  the  Duke  of  Berry,  afterwards  Louis  XVI.,  and  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1784. 

Coeur,  kuR,  (Jacques,)  a  French  merchant  and  able 
financier,  born  at  Bourges,  acquired  an  immense  fortune. 
Charles  VH.  appointed  him  director  of  his  finances.  In 
1448  he  lent  that  king  200,000  crowns  of  gold.    It  is 


stated  that  he  transacted  more  commerce  than  all  the 
other  merchants  of  France.  He  was  falsely  accused  of 
various  crimes,  and  in  1453  was  fined  400,000  crowns 
and  banished.  He  went  to  Rome,  and  received  from 
Calixtus  HI.  the  command  of  part  of  a  fleet  which  he 
sent  against  the  Turks.    He  died  at  Scio  about  1456. 

See  Baron  Trouve,  "  Histoire  de  Jacques  Coeur,"  1840  ;  Louisa 
S.  CosTELi.O,  "  Jacques  Coeur,  the  French  Argonaut,  and  his  Times." 

Coeur,  (Pierre  Louis,)  a  French  bishop  and  eloquent 
preacher,  born  at  Tarare  (Rhone)  in  1805.  He  removed 
to  Paris  in  1835,  and  became  a  fashionable  pulpit  orator. 
He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Troyes  in  1848.  His  ser- 
mons are  compared  to  those  of  Massillon. 

Coeur  de  Lion.    See  Richard  I. 

Coffin,  ko'f^N',  (Charles,)  a  French  scholar  and 
poet,  born  at  Buzancy  in  1676.  He  succeeded  RoUin 
in  ti  e  College  of  Beauvais,  at  Paris,  in  17 12,  and  was 
cho^.en  rector  of  the  University  of  Paris  in  1718.  His 
"  C><le  on  the  Wine  of  Champagne"  was  admired.  He 
gained  much  reputation  by  the  hymns  which  he  com- 
posed for  the  Breviary  of  Paris.    Died  in  1749. 

See  Lenglet,  "  £loge  de  Coffin,"  prefixed  to  his  works. 

Corfin,  (Sir  Isaac,)  an  English  admiral,  was  born  at 
Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  175'^.  He  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  admiral  about  1814.    Died  in  1839. 

Coffin,  (Robert  S.,)  a  printer  and  poet,  called  "the 
Boston  Bard,"  born  at  Brunswick,  Maine,  in  1797.  He 
served  as  a  sailor  in  the  war  of  1812.    Died  in  1827. 

Coffinhal,  ko'fe'nSK,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  Ja- 
cobin, born  at  Aurillac  in  1754.  He  became  a  judge  of 
the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  in  Paris  in  1793,  and  a  par- 
tisan of  Robespierre.  He  was  a  i^arty  to  many  acts  of 
cruelty,  and  fought  resolutely  for  Robespierre  on  the  9th 
Thermidor,  1794.    A  few  days  later  he  was  executed. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Frangaise." 

Co'gan,  (Thomas,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Somersetshire.  He  ])ractised  at  Manchester,  and  wrote 
"  The  Haven  of  Health,"  and  a  few  other  treatises.  Died 
in  1607. 

Cogan,  (Thomas,)  an  English  physician  and  writer, 
born  at  Rowell  in  1736.  He  practised  in  Leyden,  Am- 
sterdam, and  London.  About  1774  he  and  Dr.  Hawes 
instituted  the  Humane  Society  of  London.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "  The  Rhine,  a  Journey  from 
Utrecht  to  Frankfort,"  (1794,)  a  "Philosophical  Treatise 
on  the  Passions,"  (1800,)  and  an  "Ethical  Treatise  on 
the  Passions,"  (1807,)  which  are  works  of  considerable 
merit.    Died  in  1818. 

Cogels,  ko'zhgK, (Joseph  Charles,)  a  Belgian  painter, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1785;  died  in  1831. 

Coggeshalle,  kogz'al,  ?  (Ralph,)  an  English  monk, 
who  was  wounded  at  Jerusalem  when  that  city  was  be- 
sieged by  Saladin.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Holy 
Land,"  and  several  other  works.    Died  about  1228. 

Coghetti,  ko-get'tee,  (Francp:sco,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Bergamo  in  1804.  He  painted  at  Rome,  for 
Prince  Torlonia,  several  pictures,  among  which  is  "The 
Parnassus  of  Illustrious  Men  of  all  Ages."  His  fresco 
which  decorates  the  Basilica  of  Savona  is  much  admired. 

Coglioni.    See  Coleoni. 

Cognatus,  the  Latin  of  Cousin,  which  see. 

Cogniet,  kon'ye-a',  (Leon,)  a  French  painter  of  his- 
tory and  portraits,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1794.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1849. 

Cogs'well,  (William,)  an  American  divine,  born  in 
New  Hampshire  in  1789.  He  became  professor  of  his- 
tory in  Dartmouth  College,  of  which  he  was  a  graduate, 
in  1841,  and  professor  of  theology  at  Gilmanton  in  1844. 
Died  in  1850. 

Cohausen,  ko'hovv'zen,  (Johann  Hktnrich,)  a  Ger- 
man physician,  born  at  Hildesheim  about  1670.  He 
wrote  several  professional  works,  among  which  was 
"Hermippus  Redivivus,"  (1742.)    Died  in  1750. 

Cohen,  ko'6N',  (Anne  Jean  Philippe  Louis,)  a 
French  litterateur,  of  Dutch  descent,  was  born  at  Aniers- 
foort  in  1781.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Life  of  Cheva- 
lier Bayard,"  (2d  edition,  1825,)  and  "Jacqueline  de 
Baviere,"  (4  vols.,  1821.)  He  translated  several  works  of 
Washington  Irving,  Bulwer,  and  other  English  authors. 
Died  in  1848. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  Yi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


COHEN 


634 


COLBERT 


Cohen  Atthar.    See  Kohen  Attar. 

Cohon,  ko'(!)N',  (Anthyme  Denis,)  born  at  Craon, 
in  France,  in  1594,  became  Bishop  of  Nimes.  Died 
in  1670. 

Cohorn.    See  Coehorn. 

Coictier.    See  Coitier. 

Coignard,  kvvan'ytR',  (Louis,)  a  French  painter  of 
landscapes,  born  at  Mayenne  about  1812.  He  obtained 
a  first  medal  in  1848. 

Coignet,  kwdn'yi',  (Gilles,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Antwerp  in  1530.  lie  studied  in  Italy,  and  returned 
to  Antwerp,  where  he  painted  landscapes  and  figures 
with  success.    Died  at  Hamburg  in  1600. 

See  Descamps,  "Vie  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Coigny,  de,  deh  kwin'ye',(FRANgois  de  Franquetot 

— dell  tR6Nk^to',)  Duke,  a  French  marshal,  born  in  1670, 
gained  in  1734  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Austrians  at 
Parma,  and  another  at  Guastalla,  In  fne  next  year  he 
commanded  in  Germany,  where  his  adversary.  Prince 
Eugene,  would  not  risk  a  battle  ;  and  the  campaign  was 
closed  by  a  treaty  of  peace.  He  was  created  marshal 
of  France  in  1741.    Died  in  1759. 

See  "  La  Cainpagne  de  Mar^chal  de  Coigny  en  Allemagne  en 
1743,"  Amsterdam,  1761. 

Coigny,  de,  (Marie  Francois  Henri  de  Franque- 
tot,) Duke,  a  French  general,  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Paris  in  1737.  Having  entered  the 
service  of  Portugal  in  1791,  he  attained  the  rank  of 
captain-general.  He  returned  to  France  in  1814,  and 
was  made  marshal  of  France  in  1816.    Died  in  1821. 

Coimbra,  ko-6m'bRi,  (Don  Pedro,)  Duke  of,  a  Por- 
tuguese prince  and  poet,  born  in  1392,  was  a  younger 
son  of  King  Joiin  I.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of 
the  English  Duke  of  Lancaster,  John  of  Gaunt.  He 
travelled  in  Palestine  and  in  many  other  foreign  coun- 
tries, and  was  chosen  Regent  of  Portugal  in  1439.  He 
was  killed  in  battle  against  Alphonso  V.  in  1449,  and 
left  a  number  of  admired  poems. 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "  Bibliotheca  Lusitana;"  H.  Schoek- 
FER,  "  Histoire  de  Portugal." 

Coin-Delisle,  kwiN  deh-161',  (Jean  Baptiste  Cesar,) 
a  French  jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1789. 

Coindet,  kwiN^a',  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  Swiss  phy- 
sician, born  at  Geneva  in  1774.  For  his  discovery  of  the 
action  of  iodine  on  the  goitre  (1S20)  he  received  a  prize 
of  3000  francs  from  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris. 
Died  in  1834. 

Cointe,  Le,  leh  kwiNt,  (Charles,)  a  French  historian 
and  priest  of  the  Oratory,  born  at  Troyes  in  1611.  As 
chaplain  to  the  P'rench  ambassador,  he  passed  several 
years  at  Miinster,  and  rendered  important  services  in 
preparing  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  in  1648.  He  after- 
wards became  a  resident  of  Paris,  and  published  his 
"Ecclesiastical  Annals  of  France,"  (8  vols.,  1665-80,)  a 
work  of  much  erudition.    Died  in  1681. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires." 

Cointre.    See  Lecointre. 

Coiny,  kwi^ne',  (Jacques  Joseph,)  a  French  en- 
graver, born  at  Versailles  in  1761  ;  died  in  1809. 

Coislin,  de,  deh  kw^'liN^  (Henri  Charles  de  Cam- 
boust — deh  kSN^boo',)  Duke,  a  French  theologian,  born 
in  Paris  in  1664.  He  became  Bishop  of  Metz  in  1698, 
chief  almoner  of  the  king,  and  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.    Died  in  1732. 

Coiter,  koi'ter,  (Volcher,)  an  eminent  Dutch  anato- 
mist, born  at  Groningen  in  1534.  He  studied  in  Italy 
under  Fallopius  and  Eustachio,  and  was  for  some  years 
surgeon  or  physician  in  the  French  army.  He  was  called 
one  of  the  creators  of  pathologic  anatomy,  and  made 
improvements  in  osteology  and  myology.  He  published 
several  professional  treatises.    Died  about  1600. 

See  M.  Adam,  "  Vitae  Eruditorum  ;"  £loy,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la 
Medecine." 

Coitier  or  Coictier,  kvvl'te-4',  (Jacques,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Poligny,  became  first  physician  to 
Louis  XL,  over  whom  he  is  said  to  have  had  great  in- 
fluence.   Died  about  1505. 

Cokaine  or  Cokayn,  ko-kan',  written  also  Cock- 
aine,  (Sir  Aston,)  an  English  Catholic,  born  in  Derby- 
shire in  1608,  was  a  royalist  in  the  civil  war.  He  com- 
posed some  worthless  plays  and  doggerel  poems,  which 


are  only  worthy  of  notice  on  account  of  the  anecdotes 
which  they  furnish  of  contemporary  authors  or  actors. 
Died  in  1684. 

See  CnjBER,  "Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Cokayn.    See  Cokaine. 

Coke  or  Cook,  [always  pronounced  kook  in  his  own 
time,  and  at  present  by  the  members  of  the  English  bar,] 
(Sir  Edward,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  English  judges 
and  jurists,  was  born  at  Mileham,  in  Norfolk,  in  1552. 
After  graduating  at  Cambridge,  he  studied  law  in  the 
Inner  Teinple,  London,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1578. 
He  rapidly  acquired  a  very  extensive  practice,  was  ap- 
pointed solicitor-general  in  1592,  and  attorney-general 
in  1594,  although  the  Earl  of  Essex  strenuously  urged 
the  ajjpointment  of  Francis  Bacon  to  the  last  office.  In 
1593  he  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
He  is  justly  censured  for  his  insolence  to  Raleigh  at  the 
trial  of  the  latter  in  1603,  and  for  his  cruelty  in  applying 
torture  to  persons  charged  with  crimes.  In  1606  he  was 
appointed  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas,  and  in  1613 
chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench.  From  this  office  he 
was  removed  in  1616,  because  he  was  not  sufficiently  ob- 
sequious to  the  court  or  king.  In  1622  he  was  confined 
in  the  Tower  many  months  for  his  opposition  to  the 
court  party.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1625,  and 
again  in  1628,  when  he  zealously  opposed  the  arbitrary 
measures  of  the  court,  and  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
popular  party.  About  1628  he  produced  his  celebrated 
work  called  "Coke  upon  Littleton,"  or  the  "First  In- 
stitute," being  the  first  part  of  the  "  Institutes  of  the  Laws 
of  England."  It  is  a  work  of  the  highest  authority  on 
English  law,  and  a  rich  mine  of  legal  learning.  "  He  hath 
thrown  together,"  says  Blackstone,  "  an  infinite  treasure 
of  learning  in  a  loose  desultory  order."    Died  in  1633. 

See  Charles  W.  Johnson,  "  Life  of  Sir  Edward  Coke,"  2  vols., 
1837;  E.  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England ;"  Bridgeman,  "Legal 
Biography;"  Gakdinek,  "History  of  England  from  the  Accession 
of  James  L  to  the  Disgrace  of  Chief- Justice  Coke,"  2  vols.  8vo,  Lon- 
don, 1863;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  viii.,  1823;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1838. 

Coke,  (Thomas,)  a  zealous  Wesleyan  inissionary, 
born  at  Brecon,  South  Wales,  in  1747.  About  1780  he 
was  appointed  by  John  Wesley  superintendent  of  the 
London  district,  and  a  few  years  later  was  ordained  a 
bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  He  made 
nine  voyages  to  North  America  between  1784  and  1814, 
and  incurred  danger  of  violence  by  preaching  against 
slavery.  He  died  at  sea,  on  a  voyage  to  Ceylon,  in 
1 8 14.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  Commentary  on  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments." 

See  S.  Drew,  "Life  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Coke  ;"  Rev.  Robert 
Steel,  "  Burning  and  Shining  Lights,"  London,  1864. 

Coke,  (Thomas  William.)  See  Leicester,  Earl  of. 

Cola,  di,  de  ko''la,  (Gennaro,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  in  1320;  died  about  1370. 

Colalto,  ko-iaKto,  or  CoUalto,  kol-l^Kto,  (Antonio 
Mattiuzzi  —  mSt-te-oot'see,)  an  Italian  actor  and  dra- 
matic author,  born  at  Vicenza  about  171 7.  His  comedy 
of  the  "Three  Venetian  Twins"  (1773)  was  very  suc- 
cessful at  Paris.    Died  at  Paris  in  1778. 

Colantonio,  di,  dee  ko-lSn-to^ne-o,  (Marzio,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Rome  in  1662  ;  died  in  1701. 

Colardeau,  kolta'do',  (Charles  Pierre,)  a  French 
poet,  born  at  Janville  in  1732.  In  1758  he  produced  his 
"  Letter  from  Heloise  to  Abelard,"  imitated  from  Pope, 
which  was  very  successful.  Among  his  best  works  are 
"The  Men  of  Prometheus,"  "Epistle  to  M.  Duhamel," 
and  "  Astarbe,"  a  tragedy.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
French  Academy  in  1776.  His  merit  consists  in  the 
charm  and  harmony  of  his  versification,  rather  than  in 
the  force  or  originality  of  his  thoughts.    Died  in  1776. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale  ;"  "  Biographic  Universelle." 

Colardeau,  (Julien,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Poitou 
about  1590,  wrote  a  j^oem  on  the  victories  of  Louis  XIII. 

Colas  de  Rienzi.    See  Rienzi. 

Colaud,  koHo',  (Claude  Silvestre,)  Count,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Brian^on  in  1754.  In  1801  he 
was  made  a  senator  by  the  First  Consul,  on  account  of 
his  military  services.    Died  in  1819. 

Colbert,  koKbaiR',  (Auouste  Marie  Franqois,)  a 
French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1777.  He  went  to  Egypt 
as  aide-de-camp  of  Murat  in  1798,  and,  returning  with 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  loiig;  i,  ky  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,    sAor^;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fS,ll,  f^t;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


COLBERT  635 


Desaix,  distinguished  himself  at  Marengo  in  1800.  For 
his  conduct  at  Austerlitz  in  1805  he  was  made  general 
of  brigade,  and  was  employed  to  carry  to  the  emperor 
Alexander  the  ultimatum  of  the  victor.  He  was  killed 
in  a  battle  near  Astorga,  Spain,  in  1809. 

See  "  Victoires  at  Conquetes  des  Frangais. " 

Colbert,  (Charles,)  Marquis  de  Croissy,  (kRwa'se',) 
brother  of  the  great  Colbert,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1629. 
He  was  successively  councillor  of  state,  first  president  of 
the  parliament  of  Metz,  and  ambassador  to  England.  He 
had  a  prominent  part  in  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
in  1668,  and  was  afterwards  secretary  of  state.  Died 
in  1696. 

Colbert,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  an  eminent  French  states- 
man and  financier,  born  at  Rheims  on  the  29th  of  Au- 
gust, 1619,  was  the  son  of  Nicolas  Colbert,  a  person  of 
moderate  fortune.  In  his  youth  he  travelled  through 
many  provinces  of  France,  giving  special  attention  to 
the  state  of  commerce  and  the  means  of  improving  it. 
In  1648  he  was  introduced  to  Cardinal  Mazarin,  who, 
discerning  his  merit,  took  him  into  his  service  and  con- 
fidence, as  intendant  of  bis  estate.  He  became  a  coun- 
cillor of  state  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine,  and  secretary  to 
the  queen  in  1654.  In  1661  Mazarin  died,  commending 
Colbert  to  the  confidence  of  Louis  XIV.  Fouquet,  su- 
perintendent of  the  finances,  aspired  to  succeed  Mazarin 
as  prime  minister;  but  the  king,  resolving  to  be  the  actual 
ruler,  suppressed  the  office  of  prime  minister,  and  that 
of  superintendent.  Colbert,  liaving  given  him  proof 
that  the  finances  were  verging  to  a  state  of  ruin  and 
chaos,  was  appointed  controller-general  of  finances  in 
l66r.  He  reduced  the  taille,  (land-  and  income-tax,)  and 
established  strict  order  and  economy  in  all  the  branches 
of  the  revenue  and  public  expenses.  Though  the  j^eople 
paid  more  than  eighty  millions  annually,  in  1660  only 
thirty-two  millions  were  received  into  the  treasury  ;  but 
at  the  death  of  Colbert  eighty-three  millions  were  re- 
ceived out  of  a  total  revenue  of  one  hundred  and  fifteen 
millions.  Under  his  auspices  the  commerce  and  manu- 
factures of  France  were  so  efficiently  promoted,  and 
acquired  so  great  prosperity,  that,  as  Voltaire  says,  "he 
may  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  commerce  and  pro- 
tector of  all  the  arts."  He  formed  a  chamber  of  com- 
merce, opened  canals,  chartered  two  companies  to  trade 
in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  and  planted  colonies  in 
Canada,  etc.  In  1669  he  was  appointed  minister  of  the 
marine,  in  which  he  made  great  reforms.  The  manufac- 
tures of  glass,  silk,  woollen  stuffs,  and  other  commodities 
were  either  originated  or  much  enlarged  by  him.  He  also 
patronized  letters  and  science  by  founding  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions,  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  (1666,)  the 
Observatory,  and  other  institutions.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy.  He  opposed  without  success 
the  system  of  loans  proposed  by  Louvois  during  the  war 
which  began  in  1672,  and  constantly  favoured  the  tole- 
ration of  Protestants.  His  austere  probity  found  little 
sympathy  at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV.;  and  he  was  at  last 
supplanted  (at  least  partially)  by  the  more  obsequious 
Louvois,  who  was  minister  of  war.  He  died,  however, 
in  office  in  September,  1683,  leaving  several  sons,  noticed 
in  this  work.  His  manners  were  rather  cold  and  reserved, 
his  morals  regular.  Louis  XIV.  said  he  always  retained 
at  court  the  tone  and  manners  of  a  bourgeois.  Probably 
no  minister  ever  rendered  so  great  services  to  France  as 
Colbert. 

See  D'AuviGNV,  "Vie  de  Colbert;"  Neckkr,  "  filoge  de  J.  B. 
Colbert :"  Pierre  Clement,  "  Histoire  de  Colbert,"  1846  ;  A.  dh 
SERyiEZ,  "Histoirede  Colbert,"  1S42;  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis 
XIV:"  Charles  Pekrault,  "  Memoires  ;"  W.  Seelig,  "  Disser- 
tatio  de  Colberti  Adminislratione  Aerarii,"  1S44. 

Colbert,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  Marquis  de  Seignelay, 
(sin'yeh-iy,)  the  eldest  son  of  the  great  financier,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1651.  He  inherited  a  good  share  of  his 
father's  talents  and  firmness.  In  1676  he  was  ajjpointed 
secretary  of  the  navy,  or  minister  of  the  marine,  which, 
under  his  direction,  became  one  of  the  most  powerful  in 
the  world.  He  was  chosen  a  minister  of  state  in  1689, 
and  died  in  1690.  His  brother,  Jacques  Nicolas,  born 
in  Paris  in  1654,  became  Archbishop  of  Rouen.  He  was 
admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1678.  He  left  a 
fair  reputation  for  talents  and  conduct.    Died  in  1707. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Francais." 


COLE 


Colbert,(jEAN  Baptiste,)  Marquis  de  Torcy,(toR'se',) 
a  French  negotiator,  son  of  the  Marquis  de  Croissy,  born 
in  Paris  in  1665.  About  the  age  of  twenty  he  was  sent  on 
a  mission  to  Denmark,  and  in  1687  performed  another  to 
London.  Between  1690  and  1700  he  was  appointed  secre- 
tary for  foreign  affairs.  He  negotiated  a  separate  peace 
with  England  about  17 12,  and  took  part  in  the  general 
pacification  of  Utrecht  in  1 7 13.  About  17 15  he  retired 
from  office.  He  was  a  meml>er  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences, and  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  negotiations  from  the 
treaty  of  Ryswick  to  the  peace  of  Utrecht.  Died  in  1746. 

Colbert,  (Jules  Armand,)  a  French  general,  a  son 
of  the  eminent  statesman,  was  mortally  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Blenheim  in  1704. 

Colbert,  (Pierre  David,)  a  French  general,  born  in 
Paris  in  1774.  He  made  the  campaign  of  Austerlitz  (1805) 
as  aide-de-camp  to  Berthier,  and  became  a  general  of 
division  in  1813.  He  fought  for  Nai)oleon  at  Waterloo, 
but  entered  the  service  of  Louis  XVIH.  in  1816.  In 
1838  he  was  made  a  peer  of  France..  Died  in  1853. 
See  "Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Francais." 

Colborne,  (Sir  John.)    See  Seaton,  Lord. 

CoPburn,  (V/arren,)  a  mathematician,  born  at  Ded- 
ham,  Massachusetts,  in  1793,  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1820.  He  became  a  school-teacher  in  Boston,  and  pub- 
lished in  1821  his  "Mental  Arithmetic,"  which  had  an 
iinmense  circulation  in  Europe  as  well  as  in  the  United 
States.  He  also  published  a  Sequel  to  the  above  work. 
Died  in  1833. 

Colburn,  (Zerah,)  a  mathematical  prodigy,  born  at 
Cabot,  Vermont,  in  1804.  Before  he  was  seven  years  old 
he  displayed  such  wonderful  expertness  in  mental  arith- 
metic that  his  father  began,  in  1810,  to  exhibit  him  in 
public.  He  could  solve  with  accuracy  and  rai)idity  the 
most  difficult  questions  in  involution,  evolution,  etc., 
without  the  use  of  figures.  Being  asked  the  number  of 
seconds  in  1813  years,  7  months,  and  27  days,  he  quickly 
answered,  57,234,384,000.  About  1825  he  became  a 
Methodist  preacher.  He  lost  his  faculty  of  computation 
as  he  grew  up  to  manhood.    Died  in  1840. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  1833. 

CoPby,  (or  koKbe,)  (Thomas,)  an  English  engineer, 
was  born  at  Rochester  in  1784.  In  1802  he  was  appointed 
assistant  in  the  Ordnance  Survey,  with  which  his  history 
is  inseparably  connected.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
captain  in  1807.  He  evinced  great  energy  and  endurance 
in  the  survey  of  Scotland,  1813-17.  In  1820  he  was 
chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  a  member  of  the 
Board  of  Longitude,  and  succeeded  General  Mudge  as 
superintendent  of  the  survey.  He  next  ])ursuecl  the 
same  task  in  Ireland,  where  he  used  with  advantage  the 
"compensation-bars"  invented  by  himself.  The  maps  /- 
engraved  under  his  direction  are  said  to  be  more  accu- 
rate than  any  previously  made.  He  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  major-general  in  1846.    Died  in  1852. 

CoPohes-ter,  (Charles  Ahbot,)  Lord,  an  English 
peer  and  vice-admiral,  born  in  1798,  was  postmaster- 
general  during  the  ministry  of  Lord  Derby  in  1858-59. 

Colchester,  Lord.    See  Abbot,  (Charles.) 

CoPden,  (Cadwallader,)  a  physician,  born  at  Dunse, 
Scotland,  in  1688,  emigrated  to  America  about  1708.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Five  Indian  Nations  of  Canada." 
He  was  a  correspondent  of  IJnnaeus,  to  whom  he  sent 
several  hundred  American  plants.  He  was  lieutenant- 
governor  of  New  York  from  1761  until  his  death  in  1776. 

Colden,  (Cadwallader  D.,)  a  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Queen's  county.  Long  Island,  in 
1769.  He  practised  law  in  New  York,  was  elected  mayor 
of  that  city  in  1818,  and  a  member  of  Congress  in  1822. 
He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Robert  Fulton."    Died  in  1834. 

Coldore,  koKdo'ra',  a  French  engraver  of  precious 
stones,  appears  to  have  been  the  same  as  Julien  de 
Fontenay,  whom  Henry  IV.,  in  his  letters-patent  of 
1608,  entitles  his  valet-de-chambre  and  engraver  of  gems. 
His  portraits  of  Henry  and  others  are  prized  almost  as 
highly  as  antique  gems.  He  engraved  a  portrait  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  which  she  preferred  to  all  others. 

Cole,  (Charles  Nelson,)  an  English  legal  antiquary, 
born  in  1722;  died  in  1804. 

Cole,  (Sir  Galbraith  Lowry,)  an  officer  of  the  British 
army,  born  in  1772,  was  a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Enniskillen. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


COLE 


636 


COLERIDGE 


He  became  colonel  in  i8oi,  and  served  with  distinction 
in  tlie  Peninsular  war,  (1808-14.)    Died  in  1842. 

Cole,  (Henry,)  an  English  Catholic  theologian,  be- 
came Feliow  of  New  College,  Oxford,  in  1523.  He  was 
chosen  provost  of  Eton  in  1554,  and  had  a  disputation 
with  Cranmer  in  that  year.  He  wrote  "Letters  to 
Bishoj)  Jewel,"  and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1579. 

Cole,  (Henry,)  C.B.,  an  English  art-critic  and  editor, 
noted  as  the  promoter  of  "  Art-Manufactures,"  was  born 
at  Bath  in  1808.  In  his  youth  he  became  assistant  keeper 
of  the  public  records,  and  by  his  writings  caused  the 
establishment  of  a  general  record  office.  He  was  one  of 
the  executive  committee  of  the  Exhibition  of  the  Crystal 
Palace  in  185 1,  the  success  of  which  is  in  great  measure 
ascribed  to  him.  Mr.  Cole  was  the  J>ritish  commissioner 
for  the  Universal  Exposition  of  Paris  in  1855. 

Cole,  (  Thomas,)  an  eminent  landscape-painter,  born 
in  Lancashire,  England,  in  1801,  at  an  early  age  ac- 
companied his  parents  to  Ohio.  Having  had  no  instruc- 
tions in  art  except  what  he  received  from  an  itinerant 
portrait-painter,  he  set  out  in  1822  to  seek  his  fortune. 
After  a  short  sojourn  in  Western  Pennsylvania  and  Phila- 
delphia, he  arrived  in  New  York  City,  where  his  works 
soon  attracted  the  notice  of  artists  and  connoisseurs. 
His  reputation  was  now  established,  his  landscapes,  in- 
cluding views  of  the  Catskills  and  the  White  Mountains, 
were  eagerly  sought  for,  and  he  was  soon  enabled  to 
visit  Europe.  He  set  out  in  1829,  and,  after  a  residence 
of  two  years  in  London,  repaired  to  Florence  and  Rome. 
He  returned  to  New  York  in  1832,  bringing  with  him  a 
number  of  Italian  landscapes,  which,  though  perhaps  no 
improvement  on  the  style  of  his  previous  works,  are 
highly  esteemed  by  many  amateurs.  Cole,  who  in  one 
of  his  letters  had  said,  "Neither  the  Alps  nor  the  Apen- 
nines, nor  even  Etna  itself,  have  dimmed  in  my  eyes  the 
beauty  of  our  own  Catskills,"  now  again  devoted  him- 
self to  his  favourite  subjects.  The  result  of  these  labours 
were  his  "Cross  in  the  Wilderness,"  "The  Hunter's 
Return,"  "Home  in  the  Woods,"  "Mountain  Ford," 
and  other  admirable  illustrations  of  American  scenery. 
His  great  allegorical  series  (in  four  pictures)  of  "  The 
Voyage  of  Life"  is  ranked  among  his  master-pieces. 
Among  his  other  pictures  may  be  named  "The  Course 
of  Empire,"  (in  5  parts,)  "View  of  Mount  Etna,  taken 
from  Taormina,"  "  Kenilworth  Castle,"  and  "Dream  of 
Arcadia."    Died  in  1848. 

See  L.  NoBi.E,  "  Life  of  1".  Cole;"  Tuckerman,  "Book  of  tlie 
Artists :""  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1853:  "Oration 
on  the  Death  of  Thomas  Cole,"  by  W.  C.  Rkyant,  New  York,  184S. 

Cole,  (Rev.  Thomas,)  an  English  dissenter  and  reli- 
gious writer,  was  one  of  the  teachers  of  John  Locke. 
Died  in  1697. 

Cole,  (William,)  an  English  botanist,  born  at  Adder- 
bury  in  1626.  His  works  are  "The  Art  of  Simpling," 
and  "Adam  in  Eden."    Died  in  1662. 

Cole,  (William,)  an  English  physician,  who  graduated 
in  1666,  and  practised  at  Bristol.  He  published  treatises 
on  Fevers,  on  Animal  Secretions,  etc. 

Cole,  (William,)  an  English  antiquary  and  divine, 
born  in  Cambridgeshire  in  17 14.  He  became  rector  of 
Bletchley  in  1767,  and  vicar  of  Burnham  in  1774.  He 
contributed  to  the  antiquarian  works  of  Grose,  Ducarel, 
Gough,  etc.,  and  collected  manuscripts  for  an  account 
of  Cambridge  scholars  in  imitation  of  Wood's  "Athenae." 
Died  in  1782. 

See  NiCHf^i.s,  "  Literary  Anecdotes,"  etc. 

Colebrooke,  koKbrdok,  (Henry  Thoal\s,)  an  enn'- 
nent  Oriental  scholar,  born  in  England  in  1765.  He 
went  to  India  in  1782,  and  held  several  high  positions 
in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company.  He  published 
a  "Grammar"  and  a  "Dictionary  of  the  Sanscrit  Lan- 
guage," (1808,)  and  "  Remarks  on  the  Husbandry  and 
Irternal  Commerce  of  Bengal,"  which,  says  McCulloch, 
"is  by  far  the  best  and  most  trustworthy  work  on  tlie 
subject."  He  was  chosen  professor  of  Sanscrit  at  the 
College  of  Fort  William  soon  after  the  same  was  founded, 
and  was  atone  time  a  member  of  the  supreme  council  of 
Bengal.  He  wrote  valuable  treatises,  which  were  inserted 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Asiatic  Society.  He  returned 
to  England  before  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1837. 

See  Walckenaer,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Cole- 
brooke." 


Cole'man,  (William,)  an  American  journalist  and 
lawyer,  born  in  Boston  in  1766.  He  settled  in  New 
York  about  1794,  and  became  in  1801  editor  of  the 
"Evening  Post,"  the  organ  of  the  Federalists,  which 
he  edited  with  ability  for  about  twenty  years.  He  was 
intimate  with  Alexander  Hamilton.    Died  in  1829. 

Co-len'so,  (John  William,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  in  18 14,  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1836.  He  be- 
came Bishop  of  Natal,  in  South  Africa,  in  1854.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "The  Pentateuch  and 
Book  of  Joshua  critically  exammed,"  (1862,)  which  was 
condemned  by  both  houses  of  Convocation  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Canterbury  in  1864.  He  denies  the  inspiration 
and  historical  accuracy  of  several  books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1863;  "Westminster 
Review"  for  January,  1863  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  January, 
1863. 

Coleoni,  ko-li-o'nee,  or  Coglioni,  k6l-yo'nee,  (Bar- 
TOLOMMEO,)  an  Italian  general,  born  near  Bergamo  in 
1400.  In  the  war  between  the  Venetians  and  Milanese 
he  fought  for  and  betrayed  both  by  turns.  He  was  gen- 
eralissimo of  the  Venetian  state  from  1454  until  his  death 
in  1475.    He  passed  for  the  best  tactician  of  that  age. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Co'ler,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German  theologian, 
born  near  Langensalza  in  169 1,  published  a  journal  called 
"Auserlesene  theologik  Biblioihek,"  (1724-36,)  in  which 
he  gave  an  analysis  of  recent  works  on  theology.  Died 
in  1736. 

See  JocHER,  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Coleridge,  koKrij,  (Rev.  Derwent,)  a  son  of  the 
celebrated  poet  S.  T.  Coleridge,  was  born  at  Keswick 
in  1800,  and  educated  at  Cambridge.  He  was  ordained 
about  1826,  and  became  a  prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's, 
London.  In  1839  he  published  "The  Scriptural  Char- 
acter of  the  P^nglish  Church  considered."  He  succeeded 
his  slifeter  (Sara  H.)  as  editor  of  his  father's  unpublished 
works.  His  "  Memoir  of  Hartley  Coleridge"  is  highly 
praised.  He  is,  or  was  recently,  principal  of  Saint 
Mark's  College,  Chelsea. 

Coleridge,  (Har  i'ley,)  an  English  poet  and  prodigy, 
born  at  Clevedon,  near  Bristol,  in  1796,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  the  eminent  poet.  In  1800  his  father  removed  to 
Keswick,  in  the  Lake  region.  Hartley  was  a  deep  thinker 
in  childhood,  and  was  in  all  periods  of  his  life  dreamy, 
wayward,  and  fantastic.  While  he  was  a  "baby  in  his 
mother's  arms,"  he  exclaimed,  on  seeing  the  lamps  of 
London,  "  Oh,  now  I  know  what  the  stars  are  :  they  are 
the  lamps  that  have  been  good  on  earth  and  have  gone 
up  to  heaven."  When  he  was  six  years  old,  Wordsworth 
addressed  to  him  these  lines  : 

•'  O  thfiu  !  whose  fancies  from  afar  are  brought, 
Who  of  thy  woids  dost  make  a  mock  apparel. 
And  fittest  to  unutterable  thought 
The  breeze-like  motion  and  the  self-born  carol,"  etc. 

He  graduated  at  Oxford  with  honour  in  1818,  and  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  Oriel  College.  About  a  year  after 
that  event  he  forfeited  the  Fellowship  by  intemperance, 
which  became  habitual.  The  formation  of  this  habit  is 
partly  ascribed  to  physical  deformity  and  a  morbid  sen- 
sitiveness on  that  subject.  His  jjersonal  appearance  is 
said  to  have  been  very  grotesque,  and  his  conversational 
powers  most  extraordinary.  The  latter  half  of  his  life 
was  passed  at  Grasniere  and  Rydal  Water,  with  no  occu- 
pation but  literary  pursuits.  He  wrote  articles  for  "  Black- 
wood's Magazine,"  and  "  The  Worthies  of  Yorkshire  and 
Lancashire,"  which  is  highly  esteemed.  A  volume  of  his 
poems,  published  in  1833,  contains  Sonnets  which  are 
greatly  admired.  He  also  left  Essays  on  various  subjects. 
Southey  in  one  of  his  letters  wrote,  "  It  is  iinpossible  to 
give  you  any  adequate  idea  of  his  oddities  ;  for  he  is  the 
oddest  of  all  God's  creatures,  and  grows  quainter  every 
day."    Died  in  1849. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  Hartley  Coleridsie,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Poems," 
by  his  brother,  Rev.  D  Coleridge  ;  "  Brief  Biographies,"  by  Sam- 
uel Smiles,  i860:  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1851 ;  "Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  June,  1851. 

Coleridge,  (Henry  Nelson,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
distinguished  scholar,  born  ab(jut  1800,  was  the  son  of 
Colonel  Coleridge,  and  a  nephew  of  the  celebrated  poet. 
He  was  a  graduate  of  King's  College,  Cambridge.  In 


a, e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,    j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fSll,  f4t;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


COLERIDGE 


637 


COLETTI 


1825  he  made  a  voyage  to  Barbadoes  with  his  uncle, 
Bisht)p  Coleridge,  and  published  "  Six  Months  in  the 
"West  Indies,"  which  was  favourably  received.  Having 
been  called  to  the  bar  in  1826,  he  acquired  extensive 
practice.  In  1830  he  published  an  "Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  the  Greek  Classic  Poets,"  which  was  followed 
by  the  "Table-Talk  of  Samuel  T.  Coleridge."  He  ren- 
dered valuable  services  to  the  public  as  editor  of  his 
uncle's  writings,  viz.,  "Literary  Remains  of  S.  T.  Cole- 
ridge," (1836,)  "The  Friend,"  "Biographia  Literaria," 
etc.    Died  in  1843. 

Coleridge,  (John  Duke,)  an  English  orator,  son  of 
Sir  John  T.  Coleridge,  noticed  below.  As  a  Liberal  mem- 
ber of  Parliament  for  Exeter,  he  made  an  able  speech  for 
the  Reform  Bill  in  April,  1866.  In  December,  1868,  he 
became  solicitor-general. 

Coleridge,  (Sir  John  Taylor,)  an  English  lawyer,  a 
nephew  of  the  eminent  poet  S.  T.  Coleridge,  was  born 
at  Tiverton  in  1 790.  He  published  an  edition  of  "  Black- 
stone's  Commentaries"  in  1825,  and  was  appointed  a 
judge  of  the  court  of  king's  bench  in  1835.  In  1858  he 
was  admitted  to  the  privy  council. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  ix. 

Coleridge,  (Samuel  Taylor,)  an  eminent  English 
poet,  critic,  and  speculative  genius,  was  born  at  Ottery 
Saint  Mary,  in  Devonshire,  on  the  21st  of  October,  1772. 
He  was  the  youngest  among  many  children  of  John  Cole- 
ridge, vicar  of  that  parish,  and  did  not  inherit  the  favours 
of  fortune.  Before  he  was  fifteen  he  was  deeply  interested 
in  metaphysics.  He  entered  Jesus  College,  Cambridge, 
in  1791,  gained  high  distinction  by  his  classical  attain- 
ments, but  abruptly  left  the  university  without  a  degree 
in  1793,  in  consequence  of  the  rejection  of  his  addresses 
by  a  young  lady  of  Cambridge.  In  a  reckless  state  of 
mind,  and  with  an  empty  purse,  he  enlisted  in  a  regiment 
of  dragoons,  under  the  assumed  name  of  Silas  Tom- 
ken  Comberback ;  but  his  friends  soon  procured  his 
discharge.  In  1794  he  became  intimate  with  Robert 
Southey,  whose  politics  and  creed  were  then,  like  his 
own,  democratic  and  Socinian.  They  resolved  to  emi- 
grate to  America  and  to  found  on  the  Susquehanna  a 
Utopian  republic  or  pantisocracy,  with  a  community  of 
goods,  the  idea  of  which  originated  with  Coleridge.  This 
romantic  reverie,  however,  was  never  realized,  as  they 
had  not  sufficient  capital  even  for  the  outfit. 

Coleridge  had  already  begun  to  write  poetry,  and  to 
display  his  marvellous  aptitude  and  passion  for  lecturing 
in  all  places  and  on  all  occasions.  In  1794  he  sold  to 
his  generous  friend  Mr.  Cottle,  of  Bristol,  for  thirty 
guineas  in  advance,  the  first  volume  of  his  poems,  which 
were  printed  in  1796.  Early  in  1795  he  gave  lectures  on 
political  and  moral  subjects  at  Bristol,  and  was  warmly 
applauded.  In  the  same  year  he  married  Sarah  Fricker, 
a  sister  of  Southey's  wife,  and  took  a  cottage  at  Cleve- 
don,  whence,  after  a  few  months,  he  removed  to  Bristol. 
He  formed  many  literary  projects,  among  which  was 
"The  Watchman,"  a  weekly  periodical,  of  which  he 
issued  ten  numbers  in  1796,  but  it  did  not  ])ay  expenses. 
For  two  or  three  years  he  lived  at  Nether  Stowey,  where 
he  wrote  the  "Ancient  Mariner,"  a  poem,  and  "  Osorio,  or 
Remorse,"  a  tragedy,  both  of  which  are  greatly  admired  ; 
also  "  Lyrical  Ballads,"  in  conjunction  with  Wordsworth, 
and  other  poems.  He  made  some  essays  in  preach- 
ing for  the  Unitarians  ;  but  his  absence  of  mind,  insta- 
bility, and  want  of  punctuality  disqualified  him  for  the 
regular  duties  of  the  pulpit.  In  1798  he  visited  Germany 
with  Wordsworth,  and  studied  German  literature,  etc. 
at  Gottingen.  In  1800  he  removed  to  Keswick,  in  the 
Lake  district,  where  Southey  and  Wordsworth  also 
resided,  and  from  which  charming  locality  the  three 
friends  received  the  appellation  of  "  Lake  Poets."  About 
1805  he  renounced  Unitarianism  for  the  creed  of  the 
Anglican  Church.  He  lectured  on  Shakspeare  and  the 
Fine  Arts  at  the  Royal  Institution  in  1808,  and  in  1809 
published  a  periodical  entitled  "The  Friend."  About 
1810,  leaving  his  wife  and  daughter  dependent  on 
Southey,  he  departed  from  Keswick,  and  resumed  his 
wandering  habits.  Between  1816  and  1825  he  produced 
"Christabel,"  a  "Lay  Sermon.,"  (181 7,)  "Zapoyla,"  a 
drama,  (1818,)  "Biographia  Literaria,"  and  "Aids  to  Re- 
flection," (1825.)  His  health  having  failed,  he  contracted 


a  habit  of  using  opium  in  excess,  (a  pint  of  laudanum 
per  day,)  which  increased  his  natural  infirmities  and 
caused  much  remorse.  Some  years  before  his  death  he 
was  enabled  to  overcome  that  pernicious  habit.  In  1816 
he  was  kindly  received  in  the  house  of  Mr.  Gillman,  a 
physician  of  London,  with  whom  his  last  years  were 
passed.  He  died  in  1834,  after  which  appeared  his 
"Literary  Remains,"  " Table-Talk,"  and  other  works. 
"Born  alike  poet  and  orator,  he  might  in  either  walk,  or 
in  both,  have  left  a  fame  of  the  highest  rank,  but  for  the 
disease  implanted  in  his  fabric,  and  an  indulgence  which 
operated  until  the  day  was  far  spent  in  tarnishing  the 
rightful  glory  of  his  gifts  and  acquisitions."  ("London 
Quarterly  Review.")  "Pie  displays,"  says  John  Foster, 
"more  of  what  we  mean  by  the  term  genius  than  any 
mortal  I  ever  saw."  The  eloquence  and  affluence  of  his 
conversation,  or  rather  monologues,  have  perhaps  never 
been  equalled.  As  a  poet  he  was  one  of  the  most  ima- 
ginative of  modern  times,  and  as  a  critic  his  merits  are 
of  the  highest  order. 

See  Joseph  Cottle,  "  Reminiscences  of  Coleridge  and  Southey," 
1847;  James  Gillman,  "Life  of  S.  T.  Coleridge,"  1838;  Lord  Jef- 
frey, critique  on  Coleridge's  "  Biographia  Literaria,"  in  the  "  Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  August,  1817;  and  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
April,  1848,  on  Coleridge  and  Southey  ;  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  July, 
1868;  De  QuiNCEY,  "Literary  Reminiscences,"  vol.  i. 

Coleridge,  (Sara  Henry,)  the  only  daughter  of  the 
preceding,  whose  genius  she  inherited,  was  born  at  Kes- 
wick in  1803.  Her  early  years  were  passed  in  the  hiome 
of  her  uncle,  Robert  Southey,  at  Keswick,  wherem  i*ie 
enjoyed  the  society  of  Wordsworth  the  poet.  In  1822 
she  produced  an  excellent  version  of  Dobrizhoffer's  Latin 
work  on  the  Abi pones,  an  equestrian  people  of  Para- 
guay. She  was  married  in  1829  to  her  cousin,  Henry 
N.  Coleridge,  whom  she  assisted  in  editing  her  father's 
works.  She  was  sole  editor  of  the  "Aids  to  Reflection," 
and  a  few  others.  Her  imaginative  faculty  is  displayed 
in  her  "  Phantasmion,"  a  tale,  which  is  much  admired, 
and  has  all  the  charms  of  a  beautiful  poem  except  the 
form  and  colour  of  verse.    Died  in  1852. 

Coleridge,  (William  Hart,)  D.D.,  an  uncle  of 
Henry  Nelson,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1 790.  He 
was  appointed,  in  1824,  Bishop  of  Barbadoes,  which 
office  he  resigned  in  1841.    Died  in  1850. 

Coles,  (Captain  Covvper  Phipps,)  an  English  naval 
officer,  born  in  18 19,  was  noted  as  the  inventor  of  shot- 
proof  rafts  or  floating  batteries,  and  claimed  the  invention 
of  the  turret  system  first  used  in  the  American  Monitor. 
He  was  lost  at  sea  in  1870. 

Coles,  (Elisha,)  an  English  teacher,  born  in  North- 
amptonshire about  1640.  He  taught  school  in  London, 
and  published,  besides  other  educational  works,  one  on 
"Short-Hand,"  an  "English  Dictionary,"  and  a  "Dic- 
tionary English-Latin,  Latin-English,"  which  passed 
through  eighteen  editions  between  1677  and  1772. 

CoFet,  (John,)  an  eminent  scholar,  born  in  London 
in  1466,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  He  became  rector  of 
Dennington  in  1485,  and  Dean  of  Saint  Paul's  in  1505. 
His  lectures  are  said  to  have  contributed  to  the  Refor- 
mation, which  occurred  in  the  following  generation.  A 
few  years  before  his  death  he  founded  and  endowed 
Saint  Paul's  .School,  London.  He  published  "  Daily  De 
votions,"  a  "Latin  Grammar,"  and  other  works.  Colet 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Erasmus,  and  was  persecuted 
for  his  liberal  opinions.    Died  in  1519. 

See  Samuel  Knight,  "Life  of  Colet,"  1724;  "Biographia  En- 
tannica. " 

Colet,  ko'la',  (Louise,)  a  popular  French  poetess, 
born  at  Aix,  in  Provence,  in  1815.  Her  maiden  name 
was  R6voiL.  She  gained  three  prizes  at  the  Academic 
Fran9aise  for  three  poems,  "  Le  Musee  de  Versailles," 
(1839,)  "The  Monument  of  Moliere,"  (1843,)  ^^^^^  "The 
Acropolis  of  Athens,"  (1854.)  Among  her  chief  pro- 
ductions is  a  poem  on  Woman,  ("  Le  Poeme  de  la 
Femme,")  designed  to  develop  the  various  phases  of  the 
life  of  woman,  in  six  parts.  The  first  of  these,  called 
"La  Paysanne,"  appeared  in  1853. 

See  Cuvillier-Fleurv,  "  l^tudes  historiques  et  litteraires." 

Coletti,  ko-let'tee,  (Giovanni  Domenico,)  an  Italian 
Jesuit,  born  in  1727,  published  a  "Geographical  Dic- 
tionary of  South  America,"  (2  vols.,  1771,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1797. 


•e  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


COLFAX 


638 


COLINS 


CoFfax,  (ScHUYLKR,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  the  city  of  New  York  on  the  23d  of  March,  1823,  a 
short  time  after  the  death  of  his  father.  He  was  a  grand- 
son of  General  William  Colfax,  who  commanded  Gen- 
eral Washington's  life-guards  throughout  the  Revolu- 
tionary war.  Owing  to  the  limited  circumstances  of  his 
widowed  mother,  he  had  scarcely  any  opportunities  for 
obtaining  a  school  education.  In  1836  he  removed  with 
his  mother  to  Northern  Indiana.  Not  long  after  he  was- 
appointed  deputy  auditor  for  Saint  Joseph  county.  He 
employed  his  leisure  hours  in  reading  law,  in  which  he 
made  great  proficiency,  although  he  appears  not  to  have 
taken  up  the  study  with  any  view  of  adopting  it  as  a 
profession.  About  1845  he  established  at  South  Bend, 
Indiana,  a  weekly  paper,  called  the  "  Saint  Joseph  Valley 
Register,"  which  he  edited  for  many  years,  and  which 
was  an  able  organ  of  the  Whig  party.  He  was  secretary 
of  the  National  Convention  which  nominated  General 
Taylor  for  the  Presidency  in  1848.  As  a  member  of  the 
Convention  which  framed  the  Constitution  of  Indiana  in 
1850,  he  opposed  the  clause  which  prohibited  free  col- 
oured men  from  settling  in  that  State.  He  was  the  Whig 
candidate  for  Congress  in  185 1,  but  was  defeated  by  a 
small  majority.  In  1854  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  by  the  voters  of  the  ninth  district  of  Indiana, 
which  he  represented  until  he  entered  upon  his  duties  as 
Vice-President.  Soon  after  his  entrance  into  Congress 
he^^niade  an  eloquent  speech  on  the  Kansas  question,  of 
Wiff'^vh,  according  to  the  New  York  "  Tribune,"  five  hun- 
dred thousand  copies  were  printed  and  circulated. 

He  was  elected  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives by  the  Republicans  in  December,  1863  ;  and  he  was 
afterwards  twice  re-elected  to  the  same  position,  each 
time  with  an  increased  majority.  In  1867  he  was  chosen 
Speaker  of  the  Fortieth  Congress.  During  the  civil  war 
he  was  an  intimate  friend  and  confidential  adviser  of 
President  Lincoln.  In  1865  he  made  an  excursion  across 
the  continent  to  California. 

"  As  a  presiding  officer,"  says  "  Putnam's  Magazine," 
"  Mr.  Colfax  is  tlie  most  popular  the  House  has  had 
since  Henry  Clay.  .  .  .  He  is  eminently  representative. 
A  glance  at  his  broad,  well-balanced,  practical  brain 
indicates  that  his  leading  faculty  is  the  sum  of  all  the 
faculties, — judgment.  His  talents  are  administrative  and 
executive  rather  than  deliberative.  He  would  make  a 
better  President,  or  Speaker  of  the  House,  than  Senator." 
(See  "Putnam's  Magazine"  for  June,  1868. )  In  person 
he  is  not  above  middle  stature.  His  hair  is  brown,  and 
his  eyes  blue.  His  moral  character  is  represented  as 
irreproachable.  On  the  21st  of  May,  1868,  he  was  nomi- 
nated as  the  Republican  candidate  for  the  office  of  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States,  General  Grant  being  the 
nominee  for  President.  They  were  triumphantly  elected, 
receiving  214  electoral  votes  against  80  which  were  given 
to  Seymour  and  Hlair.  His  peculiar  fitness  for  the  office 
and  rare  popularity  induced  the  Convention  to  disregard 
those  geographical  considerations  which  usually  require 
that  the  President  and  Vice-President  shall  not  be  taken 
from  the  same  section  of  the  country. 

See  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  "Men  of  our  Times,"  1868; 
Moore,  "  Life  of  Schuvler  Colfax,"  1868  ;  "  Life  and  Public  Services 
of  Schuyler  Colfax,"  by  E.  M.  Martin,  1868;  "Grant  and  Col- 
fax," by  C.  A.  Phelps. 

Coli,  ko'Iee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Lucca  in  1634,  was  a  pupil  of  P.  Cortona.    Died  in  1681. 

Coligni,  (FRANgois.)    See  Dandelot. 

Coligni  or  Coligny,  de,  deh  ko'lfen'ye',  (FRANgois,) 
a  son  of  the  admiral,  was  born  in  1557.  Having  escaped 
the  massacre  in  which  his  father  perished,  he  took  refuge 
in  Geneva  in  1572.  Two  years  later  he  returned,  and 
took  part  in  the  war  which  was  renewed  between  Catho- 
lic? and  Protestants.  He  was  chosen  colonel-general 
b)  Henry  IV.  while  the  latter  was  fighting  against  the 
League.    Died  in  1591. 

Coligni  or  Coligny,  de,  (Gaspard,)  a  French  gen- 
eral, the  father  of  Admiral  Coligni.  After  the  battle  of 
Marignan,  (15 15,)  where  he  commanded  a  corps,  he  was 
made  marshal  of  France.  He  married  Louise,  a  sister 
of  the  Constable  Montmorenci.  He  had  just  been  ap- 
pointed commander  of  the  army  sent  against  Spain,  when 
he  died,  in  1522. 

See  SisMONui,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 


Coligni,  ko-leen'ye  or  ko'l^n'ye',  or  Coligny,  de, 
[Lat.  Colin'ius,]  (Gaspard,)  a  renowned  Huguenot 
chief  and  French  admiral,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Chatillon-sur-Loing,  February  16,  1517.  He  served 
first  in  the  campaign  of  1543,  and  was  knighted  by  Conde 
on  the  field  of  Cerisoles  in  1544.  A  few  years  later  he  was 
appointed  colonel-general  of  infantry,  and  in  1552  ad- 
miral of  France.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Spaniards 
at  Saint-Quentin  in  1557.  Soon  after  this  date  he  was 
converted  to  the  Reformed  religion.  When  the  civil 
war  began  in  1562,  Coligni  was  chosen  second  in  com- 
mand of  the  Protestant  army  under  the  Prince  of  Conde. 
He  succeeded  to  the  chief  command  at  Jarnac  in  1569, 
after  Conde  had  been  killed,  and  was  defeated  at  Mon- 
contour  in  the  same  year.  In  1570  the  court  granted 
the  Protestants  peace  on  terms  so  favourable  that  they 
suspected  it  to  be  treacherous.  These  suspicions,  how- 
ever, were  artfully  dispelled,  and  Coligni  went  to  Paris 
to  attend  the  marriage  of  Henry  of  Navarre  with  the 
king's  sister,  in  August,  1572.  After  he  had  been  warmly 
caressed  by  the  king,  he  was  wounded  in  the  arm,  as  he 
])assed  along  the  street,  by  a  partisan  of  the  Duke  of 
Guise.  Two  days  later  occurred  the  Massacre  of  Saint 
Bartholomew,  in  which  Coligni  was  killed  in  his  cham- 
ber in  the  presence  of  the  Duke  of  Guise.  (vSee  Charles 
IX.)  Though  not  fortunate  as  a  general,  his  prudence, 
firmness,  and  ability  rendered  him  formidable  even  after 
defeat. 

See  Brant6me,  *'  Discours  sur  I'Amiral  de  Chatillon  ;"  Perault, 
"Vie  de  Coligni;"  De  la  Ponneraye,  "Histoire  de  I'Amiral  de 
Coligni,"  1830;  Jean  de  Serres,  "Gasparis  Colinii  Vita,"  1575; 
SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Fran^ais ;"  Dufey,  "Coligny,  Histoire 
Frangaise,"  4  vols.,  1824;  "  Nouvelie  Biographie  Generale." 

Coligni,  de,  (Gaspard,)  a  French  general,  called  Mar- 
shal de  Chatillon,  a  son  of  Fran9ois,  noticed  above,  was 
born  in  1584.  He  obtained  at  an  early  age  the  rank  of 
colonel-general  of  infantry.  He  became  a  marshal  in 
1622,  and  gained  several  victories  over  the  Spaniards  in 
Flanders  and  Piedmont  between  1630  and  1640.  Died 
in  1646. 

See  Mor^ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Coligni,  de,  (Henriette,)  Countess  de  la  Suze,  (deh 
It  siiz,)  a  French  poetess,  daughter  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1618.  She  became  the  wife  of  the  Count  de  la 
Suze,  from  whom  she  was  divorced  in  1653.  She  acquired 
considerable  renown  by  her  elegies,  odes,  songs,  etc., 
and  was  admired  for  her  personal  and  mental  graces. 
Died  in  1673. 

Coligni,  de,  (Odet,)  Cardinal  de  Chatillon,  (shl''te'- 
yiN',)  a  brother  of  the  admiral,  born  in  15 15,  became  a 
cardinal  in  1533.  About  1560  he  made  an  open  profes- 
sion of  the  Reformed  religion.  After  the  battle  of  Saint- 
Denis  (1567)  he  retired  to  England,  where  he  died  in  1571. 

See  Brantome,  "Memoires." 

Colignon,  ko'16n'y5N',  (Francois,)  a  distinguished 
French  engraver,  born  at  Nancy  about  1621;  died  in  1671. 
Coligny.    See  Colignl 

Colin,  koKin  or  ko'liN',  (Alexander,)  an  eminent 
Flemish  sculptor,  born  at  Mechlin  in  1526.  Invited  by 
Ferdinand  I.,  he  went  to  Innspruck  in  1563,  and  executed 
a  magnificent  monument  to  the  emperor  Maximilian  I. 
It  is  composed  of  numerous  marble  figures  in  alto-relievo, 
and  is  a  very  admirable  specimen  of  art  He  was  ap- 
pointed sculptor  to  the  emperor  Ferdinand  I.,  and  exe- 
cuted other  monuments  in  Innspruck.    Died  in  1612. 

Colin,  ko'llN',  (Jacques,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Auxerre,  was  secretary  to  Francis  I.  He  composed 
verses  in  Latin  and  French.  His  "Dialogue  between 
Venus  and  Cupid"  is  an  ingenious  poem,  in  French. 
Died  in  1547. 

Colines,  de,  deh  koO^n',  (Simon,)  an  eminent  French 
printer  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  became  a  partner 
in  Paris  of  Henry  Estienne,  whose  widow  he  subsequently 
married.  He  published  many  editions  remarkable  for 
correctness  and  elegance.    Died  about  1546. 

Colini.    See  Collinl 

Colinius.    See  Colignl 

Colins,  ko''l£lN^  (Pierre,)  Lord  of  Heetyelde,  a 
Flemish  soldier  and  historian,  born  at  Enghien  in  1560. 
served  under  Alexander  Farnese  from  1581  to  1583.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  most  Memorable  Events  from 
1 130  to  the  Present  Time,"  (1634.)    Died  in  1646. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  /ono-;  k,    b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  it,  y,  s/io7-f;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


COLLADO 


639 


COLLETET 


Collado,  kol-yS'oo,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  missionary, 
born  in  Estreniadura,  went  to  Japan  in  1619,  and  preached 
there  many  years.  He  published  in  Rome  a  valuable 
"  Jaoanese  Grammar"  and  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  Japanese 
Language."    Died  at  sea  in  1638. 

Collado,  (Luis,)  a  skilful  Spanish  anatomist,  born  at 
Valencia,  lived  about  1550.  He  made  discoveries  in 
the  structure  of  the  ear,  and  wrote  several  professional 
works. 

Collado,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  military  engineer  of  the 
first  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a 
"Practical  Manual  of  Artillery,"  (1586.) 

CoUadon,  koKlt'doN^,  (Th^;odore,)  a  Genevese  phy- 
sician and  medical  writer,  lived  about  1610-40. 

CoUaert,  kol'lSrt',  (Adrian,)  an  eminent  Flemish 
engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1 520.  He  studied  in 
Italy,  where  he  formed  the  grand  manner  which  cha- 
racterizes his  works.  He  published  many  engravings 
designed  by  himself,  and  others,  among  which  is  "The 
Annunciation."    Died  at  Antwerp  in  1567. 

His  son  John,  born  about  1545,  was  a  skilful  engraver, 
and  worked  with  his  father.  He  executed  many  admired 
engravings  after  Rubens  and  other  masters. 

Collalto,  kol-lal'to,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Venice  about  1750.  He  obtained  the 
first  chair  of  mathematics  at  Padua  about  1808.  He  pub- 
lished a  work  on  "Analytic  Geometry,"  (1802.)  Died 
in  1820. 

Collalto,  (Antonio  Mattiuzzi.)    See  Colalto. 

CoPla-mer,  (Jacob,)  LL.D.,  an  American  statesman 
and  Senator,  son  of  Samuel  Collamer,  a  patriot  of  the 
Revolution,  was  born  in  Troy,  New  York,  in  1792.  At 
an  early  age  he  accompanied  his  father  to  Burlington, 
Vermont,  and  graduated  at  the  university  in  that  town 
in  1810.  He  served  as  a  lieutenant  in  the  first  campaign 
of  the  second  war  with  Great  Britain,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1813,  and  rose  to  eminence  in  his  profession. 
He  was  from  1833  to  1841  jndge  of  the  supreme  court 
of  Vermont.  Elected  to  Congress  in  1842,  he  was  re- 
elected in  1844,  and  again  in  1846,  and  in  March,  1849, 
was  appointed  by  President  Taylor  postmaster-general 
of  the  United  States.  On  the  death  of  the  President, 
in  July,  1850,  Judge  Collamer  resigned,  with  the  other 
members  of  the  cabinet,  and  in  the  following  autumn 
was  again  elected  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Vermont, 
to  which  office  he  was  annually  re-elected  till  chosen 
United  States  Senator  in  1854.  Pie  was  re-elected  to 
the  Senate  in  i860.    Died  in  1865. 

CoUanges,  de,  deh  kol'ldNzh',  (Gabriel,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  in  Auvergne  in  1 521.  He  was  valet- 
de-chambre  to  Charles  IX.,  and,  though  a  Catholic,  was 
killed  in  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew  in  1572. 
He  published  a  work  on  cabalistic  writing. 

CoUantes,  kol-yin'tis,  (Francisco,)  a  skilful  Spanish 
painter  of  landscape  and  history,  was  born  in  Madrid  in 
1599.  He  composed  with  great  facility.  Among  his 
chief  productions  are  a  "  Saint  Jerome"  and  a  "  Resur- 
rection."   I!)ied  in  1656. 

CoUard.    See  Royer-Collard. 

Collas,  ko'lts',  (ACHILLE,)  born  in  Paris  in  1795, 
invented  about  1836  a  machine  by  which  statues  can 
be  copied  or  reproduced  on  a  smaller  scale.  Died  in 
1859. 

Collas,  Le  PiRE,  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Thion- 
ville  about  1730,  was  well  versed  in  the  exact  sciences. 
In  1767  he  went  as  missionary  to  Pekin,  where  he  was 
employed  by  the  emperor  as  mathematician.  Died  in 
Pekin  in  1781. 

Col-la-ti'nus,  [Fr.  Collatin,  ko'lt-t^N',]  (L.  Tar- 
QUiNius,)  was  a  relative  of  Tarquin,  the  last  King  of 
Rome,  and  was  the  husband  of  Lucretia,  whose  tragical 
fate  occasioned  a  revolution  in  509  B.C.  Collatinus  and 
J.  Brutus  were  the  first  consuls  of  the  new  Roman  state. 
Before  the  end  of  the  year  he  resigned,  or  was  deposed. 

See  LiVY,  books  i.  and  ii.  ;  Niebuhr,  "  Commentary  on  the  Story 
of  the  Last  Tarciuinius,"  in  his  "History  of  Rome." 

Col-la'tius,  (  Petrus  Apoi.lonius,  )  or  CoUazio, 

kol-ISt'se-o,  (PiETRO  Apollonio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Novara  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Pie  wrote  a  poem 
"  On  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem,"  ("  De  Eversione 
Urbis  Jerusalem,"  1481,)  and  several  other  works. 


C0II6,  ko''la',  (Charles,)  a  French  comic  poet,  born 
in  Paris  in  1709.  He  became  reader  to  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  and  received  a  pension  for  his  song  on  the  cap- 
ture of  Port  Mahon.  In  1763  he  produced  the  comedy 
"  Dupuis  et  Desronais,"  which  was  very  successful.  His 
"  Hunting-Party  of  Henry  IV.,"  and  "Truth  in  Wine," 
were  much  admired.  He  wrote  other  dramas  and  songs. 
Died  in  1783. 

See  his  "  Toiirnal  Historique,"  3  vols.,  1805-07;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic G^nerale." 

Colle,  kol'li,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  physician,  born 
at  Belluno  in  1558.  He  practised  with  success  in  Venice, 
and  lectured  at  Padua,  where  he  died  in  1630,  leaving 
several  able  Latin  treatises  on  medicine. 

Colle,  koKleh,  or  Colli,  koKlee,  (Hippolyte,)  written 
also  CoUibus,  a  Swiss  jurist,  born  at  Zurich  in  1 561, 
was  professor  of  law  at  Heidelberg.    Died  in  161 2. 

Colle,  kol,  (Jean  Thi^odore,)  a  French  general,  born 
in  the  department  of  Meurthe  in  1734,  served  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  and  subsequently  in  several  campaigns 
of  the  Revolution.    Died  in  1807. 

Colle,  dal,  dJl  koKli,  (Raffaellino  or  Raphael,) 
an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  at  Colle,  in  Tuscany, 
about  1490.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Raphael  and  of  Giulio 
Romano.  The  latter  had  so  high  an  opinion  of  his  skill 
that  he  employed  his  pencil  on  his  own  works.  Colle's 
style  was  noble,  his  design  correct,  and  his  colouring 
warm  and  brilliant.  He  painted  frescos  in  the  Vatican, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  worked  under  the  direction  of 
Raphael.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a  picture  of  the 
Deluge.    Died  in  1530. 

Collenuccio,  kol-li-noot'cho,  (Randolph  or  Pan- 
DOLFO,)  a  learned  Italian  historian  and  jurist,  born  at 
Pesaro  in  the  fifteenth  century.  He  was  chosen  podesta 
of  several  towns,  and  was  employed  with  honour  as  a 
negotiator.  His  principal  work  is  a  "History  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Naples,"  (1539.)  He  was  strangled  in  prison 
by  John  Sforza  about  1500. 

CoUeoni  or  Colleoiie,  (Bartolommeo.)  See  Co- 
leonl 

CoUeoni,  kol-li-o'nee,  (Geronimo,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Correggio  in  1742,  was  learned  in  languages, 
history,  and  philosophy.  Pie  was  employed  in  several 
high  offices,  and  wrote  "Notices  of  the  Authors  who 
were  Natives  of  Correggio,"  (1776.)    Died  in  1777. 

CoUeoni,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Bergamo  about  1490,  went  to  Madrid,  and  was  patronized 
by  the  king. 

CoUes,  koKlis,  (Christopher,)  a  philosophic  Irish 
inventor  and  projector,  born  about  1738.  He  emigrated 
to  Pennsylvania  before  the  Revolution,  and  devised  va- 
rious plans  and  projects  for  the  public  welfare,  but  never 
obtained  much  success.  It  is  stated  that  he  was  the  first 
person  who  proposed  to  connect  the  Hudson  River  with 
the  lakes  by  a  canal.    Died  in  1821. 

Collet.    See  Colet. 

CoPlet,  (John,)  an  English  humorous  painter,  born 
in  London  about  1725  ;  died  in  1780. 

Collet,  ko'li',  (Joseph,)  born  in  the  Isle  of  Bourbon 
in  1768,  entered  the  French  navy,  and  distinguished 
himself  at  the  siege  of  Antwerp  in  1814.  He  was  made 
rear-admiral  in  1828,  and  died  the  same  year. 

Collet,  (Philibert,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Cha- 
tillon-les-Dombes  in  1643.  became  an  advocate  at 

the  parliament  of  Burgundy,  and  was  author  of  works  on 
various  subjects,  among  which  are  a  "  History  of  Reason," 
(in  Latin,)  and  an  "Essay  on  Botany."    Died  in  1718. 

Collet,  (Pierre,)  a  French  theologian,  born  near 
Montoire  in  1693,  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Ploly  Mysteries,"  (1768.)    Died  in  1770. 

CoUetet,  koKti',  (Guillaume,)  one  of  the  first  mem- 
bers of  the  French  Academy,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1598. 
Richelieu  having  persuaded  him  to  write  for  the  theatre, 
he  produced  "  Cyminde,"  a  tragi-comedy.  He  composed 
some  admired  epigrams,  an  able  "  Essay  on  the  Epigram," 
(1653,)  a  "Treatise  on  Pastoral  Poetry,"  (1658,)  and  other 
works.    He  was  a  royal  advocate.    Died  in  1659. 

His  son  Franqois,  born  in  Paris  in  1628,  was  a  poet 
of  inferior  merit,  whom  Boileau  ridiculed  in  his  satires. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  La  Muse  coquette," 
and  a  "Treatise  on  Foreign  Languages." 


•€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as J;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jf^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


COLLETON 


640 


COLLINGWOOD 


Col'le-ton,  (James,)  Governor  of  South  Carolina  from 
1686  to  1690,  came  from  the  Barbadoes,  and  in  1687 
procured  a  change  in  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  colony. 
His  unpopular  measures  resulted  in  his  final  expulsion 
from  the  office  of  Governor. 

CoUetta,  kol-lefta,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  historian  and 
general,  born  in  Naples  in  1775.  He  was  appointed  a 
general  in  1812,  and  director-in-chief  of  the  military  en- 
gineers in  1813.  He  was  a  warm  partisan  of  the  French 
regime.  The  revolution  of  1820  raised  him  for  a  short 
time  to  the  post  of  minister  of  war.  Having  been  exiled 
in  1821,  he  retired  to  Florence,  and  wrote  a  "History 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,"  (from  Charles  VH.  to  Fer- 
dinand IV.,)  (1834,)  which  passed  through  four  or  more 
editions.    Died  in  1833. 

See  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1835. 

Colli,  koKlee,  Baron,  a  Piedmontese  general,  born  at 
Alessandria  in  1760,  was  made  a  lieutenant-general  in 
1792,  and  gained  a  victory  over  the  French  in  1793.  In 
1794  he  obtained  the  chief  command  of  the  Sardinian 
army.  He  was  defeated  at  Mondovi  by  Napoleon  in  1796. 
Died  in  1812.    His  wife  was  a  sister  of  the  poet  Altieri. 

Collier,  koKyer,  (Arthur,)  an  English  philosopher, 
born  near  Sarum,  in  Wiltshire,  in  1680.  He  obtained 
the  living  of  Langdorf-Magna  about  1704.  His  reputa- 
tion is  founded  on  a  metaphysical  work  called  "Clavis 
Universalis,  or  a  New  Inquiry  after  Truth,"  (1713,)  in 
which  he  proposes  to  demonstrate  the  non-existence  of 
the  material  world.    Died  in  1732. 

Collier,  (Henry  Watkins,)  an  American  jurist,  born 
in  Virginia  in-  1801.  He  rose  to  eminence  as  a  lawyer 
in  "]\iscaloosa,  Alabama,  was  many  years  chief  justice 
of  that  State,  and  Governor  from  1849  to  1853. 

Collier,  (Jeremy,)  a  famous  English  theologian  and 
non-juring  bishop,  born  at  Stow-Quy,  in  Cambridgeshire, 
in  1650.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  ordained  a 
priest  in  1677.  In  1685  he  obtained  the  office  of  lecturer 
at  Gray's  Inn,  London.  His  talents  and  attainments 
were  of  a  high  order.  In  politics  he  was  an  ultra-Tory  ; 
his  religious  opinions  were  nearly  identical  with  modern 
Puseyism.  In  1688  he  was  so  zealous  a  Jacobite  that  he 
renounced  his  preferments  rather  than  take  the  oaths 
to  William  III.  ;  and  he  wrote  several  works  against  the 
new  regime.  In  1696  he  gave  absolution  to  Freind  and 
Parkins,  as  they  were  about  to  be  executed  for  treason 
and  attempt  to  murder.  To  escape  prosecution  for  this, 
he  absconded,  and  was  outlawed,  but  continued  to  re- 
side in  London  and  to  write  with  impunity.  In  1698  he 
published  his  celebrated  work,  a  *'  Short  View  of  the  Pro- 
faneness  and  Immorality  of  the  English  Stage,"  which, 
says  Macaulay,  "threw  the  whole  literary  world  into 
commotion.  .  .  .  There  is  hardly  any  book  of  that  time 
from  which  it  would  be  possible  to  select  specimens  of 
writing  so  excellent  and  so  various.  He  was  complete 
master  of  the  rhetoric  of  honest  indignation.  The  spirit 
of  the  book  is  truly  heroic."  Congreve  appeared  in  de- 
fence of  the  stage,  but  his  answer  was  a  complete  failure  ; 
and  a  great  reform  in  the  English  drama  was  the  result 
of  Collier's  work.  Between  1697  and  1705  he  published, 
in  3  vols.,  "  Essays  on  Several  Moral  Subjects,"  which 
have  great  merit.  He  also  translated  Moreri's  "  His- 
torical Dictionary."  In  17 13  he  was  consecrated  as  a 
bishop  by  Dr.  Hickes,  a  non-juror.  Died  in  1726.  Re- 
specting Collier's  character  Macaulay  says,  "  We  believe 
him  to  have  been  as  honest  and  courageous  a  man  as 
ever  lived." 

See  "Comic  Dramatists  of  the  Restoration,"  in  Macaulav's 
"  Essays." 

Collier,  (John  Payne,)  an  eminent  English  critic 
and  antiquary,  born  in  London  in  1789.  He  produced 
in  1820  "The  Poetical  Decameron,  or  Ten  Conversa- 
tions on  English  Poets  and  Poetry,"  which  is  highly 
prized.  In  1831  he  published  an  excellent  "History  of 
English  Dramatic  Poetry  to  the  Time  of  Shakspeare, 
and  Annals  of  the  Stage  to  the  Restoration,"  (3  vols.,) 
and  in  1844  an  edition  of  "The  Works  of  Shakspeare, 
the  Text  formed  from  a  New  Collation  of  the  Old  Edi- 
tions," (8  vols.)  His  collection  entitled  "  Shakspeare's 
Library"  (1848)  is  accounted  valuable.  Great  excite- 
ment was  produced  among  critics  and  antiquaries  by  the 
publication,  in  1852,  of  his  "Notes  and  Emendations  to 


the  Text  of  Shakspeare's  Plays."  These  Emendations 
he  had  found  in  the  margin  of  a  copy  of  Shakspeare 
printed  in  1632. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  September,  and  October, 
1853;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  lor  April,  1856. 

Collier,  (Sir  Robert  Porrett,)  an  English  lawyer, 
born  in  1817,  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1843.  He  was 
returned  to  Parliament  for  Plymouth  in  1852,  was  soli- 
citor-general from  October,  1863,  to  July,  1866,  and  was 
appointed  attorney-general  in  December,  1868. 

Collin,  kol-leen',  (Heinrich  Joseph,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, born  at  Vieinia  in  1 731,  was  the  father  of  the  poet 
Heinrich  Josejjh  von  Collin,  noticed  below.  He  was 
chief  physician  of  the  hospital  of  Vienna,  and  wrote 
several  medical  works.    Died  in  1784. 

Collin,  koKlin,  (Jonas,)  a  distinguished  Danish  states- 
man and  economist,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1776.  He 
became  chief  secretary  or  first  commissioner  of  the  treas- 
ury in  1841.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  many  public 
affairs  and  benevolent  institutions,  and  wrote  discourses 
on  rural  economy,  geography,  and  statistics,  one  of  which 
is  entitled  "  For  Historic  og  Statistik  isaer  Faedrelan- 
dets,"  (1825.) 

Collin,  (Matthaus,)  a  poet  and  critic,  born  at  Vienna 
in  1779,  was  a  brother  of  Heinrich  Joseph  von  Collin, 
noticed  below.  He  became  professor  of  aesthetics  at 
Cracow  in  1808,  and,  when  that  city  was  taken  by  the 
Russians,  he  obtained  a  chair  of  philosophy  in  Vienna. 
He  was  chosen  preceptor  of  the  Duke  of  Reichstadt  (son 
of  Napoleon  I.)  in  1815.  He  wrote  "Marius,"  and  other 
dramas.    Died  in  1824. 

Collin,  ko'l^N^,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  theologian,  born 
in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  religious  works.    Died  in  1788. 

Collin,  von,  fon  kol-leen',  (Helnrich  Joseph,)  a 
German  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Vienna  in  1772.  After 
filling  several  civil  offices  with  credit,  he  became  aulic 
councillor,  and  held  a  high  position  in  the  ministry  of 
finances.  He  produced  six  tragedies  in  verse,  among 
which  are  "  Regulus,"  (1802,)  "Coriolanus,"  and  "  Bal- 
boa." He  also  composed  several  patriotic  war-songs, 
which  were  much  admired.    Died  in  181 1. 

Collin  d'Ambly,  ko'ldN'  dSM'ble',  (FRANgois,)  a 
French  writer,  born  at  Ambly-sur-Meuse  in  1759,  was  the 
author  of  many  educational  works.    Died  about  1830. 

Collin  de  Bar,  ko'l^N'  deh  biR,  (Alexis  Guh^laume 
Henri,)  a  flench  historical  writer,  born  at  Pondicherry, 
India,  in  1768,  was  president  of  the  superior  court  at  the 
capture  of  that  place  in  1803,  and  then  removed  to 
France.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  Ancient  and  Modern 
India,"  (1814,)  a  work  of  some  merit.    Died  in  1820. 

Collin  de  Plancy,  ko'liw'  deh  plSN'se',  originally 
Collin  Danton,  (ddN'toN',)  (Jacques  Alhin  Simon,)  a 
French  litterateur,  a  nephew  of  the  famous  Danton,  was 
born  at  Plancy  in  1793.  Having  written  several  heretical 
works,  among  which  was  "The  Infernal  Dictionary,"  he 
changed  his  course  about  1837,  and  produced  "Legends 
of  the  Holy  Virgin,"  "Legends  of  the  Wandering  Jew," 
and  other  books  of  a  so-called  religious  character. 

Collin-Harleville,  ko'l^N'  haRl'v^K,  (Jean  Fran- 
cois,) a  French  comic  poet,  born  at  Maintenon,  near 
Chartres,  in  1755.  He  produced  in  1786  his  first  drama 
(in  verse,)  the  "  Inconstant,"  ("  Inconstant  Lover,") 
which  obtained  great  success.  His  master-piece  is  the 
"Old  Bachelor,"  which  was  received  in  1792  with  gen- 
eral applause.  He  was  admitted  into  the  second  class 
of  the  Institute.  La  Harpe  thought  his  "Optimiste" 
superior  to  the  "Inconstant."    Died  in  Paris  in  1806. 

ColTings  or  Collinges,  (John,)  an  English  non- 
conformist minister,  born  in  1623.  His  sermons  and 
other  theological  works  are  highly  commended  by  Cotton 
Mather  and  Calamy.    Died  in  1690. 

CoFling-wood,  (Cuthbert,)  Admiral  Lord,  an 
eminent  English  adniiral,  born  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne 
in  1750.  Having  entered  the  navy  in  I76i,he  served  at 
Bunker  Hill  in  1775,  and  was  made  a  post-captain  in 
1780.  He  contributed  to  Lord  Howe's  victory  over 
the  French,  June  i,  1794,  and  displayed  great  skill  and 
courage  in  the  action  off  Cape  Saint  Vincent  in  1797. 
In  1799  he  obtained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral,  and  in 
1804  that  of  vice-admiral.    He  was  second  in  command 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    6,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6i;  good;  moon; 


COLLINGWOOD 


641 


COLLOREDO 


at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  {1805,)  and  when  Nelson  was 
killed  he  succeeded  to  the  chief  command.  Soon  after 
this  event  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage.  He  com- 
manded for  several  years  with  honour  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  died  at  sea  near  Port  Mahon  in  1810.  He 
was  greatly  distinguished  as  a  naval  tactician.  The 
memoir  of  his  life  published  by  G.  L.  N.  Collingwood 
is  highly  esteemed. 
^  See,  aiso,  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  British  Admirals;"  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  May,  1828. 

Collingwood,  (Thomas,)  an  English  physician,  noted 
for  his  learning  and  versatile  talents,  was  born  near 
Berwick-on-Tweed  in  1 751.  He  practised  in  Norham, 
Sunderland,  and  London.  He  published  "The  Hermit," 
and  other  poems,  and  left  in  manuscript  some  mathe- 
matical works,  etc.    Died  in  183 1. 

CoUini,  kol-lee'nee,  (Cosimo  Alessandro,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Florence  in  1727.  About  1750  he  went 
to  Berlin,  where  he  met  Voltaire,  whom  he  served  as 
secretary  from  1752  to  1756.  In  1759  he  became  secre- 
tary of  the  Elector  Palatine,  and  director  of  the  Cabinet 
of  Natural  History  at  Manheim.  He  wrote  "  My  Resi- 
dence with  Voltaire,"  (1807,  in  French,)  and  several  his- 
torical and  scientific  treatises.    Died  in  1806. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance." 

Col'lins,  (Anthony,)  an  English  writer  on  theology, 
born  of  a  rich  family  at  Heston,  in  Middlesex,  in  1676, 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  John  Locke.  He  studied  law, 
but  did  not  practise  it.  He  published  an  "  Essay  on 
Reason,"  (1707,)  "Priestcraft  in  Perfection,"  (1709,)  a 
"  Vindication  of  the  Divine  Attributes,"  and  a  "  Dis- 
course on  Free-Thinking,"  (1713.)  These  works  gave 
offence  to  the  orthodox,  and  were  attacked  by  several 
able  divines,  among  whom  was  Bentley.  In  1 718  he 
was  chosen  treasurer  of  the  county  of  Essex.  His 
"Discourse  on  the  Grounds  and  Reasons  of  the  Chris- 
tian Religion"  (1724)  excited  great  commotion  among 
the  clergy,  some  of  whom  treated  him  as  an  infidel.  He 
was  a  subtle  disputant,  and  a  writer  of  much  ability. 
Died  in  1729. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica ;"  Thorschmidt,  "  Kritische  Le- 
bensgeschichte  A.  Collins,"  1755;  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Collins,  (Arthur,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
1682.  He  published,  besides  other  woiks,  the  "Peer- 
age of  England,"  (3  vols.,  1709,)  "English  Baronage," 
and  "The  Life  of  Lord  Burleigh,"  (1732.)  The  first 
work,  augmented  by  Sir  E.  lirydges  to  nine  volumes, 
(1812,)  is  highly  prized.    Died  in  1760. 

Collins,  (David,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was 
bom  in  1756.  He  became  an  officer  in  the  British  army, 
and  Governor  of  Van  Diemen's  Land.  He  wrote  a 
curious  and  interesting  "  Account  of  the  English  Colony 
of  New  South  Wales,"  (1798-1802.)    Died  in  1810. 

CoPlins,  (Isaac,)  an  American  publisher,  born  in 
Delaware  in  1746,  lived  at  Burlington,  New  Jersey,  at 
Trenton,  and  New  York,  He  published  an  octavo  Bible, 
the  text  of  which  was  very  correctly  printed.  Died  in  181 7. 

See  "  Memoir  of  Isaac  Collins  of  Burlington,"  1848. 

Collins,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  mathematician, 
born  at  Wood  Eaton,  near  Oxford,  in  1624.  He  pub- 
lished good  elementary  works  on  geometry,  arithmetic, 
and  navigation,  and  contributed  papers  to  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, of  which  he  was  chosen  a  f^ellow  in  1667.  He 
was  a  correspondent  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Died  in  1683. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Collins,  (Samuel,)  an  English  physician,  who  gradu- 
ated at  Oxford  in  1659.  Soon  after  that  date  he  went  to 
Russia,  and  practised  nine  years  at  the  court  of  the  Czar. 
He  published  in  London,  in  1671,  "The  Present  State 
of  Russia,"  and  a  "Treatise  on  Anatomy,  Physiology, 
etc.,"  (1685.)  He  became  physician  to  the  queen,  and 
died  about  1700. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenas  Oxonienses." 

Collins,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  lyric  poet, 
born  at  Chichester  in  1720.  Having  graduated  at  Ox- 
ford, he  went  to  London  about  1744,  with  little  resources 
except  his  poetical  genius.  There  he  became  the  friend 
of  Dr.  Johnson,  who  speaks  well  of  his  character,  and 
adds  that  "his  great  fault  was  irresolution."  His  ex- 
cellent odes  on  "The  Passions,"  "To  Mercy,"  "To 
Evening,"  etc.  appeared  in  1747,  but  were  treated  with 


unmerited  neglect.  In  1749  he  received  a  legacy  of 
^2000  from  his  uncle,  Colonel  Martin.  The  latter  part 
of  his  short  life  was  darkened  by  melancholy,  and  he 
was  for  some  time  an  inmate  of  a  lunatic-asylum.  He 
died  in  1756.  Besides  the  above-named  pieces,  he  wrote 
"  The  Dirge  in  Cymbeline,"  and  a  few  other  short  poems. 
T.  Campbell,  comparing  them  with  Milton's  early  works, 
remarks,  "If  they  have  rather  less  exuberant  wealth  of 
genius,  they  have  more  exquisite  touches  of  pathos." 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  Mrs.  Bakbauld,  "Essay 
on  Collins;"  Drake,  "Literary  Hours;"  Campbell,  "Specimens 
of  the  British  Poets." 

Collins,  (William,)  an  English  landscape-painter, 
born  in  London  in  1787,  was  a  pupil  of  Morland.  He 
was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1820,  and  visited 
Italy  in  1836.  He  represented  homely  rural  scenery  and 
views  on  the  sea-coast  with  great  success,  and  acquired  an 
extensive  reputation.  Among  his  most  admired  pictures 
are  "  Cromer  Sands,"  "  Prawn-Fishers,"  and  a  "  Frost 
Scene,"  the  last  of  which  he  sold  for  five  hundred 
guineas.  His  works  are  finely  finished,  and  are  admired 
for  fidelity  to  nature.  (See  a  "Memoir"  published  by 
his  son,  W.  Wilkie  Collins,  1848.)    Died  in  1847. 

His  son,  Charles  Alston,  born  about  1828,  is  also  a 
painter. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  1850. 

Collins,  (William  Wilkie,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  in  London  in  1824  or  1825,  is  a  son  of  the  landscape- 
painter  above  noticed.  He  published  a  well-written 
"Life  of  William  Collins,"  (his  own  father,  1848,) 
"Rambles  beyond  Railways,"  (1851,)  and  several  suc- 
cessful novels,  among  which  are  "  Antonina,"  (2d  edition, 
1850,)  "Basil,"  (1852,)  "The  Dead  Secret,"  (1857,)  and 
"The  Woman  in  White,"  published  in  "All  the  Year 
Round,"  (1859-60.) 

ColTin-son,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  published,  in 
1791,  the  "History  and  Antiquities  of  the  County  of 
Somerset."    Died  in  1793. 

Collinson,  (Peter,)  an  English  merchant  and  natu- 
ralist, who  rendered  great  services  to  science,  especially 
to  botany,  was  born  in  Westmoreland  in  1693. 
lived  in  London,  and  availed  himself  of  his  mercantile 
connections  to  procure  seeds  and  plants  from  foreign 
lands.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society,  for 
which  he  wrote  several  memoirs,  and  was  a  liberal  pa- 
tron of  the  Philadelj^hia  Library,  whose  connriissions  he 
executed  gratis  for  thirty  years.  "  He  was  the  means," 
says  Southey,  "of  procuring  national  advantages  for  his 
country,  and  possessed  an  influence  which  wealth  cannot 
purchase.  Franklin's  first  essays  on  electricity  were 
originally  communicated  to  this  good  man.  They  were 
read  in  the  Royal  Society,  'where  they  were  not  thought 
worth  so  much  notice  as  to  be  printed  in  their  Transac- 
tions ;'  and  his  paper  in  which  the  sameness  of  lightning 
with  electricity  was  first  asserted,  was  laughed  at  by  the 
connoisseurs."  (See  Franklin,  Benjamin.)  Collinson 
was  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  Linnaeus 
named  the  genus  Collinsonia  in  honour  of  him.  Died 
in  1768. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica;"  Fothergh.l  and  Collinson, 
"Account  of  the  Late  Peter  Collinson  ;"  and  "Tribute  to  the  Mem- 
ory of  Peter  Collinson,"  by  William  Dillingham. 

ColTi-us,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  theologian,  born 
near  Milan  about  1590,  was  the  author  of  two  learned 
works,  remarkable  for  singularity  of  opinions,  one  of 
which  is  entitled  "On  the  Souls  of  the  Heathens,"  ("De 
Animabus  Paganorum.")  He  decides  adversely  to  the 
salvation  of  Aristotle.    Died  in  1640. 

Colin  or  Coelln,  von,  fon  koln,  (Daniel  Georg 
Conrad,)  a  German  rationalistic  theologian,  born  in 
Lippe-Detmold  in  1788;  died  in  1833. 

Collombet,  ko'16N'ba^  (FRANgois  Z6non,)  a  French 
Catholic  writer,  born  at  Sieges  (Jura)  in  1808,  published 
a  "History  of  Saint  Jerome,"  (1844,)  other  works. 
Died  in  1853. 

CoUoredo,  kol-lo-ra'do,  (Franz  G.,)  born  in  1731, 
was  Austrian  ambassador  to  Spain  in  1767,  and  became 
vice-chancellor  of  the  empire  in  1789.    Died  in  1807. 

CoUoredo,  (Rudolph,)  Count  of  Waldsee,  a  general 
of  the  Imperialist  army,  born  in  1585,  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  and  in  1648  defended  Prague 
with  success  against  the  Swedes.    Died  in  1657. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  gtitUiral;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jr^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

41 


COLLOT 


642 


COLOMBT 


CoUot,  ko'lo',  (Jean  FRANgois  Henri,)  a  French 
writer,  born  near  Charleville  in  17 16,  was  a  contributor 
to  the  "  Encyclopedic"  of  Diderot,  and  published  other 
works.    Died  in  1804. 

Collot.    wSee  Colot. 

CoUot-d'Herbois,  ko^o'  deRH^wi',  (Jean  Marie,)  a 
notorious  French  Jacobin,  born  about  1750,  was  a  stroll- 
ing player  before  the  Revolution,  and  author  of  several 
comedies.  He  was  deputed  by  the  people  of  Paris  to 
the  Convention  in  1792,  became  a  partisan  of  Robes- 
pierre, and  was  one  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety 
in  1793.  He  rendered  himself  infamous  by  his  cruelties 
at  Lyons,  where  many  hundred  persons  perished  by  his 
order,  in  1793.  In  this  he  is  said  to  have  been  actuated 
by  revenge,  having  once  been  hissed  on  the  stage  of 
Lyons.  He  presided  over  the  Convention  on  the  9th 
Thermidor,  1794,  and  contributed  to  the  ruin  of  Robes- 
pierre. In  1795  he  was  transported  to  Cayenne,  where 
he  died  miserably  in  1796. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale;"  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

CoUucio.    See  Coluccio. 

Coll'yer,  (Joseph,)  an  English  engraver,  born  in 
London  in  1748,  was  a  son  of  Mary  Collyer,  the  suc- 
cessful translator  of  Gesner's  "  Death  of  Abel."  He  ex- 
celled in  the  stippled  style  of  engraving.    Died  in  1827. 

Collyer,  (William  Bengo,)  an  English  divine,  was 
minister  of  the  Independent  Chapel,  Peckham.  He 
published  several  volumes  of  lectures  "On  Scripture 
Facts,"  "On  Scripture  Prophecy,"  "On  Scripture  Doc- 
trine," etc.,  (1807-22.)    Died  in  1854. 

CoFman,  (Benjamin,)  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Boston  in  1673.  He  became  pastor  of  a  church  in  his 
native  city  about  1700,  and  published  sermons,  poems, 
etc.    Died  in  1747. 

CoFman,  (George,)  an  eminent  English  dramatic 
author,  was  born  about  1733  at  Florence,  where  his 
father  was  British  minister.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Ox- 
ford. In  1760  he  produced  "Polly  Honeycomb,"  a 
drama,  which  was  warmly  applauded,  and  in  1761  "The 
Jealous  Wife,"  which  was  also  very  popular.  He  made 
an  excellent  translation  of  Terence  into  verse  in  1764. 
Between  1767  and  1775  he  was  acting  manager  of  Covent 
Garden  Theatre,  and  was  afterwards  proprietor  of  the 
'Haymarket  Theatre.  He  published  a  translation  of 
Horace's  "Art  of  Poetry,"  and  several  other  works.  In 
1789  he  lost  his  reason.    Died  in  1794. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Drainatica." 

Colman,  (George,)  "the  Younger,"  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1762.  He  inherited  his  father's 
dramatic  taste  and  talent,  and  succeeded  him  as  director 
of  the  Haymarket  Theatre  in  1785.  He  wrote  many 
popular  comedies  and  farces,  among  which  are  "  The  Iron 
Chest,"  (1796,)  "John  Bull,"  "Inkle  and  Yarico,"  and 
"Heir  at  Law."  For  "John  Bull"  he  received  the  largest 
sum  that  had  ever  been  paid  for  any  drama.  He  also 
composed  comic  tales,  called  "  Broad  Grins"  and  "  Poetic 
Vagaries,"  (1812,)  and  memoirs  of  his  own  life,  entitled 
"Random  Recollections,"  (2  vols.,  1830.)  Died  in  1836. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica;"  R.  B.  Peake,  "  Memoirs 
of  the  Colman  Family  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1841. 

Colman,  (Henry,)  a  Unitarian  minister,  and  writer 
on  agriculture,  born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  1785. 
He  was  pastor  at  Salem  from  1825  to  1831,  after  which 
he  was  appointed  agricultural  commissioner  for  the  State 
of  Massachusetts.  He  went  to  Europe  in  1842,  and  pub- 
lished "  European  Agriculture  and  Rural  Economy,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  London  in  1849. 

Colman,  (Samuel,)  an  American  landscape-painter 
of  the  present  century.  Among  his  best  works  are 
"  Lake  George,"  "  Barges  on  the  Hudson,"  and  an 
"Autumn  Landscape." 

See  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Colmar,  koFmiR,  (Johann,)  a  German  educational 
writer,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1684;  died  in  1737. 

Colmeiro,  kol-ma^-ro,  (Manuel,)  a  Spanish  writer 
on  political  economy,  was  born  at  Santiago  de  Galicia 
in  181 8.  He  became  professor  of  political  economy  at 
Madrid  in  1847. 

Colmenar,  de,  di  kol-mk-naR',  (Juan  Alvarez,)  a 
historian  and  compiler,  who  was  the  reputed  author  of 


two  esteemed  French  works,  viz.,  "Annals  of  Spain  and 
Portugal,"  (1741,)  and  a  "  Description  of  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal," (5  vols.,  1707.)  It  is  suspected  that  J.  A.  de  Col- 
menar was  an  assumed  name  of  the  French  compiler. 

Colmenares,  de,  da  kol-mk-na^rgs,  (Diego,)  born  at 
Segovia,  in  Spain,  in  1586,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Segovia 
and  Compendium  of  the  Histories  of  Castile,"  (1634.) 
Died  in  1651. 

Coin  or  Coeln,  von,  fon  koln,  (Wilhelm,)  called 
Meister  Wilhelm,  an  excellent  German  painter,  lived 
at  Cologne  about  1370.  He  painted  religious  subjects 
in  distemper. 

Colnet,  de,  deh  koKni',  (Charles  Joseph  Auguste 
Maximilien,)  often  called  Colnet  de  Ravel,  a  French 
satirical  poet  and  journalist,  born  in  Picardy  in  1768.  He 
became  a  bookseller  at  Paris  in  1797.  In  1810  he  pro- 
duced an  ingenious  poem,  entitled  "The  Art  of  Dining 
Out,  ( en  ville,)  for  the  Use  of  Authors."  Pie  wrote 
editorials  for  the  "Journal  de  Paris"  and  the  "Gazette 
de  France"  between  1811  and  1832.    Died  in  1832, 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Colocci,  ko-lot'chee,  [Lat.  Colo'tius,]  (ANGEL0,)an 
Italian  poet,  born  near  Ancona  in  1467,  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Rome  and  secretary  of  Leo  X.  He  lived  in  grand 
style,  and  had  a  fine  library,  which  was  burned  when  Rome 
was  sacked  in  1527.  He  gained  a  temporary  reputation 
by  his  Latin  poems.    Died  in  1549. 

Colocotroni.    See  Kolocotroni. 

Cologne,  de,  deh  ko'loh',  (Peter,)  a  Protestant  di- 
vine, was  a  native  of  Ghent.    Died  in  1558. 

Coloma,  ko-lo'ma,  (Don  Carlos,)  a  Spanish  general 
and  historian,  born  at  Alicante  in  1573.  He  rose  to 
the  highest  rank  in  the  army,  and  became  Governor  of 
the  Milanese.  He  received  from  Philip  IV.  the  title  of 
Marquis  of  Espina,  and  wrote  a  history  of  the  war  in  Flan- 
ders from  1588  to  1599,  ("Las  Guerras  de  los  Estados 
Baxos,"  1625,)  a  work  of  considerable  merit.  Died  in 
1637. 

Colomb.    See  Columbus. 

Colomb,  ko^'loN',  written  also  Columb,  (Michel,) 
a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Bretagne  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  His  master-piece  is  the  tomb  of  Francis  II. 
(Duke  of  Bretagne)  at  Nantes,  which  is  much  admired. 

Colomba,    See  Columha. 

Colomban.    See  Columkan. 

Colombe,  koH^Mb',  (Marie  Th^rese,)  a  famous 
actress,  born  at  Venice  in  1757,  made  a  successful  debut 
in  Paris  in  1772.  She  retired  from  the  stage  in  1788,  and 
died  in  1837. 

Colombel,  ko''l6N'b§K,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  painter 
of  history,  born  near  Rouen  in  1646,  was  the  most  emi- 
nent pupil  of  Le  Sueur.  He  studied  in  Rome,  and  after- 
wards worked  in  Paris  with  success.    Died  in  171 7. 

Colombier,  ko'loN'be-a',  (Jean,)  an  able  French 
physician,  born  at  Toul  in  1736,  became  inspector-general 
of  the  hospitals  of  the  kingdom  in  1780,  and  of  the  mili- 
tary hospitals  a  few  years  later.  He  died  in  1789,  leaving, 
besides  other  medical  treatises,  one  entitled  "Precepts 
on  the  Health  of  Soldiers,  or  Military  Hygiene,"  (1775.) 

Colombiere,  de  la,  deh  It  ko'l^N^be-aiR',  (Claude,) 
a  French  Jesuit,  born  near  Lyons  in  1641;  died  in  1682. 

Colombiere,  de  la,  (Vulson.)    See  Vulson. 

Colombo,  ko-lom'bo,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  pas- 
toral poet,  born  at  Gabiano  in  1749.  He  published  pas- 
toral Poems,  and  an  "  Essay  on  the  Drama  and  Tragedy 
of  Italy,"  (1794.)    Died  in  1813. 

Colombo,  (Realdo,)  [Lat.  Real'dus  Colum'bus,] 
a  distinguished  Italian  anatomist,  born  at  Cremona,  suc- 
ceeded Vesalius,  in  1544,  as  professor  at  Padua.  He 
afterwards  taught  in  the  Universities  of  Pisa  and  of 
Rome.  He  is  said  to  have  first  discovered  the  pulmo- 
nary circulation.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  his  work 
"  De  Re  Anatomica,"  (1559,)  a  most  important  contribu- 
tion to  anatomy  for  that  period.    Died  about  1576. 

See  Hallek,  "  Bibliotheca  Anatomica;"  Sprengel,  "Geschichte 
der  Arzneikunde." 

Colomby,  de,  deh  ko'l^N^be',  (FRANgois  Cauvigny 
— k5'v^n''ye',)  Sieur,  a  French  writer,  born  at  Caen  about 
1588.  He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  published  a  translation  of  Justin's  "His- 
tory,"   Died  about  1648. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fS,ll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


COLO  MIES 


643 


COLOT 


Colomies,  ko'lo'me-es',  (Paul,)  a  French  Protestant 
writer  on  biography,  theology,  etc.,  was  born  at  Rochelle 
in  1638.  He  removed  to  England  in  1681,  and  became 
librarian  to  Archbishop  Bancroft  at  Lambeth.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  many  other  learned  works,  "  Eastern 
Gaul,"  ("Gallia  Orientalis,"  1665,)  "Protestant  Rome," 
("Rome  protestante,"  1675,)  and  "Historical  Miscella- 
nies," ("  Melanges  historiques,")  reprinted  with  the  title 
"  Colomesiana,"    Died  in  1692. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron, 
"  Memoires." 

Coloni,  ko-lo'nee,  (Adam,)  the  Old,  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Rotterdain  in  1634,  worked  in  London.  L[e 
painted  landscapes  and  rural  subjects.    Died  in  1685. 

Coloni,  (Henry  Adrla.n,)  called  the  Young,  a 
painter,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1668;  died  in 
1701. 

Colonia,  de,  deh  ko'lo''ne^t',  (Dominique,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  at  Aix  in  1660,  became  professor  of  rhetoric 
and  theology  in  Lyons.  He  composed  a  "  Literary  His- 
tory of  Lyons,"  and  several  tragedies.    Died  in  1741. 

Colonna,  ko-lon'ni,  the  name  of  an  illustrious  Roman 
family,  which  acquired  distinction  as  early  as  the  twelfth 
century.  They  were  adherents  of  the  Ghibeline  party, 
and  rivals  of  the  Orsini.  Giovanni  Colonna  was  made 
a  cardinal  in  12 16,  and  took  part  in  the  fifth  crusade. 
Died  in  1245.  His  nephew,  of  the  same  name,  became 
Archbishop  of  Messina  in  1255.  He  wrote  a  "Chronicle, 
or  History  of  the  World,"  to  the  time  of  Louis  IX.  of 
France.  Cardinal  Giacomo  Colonna  was  chief  coun- 
cillor of  the  court  of  Rome  during  the  pontificate  of 
Nicholas  IV.,  which  ended  about  1292.  He  died  in  1318. 
SciARRA  Colonna  was  one  of  the  chiefs  of  a  successful 
conspiracy  against  Boniface  VIII.  in  1303.  He  died  in 
exile  about  1328.  Stephen,  a  brother  of  Sciarra,  was 
created  Count  of  Romagna  about  1290,  and  was  for  many 
years  chief  of  the  Guelphs  at  Rome.  In  a  conflict  with 
Rienzi  he  was  killed  about  1350.  Otho  Colonna  was 
elected  pope  in  141 7.  (See  Martin  V.)  Antonio,  a 
nephew  and  favourite  of  Martin  V.,  was  made  Prince  of 
Salerno  and  Duke  of  Amalfi  in  1419.  In  143 1  Pope  Eu- 
gene IV.  declared  war  against  Antonio  and  his  brothers, 
who  had  seized  the  treasury  of  the  late  pontiff.  Antonio 
was  the  father  of  Prosper  Colonna. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Repiibliques  Italiennes;"  O.  di 
Agostino,  "Istoria  della  Famiglia  Colonna." 

Colonna,  (Angelo  Michele,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Ravenna  in  1600,  was  invited  to  Spain  by  Philip 
IV.,  for  whom  he  painted  in  the  Escurial.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  "Fortune"  and  "Prometheus."  He 
died  at  Bologna  in  1687. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Colonna,  (Ascagno,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  about 
1560,  became  Viceroy  of  Aragon.  He  WTOte,  in  Latin,  a 
treatise  "On  the  Sicilian  Monarchy."    Died  in  1608. 

Colonna,  (Egidio,)  [Lat.  /I'Lgid'ius  Roma'nus;  Fr. 
Gii.LK.s  de  Colonne,  zh^l  deh  ko^Ion',]  a  theologian  and 
writer,  born  at  Rome,  studied  under  Thomas  Aquinas 
in  Paris.  He  became  preceptor  to  the  Dauphin  of  France, 
Philippe  le  Bel,  for  whom  he  wrote  a  treatise  entitled 
"De  Regimine  Principis,"    Died  in  1316. 

See  Angelo  Roccha,  "  Vita  ^Egidii,"  prefixed  to  Colonna's  work 
called  "  Defensorium,"  Naples,  1644. 

Colonna,  (Fahio.)    See  Coi.umna. 

Colonna,  (Fabrizio,)  an  Italian  general,  was  first- 
cousin  to  Prospero,  and  schi  of  Edoardo,  Duke  of  Amalfi. 
He  served  successively  Frederick,  King  of  Na])Ies,  and 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  who  in  1507  appointed  him  grand 
constable  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  Having  passed  into 
the  service  of  the  i)ope,  Julius  II.,  he  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  French  at  Ravenna  in  15 12.    Died  in  1520. 

See  SiSMOKDi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes."' 

Colonna,  (Fra  Francesco,)  an  Italian  writer,  born 
at  Venice  about  1435,  or,  according  to  another  account, 
in  1449.  He  became  a  Dominican  monk,  and  j^rofessor 
of  theology  at  Padua.  He  acquired  celebrity  by  a  fan- 
tastic and  singular  work,  entitled  "  Hypnerotomachia 
Poliphili,"  (Venice,  1499,)  in  which  he  teaches  that  all 
human  passions  are  but  dreams.  (For  a  more  particular 
account  of  this  strange  production,  see  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale.")  The  language  is  a  mixture  of  Italian, 


Greek,  Latin,  Hebrew,  etc.  Tiraboschi  designates  the 
work  "  a  confused  melange  of  fables,  history,  architecture, 
and  antiquities."    Died  in  1527. 

Colonna,  (Francesco  Maria  Pompeo,)  an  Italian 
alchemist,  born  about  1650.  He  lived  many  years  in 
Paris,  and  published  numerous  works,  among  which 
was  a  "Natural  History  of  the  Universe,"  (1734.)  He 
perished  by  a  fire  which  consumed  his  lodgings  in  Paris 
in  1726. 

See  F.  HoEFER,  "Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Colonna,  (Giovanni  Paolo,)  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent Italian  composers  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Brescia. 
He  composed  only  sacred  music.  His  science  was  pro- 
found and  his  style  brilliant.    Died  in  1695. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Colonna,  (Marcantonio,)  Duke  of  Palliano,  an 
Italian  general,  who  obtained  in  1570  command  of  the 
twelve  galleys  which  the  pope  sent  to  aid  the  Venetians 
in  defence  of  Cyprus.  The  chief  command  of  the  allies 
was  claimed  by  Colonna,  Doria,  and  Zeno,  neither  of 
whom  would  yield.  To  obviate  the  difficulty  and  danger 
arising  from  this  dispute,  Philip  of  Spain  gave  the  com- 
mand of  his  ships  to  Don  John  of  Austria,  from  whom 
Colonna  consented  to  receive  orders  ;  and  they  defeated 
the  Turks  at  Lepanto  in  October,  1571.  "He  had  the 
fortune,"  says  Sismondi,  "  to  attach  his  name  to  the 
greatest  exploit  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  battle  of 
Lepanto,"  He  was  afterwards  appointed  Viceroy  of 
Sicily  by  Philip  II,    Died  in  1584. 

See  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Colonna,  (Pompeo,)  an  Italian  prelate,  nephew  of 
Prosper  Colonna,  noticed  below.  He  was  a  turbulent 
and  violent  character,  and  was  hostile  to  Leo  X.,  by  whom 
he  had  been  made  a  cardinal.  After  having  decided  the 
election  in  favour  of  Clement  VII,,  he  quarrelled  with 
him,  and  attempted  to  seize  him  with  a  troop  of  soldiers. 
But  he  served  the  same  pope  efficiently  when  the  latter 
was  held  in  durance  by  the  army  of  Constable  Bourbon. 
Died  in  1532, 

See  AuBERY,  "  Histoire  des  Cardinaux." 

Colonna,  (Prosper  or  Prospero,)  the  son  of  Anto- 
nio, above  noticed,  was  one  of  the  greatest  generals  that 
Italy  has  ])roduced.  In  1494  he  fought  for  the  French 
king  Charles  VIH.  in  his  invasion  of  Naples.  After  the 
exi)ulsion  of  the  French  he  served  under  Gonsalvo  de 
Cordova  against  France.  In  1513  he  won  for  Ferdinand 
of  Spain  a  great  victory  over  the  Venetians  near  Vicenza. 
He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  French  at  Villa  Franca 
by  a  surprise  in  1515.  He  took  Milan  in  1521,  and  de- 
feated Lautrec,  a  French  general,  at  Bicoque  in  1522. 
Died  in  1523. 

See  Brantome,  "  Grands  Capitaines  ;"  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des 
Republiques  Italiennes." 

Colonna,  (Vittoria,)  daughter  of  Fabrizio,  above 
noticed,  was  illustrious  as  a  poetess  and  as  a  woman. 
She  was  born  in  1490,  and  was  married  in  1507  to  the 
Marquis  of  Pescara,  who  became  a  celebrated  general. 
She  was  extolled  as  the  most  eminent  of  her  sex  in  Italy 
for  beauty,  virtue,  and  talents.  After  the  death  of  her 
husband,  in  1525,  she  wrote  poetical  laments  on  that 
subject,  and  also  religious  verses.  In  1541  she  retired 
into  a  convent,  first  at  Orvieto  and  then  at  Viterbo. 
She  is  reputed  one  of  the  most  successful  imitators  of 
Petrarch.  "The  rare  virtues  and  consummate  talents 
of  this  lady,"  says  Hallam,  "were  the  theme  of  all  Italy 
in  that  brilliant  age  of  her  literature."  ("Introduction 
to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")    Died  in  1547. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Mrs.  Henky 
RoscoE,  "Vittoria  Colonna:  her  Life  and  Poems,"  1868;  "Lives  of 
the  Italian  Poets,"  by  Rev.  H.  Stebbing,  London,  1S31. 

Colonne,  de,  (Gilles.)    See  Colonna,  (Egidio.) 

Colot,  ko'lo',  or  CoUot,  the  name  of  seveial  French 
lithotomists.  Germain  Colot,  a  French  surgeon,  who 
lived  about  1480,  was  the  first  of  his  countrymen  who 
practised  lithotomy.  Lauren  t  settled  in  Paris  in  1556, 
and  was  patronized  by  Henry  II.  Philippe,  a  descend- 
ant of  Laurent,  born  in  1593,  had  a  high  reputation,  and 
was  employed  at  court.  Died  in  1656.  Francois,  a  son 
or  grandson  of  Philippe,  lived  about  1690.  His  repu- 
tation attracted  ]Datients  from  foreign  countries.  He  left 
a  "  Treatise  on  Lithotomy." 


•€  as     c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  v., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  tJiis.    ( J:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.} 


COLOTES  644  COLUMBUS 


Co-lo'tes,  [Ko^r/?f,]  a  Greek  sculptor,  a  native  of 
Paros,  lived  about  450  B.C.  He  assisted  Phidias  in  the 
colossal  statue  of  Jupiter  at  Olyinpia.  His  master-piece 
was  an  ivory  statue  of  /Esculapius. 

Colpani,  kol-p3.'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Brescia  in  1738;  died  in  1822. 

Colquhoun,  ko-hoon',  ?  (Lady  Janet,)  an  Irish  au- 
thoress, born  in  I78i,was  the  daughter  of  Sir  John  Sin- 
clair of  Ulster,  and  the  wife  of  Sir  James  Colquhoun. 
Besides  other  religious  works,  she  wrote  "  Impression  of 
the  Heart,"  (1825,)  and  "The  World's  Religion  con- 
trasted with  Christianity,"  (1839.)    Died  in  1846. 

.See  James  Hamilton,  "  Memoirs  of  Lady  Colquhoun,"  1849. 

Colquhoun,  ko-hoon',  (Patrick,)  a  Scottish  political 
economist  and  practical  reformer,  born  at  Dumbarton 
in  1745.  He  became  a  Glasgow  merchant  about  1768, 
and  lord  provost  of  Glasgow  in  1782.  He  promoted  the 
fabrication  of  muslin  in  Scotland,  and  developed  other 
resources.  In  1789  he  removed  to  London,  where  he 
initiated  reforms  in  the  police.  He  published  a  valuable 
"Treatise  on  the  Police  of  the  Metropolis,"  (1796,)  a 
"  Treatise  on  the  Population,  Power,  and  Resources  of 
the  British  Empire,"  (1814,)  and  other  works  on  manu- 
factures, trade,  and  education.    Died  in  1820. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

CoPquitt,  (Walter  T.,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
Senator,  born  in  Halifax  county,  Virginia,  in  1799.  He 
settled  in  Georgia,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  Con- 
gress in  1838  and  in  1840.  In  1842  he  was  elected  to 
the  Senate  of  the  United  States  by  the  Democrats. 
Died  in  1855. 

CoPrane,  (Henry  Hare,)  Lord,  an  English  scholar 
and  collector  of  prints,  books,  and  antiqi^ities,  born  in 
Surrey  in  1693  ;  died  in  1749. 

Colson,  koKsdN',  (Guillaume  pRANgois,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1785,  was  a  pupil  of 
David. 

Colson,  (Jean  FRANgois  Gille,)  a  French  painter 
and  architect,  born  at  Dijon  in  1733  ;  died  in  1803. 

CoPspn,  (John,)  an  English  mathematician,  who  was 
chosen  professor  of  mathematics  in  Cambridge  in  1739, 
before  which  he  taught  school  at  Rochester.  He  trans- 
lated from  the  Latin  Newton's  "  Fluxions."  Died  in  1760. 

CoPston,  (Edward,)  an  opulent  English  merchant 
and  philanthropist,  born  at  Bristol  in  1636,  was  noted  for 
his  munificence.  He  founded  and  endowed  a  number 
of  charitable  institutions  in  Bristol.    Died  in  172L 

Colt,  (Samuel,)  an  American  inventor,  born  at  Hart- 
ford, Connecticut,  in  1814.  He  went  to  sea  as  a  sailor- 
boy  about  the  age  of  fifteen.  In  1835  he  took  out  a 
patent  for  a  pistol,  called  a  revolver,  which  he  had  in- 
vented. About  1848  he  began  to  manufacture  revolvers 
on  a  large  scale  at  Hartford,  where  he  built  one  of  the 
most  extensive  armories  in  the  world.  His  revolvers 
have  a  high  reputation  in  every  part  of  the  world.  Died 
in  1862. 

Coltellini,kol-tg]-lee'nee,  (AGOSTiNO,)an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Florence  in  1613.  He  founded  in  his  own  house, 
in  1 63 1,  the  celebrated  academy  of  Apatisti  at  Florence. 
Died  in  1693. 

CoPtpn,  (Caleb  C.,)  an  English  clergyman,  vicar  of 
Kew  and  Petersham.  He  wrote  "  Hypocrisy,"  a  Poem, 
(1812,)  and  other  works,  the  most  remarkable  of  which 
was  "  Lacon,"(i820,)  an  excellent  collection  of  apothegms 
and  sententious  precepts.  In  consequence  of  his  addic- 
tion to  the  vice  of  gaming,  he  absconded  to  America  in 
1828.    He  killed  himself  at  Fontainebleau  in  1832. 

CoPton,  (Calvin, )an  Episcopal  clergyman  and  writer, 
born  in  Longmeadow,  Massachusetts,  in  1789,  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1812.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Four  Years  in  Great  I^ritain,"  and  a  "Life  of 
Plenry  Clay,"  (3  vols.,  1844.)  He  also  wrote  "Junius 
Tracts"  in  support  of  the  Whig  party  about  1840-44. 
Died  in  1857. 

Colton,  (George  Hooker,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Otsego  county,  Nevv^  York,  in  1818.  He 
wrote  a  poem  entitled  "  Tecumseh,  or  the  West  Thirty 
Years  Since,"  (1842.)  In  1845  he  became  editor  of  the 
"American  Whig  Review."    Died  in  1847. 

Colton,  (Walter,)  an  American  clergyman  and  wri- 
ter, born  in  Rutland,  Vermont,  in  1797.    He  became  a 


chaplain  in  the  navy  in  1831,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Ship  and  Shore  in  Madeira,  Lisbon,  etc.,"  (1835,) 
"Deck  and  Port,"  (1850,)  and  "Three  Years  in  Cali- 
fornia," (1850.)  He  established  the  first  newspaper  in 
California,  now  called  the  "  Alta  California."  Died  in 
185L 

See  Grisvvold's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Coluccio,  ko-loot'cho,  (Salutato,)  an  Italian  writer 
and  friend  of  Petrarch,  born  at  Stignano  in  1330.  He 
became  secretary  to  Pope  Urban  V.  and  to  the  republic 
of  Florence.  He  acquired  renown  as  a  Latin  poet,  and 
translated  part  of  Dante's  "  Divina  Commedia"  into 
Latin  verse.    Died  in  1406. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Columb.    See  Colomh. 

Co-lum'ba,  Saint,  called  "the  Apostle  of  the  High- 
landers," was  born  in  Ireland  about  520  a.d.  He  is  re- 
garded as  the  first  who  preached  Christianity  in  Scotland, 
which  he  visited  about  565.  He  founded  in  lona,  one 
of  the  Hebrides,  an  abbey  and  college,  which  became  a 
renowned  seat  of  learning.    Died  in  597  A.D. 

See  Burton's  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  i.  chap.  vii.  ;  Butlkr, 
"Lives  of  the  Saints;"  Dr.  Johnson,  "Journey  to  the  Hebrides." 

Co-lum'ban,  written  also  Colomban,  [Lat.  Co- 

lumba'nus,]  Saint,  an  eminent  Irish  monk,  born  in 
Leinster  about  540  a.d.  He  preached  in  France,  founded 
a  monastery  at  Luxeuil,  near  Besan9on,  and  acquired 
celebrity  as  the  teacher  and  author  of  a  monastic  rule. 
"  He  was  the  man,"  says  Montalembert,  "  who  gave  the 
greatest  impulse  to  the  monasticism  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury."   Died  in  Italy  in  615  A.D. 

See  A.  GiANELi.i,  "Vita  di  S.  Colombano,"  Turin,  1844. 

Columbanus.    See  Columban,  Saint. 

Co  -  lum'bus,  (Don  Bartholomew,)  a  younger 
brother  of  the  great  navigator,  who  in  1488  sent  him 
to  solicit  the  patronage  of  Henry  VII.  of  England.  In 
1493  he  accompanied  his  brother  in  the  second  voyage 
to  America,  and  was  appointed  adelantado,  or  governor, 
of  Hispaniola..  On  this  island  he  founded,  in  1496,  the 
town  of  Saint  Domingo.  He  displayed  much  ability  in 
subduing  the  revolts  of  the  natives.  (See  Columbus, 
Christopher.)  "  He  united  in  a  singular  degree,"  says 
Irving,  "the  sailor,  the  soldier,  and  the  legislator.  His 
portrait  has  been  suffered  to  remain  too  much  in  the 
shade  :  it  is  worthy  of  being  brought  into  the  light  as  a 
companion  to  that  of  his  illustrious  brother."  He  died 
in  Saint  Domingo  in  15 14. 

See  Irving,  "  Life  of  C.  Columbus." 

Columbus,  (Christopher,)  [Lat.  Christoph'orus 
Colum'bus;  It.  Cristof'oro  Colom'bo  ;  Sp.  Cristo- 
VAL  Colon,  kRes-to'vSl  ko-16n';  Fr.  Christophe  Co- 
LOMB,  kR^s'tof'  ko'l^N^;  Ger.  Christoph  Columbus, 
kRis'tof  ko-loom'bus,]  the  most  illustrious  of  navigators 
and  discoverers,  was  born  of  poor  parents,  at  Genoa, 
about  1440.  His  birth  is  variously  dated  between  1435 
and  1445,  (Irving  prefers  1435,)  and  his  early  history  is 
involved  in  obscurity.  The  family  name  Colombo  was 
Latinized  into  Columbus  by  the  subject  of  this  article, 
who  afterwards  adopted  the  Spanish  form,  Cristoval 
Colon.  At  an  early  age  he  evinced  a  fondness  for  geo- 
graphy, and  a  strong  attraction  towards  the  sea  and  the 
mysterious  regions  which  his  imagination  suggested  be- 
yond its  horizon.  A.i  the  University  of  Pavia  he  pursued 
for  a  short  time  the  congenial  studies  of  geometry,  as- 
tronomy, navigation,  etc.  According  to  his  own  state- 
ment, he  entered  on  a  nautical  life  at  the  age  of  fourteen. 
During  many  years  he  was  employed  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, sometimes  in  commercial  adventures  and  some- 
times in  warlike  enterprises. 

About  1470  he  removed  to  Lisbon,  which,  under  the 
auspices  of  Prince  Henry,  was  then  the  chief  seat  of  nau- 
tical science,  and  there  married  a  lady  of  Italian  extrac- 
tion,— Felipa  Monis  de  Palestrello.  He  sailed  with  several 
Portuguese  expeditions  to  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  and 
when  on  shore  supported  his  family  by  the  construction 
of  maps  and  charts.  Amidst  a  general  excitement  about 
maritime  discovery,  attended  with  various  fanciful  theo- 
ries and  fabulous  rumours,  he  gradually  matured  the  idea 
of  his  own  sublime  enterprise.  A  lofty  and  religious  en- 
thusiasm sustained  him  in  surmounting  the  difficulties  and 
repulses  which  he  was  destined  to  meet.    He  expected 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lo7tg;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


COLUMBUS  645  COLUMN  A 


that  by  sailing  westward  he  would  reach  Cipango,  (Japan,) 
or  the  eastern  part  of  Asia,  after  a  voyage  of  moderate 
length.  According  to  Irving,  he  meditated  the  discovery 
of  a  western  route  to  India  as  early  as  the  year  1474.  He 
made  a  northern  voyage,  of  which  we  have  no  memorial 
except  this  passage  in  one  of  his  letters  :  "  In  1477  I 
navigated  one  hundred  leagues  beyond  Thule,"  (sup- 
posed to  be  Iceland.) 

Soon  after  the  opportune  application  of  the  astrolabe 
to  navigation,  he  solicited  the  patronage  of  John  II.  of 
Portugal  in  the  execution  of  his  favourite  project.  That 
king,  while  he  protracted  the  negotiation,  secretly  sent  a 
vessel  to  explore  the  Atlantic  ;  but  the  timid  pilots,  after 
a  voyage  of  a  few  days,  returned  to  Lisbon.  Indignant 
at  this  treatment,  Columbus  left  Portugal  in  1484,  and 
applied  to  the  court  of  Spain  for  assistance.  He  was  then 
so  poor  that  he  begged  some  bread  at  the  convent  near 
Palos  while  he  was  on  his  way  to  the  court.  His  project 
was  referred  to  a  council,  and  by  them  disapproved.  Al- 
though tantalized,  neglected,  and  repulsed  by  the  min- 
ions of  office,  he  continued  to  urge  his  claims  with  ardour 
and  eloquence.  At  length,  after  the  capture  of  Granada, 
which  he  witnessed,  in  1492,  Queen  Isabella  was  induced 
to  furnish  him  with  two  small  vessels  :  a  third  was  added 
by  himself  or  his  friends.  On  the  3d  of  August,  1492,  he 
sailed  from  Palos  with  one  hundred  and  twenty  men,  in 
the  Santa  Maria,  the  Pinta,  and  the  Nina. 

After  passing  the  Canaries,  the  propitious  trade -wind 
wafted  them  swiftly  over  a  tranquil  sea  for  many  days. 
The  variation  of  the  needle,  then  first  observed,  alarmed 
his  crew,  who  were  also  dismayed  by  the  idea  of  being 
lost  in  a  shoreless  ocean.  About  the  20th  of  September 
they  were  cheered  by  the  visits  of  several  birds  of  song  ; 
but  the  farther  they  advanced  the  more  their  impatience 
increased.  Their  heroic  chief,  however,  was  resolute  in 
"pursuing  his  dim  and  perilous  way."  A  few  days  before 
the  discovery  of  land  his  crew  became  openly  mutinous, 
and  talked  of  throwing  him  overboard.  On  the  morning 
of  October  12,  1492,  his  voyage  was  crowned  with  triumph 
by  the  discovery  of  San  Salvador,  (or  Cat  Island,)  one 
of  the  Bahama  Isles,  which  he  found  inhabited.  Sup- 
posing it  to  be  on  the  coast  of  India,  he  called  the  natives 
Indians  ;  and  they  received  their  visitants  as  citizens  and 
messengers  of  heaven.  Having  visited  Cuba  and  Hayti, 
(Hispaniola,)  he  sailed  homeward,  and  arrived  at  Palos 
in  March,  1493.  In  his  progress  through  Spain  he  was 
received  with  rapturous  demonstrations  and  more  than 
regal  homage.  In  accordance  with  a  previous  contract, 
he  obtained  the  titles  of  Admiral  and  Viceroy  of  the 
New  World.  "Thus  honoured  by  the  sovereigns," 
says  Irving,  "and  idolized  by  the  people,  Columbus  for 
a  time  drank  the  honeyed  draught  of  popularity."  "  His 
discovery  burst  with  such  sudden  splendour  upon  the 
world  as  to  dazzle  envy  itself." 

In  the  autunui  of  1493  made  a  second  voyage  across 
the  Atlantic,  with  seventeen  ships,  and,  after  the  dis- 
covery of  Jamaica,  Porto  Rico,  etc.,  returned  to  Spain  in 
June,  1496.  He  sailed  again  in  May,  1498,  with  six  ves- 
sels, and  discovered  Terra  Firma  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Orinoco.  Envy  and  malice  had  at  last  produced  an  ebb 
in  the  tide  of  his  popularity,  so  that  in  1500  Ferdinand 
appointed  Francisco  de  Pobadilla  governor  in  place  of 
Columbus,  who  was  sent  to  Sj)ain  in  chains.  It  has  been 
questioned  whether  the  king  had  authorized  the  infamous 
conduct  of  Bobadilla  ;  for  he  pretended  to  disavow  it, 
after  the  indignation  of  the  Spanish  public  had  been 
loudly  expressed.  Columbus  was  received  with  smiles 
and  favour  by  the  king  and  queen,  but  was  not  reinstated 
in  his  high  office.  In  May,  1502,  he  sailed  on  his  fourth 
voyage,  hoping  to  find  a  more  direct  passage  to  India 
than  that  just  discovered  by  Vasco  da  Gama.  He  ex- 
plored the  coasts  of  Honduras,  Costa  Rica,  etc.,  and, 
after  suffering  from  famine,  mutiny,  and  other  disasters, 
he  returned  to  Spain  in  1504.  He  died  in  poverty  and 
neglect,  at  Valladolid,  in  1506. 

Columbus  was  tall  in  stature,  with  blue  eyes,  and  an 
aquiline  nose.  He  possessed  a  commanding  presence 
and  a  fluent  elocution.  His  temper  was  impetuous, 
though  benevolent,  and  his  mind  was  highly  imaginative 
and  poetical.  He  left  two  sons,  noticed  below.  He  died 
in  ignorance  of  the  real  grandeur  of  his  discovery,  sup- 


posing that  Cuba,  Terra  Firma,  etc.  were  only  remote 
parts  of  Asia. 

See  Irving,  "Life  of  Columbus;"  Prescott,  "Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,"  chaps,  xvi.  and  xviii.  of  Part  First,  and  viii.  and  xviii.  of 
Part  Second;  Fernando  Colon,  "  Historia  del  Almirante  ;"  Hek- 
RERA,  "  Historia  de  las  Indias  Occidentales ;"  Navarrete,  "Colec- 
cion  deViages;"  Oviedo,  "History  of  the  Indies;"  Bernaldez, 
" Reyes  Catolicos ;"  MtiNOZ,  "Historia  del  NuevoMundo;"  Ben- 
ZONI,  "  Novi  Orbis  Historia;"  Hossi,  "Vita  di  Colombo,"  1818; 
Forester,  "Christoph  Columbus,"  (in  German,)  1842 ;  Reta,  "Vita 
di  Colombo,"  1846;  Arthur  Helps,  "Life  of  Columbus,"  1869; 
A.  DE  Lamartine,  "C.  Colomb,"  1853;  H.  Roscoe  Saint-John, 
"Life  of  Columbus,"  1850;  Bonnafoux,  "Vie  de  C.  Colomb," 
1853;  Schneidawind,  "C.  Columbus  America's  Entdecker,"  1843; 
A.  Sanguinetti,  "Vitadi  C.  Colombo,"  1846. 

Columbus,  (Diego  or  Giacomo,)  was  a  priest,  and  a 
brother  of  the  great  navigator.  He  governed  Saint  Do- 
mingo for  a  short  time  in  1500,  and  soon  after  that  date 
was  sent  to  Spain,  with  his  brother,  in  chains.  In  1509 
he  embarked  again  for  the  New  World  with  his  nephew 
Diego. 

Columbus,  (Don  Diego,)  the  eldest  son  of  the  great 
admiral,  was  born  probably  at  Lisbon  about  1472.  He 
was  in  early  youth  a  page  in  the  court  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella.  At  the  death  of  his  father  he  urged  his  claim 
to  the  office  of  viceroy  which  was  promised  to  Christo- 
pher Columbus  and  his  heirs,  and  about  1509  he  obtained 
the  office  of  Governor  of  the  West  Indies.  He  had 
married  Dona  Maria  de  Toledo,  whose  father  and  uncle 
were  the  most  powerful  grandees  of  Spain.  Charles  V., 
about  1520,  recognized  his  right  to  the  office  of  viceroy. 
He  died  in  Spain  in  1526,  leaving  two  sons.  "He  ap- 
pears to  have  been,"  says  Irving,  "a  man  of  great  in- 
tegrity, of  respectable  talents,  and  of  a  generous  nature." 

See  Irving,  "  Life  of  Christopher  Columbus." 

Columbus,  (Fernando,)  born  at  Cordova  about 
1488,  was  the  son  of  Christopher  Columbus  and  Beatrix 
Enriquez.  He  was  educated  at  the  court  of  Isabella  of 
Castile,  whom  he  served  as  a  page.  In  1502  he  accom- 
panied his  father  in  his  fourth  voyage  to  America.  He 
resided  some  years  at  Seville,  where  he  formed  a  rich 
library  and  devoted  himself  to  study  and  authorship. 
His  most  important  work  is  a  "History  of  Admiral  C. 
Columbus,"  ("Vida  y  Hechos  del  Almirante  D.  C. 
Colon,"  Madrid,  1530.)    Died  in  1539. 

See  Irving,  "Life  of  C.  Columbus;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Columbus,  (Realdus.)    See  Colombo. 

Col-u-mePla,  [Fr.  Columelle,  koOii''m§K,]  (Lucius 
Junius  Moderatus,)  the  author  of  the  most  important 
Latin  work  on  ancient  agriculture,  was  born  probably 
at  Cadiz,  (Gades,)  and  wrote  in  the  first  half  of  the  first 
century.  He  resided  at  or  near  Rome,  after  having 
travelled  over  many  parts  of  the  Roman  empire.  He 
was  the  owner  of  a  large  estate,  and  was  a  practical  cul- 
tivator. His  work  entitled  "De  Re  Rustica"  is  a  volu- 
minous and  systematic  treatise  on  rural  affairs,  in  twelve 
books,  of  which  the  tenth  is  in  verse.  His  Latinity  is 
nearly  as  pure  as  that  of  the  Augustan  age,  and  his  pre- 
cepts have  much  intrinsic  value.  He  is  cited  by  Seneca 
and  eulogized  by  Pliny. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Latina  ;"  Schoell,  "Histoire  de  la 
Litt^rature  Romaine ;"  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklo- 
paedie." 

Columelle.    See  Columella. 

Co-lum'na,  (Fabius,)  [It.  Fabio  Colonna,  fi'be-o 
ko-lon'n^,]  one  of  the  greatest  botanists  of  his  time,  was 
born  of  a  noble  family  at  Naples  in  1567.  He  received 
a  classical  education,  and  attained  skill  in  music,  design, 
painting,  etc.  From  early  childhood  he  manifested  a  taste 
for  botany.  His  first  work,  "Touchstone  of  Plants," 
("  Phytobasanos,"  1592,)  was  remarkable  for  the  accuracy 
of  the  descriptions  and  the  correctness  and  beauty  of 
the  figures.  He  was  the  first  to  use  copper  plates  to 
delineate  plants.  In  1606  he  produced  the  first  part  of 
his  "  Ecphrasis,"  a  history  of  rare  plants,  in  which  he 
laid  down  the  true  basis  of  the  science  by  recognizing 
and  employing  the  distinction  of  genera.  About  16 16 
he  went  to  Rome,  and  assisted  in  founding  the  Academy 
of  Lyncei,  which  had  great  influence  on  the  revival  of 
natural  philosophy.  In  his  notes  to  the  work  of  Her- 
nandez he  still  further  developed  the  principles  of 
botany  with  great  clearness.  He  appears  to  have  been 
the  only  botanist  of  his  time  who  appreciated  the  lumi- 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.  (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23  J 


COL  UMNA 


646 


COMESl'OR 


nous  ideas  which  Cesalpino  had  previously  presented. 
Died  in  Naples  in  1650. 

See  Eksch  und  Gkuber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  !£loy, 
'■  Diciioniuiire  de  la  Medecine  ;"  "Biographic  Universelle." 

Columna,  de,  (Guido,)  or  Guido  de  Columnis,  the 

name  of  a  celebrated  Italian  chronicler.    See  Guido 

DKI.LE  COLONNE. 

Co-lu'thus,  [KoXovdog,]  a  Greek  poet,  who  lived  about 
the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  was  born  at  Lycopolis,  in 
Egypt.  His  works  are  all  lost  except  "  The  Abduction 
of  Helen,"  a  small  poem  of  little  merit. 

Col'ville,  (Sir  Charles,)  a  British  general,  ayounger 
son  of  Lord  Colville,  born  in  1770,  served  in  Spain  for 
several  years,  and  was  wounded  at  Vittoria.  He  com- 
manded a  division  at  Waterloo  in  1 81 5,  and  was  made  a 
gc-neral  in  1837.    Died  in  1843. 

Colville,  (John,)  a  Scottish  politician,  became  mas- 
ter of  requests  about  1580.  In  1591  and  1592  he  was  an 
adherent  of  the  Earl  of  Bothwell  in  an  unsuccessful  re- 
bellion against  the  king.  He  published,  in  1600,  "The 
Palinode,"  and,  having  become  a  Catholic,  he  wrote 
several  treatises  against  Protestantism.    Died  in  1607. 

Col'vi-us,  (Andrew,)  a  learned  Dutch  divine,  born 
at  Dort  in  1594.  He  was  a  friend  of  Paul  Sarpi,  whose 
"  History  of  the  Inquisition"  he  translated  into  Latin. 

CoPwell,  (Stephen,)  an  American  writer  on  trade 
and  finance,  born  in  Brooke  county,  Virginia,  in  1800. 
He  practised  law  several  years,  and  afterwards  became 
a  merchant  of  Philadelphia.    Died  in  187 1. 

Comazzi,  ko-m^t'see,  (Giovanni  Battista,  )  an 
Italian  moralist,  of  whom  nothing  is  known  except  that 
he  wrote  an  able  essay  "On  the  Morals  of  Princes."  An 
English  version  appeared  in  1729. 

Combalot,  koN'bi'lo^  (Theodore,)  a  French  abbe 
and  eloquent  preacher,  was  born  at  Chatenay  (Isere)  in 
1798.  From  1830  to  1840  he  was  the  principal  rival  of 
Lacordaire  in  the  pulpits  of  Paris.  He  published  "The 
Dogma  of  the  Incarnation  regarded  as  the  Final  Reason 
of  all  that  Exists,"  (1841,)  and  other  works. 

Combalusier,  k^N^bt'lii^ze-^'',  (FRANgois  de 
Paule,)  a  French  physician,  born  in  Vivarais  in  17 13. 
He  published  "  Pneumatic  Pathology,"  (1747,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1762. 

Combe,  koom,  (Andrew,)  M.D.,  an  eminent  Scottish 
writer,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1797.  He  began  to  prac- 
tise medicine  in  that  city  in  1823,  having  previously  be- 
come a  believer  in  phrenology.  He  acquired  distinction 
as  a  writer  on  physiology  and  other  scientific  subjects. 
His  "  Principles  of  Physiology  applied  to  the  Preserva- 
tion of  Health"  (1834)  has  been  very  successful,  having 
passed  through  about  sixteen  editions.  In  1836  he  was 
appointed  consulting  physician  to  the  King  of  Belgium. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "Observations  on  Men- 
tal Derangements"  and  "The  Physiology  of  Digestion." 
Died  in  1847.  was  a  brother  of  George  Combe. 

See  "Life  of  Andrew  Combe,"  by  G.  Combe,  1850;  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  Smiles,  "Brief 
Biographies,"  'i860  ;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  July,  1850. 

Combe,  koom  or  k5m,  (Charles,)  M.D.,  an  English 
antiquary,  born  in  London  in  1743.  He  published  a 
"  Description  of  the  Ancie-nt  Medals  in  the  Cabinet  of 
Dr.  William  Hunter,"  and  another  work  on  numismatics. 
Died  in  1817. 

Combe,  (George,)  an  eminent  phrenologist,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  in  1788,  was  a  brother  of  Andrew, 
noticed  above.  He  studied  law,  and  practised  in  his 
native  place  about  twenty-five  years.  In  1816  he  heard 
Spurzheim  on  the  subject  of  phrenology,  in  which  he 
soon  became  a  firm  believer.  He  published  in  1819 
"  Essays  on  Phrenology,"  a  later  edition  of  which  was 
entitled  "  System  of  Phrenology."  His  principal  work, 
"The  Constitution  of  Man  considered  in  Relation  to 
External  Objects,"  (1828,)  passed  through  eight  or  more 
editions.  He  married  a  daughter  of  the  actress  Mrs. 
Siddons  in  1833,  and  about  that  time  delivered  in  sev- 
eral places  "  Lectures  on  Popular  Education,"  which 
were  published,  (3d  edition,  1848.)  In  1838  he  visited 
the  United  States,  in  which  he  passed  two  or  three  years 
and  gave  many  lectures  on  phrenology.  He  afterwards 
published  "Notes  on  the  United  States  of  America," 
(1841,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1858.  George  Combe 


has  been  called  the  ablest  writer  that  ever  advocated  the 
peculiar  doctrines  of  Phrenology. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  September,  1826;  "North  British 
Review"  for  May,  1852  ;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1840. 

Combe,  koN,  (Michel,)  Colonel,  a  brave  French 
officer,  born  at  Feurs  in  1787.  He  was  killed  at  Con- 
stantine,  in  Africa,  where  he  led  an  assault,  in  1837. 

Combe,  (Taylor,)  an  English  antiquary,  son  of 
Charles  Combe,  noticed  above,  born  in  1774.  He  was 
chosen  keeper  of  the  antiquities  and  coins  of  the  British 
Museum  in  1807,  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Ancient  Marbles  in  the  British  Museum,"  (7  vols., 
1812-35.)    Died  in  1826. 

Combe,  La.    See  Lacomhe. 

Combefis,  kiivibTe'  or  k6N^beh-fe',  (Franqois,)  a 
French  Dominican  friar  and  Hellenist,  born  at  Mar- 
mande  in  1605.  He  undertook  to  restore  the  text  of  the 
Fathers  to  its  purity,  and  spent  nearly  fifty  years  in  this 
task.   He  published  man)  learned  works.  Died  in  1679. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Combelle,  kdN'b^l',  (Jean  Antoine  FRANgois,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Pouzat  in  1774,  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  Syria  and  Spain.  He  was  killed  at  Dresden 
in  September,  1813. 

Comber,  kum'ber,  ?  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  a  learned  Eng- 
lish theologian,  born  in  Kent  in  1644.  He  obtained 
the  living  of  Thornton  in  1678,  and  was  chosen  Dean 
of  Durham  in  1691.  lie  wrote  a  "Companion  to  the 
Temple,"  (3  vols.,  1672-75,)  and  other  esteemed  works. 
Died  in  1699. 

Comber,  (Thomas,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
became  rector  of  Morborne  and  Buckworth.  He  wrote 
a  "Vindication  of  the  Revolution  of  1688,"  and  a  few 
other  works.    Died  in  1778. 

Com''ber-mere,  (Stapleton  Cotton,)  Viscount, 
an  English  general,  born  in  1773,  was  a  son  of  Sir  R.  S. 
Cotton.  He  served  several  campaigns  in  India,  joined 
the  army  in  Spain  in  1808,  and  distinguished  himself  in 
many  actions.  He  was  second  in  command  at  the  battle 
of  Salamanca,  (1812,)  where  he  was  severely  wounded. 
He  w^as  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in 
India  in  1822,  and  received  the  title  of  Viscount  for  his 
services  in  that  country  about  1825.  In  1855  he  was 
made  a  field-marshal.    Died  in  1865. 

See  "iSIemoirs  and  Correspondence  of  Viscount  Combermere," 
by  Lady  Combermere  and  Captain  W.  W.  Knollys,  London, 
1866;  "  Eraser's  ALagazine"  for  November,  1866. 

Combes,  k6Mb,  (Charles  Pierre  Mathieu,  )  a 
French  engineer,  born  in  1801.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  Institute,  and  inspector-general  and  professor  in 
the  ficole  des  Mines.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Exploitation  of  Mines,"  (3  vols.,)  and  other  works. 

Comella,  ko-m§KyS,  (Luciano  Francisco,)  a  popu- 
lar Spanish  dramatic  poet,  born  in  1716;  died  in  1779. 

Comeniu.s,  ko-ma^ne-iis,  (John  Amos,)  an  eminent 
German  philologist,  born  at  Komna,  in  Moravia,  in  1592. 
His  family  name  is  lost,  having  been  superseded  by  the 
above  name,  derived  from  Komna  or  Comna.  He  became 
a  minister  of  the  Moravan  sect  at  Fulnek,  whence  he  was 
driven  by  persecution  in  162 1.  He  retired  to  Lesna,  in 
Poland,  where  he  taught  school,  and  published,  in  Latin 
and  Bohemian,  his  "  Janua  Linguarum  reserata,"  ("The 
Gate  of  Languages  Unlocked,  or  a  New  Method  of 
Learning  Languages,"  1631,)  which  procured  for  him  a 
great  reputation  and  was  soon  translated  into  twelve 
or  more  languages.  He  was  invited  to  several  foreign 
countries  for  the  purpose  of  reforming  the  methods  of 
])ublic  instruction.  He  went  to  England  in  1638,  and  to 
Sweden  about  1642.  In  1648  he  returned  to  Lesna,  which 
was  pillaged  and  burnt  in  1657,  when  he  lost  his  books 
and  manuscripts.  He  then  settled  in  Amsterdam,  and 
published  "  Opera  Didactica,"  (1657,)  and  "Orbis  Sensu- 
alium  Pictus,"  (165S,)  a  kind  of  encyclopaedia  with  wood- 
cuts.   He  was  author  of  other  works.    Died  in  1671. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  Adelung,  "  Geschichte  der 
menschlichen  Narrheit." 

Comes  Natalis.    See  Conti,  (Noel.) 

Co-mes'tor,  [Fr.  pron.  ko'm^s'toR',]  (or  Devourer,) 
(Pierre,)  (thus  surnamed  because  he  dtn'ojired  many 
books,)  a  French  theologian,  born  at  Troyes,  became 
mas^r  of  the  school  of  theology  in  Paris  in  1 164,  and 


a,  e,  1,  o,  ij,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscicre;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  ndt;  gdod;  moon; 


COMET  647  COMNENUS 


wrote  "  Scholastica  Historia,"  It  was  received  with  great 
favour,  and  was  for  about  three  centuries  esteemed  an 
excellent  body  of  positive  theology.  Died  in  11 78  or  1 185. 

Comet,  'ko'mhf,  (Charles  Jean  Baptisi  e,)  a  French 
physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1796,  published  many  medical 
works. 

Co-me'tas,  called  Scholas'ticus,  a  poet,  who  lived 
probably  in  the  ninth  century,  was  the  author  of  six 
epigrams  in  the  Greek  Anthology. 

Comiers,  ko'me-a',  (Claude,)  a  French  priest,  born 
at  Embrun,  was  professor  of  mathematics  in  Paris  for 
some  years,  and  an  editor  of  the  "  Journal  des  Savants" 
in  1 676-78.  He  wrote  treatises  on  astronomy,  theology, 
language,  etc.    Died  in  1693. 

Comines,  de,  deh  ko'men',  (Philippe,)  Lord  of  Ar- 
genton,  an  eminent  historian,  was  born  near  Menin,  in 
Flanders,  in  1445.  He  became  a  confidential  adviser  of 
Charles  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  acquitted 
himself  with  ability  in  negotiations.  In  1472  he  passed 
into  the  service  of  Charles's  rival,  Louis  XL  of  France, 
who  loaded  him  with  favours  and  made  him  Seneschal 
of  Poitou.  After  the  death  of  Louis,  Cotnines  favoured 
the  party  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  in  1488  was  sen- 
tenced to  banishment.  He  attended  Charles  VIII.  in 
his  invasion  of  Italy  in  1494,  and  served  him  in  a  diplo- 
matic capacity.  Soon  after  that  date  he  began  to  write 
his  "  Memoirs,"  which  narrate  the  historical  events  from 
1464  to  1498.  This  work,  which  was  printed  in  1523,  is 
highly  prized  for  its  fidelity,  candour,  sound  judgment, 
agreeable  style,  and  deep  insight  into  men  and  things. 
"Comines,"  says  Macaulay,  "was  one  of  the  most  en- 
lightened statesmen  of  his  time."    Died  in  1509. 

See  Macaulay,  "History  of  Englanci,"  vol.  i. ;  Vili.emain, 
"  Essais  de  Litterature  ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  dii  Lundi ;" 
F^Lix  VAN  HuLST,  "P.  de  Comines,"  Liege,  1845;  "Noiivelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  vii.,  1823. 

Comitolo,  ko-me-to^o,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and 
casuist,  born  at  Perugia  in  1545  ;  died  in  1626. 

Commandine.    See  Commanding. 

Commandino,  kom-mSn-dee'no,  written  also  Com- 
mandine or  Commandin,  (Federigo,)  an  eminent 
Italian  mathematician,  born  at  Urbino  in  1509.  In  1535 
he  went  to  Padua,  where  he  studied  medicine  ;  but  he 
renounced  that  profession  for  mathematics.  The  latter 
part  of  his  life  was  passed  at  Verona,  where  he  taught 
mathematics  to  the  Duke  of  Urbino.  He  published  good 
editions  and  Latin  translations  of  many  ancient  geome- 
ters, including  Euclid  and  Archimedes.  Montucla  calls 
him  the  moclel  of  commentators  for  the  pertinence  and 
sufficiency  of  his  notes.    Died  in  1575. 

See  Montucla,  "  Histoire  des  Math^matiques ;"  Bayle,  "His- 
torical and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Commelin.    See  Commelyn. 

Commelin,  kom^iN',  written  also  Commelyn,  (Je- 
rome,) a  French  printer,  born  at  Douai.  Having  be- 
come a  Protestant,  he  removed  to  Geneva.  Some  years 
later  he  was  chosen  librarian  to  the  Elector  Palatine  at 
Heidelberg.  There  he  published  Greek  and  Latin  edi- 
tions which  were  noted  for  correctness.  Scaliger  and 
Casaubon  praise  him  highly.    Died  in  1598. 

Commelyn,  kom'meh  lTn^,  written  also  Commelin, 
(Caspar,)  a  Dutch  botanist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1667, 
was  the  nephew  of  John,  noticed  below.  He  became 
professor  of  botany  in  his  native  city,  and  developed  a 
great  knowledge  of  that  science  in  several  works.  He 
published,  with  fine  plates,  the  second  volume  of  his 
uncle's  work  on  the  "Plants  of  the  Botanic  Garden  of 
Amsterdam,"  and  a  Flora  of  Malabar,  (1696.)  The  genus 
Commelina  was  named  in  honour  of  these  botanists. 
Died  in  1731. 

See  Haller,  "Bibliotheca  Botanica." 

Commelyn  or  Commelin,  [Lat.  Commeli'nus,] 
(Isaac,)  a  Dutch  historical  writer,  born  in  Amsterdam 
m  1598.  He  published  a  "History  of  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company,"  a  "Life  of  William  L,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1676. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Commelyn  or  Commelin,  (John,)  an  eminent  bo- 
tanist, born  in  Amsterdam  in  1629,  was  the  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  contributed  to  the  advancement  of 
botany  as  professor  in  the  botanic  garden  of  his  native 


city,  and  as  author  of  several  treatises,  among  which  are 
a  "  Catalogue  of  the  Indigenous  Plants  of  Holland," 
(1683,)  and  a  "Description  of  the  Plants  of  the  Botanic 
Garden  of  Amsterdam,"  (1697.)    Died  in  1692. 
See  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca  Botanica." 

Commendoni,  kom-mln-do'nee,  [Fr.  Commendon, 
ko'mSN'ddN'',]  (Gian  Francesco,)  Cardinal,  born  at 
Venice  in  1524,  was  an  able  negotiator,  and  was  sent 
by  the  pope  on  a  secret  mission  to  England  in  1553. 
About  1561  he  was  employed  as  nuncio  in  Germany  in 
order  to  check  the  progress  and  defeat  the  designs  of 
the  Protestants.  He  persuaded  the  King  of  Poland  to 
accept  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  was 
made  a  cardinal  in  1565.    Died  in  1584. 

See  Flechier,  "Vie  du  Cardinal  Commendon,"  1671 ;  A.  M. 
Grazl^ni,  "  De  Vita  J.  F.  Commendoni  Cardinalis,"  i6og. 

Commerson,  ko''mgR's6N',  (Philibert,)  an  excellent 
French  botanist,  born  at  Chatillon-les-Dombes  in  1727. 
He  formed  a  rich  botanic  garden  at  his  native  place.  In 
1764  he  removed  to  Paris,  and  soon  after  that  date  was 
chosen  naturalist  of  the  exploring  expedition  of  Bougain- 
ville, which  sailed  in  1767.  Having  visited  South  Ame- 
rica, and  many  islands  of  the  South  Sea,  he  explored  the 
Isle  of  France  and  Madagascar,  where  he  remained  a 
long  time.  He  died  in  the  Isle  of  France  in  1773,  be- 
fore he  was  ready  to  publish  the  results  of  his  researches. 
"Commerson,"  says  Cuvier,  "was  a  man  of  profound 
science.  If  he  had  published  his  observations,  he  would 
hold  one  of  the  foremost  ranks  among  naturalists."  His 
manuscripts  and  collections  were  deposited  in  the  Jardin 
des  Plantes. 

See  Cuvier,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles ;"  "Nouvelle 
Bingraphie  Generale." 

Commire,  ko'm^R',  (Jean,)  a  modern  Latin  poet  and 
Jesuit,  born  at  Amboise,  in  France,  in  1625.  He  was  for 
many  years  professor  of  theology,  and  gained  distinction 
by  his  Latin  poems,  consisting  of  odes,  fables,  epigrams, 
etc.,  published  collectively  in  1678.  They  are  remarka- 
ble for  elegance  and  correctness  of  style.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1702. 

Commode.    See  Commodus. 

Commodi,  (Andrea.)    See  Commodo. 

Com-mo~di-a'nu.s,  [Fr.  Commodien,  ko'mo'de-dN',] 
(Gaz/EUS,  ga-zee'us,)  a  Christian  poe^  who  lived  proba- 
bly in  the  third  or  fourth  century.  The  place  of  his 
birth  is  not  known.  He  wrote  a  Latin  poem  entitled 
"Instructions  against  the  Gods  of  the  Gentiles,"  (1650.) 

See  Cave,  "Historia  Literaria." 

Commodien.    See  Commodianus. 

Commodo,  kom'mo-do,  or  Comodi,  kom'o-dee, 
(Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1560. 
He  had  a  remarkable  talent  for  copying  the  most  beau- 
tiful paintings  with  such  fidelity  that  it  was  almost  im- 
possible to  distinguish  the  original  from  the  copy.  He 
worked  in  Florence.  The  "General  Judgment"  is  called 
his  master-piece.    Died  in  1638. 

Com'mo-dus,  [Fr.  Commode,  ko^mod',]  (Lucius 
^Lius  Aurelius,)  a  Roman  emperor,  born  in  161  A.D., 
was  the  son  of  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Faustina.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  180,  and  found  the  empire  prosper- 
ous. Though  he  had  been  "carefully  educated,  he  soon 
exhibited  a  character  which  inspires  unmixed  detestation. 
He  resigned  the  direction  of  the  government  to  his 
favourites  Perennis  and  others,  and  indulged  his  cruel 
temper  and  evil  passions  without  restraint.  He  ordered 
his  wife  Crispina  to  be  put  to  death,  and  took  a  concu- 
bine named  Marcia.  His  subjects  were  required  to  offer 
homage  to  him  as  Hercules.  Many  senators  and  others 
were  doomed  to  death  by  his  cruelty.  His  officers  L^e- 
tus  and  Eclectus  having  conspired  with  Marcia  against 
him,  he  was  poisoned  and  strangled  in  192  A. D.,  and  Per- 
tinax  then  became  emperor. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "Histoire  des  Empereiirs ;"  Dion  Cassius, 
"  History  of  Rome;"  Lampridius,  "Commodus." 

Comnene.    See  Comnenus. 

Com-ne'nus,  [Gr.  Kofivrjpog;  Fr.  Comnene,  kom'- 
n^N',]  the  name  of  an  illustrious  Byzantine  family  of 
Italian  origin,  which  first  acquired  historical  importance 
in  the  tenth  century,  and  from  which  descended  six  em- 
perors of  the  East,  all  the  emperors  of  Trebizond,  and 
many  generals,  statesmen,  etc.  (See  Alexis  I.,  Andro- 


V  9  as  s;  g  ^ard;  g  as/;  g,  H,  ml, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


COMNENUS 


648 


COMTE 


Nicus  I.,  David  Comnenus,  Isaac  L,  Manuel  L,  and 
Anna  Comnena.) 

Comnenus,  (Demetrius,)  born  in  Corsica  about 
1750,  claimed  to  be  a  descendant  of  David,  the  last  em- 
peror of  Trebizond.  He  was  a  captain  in  the  French 
service,  and  emigrated  as  a  royalist  about  1792.  He 
returned  to  France  about  1800,  and  died  in  1820. 

Comodi.    See  Commodo,  (Andrea.) 

Comonfort,  ko'mon-foRt'  or  kom'on-fort',  (Ignacio,) 
a  Mexican  general  and  President,  was  born  at  Puebla 
about  1810.  He  served  in  several  civil  wars  in  his  youth, 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Mexican  Congress  in  1842, 
and  a  senator  about  1848.  In  1854  he  joined  Alvarez 
in  a  revolutionary  movement  against  Santa  Anna,  who 
was  forced  to  abdicate  in  1855.  Alvarez  having  retired 
or  abdicated  in  December,  1855,  Comonfort  then  obtained 
the  chief  pow^  as  provisional  President.  The  clergy 
and  conservatives  raised  a  revolt,  which  was  suppressed 
by  an  army  in  March,  1856,  soon  after  which  he  issued 
a  decree  to  confiscate  the  property  of  the  Church.  In 
December,  1857,  he  was  declared  constitutional  Presi- 
dent. The  disaffection  of  the  array  and  the  hostility  of 
the  clergy  rendered  his  position  untenable.  The  capital 
was  taken  by  the  rebels  in  January,  1858,  and  Comonfort 
went  into  exile.  In  1863  he  commanded  an  army  which 
fought  for  the  Liberal  cause  against  the  French.  He  was 
murdered  by  bandits  in  November  of  that  year. 

Comontes,  de,  da  ko-mon't^s,  (Francisco,)  a  Span- 
ish painter,  born  at  Toledo  ;  died  in  1564. 

Compagni.    See  Domenico  degli  Camei. 

Compagni,  kom-pin'yee,  (Dino,)  an  Italian  magis- 
trate, born  at  Florence,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Florence 
from  1270  to  1312,"  which  is  praised  for  veracity  and 
elegance.  He  held  the  office  of  prior  of  Florence  in 
1289  and  in  1301. 

Compagnon,  kdN^ptn'y^N',  a  French  traveller,  who 
in  1 7 16  was  factor  of  the  French  company  at  Senegal. 
He  ascended  the  Senegal,  and  explored  Galam  and  Bam- 
book,  which  had  not  then  been  visited  by  Europeans. 
The  narrative  of  his  journey  was  published  by  Labat. 
He  died  in  Paris  about  1750. 

Compagnoni,  kom-pin-yo'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  able 
Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Lugo  in  1754,  lived  at  Venice, 
Milan,  etc.  He  published  an  "  Essay  on  the  Hebrews 
and  Greeks,"  "liRe  Evenings  of  Tasso,"  ("  Le  Veglie 
del  Tasso,")  a  "  History  of  America,"  and  various  other 
works.  He  was  a  republican,  and  held  several  high 
offices  under  the  French  regime,  among  which  was  that 
of  councillor  of  state  at  Milan.    Died  in  1834. 

See  Iiis  Autobiography,  "Vita  letteraria  di  G%  Compagnoni," 
1834;  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Compans,  k6N^p6N',  (Jean  Dominique,)  Count,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Salies  (Haut-Garonne)  in  1769. 
He  served  several  campaigns  among  the  Alps  and  in 
Italy  during  the  republic.  He  was  chief  of  the  staff  of 
Lannes  at  Austerlitz  in  1805,  and  became  a  general  of 
division  in  1806.  In  the  campaign  of  Saxony,  1813,  his 
conduct  was  highly  praised  by  Napoleon.  He  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Waterloo,  1815.    Died  in  1845. 

Comparetti,  kom-pa-ret'tee,  (Andrea,)  an  eminent 
Italian  naturalist  and  physician,  born  in  Friidi  in  1746. 
He  was  for  many  years  professor  of  medicine  in  the 
University  of  Padua.  In  1787  he  published,  in  Latin, 
"Observations  on  the  Refraction  of  Light,"  and  in  1789 
"  Observations  on  the  Anatomy  of  the  Ear,"  which  is 
much  esteemed.  He  produced  a  celebrated  work  entitled 
"  Medical  Comparisons  or  Collations  of  Masked  Period- 
ical Fevers,"  ("  Riscontri  medici  delle  Febbri  larvate 
periodiche,"  1795,)  and  an  Italian  treatise  "On  the 
Animal  Dynamics  of  Insects,"  (1800,)  which  Cuvier 
designates  as  "  very  curious,  instructive,  and  full  of  new 
views  on  the  organs  of  locomotion."    Died  in  i8or. 

See  D.  Palmaroli,  "  Saggio  sopia  la  Vita,  etc.  di  Andrea  Com- 
paretti," 1802;  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Compte,  Le.    See  Lecompte. 

Conip'tQn,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  English  prelate, 
born  at  Compton  in  1632,  was  the  youngest  son  of 
Spencer  Compton,  Earl  of  Northampton.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Oxford  in  1674,  and  of  London  in  1675. 
Charles  II.  confided  to  him  the  education  of  his  nieces 
Mary  and  Anne.    For  his  zeal  against  popery  he  was 


suspended  from  the  episcopal  office  in  i636.  On  the 
accession  of  William  HI.  (at  whose  coronation  he  sup- 
plied the  place  of  the  primate  Sancroft)  he  was  restored 
to  the  bishopric  and  admitted  to  the  privy  council.  He 
wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Communion,"  "  Letters  to  the 
Clergy,"  and  other  works,  and  nade  great  efforts  to  unite 
the  Dissenters  with  the  Anglican  Church.    Died  in  1713. 

See  Burnet,  "  History  of  his  Own  Times ;"  Macaulay,  "His- 
tory of  England ;"  "  Life  of  Dr.  Compton,  Lord  Bishop  of  London," 
London,  1716. 

Compton,  (Spencer,)  second  Earl  of  Northampton, 
the  son  of  William  Compton,  the  first  Earl,  was  born  in 
1601.  He  attended  Prince  Charles  to  Spain  in  1622  as 
master  of  his  robes.  In  the  civil  war  which  began  in 
1642  he  fought  for  the  king,  and  was  killed  in  1643 
Hopton  Heath,  refusing  to  give  or  take  quarter. 

Comstock,  kiim'stok,  (John  Lee,)  M.D.,a  compiler 
of  school-books,  born  in  Lyme,  Connecticut,  in  1789. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  System  of  Natu- 
ral Philosophy,"  (1831,)  and  "Elements  of  Chemistry," 
which  had  a  large  circulation.    Died  in  1858. 

Comte,  k6Nt,  (Achille  Joseph,)  a  French  naturalist, 
born  at  Grenoble  in  1802,  became  professor  of  natural 
history  in  the  College  Charlemagne.  He  published 
several  popular  educational  works,  among  which  are 
"Physiology  for  Colleges,"  (1834,)  and  a  "Complete 
Treatise  on  Natural  History,"  (1844-48.)  His  wife  Ara- 
bella, formerly  Madame  Laya,  has  written  "Julien," 
(1841,)  a  comedy  called  "  Veuvage,"  ("Widowhood,") 
and  several  other  works. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Comte,  (AuGUSTE,)  a  French  philosopher,  the  founder 
of  the  system  called  Positivisme,  or  Positive  Philosophy, 
was  born  at  Montpellier  in  January,  1798.  His  father 
was  a  treasurer  of  taxes.  He  entered  the  Polytechnic 
School  in  1814,  and  gave  much  attention  to  mathematics 
and  the  physical  sciences.  About  1818  he  became  a  dis- 
ciple and  coadjutor  of  Saint-Simon,  whose  doctrines  he 
undertook  to  expound  in  a  work  entitled  "  System  of 
Positive  Politics,"  ("  Systeme  de  Politique  positive," 
1822.)  His  connection  with  Saint-Simon  continued  about 
six  years,  and  they  separated  in  1824,  mutually  disgusted 
and  completely  estranged.  Before  1824  he  had  discov- 
ered his  law  of  Social  Evolution.  He  formed  a  new 
system,  which  is  described  as  a  combination  of  the 
doctrines  of  Fourier,  Saint-Simon,  and  Hegel,  and  was 
developed  in  his  "  Cours  de  Philosophic  positive," 
(6  vols.,  1830-42,)  a  work  which  exhibits  intellectual 
powers  of  a  high  order. 

He  married  in  1825  ;  but  the  union  proved  to  be  un- 
happy. Soon  after  this  event  he  was  seized  with  an 
acute  attack  of  insanity,  and  attempted  to  commit  sui- 
cide by  drowning  ;  but  he  was  rescued  by  a  soldier.  He 
rapidly  recovered,  and  was  entirely  restored  to  sanity 
before  the  end  of  1827.  His  new  system  of  philosophy 
attracted  great  attention  and  was  adopted  by  numerous 
disciples.  In  1832  he  was  appointed  a  professor  or  tutor 
in  the  Polytechnic  School  of  Paris.  About  1842  he  was 
finally  separated  from  his  wife,  and  two  years  later  he 
formed  a  "  passionate  friendship"  with  Clotilde  de  Vaux. 
He  speaks  of  her  as  "  having  inspired  him  with  a  happi- 
ness of  which  he  had  always  dreamed,  but  which  he  had 
never  hitherto  experienced." 

He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Discours  sur  I'Es- 
prit  positive,"  (1844,)  a  "  Philosophic  Treatise  on  Popular 
Astronomy,"  (1844,)  "Catechisme  positiviste,  ou  Som- 
maire  Exposition  de  la  Religion  universelle,"  (1852,)  and 
"  Systeme  de  Politique  positive,  ou  Traite  de  Sociologie, 
instituant  la  Religion  de  I'Humanite,"  (4  vols.,  1851-54.) 
According  to  Comte,  all  the  knowledge  which  man  can 
possibly  acquire  is  comprised  in  six  pure  sciences,  viz., 
mathematics,  astronomy,  physics,  chemistry,  biology  or 
physiology,  and  sociology  or  social  science.  He  proposed 
to  introduce  and  propagate  a  new  religion, — the  worship 
of  humanity, — and  assumed  the  title  of  chief  priest  of 
that  religion.  "To  himself  and  a  few  followers,"  says 
the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1868,  "he  appeared 
the  philosopher  of  the  age,  who  had  summed  up  the 
course  of  past  thought,  the  legislator  of  a  new  era,  the 
author  and  chief  minister  of  a  new  religion,  which  was 
to  supersede  all  religions.  .  .  .  No  one  who  has  studied 


2,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y, long;  i,    A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  il,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


COMTE 


649 


CONDE 


his  great  work  can  be  insensible  to  his  services.  His 
undoubted  influence  lies  in  certain  great  conceptions 
with  which  he  has  enriched  and  illuminated  the  modern 
mind.  .  .  .  He  not  only  took  up  the  Baconian  method, 
but  he  purified  and  extended  it.  He  has  at  once  given 
it  a  wdder  application  than  any  previous  thinker,  and  far 
more  clearly  understood  its  import."  Died  in  Paris  in 
September,  1857. 

See  George  H.  Lewes,  "Comte's  Philosophy  of  the  Sciences," 
1853  ;  Harriet  Martineau,  "The  Positive  Pliilosophy  of  Auguste 
Com te,"  freely  translated  and  condensed,  2  vols.,  1854;  John  Stuart 
Mill,  "Auguste  Comte  and  Positivism,"  1865  ;  E.  Littre,  "Auguste 
Comte  et  la  Philosophic  positive,"  1863;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
July,  1838;  "Westminster  Review"  for  1865;  "British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1866;  "  North  British  Review"  for  May,  1S54. 

Comte,  (FRANgois  Charles  Louis,)  a  French  publi- 
cist, born  in  the  department  of  Lozere  in  1782,  He  pub- 
lished, in  1826,  a  "Treatise  on  Legislation,''  for  which 
he  received  the  Montyon  prize  of  the  Institute.  In  1831 
he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  He  was 
perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Politi- 
cal Sciences.    Died  in  1837. 

See  F.  A.  A.  Mignet,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M. 
Comte,"  1846. 

Comyns,  kum'ins,  ?  (Sir  John,)  a  British  jurist,  who 
became  lord  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer,  and  was  author 
of  a  "Digest  of  the  Laws  of  England,"  (1762-67,)  which 
is  considered  high  authority.    Died  about  1740. 

Conaeus,  the  Latin  of  Cone,  which  see. 

Co^'nant,  (Hannah  0"Brien  Chaplin,)  an  American 
linguist  and  writer,  born  at  Danvers,  Massachusetts, 
about  1811.  She  married  Thomas  J.  Conant,  a  He- 
braist, about  1833.  She  translated  some  of  Neander's 
commentaries,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
"History  of  the  English  Bible,"  (1859.)  Died  in  Brook- 
lyn in  1865. 

Co'nant,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Devon- 
shire in  1608.  He  became  professor  of  divinity  at 
Oxford  in  1654,  Archdeacon  of  Norwich  in  1676,  and 
prebendary  of  Worcester  in  1681.  Several  volumes  of 
his  sermons  were  published.    Died  in  1693. 

Conant,(THOMAS  J.,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  biblical  scholar, 
born  in  Vermont  in  1802.  He  graduated  at  Middlebury, 
Vermont,  in  1823,  and  has  since  filled  jDrofessorships  in 
Waterville  College,  Maine,  and  in  the  Baptist  Theologi- 
cal Seminaries  at  Hamilton  and  Rochester,  New  York. 
For  many  years  he  has  been  engaged  on  a  translation 
of  the  Bible,  of  which  the  book  of  Job  was  published  by 
the  American  Bible  Union  in  1857.  His  "Gesenius's 
Hebrew  Grammar"  is  one  of  the  most  popular  text- 
books of  the  kind  in  use. 

Couca,  kon'ka,  (Sehastiano,)  a  skilful  Italian  painter 
in  oil  and  fresco,  was  born  at  Gaeta  about  1678.  He 
studied  under  Solimena  of  Naples  for  sixteen  years,  and 
then  removed  to  Rome,  where  he  worked  with  great 
success.  Clement  XI.  employed  him  to  adorn  the  church 
of  Saint  Clement.  His  renown  extended  beyond  the 
limits  of  Italy;  but  modern  critics  think  his  merit  was 
overrated.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a  "  Piscina  Pro- 
batica,"  ("Pool  of  Bethesda,")  at  Sienna.  Died  in  1764 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Conc'a-nen,  (Matthew,)  an  Irish  wTiter,  who  came 
to  London  in  his  youth.  He  published  a  volume  of 
poems  in  1724.  In  a  public  journal  he  attacked  Pope, 
who  took  revenge  in  the  "Dunciad."  In  1732  he  was 
appointed  attorney-general  of  Jamaica.    Died  in  174Q. 

Concha,  de  la,  di  1^  kon'chi,  (Don  Jose,)  a  Spanish 
general,  born  in  Madrid  about  1800,  served  against  the 
Carlists  in  several  campaigns  of  the  civil  war.  He  was 
twice  appointed  Captain-General  of  the  island  of  Cuba. 
In  1862  he  was  sent  as  minister  to  France.  He  was 
appointed  nominal  prime  minister  by  the  queen  just 
after  the  revolution  broke  out  in  Spain,  in  September, 
1868. 

Concha,  dela,  (Manuel,)  a  Spanish  general,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Madrid  in  1794.  He  served 
with  the  rank  of  general  against  Don  Carlos,  (1834-40.) 
In  1844  he  was  appointed  Captain-General  of  Catalonia. 
He  was  banished  for  political  reasons  in  January,  1854, 
but  on  the  return  of  Espartero  to  power,  in  July  of  the 
same  year,  he  was  restored,  and  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  marshal. 


Conchillos-Falco,  kon-ch^l'y6s  fiKko,  (Juan,)  a 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Valencia  in  1641  ;  died  in  17 11. 
Conchylius.    See  Coquille. 

Concina,  kon-chee'nS,  (Daniele,)  an  Italian  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Friuli  about  1686,  entered  the  Dominican 
order.  He  gained  eminence  as  a  preacher  and  as  author 
of  several  works,  (in  Latin,)  one  of  which  is  called 
"Christian  Theology,  Doctrinal  and  Practical,"  (1749.) 
Died  in  1756. 

See  "Vita  di  D.  Concini,"  1768. 

Concini.    See  Ancre,  d'.  Marshal. 

Condamine,  La,  It  koN'dt'm^n^  (Charles  Marie,) 
an  eminent  French  savant  and  author,  born  in  Paris  in 
1 701.  He  travelled  in  the  Levant  in  his  youth.  Under 
the  auspices  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  he  went  in 
1736  with  Bouguer  to  Peru,  to  determine  the  size  and 
figure  of  the  earth.  He  returned  in  1745,  and  published 
an  "Account  of  a  Journey  in  South  America,"  (1745,) 
"The  Figure  of  the  Earth  Determined,"  (1749,)  "Jour- 
nal of  an  Expedition  made  by  Order  of  the  King  to  the 
Equator,"  (1751,)  and  other  works.  In  1760  he  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  French  Academy,  in  consideration  of  his 
high  reputation  as  a  traveller  and  of  his  literary  merit. 
He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  His 
gayety,  courage,  and  curiosity  are  said  to  have  never 
failed.  M.  Biot  praises  the  elegant  facility  of  his  style. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1774. 

See  CoxDORCET,  "  Eloge  de  La  Condamine ;"  Voltaire,  "Dic- 
tionnaire  Philosophique,"  article  "Curiosite;"  L.  Brightwell, 
"By-Paths  of  Biography." 

Conde,  konMi,  (Antonio  Jos6,)  a  Spanish  historian 
and  Orientalist,  born  about  1760.  He  gave  special  atten- 
tion to  Hebrew  and  Arabic,  and  collected  many  historical 
documents  in  Arabic.  Fie  was  for  many  years  one  of 
the  keepers  of  the  Royal  Library,  and  during  the  reign 
of  Joseph  Bonaparte  was  chief  librarian.  In  1814  he 
became  an  exile  in  France.  It  appears  that  he  returned 
to  Madrid  about  1818,  and  died  in  1820  or  1821.  His 
principal  work,  a  "  History  of  the  Dominion  of  the 
Arabs  in  Spain,"  ("  Historia  de  la  Dominacion  de  los 
Arabes  en  Espana,"  3  vols.,  1820-21,)  has  acquired  a 
European  reputation. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  L 
part  i. 

Conde,  de,  deh  k6N^dk',  (Henri  I.  de  Bourbon — 

deh  booR^b6N',)  Prince,  the  son  and  heir  of  Louis  I., 
Prince  of  Conde,  was  born  in  1552.  He  escaped  the 
massacre  of  August,  1572,  (Saint  Bartholomew,)  by  a 
promise  to  abjure  Calvinism,  and  fled  to  Germany.  He 
afterwards  joined  the  Protestant  army,  was  excommu- 
nicated (with  his  cousin,  Henry  of  Navarre)  by  the  pope 
in  1585,  and  died  by  poison,  administered  by  his  domes- 
tics, in  1588.  "He  was,"  says  Brantome,  "a  liberal, 
gracious,  and  eloquent  prince,  and  promised  to  be  as 
great  a  captain  as  his  father."  ("Vies  des  Hommes 
illustres.") 

Conde,  de,  (Henri  II.  de  Bourbon,)  Prince,  born 
at  Saint-Jean -d'Angely  in  1588,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  father  of  "  the  great"  Conde.  He  was  the 
first  prince  of  the  blood,  and  was  educated  at  court  as 
a  Catholic.  During  the  minority  of  Louis  XIII.  he  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  malcontents,  for  which  he  was 
arrested  by  the  regent  and  imprisoned  three  years  at  Vin- 
cennes.  He  afterwards  obtained  command  of  an  army, 
and  took  several  places  from  the  Spaniards.  Died  in 
1646. 

See  Renaudot,  "Abrege  de  la  Vie  du  Prince  de  Conde,"  1647; 
SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Fran^ais." 

Conde,  de,  (Henri  Jules  de  Bourbon,)  ~  rince, 
the  only  son  of  the  great  Conde,  was  born  in  1643.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Tournay  in  1665, 
and  in  1674  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Seneffe,  where  he 
is  said  to  have  saved  his  father's  life.  Saint- Simon  gives 
an  unfavourable  view  of  his  character.    Died  in  1709. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires." 

Conde,  de,  (Louis  I.  de  Bourbon,)  Prince,  a  famous 
French  general,  born  at  Vendome  in  1530,  was  the 
youngest  son  of  Charles  de  Bourbon,  Due  de  Vendome, 
and  uncle  of  Henry  IV.  His  promotion  was  retarded 
by  the  enmity  of  the  Guises.  About  1560  he  openly 
avowed  himself  a  Calvinist,  and  soon  became  the  general- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CONDE 


650 


CONDORCET 


in-chief  of  the  Protestant  army  in  the  civil  war.  He 
was  defeated  and  made  prisoner  at  Dreux  in  1562,  and 
released  the  next  year.  After  the  war  had  been  sus- 
pended a  few  years,  Conde  fought,  in  1567,  the  indecisive 
battle  of  Saint- Denis,  where  his  army  was  greatly  inferior 
in  number  to  that  of  the  enemy.  At  Jarnac,  in  1569,  he 
lost  anotiier  battle,  was  wounded,  and  then  killed  after 
he  had  surrendered. 

See  Dk  Thou,  "  Histoire  Universelle  ;"  Desormeaux,  "  Histoire 
de  la  Maisoii  tie  Conde." 

Conde,  de,  (Louis  II.  de  Bourbon,)  Prince,  styled 
"the  great  Conde,"  a  celebrated  French  general,  born 
in  Paris  on  the  8th  of  September,  1621,  was  the  first 
prince  of  the  blood,  and  the  son  of  Henri  II.,  above 
noticed,  and  Charlotte  de  Montmorenci.  He  made  his 
first  campaign  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  with  the  title  of 
Due  d'Enghien.  In  1641  he  married  Claire  Clemence 
de  Maille-Breze,  a  niece  of  Cardinal  Richelieu.  In  May, 
1643,  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Spaniards  at 
Rocroi,  and  in  1645  defeated  the  Germans,  commanded 
by  Mercy,  at  Nordlingen.  He  was  equally  successful  at 
Lens  in  1648,  where  the  once  invincible  Spanish  infantry 
was  ruined.  During  the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde  he 
commanded  the  royalists  at  first,  (1649;)  he  was 
arrested  by  the  queen  or  Mazarin  in  January,  1650,  and 
imprisoned  one  year.  Burning  for  revenge,  he  raised  an 
army  and  attacked  the  royalists  under  Turenne,  at  Paris, 
in  1652.  Having  been  sentenced  to  death  in  1653,  he 
entered  the  service  of  Spain,  and  commanded  in  several 
campaigns  in  Flanders,  where  he  was  opposed  by  Tu- 
renne, and  was  far  less  successful  than  he  had  been 
when  he  fought  for  his  own  country.  The  treaty  between 
France  and  Spain  in  1659  procured  an  amnesty  for  his 
offences,  and  he  returned  to  France.  In  1672  he  received 
command  of  an  army  against  Holland,  and  in  1674  he 
defeated  William  of  Orange  at  Senefife.  The  next  year 
he  retired  from  the  service  on  account  of  the  gout.  "  He 
was  born  a  general,"  says  Voltaire:  "the  art  of  war 
seemed  in  him  a  natural  instinct."  Died  in  1686.  He 
possessed  an  ardent  temperament,  an  admirable  co7ip- 
cfceil^  and  abundant  resources.  His  education  is  said  to 
have  been  brilliant  and  complete.  His  funeral  oration 
was  pronounced  by  Bossuet. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Desormeaux, 
"  Histoii-e  de  Louis  Prince  de  Conde,"  4  vols.,  176S  ;  "  Memoires  du 
Cardinal  de  Retz  ;"  "Memoires  du  Comte  deOrammont;"  "Me- 
moires de  La  Rochefoucauld  ;"  Cousin,  "  Histoire  de  Madame  de 
Longueville  ;"  Lord  Mahon,  "  Life  of  the  Prince  of  Conde,"  1840  ; 
CosTE,  "Histoire  de  Louis  Prince  de  Cond^,"  1693;  Voltaire, 
"  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Adrien  Lemercier,  "  Histoire  du  grand 
Conde,"  1844  :  Voivkeuil,  "  Histoiredu  grand  Conde,"  1847  ;  "  Lives 
of  the  Warriors  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  France  and  England,"  by  Sir 
Edward  Cust,  London,  1S67. 

Conde,  de,  (Louis  Henri  Joseph,)  styled  Duke  of 
Bourbon  and  Prince  of  Conde,  born  in  1756,  was  the 
last  of  the  line  of  Conde.  He  fought  in  several  cam- 
paigns against  the  French  Republic  between  1792  and 
1800.  After  the  restoration,  his  chief  occupation  was  the 
chase.  He  was  found  dead  in  1830,  with  circumstances 
that  indicated  either  suicide  or  assassination.  He  was 
the  father  of  the  Due  d'Enghien  executed  in  1804. 

See  Albert  de  Calvimont,  "  Le  dernier  des  Conde,"  1832. 

Conde,  de,  (Louis  Joseph  de  Bourbon,)  Prince, 
born  in  Paris  in  1736,  was  the  only  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Bourbon  who  became  prime  minister  about  1724.  In 
the  Seven  Years'  war  he  signalized  his  courage  at  Has- 
tembeck  in  1757,  and  was  successful  at  Johannisberg  in 
October,  1762.  Having  become  obnoxious  to  the  popular 
party  in  1789,  he  emigrated,  and  became  commander  of 
the  emigrants  who  took  arms  against  the  new  regime  in 
1792.  He  gained  a  victory  at  Berstheim  in  1793,  and 
shared  the  defeats  of  the  Austrians  in  1796  and  1799. 
In  1 801  he  disbanded  his  corps  and  retired  to  England. 
He  returned  to  France  in  1814,  and  died  in  1818,  leaving 
a  son,  Louis  ?Ienri  Joseph. 

See  Chambei.land,  "Vie  du  Prince  de  Conde,"  3  vols.,  1820. 

Con'der,  (John,)  an  English  dissenting  minister,  who 
was  born  in  1 7 14,  and  preached  in  London.  He  pub- 
lished an  "Essay  on  the  Ministerial  Character,"  and 
several  sermons  between  1755  and  1768.  Died  in  1781. 

Conder,  (Josiah,)  an  English  author,  born  in  London 
in  1789,  became  a  bookseller  in  that  city.    From  1814  to 


1837  he  edited  the  "Eclectic  Review,"  to  which  Robert 
Hall,  Dr.  Chalmers,  and  other  eminent  writers  contrib- 
uted. He  published  many  learned  works,  among  which 
are  "  The  Modern  Traveller,"  (33  vols.,)  a  "  History 
of  Italy,"  and  a  "  View  of  All  Religions."  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  he  edited  "The  Patriot,"  the  organ  of  the 
Baptists  and  Congregationalists.  Died  in  1855. 
See  E.  R.  Conder,  "Life  of  Josiah  Conder,"  1857. 

Condillac,  de,  deh  k6N'de'yik',  (Etienne  Bonnot 
— bo^no',)  Abbe  de  Mureaux,  (mii'ro',)  an  eminent  French 
philosopher  and  metaphysician,  born  at  Grenoble  in 
1715.  In  his  youth  he  was  intimate  with  J.  J.  Rousseau 
and  Diderot;  but  tiiis  friendship  declined  or  ceased  in 
his  mature  years.  In  1746  appeared  his  first  work,  an 
"Essay  on  the  Origin  of  Human  Knowledge,"  ("  Sur 
rOrigine  des  Connaissances  humaines,")  in  which  he  ad- 
vanced new  and  ingenious  ideas.  He  produced  in  1749 
his  "Treatise  on  Systems,"  ("Traite  des  Systemes,") 
and  in  1754  his  "Treatise  on  Sensations,"  ("Traite  des 
Sensations,")  a  luminous  and  admirable  work,  which 
extended  his  celebrity  throughout  Europe.  Soon  after 
this  date  he  was  chosen  preceptor  of  the  Duke  of  Parma, 
for  whose  use  he  composed  "  The  Art  of  Writing," 
"The  Art  of  Thinking,"  and  other  works,  forming  a 
series  entitled  "Cours  d'Etudes."  He  was  admitted  into 
the  French  Academy  in  1768.  He  has  been  much  praised 
for  his  discoveries  in  relation  to  the  progress  and  in- 
fluence of  language.  According  to  him,  man  owes  the 
development  of  his  faculties  to  the  use  of  signs,  and  we 
are  able  to  reflect  only  because  we  are  able  to  speak. 
He  was  a  brother  of  the  Abbe  de  Mably.  Died  near 
Beaugency  in  1780.  His  moral  character  was  virtuous 
and  discreet, — at  least  according  to  the  French  standard. 
An  edition  of  his  works,  in  32  vols.  i2mo,  was  published 
in  1803, 

See  La  Harpe,  "Cours  de  Litterature  ;"  Tennemann,  "Ge- 
schichte  der  Philosophic;"  Sacchi,  "  Elogio  di  Condillac,"  1819; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Condivi,  kqn-dee'vee,  (Ascanio,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  in  the  March  of  Ancona  about  1520,  was  a  pupil 
of  Michael  Angelo,  whom,  it  is  said,  he  never  quitted. 
He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Michael  Angelo,"  (1553,)  which  is 
accounted  valuable. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  m  Italy." 

Condorcet,  de,  deh  kowMoR^sa',  (Marie  Jean  An- 
toine  Nicolas  Caritat — kt're'tS^)  Marquis,  a  cele- 
brated French  mathematician  and  philosopher,  born  at 
Ribemont,  in  Picardy,  on  the  17th  of  September,  1743. 
His  parents  were  noble,  but  not  rich.  After  leaving 
the  College  of  Navarre  he  became  a  resident  of  Paris 
in  1762.  His  "Essay  on  the  Integral  Calculus,"  and 
that  on  the  "  Problem  of  Three  Bodies,"  opened  to  him 
in  1769  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  of  which  a  few  years 
later  he  was  chosen  perpetual  secretary.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  D'Alembert,  and  an  admirer  of  Vol- 
taire. In  1782  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  preference  to  Bailly.  He  wrote  in  favour 
of  American  independence,  and  sowed  in  his  works  the 
germ  of  republican  principles.  He  embraced  with  ardour 
the  popular  cause  in  1789,  published  many  able  political 
treatises,  and  was  deputed  by  Paris  to  the  Legislative 
Assembly  in  1 791.  In  the  Convention  he  was  one  of 
the  most  popular  and  prominent  members,  and  voted 
generally  with  the  Girondists,  but  did  not  vote  for  the 
death  of  Louis  XVI. 

He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Public 
Safety  in  1792.  Proscribed  as  a  Girondist  in  May,  1793, 
he  remained  secreted  in  the  house  of  Madame  Vernet, 
in  Paris,  for  eight  months,  during  which  he  wrote  his 
treatise  "  On  Human  Perfectibility,"  in  which  he  was  a 
believer.  Impelled  by  a  longing  to  enjoy  the  open  air 
and  the  vernal  season,  he  imprudently  departed  from  his 
asylum  in  April,  1794.  In  a  few  days  he  was  arrested 
on  suspicion,  and  thrown  into  prison  at  Bourg-la-Reine, 
where  he  ended  his  life  by  poison.  His  wife  was  a 
sister  of  General  Grouchy.  (See  following  article.)  As 
a  geometer  he  stands  high  in  the  second  rank.  He 
composed  admired  eulogies  on  Buffon,  D'Alembert, 
Franklin,  and  others.  His  "Historical  Sketch  of  the 
Progress  of  the  Human  Mind"  ("Esquisse  d'un  Tableau 
historique  des  Progres  de  I'Esprit  humain,"  1795)  is 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


CONDOR  CET 


651 


CONFUCIUS 


called  his  greatest  work.  His  character  was  noble  and 
benevolent.  "Thus  died,"  says  Lamartine,  "this  Seneca 
of  the  modern  school.  Placed  between  two  camps  to 
combat  the  old  world  and  moderate  the  new,  he  per- 
ished in  the  shock  without  regret.  The  day  of  recog- 
nition (reconnaissance)  has  not  come  for  him;  but  it 
will  come,  and  will  exculpate  his  memory  from  reproach." 
The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  published  in  Paris, 
in  12  vols.,  1847-49. 

See  Arago,  "  Notice  sur  Condorcet,"  read  before  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  December,  1841  :  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Giron- 
dists;" "  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1850,  vol.  Ixxxvii.  ;D.  F.  Arago, 
"  Biographie  de  iM.  J.  A.  N.  C.  de  Condorcet,"  4to,  1849;  S.  F. 
Lacroix,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  Condorcet,"  8vo,  1813; 
ISAMBERT,  Notice  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Geiierale;"  "Lives 
of  the  Most  Eminent  French  Writers,"  by  Mrs.  Shelley;  "Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1S55,  vol.  xcvii. 

Condorcet,  de,  (Sophie  de  Grouchy — deh  gRoo'- 
she',)  Marquise,  born  in  1765,  was  a  sister  of  Marshal 
Grouchy,  and  was  one  of  the  most  beautiful  women  of 
her  time.  In  1786  she  became  the  wife  of  the  Marquis 
de  Condorcet.  In  the  first  years  of  the  new  regime  she 
shared  with  Madame  de  Stael  the  homage  of  the  Parisian 
salojts.  She  made  a  good  French  translation  of  Adam 
Smith's  "Theory  of  Moral  Sentiments."  Died  in  1822. 
Her  daughter  married  General  O'Connor. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Condren,  de,  deh  Ic^nMrSn',  (Charles,)  an  emi- 
nent French  ecclesiastic,  born  near  Soissons  in  1588. 
He  entered  the  society  of  the  Oratory  in  161 7,  and  was 
elected  general  of  the  same  in  1629.  He  modestly  refused 
the  rank  of  cardinal  and  archbishop.  When  he  died, 
(1641,)  the  king  exclaimed,  "The  most  holy  and  dis- 
interested man  in  the  realm  is  dead."  He  left  a  few 
religious  treatises. 

See  Amelotte,  "Vie  du  Pere  Condren,"  1643. 

Cone  or  Cowne,  [Lat.  Con.^;'us,]  sometimes  writ- 
ten Conei,  (George,)  a  Scottish  Roman  Catholic  writer, 
resided  at  Rome.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Mary  Stuart, 
Queen  of  Scots,"  (1624.)    Died  in  1640. 

Cone,  (Spencer  Houghton,)  an  eloquent  Baptist 
minister,  born  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  in  1785.  He 
was  in  early  life  a  popular  play-actor,  and  began  to  preach 
about  1814.  He  was  pastor  of  a  Baptist  church  in  the 
city  of  New  York  from  1823  till  1841,  and  was  the  prin- 
cipal founder  of  the  American  Bible  Union.  Died  in  1855. 

See  "Life  of  S.  H.  Cone,"  by  his  sons,  1S56. 

Conecte  or  Connecte,  ko^nekt',  (Thomas,)  a  French 
Carmelite  monk  and  popular  preacher,  born  at  Rennes. 
He  declaimed  against  the  disorders  of  the  clergy,  and 
maintained  that  they  should  be  permitted  to  marry.  He 
was  condemned  as  a  heretic  at  Rome,  and  was  burnt  to 
death  in  1434. 

Conegliano.    See  Cima. 

Conegliano,  Due  de.    See  Moncey. 

Conei.    See  Cone. 

Co^ney,  (John,)  an  English  engraver,  born  in  London 
in  1786.  He  published  "Ancient  Cathedrals  of  France, 
Holland,  and  Germany,"  with  fine  engravings,  "  English 
Ecclesiastic  Edifices  of  the  Olden  Time,"  and  other 
works.    Died  about  1833. 

Conflans,  de,  deh  k^N'flSN',  (Hubert  de  Brienne 
— deh  bRe^^n',)  Count,  a  French  marshal,  born  about 
1690.  He  was  made  a  captain  in  1734,  lieutenant-gen- 
eral in  1752,  and  vice-admiral  in  1756,  and  afterwards 
obtained  the  rank  of  marshal  of  France.  In  1759  he 
was  defeated  with  great  loss  by  the  English  near  Quibe- 
ron.    Died  in  1777. 

Conflans,  de,  (Louis  de  Brienne,)  Marquis  d'Ar- 
mentieres,  (dSR'mSN'te'aiR',)  a  French  general,  born  in 
17 II,  was  made  marshal  of  France  in  1768.   Died  in  1774. 

Confucius,  kon-fu'she-us,  [the  Latinized  form  of 
KoNG-Foo-TSE  Or  Kong-FlT^tse,  kongToot'seh'  or  kong- 
foot'siih',  or  Khoong-Foo-tse,*  written  also  Koung- 


*  The  initial  letter  of  this  name  (K)  is  followed  by  something  simi- 
lar to  the  aspirate  which  occurs  so  frequently  in  Hindoo  words,  as 
^hora.  ^  "horse,"  (pronounced  almost  g'ho'ra,  but  in  two  syllables 
mly.)  To  indicate  this  peculiar  sound,  some  writers  use  an  apostrophe 
^fterthe  K,— K'ung.  The  tsett  in  the  French  spelling,  Khoung-Fou- 
fSEU,  is  used  to  indicate  a  sound  expressed  by  the  Germans  with  tse, 
that  is,  tsi;h  or  tsuh.  See  remarks  on  Chinese  pronunciation  in 
the  Introduction. 


Fou-tse,  Kung- Foo-tsze,  and  Khoung- Fou-tseu, 
k'hdong-foo'tsiih',  sometimes  simply  Khoong-tse  or 
Khoung-tseu.  Khoong-Foo-tsze  signifies  "  the  master 
Khoong,"  Khoong  or  K'ung  being  the  name  of  the 
family:  he  was  also  called  Ne,  (or  Ni,)  and  Chung-Ne, 
(or  TcHOUNG-Ni,)]  the  most  illustrious  of  Chinese  phi- 
losophers, was  born,  according  to  the  best  authorities, 
551  B.C.,  in  the  kingdom  or  state  of  Loo,  (included  in 
the  modern  province  of  Shan-toong.)  His  father,  Shuh- 
Liang-Heih,  (in  French,  Chou-liang-he,)  a  soldier  of  ex- 
traordinary strength  as  well  as  bravery,  was  descended 
from  a  long  line  of  illustrious  ancestors.  He  had  had  by 
his  first  wife  nine  daughters,  but  no  son.  Having  become 
a  widower,  he  married  in  his  old  age  a  young  lady  of  rare 
virtues,  whose  only  son,  the  subject  of  this  notice,  was 
destined  to  acquire  a  renown  scarcely  paralleled  in  the 
history  of  the  human  race.  It  is  related  among  the 
legends  concerning  Confucius  that  just  before  his  birth 
the  Ki-lin,  a  supernatural  being,  who  never  appeared 
among  men  except  to  announce  some  extraordinary 
event,  left  in  the  garden  of  the  house  of  Shuh-Liang- 
Heih  a  piece  of  precious  stone,  on  which  was  written, 
"  A  child  is  about  to  be  born,  pure  as  the  crystal  wave  : 
he  shall  be  a  king,  but  without  any  [territorial]  domain." 
The  young  Confucius  was  commonly  called  Kew,  or 
K'ew,  (in  French,  Kieou,)  because,  as  Pauthier  informs 
us,  his  mother  soon  after  her  marriage  visited  a  neigh- 
bouring hill,  (called  Ne-Kew,  or  Ni-Kieou, — that  is,  the 
"hill  Ne,")  in  order  to  offer  her  prayers  to  Heaven  that 
she  might  be  blessed  with  children.  Hence  also,  as  it 
appears,  the  sage  was  called  Ne,  (or  Ni.)*  "The  vener- 
able Ne"  was  a  title  often  applied  to  hiin  after  his  death. 

As  a  child,  Confucius  was  remarkable  for  his  entire 
obedience  to  his  mother,  for  the  respect  which  he  always 
showed  to  elderly  people,  and  especially  for  a  careful 
observance  of  all  the  requisite  ceremonies  in  honour 
of  the  living  and  the  dead.  While  other  children  found 
their  diversion  in  childish  sports,  it  was  his  favourite 
pastime,  the  Chinese  historians  tell  us,  to  go  through 
all  the  various  forms  of  politeness  observed  among  per- 
sons of  high  education.  At  school  he  was  distinguished 
for  his  obedience,  gentleness,  and  modesty,  as  well  as  for 
a  marvellous  quickness  of  intellect.  He  acquitted  him- 
self with  particular  credit  as  a  monitor;  (for  the  moni- 
torial system  of  instruction,  commonly  supposed  to  be 
a  modern  invention,  appears  to  have  been  practised  in 
China  from  a  very  early  period.)  At  the  age  of  nineteen 
he  married,  and  about  this  time  he  was  made  a  man- 
darin, though  of  a  subordinate  grade.  In  fulfilling  the 
duties  of  his  office  he  exhibited  extraordinary  industry, 
faithfulness,  and  intelligence.  He  su]:)erintended  the  pub- 
lic markets,  and  took  care  that  nothing  should  be  sold 
as  food  that  was  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  people, 
and  that  the  poor  should  not  have  to  pay  an  unreasona- 
ble price  for  the  necessaries  of  life.  He  was  afterwards 
put  in  charge  of  the  public  fields  and  lands,  with  the 
care  of  the  sheep  and  cattle.  Through  his  diligence 
and  sagacity  the  most  extraordinary  improvements  in 
agriculture  were  introduced,  so  that  in  a  few  years  the 
face  of  the  country  presented  a  totally  different  appear- 
ance. Scarcity  was  followed  by  abundance,  penury  by 
affluence,  among  the  cultivators  of  the  soil. 

When  about  twenty-two,  Confucius  came  forward  for 
the  first  as  a  public  teacher.  He  never  refused  his  in- 
struction, however  small  the  fee  his  pupils  were  able  to 
pay  him.  All  he  required  was  an  earnest  desire  to  learn, 
joined  to  a  respectable  capacity.  After  he  had  shown 
his  pupils  the  paths  which  lead  to  wisdom,  he  expected 
them  to  pursue  the  same,  without  continually  looking  to 
him  for  further  instruction.  "  When  I  have  presented," 
he  said,  "  one  corner  of  a  subject  to  any  one,  and  he  can- 
not from  it  learn  the  other  three,  I  do  not  repeat  my 
lesson."  When  he  was  only  twenty-four  years  of  age, 
his  mother  died.  After  the  appropriate  ceremonies  were 
performed,  he  caused  her  remains  to  be  buried  by  those 
of  his  father,  observing  that  "  those  who  had  been  united 
in  life  should  not  be  parted  after  death."    Following  the 


*  According  to  Pauthier,  the  name  of  Tchoun^-Ni  was  given  in 
allusion  to  the  hill  Ni,  (visited  by  his  mother  after  her  marriage,)  and 
to  the  fact  of  his  being  the  heir  (or  eldest  son)  of  his  father.  See 
Legge's  "Life  and  Teachings  of  Confucius,  '  chap.  v.  p.  58. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CONFUCIUS 


652 


CONFUCIUS 


usag-  of  his  country,  he  mourned  for  his  mother  three 
yeari,  during  which  time  he  filled  no  public  office.  When 
in  his  thirtieth  year,  he  is  said  to  have  taken  lessons  in 
music  under  the  celebrated  master  Siang,  (or  Seang.) 
The  following  story  will  serve  to  give  us  some  idea  of 
the  estimation  in  which  music  was  held  by  Confucius 
and  the  Chinese  of  that  age,  as  well  as  to  show  us  the 
enthusiastic  wonder  with  which  his  talents  were  re- 
garded by  his  followers.  Siang  spoke  to  Confucius  of 
music  as  the  most  precious  gift  conferred  by  Heaven 
upon  men,  on  account  of  its  power  not  only  to  calm  the 
tumultuous  passions,  but  also  to  purify  and  exalt  the 
nobler  sentiments  of  the  heart.  The  master  played  a 
piece  composed  by  a  former  Chinese  musician  of  mar- 
vellous skill.  Confucius  listened  as  if  his  very  soul  would 
pass  into  the  instrument.  Some  days  afterwards  the 
teacher  repeated  the  same  lesson,  and  his  pupil  continued 
to  study  it  with  unremitting  application.  At  length 
Siang  told  Confucius  that,  as  he  had  already  attained  in 
that  particular  piece  a  skill  equal  to  his  master's,  he  had 
better  pass  on  to  something  new.  But  Confucius  begged 
that  he  might  be  allowed  to  study  the  same  lesson  a  few 
days  longer.  At  last  he  told  his  teacher  why  he  desired 
to  dwell  so  long  on  that  one  piece.  After  playing  it  a 
number  of  times,  he  had  caught,  as  he  believed,  a  glimpse 
of  the  design  and  spirit  of  the  composer.  As  he  con- 
tinued to  play,  he  seemed  to  be  penetrated  with  the  same 
spirit  as  that  which  inspired  the  author  while  composing 
it.  At  length  he  seemed  not  only  to  hear  the  voice,  but 
to  see  the  person,  of  the  gifted  but  unknown  musician. 
Confucius  then  described  his  general  figure,  the  expres- 
sion of  his  eyes,  and  even  his  very  features.  He  was 
not  mistaken.  It  was  the  celebrated  Wen- Wang,  an 
illustrious  sage  as  well  as  musician.  Siang,  astonished 
beyond  measure  at  his  pupil's  marvellous  powers,  pros- 
trated himself  before  him,  saying  that  he  could  teach  him 
no  longer,  but  that  he  himself  must  in  future  become 
the  pupil  of  Confucius.  (See  Pauthier's  "Chine,"  pp. 
128-9.) 

Passing  over  some  of  the  less  important  events  of 
his  life,  we  find  Confucius  in  499  B.C.  one  of  the  chief 
ministers  of  the  King  or  Prince  of  Loo.  The  forces  of 
the  neighbouring  King  of  Tsi  (or  Ts'e)  had  upon  some 
frivolous  pretext  taken  possession  of  three  frontier 
towns  belonging  to  the  King  of  Loo.  In  order  to  settle 
the  dispute,  it  was  agreed  between  the  two  princes  that 
they  should  have  a  friendly  interview  on  the  common 
frontier  of  their  respective  states.  Confucius,  who  is 
described  as  possessing  a  wonderful  power  of  reading 
the  characters  of  men,  suspected  the  King  of  Tsi  of  a 
design  to  seize  the  person  of  the  King  of  Loo.  He 
therefore  ordered  that  a  very  strong  military  force 
should  advance  and  occupy  a  position  where  it  would 
be  out  of  sight  and  yet  within  signalling-distance  of  the 
place  appointed  for  the  interview.  The  result  showed 
a  deep-laid  scheme  of  treachery  on  the  part  of  the  King 
of  Tsi  and  his  ministers  ;  but  the  foresight,  vigilance,  and 
resolute  courage  of  Confucius  baffled  all  their  plans, 
and  they  were  fain  to  restore  the  disputed  t/)wns  to  their 
lawful  ruler.  (For  a  particular  account  of  this  extraor- 
dinary interview,  see  Pauthier's  "Chine,"  pp.  152,  153, 
and  154.) 

Confucius  held  for  some  time  the  office  of  minister  of 
crime.  A  father  having  brought  an  accusation  against 
his  son,  Confucius  kept  them  both  in  prison  for  three 
months.  One  of  the  chief  men  objected  that  the  min- 
ister did  not  act  consistently  with  his  own  teachings,  for 
he  had  always  taught  that  filial  duty  was  among  the  first 
of  human  obligations.  Confucius  replied,  "When  supe- 
riors fail  in  their  duty,  and  yet  go  to  put  their  inferiors 
to  death,  they  are  not  just.  This  father  has  not  taught 
his  son  to  be  filial  :  to  listen  to  his  charge  would  be  to 
slay  the  guiltless."*  After  the  three  months  had  elapsed, 
the  minister  called  both  father  and  son  before  him.  The 
father  acknowledged  his  fault.  Confucius  said  to  him, 
kindly,  "Go,  and  instruct  your  son  in  his  duties."  To 
the  young  man  he  said,  "Do  not  forget  that  filial  piety 
is  the  first  of  all  your  obligations." 

*  It  appears  that,  according  to  the  old  Chinese  law,  every  serious 
offence  against  a  parent  was  punishable  with  death.  Even  at  the 
present  day,  to  strike  a  parent  is  a  capital  crime. 


But  the  King  of  Loo  found  the  precepts  of  the  sage 
too  high  and  difficult  for  his  feeble  virtue  ;  and  Con- 
fucius, perceiving  that  his  services  had  ceased  to  be  in 
request,  retired  from  public  life,  and  spent  his  time  in 
travelling  and  study.  The  following  passage  may  serve 
to  show  his  manner  of  making  any  remarkable  occur- 
rence the  occasion  of  imparting  instruction  to  those 
around  him.  "As  he  was  journeying,  one  day,  he  saw 
a  woman  weeping  and  wailing  by  a  grave.  Confucius 
inquired  the  cause  of  her  grief  'You  weep  as  if  you 
had  experienced  sorrow  upon  sorrow,'  said  one  of  the 
attendants  of  the  sage.  The  woman  answered,  '  It  is  so  : 
my  husband's  father  was  killed  here  by  a  tiger,  and  my 
husband  also ;  and  now  my  son  has  met  the  same  fate.' 
'Why  do  you  not  remove  from  the  ])lace  ?'  asked  Con- 
fucius. On  her  replying,  '  There  is  here  no  oppressive 
government,'  he  turned  to  his  disciples,  and  said,  '  My 
children,  remember  this  : — Oppressive  government  is 
more  cruel  than  a  tiger.'" 

After  leaving  the  service  of  the  King  of  Loo,  he  ap- 
pears to  have  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  time  in  dis- 
seminating his  doctrines  while  travelling  from  one  pro- 
vince to  another,  on  which  occasions  he  was  always 
attended  by  some  of  his  disciples.  On  one  of  these 
journeys  their  provisions  became  exhausted,  and  they 
were  unable  to  procure  a  fresh  supply.  The  disciples 
were  overcome  with  hunger;  and  one  of  them  said  to 
the  master,  "  Must  the  superior  man  indeed  suffer  in 
this  way  .^"  The  sage  replied,  "  The  superior  man  may 
indeed  have  to  suffer  want ;  but  the  mean  man,  when  he 
is  in  want,  gives  way  to  unbridled  license."  The  last  five 
years  of  his  life  were  passed  in  Loo,  his  native  state,  in 
teaching,  and  in  finishing  the  works  which  he  had  before 
commenced. 

Among  the  pupils  of  Confucius  there  were  a  number 
who  gave  promise  of  becoming  distinguished  lights  of 
philosophy  ;  but  all  the  warmest  affections  and  fondest 
hopes  of  the  Chinese  sage  appear  to  have  been  centred 
in  his  favourite  and  gifted  disciple,  Yen-Hoei,  (or  Hwuy,) 
to  whom  he  looked,  when  he  himself  should  be  no  more, 
to  uphold  and  extend  those  lofty  principles  of  wisdom 
and  virtue  which  had  constituted  the  one  supreme  object 
of  his  life-long  pursuit.  All  these  bright  hopes  were, 
however,  destined  to  be  crushed  by  the  death  of  his 
beloved  pupil,  cut  off  in  the  very  flower  of  his  life.  In 
the  anguish  of  this  unutterable  sorrow,  he  could  only 
exclaim,  from  time  to  time,  "  Heaven  has  destroyed  me  ! 
Heaven  has  destroyed  me  !"  On  this  occasion  some  of 
his  disciples  said  to  him,  "  Master,  your  grief  is  excess- 
ive." "  Is  it  excessive  ?"  said  he.  "  If  I  am  not  to  mourn 
bitterly  for  this  man,  for  whom  should  I  mourn.''" 

The  great  stress  laid  by  Confucius  upon  the  external 
forms  of  politeness  and  propriety  might  naturally  sug- 
gest the  idea  that  he  was  deficient  in  the  spontaneous 
affectiQus  of  the  heart.  But  we  have  sufficient  evidence 
that  this  was  not  the  case.  He  appears,  indeed,  to  have 
considered  the  observance  of  external  forms  to  be  not 
only  directly  beneficial  to  society,  but  also  indirectly 
useful,  through  their  influence  upon  the  minds  of  those 
who  practised  them,  on  the  same  general  principle  that 
the  practice  of  outward  acts  of  morality  tends  to  give 
strength  and  vitality  to  our  moral  convictions.  We  have 
just  seen,  in  the  case  of  Yen-Hoei,  that  his  affections 
were  so  strong  that  he  found  the  greatest  difficulty  in 
conforming  his  conduct  to  those  principles  of  propriety 
which  he  had  always  so  strongly  inculcated.  The  fol- 
lowing anecdote  may  show  how  his  views  of  propriety 
were  sometimes  modified  by  the  feelings  of  his  heart. 
Once,  as  he  passed  by  a  house  where  he  had  formerly 
been  lodged,  learning  that  the  master  was  dead,  he  went 
in  to  condole  with  the  family.  On  coming  out,  he  told 
a  disciple  to  take  one  of  the  horses  from  his  carriage 
and  give  it  as  a  contribution  towards  the  expenses  of 
the  funeral.  The  disciple  remonstrated  that  the  gift  was 
too  great  for  the  occasion.  The  sage  replied  that,  when 
he  entered,  his  presence  caused  a  fresh  burst  of  grief 
from  the  chief  mourner,  with  whose  tears  he  mingled 
his  own.  "I  dislike,"  he  said,  "the  thought  of  my  tears 
not  being  followed  by  anything.  Do  it,  my  child." 
(Legge's  "Confucius,"  chap.  v.  sect,  i.) 

As  he  drew  near  the  close  of  his  career,  he  appears  to 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /<?n^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fSll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CONFUCIUS 


653 


CONFUCIUS 


have  felt  at  times  bitterly  disappointed  that,  after  all  his 
earnest  efforts  to  reform  abuses  and  exalt  the  standard 
of  virtue,  so  little  had  been  accomplished.  He  seemed 
to  leave  society  in  much  the  same  condition  as  he  found 
it.  Everywhere  the  rulers  and  higher  dignitaries  were 
devoted  to  the  pursuits  of  pleasure  or  ambition,  paying 
little  or  no  regard  to  the  rights  or  happiness  of  the  peo- 
ple. He  once  expressed  this  feeling  of  disappointment 
to  Yen-Hoei,  but  modestly  suggested  that  the  fault  might 
be  in  himself,  and  that  perhaps  his  gifted  disciple  might 
be  more  successful  than  he  had  been.  In  one  respect 
Confucius  was  more  fortunate  than  many  other  great 
benefactors  of  the  human  race.  Although  he  frequently 
experienced  ingratitude  and  neglect,  he  appears  never  to 
have  suffered  from  persecution.  It  is  related  that  a  few 
days  before  his  death  he  chanted,  sorrowfully, — 

"The  great  mountain  must  crumble. 
The  strong  trees  must  break,  (or  fall,) 
The  wise  man  must  wither  away  like  a  plant."  .  .  . 

He  died  478  B.C.,  or  about  eight  years  before  the  birth 
of  Socrates. 

Confucius  had  one  son,  named  Pe-yu,  (or  Pih-yu,)  com- 
monly called  Le,  (or  Li,)  from  the  name  of  a  fish  which 
the  King  of  Loo  sent  the  sage  as  a  congratulatory  pres- 
ent on  the  birth  of  his  child.  Le  died  before  his  father, 
leaving  one  son,  K'ung  Keih,  called  also  Tse-sse,  (or 
Tsze-sze,)  who  was  a  distinguished  philosopher,  and  was 
the  author  of  a  celebrated  work  called  "  Chung-Yung," 
(for  an  account  of  which  see  Legge's  "  Life  and  Teach- 
ings of  Confucius,"  chap,  iv.) 

If  to  exert  agreat  and  permanent  influence  on  millions 
of  intelligent  minds*  through  many  successive  ages  is 
a  proof  of  greatness,  we  can  scarcely  deny  to  the  Chinese 
sage  the  name  of  great.  If  extent  of  renown  constitutes 
greatness,  he  was  the  greatest  of  the  human  race  ;  for  of 
all  the  men  that  ever  lived  upon  the  earth  he  has  en- 
joyed the  widest  fame  and  received  the  greatest  honours. 
Even  the  fame  of  Alexander  the  Great  has  not  been 
sounded  in  the  ears  of  so  many  millions  as  that  of  Con- 
fucius. Amid  all  the  changes  of  dynasty  that  have  taken 
place  in  the  Celestial  Empire,  whether  caused  by  foreign 
conquest  or  domestic  rebellion,  his  posterity  have  always 
been  treated  with  a  peculiar  respect ;  and  they  constitute 
at  this  day  the  only  hereditary  nobilityt  in  China.  His 
male  descendants  at  the  present  time  number  more  than 
eleven  thousand  persons.  Ever  since  the  days  of  Con- 
fucius his  writings  have  formed  the  chief  object  of  study 
in  all  the  schools  of  China.  "In  many  school-rooms," 
says  Dr.  Legge,  "there  is  a  tablet  or  inscription  on  the 
wall,  sacred  to  the  sage  ;  and  every  pupil  is  required,  on 
coming  to  school  on  the  morning  of  the  first  and  fifteenth 
of  every  month,  to  bow  before  it  the  first  thing,  as  an 
act  of  worship." 

In  all  that  Confucius  did  or  taught,  the  useful  and 
practical  (using  these  words  in  an  extended  sense)  formed 
the  sole  object  of  his  labours  and  his  thoughts.  The  end 
and  scope  of  his  philosophy  were  limited  to  the  present 
world.  There  is  none  of  his  recorded  sayings,  either 
uttered  near  the  close  of  his  life  or  at  any  previous  time, 
indicating  that  he  had  any  distinct  belief  in  a  state  of 
existence  after  death.  Dr.  Legge  inclines  to  the  opinion 
that,  in  regard  to  the  belief  in  a  God,  Confucius  came 
short  of  the  faith  of  the  older  sages.  The  term  Shang-  Te 
(/>.  "supreme  divine  Ruler")  was  anciently  used  as  the 
name  of  the  Divine  Being.  Confucius  preferred  to  speak 
of  Heaven.  His  influence,  according  to  the  view  of  the 
above  writer,  has  been  unfavourable  to  the  development 
of  true  religious  feeling  among  the  Chinese.  (See  Legge's 
''  Life  and  Teachings  of  Confucius,"  p.  100.) 
_  The  most  valuable  and  trustworthy  source  of  informa- 
tion respecting  the  character  and  genius  of  the  Chinese 
sage  is  to  be  found  in  his  "  Analects,"  called  in  Chinese 
Lun-Yu, — that  is,  the  "digested  conversations"  of  Con- 
fucius. The  whole  of  the  "  Analects"  are  well  worthy 
of  a  perusal  by  every  one  who  wishes  to  understand  the 


*  In  regard  to  the  high  intellectual  character  of  the  Chinese,  and 
the  peculiarity  of  their  civilization,  see  some  excellent  remarks  in 
Whitney's  "Lectures  on  Language,"  pp.  332-334. 

t  The  descendants  of  Mencius  should  perhaps  form  an  exception 
to  this  statement:  they  do  not,  however,  rank  with  the  posterity  of 
Confucius.    (See  Leggr's  "Chinese  Classics,"  vol.  ii'  p.  40.) 


spirit  and  scope  of  the  Confucian  philosophy.*  The> 
seem  fully  to  justify  the  high  eulogiums  that  have  been 
pronounced  upon  the  wisdom  of  Confucius.  It  may  well 
be  doubted  whether  among  all  the  pagan  writers  of  the 
Western  nations  anything  can  be  found  superior,  or  even 
equal,  to  many  of  these  sayings,  in  respect  either  to 
practical  wisdom  or  high  morality. 

The  following  are  some  of  his  remarkable  sayings  : 
"  He  who  exercises  government  by  means  of  his  virtue 
may  be  compared  to  the  north  polar  star,  which  keeps 
its  place,  and  all  the  [other]  stars  turn  towards  it."  "  In 
the  book  of  poetry  are  three  hundred  pieces  ;  but  the 
design  of  them  all  may  be  embraced  in  that  one  sen- 
tence, '  Have  no  depraved  thoughts.''  "  "  Learning  without 
thought  is  labour  lost  ;  thought  without  learning  (or 
knowledge)  is  perilous."  Which  perhaps  may  be  para 
phrased  thus  :  The  knowledge  of  facts,  without  the  intel- 
lect necessary  to  apply  them  wisely,  is  useless  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  speculation  or  thought,  however  powerful, 
without  a  basis  of  positive  knowledge  to  rest  on,  or  with- 
out facts  to  serve  as  landmarks  to  direct  its  course,  is  in 
imminent  danger  of  going  astray.  "  I  do  not  know  how 
a  man  without  truthfulness  is  to  get  on."  "  He  who 
offends  against  Heaven  has  none  to  whom  he  can  pray." 
"  When  we  see  men  of  worth,  we  should  think  of  equal- 
ling them  ;  when  we  see  men  of  a  contrary  character, 
we  should  turn  inwards  and  examine  ourselves."  "Good 
government  obtains  when  those  who  are  near  are  made 
happy  and  those  who  are  far  off"  are  attracted."  Being 
asked  what  were  the  essential  requisites  of  government, 
he  replied,  "  Sufficiency  of  food,  military  equipment,  and 
confidence  of  the  people  in  their  ruler."  When  asked 
which,  incase  of  necessity,  could  best  be  dispensed  with, 
he  answered,  "The  military  equipment."  When  again 
asked  which  of  the  remaining  two  might  best  be  dis- 
pensed with,  he  said,  "  Part  with  the  food  :  from  of  old, 
death  has  been  the  lot  of  all  men ;  but  if  the  people 
have  no  faith  in  their  rulers  there  is  no  standing  for  the 
state," 

We  have  in  one  place  a  negative  statement  of  the 
golden  rule  :  "  What  you  do  not  like  when  done  to  your- 
self, do  not  do  to  others."  In  another  place  he  says, 
"The  man  of  perfect  virtue,  wishing  to  be  established 
himself,  seeks  also  to  establish  others  ;  wishing  to  be 
enlarged  himself,  he  seeks  also  to  enlarge  others.  To  be 
able  to  judge  of  others  by  what  is  nigh^  \i.  e.  in  ourselves^ 
this  may  be  called  the  art  of  virtue."  "I  am  not  con- 
cerned that  I  have  no  place,  (or  office  ;)  I  am  concerned 
how  I  may  fit  myself  for  one.  I  am  not  concerned  that 
I  am  not  known  ;  I  seek  to  be  worthy  to  be  known." 
"  When  the  accomplishments  and  solid  qualities  are 
equally  blended,  we  then  have  the  man  of  complete  vir- 
tue." "The  superior  man  thinks  of  virtue;  the  small 
man  thinks  of  comfort.  The  superior  man  thinks  of  the 
sanctions  of  law  ;  the  small  man  thinks  of  the  favours 
which  he  may  receive."  "The  superior  man  is  affable, 
but  not  adulatory ;  the  mean  man  is  adulatory,  but  not 
affable." 

One  of  the  disciples  of  Confucius  said  of  him,  "There 
were  four  things  from  which  the  master  was  entirely  free. 
He  had  no  foregone  conclusions,  no  arbitrary  predeter- 
minations, no  obstinacy,  and  no  egoism."  He  appears  to 
have  held  that  mankind  are  naturally  good,  or,  at  least, 
that  under  favourable  circumstances  they  readily  become 
good.  (See  Mencius.)  He  taught  that  if  rulers  were 
virtuous  the  people  would  be  virtuous  as  a  matter  of 
course.  He  said,  "  If  good  men  were  to  govern  a  country 
for  a  hundred  years,  they  would  be  able  to  transform  the 
violently  bad,  and  dispense  with  capital  punishment." 
Again,  "  If  a  superior  man  love  righteousness,  the  peo- 
ple will  not  dare  to  refuse  to  submit  to  his  example.  If 
he  love  good  faith,  the  people  will  not  dare  to  be  in- 
sincere." Confucius  was  very  bold  in  reproving  men 
in  power.  To  a  usurping  ruler  who  complained  of  the 
multitude  of  thieves,  he  said,  "  If  you,  sir,  were  not 
covetous,  although  you  should  reward  them  to  do  it,  they 
would  not  steal."  He  justly  attached  great  importance 
to  the  power  of  example  ;  but  his  own  later  experience 

*  These  have  been  presented  to  the  English  reader  in  a  convenient 
form  in  the  excellent  version  made  by  the  accomplislied  Chinese 
scholar,  Dr.  James  Legge,  published  by  Trubner&  Co.,  London,  1867. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  VL, gtittural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  2^^) 


CONFUCIUS 


654 


CONGREFE 


might  have  convinced  him  that  he  overestimated  its  in- 
fluence. As  we  have  already  seen,  he  bitterly  lamented, 
near  the  close  of  his  life,  that  all  his  teachings,  though 
enforced — if  we  may  trust  the  unvarying  testimony  of 
Chinese  writers — by  an  admirable  example,  had  availed 
so  little  towards  promoting  true  virtue  among  his  coun- 
trymen. He  once  said,  doubtless  in  a  moment  of  great 
discouragement,  *'  I  have  not  seen  a  person  who  loved 
virtue,  or  one  who  hated  what  was  not  virtuous." 

There  is  a  total  difference  in  kind  between  the  philoso- 
phy of  Confucius  and  the  philosophies  of  Plato,  Aris- 
totle, Bacon,  and  Locke.  The  Chinese  sage  did  not  aim 
to  investigate  the  mysteries  of  the  universe,  or  even  the 
hidden  laws  of  nature  or  of  the  human  mind.  His  great 
object  was  to  lay  down  such  rules  as  would  best  promote 
the  happiness  and  virtue  of  the  community  at  large.  And 
it  must  be  acknowledged  that  in  the  practical  wisdom  of 
his  precepts,  both  to  rulers  and  subjects,  he  has  never 
been  surpassed  by  any  philosopher  of  any  age  or  nation. 
That  wise  and  beautiful  thought  which  is  the  basis  of 
Chinese  government — that  the  ruler  or  officer  should  be 
as  a  father,  and  the  people  as  children — dates,  there  is 
reason  to  believe,  from  a  very  remote  antiquity.  Confu- 
cius did  not  originate  this  idea ;  but  he  did  everything  in 
his  power  to  give  it  practical  efficacy. 

But  if,  on  the  one  hand,  he  never  wasted  his  thoughts 
on  subjects  too  high  or  too  profound  for  the  human  in- 
tellect, it  must,  on  the  other,  be  confessed  that  his  maxims 
are  often  deficient  in  depth  and  comprehensiveness. 
While  his  writings  everywhere  abound  with  admiralDle 
practical  precepts,  they  rarely  contain  the  statement  of 
any  profound  principle.  He  did  not  pretend  or  aim  to 
improve  upon  the  wisdom  of  the  ancient  Chinese  sages, 
— to  attempt  which  he  would  have  deemed  the  height 
of  folly  and  presumption, — but  only  to  expound  and 
enforce  those  maxims  and  doctrines  which,  with  the 
lapse  of  ages,  had  become  neglected  or  misunderstood. 
In  explaining  and  enforcing  the  teachings  of  antiquity, 
he  was  indeed  admirable.  In  the  clearness,  simplicity, 
power,  and  poetic  beauty  of  his  expressions,  as  well  as 
in  the  practical  wisdom  of  his  views,  he  excelled  all  his 
countrymen,  either  before  or  since  his  time.  The  great 
defect  of  his  philosophy  is  that  it  does  not  contain  within 
itself  any  elements  of  progress  or  expansion:  hence  it 
is  not  only  immeasurably  inferior,  even  as  a  practical 
system,  to  Christianity,  but  is  in  the  point  above  referred 
to  far  below  most  of  the  philosophies  of  the  Western 
nations.  His  moral  precepts,  having  no  root  in  any 
definite  religious  faith,  are  wanting  in  vitality  and  power. 
Confucius  was  undoubtedly  great  and  noble  in  his  way, 
— far  superior  to  his  system.  We  need  not  hesitate  to 
admit  what  his  disciples  claimed  for  him,  that  "from  the 
birth  of  mankind  till  now  there  has  never  been  [among 
the  Chinese]  one  like  our  master."  But  his  intellect 
appears  to  have  been  sagacious  and  penetrating,  rather 
than  comprehensive  or  profound  in  the  highest  sense  of 
these  terms.  He  did  not  shed  any  new  light  upon  the 
great  problems  respecting  the  condition  and  destiny  of 
man.  "He  did  not,"  says  Dr.  Legge,  "speculate  on  the 
creation  of  things  or  the  end  of  them.  He  was  not 
troubled  to  account  for  the  origin  of  man,  nor  did  he 
seek  to  know  about  his  hereafter.  He  meddled  neither 
with  physics  nor  metaphysics."  (Legge's  "Confucius," 
p.  99.)  He  was  content  to  follow  in  the  wake  of  the 
sages  of  antiquity  :  he  sought  neither  to  rise  above  nor 
to  change  the  course  of  their  teachings.  It  appears  to 
have  never  once  occurred  to  him  to  call  in  question  the 
wisdom  of  his  ancestors.  If  he  modified  at  all  any  of 
the  doctrines  or  precepts  handed  down  to  him,  he  seems 
to  have  d(jne  so  unintentionally.  Even  his  very  virtues — 
his  reverence  and  humility — contributed,  it  would  seem, 
to  mislead  him.  Otherwise  a  man  of  his  rare  sagacity 
and  insight  could  scarcely  have  failed  to  see  tlie  insuffi- 
ciency and  poverty  of  that  stereotyped  conservatism 
wliich  durst  not  advance  one  step  beyond  the  teaching 
of  a  remote  antiquity,  but  which  required  the  wheels  of 
civilization  to  run  for  all  time  in  the  well-worn  grooves 
of  the  past.  A  very  little  force,  as  is  well  known,  is 
sufficient  to  keep  a  train  of  cars  in  motion  on  a  smooth 
and  level  or  descending  track.  This  may  suggest  one 
of  the  essential  points  of  difference  between  the  system 


of  Confucius  and  Christianity.  The  one  never  ran 
counter  to,  nor  ever  rose  much  above,  the  general  ten- 
dency of  the  national  character.  The  other,  beginning 
at  a  period  which  was  confessedly  one  of  the  darkest  and 
most  corrupt  known  in  history,  moving,  not  in  accord- 
ance with,  but  against,  the  most  cherished  prejudices  of 
the  people  among  whom  it  rose,  instead  of  finding  a 
track  ready  made  and  rendered  smooth  by  the  attrition 
of  ages,  had  to  make  its  own  way,  ever  upwards,  and 
over  countless  obstacles,  any  one  of  which  would  have 
been  insuperable  to  anything  less  than  divine  power. 

The  influence  that  Confucius  has  exerted  upon  nearly 
one-third  of  the  human  race,  during  so  many  successive 
centuries,  in  addition  to  his  own  inherent  greatness,  and 
the  fact  that,  since  the  opening  of  the  ports  of  the  Celes- 
tial Empire  to  an  intercourse  with  other  countries,  a  new 
and  more  general  interest  in  all  that  relates  to  China  is 
felt  among  the  nations  of  the  West,  must  constitute  our 
apology — if  any  apology  be  needed — for  extending  this 
notice  to  so  great  a  length. 

See,  in  addition  to  tlie  works  referred  to  in  the  foregoing  article, 
P.  Regis,  "  Antiquissimus  Sinarum  Liber,"  Stuttgart,  1839;  Med- 
hurst's  translation  of  the  "  Shoo-King  ;"  Collie's  translation  of 
the  Chinese  classical  works  commonly  called  "The  Four  Books," 
Malacca,  1828  ;  "  Mencius  et  Confucius  ;  Les  quatre  Livresde  Philoso- 
phie  morale  et  politique  ne  la  Chine,"  translated  from  the  Chinese  by 
G.  Pauthier,  Paris,  1851  ;  Rhmusat,  "  L'invariable  Milieu,"  Paris, 
1817;  Amiot,  "Memoires  concernant  les  Chinois;"  "Confucius  and 
the  Chinese  Classics,"  by  Rev.  A.  W.  Loomis,"  San  Francisco,  1S67 ; 
Oi.OF  Celsius,  "  Exercitatio  historica  Confucium  Sir.arum  Philoso- 
phum  adumbrans,"  1710;  Cortin,  "  Disputatio  de  Confucio,"  1743  ; 
Dressler,  "Compendium  Confucii  Sinensium  Phiiosophi  i)rincipis 
VitjE  et  Doctriuje,"  1701  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1S69. 

Congleton,  kong'gl-ton,  (Henry  Brooke  Parnell,) 
Lord,  a  British  statesman,  son  of  Sir  John  Parnell,  born 
in  1776.  He  married  Lady  Dawson,  a  granddaughter 
of  the  Earl  of  Bute.  In  1806  he  became  lord  treasurer 
of  Ireland.  When  the  Whig  party  obtained  power  in 
1831,  he  was  appointed  secretary  at  war.  From  1835 
to  1 84 1  he  was  paymaster  of  the  forces.  He  published 
several  treatises  on  currency,  exchange,  trade,  etc.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "  On  Financial  Reform,"  (1830.) 
Died  in  1842. 

Cougreve,  kong'grev,  (William,)  a  popular,  witty, 
and  original  English  dramatic  poet,  was  born  near  Leeds 
in  1670.  On  leaving  college  he  entered  the  Middle 
Temple  as  a  student  of  law,  but  devoted  himself  to  lite- 
rature and  society.  He  produced  in  1693  "The  Old 
Bachelor,"  which  was  performed  with  brilliant  success, 
and  the  next  year  the  "  Double-Dealer,"  which  was 
highly  extolled  by  Dryden.  "Love  for  Love,"  (1695,) 
and  "The  Mourning  Bride,"  a  tragedy,  (1697,)  were 
received  with  great  applause,  and  rendered  Congreve 
the  most  popular  dramatist  of  his  time.  "We  believe," 
says  Macaulay,  "that  no  English  writer,  except  Lord 
Byron,  has  at  so  early  an  age  stood  so  high  in  the  esti- 
mation of  his  contemporaries."  Montagu,  a  member  of 
the  ministry,  bestowed  on  him  several  lucrative  offices. 
For  the  licentiousness  and  immorality  of  his  works  he 
received  a  severe  and  merited  castigation  in  Collier's 
"  View  of  the  Profaneness,  etc.  of  the  English  Stage," 
(1698,)  which  produced  an  immense  effect.  Congreve's 
defence  was  admitted  to  be  a  complete  failure.  In  1700 
he  produced  "The  Way  of  the  World,"  which,  though 
brilliantly  written,  was  so  coldly  received  that  he  re- 
nounced the  drama  in  disgust.  In  17 14  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  Jamaica.  Pope  dedicated  to  him  his  "  Iliad," 
about  1 715, — an  evidence  that  he  was  still  held  in  high 
estimation.  Johnson  praises  the  magnanimity  of  Pope 
in  thus  preferring  Congreve  to  peers  and  statesmen, 
who  would  have  been  proud  of  the  honour.  Congreve's 
ambition  to  pass  for  a  man  of  fashion  caused  him  to 
disclaim  the  character  of  poet,  saying  that  his  i:)Iays  were 
trifles  produced  in  an  idle  hour.  "The  peculiar  excel- 
lence of  Congreve,"  says  Hallam,  "is  his  wit,  incessantly 
sparkling  from  the  lips  of  almost  every  character." 
("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  Died  in 
1729. 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets  ;"  Macaulay,  "  Essay 
on  the  Comic  Dramatists  of  the  Restoration  ;"  "  Bio2;raphia  Rritan- 
nica;"  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Cibeer, 
"  Lives  of  the  English  Poets  ;"  Charles  Wilson,  "  Memoirs  of  the 
Life  of  W.  Congreve,"  1730;  "Lives  of  British  Dramatists,"  by 
Campbell,  Gifford,  etc. 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohsctire;  fir,  fill,  felt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CONGREFE 


655 


CONRAD 


Congreve,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  officer  and 
engineer,  born  in  Middlesex  in  1772,  inherited  a  baronetcy 
from  his  father,  of  the  same  name,  who  was  a  general. 
He  rose  in  the  army  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel, 
and  distinguished  himself  in  1808  by  the  invention  of  the 
rocket  which  bears  his  name.  He  was  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment several  times.  In  1816  he  was  selected  to  attend 
the  grand  duke  Nicholas  of  Russia  in  a  tour  through 
England.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Mounting 
of  Naval  Ordnance,"  (1812,)  and  other  works.  Died  at 
Toulouse  in  1828. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Coninck,  ko'nink,  (Solomon,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  his- 
tory and  portraits,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1609.  Among 
his  works,  which  are  highly  prized,  is  "  David  and  Bath- 
sheba." 

Coninck,  de,  deh  ko'nink,  (David,)  a  skilful  Flemish 
painter  of  animals,  flowers,  and  fruit,  born  at  Antwerp 
in  1636;  died  in  Rome  in  1689. 

Coningsloo.    See  Cooninxloo. 

Co'ning-ton,  (John,)  an  English  classical  scholar, 
born  at  Boston  in  1825,  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He 
became  professor  of  Latin  at  Oxford  in  1854.  He  made 
a  poetical  version  of  Horace's  "  Odes"  in  1863,  and  trans- 
lated Homer's  "Iliad"  into  verse,  (1866.)    Died  in  1869. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  January,  1867;  "  North  British 
Review"  for  December,  1866. 

ConkTing,  (Roscoe,)  an  American  Senator  and  law- 
yer, son  of  Judge  Alfred  Conkling,  was  born  at  Albany 
in  1828.  He  settled  at  Utica  about  1846,  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress  by  the  Republicans  of  Oneida 
county  in  1858,  and  was  re-elected  in  i860.  He  repre- 
sents the  State  of  New  York  in  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  for  the  term  extending  from  1867  to  1873. 
distinguished  as  a  debater. 

Conneau,  ko'no'',  (Henri,)  a  French  physician,  born 
at  Milan  about  1802.  He  removed  to  Marseilles  about 
1832,  and  subsequently  became  the  physician  of  Hortense 
Bona])arte,  who  obtained  from  him  a  promise  that  he 
would  never  abandon  her  son,  Louis  Napoleon.  In  1840 
he  followed  the  latter  to  the  prison  of  Ham,  and  shared 
his  captivity  until  1846,  when  the  prince  escaped.  He 
has  continued  in  the  service  of  Louis  Napoleon,  and  in 
1852  received  the  title  of  first  physician  to  the  emperor. 

Connecte.    See  Conecte. 

Con'ner,  (David,)  an  American  naval  officer,  born  in 
Mifflin  county,  Pennsylvania,  about  1792.  He  served 
with  distinction  as  lieutenant  in  the  war  against  Eng- 
land, 1812-14,  and  became  a  captain  about  1835.  Died 
in  1856. 

Connor.    See  O'Connor. 

Con'nor,  (Bernard,)  F.R.S.,an  Irish  physician,  born 
in  Kerry  in  1666.  He  became  physician  to  King  John 
Sobieski  of  Poland  about  1694,  and  returned  to  England 
in  1695.  lectured  with  success  at  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge, and  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Evange- 
lium  Medici,"  (1697,)  an  effort  to  explain  on  natural 
principles  the  miraculous  cures  performed  by  Christ. 
Died  in  1698. 

Co'non  or  Ko'non,  [Kowjv,]  an  eminent  Athenian 
general,  the  son  of  Timotheus.  He  first  appears  in  history 
in  413  B.C.,  when  he  commanded  a  fleet.  In  407  he  was 
chosen  one  of  the  ten  generals,  and  in  405  was  defeated 
by  Lysander  at  .-^^gospotami.  He  then  took  refuge  with 
Evagoras  in  Cyprus.  Having  obtained  command  of  a 
fleet  of  allied  Persians  and  Athenians,  he  defeated  the 
Spartans  near  Cnidos  in  394  B.C.,  with  important  results, 
among  which  was  that  Sparta  lost  the  empire  of  the 
sea.  On  his  return  to  Athens  he  rebuilt  the  long  walls, 
and  afterwards  went  as  ambassador  to  Persia,  where  he 
was  imprisoned.  Historians  differ  about  the  time  and 
manner  of  his  death. 

See  Plutarch,  "Artaxerxes ;"  Xenophon,  "Hellenica;"  Cor- 
nelius Nepos,  "Conon;"  Diodorus  Siculus,  books  xiii.  and  xiv. 

Conon,  born  in  Eastern  Europe,  was  elected  pope  in 
686  A.D.,  as  successor  to  John  V.  He  died  in  688,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Sergius  II. 

Conon  OF  Samos,  a  celebrated  Greek  geometer  and 
astronomer,  who  lived  at  Alexandria  about  250  B.C.,  and 
was  a  friend  of  Archimedes.  The  latter  expresses  in  one 
of  his  works  a  high  admiration  of  his  sagacity  and  attain- 


ments. The  works  of  Conon  are  entirely  lost.  He  was  the 
inventor  of  the  curve  called  the  "Spiral  of  Archimedes." 
Seneca  informs  us  that  he  collected  the  observations  of 
solar  eclipses  made  in  Egypt;  and  Virgil  mentions  him 
in  his  third  Eclogue.  His  name  is  connnemorated  in 
the  ode  of  Callimachus  "  De  Coma  Berenices." 

See  Delambre,  "  HIstoire  de  rAstronomle  ancienne." 

CQn'rad  [Ger.  pron.  'kow'xlX  ;  Fr.  pron.  koN'rtd';  Lat. 
Conra'dus  ;  It.  CORRADO,  kor-r.Vdo]  I.,  Emperor  of 
Germany,  was  elected  to  the  imperial  throne  in  911, 
before  which  date  he  was  Count  of  Franconia.  He 
waged  war  against  Henry  the  Fowler,  Charles  the 
Simple,  and  Arnulf  of  ])avaria.  He  was  killed  in  battle 
in  918,  and  was  succeeded  by  Henry  the  Fowler. 

See  Schwartz,  "  Konig  Conrad  I.  der  Franke,"  1850. 

Conrad  II.,  called  the  Sal'ic,  was  a  son  of  Henry, 
Duke  of  Franconia.  He  was  elected  King  of  Germany 
in  1024,  after  which  he  marched  into  Italy,  and  was 
crowned  as  emperor  by  the  pope  at  Rome  in  1027.  He 
became  master  of  Burgundy  at  the  death  of  Rodolph, 
who  was  an  uncle  of  Conrad's  wife.  Conrad  is  regarded 
as  the  author  of  the  written  feudal  law  of  Germany.  He 
died  in  1039,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Henry  III. 

See  LuDEN.  "  Histoire  de  I'Allemagne ;"  Venningen,  "Disser- 
tatio  de  Conrado  Salico,"  1783. 

Conrad  III.  of  Germany,  born  in  1093,  was  a  son  of 
Frederick  of  Flohenstaufen.  His  mother  was  a  daugh- 
ter of  Henry  IV.  He  was  elected  eni])eror  in  1138; 
but  his  title  was  disputed  by  Henry  the  Proud,  Duke  of 
Saxony.  A  civil  war  ensued  between  these  competitors. 
Welf,  a  brother  of  Henry  the  Proud,  commanded  one 
of  the  arnn'es  in  the  battle  of  Weinsberg,  which  is  memo- 
rable as  the  origin  of  the  party  names  of  Guelph  and 
Ghibeline.  The  battle-cry  of  the  Saxons  was  Welf,  and 
that  of  Conrad's  men  was  Weiblmgen,  a  town  connected 
with  the  origin  of  the  Hohenstaufen  family.  Ghibeline 
is  the  Italian  version  or  modification  of  Weiblingen. 
Conrad  gained  a  victory  at  Weinsberg,  (1140,)  and  the 
war  then  ended.  In  1 147  he  conducted  a  large  army 
of  crusaders  to  Palestine.  He  besieged  Damascus,  but 
failed  to  take  it,  and  returned  in  1149.  He  died  in  1152, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Frederick  Barbarossa. 

See  Mascovius,  "  Comnientarius  de  Rebus  Imperii  sub  Con- 
rado III.,"  1753;  LuDEN,  "Histoire  de  I'Allemagne ;"  Gundling, 
"Geschichte  und  Thaten  Kayser  Conrads  III.,"  1720. 

Conrad  IV.,  born  in  Apulia  in  1228,  was  a  son  of 
Frederick  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany  and  King  of  Italy. 
He  was  crowned  King  of  the  Romans  in  1237.  At  the 
death  of  his  father,  in  1250,  he  took  the  title  of  emperor, 
which  was  also  claimed  by  William  of  Holland.  The 
latter  was  favoured  by  the  Guelphs  and  by  Pope  Inno- 
cent IV.,  who  excommunicated  Conrad,  the  chief  of  the 
Ghibelines.  Conrad  led  an  army  into  Italy  in  125 1, 
and  took  Naples  and  other  places.  He  died  in  1254, 
leaving  a  son,  Conrad  V.,  or  Conradin. 

See  Von  Raumer,  "Geschichte  der  Hohenstaufen;"  Gundling, 
"Geschichte  und  Thaten  Conrads  IV.,"  1719. 

Conrad  V.,  or  Con'ra-din,  [Lat.  Conradi'nus  ;  It. 
Conradino,  kon-ri-dee'no,]  born  in  1252,  was  the  son 
and  heir  of  Conrad  IV.  The  kingdom  of  Naples  was 
usurped  by  his  uncle  Manfred,  and  was  offered  by  the 
pope  to  Charles  of  Anjou,  who  defeated  Manfred  in  1265 
and  made  himself  master  of  Naples  and  Sicily.  Con- 
radin attempted  to  enforce  his  rights,  but  was  defeated  at 
Tagliacozzo  in  1268,  taken  prisoner,  and  ]Hit  to  death. 

See  Von  Raumer,  "  Geschichte  der  Hohenstaufen  ;"  W.  Jaeger, 
"  Geschichte  Conradins  II.  Konigsbeider  Sicilien,"  17S5  ;  C.  M.  Ric- 
cio,  "  Alcuni  Studii  storici  intorno  a  Manfredi  e  Conradino,"  1850. 

Conrad,  Marquis  of  Tyre  and  Montferrat,  was  a  fa- 
nous  captam  of  the  crusaders.  He  defended  Tyre  against 
Saiadin  about  1188.  and  compelled  him  to  raise  the  siege. 
He  had  just  been  elected  King  of  Jerusalem,  when  he 
was  assassinated,  at  Tyre,  in  1192. 

Conrad  of  Kirchberg,  a  German  minnesinger,  was  a 
native  of  Suabia,  and  lived  about  1150-90. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Conrad  of  Wurtzburg,  an  eminent  German  minne- 
singer or  troubadour,  of  whose  life  little  is  known.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  an  epic  poem  on  the  Trojan 
war.    Died  in  1287. 

See  Gr^vinus,  "Geschichte  der  Altdeutschen  Poesie;"  Long- 
fellow, "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 


€.  ^s,  k;   ?iS  s ;  g  hard;  gzs,j ;  g,yi,v.,  guttural ;  'a, nasal;  ^^trilled;  %zs>z;  thasin  this.     (2i^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CONRAD 


656 


CONSTANCE 


Conrad,  kon'rdt,  or  Coenrads,  koon'rSts,  (Abra- 
ham,) a  skilful  Dutch  designer  and  engraver,  flourished 
about  1650.    His  works  are  mostly  portraits. 

ConVad,  (Charles  M.,)  a  lawyer,  born  at  Winchester, 
Virginia,  about  1804,  removed  in  his  youth  to  Louisiana. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  of  war  by  President  Fillmore 
in  August,  1850,  and  held  that  office  till  March,  1853.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Confederate  Congress  in  1862-64. 

Conrad,  (Robert  T.,)  an  American  dramatist,  orator, 
and  judge,  born  in  Philadelphia  about  1809.  He  pro- 
duced two  tragedies,  entitled  "Conrad  of  Naples,"  and 
"  Aylmere,"  which  were  performed  with  success.  About 
1840  he  became  a  judge  of  the  court  of  general  sessions 
in  Philadelphia.  He  published  a  volume  of  poems  in 
1852.  In  1854  he  was  elected  mayor  of  Philadel])hia  by 
the  American  party.  "His  'Aylmere,'"  says  R.  W, 
Giiswold,  "has  proved  the  most  successful  American 
drama  yet  written."    Died  in  1858. 

See  Grisvvold's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Conrad,  (Timothy  Abbott,)  an  American  concho- 
logist  and  palaeontologist,  born  in  New  Jersey  about 
1804.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Fossil 
Shells  of  the  Tertiary  Formations  of  North  America," 
(1832,)  and  "  Palaeontology  of  the  State  of  New  York," 
(1838-40.)  He  was  one  of  the  naturalists  employed  by 
the  State  of  New  York  about  1838.  He  is  a  member 
of  the  Imperial  Society  of  Natural  History  of  Moscow, 
and  of  other  learned  societies. 

Conradi,  kon-raMee,(JoHANN  Wilhelm  Heinrich,) 
a  German  physician,  born  at  Marburg  in  1780,  became 
in  1837  professor  of  medicine  at  Gottingen.  He  wrote 
a  "Manual  of  General  Therapeutics,"  (1833,)  and  other 
medical  works. 

Conrart,  koN'rta',  (Valentin,)  born  in  Paris  in  1603, 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  French  Academy,  which 
first  met  in  his  house,  and  which  was  chartered  in  1635. 
He  was  then  chosen  its  perpetual  secretary.  He  was  a 
councillor  and  secretary  to  the  king.    Died  in  1675. 

Conring,  kon'ring,  (Elisa  Sophia,)  a  German  poet- 
ess, was  a  daughter  of  Hermann  Conring,  noticed  below, 
and  wife  of  the  Baron  von  Reichenbach.  She  trans- 
lated into  German  verse  the  "  Wisdom  of  Solomon," 
and  wrote  other  poetry.    Died  in  1718. 

Her  sister,  Maria  Sophia,  was  also  a  poetess. 

Conring,  kon'ring,  [Lat.  Conrin'gtus,]  (Hermann,) 
a  very  learned  writer  on  history,  law,  medicine,  etc.,  was 
born  at  Norden,  in  East  Friesland,  in  1606.  He  was 
chosen  professor  of  natural  philosophy  at  Helmstedt 
in  1632.  In  1650  he  received  the  title  of  Physician  to 
Christina  of  Sweden.  He  was  soon  after  appointed 
professor  of  law  at  Helmstedt,  and  by  his  lectures  and 
writings  acquired  such  renown  that  he  was  consulted  by 
several  kings  on  important  questions.  He  published,  in 
Latin,  many  excellent  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Com- 
mentary on  the  Origin  of  German  Law,"  (1643,)  "  On  the 
Causes  of  the  Physical  Constitution  ( corporis  habitii ) 
of  the  Ancient  and  Modern  Germans,"  (1645,)  and  "On 
the  Limits  of  the  German  Empire."    Died  in  i68r. 

See  A.  Froei.ing,  "  Leichenpredigt  auf  H.  Conringiuin  nebst 
seinem  Lebenslauf,"  1682;  Ersch  iind  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  En- 
cyklopaedie  ;"  Niceron,  "  Memoires." 

Conringius.    See  Conring. 

Con'ry,  written  also  Conroy,  [Lat.  Con'rius,]  (Flo- 
rence,) an  Irish  theologian,  born  at  Galvvay  in  1560. 
He  became  Roman  Catholic  Archbishop  of  Tuam,  and 
published  a  "  Compendium  of  the  Doctrines  of  Saint 
Augustine,"  (1634.)    Died  at  Madrid  in  1629. 

Consalvi,  kon-saKvee,  (Ercole,)  Cardinal,  an  emi- 
nent Italian  statesman,  born  in  Rome  in  1757.  At  an  early 
age  he  obtained  the  office  of  auditor  ds  Rota,  a  member 
of  the  highest  civil  court.  In  1800  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state,  or  first  minister,  of  Pius  VII.,  and  in 
1801  negotiated  the  Concordat  with  Bonaparte  in  Paris. 
In  compliance  with  the  wish  of  the  French  emperor,  he 
was  dismissed  from  office  in  1806,  and  exiled  from  Rome 
about  1810.  From  1814,  when  he  was  reinstated  in  the 
office  of  secretary,  to  1823,  the  Papal  States  experienced 
the  benefits  of  his  liberal  and  humane  policy.  Capital 
punishment  for  heresy,  and  the  torture,  were  abolished, 
and  new  codes  of  law  were  enacted.    Died  in  1824. 

See  Eartholui,  "Ziigeaus  dem  Leben  des  Cardinal  Consalvi," 
1823:  "Cenni  biografici  sul  Cardinale  Consalvi,"  Venice,  1824. 


Consbruch,  kons'bRooK,  (Georg  Wilhelm  Chris- 
toph,)  a  German  medical  writer,  born  in  Westphalia  in 
1764. 

Conscience,  koN^se'SNss',  (Henri  or  Hendrik,)  a 
popular  Flemish  novelist,  born  at  Antwerp  in  181 2.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1830,  but  retired  from  that  service 
a  few  years  later,  after  comi)osing  some  popular  songs. 
In  1837  he  produced,  in  Flemish,  a  successful  romance, 
"The  Year  of  Miracles,  1566,"  ("In  het  Vonderjaer,") 
and  another  entitled  "  Phantasia."  His  re])utation  was 
confirmed  by  "The  Lion  of  Flanders,"  (1838.)  He  was 
appointed  a  professor  in  the  University  of  Ghent  in  1845. 
Among  his  numerous  v/orks  are  a  "  History  of  Belgium," 
(1845,)  "Pages  from  the  Book  of  Nature,"  (1846,)  and 
"The  Poor  Gentleman,"  (1851.) 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Consentius,  kon-sen'she-us,  a  Greek  grammarian, 
lived  at  Constantinople  in  the  fifth  century. 

Consetti,  kon-set'tee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Modena  in  1686;  died  in  1766. 

Considerant,  koN'se'da'rSN',  (Victor,)  a  French 
socialist,  born  at  Salins  in  1805.  He  became  a  disciple 
of  Fourier  about  1831,  and  on  the  death  of  the  latter,  in 
1837,  was  recognized  as  the  chief  apostle  of  Fourierism. 
In  1845  he  began  to  issue  in  Paris  the  "Democratic  Pa- 
cifique,"  a  daily  political  journal.  After  the  revolution 
of  1848  he  was  elected  to  the  Assembly,  in  which  he 
acted  with  the  party  called  the  "  Mountain."  About  1854 
he  founded  a  colony  in  Texas.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "Destinee  sociale,"  (3  vols.,  1834-44.) 

See  Klanqui,  "  Histoire  de  I'ficonomie  politique." 

Con'sta-ble,  (kiln'sta-b'l,)  (Archibald,)  an  eminent 
Scottish  publisher,  born  at  Kellie  in  1776.  He  opened 
a  shop  in  Edinburgh  in  1795,  and  in  1802  began  to  pub- 
lish the  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  which  he  managed  twenty- 
four  years.  He  published  Scott's  first  original  work  in 
1805,  and  gave  that  author  one  thousand  pounds  for 
"  Marmion"  in  1807.  Constable  &  Company  also  pub- 
lished Scott's  prose  works,  (1813-26.)  In  consequence 
partly  of  his  generosity  and  want  of  prudence,  he  failed 
in  1S25  for  about  ;^25o,ooo,  in  which  failure  Sir  Walter 
Scott  was  largely  involved.    Died  in  1826. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Con'sta-ble,  (Henry,)  an  English  poet,  who  gradu- 
ated at  Cambridge  about  1580.  He  published  a  volume 
of  sonnets,  which  were  commended  by  Ben  Jonson  and 
others. 

See  Warton,  "History  of  English  Poetry." 

Constable,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  East  Bergholt,  Suffolk,  in  1776,  was  the 
son  of  a  miller.  His  early  love  of  art  was  encouraged 
by  Sir  George  Beaumont.  In  1799  he  became  a  student 
in  the  Royal  Academy.  He  exhibited  in  1819  a  large 
picture  of  a  "  Scene  on  the  River  Stour,"  usually  called 
"The  White  Horse,"  which  is  among  his  best  works. 
The  public  and  the  artists  were  slow  to  appreciate  his 
simplicity  of  style,  fidelity  to  nature,  and  contempt  of 
conventionalities.  He  was  elected  a  Royal  Academician 
in  1829.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The  Corn- 
Field,"  (1826,)  and  "The  Valley  Farm,"  (1835.)  Died 
in  1837.  "  His  early  associations,"  says  Ruskin,  "  induced 
in  him  a  morbid  preference  of  subjects  of  a  low  order. 
His  works  are  eminently  wanting  in  both  rest  and  refine- 
ment. Yet,  with  all  these  deductions,  they  are  to  be 
deeply  respected  as  thoroughly  original,  honest,  free 
from  affectation,  and  manly  in  manner."  ("Modern 
Painters.") 

See  C.  R.  Leslie,  "Life  of  John  Constable." 

Constance.    See  Constantius. 

Con'stance,  Empress  of  Germany,  was  a  daughter 
of  Roger,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  was  born  in 
II 55.  She  was  married  in  11 85  to  the  emperor  Henry 
VI.,  and  became  the  mother  of  Frederick  II.  In  1194 
she  inherited  the  throne  of  her  father.    Died  in  1198. 

See  MuRATORi,  "Annali  d'ltalia." 

Constance,  Queen  of  Sicily,  was  the  daughter  of 
King  Manfred.  She  became  the  wife  of  Pedro  of  Aragon 
in  1261.  She  reigned  in  the  island  of  Sicily  from  1283 
until  her  death,  in  1298. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  R^publiques  Italiennes." 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ilx,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CONSTANCE 


657 


CONSTANTINE 


Con'stance,  (Faulcon,  Faulkon,  or  Phaulkon,) 
an  ambitious  Greek  adventurer,  whose  proper  name  was 
Con'stan-tiii,  was  born  in  Cephalonia  about  1648.  After 
having  been  a  trader  in  the  East  Indies,  he  went  to  Siam, 
where  about  16S0  he  became  jDrime  minister.  He  made 
an  alliance  with  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  who  sent  a  body 
of  troops  to  Siam.  Having  attempted  to  establish  there 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion  and  the  French  domination, 
he  was  killed  by  some  natives,  who  conspired  against 
him,  about  1688. 

See  P.  d'Orleans,  "Vie  de  M.  Constance;"  "  Biographie  Uni- 
verseile;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Constance  Chlore.    See  Constantius  I. 

Constancio,  kon-stSn'se-o,  (Francisco  Solano,)  a 
Portuguese  physician  and  writer  on  science,  born  at  Lis- 
bon in  1777.  From  1820  to  1829  he  was  minister  from 
Portugal  to  the  United  States.    Died  in  Paris  in  1846. 

Con'stans  [Fr.  Constant,  k^N'stdN^]  I.,  (Flavius 
Julius,)  the  third  son  of  the  emperor  Constantine  the 
Great  and  Fausta,  was  born  about  320  A.D.  At  the  death 
of  his  father,  in  337,  he  inherited  the  sovereignty  of  Italy, 
Africa,  and  Western  Illyricum.  His  brother  Constan- 
tine, having  invaded  his  dominions,  was  defeated  and 
killed  in  battle  in  340,  when  the  victor  became  master 
of  the  whole  Western  Empire.  He  was  indolent,  weak, 
and  depraved.  He  favoured  Athanasius,  who  had  been 
proscribed  by  the  Arians.  Magnentius  having  revolted 
in  Gaul,  Constans  fled  towards  Spain,  but  was  overtaken 
near  the  Pyrenees,  and  killed,  in  350  A.D. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Le 
Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas- Empire." 

Constan,5  II.,  (Flavius  Heraclius,)  born  at  Con- 
stantinople in  630  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Constantine  III., 
Emperor  of  the  East,  whom  he  succeeded  in  641.  He 
waged  unsuccessful  war  against  the  Saracens,  who  con- 
quered Egypt  and  Rhodes  from  him.  He  favoured  the 
Monothelites,  and  issued  an  edict  which  prohibited  the 
discussion  of  religious  questions.  In  655  he  was  signally 
•defeated  by  the  Arabs  at  sea.  His  cruelty,  avarice,  etc. 
rendered  him  generally  detested.  He  was  assassinated 
at  Syracuse  in  668,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Con- 
stantine IV.,  (Pogonatus.) 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  Abool- 
FEUA,  "  Annales  ;"  Le  Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Constant.    See  Constans. 

Constant  de  Rebecque,  k6N'st6N'  deh  reh-bSk', 
(Benjamin,)  commonly  called  simply  Benjamin  Con- 
stant, a  French  publicist,  orator,  and  politician,  was 
born  of  French  Protestant  parents  at  Lausanne  in  1767. 
He  was  a  fellow-student  of  Erskine  and  Mackintosh  at 
Edinburgh.  Li  1795  he  entered  Paris  as  a  protege  of 
Madame  de  Stael,  (of  whom  he  was  a  life-long  admirer,) 
and  in  1799  became  a  member  of  the  Tribunate.  His 
opposition  to  the  First  Consul  resulted  in  his  removal 
and  banishment  in  1801.  He  visited  several  courts  of 
Europe  during  the  ensuing  years.  In  1813  he  composed 
his  celebrated  pamphlet  "On  the  Spirit  of  Conquest  and 
Usurpation,"  which  procured  him  the  favour  of  the  allied 
powers.  As  an  editor  of  the  "Journal  des  Debats,"  he 
denounced  Napoleon  in  1815,  but  was  persuaded  to 
accept  a  place  in  his  council  during  the  Hundred  Days. 
After  the  second  restoration  he  became  a  popular  chief 
of  the  opposition,  and  in  1819  was  chosen  a  deputy  for 
La  Sarthe.  He  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  and  witty 
debaters  of  that  period,  and  was  for  some  time  the  leader 
and  moderator  of  the  Liberal  party.  Just  after  the  revo- 
lution of  1830,  in  which  he  was  not  an  actor,  he  was 
appointed  president  of  the  council  of  state.  He  died  in 
Paris  in  December,  1830,  leaving,  besides  many  political 
works,  a  treatise  "On  Religion,  considered  in  its  Source, 
its  Forms,  and  its  Developments,"  (5  vols.,  1823-31.)  He 
had  great  facility  in  composition.  His  letters  are  models 
of  grace  and  finesse,  but  seem  very  deficient  in  heart. 
He  has  been  called  a  second  Voltaire,  and  was  reputed 
the  most  brilliant  converser  among  the  men  of  his  age. 
Though  a  professor  of  the  Protestant  religion,  he  appears 
to  have  been  profoundly  skeptical. 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Restoration;"  Louis  Blanc, 
"  Histoire  de  dix  Ans  ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  articles  in  the  "  Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes"  for  1844  and  1845;  De  Cormenin,  "  Le  Livre  des 
Orateurs;"  J.  Pharaon,  "Notice  sur  B.  Constant,"  1830;  Louis  de 
Lom^nie,  "B.  Constant,"  1841;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


Constant  de  Rebecque,  (David,)  great-grandfather 
of  Benjamin  Constant,  was  born  in  1638.  He  was  a 
Protestant  minister,  and  lived  in  Geneva  and  Lausanne. 
He  wrote  an  "  Epitome  of  Politics,"  and  edited  some  of 
the  works  of  Cicero,  Pylorus,  and  Erasmus.  Died  in  1733. 

Constant-Prevost.    See  Prevost. 

Constantia,  kon-stan'she-a,  (Flavia  Valeria,)  a 
half-sister  of  Constantine  the  Great,  born  about  300  A.D., 
was  married  in  313  to  the  emperor  Licinius.  The  mu- 
tual attachment  between  her  and  Constantine  appears 
to  have  continued  even  after  Licinius  was  killed  by  his 
order.  She  used  her  influence  in  favour  of  the  Arian 
creed.    Died  about  330. 

Constantin.    See  Constantine, 

Constantin,  k^N'stdN^tiN',  (Abraham,)  a  skilful 
Swiss  painter  on  porcelain,  born  at  Geneva  in  1785, 
worked  in  Paris.  He  copied  some  pictures  of  Raphael 
on  porcelain. 

Constantin,  k6N'st6N'tiN',  (Robert,)  a  French  scho- 
lar and  eminent  linguist,  born  at  Caen.  He  graduated 
as  a  physician  in  1564,  and  practised  at  Montauban.  For 
the  sake  of  religious  freedom  he  retired  to  Germany, 
where  he  died  in  1605.  He  had  compiled  a  "Lexicon 
Graeco-Latinum,"  (1562,)  which  was  highly  esteemed. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Con'stan-tine,  [Lat.  Constanti'nus  ;  Gr.  Kuvardv- 
TLvoc ;  Fr.  Constantin,  k6N'st6N't4N';  Ger.  Constan- 
tin, kon-stJn-teen';  It.  Constantino,  kon-st^n-tee'no ; 
Dutch,  KoNSTANTijN,  kon-stan-tin',]  (Flavius  Vale- 
rius AuRELius,)  surnamed  the  Great,  the  first  Chris- 
tian emperor  of  Rome,  born  in  272  a.d.,  was  the  son  of 
the  emperor  Constantius  Chlorus  and  his  wife  Helena. 
Before  his  accession,  his  talents,  courage,  and  martial  ser- 
vices had  rendered  him  a  favourite  of  the  army,  and  an 
object  of  jealousy  to  Galerius,  one  of  the  two  emperors 
then  reigning.  He  was  at  York  when  his  father  died 
there,  in  July,  306,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the 
legions  under  his  command.  Galerius  accorded  to  him 
only  the  title  of  Csesar,  and  conferred  the  rank  of  Au- 
gustus on  his  own  son,  Severus.  At  Rome,  Maxentius 
and  his  father  Maximian,  in  the  absence  of  Galerius, 
raised  a  successful  revolt,  (307,)  after  which  six  emperors 
and  Caesars  at  one  time  ruled  the  provinces  of  Rome. 
About  307  Constantine  married  Fausta,  daughter  of 
Maximian;  but  a  war  soon  ensued  between  these  em- 
perors, and  Maximian,  having  been  defeated,  was  put  to 
death  in  309.  Galerius  died  in  311,  after  which  Licinius 
and  Maximin  remained  masters  of  the  provinces  east  of 
Italy.  In  312,  Constantine,  who  reigned  in  Gaul,  marched 
against  Maxentius,  who  was  defeated  and  killed  near 
Rome  in  that  year.  About  this  time,  according  to  tra- 
dition, he  was  converted  to  Christianity  by  a  miraculous 
vision,  in  which  he  saw  in  the  heavens  the  sign  of  a  cross, 
with  this  inscription,  "Thou  shalt  conquer  by  this  sign," 
("  In  hoc  signo  vinces.") 

Having  obtained  undisputed  supremacy  over  the  West, 
including  Italy  and  Africa,  he  began  to  favour  more 
openly  the  Christians,  and  displayed  wisdom  in  the 
promotion  of  order  and  prosperity  among  his  subjects. 
In  314  he  fought  in  Thrace  an  indecisive  battle  against 
Licinius,  his  only  remaining  rival,  and  then  made  a 
peace,  which  lasted  nine  years.  During  this  period  he 
was  employed  in  political  reforms,  and  adopted  a  more 
humane  code  of  laws,  by  which  Christianity  was  recog- 
nized as  the  religion  of  the  state,  but  the  pagan  worship 
was  still  tolerated. 

In  323  he  gained  a  complete  victory  over  Licinius 
near  Adrianople,  and  another  opposite  Byzantium,  after 
which  he  was  the  sole  emperor.  He  assembled  at  Nicaea 
in  325  the  first  general  council,  in  which  Arianism  was 
condemned  and  a  famous  Catholic  creed  was  adopted. 
In  the  next  year  he  was  guilty  of  an  act  which  has  left 
a  deep  stain  on  his  memory,  the  execution  of  his  eldest 
son,  Crispus,  falsely  accused  of  a  crime  by  Fausta,  who 
was  his  step-mother.  About  328  he  transferred  his  court 
to  Byzantium,  which  he  enlarged,  and  the  name  of  which 
he  changed  to  Constantino])le, — "City  of  Constantine." 
The  duration  of  the  Eastern  Empire  so  many  centuries 
after  the  fall  of  the  Western  seems  to  approve  the  wisdom 
of  his  policy  in  this  affair.  A  few  years  before  h«is  death 
he  favoured  the  Arians,  and  recalled  some  banished 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  ^ard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,gitttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

42 


CONSTJNTINE 


658 


CONSTANTINE 


bishops  of  that  ])arty.  He  died  at  Nicomedia  iii  337  a.d., 
having  divided  the  empire  between  his  three  sons,  Con- 
stantine,  Coustantius,  and  Constans.  Ilis  character  is 
variously  estimated  ;  but  it  is  admitted  that  he  iiad  many 
of  the  quahties  of  a  great  statesman  and  general.  He 
was  far  from  being  a  saint,  and  in  the  opinion  of  Niebuhr 
was  not  even  a  Christian,  though  he  permitted  himself 
to  be  baptized  just  before  his  death. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Euse- 
Bius,  "Vila  Constantini ;"  Vogt,  "  Historia  Constaiitini  Magni," 
1720;  TiLi.EMONT,  " Histoire  des  Emjiareurs  ;"  Joseph  Fletcher, 
"Life  of  Constantine  the  Great,"  1852;  J.  C.  F.  Manso,  "  Leben 
Constantin's  des  Grossen,"  1817;  Jakob  Burckhardt,  "Die  Zeit 
Constantin's  des  Grossen,"  1853. 

Constantine  (or  Constantinus)  II.,  (Flavius 
Claudius,)  a  Roman  emperor,  the  eldest  surviving  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Arelatum  (now  Aries) 
in  312  A.D.  In  335  he  was  intrusted  with  the  adminis- 
tration of  Gaul,  Britain,  and  Spain,  and  at  the  death  of 
his  father,  in  337,  inherited  the  sovereignty  of  the  same 
provinces,  with  a  part  of  Africa.  Having  invaded  the 
dominions  of  his  brother  Constans,  he  was  defeated  and 
killed  in  battle  near  Acjuileia  in  340.    He  left  no  issue. 

See  EusEDius,  "Vita  Constantini;"  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall 
of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Constantine  (or  Constantinus)  III.,  (Flavius 
Heraclius,)  called  No'vu.s,  Emperor  of  the  East,  born 
in  612  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  the  emperor  Heraclius  and 
Eudoxia.  At  the  death  of  his  father,  in  641,  he  became  a 
partner  in  the  empire  with  his  half-brother  Heracleonas. 
After  a  reign  of  three  months,  he  died,  or  was  poisoned 
by  Martina,  his  step-mother.    He  left  a  son,  Constans  H. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Constantine  (or  Constantinus)  IV.,  surnamed 
Pogona'tus,  a  Roman  emperor  of  the  East,  succeeded 
his  father,  Constans  H.,  in  668  A.D.  A  powerful  Arabian 
fleet  in  672  blockaded  Constantinople,  his  capital,  which 
was  defended  by  the  Greek  fire  newly  invented.  After 
ftghting  several  years,  the  Arabs  purchased  peace  by  the 
payment  of  an  annual  tribute.  In  680  he  assembled  a 
council  at  Constantinople,  by  which  the  Monothelites 
were  condemned.  He  died  in  685,  and  left  the  throne  to 
his  son,  Justinian  II. 

See  Le  Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Constantine  (or  Constantinus)  V.,  surnamed  Co- 
pron'ymus,  [6  KonpC)vviiO£,]  Emperor  of  the  East,  born 
in  719  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Leo  IH.,  (Isaurus,)  whom  he 
succeeded  in  741.  In  743  he  defeated  Artavasdes,  who 
had  rebelled  and  had  made  himself  master  of  the  capital. 
He  was  a  zealous  iconoclast  and  a  persecutor  of  the 
orthodox.  In  754  he  assembled  a  council  which  con- 
demned the  worship  of  images.  He  appears  to  have 
been  unprincipled  and  superstitious.  He  died  in  775, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Leo  IV. 

See  Cedrenus,  "Compendium;"  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire." 

Constantine  (or  Constantinus)  VI.,  (Flavius,) 
born  in  771  a.d.,  was  the  son  of  Leo  IV.  At  the 
death  of  his  father,  in  780,  he  became  emperor  at  Con- 
stantinople, under  the  regency  of  his  mother,  the  am- 
bitious Irene.  (See  Irene.)  A  council  held  at  Nicaeain 
787  restored  the  worship  of  images.  After  the  end  of 
his  minority,  Irene,  who  still  wished  to  rule,  was  kept 
in  confinement.  In  797  she  conspired  against  him  with 
success,  and  injuries  were  inflicted  on  him  which  caused 
his  death.     Irene  then  became  his  successor. 

See  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Constantine  (or  Constantinus)  VII.,  Emperor  of 
the  East,  surnamed  Porphyrogen'itus,  [Gr.  6  IIop^upo- 
yevvrjToc,  i.e.  "  Born  in  Purple,"]  the  son  of  the  emperor 
Leo  VI.,  was  born  in  905  a.d.  His  father  died  in  911, 
soon  after  which  Romanus  Lecapenus  usurped  the  gov- 
ernment and  ruled  as  emperor  until  944.  The  popular 
favour  then  restored  Constantine,  who  in  his  long  se- 
clusion from  public  life  had  cultivated  learning  and 
science  with  success.  He  gained  the  affection  of  his  sub- 
jects by  his  humanity  and  love  of  justice,  and  composed 
several  valuable  works,  among  which  is  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Government  of  the  Empire."  He  was  poisoned 
in  959  by  his  son  and  successor,  Romanus  II. 

See  Leichius,  "De  Vita  et  Rebus  gestis  Constantini  Porphyro- 
geniti,"  1746;  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 


Constantine  (or  Constantinus)  VIII.  was  the  son 

of  Romanus  Lecapenus  the  usurper.  He  and  his  brother 
Stephen  reigned  a  few  months  between  the  deposition 
of  Romanus  Lecapenus  and  the  restoration  of  Constan- 
tine VH.,  944  A.D.    Died  about  946. 

Constantine  (or  Constantinus)  IX.,  Emperor  of 
the  East,  born  in  961  A.D.,  was  the  second  son  of  Ro- 
manus II.  In  976  his  brother  Basil  II.  and  he  were 
proclaimed  emperors.  He  took  no  part  in  the  affairs  of 
state  until  the  death  of  Basil,  in  1025.  His  reign  was 
disgraced  by  cruelty  and  other  vices.  He  died  in  1028, 
without  male  heir,  and  was  succeeded  by  Romanus 
Argyrus. 

Constantine  (or  Constantinus)  X.,  surnamed  Mo- 
nom'achus,  [6  Movo/iaxoc,]  became  Emperor  of  the  East 
in  1042  by  marriage  with  Zoe,  the  daughter  of  Constan- 
tine IX.  His  surname  was  given  on  account  of  his 
courage  in  war.  A  memorable  event  of  his  reign  was 
the  schism  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches, 
which  began  in  1054  and  has  continued  to  the  present 
time.    Died,  without  issue,  in  1054. 

Constantine  (or  Constantinus)  XL,  surnamed 
Du'cAS,  [Gr.  6  AovKag,]  Emperor  of  the  East,  was  chosen 
as  his  successor  by  Isaac  Comnenus,  who  abdicated  in 
1059  A.D.  He  had  obtained  a  high  reputation  as  a  gen- 
eral, but  proved  rather  incompetent  as  a  ruler.  He  died 
in  1067,  leaving  three  minor  sons,  Michael,  Androni'cus, 
and  Constantine  ;  but  Romanus  Diogenes  was  his  suc- 
cessor. The  youngest  of  the  three  sons  was  styled 
Con.stantine  XII.,  about  107 1;  but  his  reign  was  only 
nominal. 

Constantine  (or  Constantinus)  XIII.,  surnamed 
Pal^EOLOGUS,  (pa-le-oKo-gus,)  the  last  Emperor  of  Con- 
stantinople, was  the  fourth  son  of  Manuel  11. ,  and  was 
born  in  1394.  He  succeeded  his  brother,  John  VII.,  in 
1448.  By  the  encroachments  of  the  Turks  the  empire 
had  been  reduced  within  a  very  small  compass.  In  1453 
Mahomet  II.  besieged  the  capital  with  250,000  men, 
and,  after  an  obstinate  contest  of  several  weeks,  took  it 
by  storm.  Constantine  was  killed  in  the  fight  just  as 
the  Turks  entered  the  walls. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Von 
Ham.mer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Constantine,  (or  Constantinus,)  surnamed  the 
African,  was  a  native  of  Carthage,  and  was  one  of  the 
most  learned  men  of  his  time.  He  studied  at  Babylon, 
visited  India,  and  afterwards  lived  at  Salerno.  He  pub- 
lished works  on  medicine  and  other  sciences,  and  trans- 
lated into  Latin  some  of  the  best  Greek  and  Arabic  books. 
Died  in  1087. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Constantine,  (or  Constantinus,)  Pope,  a  native  of 
Syria,  succeeded  Sisinnius  in  708  a.d.  He  is  said  to 
have  approved  the  worship  of  images,  in  opposition  to 
the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  He  died  in  714,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Gregory  II. 

Con'stan-tine,  (Nikolaevitch,)  Grand  Duke  of 
Russia,  the  second  son  of  the  eniperor  Nicholas,  was 
born  September  21,  1827.  During  his  childhood  he  re- 
ceived the  title  of  Grand  Admiral  of  the  Fleet.  Under 
the  instructions  of  Admiral  Liitke,  he  acquired  great 
proficiency  in  naval  science.  His  talents  and  disposition 
rendered  him  a  favourite,  especially  with  the  old  Russian 
party.  He  married  the  Princess  Alexandra  of  Saxe- 
Altenburg  in  1848.  He  was  a  strenuous  supporter  of 
the  late  war  against  France  and  England,  and  commanded 
the  fleet  in  the  Baltic  in  1854-55.  By  his  cautious  de- 
fensive operations  he  prevented  the  British  from  gaining 
any  decisive  victories  over  his  fleet.  He  was  appointed 
Viceroy  of  Poland  in  the  spring  of  1862. 

Constantine,  (Pavlovitch,)  Grand  Duke,  the 
second  son  of  the  emperor  Paul  of  Russia,  was  born  a' 
Saint  Petersburg  in  1779.  In  1796  he  married  Juliana, 
Princess  of  Saxe-Coburg,  an  aunt  of  Queen  Victoria. 
His  martial  conduct  was  applauded  at  Austerlitz,  (1805,) 
where  he  cominanded  a  corps.  In  several  ensuing  cam- 
paigns he  maintained  his  reputation  for  courage.  He 
was  appointed  generalissimo  of  Poland  in  1814.  In  1820, 
having  obtained  a  divorce  from  his  first  wife,  he  married  a 
Polish  lady  named  Grudzinska,  by  which  he  appears  to 
have  injured  his  prospects  or  forfeited  his  claim  as  heir- 


a,  e,  I,  o,  xi,  y,  /on^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CONSTANTINE 


659 


CONTESSA 


presumptive  to  the  throne.  At  the  death  of  Alexander 
without  issue  in  1825,  Constantine  renomiced  his  right  in 
favour  of  his  younger  brother  Nicholas,  who  had  oifered 
to  acknowledge  him  as  Czar.  He  became  Viceroy  of 
Poland,  wiiere  his  tyranny  provoked  a  revolt  in  1830. 
In  the  war  which  ensued  he  acted  an  inferior  part,  and 
died  of  cholera  in  183 1. 

See  Harro  Hakring,  "Der  Grossfiirst  Constantin  wie  er  war," 
.832. 

Constantine  Manasses.    See  Manasses. 
Constantino,  the  Italian  of  Constantine,  which 
see. 

Constantino,  kon-stdn-tee'no,  (Manoel,)  a  Portu- 
guese historian,  born  at  Funchal,  in  Madeira,  became 
professor  of  theology  in  Rome,  and  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  Kings  of  Portugal,"  (1601.)    Died  in  1614. 

Consteintinus,  the  Latin  of  Constantine,  which  see. 

Con-stan-ti'nus,  a  Greek  or  Roman  jurist,  was  one 
of  those  whom  Justinian  selected,  in  528  A.D.,  to  frame 
the  first  Code. 

Constantinus,  (Julius  Celsus,)  the  author  of  a  well- 
written  commentary  on  the  "Life  of  Caesar,"  which  first 
appeared  as  an  appendage  to  "Ceesar's  Commentaries" 
in  1473.  Walckenaer  has  endeavoured  to  prove  that  he 
wrote  in  the  tenth  century  and  lived  in  Constantinople. 

Con-stan'ti-us  (kon-stan'she-us)  I.,  commonly  called 
Constantius  -Chlo'rus,  [Fr.^^oNSTANCE  Chlore, 
koN'stSNs'  kloR,]  (Flavius  Valerius,)  a  Roman  em- 
peror, born  about  250  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Eutropius, 
and  father  of  Constantine  the  Great.  In  292,  Diocle- 
tian and  Maximian,  in  order  to  divide  the  labours  of  the 
administration,  chose  Galerius  and  Constantius,  each  of 
whom  received  the  title  of  Caesar.  Gaul,  Spain,  and 
Britain  were  allotted  to  the  latter,  who  was  required  to 
repudiate  Helena  and  marry  Theodora,  the  daughter 
of  Maximian.  He  became  emperor  in  305,  on  the  ab- 
dication of  Diocletian,  and  died  at  York  in  306,  leaving 
the  reputation  of  a  just  and  humane  ruler.  His  son 
Constantine  was  his  successor. 

See  Eutropius;  Aukelius  Victor,  "Caesares." 

Constantius  [Fr.  Constance,  koN'stSNs']  II.,  (Fla- 
vius Julius,)  the  third  son  of  Constantine  I.,  Emperor 
of  Rome,  was  born  at  Sirmium  in  317  A.D.  Py  his  fiither's 
will  he  inherited  the  Asiatic  provinces  and  Egypt  in  337. 
It  is  said  that  he  ordered  or  permitted  the  massacre  of 
his  father's  nephews,  brother,  etc.  at  the  time  of  his  ac- 
cession. During  nearly  all  his  reign  he  was  at  war  with 
the  Persians,  by  whom  he  was  often  defeated.  In  350 
the  revolt  of  Magnentius  resulted  in  the  death  of  Con- 
stans.  Emperor  of  the  West.  Constantius  turned  his 
arms  against  Magnentius,  whom  he  defeated  at  Mursa,  on 
the  Drave,  in  351,  and  in  Gaul  in  353,  after  which  he  was 
master  of  the  whole  empire.  In  355  he  appointed  his 
cousin  Julian,  Caesar  and  commander  in  Gaul,  and  in 
357  visited  Rome  for  the  first  time.  He  favoured  the 
Arians,  and  banished  the  orthodox  bishops.  Julian 
having  been  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  army  in  Gaul, 
Constantius  was  marching  to  attack  him,  wiien  he  died 
near  Tarsus  in  361,  and  was  succeeded  by  Julian.  His 
reputation  is  not  high  either  for  talents  or  for  virtue. 

See  EusEBius,  "  Vita  ConstaiUii ;"  Th.lemont,  "  Histoire  des 
Empereurs;"  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Constantius  III.,  Emperor  of  the  West,  a  native  of 
Illyria.  His  merit  had  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  gen- 
eral in  411  A.D.  He  married  Placidia,  sister  of  Hono- 
rius,  who  in  421  gave  him  the  title  of  Augustus  and 
received  him  as  a  partner  in  the  empire.  Fie  died  in 
421,  leaving  a  son,  who  became  Valentinian  HI. 

See  TiLLKMONT,  "Histoire  des  Empereurs;"  Le  Beau,  "His- 
toire dii  Bas-Empire." 

Constanzo,  (Angelo.)  See  Costanzo,  dl 
Contades,  de,dehk6N'ttd',  (Louis  George  Erasme,) 
Marquis,  born  in  1704,  became  a  marshal  in  1758,  and 
commanded  in  Germany,  where  he  took  several  fortified 
towns,  but  was  defeated  at  Minden  in  1759,  and  was  soon 
recalled.    Died  in  1795. 

See  Dk  Courceli.es,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais." 

Contamine,  deh,  deh  k^N'tt'm^n',  (Theodore,)  Vi- 
COMTE,  a  French  general,  born  at  Givet  (Ardennes)  in 
1773.  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  (1805.) 

Died  in  1845. 


Contant,  kdw^tSN',  (Paul,)  a  French  botanist  and 
poet,  born  about  1570,  established  a  botanic  garden  a 
Poitiers.  He  described  the  plants  and  animals  which 
he  had  collected,  in  a  poem  called  "Jardin  et  Cabinet 
poetique,"  (1609.)    Died  in  1632. 

Contant  d'lvry,  kcjN'tdN' dev're',  (Pierre,)  an  emi- 
nent French  architect,  born  at  Ivry-sur  Seine  in  1698, 
studied  design  under  Watteau.  He  designed  the  church 
of  Conde  in  Flanders,  that  of  Saint-Waast  at  Arras,  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  Palais  Royal  of  Paris.  His  plans 
for  the  church  of  the  Madeleine  were  adopted ;  but  he 
died  before  it  was  finished,  in  1777. 

Contant  d'Orville,  koN'tSn'  duR^^K,  (Andr6  Guil- 
LAUME,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  about  1730. 
He  published  an  "  Account  of  the  Different  Nations,"  etc., 
(6  vols.,  1772,)  and  other  works.    Died  about  1800. 

Contarini,  kon-ti-ree'nee,  a  noble  family  of  Venice, 
which  has  produced  many  doges,  senators,  etc.  Do- 
MExNico  was  doge  from  1043  to  107 1.  GiACoMO  was  doge 
from  1275  to  12S0.  Andrea  Contarini  was  chosen  to 
that  office  in  1367.  About  1380  the  Genoese,  having 
taken  Chiozza,  threatened  the  existence  of  the  Venetiaii 
state,  which  Contarini  saved  in  that  year  by  a  decisive 
victory.  He  died  in  1382,  aged  about  eighty.  Domenico 
II.  became  doge  in  1659,  when  the  republic  was  at  war 
with  the  Turks  for  the  possession  of  Candia.  The  cele- 
brated siege  of  Candia  ended  in  the  capitulation  of  the 
Venetians  in  1667,  after  the  Turks  had  lost  100,000  men. 
Died  in  1674. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise  ;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Rii- 
pubiiques  Italiennes." 

Contarini,  (Ambrogio,)  a  Venetian  senator  and  tra- 
veller, was  sent  in  1473  ambassador  to  the  King  of 
Persia.  Passing  through  Poland,  Russia,  etc.,  he  found 
the  king  at  Ispahan  and  made  a  treaty  with  him.  Plaving 
returned  to  Venice  in  1477,  he  published  a  curious  jour- 
nal of  his  mission. 

Contarini,  (Gasparo,)  Cardinal,  born  of  a  noble 
family  at  Venice  in  1483.  He  was  employed  as  nego- 
tiator in  important  missions,  and  was  made  a  cardinal 

^535-  wrote  treatises  on  the  "  Immortality  of  the 

Soul,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1542. 

See  Daru,  "Histoire  de  Venise;"  L.  Beccateli.i,  "Vita  de 
Cardinale  G.  Contarini,"  1746. 

Contarini,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter  of  history 
and  portraits,  born  at  Venice  in  1549,  was  an  imitator 
of  Titian.  He  excelled  in  the  adornment  of  arches 
and  ceilings.  He  worked  in  Germany  for  the  emperor 
Rodolph  il.    Died  in  1605. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Contarini,  (Vincenzo,)  born  at  Venice  in  1577,  be- 
came ])rofessor  of  eloquence  at  Padua  at  the  age  of 
twenty-six.  He  published  a  volume  of  "Various  Read- 
ings of  Classic  Authors,"  and  a  few  other  works.  Died 
in  1617. 

Contat,  koN'tt^  (Louise,)  a  popular  French  actress, 
born  in  Paris  in  1760;  died  in  1813. 
Conte.    See  Lecon  ie. 

Conte,  k6N^ta',  (Nicolas  Jacques,)  a  French  painter, 
chemist,  and  mechanician,  born  in  Normandy  in  1755. 
In  1798  he  followed  the  French  army  to  Egypt,  where 
he  rendered  great  services,  as  artist  and  savant,  in  the 
invention  or  fabrication  of  arms,  tools,  machines,  etc. 
Having  returned  to  France,  he  was  selected  to  direct 
the  execution  of  the  great  work  on  Egypt  published  by 
the  Egyptian  Commission.  He  invented  a  machine 
by  which  he  engraved  with  surprising  facility.  Died 
in  1803. 

See  E.  F.  Jomard,  "Vie,  Travaux  et  Services  de  N.  J.  Cont^," 
1852;  "Nonvelle  Biographle  Generale." 

Conte,  del,  del  konTa,  (Jacopino,)  a  skilful  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1502,  worked  in  Rome,  where 
he  painted  several  popes  and  princes.    Died  in  1598. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Contessa,  kon-tes'sS,  (Karl  Wilhelm  Salice,)  a 
German  novelist,  born  at  Hirschberg  in  1777,  wrote, 
besides  other  novels,  "The  Talisman,"  (1810.)  Died 
in  1825. 

His  brother  Christian,  born  in  1767,  was  the  author 
of  several  tales  and  dramas  in  verse.  He  died  in  Berlin 
in  1825. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23  ) 


CONTI 


660 


COOK 


Conti,  kon'tee,  (Antonio  Schinei.la,)  Abb±,  an 
Italian  poet  and  ])hilosopher,  born  at  Padua  in  1677, 
removed  to  Venice  in  1699,  and  became  a  priest.  In  171 5 
he  was  admitted,  through  the  influence  of  Newton,  into 
the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He  studied  sciences  and 
philosophy  in  Paris  for  several  years.  He  was  one  of  the 
Italian  authors  who  contributed  most  to  impress  a  phi- 
losophic character  on  the  literature  of  his  country.  In 
1739  he  ])ublished  the  first  volume  of  his  works,  which 
were  designed  to  form  a  grand  treatise  on  the  Beautiful, 
conformed  to  the  doctrine  of  Plato.  It  comprised  a 
philosophic  poem,  entitled  "The  Sphere  of  Venus,"  ('*  II 
Globo  di  Venere.")    Died  at  Padua  in  1749. 

See  Mazzucheixi,  "Biografia  degli  Uomini  illustri ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Conti,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  sometimes  called,  in 
Latin,  Quintia'nus  Sto'a,  an  Italian  author,  born  at 
Quinzano,  near  Brescia,  in  i486.  He  wrote  many  and 
^'arious  works.    Died  in  1557. 

See  CossANDO,  "Vitae  Quintiani  Stose,"  1694;  Niceron,  "Ma- 
moires." 

Conti,  (M.  Antonio.)    See  Majoragio. 

Conti,  [Lat.  De  Comit'ibus,]  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian 
traveller,  born  in  Venice,  travelled  twenty-five  years, 
between  1419  and  1444,  in  India,  China,  and  the  Asiatic 
islands.  The  narrative  of  his  travels  in  Ramusio's  col- 
lection is  commended. 

Conti,  (Noel,)  [Lat.  Nata'lts  Co'mes,]  a  learned 
Italian  writer,  born  at  Milan,  lived  in  Venice.  He  was 
the  author  of  Latin  odes  and  epigrams,  a  "Treatise  on 
Mythology,"  and  a  general  history  of  his  own  time. 
Died  about  1582. 

Conti,  de,  deh  k^N'te',  (Armand  de  Bourbon — deh 
booR'boN',)  Prince,  a  brother  of  the  great  Conde,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1629.  In  the  frivolous  civil  war  of  the 
Fronde  he  commanded  an  army  in  opposition  to  Conde. 
He  married  a  niece  of  Cardinal  Mazarin.  In  1654  he 
commanded  in  Guienne,  and  took  two  towns  from  the 
Spaniards.  He  wrote  a  tract  against  stage-plays.  "  He 
ought  rather,"  says  Voltaire,  "  to  have  written  against 
civil  wars."    Died  in  1666. 

See  Cardinal  de  Retz,  "Memoires;"  La  Rochefoucauld, 
"  Memoires." 

Conti,  de,  (FRANgois  Louis  de  Bourbon,)  Prince, 
a  French  general,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1664.  He  became  so  renowned  for  his  courage  and  his 
admirable  personal  and  mental  endowments  that  he  was 
elected  King  of  Poland  in  1697  ;  but  Augustus  of  Sa.xony, 
chosen  by  another  party,  obtained  possession.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  Steenkerke  in  1698.  In  consequence 
of  the  jealousy  or  prejudice  of  the  king,  he  did  not  obtain 
command  of  an  army  until  1709.  He  died  in  the  same 
year,  as  he  was  about  to  open  the  campaign  in  Flanders. 
Saint-Simon,  who  is  sparing  of  praise,  represents  him 
as  "the  delight  of  the  world  and  the  court,  the  idol  of 
the  soldiers,  and  the  hero  of  the  officers." 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV  ;"  Saint-Simon,  "  Me- 
moires ;"  "Journal  de  Dangeau." 

Conti,  de,  (Louise  Marguerite  de  Lorraine — deh 
lo^-^n',)  Princess,  a  French  lady,  distinguished  for  her 
wit  and  talents,  born  in  1577.  She  was  a  daughter  of 
Henry,  Duke  of  Guise,  and  became  the  wife  of  a  Prince 
of  Conti,  after  whose  death  (16 14)  she  was  married  se- 
cretly to  Marshal  Bassomjiierre.  She  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  Amours  of  Henry  IV."    Died  in  163 1. 

See  Bassompierre,  "  Journal ;"  Tallemant  des  Reaux,  "  His- 
toriettes  de  la  Princesse  de  Conti." 

Conti,  de',  c\h  kon'tce,  (Giusto,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
orator,  surnamed  da  Val  Montone,  (d^  vSI  mon-to^ia,) 
from  the  place  of  his  birth,  near  Rome,  is  considered  one 
of  the  most  faithful  imitators  of  Petrarch.  Died  in  1449. 
A  volume  of  his  poems,  entitled  "The  Beautiful  Hand," 
("  La  bella  Mano,")  in  honour  of  the  beautiful  hand  of  the 
lady  whose  praises  the  poet  sang,  was  published  in  1472. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Contile,  kon-tee'li,  (Luca,)  an  Italian  writer,  born 
at  Cetone,  near  Sienna,  in  1506.  He  published  a  volume 
of  poems,  ("Rime,"  1560,)  several  comedies  in  prose, 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1574. 

Contreras,  de,  di  kon-tRa^rSs,  (Hieronimo,)  a  Span- 
ish poet  and  novelist,  born  in  Andalusia,  lived  about 


1600.  He  was  appointed  historiographer  by  Philip  II. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Selva  de  Aventuras." 

See  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Contri,  kon'tRee,  (Anix)NIO,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
landscapes  and  flowers,  born  at  Ferrara  about  1680, 
settled  at  Cremona.  He  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  the 
art  of  transferring  frescos  to  canvas.    Died  in  1732. 

Contucci,  kon-toot'chee,  (Andrea,)  called  also  San- 
sovino,  (s^n-so-vee'no,)  an  eminent  Italian  sculptor  and 
architect,  born  at  Sansovino,  in  Tuscany,  in  1460.  He 
worked  at  Florence  and  Rome,  and  became  one  of  the 
first  sculptors  of  his  age.  His  figures  of  the  Virgin  and 
Child,  in  Rome,  were  much  admired.  He  built  a  palace 
for  the  King  of  Portugal,  and  other  edifices.  Died  in  1529. 

See  Vasaki,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,  Sculptors,"  etc. 

Con'way,  (Henry  Seymour,)  P^ield-Marshal,  an 
English  general  and  statesman,  second  son  of  the  first 
Lord  Conway,  was  born  in  1720.  He  was  aide-de-camp 
to  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  at  CuUoden  in  1746.  As 
lieutenant-general,  he  commanded  in  Germany  in  1761. 
From  1765  to  1768  he  was  secretary  of  state  in  the  Whig 
cabinet.  In  1782  he  became  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army,  and  made  in  Parliament  a  motion  to  terminate 
hostilities  against  the  United  States,  in  allusion  to  which 
Burke  remarked,  "  All  England,  all  America,  joined  in  his 
applause."  "  He  was,"  says  Macaulay,  "versed  in  the 
learning  of  his  profession,  and  personally  courageous, 
but  wanted  vigour  and  capacity."  Died  in  1795.  Mrs. 
Damer  the  artist  was  his  only  child.  His  state  papers 
have  been  published. 

Con'way,  (Thomas,)  a  native  of  Ireland,  removed  in 
1777  to  America,  and  served  a  short  time  in  the  repub- 
lican army.  He  was  a  partisan  of  General  Gates,  and  a 
secret  enemy  of  Washington. 

Conybeare,  kun'e-bair,  (John,)  an  eminent  English 
theologian,  born  near  Exeter  in  1692.  He  became  Dean 
of  Christ  Church  in  1732,  and  Bishop  of  Bristol  in  1750. 
He  ])ublished  an  admired  "Defence  of  Revealed  Reli- 
gion," in  answer  to  Tindal,  and  a  number  of  sermons, 
which  had  a  high  reputation.    Died  in  1755. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Conybeare,  (J'JHn  Josias,)  an  English  antiquary 
and  clergyman,  born  in  London  in  1779.  He  obtained 
the  professorship  of  Anglo-Saxon  at  Oxford  in  1807,  and 
that  of  poetry  in  181 2.  He  was  a  canon  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  York.  He  published  "Illustrations  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  Poetry,"  and  other  learned  works.    Died  in  1824. 

Conybeare,  (Rev.  William  Daniel,)  Dean  of  Llan- 
daff,  a  distinguished  English  geologist  and  divine,  born 
near  London  in  1787.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1811, 
and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1819. 
He  discovered  the  Plesiosaurus,  an  antediluvian  mon- 
ster, and  rendered  important  services  to  the  science  of 
geology  by  his  writings  on  the  coal-fields  and  other  strata 
of  Britain.  He  published,  in  conjunction  with  W.  Phil- 
lips, "Outlines  of  the  Geology  of  England  and  Wales.'"' 
In  1839  he  preached  the  Bampton  Lectures.  He  was 
appointed  Dean  of  Llandaff  in  1845.    Died  in  1857. 

Conybeare,  (Rev.  W.  J.,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  prin- 
cipal of  the  Collegiate  Institution,  Liverpool,  In  1850- 
54  he  and  J,  S.  Howson  produced  the  "  Life  and  Epistles 
of  Saint  Paul,"  which  is  highly  esteemed.  He  is  said  to 
have  translated  nearly  all  the  Epistles  in  this  book.  He 
also  published  some  Essays,  and  Sermons  preached  in 
the  Chapel  Royal,  Whitehall,  in  1844.    Died  in  1857. 

See  "  North  British  Review"  for  February,  1S54. 

Conz  or  Konz,  konts,  (Karl  Philipp,)  a  German 
poet,  born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1762,  was  professor  at  Tii- 
bingen.  Among  his  works  is  "  Conradin,"  a  tragedy. 
Died  in  1827. 

Cooglien  or  Kooghen,  van  der,  vtn  der  ko'nen, 

(Leonard,)  a  Dutch  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Haar- 
lem in  1610;  died  in  1681. 

Cook,  kook, (Charles,)  a  British  missionary  in  France 
who  laboured  with  great  zeal  and  success,  and  became 
president  of  the  French  Weslevan  Conference.  Died 
in  1858. 

Cook,  (Eliza,)  a  popular  English  poetess,  born  in 
Southwark,  London,  in  181 7.    At  an  early  age  she  be- 
I  came  a  contributor  to  the  "  New  Monthly  Magazine"  and 


a.  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  /on£-;  k,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y, 


short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


COOK 


COOKESLET 


other  periodicals.  A  volume  of  her  poems  and  songs 
published  in  1840  was  received  with  favour.  In  1849  she 
began  to  publish  "  Eliza  Cook's  Journal,"  which  was  con- 
tinued several  years.  Among  her  popular  productions 
are  "The  Old  Arm-Chair"  and  "Home  in  the  Heart," 

Cook,  (George,)  a  Scottish  historical  writer  and  theo- 
logian, born  at  Saint  Andrew's  about  1780,  published 
a  ^'  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland,"  (3  vols., 
181 1,)  a  "  History  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,"  (3  vols., 
181 5,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1845. 

Cook,  (Captain  James,)  a  celebrated  English  circum- 
navigator, born  of  poor  parents  at  Marton,  Yorkshire,  in 
1728.  He  followed  the  sea,  in  the  coal-trade,  for  several 
years,  and  had  attained  the  position  of  mate,  when  in 
1755  he  entered  the  royal  navy  as  a  volunteer.  He  served 
as  master  of  a  sloop  at  the  capture  of  Quebec  by  Wolfe 
in  1759,  and  displayed  great  skill  in  the  formation  of  a 
chart  of  the  river  from  Quebec  to  the  sea.  In  1764  he 
was  chosen  marine  surveyor  of  Newfoundland.  Four" 
years  later  he  was  selected  to  command  a  vessel  sent  by 
government  to  the  South  Pacific  to  observe  the  transit 
of  Venus  and  make  discoveries  in  geography  and  other 
sciences.  He  sailed  in  August,  1768,  stopped  at  Tahiti 
to  observe  the  transit,  explored  the  east  coast  of  Aus- 
tralia, and,  returning  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  reached 
home  in  June,  1771,  having  performed  his  mission  with 
ability  and  success.  In  1772  he  was  again  sent,  in  the 
Resolution  and  Adventure,  to  search  for  a  Southern  con- 
tinent. He  circumnavigated  the  globe  in  high  southern 
latitudes  without  finding  the  Tet'ra  Aiistralis  ;  but  he  dis- 
covered a  large  island,  which  he  named  New  Caledonia. 
The  most  southern  point  he  reached  was  71°,  where  his 
progress  was  arrested  by  ice.  He  arrived  at  Portsmouth 
in  July,  1775,  and  ])ublished  a  Journal  of  his  voyage,  (2 
vols.,  1777,)  which  is  a  model  of  simplicity  and  precision. 
He  had  given  proof  of  remarkable  courage,  sagacity,  and 
nautical  skill  in  this  enterprise.  In  1776  he  was  chosen 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  which  gave  him  the  Copley 
Medal  for  his  services  in  preserving  the  health  of  his  crew. 
He  sailed  the  same  year  on  a  third  voyage,  in  search  of 
a  northern  passage  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific.  In 
1 778  he  discovered  the  Sandwich  Islands,  explored  Beh- 
ring  Strait,  and  advanced  northward  as  far  as  the  70th 
degree.  He  returned  to  winter  in  the  Sandwich  Islands. 
One  of  the  ship's  boats  having  been  stolen  by  the  natives 
of  Hawaii,  Captain  Cook  went  ashore  with  a  few  of  his 
men  to  recover  it.  The  violent  resistance  of  the  natives 
caused  him  to  retreat  towards  his  boat;  and,  after  firing 
in  self-defence,  he  and  four  of  his  men  were  killed  on  the 
shore,  February  14,  1779. 

See  A.  Kippis,  "Life  of  Captain  James  Cook,"  17S8;  George 
Young,  "Life  and  Voyaees  of  Captain  J.  Cook,"  1836;  Hartley 
Coleridge,  "Lives  of  Distinguished  Northerns,"  vol.  iii.  ;  Van 
1'enac,  "  Histoire  generale  de  la  ALirine  ;"  J.  H.  WieumaniN, 
'"Leben  und  Schicksale  des  Capitans  J.  Cook,"  2  vols.,  1789-90. 

Cook,  (John,)  an  American  officer,  born  in  Saint 
Clair'county,  Illinois,  in  1825.  He  commanded  a  brigade 
at  Fort  Donelson,  and  became  a  brigadier-general  in  1862. 

Cooke,  kook,  (Sir  Anthony,)  an  English  scholar, 
grandfather  of  Lord  Bacon,  born  about  1506,  was  emi- 
nent for  learning  and  virtue.  He  was  appointed  tutor 
of  Edward  VI.  As  a  Protestant,  he  was  exiled  during 
the  reign  of  Mary,  and  returned  home  about  1558.  Died 
in  1576.  His  daughters  were  noted  for  their  classical 
acquirements.  Mildred  was  married  to  Lord  Burleigh, 
Anne  to  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  the  father  of  Lord  Bacon, 
and  Elizabeth  to  the  son  of  the  Earl  of  Bedford. 

Cooke,  (Benj.amin,)  an  English  musical  composer 
and  organist,  born  in  London  in  1739,  was  a  pupil  of 
Pepusch.  From  1752  to  1789  he  was  conductor  of  the 
Academy  of  Ancient  Music.  In  1762  he  was  appointed 
organist  of  Westminster  Abbey.  He  composed  anthems 
and  other  admired  pieces  of  sacred  music,  and  several 
popular  glees,  among  which  are  "  How  Sleep  the  Brave," 
"  In  the  Merry  Month  of  Mav,"  etc.    Died  in  1793. 

Cooke,  (Ei.iZAiiETH.)    See  Ru.ssell,  Lady. 

Cooke,  (George,)  a  skilful  English  engraver,  born 
in  London  in  1781.  He  engraved  numerous  landscapes 
and  scenes  on  the  coast  of  England,  and  in  partnership 
with  his  brother,  William  B.,  published  several  illustrated 
works,  among  which  is  "The  Southern  Coast  of  Eng- 
land."   Died  in  1834. 


Cooke,  (Sir  George,)  a  British  officer,  born  in  1767, 
served  in  the  Peninsula  in  181 1,  1812,  and  1813,  and 
became  a  major-general.  He  commanded  a  division  of 
the  Guards  at  Waterloo,  where  he  lost  his  right  arm. 
Died  in  1837. 

Cooke,  (George  Frederick,)  a  popular  English 
actor,  was  born  in  Westminster  in  1755.  He  made  his 
debut  the  Haymarket,  in  London,  in  1778,  soon  after 
which  he  went  to  Dublin,  where  he  performed  with  great 
success  for  many  years.  In  1800  he  returned  to  London, 
and  acted  Richard  HI.,  lago,  etc.  with  great  applause. 
For  several  years  Cooke  and  J.  Kemble  were  the  chief 
favourites  of  the  London  stage.  In  18 10  he  crossed  the 
ocean  to  New  York,  where  he  died  in  181 2.  His  death 
was  hastened  by  intemperance. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  George  Frederick  Cooke,"  by  Wil- 
liam Dunlap,  1813. 

Cooke,  (George  Wingrove,)  a  British  lawyer  and 
writer,  born  in  1814,  edited  a  "Life  of  Lord  Shaftes- 
bury," (1836,)  and  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  Lord  Bolingbroke," 
(2  vols.,  1835,)  a  "  History  of  Party,"  (2d  edition,  1840,) 
which  is  commended,  and  several  legal  treatises,  (1844- 
52.)  After  a  visit  to  China  in  1857,  he  published  "China 
and  Lower  Bengal."    Died  in  1865. 

Cooke  or  Cook,  (Henry,)  an  English  painter,  born 
in  1642,  was  a  pupil  of  Salvator  Rosa.  He  was  em- 
ployed by  the  king  to  restore  the  cartoons  of  Raphael. 
Died  in  1700. 

See  Walpole,  "  Anecdotes  of  Painting  in  England." 

Cooke,  kook,  (John  Esten,)  a  novelist  and  lawyer, 
son  of  John  Rodgers  Cooke,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Winchester,  Virginia,  in  1830.  He  contributed  to 
several  periodicals,  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Leather  Stocking  and  Silk,"  (1854,)  "The  Virginia 
Comedians,"  (1854,)  and  "The  Last  of  the  Foresters," 
(1856.) 

Cooke,  (John  Rodgers,)  an  American  lawyer,  born 
in  Bermuda  in  1788.  He  practised  with  distinction  in 
Virginia  for  many  years.  In  1829  he  was  associated 
with  John  Marshall  and  Ex-President  Madison  in  the 
committee  which  drafted  the  Constitution  of  Virginia. 
Died  in  1854. 

Cooke,  (Philip  Pendleton,)  an  American  poet,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Martinsburg,  Virginia, 
in  1 8 16.  He  graduated  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  and 
studied  law.  He  wrote,  besides  other  poems,  "Florence 
Vane,"  "Rosa  Lee,"  and  "Chevalier  Merlin."  He  con- 
tributed to  the  "  Southern  Literary  Messenger."  Died 
in  1850. 

Cooke,  (Philip  Saint  George,)  an  officer,  a  brother 
of  John  Rodgers,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Virginia 
in  1809.  He  defeated  the  Comanches  in  New  Mexico 
in  1855,  and  had  a  high  command  in  Kaiisas  about 
1857.  He  afterwards  served  in  the  expedition  against 
the  Mormons. 

Cooke,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Braintree 
about  1705.  He  composed  the  "Battle  of  the  Poets,"  a 
poem,  and  translated  Hesiod  and  Plautus.  Pope,  whom 
he  had  offended  in  his  writings,  avenged  himself  on  him 
in  the  "Dunciad."    Died  in  1756. 

See  J.  Mawbey,  "Life  of  Thomas  Cooke." 

Cooke,  (William,)  a  poet  of  considerable  merit,  born 
at  Cork,  became  a  resident  of  London  and  adopted  the 
profession  of  author.  His  poem  entitled  the  "Art  of 
Living  in  London"  was  received  with  favour,  and  was 
followed  by  a  prose  "Essay  on  the  Elements  of  Dra- 
matic Criticism."  In  1796  he  produced  an  admired 
didactic  poem,  entitled  "Conversation,"  which  is  his 
principal  work.    Died  in  1824. 

Cooke,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer  and 
writer  on  law,  born  in  London  in  1757.  About  1786  he 
published  a  "System  of  Bankrupt  Laws,"  which  was 
long  the  standard  upon  the  subject,  but  is  now  obsolete. 
Died  in  1832. 

Cooke,  (William  Fothergill,)  an  Englishman, 
born  in  Middlesex  in  1806,  was  a  partner  of  iProfessor 
Wheatstone,  and  constructed  the  first  magnetic  tele- 
graph in  England,  in  1838-39. 

Cookesley,  kdoks'le,  (Rev.  William  Gifford,)  an 
English  classical  scholar,  born  in  Kent  in  1802.  He 
edited  Pindar,  (1842-49,)  and  published  some  essays. 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


coo  KM  AN 


662 


COOPER 


Cookman,  kook'nian,  (George  G.,)  an  eloquent 
Methodist  divine,  born  in  Kingston-upou-Hull,  England, 
in  1800,  came  to  America  in  1821.  He  was  twice  elected 
chaplain  to  Congress.  In  March,  1841,  he  embarked  for 
7Curope  in  the  ocean-steamer  President,  which  was  never 
Afterwards  heard  of. 

Cookson,  kook'son,  (George,)  an  English  general, 
born  in  Hampshire  in  1760.  He  directed  the  artillery 
at  the  siege  of  Aboukir  about  1798,  and  took  part  in 
the  Walcheren  expedition  in  1809.  In  1830  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.    Died  in  1835. 

Coo'ley,  (Thomas,)  an  Irish  architect,  born  in  1740. 
He  designed  the  Royal  Exchange  of  Dublin,  one  of  the 
noblest  edifices  of  that  city,  erected  about  1770.  He  was 
the  first  architect  of  the  "Four  Courts,"  which  he  did 
n  ^t  live  to  finish.    Died  in  1784. 

Coolhaas,  koKhass,  (Caspar,)  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Cologne  in  1536;  died  in  1615. 

Coomans,  ko^nSns  or  l«/m6N',  (Jean  Bapi  iste  Ni- 
colas,) a  Belgian  writer,  born  at  Brussels  in  1813.  He 
edited  the  "Journal  of  Brussels"  from  1841  to  1845,  ^'^^^ 
the  "Courier  of  Antwerp"  from  1845  to  1848.  He  pub- 
lished a  "History  of  Belgium,"  (1836,)  and  other  works. 

His  brother,  Pierre  Olivier  Joseph,  born  in  1816, 
gained  distinction  as  a  painter  of  history,  genre,  etc. 

Coombe,  koom,  (William,)  an  ingenious  English 
writer,  born  at  Bristol  in  1741.  Having  spent  a  hand- 
some fortune  in  fashionable  dissipation,  he  was  reduced 
to  the  necessity  of  writing  for  a  subsistence.  He  excelled 
in  humour  and  satire,  and  published  several  successful 
works,  namely,  "The  Diaboliad,"  a  poem,  "The  Dance 
of  Life,"  "Tour  of  Dr.  Syntax  in  Search  of  the  Pictu- 
resque," and  "  Tour  of  Dr.  Syntax  in  Search  of  a  Wife." 
The  last  two  are  in  verse.    Died  in  1822. 

See  R.  Hawker,  "Life  of  William  Coombe,"  1802. 

Cooninxloo,  de,  deh  k5'ninks-l5',  written  also  Co- 
nigsloo  and  Coniiigsloo,  (Gilles,)  an  eminent  Flemish 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1544.  After  work- 
ing some  years  in  Paris,  he  settled  in  Antwerp,  and  was 
patronized  by  the  King  of  Spain  and  the  emperor.  "  He 
was,"  says  the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  "the  greatest 
landscape-painter  of  his  time." 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Cooper,  (Anthony  Ashley.)  See  Shaftesbury, 
Earl  of. 

Coo'per,  (Sir  Astley  Paston,)  a  celebrated  English 
surgeon,  was  born  at  Brooke,  in  Norfolk,  in  1768.  He 
went  in  1784  to  London,  wdiere  he  studied  under  Mr. 
Cline,  who  in  1791  employed  him  as  assistant  in  his 
lectures.  In  1792  he  attended  lectures  in  Paris.  He 
was  chosen  surgeon  of  Guy's  Hospital  in  1800,  and  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1805.  His  reputation 
was  greatly  extended  by  the  publication  of  his  work  on 
Hernia,  (1804-07,)  and  a  few  years  later  he  had  acquired 
an  immense  practice.  His  annual  income  is  said  to  have 
amounted  to  1,000.  He  was  employed  by  George  IV. 
in  1820,  and  was  made  a  baronet  in  1821.  In  1822  he 
published  an  important  work  "  On  Dislocations  and 
Fractures."  He  was  appointed  surgeon  to  the  king  in 
1828.  He  published  the  "Anatomy  and  Diseases  of  the 
Breast,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1841. 

See  B.  B.  Cooper,  "Life  of  Sir  Astley  P.  Cooper,"  1843;  "Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1843;  "Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  April,  1849;  G.  Coen,  "  Biografia  scientifica  di  Sir  A.  Cooper," 
Venice,  1841 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Ginerale." 

Cooper,  (Bransby  B.,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
born  about  1792,  was  for  many  years  surgeon  to  Guy's 
Hospital.  He  published  "Lectures  on  Anatomy,"  and 
"The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Surgery,"  (1851,)  and  a 
"Life  of  Sir  Astley  P.  Cooper,"  (1843.)    Died  in  1853. 

Coo'per,  (James,)  an  American  general  and  Senator, 
born  in  Frederick  county,  Maryland,  about  1810.  He 
studied  law,  settled  in  Pennsylvania,  and  was  elected  to 
Congress  as  a  Whig  about  1840.  He  represented  Penn- 
sylvania in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  from  1849 
to  1855.  became  a  brigadier-general  of  the  Union 

army  in  1861,  and  served  in  several  actions.  He  died  at 
Colnmbus,  Ohio,  in  March,  1863. 

Cooper,  (James  Fenimor?:,)  a  popular  American 
novelist,  born  at  Burlington,  New  Jersey,  in  September, 
1789,  was  a  son  of  Judge  William  Cooper.  His  mother's 


maiden  name  was  Fenimore.  About  1790  his  father  set- 
tled at  Cooperstown,  which  he  founded  on  the  shore  of 
Lake  Otsego,  New  York,  where  he  owned  a  large  tract 
of  land,  then  covered  with  forests  and  lying  on  the  fron- 
tier of  civilization.  He  entered  Yale  College  in  1802, 
remained  there  about  three  years,  and  became  a  midship- 
man in  the  navy  in  1806.  Having  retired  from  the  navy 
in  1811,  he  married  Susan  De  Lancey,  of  New  York, 
a  sister  of  Bishop  De  Lancey.  His  first  literary  pro- 
duction was  "Precaution,"  a  novel,  (1819,)  which  was 
inferior  to  his  later  works.  He  published  next  "The 
Spy,  a  Tale  of  the  Neutral  Ground,"  founded  on  inci- 
dents connected  with  the  Revolutionary  war,  which 
was  very  successful  and  was  republished  in  many  parts 
of  Europe.  It  was  translated  into  several  languages. 
"He  has  the  high  praise,"  says  the  "North  American 
Review,"  "and  will  have,  we  may  add,  the  future  glory, 
of  having  struck  into  a  new  path, — of  having  opened  a 
mine  of  exhaustless  wealth.  In  a  word,  he  has  laid  the 
foundations  of  American  romance."  In  1823  he  pro- 
duced "The  Pioneers"  and  "The  Pilot,"  which  were  also 
very  popular.  His  next  novels  were  "Lionel  Lincoln" 
and  "The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,"  (1826,)  in  which  Indian 
life  and  character  were  well  represented.  During  a  visit 
to  Europe  he  published  "The  Prairie,"  (1827,)  "The 
Red  Rover,"  (1827,)  "The  Wept  of  Wish-ton- Wish," 
(1829,)  "The  Bravo,"  (1831,)  and  other  works.  Alluding 
to  his  admirable  delineations  of  life  at  sea  in  the  "  Pilot" 
and  the  "Red  Rover,"  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  says, 
"The  empire  of  the  sea  has  been  conceded  to  him  by 
acclamation."  He  satirized  the  foibles  of  his  own  coun- 
trymen in  "The  Monikins,"  (1835,)  "  Homeward  Bound," 
(1838,)  and  "  Home  as  Found,"  (1838,)  which  were  not  so 
popular  as  his  former  works.  In  1839  he  published  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Navy  of  the  United  States,"  which  is  a  work 
of  much  labour  and  some  merit.  Among  his  later  works 
are  "The  Pathfinder,"  (1840,)  "The  Deerslayer,"  (1841,) 
"  Wingand  Wing,"  (1842,)  "  Wyandotte,"  ( 1843,)  "Afloat 
and  Ashore,"  (1844,)  "The  Chain-Bearer,"  (1845,)  "Oak 
Openings,"  (1848,)  and  "The  Ways  of  the  Hour,"  (1850.) 
Lie  died  at  Cooperstown  in  September,  1851.  "His 
writings,"  says  William  H.  Prescott,  "are  instinct  with 
the  spirit  of  nationality.  In  his  productions  every  Ameri- 
can must  take  an  honest  pride.  For  surely  no  one  has 
succeeded  like  Cooper  in  the  portraiture  of  American 
character,  or  has  given  such  glowing  and  eminently  truth- 
ful pictures  of  American  scenery."  "The  same  sort  of 
magical  authority  over  the  spirit  of  romance,"  says  the 
"  North  American  Review"  for  July,  1826,  "  which  belongs 
in  common  to  Scott,  Radcliffe,  Walpole,  and  our  coun- 
tryman Brown,  is,  for  us  at  least,  possessed  by  this  writer 
in  an  eminent  degree."  "  We  consider  Mr.  Cooper,"  says 
the  same  authority,  (April,  1831,)  "as  possessing  in  a  very 
high  degree  the  first  qualification  to  which  we  have  ad- 
verted,— that  of  power  in  description.  ...  It  is,  however, 
most  strikingly  displayed  in  one  department,  in  which  no- 
body has  preceded  him  or  has  yet  attempted  to  become 
his  rival.  Whatever  opinion  may  be  entertained  of  his 
success  in  other  respects,  all  will  agree  that  his  boldest 
and  most  triumphant  march  is  on  the  mountain  wave. 
He  treads  the  deck  with  the  same  conscious  pride  with 
which  the  Highland  outlaw  stood  upon  his  native 
heath."  "He  wrote  for  mankind  at  large,"  says  W.  C. 
Bryant:  "hence  it  is  that  he  has  earned  a  fame  wider 
than  any  [American]  author  of  modern  times.  The 
creations  of  his  genius  shall  survive  through  centuries  to 
come,  and  only  perish  with  our  language." 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America ;"  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  1816  and  1837  ;  "  North  American  Review"  for 
July,  1822,  July,  1826,  July,  1828,  January,  1838,  January,  1852,  and 
October,  1859;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Ameri- 
cans," vol.  i.;  A LLi bone's  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Atlantic 
Monthly,"  January,  1862. 

Cooper,  (John  Gilbert,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
Nottinghamshire  in  1723,  was  educated  at  Cambridge. 
His  principal  works  are  "The  Power  of  Harmony,"  a 
poem,  (1745,)  a  "Life  of  Socrates,"  (1749,)  and  "Letters 
on  Taste,"  (1754,)  which  are  commended  for  splendour 
of  style  and  imagery.    Died  in  1769. 

Cooper,  (Peter,)  a  benevolent  and  enterprising 
American  manufacturer,  born  in  the  city  of  New  Yori 
in  1 791.    He  conducted  with  success  various  industrial 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  far,  fdll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


COOPER 


663 


COPE 


enterprises  on  a  large  scale.  He  founded  in  his  native 
city  the  "  Cooper  Institute,"  devoted  to  the  instruction 
and  improvement  of  the  working-classes,  at  a  cost  of 
^^500,000  or  more. 

Cooper,  (Richard,)  a  painter,  called  "  the  British 
Poussin,"  studied  in  Italy,  and  excelled  in  landscapes. 
Died  after  1806. 

Cooper,  (Richard,)  an  English  designer  and  en- 
graver, born  in  1730,  studied  in  Paris  under  Le  Bas. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "View  of  Saint  Peter's,  at  Rome." 
Died  about  1820. 

Cooper,  (Samuel,)  an  eminent  English  miniature- 
painter,  born  in  London  in  1609.  He  was  a  pupil  of  his 
uncle,  John  Hoskins.  He  surpassed  all  the  artists  in 
his  line  during  the  Commonwealth  and  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.,  and  painted  an  admirable  portrait  of  Crom- 
well, which  was  engraved  by  Vertue.  He  visited  France, 
where  he  painted  many  celebrated  men.  His  works  are 
still  highly  prized.    Died  in  1672. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Cooper,(SAMUEL,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  American  divine, 
born  in  Boston  in  1725,  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1743, 
and  in  1746  succeeded  his  father  as  pastor  of  the  church 
in  Brattle  Street,  Boston.  He  soon  became  known  as 
one  of  the  most  accomplished  orators  and  scholars  in 
New  England.  He  was  intimate  with  Franklin  and 
Adams,  and  an  influential  patriot  in  the  Revolution. 
He  was  active  in  establishing  in  Boston  the  American 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  of  which  he  was  chosen 
the  first  vice-president  in  1780.    Died  in  1783. 

Cooper,  (Samuel,)  an  American  general,  born  in  the 
State  of  New  York  about  1795,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1815.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1836,  and 
served  in  the  Mexican  war  as  assistant  adjutant-general, 
1846-47.  In  1852  he  became  adjutant-general,  with  the 
rank  of  colonel.  He  resigned  his  commission  in  March, 
1861,  and  offered  his  services  to  Jefferson  Davis,  who 
appointed  him  adjutant-general.  He  held  throughout 
the  civil  war  the  rank  of  full  general, — the  highest  in  the 
Confederate  army. 

See  "Southern  Generals,"  (anonymous,)  New  York,  1865. 

Cooper,  (  Samuel,  )  a  distinguished  surgeon  and 
medical  writer  of  London,  was  born  about  1780.  He 
published,  in  1807,  "First  Lines  of  the  Practice  of  Sur- 
gery," which  passed  through  seven  or  more  editions.  He 
afterwards  produced  a  "  Dictionary  of  Practical  Surgery," 
(1809,)  and  other  professional  works.    Died  in  1848. 

Cooper,  (Susan  Fenimore,)  an  American  authoress, 
a  daughter  of  James  Fenimore  Cooper,  was  born  about 
1825.  In  1850  she  published  an  attractive  and  popular 
work  entitled  "  Rural  Hours."  Among  her  other  pro- 
ductions is  "  Rhyme  and  Reason  of  Country  Life,"  (1854.) 

Cooper  or  Cou'per,  (Thomas,)  a  learned  English 
divine  and  eminent  preacher,  born  at  Oxford  about  15 17, 
became  Bishop  of  Lincoln  in  1570,  and  of  Winchester 
in  1584.  He  published  some  sermons,  an  "Epitome  of 
Chronicles,"  and  a  valuable  "  Latin  Dictionary."  Died 
in  1594. 

Cooper,  (Thomas,)  a  natural  philosopher  and  lawyer, 
born  in  London  in  1759,  emigrated  with  his  friend  Dr. 
Priestley  to  America  about  1792.  He  was  a  zealous  and 
active  Democrat,  and  wrote  political  essays,  etc.  In 
1820  he  became  president  of  Columbia  College,  South 
Carolina,  where  he  was  also  professor  of  chemistry. 
Died  in  1840. 

Cooper,  (Thomas  Arthorpe,)  an  English  tragedian, 
born  in  1776,  performed  with  success  in  England  and 
America.    Died  in  Pennsylvania  in  1849. 

Cooper,  (Thomas  Sidney,)  an  English  painter  of 
animals,  was  born  at  Canterbury  in  1803.  He  rose  from 
a  humble  position,  and  acquired  the  art  of  drawing 
almost  without  the  aid  of  masters.  About  1820  he  began 
to  paint  scenery  for  the  theatre  of  Canterbury.  Having 
studied  the  works  of  the  Dutch  and  Flemish  schools,  he 
devoted  himself  to  animal-painting  with  great  success. 
His  favourite  subjects  are  cattle  and  sheep,  in  the 
representation  of  which  he  is  perhaps  unrivalled  by  any 
British  artist.  He  was  chosen  an  associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1845. 

See  "Autobiographic  Memoir"  in  the  "Art  Journal"  for  Novem- 
ber, 1849. 


Coopmaiis,  kop'mans,  (Gadso,)  a  Dutch  physician, 
son  of  George,  noticed  below,  born  in  1746,  was  pro- 
fessor at  Franeker,  Kiel,  and  Copenhagen.  He  wrote  a 
Latin  poem  of  merit  on  the  small-pox,  "Varis,  sive 
Carmen  de  Variolis."    Died  at  Amsterdam  in  1810. 

Coopmans,  (George,)  a  distinguished  Dutch  physi- 
cian, born  at  Makkum  in  171 7,  published  a  work  entitled 
"  Neurologia,"  (1789.)    Died  in  1800. 

Coornhert.    See  Cornhert. 

Coote,  koot,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  Irish  judge,  who  pro- 
moted the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  in  1660,  and  was 
made  Earl  of  Montrath.    Died  in  1661. 

Coote,  (Sir  Eyre,)  a  British  general,  born  in  Ireland 
in  1726.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Plassey,  in  India,  in  1757.  Returning  to  England  in 
1762,  he  was  thanked  by  the  Commons  for  the  capture 
of  Pondicherry.  In  1780  he  was  appointed  a  member 
of  the  supreme  council,  and  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  in  Bengal.  In  that  year  he  completely  defeated 
Hyder  Ali  at  Porto  Novo.    Died  near  Madras  in  1783. 

Cootwyk,  kot'\^Tk,  sometimes  written  Cootwich, 
(John,)  a  Dutch  traveller,  born  at  Utrecht.  He  travelled 
in  France,  Italy,  Syria,  Palestine,  etc.,  and  published  in 
1619  an  account  of  those  countries. 

Cop,  kop,  (Guillaume,)  a  Swiss  physician,  born  at 
Bale,  tinished  his  studies  in  Paris,  and  graduated  in  1495. 
He  was  successively  chief  physician  of  Louis  XII.  and  of 
P^rancis  I.  Though  he  published  no  original  work,  he 
rendered  great  services  to  medical  science  by  his  trans- 
lations of  Hippocrates,  and  of  Galen's  "  Treatise  on  the 
Causes  and  Differences  of  Diseases  and  Symptoms." 
Died  in  1532. 

See  M.  Adam,  "  Vitae  Eruditorum." 

Cope,  (Sir  Anthony,)  an  English  scholar,  was  the 
author  of  a  "  History  of  Annibal  and  Scipio,"  (1544.) 
Died  in  1551. 

Cope,  (Charles  Wesi  ,)  an  English  historical  painter, 
born  at  Leeds  about  1812,  was  the  son  of  a  drawing- 
master.  He  studied  in  the  Royal  Academy,  in  which 
he  began  to  exhibit  in  1831.  His  cartoon  of  "The 
First  Trial  by  Jury"  gained  a  prize  of  three  hundred 
pounds  awarded  by  the  Royal  Commission  of  the  Fine 
Arts  in  1843.  After  that  date  he  painted  with  success 
several  frescos  in  the  House  of  Lords.  Among  his  chief 
oil-paintings  are  "Lear  and  Cordelia,"  (1850,)  and 
"Othello  relating  his  Adventures,"  (1853.)  He  was 
elected  Royal  Academician  in  1848. 

Cope,  (Henry,)  an  Irish  ])hysician,  who  lived  about 
1690-1740,  studied  under  Boerhaave  at  Leyden,  and 
practised  with  success  in  Dublin. 

Cope,  (Sir  John,)  a  British  general,  the  time  and 
place  of  whose  birth  are  unknown.  He  was  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  in  Scotland  when  the  rebellion  of 
1745  began.  At  the  first  approach  of  the  Pretender's 
army,  Cope  retired  from  the  Highlands  southward.  The 
rebels  took  Edinburgh,  and  a  few  days  later  routed  the 
king's  army  at  Prestonpans,  September,  1745.  General 
Cope  was  much  censured  for  hi:;  conduct  on  this  oc- 
casion, and  was  superseded  in  the  command.  Died 
in  1760. 

Cope,  (Thomas  Pym,)  a  distinguished  merchant  of 
Philadelphia,  born  in  Lancaster  county,  Pennsylvania, 
August  26,  1768.  His  parents  were  "Friends,"  and  he 
was  educated  in  the  principles  of  that  society.  He 
commenced  business  in  Philadelphia  in  1790.  In  1807 
he  built  his  first  ship,  which  he  named  in  honour  of  his 
native  county,  Lancaster.  In  182 1  he  established  the 
first  regular  line  of  packet-ships  between  Philadelphia 
and  Liverpool.  This  line,  we  may  remark  in  passing, 
was  sustained  through  all  those  adverse  circumstances 
which  for  a  time  threatened  the  destruction  of  the  foreign 
commerce  of  Philadelphia,  and  continued  in  full  vigour 
until  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war.  When  Thomas  P. 
Cope  retired  from  business,  it  passed  into  the  hands 
of  his  sons,  (Henry  and  Alfred  Cope,)  and  afterwards 
into  those  of  the  Cope  Brothers,  (Francis  and  Thomas  P., 
sons  of  Henry  Cope.) 

To  the  foresight,  liberality,  and  indefatigable  energy 
of  Thomas  P.  Cope,  Philadelphia  was  principally  in- 
debted for  her  first  abundant  supply  of  pure  water  from 
the  Schuylkill,  before  her  increasing  population  rendered 


€  as 9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K.guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


COPELAND 


the  present  extensive  water-works  a  necessity.  The 
water  was  pumped  from  the  river  by  means  of  a  steam- 
engine,  and  conveyed  to  a  reservoir  in  a  building  at  the 
intersection  of  Broad  and  High  Streets,  whence  it  was 
distributed  by  pipes  to  different  parts  of  the  city.  This 
plan  was  first  carried  into  operation  in  1801.  Mr.  Cope 
was  for  many  years  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  of 
Philadelphia;  he  was  also  one  of  the  originators  and 
principal  promoters  of  the  Mercantile  I.iljrary,  of  which 
he  was  president  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century. 
He  closed  his  long  and  useful  life  November  22,  1854, 
leaving  a  high  character  for  spotless  integrity  as  well  as 
for  commercial  ability.  Edward  D.  Cope,  an  eminent 
naturalist,  author  of  the  "Origin  of  Genera,"  "Extinct 
Batrachia  and  Reptilia  of  North  America,"  etc.,  is  a 
grandson  of  Thomas  P.  Cope,  and  a  son  of  Alfred  Cope. 

See  Hunt's  "Lives  of  American  Mercliants,"  vol.  i. 

Copeland,  kop'land,  (Thomas,)  an  English  surgeon, 
born  about  1780,  practised  in  London,  and  published 
several  professional  works.    Died  in  1855. 

Copernic,    See  Copernicus. 

Co-per'ni-cus  or  Koper'nicus,  the  Latinized  form 
of  Kopernik  or  Copernic,  [Fr.  pron.  ko'pgR^n^k^j 
written  also  Zeperilic  and  Zopernic,  (Nicholas,)  a 
celebrated  astronomer,  the  author  of  the  Copernican  Sys- 
tem, was  born,  according  to  the  best  authorities,  at  Thorn, 
in  Prussia,  in  February,  1473.  After  learning  Greek  ancl 
Latin  at  home,  he  pursued  his  studies  at  Cracow,  where 
he  gave  attention  to  j^hilosophy,  medicine,  mathematics, 
design,  and  astronomy.  At  the  age  of  twenty-three  he 
visited  Italy,  formed  an  intimacy  with  Regiomontanus, 
and  obtained  at  Rome  a  chair  of  mathematics,  which 
he  filled  with  high  reputation  for  a  few  years.  Having 
returned  to  his  native  land,  he  was  appointed  canon  of 
Frauenburg  by  his  uncle,  the  Bishop  of  Warmia.  Thence- 
forth his  time  was  spent  in  his  religious  services,  in 
astronomical  studies,  and  in  gratuitous  visits  to  the  poor 
who  required  medical  aid. 

Observing  the  complexity  and  discordance  of  the 
systems  of  astronomy  then  received,  he  began  to  com- 
pare them  with  each  other  and  with  the  celestial  pro- 
cesses of  nature,  in  order  to  found  a  system  more  simple, 
symmetrical,  and  stable.  He  knew  that  the  Pythagoreans 
favoured  the  theory  that  the  sun  was  the  centre  of  the 
system,  and  that  Philolaus  had  given  the  earth  a  rotation 
on  its  axis  in  addition  to  its  motion  around  the  sun  ;  but 
these  sublime  paradoxes  were  combated  by  ancient  pre- 
judices, and  were  apparently  negatived  by  the  dictates 
of  common  sense.  After  he  had  adopted  his  own  system, 
he  spent  many  years  in  proving  it  by  observations  and 
calculations,  and  he  then  expounded  his  beautiful  theory 
and  discoveries,  in  a  work  entitled  "The  Revolutions  of 
the  Celestial  Orbs,"  ("De  Orbium  Celestium  Revolu- 
tionibus,")  which  appears  to  have  been  finished  about 
1530.  Although  he  was  assured  that  he  had  solved  the 
grandest  problem  which  pertains  to  astronomy,  he  de- 
layed to  publish  his  work,  probably  from  a  presentiment 
of  the  persecution  which  is  reserved  for  great  reformers 
and  innovators.  His  theory,  which  he  was  careful  to 
propound  as  a  hypothesis,  was  accepted  as  true  by  sev- 
eral astronomers,  and,  after  much  persuasion  on  the  part 
of  his  friends,  he  consented  to  print  the  work  in  1543, 
with  a  dedication  to  the  pope.  While  it  was  in  the  press 
at  Nuremberg,  he  approached  the  end  of  his  career;  and 
he  died  on  the  same  day  that  he  received  the  first  copy, 
(May  24,  1543,)  having  only  strength  sufficient  to  touch 
it  with  his  hand.  The  progress  of  his  system,  even 
among  astronomers,  was  extremely  slow,  and  the  clergy 
and  the  masses  were  generally  hostile  to  it.  "The  whole 
weight  of  Aristotle's  name,"  says  Hallam,  "  which  in 
the  sixteenth  century  not  only  biassed  the  judgment  but 
engaged  the  passions,  connected  as  it  was  with  general 
orthodoxy  and  preservation  of  established  systems,  was 
thrown  into  the  scale  against  Copernicus.  It  must  be 
confessed  that  the  strongest  presumptions  in  favour  of 
his  system  were  not  discovered  by  himself.  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  passages  in  Copernicus  is  his  conjecture 
that  gravitation  was  not  a  central  tendency,  but  an 
attraction  common  to  matter,  and  probably  extending  to 
the  heavenly  bodies."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe.")    It  is  proper  to  observe  that  the  system 


COQUILLE 


which  bears  his  name  has  received  important  modifica- 
tions since  his  time  by  the  genius  of  Galileo,  Newton,  etc. 

See  Gasshndi,  "Vita  Coperiiici,"  1654;  Percy,  '"Notice  bio- 
graphique  siir  Copernic,"  1824;  Sniadkcki,  "  Discours  siir  N. 
Copernik,"  Warsaw,  1803;  D.  Szule,  "  Hiographie  de  Kopernik," 
1855;  L.  Pkowh,  "Ziir  Biogi-aphie  von  N.  Copernicus,"  1853;  West- 
piiAL,  "  N.  Copernicus,"  Constance,  1822;  Czvnski,  "Kopernik  at 
ses  Travaiix,"  1846;  F.  Akago,  "  Eloge  de  Copernic." 

CopTand,  (James,)  an  eminent  Scottish  physician, 
born  at  Deerness,  in  one  of  the  Orkney  Isles,  in  1792, 
settled  in  London  about  181 8.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  an  excellent  "Dictionary  of  Practical  Medi- 
cine," (3  vols.,  1833-58,)  a  work  of  great  labour  and 
research.    Died  in  1870. 

Copleston,  kop'el-ston,  (Edward,)  D.D.,  an  English 
bishop,  born  in  Devonshire  in  1776.  He  became  a  Fel- 
low of  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  in  1795,  and  professor  of 
poetry  in  the  university  in  1802.  In  1813  he  published, 
in  elegant  Latin,  his  "Academic  Lectures,"  ("  Praelec- 
tiones  Academicae,")  which  were  much  admired.  He 
wrote  an  "  Enquiry  into  the  Doctrines  of  Predestination," 
(1821.)  In  1827  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Llandaff, 
and  Dean  of  Saint  Paul's,  London.    Died  in  1849. 

See  Wit.LiAM  James  Copi.eston,  "Memoirs  of  E.  Copleston, 
with  Selections  from  liis  Diary,"  etc.,  1851  ;  Richard  Whatei.v, 
"Remains  of  the  late  Edward  Copleston,"  etc.,  1854;  "  P'raser's 
Magazine"  for  September,  1851  ;  "North  British  Review"  for  Feb- 
ruary, 1852. 

CopTey,  (John  Singleton,)  an  eminent  historical 
painter,  born  at  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  1737.  He  is 
said  to  have  had  no  instructor  except  nature.  He  exhibited 
at  the  Royal  Academy  of  London,  in  1760,  a  picture  of 
a  "Boy  and  Tame  Squirrel,"  which  was  greatly  admired. 
In  1774  he  visited  Italy,  and  in  the  next  year  became  a 
resident  of  London,  where  he  painted  portraits  and  his- 
torical subjects  with  success.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1783.  "The  Death  of  Lord 
Chatham"  is  one  of  his  chief  productions.  He  died  in 
18 1 5,  leaving  a  son,  who  became  Lord  Lyndhurst,  and 
chancellor  of  England. 

See  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Copley,  (John  S.)    See  Lyndhurst. 
Coppetta.    See  Beccuti. 
Coq.    See  Lecoq. 

Coqueau  or  Cocqueau,  ko'ko',  (Claude  Phili- 
BERT,)  a  French  architect,  born  at  Dijon  in  1755.  He 
was  guillotined  in  1794. 

Coquebert  de  Montbret,  kok^baiR'  deh  miN'bRi', 
(Charles  Etienne,)  Baron,  a  French  mineralogist 
and  botanist,  born  in  Paris  in  1755  ;  died  in  1831. 

See  SiLVESTKE,  "Notice  sur  le  Baron  Coquebert  de  Montbret," 
1832. 

Coquelin,  kok'l^N',  (Charles,)  a  French  economist, 
born  at  Dunkirk  in  1803,  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
one  on  "Credit  and  Banks,"  (1848.)    Died  in  1852. 

See  MoLiNARi,  "Notice  sur  C.  Coquelin,"  1853. 

Coquereau,  kok'ro',  (  Fj^lix,  )  a  popular  French 
preacher,  born  in  1808,  published  "Souvenirs  of  Saint 
Helena." 

Coquerel,  kok'r^K,  (Athanase  Laurent  Charles,) 
a  French  Protestant  divine,  born  in  Paris  in  1795.  He 
began  to  preach  in  Paris  about  1830,  and  became  eminent 
as  a  pulpit  orator.  He  was  elected  in  1848  to  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly,  in  which  he  voted  with  the  moderate 
republicans.  His  religious  opinions  were  liberal.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Sacred  Biography," 
(1837,)  "Modern  Orthodoxy,"  (1842,)  and  many  volumes 
of  sermons.    Died  in  1868. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  May,  1838. 

Coquerel,  (Charles  Augustin,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  "  Revue  Britannique,"  and  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  English  Literature,"  (1828.)    Died  in  1851. 

Coques,  kok,  (  Gonzales,  )  a  Flemish  miniature- 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  161 8.  He  imitated  Van 
Dyck  with  success,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his 
portraits.  He  was  employed  by  Charles  I.  of  England, 
and  other  princes.    Died  about  1684. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Coquille,  ko'k^F  or  ko'ke^,  [Lat.  Conchyl'ius,] 
(Gui,)  Sieur  de  Romenay,  a  meritorious  French  jurist, 


664 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohscia-e;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moonr 


CORAM 


665 


CORD AT 


born  at  Decize  about  1524.  He  advocated  civil  and  re- 
ligious liberty  in  his  writings,  among  which  are  a  "  Treat- 
ise on  the  Liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church,"  and  several 
Latin  poems.  He  was  a  friend  of  Lord  Bacon  and  of 
Brantonie.    Died  in  1603. 

See  Taisand,  "Vies  des  Juiisconsiiltes." 

Co'ram,  (Thomas,)  a  benevolent  Englishman,  born 
about  166S,  was  bred  to  the  sea,  and  became  captain 
of  a  merchant-vessel  trading  to  the  West  Indies.  He 
founded  in  1740  a  "  Hosjiital  for  Exposed  and  Deserted 
Children."  In  1756  Parliament  voted  ;^io,ooo  to  the  in- 
stitution. The  result  was  a  great  increase  of  the  number 
of  infants  exposed.    Died  in  1751. 

Coraucez,  de,  deh  ko'rdN'sa'',  (Louis  Alexandre 
Olivier,)  a  French  litterateur  and  savant,  born  in  Paris 
in  1770,  was  sent  in  r8o2  as  consul-general  to  Aleppo. 
He  published  a  "  Description  of  the  Northern  Part  of 
Syria,"  and  other  esteemed  works.    Died  in  1832. 

Coras,  de,  deh  ko'rds',  (Jacques,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Toulouse  in  1630,  wrote  "Jonas,  or  the  Repent- 
ance of  Nineveh,"  (1663.)    Died  in  1677. 

Coras,  de,  (Jean,)  an  eminent  French  jurist,  born  at 
Toulouse  or  Realmont  in  15 13.  He  became  chancellor 
to  the  Queen  of  Navarre,  and  judge  in  the  parliament 
of  Toulouse.  Having  joined  the  Protestants,  he  was 
killed  at  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew  in  1572. 
Among  his  works  is  one  entitled  "  Miscellanies  of  Civil 
Law,"  ("  Miscellanea  Juris  Civilis.") 

Co'rax,  [Gr.  Kopa^,]  a  famous  Sicilian  orator,  who 
flourished  about  470  B.C.  He  was  called  the  creator  of 
the  rhetorical  art,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  that  subject, 
(not  extant.) 

Coray,  ko''ra',  written  also  Koray,  and  Korais,  (DiA- 
MAN  r,)  [Gr.  Ada/^avnof  Ko/ja;>;,]  an  eminent  modern  Greek 
philologist  and  patriot,  born  at  Smyrna  in  1 748.  He  made 
himself  master  of  Greek  and  other  languages.  In  1782 
he  began  to  study  medicine  in  Montpellier,  and  six  years 
later  removed  to  Paris.  Resolving  to  devote  himself  to 
the  freedom  and  regeneration  of  Greece  by  means  of 
education,  he  published  good  editions  of  old  Greek  au- 
thors, with  notes  and  translations,  and  some  original 
political  tracts.  About  1802  the  First  Consul  employed 
hini  to  translate  Strabo's  "Geography."  He  died'  in 
1833,  with  the  reputation  of  one  of  the  best  Hellenists 
of  his  time,  and  one  of  the  influential  restorers  of  Greek 
nationality.  (.See  his  "Autobiography,"  entitled  "Biof 
'Ada/iavTiov  Koi>ar/  Trapu  rov  l6lov,"  Paris,  1833.) 

Corazzi,  ko-rdt'see,  (Ercole,)  an  Italian  mathemati- 
cian and  scientific  writer,  born  at  Bologna  in  1689.  He 
was  professor  of  mathematics  in  Turin.    Died  in  1726. 

Corbaux,  kor-bo',  (Fanny,)  an  English  painter  and 
author,  born  in  1812.  She  became  a  self-taught  artist, 
with  a  view  to  support  her  parents,  and  painted  por- 
traits and  historical  subjects  with  success.  In  1830  she 
received  the  gold  medal  for  a  miniature  portrait.  She 
has  written  dissertations  on  Hebrew  archaeology  or 
Biblical  literature. 

Corbeil,  (Gilles.)    See  ^gidius  Couboliensis. 

Cor^bet,  (John,)  an  English  nonconformist  minister, 
born  at  Gloucester  in  1620 ;  died  in  1680. 

Corbet,  (Richard,)  an  English  poet  and  pulpit  ora- 
tor, born  in  Surrey  in  1582,  became  a  chaplain  of  James 
I.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Oxford  in  1629,  and  of 
Norwich  in  1632.  Though  he  was  a  partisan  of  the  High 
Church,  and  required  by  Laud  to  act  against  the  Puri- 
tans, he  was  respected  for  his  moderation.  He  composed 
humorous  poems,  among  which  w^ere  a  "Journey  to 
France"  and  "  Farewell  to  the  Fairies."    Died  in  1635. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  xii.,  1825. 

Corbet,  (William,)  a  general,  born  in  Ireland  in 
1 781,  served  some  years  in  the  French  army.  He  went 
to  Greece  in  1828,  fought  against  the  Turks,  and  obtained 
command  of  the  Greek  army.    Died  in  1842. 

Corbiere,  koR'be-aiR',  (Edouard,)  a  French  novelist, 
born  at  Brest  in  1793,  was  a  naval  officer  in  his  youth. 
He  published  "The  Banian,"  (1835,)  "The  Slaver,"  and 
other  marine  stories. 

Corbiere,  de,  deh  koR^be-aiR',  (Jacques  Joseph 
Guillaume  Pierre,)  CouNX^French  politician,  born 
near  Rennes  about  1767.  In  1820  he  was  appointed  a 
minister  of  state,  and  in  December,  1821,  minister  of  the 


interior.  He  retired  from  office  with  Villele  in  January, 
1828.    Died  in  1853. 

See  LajMahtine,  "History  of  the  Restoration." 

Corbiere,  di,  de  koR-be-a'ri,  (Pieiro,)  an  Italian 
priest,  who,  by  the  authority  of  the  emperor  Louis  of 
Bavaria,  was  elected  anti-pope  in  1328  as  a  rival  to  John 
XXII.  He  assumed  the  title  of  Nicholas  V.  Failing  to 
obtain  ])opular  support,  he  abjured  his  usurpation  in 
1330,  was  imprisoned,  and  died  in  1336. 
^Corbineau,  koR'be'no',  (Claude  Louis,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Laval  in  1772,  became  a  general  of 
brigade  in  1806,  and  was  killed  at  Eylau  in  1807. 

Corbineau,  (Jean  Baptiste  Juvenal,)  a  French 
general,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Marchieimes 
in  1776.  For  his  services  in  Russia  in  181 2  he  was 
made  aide-de-camp  general  to  Bonaparte.  He  became 
general  of  division  in  1813,  and  is  said  to  have  saved 
the  life  of  Napoleon  at  Montmirail,  1814.  He  directed 
the  arrest  of  Louis  Napoleon  at  Boulogne  in  1840.  Died 
in  1848. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Francais." 

Corbinelli,  koR-be-neKlee,  (Jean,)  a  French  writer, 
of  Italian  descent,  born  about  1615,  became  secretary  to 
Queen  Marie  de  Medicis.  He  published  "The  Old  Latin 
Historians  reduced  to  Maxims,"  and  a  few  other  works. 
Died  in  17 16. 

Corbould,  kor''b5ld,  (Edward  Henry,)  an  English 
painter  in  water-colours,  born  in  London  in  1815.  His 
subjects  are  mostly  historical.  His  "  Plague  of  London" 
(1843)  obtained  a  prize  of  £100.  Among  his  best  pro- 
ductions are  "The  Fair  Rosamond,"  and  "The  Eglinton 
Tournament,"  (1839.) 

Cor'bu-lo,  [Fr.  Corbulon,  koR'bii'liN',]  (Cn.  Domt- 
Tius,)  a  celebrated  Roman  commander,  who  flourished 
under  Claudius  and  Nero.  He  commanded  with  success 
in  a  war  against  the  Parthians  under  Tiridates,  and  ex- 
cited the  jealousy  of  Nero,  who  ordered  him  to  be  put 
to  death  in  67  a.d.  He  was  reputed  the  ablest  general 
of  his  time. 

See  Pliny,  "Natural  History,"  books  ii.,  vi.,  and  vii. ;  Tacitus, 
"  Amiales,"  books  ill.  and  ix. 

Corbulon.    See  Corbulo. 

Cor'co-ran,  (Michael,)  an  officer  in  the  United  States 
army,  born  in  Ireland  in  1827.  Having  acquired  dis- 
tinction in  the  campaign  of  1861,  in  Virginia,  he  was 
made  a  brigadier-general  in  1862.    Died  in  1863. 

Cordaire.    See  Lacordaire. 

Cordara,  koR-dS'rS,  (Giulio  Cesare,)  an  Italian 
Jesuit,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1704.  He  was  chosen  to 
continue  Orlandini's  "History  of  the  Jesuits,"  of  which 
he  published  one  volume,  (Rome,  1750.)  The  style  of 
this  work  (in  Latin)  is  pure  and  elegant.  He  wrote  also 
Latin  and  Italian  poems.    Died  in  1784. 

See  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian;  illustri." 

Corday  d'Arnian.3,  de,  deh  koR''da'  dtR'mfiN', 
(Marie  Anne  Charlotte,)  usually  called  snnply 
Charlotte  Corday,  born  of  a  noble  family,  in  Nor- 
mandy, in  1768,  was  a  descendant  of  the  celebrated 
poet  Corneille.  She  passed  several  years  in  a  convent 
at  Caen,  where,  says  Lamartine,  "she  was  a  model  of 
piety."  Her  disposition  was  thoughtful  and  imagina- 
tive. In  person  she  was  tall,  her  face  serenely  beauti- 
ful, her  air  dignified  and  commanding.  She  adopted 
with  enthusiasm  the  principles  of  the  new  regime,  and 
sympathized  deeply  with  the  Girondists  proscribed  in 
May,  1793.  The  infamous  Marat  being  then  at  the 
zenith  of  his  political  influence,  she  formed  a  secret  reso- 
lution to  sacrifice  herself  for  the  liberties  of  her  country. 
Once,  in  spite  of  the  watchful  reserve  under  which  she 
veiled  a  deep  and  terrible  purpose,  a  few  tears  chanced 
to  escape  from  her.  To  her  aunt,  who  inquired  the 
cause,  she  said,  "  I  weep  for  my  country.  ...  So  long 
as  Marat  lives,  no  one's  life  is  secure  for  a  single  day." 
Soon  after,  her  aunt,  accidentally  entering  Charlotte's 
chamber,  found  a  Bible  open  at  the  tenth  chapter  of  the 
apocryphal  book  of  Judith,  and  the  passage  marked 
which  contains  the  prayer  of  the  ancients  of  the  city 
that  God  would  prosper  the  enterprise  of  Judith  for  the 
deliverance  of  Israel.  Confirmed  in  her  resolution  by 
such  meditations,  she  came  to  Paris.  But  Marat,  sus- 
picious of  attempts  against  his  life,  could  not  readily  be 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  /lard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Y.,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CORD  E  IRQ 


666 


GORILLA 


approached.  She  therefore,  though  with  extreme  reluc- 
tance, resorted  to  a  stratagem,  pretending  that  she  was 
the  bearer  of  important  information  from  the  provinces. 
He  received  her  while  in  his  bath  ;  and,  as  he  was  fore- 
telling to  her  the  speedy  doom  of  the  surviving  Giron- 
dists, she  stabbed  him  to  the  heart,  with  a  knife  which 
she  had  concealed  in  her  bosom.  In  prison  she  wrote 
an  eloquent  letter  to  Barbaroux,  manifesting  in  every  line 
that  courageous  and  lofty  spirit  which  never  left  her, 
even  on  the  scaffold.  She  was  executed  in  July,  1793. 
"There  are  deeds,"  says  Lamartine,  " so  mingled  with 
pure  intentions  and  culpable  means,  that  we  know  not 
whether  to  pronounce  them  criminal  or  virtuous."  "  In 
beholding  her  act  of  assassination,  history  dares  not 
applaud  ;  nor  yet,  while  contemplating  her  sublime  self- 
devotion,  can  it  stigmatize  or  condemn." 

See  Cheron  de  Villiers,  "JNI.  A.  Charlotte  de  Corday  d'Ar- 
mans,  sa  Vie,  son  Temps,  ses  ficrits,"  etc.,  Paris,  1S65 ;  Lamartine, 
"  History  of"  tlie  Girondists,"  book  xliv.;  and  the  article  "Corday" 
in  the  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Cordeiro  or  Cordeyro,  koR-da^-ro,  (Antonio,)  a 
Portuguese  historian  and  priest,  born  in  the  isle  of  Ter- 
ceira  in  1641.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  Madeira,  Ter- 
ceira,"  etc.,  (171 7,)  which  is  commended.    Died  in  1740. 

Cordemoy,  de,  deh  koRd'mwS.^  (Geraud,)  a  French 
historian,  born  in  Paris,  became  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  Bossuet  employed  him  as  reader  to  the  dau- 
phin, and  persuaded  him  to  write  a  "History  of  Charle- 
magne," which  is  a  work  of  merit,  though  not  attractive 
in  style.  He  left  a  few  other  minor  essays.  Died  in  1684. 

See  NiCEKON,  "Memoires." 

Corder,  koR^'der,  or  Cordier,  koR'de-i',  [Lat.  Corde'- 
Rius,]  (Balthasar,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit,  theologian,  and 
Hellenist,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1592,  became  a  professor  of 
theology  at  Vienna.  He  published  several  works.  Died 
in  1650. 

Cordeiius,  (Balthasar.)    See  Corder. 

Cor-de'ri-us,  [Fr.  Cordier,  koR'de-a^jiMATHURiN,) 
a  celebrated  Protestant  school-teacher,  born  in  France 
in  1479.  He  was  the  preceptor  of  Calvin,  who  dedicated 
to  him  one  of  his  works  ;  and  he  published  several  popular 
school-books,  among  which  is  "  Scholastic  Collocjuies," 
("Colloquia  scholastica,"  1564,)  a  work  which  was  long 
very  extensively  used.  He  lived  some  years  in  Geneva. 
Died  in  1564. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  Generale." 

Cordes,  koRd,  or  Cor-de'si-us,  (Jean,)  a  learned 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Limoges  in  1570,  collected  a 
library  of  8300  volumes.    Died  in  1642. 

Cordeyro.    See  Cordeiro. 

Cordier,  (Balthasar.)    See  Corder. 

Cordier,  (Mathurin.)    See  Corderius. 

Cordier,  koit'de-i',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  sculptor  of 
high  reputation,  boni  in  Lorraine  in  1561,  worked  in 
Rome.  He  made  a  bronze  statue  of  Henry  IV.  for  the 
church  of  Saint  John  de  Lateran.    Died  in  1612. 

Cordier,  (Pierre  Louis  Antoine,)  a  French  geolo- 
gist and  mineralogist,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1777.  As 
engineer,  he  accompanied  the  expedition  to  Egypt  in 
1798,  and  obtained  the  grade  of  engineer-in-chief  in 
1808.  In  1819  he  was  chosen  professor  of  geology  in 
the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Paris,  and  in  1822 
was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in  place  of  Haiiy.  He 
published  an  able  "Essay  on  the  Internal  Temperature 
of  the  Earth,"  (1827,)  and  other  scientific  memoirs.  He 
was  made  a  peer  about  1840.    Died  in  March,  1861. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Cor'di-ner,  (Charles,)  a  British  antiquary  and  to- 
pographer, born  about  1746;  died  in  1794. 
Cordova.    See  Gon salvo. 

Cordova,  koR^do-vi,  (Jos^,)  a  South  American  gen- 
eral, born  at  Antioquia,  New  Granada,  in  1797.  He 
fought  under  Bolivar  about  1820,  and  contributed  to  the 
victory  of  Ayacucho,  (1824,)  after  which  he  was  made 
general  of  division.  In  1829  he  revolted  against  Bolivar, 
but  was  defeated  and  killed  the  same  year. 

Cordova,  de,  dk  koR'do-v.^,  (Adriano,)  a  Spanish 
historical  painter  and  monk  ;  died  about  1630. 

Cordova,  de,  (Fernando  Fernandez,)  a  Spanish 
general,  born  in  Madrid  in  1792.  He  opposed  Espartero 


in  i84i,and  afterwards  joined  the  xx\odtr?itQ  Progresistas. 
In  1850  he  was  appointed  Captain-General  of  New  Cas- 
tile, and  in  185 1  Captain-General  of  Cuba.  He  was 
driven  into  exile  by  the  revolution  of  July,  1854,  and 
returned  to  Sjjain  in  1856,  on  the  fall  of  Espartero. 

Cordova,  de,  (Francisco  Hernandez,)  a  Spanish 
navigator,  commanded  a  small  expedition  which  sailed 
from  Havana  in  15 17,  discovered  Yucatan,  and,  in  re- 
turning, touched  at  Florida,  He  died  in  Cuba,  a  few 
days  after  his  return,  in  1518. 

Cordova,  de,  (Luis  Fernandez,)  a  Spanish  general, 
a  brother  of  Fernando  Fernandez,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Cadiz  in  1799.  He  was  a  favourite  of  Ferdinand 
VII.,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Berlin  about  1828. 
In  the  civil  war  which  began  in  1833  ^''^  was  a  partisan 
of  Isabella.  Having  been  an  unsuccessful  rival  of  Espar- 
tero, he  retired  to  Portugal  about  1838,  and  died  in  1840. 

Cor'du.s,  (AuLUS  Cremutius,)  a  Roman  historian, 
who  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Civil  War  of  Rome  and  of 
the  Reign  of  Augustus,"  (not  extant.)  He  was  accused 
of  treason  by  Sejanns  because  he  had  praised  Brutus 
and  Cassius  in  his  history.  Being  assured  that  his  death 
was  resolved  on,  he  ended  his  life  by  starvation  in  25  a.d. 

See  Tacitlts,  "  Annales,"  book  iv. ;  Seneca,  "Siiasoria." 

Cordus,  koR'diis,  (Eurich  or  EuRicius,)  a  German 
poet  and  physician,  born  at  Simtshausen,  in  Hesse,  about 
1480.  He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Marburg 
about  1527.  He  corresponded  with  the  most  distin- 
guished men  of  his  time,  and  composed  Latin  poems 
(1614)  and  prose  works,  among  which  is  "  l^otanologicon, 
a  Dialogue  on  Plants,"  (1534.)    Died  in  1535. 

See  Kahi.er,  "Vita  E.  Cordi,"  1744  ;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "All- 
gemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Nicekon,  "Memoires." 

Cordus,  (Valerius,)  an  eminent  ])otanist,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Simtshausen  in  1 5 15.  He  explored 
the  botanical  riches  of  Germany,  and  proved  himself  a 
good  observer.  In  1535  he  published  a  valuable  "Dis- 
pensatory," ("  Dispensatorium  Pharmacorum,")  and  in 
1542  visited  Italy  on  a  botanical  excursion.  He  died 
prematurely,  in  Rome,  in  1544.  The  results  of  his  labours 
appeared  in  1561,  in  a  work  which  was  edited  by  Conrad 
Gesner  and  entitled  a  "  History  or  Description  of  Plants," 
etc.,  ("  Historias  Stirpium  Libri  quatuor  a  Conrado  Ges- 
nero  collectas.")  His  merit  as  a  botanist  is  highly  eulo- 
gized by  Gesner. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Niceron, 
"Memoires." 

Coreal,  ko-ri-^K,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  traveller, 
born  at  Cartagena  in  1648.  He  spent  about  thirty  years 
in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America  between  1666 
and  1697,  and  left  an  interesting  narrative,  which  was 
published  in  French,  in  3  vols.  1722.  This  purported  to 
be  a  translation  from  the  Spanish. 

Corella,  de,  dk  ko-r^KyS,  (Alfonzo,)  a  Spanish 
medical  writer,  born  at  Corella,  Navarre,  lived  about 
1550- 

Corelli,  ko-reKlee,  (Arcangelo,)  a  famous  Italian 
musical  composer  and  performer,  born  at  Fusignano, 
near  Imola,  in  1653.  He  published  in  Rome,  in  1683, 
his  first  work,  "Twelve  Sonatas  for  two  Violins  and  a 
Bass."  In  1686  he  was  leader  of  an  orchestra  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  musicians  in  an  opera  performed  at 
Rome  under  the  auspices  of  Christina  of  Sweden.  His 
reputation  had  then  extended  over  Europe.  He  was 
patronized  by  Cardinal  Ottoboni,  who  appointed  him 
director  of  his  music.  Among  his  most  popular  pro- 
ductions is  "Concerti  Grossi,"  (1712.)    Died  in  1713. 

See  Fetis,  "Biograpliie  Universelle  des  Musicians ;"  Favolle, 
"  Notices  sur  Corelli,  Tartini,"  etc.,  1810. 

Corenzio,  ko-r^n'ze-o,  (Belisario,)  a  skilful  painter, 
l)orn  in  Greece,  was  a  pupil  of  Tintoretto,  and  settled 
in  Naples  about  1590.  He  was  noted  for  his  invention 
and  facility  of  execution,  and  worked  mostly  in  fresco. 
Among  his  chief  productions  is  "The  Feeding  of  the 
Five  Thousand."  His  memory  is  branded  with  the 
charge  of  tyrannical  treatment  of  Guido  and  other  foreign 
artists  at  Naples.    Died  in  1643. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Corilla,  ko-r^Kia,  (Maria  Maddalena  Fernandez,) 
an  Italian  improvisatrice,  born  in  1740.  She  was  pub- 
licly crowned  at  Rome  about  1775.    Died  in  1800. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r;  fill,  fit;  mgt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


COR  INN  J 


667 


CORNAROS 


Co-rin'na,  [Gr.  Koptwa ;  Fr.  Corinnk,  ko'r^n',]  a 
celebrated  Greek  lyric  poetess,  born  at  Tanagra,  in  Boe- 
otia,  lived  about  500  B.C.  Contemporary  with  Pindar, 
she  is  said  to  have  instructed  him  in  poetry,  and  was 
five  times  victorious  in  competition  with  him.  Pausa- 
nias  ascribes  her  triumph  partly  to  her  beauty.  She  was 
surnamed  Mvta,  ("The  Fly.")  Only  a  few  fragments  of 
her  poems  are  now  extant. 

See  SuiDAS,  "Corinna;"  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grjeca ;"  J.  B. 
ScHUPP,  "  Corinna  die  ehibare  und  scheinbare  Hure,"  1660. 

Corinne.    See  Corinna. 

Corio,  ko're-o,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Milan  in  1459.  Under  the  patronage  of  Ludovico 
Sforza,  he  wrote,  in  Italian,  the  "History  of  Milan," 
(1503.)    Died  in  15 19. 

Coriolan.    See  Coriolano  and  Coriolanus. 

Coriolano,  ko-re-o-li'no,  or  Coriolan,  ko-re-o-l^n', 
(Bartolommeo,)  Cavaliere,  a  skilful  Italian  designer 
and  engraver,  son  of  Cristoforo,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Bologna  in  1590.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Guido.  He 
dedicated  to  Pope  Urban  VIII.  many  wood-cuts  in  chia- 
roscuro, after  Guido  and  the  Caracci.    Died  in  1654. 

See  HuBER,  "Manuel  du  Graveur." 

Coriolano,ko-re-o-la'no,[Fr.CoRiOLAN,ko'reVl5N',] 
(Cristoforo,)  an  eminent  wood-engraver,  born  at  Nu- 
remberg about  1550.  His  original  name  was  Lederer, 
(la'der-er.)  He  removed  to  Venice,  where  he  engraved, 
besides  other  works,  the  portraits  of  Vasari's  biographical 
work.    Died  at  Bologna  about  1600. 

Coriolano,  (Giambattista,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1595,  was  a  painter,  and  engraver  on 
copper  and  wood.  He  engraved  many  pictures  by  Guido, 
the  Caracci,  and  other  masters.    Died  in  1649. 

Co-ri-o-la''nus,  [Fr.  Coriolan,  ko're'o'lSN';  Ger. 
Coriolan,  ko-re-o-ldn',  or  Coriolanus,  ko-re-o-li'niis,] 
(Caius  (or  Cneius)  Marcius,)  the  hero  of  an  early 
Roman  legend,  was  said  to  be  a  descendant  of  King 
Ancus  Marcius.  According  to  the  poetical  traditions  on 
the  subject,  he  obtained  the  surname  Coriolanus  for 
his  victory  over  the  Volscians  at  Corioli  about  490  B.C. 
During  a  famine  he  advised  that  corn  should  not  be  dis- 
tributed gratis  to  the  commons  unless  they  gave  up  their 
tribunes.  For  this  offence  he  was  banished ;  and,  having 
obtained  command  of  a  Volscian  army,  he  besieged  Rome. 
The  Romans  were  imable  to  resist  him  or  to  avert  his 
anger,  until  his  stern  purpose  yielded  to  the  tears  of  Ve- 
turia  his  mother  and  of  Volumnia  his  wife,  who  led  a  de- 
putation of  Roman  matrons  to  his  tent.  Pie  is  supposed 
to  have  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  among  the  Volsci, 
(Smith's  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  ;") 
but,  according  to  the  popular  tradition,  he  was  killed  by 
the  Volsci  immediately  after  he  abandoned  his  purpose 
of  taking  Rome.  This  legend  is  the  subject  of  Shak- 
speare's  drama  of  "Coriolanus." 

See  Plutarch's  "  Lives  ;"  Niebuhr,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  Fr. 
RocHLiTZ,  "Helden  des  alten  Roms  und  des  neuen  Frankreichs, 
Coriolan  und  Dumouriez,"  1796. 

Coriolis,  ko'reVl^ss',  (Gaspard  Gustavf.,)  a  French 
mechanician,  born  in  Paris  in  1792  ;  died  in  1843. 

Co-rip^pus,  (Flavius  Cresconius,)  a  Latin  poet  of 
the  sixth  century,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  in 
Africa  and  to  have  been  a  bishop.  He  wrote  several 
■works,  which  have  some  merit  and  are  still  extant. 
Among  them  is  an  ej)ic  poem  called  "Johanneis,"  and 
a  panegyric  on  the  emperor  Justin,  ("  De  Laudibus  Jus- 
tini  minoris.") 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotlieca  Latina ;"  "Nouvelle  Biogiaphie 
Geneiale." 

Cork,  Earl  of.    See  Boyle,  (Richard.) 

Cormenin,  de,  deh  koRm'niN',  (Louis,)  Baron,  a 
French  journalist,  son  of  Louis  Marie,  noticed  below,  born 
in  Paris  in  1826.  In  1852  he  supported  the  government, 
and  obtained  the  direction  of  the  "Moniteur  Ofificiel." 

Cormenin,  de,  (Louis  Marie  de  la  Haye — deh  It 
hi,)  VicoMTE,  an  eminent  French  political  writer  and 
jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  January,  1788.  He  was  appointed 
auditor  of  the  council  of  state  in  1810,  and  master  of 
requests  (by  Louis  XVIII.)  in  181 5.  In  1828  he  was 
elected  deputy  for  Orleans.  He  was  often  re-elected  by 
the  Liberal  party,  became  a  popular  pamphleteer,  and 
exercised  great  influence  on  political  affairs.  His  pamph- 


lets appeared  under  the  pseudomyn  of  "Timon."  He 
opposed  the  government  of  Louis  Philippe.  In  1838  he 
published  a  work  called  "  Studies  on  Parliamentary 
Orators,"  ("£tudes  sur  les  Orateurs  parlementaires," 
17th  edition,  1854.)  He  was  president  of  the  committee 
which  framed  a  new  constitution  in  1848.  After  the 
coup  d'etat  of  December,  1851,  he  deserted  the  Liberal 
party  and  became  a  member  of  Louis  Napoleon's  council 
of  state.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1855. 
Among  his  important  works  are  his  "Administrative 
Law,"  ("Droit  administratif,"  1822,)  and  "Letters  on 
the  Civil  List,"  (1831,)  which  passed  through  twenty- 
five  editions.  M.  Cormenin  also  distinguished  himself 
as  a  practical  philanthropist,  and  took  part  in  founding 
numerous  charitable  institutions.    Died  in  May,  1868. 

See  LoMENiE,  "Galerie  des  Contemporains ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
grapliie  Geaerale;"  Chapuis-Montlaville,  "  £tude  sur  Timon," 
184S. 

Cormontaingne,  de,  deh  koR^mdN^t^Nn',  (Louis,) 
an  eminent  French  military  engineer,  born  about  1695. 
Between  1734  and  1745  he  directed  the  sieges  of  Menin, 
Ypres,  Tournay,  etc.  The  great  works  added  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  XV.  to  the  fortifications  of  Metz  and 
Thionville  were  constructed  on  his  plans.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  marechal-de-canip.  He  made  improvements 
in  the  art  of  fortification,  on  which  he  also  wrote  several 
esteemed  treatises.    Died  in  1752. 

Cornacchini,  koR-nak-kee'nee,  (Marco,)  an  Italian 
medical  writer,  flourished  at  Pisa  about  1610.  His  father, 
ToMMASO,  was  professor  of  medicine  at  Pisa,  and  author 
of  "Tabulse  Medicae,"  1605. 

Cornarius.    See  Cornarus. 

Cornaro,  (Angelo.)    See  Gregory  XII. 

Cornaro,  koR-na'ro,  (Caterina,)  Queen  of  Cyprus, 
was  born  in  Venice  about  1454.  She  became  the  wife  of 
James  de  Lusignan,  King  of  Cyprus,  and  was  adopted  as 
daughter  of  Saint  Mark  by  the  senate  of  Venice.  At 
the  death  of  the  king,  in  1473,  ^'""^  ascended  the  throne, 
which  she  abdicated  in  1489,  when  the  Venetians  became 
masters  of  Cyprus.    Died  in  1510. 

See  Daru,  "Histoire  de  Venise." 

Cornaro,  or  Cornelio,  koR-na'le-o,  sometimes  writ- 
ten Corner,  (Flaminio,)  a  Venetian  senator,  eminent 
for  learning,  born  in  Venice  in  1693.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  the  Churches  of  Venice,"  (1758,)  and  several 
religious  works.    Died  in  1778. 

Cornaro,  (Giovanni  I.,)  Doge  of  Venice,  succeeded 
Francis  Contarini  in  1625.  He  waged  a  war  against 
Austria,  which  he  left  unfinished  when  he  died  in  1629. 

Cornaro,  (Giovanni  II.,)  was  elected  Doge  of  Venice 
in  1709.  During  his,  administration  the  Turks  made  war 
on  Venice,  and  took  fhe  Morea  about  1715.  He  obtained 
peace  in  1718.    Died  in  1722. 

See  Daru,  "Histoire  de  Venise." 

Cornaro,  (Luigi,)  a  Venetian  gentleman,  born  about 
1463,  gained  distinction  by  his  successful  experiments  on 
diet  and  by  his  writings  on  the  preservation  of  health. 
In  his  youth,  by  intemperance  and  sensuality,  he  ruined 
his  health,  which  was  naturally  delicate.  About  the  age 
of  forty  he  reformed  his  habits,  became  very  abstemious, 
and  found  the  results  of  his  change  highly  satisfactory. 
After  he  was  eighty  years  old  he  published  a  "Treatise 
on  a  TemjDerate  Life,"  which  had  a  wide  circulation, 
and  was  translated  into  English  and  French.  He  died,  it 
is  said,  in  his  103d  year.  Addison,  in  his  "Spectator," 
No.  195,  says  Cornaro  passed  his  hundredth  year,  and 
commends  the  good  sense  and  cheerful  spirit  of  his  book. 

See  "Biographic  Medicale." 

Cornaro-Piscopia,  koR-nl'ro  p^s-ko'pe-^,  (Elena 
LucREZTA,)  an  illustrious  Italian  scholar  and  writer,  born 
at  Venice  in  1646,  was  a  relative  of  the  preceding.  Her 
attainments  in  languages,  ])hilosophy,  etc.  spread  her 
fame  throughout  Europe.  She  made  a  vow  of  celibacy, 
and  observed  the  rules  of  a  monastic  order.  She  com- 
posed admired  verses  and  academic  discourses.  Died 
in  1684. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires:"  M.  Deeza,  "Vita  di  E.  L.  Cornaro- 
Piscopia,"  16S6;  Antonio  Lupis,  "  L'Eroina  Veneta,  ovvero  la  Vita 
di  E.  L.  Cornaro-Piscopia,"  1689. 

Cornaros,  koR-nl'ros,  (Vincent,)  a  Greek  poet  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  born  in  the  island  of  Crete.  His 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CORNARUS 


668 


CORNELIE 


life  is  involved  in  obscurity.  He  is  styled  "the  Homer  of 
modern  (Greece,"  and  wrote  a  poem  in  rhymes  entitled 
"  Erotocritos,"  which  is  admired,  and  is  an  interesting 
monument  for  the  history  of  the  Greek  language. 

See  Bkandis,  "  Mittheilungeii  iiber  Griechenland." 

Cor-na''rus  or  Cornarius,  koR-nd're-us,  the  Latinized 
name  of  Johann  Hagenhuit,  (ha^gen-bdot,)  a  German 
physician,  l)orn  at  Zwickau,  Saxony,  in  1500.  He  prac- 
tised at  Frankfort  and  Zwickau,  and  was  professor  of 
medicine  at  Marburg  and  Jena.  He  gained  a  wide  repu- 
tation by  his  Greek  edition  of  Plippocrates,  (1538,)  and 
a  Latin  version  of  the  same,  (1546.)  He  translated  some 
works  of  Plato,  Saint  Basil,  and  other  Greek  wa  iters  into 
Latin,  and  wrote  several  medical  treatises.   Died  in  1558. 

See  M.  Adam,  "Vitse  Eruditorum  ;"  fii.oY,  "Dictiounaire  de  la 
Medecine." 

Cornazzani,  koR-nSt-sS''nee,  or  Cornazzano,  koR- 
nSt-sd^io,  (An  ION  10,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Piacenza 
or  Ferrara,  lived  about  1500.  He  wrote  lyric  poems 
(printed  in  1502)  and  some  prose  works. 

Cornbury,  korn'ber-e,  (Edward  Hyde,)  Lord,  son 
of  the  second  Earl  of  Clarendon,  was  one  of  the  first  of 
James  H.'s  officers  to  desert  his  standard  in  1688  and 
go  over  to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  (afterwards  William 
HI.,)  who  in  return  for  this  service  appointed  him  Gov- 
ernor of  New  York,  where  he  arrived  in  1702.  His 
avarice,  despotic  measures,  and  frivolous  character  soon 
drew  upon  him  the  execration  of  the  people,  and  in  1708 
procured  his  removal  from  office.    Died  in  1723. 

Cornbury,  (Henry  PIyde,)  Lord,  eldest  son  of  the 
Earl  of  Clarendon,  wrote  a  comedy  called  "  The  Mis- 
takes, or  the  Happy  Resentment,"  which  w\is  printed  in 
1758.  He  was  killed  by  a  fall  from  a  horse  in  France  in 
1753- 

Come,  koRn,  (Hyacinthe,)  a  French  publicist,  born 
at  Arras  in  1802,  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
in  1837.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on 
Civil  Courage." 

Corneille,  koR'nkF  or  koR'ni'ye,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
French  historical  painter  and  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in 
1646,  was  a  son  of  Michel,  noticed  below.  He  received 
the  grand  prize  in  1668.    Died  in  1695. 

Corneille,  (Michel,)  a  French  painter  and  engraver, 
born  at  Orleans  in  i6or,  was  a  pupil  of  Vouet.  He 
painted  religious  subjects,  and  was  one  of  the  first  mem- 
bers of  the  Academy  of  Paris.    Died  in  1664. 

Corneille,  (Michel,)  a  skilful  French  painter,  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1642.  He  studied  in  Italy, 
and  on  his  return,  in  1663,  was  received  into  the  Royal 
Academy.  He  was  employed  by  the  king,  and  adorned 
several  churches  of  Paris  with  his  ^rks.    Died  in  1708. 

Corneille,  kor'naK,  [Fr.  ])ron.  koR^naF  or  koR'nVye,] 
(Pierre,)  a  celebrated  French  dramatic  author,  the 
founder  of  the  French  drama,  and  the  writer  who  has 
perhaps  contributed  most  to  the  development  of  the 
national  genius,  was  born  at  Rouen  on  the  6th  of  June, 
1606.  He  studied  law,  which  he  practised  a  few  years 
without  success.  His  first  work,  a  comedy  called  "Me- 
lite,"  (1629,)  and  others  which  quickly  followed,  were 
performed  with  applause,  which  they  owed  partly  to 
the  vicious  taste  of  the  public.  His  "Medea"  (1635) 
gave  a  new  tone  of  grandeur  and  dignity  to  the  French 
tragedy,  though  it  contained  much  bombast  and  vain 
declamation.  In  1636  he  astonished  and  enraptured  the 
public  with  the  tragedy  of  "  The  Cid,"  (an  imitation  of  a 
Spanish  drama  of  that  name,)  which,  by  nervous  eloquence 
and  mastery  of  dramatic  resources,  eclipsed  everything 
that  had  hitherto  appeared  on  the  French  stage.  To 
silence  his  detractors,  who  called  him  a  mere  imitator, 
he  produced,  in  1639,  "  Les  Ploraces,"  and  "Cinna," 
which  were  admired  for  invention  and  style.  Many 
persons  consider  "  Cinna"  as  his  master-piece  ;  while 
others  prefer  "Polyeucte."  "A  deeper  interest,"  says 
Hallam,  "belongs  to  'Polyeucte;'  and  this  is  his  only 
tragedy  wherein  he  affects  the  heart.  The  beautifiil 
character  of  Pauline  would  redeem  much  greater  defects 
than  can  be  ascribed  to  this  tragedy.  It  is  the  noblest, 
perhaps,  on  the  French  stage,  and  conceived  with  ad- 
mirable delicacy  and  dignity."  ("Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe.")  His  "Menteur"  ("Liar,"  1642) 
was  the  first  comedy  of  character  and  intrigue  which  was 


an  honour  to  France.  His  subsequent  efforts  indicate  a 
decline  of  his  power;  but  his  opera  called  the  "Golden 
Fleece"  ("Toison  d'Or")  was  performed  with  success  in 
1661.  He  had  been  admitted  into  the  French  Academy 
in  1647.  He  died  in  Paris  in  October,  1684,  leaving 
several  children.  The  French  call  him  the  "grand  Cor- 
neille," not  only  to  distinguish  him  from  his  brother 
Thomas,  but  from  the  rest  of  mankind.  Fontenelle, 
who  was  his  nephew,  preferred  him  as  a  poet  to  Racine  ; 
but  Voltaire,  La  Harpe,  and  other  critics  reverse  that 
judgment.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  in  impressive 
declamation,  in  dignity,  in  sublime  thoughts,  in  condensed 
and  noble  style,  he  has  not  been  equalled  by  any  succeed- 
ing dramatist.  In  private  life  his  manners  were  simple 
and  his  conversation  rather  dull.  He  is  represented  as  a 
man  of  pure  morals  and  amiable  character.  "  It  is  diffi- 
cult," says  a  recent  French  critic,  "to  draw  the  portrait 
of  Corneille  and  to  do  justice  to  the  subject.  His  most 
magnificent  eulogy  is  perhaps  in  this  verse  of  Voltaire  : 
"  '  Le  grand  Conde  pleurant  aux  vers  du  grand  Corneille.'  "* 

"When  the  Academy  was  endeavouring  to  correct  the 
language  which  Pascal  was  destined  to  fix  and  Racine  to 
polish,  Corneille  formed  and  created  it,  by  giving  it  force 
and  precision  in  reasoning,  energy  and  profoundness  in 
discourse,  elevation  and  sublimity  in  sentiment,  dignity 
and  majesty  in  the  utterances  of  kings  and  heroes." 
("Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale.") 

See  Fontenelle,  "  P^loge  de  Corneille;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "Por- 
traits litteraires,"  tome  i.  ;  GuizoT,  "Corneille  et  son  Temps,"  1852  ; 
Taschereau,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Oiivrages  de  Corneille," 
1829;  Jean  Sylval^j  Bailly,  "filoge  de  Corneille,"  1768;  M.  J.  J. 
Victorin-Fabre,  "  filoge  de  Corneille,"  1808  ;  Louis  Simon  Auger, 
"filoge  de  Corneille,"  1808;  "  Biograpliie  Universelle ;"  Longfel- 
low, "Poets  and  Poetry  of"  Europe;"  "Lives  of  the.Most  Eminent 
P'rench  Writers,"  by  INIrs.  Shelley,  London,  1840;  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  October,  1852. 

Corneille,  (Thomas,)  a  popular  French  dramatist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rouen  in  1625. 
On  leaving  college  he  became  a  resident  of  Paris.  His 
first  play,  "Engagements  du  Hasard,"  appeared  in  1647. 
In  the  ensuing  eight  years  he  produced  several  other 
comedies.  In  1656  he  composed  "  Timocrate,"  a  tra- 
gedy, which  was  very  popular,  and  was  performed  eighty  ' 
times  in  six  months.  It  was  followed  by  "  Darius,"  "  vStili- 
con,"  and  many  other  tragedies,  which  had  a  transient 
success.  His  tragedies  "Ariane"  and  "Earl  of  Essex" 
obtained  more  durable  favour,  and  still  keep  their  place 
on  the  stage.  He  succeeded  his  brother  in  the  French 
Academy  in  1685.  "He  was,"  says  Voltaire,  "a  man 
of  great  merit  and  of  vast  learning;  and,  if  we  except 
Racine,  he  was  the  only  French  author  of  his  time  worthy 
to  be  ranked  next  to  his  brother."    Died  in  1709. 

SeeNiCERON,  "Memoires;"  La  Harpe,  "  Coursde  Litterature." 

Cornejo,  koR-na'Ho,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  historian, 
who  lived  about  1550-80,  wrote,  among  other  works,  a 
"Summary  of  the  Civil  Wars  in  Flanders,"  (1577.) 

Cor-neTi-a,  [Fr.  Cornelie,  koR'ni'le' ;  It.  Corni- 
GLIA,  koR-neKya,]  a  noble  Roman  matron,  the  daughter 
of  P.  Scipio  Africanus,  and  the  wife  of  T.  Sempronius 
Gracchus.  She  was  eminent  for  virtue  and  mental  cul- 
tivation. After  the  death  of  her  husband  she  refused  an 
offer  of  marriage  from  Ptolemy,  King  of  Egypt.  As  the 
daughter  of  Scipio  and  the  mother  of  the  Gracchi,  she 
had  as  high  a  position  as  any  woman  in  Roman  history. 
A  Campanian  dame,  having  dis])layed  to  her  the  jewels 
with  which  she  was  adorned,  expressed  her  curiosity  to 
see  those  of  Cornelia.  The  latter,  pointing  to  her  sons, 
Tiberius  and  Caius,  exclaimed,  "These  are  my  jewels 
and  ornaments." 

See  Plutarch,  "  T.  Gracchus"  and  "Caius  Gracchus;"  L. 
Mercklin,  "  Programma  de  Cornelias,  Gracchorum  Matris,  Vita, 
Moribus  et  Epistolis,"  1844. 

Cornelia,  the  daughter  of  Cinna,  was  the  first  wife 
of  Julius  Cffisar  the  dictator,  to  whom  she  was  married 
in  83  B.C.  She  died  young,  leaving  a  daughter,  Julia,  who 
became  the  wife  of  Pompey  the  Great. 

Cor-ne'li-a  Gens,  a  patrician  family  or  tribe,  which 
produced  more  illustrious  men  than  any  other  in  Rome. 
Among  them  were  the  Cinnas,  Lentulus,  Rufinus,  the 
Scipios,  and  Sulla. 

Cornelie.    See  Cornell\. 

*  "  The  great  Conde  weeping  at  the  verses  of  the  great  Corneille." 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


CORNELIO 


66g 


CORNWALLIS 


Cornelio,  (Flaminio.)    See  Cornaro. 

Cornelis,  koR-na'lis,  [PV.  Corneille,  koR-nkl',  (or 
koR-iicVye,)  or  Cornille;  Ger.  Cornelius,  koK-na'le- 
us,]  a  famous  Dutch  painter  of  histoi  y  and  portraits,  was 
born  at  Haarlem  in  1562.  He  studied  under  Porbus  and 
Coignet  at  Antwerp,  and  settled  in  Haarlem.  He  ex- 
celled in  design  and  colouring,  and  imitated  nature  with 
fidelity.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a  large  picture  of 
"The  Deluge."  Died  in  1638.  His  brother,  Henry, 
was  a  sculj^tor  and  painter.  He  was  most  successful  in 
landscapes  and  marine  views. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Cornelisz,  koR-na'lis,  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  painter  of 
history,  born  at  Oost-Sanen  about  1471,  worked  at 
Amsterdam,  where  he  died  in  1567. 

Cornelisz,  (Lucas,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden 
about  1492,  removed  to  England,  and  was  patronized  by 
Henry  VHI.    Died  in  1552. 

Cor-ne'li-us,  Bishop  of  Rome,  succeeded  Fabianus 
in  251  A.D.  He  was  a  Roman  by  birth.  Novatian,  having 
refused  to  recognize  him,  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Rome  by 
his  partisans  ;  and  thus  arose  the  schism  of  the  Novatians. 
Cornelius  was  banished  to  Civita  Vecchia  by  Gallus  in 
252,  and  died  the  same  year. 

Cor-ne'li-us,  (Elias,)  an  American  clergyman,  l)orn 
in  1795.  He  became  secretary  of  the  American  Educa- 
tion Society  in  1826.    Died  in  1832. 

Cornelius  Nepos.    See  Nei'os. 

Cor-ne'li-us  Se-ve'rus,  (Publius,)  a  Latin  epic  poet, 
of  whose  life  but  little  is  known.  He  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  and  died  ])reniaturely,  leaving  unfinished  a 
poem  called  "The  Sicilian  War,"  ("Bellum  Siculum,") 
which  is  praised  by  Quintilian.  A  beautiful  fragment  on 
the  death  of  Cicero  has  been  preserved. 

Cornelius,  von,  fon  koR-na'le-us,  (Peter,)  the 
greatest  German  painter  of  his  time,  born  at  Dusseklorf 
on  the  i6th  of  September,  1787,  was  a  son  of  the  in- 
spector of  the  Dusseldorf  gallery  of  paintings.  At  the 
age  of  nineteen  his  genius  revealed  itself  in  painting  the 
cupola  of  the  old  church  of  Neuss.  From  181 1  to  1819 
he  studied  and  worked  in  Rome,  where  he  formed  an 
iiitimate  friendship  with  the  artist  Overbeck,  who  sym- 
pathized with  his  enthusiasm  for  the  old  Italian  masters. 
About  1814  he  finished  his  "  Illustrations  of  Faust,"  one 
of  his  most  remarkable  productions.  His  original  genius 
was  also  displayed  in  a  series  of  designs  illustrating  the 
"  Niebelungen-Lied."  After  the  completion  of  these  he 
devoted  himself  to  fresco-painting,  which  had  been  long 
neglected.  He  is  considered  the  restorer  of  this  art 
among  the  Germans.  In  1819  he  removed  from  Rome 
to  Munich,  whither  he  had  been  invited  by  the  crown - 
prince,  (afterwards  King  Ludwig,)  and  was  appointed 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Dusseldorf.  He  was  com- 
missioned by  Prince  Ludwig  to  adorn  the  Glyptothek 
of  Munich  with  frescos.  In  the  Hall  of  Heroes  of  that 
edifice  he  painted  on  a  large  scale  a  series  of  subjects 
from  the  "  Iliad"  of  Homer.  Among  his  grandest  produc- 
tions is  a  picture  of  the  "Last  Judgment,"  in  the  church 
of  Saint  Louis,  in  Munich.  It  is  about  sixty  feet  high, 
and  more  than  thirty  feet  wide.  In  the  Pinakothek  of 
Munich  he  illustrated,  in  a  series  of  frescos,  the  "His- 
tory of  Painting,"  with  that  profoundness  of  conception 
which  characterizes  his  genius.  At  the  invitation  of  the 
King  of  Prussia,  he  went  to  Berlin  in  1841,  and  painted 
in  the  Campo  Santo  several  frescos,  among  which  are 
"The  Four  Horsemen  of  the  Apocalypse."  Died  at 
Berlin  in  1867. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
grapliie  Generale." 

Corner.    See  Cornaro,  (Flaminio.) 

Coroner,  (Julia,)  an  English  authoress,  born  about 
1815.  She  published  "The  Baronet,"  a  novel,  (1835,) 
"Edward  Castleton,"  "Questions  on  the  History  of 
Europe,"  and  several  useful  books  for  children. 

Cornet,  de,  deh  koR^ni',  (Mathieu  Augustin,) 
Count,  a  French  politician,  born  at  Nantes  in  1750. 
He  promoted  the  revolution  of  the  i8th  Brumaire,  1799, 
was  made  a  senator  the  same  year,  and  in  1804  received 
the  title  of  count.  Under  the  restoration  he  entered  the 
Chamber  of  Peers.    Died  in  1832. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  Frencli  Revolution." 


Cornhert,  koRn'hgRt,  written  also  Coornhert,  (Die- 

DRIK,)  a  Dutch  author  and  Reformer  of  great  merit,  born 
at  Amsterdam  in  1523.  He  was  a  zealous  promoter  of 
the  Protestant  Reformation,  although  he  was  never  a 
sectarian,  and  dissented  from  the  doctrines  of  Calvin. 
He  rendered  important  services  to  the  Prince  of  Orange 
in  his  contest  with  Spain.  He  composed,  besides  other 
works,  a  poem  "  On  the  Use  and  Abuse  of  Fortune,"  and 
a  "Treatise  against  the  Capital  Punishment  of  Heretics." 
The  national  air  of  "  William  of  Nassau,"  which  was  very 
popular  with  several  generations,  is  conmionly  attributed 
to  him  ;  though  Motley  and  som.e  other  writers  ascribe 
it  to  Marnix  de  Saint  Aldegonde.  He  sometimes  sup- 
ported himself,  at  Antwerp  and  Cleves,  by  his  skill  as  an 
engraver.  In  1572  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state 
in  Holland.  "He  formed  with  Spiegel  and  Visscher," 
says  the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  "the  triumvirate 
that  restored  the  Dutch  language  and  poetry."  Died 
at  Gouda  in  1590. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale;"  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1S54. 

Corniani,  koR-ne-i'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an 
eminent  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Orzi-Nuovi  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1742,  obtained  an  office  in  the  magistracy.  He 
wrote,  besides  various  other  works,  an  "  Analysis  of  Taste 
and  Morality,"  (1790,)  and  a  "History  of  Italian  Litera- 
ture," (9  vols.,  1804-13.)  The  latter  contains  critical  no- 
tices of  authors  who  wrote  between  the  eleventh  century 
and  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth,  and  is  a  work  of  high 
reputation.  "  His  erudition  appears  to  me  considerable," 
says  Hallam,  "and  his  judgments  generally  reasonable." 
("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  Died  at 
Brescia  in  November,  1813. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  G.  Labus,  "  No* 
tizie  intorno  alia  Vita  di  G.  B.  Corniani,"  1S14;  Camillo  Ugoni, 
"  Elogio  storico  di  G.  B.  Corniani,"  181S. 

C-ornic-Duohene,  koR'nek'  dii'shin',  (Charles,)  a 
French  naval  officer,  born  at  Morlaix  in  1 731;  died  in 
1 809. 

Cornificius,  kor-ne-fish'e-us,  (Quintus,  )  a  Latin 
poet,  who  lived  about  50  B.C.,  was  a  friend  of  Catullus. 

Cornificius,  (Quintus,)  a  Roman  who  supported  the 
party  of  Caesar  in  the  civil  war,  and  became  governor 
of  Syria.    Died  about  40  B.C. 

Corniglia,  the  Italian  of  Cornelia,  which  see. 

Cornille.    See  Cornelis. 

Cornille,  kor-neeK,  or  Corneille,  otherwise  called 
Cornelius  Engelbrechtsen,  (gng'hel-bR^Kt'sen,)  a 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  in  1468.  He  painted 
in  oil  and  fresco  with  success.  The  famous  Lucas  van 
Leyden  was  his  pupil. 

His  son,  Cornille  Kunst,  born  at  Leyden,  inherited 
his  father's  talent  for  painting.  He  worked  at  Leyden 
and  at  Bruges.  Among  his  best  works  is  a  "  Descent 
from  the  Cross."    He  died  in  1544,  aged  fifty-one. 

Cornu,  koR^iii',  (S^bastien  Melchior,)  a  French 
painter,  born  at  Lyons  in  1804,  obtained  at  Paris  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  in  1845. 

Cornuole,  delle,  deKli  koR-noo-o'li,  or  Carniole, 
kaR-ne-o'li,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  engraver  of  gems, 
who  worked  in  Florence  about  1580.  His  productions 
compare  favourably  with  those  of  the  ancient  Greeks. 
His  portrait  of  Savonarola  was  celebrated. 

Cornut.    See  Cornutl 

Cornuti,  koR''nii^te',  or  Cornut,  koR'nli',  (Jacques 
Philippe,)  a  French  botanist  and  physician,  born  in 
Paris.  He  published  a  "  Descrij^tion  of  the  Plants  of 
Canada,"  (1635,)  with  numerous  figures.    Died  in  1651. 

Cor-nu^tus,  (Lucius  Ann^us,)  a  Roman  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Leptis,  in  Africa.  He  taught  the  Stoic 
philosophy  in  Rome,  and  counted  among  his  pupils  the 
poets  Lucan  and  Persius.  Nero  banished  him  about 
68  A.D.  He  wrote,  in  Greek,  a  commentary  on  Aristotle 
and  other  philosophical  works. 

See  SuiDAS,  "Cornutus;"  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grseca ;"  G 
J.  DE  Martini,  "  Disputatio  de  L.  A.  Cornuto,"  1825. 

Cornwall,  (Barry.)    See  Procter,  (Bryan  W.) 

Cornwallis,  korn-woKlis,  (Caroline  Frances,)  ai 
English  writer  on  philosophy,  religion,  etc.,  was  born  ii 
1786.  She  produced  anonymously  a  series  of  twenty- 
two  essays,  entitled  "  Small  Books  on  Great  Subjects," 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CORNJVJLLIS 


670 


CORREA 


the  last  of  which,  "The  State  of  Man  subsequent  to  the 
Promulgation  of  Christianity,"  was  pubhshed  in  1854. 
These  works  are  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1858.  A 
volume  of  her  letters  and  poems  was  published  in 
1864. 

See  "Selections  from  the  Letters  of  Caroline  F.  Cornwallis." 

Cornwallis,  (Charles,)  Earl  and  Marquis,  a  Brit- 
ish general,  commonly  known  as  Lord  Cornwallis, 
born  in  1738,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  first  earl,  before 
whose  death  he  was  styled  Lord  Brome  or  Broome. 
He  served  on  the  continent  as  aide-de-camp  of  the  Mar- 
quis of  Gran  by  in  1761,  and  inherited  his  father's  earl- 
dom in  1762.  Though  he  was  aii  aide-de-camp  and 
favourite  of  the  king,  he  opposed  the  measures  which 
caused  the  American  war.  He  joined  the  army  in  1776, 
antl,  as  major-general,  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Brandy- 
wine  and  Germantown  in  1777,  after  being  foiled  at  Tren- 
ton by  Washington.  In  1780  he  commanded  an  army 
in  Carolina,  and  defeated  Cieneral  Gates  at  Camden. 
The  next  year  he  gained  an  unimportant  advantage 
over  General  Greene  at  Guilford,  and  invaded  Virginia. 
He  marched  to  Yorktown,  intending  to  embark  theie, 
but  was  prevented  by  a  French  fleet,  while  the  army 
of  Washington  attacked  him  by  land.  He  surrendered, 
with  about  8000  men,  on  the  19th  of  October,  178L 

Li  1786  he  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  Ben- 
gal, and  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in  India.  The 
principal  event  of  his  administration  was  the  war  against 
Tip[)oo  Saib.  Cornwallis  in  person  took  Bungalore  in 
1 791,  and  defeated  the  enemy  at  Seringapatam  in  1792. 
Tippoo  then  obtained  peace  by  ceding  half  of  his  domi- 
nions to  the  British  and  their  allies.  Lord  Cornwallis, 
having  returned  to  England  in  1793,  was  made  a  mar- 
quis, and  appointed  master-general  of  the  ordnance.  In 
1798  he  became  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  which  was 
then  in  rebellion,  and  which  he  pacified  by  a  moderate 
policy.  He  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Amiens  in  1802. 
In  1805  he  was  again  appointed  Governor-General  of 
Inilia,  and  died  the  same  year  at  Ghazapore.  Without 
brilliant  talents,  he  filled  with  credit  a  prominent  place 
on  conspicuous  stages  in  several  trying  epochs  of  British 
history.  He  is  generally  admitted  to  have  been  by  far 
the  ablest  British  general  who  took  part  in  the  war  of 
the  American  Revolution. 

See  Adolphus  and  Bissett,  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  George 
in.;"  J.  \V.  Kaye,  "Lives  of  Indian  Officers,"  1867;  "London 
Quarter!}'  Review"  for  January,  1859. 

Cornwallis,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  English  gentleman, 
whom  James  I.  sent  as  ambassador  to  Spain.  He  wrote 
the  Life  of  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales.    Died  about  1630. 

His  son.  Sir  William,  ])ublished  "Discourses  upon 
Seneca,"  and  essays  on  various  subjects,  (1600-32.) 

Cornwallis,  (Frederick,)  a  son  c^f  the  Earl  of  Corn- 
wallis, became  Bishop  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry  in  1749, 
and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1768.  He  publis.!ied 
several  volumes  of  sermons.    Died  in  1783. 

Cornwallis,  (William,)  an  English  admiral,  brother 
of  Lord  Cornwallis,  born  in  1744.  After  serving  in  the 
American  war,  he  commanded  a  squadron  in  the  East 
Indies  from  1789  to  1793,  and  was  made  vice-admiral 
in  1795.  In  that  year  he  received  the  thanks  of  Par- 
liament for  his  conduct  in  an  action  with  the  French. 
From  1801  to  1806  he  was  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Channel  fleet.  He  died  in  1819,  with  a  fair  reputation 
for  talents  and  courage. 

See  "Annual  Register." 

Corona,  ko-ro'na,  (Leonardo,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
the  Venetian  school,  was  born  at  Murano  in  1561.  His 
manner  is  said  to  resemble  that  of  Tintoretto.  Among 
his  admired  works  is  a  "Crucifixion."    Died  in  1605. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Coronado.    See  Vasquez. 

Coronelli,ko-ro-neKlee,(MARCoViNCENZO,)  a  learned 
Italian  geographer  and  monk,  born  at  Venice  about  1650. 
He  passed  some  years  in  Paris,  where  he  made  globes 
twelve  feet  in  diameter,  (1683.)  In  1685  he  was  chosen 
cosmographer  of  the  Venetian  state.  He  published 
many  maps  and  volumes  on  geography,  among  which 
were  a  "  Description  of  the  Morea,"  (1685,)  and  "An- 
cient and  Modern  Rome,"  (1716.)    Died  in  1718. 

See  TiRABOsCHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana. " 


Coronini-Cronberg,  von,  fon  ko-ro-nee'nee  kRon'- 
b§RG,  (JoHANN,)  Count,  an  Austrian  general,  born  at 
Goritz  in  1794.  He  was  chosen  preceptor  to  Francis 
Joseph  (the  present  emperor)  in  1836,  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  field-marshal  in  1849.  I"  1854  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  army  which  occupied  the  Danubian 
principalities. 

Corot,  ko'ro',  (Jean  BaptisteCamille,)  a  successful 
French  landscajje-painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1796,  Among 
his  works  are  "The  Roman  Campagna,"  (1827,)  a  "  Sou- 
venir of  the  Environs  of  Florence,"  (1839,)  "  Homer  and 
the  Shepherds,"  (1845,)        a  "Sunset  Scene,"  (1857.) 

Corr,  (Erin,)  a  Belgian  engraver  of  high  reputation, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1803,  was  a  son  of  an  Irishman.  He 
engraved  "The  Descent  from  the  Cross,"  after  Rubens, 
and  several  works  of  Van  Dyck  and  Da  Vinci.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1862. 

Corradi.    See  Ghirlandaio. 

Corradi,  kor-r^^dee,  (Ottavio,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Bologna.  He  copied  the  works  of  great  masters 
with  success.    Died  in  1643. 

Corradini,  kor-rd-dee^iee,  (Pietro  Marcelltno,)  an 
Italian  antiquary  and  jurist,  born  at  Sezza  in  1658.  He 
was  made  a  cardinal  in  17 12.  Among  his  works  is 
"Ancient  Latium,  Sacred  and  Profane,"  ("  Vetus  Latium 
profanum  et  sacrum,"  1704.)    Died  in  1743. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Blografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Corrado,  the  Italian  of  Conrad,  which  see. 

Corrado,  kor-ra'do,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
in  Naples  in  1693,  was  employed  for  some  years  by  the 
King  of  Spain  at  Madrid.    Died  in  1768. 

Corrado,  (Sehastiano,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  writer, 
born  in  the  duchy  of  Modena.  He  became  professor 
of  eloquence  at  Reggio  in  1540,  and  professor  of  Greek 
and  Latin  in  the  University  of  Bologna  in  1545.  He 
published  in  1537  an  interesting  work,  entitled  "Quaes- 
tm"a,"  in  which  the  life  of  Cicero  is  related,  and  his 
character  vindicated  from  unjust  charges.  Died  in 
1556. 

See  FiMPPO  Re,  "  Elogio  di  S.  Corrado,"  1812;  A.  Fappani, 
"  Elogio  di  S.  Corrado,"  1S20;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.'' 

Correa,  kor-ra'a,  (D.  Payo  Perez,)  a  renowned  Por- 
tuguese general,  was  chosen  grand  master  of  the  order 
of  Santiago  in  1242.  He  gained  many  victories  over  the 
Moors,  and  was  rejnited  the  greatest  captain  of  his  time. 
The  old  Spanish  writers  assert  that  he  once  arrested  the 
course  of  the  sim,  like  Joshua.    Died  in  1275. 

See  Laclede,  "Histoire  de  Portugal." 

Correa,  (Gasi'AR,)  a  Portuguese  historian,  served  in 
several  ex]:)editions  in  the  East  Indies,  and  wrote  a 
valuable  "History  of  India,"  ("  Historia  da  India,"  in 
manuscript.)    Died  at  Goa  about  1560. 

Correa,  (Thome,)  an  eloquent  Portuguese  orator, 
poet,  and  grammarian,  born  at  Coimbra  in  1537.  He 
professed  rhetoric  at  Rome  and  Bologna  with  great  suc- 
cess, and  wrote  treatises  on  eloquence,  grammar,  etc., 
among  which  was  a  commentary  on  Horace's  "  Art  of 
Poetry."    Died  in  1595. 

Correa  de  Saa,  kor-ra'a  da  st,  (Salvador,)  a  dis- 
tinguished Portuguese  admiral,  born  about  1594.  He 
was  for  many  years  Governor  of  Brazil,  where,  between 
1625  and  1640,  he  gained  several  victories  over  the  Dutch. 
In  1648  he  commanded  an  expedition  to  Africa,  and 
conquered  Benguela  and  Angola.    Died  in  1680. 

Correa  de  'Serra,  kor-ra^i  di  ser'rS,  (Jos^:  Fran- 
cisco,) a  distinguished  Portuguese  botanist  and  savant, 
born  at  Serpa  in  1750.  He  was  chosen  perpetual  secre- 
tary of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Lisbon  about  1780. 
To  escape  persecution  for  religion,  he  retired  to  France 
in  1786  and  to  England  in  1796.  About  1S14  he  sup- 
plied the  place  of  Mr.  Barton  as  professor  of  botany  in 
Philadelphia.  From  1816  to  1S21  he  was  minister  from 
Portugal  to  the  United  States.  He  was  the  author  of 
some  "treatises  on  vegetable  physiology  and  other  sub- 
jects, and  wrote  several  articles  for  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle."    Died  in  1823. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Correa  Gargao,  kor-ra'A  gaR-sowN',  (Pedro  Anto- 
nio,) a  Portuguese  poet,  born  about  1750,  was  the  author 
of  lyric  poems  which  are  in  style  excellent  imitations  of 


a,  e,  T,  o,  n,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsan-e;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CORREGGIO 


671 


CORTEZ 


Horace.  "No  one,"  says  Longfellow,  "since  Ferreira 
had  approached  so  near  the  ancient  prototype." 

See  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Correggio,  da,  da  kor-red'jo,  [Fr.  Le  Correge,  leh 
koR'uazh^  it  may  be  observed  that  in  French  he  is  nearly 
always  called  Le  Correge,  in  Italian  II  Correggio, 
i.e.  "the  Correggio,"]  (Antonio  AUegri— al-la'gRee,) 
an  illustrious  Italian  painter,  the  founder  of  a  new  and 
original  style  of  art,  was  born  at  Correggio  (whence  his 
surname)  in  1494.  We  have  little  positive  information 
respecting  him.  Vasari  and  others  state  that  his  origin 
was  humble  and  that  his  life  was  passed  in  poverty;  but 
there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  he  enjoyed  a  com- 
fortable subsistence.  Among  his  supposed  teachers  in 
art  were  his  uncle,  Lorenzo  Allegri,  and  Francesco 
Bianchi ;  but  he  was  the  sole  former  of  his  own  style. 
He  probably  never  saw  Rome  or  Venice.  He  worked 
at  his  native  city  and  at  Parma.   He  died  in  1534. 

Correggio  not  only  surpassed  all  former  artists  in  the 
magic  of  the  chiaroscuro,  but  he  was  also  distinguished 
by  his  admirable  skill  in  foreshortening.  His  forms 
are  exquisitely  soft  and  beautiful  ;  his  colours  are  as 
pure  and  as  delicate  as  those  of  Titian.  The  art  which 
Angelo  exalted  to  sublimity,  which  Titian  enriched  with 
the  magic  of  colouring,  and  which  Raphael  inspired  with 
the  soul  of  expression  and  grace,  may  be  said  to  have 
received  its  complement  of  perfection  in  the  softness, 
tenderness,  and  harmony  of  Correggio.  One  of  his  master- 
pieces is  the  Assumption  of  the  X'irgin, — a  fresco  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Parma.  Among  his  admired  oil-paintings 
are  a  Holy  Family,  known  as  "  La  Yierge  au  Panier  ;"  an 
"Ecce  Homo;"  a  i)icture  of  the  Nativity,  at  Dresden, 
called  "Notte,"  or  "Night;"  and  a  Saint  Jerome,  which 
Annibal  Caracci  preferred  to  Raphael's  Saint  Cecilia, 
One  of  his  most  remarkable  j^roductions  is  a  "  Penitent 
Magdalen,"  in  the  gallery  at  Dresden  :  for  this  picture, 
only  about  eighteen  inches  square,  one  of  the  Saxon 
kings  is  said  to  have  paid  6000  louis-d'ors,  (30,000  dol- 
lars.) His  representations  of  women  and  children  are 
especially  admirable.  ^L1ny  of  his  female  countenances 
possess  an  ineffable  and  almost  divine  beauty.  Correggio 
is  said  to  have  been  remarkably  modest.  After  gazing 
on  a  production  of  Raphael,  he  exclaimed,  exultingly, 
Anc/iio  soil'  [ittorc !  ("I  also  am  a  painter!")  "The 
liarmony  of  Correggio,"  says  Fuseli,  "though  assisted 
by  exquisite  hues,  was  entirely  independent  of  colour : 
his  great  organ  was  chiaro  csciiru  m  its  most  extensive 
sense.  The  bland  light  of  a  globe  gliding  through  lucid 
demi-tints  into  rich  reflected  shades,  composes  the  spell 
which  pervades  all  his  performances."  The  celebrated 
Danish  j^oet  Oehlenschlager  has  made  Correggio  the 
subject  of  one  of  his  most  successful  tragedies. 

See  "  Meniorie  istoriche  di  A.  Allegri  detto  il  Correggio,"  Parma, 
1817;  Vasaiu,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.;  "Lives""of  Correggio 
and  Pannegiano,"  London,  1823;  "Biographle  Universelle  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Corregio,  kor-ra'jo,  (Giberto,)  an  able  chief  of  the 
Gue]j)h  party,  who  in  1303  obtained  the  sovereignty  of 
Parma.    He' was  expelled  in  13 t6.    Died  in  1321. 

Ccr're-iis,  a  chief  of  the  Bellovaci,  a  tribe  of  Gaul, 
who,  at  the  head  of  an  army,  encountered  Caesar,  and, 
after  a  brave  resistance,  was  killed. 

Cor'rie,  (D.aniel,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  about 
1776,  became  Bishop  of  Madras  in  1834.  He  translated 
part  of  the  Bible  into  Hindostanee.    Died  in  1837. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Daniel  Corrie,"  by  his  brothers,  1847. 

Corrodi,  kor-roMee,  (Henry,)  a  learned  Swiss  writer, 
born  at  Zin-ich  in  1752.  He  published  (in  German)  a 
number  of  works  on  i^hilosophv  and  theology,  among 
which  is  a"  History  of  Millenarism,"(i78i.)  Died  in  1793. 

See  L.  Meister,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  H.  Corrodi's,"  1793. 

Corse,  (John  M.,)  an  American  general,  who,  in  Oc- 
tober, 1864,  defended  Allatoona  with  success  against  a 
superior  force  of  Confederate  troops,  while  General 
Sherman,  from  the  top  of  Kenesaw  Mountain,  signalled 
that  lie  should  hold  out  to  the  last.  He  commanded  a 
division  of  Sherman's  army  in  its  march  through  Georgia 
and  Carolina. 

Corsetti,  koR-set'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Sienna  about  1700;  died  in  1774. 

Corsignani,  koR-s^n-yi^iee,  (Pietro  Antonio,)  an 
Italian  historian,  born  at  Celano  in  1686;  died  in  1751. 


Corsini,  koR-see'nee,  (Andrea,)  born  at  Florence  in 
1302,  was  renowned  for  his  piety  and  ascetic  life.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Fiesole  about  1360.    Died  in  1373. 

See  F.  Vk.nturi,  "Vita  di  S.  A.  Corsini,"  1620;  Axgulo,  "  Vida 
di  S.  A.  Corsini,"  1630. 

Corsini,  (Edoardo,)  an  eminent  Italian  antiquary  and 
monk,  born  at  Fanano  in  1702.  In  1735  he  became 
professor  of  logic,  and  in  1746  of  moral  philosophy,  at 
Pisa.  He  published  "Fasti  Attici,"  (1744-56,  4  vols.,) 
a  capital  work  on  Grecian  chronology  and  history,  and 
other  antiquarian  treatises.    Died  at  Pisa  in  1765. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Corsini,  (Lorenzo.)    See  Clement  XII, 

Cort,  koRt,  (Cornelius,)  a  skilful  Dutch  designei 
and  engraver,  born  at  Horn  about  1530.  After  visiting 
Venice  about  1566,  and  engraving  some  works  of  Titian, 
he  settled  in  Rome,  where  he  opened  a  school  of  engra- 
ving. He  produced  many  prints  after  various  masters, 
among  which  is  "The  Transfiguration  of  Raphael." 
Died  in  Rome  in  1578. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Cort,  (Henry,)  an  English  mechanician,  who  effected 
great  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  iron,  was  born 
at  Lancaster  in  1740  ;  died  in  1800. 

See  Smiles,  "Industrial  Biography." 

Cortambert,  koR'tSN'baiR',  (Pierre  FRANgois  Eu- 
gene,) a  French  geographer  and  writer,  born  at  Toulouse 
in  1805. 

Corte,  (Cesare  and  Valerio.)    See  Cortl 

Corte,  de  la,  da  la  koR'ta,  (Juan,)  a  skilful  Spanish 
painter  of  landscapes  and  battles,  born  at  Madrid  in 
1597  ;  died  in  1660.  His  son,  Gabriel,  (1648-94,)  was 
a  painter  of  flowers. 

Corte-Murari,  della,  deKli  koR^tk  moo-ra'ree, 
(GiROLAMO,)  Count,  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Mantua  in 
1747  ;  died  in  1S32. 

Cortenaer  or  Cortenaar,  koR'teh-naR^  (Egbert,) 
a  famous  Dutch  admiral.  He  distinguished  himself  as 
captain  in  a  battle  against  the  Swedes  in  1658,  and  was 
killed  near  Lestofif  in  1665. 

Cortenovis,  koR-ta-no'v^ss,  (Angelo  Maria,)  an 
Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Bergamo  in  1727,  wrote  a 
tieatise  "On  the  Purple  of  the  Ancients."  Died  in  1801. 

Corte-Real  or  Ccrtereal,  koR-ta-ra-^K,  (Caspar,) 
a  Portuguese  navigator,  commanded  in  1500  an  exploring 
expedition  to  the  region  since  called  Canada.  In  1501 
he  again  sailed  from  Lisbon  towards  the  Arctic  regions, 
and  was  never  afterwards  heard  of. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Corte-Real,  (Jeronymo,)  a  Portuguese  poet,  com- 
posed several  admired  poems,  of  which  the  "Shipwreck 
of  Sepulveda"  (1594)  is  the  most  popular.  Died  in  1593. 

See  SisMON'Di,  '"Histoire  de  la  Litterature  du  Midi  de  TEurope." 

Cortes.    See  Cortez. 

Cortes,  (DoNO.so.)    See  Donoso  Cortes. 

Cortes,  koR-tgs'',  (Martin,)  a  Spanish  geographer, 
who  lived  at  Cadiz,  published  in  1561  an  excellent  work 
on  geography  and  navigation,  called  "Breve  Compendio 
de  la  Esfera  y  de  la  Arte  de  navegar." 

Cortese.    See  Cortez. 

Cortese,  koR-ta'sa,  (Giulio  Cesare,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  about  1570.  He  wrote 
several  facetious  and  satirical  poems,  one  of  which,  called 
the  "  Vajasseide,"  (1604,)  passed  through  sixteen  editions 
in  fourteen  years. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Cortesi.    See  Courtois,  (Jacques.) 
Cortesius.    See  Cortez. 

Cor'tez,  [Sp.  Cortes,  koR-tgs';  It.  Cortese,  koR- 
ta'sa;  Lat.  Corte'sius,]  (Hernando  (or  Hernan)  01 
Fernando,)  the  conqueror  of  Mexico,  was  born  at  Medel- 
lin,avillageof  Estremadura,in  Spain,  in  1485.  Resolving 
to  seek  his  fortune  in  the  New  World,  he  sailed  to  His- 
paniola  in  1504,  and  became  a  planter.  He  displayed 
courage  and  ability  in  the  conquest  of  Cuba,  which  Vela:- 
quez  began  in  1511,  and  was  rewarded  with  an  estate  in 
that  island.  In  15 18  he  was  appointed  by  Velasquez  com- 
mander of  an  expedition  sent  against  Mexico,  which  had 
just  been  discovered,  and  which  presented  a  most  bril- 
liant theatre  for  ambition  and  enterprise.    The  armada. 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  o,  h,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (gi^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CORTI 


672 


COR  WIN 


which  consisted  of  eleven  vessels,  ten  cannon,  and  about 
seven  hundred  men,  sailed  from  Cuba  in  February,  15 19, 
its  primary  ostensible  object  being  the  conversion  of  the 
infidels.  This  process  he  initiated  by  a  battle  at  Tabasco, 
where  he  defeated  a  native  army.  He  next  landed  on 
the  site  of  the  present  Vera  Cruz,  where  he  made  friendly 
demonstrations  and  learned  that  he  had  entered  the  wide 
empire  of  Montezuma.  The  Aztec  artists  by  their  pic- 
ture-writing informed  the  monarch  of  the  arrival  of  the 
Spaniards.  Having  destroyed  his  ships,  in  order  that 
his  soldiers  might  be  forced  to  conquer  or  perish,  Cortez 
marched  to  Mexico,  or  Tenochtitian,  the  capital  of  Ana- 
huac,  which,  after  several  bloody  victories  over  the  Tlas- 
calans,  he  entered  in  November,  15 19,  without  resistance. 
Montezuma,  after  receiving  them  with  due  hospitality, 
was  made  prisoner  by  his  audacious  guests  in  his  own 
palace.  He  was  induced  to  swear  allegiance  to  the  em- 
peror Charles  V.,  and  to  pay  an  immense  tribute  in  gold 
and  silver;  but  he  refused  to  profess  the  creed  of  the 
Spaniards.  In  the  mean  time,  Velasquez,  jealous  of  the 
success  of  Cortez,  whom  he  regarded  as  a  rival  or  rebel, 
sent  against  him  an  army  of  about  1000  men,  under  Nar- 
vaez,  who  arrived  in  Vera  Cruz  in  April,  1520.  Leaving 
a  small  garrison  in  the  capital,  Cortez  marched  with 
about  250  men  against  Narvaez,  whom  he  defeated  and 
took  prisoner  near  Zempoalla  in  1520.  Having  per- 
suaded the  soldiers  of  Narvaez  to  join  his  standard, 
Cortez  returned  to  Mexico,  which  he  found  in  revolt 
against  him.  After  several  days  of  severe  fighting,  in 
which  Montezuma  was  mortally  wounded  by  the  natives, 
the  Spaniards  were  expelled  from  the  city  of  Mexico, 
with  a  loss  of  several  hundred  men.  The  great  victory 
at  Otumba  in  July,  1520,  restored  the  ascendency  of 
Cortez,  and  in  1521  he  again  became  master  of  the  capi- 
tal, where  he  committed  acts  of  infamous  atrocity,  and 
the  conquest  of  Mexico  was  completed.  In  1522  he  was 
appointed  by  the  Spanish  court  Governor  and  Captain- 
General  of  New  Spain,  (Mexico.)  In  1525  he  executed 
Guatemozin,  the  last  emperor  of  the  Aztecs.  To  vindi- 
cate himself  from  the  accusations  of  his  enemies,  he  re- 
turned in  1528  to  Spain,  where  he  was  graciously  received 
by  Charles  V.  ;  but  when  he  went  again  to  Mexico, 
in  1530,  he  no  longer  had  the  supremacy  there.  An 
exploring  expedition  which  he  fitted  out  discovered 
California  in  1535.  He  revisited  Spain  in  1540,  and 
took  part  in  the  disastrous  invasion  of  Algiers  in  1541. 
Died  at  Seville  in  1547.  His  virtues  and  vices  are  thus 
summed  u]3  by  Prescott :  "  He  was  avaricious,  yet  libe- 
ral ;  bold  to  desperation,  yet  cautious  and  calculating  in 
his  plans  ;  magnanimous,  yet  very  cunning  ;  lax  in  his 
notions  of  morality,  yet  a  sad  bigot.  The  great  feature 
in  his  character  was  constancy  of  purpose." 

See  Robertson,  "History  of  America;"  Prescott,  "History 
of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico;"  "  Despatclies  of  Hernando  Cortes," 
New  York,  1S43;  Antonio  de  Solis  y  Ribauenevra,  "Historia 
de  la  Conqaista  del  Mexico,"  16S4  ;  English  version  of  the  same,  by 
Thomas  Tovvnsend.  1724;  Gomara,  "  Historia  de  F.  Cortez," 
Rome,  1556;  Cari.  Curths,  "  F.  Cortez  der  Eroberer  Mexiko's," 
181S;  "Lives  of  Nunez  de  Balboa,  Hernan  Cortes,  and  Francis 
Pizarro,"  1847. 

Corti,  koR^tee,  or  Corte,  koR'ti,  {CESARE,)a  painter 
of  portraits  and  history,  a  son  of  Valerio,  noticed  below, 
was  born  at  Genoa  about  1554;  died  about  1612. 

Corti,  [Lat.  Cur^'tius,]  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  medical 
writer,  born  at  Pavi'a  in  1475  5  ^^'^^  'i''  1542- 

Corti  or  Corte,  (Valerio,)  an  Italian  portrait-painter 
of  merit,  born  at  Venice  in  1530,  was  a  pupil  of  Titian. 
Died  at  Genoa  about  1580.  His  son  Marcantonio  was 
an  excellent  designer. 

Corticelli,  koR-te-cheKlee,  (Salvadore,)  an  eminent 
Italian  philologist,  born  at  Piacenza  in  1690.  He  pro- 
duced an  excellent  Italian  grammar,  (1745,)  which,  says 
Roquefort,  "is  the  best  in  the  language."  Died  in  1758. 

See  Tii'ALuo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiaiii  ilkistri." 

Cortona,  da,dakoR-to'na,  (Pietro  BERRETTiNr,)[Fr. 
Pierre  de  Cortone,  pe-aiii'  deh  koR''ton^]  an  eminent 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Cortona  about  1600.  He  ])ainted 
some  pictures  in  the  Pitti  palace,  Florence,  and  afterwards 
settled  in  Rome,  where  he  worked  with  success.  He 
excelled  in  composition,  and  had  a  certain  freedom  and 
facility  of  style.  Mengs,  however,  says  that  he  neglected 
the  study  of  principles  founded  on  reason,  and  aimed 


only  to  gratify  the  eye  of  the  spectator.  He  was  also 
architect  of  several  Roman  edifices.  Died  in  Rome  in 
1669.  Among  his  oil-paintings  is  "The  Conversion  of 
Saint  Paul."  The  Barberini  palace,  Rome,  contains  one 
of  his  principal  frescos. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy  ;"  Bryan,  "  Dictionary 
of  Painters." 

Cortone,  de.    See  Cortona. 

Cortot,  koR'to',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Paris  in  1787,  won  the  first  prize  of  the  Institute 
in  1809.  Among  his  finest  works  are  "The  Soldier  of 
Marathon"  and  the  bas-relief  which  adorns  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies.    Died  in  1843. 

Cortvisi,  koR-too'see,  (Giacomo  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
botanist,  and  director  of  the  botanic  garden  at  Padua. 
He  published  a  description  of  the  plants  growing  in  that 
garden,  (159L)    Died  in  1593. 

Cor-un-ca'ni-us,  (Tiberius,)  an  eminent  Roman 
jurist  and  senator,  was  elected  consul  in  280  B.C.,  and 
pontifex  maximus  about  254.  He  was  the  first  plebeian 
who  attained  the  latter  dignity.  His  talents  and  virtues 
are  highly  praised  by  Cicero.  He  was  appointed  dic- 
tator in  246  B.C.,  soon  after  which  he  died. 

See  Cicero,  "De  Legibus,"  and  "De  Oratore ;"  Wuerffel, 
" Commentatio  de  T.  Coruncanio,"  1740. 

Corvetto,  di,  de  koR-vet'to,  (Luigi  Emmanuele,) 
Count,  a  financier,  born  at  Genoa  in  1756.  In  1805  he 
became  a  member  of  Bonaparte's  council  of  state.  From 
181 5  to  1 81 8  he  was  minister  of  finance  in  France.  Died 
in  1822. 

See  SoLARi,  "Elogio  storico  del  Conte  L.  E.  di  Corvetto,"  1824. 

Corvi,  koR'vee,  (Do.menico,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Viterbo  in  1623,  excelled  in  nocturnal  scenes.  Died 
in  1703. 

Corvin.    See  Corvinus. 

Corvinu.s,  koR-vee'nus,  (Johann  August,)  a  Ger- 
man engraver,  born  about  1682,  worked  for  booksellers 
of  Augsburg.    Died  in  1738. 

Cor-vi''nus,  jFr.  Corvin,  koR''viN',]  (Matthias,) 
King  of  Hungary,  born  at  Klausenburg  in  1443,  was  the 
son  of  John  Huniades.  He  was  elected  king  in  1458.  His 
reign  was  marked  by  a  series  of  wars  with  the  emperor 
Ferdinand  HI.,  the  Turks,  and  the  Kings  of  Poland  and 
Bohemia.  In  the  intervals  of  peace  he  promoted  the  arts 
and  sciences.  He  was  eminent  for  military  talents,  and 
made  himself  master  of  Austria  and  Vienna  in  1485.  He 
died  at  Vienna  in  1490,  leaving  the  reputation  of  a  wise 
ruler.  Vladislaus,  King  of  Bohemia,  was  his  successor. 

See  TuROTZ,  "Chronica  Himgaria;"  Galeottus  Martius,  "De 
Dictis  et  Factis  Regis  Matthise ;"  Fesscer,  "Matthias  Kbnig  von 
Huiigarn,"  1793;  Wenzei.,  "Matthias  Corvinus,"  1810. 

Corvisart-Desmarets,  korVe^ztR'  da'mi^ra',  (Jean 
Nicolas,)  an  eminent  French  physician,  born  in  Cham- 
pagne in  1755.  Having  attended  the  lectures  of  Petit, 
Desault,  and  others,  he  was  received  as  doctenr-regeiit  of 
.the  faculty  in  1782.  In  1788  he  was  chosen  professor  of 
clinic  at  the  hospital  La  Charite,  and  in  1797  professor 
of  practical  medicine  in  the  College  of  France.  He  was 
very  successful  as  a  lecturer,  and  had  a  rare  sagacity  in 
diagnosis.  About  1800  he  was  appointed  chief  physician 
to  Bonaparte,  and  a  few  years  later  received  the  title  of 
liJaron.  He  jjublished  an  "Essay  on  the  Diseases  and 
Organic  Lesions  of  the  Heart,"  (1808,)  and  other  works. 
15onaparte  once  said  he  "  was  an  honest  and  able  man,  but 
rather  blunt,"  (brtisque.)    Died  in  1821. 

See  Ferrus,  "Notice  sur  Corvisart,"  1821;  "Biographic  Medi- 
cale;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

CorVus,  (M.  Valerius,)  a  famous  Roman  general, 
born  about  370  B.C.  He  was  chosen  consul  in  348,  and 
was  re-elected  five  times.  In  343  he  gained  two  im- 
portant victories  over  the  Samnites  near  Gaurus  and 
Suessula.  He  was  chosen  dictator  in  342.  Again  sum- 
moned to  the  dictatorship  in  301  B.C.,  he  defeated  the 
Marsi  and  Etruscans.  He  was  elected  consul  the  sixth 
time  in  299.    Died  about  270  B.C. 

See  Valerius  Maximus;  Niebuhr,  "History  of  Rome." 

Cor'win,  (Thomas,)  an  American  statesman  and 
orator,  born  in  Bourbon  county,  Kentucky,  in  July,  1794. 
His  parents  removed  to  Ohio  while  he  was  a  boy.  He 
studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  about  181 8,  and 
soon  acquired  celebrity  as  a  lawyer  and  an  orator.  He 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  xi,  y,  sAor^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  tlr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CORY AT 


673 


supported  John  Quincy  Adams  for  the  Presidency  in 
182S,  was  elected  a  member  ot  Congress  by  the  voters 
of  the  Warren  district  in  1830,  and  acted  with  the  Whig 
party.  In  1840  he  advocated  the  election  of  General 
Harrison  by  numerous  speeches  at  mass-meetings,  for 
which  his  popular  style  of  oratory  was  especially  adapted. 
He  w%ns  elected  Governor  of  Ohio  for  two  years  in  Octo- 
ber, 1840,  and  represented  that  State  in  the  Senate  of 
the  United  States  from  1845  to  1850.  He  opposed  the 
Mexican  war,  on  which  he  made  an  able  speech  in  1846. 
In  Tuly,  1850,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treas- 
ury by  President  Fillmore.  On  his  retirement  from  office, 
March,  1853,  he  resumed  the  practice  of  law  at  Lebanon, 
Ohio.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  for  the 
seventh  district  of  Ohio  in  October,  1858,  and  again  in 
i860;  but  soon  after  the  latter  date  (in  1861)  he  ^vas 
sent  as  minister  to  Mexico.  He  returned  home  in  1864, 
and  died  at  Washington  in  December,  1865. 

Cor'y-at  or  Cor^y-ate,  (George,)  an  English  clergy- 
man, noted  as  a  writer  of  Latin  verse,  became  rector  of 
Odcombe  about  1570.    Died  in  1606. 

Coryat  or  Coryate,  (Thomas,)  an  eccentric  Eng- 
lishman, a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Odcombe 
rectory  in  1577.  In  1608  he  traversed  France,  Italy,  and 
Germany  on  foot,  and  published,  in  161 1,  "Crudities 
hastily  gobbled  up  in  Five  Months' Travel,  etc."  This 
work  was  accompanied  by  numerous  pieces  of  humorous 
or  ironical  verse  by  Jonson,  Drayton,  Chapman,  and 
many  other  poets.  In  his  youth  he  appears  to  have 
officiated  as  court  jester,  or  king's  fool,  in  the  service  of 
Henry,  Prince  of  Wales.  ]3etween  16 12  and  161 7  he 
journeyed  on  foot  through  Palestine  and  Persia  to  Hin- 
dostan.    Died  at  Surat  in  161 7. 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  vi.,  1822. 

Cor-y-bau'tes,  [Gr,  Kopi'/3ar-ef,]  the  priests  of  Cy- 
bele,  sometimes  called  also  Galli.  They  celebrated  the 
festivals  of  Cybele  with  orgiastic  dances  and  loud  cries, 
beating  on  timbrels,  clashing  cymbals,  and  cutting  their 
flesli  with  knives. 

Cosa,  de  la,  di  II  ko'sS,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  navigator, 
who  served  Columbus  as  pilot  in  his  second  voyage  to 
America.  He  was  skilful  in  the  construction  of  maps 
or  charts.  He  was  killed  by  some  natives  at  Tabasco 
in  1509. 

Cosimo,  kos'e-mo,  (Jacopo  or  Giacomo,)  a  celebrated 
engraver  of  gems  and  cameos,  was  born  at  Trezzo,  in  the 
Milanese.    He  worked  at  Madrid  for  Philip  II. 

Cosimo,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  painter  of  high  reputa- 
tion, also  called  Rossellt,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1441. 
He  excelled  in  bacchanalian  scenes.    Died  about  1525. 

Cosimo  de'  Medici.    See  Medici. 

Cosin  or  Cozen,  kuz'en,  (John,)  an  English  divine, 
born  at  Norwich  in  1594.  He  became  Dean  of  Peter- 
borough in  1640.  During  the  civil  war  he  retired  to 
Paris,  where  he  preached  several  years.  About  1660  he 
returned,  and  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Durham.  He 
published  "A  Scholastic  History  of  the  Canon  of  Holy 
Scripture,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1672. 

Cosini,  ko-see'nee,  (Silvio,)  an  able  sculptor,  a  pupil 
of  Michael  Angelo,  born  near  Florence,  lived  about  1550. 

Cos'mas,  [Gr.  Koa/zds,]  an  Egyptian  geographer,  sur- 
named  Indicopleus'tes,  ("Ind'ian  navigator,")  lived 
about  540  A.D.  In  his  youth  he  was  a  merchant,  and 
made  voyages  to  India  and  other  countries.  He  after- 
wards became  a  monk  at  Alexandria,  and  wrote,  in  Greek, 
several  works,  one  of  which,  entitled  "Christian  To- 
pography," {ToTToypaipLa  XpioTtavLKp,)  is  still  extant.  He 
argues  that  the  earth  is  not  spherical. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca ;"  Mannert,  "Geographie 
des  Anciens." 

Cosmas  of  Jerusalem,  a  poet  and  monk  of  the  eighth 
century,  wrote  thirteen  Greek  hymns,  which  are  extant. 

Cosmas  [Fr.  Cosme,  kom]  of  Prague,  born  in  1045, 
was  the  earliest  historian  of  Bohemia  whose  work  has 
come  down  to  us.  He  was  a  priest,  and  secretary  to 
Henry  IV.  of  Germany.  About  1125  he  finished  Kis 
"Bohemian  Chronicle,"  ("Chronicon  Bohemorum.") 
Died  in  11 26. 

Cosme  OF  Prague.    See  Cosmas. 

Cosme,  kom, (Jean  Baseilhac,)  called  Fr^re  Cosme, 
a  French  surgeon,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Tarbes  in  1703, 


lived  mostly  in  Paris.  He  was  reputed  one  of  the  first 
lithotomists  of  his  time  in  France,  and  invented  an  in- 
strument used  in  lithotomy.    Died  in  1781. 

Cosmico,  kos''me-ko,  (Niccolo  Helio,)  a  Latin  poet, 
born  at  Padua  about  1440  ;  died  in  1489. 

Cosmo  (or  Cosimo)  de'  Medici.    See  Medicl 

Cosiiac,  de,  deh  kos'nak',  (Daniel,)  a  French  bishop, 
noted  for  his  address,  vivacity,  and  talent  for  intrigue, 
was  born  in  Limousin  about  1630.  He  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Aix  in  1687.  Died  in  1708.  He  left  "Me- 
moires,"  which  were  published  in  1852. 

See  Abbe  Choisy,  "  M^moires,"  liv.  viii. ;  Saint-Simc-n,  "  M^- 
moires;"  Sainte-Beuvr,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tomevi.;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Cospean,  de,  deh  kos^pk'5N',  sometimes  incorrectly 
written  Cospeau,  (Philippe,)  a  Flemish  prelate,  born  in 
Hainaut  in  1568,  was  eminent  as  a  preacher.  Moreri 
gives  him  credit  for  purging  the  pulpit  of  quotations  from 
profane  authors.  He  became  Bishop  of  Nantes  in  1622. 
Died  in  1646. 

See  Rene  Lemee,  "  Le  Pr^lat  accompli,  ou  la  Vie  de  P.  de  Cos- 
pean," 1646;  R.  Bordeaux,  "  Notice  relative  i  P.  Cospeau,"  1852. 

Cospeau.    See  Cospean. 

Cosroes.    See  Khosroo. 

Cossa.    See  John  XXIII.,  (Pope.) 

Cossale,  kos-si'li,  or  Cozzale,  kot-sS'li,  (Orazio,) 
an  Italian  painter,  lived  at  Brescia  about  1600. 

Cossali,  kos-s§.'lee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  geometer  and 
Theatin  friar,  born  at  Verona  in  1748,  was  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  and  astronomy  at  Parma,  and  after- 
wards of  mathematics  at  Padua.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  "Critical  History  of  Algebra,"  (2  vols., 
1779,)  which  was  highly  prized.    Died  in  1815. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Cossart,  ko'sSR',  (Gabriel,)  a  learned  French  Jesuit, 
born  at  Pontoise  in  1615  ;  died  in  1674. 

Cosse,  de,  deh  ko'sa',  (Arthur  or  Artus,)  Comte 
de  Secondigny,  (seh-k6N''d^n''ye'',)  a  French  general,  born 
about  1 5 12.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1567, 
after  which  he  served  in  the  civil  wars  against  the  Cal- 
vinists.    Died  in  1582. 

See  Brantome,  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaines." 

Cosse,  de,  (Charles,)  Comte  de  Brissac,  (bRe'stk',) 
an  able  French  general,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Anjou  about  1505.  Having  s<;rved  in  several  cam- 
paigns in  Italy  and  Flanders,  he  was  made  grand  master 
of  artillery  in  1547.  In  1550  he  became  a  marshal  of 
France,  after  which  he  fought  successfully  in  Piedmont 
against  the  Spaniards.  He  died  about  1564,  with  the 
reputation  of  one  of  the  greatest  captains  of  his  age. 

See  De  Thou,  "Memoires;"  Brantome,  "Vies  des  grands 
Capitaines." 

Cosse,  de,  (Charles,)  Due  de  Brissac,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  a  partisan  of  the  League  against  Henry 

III.  ,  and  was  the  first  who  employed  the  Barricades  in 
Paris,  (1588.)  He  was  appointed  by  the  Duke  of  May- 
enne  governor  of  Paris,  which  he  surrendered  to  Henry 

IV.  in  1594.  He  was  afterwards  made  a  marshal  and  a 
duke.    Died  in  1621. 

See  Perefixe,  "Vie  de  Henri  IV." 

Cosse,  de,  (Louis  Hercule  Timol^on,)  Due  de 
Brissac,  a  French  royalist,  born  in  1734.  He  was  ap- 
pointed commandant  of  the  royal  guard  in  1 791,  and 
was  massacred  in  September,  1792. 

Cossiers,  ko'se-a',  (Jean,)  a  Flemish  historical 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1603,  was  patronized  by 
the  King  of  Spain.  Among  his  best  works  is  a  "  Pre- 
sentation in  the  Temple."    Died  in  1652. 

Cossigny  de  Palma,  ko's^n'ye'  deh  ptKmS',  (Joseph 
Francois,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Palma,  in  the 
Isle  of  France,  in  1730.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Fabrication  of  Indigo,"  (1779,)  and  other  esteemed 
scientific  works.    Died  in  Paris  in  1809. 

Cossin,  ko'sdN',  (Louis,)  a  French  engraver,  born  at 
Troyes  in  1633  ;  died  at  Paris  in  1682. 

Cos'sus,  (AuLus  Cornelius,)  a  patrician  Roman 
general,  who  was  appointed  dictator  in  385  B.C.,  during 
the  Volscian  war.  He  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
the  Volscians  soon  after  that  date,  and  on  his  return  to 
Rome  committed  Manlius  Capitolinus  to  prison. 

See  LiVY,  "  History  of  Rome." 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as g,  h,  y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

43 


COS s us 


674 


COTE  LIE  R 


Cossus,  (Servius  Cornelius,)  a  Roman  warrior,  who 
killed  in  single  combat  Lar  Tolumnius,  King  of  the  Veii, 
about  437  B.C.  He  was  the  second  person  among  the 
Romans  that  obtained  the  spolia  opima.  He  was  chosen 
consul  in  428  li.c. 

See  NiEBUHK,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Cossutius,  kos-su'she-us,  a  Roman  architect  of  high 
reputation,  lived  about  170  B.C.  He  was  the  first  Roman 
who  built  in  the  Greek  manner.  He  rebuilt  the  grand 
temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius  at  Athens. 

See  Pliny,  "Natural  History,"  book  xxxvi.;  F^libien,  "Vies 
des  plus  celebres  Architectes." 

Costa,  kos'tS,  (Lorenzo,)  the  Elder,  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Ferrara  about  1450  ;  died  about  1530. 

Costa,  (MiCHELE,)  an  Italian  composer,  born  in  Na- 
ples in  1810.  Among  his  chief  works  are  "Don  Carlos," 
an  opera,  and  "Eli,"  an  oratorio. 

Costa,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Ravenna  in 
1771,  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "Great  Dictionary 
of  the  Italian  Language,"  (1819-26.)  He  published  two 
editions  of  Dante,  (1819  and  1830,)  and  wrote  various 
works,  among  which  is  a  novel  called  "  Demetrio  di 
Modone."    Died  in  1836. 

See  Rambelli,  "  Elogio  di  P.  Costa,"  1837;  Filippo  Mordani, 
"Biografia  di  P.  Costa,"  1840. 

Costa,  da.    See  Da  Costa. 

Costa,  da,  di  kos'td,  (Antonio  Rodriguez,)  a  Por- 
tuguese historian,  born  at  Setuval  in  1656;  died  in  1732. 

Costa,  da,  di  kos'ti,  (Claudio  Manoel,)  a  Brazilian 
poet,  born  in  1729.  He  was  educated  at  Coimbra,  and 
returned  to  Brazil.  He  wrote  "  Villarica,"  and  other 
poems,  which  are  commended.    Died  in  1789. 

Costa-Cabral,  da,  di  kos'ti  ki-bRil',  (Antonio 
Bernardo,)  Count  de  Thomar,  (to-maR',)  a  Portuguese 
politician,  born  in  1803,  was  several  times  prime  minister 
between  1838  and  1851. 

Costa  de  Beauregard,  de,  deh  kos'tt'  deh  bor^^R', 
(Joseph  Henri,)  Marquis,  a  general  and  historian,  born 
in  Savoy  in  1752,  was  educated  at  Paris.  He  fought 
against  the  French  between  1792  and  1800.  He  pub- 
lished (in  French)  "  Historical  Memoirs  of  the  House 
of  Savoy."    Died  in  1824. 

Costa  e  Sylva,  da,  dd  kos'tl  \  s^l'va,  (Joz6  Maria,) 
a  Portuguese  poet  and  critic,  born  in  1788.  He  wrote 
"  The  Sepulchre  of  Mary,"  and  other  poems.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  a  "  Biographical  and  Critical  Essay  on  the 
Best  Portuguese  Poets,"  ("  Ensaio  biographico-critico 
sobre  os  melhores  Poetas  Portuguezas,"  7  vols.,  1850-54,) 
which  he  did  not  live  to  finish.    Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Costanzi,  kos-tln'zee,  (Carlo,)  a  skilful  engraver  on 
precious  stones,  born  in  Naples  in  1703,  worked  in  Rome. 
He  copied  antique  gems  with  great  success,  and  engraved 
on  diamonds  a  Leda,  and  a  head  of  Antinoiis.  "Few 
artists,"  says  the  "Biographie  Universelle,"  "have  re- 
ceived from  their  contemporaries  so  many  testimonials 
of  admiration." 

See  Nagler,  "Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Costanzi,  (Placido,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Rome  in  1688;  died  in  1759. 

Costanzo,  di,  de  kos-tin'zo,  (Angelo,)  a  popular 
Italian  historian  and  lyric  poet,  born  at  Naples  about 
1507.  He  published  in  1582  a  "  History  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Naples  from  1250  to  1489,"  which,  says  Ginguene, 
"is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  works  on  that  subject." 
As  a  poet  he  held  a  high  rank  among  his  contempora- 
ries. The  Academy  of  Arcadians,  near  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  selected  him  as  the  best  model  for 
imitation.    Died  about  1590. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Long- 
fellow, "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Cos'tard,  (George,)  an  English  clergyman,  noted  as 
an  Oriental  and  classical  scholar,  was  born  in  17 10.  He 
became  Fellow  and  tutor  of  Wadham  College,  Oxford, 
about  1733,  vicar  of  Twickenham  in  1764.  His 

principal  work  is  a  "History  of  Astronomy,"  (1767,) 
which  obtained  a  wide  reputation.    Died  in  1782. 

Coste.    See  Lacoste. 

Coste,  kost,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  an  eminent  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Ville  (Ain)  in  1741.  He  was  chief  physician 


of  the  French  army  which  fought  for  the  United  States  in 
1778-83.  In  1790  he  displayed  courage  and  firmness  as 
mayor  of  Versailles.  He  was  physician-in-chief  of  the 
grand  army  in  the  campaigns  of  Austerlitz,  Jena,  and 
Eylau,  (1805-09.)  He  published  a  treatise  on  "Military 
Hospitals,"  and  other  able  works.    Died  in  1819. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;" 
Regnault,  "Notice  sur  J.  F.  Coste,"  1819. 

Coste,  (Jean  Jacques  Cyprien  Victor,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Castries  in  1807,  was  professor  of 
embryology  ( emhryogenie )  in  Paris,  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1851.  He  published 
a  "Voyage  of  Exploration  on  the  Coasts  of  France  and 
Italv,"  (1855,)  and  other  works. 

Coste,  (Pi  erre,)  a  French  litterateur  and  Protestant, 
born  at  Uzes  in  1668,  took  refuge  in  England  about  1700. 
He  translated  into  French  Locke's  great  work,  and 
Newton's  "Optics,"  and  edited  several  French  authors. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1747. 

Coste,  kost,  (Xavier  Pascal,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1787,  was  employed  by  the  Viceroy 
of  Egypt  from  1818  to  1827.  He  published  a  magnifi- 
cent work  entitled  "Arabian  Architecture,  or  Monuments 
of  Cairo,"  (1827.) 

Costello,  (Louisa  Stuart.)  a  popular  authoress,  was 
born  in  Ireland  in  181 5.  She  wrote,  among  other  works, 
"Suinmer  amongst  the  Bocages  and  Vines,"  (1840,)  a 
"Pilgrimage  to  Auvergne,"  (1842,)  "Memoirs  of  Emi- 
nent Englishwomen,"  (4  vols.,  1844,)  and  "The  Rose 
Garden  of  Persia,"  an  admired  translation  from  the  Per- 
sian poets,  (1845.)   Died  in  1870. 

Costeo,  kos-ta'o,  [Lat.  Cost^'us,]  (Giovanni,)  an 
Italian  physician  and  writer,  born  at  Lodi ;  died  at 
Bologna  in  1603. 

Cos'ter,  [Lat.  Coste'rus,]  (Bernard,)  a  Dutch  his- 
torical writer,  born  at  Woerden  in  1645  ;  died  in  1735. 

Coster,  kos'ta',  (Joseph  Francois,)  a  meritorious 
French  economist  and  financier,  born  at  Nancy  in  1729, 
filled  the  position  of  chief  clerk  (premier  comtnis)  of  the 
finances  under  eleven  successive  ministers.  He  wrote 
an  "  liloge  de  Colbert,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1813. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  Blau,  "  filoge  de  M.  Cos- 
ter," 1808. 

Coster  or  Costar,  (Laurent  Janszoon.)  See 

KOSTER. 

Coster,  (Samuel,)  M.D,,  an  eminent  Dutch  dramatic 
poet,  called  the  founder  of  the  theatre  of  Amsterdam, 
was  born  about  1580  or  1590.  He  produced  five  come- 
dies and  six  tragedies  between  1615  and  1644.  His 
"Iphigenia,"  a  tragedy,  (1626,)  was  perhaps  the  most 
popular  of  his  works.  "  His  characters,"  says  the  "  Bio- 
graphie Universelle,"  "are  well  sustained,  and  his  style 
is  often  noble  and  energetic." 

See  JocHER,  "Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Costha-Beii-Louka.    See  Kosta-Ibn-Looka. 

Cos'way,  (Richard,)  a  successful  English  painter, 
born  at  Tiverton  in  1740,  was  a  pupil  of  Hudson.  He 
had  great  skill  in  miniature-painting,  in  which  he  was 
employed  by  persons  of  the  highest  rank.  Died  in  1821. 
His  wife,  Maria  Hadfield,  was  an  excellent  portrait- 
painter  and  musician.  Her  musical  parties  in  London 
were  frequented  by  the  noble  and  fashionable,  attracted 
partly  by  the  paintings  and  other  works  of  art  with  which 
the  house  was  profusely  adorned. 

Cota,  ko'ta,  (Roderigo,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at 
Toledo ;  died  in  1470.  He  was  the  reputed  author  of 
the  famous  tragi-comedy  "  Calisto  and  Melibea,"  (some- 
times called  " Celestina,")  and  of  "Mingo  Rebulgo,"  a 
satire. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Cotan,  ko-tin',  (Juan  Sanchez,)  a  Spanish  painter 
of  flowers  and  fruit,  born  at  Alcazar  de  San  Juan  in 
1561  ;  died  in  1627. 

Cotelerius.    See  Cotelier. 

Coteiier,  kot'le-i',  [Lat.  Cotele'rius,]  (Jean  Bap- 
TiSTE,)  a  French  iTellenist  of  great  merit,  born  at  Nimes 
in  1627.  As  professor  of  Greek  in  the  Royal  College 
of  Paris,  he  ofiiciated  with  great  distinction.  He  pub- 
lished "  Monuments  of  the  Greek  Church,"  (3  vols., 
1677-86,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1686. 

See  NiCERON,  "M^moires." 


a,  e,  1,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


COTES 


675 


COTTLE 


Cotes,  (Fkan'CIS,)  an  English  artist,  born  in  London 
in  1725,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Academy. 
He  was  very  successful  as  a  portrait-painter,  both  in  oil 
and  in  crayon.    Died  in  1770. 

Cotes,  (Roger,)  an  eminent  English  mathematician, 
born  at  Burbage  in  1682.  He  became  Fellow  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  in  1705,  and  Plumian  professor  of 
astronomy  in  1706.  In  1713  he  took  orders,  and  pub- 
lished the  second  edition  of  Newton's  "  Principia,"  with 
a  preface  which  was  greatly  admired.  His  premature 
death,  in  1716,  was  deeply  lamented  by  the  learned. 
Newton  exclaimed,  "If  Cotes  had  lived,  we  should  have 
known  something."  He  left  a  mathematical  work, — 
"Harmonia  Mensurarum,"  ("Harmony  of  Measures.") 

Cotignola,  da,  dd  ko-t^n-yo'Ia,  (Francesco,)  an  Ital- 
ian painter,  lived  at  Parma  about  1520. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Cotin,  ko^tix',  (Charles,)  a  French  author,  born  in 
Paris  in  1604,  owed  the  publicity  of  his  name  in  a  great 
measure  to  the  satires  of  Boiieau  and  IMoliere.  He 
was  almoner  to  the  king,  and  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  He  was  author  of  a  volume  of  verses  and 
of  several  prose  works.    Died  in  1682. 

See  "  Menagiana." 

Cot'maii,  (John  Sell,)  an  able  English  artist,  born 
at  Norwich  in  1780.  He  gained  a  high  reputation  in  en- 
graving and  architectural  drawing.  He  published  "Archi- 
tectural Antiquities  of  Norfolk,"  (1812,)  "Architectural 
Antiquities  of  Normandy,"  (1820,)  and  other  works.  His 
etchings  are  highly  prized.    Died  in  1843. 

Cotolendi,  ko'to'lSx'de',  (Charles,)  a  French  litte- 
ratetir,  born  at  Aix  or  Avignon;  died  about  1710.  He 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Saint  Francis  de  Sales,"  (1689,)  and 
other  works. 

Coton.    See  Cotton. 

Cotta,  kot'ta,  (Bernhard,)  a  distinguished  German 
geologist,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1808.  He  became  pro- 
fessor in  the  school  of  mines  at  Freiberg  in  1842.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Letters  on  the  Cosmos  of 
Humboldt,"  (1848-51,)  and  "  Geological  Letters  from  the 
Alps,"  (1850.)  His  theory  of  the  production  of  organic 
bodies  may  be  regarded  as  a  refined  and  improved 
exhibition  of  Epicurean  philosophy.  He  maintains  that 
the  higher  orgariisms  are  develoi:)ed  from  the  lower. 

Cot'ta,  (Caius  Aurelius,)  a  Roman  general,  noted 
for  his  strict  discipline,  became  consul  in  252  K.C.  He 
commanded  with  success  against  the  Carthaginians  in 
Sicily,  and  was  elected  consul  again  in  248. 

Cotta,  (Caius  Aurelius,)  a  Roman  orator,  born 
about  125  B.C.  He  obtained  the  consulship  in  75  B.C., 
and  the  province  of  Gaul  was  allotted  to  him  in  the 
ear  74.  He  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  orators  of 
is  time,  and  was  one  of  the  interlocutors  in  Cicero's 
"De  Oratore."    Died  about  70  B.C. 

Cotta,  kot'tS,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  near 
Verona  about  1480.  ,  Pie  was  for  some  time  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Venetian  general  Alviano.  "He  acquired," 
says  Ginguene,  "by  a  small  number  of  verses  (in  Latin) 
a  high  and  merited  reputation."  Died  in  15 10.  His 
"Carmina"  were  published  with  the  poems  of  Sannazar 
in  1527. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Cotta,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
pulpit  orator,  born  at  Tende,  near  Nice,  in  1668.  He 
became  professor  of  logic  at  Florence  in  1693,  and  com- 
posed sonnets,  hymns,  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1738. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Giacinto 
DELLA  Torre,  "  Elogio  storico  di  G.  B.  Cotta,"  1738. 

Cotta,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  naturalist,  father  of 
Bernhard,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1763.  He  pub- 
lished "Principles  of  the  Science  of  Forests,"  (1832,) 
and  other  scientific  treatises.    Died  in  1844. 

Cotta,  (JoHANN  Friedrich,)  an  eminent  German 
theologian,  born  at  Tubingen  in  1701.  He  was  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  at  Gottingen,  and  subsequently  of 
theology  at  Tubingen,  (1740.)  "He  wrote  many  works, 
among  which  was  "  Plan  of  a  Complete  Church  History," 
("Entwurf  einer  ausfiihrlichen  Kirchenhistorie,"  1768,) 
and  published  an  edition  of  Gerhard's  "  Loci  Theologici," 
(1762-77.)    Died  in  1779. 

See  Meusel,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 


Cotta,  (JoHANN  Friedrich,)  Baron  von  Cottendorf, 
(kot'ten-doRf,)  a  distinguished  publisher,  born  at  Stutt- 
gart in  1764,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  In  1793 
he  founded  at  Tubingen  the  "Allgemei»#f  Zeitung,"  an 
important  daily  journal,  since  published  at  Augsburg 
He  became  intimate  with  Goethe  and  Schiller,  whose 
works  he  published,  and  with  many  other  authors,  of 
whom  he  was  a  liberal  patron.  He  established  a  steam- 
press  at  Augsburg  in  1824,  and  introduced  steam-navi- 
gation on  the  Rhine  about  1825.    Died  in  1832. 

See    Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Cotta,  (L.  Aurelius,)  a  brother  of  C.  Aurelius,  noticed 
above,  became  praetor  in  70  B.C.,  and  then  procured  the 
passage  of  the  "lex  Aurelia,"  which  deprived  the  senate 
of  the  exclusive  right  to  dispense  justice.  He  was  consul 
in  the  year  65,  and  supported  Cicero  against  Catiline  in 
63.  Cotta  made  the  first  motion  in  the  senate  for  the 
recall  of  Cicero  from  exile.  He  sided  with  Caesar  in  the 
civil  war,  49  B.C. 

See  Cicero,  "In  Pisonem,"  Philippic  H. 

Cotta,  (L.  AuRUNCULEius,)  a  Roman  officer,  who 
distinguished  himself  in  Gaul  as  legate  of  Julius  Caesar. 
In  54  B.C.  he  and  Sabinus  commanded  a  body  of  troops 
encamped  for  the  winter  among  the  Eburones.  He  was 
killed  during  that  winter,  in  a  fight  with  the  Gauls,  who 
attacked  his  camp. 

Cotta,  (Marcus  Aurelius,)  a  Roman  general,  was 
a  brother  of  Caius  Aurelius  Cotta  the  orator.  He  be- 
came consul  with  L.  Lucullus  in  74  B.C.,  and  obtained 
for  his  province  Bithynia,  then  the  seat  of  war  against 
Mithridates,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  with  great  loss 
at  Chalcedon. 

Cotte,  kot,  (Louis,)  an  eminent  French  meteorologist, 
born  at  Laon  in  1740.  He  was  one  of  the  first  in  France 
who  made  and  recorded  observations  on  the  weather 
three  times  a  day  ;  and  he  began  to  publish  the  results  in 
1765.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Meteorology,"  (1774,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1815. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Cotte,  de,  deh  kot,  (Robert,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1656.  He  was  appointed  first  architect 
of  the  king  in  1708.  Among  his  works  are  the  colonnade 
of  the  Grand  Trianon,  and  the  gallery  of  the  Hotel  de  la 
Vrilliere,  now  the  Bank  of  France.    Died  in  1735. 

See  Pixgeron,  "  Vies  des  Architectes." 

Cottenham,  kot'ten-am,  (Charles  Christopher 
Pepys,)  Earl  of,  an  English  statesman,  born  in  1781. 
He  was  appointed  solicitor-general  in  1833,  and  lord 
chancellor  in  the  Whig  ministry  in  1836.  Having  been 
superseded  in  1841,  he  again  obtained  the  same  ofiice 
in  August,  1846.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron 
Cottenham,  in  1836,  and  created  an  earl  in  1850,  when 
he  retired  from  office.    Died  in  185 1. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;"  Foss, 
"The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  ix. 

Cottereau,  (Jean.)    See  Chouan. 

Cot^ter-el,  (Sir  Charle.s,)  an  English  scholar,  was 
master  of  requests  to  Charles  II.  He  translated  from 
the  French  La  Calprenede's  romance  of  "Cassandra," 
and  from  the  Italian  Davila's  "  History  of  the  Civil  Wars 
of  France,"  (1647.) 

See  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses. " 

Cottin,  ko'tiN',  (Sophie  Ristaud,  )  a  Protestant 
French  authoress,  born  at  Tonneins  in  1773.  She  was 
married  at  the  age  of  seventeen  to  M.  Cottin,  a  banker 
of  Paris,  and  was  left  a  widow  after  the  lapse  of  three 
years.  Gifted  with  a  vivid  imagination,  she  amused  her 
solitude  with  composition,  without  aspiring  to  literary 
fame.  Her  first  production  was  a  romance  named  "  Claire 
d'Albe,"  which  was  much  admired.  She  afterwards  wrote 
"Malvina,"  (1800,)  "Amelie  Mansfield,"  (1802,)  and 
other  popular  novels,  of  which  the  best-known  is  "Eli- 
zabeth, or  the  Exiles  of  Siberia."    Died  in  1807. 

See  AuGULS,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Madame  Cot- 
tin;" A.  Petitot,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Madame  Cottin,"  1817; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  Januaiy,  180S  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Biogra- 
phic portative  dcs  Contemporaiiis." 

Cot'tle,  (Amos,)  an  English  poet,  brother  of  Joseph 
Cottle,  noticed  below,  translated  the  Icelandic  "  Edda" 
into  English  verse,  and  wrote  some  original  poetry. 
Died  in  1800. 


€  as  ki  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  gutttiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


COTTLE 


676 


COULOMB 


Cottle,  (Joseph,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  1770  or 
1774,  was  a  kind  friend  to  Coleridge  and  Southey  in 
their  early  adversities, — 

"When  friends  were  few,  and  fortune  frowned." 
In  his  youth  he  was  a  bookseller  and  publisher  in  Bris- 
tol, lie  published  the  first  poems  of  the  authors  just 
named,  in  1796.  Southey,  many  years  later,  expressed  his 
gratitude  and  esteem  for  his  benefactor.  Cottle  was  the 
author  of  "  Malvern  Hills,"  "  Alfred,"  "  The  Fall  of  Cam- 
bria," and  other  poems,  also  of  interesting  "  Reminis- 
cences of  Coleridge  and  Southey,"  (1847.)   Died  in  1853. 

Coftpn,  (Charles,)  an  English  translator  and  hu- 
n.orous  poet,  born  in  Staffordshire  in  1630,  was  an 
adopted  son  of  Izaak  Walton.  He  wrote  an  addition 
to  the  "  Complete  Angler,"  made  an  approved  transla- 
tion of  Montaigne's  "  Essays,"  and  composed  several 
poems,  among  which  are  "The  Wonders  of  the  Peak," 
a  "Voyage  to  Ireland,"  and  "Virgil  Travestie."  The 
latter  is  a  coarse  and  disgusting  parody.    Died  in  1687. 

See  Sir  J.  Hawkins,  "Life  of  Cotton;"  Cibbek,  "Lives  of  the 
Poets;"  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Cotton,  (George,)  an  English  divine  of  the  present 
century,  became  Bishop  of  Calcutta  in  1858.  He  was 
conspicuous  for  his  zeal  in  discharging  the  duties  of  his 
office,  and  for  his  exertions  in  the  cause  of  education. 
He  was  drowned  in  the  Ganges  in  1867. 

See  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1S67. 

Cotton,  (John,)  a  learned  English  Puritan  minister, 
born  at  Derby  in  1585.  He  became  vicar  of  a  church 
at  Boston  (England)  about  1612,  and  emigrated  to  Mas- 
sachusetts in  1633.  He  afterwards  preached  at  Boston, 
where  he  acquired  great  influence,  and  was  an  antagonist 
of  Roger  Williams,  in  reply  to  whom  he  asserted  the 
right  of  magistrates  to  interfere  in  religion.  Died  in  1652. 

See  Norton  and  Mather,  "Life  of  J.  Cotton." 

Cotton,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  poet  and  physician, 
born  in  1707,  was  noted  for  his  skill  in  the  treatment  of 
insanity.  The  poet  Cowper,  who  was  an  inmate  of  his 
private  lunatic-asylum  at  Saint  Alban's,  afterwards  spoke 
of  him  in  very  favourable  terms.  He  wrote  "Marriage, 
a  Vision,"  and  other  works,  in  prose  and  verse.  Died 
in  1788. 

See  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Cotton,  ko't^N',  or  Coton,  (Pierre,)  an  eminent 
French  Jesuit,  born  at  Neronde  in  1564,  became  a  popu- 
lar preacher,  and  is  said  to  have  converted  many  Prot- 
estants. He  was  confessor  of  Henry  IV.  for  some  years 
before  the  death  of  that  king,  whose  favour  he  enjoyed 
in  a  high  degree.  Somebody  remarked  that  Henry  "had 
cot(o7t  in  his  ears."  He  officiated  as  confessor  to  Louis 
XIII.  from  1610  to  1617.    Died  in  1626. 

See  Pere  d'Orleans,  "Vie  de  Cotton,"  1688. 

Cotton,  (Sir  Robert  Bruce,)  an  eminent  English 
antiquary,  the  founder  of  the  Cottonian  Library,  born  at 
Denton,  in  Huntingdonshire,  in  1570,  graduated  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1585.  He  gave  special  attention  to  antiquarian 
researches,  and  to  the  collection  of  historical  records  and 
documents.  At  the  accession  of  James  I.  (1603)  he  was 
knighted.  He  was  often  consulted  and  employed  by  the 
king  and  ministers,  by  whom  he  was  regarded  as  an  ora- 
cle. In  1628  he  was  a  member  of  Parliament.  He  died 
in  163 1,  leaving  to  his  heirs  his  valuable  library,  which 
was  increased  by  his  son.  Sir  Thomas,  and  was  deposited 
in  the  British  Museum  about  1755.  Rol^ert  wrote  a 

'  Life  of  Henry  HI.  of  England,"  and  many  political  and 
historical  treatises. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica;"  "Life  of  Sir  R.  Cotton,"  prefixed 
to  Dr.  Smith's  Catalogue  of  Cotton's  Library,  i6g6. 

Cotton,  (Stapleton.)    See  Combermere. 

Cotton,  (Sir  Sydney,)  an  English  general,  born  in 
1792,  served  in  India  during  the  mutiny  of  1857-58,  and 
was  knighted  for  his  services  in  that  crisis. 

Cottret,  ko'tRcV,  (Pierre  Marie,)  a  French  bishop 
and  writer,  born  at  Argenteuil  in  1768;  died  in  1841. 

Cotugno,  ko-toon'yo,  (Domenico,)  an  eminent  anato- 
mist, born  at  Ruvo,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  in  1736. 
He  became  surgeon  of  the  Hospital  of  Incurables  in 
Naples  in  1754,  and  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  Univer- 
sity in  1766.  He  was  afterwards  employed  by  the  royal 
family.  Among  his  most  important  works  are  a  "Treat- 


ise on  the  Anatomy  of  the  Internal  Ear,"  (1761,)  and 
one  on  "Sciatica,"  (1765.)  He  made  some  discoveries 
in  anatomy.    Died  at  Naples  in  1822. 

See  "Biographic  Medicale;"  Folinea,  "  Elogio  del  Cavaliere  D. 
Cotugno,"  1823. 

Co'tys,  [Gr.  Korvg,]  a  king  of  Thrace,  waged  war 
against  the  Athenians.    Died  about  356  B.C. 

Couailhao,  koo'a'ltk',  (Louis,)  a  French  dramatist 
and  journalist,  born  at  Cahors  in  1810. 

Couch,  (Darius  N.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Putnam  county.  New  York,  about  1822,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1846.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  about  August,  1861.  He  com- 
manded a  division  at  Fair  Oaks,  May  31-June  i,  became 
a  major-general  in  July,  1862,  and  directed  a  corps  at 
Chancellorsville,  May  3-5,  1863.  He  commanded  the 
Department  of  the  Susquehanna  from  June,  1863,  to 
December,  1864. 

Couch,  (Richard  Quillar,)  an  English  naturalist 
and  surgeon,  born  in  Cornwall  in  1816.  He  practised 
at  Penzance,  and  wrote  a  number  of  essays  on  marine 
animals,  and  on  the  geology  of  Cornwall.   Died  in  1863. 

Coucke,  kow'keh,  (Jean,)  a  Belgian  landscape- 
painter  of  the  present  century,  was  born  at  Ghent.  His 
works  are  dated  from  1808  to  1834. 

Coucy,  de,  deh  koo'se',  (Raoul  or  Renaud,)  a 
French  minstrel,  who  went  to  Palestine  as  a  crusader, 
and  was  killed  in  battle  in  1192.  Pie  wrote  a  number 
of  songs,  which  were  once  popular. 

See  La  Borde,  "Memoires  historiques  sur  Raoul  de  Coucy," 
etc.,  Paris,  1781. 

Coucy,  de,  (Robert,)  a  famous  French  architect, 
born  at  Rheims  (or  Coucy,  according  to  some  authori- 
ties.) He  was  chief  architect  of  the  cathedral  of  Rheims, 
a  master-piece  of  the  Gothic  style,  and  of  the  church 
of  Saint-Nicaise,  in  the  same  city,  both  of  which  had 
been  begun  by  Libergier.    Died  in  1311. 

See  D.  Marlot,  "  Histoire  de  la  Ville  de  Reims,"  1846. 

Couder,  koo'daiR',  (Louis  Charles  Auguste, )  a 
French  historical  painter,  born  in  Paris  about  1790,  was 
a  pupil  of  David.  He  established  his  reputation  by  the 
"Levite  of  Ephraim,"  (1817.)  His  "Soldier  of  Mara- 
thon" is  admired  for  grandeur  of  style.  Among  his 
later  productions  are  "The  Battle  of  Laufeld,"  (1836,) 
and  "The  Oath  at  the  Tennis-Court,"  (1848.)  He  was 
admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1839. 

Coudray,  du.    See  Tronqon. 

Coudrette,  koo'dR^t',  (Christophe,)  a  French  priest, 
born  in  Paris  in  1701.  He  became  an  adversary  of  the 
order  of  Jesuits,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Jesuits,"  (1761.) 
Died  in  1774. 

Coulanges,  koo'lfiNzh',  (Marie  Ang:6lique  du  Gue 
Bagnoles — dii  gi  btn'yoK,)  a  French  lady,  born  in  1641, 
becatne  the  wife  of  the  Marquis  de  Cou'langes,  noticed 
below.  She  was  a  friend  of  Madame  de  Sevigne,  and 
author  of  letters  which  were  published.    Died  in  1723. 

Coulanges,  de,  deh  koo'ldNzh',  (Philippe  Ema- 
nuel,) Marquis,  a  French  song-writer,  born  in  Paris 
in  1 63 1,  was  noted  for  his  wit  and  bon-mots.  He  was 
cousin-german  to  Madame  de  Sevigne.    Died  in  1716. 

See  Madame  de  Sevigne,  "Lettres." 

Coulet,  koo'LV,  (Anne  Philiberte,)  a  French  en- 
graver, born  in  Paris  in  1736.  She  engraved  after  Vernet 
and  other  masters. 

Coulomb,  de,  deh  koo'16N',  (Charles  Augustin,) 
a  French  savant,  eminent  for  his  discoveries  in  experi- 
mental physics  and  electricity,  was  born  at  Angouleme 
in  1736.  His  "Theory  of  Simple  Machines"  (1779) 
gained  the  prize  offered  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  opened  to  him  the  doors  of  that  Institution.  In 
1784  he  was  appointed  intendant  of  the  waters  and 
springs  of  France.  At  an  early  stage  of  the  Revolution 
he  retired  from  public  service.  He  wrote  for  the  Acad- 
emy many  able  treatises  on  mechanics,  electricity,  etc. 
He  invented  the  Torsion  Balance,  which  he  used  in  suc- 
cessful experiments  on  the  laws  of  magnetic  and  electric 
attraction  and  repulsion.  By  the  same  means  he  de- 
termined the  laws  of  the  distribution  of  electricity  on 
the  surface  of  bodies,  and  of  magnetism  in  the  interior. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  about  1796.  Died 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


COULON 


^77 


COURT  A  IS 


in  1806.  M.  Biot  remarks  that  the  labours  of  Poisson 
have  illustrated  the  admirable  sagacity  of  Coulomb  as 
an  observer,  as  well  as  the  accuracy  of  his  experiments. 

See  QuEKARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 

Coulon,  koo'ldN',  (Louis,)  a  French  geographer,  born 
at  Poitiers  in  1605.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Rivers  of  France,"  (2  vols.,  1644,)  and  several  historical 
compilations.    Died  in  1664. 

Couloii  de  Theveuot,  koo^loN'  deh  tav^no',  (A.,) 
the  inventor  of  French  tachygraphie,  or  short-hand,  was 
born  about  1754.  In  1792  he  served  La  Fayette  in  the 
army  as  chief  secretary.  Wq  published  "  The  Art  of 
Writing  as  rapidly  as  One  speaks,"  (1794.)   Died  in  1814. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Coupe,  koo^py,  (Jean  Marie  Louis,)  a  French  litti- 
rateta\  born  at  Peronne  in  1732.  Among  his  works  are 
"  Literary  Evenings,"  ("  Soirees  litteraires,"  20  vols., 
1795-1801,)  and  "  CEuvres  d'Hesiode."    Died  in  1818. 

Couperin,  koop''r5.N',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  organist 
and  composer,  called  "  le  Grand,"  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1668  ;  died  in  1733. 

Couplet,  koo'pli',  (Philippe,)  a  Flemish  missionary, 
born  at  Malines  about  1628.  He  went  to  China  in  1659, 
and  became  deeply  versed  in  the  language  and  history  of 
that  empire.  He  and  several  of  his  colleagues  published 
a  Latin  version  of  the  works  of  Confucius.  Died  at  sea 
in  1692. 

Courayer,  le,  leh  koo^rt'ya',  or  Courrayer,  (Pierre 
Francois,)  a  French  Catholic  priest,  born  at  Rouen  in 
1681.  He  published  in  1723  a  work  in  favour  of  the  va- 
lidity of  ordinations  in  the  Anglican  Church.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  persecution  to  which  this  subjected  him. 
he  retired  to  England,  where  he  died  in  1776,  without 
having  renounced  the  Roman  Catholic  communion.  He 
left  a  good  French  version  of  Sarpi's  "History  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,"  (2  vols.,  1736,)  and  other  works. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  181 1. 

Courbes,  de,  deh  kooRb,  (Jean,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  about  1 592,  engraved  a  portrait  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney. 

Courbet,  kooR'ba',  (Gustave,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Ornans  (Doubs)  in  1819.  His  works  are  chiefly 
landscapes  and  portraits. 

Courbiere,  de,  deh  kooR'be-aiR',  (Wilhelm  Ren6,) 
Baron  de  Homme,  a  Prussian^^neral,  born  at  Gronin- 
gen  in  1733;  died  in  1811. 

Courbon,  de,  deh  kooR'b^N',  Marquis,  a  French 
officer,  noted  for  his  ability  and  romantic  adventures, 
was  born  in  1650.  He  obtained  a  high  rank  in  the 
Venetian  army,  and  was  killed  at  Negropont  in  1688. 

See  AiMAR,  "Vie  du  Marquis  de  Courbon,"  1692. 

Courcelles,  de,  deh  kooR's^K,  [Lat.  Curcell^e^us,] 
(Etienne,)  an  eminent  Protestant  divine,  born  at  Ge- 
neva in  1586.  After  preaching  at  Amiens,  he  removed 
to  Amsterdam,  where  he  succeeded  Simon  Episcopius 
as  professor  of  theology.  He  translated  into  Latin  the 
Philosophy  of  Descartes,  and  published  several  theolo- 
gical works.    Died  about  1660. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Courcelles,  de,  deh  kooR'sSK,  (Etienne  Chardon,) 
a  French  physician,  born  at  Rheims  in  1705.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Manual  of  Surgical  Operations," 
(1756.)    Died  in  1775. 

Courcelles,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste  Pierre  Julien,) 
Chevalier,  a  French  writer,  born  at  Orleans  in  1759. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Historical  Dictionary  of  French 
Generals  since  the  Eleventh  Century,"  (Paris,  1820- 
23,)  a  "  Genealogical  History  of  the  Peers  of  France," 
etc.,  (1830,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1834. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Courcelles,  de,  (Thomas,)  a  French  theologian,  born 
in  1400,  was  one  of  the  judges  who  condemned  Joan  of 
Arc  to  death.    Died  in  1469. 

Courcillon.    See  Dangeau. 

Couret  de  Villeneuve.koo'rydeh  v^l'nuv',  (Louis 
Pierre,)  a  French  litterateur  zx\A  printer,  born  at  Orleans 
in  1749.  He  wrote  and  translated  many  works,  in  prose 
and  verse.    He  was  drowned  in  the  Lys  in  1806. 

Courier,  koo're-i',  (or  Courier  de  Mere— deh  mi'- 
ri,')  (Paul  Louis,)  an  ingenious  and  popular  jprench 


author  and  pamphleteer,  born  in  Paris  in  1772  or  1773, 
was  liberally  educated,  and  was  an  excellent  Greek  scho- 
lar. He  entered  the  army  as  engineer  in  1792,  became 
a  captain  in  1795,  and  fought  in  the  campaign  of  Rome 
in  1798.  In  1803  he  obtained  the  brevet  of  chef  d'esca- 
dron,  (major.)  During  the  intervals  when  active  service 
was  suspended,  he  pursued  his  literary  studies  and  trans- 
lated from  Cicero,  Isocrates,  etc.  His  last  campaign 
was  that  of  Austria  in  1809,  after  which  he  resigned 
his  commission.  Pie  published  an  excellent  edition  and 
version  of  Longus,  (1810,)  and  translated  Xenophon 
"  On  the  Command  of  Cavalry,"  and  other  classics.  (See 
Longus.)  In  1814  he  married  a  daughter  of  Etienne 
Clavier.  He  produced  numerous  political  pamphlets  and 
letters  which  display  much  humour  and  satirical  power. 
In  politics  he  was  liberal  or  independent.  He  was  as- 
sassinated by  one  or  two  of  his  servants  on  his  own 
estate  in  Touraine  in  1825.  "The  merits  of  his  works," 
says  Lord  Brougham,  "  are  of  a  very  high  order.  They 
abound  in  strong  masculine  sense,  illustrated  with  clas- 
sical allusions  and  seasoned  with  wit  more  brilliant  than 
is  almost  anywhere  else  to  be  found ;  for  it  has  the  keen 
edge  of  Swift's  satire,  and  the  easy  playfulness  of  Vol- 
taire, without  his  pertness  and  flippancy.  He  is  truly  a 
writer  of  extraordinary  powers ;  and  nothing  could  have 
prevented  him  from  attaining  a  very  eminent  place  among 
the  literary  men  of  his  age,  but  his  never  having  com- 
posed a  work  of  considerable  magnitude  on  a  subject  of 
permanent  importance."  ("Edinburgh  Review.")  Ar- 
mand  Carrel  pronounced  his  "  Pamphlet  des  Pamphlets" 
(1824)  "the  most  finished  work  in  respect  to  taste,  and 
the  most  wonderful  in  respect  to  art,  in  the  language." 

See  A.  Carrel,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Q^uvres  de  P.  L.  Cou- 
rier," 1838  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  Querard,  "  La 
France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  March,  1829;  "Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1S66. 

Cournot,  kooR'no',  (Antoine  Augustin,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  in  1801.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  an  "  Exposition  of  the  Theory  of  Chances 
and  Probabilities,"  (1843,)  ^'"'d  a  French  version  of  Sir 
J.  Herschel's  "Treatise  on  Astronomy." 

Courrayer.    See  Courayer. 

Courson,  de,  deh  kooR's^N',  (Aur^lien,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Port  Louis,  He  de  France,  in  181 1,  be- 
came librarian  of  the  Louvre,  Paris.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  History  of  the  Breton  Peoples  of  Gaul  and  the 
British  Isles,"  (1846.) 

Court,  kooR,  (Antoine,)  a  French  Protestant  divine, 
born  in  Vivarais  in  1696.  He  laboured  with  success 
to  reorganize  the  Protestant  churches  after  the  civil  war, 
and  discouraged  a  factious  resistance  to  the  government. 
He  was  president  of  a  theological  seminary  at  Lausanne 
from  1730  to  1760,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  War  of 
the  Camisards."    Died  in  1760. 

See  De  Faliac,  "  Histoire  des  Protestants  de  France  ;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Court,  (Joseph  Desir^:,)  a  French  historical  painter, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1797,  won  the  grand  prize  in  1821. 
His  reputation  was  established  by  the  "  Death  of  Caesar." 
(1827,)  which  is  placed  in  the  Luxembourg  Gallery. 

Court  de  Gebelin,  kooR  deh  zhib'ldN',  (Antoine,) 
a  French  scholar  and  Protestant,  son  of  Antoine  Court, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Nimes  in  1725.  He  became 
a  resident  of  Paris  about  1760,  and  devoted  much  time 
to  the  study  of  antiquity,  mythology,  the  filiation  of  lan- 
guages, etc.  Between  1773  and  1784  he  published  nine 
volumes  of  his  "  Primitive  World  Analyzed  and  Com- 
pared with  the  Modern,"  a  work  of  great  learning,  which 
was  never  completed.  The  French  Academy  twice 
awarded  to  him  the  annual  prize  founded  for  the  most 
useful  work.  He  co-operated  with  Dr.  B.  Franklin  and 
others  in  editing  a  periodical  called  "The  Affairs  of 
England  and  America,"  (15  vols.,  Paris,  1776  et  seq.) 
Died  in  1784. 

See  Rabaud  SAiNT-firiENNE,  "Lettres  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Court 
de  Gebelin,"  1784;  Theodore  Fournier,  "Notice  sur  A.  Court  de 
Gebelin,"  1848;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Courtais,  de,  deh  kooR'ti',  (Amable  Gaspard 
Henri,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Moulins  in  1786, 
was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1842.  Soon 
after  the  revolution  of  1848  he  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  national  guard  of  Paris.    He  was  censured  and 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  h,  y., guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (S:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


COURTANFJUX 


678 


COUSIN 


removed  because  he  failed  to  prevent  the  invasion  of 
the  Chamber  by  the  mob  in  May,  1848. 

Courtanvaux,  de,  deh  kooR''t6N'vo',  (  Francois 
Cesar  Letellier — leh-t.a'■]e-i^)  Marquis,  a  French 
savant,  was  born' in  Paris  in  1718.  He  was  admitted  in 
1764  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  for  which  he  wrote 
memoirs  on  chemistry,  etc.    Died  in  1781. 

Cour'ten,  ki'u''ten,  ?  (William,)  an  English  naturalist, 
born  in  London  in  1642.  He  made  a  rich  collection  of 
medals,  etc.    Died  in  1702. 

Courten,  (Sir  William,)  an  eminent  merchant  of 
London,  of  Flemish  descent,  born  about  1570,  made 
large  loans  to  James  L  and  Charles  L    Died  in  1636. 

Courtenay  or  Courtnay,  kiirt'ne,  (John,)  an  Irish 
politician  and  writer,  born  about  1740.  He  was  elected 
in  1780  to  the  British  Parliament,  in  which  he  sftt  many 
years,  and  voted  with  the  Whigs.  In  1806  he  was  ap- 
pointed commissioner  of  the  treasury,  and  a  few  months 
later  retired  from  the  public  service.  He  wrote  tracts 
on  the  French  Revolution,  "Manners,  Arts,  and  Politics 
of  Prance  and  Italy,"  in  verse,  and  a  few  other  works. 
Died  in  1816. 

Courtenay,  de,  deh  kooRt'na',  (Pierre,)  a  French 
count,  who  succeeded  his  father  in  1183,  was  one  of  the 
most  powerful  princes  of  his  time.  He  joined  a  crusade 
to  Palestine  in  1190.  In  1216  he  was  chosen  Emperor 
of  Constantinople.  He  was  defeated,  made  prisoner,  and 
put  to  death  about  1220,  by  Theodore,  a  Greek  prince. 

See  MiCHAUD,  "  Histoire  des  Croisacles." 

Courtenay,  (Hon.  Thomas  Peregrine,)  M.P.,  an 
English  scholar  and  writer  of  the  present  century,  of 
whose  life  we  have  no  details.  He  published  a  "Life 
of  Sir  William  Temple,"  (1836,)  which  Macaulay  com- 
mends for  "diligence,  good  sense,  and  impartiality." 

See  Macaui.ay's  Essay  on  "Sir  William  Temple." 

Courtilz  de  Sandras,  de,  deh  kooR^telz'  deh  s6n^- 
dRts',  (Gatien,)  a  French  littcrateii7\  born  in  Paris  in 
1644.  He  published,  anonymously,  a  "  Life  of  Coligny," 
a  "  History  of  the  War  in  Holland,"  (1672-77,)  and  many 
mediocre  works,  which  purport  to  be  memoirs,  historical 
or  biographical,  but  contain  much  fiction  or  falsehood. 
He  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille  nine  years,  (1702-11.) 
His  style  is  praised  by  Bayle.    Died  in  1712. 

See  NiCEKON,  "Memoires." 

Courtin,  kooRTiN'',  (Antoine,)  a  French  negotiator 
and  moralist,  born  at  Riom  in  1622.  He  became  private 
secretary  of  Christina  of  Sweden  in  1651,  and  after  her 
abdication  was  ambassador  from  Sweden  to  France. 
About  1662  he  was  employed  by  Louis  XIV.  in  a  nego- 
tiation with  England.  He  published  a  number  of  moral 
essays.    Died  in  1685. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Courtin,  (Eustache  Marie  Pierre,)  a  French  law- 
yer and  editor,  born  at  Lisieux  in  1768,  became  advo- 
cate-general in  the  imperial  court,  Paris,  in  1811.  Be- 
tween 1824  and  1832  he  published  the  "Encyclopedic 
Moderne,"  (24  vols.,)  a  work  of  merit.    Died  in  1839. 

Courtivron,  de,  deh  kooR't^''vR6N',  (Gaspard  le 
Compasseur  de  Crequi-Montfort — leh  kdN'pt'suR'' 
deh  kRa'ke'  m6N■'foR^)  Marquis,  a  French  scientific 
writer,  born  in  Burgundy  in  171 5.  He  became  an  officer 
in  the  army,  and  saved  the  life  of  Marshal  Saxe  in  1742. 
He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Optics,"  (1752,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1785. 

See  CoNDORCET,  "  iSloge  de  M.  le  Marquis  de  Courtivron." 

Courtnay.    See  Courtenay. 

Courtney  or  Courtenay,  kiart'ne,  the  name  of  a 
noble  English  family,  to  which  the  Earls  of  Devonshire 
belong,  and  which  came  from  Normandy  with  William  the 
Conqueror.  One  of  this  name  was  made  Earl  of  Devon- 
shire by  Queen  Mary  about  1554.  He  was  "  nearly  allied 
to  the  crown,"  says  Hume,  and  received  overtures  of  mar- 
riage with  the  queen,  which  he  neglected,  from  his  partial- 
ity "to  her  sister  E^lizabeth.  (See  Devonshire,  Earl  oe.) 

Courtney,  (William,)  a  younger  son  of  Hugh  Court- 
ney, Earl  of  Devonshire,  born  about  1340,  became  chan- 
cellor of  England  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1381. 
He  persecuted  the  disciples  of  Wickliffe.  Died  in  1396. 
His  mother,  Margaret,  was  a  daughter  of  Edward  I. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  iv.  chap.  xvi. 


Courtois,  kooR''twa',  (Edme  Bonaventure,)  a  French 
politician,  born  at  Arcis-sur-Aube  about  1755,  became 
a  member  of  the  National  Convention  in  1792,  and  a 
political  friend  of  Danton.  He  favoured  the  triumph  of 
Bonaparte  in  November,  1799,  and  became  a  member  of 
the  Tribunate.    Died  in  181 6. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Courtois,  [It.  Cortesi,  kor-ta'see,]  (Guillaume,)  a 
distinguished  f>ench  painter,  born  in  1628,  was  a  pupil 
of  Pietro  da  Cortona.  He  worked  mostly  in  Rome,  and 
was  patronized  by  Pope  Alexander  VI.  "The  Miracle 
of  Joshua  suspending  the  Motion  of  the  Sun"  is  one  of 
his  master- pieces.  He  aided  his  brother  Jacques  in  some 
of  his  works.    Died  in  I^ome  in  1679. 

Courtois  or  Curtois,  (Jacques,)  [It.  Jacopo  Cor- 
tesi, ya'ko-po  koR-ta''see,]  an  eminent  painter  of  battles 
and  history,  often  called  II  Borgognone,  (el  boR-gon- 
yo'ni,)  or  Le  Bourguignon,  (leh  booR'gen'yoN'',)  born 
at  Saint-Hippolyte,  in  Franche-Comte,  in  1621,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  studied  with  Guido  at 
Bologna,  and  worked  some  time  in  Florence.  About 
1658  he  became  a  Jesuit  or  monk,  and  settled  in  Rome, 
where  he  painted  many  works,  among  which  are  the 
"Battle  of  Arbela,"  and  some  sacred  subjects.  He  ex- 
celled in  freedom  of  design,  facility  of  execution,  and  in 
the  disposition,  variety,  and  movement  of  the  figures. 
Died  in  Rome  in  1676. 

See  Bryan,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters;"  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allge- 
meines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Courtois,  kooR''twi'',  (Richard  Joseph,)  a  Belgian 
naturalist,  born  at  Verviers  in  1806,  was  the  author  of 
a  "Compendium  Florae  Belgica;,"  (3  vols.,  1827-36.) 
Died  in  1835. 

Courtonne,  kooR'ton^  (Jean,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  about  1670 ;  died  about  1740. 

Courvoisier,  kooR^wS^ze-a^  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Arbois  in  1749  ;  died  in  1803. 

Courvoisier,  (Jean  Joseph  Antoine,)  a  French 
lawyer  and  politician,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Be- 
san9on  in  1775.  He  emigrated  as  a  royalist  about  1790, 
and  became  minister  of  justice  in  1829.  He  resigned  in 
May,  1830,  and  died  in  1835. 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Restoration." 

Cousin,  koo^ziN^  [Lat.  Cogna'tus,]  (Gilbert,)  a 
classical  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Nozeroy,  in  Franche- 
Comte,  in  1506.  He  lived  about  five  years  with  Erasmus, 
who  employed  him  as  secretary  or  amanuensis  and 
treated  him  as  a  companion  and  friend.  He  afterwards 
opened  a  school  in  his  native  place.  Conrad  Gesner 
states  that  he  was  the  first  who  caused  learning  to  flourish 
in  Burgundy.  Cousin  wrote  notes  on  Lucian,  Aristotle, 
Ovid,  etc.,  and  Latin  works  on  theology  and  other  sub- 
jects. Suspected  of  Protestantism,  he  was  imprisoned, 
and  during  his  trial  died  at  Besanjon  in  1567. 

See  NiCERON',  "  Memoires  ;"  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Cousin,  (Jacques  Antoine  Joseph,)  a  French  geo- 
meter, born  in  Paris  in  1739.  He  was  for  many  years 
professor  of  physics  in  the  College  of  France.  In  1795 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  senator  in 
1799.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Differential  and 
Integral  Calculus,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1800. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Cousin,  (Jean,)  an  eminent  French  painter  and  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Souci,  near  Sens,  about  1500,  worked  many 
years  in  Paris.  He  is  regarded  as  the  first  Frenchman 
who  gained  distinction  by  painting  history.  The  most 
celebrated  of  his  works  was  "The  Last  Judgment," 
a  large  oil-painting.  His  correctness  of  design  was 
his  chief  merit.  He  painted  on  glass  more  than  in  oil. 
He  also  wrote  able  treatises  on  perspective,  geometry, 
and  the  jDroportions  of  the  human  body.  Died  about 
1590. 

See  Fi^LiBiEN,  "  Entretiens  sur  las  Vies  des  Peintres." 

Cousin,  (Louis,)  a  French  lawyer  and  learned  trans- 
lator, born  in  Paris  in  1627,  became  president  of  the  court 
des  77ionnaies.  In  1697  he  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Church," 
(1675,)  a  "History  of  the  Empire  of  the  West,"  {1683,) 
and  other  works,  all  of  which  are  translations  from  Greek 
and  Latin  authors.    Died  in  1707. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


COUSIN 


679 


COUTTS 


Cousin,  (Victor,)  a  celebrated  French  philosopher 
and  metaphysician,  born  in  Paris  on  the  28th  of  Novem- 
ber, 1792,  was  the  son  of  a  clockmaker.  He  gained  the 
first  prize  of  honour  at  the  Lycee  Charlemagne  in  1810, 
after  which  he  attended  Laro'miguiere's  lectures  on  phi- 
losophy. In  1815  he  succeeded  Royer-Collard  as  sub- 
stitute professor  of  philosophy  at  the  Sorbonne,  where 
he  delivered  eloquent  and  popular  lectures  on  the  history 
of  philosophy.  He  was  deprived  of  the  professorship  by 
the  government  in  1820  or  1821  for  his  liberal  principles, 
and  then  commenced  a  translation  of  Plato.  He  pub- 
lished in  1826  an  edition  of  Descartes,  in  eleven  volumes, 
and  Philosophic  Fragments,"  ("Fragments  philoso- 
phiques,")  an  important  original  work.  After  being  im- 
prisoned six  months  in  Berlin  on  suspicion  of  liberalism, 
he  was  again  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  the 
Sorbonne  in  1828.  His  lectures  displayed  an  admirable 
combination  of  sensibility,  imagination,  and  reason,  and 
he  shared  with  his  colleagues,  Guizot  and  Villemain,  an 
immense  popularity.  The  revolution  of  1830  opened  to 
him  a  new  career.  Retiring  from  the  chair  of  philosophy, 
he  became  councillor  of  state,  and  a  member  of  the  coun- 
cil of  public  instruction.  He  was  elected  to  the  French 
Academy  in  1830  in  place  of  Fourier,  and  was  made  a 
peer  of  France  in  1832.  M.  Cousin  was  minister  of 
public  instruction  about  eight  months  in  the  cabinet 
formed  by  M.  Thiers  in  March,  1840.  He  displayed 
superior  oratorical  powers  in  his  speeches  in  the  Cham- 
ber of  Peers.  After  the  revolution  of  1848  he  took  no 
part  in  public  affairs.  Among  his  principal  works  are  an 
excellent  French  translation  of  Plato,  (13  vols.,  1825-40,) 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Metaphysics  of  Aristotle,"  (1838,)  a 
"Course  of  Moral  Philosophy"  ("Cours  de  Philosophie 
morale")  from  1816  to  1820,  (5  vols.,  1840,)  a  new  series 
of  "  Philosophic  Fragments,"  (1838-40,)  "Lectures  on 
the  Philosophy  of  Kant,"  (1842,)  a  "Biography  of  Jac- 
queline Pascal,"  (1845,)  '1"*^^  "The  True,  the  Beautiful, 
and  the  Good,"  ("Du  Vrai,  du  Beau  et  du  Bien,"  1853.) 
He  published  a  collective  edition  of  his  works,  in  22 
vols.  i8mo,  (1847.)  His  system  of  philosophy  may  be 
briefly  characterized  as  eclecticism,  or  a  union  of  sen- 
sualism and  idealism.  He  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  first 
philosophical  writers  of  his  time.  Died  in  January,  1867. 

See  Marbach,  "  Schelling,  Hegel  und  Cousin  ;"  C.  Fuchs,  "Die 
Philosophie  von  Victor  Cousin,"  1847;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries 
duLundi;"  Sir  William  Hamilton,  critique  in  the  " Edinburgh 
Review,"  vol.  1.;  Louis  de  Lomenie,  "M.  V.  Cousin,  par  un 
Homme  de  Rien,"  1842  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "  North 
British  Review"  for  March,  1867. 

Cousin  d'Avallon,  koo'z^N'  dt^vt^l^N',  (Charles 
Yves,)  a  French  compiler,  born  in  1769,  published  many 
collections  of  anecdotes  with  titles  ending  in  a/ia.  His 
*'  Pironiana"  ran  through  eleven  editions.  Died  about 
1840. 

Cousin-Despreaux,  koo'z^N'  cWpRk'o^,  (Louis,)  a 
French  writer,  born  at  Dieppe  in  1743,  published  two 
esteemed  works,  viz.,  a  "History  of  Greece,"  (16  vols., 
1780-89,)  and  "Lessons  on  Nature,"  (1802.)  Died  in 
1818. 

Cousinery,  koo'ze^ni're',  (Esprit  Martf,)  a  French- 
man noted  for  his  skill  in  medals,  born  at  Marseilles  in 
1747,  wrote  "Letters  on  the  Rosetta  Stone,"  "Travels 
in  Macedonia,"  (1831,)  and  several  treatises  on  medals. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute.    Died  after  1830. 

Cousinet,  koo'ze'n^,  (Elisabeth,)  a  French  en- 
graver, born  about  1726. 

Cousinot,  koo'ze'no^  (Guillaume,)  a  French  poet 
and  historian,  born  about  1400 ;  died  about  1484. 

Coussemaker,  de,  deh  koos'mt'kaiR',  (Charles 
Edmond  PIenri,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Bailleul 
(Nord)  in  1805.  He  wrote  a  prize  essay  "On  the  Flar- 
mony  of  the  Middle  Ages." 

Constant,  koo^stSw',  (Pierre,)  a  French  Benedictine 
monk,  born  at  Compiegne  in  1654.  He  aided  in  revising 
and  editing  the  works  of  Augustine,  and  published  an 
edition  of  Saint-Hilaire,  (1693,)  which  he  showed 
much  critical  judgment.    Died  in  Paris  in  1721. 

Coustou,  koos'too',  (Guillaume,)  an  able  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Lyons  in  1678,  was  a  pupil  of  his  uncle 
Coysevox.  After  studying  in  Rome,  he  settled  in  Paris. 
Among  his  best  productions  are  two  groups,  each  of 
which  is  composed  of  a  horse  prancing  and  a  groom, 


a  bronze  figure  of  the  river  Rhone,  and  the  bas-relief 
which  adorns  the  entrance  of  the  Hotel  des  Invalides. 
Died  in  1746. 

His  son  Guillaume,  born  in  Paris  in  17 16,  was  also  a 
skilful  sculptor.  He  became  in  1746  a  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Arts,  of  which  he  was  afterwards  rector. 
He  made  statues  of  Mars  and  Venus  for  the  King  of 
Prussia.    Died  in  1777. 

See  D'Argenvili.e,  "Vies  des  Architecte?  et  des  Sculpteurs;" 
Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kunstler-Lexikon." 

Coustou,  (Nicolas,)  an  eminent  sculptor,  a  brother 
of  Guillaume  the  elder,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1658. 
Having  gained  the  grand  prize,  he  went  to  Rome  with 
a  pension  about  1682.  He  afterwards  settled  in  Paris, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Louis  XIV.  Among  his 
most  admired  works  are  a  group  of  the  junction  of  the 
Seine  and  Marne,  the  "  Berger  Chasseur,"  ("  Shepherd 
Huntsman,")  and  a  "Descent  from  the  Cross."  Died 

1733- 

See  Cousin  de  Contaminh,  "filoge  historique  de  N.  Coustu 
I'Aine,"  1837;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Cousturier  or  Couturier,  koo'tii're-i',  (Pierre,) 
[Lat.  Pe''trus  Su''tor,]  a  French  monkTwho  had  a  dis- 
pute with  Erasmus  respecting  the  version  of  the  New 
Testament  published  by  the  latter.    Died  in  1537. 

Coutan,  koo'tSN',  (Amable  Paul,)  a  French  painter 
of  history,  born  in  Paris  in  1792.  He  gained  the  first 
prize  in  1827.    Died  in  1837. 

Coutelle,  koo'teK,  (Jean  Marie  Joseph,)  a  French 
engineer  and  balloonist,  born  at  Mans  in  1748;  died 
in  1835. 

Couthon,  kooT6N',  (Georges,)  a  French  Jacobin, 
born  at  Orsay,  in  Auvergne,  in  1756.  He  was  a  lawyer 
before  the  Revolution,  and  entered  the  Convention  in 
1792.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king,  and  became 
a  partisan  of  Robespierre.  He  has  been  accused  of  the 
crimes  and  cruelties  committed  at  Lyons,  whither  he  was 
sent  as  commissioner  in  1793  ;  but  Lamartine  asserts  that 
he  restrained  the  excesses  of  his  party  on  that  occasion. 
After  the  committee  of  public  safety  was  divided  into  two 
parties,  Robespierre,  Couthon,  and  Saint-Just  formed  a 
triumvirate,  which  for  some  time  controlled  the  govern- 
ment. He  was  involved  in  the  fall  of  Robespierre  on 
the  9th  Thermidor,  and  was  guillotined  July  28,  1794. 

See  De  Barante,  "  Histoire  de  la  Convention  Nationale." 

Coutinho,  ko-t^n'yo,  (Dom  Francisco,)  Count  of 
Redondo,  a  Portuguese  officer,  was  appointed  Viceroy 
of  India  in  1561.  He  was  a  friend  of  Camoens,  who 
connnemorated,  in  verse,  his  virtues  and  benefactions. 
Died  in  1564. 

See  Laclede,  "  Histoire  de  Portugal." 

Couto,  de,  di  ko'to,  (Diogo  or  Diego,)  a  Portu- 
guese historian,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1542.  He  went  to 
India  about  1556,  served  in  the  army  several  years,  and 
settled  at  Goa.  He  received  from  Philip  II.  of  Spain 
the  title  of  historiographer  of  India,  and  between  1602 
and  1616  published  a  continuation  of  Barros's  valuable 
work  entitled  "Decades  of  Asia,"  ("Decadas  da  Asia,") 
containing  an  account  of  the  discoveries  and  conquests 
of  the  Portuguese  in  the  East.    Died  at  Goa  in  1616. 

See  S.  DE  Faria,  "Vida  de  Diogo  de  Couto;"  "Nouvelle  BIo- 
graphie  Generale." 

Couto-Pestana,  do,  do  ko'to  pes-t^'ni,  (Jozi^,)  a 
Portuguese  poet,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1678.  He  became 
controller  of  the  treasury  at  Lisbon,  and  wrote  a  poem 
entitled  "Quiten'a  la  Santa."    Died  in  1735. 

Coutts,  koots,  (Angela  Georgiana  Burdett,)  an 
English  lady  noted  for  wealth  and  munificence,  a  daugh- 
ter of  Sir  Francis  Burdett,  was  born  in  1814.  Having 
become  the  heiress  of  a  vast  fortune  left  by  her  grand- 
father, Thomas  Coutts,  a  banker,  she  assumed  his  name. 
She  has  given  large  donations  to  benevolent  and  reli- 
gious societies,  and  built  a  fine  church  in  Westminster, 
(1847.) 

Coutts,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  banker  of  London, 
born  at  Dundee  about  1733,  acquired  a  very  large  for- 
tune. Died  in  1821  or  1822.  He  left  three  daughters, 
Frances,  married  to  the  Marquis  of  Bute,  Sophia,  married 
to  Sir  Francis  Burdett,  and  Susan,  married  to  the  Earl 
of  Guilford. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 


•€  as     9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


COUTURE 


680 


COWLET 


Couture,  koo'tiiR',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1732.  He  was  chief  architect  of  the 
church  de  la  Madeleine,  Paris,  which  he  left  unfinished 
at  his  death,  in  1799*  It  has  since  been  completed,  with 
some  variations  irom  his  design. 

Couture,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Saint- Aubin  in  1651.  He  was  professor  of  eloquence 
in  Paris,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions. 
He  wrote  an  "Abridged  History  of  the  Assyrian,  Per- 
sian, Macedonian,  and  Roman  Empires,"  (1699,)  and 
some  minor  works.    Died  in  1728, 

Couture,  (Thomas,)  a  French  painter  of  history  and 
genre,  was  born  at  Senlis  in  1815.  He  produced  "The 
Love  of  Gold"  in  1844,  ^'^'^  'i"^  ^^47  a  picture  of  "  The 
Romans  of  the  Decadence,"  which  obtained  the  gold 
medal  at  the  Salon. 

Coutures,  des,  di  koo'tiiR',  (Jacques  Parrain — 
pt'rdN^,)  Baron,  a  French  translator,  born  at  Avranches. 
He  published  a  French  version  of  Lucretius,  (1685,)  with 
notes,  and  several  other  works.    Died  in  1702. 

Couvay,  koo'vi',  (Jean,)  a  skilful  French  artist,  born 
at  Aries  in  1622.  He  engraved  after  Raphael,  Guido, 
Poussin,  and  other  masters.  "  The  Martyrdom  of  Saint 
Bartholomew,"  after  Poussin,  is  his  chef-d'ceuvre. 

Couvreur.    See  Le  Couvreur. 

Covarruvias,  ko-vir-roo've-is,  or  Covarrubias, 
(Don  Antonio,)  an  eminent  Spanish  jurist  and  Hellenist, 
born  in  1524.  He  was  professor  of  law  at  Salamanca, 
and  member  of  the  royal  council  of  Castile.  He  wrote 
a  "Commentary  on  the  Politics  of  Aristotle."  Lipsius 
calls  him  "  Hispaniae  magnum  lumen."    Died  in  1602. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Covarruvias  y  Horozco,  ko-vir-roo've-is  e  o-roth'- 
ko,  (Don  Juan,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Toledo.  He  became  Canon  of  Seville,  and  after- 
wards Bishop  of  Girgenti,  Sicily,  where  he  established  a 
printing-press.  He  was  author  of  "  Moral  Emblems," 
(1591,)  "Christian  Paradoxes,"  (1592,)  and  other  works, 
(in  Spanish.)    Died  in  1608. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Covarruvias  y  Leyva,  ko-v§,r-roo've-is  e  la^-vi, 
(Diego,)  a  brother  of  Antonio,  noticed  aboveT^was 
born  at  Toledo  in  15 12.  He  became  Bishop  of  Segovia 
in  1565,  president  of  the  council  of  Castile  in  1572,  and 
of  the  council  of  state  in  1574.  He  was  reputed  one  of 
the  first  jurists  or  canonists  of  his  time,  and  wrote  seve- 
ral legal  works.    Died  in  1577. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Co'vel  or  Co'vell,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born 
in  Suffolk  in  1638,  wrote  an  "Account  of  the  Greek 
Church,"  (1722.)    Died  in  1722. 

Covelli,  ko-veKlee,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  chemist 
and  mineralogist,  born  at  Cajazzo  in  1790.  He  investi- 
gated the  phenomena  of  Vesuvius  by  chemical  analysis, 
and  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Prodromo  della 
Mineralogia  Vesuviana,"  (1825.)    Died  in  1829. 

See  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degll  Italiani  illustri." 

Coventry,  kuv'en-tre,  (Henry,)  an  English  scholar, 
a  Fellow  of  Magdalene  College,  was  one  of  the  authors 
of  the  "Athenian  Letters."  (See  Yorke,  Charles.) 
He  published  "  Letters  of  Philemon  to  Hydaspes,"  (on 
"False  Religion,")  1736-44.    Died  in  1752. 

Coventry,  (Thomas,)  Baron,  an  English  lawyer, 
born  in  Worcestershire  in  1578.  He  became  attorney- 
general  in  1621,  and  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  in  1625. 
He  was  also  made  a  baron,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Coven- 
try.   Died  in  1640. 

Coventry,  (Sir  William,)  M.P.,  the  youngest  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1626.  He  filled  seve- 
ral civil  offices  with  credit,  and  jiublished  "England's 
Appeal  from  the  Cabal,  etc."  The  "  Character  of  a 
Trimmer,"  commonly  attributed  to  Lord  Halifax,  is  by 
some  ascribed  to  Coventry.    Died  in  1686. 

Cov'er-dale,  (Miles,)  an  English  bishop  and  Re- 
former, was  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1487.  He  became  an 
Augustine  monk,  and  entered  holy  orders  in  15 14. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  Englishmen  that  embraced  the 
Reformed  religion,  which  he  zealously  promoted.  In 
1535  I'le  published,  with  the  royal  sanction,  the  first 
entire  Bible  which  appeared  in  the  English  language. 


translated  by  himself.  He  also  edited  the  Cranmer  or 
"Great  Bible,"  in  1539.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Exeter  in  155 1.  In  the  reign  of  Mary  he  was  imprisoned 
two  years  and  then  exiled.  He  returned  about  1558,  but 
was  not  reinstated  in  the  bishopric.    Died  about  1568. 

See  "Memorials  of  the  Right  Rev.  Myles  Coverdale,  Bishop  of 
Exeter." 

Covilham  or  Covilhao,  da,  dS  ko-v^l-yowN',  (Don 
Pedro,)  a  Portuguese  explorer,  was  born  about  1450.  He 
was  sent  by  John  II.  in  1487  to  search  for  Prester  John 
and  to  explore  a  route  to  India.  He  visited  India,  and 
obtained  about  commerce  and  geography  important  in- 
formation, which  he  sent  home.  About  1492  he  visited 
Abyssinia,  the  prince  of  which  induced  or  constrained 
him  to  remain  in  his  service.  He  was  living  there  in  1525. 

See  JoAo  DE  Barros,  "Asia,"  vol.  i. ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Covilhao.    See  Covilham. 

Covillard,  ko've'ytR',  written  also  Couillard, 
(Joseph,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  in  Dauphine,  was 
noted  for  his  skill  in  lithotomy.    He  lived  about  1630. 

Cow'ard,  (William,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
1656,  published,  besides  some  medical  works,  "  Second 
Thoughts  concerning  the  Human  Soul,"  (1702,)  which 
favoured  materialism  and  excited  much  indignation.  It 
was  burned  by  order  of  Parliament.    Died  in  1725. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Cow'din,  (Robert,)  an  American  officer,  born  at  Ja- 
maica, Vermont,  in  1805.  He  fought  in  the  campaigns 
of  1 86 1,  and  became  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers 
in  1862. 

Cow'ell,  (John,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in  Devon- 
shire in  1554,  wrote  "The  Interpreter."    Died  in  1611. 

CowTey,  [formerly  pronounced  and  sometimes  writ- 
ten CooTey,]  (Abraham,)  a  celebrated  English  poet, 
was  born  in  London  in  1618.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he 
published  a  volume  of  poems,  called  "  Poetic  Blossoms," 
and  in  1636  entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  from 
which  he  was  ejected  as  a  royalist  in  1643.  In  1646  he 
went  to  Paris  with  the  queen,  and  was  employed  as 
agent  of  a  correspondence  in  cipher  between  her  and 
Charles  I.  He  produced  in  1647  "The  Mistress,"  a 
series  of  poems  replete  with  frigid  conceits  which  then 
passed  for  wit.  "  It  is  the  most  celebrated  perform- 
ance," says  Hallam,  "  of  the  miscalled  metaphysical 
poets."  Having  returned  to  England  about  1656,  he 
published  an  edition  of  poems,  including  "  Pindaric 
Odes,"  "Miscellanies,"  and  "The  Davideis,"  an  epic. 
By  his  contemporaries  he  was  more  admired  than  any 
other  poet  of  his  age.  At  the  restoration  he  failed  to 
receive  the  expected  reward  of  his  loyalty,  and,  retiring 
from  the  world  in  disgust,  settled  at  Chertsey  as  a  farmer 
in  1665.  He  died  in  1667.  "His  'Pindaric  Odes,'" 
says  Hallam,  "  contain  very  beautiful  lines  ;  but  his  sen- 
sibility and  good  sense — nor  has  any  poet  more — are 
choked  by  false  taste.  Cowley,  perhaps,  on  the  whole, 
has  had  a  reputation  more  above  his  deserts  than  any 
English  poet."  "  It  may  be  affirmed,"  says  Dr.  John- 
son, "  that  he  brought  to  his  poetic  labours  a  mind  re- 
plete with  learning,  and  that  his  pages  are  embellished 
with  all  the  ornaments  which  books  can  supply  ;  that  he 
was  the  first  who  imparted  to  English  numbers  the  en- 
thusiasm of  the  greater  ode  and  the  gayety  of  the  less  ; 
and  that  he  was  equally  qualified  for  sprightly  sallies  and 
for  lofty  flights."  His  prose  essays  are  perspicuous  and 
unaffected  in  style,  and  are  among  the  earliest  English 
models  of  good  writing. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets;"  Dr.  Sprat,  "Life 
of  A.  Cowley,"  170c  ;  "  Biographia  Britannica  ;"  Campbell,  "  Speci- 
mens of  the  British  Poets;"  "North  British  Review"  for  February, 
1847;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  i.,  2d  Series,  1S27. 

Cowley,  (Mrs.  Hannah,)  whose  maiden  name  was 
Parkhouse,  an  English  dramatist,  born  at  Tiverton  in 
1743,  was  married  to  Captain  Cowley,  an  officer  of  the 
East  India  Company.  She  composed,  besides  other 
plays,  two  successful  comedies,  called  "The  Runaway" 
and  "The  Belle's  Stratagem."  She  also  wrote  "The 
Maid  of  Aragon,"  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1809. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica ;"  "  Gentleman's  Magazine," 
i8og. 

Cowley,  (Henry  Richard  Wellesley,)  Lord,  a 
British  diplomatist,  eldest  son  of  Sir  Henry  Wellesley, 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mlt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


cow  LET 


68i 


COW  PER 


fiist  Lord  Cowley,  and  nephew  of  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton, was  born  in  1804.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of 
legation  to  Constantinople  in  1831,  minister  to  Switzer- 
land in  1848,  and  ambassador  to  Paris  in  1852.  Lords 
Clarendon  and  Cowley  represented  England  in  the  Con- 
gress of  Paris  which  in  1856  concluded  peace  with  Russia. 

Cowley,  (Henry  Wellesley,)  the  first  Lord,  an 
English  diplomatist,  born  in  1773,  was  a  brother  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington.  He  was  ambassador  at  Paris  and 
other  courts  for  many  years.    Died  in  1847. 

Cow'per,  (Edward,)  an  Englishman  distinguished 
as  an  inventor  and  improver  of  printing-machinery,  was 
born  in  1790.  We  have  little  information  respecting  his 
life.  He  was  for  some  time  a  partner  in  an  extensive 
printing-office  in  London.  In  his  later  years  he  was 
professor  of  mechanics,  etc.  in  King's  College,  London, 
where  his  lectures  were  highly  popular.  He  contributed 
to  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia."    Died  in  1852. 

Cowper,  (Spencer,)  an  English  lawyer,  was  a  younger 
brother  of  the  first  Earl  Cowper,  (1664-1723,)  and  grand- 
father of  the  great  poet.  After  being  tried  for  the  mur- 
der of  Sarah  Stout,  and  acquitted,  he  became  a  judge  in 
the  court  of  common  pleas,  and  a  member  of  Parliament. 

See  Macaulay,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  v.;  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  July,  1861. 

Cowper,  (William,)  a  British  divine,  born  in  1566. 
He  preached  about  twenty  years  at  Perth,  after  which 
he  became  Bishop  of  Galloway.  He  published  Sermons, 
and  other  works  on  theology,  which  are  commended. 
Died  in  1619. 

Cowper,  (WiLifAM,)  an  eminent  English  surgeon 
and  anatomist,  born  in  Hampshire  in  1666.  He  settled 
in  London,  and  became  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  published  a  treatise  on  Muscles,  entitled  "  Myotomia 
Reformata,"  (1694,)  and  the  "Anatomy  of  the  Human 
Body."  His  name  has  been  applied  to  certain  glands 
of  the  urethra.    Died  in  1709. 

See  Thompson,  "History  of  the  Royal  Society." 

Cowper,  (William,)  Lord,  an  eminent  English  judge 
and  orator,  born  in  the  castle  of  Hertford  in  1664,  was 
the  son  of  Sir  William  Cowper,  and  a  great-uncle  of  the 
poet  of  that  name.  He  entered  the  Middle  Temple  in 
his  eighteenth  year,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1688. 
Few  men  have  had  finer  endowments  for  that  profession  ; 
and  it  appears  that  in  a  short  time  he  was  the  leader  of 
the  home  circuit.  In  1695  he  was  elected  to  Parliament, 
where  he  acted  with  the  Whig  party.  "The  younger 
Cowper,"  says  Lord  Campbell,  "  like  the  younger  Pitt, 
is  a  rare  instance  of  a  member  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons being  considered  from  his  maiden  speech  a  con- 
summate debater."  He  was  appointed  king's  counsel, 
and  became  the  leader  of  the  Whig  party  in  the  House 
of  Commons.  He  was  made  lord  chancellor,  or  keeper 
of  the  great  seal,  in  1705,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage, 
as  Baron  Cowper,  in  1706.  The  Tories  having  come 
into  power  in  17 10,  he  resigned  the  great  seal,  which 
was  again  confided  to  him  on  the  accession  of  George 
I.  in  1 7 14.  For  some  years  he  was  the  king's  chief 
adviser  in  political  affairs,  in  which  capacity  he  appears 
to  have  acted  with  wisdom  and  moderation.  He  re- 
signed the  office  of  chancellor  in  1718,  and  was  created 
an  earl.  He  died  in  1723,  leaving  several  sons.  He 
had  a  high  reputation  for  integrity. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;"  Foss, 
"The  Judges  of  England." 

Cowper,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman  and  geo- 
meter, born  in  London  in  1713,  became  Dean  of  Durham. 
He  was  a  younger  son  of  Earl  Cowper.    Died  in  1772. 

Cow'per,  (or  koo'per,)  (William,)  one  of  the  most 
eminent  and  popular  of  English  poets,  was  born  at 
Great  Berkhamstead,  in  Hertfordshire,  on  the  26th  of 
November,  1731.  His  father,  John  Cowper,  a  nephew 
of  Earl  Cowper,  was  rector  of  that  parish,  and  chaplain 
to  George  II.  Having  lost  his  mother,  whose  maiden 
name  was  Donne,  at  the  age  of  six  years,  he  was  then 
placed  at  the  boarding-school  of  Dr.  Pitman  at  Market 
Street,  on  the  line  between  Bedford  and  Hertford  coun- 
ties. Here  his  sensitive  spirit  and  delicate  organization 
suffered  much  from  the  cruelty  of  a  larger  boy.  Between 
the  ages  of  ten  and  eighteen  he  was  a  student  of  West- 
minster School,  and  became  a  good  classical  scholar. 


He  entered  the  Middle  Temple  about  1752,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1754,  but  had  little  if  any  practice. 
While  he  was  a  student  in  the  Temple,  "he  was  struck," 
he  says,  "  with  such  a  dejection  of  spirits,  as  none  but 
they  who  have  felt  the  same  can  have  the  least  con- 
ception of.  To  this  moment  I  had  felt  no  concern  of 
a  spiritual  kind.  Ignorant  of  original  sin,  insensible  of 
the  guilt  of  actual  transgression,  I  understood  neither 
the  law  nor  the  gospel."  Thus  it  appears  that  religion 
was  not,  as  some  assert,  the  original  cause  of  his  terrible 
mental  malady.  He  was  tenderly  attached  to  his  cousin, 
Theodora  Cowper,  who  favoured  his  suit,  but  whose 
parents  forbade  their  union, — 

"With  a  little  hoard  of  maxims  preaching  down  a  daughter's  heart." 

In  1763,  when  his  funds  were  nearly  exhausted,  he 
accepted  the  ofter  of  the  place  of  clerk  of  the  journals 
of  the  House  of  Lords  ;  but,  when  required  to  pass  an 
examination  before  the  bar  of  that  House,  his  morbid 
nervousness  was  such  that  he  could  not  endure  the 
ordeal.  After  vain  and  agonizing  efforts  to  brace  him- 
self for  the  trial,  he  made  abortive  attempts  to  commit 
suicide,  and  his  miseries  produced  insanity,  which,  he 
says,  he  had  ardently  wished  for,  and  during  which  his 
dominant  idea  was  despair  of  his  salvation.  Under  the 
skilful  treatment  of  Dr.  Cotton,  at  Saint  Alban's,  he 
recovered  in  1765,  and  became  an  inmate  in  the  family 
of  the  Unwins  at  Huntingdon.  After  the  death  of  Mr. 
Unwin,  in  1767,  Cowper  and  Mrs.  Unwin  removed  to 
Olney,  than  which  it  would  be  difficult  to  select  a  worse 
locality  for  an  invalid.  The  adjacent  land  was  low,  damp, 
and  miasmatic,  and  there  was  no  genial  society  within 
their  reach.  Then  came  a  nervous  fever,  followed  by  a 
renewal  of  his  insanity  or  delusion,  which  began  about 
1773,  abated  in  1776,  but  did  not  cease  entirely  until 
several  years  later.  He  was  nursed  in  this  period,  as  in 
other  times  of  need,  by  his  constant  friend,  Mary  Unwin. 

About  1780  his  friends  persuaded  him  to  cultivate  his 
poetical  powers.  "  Encompassed  by  the  midnight  of 
absolute  despair,"  says  he,  "I  first  commenced  as  an 
author."  In  1782  he  published  a  volume  of  didactic 
poems,  entitled  "Truth,"  "Table-Talk,"  "  Hope,"  "Cha- 
rity," "  Conversation,"  etc.  At  the  suggestion  of  Lady 
Austen,  he  wrote  "John  Gilpin,"  and  "  The  Task,"  which 
appeared  in  1785  and  speedily  obtained  great  and  uni- 
versal favour.  It  was  more  popular  than  any  other  poem 
of  equal  length  in  the  language.  He  spent  about  a  year 
in  its  composition.  In  1784  he  began  the  translation  of 
Homer  into  blank  verse, — a  labour  of  six  years  which 
were  among  the  happiest  of  his  life.  In  1786  he  was 
visited  by  his  cousin.  Lady  Hesketh,  with  whom  he  had 
corresponded  many  years,  and  removed  to  Weston,  a 
pleasant  village  about  two  miles  from  Olney.  Lady 
Hesketh  and  others  were  very  assiduous  in  providing 
for  his  comfort.  But  the  last  six  years  of  his  life  were 
passed  in  a  state  of  hopeless  dejection.  He  died  April 
25,  1800.  "  His  familiar  letters  sparkle  with  playful  hu- 
mour. They  are  the  pleasantest  and  most  genial  ever 
written."  ("North  British  Review.")  "I  have  always 
considered  the  letters  of  Cowper,"  says  Robert  Hall, 
"as  the  finest  specimen  of  the  epistolary  style  in  our 
language.  To  an  air  of  inimitable  ease  and  carelessness 
they  unite  a  high  degree  of  correctness,  such  as  could 
result  only  from  the  clearest  intellect  combined  with  the 
most  finished  taste."  His  version  of  Homer,  considered 
with  respect  to  fidelity  to  the  original,  is  perhaps  the  best 
that  has  appeared  in  English.  Besides  the  works  above 
named,  he  composed  numerous  minor  poems,  and  some 
of  the  "  Olney  Hymns,"  of  which  his  friend  John  Newton 
was  the  principal  author.  Plis  "Lines  on  his  Mother's  Por- 
trait" are  exquisitely  beautiful  and  touching.  The  chief 
characteristics  of  his  poetry  are  originality,  good  sense, 
simplicity,  piety,  and  warmth  of  heart.  He  was  emphati- 
cally a  Christian  poet.  No  English  poet,  except  Shak- 
speare,  is  more  frequently  quoted.  "  The  great  merit  of 
this  writer,"  says  Lord  Jeffrey,  "appears  to  us  to  consist 
in  the  boldness  and  originality  of  his  composition,  and 
in  the  fortunate  audacity  with  which  he  has  carried  the 
dominion  of  poetry  into  regions  that  had  been  considered 
as  inaccessible  to  her  ambition,  .  .  .  The  great  variety  and 
truth  of  his  descriptions,  the  minute  and  correct  paintings 
of  those  home  scenes  and  private  feelings  with  which 


€  as  >6;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,gtiiticral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


682  COZZA 


COW  PER 


every  one  is  internally  familiar,  the  sterling  weight  and 
sense  of  most  of  his  observations,  and,  above  all,  the 
great  appearance  of  facility  with  which  everything  is  exe- 
cuted, and  the  happy  use  he  has  so  often  made  of  the 
most  common  and  ordinary  language,  all  concur  to  stamp 
upon  his  poems  the  character  of  original  genius,  and 
remind  us  of  the  merits  that  have  secured  immortality 
to  Shakspeare."  ("Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1803.) 

See  T.  S.  Gkimshaw,  "Life  of  Cowper,"  1835;  Southey,  "Life 
of  W.  Cowper,"  2  vols.,  18^8  ;  Hayley,  "Life  of  W.  Cowper,"  4 
vols.,  1803-09;  Thomas  Taylor,  "Life  of  W.  Cowper,"  1833; 
"  Edinbuiyii  Review"  for  July,  1804. 

Cowpei-,  (William  Francis,)  M.P.,  an  English  poli- 
tician, a  younger  son  of  the  fifth  Earl  Cowper,  was  born 
in  Hertfordshire  in  1811.  He  became  a  lord  of  the  trea- 
sury in  1837,  and  served  under  Lord  John  Russell  as  lord 
of  the  admiralty  from  1846  to  1852.  He  was  a  step-son 
of  Lord  Palmerston,  who  appointed  him  president  of  the 
Board  of  Health  in  1855,  and  vice-president  of  the  Board 
of  Trade  in  1859. 

Cox,  (David,)  an  English  landscape-painter,  born  at 
Birmingham  in  1793.  He  has  attained  distinction  in 
painting  in  water-colours,  chiefly  British  scenery.  His 
works,  though  rather  rough  and  not  minutely  finished, 
represent  the  phenomena  of  nature  and  of  the  weather 
with  eminent  success.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on 
Painting  in  Water-Colours,"  (1814.)  Ruskin  praises 
"the  purity  and  felicity  of  some  of  the  careless,  melting, 
water-colour  skies  of  Cox,"  and  says,  "  His  foliage  is  alto- 
gether exquisite  in  colour,  in  its  impressions  of  coolness, 
shade,  and  mass."  ("Modern  Painters.") 

Cox,  (Francis  Augustus,)  D.D.,  an  English  theolo- 
gian, born  about  1783,  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Life  of  Melanchthon,"  (181 5,)  and  "  Our  Young  Men," 
a  prize  essay,  (1838.)    Died  in  1853. 

Cox,  (Jacob  D.,)  an  American  general,  born  at  Mon- 
treal about  1828,  was  a  lawyer  before  the  civil  war.  He 
was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  May,  1861,  soon 
after  which  he  commanded  a  force  in  Western  Virginia. 
In  the  autumn  of  1862  he  became  a  major-general.  He 
served  under  General  Sherman  in  the  campaign  against 
Atlanta,  May-September,  1864,  and  commanded  a  divi- 
sion at  the  battle  of  Nashville  in  December  of  that  year. 
Pie  was  elected  Governor  of  Ohio  by  the  Republicans  in 
October,  1865,  and  appointed  by  President  Grant  secre- 
tary of  the  interior,  in  March,  1869. 

Cox,  (John  Edmund,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
at  Norwich  in  1812,  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Cranmer,"  a  "Life 
of  Luther,"  and  other  works. 

Cox,  (Leonard,)  an  English  classical  scholar,  who 
wrote  several  works  in  Greek  and  Latin.    Died  in  1549. 

Cox,  (Richard,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  the 
county  of  Bucks  in  1499.  He  was  employed  as  tutor  to 
Prince  Edward,  after  whose  accession  as  Edward  VL 
he  was  almoner  to  the  king,  and  Dean  of  Westminster. 
In  1559  he  became  Bishop  of  Ely.  He  translated  for 
the  "Bishops'  Bible"  the  four  Gospels,  the  Acts,  and 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.    Died  in  1581. 

Cox,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  Irish  writer,  born  in  the 
county  of  Cork  in  1650.  He  was  made  lord  chancellor 
of  Ireland  in  1703.  He  published  a  "  History  of  Ireland," 
and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1733. 

See  Croker,  "  Researches  in  the  South  of  Ireland." 

Cox,  (Samuel  Hanson,)  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  theo- 
logian, born  at  Leesville,  New  Jersey,  in  1793.  He  was 
pastor  of  a  church  in  Brooklyn,  New  York,  from  1837 
to  1854.  He  wrote  "Quakerism  not  Christianity,"  and 
other  works. 

Cox,  (William  Sands,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English 
surgeon  and  writer,  born  at  Birmingham  in  1802.  He 
founded  Queen's  College,  and  the  Queen's  Hospital, 
both  in  Birmingham. 

Coxcie.    See  Coxie. 

Coxe,  koks,  (Arthur  Cleveland,)  an  American 
Episcopal  clergyman,  a  son  of  Dr.  S.  H.  Cox,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Mendham,- New  Jersey,  in  1818.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Christian  Ballads," 
(1840,)  "Saul,  a  Mystery,"  and  "Impressions  of  Eng- 
land," (1856.)  In  1859  he  became  rector  of  Grace  Church, 
in  the  city  of  New  York,  and  in  1865  became  Bishop  of 
Western  New  York. 

See  Gkiswold's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 


Coxe,  koks,  (Richard  Charles,)  an  English  theolo- 
gian and  poet,  born  in  1799,  was  Archdeacon  of  Lindis- 
farne.    Died  in  1865. 

Coxe,  (Tench,)  an  American  writer  on  political  econ- 
omy, commerce,  manufactures,  etc.,  was  born  in  1756; 
died  in  1824. 

Coxe,  (William,)  a  successful  English  historian  and 
writer  of  travels,  born  in  London  in  1747.  He  became 
curate  of  Denham  in  1 771,  after  which  he  travelled  on 
the  continent  as  tutor  of  the  Marquis  of  Blandford  and 
other  young  members  of  the  nobility.  He  published 
"Travels  in  Russia,  Poland,  Sweden,  and  Denmark," 
(1784,)  which  are  highly  prized  and  interesting,  and 
"Travels  in  Switzerland,"  (1789.)  He  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  the  Tower  about  1796,  and  Archdeacon  of 
Wilts  in  1805.  Among  his  most  important  works  are  a 
"  History  of  the  House  of  Austria,"  (1792,)  "Memoirs 
of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,"  (3  vols.,  1798,)  "Memoirs  of  the 
Kings  of  Spain  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  1 700-1 788," 
(3  vols.,  1813,)  and  "Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of  Marlbo- 
rough," (181 7-19.)    Died  in  1828. 

See  article  on  the  "  Life  and  Works  of  Archdeacon  Coxe,"  in 
the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1833;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  April,  180S. 

Cox'e-ter,  (Thomas,)  an  English  critic  and  collector 
of  rare  books,  was  born  in  Gloucestershire  in  1689.  He 
assisted  Ames  in  his  "Typographical  Antiquities,"  and 
Warton  in  his  "  History  of  English  Poetry."  He  was 
making  a  collection  of  old  English  poets  for  publication 
when  he  died  in  1747. 

Coxie  or  Coxcie,  kok'see,  (Michael,)  a  celebrated 
Flemish  painter,  born  at  Mechlin  in  1497,  was  a  pupil 
of  Van  Orley.  After  studying  the  works  of  Raphael  in 
Rome,  he  returned  home,  and  acquired  a  large  fortune 
by  his  art.  He  had  a  fertile  invention,  a  correct  design, 
and  a  brilliant  colouring.  Among  his  best-known  works 
is  a  copy  of  Van  Eyck's  "  Adoration  of  the  Lamb,"  which 
Coxie  made  for  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  He  was  killed  by  a 
fall  in  1592. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flaniands,"  etc. 

Coyer,  kwa^yi',(GAERiEL  Francois,)  Abbe,  a  French 
writer,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1707,  published  "  Moral 
Bagatelles,"  a  "History  of  John  Sobieski,"  "The  Com- 
mercial Noblesse,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1782. 

Coyne,  koin,  (Joseph  Sterling,)  a  dramatist,  born 
in  King's  county,  Ireland,  in  1805,  produced  many  suc- 
cessful farces.    Died  in  1868. 

Coypel,  kwi^pSK,  (Antoine,)  an  eminent  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1661,  was  the  son  and  pupil  of 
Noel  Coypel,  with  wliom  he  studied  in  Rome.  About 
1680  he  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  acquired  a  high 
reputation.  In  1715  he  received  the  title  of  first  painter 
to  the  king.  His  style,  though  aifected  and  artifidal, 
was  much  admired  by  his  contemporaries.  He  was  a 
skilful  engraver.    Died  in  1722. 

Plis  son  Charles,  born  in  1694,  though  an  inferior 
artist,  became  first  painter  to  the  king.    Died  in  1752. 

See  Bryan,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Coypel,  (Noel,)  a  successful  French  painter,  born  in 
Paris  in  1628.  In  1655  he  was  employed  by  the  king  to 
adorn  the  Louvre  and  other  edifices,  and  was  received 
into  the  Royal  Academy  in  1663.  Louis  XIV.  appointed 
him  director  of  the  Academy  at  Rome  in  1672.  His 
ordonnance  and  colouring  are  admired.  To  distinguish 
him  from  his  sons  Antoine  and  Noel  Nicolas,  he  was 
sometimes  called  "Coypel  le  Poussin."    Died  in  1707. 

Coypel,  (Noel  Nicolas,)  the  son  and  pupil  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  16S8.  He  obtained  a 
high  reputation  as  a  historical  painter,  but  his  works  are 
now  less  prized  than  in  his  own  time.    Died  in  1734. 

Coysevox,kwSz\oks',(ANTOiNE,)an  eminent  French 
sculptor,  of  Spanish  origin,  born  at  Lyons  in  1640.  He 
studied  under  Lerambert  in  Paris,  of  which  he  became 
a  resident,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  in  1676. 
Among  his  celebrated  works  are  two  statues  of  Louis 
XIV,,  the  tomb  of  Colbert,  and  two  winged  horses  sur- 
mounted by  Fame  and  Mercury,  at  the  Tviileries.  He 
excelled  in  busts  and  portraits.    Died  in  1720. 

Cozen.    See  Cosin. 

Cozza,  kot's^,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
in  Calabria  in  1605  ;  died  in  1682. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


COZZA 


683 


CRAIG 


Cozza,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Milan  in  1676;  died  in  1742. 

Cozzens,  kuz'enz,  (Frederick  Swartwout,)  an 
American  writer,  born  in  New  York  in  1818.  A  volume 
entitled  "  Prismatics,"  made  up  of  his  contributions  to 
the  "Knickerbocker  Magazine,"  appeared  in  1853.  He 
published,  also,  "  Sparrowgrass  Papers,"  in  1856,  (ori- 
ginally contributed  to  '*  Putnam's  Magazine,")  besides 
other  works  in  prose  and  verse.    Died  in  1869. 

Craanen,  kRa'nen,  (Diedrik,)  a  Dutch  medical 
writer,  lived  at  Leyden  ;  died  in  1688. 

Crabb,  (George,)  an  English  philologist,  born  about 
1778,  was  a  graduate  of  Oxford.  He  published  a  number 
of  useful  works,  among  which  are  "  English  Synonymes," 
(1816;  loth  edition,  1852,)  a  "Universal  Historical  Dic- 
tionary," (1825,)  and  "  Mythology  of  All  Nations,"  (1847.) 
Died  in  1854.  "As  an  etymologist,  Mr.  Crabb  seems  to 
have  some  dictionary  knowledge  of  many  languages,  but 
to  be  unacquainted  with  the  philosophy,  or  history  even, 
of  language  in  general."  ("London  Quarterly  Review," 

vol.  XXV.) 

Crabbe,  krab,  (George,)  a  popular  English  poet, 
born  at  Aldborough,  in  Suffolk,  in  1754.  His  father 
filled  the  humble  office  of  collector  of  salt-duties.  He 
learned  the  profession  of  surgeon,  which,  however,  he 
abandoned  at  an  early  age.  Conscious  of  talents  above 
the  common  order,  he  resolved  to  seek  his  fortune  as  an 
author,  and  in  1780  went  to  London  with  five  pounds 
which  he  had  borrowed.  After  his  first  productions  had 
been  rejected  by  the  booksellers,  he  published,  on  his  own 
account,  "  The  Candidate,"  a  poem,  which  brought  him 
neither  fame  nor  profit.  In  great  pecuniary  distress,  he 
asked  and  received  the  generous  patronage  of  Edmund 
Burke,  who  gave  him  a  room  in  his  own  house,  intro- 
duced him  to  Fox,  Thurlow,  and  others,  and  enabled 
him,  in  1 781,  to  publish  "The  Library,"  which  was  re- 
ceived with  favour.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1782, 
and  soon  after  became  chaplain  to  the  Duke  of  Rutland 
at  iBelvoir  Castle.  He  published  in  1783  "The  Vil- 
lage," which  confirmed  his  reputation  as  a  powerful  and 
original  poet.  At  this  period  he  married  Sarah  El  my, 
the  object  of  his  early  affections.  Between  1785  and 
1813  he  officiated  as  curate  or  rector  successively  at 
Strathern,  Muston,  and  Parham,  After  an  interval  of 
more  than  twenty  years  since  his  last  appearance  as  a 
poet,  he  ])roduced  "The  Parish  Register,"  (1807,)  "The 
Borough,"  (1810,)  and  "Tales  in  Verse,"  (1812.)  In 
1813  he  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Trowbridge,  Wilt- 
shire, where  he  passed  his  last  years.  About  1819  he 
received  ^^3000  for  his  "Tales  of  the  Hall,"  and  for  the 
unexpired  term  of  former  copyrights.  Died  in  1832.  His 
moral  character  was  amiable  and  excellent.  As  a  poet 
he  is  remarkable  for  vigour,  truth  in  description,  and  a 
"  Chinese  accuracy"  of  observation.  "  Mr.  Crabbe,"  says 
Lord  Jeffrey,  "  is  the  greatest  mannerist,  perha])s,  of  all 
our  living  poets.  The  homely,  cjuaint,  prosaic  style, 
the  eternal  full-lengths  of  low  and  worthless  characters, 
with  their  accustomed  garnishing  of  sly  jokes  and  fami- 
liar morali/Jng,  are  all  on  the  surface  of  his  writings. 
.  .  .  An  unrivalled  and  almost  magical  power  of  ob- 
servation,— an  anatomy  of  character  and  feeling  not  less 
exquisite  and  searching,  .  .  .  are  interspersed  by  fits  and 
strangely  interwoven  with  the  most  minute  and  humble 
of  his  details.  Add  to  all  this  the  sure  and  profound 
sagacity  of  the  remarks  with  which  he  every  now  and  then 
startles  us  ;  the  weight  and  terseness  of  the  maxims  which 
he  drops  like  oracular  responses;  and  that  sweet  and 
seldom-sounded  chord  of  lyrical  inspiration,  the  lightest 
touch  of  which  instantly  charms  away  all  harshness  from 
his  numbers  and  all  harshness  from  his  themes." 

See  "  Life  of  George  Crabbe,"  by  liis  son,  1S38,  new  edition,  1847  ; 
Jeffrey,^  "Miscellanies;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for  November, 
iSio;  "  Edinbiirch  Review"  for  April,  1810,  and  November,  1812; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  July,  1819. 

Crabet    See  Crabeth. 

Crabeth  or  Crabet,  kRi'bet,  (Thierry  or  Dirk  and 
Vautier,)  excellent  Dutch  painters  on  glass,  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  born  in  Gouda.  They  were  brothers. 
They  executed  (between  1560  and  1570)  on  the  glass 
windows  of  the  church  of  Gouda  pictures  which  were 
considered  inimitable.    Dirk  died  in  1601. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Fiamands,"  etc. 


Crab'tree,  (William,)  an  English  astronomer,  who 
was  associated  with  Jeremiah  Horrox  in  scientific  pur- 
suits. His  observations  were  printed  by  Wallis  in  1672. 
He  died  at  an  early  age  in  1641. 

Cradock,  (John  Francis.)    See  Howden,  Baron. 

Crad'ock,  (Joseph,)  an  English  gentleman  and  au- 
thor, born  at  Leicester  in  1742,  inherited  an  easy  fortune, 
and  lived  in  London.  He  published  "Village  Memoirs," 
a  work  of  fiction,  "Zobeide,"  (1771,)  a  tragedy,  which 
was  performed  with  success,  "  Literary  Memoirs,"  (4 
vols.,  1826,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1826. 

Cradock,  (Luke,)  an  English  painter  of  birds,  etc. 
Died  in  171 7. 

Cradock,  (Samuel,)  an  English  nonconformist  di- 
vine, born  in  1620.  Fie  became  rector  of  North  Cad- 
bury,  from  which  he  was  ejected  in  1662.  Besides  other 
works,  he  published  "Knowledge  and  Practice,"  "The 
Harmony  of  the  Four  Evangelists,"  and  "Apostolical 
History,"  which  were  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1706. 

Cradock,  (Zachary,)  a  brother  of  Samuel,  noticed 
above,  was  born  probably  in  England  in  1633.  He  left 
two  sermons  which  have  been  greatly  admired,  the 
subjects  of  which  are  Providence  and  the  Design  of 
Christianity.    Died  in  1695. 

Craesbeke,  van,  vtn  kRls'bi''keh  or  kR^s^bik', 
(Joseph,)  a  skilful  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Brussels  in 
1608,  was  a  pupil  of  Brauwer,  whom  he  imitated.  He 
preferred  low  and  sordid  subjects,  such  as  drunken 
brawls  and  parties  of  smokers.    Died  in  1668. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Fiamands,"  etc. 

Craft.    See  Crato. 

Crafts,  (Samuel  C.,)  born  at  Woodstock,  Connecticut, 
in  1768,  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1816  to  1824, 
and  was  chosen  Governor  of  Vermont  in  1828,  1829,  and 
1830.    Died  in  1853. 

Crafts,  (William,)  a  lawyer  and  poet,  born  at  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  in  1787;  died  in  1826. 

See  S.  Oilman,  "Memoir  of  W.  Crafts,"  1828. 

Craggs,  (James,)  an  English  politician,  was  a  friend 
of  Addison,  whom  he  succeeded  as  secretary  of  state  in 
1 7 18.  "  He  was  a  young  man,"  saj'^s  Macaulay,  "whose 
natural  parts  were  quick  and  showy,  whose  graceful  per- 
son and  winning  manners  had  made  him  generally 
acceptable  in  society,  and  who  if  he  had  lived  would  pro- 
bably have  been  the  most  formidable  of  all  the  rivals  of 
\Val]Dole."  ("Essay  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Addi- 
son.")   Died  in  1720. 

Cragius.    See  Craig,  (Nicholas.) 

Craig,  (James,)  a  Scottish  divine,  born  in  East  Lothian 
in  1682,  became  one  of  the  most  popular  preachers  of 
Edinburgh.  He  published  several  volumes  of  sermons 
and  religious  poems.    Died  in  1744. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionaiy  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Craig,  (James,)  an  American  officer,  born  in  Pennsyl- 
vania about  1820,  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  was 
made  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  1862. 

Craig,  (John,)  a  Scottish  Reformer,  born  about  1512, 
was  a  monk  in  early  life.  He  visited  Italy,  where  he 
was  employed  as  teacher  and  rector  in  a  school.  Having 
been  converted  to  the  Protestant  faith  and  made  an  open 
profession,  he  was  sentenced  at  Rome  to  die  by  fire  ;  but 
in  consequence  of  the  death  of  the  pope  his  prison  was 
broken  open  by  a  mob,  and  he  escaped  from  that  doom, 
and  returned  to  Scotland.  He  became  a  prominent 
coadjutor  in  the  work  of  reformation  in  Scotland,  and 
was  chosen  minister  of  Aberdeen  in  1574.  In  1577  he 
removed  to  Edinburgh,  was  appointed  chaplain  to  James 
VI.,  and  in  1580  composed  the  "National  Covenant." 
Died  in  1600. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Craig,  (John,)  a  Scottish  mathematician,  the  dates  of 
whose  birth  and  death  are  unknown.  He  contributed 
to  the  "Philosophical  Transactions,"  (1698-1712,)  and 
published  a  work  on  fluxions,  entitled  "  De  Calculo  Flu- 
entium,"  (1718,)  and  a  few  other  treatises.  He  first  made 
known  in  England  the  differential  calculus  discovered  by 
Leibnitz, 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Craig,  krag,  [Lat.  Cra'gius,]  (Nicholas,)  a  Danish 
writer,  probably  of  British  extraction,  born  at  Ripen  in 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  y., guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (JJ:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CRAIG  684  CRANACH 


1549,  became  professor  of  Greek  in  Copenhagen,  and 
-ector  of  the  university.  He  published  a  book  on  the 
Republic  of  Sparta,  (1593,)  which  was  highly  esteemed, 
and  a  few  other  Latin  works.  In  1598  he  was  sent  on  a 
political  mission  to  England.  He  was  a  friend  of  Scali- 
ger.    Died  in  1602. 

See  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "  Litteraturlexicon." 

Craig,  (Sir  Thomas,)  of  Riccarton,  an  eminent  Scot- 
tish lawyer  and  antiquary,  born  in  Edinburgh  about  1540, 
was  a  relative  of  John  Craig,  (1512-1600.)  After  pur- 
suing his  studies  in  Paris,  he  passed  advocate  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1563,  and  became  a  judge  (justice  depute)  in  1564. 
He  wrote  several  admired  Latin  poems,  one  of  which  is 
on  the  birth  of  James  VL  In  1603  he  completed  his 
celebrated  work  on  "  Feudal  Law,"  ("  Jus  Feudale,") 
which  was  not  published  until  1655,  and  which  is  re- 
garded as  an  authority  all  over  Europe.  He  was  emi- 
nent for  modesty  and  other  virtues.    Died  in  1608. 

See  P.  F.  Tytler,  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Craig,"  1823;  Cham- 
bers, "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Craig,  (William,)  a  Scottish  minister,  born  at  Glas- 
gow in  1709  ;  died  in  1784. 

Craig,  (William,)  a  literary  Scottish  judge,  born  in 
1745,  succeeded  Lord  Hailes  as  judge  in  1792.  He  con- 
tributed numerous  papers  to  the  "  Mirror."  Died  in  1813. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Craik,  (George  Lillie,)  an  able  historical  and  criti- 
cal writer  and  editor,  born  in  Fifeshire,  Scotland,  in  1799. 
He  became  a  resident  of  London  about  1824,  and  pro- 
duced "The  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Ditftculties," 
(183 1.)  He  contributed  many  historical  and  biographi- 
cal articles  to  the  "Penny  Cyclopaedia."  Mr.  Craik 
and  C.  Macfarlane  were  the  principal  editors  or  authors 
of  the  "  Pictorial  History  of  England"  published  by 
Knight,  (1840-49.)  He  wrote  the  chapters  on  religion, 
commerce,  industry,  and  literature  in  that  work,  and 
other  useful  works,  among  which  are  "  Bacon  :  his  Wri- 
tings and  his  Philosophy,"  (3  vols.,  1846,)  "  Romance 
of  the  Peerage,"  (1848-50,  4  vols.,)  and  a  "  History  of 
English  Literature,"  (2  vols.)  In  1849  he  was  chosen 
professor  of  English  literature  in  Queen's  College,  Bel- 
fast.   Died  in  June,  1866. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  August,  1866. 

Craik,  (James,)  a  physician,  born  in  Scotland  in  1731. 
He  accompanied  Washington  in  an  expedition  against 
the  French  and  Indians  in  1754,  and  served  as  physician 
under  General  Braddock  in  1755.  After  the  Revolution- 
ary war  he  settled  near  Mount  Vernon,  and  became  the 
family  physician  of  Washington.    Died  in  1814. 

Craik,  Mrs.    See  Muloch. 

Crak'aii-thorp  or  Crakanthorpe,  (Richard,)  an 
English  divine,  born  in  Westmoreland  in  1567.  He  was 
an  eloquent  Puritan  preacher,  and  author  of  several 
works,  among  which  is  "  Defence  of  the  English  Church," 
("Defensio  Ecclesise  Anglicanae.")    Died  in  1624. 

Craniail,  de,  deh  IcRi'mtF  or  kRt'mS'ye,  (Adrien  de 
Montluc — moN'liik',)  Count,  a  French  writer,  born  in 
1568,  was  a  grandson  of  Marshal  de  Montluc.  He  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Bastille  from  1630  to  1642  for  alleged 
intrigues  against  Richelieu.  His  farce  called  "LaCo- 
medie  des  Proverbes"  (1616)  was  much  admired.  Died 
in  1646. 

Cramer,  kRi^iier,  (Andreas  Wilhelm,)  a  Danish 
professor,  son  of  J.  Andreas  Cramer,  the  eminent  poet, 
was  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1760.  He  became  professor 
of  law  in  his  native  city,  and  wrote  several  esteemed 
treatises  on  law  and  philology.    Died  in  1833. 

See  NiETZSCH,  "  Memoria  A.  W.  Crameri." 

Cramer,  kRa'mer,  (Carl  Friedrich,)  a  litterateur, 
born  at  Kiel  about  1750,  was  a  son  of  Johann  Andreas, 
noticed  below\  He  was  for  some  time  professor  of 
ancient  literature  in  Copenhagen,  and  removed  to  Paris 
about  1795.  He  translated  Schiller's  "Joan  of  Arc," 
and  other  German  works,  into  French,  and  published  a 
good  German-French  Dictionary,  (1805.)  Died  in  Paris 
in  1808. 

See  "Conversations-Lexikon  ;"  Qu^rard,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Cramer,  kR^'mer,  (Daniel,)  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Reetz  in  1568.  He  was  professor  at 
Wittenberg  and  Stettin,  and  author  of  several  works, 


among  which  is  "  Schola  Prophetica,"  (1606-12.)  Died 
in  1637. 

Cramei',  (Franz,)  a  German  composer  of  instrumental 
music,  born  at  Munich  in  1772  ;  died  in  1848. 

Cramer,  kRi'mer,  (Gabriel,)  an  eminent  Swiss  geo- 
meter, born  at  Geneva  in  1704.  He  cultivated  many 
sciences  with  success,  and  in  1750  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  in  his  native  city.  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  One  of  his  most  im- 
portant works  is  "An  Analysis  of  Algebraic  Curves." 
Died  in  1752. 

See  Senebier,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  Geneve." 

Cramer,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  professor 
of  Hebrew  and  theology,  was  born  near  Zurich  in  1673. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  "  Theology  of  Israel,"  (1705.)  Died 
in  1702. 

Cramer,  (Johann  Andreas,)  a  German  mineralogist, 
born  at  Quedlinburg  in  17 10,  made  important  discoveries 
in  metallurgy.  He  published,  in  Latin,  "  Elements  of 
the  Docimastic  Art,"  (1739,)  and  in  German,  "  Principles 
of  Metallurgy,"  (1774-77,)  both  valuable  works.  Died 
in  1777. 

See  Adelung,  Supplement  to  Jocher,  "  AUgemeines  Gelchrten- 
Lexikon." 

Cramer,  (Johann  Andreas,)  an  eminent  German 
poet  and  prose-writer,  born  at  Johstadt,  in  Saxony,  in 
1723.  He  was  invited  to  Copenhagen  by  Frederick  V., 
and  appointed  preacher  to  the  court  in  1754.  In  1765 
he  became  professor  of  theology  in  the  university  of  that 
city.  He  translated  Bossuet's  "Universal  History"  into 
German,  published  "The  Northern  Spectator,"  (1759 
-70,)  a  series  of  essays  which  was  successful,  and  three 
volumes  of  poems,  "Sammtliche  Gedichte,"  (1783.)  The 
Germans  reckon  him  among  their  best  lyric  poets.  In 
1774  he  obtained  the  chair  of  theology  at  Kiel.  Died 
in  1788. 

See  Christiani,  "Oration  {Geddchtnissrede)  in  Honour  of  J.  A. 
Cramer,"  1788;  Hirsching.  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Cramer,  (Johann  Baptist,)  an  excellent  German 
composer  and  pianist,  was  born  at  Manheim  in  1771,  and 
taken  to  London  in  infancy.  He  passed  most  of  his 
life  in  England.  His  "  Studies  for  the  Piano"  are  said  to 
be  unsurpassed  in  richness  and  harmony.  Died  in  1858. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Cramer,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German  jurist,  was 
preceptor  of  the  prince-royal  of  Prussia.    Died  in  171 5. 

Cramer,  (Johann  Rudolph,)  a  Swiss  theologian  and 
Hebraist,  born  near  Zurich  in  1678;  died  in  1737. 

See  J.  ZimMermann,  "Vie  de  J.  R.  Cramer." 

Cra'mer,  (John  Antony,)  an  eminent  scholar,  born 
at  Mitlodi,  Switzerland,  in  1793,  removed  to  England  in 
his  youth.  He  became  pastor  of  Binsey  in  1822,  and 
professor  of  modern  history  at  Oxford  in  1842.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Description  of  Ancient  Italy,"  (1826,)  a  "De- 
scription of  Asia  Minor,"  (1832,)  "Anecdota  Greeca," 
(1837,)  and  other  able  works.    Died  in  1848. 

Cramer,  kRi'mer,  (  Nicolaas,  )  a  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Leyden  in  1670,  was  a  pupil  and  imitator 
of  Karl  Moor.    Died  in  17 10. 

Cramp'ton,  (Sif  Philip,)  a  naturalist  and  physician, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1777.  He  wrote  several  professional 
treatises.    Died  in  1858. 

Cranach  or  Kranach,  von,  fon  kran'ak  or  kR^'naK, 
(Lucas,)  a  celebrated  German  painter  and  engraver,  born 
at  Cranach,  near  Bamberg,  in  1472.  His  family  name 
was  Sunder.  He  painted  history  and  portraits,  and 
worked  about  fifty  years  at  Wittenberg  in  the  service  of 
three  Electors  of  Saxony,  the  last  of  whom  was  John 
Frederick.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Luther  and 
Melanchthon,  whose  portraits  he  painted  and  engraved. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The  Preaching  of  John 
the  Baptist,"  and  a  "Crucifixion."  Plis  works  are  said 
to  be  more  admirable  for  thought  or  invention  than  for 
execution.  He  was  a  good  colorist,  but  very  deficient 
in  design.    Died  at  Weimar  in  1553. 

See  Schuchardt.  "  L.  Kranachs  des  Aeltern  Leben  und  Werke," 
1851  ;  Heller,  "  Versuch  iiber  das  Leben,  etc.  L.  Cranachs,"  Bam- 
berg, 1 82 1. 

Cranach,  von,  (Lucas,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  15 1 5,  was  also  an  eminent  painter.  He  was  a  burgo- 
master of  Wittenberg.    Died  in  1586. 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CRANBORNE 


685 


CRAS 


Cran'borne  or  Cran'bourne,  (Robert  Arthur 
Talbot  Gascoigne  Cecil,)  Lord,  a  younger  son  of  the 
Marquis  of  Salisbury,  born  in  1830.  He  was  formerly 
called  Lord  Robert  Cecil.  In  1853  he  was  elected  to 
Parliament  by  the  voters  of  Stamford,  which  he  repre- 
sented for  many  years.  He  is  one  of  the  foremost  de- 
baters of  the  Conservative  party.  He  became  secretary 
for  India  in  the  cabinet  of  Lord  Derby  in  July,  1866, 
and  resigned  in  March,  1867.  He  inherited  the  title  of 
Marquis  of  Salisbury  in  the  spring  of  1868,  and  then 
passed  into  the  House  of  Lords. 

Cranbourne.    See  Cranborne. 

Cranch,  (Christopher  P.,)  a  poet  and  landscape- 
painter,  a  son  of  William  Cranch,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Alexandria,  Virginia,  in  1813.  He  visited  Italy  about 
184S,  after  which  he  resided  many  years  in  Paris.  He 
wrote  "The  Last  of  the  Huggermuggers,"  (1856.) 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America;"  Tuckerman, 
"  Hook  of  the  Artists." 

Cranch,  (William,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  American 
jurist,  born  at  Weymouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1769,  gra- 
duated at  Harvard  in  1787.  In  1801  he  was  appointed 
by  President  Adams  an  associate  judge  of  the  United 
States  circuit  court  for  the  District  of  Columbia,  of 
which  he  was  made  chief  justice  by  Jefferson  in  1805. 
The  duties  of  these  two  positions  Judge  Cranch  dis- 
charged with  unwearied  assiduity -imtil  his  death;  and, 
during  this  period  of  more  than  half  a  century,  it  is  said 
that  only  two  of  all  his  decisions  were  overruled  by  the 
United  States  supreme  court  and  sent  back  for  amend- 
ment. His  legal  attainments  were  varied  and  profound, 
and  his  industry  and  powers  of  application  were  extra- 
ordinary. He  made  careful  reports  of  cases  decided  in 
the  circuit  court  for  the  District  of  Columbia  from  1801 
to  1841,  published  in  6  octavo  vols.,  and,  as  reporter  to 
the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States,  issued  9  vols, 
from  1801  to  1815,  and  others  in  1835.  Died  in  Sep- 
tember, 1855. 

Crane,  (Thomas,)  an  English  nonconformist  minister 
of  Lancashire,  wrote  a  "  Prospect  of  Divine  Providence," 
(1672.)    Died  in  17 14. 

Crane,  (William  M.,)  an  American  commodore, 
born  at  Elizabethtown,  New  Jersey,  in  1776.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  the  war  of  1 81 2.  In  1827  he  was  ap- 
pointed commander  of  a  squadron  in  the  Mediterranean, 
and  in  1842  became  chief  of  the  bureau  of  ordnance. 
Died  in  1846. 

Cran'mer,  (Thomas,)  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  an 
English  statesman,  divine,  and  Reformer,  was  born  at 
Aslacton,  in  Nottinghamshire,  in  1489.  He  became  a 
Fellow  of  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  learned  in 
Greek,  Hebrew,  and  theology.  In  1529  he  obtained  the 
favour  of  Henry  VIIL  by  proposing  that  the  question 
of  his  divorce  should  be  referred  to  the  universities. 
The  king  appointed  him  his  chaplain,  and  sent  him  to 
Rome  to  procure  the  assent  of  the  pope  to  the  divorce. 
Having  failed  in  this  mission,  he  returned  home  in  1530, 
and  infringed  the  rule  of  his  church  by  marriage  with 
a  niece  of  Osiander.  He  was  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  in  1533,  and  became  Henry's  favourite  ad- 
viser, or  prime  minister.  He  had  secretly  adopted  the 
principles  of  the  Reformers,  and  he  used  his  influence  to 
subvert  the  power  of  the  pope  in  England  and  to  abolish 
the  monasteries.  A  few  years  after  his  elevation  to  the 
primacy  he  openly  favoured  the  Reformation,  assisted  in 
compiling  the  "Bishops'  Book,"  and  in  1538  opposed 
without  success  the  law  of  the  Six  Articles,  or  "Bloody 
Statutes."  Though  he  resisted  the  royal  will  on  this 
and  other  occasions,  he  was  protected  by  Henry  when 
the  Catholic  courtiers  conspired  to  ruin  him  in  1544.  In 
1547  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  regency  during  the  mi- 
nority of  Edward  VI.  He  was  the  head  of  a  commission 
which  composed  the  English  Liturgy  in  1548. 

"The  man  who  took  the  chief  part,"  says  Macaulay, 
"  in  settling  the  conditions  of  the  alliance  which  produce'd 
the  Anglican  Church,  was  Thomas  Cranmer.  He  was 
the  representative  of  both  the  parties  which  at  that  time 
needed  each  other's  assistance.  In  his  character  of  divine, 
he  was  ready  to  go  as  far  in  the  way  of  change  as  any 
Swiss  or  Scottish  Reformer.  In  his  character  of  states- 
man, he  was  desirous  to  preserve  that  organization  which 


had  served  the  purposes  of  the  bishops  of  Rome  and 
might  be  expected  to  serve  equally  well  the  purposes  of 
the  English  kings  and  their  ministers.  His  temper  and 
his  understanding  eminently  fitted  him  to  act  as  media- 
tor." Notwithstanding  his  general  moderation,  he  went 
so  far  as  to  condemn  two  persons  to  death  for  heresy. 
By  the  entreaties  of  King  Edward  VI.  he  was  induced  in 
1553  to  sign  the  patent  which  settled  the  crown  on  Lady 
Jane  Grey,  and  in  the  same  year  was  committed  to  tlje 
Tower  for  treason  against  Queen  Mary.  His  enemies, 
in  order  to  subject  him  to  a  more  cruel  punishment, 
withdrew  the  charge  of  treason,  and  prosecuted  him  for 
heresy.  He  was  excommunicated  in  1555.  Tempted 
with  the  hopes  of  life,  and  overcome  by  the  fear  of  tor- 
ture, he  agreed  to  subscribe  to  the  doctrines  of  the  papal 
supremacy  and  the  real  presence.  Repenting  of  this 
lapse,  which  would  not  have  saved  him  from  the  stake, 
he  suffered  with  fortitude  martyrdom  by  fire  in  1556. 

"  He  was  undoubtedly,"  says  Hume,  "  a  man  of  merit ; 
possessed  of  learning  and  capacity,  and  adorned  with 
candour,  sincerity,  and  all  those  virtues  which  were  fitted 
to  render  him  useful  and  amiable  in  society.  His  moral 
qualities  procured  him  universal  respect,  and  the  courage 
of  his  martyrdom  made  him  the  hero  of  the  Protestant 
party."  Others,  including  Macaulay,  form  a  less  favour- 
able estimate,  and  call  him  an  unscrupulous  time-server. 
For  Froude's  view  of  the  character  of  Cranmer,  formed, 
as  it  appears,  from  a  very  careful  examination  of  his 
life  and  acts,  see  the  first  six  volumes  of  his  "  History 
of  England,"  but  more  particularly  chap,  xxxiii.  Cran- 
mer  was  author  of  many  theological  treatises. 

See  Archdeacon  Todd,  "Life  of  Cranmer,"  1831 ;  Strype, 
"Memorials  of  Cranmer:"  "Lives  of  Eminent  British  Statesmen," 
in  "  Lardiier's  Cabinet  Cyclopjedia ;"  Macaulay,  "  History  of  Eng- 
land," vol.  i.;  LiNGARD,  "  History  of  England ;"  W.  F.  Hook,"  Lives 
of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury;"  A.  van  Deinse,  "  Leven  van  T. 
Cranmer,"  Amsterdam,  1S43  ;  Shakspeare's  "Henry  VIIL" 

Cran'tor,  [Kpuvrwp,]  a  Greek  Academic  philosopher, 
born  at  Soli,  or  Soles,  in  Cilicia,  lived  about  300  B.C. 
After  he  had  become  distinguished  in  his  own  country, 
he  went  to  Athens,  and  studied  in  the  school  of  Xeno- 
crates.  He  is  cited  by  Horace  as  an  eminent  moralist. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Afflic- 
tion," {Tlepl  Ylevdovc;,)  which  was  highly  praised,  and  from 
which  Cicero  borrowed  largely  in  his  "  Consolatio." 

See  Diogenes  Laertius;  Kayser,  "Dissertatio  de  Crantora 
Academico,"  1841. 

Crantz,  (Albert.)    See  Krantz. 

Crantz,  kR^nts,  (Heinrich  Johann  Nepomucenus,) 
a  German  botanist,  born  in  1722,  was  a  professor  of 
medicine  at  Vienna. 

Cran'wprth,  (Robert  Monsey  Rolfe,)  Baron,  an 
English  judge,  born  at  Cranworth,  in  Norfolk,  in  1790. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  by  the  Liberals  in  1832, 
appointed  solicitor-general  in  1834,  and  a  baron  of  the 
exchequer  in  1839.  In  1850  he  became  vice-chancellor, 
and  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Cranworth.  On 
the  formation  of  a  ministry  by  Lord  Aberdeen  in  Decem- 
ber, 1852,  he  was  appointed  lord  chancellor  of  England. 
He  retired  from  office  when  Lord  Derby  came  into  power, 
in  February,  1858,  was  again  appointed  lord  chancellor 
in  July,  1865,  and  resigned  with  his  colleagues  in  June, 
1866.    Died  in  July,  1868. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  ix. 

Cranz,  kRSnts,  (David,)  a  Moravian  missionary  and 
historian,  born  at  Neugarten,  Pomerania,  in  1723.  He 
became  secretary  of  Count  Zinzendorf  in  1747,  after 
which  he  laboured  in  Greenland.  He  wrote  a  "History 
of  Greenland,"  (1765,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Moravians," 
(1771.)    Died  in  Silesia  in  1777. 

Crapelet,  kRSp'la',  (Georges  Adrien,)  a  French 
publisher  and  writer,  born  at  Paris  in  1789.  He  trans- 
lated into  French  verse  "The  Marriage  of  Thetis  and 
Peleus,"  by  Catullus,  (1809,)  and  wrote  "Souvenirs  of 
London,"  (181 7.)    Died  in  1842. 

Crapone,  de,  deh  kRfpon',  (Adam,)  a  French  en- 
gineer, born  at  Salon  in  15 19,  was  skilled  in  hydraulic 
architecture.  He  constructed  the  most  ancient  canal  in 
France,  called  the  "Canal  of  Crapone,"  finished  about 
1560.    Died  in  1559. 

Cras,  kR^s,  (Hendrik  Constantin,)  a  Dutch  jurist, 
born  at  Wageningen  in  1739  ;  died  in  1820. 

See  M.  Kemper,  "Memoria  H.  C.  Cras,"  1825. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Yi.guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


/ 


CRASHAW 


686 


CRATO 


Crash'aw,  (Richard,)  an  English  poet  and  priest, 
born  in  London.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  Peterhouse, 
Cambridge,  in  1637,  before  which  he  had  published  some 
Latin  poems  in  one  of  which  occurs  this  much-admired 
line  on  the  miracle  at  Cana  : 

"  Lympha  piidica  Deum  vidit  et  erubuit."* 
He  was  ejected  from  the  university  in  1644  for  refusing 
to  take  the  Covenant,  and  went  to  France,  where  he  was 
converted  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  In  1646  he 
published  "  Steps  to  the  Temple,"  "  Sacred  Poems,"  etc., 
which  display  a  rich  imagination.  Pie  was  a  canon  of 
the  church  of  Loretto,  Italy,  when  he  died  about  1650. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  i.,  1820. 

Crasset,  kki'sa^  (Jean,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Dieppe  in  1618,  lived  many  years  in  Paris.  He  published 
several  ascetic  works,  and  a  "  History  of  the  Church  of 
Ja])an,"  (1689.)    Died  in  1692. 

Ci'asso,  kkds'so,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  jurist  of  high 
reputation,  lived  at  Milan  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Crasso,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  author,  of  whose  life 
we  have  no  details,  was  born  at  Naples.  His  works,  in 
prose  and  verse,  display  talent,  but  are  marred  by  the 
bad  taste  of  that  time.  Among  the  principal  of  them  are 
"Heroic  Epistles,"  (1655,)  and  "Eulogies  on  Literary 
Men,"  (1656.) 

Crasso,  (Niccol6,)  a  Venetian  historian,  born  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  wrote,  besides  other  Latin  works, 
"  Eulogies  of  Illustrious  Venetians,"(i6i2,)  and  a  treatise 
"On  the  P^orm  of  the  Venetian  Government,"  ("  De 
Forma  Reipublicas  Venetse.") 

Cras'sus,  (Lucius  Licinius,)  a  famous  Roman  orator 
and  lawyer,  born  about  140  B.C.,  (612  A.u.C.)  He  was 
elected  consul  in  95  B.C.,  and  censor  about  two  years  later. 
He  was  considered  the  most  excellent  orator  of  his  time, 
and  was  highly  praised  by  Cicero,  who  assigned  to  Cras- 
sus  a  part  of  the  dialogue  in  his  treatise  "  De  Oratore." 
His  orations  are  not  extant.    Died  in  90  or  91  B.C. 

See  Cicero,  "Brutus"  and  "De  Oratore;"  Dfjumann,  "Ge- 
schichte  Roms;"  Meyer,  "Oratorum  Romanorum  Fragmenta." 

Crassus,  (Marcus  Licinius,)  a  Roman  triumvir, 
noted  for  his  great  wealth,  was  born  about  108  B.C.  He 
was  chosen  praetor  in  74  B.C.,  (680  A.u.c.,)  and  defeated 
Spartacus,  the  leader  of  a  servile  revolt.  In  the  year 
71  he  was  chosen  consul  with  Pompey,  and  a  few  years 
later  he  united  with  Pompey  and  Cxsar  to  form  the 
first  triumvirate,  which  ruined  the  power  of  the  senate. 
Crassus  and  Pompey  were  elected  consuls  in  56  B.C., 
and,  while  CiEsar  commanded  in  Gaul,  Crassus  obtained 
command  of  Syria  for  five  years.  He  is  said  to  have 
manifested  extravagant  joy  at  the  prospect  of  increasing 
his  fortune  in  the  East.  Having  resolved  to  invade  Par- 
thia,  he  crossed  the  Euphrates,  and,  after  taking  a  town  in 
the  year  54,  returned  to  Syria,  where  he  passed  the  winter. 
The  next  season  he  entered  Mesopotamia,  and  was 
defeated  with  great  loss  by  the  Parthian  general  Surena 
near  Carrhae,  (the  Haran  of  the  Bible.)  He  was  then 
compelled  by  his  mutinous  troops  to  meet  in  conference 
with  Surena,  who  had  made  overtures  for  peace,  and  was 
there  treacherously  killed  in  53  B.C.  Plis  ruling  passion 
was  avarice.  He  was  a  man  of  great  industry,  a  keen 
speculator,  and  a  large  dealer  in  slaves. 

See  Plutarch,  "Crassus:"  Drumann,  "  Geschichte  Roms;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Crassus,  (Publius,)  a  son  of  the  triumvir  Crassus, 
served  as  legate  of  Caesar  in  Gaul  in  58  B.C.  He  fought 
bravely  against  the  Parthians,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle 
near  Carrhae  in  53  B.C. 

Crassus,  (P.  Licinius,)  a  Roman  general,  who  was 
chosen  pontifex  maximus  in  212  B.C.  In  205  he  became 
consul  with  Scipio  Africanus,  and  gave  proof  of  military 
talents  in  the  war  against  Hannibal.    Died  in  183  B.C. 

Crastoni,  kR^s-to'nee,  or  Crestoni,  kR§s-to'nee, 
(Giovanni,)  an  Italian  Hellenist  and  monk,  born  at 
Piacenza,  is  said  to  have  compiled  the  first  Greek-Latin 
Dictionary,  printed  about  1478. 

Cratere.    See  Craterus. 

Crat'e-rus,  [Gr.  Kparfpof;  Fr.  Crat^ire,  kRt'taiR',] 
one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  generals  and  successors  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  whom  he  followed  in  the  invasion 

*  "The  modest  water  saw  its  God  and  blushed." 


of  Persia.  He  was  a  rival  of  Hephaestion  in  the  royal 
favour.  His  character  is  said  to  have  been  noble  and 
highly  esteemed  by  the  king.  In  324  B.C.  he  was  selected 
to  conduct  the  veterans  back  to  Macedonia.  At  the 
death  of  Alexander  (323)  he  was  associated  with  An- 
tipater  in  the  government  of  Macedonia  and  Greece. 
He  commanded  an  army  in  Cappadocia,  where  he  was 
defeated  by  Eumenes,  and  killed  in  battle,  in  321  B.C. 

See  Plutarch,  "Alexander,"  and  "Phocion." 

Cra'tes  [KparT/f]  of  Athens,  an  excellent  Greek  comic 
poet,  who  flourished  about  450  15. c.  In  his  youth  he  was 
the  principal  actor  in  the  plays  of  Cratinus.  He  indulged 
in  personalities  less  than  other  writers  of  the  old  comedy. 
Among  the  titles  of  his  plays  are  "The  Neighbours," 
(Feirovef,)  and  "The  Games,"  i^at^iat.)  The  fragments 
of  his  works  which  have  come  down  to  us  are  admired 
for  purity  and  elegance  of  style. 

See  Fabkicius,  "  Bibllotheca  Grasca;"  Meineke,  "  Quaestiones 
Scenicas,"  and  his  "Fragmenta  Comicorum  GrjEcorum." 

Crates  of  Athens,  a  philosopher  of  the  old  Academy, 
flourished  about  280  B.C.  He  was  a  pupil  and  intimate 
friend  of  Polemo,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the  chair  of  the 
Academy.    His  writings  are  lost. 

Crates  of  Thebes,  a  famous  Cynic  philosopher,  was  a 
son  of  Ascondas.  He  became  a  disciple  of  Diogenes, 
at  Athens,  probably  about  330  B.C.,  and  was  highly 
esteemed  for  his  probity  and  wisdom.  He  was  noted  for 
his  self-control,  abstinence,  and  preference  of  poverty  to 
riches.  He  wrote  essays  on  philosophy,  tragedies,  which 
were  praised  by  Diogenes  Laertius,  and  small  poems,  all 
of  which  are  lost.    Crates  was  living  in  307  B.C. 

See  Brucker,"  Historia  Philosophias  ;"  Posthumus,"  Dissertatio 
de  Cratete  C^'nico,"  1S23  ;  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grjeca." 

Crates,  an  eminent  grammarian  and  Stoic,  born  at 
Mallus,  in  Cilicia,  left,  besides  many  other  works,  a  cor- 
rected or  annotated  edition  of  Homer,  fragments  of  which 
are  extant.  Fie  lived  at  Pergamos,  and  about  156  B.C. 
was  sent  by  the  king  of  that  country  as  ambassador  to 
Rome,  where  he  gave  lectures  on  grammar.  He  founded 
a  flourishing  school  of  grammar  at  Pergamos. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  Suetonius,  "De  illustri- 
bus  Granimaticis." 

Cra-te'vas,  [Kpare^af,]  a  Greek  botanist,  who  lived 
about  80  B.C.,  is  often  quoted  by  Pliny  and  Dioscorides. 
He  wrote  on  Materia  Medica. 

Cra-ti'nus,  [Kpanj'of,]  a  celebrated  Athenian  poet 
of  the  old  comedy,  born  about  519  B.C.,  was  a  son  of 
Callimedes,  and  a  rival  of  Aristophanes.  He  was  the 
first  comic  writer  who  made  the  drama  an  instrument 
of  personal  satire,  and  was  noted  for  the  audacity  of  his 
sarcasms.  Pericles  was  often  the  object  of  his  unsparing 
invective.  He  produced  numerous  plays,  nine  of  which 
gained  prizes.  None  of  his  works  exist  in  a  complete  state. 
In  423  B.C.  he  obtained  a  triumph  over  Aristophanes  for 
his  "Wine-Flask."  He  died  in  422,  aged  about  ninety- 
six.  The  extant  fragments  of  Cratinus  were  edited  by 
Runkel,  1827. 

See  MeinhivE,  "Historia  Critica,"  and  "Fragmenta  Comicorum 
Graecorum;"  C.  W.  Lucas,  "Cratinus  et  Eupolis,"  1S26. 

Cratippe.    See  Cratippus. 

Cra-tip^pus,  [Kp(m7r;To^-,]  a  Greek  historian,  who  lived 
about  400  B.C.,  and  continued  the  work  of  Thucydides. 

Cratippus,  [Gr.  Kpa-iTr-o^-;  Fr.  Cratippe,  kRt't^p',] 
a  Greek  Peripatetic  philosopher  of  Mitylene.  He  was 
a  teacher  and  friend  of  Cicero,  who  estimated  him  as  the 
first  philosopher  of  that  age.  When  Pompey,  retreat- 
ing from  Pharsalia,  passed  through  Mitylene,  Cratippus 
conversed  with  him  on  Providence.  About  48  B.C.  he 
opened  a  school  at  Athens,  to  which  Cicero  sent  his  son 
Marcus.  Brutus  attended  his  lectures  at  Athens  in  44 
B.C.  Cratippus  appears  to  have  left  only  one  work,  a 
"Treatise  on  Divination  by  Dreams."  The  date  of  his 
death  is  unknown. 

See  Cicero,  "De  Officiis"  and  "  De  Divinatione ;"  Plutarch, 
"Pompey"  and  "Cicero;"  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dic- 
tionary." 

Crato,  kR^'to,  or  Craton,  kR^'ton,  (Johann,)  a  Ger- 
man physician,  originally  named  Craft  or  Crafft,  was 
born  at  Breslau  in  15 19.  He  studied  under  Luther  and 
Melanchthon  at  Wittenberg,  and' was  the  favourite  pupil 
of  Montano  in  medicine.    He  practised  many  years  at 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s^ort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CRATTLUS 


687 


CREBILLON 


Augsburg,  and  became  chief  physician  of  the  emperors 
Ferdinand  I.  and  Maximilian  II.  He  published  "Intro- 
duction to  Medicine,"  ("Isagoge  Medicinae,"  1560,)  and 
other  medical  works.    Died  in  1585. 

See  NicERON,  "Meinoires:"  Adam,  "Vitae  Germanorum  Medi- 
corum;"  Mokeri,  " Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Crat'y-lus,  [Kpam/of,]  a  Greek  philosopher,  who  lived 
in  the  htth  century  B.C.,  and  professed  the  doctrines  of 
Heraclitus.    He  was  one  of  the  teachers  of  Plato. 

Craiiford.    See  Crawford  and  Craufurd. 

Crau'furd  or  Craw'furd,  (John,)  a  British  officer  and 
writer  of  the  present  era,  published  several  valuable 
works  on  Oriental  affairs,  among  which  are  a  "  History 
of  the  Indian  Archipelago,"  (1820,)  "  Siam  and  Cochin 
China,"  (1828,)  and  a  "  Grammar  and  Dictionary  of  the 
Malay  Language,"  (1852.) 

Craufurd,  Crau'ford,  or  Craw'ford,  (Quintin,)  a 
Scottish  author,  born  in  Ayrshire  in  1743,  went  to  India 
in  his  youth,  served  the  Company  as  military  and  civil 
officer,  and  about  1780  returned  to  Europe  with  an  easy 
fortune.  He  lived  some  years  in  Paris,  where  he  had 
intimate  relations  with  the  queen  Marie  Antoinette  and 
the  empress  Josephine.  He  published  "  Sketches  of  the 
History,  Religion,  and  Maimers  of  the  Hindoos,"  (1790,) 
"Melanges  of  History  and  Literature,"  (1809,)  and  other 
works,  which  are  commended.    Died  in  1819. 

Crause.    See  Krause. 

CraVen,  (Charles,)  became  Governor  of  South  Caro- 
lina in  1712.  He  successfully  defended  the  colony  against 
the  Yemassee  Indians  in  171 5. 

Craven,  (Thomas  T.,)  an  American  rear-admiral, 
born  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  entered  the  service  in 
1822.  He  distinguished  himself  as  commander  of  the 
Brooklyn  in  the  victory  by  which  Farragut  captured  New 
Orleans  in  April,  1862. 

Craven,  (Tunis  Augustus,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  New  Hampshire,  entered  the  navy  about 
1829.  Pie  became  a  lieutenant  in  1841,  and  afterwards 
a  captain.  He  was  captain  of  the  iron-clad  Tecumseh, 
and  was  drowned  when  it  was  sunk  by  a  torpedo  in  the 
attack  on  the  defences  of  Mobile,  August  5,  1864. 

Cra'ven,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
1731,  was  professor  of  Arabic  in  Cambridge,  and  pub- 
lished "Sermons  on  a  Future  State,"  and  "Discourses 
in  Answer  to  Hume,"  (1802.)    Died  in  1815. 

Craveta,  kR^-va'ta,  (  Aimone,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born 
in  Piedmont  in  1504;  died  in  1569. 

Craw'fprd,  (Adair,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  British 
chemist  and  physician,  born  in  1749.  He  was  professor 
of  chemistry  at  Woolwich,  and  a  member  of  the  Philo- 
sophical Society  of  Philadelphia.  He  acquired  reputa- 
tion by  an  ingenious  work  entitled  "Experiments  and 
Observations  on  Animal  Heat,"  (1779.)    Died  in  1795. 

Crawford,  Earl  of.    See  Lindsay,  (John.) 

Craw'fprd,  Crau'ford,  or  Craw'fiird,  (David,) 
a  Scottish  historian,  born  in  1665.  He  was  appointed 
historiographer  royal  for  Scotland  by  Queen  Anne,  and 
in  1706  published  "Memoirs  of  the  Affairs  of  Scotland, 
1566-81,"  which  is  charged  with  partiality.  Died  in  1726. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Craw^ford,  (George  W.,)  an  American  lawyer,  born 
in  Columbia  county,  Georgia,  in  1798.  He  was  elected 
Governor  of  Georgia  in  1843,  and  re-elected  in  1845. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  of  war  by  President  Taylor 
in  March,  1849,  ^"cl  resigned,  in  consequence  of  the  death 
of  the  President,  in  July,  1850. 

_  Crawford,  (Nathaniel  Macon,)  an  American  Bap- 
tist minister,  born  near  Lexington,  Georgia,  in  1811,  was 
a  son  of  William  H.  Crawford,  noticed  below.  He  was 
chosen  president  of  Mercer  University,  Georgia,  in  1854, 
resigned  in  1856,  and  was  re-elected  about  1858.  He  is 
distinguished  as  a  pulpit  orator. 

Crawford,  (Quintin.)    See  Craufurd. 

Crawford,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  poet,  acquired  repu- 
tation by  the  admired  lyrics  of  "Tweedside,"  and  "The 
Bush  aboon  Traquair."    Died  in  1733. 

Crawford,  (Samuel  W.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Franklin  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1829.  He  became 
a  surgeon  in  the 'army  about  1851,  and  was  one  of  the 
garrison  of  Fort  Sumter  in  April,  1861.  In  the  spring  of 
1862  he  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers. 


He  commanded  a  division  at  Antietam,  September  17, 
1862,  and  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863. 

Crawford,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  American  sculp- 
tor, born  in  New  York  in  1814.  He  visited  Italy  about 
1835,  and  studied  under  Thorwaldsen  at  Rome,  where 
he  worked  many  years.  About  1840  he  produced  a  statue 
of  "  Orpheus,"  which  was  much  admired.  He  received 
in  1849  a-  commission  from  the  State  of  Virginia  to  exe- 
cute a  colossal  equestrian  statue  of  Washington,  which 
is  at  Richmond.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  several 
religious  and  mythological  subjects,  and  a  colossal  statue 
of  the  Genius  of  America  for  the  Capitol  at  Washington. 
Died  in  London  in  18^7. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Eook  of  the  Artists;"  "Democratic  Review" 
for  May,  1843;  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  July,  1869. 

Crawfoi-d,  (William,)  a  Scottish  divine,  born  at 
Kelso  in  1676,  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Dying  Thoughts," 
Died  in  1742. 

Crawford,  (William  Harris,)  an  American  states- 
man, born  in  Amherst  county,  Virginia,  in  1772,  re- 
moved with  his  father  to  Georgia  in  his  childhood  He 
studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1798,  and  set- 
tled at  Lexington,  Georgia.  In  1807  he  was  elected  a 
Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  Democrats,  and  in 
1813  he  was  appointed  minister  to  France.  He  became 
secretary  of  war  in  181 5,  and  secretary  of  the  treasury 
in  1816.  He  continued  to  hold  this  position  throughout 
the  administration  of  President  Monroe,  which  ended  in 
March,  1825.  In  1824  he  was  nominated  for  the  Presi- 
dency by  the  Congressional  caucus,  the  right  of  which 
to  select  a  candidate  was  disowned  by  the  majority  of 
the  pcirty.  His  competitors  were  General  Jackson,  John 
Quincy  Adams,  and  Henry  Clay.  Crawford  received 
only  forty-one  electoral  votes.  He  was  afterwards  a 
circuit  judge  in  Georgia.    Died  in  1834. 

See  "  National  Portrait- Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Crawfurd,  (David.)    See  Crawford. 

Craw'furd,  (George,)  a  British  historian,  of  whose 
life  we  have  no  details,  born  probably  in  Scotland.  He 
published  an  esteemed  "History  of  the  Family  of  the 
Stuarts,"  (1710,)  and  the  "Peerage  of  Scotland,"  (1716.) 

Crawfurd,  (John.)    See  Craufurd. 

Crayer,  de,  deh  kri'yer  or  kkfya^  (Caspar  or  Gas- 
pard,)  a  celebrated  Flemish  historical  painter,  was  born 
at  Antwerp  in  1582.  He  worked  for  a  time  at  Brussels, 
and  afterwards  for  many  years  at  Ghent.  He  adorned  the 
cities  of  Flanders  with  many  large  altar-pieces  and  other 
pictur||5.  His  design  is  generally  correct,  and  his  colour- 
ing good.  He  neaily  equalled  Van  Dyck  in  portraits. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  Saint  Catherine  passing 
up  to  Heaven,"  and  the  "Martyrdom  of  Saint  Blaise," 
painted  in  his  eighty-sixth  year.    Died  at  Ghent  in  1669. 

See  Bryan,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters;"  Descamps,  "  Vies  des 
Peintres  Flaniands,"  etc. 

Crayon,  (Geoffrey.)    See  Irving,  (Washington.) 

Crea'sy,  (Sir  Edward  Shepherd,)  an  English  his- 
torian and  lawyer,  born  at  Bexley,  in  Kent,  in  1812.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  about  1837,  and  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  history  in  University  College,  London,  in  1850. 
He  published  in  1852  "Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of  the 
World,"  which  has  passed  through  nine  or  more  edi- 
tions, and  in  1856  "The  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Eng- 
lish Constitution,"  which  is  commended.  In  i860  he  was 
appointed  chief  justice  of  Ceylon.  The  first  volume  of 
his  "History  of  England"  (in  5  vols.)  appeared  in  1869. 

Crebillon,  de,  deh  kRa'be'yoN'',  (Claude  Prosper 
Jolyot — zho'le-o',)  a  French  novelist,  son  of  Prosper 
Jolyot,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1707.  He  wrote 
several  licentious  novels  which  were  once  in  vogue.  His 
own  conduct  is  said  to  have  been  strictly  moral.  Died 
in  1777. 

See  Grimm,  "  Correspondance  ;"  Abbe  de  Voisenon,  "Anec- 
dotes litteraires  et  critiques,"  etc. 

Crebillon,  de,  (Prosper  Jolyot,)  an  eminent  French 
dramatic  poet,  born  at  Dijon  in  1674.  He  was  sent  to 
Paris  to  study  law  with  a  M.  Prieur,  an  amateur  of  the 
theatre,  who  persuaded  him  to  compose  tragedies.  His 
"  Idomenee"  was  successful  in  1705,  and  his  "Atree" 
("  Atreus,"  1707)  added  to  his  reputation.  In  1711  he 
produced  his  "  Rhadamiste,"  which  is  pronounced  by 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  #h  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CREDl 


688 


CREQUI 


La  Harpe  and  others  not  only  his  master-piece,  but 
one  of  the  finest  tragedies  which  have  appeared  on  the 
French  stage.  His  "Pyrrhus"  (1726)  was  much  admired. 
During  the  twenty-two  years  which  followed,  he  wrote 
nothing.  In  1731  he  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy,  on  which  occasion  he  pronounced  a  poetical 
address,  in  which  occurs  this  applauded  line: 

"  Aucun  fiel  n'a  jamais  empoisonne  ma  plume."* 
He  produced  in  1749  his  "Catilina,"  which  had  been  long 
expected,  and  in  reference  to  which  the  public  exclaimed, 
with  Cicero,  "  How  long,  O  Catiline,  wilt  thou  abuse  our 
patience.'*"  It  was  performed  with  immense  applause; 
though  critics  think  it  betrays  a  decline  in  power.  He 
died  in  1762,  having  won  a  place  among  the  dramatists 
of  the  first  crder  next  to  Corneille  and  Racine.  He 
preferred  to  live  in  liberty  and  poverty  rather  than  cringe 
for  hivour  at  the  feet  of  power. 

See  D'Alembert,  "  filoge  de  Crebillon  ;"  La  Harpe,  "Lycee;" 
Abbe  DE  LA  PoKTE,  "  Biographic  de  Crebillon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale  ;"  Amanton,  "Revelations  sur  les  deux  Crebil- 
lon," 1S35  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  September,  1851. 

Ci-edi,  di,  de  kRa'dee,  (Lorenzo  Sciarpelloni — 

shaR-pel-lo'nee,)  an  excellent  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Florence  in  1453.  He  imitated  with  success  Leonardo 
da  Vinci,  his  fellow-pupil.  A  "Nativity"  at  Florence, 
and  a  "Madonna  and  Child"  in  the  Louvre,  are  reck- 
oned among  his  best  productions.  He  died  at  Florence 
about  1535.  His  name  is  sometimes  written  Lorenzo 
Andrea  di  Credi. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Credner,  kR^d'ner  or  kR^t'ner,  (Karl  August,)  a 
German  theologian,  born  near  Gotha  in  1797,  became 
professor  of  theology  at  Giessen  in  1832.  Among  his 
works  are  an  "Introduction  to  Biblical  Studies,"  (1832- 
38,)  and  a  "History  of  the  New  Testament,"  (1852.) 

Creech,  (Rev.  Thomas,)  an  English  scholar,  eminent 
as  a  translator,  was  born  at  Blandford,  Dorsetshire,  in 
1659.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  became  a  Fellow 
of  All  Souls'  College.  In  1682  he  published  his  trans- 
lation of  Lucretius,  in  verse,  which  is  much  admired. 
He  also  translated  Horace,  Theocritus,  and  portions  of 
other  classic  authors.  He  committed  suicide  in  1701. 
"Creech  is  a  much  better  translator,"  says  Dr.  Warton, 
"than  he  is  usually  supposed  to  be.  He  is  a  nervous 
and  vigorous  writer." 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Creech,  (William,)  a  Scottish  bookseller  of  Edin- 
burgh, noted  for  his  facetious  talents  and  penuriousness, 
was  born  in  1745  ;  died  in  181 5.  <^ 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Cregut,  kRa'goot,  (Friedrich  Christian,)  a  German 
medical  writer,  born  at  Hanau  in  1675  ;  died  in  1758. 

Creighton,  kra'ton,  1  or  Creichton,  (John,)  an  Irish- 
man, who  was  born  in  1648,  fought  against  the  Scottish 
Covenanters,  and  wrote  "Memoirs"  (1731)  of  events 
which  he  witnessed.    Died  in  1733. 

Creighton,  kra'ton,  (John  Orde,)  an  American  com- 
modore, born  in  New  York  City;  died  in  1846. 

Creighton  or  Crighton,  kri'ton,  (Robert,)  Bishop 
of  Bath  and  Wells,  was  born  at  Dunkeld  in  1593.  He 
was  chaplain  to  Charles  II.  during  his  exile.  Died  in  1672. 

Creighton,  (Robert,)  an  English  clergyman,  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  1639.  He  had  great  skill  in  church- 
music,  and  composed  the  admired  anthem  for  four  voices, 
"I  will  arise  and  go  to  my  Father."    Died  in  1736. 

Crell,  kRgl,  (Christoph  Ludwig,)  a  distinguished 
German  jurist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1703.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Wittenberg,  and  wrote  many  legal  dis- 
sertations.   Died  in  1758. 

See  Sperbach,  "  Merita  et  Memoria  C.  L.  Crellii,"  1758. 

Crell,  (Johann.)    See  Crellius. 

Crell,  (  Ludwig  Christian,  )  a  German  classical 
scholar,  father  of  Christoph  Ludwig,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Neustadt  in  1671.  He  became  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Leipsic.    Died  in  1733. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Crell,  (NiKOLAUS,)  born  in  Leipsic  about  1550,  be- 
came prime  minister  of  Christian  I,,  Elector  of  Saxony. 


*  "  I  ne'er  in  gall  dipt  my  envenomed  pen." 


He  was  imprisoned  and  put  to  death  by  order  of  Frede- 
rick William,  the  successor  of  Christian,  in  1601. 

Crelle,kReKleh,(  August  Leopold,)  a  German  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Eichenwerder,  Prussia,  in  1780.  In  1828 
he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
of  Berlin.  Amon^  his  works  are  an  "  Essay  on  a  General 
Theory  of  Analytic  Functions,"  (1826,)  and  a  "Manual 
of  Geometry,"  (1827.)  He  edited  the  "Journal  of 
Mathematics,"  (Berlin,  1826-51.) 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Crellius,  kRcKle-ils,  or  Crell,  kR§l,  (Johann,)  a  Ger- 
man Socinian  theologian,  born  near  Nuremberg  in  1590. 
He  became  rector  of  a  Socinian  school  at  Cracow,  where 
he  died  in  1633.  His  most  important  work  is  a  "  Vindi- 
cation of  Religious  Liberty,"  ("  Vindicia  pro  Re'iigionis 
Libertate,"  1637.) 

See  J.  F.  Mayer,  "Programma  de  J.  Crellio,"  1706. 

Cremieux,  kRi'me-uh',  (Isaac  Adolphe,)  a  French 
politician  and  eloquent  advocate,  was  born  at  Nimes  in 
1796.  He  removed  to  Paris  about  1830,  and  became 
advocate  to  the  court  of  cassation.  In  1842  he  was 
elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  which  he  acted 
with  the  radical  party,  (extreme  gauche. )  On  the  abdi- 
cation  of  Louis  Philippe,  February,  1848,  he  declared  in 
favour  of  a  republic,  and  became  minister  of  justice  in 
the  provisional  government.  He  retired  from  office  June 
7,  1848,  and  favoured  the  election  of  Louis  Napoleon 
to  the  Presidency.  In  1849  ^'^^'^  1850  he  was  an  orator 
of  the  opposition  in  the  Assembly.  Since  the  cotip  d'etat 
of  December,  1851,  he  has  lived  as  a  private  citizen. 

See  Lamartine,  "  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  de  Fevrier." 

Cremonese  dei  Paesl.    See  Bassi,  (Francesco.) 

Cremonini,  kRk-mo-nee'nee,  (Cesare,)  an  Italian 
Peripatetic  philosopher,  born  at  Cento  in  1550.  For 
forty  years  he  taught  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Padua,  and  was  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  rigid  Aristote- 
lians. He  was  widely  renowned  in  his  day,  but  his 
works  are  now  neglected.    Died  in  163  l 

See  Ginguen^j  "Histoire  Litterairc  d' Italic  ;"  Bayle,  "Histori- 
cal  and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  Ritter,  "  History  of  Philosophy." 

Cremonini,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  perspective  and  of  sacred  history,  born  at  Cento  about 
1560,  worked  at  Bologna,  and  was  the  master  of  Guer- 
cino.    Died  in  1610.  - 

Cremutius.    See  Cordus, 

Crenius,  kRa'ne-iis, (Thomas,)  a  German  writer,  whose 
proper  name  was  Crusius,  (kRoo'ze-us,)  was  born  in 
Brandenburg  in  1648.  He  was  employed  as  corrector 
of  the  press  at  Leyden,  and  published  several  mediocre 
Latin  works,  among  which  was  "  Historical  and  Critical 
Dissertations,"  (10  vols.,  169L)    Died  in  1728. 

See  MoRERi,  "Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Cre'on,  [Gr.  Kpewv,]  a  fabulous  king  of  Thebes,  was 
a  brother  of  Jocasta.  He  succeeded  Laius,  and  gave 
the  throne  to  CEdipus  to  reward  him  for  liberating 
Thebes  from  the  Sphinx.  He  became  king  again  after 
CEdipus  went  into  exile. 

See  Sophocles,  "CEdipus"  and  "Antigone." 

Cre-o-phy^lus,  [Kpfw^vAo^,]  an  ancient  Greek  epic 
poet,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  contemporary 
and  friend  of  Homer. 

Crepin,  kR^'p^N^  (Louis  Philippe,)  a  French  painter 
of  marine  views,  born  in  Paris  in  1772  ;  died  about  1845. 

Crepu,  kreh-pii',  (Nicolas,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Brussels  in  1680.  He  painted  flowers,  camps,  and 
other  subjects  with  success,  in  Brussels.    Died  in  1761. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Crequi,  de,  deh  kR^'ke',  (Antoine,)  Seigneur  de 
Pont  de  Remi,  (poN  deh  rk'me',)  a  famous  French  cap- 
tain, who  for  a  time  defended  Therouane  against  Henry 
VIII.  of  England,  (1513.)    He  was  killed  about  1525. 

Crequi,  de,  (Francois  de  Bonne,)  Due  de  Lesdi- 
guieres,  (hVde^ge^aiR',)  an  able  French  general,  born  about 
1624,  was  made  a  marshal  of  France  in  1668.  After 
Turenne  died,  in  1675,  Crequi  was  the  senior  of  the 
marshals.  He  gained  victories  over  the  Duke  of  Lor- 
raine, in  Lorraine  and  Alsace,  in  1677  and  1678.  Died 
in  1687.  "He  had  the  reputation,"  said  Voltaire,  "of 
one  who  was  destined  to  supply  the  place  of  Turenne." 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Franfais;"  Voltaire,  "Si^lede 
Louis  XIV." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  x\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CREQUI 


689 


CREUrZ 


Crequi  de  Blanchefort,  de,  deh  IcR^'ke'  deh  bldNsh'- 
foR^,  (Charles,)  Marquis,  afterwards  Due  de  Lesdi- 
guieres,  a  French  general,  who  became  marshal  of  France 
in  1622.  He  defeated  the  Duke  of  Feria  in  Piedmont  in 
1625.    He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Brema  in  1638. 

See  N.  Chorier,  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  C.  de  Crequi,"  1683: 
SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Crequi  de  Blanchefort,  de,  (Charles,)  Due,  a 
French  general,  brother  of  Fran9ois,  noticed  above,  born 
about  1624.  He  served  in  several  battles  in  Flanders, 
and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome,  where  he  was  in- 
sulted by  the  papal  guards  in  1662.  Louis  XIV,  forced  the 
court  of  Rome  to  apologize  for  this  insult.    Died  in  1687. 

Crescence.    See  Crescentius. 

Crescentini,kRi-shgn-tee''nee,  (Girolamo,)  a  famous 
Italian  singer,  born  at  Urbania  in  1769,  made  his  debut 
at  Naples  in  1788.  In  1809  Napoleon  appointed  him  first 
singer  of  his  court.    Died  in  1846. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musicians." 

Crescentius,  kres-sen'she-us,  [Fr.  Crescence,  kRa'- 
s6nss',]  a  Roman  chief,  who  obtained  the  title  of  con- 
sul in  Rome  in  980  A.D.  He  attempted,  says  Sismondi, 
to  restore  to  Rome  its  liberty  and  former  glory.  His 
designs,  however,  were  thwarted  by  Pope  Gregory  V. 
and  the  emperor  Otho  III.,  who  entered  Rome  with  an 
army  in  998.  Crescentius,  having  capitulated  to  Otho, 
was  put  to  death. 

See  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Crescenzi,  (Bartolommeo.)  See  Cavarazzl 
Crescenzi,  kRi-shgn'zee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a 
skilful  Italian  painter  and  architect,  born  in  Rome  about 
1595.  He  went  to  Spain  in  161 7,  and  was  employed  by 
Philip  III.,  for  whom  he  designed  the  beautiful  Pantheon 
of  the  Escurial,  begun  about  1620.  He  received  from 
Philip  IV.  the  title  of  Marquis  de  la  Torre.  Died  at 
Madrid  in  1660. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Crescenzi,  Crescenzo,  kRi-shgn'zo,  or  Crescen- 
zio,  kRa-shln'ze-o,  (NiccoLO,)  a  physician  of  Naples, 
lived  about  1 700,  and  wrote  some  valuable  medical  works. 

Crescenzi,  de',  di  kRi-shgn'zee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian 
senator,  called  "the  restorer  of  agriculture,"  was  born 
at  Bologna  in  1230.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "Treatise 
on  Rural  Economy,"  ("Opus  ruralium  commodorum,") 
— a  remarkable  monument,  says  Du  Petit-Thouars,  "in 
the  history  of  agriculture."  It  obtained  a  great  circu- 
lation, and  was  translated  into  many  languages.  He  be- 
came a  senator  at  the  age  of  seventy.    Died  about  1320. 

See  GrNGUENE,  "Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie ;"  Filippo  Re, 
"  Elogio  storico  di  P.  de'  Crescenzi,"  1812. 

Crescimbeni,  kRi-sh^m-ba'nee,  (Giovanni  Maria,) 
a  distinguished  Italian  poet  and  critic,  born  at  Macerata, 
in  the  March  of  Ancona,  in  1663.  He  was  received  as 
doctor  of  law  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  in  1681  began 
to  practise  law  in  Rome.  He  founded  there  in  1690 "the 
celebrated  Academy  of  Arcad  ians.  After  composing  a 
number  of  lyric  poems,  he  published  in  1698  a  "History 
of  National  Poetry,"  ("Istoria  della  volgar  Poesia,")  a 
learned  and  valuable  work.  In  17 19  he  took  orders, 
and  received  several  benefices  in  Rome.  Died  in  1728. 
"Crescimbeni,"  says  Hallam,  "has  made  an  honourable 
name  by  his  exertions  to  purify  the  national  taste." 
("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  F.  M. 
Mancurti,  "Vita  di  G.  M.  Crescimbeni,"  1729;  Niceron,  "Md- 
moires." 

CresconiiLS.    See  Corippus. 

Cres'i-las,  [Kpeai'kag,]  an  Athenian  sculptor,  spoken 
of 'by  Pliny,  was  a  contemporary  of  Phidias.  The  name  is 
sometimes  improperly  written  Ctesilas  or  Ctesilaus. 

Crespi,  kR^s'pee,  (Daniele,)  a  historical  painter, 
born  in  the  Milanese  about  1590.  His  works  are  ad- 
mired for  expression  and  vigour  of  colour.  He  painted 
at  Milan,  in  fresco,  "The  Resurrection  of  Saint  Bruno," 
which  is  called  his  master-piece.    Died  at  Milan  in  1630. 

Crespi,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  called  II  Cerano, 
(^1  cha-r^'no,)  an  Italian  painter  and  architect,  born  at 
Cerano  in  1557.  He  worked  at  Milan,  and  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Academy  of  that  city.    Died  in  1633. 

Crespi,  (Giuseppe  Maria,)  Cavaliere,  a  skilful 
Italian  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Bologna  in  1665, 


was  a  pupil  of  Cignani.  He  was  surnamed  Spagnuolo, 
(spin-yoo-o'lo,)  (the  "Spaniard,")  on  account  of  the 
magnificence  of  his  dress.  He  imitated  Correggio  and 
the  Caracci  with  success,  and  had  great  facility  of  execu- 
tion. Among  his  admired  works  are  an  "  Ecce  Homo," 
and  "  Seven  Sacraments."  He  was  a  capricious  artist, 
and  produced  many  bizarre  compositions.  Died  in  1747. 
His  sons  LuiGi  and  Antonio  were  painters  of  a  different 
style.  Luigi  was  a  writer  on  Art.  Among  his  works  is 
the  "Lives  of  Bolognese  Painters."  Died  in  1779. 
See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Crespin,  kRes'piN^,  or  Crispin,  Icr^s^p^n',  (Daniel,) 
a  Swiss  philologist,  who  lived  at  Lausanne  about  1690. 
He  edited  Sallust  and  Ovid  (1681)  "ad  usum  Delphini." 

Crespin,  (Jean,)  a  French  Protestant  writer,  born  at 
Arras.  He  removed  to  Geneva  in  1548  with  Theodore 
de  Beza,  and  established  there  a  printing-press,  from 
which  many  excellent  editions  were  issued.  He  was 
author  of  "  The  Book  of  Martyrs,"  ("  Le  Livre  des  Mar- 
tyrs," 1554.)    Died  in  1572. 

See  Bavi.e,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  M.Adam, 
"  Vitae  Eruditoruni." 

Cres'sey  or  Cres'sy,  de,  (Hugh  Paulin,)  an  Eng- 
lish Catholic  writer,  born  at  Wakefield  in  1605.  He  was 
chaplain  to  Lord  Wentworth  and  to  Lord  Falkland. 
During  a  visit  to  Rome  in  1646  he  became  a  Roman 
Catholic,  and  afterwards  changed  his  name  to  Serenus 
DE  Cressey.  After  the  restoration  of  1660  he  was  chap- 
lain to  the  Queen  of  England.  He  wrote  a  "  Church 
History  of  England,"  (unfinished,)  and  several  treatises 
in  defence  of  the  Roman  Church.    Died  in  1674. 

See  Wood,  "Athenje  Oxonienses." 

Cres'spn,  (Elliott,)  president  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Colonization  Society,  was  born  in  1796;  died  in  1854. 

Cress''well  or  Cres'well,  (John  A.  J.,)  an  American 
lawyer  and  Senator,  born  at  Port  Deposit,  Maryland,  in 
1828.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1862, 
and  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  for  a  short  term 
in  1865.  He  supported  the  Radical  policy.  In  March, 
1869,  he  was  appointed  postmaster-general  of  the  United 
States. 

Cressy.    See  Cressey. 

Cresti.    See  Passignano. 

Crestoni.    See  Crastonl 

Cresus.    See  Crcesus. 

Creswell.    See  Cresswell. 

Cres'wick,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Sheffield  in  1811.  He  became  a  student 
of  the  Royal  Academy,  London,  in  1828,  and  an  asso- 
ciate of  the  same  in  1842,  and  afterwards  exhibited  many 
admired  views  of  British  scenery.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  a  "  London  Road  a  Hundred  Years  ago," 
(1847,)  "The  Weald  of  Kent,"  "Home  by  the  Sands," 
(1848,)  a  "  Shady  Glen,"  and  "  Wind  on  Shore,"  (1850.) 
His  pictures  are  mostly  faithful  transcripts  of  nature. 
Died  January  i,  1870. 

Cretet,  kR^tcV,  (Emmanuel,)  Comte  de  Champmol, 
(shdN'moK,)  born  in  Dauphine,  France,  in  1747,  was 
minister  of  the  interior  from  1807  to  1809.  Died  in  1809. 

Creti,  kRa'tee,  (Donato,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Cremona  in  1671.  His  master-piece  is  a  Saint  Vincent. 
Died  in  1749. 

Cretin  or  Chrestin,  kpa^tiN',  (Guillaume,)  a  French 
poet,  whose  proper  name  was  Dubois.  Died  about  1525. 

Cretineau-Joly,  kRa'te'no'  zho^e',  (Jacques,)  a 
French  historian,  born  at  Fontenay- Vendee  in  1803. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  the  Jesuits,"  (6  vols., 
1844-46.) 

Crette  de  Palluel,  kR.Vta'  deh  priii'^K,  (Francois,) 
a  French  writer  on  agriculture,  born  near  Paris  in  1741. 
He  invented  several  farming-implements.  Died  in  1798. 

Cre-u^sa,  [Gr.  Kpeovaa ;  Fr.  Cri^use,  kRi'iiz^]  a 
daughter  of  Priam,  and  wife  of  /Eneas.  W'hen  Troy 
was  captured  by  the  Greeks,  she  fled  with  her  husband 
by  night,  but  was  separated  from  him  in  the  confusion, 
and  mysteriously  disappeared. 

See  Virgil's  ".iEneid,"  book  ii.  738-794. 

Cr6use.    See  Creusa. 

Creutz,  (F.  K.  C.)    See  Creuz. 

Creutz,  kRg^dots,  (Gu.stavus  Philip,)  Count  of,  a 
Swedish  poet  and  statesman,  born  in  Finland  in  1726. 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  H,  K, guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  2;,. ) 

44 


CREUTZFELDER 


690 


CRINESIUS 


He  wrote  two  admired  poems,  "  Atys  and  Camilla,"  and 
an  "  Epistle  to  Daphne."  For  twenty  years  he  resided  as 
minister  at  Paris,  where  he  was  intimate  with  Dr.  Frank- 
lin, with  whom  he  negotiated  a  treaty  in  1783.  In  that 
year  he  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  Sweden. 
Died  in  1785. 

See  ScHROEDERHEiM,  "  AiTiinnelse-Tal  ofver  Riks  Radet  Grefve 
Creutz,"  1787  ;  Marmontel,  "Memoires." 

Creutzfelder,  kRoits'f§l''der,(JoHANN  Georg,)  a  Ger- 
man portrait-painter,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1570;  died 
in  1633. 

Creutziger,  kRoit'sio-er,  [Lat.  Cru'ciger,]  (Gas- 
PARD,)  a  German  theologian,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1504. 
He  became  a  professor  at  Wittenberg,  and  aided  Luther 
in  his  translation  of  the  Bible  into  German.  He  wrote 
(in  Latin)  "  On  the  Dignity  of  Theological  Studies," 
and  a  few  other  treatises.    iJied  in  1548. 

Creuz  or  Creutz,  kRoits,  (Friedrich  Karl  Casi- 
MiR,)  a  German  didactic  poet,  born  at  Homburg-vor- 
der-Hohe  in  1724.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly 
on  "The  Tombs,"  ("Die  Graber,"  1760,)  a  philosophic 
poem,  which  is  much  esteemed.  He  wrote  "  Essays  on 
Man,"  and  other  prose  works.  He  contributed  to  the 
reformation  of  the  style  of  German  literature.  Died 
in  1770.  ^ 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Creuze  de  Lesser,  kRuh'za'  deh  li^sa',  (Auguste 
Franqois,)  Baron,  a  P'rench  poet  and  dramatist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1771.  He  was  a  member  of  the  legislative  body 
for  six  years,  (1800-06,)  and  after  the  restoration  was 
prefect  of  Herault.  He  published  poems  entitled  "The 
Knights  of  the  Round  Table,"  (1812,)  "  Roland,"  (1814,) 
and  "The  Last  Man,"  (1832,)  and  also  several  dramas, 
among  which  is  "The  Revenge,"  (1815.)  His  "Travels 
in  Italy"  (1806)  passed  through  three  editions.  Died 
in  1839. 

Creuzer,  kRoit'ser,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  a  learned 
and  ingenious  German  philologist  and  antiquary,  was 
born  at  Marburg  in  1771.  He  became  professor  of  phi- 
lology and  ancient  history  at  Heidelberg  in  1804.  He 
acquired  a  European  reputation  by  his  "  Symbolism  and 
Mythology  of  Ancient  Peoples,  especially  the  Greeks," 
("  Symbolik  und  Mythologie  der  alten  Volker,  besonders 
der  Griechen,"  1810-12,  4  vols.  8vo  ;  2d  edition,  6  vols., 
,1820-23.)  The  opinions  and  method  of  this  work  were 
attacked  by  G.  Hermann  in  "  Letters  on  Homer  and 
Hesiod,"  and  by  other  critics.  In  1826  he  was  appointed 
privy  councillor  to  the  Grand  Duke  of  Baden,  and  in 
1848  he  resigned  his  chair  at  Heidelberg.  He  was  the 
author  of  numerous  antiquarian  treatises.  Died  in  1858. 
A  masterly  French  translation  of  his  "  Symbolik"  was 
published  by  J.  D.  Guigniaut,  1825-36. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Aus  dem  Leben  eines  alten  Professors," 
1847  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Crevecoeur,  de,  deh  kRiv^kuR',  (Hector  Saint- 
Jean,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Caen  in  1731.  He  emi- 
grated to  America  in  1754,  and  settled  on  a  farm  near 
New  York.  In  1782  he  published  a  flattering  descrip- 
tion of  the  United  States,  in  "  Letters  of  an  American 
Farmer,"  and  was  appointed  consul  for  France  at  New 
York.  He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Washington  and 
Franklin.    Died  in  France  in  1813. 

Crevecoeur,  de,  (Philippe,)  an  able  French  general 
in  the  service  of  Louis  XL,  commanded  the  French  at 
the  battle  of  Guinegate  (or  battle  of  the  Spurs)  in  1479. 
He  became  marshal  of  France  in  1492.    Died  in  1494. 

See  CoMiNES,  "  Memoires." 

Cr^vier,  kRa've-4^  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  his- 
torian, born  in  Paris  in  1693,  was  a  pupil  of  Rollin.  He 
filled  the  chair  of  rhetoric  in  the  College  of  Beauvais 
for  twenty  years  with  success.  He  wrote  eight  volumes 
in  continuation  of  Rollin's  "Roman  History."  Besides 
other  works,  he  published  a  "  History  of  the  Roman 
Emperors  down  to  Constantine."  He  has  merit;  but 
his  style  is  less  agreeable  than  that  of  Rollin.  Died 
in  1765. 

Crew  or  Crewe,  kRu,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English 
divine,  born  at  Stean  in  1633,  l>ecame  Bishop  of  Dur- 
ham, and  an  abettor  of  the  arbitrary  policy  of  James  11. 
Died  in  1721. 

Crichna.    See  Krishna. 


Cricliton,  kRi'ton,  (James,)  commonly  styled  "the 
Admirable  Crichton,"  a  Scottish  prodigy,  born  at  the 
castle  of  Cluny,  Perthshire,  about  1560,  was  the  son  of 
Robert  Crichton,  lord  advocate  of  Scotland.  At  the  age 
of  fourteen  he  graduated  as  A.M.  in  the  University  of 
Saint  Andrew's,  and  before  he  was  twenty  could  speak 
ten  languages.  He  was  handsome  in  form  and  feature, 
and  excelled  in  drawing,  fencing,  dancing,  music,  and 
other  accomplishments.  In  the  course  of  a  continental 
tour,  about  1580,  he  challenged  the  doctors  and  scholars 
of  Paris  to  dispute  with  him,  at  an  appointed  time,  on 
any  question  and  in  any  one  of  twelve  specified  lan- 
guages. Having  by  this  means  assembled  a  numerous 
company  of  professors  and  others,  he  acquitted  himself 
to  the  general  admiration.  Proceeding  thence  to  Italy, 
he  repeated  his  exhibition,  and  obtained  similar  triumphs 
in  Rome,  Venice,  and  Padua,  Aldus  Manutius  describes 
the  er/(i^  with  which  he  sustained  for  three  days  a  contest 
in  philosophy  and  mathematics  at  Padua.  The  Duke 
of  Mantua  employed  Crichton  as  tutor  to  his  son  Vin- 
cenzo,  a  dissolute  youth.  One  night,  about  1582,  he  was 
attacked  by  six  persons  in  masks,  whom  he  repulsed. 
Having  disarmed  one  of  them  and  found  it  was  his 
pupil,  he  returned  the  sword  to  Vincenzo,  who  plunged 
it  into  the  heart  of  Crichton.  He  left  four  short  Latin 
poems,  which,  says  Dr.  Kippis,  "  will  not  stand  the  test 
of  a  rigid  examination."  "  He  was  a  man  of  very  wonder- 
ful genius,"  says  Scaliger,  "more  worthy  of  admiration 
than  esteem.  He  had  something  of  the  coxcomb  about 
him,  and  only  wanted  a  little  common  sense." 

See  P.  F.  TvTLER,  "Life  of  the  Admirable  Crichton,"  1823;  F. 
Douglas,  "The  Life  of  J.  Crichton,"  1760;  D.  Irving,  "Lives 
of  the  Scottish  Writers,"  1839;  Sir  Thomas  Urquhart,  "Life 
of  J.  Crichton;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen." 

Crillon,  de,  deh  kRe^y^N',  (Louis  Athanase  des 
Balbes  de  Berton — da  btlb  deh  b^R'toN',)  a  brother 
of  the  Due  de  Crillon-Mahon,  was  born  in  1726.  He 
became  a  priest,  and  wrote  "  Philosophic  Memoirs  of 
the  Baron  de  *  *  *  ,"  (2  vols.,  1779,)  said  to  be  a  work 
of  merit.    Died  at  Avignon  in  1789. 

Crillon,  de,  (Louis  des  Balbes  (or  Balbis)  de  Ber- 
ton,) a  famous  French  warrior,  born  in  Provence  in  1 541. 
He  fought  against  the  Protestants  in  the  civil  wars,  sig- 
nalized his  courage  at  Lepanto  in  1571,  and  had  a  high 
command  in  the  army  of  Henry  III.  during  the  war  of 
the  League,  (1580-89.)  After  the  death  of  that  king, 
he  entered  the  service  of  Henry  IV.,  who  called  him 
the  "bravest  of  the  brave."  He  took  part  in  the  battle 
of  Ivry,  and  commanded  in  Savoy  in  1600.  The  king 
wished  to  make  him  a  marshal,  but  was  dissuaded  by 
the  Duchess  de  Beaufort.    Died  in  161 5. 

See  Mademoiselle  de  Lussan,  "Vie  de  Balbes  de  Crillon," 
1757;  Serviez,  "  Histoire  du  brave  Crillon,"  1844;  Montrond, 
"  Histoire  du  brave  Crillon,"  1845  ;  Abbe  de  Crillon,  "Vie  de  L. 
de  Balbis  de  Berton  de  Crillon,"  3  vols.,  1826;  De  Thou,  "  Historia 
sui  Temporis." 

Crillon-Mahon,  de,  deh  kRe'yiN'  mt'oN',  (Louis 
Antoine  FRANgois  de  Paul — deh  pol,)  Due,  a  Spanish 
general,  the  grandson  of  the  following,  born  in  Paris  in 
1775.  He  obtained  command  of  a  division  in  1801,  and 
was  chosen  Captain-General  of  Guipuscoa,  Alava,  and 
Biscay  in  1808.  Soon  after  this  he  took  an  oath  to  Joseph 
Bonaparte,  who  appointed  him  lieutenant-general,  and 
Viceroy  of  Navarre.    Died  in  1832. 

See  FoY,  "Histoire  des  Guerres  de  la  Peninsule." 

Crillon-Mahon,  de,  (Louis  de  Berton  des  Balbes 
de  Quiers — deh  ke'aiR',)  Due,  a  French  general,  born 
in  1718,  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Fontenoy  in  1745. 
Having  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  ^lie 
Seven  Years'  war,  (1755-62,)  he  passed  into  the  ser- 
vice of  Spain.  He  took  Minorca  in  1782,  was  made 
Captain-General  of  Spain,  and  received  the  title  of  Dake 
of  Mahon.  He  commanded  without  success  in  the 
famous  siege  of  Gibraltar,  about  1782.    Died  in  1796. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XV." 

Cri-nag'o-ras,  [Kpivayopac,]  a  Greek  poet,  who  was 
born  at  Mitylene  and  lived  in  the  reign  of  Augustus. 

Crinesius,  kri-nee^she-us  or  kRe-na'ze-us,  (Christo- 
pher,) born  in  Bohemia  in  1584,  became  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  at  Wittenberg  and  Altdorf.  He 
published  "Gymnasium  Syriacum,"  (i6ri,)  a  work  on 


I,  c,  T,  c;,  u,  y,  /on^:     h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/iort:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t:  nftt;  good;  moon. 


CRINITO 


691 


CROCUS 


the  Syriac  language,  a  "  Syriac  Lexicon,"  (1612,)  and  a 
"Treatise  on  tlie  Confusion  of  Tongues,"  ("De  Con- 
fusione  Linguarum,"  1629.)    Died  in  1629. 

Crinito,  kRe-nee'to,  [Lat.  Crini'tus,]  (Pietro,)  an 
Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Florence  about  1465.  He 
wrote  Latin  verses,  which  approach  the  elegance  of 
Politian,  and  two  popular  prose  works,  "  De  honesta 
Disciplina,"  ("On  Honest  (or  Honoural)le)  Instruction," 
1500,)  and  "  Vitae  Poetarum  Latinorum,"  ("Lives  of  the 
Latin  Poets.")    Died  about  1504. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Criuitus.    See  Crinito. 

Crishna.    See  Krishna. 

Crisp,  (Stephkn,)  an  eminent  minister  of  the  Society 
of  Friends,  born  at  Colchester  about  1628.  He  was  con- 
verted to  the  principles  of  the  Friends  in  1655.  As  a 
minister  of  the  gospel,  he  travelled  many  years  in  Great 
Britain,  Holland,  and  Germany.  He  published  a  "  Plain 
Pathway  Opened,"  "A  Faithful  Warning  to  Friends," 
several  Epistles,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1692. 

See  Samuel  Tuke,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  S.  Crisp,"  1824. 

Crisp,  (Tobias,)  an  English  theologian,  noted  as  a 
chief  of  the  Antinomians,  was  born  in  London  in  1600. 
He  became  rector  of  Brinkworth  in  1627.  In  1642  he 
was  engaged  in  a  great  controversy,  on  the  subject  of 
free  grace,  with  fifty-two  opponents.  His  sermons  have 
been  published.    Died  in  1642. 

Crispin.    See  Crespin. 

Cris'pin,  (Gilbert,)  a  Norman  of  noble  rank,  was 
Abbot  of  Westminster.    Died  about  1 115. 

Crispo,  kR^s^'po,  [Lat.  Cris^'pus,]  (Antonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian medical  writer,  born  at  Trapani,  in  Sicily,  in  1600; 
died  in  1688. 

Crispo,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  writer  and 
priest,  born  at  Gallipoli,  (Naples,)  was  a  friend  of  Tasso 
and  Annibal  Caro.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Life  of 
Sannazaro,"  (1583.)    Died  in  1595. 

Cris'pus,  (Flavius  Julius,)  the  eldest  son  of  the 
Roman  emperor  Constantine  I.,  was  born  about  300  A.D. 
He  served  in  the  wars  against  the  Franks  and  against 
Licinius,  and  gave  proof  of  courage  and  abilities.  Being 
falsely  accused  by  his  step-mother  Fausta  of  an  attempt 
to  seduce  her,  he  was  put  to  death,  by  his  father's  order, 
in  326  A.D. 

Cristiani,  kR^s-te-a'nee,  (Bertrando,)  Count  of,  an 
Italian  statesman  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Genoa  in 
1702.  He  was  appointed  by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa 
grand  chancellor  of  the  Milanese.    Died  in  1758. 

Cristofori,  kR^s-tof o-ree,  (Pietro  Paolo,)  a  cele- 
brated Italian  painter  in  mosaic,  adorned  the  church 
of  Saint  Peter  at  Rome.  Died  at  an  advanced  age  in 
1740. 

Critias,  krish'e-as,  [Kptrkf,]  or  Critics,  krish'e-os, 
a  celebrated  Athenian  statuary,  who  flourished  about  470 
B.C.  Among  his  master-pieces  were  statues  of  Harmo- 
dius  and  Aristogi^ton. 

Critias,  an  Athenian  orator  and  poet,  and  one  of  the 
Thirty  Tyrants,  was  a  relative  of  Plato  and  a  pupil  of 
Socrates.  Having  been  exiled  from  Athens  for  an  un- 
known cause  about  406  B.C.,  he  returned  with  the  Spartan 
general  Lysander  in  404,  and  became  one  of  the  thirty 
who  tyrannized  over  the  state.  Pie  put  Theramenes  and 
others  to  death.  He  was  killed  in  battle  when  Thrasy- 
bu''lus  liberated  Athens  in  404  B.C.  His  eloquence  was 
highly  praised  by  Cicero.  He  wrote  elegies  and  other 
works. 

See  W.  E.  Weber,  ''Dissertatio  de  Critia  Tvranno,"  1824;  Plu- 
tarch, "  Alcibiades  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary  ;" 
Grote,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  Xenophon,  "  Hellenica." 

Critics.    See  Critias. 
Crito.    See  Criton. 

Crit-c-la'us,  \)^(iiTokaQ<;^  a  Greek  philosopher,  was 
a  native  of  Phaselis,  in  Lycia.  He  studied  at  Athens 
under  Ariston  of  Ceos,  became  after  his  death  the  head 
of  the  Peripatetic  school  in  Athens,  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  philosopher  and  orator.  About  155  B.C. 
he  was  sent  to  Rome  on  an  important  embassy  with 
Carneades  and  Diogenes.  He  wrote  a  treatise  to  prove 
the  eternity  of  matter. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grasca;"  Vossius,  "De  Historicis 
Grsecis." 


Critcla'us,  an  Achaean  general  and  demagogue,  was 
one  of  the  chief  authors  of  the  war  against  Rome  which 
resulted  in  the  destruction  of  Corinth  and  the  subjugation 
of  Greece.  In  146  B.C.  he  was  defeated  by  Metellus 
in  Locris.  As  he  was  never  heard  of  after  this  action, 
it  was  supposed  he  died  by  poison. 

Cri'tcn  or  Critc  [Kp<rwv]  of  Athens,  was  a  friend  and 
disciple  of  Socrates.  He  tried  to  persuade  Socrates  to 
escape  from  prison,  and  attended  him  in  his  last  hour.  Pie 
wrote  seventeen  dialogues  on  ])hilosophy,  which  are  not 
extant.  Plato  gave  the  name  of  Criton  to  one  of  his  books. 

See  Hermann,  "  Geschichte  und  System  der  Platonischen  Philo- 
sophie." 

Critcn,  a  Roman  physician,  who  attended  the  em- 
peror Trajan.    He  wrote  a  book  "  On  Cosmetics." 

Crit'ten-den,  (George  B.,)  an  American  general  in 
the  Confederate  service,  a  son  of  John  J.  Crittenden, 
noticed  below.  He  commanded  as  major-general  at 
the  battle  of  Somerset  in  1862,  where  he  was  defeated 
by  General  Thomas. 

Crittenden,  (John  Jay,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Woodford  county,  Kentucky,  in  1787.  He  studied 
law,  gained  distinction  as  an  advocate,  and  was  elected 
to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  in  1817.  His  term 
having  expired  in  1819,  he  practised  law  at  Frankfort 
from  that  time  until  1835,  when  he  was  again  elected  to 
the  Senate  for  six  years  by  the  Whigs.  He  was  a  warm 
friend  of  Henry  Clay,  and  a  constant  supporter  of  his 
principal  measures.  He  was  appointed  attorney-general 
of  the  United  States  by  President  Harrison  in  March, 
1 841  ;  but  he  resigned  in  the  ensuing  September  because 
he  disapproved  the  policy  of  Tyler.  In  1843  he  was 
re-elected  to  the  national  Senate,  and  in  1848  was  chosen 
Governor  of  Kentucky.  He  was  attorney-general  in  the 
cabinet  of  President  Fillmore  from  July,  1850,  until 
March,  1853,  after  which  he  was  in  the  Senate  of  the 
United  States  from  1855  to  1861.  On  the  dissolution 
of  the  Whig  party  he  joined  the  American  party.  He 
opposed  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  in  1854, 
and  the  disunion  movement  of  i860.  In  the  session  of 
1860-61  he  performed  a  prominent  part  as  a  mediator 
and  as  the  mover  of  a  series  of  resolutions  called  the 
Crittenden  Compromise,  which  were  not  adopted.  Died 
in  1863.  * 

Crittenden,  (Thomas  L.,)  an  American  general,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Russellville,  Kentucky, 
about  1819.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers in  the  Union  army  in  1861,  commanded  a  division 
at  Shiloh,  April,  1862,  and  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  major-general  in  the  summer  of  the  same  year.  He 
commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Stone  River, 
which  ended  January  2,  1863,  and  at  Chickamauga,  in 
September  of  that  year. 

Crittenden,  (Thomas  T.,)  an  American  general,  a 
nephew  of  John  J.  Crittenden,  noticed  above,  was  born 
in  Alabama  about  1828.  He  lived  in  Indiana  before 
the  civil  war.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers  in  the  Union  army  about  April,  1862. 

Crivellari,  kRe-vgl-ld'ree,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  able 
Italian  engraver,  born  at  Venice  in  1725  ;  died  in  1777. 

Crivelli,  kRe-veKlee,  (Angelo  Maria,)  sometimes 
called  "  II  Crivellone,"  an  Italian  painter  of  animals  and 
hunting-scenes,  was  born  at  Milan.    Died  about  1730. 

Crivelli,  (Carlo.)  a  Venetian  painter  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  was  living  in  1475. 

Crcce,  kRo'cha,(BALDASSARE,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1553,  worked  in  Rome.    Died  in  1628. 

Crcce,  della,  deKlg.  kRo'chi,  [Lat.  Cru^cius,]  (Vin- 
CENZO  Alsario,)  an  Italian  physician  and  medical  writer, 
born  near  Genoa  about  1570,  lived  at  Rome. 

Crocifissajc.    See  Macchietit,  (Girolamo.) 

Crock'ett,  (David,)  an  American  hunter,  noted  for 
his  adventures  and  eccentric  habits,  was  born  in  Ten- 
nessee in  1786.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress 
in  1827,  1829,  and  1831,  and  began  his  public  life  as  a 
friend  of  General  Jackson  ;  but  he  changed  sides  about 
1830.  Having  joined  the  Texans  in  their  revolt  against 
Mexico,  he  was  taken  prisoner  at  Fort  Alamo,  and  mas- 
sacred, by  Santa  Anna,  in  1836. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  1834. 

Crccus.    See  Croke,  (Richard.) 


<■  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Y., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


* 


CROESE 


692 


CROMWELL 


Croese,  kRoo'seh,  (Gerard,)  a  Dutch  clergyman,  born 
at  Amsterdam  in  1642,  was  the  author  of  a  "History 
of  the  Quakers,"  ("Historia  Quakeriana,"  1695,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  17 10. 

Croeser,  kRoo'ser,  (Jacques  Henri,)  a  Flemish  phy- 
sician, born  at  Grave  in  1691;  died  in  1753. 

Croesus,  kree'sus,  [Gr.  Kpolaog;  Fr.  Cr^sus,  kRi'- 
ziiss',]  a  king  of  Lydia,  proverbial  for  his  great  wealth, 
born  about  590  B.C.,  succeeded  his  father  Alyattes  in 
560.  He  subjugated  the  yEolians,  lonians,  and  other 
peoples  of  Asia  Minor,  and  about  554  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  Spartans  and  the  King  of  Egypt  against  Cyrus 
of  Persia.  In  the  year  546  Croesus  was  defeated  by  Cyrus 
near  Sardis,  his  capital,  and  taken  prisoner.  According 
to  Herodotus,  whose  story  is  discredited  by  some,  he  was 
doomed  to  be  burned  alive,  but  was  saved  by  his  recalling 
a  saying  of  Solon,  which  Cyrus  desired  him  to  explain, 
and  afterwards  hot  only  delivered  him  from  death,  but 
bestowed  upon  him  distinguished  marks  of  favour. 

See  "  History  of  Croesus,  King  of  Lydia,"  London,  1756;  Clin- 
ton, "  Fasti  Heilenici;"  Herodotus,  "History;"  Diodokus  Sicu- 
Lus,  books  ix.  and  xvi. 

Croft,  (Herbert,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  Oxford- 
shire in  1603,  was  educated  as  a  Catholic.  He  was 
converted  to  the  Anglican  Church  in  1622,  and  became 
Dean  of  Hereford  in  1644,  and  Bishop  of  Hereford  in 
1661.  He  published  "The  Naked  Truth,  or  the  True 
State  of  the  Primitive  Church,"  (1675,)  which  tended  to 
a  union  of  the  Protestants  and  produced  much  sensation. 
Died  in  169 1. 

Croft,  (Sir  Herbert,)  an  English  writer,  of  the  same 
family  as  the  preceding,  born  in  175 1.  He  took  orders 
in  1782,  after  which  he  succeeded  to  a  baronetcy.  He 
published  "  Love  and  Madness,"  and  other  works,  and 
wrote  the  Life  of  Young  for  Dr.  Johnson's  "Lives  of 
the  Poets."  About  1792  he  issued  a  prospectus  of  an 
improved  edition  of  Johnson's  Dictionary,  which  was 
never  completed.    Died  in  1816. 

Croft,  (Sir  James,)  an  English  statesman,  born  about 
1530,  was  appointed  lord  deputy  of  Leland  by  Edward 
VL  in  1 55 1.  Under  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  he  became 
comptroller  to  the  household.    Died  in  1 591. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  i.,  2d  Series,  1S27. 

Croft,  (William,)  a  celebrated  composer.of  cathedral 
music,  born  in  Warwickshire  in  1677.  He  became  com- 
poser to  the  Chapel  Royal  and  organist  of  Westminster 
Abbey  in  1708.  He  published  "  Divine  Harmony,"  (1712,) 
and  his  admirable  "  Musica  Sacra"  in  1724.  Died  in  1727. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Crof'tpn,  (Zachary,  )  an  English  nonconformist 
minister  of  London.    Died  about  1672. 

Croglian,  kro'gan,  (Colonel  George,)  an  American 
officer,  born  near  Louisville,  Kentucky,  in  1791.  He 
became  inspector-general  in  1825,  and  served  in  the 
Mexican  war,  (1846-47.)    Died  in  1849. 

Croi,  de,  deh  kko^e',  [Lat.  Croi'us,]  (Jean,)  a  French 
Protestant  minister,  born  at  Uzes.  He  preached  at  Ee- 
ziers  and  Uzes,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Notes 
on  Origen,  Irenaeus,  and  Tertullian,"  (in  Latin,  1652.) 
Bayle  represents  him  as  well  versed  in  languages,  criti- 
cism, and  ecclesiastic  antiquities.    Died  in  1659. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Croiset,  kRwi^z.V,  (Jean,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  popu- 
lar writer,  born  at  Marseilles  about  1650,  published  "The 
Christian  Year,"  ("Annee  Chretienne,"  18  vols.,)  and 
"  Meditations,"  4  vols.,  both  often  reprinted.  Died  in  1738. 

Croius.    See  Croi. 

Croix.    See  Lacroix,  Cruz,  and  Croce. 

Croix,  (FRANgois  Petis.)    See  P^tis  de  la  Croix. 

Croix,  (Juan.)    See  Cruz. 

Croix  du  Maine.    See  La  Croix  du  Maine. 

Croke,  krook,  ?  (Sir  Alexander,)  an  English  civilian 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Aylesbury  in  1800 ; 
died  in  1842. 

Croke,  krook,  or  Crook,  (Sir  George,)  an  English 
judge,  born  in  the  county  of  Bucks  in  1559.  He  was 
appointed  justice  of  the  king's  bench  in  1628,  and  took 
side  with  Hampden  in  the  Ship-money  case  in  1636.  His 
"  Reports  of  Select  Cases"  acquired  a  high  and  durable 
reputation.    Died  in  1641. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 


Croke,  [Lat.  Cro'cus,]  (Richard,)  an  English  scho- 
lar, born  in  London,  taught  Greek  at  Oxford  about  1520. 
His  Latin  orations  have  been  published.    Died  in  155S. 

Crocker,  (Rt.  Hon.  John  Wilson,)  an  author,  critic, 
and  politician,  was  born  in  Galway,  L-eland,  in  1780. 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  chose 
the  profession  of  the  law.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament 
in  1807,  and  appointed  secretary  to  the  admiralty  in  1809. 
In  this  year  Scott,  Croker,  and  others  founded  the  "  Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review."  He  gained  literary  distinction 
by  a  satire  called  "An  Intercepted  Letter  from  Canton," 
(1807,)  "The  Songs  of  Trafalgar,"  a  poem  on  the  battle 
of  Talavera,  and  other  works.  His  talent  for  satire  and 
sarcasm  was  displayed  in  the  "  Quarterly  Review,"  to 
which  he  frequently  contributed  fov  about  thirty  years 
or  more.  He  became  a  member  of  the  privy  council  in 
1828.  He  opposed  the  Reform  Bill  in  several  able 
speeches,  declared  he  would  never  sit  in  a  Reformed 
House  of  Comnions,  and  after  the  passage  of  the  bill 
in  1832  retired  from  Parliament.  His  most  important 
work  is  his  edition  of  Boswell's  "Life  of  Johnson,"  (5 
vols.,  1831,)  which  is  praised  by  many  critics,  but  was 
severely  criticized  by  Macaulay,  ("Edinburgh  Review," 
183 1,)  who  exposes  many  instances  of  his  "scandalous 
inaccuracy."    Died  in  1857. 

Croker,  (Thomas  Crofton,)  a  popular  Irish  writer, 
born  at  Cork  in  1798.  Having  served  an  apprenticeship 
to  a  merchant  of  Cork,  he  obtained  a  clerkship  in  the 
admiralty  about  the  age  of  twenty-one.  He  published 
"Researches  in  the  South  of  Ireland,"  (1824,)  "Fairy 
Legends,"  "  Legends  of  the  Lakes,  or  Sayings  and  Do- 
ings at  Killarney,"  (1829,)  and  other  works.  He  was  a 
frequent  contributor  to  "  Fraser's  Magazine,"  and  was  for 
about  thirty  years  a  clerk  in  the  admiralty.  Died  in  1854. 

Croll,  kRol,  (Oswald,)  a  German  alchemist,  born  at 
Wetter,  in  Hesse.  He  became  physician  to  Prince 
Christian  of  Anhalt,  and  a  partisan  of  Paracelsus.  He 
published  a  curious  work,  called  "Basilica  Chymica," 
(1609,)  which  was  often  reprinted.    Died  in  1609. 

See  F.  HoEFER,  "Histoirede  la  Chimie." 

CroTy,  (George,)  a  popular  poet  and  voluminous 
author,  born  in  Dublin  in  1780.  He  was  for  many  years, 
beginning  in  1835,  rector  of  Saint  Stephen's,  Wallbrook, 
London,  and  was  eminent  as  a  pulpit  orator.  Besides 
numerous  sermons,  he  published  "The  Angel  of  the 
World,"  a  tale,  (1820,)  "  Salathiel,  a  Story  of  the  Past, 
the  Present,  and  the  Future,"  (1827,)  which  is  admired 
by  many,  "Poetical  Works,"  (2  vols.,  1830,)  a  "  Personal 
History  of  George  IV.,"  (1830,)  "  Catiline,"  a  tragedy,  a 
"Life  of  Edmund  Burke,"  (1840,)  "  Marston,"  a  novel, 
(1846,)  "Scenes  from  Scripture,  with  other  Poems," 
(185 1,)  and  various  other  works.  "There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  his  'Catiline,'  whether  considered  as  a  poem 
or  a  drama,  is  a  splendid  performance."  ("Blackwood's 
Magazine,"  vol.  xi.)    Died  in  i860. 

Cromarty,  Earl  of.    See  Mackenzie,  (George.) 

Crome,  (John,)  an  English  landscape-painter,  born 
at  Norwich  in  1769;  died  in  1S21. 

Cro'mer,  (Martin,)  born  at  Biecz,  in  Poland,  in  15 12, 
held  a  distinguished  place  among  the  hi^itorians  of  his 
time.  His  principal  work,  a  Latin  "  History  of  Poland," 
(1558,)  was  highly  esteemed  for  style  and  other  merits. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Warmia  in  1579.    Died  in  1589. 

Cromp'ton,  (Samuel,)  an  English  artisan,  born  in 
Lancashire  in  1753,  was  the  inventor  of  the  spinning- 
jenny  or  mule  which  was  brought  into  use  about  1778. 
Died  in  1827. 

See  G:  Fkench,  "  Life,  etc.  of  Samuel  Crompton,"  London, 
1859;  Henry  Howe,  "Lives  of  Eminent  American  and  Emopean 
Mechanics,"  1847. 

Cromvele  or  Cromuelos.  See  Cromwell, (Oliver.) 

Croiu'well,  (or  kriim'wel,)  (Henry,)  a  younger  son 
of  Oliver,  was  born  at  Huntingdon  in  1627,  and  entered 
the  army  at  the  age  of  twenty.  In  1649,  with  the  rank 
of  colonel,  he  accompanied  his  father  to  Ireland,  where  he 
displayed  courage  in  several  actions.  He  was  chosen  a 
member  of  Parliament  in  1653.  In  1657  he  was  appointed 
lord  deputy  of  Ireland,  where  he  became  popular  by  his 
moderate  policy.  Soon  after  his  brother  Richard  ceased 
to  be  Protector,  April,  1659,  Henry  resigned  his  office, 
and  lived  as  a  private  citizen  in  England.    Died  in  1674. 


I.  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  /ono-;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  not;  good;  moon 


CROMWELL 


693 


CROMWELL 


Cromwell,  kruni'wel  or  krSm'wel,  (formerly  almost 
nniversally  called  krum'el,)  fit.  Cromvele,  kRom-vi'li  ; 
Sp.  Cromuelos,  IvRom-wa  16s,]  (Oliver,)  one  of  the 
most  extraordinary  men  that  ever  lived,  was  born  at 
Huntingdon,  England,  on  the  25th  of  April,  1599.  He 
was  the  eldest  surviving  son  of  Robert  Cromwell  and 
Elizabeth  Steward.  Robert  was  the  son  of  Sir  Henry 
Cromwell,  had  sat  in  Parliament,  and  owned  an  estate 
in  land,  which  Oliver  inherited.  On  April  23,  1616,  the 
day  of  Shakspeare's  death,  Oliver  entered  Sidney  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  where  he  remained  until  his  father's 
death,  in  June,  161 7.  It  appears  that  he  studied  law  in 
London  ;  but  we  have  no  authentic  record  of  this  part  of 
his  career.  In  1620  he  married  Elizabeth  Bouchier,  with 
whom  he  settled  on  the  hereditary  estate  in  Huntingdon, 
and  passed  several  years  employed  in  farming  and  social 
duties.  During  this  period  he  lived  in  intimate  fellowship 
with  the  Puritans,  who  were  very  numerous  among  the 
various  ranks  of  society,  and  he  appears  to  have  given 
his  serious  and  earnest  attention  to  the  great  questions 
of  religion.  In  1628  Oliver  represented  the  borough 
of  Huntingdon  in  Parliament,  which,  after  passing  the 
Petition  of  Right,  was  dissolved  in  March,  1629,  and 
the  leaders  of  the  popular  party  were  committed  to 
prison.  In  this  session  he  made  his  first  speech  against 
Popery,  which  was  significant  of  the  great  idea  of  his 
public  life.  This  was  the  last  Parliament  that  met  in 
England  for  eleven  years,  during  which  period  the 
measures  of  the  government  seemed  to  become  every 
day  more  arbitrary  and  tyrannical.  In  1637  Cromwell 
and  his  cousin  Hampden,  the  great  Commoner,  resolved 
to  leave  their  native  land,  and  had  actually  embarked 
for  North  America;  but  the  ship,  when  about  to  sail, 
was  arrested  by  an  order  of  council.  They  therefore 
remained  in  England  ;  and  "  with  them  remained,"  to  use 
the  language  of  Macaulay,  "  the  evil  genius  of  the  House 
of  Stuart."  In  the  next  Parliament,  which  met  in  April, 
1640,  Cromwell,  who  then  resided  at  Ely,  represented 
the  town  of  Cambridge,  and  also  in  the  famous  Long 
Parliament,  which  met  near  the  end  of  that  year.  Sir 
Philip  Warwick  describes  his  first  impressions  of  Crom- 
well, whom  he  saw  at  this  period  in  the  House,  and  whom, 
judging  by  his  unfashionable  dress  and  rusticity,  he  was 
inclined  to  regard  with  contempt.  "  But,"  he  adds,  "  I 
lived  to  see  this  gentleman,  by  multiplied  successes  and 
by  more  converse  with  good  company,  appear  in  niy  own 
eye  of  a  comely  presence  and  a  great  and  majestic  de- 
portment." One  day,  as  he  rose  to  address  the  House, 
Lord  Digby  asked  Hampden  who  the  "sloven"  then 
speaking  was.  Ham])den  replied  that  it  was  Oliver 
Cromwell,  adding,  "That  sloven  whom  you  see  before 
you  has  no  ornament  in  his  speech  ;  but,  if  we  should 
ever  come  to  a  breach  with  the  king,  that  sloven,  I  say, 
will  be  the  greatest  man  in  England."  On  November 
22,  1 64 1,  after  a  stormy  debate,  the  Grand  Remonstrance 
passed  the  House,  by  a  small  majority  of  the  popular 
party. 

In  January,  1642,  Charles  I.  having  failed  in  an  attempt 
to  arrest  five  members  of  the  House,  affairs  came  to 
a  crisis,  and  both  sides  appealed  to  arms.  Cromwell 
entered  the  army  as  captain  of  cavalry,  and  soon  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  strict  discipline,  his  military 
talents,  and  his  invincible  courage.  After  the  affair  at 
Edgehill  he  perceived  the  necessity  of  having  men  of 
high  principle,  or  enthusiasm  of  some  kind,  to  contend 
against  men  of  honour  such  as  the  Cavaliers  ;  and  he  used 
his  personal  influence  in  enlisting  numerous  companies 
of  yeomen  among  the  Puritans  of  the  Eastern  counties. 
Although  when  he  entered  the  army  he  was  over  forty, 
he  never  lost  a  battle  ;  and  his  victories  were  always 
decisive,  even  when  the  enemy  had  a  great  superiority 
in  numbers.  On  July  2,  1644,  he  commanded  the  left 
wing  at  the  battle  of  Marston  Moor,  which  was  won 
chiefly  by  the  irresistible  charge  of  Cromwell's  Iron- 
sides. In  1645,  as  lieutenant-general  under  Fairfax,  he 
led  the  right  wing  at  the  decisive  victory  of  Naseby, 
where  the  king  lost  his  artillery,  his  private  papers,  and 
about  5000  men. 

There  were  two  parties  among  the  Parliamentarians, 
which  became  more  and  more  widely  divergent  as  the 
<-oyal  cause  declined, — namely,  the  Presbyterians,  who 


had  a  majority  in  the  Parliament,  and  the  Independents, 
who  controlled  the  army  and  owned  Cromwell  as  their 
leader.  At  length,  in  1647,  these  came  to  an  open  rup- 
ture. On  June  2,  one  of  Cromwell's  officers  seized  the 
person  of  the  king  and  transferred  him  from  the  custody 
of  Parliament  to  that  of  the  army.  In  August,  1648,  at 
the  battle  of  Preston,  Cromwell,  with  about  8000  men, 
defeated  the  royal  forces  under  the  Uuke  of  Hamilton, 
consisting  of  about  20,000,  most  of  whom  were  Scotch. 
Near  the  close  of  this  year,  the  majority  of  the  House 
seeming  inclined  to  treat  with  the  king  and  restore  him 
to  the  throne,  forty-one  members  were  picked  out  as 
they  were  entering  the  House,  and  placed  under  an  est 
by  the  agency  of  Colonel  Pride,  one  of  Cromwell's 
olhcers.  Cromwell  was  a  member  of  the  court  which 
tried  the  king  in  January,  1649,  and  signed  the  warrant  for 
his  execution.  The  part  taken  by  Cromwell  in  the  death 
of  Charles  has  left  a  shadow  on  his  fame  which  must 
always  remain  unless  it  can  be  clearly  shown  that  such  an 
act  of  severity  was  necessary  to  the  safety  of  the  cause 
of  liberty.  "  The  murder  of  the  king,"  says  Hume,  "  the 
most  atrocious  of  all  his  actions,  was  to  him  covered  under 
a  mighty  cloud  of  republican  and  fanatical  illusions." 
Having  been  sent  as  lord  lieutenant  to  Ireland,  which 
was  then  in  a  state  of  riot  and  anarchy,  he  defeated  the 
royalists  at  Drogheda  and  Wexford,  and  in  less  than  a 
year  the  enemy  were  generally  subdued,  though  not 
without  the  exercise  of  extreme  and  perhaps  indefensible 
severity. 

In  1650,  the  Scotch  having  raised  an  army  with  a  view 
to  restore  Charles  II.  to  the  throne,  and  having  induced 
him  to  co-operate  with  them,  Cromwell  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief,  vice  Lord  Fairfax,  who  resigned  his 
commission.  The  armies  met  at  Dunbar  on  September 
3,  where  the  Scotch  were  totally  defeated  and  10,000 
of  them  taken  prisoners.  Charles,  having  recruited  his 
army,  marched  into  England,  and  was  followed  by  Crom- 
well to  Worcester,  where,  September  3,  165 1,  a  battle 
was  fought  which  resulted  in  the  complete  overthrow  of 
the  royal  cause  and  rendered  the  victorious  general  vir- 
tually dictator.  And  who  could  be  more  competent  for 
a  crisis  so  diflicult,  which  required  the  greatest  resolution, 
vigour,  and  sagacity.?  At  this  period  there  was  observed 
a  change  in  his  manner, — "an  indescribable  kind  of  exal- 
tation." Clarendon  remarks  "that  his  parts  seemed  to 
be  raised,  as  if  he  had  concealed  his  faculties  till  he  had 
occasion  to  use  them."  In  1653  he  entered  the  House 
of  Commons,  now  reduced  to  a  small  remnant,  and 
dissolved  it  vi  et  armis,  exclaiming,  "You  are  no  longer 
a  Parliament."  At  a  council  of  the  army  in  the  early 
part  of  1654  he  was  formally  proclaimed  Protector  of 
the  Commonwealth.  The  government  of  the  Protector 
commanded  the  respect  of  foreign  powers,  many  of 
whom  vied  with  each  other  in  courting  his  alliance.  He 
made  liberty  of  conscience  one  of  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  his  policy,  and  defended  the  Protestant  cause  in 
foreign  countries.  When  Spain  solicited  his  alliance,  he 
required  two  conditions,  one  of  which  was  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Inquisition.  He  employed  Milton,  who  had 
previously  served  the  Parliament  in  the  same  capacity, 
as  his  Latin  secretary.  In  1656  a  new  Parliament  was 
assembled,  which  voted  supplies  for  the  war  with  Spain 
and  offered  the  crown  to  Cromwell ;  but,  though  urged 
by  various  parties  to  accept  the  insignia  of  royalty,  he 
persisted  in  refusing  it. 

Southey,  though  a  Tory,  admits  that  Cromwell's  "good 
sense  and  good  nature  would  have  led  him  to  govern 
equitably,  to  promote  literature,  to  cherish  the  arts,  to 
pour  wine  and  oil  in  the  wounds  of  the  nation;"  but 
the  mutinous  spirit  of  his  opponents  partially  frustrated 
these  designs.  It  is  usually  affirmed  that  he  becam^e  very 
suspicious  near  the  end  of  his  career,  and  took  extreme 
precautions  against  assassination.  He  died  of  fever  on 
September  3,  1658,  the  anniversary  of  his  greatest  vic- 
tories, those  of  Dunbar  and  Worcester.  He  left  two 
sons,  Richard  and  Henry,  and  four  daughters. 

It  is  admitted  by  all  that  Cromwell,  as  a  statesman,  as  a 
reformer,  and  as  a  military  leader,  displayed  abilities  of 
the  very  highest  order.  His  memory  has  been  subjected 
to  a  severe  ordeal  by  the  enmity  of  two  opposite  parties 
whose  policy  he  frustrated,  one  of  which  denounced  him 


r  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard,  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  ^z^//?/;  al;  N,  7msai,  R,  fri//ed;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  t/ns.    (2l^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CROMWELL  694  CROSBY 


as  unfaithful  to  liberty,  and  the  other  found  him  guilty  of 
tre.son  against  the  divine  right  of  kings.  Many,  while 
admitting  his  intellectual  ability,  impeach  the  sincerity 
of  liis  motives  and  deny  his  claim  to  any  noble  or  esti- 
mable moral  qualities.  But,  after  the  lapse  of  two  cen- 
turies, an  impartial  public  begins  to  appreciate  his  meri- 
torious services  and  moral  integrity,  as  well  as  his  political 
wisdom  and  invincible  valour.  It  is  acknowledged  that 
under  his  direction  England  was  prosperous,  powerful, 
and  well  governed,  that  his  foreign  policy  was  enlightened, 
magnanimous,  and  successful.  Macaulay  has  remarked 
that,  "  though  constantly  attacked  and  scarcely  ever  de- 
fended, the  character  of  Cromwell  had  yet  always  con- 
tinued popular  with  the  great  body  of  his  countrymen." 
Again  he  says,  "  Cromwell  was  emphatically  a  man. 
Never  was  any  ruler  so  conspicuously  born  for  sove- 
reignty. The  cup  which  has  intoxicated  almost  all  others 
sobered  him.  His  spirit,  restless,  from  its  buoyancy,  in 
a  lower  sphere,  reposed  in  majestic  placidity  as  soon 
as  it  had  reached  the  level  congenial  to  it.  Rapidly  as 
his  fortunes  grew,  his  mind  expanded  more  rapidly  still. 
Insignificant  as  a  private  citizen,  he  was  a  great  general ; 
he  was  a  still  greater  prince." 

See  Carlvle,  "  Letters  and  Speeches  of  Cromwell ;"  John  For- 
STER,  "  Life  of  Cromwell,"  in  his  "  Statesmen  of  the  Commonwealth 
of  England,"  7  vols.,  1840;  Robert  Southey,  "Life  of  O.  Crom- 
well," 1844;  ViLLEMAiN,  "Histoire  de  Cromwell,"  1819;  Guizot, 
"Histoire  de  la  Revolution  d'Angleterre,"  and  his  "Histoire  de  la 
Republique  d'Angleterre  et  de  Cron)weIl,"  1854;  (and  English  version 
of  the  same  ;)  J.  H.  Merle  d'Aubigne,  "The  Protector:  a  Vindi- 
cation," New  York,  184S ;  Philar^te  Chasles,  "O.  Cromwell;  sa 
Vie  privee,"  etc.,  1S47;  Gregorio  Leti,  "  Historia  e  Memorie  re- 
condite sopra  la  Vita  di  O.  Cromvele,"  1692;  William  Harris, 
"  Historical  and  Critical  Account  of  the  Life  of  O.  Cromwell,"  1762  ; 
Karl  Sebald,  "  Leben  O.  Cromwells,"  1815;  Daniel  Wilson, 
"  O.  Cromwell  and  the  Protectorate,"  1848  ;  J.  T.  Headlev,"  Life  of 
'O.  Cromwell,"  1848;  Macaulay,  "  Essays,"  (Review  of  "  Hallam's 
Constitutional  History;")  Clarendon,"  History  of  the  Rebellion;" 
Hume,  "History  of  England;"  Noble,  "Memoirs  of  the  Protecto- 
rate House  of  Cromwell,"  2  vols.,  1784;  Lamartine,  "Memoirs  of 
Celebrated  Characters,"  vol.  ii,,  1856;  "  London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  July,  1821:  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  December,  1847;  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  January,  1856. 

Cromwell,  (Oliver,)  said  to  be  the  last  male  de- 
scendant of  the  Protector,  was  the  author  of  "  Memoirs 
of  Oliver  Cromwell,  and  of  his  Sons  Richard  and  Henry," 
published  in  1820. 

Cromwell,  (Richard,)  the  eldest  surviving  son  of 
the  Protector  Oliver,  was  born  at  Huntingdon  in  1626. 
He  was  admitted  into  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1647,  but  appears 
to  have  been  an  indolent  student.  In  1649  he  married 
Dorothy  Major,  with  whom  he  passed  several  years  in 
rural  retirement  at  Hursley,  Hampshire,  He  had  a  mild, 
virtuous,  and  unambitious  character,  and  inherited  little 
or  nothing  of  his  father's  mental  power.  In  1654  Oliver 
brought  him  to  court  and  appointed  him  first  lord  of 
trade  and  navigation,  privy  councillor,  etc.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  September  3,  1658,  without  open  op- 
position, and  was  proclaimed  Protector  by  General  Monk 
and  the  army.  A  general  disaffection,  however,  was 
soon  apparent,  and  the  republicans  and  royalists  united 
in  hostility  to  his  power.  Fleetwood,  Lambert,  Des- 
borow,  and  other  ofilicers,  having  formed  a  cabal  against 
him,  demanded  the  dissolution  of  Parliament,  which  was 
effected  in  April,  1659.   "By the  same  act,"  says  Hume, 

he  was  considered  as  effectually  dethroned.  Soon  after, 
he  signed  his  demission  in  form."  "Thus  fell,  suddenly 
and  from  an  enormous  height,  but,  by  a  rare  fortune, 
without  any  hurt  or  injury,  the  family  of  the  Cromwells." 
About  1660  he  retired  to  the  continent,  and  resided  some 
years  in  Paris  and  Geneva.  He  returned  to  England  in 
1680,  and  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in  obscurity  and  peace. 
Died  in  1712. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England  ;"  Lingard,  "History  of  Eng- 
land;" Villemain,  "Histoire  de  Cromwell." 

Cromwell,  (Thoma.s,)  Earl  of  Essex,  an  ambitious 
English  courtier  and  minister  of  state,  born  of  humble 
parentage  at  Putney  about  1490.  In  early  life  he  was  a 
servant  or  agent  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,  whom  he  defended 
with  spirit  and  honour  in  the  House  of  Commons  in  1629. 
A  few  years  later  he  entered  the  service  of  the  king, 
whose  confidence  he  gained,  and  by  whom  he  was  rapidly 
promoted.  He  had  become  an  adherent  of  the  Refor- 
mation, when,  about  1535,  he  was  appointed  principal 
secretary  of  state  and  keeper  of  the  privy  seal.    In  1536 


the  king's  supremacy  over  the  Church  was  delegated 
to  Cromwell,  with  the  title  of  Vicar-General.  Many 
monasteries  were  suppressed,  and  other  reforms  were 
effected,  by  his  agency  and  that  of  Cranmer,  who  was 
his  friend;  He  was  made  Earl  of  Essex  in  1539  or  1540, 
and  obtained  precedency  over  all  the  officers  of  state. 
His  sudden  fall  was  hastened  by  his  agency  in  the  mar- 
riage of  Henry  VIII.  to  Anne  of  Cleves,  whom  the  king 
quickly  resolved  to  divorce.  After  a  trial  for  treason 
and  heresy,  he  was  beheaded  in  July,  1540.  "  He  was," 
says  Hume,  "a  man  of  prudence,  industry,  and  abilities, 
worthy  of  a  better  master  and  of  a  better  fate."  Froude 
gives  Cromwell  a  very  high  character  both  for  ability 
and  honesty  of  purpose ;  but  some  other  historians, 
including  Lingarcl,  accuse  him  of  rapacity,  servility,  and 
selfish  ambition. 

See  Froude,  "  History  of  England,"  chaps,  vi.-xvii. ;  Lingard, 
"  Historv  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chaps,  viii.  et  seq.;  Michael  Dray- 
ton, "Historie  of  the  Life  and  Death  of  Lord  Cromwell,"  London, 
1609  ;  also  Shakspeare,  "  Hem-y  VIIL,"  Act  Third. 

Cronaca,  II,  el  kRo'nS-ka  or  kRon'i-ka,  the  surname 
of  Simoiie  Pollaiolo  (pol-ll-o^lo)  or  Pollajuolo,  an 

Italian  architect,  born  at  Florence  in  1454.  He  acquired 
celebrity  by  his  design  of  the  Strozzi  palace,  one  of  the 
most  magnificent  edifices  of  Florence,  and  of  the  church 
of  Saint  Francis.  He  was  a  zealous  partisan  or  disciple 
of  Savonarola.    Died  in  1509. 

Cronegk,  von,  fon  kiio^nSk,  (Johann  Friedrich,) 
Baron,  an  excellent  German  poet,  born  at  Anspach  in 
1 73 1.  He  was  versed  in  many  languages,  and  had 
travelled  in  France  and  Italy.  He  wrote  elegies,  odes, 
didactic  poems,  hymns,  and  several  dramas  in  verse, 
which  display  a  fine  imagination.  His  tragedy  of  "Co- 
drus"  (1758)  abounds  in  beauties  of  the  first  order,  and 
is  called  his  master-piece.  He  died  prematurely  in  1758. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Cronholm,  kRonOiolm,  (Abraham,)  a  Swedish  his- 
torian, born  at  Landscrona  in  1809.  Among  his  works 
are  "Memorials  of  the  Ancient  North,"  (2  vols.,  1835,) 
and  "  Political  History  of  Scania,"  (2  vols.,  1846-51.) 

Cro'nos,  [Kpovof,]  a  god  of  the  Greek  mythology, 
represented  as  the  son  of  Uranus,  and  the  father  of 
Jupiter,  Neptune,  Ceres,  and  Juno.  He  was  identified 
with  the  Saturn  of  the  Romans. 

Cronstedt,  kRon'stet,  (Axel  Fredrick,)  a  Swedish 
mineralogist,  born  in  Sudermania  in  1722.  He  discov- 
ered about  1754  a  new  metal,  which  he  named  "nickel," 
and  publishecl  a  valuable  "Essay  on  Mineralogy,  or 
on  the  Classification  of  the  Mineral  Kingdom,"  (1758,) 
which  was  translated  into  German  by  Werner.  I3ied 
in  1765. 

See  Gezelius,  " Biographiskt- Lexicon." 

Crook.    See  Croke. 

Crook,  krook,  (George,)  an  American  general,  born 
near  Dayton,  Ohio,  about  1828,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1852.  He  became  a  captain  in  1861,  and  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  about  vSeptember,  1862.  He  com- 
manded a  corps  of  Sheridan's  army  at  the  battle  of 
Winchester  or  Opequan  Creek,  September  19,  1864,  and 
at  that  of  Cedar  Creek,  October  19  of  the  same  year. 
He  was  commander  of  the  department  of  West  Virginia 
from  August,  1864,  to  February,  1865. 

Crooks,  (  George  R.,  )  an  American  Methodist 
preacher,  iDorn  in  Philadelphia  in  1822.  He  became 
adjunct  professor  of  ancient  languages  in  Dickinson 
College  in  1846.  In  conjunction  with  Professor  Schem, 
he  published  a  "Latin-English  Lexicon,"  (1858.) 

Croon  or  Croune,  kroon,  (William,)  M.D.,  an 
English  scholar,  born  in  London,  was  the  founder  of  the 
Croonian  Lectures.  He  became  professor  of  rhetoric  in 
Gresham  College,  and  founded  a  course  of  lectures  on 
algebra  at  Cambridge.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on 
Muscular  Motion."    Died  in  1684. 

Crop^sey,  (Jasper  Frank,)  an  American  landscape- 
painter,  was  born  at  Westfield,  Richmond  county,  New 
York,  in  1823,  and  became  a  resident  of  England  in  1856. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Sibyl's  Temple,"  "Peace" 
and  "War,"  and  "Niagara  Falls." 

See  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Cros'by,  (Brass,)  an  English  politician,  born  at  Stock- 
port-on-Tees  in  1725.     He  was  elected  lord  mayor  of 


a,  e,  T,  o.  u,  y,  lojtg:  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/iorf;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fir,  fdll,  fit;  mit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CROSBT 


695 


CR  UIKSHANK 


London  in  1770,  and  opposed  the  ministry,  who  confined 
him  in  the  Tower.    Died  in  1793. 

Crosby,  (Thomas,)  was  author  of  a  "  History  of  Eng- 
lish Baptists  from  the  Reformation  to  the  Reign  of  George 
I.,"  (1740,)  said  to  be  the  best  work  on  that  subject.  Ife 
was  a  Baptist  minister  of  London. 

CrosTaiid,  Mrs.,  whose  maiden  name  was  Camilla 
TouLMiN,  an  EngUsh  authoress,  born  in  London  about 
1814.  She  published  a  volume  of  poems,  ''Stratagems, 
a  Tale,"  "Toil  and  Trial,"  (1849,)  "Lydia,  a  Woman's 
Book,"  (1852,)  and  other  works  of  fiction,  which  are 
praised  for  their  moral  tendency. 

Cross,  (Joseph,)  a  Methodist  minister,  born  in  Somer- 
setshire, England,  in  1813,  removed  to  the  United  States 
about  1825.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Head- 
lands of  Faith." 

Cross  or  de  la  Crux,  (Michael,)  an  English  painter, 
flourished  between  1640  and  1680.  He  was  patronized 
by  Charles  I. 

Crosse,  kross,  (Andrew,)  an  English  gentleman, 
noted  for  his  successful  experiments  in  electricity,  was 
born  near  Taunton,  in  Somersetshire,  in  1784.  He  in- 
herited an  easy  fortune,  and  lived  in  retirement.  He  gave 
special  attention  to  the  formation  of  crystals  by  means 
of  a  voltaic  battery,  and  spent  many  years  in  search  of 
new  facts  and  phenomena,  without  regard  to  theories. 
He  obtained  numerous  mineral  crystals  similar  in  form 
to  those  produced  by  nature ;  also  a  subsulphate  of 
copper  which  was  entirely  new.  About  1816  he  pre- 
dicted that,  by  electrical  agency,  human  thought  would 
be  conveyed  instantaneously  to  the  farthest  parts  of  the 
earth.  His  discoveries  were  not  made  public  until  he 
explained  them  before  the  British  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science,  in  1836.  On  introducing  him 
to  the  Association,  Dr.  Buckland  said,  "This  gentleman 
has  actually  made  no  less  than  twenty-four  minerals,  and 
even  crystalline  quartz.  He  [Dr.  Buckland]  did  not  know 
how  he  had  made  them,  but  he  pronounced  them  dis- 
coveries of  the  highest  order."  A  great  sensation  was 
excited  in  England  in  1836  by  the  apparent  generation 
of  insects  during  his  experiments  with  voltaic  action, 
— a  strange  phenomenon,  which  has  not  yet  been  satis- 
factorily explained.    Died  in  1855. 

See  "  Memorials  of  Andrew  Crosse,"  1857,  (containing  a  number 
of  his  poems  and  letters,)  by  his  wife. 

Cros'well,  (Edwin,)  an  American  politician  and 
journalist,  born  at  Catskill,  New  York,  about  1795.  He 
became,  about  1824,  editor  of  the  "  Albany  Argus,"  a 
Democratic  journal  of  great  influence,  which  he  con- 
tinued to  edit  until  1854.  He  was  a  prominent  member 
of  the  Albany  Regency. 

Croswell,  (Harry,)  an  American  journalist  and 
clergyman,  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  West 
Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  1778.  He  edited  several 
Federalist  papers.    Died  in  1858. 

Croswell,  (William,)  an  Episcopalian  clergyman 
and  poet,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Hudson, 
New  York,  in  1804.  He  was  settled  in  Boston  from  about 
1844  until  his  death  in  185 1. 

See  "Memoir  of  the  Rev.  William  Croswell,"  1854;  "North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1854 ;  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry 
of  America." 

Crotch,  (William,)  a  skilful  English  musical  com- 
poser, born  at  Norwich  in  1775.  He  played  on  the 
harpsichord  marvellously  when  he  was  about  three  years 
old.  In  1797  he  was  chosen  professor  of  music  in  the 
University  of  Oxford.  He  published  "  Styles  of  Music 
of  all  Ages,"  and  composed  music  for  the  organ  and 
piano,  and  for  the  ode  entitled  "Mona  on  Snowdon 
calls."    Died  in  1847. 

Croune.    See  Croon,  (W.) 

Crousaz,  de,  deh  kRoo'zt',(jEAN  Pierre,)  a  prolific 
and  mediocre  Swiss  writer,  born  at  Lausanne  in  1663. 
He  was  professor  of  philosophy,  etc.  at  Lausanne  and 
Groningen,  and  published  an  "Essay  on  Logic,"  (171 2,) 
a  "Treatise  on  Pyrrhonism,  Ancient  and  Modern," 
(1733,)        other  works.    Died  in  1750. 

Crouzet,  kRoo'zk',  (Pierre,)  a  French  poet  and  pro- 
fe?sor_of  rhetoric,  born  in  Picardyin  1753  ;  died  in  1811. 

Crowe_,  (Mrs.  Catherine,)  an  English  authoress, 
v/hose  maiden  name  was  Stevens,  was  born  at  Borough 
Green,  Kent,  about  1802.    She  became  the  wife  of  Lieu- 


tenant-Colonel Crowe  in  1822.  She  produced  in  1847 
"  Lillie  Dawson,"  a  novel.  Her  "  Night  Side  of  Nature" 
(1848)  treats  of  the  spiritual  or  supernatural  world. 
Among  her  later  works  is  "  Light  and  Darkness,  or  the 
Mysteries  of  Life,"  (1850.) 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  September,  1850. 

Crowe,  (Eyre  Evans,)  an  English  writer  of  the  pres- 
ent century,  published  a  "  History  of  France,"  (in  5  vols., 
1858-68,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  March,  1868. 

CrowTey,  (Robert,)  an  English  Protestant  divine 
and  poet,  became  a  Fellow  of  Magdalene  College  in 
1542.  He  composed  many  epigrams,  and  was  the  first 
editor  of  "  Piers  Plowman's  Vision."  In  1558  he  became 
prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's,  London.    Died  in  1588. 

Crowne,  (John,)  an  English  dramatist  of  inferior 
order,  born  in  Nova  Scotia.  He  removed  to  England, 
wrote  several  successful  plays,  and  obtained  some  favour 
at  the  court  of  Charles  II.  Among  his  works  are  "City 
Politiques,"  (1675,)  ^^'^^  "Sir  Courtly  Nice,"  a  comedy. 

See  CiBBER,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Crowquill.    See  Forrester. 

Crox'all,  (Samuel,)  an  English  writer,  born  at  Wal- 
ton-upon-Thames.  He  became  prebendary  of  Hereford 
and  Archdeacon  of  Salop,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Scripture  Politics,"  (1735,)  '^^'^^  ^  popular  Eng- 
lish version  of  "yEsop's  Fables."    Died  in  1752. 

Croy,  de,  deh  kRwi,  (Emmanuel,)  Duke,  and  Prince 
de  Solre,  a  French  general,  born  at  Conde  in  17 18,  was 
made  marshal  of  France  in  1782.    Died  in  1784. 

Croy,  de,  (Guillaume.)    See  Chievres. 

Crozat,  kRo'zi^  (Louis  FRANgois,)  Marquis  du  Cha- 
tel,  a  French  general,  born  in  1695;  died  in  1750. 

Croze.    See  La  Croze. 

Crozier,  kro'zher,  (Captain  Francis  Raw^don 
MoiRA,)  F.R.S.,  the  second  officer  of  Sir  John  Frank- 
lin's last  expedition,  born  at  Banbridge,  Ireland,  about 
1795.  In  1845  he  sailed  with  Franklin  in  search  of  a 
Northwest  passage,  after  which  nothing  was  heard  of 
the  party  until  1859,  when  Captain  McClintock  found  on 
King  William's  Island  a  record,  dated  April  25,  1848, 
signed  by  Captain  Crozier,  stating  that  the  ships  had 
just  been  abandoned,  and  that  the  crews,  under  com- 
mand of  Crozier,  were  about  to  start  for  Great  Fish  River. 
(See  Franklin,  Sir  John.) 

Cruciger,  the  Latin  of  Creutziger,  which  see. 

Cruciger,  kRoot'sic-er,  (Georg,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  in  1575.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy  al 
Marburg,  and  wrote  "  Harmony  of  Languages,"  ("  Har- 
monia  Linguarum.")    Died  in  1636. 

Crucius.    See  Croce,  Della. 

Crucy,  de,  deh  kRli'se',  (Mathurin,)  a  French  ar- 
chitect, born  at  Nantes  in  1748,  gained  the  grand  prize 
in  1774.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute.  Died  in 
1826. 

Cru'den,  (Alexander,)  an  eccentric  Scottish  book- 
seller, born  at  Aberdeen  in  1700.  He  studied  for  the 
church  ;  but  symptoms  of  insanity  prevented  his  ordina- 
tion. In  1732  he  became  a  resident  of  London,  where 
he  opened  a  bookstore  and  received  the  title  of  book- 
seller to  the  queen.  He  styled  himself  "  Alexander  the 
Corrector,"  imagining"  that  he  had  a  mission  to  reform 
the  manners  of  the  age.  In  1737  he  published  his 
"  Concordance  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,"  the 
result  of  his  unassisted  industry.  It  was  the  most 
complete  Concordance  that  had  appeared,  and  is  still 
esteemed  indispensable  to  biblical  scholars.  His  mental 
disease  manifested  itself  in  whimsical  and  extravagant 
actions  and  writings.  He  showed  his  zeal  for  good 
morals  by  effacing  with  a  sponge  indecent  inscriptions 
in  public  places.    Died  in  1770. 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  x.,  1824. 

Cruger.    See  Kruger. 

Cru'ger,  (John  Harris,)  born  in  New  York  in  1738, 
became  mayor  of  that  city  in  1764.  In  the  Revolutionary 
war  he  fought  on  the  side  of  the  royalists.  Died  in  Lon- 
don in  1807. 

Cruikshank,  krook'shank,  (George,)  an  English 
artist,  distinguished  for  his  comic  humour  and  skill  in 
caricature,  was  born  in  London  about  1794.  He  ac- 
quired popularity  about  1820  by  designs  for  William 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2:^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CR  U  IKS  HANK 


696 


CUB  IE  RES 


Hone's  satirical  works,  among  which  is  the  "  Political 
House  that  Jack  built,"  His  humorous  genius  and  fer- 
tile imagination  were  displayed  in  illustrations  of  "  Peter 
Schlemihl,"  "  The  Comic  Almanac,"  "  Oliver  Twist," 
"  My  Sketch-Book,"  and  many  other  books.  His  series 
of  plates  called  "The  Bottle,"  in  which  he  illustrated  the 
miseries  of  intemperance,  had  great  success. 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1863;  " WesUninster 
Review"  for  June,  1840. 

Cruik'shank,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  Scot- 
tish anatomist,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1745.  At  an  early 
age  he  went  to  London,  where  he  was  successively  the 
assistant  and  partner  of  Dr.  William  Hunter.  He  ac- 
quired reputation  by  his  lectures,  and  by  his  work  on 
"  The  Anatomy  of  the  Absorbent  Vessels,"  (1786.)  Died 
in  1800. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Crumpe,  krump,  (Samuel,)  a  physician,  born  in  1766, 
practised  at  Limerick,  in  Ireland.  He  wrote  an  able 
"Treatise  on  the  Properties  and  Use  of  Opium,"  and  a 
prize  "  Essay  on  the  Means  of  Providing  Employment 
for  the  People."    Died  in  1796. 

Cruquius.    See  Crusque,  de. 

Crusenstolpe,  kRoo'zen-storpeh,  (Magnus  Jakob,) 
a  popular  Swedish  novelist  and  political  writer,  born  at 
Jonkoping  in  1795.  He  published  a  "Historical  Picture 
of  the  First  Years  of  Gustavus  IV.,"  (1837,)  and  a  poli- 
tical work  called  "  Stallningar  och  Forhdllanden,"  ("  Posi- 
tions and  Relations,")  for  which  he  was  imprisoned  three 
years,  (1838-40.)  His  historical  romance  of"  Morianen" 
(6  vols.,  1840-44)  was  very  popular.  He  also  wrote  an 
interesting  romance  entitled  "Charles  John  [Bernadotte] 
and  the  Swedes,"  (1845,)  '^"^  other  works. 

Crusius.    See  Crenius. 

Ci'usius,  kRoo'ze-us  or  kRoo'zhe-us,  (Christian 
August,)  a  German  philosopher,  born  at  or  near  Mer- 
seburg  about  17 14.  He  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Leipsic,  and  published  many  works,  among  which  is 
"Logic,  or  the  Way  to  Certainty  and  Confidence  re- 
specting Human  Knowledge,"  (1747.)  He  zealously 
opposed  the  philosophy  of  Wolf.    Died  in  1775. 

See  Tennemann,  "  Grundriss  der  Geschichte  der  Philosophic ;" 
BuHLE,  "  Lehrbuch  der  Geschichte  der  Pliilosophie ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Crusius,  (Martin,)  a  German  philologist  and  histo- 
rian, born  near  Bamberg  in  1 526,  became  in  1559  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  at  Tubingen.  Pie  published  valuable 
works,  among  which  are  a  "  History  of  Suabia,"  ("An- 
nales  Suevici,"  1594,)  and  a  "Commentary  on  Homer's 
Iliad,"  (1612.)    Died  in  1607. 

See  MuLLER,  "  Oratio  de  Vita  et  Obitu  M.  Crusii,"  1608  ;  Mor^ri, 
"Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Crusque,  de,  deh  kRiisk  or  kRusk,  [Lat.  Cru'quius,] 
(James,)  a  Flemish  scholar,  born  near  Ypres,  became 
professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  Bruges  in  1544,  and  pub- 
lished a  valuable  edition  of  Horace,  with  notes,  (1578.) 

Crufwell,  (Clement,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
Berkshire  about  1745.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  an  elaborate  and  valuable  "Scripture  Harmony, 
or  Concordance  of  Parallels,"  (1790.)    Died  in  1808. 

Cruveilhier,  kRiiViOe-a',  (Jean,)  a  distinguished 
French  anatomist,  born  atTlimoges  about  1790,  became 
professor  of  anatomy  in  Paris  in  1825.  In  1835  he  ob- 
tained the  chair  of  pathological  anatomy  founded  by 
Dupuytren.  His  principal  works  are  his  "  System  oJ 
Anatomy,"  (American  edition,  1844,)  and  "Pathologic 
Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body,"  (1829-40.) 

Cruvelli,  kRoo-veKlee,  (Sophie,)  a  German  vocalist, 
originally  named  Cruwell,  born  at  Bielefeld  in  1830. 
She  was  married  in  1856  to  Baron  Vigier. 

Cruyl,  kRoil,  (Levinus,)  a  Flemish  designer  and 
engraver,  born  at  Ghent  about  1640,  produced  views 
of  Roman  scenery. 

Cruz.    See  La.  Cruz  and  Diniz  da  Cruz. 

Cruz,  da,  da  kRooz,  (Agostiniio,)  a  Portuguese  poet 
and  monk,  born  at  Ponte  da  Barca  in  1540,  was  a  brother 
of  the  poet  Diogo  Bernardes.  His  family  name  was  Pi- 
MENTA.  He  wrote  eiegies,  odes,  and  religious  poems, 
which  were  first  printed  in  1 771.  They  are  ranked 
among  the  Portuguese  classics.    Died  in  1619. 

See  Longfellow's  "Poets and  Poetry  of  Europe." 


Cruz,  da,  (Caspar,)  a  Portuguese  missionary,  born 
at  Evora,  is  stated  to  have  been  the  first  monk  that 
preached  the  Catholic  faith  in  China,  which  he  visited 
in  1556^  After  his  return  to  Portugal  he  published  an 
account  of  his  voyage.    Died  in  1570. 

Cruz,  da,  (Marcos,)  an  eminent  Portuguese  painter, 
born  about  1649;  died  about  1678. 

Cruz,  de  la,  (Juan.)    See  Pantoja. 

Cruz,  de  la,  da  li  kRooth,  [Fr.  de  la  Croix,  deh  It 
IcRwi,]  (Juan,)  a  Carmelite  friar  and  ascetic  w^riter,  born 
in  Old  Castile  in  1542.  He  founded  several  monasteries, 
and  wrote,  among  other  works,  the  "  Dark  Night  of  the 
Soul,"  ("  Noche  obscura  del  Alma.")    Died  in  1591. 

See  DosiTHEE  de  Saint-Alexis,  "Vie  de  Saint  Jean  de  la  Croix." 

Csdnyi,  chin'yee,  (Laszlo,)  a  Hungarian  statesman, 
born  in  1790,  took  an  active  part  in  the  revolution  of 
1848.  He  was  executed  in  1849,  by  order  of  the  Aus- 
trian government. 

Csaplovics,  chop'lo-vitch,  (JAnos,  )  a  Hungarian 
writer,  born  about  1780,  published  "  Topographical  and 
Statistical  Archives  of  the  Kingdom  of  Hungary,"  (1821.) 

Csokonai,  cho'ko-nl',  (MihAly  Vitez,)  a  Hungarian 
poet,  born  at  Debreczin  in  1773.  At  the- age  of  twenty 
he  became  professor  of  poetry  at  his  native  place,  but 
was  expelled  two  years  later  for  his  irregular  habits. 
He  wrote  popular  love-poems,  and  other  works,  mostly 
comic.    He  passed  his  life  in  poverty.    Died  in  1805. 

Csoma,  cho'mo,  (Alexander,)  of  Koros,  an  eminent 
Hungarian  traveller  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Koros  about 
1790.  In  early  youth  it  became  the  cherished  purpose 
of  his  life  to  discover  the  origin  of  his  race,  the  Magyars, 
who  were  generally  supposed  to  have  come  from  Asia. 
He  visited  Thibet  about  1822,  and  studied  the  Thibetan 
language  for  four  years  (1827-30)  at  Kanam.  He  went 
to  Calcutta  in  1830,  and  published  an  excellent  Thibetan- 
English  Dictionary  (1834)  and  a  Thibetan  Grammar. 
Having  undertaken  another  journey  to  Thibet,  he  died  at 
Darjeeling  in  1842,  without  having  solved  the  question 
of  the  origin  of  the  Magyars. 

Ctesias,  tee'she-as,  [Kr^aia^,]  a  Greek  historian  and 
physician,  who  flourished  about  400  B.C.,  was  a  native 
of  Cnidos,  in  Caria.  He  was  for  many  years  physician 
to  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  King  of  Persia,  and  afterwards 
returned  to  his  native  place.  He  wrote  liepoLKa,  (a  "  His- 
tory of  Persia,")  and  a  "  Description  of  India."  Of  these 
works  we  have  only  abridgments  in  Photius,  and  extracts 
preserved  by  other  writers.  His  accuracy  and  veracity  , 
have  been  questioned  by  ancient  and  modern  critics. 

See  F.^BRicius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca ;"  Plutarch,  "  Artaxerxes ;" 
Suin.'\s,  "Ctesias:"  Rettig,  " Ctesiae  Vita,"  1827;  K.  L.  Blum, 
"Herodotus  und  Ctesias,"  1836. 

Ctesibius,  te-sib'e-us,  [KTi^aiSLog,']  a  famous  Greek 
mechanician,  who  lived  in  Alexandria  about  130  B.C. 
He  invented  the  clepsydra,  a  pump,  and  other  machines. 
Pliny  and  Vitruvius  express  admiration  for  his  talents 
and  works.    Hero  the  Elder  was  his  pupil. 

Ctesidemus,  t§s-e-dee'mus,  [Fr.  Ct^:sideme,  tk'ze'- 
dam',]  a  Greek  painter,  lived  about  350  B.C. 

Ctesilas.    See  Cresilas. 

Ctesiphon.    See  Chersiphron. 

Ctesiphon,  t^s'e-phon,  \Ktt]gi^uv ,'\  an  Athenian,  who 
obtained  a  notice  in  history  by  proposing  that  a  crown 
of  gold  should  be  decreed  to  Demosthenes  for  his  public 
services.  For  this  he  was  prosecuted  by  ^schines,  and 
successfully  defended  by  Demosthenes  in  his  famous 
oration  "  On  the  Crown,"  330  B.C. 

Ctesiphon,  a  Greek  historian  of  an  uncertain  epoch, 
wrote  a  "History  of  Boeotia." 

Cubero,  koo-Ba'ro,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  priest,  born 
near  Calatayud  in  1645.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  who  made  the  tour  of  the  world  from  west  to  east, 
and  in  part  by  land,  (1670-79.)  He  published  a  short 
account  of  his  voyage,  (1680.) 

Cubieres,  de.'deh  kii  be-aiR',  (Am6d6e  Louis  Des- 
pans — di''p6N',)  a  French  general  and  peer,  born  in  Paris 
in  1786,  was  a  son  of  Simon  Louis  Pierre,  noticed  below. 
He  fought  at  Austerlitz,  (1805,)  and  at  Essling  and 
Wagram,  (1809.)  He  became  a  colonel  in  1813,  mare- 
chaf-de-camp  in  1829,  and  lieutenant-general  in  1835. 
He  was  made  a  peer  in  1839,  and  was  for  a  short  time 
minister  of  war  in  1839-40.    Died  in  1853. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CUBIERES 


697 


CULANT 


Cubieres,  de,  (Marie  Agla6  Buffaut — bliffo',)  the 
wife  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1794,  wrote  "Leonore 
de  Biran,"  and  other  novels.  The  French  Academy 
awarded  the  Montyon  prize  to  her  "Trois  Soufflets," 
(1838.) 

Cubieres,  de,  (Simon  Louis  Pierre,)  Marquis,  a 
French  naturalist,  born  at  Roquemaure  in  1747.  At- 
tached to  the  person  of  the  king  as  equerry,  he  served 
him  at  the  risk  of  his  life  in  the  Revolution.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Description  of  Shell-Fish  and  their  Habits," 
and  other  treatises  on  natural  history.    Died  in  1821. 

See  Challan,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  du  Marquis  de  Cubieres,"  1822. 

Cubillo,  koo-B^Kyo,  (  Alvaro  de  Aragon,)  a  Spanish 
dramatic  poet,  born  at  Granada  about  1590. 

Cu'bitt,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  architect,  born 
at  Buxton,  Norfolk,  in  1788.  He  was  chief  architect  of 
Belgravia,  and  erected  several  fine  buildings  in  London 
and  other  places.  He  was  employed  by  the  queen  to 
rebuild  Osborne  on  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  sanitary  improvement  of  London.  Died  in 
1855. 

See  "  Men  I  have  known,"  by  William  Jerdan,  London,  1866. 

Cubitt,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  civil  engineer, 
distinguished  as  an  inventor  of  machinery,  was  born  at 
Dilham,  Norfolk,  in  1785.  He  invented  a  treadmill  for 
prisons,  and  removed  to  London  about  1826,  after  which 
he  was  engineer  of  the  South-Eastern  Railway.  He 
superintencled  the  erection  of  the  Crystal  Palace  of 
Hyde  Park  in  185 1.    Died  in  October,  1861. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  November,  1861. 

Cucheval  -  Clarigny,  kiish^'tl''  klS'r^n^ye',  (Nar- 
CISSE,)  a  French  journalist,  born  at  Rennes  in  1820, 
became  an  editor  of  the  "  Constitutionnel"  in  1845. 

QJuddhodana,  (Suddhodana.)    See  Gautama. 

Cudena,  koo-Da'na,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  traveller,  who 
lived  about  1630,  wrote  a  "Description  of  Brazil." 

Cud^worth,  (Ralph,)  an  eminent  English  philoso- 
pher and  Arminian  divine,  born  at  Aller,  in  Somerset- 
shire, in  161 7,  was  a  graduate  of  Cambridge.  He  became 
master  of  Clare  Hall  in  1644,  professor  of  Hebrew  in 
1645,  master  of  Christ  College  in  1654,  and  prebendary 
of  Gloucester  in  1678.  He  was  one  of  the  chiefs  of 
those  who  were  called  "  Latitudinarians"  in  divinity.  In 
1678  he  produced  the  first  part  of  his  celebrated  work, 
"The  True  Intellectual  System  of  the  Universe,"  which 
he  left  unfinished.  "By  this,"  says  Hallam,  "he  placed 
himself  between  the  declining  and  rising  schools  of 
philosophy, — more  independent  of  authority  and  more 
close,  perhaps,  in  argument  than  the  former,  but  more 
prodigal  of  learning  and  less  conversant  with  analytical 
and  inductive  processes  of  reasoning  than  the  latter.  .  .  . 
Hobbes  is  the  adversary  with  whom  he  most  grapples." 
"The  Intellectual  System,"  says  Dugald  Stewart,  "will 
forever  remain  a  precious  mine  of  information  to  those 
whose  curiosity  may  lead  them  to  study  the  spirit  of  the 
ancient  theories."  "The  Intellectual  System,  his  great 
production,"  says  Mackintosh,  "is  directed  against  the 
atheistical  opinions  of  Plobbes  :  it  touches  ethical  ques- 
tions but  occasionally  and  incidentally.  It  is  a  work  of 
stupendous  erudition,  of  much  more  acuteness  than  at 
first  appears ;  .  .  .  and  it  is  distinguished,  perhaps,  be- 
yond any  other  volume  of  controversy,  by  that  best 
proof  of  the  deepest  conviction  of  the  truth  of  a  man's 
principles,— a  fearless  statement  of  the  most  formidable 
objections  to  them ;  a  fairness  rarely  practised  but  by 
him  who  is  conscious  of  his  power  to  answer  them."  He 
left  several  manuscripts,  one  of  which,  entitled  a  "Treat- 
ise concerning  Eternal  and  Immutable  Morality,"  has 
been  published.  His  daughter  was  the  w^ell-known  Lady 
Masham,  the  friend  of  John  Locke.    Died  in  1688. 

See  Jannet,  "De  Cudworthii  Doctrina,"  1849;  Mackintosh, 
"View  of  the  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy;"  Allibone,  "Dic- 
tionary of  Authors  ;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  vi.,  1822. 

Cuellar,  kwgl-yaR',  (Geronimo,)  a  Spanish  dramatic 
poet,  born  in  1608  ;  died  in  1669. 

Cuerenhert,  van,  vtn  kii'ren-hert,  (Theodore,)  a 
Dutch  engraver  and  writer,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1522  ; 
died  in  1590. 

Cuesta,  de  la,  di  la  kwls'ta,  (Gregorio  Garcia,)  a 
Spanish  general,  born  in  Old  Castile  in  1740,  was  de- 
feated by  the  French,  near  Medellin,  about  1809.  He 


afterwards  became  Captain-General  of  Old  Castile,  and 
united  his  force  to  that  of  Wellington.  He  resigned  his 
command  about  1810,  and  died  in  1812. 

Cueva,  de  la,  (Alfonso.)    See  Bedmar. 

Cueva,  de  la,  dk  li  kwa'vi,  (Beltram,)  a  Spanish 
grandee,  who  passed  for  the  most  gallant  and  handsome 
man  in  Spain.  In  consequence  of  the  favouritism  shown 
to  him  by  Henry  IV.,  many  of  the  nobles  revolted  against 
that  prince.  Cueva  commanded  for  Henry  at  the  inde- 
cisive battle  of  Medina  del  Campo,  (1464,)  soon  after 
which  peace  was  restored.  He  embraced  the  party  of 
Isabella  about  1475,  and  fought  against  Joanna,  who  was 
supposed  to  be  his  natural  claughter.    Died  in  1492. 

Cueva,  de  la,  (Juan,)  an  eminent  Spanish  poet,  born 
at  Seville  about  1550.  He  composed  dramas,  lyric  jDC'Cms, 
and  an  epic  poem  called  "  Betica,"  (1603,)  which  Ticknor 
regards  as  a  failure.  A  volume  of  his  poems  was  pub- 
lished in  1582.  His  "  Egemplar  Poetico"  (1605)  was  the 
earliest  didactic  poem  of  Spain.  "The  Spaniards  place 
him,"  says  Villenave,  "in  the  first  rank  of  their  poets." 

See  Ticknor,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  N.  Antonio, 
"  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Cuevas,  de  las,  da  lis  kwa'vJs,  (Eugenio,)  a  Spanish 
portrait-painter,  born  at  Madrid  in  1613  ;  died  in  1667. 

Cuff,  (Henry,)  an  English  scholar,  born  about  1560. 
He  "became  professor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of 
Oxford,  and  afterwards  secretary  to  the  Earl  of  Essex. 
During  the  trial  of  Essex  for  treason,  he  accused  Cuff 
of  having  been  the  first  adviser  of  his  rash  measures. 
Cuff  was  executed  in  1601.  He  left  a  work  called  "  The 
Difference  of  the  Ages  of  Man's  Life,"  (1607.) 

See  Wood,  "  Athense  Oxonienses;"  Fuller,  "Worthies." 

Cuf'fee,  (Paul,)  a  negro  philanthropist,  a  member  of 
the  Society  of  Friends,  was  born  near  New  Bedford, 
Massachusetts,  in  1759.  He  accumulated  a  fortune  as  a 
sea-captain,  commanded  his  own  vessel,  and  had  a  crew 
composed  entirely  of  negroes.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  he  took  a  deep  interest  in  the  subject  of  African 
colonization,  corresponded  with  prominent  friends  of  the 
enterprise  in  Great  Britain,  and  in  1811  visited  Sierra 
Leone.    Died  in  1818. 

Cugnet  de  Montarlot,  kiin'yk'  deh  m6N'ttR'lo', 
(Claude  Franqois,)  a  French  politician  and  journalist, 
born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1778;  died  in  Spain  in  1824. 

Cugnieres,  kiin^ye-aiR',  written  also  Gugnieres  or 
Congnieres,  (Pieri^Tde,)  a  French  jurist,  became  royal 
advocate  under  Philip  VI.  about  1325. 

Cugnot,  kiin^'yo',  (Nicolas  Joseph,)  a  French  en- 
gineer, born  in  Lorraine  in  1725  ;  died  in  1804. 

Cujacius.    See  Cujas. 

Cujas,  kii'zhas',  [Lat.  Cuja'cius,]  (Jacques,)  a  French 
jurist  of  pre-eminent  merit,  was  born  at  Toulouse  in  1520. 
Having  learned  Latin  and  Greek  without  a  teacher,  he 
studied  law  in  Toulouse,  and  in  1555  became  professor 
at  Bourges,  the  chief  seminary  of  Roman  law  in  France. 
About  1567  he  removed  Jo  Valence,  where  his  lectures 
were  extremely  popular.  After  several  changes,  he  re- 
turned in  1577  to  Bourges,  where  he  passed  the  rest  of 
his  life.  His  lectures  were  attended  by  students  from  all 
nations  of  Europe.  His  works,  published  in  1577,  made 
an  epoch  in  the  annals  of  jurisprudence.  He  was  loyal 
to  Henry  IV.,  and  took  no  part  in  the  civil  or  religious 
discords  of  the  times.  Died  in  1590.  "This  greatest  of 
all  civil  lawyers,"  says  Hallam,  "  pursued  the  track  that 
Alciat  had  so  successfully  opened,  avoiding  all  scholastic 
subtleties  of  interpretation,  for  which  he  substituted  a 
general  erudition  that  rendered  the  science  more  intel- 
ligible and  attractive."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe.")  Among  his  numerous  works  are  com- 
mentaries on  Justinian's  Institutes,  on  the  Pandects  and 
Decretals,  and  "  Observationes  et  Emendationes." 
^  See  "Vie  de  Cujas,"  by  Papire-Masson,  1590;  Bernardi, 
"  Eloge  de  Cujas,"  1775;  J.  Berriat  Saint-Prix,  "  Histoire  de 
Cujas,"  (in  his  "  Histoire  du  Droit  Romain,")  1821 ;  Taisand,  "Vies 
des  Jurisconsultes,"  1721;  Brunquell,  "  Historia  Juris,"  1738; 
Niceron,  "Memoires;"  Spangenberg,  "J.  Cujas  und  seine  Zeit- 
genossen,"  1822;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Culant,  de,  deh  ku'16N',  (Philippe,)  a  French  gene- 
ral, esteemed  one  of  the  first  captains  of  his  time.  He 
became  a  marshal  in  1441,  and  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  reduction  of  Normandy  and  the  expulsion  of  the 
English  from  France.    Died  in  1453. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  tiasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (gJ^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CULLEN 


698 


GUMMING 


Ciil'len,  (Paul,)  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  born  in 
Ireland  about  1805.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Armagh 
and  Primate  of  Ireland  in  1850.  A  few  years  ago  he  was 
translated  to  the  diocese  of  Dublin.  He  is  the  reputed 
author  of  a  treatise  designed  to  prove  that  the  earth  does 
not  move. 

Cul'len,  (William,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated  phy- 
sicians cf  the  eighteenth  century,  was  born  in  Lanark- 
shire, i.i  Scotland,  in  1712.  Having  studied  surgery  and 
pharmacy  at  Glasgow,  he  went  to  London  in  1729,  and 
sailed  thence  to  the  West  Indies  as  surgeon  of  a  mer- 
chant-vessel. About  1732  he  returned  to  Scotland,  and 
pursued  his  medical  and  literary  studies  in  Edinburgh. 
In  1736  he  began  to  practise  at  Hamilton,  where  he 
formed  a  friendship  and  partnership  with  William  Hun- 
ter, the  eminent  surgeon.  The  course  of  events  soon 
dissolved  their  partnership  ;  but  they  continued  to  be 
friends  for  life.  In  1741  he  married  Anna  Johnstone, 
and  removed  to  Glasgow  in  1745.  He  became  professor 
of  chemistry  in  the  Glasgow  University  in  1746,  and  of 
medicine  in  1751.  There  he  developed  a  remarkable 
talent  for  giving  science  an  attractive  form,  and  for  treat- 
ing abstract  subjects  clearly.  In  1756  he  obtained  the 
chair  of  chemistry  in  Edinburgh.  "  He  claims,"  says 
Dr.  Thomson,  "  a  conspicuous  pkce  (in  the  history  of 
chemistry)  as  the  true  commencer  of  the  study  of  scien- 
tific chemistry  in  Great  Britain."  He  became  professor 
of  theoretical  medicine  in  1766,  and  of  practical  medi- 
cine in  1773.  He  raised  the  medical  celebrity  of  that 
university  to  a  great  height,  and  founded  a  new  and 
ingenious  system,  which  was  promptly  and  generally 
adopted.  His  most  important  works  are  "First  Lines 
of  the  Practice  of  Physic,"  (1777,)  "  Synopsis  of  Metho- 
dical Nosology,"  ("  Synopsis  Nosologiae  Methodicae,"  2 
vols.,  1785,)  and  a  "Treatise  of  the  Materia  Medica," 
(2  vols.,  1789.)    Died  in  1790. 

See  John  Thomson,  "Life  and  Writings  of  Wiiliam  CuUen," 
1832;  "Lives  of  British  Physicians,"  London,  1857;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1832  ;  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of 
Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  Sprengel,  "  Geschichte  der  Arzneikunde." 

CuPlum,  (George  W.,)  an  American  general  and 
engineer,  born  in  the  city  of  New  York  about  1812, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1833.  He  superintended 
the  construction  of  many  forts  before  the  civil  war,  and 
became  chief  of  staff  to  General  Halleck  about  Novem- 
ber, 1861.  He  published  a  "Biographical  Register  of 
the  Graduates  of  West  Point,"  (2  vols.,  1868.) 

CulTum,  (Rev.  Sir  John,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  1733,  published  "The  Antiquities  of  Hawstead  and 
Harcivvick,"  (2d  edition,  1813.)    Died  in  1785. 

CuPpep-per,  (John,)  a  surveyor-general  and  popular 
leader  in  the  provinces  of  North  and  South  Carolina, 
was  the  head  of  an  insurrection  which,  in  1678,  de])osed 
and  imprisoned  the  royal  president  and  deputies  in  North 
Carolina  and  established  a  new  government. 

CuPpep-per,(NiCHOLAS,)  an  English  astrologer,  born 
in  1616,  published,  besides  otli^r  works,  "The  English 
Physician,"  (1652,)  which  passed  through  many  editions. 
Died  in  1654. 

Culpepper,  (Thomas,)  Lord,  Governor  of  Virginia 
from  1680  to  1683,  was  one  of  the  persons  to  whom  King 
Charles  II.  granted  the  territory  of  Virginia  about  1673. 
He  was  noted  for  covetousness.    Died  in  1 7 19. 

CuPvert,  (George,)  a  Choctaw  Indian  chief,  born  in 
1744.  He  served  under  Washington  in  the  Revolutionary 
war,  and  under  General  Jackson  in  the  Seminole  war  in 
1814,  when  he  became  a  colonel. 

Cumberland,  Duke  of.  See  Ernest  Augustus  of 
Hanover. 

Cum'ber-land,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  English  moral 
philosopher,  born  in  London  in  1632.  Having  graduated 
at  Cambridge,  he  became  rector  of  Brampton  in  1658, 
and  obtained  the  living  of  Allhallows,  Stamford,  in  1667. 
In  1672  he  published,  in  Latin,  a  work  designed  as 
a  refutation  of  the  system  of  Hobbes,  and  entitled  a 
"Philosophic  Inquiry  into  the  Laws  of  Nature,"  ("De 
Legibus  Naturae  Disquisitio  Philosophica.")  '^'This 
was  of  great  importance,"  says  Hallam,  "in  the  annals 
of  ethical  philosophy,  and  was,  if  not  a  text-book  in 
either  of  the  universities,  the  basis  of  the  system  therein 
taught,  and  of  the  books  which  had  most  influence  in 
this  country.  .  .  .  He  seems  to  have  been  the  first 


Christian  writer  who  sought  to  establish  systematically 
the  principles  of  moral  right  independently  of  revelation," 
("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  He  after- 
wards produced  "Origines  Gentium  Antiquissima;,"  or 
"Attempts  for  discovering  the  Times  of  the  First  Plant- 
ing of  Nations,"  and  other  works.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Peterborough  in  1691.    Died  in  1718. 

See  S.  Payne,  "Life  and  Writings  of  R.  Cumberland,"  1720; 
"Biographia  Britannica." 

Cumberland,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  English  dra- 
matic author  and  essayist,  born  at  Cambridge  in  1732, 
was  the  great-grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  grandson 
of  Bentley,  the  renowned  critic.  He  was  chosen  a  Fel- 
low of  Trinity  College  about  1750,  and  became  private 
secretary  to  the  Earl  of  Halifax,  in  whose  service  he 
remained  many  years.  About  1776  he  was  appointed 
secretary  to  the  board  of  trade,  and  in  1780  was  sent  on 
a  secret  mission  to  Madrid.  After  his  return  he  devoted 
himself  to  literai-y  pursuits,  and  produced  a  great  variety 
of  works,  in  prose  and  verse,  among  which  are  several 
popular  comedies,  including  "  The  West  Indian,"  "  The 
Wheel  of  Fortune,"  etc.  In  1785  he  published  a  series 
of  essays  under  the  title  of  "The  Observer,"  which,  says 
Dr.  Drake,  "in  literary  interest  and  fertility  of  invention 
may  be  classed  with  the  '  Spectator'  and  'Adventurer,' 
.  .  ,  I  consider  it  as  superior  in  its  powers  of  attrac- 
tion to  every  other  periodical  composition  except  those 
papers  just  mentioned."    Died  in  1811. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Richard  Cumberland,"  by  himself,  2  vols.,  1806; 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  "Miscellaneous  Prose  Works;"  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  April,  1806. 

Cumberland,  (William  Augustus,)  Duke  of,  the 
third  son  of  George  II.,  King  of  England,  was  born  in 
1 721.  He  commanded  the  English  and  allies  at  the 
great  battle  of  Fontenoy  in  1745,  where  he  was  defeated 
by  the  French,  At  the  end  of  this  campaign  he  was 
recalled  to  England  to  resist  the  Pretender,  whom  he 
defeated  at  Culloden  in  1746.  He  was  justly  reproached 
for  his  cruelty  on.  that  occasion,  when  not  only  the  flying 
troops  of  the  Pretender,  but  many  spectators,  were  mer- 
cilessly slaughtered  ;  and  he  became  in  consequence  ex- 
tremely unpopular.  In  the  Seven  Years'  war  he  took 
command  of  the  English  army  on  the  continent,  and, 
after  losing  a  battle  at  Hastembeck  in  1757,  disbanded 
his  army  and  retired  from  the  service.  In  1765,  at  the 
request  of  the  king,  he  formed  a  new  Whig  ministry,  of 
which  he  was  the  main  support,  when  he  died  suddenly 
the  same  year.  "  With  great  courage,"  says  Macaulay, 
"  he  had  the  virtues  which  are  akin  to  courage.  He 
spoke  the  truth,  was  open  in  enmity  and  friendship,  and 
upright  in  all  his  dealings  ;  but  his  nature  was  hard,  and 
what  seemed  to  him  justice  was  rarely  tempered  with 
mercy." 

See  "Historical  Memoirs  of  his  Royal  Highness  William  Au- 
gustus, Duke  of  Cumberland,"  1767;  Andrew  Henderson,  "Life 
of  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,"  1766. 

Cum'ing,  (Hugh,)  an  English  naturalist,  born  in 
Devonshire  in  1 791.  He  passed  many  years  on  the 
coasts  of  South  America  and  among  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific,  w^here  he  obtained  a  rich  collection  of  shells  and 
of  plants.    Died  in  London  in  1865. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  October,  1865. 

Cum'ming,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  popular  British  preacher 
and  theological  writer,  was  born  in  Aberdeenshire,  Scot- 
land, in  1810.  In  1832  he  became  minister  of  the  Scottish 
church  in  Crown  Court,  Covent  Garden,  London.  He 
has  distinguished  himself  as  an  adversary  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  as  an  opponent  of  the  party  which 
under  Dr.  Chalmers  established  the  Free  Church  in 
1843.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "Lectures  on 
the  Parables,"  "  The  Great  Sacrifice,"  "  Discourses  on 
the  Revelations,"  and  "The  Great  Tribulation,"  (i860.) 

Cumming,  (Roualeyn  Gordon,)  of  Altyre,  a  Scot- 
tish sportsman,  born  about  1820.  Between  1843  ^^""^ 
1849  he  spent  about  five  years  in  South  Africa,  where 
his  principal  employment  was  hunting  lions,  elephants, 
etc.  He  published  in  1850  a  "Hunter's  Life  in  South 
Africa."  "  We  give  entire  credit  to  the  truthfulness  of 
the  book,  which  is  assuredly  one  of  extraordinary  interest 
after  its  kind.  ...  In  fact,  the  narrative  has  the  charm 
of  vivid  romance;  and  the  professed  novelist  may  study 


5,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moonj 


CUMMINGS  699  CUNO 


with  envy  the  native  spring  of  his  sinewy  style."  ("  Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1851.)  Died  in  1866. 

Cuni'miiigs,  (Joseph,)  a  Methodist  minister,  born  at 
Falmouth,  Maine,  in  181 7.  He  became  president  of  the 
Wesleyan  University  of  Middletown,  Connecticut. 

Cunimings,  (Maria,)  an  American  authoress  of  the 
present  age.  She  produced  "The  Lamplighter,"  (1854,) 
of  which  about  70,000  copies  were  issued  in  the  first 
year,  znd  "Mabel  Vaughan,"  a  novel,  (1857.)  Died  in 
1866. 

Cuiiceus,  ku-na'us,  or  Van  der  Kun,  vtn  der  kiin, 
(Petrus,)  a  Dutch  scholar,  born  at  Flushing  in  1586, 
was  reckoned  among  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time, 
and  was  the  associate  of  Grotius  and  Scaliger.  In  161 1 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  Latin  at  Leyden,  and  he 
afterwards  obtained  the  chair  of  law  in  addition.  He 
wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "Treatise  on  the  Hebrew  Republic," 
(161 7,)  which  was  often  rej^rinted,  a  number  of  able 
orations,  and  other  works.    Died  at  Leyden  in  1638. 

See  MoRERi,  " Dictionnaire  Historique;"  Burmann,  "Trajectum 
Eruditiiin  ;"  A.  VoRSTiUS,  "  Oratio  Funebiis  recitata  in  Exequiis  P. 
Cunjei,"  1638. 

Cunc-ta'tor,  a  surname  of  Q.  Fabius  Maximus, 
the  Roman  general.    (See  Fabius.) 

Cunego,  koo-na'go,  (Domenico,)  an  excellent  Italian 
engraver,  born  at  Verona  in  1727.  He  worked  in  Rome 
the  greater  part  of  his  life,  and  engraved  many  of  the 
productions  of  Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael,  including 
•'The  Last  Judgment"  and  "La  Fornarina."  Gavin 
Hamilton's  "  Schola  Italica"  contains  twenty-two  en- 
gravings of  Cunego,  after  the  Italian  masters.  He  worked 
in  Berlin  four  years,  from  1785  to  1789.    Died  in  1794. 

Cu'ne-gonde,  [Ger.  Kunigunde,  koo'ne-goon'deh,] 
Saint,  was  the  wife  of  Henry  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany. 
According  to  the  legend,  she  was  delivered  from  a  sus- 
picion of  conjugal  infidelity  by  passing  unhurt  through 
an  ordeal  of  fire.    Died  in  1040. 

See  J.  RiON,  "  Leben  und  Thaten  des  heiligen  Heinrichs  und  der 
heiligen  Kunigunde,"  1832. 

Cunha,  da,  dS  koon'yS,  (Joz6  Anastasio,)  a  Por- 
tuguese, born  at  Lisbon  in  1744,  became  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Coimbra  in  1774.    Died  in  1787. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Litterature  du  Midi  de  rEuiope." 

Cunha,  da,  (Nuno,)  a  Portuguese,  born  in  1487,  was 
appointed  Governor-General  of  India  in  1528.  After 
several  successful  enterprises,  he  was  removed  from  office 
about  1538,  and  died  at  sea  during  the  voyage  home- 
ward.   His  exploits  have  been  sung  by  Camoens. 

Cunha,  da,  (Dom  Rodrigo,)  a  patriotic  Portuguese 
prelate,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1577.  He  became  Archbishop 
of  Braga  and  of  Lisbon  in  1635.  contributed  greatly 
to  the  success  of  the  revolution  of  1640,  and  wrote  His- 
tories of  the  Churches  of  Braga  and  of  Lisbon.  Died 
in  1643. 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "Bibliotheca  Lusitana." 

Cunha,  da,  (Tristam,)  a  Portuguese  navigator,  the 
father  of  Nuno,  noticed  above,  commanded  a  fleet  sent 
in  1508  to  make  explorations  and  conquests.  He  dis- 
covered in  the  South  Sea  three  small  islands,  one  of 
which  bears  his  name,  and  gained  a  victory  over  the  King 
of  Calicut.    In  1515  he  was  ambassador  at  Rome. 

Cunha  Barbosa,  da,  dS  koon'yi  baR-bo'sS,  (Janu- 
ARIO,)  a  Brazilian  priest  and  journalist,  born  in  1780. 
He  founded  the  "  Reverbero  Constitucional,"  a  journal 
which,  about  1821,  advocated  the  independence  of  Brazil. 
He  became  canon  of  the  imperial  chapel  in  1824,  and 
afterwards  director  of  the  national  library.  He  founded 
the  Geographical  and  Historical  Institute  of  Rio  Janeiro. 
Died  in  1846. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Cunha  Mattos,  da,  da  koon'yi  mSt'tos,  (Raymundo 
Joz6,)  a  Portuguese  general,  born  at  Faro  in  1 776.  About 
1820  he  became  commandant  of  the  province  of  Goyaz, 
and  afterwards  obtained  the  highest  rank  in  the  army. 
He  published  a  valuable  work,  called  "Itinerary  from 
Rio  Janeiro  to  Para  and  Maranham,"  etc.,  (1836.)  Died 
in  1840. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Cunich,  koo'nik,  (Raimondo,)  a  Jesuit,  noted  as  a 
Latin  poet,  was  born  at  Ragusa  in  1719;  died  at  Rome 
in  1794. 


Cunin-Gridaine,  kii'niN'  gRe'din',  (Laurent,)  horn 
at  Sedan,  in  France,  in  1778,  was  minister  of  commerce 
in  several  cabinets  between  1837  and  1848.  Died  in  1859. 

Cunitia.    See  Cunitz, 

Cunitz,  koo'nits,  or  Cunitia,  (Maria,)  a  learned  Ger- 
man lady,  born  at  Schweidnitz,  in  Silesia.  After  learning 
several  languages,  she  gave  special  attention  to  astro- 
nomy. She  was  married  in  1630  to  M.  Lewen.  Having 
undertaken  to  render  the  tables  of  Kepler  more  con- 
venient in  practice,  she  published,  in  1650,  astronomical 
tables,  under  the  title  of  "  Urania  Propitia."  Died  in  1664. 

Cunningham,  kun'ning-am,  (Alexander,)  a  Scot- 
tish historian,  born  near  Selkirk  in  1654.  From  1715  to 
1720  he  was  British  envoy  to  Venice.  He  wrote,  in  Latin, 
a  "  History  of  Great  Britain  from  1688  to  17 14,"  which  is 
said  to  be  valuable,  and  has  been  translated  into  English. 
Died  about  1737. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dic- 
tionary of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Cunningham,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  classical 
scholar,  born  about  1650.  He  became  professor  of  law 
in  Edinburgh,  and  afterwards  removed  to  the  Hague, 
where  he  published  an  edition  of  Horace,  (1721,)  which 
is  much  esteemed.    Died  about  1730. 

Cunningham,  (Allan,)  a  successful  Scottish  author 
and  critic,  born  at  Blackwood,  Dumfriesshire,  in  1785. 
In  early  youth  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  stone-mason.  In 
1 810  he  went  to  London,  where  he  was  employed  as  re- 
porter for  newspapers.  From  1814  to  1841  he  held  the 
desirable  position  of  clerk  or  foreman  of  Sir  F.  Chan- 
trey's  studio.  He  published  an  admired  dramatic  poem, 
"Sir  Marmaduke  Maxwell,"  (1822,)  and  the  popular 
romances  "  Lord  Roldan"  and  "Paul  Jones."  In  1829- 
33  he  produced  a  valuable  work  entitled  "Lives  of  the 
Most  Eminent  British  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Archi- 
tects." He  also  composed  several  songs,  and  a  "  Critical 
History  of  the  Literature  of  the  Last  Fifty  Years."  Died 
in  1842.  Sir  Walter  Scott,  who  was  his  friend,  described 
him  as  a  "man  of  genius,  who  only  requires  the  tact  of 
knowing  when  and  where  to  stop,  to  attain  the  universal 
praise  that  ought  to  follow  it." 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement;)  De  Quincey,  "Literary  Reminiscences,"  vol.  ii.; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1828;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
September,  1S32,  (with  a  portrait.) 

Cunningham,  (Edward  Francis,)  a  distinguished 
Scottish  painter,  born  at  Kelso  about  1742.  After  study- 
ing in  Rome,  he  worked  with  success  in  London,  Paris, 
Saint  Petersburg,  and  Berlin.  He  painted  portraits  of 
several  royal  personages,  and  other  admired  works.  His 
habits  were  very  dissipated.    Died  in  1793. 

Cunningham,  kun'ning-am,  (George  Godfrey,)  an 
English  historian,  published  a  "  Biographical  History 
of  England,  or  a  History  of  England  in  the  Lives  of 
Englishmen,"  (8  vols.,  1853.) 

Cunningham,  (John,)  an  Irish  actor  and  poet,  born 
in  Dublin  in  1729.  He  performed  some  years  in  Edin- 
burgh and  the  north  of  England,  and  composed  pastoral 
and  other  poems,  which  were  received  with  favour.  Died 
in  1773. 

Cunningham,  (John  William,)  Vicar  of  Harrow,  an 
English  writer,  born  about  1780,  published  "The  Velvet 
Cushion,"  (1814,)  which  passed  through  many  editions, 
"De  Ranee,"  (a  poem,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1861. 

Cunningham,  (Peter,)  an  English  author  and  critic, 
a  son  of  Allan  Cunningham,  the  poet,  was  born  in  Pim- 
lico,  London,  in  1816.  He  became  chief  clerk  in  the 
Audit  Office  in  1854,  and  published  a  "Life  of  Inigo 
Jones,"  (1848,)  and  a  good  edition  of  Oliver  Goldsmith's 
Works,  (1854.)  He  also  edited  Johnson's  "Lives  of 
the  Poets,"  (1854.) 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April  and  October,  1854. 

Cunningham,  (William,)  an  English  engraver  and 
physician,  born  at  Norwich  about  1520 ;  died  in  1577. 

Cunningham,  (William,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  minister 
of  the  Free  Church,  was  born  at  Hamilton  in  1805.  He 
succeeded  Dr.  Chalmers  as  principal  of  the  New  College, 
Edinburgh,  in  1847.    Died  in  1861. 

Cuno,  koo'no,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German  poet 
and  botanist,  born  at  Berlin  in  1708.  He  wrote,  in  Ger- 
man, an  "Ode  on  his  Garden,"  (1750,)  and  "Letters  on 
Moral  Subjects,"  (in  verse  ;  3d  edition,  1766.)  Linnaeus 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  o,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CUP 


700 


CURSOR 


named  the  genus  Cunonia  in  honour  of  him.  Died 
about  1780. 

See  Adelung,  Supplement  to  Jocher,  "Allgemeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon." 

Cup,  kup,  (WiLLEM,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  at  Bommel 
in  1604 ;  died  in  1667. 

Cupaui,  koo-pa^nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  botanist, 
born  in  Sicily  in  1657.  He  became  a  monk  in  1681, 
after  which  he  published  two  catalogues  of  the  rare  or 
newly-found  plants  of  Sicily.  At  his  death  in  Palermo, 
in  171 1,  he  was  about  to  publish  an  extensive  work, 
called  "  Description  of  All  the  Plants  of  Sicily,"  ("  Pan- 
phytum  Siculum.")  In  171 5  Bonani,  who  became  pos- 
sessor of  his  papers,  published  a  volume  of  this  work 
and  claimed  it  as  his  own. 

See  MoNGiTORE,  "Bibliotheca  Sicula." 

Cuper,  kii'per,  [Lat.  Cupe'rus,]  (Gisbert,)  a  Dutch 
critic  and  philologist,  born  at  Hemmendem  in  1644. 
He  was  for  many  years  professor  of  history  at  Deventer, 
and  published  several  valuable  works,  among  which  are 

Observations  in  which  many  Passages  of  Authors  are 
Explained,"  (1670,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Three  Gor- 
dians,"  (Emperors  of  Rome,)  (1697.)    Died  in  17 16. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires  ;"  Bosscha,  "  Oratio  de  G.  Cupero," 
i8i6.' 

Cu'pid,  [Lat.  Cupi'do,  (or  A'mor  ;)  Fr.  Cupidon, 
kii^pe'ddN';  It.  Cupidine,  koo-peeMe-na,]  the  name  of 
the  god  of  love  in  the  Roman  mythology,  corresponding 
exactly  to  the  E'ros  ["Epwf]  of  the  Greeks.  He  is  usually 
regarded  as  the  son  of  Venus  ;  though  respecting  his 
parentage  there  is  considerable  diversity  among  the  an- 
cient authors.  He  is  represented  as  a  winged  boy  armed 
with  a  bow  and  arrows.  He  is  often  pictured  with  a 
bandage  over  his  eyes,  to  indicate  the  blindness  or 
unreasonableness  of  love.  The  corresponding  Hindoo 
deity  is  called  Kamadeva  or  Kamadeo,  which  see. 

See  Keightley's  "Mythology." 

Cupidon  or  Cupido.    See  Cupid. 

Curadi.    See  Ghirlandaio. 

Curaeuis.    See  Curaus. 

Curaudau,  ku'r5'd5',  (FRANgois  Ren6,)  a  French 
practical  chemist  and  inventor,  born  at  Seez  in  1765. 
He  improved  the  processes  of  tanning  leather,  of  making 
soap,  beet-sugar,  invented  stoves,  etc.    Died  in  1813. 

Curaus  or  Curaeus,  koo-ra'us,  (Joachim,)  a  German 
historian  and  physician,  born  at  Freystadt,  in  Silesia,  in 
1532,  was  a  friend  of  Melanchthon.  He  published,  be- 
sides several  theological  treatises,  an  important  work  on 
the  "  History  of  Silesia,"  ("  Annales  Silesiae  ab  Origine 
Genti,"  1571.)    Died  in  1573. 

Curcellaeus,  (Stephen.)    See  Courcelles,  (fixi- 

ENNE  DE.) 

Cureau.    See  Chambre. 

Curee,  kii'ra',  (Jean  Franqois,)  a  French  politician, 
born  near  Lodeve  in  1756.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Convention  in  1792.  As  a  member  of  the  Tribunate  in 
1804,  he  first  proposed  to  declare  Napoleon  emperor. 
He  afterwards  obtained  the  office  of  senator  and  the  title 
of  Count.    Died  in  1835. 

Curio,  koo're-o,  [Fr.  Curion,  kuW^N',]  (Ccet.tus 
Secundus,)  a  Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Piedmont 
in  1503.  He  was  professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Bale  from 
1547  to  1569,  and  published,  besides  other  works  in 
Latin,  "The  Amplitude  of  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven," 
(1554,)  and  "  Pasquillus  Ecstaticus,"  an  ingenious  and 
satirical  work  of  a  controversial  character.  About  1540 
he  was  confined  in  various  prisons  of  Italy  by  the  Inqui- 
sition, but  he  escaped  by  stratagem.    Died  in  1569. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron, 
"Memoires;"  Stupani,  "Oratio  de  C.  S.  Curionis  Vita,"  1570. 

Cu'ri-o,  [Fr.  Curion,  ku^re'6N',](CAius  Scribonius,) 
a  Roman  general,  a  friend  of  Cicero,  was  a  son  of  an 
orator  of  the  same  name.  He  became  tribune  of  the 
people  in  90  B.C.,  praetor  in  82,  and  consul  in  76.  He 
afterwards  commanded  in  Macedonia,  and  defeated  the 
Dardanians  and  Moesians.  In  57  B.C.  he  was  chosen 
pontifex  maximus.    Died  in  53  B.C. 

Curio,  (Caius  Scribonius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  a  profligate  politician.  He  had  great  natural  talents 
for  oratory.  He  became  tribune  in  50  B.C.,  soon  after 
which  he  deserted  the  cause  of  the  senate  and  became  a 


partisan  of  Caesar.  He  is  considered  as  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal instigators  of  the  civil  war  between  Ponipey  and 
Caesar.  In  the  year  49  he  obtained  command  in  Sicily, 
from  which  he  expelled  the  troops  of  Pompey.  Having 
led  an  army  into  Africa,  he  was  defeated  by  Juba  and 
killed  in  battle  about  48  B.C. 

See  Oreli.i,  "Onomasticon  Tullianum  ;"  Appian,  "  Bellum  Ci- 
vile ;"  Tacitus,  "  De  Claris  Oratoribus." 

Curion.    See  Curio. 

Curius  Dentatus.    See  Dentatus. 

Curl  or  Curll,  (Edmund,)  an  English  bookseller 
of  London,  to  whom  Pope  has  given  notoriety  in  his 
"Dunciad."  He  lost  his  ears  by  publishing  licentious 
books.    Died  in  1748. 

Curne,  La.    See  Sainte-Palaye. 

Curopalates.    See  Codinus. 

Curradi.    See  Currado  and  Ghirlandaio. 

Currado,  koor-ri'do,  or  Curradi,  koor-raMee,( Fran- 
cesco,) Cavaliere,  a  skilful  Italian  painter,  boin  at 
Florence  in  1570,  was  a  puj^il  of  B.  Naldini.  Among 
his  works,  which  are  mostly  of  small  dimensions,  is 
"The  Three  Mar)'s."    Died  in  1661. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Cur'ran,  (John  Philpot,)  a  famous  Irish  orator  and 
barrister,  born  of  Protestant  parents  at  Newmarket,  near 
Cork,  in  1750.  His  mother,  whose  name  was  Philpot, 
was  witty  and  highly  gifted.  In  1769  he  entered  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  where  he  acquired  an  extensive  know- 
ledge of  the  classics.  He  began  the  study  of  law  in  the 
Middle  Teir\ple,  London,  in  1773,  and  was  called  to  the 
Irish  bar  in  1775.  His  eloquence,  humour,  and  mastery 
of  sarcasm  soon  procured  him  a  large  practice.  In  cross- 
examination  he  was  inimitable:  "he  argued,  he  cajoled, 
he  ridiculed,  he  mimicked,  he  played  off"  the  various 
artillery  of  liis  talent  upon  the  witness."  In  1783  he 
entered  Parliament,  where  he  acted  with  the  opposition, 
of  which  Grattan  was  the  leader ;  but  he  was  not  so  suc- 
cessful there  as  in  the  forum.  "  He  had  all  the  qualities," 
says  Phillips,  "by  which  his  countrymen  are  attracted. 
His  imagination  was  wonderful,  his  eloquence  copious, 
rapid,  and  ornate,  his  powers  of  mimicry  beyond  all 
description.  .  .  .  He  had  another  quality,  apart  from 
intellect,  which  the  times  demanded, — indomitable  cour- 
age." Among  his  greatest  eff"orts  was  the  defence  of 
Rowan,  indicted  for  a  seditious  libel  in  1794.  He  was 
counsel  for  Theobald  Wolfe  Tone  and  other  persons 
implicated  in  the  rebellion  of  1798.  He  strenuously 
opposed  the  union  of  Ireland  and  England,  which  was 
effected  in  1800.  On  the  formation  of  a  Whig  ministry 
in  1806,  Curran  was  appointed  master  of  the  rolls  in 
Ireland,  a  position  for  which  he  was  not  well  adapted, 
and  which  was  quite  repugnant  to  his  habits.  In  his 
latter  years  he  was  subject  to  great  and  habitual  dejec- 
tion of  spirits.  Died  in  181 7.  Among  many  recorded 
instances  of  his  ready  wit  is  this  anecdote  :  When  a 
tobacconist  desired  a  Latin  motto  for  his  new  carriage, 
Curran  proposed  "  Quid  Rides."* 

See  "Life  of  J.  P.  Curran,"  by  his  son,  W.  H.  Curran,  iSiq; 
Charles  Phillips,  "Curran  and  his  Contemporaries,"  1850;  W. 
O.  Regan,  "Life  of  Curran,"  1S17;  T.  Davis,  "Life  of  Curran," 
1846  ;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  May,  1820. 

Currer  Bell.    See  Bront^,  (Charlotte.) 

Cur'rie  or  Cur'ry,  (James,)  a  Scottish  physician, 
born  in  Dumfriesshire  in" May,  1756.  Having  passed  a 
few  years  in  Virginia  in  mercantile  pursuits,  he  returned 
home  in  1776,  and  studied  medicine.  In  1780  he  set- 
tled in  Liverpool,  where  he  practised  with  success.  His 
principal  professional  work  is  "Medical  Reports  on 
the  Effects  of  Water,  Cold  and  Warm,  as  a  Remedy 
for  Fever,"  (1797.)  He  acquired  literary  reputation  by 
an  edition  of  Burns's  Works,  with  a  memoir  of  his  life. 
Died  in  1805. 

See  "Life  and  Writings  of  James  Currie,"  by  his  son,  W.  W. 
Currie,  1831 ;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1805,  Januarj', 
1814,  and  April,  1832;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of 
Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Cur'ry,  (Daniel,)  an  American  writer  and  Methodist 
minister,  born  at  Peekskill,  New  York,  in  1809.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Life  of  Wycliffe." 

Curry,  (James.)    See  Currie. 

Cursor.    See  Papirius  Cursor. 

*  I.e.  "Why  do  you  laugh?"  (See  Horace's  First  Satire,  1.  69.) 


a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  shori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CURTEIS 


701 


GUSHING 


'Cur'teis,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine  and  poet,  born 
about  1690,  wrote  essays  and  sermons.    Died  in  1747. 

Curti,  kooR^tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Bologna  in  1603. 

Curti,  (GiROLAMO.)    See  Dentone,  (Girolamo.) 

Cur'tin,  (Andrew  G.,)  an  American  politician,  born 
at  Bellefonte,  Centre  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  181 7.  He 
studied  law,  became  an  active  supporter  of  the  Whig 
party,  and  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  in  1855.  He 
was  elected  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  by  the  Republicans 
in  October,  i860.  In  1863  he  was  again  elected  Governor 
of  the  same  State  for  a  term  of  three  years.  He  was 
appointed  minister  to  Russia  in  April,  1869. 

Cur^tis,  (Benjamin  R.,)  an  American  lawyer,  born 
in  Watertown,  Massachusetts,  about  1810.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1832,  soon  after  which  he  began  to 
practise  in  Boston.  He  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the 
supreme  court  of  the  United  States  in  1851,  and  re- 
signed in  1857.  He  was  one  of  the  counsel  that  defended 
President  Johnson  in  his  trial  before  the  Senate  in  April, 
1868.  He  published  "Reports  of  Cases  in  the  Circuit 
Courts  of  the  United  States,"  1854. 

Curtis,  (George  Ticknor,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
eminent  legal  writer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Watertown,  Massachusetts,  in  1812.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  hi  1832.  "His  "Treatise  on  the  Rights  and 
Duties  of  Merchant  Seamen,"  (1841,)  says  Judge  Story, 
"is  written  with  great  ability,  accuracy,  and  learning." 
Among  his  other  works  may  be  mentioned  his  valuable 
treatise  on  the  law  of  Copyright,  (1847,)  and  his  "Com- 
mentaries on  the  Jurisdiction,  Practice,  et6.  of  the  Courts 
of  the  United  States,"  (2  vols.,  1854.) 

Curtis,  (George  William,)  a  popular  American 
author  and  lecturer,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in 
1824.  He  visited  Europe  about  1846,  studied  for  some 
time  in  the  University  of  Berlin,  and  made  an  extensive 
tour  in  the  Levant,  after  which  he  returned  home  in  1850. 
He  published  in  1851  an  attractive  work  entitled  "Nile 
Notes  of  a  Howadji,"  and  in  1852  "The  Howadji  in 
Syria."  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  an  orator 
and  lecturer  on  various  subjects.  In  1856  he  advocated, 
in  numerous  public  speeches,  the  election  of  John  C. 
Fremont  to  the  Presidency.  Among  his  works  are 
"Lotus-Eating,"  (1852,)  and  "The  Potiphar  Papers," 
reprinted  from  "Putnam's  Monthly  Magazine,"  (1854.) 

See  Cleveland's  "Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Curtis,  (Samuel  R.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Ohio  about  1807,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1831.  He 
serve^  as  colonel  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  after 
which  he  settled  in  Iowa.  He  represented  the  first 
district  of  Iowa  in  Congress,  1856-61,  and  voted  with 
the  Republicans.  In  May,  i86r,  he  became  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  gained  an  important  victory 
at  Pea  Ridge,  Arkansas,  March  7  and  8,  1862.  He  was 
speedily  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  took 
command  of  the  district  of  Missouri  in  September,  1862. 
Died  in  December,  1866. 

Curtis,  (William,)  an  English  botanist,  born  at  Alton, 
Hampshire,  in  1746,  was  proprietor  of  botanic  gardens 
at  Bermondsey,  Lambeth  Marsh,  and  Brompton.  In  1777 
he  began  to  publish  a  splendid  "  Flora  Londinensis," 
with  coloured  plates,  which  was  continued  by  Sir  W.  J. 
Hooker,  (1835.)  He  originated  the  "Botanical  Maga- 
zine," and  was  author  of  a  useful  work  entitled  "Obser- 
vations on  British  Grasses,"  (1790.)  He  also  left  two 
treatises  on  insects.    Died  in  1799. 

Curtius.    See  Curtz. 

Curtius,  kdoRt'se-iis,  (Ernst,)  a  German  antiquary, 
born  at  Lubeck  in  1814.  He  visited  Athens  in  1837, 
and  became  preceptor  of  Prince  Friedrich  Wilhelm  of 
Prussia  about  1844.  He  published  "The  Acropolis 
of  Athens,"  (1844,)  "Peloponnesus,"  (1852,)  and  other 
works  on  Greece.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek 
and  Latin  at  Gottingen  in  1856. 

Curtius,  kur'she-ns,  (Lancinus,)  a  mediocre  Latin 
poet,  born  at  MilanY"died  in  15 11. 

Curtius,  kur'she-us,  (Marcus,)  a  Roman  youth, 
celebrated  for  his  patriotic  devotion.  According  to  tra- 
dition, a  gulf  opened  in  the  Forum  of  Rome  about  360 
B.C.,  and  the  soothsayers  declared  it  could  not  be  filled 
except  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  principal  strength  of  the 


Roman  people.  Curtius  asked  his  fellow- citizens  if  their 
courage  and  arms  were  not  the  most  worthy  offerings. 
Then,  having  devoted  himself  to  the  Dii  Manes,  he 
mounted  his  horse  and  plunged  into  the  abyss,  which 
immediately  closed  up. 

See  LiVY,  "History  of  Rome;"  Plutarch,  "Romulus." 

Curtius,  (Matthew.)    See  Corti,  (Matteo.) 

Curtius,  (Metius,)  a  Sabine  hero,  who  fought  against 
the  Romans  in  the  war  caused  by  the  abduction  of  the 
Sabine  women,  and  killed  Hostus  Hostilius  in  single 
combat.  Having  been  attacked  by  Romulus,  he  took 
refuge  in  a  marsh  which  occupied  the  site  of  the  future 
Forum  of  Rome,  and  which  was  called  Lacus  Curtius  in 
memory  of  that  event. 

See  LivY,  "  History  of  Rome;"  Plutarch,  "Romulus." 

Curtius,  (Michael  Conrad,)  a  German  historian, 
born  in  Mecklenburg  in  1724,  was  professor  of  history 
at  Marburg.  He  wrote  (in  Latin)  a  good  "  Commentary 
on  the  Roman  Senate  under  the  Emperors,"  (1768.) 
Died  in  1802. 

See  G.  F.  Creuzer,  "Memoria  M.  C.  Curtii,"  1802. 

Curtius,  (QuiNTUS.)    See  Quintus  Curtius. 
Curtois.    See  Courtois. 

Curvo,  kooR'vo,  (Joao  Semmedo,)  a  Portuguese  phy- 
sician and  medical  writer,  born  in  1635  ;  died  in  1719. 

Curtz  or  Kurtz,  kooRts,  [Lat.  Cur'tius,  ]  (Al- 
brecht,)  a  German  astronomer,  born  at  Munich  in  1600 ; 
died  in  1671. 

Cur'weii,  (John  C.,)  an  English  agriculturist,  who 
represented  Cumberland  in  Parliament  for  many  years. 
He  made  improvements  in  agriculture,  and  published 
"Observations  on  the  State  of  Ireland,"  (1818.)  Died 
in  1828. 

Curzon,  de,  deh  kiiR^z^N',  (Paul  Alfred,)  a  French 
landscape-painter,  born  near  Poitiei's  in  1820.  He  ob- 
tained a  second  medal  in  1857. 

Cusa.    See  Cusanus. 

Cu-sa'nus,  or  de  Cu'sa,  written  also  Cuss  and  Cusel, 

(Nicholas,)  a  pious  and  learned  prelate,  born  at  Cusa, 
in  the  diocese  of  Treves,  in  1401.  His  family  name  was 
Krebs.  He  was  one  of  the  most  liberal  men  of  his 
time,  and  was  at  the  head  of  the  progressive  movements 
in  religion  and  science.  About  1448  he  was  made  a  car- 
dinal. He  wrote  a  work  in  favour  of  a  reform  in  the 
Church,  and  others  on  mathematics  and  astronomy. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  modern  who  favoured 
the  theory  of  the  earth's  motion.    Died  in  1464. 

See  Hartzheim,  "  N.  Cusae  Vita,"  1730;  F.  J.  Clemens,  "  Gior- 
dano Bruno  unci  Nicol.  von  Cusa,"  1847;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^nerale;"  Ritter,  "  History  of  Philosophy;"  R.  Zimmermann, 
"Der  Cardinal  N.  Cusanus  als  Vorlaufer  Leibnitzens,"  1852. 

Cusel.    See  Cusanus. 

Cushing,  koosh'ing,  (Caleb,)  a  distinguished  Ameri- 
can jurist,  politician,  and  scholar,  was  born  in  Essex 
county,  Massachusetts,  in  1800.  Having  graduated  at 
Harvard  College,  he  studied  law  at  Cambridge.  He  was 
elected  to  the  State  Senate  in  1826,  and  in  1829  visited 
Europe.  He  published,  soon  after,  "  Reminiscences  of 
Spain,"  and  a  "  Historical  and  Political  Review  of  the 
Revolution  in  France,"  (1830.)  He  represented  the 
North  Essex  district  in  Congress  for  fourtei'ms,  1835-43. 
He  acted  with  the  Whigs  until  1841,  when  he  united 
with  President  Tyler  in  his  hostility  to  the  Whig  meas- 
ures, and  went  over  to  the  Democratic  party.  He  was 
nominated  by  the  President  in  1843  as  secretary  of  the 
treasury  ;  but  he  was  not  confirmed  by  the  Senate.  lie 
was  soon  after  appointed  commissioner  to  China,  and  in 
1844  negotiated  the  first  treaty  of  the  United  States  with 
the  government  of  that  country.  On  his  return  he  be- 
came an  advocate  of  the  Mexican  war,  then  in  progress, 
and  equipped  a  regiment  of  volunteers  at  his  own  ex- 
pense. As  colonel  of  this  regiment,  he  went  to  Mexico 
in  1847,  and  was  appointed  brigadier-general.  During 
his  absence  he  was  nominated  by  the  IJemocratic  party 
as  their  candidate  for  Governor  ;  but  he  was  not  elected. 
He  was  appointed  in  1852  a  justice  of  the  supreme  court 
of  Massachusetts,  and  was  attorney-general  of  the  United 
States  from  March,  1853,  to  March'^1857. 

See  Livingston's  "Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans,  1854." 

Cushing,  (Luther  Stearns,)  an  American  jurist, 
born  in  Lunenburg,  Massachusetts,  in  1803.    He  was 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  //  G,  H,  Y., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (Ji^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GUSHING 


702 


CUriER 


reporter  to  the  supreme  court  of  his  State,  and  published 
8  vols,  of  Reports.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Law  and 
Practice  of  Legislative  Assemblies  in  the  United  States," 
(1855.)    Died  in  1856. 

Gushing,  (Thomas,)  an  American  patriot,  born  in 
Boston  in  1725.  He  was  a  member  of  the  first  and 
second  Congress,  and  was  afterwards  for  several  years 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  Massachusetts.    Died  in  1788. 

Gushing,  (William,)  a  jurist,  born  in  Scituate,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1733.  He  became  chief  justice  of  the 
superior  court  of  Massachusetts  in  1777,  and  a  justice 
of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  in  1789.  Died 
in  1 810. 

Gushing,  (William  B.,)  a  brave  naval  officer,  born 
in  Wisconsin  about  1842.  He  performed  several  daring 
exploits  in  the  civil  war.  Among  these  was  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  iron-clad  ram  Albemarle  in  the  Roanoke 
River,  on  a  dark  night  of  October,  1864.  Aided  by 
thirteen  men,  he  exploded  a  torpedo-boat  under  the 
Albemarle,  while  the  enemy  poured  a  destructive  fire 
into  his  little  craft.  All  of  his  party,  except  one  besides 
himself,  were  either  killed  or  captured.  Pie  jumped 
into  the  river,  swam  to  the  shore,  and  escaped.  He 
w-as  promoted  to  the  rank  of  commander.  "No  man  in 
our  navy,"  says  J.  T.  Headley,  "  at  his  age  has  ever  won 
so  brilliant  a  reputation." 

See  Headley,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  1867. 

Cushman,  kdosh^iian,  (Charlotte  S.,)  a  distin- 
guished American  actress,  born  in  Boston  about  1816. 
She  made  her  d3ul  about  1835,  ^^^^  performed  tragic 
parts  with  success  in  New  York  and  other  cities  of 
the  Union.  In  1845  she  went  to  England,  where  she 
performed  with  success  for  several  years.  Her  sister 
Susan  was  also  a  popular  actress. 

Gushnian,  (Robert,)  one  of  the  founders  of  Plymouth 
colony,  was  born  in  England  about  1580.  He  emigrated 
to  Plymouth  in  162 1,  before  which  year  he  had  acted  as 
agent  of  the  colony.  He  preached,  in  December,  1621, 
the  first  sermon  that  was  printed  in  America.  Died  in 
1625  or  1626. 

Cushman,  (Thomas,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  about  1608.  He  became  in  1649  an  elder  of  the 
Church  of  Plymouth.    Died  in  1691. 

Guspinian,  koos-pee'ne-in,  [Lat.  Cuspinia'nus  ;  Fr. 
CUSPINIEN,  kiis'pee'ne'iN',]  (Johann,)  a  German  writer, 
born  in  Franconia  in  1473.  His  German  name  was  Spies- 
hammer,  (speess'him-mer.)  He  was  privy  councillor  to 
Maximilian  I.,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  valua- 
ble "History  ( Conimentarins)  of  the  Emperors  from 
Julius  Ceesar  to  Maximilian  I.,"  (1540.)    Died  in  1529. 

See  Gerbelius,  "Vita  J.  Cuspiniani,"  1540;  M.  Adam,  "Vitae 
Eruditorum  ;"  P.  Giovio,  "  Elogia." 

Cuspinianus.    See  Cuspinian. 
Guspinien.    See  Cuspinian. 
Guss.    See  Cusa. 

Gusson,  kii''s6N',  (Pierre,)  M.D.,  a  skilful  French 
botanist,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1727.  He  was  employed 
in  Spain  as  a  botanist  by  B.  de  Jussieu  in  1754,  after 
which  he  practised  medicine  in  Montpellier.  He  wrote 
a  treatise  on  the  family  of  Umbelliferae,  which  was  his 
speciality,  but  did  not  live  to  publish  it.    Died  in  1783. 

Gust,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English  general,  born  in 
London  in  1794,  served  under  Wellington,  and  was  after- 
wards a  member  of  Parliament.  He  published  "  Lives 
of  the  Warriors  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  France  and  Eng- 
land," (1867,)  and  other  works. 

Gustier,  (George  A.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Harrison  county,  Ohio,  in  1839,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1 86 1.  He  commanded  a  brigade  of  cavalry  in  North- 
ern Virginia  in  May,  1864,  and  a  division  of  the  army 
of  General  Sheridan  in  the  spring  of  1865.  He  took 
part  in  the  pursuit  and  capture  of  General  Lee's  army, 
April,  1865. 

Gustine,  de,  deh  kiis't^n',  (Adam  Philippe,)  Count, 
an  eminent  French  general,  born  of  a  noble  family  at 
Metz  in  1740.  He  entered  the  army  very  young,  and 
became  a  colonel  about  1760.  For  his  conduct  at  York- 
town,  Virginia,  in  1781,  he  was  made  marechal-de- 
camp.  In  1789  he  was  deputed  to  the  States-General, 
in  which  he  advocated  with  ardour  the  cause  of  reform. 
Having  command  of  an  army  on  the  Rhine  in  1792,  he 


conducted  bold  and  successful  expeditions  against  Spire, 
Mentz,  and  Frankfort,  which  he  took  almost  without 
resistance,  and  suddenly  obtained  great  po])ularity.  In 
the  campaign  of  1793  he  failed  in  an  attempt  to  relieve 
Mentz,  which  was  recovered  by  the  allies,  tie  was  then 
denounced  by  the  violent  Jacobins  as  a  counter-revolu- 
tionist, was  arrested  at  the  head  of  his  army  by  a  member 
of  the  Convention,  and  taken  to  Paris,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  terror.  The  popularity  acquired  by  his 
success,  his  eloquence  and  affable  manners,  excited  the 
jealousy  of  the  Jacobin  chiefs.  Accordingly,  he  was 
condemned  and  executed  in  August,  1793. 

See  Lamartine's  "  History  of  the  Girondists,"  book  xlvi.;  "  Bio- 
graphie  Universelle." 

Gustine,  de,  (Astolphe,)  Marquis,  a  French  trav- 
eller and  writer,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1793.  Between  1811  and  1822  he  travelled  in 
England,  Switzerland,  and  other  countries.  He  published 
an  account  of  this  tour,  entitled  "  Memoires  et  Voy- 
ages," (1830,)  a  successful  work  called  "Russia  in  1839," 
and  several  novels. 

Gustine,  de,  (Renaud  Philippe,)  a  son  of  Adam 
Philippe,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1760.  For  '  his 
intimacy  with  Condorcet,  and  his  spirited  conduct  during 
his  father's  trial,  he  was  proscribed  by  Robespierre,  and 
suffered  death  in  January,  1794. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  de  la  Revolution." 

Gus'tis,  (George  Washington  Parke,)  an  adopted 
son  of  General  Washington,  was  born  in  Maryland  in 
1 781.  He  was,a  grandson  of  Mrs.  Martha  Washington 
and  her  first  husband.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
plays  and  orations.    Died  in  1857. 

Cus'tos,  (Dominic,)  a  Flemish  engraver,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1560,  was  a  son  of  a  painter  named  Battens. 
He  settled  in  Augsburg,  and  published  several  series  of 
portraits  engraved  by  himself    Died  in  1612. 

Giith'bert,  Saint,  an  English  or  Anglo-Saxon  monk 
of  the  seventh  century.  He  was  prior  of  the  monastery 
of  Lindisfarne  or  Holy  Isle,  near  Berwick,  and  for  some 
time  was  Bishop  of  Durham.  His  memory  was  greatly 
venerated,  and  marvellous  legends  of  his  miracles  were 
circulated.  He  is  sometimes  styled  the  "  Thauniaturgus 
of  Britain."    Died  about  686  a.d. 

Another  Cuthbert,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was 
a  disciple  of  Bede,  of  whose  life  and  death  he  wrote  an 
account.    Died  about  760. 

GutTer,  (Manasseh,)  an  American  botanist  and 
preacher,  born  at  Killingly,  Connecticut,  in  1744.  He 
examined  and  described  three  hundred  and  fifty  sgecies 
of  plants  of  New  England,  and  was  called  the  pioneer 
of  botany  in  that  region.  He  was  a  leader  of  a  party 
which  settled  at  Marietta,  Ohio,  in  1788.    Died  in  1823. 

Gutler,  (Timothy,)  an  American  clergyman,  born  in 
Massachusetts  in  1685.  He  was  chosen  president  of 
Yale  College  in  17 19,  joined  the  Episcopal  Church  in 
1722,  and  became  rector  of  a  church  in  Boston  about 
1724.    Died  in  1765. 

Gutts,  (Lord  John,)  a  brave  English  general,  born 
in  Essex.  His  gallantry  at  Buda  in  1686  was  applauded 
by  Addison  in  a  Latin  poem.  He  served  with  distinction 
under  William  III,  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  and  at  the 
siege  of  Namur,  (1695.)  Before  the  latter  date  he  was 
rewarded  with  an  Irish  peerage  and  made  a  major-gen- 
eral. He  sat  in  several  Parliaments  between  1695  and 
1707,  and  wrote  a  poem  on  the  death  of  Queen  Mary. 
Died  in  1707. 

Guvelier  de  Trye,  kiiv'le-i'  deh  tRe,  (Jean  Guil- 
LAUME  Antoine,)  a  mediocre^ French  dramatist,  born 
at  Boulogne-sur-Mer  in  1766  ;  died  in  1824. 

Guvera.    See  Kuvera. 

Guvier,  kii've-i',  (Clementine,)  was  a  daughter  of 
the  celebrated  Baron  Cuvier.  She  died  in  1828,  aged 
about  twenty-two. 

Guvier,  (Fr^:deric,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  at 
Montbeliard  in  1773,  was  a  brother  of  the  celebrated 
Cuvier.  He  removed  to  Paris  about  1797,  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  natural  history.  A  few  years 
later  he  became  director  of  the  menagerie  at  the  Jardin 
des  Plantes,  and  professor  of  comparative  anatomy.  He 
published  an  able  treatise  on  the  teeth  of  Mammalia, 
(1822.)  His  most  popular  and  extensive  work  is  a  "  Natu- 


a,  c,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  4,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CVVIER 


703 


Cr AX  ARES 


ral  History  of  the  Mammals,"  ("  Histoire  naturelle  des 
Mammiferes,"  {1824,)  in  which  he  gives  a  graphic  de- 
scription of  the  habits  and  instincts  of  those  animals,  with 
many  curious  anecdotes.    Died  at  Strasburg  in  1838. 
See  Flourens,  "  ]£loge  de  F.  Cuvier." 

Cuvier,  ku''ve-k''  or  ku've-er,  (George  Chrj^tien 
Leopold  Frederic  Dagobert,)  Baron,  an  illustrious 
philosopher,  statesman,  and  author,  and  one  of  the 
greatest  naturalists  of  modern  times,  was  born  on  the 
23d  of  August,  1769,  at  Montbeliard,  then  a  part  of  the 
German  Empire,  now  in  Doubs,  a  department  of  France. 
His  parents  were  Protestants,  of  French  origin,  who  were 
driven  from  their  native  land  by  religious  persecution. 
His  father  was  an  officer  in  the  French  service.  His 
early  training  was  directed  by  an  accomplished  mother. 
The'  favourite  amusement  of  his  childhood  was  to  copy 
and  colour  the  figures  of  animals  in  Buffon's  works.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Academia  Carolina  of  Stuttgart, 
which  he  left  in  17S8  with  a  very  extensive  general  in- 
struction and  the  reputation  of  a  prodigious  rnemory. 
He  then  became  tutor  to  the  son  of  Count  d'Hericy,  of 
Caen,  in  the  vicinity  of  which  he  passed  in  peaceful 
studies  the  stormy  period  of  the  Revolution.  His  early 
essays  on  natural  history  attracted  the  notice  of  Jussieu 
and  Geoffroy ;  and  when  he  arrived  in  Paris  in  March, 
1795,  he  was  looked  upon  as  one  destined  to  give  a  new 
impulse  to  science.  He  read  to  the  Society  of  Natural 
History  an  essay  on  the  formation  and  use  of  methods, 
and  a  memoir  on  the  organization  of  white-blooded  ani- 
mals. On  the  formation  of  the  central  schools  he  was 
chosen  professor  of  natural  history  in  Paris,  and  in  July, 
1795,  became  assistant  professor  of  comparative  anatomy 
in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History.  He  immediately 
began  to  form  his  great  cabinet  of  comparative  anatomy. 
In  December,  1795,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Institute,  then  just  founded.  In  1798  Cuvier  published 
his  "Tableau  elementaire  des  Animaux,"  in  which  he 
began  to  apply  his  principles  on  the  subordination  of 
characters,  and  to  display  his  genius  for  classification. 
He  succeeded  Daubenton  as  professor  of  natural  history 
in  the  College  of  France  in  1800,  and  then  commenced  the 
publication  of  his  "Lectures  on  Comparative  Anatomy," 
which  proved  very  successful. 

About  1802  he  was  chosen  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  married  Madame  Duvaucel, 
the  widow  of  a  farmer-general.  He  contributed  to  the 
"Annales  du  Museum"  a  series  of  memoirs  on  fossil 
bones,  with  plates  skilfully  designed  and  engraved  by 
himself.  In  1808  he  was  appointed  councillor  to  the 
Imperial  University,  and  in  several  ensuing  years  pre- 
sided over  commissions  charged  to  visit  and  organize 
academies  or  colleges  in  Italy,  Holland,  etc.  He  pub- 
lished in  1812  a  collection  of  his  treatises  on  fossil  bones, 
with  an  admirable  preliminary  "  Discourse  on  the  Revo- 
lutions of  the  Surface  of  the  Globe."  In  this  important 
work  he  propounds  the  theory  of  the  correlation  of  forms 
in  organized  beings,  and  arrives  at  the  following  conclu- 
sions :  that  the  career  of  man  on  this  planet  began  about 
five  or  six  thousand  years  ago  ;  that  no  vestiges  of  the 
human  species  are  found  among  fossil  remains ;  that  the 
present  form  of  the  continents  was  produced  by  a  great 
revolution  which  occurred  before  the  origin  of  existing 
animal  species.  Cuvier  was  appointed  by  Napoleon  mas- 
ter of  requests  in  1813,  and  councillor  of  state  in  1814. 

He  produced  in  1817  his  celebrated  "Animal  King- 
dom," {"  Regne  animal  distribue  d'apres  son  Organisa- 
tion," in  4  vols.,)  by  which  he  made  a  new  arrangement 
of  animals  into  four  divisions,  the  Vertebrata,  the  Mol- 
lusca,  the  Articulata,  and  the  Radiata.  This  work  im- 
mediately took  the  highest  rank  among  books  of  the 
kind,  and  became  generally  the  basis  or  guide  of  zoo- 
logical studies  throughout  Europe.  The  introduction  is 
a  rapid  and  profound  summary  of  the  animal  functions, 
and  a  clear  expose  of  the  natural  method  which  he  first 
applied  to  zoology.  He  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy  in  1818,  and  received  the  title  of  Baron  in  1820. 
In  1822,  as  a  member  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  he  was 
appointed  superintendent  of  the  Faculties  of  Protestant 
Theology.  In  1823  he  began  the  publication  of  his 
splendid  "  Natural  History  of  Fishes,"  of  which  eight 
volumes  were  finished  during  his  life.    He  wrote  many 


admirable  notices  of  scientific  men  for  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle."  From  1819  until  his  death  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  committee  of  the  interior,  and  rendered 
important  civil  services  to  the  state.  He  was  made  a 
peer  of  France  in  1831.  His  great  activity  was  unabated 
by  age,  and  he  died  peacefully  in  May,  1832.  He  is  con- 
sidered the  founder  of  the  science  of  comparative  anato- 
my, in  which  he  attained  such  skill  that,  with  a  small 
fragment  of  a  characteristic  part  of  an  animal,  he  could 
determine  the  class,  order,  and  even  genus  to  which  it 
belonged.  Cuvier  also  made  great  improvements  in 
geology.  He  left  unfinished  a  philosophic  work  of  high 
order  on  the  history  of  the  natural  sciences,  which  he 
began  in  1830  to  develop  in  a  course  of  lectures  in  the 
College  of  France.  As  a  professor  he  equalled  or  sur- 
passed his  predecessors  in  facility  of  elocution,  in  clear- 
ness of  ideas,  and  in  the  art  of  sustaining  the  attention 
in  philosophic  or  historical  digressions,  which  revealed 
the  great  variety  and  extent  of  his  attainments.  In 
respect  to  this  almost  universal  aptitude  and  excellence, 
he  has  been  compared  to  Aristotle  ;  and  the  comparison 
would  have  been  more  remarkable  if  the  fall  of  Napo- 
leon had  not  frustrated  a  design  to  confide  to  Cuvier  the 
direction  of  the  education  of  the  heir  of  the  empire. 
His  head  was  large,  his  features  regular,  and  his  expres- 
sion noble  and  dignified,  and  indicative  of  great  force. 
His  disposition  was  social  and  amiable,  and  his  moral 
character  eminently  high-toned. 

See  Pakisot,  "  Jfiloge  de  Cuvier;"  A.  de  Candolle,  "Notice 
sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  G.  Cuvier  ;''  R.  Lee,  "  Memoir  of  Baron 
Cuvier,"  1833;  Duvernov,  "Notice  historique  sur  les  Ouvrages  et 
la  Vie  de  G.  Cuvier,"  1833  ;  Louis  de  Lomenie,  "  G.  Cuvier,  par  un 
Homme  de  Rien,"  1841  :  Flourens,  "  Cuvier,  Histoire  de  ses  Tra- 
vaux,"  184s  ;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  May,  1811-January,  1836; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1834-October,  1838. 

Cuvillier-Fleury.    See  Fleury. 

Cuyp  or  Kuyp,  koip,  (Albert,)  a  celebrated  Dutch 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Dort  in  1606,  was  the  son  and 
pupil  of  Jacob  Gerritse  Cuyp,  a  painter  of  much  merit. 
He  painted  with  great  success  landscapes,  cattle,  views 
of  rivers,  moonlight-scenes,  frost-pieces,  flowers,  etc. 
No  painter  perhaps  has  surpassed  him  in  harmony  of 
colour  and  in  the  purity  of  his  aerial  tint.  He  represented 
by  the  appropriate  tone  the  difterent  periods  of  the  clay, 
and  gave  his  productions  the  merit  of  fidelity  to  nature. 
His  works  are  highly  prized  in  England,  where  as  much 
as  two  thousand  guineas  have  frequently  been  paid  for 
one  of  them.  He  is  said  to  have  lived  as  late  as  1683. 
Ruskin  calls  him  the  principal  master  of  pastoral  land- 
scape, and  says,  "Cuyp  can  indeed  paint  sunlight,  the 
best  that  Plolland's  sun  can  show.  He  is  a  man  of  large 
natural  gifts,  and  sees  broadly,  nay,  even  seriously,  finds 
out  that  there  are  reflections  in  water.  A  brewer  by 
trade,  he  feels  the  quiet  of  a  summer  afternoon,  and  his 
work  will  make  you  marvellously  drowsy.  It  is  good 
for  nothing  else  that  I  know  of"   ("Modern  Painters.") 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.;  Bryan, 
"Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Cuyp  or  Kuyp,  (Jacob  Gerritse,)  the  Old,  a 
Dutch  landscape-painter,  father  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Dort  about  1575,  was  a  pupil  of  A.  Bloemaert,  Died 
about  1650. 

Cyaxare.    See  Cyaxares. 

Qy-ax'a-res,[Gr.  ^Lva^apriq;  Fr.  Cyaxare,  se'tks''tR',] 
a  warlike  king  of  the  Mecles,  the  son  of  Phraortes, 
ascended  the  throne  about  634  B.C.  According  to  Hero- 
dotus, he  was  defeated  by  the  Scythians,  and  became 
tributary  to  them  for  many  years.  A  war  which  he  waged 
for  five  years  against  the  King  of  Lydia  was  terminated 
about  610  by  the  terror  caused  by  a  total  eclipse  of  the 
sun,  predicted  by  Thales.  The  Scythians  were  driven  out 
of  Media  in  607  B.C.  About  606  he  took  Nineveh,  with 
the  aid  of  the  King  of  Babylon.  He  died  in  594  B.C., 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  son  Astyages. 

See  VoLNEY,  "Nouvelles  Recherches  sur  I'Histoire  ancienne." 

Cyaxares  II.,  King  of  the  Medes,  was  the  son  of 
Astyages,  and  uncle  of  Cyrus  the  Great.  According  to 
Xenophon,  he  became  king  about  560  B.C.  ;  but  Herodo- 
tus does  not  mention  him.  He  is  probably  identical 
with  Darius  the  Mede  of  the  Scriptures,  who  succeeded 
Belshazzar  on  the  throne  of  Babylon  by  conquest  about 
538  B.C.    (See  Daniel  vi.)    He  was  succeeded  by  Cyrus. 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j:  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.   (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CTBEBE 


704 


CTRIL 


Cybebe.    See  Cybele. 

gyb'e-le  or  gy-be'le.*  [Gr.  Kviielv  or  Kw/J^At;  ;  Fr. 
CYHfei.K,  (se'b^K,)]  called  also  Qly-be'be  [Gr.  Kt;/3f;/?77] 
and  Rhe^a,  [Gr.  T«a, 'Pea,  or  T«'//;  Fr.  Ree,  ri,]  a  god- 
dess of  classic  mythology,  supposed  to  be  the  daughter 
of  Uranus  and  Terra,  (Ge,)  was  distinguished  by  the 
appellation  of"  Mother  of  the  Gods,"  or  "  Great  Mother." 
She  was  the  wife  of  Saturn,  (Cronos,)  and  mother  of 
Jupiter  and  the  other  principal  gods.  One  of  the  chief 
places  of  her  worship  was  Pessinus,  a  town  of  Galatia, 
above  which  rose  Mount  Dindymus,  whence  her  surname 
of  Dindyme'ne.  She  was  also  called  "  Berecynthia," 
or  "  Berecynthia  Mater,"  (the  "  Berecynthian  Mother,") 
from  the  hill  Berecynthus,  where  she  had  a  temple. 
She  is  often  represented  as  riding  in  a  chariot  drawn  by 
lions,  and  always  has  a  crown  of  towers  on  her  head. 
Her  priests  were  called  Corybantes. 

See  Keightley's  "Mythology." 

Cyb6  or  Cib6,  che-bo',  (Arano  or  Aaron,)  the 
ancestor  of  a  noble  Genoese  family,  was  born  of  Greek 
origin  at  Rhodes  in  1377.  He  was  Viceroy  of  Naples 
about  1442,  and  died  in  1457,  leaving  a  son,  who  became 
Pope  Innocent  VIII.  in  1485.  Innocent  Cybo  was  a 
grandson  of  that  pope,  a  nephew  of  Clement  VII.  and 
of  Leo  X.  At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  was  made  a 
cardinal,  and  he  afterwards  obtained  four  archbishoprics. 
His  merit  is  extolled  by  historians.  Died  in  1550.  Al- 
berico  Cybo  Malaspina  inherited  the  sovereignty  of 
Massa  and  Carrara  in  1553,  and  died  about  1620. 

Cyplopes.    See  Cyclops.  ' 

QJy'clops,  [Gr.  KiikXwt/;,]  plural,  gy-clo'pes,  a  fabu- 
lous race  of  giants,  having  each  one  eye  in  the  middle  of 
the  forehead.  According  to  the  theogony  of  Hesiod,  they 
were  the  sons  of  Uranus  and  Gaea,  were  named  Brontes, 
Steropes,  and  Arges,  and  their  business  was  to  forge 
thunderbolts  for  Jupiter.  Homer  represents  them  as  a 
gigantic  and  lawless  race  of  shepherds  and  cannibals 
who  lived  in  Sicily.  According  to  a  later  tradition,  they 
were  assistants  of  Vulcan,  in  whose  workshop  they  fabri- 
cated armour  for  gods  and  heroes. 

See  the  "Odyssey,"  book  ix.,  and  Virgil's  "^Eneid,"  book  iii. 
617-681,  and  book  viii.  370-448. 

gyc'nus,  [Gr.  Kv/cvof,]  a  son  of  Neptune,  and  the 
father  of  Tenes.  He  fought  against  the  Greeks  in  the 
Trojan  war,  and,  though  invulnerable  by  iron,  was  choked 
to  death  by  Achilles,  and  changed  into  a  sWan. 

gj^d'i-as,  [Gr.  Kvdia^,']  a  Greek  painter,  born  in  the 
isle  of  Cythnus,  lived  about  360  B.C. 

gy'don,  a  Greek  sculptor,  mentioned  by  Pliny,  lived 
in  the  time  of  Phidias. 

Cygiie,  du,  dli  sen,  (Martin,)  a  Flemish  scholar  and 
writer,  born  at  Saint-Omer  in  1619.  Pie  taught  rhetoric 
in  various  colleges  with  much  celebrity.  He  published 
«'  The  Art  of  Rhetoric,"  ("  Ars  Rhetorica,"  1659,)  "The 
Art  of  Poetry,"  ("Ars  Poetica,")  and  other  works,  which 
were  often  reprinted.    Died  in  1669. 

Q!yl-le'm-us,  a  surname  of  Mercury,  which  see. 

Cyna.    See  Cynane. 

Cynsegeirus,  sin-ee-ji'rus,  [KvvaiyeLpog,']  an  Athe- 
nian, remarkable  for  his  courage,  was  the  brother  of 
^schylus  the  poet.  At  the  battle  of  Marathon,  490  B.C., 
he  pursued  the  Persians  to  the  sea,  and  seized  a  ship 
with  his  hand,  "which,"  says  Herodotus,  "was  cut  off." 
Other  writers  add  that,  having  lost  both  hands,  he  seized 
the  vessel  with  his  teeth. 

Cynsethus  or  Cinasthus,  se-nee'thus,  [Kivaidog  or 
K-vvaLdog,]  a  Greek  rhapsodist,  born  at  Chios  (Scio)  at 
a  date  which  is  not  ascertained.  He  was  the  reputed 
author  of  the  "  Hymn  to  Apollo"  sometimes  attributed 
to  Homer.  According  to  Eustathius,  he  was  the  first 
who  collected  and  arranged  the  poems  of  Homer. 

*  The  best  scholars  seem  to  be  agreed  that  the  penultimate  vowel 
In  Cybele  ought  to  be  short ;  although  the  fact  that  Cybebe,  another 
form  of  the  same  name,  always  has  the  penultima  long,  might  well 
suggest  the  strong  probability  that  the  ancients  themselves  were  not 
unitbrm  in  their  pronunciation  of  the  vowel.  Byron,  w  ho  is  generally 
extremely  accurate  in  the  accentuation  of  ancient  as  well  as  modern 
names,  taking  advantage  doubtless  of  this  uncertainty,  has  adopted 
the  more  euphonious  pronunciation — Cybe'le.  Speaking  of  Venice, 
he  says : 

"  She  looks  a  sea  Cybele,  fresh  from  ocean, 
Rising  with  her  tiara  of  proud  towers." 

Childe  Harold,  canto  iv.  stanza  2. 


93^-na'ne,  Qyn'na,  or  Qy'na,  [Gr.  Kvvavi],  Kvvva, 
or  Kvva,]  a  daughter  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  and  half- 
sister  of  Alexander  the  Great.  She  was  married  to  her 
cousin  Amyntas,  who  died  in  336  B.C.  About  322  B.C. 
she  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  Perdiccas. 

Cynna.    See  Cynane. 

QJyn-o-su'ra,  [Gr.  Kwoaovpu;  Fr.  Cynosure,  se'no'- 
ziiR';  Eng.  Qyn'osure,]  a  nymph  of  Ida,  said  to  have 
been  one  of  the  nurses  of  Jupiter,  who  placed  her  among 
the  stars.  The  name  is  applied  to  Ursa  Minor,  which 
includes  the  North  Star. 

Cynosure.   See  Cynosura. 

Qyn'thi-a,  [Gr.  Kwdta,]  a  surname  of  Diana. 

Qyn''thi-us,  [Gr.  Kvvdiog,]  a  surname  of  Apollo. 

9yp'ri-an,  [Lat.  Cypria'nus  ;  Fr.  Cyprien,  se'- 
pRe-iN',]  Saint,  Bishop  of  Carthage,  an  eminent  Latin 
Father,  who  was  often  called  Thas'cius  CaeciPius 
Cypria'nus,  was  probably  born  at  Carthage  about  200 
A.D.  In  early  life  he  gained  distinction  as  a  teacher  of 
rhetoric.  He  had  been  converted  only  a  few  years  when 
he  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Carthage,  in  248  a.d.  About 
250  the  emperor  Decius  commenced  a  persecution,  during 
which  Cyprian  retired  from  Carthage  and  remained  in 
concealment,  for  which  he  was  censured.  In  251  a.d. 
he  assembled  a  council  on  the  question  of  reinstating  apos- 
tates who  had  lapsed  under  the  pressure  of  persecution, 
and  he  favoured  a  moderate  course.  His  decision,  that 
baptism  performed  by  heretics  and  schismatics  is  null  and 
void,  caused  a  violent  controversy  between  him  and  the 
pope,  Stephen.  He  suffered  martyrdom  under  Valerian  in 
258  A.D.  Cyprian  was  eminent  for  learning,  eloquence,  and 
ascetic  zeal,  and  has  left  numerous  epistles  and  tracts, 
which  are  extant,  and  afford  valuable  information  on  the 
views  and  discipline  of  the  early  Church.  Among  them 
are  treatises  "  On  the  Unity  of  the  Church,"  "  On  Mor- 
tality," and  "  On  the  Grace  of  God." 

See  Gervaise,  "Vie  de  Saint-Cyprien,"  1717  ;  Poole,  "Life  and 
Times  of  Saint  Cyprian,"  1S40;  Cave,  "Scriptorum  Ecclesiastico- 
rum  Historia  ;"  F.  W.  Rettberg,  "C.  Cyprianus,  dargestellt  nach 
seinem  Leben,"  etc.,  1831. 

Cypriani.    See  Ciprianl 

Cyprianus  or  Cyprien.    See  Cyprian. 

Qyp'se-lus,  [Gr.  Kvif'cXog,]  tyrant  of  Corinth,  a  semi- 
fabulous  person,  who  is  supposed  to  have  reigned  thirty 
years,  and  to  have  died  about  625  B.C. 

Cyrano.    See  Bergerac. 

Q!y-re'ne,  [Gr.  Kvp^vr],]  a  mythical  nymph,  beloved  by 
Apollo,  by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of  Arist^eus. 

See  Virgil,  "Georgica,"  book  iv.  321-548. 

Qlyr'il  or  Qy-riPlus,  [Gr.  Kvpilkog ;  Fr.  Cyrille, 
se'reK,]  Saint,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  born  in  that  city  in  315  A.D.  He  was  chosen 
Bishop  or  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  in  351.  In  that  year, 
it  is  reported,  a  great  luminous  cross  appeared  in  the  sky 
over  Golgotha.  He  had  a  controversy  with  Acacius,  an 
Arian  bishop  of  Csesarea,  who  caused  him  to  be  deposed 
in  358.  After  this  he  was  twice  banished,  and  finally 
restored  about  380  A.D.  He  predicted  the  failure  of 
Julian's  attempt  to  rebuild  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  in 
363,  which  attempt  was  frustrated  by  eruptions  of  fire, 
etc.,  as  stated  by  Ammianus  Marcellinus.  Died  in  386 
A.D.  His  works  consist  chiefly  of  eighteen  catecheses, 
or  lectures  to  catechumens,  which  have  great  value  and 
interest  in  the  eyes  of  theologians  and  antiquaries. 

See  Socrates,  "Historia  Ecclesiastica  ;"  Ceillier,  "  Histoire 
des  Auteurs  sacres;"  Fabricius,  '' Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  Cave, 
"Scriptorum  Ecclesiasticorum  Historia." 

Cyril  or  Cyrillus,  Saint,  an  arrogant  and  turbulent 
prelate,  born  in  Alexandria,  Egypt,  became  Archbishop 
of  that  place  in  412  a.d.  He  manifested  his  fanatical 
zeal  by  driving  the  Jews  out  of  the  city,  and  quarrelled 
with  Orestes,  the  governor.  He  instigated  his  monks  or 
partisans  to  murder  the  celebrated  and  accomplished 
Hypatia,  whose  influence  perhaps  excited  his  envy.  On 
the  subject  of  the  Incarnation  he  maintained  a  long 
controversy  with  Nestorius,  and  presided  in  431  over  the 
Council  of  Ephesus,  by  which  Nestorius  was  condemned 
as  a  heretic.  A  council  convoked  by  the  Patriarch  of 
Antioch  in  that  year  excommunicated  Cyril.  He  wrote, 
in  Greek,  numerous  works,  chiefly  controversial,  which 
are  still  extant.    Died  in  444  a.d. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  Cave,  "  Scriptorum  Ec- 
clesiasticorum Historia;"  Tillemont,  "  Memoires  eccl^siastiques." 


a, e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mlt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


CYRIL 


CZARTORTSKI 


Cyril,  Saint,  also  called  Constantine,  was  born  at 
Thessalonica.  About  848  A.D.  he  propagated  the  gos- 
pel among  the  Slaves  and  Bulgarians  with  great  success. 
He  had  a  brother,  Method  (or  Methud)  or  Methodius, 
who  co-operated  with  him.  He  invented  the  Slavonian 
alphabet,  and  translated  the  Bible,  or  part  of  it,  into 
that  language.    Died  about  868  A.D. 

See  J.  DoBROWSKY,  "Cyrill  und  Methud  der  Slawen  Apostel," 
1S23;  Jan  Holy,  " Cyrillo-Methodiada,"  1837. 

Cyr'il-Lu'car,  [Fr.  Cyrille-Lucar,  se'rM'  lii'ktR' ; 
Lat.  Cyril'lus  Luca'ris,]  a  Greek  Protestant  prelate, 
born  in  Candia  in  1572.  In  his  youth  he  visited  Ger- 
many, and  adopted,  or  at  least  studied,  the  Reformed 
doctrines.  Having  been  chosen  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople in  1621,  he  made  an  effort  to  spread  Protestant 
principles  in  the  Greek  Church,  but  was  deposed  and 
exiled  to  Rhodes.  He  recovered  his  see,  was  again 
expelled,  and  was  strangled,  it  is  said,  about  1637. 

See  Mgreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique;"  J.  Aymon,  "Lettres 
anecdotiques  de  Cyrille-Lucar,"  etc. 

Cyrille,  the  French  of  Cyril,  which  see. 
Cyrillo.    See  Cirillo. 
Cyrillus.    See  Cyril. 

^yr-nse'us,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  in 
Corsica  in  1474,  wrote  a  "History  of  Corsica,"  (1506.) 

^y'rus,  [Gr.  Kvpof*  or  Kvpog  6  Tca?iai6g  or  upxalog,  (i.e. 
"Cyrus  the  ancient"  or  "elder;")  It.  CiRO,  chee'ro ; 
Persian,  Kai-Khosroo  or  -Khosrij,]  surnamed  the 
Great,  the  second  prince  of  the  Kaianian  dynasty,  the 
founder  of  the  Persian  empire,  and  the  greatest  of  the 
Persian  kings  and  heroes,  was  the  son  of  Cambyses,  a 
Persian  nobleman,  and  Mandane,  the  daughter  of  As- 
tyages.  King  of  Media.  His  history  is  supposed  to 
be  much  embellished  with  fabulous  tales.  Herodotus 
informs  us  that  in  his  time  there  were  three  different 
versions  of  that  history.  According  to  the  account  which 
Herodotus  adopted,  Astyages,  being  warned  in  a  dream 
that  his  daughter's  son  would  become  king,  commanded 
an  officer,  named  Harpagus,  to  kill  the  infant.  Harpagus, 
however,  ordered  one  of  the  herdsmen  of  Astyages  to 
expose  the  child  on  the  mountains  ;  but  he  spared  its  life, 
and  the  future  hero  was  educated  as  a  shepherd.  Cyrus 
was  afterwards  restored  to  his  parents,  and,  having  in- 
cited the  Persians  to  revolt,  defeated  Astyages,  and 
ascended  the  throne  in  559  B.C.  According  to  Xeno- 
phon,  he  succeeded  Cyaxares,  his  mother's  brother. 
Ecbatana  was  one  of  his  capitals.  He  extended  his  do- 
minions by  the  conquest  of  Croesus,  King  of  Lydia,  in 
546,  and  of  several  princes  or  states.  He  marched  with 
a  large  army  against  Babylon,  the  capital  of  Assyria, 
whose  king  was  the  Belshazzar  of  the  prophet  Daniel. 
Having  diverted  the  course  of  the  Euphrates,  after  a 
long  siege,  he  entered  the  city  by  the  dry  channel  of  the 
river,  while  the  impious  king  and  court  were  feasting,  in 
538  B.C.  The  capture  of  Babylon  is  the  epoch  at  which 
sacred  and  profane  history  form  their  first  connection. 
(See  Daniel  v.,  and  Ezra  i.-vi.)  It  was  foretold  in  the 
remarkable  prophecy  of  Isaiah  xlv.  i,  "Thus  saith  the 
Lord  to  his  anointed,  to  Cyrus,  whose  right  hand  I  have 
holden,  to  subdue  nations  before  him,"  etc.  (See  also 
Isaiah  xlvi.  and  xlvii.)  About  536  Cyrus  issued  an  edict 
that  the  Jewish  captives  of  Babylon  should  return  home 
and  rebuild  the  temple  of  their  holy  city,  and  proclaimed, 
"The  Lord  God  of  heaven  hath  given  me  all  the  king- 
doms of  the  earth  ;  and  he  hath  charged  me  to  build  him 
an  house  at  Jerusalem,"  etc.  His  next  important  enter- 
prise appears  to  have  been  the  invasion  of  the  country  of 
the  Massagetae,  a  Scythian  nation  who  lived  north  of  the 
Araxes  (Arras)  and  were  ruled  by  Queen  Tomyris.  After 
gaining  several  battles,  (says  Herodotus,)  he  was  drawn 
into  an  ambush,  defeated,  and  killed,  in  529  B.C.  Accord- 
ing to  Xenophon  and  Ctesias,  Cyrus  died  a  natural  death 
at  Pasargadae.     He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Cambyses. 

See  Xenophon,  "  Cyropaedia ;"  Diodorus  Siculus,  books  ii.,  ix., 
X.,  xvii.,  and  xxxi. ;  Schubart,  "Programma  de  Cyro,"  1743;  F. 
Hansen,  "Disputatio  de  Cyro  majore,"  17S1 ;  Wetzke,  "Cyrus  der 
Griiiider  des  Persischen  Reiches,"  1849;  Gerhard,  "Dissertatio  de 
Cyro  primo  Persarum  Monarcha,"  1653;  Arrhenius,  "Dissertatio 
de  Cyro  Monarcha,"  1693;  J.  L.  Frey,  "Dissertatio  historica  de 
Cyro,"  etc.,  1706. 


*  This  name  is  said  to  be  derived  from  Kohr,  a  Persian  word  sig- 
nifying " sun." 


Cyrus  THE  Younger  was  the  second  son  of  Darius 
Nothus,  King  of  Persia,  and  of  Parysatis.  During  the 
reign  of  his  father  he  was  appointed  (in  407  B.C.)  Satrap 
of  Lydia,  Phrygia,  etc.  At  the  death  of  Darius,  in  404, 
the  eldest  son,  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  succeeded  to  the 
throne.  Cyrus,  having  formed  a  design  to  dethrone  his 
brother,  employed  Clearchus,  a  Spartan,  to  raise  a  large 
body  of  Greek  mercenaries.  In  the  year  401  B.C.  he 
marched  from  Sardis  with  an  army  who  were  at  first 
kept  ignorant  of  their  destination.  At  Cunaxa,  in  the 
province  of  Babylon,  he  met  the  immense  army  of  Arta- 
xerxes. The  Greeks  of  Cyrus  gained  the  advantage  in 
the  first  attack,  until  Cyrus,  who  rashly  exposed  himself 
in  the  front  rank,  was  killed,  after  wounding  his  rival. 
His  character  is  highly  praised  by  Xenophon,  who  ac- 
companied the  army  of  Cyrus,  and  who  ascribes  to  him 
great  generosity,  and  other  qualities  adapted  to  win  the 
popular  favour. 

See  Grote,  "History  of  Greece;"  Thirlwall,  "History  ot 
Greece;"  Xenophon,  "Hellenica,"  and  "Anabasis;"  Plutarch, 
"  Lysander"  and  "Artaxerxes;"  James  Rennell,  "Illustrations  of 
the  History  of  the  Expedition  of  Cyrus  the  Younger  from  Sardis  to 
Babylon,"  etc.,  1S16. 

Cyrus,  (Flavius,)  a  Greek  or  Byzantine  poet,  born 
at  Panopolis,  in  Egypt,  flourished  about  450  A.D. 

Cysat,  se-sit'  or  se'zS',  [Lat.  Cysa'tus,]  (Jean  Bap- 
TiSTE,)  a  Swiss  astronomer,  born  at  Lucerne  in  1588; 
died  in  1657. 

Qy-the'ra,  Cyth-e-re'a,  Cytherei'a,  or  QJy-the'- 
ri-as,  [Gr.  Kvdf/pa,  Kvdepua,  or  Kvdijpta^,]  a  surname  of  the 
goddess  Venus,  which  see, 

Czacki,  chdts'kee,  (Thaddeus,)  Count,  a  patriotic 
Polish  statesman  and  writer,  born  in  Volhynia  in  1765. 
He  was  for  many  years  a  professor  in  the  University  of 
Cracow,  and  was  appointed  a  member  of  several  com- 
missions by  Stanislas  Augustus.  About  1800  the  Czar 
of  Russia  made  him  a  privy  councillor.  He  zealously 
promoted  education,  by  opening  primary  schools,  and 
other  means.  Pie  published,  besides  other  works,  one 
on  "The  Laws  of  Poland  and  Lithuania,"  (1801.)  Died 
in  1813. 

See  Alois  Osinski,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  T.  Czacki,"  1816; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gdnerale." 

Czajkowski,  chl-kov'skee,  written  also  Czaykow- 
ski,  (Michael,)  Sadik  Pasha,  a  Polish  novelist  and 
general,  born  in  Podolia  about  1808.  He  fought  against 
Russia  in  1831,  and  a  few  years  later  removed  to  Con- 
stantinople. To  avoid  being  given  up  on  demand  of  the 
Russian  court,  he  adopted  the  Moslem  religion,  (1851,) 
and  assumed  the  name  of  Mohammed  Sadik.  During 
the  war  against  Russia  (1853-55)  the  rank  of 

pasha,  and  commanded  an  army. 

Czariiiecki,  ch^Rn-ySts'kee,  (Stephen,)  a  famous 
Polish  general,  born  in  1599.  He  performed  many 
daring  and  successful  exploits  in  the  war  against  Charles 
X.  of  Sweden  between  1655  and  1660,  and  was  saluted 
as  the  liberator  of  Poland.  Polish  writers  compare  him 
to  the  French  Du  Guesclin.  He  also  defeated  the  Cos- 
sacks, (1661,)  and  had  attained  the  highest  rank  in  the 
army  when  he  died  in  1665. 

See  M.  Kraiewski,  "Histoire  de  Czarniecki." 

Czartoryski,  chaR-to-ris'kee,  (Adam  Casimir, ) 
Prince,  a  Polish  nobleman,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1731,  was 
the  first-cousin  of  King  Stanislas.  His  rank,  fortune,  and 
talents  gave  him  great  influence  in  the  affairs  of  Poland. 
He  became  starost-general  of  Podolia,  and  afterwards 
marshal  or  master  of  the  ordnance  in  the  Austrian  army. 
In  1 812  he  was  president  or  marshal  of  the  Diet  which 
met  to  establish  a  new  confederation.    Died  in  1823. 

See  Chodzko,  "La  Pologne  illustree  ;"  Lomenie,  "Galerie  des 
Contemporains. " 

Czartoryski,  (Adam  George,)  Prince,  an  eminent 
Polish  statesman,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  War- 
saw in  1770.  Having  fought  against  Russia  in  1792,  he  was 
taken  to  Saint  Petersburg  as  a  hostage,  and  acquired  the 
favour  of  the  grand  duke  Alexander,  who,  soon  after  his 
accession  to  the  throne,  (about  1802,)  appointed  him 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.  He  attended  the  Czar  at  the 
battle  01  Austerlitz  in  1805,  and  retired  from  ofiice  about 
1808.  From  1803  to  1821  he  was  curator  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Wilna.  He  supported  the  popular  cause  in  the 
revolution  of  1830,  and  in  January,  1831,  was  elected 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  H,  K^gtUtural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23  ) 

45 


CZARTORTSKI 


706 


DA  COSTA 


president  of  the  new  government,  which  he  directed  with 
ability,  until  the  victories  of  the  Russians  compelled  him 
to  resign,  in  August,  183 1.  He  then  became  an  exile, 
and  resided  in  Paris  until  his  death,  in  July,  1861. 

See  J.  B.  OsTROVvsKi,  "A.  G.  Prince  Czartoryski, "  Paris,  1845; 
"Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  August,  1861. 

Czartoryski,  (Isabella  or  Elizabeth,)  the  daughter 
of  Count  Flamming  of  Saxony,  born  in  1743,  became  the 
wife  of  Adam  Casimir  Czartoryski,  noticed  above.  She 
gained  celebrity  and  much  political  influence  by  her 
beauty  and  mental  endowments.    Died  in  1835. 

Czartoryski,  (Michael  Frederick,)  a  noble  Pole, 
born  about  1695.  By  his  wealth,  energy,  and  talents,  he 
acquired  great  political  power,  and  in  1752  was  chosen 
grand  chancellor  of  Lithuania.  In  his  efforts  to  reform 
the  constitution  of  Poland,  he  applied  for  assistance  to 
the  Russian  court,  and  thus  unintentionally  contributed 
to  the  partition  of  the  kingdom  which  followed  in  1772. 
Died  in  1775. 

See  Ferrand,  "  HistoiredestroisD^membrements  dela  Pologne." 

Czaykowski.    See  Czajkowskl 

Czechowicz,  ch&K'o-vitch, (Simon,)  a  Polish  painter, 
born  at  Cracow  in  1689;  died  in  1775. 

Czeoz,  ts^ts,  (JAnos,)  a  Hungarian  general,  born  in 
1822,  served  in  the  battles  of  1848,  and  published  in  1850 
an  account  of  the  campaign  of  Bern  in  Transylvania. 

Czelakowski,  (a  Bohemian  poet.)  See  Celakowskl 


Czerni-(ch§R'nee)  George,orKara-(ka-raO  George, 
{i.e.  "Black  George,")  a  Servian  chief,  born  about  1766, 
was  originally  a  peasant.  Having  distinguished  himself 
by  his  courage,  he  was  chosen  leader  of  the  Servians 
in  a  revolt  against  the  Turks,  from  whom  he  liberated 
Servia  in  1807.  He  ruled  that  province  with  rigour 
until  1813,  when,  abandoned  by  his  ally  the  Czar,  he  was 
compelled  by  a  Turkish  army  to  fly  from  Servia.  He 
returned  in  1817,  was  arrested,  and  put  to  death. 

Czoernig.    See  Czornig. 

Czornig  or  Czoernig,  choR'nig,  (Karl,)  Baron,  a 
statistician,  born  at  Czernhausen,  Bohemia,  in  1804.  In 
1840  he  was  chosen  director  of  the  bureau  of  statistics  in 
Vienna,  and  afterwards  became  an  imperial  councillor. 
In  1852  he  published  his  "Ethnographic  Chart  of  the 
Austrian  Monarchy,"  with  several  volumes  of  text. 

Czuczor,  tsoot'soR'',  (George,)  a  popular  Hungarian 
poet  and  prose-writer,  born  at  Andod,  in  the  county  of 
Neutra,  in  1800.  In  his  youth  he  was  a  Benedictine 
monk.  He  expressed  liberal  and  national  ideas  in  epic 
poems  entitled  "The  Battle  of  Augsburg"  (1824)  and 
"John  Huniade,"  and  other  poems,  which  exposed  him 
to  persecution  from  his  ecclesiastical  superiors.  In 
1844  the  Hungarian  Academy  confided  to  him  the  impor- 
tant task  of  compiling  a  national  dictionary, — not  yet 
finished,  (1870.)  Having  united  with  Kossuth  in  the 
revolution  of  1848,  he  was  confined  in  prison  until  1850. 


D. 


Daa,  dau,  (Ludvig  Kristensen,)  a  Norwegian  writer, 
born  in  Saltdalen,  Nordland,  in  1809.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  Swedish-Norwegian  Hand-Dictionary,"  ("  Svensk- 
Norsk  Haandordbog,"  2  vols.,  1S41.) 

Dach,  d^K,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  painter,  born  at  Co- 
logne about  1560.  He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor 
Rudolph  II.,  who  sent  him  to  Italy  to  design  antique 
models.  He  afterwards  worked  in  Vienna,  where  he 
painted  many  fine  pictures  for  the  court.  Died  about 
1650. 

See  Descamps,  "Vie  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Dach,  (Simon,)  a  German  poet,  born  at  Memel  in 
1605,  became  professor  of  poetry  at  Konigsberg  about 
1638.  His  hymns  were  for  a  long  time  popular.  He 
also  wrote  odes  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1659. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Gebauer, 
"S.  Dach  und  seine  Freunde  als  Kirchenlieder-Dichter,"  1828. 

Daciano,  di-chi'no,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  in  Friuli  in  1520  ;  died  in  1576. 

Dacier,  dt'se-i',  (  Andr^,)  an  eminent  French  scholar 
and  critic,  born  at  Castres  in  1 651,  was  the  husband  of 
Madame  Dacier,  still  more  famous  as  a  classical  scholar. 
He  studied  at  Saumur  under  Tannegui-Lefevre,  father 
of  the  lady  just  named.  Having  removed  to  Paris,  he 
was  employed  as  one  of  the  collaborators  on  the  editions 
of  the  classics  for  the  use  of  the  dauphin.  He  edited 
Pomponius  Festus,  (1681,)  Horace,  (1689,)  and  the  "Re- 
flections of  M.  Antoninus,"  and  translated  into  French 
Aristotle's  "  Poetica,"  Plutarch's  "Lives,"  (1721,)  and 
other  works.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy 
and  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  librarian  to  the 
king.    Died  in  1722. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires." 

Dacier,  (Anne  Lei^vre,)  universally  known  as 
Madame  Dacier,  the  wife  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Saumur  in  1654,  was  instructed  by  her  father,  and  was 
a  fellow-student  with  M.  Dacier.  It  is  related  that  while 
still  a  child  she  used  to  overhear  the  lessons  given  to  her 
brother  while  she  was  engaged  in  embroidering,  and  that 
even  under  these  disadvantages  she  greatly  surpassed 
him  in  learning.  One  day,  as  she  whispered  to  him  the 
answer  (which  he  was  unable  to  give)  to  a  question  that 
had  been  put  to  him,  her  father  first  discovered  her 
extraordinary  aptitude  for  learning,  and  from  that  time 
afi"orded  her  the  fullest  opportunity  for  cultivating  her 
mind.  In  1672,  when  she  was  about  eighteen,  she  went 
to  Paris  with  such  a  reputation  for  learning  that  she  was 
engaged  by  the  Duke  of  Montausier  to  edit,  for  the  educa- 


tion of  the  dauphin,  the  following  Latin  authors  :  Aurelius 
Victor,  Florus,  (1674,)  and  Eutropius,  (1683.)  She  was 
married  in  1683.  In  1685  her  husband  and  herself  re- 
nounced the  Protestant  for  the  Catholic  religion.  wShe 
made  French  versions  of  Anacreon,  (1681,)  of  Terence, 
Plautus,  Homer's  "  Iliad,"  (1699,)  and  of  the  "  Odyssey," 
( 1 708. )  Her  essays  in  defence  of  fiomer  against  La  Mothe 
and  Hardouin  display  an  enthusiasm  which  some  thought 
extravagant ;  but  her  zeal  for  the  ancient  classics  was 
seconded  by  Boileau,  who  took  a  prominent  part  in  that 
famous  controversy  which  she  began,  and  who  estimated 
her  as  a  critic  far  higher  than  her  husband.  She  was 
designated  to  succeed  M.  Dacier  as  librarian  to  the  king 
in  case  she  survived  him;  but  this  contingency  was  not 
realized,  as  she  died  in  1720.  She  appears  to  have  main- 
tained her  fidelity  to  domestic  duties,  and  the  modesty 
indispensable  to  her  sex,  amidst  all  the  homage  and 
celebrity  which  she  merited  and  won.  Although  the 
editions  and  versions  of  the  Daciers  have  since  been 
surpassed,  they  must  ever  be  entitled  to  honour  and 
gratitude  as  the  first  who  enriched  the  French  literature 
with  the  immortal  productions  of  Greek  and  Roman 
genius.  Voltaire,  who  calls  her  one  of  the  prodigies  of 
that  age,  says,  "  No  woman  has  ever  rendered  greater 
services  to  literature." 

See  Burette,  "^filoge  de  Madame  Dacier;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic Generale;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi." 

Dacier,  (Bon  Joseph,)  a  French  savant,  born  at  Va- 
logne,  in  Normandy,  in  1742,  went  to  Paris  in  early 
youth.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  In- 
scriptions in  1772,  and  in  1782  was  chosen  perpetual 
secretary  of  that  institution,  which  he  enriched  with 
numerous  historical  dissertations.  Though  he  favoured 
the  cause  of  the  Revolution,  Louis  XVI.  offered  him 
about  1 791  the  portfolio  of  finance,  which  he  declined. 
At  the  creation  of  the  Institute,  in  1795,  he  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  class  of  moral  and  political  sciences. 
He  was  a  useful  member  of  the  Tribunate  from  1802 
until  its  suppression.  In  1822  he  was  admitted  to  the 
French  Academy.  Dacier  composed  eulogies  on  one 
hundred  and  fifty  Academicians  from  1782  to  1826,  and 
translated  the  "  Cyropaedia"  of  Xenophon.  Died  in  1833. 

See  SiLVESTRE  DE  Sacv,  "Notice  sur  Dacier,"  1834;  Querard, 
"La  France  Litteraire." 

Da  Costa,  (Claudio  Manoel.)     See  Costa,  da. 

Da  Costa,  d^  kos'ta,  (Emanuel  Mendez,)  was  foreign 
secretary  of  the  Roy<il  Society  of  London,  and  author  of 
a  "Natural  History  of  Fossils,"  (1757,*)  and  other  scien 
tific  works.    Died  about  1788. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon 


DA  CUNHA 


707 


D AH LB ERG 


Da  Cunha,  di  koon'yS,  (J.  A.,)  a  Portuguese  mathe- 
matician and  poet,  lived  about  1790. 

See  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Daddi,  did'dee,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Arezzo  ;  died  in  1380. 

Daddi,  (Cos  1  mo,)  a  painter  of  the  Florentine  school, 
lived  about  1600. 

Dadin  or  Dadine.    See  Haute-Serre. 

Dadouville,  dtMoo'v^K,  (Jacques,)  a  satirical  and 
facetious  French  poet  of  the  sixteenth  century, 

Daedalus,  d^d'a-lus,  [Gr.  AaiJa/loc;  Fr.  D^dale, 
di'dtK,]  an  artist  and  inventor,  celebrated  in  the  Greek 
mythology,  is  said  to  have  excelled  in  sculpture  and  in 
architecture,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  personification  of 
artistic  ingenuity.  Tradition  ascribes  to  him  the  Laby- 
rinth of  Crete,  and  the  invention  of  the  saw,  auger,  etc. 
It  is  said  that  he  made  wings,  by  which  he  was  enabled 
to  fly  from  Crete  to  Sicily,  and  that  his  son  Icarus,  who 
was  his  companion  in  this  aerial  voyage,  fell  into  that 
sea  which  has  since  been  named  the  Icarian  Sea. 

See  Pausanias,  i.,  ii.,  iii.,  v.,  vii.,  viii.,  ix. ;  Hyginus,  "  Fabulas." 

Dael,  van,  vtn  dal,(JoHN  Francis,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1764;  died  in  1840. 

Daele,  van,  vtn  dl'leh,  (John,)  a  Flemish  landscape- 
painter,  flourished  about  1560. 

Daendels,  dSn'dels,  (Hermann  Willem,)  an  able 
Dutch  general,  born  at  Hattem  in  1762.  He  entered 
the  French  army  about  1792,  and  as  general  of  brigade 
served  under  Pichegru  in  Holland  in  1794.  He  became 
a  general  of  division  in  the  service  of  the  Batavian  re- 
public about  1796,  and  exercised  great  influence  in  the 
state  until  1803,  when  he  resigned.  He  was  restored  to 
his  rank  by  King  Louis,  who  made  him  marshal  of  Hol- 
land in  1807.  From  1808  to  181 1  he  was  Governor- 
General  of  the  Dutch  colonies  in  the  East  Indies,  which 
he  ruled  with  ability.  He  commanded  a  division  in 
Russia  in  1812.    Died  in  1818. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  Raffles,  "History  of 
Java,"  1817. 

Dagar,  dt'gtR',  (Jacques,)  a  French  painter,  born  in 
Paris  in  1640;  died  in  Denmark  in  1715. 

Dag'gett,  (David,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  American  law- 
yer and  judge,  born  at  Attleborough,  Massachusetts,  in 
1764,  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1783.  He  was  United 
States  Senator  from  1813  to  1819.  He  became  instructor 
in  the  law  school  of  Yale  College  in  1824,  and  was  ap- 
pointed Kent  professor  of  law  in  1826.  In  1832  he  was 
made  chief  justice  of  the  State.    Died  in  1851. 

Daggett,  (Naphtali,)  an  American  theologian,  born 
at  Attleborough,  Massachusetts,  in  1727.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  theology  at  Yale  College  in  1755, 
and  was  president  of  the  same  pi'o  tempore  in  1766.  Died 
in  1780. 

D'Agincourt,  dt''zhaN'kooR',  (Jean  Baptiste  Louis 
Seroux,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Beauvais  in  1730, 
obtained  the  ofiice  of  farmer-general.  In  pursuing  the 
study  of  archaeology,  he  visited  various  countries  of 
Europe,  and  at  length  settled  in  Rome,  where  he  em- 
ployed his  time  in  composing  an  extensive  and  valuable 
work,  entitled  "  History  of  Art  by  Monuments  from  its 
Decadence  in  the  Fourth  Century  to  its  Restoration 
in  the  Sixteenth,"  (6  vols,  folio,  325  plates.)  The  last 
volume  appeared  in  1823.    Died  at  Rome  in  1814. 

Dagnan,  dSn^ySN',  (Isidore,)  a  skilful  French  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Marseilles  in  1794,  won  a  gold 
medal  of  the  first  class  at  Paris  in  183 1.  Among  his 
works  are  a  "View  of  Lake  Geneva,"  and  "The  Bridge 
of  Nice,"  (1843.) 

Dagobert.    See  Daimrert. 

pag'o-bert  (or  dS'go'baiR')  [Lat.  Dagober'tus]  I., 
King  of  the  Franks,  born  about  602  A.D.,  was  the  son 
of  Clotaire  II.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  628.  He  died  in 
638,  leaving  two  minor  sons,  Sigebert,  King  of  Austrasia, 
and  Clovis  II.,  King  of  Neustria. 

Dagobert  II.,  King  of  Austrasia,  was  the  son  and 
heir  of  Sigebert  II.,  who  died  in  656  a.d.  Grimoald, 
mayor  of  the  palace,  sent  the  infant  Dagobert  to  Scot- 
land, reported  that  he  was  dead,  and  proclaimed  his  own 
son  as  king.  Dagobert  returned  in  674,  and  recovered 
the  kingdom,  but  was  assassinated  in  679. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais." 


Dagobert  III.,  King  of  the  Franks,  succeeded  his 
father,  Childebert  HI.,  in  711  a.d.  Like  several  of  his 
predecessors,  he  had  only  the  name  of  king,  the  real 
power  being  usurped  by  Pepin,  mayor  of  the  palace,  who 
died  in  714.  Dagobert  died  in  715,  leaving  an  infant 
son,  Thierry  IV.,  whom  Charles  Martel  invested  with  the 
form  of  royalty. 

See  Berain,  "  Memoires  historiques  sur  le  Regne  des  trois  Dago- 
bert," 1717;  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Dagobert,  dS^go'baiR',  (Luc  Simeon  Auguste,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  or  near  Saint-Lo  in  1736.  lie 
distinguished  himself  in  the  campaign  of  Italy  in  1792, 
and  in  1793  was  appointed  general-in-chief  of  the  army 
of  the  Pyrenees.  He  defeated  the  Spaniards  near  Olette, 
and  took  Urgel  after  a  decisive  victory,  in  which  he  was 
mortally  wounded,  in  1794. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conqnetes  des  Franjais. " 

Dagoty.    See  Gauthier. 

Dagoumer,  di'goo'mi',  (Guillaume,)  a  PVench 
philosopher,  born  at  Pont-Audemer,  was  the  author  of 
a  "Course  of  Philosophy,"  (in  Latin,  1701-03.)  Died 
in  1745. 

Daguerre,  dt^gaiR',  (Louis  Jacques  Mande,)  a 
French  artist,  whose  name  has  been  rendered  memora- 
ble by  the  invention  of  the  Daguerrotype, — a  picture 
formed  on  a  metallic  plate  by  the  chemical  action  of 
light, — was  born  at  Cormeilles  in  1789.  After  acquiring 
great  skill  as  a  scene-painter  in  Paris,  he  co-operated 
with  Bouton  in  the  invention  of  the  diorama,  about  1822, 
which  they  exhibited  with  decided  success  in  Paris  and 
London  until  1839,  when  their  building  and  its  contents 
were  destroyed  by  fire.  About  1830  he  began  to  make 
researches  and  experiments  in  photography  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Niepce,  who  died  in  1833.  His  patience  and 
ingenuity  at  length  perfected  the  grand  desideratum  of 
rendering  indelible  the  authentic  image  and  signature 
of  nature.  The  invention  announced  by  Arago  in  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  in  1839,  produced  a  profound 
sensation.  A  pension  of  6000  francs  was  granted  by 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  to  Daguerre,  on  condition 
that  the  process  should  be  made  public.  Talbot,  in 
England,  also,  by  independent  experiments,  obtained 
photographic  pictures  by  a  different  process ;  but  the 
honour  of  priority  is  conceded  to  M.  Daguerre.  He 
continued  to  make  improvements  in  the  art  as  long  as 
he  lived,  and  published  two  short  treatises  on  the  sub- 
ject.   Died  in  1851. 

See  Lerebours,  " Traite  de  Photographic  ;"  A.  Gaudin,  "Traits 
pratique  de  Photograpliie ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gei>erale ;" 
"  Britisli  Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and  October,  1866. 

Daguesseau.    See  Aguesseau. 

Dahl,  dll,  (John  Christian  Clausen,)  a  Norwegian 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Bergen  about  1780,  settled  in 
Dresden  in  1818,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation.  He 
chose  the  subjects  of  his  master-pieces  among  the  grand 
and  sombre  scenery  of  Northern  Europe.  His  marine 
views  are  much  admired.    Died  in  1857. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Dahl,  dll,  (Mikael,)  a  Swedish  portrait-painter,  born 
at  Stockholm  in  1656,  studied  in  Paris  and  in  Italy,  and 
settled  in  London  in  1688.  He  became  a  fashionable 
artist,  and  was  patronized  by  the  royal  family.  Died  in 
1743- 

Dahl,  dal,  (Vladimir  Ivanovitch,)  a  popular  Rus- 
sian novelist  of  the  present  century,  was  born  at  Saint 
Petersburg.  He  has  published^  under  the  name  of  "  Ko- 
sak  Luganski,"  several  novels,  among  which  is  "The 
Dream  and  the  Awaking."  He  served  some  years  in 
the  army,  from  which  he  retired  about  1835.  He  excels 
in  the  delineation  of  the  characters  and  manners  of  the 
lower  classes. 

Dahlberg,  dSKb^Rg,  (Eric,)  an  eminent  Swedish 
engineer  and  general,  born  in  1625,  became  director- 
general  of  all  the  fortresses.  He  planned  the  success- 
ful expedition  of  Charles  Gustavus  when  the  latter 
marched  over  the  ice  against  the  Danes  in  1658.  In 
the  reign  of  Charles  XI.  he  was  made  Governor-General 
of  Livonia,  field-marshal,  and  count.  He  formed  the 
plan  and  drew  the  designs  of  the  work  entitled  "  Ancient 
and  Modern  Sweden,"  ("  Suecia  antiqua  et  hodierna," 
1700.)    Died  in  1703. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  o,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DAHLBOM 


708 


DALBY 


Dahlbom,  dSKbom,  (Anders  Gustaf,)  a  distin- 
guished Swedish  entomologist,  born  at  Forssa,  in  East 
Gothland,  in  1806.  He  is  the  author  of  numerous  Latin 
works  on  insects,  among  which  is  "  The  Hymenoptera  of 
Northern  Europe,"  ("  Hymenoptera  Europea  praecipue 
Borealia,"  2  vols.,  1845-52.)  He  became  professor  of 
natural  history  at  Lund  about  1844. 

Dahlgren,  dil'gr^n,  (John  A.,)  a  rear-admiral,  of 
Swedish  extraction,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1809.  He 
became  a  lieutenant  about  1838.  He  devoted  several 
years  to  experiments  under  the  direction  of  the  bureau 
of  ordnance,  made  important  changes  in  naval  armament, 
and  invented  the  shell-gun  which  bears  his  name.  In 
1855  he  obtained  the  rank  of  commander.  He  took  com- 
mand of  the  navy-yard  at  Washington  in  May,  1861,  and 
was  appointed  chief  of  the  bureau  of  ordnance  in  July, 
1862.  In  June,  1863,  he  became  commander  of  the  South 
Atlantic  squadron,  employed  in  the  siege  of  Charleston. 
He  attacked  Fort  Sumter  by  night  in  September,  1863, 
and  attempted  to  take  it  by  storm,  but  was  not  successful. 
Died  in  1870. 

Dahlgren,  dal'gR§n,  (Karl  Johan,)  a  Swedish  poet, 
born  near  Norrkjoping  in  1791,  was  minister  of  a  church 
in  Stockholm.  He  published  "Juvenile  Writings," 
("Ungdomskrifter,"  1829,)  and  "Collected  Writings  or 
Works,"  ("Samlade  Skrifter,"  1834.)    Died  in  1844. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Dahlgren,  (Colonel  Ulric,)  an  American  officer,  born 
in  1842,  was  a  son  of  Rear- Admiral  Dahlgren,  noticed 
above.  He  became  aide-de-camp  successively  to  Generals 
Sigel,  Burnside,  and  Hooker,  and  distinguished  himself 
by  heroic  courage  in  several  actions.  In  July,  1863,  he 
led  a  charge  at  Hagerstown,  where  he  lost  a  leg.  He  com- 
manded a  body  of  cavalry  in  a  raid  against  Richmond, 
the  outer  works  of  which  he  assaulted,  but  was  repulsed. 
He  was  killed  in  his  retreat,  March  4,  1864. 

Dahlmann,  daKmin,  (Friedrich  Christoph,)  a 
German  historian,  born  at  Wismar,  in  Mecklenburg,  in 
1785.  He  became  professor  of  political  science  at  Got- 
tingen  in  1829,  and  published  an  important  work  called 
"Original  Documents  for  German  History,"  ("  Quellen- 
kunde  der  Deutschen,  Geschichte,"  1830.)  Having  pro- 
tested boldly  against  the  subversion  of  the  constitution 
of  Hanover  in  1837,  he  was  deprived  of  his  chair  at  Got- 
tingen.  In  1840-43  he  published  his  excellent  "  History 
of  Denmark,"  (3  vols.)  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
history  and  political  science  at  Bonn  in  1842.  In  1848 
he  was  elected  to  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort. 

See  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Dahm,  dim,  (Johann  Michael,)  a  German  jurist, 
who  was  professor  at  Mentz.    Died  about  1772. 

Daignan,  din'ySN',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Lille  in  1732.  Under  the  republican 
regime  he  became  first  physician  to  the  armies.  He 
published  many  able  medical  works.    Died  in  181 2. 

Daigue,  dig,  (£tienne,)  a  French  naturalist,  born 
about  1490,  wrote  on  Tortoises,  Frogs,  Snails,  etc.  Died 
about  1560. 

Daille,  dt'ya',  [Lat.  Dall^e'us,]  (Jean,)  an  eminent 
French  Protestant  divine,  born  at  Chatellerault  in  1594. 
From  1626  to  1670  he  ministered  at  the  church  of  Cha- 
renton,  near  Paris.  He  was  one  of  the  most  learned 
and  eloquent  Protestants  of  his  time,  and  published 
several  works  on  theology,  among  which  are  a  celebrated 
"Treatise  on  the  Rigljt  Use  of  the  Fathers  in  De- 
ciding Religious  Disputes,"  (1628,)  and  an  "Apology 
for  the  Reformed  Churches,"  (1633.)  The  former  is 
called  by  Hallam  "a  well-timed  and  important  book." 
"  He  was  the  first  who  boldly  attacked  the  new  school 
of  historical  theology  in  their  stronghold."  Died  in  1670. 

See  "Abrege  de  la  Vie  de  Daille,"  by  his  son  Andre,  prefixed  to 
a  volume  of  his  Sermons,  1670. 

Daillon,  di'y6N',  (Jacques,)  a  French  Protestant 
minister,  born  at  Anjou  in  1645  ;  died  in  London  in  1726. 
Dailly.    See  Ailly. 

Daimbert,  diw^baiR',  or  Dagobert,  dt^o'baiR', 
commanded  the  Pisan  and  Genoese  army  in  the  first 
crusade,  and  arrived  in  Palestine  soon  after  the  con- 
quest of  Jerusalem,  (1098,)  of  which  he  became  the  first 
Latin  patriarch.    He  aspired  to  the  throne  at  the  death 


of  Godfrey ;  but  his  rival,  Baldwin  L,  was  preferred. 
Died  in  Sicily  in  1107. 

See  MiCHAUD,  "  Histoire  des  Croisades." 

Daire,  d^R,  (Louis  FRANgois,)  a  French  writer  and 
monk,  born  at  Amiens  in  1713,  wrote  a  "History  of 
Amiens,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1792. 

Dairval.    See  Baudelot. 

Daitya,  dlt'ya,  (English  plural,  Daityas,)  in  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  sons  of  Dm,  (which  see.)  They  are 
regarded  as  evil  beings  or  demons,  and,  according  to 
sotne  writers,  are  the  same  as  the  Asuras. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Da'kins,  (William,)  one  of  the  English  translators 
of  the  Bible  in  the  time  of  James  I.,  was  employed  on 
the  Epistles  of  Paul,  and  other  Epistles.   Died  in  1607. 

Dak'sha,  [common  Hindoo  pron.  diik'sha,]  a  Hindoo 
deity,  usually  regarded  as  an  avatar  (but  by  some  as  a 
son)  of  Brahma.  Daksha  having  offended  Siva,  the  latter 
killed  him  by  cutting  off  his  head  :  he  afterwards  restored 
him  to  life,  but  the  head,  having  accidentally  been  burnt 
up,  was  replaced  by  that  of  a  goat.  This  explains  why 
Daksha  is  usually  represented  with  a  goat's  head. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon;"  Coleman,  "  Mythology  of  the 
Hindus." 

Dalayrac,  di'la'rik',  (Nicolas,)  a  skilful  French 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Muret  in  1753,  went  to 
Pari6  in  1774,  and  worked  twenty-eight  years  for  the 
Comic  Opera.  He  was  very  successful  in  various  kinds 
of  music.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The  Little 
Savoyards,"  "Camille,"  and  "Nina."    Died  in  1809. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Dalberg,  (Johann  Friedrich  Hugo,)  a  canon  at 
Worms,  wrote  on  music,  and  a  work  on  Oriental  religions, 
called  a  "History  of  a  Druse  Family."    Died  in  1812. 

Dalberg,  daKb^RO,  (Nils,)  a  Swedish  physician,  was 
president  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Stockholm. 
The  genus  Dalbergia  was  named  in  honour  of  him  by 
Linnaeus.    Died  in  1820,  aged  about  eighty. 

Dalberg,  von,  fon  dSKb^RO,  (Emeric  Joseph,)  Duke, 
a  German  diplomatist,  born  at  Mentz  in  1773,  ^^^^  ^  ^^'^ 
of  Wolfgang  Heribert.  He  was  made  a  peer  of  France 
and  councillor  of  state  by  Napoleon  in  1810.  Died  in  1833. 

Dalberg,  von,  (Johann  Camerer,)  a  German  bishop, 
was  born  at  Oppenheim  in  1445.  He  became  Bishop 
of  Worms  in  1482,  two  years  before  which  he  founded 
at  Heidelberg  the  most  ancient  academy  of  Germany, 
called  "  Societas  Literaria  Rhenana."  He  contributed 
much  to  the  progress  of  learning  among  the  Germans. 
Died  in  1503. 

Dalberg,  von,  (Karl  Theodor  Anton  Maria,)  an 
eminent  German  author  and  prelate,  was  born  of  a  noble 
family  at  Herrnsheim  in  1744.  He  was  appointed  governor 
of  Erfurt  by  the  Elector  of  Mentz  in  1772.  In  1802  he 
became  Archbishop  of  Mentz,  and  arch-chancellor  of 
the  empire.  He  received  from  Napoleon  the  titles  of 
Prince  Primate  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  (1806,) 
and  Grand  Duke  of  Frankfort  in  1810.  On  the  fall  of 
Napoleon  he  was  deprived  of  these  dignities,  but  retained 
the  archbishopric  of  Ratisbon.  He  was  author  of  several 
popular  works,  among  which  are  "  Contemplations  on 
the  Universe,"  ("  Betrachtung  liber  das  Universum," 
1777,)  and  "The  Influence  of  the  Sciences  and  Fine 
Arts  on  the  Public  Tranquillity,"  (1793.)    Died  in  1817. 

SeeZAPK,  "Dalberg  Grossherzog  von  Frankfurt,"  1810;  Cramer, 
"Karl  Theodor  von  Dalberg,"  1821  ;  Brockhaus,  "Conversations- 
Lexikon;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Dalberg,  von,  (Wolfgang  Heribert,)  Baron,  a 
German  poet,  born  in  1750,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  arts  and  sciences. 
He  wrote  dramas  entitled  "Cora,"  (1780,)  and  "Mon- 
tesquieu," (1787,)  and  others  translated  or  imitated  from 
Shakspeare.    Died  in  1806. 

Dalborgo,  dai-boR'go,  (Flaminio,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  historian,  born  at  Pisa  in  1706,  was  for  many  years 
professor  of  Roman  law  in  the  university  of  that  city. 
His  principal  work  is  a  volume  of  "Essays  on  the  His- 
tory of  Pisa."    Died  in  1768. 

D'Albret.    See  A  lb  ret. 

D&l'by,  (Isaac,)  an  English  mathematician,  born  in 
Gloucestershire  in  1744,  received  a  very  defective  edu- 
cation, and  is  numbered  among  the  self-taught  men  who 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f4t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


DALE 


DALLAS 


have  attained  eminence  under  great  disadvantages.  He 
went  to  London  in  1772,  and  engaged  as  a  teacher  in 
Archbishop  Tenison's  school.  From  1787  to  1790  he 
assisted  General  Roy  in  a  trigonometrical  survey  for  the 
purpose  of  connecting  the  meridians  of  Greenwich  and 
Paris.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in 
the  Royal  College  of  High  Wycombe  in  1799.  He  pub- 
lished a  valuable  "Course  of  Mathematics,"  (2  vols., 
1805.)  Died  in  1824. 
Dale.   See  Van  Dale. 

Dale,  (David,)  a  Scottish  philanthropist,  born  at 
Stewarton  in  1739,  was  the  first  proprietor  of  the  Lanark 
Mills,  well  known  as  the  scene  of  experiments  in  social 
economy,  made  by  Robert  Owen,  who  married  the 
daughter  of  Mr.  Dale.  The  latter  was  noted  for  his 
benevolence  to  his  operatives.    Died  in  1806. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
vol.  V. 

Dale,  (Richard,)  an  American  commodore,  born  near 
Norfolk,  Virginia,  in  1756.  He  served  with  distinction 
in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
captain  in  1794.  He  resigned  his  commission  in  1802. 
Died  in  1826. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

Dale,  (Samuel,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  physician  and 
botanist,  born  in  1659,  practised  medicine  at  Bocking. 
He  published  a  work  on  "Materia  Medica,"  (1693,)  the 
"Antiquities  of  Harwich  and  Dover  Court,"  (1730,)  and 
treatises  on  botany,  etc.    Died  in  1739. 

Dale,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine  and  poet,  born  in 
London  in  1797.  He  produced  in  1818  "The  Widow 
of  Nain,"  and  in  1824  a  version  of  Sophocles.  He  be- 
came canon  of  Saint  Paul's  in  1843,  and  vicar  of  Saint 
Pancras,  London,  in  1846.  Several  volumes  of  his  ser- 
mons have  been  published.  He  wrote  other  popular 
religious  works,  among  which  is  the  "  Sabbath  Com- 
panion," (2d  Series,  1844.)    Died  in  1870. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1824;  "Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  November,  1820. 

Dale,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  magistrate,  who  was 
sent  to  Virginia  in  1611  with  a  number  of  colonists,  and 
founded  the  town  of  Henrico,  on  the  James  River. 

Dalechamps,  dSl'shSN',  (Jacques,)  a  learned  French 
physician  and  botanist,  born  at  Caen  in  1 5 13.  In  1552 
he  settled  at  Lyons,  where  he  practised  with  success 
until  his  death.  He  formed  a  project  to  unite  in  a  single 
work  all  previous  acquisitions  in  botanical  science,  and, 
after  expending  thirty  years  on  it,  left  the  completion  of 
it  to  Desmoulins.  The  result  was  a  "General  History 
of  Plants,"  (1586,)  a  work  of  much  merit,  containing 
2731  figures.  He  also  published  editions  of  Pliny  and 
Athenaeus,  and  several  medical  treatises.    Died  in  1588. 

See  Sprengel,  "  Historia  Botanica ;"  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca 
Botanica." 

D'Alembert.    See  Alembert,  d'. 

Dal-e-mi'lus,  written  also  Dalemile,  was  born  at 
Mezritsch,  in  Bohemia,  and  wrote  in  verse  a  history  of  his 
country,  which  was  finished  in  13 14,  and  is  said  to  be 
the  oldest  monument  of  the  Bohemian  language. 

Dalen,  van,  vin  d3.'len,  (Cornelis,)  a  skilful  Dutch 
engran^er,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1640.  He  engraved  his- 
torical pictures  after  Rubens  and  other  masters,  and 
portraits  of  eminent  persons. 

Dalens,  van,  vtn  cWMns,  (Dirck  or  Thierry,)  a 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1659,  painted 
landscapes  with  success.    Died  in  1688. 

Dal-gar'no,  (George,)  born  at  Aberdeen  about  1626, 
taught  a  private  grammar-school  in  Oxford  for  about 
thirty  years.  In  1661  he  published  his  "Art  of  Signs," 
("Ars  Signorum,"  etc.,)  from  which,  it  appears.  Bishop 
Wilkins  derived  the  idea  of  his  "Essay  toward  a  Real 
Character."  He  wrote  also  "The  Deaf  and  Dumb  Man's 
Tutor,"  (1680,)  and  has  the  credit  of  inventing  the  first 
manual  alphabet.    Died  in  1687. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1835. 

Dalgas,  dil'gis,  (Carl  Frederic  Isaac,)  a  Danish 
writer  on  agriculture,  born  at  Fridericia  in  1787. 

Dalhousie,  Earl  of.    See  Panmure,  Lord. 

Dalhousie,  dil-hoo'ze,  (George  Ramsay,)  ninth 
Earl  of,  a  Scottish  general,  born  in  1770,  was  a  son 


of  the  Earl  of  Dalhousie.  He  fought  under  Wellington 
in  the  Peninsular  war,  was  made  a  major-general  in 
1813,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Waterloo.  He  was 
appointed  Governor-General  of  Canada  in  1819,  and 
commanded  the  army  in  India  from  1829  to  1832.  Died 
in  1838. 

Dalhousie,  (James  Andrew  Ramsay,)  first  Marquis 
of,  a  British  statesman,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
near  Edinburgh  in  181 2.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament 
for  Haddington  in  1837.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  in 
1838,  he  became  tenth  Earl  of  Dalhousie,  and  entered 
the  House  of  Lords.  His  political  principles  are  desig- 
nated as  Liberal-Tory.  About  1845  he  was  appointed, 
by  Sir  Robert  Peel,  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  in 
which  department  he  displayed  so  much  practical  ability 
that  when  a  new  Whig  ministry  was  formed,  in  1846,  he 
was  retained  in  office.  He  was  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  India  in  1847.  His  administration  appears 
to  have  been  generally  approved  by  the  British.  He 
waged  a  successful  war  against  the  Sikhs,  annexed  the 
Punjab,  Pegu,  Oude,  etc.  to  the  British  dominions,  and 
developed  the  resources  of  Hindostan.  In  1849  he  was 
created  Marquis  Dalhousie.  He  constructed  railroads, 
promoted  manufactures,  and  made  various  public  im- 
provements. He  returned  to  England  in  1856,  and  died, 
without  male  issue,  in  December,  i860.  His  cousin, 
Lord  Panmure,  succeeded  to  the  earldom  of  Dalhousie. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1863  ;  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  August,  1856;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1855. 

Dalibard,  dS'le'blR',  (Thomas  Franqois,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  at  Crannes  about  1703.  He  published  in 
1749  a  work  on  the  plants  growing  near  Paris, — "Florae 
Parisiensis  Prodromus," — and  was  the  first  botanical 
writer  of  France  that  adopted  the  system  of  Linnaeus, 
who  named  in  honour  of  him  the  Rubiis  Dalibarda.  He 
was  the  first  Frenchman  who  employed  the  lightning-rod, 
the  idea  of  which  he  obtained  from  Franklin's  writings. 
He  erected  at  Marly  an  iron  rod,  with  which  he  drew 
the  electric  fluid  from  the  sky  in  May,  1752,  one  month 
before  Franklin's  experiment  with  the  kite.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1779. 

See  B.  Haureau,  "Histoire  litteraire  du  Maine;"  "  Biographic 
Medicale." 

Dalibray  or  Dalibrai,  dS'le'bRy,  (Charles  Vion,) 
SiEUR,  a  French  poet,  born  in  Paris  about  1590.  He 
made  poetical  versions  of  Tasso's  "Aminta"and  "Toris- 
mena,"  and  of  other  Italian  and  Spanish  works.  He 
also  wrote  some  original  verses.    Died  in  1654. 

Dalin,  von,  fon  di'lin,  (Olof,)  an  eminent  Swedish 
historian  and  poet,  born  at  Winberga  in  1708.  He  be- 
came librarian  to  the  king  in  1737,  and  acquired  repu- 
tation by  a  poem  on  Swedish  liberty  in  1743.  He  was 
soon  after  employed  by  the  Diet  to  write  a  history  of 
Sweden,  which  was  issued  from  1747  to  1762  and  was 
received  with  favour.  About  1750  he  was  appointed 
preceptor  to  the  heir  of  the  crown,  afterwards  Gus- 
tavus  III.  He  received  a  title  of  nobility  and  the  order 
of  the  Polar  Star,  and  in  1763  was  appointed  chancellor 
of  the  court.  His  writings,  among  which  are  several 
odes,  and  a  tragedy  named  "  Brunehilde,"  form  a  new 
era  in  Swedish  literature,  which  before  his  time  was 
almost  uncultivated.    Died  in  1763. 

^See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon ;"  Olof  Celsius, 
"Aminnelse-Tal  bfver  O.  af  Dalin,"  1764. 

Dallaeus.    See  Daill6. 

Dallamano,  dSl-li-mi^io,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Modena  in  1679;  died  in  1758. 

DaPlans,  (Ralph,)  an  English  organ-builder ;  died 
about  1672. 

Dallas,  (Alexander  James,)  an  American  states- 
man and  lawyer,  born  in  the  island  of  Jamaica  in  1759. 
He  emigrated  to  Philadelphia  in  1783,  acquired  distinc- 
tion as  a  lawyer,  and  became  an  active  supporter  of  the 
Republican  party.  In  1801  he  was  appointed  district 
attorney  of  the  United  States  by  President  Jefi'erson. 
He  became  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  the  cabinet  of 
Madison  in  October,  1814,  when,  in  consequence  of  the 
war  against  Great  Britain,  the  financial  condition  of  the 
country  was  extremely  depressed.  Mr.  Dallas  at  once 
recommended  to  Congress,  in  a  report  which  is  still  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  ablest  ever  issued  from  the  treasury 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DALLAS 


DALRTMPLE 


department,  the  establishment  of  a  national  bank.  The 
energy  which  he  brought  to  his  branch  of  the  public  ser- 
vice enabled  him  in  a  few  months  to  procure  a  loan  on 
favourable  terms,  and  in  January,  1815,  United  States 
treasury  notes  were  negotiable  at  par  with  interest  added. 
In  March  he  undertook  the  additional  trust  of  secretary 
of  war.  In  November,  181 6,  Mr.  Dallas  retired  from 
public  life,  and  resumed  his  profession  in  Philadelphia. 
Died  in  181 7.  He  edited  for  some  time  the  "Columbian 
Magazine,"  and  in  1790  published  "Reports  of  Cases  in 
the  Courts  of  the  United  States  and  Pennsylvania,"  (4 
vols.  8vo,)  which,  says  Lord  Mansfield,  "do  credit  to  the 
court,  the  bar,  and  the  reporter."  He  also  published  the 
"Laws  of  Pennsylvania  from  1700  to  1801,"  (4 vols.  8vo,) 
•'Exposition  of  the  Causes  and  Character  of  the  Late 
War,"  (181 5,)  and  various  other  works. 

DaPlas,  (Alexander  Robert  Charles,)  an  English 
clergyman,  first-cousin  of  George  M.  Dallas,  and  a  son 
of  Robert  Charles,  noticed  below.  After  serving  as  an 
ofiicer  in  the  army  for  some  years,  he  became  a  priest 
of  the  Anglican  Church  at  Wonston.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Pastor's  Assistant,"  (1842,) 
and  "The  Cottager's  Guide  to  the  New  Testament," 
(6  vols.,  1839-45.)  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  mis- 
sionary in  the  west  of  Ireland  between  1844  and  1852. 

Dallas,  (Sir  George,)  M.P.,  an  English  political 
writer,  brother  of  Sir  Robert,  noticed  below,  was  born 
in  London  in  1758.  About  1776  he  went  to  India  as  a 
clerk  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company,  where 
he  published  the  "  India  Guide,"  a  poem.  Having  re- 
turned home,  he  wrote  a  pamphlet  in  defence  of  Warren 
Hastings,  (1789,)  and  "Remarks  on  the  Policy  of  a  War 
with  France,"  (1793.)  His  "Letters  to  Lord  Moira  on 
Ireland,"  published  in  the  "Anti-Jacobin,"  attracted 
much  attention,  and  were  approved  by  Mr.  Pitt.  He 
was  knighted  in  1798.    Died  in  1833. 

Dallas,  (George  Mifflin,)  an  American  statesman, 
a  son  of  Alexander  J.  Dallas,  was  born  in  Philadelphia 
in  July,  1792,  He  graduated  at  Princeton  College  in 
1810,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1813. 
In  1 83 1  he  was  elected  by  the  Democrats  to  the  Senate 
of  the  United  States,  in  which  he  advocated  a  protective 
tariff  and  the  recharter  of  the  United  States  Bank.  In 
1837  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Russia,  from  which  he 
returned  in  1839,  He  was  elected  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States  when  James  K.  Polk  was  chosen  President 
in  1844.  In  1846  he  gave  in  the  Senate  a  casting  vote  for 
a  new  tariff-bill,  which  was  obnoxious  to  the  protectionists 
and  was  designed  merely  for  revenue.  In  February,  1856, 
he  was  appointed  minister  to  England,  and  was  recalled 
in  1861.    Died  in  December,  1864. 

See  "Democratic  Review"  for  February,  1842;  "Letters  from 
London,"  by  G.  M.  Dallas,  Philadelphia,  1869. 

Dallas,  (Sir  Robert,)  M.P.,  an  English  judge,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Robert  Dallas  of  Kensington.  Having 
gained  reputation  as  a  lawyer,  he  was  employed  as  counsel 
for  Warren  Hastings  in  1785.  He  was  first  returned  to 
Parliament  in  1802,  and  appointed  president  of  the  court 
of  common  pleas  in  1818.    Died  in  1824. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Dallas,  (Robert  Charles,)  a  brother  of  A.  J.  Dallas, 
noticed  above,  a  British  author,  born  in  Jamaica  in  1754, 
was  educated  in  London.  He  eventually  settled  in  Eng- 
land, where  he  published  many  able  works  on  various 
subjects,  among  which  are  "Miscellaneous  Writings," 
(1797,)  a  "History  of  the  Maroons,"  (1804,)  "  Percival, 
a  Novel,"  and  "  Recollections  of  the  Life  of  Lord  Byron." 
He  was  intimate  with  Byron,  (whose  uncle  had  married 
a  sister  of  Mr.  Dallas,)  and  is  said  to  have  persuaded 
him  to  expunge  some  offensive  passages  of  "Childe 
Harold."  He  was  the  father  of  A.  R.  C.  Dallas,  noticed 
above.    Died  in  1824. 

Dal'la-way,  (James,)  an  English  divine  and  author, 
born  at  Bristol  in  1763,  became  vicar  of  Leatherhead 
in  1801.  He  published  an  essay  on  the  "Origin  and 
Progress  of  Heraldry,"  (1793.)  Having  accompanied 
an  embassy  to  Turkey  as  chaplain,  he  produced,  on  his 
return,  "Constantinople,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  (1797.) 
He  wrote  an  esteemed  work  on  "English  Architecture," 
a  "Treatise  on  Ancient  Sculpture,"  (1816,)  and  other 
antiquarian  works.    Died  in  1834. 


Dallemagne,  dtrmtn',  (Claude,)  Baron,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Perieux  in  1754,  served  in  the  United 
States  about  1778-82.  He  subsequently  distinguished 
himself  at  Castiglione  and  Roveredo,  and  in  1798  took 
command  of  the  army  of  Rome.    Died  in  1813. 

Dallery,  dtKre',  (Charles,)  a  French  organ-builder, 
born  at  Amiens  in  17 10;  died  in  1780. 

His  nephew,  Pierre  Dallery,  born  in  1735,  was  an 
eminent  organ-builder.  Among  his  works  was  the  organ 
of  Notre-Dame,  Paris.    Died  in  1800. 

Dallery,  (Thomas  Charles  Auguste,)  an  ingenious 
French  mechanician,  son  of  Charles,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Amiens  in  1754.  He  constructed  a  steamboat 
in  1803,  and  ruined  his  fortune  by  experiments  in  steam 
navigation.    Died  in  1835. 

DalTing-ton,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  English  writer,  born 
at  Geddington  about  1560,  became  secretary  to  the  Earl 
of  Rutland.  He  wrote  a  "  Survey  of  Tuscany,"  (1604,) 
a  "  Method  for  Travel,"  and  other  works.  Fuller,  in  his 
"Worthies,"  says  "  he  had  an  excellent  wit  and  judgment ; 
witness  his  most  accurate  aphorisms  on  Tacitus."  Died 
in  1637. 

Dalloz,  dt'loz',  (Victor  Alexis  Desire,)  a  French 
advocate  and  jurist,  born  at  Septmoncel  (Jura)  in  1795, 
practised  with  eclat  at  the  bar  of  Paris.  "He  published 
an  important  "  Methodical  and  Alphabetical  Repertory 
of  General  Jurisprudence,"  (2d  edition,  40  vols.,  1845,) 
which  has  been  translated  into  other  languages. 

Dalmasio,  dal-m.Vse-o,  (Lipro,)  an  Italian  painter, 
who  worked  at  Ik^logna  between  1376  and  1410. 

Dalmatia,  Duke  of.    See  Soult,  Marshal. 

Dalmatiii,  dai-md-teen',  (George,)  born  in  Slavo- 
nia,  became  a  Lutheran  minister  at  Laybach.  He  made 
a  Slavonian  translation  of  the  Bible,  which  the  Archduke 
Charles  in  1580  forbade  him  to  publish  in  the  Austrian 
dominions;  but  it  was  printed  at  Wittenberg  in  1584. 
He  was  exiled  for  his  religion  in  1598. 

Dalmatius,  dal-ma'she-us,  (Flavius  Julius,)  a  Ro- 
man prince,  born  in  Gaul,  was  the  nephew  of  the  em- 
peror Constantine,  who  invested  him  with  the  title  of 
Csesar  in  335  a.d.  Soon  after  this  date  he  commanded 
in  Thrace  and  Macedonia.  He  was  killed  in  338  by  his 
soldiers,  who,  it  is  said,  were  instigated  by  Constantius. 

DaFrym-ple,  (diKrim-pl,)  (Alexander,)  F.R.S.,  an 
eminent  Scottish  hydrographer,  born  at  New  Hailes  in 
1737,  was  a  brother  of  Lord  Hailes,  and  seventh  son  of 
Sir  James  Dalrymple.  He  entered  the  service  of  the 
East  India  Company  at  Madras,  as  writer,  at  the  age  of 
sixteen.  In  1759  he  resigned  his  clerkship,  made  a  voy- 
age of  observation  from  Madras  to  the  Eastern  Archi- 
pelago for  the  promotion  of  commerce,  and  returned  to 
England  in  1765,  after  which  he  published  charts  of  the 
Eastern  seas.  In  1779  he  was  appointed  hydrographer 
to  the  East  India  Company,  and  in  1795  obtained  a  simi- 
lar office  from  the  admiralty.  He  published  an  "  Ac- 
count of  the  Discoveries  in  the  Southern  Ocean,"  (1767,) 
and  other  valuable  works  on  navigation  and  geography. 
Died  in  1808. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Dalrymple,  (Sir  David,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  the  young- 
est son  of  Viscount  Stair,  was  created  a  baronet  infi700. 
He  was  appointed  lord  advocate  of  Scotland  in  1709, 
and  died  in  1721,  leaving  a  son  James,  who  was  the 
father  of  David,  (Lord  Hailes.) 

Dalrymple,  (Sir  David,)  afterwards  Lord  Hailes,  an 
eminent  British  judge  and  antiquary,  born  in  Edinburgh 
in  1726,  was  the  son  of  Sir  James,  and  a  great-grandson 
of  the  first  Viscount  Stair.  He  was  admitted  as  an  ad- 
vocate at  the  Scottish  bar  in  1748,  and  became  a  judge  of 
the  court  of  session  in  1766,  when  the  title  of  Lord  Hailes 
was  conferred  on  him.  Ten  years  later  he  was  appointed 
a  lord  of  justiciary.  He  published  a  number  of  able 
works  on  history  and  antiquities,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant and  popular  is  his  "Annals  of  Scotland,"  (1779,) 
a  "book  which,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "will  always  sell ;  it 
has  such  a  stability  of  dates,  such  a  certainty  of  facts,  and 
such  punctuality  of  citation."  His  "  Remains  of  Christian 
Antiquity,"  a  work  of  great  erudition,  was  also  admired. 
He  left  no  issue,  except  two  daughters.   Died  in  1792, 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen :" 
"  Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DJLR  TUPLE 


711 


D  ALTON 


Dalrymple,  (Sir  Hew,)  a  Scottish  judge,  born  in  1652, 
was  the  third  son  of  the  first  Viscount  Stair,  He  was 
admitted  an  advocate  in  1677,  and  was  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  court  of  session  in  1698.    Died  in  1737. 

His  son.  Hew  Dalrymple,  was  made  a  lord  of  ses- 
sion in  1726,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Drummore.  Died 
""i  1755- 

Dalrymple,  (Sir  Hew  Whiteford,)  of  Highmark, 
a  British  general,  born  in  1750,  was  a  descendant  of  Sir 
Hew  Dalrymple,  noticed  above.  After  several  campaigns 
in  the  war  against  France,  he  was  appointed  in  1808  to 
command  the  British  army  in  Portugal,  where  he  entered 
into  the  convention  of  Cintra  with  Junot.  He  was  made 
a  general  in  1812,  and  a  baronet  about  1815.  He  wrote 
a  Memoir  of  his  proceedings  in  Portugal.  Died  in  1830. 

Dalrymple,  (James,)  first  Viscount  Stair,  an  eminent 
Scottish  statesman  and  jurist,  born  at  Dummurchie, 
Ayrshire,  in  1619,  was  the  son  of  James  Dalrymple  of 
Stair,  and  was  the  ancestor  of  many  distinguished  men. 
In  1641  he  obtained  a  chair  of  philosophy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Glasgow.  He  studied  law,  was  admitted  an 
advocate  in  1648,  and  became  eminent  in  the  profession. 
In  1657  Cromwell  appointed  him  a  judge  of  the  court 
of  session,  and  in  1661  Charles  II.  made  him  one  of  the 
lords  of  session.  He  was  president  of  the  court  of  ses- 
sion from  1671  to  1681.  In  the  latter  year  he  published 
"  Institutions  of  the  Law  of  Scotland,"  an  excellent  and 
authoritative  work,  which  is  still  the  great  text-book  of 
Scottish  lawyers.  In  consequence  of  his  refusal  to  take 
the  test-oath  in  1681,  he  was  deprived  of  office,and  suffered 
so  much  persecution  that  he  preferred  exile,  and  retired 
to  Holland  in  1682.  Returning  with  the  Prince  of  Orange 
in  1688,  he  again  became  president  of  the  court,  and  in 
1690  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Viscount  Stair.  He 
died  in  1695,  leaving  four  sons, — ^John,  James,  Hew,  and 
David. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
Macaulay,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  xjii. ;  "Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica." 

Dalrymple,  (John,)  first  Earl  of  Stair,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1644,  was  admitted  an  advocate  in 

1672,  and  appointed  lord  advocate  of  Scotland  in  1685. 
After  the  lapse  of  a  year  he  exchanged  this  office  for  that 
of  lord  of  session,  but  in  1690  resumed  the  former  func- 
tion. From  169 1  to  1695  he  was  secretary  of  state,  and 
incurred  great  odium  by  his  complicity  in  the  massacre 
of  Glencoe,  of  which  he  was  regarded  as  the  chief  author. 
He  inherited  his  father's  title  in  1695,  and  was  made  an 
earl  in  1703.  He  died  in  1707,  leaving  a  son,  John,  the 
great  general. 

Respecting  the  guilt  of  the  Earl  of  Stair  in  relation  to  Glencoe,  see 
Macaulay,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chap,  xviii.;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1868;  J.  Paget,  "New  Examen," 
London,  1861. 

Dalrymple,  (John,)  second  Earl  of  Stair,  an  able 
general,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Edinburgh  in 

1673,  entered  the  army  in  1692.  In  1702  he  served  as 
aide-de-camp  to  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  in  Flanders. 
He  inherited  his  father's  title  in  1707,  and  was  chosen 
one  of  the  representative  peers  in  the  first  British  Parlia- 
ment. He  commanded  the  Scottish  Greys  at  the  battles 
of  Oudenarde,  Malplaquet,  (1709,)  and  Ramillies,  where 
his  conduct  was  much  applauded.  On  the  accession  of 
George  I.  (171 5)  he  was  made  a  privy  councillor,  and 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in  Scotland.  He  per- 
formed with  credit  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Paris,  whence 
he  returned  in  1720  and  lived  many  years  in  retirement. 
In  1743  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the 
forces  in  Great  Britain.  He  died  without  issue  in  1747, 
when  a  son  of  his  brother  William  became  heir  to  the 
earldom. 

See  Andrew  Henderson,  "Life  of  John,  Earl  of  Stair,"  1748; 
Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Dalrymple,  (Sir  John,)  of  Cranston,  a  Scottish  law- 
yer and  author,  born  in  1726,  was  a  great-grandson  of 
Viscount  Stair.  He  was  a  baron  of  exchequer  in  Scot- 
land from  1776  to  1807.  He  gained  much  reputation  as 
a  historian  by  his  "  Essay  towards  a  General  Plistory  of 
Feudal  Property,"  (1757,)  and  his  admirable  "  Memoirs 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  from  1681  to  the  Battle  off 
La  Hogue,"  (1771.)  From  the  records  of  the  French 
foreign  office  he  obtained  evidence  which  convinced  him 


that  Algernon  Sidney  and  other  Whigs  were  in  the 
pay  of  Louis  XIV.  Died  in  1810.  He  had  a  son  who 
became  Earl  of  Stair. 

DaPrym-ple,  (John,)  an  English  surgeon  and  oculist, 
born  at  Norwich  in  1804,  began  to  practise  his  profession 
in  London  in  1827.  He  published  in  1834  an  excellent 
treatise  on  the  "Anatomy  of  the  Human  Eye,"  and  in  his 
later  years  gave  his  attention  chiefly  to  ocular  surgery. 
He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  "  P2ye  of  Fishes,"  and  other 
papers  on  natural  history,  which  procured  his  election 
as  F.R.S.  in  1850,    Died  in  1852. 

D&Ptpn,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Cumber- 
land in  1709,  became  prebendary  of  Worcester  and  rec- 
tor of  Saint  Mary-at-Hill,  London.  He  adapted  Milton's 
"  Comus"  for  the  stage,  and  wrote  a  number  of  sermons, 
(1745-55,)  and  some  short  poems.    Died  in  1763. 

Dalton,  (John,)  an  English  chemical  philosopher,  cele- 
brated as  the  author  of  the  atomic  theory,  was  born  at 
Eaglesfield,  near  Cockermouth,  September  5,  1766.  He 
was  the  son  of  Joseph  Dalton,  a  farmer.  From  1781  to 
1793  he  was  employed  as  usher  in  a  school  at  Kendal, 
where  he  was  assisted  in  his  scientific  studies  by  Mr. 
Gough,  a  blind  philosopher.  Through  the  influence  of 
this  friend  he  obtained  in  1793  the  chair  of  mathematics 
in  New  College,  Manchester,  which  thenceforth  was  his 
permanent  residence.  He  devoted  his  leisure  to  obser- 
vations and  experiments  in  various  branches  of  physics, 
published  "Meteorological  Essays,"  (1793,)  and  an  ac- 
count of  a  singular  defect  in  his  vision,  in  consequence 
of  which  certain  colours — red,  blue,  and  green — appeared 
to  him  alike.  This  peculiarity  of  vision  has  since  been 
termed  "Daltonism."  After  the  New  College  was  re- 
moved to  York,  (1799,)  Dalton  taught  mathematics  and 
philosophy  in  private  schools,  and  gave  public  lectures 
on  physical  science  at  Manchester,  London,  and  other 
cities.  In  1802  he  propounded  his  important  theory  of 
"The  Constitution  of  Mixed  Gases,"  (in  a  contribution 
to  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Manchester  Society,")  which 
is  now  universally  adopted.  In  1803  he  began  to  develop 
the  inost  important  and  fundamental  principles  of  chem- 
ical philosophy,  in  connection  with  the  atomic  theory, 
which  he  announced  in  a  lecture  in  London  in  1804, 
and  explained  in  the  first  volume  of  his  "  New  System 
of  Chemical  Philosophy,"  (1808.)  This  discovery  cou' 
tributed  immensely  to  perfect  the  processes  of  chemical 
analysis  and  synthesis,  which  have  since  attained  almost 
mathematical  precision.  From  this  theory,  which  sup- 
poses that  each  body  is  composed  of  atoms  of  definite 
size  and  weight,  he  deduced  the  following  laws  of  com- 
bination :  I,  each  compound  consists  invariably  of  the 
same  constituents  ;  2,  the  elements  of  every  compound 
unite  in  definite  and  constant  proportions  ;  3,  when  ele- 
ments combine  in  more  proportions  than  one,  those 
proportions  are  multiples,  etc.  About  1821  Dalton  was 
elected  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society;  and  in  1826  that 
body  unanimously  awarded  him  one  of  two  gold  medals 
which  the  king  ordered  to  be  given  to  those  who  had 
most  distinguished  themselves  by  discoveries  in  science. 
He  was  a  foreign  associate  of  the  French  Institute.  An 
annual  pension  of  £^,00  was  settled  on  him  in  1836.  In 
1827  he  published  the  third  volume  of  his  "System  of 
Chemical  Philosophy."  Besides  the  works  above  men- 
tioned, he  wrote  many  which  were  inserted  in  the  "  Philo- 
sophical Transactions,"  "  Nicholson's  Journal,"  etc.  He 
died  in  July,  1844.  He  excelled  in  generalization,  and 
had  an  extraordinary  sagacity  in  tracing  the  relations 
of  natural  phenomena.  His  moral  character  was  excel- 
lent, his  disposition  unassuming  and  rather  reserved. 
He  never  married.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  whose  meetings  he  constantly  attended.  The 
citizens  of  Manchester  testified  their  high  estimate  of  his 
merit  by  a  magnificent  public  funeral.  "  Dalton,"  says  the 
"Edinburgh  Review,"  "first  gave  clear  declaration  to 
the  principle  [of  definite  proportions]  and  illustrated  its 
applications,  mighty  in  their  universality,  with  a  simple 
sagacity  belonging  to  the  genius  and  habits  of  the  man." 

See  Dr.  Henry,  "Life  of  Dalton,"  1854;  Ersch  und  Gruber, 
"Allgemeine  Encyclopaedie  ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1858; 
"Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1855;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
November,  1854;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1854; 
"  North  British  Review"  for  October,  1857;  "  Westminster  Review" 
for  March,  1846. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  h,  vl, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i:^=='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


D  ALTON 


712 


DAMER 


D^Ftpn,  (John  C.,)  a  distinguished  American  physi- 
ologist, born  at  Chehnsford,  Massachusetts,  February  2, 
1825,  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1844,  and  in  1847  ^o^k  the 
degree  of  M.D.  in  the  medical  department  of  that  uni- 
versity. His  "  Essay  on  the  Corpus  Luteum,"  &c.  (1851) 
won  the  prize  of  the  American  Medical  Association.  His 
"Treatise  on  Human  Physiology"  (ist  edition,  1859;  4th 
edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  1867)  placed  him  at  once  in 
the  first  rank  of  American  physiologists.  He  has  since 
written,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on  Physiology 
and  Hygiene  for  Schools,  Families,  and  Colleges,"  (1868.) 

Dalton,  (Michael,)  M.P.,  an  English  lawyer,  born 
in  1554,  was  chiefly  noted  as  the  author  of  "  The  County 
Justice,"  a  standard  legal  work.    Died  about  1620. 

Dalton,  (Richard,)  an  English  artist,  was  a  brother 
of  the  Rev.  John  Dalton,  (1709-63.)  He  studied  painting 
in  Rome,  travelled  in  the  Levant,  and,  on  his  return, 
became  keeper  of  the  medals  and  pictures  of  George 
IH.  He  published  "Antiquities  and  Scenery  in  Greece 
and  Egypt,"  (1791.)    Died  in  1791. 

Dalyell,  A\-h\',  ?  { Sir  John  Graham,  )  a  Scottish 
naturalist  and  author  ,  born  in  1777.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Fragments  of  Scottish  History," 
(1798,)  "Monastic  Antiquities,"  (1809,)  and  "Rare  and 
Remarkable  Animals  of  Scotland,"  (1847.)  The  last  is 
highly  commended.    Died  in  1851. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Dalzell,  dk-hV,  (Andrew,)  F.R.S.,  a  Scottish  pro- 
fessor, eminent  as  a  Greek  scholar,  born  at  Ratho,  near 
Edinburgh,  about  1750.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  in 
the  Edinburgh  University,  and  secretary  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  that  city.  He  published  selections  from  Greek 
authors,  with  the  titles  of  "Analecta  Graeca  Minora"  and 
"Collectanea  Graeca  Majora,"  (1802,)  which  were,  and 
still  are,  extensively  used  in  schools.  He  also  translated 
Chevalier's  "  Plains  of  Troy,"  (1791.)    Died  in  1806. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of- Eminent  Scotsmen ;" 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October.  1822. 

Damain,  dt^m^N',  (Jacques,)  a  French  Catholic 
priest,  born  at  Orleans  about  1530,  wrote  an  "Account 
of  the  Events  at  Orleans  during  the  Massacre  of  Saint 
Bartholomew"  in  1572.  His  humanity  was  conspicuous 
in  that  dreadful  crisis.    Died  in  1596. 

Damas,  dt'mJs',  (Ange  Hyacinthe  Maxence,) 
Baron,  a  French  general  and  statesman,  born  in  Paris 
in  1785,  was  minister  of  war  in  1823,  and  afterwards  of 
foreign  affairs  from  1824  to  January,  1828.  Died  in  1862. 

Damas,  (Francois  Etienne,)  a  French  general,  born 
in  Paris  in  1764.  As  general  of  brigade,  he  distinguished 
himself  at  the  passage  of  the  Rhine  in  1795.  He  served 
as  chief  of  the  staff  of  Kleber  in  Egypt  in  1798-99,  and 
as  general  of  division  at  the  battle  of  Heliopolis.  He 
returned  to  France  in  1801,  and  was  appointed  military 
commandant  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Berg  in  1807.  He 
maintained  his  reputation  in  the  Russian  campaign  of 
1812,  and  after  the  restoration  of  1815  was  employed  as 
inspector  in  the  army.    Died  in  1828. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Fran^ais." 

Damas,  de,  deh  dt'mds',  (Joseph  Francois  Louis 
Charles  C6sar,)  Due,  a  French  peer,  born  in  1758. 
As  colonel  of  dragoons,  he  was  charged  with  the  impor- 
tant duty  of  expediting  the  passage  of  the  royal  family 
in  their  attempt  to  escape  to  the  frontier  in  1791.  On 
this  occasion  he  was  deficient  in  energy  and  presence  of 
mind.  He  emigrated  about  1792,  and  became  aide-de- 
camp of  the  Count  d'Artois,  (Charles  X.)  After  the 
restoration,  Louis  XVHL  made  him  a  peer  and  lieu- 
tenant-general.   Died  in  1829. 

See  Chastellux,  "  filoge  du  G^n^ral  de  Damas,"  1829. 

Damas,  de,  (Roger,)  Comte,  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  1765.  As  France  was  at  peace  with  all 
nations,  he  indulged  his  martial  passion  in  the  service 
of  Russia  against  the  Turks.  He  fought  with  the  royalists 
against  the  French  republic  from  1793  to  1797.  In  1798 
he  entered  the  service  of  fhe  King  of  Naples,  and  ob- 
tained command  of  a  division.  In  18 14  he  returned  to 
France,  and  recovered  his  titles.    Died  in  1823. 

Damascene.    See  Damascenus. 

Dam-as-9e'nus,  (Joannes,)  [Gr.  'luuwric  AafiaoKijvS^  ; 
Fr.  Jean  Damascene,  di'mWshV,  or  de  Damas,  deh 


dt'mSs',]  a  noted  theologian,  born  in  Damascus  about 
700.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  the  office  of  councillor 
to  the  caliph.  In  the  prime  of  life  he  retired  to  the 
monastery  of  Saint  Saba,  near  Jerusalem,  where  he  be- 
came well  versed  in  dialectics,  philosophy,  and  theology, 
and  gained  a  great  reputation  by  his  writings,  of  which 
the  principal  is  entitled  "  Summary  of  the  Orthodox 
Faith."  This  served  as  a  model  to  several  generations 
of  Schoolmen.  He  also  wrote  a  treatise  against  Icono- 
clasts. He  first  applied  to  scholasticism  the  philosophy 
of  Aristotle.  Died  about  760,  though  some  say  780  a.d. 
See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Damascenus,  (Nicolaus,)  [NtKoXaog  AafiaaKTjvog,]  3l 
Greek  historian  and  philosopher,  born  in  Damascus  in 
74  B.C.,  was  a  contemporary  of  the  emperor  Augustus, 
and  a  friend  of  Herod,  King  of  Judea,  at  whose  court 
he  lived.  He  wrote  a  "Universal  History,"  of  which 
fragments  are  extant,  and  other  works,  including  poems. 
His  History  is  praised  for  its  style  and  other  merits. 

Damascius,  da-mash'e-us,  [Gr.  AafidoKLog,]  a  pagan 
philosopher,  born  in  Damascus  about  480  a.d.  He  studied 
under  Isidorus  and  others,  at  Athens,  where  he  afterwards 
taught  the  Neo- Platonic  philosophy.  Justinian  having 
in  529  prohibited  the  pagans  from  teaching,  Damascius 
retired  to  the  court  of  Chosroes,  King  of  Persia.  He 
wrote  a  work  called  "  Doubts  and  Solutions  of  the  First 
Principles,"  which  is  still  extant,  and  is  accounted  an 
important  contribution  to  the  history  of  philosophy. 

See  Photius,  "  Bibliotheca  ;"  Ritter,  "  History  of  Philosophy." 

Damase.    See  Damasus. 

Damas-Hinard,  dt'mas'  he'ntR',  (Jean  Joseph  Sta- 
nislas,) a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Madrid  in  1805,  pro- 
duced French  versions  of  Calderon,  (1841-44,)  of  Lope 
de  Vega,  (1842,)  and  of  "Don  Quixote,"  (1847.)  He 
became  private  secretary  of  the  empress  Eugenie  in  1853. 

Da-mas'tes  [Aa^acrrT^f]  of  Sig^um,  a  Greek  histo- 
rian, who  lived  in  the  fifth  century  B.C. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Graecis." 

Dam'a-sus  [Fr.  Damase,  dt'mtz']  I.,  a  Spaniard 
by  birth,  was  elected  Bishop  of  Rome,  as  successor  to 
Liberius,  in  366  a.d.  A  competitor  named  Ursinus  was 
also  chosen  by  a  party  of  the  clergy  ;  and  this  double 
election  gave  rise  to  violent  tumults,  in  which  many 
persons  were  killed.  Damasus  was  recognized  by  the 
bishops  and  by  the  emperor  Valentinian,  who  exiled  Ur- 
sinus. He  called  councils  at  different  tii^es  to  oppose 
the  Arians  and  other  schismatics.  Saint  Jerome,  who 
was  his  secretary,  speaks  favourably  of  his  character. 
He  died  in  384,  and  was  succeeded  by  Siricius. 

See  Cave,  "Scriptorum  Ecclesiasticorum  Historia;"  Tillemont, 
"M^moires  ecclesiastiques." 

Damasus  II.,  Poppo  or  Poppon,  Bishop  of  Brixen, 
was  elected  pope  in  1048  in  place  of  Benedict  IX.  He 
died  about  three  weeks  after  his  election. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Damaze  de  Raymond,  dS'mtz'  deh  ri^m^N',  a 
French  journalist,  born  at  Agen  in  1770;  died  in  1813. 

Dambourney,  ddN'booR'ni',  (Louis  Auguste,)  a 
French  chemist  and  botanist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1722, 
was  intendant  of  the  botanic  garden  of  that  place.  He 
made  useful  experiments  and  discoveries  in  vegetable 
dyes,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  "  Colours  which  In- 
digenous Plants  of  France  impart  to  Wool,"  which  was 
printed  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  (1789.)  Died  in  1795. 

Dambray,  d6N'bRi',  (Charles  Henri,)  chancellor 
of  France,  born  at  Rouen  in  1760,  removed  to  Paris  ir 
1779.  Having  acquired  distinction  as  an  eloquent  advo- 
cate, he  was  appointed  in  1788  attorney-general  in  the 
Parliament  of  Paris.  He  favoured  the  royalist  cause, 
and  during  the  reign  of  terror  lived  in  retirement.  In 
1814  he  was  appointed  chancellor  of  France  by  Louis 
XVIII.,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  peer.  The  seals 
were  taken  from  him  in  181 5,  after  which  he  was  president 
of  the  Chamber  of  Peers  for  some  years.  His  character 
is  represented  as  excellent.    Died  in  1829. 

See  De  Laporte-Lalannk,  "Notice  sur  Charles  Henri  Dambray, 
etc.,"  Paris,  1830;  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Restoration." 

Da'me-as,  \Aa^aq^  written  also  Damias,  a  Greek 
statuary,  born  in  Arcadia,  lived  about  410  B.C. 

Da'mer,  (Anne  Seymour,)  an  English  lady,  eminent 
as  a  sculptor,  born  in  1748,  was  the  daughter  of  General 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon. 


DAMER  713  DAMPE 


Conway,  and  the  friend  of  David  Hume  and  Horace 
Walpole.  In  1767  she  became  the  wife  of  Hon.  John 
Damer,  who  killed  himself  in  1776.  She  then  devoted 
her  time  to  sculpture,  and  produced  a  statue  of  George 
III.,  a  bust  of  Nelson,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1828. 

See  Cunningham's  "Lives  of  Painters,  Sculptors,"  etc. 

Damer,  Hon.  Mrs.,  an  English  writer  of  the  present 
age,  and  a  descendant  of  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu, 
published  an  interesting  "  Diary  of  her  Tour  in  Greece, 
Turkey,  and  the  Holy  Land,"  (1841.) 

Damery,  dSm^re',  (Walter,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Liege  in  1614.  His  "Translation  of  Elijah"  is  highly 
commended.    Died  in  1678. 

Damesme,  dt'mSm',  (Edouard  Adolphe  Marie,) 
a  French  general,  born  in  1807,  was  killed  in  June,  1848. 

Damiani,  di-me-i'nee,  (Felice,)  called  Felice  da 
GUBBIO,  (goob'be-o,)  a  painter  of  the  Roman  school, 
born  at  Gubbio  about  1550  ;  died  after  1606.  His  picture 
of  the  "Decapitation  of  Saint  Paul"  is  highly  praised. 

Damiani,  di-me-d'nee,  (JAnos,)  of  Tuhegli,  a  Hun- 
garian Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Tuhegli  in  1710.  He 
published  "Doctrine  of  the  True  Church  of  Christ," 
("Doctrinaverae  Christi  Ecclesiae,"  1762.)  Died  in  1768. 

Damiani,  [Fr.  Damien,  dS'me'iN',]  (Pietro,)  an 
Italian  prelate,  born  at  Ravenna  about  988  A.D.  In 
1057  the  pope  appointed  him  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Ostia. 
He  made  zealous  efforts  to  reform  the  evil  practices  of 
the  clergy,  especially  simony,  and,  as  legate  of  the  pope, 
performed  several  missions  with  success,  and  had  great 
influence  in  the  Church.  He  wrote  several  religious 
works.    Died  in  1072. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  HIstorique  ;"  Baronius,  "Annales;" 
Laderchi,  "Vita  S.  P.  Damiani,"  3  vols.,  1702. 

Damiauics  or  Damjanics,  dim-yd'nitch,  (Janos,) 
a  Hungarian  general,  born  in  1804.  In  the  insurrection 
of  1848  he  obtained  a  command,  and  gained  several  vic- 
tories. Having  been  raised  to  the  rank  of  general,  he 
distinguished  himself  at  Nagy  Sarlo  and  Comorn  in 
April,  1849.  He  surrendered  to  the  Russians  at  Arad, 
and  was  hung  by  the  Austrians  in  August,  1849. 

See  Balleydier,  "Histoire  de  la  Guerre  de  Hongrie." 

Da-mi-a'nus,  [Gr.  Aa/ziavof,]  a  celebrated  rhetorician 
of  Ephesus,  lived  about  200  A.D.,  and  was  a  pupil  of 
.^lius  Aristides. 

See  SuiDAS,  " Damianus." 

Damianus,  a  physician,  said  to  have  been  born  in 
Arabia.  In  company  with  his  brother  Cosmas,  he  suf- 
fered martyrdom  about  310  A.D. 

Damien,  the  French  of  Damiani,  which  see. 

Damiens,  dt'me'iN',  [Anglicized  pron.  da'me-enz,] 
(Robert  FRANgois,)  a  French  fanatic,  born  in  the  diocese 
of  Arras  about  17 14,  became  a  domestic  in  Paris.  He  was 
repeatedly  dismissed  by  his  employers  for  vicious  con- 
duct. He  became  violently  excited  on  the  subject  of  a 
controversy  between  the  pope  and  the  Jansenists,  which 
then  distracted  the  Church.  In  January,  1757,  as  Louis 
XV.  was  entering  a  coach,  Damiens  darted  through  the 
guards  aiid  wounded  him  slightly  with  a  knife.  He  was 
seized  and  put  to  the  torture,  but  persisted  in  denying 
that  he  had  any  accomplice.  On  his  trial  he  said  he  did 
not  wish  to  kill  the  king,  but  to  induce  him  to  do  right. 
He  was  condemned  to  be  broken  alive  by  horses,  which 
doom  was  carried  into  effect. 

See  "Vie  de  R.  F.  Damiens,"  1757;  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de 
Louis  XV." 

Damilaville,dt'me''ltV^K,(£TiENNE  Noel,)  a  French 
infidel  writer,  born  about  1721,  was  a  correspondent  of 
Voltaire.  He  wrote  "Christianity  Unveiled,"  which  pro- 
voked even  the  censure  of  Voltaire,  who  called  it  "  Im- 
piety Unveiled."    Died  in  1768. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance." 

Damini,    See  Damino,  (Pietro.) 

Damino,  di-mee'no,  or  Damini,  di-mee'nee,  (Gior- 
gio,) an  Italian  portrait-painter,  was  a  brother  of  Pietro, 
noticed  below.    Died  about  1630. 

Damino  or  Damini,  (Pietro,)  a  Venetian  painter 
and  self-taught  artist,  born  at  Castel-Franco  in  1592.  He 
worked  in  Padua  and  Venice,  and  acquired  a  wicle  repu- 
tation, but  died  prematurely  in  163 1.  His  "Crucifixion," 
in  a  church  of  Padua,  is  considered  his  master-piece. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 


Damiron,  dS'me'r6N',  (Jean  Philibert,)  a  French 
philosopher,  born  at  Belleville  (Rhone)  in  1794,  studied 
in  Paris  under  Cousin.  About  1830  he  became  professor 
of  philosophy  in  the  Faculty  of  Letters,  Paris.  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1836.  He  published 
an  "  Essay  on  the  Histoiy  of  Philosophy  in  France  in  the 
Nineteenth  Century,"  (1828,)  and  an  "Essay  on  the 
History  of  Philosophy  in  France  in  the  Seventeenth 
Century,"  (2  vols.,  1846.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1862. 

See  Louandre  et  Bourquelot,  "  Litterature  Fran9aise ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Damjanics.    See  Damianics. 

Damm,  dSm,  (Christian  Tobias,)  a  German  scholar, 
born  near  Leipsic  in  1699.  He  was  rector  of  the  gym- 
nasium of  Berlin  for  about  twenty  years,  ending  in  1764. 
He  published  a  valuable  Greek  Lexicon,  (1765,)  and 
translated  into  German  the  poems  of  Homer,  (1769-71,) 
and  other  classics.    Died  in  1778. 

See  Meusel,  "  Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 

Dammartin.    See  Chabannes,  de,  (Antoine.) 

Da'mo,  [Gr.  Aa^uw,]  a  daughter  of  Pythagoras,  to 
whom  he  intrusted  the  writings  containing  the  secrets 
of  his  philosophy.  Though  suffering  from  extreme 
poverty  and  tempted  with  liberal  offers  of  money,  she 
adhered  to  her  father's  injunctions,  and  handed  down 
the  precious  documents  inviolate  to  her  daughter  Bistalia. 

Dam'o-cles,  [Gr.  Aa/zo«A^f,]  a  Syracusan  courtier, 
whose  admiration  of  the  luxury  and  pomp  of  royalty  is 
said  to  have  been  cured  by  Dionysius,  who  invitecl  him  to 
a  sumptuous  repast,  over  which  a  sword  was  suspended 
by  a  hair.    This  anecdote  is  related  by  Cicero. 

Da-moc'ra-tes  or  De-moc'ra-tes,  [Gr.  AafioKpuTrjc 
or  ArjfiOKpuT7jg,]  a  Greek  physician,  who  lived  at  Rome 
about  50  A.D.,  was  commended  by  Pliny. 

Damoiseaii,  dt^mw§.'z6',  (Marie  Charles  Theo- 
dore,) a  French  astronomer,  born  at  Besan^on  in  1768. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and 
wrote  on  the  Lunar  theory.    Died  in  1846. 

Daemon  [Aufiuv]  of  Athens,  an  eminent  Greek  musi- 
cian, was  the  teacher  of  Pericles  and  Socrates,  both  of 
whom  respected  him  highly.  His  penetration  and  finesse 
are  praised  by  Plato  in  his  "  Republic."  Plutarch  inti- 
mates that  he  was  a  "politician  who,  under  the  pretence 
of  teaching  music,  concealed  his  great  abilities  from  the 
vulgar."  He  was  ostracised  in  the  latter  part  of  his 
career,  from  jealousy  of  his  political  influence. 

See  Plutarch,  "Pericles;"  Diogenes  Laertius. 

Damon  and  Pyth'i-as  or  Phin'ti-as  were  two 
Syracusans,  and  disciples  of  Pythagoras,  who  exhibited 
a  remarkable  instance  of  faithful  friendship.  It  is  said 
that  Pythias  was  condemned  to  death  by  Dionysius,  and 
obtained  leave  to  go  and  settle  his  affairs,  while  Damon 
remained  as  a  hostage  for  his  return.  Pythias,  having 
returned  punctually,  was  pardoned  by  the  astonished 
king,  who  desired  to  be  admitted  into  their  friendship. 

See  DiODORUs  Siculus;  Jamblichus,  "Vita  Pythagorse." 

Da-moph'i-lus  [Gr.  Aa.fc6(pi?iog ;  Fr.  Damophile, 
dt'moT^K]  or  De-moph'i-lus,  a  Greek  painter  and 
sculptor  of  uncertain  date,  who  adorned  the  temple  of 
Ceres,  in  Rome. 

Dam'o-phon,  [Aafiocpuv^cL  Greek  sculpto-r,  born  in 
Messenia  or  Messene,  flourished  probably  between  300 
and  400  B.C.  He  was  the  only  famous  sculptor  that 
Messenia  produced.  After  he  had  gained  a  high  repu- 
tation, he  was  chosen  to  restore  or  repair  the  ivory  statue 
of  Jupiter  which  was  the  master-piece  of  Phidias. 

See  Pausanias,  iv.  and  viii. 

Damoreau,  dt'mo^ro',  (Laure  Cinthie,)  originally 
named  Montalant,  (m6N^tt''16N^)  a  P>ench  vocalist, 
called  in  Italian  Mademoiselle  Cinti,  (ch^n'tee,)  born 
in  Paris  in  1801,  became  a  public  favourite  about  1822. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Damours,  dt^mooR',  (Louis,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Lude  about  1720;  died  in  1788. 

Dampe,  dtm'peh,  (Jacob  Jacobson,)  a  Danish  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Copenhagen  in  1790.  He  became 
principal  of  a  school  in  his  native  city,  and  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  one  "  On  the  Harmony  of  Liberty  with 
the  Spirit  of  Christianity,"  (1819.)  He  was  imprisoned 
for  his  liberal  doctrines  from  1821  to  1841.  Died  in  1850. 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon." 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as j;  g,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DAMPIER 


714 


DANA 


Dam'pier,  (William,)  an  enterprising  English  navi- 
gator, born  in  iSomersetshire  in  1652,  served  in  the  navy 
in  the  war  with  Holland  about  1673.  He  afterwards 
sailed  with  an  expedition  to  Campeachy  to  cut  logwood, 
and  in  1678  returned  to  London  with  a  journal  of  his 
observations.  In  1679  he  joined  a  party  of  filibusters, 
who  cruised  about  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  and  infested 
the  Spanish  settlements  for  several  years.  About  1685 
he  made  a  voyage  to  the  East  Indies,  in  which  he  had 
some  perilous  adventures.  Returning  to  England  in 
1691,  he  published  an  interesting  narrative  of  his  "Voy- 
age round  the  World."  In  1699  the  admiralty  gave  him 
command  of  a  vessel,  and  sent  him  to  make  discoveries 
in  the  South  Sea.  He  explored  the  western  coast  of 
Australia,  the  coasts  of  New  Guinea  and  other  islands, 
and  passed  through  the  straits  which  bear  his  name.  He 
returned  home  in  1701,  and  published  the  results  of  his 
voyage.  He  went  to  sea  again,  but  not  in  the  service 
of  government,  A  remarkable  faculty  for  observation  and 
description  renders  his  writings  valuable  and  attractive. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gendrale;"  "Retrospective  Review," 
vol.  ix.,  1824. 

Dampierre,  dSN^pe^iR',  (Jean,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Blois ;  died  in  1550. 

Dampierre,  de,  deh  d6N'pe-aiR',  (  Auguste  Henri 
Marie  Picot,)  a  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1756. 
In  1 791  he  was  aide-de-camp  to  Marshal  Rochambeau. 
He  commanded  a  division  at  Jemmapes,  (1792,)  the  vic- 
tory of  which  was  attributed  partly  to  his  bravery  and  skill. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  several  other  actions  under 
Dumouriez.  When  he  learned  the  defection  of  that  gene- 
ral, (April,  1793,)  he  decided  in  favour  of  the  republic, 
and  was  made  commander-in-chief  in  place  of  Dumouriez. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  near  Vicogne  in  May,  1793. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  De  Cour- 
CELLES,  " Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais." 

Dampierre,  de,  (Gui,)  Count  of  Flanders,  was  born 
in  1225,  and  began  to  reign  in  1280.  He  became  involved 
in  war  with  Philip  V.  of  France,  who  conquered  Flanders 
about  1300  and  kept  Gui  in  prison.  The  Flemings  re- 
volted, and  gained  a  victory  at  Courtrai  in  1302.  Gui 
died  in  prison  in  1305. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Dampmartin,  de,  deh  dSN^mtR^tiN',  (Anne  Henri,) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Uzes  in  1755,  served  in  the 
army  as  colonel  before  the  Revolution.  He  returned  from 
the  emigration  about  1800,  and  in  1810  was  appointed 
imperial  censor  of  books.  In  1813  he  was  a  deputy  to 
the  legislative  body,  and  in  1814  was  reinstated  in  the 
office  of  censor  by  Louis  XVIII.  He  wrote  a  "History 
of  the  Rivalry  between  Carthage  and  Rome,"  (1789,) 
essays  on  education,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1825. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Damremont,    See  Danr^mont. 

Dan,  [Heb.  p.]  a  son  of  the  Hebrew  patriarch  Jacob, 
was  born,  it  is  supposed,  about  1788  B.C. 

See  Genesis,  chaps,  xxx.,  xxxv.,  and  xlix. 

Dan,  a  prince  who,  according  to  Malte-Brun,  founded 
the  kingdom  of  Denmark  about  the  end  of  the  third 
century,  and  from  whose  lume  are  derived  the  words 
"Dane"  and  "Danemark,"  {i.e.  country  of  Dan.) 

See  Mallet,  "  Histoire  de  Danemarck." 

Da'na,  (Francis,)  LL.D.,  an  American  statesman  and 
jurist,  son  of  Judge  Richard  Dana.was  born  at  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts,  in  1743.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1762,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1767,  and  was  engaged 
as  counsel  in  many  of  the  most  important  trials  of  that 
stirring  period.  As  a  member  of  the  "  Sons  of  Liberty," 
he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  discussions  on  the  Stamp 
Act  and  other  aggressive  measures  that  produced  the 
Revolution.  He  served  in  the  first  provincial  Congress 
of  Massachusetts  in  1774.  From  1776  to  1780  he  was 
a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  council,  at  that  time  the 
supreme  authority  in  the  State.  He  was  a  delegate  in 
the  Congress  which  formed  the  Confederation  in  1777, 
and  in  the  Congress  of  1778  was  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee charged  with  the  responsible  duty  of  reorganizing 
the  army.  In  November,  1779,  he  embarked  for  Europe 
as  secretary  to  John  Adams  in  his  embassy  to  negotiate 
a  treaty  of  peace  and  commerce  with  Great  Britain. 
Having  been  appointed  minister  to  Russia,  Mr.  Dana, 


in  July,  1 781,  proceeded  to  Saint  Petersburg  ;  but,  failing 
to  obtain  a  recognition  of  the  claims  of  America,  he  re- 
turned to  Boston  in  1783.  He  was  again  a  delegate  to 
Congress  in  1784.  In  January,  1785,  he  was  appointed 
by  Governor  Hancock  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of 
Massachusetts,  and  from  1791  to  1806  was  chief  justice 
of  the  State.  Mr.  Dana  was  in  the  National  Convention 
which  met  at  Annapolis  in  1 786,  and  was  chosen  a  delegate 
to  the  convention  that  framed  the  Federal  Constitution  in 
1787  ;  but  ill  health  and  judicial  duties  prevented  his  at- 
tendance. He  served  in  the  Massachusetts  convention 
for  ratifying  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1788,  and  was 
among  its  most  prominent  supporters.  Died  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1811.  Judge  Dana  combined  eminent  talents 
with  thorough  attainments  and  rare  excellence  of  charac- 
ter.   He  was  throughout  a  zealous  Federalist. 

Dana,  (James  Dwight,)  a  distinguished  American 
naturalist,  born  at  Utica,  New  York,  in  February,  1813, 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1833.  He  was  appointed 
the  geologist  and  mineralogist  of  the  exploring  expedition 
sent  out  by  the  United  States  government  about  1838 
under  Captain  Wilkes,  In  1837  he  published  a  "  System 
of  Mineralogy,"  (5th  edition,  1858.  In  1868  appeared 
the  first  volume  of  a  new  and  greatly  improved  edition  of 
this  work.)  He  married  a  daughter  of  Professor  Benjamin 
Silliman  in  1844.  Since  1846  he  has  been  one  ot  the 
editors  of  the  "  American  Journal  of  Science,"  and  has  re- 
sided at  New  Haven.  In  connection  with  the  exploring 
expedition  above  mentioned,  he  wrote  a  "Report  on 
Zoophytes,"  (1846,)  a  "Report  on  the  Geology  of  the 
Pacific,"  (1849,)  "Report  on  the  Crustacea,"  (1852-54,) 
etc.  He  was  elected  to  the  chair  of  natural  history  and 
geology  at  Yale  College  about  1850,  but  did  not  enter 
immediately  upon  the  duties  of  that  position.  One  of 
his  most  important  works,  and  that  on  which  his  reputa- 
tion chiefly  rests,  is  his  excellent  "  Manual  of  Geology," 
(1862.)  Professor  Dana  combines  with  the  faculty  of 
close  and  accurate  observation  so  necessary  to  every 
student  of  nature,  intellectual  powers  which  place  him 
in  the  very  highest  rank  of  philosophic  naturalists.  He 
is  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Berlin,  and 
of  other  learned  societies. 

See  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1863. 

Dana,  (James  Freeman,)  born  at  Exeter,  New 
Hampshire,  in  1793,  studied  medicine,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Dartmouth  College  about 
1819.  He  published  an  "Epitome  of  Chemical  Philos- 
ophy," (1825.)    Died  at  New  York  in  1827. 

Dana,  (Napoleon  J.  T.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Maine  in  1822,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842.  He 
became  a  brigadier-general  about  February,  1862,  and 
served  in  several  battles  near  Richmond  in  June  of  that 
year.  He  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  Sep- 
tember 17,  1862,  and  disabled.  In  July  and  August, 
1863,  he  commanded  the  defences  of  Philadelphia.  He 
resigned  in  May,  1865. 

Dana,  (Richard,)  an  able  American  lawyer,  the  father 
of  Francis  Dana,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts,  in  1699.  He  practised  law  with  great 
distinction  at  Boston,  and,  as  a  supporter  of  the  cause  of 
liberty,  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  movements  which 
preceded  the  Revolution.    Died  in  1772. 

Dana,  (Richard  Henry,)  an  American  poet  and 
essayist,  born  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  No- 
vember, 1787,  was  a  son  of  Chief-Justice  Francis  Dana. 
He  was  educated  at  Harvard  College,  which  he  left 
without  a  degree  in  1807,  after  which  he  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Boston  in  1811.  In  1814 
he  began  to  contribute  to  the  "  North  American  Review," 
of  which  he  became  associate  editor  in  1818.  He  pro- 
duced the  "Dying  Raven,"  a  poem,  (1821,)  and  "The 
Buccaneer,"  (1827,)  which  was  highly  commended  by 
Professor  Wilson  in  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  of  1835. 
"We  pronounce  it,"  says  he,  "by  far  the  most  powerful 
and  original  of  American  poetical  compositions.  The 
power  is  Mr.  Dana's  own ;  but  the  style — though  he 
has  made  it  his  own  too — is  coloured  by  that  of  Crabbe, 
of  Wordsworth,  and  of  Coleridge.  He  is  no  servile  fol- 
lower of  those  great  masters,  but  his  genius  has  been 
inspired  by  theirs,  and  he  almost  places  himself  on  a 
level  with  them  by  this  extraordinary  story, — we  mean 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon 


DJNJ  7  IS  DAN  COURT 


on  the  level  on  which  they  stand  in  such  poems  as  the 
♦  Old  Grimes'  of  Crabbe,  the  '  Peter  Bell'  of  Wordsworth, 
and  the  'Ancient  Mariner'  of  Coleridge."  In  1833  he 
published  an  edition  of  his  poems  and  prose  writings, 
including  "The  Buccaneer,"  with  some  new  poems  and 
essays,  which  originally  appeared  in  "  The  Idle  Man,"  a 
periodical  issued  in  1821-22.  "  The  Idle  Man,"  says  W. 
C.  Bryant,  "  notwithstanding  the  cold  reception  it  met 
with  from  the  public,  we  look  upon  as  holding  a  place 
among  the  first  productions  of  American  literature." 
("North  American  Review"  for  January,  1828.)  He  de- 
livered a  course  of  ten  lectures  on  Shakspeare  in  Boston, 
New  York,  and  Philadelphia  in  the  winter  of  1839-40. 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  of  America,"  and  "Prose  Writers  of 
America;"  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors ;"  Duyckinck,  "  Cy- 
clopedia of  American  Literature;"  "  Nortlr  American  Review"  for 
January,  1851. 

Dana,  (Richard  Henry,)  Jr.,  an  American  lawyer 
and  author,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts,  in  August,  1815.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Harvard,  which  he  entered  in  1832.  Having 
been  compelled  to  suspend  his  studies  by  an  affection 
of  the  eyes  in  1834,  he  performed  as  a  common  sailor  a 
voyage  to  California,  of  which  he  wrote  an  admirable 
narrative  in  his  "Two  Years  before  the  Mast,"  (1840,) 
which  obtained  a  wide  celebrity.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1837,  studied  law  under  Judge  Story,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  of  Boston  in  1840.  He  has  since 
attained  eminence  as  an  advocate.  In  1841  he  published 
"The  Seaman's  Friend,  containing  a  Treatise  on  Practi- 
cal Seamanship,  etc."  Mr.  Dana  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  "Free-Soil  party,"  and  acted  with  the  Republicans 
in  the  Presidential  election  of  1856. 

Dana,  (Samuel  Luther,)  an  American  chemist  and 
writer  on  agriculture,  born  at  Amherst,  New  Hampshire, 
in  1795.  He  became  chemist  of  the  Merrimac  Print 
Works  at  Lowell  in  1833,  and  invented  a  mode  of 
bleaching  cotton  goods,  which  was  generally  adopted. 
He  acquired  distinction  as  a  writer  on  agriculture,  and 
discovered  that  phosphate  of  soda  has  the  property  of 
fixing  mordants.    Died  in  March,  1868. 

See  "American  Journal  of  Science,"  May,  1868. 

Dan'a-e,  [Gr.  Aava??,]  a  daughter  of  Acrisius,  King  of 
Argos,  who  confined  her  in  a  brazen  tower  or  cell  because 
an  oracle  had  declared  her  son  would  kill  her  father. 
In  spite  of  his  precaution,  she  became  the  mother  of 
Perseus  by  Jupiter,  who  is  fabled  to  have  obtained  access 
to  her  apartment  in  the  form  of  a  golden  shower. 

Dangeus.    See  Daneau. 

Da-na'i-des,  [Gr.  Aai'aidef,]  the  fifty  daughters  of  Da- 
naus,  were  married  to  their  cousins,  the  sons  of  /Egyptus. 
By  the  order  of  their  father,  each  of  them  killed,  on  the 
wedding-night,  her  bridegroom,  except  Hypermnestra, 
who  spared  her  husband,  Lynceus.    (See  next  article.) 

Dan'a-us,  a  son  of  Belus,  after  his  father's  death 
reigned  conjointly  with  his  brother  yEgyptus  on  the 
throne  of  Egypt.  Jealous  of  the  power  of  the  fifty  sons 
of  .^^gyptus,  or,  as  some  say,  terrified  by  an  oracle,  he 
gave  his  fifty  daughters  in  marriage  to  the  sons  of  his 
brother,  with  a  secret  command  that  they  should  kill 
their  husbands  on  the  wedding-night.  (See  Danaides.) 
Danaus  is  said  to  have  reigned  fifty  years. 

See  Keightlev,  "Mythology." 

D^nava,  di'na-va,  (Hindoo  Myth.,)  a  demon  or  evil 
spirit,  one  of  the  children  of  Danu. 

Danby,  Earl  of.    See  Danvers. 

Dan'by,  (Francis,)  an  eminent  landscape-painter, 
born  near  Wexford,  Ireland,  in  1793.  He  became  a 
resident  of  England  in  his  youth,  and  about  1824  pro- 
duced a  "  Sunset  at  Sea  after  a  Storm,"  which  was  much 
admired.  Between  1825  and  1829  he  gained  a  high  re- 
putation by  historical  landscapes,  among  which  was  the 
"Embarkation  of  Cleopatra  on  the  Cydnus,"  (1827.) 
Among  his  later  works  are  "The  Deluge,"  "Departure 
of  Ulysses  from  Ithaca,"  and  "Caius  Marius  amidst  the 
Ruins  of  Carthage,"  (1848.)  He  is  regarded  by  some  as 
unrivalled  in  historical  or  poetic  landscapes  among  the 
English  artists. 

His  son  Thomas  is  a  successful  landscape-painter. 

Dan'by,  (Thomas  Osborne,)  Earl  of.  Marquis  of 
Caermarthen,  Duke  of  Leeds,  an  English  statesman,  born 
in  1631.    He  entered  Parliament  about  1660,  supported 


the  measures  of  the  court,  and  acquired  the  favour  of  the 
king.  In  1673  obtained  the  chief  direction  of  affairs, 
as  lord  treasurer,  and  in  1674  was  created  Earl  of  Danby. 
Having  been  accused  of  treason,  he  was  committed  to 
the  Tower  by  the  Commons  in  1678,  and  was  detained 
there  five  years.  In  1689  he  was  appointed  president 
of  the  council  by  William  III.  "  In  practical  ability  and 
official  experience,"  says  Macaulay,  "he  had  no  superior 
among  his  contemporaries.  .  .  .  Yet  the  Whigs  regarded 
him  with  unconquerable  distrust  and  aversion.  Even 
in  becoming  a  rebel  he  had  not  ceased  to  be  a  Tory." 
("  History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.  chaps,  xi.,  xv.,  and  xvi.) 
He  was  made  Duke  of  Leeds  in  1694.    Died  in  1712. 

Dancarville.    See  Hancarville. 

Dance,  (George,)  an  English  architect,  who  held  the 
office  of  city  surveyor  of  London.  He  was  the  architect 
of  the  Mansion  House,  built  about  1740,  and  of  several 
churches  in  London.    Died  in  1768. 

Dance,  (George,)  Jr.,  an  English  architect,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  probably  in  London  in  1740,  succeeded 
his  father  as  city  surveyor.  He  was  one  of  the  first  mem- 
bers of  the  Royal  Academy,  in  which  he  was  professor 
of  architecture.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on 
the  erection  of  Newgate  prison,  which  was  begun  in 
1 770.  He  also  designed  the  front  of  Guildhall,  and  other 
buildings  in  London.    Died  in  1825. 

Dance,  (Sir  Nathaniel,)  an  English  painter,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1729.  After  acquiring  some 
reputation  as  a  painter,  he  married  a  rich  Mrs.  Dummer, 
and  assumed  the  name  of  Holland.  He  was  made  a 
baronet  in  1800.    Died  in  1811. 

Dan'cer,  (Daniel,)  a  notorious  English  miser,  born 
about  1 715,  subjected  himself  to  extreme  privations  while 
he  had  large  sums  of  money  hoarded.    Died  in  1774. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Misers." 

Danchet,  dftN^sh^',  (Antoine,)  a  French  dramatic 
poet,  born  at  Riom  in  1671,  studied  in  Paris,  where  he 
resided  after  1696.  He  wrote  four  tragedies,  one  of 
which  is  entitled  "Cyrus,"  and  numerous  operas,  which 
were  more  successful,  especially  "  Hesione,"  which  is 
ranked  by  La  Harpe  above  those  of  Duche  and  Fonte- 
nelle.  Danchet  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy 
and  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.    Died  in  1748. 

See  Sabatier,  "  Les  trois  Siecles  de  la  Litterature." 

Danckelmann.    See  Dankelmann. 

Danckert,  dc^nk'keRt,  almost  dtnk'keRt,  or  Danc- 
kerts,  dank'kcRts,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  born 
in  Amsterdam  in  1561,  treated  with  success  portraits, 
landscapes,  and  history.  He  settled  in  Antwerp  as  a 
dealer  in  engravings,  and  was  the  head  of  a  family  who 
were  long  eminent  in  the  same  art. 

Danckert,  (Peter,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Antwerp  in  1600,  surpassed  his  father  as  an  engraver, 
and  used  the  burin  and  the  etching-point  together.  He 
engraved  after  Berghem  and  Wouwerman,  and  also  his 
own  designs.  Died  about  1660.  Peter  left  two  sons, 
Henry  and  John,  who  were  skilful  artists,  and  settled 
first  in  Amsterdam.  John  afterwards  went  to  England, 
where  he  engraved  in  partnership  with  Hollar. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  Basan, 
"  Dictionriaire  des  Graveurs." 

Danckerts.    See  Danckert. 

Danckerts  de  Ry.    See  Dankers. 

Dancks  or  Danks,  dSnks,  almost  dSnks,  (Francis,) 
a  Dutch  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Amster- 
dam in  1650;  died  about  1700. 

Dancourt,  dSN^kooR',  (Florent  Carton,)  a  popular 
French  comic  author,  born  at  Fontainebleau  in  1661. 
He  chose  the  profession  of  law,  in  which  he  acquired 
some  reputation,  but,  falling  in  love  with  an  actress.  La 
Thorilliere,  he  exchanged  the  bar  for  the  stage  in  1685, 
as  one  of  the  king's  comedians.  Pie  was  successful  both 
as  an  actor  and  an  author.  Having  a  mind  fertile  in 
invention,  he  produced  "  Le  Chevalier  a  la  Mode,"  and 
about  sixty  other  plays, — chiefly  farces,  in  which  the 
dialogue  is  spirited,  humorous,  and  piquant.  Voltaire 
observed,  "  What  Regnard  was  in  respect  to  Moliere 
in  the  high  comedy,  Dancourt  was  in  the  farce."  Died 
in  1726. 

See  Grimm,  "  Correspondance  ;"  Hippolyte  Lucas,  "Moliere 
et  Dancourt ;"  "  Nouvelie  Biographic  Generale." 


C  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  o,  H,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!:^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DANDELIN 


716 


DANGEJU 


Dandelin,  d6Nd'liN',  (Germinal  Pierre,)  a  French 
engineer  and  scientific  writer,  born  near  Paris  in  1794, 
became  a  citizen  of  Belgium  in  1816.    Died  in  1847. 

Dandelot,  dSNd'lo',  (FRANgois  de  Coligny — W- 
l^n'ye',)  an  able  French  general,  born  at  Chatillon-sur- 
Loing  in  1 521,  was  a  brother  of  the  admiral  Coligny. 
For  his  conduct  at  Cerisoles  he  was  knighted  on  the 
field.  As  general  of  infantry  he  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  battle  of  Saint-Quentin  in  1557.  ile  was  a  warm 
adherent  of  the  Reformed  Church,  and  in  the  civil  war 
between  Protestants  and  Catholics  which  began  about 
1562,  he  fought  at  Dreux,  at  Chartres,  and  at  Jarnac, 
(1569,)  a  few  days  after  which  battle  he  died  of  fever. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Dandini,  ddn-dee'nee,  (Cesare,)  a  painter,  born  at 
Florence  about  1595  ;  died  in  1658. 

Dandini,  (Ercole  Francesco,)  an  Italian  jurist  and 
legal  writer,  born  at  Ancona  in  1695,  became  professor 
of  law  at  Padua,  where  he  died  in  1747. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitse  Italorum  doctrina  excellentiuin." 

Dandini,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  at  Ce- 
sena  in  1554,  professed  philosophy  in  Paris,  and  theology 
at  Padua.  In  1596  he  was  sent  by  the  pope  on  a  mis- 
sion to  the  Maronites  of  Mount  Lebanon,  of  which  he 
published  an  account.    Died  in  1634. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Dandini,  (Pietro,)  a  skilful  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Florence  in  1647,  was  the  son  of  Vincenzo.  He  painted 
with  equal  success  in  fresco  and  in  oil,  (at  Florence,)  and 
acquired  distinction  by  the  brilliancy  of  his  colouring  and 
the  richness  of  his  composition.    Died  in  1712. 

Dandini,  (Vincenzo,)  a  successful  painter,  born  at 
Florence  about  1607,  was  a  pupil  of  Cortona,  and  a 
brother  of  Cesare,  noticed  above.  He  was  patronized 
by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.    Died  in  1675. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Dandolo,  din'do-lo,  (Andrea,)  a  Venetian  historian 
and  doge,  born  about  1306.  Having  acquired  a  high 
reputation  for  ability  and  virtue,  he  was  elected  doge  in 
1342.  He  was  a  friend  of  Petrarch,  and  was  author  of 
a  valuable  Latin  Chronicle  of  Venice,  terminating  in 
the  year  1339.  He  waged  war  against  the  Genoese  for 
several  years  between  1348  and  1354.    Died  in  1354. 

See  Marino  Sanuto,  "  Vite  de'  Duchi." 

Dandolo,  (Enrico,)  a  renowned  Venetian  statesman 
and  general,  who  greatly  increased  the  maritime  power 
of  Venice,  was  born  about  1105.  He  was  elected  doge 
in  1192,  before  which  he  had  become  nearly  blind.  At 
this  period  the  Venetian  state  was  the  greatest  commer- 
cial and  naval  power  in  the  world.  In  1201  the  leaders 
of  the  fourth  crusade  applied  for  means  of  transport  to 
the  Venetians,  who,  through  the  influence  of  the  doge, 
furnished  ships  and  made  an  alliance  with  the  crusaders. 
Their  combined  forces,  commanded  by  Dandolo,  reduced 
Zara,  which  had  revolted  against  Venice,  and  next  at- 
tacked Constantinople,  which  was  ruled  by  a  usurper. 
That  city  was  taken  by  storm  in  1204,  and  the  throne 
was  offered  to  Dandolo,  who  declined  it,  but  accepted 
the  office  of  despot  of  Romania.  He  obtained  the  cession 
of  several  islands  and  ports  of  the  Levant  to  the  Venetian 
state.    He  died  in  1205.    Byron  calls  him 

"  blind  old  Dandolo, 
Th'  octogenarian  chief,  Byzantium's  conquering  foe." 

Ckilde  Harold,  canto  iv. 

See  MiCHAUD,  "Histoire  des  Croisades ;"  Daru,  "Histoire  de 
Venise  ;"  Marino  Sanuto,  "Vite  de'  Duchi;"  A.  Dandolo, 
"Chronicon,"  in  the  "Collection"  of  Muratori. 

Dandolo,  (Francesco,)  was  Doge  of  Venice  from 
1328  to  1339.  During  his  administration  the  Venetians 
extended  their  dominion  over  the  adjacent  terra  firma, 
by  annexing  Treviso,  etc. 

Dandolo,  (Giovanni,)  was  Doge  of  Venice  from  1280 
to  1289,  during  which  period  the  cities  of  Pirano  and 
Isola  were  added  to  the  republic,  and  Trieste  shook  off 
its  allegiance. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Dandolo,  (Vincenzo,)  Count,  an  Italian  chemist 
and  economist,  born  in  Venice  in  1758.  He  united  and 
digested  the  recent  discoveries  of  French  chemists,  in 
a  work  called  "  Fondamenti  della  Fisico  chimica,"  etc., 
("Principles  of  Physical  Chemistry,"  1796.)  When  Venice 


was  annexed  to  Austria  (1797)  he  removed  to  Milan,  and 
was  there  appointed  a  member  of  the  grand  council. 
From  1804  to  1809  he  was  governor  or  proveditor  of  Dal- 
matia  under  Napoleon.  He  wrote  valuable  treatises  on 
the  production  of  wine,  wool,  and  silk,  and  on  other  sub- 
jects of  rural  economy.    Died  in  Venice  in  18 19. 

See  EvRSCH  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyclopaedie  ;"  M.  Bona- 
Fous,  "  Eioge  historique  de  V.  Dandolo,"  1839;  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
pliie  Generale." 

D'Andrada.    See  Andrada,  d'. 

Dandre,  d6N'dRi',  (Antoine  Balthasar  Joseph,) 
born  at  Aix  in  1759,  was  appointed  in  1814  by  Louis 
XVIII.  director  of  the  police  and  steward  (intendant) 
of  his  domains.    Died  in  1827. 

See  Vaulabelle,  "Histoire  des  deux  Restaurations." 

Dandre-Bardon,  dSN'dRa'  biR'd6N',(MiCHEL  Fran- 
gois,)  a  French  painter  and  writer  on  art,  born  at  Aix 
in  1700,  founded  an  academy  of  painting  at  Marseilles. 
He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Painting  and  Sculpture, 
with  a  Catalogue  Raisonne  of  the  Most  Famous  Artists 
of  the  French  School,"  also  an  illustrated  work  on  the 
costumes  of  ancient  nations.    Died  in  1783. 

Dane,  (Nathan,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in  Ips- 
wich, Massachusetts,  in  1752,  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1778.  He  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  lawyers  in  New 
England.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Con- 
gress in  1785-87.  In  the  last-naiued  year  he  framed  the 
important  ordinance  for  the  government  and  organiza- 
tion of  the  Northwest  Territory,  and  inserted  a  clause 
prohibiting  slavery.  He  published  "An  Abridgment 
and  Digest  of  American  Law,"  (9  vols.,  1823-29.)  Died 
in  1835. 

Daneau,  di'no',  [Lat.  Dan^'us,]  (Lambert,)  a 
French  Calvinistic  divine,  born  at  Beaugency  in  1530, 
preached  at  Geneva,  Castres,  and  other  places.  He 
published  many  treatises  on  theology,  which  were  once 
esteemed.    Died  at  Castres  in  1596. 

See  Melchior  Adam,  "  Vita;  Theologorum  Exterorum;"  NiCE- 
RON,  "  Memoires  ;"  Haag,  "  La  France  protestante." 

Danedi,  d3.-naMee,  (Giovanni  Stefano,)  an  Italian 
historical  painter,  called  Montalto,  born  at  Treviglio 
in  1608.  He  adorned  many  edifices  of  Milan  with  his 
works,  which  display  a  rich  imagination.    Died  in  1689. 

Danedi,  (Giuseppe,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1618,  was  also  a  skilful  painter,  and  a  pupil  of  Guido. 
He  worked  in  Milan  and  Turin,  sometimes  in  company 
with  Giovanni  Stefano,  his  brother.    Died  in  1689. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Danes,  dt'nes',  (Pierre,)  a  French  scholar,  born  in 
Paris  in  1497.  In  1530  Francis  I.  appointed  him  first 
professor  of  Greek  in  the  Royal  College,  and  in  1545 
ambassador  to  the  Council  of  Trent.  In  the  reign  of 
Henry  II.  he  was  preceptor  to  the  dauphin,  afterwards 
Francis  II.,  and  in  1557  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Lavaur. 
He  published  an  edition  of  Pliny,  a  few  letters,  etc.  Died 
in  1577. 

See  De  Thou,  "filoges,  avec  les  Additions  de  Teissier;"  P.  H. 
Danes,  "Vie  de  P.  Danes,"  1731. 

Danet,  dt'ni',  (Pierre,)  a  learned  French  priest,  born 
in  Paris  about  1650.  The  Duke  of  Montausier  selected 
him,  with  others,  to  edit  classic  authors  for  the  use  of 
the  dauphin,  and  assigned  Phaedrus  to  him.  He  gained 
more  reputation  by  his  "  Latin  and  French  Dictionary, 
for  the  Use  of  the  Dauphin,"  (1685.)    Died  in  1709. 

See  Feller,  "  Biographic  Universelle." 

Dangeau,  de,  deh  dfiN^zho',  (Louis  de  Courcillon 

— deh  kooR^se^y^N',)  AB156,  a  brother  of  the  Marquis 
of  Dangeau,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1643. 
Descended  from  Du  Plessis-Mornay,  he  was  educated 
a  Protestant,  but  was  converted  by  Bossuet.  He  was 
employed  as  reader  to  Louis  XIV.  from  1671  to  1687, 
and  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1682. 
"He  was,"  says  Voltaire,  "an  excellent  academician." 
He  was  a  candidate  for  the  office  of  preceptor  to  the 
Duke  of  Burgundy  ;  but  Fenelon  was  preferred.  He 
wrote  several  treatises  on  grammar,  and  some  other 
works.    Died  in  1723. 

See  D'Alembert,  "  filoges  ;"  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires." 

Dangeau,  de,  (Philippe  de  Courcillon,)  Marquis, 
an  accomplished  French  courtier  and  officer,  born  in  1638. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DANGER 


717 


DJNIELL 


He  became  a  favourite  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  colonel  of 
the  king's  regiment  in  1655.  In  1667  he  was  governor 
of  Touraine.  He  afterwards  attended  the  king  as  aide- 
de-camp  in  several  campaigns.  He  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1668,  partly  in  consideration  of  his 
facility  in  composing  verses,  ( vers  dc  societe.)  He  died  in 
1720,  leaving  in  manuscript  a  voluminous  "Journal  of 
the  Court  of  Louis  XIV.,"  (comprising  the  period  from 
1684  to  1720,)  said  to  contain  much  important  and  curious 
matter.    It  has  since  been  published,  (1854.) 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  Madame  de  Genlis,  "Abrege 
du  Journal  de  M.  de  Dangeau,"  4  vols.,  1817  ;  Voltaire,  "  Journal 
delaCour;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  "Edinburgh 
R  J >iew"  for  January,  1S64. 

Danger,  ddN^zhi',  (E.  P.,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
about  1800,  has  gained  distinction  by  experiments  on 
arsenic  and  mercury. 

Dangeville,  ddxzh'v^K,  (Marie  Anne  Botox,)  a 
French  actress,  born  in  Paris  in  17 14;  died  in  1796. 

Danhaver,  din'hi^ver,  a  German  portrait-painter  of 
great  merit,  born  in  Suabia,  settled  in  Saint  Petersburg, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Peter  the  Great.  He  died  in 
Saint  Petersburg  about  1735. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Danhawer  or  Danhower.  See  Dannhauer, 
Danican,  dt'ne'k6N',  (Franqois  Andre,)  surnamed 
Phil'idor,  a  French  composer  and  famous  chess-player, 
born  at  Dreux  in  1727.  In  early  youth  he  was  a  choris- 
ter in  the  chapel  of  Louis  XV.  He  wrote  for  the  Comic 
Opera  of  Paris  with  success.  About  1777  he  visited 
London,  where  he  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Game 
of  Chess,"  to  which  in  his  later  years  he  was  almost 
exclusively  addicted.  He  found  no  equal  in  the  chess- 
clubs  of  Paris  and  London,  and  was  the  victor  in  three 
simultaneous  games  which  he  played  blindfolded  against 
skilful  opponents.    Died  in  1795. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;"  George 
Allen,  "Life  of  Philidor,"  1866. 

Daiiiel,  dan'yel,  [Heb,  "^N'JI,]  one  of  the  four  greater 
Hebrew  prophets,  was  a  member  of  the  tribe  of  Judah. 
In  his  childhood,  about  605  B.C.,  he  was  carried  cap- 
tive to  Babylon,  where  he  was  educated  at  the  court  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  and  became  proficient  in  learning  and 
wisdom.  (See  Daniel  i.  17.)  Having  by  divine  inspira- 
tion interpreted  an  important  dream  of  the  king,  he  was 
promoted  to  be  ruler  of  the  province  of  Babylon  and 
chief  of  the  Magi.  About  580  he  interpreted  another 
dream  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  next  event  recorded  of 
Daniel  is  that  he  read  and  explained  the  handwriting  on 
the  wall  at  Belshazzar's  feast,  (chap,  v.,)  about  538  B.C. 
Shortly  after  that  date  he  obtained  the  favour  of  Darius 
the  Mede,  (Cyaxares,)  and  became  the  first  of  three 
presidents  who  had  authority  over  the  one  hundred  and 
twenty  princes  or  satraps  of  the  empire.  For  an  account 
of  his  miraculous  preservation  in  the  lions'  den,  see 
Daniel,  chap.  vi.  After  the  death  of  Darius,  Daniel 
"prospered  in  the  reign  of  Cyrus  the  Persian,"  (chap, 
vi.  28,)  and  saw  his  last  recorded  vision  in  534  B.C.  He 
is  generally  believed  to  have  been  the  author  of  the  book 
which  bears  his  name,  and  which  has  been  designated 
"  the  last  form  of  prophecy  and  the  first  philosophy  of 
history."  His  high  character  as  a  prophet  appears  to  be 
attested  by  the  Saviour,  in  Matthew  xxiv.  15. 

See,  also,  Ezekiel  xiv.  14,  and  xxviii.  3;  Bittelmaier,  "Dispu- 
tatio  de  Vita  Danielis,"  1676. 

Daniel,  di'ne-^l,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man physician,  born  at  Halle  in  1753,  published  several 
medical  works.    Died  in  1798. 

Daniel,  dt'ne'^K,  (Gabriel,)  a  French  author  and 
Jesuit,  born  at  Rouen  in  1649,  lived  in  Paris,  and  ob- 
tained from  Louis  XIV.  a  pension  of  2000  francs,  with 
the  title  of  historiographer  of  France.  He  wrote  a 
"  Reply  to  Pascal's  Provincial  Letters,"  which  was  ad- 
mired by  the  Jesuits,  and  many  other  works,  of  which 
the  most  important  is  his  "  History  of  France,"  (1713.) 
Walckenaer  thinks  this  is  justly  celebrated  ;  but  he  admits 
that  there  is  some  foundation  for  the  severe  criticisms 
of  Voltaire  and  others,  who  charge  him  with  being  par- 
tial and  inaccurate.    Died  in  1728. 

See  Lambert,  "Histoire  litteraire  du  R^gne  de  Louis  XIV;" 
JoLV,  "  Eloges  de  quelques  Auteurs  Frangais." 


Daniel,  dan'yel,  (George,)  an  English  poet  and  anti- 
quary, born  about  1790.  He  published  "The  Modern 
Dunciad,  and  other  Poems,"  (1835,)  and  "  Merry  England 
in  the  Olden  Time,"  (2  vols.,  1842.)    Died  in  1864. 

Daniel,  (Joseph  Henri,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  at 
Nantes  in  1804.  He  obtained  several  gold  medals  for 
his  works,  among  which  are  a  marble  statue  of  Cleopatra, 
(1847,)  ^iid  a  group  representing  Music,  ordered  for  the 
Louvre. 

Daniel,  dan'yel,  (Peter  V.,)  a  lawyer,  born  in  Staf- 
ford county,  Virginia,  about  1785.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  privy  council  from  1812  to  1830,  and  became  an 
associate  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States  in  1840. 

Daniel,  (Pierre,)  a  French  antiquary  and  scholar, 
born  at  Orleans  in  1530 ;  died  in  1603. 

Daniel,  (Samuel,)  a  meritorious  but  neglected  Eng- 
lish poet,  born  at  Taunton  in  1562,  was  educated  at 
Oxford.  He  became  tutor  to  Anne  Clifford,  who  was 
afterwards  the  Countess  of  Pembroke,  and  he  lived  some 
years  in  London,  where  he  associated  with  Shakspeare, 
Marlowe,  and  other  poets.  The  report  that  he  succeeded 
Spenser  as  poet-laureate  is  doubted  by  some  ;  but  it  is 
evident  that  he  was  highly  appreciated  by  his  contempo- 
raries. He  wrote  "The  Tragedy  of  Cleopatra,"  (1594,) 
a  "History  of  England,"  (1613-18,)  a  historical  poem 
on  "The  Civil  Wars  of  York  and  Lancaster,"  (1595,) 
"  Musophilus,"  (1599,)  and  other  poems.  "Though  very 
rarely  sublime,"  says  Headley,  "he  has  skill  in  the  pa- 
thetic ;  and  his  pages  are  disgraced  by  neither  pedantry 
nor  conceit."  Hallam  thinks  "his  English  is  eminently 
pure,  free  from  affectation  and  pedantic  innovation,  with 
very  little  that  is  now  obsolete."  ("  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe.")    Died  in  1619. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica ;"  Fuller,  "Worthies  of 
England  ;"  "Life  of  S.  Daniel,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Poetical  Works," 
2  vols.,  1718;  Headlev,  "Beauties  of  Ancient  English  Poetry;" 
"  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  viii.,  1823. 

Daniel,  (William  Barker,)  an  English  clergyman 
and  writer,  produced  a  work  on  "Rural  Sports,  or 
Treatises  on  Hunting,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1801.)  Died  in  1833. 

Daniel  de  Volterra.    See  Volterra. 

Daniele,  d^-ne-a'li,  or  Danieli,  dl-ne-a'lee,  (Fran- 
cesco,) a  Neapolitan  antiquary,  born  near  Caserta  in 
1740.  Having  written  a  work  called  "  Codice  Frederi- 
ciano,"  he  was  appointed  historiographer  royal  in  1778. 
In  1787  he  became  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Herculanean 
(or  Ercolanese)  Academy,  founded  for  the  publication 
of  discoveries  made  at  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii.  He 
was  chosen  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Caudine 
Forks,"  (1778,)  and  one  on  the  "  Ancient  Coins  of  Capua," 
(1802.)    Died  in  1812. 

See  Castaldi,  "  Vita  di  Francesco  Daniele,"  1812;  Ciampitti, 
"De  Vita  F.  Danielis  Commentarius,"  1S18. 

Danieli.    See  Daniele. 

Dan'iell,  (John  Frederick,)  an  eminent  English 
natural  philosopher,  born  in  London  in  1790.  He  was 
elected  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1814.  In  1816 
he  was  associated  with  Professor  Brande  as  joint  editor 
of  the  "Quarterly  Journal  of  Science,"  twenty  volumes 
of  which  were  edited  by  them.  He  produced  an  im- 
portant work  entitled  "Meteorological  Essays,"  (1823,) 
and  an  "Essay  on  Artificial  Climate,"  (1824.)  He  was 
professor  of  chemistry  in  King's  College  from  183 1 
until  his  death.  For  his  invention  of  the  pyrometer,  the 
Royal  Society  in  1832  awarded  him  the  Rumford  medal, 
and  in  1837  he  received  the  Copley  medal  for  an  im- 
provement in  the  Voltaic  battery.  In  1839  he  published 
his  admirable  "Introduction  to  Chemical  Philosophy." 
He  wrote  several  smaller  treatises  on  chemistry  and 
other  sciences,  and  obtained  in  1842  another  royal  medal. 
He  is  said  to  be  the  only  person  who  has  ever  received 
all  the  three  medals  in  the  gift  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Died  in  1845. 

Danieli,  (Samuel,)  an  English  artist,  born  in  1777. 
He  spent  a  few  years  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
after  his  return  home  published  "African  Scenery  and 
Animals,"  (1808.)  He  also  visited  Ceylon,  and  illus- 
trated its  scenery  and  animals.    Died  in  Ceylon  in  181 1. 

Danieli,  (Thomas,)  R.A.,  an  eminent  landscape- 
painter  and  engraver,  born  about  1750,  was  an  uncle  of 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z.;  th  as  in  this.    (Jj^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DANIELL 


718 


DANTE 


William  Daniell,  noticed  below.  He  was  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Antiquarian  Society.  Died 
in  1840.    (See  next  article.) 

Daniell,  (William,)  R.A.,  an  English  landscape- 
painter  and  engraver,  born  in  1769,  went  to  India  with 
his  uncle  Thomas  in  1784,  and  spent  ten  years  in  sketch- 
ing the  magnificent  scenery  of  that  region.  They  en- 
graved a  great  number  of  views,  which  were  published 
in  several  volumes,  entitled  "Oriental  Scenery,"  (1808.) 
He  also  painted  in  oil  several  Indian  landscapes.  From 
1814  to  1825  he  was  employed  in  drawing  and  engraving 
views  for  a  great  work  entitled  "  Voyage  round  Great 
Britain."    Died  in  1837. 

Danielle,  da-ne-eKlo,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  critic, 
who  wrote  "La  Poetica,"  (1536,)  translated  Virgil's 
"  Georgics"  into  verse,  (1556,)  and  wrote  a  "Commen- 
tary on  Dante,"  (1568.)    Died  in  1565. 

Danilevski,  di-ne-lev'skee,  (Mikhaelovski,)  a  Rus- 
sian general,  served  in  several  campaigns  against  the 
French,  and  against  the  Poles  in  183 1.  He  wrote  "An 
Account  of  the  Campaigns  of  1812,"  (1834,)  and  other 
similar  works.    Died  in  1848. 

See  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1S39. 

D&nishw^r  or  D&nischv&r,  da'nish-vaR',  a  Persian 
poet  and  historian,  born  about  600  A.u.,  was  celebrated 
as  the  compiler  or  author  of  poetical  traditions  connected 
with  Persian  history. 

Dankelmann,  dink^el-m^n,  or  Danckelmann, 
dSnk'kel-min,  (Erhard  Christoph  Balthasar,)  a 
Prussian  minister  of  state,  born  in  Lingen  in  1643.  He 
became  in  1663  preceptor  to  Prince  Frederick,  son  of  the 
Elector.  His  pupil,  having  ascended  the  throne  in  1688, 
appointed  Dankelmann  prime  minister.  He  founded  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin,  and  the  University  of 
Halle.  By  the  intrigues  of  the  courtiers,  he  was  dis- 
missed in  1697,  and  unjustly  imprisoned  until  1713.  Died 
in  1722. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgenieine  Eucyklopaedie." 

Dankers  (dink'ers)  orDanckerts  (or  Danckaerts) 

de  Ry,  dank'keRts  deh  rl,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  archi- 
tect, born  at  Amsterdam  in  1561.  He  held  for  forty  years 
the  office  of  architect  of  his  native  city,  where  he  erected 
many  public  buildings.  The  most  remarkable  of  these 
is  the  Exchange,  finished  in  1613.  Died  in  1634. 
See  PiNGERON,  "Vies  des  Architectes." 

Danks.    See  Dancks. 

Danloux,  ddN'loo',  (Pierre,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1745.  During  the  Revolution  he 
retired  to  England,  where  he  painted  history  and  por- 
traits, among  which  is  a  portrait  of  the  poet  Delille,  who 
complimented  him  in  his  poem  on  "  Pity."  Died  in  Paris 
in  1809. 

Dannecker,  von,  fon  dan'n^k-ker,  (Johann  Hein- 
Ricii,)  a  celebrated  German  sculptor,  born  at  or  near 
Stuttgart  in  1758.  He  was  educated  in  the  school  of 
design  at  Ludwigsburg  with  Schiller,  who  became  his 
friend.  About  1780  he  was  appointed  sculptor  to  the 
Duke  of  Wiirtemberg.  He  studied  in  Paris  under  Pajou 
in  1783  and  1784.  In  1785  he  visited  Rome,  where  he 
remained  about  five  years  and  associated  with  Goethe, 
Herder,  and  Canova.  On  his  return  to  Stuttgart  in  1790 
he  was  chosen  professor  of  plastic  arts  in  the  Academy 
of  that  place.  He  made  admirable  busts  of  Schiller, 
Lavater,  Gluck,  and  others.  In  1809  he  commenced  a 
statue  of  Ariadne,  which  is  highly  commended.  Among 
his  greatest  works  are  a  colossal  statue  of  Christ,  finished 
in  1824,  and  a  statue  of  John  the  Baptist.   Died  in  1S41. 

See  "Life  of  Dannecker,"  published  at  Hamburg  in  1841 ;  Nag- 
LER,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale  ;"  Mrs.  L.  M.  Child's  "Looking  towards  Sunset,"  p.  279. 

Dannemayer,  dSn^neh-mf  er,  (Matthaus,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  in  Suabia  in  1741  ;  died  in  1805. 

Dannhauer,  dan'how'er,  written  also  Danhawer  or 
Danhower,  (Johann  Conrad,)  a  German  Lutheran 
divine,  born  at  Kendring  in  1603.  He  was  professor  of 
eloquence  and  theology  at  Strasburg.    Died  in  1666. 

Danr^mont,  de,  deh  d6N^ri^m6N',  (Charles  Marie 
Denis,)  Count,  a  French  general,  born  at  Chaumont 
(Haute-Marne)  in  1783.  He  entered  the  army  in  1804, 
became  a  lieutenant-general  in  1830,  and  was  made  a  peer 
of  France  in  1835.    In  February,  1837,  he  was  appointed 


Governor-General  of  Algeria.  He  was  killed  in  October 
of  that  year,  at  the  siege  of  Coiistantine,  where  he  was 
commander-in-chief. 

See  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  for  August  15,  1845. 

Dansse.    See  Villoison. 

Dantal,  doN'ttK,  (Pierre,)  a  French  grammarian, 
born  at  La  Souchere  in  1781  ;  died  in  1820. 

Dantan,  doN'tSN',  (Antoine  Laurent,)  a  French 
statuary,  born  at  Saint-Cloud  in  1798.  Having  gained 
the  first  prize  in  1828,  he  went  to  Rome  as  a  pensioner. 
He  returned  in  1833,  and  worked  in  Paris  with  success. 
Among  his  works  are  a  bas-relief  of  Silene,  and  a  bust 
of  Josephine  of  France. 

Dantan,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  distinguished  sculptor, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1800.  He 
displayed  a  remarkable  talent  for  caricature  in  grotesque 
figures  of  celebrated  contemporaries,  and  attained  pre 
eminence  in  this  novel  branch  of  art.  He  has  produce.' 
busts  of  Cherubini,  (1847,)  Maine  de  Biran,  (1850,)  Rosa 
Bonheur,  and  other  persons,  which  are  good  likenesses 
without  caricature. 

Dan'te,  [[t.  pron.  Fr.  Dante,  dSxt  or  daNt,*] 

or,  more  fully,  Durantet  Allighieri,  (or  Alighieri,) 
doo-r^n'ti  a-le-ge-a'ree,  [Lat.  Dan'tes  Alige'rius,]  an 
illustrious  Italian  poet,  regarded  as  the  greatest  poetical 
genius  that  flourished  between  the  Augustan  and  the 
Elizabethan  age,  was  born  in  Florence  in  May,  1265. 
He  was  instructed  in  liberal  studies  and  arts  by  Brunetto 
Latini  and  other  eminent  scholars,  and  became  well 
versed  in  Latin,  philosophy,  and  theology.  He  also 
acquired  skill  in  music,  painting,  and  other  accomplish- 
ments. He  is  said  to  have  studied  at  Padua,  Bologna, 
and  Paris.  In  early  youth  (1274)  his  spiritual  life  and 
imaginative  faculty  were  awakened  by  his  love  for  Bea- 
trice Portinari.  This  passion  inspired  his  first  poetic 
efforts,  and  exerted  on  his  mind  a  profound  and  lasting 
influence.  In  his  "Vita  Nuova,"  a  beautiful  reverie, 
written  about  1290  in  alternate  prose  and  verse,  he  has 
commemorated  this  tender  passion,  which,  it  appears, 
was  not  unrequited,  though,  for  some  unknown  reason, 
they  were  not  united.  The  tradition  that  she  married 
another  is  not  confirmed  by  any  passage  in  his  writings. 
After  her  death  (in  1290)  his  friends  persuaded  him  to 
marry  Gemma  Donati,  a  lady  of  a  noble  family ;  but  the 
parties  were  so  uncongenial  that  they  finally  separated. 
She  complained  of  his  unsocial  habits. 

Florence  and  Italy  were  then  distracted  by  the  impla- 
cable feuds  of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibelines.  Dante's  family 
being  Guelphs,  he  espoused  their  cause  with  character- 
istic ardour,  and  fought  for  it  at  Campaldino,  in  1289, 
with  signal  bravery.  His  eloquence  and  address  were 
displayed  in  several  political  missions  to  foreign  courts. 
In  1300  he  was  elected  to  the  high  office  of  Prior  of  P'lo- 
rence,  where  the  Guelph  party  was  divided  between  two 
factions,  called  Bianchi  and  Neri,  (Whites  and  Blacks.) 
The  Donati  were  the  leaders  of  the  Neri,  and  Dante 
favoured  the  Bianchi.  The  Neri  prevailed,  and  in  1302 
condemned  Dante,  with  many  others,  to  perpetual  ban- 
ishment, and  the  confiscation  of  his  estate,  on  a  charge 
of  peculation.  From  this  time  he  wandered  without  a 
home,  and  suffered  much  from  poverty  in  addition  to  his 
other  afilictions.  It  appears  that  his  wife  and  children 
did  not  follow  him  in  exile. 

The  events  of  his  life  subsequent  to  his  banishment 
are  mostly  involved  in  uncertainty.  Like  his  fellow-ex- 
iles, he  joined  the  Ghibeline  party,  and  made  unsuccess- 
ful attempts  to  recover  his  rights.  Among  the  princes 
whose  hospitality  he  enjoyed  in  his  exile  were  Cane 
Grande  de  la  Scala,  of  Verona,  and  Guido  Novello,  of 
Ravenna,  to  the  former  of  whom  he  dedicated  his  "  ]'a- 
radiso."  About  13 16  the  privilege  of  returning  to  Flo- 
rence was  offered  to  him,  on  condition  that  he  would  pay 
a  fine  and  confess  his  guilt.  This  offer  he  rejected  with 
indignation  ;  though  he  expressed  a  desire  to  be  restored 
on  any  terms  "consistent  with  the  fame  and  honour  of 
Dante."  He  died  at  Ravenna,  September  14,  1321.  The 

*  Chaucer  has  Daunt  or  Daunte,  (Wyf  of  Bathes  Tale,)  which 
seems  to  be  merely  an  English  representation  of  the  Frencli  pronun- 
ciation. 

t  Durante,  his  original  name,  was  contracted  in  popular  parlance 
into  Dante. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaa-e;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DJNTE 


719 


following  lines  inscribed  on  his  tomb  are  supposed  to  be 
his  own  composition  : 

"Hie  claudor  Dantes  patriis  extorrls  ab  oris, 
Quern  genuit  parvi  Florentia  mater  amoris."* 

Soon  after  his  death  appeared  his  sublime  and  unique 
poem,  the  "Divina  Commedia,"  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  written  during  his  exile;  but  the  time  and  place 
of  its  origin  are  not  ascertained.  It  was  first  printed  in 
1472.  The  subject  of  this  poem  is  the  author's  own  ex- 
perience, real  or  imaginary,  and  the  scene  is  laid  in  the 
infernal  regions,  purgatory,  and  paradise.  It  is  certainly 
a  surprising  phenomenon  to  appear  in  that  dark  period 
of  transition  between  ancient  and  modern  literature. 

"Dante,"  says  Hallam,  "is  among  the  very  few  who 
have  created  the  national  poetry  of  their  country.  Of  all 
writers  he  is  the  most  unquestionably  original.  .  .  .  No 
poet  ever  excelled  him  in  conciseness  and  in  the  rare 
talent  of  finishing  his  pictures  by  a  few  bold  touches, — 
the  merit  of  Pindar  in  his  better  hours.  .  .  .  The  great 
characteristic  excellence  of  Dante  is  elevation  of  senti- 
ment, to  which  his  compressed  diction  and  the  emphatic 
cadences  of  his  measure  admirably  correspond."  ("  In- 
troduction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

"  I  suppose,"  says  Ruskin,  "  that  the  powers  of  the 
imagination  may  always  be  tested  by  accompanying  ten- 
derness of  emotion ;  and  thus  (as  Byron  said)  there  is  no 
tenderness  like  Dante's,  neither  any  intensity  nor  serious- 
ness like  his, — such  seriousness  that  it  is  incapable  of 
perceiving  that  which  is  commonplace  or  ridiculous,  but 
fuses  all  down  into  its  white-hot  fire." 

"Ah,  from  what  agonies  of  heart  and  brain, 

What  exiihations  tramphng  on  despair, 

What  tenderness,  what  tears,  w  hat  hate  of  wrong, 
What  passionate  outcry  of  a  soul  in  pain, 

Uprose  this  poem  of  the  earth  and  air. 

This  medieval  miracle  of  song  !" 

Longfellow's  "Divina  Commedia." 

Dante  was  taciturn,  inclined  to  solitude,  and  familiar 
with  but  few.  Voltaire,  who  did  not  appreciate  his  genius, 
wittily  says,  "  His  reputation  will  go  on  increasing,  be- 
cause scarcely  anybody  reads  him."  To  this  it  may  be 
replied  that  he  is  read,  if  not  by  ordinary  readers,  at 
least  by  all  those  who  can  appreciate  originality  and 
power  in  the  expression  of  human  passion.  Dante  wrote, 
in  Latin  prose,  a  political  work  "On  Monarchy,"  ("  De 
Monarchia,")  and  "DeVulgari  Eloquio,"  a  treatise  on 
the  structure  of  the  Italian  language  ;  also,  in  Italian 
prose,  "II  Convito,"  a  mystical  commentary  on  three  of 
his  odes.  The  style  of  his  prose  is  pure,  elegant,  and 
nervous ;  that  of  his  verse  is  still  more  admirable.  Two 
of  his  sons,  Pietro  and  Jacopo,  had  literary  tastes,  and 
wrote  valuable  commentaries  on  their  father's  poem. 
Gary's  translation  of  the  "Commedia"  into  English  blank 
verse  is  highly  commended.  We  have  also  an  excellent 
English  version  of  the  "Divina  Commedia"  by  Long- 
fellow, remarkable  for  its  literalness. 

See  Boccaccio,  "Vita  di  Dante,"  1544;  Chabanon,  "Vie  de 
Dante,"  1773;  Fabroni,  "  Elogj  di  Dante,  di  Poliziano,"  etc.,  iSoo; 
Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoirede  Dante,"  1841  ;  R.  de  Vericour, 
"  Life  and  Times  of  Dante,"  185S  ;  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe ;"  Fauriel,  "  Dante  et  les  Origines  de  la  Langue  et  la  Lit- 
t^rature  Italiennes,"  2  vols.,  1854;  Ampere,  "Voyage  Dantesque" 
in  the  "Revue  des  Deux  ^Iondes,"  1839;  Macaulay,  "Essay  on 
Milton  ;"  F.  X.  Wegele,  "  Dante's  Leben  und  Werke,"  1852  ;  Ce- 
sare  Balbo,  "  Vita  nuova  di  Dante,"  1839  ;  English  version  of  the 
same,  by  Bunvan,  1852;  Missirini,  "Vita  di  Dante  Alighieri," 
1840;  Emil  Ruth,  ".Studien  iiber  Dante  Alighieri,"  1S53  ;  Ugo 
FoscoLO,  "Discorso  sul  Testo  di  Dante,"  1825;  Rev.  Henry 
Stebbing,  "Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  London,  1831. 

Dante,  din'ti,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  born  at  Perugia,  lived  about  1500.  He 
attempted  to  fly  with  artificial  wings,  but  fell,  and  broke 
his  leg. 

Dante  or  Danti,  dSn'tee,  (Girolamo,)  a  Venetian 
painter  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  pupil  of  Titian, 

'Dante  or  Danti,  (Ignazio,)  an  Italian  geometer, 
born  at  Perugia  in  1537,  entered  the  Dominican  order. 
Cosimo  I.  invited  him  to  Florence  to  teach  mathematics. 
In  1583  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Alatri.  He  wrote  several 
treatises  on  astronomy  and  mathematics,  and  was  the 
first  modern  who  made  a  gnomon  by  which  the  equinoxes 
and  solstices  could  be  determined.    His  "Mathematical 


*  Literally,  "Here  [I]  Dante,  whom  Florence,  a  mother  of  little 
love,  bore,  am  enclosed,  an  exile  from  my  native  country." 


DANTZ 


Science  reduced  to  Tables"  is  a  work  of  great  erudition. 
Died  in  1586. 

Dante  or  Danti,  (Pietro  Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  mathematician,  born  at  Perugia,  wrote  a  commen- 
tary on  the  Sphere  of  Sacrabosco,  (1544,)  and  verses  in 
imitation  of  the  great  poet  Dante.    Died  -n  1512. 

Dante  or  Danti,  (Vincenzo,)  an  emment  Italian 
architect  and  sculptor,  born  at  Perugia  in  1530,  was 
employed  by  the  grand  duke  Cosimo  de'  Medici.  His 
statue  of  Julius  III.  at  Perugia  is  esteemed  a  master- 
piece. He  was  a  near  relative  of  Ignazio,  noticed  above. 
He  made  for  the  Escurial  designs  which  Cosimo  I,  sent 
to  Philip  II.  of  Spain.    Died  in  1576. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Dantes  Aligerius.    See  Dante. 
Danti.    See  Dante. 

Dan  tine,  dSN'ten',  or  D'Antine,  (FRANgois,)  a 
French  Benedictine  monk,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Liege 
in  1688,  lived  some  years  in  Paris.  He  was  one  of  the 
editors  of  Du  Gauge's  "Glossary,"  (1733,)  and  the  first 
principal  editor  of  the  "  Art  of  Verifying  Dates,"  a  valua- 
ble work  on  chronology.    Died  in  1746. 

Danton,  dan'ton  ordfiN't^N',  (Georges  Jacques,)  an 
arch-demagogue  of  the  French  Revolution,  born  at  Arcis- 
sur-Aube  in  1759,  was  a  lawyer  by  profession.  With 
a  large,  muscular  frame,  a  passionate  temperament,  an 
audacious  spirit,  and  the  voice  of  a  Stentor,  he  was  well 
constituted  for  a  political  agitator.  "Nature  has  given 
me,"  said  he,  "  the  athletic  form  and  the  harsh  expres- 
sion of  liberty."  He  instituted  the  club  of  Cordeliers, 
perhaps  even  more  inteniperately  radical  than  that  of  the 
Jacobins,  and  became  the  chief  orator  of  the  Parisian 
populace.  He  instigated  and  directed  the  sanguinary 
insurrection  of  the  loth  of  August,  1792,  which  subverted 
the  French  monarchy.  The  supreme  power  then  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Danton,  Marat,  and  Robespierre,  the 
first  of  whom,  obtaining  the  ofiice  of  minister  of  justice, 
had  the  chief  control  of  the  capital. 

In  the  alarm  caused  by  the  invasion  of  France  by  the 
Prussians,  he  spoke  with  confidence,  and  urged  the 
adoption  of  a  bold  and  resolute  policy.  He  appears 
to  have  been  responsible  for  the  massacre  of  the  im- 
prisoned royalists  in  September,  1792,  as  he  made  little 
or  no  effort  to  protect  them.  On  his  election  to  the 
Convention  he  resigned  the  office  of  minister  of  justice, 
became  the  leader  of  the  Mountain,  and  voted  for  the 
death  of  the  king.  His  ])ower  soon  declined,  as  his 
crimes  disgusted  the  honest  republicans  and  his  success 
excited  the  jealousy  of  Robespierre.  He  used  to  say, 
"All  will  go  well  as  long  as  men  say,  'Robespierre  and 
Danton  ;'  but  woe  to  me  if  ever  they  should  say,  'Dan- 
ton and  Robespierre.'"  In  1793  he  was  chosen  a  mem- 
ber of  the  committee  of  public  safety.  At  the  crisis  of 
his  struggle  with  Robespierre,  Danton's  decision  failed. 
Though  he  knew  his  death  was  resolved  on,  he  declined 
to  fly  or  to  strike  the  first  blow.  In  March,  1794,  he 
was  arrested  with  Lacroix  and  others,  and  taken  before 
the  fatal  tribunal  which  he  had  himself  instituted.  Little 
formality  was  observed  at  his  trial, — or  rather  his  con- 
demnation ;  for  the  judges  refused  to  hear  his  defence. 
When  the  judge  asked  him  his  name,  residence,  etc.,  he 
answered,  "  My  name  is  Danton  ;  my  dwelling  will  soon 
be  in  annihilation;  but  my  name  will  live  in  the  Pantheon 
of  history."  He  maintained  his  usual  assurance  and 
lofty  bearing  at  the  scaffold,  where  he  perished  April  5, 
1794.  According  to  Lamartine,  "  Nothing  w^as  wanting 
to  make  Danton  a  great  man,  except  virtue." 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  Lamartine, 
"History  of  the  Girondists ;"  Michelet,  "  Histoire  de  la  Re\ola- 
tion  Frangaise  :"  Villaume,  "  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  ;"  Lord 
Broi^gham,  "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.;"  Barante, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Convention  ;"  Des  Jardins,  "  Vie  de  Danton,"  1851 ; 
"  Encyclopjedia  Britannica;"  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Febru- 
arv,  1823;  "  Foreign  Quarterly"  for  April,  1844;  "^British  Quarterly" 
for  April,  1866. 

Danton,  (Joseph  Arsene,)  a  French  editor,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Plancy  (Aube)  in  1814. 
In  1840  he  was  employed  by  M.  Villemain,  minister  of 
public  instruction,  as  c/ief  de  cabinet.  He  edited  in  1839 
"Cousin's  Lectures  on  Philosophy  delivered  in  1819-20." 

Dantz  or  Danz,  ddnts,  (Johann  Andreas,)  a  German 
Orientalist,  born  near  Gotha  in  1654,  was  professor  of 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DJNTZIC 


DARCET 


Oriental  languages,  and  afterwards  of  theology,  at  Jena. 
He  published  grammars  of  the  Hebrew  and  Syriac  lan- 
guages, and  many  works  on  the  history  and  antiquities 
of  the  Jews.    Died  in  1727. 

Dantzic,  Duke  of.  See  Lefebvre,  (Francois 
Joseph.) 

Danu,  [Hindoo  pron.  dun'06,]  in  Hindoo  mythology, 
a  daughter  of  Daksha,  and  the  mother  of  the  Danavas. 
(See  Danava.) 

Dan'vers,  (Henry,)  Earl  of  Danby,  an  English  offi- 
cer and  courtier,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1573,  served  as 
captain  in  the  army  which  Elizabeth  sent  to  aid  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  and  was  knighted  for  his  conduct  in  that 
war.  He  was  afterwards  major-general  under  the  Earl 
of  Essex  in  Ireland.  Charles  I.  created  him  Earl  of  Danby 
and  a  member  of  the  privy  council.  He  founded  a  botanic 
garden  for  the  University  of  Oxford.    Died  in  1644. 

Danville.    See  Anville,  d'. 

Danz.    See  Dantz. 

Danz,  dints,  (Ferdinand  Georg,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, born  in  the  duchy  of  Darmstadt  in  1761,  pub- 
lished several  useful  medical  works.  He  was  professor 
at  Giessen,  where  he  died  in  1793. 

Danzer,  dint'ser,  (Jakob,)  a  German  Catholic  theo- 
logian, born  at  Langenfeld  in  1743  ;  died  in  1796. 

Danzi,  ddnt'see,  (Franz,)  a  German  composer  of 
operas  and  church-music,  was  born  at  Manheim  in  1763  ; 
died  in  1826. 

Daph'ne,  [Gr.  Aa^vjy,]  a  nymph  of  classic  mythology, 
beloved  by  Apollo.  According  to  the  poetical  legend, 
she  fled  from  Apollo,  who  pursued  her,  and  was  trans- 
formed into  a  laurel-tree,  which  was  afterwards  sacred 
to  Apollo. 

Daph'nis,  [Gr.  Aa^wV,]  a  shepherd  and  hero  of  Sicily, 
the  reputed  inventor  of  pastoral  poetry,  was  called  a  son 
of  Mercury.  The  poets  relate  that  he  was  the  favoured 
lover  of  a  Naiad,  who  punished  him  with  blindness  for 
his  infidelity  to  her. 

See  the  First  Idyl  of  Theocritus  and  the  Fifth  Eclogue  of  Virgil. 

Da  Polite,  da  pon'ti,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Ceneda  in  1749.  Having  been  banished  from 
Venice  fbr  some  satirical  verses,  he  went  to  Vienna, 
where  he  became  Latin  secretary  to  Joseph  II.  Here 
he  wrote  several  operas  for  the  Italian  theatre.  After 
the  death  of  Joseph  II.  he  passed  some  years  in  Lon- 
don, whence,  in  1805,  he  emigrated  to  New  York.  About 
1829  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Italian  in  Columbia 
College.  He  wrote  "Don  Giovanni"  (or  "Don  Juan") 
and  other  dramas,  and  sonnets. 

Da  Ponte,  (Lorenzo,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  London  in  1805,  became  professor  of  belles-lettres  in 
the  University  of  New  York.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Florentine  Republic,"  (1833,)    Died  in  1841. 

Dapper,  dSp'per,  (Oliver  or  Olfert,)  a  Dutch 
physician  and  geographer,  published  several  extensive 
and  interesting  works,  among  which  are  a  "Description 
of  Africa,"  (1668,)  a  "  Description  of  the  Chinese  Em- 
pire," and  a  "Description  of  Asia."  His  works  contain 
many  maps  and  excellent  plates.    Died  in  1690. 

Daquin  or  D'Aquin.    See  Aquin,  d'. 

Daquin,  dt'kiN',  (Joseph,)  a  noted  physician,  born 
at  Chambery  in  1757,  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "La 
Philosophic  de  la  Folie,"  ("The  Philosophy  of  In- 
sanity," 2d  ed.,  1804.)    Died  in  1815. 

D^r^  or  D^r^b,  the  Persian  of  Darius,  which  see. 

Dara-Shikoh,  di^rl  shi-koh',  written  also  Dara- 
Chekouh,  a  Hindoo  prince,  born  in  161 6,  was  the 
favourite  son  of  Shah  Jehan.  He  was  defeated  in  battle 
by  his  brother  Aurung-Zeb,  and  put  to  death  by  his  order 
in  1643. 

Daran,  dt'rSN',  (Jacques,)  a  skilful  French  surgeon, 
born  at  Saint-Frajon  in  1 701,  practised  with  success  in 
Milan,  Turin,  and  Messina.  At  the  last  place  he  gained 
credit  by  his  professional  services  and  humanity  during 
the  plague.  He  was  settled  at  Marseilles,  when  the  fame 
of  his  skill  in  disorders  of  the  urethra  induced  the  king 
to  invite  him  to  Paris,  where  he  resided  until  his  death. 
The  king  granted  him  letters  of  noblesse  in  1755.  Daran 
invented  the  bougies  which  bear  his  name,  and  wrote  a 
few  professional  works.    Died  in  1784. 

See  "Biographic  Medicale." 


D'Arblay,  dar'bla  or  dtR'bli',  Madame,  (originally 
Frances  Bur'ney,)  a  celebrated  English  novelist,  born 
at  Lynn-Regis  in  1752,  was  the  daughter  of  Dr.  Charles 
Burney,  an  eminent  musician  and  author  of  the  "  History 
of  Music."  She  was  a  shy  and  silent  child,  and  at  the 
age  of  eight  did  not  know  her  letters.  Pier  mother  having 
died  when  Frances  was  about  ten,  no  teacher  or  governess 
was  provided  for  her  ;  but  her  fond  father's  negligence 
was  compensated  by  her  own  efforts  in  self-education. 
In  1760  Mr.  Burney  removed  to  London,  where  he 
gained  admission  into  the  highest  literary  society,  and 
his  house  was  frequented  by  Johnson,  Burke,  Garrick, 
and  many  others.  His  concerts,  at  which  the  greatest 
Italian  vocalists  performed  gratis,  attracted  a  throng  of 
the  most  noble  as  well  as  the  most  fashionable  of  the 
metropolis.  By  such  social  influences,  rather  than  by 
books  and  schools,  was  her  mind  trained  and  matured; 
though  she  seldom  performed  any  part  on  this  scene  but 
that  of  a  silent  and  diffident  observer.  About  1776  her 
novel  "  Evelina" — commenced  some  years  before — was 
ready  for  the  press.  Observing  a  strict  secrecy  respect- 
ing the  authorship  of  the  book,  she  sent  the  manuscript 
to  Dodsley  without  her  name;  but  he  refused  to  publish 
it  on  such  conditions.  After  much  delay,  it  was  sold 
for  twenty  pounds,  and  appeared  anonymously  in  1778. 
The  admiration  and  applause  with  which  it  was  received 
were  much  increased  when  the  secret  transpired  that  the 
author  was  a  reserved,  obscure  young  woman.  Her 
book  was  warmly  eulogized  by  Burke,  Johnson,  Gibbon, 
and  Sheridan,  the  first  of  whom  sat  up  all  night  to  read 
it,  and  the  second  pronounced  her  superior  to  Fielding. 
"She  found  herself,"  says  Macaulay,  "on  the  highest 
pinnacle  of  fame."  Her  second  book,  "Cecilia,"  (1782,) 
did  not  disappoint  the  high  expectations  of  the  public. 
"It  was  placed,"  says  Macaulay,  "by  general  acclama- 
tion, among  the  classical  novels  of  England."  In  1786 
she  had  the  misfortune  to  be  appointed  second  keeper 
of  the  robes  to  Queen  Charlotte,  with  a  salary  of  two 
hundred  pounds.  This  situation  was  peculiarly  and 
extremely  irksome  to  a  person  of  her  fine  sensibility,  as 
she  was  debarred  from  all  congenial  society  and  subject 
to  the  constant  restraints  of  despotic  etiquette.  For  five 
years,  in  deference  to  her  father's  wishes,  she  sacrificed 
her  health  and  domestic  happiness  for  the  privilege  of 
standing  in  the  presence  of  royalty.  In  1793  she  married 
Count  D'Arblay,  an  amiable  and  estimable  French  officer, 
then  an  exile.  From  1802  to  1816  she  resided  with  her 
husband  in  France.  She  died  at  Bath  in  1840.  Besides 
the  above-named  works,  she  wrote  "Camilla,"  and  other 
fictions.  Her  "Diary  and  Letters"  (7  vols.,  1842-46)  is 
a  work  of  rare  interest. 

See  Macaulay,  "Essay  on  Madame  D'Arblay." 

Dar'by,  (William,)  an  American  geographer,  born 
in  Pennsylvania.  He  published  a  valuable  and  interesting 
work,  entitled  a  "View  of  the  United  States,"  with  a 
particular  account  of  the  various  river-basins,  and  other 
information.    Died  in  1854. 

Dare,  (Joan.)    See  Joan  of  Arc. 

Darcet,  dtR^s^',  (Jean,)  a  distinguished  French  che- 
mist and  physician,  born  at  Doazit,  in  Guienne,  in  1727. 
About  1742  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Montesquieu, 
who  employed  him  as  tutor  to  his  son  in  Paris.  After 
the  death  of  that  patron,  Darcet  devoted  himself  to 
chemical  researches  in  concert  with  Count  de  Laugarais. 
He  made  successful  experiments  in  the  fabrication  and 
improvement  of  porcelain,  the  components  of  which  he 
discovered  by  analysis  about  1766.  At  the  death  of 
Macquer  (1784)  he  was  chosen  in  his  place  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  director  of  the  manu- 
factory of  Sevres.  He  was  also  inspector-general  of  the 
assay-office,  and  a  professor  in  the  College  of  France. 
He  demonstrated  that  the  diamond  is  combustible,  and 
invented  the  metallic  alloy  which  bears  his  name,  and 
which  is  fusible  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  chemical  treatises.  Died 
in  1801. 

See  J.  J.  DiZE,  "  Precis  historique  surla  Vie  de  J.  Darcet,"  1802; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Darcet,  (Jean  Pierre  Joseph,)  an  eminent  chemist, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1777.  He  was 
appointed  assayer  of  the  mint  in  1801,  and  afterwards 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    4, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


DARCON 


721 


DARLING 


founded  or  directed  several  manufactories  of  chemical  pro- 
ducts which  he  improved,  and  among  which  were  soda 
and  soap.  In  1823  he  succeeded  Berthollet  as  chemist 
in  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  wrote  many  useful 
treatises  on  sanitary  and  economical  questions,  one  of 
which  is  "  On  the  Principal  Salt-Mines  of  Europe," 
(1824.)    Died  in  1844. 

See  "  Notice  sur  J.  P.  J.  Darcet,"  Paris,  1844. 

Dar9on.    See  ARgoN,  d'. 

D'Ar'cy,  (Patrick,)  Count,  an  Irish  engineer  and 
scientific  author,  born  at  Galloway  in  1725,  removed  to 
France  in  early  youth,  and  served  in  the  French  army  in 
1744.  He  was  skilled  in  mechanics  and  other  sciences, 
and  wrote  an  "Essay  on  Artillery,"  a  "Memoir  on  the 
Duration  of  the  Sensation  of  Sight,"  and  other  works. 
Condorcet  composed  his  eulogy  in  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences.   Died  in  Paris  in  1779. 

Dar'da-nus,  [Gr.  Aapdavof,]  a  mythical  or  semi-fabu- 
lous personage,  who  is  represented  as  a  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Electra,  and  the  ancestor  of  the  Trojans.  Homer 
reckons  five  generations  between  Dardanus  and  Priam. 

Dardel,  dtR'dSK,  (Robert  Guillaume,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1749;  died  in  1821. 

Dardi,  daR'dee,  (Bembo,)  an  Italian  Hellenist,  born 
at  Venice  about  1560,  translated  the  works  of  Plato  into 
Italian.    Died  about  1640. 

Dareau,  dt'ro',  (Francois,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
near  Guevet  in  1736;  died  about  1783. 

Daremberg,  dt'rdN'baiR',  (Charles  Victor,)  a 
French  physician,  born  at  Dijon  in  1817.  He  published 
(in  French)  "Select  Works  of  Hippocrates,"  (1843,)  an 
edition  of  Galen,  (1854,)  and  other  works.  In  1849  he 
became  librarian  of  the  Mazarin  Library. 

Da'res  [Gr.  Auprfg ;  Fr.  Dares,  dt'r^s']  of  Phrygia,  a 
priest  of  Vulcan,  is  mentioned  in  the  "Iliad"  of  Homer, 
who  praises  his  wisdom.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
present  at  the  siege  of  Troy.  There  existed  in  the  early 
ages  a  history  of  the  destruction  of  Troy,  which  was  re- 
garded as  the  work  of  Dares,  and  as  older  than  Homer's 
"  Iliad."  A  prose  work  in  barbarous  Latin  has  come  down 
to  us  which  purports  to  be  a  version  of  that  of  Dares.  It 
was  popular  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  was  often  printed 
with  the  work  of  Dictys  Cretensis. 

See  J.  G.  EcK,  "Dissertatio  de  Darete  Phrygio,"  1768. 

Dareste,  dS'r^st',  (Antoine  Elisabeth  Cl6ophas,) 
a  French  historical  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1820. 

Daret,  dS'ri',  (Pierre,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in 
Paris  in  1610,  published  a  collection  of  the  portraits 
of  eminent  persons  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries,  which  was  highly  prized,  also  a  "Life  of 
Raphael,  translated  from  the  Italian,"  (1651.)  Died 
in  1675. 

Dar'gan,  (William,)  an  eminent  Irish  engineer  and 
contractor,  born  in  Carlow  county  about  1800.  He  super- 
intended the  construction  of  several  railways  and  canals 
in  Ireland.  He  was  the  chief  promoter  of  the  Dublin 
Exhibition  of  1853,  on  which  he  expended  many  thou- 
sand pounds  of  his  own  money. 

Dargaud,  dtR'go',  (J.  M,,)  a  French  writer,  a  friend  and 
imitator  of  Lamartine,  born  at  Paray-le-Monial  in  1800, 
published,  among  other  works,  "Solitude,"  (1838,)  a 
"History  of  [Queen]  Mary  Stuart,"  (1850,)  and  poetical 
versions  of  Job  and  the  Psalms  of  David. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi." 

D'Argenson.    See  Argenson,  d'. 

D'Argental.    See  Argental,  d'. 

D'Argentre.    See  Argentr^,  d'. 

D'Argenville.    See  Dezallier. 

D'Argonue.    See  Argonne,  d'. 

Daries,  di're-gs,  or  Darjes,  daR'ygs,  (Joachim 
Georg,)  a  German  jurist  and  philosopher,  born  at  Giis- 
trow  in  17 14.  He  began  in  1738  to  teach  philosophy  at 
Jena,  and  in  1763  was  appointed  by  Frederick  the  Great 
professor  of  law  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  with  the  title 
of  privy  councillor.  He  published  many  able  works, 
among  which  are  "The  First  Principles  of  Finance," 
(in  German,  1756,)  and  "Institutes  of  Universal  Juris- 
prudence," (in  Latin,  1766.)    Died  in  1791. 

See  J.  H.  FiCHTE,  "Beitrage  zur  Charakteristik  der  Neueren 
Philosophen  ;"  C.  R.  Hausen,  "J.  G.  Daries  als  academischer  Leh- 
rer  geschiidert,"  1791. 


Da-ri'us*  [Gr.  Aapelog ;  It.  Dario,  dS-ree'o  ;  Persian, 
Dara,  di'rS,  or  Darab,  di-rSb']  I.,  or  Da-ri'us  Hys- 

tas'pis,  (known  as  Gushtasp  (goosh-tSspO  in  the  legend- 
ary history  of  Persia,)  King  of  Persia, was  the  son  of  Hys- 
taspes,  a  member  of  the  noble  family  of  Achaemenidae.  In 
521  B.C.,  having  killed  the  usurper  Smerdis,  he  ascended 
the  throne  recently  vacated  by  the  death  of  Cambyses. 
He  first  organized  the  extensive  empire  which  Cyrus 
and  Cambyses  had  acquired  by  conquest,  and  divided  it 
into  twenty  grand  satrapies.  After  suppressing  a  revolt 
of  the  Babylonians,  he  led  a  great  expedition  against  the 
nomadic  Scythians  of  Europe,  which  was  not  success- 
ful. To  chastise  the  Athenians  for  aiding  some  Ionian 
insurgents,  he  sent  Datis  and  Artaphernes  with  a  large 
army,  which  was  completely  routed  at  Marathon  in  490 
B.C.  He  was  preparing  to  renew  the  contest,  when  he 
died  in  485,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Xerxes. 
Darius  was  a  ruler  of  superior  ability. 

See  Herodotus;  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  Thirlwall, 
"History  of  Greece;"  Carl  L  Struve,  •' Feldzug  des  Darius 
gegen  die  Scytheii,"  1812;  Justin,  books  i.,  ii.,  and  vii. 

Darius  II.,  called  Da-ri'us  O'-ehus  or  No'thus, 

was  the  natural  son  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  who  gave 
him  in  marriage  his  daughter  Parysatis.  Having  deposed 
Sogdianus,  who  had  killed  Xerxes  II.,  the  lawful  heir,  he 
became  king  in  424  B.C.  He  died  in  405,  leaving  two 
sons,  Artaxerxes  Mnemon  and  Cyrus  the  Younger,  the 
former  of  whom  was  his  successor. 

See  Xenophon,  "  Hellenica"  and  "Anabasis." 

Darius  III.  or  Cod-o-man'nus,  the  last  king  of  the 
ancient  Persian  monarchy,  was  a  descendant  of  Darius 
Nothus.  He  began  to  reign  at  the  death  of  Arses,  in 
336  B.C.  In  the  second  year  of  his  reign  Persia  was 
invaded  by  Alexander  of  Macedon,  who  gained  a  victory 
at  the  river  Grani'cus.  Darius,  having  taken  command 
of  his  army,  was  defeated  at  Issus  in  333,  and  at  Arbela 
in  331  B.C.  He  then  retreated  towards  Bactriana,  pursued 
by  the  Macedonians,  who  were  on  the  point  of  taking  him 
prisoner,  when  he  was  killed  by  Bessus,  one  of  his  own 
satraps,  in  330.  With  his  expiring  breath  he  expressed 
his  thanks  to  the  victor  for  his  humane  treatment  of 
the  royal  captives,  his  wife  and  daughters.  Alexander 
married  his  daughter  Statira. 

See  the  Histories  of  Arrian,  Justin,  andQuiNTUs  Curtius. 

Darius  Hystaspes.    See  Darius  I. 
Darius  Ochus.    See  Darius  IL 
Darius  the  Mede,  of  the  Bible,  is  supposed  to  be 
the  Cyaxares  II.  of  profane  history. 
See  Daniel  vi. 

Darjes.    See  Daries. 

Darke,  dark,  (William,)  an  American  officer,  born 
in  Pennsylvania  in  1736.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  Revolutionary  war.    Died  in  1801. 

Dar'ley,  (Felix  O.  C.,)  an  eminent  American  de- 
signer, boni  in  Philadelphia  in  1822.  He  removed  to 
New  York  about  1848.  He  has  illustrated  Irving's 
"  Sketch-Book,"  "Knickerbocker's  New  York,"  "Rip 
van  Winkle,"  and  other  humorous  works,  with  success  ; 
also  the  novels  of  J.  Fenimore  Cooper,  and  the  works 
of  Dickens.  His  outline  illustrations  of  Judd's  "  Mar- 
garet" are  greatly  and  justly  admired. 

See  Tuckekman,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Dar'ley,  (George,)  a  poet  and  mathematician,  born 
in  Dublin  in  1785,  removed  to  London  in  1825.  He 
gained  distinction  by  his  critical  contributions  to  the 
"  Literary  Gazette"  and  "  Athenaeum,"  and  wrote  several 
poems,  one  of  which  is  called  "  Sylvia,  or  the  May  Queen," 
(1827,)  and  treatises  on  geometry  and  algebra.  Died 
in  1849. 

Dar'ling,  (Grace,)  an  English  heroine,  born  at  Bam- 
borough  in  181 5,  was  the  daughter  of  the  keeper  of  the 
Longstone  light-house,  on  one  of  the  Fame  Islands.  The 
Forfarshire  steamer  having  been  wrecked  in  that  vicinity, 
September  6,  1838,  she  went  out  in  a  small  boat,  at  the 
imminent  peril  of  her  life,  and  rescued  nine  persons  who 
were  clinging  to  a  rock.  A  public  subscription  of  about 
£^00  was  raised  by  the  people  of  the  United  Kingdom 
as  a  testimonial  to  her  heroic  conduct.    Died  in  1842. 


*  Darius,  in  Persian  D3ra  or  Darab,  and  in  Hebrew  Daryavesh,  sig- 
nifies "prince,"  or  "lord:"  hence  Darius  Hystaspis  would  signify  the 
"lord  or  king  [son  of]  Hystaspes  or  Gushtasp."  (See  Gushtasp.) 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;'ghard;g2&j;  g,  h,  K,gt(ttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2l^='See  Explanations,  p.  23. i 

46 


DARLING 


72 


2 


DARWIN 


Darling,  (James,)  an  English  bibliographer,  born  in 
1797,  was  for  many  years  a  bookseller  in  London.  He 
published  (1852-57)  a  valuable  work,  entitled  "Cyclo- 
paedia Bibliographica  :  a  Library  Manual  of 'I'heological 
and  General  Literature,"  (2  vols.)    Died  in  1862. 

Dar'ling-ton,  (William,)  M.D.,  an  eminent  Ameri- 
can botanist,  born  in  Birmingham,  Chester  county,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  1782.  He  practised  medicine  at  West  Ches- 
ter, and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1814  by  the 
voters  of  his  native  county,  which  he  also  represented  for 
two  other  terms,  (1819-23.)  He  published  a  valuable 
work  on  the  plants  of  Chester  county,  entitled  "Flora 
Cestrica,"  (1837,)  which  was  commended  by  eminent 
botanists  of  Europe  ;  also,  "  Memorials  of  John  Bartram 
and  Humphrey  Marshall,"  (1849.)    Died  in  1863. 

See  "  Obituary  Notice  of  William  Darlington,"  read  before  the 
American  Philosophical  Society,  February  19,  1864,  by  T.  P.  James. 

Darluc,  dSR'luk',  (Michel,)  a  French  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Grimaud  in  1707  or  1717,  obtained  the 
chair  of  botany  in  the  University  of  Aix.  He  wrote  the 
"Natural  History  of  Provence,"  (3  vols.,  1782-86,)  and 
several  medical  works.    Died  in  1783. 

Darmagnac,  dtk^mtn'ytk^  (Jean  Barth^lemi,) 
VicoMTE,  a  French  general,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1766, 
distinguished  himself  at  Austerlitz  in  1805,  and,  as  gen- 
eral of  division,  rendered  important  services  at  Vittoria 
(June,  1813)  and  Toulouse,  (1814.)    Died  in  1855. 

Darmaing,  dtR'm^N',  (Jean  Jerome  Achille,)  a 
French  journalist,  born  at  Pamiers  in  1794,  began  in  1825 
to  publish  the  "  Gazette  des  Tribunaux,"  which  was  very 
successful.  About  1832  he  became  chief  editor  of  the 
"  Constitutionnel."    Died  in  1836. 

Darnau,  dtR'n5^  (Jacques,)  Baron,  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  in  Loiret  in  1768  ;  died  in  1830. 

Darn'ley,  (Henry  Stuart,)  Lord,  a  Scottish  noble, 
born  in  England  about  1545,  was  the  son  of  the  Earl  of 
Lenox  and  Margaret  Douglas,  a  niece  of  Henry  VHL 
of  England.  His  father  was  descended  from  the  house 
of  Stuart,  and  his  mother  was  a  half-sister  of  James  V. 
His  relation  to  the  royal  family  and  his  comely  person 
caused  him  to  be  selected  in  1565  as  the  husband  of 
Queen  Mary.  She  treated  him  at  first  with  much  kind- 
ness, but  was  soon  disgusted  by  his  stupidity,  insolence, 
and  profligacy.  He  instigated  the  murder  of  Rizzio,  which 
she  deeply  resented  and  resolved  to  revenge.  During  a 
fit  of  illness  Darnley  lodged  in  an  isolated  house  called 
the  Kirk  in  th^tField, which  was  blown  up  by  gunpowder, 
Darnley  being  killed,  February  9,  1567.  Respecting  the 
responsibility  of  this  crime,  see  Mary  Stuart. 

See  Burton,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iv.  chaps,  xliii.-xlviii.; 
Robertson,  "  History  of  Scotland  ;"  Froude,"  History  of  England," 
vol.  viii.,  chaps,  viii.,  ix.,  x.;  Mignet,  "  Histoire  de  Marie  Stuart." 

Darondeau,di:^r6NM6',(STANiSLAS,)  a  French  painter 
of  genre  and  religious  subjects,  born  about  1800;  died  in 
1842. 

Darquier  de  Pellepoix,  diR'ke-a'  deh  pgl^pw^', 
(AuGUSTiN,)  a  French  astronomer,  born  at  Toulouse  in 
1718,  had  an  observatory  at  his  own  house,  and  hired 
persons  to  calculate.  He  wrote  a  Uranography," 
(177 1,)  which  Lalande  commended,  "Astronomical  Ob- 
servations," (1777-82,)  and  a  few  other  scientific  works. 
He  was  an  associate  of  the  Institute.    Died  in  1802. 

Darracq,  dt'rtk',  (FRANgois  Balthasar,)  a  French 
legislator,  born  at  Mont-de-Marsan  about  1750,  was  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  (1795-99.) 
Died  about  1808. 

Darrigol,  dt're^goK,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  priest, 
born  in  1790.  He  wrote  an  able  "Critical  Dissertation 
on  the  Basque  Language."  In  1829  he  won  a  prize  from 
the  French  Academy  for  his  "Analysis  Raisonnee  of  the 
Grammatical  System  of  the  Basque  Language,"  when 
William  Humboldt  was  a  competitor.    Died  in  1829. 

Darriule,  dt're^uK,  (Jean,)  Baron,  a  French  general, 
born  at  Arudy  in  1774;  died  in  1850. 

Dart,  (John,)  an  English  antiquary,  flourished  about 
1725,  and  wrote  "Antiquities  of  Westminster  Abbey," 
(2  vols.,  1723.) 

Darthe,  dtR^tV,  (Augustin  A.  J.,)  a  French  Jacobin, 
born  at  Saint-Pol  in  1769.  He  was  executed  as  an  ac- 
complice of  Babeuf  in  1797. 

Dartmouth,  Lord.    See  Legge,  (George.) 


Dartois  de  Bournonville,  dSR^twi'  deh  booR'n6N'- 

vhV,  (P'RANgois  ViciOR  Armand,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  at  Beauvais  in  1 788,  wrote  many  vaudevilles. 

Daru,  dS'rii',  (Martial  Noel  Pierre,)  Baron,  born 
in  Paris  in  1774,  was  a  brother  of  Count  Pierre  Antoine 
Noel.  He  was  commissary  of  war  during  the  republic,  and 
gained  distinction  as  an  able  administrator  under  Napo- 
leon I.,  who  appointed  him  intendant  of  Vienna  in  1809, 
and  intendant  of  the  crown  at  Rome  in  1811.  He  left  in 
manuscript  an  unfinished  "  History  of  Rome  during  the 
French  Occupation."    Died  in  Paris  in  1827. 

Daru,  (Napoleon,)  Count,  a  son  of  the  statesman 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  about  1804.  He  entered 
the  army,  and  served  as  captain  in  Algeria.  In  1832  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  He  acted 
with  the  moderate  republicansin  the  Assembly  of  1848-49. 

Daru,  (Pierre  Antoine  Noel  Bruno,)  Count,  an 
eminent  French  statesman  and  author,  born  at  Mont- 
pellier  in  1767.  About  1790  he  wrote  "Washington,"  an 
epic  poem.  He  favoured  the  Revolution,  and  in  1791 
became  a  commissary  in  the  army  of  Brittany.  While 
imprisoned  during  the  reign  of  terror,  he  translated 
into  French  verse  the  Odes  and  Epistles  of  Horace. 
About  1800  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  war,  and  in 
1802  a  member  of  the  Tribunate,  in  which  he  advocated 
the  cause  of  public  instruction.  Between  1804  and  1806 
Bonaparte  made  him  a  councillor  of  state,  a  count  of  the 
empire,  and  intendant-general  of  the  imperial  household. 
In  the  campaigns  of  1806  and  the  ensuing  years  he  ac- 
companied Bonaparte,  who  had  much  confidence  in  his 
ability  and  employed  him  as  commissary-general,  finan- 
cier, and  negotiator.  Having  become  chief  minister  of 
state  in  1811,  he  opposed  the  Russian  expedition,  but, 
when  other  counsels  prevailed,  made  extraordinary  exer- 
tions to  meet  its  exigencies.  In  1815  he  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  French  Academy,  an  office  for  which  he  was 
well  adapted  by  his  dignity,  his  good  taste,  his  sonorous 
voice  and  lucid  diction.  As  an  author  his  merit  is  con- 
spicuous. His  "History  of  Venice"  (1819)  is  esteemed 
the  best  work  on  that  subject,  and  his  poems  and  eulo- 
gies on  Volney  and  others  are  admired.    Died  in  1829. 

See  Sainte-1^)EUve,  "  Causeries  dii  Lundi  ;"  Lamartine,  "  filoge 
du  Comte  Daru;"  Viennet,  "Notice  sur  Daru,"  prefixed  to  his 
"  Histoire  de  Venise  ;"  Armanu  Marrast,  "  Notice  sur  M.  Daru," 
1829;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1825. 

Darvieux.    See  Arvieux. 

Dar'wiii,  (Charles,)  a  son  of  Erasmus  Darwin  the 
poet,  was  born  at  Lichfield  in  1758.  While  a  student 
of  medicine  at  Edinburgh,  he  gained  a  first-prize  medal. 
Died  in  1778. 

Darwin,  (Charles,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English 
naturalist  and  geologist,  a  grandson  of  the  poet  Dr. 
Darwin,  was  born  at  Shrewsbury,  February  12,  1809. 
He  accompanied  Captain  Fitzroy  in  the  Beagle  in  a 
voyage  of  exploration,  1831-36,  and  recorded  his  obser- 
vations respecting  geology,  etc.  in  his  "  Voyage  of  a 
Naturalist  round  the  World,"  which  obtained  great 
popularity.  "  The  author,"  says  the  "  London  Quai  terly 
Review"  for  December,  1839,  "is  a  first-rate  landscape- 
painter  with  the  pen,  and  the  dreariest  solitudes  are 
made  to  teem  with  interest."  In  1839  he  published  a 
"Journal  of  Researches  into  the  Geology  and  Natural 
History  of  Countries  visited  by  H.M.S.  Beagle."  His 
"  Monograph  of  the  Family  Cirripedia,"  (which  includes 
the  Barnacle,)  published  in  1851-53,  is  a  remarkable  and 
excellent  work.  He  produced  arguments  against  the 
immutability  of  species,  in  a  work  entitled  "  The  Origin 
of  Species  by  means  of  Natural  Selection,"  (1859,) 
"which,"  says  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  i860, 
"  was  perused  with  avidity  not  only  by  professional  natu- 
ralists, but  by  the  far  wider  intellectual  class  which  new 
takes  interest  in  the  higher  generalizations  of  all  the  sci- 
ences. The  same  pleasing  style  which  marked  his  earliest 
work,  and  a  certain  artistic  disposition  and  sequence  of 
arguments,  have  recalled  the  attention  of  thinking  men 
to  the  hypothesis  of  the  inconstancy  and  transmutation 
of  species."  Among  his  works  are  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Fertilization  of  Orchids,"  (1862,)  and  "The  Variation  of 
Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  (1868.) 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  i860:  "Westminster 
Review"  for  April,  i860;  "Darwin  and  Jus  Reviewers,"  in  "Atlan- 
tic Monthly,"  October,  i860. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u, 


y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


DARWIN 


723 


DJUBENTON 


Darwin,  (Erasmus,)  M.D.,  an  ingenious  English  poet 
and  physiologist,  born  at  Elton,  near  Newark,  in  1731. 
Having  graduated  at  Cambridge,  he  settled  at  Lichfield, 
where  he  married,  and  practised  with  success  until  1781, 
when  he  removed  to  Derby.  His  principal  poem,  "The 
Botanic  Garden,"  (1791,)  had  a  great  popularity  among 
his  contemporaries,  which  has  since  rather  declined.  It 
was  composed  on  an  original  plan,  and  displayed  great 
powers  of  description ;  but  the  style  is  too  ornate.  His 
"Phytologia"  (1800)  presented  many  novel  ideas  and 
analogies  in  physiology,  some  of  which  are  now  received 
as  true.  He  also  wrote  "  Zoonomia,  or  the  Laws  of  Or- 
ganic Life,"  "The  Temple  of  Nature,"  a  poem,  and  other 
works.  A  writer  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  1803 
says  of  the  "  Botanic  Garden,"  "The  novelty  of  its  plan, 
an  imposing  air  of  boldness  and  originality  in  his  poetical 
and  philosophical  speculations,  and  a  striking  display  of 
command  over  the  sources  of  poetical  embellishment, 
were  sufficient  to  secure  him  the  approbation  of  even 
fastidious  readers."    Died  in  1802. 

See  Anne  Seward,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Dr.  Darwin;" 
Gary,  "Lives  of  English  Poets  from  Johnson  to  Kirke  White;" 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  Ju]y,  1803,  and  April,  1804. 

Darwin,  (Robert  Waring,)  an  English  physician, 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  published  "  Principia 
Botanica,  or  an  Introduction  to  the  Sexual  System  of 
Linnaeus,"  (3d  edition,  1810.) 

Daschkow  or  Daschkoff.    See  Dashkof. 

Da'sent,  (George  Webhe,)  a  British  writer,  born 
about  1818,  published  "The  Norsemen  in  Ireland, "(1855,) 
"  Popular  Tales  from  the  Norse,"  (1859,)  and  other  simi- 
lar works. 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  March,  1859;  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  October,  1861. 

Dashkof  or  Daschkow,  dish'kof,  written  also 
Dashkov,  (Ekaterina  Romanovna,)  a  Russian  prin- 
cess, eminent  for  her  talents  and  achievements,  born  in 
1744,  was  the  daughter  of  Count  Roman  Woronzof. 
About  the  age  of  sixteen  she  was  married  to  Prince 
Dashkof.  In  1762  she  was  the  master-spirit  of  the  con- 
spiracy which  dethroned  Peter  III.  and  made  his  wife 
autocrat  as  Catherine  II.  Having  lost  the  favour  of 
the  empress,  she  travelled  several  years  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, and  returned  in  1782,  when  she  was  appointed 
president  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Saint  Peters- 
burg. Under  her  auspices  was  founded  the  Russian 
Academy,  (literary,)  of  which  she  became  the  first  presi- 
dent in  1784.  She  planned  and  in  part  compiled  the 
Dictionary  published  by  this  academy,  and  wrote  several 
plays,  etc.  On  the  accession  of  the  emperor  Paul,  in 
1796,  she  was  deprived  of  her  offices  and  banished  from 
the  capital.  Died  in  1810.  She  left  "Memoirs  of  her 
Life,"  which  were  published  (in  English)  in  1840. 

See  Otto,  "  Lehrbuch  der  Russischen  Literatur;"  Voltaire, 
"  Correspondance." 

Dassdorf,  dSs'doRf,  (Carl  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Staubitz,  Saxony,  in  1750 ;  died  in  1812. 

Dassier,  dt'se-a',  (John,)  a  S  wiss  engraver  of  medals, 
was  born  at  Geneva  in  1677.  The  medals  which  he 
executed  of  many  eminent  persons  in  the  age  of  Louis 
XIV.  have  been  used  as  models  by  other  artists.  Died 
in  1763. 

His  son,  Jacob  Anthony,  born  at  Geneva  in  171 5,  was 
also  a  skilful  engraver,  and  was  employed  about  1740  in 
the  London  Mint  as  second  engraver.  He  then  removed 
to  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  worked  for  some  time.  He 
engraved  medals  of  the  most  illustrious  men  of  science, 
which  are  highly  prized.    Died  in  1759. 

Dassouci,  dl'soo'se',  (Charles  Coypeau,)  a  French 
burlesque  poet  and  musician,  born  in  Paris  about  1604  ; 
died  after  1675. 

Dat'a-mes,  [Gr.  Aara//7/c ;  Fr.  Datame,  dS'ttm',]  a 
Persian  general,  distinguished  for  his  military  talents, 
revolted  against  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  and  was  killed 
about  362  B.C. 

See  Cornelius  Nhpos,  "Lives  of  Eminent  Commanders." 

Dathe,  di'teh,  [Lat  Da'thius,]  (Johann  August,) 
an  able  German  Orientalist  and  theologian,  born  at  Weis- 
senfels.  Saxony,  in  1731,  obtained  the  chair  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Leipsic  in  1762.  His  capital  work  is  a 
Latin  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  (published  in  sepa- 


rate parts  from  1773  to  1789,)  which  is  commended  for 
fidelity  and  for  elegance  of  style.    Died  in  1791. 

See  August  W.  Ernesti,  "Elogium  J.  A.  Dathii,"  1792. 

Datheen,da-tan',  [Lat.  Dathe'nus,]  (Peter,)  a  Dutch 
poet,  born  at  Ypres,  became  a  Protestant  minister  at 
Frankfort  in  1555,  and  returned  to  the  Low  Countries 
about  1566.  He  acquired  great  celebrity  as  a  preacher, 
and  composed  a  Dutch  poetical  version  of  the  Psalms, 
which  was  used  in  the  churches  of  Holland  for  about  two 
centuries.  In  consequence  of  his  seditious  speeches 
against  the  Prince  of  Orange,  he  exiled  himself,  took 
the  name  of  P.  Montanus,  and  practised  medicine  with 
success  at  Stade  and  Elbing  from  1585  until  his  death 
in  1590. 

See  Motley,  "  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  vol.  i.  ;  De  Vrifs, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Poesie  Hollandaise." 

Dati,  di'tee,  (Agostino,)  an  eminent  Italian  orator 
and  writer,  was  born  at  Sienna  in  1420.  He  opened  a 
school  of  rhetoric  in  that  city,  and  was  often  chosen  to 
make  public  orations  in  Latin  by  his  fellow-citizens,  who 
also  raised  him  to  high  ofiices  in  the  republic.  He  wrote, 
in  Latin,  a  "  History  of  Sienna,"  and  other  works,  his- 
torical and  religious,  among  which  is  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Immortality  of  the  Soul."    Died  in  1478. 

See  N.  Bandiera,  "De  Augustino  Datho,"  Rome,  1733;  Ni- 
CEKON,  "  Memoires  ;"  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Dati,  (Carlo  Roberto,)  usually  called  simply  Carlo 
Dati,  an  eminent  Italian  scholar,  born  at  Florence  in 
1619,  was  a  descendant  of  Goro  Dati.  He  studied  geom- 
etry under  Galileo.  In  1638  he  formed  an  intimate  friend- 
ship with  Milton,  who  visited  Florence  in  that  year,  and 
who  has  commemorated  their  friendship  in  Latin  epistles. 
Dati  was  one  of  the  most  learned  of  Italian  philologists. 
He  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  literature 
at  Florence  in  1648.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  Discourse  on  the  Necessity  of  Speaking  one's  own 
Language  correctly,"  (1657,)  and  "The  Lives  of  Ancient 
Painters,"  ("Vite  de'  Pittori  antichi,"  i  vol.,  1667,) 
"  which,"  says  Ginguene,  "  is  one  of  the  best  works  on 
ancient  painting."    Died  in  1676. 

See  G.  Negri,  "  Istoria  degii  Scrittori  Fiorentini ;"  Niceron, 
"  Memoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  F.  Fontani, 
"  Elogio  di  C.  R.  Dati,"  1794. 

Dati,  (Giuliano,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Florence 
in  1445  ;  died  in  1 524. 

Dati,  (GiULio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Florence 
about  1560,  wrote  "La  Contessa  di  Parione,"  (1596.) 
Died  about  1630. 

Dati,  (GoRO  DI  Staggio,)  a  noble  Florentine,  born  in 
1363,  was  one  of  the  priors  of  the  republic  in  1425,  and 
gonfalonier  in  1428.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  Histoi  y  of 
Visconti,  First  Duke  of  Milan,"  which  was  not  printed 
until  1735.    Died  in  1436. 

Dati,  (Leonardo,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastic  of  high  re- 
putation, brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Florence 
about  1360.  He  was  employed  by  the  republic  of  Flo- 
rence as  ambassador  to  various  courts  between  1409  and 
1422.    Died  in  1425. 

Da'tis,  [Gr.  Aan^,]  a  Persian  general,  who,  in  con- 
junction with  Artaphernes,  conmianded  the  army  which 
was  defeated  at  Marathon,  490  B.C. 

D'Attaignant.    See  Ati  aignant. 

Daub,  dowp,  (Karl,)  a  German  theologian,  born  at 
Cassel  in  1765,  became  professor  of  theology  at  Hei- 
delberg about  1795.  He  published  volumes  of  lectures 
entitled  "Daub's  Vorlesungen,"  (1838,)  "Prolegomena 
to  Moral  Theology  and  the  Principles  of  Ethics,"  (1839,) 
and  "The  System  of  Christian  Dogmatics,"  (1841,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1836. 

See  RosENKRANZ,  "  Erinnerungen  an  C.  Daub,"  1837 

Daubanton,  do'b6N^t6N',  (Antoine  Gr^goire,)  a 
French  judge  and  jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1752,  wrote 
a  "Dictionary  of  the  Civil  Law,"  a  "Dictionary  of  the 
Commercial  Code,"  and  other  legal  works.  Died  in  1813. 

Daubasse,  do'btss',  (Armand,)  a  French  poet,  born 
in  Quercy  in  1664.  His  works  were  all  improvised. 
Died  in  1727. 

Daubenton,  d5n)6N't6N',  (Guillaume,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  at  Auxerre  in  1648.  About  1700  Louis  XIV. 
appointed  him  confessor  to  his  grandson,  Philip  V.  of 
Spain,  over  whom  he  acquired  a  great  influence.  Ac' 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,     guttural;  N,  jtasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^=='See  Explanations,  \\  23.) 


DJUBENTON 


724 


DJUMER 


cording  to  Voltaire,  Daubenton  revealed,  in  a  letter  to 
the  French  regent,  the  secret  of  Philip's  intended  abdi- 
cation, and  the  regent  sent  the  letter  to  Philip.  The  latter 
then  showed  it  to  his  confessor,  who  fainted,  and  soon 
after  expired,  in  1723. 

See  Voltaire.  "  Si^cle  de  Louis  XV." 

Daubenton,  (Louis  Jean  Marie,)  a  celebrated 
French  naturalist,  born  at  Montbar  on  the  29th  of  May, 
1716,  was  sent  to  Paris  by  his  father  to  study  theology; 
but  he  preferred  medicine.  Having  graduated  as  M.D. 
in  1 741,  he  returned  home  with  the  intention  to  practise. 
Buffon,  who  was  also  a  native  of  Montbar,  and  his  former 
schoolmate,  having  been  chosen  intendant  of  the  Jardin 
du  Roi  at  Paris,  (now  Jardin  des  Plantes,)  engaged  Dau- 
benton in  1742  to  assist  him  in  his  projected  scientific 
works.  By  his  sound  judgment,  invincible  patience,  and 
unerring  accuracy,  he  was  admirably  qualified  for  such 
a  task.  In  1745  he  was  appointed  curator  and  demon- 
strator of  the  cabinet  of  natural  history.  He  enriched 
Buffon's  "Natural  History"  with  an  immense  number 
of  facts  and  descriptions,  cautiously  avoiding  the  bold 
hypotheses  to  which  Buffon  was  rather  prone.  In  1778 
he  obtained  a  chair  of  natural  history  in  the  College 
of  France.  He  wrote  many  articles  on  that  science  for 
the  first  "  Encyclopedic,"  and  for  the  "Memoirs  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences."  He  made  great  improvements 
in  the  cabinet  of  natural  history,  of  which  he  had  charge 
fifty  years.  About  1794  the  Jardin  du  Roi  was  converted 
into  a  school,  styled  the  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
in  which  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mineralogy.  He 
merited  public  favour  by  promoting  the  propagation 
of  Spanish  sheep,  and  wrote  several  popular  treatises 
on  the  subject,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "  Instruction  for 
Shepherds."  In  1799  he  was  elected  a  senator.  He 
died  January  i,  1800. 

See  CuviER,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  las  Ouvrages  de  Daubenton," 
in  the  "  Menioires  de  I'lnstitut,"  tome  iii.  ;  LACEpfeuE,  "  filoge  his- 
torique  de  Daubenton,"  1790;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Daubenton,  (Marguerite,)  cousin  and  wife  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Montbar  in  1720,  was  married  in  1749. 
Her  romance  of  "Zelie  in  the  Desert"  is  written  in  a 
natural  style,  and  was  received  with  favour.  Madame 
Buffon  was  her  niece.    Died  in  1818. 

Daubeny,  d5b'ne  or  dawb'ne,  (Charles,)  D.D.,  an 
English  divine,  born  in  1744,  became  prebendary  of 
Salisbury  in  1784,  and  Archdeacon  of  Sarum  in  1804. 
He  published  a  "Guide  to  the  Church,"  and  other  works 
on  theology.    Died  in  1827. 

Daubeny,  (Charles  Giles  Bridle,)  an  English 
chemist  and  naturalist,  born  at  Stratton  in  1795,  was  for 
many  years  professor  of  botany  and  rural  economy  in  the 
Uiiversity  of  Oxibrd.  In  1824  he  published  an  "Essay 
on  the  Geology  and  Chemical  Phenomena  of  Volcanoes." 
He  wrote  an  important  work  called  "  Description  of  the 
Active  and  Extinct  Volcanoes,  with  Remarks  on  their 
Origin,"  (1826,)  treatises  on  the  Geology  of  North  Ame- 
rica and  Italy,  and  several  memoirs  on  chemistry.  He 
was  president  of  the  British  Association  in  1856.  Died 
in  December,  1867. 

D'Aubigne,  db'hhx\'y\',  (Jean  Henri  Merle,)  a 
Swiss  divine  and  popular  historian,  was  born  at  or  near 
Geneva  in  1794.  His  father,  Louis  Merle,  was  descended 
from  the  French  Calvinist  family  of  D'Aubigne.  He  was 
educated  for  the  church,  and  was  pastor  of  a  French 
church  in  Hamburg  for  five  years.  Between  1823  and 
1830  he  preached  at  Brussels.  About  1830  he  became 
professor  of  Church  history  in  a  college  at  Geneva.  He 
published  in  1835  ^^^t  volume  of  his  capital  work, 
a  "  History  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Sixteenth  Cen- 
tury," ("  Histoire  de  la  Reformation  au  seizieme  Siecle,") 
which  obtained  a  great  popularity,  especially  in  England 
and  the  United  States.  Among  his  other  works  are 
"The  Protector,  (Cromwell,)  a  Vindication,"  (1848,)  and 
"Germany,  England,  and  Scotland,"  (1848.) 

See  Haag,  "  La  France  protestante ;"  Charles  de  Remusat, 
"Melanges  de  Litt^rature  et  Philosophic." 

D'Aubigne,  (Theodore  Agrippa.)  See  Aubign^,  d'. 

Daubigny,d6'b^n'ye',(CHARLES  Francois,)  a  French 
landscape-painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1817.  He  has  pro- 
duced many  pictures  of  French  scenery,  some  of  which 
have  been  purchased  by  the  emperor  and  the  ministers 


of  state.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  View  of  the  Seine  at 
Charenton,"  and  a  "Sunset,"  (185 1.) 

Daubigny,  (Pierre,)  a  French  painter  in  miniature, 
an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1793. 

Daubree,  do'bR^i',  (Gabriel  Auguste,)  a  French 
geologist,  born  at  Metz  in  1814. 

Daubus,  dS'biis',  written  also  Daubuz,  (Charles,) 
a  French  Protestant,  born  at  Auxerre,  lived  about  1625, 
and  was  for  a  long  time  minister  at  Nerac.  He  published 
"L'£chelle  de  Jacob,"  ("Jacob's  Ladder,"  1626,)  and 
"Bellarmin  reforme,"  ("Bellarmin  Reformed,"  163 1.) 

Daubuz.    See  Daubus. 

Daubuz,  do'biiz',  (Charles,)  a  French  Protestant 
divine,  born  about  1670,  removed  to  England  on  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  (1685,)  and  became 
vicar  of  Brotherton.  He  was  author  of  a  "  Commentary 
on  Revelation,"  (1712,)  which  is  much  esteemed.  Died 
about  1740. 

Daucourt,  dS'kooR',  (Bonaventure,)  a  French  ge- 
ologist, who  lived  about  1630,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on 
volcanoes,  deluges,  etc. 

Daude,  dow'deh,  (Adrian,)  a  German  historian,  born 
in  Franconia,  wrote  a  "  Universal  History,"  (4  vols., 
1748-58.)    Died  in  1755. 

Daude,  do'di',  (Pierre,)  a  French  Protestant  min- 
ister and  writer,  born  in  1681  ;  died  in  England  in  1754. 

Daudet,  do'di',  (Robert,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Lyons  in  1737;  died  in  1824. 

Daudiguier.    See  Audiguier,  d'. 

Daudin,  doM^N',  (FRANgois  Marie,)  a  French  natu- 
ralist, born  in  Paris  about  1774,  was  in  childhood  afflicted 
with  an  infirmity  which  almost  entirely  deprived  him  of 
the  use  of  his  legs.  His  wife  assisted  him  in  the  com- 
position of  his  works,  for  which  she  designed  the  figures. 
His  principal  works  are  a  "Treatise  on  Ornithology," 
(1800,)  which  was  never  finished,,  and  a  "  Natural  History 
of  Reptiles,"  (1802.)  The  latter,  according  to  Cuvier, 
was  the  most  complete  work  on  that  class  of  animals 
which  had  then  appeared.    Died  in  1804. 

Daugier,  d5^zhe-i',  (Franqois  Henri  Eugene,) 
Count,  a  noted  French  admiral,  born  at  Courtezon  in 
1764.  He  commanded  one  of  the  four  grand  corps  of 
the  flotilla  destined  for  the  invasion  of  England  in  1804, 
and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Baylen  in  1808. 
Died  in  1834. 

Daulle,  do'W,  (Jean,)  a  skilful  French  engraver  with 
the  burin,  born  at  Abbeville  about  1705.  He  removed 
to  Paris,  and  engraved  portraits  and  history  with  a  high 
reputation.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  portrait  of 
the  Countess  of  Feuquieres,  and  a  "  Magdalene,"  after 
Correggio.    Died  in  1763. 

Daum,  dowm,  [Lat.  Dau'mius,]  (Christian,)  an  emi- 
nent German  teacher,  born  at  Zwickau,  Saxony,  in  1612. 
He  became  regent  of  the  College  of  Zwickau  in  1642, 
and  rector  of  the  same  in  1662.  He  published  editions  of 
several  Latin  authors,  and  left,  in  manuscript,  unfinished 
works,  among  which  was  a  "  History  of  the  Poets." 
Died  in  1687. 

See  Winter,  "  C.  Daumii  Poetaeclarissimi,"  etc.,  1688  ;  Loescher, 
"  Memoria  C.  Daumii  renovata,"  1701 ;  Niceron,  "Menioires." 

D'Aumale.    See  Aumale,  d'. 

Daumas,  dd'mls',  (Melchior  Joseph  Eugene,)  a 
French  general  and  writer,  born  in  1803.  He  went  to 
Algeria  in  1835,  and  learned  the  Arabic  language.  About 
1 841  he  was  placed  by  General  Bugeaud  at  the  head  of 
the  political  affairs  (affaires  indigenes)  of  Algeria,  which 
he  managed  wdth  credit.  He  published  an  "Expose  of 
the  Actual  State  of  Arab  Society  and  Government,"(i845,) 
"  Manners  and  Customs  of  Algeria,"  and  other  works 
of  merit.  In  1850  he  was  chosen  director  of  affairs  of 
Algeria  in  the  ministry  of  war.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  general  of  division  in  1853. 

Daumat.    See  Domat. 

Dauraer,  dow'mer,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  a  German 
pantheist,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1800.  He  was  pro- 
fessor at  Nuremberg  a  few  years  between  1822  and  1830. 
He  published  a  "System  of  Speculative  Philosophy," 
(1831,)  "Philosophy,  Religion,  and  Antiquity,"  (1833,) 
translations  from  the  Persian  poet  Hafiz,  (1846,)  and 
other  works.  His  system  resembles  the  pantheism  of 
Hegel. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  5?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f!lll,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DAUMESNIL 


725 


DAVID 


Daumesnil,  do'mi'n^K,  (Pierre,)  a  brave  French 
general,  born  at  Perigueux  in  1777,  served  in  Italy  and 
Egypt  from  1795  to  1800,  and  became  chef  d'escadron 
about  1806.  He  lost  a  leg  at  Wagram  in  1809.  In  181 2 
he  was  made  general  of  brigade  and  governor  of  Vin- 
cennes  castle,  which  he  defended  obstinately  against  the 
allies  in  1814  and  1815.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-general in  1831.    Died  in  1832. 

See  "  Vie  du  General  Daumesnil,"  Paris,  1832. 

Daumont.    See  Aumont,  d'. 

Daun,  von,  fon  down,  (Leopold  Joseph  Maria,) 
Count,  an  able  Austrian  general,  born  at  Vienna  in 
1705.  He  made  his  first  campaign  against  the  Turks. 
About  1748  he  obtained  the  rank  of  field-marshal.  He 
commanded  at  the  battle  of  Kolin,  June  18,  1757,  where 
Frederick  the  Great  was  defeated  with  great  loss.  In 
the  same  year  the  Austrians,  under  Charles  of  Lorraine 
and  Daun,  lost  a  great  battle  at  Leuthen.  Having  sur- 
prised the  Prussian  king  at  Hochkirchen,  (1758,)  Daun 
gained  a  victory,  for  which  he  was  rewarded  with  300,000 
florins,  a  sword  from  the  pope,  and  many  honours.  He 
was  defeated  in  turn  by  Frederick  at  Torgau  in  1761. 
After  the  peace  of  1763  he  became  president  of  the  Aulic 
Council,  and  enjoyed  great  favour  at  court  until  his  death 
in  1766. 

See  Archenholz,  "  Historj'  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,"  1793; 
"Memoirs  of  Count  Von  Daun,"  by  A.  Henderson,  London, 
1757- 

Daunou,  do'noo',  (Pierre  Claude  Franqois,)  a 
meritorious  French  statesman  and  author,  born  at  Bou- 
logne in  1761,  entered  the  order  of  Oratorians.  In  1792 
he  was  elected  to  the  National  Convention,  in  which  he 
supported  moderate  measures,  opposed  the  proscription 
of  the  Girondists,  and  was  one  of  the  framers  of  the  con- 
stitution of  the  year  III.,  (1795.)  He  was  the  first  presi- 
dent of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  a  member  of 
the  committee  appointed  to  frame  the  constitution  of  the 
year  VIII.,  (1800.)  In  1807  he  was  chosen  keeper  of  the 
archives  of  France.  He  was  chief  editor  of  the  "Jour- 
nal des  Savants"  from  i8i6to  1838,  and  about  1818  ob- 
tained a  chair  of  history  in  the  College  of  France.  He 
contributed  many  articles  to  the  "Biographic  Univer- 
selle."  In  1838  he  was  chosen  perpetual  secretary  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  in  1839  was  created  a 
peer.  Among  his  numerous  useful  works  are  an  "  Essay 
on  the  Temporal  Power  of  the  Pope,"  (1810,)  and  a 
"  Course  of  Historical  Studies,"  in  20  vols.,  the  first 
of  which  was  published  in  1842,  Died  in  1840.  "He 
was  so  simple,  so  modest,  so  firm  and  consistent,"  says 
Villenave,  "  that  envy  was  compelled  to  pause,  and  criti- 
cism reduced  to  silence,  before  the  renown  of  his  talents 
and  his  virtues." 

See  A.  H.  Taillandier,  "Documents  biographiques  sur  Dau- 
nou," 1841;  Victor  Leclerc,  "Notice  sur  Daunou;"  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "  Portraits  contemporains ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^- 
rale  ;"  Walckenaer,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  M.  Daunou,"  1841. 

Daunt  or  Daunte.    See  Dante, 
Dauphin,  do'f^N',  (Augustin  Anne,)  a  mediocre 
French  poet,  born  at  Niort  about  1759;  died  in  1822. 
Daurat.    See  Dorat. 

Dausque,  dosk,  (Claude,)  a  learned  French  Jesuit, 
born  at  Saint-Omer  in  1566;  died  in  1644. 

Dauvergne.    See  Auvergne,  d'. 

Dauvigny.    See  Auvigny,  d'. 

Dauxiron.    See  Auxiron,  d'. 

Dauz,  dowts,  (Johann  Andreas,)  a  German  Orien- 
talist, born  near  Gotha  in  1654,  is  known  as  the  author 
of  a  system  of  Hebrew  grammar.    Died  in  1727. 

Dauzats,  do'zt',  (Adrien,)  a  French  painter  and 
lithographer,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1808.  As  a  painter 
of  genre,  he  obtained  medals  of  the  first  class  in  1835, 
1848,  and  1855. 

Daval,  da-vtK,  ?  (Peter,)  an  English  mathematician, 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.    Died  in  1763. 

DavanzatiBostichi,  di-vin-za'tee  bos-tee'kee,(  Ber- 
nardo,) an  Italian  writer  and  merchant,  born  at  Florence 
in  1529.  He  cultivated  literature  with  success,  and  filled 
several  civil  offices  with  credit.  The  perfection  of  the 
Tuscan  language  was  his  favourite  pursuit.  His  most 
remarkable  work  is  an  Italian  version  of  Tacitus,  (1658,) 
which,  says  Ginguene,  "  is  a  master-piece  of  purity  of 
style,  of  vigour,  precision,  and  elegance."    It  is  said  to 


be  more  concise  than  the  original.  He  also  wrote  a 
treatise  on  "The  Tuscan  Cultivation  of  the  Vine  and 
other  Trees,"  (1600.)    Died  in  1606. 

See  G.  Negri,  "Istoria  degli  Scrittori  Fiorentini  ;"  Tiraboschi, 
"  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Dav'en-ant,  (Charles,)  LL.D.,  an  English  writer 
on  finance  and  political  economy,  a  son  of  Sir  William 
Davenant,  was  born  in  1656.  In  1685  he  was  returned 
to  Parliament,  and  appointed  inspector  of  plays.  In  1695 
he  gained  reputation  by  his  "  Essays  on  the  Ways  and 
Means  of  Supplying  the  War,"  which  was  followed  by 
several  treatises  on  the  revenues,  trades,  etc.,  the  merit 
of  which  was  variously  estimated.  In  1703  he  was  ap- 
pointed inspector-general  of  exports  and  imports.  Died 
in  1 7 14. 

See  Macaulav,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap.  iii. ;  "  Bio- 
graphia  Britannica." 

Davenant,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1576.  In  1618  James  I.  sent  him  to  attend  the 
Synod  of  Dort,  and  in  1621  appointed  him  Bishop  of 
Salisbury.  He  had  previously  been  professor  of  divinity 
in  Cambridge  University.  He  published  an  excellent 
"Exposition  of  Paul's  Epistles,"  (in  Latin,  1627,)  and 
several  other  works.    Died  in  1641. 

Davenant,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  dramatic  poet, 
born  at  Oxford  in  1605.  Having  written  "Albovine" 
and  another  tragedy,  he  was  chosen  poet-laureate  in  1637 
as  successor  to  Ben  Jonson,  He  was  a  royalist  in  the 
civil  war,  and  was  knighted  by  Charles  I,  in  1643.  He 
was  confined  in  the  Tower  about  two  years  for  political 
reasons,  and  owed  his  safety  to  Milton.  His  principal 
production  is  "  Gondibert,"  an  unfinished  epic  poem, 
which  was  much  admired  by  Cowley,  Waller,  and  others, 
but  is  now  neglected.  He  was  associated  with  Dryden 
in  an  alteration  of  Shakspeare's  "Tempest."  lie  died 
in  1668,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

See  SouTHEY,  "  British  Poets  ;"  Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  the 
British  Poets;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  1820. 

Davenant,  (William,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  trans- 
lated La  Mothe  le  Vayer's  work  on  the  Greek  and  Latin 
historians.    He  was  drowned  near  Paris  in  1681. 

Dav'en-port,  (Christopher,)  an  English  Catholic 
friar,  born  at  Coventry  in  1598,  assumed  the  name  of 
Sancta  Clara,  and  was  chaplain  to  Queen  Henrietta. 
He  wrote  several  theological  works.    Died  in  1680. 

Davenport,  (John,)  an  English  Puritan,  born  at  Cov- 
entry in  1598,  emigrated  to  Massachusetts  in  1637.  He 
was  the  first  minister  of  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  where 
he  preached  about  thirty  years,  and  had  much  influence 
in  the  civil  affairs  of  the  colony.    Died  in  1670. 

Davenport,  (Richard  Alfred,)  an  English  editor 
and  biographer,  born  about  1780,  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  Dictionary  of  Biography,"  (i  vol.  i2mo, 
183 1.)    Died  about  1852. 

Daverhoult,  di'ver-howlt',  [Fr.  pron.  di'v^R^hoo',] 
(Jean  Antoine,)  a  native  of  Holland,  was  a  member  of 
the  French  Legislative  Assembly  in  1791-92.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  club  of  Feuillants.  Died  in 
1792. 

Da'vid,  [Heb.  in  or  TH;  Gr.  Aa<?<(5  or  Lavi^;  Ara- 
bic, Daood  or  DaOd,  dl''ood',]  a  celebrated  Hebrew  poet, 
prophet,  and  king,  a  son  of  Jesse,  was  born  at  Bethlehem 
about  1090  B.C.  He  was  a  shepherd  in  his  youth,  and 
an  excellent  musician.  About  the  age  of  twenty-two  he 
entered  the  service  of  King  Saul,  whose  morbid  spirit  he 
soothed  by  playing  on  the  harp,  and  he  was  anointed  by 
the  prophet  Samuel  as  king  in  the  place  of  Saul.  Soon 
after  this  event  he  killed,  in  single  combat,  Goliath,  a 
Philistine  giant,  and  married  Michal,  a  daughter  of  Saul. 
The  king,  however,  regarded  him  with  jealous  malignity, 
and  made  several  attempts  against  his  life.  David,  there- 
fore, fled  for  safety  to  Achish,  King  of  Gath,  where  he 
feigned  insanity.  After  many  perilous  adventures,  he 
ascended  the  throne  about  1055  I?,C,  He  reigned  seven 
years  at  Hebron  as  King  of  Judah,  and  on  the  death  of 
Saul's  son  was  recognized  as  king  by  all  the  tribes  of 
Israel.  By  victories  over  the  Philistines,  the  Moabites, 
the  Syrians,  the  Edomites,  etc.,  he  greatly  extended  the 
boundaries  of  his  kingdom,  which,  under  his  rule,  at- 
tained a  high  degree  of  prosperity  and  power.  His  reign 
was  disturbed  by  a  rebellion  of  his  son  Absalom,  and  by 


■e  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  v.^ guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JlJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DAVID 


726 


DAVID 


conspiracies  of  other  sons.  He  died  about  loi 5,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Solomon.  David  was  the  author  of 
many  of  the  Psalms  which  bear  his  name,  and  which  give 
proof  of  poetical  genius  of  the  highest  order.  Though 
not  without  human  infirmities,  by  which  he  was  more 
than  once  betrayed  into  great  sins,  he  was,  on  the  whole, 
distinguished  for  magnanimity  and  a  tenderness  of  heart 
rare  in  one  so  constantly  engaged  in  the  pursuits  of  war. 
(See  I.  Samuel  xxvi.  7-12,  and  I.  Chronicles  xi.  13,  14.) 

See  also  I.  Samuel,  chap.  xv.  ;  II.  Samuel, ;  I.  Chronicles, 
diaps.  xi. -xxix.  ;  Chanulek,  "  History  of  the  Life  of  David,"  1758  ; 
Evv.M.n,  "  Ge.schichte  des  Volkes  Israel ;"  Droste,  "  Leven  van  Ko- 
n       David,"  1716;  Han.sek,  "  Historia  Davidis,"  17S0;  Delany, 
'  Life  and  Reign  of  David,  King  of  Israel,"  3  vols.,  1742. 

Da'vid,  a  Christian  emperor  of  Abyssinia,  born  about 
1500,  succeeded  his  father  Nahu  in  1507.  His  realm  was 
irvadedand  partly  conquered  about  I5i4bythe  Turkish 
Sultan  Selim  1.  David  formed  an  alliance  with  Portugal 
about  1520.    Died  about  1540. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Da'vid  III.,  a  celebrated  king  of  Georgia,  was  the 
son  of  George  H.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1089.  The 
Turks  had  subjected  the  greater  part  of  Georgia,  and  even 
Teflis,  the  capital,  was  in  their  power.  David  raised  an 
army,  defeated  the  Turks,  and  recovered  Teflis  in  1121. 
Several  battles  were  fought  afterwards,  in  which  the 
Georgians  were  victors.  He  died  in  11 24,  and  left  the 
throne  to  his  son,  Demetrius  H. 

See  Saint-Martin,  "  Memoires  sur  I'Armenie." 

David,  King  of  Eastern  Armenia,  began  to  reign  about 
980  A.D.  He  defeated  the  Sultan  Togrul  and  other  Mus- 
sulman chiefs.    Died  in  1046. 

David,  an  Armenian  philosopher.  See  David  of 
Nerken. 

Da'vid  I.,  King  of  Scotland,  sixth  son  of  Malcolm  HI,, 
succeeded  his  brother,  Alexander  I.,  in  1 124.  Before  this 
event  he  had  married  Maud,  the  great-niece  of  William 
the  Conqueror,  and  obtained  Northumberland  as  her 
dowry.  Having  refused  to  acknowledge  Stephen  as  King 
of  England,  and  supported  the  claim  of  Matilda,  who 
was  his  niece,  he  was  involved  in  war  with  that  prince. 
In  1 137  David  invaded  England,  and  was  defeated  at 
Northallerton.  He  died  in  1 1 53,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  grandson,  Malcolm  IV. 

See  Burton,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol,  ii.  chap.  xiii. ;  Buch- 
anan, "  History  of  Scotland." 

David  II.  or  David  Bruce,  King  of  Scotland,  was 
the  son  of  Robert  Bruce,  and  was  a  minor  when  his 
father  died  in  1329.  In  1332  Edward  Baliol  invaded 
Scotland,  defeated  an  army  commanded  by  the  regent 
Mar,  and  was  crowned  at  Scone.  David  then  took  refuge 
in  France.  His  subjects  maintained  the  contest  against 
Baliol  and  his  English  ally,  and  in  1342  he  recovered  the 
throne.  In  1346  he  invaded  England,  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner,  and  did  not  obtain  his  liberty  until  1357. 
Died  in  1371,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Robert 
Stuart,  or  Robert  II. 

See  Burton,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  xxv. 

David,  dt'vid',  (Ch.\rles,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  about  1600  ;  died  about  1660. 

His  brother  Jerome  was  a  skilful  etcher  with  aqua- 
fortis. 

David,  di'vid,  (Christian  Georg  Nathan,)  a  popu- 
lar Danish  journalist  and  statesman,  born  at  Copenhagen 
in  1793.  He  wrote  some  successful  works  on  political 
economy,  became  a  leader  of  the  Liberal  party,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  Diet  from  1848  to  1853. 

See  J.  B.  Schick,  "Professor  David  und  sein  Vaterland,"  1835. 

David,  (Felicien,)  a  French  musical  composer,  born 
at  Cadenet  (Vaucluse)  in  1810.  He  became  in  1830  a 
pupil  of  Lesueur,  Fetis,  and  Reber,  in  the  Conservatoire 
of  Paris.  In  1831  he  quitted  the  Conservatoire  and  joined 
the  Saint-Simonians,  by  whom  he  was  eirqjloyed  to  set 
hymns  to  music.  On  the  dispersion  of  that  society  he 
visited  the  Levant,  where  he  collected  popular  melodies, 
etc,  and  returned  to  Paris  in  1835.  He  produced  "The 
Rebel  Angel,"  "The  Swallows,"  and  other  melodies, 
which  failed  to  render  him  famous.  His  "  ode-symphonie" 
called  "The  Desert,"  performed  in  1844,  first  revealed 
to  the  public  his  superior  talent,  and  procured  for  him 
a  European  reputation.    In  1847       produced  "Chris- 


topher Columbus,"  an  "ode-symphonie,"  which  was  very 
successful. 

See  SvLVAiN  Saint-£tienne,  "Biographie  de  Felicien  David;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

David,  da'vit,  (Ferdinand,)  a  German  composer 
and  violinist,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1810.  He  became 
concertmeister  at  Leipsic  about  1836. 

David,  (FRANgois  Anne,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  in  1741,  was  a  pupil  of  Le  Bas.  In  youth  he 
became  engraver  of  the  cabinet  of  Monsieur,  (Louis 
XVIII.)  He  published  "The  Antiquities  of  Hercula- 
neum,"  and  illustrated  works  on  the  history  of  England 
and  other  nations.    Died  in  1824. 

David,  dt'v^d'  or  da'vid,  (Jacques  Louis,)  a  cele- 
brated French  historical  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1748, 
was  a  pupil  of  Vien.  Having  obtained  the  grand  prize 
of  the  Academy  for  his  "  Antiochus  and  Stratonice,"  in 
1775,  he  went  to  Rome  with  Vien,  and  was  affected  to 
tears  by  the  superiority  of  the  classical  antique  style,  and 
the  conviction  that  he  must  begin  anew  the  study  of  his 
art.  When  Vien  saw  his  "  Triumph  of  Paulus  yEmilius," 
he  exclaimed,  "  You  are  destined  to  ruin  or  regenerate 
the  school."  He  returned  to  Paris  in  1780,  composed 
his  "  Belisarius,"  and  was  received  as  academician  in  the 
Royal  Academy,  with  the  title  of  painter  to  the  king,  in 
1783.  The  next  year  he  again  visited  Rome,  where  he 
produced  the  "  Horatii,"  which  was  highly  applauded 
and  made  a  great  sensation  among  the  Parisians.  He 
had  become  the  chief  of  the  French  painters  when  thf. 
Revolution  began.  Elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792', 
he  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king,  and  disgraced  him' 
self  by  complicity  in  the  crimes  of  Robespierre.  On  thi? 
fall  of  this  leader,  (1794,)  David  was  imprisoned  several 
months.  He  was  the  chief  manager  of  the  great  national 
festivals  and  spectacles  of  the  republic.  About  1795  ho 
produced  his  "Rape  of  the  Sabines,"  which  is  called  hii 
master-piece,  and  was  sold  for  60,000  francs.  Napoleoi: 
patronized  him,  and  appointed  him  his  first  painter.  Al 
the  restoration  he  was  exiled  as  a  regicide,  and  lived  ir 
Brussels  until  his  death,  in  1825.  He  was  a  member  oi 
the  Institute.  He  had  a  vivid  imagination,  an  ardent  and 
susceptible  temperament,  and  was  not  devoid  of  mag- 
nanimity. As  an  artist  he  was  deficient  in  colouring,  bui; 
attained  the  highest  rank  by  his  design,  which,  in  thi- 
opinion  of  his  admirers,  is  inimitably  beautiful  and  true 

See  Miette  de  Villars,  "Memoires  de  David  Peintre,"  etc., 
1850;  CoupiN,  "  Essai  sur  Jacques  Louis  David,"  1S27;  Miel. 
"Notice  sur  J.  L.  David,"  1834;  Delecluze,  "  David  et  sor.i 
ficole,"  1855;  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  Antoinic. 
Thome,  "  Vie  de  David,"  1826. 

David,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  at 
Gex  in  1737.  He  obtained  prizes  for  several  treatises, 
one  of  which  was  "  On  the  Mechanism  of  Respiration," 
(1766.)  He  shared  the  labours  of  the  surgeon  Lecat, 
who  chose  him  as  his  successor.    Died  in  1784. 

David,  (Maxime,)  a  French  miniature-painter,  born 
at  Chalons-sur-Marne  in  1798.  He  obtained  a  medal  of 
the  first  class  in  1841. 

David,  (Pierre,)  a  French  poet  and  diplomatist,  born 
near  Falaise  in  1771.  As  consul  at  Smyrna,  he  saved  the 
lives  of  many  Greeks  during  an  insurrection.  Among  his 
poems  is  "The  Siege  of  Athens,"  (1827.)    Died  in  1846. 

David,  (Pierre  Jean,)  an  eminent  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Angers  in  1789.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1808,  and, 
having  won  the  first  prize  (with  a  pension)  in  1811,  was 
enabled  to  pursue  his  studies  in  Rome.  About  1824  he 
established  his  reputation  by  a  statue  of  the  Prince  of 
Conde.  He  was  elected  to  the  Institute  in  1826,  and  in 
1831  was  ordered  by  the  government  to  adorn  the  Pan- 
theon with  sculptures.  He  preferred  to  exercise  his 
talent  on  republican  subjects  and  on  persons  who  have 
been  useful  to  society.  Among  his  works  are  busts  of 
Washington,  La  Fayette,  Lamartine,  Arago,  Lamennais, 
and  Goethe.  He  produced  statues  of  Jefferson,  (at  New 
York,)  Cuvier,  Racine,  and  many  others.  He  was  a  re- 
publican member  of  the  Assembly  in  1848.  Died  in  1856. 

See  GusTAVE  Planche,  "Portraits  d' Artistes  ;"  Adrien  Mail- 
lard,  "  fitude  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  David  d'Angers,"  1839. 

DaVid,  Saint,  the  patron  of  Wales,  born  in  Cardi- 
ganshire about  490  A.D.,  founded  several  monasteries, 
for  which  he  composed  rules.  He  was  the  author  of 
Homilies,  and  other  works.    Died  in  544. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  flLll,  i%X\  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


DAVID 


727 


DAVIES 


Da'vid  ap  Gwil'lum,  a  famous  Welsh  bard  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  is  said  to  have  courted  the  favour  of 
the  fair  Morvid  in  one  hundred  and  forty-seven  poems. 
Notwithstanding  these  demonstrations,  or  perhaps  in 
consequence  of  them,  she  married  another. 

David  Bruce.    See  David  II. 

Da^'vid  Com-ne'nus,  the  last  emperor  of  Trebizond, 
usurped  the  throne  at  the  death  of  his  brother  John. 
When  his  capital  was  attacked  by  Mahomet  II.  in  1461, 
he  surrendered  on  condition  that  this  Sultan  should 
marry  his  daughter  Anna,  David  and  his  sons  were 
reduced  to  choose  between  death  and  the  Moslem  re- 
ligion, and  preferred  the  former,  in  1462. 

Da'vid  de  Po'mis,  a  Jewish  rabbi  and  physician, 
born  at  Spoleto,  in  Italy,  in  1525.  He  produced  a 
Hebrew  Lexicon,  {1587.)    Died  about  1600. 

David  de  Saint-George,  dt\'^d'  deh  siN'zhoRzh', 
(Jean  Joseph  Alexis,)  a  French  philologist,  born  in 
Franche-Comte  in  1759.  He  produced  a  version  of 
Ossian.    Died  in  1809. 

Da'vid-George,  a  noted  fanatic  and  impostor,  born 
at  Delft  about  1500,  had  some  natural  eloquence  and 
cunning.  After  associating  with  the  Anabaptists,  he 
formed  a  new  sect,  called  Davidists,  and,  according  to 
some  accounts,  professed  that  he  was  the  Messiah.  To 
escape  persecution,  he  fled  about  1542  to  Bale,  where  he 
lived  in  disguise  eleven  years.  In  1553  he  endeavoured 
to  save  Servetus,  and  wrote  in  favour  of  toleration.  He 
published  a  "  Wonderbook,"  and  other  works.  Mosheim 
thinks  he  had  more  virtue  than  his  opponents  give  him 
credit  for.    Died  in  1556. 

David  of  Nerken,  an  eminent  Armenian  philoso- 
pher of  the  Platonist  school,  lived  about  460-490  A. D.  He 
studied  at  Athens  under  Syrianus,  the  master  of  Proclus, 
and  wrote  a  number  of  works,  among  which  is  "The 
Foundations  of  Philosophy."  He  is  said  to  have  trans- 
lated into  Armenian  the  works  of  Plato  and  Aristotle. 

See  Fr.  Neumann,  "Memoire  sur  la  Vie  de  David,"  1829. 

David  Rubeni,  d^'vid  roo-ba'nee,  a  Jewish  fanatic, 
lived  towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  pre- 
dicted that  the  Messiah  would  come  in  1500.  He  pre- 
tended that  he  had  a  mission  to  conduct  the  Jews  of 
Europe  to  Palestine. 

Davide,da've-d^,(LuiGi  ANTONio,)an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Lugano  in  1648;  died  about  1730. 

Dav'i-dis,  (Franz,)  a  Socinian  minister,  born  in  Hun- 
gary about  1510  ;  died  in  1579. 

Davidof,  di-vee'dof,  Davydow,  or  Davuidof,  dSv- 
wee'dof,  (Denis  Vasilievitch,)  a  Russian  general  and 
poet,  born  at  Moscow  in  1784;  died  in  1839. 

Da'vids,  (Arthur  Lumley,)  an  English  Orientalist, 
born  in  Hampshire  in  1811.  He  published  a  Turkish 
Grammar,  (1832.)    Died  in  1832, 

Da'vid-son,  (John,)  an  English  traveller,  born  in 
London.  He  was  killed  in  Northern  Africa  by  some 
natives  in  1836. 

Da'vid-spn,  (John  W.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Fairfax  county,  Virginia,  about  1824.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1845,  became  a  captain  in  1855,  and  a 
brigadier-general  of  Union  volunteers  early  in  1862.  He 
served  in  Missouri  and  Arkansas  in  1862  and  1863. 

Davidson,  (Lucretia  Maria,)  an  American  poetess, 
born  at  Plattsburg,  New  York,  in  1808.  She  wrote  verses 
before  she  was  six  years  old,  and  composed  with  great 
facility.  It  is  stated  that  she  wrote  two  hundred  and  sev- 
enty-eight poems,  besides  many  which  were  destroyed. 
Died  in  August,  1825.  A  collection  of  her  poems  was 
published,  with  a  Memoir  by  S.  F.  B.  Morse,  in  1829. 

See  a  "  Life  of  L.  M.  Davidson,"  by  Catherine  Sedgwick,  1843, 
and  a  review  of  her  poems,  by  Robert  Southey,  in  the  "  London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  1829,  vol.  xli. ;  Duvckinck,  "Cyclopaedia  of 
American  Literature." 

Davidson,  (Margaret  Miller,)  a  sister  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  1823,  was  also  a  poetess,  and  a  child  of 
equal  precocity.  Her  poems  were  praised  by  Washington 
Irving,  who  wrote  a  biography  of  her  about  1843.  She 
is  said  to  have  been  "angelic"  in  her  disposition.  Died 
in  183S. 

See  Griswold's  "Female  Poets  of  America;"  Duyckinck, 
"Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature." 

Da'vid-son,  (Rev.  Samuel,)  an  Irish  dissenter  and 
biblical  critic,  born  at  Ballymena  about  1808.    He  pub- 


lished, besides  other  works,  "  Sacred  Hermeneutics  De- 
veloped," (1843,)  ^1^^  "  l^iblical  Criticism,"  (2  vols,,  1852.) 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1863;  "Westminster 
Review"  for  July,  1862. 

Davidson,  (William,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Pennsylvania  in  1746.  He  was  killed  in  battle  at 
Cowan's  Ford,  in  North  Carolina,  in  1781. 

Da'vie,  (William  Richardson,)  born  in  England 
in  1756,  came  to  America  about  1762.  He  served  as 
colonel  under  Generals  Greene  and  Sumter  in  the  Revo- 
lutionary war,  was  a  member  of  the  convention  which 
formed  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1787,  and  was  chosen 
Governor  of  North  Carolina  in  1799.  He  was  sent  as 
envoy  to  France  in  1799  or  1800.    Died  in  1820. 

See  Sparks,  "American  Biography,"  vol.  xv..  Second  Series; 
"National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iii. 

Daviel,  dt've'eK,  (Jacques,)  a  skilful  French  oculist, 
born  in  Normandy  in  1696.  He  settled  in  Paris  in  1746, 
and  received  the  title  of  oculist  to  the  king  in  1749.  He 
invented  a  method  to  cure  cataract  by  extraction,  which 
was  successful.    Died  in  1762. 

Davies,  da^v^z,  (Charles,)  an  American  mathemati- 
cian, born  in  Litchfield  county,  Connecticut,  in  1798.  He 
became  professor  of  mathematics  at  West  Point  about 
1824.  He  published  "Elementary  Algebra,"  (1839,) 
"Elementary  Geometry  and  Trigonometry,"  (1840,) 
"  Practical  Mathematics,"  (1852,)  and  other  works,  which 
have  been  extensively  used  as  text-books  in  colleges  and 
academies.  Having  resigned  his  chair  at  West  Point, 
about  1837,  he  visited  Europe,  and  subsequently  was 
appointed  a  professor  in  Columbia  College,  New  York. 

Da' vies,  (Edward,)  a  Welsh  divine,  born  in  1756, 
was  rector  of  Bishopston  and  chancellor  of  Brecon.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Celtic  Researches,  or  the 
Origin, Traditions,  and  Language  of  the  Ancient  Britons," 
(1804,)  and  a  treatise  on  Druidism,  which  is  commended. 
Died_in  1831. 

Da'vies,  (Lady  Eleanor,)  born  in  1603,  was  the 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Castlehaven,  and  wife  of  Sir  John 
Davies.  She  gained  notoriety  as  a  prophetess,  and  pub- 
lished some  strange  predictions  in  1649.    Died  in  1652. 

Davies,  (John,)  a  learned  Welsh  divine,  who  gradu- 
ated at  Oxford  in  1593,  and  became  a  canon  of  Saint 
Asaph's.  He  was  well  versed  in  the  antiquities  of  his 
nation,  and  published  a  work  on  "  Ancient  British  Lan- 
guages."   Died  in  1644. 

Davies,  (John,)  a  Welsh  writer,  born  in  1625,  trans- 
lated several  works  from  the  French.    Died  in  1693. 

Davies,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  English  philologist,  born  in 
London  in  1679,  was  appointed  prebendary  of  Ely  in 
171 1.  He  edited  the  works  of  Cicero,  Caesar,  and  other 
Latin  authors.    Died  in  1732. 

Davies,  (Sir  John,)  an  eminent  English  poet  and 
judge,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1570,  graduated  at  Oxford. 
In  1599  he  acquired  reputation  by  his  poem  entitled 
"Nosce  Teipsum,"  ("Know  Thyself")  In  1603  he  was 
appointed  solicitor-general  of  Ireland,  and  soon  after 
attorney-general.  He  was  knighted  in  1607.  In  1612 
he  published  an  excellent  work  on  the  political  state  of 
Ireland.  He  was  returned  to  the  English  Parliament  in 
1621,  and  obtained  the  dignity  of  lord  chief  justice  in 
1626,  but  died  suddenly  the  same  year.  In  reference  to 
the  poem  above  noticed,  Hallam  remarks,  '*  Perhaps  no 
language  can  produce  a  poem,  extending  to  so  great  a 
length,  of  more  condensation  of  thought,  or  in  which 
fewer  languid  verses  will  be  found." 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets;"  G.  Chalmers,  "Life 
of  Davies;"  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England;"  "  Biographia  Bri- 
tannica ;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  v.,  1822. 

Davies,  (Myles,)  a  Welsh  writer  or  compiler,  lived 
about  1 715.  He  published  "Athense  Britannicae,"  (3 
vols.,  1716.) 

Davies,  (Robert,)  a  Welsh  poet,  born  in  1770,  was 
the  author  of  a  good  Welsh  grammar,  and  of  some 
admired  poems.    Died  in  1836. 

Davies,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine  and 
distinguished  pulpit  orator,  born  at  New  Castle,  Dela- 
ware, in  1724.  He  was  instrumental  in  founding  the 
College  of  New  Jersey,  and  in  1758  succeeded  Jonathan 
Edwards  as  president  of  that  institution.  Died  in  1761, 
leaving  several  volumes  of  sermons,  which  have  passed 
through  many  editions,  both  in  America  and  England. 


•€  as 9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  y., guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.  (2!^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DAVIES 


728 


DAVIS 


Davies,  (Sneyd,)  Archdeacon  of  Derby,  an  English 
poet,  wrote  some  imitations  of  Horace  in  Duncombe's 
edition,  (1767,)  and  poems  in  Dodsley's  collection.  Died 
in  1769. 

Davies,  (Thomas,)  an  English  actor  and  bookseller, 
born  about  17 12.  He  made  debut  on  the  stage  about 
1736,  and  soon  after  opened  a  bookstore  in  London, 
where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Dr.  Johnson.  Re- 
turning again  to  the  stage,  he  married  Miss  Yarrow,  a 
beautiful  actress.  The  satire  of  Churchill  in  the  "  Ros- 
ciad"  induced  him  to  quit  the  theatre  and  resume  the 
book-trade.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Garrick,"  (1780,) 
which  procured  for  him  both  fortune  and  reputation,  and 
was  author  of  several  other  biographies.  Died  in  1785. 
Johnson  and  Boswell  met  for  the  first  time  in  his  house. 

See  Boswell's  "Life  of  Johnson." 

Davies,  (Thomas  Alfred,)  born  in  Saint  Lawrence 
county.  New  York,  in  1809,  served  in  the  campaigns  of 
1 86 1,  and  was  made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in 
1862. 

Davies,  (Rev.  Walter,)  a  British  author,  born  in 
1761,  wrote  an  esteemed  treatise  on  the  "Agriculture 
and  Domestic  Economy  of  Wales,"  (181 1,)  and  other 
works.    Died  about  1848. 

Daviess,  da'vis,  (Joseph  Hamilton,)  U.  S.  attorney 
for  Kentucky,  volunteered  in  an  expedition  against  the 
Indians  in  181 1,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Tippe- 
canoe, November  7  of  that  year.  His  wife  was  a  sister 
of  Chief-Justice  Marshall. 

Davila.    See  Avila. 

Davila,  d^'ve-li,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  theologian, 
born  at  Avila,  was  a  Dominican.    Died  in  1604. 

Davila,  di've-li,  (Enrico  Caterino,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  historian,  born  at  Sacco,  near  Padua,  in  1576,  was 
the  son  of  Antonio  Davila,  who,  like  several  of  his  an- 
cestors, had  been  Constable  of  Cyprus.  About  the  age 
of  seven  he  was  taken  to  Paris,  where  he  was  educated, 
and  became  a  page  at  the  French  court.  From  1594  to 
1598  he  served  with  distinction  in  the  army  of  Henry  IV., 
and  collected  materials  for  his  history.  In  1599  he  re- 
turned to  Padua.  About  1606  he  engaged  in  the  service 
of  the  Venetian  senate,  and  commanded  several  military 
expeditions  with  success.  In  1630  he  produced  his 
"  History  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  France  from  1559  to  1598," 
("  Historia  delle  Guerre  civili,"  etc.,)  which  is  unani- 
mously regarded  as  authentic,  and  generally  impartial, 
excepting  his  favouritism  towards  Catherine  de  Medicis, 
to  whom  his  family  was  indebted.  His  style  is  graphic, 
spirited,  and  concise,  and  free  from  the  prevalent  defects 
of  his  time.  The  narration  is  remarkably  varied  and 
picturesque.  In  163 1  Davila  was  appointed  governor  of 
Crema.  As  he  was  performing  the  journey  thither,  he 
was  involved  in  a  dispute  with  an  insolent  official,  who 
refused  to  furnish  accommodations  that  Davila  had  a 
right  to  demand.  Davila  was  shot  dead  by  this  person, 
who  was  instantly  killed  by  the  son  of  the  historian. 

See  "  Life  of  Davila,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  works  published 
by  Apostolo  Zeno,  Venice,  1733  ;  Gingueni^,  "  Histoire  Litteraire 
d'ltalie;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Davila,  (Don  Pedro  Franco,)  a  Spanish  naturalist, 
born  at  Guayaquil,  removed  about  1748  to  Paris,  where 
he  formed  an  extensive  cabinet.  In  1767  he  sold  this 
for  800,000  reals,  and  in  1769  went  to  Madrid,  and  was 
chosen  perpetual  director  of  the  cabinet  of  natural  history, 
which  he  made  one  of  the  richest  in  Europe.  Died  in  1 785. 

Davila  y  Padilla,  di've-li  e  p^-D^Kyi,  (Augustin,) 
a  Spanish  or  Mexican  monk,  became  Bishop  of  Saint 
Domingo.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Province  of 
Santiago  de  Mexico,"  (1596.)    Died  in  1604. 

Davin,  dtV^N',  (F^lix,)  a  French  novelist,  boKn  at 
Saint-Quentin  in  1807;  died  in  1836. 

Da  Vinci.    See  Vinci. 

Davini,  di-vee'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
phvsician,  born  at  Camporgiano  in  1562  ;  died  in  1633. 

i)a'vis,  (Andrew  Jackson,)  a  clairvoyant  and  spirit- 
ualist, born  in  Orange  county,  New  York,  in  1826,  pub- 
lished "  Principles  of  Nature,  her  Divine  Revelations," 
etc.,  (1845,)  and  several  other  works,  including  "The 
Great  Harmonia,"  (in  4  vols.,)  advocating  the  doctrines 
of  Spiritualism. 

See  "  The  Magic  Staff:  an  Autobiography  of  A.  J.  Davis;"  "  Fra- 
ser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1848. 


Davis,  (Charles  Henry,)  an  American  naval  com- 
mander, born  in  Boston  in  1807.  He  entered  t.ie  navy  in 
1823,  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  "  Ephemeris" 
and  "Nautical  Almanac"  about  1850,  and  gained  the 
rank  of  commander  in  1854.  He  served  as  chief  of  staff 
and  captain  of  the  fleet  at  the  capture  of  Port  Royal  by 
Dupont  in  November,  1861.  In  May,  1862,  he  took 
command  of  the  Mississippi  flotilla.  He  gained  a 
victory  over  the  ram  Louisiana  and  several  gunboats 
on  the  loth  of  May,  and  another  near  Metrjphis  in  June. 
He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  February, 
1863,  and  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  National 
Observatory  in  May,  1865.  His  services  in  relation  to 
the  "Nautical  Almanac"  are  highly  commended. 

Da'vis,  (David,)  a  skilful  physician,  born  in  South 
Wales  about  1777,  practised  in  London.  He  published 
"  Elements  of  Obstetric  Medicine,"  (new  edition,  1842.) 
Died  in  1842. 

Da'vis,  (Edward,)  an  English  buccaneer,  was  a  com- 
panion of  Dampier.  He  became  the  chief  of  a  band  of 
filibusters  who  plundered  the  Spanish  colonies  in  Peru 
about  1684. 

Davis,  (Edward,)  an  English  painter  and  engraver, 
born  in  Wales  in  1640.  His  engraved  portraits  are  highly 
praised. 

Davis,  (Edwin  Hamilton,)  M.D.,  an  American  phy- 
sician and  archaeologist,  for  many  years  professor  of  ma- 
teria medica  and  therapeutics  in  the  New  York  Medical 
College,  was  born  in  Ross  county,  Ohio,  in  181 1.  His 
principal  work  is  his  "  Monuments  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley,"  published  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

Davis,  (Henry,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine  andscholar, 
born  at  East  Hampton,  New  York,  in  1770.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  in  1796,  was  appointed  professor  of 
Greek  in  Union  College  in  1806,  and  in  1809  was  chosen 
president  of  Middlebury  College,  Vermont.  He  was 
president  of  Hamilton  College,  New  York,  from  181 7 
to  1833.    Died  in  1852. 

Davis,  (Rev.  Henry  Edwards,)  an  English  clergy- 
man, born  at  Windsor  in  1756,  became  a  Fellow  and 
tutor  of  Baliol  College,  Oxford.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  he  published  an  Examination  of  Gibbon's  History, 
charging  him  with  misrepresentation.  Gibbon  published 
a  Vindication  against  this  charge.    Died  in  1784. 

Davis,  (Henry  Winter,)  an  eloquent  American 
statesman,  born  at  Annapolis,  Maryland,  about  181 7, 
graduated  at  Hampden-Sidney  College.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress  for  the  third  district  of  Maryland 
(i.e.  a  part  of  Baltimore)  in  1854,  and  again  in  1856. 
After  the  dissolution  of  the  Whig  party  he  joined  the 
"  American"  party.  He  was  re-elected  to  Congress  in 
1858.  In  the  crisis  of  1861  he  gave  proof  of  ardent  loyalty 
to  the  Union,  and  became  a  radical  Republican.  He 
represented  a  part  of  Baltimore  in  the  thirty-eighth  Con- 
gress, (1863-65,)  in  which  he  served  as  chairman  of  the 
Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs.  In  the  summer  of  1865 
he  made  a  public  speech  at  Chicago  in  favour  of  negro 
suffrage.  His  intellect  was  keen,  inventive,  and  capable 
of  long-continued  effort.     Died  in  December,  1865. 

Davis,  (Jefferson,)  an  American  statesman  and  mili- 
tary leader,  born  in  Christian  county,  Kentucky,  in  1808. 
He  studied  at  Transylvania  College,  and  subsequently  at 
the  Military  Academy  of  West  Point,  where  he  graduated 
in  1828.  He  served  in  the  Black  Hawk  war  on  the  North- 
west frontier,  1831-32,  and  in  the  campaigns  against  the 
Pawnees  and  other  Indian  tribes,  1833  to  1835.  Having 
settled  in  Mississippi,  he  was  elected  to  Congress  by  the 
Democratic  party  in  1845.  Oi"'  breaking  out  of  the 
Mexican  war  in  1846,  he  resigned  his  seat  in  Congress, 
and  as  colonel  of  a  regiment  of  volunteers  joined  Gen- 
eral Taylor  on  the  Rio  Grande.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  engagements  of  Monterey  and  Buena  Vista, 
and  his  conduct  on  the  latter  occasion  was  noticed  in 
General  Taylor's  dispatch  of  March  6  in  high  terms 
of  commendation.  He  was  appointed  to  fill  a  vacancy 
in  the  United  States  Senate  in  1847,  and  in  1848  elected 
to  the  same  office  for  the  remainder  of  the  term.  It  is 
said  that  John  Quincy  Adams,  on  hearing  Mr.  Davis's 
first  speech  in  the  Senate,  observed  to  his  friends,  "That 
young  man,  gentlemen,  is  no  ordinary  man  :  he  will  make 
his  mark  yet."    While  in  the  Senate  he  was  one  of  the 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DAFIS  729  DAFT 


most  prominent  among  the  advocates  of  slavery  and 
State  rights.  As  Democratic  candidate  for  Governor 
of  Mississippi  in  185 1  he  was  defeated  by  H.  S.  Foote, 
the  Union  candidate.  He  was  secretary  of  war  during 
Mr.  Pierce's  administration,  from  March,  1853,  till  March, 
1857.  At  the  latter  date  he  again  became  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States.  Having  taken  a  prominent  part  in  the 
secession  movement  in  1860-61,  he  resigned  his  seat  in 
the  Senate  of  the  United  States  in  February  of  the  latter 
year,  and  was  soon  after  elected  President  of  the  pro- 
visional government  formed  by  the  secessionists.  In 
November,  186 1,  he  was  elected  without  opposition  Pre- 
sident (for  six  years)  of  the  Confederate  States,  and  was 
inaugurated  February  22, 1862.  There  seems  no  reason 
to  doubt  that  the  Southern  leaders  made  a  wise  selection 
in  placing  Davis  at  the  head  of  their  perilous,  not  to  say 
wild  and  desperate,  enterprise ;  and  he  appears  to  have 
done  all  that  any  man  in  his  position  could  do  to  bring 
it  to  a  successful  issue.  The  war  was  at  last  terminated 
by  the  capture  of  Richmond  by  General  Grant  in  April, 
1865,  after  which  event  President  Davis  retreated  south- 
ward. He  was  taken  prisoner  in  Southern  Georgia  in 
May,  1865,  was  confined  in  Fortress  Monroe  two  years, 
and  was  then  released  on  bail.  He  was  included  in  the 
general  amnesty  of  December  25,  1868. 

See  E.  A.  Pollard,  "  Life  of  Jefferson  Davis  ;"  Livingston, 
"  Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans ;"  Dk.  J.  J.  Craven,  "  Prison-Life 
of  Jefferson  Davis,"iS66  ;  "  Lifeand  Imprisonment  of  Jefferson  Davis, 
with  the  Life  and  Military  Career  of  Stonewall  Jackson,"  New  York, 
1866;  "Life  of  Jefferson'Davis,"  by  F.  H.  Alfrienu,  1868. 

Davis,  (Jefferson  C.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Clarke  county,  Indiana,  in  1828.  He  served  in  the 
Mexican  war,  1846-47.  He  was  one  of  the  garrison  of 
Fort  Sumter  when  it  was  bombarded  by  the  rebels  in 
April,  1861.  He  served  at  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862,  and 
commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Stone  River,  De- 
cember 31,  1862-January  2,  1863,  and  at  the  battle  of 
Chickamauga,  September  19  and  20,  1863.  He  led  a 
corps  of  the  army  of  Sherman  in  the  march  from  Atlanta 
to  the  sea,  in  December,  1864. 
Davis,  (John.)  See  Davies,  (John.) 
Davis,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  navigator,  born  at 
Sandridge,  in  Devonshire.  Between  1585  and  1587  he 
made  three  voyages  for  the  discovery  of  a  Northwest 
passage,  in  which  he  discovered  the  strait  that  bears 
his  name,  and  advanced  as  far  as  the  72d  degree  of  north 
latitude.  In  1591  he  served  as  captain  in  Cavendish's 
txpedition  to  the  South  Sea,  and  afterwards  made  five 
royages  to  the  East  Indies.  He  was  killed  by  the 
[apanese  in  1605.  He  had  published  an  account  of  his 
N'orthwestern  discoveries,  and  a  work  entitled  "  The 
World's  Hydrographical  Description,"  1595. 

See  Hakluyt,  "Navigations;"  A.  Saint  John,  "Lives  ofCele- 
orated  Travellers;"  J.  Barrow,  "Memoirs  of  the  Naval  Worthies 
of  Queen  Elizabeth's  Reign,"  1845. 

Davis,  (John,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at  Plymouth, 
Massachusetts,  in  1 761,  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1781. 
He  was  appointed  comptroller  of  the  treasury  of  the 
United  States  in  1795,  and  in  1801  a  judge  of  the  district 
court,  which  office  he  held  for  forty  years.  Died  in  1847. 

Davis,  (John,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in  North- 
borough,  Massachusetts,  in  1787,  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege. He  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1824, 
and  re-elected  several  times.  In  1834  he  was  chosen 
Governor  of  Massachusetts.  He  represented  his  State  in 
the  United  States  Senate  from  1835  to  1841.  He  acted 
with  the  Whig  party,  and  was  a  prominent  advocate  of  a 
protective  tariff.  He  became  Governor  of  Massachusetts 
again  in  1841  or  1842.  His  reputation  for  integrity  was 
such  that  he  was  commonly  called  '*  Honest  John  Davis." 
He  was  again  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
about  1845.    Died  at  Worcester  in  April,  1854. 

Davis,  (John  A.  G.,)  professor  of  law  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Virginia,  was  born  in  Middlesex  county,  in  that 
State,  in  1801.  He  was  educated  at  William  and  Mary 
College.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Guide  to  Justices  of 
the  Peace,"  and  other  legal  works.    Died  in  1840. 

Davis,  (Sir  John  Francis,)  an  English  officer  and 
writer  on  China,  was  born  in  London  in  1795.  He  was 
attached  to  Lord  Amherst's  embassy  to  China  in  1816, 
and  afterwards  became  chief  superintendent  at  Canton. 
He  is  one  of  the  few  Europeans  who  have  mastered  the 


language  and  literature  of  China.  On  his  return  to 
England  he  published  "  The  Chinese  :  a  General  De- 
scription of  China  and  its  Inhabitants,"  (1836,  2  vols.,) 
which  is  one  of  the  best  English  works  on  that  subject. 
He  was  governor  of  Hong-Kong  from  1841  to  1847.  In 
1841  he  produced  "Sketches  of  China." 

Davis,  (Matthew  L.,)  an  American  writer,  born  in 
1766,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Aaron  Burr.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Aaron 
Burr,"  (2  vols.,  1836-37.)    Died  in  1850. 

Da'vis,  (Thomas,)  an  Irish  poet  and  political  writer, 
born  at  Mallow  in  1814.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  party 
called  "Young  Ireland,"  and  in  favour  of  a  repeal  of  the 
Act  of  Union.    Died  in  1845. 

Da'vi-son,  (Francis,)  an  English  poet,  son  of  Wil- 
liam, noticed  below.  He  published  in  1602  "The  Poet- 
ical Rhapsody,"  which  contains,  besides  his  own  verses, 
selections  from  the  writings  of  contemporary  poets. 

Davison,  (William,)  an  English  statesman  in  the 
service  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  After  having  performed 
embassies  to  Holland  and  Scotland,  he  was  appointed 
privy  councillor,  and  one  of  the  principal  secretaries  of 
state,  about  1586.  Hume  says,  "  He  was  a  man  of  parts, 
but  easy  to  be  imposed  on,  and  who  for  that  very  reason 
had  been  made  secretary."  The  queen  ordered  him 
privately  to  draw  a  warrant  for  the  execution  of  Mary 
Stuart,  which  she  signed.  After  the  execution  (1587) 
she  disowned  the  act,  and  threw  the  odium  on  Davison, 
who  was  confined  in  the  Tower  a  number  of  years. 

See  Sir  N.  H.  Nicholas,  "Life  of  William  Davison,"  1823; 
Motley,  "History  of  the  United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  chap.  iii. 

Davoust  or  Davout,  dS'voo',  (Louis  Alexandre 
Edme  Francois,)  Baron,  a  French  officer,  brother  of 
Marshal  Davoust,  was  born  at  Etivey  (Yonne)  in  1773. 
He  served  at  the  battles  of  Saint-Jean-d'Acre  and  of  the 
Pyramids,  and  became  aide-de-camp  to  his  brother  in 
1800.  For  his  services  at  Austerlitz,  Jena,  and  Wagram 
he  was  made  a  baron  in  1809,  and  general  of  brigade 
in  181 1.    Died  in  1820. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Frangais." 

Davoust,  more  correctly  Davout,  pronounced  alike 
dt'voo^  (Louis  Nicolas,)  Duke  of  Auerstadt  and  Prince 
of  Eckmiihl,  an  able  and  successful  French  marshal, 
born  near  Noyers  (Yonne)  in  1770,  was  a  fellow-student 
with  Bonaparte  at  Brienne.  In  1791  he  became  a  colonel, 
or  chef-de-bataillon,  in  the  republican  army,  and  in 
1793  made  a  daring  attempt  to  seize  Dumouriez,  the 
general-in-chief.  In  the  same  year  he  obtained  the  rank 
of  general  of  brigade.  He  accompanied  Bonaparte  to 
Egypt  in  1798,  fought  several  battles  under  Desaix,  and 
contributed  to  the  victory  of  Aboukir,  1799.  The  next 
year  he  returned  to  France,  and  was  promoted  to  the 
grade  of  general  of  division  by  Bonaparte,  of  whom  he 
was  an  ardent  admirer.  He  commanded  the  cavalry  of 
the  army  of  Italy  in  1800,  In  1804  he  was  made  major- 
general  of  the  imperial  guard,  and  marshal  of  the  em- 
pire.   He  led  the  right  wing  of  the  army  at  Austerlitz  in 

1805,  where  his  service^  were  very  conspicuous,  and  de- 
feated the  Prussians  at  the  great  battle  of  Auerstadt,  which 
was  fought  on  the  same  day  as  that  of  Jena,  October  14, 

1806.  "  This  last  success,"  says  Alison,  "  put  the  keystone 
to  the  arch  of  Marshal  Davoust's  fame."  He  was  created 
Prince  of  Eckmiihl  in  1809  for  his  success  at  the  village 
of  that  name.  After  taking  part  in  the  Russian  cam- 
paign, 1812,  and  being  wounded  at  Borodino,  he  defended 
Hamburg  against  the  allies  for  several  months,  and  ex- 
cited loud  complaints  by  his  extortions  and  severity  to 
the  inhabitants.  He  was  Napoleon's  minister  of  war 
during  the  Hundred  Days,  181 5,  and  after  the  battle  of 
Waterloo  was  appointed  by  the  provisional  government 
general-in-chief  of  the  French  armies  ;  but  he  retired  from 
the  command  in  the  same  year.  In  1819  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Chamber  of  Peers.    Died  in  1823. 

See  Chenier,  "Vie  du  Marechal  Davout,"  1866;  "Davoust 
des  Tyrannen,  Leben  und  Thaten,"  Leipsic,  1815  ;  Jourdan,  "  Eloge 
funebre  de  M.  le  Marechal  Davoust,"  1823;  Thiers,  "  Histoire  du 
Consulat  et  de  I'Empire." 

Davout.    See  Davoust. 
D'Avrigny,    See  Avrigny. 

Da'vy,  (Sir  Humphry,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  che- 
mists that  Great  Britain  has  produced,  was  born  at  Pen- 
zance, in  Cornwall,  December  17,  1778.    His  father  was 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  K,  ^ittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  {J^^Stt  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DAFT 


DAW  IS  ON 


a  carver  of  wood.  Endowed  by  nature  with  an  ardent 
and  fertile  imagination,  he  early  manifested  a  decided 
taste  for  works  of  fiction,  and  especially  for  poetry.  It 
is  stated  that  when  about  eleven  years  old  he  commenced 
an  epic  poem,  of  which  Uiomede,  the  son  of  Tydeus,  was 
the  hero  :  whether  the  work  was  ever  fully  completed, 
we  are  not  informed  ;  but  enough,  at  least,  was  written 
to  prove  the  soaring  fancy  and  inexhaustible  invention 
of  the  youthful  poet.  He  appears  subsequently  to  have 
limited  his  efforts  to  fugitive  poetry,  of  which  he  has  left 
some  very  respectable  and  interesting  specimens.  When 
he  was  sixteen  (1795)  he  lost  his  father.  Not  long  after, 
Gregory  Watt,  son  of  the  celebrated  James  Watt,  visit- 
ing the  west  of  England  for  his  health,  became  a  lodger 
in  the  house  of  Mrs.  Davy,  the  mother  of  Humphry.  A 
warm  friendship,  the  result  of  congenial  tastes,  sprang 
up  between  the  young  men,  and  appears  to  have  had  an 
important  influence  in  directing  the  studies  and  deter- 
mining the  subsequent  career  of  Davy.  But  the  cause 
of  science  is  especially  indebted  to  Mr.  Davies  Gilbert 
for  the  early  encouragement  which  he  afforded  to  Davy, 
and  afterwards  for  introducing  him  to  the  notice  of  the 
Royal  Institution  in  London.  In  1798  he  became  asso- 
ciated with  Dr.  Beddoes  in  the  "Pneumatic  Institution" 
which  the  latter  had  founded  at  Bristol.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  the  young  chemist  gave  to  the  world  his  first 
contributions  to  science, — viz.,  "Essays  on  Heat  and 
Light,  with  a  New  Theory  of  Respiration,"  etc.,  (these 
essays  forming  part  of  a  volume  published  by  Dr.  Bed- 
does.)  His  "  Researches,  Chemical  and  Philosophical, 
chiefly  concerning  Nitrous  Oxide  and  its  Respiration," 
appeared  in  1800,  and  attracted  great  attention  in  the 
scientific  world.  He  was  not  only  the  first  to  discover 
and  make  known  the  peculiar  exhilarating  or  intoxicating 
properties  of  nitrous  oxide  gas,  but  his  "  Researches" 
contain  also  the  results  of  a  number  of  most  interesting 
though  hazardous  experiments  on  the  respiration  of  car- 
buretted  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  carbonic  acid, 
and  nitrous  gases.  In  1801  he  gave  his  first  lecture  be- 
fore the  Royal  Institution,  (London,)  in  which  he  was  the 
following  year  appointed  professor.  As  a  lecturer  he 
was  eminently  successful.  "  His  youth,  his  simplicity, 
his  natural  eloquence,  his  chemical  knowledge,  his  happy 
illustrations  and  well-conducted  experiments,  excited 
universal  attention  and  unbounded  applause."  ("Life  of 
Sir  Humphry  Davy,"  by  Dr.  Paris,  p.  90.)  In  his  second 
Bakerian  lecture  before  the  Royal  Society  in  1807,  he 
announced  his  great  achievement, — the  decomposition 
by  galvanism  of  the  fixed  alkalies, — whereby  he  demon- 
strated that  these  alkalies  are  simply  metallic  oxides. 
Davy's  account  of  this  grand  discovery  has  been  justly 
pronounced  the  most  important  contribution  made  to  the 
**  Philosophical  Transactions"  (of  the  Royal  Society) 
since  the  time  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  one  possessing  such  rare  intellectual  endowments 
should  not  have  been  proof  against  the  intoxication  of 
success.  It  is,  however,  too  true  that,  after  his  sudden 
rise  to  distinction,  Davy  occasionally  betrayed  a  spirit  of 
arrogance,  especially  towards  younger  aspirants  to  fame, 
unworthy  of  a  great  man,  and  certainly  not  to  have  been 
expected  in  one  who  had  himself  owed  so  much  to  the 
generous  patronage  of  men  of  science.  In  181 2,  Davy 
was  knighted ;  and  shortly  afterwards  he  married  Mrs. 
Apreece, — a  widow  who  possessed,  with  many  accom- 
plishments, a  considerable  fortune.  He  was  made  in 
1818  a  baronet,  in  consideration  of  the  great  services 
which  he  had  rendered  his  country  and  mankind, — 
among  which  one  of  the  most  important  was  his  inven- 
tion of  the  safety-lamp.  In  1820  he  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Society,  and  for  seven  successive  years 
was  elected  to  the  same  ofiice, — which,  however,  in  1827 
he  was  compelled  to  resign  on  account  of  his  health. 
Pie  died  at  Geneva  in  May,  1829. 

Our  limits  will  permit  us  to  mention  only  a  very  few 
of  Davy's  numerous  and  important  publications.  Among 
the  principal  are  his  "  Elements  of  Chemical  Philoso- 
phy" (18 1 2)  and  his  "Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemis- 
try," (1813  ;)  to  which  may  be  added  his  papers  relating 
to  "  Fire-Damp,"  etc.,  and  those  giving  an  account  of  his 
researches  concerning  "Oxymuriatic  Acid"  (chlorine) 
and   "Fluoric  Compounds."     His  "Consolations  in 


Travel,"  published  after  his  death,  consists  principally 
of  speculations  and  reflections  on  religious  subjects. 

Davy  has  been  styled  by  Dumas  "  the  greatest  chemi- 
cal genius  that  ever  appeared."  He  seems,  indeed,  to 
have  possessed  in  the  largest  measure  all  the  endow- 
ments requisite  for  a  profound  and  successful  investigator 
of  nature.  To  an  intellect  in  the  highest  degree  pene- 
trating and  comprehensive,  he  joined  an  invention  in- 
exhaustible in  resources,  and  an  enthusiasm  for  science 
which  no  difficulties  or  discouragements  could  repress. 
"Davy,"  says  Cuvier,  "when  not  yet  thirty-two  years 
old,  occupied,  in  the  opinion  of  all  those  who  could  judge 
of  such  labours,  the  first  rank  among  the  chemists  of  this 
or  any  other  age."  A  writer  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  April,  1836,  observes  that,  "since  the  age  of  Sir 
Isaac  Newton,  the  history  of  British  science  has  recorded 
no  discoveries  of  equal  importance  with  those  of  Sir 
Humphry  Davy." 

See  *'  Life  of  Sir  Humpjliry  Davy,"  by  Dr.  J.  A.  Paris,"  1831, 
"Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy,"  by  his  brother,  Dr. 
John  Davy,  1836;  J.  Avrton,  "Life  of  Sir  H.  Davy,"  2  vols., 
1831 ;  H.  C.  VAN  der  Boon  Mesch,  "  Redevoering  over  H.  Davy," 
1837;  KiREEVSKV,  "  Histoire  des  Legislateurs-chimistes:  Lavoisier 
— Berthollet — H.  jDavy,"  1845;  "  Edinburgli  Review"  for  January, 
1814,  and  April,  1836;  "London  Quarterly  Review'"  for  September, 
1812. 

Davy,  (John,)  an  English  musician  and  composer, 
born  near  Exeter  about  1770;  died  in  1824. 

Davy,  (John,)  M.D.,  an  English  chemist  and  phy- 
siologist, was  a  younger  brother  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy. 
He  served  as  surgeon  in  the  army  for  many  years  in 
the  East  Indies,  etc.  In  1821  he  published  in  London 
an  excellent  "Account  of  the  Interior  of  Ceylon."  He 
wrote  numerous  able  works  on  various  subjects,  among 
which  are  "  Researches,  Physiological  and  Anatomical," 
(1839,)  a  "Life  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy,"  (1840,)  "Notes 
and  Observations  on  the  Ionian  Islands  and  Malta," 
(1842,)  and  "Lectures  on  the  Study  of  Chemistry,"  etc., 
(1849.)   Died  in  1868. 

Davydow  or  Davuidof.    See  Davidof. 

Dawe,  dau,  (George,)  an  eminent  English  portrait- 
painter,  born  about  1775,  acquired  a  European  reputa- 
tion. The  Royal  Academy  received  him  as  associate 
about  1809,  and  as  academician  in  1814.  In  1819  the 
emperor  Alexander  invited  him  to  Saint  Petersburg, 
where  he  passed  ten  years,  with  the  title  of  first  painter. 
He  executed  portraits  of  nearly  all  the  sovereigns  of 
Europe.  His  "  Andromache"  proves  that  he  was  also 
skilful  as  a  historical  painter.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of 
George  Morland.'*  Charles  Lamb,  who  was  his  friend, 
mentions  him  in  his  "Essays."  Died  in  London  in  1829. 

Dawes,  dauz,  (Henry  L.,)  a  lawyer,  born  in  Hamp- 
shire county,  Massachusetts,  in  1816.  He  represented  a 
district  of  Massachusetts  in  Congress  from  1857  to  1869, 
acting  with  the  Republicans.  He  is  also  a  member  of 
the  forty-first  Congress,  (1869-71.) 

Dawes,  dauz,  (Manasseh,)  an  English  writer  on  law, 
morals,  and  political  economy.    Died  in  1829. 

Dawes,  (Richard,)  an  English  critic,  eminent  as  a 
Greek  scholar,  born  at  Market  Bosworth  in  1708,  became 
a  Fellow  of  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge.  From  1738 
to  1749  he  was  master  of  a  grammar-school  in  Newcastle. 
In  1745  he  published  "Miscellanea  Critica,"  which  was 
at  one  time  a  high  authority.  Porson  thought  it  "second 
only  to  Bentley's  'Phalaris.'"   Died  in  1766. 

Dawes,  (Ruflts,)  an  American  poet,  born  in  Boston 
in  1803,  studied  law,  but  never  practised  it.  In  1839  he 
published  "Geraldine,  Athenia  of  Damascus,  and  Mis- 
cellaneous Poems." 

See  Griswoi,d's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Dawes,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  prelate,  born  near 
Braintree,  Essex,  in  1671,  was  the  son  of  Sir  John  Dawes, 
and  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  was  chaplain  to  Wil- 
liam HI.  about  1698,  and  to  Queen  Anne  some  years 
later,  and  had  great  popularity  as  a  preacher.  He  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Chester  in  1707,  and  Archbishop  of 
York  in  1 7 14.  He  wrote  the  "Anatomy  of  Atheism," 
a  poem,  and  published  several  sermons.    Died  in  1724. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Dawison,  d^'ve-son,  ?  (Bogumil,)  a  popular  actor, 
born  at  Warsaw  in  1818.  In  1866  he  came  to  the  United 
States. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lojtg;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonejed;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  mht;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


DAWSON 


731 


DEBAT 


Daw'son,  (George,)  an  English  writer  on  law,  pub- 
lished "The  Origin  of  Laws,"  ("  Origo  Legum,"  1694.) 
Died  in  1700. 

Daxenberger,  dik'sen-beRG^er,  (Sebastian  Franz,) 
a  German  poet,  born  at  Munich  in  1809,  assumed  the 
name  of  Karl  Fernau. 

Day,  (Jeremiah,)  president  of  Yale  College,  was  born 
in  New  Preston,  Connecticut,  in  1773.  He  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1795,  studied  theology,  and  became  in 
1801  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy 
at  that  college.  He  succeeded  Dr.  Dwight  as  president 
in  1817,  and  continued  to  hold  that  position  until  1846. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "An  Introduction 
to  Algebra,"  (1814,)  and  "Navigation  and  Surveying," 
(1817,)  which  were  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1867. 

Day  or  Daye,  (John,)  an  English  printer,  born  at 
Dunwich  in  1522,  established  a  printing-office  in  London 
in  1 544.  He  perfected  the  Greek  types,  and  was  the 
first  who  printed  with  Saxon  characters  in  England.  By 
his  editions  of  the  Bible  and  other  books  he  promoted 
the  Reformation.    Died  in  1584. 

See  Ames  and  Dibdin,  "Typographical  Antiquities  of  Great 
Britain." 

Day  or  Daye,  (John,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1566,  became  a  popular  preacher,  and  published  nume- 
rous sermons  and  lectures.    Died  in  1627. 

Day,  (John,)  an  English  poet  and  comedian,  lived 
about  1600-20.  Among  his  works  is  "  The  Isle  of  Guls," 
(1606.) 

Day,  (Stephen,)  an  English  printer,  born  in  1611, 
removed  to  Massachusetts  in  1638,  and  established  at 
Cambridge  the  first  printing-press  in  New  England. 
Died  in  1668. 

Day,  (Thomas,)  an  English  author  and  philanthropist, 
born  in  London  in  1748,  inherited  an  ample  fortune. 
He  studied  law,  but  did  not  practise  at  the  bar.  In  1773 
he  attacked  the  slave-trade  in  a  poem  entitled  "The 
Dying  Negro."  He  expressed  his  sympathy  with  the 
American  patriots  by  two  poems,  "  The  Devoted  Le- 
gions," and  "The  Desolation  of  America,"  (1777.)  The 
following  may  serve  to  illustrate  his  eccentric  habits 
and  peculiar  opinions  on  education.  He  selected  from 
a  foundling-hospital  two  girls  about  twelve  years  old, 
with  the  intention  of  educating  them  rationally  on  the 
system  of  Rousseau  and  taking  one  of  them  as  his  wife. 
But  the  experiment  did  not  succeed  ;  and  he  married 
Miss  Milnes  in  1778.  One  of  his  protegees,  however,  did 
honour  to  his  system  of  education,  and  became  the  wife 
of  his  friend  Bicknell.  His  most  popular  work  is  "Sand- 
ford  and  Merton,"  (1783,)  a  juvenile  tale,  of  which  Leigh 
Hunt  says,  "The  pool  of  mercenary  and  time-serving 
ethics  was  first  blown  over  by  the  fresh  country  breeze 
of  Sandford  and  Merton,'  a  production  that  I  shall  ever 
be  grateful  for."  He  wrote  several  other  minor  works. 
He  was  killed  by  a  kick  from  a  horse  in  1789. 

See  "An  Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Thomas  Day," 
by  himself;  "  Biographia  Britannica ;"  J.  Blackman,  "  Life  of  T. 
Day;"  Timaeus,  "T.  Day's  Leben,"  1798. 

Daye.    See  Day. 

Day'tpn,  (Elias,)  an  American  officer,  born  in  1737, 
was  a  native  of  New  Jersey.  He  fought  in  the  American 
Revolution,  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel  in  1778,  and 
afterwards  became  a  general.    Died  in  1807. 

Dayton,  (John,)  born  about  1760,  was  elected  Gov- 
ernor of  South  Carolina  in  1800,  and  again  in  1808.  He 
afterwards  became  judge  of  the  United  States  district 
court  of  that  State.  He  was  author  of  "  A  View  of  South 
Carolina,"  "  Memoirs  of  the  Revolution,"  etc.  Died  in 
1822. 

Dayton,  (Jonathan,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
at  Elizabethtovvn,  in  New  Jersey,  in  1760.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  convention  which  framed  the  Federal 
Constitution  in  1787,  and  was  elected  to  Congress  by 
the  Federalists  of  New  Jersey  in  1791.  He  was  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  for  two  terms  between 
1793  and  1797,  and  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the 
United  States  in  1799.    Died  in  1824. 

Dayton,  (William  Lewis,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  at  Baskingridge,  Somerset  county,  New  Jersey, 
in  1807.  He  was  liberally  educated,  studied  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  about  1830.  He  was  appointed 
in  1842  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  Governor 


of  New  Jersey,  to  fill  a  vacancy.  He  also  represented 
New  Jersey  in  the  national  Senate  for  a  full  term  of  six 
years,  (1845-51,)  during  which  he  acted  with  the  Whig 
party  and  opposed  the  extension  of  slavery.  He  also 
disapproved  the  Fugitive  Slave  bill.  In  1851  he  returned 
to  the  practice  of  law  at  Trenton.  In  1856  he  was  nomi- 
nated as  Republican  candidate  for  Vice-President  by  the 
convention  which  nominated  J.  C.  Fremont  for  the  Presi- 
dency. They  received  the  votes  of  the  New  England 
States,  and  of  New  York,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
and  Iowa.  In  1857  he  became  attorney-general  of  New 
Jersey.  He  was  appointed  minister  to  France  in.  the 
sjM-ing  of  1 861.    He  died  in  Paris  in  December,  1864. 

Dazille,  di'ztV  or  dt'ze'ye,  (Jean  Barthelemy,)  a 
French  physician,  became  lionorary  physician  to  the  king 
in  Saint  Domingo  in  1776.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Diseases  of  Warm  Climates,"  and  other  valuable 
medical  works.    Died  in  Paris  in  1812. 

Dazzi,  dat'see,  (Andrea,)  born  in  Florence  about 
1470,  was  professor  of  ancient  literature  in  his  native 
city,  and  wrote  a  number  of  Latin  poems.  Died  in  1548. 

Deageant,  dt'zhSN',  a  French  courtier  and  writer, 
born  at  Saint-Marcellan,  was  author  of  historical  "Me- 
moires,"  printed  in  1668.    Died  in  1639. 

Deak,  da  ak',  (Francis,)  a  Hungarian  orator  and 
statesman,  born  at  Kehida  in  1803.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Diet  about  1830,  and  became  a  leader  of  the  mode- 
rately liberal  party.  In  1848  he  was  appointed  minister 
of  justice  ;  but  he  retired  from  that  office  when  Kossuth 
obtained  the  ascendency  in  September,  1848.  On  the 
approach  of  General  Windischgratz  in  1849,  Deak  was 
selected  to  negotiate  with  him.  The  important  address 
or  manifesto  of  the  Diet  in  answer  to  the  imperial  rescript 
in  the  summer  of  1861  was  drawn  by  Deak.  He  is  said 
to  be  the  most  popular  man  in  Hungary. 

Deane,  deen,  (James,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  naturalist,  and  one  of  the  first  discoverers  of  the 
fossil  footprints  in  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut,  was 
born  in  Coleraine,  Massachusetts,  in  1801 ;  died  in  1858. 
He  was  author  of  numerous  papers  on  fossil  footprints 
and  other  scientific  subjects. 

Deane,  (Silas,)  an  American  diplomatist,  born  at 
Groton,  Connecticut.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress 
in  1774,  and  was  sent  to  France  as  a  political  and  finan- 
cial agent  in  1776.  He  deviated  from  his  instructions, 
and  by  profuse  promises  induced  so  many  French  officers 
to  enter  the  service  of  the  United  States,  that  Congress 
was  dissatisfied  with  his  conduct,  and  recalled  him  in 
1777.    Died  in  England  in  1789. 

Deani,  d^-d'nee,  (Marcantonio,)  a  popular  Italian 
preacher,  commonly  called  "Padre  Pacifico,"  born  at 
Brescia  in  1775;  died  in  1824. 

See  Gambara,  "Elogio  storico  del  P.  Pacifico,"  1825. 

Dear'bprn,  (Henry,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Hampton,  New  Hampshire,  in  175 1.  He  served  as 
captain  at  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  and  as  major  at 
the  capture  of  the  army  of  Burgoyne  in  1777.  In  1781 
he  took  part  in  the  capture  of  the  British  army  at  York- 
town.  He  was  secretary  of  war  for  eight  years,  (1801- 
09.)  In  the  spring  of  1813  he  captured  Yorktown,  in 
Canada.  He  was  sent  as  minister  to  Portugal  in  1822, 
and  returned  in  1824.    Died  in  1829. 

Dearing.    See  Dering,  (Edward.) 

Debacq,  deh-btk',  (Charles  Alexandre,)  a  French 
painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1804.  Among  his  works  are  "Mary  Stuart  departing 
from  France," and  "The  Death  of  Moliere."  Died  in  1850. 

Debay,  deh-bk',  (Auguste  Hyacinthe,)  a  French 
painter  and  sculptor,  born  at  Nantes  in  1804.  He  gained 
the  first  prize  for  painting  in  1823,  since  which  he  has 
won  several  medals  of  the  first  class.  Among  his  paint- 
ings is  "Lucretia  in  the  Forum  of  Collatia,"  (1831.)  As 
a  sculptor  he  has  produced  an  admired  group  called 
"The  Primitive  Cradle,  or  Eve  and  her  Two  Infants." 

Debay,  (Jean  Baptiste  Joseph,)  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Malines  in  1779,  was  a  skilful  sculptor. 
He  worked  at  Nantes  and  Paris.  Among  his  works  are 
a  group  of  the  "Three  Parcae,"  (1828,)  and  a  statue  of 
Pericles,  (1833.) 

Debay,  (Jean  Baptiste  Joseph,)  a  French  sculptor, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Nantes  in  1802.  He 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (gi^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DEBELLE 


732 


DECEBALUS 


gained  the  first  prize  in  18 19.  He  produced  a  statue  of 
Cambronne,  (1846,)  and  other  works. 

Debelle.    See  Belle,  de. 

Debelloy.    See  Belloy,  de. 

Deboniiaire,  dk'bo'i\^K\  (Louis,)  a  French  theolo- 
gical writer,  born  at  Ramerupt-sur-Aube  ;  died  in  1752, 

Deb'o-rah,  [Heb.  71131,]  a  Hebrew  prophetess  and 
judge,  who  lived  in  the  thirteenth  century  before  Christ. 
She  was  instrumental  in  delivering  the  people  from  Jabin, 
King  of  Canaan,  and  his  captain  Sisera.  (See  Judges, 
chap,  iv.)  She  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  author  of 
the  sublime  hymn  or  lyric  poem  which  forms  the  fifth 
chapter  of  Judges. 

De  Bow,  (James  Dunwoody  Brownson,)  an  Ame- 
rican writer  and  statistician,  born  at  Charleston  in  1820. 
He  graduated  at  Charleston  College  in  1843,  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  1844,  and  the  same  yea^r  took  charge  of 
the  "  Southern  Quarterly  Review,"  published  at  Charles- 
ton. Near  the  close  of  1845  ^'^  removed  to  New  Orleans, 
and  established  "  De  Bow's  Commercial  Review,"  of 
which  he  was  for  many  years  the  editor  and  proprietor. 
He  was  chosen  professor  of  political  economy  and  sta- 
tistics in  the  University  of  Louisiana  in  1847.  In  1853 
appeared  his  "  Industrial  Resources  of  the  South  and 
West,"  (3  vols.  8vo.)    Died  in  1867. 

Debraux,  deh-bRo',  (Paul  £mile,)  a  popular  French 
song-writer,  born  at  Ancerville  in  1798,  published  "La 
Colonne,"  "  Prince  Eugene,"  and  other  songs,  which 
had  great  success.    Died  in  183 1. 

Debret,  deh-bka',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1768,  removed  to  Rio  Janeiro  some  time 
after  181 5,  and  received  the  title  of  first  painter  to  the 
imperial  family  of  Brazil,  for  whom  he  painted  several 
historical  pieces  and  portraits.  Died  in  Paris  about  1845. 

De  Brosses.    See  Brosses,  de. 

Debry,  deh-bRe',  (Jean  Antoine  Joseph,)  a  French 
lawyer,  born  at  Vervins  about  1760,  was  elected  to  the 
•Legislative  Assembly  in  1791,  and  was  a  prominent  sup- 
porter of  the  moderate  republican  party.  He  was  one 
of  the  committee  of  public  safety  in  1793,  and  became 
a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1796.  In 
1798  he  was  sent,  with  two  others,  as  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary to  Rastadt.  As  they  were  departing  from  that 
place,  in  1799,  on  their  return  home,  a  party  of  Austrian 
soldiers  massacred  his  colleagues ;  but  he  escaped  by 
favour  of  the  darkness.  He  was  prefect  of  Doubs  from 
1801  till  1814.    Died  in  1834. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Debure,  deh-biiR',  written  also  De  Bure,  (Guil- 
Laume,)  a  French  publisher  and  bibliographer,  born  in 
Paris  in  1734;  died  in  1820. 

Debure,  (Guillaume  Franqois,)  a  French  book- 
seller and  bibliographer,  born  in  Paris  in  173 1.  He 
published  a  "Bibliographic  Instructive,"  (7  vols.,  1763- 
68,)  which  was  the  most  important  work  on  the  subject 
of  rare  books  that  had  then  appeared.    Died  in  1782. 

Decaen,  deh-k6N',  written  also  De  Caen,  (Charles 
Mathieu  Isidore,)  a  French  count,  born  near  Caen  in 
1769,  became  general  of  brigade  in  1796.  As  general  of 
division,  he  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Hohenlinden  in 
1800.  In  1802  he  was  appointed  captain-general  of  the 
French  possessions  in  India.  He  defended  with  ability 
the  Isles  of  France  and  of  Bourbon  against  the  English 
for  eight  years,  and  returned  home  in  181 1.  For  his  suc- 
cess against  the  Spaniards  he  was  created  count  in  1813. 
In  1815  he  commanded  at  Bordeaux  for  Louis  XVIII., 
but  joined  the  army  of  Napoleon  when  he  returned  from 
Elba.  After  the  restoration  of  181 5  he  was  excluded 
from  the  service.    Died  in  1832. 

See  M.  L.  E.  Gautier,  "  Biographic  du  G^ndral  Decaen,"  1850. 

Decaisne,  deh-kin',  (Henri,)  a  historical  painter  of 
much  merit,  born  at  Brussels  in  1799.  Many  of  his  works 
are  in  the  Musee  of  Versailles,  and  in  various  public 
buildings  of  Paris.    Died  about  1852. 

Decaisne,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  botanist  and  horti- 
culturist, a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Brus- 
sels in  1808.  He  removed  to  Paris  in  his  youth,  and  in 
1830  became  aide-naturaliste  under  Adrien  de  Jussieu 
in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History.  In  1850  he  suc- 
ceeded Mirbel  as  professor  of  culture  and  director  of  the 


famous  botanical  garden  of  Paris.  He  wrote  treatises 
on  Madder,  the  Chinese  Yam,  Rice,  etc.,  and  published 
a  valuable  work  entitled  "Asiatic  Plants  collected  by 
V.  Jacquemont."    He  is  a  member  of  the  Institute. 

Decamps,  deh-k6N',  (Alexandre  Gabriel,)  an  emi- 
nent French  painter  of  landscapes,  history,  and  genre, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1803.  He  studied  nature  in  Italy 
and  in  the  Levant.  His  style  is  regarded  as  original. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "  The  Defeat  of  the  Cim- 
bri,"  a  "  Souvenir  of  Turkey  in  Asia,"  and  other  pictures 
of  Oriental  scenes  and  customs.  At  the  Exposition  in 
Paris  in  1855  he  divided  the  public  favour  with  Vernet 
and  Delacroix.  His  pictures  display  great  vigour  of 
colouring  and  mastery  of  the  effects  of  light. 

Decamps,  (Francois.)    See  Camps,  de. 

Decamps,  (J,  B.)    See  Descamps,  (J.  B.) 

De  CandoUe.    See  Candolle,  de. 

De  Castro.    See  Castro,  de. 

De-ca'tur,  (Stephen,)  a  celebrated  American  com- 
modore, born  at  Sinnepuxent,  Maryland,  in  January, 
1779.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1798,  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant  in  1799.  In  February,  1804,  he  com- 
manded a  small  party  which  entered  the  harbour  of 
Tripoli  and  burned  the  American  frigate  Philadelphia, 
which  had  been  captured.  For  this  daring  exploit  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  war  of  1812  he  commanded  the  frigate  United  States, 
forty-four  guns,  with  which  he  captured  the  British  frigate 
Macedonian  in  October  of  that  year.  He  was  blockaded 
by  a  superior  force  in  the  harbour  of  New  London  for 
several  months,  1813-14.  In  January,  1815,  he  sailed 
from  New  York  in  the  President,  which,  after  being 
injured  by  striking  a  bar,  was  pursued  by  four  British 
vessels  and  forced  to  surrender.  In  May,  1815,  he  took 
command  of  a  squadron  sent  against  the  Algerines,  who 
had  committed  hostile  acts  on  the  commerce  of  the 
United  States.  He  captured  two  Algerine  war-vessels, 
and  dictated  a  treaty  of  peace  to  the  Dey  of  Algiers,  in 
June,  1815.  He  was  renowned  for  extraordinary  reso- 
lution and  cool  intrepidity.  He  was  killed  in  a  duel  near 
Bladensburg,  Maryland,  by  Commodore  James  Barron, 
in  March,  1820. 

Sec  "Life  of  S.  Decatur,"  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography," 
vol.  ii.,  second  series;  S.  Putnam  Waldo,  "Life  and  Character  of 
S.  Decatur,"  1821,  2d  edition;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distin- 
guished Americans,"  vol.  iii. ;  "  Encyclopaedia  Americana." 

Decazes,  deh-ktz',  (£lie,)  a  French  statesman  and 
peer,  born  at  or  near  Libourne  (Gironde)  in  1780.  He 
became  a  resident  of  Paris  under  the  regime  of  Napoleon, 
and  was  banished  thence  because  he  was  a  royalist  during 
the  Hundred  Days.  On  the  restoration  of  181 5  he  was 
appointed  minister  of  police  instead  of  Fouche.  By  his 
address  and  tact  he  was  well  qualified  for  that  office, 
which  was  highly  important  in  those  critical  times.  He 
gained  the  confidence  of  the  king,  so  that  when  the  min- 
isters resigned,  in  December,  181 8,  and  the  king  resolved 
to  have  a  Liberal  ministry,  he  consulted  Decazes,  by 
whose  advice  General  Dessolles  was  appointed  premier  ; 
and  the  subject  of  this  article  became  minister  of  the 
interior.  In  the  next  year  he  became  prime  minister. 
In  February,  1820,  he  resigned  in  consequence  of  calum- 
nies which  had  obtained  currency  and  which  charged 
him  with  complicity  in  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Berry. 
The  king,  whose  favourite  he  remained  to  the  last,  then 
gave  him  the  title  of  duke,  and  appointed  him  ambassador 
to  London.  "  M.  Decazes,"  says  Lamartine,  "won  his 
political  fortune  by  his  courage,  confirmed  it  by  his  ur- 
banity, merited  it  by  the  sagacity  of  his  views,  and  lost 
it  finally  by  a  tragical  event  of  which  he  was  innocent. 
He  was  the  statesman  of  concord,  of  impartiality,  and  of 
the  charter."  In  1834  he  was  chosen  grand  referendary 
of  the  Chamber  of  Peers.    Died  in  October,  i860. 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Restoration;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale;"  Louis  de  Lom^nie,  "M.  Decazes,  par  un 
Homme  de  Rien,"  1844. 

Dece,  the  French  of  Decius,  which  see. 
Decebale.    See  Decekalus. 

De-9eb'a-lus,  [Gr.  ^EKeiSakot; :  Fr.  D^ci^bale,  dk'si'- 
btK,]  King  of  the  Dacians,  born  in  the  first  century,  was 
for  a  long  time  a  fonnidable  enemy  of  the  Romans.  He 
waged  a  successful  war  against  the  emperor  Domitian, 
who  was  compelled  to  become  tributary  to  him  about  90. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DECEMBRIO 


733 


DEFERMON 


When  Trajan  became  master  of  the  empire,  (98  a.d.,)  he 
refused  to  pay  tribute,  and  in  the  war  which  ensued  De- 
cebalus  was  defeated.    He  killed  himself  in  105  A.D. 
See  TiLLEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Decembrio,  di-ch^m'bRe-o,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Milan  ;  died  about  1500. 

Decembrio,  (Pietro  Candido,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Pavia  in  1399,  was  a  brother  of  Angelo.  He  was 
elected  president  of  the  Milanese  republic  in  1447.  When 
Milan  had  been  conquered  by  Francis  Sforza,  he  went 
to  Rome,  where  Pope  Nicholas  V.  made  him  apostolic 
secretary.  He  wrote  numerous  works,  among  which  are 
a  "  Life  of  Francis  Sforza"  and  a  '*  Life  of  Petrarch,"  and 
translated  some  of  the  works  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  and 
others.    Died  in  1477. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Dechalles  or  Dechasles.    See  Challes,  de. 

Dechamps,  deh-shdN',  (Adolphe,)  a  Belgian  states- 
man and  orator,  born  at  Melle  in  1807.    In  1845 
came  minister  of  foreign  affairs.    He  was  removed  from 
office  in  1847,  after  which  he  united  himself  with  the 
Catholic  opposition. 

De  Charmes,  de  charmz,  (Richard,)  an  American 
author  and  Swedenborgian  minister,  born  in  Philadel- 
phia in  1796.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1826. 
His  principal  publications  are  the  "  New  Churchman 
Extra,"  devoted  to  polemics  and  church  history,  and 
several  volumes  of  sermons. 

Dechazelles.    See  Chazelles,  de. 

Decio,  da'cho,  [Lat.  De'cius,]  (Filippo,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  jurist,  born  at  Milan  in  1454.  He  professed 
civil  and  canon  law  with  great  reputation  at  Pisa,  Pavi'a, 
Sienna,  and  Rome.  Having  been  excommunicated  by 
Julius  II.,  he  went  to  France,  and  was  chosen  professor 
at  Valence.  After  Leo  X.  became  pope,  Decio  returned 
to  Italy,  and  died  in  1535.  He  wrote  a  legal  work  en- 
titled "Consilia." 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  P.  Giovio, 
"  Elogia." 

Decius.    See  Decio. 

Decius,  dee'she-us,  [Fr.  DfecE,  dis,]  (Caius  Messius 
QuiNTUS  Trajanus,)  a  Roman  emperor,  born  in  Panno- 
r;ia  about  200  a.d.  He  was  Governor  of  Moesia,  under 
Philip,  when  his  army  proclaimed  him  emperor.  A 
battle  followed  between  the  two  rivals,  in  which  Philip 
was  defeated  and  killed,  249  a.d.  Decius  persecuted  the 
Christians  with  great  cruelty.  In  a  battle  with  the  Goths, 
who  had  invaded  his  dominions,  he  was  killed  in  251. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

De'cius  Ju-bePli-us,  a  general  sent  by  the  Roman 
senate  to  guard  the  city  of  Rhegium  during  the  invasion 
of  Italy  by  Pyrrhus.  He  treacherously  massacred  the 
male  citizens  of  that  city,  and  revolted  against  the 
Roman  republic.    Died  about  270  B.C. 

De'cius  Mus,  (Publius,)  a  Roman  consul,  celebrated 
for  his  patriotic  devotion.  In  a  battle  against  the  Latins, 
337  B.C.,  he  devoted  himself  formally  to  the  Dii  Manes, 
then,  rushing  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy,  was  instantly 
killed.  His  son,  P.  Decius  Mus,  also  a  consul,  imitated 
his  example  in  296  n.c. 

Decker,  d^k'ker,  Dekker,  or  Deckers,  d^k'kers, 
(John,)  a  Dutch  chronologist  and  theologian,  born  at 
Haasbroek  about  1555  ;  died  in  1619. 

Decker,  (Sir  Matthew,)  a  writer  on  political  eco- 
nomy, born  in  Amsterdam.  In  1702  he  settled  in  Lon- 
don, where  he  became  an  eminent  merchant,  was  made 
a  baronet  in  1716,  and  elected  to  Parliament  in  1719. 
He  published  "  Serious  Considerations  on  the  Several 
High  Duties  which  the  Nation  labours  under,"  (1743.) 
A  work  on  the  "Causes  of  the  Decline  of  the  Foreign 
Trade"  is  by  some  ascribed  to  him.    Died  in  1749. 

Deck'er,  Dek'kar,  or  Dek'ker,  (Thomas,)  an  Eng- 
lish dramatist,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  He 
wrote  several  plays  in  partnership  with  Ford,  Rowley,  and 
others.  Among  the  works  which  he  composed  alone 
are  "  Fortunatus,  or  the  Wishing-Cap,"  and  "The  Gull's 
Horn-Book,"  the  latter  of  which  presents  a  curious  pic- 
ture of  the  manners  of  his  time.    Died  about  1638. 

See  DiBDiN,  "History  of  the  English  Stage;"  "Minor  Eliza- 
bethan Dramatists,"  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  December,  1867. 

Decker,  van.    See  Dekker,  de. 


Decker,  von,  fon  dSk'ker,  (Karl,)  a  Gerninn  writer 
on  war  and  tactics,  was  born  in  Berlin  in  1784.  He 
served  some  years  in  the  Prussian  army,  and  rose  to  the 
rank  of  general -major,  (1842.)  He  wrote  many  works, 
among  which  are  "Bonaparte's  Campaigns  in  Italy,"  and 
"Tactics,"  etc.,  (1834.)    Died  in  1844. 

De  Columnis.    See  Guido  delle  Colonne. 

Decomberousse,  dehk6N''bRooss',(FRANgois  Isaac 
Hyacinthe,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at  Vienne  in  1786. 
He  wrote  a  successful  comedy,  called  "  The  Present  of 
the  Prince,"  (1821,)  and  "Judith,"  a  tragedy,  in  verse, 
(1825,)  which  is  commended.    Died  in  1856. 

Decres,  deh-kRi',  (Denis,)  Due,  a  French  naval 
officer,  born  at  Chaumont,  in  Champagne,  in  1761,  en- 
tered the  navy  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1798.  For  his  conduct  in  a  fight 
with  the  English  near  Malta  in  1800,  he  received  a  sabre 
of  honour  from  the  First  Consul.  In  1801  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  the  marine,  which  he  directed  with 
ability  for  thirteen  years.  In  1815  he  retired  from  the 
service.  In  1820  he  was  killed  by  his  valet,  who  designed 
to»rob  him. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Dedale,  the  French  of  D^dalus,  which  see. 

Dedecker,  da'd^k^ker,  (Pierre  Jacques  Francois,) 
a  leader  of  the  Catholic  or  clerical  party  in  Belgium, 
was  born  at  Zele  in  1812.  He  entered  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  1839,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  editors  of 
the  "Revue  de  Bruxelles"  from  1837  to  185 1.  In  1855  he 
formed  a  new  ministry,  which  was  dissolved  in  1857. 

Dedekind,  daMeh-kint',  (Constantine  Christian,) 
a  German  poet,  born  at  Rheinsdorf,  wrote  dramas  on 
scriptural  subjects,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1 7 13. 

Dedekind,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  poet,  born  at 
Neustadt  about  1530.  He  was  inspector  of  the  Protest- 
ant churches  of  the  diocese  of  Lubeck.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  humorous  satire  in  Latin  verse,  entitled 
"Grobianus,  de  Morum  Simplicitate,"  (1549,)  which  was 
often  reprinted.  An  English  version  appeared,  with 
the  title  of  "  Grobianus,  or  the  Compleat  Booby."  Died 
in  1598. 

See  Hegel,  "  Geschichte  der  komischen  Literatur." 

Dedelay.    See  De  Delley. 

De  Delley,  deh-d4^1k',  written  also  Dedelay,(CLAUDE 

Pierre,)  a  meritorious  French  economist,  born  at  Ro- 
mans (Dauphine)  in  1750.  He  wrote  valuable  treatises 
on  agriculture  and  the  public  revenue,  and  founded  a 
hospital  and  free  school.  He  became  a  senator  in  1800, 
and  was  made  a  count  under  the  empire.  Died  in  1827. 
De  Dominis.    See  Dominis. 

Dee,  (Arthur,)  M.D.,  an  English  alchemist,  son  of 
John  Dee,  noticed  below,  born  at  Mortlake  in  1579, 
became  physician  to  Charles  I.,  and  wrote  a  treatise 
on  alchemy,  called  "  Fasciculus  Chymicus,"  (1631.)  Died 
in  165 1. 

Dee,  (John,)  a  famous  English  astrologer  and  mathe- 
matician, remarkable  for  his  versatile  talents  and  learning, 
was  born  in  London  in  1527.  He  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  made  great  progress  in  astronomy  and 
other  sciences.  About  1550  he  lectured  on  geometry  in 
Paris  or  Rheims,  and  returned  to  London  in  1 551.  In 
the  reign  of  Mary  he  was  imprisoned  on  a  charge  of 
magic.  He  was  patronized  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  is 
said  to  have  employed  him  as  her  secret  agent  or  "intel- 
ligencer." In  1564  he  produced  his  "  Monas  Hiero- 
glyphica,"  and  some  years  later  wrote  an  able  treatise  on 
the  reformation  of  the  calendar.  Having  associated  with 
himself  Edward  Kelley  and  a  Polish  noble  named  Laski, 
for  the  purpose  of  conversing  with  spirits,  they  passed 
some  years  in  Bohemia  and  Poland.  In  1595  the  queen 
appointed  him  warden  of  Manchester  College.  He  died 
in  1608,  leaving  many  curious  works,  some  of  which  are 
still  in  manuscript. 

See  Disraeli,  "Amenities  of  Literature ;"  Dibdin,  "Biblio- 
mania;" Thomas  Smith,  "Vita  J.  Dee,"  London,  1707. 

Deering,  deer'ing  or  da'ring,  (Karl,)  a  German  phy- 
sician and  botanist,  born  in  Saxony,  emigrated  to  Eng- 
land. He  published  a  catalogue  of  the  plants  growing 
near  Nottingham.    Died  about  1750. 

Defermon  des  Chapelieres,  deh-f^R'moN'  di  shtp- 
le-aiR',  (Joseph,)  Count,  an  able  French  minister  of 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  K^gtittural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DEFFJND 


734 


DEIOTARUS 


state,  born  at  Rennes  in  1756,  was  educated  for  the  law. 
As  a  member  of  the  National  Assembly,  he  favoured  a 
moderate  reform,  and  was  chosen  president  of  that  body 
in  1 79 1.  In  the  Convention  he  voted  against  the  death 
of  the  king,  and  in  1795  P'issed  into  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred.  Bonaparte  appointed  him  councillor  of  state 
in  1 800,  and  minister  of  state  in  1807.  Soon  after  this 
date  he  was  made  a  count  of  the  empire,  and  one  of  the 
directors  of  the  finances.  Died  in  183 1. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Geuerale." 

Deffaud  or  Deffant,  du,  dii  da'fdN',  (Marie  de 
Vichy-Chaniroud — deh  ve'she'shfiN'roo',)  Marquise, 
a  literary  French  lady,  born  in  1697.  She  became  at 
an  early  age  the  wife  of  the  Marquis  du  Ueffand,  from 
whom  she  soon  separated.  Though  intelligent,  witty, 
beautiful,  and  accomplished,  she  was  much  disposed  to 
ennui.  Her  house  in  Paris  for  fifty  years  was  frequented 
by  authors  and  statesmen  of  the  highest  eminence,  and 
the  most  noble  and  fashionable  were  attracted  to  her 
parlies.  She  corresponded  many  years  with  Horace 
Walpole,  D'Alembert,  and  Voltaire.  She  became  nearly 
blind  at  the  age  of  fifty-four.  She  was  inclined  to  skep- 
ticism, and  was  remarkable  for  egotism.  Her  letters 
are  much  admired  for  literary  merit  and  soundness  of 
criticism.  (See  her  "Letters  to  Walpole  and  Voltaire," 
published  in  4  vols.,  1810.)  Died  in  1780.  (See  Espi- 
NASSE,  Mademoiselle.) 

See  Marmontel,  "  Memolres  ;"  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance  ;" 
Grimm,  "  Correspondance ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1810, 
February,  181 1,  and  October,  1859. 

Deffant.    See  Deffand. 

De  Foe  or  Defoe,  (Daniel,)  a  popular  English  author 
and  original  genius,  born  in  London  in  1661,  was  the  son 
of  James  Foe,  a  butcher.  The  particle  De  was  prefixed 
to  the  name  by  Daniel  himself  He  was  educated  for  the 
ministry  among  the  dissenters,  but  did  not  pursue  that 
vocation.  In  1685  he  enlisted  in  the  service  of  the  Duke 
of  Monmouth  in  rebellion  against  James  II.,  and  on  the 
failure  of  that  attempt  became  a  merchant  or  tradesman. 
He  produced  an  "Essay  on  Projects"  in  1697,  and  a 
poetical  satire  entitled  "The  True-Born  Englishman," 
(about  1700,)  which  had  a  very  large  sale  and  procured 
him  the  favour  of  the  king.  For  the  publication  of  his 
ironical  pamphlet  entitled  "The  Shortest  Way  with  the 
Dissenters,"  (1702,)  he  was  condemned  by  the  House 
of  Commons  to  be  fined,  pilloried,  and  imprisoned  two 
years.  During  his  confinement  and  after  his  release  he 
produced  works  on  various  subjects  with  great  industry 
and  rapidity.  In  1706  he  was  sent  to  Scotland  by  the 
queen's  ministers  to  promote  the  Union,  and  in  1709 
publis-hed  his  admired  "  History  of  the  Union."  His 
political  works,  in  which  he  defended  the  principles  of 
the  Whigs  and  dissenters,  exposed  him  to  much  suffering 
and  pecuniary  loss,  which  he  summed  up  in  this  couplet : 
"  No  man  has  tasted  differing  fortunes  more  ; 
And  thirteen  times  I  have  been  rich  and  poor." 

The  number  of  his  works  amounts  to  about  two  hundred 
and  ten,  among  which  the  principal  are  "Adventures 
of  Robinson  Crusoe,"  (1719,)  "Memoirs  of  a  Cavalier," 
"The  History  of  the  Plague  of  1665,"  "The  Fortunes 
of  Moll  Flanders,"  "  Religious  Courtship,"  (1722,)  "Ad- 
ventures of  Roxana,"  "Captain  Singleton,"  a  "Treatise 
on  Apparitions,"  and  a  "  Plan  of  English  Commerce." 
The  above  are  chiefly  fictitious,  but  produce  a  lively 
impression  of  truth  and  reality.  De  Foe  was  a  pithy 
writer,  an  accurate  observer  of  social  phenomena,  and 
was  remarkable  for  his  versatility  of  mind  and  fertility 
of  invention.  "Perhaps  there  exists  no  work  in  the 
English  language,"  says  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "which  has 
been  more  generally  read  and  more  universally  admired 
than  the  Adventures  of  Robinson  Crusoe."  Died  in  1 73 1. 

See  "  Life  of  Defoe,"  by  Walter  Wilson,  1830;  J.  Forster, 
"Essay  on  Defoe;"  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "Biography"  prefixed  to 
De  Foe's  Works;  W.  Hazlitt,  "Memoirs  of  De  Foe,"  1843; 
George  Chalmers,  "Life  of  Defoe,"  London,  1790;  William 
Lee,  "Life  of  Daniel  Defoe,"  3  vols.,  1869,  including  a  portion  of 
his  unpublished  writings;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1845; 
"  Retrospective  Review,"  vols.  iii.  and  vi.,  1821-22  ;  also,  an  elaborate 
article  on  "  Defoe,"  in  the  "  British  Quarterly"  for  October,  1869. 

Deforis,  deh-fo'r^ss',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  priest, 
born  at  Montbrison  in  1732,  wrote  in  1762  a  Refutation 
of  Rousseau's  "£mile,"  and  published  an  edition  of  Bos- 
suet's  works.    He  was  guillotined  in  1794. 


Defremery,  deh-fkim^re',  (Charles,)  a  French  Ori- 
entalist, born  at  Cambrai  in  1822. 

Degen,  da'gen,  (Carl  Ferdinand,)  a  Danish  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Brunswick  in  1766;  died  in  1825. 

Degenfeld,  von,  fon  da'gen-felt'',  (Christoph  Mar- 
tin,) Baron,  a  German  general,  fought  for  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  and  for  the  Venetians  against  Pope  Urban 
VIH.    Died  in  1653. 

Deger,  dagger,  (Ernst,)  an  eminent  German  historical 
painter  of  the  Dusseldorf  school,  born  near  Hildesheira 
in  1809.    His  subjects  are  mostly  scriptural. 

De  Gerando.    See  Gerando. 

Degrave.    See  Grave. 

De  Grey  and  Rip'on,(GEORGE  Frederick  Samuel 
Robinson,)  Earl,  a  British  statesman,  the  eldest  son  of 
the  first  Earl  of  Ripon,  was  born  in  London  about  1827. 
Before  the  death  of  his  father  in  1859  he  was  called  Lord 
Goderich.  He  represented  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire from  1857  to  1859.  In  April,  1863,  he  succeeded 
Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis  as  secretary  of  war.  In  the 
ministry  formed  or  reconstructed  by  Earl  Russell  he  was 
appointed  secretary  for  India  in  February,  1866.  He 
resigned  this  office  with  the  other  members  of  the  cabinet 
in  June  of  the  same  year,  and  became  lord  pre«'de"t  of 
the  council  in  December,  1868. 

Deguerle,  deh-gaRK,  (Jean  Nicolas  Marie,)  a 
French  littefateiir,  born  at  Issoudun  in  1766,  became 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Paris  in  1809.  He  translated 
the  "iEneid"  into  prose,  and  wrote  several  admired 
poems.    Died  in  1824. 

De  Ha'ven,  (Edwin  J.,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1819.  He  commanded  an  ex- 
pedition sent  out  from  New  York  in  search  of  Sir  John 
Franklin  in  1850.    Died  in  1865. 

Deheem,  deh-ham',  (John  David,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  flowers,  fruit,  etc.,  born  at  Utrecht  about  1604;  died 
in  1674. 

Dehn,  dan,  (Siegfried  Wilhelm,)  a  German  writer 
on  music,  born,  at  Altona  in  1799. 

Deianira  or  Deianeira.    See  Dejanira. 

Deidier,  di'de-a',  Abb£,  a  French  mathematician, 
was  born  at  Marseilles  in  1696.  He  published  in  1739 
"New  Elements  of  Mathematics,"  and  "The  Theory 
and  Practice  of  Geometry,"  both  of  which  are  praised 
for  clearness  and  precision.    Died  in  1746. 

Deidier,  (Antoine,)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Montpellier.  He  became  professor  of  chemistry  in  that 
city  in  1696.  In  1732  he  removed  to  Marseilles.  He 
published  many  works  on  medicine,  chemistry,  and  phy- 
siology, abounding  in  paradoxical  ideas.    Died  in  1746. 

Deiman,  dl'min,  or  Deimann,  (John  Rodolph,)  a 
Dutch  physician  and  chemist,  born  in  1743.  He  was  the 
soul  of  the  reunion  known  as  "the  Dutch  Chemists,"  by 
whom  the  olefiant  gas  was  discovered.  The  academic 
collections  of  Holland  are  filled  with  memoirs  on  chemis- 
try, etc.  which  attest  the  extent  and  soundness  of  his 
knowledge.  About  1806  he  became  physician  to  the  king, 
Louis  Bonaparte.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on 
Medical  Electricity."    Died  in  1808. 

See  Jerome  de  Bosch,  "  Lofrede  op  J.  R.  Deiman,"  1808; 
DooRNiK,  "J.  R.  Deiman  gedacht  in  eene  Redevoering,"  1808; 
Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Deimier,  de,  deh  di'me-^^  (Pierre,)  a  French  lit- 
terateur  and  critic,  was  born  at  Avignon  about  1570; 
died  about  1618. 

Deinarchus.    See  Dinarchus. 

Deinhai-dstein,  dh/haRt-stln'',  (Johann  Ludwig,) 
a  German  dramatist,  born  in  Vienna  in  1794.  He  was 
professor  of  sestheticsin  the  University  of  Vienna  in  1827 
-32.  His  dramas  "  Floretta,"  "  Hans  Sachs,"  and  others 
were  received  with  favour.  He  published  a  volume  of 
Poems,  (1844,)  and  two  volumes  entitled  "Dramas  of 
Artists,"  ("  Kiinstlerdramen,"  1845.) 

Deinocrates.    See  Dinocrates. 

De-i-ot'a-rus  or  De-jot'a-rus,  [Gr.  A7?t6rapo^-,]  King 
of  Galatia,  was  the  ally  of  the  Romans  in  their  war  against 
Mithridates,  and  was  involved  in  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
civil  wars  which  followed.  He  fought  for  Pompey  at  the 
battle  of  Pharsalia,  48  B.C.,  and  was  successfully  defended 
by  Cicero  in  an  oration  ("  Pro  Rege  Deiotaro")  against 
the  charge  of  a  design  to  assassinate  Caesar.  In  the  civil 


a,  c,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lo)ig;  k,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DEJANIRA 


735 


DELAHATE 


war  between  Octavius  and  Antony,  Deiotarus  aided  the 
former.  He  lived  to  a  great  age ;  but  the  year  of  his 
death  is  not  known. 

See  Appian,  "  Bellum  Civile;"  Dion  Cassius,  "History  of 
Rome;"  Lucan,  "  Pharsalia." 

Dej-a-ni''ra,  Deianira,  or  Deianeira,  [Gr.  LriiavEipa 
or  i^iiuvELpa;  Fr.  Dejanire,  da'zht'n^R^]  a  daughter  of 
CEneus,  King  of  .^tolia,  and  the  wife  of  Hercules.  She 
was  persuaded  by  the  dying  centaur  Nessus  to  preserve 
some  of  his  blood  as  a  love-charm,  and  applied  it  to  a 
tunic  of  Hercules,  who  was  fatally  poisoned  by  it. 

Dejanire.    See  Dejanira. 

Dejaure,  deh-zhoR',  (Jean  £lie  Bedenc,)  a  French 
dramatist,  born  in  1761.  He  composed  several  success- 
ful comedies  and  operas,  among  which  are  "The  Shade 
(Ombre)  of  Mirabeau,"  (1791,)  "  Lodoiska,"  an  opera, 
(1791,)  and  "Montano  and  Stephanie,"  an  opera,  {1799.) 
Died  in  1799. 

Dejazet,  deh-zht'za',  (Marie  Virginie,)  a  popular 
French  actress,  born  in  Paris  in  1797. 

Dejean,  deh-zhSx',  (Jean  FRANgois  Aim^,)  Count, 
a  French  general,  born  at  Castelnaudary  in  1749.  In 
1800  he  became  a  councillor  of  state,  and  performed  a 
mission  to  Genoa  with  ability.  He  was  chosen  minister 
of  war  in  1802,  and  first  inspector-general  of  engineers 
in  1808.  In  1814  he  was  created  by  the  Bourbons  a  peer 
of  France,  and  governor  of  the  Polytechnic  School.  In 
1815  he  served  Napoleon  as  aide-de-camp.  Died  in  1824. 

See  Haxo,  "Notice  historique  sur  le  Comte  Dejean,"  1824. 

Dejean,  (Pierre  FRAxgois  Auguste,)  Count,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Amiens  in  1780.  He  be- 
came general  of  division  in  1814,  and  distinguished  him- 
self at  Waterloo  in  1815.  He  acquired  distinction  as  an 
entomologist,  and  published  a  "  History  of  Coleoptera," 
(7  vols.,  1825-39.)    Died  in  1845. 

Dej'o-ges,  [Gr.  A7/i6/c7?f,]  the  first  king  of  the  Medes, 
reigned  about  700  or  650  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
a  wise  and  just  ruler. 

Dejotarus.    See  Deiotarus. 

Dejoux,  deh-zhoo',  (Claude,)  an  eminent  French 
sculptor,  born  near  Arbois  (Jura)  in  1731,  was  appren- 
ticed to  a  carpenter.  About  1756  he  went  to  Paris,  and 
became  the  pupil  of  G.  Coustou  the  younger.  After 
studying  at  Rome  from  1768  to  1774,  he  returned  to 
Paris,  where  he  executed  admired  statues  of  Catinat, 
Desaix,  Achilles,  and  others.  He  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  Institute  about  1796.    Died  in  1816. 

De  Kalb,  (John,)  Baron,  a  German  general,  born 
in  Alsace  about  1732,  became  an  officer  in  the  French 
service.  He  came  to  America  with  La  Fayette  in  1777, 
was  appointed  a  major-general  by  Congress  in  the  same 
year,  and  served  in  the  army  of  Washington  in  Penn- 
sylvania and  New  Jersey.  In  1780  he  was  second  in 
command  under  General  Gates  in  Carolina.  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Camden,  August,  1780. 

De  Kay,  (James  E.,)  an  American  ph^-sician  and  natu- 
ralist, born  about  1792.  Having  made  a  tour  of  Europe 
in  1831-32,  he  published  on  his  return  "  Sketches  in  Tur- 
key." He  also  wrote  the  five  volumes  of  the  "Natural 
History  of  New  York"  devoted  to  Zoology.  Died  in  1851. 

Deken,  darken,  (Agatha,)  a  popular^Dutch  authoress, 
born  near  Amsterdam  in  1741.  She  associated  herself 
in  literary  pursuits  with  Marie  Bosch,  and  afterwards 
with  Madame  Wolff,  «c'V  Bekker.  They  exercised  much 
influence  on  the  national  character  by  the  publication  of 
popular  works,  among  which  are  "  Letters  on  Various 
Subjects,"  (1780,)  "  Sara  Burgerhart,"  a  romance,  (1782,) 

History  of  William  Leevend,"  (8  vols.,  1784,)  and  "Pro- 
menades in  Burgundy,"  in  verse,  (1789.)  A.  Deken  also 
wrote  "Songs  for  Country-people,"  ("  Liederen  voor 
den  Boerenstand.")    Died  in  1804. 

See  Jan  Konijnenburg,  "Lofiede  op  E.  Wolff  en  A.  Deken," 
x8os  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1854. 

Dekkar,  (Thomas.)     See  Decker. 
Dekker.    See  Decker. 

Dekker,  de,  deh  d^k'ker,  or  Van  Decker,  vtn  d§k'- 
ker,  (Jeremias,)  an  eminent  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Dort 
about  1610,  passed  his  life  in  mercantile  pursuits  in  his 
native  city,  and  wrote  poetry  for  recreation.  In  1656  a 
collection  of  his  verses  was  published,  among  which  are 
numerous  epigrams,  "Good  Friday,"  and  "The  Morning 


Dawn."  His  style  is  pure,  and  his  sentiments  devout. 
"  The  Praise  of  Avarice,"  a  satire  which  is  compared 
to  Erasmus's  "  Praise  of  Folly,"  is  one  of  his  last  and 
principal  productions.  It  is  much  admired,  and  indicates 
great  knowledge  of  human  nature.    Died  in  1666. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetr)'  of  Europe  ;"  Jeronimo 
DE  Vries,  "J.  de  Dekker  als  Menschen  als  Dichter,"  1807. 

De  la  Beche,  deh  It  bash,  (Sir  Henry  Thomas,) 
F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English  geologist,  born  near  London 
in  1796.  In  18 1 7  he  became  a  member  of  the  Geological 
Society,  of  which  he  was  chosen  president  about  1847. 
He  explored  the  geology  of  Wales,  Devonshire,  and 
Jamaica,  on  which  he  produced  several  works.  He 
published  a  "Geological  Manual,"  (1832,)  and  "How 
to  Observe  Geology,"  (1835.)  He  was  appointed  chief 
director  of  the  geological  survey  of  England  ordered 
by  the  government,  and  president  of  the  Museum  of 
Practical  Geology,  now  the  School  of  Mines.  He  was 
knighted  in  1848,  and  became  a  correspondent  of  the 
Institute  of  France  in  1853.    Died  in  1855. 

Delaborde.    See  Laborde. 

Delaborde  or  De  Laborde,  d'lS'boRd'  or  deh  It'- 
boRd',  (Henri,)  a  French  historical  painter,  son  of 
Henri  Fran9ois,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Rennes  in 
1811.  He  obtained  a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1847. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Hagar  in  the  Desert." 

Delaborde,  (Henri  Franqois,)  Count,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Dijon  in  1764,  was  made  a  peer  by  Bona- 
parte during  the  Hundred  Days.    Died  in  1833. 

Delacepede.    See  Lacepede. 

Delacour,  del-a-koor',  (James,)  an  Irish  poet,  born 
near  Blarney  in  1709,  studied  for  the  clerical  profession. 
He  wrote  "Abelard  and  Eloisa,"  a  poem  in  imitation 
of  Pope,  and  "The  Prospect  of  Poetry,"  (1733.)  Died 
in  1781. 

Delacroix.    See  Lacroix. 

Delacroix  or  De  Lacroix,  d'lt'kRwa'  or  deh  W- 
kRwd',  (Ferdinand  Victor  Eugene,)  a  celebrated 
French  historical  painter,  born  at  Charenton,  near  Paris, 
in  1799.  He  was  a  son  of  Charles  Delacroix,  a  repub- 
lican member  of  the  Convention,  and  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  1797.  He  was  a  pupil  of  P.  Guerin,  but  soon 
renounced  the  principles  of  the  classic  school  taught  by 
that  artist.  In  1822  he  exhibited  a  picture  of  "Dante 
and  Virgil,"  which  produced  a  great  sensation  and  was 
severely  criticised.  His  reputation  was  increased  by  the 
"  Massacre  of  Scio,"  (1824,)  after  which  he  was  regarded 
as  the  chief  of  the  romantic  school.  He  displayed 
original  genius  and  energy  in  " Mephistopheles  appear- 
ing to  Faust,"  " Sardanapalus  Dying,"  "The  Prisoner 
of  Chillon,"  (1835,)  and  "Medea,"  (1838.)  Among  his 
master-pieces  is  the  "  Women  of  Algiers,"  (1834,)  which 
procured  him  a  high  reputation  as  a  colorist ;  but  his 
colouring  is  powerful  rather  than  harmonious.  He  has 
decorated  one  of  the  halls  of  the  Palais  Bourbon,  and 
some  interior  portions  of  the  Louvre,  the  Luxembourg, 
and  other  public  buildings.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Institute  in  1857.    Died  in  1863. 

See  L.  DE  LoMENiE,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains ;"  Gustave 
Planche,  "  Portraits  des  Artistes  contemporains." 

Delacroix,  (Jacques  Vincent,)  a  distinguished 
French  lawyer  and  voluminous  writer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1743.  He  revived  the  "  Spectateur  Fran9ais,"  founded 
by  Marivaux,  of  which  he  issued  many  volumes,  (1771- 
1820.)  During  the  Revolution  he  was  professor  of  public 
law  in  the  Lycee,  and  published  a  successful  work  on  the 
"Constitutions  of  Europe,"  (1790.)  He  wrote  political 
tracts  and  moral  essays,  and  a  "  History  of  France  from 
Clovis  to  Louis  XIV.,"  (3  vols.,  1813.)    Died  in  1832. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Delacroix,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  antiquary  and  de- 
puty, born  in  Meuse  in  1785.  He  wrote  a  work  called 
"  Statistics  of  the  Department  of  Drome,"  which  gained 
the  Montyon  prize  medal  in  1835.    I^ied  in  1843. 

Delafdsse.    See  Lafosse. 

Delafosse,  d'ltTos',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  natu- 
ralist, a  member  of  the  Institute,  born  about  1795,  has 
written  several  scientific  works. 

Delahaye,  d'lS'hy,  (Guillaume  Nicolas,)  a  French 
map-engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1725,  engraved  all  the 
works  of  D'Anville.    Died  in  1802. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (S^^Sce  Explanations,  p.  23,) 


DELAISTRE 


736 


DELAROCHE 


Delaistre,  deh-litR',  (Louis  Jean  Di:siRi,)  a  suc- 
cessful French  engraver  of  history  and  portraits,  born  in 
Paris  in  1800. 

Delalande.    See  Lalande. 

Delalande,  d'lS'lSNd',  (Pierre  Antoine,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1787.  He  accompa- 
nied Geoffroy  Saint- Hilaire  as  assistant  in  his  journey 
to  Portugal  in  1808,  and  in  1816  went  to  Brazil,  where 
he  collected  rare  objects  of  natural  history.  From  1818 
to  1821  he  explored  the  country  of  the  Hottentots  and 
Cafifres,  and  returned  home  with  an  immense  zoological 
collection.  He  published  in  1822  a  brief  "Account 
of  his  Voyage  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,"  and  was 
prevented  by  his  early  death  from  finishing  a  more 
complete  work  on  the  subject.    Died  in  1823. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Delamalle,  d'lt'mtK,  (Gaspard  Gilbert,)  a  French 
advocate  and  orator,  born  in  Paris  in  1752.  As  an 
opponent  of  the  Revolution,  he  was  proscribed  and 
imprisoned  in  1793.  He  was  appointed  by  Bonaparte 
counsellor  to  the  University  in  1808,  and  councillor 
of  state  in  1811.  He  retained  these  otfices  under  the 
Bourbons.  In  1820  he  obtained  the  prize  offered  by 
the  French  Academy  for  an  essay  on  eloquence.  He 
wrote  a  work  on  Oratory,  entitled  "Essai  d'Institutions 
oratoires,"  (1816,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1834. 

See  RicHOMME,  "  ^ loge  de  M.  Delamalle,"  1834. 

Delamarche,  d'lt'mtRsh',  (C.  F.,)  a  French  geogra- 
pher, born  at  Paris  in  1740;  died  in  181 7. 

Delambre,  deh-16MbR'  or  deh-lSw'b'R,  (Jean  Bap- 
tiste  Joseph,)  a  celebrated  French  astronomer  and 
author,  born  at  Amiens  on  the  19th  of  September,  1749, 
was  a  pupil  of  the  poet  Delille,  at  the  College  of  Amiens. 
Having  gained  the  highest  prizes,  and  attained  great  pro- 
ficiency in  the  classics,  he  pursued  the  study  of  rhetoric 
and  philosophy  in  Paris.  When  he  left  college  he  was 
destitute  of  resources,  and  suffered  much  privation.  He 
supported  himself  for  several  years  by  teaching,  and 
employed  his  leisure  in  the  study  of  Greek  and  mathe- 
matics, which  he  had  neglected  at  college.  Having  ac- 
quired command  of  the  resources  of  ancient  and  modern 
learning,  he  began,  about  1780,  to  devote  himself  to 
astronomy,  and  received  lessons  from  Lalande,  who  be- 
came his  friend  and  soon  employed  him  as  an  assistant. 
In  1787  he  resolved  to  calculate  the  observations  of 
Jupiter  and  Saturn,  and  two  years  later  produced  tables 
of  those  planets,  which  were  remarkable  for  precision. 
His  "  Tables  of  the  Orbit  of  Uranus"  were  crowned  by 
the  Academy  in  1790,  and  have  since  been  used  for  half 
a  century.  In  1792  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  which  in  the  same  year  awarded  him  a  prize 
for  his  "  Tables  of  Jupiter's  Satellites,"  respecting  which 
La  Place  had  just  offered  a  new  theory.  Between  1792 
and  1799  Delambre  and  Mechain  were  employed  to 
measure  the  arc  of  the  meridian  from  Dunkirk  to  Barce- 
lona; and  the  former  published  the  results  in  his  "Basis 
of  the  Decimal  System  of  Measure."  On  presenting 
this  work  to  Bonaparte,  the  latter  said,  "Conquests  pass 
away,  but  these  operations  remain."  He  was  admitted 
into  the  Institute  at  its  formation  in  1795,  and  was  chosen 
perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1803. 
His  eulogies  on  departed  members  were  admired  for  an 
elegant  simplicity  of  style.  He  married  Madame  Pom- 
mard  in  1804.  In  1807  he  succeeded  Lalande  as  pro- 
fessor of  astronomy  in  the  College  of  France.  He  wrote 
for  the  "  Biographic  Universelle"  the  articles  on  Hip- 
parchus,  Kepler,  and  other  great  astronomers.  In  1814 
he  produced  an  important  work,  entitled  "Theoretical 
and  Practical  Astronomy,"  ("  Astronomic  theorique  et 
pratique,"  3  vols.)  After  the  immense  labours  of  thirty 
years  devoted  to  observations  and  calculations,  he  began 
to  write  the  "  History  of  Astronomy"  from  the  earliest 
times,  of  which  he  completed  five  volumes.  This  ex- 
cellent work  was  issued  in  three  parts,  viz.  :  "  History 
of  Ancient  Astronomy,"  (1817,)  "  History  of  Mediaeval 
Astronomy,"  (1819,)  and  "History  of  Modern  Astro- 
nomy," (182 1.)  His  character  was  virtuous,  sincere,  and 
disinterested.  He  presents  a  remarkable  instance  of  the 
union  of  high  literary  attainments  with  an  extraordinary 
capacity  for  the  abstract  sciences.    Died  in  Paris  in 


August,  1822.  The  celebrated  naturalist  Cuvier  pro- 
nounced a  discourse  over  his  tomb. 

See  Fourier,  "£logede  Delambre;"  Ch.  Dupin,  "Notice  sur 
Deiambre,"  in  the  "Revue  Encyclopedique  ;"  V.  J.  F.  Warme, 
Eloge  historique  de  M.  Delambre,"  1824;  "  NouveJle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Delamet.    See  Lamet. 

De  Lan'cey,  (William  Heathcote,)  an  American 
Episcopalian  bishop,  born  in  Westchester  county,  New 
York,  in  1797.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1822,  was 
provost  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  from  1828  to 
1833,  and  became  rector  of  Saint  Peter's  Church  in 
Philadelphia  about  1836.  In  1838  he  was  chosen  Bishop 
of  the  diocese  of  Western  New  York.    Died  in  1865. 

Delandine,  d'lSN'd^n',  (Antoine  pRANgois,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  in  Lyons  in  1756,  was  a  royalist 
member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  1790-91,  and 
was  imprisoned  during  the  reign  of  terror.  In  1803  he 
was  chosen  keeper  of  the  Library  of  Lyons.  He  pub- 
lished, in  conjunction  with  Chaudon,  the  eighth  edition 
of  the  "New  Llistorical  Dictionary,"  improved  and 
enlarged,  (1804,)  and  wrote  numerous  works,  among 
which  are  "Academic  Crowns,"  and  a  "History  of  the 
National  Assemblies  of  France,"  (1788.)    Died  in  1820. 

See  J.  B.  Dumas,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  Delandine," 
1820. 

De-lane',  (John  T.,)  an  English  lawyer,  editor  of 
the  London  "Times,"  was  born  about  1818.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford.  In  1841  he  became  manager  or 
chief  editor  of  what  has  been  called  the  leading  journal 
of  Europe. 

Delane,  (William  Augustus  Frederick,)  an  Eng- 
lish journalist,  father  of  the  preceding,  born  about  1795, 
was  for  many  years  the  chief  editor  or  manager  of  the 
London  "  Times."  It  is  said  that  he  wrote  but  little 
himself,  but  displayed  judgment  in  directing  the  talents 
of  others,  and  was  an  able  and  successful  administrator. 
Died  in  1857. 

Delangle,  d'lSNgl,  (Claude  Alphonse,)  a  French 
advocate  and  senator,  born  at  Varzy  (Nievre)  in  1797. 
He  became  advocate-general  in  the  court  of  cassation 
in  1840,  and  attorney-general  in  the  cour  royale  in  1847. 
After  the  revolution  of  1848  he  supported  Louis  Napo- 
leon, who  appointed  him  in  1852  first  president  of  the 
imperial  court  of  Paris,  and  added  the  dignity  of  senator. 
He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Commercial  Companies,"  (les 
Societes  cofnmerciales,)  and  became  minister  of  the  interior 
in  1858,  and  minister  of  justice  in  1859.  Died  in  1869. 

See  "  Biographic  des  Senateurs." 

DePa-no,  (Amasa,)  an  American  traveller,  born  at 
Duxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1763.  He  died  in  181 7, 
leaving  a  "  Narrative  of  Voyages  and  Travels  in  the 
Northern  and  Southern  Hemispheres,  comprising  Three 
Voyages  around  the  World,"  etc.,  (Boston,  181 7.) 

De-la'ny,  (Mary,)  originally  Granville,  an  English 
lady,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1700,  was  the  daughter  of  Lord 
Lansdowne.  She  was  married  to  Alexander  Pendarves, 
who  died  in  1724,  and  afterwards  to  Dr.  Delany,  noticed 
below.  She  corresponded  with  several  eminent  literary 
persons,  and  her  published  letters  were  much  admired. 
Died  in  1788. 

See  "  Life  of  Mary  Delany,"  by  herself  and  Lady  Llanover,  1862; 
Mrs.  Elwood,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England,"  etc., 
vol.  i.,  1843;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1862;  "Westminster 
Review"  for  April,  1862. 

De-la'ny,  (Patrick,)  a  learned  Irish  divine,  born 
about  1686,  was  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
and  in  1744  became  Dean  of  Down.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Dean  Swift.  In  1743  he  married  Mary,  daughter 
of  Lord  Lansdowne.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Revelation  examined  with  Candour,"  (3  vols.,  1732-63,) 
which  is  commended  by  Adam  Clarke,  and  a  "  Life  of 
David,  King  of  Israel,"  (3  vols.,  1740-42.)   Died  in  1768. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Delaram,  (Francis,)  a  skilful  engraver,  born  in  Lon- 
don about  1590.  He  engraved  portraits  of  many  eminent 
persons  of  the  time,  among  which  is  "John,  Bishop  of 
Lincoln."    Died  in  1627. 

Delarbre,  d'liRbR,  (Antoine,)  a  French  botanist,  born 
at  Clermont  about  1724;  died  about  1810. 

Delaroche  or  De  Laroche,  d'lt'rosh',  (Paul,)  an 
excellent  French  historical  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1797. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsaire;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


DELAR  UE 


7Z7 


DELETRE 


He  was  a  pupil  of  Baron  Gros,  and  formed  for  himself 
a  mixed  style  between  the  classic  and  the  romantic.  In 
1824  he  produced  "Joan  of  Arc  interrogated  in  Prison," 
and  in  1826  "The  Death  of  Queen  Elizabeth."  He  ac- 
quired great  popularity  in  the  early  part  of  his  career, 
and  became  the  recognized  chief  of  a  school  called  the 
Eclectic.  In  1832  he  was  elected  to  the  Institute.  His 
"Cromwell  gazing  on  the  Corpse  of  Charles  1."  (1832)  is 
greatly  admired.  In  1837  he  was  ordered  to  decorate  the 
hemicycle  of  the  Palais  des  Beaux-Arts,  where  he  repre- 
sented the  artists  of  all  ages,  in  a  large  and  admirable 
composition.  Among  his  other  master-pieces  are  "The 
Death  of  the  Duke  of  Guise,"  (1835,)  "Napoleon  at  Fon- 
tainebleau,"  (1840,)  "  Bonaparte  at  Saint-Bernard, "(1850,) 
and  "The  Girondists  in  Prison,"  (1855.)  His  colouring 
is  brilliant  and  harmonious,  and  his  design  correct.  He 
married  a  daughter  of  Horace  Vernet.    Died  in  1856. 

See  L.  DE  LoMENiE,  "Galerie  des  Contemporains." 

Delarue,  d'lt'rii',  (  Gervais,  )  Abb6,  an  eminent 
French  antiquary,  born  at  Caen  in  1 751.  Having  been 
driven  into  exile  in  1793,  he  went  to  London,  and  made 
extensive  researches  in  the  literary  history  of  the  middle 
ages.  In  1808  he  became  professor  of  history  at  Caen. 
He  published  in  1834  "  Historical  Essays  on  the  Norman 
Bards  and  Trouveres,"  (3  vols.)    Died  in  1835. 

Delatour.    vSee  Latour. 

Delatour,  d'lt'tooR^  (Loitis  Francois,)  a  French 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1727,  published  "Essays  on  the 
Architecture  of  the  Chinese,  their  Gardens,  Manners, 
Customs,  etc.,"  {1803.)    Died  in  1807. 

Delaudun,  d'lo'duN',  (Pierre,)  a  French  poet  and 
critic,  born  at  Uzes  in  1575  ;  died  in  1629. 

Delauliie,  d'lon,  (£tienne,)  a  French  designer  and 
engraver,  born  at  Orleans  in  1520;  died  about  1595. 

Delaunay.    See  Lauxay. 

Delaunay,  d'lo'n^',  (Charles,)  a  French  mathema- 
tician, and  member  of  the  Institute,  born  at  Lusigny 
(Aube)  in  1816. 

Delaunay,  (Louis,)  a  minerah^gist  and  advocate,  born 
about  1 740,  i)ractised  in  the  courts  of  Brussels.  He  was 
living  in  1805. 

De-l&une',  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  wrote 
"A  Plea  for  Nonconformists,"  (1684,)  and  other  works. 
He  was  punished  for  his  writings  by  the  loss  of  his  ears, 
and  died  in  prison. 

Delauney.  See  Entraigues,  Comte  d',  and  Launey. 

Del-a-val',  (Edward  Hussey,)  an  English  chemist 
and  philosopher,  born  in  1729,  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society.  He  wrote  an  "Experimental  Inquiry  into  the 
Cause  of  the  Change  of  Colour  in  Opaque  and  Coloured 
Bodies,"  (1744,)  and  several  other  treatises.  Died  in  1814. 

Delaval,  d'lt'viK,  (Pierre  Louis,)  a  French  histori- 
cal painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1790,  won  a  gold  medal  in 
181 7,  when  he  exhibited  "Clotilde  exhorting  Clovis." 
Among  his  works  are  "  Saint  Louis  carrying  the  Ori- 
flamme,"  (1840,)  and  a  portrait  of  Chateaubriand. 

Delavigne  or  De  Lavigne,  d'lS'ven',  (Germain,)  a 
French  dramatist,  brother  of  the  poet  noticed  below,  was 
born  at  Giverny  (Eure)  in  1790.  He  assisted  Scribe  in 
many  successful  plays  and  operas.  Among  these  are 
"TVe  Somnambulist,"  (1819,)  "The  Old  Bachelor," 
(1822,)  and  "The  Diplomate,"  (1827.)    Died  in  1868. 

Delavigne,  (Jean  pRANgois  Casimir,)  a  popular 
French  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Havre  on  the  4th 
of  April,  1793,  was  the  son  of  a  merchant,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Paris.  In  1811  he  wrote  a  poem  on  the  birth 
of  Napoleon's  son,  which  procured  him  the  patronage 
of  Fran9ois  de  Nantes.  Soon  after  the  restoration  of 
181 5  he  successfully  invoked  the  spirit  of  French  nation- 
ality by  his  admirable  Messenieiiues* — the  general  title 
of  s.;i'?.al  poems,  one  of  which  was  on  the  subject  of 
Watcii:.o  The  government  appointed  him  librarian 
of  the  elm  eery,  although  his  political  opinions  were 
those  of  the  liberal  opposition.  His  next  performance 
was  an  elegy  on  Joan  of  Arc.  In  1819  he  produced  "The 
Sicilian  Vespers,"  a  drama,  which  was  performed  with 
great  applause.  In  1825  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy,  and  refused  the  offer  of  a  pension  of 


*  Named  in  allusion  to  the  verses  in  which  the  people  of  ancient 
Messenia  deplored  the  disasters  of  their  country. 


1200  francs.  On  the  occasion  of  the  revolution  of  1S30 
he  wrote  a  song,  "  La  Parisienne,"  which  was  received 
with  extraordinary  favour.  Besides  the  above-named, 
he  is  the  author  of  numerous  dramas,  of  which  the  most 
important  are  "  The  School  of  Old  Men,"  ("  L'Ecole  des 
Vieillards,"  1823,)  "  Marino  Faliero,"  (1829,)  and  "  Louis 
XL,"  (1832.)    He  died  at  Lyons  in  December,  1843. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  ot"  Europe;"  "Notice 
sur  C.  Delavigne,"  prefixed  to  his  works  by  his  brother  Ger.\lain; 
Louis  de  Lomenie,  "  AL  C.  Delavigne,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1841;  Glacomo  Calvi,  "  C.  Delavigne.  Notizia  bibliografico-necro- 
logica,"  1S44;  G.  Verenet,  "filogedeC.  Delavigne,"  1844;  Kkuse, 
"  Ueber  C.  Delavigne  als  Vermitiier,  etc.,"  1847. 

Delbene,  del-ba'na  or  d^Kban',  (  Alphonse,)  a  French 
historian  and  bishop,  born  about  1540 ;  died  in  1608. 

Delbene,  del-ba'ni,  (Benedetto,)  an  Italian  savant, 
born  at  Verona  in  1749.  He  wrote  essays  on  the  "Cul- 
ture of  Olives,"  on  the  "Manufacture  of  Wine,"  etc., 
and  translated  Columella,  Virgil's  "Georgics,"  and  other 
Latin  works.    Died  in  1825. 

Delbriick,  del'bRiik,  (Johann  Friedrich  Ferdi- 
nand,) a  German  philosophic  writer,  born  at  Magde- 
burg in  1772.  He  became  counsellor  of  the  regency  and 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Konigsberg  in  1809.  In  181 8 
he  was  appointed  to  similar  functions  at  Bonn.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  "Xenophon,  a  Defence  of  his 
Reputation  against  Niebuhr,"  (1829,)  and  "Discourses," 
("Reden,"  1831.)    Died  in  1848. 

See  NicoLovius,  "J.  F.  F.  Delbriick's  Leben,"  1848. 

Delbriick,  (Johann  Friedrich  Go  tflieb,)  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1768,  became 
professor  of  theology  in  Magdeburg.  Between  1800  and 
1809  he  superintended  the  education  of  the  two  princes 
of  Prussia,  sons  of  Frederick  William  III.  Died  in  1830. 

Deleau,  d'l5,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Vezelise  in  1797.  He  published  "Researches  on  the 
Diseases  of  the  Ear,"  etc.,  (1834,)  and  other  works. 

Delecluse,  d'la'kliiz',  (Etienne  Jean,)  an  able  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1781.  He  wrote  editorial 
articles  on  art  for  the  "Moniteur"  and  the  "Journal  des 
13ebats"  for  many  years,  and  published,  besides  several 
novels,  a  "Treatise  on  Painting,"  (1828,)  and  "  Roland,  or 
Chivalry,"  ("Roland,  ou  la  Chevalerie,"  2  vols.,  1845.) 

See  LouANDRE,  "La  Litterature  contemporaine." 

Delen,  van,  vSn  da'len,  (Dirck  or  Thierry,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Heusden  in  1635,  was  a  pupil  of  F. 
Hals.  He  preferred  to  paint  churches,  public  edifices, 
and  interiors,  and  excelled  in  perspective  and  colouring. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "Game  of  Foot-Ball,"  in  the 
Louvre.    Died  at  Arnemuyden  about  1700. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Delessert,  d'li'saiR',  (Benjamin,)  a  French  financier 
and  philanthropist,  born  in  Lyons  in  1773.  He  was 
chosen  regent  of  the  Bank  of  France  about  1802.  Soon 
after  that  date  he  established  a  model  spinning-mill  for  the 
fabrication  of  cotton  stuffs.  He  founded  saving-funds, 
and  contributed  largely  to  other  provident  institutions. 
Having  cultivated  botany  and  collected  86,000  species, 
he  associated  with  De  Candolle  in  the  publication  of  "  Se- 
lect P"igures  of  Plants,"  ( "  Icones  selectas  Plantarum," 
5  vols.,  1820-46.)  He  sat  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
( cent7-e  gauche )  from  1827  to  1843.    Died  in  1847. 

See  Alphonse  Decandolle,  "Notice  sur  B.  Delessert,"  1847; 
Charles  Dupin,  "Travaux  et  Bienfaits  de  B.  Delessert,"  1848; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Delessert,  (Franqois,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1780,  was  an  eminent  banker,  regent  of  the  Bank 
of  France,  a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  a  liberal  patron 
of  arts  and  sciences. 

Deleuze,  d'luz,  (Joseph  Philippe  Franqois,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  at  Sisteron  in  1753.  He  was 
chosen  aide-naturaliste  to  the  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory in  1795,  and  librarian  to  the  same  in  1828.  He 
translated  Thomson's  "  Seasons"  into  French,  and  wrote 
several  other  works.    Died  in  1835. 

Deleyre,  d'lSR,  (Alexandre,)  a  French  writer,  born 
near  Bordeaux  in  1726.  On  the  suppression  of  the  order 
of  Jesuits,  with  which  he  was  connected,  he  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  associated  with  Diderot,  Rousseau,  etc. 
He  published  an  "Analysis  of  Bacon's  Philosophy," 
(1755,)  which  is  said  to  be  written  with  ability,  and  was 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi^guttural;  n,  tiasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  t/iis.    (2!^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.1 

47 


DELFAU 


738 


DELITZSCH 


one  of  the  editors  of  the  *'  Encyclopedie."  He  was  one 
of  the  first  members  of  the  liiiltitute.  In  1793  he  was  a 
republican  member  of  the  Convention,  and  voted  for  the 
death  of  the  king.    Died  in  1797. 

See  J.  Lebreton,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  d'A.  Deleyre,"  1797. 

Delfau,  <\hV{o\  (Dom  FRANgois,)  a  French  Benedic- 
tine monk,  born  in  Auvergne  in  1637,  was  charged  by  his 
order  to  edit  the  works  of  Saint  Augustine.  Died  in  1676. 

Delfico,  d^Kfe-ko,  (Mklchior,)  an  Itahan  statesman 
and  able  writer  on  political  economy,  born  in  the  Abruzzo 
in  1744.  Daring  the  political  troubles  that  followed  the 
French  Revolution  he  found  refuge  in  the  republic  of  San 
Marino.  From  1806  to  181 5  he  was  councillor  of  state 
at  Naples,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  ability  and 
integrity.  The  restored  king  Ferdinand  in  1815  made 
him  president  of  the  commission  of  the  archives  of  the 
kingdom.  His  most  important  works  are  a  "  History 
of  San  Marino,"  "  Researches  into  the  True  Character 
of  Roman  Jurisprudence,"  (1791,)  and  "Thoughts  on 
the  Uncertainty  and  Inutility  of  History,"  etc.,  ("  Pen- 
sieri  su'  la  Storia  e  su'  la  Incertezza  ed  Inutilita  della 
medesima,"  1806.)  He  also  wrote  an  Essay  in  favour 
of  Free  Trade.    Died  at  Teramo  in  1835. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri;"  F.  Mozzetti, 
"  Ricordaiiza  degli  Studii  e  delle  Opere  di  M.  Delfico,"  1835;  F. 
Ranalli,  "  Elogio  di  M.  Deifico,"  1836;  G.  F.  Delfico,  "Della 
Vita  e  delle  Opere  di  M.  Delfico,"  libri  ii.,  1836. 

Delfino,  del-fee'no,  (Giovanni,)  Doge  of  Venice, 
elected  in  1356,  was  previously  procurator  of  Saint 
Mark.  He  found  the  republic  at  war  with  Louis,  King 
of  Hungary,  who  obtained  the  advantage  and  imposed 
the  conditions  of  peace  in  1358.    Died  in  1361. 

Delfino,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  cardinal  and  poet, 
born  about  161 8  of  a  patrician  family  in  Venice.  He 
wrote  "Cleopatra,"  and  other  tragedies,  in  verse,  the 
style  of  which  is  praised  by  Ginguene.    Died  in  1699. 

Delfosse,  del'foss',  (Noel  Joseph  Auguste,)  a  Bel- 
gian advocate,  born  at  Liege  about  1810,  was  president 
of  the  Chamber  froin  1852  to  April,  1855. 

Delft,  (GiLLEs  DE.)    See  Delphus. 

Delft,  delft,  or  Deiff,  delf,  (Jacob  Willem,)  a  Dutch 
portrait-painter,  lived  at  Delft;  died  in  1601, 

Delft,  (Jacob  Willemszoon,)  a  skilful  Dutch  por- 
trait-painter, a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Delft  in  1619;  died  in  1661. 

Delgado,  d^l-gA'Do,  (Juan  Pinto,)  a  Spanish  Jew 
and  poet,  wrote  i)oems  on  Ruth  and  Esther,  (1627.) 

De  I'Huys.    See  Dkouyn  de  l'Huys. 

Delia,  a  name  of  Diana,  which  see. 

Deliberatore,  di-le-bi-ri-to'ri,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Foligno,  flourished  about  1460. 

Delille  or  De  Lille,  deh-leK  or  d'1^1,  (Jacques,) 
L'Abbe,  an  eminent  French  didactic  poet,  born  at  Aigue- 
perse,  near  Clermont  in  Auvergne,  in  1738,  was  educated 
in  Paris.  Soon  after  leaving  college  he  became  professor 
of  humanities  at  Amiens,  where  he  began  his  translation 
of  the  "Georgics"  of  Virgil,  which  he  published  in  1769. 
It  was  deemed  a  wonderful  performance  in  respect  to  the 
magnitude  of  the  difficulties  that  had  been  overcome  ; 
and  the  French  were  enraptured  to  learn  that  their  lan- 
guage was  so  capable  of  reproducing  the  grace,  harmony, 
and  variety  of  Virgil.  Voltaire  was  so  well  pleased  with 
the  work  that  he  wrote  to  the  Academy  in  favour  of  the 
election  of  Delille.  He  was  received  into  the  French 
Academy  in  1774,  in  the  place  of  Condamine.  In  17S0 
he  produced  "The  Gardens,"  ("  Les  Jardins,")  a  poem 
abounding  with  picturesque  descriptions  :  it  was  received 
with  great  favour,  and  translated  into  many  languages. 
For  several  years  before  the  Revolution  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  belles-lettres  in  the  University  of  Paris,  and 
of  Latin  poetry  in  the  College  of  France.  To  escape 
from  the  anarchy  of  the  new  regime,  he  retired  in  1794 
to  Saint-Die,  and  afterwards  to  Switzerland,  where  he 
found  the  calm  seclusion  most  congenial  to  the  spirit  of 
poetry.  During  this  period  of  absence,  part  of  which 
was  passed  in  London,  he  meditated  or  matured  several 
poems  worthy  of  his  high  reputation.  Returning  to  Paris 
in  1 80 1,  he  published  in  rapid  succession  a  poem  on  Pity, 
(1803,)  "Virgil's  Eneid  translated  into  French  Verse," 
(1804,)  a  poetical  version  of  "Paradise  Lost,"  (1805,) 
and  "Imagination,"  a  poem,  (1806.)    The  last  three  are 


among  the  most  successful  of  his  works.  His  version 
of  the  "Eneid"  is  regarded  as  the  best  in  the  language. 
"  No  French  work,"  says  the  "  Biographic  Universelle," 
"presents  a  greater  number  of  rich  and  beautiful  images, 
or  more  harmonious  and  ingenious  verses,  than  his  poem 
on  the  Imagination."  He  had  a  perfect  mastery  of  the 
art  of  ennobling  words  by  their  application,  of  giving 
a  brilliant  colour  to  thoughts  and  a  sustained  harmony 
to  language.    Died  in  Paris  in  May,  1813. 

See  LiNGAY,  "ifiloge  de  Delille,"  1814;  Campenon,  "  ]£loge  de 
Delille,"  1813;  Berville,  "  iSloge  de  J.  Delille,"  1817;  Filippo 
MoRDANi,  "Elogio  storico  di  G.  Delille,"  1845;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1806. 

Deliniers,  deh-le'ne-aiR',  (Jacques  Antoine  Marie,) 
Viceroy  of  Buenos  Ayres,  was  born  at  Niort,  France,  in 
1756.  He  entered  the  French  navy,  became  a  captain, 
and  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  South  America.  Having 
taken  command  of  a  Spanish  army,  he  captured  Buenos 
Ayres  from  the  British  in  1807,  gained  great  popularity, 
and  became  viceroy.  About  1809  the  Junta  of  Spain 
sent  Cisneros  to  supersede  him.  In  a  revolutionary 
movement  which  followed,  Deliniers  supported  the 
royalist  cause,  was  made  prisoner,  and  shot  in  1810. 

See  F.  Denis,  "Buenos  Ayres  et  le  Paraguay." 

Delisle  or  De  Lisle,  deh-leK  or  d'1^1,  (Claude,)  a 
French  writer  on  history  and  geography,  born  at  Vau- 
couleurs  in  1644.  After  practising  law  some  years,  he 
removed  to  Paris,  where  he  gave  lectures  on  history.  He 
published  a  "  Historic  Relation  of  Siam,"  an  "  Introduc- 
tion to  Geography,"  and  a  few  other  works.  Several  of 
his  sons  became  eminent  in  science.    Died  in  1720. 

Delisle,  deh-l6K,  [sometimes  anglicized  in  pronun- 
ciation de-liK,]  (Guillaume,)  a  French  geographer  of 
great  celebrity,  born  in  Paris  in  1675,  was  the  son  of  the 
preceding.  In  early  youth  he  conceived  the  project  of 
reforming  the  system  of  geography;  and,  having  accom- 
plished this  difficult  task,  he  published,  in  1700,  a  map 
of  the  world,  celestial  and  terrestrial  globes,  and  other 
valuable  works,  which  procured  his  admission  into  the 
Academy  of  Sciences.  According  to  Walckenaer,  he  is 
the  principal  author  of  the  modern  system  of  geography. 
He  published  afterwards  numerous  maps,  ancient  and 
modern,  which  obtained  a  European  reputation  ;  and  he 
wrote  many  memoirs  on  geography,  which  were  inserted 
in  the  Collection  of  the  Academy.  Louis  XV.  received 
lessons  from  Delisle,  and  rewarded  him  with  the  title 
of  first  geographer  to  the  king.  He  died  in  1726,  and 
Fontenelle  composed  his  eulogy. 

See  NiCERON,  "Menioires;"  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Delisle,  (Joseph  Nicolas,)  an  eminent  French  as- 
tronomer, born  in  Paris  in  1688,  was  the  son  of  Claude, 
noticed  above.  In  17 10  he  obtained  permission  to  oc- 
cupy the  dome  of  the  Luxembourg,  which  he  used  as  an 
observatory.  Received  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
1714,  he  communicated  to  it  his  observations.  In  1724 
he  visited  London,  and  by  the  influence  of  Newton  was 
chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  About  1725,  at 
the  solicitation  of  the  empress  Catherine,  he  went  to 
Saint  Petersburg  to  found  a  school  of  astronomy,  and 
wrote  several  elementary  treatises  for  his  pupils.  He 
returned  to  Paris  in  1747,  and  resumed  his  observations. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  a  "  Historical  Essay  on 
the  Progress  of  Astronomy  and  Geography,"  (1738.) 
Died  in  1768. 

See  Lalande,  "  Notice  sur  De  Lisle,"  in  the  "  Necrologe  et 
Bibliographie  Astronomique ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;" 
"  Biographie  Universelle." 

Delisle,  (Louis,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  an 
astronomer  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  accompanied  his  brother  Joseph  to  Saint  Petersburg 
in  1725.  Having  traversed  Siberia,  he  embarked  in  1741 
with  Captain  Behring  on  an  exploring  voyage,  but  died 
the  same  year.  He  had  written  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Proper 
Motion  of  the  Fi.xed  Stars,"  and  other  works. 

De  Lisle,  (Rouget.)    See  Rouget  de  Lisle. 

Delisle  de  la  Drevetiere,  deh-l^K  deh  IS  duiv'- 
te-aiR'',  (Louis  Franqois,)  a  French  dramatic  author, 
horn  in  Dauphine  ;  died  in  1756. 

Delitzsch,  da^itsh,  (Franz,)  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1813,  published  a  "History  cf  Jewish 
Poetry,"  (1836,)  and  other  works. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lottg;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DELIUS 


739 


DELPHUS 


Delius,  a  name  of  ApolLO,  which  see. 

Delius,  da'le-us,  (Christoph  Traugott,)  a  German 
mineralogist,  born  in  Saxony  about  1 730,  became  coun- 
sellor for  the  department  of  mines  and  of  the  mint  in 
Vienna.  He  published  "Directions  for  the  Working  of 
Mines,"  (1773.)    Died  in  1779. 

Delius,  (Heinrich  FRiEDRrcii,)  a  German  physician 
and  naturalist,  born  at  Wernigerode,  Saxony,  in  1720 ; 
died  in  1791. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Dell,  (William,)  an  English  nonconformist  minister, 
who  became  master  of  Caius  College,  Cambridge.  In 
1662  he  was  ejected  for  nonconformity. 

See  Hodgson,  "Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Delia  Maria,  del'li  mi-ree'i,  (Dominique,)  a  com- 
poser of  operatic  music,  was  born  at  Marseilles  in  1768; 
died  in  Paris  in  1800. 

Delliiig  or  Dellingr.    See  Norvl 

Dello,  deKlo,  a  Florentine  painter,  born  in  1372,  re- 
sided for  some  time  in  Spain,  where  he  obtained  a  high 
reputation.    Died  in  142 1. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.;  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Dellon,  d4'l6N',  (C.,)  a  French  physician  and  travel- 
ler, born  about  1650,  made  a  voyage  to  the  East  Indies 
in  1668.  He  was  persecuted  and  imprisoned  for  two 
years  by  the  Inquisition  at  Goa.  He  returned  home  in 
1677,  and  published  a  "Narrative  of  his  Voyage,"  (1685,) 
a  work  of  some  merit. 

Delmas,  d^l'mis',  (Antoine  Guillaume,)  an  able 
French  general,  born  near  Tulle  in  1768.  He  became 
general  of  brigade  in  1793,  and  took  command  of  a 
division,  with  which  he  obtained  several  successes  in 
1794.  He  served  a  few  years  in  Italy,  where  he  was  the 
second  in  command  under  Joubert  in  1799.  In  1802 
he  offended  the  First  Consul,  and  was  dismissed  from 
service.  The  cause  of  this  disgrace  was  supposed  to 
be  a  reply  which  he  made  when  Bonaparte  asked  him 
what  he  thought  of  the  ceremony  performed  in  honour 
of  the  Concordat.  "  A  piece  of  mummery,"  ( capiccmade,) 
said  Delmas:  "nothing  is  wanting  but  the  million  of 
men  who  have  perished  in  order  to  overthrow  what  you 
have  now  re-established."  In  1813  he  again  commanded 
a  division,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Leipsic. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Fran^als." 

Delmas,  (Jean  Francois  Bertrand,)  a  French 
Jacobin,  born  near  Toulouse  in  1754,  entered  the  Legis- 
lative Assembly  in  1791.  In  the  Convention  he  voted 
for  the  death  of  the  king,  (1792,)  and  for  the  destruction 
of  Robespierre  in  1794.  He  was  afterwards  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  Jacobins.    Died  in  1798. 

Delmas,  Pere,  a  French  priest  and  poet,  born  in 
Rouerguein  1733,  professed  rhetoric,  etc.  in  the  College 
of  Toulouse.  He  published  an  admired  Latin  poem  on 
the  pastoral  office,  entitled  "Art  of  Arts,"  etc.,  ("Ars 
Artium,"  etc.)    Died  in  1790. 

Delmatius,  [Fr.  D  elm  ace.]    See  Dalm.\tius. 

Delminio.    See  Camillo. 

Delmont,  d§Km6N^  (Deodat,)  a  Flemish  historical 
painter,  born  at  Saint-Tron  in  1581,  is  said  to  have  been 
a  pupil  and  friend  of  Rubens.  Descamps  praises  his 
design,  composition,  and  colouring.  Among  his  works  is 
an  "  Adoration  of  the  Kings."    Died  at  Antwerp  in  1634. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Delmotte,  dll'mot',  (Henri  Florent,)  a  Belgian 
litterateur,  born  at  Mons  in  1779,  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Brussels,  and  author  of  a  great  number  of 
works  on  different  subjects.    Died  in  1836. 

See  Hennebert,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  H.  F.  Delmotte,"  1837. 

De  Lolme,  deh-lolm',  (John  Louis,)  a  Swiss  lawyer 
and  author,  born  at  Geneva  in  1740.  Having  offended 
the  government  by  a  political  pamphlet,  he  consulted  his 
safety  by  emigrating  to  England,  where  he  lived  many 
years.  He  became  very  indigent,  and  received  aid  from 
the  literary  fund.  In  1771  he  published  "The  Consti- 
tution of  England,"  originally  written  in  French,  which 
was  much  celebrated,  and  often  reprinted.  A  few  years 
later  he  published  an  English  edition  of  this  work.  It 
was  commended  by  Lord  Chatham  and  Chief-Justice 
Story.  The  author  of  "  Junius"  called  it  "a  performance 


deep,  solid,  and  ingenious."  De  Lolme  wrote  a  few  other 
minor  works.    Died  in  vSwitzerland  in  1806. 

See  Charles  Coote,  "Notice  of  De  Lolme,"  prefixed  to  l-is 
work,  "The  Constitution  of  England,"  1S07. 

Delord,  d'loR,  (Taxile,)  a  French  editor,  born  at 
Avignon  in  181 5.  He  became  chief  editor  of  the  "  Cha- 
rivari," a  satirical  paper  of  Paris,  in  1842.  He  also 
contributed  to  the  "  Siecle"  and  other  journals. 

Delorme,  d'loRm,  (Charles,)  born  at  Moulins, 
France,  in  1584,  succeeded  his  father,  Jean,  as  physician 
to  Louis  XIII.,  and  was  very  eminent  in  his  profession. 
He  acquired  the  friendship  of  Richelieu  and  Chancellor 
Seguier,  who  granted  him  a  pension.    Died  in  1678. 

Delorme,  (Jean,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Mou- 
lins in  1547,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
for  some  time  professor  at  Montpellier.  He  became 
physician  to  Henry  IV.  in  1606,  and  afterwards  to  his 
successor,  Louis  XIII.  He  resigned  his  office  in  1626, 
and  died  in  1637. 

Delorme,  (Marion,)  a  famous  French  beauty  and 
courtesan,  born  at  Chalons,  in  Champagne,  about  1612. 
She  is  said  to  have  been  extremely  witty  and  intelligent. 
Her  salon  was  the  rendezvous  of  princes,  courtiers,  etc., 
including  Richelieu, De  Grammont,  and  Saint-Evremond. 
Died  in  1650. 

See  Grammont,  "  Memoires  ;"  "Vie  de  M.  Delorme,"  Paris, 
1805. 

Delorme,  (Philibert,)  an  eminent  French  architect, 
born  at  Lyons  about  15 18,  studied  art  in  Rome,  and  re- 
turned home  in  1536.  After  erecting  several  fine  edifices 
in  Lyons,  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  was  patronized  by 
Catherine  de  Medicis,  for  whom,  about  1564,  he  designed 
the  palace  of  the  Tuileries,  which  is  regarded  as  his  best 
production.  vShe  appointed  him  almoner  to  the  king,  and 
gave  him  several  benefices  in  the  church.  He  was  archi- 
tect of  the  Chateau  de  Meudon  and  the  Chateau  d'Anet, 
which  were  much  admired.  He  published  a  work  on 
architecture,  and  a  treatise  entitled  "  New  Inventions 
for  Building  well  at  Little  Expense,"  (1561.)  "  He  di- 
vested his  art  of  Gothic  habiliments,"  says  Milizia,  "and 
arrayed  it  in  those  of  ancient  Greece."    Died  in  1577. 

See  M11.IZIA,  "Memoires  sur  les  Architectes ;"  Pingeron, 
"Vies  des  Architectes  anciens  et  modernes;"  Collet,  "Notice  sur 
P.  Delorme  ;"  Flacheron,  "  jSloge  de  P.  Delorme." 

Delorme,  (Pierre  Claude  FRANgois,)  a  French  his- 
torical painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1783.  Among  his  works 
are  "The  Death  of  Hero  and  Leander,"  (1814,)  "Eve 
Plucking  the  Forbidden  Fruit,"  (1834,)  and  a  "Repose 
in  Egypt,"  (1850.) 

Delort,  d'loR,  (Jacques  Antoine  Adrien,)  Baron, 
a  French  general,  born  at  Arbois  in  1773.  He  com- 
manded with  eclat  in  1812  at  the  battle  of  Castalla, 
and  became  general  of  division  in  February,  1814.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  Waterloo  in  1815,  and  in  1837 
was  made  a  peer.    Died  in  1846. 

Delort,  (Joseph,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Mirande 
(Gers)  in  1789.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  the 
Man  in  the  Iron  Mask,"  (1825.) 

Deloy,  dlwJ,  (Jean  Baptiste  Aim^;,)  a  French  poet, 
born  near  Lure  in  1798  ;  died  in  1834. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  contemporains." 

Delpeoh,  d^Kpish',  (Francois  Seraphin,)  a  skilful 
French  designer,  born  in  Paris  in  1778;  died  in  1825. 

Delpeoh,  (Jacques  Mathieu,)  a  French  physician 
and  skilful  surgeon,  born  at  Toulouse  about  1775.  He 
was  chosen  professor  of  clinical  surgery  in  the  faculty 
of  Montpellier,  (1812,)  where  he  lectured  with  success, 
and  published  several  treatises  on  surgery,  among  which 
is  an  important  work,  entitled  "  Summary  of  Diseases 
called  Surgical,"  ("  Precis  des  Maladies  reputees  chi- 
rurgicales,"  1815.)  He  was  murdered  in  1832  by  a  man 
named  Duceptos. 

See  F.  BuissoN,  "Parallele  de  Delpech  et  Dupuytren,"  1841 ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Delphinus.    See  Delfino. 

DeFphus,  (^GiDius,)  sometimes  called  Gilles  de 
Delft,  was  professor  of  theology  in  Paris  in  1507.  Eras- 
mus praised  his  talent  for  Latin  poetry.  Among  his  works 
are  a  Latin  poetical  version  of  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  thf 
Romans,  and  a  commentary  on  Ovid's  "  De  Remedio 
Amoris." 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


740  DEMETRIUS 


DELPON 


Delpon  de  Livernon,  d^l'p6N'  deh  le\SR'n6N', 
(Jacques  Antoine,)  a  French  writer  and  antiquary, 
born  in  1778,  wrote  an  "Essay  on  Liberty  of  Worship," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1833. 

Delporte,  del^poRt',  (Francois,)  a  French  agricultu- 
rist, born  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer  in  1746;  died  in  1819. 

Delrieu,  d^Kre-uh',  (Etienne  Joseph  Bernard,)  a 
Frencii  dramatic^ithor,  born  in  1 761,  was  for  a  long 
time  regent  of  rhetoric  at  Versailles,  He  wrote  nume- 
rous dramas,  which  had  a  moderate  success,  and  gained 
a  durable  reputation  by  his  tragedy  of  "  Artaxerxes," 
(1808,)  which  procured, him  a  pension  of  two  thousand 
francs.    Died  in  1836. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litteiaire." 

Delrio,  d§l-ree'o,(MARTiN  Antoine,)  a  learned  Jesuit, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1 55 1,  was  master  of  ten  or  more 
languages.  He  became  procureur-general  of  Brabant 
in  1578,  removed  to  Valladolid  in  1580,  and  obtained 
the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Douay  in  1589.  He  wrote 
"Notes  on  Claudian's  Poems,"  and  other  critical  works. 
His  "Essay  on  Magic"  (1599)  was  once  popular.  .  Died 
in  1608. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Delta.    See  Moir,  (David  Macbeth.) 

Deluc,  d'luk,  (GuiLLAUME  Antoine,)  a  brother  of 
the  celebrated  geologist  noticed  below,  born  at  Geneva 
in  1729,  was  associated  with  his  brother  in  his  geolo- 
gical excursions  and  other  scientific  labours.  He  wrote 
numerous  treatises  on  mineralogy  and  geology,  which 
were  inserted  in  the  "Journal  de  Physique"  and  other 
periodicals.  They  indicate  accurate  observation  and  a 
philosophic  mind.    Died  in  1812. 

Deluc  or  De  Luc,  deh-look',  [Fr.  pron.  d'liik,]  (Jean 
Andre,)  an  eminent  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Geneva 
in  1727.  In  early  life  he  was  engaged  in  commerce,  and 
employed  his  leisure  in  the  study  of  geology  and  other 
sciences.  He  improved  the  thermometer,  and  measured 
the  height  of  mountains  more  exactly  than  any  one  had 
previously  done,  by  means  of  the  ))ortable  barometer 
which  he  invented.  In  1772  he  published  his  "  Researches 
on  the  Modifications  of  the  Atmosphere,"  an  excellent 
work,  which  was  then  the  most  com])lete  on  that  sub- 
ject. About  1773  he  visited  England,  and  was  chosen 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  reader  to  the  queen, 
who  gave  him  a  lodging  in  Windsor  Castle.  In  1778  he 
produced  his  great  work  on  geology,  "  Letters,  Physical 
and  Moral,  on  the  History  of  the  Earth  and  of  Man,"  in 
which  he  maintains  the  accordance  of  the  Mosaic  history 
with  the  facts  of  geology.  The  theories  advanced  in  this 
excited  much  opposition,  but  were  supported  at  one  time 
by  Cuvier.  He  ascribed  the  formation  of  the  ]Dresent 
continents  to  causes  no  longer  operative,  to  a  great  and 
sudden  revolution  which  occurred  four  or  five  thousand 
years  ago.  His  "  Letters  to  Blumenbach  on  the  Physical 
History  of  the  Earth"  (1798)  increased  his  reputation 
as  a  geologist.  He  wrote  a  large  number  of  works, 
(in  French,)  among  which  are  a  "Summary  of  Bacon's 
Philosophy,"  and  "Geological  Journeys  in  Northern 
Europe,"  (1810.)    Died  at  Windsor  in  1817. 

See  Senebier,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  Geneve,"  tome  ill.;  Que- 
RARii,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Delvaux,  d^Kvo',  [Lat.  Vallen'sis,]  (Andre,)  a  Bel- 
gian jurist  and  canonist,  born  in  1569;  died  in  1636. 

Delvig,  d^Kvio,  a  Russian  poet,  born  in  1798;  died 
in  183 1. 

Delvincourt,  d^Kv^N^kooR',  (Claude  Etienne,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1762.  When  the  schools 
of  law  were  reorganized,  in  1805,  he  obtained  a  chair  in 
the  capital,  and  began  the  first  public  course  on  the  new 
civil  code.  In  1810  he  became  dean  of  the  faculty  in 
the  University.  At  the  restoration  in  1814  he  retained 
this  place,  and  was  chosen  royal  censor.  He  published 
in  1808  "Institutes  of  French  Law,"  which  is  highly 
commended.    Died  in  1831. 

See  De  Portets,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  M.  Delvincourt," 
1832. 

Delzons,  dgrz6N',  (Alexis  Joseph,)  a  brave  French 
general,  born  at  Aurillac  in  1775,  joined  the  expedition 
to  Egypt,  (1798,)  where  he  obtained  the  rank  of  general 
of  brigade  in  1801.  As  general  of  division,  he  commanded 
the  army  of  Iliyria  in  1811.    In  1812  he  fought  at  Boro- 


dino, and  was  killed  in  battle  during  the  retreat  from 

Moscow  in  the  same  year. 

See  Segur,  "  Campagne  de  la  Russie." 

Demabuse.    See  Mabuse,  de. 

Demachy,  d'mt'she',  (Jacques  Franqois,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  in  Paris  in  1728.  He  wrote,  among  other 
works,  "Elements  of  Chemistry,"  (2  vols,,  1766,)  and 
refused  to  adopt  the  theories  of  Lavoisier,  Died  in  1803. 

Demade,    See  Demades. 

De-ma'des,  [Gr.  ATjfiadrjg  ;  Fr.  D6made,  da'mtd',]  an 
Athenian  orator  and  demagogue,  noted  for  his  witticisms, 
venality,  and  profligacy.  He  entered  public  life  about 
350  B.C.,  becaine  an  opponent  or  enemy  of  Demosthenes, 
and  acquired  great  influence  by  his  eloquence,  wit,  and 
other  talents.  He  usually  spoke  extempore.  After  the 
battle  of  Chaeronea  he  acted  with  the  party  of  the  King 
of  Macedon,  by  whom  he  was  bribed ;  and  he  was  one 
of  the  chief  authors  of  the  peace  between  Philip  and  the 
Athenians.  He  was  convicted  of  receiving  a  bribe  from 
Harpalus,  and  for  a  subsequent  offence  was  sentenced 
to  exclusion  from  political  functions ;  but  a  few  years 
later  he  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Antipater.  He  was 
put  to  death  by  the  order  of  Antipater,  (or,  according  to 
Plutarch,  of  Cassander,)  in  318  B.C. 

See  DioDORUs  Siculu.s,  books  xvi.,  xvii.,  and  xviii. ;  Plu- 
tarch, "Demosthenes;"  Suidas,  ATjfxaSrjs ;  Ruhnken,  "  Historia 
critica  Oratorum  Grxcornni ;"  Freytag,  "  De  Demade,"  1752;  H. 
Lharuy,  "Dissertatio  de  Demade  Oratore,"  Berlin,  1834. 

De  Maistre.    See  Maistre. 

Demante,  deh-m6Nt',  (Antoine  Marie,)  a  French 
jurist,  and  professor  of  civil  law  at  Paris,  was  born  in 
that  city  in  1789.  He  published  an  excellent  work  en- 
titled "  Programme  du  Cours  de  Droit  civil  Fran9ais," 
(3  vols.,  1830.)    Died  in  1856. 

Demarate.    See  Demaratu.s. 

Dem-a-ra'tus,  [Gr.  ^.Tiixapdrog,']  a  native  of  Corinth, 
emigrated  to  Etruria  about  650  B.C.,  and  became  a  prince. 
He  was  the  father  of  Aruns  and  Lucumo. 

Demaratus,  [Fr.  Demarate,  da^mt'rtt',]  King  of 
Sparta,  began  to  reign  jointly  with  Cleomenes  about  510 
B.C.  He  quarrelled  with  his  colleague,  who  caused  him 
to  be  deposed  about  491,  on  the  ground  that  he  was  not 
a  son  of  the  late  king  Ariston.  He  retired  to  Persia, 
where  he  was  favourably  received  by  Darius  I.  He  gave 
wise  counsels  to  Xerxes  on  the  invasion  of  Greece,  and 
is  said  to  have  secretly  informed  the  Spartans  that  such 
an  event  was  impending. 

See  Herodotus,  books  v.,  vi.,  vii. ;  Xenophon,  "Hellenica." 

Dembarrere,  dSN^bt'raiR',  (Jean,)  Count,  a  French 
general  and  engineer,  born  at  Tarbes  in  1747,  became  a 
general  of  division  in  1794,  and  obtained  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  engineers  in  Italy.  In  1805  he  was  chosen 
a  senator,  and  retired  from  the  army.    Died  in  1828. 

Dembinski,  dgm-bin'skee,  (Henry,)  a  Polish  gene- 
ral, born  in  the  palatinate  of  Cracow  in  1791.  In  1830 
he  took  arms  for  Polish  independence,  obtained  cotn- 
mand  of  a  brigade,  and  distinguished  himself  in  several 
actions.  He  made  a  masterly  retreat  from  Lithuania  in 
July,  1 83 1,  and  went  into  exile  in  the  autumn  of  that 
year.  In  February,  1849,  he  was  appointed  by  Kossuth 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Hungarian  army  ;  but  in  con- 
sequence of  the  refusal  of  Gorgei,  and  other  officers,  to 
serve  under  a  Pole,  he  was  soon  superseded.  He  ac- 
cepted the  post  of  quartermaster-general  under  Mesza- 
ros,  and  commanded  at  Temesvar,  (August,  1849,)  where 
the  Hungarians  were  finally  defeated.    Died  in  1864, 

Dembowski,  dem-bov'skee,  (Edward,)  a  Polish 
writer,  born  in  Plock  about  1810;  died  in  1846, 

Dembow.ski,  (Louis  Mathieu,)  Baron,  a  general 
in  the  French  army,  born  at  Gora  in  1769;  died  in  1812. 

Demeste,  deh-mSst',  (Jean,)  a  Flemish  surgeon  and 
chemist,  born  in  1743,  lived  at  Liege;  died  in  1783. 

De-me'ter,  [H^rjiJ.rjTTjp,']  the  name  of  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal Greek  divinities,  identified  with  the  Ceres  of  the 
Roman  mythology.    (See  Ceres.) 

De-me'tri-us,  [A7?/z^rpwf,]  an  Athenian  poet  ot  the 
old  comedy,  lived  in  the  fifth  century  B.C. 

Demetrius,  a  Greek  sculptor,  flourished  about  350 
B.C.  Among  his  chief  works  was  a  statue  of  Minerva, 
called  "  Musica,"  because  the  motion  of  the  serpents 
on  the  Gorgon's  head  produced  a  musical  sound. 


ft,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y, long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  filr,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon , 


DEMETRIUS 


741 


DEMETZ 


Demetrius  I.    See  Demetrius  Poliorcetes. 

Demetrius  II.,  son  of  Antigonus  Gonatas,  became 
King  of  Macedoii  in  243  B.C.,  as  successor  to  his  father. 
He  married  first  a  daughter  of  Antiochus  Theos,  and 
then  Phthia,  a  daughter  of  the  King  of  Epirus.  After  a 
reign  of  ten  years,  he  died,  and  left  the  throne  to  his  son, 
Philip  III. 

Demetrius,  a  Macedonian  prince,  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  207  B.C.,  was  the  second  son  of  Philip 
III.,  and  brother  of  Perseus,  (Perses.)  When  Philip  was 
defeated  by  the  Romans,  Demetrius  was  delivered  to  the 
victors  as  a  hostage.  Having  returned  home,  he  was 
sent  as  an  ambassador  by  Philip  to  defend  him  against 
certain  charges  before  the  Roman  senate,  whose  favour 
he  gained  by  his  ingenuous  modesty.  Perseus,  by  false 
accusations,  induced  his  father  to  put  Demetrius  to  death 
about  180  B.C. 

See  PoLVBius,  "History,"  books  xviii.,  xx.,  xxiii.,  and  xxiv. 

Demetrius  I.  and  II.,  (Kings  of  Syria.)  See  Deme- 
trius Soter,  and  Demetrius  Nicator. 

De-me'tri-us  II.,  King  of  Georgia,  succeeded  his 
father,  David  III.,  in  1126.  He  waged  a  long  war  with 
the  Turks,  who  fought  for  the  possession  of  Armenia 
and  sometimes  invaded  Georgia.  He  died  in  11 58,  and 
left  the  throne  to  his  son,  David  IV. 

Demetrius  III.,  King  of  Georgia,  the  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  David  V.,  reigned  from  1272  to  1289,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  David  VI. 

De-me'tri-us,  [Russ.  Dmitri,  dmee'tRee,]  Czar  of 
Russia,  usually  styled  "  the  False  Demetrius,"  claimed 
to  be  the  son  of  Ivan  IV.  The  latter,  at  his  death,  left 
a  minor  son,  who  was  reported  to  have  died,  or  to  have 
been  killed,  in  1591.  During  the  reign  of  Boris  in  Russia, 
about  1603,  Demetrius  raised  an  army  of  Poles,  invaded 
Russia,  and  fought  several  battles  with  various  success, 
until  Boris  died,  in  1605,  when  Demetrius  obtained  the 
throne  without  further  opposition.  His  subjects,  offended 
by  his  partiality  to  foreign  customs,  and  by  the  insolence 
of  his  Polish  soldiers,  revolted  and  put  him  to  death  in 
1606.  Prince  Shuisky  (or  Schuiskoi)  was  then  proclaimed 
Czar,  as  Basil  III. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Histoire  Universelle  ;"  Karamzin,  "  Histoire  de 
rEmpive  de  Russie  ;"  Pkosper  Merimee,  "fipisode  de  I'Histoire 
de  Russie  ;  les  faux  Demetrius,"  1852. 

Demetrius,  [Russ,  Dmitri,]  the  Fat.se,  the  second 
of  that  name  who  made  pretensions  to  the  Russian  crown. 
Soon  after  the  accession  of  Shuisky,  this  person  asserted 
that  he  was  the  Czar  Demetrius.  He  found  many  par- 
tisans, was  recognized  by  the  wife  of  the  late  Czar, 
and  was  enabled  to  besiege  Moscow  with  an  army,  but 
was  killed  in  16 10  by  some  Tartars  who  served  in  his 
guard.  Schiller  and  Pushkin  have  dramatized  the  story 
of  these  impostors. 

See  Prosper  Merimee,  "  fipisode  de  I'Histoire  de  Russie;  les 
faux  Demetrius,"  1852. 

Demetrius  of  Alexandria,  a  Peripatetic  philosopher, 
lived  about  150  B.C. 

Demetrius  of  Apamea,  a  Greek  physician  of  un- 
known date,  who  is  often  cited  by  Coelius  Aurelianus. 

Demetrius  of  Byzantium,  a  Greek  historian,  lived 
about  280  B.C. 

Demetrius  of  Magnesia,  a  Greek  grammarian,  who 
flourished  about  60  B.C.  He  was  author  of  an  important 
critical  and  historical  work  which  treated  of  authors  that 
bore  the  same  name,  ("Peri  homonym5n  Poieton  kai 
suggrapheon.") 

Demetrius  of  Scepsis,  a  Greek  grammarian,  who 
lived  about  150  B.C. 

Demetrius  of  Sunium,  a  Greek  Cynic  philosopher, 
who  acquired  celebrity  as  a  teacher  in  the  first  century. 
He  lived  some  time  at  Corinth,  visited  Rome  in  the  reign 
of  Nero,  and  was  banished  from  Italy  by  Vespasian. 
He  is  eulogized  by  Seneca,  who  quotes  his  maxims. 

De-me'tri-us  JJy-do'ni-us,  a  Greek  or  Byzantine 
theologian  and  writer,  held  high  offices  under  John  Can- 
tacuzene.    He  entered  a  cloister  in  1355. 

De-me'tri-us  Mos'-ehus,  a  Greek  poet,  who  lived 
about  1450,  and  wrote  a  poem  on  the  "  Marriage  of  Paris 
and  Helen,"  printed  in  15 10. 

De-me'trl-us  Ni-ca'tor,  [Ni/carwp,]  King  of  Syria, 
was  the  son  of  Demetrius  Soter,  and  ascended  the  throne 
in  146  B.C.,  after  defeating  the  usurper  Balas.    He  mar- 


ried Cleopatra,  an  Egyptian  princess.  In  a  war  with  the 
Parthians  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  in  his  absence  his 
brother,  Antiochus  Sidetes,  usurped  the  throne.  On  his 
release  from  captivity,  he  again  obtained  the  kingdom  ; 
but  his  misgovernment  provoked  a  general  revolt  of  his 
subjects,  and  he  was  assassinated  at  Tyre  in  126  B.C. 

See  Justin,  books  xxxv.,  xxxvi.,  and  xxxviii. 

De-me'tri-us  Pep-a-gom'e-nus,  [Arjfxf/TpLo^  ILeTrayo- 
fJ.£voc,]  a  Greek  physician,  who  lived  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  composed  a  work  on  the  gout,  which  has  some 
merit.  It  was  printed  in  Greek  in  1558.  He  was  fthy- 
sician  to  the  emperor  Michael  Palaeologus,  who  reigned 
from  1260  to  1282. 

De-me'tri-us  Pha-le'reiis,  ( or  fa-lee're-us, )  [  Fr. 
Demetrius  de  Phalere,  da'mi'tRe'iis'  deh  ft'laiR',] 
a  distinguished  Grecian  orator  and  philosopher,  born 
at  Phale^rum,  in  Attica,  about  345  B.C.,  was  a  pupil  of 
Theophrastus  in  philosophy.  It  is  said  that  he  was 
condemned  to  death  with  Phocion,  but  saved  himself 
by  flight.  About  316  B.C.  Cassander  appointed  him  gov- 
ernor of  Athens,  which  for  ten  years  enjoyed  prosperity 
under  his  wise  and  popular  administration.  Three 
hundred  and  sixty  statues  were  erected  to  him  by  the 
Athenians.  When  Athens  was  taken  by  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes,  in  306,  he  retired  to  the  court  of  Ptolemy, 
King  of  Egypt.  He  died  in  Egypt  about  284  B.C.  He 
wrote  historical  and  philosophical  works,  which  are  all 
lost.  Cicero  and  other  ancient  writers  extol  his  merit 
as  an  orator  and  a  statesman. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius  ;  Cicero,  "  Brutus,"  and  "DeOiatore  ;" 
H.  DoHRN,  "  De  Vita  et  Rebus  Demetrii  Plialerei,"  1825  :  Bonamy, 
"  Vie  de  Demetrius  de  Phalere,"  in  the  "  Menioires  de  I'Academie 
des  Inscriptions,"  tome  viii. 

De-me'tri-us  Pol-i-or-ge'tes,  [Gr.  ArjfiTjTpto^  Uohop- 
KT]TJig;  Fr.  Dem^  i'rius  Poliorcete,  di'ma'tRe'iis'  po'le'- 
oR'^sit',]  born  about  335  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Antigo- 
nus, one  of  Alexander's  generals  and  successors.  From 
his  great  success  as  a  commander,  he  was  surnamed 
Poliorcetes,  or  "  taker  of  cities."  He  delivered  Athens 
from  the  dominion  of  Cassander,  and  commanded  his 
father's  army  in  the  war  against  Ptolemy.  About  306 
he  gained  a  great  naval  victory  over  Ptolemy,  and  took 
Cyprus.  At  the  siege  of  Rhodes  he  displayed  great  skill 
as  engineer,  but  was  baffled  in  his  attem]3t  to  take  the 
city.  After  his  father  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Ipsus, 
(299  B.C.,)  he  formed  an  alliance  with  Seleucus,  and  again 
made  himself  master  of  Athens.  Having  been  invited 
to  mediate  in  a  dispute  between  two  claimants  to  the 
throne  of  Macedon,  he  killed  one,  and  usurped  the  throne 
himself,  in  294.  Pyrrhus  and  Lysimachus  declared  war 
against  him,  and  expelled  him  from  Macedon.  He  died 
about  283,  leaving  a  son,  Antigonus  Gonatas.  Demetrius 
possessed  military  talents  of  a  high  order.  Plutarch 
draws  a  parallel  between  him  and  Mark  Antony. 

See  Pi.uTARCH,  "  Demetrius,"  and  "Pyrrhus;"  Avviau,  passim  ; 
Roi.i.iN,  "Ancient  History  ;"  Diodorus  Siculus,  books  xix.,  xx., 
and  xxi.  ;  Jiistin,  books  xv.  and  xvi.  ;  J.  C.  de  Wit,  "Dissertatio 
de  Demetrio  Poliorcete,"  1840. 

De-me'tri-us  So'ter,  [Arj/iTjTpiog  Swr^p,]  King  of 
Syria,  was  the  son  of  Seleucus  Philopator,  and  was  born 
al)out  185  B.C.  At  the  age  of  ten  he  was  sent  to  Rome 
as  a  hostage,  where  he  was  detained  many  years,  while 
his  uncle  Antiochus  Epiphanes  obtained  the  throne  at 
the  death  of  Seleucus  in  175  B.C.  In  161  Demetrius 
escaped  from  Rome,  and  was  proclaimed  king  by  the 
Syrians.  The  Maccabees  bravely  and  successfully  main- 
tained the  cause  of  the  Jews  against  the  army  of  this 
prince.  Alexander  Balas,  pretending  to  be  the  son  of 
Antiochus,  entered  Syria  with  an  army,  and,  in  a  battle 
that  followed,  Demetrius  was  killed,  150  B.C.  His  son, 
Demetrius  Nicator,  became  king  a  few  years  afterwards. 

See  PoLVBius,  "History,"  books  xxxi.,  xxxii.,  and  xxxiii. ;  Ap- 
PIAN,  "Syriaca  ;"  Justin,  book  xxxv. 

Demetz,  deh-mis',  (Frederic  Auguste,)  a  French 
philanthropist,  born  in  1796,  became  a  judge  in  Paiis.  In 
1836  he  visited  the  United  States  with  De  Tocqueville, 
to  examine  the  prisons  of  that  country.  He  foimded 
about  1840,  at  Mettray,  near  Tours,  an  institution  for  the 
reformation  of  juvenile  offenders,  which  has  been  very 
successful  and  has  become  the  model  after  which  others 
are  formed.  His  system  is  very  popular  in  England, 
where  it  has  been  tried  near  London. 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  kard;  g  as /;  g,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this.    (S:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DEMEULEMEESTER 


742 


DEMOLOMBE 


Demeulemeester,  deh-muh'leh-mas'ter,  ?  (Joseph 
Charles,)  a  Belgian  engraver,  born  at  Bruges  in  1771. 
He  engraved  some  frescos  of  biblical  subjects  painted 
by  Raphael  in  the  Vatican.    Died  in  1836. 

'  Demeunier,  di'nluh'ne-i^  or  Deomeunier,  d4'- 
muh'ne-i',  (Jean  Nicolas,;  an  able  French  writer,  born 
atNozeroyin  1751.  He  was  secretary  of  Monsieur  (after- 
wards Louis  XV HI.)  when  the  Revolution  began,  was 
elected  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  became  a 
senator  in  1802.  He  translated  several  histories  and 
voyages  of  discovery  from  the  English,  and  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  an  "Essay  on  the  United  States,"  (of 
North  America,)  (1786,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  the  Customs 
of  Various  Nations,  ("Esprit  des  Usages,"  etc.,  1776,) 
which  induced  Voltaire  to  write  him  a  tiattering  letter. 
Died  in  1814. 

Demidof,  dem-e-dof  or  d^m'e-dof,  Demidov,  or 
Demidow,  the  founder  of  the  noble  and  wealthy  Rus- 
sian family  of  Demidof,  was  a  native  of  Toola,  (  Tula.) 
He  became  skilful  in  the  manufacture  of  arms,  and 
gained  the  favour  of  Peter  the  Great.  He  established 
the  first  iron-foundry  in  Siberia.  His  descendants,  about 
172s,  discovered  the  gold-mines  of  Kolyvan. 

Demidof,  Demidov,  or  Demidow,  (Anatoli,) 
Count,  a  rich  Russian  capitalist,  a  son  of  the  following, 
was  distinguished  as  a  patron  of  science  and  literature. 
He  was  born  at  Florence  about  1812.  In  1839  he  pub- 
lished, in  French,  "Travels  in  Southern  Russia  and  the 
Crimea,  through  Hungary,"  etc  ,  the  result  of  an  explor- 
ing expedition  jierformed  by  him  in  company  with  several 
artists  and  savants.  He  married  in  1840  Mathilde,  a 
daughter  of  Jerome  Bonaparte.    Died  in  1870. 

Demidof^  Demidov,  or  Demidow,  (Nikolai,) 
Count,  a  learned  Russian  noble,  noted  for  benevolence, 
born  near  vSaint  Petersburg  in  1774,  inherited  from  his 
father  a  fortune  in  mines  and  forges.  He  studied  the 
sciences,  and  travelled  in  pursuit  of  knowledge,  which 
he  applied  in  the  promotion  of  the  industrial  arts.  He 
made  great  improvements  in  the  processes  of  mining 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  iron,  and  established  for  his 
vassals  an  academy  of  fine  arts.  He  died  at  Florence 
in  1828,  leaving  two  sons,  Paul  and  Anatoli.  He  had 
been  chosen  a  privy  councillor  by  the  emperor  Paul  I. 

See  V.  MuLLER,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  privee  de  N.  Demidof,"  1830. 

Demidof,  Demidov,  or  Demidow,  (Paul,)  of  the 
same  family  as  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Revel  about 
1738.  He  cultivated  natural  history,  and  made  a  rich 
collection  of  specimens,  which  he  presented  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Moscow.  He  founded  the  Demidof  Lyceum 
at  Yaroslav  about  1800.    Died  in  1826. 

Demidof,  Demidov,  or  Demidow,  (Prokop,)  born 
in  Moscow  about  1730,  was  the  proprietor  of  gold-mines 
in  the  Ural  Mountains,  the  product  of  which,  it  is  said, 
made  him  the  richest  subject  of  Russia.  He  was  the 
uncle  of  Count  Nikolai,  noticed  above. 

Demidow  or  Demidov.    See  Demidof. 

De  Missy,  de-mis'see,  (C^sar,)  a  learned  German 
divine,  born  in  Berlin  in  1703,  removed  about  1731  to 
London,  where  he  preached  in  a  French  chapel.  Died 
in  1775. 

Demme,  dlm'meh,  (Hermann  Christoph  Goit- 
FRIED,)  a  popular  German  moralist  and  novelist,  born 
at  Muhlhausen  in  1760.  His  noin-de-phime  was  Karl 
S  riLLE,  (stiKleh.)  He  became  superintendent-general  at 
Altenburg  in  1801.  Among  his  works  are  "  The  Farmer 
Martin  and  his  Father,"  (2  vols.,  1793,)  and  "Abend- 
stunden,".  (2  vols.,  1804.)    Died  in  1822. 

Democede.    See  Democedes. 

Dem-o-ge'des,  [Gr.  I^7]^oKT]6T]g  ;  Fr.  DEMOcioE,  di'- 
nio's^d',]  an  eminent  Greek  physician  of  Crotona,  born 
about  550  B.C.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  Samos  by  the 
Persians,  and  carried  to  Darius  Hystaspes,  whose  favour 
he  gained  by  his  medical  skill.  Tiie  king  rewarded  him 
richly,  but  refused  him  permission  to  return  home.  The 
queen  Atossa,  who  had  been  cured  by  him,  promised  to 
aid  him  in  escaping  from  captivity,  and  persuaded  Darius 
to  send  him  with  a  small  party  of  Persians  to  explore 
the  coasts  of  Greece  with  hostile  designs.  When  they 
arrived  at  Tarentum,  the  Persians  were  arrested,  and 
Democedes  escaped  to  Crotona. 

See  Herodotus,  book  iii. 


De-mo-eh'a-res,  [Gr.  A/j/xoxupng ;  Fr,  D^:MocHARfes, 
di'mo'kt'r^s',]  an  Athenian  orator,  was  a  nephew  of 
Demosthenes.  His  public  career  began  about  322 
B.C.,  soon  after  which  he  became  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  anti-Macedonian  party.  After  the  restoration  of 
democracy  in  Athens  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  in  307, 
Demochares  was  the  chief  of  the  patriotic  party.  He 
was  exiled  about  295,  but  returned  in  287  or  286  B.C., 
and  managed  the  finances  with  ability  and  success.  He 
was  living  in  280  B.C.  He  left  a  history  of  his  own  time, 
which  has  not  come  down  to  us. 

See  Plutarch,"  Demosthenes"  and  "  Demetrius  ; "  "Vitas  Decern 
Oratoium;"  Droysen,  "Geschichte  der  Nachfolger  Alexanders." 

Democrate.    See  Democrates. 

De-moc'ra-tes,  [Gr.  Ar///o«pa77?f ;  Fr.  Democrate, 
da^mo'kRtt',]  an  Athenian  orator,  who  lived  about  350 
B.C.,  was  a  contemporary  of  Demosthenes.  Aristotle  has 
preserved  one  of  his  orations. 

Democrite  or  Democrito.    See  Democritus. 

De-moc'ri-tus,  [Gr.  Arj^oKpiTog ;  Fr.  Democrite, 
da'mo'kR^t';  It.  and  Sp.  Democrito,  di-mok're-to,] 
a  celebrated  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Abdera,  in 
Thrace,  was  the  son  of  a  man  of  large  fortune.  The 
date  of  his  birth  is  variously  given  between  490  and  460 
B.C.  He  received  early  lessons  from  some  Chaldean 
Magi  left  by  Xerxes  in  his  invasion  of  Greece,  and  is 
thought  to  have  been  a  disciple  of  Leucippus.  Having 
inherited  one  hundred  talents  upon  the  division  of  his 
father's  estate,  he  travelled  in  Egypt,  Greece,  Persia, 
and  India,  in  pursuit  of  knowledge.  When  his  patri- 
mony was  spent,  he  returned  to  Abdera,  and  read  in 
public  one  of  his  works,  which,  according  to  Diogenes 
Laertius,  procured  him  a  large  present  of  money  and 
great  honours  from  the  people.  His  love  of  study 
and  of  solitude  induced  him  to  decline  the  political  pre- 
eminence which  the  citizens  of  Abdera  offered  to  him. 
There  is  a  prevalent  tradition  that  he  was  habitually 
laughing  at  the  follies  of  mankind. 

Democritus  possessed  a  profound  and  original  genius 
for  philosophy.  He  was  versed  in  geometry,  logic, 
physics,  natural  history,  and  ethics,  and  wrote  many 
works  on  these  subjects ;  but  none  of  them  has  come 
down  to  us.  Cicero  informs  us  that  his  style  was  as 
charming  as  that  of  Plato.  His  atomic  philosophy  pre- 
sents in  some  respects  a  great  analogy  to  that  which 
prevails  in  the  present  time.  He  supposed  that  the 
universe  is  composed  of  empty  space  and  of  indivisible 
atoms,  which  are  infinite  in  number,  and  which  by  their 
different  motions  and  affinities  produce  the  various  phe- 
nomena of  nature.  He  taught  that  matter  is  eternal,  and 
that  the  mind  or  soul  is  the  motion  of  round  fiery  atoms. 
He  ascribed  sensation  to  images  or  emanations  flowing 
from  its  objects.  Many  of  his  theories  were  adopted  by 
Epicurus,  and  illustrated  by  Lucretius  in  his  poem  "De 
Rerum  Natura."'  Democritus  lived  to  the  age  of  one 
hundred  years  or  more.  He  is  not  mentioned  in  any 
work  of  Plato,  who  was  his  contemporary. 

See  Ritter,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  G.  H.  Lewes,  "Bio- 
graphical History  of  Philosophy:"  Diogenes  Laertius;  Tenne- 
MANN,  "Geschichte  der  Philosophie ;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca 
Graeca;"  Burchard,  "  Commentatio  critica  de  Democriti  de  Sens'- 
bus  Philosophia,"  1830;  F.  G.  A.  Mullach,  "Democriti  Operuin 
Fragmenta,"  or  "De  Philosophi  Vita  Scriptis  et  Placitis,"  1S43; 
Jenichen,  "Programma  de  Democrito  Philosopho,"  1720. 

Demoivre,  deh-mw^vR',  (Abraham,)  an  eminent 
mathematician,  born  at  Vitry  (Champagne)  in  1667,  was 
the  son  of  Protestant  parents.  In  consequence  of  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  1685,  he  emigrated  '.o 
London,  where  he  taught  mathematics,  and  acquired  the 
friendship  of  Newton.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  an  Associate  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
Paris.  His  reputation  was  so  high  that  he  was  one  of  a 
committee  appointed  to  decide  on  the  claims  of  Newton 
and  Leibnitz  to  the  invention  of  the  method  of  fluxions. 
He  published  in  1730  "  Analytical  Miscellanies,"  ("Mis- 
cellanea Analytica,"  etc.,)  which  presented  ingenious  and 
original  ideas  on  the  subject,  also  "The  Doctrine  of 
Chances,"  and  "Annuities  on  Lives."    Died  in  1754. 

See  Maty,  "  Memoire  sur  la  Vie  de  Abraham  Demoivre  ;"  Mon- 
TUCLA,  "  Hisioire  des  Mathematiqiies." 

Demolombe,  deh-mo'16Mb',  (Jean  Charles  Flo- 
rent,)  a  French  jurist,  born  in  1804. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6»  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DEMON 


743 


DEMOSTHENES 


De'mon,  [A^//(jv,]  an  Athenian  orator,  who  lived  about 
330  B.C.,  was  a  nephew  of  Demosthenes. 

De-mo'nax,  [A?7//wr'a^,]  a  Cynic  philosopher,  born  in 
Cyprus,  lived  at  Athens  about  150  A.D.,  and  was  inti- 
mate with  Lucian.  The  latter  esteemed  him  as  one  of 
the  best  or  wisest  philosophers  of  that  time. 

Demons,  di'm6N',  (Claude,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Amiens  in  1591 ;  died  after  1628. 

Demont,  deh-m^N',  Count,  a  French  general,  born  at 
Courbevoie.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  division 
for  his  conduct  at  Austerlitz.    Died  in  1826. 

De-moph'a-nes,  [Gr.  Ar]fio<pdv7ic ;  Fr.  D^mophane, 
di'moTSn',]  a  Greek  Platonic  philosopher  of  Megalo- 
polis, aided  Aratus  to  restore  liberty  to  Sicyon, 

Demophilus.    See  Damophilus. 

De-moph'i-lus,  [Ar}ii6(j)t?io^,]  a  Greek  historian,  lived 
about  320  B.C.  He  wrote  a  continuation  of  the  history 
of  Ephorus,  who  was  his  father. 

Demophilus,  [Fr.  Demophile,  di''mo'f^K,]  a  Pytha- 
gorean philosopher  of  uncertain  epoch.  He  lett  a  work 
on  morality  called  "B'cov  ^•^pdnELa,"  of  which  fragments 
are  extant. 

Demophon.    See  Damophon. 

Dem'o-phon  or  De-moph'o-on,  [Gr.  Arjfiocpibv  or  Aij- 
uocpduv,]  a  son  of  Theseus  and  Phaedra,  was  betrothed  to 
Phyllis.  (See  Phyllis.)  Having  become  King  of  Athens, 
he  aided  the  Heraclidae  in  war  against  Eurystheus. 

Demophoon.    See  Demophon. 

De  Mor'gan,  (Augustus,)  an  English  mathematician, 
born  in  the  isle  of  Madura,  near  Java,  in  1806.  About 
1828  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  London,  (now  University  College,  London.) 
He  contributed  largely  to  the  "Penny  Cyclopaedia," 
the  "  North  British  Review,"  and  other  periodicals,  and 
obtained  a  high  reputation  by  many  mathematical  works, 
among  which  are  "Elements  of  Algebra,"  an  "Essay 
on  Probabilities,"  (1838,)  "Formal  Logic,  or  the  Calculus 
of  Inference  Necessary  and  Probable,"  (1847,)  ^"ci 
"Arithmetical  Books  from  the  Invention  of  Printing  to 
the  Present  Time,"  (1847.)    Died  in  1871. 

Demostene  or  Demosthene.    See  Demosthenes. 

Demosthenes,  de-mos'the-n^z,  [Gr.  ArjixoaOevrjg  ;  Lat. 
Demos'thenes  ;  Fr.  Demosthene,  da'mos'taiiV;  It. 
Demostene,  di-mos'ti-n^ ;  Sp.  Demostenes,  da-mos'- 
ti-nes,]  regarded  by  almost  universal  consent  as  the 
greatest  orator  that  ever  lived,  was  born  in  the  demos 
("  district")  of  Paeania,  near  Athens,  in  Greece,  about  382, 
or,  according  to  some  authorities,  385  B.C.  His  father, 
whose  name  was  also  Demosthenes,  was  a  cutler  and 
cabinet-maker :  he  died  when  his  son  was  seven  years 
old,  leaving  a  fortune  of  fifteen  talents  (above  15,000 
dollars)  to  be  shared  between  him  and  his  sister.  His 
guardians  converted  to  their  own  use  a  large  part  of 
his  property,  and  neglected  to  improve  the  remainder. 
Demosthenes  studied  rhetoric  with  Isaeus,  and,  according 
to  some  accounts,  received  lessons  in  philosophy  from 
Plato.  Cicero  states  that  Demosthenes  was  the  pupil 
of  the  orator  Isocrates ;  but  this  is  discredited  by  many 
critics. 

When  about  eighteen  years  old,  Demosthenes  prose- 
cuted his  unfaithful  guardians,  and  ])leaded  his  own 
cause.  The  case  was  decided  in  his  favour ;  but  he 
recovered  only  a  part  of  his  just  claim.  Some  years 
previously,  it  is  said,  his  enmlation  had  been  excited  by 
the  forensic  triumphs  of  Callistratus,  and  he  resolved  to 
devote  all  his  energies  to  the  study  of  eloquence,  although 
he  laboured  under  great  physical  disadvantages.  His 
constitution  was  delicate,  his  breath  short,  his  voice  feeble 
and  stammering.  It  is  said  that  he  remedied  these  de- 
fects by  running  up-hill  and  speaking  with  pebbles  in  his 
mouth  ;  that  he  declaimed  on  the  sea-shore,  in  order  to 
accustom  himself  to  the  noise  and  tumult  of  popular 
assemblies  ;  and  that  he  usually  spoke  his  orations  before 
a  mirror,  in  order  to  discover  and  correct  any  awk- 
wardness of  gesture.  According  to  Plutarch,  his  first 
address  before  a  popular  assembly  was  a  failure.  The 
people  laughed  at  his  ungraceful  gestures,  his  confused 
periods,  and  his  defective  elocution.  But  Satyrus  the 
actor  encouraged  him,  and  gave  a  proper  direction  to  his 
indomitable  resolution,  by  showing  him  the  importance 
of  appropriate  action  and  of  a  distinct  and  well-modu- 


lated utterance.  Demosthenes  then  shut  himself  up  in 
a  subterranean  study,  and  laboured  with  unremitting 
diligence  in  order  to  perfect  himself  as  an  orator.  He  is 
said  to  have  shaved  one  side  of  his  head,  that  he  might 
be  absolutely  prevented  from  going  into  society.  He 
improved  his  style  by  transcribing  Thucydides,  the  con- 
centrated thought  and  energy  of  whose  writings  were  the 
objects  of  his  especial  emulation.  Some  writers  state 
that  he  copied  the  history  of  Thucydides  no  less  than 
eight  times. 

At  the  age  of  about  twenty-seven  (355  B.C.)  he  again 
came  forward  to  compete  for  the  palm  of  eloquence  in 
his  oration  against  Leptines,  and  was  completely  success- 
ful. Soon  afterwards  he  appeared  on  a  more  conspicu- 
ous stage,  and  became  one  of  the  principal  actors  in  the 
history  of  that  period.  "  He  had  a  glorious  subject  for 
his  political  ambition,"  says  Plutarch, — "to  defend  the 
cause  of  Greece  against  Philip.  He  soon  gained  great 
reputation  both  for  eloquence  and  for  the  bold  truths 
which  he  spoke."  Amidst  the  general  venality  of  the 
Grecian  orators,  Demosthenes  alone  was  proof  against 
the  seductions  of  Macedonian  gold  ;  and  his  political 
foresight  was  not  inferior  to  his  integrity  or  patriotism. 
Had  the  watchful  sagacity  with  which  he  penetrated  the 
deep-laid  schemes  of  Philip  been  ably  seconded  by  the 
other  Athenian  leaders,  and  had  their  armies  been  led  by 
competent  generals,  the  liberties  of  Greece  would,  in  all 
probability,  never  have  succumbed  to  the  arts  or  arms  of 
the  King  of  Macedon.  Between  the  years  352  and  340 
B.C.  Demosthenes  pronounced  his  eleven  (or,  as  some 
say,  twelve)  celebrated  orations  against  Philip.  Four 
of  these  are  especially  denominated  "  Philippics."  In 
338  B.C.  Demosthenes  was  one  of  the  fugitives  from  the 
disastrous  battle  of  Chaeronea  ;  but  he  still  preserved  his 
controlling  influence  in  the  state  ;  and  Ctesiphon  pro- 
posed that  the  people  should  confer  upon  him  a  crown 
of  gold  as  the  reward  of  his  eminent  public  services. 
This  measure  caused  between  him  and  his  rival  i^schines 
a  contest  which,  after  the  lapse  of  several  years,  resulted 
in  the  triumph  of  Demosthenes  in  330  B.C.,  when  he  made 
his  famous  speech  "On  the  Crown,"  (Hep?  Sre^avof,)  re- 
garded by  many  critics  as  the  greatest  of  all  his  achieve- 
ments as  an  orator. 

When  Harpalus,  the  unfaithful  steward  of  Alexander, 
sought  refuge  in  Athens,  Demosthenes  was  accused  by 
his  enemies  of  having  received  a  bribe  from  the  Mace- 
donian, and  was  condemned  to  pay  a  heavy  fine.  In  the 
opinion  of  the  best  historical  critics,  however,  his  guilt 
is  very  far  from  having  been  established.  Unable  to  pay 
the  penalty  imposed,  he  retired  to  ^gina.  He  remained 
in  exile  till  the  death  of  Alexander,  when  he  returned  in 
triumph  to  Athens.  His  last  efforts  for  liberty  having 
failed,  and  his  death  having  been  decreed  by  the  vict(j- 
rious  Antipater,  he  took  poison  and  died  in  322  B.C. 

Sixty  orations  and  about  sixty-five  introductions  [i.e. 
exordial  fragments  of  speeches)  ascribed  to  Demosthenes 
have  been  preserved  ;  but  of  these  several  are  considered 
to  be  spurious.  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  all 
the  orations  were  spoken  in  the  exact  form  in  which 
they  have  come  down  to  us  :  if  is,  indeed,  probable  that 
many  of  them  were  revised  after  they  were  delivered. 
Demosthenes  seldom  spoke  in  public  without  careful 
preparation  ;  and  he  appears  to  have  been  extremely 
averse  to  extemporaneous  speaking,  although,  according 
to  some  authorities,  his  unpremeditated  speeches  were 
superior  in  spirit  and  boldness  to  his  more  elaborate 
efforts.  The  extraordinary  success  of  his  oratory  was 
due  in  no  small  measure  to  the  steadfastness  with  whii  h 
he  kept  the  attention  of  his  hearers  riveted  on  the  one 
great  object  which  he  had  in  view.  Nothing  super- 
fluous, nothing  which  did  not  contribute  to  that  object, 
was  admitted  into  his  discourse.'  There  was  no  striving 
after  ornament,  no  effort  at  mere  display.  "  He  uses 
language,"  says  Fenelon,  "as  a  modest  man  uses  his 
dress,— simply  to  cover  him.  We  think  not  of  his  words  : 
we  think  only  of  the  things  which  he  says.  He  lightens, 
he  thunders,  he  is  a  torrent  which  sweeps  everything 
before  it.  We  can  neither  criticise  nor  admire,  because 
we  have  not  the  command  of  our  own  faculties."  "  His 
style,"  observes  Hume,  "is  rapid  harmony  exactly  ad- 
I  justed  to  the  sense ;  it  is  vehement  reasoning  without 


€  as     c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,  gtithiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23,) 


DEMOSTHENES 


744 


DENIS 


any  appearance  of  art ;  it  is  disdain,  anger,  boldness, 
freedom,  involved  in  a  continued  stream  of  argument ; 
and  of  all  human  productions  his  orations  present  the 
models  which  approach  the  nearest  to  perfection."  "  Such 
was  the  first  of  Orators,"  says  Lord  Brougham  :  "  at  the 
head  of  all  the  mighty  masters  of  speech,  the  adoration 
of  ages  has  consecrated  his  place,  and  the  loss  of  the 
noble  instrument*  with  which  he  forged  and  launched  his 
thunders,  is  sure  to  maintain  it  unapproachable  forever." 

See  Grote,  "History  of  Greece,"  vol.  xi.  chap.  Ixxxvii. ;  Tuirl- 
w.^LL,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  Plutarch,  "  Lives  ;"  Fenelon,  "  Let- 
ter to  the  French  Academy  on  Rhetoric,  Poetry,"  etc.  ;  Hume, 
"Essay  on  Eloquence ;"t  Brougham,  "Dissertation  on  the  Elo- 
quence of  the  Ancients;"  Cicero,  "De  Oratore,"  iii. ;  H.  Wolf, 
"Vita  Demosthenis  et  yEschinis,"  1572;  Aime  Boullee,  "Vie  de 
Demosthene,"  1834;  F.  Theremin,  " Demosthenes  und  Massillon," 
1845:  P.  Ekerman,  "Demosthenes  Oratorum  Princeps,"  1740; 
Rene  Rapin,  "  Comparaison  de  Demosthene  et  de  Ciceron,"  1676; 
E.  Plstor,  "Demosthenes  als  Staatsbiirger,  Redner,  etc.,"  1830; 
Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grsca;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  Janu- 
ary, 1820,  and  February,  1822;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Demosthenes,  an  able  Athenian  general,  who  was 
a  conspicuous  actor  in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  In  425 
B.C.  he  defended  Pylos  against  the  Spartans  with  skill 
and  success,  and  compelled  the  enemy  to  capitulate  ; 
but  Cleon,  who  had  assumed  the  command,  claimed  the 
honour  of  this  exploit.  In  the  year  413  he  and  Eury- 
medon  commanded  the  army  sent  to  reinforce  Nicias  at 
Syracuse.  Demosthenes  disapproved  the  dilatory  con- 
duct of  Nicias,  and  attacked  the  heights  of  Epipolae  by 
night,  but  was  repulsed  with  loss.  After  another  defeat 
in  the  harbour,  the  Athenians  raised  the  siege,  and  re- 
treated by  land  ;  but  they  were  compelled  to  surrender, 
and  Demosthenes  was  put  to  death,  413  B.C. 

See  Thucvdides,  books  v.,  vi.,  and  vii.  ;  Grote,  "History  of 
Greece;"  Thirlwall,  "History  of  Greece;"  Plutarch,  "  Aici- 
biades,"  and  "Nicias." 

De-mos'the-nes  Phil-a-le'thes,  a  Greek  physician, 
who  lived  probably  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era,  and  was  a  skilful  oculist. 

Demours,  deh-mooR'or  d'mooR,  (Antoine  Pierre,) 
a  French  surgeon,  son  of  Pierre,  noticed  below,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1762.  He  directed  his  attention  chiefly 
to  ocular  surgery,  in  which  he  became  very  expert.  He 
received  the  title  of  oculi.st  to  the  king  from  Louis  XVIII. 
and  from  Charles  X.  In  1818  he  published  the  results 
of  his  multiplied  researches  and  long  experience,  in  a 
"Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Eyes,"  (3  vols.,)  which 
was  the  most  complete  work  that  had  appeared  on  that 
subject.    Died  in  1836. 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Demours,  (Pierre,)  a  French  oculist,  born  at  Mar- 
seilles in  1702.  In  1730  he  obtained  the  place  of  demon- 
strator and  curator  of  the  cabinet  of  natural  history  in 
the  Royal  Garden.  He  assisted  Antoine  Petit  in  his 
anatomical  researches,  and  acquired  skill  in  diseases  of 
the  eye.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don, of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris,  royal  censor, 
and  oculist  to  the  king.  He  wrote  a  few  treatises  on 
ocular  surgery.    Died  in  1795. 

See  Querard,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Demoustier,  deh-mooi'te-i',  (Ch.-^rles  Albert,)  a 
French  writer,  born  at  Villers-Cotterets  in  1760,  was  de- 
scended by  his  father  from  Racine,  and  by  his  mother 
from  La  Fontaine.  His  "Letters  to  Emilia  on  Mytho- 
logy" {1786)  had  a  great  temporary  popularity;  but  the 
style  is  pretentious  and  offends  against  good  taste.  He 
wrote  several  comedies  and  operas,  which  were  success- 
ful, but  are  now  neglected.  Among  these  are  "Alceste," 
and  "  Les  Femmes,"  ("  Women,")  both  comedies  in 
verse.    Died  in  1801. 

Demp'ster,  (George,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born  at 
Dundee  in  1736,  was  a  member  of  Parliament  from  1762 
to  1790,  and  was  a  political  friend  of  Fox.  He  published 
the  "  Magnetic  Mountains  of  Cannay,"  "  Letters  on  Agri- 
culture," and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1818. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Dempster,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  writer,  noted  for  his 
learning  and  violent  temper,  was  born  at  Muiresk  in 


*  Tiie  Greek  language. 

t  Tile  passage  above  cited  is  found  only  in  the  later  editions  of 
Hume's  "  Essays." 


1579,  and  studied  at  Paris  and  Rome.  It  is  said  that  he 
was  regent  of  the  College  of  Navarre  in  Paris  at  the 
age  of  seventeen  ;  he  was  afterwards  professor  of  law 
and  belles-lettres  at  Toulouse,  Nimes,  Pisa,  and  Bologna. 
His  quarrelsome  temper  often  involved  him  in  scenes  of 
armed  violence.  He  wrote  numerous  works,  of  which 
the  best-known  is  "  Historia  Gentis  Scotorum,"  which 
is  a  biographical  dictionary  of  Scottish  authors.  Baillet 
accuses  him  of  literary  forgery.    Died  in  1625. 

SeeCHAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"  Encyciopjedia  Britannica." 

Denesle,  deh-neK,  a  mediocre  French  author,  born 
at  Meaux  ;  died  in  1767. 

Deneux,  deh-nuh',  (Louis  Charles,)  a  French  medi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Heilly  (Somme)  in  1767  ;  died  in  1846. 

Denham,  d^n'am,  (Colonel  Dixon,)  a  British  officer 
and  traveller,  born  in  London  in  1786,  served  in  the 
Peninsular  war  in  1811,  and  in  Belgium  in  1815.  In 
1821  he  accompanied  Clapperton  and  Oudney  in  an  ex- 
pedition to  Timbuctoo.  In  February,  1823,  they  arrived 
at  Kouka,  on  Lake  Tchad,  where  they  were  kindly  re- 
ceived. There  Denham  parted  from  his  companions,  and 
joined  a  party  of  natives  on  an  expedition  to  Mandara, 
in  which  he  met  with  perilous  adventures.  Returning 
homeward,  he  arrived  in  England  in  June,  1825,  and  pub- 
lished a  valuable  narrative  of  the  enterprise,  in  which  he 
had  disj^layed  great  energy  and  courage.  This  narrative 
was  written  chiefly  by  Denham,  and  contained  some  small 
contributions  from  Clapperton.  Having  been  appointed 
Governor  of  Sierra  Leone,  he  died  there  in  1828. 

Denham,  den'am,  (Sir  John,)  a  British  poet,  born  in 
Dublin  in  1615,  was  the  only  son  of  Sir  John  Denham, 
baron  of  the  exchequer,  who  brought  him  to  London 
while  in  his  infancy.  He  studied  law;  but  his  success 
was  hindered  by  an  extravagant  passion  for  gaming.  In 
1641  he  produced  "The  Sophy,"  a  tragedy,  which  was 
very  successful,  and  which  drew  from  Waller  tlie  following 
expression, — "  He  broke  out  like  the  Irish  rebellion, 
threescore  thousand  strong,  when  nobody  was  aware  or  in 
the  least  suspected  it."  His  reputation  was  increased  by 
his  poem  of  "Cooper's  Hill,"  (1643,)  which  was  praised 
by  Dryden  and  Pope.  Dr.  Johnson  says,  "Denham  is 
deservedly  considered  as  one  of  the  fathers  of  English 
poetry.  13enham  and  Waller,  according  to  Prior,  iin- 
proved  our  versification,  and  Dryden  perfected  it."  He 
died  in  1668,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets;"  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxoni- 
enses;"  Chalmers,  "General  Biographical  Dictionary ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Denina,  da-nee'nS,  (Giacommaria  Carlo,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  historian  and  priest,  born  at  Revello,  in 
Piedmont,  in  1731.  Having  written  an  approved  work 
on  the  "Study  of  Theology,"  about  1758,  he  was  chosen 
professor  of  humanities  and  rhetoric  in  the  Superior 
College  of  Turin.  In  1769  he  published  the  first  volume 
of  his  "  History  of  the  Revolutions  of  Italy,"  ("  Istoria 
delle  Rivoluzioni  d'ltalia,")  which  was  received  with 
favour  and  is  his  principal  work.  Two  other  volumes 
of  it  appeared  soon  after.  In  1782  he  went  to  Berlin,  by 
invitation  from  Frederick  II.,  and  there  wrote  numerous 
works  on  history,  etc.  In  1804  he  was  appointed  li- 
brarian to  the  emperor  Napoleon,  and  resided  in  Paris 
from  that  time  until  his  death.  In  1809  he  produced  a 
"  History  of  Western  Italy."  He  was  author  of  an  im- 
portant work  entitled  "The  Vicissitudes  of  Literature," 
("  Vicende  della  Letteratura,"  1760,  i  vol. ;  2d  ed.,  1785, 
in  2  vols.;  3d  ed.,  181 1,  in  4  vols.)    Died  in  1813. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri ;"  Scarrone, 
"Memorie  intorno  alia  Vita  dell'Abate  Denina,"  179S;  Carlo  G. 
Rkina,  "Vitadi  C.  Denina,"  1820. 

Dem.s,  (King  of  Portugal.)    See  DiNiz. 

Denis,  deh-ne'  or  d'n6,  (Ferdinand,)  a  French  litte- 
rafeur,  born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  made  a  voyage  to  Brazil, 
and  on  his  return  published  "Brazil,  or  the  History, 
Manners,  and  Customs  of  the  Inhabitants  of  that  Re- 
gion," (1822,  6  vols.)  He  also  wrote  "A  ComiJendium 
of  the  Literary  History  of  Portugal  and  Brazil,"  (1826,) 
"The  Travelling  Brahmin,  or  Popular  Wisdom  of  all 
Nations,"  (1832,)  and  many  other  works.  He  has  con- 
tributed to  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale"  most 
of  the  notices  of  eminent  Portuguese. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  ftll,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


DENIS 


745 


DENON 


Denis,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  physician,  born  in 
Paris,  obtained  the  title  of  consulting  physician  to  Louis 
XIV.  In  1673  he  was  invited  by  Charles  II.  to  England, 
where  he  remained  but  a  short  time.  He  published  in 
1672  a  "Collection  of  Memoirs  and  Conferences  on  the 
Arts  and  Sciences  presented  to  the  Dauphin."  He 
practised  the  transfusion  of  blood.    Died  in  1704. 

See  £loy,  "  Dictioniiaire  de  la  Medecine." 

Denis,  da^iis,  (Johann  Michael  Cosmus,)  a  German 
poet  and  bibliographer,  born  at  Scharding,  Bavaria,  in 
1729.  He  published  a  learned  "Introduction  to  the 
Knowledge  of  Books,"  comprising  bibliography  and  lite- 
rary history,  (1777.)  In  1791  he  was  appointed  chief 
librarian  of  the  Imperial  Library,  Vienna.  He  rendered 
important  services  by  his  efforts  to  reform  and  polish 
the  German  language  and  poetry,  and  took  Ossian  and 
the  Northern  bards  as  his  models.  He  wrote,  in  German 
verse,  an  "Epistle  to  Klopstock,"  (1764,)  odes  on  public 
events,  Souvenirs,  (1794,)  and  other  admired  poems, 
among  which  is  a  version  of  Ossian.    Died  in  1800. 

See  "M.  Denisii  Commeniariorum  de  Vita  sua  libri  v.,"  in  Ger- 
man, 1802;  Carl  Anton  von  Gruber,  "Sineds  Tod,"  Vienna, 
1800. 

Denis,  (Louis,)  a  French  geographer  and  engraver, 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "Physical,  Political, 
and  Mathematical  Map  of  the  World,"  (1764.) 

Denis,  (Nicolas.)    See  Den  vs. 

Denis,  Saint,  (Pope.)    See  Dionysius. 

Denis  or  Denys,  Saint,  the  patron  saint  of  France, 
and  the  first  bishop  of  Paris,  was  sent  from  Rome  about 
the  middle  of  the  third  century  to  evangelize  the  Gauls. 
It  is  said  that  he  converted  numerous  idolaters,  and  built 
a  church  in  Paris.  He  suffered  martyrdom  during  the 
persecution  of  Valerian,  about  272  a.d. 

See  Vercelly,  "  Vie  de  S.  Denis,  premier  fiveque  de  Paris,"  1854 ; 
TiLLEMONT,  "  Meinoires  ecclesiastiques  ;"  Mrs.  Jameson,  "History 
of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Den'i-son,  (John  Evelyn,)  an  English  legislator, 
and  a  member  of  the  Liberal  party,  born  in  1800.  He 
has  represented  Newcastle,  Hastings,  and  Malton  in 
Parliament.  He  was  elected  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1857,  in  1859,  in  1866,  and  in  1868. 

Den'is-tpun  or  Den'nis-toun,  (James,)  a  Scottish 
biographer  and  writer  on  art,  born  about  1802.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Memoirs  of  the  Dukes 
of  Urbino,"  (London,  1850.)    Died  \\\  1855. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1851. 

Den'man,  (Thomas,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Derbyshire  in  1733,  ^^'^^  ^  surgeon  in  the  royal  navy, 
and  afterwards  practised  with  success  in  London.  He 
published,  besides  other  able  treatises  on  obstetrics,  an 
"Introduction  to  the  Practice  of  Midwifery."  Died 
in  1818. 

Denman,  (Thomas,)  first  Lord  Denman,  an  English 
judge,  born  in  London  in  1779,  was  the  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1806.  Having  attained  eminence  in  his 
profession,  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Wareham  in 
181 8.  From  1820  to  1831  he  represented  Nottingham, 
and  supported  electoral  reform  and  other  liberal  meas- 
ures. In  1820  he  was  employed  as  solicitor-general  for 
Queen  Caroline,  and  was  associated  with  Brougham  in 
her  defence.  He  became  attorney-general  in  1830,  and 
chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  in  1832.  In  1834  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage,  and  in  the  upper  house  advo- 
cated the  abolition  of  slavery.  Having  discharged  the 
duties  of  judge  with  credit,  he  resigned  his  office  in  1850, 
and  died  'n  1854. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Denne,  d^n,  (John,)  an  English  divine  and  antiquary, 
born  at  Littlebourne,  in  Kent,  in  1693,  became  Arch- 
deacon of  Rochester  in  1728,  and  rector  of  Lambeth 
in  1731.  He  contributed  to  Lewis's  "Life  of  Wicklif," 
and  published  a  volume  of  sermons.    Died  in  1767. 

Denne,  (Samuel,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Westminster  in  1730,  became  vicar  of  Darent  in  1767. 
He  wrote  the  "  History  and  Antiquities  of  Rochester," 
and  other  antiquarian  treatises.    Died  in  1799. 

Denne-Baron,  dSn'ba'rAN',  (Pierre  Jacques  Ren£,) 
a  French  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1780,  wrote  "  Hero  and 
Leander,"  an  epic  poem,  (1806,)  and  made  translations 
from  other  languages.    Died  in  1854. 


Denne-Baron,  (Ren6  Dieudonne,)  a  musical  com- 
poser, son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1804. 
He  has  contributed  to  Didot's  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale"  most  of  the  notices  of  musicians,  and  has 
been  engaged  on  a  history  of  music  in  France. 

Denner,  d^n'ner,  (Balthasar,)  an  eminent  German 
portrait-painter,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1685.  He  worked 
in  several  countries,  gained  a  brilliant  reputation,  and 
painted  many  portraits  of  kings  and  princes.  His  works 
are  chiefly  remarkable  for  extreme  minuteness  of  finish. 
Died  in  1747. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Denner,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  maker  of  musical 
instruments,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1655.  He  made  flutes 
of  superior  quality,  and  is  said  to  have  invented  the 
clarionet.    Died  in  1707. 

Dennery,  d^n'Re',  (Adolphe  Philippe,)  a  French 
dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1812,  composed  successful 
dramas,  vaudevilles,  and  comic  operas,  among  which  are 
"The  Market  of  London,"  (1845,)  and  "The  Bohemians 
of  Paris." 

Den'nie,  (Joseph,)  an  American  critic,  author,  and 
journalist,  born  in  Boston  in  1768.  He  studied  law, 
but  did  not  practise  it.  He  edited  "  The  Farmers' 
Museum"  at  Walpole,  New  Hampshire,  1795-98,  and 
wrote  the  "Lay  Preacher"  in  that  periodical.  He  re- 
moved to  Philadelphia  in  1799,  and  founded  "The  Port- 
folio," a  literary  magazine,  which  he  edited  from  1801  till 
1812.  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  writer  among  his 
contemporaries.  Moore,  the  poet,  in  a  note  to  one  of 
his  "Poems  relating  to  America,"  speaks  in  terms  of 
high  commendation  of  Dennie's  taste  and  literary  attain- 
ments.   Died  in  Philadelphia  in  1812. 

See  DuvcKiNCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Den'nie,  (William  Henry,)  a  British  officer,  who 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Burmese  war  (1826-27) 
and  in  the  Afghan  war.  He  was  killed  at  Jellalabad  in 
April,  1842. 

Denniee,  dk'ne-i',  (Antoine,)  Baron,  a  French 
officer,  born  at  Versailles  in  1754.  Under  the  empire 
he  was  made  secretary  of  the  war  department.  Died 
in  1829. 

Dennis.    See  Diniz. 

Den'nis,  (John,)  an  English  writer  and  critic,  born  in 
London  in  1657,  acquired  notoriety  as  a  politician,  pam- 
phleteer, and  dramatist.  His  habits  were  improvident, 
and  his  temper  quarrelsome,  if  not  malevolent.  He 
made  many  enemies  by  his  defamatory  or  satirical  at- 
tacks on  authors  and  public  functionaries.  The  most 
successful  of  his  dramas  v^'ere  "Liberty  Asserted,"  and 
"A  Plot  and  No  Plot."  He  published  some  offensive 
criticisms  on  Pope,  who  took  his  revenge  in  the  "  Dun- 
ciad."  His  vanity  and  hatred  of  the  French  caused  him 
to  imagine  that  the  French  king  would  not  make  peace 
with  England  except  on  the  condition  that  the  latter 
power  should  deliver  him  up  to  the  former.  The  pro- 
verbial ex])ression  of  "stealing  one's  thunder"  is  said  to 
owe  its  origin  to  Dennis.  Having  invented  a  new  arti- 
ficial thunder  for  one  of  his  own  plays,  he  found  the 
managers  of  Drury  Lane  employing  it  in  "Macbeth," 
when  he  exclaimed,  "These  rascals  have  stolen  my 
thunder!"    Died  in  1734. 

See  Disraeli,  "Calamities  of  Authors;"  "  Biographia  Britan- 
nica:"  Edmund  Curll, Life  of  J.  Dennis,"  1734  ;  "Retrospec- 
tive Review,"  vol.  i.,  1820. 

Dennistoun.    See  Denistoun. 

Den'ny,  (Sir  Anthony,)  an  English  courtier  and 
favourite  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  appointed  him  a  privy 
councillor  and  one  of  the  executors  of  his  will.  Died  in 
1550.   Sir  John  Cheke  honoured  his  memory  by  a  poem. 

Denon,  deh-n6N',  (Dominique  Vivant,)  an  eminent 
French  artist  and  author,  remarkable  for  his  various 
accomplishments,  was  born  at  Chalons-sur-Saone  in 
1747.  In  early  youth  he  obtained  a  place  in  the  retinue 
of  the  ambassador  to  Russia.  About  1774  he  was  pa- 
tronized by  the  Count  de  Vergennes,  minister  of  state, 
who  employed  him  on  a  mission  to  Switzerland.  On  his 
way  thither  he  visited  Voltaire  at  Ferney,  and  diew  his 
portrait.  From  1782  to  1787  he  was  charge-d'affaires  at 
Naples,  and  after  the  latter  date  exchanged  diplomacy 
for  the  arts  of  design.    He  became  a  member  of  the 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Si^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DENORES 


746 


DE  PETSTER 


Royal  Academy  in  1787,  and  during  the  Revolution  re- 
ceived from  Robespierre  a  commission  to  design  repub- 
lican costumes.  In  1798  he  was  invited  by  Bonaparte 
to  join  the  expedition  to  Egypt,  and  eagerly  embraced 
an  opportunity  which  afforded  him  so  rich  a  field  for 
artirsiic  studies.  He  made  drawings  of  the  monuments 
and  other  objects  of  interest  in  that  country.  He  was 
one  of  the  favourite  attendants  whom  Bonaparte  selected 
when  he  returned  to  France,  and  was  the  first  to  gratify 
the  public  curiosity  by  a  description  of  what  he  had  wit- 
nessed, which  appeared  in  1802  with  the  most  flattering 
success.  About  1802  he  was  appointed  director-general 
of  the  museums.  He  accompanied  Bonaparte  in  several 
of  his  campaigns,  displayed  intrepidity  by  making  de- 
signs in  the  midst  of  battles,  and  had  great  influence  in 
deciding  questions  relative  to  works  of  art  and  public 
monuments.  Denon  was  made  a  baron,  an  officer  of  the 
legion  of  honour,  and  member  of  the  Institute.  The  title 
of  his  principal  work,  above  referred  to,  is  "Travels  in 
Upper  and  Lower  Egypt  during  the  Campaigns  of  Gene- 
ral Bonaparte,"  ('*  Voyage  dans  la  haute  et  la  basse 
Egypte  pendant  les  Campagnesdu  General  Bonaparte.") 
He  also  contributed  to  the  great  work  published  by  the 
Commission  of  Egypt.    Died  in  1825. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  Coupin,  "  Notice  sur  De- 
non," 8vo,  1825;  Amedee  de -iPastoket,  "filoge  historique  de  M. 
le  Baron  Denon."  1851. 

Denores.    See  Nores. 

Dens,  dens  or  d6N,  (Peter,)  a  Flemish  Roman  Catho- 
lic theologian,  born  near  Antwerp  about  1690.  He  pub- 
lished several  religious  works.    Died  in  1775. 

Dent,  (John  H.,)  a  naval  officer,  born  in  Maryland, 
entered  the  United  States  navy  in  1798.  He  commanded 
a  vessel  of  the  squadron  under  Commodore  Preble  in 
the  war  with  Tripoli  in  1804,  and  became  a  cajDtain  in 
181 1.    Died  in  1823. 

Den-ta'tus,  (Lucius  Sicinius,)  a  Roman  tribune, 
noted  for  his  bravery  and  extraordinary  services.  He 
took  part  in  one  hundred  and  twenty  battles,  received 
about  forty  wounds  in  the  breast,  and  obtained  fourteen 
civic  crowns,  besides  other  honours.  Appius  Claudius 
the  decemvir,  whom  he  had  offended,  caused  him  to  be 
assassinated  about  450  B.C. 

Dentatus,  (Manius  Curius,)  a  Roman  consul,  re- 
nowned for  his  military  exploits  and  frugal  mode  of  life. 
He  was  surnamed  Dentatus,  it  is  said,  because  he 
was  born  with  teeth.  He  was  consul  in  290  B.C.,  and 
terminated  a  long  war  against  the  Samnites  by  a  signal 
victory.  In  275  B.C.  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
Pyrrhus  near  Beneventum.  He  was  consul  for  the  third 
time  in  274,  and,  after  the  expiration  of  his  term,  retired 
to  his  farm,  where  he  once  proved  his  integrity  by  re- 
fusing rich  presents  from  a  Samnite  embassy.  While 
holding  the  office  of  censor,  in  272,  he  supplied  Rome 
with  water  from  the  Anio  by  an  aqueduct.  Died  about 
270  B.C. 

See  RoLLiN,  "Roman  History  ;"  Niebuhr,  "  History  of  Rome ;" 
PoLYBius,  book  ii. 

Den'tpn,  (John,)  an  English  nonconformist  minister 
and  writer,  born  in  1 625,  became  prebendary  of  York. 
Died  in  1708, 

Denton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
Cumberland  in  1724,  published  two  poems  in  imitation 
of  Spenser,  viz.,  "Immortality,"  and  "The  House  of 
Superstition,"  (1762.)    Died  in  1777. 

Denton,  (William,)  an  English  physician,  born  at 
Stowe,  in  Bucks,  in  1605.  He  was  appointed  physician 
to  Charles  I.  in  1636,  and  after  the  restoration  served 
Charles  II.  in  the  same  capacity.  He  wrote  a  few  dis- 
courses against  the  Catholics.    Died  in  1691. 

Dentone,  d^n-to'ni,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
lived  in  Venice  about  1470. 

Dentone,  II,  h\  dh\-\.o'\A,  (Girolamo  Curti — kooR'- 
tee,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1576.  He 
was  skilful  in  vertical  perspective,  and  was  distinguished 
as  a  painter  of  theatrical  decorations.  His  works  were 
adorned  with  figures  by  Antonio  Caracci  and  Guercino. 
Died  in  1631. 

See  Malvasia,  "  Felsina  pittrice." 

DentrecoUes,  dSNtR'koK,  (Francois  Xavier, )  a 
French  Jesuit,  born  at  Lyons  in  1664,  went  as  missionary 


to  China,  where  he  laboured  many  years,  became  supe- 
rior-general of  the  mission,  and  pu  blished  many  religious 
books  in  the  Chinese  language.    Died  in  Pekin  in  1741. 

Denuelle,  deh-nii''eK,  (Dominique  Alexandre,)  a 
French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1818. 

Den'ver,  (James  W.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Winchester,  Virginia,  in  1818.  He  emigrated  to  Cali- 
fornia about  1850,  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1854,  and  was  Governor  of  Kansas  from  December, 
1857,  to  August  or  November,  1858.  He  was  appointed 
a  brigadier-general  in  1861. 

Denys.    See  Denis  and  Dionysius. 

Denys,  deh-ne',  (Jacques,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at 
Antwerp  about  1645.  He  studied  in  Rome  and  Venice, 
and  acquired  the  noble  style  of  the  Italian  masters.  He 
painted  historical  pictures,  at  Mantua,  for  the  Duke  of 
Mantua,  and  was  successful  in  portraits.  After  a  resi- 
dence of  fourteen  years  in  Italy,  he  returned  to  Antwerp, 
where  he  soon  after  died.  Among  his  works,  which  are 
nearly  all  in  Italy,  is  an  "  Ecce  Homo." 

SeeDESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc;  Nagler, 
"  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Denys  or  Denis,  deh-ne',  (Nicolas,)  a  Frenchman, 
born  at  Tours,  was  appointed  Governor  of  Canada  and 
Acadia  in  1632.  He  wrote  a  "Description  of  the  Coasts 
of  North  America,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1672.) 

Denys,  Saint.    See  Denis,  (Saint.) 

Denys  d'Halicarnasse.  See  Dionysius  of  Hali- 
carnassus. 

Denys  I'Ancien.    See  Dionysius  the  Elder. 

Denys  le  Jeune.    See  Dionysius  the  Younger. 

Denys  le  Periegete.    See  Dionysius  Periegetes. 

Deodati.    See  Diodati. 

D'idon.    See  Eon,  d',  (Chevalier.) 

Deparcieux,  da'pSR^se-uh',  sometimes  written  De 
Parcieux,  (Antoine,)  aii~~able  French  mathematician, 
born  near  Nimes  in  1703,  went  to  Paris,  where  he  sup- 
ported himself  by  tracing  sun-dials,  in  which  he  was  very 
skilful.  He  had  much  mechanical  talent,  and  invented 
several  useful  machines.  He  became  royal  censor,  and 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  to  which  he 
contributed  sixteen  treatises.  By  his  zeal  for  the  public 
good  he  merited  the  title  of  ci'tizen-philosopher  which 
Voltaire  gave  him.  He  published  an  "Essay  on  the 
Probability  of  the  Duration  of  Human  Life,"  (1746,) 
"Astronomical  Tables,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1768. 

See  Grandjean  de  Fouchv,  "  Eloge  de  A.  Deparcieux." 

Deparcieux  or  De  Parcieux,  (Antoine,)  a  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Cessoux-le- Vieux  in  1753,  ac- 
quired distinction  as  a  writer  and  lecturer  on  mathe- 
matics and  physical  sciences.  On  the  formation  of  the 
central  schools  he  was  chosen  professor  of  chemistry  and 
physics  at  the  Pantheon.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on 
Annuities,"  (1781,)  and  left  in  manuscript  an  able  work 
called  a  "Complete  Course  of  Physics  and  Chemistry," 
in  which  he  demonstrated  the  intimate  connection  of 
chemistry  with  other  sciences.    Died  in  1799. 

See  Maherault,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  du  Citoyen  Deparcieux," 
1800. 

Depaulis,  deh-po'l^ss',  (Alexis  Joseph,)  a  French 
engraver  of  medals,  born  in  Paris  in  1792,  received  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  in  183 1. 

Deperthes,  deh-piut',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
artist  and  writer  on  art,  born  at  Rheims  in  1761,  lived  in 
Paris.  In  1818  he  published  his  "Theory  of  Landscape- 
Painting,"  ("Theorie  du  Paysage,")  which  was  followed 
by  a  "  History  of  the  Art  of  Landscape-Painting  from  the 
Renaissance  of  Art  to  the  Eighteenth  Century."  Both 
of  these  works  are  highly  appreciated.    Died  in  1833. 

De  Peyster,  de  pTs'ler,  (Abraham,)  an  eminent  New 
York  merchant,  son  of  Johannes  de  Peyster,  was  born 
in  1658.  He  was  mayor  of  New  York,  chief  justice  of  the 
province,  and  president  of  the  king's  council,  in  which 
capacity  he  ot^iciated  as  governor  in  1691,    Died  in  1728. 

De  Peyster,  (A.  Schuyler,)  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  New  York  in  1736.  He  served  in 
the  French  war  of  1755  '^""•c^c  hi-^  uncle.  Colonel  Peter 
Schuyler,  and  held  various  commands  in  the  royal  army 
during  the  Revolution.  It  was  largely  through  his  efforts 
that  the  Indians  were  detached  from  the  American  cause 
and  allied  with  the  British.    Died  in  1832. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAor^;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DE  PETSTER 


DERBY 


De  Peyster,  (Johannes,)  one  of  the  early  settlers 
of  New  York,  was  born  at  Haarlem,  in  Holland.  He 
became  mayor  of  New  York  after  it  had  passed  into  the 
pe  er  of  the  English.    Died  in  1685. 

Deplace,  deh-pl^s',  (Guy  Marie,)  a  French  writer, 
born  at  Roanne  (Loire)  in  1772;  died  in  1843. 

See  CoLLOMBET,  "Notice  sur  G.  M.  Deplace,"  1843;  Sainte- 
Reuve,  "  Portraits  litteraires,"  vol.  ii. 

Deponthon,  deh-pi^N'toN',  (Charles  FRANgois, ) 
Baron,  a  French  general,  born  at  £claron  in  1777,  served 
at  the  battles  of  Moskwa,  Lutzen,  and  Bautzen,  (1813.) 
He  became  a  peer  of  France  in  1846.    l^ied  in  1849. 

Dep'ping,  (George  Bernard,)  an  eminent  scholar 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Miinster  in  1784,  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Paris  about  1803,  and  was  afterwards  naturalized. 
He  pursued  the  vocation  of  author  and  translator  with 
industry  and  success,  and  produced  some  popular  juve- 
nile works,  among  which  is  "Les  Soirees  d'Hiver,"  or 
♦'Evening  Entertainments,"  (3d  edition,  1832.)  He  ob- 
tained the  prize  offered  by  the  Institute  for  his  excellent 
work  on  "The  Maritime  Expeditions  of  the  Normans 
in  the  Tenth  Century,"  (1826,)  which  was  followed  by 
a  "History  of  Normandy,"  (1835,)  and  other  historical 
works.  He  wrote  several  important  articles  for  the 
"Biographic  Universelle,"  and  was  associated  with 
Malte-Brun  in  the  "  Annales  des  Voyages."  Died  in  1853. 

See  Depping's  Autobiography,  entitled  "  Erinneriingen  niis  dem 
Leben  eines  Deutschen  in  Paris,"  1832;  Alfked  Maury,  "  Notice 
sur  la  Vie  et  les  Travaux  de  G.  B.  Depping,"  1854. 

Depres.    See  Despres,  (Josquin.) 

De  Quin'cey,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  author, 
sometimes  called  "The  English  Opium-Eater,"  was  born 
in  a  suburb  of  Manchester  on  the  15th  of  August,  1785. 
He  was  a  younger  son  of  a  rich  merchant,  who  died 
about  1792,  leaving  to  his  widow  and  six  children  a  clear 
fortune  of  ;^i6oo  a  year.  His  childhood  was  passed  in 
rustic  solitude.  He  thanked  Providence  that  "his  infant 
feelings  were  moulded  by  the  gentlest  of  sisters,  instead 
of  horrid  pugilistic  brothers."  About  the  age  of  twelve 
he  was  sent  to  the  grammar-school  of  Bath,  where  he 
attained  such  proficiency  in  Greek  that  his  teacher  said 
he  could  harangue  an  Athenian  mob.  In  July,  1802,  he 
eloped  from  the  Manchester  Grammar-SchooI,  and,  after 
a  pedestrian  tour  in  Wales,  went  to  London,  resolving 
to  hide  himself  from  his  guardians  until  they  should 
cease  to  have  any  control  over  his  actions.  He  passed 
several  months  in  London  in  abject  poverty  and  strange 
adventures,  of  which  he  has  given  an  almost  incredible 
narrative  in  his  "Confessions  of  an  English  Opium- 
Eater."  "It  is  probable,"  says  the  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  of  July,  1861,  "that  the  story,  as  we  now  have 
it,  represents  the  exaggerated  shape  in  which  his  remi- 
niscences came  back  upon  him  under  the  influence  of 
the  favourite  drug."  He  entered  in  1803  the  University 
of  Oxford,  (Worcester  College,)  where  he  remained  about 
five  years,  during  which  he  contracted  a  habit  of  eating 
opium.  He  was  noted  at  this  period  for  his  rare  con- 
versational powers  and  for  his  vast  and  varied  stock  of 
information.  In  1808  or  1809  he  formed  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  and  Southey, 
and  took  up  his  abode  at  Grasmere  Cottage,  recently 
vacated  by  Wordsworth.  He  relieved  the  embarrass- 
ments of  Coleridge  by  a  present  of  ,1^500.  He  continued 
to  reside  at  Grasmere  about  twenty  years,  married  in 
18 1 6,  and  devoted  his  time  to  literary  pursuits.  He  pro- 
duced good  translations  from  Lessing  and  Jean  Paul 
Richter,  and  contributed  many  articles  on  biography, 
philosophy,  and  metajihysics  to  several  periodicals,  in- 
cluding "  Blackwood's"  and  "Tait's  Magazine."  After 
he  had  indulged  in  the  excessive  use  of  opium  for  many 
years,  he  overcame  the  habit,  by  a  desperate  and  long- 
continued  effort,  about  1820.  In  1821  he  produced  a  great 
sensation  by  the  "  Confessions  of  an  English  Opium- 
Eater,"  which  purports  to  be  an  autobiography.  After 
he  quitted  Grasmere  he  resided  in  Glasgow  and  Edin- 
burgh, in  which  city  he  passed  the  latter  years  of  his  life. 

De  Quincey,  though  a  voluminous  writer,  published 
few  books  under  his  own  name.  He  projected  a  great 
work  to  be  entitled  "  On  the  Improvement  of  the  Human 
Intellect,"  ("De  Emendatione  Humani  Intellectus," ) 
which  he  never  finished.   "  He  himself,"  says  the  "Lon- 


don Quarterly  Review,"  "never  finished  anything  except 
his  sentences,  which  are  models  of  elaborate  workman- 
ship. But  many  of  his  essays  are  literally  fragments.  .  .  . 
He  left  us  his  most  precious  ideas  in  the  condition  of  the 
Sibyl's  leaves  after  they  had  been  scattered  by  the  wind. 
Hence  those  who  approach  him  with  any  serious  purpose 
are  only  too  likely  to  come  away  disappointed.  ...  It 
is  in  the  region  of  pure  speculation  that  he  is  most  at 
home.  .  .  .  The  authors  about  whom  he  has  written 
most  are  Milton,  Pope,  Wordsworth,  and  Coleridge.  Of 
the  first,  third,  and  fourth  he  was  a  devoted  admirer  and 
champion.  But  the  second  seemed  to  him  the  very  in- 
carnation of  the  worst  epoch  of  our  literature,"  Accord- 
ing to  the  same  critic,  "We  might  search  in  vain  for  a 
writer  who,  with  equal  powers,  has  made  an  equally 
slight  impression  upon  the  general  public.  His  style  is 
superb,  his  powers  of  reasoning  unsurpassed,  his  imagi- 
nation is  warm  and  brilliant,  and  his  humour  both  mas- 
culine and  delicate.  Yet,  with  this  singular  combination 
of  gifts,  he  is  comparatively  little  known  outside  of  that 
small  circle  of  men  who  love  literature  for  its  own  sake." 
(See  "Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1861.) 

The  first  edition  of  his  collected  works  was  that  pub- 
lished in  Boston  by  Ticknor  &  Fields,  (18  or  20  vols., 
1851-58.)  Volume  I.  contains  "Confessions  of  an  Eng- 
lisji  Opium-Eater"  and  "  Su9i:)iria  de  Profundis ;"  II., 
"  Biographical  Essays  on  Shakspeare,  Pope,  Lamb, 
Gothe,  and  Schiller;"  HI.,  "  Miscellaneous  Essays  ;"  IV., 
"The  Caesars  ;"  V.,  "Life  and  Manners,"  "Early  Days," 
"London,"  "Ireland,"  "Premature  Manhood,"  etc.; 
VI.  and  VII.,  "  Literary  Reminiscences  ;"  VIII.  and  IX., 
"Narrative  and  Miscellaneous  Papers;"  X.,  "Essays 
on  the  English  Poets;"  XI.  and  XII.,  "Historical  and 
Critical  Essays  on  the  Philosophy  of  Roman  History, 
the  Essenes,  Plato's  Republic,  Cicero,"  etc. ;  XIII. 
and  XIV.,  "Essays  on  Philosophical  Writers  and  other 
Men  of  Letters;"  XV.,  "Letters  to  a  Young  Man  whose 
Education  had  been  neglected ;"  XVI.  and  XVII., 
"Theological  Essays,  and  other  Papers;"  XVIII., 
"The  Note-Book  of  an  English  Opium-Eater."  It  is 
stated  that  this  edition  of  his  works  was  published  with 
the  concurrence  of  the  author,  who  also  began  about 
1S55  to  issue  another  edition  or  selection  in  Great  Britain. 
He  (lied  in  Edinburgh  on  the  8th  of  December,  1859. 

See  the  excellent  article  on  De  Quincey  in  the  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1861  ;  "Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1854; 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1852,  and  January,  1861  ;  "British 
Quarterly"  for  July,  1863  ;  and  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  September, 
1863. 

Der'by,  (or  dar'be,)  (Charles  Stanley,)  Earl  of, 
the  son  ot  James,  the  seventh  earl,  was  Lord  of  Man  and 
of  the  Isles.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "The  Protestant 
Religion  is  a  Sure  Foundation  of  a  True  Christian  and  a 
Good  Subject,"  etc.,  (1669.) 

Derby,  (Edward  Geoffrey  Smfi-h  Stanley,)  four- 
teenth Earl  of,  an  eminent  British  statesman  and  orator, 
the  eldest  son  of  Edward,  Lord  Stanley,  (afterwards  the 
thirteenth  Earl  of  Derby,)  was  born  in  Lancashire  in 
March,  1799.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  in  1820 
was  elected  to  Parliament,  in  which  he  soon  attained 
great  eminence  as  a  debater,  and  represented  successively 
Stockbridge,  Preston,  Windsor,  and  North  Lancashire. 
He  married,  in  1825,  Emma  Caroline,  a  daughter  of  Lord 
Skelmersdale.  From  183010  1833  he  was  chief  secretary 
for  Ireland,  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet  of  Lord  Grey.  On 
the  succession  of  his  father  to  the  earldom,  in  1834,  he 
received  the  title  of  Lord  Stanley.  Having  served  as 
colonial  secretary  a  short  time,  he  retired  from  office 
in  1834,  and  joined  the  Tory  or  Conservative  party. 
On  the  accession  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  to  power,  in  1841, 
Lord  Stanley  was  appointed  secretary  for  the  colonies. 
He  was  created  Baron  Stanley,  and  entered  the  House 
of  Lords,  in  1844.  He  resigned  in  the  autumn  of  1845, 
because  he  would  not  supi)ort  Sir  Robert  in  the  repeal 
of  the  Corn-Laws;  and  when  the  Conservative  party 
was  divided  into  two  parts — the  Peelites  and  the  Protec- 
tionist.s — about  1846,  he  became  the  leader  of  the  latter, 
and  directed  the  opposition  to  the  ministry  of  Russell, 
1846-5L  On  the  death  of  his  father,  in  June,  1851,  he 
succeeded  to  the  earldom.  After  the  defeat  of  J^ussell 
in  the  House,  in  February,  1852,  Lord  Derby  formed 
a  ministry,  in  which  he  was  first  lord  of  the  treasury; 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  c,  u,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  k,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DERBT 


748 


DERWENTWATER 


but,  failing  to  obtain  the  support  of  a  majority  for  his 
financial  measures,  he  resigned  in  December,  1852,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Lord  Aberdeen.  He  was  "sent  for" 
by  the  queen,  in  1855,  to  construct  a  Conservative  min- 
istry ;  but  he  declined,  thinking  probably  that  he  could 
not  command  a  sufficient  number  of  votes  in  the  House 
of  Commons.  He  maintained  a  general  opposition  to 
the  ministry  of  Palmerston,  who  was  compelled  to  resign 
in  February,  1858.  Lord  Derby  then  accepted  the  place 
of  premier.  Among  the  important  measures  of  his  ad- 
ministration was  the  reorganization  of  the  government 
of  India,  He  manifested  more  sympathy  with  Austria 
in  the  Italian  question  than  was  conducive  to  his  popu- 
larity. The  agitation  of  the  question  of  electoral  reform 
also  tended  to  make  his  position  untenable,  and,  by  a 
combination  of  Liberals,  Peelites,  and  the  Manchester 
party,  he  was  driven  fiom  power  in  June,  1859.  (See  Dis- 
raeli.) In  June,  1866,  the  Liberal  ministry  resigned, 
because  the  Reform  bill  was  rejected  by  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  Lord  Derby  again  became  prime  minister. 
He  attempted  to  form  a  coalition  with  certain  Whig  lead- 
ers, among  whom  was  Lord  Clarendon  ;  but  his  overtures 
were  coldly  received,  and  he  was  compelled  to  appoint 
an  exclusively  Tory  cabinet.  During  his  administration 
a  Reform  bill,  giving  the  right  of  suffrage  to  all  house- 
holders in  boroughs,  became  a  law,  and  was  signed  by 
the  queen  in  August,  1867.  He  resigned  on  the  25th  of 
February,  1868,  and  was  succeeded  by  Disraeli.  Lord 
Derby  produced  a  translation  of  Homer's  "  Iliad"  in 
blank  verse,  (1865.)  This  version,  says  the  "Edinburgh 
Review,"  "is  far  more  closely  allied  to  the  original,  and 
superior  to  any  that  has  yet  been  attempted  in  the  blank 
verse  of  our  language."    Died  in  October,  1869. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1865  ;  Blackwood's  Ma- 
gazine" for  April,  1865. 

Der'by,  (Elias  Hasket,)  an  American  merchant, 
born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  1739,  made  important 
improvements  in  shipbuilding.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  Revolution  he  loaned  to  the  government  a  large 
portion  of  the  supplies  for  the  army,  and  took  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  equipping  the  158  private  armed  ships 
fitted  out  at  Salem  during  the  war.    Died  in  1799. 

See  Hunt's  "  Lives  of  American  Merchants,"  1858. 

Derby,  (Henry,)  Earl  of,  the  title  of  Henry  IV.  of 
England  in  his  early  life.  (See  Henry  IV.) 
^  Derby,  (James  Stanley,)  seventh  Earl  of,  an  Eng- 
lish nobleman,  born  about  1600,  was  the  nephew  of  the 
fifth  earl,  and  son  of  William  Stanley.  He  fought  for 
Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war,  and  was  eminent  for  bravery 
as  well  as  loyalty.  After  the  ruin  of  the  royal  cause  he 
retired  to  the  Isle  of  Man,  of  which  he  was  proprietor. 
He  afterwards  joined  the  standard  of  Charles  II.,  was 
taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Worcester,  and  executed 
in  October,  165 1.  His  wife,  Charlotte  de  Tremouille,  was 
the  last  person  in  the  three  kingdoms  who  submitted  to 
the  Parliament.    She  died  about  1660. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England;"  Hartley  Coleridge, 
"Lives  of  Distinguished  Northerns." 

Der'ge-to,  Der'ke-to,  or  Der'9e-tis,  a  Syrian  god- 
dess, supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Astarte,  (which  see.) 
She  was  worshipped  under  the  form  of  a  fish. 

See  PiERER,  "  Universal-Lexikon." 

Der-9yPli-das,  [Aep/cwA/lffJaf,]  a  Spartan  general,  who 
in  399  B.C.  was  appointed  commander  of  an  army  em- 
ployed to  protect  the  Asiatic  Greeks  against  the  Per- 
sians. He  took  nine  cities  of  ^Lolia  in  eight  days,  and 
reduced  Atarneus  in  398.    He  was  recalled  in  396  B.C. 

Der-9yiTus  or  Der'9y-Ius,  [Or.  LipKvTChjoc,  or  Aepicv- 
?Mg,]  an  Athenian  orator,  was  one  of  the  ten  ambassadors 
sent  in  347  B.C.  to  negotiate  a  peace  with  King  Philip. 

Derfilinger,  von,  fon  d^Rf'fling-er,  or  Dorfling,  doR'- 
fling,  (Georg,)  a  German  general,  born  in  Bohemia  in 
1606.  He  served  in  the  army  of  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
after  whose  death  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Elector 
of  Brandenburg.  He  commanded  with  success  against 
the  Swedes  about  1675-78.    Died  in  1695. 

Derham,  der'am  or  dur'iim,  (Samuel,)  an  English 
physician,  born  in  Gloucestershire  in  1655  ;  died  in  1689. 

Derham,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  di- 
vine and  philosopher,  born  near  Worcester  in  1657, 
became  rector  of  Upminster  in  1689,  and  canon  of  Wind- 


sor in  1 7 16.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  to 
which  he  contributed  several  able  scientific  treatises. 
His  principal  works  are  "  Physico-Theology,"  (1713,) 
"Astro-Theology,"  (1714, )  and  *' Christo- i'heology," 
(1730,)  (consisting  of  sermons  which  he  had  delivered  at 
the  Boyle  Lecture,)  which  are  highly  commended,  and 
have  been  translated  into  other  languages.  He  edited 
the  works  of  Ray  the  naturalist,  and  published  the  philo- 
sophical experiments  of  Robert  Hook.    Died  in  1735. 

Derick,  d^a'ik,  sometimes  written  Deryck,  (Pei^er 
Cornelis,)  a  skilful  Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at 
Delft  in  1568;  died  in  1630. 

De'ring  or  Dear'ing,  (Edward,)  an  English  Puritan 
divine,  eminent  for  his  eloquence,  born  in  Kent,  became 
professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge  in  1567.  He  obtained 
the  rectory  of  Pluckley  in  1569.  In  1573  he  was  sus- 
pended from  the  ministry  for  his  opposition  to  episco- 
pacy. He  published  "  Lectures  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Heorews."    Died  in  1576. 

Dering,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English  politician,  born 
in  Kent  about  1598.  He  became  about  1640  a  member 
of  the  Long  Parliament,  in  which  he  acted  at  first  with 
the  popular  party,  but  in  the  civil  war  he  was  a  royalist. 
Died  in  1644. 

Deriot,  deh-reV,  (Albert  Francois,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  in  1766,  was  appointed  chamber- 
lain to  Napoleon  in  1813.    Died  in  1836. 

Derivaux,  deh-re'vo',  (Achille,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Senones  in  1776;  died  in  1843. 

Derjavine.    See  Derzhavin. 

Der'mo-dy,  (Thomas,)  an  Irish  poet,  born  at  Ennis 
in  1775,  wrote  poems  about  the  age  of  twelve,  which 
were  printed  in  1792.  When  young,  he  enlisted  in  the 
army;  but  his  promotion  was  hindered  by  intemperance. 
He  published  two  volumes  of  poems  about  1802,  also 
"The  Battle  of  the  Bards,"  a  poem.    Died  in  1802. 

See  J.  G.  Raymond,  "Life  of  T.  Dermody,"  2  vols.,  1806. 

Derodon,  deh-ro''d6N',  (David,)  a  French  writer,  born 
in  Dauphine  about  1600,  was  eminent  for  his  skill  in  dia- 
lectics. He  taught  philosophy  at  Orange,  Nimes,  and 
Geneva,  and  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  doctrines  of 
Descartes.  In  1630  he  was  converted  from  Calvinism 
to  the  Catholic  faith,  and  afterwards  returned  to  Calvin- 
ism. He  wrote  treatises  on  "  Metaphysics,"  "  Logic," 
"  Philosophy,"  and  other  subjects.  His  "  Tombeau  de 
la  Messe"  (1654)  caused  his  banishment,  and  was  often 
reprinted.    Died  in  1664. 

See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante ;"  De  Gerando,  "  Histoire 
de  la  Philosophie  moderne  ;"  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dic- 
tionary." 

Derosne,  deh-r5n',  (Charles,)  a  French  chemist, 
born  at  Paris  ii\  1780;  died  in  1846. 

Derossi,  di-ros'see,  (Giovanni  Gherardo,)  an  Ital- 
ian poet,  born  in  Rome  in  1754.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Dramatic  Art,"  "  Memoirs  on  the  Fine  Arts," 
(1792,)  and  numerous  comedies,  fables,  and  epigrams. 
He  was  chosen  a  correspondent  of  the  French  Institute 
in  1812.    Died  in  1827. 

Deroy,  deh-rwi^  (Bernard  Erasmus,)  a  German 
general,  born  at  Manheim  in  1743.  He  commanded  a 
corps  of  Bavarians  in  the  service  of  Napoleon  I.,  and 
was  killed  at  Potolsk  in  August,  1812. 

See  "  Erinnerungen  an  den  General  von  Deroy,"  Augsburg,  1852. 

Derrand,  di'r6N',  (Francois,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
architect,  born  in  1588,  designed  the  church  of  Saint- 
Louis,  Paris.    Died  in  1644. 

Der'rick,  (Samuel,)  an  Irish  author,  born  in  1724, 
came  to  London  about  1751.  In  1761  he  succeeded  Beau 
Nash  as  master  of  ceremonies  at  Bath  and  Tunbridge. 
His  habits  were  extravagant  and  dissolute.  He  wrote  "A. 
View  of  the  Stage,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1769. 

Derschawin"   See  Derzhavin. 

De  Ruyter,    See  Ruyteii. 

Der'went-wa-ter,  (James  Radcliffe,)  Earl  oi-, 
an  English  Catholic,  born  in  Northumberland  in  1689, 
inherited  his  title  from  his  father.  He  was  a  zealous  ad- 
herent of  the  house  of  Stuart,  and  a  leader  of  those  who 
fought  for  the  Pretender  in  1715.  With  a  small  army  of 
insurgents  under  the  command  of  Forster,  he  marched 
to  Preston,  where  they  were  defeated  and  taken  prisoners. 
After  trial  for  treason,  he  was  executed  in  March,  17 16. 

See  his  "Life,"  by  Sydney  Gibson. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  /on^^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  %  short;  ^,    i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DERZAVIN  749 


Derzavin.    See  Derzhavin. 

Derzhavin,  d&R-zhi'vin,  written  also  Derzavin, 
Derjavine,  oi  Derschawin,(GABRiELRoMANOviTCH,) 
a  celebrated  lyric  poet  of  Russia,  born  at  Kazan  in  1743. 
He  entered  the  army  as  engineer  in  1760,  and  became  a 
colonel  about  1778.  In  1784  he  was  made  a  councillor 
of  state,  and  in  1791  secretary  of  state.  He  was  suc- 
cessively advanced  to  the  dignity  of  senator  in  1793,  im- 
perial treasurer  in  1800,  and  minister  of  justice  in  1802, 
Before  this  date  he  had  produced  a  number  of  admirable 
odes  one  of  which  is  an  "Ode  to  the  Deity,"  ("  Oda 
Bog-.")  This  sublime  and  original  poem  has  been  trans- 
lated into  Latin  and  Chinese,  Four  volumes  of  his  works 
were  published  in  1810.  He  also  wrote  an  excellent 
treatise  on  lyric  poetry,  and  a  few  other  prose  works. 
Died  in  181 6. 

See  Otto,  "Lehrbuch  der  Russischen  Literatur." 

De  Sacy.    See  Sacy. 

Desaguliers,  d^'zt'giile-i',  (John  Theophilus,)  an 
eminent  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Rochelle,  France, 
in  1683,  was  the  son  of  a  Protestant  who  emigrated  to 
London  about  1685.  Having  studied  at  Oxford,  and 
entered  into  orders,  he  settled  in  London,  and  began 
about  1 7 12  a  course  of  lectures  on  natural  ^Dhilosophy, 
which,  on  account  of  their  novelty  and  other  merits,  were 
very  successful.  In  1714  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  He  obtained  the  living  of  Edgeware,  and 
was  for  some  time  chaplain  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  He 
wrote  a  "System  of  Experimental  Philosophy,"  (1719,) 
besides  other  works.    Died  in  1744, 

See  Weiss,  "  Histoire  des  Refugies  Fran^ais." 

Desaix*  de  Veygoux,  deh-sV  deh  vi'goo',  com- 
monly called  simply  Desaix,  (Louis  Charles  Antoine,) 
an  eminent  and  gallant  French  general,  born  of  a  noble 
family  at  Saint-Hilaire-d'Ayat,  near  Riom,  in  Auvergne, 
in  1768,  entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  He 
favoured  the  Revolcition,  but  not  the  crimes  which  its 
more  violent  partisans  committed.  In  1792  he  was  chosen 
aide-de-camp  by  General  Victor  de  Broglie,  During 
the  reign  of  terror  he  was  imprisoned,  and  narrowly 
escaped  death.  His  military  talents  were  displayed  in 
several  campaigns  on  the  Rhine,  and  procured  for  him 
a  rapid  promotion.  As  general  of  division,  he  contrib- 
uted to  the  good  order  of  the  famous  retreat  made  by 
Moreau  in  1796.  In  1798  he  was  quartermaster-general 
or  chief  of  the  staff  under  Bonaparte  when  the  latter 
proposed  the  invasion  of  England.  Having  received 
command  of  a  division  in  the  expedition  to  Egypt,  he 
pursued  Mourad  Bey  into  Upper  Egypt,  and  gained 
a  decisive  victory  at  Sidiman,  October  7,  1798.  He 
governed  that  conquered  province  with  such  wisdom  and 
moderation  that  the  natives  gave  him  the  title  of  "  the  Just 
Sultan."  When  Bonaparte  embarked  on  his  homeward 
voyage,  he  left  orders  that  Desaix  should  follow  him  ; 
and  the  latter  arrived  at  the  army  in  Italy  in  June,  1800, 
a  few  days  before  the  battle  of  Marengo.  The  French 
were  retiring  in  disorder  at  four  o'clock,  when  Desaix 
brought  up  his  reserve,  and  by  an  impetuous  charge 
converted  defeat  into  a  signal  victory.  In  this  charge  he 
received  a  mortal  wound,  and  almost  instantly  expired. 
One  account,  which  is  rather  apocryphal,  represents  him 
as  saying,  "Tell  the  First  Consul  that  my  only  regret  in 
dying  is  to  have  perished  before  having  done  enough  to 
live  in  the  recollection  of  posterity."  His  grave  was 
made  at  Saint-Bernard,  near  the  summit  of  the  Alps, 
and  two  monuments  were  erected  to  his  memory  in 
Paris.  "The  tomb  of  Desaix,"  said  Napoleon,  "shall 
have  the  Alps  for  its  pedestal,  and  the  monks  of  Saint- 
Bernard  for  its  guardians." 

See  Thiers,  "Histoire  du  Consulat;"  De  Courcelles,  "Dic- 
tionnaire  des  Generaux  Fran9ais;"  J.  Lavallee,  "  ^filoge  historique 
du  General  Desaix,"  1801 ;  Cousin  d'Avai.lon,  "  Histoire  des  Gene- 
raux Kleber  et  Desaix,"  1801  ;  Allemand,  "  Essai  sur  le  General 
Desaix,"  1845;  Becker,  Comte  de  Mons,  "Le  General  Desaix, 
Etude  historique,"  1852;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Desani,  dk-si'nee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1595;  died  in  1657. 

Desargues,  deh-zSRg',  (Gaspard,)  an  able  French 
geometer,  born  in  Lyons  in  1593.    He  fought  at  the  siege 


*  In  Scott's  "Life  of  Napoleon"  this  name  is  everywhere  erro- 
neously spelled  Dessaix. 


DESBOROW 


of  Rochelle,  where  he  formed  a  friendship  with  Descartes. 
After  the  peace  he  quitted  the  army,  and  resided  in  Paris, 
where  he  associated  with  Gassendi  and  Pascal.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "Treatise  on  Perspective,"  (1636,)  and  a 
"Treatise  on  Conic  Sections,"  (1639.)    Died  in  1662. 

Desaugiers,  da'zo'zhe^',  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French 
composer  of  songs,  born  at  Frejus  in  1752  ;  died  in  1793. 

Desaugiers,  (Marc  Antoine  Madeleine,)  a  French 
song-writer,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Frejus  in 
1772.  He  composed,  besides  many  popular  songs,  suc- 
cessful theatrical  pieces  or  vaudevilles.  He  was  for  a  long 
time  the  foremost  among  French  chansonniers,  until 
Beranger  appeared.    He  died,  greatly  regretted,  in  1827, 

See  Decour,  "Notice  sur  M.  A.  M.  Desaugiers,"  1827. 

Desault,  deh-s6',  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician,  born 
in  Bearn  in  1675  ;  died  about  1740. 

Desault,  (Pierre  Joseph,)  an  eminent  French  sur- 
geon, born  near  Lure,  in  Franche-Comte,  in  1744.  After 
passing  a  few  years  in  the  military  hospital  of  Befort,  he 
went  to  Paris  in  1764,  and  received  lessons  from  Antoine 
Petit.  He  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  lectures  on 
anatomy,  and  made  improvements  in  surgery,  before  he 
was  admitted  into  the  College  of  Surgery  in  1776.  In 
1782  he  was  chosen  chief  surgeon  of  the  hospital  La 
Charite.  On  the  appointment  of  chief  surgeon  of  the 
Hotel-Dieu,  in  1788,  he  was  preferred  to  many  eminent 
competitors.  His  reputation  and  practice  increased, 
until  he  had  the  treatment  of  almost  all  the  important 
cases  in  the  capital.  He  continued  to  lecture,  and  the 
school  founded  by  him  was  frequented  by  students  from 
many  foreign  countries.  In  1794  he  was  ai>pointed  pro- 
fessor of  clinic  surgery  in  the  Ecole  de  Sante,  then  just 
instituted.  The  French  estimate  him  the  most  skilful  sur- 
geon of  his  time.  Bichat  published  "  Surgical  Works" 
which  contain  the  doctrines  of  Desault.    Died  in  1795. 

See  Petit,  "  iSloge  de  Desault,"  1795  ;  Caii.lau,  "Notice  sur  la 
Vie  et  les  Ecrits  de  Desault,"  1800;  Bichat,  "Notice  sur  Desault," 
in  the  "  Magasin  Encyclopedique." 

De  Saussure.    See  Saussure,  de. 

Desbarreaux.    See  Barreaux,  des. 

Desbarres,  da-b^R',  ?  (Joseph  Frederick,)  an  Eng. 
lish  hydrographer,  of  French  descent,  born  in  1722.  He 
rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel  in  the  army,  was  aide-de-camp 
to  General  Wolfe  at  Quebec,  and  was  made  governor  of 
Prince  Edward's  and  Cape  Breton  Islands  about  1784. 
He  published,  at  the  expense  of  the  government,  "The 
Atlantic  Neptune,"  (1777,)  which  is  said  to  be  the  finest 
collection  of  charts,  plans,  and  views  ever  issued.  He 
taught  navigation  to  Captain  Cook.  Died  in  1824,  aged 
one  hundred  and  two  years. 

Desbillons,  da'be'yoN',  (Francois  Joseph  Ter- 
rasse,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  in  Berry  in  1711,  excelled 
in  Latin  poetry.  He  professed  rhetoric  at  Nevers,  Caen, 
and  La  Fleche,  and  wrote  (in  Latin  verse)  numerous 
fables,  ("  Fabulae  .^^isopicae,")  the  "Art  of  being  Well," 
(or  "Art  of  Preserving  Health,")  ("Ars  bene  Valendi,") 
and  other  poems.  After  the  dissolution  of  his  order  he 
retired  to  Manheim.    Died  in  1789. 

See  QuERAKD,  "La  France  Litteraire  ;"  Feller,  "  Dictionnaire 
Historique." 

Desboeufs,  da'buf,  (Antoine,)  a  French  sculptor 
and  engraver  on  gems,  born  in  Paris  in  1795,  ^'^^  ^  pupil 
of  Cartellier.  He  obtained  a  medal  of  the  first  class  in 
1843.  produced  statues  of  History  and  Science  for 
the  Chamber  of  Peers,  one  of  Voltaire,  and  other  works. 

Desbois.    See  Chesnaye. 

Desbois  de  Rochefoit,  da^bwi'  deh  losh'foR', 
(Louis,)  born  in  Paris  in  1750,  became  physician  to  the 
hospital  La  Charite,  where  he  lectured  to  a  large  class 
with  eminent  ability.  He  left  a  work  on  "Materia  Med- 
ica,"  (1789,)  which  was  for  a  long  time  the  best  on  that 
subject.    Died  in  1786. 

Desbordes-Valmore,  da'boRd'  vtKmoR',  (Madame 
Marceline,)  a  popular  French  writer,  born  at  Douai  in 
1787;  died  in  1859.  She  has  left  romances,  and  several 
beautiful  poems  indicating  true  poetic  feeling  and  deep 
religious  sentiment. 

Desborough.    See  Desborow. 

Desborow  or  Desborough,  dez'bur-uh,  an  English 
republican  general  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  was  a 
brother-in-law  of  Oliver  Cromwell.  He  strenuously 
opposed  the  project  to  make  the  Protector  king,  in  1657. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DESBROSSES  7  so  DESCHAMPS 


Soon  after  the  death  of  Oliver,  he  joined  the  cabal  of 
the  Wallingford  House,  and  by  threats  induced  Richard 
Cromwell  to  dissolve  the  Parliament  in  1659.  The  suc- 
ceeding Parliament  cashiered  him  soon  after  that  date. 

Desbrosses,  di'bRoss',  (Marie,)  a  P'rench  comic 
actress,  born  in  Paris  in  1764;  died  after  1855. 

Desbureaux,  d^'bii'ro',  (Charles  FRANgois,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Rheims  in  1755  ;  died  in  1835. 

Descamps,  di^'kdN',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
painter  and  writer,  born  at  Dunkirk  in  17 14.  He  was 
chosen  director  and  professor  of  a  free  school  of  design 
at  Rouen,  and  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Paris.  He  was  moderately  successful  as  a  painter  of 
familiar  scenes,  but  derives  his  reputation  chiefly  from  a 
work  entitled  "  Lives  of  Flemish,  German,  and  Dutch 
Painters,"  ("  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais, 
et  AUemands,"  4  vols.,  1753-63,)  which,  however,  is 
incomplete  and  often  inaccurate.  He  also  published  a 
"Picturesque  Journey  in  Flanders  and  Brabant,"  (i 
vol.,  1769.)    Died  at  Rouen  in  1791. 

See  Descamps,  "  Notice  sur  J.  B.  Descamps,  Peintre  duRoi,"i8o7. 

Descartes,  di'ktRt',  (Ren^,)  [Lat.  Rena'tus  Car- 
Te'sius,]  an  illustrious  French  philosopher  and  mathe- 
matician, born  at  La  Haye,  in  Touraine,  March  31, 
1596.  He  was  educated  at  the  College  of  La  Fleche, 
where  he  formed  a  lasting  friendship  with  Mersenne, 
and  cherished  a  partiality  for  mathematical  science,  in 
which  he  was  destined  to  make  most  important  dis- 
coveries. On  leaving  college,  at  the  age  of  nineteen, 
his  first  step  was  to  renounce  all  his  books,  to  efface 
from  his  mind  all  scholastic  dogmas  and  prejudices,  and 
then  to  admit  nothing  that  could  not  bear  the  test  of 
reason  and  experiment.  It  is  difficult  to  realize  at  the 
jwesent  day  how  bold  was  such  an  attempt,  how  arduous 
such  a  task,  at  a  time  when  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle 
still  maintained  despotic  sway,  and  when  to  question 
his  decisions  was  generally  deemed  by  learned  men  the 
height  of  arrogance.  To  perfect  his  education,  he  re- 
solved to  travel ;  and,  as  it  was  usual  in  that  age  to  make 
the  military  profession  subservient  to  such  a  design,  he 
entered  the  Dutch  army  in  1616,  and  passed  into  the 
service  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria  in  1619.  He  gave  proof 
of  courage  at  the  battle  of  Prague  in  1620,  but  soon  after 
renounced  a  profession  that  was  not  congenial  to  his 
favourite  studies.  He  continued  his  travels  for  several 
years  in  France,  Italy,  etc.,  and  in  1629  settled  in  Hol- 
land, (where  he  hoped  to  find  more  freedom  and  seclusion 
than  in  France,)  to  meditate  on  metaphysics,  chemistry, 
mathematics,  and  astronomy.  Some  years  passed  before 
he  published  any  extensive  work  on  mathematics ;  but 
'his  genius  for  this  science  had  often  been  manifested  by 
the  facility  with  which  he  resolved  the  most  difficult 
questions.  In  1637  he  produced  his  celebrated  "Dis- 
course on  the  Method  of  Reasoning  well,  and  of  inves- 
tigating Scientific  Truth,"  ("  Discours  sur  la  Methode 
pour  bien  conduire  sa  Raison,  et  chercher  la  Verite 
dans  les  Sciences,")  which  contains  treatises  on  meta- 
physics, dioptrics,  and  geometry.  The  last  treatise 
announced  important  discoveries  in  algebra  and  geo- 
metry, among  which  are  the  employment  of  algebraic 
formulae  in  the  construction  of  curves,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  the  notation  of  indices  to  algebraic  powers. 
"One  man,"  says  Hallam,  "the  pride  of  France  and 
wonder  of  his  contemporaries,  was  destined  to  flash  light 
upon  the  labours  of  the  analyst  and  point  out  what  those 
symbols,  so  darkly  and  painfully  traced,  might  represent- 
and  explain.  The  theory  developed  by  Descartes  in  this 
short  treatise  displays  a  most  consummate  felicity  of 
genius."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 
His  treatise  on  Dioptrics  affords  ingenious  geometric 
a])plications,  and  announces  the  first  discovery  of  the  law 
of  the  refraction  of  light.  His  style  is  so  admirably  pure, 
clear,  and  concise  that  he  is  entitled  to  a  high  rank  among 
the  creators  and  reformers  of  the  French  language. 

In  1 64 1  he  published,  in  Latin,  his  great  metaphysical 
work,  "  Meditationes  de  Prima  Philosophia,"  the  specu- 
lations of  which  gave  a  wonderful  impulse  to  philoso- 
phical inquiry  in  his  own  and  succeeding  times.  They 
manifest  an  original,  daring,  and  independent  genius, 
endowed  with  great  force  and  subtlety  of  thought.  He 
performed  the  same  service  in  the  philosophy  of  mind 


that  Bacon  performed  in  natural  science.  Taking  his 
departure  from  universal  doubt,  he  found  the  basis  of 
all  positive  knowledge  in  self-consciousness  expressed  by 
this  enthymem,  "Cogito;  ergo  sum,"  "I  think;  there- 
fore I  exist."  His  bold  innovations  and  brilliant  para- 
doxes excited  much  hostility  as  well  as  admiration.  His 
book  was  condemned  by  the  College  of  Cardinals  at 
Rome  ;  and  Voet,  a  professor  of  Utrecht,  accusing  Des- 
cartes of  atheism,  instigated  the  civil  power  to  persecute 
him,  but  his  malice  was  partially  frustrated.  Cartesian- 
ism  became  modified  by  his  admirers  into  systems  quite 
dissimilar  or  opposite.  Thus,  Spinoza  derived  from  it 
his  pantheism,  and  Berkeley  his  pure  idealism. 

He  published  in  1644  "  Principles  of  Philosophy," 
("  Principia  Philosophise,")  in  which  he  propounds  his 
theory  ot  the  world,  and  the  doctrine  of  Vortices.  He 
su])posed  that  the  sun  is  the  centre  of  a  vortex  of  an  all- 
pervading  ethereal  fluid,  whose  whirling  motion  produces 
the  revolution  of  the  planets.  In  1647  the  French  court 
granted  him  a  pension  of  3000  livres.  Soon  after  this 
date  Christina,  Queen  of  Sweden,  offered  him  an  asylum 
at  her  court,  which  he  accepted.  There  he  was  treated 
with  much  honour  ;  but  the  change  in  his  habits,  together 
with  the  rigour  of  the  climate,  was  too  much  for  his  con- 
stitution, Whi>  li  was  always  delicate.  He  died  at  Stock- 
holm in  February,  165c.  He  was  never  married.  His 
works,  including  some  not  named  above,  were  pub- 
lished in  nine  volumes,  (1690,)  with  the  title  of  "Opera 
Omnia."  His  influence,  which  was  almost  universal  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  has  declined  since  Gassendi 
reformed  the  philosophy  of  mind  and  Newton  demon- 
strated his  more  simple  physical  principles.  But  he  still 
has  just  and  various  claims  to  celebrity,  in  the  noble 
thoughts,  the  precious  truths,  the  wise  maxims,  which, 
along  with  some  brilliant  errors,  he  has  transmitted  to 
posterity.  "He  worked  a  more  important  change  in 
speculative  philosophy,"  says  Haliam,  "than  any  who 
had  preceded  him  since  the  revival  of  learning;  for 
there  could  be  no  comparison  in  that  age  between  the 
celebrity  and  effect  of  his  writings  and  those  of  Lord 
Bacon."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Brucker,  "  Historia  Philosophias ;"  G^.  H.  Lewes,  "  Bio- 
graphical History  of  Philosophy  ;"  Mercier,  "  Eloge  de  Descartes;" 
Thomas,  "  ^ loge  de  Descartes,"  1765;  Aurien  Baillet,  "  Vie  de 
Descartes,"  2  vols.,  i6gi ;  Pierre  Borel,  "  Vitse  Ren.  Cartesii  Com- 
pendium," Paris,  1656;  G.  H.  Gaillard,  "filoge  de  Descartes," 
1765  ;  Bord.\s-Dumoulin,  "  Le  Cartesianisme,"  2  vols.,  1843  ;  BouiL- 
LiER,  "  Siir  la  Philosophie  Cartesienne,"  2  vols.,  1854;  Garnier, 
"Descartes;"  D.  Nizard,  "Descartes  et  son  Influence,"  etc.,  in  the 
"Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  December  i,  1844;  Carl  F.  Hock, 
"  Cartesius  und  seine  Gegner,"  1835  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  Jan- 
uary, 1852. 

Descemet,  dis^m^  or  di'seh''mi',  (Jean,)  a  learned 
French  physician  and  anatomist,  born  in  Paris  in  1732, 
discovered  the  internal  lamina  of  the  cornea.  He  prac- 
tised medicine  with  success.    Died  in  1810. 

Deschamps,  da'shSN',  (Antoine,)  a  French  poet, 
brother  of  Emile,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1800.  He  published  a  translation  of  Dante's  "  Divina 
Commedia,"  (1829,)  and  several  volumes  of  poems. 

Deschamps,  (Claude  FRANgois,)  a  French  priest, 
born  at  Orleans  in  1745,  devoted  his  talents  and  fortune 
to  the  instruction  of  deaf-mutes,  in  which  he  followed 
the  system  of  Pereira.  He  published  an  "Elementary 
Course  of  Education  for  Deaf-Mutes,"  (1779,)  and  a  few 
other  treatises  on  that  subject.    Died  in  1791. 

Deschamps,  (£mile,)  a  popular  French  poet  and 
dramatist,  born  at  Bourges  in  179L  He  produced  in 
1818  two  comedies,  called  "  Selmours  et  Florian,"  and 
"  Le  Tour  de  Faveur,"  both  of  which  had  great  success. 
With  Victor  Hugo  and  others,  he  founded  the  "Muse 
Fran^aise"  in  1827.  He  published  a  collection  of  poems 
entitled  "French  and  Foreign  Studies,"  ("Etudes  fran- 
9aises  et  etrangeres,"  1828,)  which  contains  some  trans- 
lations, and  a  volume  of  "Poesies  completes,"  (1840.) 
which  were  received  with  favour.  He  also  wrote  several 
tales  and  critical  articles  for  the  journals.  Died  in  1871. 

Deschamps,  (Eustache,)  sometimes  called  Morel, 
a  French  poet,  born  about  1320.  Among  his  works  is 
the  "Miroir  du  Mariage."    Died  about  1400. 

Deschamps,  (Jean  Marie,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
in  Paris  in  1750,  was  secretary  to  the  emj^ress  Josephine, 
and  remained  in  her  service  until  her  death,  (1814.)  He 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sho?-t:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mhi;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DESCHAMPS 


751 


DESHATS 


was  the  author  of  "  Piron  with  his  Friends,"  and  other 
dramatic  pieces,  and  published  a  translation,  in  verse,  of 
Monti's  "  Bard  of  the  Black  Forest."    Died  in  1826. 

Deschamps,  (Joseph  P'ran^ois  Louis,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Chartres  in  1740.  He  succeeded  De- 
sault  as  surgeon-in-chief  of  the  hospital  La  Charite  in 
1788.  When  Corvisart  became  first  physician  to  Na- 
poleon, Deschamps  was  chosen  one  of  his  consulting 
surgeons.  In  181 1  he  became  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  Cystotomy."  Died  in  1824. 

See  "Biographic  Medicale." 

Deschizeaux,  di'she'zo',  (Pierre,)  a  French  bota- 
nist, born  at  Macon  in  1687;  died  about  1730. 

Deseine,  deh-san',  (Francois,)  a  French  bookseller 
and  writer,  born  in  Paris,  became  a  resident  of  Rome. 
He  was  author  of  a  work  entitled  "Rome,  Ancient  and 
Modern,"  (10  vols.,  17 13,)  which  is  prized  for  its  accuracy. 
Died  at  Rome  in  17 15. 

Deseine,  (Louis  Pierre,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris  in  1750 ;  died  in  1827. 

Deseiiue,  deh-sen',  (Alexandre  Joseph,)  an  eminent 
French  designer,  born  in  Paris  in  1783.  After  the  death 
of  Moreau,  in  1814,  he  occupied  perhaps  the  first  place 
in  his  art.  He  embellished  the  works  of  Rousseau, 
Delille,  Boileau,  Voltaire,  etc.    Died  in  1827. 

Desericius.    See  Deseriz. 

Deseriz  or  Deseritz,da'zeh-rits,  [Lat.  DESERig'ius,] 
(Joseph  Innocent,)  a  Hungarian  cardinal,  born  at  Nitra 
in  1702,  was  the  author  of  several  works,  of  which  the 
principal  treats  on  the  origin  and  early  history  of  the 
Hungarians,  "  De  Initiis  ac  Majoribus  Hungarorum," 
(1748.)    Died  in  1765. 

See  HoRANYi,  "  Memoria  Hungarorum." 

Desessarts,  da'za'sSk',  (Nicolas  Lemoyne — leh'- 
mwS.n',)  a  French  litterateur^  born  at  Coutances  in  1744, 
lived  in  Paris.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Celebrated  Trials,"  ("Causes  celebres,"  196  vols., 
1773-89,)  and  a  "Dictionary,  Historical  and  Critical,  of 
all  French  Writers  to  the  End  of  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury," ("Siecles  litteraires  de  la  P'rance,  ou  Nouveau 
Dictionnaire  historique,  critique  et  bibliographique," 
etc.,  6  vols.  8vo,  1800.)    Died  in  1810. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire." 

Deseze.    See  SfezE,  de. 

Desfaucherets,  di''f6sh'Ri',  (Jean  Louis  Brousse,) 
a  French  dramatic  writer,  born  in  1742;  died  in  1808. 

Desfontaines,  di't^N'tin',  (Guillaume  FRANgois 
FOUQUES  Deshayes,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at  Caen 
in  1733,  became  librarian  of  Monsieur,  (Louis  XVIII.) 
He  produced  numerous  successful  comedies,  among 
which  were  "The  Marriage  of  Scarron,"  and  the  "Tra- 
veller Incog.,"  ("  Le  Voyageur  inconnu.")   Died  in  1825. 

Desfontaines,  (Pierre  Francois  Guyot,)  Abb6, 
a  French  critic,  born  in  Rouen  in  1685.  In  1724  he  was 
invited  to  Paris  to  write  for  the  "Journal  des  Savants," 
to  which  he  imparted  new  vitality.  Devoting  his  pen 
to  polemic  criticism,  he  issued  successively  several  pe- 
riodicals, such  as  "  Le  Nouvelliste  du  Parnasse,"  (1731,) 
and  "Judgments  on  New  Works,"  (1745.)  His  critiques 
involved  him  in  a  quarrel  with  Voltaire,  which  was  prose- 
cuted with  much  rancour.  Desfontaines  published  a 
"Neologic  Dictionary,"  (1726,)  and  other  works.  His 
version  of  the  "^neid"  (1743)  is  said  to  be  the  best 
prose  version  in  the  French  language.    Died  in  1745. 

See  De  la  Porte,  "L'Esprit  de  I'Abbe  Desfontaines,"  4  vols., 
1757;  Charles  Nisard,  "  Les  Ennemis  de  Voltaire;  Desfontaines, 
Freron  et  Beaunielle,"  1853. 

Desfontaines,  (Ren^  Louiche,)  an  eminent  French 
botanist,  born  at  Tremblay,  in  Bretagne,  about  1752. 
He  studied  medicine  in  Paris,  and  made  such  progress  in 
botany  that  he  was  received  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  1783.  Through  the  influence  of  Lemonnier,  the  gov- 
ernment furnished  him  with  means  to  make  a  botanical 
excursion  in  Barbary,  from  which,  after  two  years'  ab- 
sence, he  returned  in  1785.  He  was  appointed  by  Bufifon 
professor  of  botany  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  in  1786. 
About  1795  he  was  admitted  into  the  Institute.  In  1798 
he  published  his  most  important  work,  the  result  of  his 
researches  in  Africa,  entitled  "  Flora  Atlantica,"  (2  vols. 
4to.)  Vegetable  physiology  is  indebted  to  him  for  the 
valuable  discovery  of  the  difference  in  the  growth  and 


structure  of  monocotyledons  and  dicotyledons.  He  pub- 
lished "  Lectures  on  Botany,"  a  "  Description  of  the 
Trees  and  Shrubs  of  France,"  (1809,)  and  numerous 
treatises  on  new  genera  which  he  discovered.  Died  in 
November,  1833. 

See  "  Biographie  des  Naturalistes,"  in  the  "Dictionnaire  univer- 
selle  des  Sciences  naturelles;"  A.  P.  de  Candolle,  "Notice  his- 
torique sur  la  Vie  et  les  Travaux  de  M.  Desfontaines,"  1834  ;  Pierre 
Flourens,  "  filoge  historique  de  R.  L.  Desfontaines,"  1837  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Desforges,  d^'foRzh',  (Pierre  Jean  Baptiste  Chou- 
DARD,)  a  French  dramatic  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1746, 
was  a  comic  actor  in  his  youth.  He  retired  from  the 
stage  in  1782,  and  then  produced  "Tom  Jones  at  Lon- 
don," a  comedy  in  verse,  of  which  La  Ilarpe  says,  "The 
situations  are  interesting,  the  dialogue  is  rapid  and 
animated,  and  the  style  ingenious  and  easy."  He  was 
author  of  many  other  comedies,  and  of  successful  operas, 
among  which  is  "Joconde."    Died  in  1806. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Desfourneaux,  di'fooR'n6',(EDME  Etienne  Borne,) 
a  French  general,  born  in  1767,  commanded  an  expedition 
to  Saint  Domingo,  from  which  he  expelled  the  British  in 
1796  or  1797.  In  1802  he  was  sent  back  to  that  island, 
though  not  as  general-in-chief,  and  gained  some  advan- 
tages over  the  negro  insurgents.    Died  in  1849. 

Desgallards,  da^gt'ltk',  (Nicolas,)  a  Protestant 
theologian,  born  about  1520,  became  minister  in  Geneva 
about  1552,  and  planted  a  French  church  in  London  in 
1560.  He  was  much  esteemed  by  Calvin,  and  was  ap- 
pointed preacher  to  the  Queen  of  Navarre  in  1571.  He 
translated  several  of  Calvin's  works  into  French,  and 
published  an  edition  of  Saint  Irena^us,  (1570.) 

Desgenettes,  dazh''net'  or  da'zheh-n^t',  (Nicolas 
RENlfe  DUFRICHE,)  Baron,  an  eminent  French  physician, 
born  at  Alen9on  in  1762.  He  became  chief  physician  of 
the  army  of  Italy  about  1794,  and  in  1798  served  in  the 
same  capacity  in  Egypt,  where  he  displayed  great  skill 
and  courage.  He  attended  the  grand  army  during  the 
empire,  and  at  Waterloo  in  181 5.  On  the  restoration  of 
Louis  XVIII.  he  lost  his  position  in  the  army,  and  in 
1823  he  was  dismissed  from  a  chair  of  medicine  which 
he  had  obtained  in  Paris  about  1800.  He  was  chosen 
chief  physician  of  the  Invalides  in  1832.  Pie  published, 
besides  other  medical  works,  "  The  Medical  History  of 
the  Army  of  the  East,"  (1802,)  and  wrote  articles  for 
the  "  Biographie  Universelle."    Died  in  1837. 

See  Pariset,  "  :£loge  du  Baron  R.  Desgenettes,"  Svo,  1838; 
Desgenettes,  "  Souvenirs  de  la  Fin  du  i8me  Si^cle  et  des  Com- 
mencements du  igme,  ou  Memoires  de  R.  D.  G.,"  2  vols.,  1836; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Desgodets,  di'go'da',  (Antoine,)  a  PVench  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1653,  was  chosen  pensioner  of  the  king 
at  the  Academy  of  Rome  in  1674.  On  his  return  he 
published,  by  order  of  Colbert  and  at  the  public  expense, 
"The  Ancient  Edifices  of  Rome,  designed  and  measured 
accurately,"  a  work  of  considerable  merit.    Died  in  1728. 

Desgoffe,  da'gof,  (Alexandre,)  a  French  historical 
and  landscape  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1805.  Among 
his  works  are  "The  Roman  Campagna,"  and  "  The  Sleep 
of  Orestes,"  (1857.) 

Desgranges,  da'gRSNzh',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Macon  in  1751  ;  died  in  1831. 

Deshauterayes,  da'zofra',  (Michel  Ange  Andr6 
LE  Roux,)  a  French  linguist,  born  near  Pontoise  in  1724, 
was  a  nephew  and  pupil  of  Etienne  Fourmont,  who 
taught  him  Hebrew,  Arabic,  Chinese,  etc.  From  1752 
to  1784  he  was  professor  of  Arabic  in  the  College  Royal, 
Paris.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  F'ourmont,"  and  ])ublished 
some  letters  on  Oriental  languages.    Died  in  1795. 

Deshayes,  di'z^'  or  dcVhi',  (Louis,)  Baron  ofCour- 
memin,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  about  1590.  He 
was  sent  by  Louis  XIII.  on  a  mission  to  the  Levant  in 
1621,  and  on  his  return  published  a  "Journey  to  the 
Levant,"  an  interesting  and  valuable  work.  Having 
joined  in  some  intrigues  against  Richelieu,  he  was 
beheaded  in  1632. 

Deshays,  di'za',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  an  eminent  French 
historical  painter,  born  at  Rouen  in  1729.  Pie  studied 
under  Vanloo,  and  afterwards  visited  Rome.  In  1758  he 
was  admitted  to  the  Royal  Academy  of  Paris,  on  which 
occasion  he  exhibited  his  "Venus  embalming  the  Body 


■e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DESHOULIERES 


752 


DESMARS 


of  Hector."  This  established  his  reputation  as  one  of  the 
best  painters  of  his  time.  His  '*  Saint  Benedict  Dying" 
is  also  much  admired.    Died  in  1765. 

See  C.  N.  Cochin,  "  Lettres  sur  la  Vie  de  Deshays,"  1765. 

Deshoulieres,  d^'zoo'ie-aiR',  Madame,  {7tee  Antoi- 
nette du  Ligier  de  la  Garde — dii  le'zhe-i'  d'li  gSud,) 
a  French  poetess,  born  in  Paris  about  1634.  She  was 
beautiful,  graceful,  and  learned.  In  165 1  she  became 
the  wife  of  Seigneur  Deshoulieres,  an  officer  in  the  army. 
She  was  much  caressed  and  complimented  by  the  poets, 
who  called  her  the  tenth  Muse.  Voltaire  said  that  "she 
was  the  most  successful  of  all  the  French  ladies  who  have 
cultivated  poetry."  Her  idyls,  one  of  which  is  entitled 
**  Les  Moutons,"  are  said  to  be  the  best  in  the  language, 
and  are  more  admired  than  her  other  poems,  among 
which  are  eclogues,  odes,  elegies,  etc.  Her  "  Moral 
Reflections"  are  also  much  esteemed.  A  pension  of  two 
thousand  francs  was  granted  her  in  1688.  Her  works 
were  often  read  in  the  public  sessions  of  the  French 
Academy.  She  was  a  faithful  wife  and  mother,  and  did 
not  sacrifice  her  domestic  duties  to  literary  fame.  She 
wrote  a  tragedy,  "  Genseric,"  which  was  so  unsuccessful 
that  some  one,  alluding  to  her  pastoral  above  named, 
applied  to  her  the  popular  proverb,  "  Retournez  a  vos 
moutons,"  {"  Return  to  your  sheep.")    Died  in  1694. 

See  Voltaire,  "Siecle  de  Louis  XIV,"  and  "  Le  Temple  du 
Gout;"  A.  Pekicaud,  "Les  deux  Deshoulieres,"  1853:  P.  E.  Le- 
MONTEY,  "Notice  sur  Madame  Lafayette  et  Mesdenioiselles  Des- 
houlieres," 1822. 

Deshoulieres,  (Antoinette  Th6 r^:se,)  the  daughter 
of  the  above,  born  in  Paris  in  1662,  was  also  a  poetess. 
In  1687  she  gained  the  prize  of  the  French  Academy  for 
her  ode  on  the  following  subject :  "The  Care  which  the 
King  bestows  on  the  Education  of  the  Nobility."  M. 
Caze,  her  accepted  lover,  having  been  killed  in  battle  in 
1692,  she  composed  elegiac  verses  to  his  memory.  She 
also  wrote  songs  and  epistles.    Died  in  17 18. 

Desideri,  d^-se-da'ree,  (Ippoli  to,)  an  Italian  mission- 
ary, born  at  Pistoia  in  1684,  went  to  Thibet  about  1715, 
and  passed  ten  years  in  Lassa.  He  translated  into  Latin 
the  "  Kangiar,"  the  sacred  book  of  Thibet.  Died  at 
Rome  in  1733. 

Desiderio  da  Settignano,  di-se-da're-o  di  s§t-t6n- 
y§.'no,  an  eminent  Italian  sculptor,  born  in  Tuscany  in 
1457.  Among  his  works  is  a  mausoleum  of  Carlo  Mar- 
suppini  in  the  Santa  Croce  at  Florence.    Died  in  1485. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Ticozzi.  "  Dizionario." 

Des-i-de'ri-us,  [Fr.  Didier,  de'de-i',]  the  last  king 
of  the  Lombards,  was  Duke  of  Istria~at  the  death  of 
Astolph,  whom  he  succeeded  in  757  a.d.  In  770  Charle- 
magne married  his  daughter  ;  but  he  repudiated  her  the 
next  year.  In  772  Desiderius  was  involved  in  war  with 
Pope  Adrian,  in  whose  defence  Charlemagne  marched 
an  army  into  Italy  and  besieged  Desiderius  in  Pavi'a. 
The  latter  surrendered  in  774,  and  was  confined  in  a 
monastery,  where  he  ended  his  days. 

See  MuRATORi,  "Annali  d'ltalia;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des 
Frangais." 

Desjardins,  d^'zhtRM^N',  (Jacques,)  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  at  Angers  in  1757.  He  served  as  general  of 
division  in  1794  under  Pichegru  in  Holland.  He  was 
mortally  wounded  at  Eylau  in  1807. 

Desjardins,  [Lat.  Horten'sius,]  (Jean,)  born  near 
Laon,  in  France,  became  one  of  the  physicians  of  Francis 
I.,  and  had  so  great  a  reputation  that  it  was  believed  he 
could  cure  all  diseases,  provided  the  fatal  hour  had  not 
arrived.  Some  punster  applied  to  him  this  proverb : 
"  Contra  vim  mortis,  non  est  medicamen  in  hortis." 
Died  in  1549. 

Desjardins,  d^'zhtR^diw',  (Maritn  van  den  Bo- 
gaert — bo'gart,)  a  skilful  Dutch  sculptor,  born  at  Breda 
in  1640,  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  made  a  colossal 
grou])  in  honour  of  Louis  XIV.,  which  was  destroyed  in 
the  Revolution.    Died  in  1694. 

Deslandes,  di'ldNd',  (Andr6  Francois  Boureau — 
boo^'6',)  a  skeptical  French  writer,  born  at  Pondicherry, 
in  India,  in  1690,  came  to  France  in  his  youth.  His 
"Critical  History  of  Philosophy"  (1737)  had  great  suc- 
cess. Voltaire  criticised  the  style  of  this,  and  called 
the  author  "  un  vieux  ecolier  precieux,  un  bel-esprit 
provinciel,"  ("an  affected  pedant,  a  provincial  witling.") 


Deslandes  also  wrote  "  Reflections  on  Great  Men  who 
have  died  jestingly,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1757. 

See  QuERARu,  "  La  France  Litt^raire." 

Deslyons,  d4''le-6N',  (Jean,)  a  French  theologian, 
born  at  Pontoise  in  161 5  ;  died  at  Senlis  in  1700. 

Deslys,  di'l^ss',  (Charles,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
in  Paris  about  1820. 

Desmahis,  da'mt'e',  (Joseph  Francois  Sdouard 
de  Corsembleu — deh  koR's5N'bluh',)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Sully-sur-Loire  in  1722.  At  the  age  of  eighteen 
he  went  to  Paris,  and  by  the  favour  of  Voltaire  obtained 
access  to  the  society  of  the  elite.  He  wrote  "  Le  Voyage 
de  Saint-Germain,"  and  other  fugitive  poems,  which  had 
considerable  popularity,  and  several  comedies,  one  of 
which,  "The  Impertinent,"  (1750,)  was  performed  with 
success.  "  It  sparkles  with  wit,"  says  La  Harpe,  "  but  at 
the  expense  of  naturalness,"  (natitrel.)    Died  in  1761. 

See  Desessarts,  "Siecles  litteraires." 

Desmaiseaux,  di'ma'zo',  (Pierre,)  a  learned  writer, 
born  in  Auvergne,  France,  in  1666,  emigrated  to  England 
in  his  youth,  and  there  associated  with  eminent  authors. 
He  was  chosen  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  wrote, 
in  English,  a  "Life  of  Boileau,"  (1712,)  and  a  "Life  of 
Bayle,  (1722,)  and  translated  into  English  Bayle's  "  Dic- 
tionary," Fenelon's  "  Telemachus,"  and  other  works.  His 
writings  are  said  to  be  valuable  for  literary  history. 
Little  is  known  of  the  events  of  his  life.  Died  in  Lon- 
don in  1745. 

See  MoRERt,  " Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Desniarais.    See  Regnier-Desmarais. 

Desmares.    See  Champmesl^. 

Desmares,  da'nitR',  (Toussaint  Gui  Joseph,)  a 
French  Jansenist  preacher  and  writer,  born  at  Vire  in 
1599 ;  died  in  1687. 

Desmarets.    See  Maillebois,  Marshal  de. 

Desmarets  or  Desmarais,  (Francois  Seraphin 
Regnier.)    See  Regnier-Desmarais. 

Desmarets,  da'mt'ra',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  states- 
man  and  financier,  was  the  nephew  and  pupil  of  Colbert. 
He  became  director  of  finances  in  1702.  The  resources 
of  France  were  exhausted  by  long  wars,  and  the  finan- 
cial fabric  raised  by  the  skill  of  Colbert  was  falling  to 
ruin,  when  Desmarets  was  appointed  controller-general 
in  1708.  His  administration  was  wise,  honest,  and  par- 
tially successful.  On  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.,  in  1 715, 
he  was  deprived  of  office.  Died  in  1721.  His  son  be- 
came distinguished  as  the  Marshal  de  Maillebois. 

See  Voltaire,  "Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Saint-Simon,  "M^- 
moires." 

Desmarets,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  natural  philosopher 
and  geologist,  born  at  Soulaines  in  1725.  In  1753  he 
wrote  a  prize  essay  on  the  ancient  junction  of  Great 
Britain  with  the  continent.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1771.  He  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  "  Encyclopedic  Methodique."  His  "  Treatise  on 
the  Origin  and  Nature  of  Basalt,"  in  the  opinion  of 
Cuvier,  who  wrote  his  eulogy,  should  secure  for  him  a 
durable  reputation.    Died  in  1815. 

Desmarets,  [Lat.  Mare'sius,]  (Roland,)  born  in 
Paris  in  1594,  was  a  brother  of  Jean  Desmarets  de  Saint- 
Sorlin.  He  wrote  "  Latin  Letters"  in  verse,  (1625,)  often 
reprinted.    Died  in  1653. 

Desmarets,  (Samuel,)  a  French  Protestant  divine, 
born  at  Oisemont  in  1599,  preached  at  Laon,  Sedan, 
Bois-le-Duc,  Groningen,  etc.  He  wrote  many  wf)rks  on 
theology,  which  are  praised  by  Bayle.    Died  in  1673. 

Desmarets  de  Saint-Sorlin,  deh  siN'- 

sor'I^n',  (Jean,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1595, 
was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  French  Academy. 
He  wrote  successful  dramas,  entitled  "Aspasia,"  and 
"  The  Visionaries  ;"  and  "  Clovis,"  an  epic  poem,  (1657,) 
which  was  justly  ridiculed  by  Boileau.  Desmarets  was 
prominent  in  the  party  that  studiously  depreciated  the 
ancients,  and  was  a  fanatical  opponent  of  the  Jansenists. 
He  pretended  to  be  inspired,  and  wrote  some  visionary 
devotional  works.    Died  in  1676. 

See  Bayi.e,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Niceron, 
"  Memoires." 

Desmars,  di-mtR',  a  French  writer  on  medical  to- 
pography and  natural  history,  lived  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer. 
Died  in  1767. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


DESMASURES 


753 


DESPJRTS 


Desmasures,  di'mt'ziiR',  (Louis,)  a  mediocre  French 
poet,  born  at  Tournay  about  1516,  made  a  translation  of 
the  "yEneid"  into  French  verse.    Died  about  1580. 

Desmeunier,    See  Demeunier. 

Desmichels,  di'me'sh&l',  (Louis  Alexis,)  Baron, 
a  French  general,  born  at  Digne  in  1779,  fought  as  cap- 
tain at  Austerlitz.  (1805,)  and  as  colonel  at  Waterloo, 
(1815.)  He  became  lieutenant-general  in  1835,  and  was 
afterwards  Governor  of  Corsica.    Died  in  1845. 

Desmichels,  (Ovide  Chrysanthe,)  a  French  his- 
torian, born  in  the  department  of  Var  in  1793,  was 
professor  of  history  in  Paris  from  18 18  to  1831.  His 
"Histoi)  of  the  Middle  Ages"  (1825;  12th  edition,  1846) 
is  regarded  as  a  classic  work. 

Desmolets,  da'mo'la',  (Pierre  Nicolas,)  a  learned 
French  compiler,  born  in  Paris  in  1678,  became  a  priest 
of  the  Oratoire.  He  was  employed  as  editor  or  com- 
piler of  many  useful  works,  among  which  were  a  new 
and  improved  edition  of  Lami's  "Apparatus  Biblicus," 
(1723,)  and  "  The  Continuation  of  Memorials  of  History 
and  Literature,  by  Sallengre,"  (i  i  vols.,  1726-31.)  Died 
in  1760. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteralre." 

Desmonceaux,  di'm^N^sS',  Abp^:,  a  French  oculist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1734,  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Diseases  of 
the  Eves  and  Ears,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1806. 

Del''mond,  (Catherine  Fitzgerald,)  Countess  of, 
an  Irish  lady,  the  wife  of  James  XIV.,  Earl  of  Desmond, 
was  born  in  the  county  of  Waterford.  She  was  presented 
at  the  court  of  Edward  IV.,  danced  with  his  brother, 
Richard  III.,  and  lived  through  five  subsequent  reigns. 
It  is  said  that  she  reached  the  age  of  one  hundred  and 
forty,  and  died  after  the  accession  of  James  I.,  (1603.) 

See  "Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  Louisa  S.  Cos- 
TELLO,  London,  1844;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1853. 

Desmouliiis,  di'mooOiN',  (Antoine,)  a  French  nat- 
uralist, born  at  Rouen  in  1796.  He  wrote  a  "Natural 
History  of  the  Human  Races  of  Northern  Europe  and 
Asia,"  etc.,  (1826,)  and  published  in  a  short  treatise  the 
results  of  researches  in  the  nervous  system,  (1824.) 
Died  in  1828. 

Desmoulins,  (Camille,)  a  prominent  French  demo- 
crat and  political  writer,  born  at  Guise,  in  Picardy,  in 
1762,  was  educated  in  Paris,  where  Robespierre  was  his 
schoolmate.  An  enthusiastic  partisan  of  the  Revolution, 
he  took  an  active  part  in  the  storming  of  the  Bastille, 
became  a  devoted  follower  of  Danton,  and  acquired  dis- 
tinction by  his  pamphlets,  which  were  written  with  great 
ability.  He  assumed  or  received  the  title  of  "  Attorney- 
General  of  the  Lamp-post,"  for  his  share  in  the  death 
of  those  who  were  hung  by  the  mob  in  the  street.  He 
had  an  impediment  of  speech,  which  prevented  his  suc- 
cess as  an  orator.  In  1791  he  married  an  amiable  lady 
named  Lucile  Duplessis.  Some  writers  accuse  him  of 
complicity  in  the  massacre  of  September,  1792,  but  add 
that  on  that  occasion  he  saved  the  lives  of  several  worthy 
persons.  He  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  and 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  king  and  the  destruction  of 
the  Girondists,  but  subsequently  advocated  milder  mea- 
sures, for  the  promotion  of  which  he  began  to  issue  the 
"  Vieux  Cordelier,"  a  periodical  which  had  much  cele- 
brity and  is  still  admired  for  its  literary  merit.  He  in- 
curred the  implacable  enmity  of  the  fanatical  Saint-Just 
by  saying  that  this  demagogue  "carried  his  head  like 
the  holy  sacrament,"  and  was  involved  in  the  proscrip- 
tion of  his  friend  Danton,  with  whom  he  was  executed, 
April  5,  1794.  His  wife  soon  after  shared  the  same  fate. 
"The  talent  which  he  displayed  as  a  writer,"  says  Lord 
Brougham,  "  may  not  be  of  the  highest  order,  were  we 
considering  the  merit  of  one  who  was  a  mere  author. 
But  he  also  played  a  great  part  among  the  actors  in  the 
scenes  of  the  time,  and  of  those  he  stands  certainly 
highest  as  a  master  of  composition."  "  No  one,"  says 
Lamartine,  "could  so  well  personify  the  populace,  with 
its  tumultuous  movements,  its  mobility,  its  inconstancy, 
and  its  quick  transitions  from  fury  to  i)ity  for  its  victims. 
A  man  at  once  so  ardent  and  so  volatile,  so  trivial  and 
so  inspired,  so  undecided  between  blood  and  tears,  must 
have  influence  over  an  insurgent  people  in  proportion  as 
his  nature  is  congenial  with  theirs."  ("  History  of  the 
Girondists,")    "  A  fellow  of  endless  wit  and  soft  lambent 


brilliancy,"  says  Carlyle  ;  "a  man  for  whom  art,  fortune, 
or  himself  would  never  do  much,  but  to  whom  Nature 
had  been  very  kind." 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  Carlyle, 
"  French  Revolution  ;"  E.  Fleuky,  "  l^iograpliie  de  C.  Desmoulins," 
1850,  and  enlarged  edition,  entitled  "  fitudes  revoiutionnaires,"  etc., 
2  vols.,  1851  ;  Carlyle,  "Miscellanies;"  Brougham,  "Statesmen 
of  the  Time  of  George  IIL" 

Desnoiresterres,  di'nwSR'taiR',  (Gustave  le  Bri- 
soys — leh  bRe'zwi',)  a  French  novelist  and  critic,  born 
at  Bayeux  in  181 7.  He  wrote  several  novels,  one  of 
which  is  entitled  "  Entre  deux  Amours,"  (1845.) 

SeCi^' Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Desnoyer,  da^nwi'yi',  (Louis  FRANgois  Charles,) 
a  prolific  French  dramatist,  born  at  Amiens  in  1806; 
died  in  1858. 

Desnoyers,  di'nwi'yi',  (Auguste  Gaspard  Louis 
Boucher,)  Baron,  a  celebrated  French  engraver  and 
designer,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1779.  He  studied  under 
Lethiere  and  Darcis,  and  gained  distinction  by  a  copper- 
plate engraving  of  "  La  belle  Jardiniere"  of  Raphael, 
(1804,)  which  he  afterwards  surpassed  in  works  after 
various  masters.  He  produced  in  1808  a  portrait  of 
Napoleon,  by  Gerard,  and  in  18 14  pne  of  Raphael's 
Madonnas,  ("Vierge  a  la  Chaise.")  In  1816  he  was 
elected  tq  the  Institute.  He  afterwards  devoted  his 
burin  chiefly  to  the  works  of  Raphael,  witli  a  success 
which  perhaps  has  never  been  surpassed.  Among  his 
master-pieces  is  "The  Transfiguration,"  (1840.)  He 
received  the  title  of  baron  in  1828.    Died  in  1857. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Arcliives  des  Musees 
Imperiaux." 

Desnoyers,  (Jules  Pierre  Franqois  Stanislas,) 
a  French  geologist  and  antiquary,  born  at  Nogent-le- 
Rotrou  (Eure-et-Loir)  in  1800.  He  was  chosen  librarian 
of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Paris  in  1834.  He 
has  written,  besides  other  works,  "Observations  on  the 
Tertiary  Formations  of  the  West  of  France,"  (1832,)  and 
"Ecclesiastic  Topography  of  France,"  (1853.) 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Desnoyers,  (Louis  Claude  Joseph,)  a  French  lit- 
teratciir,  born  at  Replonges  (Ain)  in  1805.  He  founded 
in  1832  the  "  Charivari,"  which  he  edited  with  success 
until  1836,  in  which  year  he  became  one  of  the  proprietors 
of  the  "  Siecle"  in  Paris.  He  also  wrote  several  popular 
tales,  among  which  are  "The  Adventures  of  Jean  P. 
Choppart,"  (1836,)  and  "Gabrielle,  or  Every  Road  leads 
to  R(Miie,"  (1846.) 

Desorgues,  di'zoRg',  (Joseph  Theodore,)  a  satirical 
French  poet,  born  at  Aix  in  1764;  died  in  1808. 

Desormeaux,  d^'zoR'md',  (Joseph  Louis  Ripault,) 
a  French  historian,  born  at  Orleans  in  1724,  lived  in 
Paris.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Spain  and  Portugal," 
(1758,)  and  a  "Life  of  the  Marshal  de  Luxembourg," 
(1764,)  which  were  very  successful.  He  was  admitted 
into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1771.  Died  in 
1793-    (S^e  Ding6,  Antoine.) 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

DesormeaiTX,  (Marie  Alexandre,)  a  French  physi- 
cian and  professor  of  obstetrics,  born  in  Paris  in  1778; 
died  in  1830. 

De  Soto,  dk  so'to,  (Hernando  or  Fernando,)  a 
Spanish  explorer,  born  in  Estremadura  about  1500, 
served  with  distinction  under  Pizarro  in  Peru.  He  con- 
ducted an  expedition  from  Spain  to  Florida  in  1539, 
discovered  the  Mississippi  River,  and  died  in  Louisiana 
in  1542. 

See  Lambert  A.  Wilmer,  "Life,  Travels,  and  Adventures  of 
Ferdinand  de  Soto,"  Philadelphia,  1858;  Bancroft,  "  History  ot 
the  United  States,"  vol.  i. 

Des'pard,  ?  (Edward  Marcus,)  an  Irish  conspirator, 
born  in  Queen's  county.  He  became  a  colonel  in  the 
British  army,  but  was  afterwards  suspended  or  disgraced. 
He  formed  a  conspiracy  to  kill  the  king,  for  which  ht 
was  executed  in  1803. 

Despars  or  Desparts,  d^'ptR',  (Jacques,)  a  FrencI 
physician,  born  at  Tournay,  graduated  in  Paris  in  140Q 
and  practised  there  with  great  reputation.  He  became 
first  physician  to  Charles  VII.,  founded  and  endowed  : 
medical  school  in  Paris,  and  wrote  a  "  Commentary  or 
Avicenna."    Died  in  1457. 

Desparts.    See  Despars. 


"C  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  Yi^guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 

48 


DESPAUTERE 


754 


DESSAIX 


Despautere,  di'po'taiR',  (Jean,)  a  noted  Flemish 
grammarian,  born  at  Ninove  about  1460,  was  tlie  autlior 
of  a  Latin  work  on  grammar,  ("  Commentarii  Gram- 
matici,")  which  was  very  popular,  and  was  used  in  the 
schools  of  France.  "Too  long,"  says  Boinvilliers,  "it 
caused  the  despair  of  youth,  who  shed  many  tears  over 
its  obscurities."  His  Flemish  name  was  Van  Pau- 
TEREN.    Died  in  1520. 

Despaze,  di'ptz^  (Joseph,)  a  French  satirical  poet, 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1776,  lived  in  Paris.    Died  in  1814. 

Despeisses,  d.Vpciss',  (Antoine,)  an  eminent  French 
jurisconsult,  born  near  Alais  in  1594,  was  one  of  the 
authors  of  a  "Treatise  on  Successions."    Died  in  1658. 

See  MoREKi,  "  Dlctionnaire  HIstorique." 

Despence.    See  Espence,  d'. 

Despencer,  le,  (Hugh.)    See  Spenser. 

Desperiers,  da'peh-re-i',  or  Desperriers,  di'pi'- 
re-a',  (Bonaventurp:,)  alFfench  skeptic,  born  at  Arnay- 
le-Duc,  was  valet-de-chambre  of  Marguerite,  sister  of 
Francis  I.  He  wrote,  in  French,  a  work  called  "Cymbal 
of  the  World,"  ("Cymbalum  Mundi,")  the  object  of 
which  was  to  throw  ridicule  on  revealed  religion.  He 
also  wrote  poems  and  tales — "  New  Recreations,"  ("  Nou- 
velles  Recreations") — which  were  admired.  Died  in  1544. 

See  "  Les  vieux  Conteiirs  Fran^ais,"  1840:  Bayle,  "Historical 
and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Charles  Nouier,  "  B.  Desperriers  et 
Cyrano  de  Bergerac,"  1841  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

De.sperriers.    See  Desperiers. 

Desplaces,  da'pliss',  (Louis,)  a  skilful  French  en- 
graver, born  in  Paris  in  1682.  fie  engraved  after  Rubens, 
Paul  Veronese,  and  other  Italian  masters.  Died  in  1739. 

Despois,  da^pvvi',  (Eugene,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  in  Paris  in  1818.  He  contributed  able  articles  to 
the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes." 

Desport,  di'poR',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  surgeon, 
born  about  1700.  Having  practised  with  success  in  the 
army  for  several  years,  he  was  chosen  surgeon-in-chief 
of  the  army  of  Corsica  in  1 738.  He  passes  for  one  of 
the  greatest  military  surgeons  that  France  has  produced. 
He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Gun-Shot  Wounds,"  (1749,) 
which  w^as  then  the  most  complete  on  the  subject.  Died 
about  1760. 

Desportes,  di'poRt',  (Auguste,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at-  Aubenas  ( Ardeche)  in  1 798.  He  made  a  good  poetical 
version  of  the  "Satires"  of  Persius,  (1841,)  and  wrote 
"  Moliere  at  Chambord,"  a  comedy,  (1843.) 

Desportes,  (Charles  £douard  Bosclieron — 
bosh'roN^,)  a  French  lawyer  and  litterateur,  born  in  Paris 
in  1753.  He  embraced  the  royal  cause  in  the  Revolu- 
tion, for  which  he  suffered  in  prison  and  in  exile.  In 
1814  he  became  president  of  the  imperial  court  of  Orleans. 
Died  in  1832. 

See  BuzoNNi^RE,  "  Notice  sur  C.  E.  Boscheron  Desportes,"  1832. 

Desportes,  (Claude  Francois,)  a  French  painter, 
a  son  of  the  following,  whom  he  imitated,  died  in  1774. 

Desportes,  (FRANgois,)  an  eminent  French  painter, 
born  in  Champagne  in  1661,  resided  in  Paris.  He  was 
received  into  the  Royal  Academy  in  1699,  when  the  king 
gave  him  a  pension.  He  painted  portraits  with  skill  ; 
but  he  excelled  in  representing  dogs  and  other  animals. 
He  executed  many  works  of  this  kind  for  Louis  XIV. 
and  for  his  successor.    Died  in  1743. 

Desportes,  (Jean  Baptiste  Poup^:e,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  in  Bretagne  in  1704,  practised  in  Saint 
Domingo.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Diseases  of 
Saint  Domingo,"  in  3  vols.,  (1770,)  one  of  which  is  de- 
voted to  botany.    Died  in  1748. 

Desportes,'(PHiLiPPE,)  a  French  poet,  bornatChar- 
itres  in  1545  or  1546,  was  an  uncle  of  the  satirist  Regnier. 
He  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Henry  HI.,  who  gave  him  rich 
.benefices  and  chose  him  for  reader  in  his  cabinet.  He 
wrote  elegies  and  erotic  poems,  and  excelled  in  Ana- 
creontic verse.  "  Desportes  wrote  more  purely  than 
Ronsard,"  says  La  Harpe,  "  and  removed  the  rust  which 
covered  our  versification."  "  He  rejected,"  says  Hallam, 
"the  pedantry  and  affectation  of  his  predecessors,  and 
gave  a  tenderness  and  grace  to  the  poetry  of  love." 
(("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  Died  in 
1606. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Tableau  de  la  Po^sie  Fran(;aise  an  sei- 
zxhmQ  Si^cle  ;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 


Despreaux.    See  Boileau. 

Despreaux,  dcVpR^'o',  (Jean  £tienne,)  a  popular 
French  dramatist  and  song-writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1748; 
died  in  1820. 

Desprenienil.    See  Espr^:mesnil. 

Despres,  di'pRi',  (Jean  Baptiste  Denis,)  an  accom- 
plished French  writer,  born  at  Dijon  in  1752.  In  1805 
he  became  secretary  of  Louis,  King  of  Holland,  who 
made  him  a  councillor  of  state.  About  1810  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  council  of  the  University  of 
Paris.  He  wrote  several  dramas,  among  which  are  the 
"  Alarmiste"  and  the  "  Satiric  Poet."  Died  in  1832.  Des- 
pres  and  Campenon  made  an  elegant  version  of  Horace. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Despres,  di'pR^',  or  Depres,  written  also  Desprez, 
di'pRa',  (JosQUiN,)  a  famous  Flemish  musician,  born  in 
Hainault  about  1450  or  1460.  He  was  a  singer  in  the 
pontifical  chapel  under  Pope  Sixtus  IV.,  after  whose 
death  he  was  attached  to  the  court  of  Louis  XII.  of 
France.  He  composed  masses,  motets,  and  songs.  Died 
about  1530.  "Many  poems  and  epitaphs,"  says  Denne- 
Baron,  "attest  the  regret  caused  by  the  death  of  this 
musician,  whom  all  Europe  proclaimed  the  greatest  com- 
poser of  his  time." 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Despretz,  da'pRi',  (C6sar  Mansuete,)  a  French 
savant,  born  at  Lessines  (Hainault)  in  1792.  He  taught 
physical  sciences  in  the  College  Henri  IV.,  Paris,  and 
was  appointed  professor  in  the  Sor bonne  about  1837. 
He  published  an  "  P^lementary  Treatise  on  Physics," 
(1825,)  which  was  adopted  by  the  Council  of  Public 
instruction,  and  "Elements  of  Chemistry,"  (1830.)  He 
produced  from  carbon  or  charcoal  minute  black  crystals, 
said  to  be  a  good  substitute  for  diamond-dust  in  polishing 
precious  stones.    Died  in  1863. 

Desprez,  (Josquin.)    See  Despres. 

Desprez,  da'pRa',  (Louis,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris  in  1799.  He  obtained  the  grand  prize  in  1828 
for  "The  Death  of  Orion."  Among  his  other  works  are 
a  statue  of  General  Foy  and  a  bronze  statue  of  Diana, 
(1845-) 

Desprez,  (Louis  Jean,)  a  French  artist,  born  in 
Lyons  about  1745,  was  appointed  painter  and  archi- 
tect to  Gustavus  HI.  of  Sweden.  He  displayed  a  rich 
imagination  as  a  painter.  The  "  Battle  of  Suenskund" 
is  one  of  his  master-pieces.    Died  in  1804. 

Desprez  de  Boissy.    See  Boissy. 

Desrenaudes,  di'reh-nod',  (Martial  Borye,)  an 
able  French  litterateur,  born  at  Tulle  in  1755,  became 
grand  vicar  of  the  Bishop  of  Autun,  (Talleyrand,)  whom 
he  served  as  secretary.  He  is  the  reputed  author  of 
the  famous  report  on  public  instruction  presented  by 
Talleyrand  in  1791.  He  was  imperial  censor  under 
Napoleon  I.    Died  in  1825. 

Desrochers,  dWvo'shif,  (Etienne  Jehandier — 
zh6N'de-a',)  a  French  engraver  of  portraits,  was  born 
at  Lyons  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1 741. 

Desroclies,  di^rosh',  (Jean,)  a  learned  historian  of 
Belgium,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1740.  In  1783  he  pub- 
lished a  well-written  Latin  "Epitome  of  Belgian  His- 
tory," (2  vols.,)  and  left  (unfinished)  an  "Ancient  History 
of  the  Austrian  Netherlands,"  (1787.)    Died  in  1787. 

Desroohes  de  Parthenay,  di'rosh'  deh  paRt'na', 
(J.  B.,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  La  Rochelle,  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  a  "History  of  Denmark," 
(6  vols.,  1730,)  and  a  "  History  of  Poland  under  Augustus 
IL,"  (4  vols.,  1734.)    Died  in  1766. 

Desrotours,  daWtooR',  (Noel  Franqois  Mathieu 
Angot — 6N''go',)  a  French  numismatist  and  writer,  born 
at  Falaise  in  1739,  was  chief  clerk  of  the  administration 
of  the  mint  before  the  Revolution.    Died  in  1821. 

Dessaix,  da'sa',  (Joseph  Marie,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Thonon,  Savoy,  in  1764.  As  major  he  served 
in  Italy  in  1796,  was  a  deputy  to  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred  in  1798,  and  became  a  general  of  division  in 
1809.  For  his  conduct  at  Wagram  (1809)  he  was  made 
a  count  of  the  empire.  He  was  chosen  grand  officer 
of  the  legion  of  honour  in  1811.  He  joined  the  army 
of  Napoleon  in  March,  1815,  and  was  in  consequence 
excluded  from  office  after  the  restoration.   Died  in  1834, 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais." 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DESSAIX 


75? 


DEUTSCH 


Dessaix,  (de  Veygoux.)    See  Desaix. 

Dessalines,  di'^^t'I^i/,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  negro  em- 
peror of  flayti,  born  in  or  near  Guinea  about  1 760,  was 
brought  to  Hayti  as  a  slave.  In  the  servile  war  which  fol- 
lowed the  French  Revolution  he  was  distinguished  for  his 
courage  and  cruelty,  and  became  first  lieutenant  of  Tous- 
saint  L'Ouverture.  He  massacred  all  the  whites  and 
mulattoes  who  fell  into  his  power.  In  1802  he  made  a 
desperate  resistance  to  the  French  army  under  Leclerc, 
especially  at  Saint-Marc.  After  Toussaint  was  trans- 
ported to  France,  Dessalines  became  general-in-chief  of 
the  blacks,  and  expelled  the  French  from  the  island 
in  1803.  He  ordered  a  general  massacre  of  the  white 
residents,  who  had  remained  under  a  promise  of  protec- 
tion. In  October,  1804,  he  assumed  the  title  and  power 
of  emperor.  Two  of  his  officers,  Christophe  and  Petion, 
conspired  against  him  and  assassinated  him  in  1806,  when 
the  former  became  President  of  Hayti. 

See  Louis  Dubroca,  "Vie  de  J.  J.  Dessalines,"  1804. 

Dessalles,  da'sil',  (Jean  L^on,)  a  French  philologist, 
born  at  Le  Bugue  (Dordogne)  in  1803. 

Dessau,  d^s'sow,  (Prince  Leopold  Anhalt,)  a  Ger- 
man general,  born  in  1676,  distinguished  himself  in  the 
war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  and  was  made  field-mar- 
shal in  1 7 12.  He  obtained  command  of  an  army  of 
Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  with  which  he  invaded  Silesia 
in  1744  and  repulsed  the  Austrians  in  1745.  He  after- 
wards defeated  the  Saxons  near  Dresden.  Died  in 
1747- 

Dessen  van  Cronenburg.    See  Dessentus. 

Des-se'ni-us,  [Ger.  pron.  dSs-sa'ne-iis,]  or  Dessen 
van  Cronenburg,  des'sen  vtn  kRo'nen-buRG,  (Ber- 
nard,) a  skilful  Dutch  physician,  born  at  Amsterdam  in 
15 ID,  practised  at  Cologne.  He  published  a  work  "On 
the  Compounding  of  Medicines,"  ("  De  Compositione 
Medicamentorum,"  1555,)  and  another  on  the  Plague. 
Died  in  1574. 

DessoUes,  di'soK,  (Jean  Joseph  Paul  Augustin,) 
Marquis,  an  able  French  general  and  statesman,  born 
at  Auch  in  1767,  served  several  campaigns  under  Bona- 
parte in  Italy  between  1793  and  1797,  and  in  1799  be- 
came general  of  division.  He  served  under  Moreau  in 
1800,  and  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Hohenlinden, 
(i8oi.)  In  this  year  he  was  made  councillor  of  state  and 
secretary  of  war.  From  1808  to  1810  he  commanded 
a  division  in  Spain.  In  18 14  he  was  appointed  by  the 
provisional  government  general-in-chief  of  the  national 
guard  of  Paris,  with  command  of  the  first  military 
division.  On  the  first  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.  he 
became  minister  of  state  and  a  peer  of  France.  He 
was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and  president  of 
the  council,  or  premier,  on  the  formation  of  the  Liberal 
ministry  in  December,  1819.  The  ultra-royalists,  whose 
policy  he  opposed,  procured  his  dismissal  from  power  in 
1820.    Died  in  1828. 

See  Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Restoration  ;"  De  Courcelles, 
"Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

De  Stael.    See  Stael,  de. 
D'Estaing.    See  Estaing,  d'. 

Destaing,  dls't^N',  (Jacques,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Aurillac  in  1764,  commanded  the  light  infantry  at  the 
battle  of  Aboukir,  and  was  made  a  general  of  division 
in  1801.  He  returned  to  France,  and  was  killed  in  a 
duel  by  General  Reynier  in  1802. 

Destandoux.    See  Cailhava. 

Destouches,  dcVtoosh',  (Philippe  Nericault— ni'- 
re^ko',)  a  popular  French  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Tours 
in  1680,  is  said  to  have  been  an  actor  in  his  youth.  His 
comedy  "Le  Curieux  impertinent"  was  performed  in 
1 7 10  with  success.  He  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Eng- 
land in  1 71 7,  and  married  an  English  lady.  In  1723  he 
was  received  into  the  French  Academy.  He  gained 
great  eminence  among  comic  authors  by  his  "Married 
Philosopher,"  (1727,)  which  is  his  master-piece,  "The 
Boaster,"  ("Le  Glorieux,")  and  many  other  comedies. 
Died  in  1754. 

See  Villemain,  "Tableau  de  la  Litt^rature  an  dix-huiti^me 
Siecle;"  D'Alembert,  "  Eloge  de  Destouches,"  1755;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

D'Estrees.    See  Estr^es,  d'. 


Destutt  de  Tracy.    See  Tracy. 

Des  Vergers.    See  Noel  des  Vergers. 

Desvignoles,  di'ven'yoK,  (  Alphonse,  )  a  French 
Protestant  minister,  born  in  Languf  doc  in  1649,  preached 
at  Lausanne,  Berne,  Berlin,  and  Brandenburg.  He  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Berlin  in  1701, 
and  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Bibliotheque  Germanique" 
in  1 711.  In  1738  he  published  a  "Chronology  of  Sacred 
History,"  which  was  esteemed  one  of  the  best  works  on 
that  subject.    Died  in  1744. 

See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Desyveteaux  or  Des  Yveteaux,  di'z^v'to',  (Nico- 
las Vauquelin — vok'liN',)  Seigneur,  a  Frenchman, 
born  near  Falaise  about  1560,  was  preceptor  to  the  Duke 
of  Vendome,  and  to  the  dauphin,  (Louis  XHI.,)  for  the 
former  of  whom  he  wrote  a  poem  called  "The  Education 
of  a  Prince."  In  1611  he  was  dismissed  from  court  on 
account  of  his  immoral  habits.    Died  in  1649. 

See  Ratheky,  "Vauquelin  des  Yveteaux,"  1854;  J-  TraverSj 
"Addition  h.  la  Vie  et  aux  CEuvres  de  V.  des  Yveteaux,"  1856  ;  "  Nou- 
velle Biographic  Generale." 

Detharding,  det'haRMing,  [Lat.  Dethardin'gius,] 
(Georg,)  a  learned  German  physician,  born  at  vStralsund 
in  1671.  He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Rostock 
in  1697,  and  at  Copenhagen  in  1732.  He  gave  evidence 
of  a  philosophic  and  ingenious  mind  in  numerous  works, 
(in  Latin,)  among  which  are  a  "Guide  to  Long  Life," 
("  Dissertatio  de  Manuductione  ad  Vitam  longam,"  1724,) 
"Principles  of  Semiology,"  (1740,)  and  "  Principles  of 
the  System  or  Art  of  Healing,"  ("Fundamenta  Methodi 
Medendi,"  1743.)    Died  in  1747. 

See  Kampfer,  "  Publicum  Virtutis  et  Eruditionis  Monumentum 
G.  Dethnrdingio  erectum." 

Detharding,  (Georg  Christoph,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Rostock  in  1699,  was  professor  of  medi- 
cine at  Copenhagen  from  1747  to  1760.  He  wrote  many 
dissertations  on  medicine.    Died  in  1784. 

See  "Biographic  M^dicale." 

Detmold,  d^t'molt,  (Johann  Hermann,)  a  Gei-man 
statesman,  born  at  Hanover  in  1807,  was  elected  to  the 
National  Assembly  in  1848,  and  was  in  1849  for  a  short 
time  minister  of  justice  and  of  the  interior  for  the  em- 
pire.   He  wrote  several  satirical  works. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Convcrsations-Lexikon." 

De  Tocqueville.    See  Tocqueville,  de. 

Detroy,  deh-tRwl',  (Franqois,)  a  French  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1645,  worked  in  Paris.  Died 
ill  1730- 

Deu-ca'li-on,  [Gr.  LevKa7do)v ,'\  a  personage  of  the 
Greek  mythology,  was  said  to  be  a  son  of  Prometheus. 
According  to  popular  tradition,  he  escaped  in  a  ship 
with  his  wife  Pyrrha  from  a  general  deluge,  and  landed 
on  Parnassus ;  after  which  they  threw  stones  behind 
them,  which  were  transformed  into  men  and  women. 

See  Ovid's  "  Metamorphoses,"  book  i. 

DeurhofF,  duR'hof,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch  writer  on 
theology,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1650 ;  died  in  1717. 
Deusdedit.    See  Dieudonn^;. 

Deusing,  doi'zing,  (Anton,)  a  learned  German  phy- 
sician, born  at  Meurs,  in  Westphalia,  in  1612.  He  was 
versed  in  Oriental  languages,  philosophy,  etc.  In  1646 
he  became  first  professor  of  medicine  at  Groningen.  He 
published,  in  Latin,  "The  Universal  Theatre  of  Nature," 
(1645,)  a  "  Synopsis  of  Medicine,"  (1649,)  "The  Economy 
of  the  Animal  System,"  (1660,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1666. 

See  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  Samuel  Maresius,  "  Oratio  in 
Obitum  A.  Deusingii,"  1666 ;  "Biographic  Medicale." 

Deusing,  (Hermann,)  born  in  1654,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  and  a  partisan  and  admirer  of  Cocceius.  He 
wrote  an  "Allegorical  History  of  the  Bible,"  (1690,)  and 
other  works  on  theology.    Died  in  1722. 

Deutsch,  doitsh, (Nicolas  Emanuel,)  a  Swiss  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Berne  in  1484.  His  engravings 
are  more  prized  than  his  paintings,  and  both  are  rare. 
His  most  remarkable  work  is  a  series  of  six  engravings 
representing  the  Wise  and  Foolish  Virgins.  Died  in 
1530- 

His  son,  Jean  Rodolphe,  produced  engravings  which 
are  valued  ai  showing  the  picturesque  state  of  the  great 
cities  of  Europe  in  the  sixteenth  century. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,guthiral;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DEFA 


756 


DEVOS 


DEVA,  da'va,*  a  Sanscrit  word  signifying  "god," 
and  forming  part  of  several  compound  names  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  as  Kamadeva,  the  "god  of  love," 
Mahadeva,  the  "great  god,"  (one  of  the  many  names 
applied  to  Siva,)  etc.  The  feminine  of  Deva  is  Devi, 
(da'vee,)  which  signifies  simply  a  "goddess,"  but  is  more 
usually  applied  to  Parvati,  the  consort  of  Siva. 

Devaines,  deh-van',  (Jean,)  a  French  litterateicr, 
born  before  1750,  was  chief  clerk  of  the  treasury  under 
Turgot.    Died  in  1803. 

Devaris,  da-va'ris,  or  Devarius,  di-v^'re-us,  (Mat- 
thew,) a  Greek  scholar,  born  in  Corfu,  lived  about  1540, 
and  became,  under  Paul  III.,  corrector  of  Greek  manu- 
scripts in  the  Vatican.  His  chief  work  is  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Particles  of  the  Greek  Language,"  (1588.) 

Devarius.    See  Devaris. 

Devaux.    See  Vaux,  de. 

Devaux,  deh-v6',  (FRAwgois  Antoine,)  a  French 
litth'aieur,  born  at  Luneville  in  1 71 2,  enjoyed  the  con- 
stant friendship  of  Voltaire.  In  1752  he  produced  a 
successful  comedy,  "  Rash  Promises,"  ("  Engagements 
indiscrets.")    Died  in  1796. 

See  VoLTAiRK,  "  Correspoiidance  de  1739  k  1761 ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  Generale." 

Devaux,  (Gabriel  Pierre  FRAwgois  Moisson — 
mwi^s6N',)  a  French  botanist,  born  at  Caen  in  1742, 
formed  near  Bayeux  a  garden  which  became  well  known 
as  the  "Jardin  Devaux."    Died  in  1802. 

See  Laik,  "  Notice  historique  sur  Moisson- Devaux,"  1803. 

Devaux,  (Jean,)  a  skilful  French  surgeon,  born  in 
Paris  in  1649,  practised  in  that  city  for  sixty  years  with 
a  high  reputation.  He  was  author  of  a  popular  treatise 
on  the  "Art  of  Preserving  Health  by  Instinct,"  (1682,) 
and  other  able  professional  works.  He  also  translated 
several  foreign  medical  books.    Died  in  1729. 

See  Sue,  "£iOge  historique  de  Devaux,"  etc.,  Amsterdam,  1772. 

Devaux,  deh-vo',  (Paul  Louis  Isidore,)  a  Belgian 
statesman,  born  at  Bruges  in  1801.  He  was  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  party  called  "Doctrinaire"  before  the 
revolution  of  1830.  In  the  congress  which  met  soon 
after  that  event,  he  took  an  important  part  in  framing 
the  constitution  of  Belgium,  and  promoted  the  election 
of  Leopold.  He  exercised  great  influence  as  editor  of 
the  "  Revue  Nationale." 

Devaux,  (Pierre,)  Baron,  a  French  general,  born 
at  Vierzon  in  1762.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Lutzen 
in  1813.    Died  in  1818. 

Dev'ens,  (Charles,)  an  American  officer,  born  at 
Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  in  1820,  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  battle  of  Ball's  Bluff,  and  became  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  in  1862. 

Deventer,  van,  vtn  dev'en-ter  or  da'v§n-ter,  (Hen- 
DRIK,)  an  eminent  Dutch  physician,  born  at  Deventer 
in  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He 
was  repeatedly  called  to  attend  the  King  of  Denmark, 
Christian  V.  He  published  some  esteemed  works  on 
obstetrics.    Died  in  1739. 

See  I^LOY,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Medecine." 

De  Vere,  de  veer,  (Aubrey,)  an  English  poet  and 
dramatist.  He  published  "The  Song  of  Faith,"  (1842,) 
"The  Waldenses,"  (1842,)  "Mary  Tudor,"  a  drama, 
(1847,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1846. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  R.eview"  for  May,  1843. 

De  Vere,  (Edward.)    See  Vere. 

De  Vere,  (Maximilian  Schele,)  a  writer  and  scholar, 
born  in  Sweden  in  1820.  He  came  to  the  United  States, 
and  in  1844  was  appointed  ])rofessor  of  modern  languages 
and  belles-lettres  in  the  University  of  Virginia.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  his  "  Outlines  of  Comparative  Philology," 
and  "  Stray  Leaves  from  the  Book  of  Nature." 

Devereux.    .See  Essex,  Earl  of. 

Devergie,  deh-v^R'zhe',  (Marie  Guillaume  Al- 
phonse,)  an  eminent  French  physician,  born  in  Paris  in 
\  1798,  became  professor  of  chemistry,  etc.  in  1825.  His 

most  important  work  is  "Legal  Medicine,  Theoretical 
and  Practical,"  (3  vols.,  1836.) 


*  This  word  is  etymolos;ically  related  to  the  Latin  Detts  and  Divjis ; 
in  some  of  the  popular  dialects  it  is  ciiansjed  to  Deo:  hence  we  have 
Kamadeo  and  Mahadeo,  instead  of  Kamadeva,  Mahadeva,  etc. 


Deveria,  deh-viWi',  (Eugene  FRANgois  Marie 
Joseph,)  a  French  historical  painter,  born  in  Paris  in 
1805.  Among  his  works  are  "Marco  Bozzaris  at  Misso- 
longhi,"  (1827,)  and  "The  Flight  into  Egypt,"  (1838.) 

Deveria,  (Jacques  Jean  Marie  Achille,)  a  French 
painter  and  lithographer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1800.  He  produced,  among  other 
historical  paintings,  a  "  Repose  of  the  Holy  Family," 
and  a  "Visitation."  About  1849  he  became  keeper  of 
engravings  in  the  Imperial  Library.    Died  in  1857. 

Deveze,  deh-viz',  (Jean,)  a  French  physician,  born 
at  Rabastens  in  1753,  went  to  Hayti  in  1775.  He  escaped 
from  massacre  in  1793  by  going  to  Philadelphia,  where 
he  had  charge  of  a  hospital  during  the  prevalence  of  the 
yellow  fever.  Returning  to  France,  he  became  physi- 
cian-in-ordinary to  the  king.  Died  in  1829.  He  wrote 
able  "Treatises  on  the  Yellow  P'ever." 

Ddvi,  da'vee,  [the  feminine  form  of  the  Sanscrit  Deva, 
a  "  god,"]  a  common  Hindoo  word,  signifying  "  goddess," 
but  usually  applied  to  Parvati  (or  Kali)  par  excdleiice. 
(See  ParvatI) 

Devienne,  deh-ve'§n',  (Franqois,)  a  French  musi- 
cian and  composer,  born  at  Joinville  in  1759  ;  died  in  1803. 

De  Vigny.    See  Vigny. 

Deville,  deh-v^K,  (Antoine,)  an  eminent  French  en- 
gineer, born  at  Toulouse  in  1596,  passed  some  years  in 
the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  He  wrote  an  im- 
portant treatise  on  fortifications.    Died  about  1656. 

Deviller3,deh-ve'y^',  (Charles,)  a  French  naturalist, 
born  in  1724,  lived  at  Lyons.  His  chief  production  is  an 
edition  of  Linnaeus's  "Entomology."    Died  in  1809. 

Dev'is,  (Arthur  William,)  an  English  historical 
painter,  born  in  1762;  died  in  1822. 

Devonshire,  first  Duke  of.  See  Cavendish,  Wil- 
liam. 

Dev'on-shire,  (Edward  Courtney  or  Courtenay,) 
Earl  OF,  an  accomplished  English  nobleman,  born  about 
1526,  was  the  son  of  Henry  Courtenay,  Earl  of  Devon- 
shire, whose  mother  was  a  daughter  of  Edward  IV.  He 
was  confined  in  the  Tower  from  1538  till  1553,  for  fear 
that  he  might  avenge  his  father,  who  had  been  unjustly 
executed.  Queen  Mary  released  him  and  restored  to 
him  the  earldom.  According  to  several  historians,  she 
was  inclined  to  marry  him,  but  he  treated  her  advances 
with  indifference,  because  he  was  attached  to  her  sister 
Elizabeth.  He  was  again  confined  for  a  short  time  in 
the  Tower  during  Mary's  reign,  and  then  obtained  leave 
to  go  abroad.    He  died  at  Padua  in  1556. 

Devonshire,  (Elizabeth  Hervey,)  Duchp:ss  of,  a 
beautiful  and  accomplished  English  lady,  born  in  1759, 
was  the  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Bristol.  She  married  as 
her  second  husband  W.  Cavendish,  Duke  of  Devonshire, 
who  died  in  1814.  After  this  event  she  resided  in  Italy, 
and  published  an  elegant  edition  of  the  Fifth  Satire  of 
Horace,  and  other  works.    Died  at  Rome  in  1824. 

Devonshire,  (Georgiana,)  Duchess  of,  an  English 
lady,  eminent  for  her  beauty,  talents,  and  accomplish- 
ments, born  in  1757,  was  the  daughter  of  Earl  Spencer. 
In  1774  she  was  married  to  William  Cavendish,  Duke 
of  Devonshire.  She  wrote  some  admired  poetical  effu- 
sions, one  of  which  is  "The  Passage  of  Mount  Saint 
Gothard."  She  was  a  personal  and  political  friend  of 
Charles  James  Fox,  for  whom,  it  is  said,  she  purchased 
votes  by  granting  electors  the  privilege  of  kissing  her. 
Died  in  1806. 

Devonshire,  (William  Spencer  Cavendish,)  sixth 
Duke  of,  born  in  1790,  was  the  only  son  of  the  fifth  duke 
and  Georgiana  Spencer.  He  was  styled  Marquis  of 
Hartington  before  the  death  of  his  father,  in  181 1.  He 
favoured  the  Whig  party,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Russia  in  1826.    Died  in  1858. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Devos  or  De  Vos,  deh-vos',  or  Van  Vos,  vtn  vos, 
(Martin,)  a  skilful  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp 
about  1534.  He  studied  at  Rome  and  Venice,  and  co- 
operated with  Tintoretto,  who  employed  him  to  paint 
the  landscapes  of  his  pictures.  He  returned  to  Antwerp 
about  1559,  and  produced  historical  paintings  and  por- 
traits of  great  merit.  Among  his  works  is  a  picture  of 
the  great  rivers  of  Asia  and  Africa.    Died  in  1604. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DEFOSGES 


7S7 


DE  WITT 


Devosges,  deh-vozh',  (Franqois,)  a  French  designer, 
born  at  Gray  in  1732.  He  founded  at  Dijon  a  free  school 
of  design,  which  was  successful  with  aid  from  the  govern- 
ment. "  He  ought  to  share  with  Vien,"  says  M.  Weiss, 
"the  honour  of  contributing  to  the  study  of  the  antique 
and  the  imitation  of  nature."    Died  in  i8ii. 

Devoti,  d^-vo'tee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  prelate, 
born  in  Rome  in  1 744,  became  eminent  as  professor  of 
canon  law  in  the  college  di  Sapienza.  About  1804  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  Carthage.  He  published  a  work 
on  canon  law,  (*'  Institutiones  Canonicas.")   Died  in  1820. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Devrient,  dgv're-6N^  (Gustav  Emil,)  an  eminent 
German  actor,  of  French  extraction,  nephew  of  Ludwig 
Devrient,  was  born  in  Berlin  in  1803.  He  made  his 
debut  at  an  early  age,  and  performed  in  Berlin  and  other 
cities  of  Germany  with  great  success,  both  in  tragedy 
and  comedy. 

Devrient,  (Karl  August,)  born  in  1798,  made  his 
debiU  in  1819,  and  became  a  popular  comic  actor.  He 
married  the  famous  singer  Wilhelmine  Schroeder,  from 
whom  he  was  divorced  in  1828. 

Devrient,  (Ludwig,)  a  popular  German  actor,  uncle 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Berlin  in  1784.  He  became 
the  chief  favourite  of  the  public  of  Berlin,  where  he  first 
performed  in  1815,  and  received  the  surname  of  "the 
German  Garrick."  He  excelled  both  in  tragedy  and 
comedy,  and  performed  many  parts  in  the  tragedies  of 
Shakspeare.    Died  in  1832. 

See  H.  Schmidt,  "L.  Devrient,  eine  Denkschrift,"  1833  ;  Carl 
F.  KuNZ,  "Aus  dem  Leben  zweier  Schauspieler;  Ifflands  uiid  De- 
viients,"  1838. 

Devrient,  (Philipp  Eduard,)  an  actor  and  dramatic 
writer,  brother  of  Gustav  Emil,  noticed  above,  was  born 
in  Berlin  in  i8or.  Among  his  works  are  the  comedies 
of  "The  Little  Gray  Man"  and  "The  Favour  of  the 
Moment,"  ("  Die  Gunst  des  Augenblicks,")  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Dramatic  Art  in  Germany,"  (1848-51.) 

Devrient,  (Wilhelmine.)    See  Schroeder. 

Devuez,  deh-vii'y,  (Arnould,)  an  excellent  painter 
of  history,  born  near  Saint-Omer  in  1642.  He  worked 
in  Rome,  and  afterwards  in  Paris,  where  he  was  patron- 
ized by  Louvois.  "  His  compositions  are  in  the  manner 
of  Raphael,"  says  the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  "and 
his  design  is  correct."    Died  at  Lille  in  1724. 

Dew,  (Thomas  R.,)  an  American  writer,  born  in 
Virginia  in  1802,  became  professor  of  political  economy, 
history,  and  metaphysics  in  William  and  Mary  College 
in  1827,  and  president  of  that  institution  in  1836.  His 
principal  works  are  "The  Policy  of  the  Government," 
(1829,)  an  "Essay  in  Favour  of  Slavery,"  (about  1833,) 
and  a  "  Digest  of  the  Laws,  Customs,'  etc.  of  Ancient 
and  Modern  Nations."    Died  in  1846. 

Dewaal.    See  Wael,  de. 

Dewailly.    See  Wailly,  de. 

De-wees^  (William  Potts,)  an  American  physician, 
born  at  Pottsgrove,  Pennsylvania,  in  1768.  He  practised 
in  Philadelphia  for  many  years,  and  was  chosen  professor 
of  obstetrics  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1834. 
He  published  a  "  System  of  Midwifery,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1841. 

D'Ewes,  duz,  (Sir  Symonds,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  at  Coxden  in  1602,  was  elected  to  Parliament  in 
1640,  and  was  made  a  baronet  in  1641.  In  the  civil 
war  he  was  a  moderate  opponent  of  the  royal  cause,  and 
was  one  of  the  members  who  were  expelled  from  Par- 
liament by  Colonel  Pride's  "purge"  in  1648.  He  was  a 
laborious  collector  of  historical  records,  medals,  etc., 
and  compiled  a  useful  work,  entitled  "Journals  of  all 
the  Parliaments  during  the  Reign  of  Elizabeth,"  which 
was  published  after  his  death.  Died  in  1650.  His 
"Autobiography  and  Correspondence"  was  published 
in  1845  by  J.  O.  Halliwell. 

De  Wette.    See  Wette,  de. 

Dewey,  du'e,  (Chester,)  an  American  botanist,  born 
at  Sheffield,  Massachusetts,  in  October,  1784.  He  was 
professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  at  Wil- 
liams College  for  seventeen  years,  and  became  in  1836 
principal  of  the  Collegiate  Institute  at  Rochester,  New 
York.  He  was  eminently  successful  as  a  teacher.  He 
contributed  to  the  "American  Journal  of  Science"  a 


series  of  papers  on  Caricography,  (or  the  Carices  of  North 
America,)  which  was  continued,  with  few  interruptions, 
for  forty-two  years.    Died  in  December,  1867. 

Dewey,  (Orville,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished  Unitarian 
divine,  born  in  Sheffield,  Massaciiusetts,  in  1794,  gradu- 
ated at  Williams  College  in  1814.  He  became  an  assistant 
oY  Dr.  Channing,  in  whose  pulpit  he  preached  about  two 
years,  was  pastor  at  New  Bedford  from  1823  to  1833, 
and  in  the  city  of  New  York  from  1835  to  1848.  In  1858 
he  became  pastor  of  the  New  South  Church,  Boston. 
Among  his  writings  are  "  Discourses  on  Human  Life," 
and  "The  Unitarian  Belief."  He  has  contributed  to  the 
"North  American  Review"  and  "The  Christian  Exami- 
ner."   Dr.  Dewey  is  a  strong  and  original  thinker. 

Dewez,  deh-v^',  (Louis  Dieudonne  Joseph,)  ?.  Bel- 
gian writer,  born  at  Namur  in  1760.  In  1821  he  was 
chosen  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Brussels. 
He  wrote  a  "General  History  of  Belgium,"  (1805-07,) 
and  other  historical  works.    Died  in  1834. 

De  Winter.    See  Winter,  de. 

De  Witt,  de  wit,  (Cornelius  or  Kornelis,)  a  Dutch 
naval  officer  and  statesman,  born  at  Dort,  was  an  elder 
brother  of  John  de  Witt.  At  an  early  age  he  was  chosen 
burgomaster  of  Dort  and  governor  of  Putten.  In  1666 
he  held  a  high  command  under  De  Ruyter  when  the 
latter  burned  the  English  shipping  in  the  Thames.  He 
dis])layed  skill  and  courage  in  the  great  naval  battle  of 
Solebay  in  1672,  soon  after  which  he  returned  home, 
sick.  A  man  of  infomous  character  accused  him  of  at- 
tempting to  bribe  him  to  poison  the  Prince  of  Orange. 
Though  no  proof  was  found  to  convict  him,  the  judges 
condemned  him  to  banishment.  The  populace  then 
assembled  round  his  prison,  and  he  fell  a  victim  to 
their  rage.    (See  De  Witt,  John.) 

See  JossELiN,  "  Eer  en  Leer  van  wijien  den  Heer  C.  de  Witt  ver- 
dedigt,"  1774;  J.  A.  Oostkamp,  "  Leven  voornaamste  haden  en 
lotgevallen  van  C.  de  Witt,"  1831. 

De  Witt,  (Emanuel,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Alk- 
maar  in  1607,  excelled  in  perspective  and  architectural 
views.    Died  in  1692. 

De  Witt  or  Wit,  (Jakor,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  history, 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1695;  died  in  1744. 

De  Witt,  (John,)  one  of  the  most  et'ninent  statesmen 
that  the  Dutch  nation  has  produced,  was  born  at  Dort 
in  1625.  His  father,  Jacob,  was  a  burgomaster  of  Dort 
and  a  deputy  to  the  States  of  Holland.  At  the  age 
of  twenty-three  he  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Curve  Lines," 
which  evinced  his  profound  knowledge  of  mathematics. 
About  1650  he  was  chosen  pensionary  of  Dort.  His 
political  principles  were  republican,  and  hostile  to  the 
encroachments  of  the  house  of  Orange.  He  opposed 
without  success  the  war  against  the  English  which  began 
in  1652.  The  great  losses  of  the  Dutch  in  this  war  ren- 
dered his  pacific  policy  so  popular  that  in  1653  he  was 
elected  (for  a  term  of  five  years)  Grand  Pensionary  of 
Holland,  by  virtue  of  which  office  he  became  the  presi- 
dent or  most  influential  member  of  the  vStates-General. 
He  was  now  the  leader  of  the  republican  on-  anti-Orange 
party,  and  had  the  chief  direction  of  the  government  in 
the  United  Provinces.  The  Stadtholder  had  died,  and 
his  heir  (William  III.)  was  then  an  infant.  In  1654  De 
Witt  negotiated  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Cromwell,  which 
contained  a  secret  article  that  no  member  of  the  Orange 
family  should  ever  be  made  Stadtholder.  At  the  expira- 
tion of  his  term  of  office  he  was  re-elected  in  1658,  and 
again  unanimously  in  1663.  Having  failed  in  his  efforts 
to  prevent  the  renewal  of  war  with  England  in  1664,  he 
conducted  it  with  energy  and  ability.  When  the  Dutch 
admiral  Opdam  was  defeated  and  killed,  De  Witt  took 
command  of  the  fleet,  and  gave  proof  of  great  capacity 
for  naval  affairs.  In  1666  the  Dutch  fleet  under  De 
Ruyter  entered  the  Thames  and  burned  several  English 
ships  of  war,  soon  after  which  peace  was  restored. 
About  this  time  the  young  Prince  of  Orange  placed 
himself  under  the  tuition  of  De  Witt.  When  Louis 
XIV.  in  1667  began  to  assert  his  claim  to  Flanders,  De 
Witt  formed  an  alliance  with  England  and  Sweden  to 
resist  him.  But  the  French  king,  having  seduced  Charles 
II.  to  favour  his  design,  invaded  Holland  in  1672  with  a 
large  army,  which  the  Dutch  could  not  effectually  resist, 
and  several  towns  were  taken  by  the  invaders.  The 


■€  as  k;  9  as  r;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DE  WITTE 


758 


DUGORJS 


fickle  populace  imputed  the  blame  of  these  disasters  to 
De  Witt,  and  William  of  Orange  was  chosen  captain- 
general  of  the  army,  and  Stadtholder.  The  pensionary 
thereupon  resigned  his  office. 

His  brother  Cornelius,  charged  with  a  conspiracy 
against  the  life  of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  had  been  ac- 
quitted. The  pensionary  visited  him  in  his  prisoUj^^on 
which  occasion  the  infuriated  mob,  probably  instigated 
by  the  dominant  party,  burst  into  the  prison  and  mur- 
dered them  both,  August  20,  1672.  Hume  represents 
John  de  Witt  as  "a  minister  equally  eminent  for  great- 
ness of  mind,  for  capacity,  and  for  integrity." 

See  Macaui-ay,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  clinp.  ii.;  Pieter 
Simon,  "  J.  de  Witt  en  zijn  T ijd,"  3  vols.,  1832-35  ;  F.  A.  van  Hall, 
"  Lofrede  op  J.  de  Witt,"  1827;  E.  van  dhk  Hoeven,  "  Leven 
bedrijf  en  Dood  der  doorghigtigte  Heeien  Gebroeders  C.  en  J.  de 
Witt,"  1705  ;  French  version  of  the  same,  by  Zoutelandt,  1709. 

De  Witte,  (Pieter.)    See  Candido. 

Dews^bur-y,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  minis- 
ter of  the  Society  of  Friends,  was  born  at  Allerthorpe, 
in  Yorkshire,  probably  about  1620.  In  order  to  obtain 
relief  from  spiritual  conflicts,  and  actuated  by  a  zeal  for 
religious  liberty,  he  entered  the  army  of  the  Parliament 
in  1642,  but  soon,  from  a  sense  of  duty,  renounced  the 
use  of  carnal  weapons.  In  165 1  he  met  George  Fox, 
whose  doctrines  he  recognized  as  (he  true  gospel  which 
had  been  already  revealed  to  himself,  and  of  which  he 
soon  became  a  powerful  preacher.  He  was  imprisoned 
in  Warwick  jail  nearly  eight  years,  ending  in  1671,  and 
again  in  the  same  place  from  1678  to  1685  on  the  charge 
of  being  a  Jesuit.  "  I  entered  prisons,"  said  he,  "  as  joy- 
fully as  palaces,  telling  my  enemies  to  hold  me  there  as 
long  as  they  could."  In  1688  he  preached  in  London 
an  impressive  sermon,  which  is  preserved  in  Sewel's 
"History  of  the  Quakers."    Died  in  1688. 

See  Edward  Smith,  "Life  of  W.  Dewsbury,"  1836;  and  the 
same  reprinted  in  "  Friends'  Library,"  Philadelphia,  vol.  ii.,  1838. 

Dex-ip'pus  or  Di-ox-ip'pus,  [Or.  Ae^OTTrof  or  Atw^- 
iTTTTog ;  Fr,  Dexippe,  dSk'sep',  or  Dioxippe,  de'ok''sep',j 
a  Greek  physician  of  Cos,  lived  in  the  fourth  century 
B.C.,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Hippocrates. 

Dexippus,  [Ai^iTTTzoc,]  a  Greek  philosophic  writer  of 
the  fourth  century  of  our  era.  He  composed  a  com- 
mentary on  the  "  Categories"  of  Aristotle,  which  is 
extant,  and  is  said  to  be  interesting. 

•Dexippus,  (PuBLius  Herennius,)  a  Greek  historian, 
born  in  Attica,  flourished  in  the  third  century  of  our  era. 
He  wrote  "Chronike  Historia,"  a  history  from  the  fabu- 
lous times  to  Claudius  Gothicus,  and  "  I^iwdcKu,"  a  history 
of  the  invasion  of  the  Scythians  or  Goths,  fragments  of 
which  are  extant.    Died  about  280  a.d. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Dex'ter,  (Samuel,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in  Bos- 
ton in  1761,  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1781,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1784.  He  joined  the  Federalist 
party,  and  was  chosen  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in 
1798.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  war  in  1800,  and 
secretary  of  the  treasury  about  January,  1801.  In  1801 
or  1802  he  retired  from  political  life,  and  resumed  the 
practice  of  law  in  Boston.  He  was  highly  distinguished 
as  a  lawyer  and  as  an  advocate  before  the  supreme  court 
at  Washington.  In  1812  he  supported  the  war  against 
Great  Britain,  disagreeing  with  the  Federalists  on  that 
question.    Died  in  1816. 

Deyeux,  di'yuh',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  chemist  and 
apothecary,  born  in  Paris  in  1753;  died  in  1837. 

Deyling,  dialing,  (Salomon.)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  at  Weida  in  1677.  He  wrote  "  Observationes 
Sacrae,"  (4  vols.,  1708-36.)    Died  in  1755. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgenieine  Encyklopaedie." 

Deyns.    See  Denys,  (Jacques.) 

Deynum,  van,  vSn  dl'niim,  (Jean  Bapttste,)  a  Flem- 
ish miniatine-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1620. 

Deyster,  dT'ster,  (Anne,)  a  painter,  born  at  Bruges, 
was  a  daughter  of  Louis  de  Deyster,  whose  works  she 
cojiied  skilfully.    Died  in  1746. 

Deyster,  de,  deh  dl'ster,  (Louis,)  a  Flemish  historical 
painter,  born  at  Bruges  in  1656.  He  studied  in  Rome 
and  Venice,  and  worked  in  his  native  place,  painting 
mostly  scriptural  subjects,  among  which  is  "The  Appa- 
rition of  Christ  to  the  three  Marys."    This  is  praised  by 


Descamps,  who  considered  Deyster  as  equal  to  the  great 
Flemish  masters  in  chiaroscuro.    Died  in  1711. 
See  Descamfs,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Deyverdun,  di'v^RMuN'',  (George,)  a  Swiss  writer, 
born  at  Lausanne  about  1735.  He  was  a  friend  of 
the  historian  Gibbon,  whom  he  assisted  in  his  literary 
labours.  He  wrote  "Literary  Memoirs  of  Great  Britain 
for  the  Years  1767  and  1768."    Died  in  1789. 

Dezallier  d'Argenville,  deh-ztne-i'  dti<'zh6N'vM', 
(Antoine  Joseph,)  a  mediocre  P'rench  writer,  born  in 
Paris  in  1680,  published  a  "Treatise  on  Gardening," 
another  on  "  Conchology,"  and  "  The  Lives  of  Celebrated 
Painters,"  with  portraits,  (1745.)  This  contains  the  lives 
of  one  hundred  and  eiglity  painters.  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.    Died  in  1765. 

His  son,  Antoine  Nicolas,  published  "  Lives  of 
Architects  and  Sculptors,"  (1787,)  which  is  said  to  be 
incomplete  and  inexact.    Died  in  1794. 

Dezobry,  deh-zo'bRe',  (Charles  Louis,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Saint-Denis  (Seine)  in  1798.  He  pub- 
lished in  1835  a  historical  and  antiquarian  work  called 
"Rome  in  the  Augustan  Age,  or  A  Journey  of  a  Gaul 
to  Rome,"  (4  vols.,)  which  is  accounted  a  very  successful 
representation  of  the  life  and  manners  of  the  ancient 
Romans.  He  edited  a  "  General  Dictionary  of  Biography 
and  History,"  (2  vols.,  1857.) 

Dezoteiix,  deh-zo'tuh',  (Franqois,)  a  French  physi- 
cian and  surgeon,  born  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer  in  1724.  He 
was  a  zealous  promoter  of  inoculation.  He  wrote  with 
Valentin  an  able  "Historical  Treatise  on  Inoculation." 
Died  in  1803. 

Dhaher,  di'her,  a  famous  Arab  sheik  of  Palestine, 
who  at  first  possessed  only  the  little  town  of  Safed,  to 
which  he  added  Tiberias  and  Acre.  For  thirty  years 
he  waged  war  against  various  parties,  and  extended  his 
power  by  courage  and  policy.  In  1771  Dhaher  and  Ali 
Bey  defeated  the  Turkish  pasha  of  Damascus.  He  was 
afterwards  defeated  and  killed  about  1775. 

See  VoLNEV,  "  Voyage  eii  E^ypie  et  en  Syne." 

Dharmasoka,  Diianiiajoka,  or  Diiarmashoka 
See  AsoKA. 
D  Hilliers.    See  Hilliers,  d'. 

D'Hozier,  do''ze-a,',  (Charles  Rene,)  a  son  of  Pierre, 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  1640.  He  was  well  versed 
in  heraldry,  and  wrote  several  works  by  order  of  Louis 
XIV.    Died  in  1732. 

D'Hozier,  (Pierre,)  a  French  genealogist,  born  at 
Marseilles  in  1592,  was  noted  for  his  knowledge  of 
heraldry.  He  was  appointed  judge  of  arms  of  France 
in  1641,  steward  of  the  king's  household  in  1642,  and 
councillor  of  state  in  1654.  He  wrote  "The  Genealogy 
of  the  Princijjal  Families  of  France,"  (in  150  vols.,) 
and  several  other  worUs.  Died  in  1660.  Boileau  wrote 
a  few  verses  under  his  portrait,  one  of  which  is, 
"  Ses  talents  surprendront  tousles  ages  suivants."* 

D'Huxatime,  diik^st't^m',  a  French  poet,  born  in 
Dauphine,  lived  about  1470. 

See  Longfellow's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Di-a-du-me-ni-a'nus,  [Fr.  Diadumenien,  de^i'dii'- 
mi'ne'iN',  or  Diadum^ne,  de'SMii'min',]  (Marcus 
Opilius  Antoninus,)  was  the  son  of  the  Roman 
emperor  Macrinus,  who  began  to  reign  in  217  A.D., 
and  then  conferred  the  title  of  Cxsar  on  the  subject  of 
this  article,  at  Antioch.  After  a  reign  of  about  a  year, 
Macrinus  was  defeated  by  Elagabalus,  and  the  son, 
who  was  still  a  minor,  was  put  to  death  in  218.  He 
is  sometimes  reckoned  among  the  emperors,  as  some 
of  his  medals  bear  the  title  of  Augustus. 

Diago,  de-S'go,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  historian  and 
friar,  born  at  Bibel,  in  Valencia.  He  received  from  Philip 
HI.  the  title  of  historiograi^her,  and  wrote,  besides  other 
histories,  "Annals  of  the  Kingdom  of  Valencia,"  (1613.) 
Died  in  1615. 

Di-ag'o-ras,[Aiay6paf,]  a  Greek  poet  and  philosopher, 
born  in  the  island  of  Melos,  lived  about  420  B.C.  lie  is 
said  to  have  been  a  disciple  of  Democritus  of  Abdera, 
and  was  cominonly  stigmatized  as  an  atheist,  because  he 
dissented  from  the  popular  notions  about  the  gods.  He 


*  "  His  talents  (or  attainments)  will  surprise  all  succeeding  ages." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /on^;  k,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  mooni 


DIAMANTE 


759 


DIBDIN 


fled  from  Athens  about  411  B.C.,  to  avoid  prosecution 
for  impiety,  and  a  reward  was  offered  to  any  one  who 
should  kill  him.  His  moral  character  appears  to  have 
been  good.    His  works  are  not  extant. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca  ;"  Reuthen,  "  De  Atheismo 
Diasorse,"  1812:  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  J. 
L.  MouNiER,  "Dissertatio  de  Diagora  Melio,"  1838. 

Diamante,  de-^-man'ti,  an  Italian  painter  and  Car- 
melite monk,  born  at  Prato,  in  Tuscany,  was  a  pupil  of 
Filippo  Lippi.  He  was  esteemed  a  good  artist  by  his 
contemporaries,  and  promoted  the  renaissance  of  art  in 
Italy.    Died  about  1440. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Diamante,  de-a-mSn'ti,  (Juan  Bautista,)  a  popular 
Spanish  dramatist,  lived  about  1640.  Among  his  works 
are  "The  Siege  of  Zamora,"  ("  El  Cerco  de  Zamora,") 
and  "The  Jewess  of  Toledo,"  ("La  Judia  de  Toledo.") 

See  Ticknor's  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Diamantini,  de-a-man-tee'nee,(GiovANNi  Giuseppe,) 
an  Italian  painter  and  engraver,  born  in  the  Romagna 
about  1650.  He  settled  in  Venice,  where  he  painted 
many  works,  among  which  is  an  "Adoration  of  the 
Magi."  He  left  many  fine  engravings  after  his  own 
designs.    He  died  about  17 15. 

Di''an,  a  poetical  form  of  Diana.    See  Diane. 

Di-an'a,  [Fr.  Diane,  de'tn',]  the  Roman  name  of  the 
goddess  of  the  chase,  corresponding  to  the  Ar'te-mis 
['Afjre/z^f]  of  the  Greeks.  She  is  often  called  Delia,  from 
the  island  Delos,  her  birthplace.  She  was  represented 
as  the  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Latona,  and  the  counter- 
part of  her  brother  Apollo,  like  whom  she  appeared  armed 
with  a  bow  and  arrows.  She  was  also  the  goddess  of  the 
moon,  in  which  character  she  is  called  Phoebe,  Cynthia, 
and  other  names.  She  was  regarded  as  the  patroness  of 
chastity;  and  all  her  attendants  were  virgins.  There  was 
at  Ephesus  a  magnificent  temple  of  Diana,  which  was 
regarded  as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world. 

See  GuiGNiAUT,  "Religions  de  I'Antiqiiite,"  Paris,  1825-29,  vol. 
ii.  book  iv.  chap.  iv.  ;  Arnoi-di,  "  Commentatio  de  Diana  Ephesia," 
1708;  Meyen,  "Di.ssertatio  de  Diana  Taiirica  et  Anaitide,"  1835; 
Keightley,  "Mythology." 

Diana,  de-i'nS,  (Benedetto,)  a  painter  of  the  Vene- 
tian school,  lived  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

Di-an'a  of  France,  [Fr.  Diane  de  France,  de'tn' 
deh  fK6Nss',J  a  daughter  of  Henry  II.  and  Philippa 
Due,  was  born  in  1538,  and  became  in  1557  the  wife  of 
Francois  de  Montmorency,  afterwards  marshal.  She  had 
much  influence  with  her  brother,  Henry  HI.,  and  in 
1558  mediated  successfully  between  him  and  the  King 
of  Navarre,  who  was  then  recognized  as  the  heir  to 
the  French  crown.  Davila  praises  her  prudence  and 
political  ability.    Died  in  1619. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis." 

Diane,  (Anglicized  as  Di'an.)    See  Diana. 

Diane  de  i'rance.    See  Diana  of  France. 

Diane  de  Poitiers,  dt'tn'  deh  pwa'te-i  ,  a  beautiful 
French  lady,  born  in  1499.  Having  been  left  a  widow 
in  1 53 1,  she  soon  after  gained  the  affection  of  the  king's 
son,  who  in  1547  ascended  the  throne  as  Henry  II.  and 
gave  her  the  title  of  Duchess  of  Valentinois.  She  had 
a  complete  ascendency  over  the  king,  who  allowed  her 
to  exercise  royal  power  and  to  control  even  the  foreign 
policy  of  the  government.  De  Thou  attributes  to  her 
the  misfortunes  of  Henry's  reign  and  the  persecution  of 
the  Protestants.  By  her  graces  and  talents  she  retained 
her  influence  over  Henry  until  his  death  in  1559.  Died 
in  1566. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis;"  Brantome,  "  Femmes 
galantes." 

Dias.    See  Diaz. 

Dias  Gomes,  dee'is  go'mis,  (Francisco,)  a  Portu- 
guese poet,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1745,  wrote  odes,  elegies, 
tragedies,  etc.,  some  of  which  are  commended  for  cor- 
rectness and  classic  taste.    Died  in  1795. 

Diaz,  dee'Az  or  dee'Ss,  or  Dias,  (A.  GoNgALVRZ,)  a 
Brazilian  poet,  born  in  the  province  of  Maranliam  in 
1823.  He  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1846,  and 
*'Segundos  Cantos"  in  1848. 

Diaz,  dee'ds  or  dee'dz,  or  Dias,  (Balthazar,)  a  Por- 
tuguese poet,  born  in  the  island  of  Madeira,  lived  about 
1550.    He  wrote  plays  called  "Autos  sacramentales." 


Diaz  or  Dias,  (Bartolomeu,)  a  Portuguese  navigator, 
was  sent  in  i486  to  explore  the  west  coast  of  Africa, 
and,  sailing  southward,  was  driven  by  violent  winds  as 
far  as  Great  Fish  River,  without  being  aware  that  he  had 
doubled  the  cape  of  which  he  was  in  search.  On  his 
return  he  discovered  in  1487  this  cape,  which  he  named 
Tormentoso ;  but  this  was  subsequently  changed  to 
Cabo  de  boa  Esperanga,  (or  "  Cape  of  Good  Hope.") 
In  1500  he  sailed  for  India,  as  captain  of  a  ship,  in  the 
fleet  commanded  by  Cabral,  and  perished  by  shipwreck 
during  the  voyage  the  same  year. 

See  JoAO  de  Bakros,  "Asia,  Decada  I. ;"  Ramusio,  "Voyages;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Diaz,  dee'ath,  or  Dias,  dee'Ss,  (Diego  Valentin,) 
a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Valladolid  ;  died  in  1660. 

Diaz  or  Dias,  (Francisco,)  a  vSpanish  missionary, 
born  in  Old  Castile,  went  to  the  Philippine  Isles  in  1632. 
He  afterwards  preached  in  China,  and  was  killed  in  1646. 

Diaz,  (Caspar,)  a  Portuguese  painter,  who  flourished 
about  1530,  was  a  pupil  of  Raphael.  But  little  informa- 
tion can  be  found  respecting  him.  He  was  called  "the 
Portuguese  Raphael."  In  the  estimation  of  Boissonade, 
he  was  a  great  painter  and  expressed  the  passions  ad- 
mirably.   His  subjects  were  mostly  religious. 

Diaz  or  Dias,  (Juan  Martin,)  a  Spanish  general, 
surnamed  EL  Empecinado,  l\  gm-iii-the-n§,'Do,  (a  word 
which  literally  signifies  "covered  with  pitch"  or  "shoe- 
maker's wax," — supposed  to  have  been  applied  to  him 
because  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  his  native  village 
were  shoemakers,)  was  born  at  Castrillo  in  1775.  He 
became  in  1808  the  leader  of  a  band  of  guerillas,  and 
fought  against  the  French  invaders  with  such  success 
that  he  obtained  the  rank  of  general  under  the  regency. 
In  1814  he  was  deprived  of  his  command  by  Ferdinand. 
He  favoured  the  Constitution  of  the  Cortes  in  1820,  for 
which  he  fought  against  the  absolutists.  He  commanded 
a  division  of  the  army  of  Placencia  in  1823.  After  the 
triumph  of  the  absolutists,  he  was  executed  for  treason, 
in  1825. 

See  "Military  Exploits,  etc.  of  Don  Juan  Martin  Diaz,"  London, 
1823;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Diaz  or  Dias,  (Miguel,)  a  Spanish  captain,  born  in 
Aragon,  was  a  companion  of  Columbus.  He  discovered 
a  gold-mine  in  Hayti.    Died  about  1 5 14. 

IDiaz  or  Dias,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  missionary,  born 
near  Toledo  in  1546  ;  died  at  Mexico  in  1618. 

See  Machatjo,  "  Vida  del  P.  P.  Diaz,"  1632. 

Diaz  de  Bivar.    See  Cm. 

Diaz  de  la  Pena,  dee'ath  di  Ii  pin'ya,  (Narcisse,) 
a  French  historical  painter,  of  Spanish  extraction,  born 
at  Bordeaux  in  1809,  gained  the  first  medal  in  1848. 
Among  his  works  are  "  The  Nymphs  of  Calypso,"  (1840,) 
and  "The  Dream,"  (1841.) 

Diaz  de  Lugo,  dee'ath  di  loo'go,  (Juan  Bernardo,) 
a  Spanish  jurist,  born  at  Seville,  was  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  the  grand  council  of  the  Indies  by  Charles  V.,  and 
became  Bishop  of  Calahorra.    Died  in  1556. 

Diaz  (or  Dias)  de  Novaes,  dee'is  di  no-vS'es, 
(Paulo,)  a  Portuguese  general,  was  a  grandson  of  ]^ar- 
tolomeu,  and  commanded  an  expedition  sent  in  1574  to 
Angola,  where  he  planted  a  colony.    Died  in  15S9. 

Diaz  del  Castillo.    See  Casi  illo. 

Dib'din,  (Charles,)  an  English  bard,  actor,  and 
dramatist,  born  at  Southampton  in  1745,  went  to  Lon- 
do!i  about  the  age  of  sixteen.  His  essays  as  a  performer 
on  the  stage  were  not  successful.  About  1778  he  became 
musical  manager  of  Covent  Garden  Theatre.  In  17S9 
he  began  to  give  musical  entertainments  in  which  he 
was  the  sole  performer,  and  which  were  accompanied  by 
popular  songs  of  his  composition.  The  success  of  this 
enterprise  enabled  him  to  open  the  Sans-Souci  Theatre 
in  1796.  His  fame  is  derived  chiefly  from  his  songs, 
which  amount  to  one  thousand  or  more.  His  sea-songs 
especially  have  obtained  dnrable  poi)ularity,  and  "have 
been  the  solace  of  sailors  in  long  voyages,  storms,  and 
battles."  "Tom  Bowling"  and  "  Poor  Jack"  are  two  of 
his  most  popular  ballads.    Died  in  1814. 

See  "  'I'he  Professional  Life  of  C.  Dibdin,"  by  hiimself  4  vols., 
180^:  William  Jerdan,  "  Men  I  have  known,"  London,  ib'6. 

Dibdin,  (Thomas,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1 77 1,  was  also  an  actor  and  a  dramatic  writer.  About 
1791  he  joined  a  company  of  strolling  players,  and  after 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k, gttttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DIBDIN  760  DICKINSON 


the  lapse  of  several  years  returned  to  London.  He 
then  performed  in  Covent  Garden,  and  wrote  numerous 
comedies,  farces,  etc.,  some  of  which  were  successfv,). 
In  1828  he  published  "  Reminiscences,"  (of  the  Theatre.) 
Died  in  1841. 

Dibdin,  (Thomas  Frognall,)  D.D.,  an  eminent 
English  bibliographer,  born  in  Calcutta  in  1776,  was  the 
nephew  of  Charles  Dibdin,  noticed  above.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford,  and  entered  the  priesthood  in  1804.  In 
1809  he  produced  his  amusing  work  entitled  "  Biblio- 
mania," which  was  favourably  received.  The  next  year  he 
began  to  issue  a  new  and  improved  edition  of  "  Ames's 
Typographical  Antiquities  of  Great  Britain,"  which  is 
perhaps  his  most  important  performance.  He  instituted 
in  181 2  the  Roxburghe  Club,  devoted  to  bibliography, 
of  which  he  was  chosen  vice-president.  In  1817  ap- 
peared his  "  Bibliographical  Decameron,  or  Ten  Days' 
Pleasant  Discourse  on  Illuminated  MSS.,"  which  is 
greatly  admired  by  amateurs.  Another  admirable  and 
costly  specimen  of  typography  was  furnished  by  his 
"  l)ibIiographic,  Antiquarian,  and  Picturesque  Tour  in 
France  and  Germany."    Died  in  1847. 

See  Dibdin's  "Reminiscences  of  a  Literary  Life,"  2  vols.,  1836; 
"Quarterly  Review,"  vol.  xxxii. ;  William  Jekdan,  "Men  1  have 
known,"  London,  1866. 

Di-bu'ta-des  [Fr.  Dibutade,  de'bii^ttd']  of  vSicyon, 
a  Greek  artist  of  uncertain  epoch,  is  said  to  have  invented 
the  art  of  modelling  bas-reliefs. 

Dicaearchus,  di-se-ar'kus,  [Gr.  AiKalapxo^ ;  Fr.  DiCE- 
arque,  de'sa'^Rk',]  an  eminent  Greek  Peripatetic  philo- 
sopher and  writer,  born  at  Messina,  in  Sicily,  was  a  disciple 
of  Aristotle,  and  lived  about  300  K.c.  He  wrote  numerous 
works  on  geography,  history,  etc.,  which  are  lost  except 
small  fragments.  It  is  said  he  denied  the  immortality  or 
existence  of  the  soul.  Cicero  highly  praises  him  as  a  sage, 
an  excellent  citizen,  a  great  man,  an  able  historian,  and 
one  of  the  most  eloquent  disciples  of  Aristotle.  Among 
his  principal  works  was  a  treatise  on  Greek  geography, 
history,  institutions,  and  politics,  entitled  "The  Life  of 
Greece,"  ('"EAAacJof  jSiog."} 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Graecis  ;"  Brucker,  "  Historia  Phi- 
losophias." 

Dicearque.    See  Dic^archus. 

Di9'e-to,  de,  (Ralph,)  an  English  historian,  was  Dean 
of  Saint  Paul's,  London.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  History 
of  the  Kings  of  Britain."    Died  in  1283. 

Dick,  (Sir  Alexander,)  a  Scottish  physician,  born 
in  1703,  wrote  a  treatise  on  Epilepsy,  ("De  Epilepsia," 
1725.)    Died  in  1785. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Dick,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  divine,  born  at  Aber- 
deen in  1764,  was  a  minister  of  the  United  Secession 
Church.  He  wrote  an  esteemed  work  on  the  "  Inspira- 
tion of  the  Scriptures,"  "  Lectures  on  Theology,"  and 
other  religious  books.    Died  in  1833. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Dick,  (Thomas,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  author,  born  near 
Dundee  in  1772,  was  in  early  life  a  minister  of  the  Se- 
cession Church  at  Stirling.  He  exchanged  this  avocation 
for  that  of  a  school-teacher,  which  he  pursued  at  Perth 
for  a  number  of  years.  He  devoted  much  attention  to 
physical  sciences,  and  wrote  many  popular  scientific  and 
religious  works,  viz.:  "The  Christian  Philosopher," 
"The  Philoso]jhy  of  Religion,"  "The  Philosoj^hy  of  a 
Future  State,"  "Celestial  Scenery,"  "The  Solar  System," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1857. 

Dick'eiis,  (Charles,)  one  of  the  most  po])ular  of 
English  novelists,  born  at  Landport,  Portsmouth,  in 
February,  1812,  was  a  son  of  John  Dickens,  who  served 
in  the  navy  pay  department  and  afterwards  became  a 
reporter  of  Parliamentary  debates.  Young  Dickens  was 
designed  for  the  profession  of  the  law,  and  was  placed 
in  the  office  of  an  attorney,  after  he  had  studied  in  a  col- 
lege near  Rochester.  Finding  the  jDursuit  of  law  uncon- 
genial to  his  taste,  he  soon  abandoned  it,  and  became  a 
reporter  for  the  daily  press  ^f  London.  He  began  his 
literary  career  by  "  Sketches  of  Life  and  Character," 
whicn  first  api)eared  in  the  "Morning  Chronicle,"  and 
were  pu])lished  collectively  as  "Sketches  by  Boz,"  (2 
vols.,  1836.)  These  exhib't  great  acuteness  of  observa- 
tion, and  were  received  by  the  public  with  much  favour. 


In  1837  he  produced  a  work  called  "The  Posthumous 
Papers  of  the  Tickwick  Club,"  which  in  a  certain  de- 
partment of  humour  is  probably  unrivalled  by  anything 
in  the  English  language.  The  success  of  this  work  was 
almost  without  example  ;  and  it  is  still  perhaps  the  mo^ 
popular  of  all  Mr,  Dickens's  productions.  In  1838  he 
married  a  daughter  of  George  Hogarth,  a  musical  critic. 
He  published  in  rapid  succession  "Oliver  Twist,"  a 
novel,  (3  vols.,  1838,)  "The  Life  and  Adventures  of 
Nicholas  Nickleby,"  (3  vols.,  1839,)  "Master  Hum- 
phrey's Clock,"  (1840-41,)  and  "  Barnaby  Rudge,"  (2 
vols.,  i84L)  Having  visited  the  United  States  in  1841, 
he  published  in  1842  "  American  Notes  for  General  Cir- 
culation." His  next  work  was  the  "  Life  and  Adventures 
of  Martin  Chuzzlewit,"  (3  vols.,  1843-44.)  About  the 
end  of  1845  he  became  the  chief  editor  of  the  "Daily 
News"  of  London,  a  Liberal  paper,  then  just  founded; 
but  he  held  this  position  for  a  short  time  only.  Among 
his  later  works  (most  of  which  were  first  issued  as  serials) 
are  "  Dombey  and  Son,"  (1847-48,)  "The  Personal 
History  of  David  Copperfield,"  (4  vf)ls.,  1850,)  "  l^leak 
House,"  (1852,)  "Hard  Times,"  ( 1854,)  "  Little  Dorrit," 
(1857,)  "  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities,"  (i860,)  "Great  Expecta- 
tions," (1862,)  and  "Our  Mutual  Friend,"  (1864-65.) 

In  1850  he  began  to  issue,  weekly,  a  periodical  called 
"Household  Words,"  which  had  a  large  circulation. 
In  1859  he  began  to  publish  "All  the  Year  Round,"  a 
weekly  literary  paper.  Fie  revisited  the  United  States  in 
1867,  and  gave  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  Union  public 
readings  which  attracted  crowded  audiences.  He  died 
of  apoplexy  in  1870,  leaving  an  unfinished  work,  entitled 
"The  Mystery  of  Edwin  Drood." 

"One  of  the  qualities  we  most  admire  in  him,"  says 
the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1838,  "is  his 
comprehensive  spirit  of  humanity.  The  tendency  of  his 
writings  is  to  make  us  practically  benevolent, — to  excite 
our  sympathy  in  behalf  of  the  aggrieved  and  suffering  in 
all  classes,  and  especially  in  those  who  are  most  removed 
from  observation.  ,  .  ,  We  think  him  a  very  original 
writer,  well  entitled  to  his  popularity,  and  not  likely  to 
lose  it,  and  the  truest  and  most  spirited  delineator  of 
English  life,  amongst  the  middle  and  lower  classes,  since 
the  days  of  Smollett  and  Fielding." 

The  following  strictures,  however,  are  not  without 
justice,  at  least  as  regards  many  of  the  actors  in  Mr. 
Dickens's  works:  "The  good  characters  of  Mr.  Dick- 
ens's novels,"  says  the  "  North  British  Review,"  (vol.  iv.,) 
"  do  not  seem  to  have  a  wholesome  moral  tendency.  The 
reason  is  that  many  of  them — all  the  author's  favourites — 
exhibit  an  excellence  flowing  from  constitution  and  tem- 
perament, and  not  from  the  influence  of  moral  or  religious 
motive.    They  act  from  im]iulse,  not  from  principle." 

"  He  [Dickens]  has  revived,"  says  Mr.  Whipple,  "the 
novel  of  genuine  practical  life,  as  it  existed  in  the  works 
of  Fielding,  Smollett,  and  Goldsmith;  but  at  the  same 
time  he  has  given  to  his  materials  an  individual  colouring 
and  expression  peculiarly  his  own.  .  .  .  Dickens's  eye  for 
the  forms  of  things  is  as  accurate  as  Fielding's,  and  his 
range  of  vision  more  extended ;  but  he  does  not  probe 
so  profoundly  into  the  heart  of  what  he  sees,  and  he  is 
more  led  away  from  the  simplicity  of  truth  by  a  tricksy 
spirit  of  fantastic  exaggeration."  ("North  American 
Review"  for  October,  1849.) 

See  "London  Quarterly"  for  October,  1837;  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  October,  1838,  June,  1839.  and  March,  1843;  "Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  April,  1855;  "British  Quarterly"  for  July, 
1862  ;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1864 ;  "  Atlantic  Monthly' 
for  i\Liy,  1867. 

Dick'in-son,  (Anna,)  an  American  female  orator, 
born  in  Philadel})hia,  October  28,  1842,  was  originally  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  She  gained  great 
distinction  during  the  civil  war  by  her  public  speeches 
against  slavery  and  disunion.  She  is  one  of  the  most 
popular  public  lecturers  in  the  United  States.  She  is 
author  of  a  novel  entitled  "What  Answer?"  (1868.) 

See  "Eminent  Women  of  the  Age,"  1S68. 

Dickinson,  (Daniel  Stevens,)  an  American  Sena- 
tor, born  in  Goshen,  Connecticut,  in  Septembei,  1800. 
He  was  educated  in  Central  New  York,  whither  his 
parents  removed  when  he  was  a  child.  He  studied  law, 
became  an  active  Democrat,  and  in  1836  was  elected  to 
the  Senate  of  New  York.    In  1842  he  was  chosen  Lieu- 


e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  /ou^-;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fl.ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  mtmn; 


DICKINSON 


761 


DIDEROT 


tenant-Governor  of  New  York  for  two  years.  He  repre- 
sented that  State  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  from 
December,  1844,  to  March,  1851,  during  which  period  he 
voted  with  the  Democratic  party  on  the  Wihnot  proviso, 
the  slavery  question,  etc.  He  gained  distinction  as  a  de- 
bater, and  was  recognized  as  the  leader  of  the  "  Hunker" 
Democrats  in  New  York.  He  resided  at  Binghamton 
in  the  latter  part  of  his  life.  In  1861  he  was  elected 
attorney-general  of  the  State  of  New  York.  During  the 
civil  war  he  cordially  supported  the  Federal  government 
in  its  efforts  to  supjjress  the  rebellion,  and  acted  with 
the  Union  Republican  party.  He  was  appointed  district 
attorney  for  the  southern  district  of  New  York  by  Presi- 
dent Lincoln  about  March,  1865.    Died  in  April,  1866. 

See  "  Speeches,  Correspondence,  etc.  of  Daniel  S.  Dickinson, 
with  a  Biographical  Sketch,"  by  his  brother,  John  R.  Dickinson, 
2  vols.,  1867. 

Dick'in-son,  (Edmund,)  an  eminent  English  physi- 
cian, born  at  Appleton  in  1624,  gained  reputation  by  the 
publication  of  "  Delphi  Phoenizicantes  ;"  but  it  appears 
that  the  real  author  was  Henry  Jacob.  He  settled  in 
London  in  1684,  practised  there  many  years,  and  became 
physician  to  Charles  H.  and  James  IL    Died  in  1707. 

See  "Account  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Edmund  Dickinson,"  London, 
1739- 

Dickinson,  (John,)  an  English  author,  born  about 
1554.  Among  his  works  is  "  Speculum  Tragicum."  Died 
in  1606. 

Dickinson,  (John,)  an  American  statesman  and  law- 
yer, born  in  Maryland  in  1 732.  He  was  chosen  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Continental  Congress  in  1774,  and  wrote 
several  important  state  papers  issued  by  that  body. 
1\\  June,  1776,  he  opposed  the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence, which  he  thought  premature.  Having  declined 
to  sign  that  declaration,  he  impaired  his  popularity,  and 
lost  his  election  to  the  next  Congress.  He  afterwards 
served  as  a  private  soldier  against  the  British.  In  1779 
he  was  again  elected  to  C(3ngress  from  Delaware.  He 
was  President  of  Pennsylvania  about  three  years,  1782- 
85.  He  was  an  able  debater,  and  distinguished  for  his 
elegant  manners  and  superior  culture.    Died  in  1808. 

See  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  DistinRiiislied  Americans," 
vol.  iii.  ;  Hanckoft,  "History  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  viii. 

Dickinson,  (Jonathan,)  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
born  in  Hatfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1688,  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1706.  He  preached  for  many  years  at 
Elizabethtown,  New  Jersey,  and  acquired  distinction  as 
a  writer  on  theology.  Pie  was  elected  president  of  the 
College  of  New  Jersey  in  1746.    Died  in  1747. 

Dickinson,  (Philemon,)  a  patriot  of  the  American 
Revolution,  was  born  in  New  Jersey  about  1740.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  struggle  for  independence, 
and  at  the  battle  of  Monmouth  displayed  great  spirit 
and  gallantry  in  command  of  the  New  Jersey  militia.  He 
was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1782  and 
1783,  and  a  United  States  Senator  from  1790  to  1793. 
Died  in  1809. 

Dick'ons,  Mrs.,  an  English  singer,  whose  maiden 
name  was  Poole.    Died  in  1833. 

Dick'son,  (Adam,)  a  Scottish  clergyman,  born  in 
East  Lothian.  From  1750  to  1770  he  was  minister  of 
Dunse.  He  wrote  a  valuable  "Treatise  on  Agriculture," 
and  "The  Husbandry  of  the  Ancients,"  (1788,)  which, 
says  McCuUoch,  "is  the  best  work  on  the  subject  in  the 
English  language."    Died  in  1776. 

Dickson,  (David,)  an  eloquent  Scottish  preacher, 
born  at  Glasgow  in  1583,  became  professor  of  divinity 
at  Glasgow  in  1643,  and  afterwards  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh.  He  published  an  "Exposition  of  all 
the  Epistles,"  an  "  Exposition  of  the  Gospel  of  Saint 
Matthew,"  and  other  works,  which  were  received  with 
favour.    Died  in  1663. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Dick'son,  (James,)  an  English  botanist,  born  in  1738. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Collection  of 
Dried  Plants,"  (1788.)    Died  in  1822. 

Dick'son,  (Samuel  Henry,)  an  AmeHcan  physician 
and  writer,  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1798, 
graduated  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1819.  In 
1858  he  was  ajjpointed  professor  of  the  practice  of  medi- 
cine in  the  Jefferson  Medical  College  in  Philadelphia. 

See  Ai.i.ibone's  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 


Dicquemare,  d^k'mtR',  (Jacques  Francois,)  a 
French  naturalist  and  priest,  born  at  Havre  in  1733, 
became  professor  of  natural  history  in  that  city.  He 
made  discoveries  in  tlie  nature  and  habits  of  Radiata 
and  other  marine  animals^  on  which  he  wrote  many  treat- 
ises inserted  in  the  "Journal  de  Physique."  He  also 
published  "The  Knowledge  of  Astronomy  rendered 
Easy."    Died  in  1789. 

Dic'tys  Cre-ten'sis,  [Fr.  Die  tys  de  Cr^:te,  d^k't^ss'' 
deh  kkit,]  a  Greek,  who  is  said  to  have  followed  Idome- 
neus  to  the  siege  of  Troy,  and  to  have  written  a  narrative 
of  the  same.  There  exists  in  Latin  prose  a  "History  of 
the  Trojan  War,"  which  purports  to  be  a  version  of  the 
work  of  Dictys,  and  has  little  literary  merit.  The  works 
of  Dictys  and  Dares  were  the  chief  channels  through 
which  the  heroic  legends  of  the  Greeks  and  'I'roja.is 
passed  into  the  literature  of  the  middle  ages,  and  were 
often  printed  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

See  Perizoniu.s,  "  Dissertatio"  prefixed  to  Smids's  edition  of  tlie 
poem  of  Dictys  Cretensis,  1702. 

Dictys  de  Crete.    See  Dictys  Cretensis. 

Dic'uil,  an  Irish  monk  and  geographer,  wrote,  about 
825  A.D.,  a  treatise  "On  the  Measurement  of  the  Earth," 
("  De  Mensura  Orbis  Terrae,")  which  was  published  by 
Walckenaer  in  1807. 

Diday,  de'da',  (Francois,)  a  Swiss  painter,  born  at 
Geneva  in  181 2,  has  exhibited  several  Alpine  landscapes. 
He  obtained  a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1841. 

Diderot,  d^d^ro',  (Denis,)  an  eminent  French  phi- 
losopher and  savant,  born  at  Langres,  in  Champagne,  in 
1 7 12  or  1 7 13,  was  the  son  of  a  cutler,  who  gave  him  a 
good  education.  Having  quitted  the  study  of  law  in  dis- 
gust, he  went  to  Paris  in  his  youth,  with  a  ruling  passion 
for  literary  pursuits.  He  was  obliged  to  support  him- 
self by  teaching  and  translating,  and  passed  many  years 
in  poverty  and  obscurity,  but  contented  in  his  ample 
intellectual  resources.  About  the  age  of  thirty  he  mar- 
ried a  Miss  Annette  Champion.  In  1746  he  published 
"Philosophic  Thoughts,"  ("Pensees  philosophiques,") 
which  produced  considerable  sensation.  The  book  was 
condemned  to  the  fire  by  Parliament,  its  doctrines  being 
thought  unsound.  A  few  years  before  this  period  he 
had  formed  a  friendship  with  J.  J.  Rousseau  and  with 
D'Alembert.  He  was  imprisoned  a  few  months  in  1749 
for  the  publication  of  his  "  Letter  on  the  Blind,  for  the 
Use  of  those  who  see." 

In  partnership  with  D'Alembert,  he  commenced  the 
great  work  on  which  his  reinitation  is  founded,  the  "  En- 
cyclopedic, ou  Dictionnaire  raisonne  des  Sciences,  des 
Arts  et  Metiers."  The  project  was  one  of  immense 
labour  and  difficulty,  and  was  accomplished  chiefly  by 
the  ardent  zeal  and  resolution  of  Diderot.  He  wrote 
the  articles  on  ancient  philosophy  and  oir  the  arts  and 
trades,  ( arts  et  metiers,)  and,  in  conjunction  with  D'Alem- 
bert, supervised  the  other  parts  of  the  work.  The  first 
volume  was  issued  in  1 751,  and  attracted  great  attention. 
Its  publication  was  suspended  several  times  by  govern- 
ment, and  D'Alembert  retired  from  the  enterprise  in 
1759  ;  but  it  was  completed  about  1765.  Much  complaint 
was  made,  and  not  without  reason,  of  the  infidel  tendency 
of  the  work,  and  its  partiality  to  the  new  philosophy. 
It  has  also  other  defects,  arising  from  the  incompetence 
and  haste  of  some  of  the  contributors.  Catherine  II. 
of  Russia  settled  a  handsome  pension  on  Diderot  in 
1765,  and  invited  him  to  her  capital,  which  he  visited  in 
1773  ;  but  he  soon  returned  to  Paris.  He  is  the  author 
of  numerous  works,  among  which  are  two  novels,  "The 
Nun,"  and  "James  the  Fatalist,"  ("Jacques  le  Fataliste,") 
and  two  dramas,  entitled  "The  F'ather  of  a  Family,"  and 
"The  Natural  Son." 

His  "  Essay  on  the  Reigns  of  Claudius  and  Nero," 
chiefly  devoted  to  the  vindication — or  rather  eulogy-— 
of  Seneca,  is  esteemed  by  some  as  one  of  his  ablest 
productions.  He  also  contributed  largely  to  some  of  the 
most  popular  French  works  of  his  time,  such  as  Raynal's 
"  Philosophic  History,"  "  L'Esprit,"  by  Helvetius,  and 
"The  System  of  Nature,"  by  D'Holbach.  As  a  writer 
he  displays  talent  and  eloquence,  but  is  deficient  in 
judgment  and  taste.  "  He  has  written  fine  passages," 
says  Marmontel,  "but  could  not  produce  a  good  book." 
Grimm  thought  "  he  had  perhaps  the  most  encyclopedical 


■c  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,   (S^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DIDIER 


762 


DIE  CM  AN 


head  that  ever  existed."  He  is  regarded  as  the  chief 
of  the  skeptical  school  known  as  Encyclopedists ;  and 
it  is  asserted  that  he  was  a  professed  atheist.  But  F. 
Genin  ("Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale")  defends  him 
from  this  charge.  It  is  said  that  he  taught  his  daughter  to 
read  the  Bible.  In  reference  to  this  fact,  Voltaire  wrote, 
in  1767,  *'I  am  displeased  with  'Tonpla,'"  (anagram  of 
Platon,  (Plato:))  "they  say  he  permits  his  daughter  to 
be  educated  in  the  principles  which  he  detests."  The 
doors  of  the  Academy  were  kept  closed  against  him, 
although  Voltaire  solicited  his  election.  He  died  in 
Paris  in  July,  1784. 

See  Dk  Vandeul,  "  Notice  sur  Diderot ;"  Naigeon,  "  Memoires 
sur  Diderot,"  1821  ;  Gkimm,  "  Correspondance ;"  "  Vie  de  Diderot," 
prefixed  to  his  "Select  Works,"  ("  OEuvres  choisies,"  2  vols.;) 
Carlyle,  "Essay  on  Diderot;"  Damiron,  "  Memoire  sur  Diderot," 
1852;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1833. 

Didier,  (King  of  the  Lombards.)    See  Desiderius. 

Didier,  deMe-A.',  (Charles,)  a  French  writer  and 
traveller,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1805.  He  has  published, 
besides  other  works,  "Helvetian  Melodies,"  (1830,)  and 
"Subterranean  Rome,"  ("Rome  souterraine,"  1833;  10 
editions  in  France.) 

Did'I-us,  (JuLiANUS  Severus,)  a  Roman  emperor, 
born  at  Milan  in  133  a.d.,  was  the  son  of  Petronius  Di- 
dius  Severus.  He  served  in  the  army  with  distinction, 
and  was  made  consul  with  Pertinax.  After  the  murder 
of  this  emperor,  in  193,  the  Praetorians  offered  the  em- 
pire at  public  auction  to  the  highest  bidder.  The  chief 
competitors  were  Sulpitianus  and  Didius,  who  was  im- 
mensely rich.  The  latter  made  the  highest  bid,  (6250 
drachmas  for  each  soldier,)  and  was  proclaimed  emperor. 
But  Septimius  Severus  and  other  generals  refused  to 
recognize  him,  and,  after  a  reign  of  about  two  months, 
he  was  killed  by  the  soldiers  in  his  palace.  Severus 
was  his  successor. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  Tillemont,  "Histoire 
des  Enipereurs." 

Didius,  (Titus,)  a  Roman  general,  was  consul  in  98 
B.C.,  after  which  he  gained  some  victories  in  Spain. 

Di'do,  [Gr.  AaJw;  Fr.  Didon,  deMow',]  called  also 
E-lis'sa  or  E-li'sa,  [Fr.  £lise,  a'lez',]  a  Phoenician 
princess,  celebrated  as  the  founder  and  queen  of  Car- 
thage. Her  story  forms  a  beautiful  episode  in  the 
"yi!^neid"  of  Virgil,  who  commits  an  anachronism  when 
he  represents  her  as  a  contemporary  of  ^Eneas.  Tra- 
dition teaches  that  she  was  a  sister  of  Pygmalion, 
King  of  Tyre,  who  put  to  death  her  husband,  Acerbas  or 
Sichaeus.  After  this  event  she  embarked  secretly  with 
a  party  of  friends,  and  founded  Carthage,  in  the  ninth 
century  before  Christ. 

See  Virgil,  "^Eneid,"  books  L,  ii.,  and  iv. 

Didon.    See  Dido. 

Didot,  deMo',  (Ambroise  Firmin,)  a  son  of  Firmin, 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1790.  He  was  a 
printer,  engraver,  and  type-founder,  and  became  in  1827 
the  head  of  the  great  publishing-house  of  Firmin  Didot 
Freres.  He  published  many  important  works,  among 
which  are  the  "  Dictionary  of  the  French  Academy," 
Estienne's  "Thesaurus  Linguae  Graecae,"  (improved,) 
and  a  "  New  General  Biography,"  ("  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic Generale,"  46  vols.,  1857-66.)  The  processes  and 
specimens  of  this  house  obtained  the  first  medal  in 
many  annual  expositions. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographic  Generale." 

Didot,  (Firmin,)  a  celebrated  French "^-jublisher,  ty- 
pographer, and  engraver  of  types,  son  of  Fran9ois  Am- 
broise, noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1764.  In 
1794  he  invented  or  improved  the  process  of  stereotype 
printing,  which  differs  from  that  now  used.  He  issued 
beautiful  editions  of  Virgil  and  of  Horace,  and  many 
other  works,  and  translated  into  French  verse  the  "  Bu- 
colics" of  Virgil  and  the  "  Idyls"  of  Theocritus.  These 
versions  have  considerable  nierit.  He  was  a  chevalier 
of  the  legion  of  honour,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1827.  He  was  for  some  time 
in  partnership  with  his  elder  brother  Pierre.  His  sons 
Ambroise,  Firmin,  and  Hyacinthe  are  celebrated  printers 
and  publishers  of  Paris.    Died  in  1836. 

See  Eksch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 


Didot,  (FRANgois  Ambroise,)  an  eminent  French 
printer  and  type-founder,  born  in  Paris  in  1730,  was  the 
son  of  Fran9ois  Didot,  the  first  printer  of  this  name.  He 
brought  the  art  of  printing  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection, 
and  produced  correct  and  elegant  editions  of  various 
works.  Louis  XVI.  employed  him  to  print  a  series  of 
French  classics  for  the  dauphin.  He  was  succeeded  in 
his  business  by  his  sons  Pierre  and  Firmin.  Died  in  1804. 

Didot,  (Pierre,)  a  son  of  Fran5ois  Ambroise,  born  in 
1760.  He  published  magnificent  editions  of  the  Latin 
classics,  called  "du  Louvre,"  ("of  the  Louvre.")  His 
"Racine"  was  pronounced  by  a  jury  "the  most  perfect 
typographic  production  of  all  ages."  He  translated  into 
verse  the  fourth  book  of  Virgil's  epic,  and  the  first  book 
of  the  Odes  of  Horace.    Died  in  1853. 

Didron,  deMR6N',  (Adolphe  Napol^;on,)  an  emi- 
nent French  archaeologist,  born  at  Hautvillers  (Marne)  in 
1806.  He  began  in  1844  to  issue  a  periodical  devoted 
to  mediaeval  art  and  antiquities,  with  the  title  of  "  An- 
nales  archeologiques."  His  most  important  work  is 
"  Christian  Iconography,"  ("  Iconographie  chretienne," 
1843,)  which  is  highly  prized. 

Didyme.    See  Didymus. 

Did'y-mus,  [Gr.  Af(5y//of;  Fr.  Didyme,  de'd^m',]  a 
celebrated  grammarian  of  Alexandria,  surnamed  Chal- 
CEn'terus,  born  about  62  B.C.,  was  remarkable  for  his 
fecundity  as  a  writer.  According  to  Seneca,  he  wrote 
four  thousand  treatises  on  various  subjects,  mostly  frivo- 
lous, among  which  were  inquiries  respecting  the  native 
place  of  Homer,  the  mother  of  ^neas,  and  the  morals 
of  Anacreon.  None  of  his  works  are  extant.  There 
were  several  other  ancients  of  this  name,  one  of  whom 
was  an  Academic  philosopher  who  wrote  a  work  on  the 
"Solution  of  Probabilities." 

See  SuiDAS,  "Didymus;"  W.  M.  Schmidt,  "De  Didumo  Chal- 
centero,"  1852. 

Didymus  of  Alexandria,  [Fr.  Didyme  d'Alexan- 
DRIE,  deMem'  dt'l^k'sfiN^dRe',]  a  teacher  of  the  Alex- 
andrian Church,  born  about  308  A.D.,  lost  his  sight  in 
childhood,  but  became  eminent  for  his  attainments  in 
theology,  philosophy,  and  in  various  sciences,  and  num- 
bered among  his  disciples  Saint  Jerome,  Isidore,  and 
Rufinus.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  works,  of 
which  four  have  been  preserved,  viz. :  "  On  the  Trinity," 
"On  the  Holy  Spirit,"  "Against  the  Manicheans,"  and 
"  On  the  Canonical  Epistles."    Died  about  395. 

See  Socrates,  "Historia  Ecclesiastica ;"  Cave,  "  Scriptorum 
Ecclesiasticorum  Historia;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grasca." 

Diebitsch,  dee'bitch,  or,  more  fully,  Diebitscli- 

Sabalkanski,  dee'bitch  sS-bil-kan'skee,  (Hans  Karl 
Friedrich  Anton,)  a  Russian  count  and  field-marshal, 
born  at  Grossleippe,  in  Silesia,  in  1785,  was  the  son  of 
a  major-general  in  the  Russian  service,  which  he  also 
entered  at  an  early  age.  In  1805  he  was  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Austerlitz.  Attached  to  the  staff  of  Count  Witt- 
genstein in  1812,  he  performed  important  services,  and 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  He  gave  j^roof 
of  skill  at  the  battles  of  Dresden  and  Leipsic,  and  was 
made  a  lieutenant-general  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight.  In 
1814  he  urged  the  advance  of  the  allies  to  Paris.  About 
1820  he  was  appointed  chief  of  the  imperial  staff,  and 
was  a  constant  attendant  on  the  emperor  in  his  journeys 
until  the  death  of  the  latter  in  1825.  He  took  Varna 
from  the  Turks  in  1828,  and  in  the  next  year,  being 
appointed  general-in-chief,  gained  several  victories,  and 
performed  the  famous  passage  of  the  Balkan,  which  ])ro- 
cured  him  the  title  Sahalkanski  (" Trans-Balkanian") 
and  the  rank  of  field-marshal.  A  treaty  of  peace  was 
soon  after  signed  at  Adrianople.  In  January,  1831,  he 
commanded  the  army  sent  to  subdue  the  revolted  Poles, 
with  whom  he  fought  indecisive  battles  near  Praga  and 
Ostrolenka.  His  success  was  hindered  by  bad  weather, 
sickness,  etc. ;  and  he  died  of  cholera  in  June,  1831. 

See  ScHUEMBERG,  "  Graf  Diebitsch-Sabalkanski,"  Dresden,  1830  ; 
Sturmer,  "Der  Tod  des  Grafen  Diebitsch,"  1832. 

Diebolt,  de'i'boK,  (Georges,)  a  French  statuary, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1816,  gained  the  grand  prize  at  Paris  in 
1841.    Died  in  1861. 

Diecman,  deek'man,  (Johann,)  a  German  divine 
and  philologist,  born  at  Stade  in  1647,  was  professor 
of  theology  at  Kiel.    He  wrote  good  prefaces  to  five 


Z%  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  noon; 


DIEDERICHS 


763 


DIETRICH 


editions  of  Luther's  version  of  the  Bible,  and  many 
dissertations,  one  of  which  is  "On  Naturalism,"  ("De 
Naturalismo,"  1683.)    Died  in  1720. 

Diederichs,  dee'deh-riKs',(JoHANN  Christian  Wil- 
HELM,)  a  distinguished  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Pyr- 
mont  in  1750,  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Konigsberg  in  1780.  He  published  a  Hebrew  grammar, 
and  otlier  works.    Died  in  1781. 

See  Ersch  und  Grubek,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Diedo,  de-a'do,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  historian,  born 
in  Venice  in  1684,  published  a  "  History  of  the  Republic 
of  Venice,"  (1751,)  which  is  esteemed  for  its  style  and 
lust  reflections.    Died  in  1748. 

Diefenbach,  dee'fen-baK',  (Lorenz,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Ostheim  (Hesse)  in  1806,  published 
works  entitled  "  On  Life,  History,  and  Language,"  (1835,) 
"Celtica,"  (5  vols.,  1839-42,)  a  "Comparative  Lexicon  of 
the  Indo-Germanic  Languages,"  (1846-51,)  and  several 
small  poems. 

Dieffenbach,  deef'fen-blK',  (Ernst,)  a  German  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Giessen  in  181 1,  visited  New  Zealand,  and 
wrote  "Travels  in  New  Zealand,"  (1843.) 

Dieffenbach,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  skilful  Prus- 
sian surgeon,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1792.  He  graduated 
in  1822,  and  settled  in  Berlin,  where  he  practised  surgery 
and  soon  acquired  a  wide  reputation.  About  1832  he  be- 
came professor  in  the  University  of  Berlin.  He  was  very 
skilful  in  the  formation  of  artificial  noses,  lips,  etc.,  and 
in  the  cure  of  strabismus.  His  chief  work  is  "Operative 
Surgery,"  ("Die  operative  Chirurgie,"  1844-48.)  Died 
in  1847. 

See  Bkockhaus,  " Conversations- Lexikon." 

Diego  de  Yepes,  de-a'go  di  ya'pgs,  a  Spanish  his- 
torian and  prelate,  born  near  Toledo  in  1531,  was  con- 
fessor to  Philip  H.    Died  in  1614. 

Diel,  deel,  (August  Friedrich  Adrian,)  a  German 
pomologist  and  physician,  born  at  Gladenbach  in  1756. 
He  wrote  a  "  Systematic  Nomenclature  or  Description 
of  the  Finest  ( vorziiglichsten )  Fruits  of  Germany,"  (1818,) 
and  other  works  on  pomology.    Died  in  1833. 

Diel  du  Parquet,  (Jacques.)    See  Duparquet. 

Dielhelm,  deeKhelm,  (Johann  Hermann,)  a  German 
antiquary,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  He  ])ublished 
"The  Antiquary  of  the  Rhine,"  (1739,)  and  a  "Diction- 
ary of  all  the  Rivers  of  Germany,"  (1741.)  Died  in  1764. 

Diemen,  van,  vSn  dee'nien,  (Anthony,)  a  Dutch 
officer,  born  at  Kuilenburg  in  1593,  went  to  Lidia  as  a 
cadet,  and  rose  rapidly  from  grade  to  grade.  In  1631, 
as  admiral,  he  conducted  the  fleet  to  Holland,  and  in 
1636  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies,  which  he  governed  with  ability  until  his  death. 
In  1642  he  sent  out  an  exploring  expedition  under 
Abel  Tasman,  who  discovered  the  island  of  Van  Diemen. 
Died  at  Batavia  in  1645. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Diemerbroeck,van,vtn  dee'mer-bRd6k',(IsBRAND,) 
a  skilful  Dutch  physician,  born  at  Montfort  in  1609,  be- 
came professor  of  medicine  and  anatomy  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Utrecht,  of  which  he  was  twice  chosen  rector. 
He  published  able  treatises  on  Anatomy,  on  the  Plague, 
and  other  di-^eases.  His  "Anatome  Corporis  Humani" 
appeared  in  1672,  and  was  often  reprinted.  Died  in  1674. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Dien,  de'^N',  (Claude  Marie  FRANgois,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1787,  obtained  the  first  medals 
in  1838  and  1848.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Holy  Fam- 
ily," after  Raphael,  and  a  "Madonna,"  after  Murillo. 

Diepenbeck,  van,  vSn  dee']3en-bek',  written  also 
Diepenbeke,  (Abraham,)  an  eminent  Dutch  historical 
painter,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc  about  1606,  was  one  of  the 
best  scholars  of  Rubens.  He  was  chosen  director  of 
the  Academy  of  Antwerp  in  1641,  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation  by  his  skill  in  composition  and  colouring. 
He  also  excelled  in  painting  on  glass,  and  made  many 
designs  for  the  booksellers.  Among  his  chief  works  is 
a  series  of  fifty-eight  designs,  called  "The  Temple  of  the 
Muses,"  a  "Life  of  Saint  Paul,"  on  glass,  at  Antwerp, 
and  a  "  Virgin  and  Child,"  in  oil,  at  Berlin.  Died  in  1675. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Diepenbeke.    See  Diepenbeck. 


Diereville,  de^aiR^^K,  a  French  traveller,  born  in 
Normandy,  made  a  voyage  in  1699  to  Acadia,  (Nova 
Scotia,)  and,  after  his  return  in  1700,  published  a  De- 
scription of  that  region.  Tournefort,  the  botanist,  named 
the  genus  Dierevilla  in  honour  of  him. 

Dieringer,  dee'ring-er,  (Franz  Xaver,)  a  German 
Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Rangendingen  in  1811,  be- 
came professor  of  theology  at  lionn  about  1 843. 

Dies,  deess,  (Albrech  J  ,)  a  German  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Hanover  in  1755,  studied  in  Rome,  and  settled 
in  Vienna.    Died  in  1822. 

Dies,  (Caspar.)    See  Diaz. 

Diesbach,  von,  fon  dees'blK,  (Johann  Friedrich,) 
an  Austrian  general,  born  at  Freyburg  in  1677,  was  made 
a  field-marshal  in  1723.    Died  in  1751. 

See  Eksch  und  Grubkr,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Diesbach,  von,  (Nicholas,)  an  able  Swiss  states- 
man, born  at  Berne  in  1430,  was  employed  about  1470  to 
negotiate  with  Louis  XI.  of  France.     Died  in  1475. 

Dieskau,  von,  ion  dees'kow,  (Ludwig  August,)  a 
German  officer  in  the  French  service,  went  in  1755  to 
Quebec  as  marechal -de-camp.  He  was  wounded  and 
taken  prisoner  by  the  British  and  colonial  troops  near 
Fort  Edward,  in  Washington  county,  New  York.  Died 
near  Paris  in  1767. 

Di-eia'pi-ter,  a  surname  of  Jupiter,  which  see. 

Diest,  deest,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  theologian  and 
Hebrew  scholar,  born  at  Altena  in  1595;  died  in  1673. 

Diest,  van,  vtn  deest,  (Adrian,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1655,  worked  in  England. 
Died  in  1704. 

Diesterweg,  dees'ter-weo',  (Friedrich  Adolph 
Wilhelm,)  a  German  teacher,  born  at  Siegen  in  1790, 
taught  at  Berlin,  and  wrote  many  educational  works. 

Dieterich.  .  See  Dietrich. 

Dieterichs,  dee'teh-riKs^,  (Joachim  Friedrich 
CHRisriAN,)  a  German  writer  on  veterinary  science, 
born  at  Stcndal  in  1792. 

Dieterici,  dee'teh-reet'see,  (Karl  Friedrich  Wil- 
helm,) a  Prussian  economist  and  statistician,  born  in 
Berlin  in  1790.  He  entered  the  civil  administration 
about  1815,  and  became  a  privy  councillor  in  1831.  In 
1834  he  obtained  a  chair  of  political  economy  in  Berlin, 
and  in  1844  was  appointed  director  of  the  national  bu- 
reau of  statistics.  He  published,  among  other  works, 
"Statistics  of  the  Principal  Objects  of  Commerce  and 
Consumption  in  Prussia,"  etc.,  (1842-51,)  and  a  work 
called  "Public  Welfare  in  the  Prussian  States,"  ("Der 
Volkswohlstand  im  Preussischen  Staate,"  1846.) 

Dietmar,  deet'maR,  or  Dietmar  von  Ast,  deet^m^R 
fon  Sst,  a  German  minnesinger  of  great  merit,  lived  about 
II 80. 

See  Longfellow's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Dietrich,  dee'tRiK,  (Albrecht,)  a  German  botanist  of 
the  present  age,  became  ])rofessor  of  botany  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Berlin.  He  published  a  "Flora  of  the  King- 
dom of  Prussia,"  ("Flora  Regni  Borussici,"  1833-44.) 

Dietrich,  written  also  Ditrich  and  Dietiicy,  de- 
tReet'see,  (Christian  Wilhelm  Ernst  or  Johann 
Wilhelm  Ernst,)  an  excellent  German  painter,  born  at 
Weimar  in  1712.  He  was  a  jiujiil  of  Alexander  Thiele, 
and  was  patronized  in  the  early  part  of  his  career  by 
Augustus,  King  of  Poland,  who  enabled  him  to  visit 
Rome  about  1744.  Having  returned  to  Dresden,  he 
gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  skill  in  imitating  various 
masters  in  history  and  landscape.  His  touch  is  broad 
and  mellow,  and  the  verdure  of  his  landscapes  rivals 
that  of  Claude.  Among  his  finest  works  is  an  "Ado- 
ration of  the  Magi."  He  al^o  produced  many  etchings 
of  historical  subjects.  He  was  chosen  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Dresden  in  1763.  Died  at  Dresden  in  1774. 

See  Nagler,  "  Nenes  Allgemeines  Kiinstler- Lexikon  ;"  J.  F. 
LiNCK,  "Monographie  der  von  deni  vormals  koniglich  Polnischen 
Hofmaler,  C.  W.  E.  Dietrich,"  etc.,  Berlin,  1846. 

Dietrich,  (David  Nathanael  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man botanist,  and  director  of  the  botanic  garden  of 
Jena,  was  born  near  Jena  in  1800.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "Flora  of  Germany,"  (7  vols.,  1833-51,)  and  an 
"Encyclopaedia  of  Plants,"  with  engravings,  (1841-51.) 

Dietrich,  (Friedrich  Gottlieb,)  a  German  horti- 
culturist, born  in  1768.    He  published  a  "Dictionary  of 


€  as  y^;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (5(^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DIETRICH 


764 


DIGGES 


Botany  and  Gardening,"  (10  vols.,  1802-10,)  and  other 
works!    Uied  at  Eisenach  in  1850. 

Dietrich  or  Dieterich,  dee'teh-RiK,  (Johann  Con- 
rad,) a  German  philologist  and  historian,  eminent  for 
learning,  was  born  at  Butzbach  in  161 2.  He  became 
professor  of  Greek  at  Giessen  in  1653,  and  was  author 
of  numerous  Latin  works,  among  which  are  a  "  History 
of  the  German  Emperors  of  Saxon  Race,"  (1666,)  and 
••Greece  in  Exile,"  ("  Graecia  exulans.")    Died  in  1669. 

Dietrich,  de,  deh  dee'tkiK,  (Philippe  Frederic,) 
Baron,  a  mineralogist,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1748,  held 
several  civil  offices,  among  which  was  that  of  mayor  of 
his  native  city.  He  translated  into  French  Scheele's 
chemical  treatise  on  air  and  fire,  and  wrote  a  valuable 
*'  Description  of  the  Deposits  of  Ore  and  the  Forges 
of  France,"  (3  vols.,  1786-1800.)  He  was  guillotined  at 
Paris  by  the  Jacobins  in  1793.  Rouget  de  Lisle  lodged 
in  the  house  of  Dietrich  when  he  wrote  the  "  Marseillaise" 
hymn. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Dietrichstein,  von,  fon  dee'tRiK-stin'',  (Adam,)  a 
German  diplomatist,  born  in  1527,  was  employed  by  the 
emperor  Maximilian.    Died  in  1590. 

Dietrichstein,  von,  (Franz,)  Prince,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Madrid  in  1570.  He  became  a 
cardinal,  and  president  of  the  council  of  state  of  the 
Emperor  of  Germany.    Died  in  1636. 

See  his  Life,  by  Voigt,  1792;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  *' AUgemeine 
Encyklopaedie." 

Dietricy.    See  Dietrich. 

Dietzsch,  deetsh,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1710;  died  in 
1769. 

Dieu,  de,  deh  de-uh',  (Louis,)  a  Dutch  Protestant 
minister  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Flushing  in  1590.  In 
1619  he  became  assistant  professor  in  the  Walloon  Col- 
lege, Leyden.  He  wrote  a  "  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew, 
Syriac,  and  Chaldaic  Languages,"  (1628,)  "Rudiments 
of  the  Persian  Tongue,"  (1639,)  and  several  commenta- 
ries on  Scripture,  ("Critica  Sacra,"  1693.)  His  Persian 
Grammar  was  for  a  long  time  the  only  one  existing  in 
Europe.  Died  in  1642.  His  father,  Daniel,  was  an 
eloquent  minister  of  Brussels  and  Flushing,  and  a  good 
linguist. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Polvander, 
*'  L.  de  Dieu  Oratio  funebris,"  1643. 

Dieu,  de,  deh  de-uh',  ?  (Saint-Jean,)  a  devout  Por- 
tuguese, born  at  Monte-Major-el-Novo  in  1495,  was  a 
shepherd  at  the  age  of  forty,  when  he  consecrated  him- 
self to  works  of  charity.  In  1540  he  opened  a  house  in 
Granada  for  the  reception  of  the  indigent  sick,  which 
was  the  origin  of  the  order  of  charity  since  widely 
propagated.  He  died  in  1550,  and  was  canonized  by 
the  pope  in  1690. 

Dieudonne,  de-uhMo'ni',  [Lat.  A  De'o  Da'tus  or 
De'us  De'dit,]  I.,  was  elected  pope  in  614  a.d.  as  suc- 
cessor to  Boniface  IV.  He  was  a  native  of  Rome.  He 
died  in  618  or  617,  and  was  succeeded  by  Boniface  V. 

Dieudonn^  II.,  elected  pope  in  672,  was  a  Roman 
by  birth.    He  died  in  677. 

Dieudonne,  de-uh'do'ny,  (Jacques  Augustin,)  a 
French  sculptor  and  engraver  of  medals,  born  in  Paris 
in  1795. 

Dieulafoy,  de-uh^lt^fwi',  (Joseph  Marie  Armand,) 
a  French  dramatist,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1762,  wrote  suc- 
cessful comedies,  etc.    Died  in  1823. 

Dieve,  van,  vtn  dee'veh,  (Peter,)  a  Flemish  histo- 
rian, born  at  Louvain  in  1536;  died  in  1591. 

Diez,  deets,  (Friedrich  Christian,)  a  German  pro- 
fessor, regarded  as  the  founder  of  Romance  (Romanisch) 
philology,  was  born  at  Giessen  in  1794.  He  produced  in 
1825  a  work  on  Provencal  poetry,  "Beitrage  zur  Kennt- 
niss  der  Romantischen  Poesie,"  and  in  1829  "The  Life 
and  Works  of  the  Troubadours."  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  modern  literature  in  Bonn  in  1830,  and 
published  a  "Grammar  of  the  Romance  Language," 
("Grammatik  der  Romanischen  Sprachen,"  1842.) 

Diezel  or  Diez.    See  Tetzel. 

Dig'bj^,  (Sir  Everard,)  an  English  Catholic,  born  in 
1581,  inherited  a  fortune  from  his  father,  Everard  Digby, 
who  was  author  of  "  Theoria  Analytica"  and  other  learned 


works.  The  son  was  knighted  in  1603.  Hume  says 
"  he  was  as  highly  esteemed  and  beloved  as  any  man 
in  England."  In  1605  he  was  induced  by  mistaken  zAl 
to  become  an  accomplice  in  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  to 
which  he  contributed  largely  in  money,  arms,  etc.  For 
this  crime  he  was  tried  and  executed  in  1606. 
See  Hume's  "  History  of  England." 

Digby,  (George,)  Earl  of  Bristol,  son  of  John  Digby, 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  Madrid  in  1612.  He  was 
remarkable  for  his  inconsistency  in  politics.  At  the 
trial  of  Strafford  he  deserted  from  the  popular  party 
to  that  of  the  court.  As  a  royalist  he  was  exiled,  and 
went  to  France  and  Spain,  where  he  became  a  Catholic. 
After  the  restoration  he  returned  home,  and  sat  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  having  inherited  his  father's  title  of  earl. 
Among  his  rash  and  violent  actions  was  his  impeach- 
ment of  Lord  Clarendon,  in  1663,  which  impaired  his  own 
credit.  He  published  several  letters,  and  "Elvira,"  a 
comedy.  Died  in  1676.  Horace  Walpole  speaks  of  him 
as  "a  singular  person,  whose  life  was  contradiction." 

See  Wood,  "Athenas  Oxonienses." 

Digby,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  admiral,  born  about 
1770  ;  died  in  1843. 

Digby,  (John,)  Earl  of  Bristol,  born  in  1580,  was 
descended  from  a  Warwickshire  family.  He  was  knighted 
in  1606,  sent  as  ambassador  to  Spain  in  1611,  and  to  the 
Emperor  of  Germany  in  1621.  The  next  year  he  was 
employed  by  James  I.  to  negotiate  a  marriage  between 
the  king's  son  Charles  and  the  Infanta  of  Spain,  and  was 
created  Earl  of  Bristol.  His  efforts  for  the  Spanish  match 
were  frustrated  by  the  Duke  of  Buckingham.  Hume 
represents  Digby  as  an  able  negotiator.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  minor  poems.  He  favoured  the  cause 
of  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war,  was  exiled,  and  died  in 
Paris  in  1653. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England;"  Gardiner,  "History  of 
England  from  1603  to  1616,"  chaps,  x.,  xi. 

Digby,  (Sir  Kenelm,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  courtier 
and  author,  son  of  Sir  Everard,  noticed  above,  was  born 
in  Buckinghamshire  in  1603.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 
he  was  gentleman  of  the  bedchamber,  and  filled  other 
high  offices.  He  married  the  famous  beauty  Venetia 
Anastasia  Stanley.  In  the  civil  war  he  favoured  the 
royalist  cause,  and  retired  to  France,  where  he  associated 
with  Descartes  and  other  learned  men.  He  was  reputed 
to  be  versed  in  occult  philosophy,  on  which  and  other 
subjects  he  wrote  numerous  treatises.  Among  these  are 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Nature  of  Bodies,"  (1644,)  "  Insti- 
tutiones  Peripateticse,"  (1651,)  "The  Body  and  Soul  of 
Man,"  and  "  Chemical  Secrets."  "  He  possessed,"  says 
Lord  Clarendon,  "  all  the  advantages  which  nature  and 
art  and  an  excellent  education  could  give  him."  After 
the  restoration  he  returned  to  England,  where  he  died 
in  1665. 

See  "Private  ^femoirs  of  Sir  Kenelm  Digby,"  by  himself,  1827; 
"Biographia  Britannica." 

Digeon,  de^zh6N',(  Alexandre  Elisabeth  Michel,) 
a  French  general  and  viscount,  born  in  Paris  in  1771. 
For  his  conduct  at  Austerlitz  he  received  the  badge  of 
the  legion  of  honour  in  1805.  As  general  of  brigade  he 
was  sent  to  Spain  in  1808,  and  in  1812  was  appointed 
commandant  of  Cordova  and  Jaen.  He  became  a  gene- 
ral of  division  in  1813.    Died  in  1826. 

Digges,  digz,  (Sir  Dudley,)  a  son  of  Sir  Thomas 
Digges,  born  in  1583,  was  eminent  as  a  politician  and 
a  writer.  He  went  as  ambassador  to  Russia  in  K.18, 
and  in  1621  was  elected  to  Parliament,  where  he  dis- 
played talents  and  zeal  for  the  rights  of  the  people.  He 
wrote  a  "Defence  of  the  East  India  Trade,"  (1615,) 
"Political  Discourses,"  and  "The  Complete  Ami)assa- 
dor,"  (1655,)  a  collection  of  diplomatic  letters  respecting 
the  marriage  between  Elizabeth  and  the  Duke  of  Anjou. 
Died  in  1639. 

Digge.s,  (Dudley,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  about 
1612,  wrote  a  tract  on  "The  Unlawfulness  of  Subjects 
taking  Arms  against  their  Sovereign."    Died  in  1643. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Digges,  (Leonard,)  an  eminent  English  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Barham,  Kent,  was  educated  at  Oxford. 
He  wrote  "Tectonicum,"  (a  work  on  mensuration,  1556,) 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,        k,  hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAo7'f;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  valx;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DIGGES 


7bs 


DINARCHUS 


a  military  treatise  named  "  Stratioticos,"and  a  few  other 
ingenious  works.    Died  about  1574. 
See  Woou,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Digges,  (Leonard,)  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and 
son  of  Thomas  Digges,  born  in  1588,  translated  from 
the  Latin  Claudian's  "  Rape  of  Proserpine,"  and  from 
the  Spanish  a  work  named  "Gerardo."  The  author  of 
•*  Athenas  Oxonienses"  says  he  was  "a  great  master  of 
the  English  language,  a  good  poet,  and  no  mean  orator." 
Died  in  1635. 

Digges,  (Thomas,)  the  son  of  Leonard,  (the  first  of 
that  name,)  and  father  of  Sir  Dudley  Digges,  was  one 
of  the  greatest  geometers  of  his  time.  After  graduating 
at  Oxford,  he  was  appointed  commissary-general  of  the 
troops  sent  by  Queen  Elizabeth  to  aid  the  Dutch.  He 
edited  his  father's  works,  and  wrote  several  original 
treatises,  viz.,  a  '*  Description  of  the  Celestial  Orbs," 
(1592,)  a  "Treatise  on  Military  Arithmetic,"  (1599,)  and 
"England's  Defence."    Died  in  1595. 

See  Wood,  "Athense  Oxonienses." 

Dilherr,  diKh^R,  (Johann  Michael,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist and  Protestant  divine,  born  at  Themar  (Saxe- 
Meiningen)  in  1604.  He  wrote  many  learned  works  on 
sacred  philology  and  ethics.    Died  in  1669. 

Dilke,  dilk,  (Charles  Wentworth,)  an  English 
editor  and  critic,  born  in  1789.  He  edited  in  1814  a 
collection  of  old  English  plays,  (6  vols.)  About  1830  he 
purchased  the  "Athenaeum,"  of  which  he  became  editor, 
and  which  he  rendered  a  flourishing  and  able  literary 
journal.  He  retired  from  that  position  in  1846,  and  was 
manager  of  the  "  Daily  News"  until  1849.  Diedini864. 

Dilke,  (Charles  Wentworth,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  1810.  As  a  member  of  the  executive 
committee,  he  rendered  important  services  in  the  Great 
Exhibition  of  1851.  Died  in  May,  1869.  His  son,  Charles 
Wen  1  WORTH,  wrote  a  valuable  work  entitled  "Greater 
Britain,"  (1868.) 

Dilkes,  dilks,  (William  Thomas,)  a  British  general, 
born  in  1765  ;  died  in  1841. 

Dil'len,  [Lat.  Dillf/nius,]  (Johann  Jakob,)  an  emi- 
nent botanist,  born  at  Darmstadt  in  1687,  was  a  graduate 
in  medicine.  In  17 19  he  gained  a  wide  reputation  by  his 
"Catalogue  of  Plants  growing  near  Giessen,"  with  plates. 
Having  been  invited  by  William  Sherard,  a  rich  amateur 
of  botany,  he  went  to  London  in  1721,  and  pre])ared  a 
new  edition  of  Ray's  "  Synopsis  of  British  Plants,"  which 
appeared  in  1724.  In  1732  he  produced  his  "Hortus 
Elthamensis,"  with  figures  drawn  and  engraved  by  him- 
self. This  was  one  of  the  most  excellent  botanical  works 
that  had  then  appeared,  both  in  respect  to  the  text  and 
the  figures,  and  was  highly  commended  by  Linnaeus. 
His  reputation  was  raised  still  higher  by  his  "  History 
of  Mosses,"  (1741,)  which,  says  Du  Petit-Thouars,  "is  a 
fundamental  work,  and  will  always  be  consulted."  Dillen 
obtained  the  chair  of  botany  in  Oxford,  founded  by  his 
friend  Sherard,  about  1728.  Died  in  1747.  Linnaeus 
gave  the  name  Dillenia  to  a  genus  of  Indian  trees. 

See  "Vie  ae  Linnee,"  Paris,  1832;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Dillen,  (Philipp  Everhard,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Darmstadt  in  1644,  was  the  father  of  Johann 
Jakob,  noticed  above.    Died  in  1720. 

Dillenius.    See  Dillen. 

Dillens,  diKlens,  (Henri,)  a  Belgian  painter  of  history 
and  genre,  born  at  Ghent  in  1812. 

Dillis,  von,  fon  diKlis,  (Georg,)  a  German  artist, 
born  m  Upper  Bavaria  in  1759,  became  teacher  of  land- 
scape-painting in  the  Academy  at  Munich,  (1805.)  Died 
in  1 841. 

DilTon,  (Arthur,)  Count,  born  in  Roscommon 
county,  Ireland,  in  1670,  was  the  third  son  of  Theobald, 
Lord  Dillon,  who  fought  for  James  II.  in  the  civil  war 
of  1688.  He  entered  the  service  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France, 
as  colonel,  at  the  age  of  twenty,  gained  a  rapid  promotion 
by  his  brilliant  conduct,  and  became  a  lieutenant-general 
at  thirty-six.  He  was  employed  under  Marshal  Villars 
in  1708,  and  under  Marshal  Berwick  in  1709.  In  the 
last  year  he  commanded  in  chief  a  corps,  and  gained  a 
victory  near  Brian9on.    He  died  in  1733. 

His  son  James  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Fontenoy  in 
1745.   Another  son,  Edward,  fell  at  Laufeld.  Arthur 


Richard,  the  youngest,  became  Archbishop  of  Toulouse, 
and  then  of  Narbonne,  and  was  twice  president  of  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  French  clergy. 
See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

DUlon,  de'l^N^,  (Arthur,)  Count,  a  French  general, 
born  in  1750,  was  the  grandson  of  Count  Arthur,  noticed 
above.  He  commanded  a  regiment  in  the  West  Indies 
in  1777,  and  took  part  in  the  capture  of  Grenada,  Tobago, 
and  Saint  ChristojDher.  He  was  governor  of  Tobago 
when  he  was  chosen  a  deputy  to  the  States-General  in 
1789.  In  1792  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a 
corps-d'armee  under  Dumouriez,  and,  although  he  was 
disaffected  towards  the  new  regime,  he  consented  to 
defend  France  from  foreign  invasion,  and  obtained  some 
successes  in  the  forest  of  Argonne.  He  was  recalled 
in  1793,  imprisoned,  and  perished  on  the  scaffold  in 
April,  1794. 

See  De  Courcellhs,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Genei"aiix  Fran^ais." 

Dillon,  (Jacques  Vincent  Marie  de  Lacroix,) 
born  at  Capua,  in  Italy,  in  1760,  was  of  Irish  descent. 
Having  studied  engineering,  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  arts  and  trades  in  Paris.  He  displayed  his  skill  as 
an  engineer  in  the  construction  of  the  Pont  des  Arts,  the 
first  iron  bridge  made  in  France,  and  was  chosen  chief 
engineer  of  bridges  and  roads.    Died  in  1807. 

Dil'lon,  (John  Talbot,)  an  English  traveller,  resided 
many  years  in  Vienna,  where  he  was  created  a  baron  of 
the  empire.  He  wrote  "Travels  through  Spain,"  (1780.) 
Died  in  1806. 

DiFlon,  (Peter,)  a  British  navigator,  who,  in  1827, 
visited  Vanikoro  and  found  evidence  that  La  Perouse 
was  wrecked  there.    Died  in  1847. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate." 

Dillon,  (Roger  Henri,)  Abb6,  born  at  Bordeaux  in 
1762,  was  a  brother  of  Arthur,  noticed  above.  He 
published  a  "Universal  History,"  (10  vols.,  1822,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1829. 

Dillon,  de,  deh  de'l6N',  (Theobald,)  Count,  a  bro- 
ther of  Arthur  Dillon,  was  born  in  Dublin  about  1744. 
He  entered  the  French  army  at  an  early  age,  and  obtained 
the  grade  of  marechal-de-camp  in  1783.  He  favoured 
the  popular  cause  in  the  Revolution,  and  served  under 
Rochambeau  on  the  frontier  of  Flanders.  While  moving 
his  division  from  Lille  to  Tournay,  in  April,  1792,  he 
met  a  division  of  the  enemy,  and,  in  obedience  to  the 
orders  of  his  superiors,  declined  a  battle.  A  panic  seized 
his  soldiers,  who  ascribed  his  conduct  to  treachery  and 
fled  in  confusion  to  Lille,  abandoning  their  cannon. 
During  this  retreat,  or  on  the  arrival  at  Lille,  he  was 
massacred  by  his  own  mutinous  troops. 

See  De  Coukcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Gen^raiix  Frangais." 

Dillon  Wentworth.    See  Roscummon,  Earl  of. 

DilPwyn,  (Lewis  W.,)  an  English  naturalist,  born  in 
1778.  He  published  a  "  Synopsis  of  British  Confervae," 
(1802-09,)  and  (with  D.  Turner)  "The  Botanist's  Guide 
through  England  and  Wales."    Died  in  1855. 

DiPworth,  (Thomas,)  an  English  school-teacher  of 
Wapping,  published  several  popular  school-books,  among 
which  were  an  "Arithmetic"  and  a  "  Spelling-Book." 
Died  in  1780. 

Dims'dale,  (Thomas,)  M.D.  and  F.R.S.,  an  eminent 
English  physician,  born  in  Essex  in  1 712,  practised  at 
Hertford.  Having  gained  distinction  by  inoculation  for 
the  small-pox,  he  was  invited  to  Russia  about  1768  by 
the  empress  Catherine,  who  rewarded  his  professional 
services  to  her  by  the  titles  of  baron  and  first  physician 
and  a  pension  of  £^00  per  annum.  He  returned  to 
England,  and  published,  in  1776,  a  treatise  on  "Inocu- 
lation." He  afterwards  became  a  London  banker,  and  * 
a  member  of  Parliament.    Died  in  1800. 

See  "  Biographie  Mddicale." 

Di-nar'-ehus  or  Dei-nar'-ehiis,  [Gr.  Aeivapxo^ ;  Fr. 
DiNARQUE,  de'ntkk'',]  a  Greek  orator,  born  at  Corinth 
about  360  B.C.  About  the  year  335  he  removed  to 
Athens,  and  connected  himself  with  the  Macedonian 
party  and  Demetrius  Phalereus.  He  gained  a  high  repu- 
tation for  eloquence  by  writing  arguments,  especially 
when  Demosthenes  and  other  orators  were  in  exile. 
Accused  in  307  of  an  attempt  to  subject  Athens  to  the 
Macedonian  yoke,  he  fled  to  Chalcis,  where  he  remained 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Y., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^See  Explanations,  p.  2^.) 


J 


DINJRQUE 


766 


DIOCLETIAN 


fifteen  years,  and  then  returned  to  Athens,  292  B.C.  He 
is  reckoned  the  last  of  the  ten  Athenian  orators.  Three 
only  of  his  orations  are  extant,  of  which  one  is  against 
Demosthenes  for  his  transactions  with  Harpalus. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca  ;"  Plutarch,  "  Vitae  Decern 
Oratoruiii ;"  J.  G.  Aulek,  "  Dissertatio  de  Dinarchi  Oratoris  Vita 
et  Dictlone." 

Dinarque.    See  Dinarchus. 

Dinaux,  de'no^  (Arthur  Martin,)  a  French  anti- 
quary and  writer,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1795.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  '*  The  Trouveres,  Jug- 
glers, and  Minstrels  of  the  North  of  France,"  (1833-43,) 
and  furnished  articles  for  Midland's  "  Biographic  Uni- 
verselle." 

Dindorf,  din'doRf,  (Ludwig,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  in  1805.  He  puljlished  good  editions  of  Xenophon, 
Diodorus  Siculus,  and  other  Greek  authors.  He  assisted 
his  brother  Wilhelm  as  editor  of  the  series  of  Greek 
^    classics  published  by  Firmin  Didot,  Paris. 

Dindorf,  (Wilhelm,)  a  distinguished  German  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Leipsic  in  1802,  was  a  son  of  a  professor 
of  Oriental  languages.  From  1828  to  1833  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  literary  history  in  Leipsic,  after  which  he  was 
associated  with  his  brother  Ludwig  and  M.  Hase  in 
the  renovation  of  Stephanus's  Greek  "Thesaurus."  He 
produced  an  excellent  edition  of  Demosthenes  for  the 
University  of  Oxford,  (1849,)  and  commentaries  on  Ms- 
chylus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Dinez  da  Cruz.    See  Diniz  da  Cruz. 

Dinge,  d^N'zhi',  (Antoine,)  a  French  litteratetir  of 
great  learning,  born  at  Orleans  in  1759.  According  to 
Villenave,  he  was  the  author  of  several  popular  works 
which  appeared  under  the  name  of  J.  R.  Desormeaux, 
viz.,  *'  History  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,"  *'  Life  of 
Conde,"  etc.  He  published  several  poems,  one  of 
which  is  called  "Henry  IV.  on  the  Pont-Neuf,"  (1818.) 
He  left  voluminous  manuscripts,  among  which  are  a 
"  Universal  Biography,"  numerous  poems,  and  various 
other  works.    Died  in  1832. 

Dingelstedt,  ding'el-st^t^,  (Franz,)  a  German  poet, 
born  at  Halsdorf,  in  Hesse,  in  1 814.  He  acquired  much 
popularity  among  the  German  Liberals  by  his  political 
poems  called  "  Lieder  eines  kosmopolitischen  Nacht- 
wachters,"  ("  Songs  of  a  Cosmopolitan  Night-Watch," 
1840.)  In  1843  received  from  the  King  of  Wiirtem- 
berg  the  title  of  councillor,  and  the  office  of  librarian  at 
Stuttgart.  He  published  several  novels,  one  of  which 
is  called  "  Heptameron,"  (1841,)  and  a  successful  tragedy, 
entitled  "The  House  of  Barneveldt,"  (1850.)  Among 
his  later  poems  is  "Night  and  Morning,"  (1851.) 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Weber, 
"Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Literatur." 

Ding'ley,  (Robert,)  an  English  writer  and  Puritan 
minister,  born  about  1620  ;  died  in  1659. 

Dini,  dee'nee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  pre- 
late, born  at  Florence  about  1570;  died  in  1625. 

Diniz,  de-n^z',  anglicized  as  Den'nis  or  Den'is  I., 
King  of  Portugal,  born  in  1261,  was  the  son  of  Alfonzo 
III.  He  ascended  the  throne  at  the  age  of  eighteen, 
and  married  Elizabeth  of  Aragon  in  1282.  The  king- 
dom prospered  under  his  wise  government.  In  1290 
he  founded  the  University  of  Lisbon.  He  built  many 
cities  and  fortresses,  and  planted  the  forest  of  Lein'a, 
which,  two  centuries  later,  furnished  materials  for  the 
naval  power  of  Portugal.  He  was  reputed  the  most 
liberal  and  magnificent  prince  of  his  time.  He  died 
in  1325,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Alfonzo  IV. 

See  Faria  y  Souz'a,  "  Europa  Portugueza  ;"  Schoeffer,  "  His- 
tory of  Portugal,"  (in  German,)  5  vols. 

Diniz  (de-n^z')  or  Dinez  da  Cruz,  de-n?z' d^  kRooz, 
(Antonio,)  a  Portuguese  lyric  poet  and  lawyer,  born  at 
Castello  de  Vide  in  1730.  He  was  a  good  classical  scholar, 
and  associated  himself  with  some  friends  to  form  the 
Society  of  Arcadians  in  Lisbon,  which  made  successful 
efforts  to  improve  the  language  and  literary  taste  of  the 
nation.  In  1759  he  composed  an  admired  ode  on  the 
subject  of  an  attempt  against  the  life  of  the  king.  He 
afterwards  wrote  epistles,  sonnets,  idyls,  and  a  mock- 
heroic  poem  entitled  "Goupillon."  Some  critics  esti- 
mate him  the  greatest  Portuguese  poet  of  the  eighteenth 


century.  He  was  a  member  of  the  supreme  council  of 
the  colonies.    He  died  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  about  1798. 

See  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Din'nies,  (Anna  Peyre,)  an  American  poetess,  a 
daughter  of  Judge  Shackleford,  of  South  Carolina,  was 
married  in  1830  to  J.  C.  Dinnies.  She  published  a 
volume  of  poems  called  "The  Floral  Year,"  (1846.) 
Her  no7n-de-phwie  was  "  Moina." 

See  Griswold's  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

Dino,  dee'no,  [Lat.  Di'nus,]  a  famous  Italian  jurist, 
born  at  Mugello.  He  was  professor  of  law  in  Bologna, 
and  was  employed  by  Boniface  VHI.  in  the  compilation 
of  the  sixth  book  of  "  Decretals.''    Died  in  1303. 

Dinocourt,  de'no'kooR',  (Pierre  Theophile  Ro- 
BERT,)  a  French  writer,  was  born  at  Doullens  in  1791. 
His  "Cours  de  Morale  sociale"  ("Lectures  on  Social 
Morality")  obtained  the  Montyon  prize  in  1840.  Died 
in  1862. 

Dinocrate.    See  Dinocrates. 

Di-noc'ra-tes  or  Dei-noc'ra-tes,  [Gr.  AeivoKpaTijc; 
Fr.  Dinocrate,  de'no^kRtt',]  an  eminent  Greek  archi- 
tect, who  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
proposed  to  cut  Mount  Athos  into  a  statue  of  that  prince 
which  should  hold  in  one  hand  a  large  city.  Alexander 
employed  him  in  the  building  o^  Alexandria,  about  332 
B.C.  It  is  said  that  he  rebuilt  the  temple  of  Ephesus, 
burnt  by  Erostratus. 

See  Plutarch,  "Alexander." 

Dinocrates,  a  profligate  Messenian  politician,  was  an 
enemy  of  Philopoemen,  for  whose  death  he  was  chiefly 
responsible.    He  killed  himself  in  182  B.C. 

Di'non,  [Aelvuv  or  Alvuv,]  a  Greek  historian,  lived  in 
the  fourth  century  B.C.   He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Persia." 

Di-nos'tra-tus,  [Gr.  Aetvoarparog;  Fr.  Dinostrate, 
de''no'stRtt',]  a  Greek  geometer,  who  lived  about  400  B.C. 
His  works  are  all  lost.  According  to  Proclus,  he  was  a 
pupil  of  Plato. 

Dinoth,  de'riot',  (Richard,)  a  French  Protestant 
historian,  born  at  Coutances,  wrote  "  De  Bello  Civili 
Gallico,"  (1582.)    Died  about  1590. 

Dinouart,  dee'noo-tR',  (Joseph  Antoine  Tous- 
saint,)  a  mediocre  French  compiler  and  translator, 
born  at  Amiens  in  17 16  ;  died  in  1786. 

Dinter,  din'ter,  (Gustav  Friedrich,)  a  meritorious 
German  teacher  and  writer  on  education,  was  born  at 
Borna,  in  Saxony,  in  1760.  He  became  minister  of  a 
church  at  Gornitz  in  1807,  and  professor  of  theology  in 
Konigsberg  in  1822.  He  laboured  zealously  to  promote 
reforms  in  popular  instruction,  and  published  many 
popular  books,  among  which  are  "Malvina,  a  Book  for 
Mothers,"  (1819,)  and  a  "Bible  for  the  Use  of  School- 
masters," ("SchuUehrerbibel,"  1825-28.)    Died  in  1831. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "G.  F.  Dinter's  Leben,"  1829. 

Dinus.    See  Dino. 

Din-wid'die,  (Robert,)  born  in  Scotland  about  1690, 
was  Governor  of  Virginia  from  1752  to  1758.  He  was 
incompetent  and  unpopular.    Died  in  1770. 

Dio  Cassius.    See  Dion  Cassius. 

Di^o-cles,  [Alok?l7)c,]  a  Syracusan,  celebrated  for  his 
code  of  laws,  lived  about  410  B.C.,  and  was  a  leader  of 
the  democratic  party  of  Syracuse. 

Diodes,  a  Greek  poet  of  the  old  comedy,  lived  in 
the  fifth  century  B.C. 

Diodes,  a  Greek  geometer,  of  whom  nothing  is 
known  except  that  he  solved  the  problem  of  the  dupli- 
cation of  the  cube.  Eutocius  has  preserved  this  solution, 
which  consists  in  describing  in  a  circle  a  curve  called 
the  "  cissoid." 

Di'o-cles  Ca-rys'ti-us,  [AiOKXrjg  6  Kapvanog,]  an 
eminent  Greek  physician,  born  in  Euboea,  lived  in  the 
third  century  before  Christ,  and  belonged  to  the  sect  of 
Dogmatics.  He  was  ranked  by  the  ancients  next  to 
Hippocrates.  He  wrote  several  works,  of  which  some 
fragments  are  extant. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grsca  ;"  A.  Rivinus,"  Programma 
de  Diocle  Carystio,"  1655. 

Diodetian,  dT-o-kle'she-an,  [Lat.  Diocletia'nus  ; 
Fr.  DioCL^TiEN,  deVkli'te^N',]  or,  more  fully,  Cai'us 
Vale'rius  Aure'lius  Diocletia'nus,  a  Roman  empe- 
ror, was  born  of  obscure  parents  at  Dioclea,  in  Dalmatia, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  /on^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \\,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  Et;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DIOCLETIEN 


767 


DIOGENES 


about  245  A.D.  He  entered  the  army  young,  served  under 
Aurelian,  and  obtained  a  high  command  under  Probus. 
He  accompanied  Carus  in  his  expedition  against  Persia, 
and  at  the  death  of  that  prince,  in  283,  he  became  com- 
niander  of  the  imperial  guards  of  his  successor,  Nume- 
rianus.  The  latter  having  been  assassinated  by  Aper, 
the  army  at  Chalcedon  proclaimed  Diocletian  emperor 
in  284.  In  286  he  adopted  Maximian  as  his  colleague 
in  the  empire,  and  gave  him  the  title  of  Augustus.  They 
were  successful  in  suppressing  revolts  in  Gaul  and  other 
parts  of  the  empire.  About  292  they  nominated  two 
Cssars  to  divide  the  labours  of  the  administration, — 
namely,  Galerius  and  Constantius  Chlorus.  Diocletian 
reserved  to  himself  Asia  and  Egypt,  and  fixed  his  court 
at  Nicomedia.  He  assigned  Italy  and  Africa  to  Maxi- 
mian, Gaul  and  Spain  to  Constantius,  and  Thrace  and 
Illyricum  to  Galerius.  The  supremacy  of  Diocletian 
was  recognized  by  the  other  three,  and  general  pros- 
perity resulted  from  this  arrangement,  (Jne  design  of 
this  policy  was  to  prevent  the  revolt  of  the  armies  in 
favour  of  their  commanders,  by  which  so  many  emperors 
had  been  ruined.  After  this  division  the  Roman  arms 
were  successful  in  Egypt,  Persia,  and  Britain.  In  297  a 
peace  was  made  with  Persia,  which  was  maintained  forty 
years.  The  Christians  had  enjoyed  the  favour  and  pro- 
tection of  Diocletian  ;  but  in  303  Galerius,  by  false  accu- 
sations, persuaded  him  to  issue  an  edict  against  them. 
This  persecution,  to  which  he  unwillingly  assented,  is 
the  chief  error  of  a  reign  otherwise  honourable  and 
happy.  In  304  he  had  a  long  attack  of  sickness,  and 
in  the  next  year  he  abdicated  in  favour  of  Galerius,  and 
retired  to  Salona,  where  he  turned  his  attention  to  the 
cultivation  of  a  vegetable-garden,  and  died  in  313.  His 
political  talents  were  superior,  and  entitle  him  to  a  place 
among  the  most  eminent  Roman  emperors. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereiirs  ;"  Gibbon,  "Decline 
and  hall  ot  the  Roman  Empire;"  Aukelius  Victor,  "De  Csesari- 
bus  ;"  J.  C.  SiCKEL,  "  Diocletianus  et  Maximinus,"  1792. 

Diocletien.    See  Dioclkiian. 

Diodati,  de-o-di'tee,  or  Deodati,  (Charles,)  born 
in  London  about  1608,  was  of  Italian  extraction,  and  a 
nephew  of  John  Diodati.  He  was  Milton's  most  inti- 
mate companion  at  school,  and  his  correspondent  in  later 
years.  He  became  a  physician,  and  practised  in  Cheshire. 
On  hearing  of  his  death,  in  1608,  Milton  wrote,  in  Latin, 
"Epitaphium  Damonis." 

Diodati,  de-o-da'tee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  anti- 
quary, born  at  Naples  in  1736.  His  principal  work 
is  an  ingenious  essay,  "  De  Christo  Graece  loquente," 
(1767,)  in  which  he  endeavoured  to  prove  that  Greek 
was  the  vernacular  language  of  Christ  and  the  apostles. 
Died  in  1801. 

See  "Vita  di  D.  Diodati,"  Naples,  1815;  Tipaldo,  "  Biogiafia 
degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Diodati,  de-o-dl'tee,  (John,)  a  Protestant  theologian, 
of  Italian  extraction,  born  at  Geneva  in  1576.  He  made 
so  great  progress  in  the  study  of  ancient  languages  that 
Beza  thought  him  qualified,  at  the  age  of  twenty-one, 
to  fill  the  chair  of  Hebrew  in  the  University  of  Geneva. 
In  1609  he  was  chosen  professor  of  theology,  and  in  1618 
was  deputed  by  the  Church  of  Geneva  to  the  Synod  of 
Dort,  in  which  he  performed  an  important  part.  He 
made  Italian  and  French  translations  of  the  15ible,  (1644,) 
and  a  French  version  of  Sarpi's  "  History  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,"  (1621.)  He  also  wrote  several  treatises  against 
the  doctrines  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  "Annotations 
on  the  Bible,"  (1607.)    Died  in  1649. 

See  Brandt,  "  Historj'  of  the  Reformation;"  Senebier,  "His- 
toire litteraire  de  Geneve;"  Lipenius,  "  Bibliotheca  Theologica," 
1685;  ScHOTEL,  "J.  Diodati,"  1844. 

Diodore  de  Sicile.    See  Diodorus  Siculus. 

Di-o-do'rus  [Gr.  A(6(5(jpof ;  Fr.  Diodore,  deVdoR'] 
of  Antioch,  a  Christian  bishop  and  writer  of  high  repu- 
tation, was  appointed  to  the  see  of  Tarsus  about  375  A.D. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures,  and  other 
works,  which  are  all  lost. 

Diodorus  surnamed  Periege'tes,  a  Greek  historian, 
lived  al)out  320  B.C.    He  wrote  "  Ilfpt  dr^/xuv." 

Diodorus  of  Sinope,  an  Athenian  poet  of  the  new 
comedy,  lived  about  350  B.C. 

Diodorus  of  Tyre,  a  Peripatetic  philosopher,  flou- 
rished about  130  b!c.  He  succeeded  Critolaus  as  the 
head  of  the  Peripatetic  school  at  Athens. 


Di-o-do'rus  Cro'nus,  a  Greek  logician  and  philoso- 
pher of  the  school  of  Megara,  lived  about  300  B.C.,  and 
was  one  of  the  masters  of  Zeno  the  Stoic.  His  skill 
in  dialectics  is  praised  l)y  Cicero.  He  was  the  reputed 
author  of  a  famous  sophism  against  motion. 

Di-o-do'rus  SiC'u-lus,  [Fr.  Diodore  de  Sicile, 
de'o'doR'  deh  se's^K,]  often  called  simply  Diodorus,  an 
eminent  historian,  was  born  at  Agyrium,  in  Sicily,  and 
lived  in  the  first  century  B.C.  He  travelled  many  years 
in  Europe  and  Asia  to  collect  materials  for  a  universal 
history,  and  then  settled  in  Rome,  where  he  produced  his 
"  Historical  Library,"  in  Greek,  ("  Bi6?uo0fjKri  larofUK^,") 
which  contained,  in  forty  books,  the  history  of  the  world 
from  the  earliest  times  to  60  B.C.  Only  fifteen  of  these 
books  have  been  preserved  entire.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  finished  this  history  about  10  B.C.  His  merit  as  a 
historian  is  not  estimated  very  highly,  but  his  work  sup- 
plies many  important  facts  which  would  otherwise  have 
been  lost  to  posterity.  He  is  very  deficient  in  criticism 
and  judgment. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Graca ;"  Schoeli.,  "Histoire  de  la 
Litteratiire  Grecque  ;"  Heyne,"  De  Fontibus  Historiarum  Diodori," 
1782;  Daunou,  article  on  "Diodorus  Siculus"  in  the  '"  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Di-od'o-tus,  [Gr.  AcoSotoc  ;  Fr.  Diodote,  deVdot',] 
a  Stoic  philosopher,  lived  at  Rome,  and  taught  dialectics 
to  Cicero.    Died  in  59  B.C. 

Diogene.    See  Diogenes. 

Diogene  d'Apollonie.    See  Diogenes  of  Apol- 

LONIA. 

Diogene  Laerce.  See  Diogenes  Laertius, 
Di-og'e-nes,  [Gr.  Atoyevjjg ;  Fr.  Diogene,  deVzhin'; 
It.  Diogene,  de-o'jk-na,]  a  Cynic  philosopher,  1:)orn  at 
Sinope,  in  Asia  Minor,  lived  for  some  time  at  Athens, 
where  he  was  a  disciple  of  Antisthenes.  He  affected  an 
extravagant  contempt  for  the  comforts  of  life  and  for 
the  customs  of  society,  and  inured  himself  to  severe 
privations,  relying  on  alms  for  the  supply  of  his  simple 
wants.  It  is  said  that  he  lodged  in  a  cask  or  tub.  He 
was  noted  for  witty  and  sarcastic  sayings.  When  Alex- 
ander the  Great  visited  him,  and  inquired,  "  \Yhat  can  I 
do  for  you  ?"  Diogenes  replied,  "  Stand  from  between 
me  and  the  sun."  Alluding  to  this  interview,  Juvenal 
thus  moralizes  : 

"  Sensit  Alexander  testa  quum  vidit  in  ilia. 
Magnum  habitatorem,  quanto  felicior  hie  qui 
Nil  cuperet,  quam  qui  totum  sibi  posceret  orbem."* 

Sat.  xiv. 

Plato  having  defined  man  as  a  featherless  biped,  the 
Cynic  plucked  a  fowl,  and  exclaimed,  "Behold  the  man 
of  Plato  !"  It  is  stated  that  he  was  taken  by  pirates 
and  exposed  for  sale  in  the  market  of  Crete,  and,  being 
asked  what  he  could  do,  he  replied,  "  I  can  govern  men  : 
therefore  sell  me  to  some  one  who  needs  a  master."  He 
was  purchased  by  Xeniades,  a  rich  citizen  of  Corinth, 
by  whom  he  was  kindly  treated.  He  is  said  to  have 
died  in  323  B.C.,  aged  about  ninety.  If  he  wrote  any 
works,  as  some  assert,  they  have  not  been  preserved. 

See  Lucian,  "Cynicus,"  and  "Dialogues  of  the  Dead;"  Gri- 
MAi.Di,  "La  Vita  di  Diogene  Cinico,"  1777;  Ritter,  "History 
ot"  Philosophy;"  G.  H.  Lewes,  "Biographical  History  of  Philo- 
sophy." 

Diogenes  of  Apollonia,  [Fr.  Diogene  d'Apol- 
lonie, de'o'zhan'  dS'po'Io'ne',]  a  Greek  philosopher, 
born  in  Crete,  was  a  disciple  of  Anaximenes,  and  was 
probably  born  about  500  B.C.  He  taught  philosophy 
at  Athens,  and  wrote  a  work  on  cosmology,  of  which 
Diogenes  Laertius  has  preserved  a  fragment.  Like  his 
teacher,  he  considered  air  as  the  first  principle  of  all 
things. 

See  G.  H.  Lewes,  "Biographical  History  of  Philosophy;"  Rit- 
ter, "  History  of  Philosophy." 

Diogenes  the  Babylonian,  an  eminent  Stoic  phi- 
losopher, was  a  native  of  Seleucia.  He  studied  under 
Chrysippus  at  Athens,  and  became  the  master  of  the 
Stoic  school  in  that  city.  He  was  associated  with  Car- 
neades  in  a  memorable  embassy  to  Rome  in  155  B.C.  He 
wrote  on  various  subjects,  but  his  works  are  not  extant. 

See  C.  F.  Thierri,  "  Dissertatio  de  Diogene  Babylonico,"  1830. 


♦  Literally,  "When  Alexander  beheld  the  noble  dweller  in  that 
tub,  [i.e.  the  tub  of  Diogenes,]  he  perceived  (or  felt)  how  much  hap- 
pier [was]  he  who  desired  nothing,  than  he  who  demanded  for  himself 
the  whole  world." 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  Aart/;  g  as/;  G,  H,  }^,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DIOGENES 


768 


DIONTSIUS 


Diogeues  of  Tarsus,  a  Greek  Epicurean  philosopher, 
is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  first  or  second  century 
before  Christ.    His  works  are  lost. 

Di-og'?-nes  La-er'ti-us,  (la-er'she-us,)  [Gr,  Atoyevifg 
6  AaEpTiof: ;  Fr.  Dioc^NE  Laerce,  de'o'zhin'  It'ikss',]  a 
Greek  author,  who  was  so  called  because  he  was  born  at 
Laertes,  in  Cilicia.  Some  suppose  that  he  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Severus  or  Caracalla,  211-235  A.D.;  but  nothing 
is  known  of  his  history,  except  that  he  wrote  a  very  im- 
portant work  on  the  lives  and  doctrines  of  the  ancient 
philosophers.  He  evidently  lacked  the  critical  ability 
and  judgment  to  do  justice  to  such  an  enterprise  ;  but  at 
the  same  time  he  has  collected  and  preserved  valuable 
contributions  to  the  history  of  philosophy.  The  title 
of  it  is  '*  Btot  Kal  Tvtjfiai  ruv  h  ^i'?ioao<j)ia  evdoKifirjauvTuv.''^ 
He  appears  to  have  been  a  mere  compiler,  who  knew 
little  about  the  principles  of  philosophy.  His  work  is 
neither  well  planned  nor  well  digested  ;  but  it  contains 
valuable  extracts  from  works  which  are  lost. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grsca ;"  Klippel,  "De  Diogenis 
Laertii  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1831;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Diogo  Bernardes.    See  Bernardes. 

Diomed  and  Diomede.    See  Diomedes. 

Di-o-me'des,  often  anglicized  Di'o-mede  and  Di'- 
o-med,  [Gr,  AiofiifS-rjc;  Fr.  Diomede,  de^o'mid',]  a  hero 
of  the  early  Grecian  legends,  was  a  son  of  Tydeus,  and 
is  hence  called  Tydi'des.  He  became  King  of  Argos, 
and  acted  a  prominent  part  in  the  siege  of  Troy,  He 
was  accounted  the  bravest  of  the  Grecian  chiefs  next  to 
Achilles,  and  was  a  favourite  of  Minerva,  According  to 
Homer,  he  was  so  audacious  as  to  attack  Mars  himself 
His  adventures  after  the  capture  of  Troy  are  variously 
related, 

Diomedes,  [Eng,  Di'omede,]  a  king  of  the  Bistones, 
in  Thrace,  is  said  to  have  fed  his  horses  on  human  flesh. 
He  was  killed  by  Hercules. 

Di-om'e-don,  [A;o//e(56;t',]  an  able  Athenian  general, 
who  appears  first  in  history  in  412  B.C.  He  then  com- 
manded a  fleet  which  defeated  the  Chians  and  recovered 
Lesbos.  In  41 1  he  declared  for  the  democracy,  and  pro- 
moted the  recall  of  Alcibiades  from  exile.  He  was  one 
of  the  ten  generals  appointed  in  place  of  Alcibiades  in 
407,  and  contributed  to  the  victory  at  Arginusas,  Soon 
after  this  event  he  was  unjustly  put  to  death,  in  405  B,c. 

•See  Xenophon,  "  Hellenica." 

Di'on  [Gr.  Afwv]  of  Syracuse,  an  eminent  statesman 
and  patriot,  born  about  410  B.C.,  inherited  from  his  father 
Hipparinus  an  immense  fortune.  His  sister  Aristomache 
having  become  the  wife  of  King  Dionysius,  Dion  through 
this  connection  and  his  own  merit  acquired  much  influ- 
ence at  court.  The  lessons  of  Plato,  who  was  then  teach- 
ing in  Syracuse,  made  so  deep  an  impression  on  him  that 
he  became  an  intimate  friend  and  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent disciples  of  that  philosopher.  Soon  after  the  acces- 
sion of  Dionysius  the  Younger,  Dion  persuaded  him  to 
invite  Plato  again  to  the  Syracusan  court.  The  courtiers 
of  the  young  king,  the  companions  of  his  vicious  plea- 
sures, who  were  jealous  of  Dion's  influence  and  were 
reproved  by  his  pure  example,  prevailed  on  their  master 
to  banish  him.  Dion  retired  to  Athens,  where  he  was 
received  with  the  greatest  honour.  When  he  learned 
that  Dionysius  had  confiscated  his  estate  and  forced 
his  wife  to  marry  another  man,  he  resolved  to  avenge 
himself  and  to  liberate  Syracuse  by  an  appeal  to  arms. 
In  357,  against  the  advice  of  Plato,  he  led  a  small  body 
of  soldiers  to  Syracuse,  which  he  entered  without  resist- 
ance, seconded  by  the  popular  favour.  By  the  intrigues 
of  Heraclides,  an  unscrupulous  demagogue,  Dion  was 
expelled  for  a  time  ;  but  he  was  soon  recalled.  He  was 
assassinated  by  Calippus  about  354  B.C.  Plutarch  has 
thought  him  worthy  to  be  the  subject  of  a  comparison 
with  Marcus  Brutus,  the  noble  Roman, 

See  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece,"  part  ii.  chap.  Ixxxiv.  ;  Plu- 
tarch, "Lives;"  Cornelius  Nepos,  "Dion;"  Diodorus  Sicu- 
LUS,  books  XV.  and  xvi. 

Dion  or  Dio  surnamed  Chrys'ostom,  ("Golden- 
mouthed,")  born  at  Prusa,  in  Bithynia,  about  the  middle 
of  the  first  century,  was  a  Greek  sophist  or  rhetorician. 
He  was  living  in  Moldavia  when  Domitian  was  killed, 
and  by  his  eloquent  harangue  persuaded  the  army  to 
remain  loyal  to  the  senate.    This  act  procured  for  him 


the  favour  of  Nerva  and  Trajan,  the  latter  of  whom  gave 
him  a  seat  in  his  chariot  when  he  made  a  triumphal  entry 
into  Rome.  About  eighty  of  his  orations  are  extant,  the 
chief  merit  of  which  is  beauty  and  simplicity  of  style. 

See  L.  ]£tiennk,  "  Dio  Philosophus,"  1849;  Brecquigny,  "Vies 
des  Orateurs  Grecs  ;"  Fabrious,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  Philos- 
TRATUs,  "  Vitae  Philosophorum." 

Di'on  Cas'si-us  (kash'e-us)  or  Dio  Cassius,  or,  more 
fully,  Cas'sius  Di^'on  Cocceia'iius,  (kok-se-ya'nus,)  an 
eminent  historian,  born  at  Nicaea,  in  Bithynia,  about  155 
A.D.,  was  the  son  of  a  Roman  senator,  and  descended  by 
his  mother  from  I>ion  Chrysostom.  He  lived  in  Rome, 
was  a  senator  in  the  reign  of  Commodus,  and  governor 
of  Smyrna  and  Pergamos  under  Macrinus.  By  the  favour 
of  Alexander  Seve'rus,  he  was  elected  consul  with  that 
emperor  in  229  A.D.  He  wrote  in  Greek  several  works, 
the  principal  of  which  is  his  "  History  of  Rome"  ("  Tw- 
fiaiKTj  'laTopia")  from  the  arrival  of  /Eneas  in  Italy  to  the 
year  229  A.D.,  in  eighty  books,  of  which  the  first  thirty-five 
are  lost  except  fragments,  and  the  last  twenty  exist  only 
in  the  abridgment  of  Xiphilinus.  As  a  historian  he  is 
esteemed  for  elegance  of  style,  accuracy  in  dates,  and 
diligence  in  search  of  the  truth,  for  which  his  official 
position  afforded  him  facilities.  His  work  is  a  rich 
collection  of  documents  on  the  later  years  of  the  re- 
public and  the  first  ages  of  the  empire.  His  knowledge 
of  Roman  institutions  was  more  exact  and  extensive 
than  that  of  previous  historians. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  Reimarus,  "  De  Vita  et 
Scriptis  Cassii  Dionis,"  1752;  Schlosser,  "Dissertation  on  Dimi 
Cassius,"  prefixed  to  Lorenz's  German  version  of  Dion,  1826;  Niii- 
BUHR,  "Lectures  on  Roman  History." 

Di-o'ne,  [Gr.  AtuvTj,]  a  female  Titan,  according  to  some 
authorities  a  daughter  of  Uranus,  according  to  others 
of  Ocean  us  or  ^ther.  The  poets  feigned  that  she  was 
beloved  by  Jupiter,  by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of 
Venus. 

Dionigi,  de-o-nee'jee,  (Marianna,)  an  Italian  artist, 
born  in  Rome  in  1756.  She  acquired  skill  in  painting, 
and  gave  much  attention  to  archaeology,  especially  to 
the  researches  of  Cyclopean  walls.  She  wrote  a  suc- 
cessful work,  entitled  "On  the  Five  Cities  of  Latium 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  Saturn,"  ("Sulle  cinque 
Citta  del  Lazio  che  diconsi  fondate  da  Saturno.")  Died 
in  1826. 

Dionis,  de''o'n^ss',  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French  sur- 
geon, born  in  Paris,  became  first  surgeon  to  the  queen 
Maria  Theresa  and  the  dauphin.  Louis  XIV.  appointed 
him  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes.  He 
possessed  great  learning,  and  wrote  several  excellent 
works,  among  which  are  a  "Treatise  on  Operations," 
and  a  Treatise  on  Anatomy,  ("Anatomic  de  I'Homme, 
suivant  la  Circulation  du  Sang,"  1690.)    Died  in  1718. 

See  £lov,  " Dictionnaire  de  la  Medecine." 

Dionis  du  Sejour,  de'o'n^ss'  dii  si'zhooR',  (Achili.e 
Pierre,)  a  French  geometer,  born  in  Paris  in  1734.  In 
1765  he  was  admitted  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  which 
he  enriched  with  many  treatises  on  eclipses,  comets,  on 
Saturn's  ring,  etc.  He  afterwards  published  these  col- 
lectively, with  the  title  of  "Analytical  Treatise  on  the 
Apparent  Motions  of  the  Heavenly  Bodies,"  (1786,) 
"  which,"  says  Nicollet,  "  is  a  monument  raised  to  the 
glory  of  astronomy,  and  will  form  an  epoch  in  the  his- 
tory of  that  science."    Died  in  1794. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Dionisi,  de-o-nee'see,  (Filippo  Lorenzo,)  an  Italian 
antiquary  and  priest,  born  at  Rome  in  1 712;  died  in 
1789. 

Dionisi,  (Giovan.ni  Giacomo,)  an  Italian  philologist, 
born  at  Verona  in  1724.  He  published  an  edition  of 
Dante's  "Divina  Commedia,"  1795.)    Died  in  1808. 

Dionysius,  dT-o-nish''e-us,  [Gr.  Aiowa^of,]  the  Elder, 
[Fr.  Denys  l'Ancien,  deh-ne'  ISn^sc'^n',]  a  celebrated  i 
tyrant  of  Syracuse,  was  born  about  430  B.C.  The  Car- 
thaginians having  invaded  Sicily  and  threatened  Syra- 
cuse, (which  was  then  a  republic,)  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  generals ;  and  in  405,  by  his  artful  policy,  he 
persuaded  the  people  to  invest  him  with  the  supreme 
direction  of  the  government.  He  confirmed  his  power 
by  increasing  the  pay  of  the  troops,  suppressed  several 
revolts,  and  in  397  declared  war  against  Carthage,  which 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  /on^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fdll,  fdt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DIONTSIUS 


769 


DIOPHANTUS 


held  some  cities  in  Sicily.  The  fleet  of  Dionysius  was 
defeated,  and  the  victorious  army  of  Himilco  or  Imilkon 
encamped  under  the  walls  of  Syracuse  ;  but  a  pestilence 
broke  out  in  the  besieging  army,  and  a  successful  attack 
from  the  Syracusans  completed  their  ruin.  Dionysius 
then  subjected  several  towns  of  Sicily,  made  some  con- 
quests on  the  Italian  peninsula,  and  became  one  of  the 
most  powerful  princes  of  his  time.  Many  anecdotes  are 
related  to  show  how  suspicious  he  was,  and  what  pre- 
cautions he  observed  against  personal  danger,  as  that  his 
bedchamber  was  surrounded  by  a  wide  ditch  crossed 
by  a  drawbridge.  His  brother-in-law,  Dion,  persuaded 
him  to  invite  Plato  to  his  court ;  but  the  king  was  so 
offended  by  the  philosopher's  lectures  that  he  soon 
sent  him  away,  directing  the  captain  of  the  ship  to  sell 
him  as  a  slave  in  the  first  port  which  he  should  enter. 
Ambitious  of  literary  fame,  he  sent  some  verses  to  the 
Olympic  games ;  but  his  offerings  were  rejected  with 
contempt.  One  of  his  tragedies,  however,  gained  a 
prize  at  Athens,  by  which  he  was  much  elated ;  and, 
during  a  feast  which  he  gave  on  the  occasion,  he  died 
suddenly,  in  367.  His  death  was  ascribed  by  some  to 
intemperance,  by  others  to  poison. 

See  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece,"  part  ii.  chaps.  Ixxxi.-lxxxiii. ; 
DiODORUS  SicuLUs;  Th,)kkil  Baden,  "Res  gestae  Dionysii  Syra- 
cusii  recognitse,"  1795;  F.  \V.  Roloff,  "Dissertatioiies  de  Dionysiis 
Sicilias  Tyrannis,"  1736. 

Dionysius  the  Younger,  [Fr.  Denys  le  Jeune, 
deh-ne'  leh  zhuN',]  a  son  of  the  preceding,  succeedecl 
him  without  opposition  in  367  B.C.  He  was  inferior  to 
his  father  in  political  ability,  and  was  early  addicted 
to  licentious  habits,  from  which  Dion  endeavoured  to 
reclaim  him.  Dion  also  prevailed  on  Plato  to  exert  his 
eloquence  for  this  purpose.  The  latter  was  received  with 
honour,  and  for  a  time  seemed  to  exercise  a  beneficial 
influence  ;  but  evil  counsels  effected  the  banishment  of 
Dion,  and  Plato  soon  followed  him.  The  capricious 
prince,  it  is  said,  induced  Plato  to  return  to  Syracuse,  on 
condition  that  his  friend  should  be  restored  from  exile  ; 
but  this  promise  was  not  fulfilled.  In  357  Dion  led  a 
successful  expedition  against  Dionysius,  who,  not  being 
supported  by  his  subjects,  was  expelled  from  Syracuse 
and  retired  to  Locri,  (See  Dion.)  After  tyrannizing  over 
the  Locri'ans  several  years,  he  recovered  possession  of 
Syracuse  about  346.  To  assist  them  in  expelling  Dio- 
nysius and  in  repelling  a  threatened  invasion  of  the 
Carthaginians,  the  Syracusans  invoked  the  aid  of  the 
Corinthians,  who  sent  Timoleon  with  an  army  in  the 
year  344.  Dionysius  was  again  deposed,  and  banished 
to  Corinth,  where,  it  is  said,  he  employed  himself  in 
teaching  school. 

See  Grote,  "History  of  Greece,"  part  ii.  chaps.  Ixxxiv.-lxxxv. ; 
Plutarch,  "  Life  of  Dion  ;"  DiODORUS  Siculus,  books  xv.,  xvi.  ;  P. 
Ekerman,  "Dissertatio  de  Tyrannide  Dionysii  utriusque  Syracu- 
sani,"  Upsal,  1757. 

Dionysius  the  Areopagite  is  said  to  have  been  a 
judge  of  the  Areopagus  in  Athens  when  the  Apostle 
Paul  appeared  before  that  tribunal.  (See  Acts  xvii.  19.) 
He  was  converted  to  Christianity  by  Paul,  (Acts  xvii.  34.) 
Tradition  adds  that  he  was  appointed  firs'-  Bishop  of 
Athens,  and  that  he  suffered  martyrd  )m  about  95  a.d. 

See  Ritter,  "History  of  Christian  Philosophy;"  Baumgar- 
ten-Crusius,  "  Programma  de  Dionysio  Areopagita,"  Jena,  1823; 
Etienne  Binet,  "Vie  de  S.  Denys  I'Areopagite,"  1624. 

Dionysius  of  Byzantium,  a  Greek  writer,  of  whom 
little  is  known.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  before  200 
A.D.,  and  is  mentioned  by  Suidas  as  the  author  of  the 
"Voyage  of  the  Bosphorus,"  ("AvuTrAouf  BooTtopov.") 

Dionysius  [Fr.  Denys]  the  Carthusian,  a  monk, 
born  near  Liege,  was  eminent  for  learning.  He  entered 
a  monastery  at  Ruremonde  in  1423,  and  wrote  a  large 
number  of  works.  His  "Mirror  of  the  Conversion  of 
a  Sinner"  (1473)  is  said  to  be  the  first  book  printed  in 
Belgium  with  a  date.    Died  in  147 1. 

Dionysius  surnamed  Chai/cus,  [6  XaXnovg,]  an 
ancient  Attic  poet  and  orator,  flourished  about  450  B.C. 
He  was  surnamed  Chalcus  because  he  advised  the 
Athenians  to  coin  brass  money.  His  poems  (including 
elegies)  are  quoted  or  noticed  by  Aristotle  and  other 
critics. 

Dionysius  of  Colophon,  a  celebrated  Greek  painter 
of  the  age  of  Pericles,  lived  about  450  B.C.   He  excelled 


in  portraits,  and  imitated  the  style  of  his  contemporary 
Polygnotus  with  success.  "  Polygnotus,"  says  Aristotle, 
"painted  portraits  more  beautiful  than  the  originals, 
Pauson  made  them  worse,  and  Dionysius  painted  exact 
likenesses."  Another  Dionysius  flourished  as  a  painter 
at  Rome  in  the  first  century  before  Christ,  and  is  favour  • 
ably  mentioned  by  Pliny. 

Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  [Gr.  Atowawf  6  'AAt- 
Kapvaaod'^;  Lat.  DiONYs'ius  Halicarnas'seus  or  Hali- 
carnassen'sis  ;  Fr.  Denys  d'Halicarnasse,  deh-ne' 
di;''le''ktR'ntss',]  a  Greek  historian  and  critic  of  high 
reputation,  born  at  Halicarnassus,  in  Caria,  about  70  B.C. 
All  our  knowledge  of  him  is  derived  from  his  writings, 
which  inform  us  that  he  came  to  Rome  in  30  B.C.  and 
spent  more  than  twenty  years  there  in  studying  Latin 
and  composing  his  history  (in  Greek)  entitled  "  Roman 
Antiquities,"  ("  T(j//ai'/c^  'Apx^i^oAo-yla.")  It  embraces  the 
period  from  the  origin  of  Rome  to  the  year  265  B.C.  The 
greater  part  of  this  work  is  extant.  Pie  is  accused  of 
partiality  to  the  Greeks,  and  is  not  esteemed  a  high 
authority  as  a  historian.  He  also  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
Rhetoric,"  another  on  the  eloquence  of  Demosthenes,  a 
"  Criticism  on  the  Style  (ISlu^utov )  of  Thucydides,"  and 
other  critical  works,  which  are  highly  appreciated.  Some 
persons  assign  him  a  place  in  the  first  rank  of  ancient 
critics. 

See  article  by  Jacobs,  in  Ersch  und  Gruber's  "Allgemeine 
Encyklopaedie  ;"  Niebuhr,  "  Lectures  on  Roman  History;"  C.  J. 
Weismann,  "De  Dionysii  Halicarnassehsi  Vita,"  1837;  Busse, 
"  De  Dionysii  Halicainassensi  Vita,"  1848 ;  P.  F.  Schulin,  "  De  Dio- 
nysio Halicarnassensi  historico,"  1821 ;  F.  Matthai,  "De  Dionysio 
Halicarnassensi,"  1779. 

Dionysius  of  Heraclea,  [Fr.  Denys  d'H^racl^e, 
deh-ne'  dWxt'kW,]  a  Greek  philosopher,  lived  about  the 
end  of  the  third  century  B.C.  He  was  a  Stoic  in  his 
youth,  and  afterwards  an  Epicurean. 

Dionysius  surnamed  Iam'bus,  a  Greek  poet,  lived 
about  300  B.C. 

Dionysius  of  Miletus,  an  early  Greek  historian, 
who  wrote  about  500  B.C.  Among  his  principal  works, 
which  are  all  lost,  was  a  "  History  of  Darius  I.  of  Persia." 

Dionysius,  [Fr.  Denys,]  Saint,  a  disciple  of  Origen, 
was  a  native  of  Alexandria,  and  in  the  year  248  a.d.  was 
made  patriarch  of  that  city.  During  the  persecution  of 
the  Christians  by  Valerian  in  257  he  was  exiled  to  Libya, 
whence  he  was  restored  in  260.  He  wrote  numerous 
letters  and  treatises  against  various  errors  in  doctrine 
that  prevailed  ;  but  they  have  not  been  preserved.  Died 
in  265  A.D. 

Dionysius  surnamed  Thrax,  or  "the  Thracian,"  an 
eminent  Greek  grammarian,  was  a  disciple  of  Aristarchus. 
He  taught  rhetoric  at  Rome  with  great  distinction  about 
80  B.C.,  and  composed  many  works  on  grammar,  etc. 
His  "Te^YT^T?  ypa/z/zarf/c^,"  ("Art  of  Grammar,")  which  has 
come  down  to  us,  was  a  standard  work  for  centuries,  and 
served  as  a  basis  to  many  other  treatises. 

Dionysius  Cato.    See  Cato,  (Dionysius.) 

Di-o-nys^i-us  (dT-o-nish'e-us)  Pe-ri-e-ge'tes  [Fr. 
Denys  le  Peri^:gete,  deh-ne''  leh  pk're'a'zh^t']  is  the 
author  of  a  Greek  poem  entitled  "  liept^yTjOLc  rfj^  P^f," 
("Journey  round  the  Earth.")  Nothing  is  known  re- 
specting the  time  and  place  of  his  birth  ;  but  he  proba- 
bly lived  between  the  Augustan  age  and  the  fourth 
century.  His  poem  was  once  popular,  and  has  been 
often  reprinted  and  translated. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  Ukert,  "  Geographle  der 
Griechen  ;"  MATTHiEi,  "  De  Dionysio  Periegeta,"  1788. 

Di-o-ny'sus,  [i^iovvaog  ox  ^Luvvaog,']  the  original  name 
in  Greek  mythology  of  the  god  of  wine,  afterwards  called 
Bacchus,  which  see. 

Di-oph'a-nes,  [Gr.  Atocpavrjc ;  Fr.  Diophane,  deV- 
ftn',]  a  Greek  orator,  born  at  Mitylene.  Pie  taught  at 
Rome,  where  Tiberius  Gracchus  was  his  pupil. 

Diophante.    See  Diophantus. 

Di-o-phan'tus  [Gr.  Ato^avTuc ;  Fr.  Diophante,  de'- 
oTSNt']  OF  Alexandria  is  the  author  of  the  most  ancient 
treatise  on  algebra  which  is  extant.  The  time  in  which 
he  lived  is  very  uncertain.  The  question  has  been  much 
discussed  whether  he  was  the  inventor  of  algebra,  or 
whether  he  derived  it  from  the  Hindoos.  Lagrange 
favoured  the  former  opinion.  Hypatia,  who  lived  about 
400  A.D.,  wrote  a  commentary  on  Diophantus.    Of  the 


€  as  k;  9  as    g  hard;  g  as  /;  o,  h,  k, ^ittural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

49 


DIOPHJNTUS 


770 


DISRAELI 


thirteen  books  which  composed  his  remarkable  work, 
seven  have  been  lost. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques." 

Diophaiitus,  an  Athenian  orator,  a  contemporary  of 
Demosthenes,  lived  about  350  B.C. 

Di-o-pi'thes,  [AwTraf^r/f,]  an  Athenian  general,  the 
father  of  the  poet  Menander,  lived  about  344  B.C. 

Dioscore.    See  Dioscorus. 

Dioscoride.    See  Dioscorides, 

Dioscorides,  (a  Greek  artist.)    See  Dioscurides. 

Di-os-cor'I-des,  [Fr.  Dioscoride,  de''os'ko'rW,]  a 
Greek  historian,  a  disciple  of  Isocrates,  lived  in  the  fourth 
century  B.C.  He  wrote  "  0/  irap'Onr/pcj  vofioi,'^  a  treatise 
on  the  customs  and  laws  recognized  in  the  Homeric 
poems. 

Dioscorides  of  Alexandria,  a  Greek  poet  of  an  un- 
known epoch.  He  is  author  of  numerous  epigrams 
preserved  in  the  Greek  Anthology. 

Di-os-cor'i-des  Pe-da'ni-us,  [^LoaKovpLdrjgUeddviog,] 
a  Greek  botanist,  born  at  Anazarbns,  in  Cilicia,  lived 
about  the  first  century  A.D.,  and  is  the  author  of  a  cele- 
brated Greek  work  on  Materia  Mcvlica,  in  which  more 
than  five  hundred  plants  are  described  or  named.  A 
passage  of  his  book  informs  us  that  he  traversed  Asia 
Minor,  Greece,  and  a  part  of  Italy,  to  qualify  himself 
for  such  a  task.  For  sixteen  centuries  this  book  was 
considered  the  highest  authority,  and  was  universally 
studied  by  medical  students  and  botanists.  It  is  com- 
posed without  regard  to  order  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
matter,  and  is  defective  in  other  respects,  but  is  still 
highly  prized  as  a  memorial  of  the  state  of  science  in 
that  age.  Galen  speaks  of  Dioscorides  in  very  high 
terms,  and  says  that  he  surpassed  all  who  wrote  before 
him  on  plants.  His  work  became  the  basis  of  modern 
treatises  on  botany,  which  science  derives  nearly  all  its 
nomenclature  from  him. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grseca  ;"  Sprengel,  "Geschichte 
der  Botanik  ;"  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca  Botanica." 

Di-os'oo-rus  [Gr.  AiooKopoi^ ;  Fr.  Dioscore,  de'os'- 
koR']  was  chosen  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  in  444  A.D., 
as  successor  to  Cyril.  Having  sided  with  Eutyches,  who 
was  deposed  for  heresy  by  Flavian  of  Constantinople, 
he  obtained  the  convocation  of  a  council  at  Ephesus  in 
449.  Dioscorus  was  president  of  this  council,  by  which 
Flavian  was  condemned,  and  which  was  conducted  with 
such  violence  that  it  was  stigmatized  as  a  scene  of  rob- 
bery, ( Latrociiiium  Ephesimi7n.)  A  schism  resulted,  and 
Pope  Leo  decided  against  Dioscorus,  who  was  exiled  in 
451,  and  died  in  454  A.D. 

Di-os-cu''ri,  [Gr.  LLooKovpoi ;  Fr.  Dioscures,  de'o^- 
skiiR',]  i.e.  "sons  of  Jupiter,"  a  name  applied  to  Castor 
and  Pollux,  which  see. 

Di-os-ou'ri-des  or  Di-os-cor''i-des,  a  Greek  artist, 
who  lived  at  Rome  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  was  re- 
puted the  greatest  gem-engraver  of  ancient  times.  He 
engraved  the  portrait  of  Augustus,  which  was  one  of  his 
master-pieces. 

Diotallevi,  de-o-til-la'vee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian 
pulpit  orator  and  religious  writer,  born  at  Rimini  in 
1648;  died  in  1 72 1. 

Di-o-ti'mus,  [Gr.  AtoTif^og ;  Fr.  Diotime,  de'o^t^m',] 
a  Greek  poet  of  uncertain  epoch,  author  of  numerous 
epigrams  preserved  in  the  Greek  Anthology. 

Diotisalvi,  de-o-te-sSKvee,  a  celebrated  Italian  archi- 
tect, designed  the  beautiful  baptistery  of  Pisa,  commenced 
about  1 1 52  and  finished  in  1161.  It  is  one  of  the  earliest 
examples  of  the  renaissance  of  the  art  in  Italy. 

Diphile.    See  Diphilus. 

pipli'i-lus,  [Gr.  AMog ;  Fr.  Diphile,  de'f^K,]  an 
eminent  Athenian  comic  poet  of  the  new  comedy,  was 
a  native  of  Sinope,  and  flourished  about  300  B.C.  He 
produced  about  one  hundred  comedies,  of  which  some 
fragments  remain.  His  style  is  admired  for  simplicity 
and  elegance. 

Diplovatazio.de-plo-vi-tit'se-o,  (Tommaso,)  a  jurist, 
born  at  Corfu  in  1468.  He  published  "  Synopsis  Juris 
Grasci,"  and  other  works.    Died  at  Pesaro  in  1541. 

Dippel,  dip'pel,  (Johann  Conrad,)  a  German  alche- 
mist, noted  for  his  aberrations  and  vagaries,  was  born 
near  Darmstadt  in  1673.  He  studied  medicine,  and  pro- 
fessed to  be  an  adept  in  the  hermetic  arts.    He  was  ad- 


dicted to  wandering  habits  and  to  theological  controversy, 
and  was  imprisoned  at  various  places.  By  accident  he 
discovered  the  valuable  pigment  prussiate  of  potasJi,  or 
Prussian  blue.  About  1710,  to  escape  the  power  of  the 
law,  he  took  refuge  in  Holland,  and  practised  medicine 
for  several  years.  After  many  adventures  in  Denmark, 
Sweden,  etc.,  he  died  in  1734. 

See  "  Biographic  Medicale;"  Hoffmann,"  Leben  und  Meinungen 
J.  C.  Dippel's,"  1783. 

Dirae.    See  Eumenides. 

Dirichlet,  de'resh'lcV,  (Gustav  Lejeune  or  Peter 
GusTAV,)  an  eminent  German  geometer,  born  at  DUren, 
in  Rhenish  Prussia,  in  1805.  He  became  professor  of 
mathematics  in  Berlin  in  1828,  and  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1832.  He  wrote  dissertations  on 
the  most  difficult  parts  of  mathematics,  and  was  esteemed 
one  of  the  first  mathematicians  of  the  age.  In  1855  he 
succeeded  Gauss  as  professor  at  Gottingen.  Died  in 
May,  1859. 

Dirk  or  Dirck,  (dirk,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Haar- 
lem, was  living  in  1462.  He  was  one  of  the  ablest  artists 
of  his  time. 

Diroys,  de'rwa^  (Francois,)  a  French  theologians- 
born  in  1620,  became  canon  of  Avranches.  He  wrote 
"Proofs  and  Presentiments  (Pt'ejuges)  in  favour  of  the 
Christian  and  Catholic  Religion,"  (1683.)    Died  in  1691. 

Discepoli,  de-sh^p'o-lee  or  de-sha'po-lee,  (Giovanni 
Battista,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Lugano  in  1590 ; 
died  in  1660. 

Disdier,  de'de-i',  (Henri  FRANgois  Michel,)  a  skil- 
ful French  surgeon,  professor  of  anatomy,  and  writer, 
was  born  at  Grenoble  in  1708;  died  in  1781. 

Dis'ney,  (John,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born  at 
Lincoln  in  1677,  studied  law,  and  for  many  years  dis- 
charged the  duties  of  magistrate  with  much  credit.  In 
1 7 19  he  was  ordained  a  priest  of  the  Anglican  Church, 
and  in  1722  became  Vicar  of  Saint  Mary,  Nottingham. 
He  wrote  "Essays  on  Laws  against  Immorality  and 
Profaneness,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1730. 

Disraeli,  diz-ra'el-e,  (Benjamin,)  a  distinguished  Eng- 
lish statesman  and  author,  a  son  of  Isaac,  noticed  below, 
was  born  in  London  in  December,  1805.  He  produced 
in  1826  his  first  work,  "Vivian  Grey,"  a  fashionable 
novel,  which  was  received  with  great  favour  :  it  was 
followed  by  "The  Young  Duke,"  (1830,)  and  "Contarini 
Fleming,"  (1832.)  In  1829  and  1830  he  visited  Greece, 
Egypt,  Syria,  and  other  parts  of  the  Levant.  He  com- 
menced his  political  life  as  a  radical,  and  was  an  unsuc- 
cessful candidate  for  Parliament  in  1 83 1.  Having  become 
a  Tory  candidate  for  Taunton,  he  was  again  defeated  in 
1835  ;  but  he  was  returned  by  the  Conservatives  of  Maid- 
stone in  1837.  His  ambitious  or  pretentious  maiden 
speech  was  a  complete  failure,  and  excited  the  ridicule 
of  the  House.  On  this  occasion  he  exclaimed,  "  I  shall 
sit  down  now,  but  the  time  will  come  when  you  will  hear 
me  !"  In  1839  he  married  the  rich  widow  of  Wyndham 
Lewis.  He  has  represented  Buckinghamshire  in  Parlia- 
ment since  1847.  He  gradually  attained  success  as  a 
parliamentary  debater,  and  about  1841  became  the  leader 
of  the  "  Young  England"  party.  Among  his  most  bril- 
liant efforts  were  his  speeches  against  the  Free-Trade 
measures  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1845  ^'^cl  1846,  in  which 
he  displayed  great  powers  of  invective  and  sarcasm.  In 
1844  he  published  "Coningsby,  or  the  New  Genera- 
tion," a  political  novel,  which  was  very  successful.  He 
became  about  1848  the  recognized  leader  of  the  Protec- 
tionist party  in  the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer  in  the  Tory  ministry  of  Lord 
Derby,  which  lasted  from  March  to  December  of  1852. 
On  the  defeat  of  Palmerston  in  February,  1858,  power 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Tories,  and  Disraeli  again 
became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  the  Derb /-Dis- 
raeli ministry.  (See  Derby,  Earl  of.)  He  introduced 
an  electoral  Reform  bill,  which  was  rejected  by  the 
House  in  March,  1859,  and  resigned  with  his  colleagues 
in  June  of  that  year.  A  Tory  writer  in  the  "  London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  i860,  ascribes  to  Disraeli 
"  unrivalled  powers  for  conducting  his  party  into  the 
ditch,"  and  adds,  his  Reform  bill  "had  that  fatal  and 
damning  defect,  that  the  complication  of  its  details  ex- 
posed it  to  the  suspicion  of  stratagem  and  finesse.  It 


a.  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sho7't;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


\ 


DISRAELI  111 


DIX 


■was  not  statesmanlike :  it  was  only  ingenious."  He  is 
said  to  have  annoyed  his  party  by  voting  for  the  admis- 
sion of  Jews  into  the  House  of  Commons.  "  Gradually, 
almost  imperceptibly,"  says  the  London  "  Times,"  "  Mr. 
Disraeli  has  weaned  his  party  from  their  most  flagrant 
errors.  He  has  taught  them  to  profess,  at  any  rate,  and 
probably  to  feel,  a  sympathy  for  the  great  body  of  their 
countrymen."  He  opposed  the  bill  for  electoral  reform 
which  Russell  and  Gladstone  introduced,  and  which  was 
defeated  in  June,  1866.  In  consequence  of  this  defeat  the 
Liberal  ministers  resigned,  and  Disraeli  again  became 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  Derby  and  l3israeli  then 
exhibited  a  surprising  change  of  front  on  the  subject  of 
electoral  reform,  and  supported  a  more  liberal  or  radical 
bill  than  that  which  they  opposed  in  1866.  As  leader 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  Disraeli  was  the  chief  author 
and  manager  of  the  Reform  bill  of  1867,  which  extends 
the  right  of  suffrage  to  every  householder  in  a  borough, 
every  forty-shilling  freeholder,  etc.  This  bill  was  signed 
by  the  queen,  August  15,  1867. 

Much  admiration  has  been  expressed  at  the  dexterity 
with  which  he  induced  his  party  to  abandon  their  preju- 
dices or  principles  in  the  support  of  this  measure.  "  His 
triumph,"  says  Goldwin  Smith,  "  is  a  triumph  over  pub- 
lic morality  and  over  the  self-respect  of  the  nation." 
He  became  premier  about  February  25,  1868.  He  and 
his  party  opposed  the  resolutions  which  Mr.  Gladstone 
moved  to  abolish  or  disendow  the  Irish  Church  as  a 
state  establishment.  On  this  important  question  he  was 
defeated  in  the  House  by  a  majority  of  fifty-six  votes, 
April  3,  1868,  and  again  on  the  ist  of  May  by  a  majority 
of  sixty-four.  It  was  expected  that  he  would  resign  or 
appeal  to  the  country ;  but,  after  a  visit  to  the  queen  at 
Osborne,  he  and  his  colleagues  made  statements  which 
resolved  themselves  into  the  simple  proposition  that 
they  had  determined  neither  to  resign  nor  to  dissolve 
Parliament.  The  Liberal  party  having  gained  a  decisive 
victory  in  the  general  election  of  November,  Disraeli 
and  his  colleagues  resigned  on  the  2d  of  December,  1868. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1853;  "Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  March,  1854;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  January  and  Feb- 
ruary, 1847,  and  February,  1852 ;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  Sep- 
tember, 1844;  Samuel  Smiles,  "Brief  Biographies." 

Disraeli,  (Isaac,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  at  En- 
field, near  London,  in  1766,  was  the  son  of  a  Venetian 
merchant  of  Jewish  extraction,  who  left  him  a  large 
fortune.  He  preferred  literature  to  all  other  professions 
or  pursuits,  and,  directing  his  attention  to  literary  history 
and  anecdotes,  he  produced  in  1790  the  first  volume  of 
"Curiosities  of  Literature,"  which  was  received  with 
favour  and  followed  by  several  other  volumes  of  the 
same  work.  He  published  "  Calamities  of  Authors," 
(1812,)  "Quarrels  of  Authors,"  (1814,)  "The  Life  and 
Reign  of  King  Charles  I.,"  (1828,)  "Amenities  of  Lite- 
rature," (1841,)  and  a  few  other  works.  "  The  numerous 
editions  which  have  been  printed  of  the  'Curiosities  of 
Literature,'"  says  T.  H.  Horne,  "amply  attest  the  value 
of  this  instructive  and  amusing  work."  Lord  Byron  de- 
nominates him  "that  most  entertaining  and  searching 
writer,  whose  works  in  general  I  have  read  oftener  than 
perhaps  those  of  any  other  English  writer  whatever." 
Died  in  1848.  He  was  the  father  of  the  eminent  states- 
man Benjamin  Disraeli. 

See  B.  Disraeli,  "Notice  of  I.  Disraeli,"  prefixed  to  his  "Curi- 
osities of  Literature,"  Boston,  4  vols.,  1858;  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  September,  181 2. 

Dissen,  dis'sen,  (Georg  Ludolf,)  a  distinguished 
German  philologist,  born  near  Gottingen  in  1784,  studied 
philology  under  Heyne,  and  became  professor  of  classical 
literature  at  Gottingen  in  1813.  He  published  good  edi- 
tions of  Pindar  (1830)  and  of  Tibullus,  (1835.)  He  gave 
especial  attention  to  the  philosophy  of  the  ancients,  and 
wrote  a  work  on  the  moral  philosophy  of  Socrates,  as 
handed  down  to  us  in  the  writings  of  Xenophon.  Died 
in  1837. 

Distelmeyer,  dis'tel-mfer,  (Lambert,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1522,  was  appointed  chancellor 
by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  in  1558.    Died  in  1588. 

See  GuNDLiNG,  "  Distelmeyer's  Leben,"  1722. 

Dithraar  or  Ditmar,  dit'mSR,  a  German  chronicler, 
born  about  978,  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Merseburg  in  1009. 


He  wrote  a  Latin  chronicle  of  the  reigns  of  the  emperors 
Henry  I.,  Otho  L,  Otho  II.,  Otho  HL,  and  Henry  II., 
which  was  edited  by  Leibnitz,  who  calls  it  a  valuable 
work.    Died  in  10 18. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Dithmar  or  Ditmar,  (Justus  Christoph,)  a  German 
historical  writer,  born  at  Rottenburg  (Hesse)  in  1677, 
became  successively  professor  of  history  and  of  natural 
law  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  He  published  a  "  Life  of 
Pope  Gregory  VII.,"  (1710,)  "Tacitus's  Germany,  with 
a  Coinmentary,"  (1725,)  and  other  works.   Died  in  1737. 

Diti,  dit'i,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  mother  of 
the  Daityas,  or  demons.  She  was  one  of  the  wives  of 
Kasyapa,  (or  Ka9yapa,)  and  would  seem  to  be  opposed 
to  Aditi,  whose  children,  the  Adityas  or  Suras,  are  in 
eternal  antagonism  to  the  Daityas  or  Asuras. 

See  Moor's  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Ditmar.    See  Dithmar. 

Ditmar,  dit^m^R,  (Theodor  Jakob,)  a  Prussian  his- 
torian, born  in  Berlin  in  1734,  was  professor  of  history 
in  his  native  city,  and  wrote  a  "Method  of  Teaching 
Universal  History,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1791. 

Ditmer,  dit'mer,  or  Ditmar,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  en- 
graver, born  about  1538;  died  in  1603. 

Ditricli.  See  Dietrich. 
'  Ditters  von  Dittersdorf,  dit'ters  fon  dit'ters-doRf, 
(Karl,)  a  celebrated  German  composer,  born  in  Vienna 
in  1739.  He  formed  a  friendship  with  Metastasio,  and 
composed  the  music  of  four  oratorios  of  that  poet,  viz., 
"  Isaac,"  "  David,"  "Job,"  and  "  Esther."  Pie  composed 
many  successful  operas,  symphonies,  etc.  His  master- 
pieces are  "Esther,"  an  oratorio,  (1785,)  and  "The  Doc- 
tor and  Apothecary,"  (1786,)  a  comic  opera.  Died  in  1799. 

See  his  Autobiography,  ("  Selbstbiographie,")  1801  ;  Fetis,  "  Bio- 
graphie  Universelle  des  Nlusiciens." 

Ditt'mer,  (or  d^f'maiR',)  (Adolphe,)  a  French  littera- 
teur, born  in  London  in  1795.  He  wrote,  with  M.  Cave, 
"  Les  Soirees  de  Neuilly,"  dramatic  and  historic  sketches, 
(1827,)  which  had  great  success.    Died  in  1846. 

Dit'tpn,  (Humphrey,)  an  eminent  English  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Salisbury  in  1675,  became  minister  of  a 
dissenting  church  at  Tunbridge.  Having  attained  great 
proficiency  in  mathematics,  he  attracted  the  notice  of  Sir 
Isaac  Newton,  by  whose  influence  he  was  chosen  mathe- 
matical master  of  Christ's  Hospital.  Pie  gained  a  high 
reputation  by  his  writings,  among  which  are  "  Laws  of 
Nature  and  Motion,"  (1705,)  a  "Treatise  on  Fluxions," 
(1706,)  "  Synopsis  Algebraica,"  (1709,)  a  "Treatise  on 
Perspective,"  (1712,)  and  a  "Discourse  on  the  Resur- 
rection of  Christ."    Died  in  171 5. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica;"  Whiston,  "Memoirs." 

Divini,  de-vee'nee,  (Eustachio,)  an  Italian  optician, 
born  at  San  Severino  about  1620,  excelled  in  the  fabri- 
cation of  telescopes. 

Diviiio,  EL    See  Morales,  (Luis.) 

Divitiac.    See  Divitiacus. 

Div-i-ti'a-cus,  [Fr.  Diviitac,  de've^te'^k',]  a  chief 
of  the  ^dui,  a  tribe  of  Gaul,  was  the  friend  of  Caesar, 
and  the  brother  of  Dumnorix.  His  tribe,  being  attacked 
by  the  Germans,  sent  him  to  Rome  to  solicit  aid.  He 
rendered  services  to  Caesar  in  his  war  against  Ariovistus 
and  against  the  Belgae. 

See  CiESAR,  "De  Bello  Gallico;"  A.  Thierry,  "  Histoire  des 
Gaulois." 

Dix,  (Dorothea  L.,)  an  American  philanthropist,  was 
born  in  Worcester,  Massachusetts.  In  her  youth  she 
supported  herself  by  teaching  school,  but  about  1830  iii- 
herited  sufficient  property  from  a  relative  to  relieve  her 
from  the  necessity  of  daily  toil.  Previous  to  this  she  had 
become  deeply  interested  in  the  condition  of  criminals, 
lunatics,  and  paupers.  She  has  visited  almost  every  State 
in  the  Union  in  her  efforts  to  relieve  the  unfortunate  and 
the  wretched.  Her  exertions  have  contributed  largely 
towards  the  establishment  of  lunatic-asylums  in  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  North  Carolina,  and  several  other 
States  ;  and,  by  her  heroic  persistency  in  memorializing 
Congress,  a  bill  was  finally  passed  in  1854,  appropriating 
10,000,000  acres  of  the  public  lands  to  endow  hospitals 
for  the  indigent  insane.  But  the  bill  was  vetoed  by  Presi- 
dent Pierce.  Besides  tracts  for  prisoners,  memorials  to 
legislatures,  etc.,  she  has  published  several  works  anony- 


€  as     c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y.^  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DIX 


772 


DOBNER 


mously,  among  which  maybe  mentioned  the  "Garland 
of  Flora,"  issued  in  1829,  "Evening  Hours,"  etc. 

Due,  (John  A.,)  an  American  general  and  statesman, 
born  at  Boscawen,  New  Hampshire,  in  1798.  He  be- 
came a  lawyer,  and  a  resident  of  Cooperstown,  New 
York.  Having  joined  the  Democratic  party,  he  was 
elected  secretary  of  state  in  1833,  and  represented  the 
State  of  New  York  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States 
from  1845  to  March,  1849.  From  December,  i860,  to 
March,  1861,  he  held  the  position  of  United  States 
secretary  of  the  treasury.  In  May,  1861,  he  was  appointed 
a  major-general,  and  took  command  at  Fortress  Monroe 
in  July,  1862.  In  June,  1863,  he  moved  an  army  up  the 
York  River,  threatened  Richmond,  and  cut  Lee's  com- 
munications. He  commanded  the  department  of  the 
East  in  1864.  He  was  sent  as  minister  to  France  early 
in  1867.  General  Dix  is  the  author  of  two  works  of 
travel, — "A  Winter  in  Madeira,"  (1851,)  and  "A  Sum- 
mer in  Spain  and  Florence,"  (1855.) 

Dixmerie,  de  la,  deh  It  d^z'meh-re',  (Nicolas  Bri- 
CAIRE,)  a  French //■//m^/^'z/r,  born  in  Champagne  in  1730, 
resided  in  Paris.  He  was  the  author  of  "The  Two  Ages 
of  Taste  and  Genius  under  Louis  XIV.  and  Louis  XV.," 
(1769,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1 791. 

Dix'on,  (Archibald,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  in 
North  Carolina  in  1802.  Having  removed  to  Kentucky, 
he  was  in  1843  elected  by  the  Whig  party  Lieutenant- 
Governor.  On  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Clay,  in  1852,  he 
was  chosen  to  fill  the  vacancy.  He  afterwards  became 
a  pro-slavery  Democrat. 

See  Livingston's  "Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans." 

Dix' 911,  (George,)  Captain,  a  British  navigator,  who 
discovered  a  number  of  small  islands  near  the  northwest 
coast  of  America,  and  a  strait  called  Dixon's  Entrance. 
He  published  a  "Voyage  round  the  World,  1785-88." 
Died  about  1800. 

See  F.  Denis,  "Genie  de  la  Navigation." 

Dix''on,  (James,)  an  English  Methodist  minister  of 
the  present  century.  He  wrote,  about  1842,  "  Methodism, 
its  Origin,  Economy,  and  Present  Position,"  and  other 
works. 

Dixon,  (William  Hep'worth,)  an  able  and  popular 
English  writer  and  critic,  born  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire  in  1821.  He  became  a  resident  of  London 
about  1845,  published  a  "  Life  of  John  Howard," 
(1850;  5th  edition,  1854,)  a  work  of  decided  merit.  "Wil- 
liam Penn,  a  Historical  Biography,"  in  which  Penn  is 
ably  and  successfully  defended  against  the  charges  of 
Macaulay,  appeared  in  1851.  "His  style  is  good  and 
easy,"  says  the  "Edinburgh  Review:"  "there  is  life  in 
his  narrative  and  vigour  in  his  descriptions."  Since 
1853  he  has  been  chief  editor  of  the  "Athenaeum."  In 
addition  to  the  works  mentioned  above,  Mr.  Dixon  has 
written  a  "Personal  History  of  Lord  Bacon,"  (1861,) 
"The  Holy  Land,"  (1865,)  "New  America,"  (1867,) 
"  Spiritual  Wives,"  (1868,)  and  "The  Tower  of  London," 
(1869.)  "Mr.  Dixon,"  says  the  London  "  Star,"  referring 
to  "  Spiritual  Wives,"  "  has,  on  the  whole,  treated  a  very 
difficult  and  delicate  subject  with  great  refinement  and 
judgment."  It  has  been  objected  to  his  "  New  America" 
by  some  critics,  and  not  altogether  without  reason,  that 
a  reader  who  had  little  acquaintance  with  the  condition 
of  society  in  the  United  States  would  be  apt  to  suppose 
many  things  to  be  of  common  occurrence  in  this  country 
which  are  in  fact  so  rare  as  to  be  unknown  even  to  the 
most  intelligent  and  best-informed  Americans,  except  a 
few  who  have  made  them  the  subject  of  especial  inves- 
tigation. 

Dix'well,  (John,)  Colonel,  an  English  republican, 
born  in  1608.  He  was  one  of  the  judges  of  Charles  1. 
When  his  party  lost  power,  he  escaped  to  New  England 
and  changed  his  name.    Died  in  1689. 

Diziani,  dit-ze-a'nee,  (Gasparo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Belluno  in  the  seventeenth  century;  died  in  1767. 

Djaafar  or  Djafar.    See  Mansoor. 

Djami  or  Djamy.    See  Jamee. 

Djannaby.    See  Jannabee. 

Djayadeva.    See  Jayadeva. 

Djehan-Guir,  (or  -Guyr.)    See  Jahan-Geer. 

Djehan-Guiie.    See  Ja^an-Geer. 

Djelal-Eddin-Roxuni.    See  Jelal-ed-Deen. 


Djem.    See  Jem. 

Djemchyd  or  Djemchid.    See  Jemsheed. 
Djemlah.    See  Jumlah. 

Djemschid  or  Djemschyd.    See  Jemsheed. 
Djenghiz  or  Djenghis.    See  Jengis  Khan. 
Djenguiz  or  Djenguyz.    See  Jengis  Khan. 
Djerir.    See  Jereer. 
Djevhery.    See  Jevhery. 
Djezzar.    See  Jezzar. 
Djihanguire.    See  JahAn-Geer. 
Djihan-Guyr,  (or  -Guir.)    See  Jahan-Geer. 
Djordjani.    See  Jorjanee. 

Dlugosz,  dloo'gosh,  [Lat.  Longi'nus,]  (Jan,)  an  emi- 
nent Polish  historian,  born  at  Brzesnica  in  141 5.  He 
was  employed  by  Casimir  IV.  as  ambassador  to  several 
foreign  courts,  and  as  preceptor  of  his  sons.  He  opened 
a  new  era  in  Polish  historical  literature  by  his  Latin 
"History  of  Poland,"  a  work  of  much  merit,  which  con- 
sists in  the  matter  rather  than  the  style.  It  was  not  all 
printed  until  1711.  He  died  in  1480,  soon  after  he  had 
been  chosen  Archbishop  of  Lemberg. 

See  LsLEMBiowsKi,  "  Les  HIstoriens  Polonais,"  1826;  "  Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  Gen^rale." 

Dmitri.    See  Demetrius,  Czar  of  Russia. 

Dmitrief  or  Dmitriev,  dmee'tre-gf,  (Ivan  Ivano- 
vitch,)  a  Russian  poet,  born  in  Simbeersk  (Simbirsk) 
in  1760,  served  some  years  in  the  army,  and  passed  into 
the  civil  service.  In  the  reign  of  Alexander  he  became 
minister  of  justice  and  privy  councillor.  He  cultivated 
literature  in  the  intervals  of  his  public  employments,  and 
produced  popular  odes,  poetical  tales,  satires,  and  fables. 
His  fables  are  among  the  best  in  the  language.  Died  at 
Moscow  in  1837. 

See  Otto,  "Lehrbuch  der  Russischen  Literatur." 

Dmochowski,  dmo-Kov'skee,  (Francis  Xavier,)  a 
Polish  poet  and  historian,  born  in  1762.  He  translated 
the  "  Iliad"  and  "  Paradise  Lost"  into  Polish.  Died  in 
1808. 

Doane,  don,  (George  Washington,)  an  American 
poet  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  in 
1799.  He  was  ordained  an  Episcopalian  priest  in  1821, 
and  preached  for  several  years  in  New  York  City  and 
Boston.  In  1832  he  was  elected  Bishop  of  New  Jersey, 
He  founded  Burlington  College  in  1846.  He  published 
several  theological  works,  and  a  volume  of  poems,  (1824.) 
Died  in  1859. 

See  Griswold's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Dob'bin,  (James  Cochrane,)  an  American  statesman 
of  the  D^ocratic  party,  born  in  Fayetteville,  North 
Carolina,  in  1814.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of 
North  Carolina,  and  in  1845  represented  the  Raleigh 
district  in  Congress.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Baltimore 
Convention  in  1852,  and  was  active  in  pronKsting  the 
nomination  of  Franklin  Pierce,  who  in  1853  appointed 
him  secretary  of  the  navy.    Died  in  1857. 

See  Livingston's  "  Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans." 

Dob'bin,  (Thomas,)  a  native  of  Ireland,  who  removed 
to  Baltimore  in  1790 and  published  the  Baltimore  "Tele- 
graph," the  first  daily  newspaper  of  that  city. 

Do-belP,  (Sydney,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Kent, 
or  in  a  suburb  of  London,  in  1824,  was  first  known  as 
Sydney  Yendys.  He  was  employed  for  some  years 
in  the  counting-house  of  his  father,  who  was  a  wine- 
merchant  at  Cheltenham.  He  produced  in  1850  "The 
Roman,"  a  poem,  and  in  1854  "Balder,"  which  were 
admired  by  some  and  censured  as  spasmodic  by  others, 
Mr.  Dobell  and  Alexander  Smith  published  in  1855  a 
volume  entitled  "Sonnets  on  the  War."  Among  his 
other  poems  is  "England  in  Time  of  War,"  (1856.) 

Dobereiner  or  Doebereiner,  do'beh-rrner,(JoHANN 
Wolfgang,)  an  eminent  German  chemist,  born  at  Plof, 
in  Bavaria,  in  1780.  He  became  professor  of  chemistry 
at  Jena  in  1810,  and,  aided  by  Goethe,  made  some  useful 
and  curious  discoveries,  among  which  is  the  property 
of  spongiform  platinum  to  inflame  hydrogen.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "  Essays  on  Physical  Chem- 
istry," (1824-36,)  and  "  Principles  of  General  Chemistry," 
(3d  edition,  1826.)    Died  in  1849. 

See  August  Vogel,  "  Denkrede  aut"  J.  \V.  Dobereiner,"  1849. 

Dobner,  dob'ner,  (Felix  Job,  otherwise  called  Ge- 
lase,)  a  Bohemian  historian  and  monk,  born  at  Prague 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  lo7tg;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


DOBREE 


773 


DODDRIDGE 


in  1 719.  He  taught  in  the  colleges  of  his  order  in  Vienna, 
Prague,  etc.,  and  left  works  on  the  history  of  Bohemia 
and  Moravia  which  are  prized  for  extensive  research 
and  judicious  criticism.  The  most  important  of  these 
is  "  Historical  Monuments  of  Bohemia,"  ("  Monumenta 
historica  Bohemiae,"  6  vols.,  1764-86.)    Died  in  1790. 

See  Ersch  und  Gkuber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedle." 

Do-bree',  (Peter  Paul,)  an  English  critic,  born  in 
Guernsey  in  1782,  was  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  a  friend  of  Porson.  He  superintended  the 
publication  of  the  notes  on  some  Greek  authors,  which 
Porson  left  at  his  death,  and  became  professor  of  Greek 
at  Cambridge  about  1823.  He  left  an  edition  of  De- 
mosthenes unfinished  at  his  death  in  1825. 

Dobrentei,  do'bRgn-ta',  or  Dobreutey,  do^bkln-tl^, 
(GAbor,)  an  eminent  Hungarian  author,  born  at  Nagy 
Szollos  in  1786,  became  about  1820  a  resident  of  Pesth, 
where  he  held  several  public  offices.  He  edited  a  valuable 
magazine  called  the  *' Transylvanian  Museum,"  ("Er- 
delyi  Muzeum,")  wrote  odes,  elegies,  and  other  poems, 
and  translated  several  of  Shakspeare's  dramas.  His 
principal  work,  "Ancient  Monuments  of  the  Magyar 
Language,"  is  highly  commended.  Four  volumes  of  it 
were  published  between  1825  and  1850.  He  was  engaged 
on  this  work  when  he  died  in  1851. 

Dobreutey.    See  Dobrentei, 

Dobrizhoffer,  do'bRits-hoffer,  (Martin,)  a  Jesuit 
missionary,  born  at  Gratz,  in  Styria,  in  1 717.  He  went 
to  Paraguay  in  1749,  and  laboured  about  eighteen  years 
among  the  natives,  one  tribe  of  whom  were  called  Abi- 
pones.  In  1784  he  published  at  Vienna,  in  Latin,  a 
*'  History  of  the  Abipones,  an  Equestrian  and  Warlike 
Nation,"  (3  vols.,)  a  work  of  some  interest  for  history 
and  geography.  It  was  translated  into  English  by  Sara 
Coleridge.    Died  in  1 791. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Dobrowski,  do-brov'skee,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  Bo- 
hemian author  and  philologist,  born  near  Raab  in  1753, 
was  the  most  learned  of  those  who  have  cultivated 
Bohemian  literature.  He  was  educated  at  Prague,  and 
joined  the  Jesuits.  He  assisted  Pelzel  in  his  "  Biogra- 
phies of  Bohemian  Authors  and  Artists,"  and  gained 
distinction  by  his  researches  into  the  language  and  lite- 
rature of  the  Slavonic  nations.  He  wrote  numerous 
works,  of  which  the  most  important  are  a  "Grammar  of 
the  Bohemian  Language,"  a  "  History  of  the  Bohemian 
Language  and  Literature,"  (1792,)  a  "German  and  Bo- 
hemian Dictionary,"  and  "  Principles  of  the  Old  Slavic 
Dialect,"  ("  Institutiones  Linguae  Slavica;  Dialecti  Vete- 
ris,"  1822,)  which  is  highly  prized  by  the  Russians.  He 
was  subject  to  frequent  attacks  of  insanity,  and  in  1801 
was  in  a  lunatic-asylum.    Died  in  1829. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conveisations-Lexikon  F.  Palacky,  "J. 
Dobrowski's  Leben  und  Wiiken,"  1833. 

Dob'spn,  (Matthew,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  physician, 
who  practised  at  Liverpool  and  Bath.  He  wrote  a 
"  Medical  Commentary  on  Fixed  Air,"  and  some  other 
scientific  treatises.    Died  in  1784. 

Dob'son,  (Thomas,)  a  bookseller  and  writer  of  Phila- 
delphia, republished  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica," 
(21  vols.  4to,  1798-1803,)  and  wrote  "Letters  on  the 
Character  of  the  Deity,  and  the  Moral  State  of  Man," 
Died  in  1823, 

Dobson,  (William,)  a  successful  English  painter 
of  portraits  and  history,  born  in  London  in  1610,  was 
apprenticed  to  a  picture-dealer.  Van  Dyck  introduced 
him  to  Charles  I.,  whose  portrait  he  painted.  After  the 
death  of  Van  Dyck,  Dobson  succeeded  him  as  court 
painter,  and  was  considered  the  most  excellent  English 
portrait-painter  of  his  time.    Died  in  1646. 

Docampo,  do-klm'po,  (Florian,)  a  Spanish  his- 
torian, born  at  Zamora  in  1 5 13,  became  canon  of  the 
metropolitan  church  of  Granada.  At  the  request  of 
Charles  V,,  he  undertook  to  write  a  history  of  Spain, 
and  published  in  1578  "The  First  Five  Books  of  a 
General  Chronicle  of  Spain,"  which  throws  much  light 
on  the  origin  and  antiquities  of  that  nation.  It  appears 
that  he  left  the  work  unfinished  when  he  died  in  1590. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Doccum,  van,  vin  dok'kiim,  or  Doccom,  (Jan,)  a 
Dutch  jurist,  born  at  Doccum;  died  in  1540. 


Doche,  dosh,  (Joseph  Denis,)  a  French  composer 
of  airs,  etc.,  born  in  Paris  in  1766;  died  in  1825. 

Dod,  (Albert  Baldwin,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine, 
son  of  Daniel  Dod,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Mend- 
ham,  New  Jersey,  in  1805.  He  graduated  at  Princeton 
in  1822,  and  became  tutor  in  that  college  in  1827,  and 
professor  of  mathematics  in  1830.  Died  at  Princeton  in 
1845.  Dr.  Dod  was  an  eloquent  preacher,  and  one  of 
the  ablest  contributors  to  the  "Biblical  Repertory  and 
Princeton  Review."  A  collection  of  his  writings  h.  ^  been 
published. 

Dod,  (Charles  Roger,)  an  English  journalist  born 
in  1793.  For  about  twenty  years  he  was  connected  with 
the  London  "Times,"  for  which  he  wrote  notices  of 
eminent  men  who  died  in  that  period,  and  reported 
debates  in  Parliament.  He  published  an  annual  called 
"  The  Peerage,  Baronetage,  and  Knightage  of  Great 
Britain,"  (1840-56.)    Died  in  1855. 

Dod,  (Daniel,)  an  American  machinist,  born  in  Vir- 
ginia in  1788.  He  built  the  engine  for  the  Savannah, 
which  in  1819  made  the  first  voyage  across  the  Atlantic 
ever  accomplished  by  steam.  He  was  killed  by  a  boiler- 
explosion  on  the  East  River,  New  York,  in  1823. 

Dod,  (John,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  born  at  Shot- 
ledge,  in  Cheshire,  in  1547,  ministered  at  Han  well  for 
about  twenty  years,  and  was  suspended  for  noncon- 
formity about  1598.  He  excelled  in  the  knowledge  of 
Hebrew,  and  is  often  called  "the  Decalogist,"  from  his 
"Commentaries  on  the  Decalogue,"  (1606.)  In  1624  he 
became  rector  of  Fawesley.  Fuller,  in  his  "  Worthies," 
says,  "John  Dod  was  by  nature  a  witty,  by  industry  a 
learned,  and  by  grace  a  godly  divine."    Died  in  1645. 

Dodart,  do^'dSR',  (Claude  Jean  Baptiste,)  a  son 
of  Denis,  noticed  below,  was  chosen  first  physician  to 
Louis  XV.  in  17 18,  and  died  in  1730,  aged  sixty-six. 

Dodart,  (Denis,)  an  eminent  French  physician,  born 
in  Paris  in  1634,  became  physician  to  Louis  XIV.  He 
was  chosen  a  professor  of  pharmacy  in  1666,  and  was 
admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1673.  He 
contributed  to  this  institution  several  treatises  on  natural 
history,  medicine,  etc.,  and  made  many  experiments  on 
insensible  perspiration,  the  results  of  which  were  pub- 
lished in  a  work  called  "  Statica  Medicina  Gallica,"  (1725.) 
He  wrote  the  preface  of  a  work  which  the  Academy  pub- 
lished on  the  "  History  of  Plants."    Died  in  1707. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  £loge  de  Dodart,"  1707. 

Dodd,  (Charles,)  the  assumed  name  of  an  English 
Catholic  priest,  who  resided  at  Harvington  and  wrote 
"The  Church  History  of  England,  1 500-1688,"  said  to 
be  rare  and  curious.  It  was  intended  as  an  antidote  to 
Burnet.    Died  about  1745. 

Dodd,  (Ralph,)  an  English  engineer,  born  in  North- 
umberland about  1756,  resided  in  London,  He  was  the 
first  projector  of  the  Thames  Tunnel,  which,  however, 
was  not  made  in  his  time.  He  also  planned  the  Surrey 
Canal,  Vauxhall  Bridge,  and  other  works  of  public  utility, 
and  wrote  an  "Account  of  the  Principal  Canals  in  the 
World."    Died  in  1822. 

Dodd,  (Robert,)  a  skilful  English  painter  of  marine 
views,  born  in  1748.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Storm 
which  sunk  the  Jamaica  Fleet  in  1782."  Died  about 
1810. 

Dodd,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
at  Bourne,  in  Lincolnshire,  in  1729,  was  ordained  in 
1753,  and  became  an  eloquent  and  fashionable  preacher 
of  London.  He  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  king  and 
preceptor  to  Philip  Stanhope  (Earl  of  Chesterfield)  about 
1 764.  He  gained  reputation  by  his  writings,  among  which 
are  "  Reflections  on  Death,"  "  The  Visitor,"  "  Sermons," 
"The  Beauties  of  Shakspeare,"  and  "Commentaries  on  ^ 
Scripture."  In  1777  he  was  convicted  of  forging  the 
signature  of  Lord  Chesterfield  to  a  bond  for  ;i^4000,  fox 
which  he  was  executed.  While  confined  for  this  offence, 
he  wrote  a  poem  entitled  "Thoughts  in  Prison." 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Dodd,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Thoughts  in  Prison  ;" 
Georg  Forster,  "Leben  Dr.  W.  Dodd's,"  Berlin,  1779. 

Dodd'ridge,  written  also  Doderidge,  (Sir  John,) 
an  eminent  English  lawyer,  born  at  Barnstaple  in  1555. 
He  was  appointed  the  king's  principal  sergeant-at-law 
in  1607.  From  1613  until  his  death  he  was  a  judge  of 
the  court  of  king's  bench.    He  was  a  good  scholar  and 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DODDRIDGE 


774  /  DODWELL 


a  learned  antiquary,  and  author  of  several  works,  among 
which  are  "The  Lawyer's  Light,"  "The  English  Law- 
yer," and  "The  Laws  of  Nobility."    Died  in  1628. 
See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Doddridge,  (Philip,)  an  eminent  English  dissenting 
minister,  born  in  London  in  1702,  was  a  relative  of  the 
preceding,  and  was  the  twentieth  child  of  a  London 
merchant.  After  finishing  his  studies  in  a  theological 
seminary  at  Kibworth,  he  began  to  preach  at  the  same 
place  in  1722.  In  1729  he  opened  an  academy  for  the 
education  of  candidates  for  the  ministry  at  Northampton, 
where  he  was  also  employed  as  the  minister  of  a  dissent- 
ing church  from  that  date  until  his  death.  He  married  a 
Miss  Maris  in  1730.  As  a  minister,  he  was  remarkal)le 
for  his  earnestness,  fidelity,  and  fervent  devotion.  He 
wrote  a  large  number  of  excellent  and  popular  religious 
works,  of  which  the  most  important  are  "  The  Rise  and 
Progress  of  Religion  in  the  Soul,"  {1744,)  and  "The 
Family  Expositor,"  {3  vols.,  1738,)  which  is  an  exposi- 
tion of  the  Bible.  These  have  been  translated  into 
many  languages.  The  Rev.  Robert  Hall,  in  one  of  his 
letters,  says,  "  Doddridge  is  now  my  prime  favourite 
among  divines."  His  work  on  the  "Evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity" has  long  been  used  as  a  text-book  at  Cambridge, 
England.  He  composed  some  of  the  best  hymns  which 
are  used  in  the  dissenting  churches.  Li  1751  he  visited 
Lisbon  for  his  health ;  he  died  there  the  same  year. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  P.  Doddridge,"  by 
Job  Orton  ;  "Life  of  Doddridge,"  by  Rev.  Dk.  Kippis;  D.  A. 
Harsha,  "Life  of  Philip  Doddridge;"  Schmidt,  "  Leben  des  Dr. 
P.  Doddridge,"  1830. 

Dodd'ridge,  (Philip,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  in 
Brooke  county,  Virginia,  in  1772.  He  acquired  distinc- 
tion as  an  advocate  in  trials  by  jury.  Li  the  Constitu- 
tional Convention  of  1829-30  he  represented  several 
counties  of  western  Virginia,  and  was  the  leader  of  the 
party  which  preferred  a  white  basis  of  representation. 
Died  in  1832. 

Doderidge.    See  Doddridge. 

Doderlein,  do''der-ln/,  (Johann  Alexander,)  a 
German  historian  and  antiquary,  born  in  Franconia  in 
1675  ;  died  in  1745. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Doderlein  or  Doederlein,  (Johann  Christoph,) 
an  eminent  German  Protestant  divine  and  critic,  born 
at  Windsheim,  in  Bavaria,  about  1746,  was  versed  in  the 
Oriental  languages.  He  was  chosen  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Altdorf  in  1772.  He  made  from  the  Hebrew 
text  a  Latin  version  of  Isaiah,  with  notes,  (1775,)  which, 
says  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  "is  written  in  an  elegant  style." 
Among  his  chief  works  are  a  "  Summary  of  the  Instruc- 
tion of  a  Christian  Theologian,"  ("Summa  Institutionis 
Theologi  Christian!,"  1782,)  and  (in  German)"  The  Chris- 
tian Doctrine  adapted  to  the  Wants  of  our  Time,"  (1785.) 
He  contributed  to  introduce  a  new  theological  system 
opposed  to  the  doctrines  of  the  first  Reformers.  In  1782 
he  became  professor  of  theology  at  Jena.   Died  in  1792. 

Doderlein  or  Doederlein,  (Ludvvig,)  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Jena  in  1791,  was  a  distinguished 
philologist.  He  became  professor  of  philology  at  Er- 
langen  in  1827.  He  published  "Latin  Synonyms  and 
Etymologies,"  (6  vols.,  1826-38,)  a  "  Manual  of  Latin 
Synonymy,"  (1839,)  an  edition  of  "Tacitus,"  (1847,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1863. 

Dodge,  (Grenville  M.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Danvers,  Massachusetts,  in  1831.  He  commanded  a 
brigade  at  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862,  and  a  corps  in  the 
army  of  General  Sherman  in  the  campaign  against  At- 
lanta, May  to  September,  1864. 

Dodge,  (Mary  Abigail,)  a  popular  and  piquant  Ame- 
rican writer,  born  in  Hamilton,  Massachusetts,  about 
1838.  She  has  written  on  a  variety  of  subjects  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Gail  Hamilton,  (composed  of  the  last 
syllable  of  her  Christian  name  and  the  name  of  her  birth- 
place.) Among  her  works  maybe  mentioned  "Coun- 
try Living  and  Country  Thinking,"  (1862,)  "Gala  Days," 
(1863,)  "A  New  Atmosphere,"  (1864,)  and  "  Woman's 
Wrongs:  a  Counter-irritant,"  (1868.)  No  inconsider- 
able portion  of  her  writings  originally  appeared  as  con- 
tributions to  the  "Atlantic  Monthly." 

Dod'ing-ton,  (George  Buhh,)  Lord  Melcombe,  an 
English  courtier  and  politician,  born  in  1691.    He  was 


elected  to  Parliament  in  1715,  and  sent  as  ambassador 
to  Spain.  In  1720  he  inherited  a  large  fortune  from  his 
uncle,  George  Dodington,  whose  name  he  then  assumed. 
In  1724  he  became  a  lord  of  the  treasury  and  a  partisan 
of  Walpole,  whom  he  deserted  in  1740.  In  1761  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Lord  Melcombe.  He  wrote 
some  poetical  pieces,  and  left  a  Diary,  which  gives  an 
insight  into  the  cabals  and  intrigues  of  his  time,  together 
with  a  candid  exposure  of  his  own  venality  and  egotism. 
He  was  the  patron  of  Young,  Thomson,  and  Fielding. 
Died  in  1762. 

Dodoens,  do-doons',  [Lat.  Dodon^'us  ;  Fr.  DoDO- 
n6e,  do'do'na',]  (Rembert,)  an  eminent  botanist  and 
physician,  was  born  at  Malines,  or,  according  to  some 
authorities,  in  Friesland,  about  1 5 18.  He  was  one  of 
those  who  contributed  most  to  the  progress  of  botany 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  became  physician  to  the 
emperor  Maximilian  II.  in  1570,  and  to  Rodolph  II.  in 
1576.  About  1580  he  was  chosen  professor  of  medicine 
at  Leyden.  Before  that  date  he  had  published  several 
works  on  botany,  with  fine  figures.  The  plates  of  some 
of  these  wei-e  lent  to  him  by  L'£cluse.  In  1583  he 
summed  up  his  previous  labours  in  a  "  History  of  Plants," 
("  Stirpium  Historiae  Pemptades,")  a  work  of  great  eru- 
dition, illustrated  with  1300  engravings.  He  was  author 
of  "  Praxis  Medica,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1585. 

See  FoppENS,  "Bibliotheca  Belgica  ;"  Niceron,  "  Menioires  ;" 
Van  Meerbeck,  "  Recherches  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Do- 
doens," 1841  ;  AvoiNE,  "  filoge  de  R.  Dodoens." 

Do-do-nae'us,  a  surname  of  Jupiter,  which  see. 

Dodonee  or  Dodonaeus.    See  Dodoens. 

DodsTey,  (Robert,)  a  noted  English  bookseller  and 
author,  born  near  Mansfield  in  1709,  lived  in  London. 
He  was  a  footman  in  early  life,  and  in  1732  published  a 
volume  of  verses  entitled  "The  Footman's  Miscellany." 
His  drama  "  The  Toyshop"  gained  him  the  friendship 
of  Pope,  and  was  performed  with  great  success  in  1735. 
He  then  opened  a  bookstore  in  Pall  Mall,  which  was 
much  frequented  by  authors  and  literary  amateurs.  He 
prospered  in  business,  and  became  one  of  the  principal 
booksellers  in  London.  In  1737  he  produced  the  farce 
of  "The  King  and  the  Miller  of  Mansfield,"  which  was 
greatly  applauded.  The  popular  and  ingenious  "  Econ- 
omy of  Human  Life,"  which  appeared  anonymously  in 
1750,  is  generally  ascribed  to  him.  His  tragedy  of 
"  Cleone"  was  performed  in  1758  with  complete  success. 
Dr.  Johnson  said,  "  If  Otway  had  written  it,  no  other  of 
his  pieces  would  have  been  remembered."  He  published 
a  "Select  Collection  of  Old  Plays,"  which  is  highly 
prized.  He  purchased  Dr.  Johnson's  poem  of  "  Lon- 
don" (1738)  for  ten  guineas,  and  his  "Vanity  of  Human 
Wishes"  for  fifteen  guineas.  Dodsley  was  the  author -of 
other  works,  not  named  above,  and  was  the  projector 
of  literary  enterprises  in  which  the  most  eminent  talents 
of  the  time  were  enlisted.    Died  in  1764. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica;"  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English 
Poets." 

Dod'spn,  (James,)  an  English  mathematician,  pub- 
lished various  works  on  mathematics.    Died  in  1757. 

Dods'worth,  (Roger,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  Yorkshire  in  1585,  wrote  122  volumes  on  antiquities, 
which  remain  as  manuscripts  in  the  Bodleian  Library. 
He  co-operated  with  Dugdale  in  the  "  Monasticon  Angli- 
canum."  Died  in  1654.  He  was  patronized  by  General 
Lord  Fairfax,  who  bequeathed  the  above-mentioned 
manuscripts  to  the  Bodleian  Library. 

Dodvens,    See  Doudyns. 

Dod'well,  (Colonel  Edward,)  a  British  antiquary 
and  artist,  produced  in  1818  a  "Classical  and  Topo- 
graphical Tour  through  Greece,"  richly  illustrated,  which 
is  esteemed  one  of  the  best  works  on  that  subject.  It 
was  followed  by  a  costly  volume,  entitled  "Thirty  Views 
in  Greece,"  (1821.)  From  1800,  when  he  left  college, 
until  his  death,  he  passed  the  most  of  his  time  on  the 
continent.  He  died  in  Rome  in  1832,  leaving  drawings 
of  "  Cyclopean  or  Pelasgic  Remains  in  Greece  and  Italy," 
which  have  since  been  published. 

Dodwell,  (Henry,)  a  theologian  and  chronologist, 
born  in  Dublin  about  1642,  settled  in  London  in  1674, 
and  adopted  the  profession  of  author  and  critic,  in  which 
he  displayed  great  learning  and  industry.  In  1688  he 
was  chosen  Camden  professor  of  history  at  Oxford  ;  but. 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  s/ior^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscw-e;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon 


DODWELL 


US 


DOLET 


refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  William  III.,  he 
was  removed  about  169 1.  He  wrote  several  works  on 
theologv  and  chronology,  among  which  are  "  Annals  of 
Thucyd'ides  and  Xenophon,"  (1696,)  "Annotations  on 
the  Greek  Geographers,"  "  Dissertations  on  the  Ancient 
Cycles  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,"  etc.,  (1701,)  and  a 
discourse  proving  that  the  soul  is  naturally  mortal,  and 
that  the  bishops  have  the  power  of  giving  immortality, 
(1706.)  The  last  work  excited  much  controversy,  and 
naturally  gave  especial  offence  to  the  dissenters.  Died 
in  1711. 

See  Brokesby,  "Life  of  Henry  Dodwell,"  1715;  Macaulay, 
'  History  of  England,"  vol.  iii. 

Dodwell,  (William,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1709,  became  prebendary  of  Salisbury  and  Archdeacon 
of  Berks.  He  published  sermons  and  treatises  on 
theology,  among  which  is  "The  Sick  Man's  Companion." 
Died  in  1785. 

Doebereiner.    See  Dobereiner. 

Doedeilein.    See  Doderlein. 

Doellinger.    See  Dollinger. 

Doenniges.    See  Donniges. 

Doerfel.    See  Dorfel. 

Doei-flinger  or  Doerfling.    See  Derfflinger. 
Doeringk.    See  Doringk. 
Does,  van  der.    See  Dousa. 

Does,  van  der,  vtn  der  doos,  (Antoon,)  a  Dutch 
engraver,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1610;  died  about  1680. 
-  Does,  van  der,  (Jacob,)  called  the  Elder,  a  Dutch 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  about  1620,  was 
a  pupil  of  N.  Moyaert.  He  finished  his  studies  in  Rome, 
and  settled  at  the  Hague.  He  imitated  Van  der  Laer 
with  success,  and  painted  animals  and  figures  with  skill. 
Died  in  1673  at  Amsterdam. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Does,  van  der,  (Jacob,)  the  Younger,  a  Dutch 
painter  of  history,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Amsterdam  in  1654.  He  studied  under  Dujardin  and 
Lairesse.    Died  in  Paris  in  1693. 

Does,  van  der,  (Peter,)  a  Dutch  admiral,  who  acted 
a  brilliant  part  in  the  war  which  liberated  the  Dutch 
from  Spanish  domination.  About  1598  he  obtained  com- 
mand of  a  large  fleet,  with  which  he  attacked  the  coast 
of  Spain  and  pillaged  several  colonies.  Died  in  the  island 
of  Saint  Thomas,  in  the  West  Indies,  in  1599. 

See  Van  dek  Aa,  "  Biographisch  Woordenboek  der  Nederlanden." 

Does,  van  der,  (Simon,)  a  son  of  Jacob  the  elder,  born 
at  Amsterdam  in  1653,  was  a  skilful  landscape-painter. 
He  worked  at  the  Hague,  Antwerp,  and  other  places.  His 
works  have  found  their  way  into  the  cabinets  of  various 
foreign  countries.    Died  about  1700. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Doeveren,  van,  vtn  doo'ver-en,  (Wouter,)  a  Dutch 
medical  writer,  born  in  Zealand  in  1730,  became  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Leyden  in  1771.    Died  in  1783. 

Dog''gett  or  Dog'get,  (Thomas,)  an  Irish  actor,  born 
in  Dublin  ;  died  in  1721. 

Dogiel,  d6g'yel,  (Matthew,)  a  Polifeh  historian,  born 
about  1715,  became  rector  of  a  college  at  Wilna.  He 
wrote  an  important  work  on  Polish  diplomacy,  "Codex 
Diplomaticus  Regni  Poloniae,"  (1758.)     Died  in  1760. 

Doglioni,  d6l-yo'nee,  (Giovanni  Niccol6,)  a  Vene- 
tian historical  writer,  born  at  Udine,  published  in  1598 
a  "History  of  Venice  from  its  Origin  to  1597." 

Dohm,  dom,  (Christian  Wilhelm,)  a  German  diplo- 
matist and  historical  writer,  born  at  Lemgo  in  175 1.  He 
entered  the  civil  service  of  Prussia  about  1778,  became 
privy  councillor  in  1783,  and  was  employed  in  several 
missions.  He  represented  Prussia  in  the  Congress 
of  Rastadt  in  1797.  In  1807  he  entered  the  council  of 
state  of  Jerome  Bonaparte.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "Memoirs  of  my  Time,"  (1814-19,  5^vols.,)  which 
is  regarded  as  an  important  work.    Died  in  1820. 

See  Gronau,  "  Dohms  Biographie,"  1824;  Ersch  und  Gruber, 
"Allgenieiiie  Encyklopaedie." 

Dohna,  von,  fon  do'na,  (Alexander,)  Count,  a 
Prussian  general,  born  in  1661,  was  governor  of  the 
prince  Frederick  William  who  became  King  of  Prussia. 
He  was  afterwards  appointed  first  minister  of  Frederick 
1.  and  Frederick  William  II.    Died  in  1728. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie.'' 


Dohna,  von,  (Christoph,)  born  in  Prussia  in  1702, 
was  made  lieutenant-general  in  1751,  and  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  He  commanded 
the  right  wing  at  the  battle  of  Zorndorf,  and  defeated 
Haddik  in  1758.    Died  in  1762. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Doig,  (David,)  a  Scottish  writer  and  classical  scholar, 
born  in  17 19,  taught  school  at  Stirling.  He  contributed 
several  articles  to  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  and 
addressed  to  Lord  Karnes  two  "  Letters  on  the  Savage 
State,"  (1792,)    Died  in  1800. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Doigny  du  Ponceau,  dwin^ye'  dii  pdN'so',  a  French 
poet,  born  in  Maine  about  1750;  died  in  1830. 

DoLssin,  dw^'siN',  (Louis,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  in 
America  in  1721,  excelled  in  Latin  poetry.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "  Sculptura,  Carmen,"  (1752,)  a 
poem  on  sculpture,  and  "  Scalptura,"  a  poem  on  en- 
graving.   Died  in  Paris  in  1753. 

Dokkalfar.    See  Elves. 

Dol-a-belTa,  (Publius  Cornelius,)  a  Roman  of  pa- 
trician rank  and  ])rofligate  habits,  born  about  70  B.C.  He 
married  Cicero's  daughter  Tullia.  He  was  an  adherent 
of  Caesar  in  the  civil  war,  and  fought  for  him  at  Phar- 
salia.  He  obtained  the  consulship  soon  after  the  death 
of  Caesar,  44  B.C.  At  first  he  favoured  the  senate  against 
Antony ;  but  he  soon  went  over  to  the  interest  of  the 
latter,  who  probably  gave  him  a  large  bribe.  He  com- 
manded an  expedition  to  Syria,  where  he  was  defeated 
by  Cassius,  and,  being  besieged  in  Laodicea,  committed 
suicide,  43  B.C. 

See  Plutarch,  "Antony;"  Dion  Cassius,  "History  of  Rome." 

Dolabella,  do-lS-bel''ll,(ToMMASO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Belluno  in  1570,  worked  in  Cracow.  Died  in  1650. 

DoPben,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at  Stan- 
wick  in  1625.  He  fought  for  the  king  at  Marston  Moor 
and  at  York  in  the  civil  war.  In  1656  he  was  ordained, 
and  officiated  at  Oxford  several  years.  He  was  rewarded 
with  several  benefices  at  the  restoration,  (1660,)  became 
Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1666,  lord  high  almoner  in  1675. 
und  Archbishop  of  York  in  1683.  A  few  of  his  sermons 
were  printed.    Died  in  1686. 

Dolce,  doKchk,  or  Dolci,  doKchee,  (Carlo,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1616,  was  a 
pupil  of  Jacopo  Vignali.  He  confined  his  talents  to  re- 
ligious subjects,  except  a  few  portraits.  The  Emperor 
of  Germany  invited  him  to  his  court,  where  he  painted 
several  portraits  of  the  imperial  family.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  "Christ  on  Mount  Olivet,"  and  a 
"  Holy  Family."  His  works  have  an  exquisite  finish,  a 
soft  and  harmonious  colouring,  and  are  remarkable  for 
a  tender  and  sentimental  expression.  His  pictures  are 
prized  as  ornaments  in  many  well-chosen  collections. 
Died  at  Florence  in  1686.  "Three  pen-strokes  of  Raf- 
faelle,"  says  Ruskin,  "  are  a  greater  and  better  picture 
than  the  most  finished  work  that  ever  Carlo  Dolci  pol- 
ished into  inanity." 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Dolce,  (LuiGi,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  in  Venice 
in  1508.  He  translated  Cicero's  Orations,  and  other 
ancient  authors,  and  wrote,  among  other  works,  "Jo- 
casta,"  a  tragedy,  (1549,)  a  "Life  of  Charles  V.,"  (1551,) 
and  a  Dialogue  on  Painting,  called  "Aretino,"  (1557.) 
Died  about  1568. 

See  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Dolci.    See  Dolc?:,  (Carlo.) 

Dolendo,  do-]§nMo,  (Bartholomeus,)  a  Dutch  en- 
graver, born  at  Leyden  about  1560.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Goltzius. 

Dolendo,  (Zacharias,)  an  able  engraver,  born  at 
Leyden,  was  a  pupil  of  Jacob  von  Ghein.  Lie  was  living 
in  1590. 

Dolet,  d^o'W,  (fiTiENNE,)  a  learned  Frenchman,  born 
at  Orleans  in  1509,  gained  a  wide  reputation  by  his 
writings  on  theology,  literature,  etc.,  which  also  exposed 
him  to  persecution.  He  livell  for  some  time  at  Lyons, 
where  he  established  a  printing-press  and  published 
some  of  his  own  works,  for  which  he  was  imprisoned. 
In  1543  the  Parliament  condemned  his  books  to  be 
burned,  as  too  favourable  to  the  new  doctrines.  About 


€  as/^;  9  as     g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  y., guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ([^[^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DOLGOROUKi  77b  DO  MAT 


1546  the  author  himself,  on  a  false  charge  of  atheism, 
suffered  death  by  fire.  Among  his  works,  in  Latin,  are 
a  "Dialogue  on  the  Imitation  of  Cicero,"  written  against 
Erasmus,  a  "  Commentary  on  the  Latin  Language," 
(1536,)  and  "  Summary  of  the  Acts  of  Francis  L,"  (1540.) 
He  was  a  friend  of  Bonaventure  Desperiers.  "  The 
French  language,"  says  A.  F.  Didot,  "  owes  him  much 
for  his  treatises,  translations,  [from  Cicero  and  Plato,] 
and  poesies." 

See  Bayi^,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  A.  F.  Didot, 
"  Essai  sur  la  Typographic." 

Dolgorouki.    See  Dolgoruki. 

Dolgoruki  or  Dolgorouki,  doKgo-roo^kee,  (Ivan 
MiKHAiLOViTCH,)  Prince,  a  Russian  poet,  born  at  Mos- 
cow about  1760,  attained  high  dignities  in  the  public  ser- 
vice. From  1802  to  1812  he  was  Governor  of  Vladimir. 
He  wrote  many  articles  for  literary  journals,  and  gained 
a  high  reputation  by  his  poetical  epistles  and  satires. 
Died  in  1823. 

See  Otto,  "  Lehrbuch  der  Russischen  Literatur." 

Dolgoruki,  (Vassili  Vladimirovitch,)  a  Russian 
prince  and  field-marshal,  born  in  1667.  He  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  France  and  Germany  by  Peter  the  Great. 
In  1726  Catherine  I.  appointed  him  general-in-chief,  and 
sent  him  on  an  expedition  against  Persia.  Peter  II. 
raised  him  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal  in  1728.  Soon 
after  this  date  he  lost  the  favour  of  the  court,  and  was 
imprisoned,  but  was  restored  in  1741.    Died  in  1746. 

Dolgoruki,  (Yakof  Feodorovitch,)  a  Russian 
prince,  born  in  1639.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
campaigns  of  1696  and  1697  against  the  Turks,  and  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  general.  In  1700  he  was  made  prisoner 
at  Narva  by  the  Swedes,  who  detained  him  ten  years. 
He  was  made  a  senator  by  Peter  I.     Died  in  1720. 

Doligny,  do'l^n'ye',  (Louise  Adelaide,)  afterwards 
Madame  Dudoyer  de  Gastels,  dii'dwa^ya'  deh  gts^- 
thV,  a  French  comic  actress,  born  in  Paris  in  1746;  died 
in  1823. 

Dolivar,  do-le-vaR',  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  engraver,  born 
at  Saragossa  in  1641  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1701. 

Doll  or  Doell,  dol,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
sculptor,  born  at  Hildburghausen  in  1750;  died  in  1816. 

Dollinger  or  Doellinger,  doKling^er,  (Ignaz,)  a 
German  physiologist,  born  at  Bamberg  in  1770.  In  1826 
he  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Munich.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  "Elements  of  Physiology,"  (1835,) 
and  "On  the  Importance  of  Comparative  Anatomy." 
Died  in  1841. 

See  P.  F.  VON  Walther,  "Rede  zum  Andenken  an  Dr.  I.  Dol- 
linger," 1841. 

Dollinger  or  Doellinger,  (Johann  Joseph  Ignaz,) 
a  learned  Catholic  theologian,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Bamberg  in  1799.  He  became  professor  of  ecclesias- 
tical history  and  canon  law  at  Munich  in  1826.  He  has 
published  a  "Treatise  on  the  History  of  the  Church," 
(1838,)  "Origin  of  Christianity,"  and  other  works. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1862;  " British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1862. 

Dol'lond,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  optician,  born 
in  London  in  1706,  was  descended  from  French  refugees. 
He  learned  the  trade  of  a  silk-weaver,  and  followed  the 
same  for  many  years,  improving  his  leisure  in  the  study 
of  sciences  and  languages.  He  thus  became  a  profound 
mathematician  and  a  good  linguist.  About  1752  John 
Dollond  retired  from  the  trade  of  weaver,  and  became 
a  practical  optician  in  partnership  with  his  son.  They 
made  improvements  in  the  art,  and  became  celebrated 
for  the  fabrication  of  telescopes.  About  1757  he  made 
an  important  discovery  respecting  the  dispersion  (or 
aberration)  of  light,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  subject, 
for  which  the  Royal  Society  awarded  him  the  Copley 
m&dal.  The  result  of  this  discovery  was  the  achromatic 
telescope.  In  1761  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  became  optician  to  the  king.  Died 
about  1 76 1. 

See  John  Kelly,  "Life  of  J.  Dollond." 

Dollond,  (Peter,)  ascJIi  of  the  preceding,  born  about 
1730,  was  a  worthy  successor  of  his  father,  under  whose 
tuition  he  attained  great  proficiency  in  mathematics. 
From  1766  until  1804  he  and  his  brother  John  were 
partners,  and  maintained  a  high  reputation  by  their  skill 


as  opticians.  In  1804  John  died,  and  Peter  took  as  a 
partner  his  nephew,  George  Huggins,  who  then  changed 
his  name  to  Dollond.  Peter  died  in  1820.  George  died 
in  1832.  The  former  had  improved  Hadley's  quadrant, 
and  written  a  treatise  on  telescopes. 

Dolomieu,  de,  deh  do'lo'me-uh',(DEODAT  Gui  Syl- 
vain  Tancrede  de  Gratet^gRS'ti'',)  a  celebrated 
French  geologist  and  mineralogist,  born  at  Dolomieu,  in 
Dauphine,  in  1750,  was  the  son  of  the  Marquis  of  Do- 
lomieu. He  was  admitted  into  the  order  of  Malta,  in 
which  he  remained  until  about  1770,  when  he  killed  one 
of  his  companions  in  a  duel.  While  confined  for  this 
offence,  he  became  a  student  of  the  natural  sciences.  After 
his  release  he  formed  a  friendship  with  La  Rochefou- 
cauld, by  whose  influence  he  was  chosen  a  correspondent 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  About  1777  he  returned  to 
Malta,  where  he  was  promoted  to  some  offices  in  the 
order.  From  Malta  he  made  scientific  excursions  to 
Sicily  and  Italy  for  several  years,  during  which  he  wrote 
treatises  on  volcanoes.  He  returned  to  France  in  1 791, 
composed  some  important  articles  on  geology  for  the 
"Journal  de  Physique,"  and  traversed  on  foot  all  parts 
of  that  country,  with  the  geologist's  hammer  in  his  hand. 

In  1796  he  was  appointed  professor  in  the  Scht)oI 
of  Mines,  and  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
He  was  one  of  the  savants  selected  to  attend  Bonaparte 
in  his  expedition  to  Egypt  in  1798,  and  was  delighted 
with  such  an  opportunity  to  pursue  his  favourite  studies 
in  a  new  field  of  inquiry.  After  a  hasty  survey  of  a  part 
of  Lower  Egypt,  he  sailed  for  France  in  March,  1799,  and 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Neapolitans,  (then  at  war 
with  the  French,)  who  kept  him  in  a  dungeon  and  treated 
him  with  great  cruelty.  Efforts  were  vainly  made  by 
several  sovereign  powers  for  his  release,  which  could 
not  be  obtained  until  the  victory  of  Marengo  compelled 
Naples  to  make  a  treaty  in  which  his  liberation  was 
positively  stipulated.  He  arrived  at  Paris  in  March, 
1 80 1,  and  found  that  he  had  been  appointed  professor 
of  mineralogy  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History.  He 
delivered  one  course  of  lectures,  then  made  a  journey 
to  the  Alps,  and  died  in  November,  1801. 

"Dolomieu,"  says  Cuvier,  "seemed  to  be  born  for 
geology.  To  a  decided  passion  for  that  study  he  joined 
all  the  physical  and  moral  faculties  requisite  for  success." 
Though  adverse  fortunes  did  not  permit  him  to  fully 
develop  his  powers  as  the  author  of  any  system  of 
geology,  yet  the  science  is  much  indebted  to  his  treatises. 
During  his  imprisonment,  though  deprived  of  pen  and 
ink,  he  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Mineralogical  Philosophy" 
and  a  "Memoir  on  Mineral  Species,"  using  the  smoke 
of  his  lamp  as  a  substitute  for  ink. 

See  notice,  by  Cuvier,  in  the  "Biographic  Universelle ;"_  Lac^- 
PEDE,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  Dolomieu,"  1802;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1804. 

Dolscius,  dols'tse-us,  (Paul,)  a  German  Hellenist, 
born  at  Plauen  in  1526,  was  a  friend  of  Melanchthon. 
Died  in  1589. 

Domairon,  do'mWxb'n',  (Louis,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born 
at  Beziers  in  1745,  wrote  "The  General  Principles  of 
Belles-Lettres,"  (1785,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1807. 

Domard,  do'mtR',  (Joseph  Franqois,)  a  French 
engraver  of  medals  and  gems,  born  in  Paris  in  1792; 
died  in  1858. 

Domat,  do'mt',  or  Daumat,  dS^mt',  (Jean,)  an  emi- 
nent French  jurist,  born  at  Clermont  in  Auvergne  in 
1625.  He  had  intimate  relations  with  the  recluses  of  Port- 
Royal,  especially  with  Pascal,  who  at  his  death  intrusted 
to  him  his  private  papers.  The  details  of  his  virtuous 
and  useful  life  have  not  been  recorded.  His  reputation 
is  founded  on  a  great  systematic  work  entitled  "  The 
Civil  Laws  in  their  Natural  Order,"  (1689.)  Many  per- 
sons had  attempted  to  systematize  the  confused  and  ill- 
digested  materials  of  Roman  law  ;  but  no  one  succeeded 
so  perfectly  as  Domat,  who  is  considered  the  most  emi- 
nent jurist  of  his  age.  He  received  a  pension  from  Louis 
XIV.  D'Aguesseau,  a  most  competent  judge,  spoke  of 
him  with  profound  respect.  Domat  was  for  many  years 
king's  advocate  in  the  presidial  court  of  Clermont.  Died 
in  Paris  in  1695. 

See  Eugene  Cauchv,  "  Etudes  sur  Domat,"  1852 :  Victor 
Cousin's  article  in  the  "  Journal  des  Savants,"  1843  ;  Sainte-Beuve, 
"  Port-Royal ;"  Carre,  "  Notice  historique  sur  Domat,"  prefixed  to 
his  works,  Paris,  1822. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  iu,  y,  lon^;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsatre;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DO  MB  AT 


717 


DOMINICI 


Dombay,  von,  fon  dom'bi,  (Franz,)  an  Austrian 
Orientalist,  born  in  Vienna  in  1758,  was  appointed  inter- 
preter to  the  court  for  Oriental  languages  in  1792.  He 
published  "  Geschichte  der  Scherifen,"  a  "History  of 
the  Shereefs."  (princes  of  Morocco,)  (1801,)  a  "Persian 
Grammar,"  (1804,)  and  other  works,  which  are  com- 
mended by  Silvestre  de  Sacy.    Died  in  1810. 

Dombey,  doN'bcV,  (Joseph,)  a  French  botanist  and 
physician,  born  at  Macon  in  1742,  studied  botany  at 
Paris  under  Jussieu.  He  received  a  commission  from 
Turgot,  the  prime  minister,  to  visit  South  America  and 
collect  such  useful  plants  as  could  be  profitably  culti- 
vated in  France,  and  arrived  at  Callao  in  1778.  He 
traversed  Peru,  Chili,  etc.,  discovered  mines  of  gold 
and  quicksilver,  and  had  many  romantic  adventures. 
Returning  home,  he  landed  at  Cadiz  in  1785  with  an 
immense  collection,  of  which,  it  is  stated,  the  Spanish 
officials  confiscated  half  and  damaged  the  other  half. 
Buffon  procured  for  him  a  pension  of  six  thousand 
livres.  Dombey  was  living  at  Lyons  when  it  was  be- 
sieged in  1793,  after  which  he  obtained  a  mission  to  the 
United  States.  On  the  voyage  thither  he  was  taken 
by  privateers,  and  imprisoned  in  Montserrat,  where  he 
died  about  1794.  The  French  regard  him  as  one  of 
the  most  enterprising  and  successful  explorers  of  the 
domain  of  botany  in  the  eighteenth  century.  As  he  was 
unable  to  defray  the  expense  of  publishing  the  results 
of  his  researches  in  Peru,  he  placed  his  herbal  in  the 
hands  of  L'Heritier,  who  prepared  a  Flora  of  Peru, 
which  he  left  in  manuscript. 

See  Deleuze,  "Notice  sur  Dombey,"  in  the  "Annales  du 
Museum  d'Histoire  natuielle;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Dombrowski,  dom-brov'skee,  (John  Henry,)  an 
able  Polish  general,  born  in  the  palatinate  of  Cracow  in 
1755.  In  the  effort  for  independence  which  the  Poles 
began  about  1791,  he  took  a  prominent  part,  and  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  general.  He  was  compelled  to  sur- 
render to  Suvvarrow  in  November,  1794,  when  his  nation 
ceased  to  exist.  In  1797  he  entered  the  service  of  the 
Cisalpine  Republic,  for  which  he  formed  and  commanded 
a  Polish  legion.  He  displayed  great  valour  and  ability 
at  Trebbia,  (1799,)  where  he  commanded  a  wing  of  the 
French  army.  After  the  battle  of  Jena  (i8o6)  Bona- 
parte called  him  to  Poland,  where  he  raised  an  army 
of  30,000  Poles.  As  general  of  division,  Dombrowski 
gained  victories  at  Dirschau  and  at  Bromberg  in  1809. 
He  was  wounded  at  Berezina  in  1812,  but  continued  to 
fight  for  Bonaparte  until  1814.    Died  in  1818. 

See  L.  Chouzko,  "Histoire  des  Legions  Polonaises  en  Italie," 
1829;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gendrale." 

Domenichi,  do-m^n'e-kee  or  do-ma'ne-kee,  (LuiGi,) 
an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Piacenza,  lived  at  Venice 
and  at  Florence,  where  he  was  patronized  by  Duke  Co- 
simo  I.  He  translated  into  Italian  Plutarch's  "Kves," 
(1555,)  Pliny's  "Natural  History,"  (1561,)  and  other 
works.  He  also  wrote  several  original  works,  among 
which  are  "The  Nobility  of  Women,"  ("La  Nobilita 
delle  Donne,")  and  "The  Court  Lady,"  ("La  Donna  di 
Corte.")    Died  in  1564. 

See  TiRABosCHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Domenichi,  da,  di  do-mgn'e-kee  or  do-ma'ne-kee, 
(DoMENiCO,)  a  learned  prelate,  born  in  Venice  in  1416, 
lived  many  years  in  Rome.  He  was  made  referendary 
by  Calixtus  III.,  nuncio  by  another  pope,  and  Bishop 
of  Brescia  by  Paul  II.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Episcopal  Dignity,"  and  many  other  works  on  theology. 
Died  in  1478. 

Domenichino,  do-m^n-e-kee'no,  [Fr.  Dominiquin, 
do'me'ne'kdN',]  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  whose  proper 
natne  was  Domenico  Zampieri,  do-m^n'e-ko  dzSm-pe- 
a'ree,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1581.  He  studied  under 
Annibal  Caracci  in  Rome,  where  he  remained  some 
years  and  was  patronized  as  a  painter  and  architect  by 
Gregory  XV.  He  afterwards  worked  in  Naples,  where 
he  died  in  1641.  He  painted  in  oil  and  in  fresco,  was 
a  good  colorist,  and  excelled  both  in  history  and  land- 
scapes. Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The  Martyrdom 
of  Saint  Agnes,"  and  the  "Communion  of  Saint  Je- 
rome," finished  about  1612,  which  is  to  be  seen  in  the 
Vatican  opposite  Raphael's  "Transfiguration."  Some 
judges,  as  Caracci  and  N.  Poussin,  estimate  him  as 


scarcely  inferior  to  any  painter  except  Raphael,  Cor- 
reggio,  and  Titian. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy ;"  Malvasia,  "  Felsina 
Pittrice  ;"  Bolognini-Amorini,  "  Vitadi  Domenico  Zampieri,"  1839 ; 
Bellori,"  Vitede'  Pittori;"  Nagler,"  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstlei- 
Lexikon;"  Lecarpentier,  "Notice  sur  D.  Zampieri,"  1812. 

Domenici,  do-m§n'e-chee  or  do-ma'ne-chee,  (Fran- 
cesco,) an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Treviso,  lived  about 
1530,  and  died  at  the  age  of  thirty-five.  He  is  called 
one  of  the  best  pupils  of  Titian. 

Domenico.    See  Dominic,  Saint. 

Domenico,  do-men'e-ko,  {Alexis,)  [Fr.  Dominique 
le  Grec,  do''me'n^k'  leh  gR^k,]  called  il  Greco,  (^1 
gRa'ko,)  an  artist,  born  in  the  Greek  Archipelago  about 
1547,  was  a  pupil  of  Titian  in  Venice.  He  excelled  in 
painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  and  imitated  the 
manner  of  Titian  with  success.  In  his  later  years  he 
worked  in  Toledo  and  other  cities  of  Spain,  where  he 
produced  many  admired  paintings  and  formed  some  able 
pupils.  Pie  designed  a  church  in  Toledo,  and  adorned  it 
with  sculptures  and  pictures.    Died  in  1625. 

See  Nagler,  "Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Domenico  d'Asciano.  See  Bartolo,  (Domenico.) 

Domenico  de'  Barbieri,  do-m^h'e-ko  da  baR-be- 
a'ree,  or  Domenico  Fiorentino,  (fe-o-rgn-tee'no,)  a 
painter,  sculptor,  and  engraver,  born  at  Florence  in 
1506  ;  died  in  1560. 

Domenico  degli  Camei,  do-mln'e-ko  daKyee  ki- 
ma'ee,  an  Italian  artist,  born  at  Milan,  derived  his  sur- 
name from  his  skill  in  engraving  gems  in  relief,  or  cameos. 
His  family  name  was  Compagni.  Vasari  speaks  with 
admiration  of  his  portraits  of  Ludovico  Sforza  and  other 
princes,  which  are  among  the  most  precious  monuments 
of  modern  iconography.    Died  about  1490. 

Domenico  Veneziano,  do-m§n'e-ko  va-n^t-se-i'no, 
or  Domenico  of  Venice,  an  Italian  painter,  born  about 
1408,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  painted  in  oil  at 
Florence.  He  was  assassinated  by  Castagno,  the  painter, 
about  1462.    (See  Castagno.) 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Domergue,  do^miRg',  (Francois  Urbain,)  a  French 
grammarian,  born  at  Aubagne  in  1745,  settled  in  Paris 
about  1790,  and  a  few  years  later  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  Institute.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Orthographic 
Exercises,"  and  other  grammatical  works.  Died  in  1810. 

Dom'ett,  written  also  Domott,  (Sir  William,)  an 
English  admiral,  born  in  Devonshire  about  1754,  served 
under  Rodney  and  Nelson  against  the  French.  Died 
in  1828. 

Domingo,  do-m^ng'go,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  painter  and 
sculptor,  born  at  Valencia  in  1718;  died  in  1767. 

Domingo  de  Guzman.    See  Dominic,  Saint. 

Dom'i-nic,  [Sp.  Domingo  de  Guzman,  do-meng'go 
da  gooth-mSn' ;  Fr.  Dominique,  do''me^nek';  It.  Dome- 
nico, do-men'e-ko,J  Saint,  the  founder  of  the  order 
of  Dominicans,  was  born  at  Calahorra,  in  Old  Castile, 
in  II 70.  Having  become  noted  for  his  zeal  and  elo- 
quence as  a  preacher,  he  was  admitted  in  1198  into  the 
chapter  of  the  Bishop  of  Osma,  whom  he  assisted  in  his 
efforts  to  convert  the  Albigenses  in  France.  According 
to  the  Catholics,  he  performed  many  miracles,  and  offered 
to  sell  himself  as  a  slave  in  order  to  raise  money  for 
charitable  purposes.  He  appears  to  have  been  one  of 
the  instigators  of  the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses  about 
1 212,  in  which  many  thousands  of  those  people  perished. 
In  1215  he  founded  the  order  of  Preaching  Friars,  or 
Dominicans,  which  was  approved  by  the  pope  in  12 16 
and  wa-s  rapidly  multiplied  in  Christendom.  Their  rules 
exact  rigorous  fasting  and  total  abstinence  from  flesh. 
The  design  of  the  founder  was  to  make  the  conversion 
of  heretics  their  special  pursuit.  In  France  they  were 
often  called  Jacobins.  Dominic  became  the  first  general 
of  the  order.  The  pope  created  in  his  favour  the  ofiice 
of  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace,  which  is  always  filled 
by  a  Dominican.  He  died  in  1221,  and  was  canonized 
by  Gregory  IX.  in  1234. 

SeeTouRON,  "Vie  de  Saint-Dominique,"  1739;  Castillo,  "His- 
toria  del  Santo  Domingo,"  1612-22;  Lacordaike,  "  Vie  de  Saint- 
Dominique,"  1840 ;  BoTTONi,  "  Vita  di  San  Domenico,"  3  vols.,  1789. 

Dominici,  da,  dS.  do-mee'ne-chee,  (Bernardo,)  a 
Neapolitan  artist,  published  "  The  Lives  of  Neapolitan 
Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects,"  (3  vols.,  1742-45.) 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DOMINIKUS 


DONATl 


Dominikus,  do-mee'ne-kCis,  (Jakob,)  a  German  his- 
torian, born  at  Rheinbergen  in  1764.  Among  his  works, 
which  are  highly  commended,  are  "Ferdinand,  Duke 
of  Alva,"  (1796,)  and  "Henry  IV.  of  France,"  (2  vols., 
I797-) 

Dominique.  See  Domenico  and  Dominic,  Saint, 
Dominique   Barriere,   do^me'n^k'   bt're-aik',  a 

French  engraver,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1622,  worked  at 

Rome. 

Dominique  le  Grec.    See  Domenico,  (Alexis.) 

Dominiquin.    See  Domenichino. 

Dominis,  de,  di  dom'e-n^ss,  (Marcantonio,)  an 
Italian  theologian,  born  in  the  isle  of  Arba,  near  Dal- 
matia,  in  1566.  He  gained  early  distinction  as  professor 
of  philosophy  and  mathematics  at  Padua,  ancl  became 
Archbishop  of  Spalatro.  Before  this  promotion  he  wrote 
a  curious  treatise  on  light,  "  On  the  Rays  of  Light  and 
Vision  in  Perspective  Glasses  and  in  the  Rainbow," 
("  De  Radiis  Visus  et  Lucis  in  Vitris  perspectivis  et 
Iride,"  1611,)  in  which  the  phenomenon  of  the  rainbow 
was  explained  for  the  first  time.  About  1615  he  removed 
to  England,  turned  Protestant,  and  was  appointed  Dean  of 
Windsor  by  James  I.  He  published  arguments  against 
Popery  in  his  work  "  On  the  Ecclesiastical  Repnblic," 
("  De  Republica  Ecclesiastica,"  1617.)  He  returned  to 
Italy  in  1622,  and  abjured  the  doctrines  of  that  work. 
On  a  suspicion  that  he  was  about  to  recant  again,  he 
was  imprisoned  at  Rome,  and  died  in  prison  in  1624. 

See  VoLTAiKE,  "Lettres  philosophiques;"  Limborch,  "Historia 
Inquisitionis." 

Domitian,  do-mish'e-an,  [Lat.  Domitia'nus;  Fr. 
DoMiTiEN,  do^me'se'^N"^  or,  more  fully,  Ti'tua  Fla'- 
vius  Domitia'nus,  a  Roman  emperor,  the  second  son 
of  Vespasian,  born  in  51  A.D.,  succeeded  his  brother 
Titus  in  81.  Though  his  character  was  depraved  and 
cruel,  he  at  first  affected  a  zeal  for  public  virtue  and  jus- 
tice. He  was  defeated  by  the  Dacians,  and  made  a  dis- 
graceful treaty,  by  which  he  bound  himself  to  pay  them 
tribute.  His  armies  were  generally  unsuccessful,  except 
in  Britain,  which  was  conquered  by  Agricola.  He  mar- 
ried Domitia  Longina,  to  whom  he  gave  the  title  of 
Augusta.  Many  innocent  persons  fell  victims  to  his 
suspicions,  his  cruelty,  or  his  rapacity.  He  banished  the 
philosophers  and  literati,  among  whom  was  Epictetus. 
One  of  his  favourite  pastimes  was  hunting  and  killing 
flies.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  among  his  guards  and 
courtiers,  and  he  was  killed  in  his  palace  in  96  A.D.,  when 
the  senate  chose  Nerva  as  his  successor. 

See  Tacitus,  "  Historia ;"  Suetonius, "Domitianus  ;"  Niebuhr, 
"  Romische  Geschichte,"  vol.  ii. ;  J.  Arrhenius,  "  Vita  Imperatoris 
Domitiaui,"  1696. 

Domitianus.    See  Domitian. 

Domitianus,  do-mish-e-a'nus,  (Lucius  Domitius,)  a 
Roman  general,  who  assumed  the  title  of  emperor  in 
the  reign  of  Diocletian.   He  was  put  to  death  in  288  A.D. 

Dom-i-til'la  or  Domitia,  do-mish'e-a,  the  wife  of 
the  emperor  Vespasian,  was  the  mother  of  Titus  and 
Domitian.    She  died  before  the  accession  of  Vespasian. 

Domitius  Afer.    See  Afer. 

Domitius  Ahenobarbus.    See  Ahenobarbus. 

Dommartin,  do'mtR^tiN',  (Elzeard  Auguste,)  a 
French  general,  born  in  1768,  distinguished  himself  at 
the  battle  of  the  Pyramids  and  at  El  Arish.  He  was 
killed  at  Rosetta  in  1799. 

Domnus.    See  Donus. 

Don,  (David,)  a  Scottish  botanist,  born  at  Forfar  in 
1800.  He  went  to  London  in  1819,  and  gained  repu- 
tation by  a  "Monograph  on  the  Genus  Saxifraga."  In 
1822  he  was  appointed  librarian  of  the  Linnaean  Society, 
to  which  he  contributed  several  able  botanical  treatises. 
In  1825  he  produced  a  valuable  work  on  the  plants  of 
Nepaul,  "  Prodromus  Florae  Nepalensis."  He  became 
professor  of  botany  in  King's  College,  London,  in  1836. 
Died  in  1840. 

Don,  (George,)  father  of  the  preceding,  born  about 
1770,  was  proprietor  of  a  nursery  and  botanic  garden  at 
Forfar,  and  was  a  good  botanist.    Died  in  1814. 

Don,  (Sir  George,)  a  British  general,  born  in  1756; 
died  in  1832. 

Don,  (George,)  a  botanist,  born  in  1798,  was  a  brother 
of  David  Don,  noticed  above.    He  made  scientific  ex- 


cursions to  Africa  and  South  America,  and  published 
an  excellent  "  System  of  Gardening  and  Botany,"  (4 
vols.,  1831-38.)    Died  in  1856. 

Don'ald  I.,  King  of  Scotland,  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  Christian  king  of  that  country.  Died  about 
216  A.D. 

Donald  II.,  King  of  Scotland,  reigned  about  four 
years,  and  died  about  864  a.d. 

Donald  IV.  or  VI.,  King  of  Scotland,  reigned  from 

892  to  904  A.D. 

Donald  VII.    See  Duncan. 

Donald  VIII.,  sometimes  called  Donald  Bane, 

usurped  the  throne  of  Scotland  in  1093.  He  was  de- 
posed by  Edgar  Atheling  in  1098. 

Don'ald-son,  (John,)  a  skilful  Scottish  portrait- 
painter,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1737,  lived  some  years  in 
London.  He  published  an  "  Essay  on  the  Elements  of 
Beauty,"  and  a  volume  of  poems.  He  was  a  very  suc- 
cessful artist,  especially  in  miniature.    Died  in  1801. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biograpliical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Don'ald-son,  (Professor  John,)  an  eminent  British 
agriculturist  of  the  present  age.  He  published  a  "  Treat- 
ise on  Manures  and  Grasses,"  (1842,)  "Cultivated  Plants 
of  the  P'arm,"  (1847,)  and  "Agricultural  Biography," 
(London,  1854,)  which  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  work. 

Don'ald-son,  (Rev.  John  William,)  an  English 
philologist,  born  in  1812,  published  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Hebrew  grammars,  and  other  works.    Died  about  1861. 

Donaldson,  (Thomas  Leverton,)  an  English  archi- 
tect, born  in  London  about  1795.  He  published  a 
"  Collection  of  Doorways  from  Ancient  and  Modern 
Buildings  in  Greece  and  Italy,"  (1833.)  In  1843  be- 
came professor  of  architecture  in  University  College, 
London.  Pie  was  architect  of  All-Saints  Church,  Lon- 
don, and  of  other  churches  in  or  near  that  city. 

Donaldson,  (Walter,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  at 
Aberdeen  about  1575,  published  "  Synopsis  OEconomica." 

Donat.    See  Donatus. 

Donatello,  do-nl-teKlo,  (  Donato  di  Belto  di 
Bardo,)  an  eminent  sculptor,  born  in  Florence  in  1383, 
worked  in  Florence,  Venice,  Rome,  and  Padua,  and  was 
highly  successful.  He  was  patronized  by  the  famous 
Cosimo  de'  Medici.  Among  his  best  productions  are 
bronze  figures  of  Saint  George,  of  Saint  Mark,  and  of 
"Judith  holding  the  Head  of  Holofernes."  He  excelled 
in  the  representation  of  historical  events  by  bas-reliefs. 
His  character  was  noble  and  liberal.  Died  in  1466.  His 
works  are  commended  for  correctness  of  form,  for  pro- 
priety of  attitude,  and  for  power  and  truth  of  expression, 
sometimes  reaching  the  pathetic  and  sublime. 

See  Andrea  Francioni,  "  Elogio  di  Donatello,"  1837;  Nagler, 
"  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Donatello,  (Simone,)  a  Florentine  sculptor,  brother 
of  th^  preceding.  He  was  invited  to  Rome  in  143 1  by 
Pope  Eugene,  and  spent  about  twelve  years  in  adorning 
one  of  the  doors  of  Saint  Peter's  with  bas-reliefs. 

Donati,  do-ni'tee,  a  noble  and  powerful  Guelph 
family  of  Florence,  which  flourished  about  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  Gemma  Donati,  the  wife  of 
Dante,  was  a  member  of  this  family. 

Donati,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  poet,  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Sienna  in  1584,  professed  rhetoric  in 
Rome  with  distinction.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  poem  on 
the  "  Poetic  Art,"  an  epic  poem  named  "  Constantinus," 
(1640,)  and  an  excellent  work  on  the  edifices  of  Rome, 
("Roma  vetus  et  recens,"  1633,)  which  was  perhaps 
superior  to  anything  previously  written  on  the  antiquities 
of  that  city.    Died  in  1640. 

Donati,  (Antonio,)  a  Venetian  naturalist,  born  in 
1606  ;  died  in  1659. 

Donati,  do-n^'tee,  (Bindo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Florence,  wrote  in  the  Tuscan  language.  He  was  ranked 
by  Crescimbeni  among  the  first  writers  of  his  time.  Died 
about  1300. 

Donati,  (Corso,)  a  Florentine  noble,  who  was  a  leader 
of  the  Guelphs.  By  his  talents  and  rank  he  acquired  great 
influence  in  public  affairs.  About  1300  the  people  of 
Florence  were  divided  into  two  factions,  the  Neri  and 
Bianchi,  (Blacks  and  Whites.)  Corso  Donati  was  the 
chief  of  the  former  party,  which,  by  the  aid  of  foreign 
troops  under  Charles  de  Valois,  obtained  power  in  1301, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sho7-t ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t ;  n6t  good;  mooni 


DON  ATI  779  2)  07V/ 


when  they  banished,  or  killed  their  principal  rivals,  of 
whom  Dante  was  one.  Donati  soon  lost  his  influence 
with  his  own  party,  was  accused  of  tyrannical  designs, 
and,  failing  to  appear  at  the  trial,  was  condemned  in 
1308,  and  destroyed  himself. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoiie  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Donati  or  Donate,  do-na'to,  (Marcello,)  Count  di 
Ponzano,  (de  pon-zi'no,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at 
Correggio  in  1538.  He  wrote  "  De  Medica  liistoria 
niirabili,"  (1586.)    Died  in  1602. 

See  Castellani,  "Vita  del  celebre  Medico  M.  Donati,"  1788. 

Donati,  (Vitaliano,)  an  Italian  physician,  eminent 
as  a  naturalist,  was  born  at  Padua  in  17 13.  Promi:)ted  by 
a  passion  for  botany  and  other  natural  sciences,  he  tra- 
versed Italy  for  about  eight  years,  and  was  employed  by 
Pope  Benedict  XIV.  to  make  collections  for  his  college. 
He  then  explored  Illyria,  and  undertook  a  description 
of  the  productions  of  the  Adriatic.  In  1750  an  outline 
of  his  intended  work  on  the  "Natural  History  of  the 
Adriatic"  was  published.  He  also  visited  Syria  and 
Egypt  for  scientific  purposes,  and  sent  home  many  ob- 
jects of  natural  history.  On  his  voyage  homeward  he 
perished  by  shipwreck  in  1763. 

See  Gennari,  "  Elogio  di  V.  Donati,"  1839. 

Donato.    See  Donatello. 

Donate,  do-na'to,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  philolo- 
gist, was  born  at  Zano,  near  Verona.  He  was  professor 
of  Greek  at  Padua  about  1532.  He  translated  Xeno- 
phon's  book  "  On  Economy,"  and  other  Greek  works. 
He  was  the  first  editor  of  "  Chrysostom  on  Saint  Paul" 
in  Greek.    Died  about  1550. 

Donato,  (Francesco,)  Doge  of  Venice,  was  elected 
in  1545,  and  died  in  1553,  leaving  a  good  reputation  for 
eloquence  and  wisdom.  He  maintained  the  neutrality 
of  Venice  in  the  war  between  Charles  V.  and  Henry  II. 
of  France. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Donate  or  Donati,  (Geronimo,)  a  Venetian  states- 
man, negotiated  a  peace  between  the  pope  and  Venice 
in  1510.  His  abilities  were  extolled  by  Erasmus.  Died 
in  1 5 13. 

Donate,  (Leonardo,)  was  Doge  of  Venice  from  1606 
to  1612.  He  firmly  resisted  Po])e  Paul  V.,  who  wished 
to  deprive  the  republic  of  its  jurisdiction  over  the  clergy, 
and  who  laid  the  state  under  an  interdict  in  1606.  This 
was  finally  removed  without  any  concession  on  the  part 
of  Venice.    Died  in  1612. 

See  Andrea  Morosini,  "Vita  Leonardi  Donati,"  1628 ;  Pierre 
Marcel,  "Viise  Donatoruni." 

Donate,  (Niccolo,)  a  Venetian  diplomatist,  born  in 
1705.  He  wrote  "L'Uomo  di  Governo,"  ("The  States- 
man,") which  was  translated  into  French  by  Robinet, 
(1767.)    Died  in  1765. 

Donato,  (Zeno,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Verona, 
flourished  about  1500. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Do-na'tus,  [Fr.  Donat,  do^nt',]  Bishop  of  Casas 
Nigrae,  in  Numidia,  the  chief  author  of  the  schism  of 
Donatists,  which  began  about  305  A.D.,  disturbed  the 
church  for  more  than  a  century,  and  filled  Africa  with 
dire  calamities.  With  an  affected  zeal  for  discipline,  he 
formed  a  party  against  Cecilianus,  Bishop  of  Carthage, 
as  being  identified  with  some  who,  through  fear  of  per- 
secution, had  given  up  the  sacred  books  and  were  hence 
called  "Traditores."  He  taught  that  the  Church  was 
not  infallible  ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  he  made  inno- 
vations in  doctrine.  This  party  became  very  numerous 
in  Africa,  and,  it  is  said,  burned  the  churches, of  the 
Catholics  and  massacred  the  members  of  that  party. 
At  the  Council  of  Aries,  in  314,  the  question  was  decided 
in  favour  of  Cecilianus.  The  Donatists,  however,  in- 
creased until  410,  when  the  emperor  Honorius  convoked 
a  council  at  Carthage,  which  condemned  them  as  here- 
tics. This  result  is  ascribed  chiefly  to  the  efforts  of  Saint 
Augustine.  They  became  divided  into  several  sects,  and 
about  the  sixth  century  had  sunk  into  insignificance. 

See  Saint  Augustine,  "De  Ha;reticis;"  Tillemont,  "Me- 
moires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Donatus,  the  second  of  this  name,  was  elected  Bishop 
of  Carthage  in  316  a.d.  by  the  Donatists,  of  whom  he 


became  the  master-spirit.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
learned  and  eloquent,  but  haughty.  His  partisans  gave 
him  the  surname  of  Magnus,  (the  "Great.")  He  died 
in  exile  about  355.  The  Donatists  in  his  time  were 
nearly  as  numerous  in  Africa  as  the  Catholics. 

See  Pluquet,  " Dictionnaire  des  Heresies." 

Donatus,  [Fr.  Donat,  do'nt',]  (/Elius,)  a  celebrated 
Latin  grammarian,  born  about  333  a.d.  He  taught 
rhetoric  in  Rome,  and  was  a  teacher  of  Saint  Jerome, 
who  speaks  highly  of  his  talents.  His  "Elements  of 
Grammar"  ("Ars  Grammatica")  served  as  the  basis  of 
nearly  all  subsequent  elementary  works  on  that  subject, 
and  was  generally  used  in  the  schools  of  the  middle  ages. 
He  also  wrote  an  able  commentary  on  Terence,  which 
is  extant. 

See  L.  ScHOPFEN,  "De  Terentio  et  Donato,"  1824. 

Donckers.    See  Donkers. 

Dondi,  don'dee,  (Giacomo,)  born  at  Padua,  was  emi- 
nent as  a  philosopher  and  physician.  Fie  wrote  "  Store- 
house of  Medicine,"  ("  Promptuarium  Medicinae,")  and 
made  a  famous  clock  in  Padua  in  1344. 

Dondi,  (Giovanni,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1318,  was  a  physician  and  mathematician,  and  the  friend 
of  Petrarch,  who  addressed  to  him  several  letters.  He 
invented  a  celebrated  clock,  which  was  placed  in  Pavi'a 
and  procured  for  him  and  his  descendants  the  surname 
of  HoROLOGius,  or  Dale'  Orologio.    Died  in  1389. 

See  Tiraboschi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Dondi  dair  Orologio,  don'dee  dai-lo-ro-lo'jo, 
(Carlo  Antonio,)  Marquis,  an  Italian  naturalist,  was 
born  of  a  noble  family  of  Padua  about  1750.  He  de- 
voted his  life  chiefly  to  natural  history  and  chemistry. 
He  wrote  an  "Introduction  to  the  Natural  History  of 
the  Euganean  Hills,"  (1780,)  and  a  few  other  scientific 
works.    Died  in  1801. 

Dondini,  don-dee'nee,  (Guglielmo,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  Jesuit,  born  at  Ancona  in  1606,  was  professor  of 
eloquence  in  Rome  for  many  years.  Among  his  works  are 
a  Latin  poem  "On  the  Birth  of  the  Dauphin  of  France," 
(1639,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Actions,  in  France,  of  Far- 
nese.  Prince  of  Parma,"  (1673.) 

Denducci,  don-doof'chee,  (Giovanni  Andrea,)  an 
Italian  painter,  surnamed  IL  Mastelletta,  ^1  mas-tel- 
let'ta,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1575.  "He  had  a  rich 
imagination,"  says  Auguis,  "a  pure  design,  and  vigorous 
colour."  His  reputation  was  high  in  his  own  time,  but 
has  since  declined.  He  died  in  1637,  or,  according  to 
another  account,  in  1655. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Doneau,  do'no',  [Lat.  Donel'lus,]  (Hugues,)  an 
able  French  jurist  and  Protestant,  born  at  Chalons- 
sur-Saone  in  1527.  He  was  teaching  jurisprudence  at 
Bourges  in  1572,  when,  by  the  aid  of  his  scholars,  he 
escaped  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew  and  fled 
from  France.  He  afterwards  professed  law  at  Heidel- 
berg, Leyden,  and  Altorf,  where  he  died  in  1591.  He  is 
the  author  of  voluminous  and  esteemed  commentaries 
on  civil  law. 

See  Taisand,  "Vies  des  Jurisconsultes  ;"  Moreri,  "Diction- 
naire Historique ;"  Zeidler,  "Spicilegium  Observationum  Vitam 
H.  Donelli  ilkistrantium,"  1766. 

Donellus.    See  Doneau. 

Don'el-ly,  (Sir  Ross,)  a  British  admiral,  who  entered 
the  navy  at  an  early  age.  He  fought  with  distinction 
under  Lord  Howe  in  June,  1794,  and  commanded  the 
squadron  before  Toulon  in  1803.  For  his  conduct  at 
Montevideo  in  1807  he  received  the  thanks  of  Parlia- 
ment. He  was  made  rear-admiral  in  1 814,  and  full 
admiral  in  1838.    Died  in  1841. 

Dengelberge,  de,  deh  dong'el-bgRG^eh,  (Henri 
Charles,)  a  Belgian  historian,  born  probably  at  Brussels 
in  1593  ;  died  in  1660. 

Dongeis,  d6N^gw3,^  (Nicolas,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
in  Paris  about  1634,  was  a  nephew  of  the  poet  Boileau, 
and  an  acquaintance  of  Voltaire.    Died  in  171 7. 

Doni,  do'nee,  (ADONE,)an  able  painter  of  the  Roman 
school,  born  at  Assisi,  worked  about  1540.  He  is  re- 
puted the  greatest  painter  that  Assisi  ever  produced. 

Doni,  (Antonio  Francesco,)  an  Italian  litia-ateier, 
born  at  Florence  about  1508.  He  lived  a  wandering  life, 
and  gained  a  scanty  subsistence  by  his  writings,  some  of 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DON  I 


780 


DONZELLI 


which  were  facetious,  humorous,  or  satirical,  and  had  a 
temporary  vogue.  Among  his  works  is  a  treatise  on 
painting  and  sculpture,  entitled  "  Disegno  partito  in  piu 
Ragionamenti,"  "The  Gourd,"  ("LaZucca,"  155 1,)  "The 
Marbles  of  Doni,"  (1552,)  and  "La  Libraria  del  Doni," 
(1550,)  a  bibliographical  work,  which  passed  through 
many  editions,  but  is  very  defective.    Died  in  1574. 

See  TiRABOsCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Negri, 
"Istoriade'  Fioreiitini  Scrittori;"  Niceron,  "  Memoiies." 

Doni,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  eminent  Italian  scho- 
lar and  antiquary,  born  in  Florence  in  1593.  The  study 
of  antiquities  became  his  ruling  passion,  and  he  made  an 
immense  collection  of  rare  objects.  In  1623  he  removed 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  patronized  by  Cardinal  Barberini 
and  was  made  secretary  of  the  Sacred  College.  He  re- 
turned to  Florence  in  1640,  and  was  chosen  professor  of 
eloquence.  He  wrote  several  Latin  poems,  ("  Carmina," 
1628,)  and  treatises  on  ancient  music,  one  of  which  is 
named  "Lyra  Barberina,"  (1773.)    Died  in  1646. 

See  Bandini,  "De  Vita  et  Scriptis  J.  B.  Donii,"  1755. 

Doni  d'Atticlii,  do^ne'  di'te'she', }  (Louis,)  a  French 
bishop  and  biographer,  born  in  1596;  died  in  1664. 

Donini,  do-nee^nee,  (Girolamo,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Correggio  in  1681,  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo 
Cignani,  and  worked  at  Bologna.  He  excelled  in  design 
and  colour,  and  is  said  to  have  finished  his  works  with 
greater  care  and  delicacy  than  any  eminent  painter  ex- 
cept Carlo  Dolce.    Died  about  1740. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Donis,  do'nis,  (Nikolaus,)  a  German  monk  and  geo- 
grapher, lived  in  the  monastery  of  Reichenbach  about 
1450.  He  produced  a  Latin  version  of  Ptolemy's  Geo- 
graphy, to  which  he  added  graduated  maps,  and  an  ori- 
ginal treatise  (in  Latin)  "  On  the  Wonders  of  the  World." 
He  presented  a  copy  of  this  work  to  the  pope  in  1471. 

Donizetti,  don-e-zet'tee  or  do-nid-zet'tee,  (Gaetano,) 
an  excellent  Italian  musical  composer,  born  at  Bergamo 
in  1798,  studied  music  under  Mattei  at  Bologna.  He 
served  several  years  in  the  army,  which  he  quitted  about 
1822.  After  many  essays,  he  produced  in  1830,  at  Milan, 
his  opera  "Anna  Bolena,"  which  was  much  admired.  It 
was  followed  by  many  other  operas,  which  were  very  suc- 
cessful and  still  retain  their  popularity,  among  which  are 
"Lucrezia  Borgia,"  (1833,)  "Lucia  di  Lammermoor," 
(1835,)  and  "Linda  di  Chamouni,"  (1842.)  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  he  was  professor  of  counterpoint  in  the 
Royal  College  of  Naples,  and  chapel-master  and  com- 
poser to  the  court  of  Vienna.    Died  at  Bergamo  in  1848. 

See  A.  DE  Lafage,  "  Notice  sur  Donizetti  ;"  Scudo,  "Donizetti 
etl'licole  Italienne  depuis  Rossini ;"  Fetis,  "  Biographic  Universelle 
des  Miisiciens." 

Donkers,  donk'ers,  or  Donckers,  (Jan  or  Pieter,) 
a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Gouda  about  1610,  died  pre- 
maturely.   His  works  are  highly  praised. 

Donkers,  Donckers,  or  Donoker,  (Pieter,)  a 
Dutch  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Gouda 
about  1612.    He  worked  at  Rome.    Died  in  1668. 

Donn  or  Donne,  don,  (Abraham,)  an  English  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Bideford  in  1718;  died  in  1746. 

Donnadieu,  do''ni:'de-uh',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  gene- 
ral, born  at  Nimes  in  1777;  died  in  1849. 

Donne,  do'na',  (Alphonse,)  a  French  savant,  born 
at  Noyon  in  1806.  He  wrote  treatises  on  the  physiology 
of  milk,  blood,  mucus,  and  saliva, 

Donne,  don,  or  Donn,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  mathe- 
matician of  Bideford,  born  in  1729,  published  several 
treatises.    Died  in  1798. 

Donne,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  poet  and  divine, 
born  in  London  in  1573,  was  educated  in  the  Catholic 
religion,  which  he  renounced  in  favour  of  the  Church  of 
England.  He  was  secretary  to  Lord-Chancellor  Eger- 
ton,  when  he  privately  married  a  niece  of  that  nobleman 
and  consequently  lost  his  office.  In  1610  he  wrote  the 
"  Pseudo-Martyr,"  which  procured  him  the  favour  of 
James  L,  who  persuaded  him  to  take  holy  orders  about 
1614,  and  made  him  one  of  his  chaplains.  He  gained 
celebrity  for  his  eloquence  as  a  preacher,  and  in  162 1 
was  appointed  Dean  of  Saint  Paul's.  Donne  was  the 
first  and  Cowley  the  second  of  the  school  which  John- 
son denominates  "metaphysical  poets,"  who  laboured 
after  conceits  and  novel  turns  of  thought.  "  Donne,"  says 


Hallam,  "  is  the  most  inharmonious  of  our  versifiers.  Of 
his  earlier  poems  many  are  very  licentious  ;  the  later  are 
chiefly  devout.  Few  are  gooa  for  much  ;  the  conceits 
have  not  even  the  merit  of  being  intelligible."  Dryden 
styles  him  "the  greatest  wit,  though  not  the  greatest 
poet,  of  our  nation."  He  wrote  satires,  elegies,  and  other 
poems.  His  Sermons,  published  in  1640,  are  much  ad- 
mired for  learning  and  subtlety.  He  died  in  163 1.  His 
life  was  written  by  Izaak  Walton,  (1640.) 

See,  also,  H.  Alford,  "  Life  of  Donne,"  1839;  "Retrospective 
Review,"  vol.  viii.,  1823. 

Donneau  de  Vize,  do'no'  deh  xe'zhf,  (Jean.)  a 
French  critic  and  journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1640.  He 
wrote  several  successful  comedies,  and  founded  about 
1680  the  "  Mercure  galante,"  a  monthly  review,  in  which 
he  attacked  Racine  and  Moliere  and  published  nev/s 
of  the  court,  etc.  This  was  probably  the  earliest  French 
journal  or  newspaper.    Died  in  1710. 

Donner,don'ner,  (Georg  Raphael,)  a  skilful  German 
sculptor,  born  at  Essling  in  1695  ;  died  in  1741. 

Donnet,  do'n.y,  (Ferdinand  Francois  Auguste,)  a 
French  prelate,  born  at  Bourg  Argental  in  1795,  became 
Archishop  of  Bordeaux  in  1837,  and  a  cardinal  in  1852. 

Donniges  or  Doenniges,  don'niG-es,  (Wilhelm,)  a 
German  publicist,  born  near  Stettin  in  1814.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  German  Empire 
in  the  Fourteenth  Century,"  (1842,) 

Donnino,  don-nee'no,  (Agnolo,)  a  painter,  born  at 
Florence,  lived  about  1500.    He  is  praised  by  Vasari. 

Donnissan,  de,  deh  do'ne'sdN',  Marquis,  a  French 
royalist  officer,  who  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  civil  war 
of  La  Vendee  in  1793.  He  died  on  the  scaffold  about  the 
end  of  1793. 

Dono,  (Paolo  dl)    See  Uccello,  (Paolo.) 

Donoli,  do-no'lee,  (Alfonso  Francesco,)  an  Italian 
medical  writer,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1635  ;  died  in  1724. 

Donoso,  do-no'so,  (Jose,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  in 
New  Castile  in  1628,  worked  in  Madrid,  several  churches 
of  which  he  adorned  with  paintings.  His  manner  is  said 
to  resemble  that  of  Paul  Veronese.    Died  in  1686. 

Donoso  Cortes,  do-no'so  koR-tgs',  (Juan,)  Marquis 
de  Valdegamas,  (val-da-g§.'mSs,)  a  Spanish  statesman  and 
writer,  born  in  Estremadura  in  1809.  He  was  a  classical 
scholar,  and  displayed  poetical  talents  at  an  early  age. 
He  at  first  favoured  the  Liberal  party  in  politics.  At  the 
death  of  Ferdinand  VII.  (1833)  he  supported  the  cause 
of  Isabella  and  her  mother,  Christina,  against  Carlos. 
About  1840  he  was  secretary  to  the  queen-mother  Chris- 
tina, then  an  exile  in  France.  In  1844  he  was  chosen 
secretary  to  the  queen  Isabella,  and  was  made  Marquis 
of  Valdegamas.  In  his  later  years  he  became  conserva- 
tive, and  wrote  political  works  which  are  admired  for 
their  literary  merit.  In  his  "Essay  on  Catholicism, 
Liberalism,  and  Socialism"  (1851)  he  appears  as  a  zeal- 
ous champion  of  the  Catholic  Church.  He  was  sent  as 
minister  to  Berlin  in  1848,  and  was  Spanish  minister  at 
Paris  when  he  died  in  1853. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Donoughmore.  See  Hutchinson, (Richard  Hely.) 

Don'o-van,  (Edward,)  an  English  naturalist,  author 
of  an  esteemed  "  Natural  History  of  British  Insects,"  (16 
vols.,  1792-1816.)  About  1797  he  produced  a  "Natural 
History  of  British  Birds."  Between  1798  and  1805  he 
issued  a  series  of  works  on  the  insects  of  Cliina,  India, 
and  other  parts  of  Asia,  which  were  favourably  received. 
"A  great  number  of  species,"  says  Swainson.  '  are  here 
delineated  for  the  first  time."  He  also  wrote  '  Descrip- 
tive Excursions  through  South  Wales,"  ar.d  edited  a 
periodical  called  "The  Naturalist's  Repository."  Died 
in  1837. 

Do'nus  I.,  or  Dom'nus,  a  native  of  Rome,  was  chosen 
pope  in  677  A.D.,  as  successor  to  Dieudonne  II.,  (Adeo- 
dat.)    Died  in  678. 

Donus  II.,  or  Domnus,  elected  pope  in  974,  accord- 
ing to  some  authorities  was  the  successor  of  Benedict  VI. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  died  in  December,  975. 

Dony,  do''ne',  (Jean  Jacques  Daniel,)  a  Belgian 
metallurgist,  born  at  Liege  in  1759  ;  died  in  1819. 

Donzelli,  don-zel'lee,  (Ippolito  and  Pietro,)  Italian 
painters,  who  were  brothers,  and  worked  at  Naples  about 
1460-90. 


a,  e,  1,  o  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DONZELLINI 


781 


DORIA 


Donzellini,  don-zel-lee'nee,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian 
medical  writer,  born  in  the  province  of  Brescia ;  died  at 
Venice  about  1560. 

Donzello.    See  Donzelli. 

Doo,  (George  Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  his- 
torical engraver,  was  born  in  Surrey  in  1800.  He  was 
elected  Royal  Academician  about  1857,  having  previously 
received  the  title  of  historical  engraver  to  the  queen. 
Among  his  works,  which  are  mostly  line  engravings, 
are  the  "Ecce  Homo,"  after  Correggio,  the  "Infant 
Christ,"  after  Raphael,  and  "Italian  Pilgrims  coming 
in  Sight  of  Rome,"  after  Eastlake. 

Doo'dj^,  (Samuel,)  an  English  botanist,  born  in  Staf- 
fordshire, was  director  of  a  botanic  garden  at  Chelsea, 
lie  made  discoveries  in  cryptogamous  plants,  and  con- 
tributed to  the  "  Synopsis"  of  Ray,  who  was  his  friend. 
Died  in  1706. 

Doo'lit-tle,  (Thomas,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  was  born  at  Kidderminster  in  1630.  He  wrote 
"The  Complete  BDdy  of  Practical  Divinity,"  and  other 
apprv)ved  works.    Died  in  1707. 

Doo'ly,  (John  Mitchell,)  an  American  judge,  was 
born  in  Georgia  about  1772.  He  embraced  the  profes- 
sion of  law,  and  became  judge  of  the  Western  Circuit 
of  Georgia  in  1816.  He  was  afterwards  twice  elected 
judge  of  the  Northern  Circuit  of  Georgia.  Died  in  1827. 
Judge  Dooly  was  a  noted  wit  and  humorist. 

Doorree,  Dourri,  orDurri  (door're)  Effendi,  (Ah- 
med,) a  Turkish  diplomatist  and  writer,  born  in  Erzroom, 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Persia  in  1720.    Died  in  1722. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanlschen  Reichs." 

Doppelmayr,  dop'pel-mlR^  written  also  Doppel- 
maier  and  Doppelmayer,  (Johann  Gabriel,)  a  Ger- 
man mathematician,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  167 1.  He 
was  professor  of  mathematics  at  Nuremberg  from  1704 
until  1750.  In  1713  he  was  chosen  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London.  He  was  skilful  in  polishing  mirrors 
and  grinding  lenses  for  telescopes.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  an  "Introduction  to  Geography,"  (1714,)  a 
"Celestial  Atlas,"  in  Latin,  (1742,)  and  "Electric  Phe- 
nomena recently  discovered,"  (1744.)  Near  the  end  of 
his  life  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  electrical  experi- 
ments.   Died  in  1750. 

Sfee  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Doppert,  dop'p^Rt,  (Johann,)  a  German  scholar, 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1671  ;  died  in  1735. 

Doppet,  do'pi',  (Francois  Amedek,)  a  physician 
and  general,  born  at  Chambery  in  1753.  He  entered  the 
army  of  the  French  republic  about  1792,  became  general- 
in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  Alps,  and  directed  the  siege 
of  Lyons  in  1793.  He  exerted  his  power  to  prevent 
carnage  and  pillage  at  the  capture  of  this  city,  and  after- 
wards commanded  in  Spain.  On  account  of  ill  health, 
he  retired  from  service  in  1794.  He  wrote  medical  and 
political  treatises,  romances,  and  memoirs  of  his  own 
life.    The  last  is  his  best  work.    Died  about  1800. 

See  Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Girondists  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Dop'ping,  (Anthony,)  Bishop  of  Meath,  was  born 
in  Dublin  about  1642;  died  in  1697. 

Doppler,  dop'pler,  (Christian,)  a  German  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Salzburg  in  1803,  loecame  professor  of 
experimental  physics  at  Vienna  in  185 1. 

Do^ran,  (John,)  an  English  author,  born  in  London 
in  1807.  He  was  tutor  of  several  young  members  of  the 
English  nobility,  and  passed  some  years  in  France.  In 
1822  he  produced  "The  Wandering  Jew,"  a  melodrama. 
He  contributed  many  articles  in  prose  and  verse  to  the 
periodicals,  and  wrote,  among  other  works,  "  Table 
Traits,"  (1854,)  "Habits  and  Men,"  "Knights  and  their 
Days,"  and  "  Monarchs  Retired  from  Business,"  (1857,) 
which  were  favourably  received. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1855. 

Dorange,  do'rSNzh',  (Jacques  Nicolas  Pierre,)  a 
French  poet,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1786;  died  in  181 1. 

Dorat,  do'rt',  (Claude  Joseph,)  a  French  poet,  born 
in  Paris  in  1734,  inherited  an  easy  fortune,  and  had  no 
profession  but  that  of  author.  He  wrote  "Zulica,"  and 
other  tragedies,  some  of  which  were  moderately  successful, 
several  comedies,  and  numerous  odes,  poetical  tales,  and 
fugitive  verses,  which  were  favourably  received.  His 


"  Theatrical  Declamation"  is  considered  his  best  poenu 
He  was  severely  criticised  by  contemporary  writers  foi 
his  mannerism  and  persiflage.    Died  in  1780. 

See  Grimm,  "  Correspondance ;"  Madame  de  Genlis,  "Me- 
moires;"  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Dorat  or  Daurat,  d5'r3',  [Lat.  Aura'tus,]  (Jean,)  a 
French  poet,  born  at  Limoges,  in  Limousin,  about  1500. 
In  1560  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  in  the 
Royal  College  at  Paris.  Scaliger  thought  him  a  judicious 
critic.  Dorat  was  one  of  the  celebrated  poetic  "  Pleiade," 
i.e.  one  of  the  seven  most  admired  poets  of  the  age.  He 
wrote,  in  Latin,  epigrams,  odes,  anagrams,  etc.  Charles 
IX.  gave  him  the  title  of  poet-royal.    Died  in  1588. 

Sec  "Menagiana;"  J.  B.  Vitkac,  "  ^loge  de  J.  Dorat,"  1775. 

Dorat,  (Madeleine,)  a  daughter  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1548,  was  versed  in  Greek,  Latin,  and  other 
languages.    Died  in  1636. 

Dorbay,  doR'ba',  (Francois,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris,  was  a  pupil  of  L.  Levau.  He  directed 
the  execution  of  his  master's  designs  for  the  College  of 
Quatre-Nations,  and  was  employed  as  architect  on  the 
Louvre  and  the  Tuileries.  He  also  gave  the  designs  of 
several  churches  of  Paris.    Died  in  1697. 

Dordoni,  doR-do'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  artist, 
born  at  Busseto,  near  Parma,  in  1528,  was  one  of  the 
most  excellent  gem-engravers  of  his  time.  His  works 
are  very  rare.    Died  in  Rome  in  1584. 

Dore,  do'ra',  (Gustave,)  a  French  engraver  and  de- 
signer, born  at  Strasbourg  about  1833,  has  acquired  great 
popularity  as  an  illustrator  of  the  Bible  and  other  works, 
among  which  are  Tennyson's  "Idylls,"  "Don  Quixote," 
Dante's  "  Inferno,"  Rabelais,  La  Fontaine's  "  Fal)les,"  and 
"  Paradise  Lost."  Dore  is  remarkable  for  the  power  and 
richness  of  his  imagination,  but  is,  generally  speaking, 
more  distinguished  for  the  strength  than  for  the  delicacy 
or  refinement  of  his  conceptions. 

See  "  North  British  Review"  for  September,  1867. 

Dore,  (Pierre,)  [Lat.  Pi'/trus  Aura'tus,]  a  French 
theologian,  born  at  Orleans  about  1500,  was  a  violent 
adversary  of  Protestantism.    Died  in  1559. 

Doreid.    See  Ihn-Doreid. 

Dorfel  or  Doerfel,  doR'fel,  (Georg  Samuel,)  a 
German  astronomer  of  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  was  minister  at  Plauen,  in  Saxony.  He  wrote 
"Observations  on  the  Comet  of  1680,"  and  discovered 
that  the  orbit  of  each  comet  is  a  parabola,  of  which  the 
sun  occupies  the  focus. 

Dorfeuille,  doR'fuI'  or  doRTuh'ye,  (Antoine,  )  a 
French  Jacobin,  born  about  1750,  rendered  himself  in- 
famous by  the  massacre  of  a  multitude  of  people  at 
Lyons  in  1793.    He  was  killed  in  1795. 

Dorfling.    See  Derfflinger. 

Dorfling  or  Doerfling,  von,  fon  doR'fling,  (Georg,) 
a  German  general,  born  at  Dorf,  in  Bohemia,  in  1606. 
He  fought  for  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  distinguished 
himself  in  many  campaigns  against  the  Poles,  Swedes, 
and  French,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal 
in  1670.    Died  in  1695. 

Doria,  do're-S,  one  of  the  four  most  noble  and  power- 
ful families  of  Genoa.  The  Dorias  and  Spinolas  were 
Ghibelines,  and  the  Grimaldi  and  Fieschi  were  Guelphs. 
The  family  of  Doria  was  distinguished  in  the  twelfth 
century.  In  1339  these  four  families,  which  had  long 
disturbed  the  state  by  their  rivalry,  were  all  exiled,  and 
the  nobles  were  excluded  from  power. 

Lamba  Doria  was  admiral  of  the  Genoese  fleet  in 
1298,  when  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Vene- 
tians near  Corzola. 

Paganino  Doria,  a  famous  admiral,  commanded  in 
the  third  war  against  Venice.  In  1352  a  great  naval 
battle  was  fought  near  Constantinople,  between  Admiral 
Doria  and  the  Venetian  admiral  Pisani,  in  which  the 
former  was  the  victor.  Doria  gained  another  victory 
over  Pisani  in  1354. 

PiETRO  Doria  commanded  the  fleet  in  1379,  when  he 
attempted  to  take  Venice,  but  was  defeated  and  killed  in 
January,  1380. 

Doria,  (Andrea,)  known  in  English  Histories  as 
Andrew  Doria,  the  restorer  of  Genoese  liberty,  born 
at  Oneglia  in  1468,  was  of  the  same  family  as  the  preced- 
ing.   After  serving  several  years  in  the  armies  of  France 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,gutticral;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DORIA 


782 


DORPIUS 


and  Naples,  he  entered  the  French  navy  about  1490,  and 
soon  acquired  the  reputation  of  the  first  admiral  of  his 
time.  He  commanded  the  fleet  of  Francis  I.  in  his  war 
with  Charles  V.,  and  gained  an  advantage  over  the  Im- 
perialists at  Marseilles.  In  1528,  suspecting  the  French 
court  of  treacherous  designs  against  his  country  and  him- 
self, he  made  a  treaty  with  Charles  V.,  and  stipulated  for 
the  liberation  of  Genoa,  which  was  subject  to  the  misrule 
of  two  rival  factions, — the  Adorni  and  Fregosi.  He  en- 
tered Genoa,  was  received  with  joy  by  the  citizens,  and 
gave  them  a  free  constitution,  which  has  lasted,  without 
any  important  change,  until  the  present  century.  The 
senate  voted  to  him  the  title  of  "  Father  of  his  Country." 
He  declined  the  office  of  doge,  that  he  might  serve 
Charles  V.  as  admiral  against  the  Turks.  In  1541  he 
commanded  the  fleet  in  Charles's  unfortunate  expedition 
against  Algiers.  That  emperor  rewarded  him  with  the 
order  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  and  the  titles  of  Prince  of 
Melfi  and  Marquis  of  Tursi.  At  the  age  of  eighty-five  he 
conducted  his  fleet  to  the  relief  of  Corsica,  invaded  by  the 
French,  from  whom  he  took  the  sea-port  of  San  Fiorenzo. 
He  died,  without  issue,  at  Genoa,  in  November,  1560. 

See  Capem.oni,  "  Vita  del  Principe  Doria,"is65  ;  Carlo  Sigonio, 
"De  Vita  et  Gestis  Andreje  Dori^e,"  1586:  Andke  Richer,  "Vie 
d'Andre  Doria,"  1789.;  J.  B.  Giraldi,  "De  Gestis  Andrese  Doria;," 
1696;  Antonio  Bianchini,  "  Elogio  del  Principe  Andrea  Doria," 
1781. 

Doria,  (Antonio,)  a  Genoese  officer,  who  served  with 
distinction  under  Charles  V.  He  wrote  an  account  of 
events  which  occurred  in  his  time,  "Compendio  d'A. 
Uoria,"  (15.71.) 

Doria,  (Oberto,)  a  Genoese  admiral,  commanded  the 
fleet  which  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  naval  force 
of  Pisa  in  1284. 

Doria,  (Paolo  Matteo,)  a  philosopher,  born  at  Naples 
in  1675,  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  The  Idea  of  a  Perfect 
Republic,"  (suppressed  by  government.)   Died  in  1743. 

Dorigny  or  Dorigni,  do''r6n'ye',  (Louis,)  a  French 
painter  and  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1654,  was  the  son 
of  Michel,  noticed  below,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Le  Brun. 
He  studied  in  Rome,  and  painted  with  success  in  Venice 
and  Verona.  In  171 1  he  was  invited  to  Vienna,  where 
he  adorned  the  palace  of  Prince  Eugene.  His  frescos 
in  the  cathedral  of  Trent  are  much  admired.  Died 
about  1742. 

Dorigny  or  Dorigni,  (Michel,)  a  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1617,  was  the  pupil  and 
son-in-law  of  Simon  Vouet.  He  engraved  with  aqua-fortis, 
after  Vouet  and  other  masters.  He  died  in  1663,  leaving 
two  sons,  Louis  and  Nicolas,  who  were  artists. 

Dorigny,  (Sir  Nicolas,)  an  eminent  French  engraver, 
born  in  Paris  in  1657,  was  the  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  studied  his  art  in  Rome,  where  he  remained  twenty- 
eight  years  and  engraved  many  master-pieces,  among 
which  are  "The  Transfiguration,"  by  Raphael,  and  "The 
Martyrdom  of  Saint  Sebastian,"  by  Domenichino.  In 
1711  he  was  invited  to  England,  where  he  engraved  the 
Cartoons  of  Raphael  in  Hampton  Court,  and  was  knighted 
by  George  I.  In  1725  he  was  chosen  a  member  and 
professor  of  the  Academy  of  Painting  in  Paris.  Died 
in  1746.  He  was  perhaps  second  only  to  G.  Audran 
among  French  engravers  of  history.  He  is  praised  as 
a  "  noble  artist"  in  Addison's  "  Spectator,"  No.  226. 

See  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Dorimon,  do're^m6N',  a  French  comic  author  and 
actor,  flourished  between  1650  and  1690. 

Doring  or  Doering,  do'ring,  (Georg  Christian 
WiLHELM  AsMus,)  a  German  novelist,  born  at  Cassel  in 
1789  ;  died  in  1833. 

Doringk  or  Doeringk,  written  also  Doring  and 
Dorink,  do^-ink,  (  Matthaus,  )  a  German  theologian, 
born  in  Thuringia.  He  wrote  a  Chronicle  of  Misnia  and 
Thuringia.    Died  about  1464. 

Doriole  or  Doriolle,  do're'ol',  (Pierre,)  a  French 
statesman,  born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1407,  was  employed 
by  Louis  XI.  in  important  missions.  He  became  chan- 
cellor of  France  in  1472.    Died  in  1485. 

Doriolle.    See  Doriole. 

Dorion,  do're'(5»N',  (Claude  Auguste,)  a  French 
poet,  born  at  Nantes  about  1770.  He  produced  in  1809 
"  The  Battle  of  Hastings,"  an  epic  poem,  which  obtained 
an  honourable  mention  in  the  report  on  the  decennial 


prizes.  He  also  wrote  "The  Conquest  of  Palmyra,"  a 
poem,  and  several  odes  and  idyls.    Died  in  1829. 

Do'ris,  [Gr.  Awpff,]  a  goddess  of  the  sea,was  a  daughter 
of  Oceanus  and  Tethys,  and  the  wife  of  Nereus.  The  name 
was  sometimes  applied  by  the  poets  to  the  sea  itself. 

Dorislaus,  clo'ris-l§,'us,  (Isaac,)  a  Dutch  lawyer,  who 
removed  to  England  and  in  the  civil  war  acted  with  the 
republicans.  He  was  employed  by  them  at  the  trial  of 
Charles  I.,  and  in  1649  was  sent  as  minister  to  Holland. 
Soon  after  his  arrival  at  the  Hague  he  was  murdered  by 
some  English  royalists,  in  1650. 

Dorival,  do're'vtK,  (Claude  Francois,)  surnamed 
Plume  d'Or,  (pliim  doR,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Pe- 
san9on  in  1656;  died  in  1733. 

Dorleans,  doR''li^6N^  or  D'Orleans,  (Louis,)  a 
Frenchman,  born  in  Paris  in  1542,  was  a  partisan  of  the 
League,  and  wrote  libels  against  Henry  IV.  Died  in  1629. 

Dorleans  or  D'Orleans,  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Bourges  in  1644.  He  professed  belles- 
lettres  in  various  colleges  of  the  Jesuits,  and  was  employed 
in  preaching.  Voltaire  has  remarked  that  he  was  the  first 
historian  who  chose  revolutions  as  his  special  subject. 
He  produced  in  1693  a  "  History  of  the  Revolutions  of 
England,"  which  was  esteemed  even  by  fastidious  critics, 
and  was  followed  by  a  "  History  of  the  Revolutions  of 
Spain."  He  had  the  art  of  discerning  what  events  were 
most  worthy  of  notice,  and  of  narrating  them  in  an  agree- 
able manner.    Died  in  1698. 

Dorleans  de  la  Mothe,  doR^li^8N'  deh  la  mot, 
(Louis  Francois  Gabriel,)  Bishop  of  Amiens,  was  born 
at  Carpentras  in  1683  ;  died  in  1774. 

Dormans,  de,  deh  doR''m5N',  (Jean,)  a  French  car- 
dinal, born  at  Dormans.  He  was  Bishop  of  Beauvais 
when  Charles  V.,  about  1364,  appointed  him  chancellor 
of  France  and  keeper  of  the  seals.  In  1368  he  was  made 
a  cardinal.  He  founded  the  College  of  Beauvais  at  Paris 
in  1370.    Died  in  1373. 

Dorn,  doRn,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German  biblio- 
grapher, born  at  Schleusingen.  He  published  "  Biblio; 
theca  theologico-critica,"  (2  vols.,  1721.)    Died  in  1752. 

Dornau,  doR^now,  (Caspar,)  a  German  physician  and 
writer,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1577;  died  in  1632. 

Dorner,  doR'ner,  (Isaac  Alk^ust,)  a  German  Prot- 
estant theologian,  born  at  Neuhausen-ob-Eck,  in  Wiir- 
temberg,  in  1809,  became  in  1849  pi'ofessor  of  theology 
at  Bonn.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Development  of 
the  Doctrine  of  the  Person  of  Christ,"  (1839,)  an  excel- 
lent and  exhaustive  work,  and  a  "History  of  Protestant 
Theology,  particularly  in  Germany,"  ("  (jeschichte  der 
Protestantischen  Theologic,  besonders  in  Deutschland," 
etc.,  1867,)  which  disj^lays  not  only  profound  learning,  but 
great  critical  ability. 

Dornmeyer,  doRn'mi'er,  (Andreas  Julius,)  a  Ger- 
man critic  and  philologist,  born  at  Lauenstadt  in  1674. 
His  chief  work  is  "Philologia  Sacra."    Died  in  1717. 

Dor-o-the'a,  [Fr.  Dorothek,  do^-o'ta',]  Saint,  a 
Christian  virgin  of  Alexandria,  lived  about  310  A.D.  She 
is  said  by  some  writers  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  ;  but 
Eusebius  states  that  she  was  deprived  of  her  property 
and  banished.  Her  life  has  furnished  the  subject  of 
Massinger's  drama  of  "The  Virgin  Martyr." 

See  Eusebius,  "Ecclesiastical  History;"  Mrs.  Jameson,  "His- 
tory of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Dorothee.    See  Dorothea  and  Dorotheus. 

Do-ro'the-us,  [Gr.  Awp6(?£-of ;  Fr.  Dorothek,  do^rc'- 
t4',]  a  Greek  author,  of  whom  little  is  known.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Alexander  the  Great,"  which  is 
quoted  by  Athenceus. 

Dorotheus,  an  eminent  jurist,  lived  at  l^er'ytus,  and 
vi^as  one  of  the  compilers  of  Justinian's  "Digest."  Ho 
flourished  about  533  A.D. 

Dorotheas  of  Sidon,  a  Greek  poet,  lived  probably 
before  the  Christian  era. 

Dorow,  do'ro,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  antiquarj^,  born 
at  Konigsberg  in  1790.  He  visited  Italy  in  1827,  and 
made  a  large  collection  of  Etruscan  antiquities,  which 
are  now  in  the  museum  of  Berlin.  He  published  "  Monu- 
ments of  Ancient  Art  and  Language,"  (1824,)  "Etruria 
and  the  Orient,"  (1829,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1846. 

Dorpius,  doR^pe-us,  (Martin,)  a  Dutch  scholar,  born 
at  Naeldwyck  about  1480.    He  professed  eloquence  and 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fdt;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DORR 


783 


DOSITHEUS 


philosophy  at  Lille,  and  was  the  head  of  a  college  in 
Louvain  when  he  died  in  1525.  He  was  highly  esteemed 
by  Erasmus,  who  wrote  his  epitaph.  Dorpius  left  a  dis- 
course in  praise  of  Aristotle,  and  a  few  other  small  works. 
See  FOPPENS,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Dorr,  (Thomas  W.,)  an  American  politician,  born  at 
Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1805.  He  became  the 
leader  of  the  suffrage  party,  which  in  1841  framed  a  new 
Constitution,  under  which  he  was  elected  Governor. 
These  movements  were  treated  as  seditious  by  the  gov^ 
ernment  acting  under  the  old  charter,  and  both  parties 
appealed  to  arms,  (1842.)  Dorr  was  arrested,  convicted 
of  treason,  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life.  He 
was  pardoned  in  1847.    Died  in  1854. 

See  "Democratic  Review"  for  August,  1842. 

Dorsanne,  doR''stn',  ( Antoine,)  a  French  priest,  born 
at  Issoudun,  was  a  friend  of  Cardinal  De  Noailles, 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  who  appointed  him  a  canon  of  his 
church.  He  took  a  prominent  part  against  the  Jesuits 
and  the  bull  Unigenitus,  and  was  employed  by  Cardinal 
de  Noailles  in  the  negotiations  with  which  he  amused  the 
court  of  Rome  and  France.  Dorsanne  left  a  "Journal  of 
what  passed  at  Rome  and  in  France  on  the  Subject  of 
the  Bull  Unigenitus."    Died  in  1728. 

Dorsch,  doRsh,  (Everard,)  a  German  engraver  of 
gems,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1649  ;  died  in  1712. 

Dorsch,  (JoHANN  Christoph,)  a  German  gem-en- 
graver, son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1676  ;  died  in  1732. 

Dorsenne,  doR's^n',  (  Jean  Marie  FRANgois, )  a 
French  officer,  born  at  Ardres  (Pas-de-Calais)  in  1773. 
In  1809  he  became  a  general  of  division,  and  in  1811 
commanded  an  army  in  the  north  of  Spain.  Died  in  1812. 

Dor'set,  (Charles  Sackvili.e,)  sixth  Earl  of,  son 
of  Richard,  Earl  of  Dorset,  born  in  1637,  was  a  distin- 
guished courtier,  wit,  and  patron  of  letters.  In  youth 
he  bore  the  title  of  Lord  Buckhurst,  and  was  a  decided 
libertine  ;  but  his  courage,  good  nature,  and  other  re- 
deeming qualities  rendered  him  a  general  favourite.  He 
had  too  little  ambition,  or  too  much  indolence,  to  raise 
himself  to  the  highest  political  positions  to  which  his 
talents  were  adequate.  "He  became,"  says  Macaulay, 
"  an  intellectual  voluptuary,  and  a  master  of  all  those 
pleasing  branches  of  knowledge  which  can  be  acquired 
without  severe  application.  .  .  .  Such  a  patron  of  letters 
England  had  never  seen.  His  bounty  was  bestowed 
with  equal  judgment  and  liberality.  Dryden  owned  that 
he  had  been  saved  from  ruin  by  his  princely  generosity." 
In  1665  he  served  as  volunteer  in  the  naval  war  against 
the  Dutch,  during  which  he  wrote  the  admired  song 
beginning  "To  all  you  ladies  now  on  land."  He  became 
Earl  of  l3orset  at  the  death  of  his  father  in  1677,  after 
which  he  married  the  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  North- 
ampton. At  the  accession  of  William  III.  (1689)  he 
accepted  the  office  of  lord  chamberlain,  which  he  re- 
signed in  1697.  Died  in  1706.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
few  songs  and  satires,  which,  says  Macaulay,  "sparkle 
with  wit  as  splendid  as  that  of  Butler."  Pope  wrote  his 
epitaph,  which  contains  these  lines, — 

"  Bless'd  courtier,  who  could  king  and  country  please, 
Yet  sacred  keep  his  friendships  and  his  ease." 
See  Macaulay,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap,  viii.,  vol. 
iii.  chap,  i.,  and  vol.  iv.  cliap.  xxii. 

Dorset,  (Edward  Sackville,)  fourth  Earl  of,  born 
in  1590,  was  the  grandson  of  the  first  earl.  He  was  sent 
on  an  embassy  to  France  in  1621.  In  1624,  by  the  death 
of  his  brother  Richard,  he  became  Earl  of  Dorset.  He 
was  chosen  president  of  the  council  in  1641.  In  the 
civil  war  he  was  a  royalist,  and  fought  bravely  at  Edge- 
hill.  He  died  in  1652,  leaving  his  title  to  his  son  Rich- 
ard. A  number  of  his  speeches  were  published  between 
1620  and  1644.  He  was  an  excellent  master  of  speech 
and  composition.  Clarendon  says  "  his  wit  was  pleasant, 
sparkling,  and  sublime."    ("  History  of  the  Rebellion.") 

See,  also,  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Dorset,  (Richard  Sackville,)  third  Earl  of,  the 
eldest  son  of  Robert,  Earl  of  Dorset,  was  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1589.  In  1609  he  married  Anne  Clifford,  who 
was  eminent  for  her  noble  spirit,  attainments,  and  munifi- 
cence, and  was  afterwards  known  as  the  Countess  of  Dor- 
set and  Pembroke.  (See  Clifford,  Anne.)  He  died  in 
1624,  when  the  title  passed  to  his  brother  Edward. 


Dorset,  (Richard  Sackville,)  fifth  Earl  of,  born 
in  1622,  was  the  father  of  Charles,  the  celebrated  courtier 
and  patron,  and  the  son  of  Edward,  Earl  of  Dorset, 
noticed  above.  He  wrote  a  "  Poetical  Address  to  the 
Memory  of  Ben  Jonson."    Died  in  1677, 

Dorset,  (Thomas  Sackville,)  first  Earl  of,  an 
English  statesman  and  poet,  born  at  Buckhurst  in  1536, 
was  the  son  of  Sir  Richard  Sackville.  He  was  a  gradu- 
ate of  Cambridge,  and  a  lawyer  by  profession.  In  his 
youth  he  cultivated  poetry  with  success.  He  wrote  the 
much-admired  "  Induction  to  the  Mirror  for  Magistrates," 
(see  Baldwin,  William,)  and  the  tragedy  of  "  Gorbo- 
duc,  or  Ferrer  and  Porrex,"  (1565,)  which,  says  Sir 
Philip  Sidney,  "is  full  of  stately  speeches  and  well- 
sounding  phrases,  climbing  to  the  height  of  Seneca's 
style,  and  as  full  of  notable  morality."  It  was  the  first 
regular  or  respectable  tragedy  that  appeared  in  the  Eng- 
lish language.  He  was  created  Lord  Buckhurst  in  1566, 
and  was  minister  to  France  in  1570.  In  1587  he  was 
sent  to  the  Netherlands  to  inquire  into  the  difficulties 
between  the  States  and  Leicester,  the  governor-general. 
He  fulfilled  this  mission  with  great  sagacity  and  impar- 
tiality ;  but,  having  expressed  a  judgment  unfavourable 
to  Leicester,  he  was  banished  from  court  and  imprisoned 
in  his  own  house  till  the  death  of  that  favourite.  (See 
Motley's  "United  Netherlands,"  chaps,  xv.  and  xvi.) 
In  1598  he  succeeded  Lord  Burleigh  as  lord  treasurer 
of  England,  which  office  he  retained  with  honour  until 
his  death,  in  1608.  He  had  been  created  Earl  of  Dorset 
by  James  I.,  and  left  the  title  to  his  son  Robert. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Dor'sey,  (John  Syng,)  M.D.,  an  eminent  physician 
and  surgeon  of  Philadelphia,  was  born  in  that  city  in 
1783.  He  studied  in  London,  where  he  attended  the 
lectures  of  Humphry  Davy,  the  distinguished  chemist; 
he  afterwards  attended  the  medical  schools  of  Paris.  In 
1813  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  materia  medica  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  181 8  succeeded 
Wistar  as  professor  of  anatomy,  but  died  the  same  year. 
His  "Elements  of  Surgery"  (1813)  had  a  European 
reputation,  and  was  long  popular  in  this  country.  Dr. 
Dorsey  was  a  nephew  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Physick. 

See  S.  D.  Gross,  "American  Medical  Biography." 

Dorsten,  doR'sten,  (Johann  Daniel,)  a  German 
medical  writer,  born  at  Marburg  in  1643  ;  died  in  1706. 

Dorthes,  doRt,  (Jacques  Anselme,)  a  French  ento- 
mologist, born  at  Nimes  in  1759;  died  in  1794. 

Dortoman,  doR^to-man',  (Nicolaas,)  a  physician, 
born  at  Arnheim,  in  Holland,  became  professor  of  medi- 
cine at  Montpellier,  and  afterwards  physician-in-ordinary 
to  Henry  IV.  of  France.    Died  in  1596. 

Dortous.    See  Mairan. 

Do'rus,  [Gr.  AfZipoj-,]  a  mythical  person,  from  whom 
the  Dorians  claimed  their  descent.  He  was  co-mmonly 
regarded  as  a  son  of  Hellen. 

Dorval,  doR^SK,  (Marie  Am^lie  Thomas  Delau- 
NAY,)  Madame,  a  popular  French  actress,  born  at  Lo- 
rient  in  1801  ;  died  in  1849. 

Dorvigny,  doR\6n^ye',  (Louis,)  a  French  comic 
writer,  born  at  Versailles  in  1743.  His  comedy  of  "  Janot, 
ou  les  Battus  payent  I'Amende,"  (1779,)  obtained  great 
success.    Died  in  1812. 

Dorville.    See  Contant  d'Orville. 

Dorvo,  doR'vo',  (  Hyacin  lhe,  )  a  French  poet  and 
dramatic  writer,  born  at  Rennes  in  1769.  He  wrote 
many  popular  comedies.    Died  in  185 1. 

Dosi,  do'see,  (Girolamo,)  an  eminent  Italian  archi- 
tect, born  at  Carpi  in  1695,  was  a  pupil  of  Fontana.  He 
went  to  Rome,  and  became  the  architect  of  Pope  Clement 
XII.  He  displayed  his  talents  on  the  Villa  Cibo,  the 
Lazaretto  of  Ancona,  the  basilica  of  Santa  Maria  Mag- 
giore,  and  other  edifices.    Died  in  1775. 

Do-si'a-das  of  Rhodes,  a  Greek  poetaster  of  an 
unknown  epoch,  is  mentioned  by  Lucian.  He  wrote  a 
poem  in  the  figure  of  an  altar,  which  is  extant. 

Dosio,  do'se-o,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
sculptor,  born  in  1533.  He  made  statues  and  bas-reliefs 
for  the  Belvedere  palace,  Rome.    Died  about  1600. 

Do-sith'e-us  of  Colone,  a  Greek  geometer,  lived 
about  220  B.C.  Archimedes  dedicated  to  him  several 
treatises. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;'^2& j;  g,  h,  y., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DOSITHEUS 


784 


DOUGLAS 


Dositheus,  [Fr.  Dosith^e,  do^ze'ti',]  a  Jewish  im- 
postor or  magician  of  Samaria,  lived  in  the  first  century. 
He  pretended  to  be  the  Messiah. 

Dositheus  surnamed  Magis'ter,  a  Greek  gram- 
marian, lived  about  300  a.d. 

See  Smith's  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and 
Mythology." 

Dosma-Delgado,  dos'md  dSl-gi'Do,  (Rodrigo,)  a 
Spanish  theologian  and  linguist,  born  at  Badajos  in  1533  ; 
died  in  1607. 

D'Ossat.    See  Ossat. 

Dossi,  dos'see,  (Dosso,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
or  near  Ferrara  in  1474,  was  the  friend  of  Ariosto,  who 
has  commemorated  him  among  the  eminent  artists  of 
that  age.  He  painted  an  admirable  portrait  of  Ariosto. 
He  had  a  brother  Giobattista,  who  worked  with  him  in 
Ferrara  and  was  an  excellent  landscape-painter.  As 
Dosso  excelled  in  the  human  figure,  they  were  often  em- 
ployed on  the  same  picture.  Dosso  died  in  1558.  Among 
their  master-pieces  is  an  oil-painting  of  the  four  Fathers 
Ambrose,  Augustine,  Gregory,  and  Jerome  consulting 
together. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  AUgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Dos'sie,  (Robert,)  an  English  apothecary  or  chemist, 
who  lived  in  London,  published  "  Institutes  of  Experi- 
mental Chemistry."    Died  in  1777. 

Dost-  (dost)  Mo-ham'med,  Emir  of  Cabool,  an 
Affghan  chief,  was  born  about  1798.  He  began  to  reign 
at  Cabool  about  1826,  was  expelled  by  a  British  army  in 
1840,  and  was  restored  in  1843.  He  was  an  ambitious 
and  warlike  ruler.    Died  about  1857. 

See  MoHUN  Lal,  "Life  of  Dost-Mohammed,"  2  vols.,  1846. 

Dotteville,  dofv^K,  (Jean  Henri,)  a  French  trans- 
lator, born  at  Palaiseau  in  1 7 16,  produced  a  translation 
of  Sallust,  (1749,)  which  is  commended,  and  aversion 
of  the  "Annals"  of  Tacitus,  (1774.)    Died  in  1807. 

Dotti,  dot'tee,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  satirical 
poet,  born  at  Valcanonico  in  1642,  lived  some  years  in 
Venice.  His  personal  satires  gave  great  offence.  He 
published  a  volume  of  verses  called  "  Rime  e  Sonnetti," 
("Verses  and  Sonnets,")  and  wrote  "  The  Carnival"  and 
other  satires.    He  was  assassinated  in  17 12. 

Dottori,  di,  de  dot-to''ree,  (Carlo,)  Count,  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Padua  in  1624,  wrote  "  Aristodemo,"  a 
tragedy,  often  reprinted,  and  other  poems.  Died  in  1686. 

Dou,  (Gerard.)    See  Dow. 

Douaren,  doo^S'rSN',  or  Duaren,  dii't^rSN',  [Lat. 
Douare'nus,]  (Francois,)  a  French  jurist,  born  in 
Bretagne  about  1509.  He  professed  law  at  Bourges  for 
some  years,  and  in  1548  began  to  practise  in  Paris.  He 
was  reputed  one  of  the  most  learned  jurists  of  his  time, 
particularly  in  civil  law,  and  published  many  legal  works. 
He  also  wrote  a  curious  treatise  on  Plagiaries.  Died  at 
Bourges  in  1559. 

See  Zeidler,  "Vita  Douareni,"  1768;  Bayle,  "Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary." 

Double,  doobl,  (FRANgois  Joseph,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Verdun-sur-Garonne  in  1776,  practised  in 
Paris  with  success.  He  had  a  share  in  the  discovery  and 
application  of  quinine  by  Pelletier,  his  brother-in-law. 
Died  in  1842. 

Doub'le-day,  (diib'Kda),  (Abner,)  an  American  gen- 
eral, born  in  Saratoga  county.  New  York,  about  1820, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842.  He  was  a  captain 
before  the  civil  war,  and  was  one  of  the  garrison  of  Fort 
Sumter,  April,  1861.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the 
battle  of  Antietam,  September  17,  1862,  and  a  corps  at 
Gettysburg,  July  2  and  3,  1863.  In  September,  1867,  he 
obtained  the  rank  of  colonel  in  the  regular  army. 

Doub'le-day,  (Edward,)  an  English  naturalist,  born 
in  1810.  He  visited  the  United  States  for  scientific  pur- 
poses. After  his  return  home  he  was  one  of  the  curators 
of  the  British  Museum,  where  he  gave  much  attention 
to  the  study  of  insects.  His  principal  work  is  "On  the 
Genera  of  Diurnal  Lepidoptera,"  which  he  continued  to 
issue  in  parts  until  his  death.  He  also  published  a 
treatise  on  the  "Nomenclature  of  British  Birds,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  London  in  1849. 

Doublet,  doo'bli',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Chartres  in  1751.  In  1794  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  pathology  in  the  £cole  de  Sante,  Paris.  He 


wrote  medical  articles  for  the  "  Encyclopedie  Metho- 
dique,"  a  treatise  on  "Reform  in  Prisons,"  and  one  on 
"Puerperal  Fever."    Died  in  1795. 

See  Doublet  de  Boisthibault,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  F.  Dou- 
blet," 1826. 

Douce,  dowss,  (Francis,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  1762.  He  was  a  diligent  collector  of  rare  and  curious 
books,  prints,  coins,  etc.,  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Antiqua- 
rian Society,  and  at  one  time  keeper  of  the  manuscripts 
in  the  British  Museum.  He  wrote  several  papers  for  the 
"  Archasologia,"  and  published  "  Illustrations  of  Shak- 
speare,"  (1807.)    Died  in  1834. 

See  William  Jerdan,  "Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1866. 

Doucet,  doo'sV,  (Charles  Camille,  )  a  French 
dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1812. 

Doucin,  doo''siN^  (Louis,)  a  French  Jesuit,  bcrn  at 
Vernon  in  1652.  He  gained  a  reputation  by  his  writings, 
among  which  are  a  "History  of  Nestorianism,"  (1693,) 
and  a  "  History  of  Origenism,"  (1700.)  These  are  said 
to  be  interesting  and  well  written.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  as  the  supporter  of  the  bull  "  Unigenitus"  against 
Jansenism.    Died  in  1726. 

Doudeauville,  de,  deh  doo'do'v^K,  (Ambroise  Poly- 
CARPE  de  la  Rochefoucauld,  deh  It  roshToo'ko',) 
Due,  a  philanthropic  nobleman,  born  in  Paris  in  1765; 
died  in  1841. 

Doudyns,  dow'dins,  or  Dodvens,  (Willem,  )  a 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1650.  He  studied 
in  Rome  for  twelve  years,  after  which  he  returned  to 
the  Hague  and  worked  with  great  success.  Descamps 
praises  his  composition,  design,  and  colour.  One  of 
his  works  represents  "Time,  which  discovers  Truth 
and  Deception."    Died  in  1697. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Doueli-al-Basri.    See  Duali-al-Basree. 

Douffet  or  Douffeit.    See  Duffet. 

Dougados,  doo'gS'dos',  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French 
poet,  born  at  Carcassonne  in  1763.  In  his  youth  he 
turned  monk,  and  assumed  the  name  of  Pere  Venance. 
He  entered  the  army  in  1791,  rose  to  the  rank  of  adju- 
tant-general, and  was  executed  by  the  Jacobins  in  1794. 
He  was  author  of  a  "Christmas  Hymn,"  and  of  other 
verses. 

Doughty,  dow'te,  (Thomas,)  an  American  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1793.  He  learned  the 
trade  of  a  tanner  and  currier,  but  relinquished  that 
business  about  1820  for  landscape-painting,  which  he 
followed  many  years  in  the  United  States,  and  afterwards 
in  London  and  Paris.    Died  in  New  York  in  1856. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Douglas,  dug'lass,  an  ancient  noble  family  of  Scot- 
land, which  traces  its  ancestry  as  far  back  as  the  twelfth 
century.  The  Earls  of  Douglas,  the  Earls  of  Angus, 
and  the  Earls  of  Morton  belonged  to  this  family.  Sir 
James  Douglas,  surnamed  the  Good,  was  the  founder 
of  their  fame  and  grandeur.  He  commanded  the  left 
wing  at  Bannockburn  in  13 14,  and  was  killed  by  the  Sa- 
racens in  Spain  about  1330,  in  a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine, 
whither  he  was  going  to  deposit  the  heart  of  Robert 
Bruce.  As  he  left  no  lawful  issue,  he  was  succeeded  by 
his  brothers  Hugh  and  Archibald.  The  latter,  who  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Halidon  Hill  in  1333,  left  a  son 
William,  who  became  the  first  Earl  of  Douglas  and  mar- 
ried for  his  third  wife  the  heiress  of  the  Earl  of  Angus. 
He  died  in  1384,  leaving  two  sons,  James,  second  Earl 
of  Douglas,  and  George,  Earl  of  Angus.  James,  second 
Earl,  married  Margaret,  a  daughter  of  King  Robert  II. 
He  was  a  famous  warrior,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Otterburn  in  1388.  As  he  left  no  male  issue,  the  earl- 
dom passed  to  Archibald  the  Grim,  third  Earl,  who 
fought  for  the  French  at  Poitiers  and  died  about  1400. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Archibald,  fourth  Earl,  who 
married  a  daughter  of  King  Robert  HI.  He  displayed 
great  courage  at  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury,  (1403,)  where 
he  fought  against  Henry  IV.,  and  rendered  important 
military  services  to  Charles  VII.  of  France,  who  rewarded 
him  with  the  duchy  of  Touraine.  He  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Verneuil,  in  France,  in  1424.  His  son  Archi- 
bald, the  fifth  Earl  of  Douglas,  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  regency  at  the  death  of  James  I.,  (1437.)  He  died  in 
1438,  leaving  his  title  to  his  son  William,  the  sixth  Earl, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DOUGLAS 


785 


DOUGLAS 


who  was  born  about  r425.  William,  charged  with  am- 
bitious designs  or  contempt  for  the  authority  of  the 
infant  king,  was  beheaded  in  1440,  or,  as  some  say,  in 
1437.  The  earldom  of  Douglas  then  passed  to  J^mies, 
an  uncle  or  grand-uncle  of  William.  James  was  suc- 
ceeded by  William,  eighth  Earl.  (See  separate  article.) 
See  Robertson,  "History  of  Scotland." 

Douglas,  (Archibald,)  fifth  Earl  of  Angus,  grand- 
son of  George,  above  named,  was  lord  chancellor  about 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  was  a  powerful,  am- 
bitious, and  lawless  subject.  He  was  called  "the  Great 
Earl  of  Angus,"  and  also  surnamed  *' Bell-the-Cat."  He 
had  several  sons,  one  of  whom  was  Gavin,  the  poet  and 
bishop.  (See  separate  notice  below.)  Died  about  1514. 
Archibald  VI.,  grandson  of  the  fifth  Earl  of  Angus,  and 
son  of  George,  was  lord  chancellor  about  1527.  He 
married  in  15 14  Margaret,  queen-dowager  of  James  IV. 
and  sister  of  Henry  VIII.  He  died  in  1567,  leaving  a 
daughter,  who  was  the  mother  of  Lord  Darnley.  George, 
a  nephew  of  the  sixth  Earl,  inherited  his  title,  and  had 
a  younger  brother,  who  became  Earl  of  Morton,  after- 
wards Regent  Morton  in  the  time  of  Queen  Mary  Stuart. 
William,  the  son  of  the  tenth  Earl  of  Angus,  in  1633  was 
created  Marquis  of  Douglas,  and  his  son  Archibald  was 
created  Earl  of  Ormond  by  Charles  II. 

Douglas,  (Sir  Charles,)  a  Scottish  naval  officer,  the 
father  of  General  Sir  Howard  Douglas.  He  commanded 
a  squadron  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  in  1775.  In 
1 781  he  was  appointed  first  captain  to  Admiral  Rodney, 
and  contributed  to  the  victory  gained  by  him  over  the 
French  in  the  West  Indies,  April  12  of  that  year.  In 
1787  he  was  made  rear-admiral.    Died  in  1789. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Douglas,  (David,)  an  eminent  Scottish  botanist,  born 
at  Scone,  in  Perthshire,  in  1 798.  He  served  an  apprentice- 
ship as  a  gardener,  and  worked  in  the  botanic  garden  of 
the  University  of  Glasgow.  About  1823-24  he  was  em- 
ployed by  the  London  Horticultural  Society  as  a  botanical 
collector  in  the  United  States,  and  extended  his  re- 
searches as  far  as  Oregon  and  California.  He  returned 
in  1827  with  many  valuable  acquisitions  for  English 
flower-gardens.  A  few  years  later  he  sailed  for  America 
on  a  similar  mission,  and  visited  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
where  he  was  killed,  in  1834,  by  a  wild  bull  which  had 
been  entrapped  in  a  pit,  he  himself  having  soon  after 
accidentally  fallen  into  the  same  pit. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Douglas,  diig'lass,  (  Frederick,  )  a  distinguished 
American  orator,  originally  a  mulatto  slave,  born  in  Tal- 
bot county,.  Maryland,  about  181 7.  He  escaped  from 
his  master  in  1838,  and  went  to  New  Bedford,  Massa- 
chusetts. About  1 841  he  began  to  deliver  lectures  against 
slavery,  which  attracted  much  attention  throughout  the 
Northern  States.  He  published  his  Autobiography  in 
1845,  ^^^^^  which  he  visited  England,  where  he  made 
anti-slavery  speeches  and  drew  large  audiences  by  his 
earnest  and  brilliant  eloquence.  He  edited  at  Rochester, 
New  York,  a  paper  called  "The  North  Star."  "His 
glow  and  fervour,"  says  Mr.  T.  W.  Higginson,  "are 
extraordinary,  and  so  is  his  dramatic  power  ;  and  he 
surpasses  in  his  perception  of  the  finer  felicities  of  the 
English  language  all  other  self-made  men  whom  I  have 
ever  known." 

See  "My  Bondage  and  my  Freedom,"  by  Frederick  Douglas. 

Douglas,  (Gavin  or  Gawin,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born 
about  1474,  was  the  third  son  of  Archibald,  fifth  Earl  of 
Angus.  He  finished  his  education  in  the  University  of 
Paris,  and  entered  the  Church.  In  1515  he  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Dunkeld.  His  reputation  as  a  poet  is  founded 
chiefly  on  his  translation  of  Virgil's  "^neid"  into  Scottish 
verse,  (1513,)  which  was  the  first  version  of  a  classic  into 
any  British  language.  "This  translation,"  says  Warton, 
"is  executed  with  equal  spirit  and  fidelity.  The  several 
books  are  introduced  with  metrical  prologues,  which  are 
often  highly  poetical."  His  principal  original  poem  is 
"The  Palace  of  Honour."    Died  in  1522. 

See  Irving,  " Lives  of  the  Scottish  Poets;"  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Douglas.  See  Morton,  Earl  of,  and  Ormond, 
Earl  of. 


Douglas,  diig'lass,  (Sir  Howard,)  a  British  general, 
born  at  Gosport,  in  Hampshire,  in  1776,  was  a  son  of 
Admiral  Sir  Charles  Douglas.  He  served  in  the  Pen- 
insula from  1808  to  1812,  and  published  an  "Essay 
on  Military  Bridges,"  (1816.)  His  "  Treatise  on  Naval 
Gunnery,"  approved  by  the  admiralty,  was  published 
in  1819,  (4th  edition,  1855.)  He  was  Governor  of  New 
Brunswick  from  1823  to  1829,  was  elected  to  Parliament 
in  1842,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  general  in  1851.  Died 
in  November,  1861. 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  May,  1863, 

Douglas,  (James,)  ninth  and  last  Earl  of,  a  brother 
of  William  the  eighth  Earl,  raised  an  army  against  the 
king,  but  was  taken  prisoner,  and  confined  until  his  death 
in  1488. 

Douglas,  (James,)  M.D.,  an  eminent  Scottish  anato- 
mist, born  in  1675,  resided  and  practised  in  London. 
He  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  surgeon  and  a  writer 
on  anatomy,  and  became  physician  to  the  king.  He  lec- 
tured many  years  on  anatomy  and  surgery.  Haller,  who 
visited  him,  calls  him  a  "  learned  and  skilful  person."  He 
published  a  "  Description  of  the  Peritonaeum,"  "  Myogra- 
phiae  comparatae  Specimen,"  (1707,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1742. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Douglas,  (John,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
surgeon  to  the  Westminster  Infirmary.  He  was  distin- 
guished as  a  lithotomist^  and  was  the  author  of  several 
professional  works,  among  which  is  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Utility  of  Bark  as  a  Remedy  for  Mortification." 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Douglas,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  a  Scottish  bishop,  born  in 
Fifeshire  in  1721.  He  was  eminent  for  learning  and 
literary  ability.  In  1750  he  published  a  "Vindication 
of  Milton  from  Lauder's  Charge  of  Plagiarism,"  and  in 
1754  "The  Criterion  of  Miracles,"  in  which  he  refuted 
the  sophistries  of  Plume.  He  was  appointed  one  of 
the  king's  chaplains  in  1761,  Bishop  of  Carlisle  in  1787, 
and  of  Salisbury  in  1 791.  As  a  member  of  Dr.  John- 
son's Club,  he  is  noticed  in  Goldsmith's  "Retaliation" 
in  these  terms  : 

"  Here  Douglas  retires,  from  his  toils  to  relax, 
The  scourge  of  impostors,  the  terror  of  quacks." 

Died  in  1807. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  Bishop  Douglas,"  prefixed  to  his  Select  Works, 
by  W.  Macdonald,  1820. 

Douglas,  (Stephen  Arnold,)  an  American  politician, 
born  at  Brandon,  Rutland  county,  Vermont,  in  April,  1813. 
He  studied  in  an  academy  at  Canandaigua,  New  York, 
from  1830  to  1833.  He  adopted  the  profession  of  law, 
removed  to  Illinois  in  1833,  and  began  to  practise  at 
Jacksonville.  He  soon  became  an  active  politician  and 
a  popular  orator  of  the  Democratic  party,  who,  in  allu- 
sion to  his  small  stature,  gave  him  the  name  of  "the 
Little  Giant."  He  was  nominated  for  Congress  in  1838, 
but  was  defeated  by  a  small  majority.  In  the  canvass  for 
President  in  1840  he  distinguished  himself  as  a  "stump 
speaker."  He  was  elected  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court 
of  Illinois  in  February,  1841.  In  1843  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress,  in  which  he  advocated  the  annex- 
ation of  Texas  to  the  Union.  He  repiesented  Illinois 
in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  from  March,  1847,  to 
1853,  during  which  term  he  was  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee on  territories.   He  married  a  Miss  Martin  in  1847. 

He  supported  Clay's  "  Compromise  measures"  of 
1850,  and  in  relation  to  the  extension  of  slavery  in  the 
territories  maintained  that  Congress  should  not  inter- 
fere, but  that  the  people  of  each  territory  should  be 
permitted  to  decide  whether  it  should  be  a  free  State  or 
a  slave  State.  This  was  called  the  doctrine  of  "  Popular 
Sovereignty,"  of  which  Douglas  was  the  reputed  author. 
He  was  re-elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  for 
a  term  of  six  years,  1853-59.  In  January,  1854,  he  re- 
ported from  the  committee  on  territories  an  important 
bill  to  organize  the  territories  of  Nebraska  and  Kansas. 
This  bill,  which  was  afterwards  passed,  and  by  which  the 
Missouri  Compromise  was  repealed,  produced  a  great 
excitement,  and  was  denounced  by  many  Northern  Demo- 
crats, who  on  this  account  separated  from  their  party. 

In  the  National  Democratic  Convention  of  1856,  Buch- 
anan and  Douglas  were  rival  candidates  for  the  nomina- 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

50 


DOUGLAS 


786 


DOUFILLE 


tion,  which  the  former  obtained.  Douglas  opposed  the 
admission  of  Kansas  in  1857  under  the  Lecompton  Con- 
stitution, and  was  thus  involved  in  a  controversy  with 
President  Buchanan  and  a  majority  of  his  party  in  the 
Senate.  This  affair  caused  a  division  in  the  Democratic 
party,  and  those  who  acted  with  Douglas  were  styled 
Anti-Lecompton  Democrats.  Henceforth  Buchanan  and 
Douglas  were  bitter  enemies.  In  1858  Illinois  was  the 
arena  of  a  memorable  contest  between  Douglas  and 
Abraham  Lincoln,  who  were  competitors  for  the  office 
of  Senator  of  the  United  States,  and  canvassed  the  State 
in  joint  discussions  at  various  places.  (See  Lincoln, 
Abraham.)  Douglas  gained  his  election  as  Senator, 
receiving  54  votes  out  of  100. 

He  was  supported  by  a  majority  of  Northern  Demo- 
crats as  candidate  for  President  at  the  National  Con- 
vention which  met  at  Charleston  in  April,  i860.  This 
convention  adopted  a  platform  which  was  in  accordance 
with  his  policy  and  was  not  satisfactory  to  the  extreme 
Southern  politicians.  The  delegations  of  Alabama,  Mis- 
sissipi^i.  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Louisiana,  Arkansas, 
and  Florida  then  withdrew  from  the  convention.  On  the 
first  ballot  Douglas  received  145  votes,  and  no  other 
candidate  received  more  than  42.  Having  taken  more 
than  fifty  ballots  without  effecting  a  nomination,  the 
convention  adjourned,  to  meet  in  Baltimore  in  June.  He 
received  181  votes  at  Baltimore,  and  was  declared  the 
regular  nominee.  The  seceders  nominated  John  C.  Breck- 
inridge, and  thus  rendered  the  election  of  Douglas  almost 
hopeless.  The  latter,  however,  advocated  his  cause  by 
many  public  speeches  in  the  Northern  and  Southern 
States.  At  the  end  of  the  contest  Douglas  received 
only  twelve  electoral  votes.  After  the  rebellion  began, 
he  supported  the  government  in  efforts  to  suppress  it. 
On  the  25th  of  April,  1861,  he  made  a  patriotic  speech 
at  Springfield,  Illinois,  before  the  legislature.  He  died 
at  Chicago  in  June,  1861,  leaving  several  children. 

See  J.  W.  Sheahan,  "  Life  of  Stephen  A.  Douglas,"  i860. 

Douglas,  (Sylvester,)  Lord  Glenbervie,  a  Scottish 
lawyer,  born  at  Ellon  in  1743,  lived  in  England.  He 
attained  eminence  in  his  profession,  and  published  "  Re- 
ports in  King's  Bench,"  which  are  high  authority.  He  was 
appointed  secretary  for  Ireland  in  1793,  was  made  Lord 
Glenbervie  in  1800,  and  held  several  high  civil  offices. 
His  wife  was  a  daughter  of  the  celebrated  Lord  North. 
He  was  repeatedly  elected  to  Parliament.  Died  in  1823. 

Douglas,  (William,)  Lord  of  Nithsdale,  called  "the 
Black  Douglas,"  was  a  formidable  enemy  to  the  English. 
He  was  assassinated  by  Lord  Clifford,  about  1390. 

Douglas,  (William,)  eighth  Earl  of,  was  an  im- 
perious and  turbulent  person.  Having  defied  the  royal 
authority,  he  was  killed  by  King  James  II.  during  a 
conference  in  1452. 

Douglas,  (William,)  first  Marquis  of,  the  son  of 
the  tenth  Earl  of  Angus,  was  created  a  marquis  in  1633. 
His  son  Archibald  became  Earl  of  Ormond;  his  second 
son,  William,  was  made  Earl  of  Selkirk,  and,  after  his 
marriage  with  the  Duchess  of  Hamilton,  obtained  the 
title  of  Duke  of  Hamilton.  (See  Hamilton.)  The 
third  Marquis  of  Douglas  was  made  Duke  of  Douglas, 
and  died  in  1761,  when  the  dukedom  became  extinct, 
and  the  marquisate  devolved  on  the  seventh  Duke  of 
Hamilton.  The  Dukes  of  Queensberry  are  also  a  branch 
of  the  house  of  Douglas. 

Douglas,  (Sir  William,)  Knight  of  Liddesdale,  was 
a  natural  son  of  "  the  good  Sir  James,"  and  was  called 
"  England's  scourge  and  Scotland's  bulwark."  He  was 
assassinated  in  1353. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Douglas,  (Sir  William,)  of  Glenbervie,  a  son  of 
Archibald  "  Bell-the-Cat,"  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Flodden,  (1513.)  His  brother  George,  Master  of  Angus, 
was  also  killed  in  the  same  battle. 

Douglass,  dug'lass,  (David  Bates,)  LL.D.,  an  Ame- 
rican engineer,  born  in  Pompton,  New  Jersey,  in  1790. 
He  was  for  many  years  professor  of  natural  philosophy, 
engineering,  etc.  at  West  Point.  He  was  chief  engineer 
in  projecting  the  New  York  Croton  Aqueduct  in  1833 
-34,  and  president  of  Kenyon  College,  Ohio,  from  1840 
to  1844.    Died  in  1849. 


Doujat,  doo'zhS',  (Jean,)  an  eminent  French  scholar 
and  jurist,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1606.  In  1650  he  was 
received  ii\  the  P'rench  Academy,  and  in  1655  was  ap- 
pointed doctor-regent  of  the  Faculty  of  Law  in  Paris, 
and  afterwards  historiographer  of  France.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Canon  Law,"  (1677,)  and  other  works,  and 
edited  Livy  "ad  usum  Delphini."    Died  in  1688. 

See  Taisand,  "Vies  des  lurisconsultes." 

Doulcet.    See  Pont^coulant. 

Doulet-Shah  or  Douletschah,  dow'let-shlh',  a 
Persian  of  the  fifteenth  century,  who  wrote  "  Memoirs 
of  Persian  and  Arabian  Poets,"  (1487.) 

Doultreman.    See  Oultreman,  d'. 

Dounot,  doo^no',  a  French  mathematician  and  jurist, 
born  at  Bar-le-Duc,  produced  the  first  complete  French 
version  of  "Euclid,"  (1610.)  He  was  highly  esteemed 
by  Descartes.    Died  in  1640. 

Dourga.    See  Durga. 

Douri,  doo're',  (Fr^:min,)  a  French  scholar  and  poet, 
born  in  Normandy  in  1512;  died  in  1578. 
Dourri.    See  Doorree. 

Dousa,  dow'si,  (Georg,)  a  Dutch  scholar,  son  of  Jan 
Dousa,  noticed  below,  was  born  about  1574.  He  wrote 
verses  in  Greek  and  Latin,  and  translated  a  work  of 
Codinus.  In  1597  he  visited  Constantinople,  where  he 
collected  old  manuscripts  and  inscriptions.  After  his 
return  he  published  a  "  Letter  on  a  Journey  to  Con- 
stantinople."   Died  about  1600. 

Two  younger  brothers  of  the  preceding,  Francis  and 
Theodore,  were  literary  men,  and  editors  of  several 
works. 

Dousa,  or  Van  der  Does,  vtn  der  doos,  written 
also  Douza,  (Jan,)  Lord  of  Noordwyck,  a  distinguished 
Dutch  Protestant  statesman  and  scholar,  born  at  Noord- 
wyk  in  1545.  He  concurred  in  the  efforts  to  liberate 
Holland  from  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  was  governor  of 
Leyden  in  1574  when  it  was  besieged  by  the  Spaniards. 
He  displayed  wisdom  and  firmness  in  this  memorable 
siege.  After  the  siege  was  raised,  the  University  of 
Leyden  was  founded  by  his  agency,  and  he  was  chosen 
first  curator.  In  1585  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the 
archives  of  Holland.  Dousa  and  his  son  John  wrote 
the  "Annals  of  Holland,"  in  Latin  verse  and  prose, 
(160 1,)  which  added  to  his  high  reputation.  He  was 
a  diligent  student  of  history,  and  wrote  Latin  odes  for 
recreation.  He  also  published  notes  on  Horace  and 
other  classics.    Died  in  1604. 

See  Motley,  "  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  part  iv.  chap.  ii. ; 
Daniel  Heinsius,  "  Laudatio  J.  Dousse,"  1605. 

Dousa,  (Jan,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1571, 
was  proficient  in  the  languages  and  scien-  es.  He  was 
chosen  librarian  of  the  University  of  Leyden  in  1 59 1, 
assisted  his  father  in  the  "  Annals  of  Holland,"  and  wrote 
the  first  part  of  an  admired  Latin  poem  on  astronomy, 
("  Rerum  Coelestium  Liber,")  which  was  not  finished 
when  he  died  prematurely  in  1596.  Joseph  J.  Scaliger 
lamented  his  death  in  an  "Epicedium." 

See  Veruel,  "  Redevoeringen  over  J.  Dousa  en  over  J.  Bellamy," 
1791  ;  M.  Siegenbeek,  "  Laudatio  J.  Dousse,"  1812. 

Doussin-Dubreuil,  doo'siN^dii^bRuF  or  dii'bRuh'ye, 
(Jacques  Louis,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Saintes  in 
1762  ;  died  at  Paris  in  183 1. 

Douven,  dow'ven  or  doo'ven,  (John  Francis,)  a 
skilful  portrait-painter,  born  at  Roermont,  near  Cleves, 
in  1656.  He  removed  to  Dusseldorf  about  1684,  and 
afterwards  worked  in  Vienna,  Denmark,  and  Florence. 
He  received  the  title  of  first  painter  to  the  emperor 
Leopold,  and  is  said  to  have  painted  three  emperors, 
five  kings,  and  seven  queens.    Died  at  Prague  in  17 10. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Douville,  doo^^K,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  tra- 
veller, born  in  Manche  in  1794.  He  returned  to  France 
in  1 83 1,  after  an  absence  of  some  years,  with  an  accojnt 
of  pretended  discoveries  in  Congo,  and  published  a  book 
called  "Travels  in  Congo,"  (1832,)  which  was  at  first 
received  with  favour  by  the  learned,  who  were  soon  con- 
vinced that  they  had  been  deceived.  He  visited  in  1833 
the  valley  of  the  Amazon,  where  he  is  supposed  to  have 
been  killed. 

See  Douville,  "Trente  Mois  de  ma  Vie,"  etc.,  1833;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1832. 


a,  e,  T  6  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


DOUFRE  787 


DOYLE 


Douvre,  de,  deh  doo'ver,  (Thomas,)  born  in  1027, 
became  Archbishop  of  York  in  1070.    Died  in  1 100. 
Douw.    See  Dow. 
Douza.    See  Dousa. 

Dovalle,  do'vtl',  (Charles,)  a  distinguished  French 
poet,  born  at  Montreuil-Bellay  in  1807,  was  the  author  of 
an  admired  poem,  entitled  "  L'Oratoire  du  Jardin,"  and 
a  song  on  Liberty,  which  was  commended  by  Beranger. 
He  was  killed  in  a  duel  by  M.  Mira  in  1829. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Dove,  do'veh,  (Heinrich  Wilhelm,)  an  eminent 
German  meteorologist,  born  at  Liegnitz,  in  Silesia,  in 
1803,  became  professor  of  physics  in  the  University  of 
Berlin  in  1829.  He  made  extensive  observations  and 
researches  into  the  laws  of  climate  and  atmospheric 
phenomena,  and  published  many  works,  among  which 
are  "Meteorological  Researches,"  (1837,)  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Electricity  of  Induction,"  (1843,)  "On  Elec- 
tricity," (1848.) 

Dover,  Lord.  See  Ellis,  (George  J.  Wellbore 
Agar.) 

Dovizi  or  Dovizio.    See  Bibbiena. 

Dow,  (Alexander,)  Colonel,  a  Scottish  writer,  born 
at  Crieff,  became  secretary  to  the  Governor  of  Bencoolen. 
He  published  a  "History  of  Hindostan,"  (1767,)  from 
the  Persian  of  Ferishta,  preceded  by  an  "Inquiry  into 
the  State  of  Bengal,"  and  an  "Essay  on  the  Origin  and 
Nature  of  Despotism  in  Hindostan,"  which  are  works 
of  merit  and  display  much  acquaintance  with  Oriental 
literature.    Died  in  1779. 

Dow  or  Douw,  dow,  (Gerard,)  a  celebrated  Dutch 
painter,  was  born  at  Leyden  in  1613.  In  the  school 
of  Rembrandt  he  made  himself  expert  in  colouring  and 
chiaroscuro.  He  sought  the  ideal  perfection  in  minute 
precision  and  exquisite  delicacy  of  finish,  which  he  be- 
stowed on  all  the  most  trivial  accessories  of  the  picture. 
It  is  said  that  he  spent  three  days  in  finishing  a  broom- 
handle.  It  is  only  by  the  aid  of  a  microscope  that  one 
can  appreciate  his  exact  imitation  of  nature  in  all  its 
minutiae.  His  works  are  marvels  of  technical  skill,  but 
not  of  inventive  genius.  He  chose  his  subjects  from  the 
scenes  of  common  life.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
"The  Dutch  Cook,"  "The  Dropsical  Woman,"  "The 
Charlatan,"  and  "The  Village  Grocer,"  His  paint- 
ings, though  of  small  dimensions,  command  high  prices. 
Mieris  was  his  most  noted  pupil,  Dow  resembled  Rem- 
brandt in  harmony  of  colour,  and  is  said  to  have  obtained 
Rembrandtesque  effects  notwithstanding  his  excessive 
elaboration.    Died  at  Leyden  in  1680, 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Dow,  (Lorenzo,)  an  eccentric  Methodist  preacher, 
born  in  Coventry,  Connecticut,  in  1777,  He  preached  in 
many  parts  of  the  United  States  and  in  England,  He 
was  noted  for  his  earnestness  and  courage,  as  well  as  for 
some  singularities  of  dress  and  expression.  He  died  in 
1834,  leaving  a  journal  of  his  life  and  travels, 

Dow,  (Neal,)  the  originator  of  the  celebrated  "  Maine 
Law,"  was  born  at  Portland,  Maine,  about  1803,  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  legislature  of  Maine,  in 
which  he  procured  the  passage  of  a  law  to  prohibit  the 
sale  of  ardent  spirits.  He  was  twice  mayor  of  Portland. 
He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  about  April, 
1862,  and  served  under  General  Butler  in  Louisiana. 

Dowd'all,  (George,)  was  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Armagh  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1543,  The  pope  refused  to 
confirm  this  nomination  ;  but  Dowdall  occupied  the  see 
for  some  years.    Died  in  1558, 

D5wTaud,  (John,)  an  English  musician,  born  in  or 
near  London  in  1562,  was  a  friend  of  Shakspeare,  He 
composed  songs,  airs,  etc,  and  wrote  several  treatises 
on  music.    Died  after  1625, 

Dow'ler,  (Bennet,)  an  American  physician,  born  in 
Ohio  county,  Virginia,  in  1797,  graduated  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Maryland  in  1827,  He  settled  in  New  Orleans 
about  1835,  and,  by  his  numerous  experiments  on  the 
human  body  soon  after  death,  made  discoveries  in  rela- 
tion to  muscular  contractility,  capillary  circulation,  etc, 

Downame,    See  Downham. 

Downe,  down,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  divine, 
was  a  nephew  of  Bishop  Jewel.  He  published  sermons, 
(1633,)  and  other  works. 


Downes.downz,  [Lat.  DuNyE''us,](ANDREW,)  an  Eng- 
lish scholar,  born  in  Shropshire  about  1 550,  became 
professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge  in  1586,  and  was  one 
of  the  translators  of  the  Bible.  He  ]:>ublished  "  Prelec- 
tions on  Lysias,"  (1593.)    Died  in  1627. 

Downes,"d6wnz,  (John,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  at  Canton,  Massachusetts,  in  1786.  He  served  as 
lieutenant  in  the  Essex,  under  Captain  Porter,  in  the  war 
against  Great  Britain,  (1812-14,)  after  which  he  fijught 
with  distinction  against  the  Algerines.  About  1817  he 
became  a  captain.  He  obtained  in  1832  command  of  a 
squadron  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  destroyed  Quallah 
Batoo,  in  Sumatra,  in  retaliation  for  an  outrage  com- 
mittecl  on  an  American  vessel.    Died  in  1855. 

Downham,  down'am,  or  Down'ame,  (George,) 
an  English  theologian,  born  at  Chester.  He  professed 
logic  at  Cambridge,  was  chaplain  to  James  I.,  and  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Derry  in  16 16.  He  wrote  "The 
Po])e  the  Antichrist,"  ("Papa  Antichristus,"  1603,)  a 
"Treatise  on  Justification,"  (1623,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1634, 

Downham,  (John,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
a  clergyman,  and  author  of  several  approved  religious 
works,  one  of  which  is  "The  Christian  Warfare,"  (1609- 
18.)    Died  in  1644, 

Down'ing,  (  Andrew  Jackson,  )  a  distinguished 
American  landscape-gardener  and  pomologist,  born  at 
Newburg,  New  York,  in  October,  181 5,  He  was  the 
son  of  a  nurseryman,  and  his  tastes  early  led  him  to  the 
study  of  botany,  rural  architecture,  and  kindred  pursuits. 
About  1841  he  published  an  excellent  "Treatise  on  the 
Theory  and  Practice  of  Landscape-Gardening,"  which 
was  received  as  a  standard  work  on  the  subject  of  which 
it  treats.  His  "  Fruits  and  Fruit-Trees  of  America" 
(1845)  was  very  successful,  and  had  passed  through  four- 
teen editions  in  1852.  He  also  jjrotluced  a  work  called 
"  Cottage  Residences,"  and  was  editor  of  "  The  Horti- 
culturist," a  monthly  published  at  Albany,  from  1846 
until  his  death.  He  was  a  passenger  on  the  North  River 
steamboat  Henry  Clay  on  the  28th  of  July,  1852,  and 
was  drowned  while  attempting  to  escape  from  the  burn- 
ing vessel.  In  1854  a  collection  of  his  "  Rural  Essays" 
was  published,  with  a  Memoir  of  the  author  by  George 
W.  Curtis.  As  a  landscape-gardener  Mr,  Downing  stood 
pre-eminent  among  his  countrymen  ;  and  he  probably 
had  few  superiors  in  this  department  even  in  Europe. 
His  writings  have  contributed  greatly  to  the  introduction 
and  diffusion  of  a  taste  for  rural  architecture  and  other 
rural  imj^rovements  in  America, 

DQwn'man,  (Hugh,)  M.D.,  an  English  poet,  born 
near  Exeter  in  1740.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Baliol  Col- 
lege, and  practised  medicine  at  Exeter,  He  wrote  several 
dramas,  and  "Infancy,  a  Poem,"  (1774-88,)  which  ran 
through  seven  editions  in  his  lifetime.    Died  in  1809, 

Dowse,  douz,  (Thomas,)  an  American  book-collector, 
born  at  Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  in  1772,  He  was  a 
leather-dresser  by  trade,  and  enjoyed  few  advantages  of 
education.  He  became  the  owner  of  a  library  of  5000 
volumes,  which,  a  short  time  before  his  death,  he  pre- 
sented to  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society.  He  also 
obtained  by  lottery  a  choice  collection  of  engravings  after 
the  old  masters,  which  he  gave  to  the  Boston  Athenseum. 
Died  in  1856, 

Doyen,  dwcVy6N',  (Gabriel  FRANgois,)  a  French 
historical  ])ainter,  born  in  Paris  in  1726,  was  a  pupil  of 
Vanloo,  He  gained  the  grand  prize  of  painting  in  1746, 
studied  in  Rome  about  seven  years,  and  returned  to  Paris, 
where  he  produced  a  successful  picture  of  the  "  Death 
of  Virginia,"  and  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  in  1758. 
His  reputation  was  increased  by  the  picture  of  "  Sainte- 
Genevieve  des  Ardents,"  which  is  called  his  master-piece. 
About  1790  he  went  to  Saint  Petersburg,  where  the 
empress  Catherine  employed  him  to  adorn  her  palaces. 
Died  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1806. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Doyere,  dwd'yaiR',  (Louis,)  a  French  naturalist,  born 
in  Calvados  in  1811,  has  written  on  anatomy  and  phy- 
siology. 

Doyle,  doil,  (Sir  Charles  William,)  a  general,  born 
in  Ireland,  entered  the  British  army  about  1793.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  Spain  between  1808  and  1812,  and 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DOYLE 


788 


DRAKE 


obtained  the  rank  of  general  in  the  Spanish  army.  For 
his  conduct  at  Valenciennes  and  Lannois  he  was  made  a 
knight-commander  of  the  Guelph  in  1819.  He  became 
a  major-general  in  181 5,  and  lieutenant-general  in  1837. 
Died  in  1843. 

Doyle,  (James,)  a  learned  Irish  Catholic  priest,  born 
about  1786,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Kildare  in  1819. 
He  wrote  a  "  Letter  to  Daniel  O'Connell  on  the  Poor- 
Laws  of  Ireland,"  a  "Vindication  of  the  Religious  and 
Civil  Principles  of  the  Irish  Catholics,"  (1823,)  and 
several  polemical  treatises.    Died  in  1834. 

See  W.  J.  FiTZPATRiCK,  "  Life  of  Bishop  Doyle,"  1862. 

Doyle,  (Sir  John,)  a  British  general,  born  in  Dublin 
about  1756.  He  made  several  campaigns  in  America. 
In  1796  he  was  made  a  colonel,  and  soon  after  was 
secretary-at-war  in  Ireland.  He  served  as  brigadier- 
general  in  Egypt  in  1800.  He  was  made  a  lieutenant- 
general  in  1808,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  full  general 
several  years  later.    Died  in  1834. 

Doyle,  (Richard,)  an  English  artist,  distinguished 
in  caricature,  was  born  in  London  in  1826.  He  is  a  son 
of  Mr.  Doyle,  an  artist,  whose  political  sketches,  signed 
"  H.  B.,"  obtained  much  popularity.  He  contributed 
humorous  and  satirical  designs  to  the  London  "Punch" 
for  some  years.  His  skill  in  design,  and  his  moral 
tendency,  are  highly  praised. 

D'Oyly,  doi'le,  (George,)  D.D.,  an  English  clergy- 
man, born  in  1778.  He  became  rector  of  Buxted  in  1815, 
of  Lambeth  and  Sundridge  in  1820.  He  contributed  to 
the  "  London  Quarterly  Review,"  and  published  several 
volumes  of  sermons.  Dr.  D'Oyly  and  the  Rev.  R. 
Mant  prepared  an  annotated  Bible,  published  in  1814  by 
the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  which 
had  a  large  sale.    Died  in  1846. 

Dozy,  do'ze,  ?  (Reinhart,)  a  Dutch  Orientalist,  born 
at  Leyden  in  1820.  He  became  professor  of  history  at 
Leyden  in  1850,  and  wrote  several  works  which  attest 
his  extensive  attainments  and  critical  judgment.  Among 
these  is  "Researches  into  the  Political  and  Literary  His- 
tory of  Spain  during  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1849.) 

Drabicius,  dR^-bit'se-us,  (  Nikolaus,  )  a  German 
visionary  or  impostor,  born  in  Moravia  in  1587,  pretended 
to  be  a  prophet.    He  was  executed  at  Presburg  in  167 1. 

Dra'co  or  Dragoon,  [Gr.  H^puauv ;  Fr,  Dragon,  dRi'- 
k6N',]  an  Athenian  legislator,  celebrated  for  his  sangui- 
nary penal  code,  was  archon  in  the  39th  Olympiad,  about 
624  B.C.  He  was  the  author  of  the  first  written  laws 
among  the  Athenians,  and  made  even  the  least  theft  a 
capital  crime,  so  that,  as  Demades  remarked,  "his  laws 
seemed  to  be  written  with  blood  instead  of  ink." 

See  Grote,  "History  of  Greece;"  Thirlwai.i,,  "History  of 
Greece;"  Carl  F.  Hermann,  "Disputatio  de  Dracone  Legislatore 
Attico,"  1849. 

Dracon.    See  Draco. 

Draconites,  dR3,-ko-nee'tls,  (Johann,)  a  German 
Lutheran  divine,  born  at  Carlstadt  in  1494  ;  died  in  1566. 

Dracontius,  dra-kon'she-us,  a  Latin  poet  of  Spain, 
wrote  a  poem  called  "  Hexaemeron,"  describing  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world.    Died  about  450  a.d. 

Draeseke.    See  Draseke. 

Draexler-Manfred,dR&ks'ler  mSn'fRet,  (Carl  Fer- 
dinand,) a  German  novelist  and  poet,  born  at  Lembergin 
1806.  Among  his  novels  is  "  Gruppen  und  Puppen,"(i836.) 

Draghi,  dRi'gee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  composer  of 
dramatic  music,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1642,  was  noted  for 
prolific  talent.    Died  in  1707, 

Draghi,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Genoa;  died  in  1712. 

Dragoncino,  dRa-gon-chee'no,(GiovANNi  Battista,) 
an  Italian  poet,  flourished  about  1500. 

Dragoiietti,  dk^.-go-nef'tee,  (LuiGi,)  an  Italian  liter- 
ary journalist,  born  at  Aquila  about  1800. 

Dragut,  dra'gut,  a  Turkish  corsair,  born  in  Natolia, 
rose  to  high  command  in  the  navy  under  Barbarossa. 
He  committed  many  piracies  against  the  Spaniards  and 
Italians,  and  was  once  taken  prisoner  by  the  Genoese 
admiral  Doria,  but  was  liberated  after  a  few  years'  deten- 
tion. He  gained  a  victory  over  the  Spaniards  at  Gerbes 
in  1560,  and  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Malta  in  1565. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "  GeschichtedesOsmanischen  Reichs  ;"  Bran- 
t6me,  "Viede  Dragut;"  Prescott,  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  ii. 


Drake,  (Daniel,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician  and 
author,  was  born  at  Plainfield,  New  Jersey,  in  1785.  He 
took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  the  University  of  Pennsylva- 
nia in  1816.  He  was  connected  at  different  periods  with 
the  schools  of  medicine  in  Cincinnati,  Lexington,  Louis- 
ville, and  Philadelphia.  It  was  chiefly  through  his  efforts 
that  the  Medical  College  of  Ohio  was  founded  at  Cin- 
cinnati in  1 819.  Dr.  Drake  was  distinguished  as  a 
lecturer.  He  edited  for  many  years  the  "  Western  Jour- 
nal of  Medical  Science,"  published  at  Cincinnati.  He 
was  also  author  of  various  medical  and  other  works,  the 
most  important  of  which  is  his  "  Systematic  Treatise  on 
the  Principal  Diseases  of  the  Interior  Valley  of  North 
America,  as  they  appear  in  the  Caucasian,  African,  In- 
dian, and  Esquimaux,"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1850-54.)  Died  at 
Cincinnati  in  1852. 

See  E.  D.  Mansfield,  "Life  ofD.  Drake,"  1855  ;  S.  D.  Gross, 
"American  Medical  Biography." 

Drake,  (Sir  Francis,)  a  celebrated  English  navigator 
and  naval  hero,  born  in  Devonshire  about  1540.  After 
learning  navigation  in  the  coasting-trade,  he  commanded 
a  vessel  in  Sir  John  Hawkins's  disastrous  expedition 
to  the  Spanish  Main  in  1567,  in  which  he  lost  all  his 
property.  In  1570,  with  a  commission  from  the  queen, 
he  cruised  with  some  success  against  the  Spaniards 
in  the  West  Indies.  In  1572  he  sailed  with  two  vessels 
on  a  marauding  expedition  against  the  Spanish  shipping 
and  settlements  of  America,  from  which  he  returned 
next  year  with  prizes  of  great  value.  From  the  Isthmus 
of  Darien  he  had  obtained  a  view  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
With  five  small  vessels,  in  December,  1577,  he  embarked 
on  a  buccaneering  enterprise  to  the  Pacific  through  the 
Straits  of  Magellan.  He  obtained  immense  treasures  by 
plunder  on  the  coast  of  Chili  and  Peru,  and,  in  the  hope  of 
finding  a  passage  to  the  Atlantic,  sailed  northward  as  far 
as  48  degrees  north.  Failing  in  this  design,  he  returned 
to  San  Francisco,  and  thence  steered  across  the  ocean  to 
the  Moluccas,  a.nci  came  home  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
in  1579,  having  circumnavigated  the  globe.  Drake  was 
knighted  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  dined  on  board  his 
vessel  at  Deptford  and  directed  the  ship  to  be  preserved 
as  a  monument  of  his  memorable  achievement.  He  was 
appointed  commander  of  a  fleet  in  1587,  and  sent  to 
"singe  the  King  of  Spain's  beard," — that  is,  to  burn  his 
ships  in  the  Spanish  harbours.  In  the  port  of  Cadiz  he 
burnt,  sunk,  or  captured  one  hundred  vessels  destined 
for  the  invasion  of  England.  In  the  next  year^  as  vice- 
admiral,  he  contributed  to  the  victory  of  the  English 
over  the  Invincible  Armada.  He  was  elected  to  Par- 
liament in  1592.  In  1595  an  expedition  was  fitted  out 
against  the  West  Indies,  and  the  command  was  divided 
between  Drake  and  Hawkins,  who  disagreed  and  conse- 
quently failed.  After  losing  many  men  by  disease,  Drake 
died  near  Puerto  Bello  in  1595. 

See  Barrow,  "Life,  Voyages,  etc.  of  Sir  Francis  Drake,"  1843  ; 
Samuel  Clarke,  "Life  of  Sir  Francis  Drake,"  1671  :  Campbell, 
"Lives  ot  British  Admirals;"  Motley,  "United  Netherlands," 
vol.  ii.  chap.  xi.  ;  Samuel  Johnson,  "  Life  of  Sir  Francis  Drake," 
London,  1767;  J.  Barrow,  "Memoirs  of  the  Naval  Worthies  of 
Queen  Elizabeth's  Reign  ;"  "Edinburgh  Review" for  October,  1S44. 

Drake,  (Francis,)  an  English  surgeon  and  antiquary 
of  York.  He  published  "The  History  and  Antiquity  of 
the  City  of  York,"  (1736.)    Died  in  1770. 

Drake,  dR^'keh,  (Friedrich,)  a  celebrated  German 
sculptor,  born  at  Pyrmont  in  1805.  He  became  a  pupil 
of  Rauch  in  Berlin.  One  of  his  early  works,  a  "  Ma- 
donna and  Child,"  was  purchased  by  the  Empress  of 
Russia.  His  reputation  was  increased  by  his  allegorical 
group  of  the  "Eight  Provinces  of  Prussia,"  (1844,)  and 
by  marble  statues,  busts,  and  statuettes  of  eminent  Ger- 
mans, among  which  are  the  Humboldts,  Rauch,  Oken, 
and  Frederick  William  III. 

Drake,  (James,)  M.D.,  an  English  physician  and  po- 
litical writer,  born  at  Cambridge  in  1667.  He  published 
in  1702  "The  History  of  the  Last  Parliament,"  and  soon 
after  "  Historia  Anglo-Scotica,"  which  gave  great  offence 
to  the  Scots  and  was  burnt  by  the  hangman.  He  wrote 
several  other  works  in  favour  of  Toryism  ;  also  a  "  New 
System  of  Anatomy,"  a  work  of  merit.    Died  in  1707. 

Drake,  (Joseph  Rodman,)  an  American  poet,  born 
in  the  city  of  New  York  in  August,  1795,  was  educated 
at  Columbia  College.    He  studied  medicine,  and  mar- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAor^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


DRAKE 


789 


DRAYTON 


ried  Sarah  Eckford  about  1816.  In  1819  he  wrote  hu- 
morous and  satirical  verses  which  were  published  in  the 
"Evening  Post"  under  the  signature  of  "  Croaker."  He 
was  an  ultimate  friend  of  Fitz-Greene  Halleck.  His 
principal  works  are  "The  Culprit  Fay,"  a  beautiful  ima- 
ginative poem,  and  the  much-admired  verses  on  "  The 
American  Flag,"*  (1819.)  He  died  prematurely  in  Sep- 
tember, 1820,  in  New  York,  leaving  one  daughter,  who 
afterwards  became  the  wife  of  Commodore  De  Kay. 
Halleck  wrote  a  poetical  tribute  to  his  memory. 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  an4  Poetry  of  America;"  Duyckinck, 
"Cyclopedia  of  American  Literature." 

Drake,  (Nathan,)  M.D.,  an  English  critic  and  essay- 
ist, born  at  York  in  1766.  From  1792  until  his  death  he 
practised  medicine  at  Hadleigh,  in  Suffolk,  and  produced 
numerous  excellent  literary  works,  among  which  are 
"Literary  Hours,"  (1798,)  "Essays  illustrative  of  the 
Tatler,  Spectator,  and  Guardian,"  (1805,)  and  "Shak- 
speare  and  his  Times,"  (1817.)  Of  the  last.  Archdeacon 
Nares  says,  "No  work  has  hitherto  appeared  in  which 
so  much  of  agreeable  and  well-digested  information  on 
this  subject  will  be  found,  as  in  this  masterly  production. 
It  may  be  considered  as  a  magnificent  temple  dedicated 
to  the  genius  of  Shakspeare."  He  published  some  pro- 
fessional treatises.    Died  in  1836. 

Drake,  (Samuel  Gardner,)  an  American  writer, 
born  at  Pittsfield,  New  Hampshire,  in  1798,  became  a 
bookseller  in  Boston.  He  published  "  Indian  Biography," 
(1832,)  "The  Book  of  the  Indians,  or  History  and  Bio- 
graphy of  the  Indians  of  North  America,"  (1833,)  and 
other  works. 

Drakenberg,  dR^'ken-b^Rg^  (Christian  Jacobsen,) 
a  Norwegian,  remarkable  for  longevity  and  strength, 
born  at  Blomsholm  in  1626.  He  served  as  a  common 
sailor  about  fifty  years,  and  was  held  as  a  slave  by  the 
Algerines  and  others  about  sixteen  years.  At  the  age 
of  one  hundred  and  ten  he  married,  and  several  years 
later  was  able  to  perform  long  journeys  on  fooL  Died 
in  1772,  aged  one  hundred  and  forty-five. 

Drakenborch,  dRa'ken-boRK',(  Arnold,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  scholar,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1684.  He  was  educated 
at  Utrecht  and  Leyden.  In  1704  he  wrote  "  De  Praefectis 
Urbis,"  a  treatise  on  the  office  of  prefect  in  Rome,  by 
which  he  gained  a  high  reputation.  In  17 16  he  became 
professor  of  history  and  eloquence  in  Utrecht,  where  he 
remained  till  his  death.  He  published  an  edition  of 
Silius  Italicus,  and  one  of  Livy,  which  is  a  master-piece 
lOf  accuracy  and  erudition.    Died  in  1747. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Dran,  Le.    See  Ledran. 

Draut,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  known  as 
the  first  English  metrical  translator  of  Horace,  in  1567. 
He  published  sermons  and  other  works.  Died  about  1578. 

Draparuaud,  dRt'ptR'n5',  (Jacques  Philippe  Ray- 
mond,) a  French  naturalist  and  linguist,  born  at  Mont- 
pellier  in  1772.  He  was  professor  of  natural  history  at 
Montpellier,  and  wrote  many  scientific  memoirs,  some 
of  which  were  commended  by  the  Institute  of  France. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  "The  Natural  History  of 
MoUusks."    Died  in  1805. 

See  "Biographic  Medicale;"  Jacques  Poitevin,  "Notice  sur  la 
Vie  de  NL  Draparuaud,"  1805. 

Dra'per,  (Eliza,)  Mrs.,  an  English  lady,  was  a  friend 
and  correspondent  of  Laurence  Sterne,  who  addressed 
to  her  the  "Letters  of  Yorick  to  Eliza." 

Dra'per,  (John  William,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished 
chemist  and  physiologist,  was  born  in  Liverpool,  Eng- 
land, in  1811.  He  came  to  America  in  1833,  and  in  1836 
graduated  at  the  medical  department  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  In  1839  he  accepted  the  chair  of  chem- 
istry in  the  University  of  New  York.  He  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  establishing  the  medical  department  of  the 
New  York  University  in  1841,  and  has  since  been  a  pro- 
fessor in  that  institution.  Professor  Draper  has  devoted 
much  attention  to  the  chemical  action  of  light,  and  written 
able  treatises  on  this  subject.  He  has  made  numerous 
contributions  to  the  "Edinburgh  Scientific  Journal." 
Among  his  most  important  works  are  his  "Human 


*  Tlie  last  four  lines  of  "The  American  Flag"  were  written  by 
Fitz-Greene  Halleck. 


Physiology,  Statistical  and  Dynamical,  or  the  Conditions 
and  Course  of  Life  in  Man,"  (8vo,  1856,)  and  his  "  His- 
tory of  the  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,"  (1863,) 
a  work  which  has  attracted  much  attention,  having  been 
as  warmly  praised  by  some  as  it  has  been  severely  criti- 
cised by  others.  He  has  also  written  "Thoughts  on  the 
Future  Civil  Policy  of  America,"  (1865,)  and  a  "History 
of  the  American  Civil  War,"  (2  vols.,  1867-68.) 
See  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1867. 

Draper,  (Sir  William,)  a  British  ofticer,  born  at 
Bristol  in  1721,  commanded  as  colonel  at  the  capture  of 
Manilla  from  the  Spaniards  in  1763.  He  is  best  known 
by  his  controversy  with  Junius,  against  whom  he  under- 
took to  defend  the  Marquis  of  Granby  in  1769.  Four  of 
the  letters  of  Junius  were  addressed  to  Draper,  who, 
being  foiled  by  the  keen  wit  and  sarcasm  of  his  oppo- 
nent, endeavoured  to  provoke  him  to  a  duel.  The  intem- 
perate and  somewhat  scurrilous  letters  of  Draper  are 
published  with  those  of  his  antagonist.    Died  in  1787. 

Drapiez,  dRt'pe-a',  (AuCxUste,)  a  Belgian  savant, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1790,  published  several  works  on 
mineralogy  and  other  sciences. 

Draseke  orDraeseke,  dRa'zeh-keh,  (Johann  Hein- 
RICH  Bernhard,)  a  distinguished  German  pulpit  orator, 
born  at  Brunswick  in  1774.  He  became  first  preacher 
of  the  cathedral  of  Magdeburg  in  1832.  He  published 
numerous  sermons,  and  "  Faith,  Love,  and  Hope,"  (1813  ; 
6th  edition,  1834.)    Died  in  1849. 

Draud,  dKowt,  (Georg,)  a  German  bibliographer, 
born  at  Dauernheim  in  1573,  published  "  Bibliotheca 
Classica,"  (1611,)  the  most  complete  and  methodical 
bibliography  of  printed  books  that  had  then  appeared. 
Died  about  1630. 

Dray'ton,  (Michael,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Harts- 
hill,  in  Warwickshire,  in  1563.  The  events  of  his  early 
life  are  nearly  all  unknown.  He  was  patronized  in  youth 
by  Sir  Walter  Aston,  and  in  the  decline  of  life  he  found 
a  comfortable  home  at  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Dorset. 
About  1596  he  published  his.torical  poems,  entitled  "The 
Barons'  Wars"  and  "  England's  Heroical  Epistles."  His 
principal  production,  "The  Poly-Olbion,"  (1613,)  is 
greatly  admired,  and  is  regarded  as  good  authority  in 
reference  to  English  antiquities.  It  is  a  poetical  descrip- 
tion of  all  the  rivers,  tracts,  mountains,  forests,  etc.  of 
Great  Britain,  with  notices  of  traditions  and  stories 
connected  with  them.  "  Drayton  is  a  sweet  poet,"  says 
Coleridge,  "and  Selden's  notes  to  the  earlier  part  of 
the  *  Poly-Olbion'  are  well  worth  your  perusal."  He 
received  the  title  of  poet-laureate  in  1626.  The  next 
year  he  published  several  short  poems,  among  which  is 
his  admirable  "  Nymphidia,"  a  fairy  poein.  Died  in  1631. 

"There  is  probably,"  says  Hallam,  "no  poem  of  this 
kind  in  any  other  language  comparable  together  in  ex- 
tent and  excellence  to  the  'Poly-Olbion;'  nor  can  any 
one  read  a  portion  of  it  without  admiration  for  its  learned 
and  highly-gifted  author."  ("Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  Europe.") 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets;"  Sir  S.  E.  Brydges, 
"Imaginative  Biography;"  Disraeli,  "Amenities  of  Literature ;" 
Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Dray'ton,  (Percival,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  South  Carolina  about  181 2,  entered  the  navy 
about  1828.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  commander  in 
1855,  and  maintained  his  loyalty  to  the  Union  in  the  civil 
war.  He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain  in  1S62, 
and  commanded  the  monitor  Passaic  in  the  attack  on 
Fort  Sumter  in  April,  1863.  He  was  highly  esteemed  by 
Admiral  Farragut,  who  selected  him  to  command  his 
flag-ship  in  his  operations  against  the  defences  of  Mobile 
Bay,  August,  1864.    Died  in  August,  1865. 

Drayton,  (William,)  a  judge,  born  in  South  Carolina 
in  1733.  became,  after  the  Revolution,  an  associate 

justice  of  his  native  State,  and  a  judge  under  the  Federal 
government.    Died  in  1790. 

Drayton,  (William,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  South  Carolina.  Pie  was  from  1825  to  1833  ^  repre- 
sentative in  Congress.  Originally  a  Federalist,  he  was 
the  leader  of  the  Union  party  in  the  nullification  move- 
ment of  South  Carolina  in  1830.  He  succeeded  Nicholas 
Biddle  as  president  of  the  United  States  Bank  in  1839. 
Died  in  1846. 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (JiJ^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DRAYTON 


DRINKER 


Drayton,  (William  Henry,)  an  American  patriot 
and  judge,  born  on  Ashley  River,  in  South  Carolina,  in 
1 742.  He  became  chief  justice  of  South  Carolina  in  1 776, 
and  delivered  to  the  grand  jury  an  able  charge,  which 
gave  an  impulse  to  the  popular  cause.  He  was  an  active 
and  prominent  member  of  Congress,  when  he  died  sud- 
denly in  Philadelphia  in  1779,  in  the  thirty-sixth  year  of 
his  age,  and  left  historical  memoirs  of  the  Revolution, 
published  by  his  son,  (in  2  vols.,  1821.) 

See  "Encyclopaedia  Americana." 

Diebbel,  van,  van  dkeb-'bel,  (Cornelts,)  a  Dutch 
philosopher,  born  at  Alkmaar  in  1572.  The  latter  part 
of  his  life  was  passed  in  England,  where  he  was  patron- 
ized by  James  I.  and  is  said  to  have  invented  an  air 
ih  irmometer  and  some  curious  machines.  He  published, 
iji  Dutch,  a  work  "On  the  Nature  of  the  Elements,"  and 
one  on  "  Quintessence."  He  pretended  that  he  had  dis- 
covered a  perpetual  motion.    Died  in  1634. 

See  F.  HoEFER,  "Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Drelincourt,  dReh'lA.M'kooR',  (Charles,)  an  eminent 
French  Protestant  minister,  born  at  Sedan  in  1595.  He 
became  minister  of  Charenton,  near  Paris,  in  1620,  and 
acquired  great  popularity  as  a  preacher.  He  wrote 
against  the  Church  of  Rome  a  number  of  polemical 
treatises,  which  had  great  influence  in  confirming  his 
fellow  -  professors.  His  work  entitled  "Consolations 
against  the  Fear  of  Death"  (1651)  was  translated  into 
English  and  German,  and  often  reprinted.  He  also 
jDublished  "  Charitable  Visits,"  etc.,  ("  Les  Visites  charita- 
bles  pour  toutes  Sortes  de  Personnes  atitiigees,"  5  vols., 
1669.)  His  sermons  were  especially  remarkable  for  their 
unction.    Died  in  Paris  in  1669. 

See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Drelincourt,  (Charles,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Paris  in  1633,  was  a  physician  and  author  of  high 
reputation.  Pie  took  his  degree  as  doctor  in  1654,  soon 
after  which  he  was  appointed  first  physician  to  the  army 
of  Turenne.  In  1663  he  became  physician-in-ordinary  to 
Louis  XIV.,  and  in  1668  obtained  the  chair  of  medicine 
at  Leyden.  He  was  an  eloquent  and  learned  writer. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Prieludium  Anatomicum,"  (1670,) 
and  "  Homericus  Achilles,"  (1693.)  He  was  employed 
as  physician  by  William  Prince  of  Orange,  and  was  the 
precepter  of  Boerhaave.  He  died  in  1697,  leaving  a  son 
Charles,  who  was  a  physician. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron, 
"  Memoires ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate." 

Drelincourt,  (Laurent,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Paris  in  1626,  became  minister  at  Rochelle  and 
Niort,  and  was  distinguished  as  a  preacher.  He  pub- 
lished Sermons,  and  "Christian  Sonnets."  Died  in  1680. 

Dren'nan,  (Wu.liam,)  M.D.,  an  Irish  poet  and  politi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Belfast  in  1754;  died  in  1820. 

Dre-pa'ni-us,  (Lati'nus  Paca'tus,)  a  poet  and  ora- 
tor, born  at  Bordeaux  or  Agen,  in  France,  was  deputed 
to  Rome,  in  388  A.D.,  to  congratulate  Theodosius  on  his 
victory  over  Maximus,  and  then  pronounced  a  panegyric 
on  that  emperor,  which  is  still  extant.  His  poems, 
which  are  praised  hy  Ausonius,  have  not  been  preserved. 

Drepanius  Florus.    See  Florus. 

Dresig,  dRa'zic,  (Sigismond  Friedrich,)  a  German 
scholar  and  writer,  born  in  1700,  lived  at  Leipsic;  died 
in  1742. 

Dres'ser,  [Lat.  Dresse'rus,]  (Matthaus,)  a  learned 
German  professor,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1536,  was  a  disciple 
of  Luther,  and  studied  at  Wittenberg.  He  succeeded 
Justus  Lipsius  as  professor  of  history  at  Jena  in  1574. 
In  1 581  he  became  professor  of  humanities  at  Leipsic, 
where  by  his  influence  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  was 
adopted  in  the  University.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
Latin  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Rhetoric,"  (1585,)  and  a 
"Life  of  Luther,"  (1598.)    Died  in  1607. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Dresserus.    See  Dresser. 

Dressier,  dR^s'ler,  (Ernst  Christoph,)  a  German 
musician  and  writer  of  songs,  was  born  at  Greussen  in 
1734  ;  died  in  1779. 

Dreux  du  Radier,  dRuh  dii  rt'de-i',  (Jean  Fran- 
gois,)  a  French  lawyer  and  writer,  borlT'at  Chateauneuf- 
en-Thymerais  in  1714.    He  wrote  a  "Historical  and 


Critical  Library  of  Poitcu,"  (1754,)  which  is  regarded  as 
an  excellent  work,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Memoirs  and 
Anecdotes  of  France,"  (1764,)  and  "Recreations,  His- 
torical, Critical,  and  Moral,"  (1767.)    Died  in  1780. 

See  Ersch,  "La  France  Litteraire,"  5  vols.,  1797-1806;  Lastic- 
Saint-Jal,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  J.  F.  Dreux  du 
Radier,"  1842. 

Dreux  et  de  Breze,  de,  deh  dRuh  i  deh  hvs.\'z^\ 
(Henri  Evrard,)  Marquls,  was  grand  master  of  cere- 
monies when  the  States-General  met  in  1789.  An  order 
which  he  conveyed  from  the  king,  that  this  body  should 
disperse,  provoked  a  famous  reply  from  Mirabeau.  Died 
in  1829. 

Drevet,  dReh-v|',  (Pierre,)  an  excellent  French  en- 
graver, born  in  Lyons  in  1664.  After  receiving  lessons 
from  Germain  Audran,  he  went  to  Paris,where  he  devoted 
his  talents  to  portraits.  Among  his  best  works  are  por- 
traits of  Louis  XIV.,  Cardinal  Fleury,  the  dauphin,  and 
Boileau.  He  was  perhaps  unrivalled  by  any  engraver  of 
his  time  except  his  son,  who  surpassed  him.  Died  in  1 739. 

See  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Drevet,  (Pierre,)  a  son  and  pupil  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Paris  in  1697.  He  engraved  a  number  of  por- 
traits, which  are  master-pieces,  and  treated  subjects  of 
history  with  nearly  equal  success.  His  portrait  of  Bos- 
suet,  after  Rigaud,  (1733,)  is  called  his  best  work.  It  is 
said  that  he  was  able  to  imitate  articles  of  dress  and  fur- 
niture so  that  the  various  colours,  textures,  and  other 
qualities  of  those  accessories  can  be  recognized  by  the 
least  practised  eyes.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Painting.    Died  in  1739. 

See  Basan,  "Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Drew,  (Samuel,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Cornwall 
in  1765,  was  a  shoemaker,  and  supplied  the  defects  of 
his  education  by  studying  in  the  intervals  of  labour.  He 
was  converted  from  infidelity  in  early  life,  and  joined  the 
Methodist  Church.  He  published  "  The  Immateriality 
and  Immortality  of  the  Soul,"  (1802,)  which  is  highly 
praised,  and  other  religious  works.  He  became  editor  of 
the  "Imperial  Magazine"  in  1819.    Died  in  1833. 

See  "  Life,  Character,  and  Literary  Labours  of  Samuel  Drew," 
by  his  son,  1834. 

Drex-eTi-us,  [Ger.  pron.  dR§k-sa'le-iis,]  (Jeremias,) 
a  German  Jesuit  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Augsburg  in 
1 58 1,  wrote  some  ascetic  works.    Died  in  1638. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  AUgenieine  Encyklopaedie." 

Dreyer,  diu'er,  (Johann  Matthias,)  a  German  poet, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1716;  died  in  1769. 

Dreyschock,  dRl'shok,  (Alexander,)  a  celebrated 
pianist,  born  in  Bohemia  in  181 8.  He  has  acquired 
distinction  by  his  concerts  in  the  principal  capitals  of 
Europe. 

Dreyse,  von,  fon  dRl'zeh,  (Johann  Nikolaus,)  the 
inventor  of  the  celebrated  "needle-gun,"  was  born  at 
Sommerda,  in  Prussia,  November  20,  1787.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  locksmith,  and  he  himself  followed  the  same 
trade.  His  attention  having  been  directed  to  the  extra- 
ordinary clumsiness  of  the  muskets  used  by  the  Prussians 
at  the  battle  of  Jena,  he  was  convinced  that,  until  she 
was  provided  with  better  arms,  his  country  could  never 
become  a  first-rate  military  power.  His  invention  was 
made  in  the  early  part  of  1828,  but  was  not  put  to  the 
proof  until  the  war  of  1866.  The  great  improvement  of 
his  gun  is  his  new  contrivance  for  igniting  the  cartridge, 
which  is  still  a  secret.    Died  December  9,  1867. 

See  "London  Examiner"  for  September  8,  i866. 

Driander.    See  Dryander. 
Dridoens.    See  Driedo. 

Driedo,  dRe^do',  or  Dridoens,  dRee'doons,  (Jan,)  a 
Flemish  theologian  and  prominent  adversary  of  Luther- 
anism.  He  was  a  canon  of  the  church  of  Louvain,  and 
wrote  several  works,  one  of  which  is  "  On  the  Writings 
and  Doctrines  of  the  Church,"  ("  De  Scripturis  et  Dog- 
matibus  ecclesiasticis.")    Died  in  1535. 

See  PossEViN,  "Apparatus  Sacer." 

Driesche.    See  Drusius. 

Drink'er,  (Anna,)  an  American  poetess,  who  wrote 
under  the  assumed  name  of  Edith  May,  was  born  in 
Pennsylvania.  She  published  a  volume  of  poems,  (1851,) 
which  were  commended  by  N.  P.  Willis. 

See  Griswoi-d's  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


DRIVERE 


791 


D  ROTS  EN 


Drivere,  dReVaiR',  [Lat.  Thrive'rus,]  (Jeremias,) 
born  at  Braeckel,  in  Flanders,  in  1504,  became  professor 
of  medicine  at  Louvain.  He  wrote  many  medical  works, 
besides  commentaries  on  Hippocrates.    Died  in  1554. 

See  P.  J.  Haan,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  H.  Thriverus,"  1846; 
NicERON,  "  Memoires." 

Drobisch,  dRo'bish,  (Moritz  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
philosopher,  born  in  1802  at  Leipsic,  where  he  became 
professor  of  mathematics  in  1842. 

Drolling,  dRo'l^N'  or  dRol'ling,  (Martin,)  a  French 
painter,  born  at  Oberbergheim  (Haut-Rhin)  in  1752.  He 
painted  familiar  scenes,  interiors,  etc.  with  success,  and 
was  a  good  colorist.    Died  in  181 7. 

Drolling,  (Michel  Martin,)  a  skilful  historical 
painter,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1786.  He 
g.iined  the  first  prize  in  1810  for  a  picture  of  "  The  Wrath 
of  Achilles."  Among  his  best  productions  is  "Orpheus 
losing  Eurydice,"  (1817.)  He  also  painted  many  por- 
traits.   Died  in  185 1. 

See  Saint-Maurice-Cabany,  "  M.  M.  Drolling,  Peintre,"  1851. 

Drollinger,  dRoKling-er,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man poet,  was  born  at  Durlach  in  1688.  His  odes 
on  "The  Immortality  of  the  Soul,"  and  "On  Divine 
Providence,"  were  much  admired.    Died  in  1742. 

See  BuxTORF,  "  Brevis  Historia  Vitae  et  Obitus  C.  F.  DroHingeri," 
1742;  Adelung,  Supplement  to  Jocher's  "Allgejneines  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon." 

Dro'mon,  [Apo/zwv,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  lived 
in  the  fourth  century  B.C. 

Drooch-Sloot,  dRoK'slot,  (J.  C.,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Gorcum  about  1600.  Among  his  works  are 
views  of  Holland  and  of  village  festivals. 

Drossander,  dRos-slnMer,  (Anders,)  a  Swedish 
physician  and  philosopher,  born  at  Upsal  in  1648.  He 
wrote  several  scientific  works.    Died  in  1696. 

See  "  Blographie  Medicale." 

Drost,  dRost,  a  skilful  Flemish  painter,  and  a  pupil 
of  Rembrandt,  was  living  in  1670. 

Droste-Hiilshoff,  von,  fon  dRos'teh  hiils'hof,  (An- 
nette Elisabeth,)  a  German  lyric  poetess,  born  near 
Munster  in  1798;  died  in  1848. 

Droste  zu  Vischering,  von,  fon  dRos'teh  tsoo 
fish'er-ing,  (Clemens  August,)  Freihekk,  a  German 
Catholic  prelate,  born  near  Munster  in  1773.  He  be- 
came Archbishop  of  Cologne  in  1835.    Died  in  1845. 

See  Stoeveken,  "C.  A.  Droste  zu  Vischering  in  selnem  Leben," 
etc.,  1846. 

Drouais,  dRoo'i',  (Hubert,)  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Normandy  in  1699,  was  a  grandfather  of  Jean  Ger- 
main, noticed  below.  He  excelled  in  portraits.  Died  at 
Paris  in  1767. 

Drouais,  (Jean  Germain,)  an  eminent  French  painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1763,  was  the  son  of  Henri  Drouais,  a 
portrait-painter,  who  died  in  1775.  1780  he  be- 
came a  pupil  of  David.  About  the  age  of  twenty-one 
he  gained  by  a  unanimous  vote  the  grand  prize  of  the 
Academy  by  his  picture  of  the  "  Woman  of  Canaan  at 
the  Feet  of  Christ,"  which  established  his  reputation. 
He  then  went  to  Rome,  where  he  painted  "  Marius  at 
Minturnas,"  and  died  prematurely  in  1788.  Goethe,  in 
one  of  his  works,  expresses  his  admiration  of  the  last- 
named  picture. 

See  Chaussard,  "Notice  sur  Drouais;"  Nagler,  "Neues  All- 
gemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Drouet,  dRoo'i',  (Stienne,)  a  French  editor  and 
compiler,  born  in  Paris  in  171 5.  He  published  the  last 
and  best  edition  of  Moreri's  Dictionary,  (10  vols.,  1759,) 
and  a  new  edition  of  Lenglet-Dufresnoy's  "  Method  for 
the  Study  of  History,"  (15  vols.,  1772.)    Died  in  1779. 

Drouet,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  revolutionist, 
born  at  Sainte-Menehould  in  1763,  was  the  son  of  the 
postmaster  of  that  town.  He  acquired  notoriety  by  his 
agency  in  the  arrest  of  Louis  XVI.  at  Varennes  in  1791. 
In  1792  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Convention,  in 
which  he  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Girondists.  Soon  after  Bonaparte  obtained 
the  chief  power,  Drouet  was  appointed  sub-prefect  of 
Sainte-Menehould.  In  1807,  as  he  gave  him  the  cross  of 
the  legion  of  honour,  the  emperor  said  to  him,  "You 
have  changed  the  face  of  the  world."    Died  in  1824. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution." 


Drouet  de  Maupertuy,  dRoo'4'  dieh  ma'p^R^tu-e', 
(Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  writer  and  priest,  born  in 
Paris  in  1650 ;  died  in  1730. 

Drouet  d'Brlon,  dRoo'^'  d§R^]6N',  (Jean  Baptiste,) 
Count,  and  Marshal  of  France,  born  at  Rheims  in  1765. 
He  entered  the  army  as  a  private  in  1782,  served  under 
Hoche  in  1797,  and  was  made  a  general  of  brigade  in 
1799.  He  became  a  general  of  division  in  1800,  and 
contributed  by  a  skilful  movement  to  the  victory  at  Jena, 
(1806.)  In  March,  1815,  he  was  arrested  on  a  charge 
of  being  an  accomplice  of  Lefebvre-Desnouettes  in  his 
design  to  seize  the  Bourbon  family,  and  in  the  ensuing 
June  he  was  created  a  peer  by  Napoleon,  for  whom  he 
commanded  a  corps  at  Waterloo.  He  passed  ten  years 
in  exile,  returned  to  France  in  1825,  and  was  restored  to 
his  rank  in  the  army  in  1830.  He  was  chosen  Governor- 
General  of  Algeria  in  1834,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
marshal  in  1843.    Died  in  1844. 

See  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  militaire  de  Drouet  d'Erlon,"  by  himself, 
1844;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Drouineau,  dRoo'e'no',  (Gustave,)  a  French  drama- 
tist and  novelist,  born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1800.  He  pro- 
duced "Rienzi,"  (1826,)  a  tragedy,  and  "Ernest,"  (1829,) 
a  novel,  both  of  which  were  popular.  About  1830  he 
became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Constitutionnel."  He 
was  author  of  other  dramas  and  tales.    Died  in  1835. 

Drouot,  dRoo'o',  (Antoine,)  Count,  an  able  French 
general  of  artillery,  born  at  Nancy  in  1774.  He  fought 
as  captain  at  Hohenlinden  in  1800,  and  gave  proof  of 
courage  and  skill  at  Wagram,  (1809,)  and  at  Borodino, 
(1812.)  For  his  conduct  at  Lutzen  and  Bautzen,  (1813,) 
where  he  commanded  the  artillery  of  the  imperial  guard, 
he  was  made  a  general  of  division  and  aide-de-camp  to 
Napoleon,  whom  he  followed  to  Elba,  of  which  he  was 
chosen  governor.  He  was  at  the  side  of  Napoleon  at 
the  battle  of  Waterloo,  June,  181 5,  soon  after  which  he 
was  commandant  of  the  imperial  guard  at  Paris.  After 
the  restoration  he  lived  as  a  private  citizen.  Died  in 
1847.  "  France  was  astonished  in  1814  to  learn,"  says 
C.  Hequet,  "that  she  had  possessed  for  a  long  time  the 
best  officer  of  artillery  in  Europe."  ("  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic Generale.")  He  was  surnamed  by  Napoleon  "  the 
sage  of  the  grand  army,"  ("le  sage  de  la  grande  armee.") 

See  J.  Nollet-Fabert,  "  Biographic  du  General  Drouot,"  1850; 
Henri  Le  Page,  "  Le  General  Drouot,"  1847  '•  Lacoruaire,  "  filoge 
du  General  Drouot,"  1847. 

Drouyn  de  Lhuys,  dRoo'^N'  deh  lii-e',  (Edouard,) 
a  French  diplomatist  and  minister  of  state,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1805.  He  became  in  1833  charge-d'affaires 
at  the  Hague,  where  he  gave  proof  of  high  diplomatic 
ability.  In  1840  he  was  appointed  director  of  commer- 
cial affairs  in  the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs.  He  was 
brought  into  frequent  contact  with  Guizot,  whose  ])olicy 
he  disapproved.  As  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties, he  voted  against  the  ministry  in  1845,  ^^^^  ^lis- 
missed  from  office.  He  was  elected  to  the  National 
Assembly  in  1848,  and  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
in  the  first  cabinet  of  President  Louis  Napoleon.  In 
June,  1849,  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  London.  He 
was  a  conservative  member  of  the  National  Assembly  in 
1851,  and  again  became  foreign  minister  in  July,  1852. 
His  diplomatic  letters  on  the  occasion  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  empire  added  to  his  reputation.  He 
represented  France  at  the  Conference  of  Vienna  in 
1855,  at  the  close  of  which  he  retired  from  office  because 
he  differed  from  his  colleagues  on  the  Eastern  question. 
In  October,  1862,  he  was  again  appointed  minister  of 
foreign  affairs.  He  was  removed  from  this  office  about 
September,  1866. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Drovetti,  dRo-vet'tee,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Leghorn  in  1775.  ^'^^  consul  in 
Egypt,  where  he  formed  two  rich  collections  of  antique 
objects.  The  King  of  France  purchased  one  of  these 
collections  for  250,000  francs.    Died  in  1852. 

Droysen,  dRoi'zen,  (Johann  Gustav,)  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Treptow,  in  Pomerania,  in  1808.  He 
obtained  the  chair  of  history  at  Kiel  in  1840,  before  which 
he  had  been  professor  in  Berlin.  In  1851  he  became 
professor  of  history  at  Jena.  His  "  History  of  Prussian 
Politics"  ("  Geschichte  der  Preussischen  Politik,"  2  vols 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DROZ  792  DRURT 


1855)  is  called  his  most  important  work.  He  has  also 
published  a  "History  of  Alexander  the  Great,"  (1833,)  a 
"  History  of  Hellenism,"  ("  Hellenismus,"  2  vols.,  1836- 
43,)  and  a  "  Life  of  Field-Marshal  Graf  York  von  War- 
tenburg,"  (185 1.) 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Droz,  dRo,  (FRANgois  Xavier  Joseph,)  a  French 
writer  and  moralist,  born  at  Besan(;;on  in  1773.  He  served 
in  the  republican  army  from  1792  to  1796,  and  became 
a  resident  of  Paris  in  1803.  After  several  unsuccessful 
attempts  as  an  author,  he  published  in  1806  an  "  Essay 
on  Happiness,"  ("  Essai  sur  TArt  d'etre  heureux,") 
which  was  received  with  more  favour.  He  became  a 
contributor  to  several  journals.  In  1824  he  gained  the 
Montyon  prize  for  his  treatise  "  On  Moral  Philosophy," 
and  in  the  next  year  was  admitted  to  the  French  Acad- 
emy. His  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XVL"  (3 
vols.,  1839-42)  is  esteemed  his  most  important  work. 
"A  mild  solemnity  of  tone,"  says  Sainte-Beuve,  "was 
the  habitual  rhythm  of  his  thoughts."  In  conjunction 
with  Picard,  he  wrote  "Memoirs  of  Jacques  Fauvel," 
(1823,)  which  is  represented  as  a  Gil  Bias  less  witty  but 
more  moral  than  that  of  Le  Sage.  He  became  in  1832 
a  member  of  the  class  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences 
in  the  Institute.    Died  in  1850. 

See  F.  A.  Mignet,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Droz," 
1852;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi." 

Droz,  dRo,  (Henri  Louis,)  a  son  of  Pierre  Jacquet, 
noticed  below,  born  in  1752,  inherited  his  mechanical 
and  inventive  talent.  He  produced  an  automaton  in 
the  form  of  a  girl,  which  played  tunes  on  the  harpsichord 
and  at  the  end  of  the  performance  would  rise  and  salute 
the  company.  He  also  made  artificial  hands.  He  lived 
some  years  at  Geneva,  where  he  was  much  esteemed 
for  his  character  as  well  as  his  talents.    Died  in  1791. 

Droz,  (Jules  Antoine,)  a  sculptor,  a  son  of  Pierre 
Jean,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1807.  Among 
his  works  are  the  marble  statues  of  Winter  and  Summer 
which  adorn  the  palace  of  the  Luxeinbourg. 

Droz,  (Pierre  Jacquet,)  a  skilful  mechanician  and 
watchmaker,  born  in  Neufchatel  in  1721.  He  improved 
the  pendulum  by  using  two  metals  of  unequal  expansi- 
bility, and  made  a  writing  automaton  which  displayed 
great  ingenuity.    Died  in  1790. 

Droz,  (Pierre  Jean,)  a  Swiss  engraver  of  coins  and 
medals,  born  at  Chaux-de-Fond  in  1746.  He  settled  in 
Paris  in  1766,  and  invented  a  method  to  engrave  stamps 
for  the  coinage  of  money  with  celerity.  About  1 790  Watt 
and  Boulton  took  him  into  their  service,  and  his  skill 
was  exercised  in  the  fabrication  of  English  coins.  He 
returned  to  France,  and  during  the  empire  was  the  chief 
engraver  of  public  medals  and  coins.  His  portraits  of 
Napoleon  are  praised.    Died  in  1823. 

Druey,  dRii'i',  (Charles,)  a  Swiss  politician,  born 
about  1800,  was  a  leader  of  the  radicals,  or  the  party  of 
progress.  In  1845  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  pro- 
visional government  formed  after  the  resignation  of  the 
council  of  state.  Under  the  new  constitution  adopted 
in  1848,  he  was  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  executive  power. 
Died  in  1855. 

Drumann,  dRoo'mIn,  (Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
historian  and  philologist,  born  near  Halberstadt  in  1786, 
became  professor  of  philology  at  Konigsberg  in  181 7. 
His  capital  work  is  a  "History  of  Rome,"  ("Geschichte 
Roms,"  6  vols.,  1834-44,)  which  is  highly  commended. 
Died  in  1861. 

Driimel  or  Druemel,  dRii'mel,  (Johann  Heinrich,) 
aGermanwriter,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1707;  died  in  1770. 

Drum'mond,  (Alexander,)  a  British  traveller,  who 
was  consul  at  Aleppo  in  1744,  and  published  "  Travels  in 
Germany,  Greece,  and  Asia,"  (1754.)    Died  in  1769. 

Drum'mpnd,  (George,)  a  Scottish  officer,  noted  for 
public  spirit,  was  born  in  1687.  He  fought  against  the 
Pretender  at  Sheriffmuir  in  1715.  He  was  chosen  lord 
provost  of  Edinburgh  in  1725  and  at  several  subsequent 
periods.  The  Royal  Infirmary  of  Edinburgh  was  founded 
chiefly  by  his  efforts  in  1736.    Died  in  1766. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Drum'mond,  (Henry,)  M.P.,  an  English  writer  on 
theology  and  politics,  born  in  1786.  He  was  a  disciple 
of  Edward  Irving. 


Drummond,  (James,)  Earl  of  Perth,  was  appointed 
lord  chancellor  of  Scotland  in  1684.  He  was  a  cruel  per- 
secutor of  the  Covenanters.  On  the  expulsion  of  James 
II.  from  the  throne  he  was  exiled.    Died  in  17 16. 

Drummond,  (Maurice,)  the  ancestor  of  the  Scottish 
family  of  that  name,  was  a  grandson  of  Andrew,  King 
of  Hungary.  He  was  a  resident  of  England  at  the  Nor- 
man conquest,  (1066,)  and  he  followed  Edgar  Atheling 
to  Scotland  about  1068,  and  was  made  seneschal  of 
Lennox.  Annabella  Drummond,  his  descendant,  was 
married  to  Robert  III.,  King  of  Scotland. 

Drummond,  (Robert  Hay,)  a  British  prelate,  born 
in  London  in  1711,  was  the  second  son  of  the  Earl  of 
Kinnoul,  and  a  grandson  of  Harley,  Earl  of  Oxford.  In 
1737  he  was  appointed  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  George  II. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Saint  Asaph  in  1748,  of  Salisbury 
in  1 76 1,  and  Archbishop  of  York  in  the  same  year. 
Some  of  his  sermons  have  been  published.    Died  in  1 776. 

His  son  Robert  became  ninth  Earl  of  Kinnoul. 

See  Chambers,  "  liiographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Drummond,  (Thomas,)  Captain,  known  as  the  in- 
ventor of  the  "  Drummond  Light,"  was  born  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1797.  In  1 81 3  he  entered,  as  cadet,  Woolwich 
Military  Academy,  where  he  displayed  superior  talents 
for  mathematics  and  mechanics.  He  became  one  of  the 
royal  engineers,  and  was  employed  in  the  trigonometrical 
survey  of  Scotland  about  1824,  when  he  conceived  the 
idea  of  using  the  incandescence  of  lime,  instead  of  the 
argand  lamp,  for  rendering  distant  stations  visible.  The 
experiment  was  very  successful.  In  1825  he  invented  the 
heliostat,  and,  through  the  influence  of  Lord  Brougham, 
received  a  pension  of  ^^300  a  year.  In  1835  he  was  made 
under-secretary  for  Ireland.    Died  in  1840. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Drummond,  (William,)  of  Hawthornden,  an  emi- 
nent Scottish  poet,  born  of  a  noble  family  in  1585.  He 
studied  civil  law  at  Bourges,  in  France,  but  soon  re- 
nounced that  profession  for  literature.  In  1610  his  father. 
Sir  John,  died,  and  left  him  his  beautiful  seat  at  Haw- 
thornden, remarkable  for  picturesque  scenery.  He  was 
of  a  melancholy  temperament,  and  inclined  to  retirement. 
In  1619  Ben  Jonson  performed  a  journey  of  several  hun- 
dred miles  for  the  purpose  of  visiting  Drummond,  who 
has  preserved  some  curious  and  famous  notes  of  the 
conversation  which  passed  between  them.  These  were 
published  after  his  death,  and  are  perhaps  more  known 
and  read  than  any  of  his  works.  Drummond  has  been 
censured  for  leaving  these  notes  and  betraying  the  con- 
fidence of  his  guest ;  but  his  friends  say  he  did  not  intend 
them  for  publication.  Southey  represents  Drummond  as 
the  first  Scottish  poet  who  wrote  well  in  English.  Among 
his  most  admired  productions  are  "  The  River  Forth 
Feasting,"  "The  Praise  of  a  Solitary  Life,"  and  his  son- 
nets. "  The  sonnets  of  Drummond,"  says  Hallam,  "  are 
polished  and  elegant,  free  from  conceit  and  bad  taste, 
in  pure,  unblemished  English."  In  his  forty-fifth  year  he 
married  Elizabeth  Logan.    Died  in  December,  1649. 

See  P.  Cunningham,  "Life  of  W.  Drummond;"  Chambers, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  Campbell,"  Speci- 
mens of  the  British  Poets;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ix.,  1824; 
"  Encyclopjedia  Britannica." 

Drummond,  (Sir  William,)  of  Logic  Almond,  a 
British  scholar  and  ingenious  writer,  was  returned  to 
Parliainent  for  vSaint  Mawes  in  1795,  and  a  few  years  later 
was  minister  to  Naples.  About  1802  he  was  ambassador 
to  the  Ottoman  Porte.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  good  translation  of  Persius's  Satires,  (1798,) 
"Academical  Questions,"  (1805,)  "Odin,"  a  poem,  and 
"  Origines,  or  Remarks  on  the  Origin  of  Several  Empires, 
States,  and  Cities,"  (4  vols.,  1824-29,)  a  critical  work  of 
considerable  merit.    Died  at  Rome  in  1828. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen ;" 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  forOctober,  1805  ;  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

Drum'mond  de  MePfort,  (Louis  Hector,)  Count 
OF,  born  in  1726,  was  the  descendant  of  Maurice  Drum- 
mond, noticed  above.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  French  armies  as  colonel,  inspector-general,  and 
lieutenant-general.  He  published  in  1776  a  valuable 
"Treatise  on  Cavalry."    Died  in  1788. 

Dru'ry,  (Drew,)  an  English  naturalist,  published  a 
work  on  entomology  called  "  Illustrations  of  Natural 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DRURT 


793 


DRTDEN 


History,"  (1770,)  which  was  commended  by  Linnaeus 
and  others.  "The  exquisite  work  of  Drury,"  says  Sir 
James  Edward  Smith,  "displays  the  complete  insect  in 
a  degree  of  perfection  that  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired." 
Died  in  1804. 

Drury,  (Rev.  Joseph,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
London  in  1750,  was  head-master  of  Harrow  from  1785 
to  1805.  Lord  Byron,  who  was  his  pupil,  has  expressed 
in  his  works  gratitude  and  respect  for  him.   Died  in  1834. 

Drury,  (Robert,)  an  English  sailor,  born  about  1687. 
He  was  shipwrecked  in  1702  on  the  coast  of  Madagas- 
car, where  he  was  kept  a  captive  fifteen  years.  He  re- 
turned to  England  and  published  (1722)  a  journal  of  his 
adventures,  and  an  account  of  Madagascar,  regarded  as 
authentic. 

Dru-sil'la,  a  daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa,  King  of 
Judea,  became  the  wife  of  Felix,  the  Roman  governor 
of  Judea.  She  was  present  when  Saint  Paul  preached 
before  Felix,  in  60  A.D.  (See  Acts  xxiv.  24.)  Tacitus 
says  that  Drusilla  the  wife  of  Felix  was  a  granddaughter 
of  the  famous  Cleopatra. 

Drusilla,  (Livia.)    See  Livia  Drusilla. 

Drusius,  dRii'se-us,  (  Jan,  )  a  Flemish  Protestant 
scholar  and  eminent  biblical  critic,  whose  proper  name 
was  Van  den  Drifsche,  (dRees'keh,)  was  born  at  Oude- 
narde  in  1550.  He  professed  Oriental  languages  at 
Oxford,  in  England,  from  1572  to  1576,  and  obtained  a 
similar  chair  at  Leyden  in  1577.  He  was  professor  of 
Hebrew  at  Franeker  from  1585  until  his  death,  in  1616. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  Scripture,  and  several  treat- 
ises on  grammar,  one  of  which  is  a  Hebrew  Grammar, 
entitled  "Grammatica  Linguae  sanctae  nova." 

See  Abel  Curiander,  "Vita  J.  Drusii,"  1618;  Bayle,  "His- 
torical and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Drusius,  (Jan,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Ley- 
den in  1588,  was  a  prodigy  of  learning  and  of  precocity. 
At  the  age  of  nine  he  could  read  Hebrew  without  points, 
and  at  seventeen  he  addressed  the  King  of  England  in 
a  Latin  oration.  Scaliger  thought  he  excelled  his  father 
in  Hebrew.    Died  in  1609. 

Dru'sus,  a  Roman  prince,  was  the  second  son  of 
Germanicus  and  Agrippina,  and  a  brother  of  the  emperor 
Caligula.  His  disposition,  according  to  Tacitus,  was 
violent  and  unruly.  He  appears  to  have  been  a  victim 
of  the  ambitious  intrigues  of  Sejanus.  Having  been 
condemned  to  death  by  the  senate,  he  was  confined  by 
Tiberius,  who  permitted  him  to  die  by  starvation  in 
33  A.D. 

Drusus,  (Claudius  Nero,)  a  Roman  general,  born 
38  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Tiberius  Claudius  Nero  and 
Livia,  whose  second  husband  was  the  emperor  Augustus. 
He  married  Antonia,  the  daughter  of  Mark  Antony,  In 
the  year  13  b,c.  he  commanded  an  army  on  the  Rhine, 
and  defeated  several  German  tribes.  Horace  composed 
an  admired  ode  in  honour  of  this  victory,  (lib.  iv.  4.)  In 
the  ensuing  campaigns  he  extended  his  conquests  as  far 
as  the  Elbe,  after  which  the  senate  gave  him  the  surname 
Germanicus.  He  died  at  the  age  of  thirty,  leaving  a 
fair  reputation  for  talents  and  virtue.  The  emperor  Tibe- 
rius was  his  brother.  It  is  said  that  Augustus  intended 
to  give  a  portion  of  the  empire  to  Drusus,  who  was  born 
a  few  months  after  the  marriage  of  the  former  with 
Livia.  Drusus  left  two  sons,  Germanicus,  and  Claudius 
who  became  emperor. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  books  xlviii.  and  liv.  ;  Tacitus,  "Annals;" 
Ersch  und  Cruder,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Drusus,  (Marcus  Livius,)  a  Roman  tribune,  was  a 
colleague  of  Caius  Gracchus  in  the  tribuneship  in  122 
B.C.  The  senate,  alarmed  at  the  innovations  of  Gracchus, 
procured  the  election  of  Drusus  because  he  was  popular 
and  eloquent,  in  order  to  undermine  the  influence  of 
Gracchus.  Drusus  founded  many  colonies,  and  courted 
the  popular  favour  with  success,  at  the  same  time  pro- 
moting the  interests  of  the  optimates.  He  was  chosen 
consul  for  112  B.C.,  obtained  Macedonia  as  his  province, 
and  defeated  the  Thracian  Scordisci. 

See  Plutarch,  "Caius  Gracchus;"  Livv,  "Epitome,"  book 
ixiii. ;  NiEBUHR,  "History  of  Rome." 

Drusus,  (Marcus  Livius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
and  uncle  of  Cato  Uticensis,  was  called  Drusus  Junior. 
He  was  an  ambitious  politician,  and  a  champion  or 


patronus  of  the  senate,  which  at  that  period  was  involved 
in  a  contest  with  the  equites  respecting  the  judicial 
power.  In  91  B.C.  he  was  chosen  tribune  of  the  people, 
whose  favour  he  gained  by  largesses  and  agrarian  laws. 
The  consul  Philippus  was  arrested  by  his  order,  and 
the  senate  voted  that  the  laws  of  Drusus  were  null.  He 
became  the  leader  of  a  conspiracy  or  party  which  de- 
signed to  give  the  right  of  citizenship  to  the  Italiotes 
and  to  make  other  changes.  He  was  assassinated  by  an 
unknown  hand  in  91  or  90  B.C. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  Cicero,  "  Brutus,"  "  De  OfiS- 
ciis,"  and  "Pro  Milone;"  Appian,  "De  Bello  Civili ;"  Bemmel, 
"Dissertatio  de  M.  L.  Drusis  Patre  et  Filio,"  1826. 

Dru'sus  Cae'sar,  (see'zar,)  sometimes  called  Drusus 
Junior,  a  son  of  the  emperor  Tiberius,  married  Livia,  a 
sister  of  Germanicus.  His  character  was  depraved  by 
cruelty  and  other  vices.    Died  in  23  A.D.,  from  poison. 

See  Tacitus,  "Annals." 

Druth'mar'  or  dRoot'mir',  (Christian,)  a  monk  and 
grammarian,  who  lived  at  Corbie,  France,  about  850  a.d. 

Dry'ad,  [Gr.  dpuaf,  plural  dpuucJef,  (from  (5p{'f,  an  "oak" 
or  any  "  tree  ;")  Lat.  Dry'ades  ;  Fr.  Dryades,  dRe'td'.] 
The  dryads,  in  classic  mythology,  were  nymphs  or  god- 
desses presiding  over  woods  and  groves.  The  Ham'a- 
DRY^ADS  [from  the  Greek  u//a,  "  together  with"]  were 
supposed  to  be  attached  to  some  particular  tree,  with 
which  they  lived  and  died. 

See  "  Blographie  Universelle,"  (Partie  mythologique.) 

Dryades.    See  Dryad, 

Dryander,  dRe-SnMer,  (Johann,)  orEichmann,  Tk'- 

m3.n,  a  German  astronomer,  born  at  Wetteren,  in  Hesse. 
He  published  esteemed  works,  among  which  are  "De 
Cylindro"  and  "The  Terrestrial  Globe."    Died  in  1560. 

Dryander,  dRe-iu'der,  (Jonas,)  a  Swedish  naturalist, 
born  in  1748,  was  a  pupil  of  Linnaeus.  About  1780  he 
removed  to  England,  where  he  made  an  excellent  Cata- 
logue of  Sir  Joseph  Banks's  Library,  (1798.)  He  wrote 
some  botanical  treatises,  and  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Linnaean  Society.    Died  in  London  in  1810. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Dry'den,  (Charles,)  the  eldest  son  of  the  great  poet, 
was  educated  as  a  Catholic.  In  1692  he  obtained  an 
office  in  the  palace  of  Pope  Clement  XL,  but  resigned 
it  to  his  brother  John,  and  returned  to  England.  He 
was  the  author  of  some  fugitive  poems.  He  was 
drowned,  while  swimming  in  the  Thames,  in  1704. 

Dryden,  (John,)  a  celebrated  English  poet,  born  at 
Aldwinckle,  in  Northamptonshire,  on  the  9th  of  August, 
163 1.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Erasmus  I)riden,  a  rigid 
Puritan  of  gentle  birth.  After  passing  under  the  disci- 
pline of  Dr.  Busby  at  Westminster,  he  entered  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  in  1650.  He  left  college  in  1657, 
and  became  a  citizen  of  London.  One  of  his  first  poetic 
essays  was  "  Heroic  Stanzas  on  the  Death  of  Cromwell," 
(1658,)  of  whom  he  was  at  that  time  an  admirer.  He 
hailed  with  alacrity  the  restoration  of  1660,  in  a  poem 
named  "Astrasa  Redux."  In  1662  he  produced  his  first 
drama,  "  The  Wild  Gallant,"  which  did  not  make  much 
impression  on  the  public  mind.  About  1663  he  married 
Lady  Howard,  the  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Berkshire.  In 
1667  appeared  his  "  Annus  Mirabilis,"  or  "  Year  of  Won- 
ders," and  a  tragi-comedy  entitled  "The  Indian  Empe- 
ror." He  succeeded  Davenant  as  poet-laureate  in  1668, 
and  published  his  excellent  prose  "Essay  on  Dramatic 
Poesy,"  which  entitled  him,  as  Dr.  Johnson  observed,  to 
be  considered  the  father  of  English  criticism.  He  after- 
wards produced  many  successfiil  comedies  and  tragedies, 
among  which  are  "  Marriage  a-la-Mode,"  "  All  for  Love," 
(1678,)  " Aurengzebe,"  and  "Don  Sebastian,"  (1690.) 
His  dramas  are  eminent  examples  of  genius  perverted, 
and  abound  in  passages  of  disgusting  indecency.  He 
also  acquired  great  celebrity  in  satire  and  in  lyric  poetry. 
His  "  Absalom  and  Achitophel"  (1681)  is  a  poetical  satire 
against  the  party  of  which  Lord  Shaftesbury  was  the 
master-spirit  and  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  the  nominal 
head.  It  had  a  prodigious  success.  In  reference  to 
this  poem,  Hallam  remarks,  "The  spontaneous  ease  of 
expression,  the  rapid  transitions,  the  general  elasticity 
and  movement,  have  never  been  excelled."  About  1686 
he  avowed  himself  a  convert  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  which  was  then  favoured  at  court,  and  wrote 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  g,  h,  y^, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DRTDEN  794 


DUBOIS 


"  The  Hind  and  the  Panther,"  an  allegory  in  verse.  The 
subject  is  the  controversy  between  the  Romish  Church 
(the  Hind)  and  the  Church  of  England,  represented  by 
the  Spotted  Panther. 

In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  gradually  ceased  to 
write  for  the  stage,  and  acquired  with  a  purer  taste  a 
more  natural  style.  "  He  had  turned  his  powers  in  a 
new  direction,"  says  Macaulay,  "  with  success  the  most 
splendid  and  decisive.  His  taste  had  gradually  awakened 
his  creative  faculties.  The  fiist  rank  in  poetry  was  be- 
yond his  reach,  but  he  secured  the  most  honourable 
place  in  the  second.  .  .  .  His  command  of  language  was 
immense.  With  him  died  the  secret  of  the  old  poetical 
diction  of  England,  —  the  art  of  producing  rich  effects 
by  familiar  words.  .  .  .  Dryden  was  an  incomparable 
reasoner  in  verse." 

Among  his  later  productions  are  translations  of  Juvenal 
and  Virgil,  (1697,)  and  the  celebrated  "Ode  for  Saint 
Cecilia's  Day,"  (about  r/oo,)  which  Macaulay  pronounces 
"his  greatest  work,  and  a  master-piece  of  the  second 
class  of  poetry."  Some  critics  esteem  it  the  finest  ode 
in  the  language.  "  His  translation  of  Virgil,"  says  Pope, 
"is  the  most  noble  and  spirited  translation  I  know  in 
any  language."  Brougham  speaks  of  his  prose  as  "the 
matchless  prose  of  Dryden,  rich,  various,  natural,  ani- 
mated, pointed,"  etc.  He  died  on  the  ist  of  May,  1700, 
and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets  ;"  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "  Life 
of  Dryden,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  Dryden's  works,  18  vols.,  1808; 
Macaui-AV,  "  Essays,"  articles  "Dryden"  and  "Comic  Dramatists 
of  the  Restoration  ;"  also,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap, 
vii.  and  vol.  iv.  chap.  xx. ;  Malone,  "Life  of  Dryden;"  Vii.i.e- 
MAiN,  "  Tableau de  la  Litterature  au  dix-huitieme  Siecle ;"  Prof.  John 
Wilson,  "Critique  on  Dryden,"  in  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
February,  March,  and  April,  1845 ;  "  Edinburgh  Reviev/"  for  July, 
1855;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  i.,  1820;  "Eraser's  Magazine" 
for  August,  1854,  and  August,  1865;  "Westminster  Review"  for 
April,  1855. 

Dryden,  (John,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  about 
1668.  He  translated  the  14th  Satire  for  his  father's  ver- 
sion of  Juvenal,  and  wrote  a  comedy,  "The  Husband  his 
own  Cuckold,"  (1696.)    Died  at  Rome  in  1701. 

Erasmus  Henry,  the  third  son  of  the  great  poet,  in- 
herited the  title  of  baronet  from  a  kinsman  of  his  father, 
and  died  in  1710. 

Drys'dale,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  divine  and  elo- 
quent preacher,  born  at  Kirkaldy  in  1718.  In  1766  he 
was  a]jpointed  one  of  the  ministers  of  the  Tron  Church 
in  Edinburgh.  Died  in  1788.  His  sermons  were  pub- 
lished in  1793. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Dschafer  or  Dschaafar.    See  Mansoor. 
Dschami.    See  Jamee. 

Dschehan-  or  Dschahan-Ghir.  See  JahAn-Geer. 

Dschelal-Eddin.    See  Jelal-ed-Deen. 

D-schemschid.    See  Jemsheed. 

Dschengis.    See  Jengis  Khan. 

Dschihan-Ghir.    See  JahAn-Geer. 

Dschingis.    See  Jengis  Khan. 

Duali-  (or  Douali-)  al-Basree,  (or  -Basri,)  ddo-il'e 
il  bis'ree,  written  also  Dueli-  (Doueli-)  and  Duwali-el- 
Basri,  ( Abool-  (or  Abu-1-)  Aswed-Zklim-  (or  Sdlim-) 
Ibn- Amroo-Ibn-Sofy^n,  i'bool  ^s'wed  zi'lim  ib'n 
Sm'roo  Ib'n  so-fe-Sn',)  an  eminent  Arabian  grammarian 
and  miser,  born  at  Bassora  (Basra)  about  600  A.D.,  (or 
630,  according  to  some  authorities ;)  died  at  the  age  of 
eighty-two. 

See  Hammer-Purgstall,  "  Literaturgeschichte  der  Araber;" 
Ibn-Khallikan,  "  Biographical  Dictionary." 

Du-ane',  (Willl\m,)  an  American  politician,  born 
near  Lake  Champlain,  New  York,  in  1760.  He  learned 
the  trade  of  printer,  and  went  to  India  about  1784.  He 
afterwards  passed  several  years  in  England.  Having  re- 
turned to  the  United  States  about  1795,  he  became  editor 
of  "The  Aurora,"  a  Democratic  paper  which  was  pub- 
lished at  Philadelphia,  and  acquired  much  influence. 
He  edited  "The  Aurora"  for  many  years.  Died  in  1835. 
Parton,  in  his  "Life  of  Jackson,"  says  that  "Jackson 
formed  a  very  high  idea  of  his  character  and  talents." 

Du-ane',  (William  J.,)  an  eminent  lawyer  and  states- 
man, born  at  Clonmel,  Ireland,  in  1780,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1803,  and 
practised  in  Philadelphia.     About  1821  he  represented 


that  city  in  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  the 
legal  adviser  of  Stephen  Girard,  whose  last  will  he  wrote 
in  1831.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury  in 
January  or  June,  1833,  and  was  ordered  by  President 
Jackson  to  remove  the  deposits  of  public  money  from 
the  Bank  of  the  United  States.  Having  refused  to 
comply  with  this  order,  he  was  removed  from  office  in 
September,  1833.  He  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  as  a 
private  citizen.  He  published  "The  Law  of  Nations 
Investigated  in  a  Popular  Manner,"  (1809.)  Died  in 
Philadelphia  in  1865. 

Duaren.    See  Douaren. 

Duarte  I.,  King  of  Portugal.    See  Edv^ard. 

Duault,  dii'o',  (FRANgois  Marie  Guillaume,)  a 
French  poet,  born  at  Saint-Malo  in  1757,  translated 
"The  Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  and  wrote  elegiac  poems 
which  are  commended.    Died  in  1833. 

Duban,  dii'bdN',  (Ffinx  Louis  Jacques,)  a  French 
architect,  and  member  of  the  Institute,  born  in  Paris 
about  1798.  He  finished  the  Palace  of  Fine  Arts,  com- 
menced by  Debret,  and  was  chosen  architect  of  the 
Louvre  in  1848. 

Du  Bartas.    See  Bartas. 

Dubayet.    See  Aubert  du  Bayet. 

Dubellay.    See  Bellay. 

Dubeux,  dii'buh',  (Louis,)  an  Orientalist,  born  of 
French  parents  in  Lisbon  about  1795.  He  wrote  a  work 
entitled  "Persia,"  ("La  Perse,"  1841,)  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  Turkish  in  Paris  in  1848. 

Diibner  or  Duebner,  diib'ner,  (Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man philologist,  born  in  1802,  published  an  edition  of 
Justin,  (1831.)  He  afterwards  edited  for  Firmin  Didot's 
"  Bibliotheca  Grasca"  several  authors,  among  whom  are 
Arrian  and  Maximus  of  Tyre, 

Duboccage.    See  Boccage. 

Dubois,  dii'bwa',  (Antoine,)  an  eminent  French  sur- 
geon and  physician,  born  at  Gramat  (Lot)  in  1756.  He 
was  chosen  royal  professor  in  the  School  of  Surgery  in 
Paris  in  1790,  and  in  1802  surgeon-in-chief  of  the  hospital 
which  bears  his  name,  the  Hospice  Dubois.  He  possessed 
rare  sagacity  and  dexterity,  and  was  regarded  by  the 
French  as  one  of  the  first  physicians  of  Europe.  He 
attended  the  empress  Maria  Louisa  on  the  occasion  of 
the  birth  of  her  son.  His  medical  principles  have  been 
published  by  several  of  his  pupils.    Died  in  1837. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Dubois,  du-bois'  or  dil'bwa',  (Edward,)  an  English 
satirical  writer,  born  about  1775,  published,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Wreath,"  (1799,)  an  edition  of  Boccaccio's 
"Decameron,"  (in  English,  1804,)  and  "My  Pocket- 
Book,"  a  satire,  (1807.)    Died  in  1850. 

Dubois,  (Francois,)  a  French  painter  of  history, 
born  in  Paris  in  1790.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in 
1819,  and  a  first-class  medal  in  1831. 

Dubois,  (Francois  Noel,)  a  French  botanist,  born 
at  Orleans  in  1752  ;  died  in  1824. 

Dubois,  (Fr6d]^ric,)  an  able  French  medical  writer, 
born  at  Amiens  about  1796,  succeeded  Pariset  in  1847 
perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Medicine,  Paris. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  Treatise  on  General  Pathology," 
(2  vols.,  1837.) 

Dubois,  (Fr6d6ric,)  a  Swiss  naturalist  and  traveller, 
born  in  1798,  published  "Travels  in  the  Crimea,  Colchis, 
and  Georgia,"  and  became  professor  of  archaeology  at 
Neufchatel  in  1843.    Died  in  1849. 

Dubois,  (Girard,)  a  French  priest,  born  at  Orleans 
in  1628,  wrote,  in  I>atin,  a  "  History  of  the  Church  of 
Paris."    Died  in  1696. 

Dubois,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  troubadour,  sur- 
named  Cretin,  wrote  a  "  History  of  France"  in  French 
verse,  (still  in  manuscript.)  A  collection  of  his  songs, 
etc.  was  published  in  1527.    Died  in  1525. 

See  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Dubois,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  cardinal  and  minis- 
ter of  state,  born  at  Brive-la-Gaillarde,  in  Limousin,  in 
1656.  In  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  he^was  appointed 
preceptor  to  the  Due  de  Chartres,  (afterwards  Duke  of 
Orleans  and  Regent  of  France,)  whose  favour  he  gained 
by  pandering  to  his  baser  passions  and  appetites.  The 
appointment  of  his  pupil  to  the  regency  in  1715  favoured 
the  ambitious  designs  of  Dubois,  who  was  then  made  a 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  |,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fdt;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DUBOIS 


795 


DUBUFE 


councillor  of  state,  although  the  regent's  mother  entreated 
him  not  to  employ  one  whom  she  stigmatized  as  a  most 
arrant  knave.  He  displayed  great  address  and  astute- 
ness in  political  intrigues,  and  had  an  important  part  in 
the  triple  alliance  of  1717.  Soon  after  this  he  became 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and,  in  spite  of  his  scandalous 
life,  Archbishop  of  Cambray.  After  much  opposition,  he 
obtained  a  cardinal's  hat  in  1721,  and  was  made  prime 
minister  the  next  year.  He  exiled  all  who  resisted  his 
will,  and  he  retained  power  until  his  death  in  1725. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "  Memoires ;"  Duci.os,  "  Memoires  secrets  sur 
les  Regnes  de  Louis  XIV  et  XV;"  Paul  Lacroix,  "Memoires  du 
Cardinal  Dubois,"  4  vols.,  1829. 

Dubois,  [Lat.  Syl'vius,]  (Jacques,)  a  learned  French 
physician,  born  at  Amiens  in  1478.  He  lectured  on 
medicine  in  Paris,  and  in  1550  became  a  professor  of 
medicine  in  the  College  Royal.  He  wrote  several  able 
professional  treatises.    Died  in  1555. 

See  Rene  Moreau,  "Vita  Sylvii,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his 
works;  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Dubois,  (Jean,)  a  Flemish  or  French  medical  writer, 
born  at  Lille  ;  died  at  Douai  in  1576. 

Dubois,  (Jean,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1626,  was  a  grandfather  of  the  poet  Alexis  Piron.  Died 
at  Dijon  in  1694. 

Dubois,  (Jean  Antoine,)  Abb6,  a  French  missionary, 
who  laboured  many  years  in  Hindostan,  was  born  in 
Ardeche  in  1765.  He  wrote,  in  English,  "The  Charac- 
ter, Manners,  Customs,  and  Institutions  of  the  People 
of  India,"  which  was  published  by  the  East  India  Com- 
pany in  1816.  It  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  best  works  on 
that  subject.    Died  in  Paris  in  1848? 

Dubois,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  writer,  born  in 
Burgundy  in  1753,  resided  for  a  time  in  Poland,  where 
he  became  a  councillor  at  court.  Having  retm-ned  to 
Paris,  he  became  the  friend  and  assistant  of  Malesherbes. 
After  the  reign  of  terror  he  held  a  high  office  in  the 
ministry  of  the  interior.  He  wrote  a  "  Notice  of  the 
Life  and  Labours  of  Malesherbes,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1808. 

Dubois,  (Louis  Francois,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Lisieux  in  1773,  published  a  voluminous  treatise  on 
Agriculture,  entitled  "Cours  complet  d'Agriculture," 
(1825-32,)  and  a  French  version  of  Orderic  Vital's 
"History  of  Normandy,"  (1827.)    Died  in  1855. 

Dubois,  (Paul,)  a  French  surgeon,  son  of  Antoine, 
noticed  above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1795.  He  i)ublished 
in  1849  the  first  part  of  a  "Complete  Treatise  on  the 
Art  of  Accouchements."  He  was  accoucheur  to  the 
empress  Eugenie.    Died  in  October,  i860. 

Dubois,  (Paul  Alexis,)  a  French  general,  born  about 
1754,  was  killed  at  Alia,  in  the  Tyrol,  in  1796. 

Dubois,  (Paul  FRANgois,)  a  French  journalist  and 
professor,  born  at  Rennes  in  1795.  He  was  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  "  Globe,"  a  liberal  daily  journal  of  Paris, 
for  several  years,  ending  in  1830,  and  sat  in  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  from  1831  to  1848.  He  became  professor 
of  French  literature  in  the  Polytechnic  School  in  1834, 
and  succeeded  Victor  Cousin  as  director  of  the  Normal 
School  in  1840. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Dubois,  (Philippe  Goibaud — gwi'bo',)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Poitiers  in  1626,  was  tutor  of  the  Due  de 
Guise,  (Louis  Joseph.)  He  made  translations  of  the 
works  of  Saint  Augustine,  and  of  Cicero  "  De  Officiis," 
"De  Senectute,"  etc.,  which  procured  his  admission  into 
the  French  Academy  in  1693.    Died  in  1694. 

Dubois,  dii'bwa',  (Simon,)  a  Flemish  painter  of  por- 
traits and  animals,  born  in  Antwerp  after  1622,  worked 
in  England.    Died  in  1708. 

Dubois-Craiioe.    See  Dubois  de  Cranc^:. 

Dubois  de  Crance,  dii^bwa'  deh  kRSN'si',  or  Du- 
bois-Crance,  (Edmond  Louis  Alexis,)  a  French  gen- 
eral and  Jacobin,  born  at  Charleville  in  1747.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  became  a  partisan  of 
Danton,  and  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  com- 
mittee of  public  safety.  He  directed  the  siege  of  Lyons, 
from  which  he  was  recalled  by  the  Convention  on  the 
charge  of  moderantistne  in  1 793.  He  was  inspector-gen- 
eral and  minister  of  war  in  1799,  but  lost  all  his  offices 
when  Bonaparte  obtained  power.    Died  in  1814. 


Dubois  de  Jancigny,  dii'bw^'  deh  zhSN's^n'ye', 
(Adolphe  Philibert,)  a  French  writer,  a  son  of  Jean 
Baptiste  Dubois,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1795. 
He  spent  many  years  in  British  India,  and  was  sent  on 
a  mission  to  China  in  1841.  He  wrote  several  books  on 
India,  China,  etc.  Two  of  these,  namely,  "  India,"  (1845,) 
and  "China  and  the  Birman  Empire,"  (1850,)  form  part 
of  Firmin  Didot's  series  entitled  "  L'Univers." 

Dubois  [Lat.  Syi/vius]  de  la  Boe,  dii'bwl'  deh  It 
ho'W,  (Franciscus,)  a  German  or  Dutch  physician,  of 
French  extraction,  eminent  for  learning  and  eloquence, 
was  born  at  Hanau  in  1614.  He  practised  about  fifteen 
years  at  Amsterdam,  and  obtained  the  chair  of  practical 
medicine  at  Leyden  in  1658.  He  gave  an  impulse  to 
the  study  of  chemistry  by  his  zeal  and  eloquence.  "It 
is  to  Dubois,"  says  Fournier,  "  that  we  owe  the  first 
idea  of  clinic  instruction  and  the  initiative  in  the  study 
of  pathologic  anatomy."  He  published  several  works, 
among  which  is  "  Disputationum  Medicarum  decas," 
(1663.)    Died  in  1672. 

See  £lov,  "  Dictionnaire  historique  de  la  Medecine." 

Dubois-Fontanelle,  dii'bwa'  fiN'tt'nSK,  (Jean  Gas- 
pard,)  a  French  dramatist  and  litterateur,  born  at  Greno- 
ble in  1737;  died  in  181 2.  His  drama  of  "Ericie,"  against 
monastic  vows,  was  prohibited  by  the  censor. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Dubos.  dii'bo',  (Charles  Francois,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic and  writer,  born  in  1661 ;  died  at  Lu9on  in  1724. 

Dubos,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  writer  and  nego- 
tiator, born  at  Beauvais  in  1670.  He  studied  public  law, 
and  was  employed  in  many  important  and  secret  negoti- 
ations with  foreign  courts  by  De  Torcy  and  Dubois.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  the  "  History  of  the  League 
of  Cambray,"  (1712,)  which  Voltaire  said  was  "profound, 
politic,  and  interesting,"  and  "Critical  Reflections  on 
Poetry  and  Painting,"  (17 19,)  which  the  same  critic 
praised  as  "the  most  valuable  book  ever  written  on  those 
subjects  in  any  nation  of  Europe."  He  was  chosen  in 
1722  perpetual  secretary  of  the  French  Academy,  into 
which  he  had  been  admitted  in  1720.    Died  in  1742. 

See  Qu^RARD,"  La  France  Litteraire ;"  Auguste  Morel,"  fitude 
sur  I'Abbe  Dubos,"  1851  ;  V.  Tremblav,  "Notice  sur  I'Abbe  Du- 
bos," 1848. 

Dubosc.    See  Bosc,  du. 

Duboscq,  dii'bosk',  (Jules,)  a  French  optician,  born 
in  1 81 7,  invented  or  improved  several  instruments, 
among. which  is  the  stereoscope. 

Duboulay.    See  Boulay,  du. 

Dubouloz,  dii'boo^lo',  or  Dubouleau,  dii^boo^lo', 
(Jean  Auguste,)  a  French  painter  of  history,  born  in 
Paris  in  1800. 

Dubourcq,  dii^booRk',  (Pieter  Lodewijk,)  a  Dutch 
painter  of  landscapes  and  genre,  born  at  Amsterdam  in 
1815. 

Dubourg-Butler,  dii'booR'  biitlaiR',  (Fr^:d^ric,)  a 
French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1778.  He  took  an  active 
part  against  Charles  X.  in  July,  1830.    Died  in  1850. 

Duboury,  dii'boo're',  (Lodewijk  P'abricius,)  a  skil- 
ful Dutch  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Amsterdam  in 
1 69 1.    Y\.\s  tableaux  de  botidoir  2iXQ,  ^x\z^di.  Died 

in  1775. 

Dubraw,  doo'bRlv,  (Johann,)  a  Bohemian  historian, 
born  at  Pilsen.  His  family  name  was  Skala.  He  be- 
came Bishop  of  Olmutz,  and  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "History 
of  Bohemia,"  (1552,)  which  is  accounted  accurate.  Died 

1553- 

Dubreton,  du'bReh-t6N',  (Jean  Louis,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1773  ;  died  in  1855. 

Dubreuil,  dii'bRuF  or  dii'bRuh'ye,  (Alphonse,)  a 
French  horticulturist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1811.  He 
founded  at  Rouen  the  Ecole  d'' Arbres  frteitiers,  the  first 
of  the  kind.  In  1846  he  published  a  work  on  the  culture 
of  trees,  entitled  "  Cours  d'Arboriculture,"  (2  vols.,) 
which  has  been  often  reprinted  and  translated. 

Dubreul,  dli'bRuK,  (Jacques,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  in  Paris  in  1528,  wrote  on  the  Antiquities  of  Paris. 
Died  in  1614. 

Dubufe,  du'buf,  (Claude  Marie,)  a  French  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  born  in  Paris  in  1790.  He  was 
a  fashionable  portrait-painter  for  many  years.  Died  in 
1864. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (S^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DUBUFE 


796 


DV  CHAT  EL 


Dubufe,  (fiDOUARD,)  a  successful  French  portrait- 
painter,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  about  1818. 

Dubuisson,  du'bu-e''s6N',  (FRANgois  Rene  Andk6,) 
a  French  naturahst,  born  at  Nantes  in  1763.  He  became 
in  1810  director  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at 
Nantes,  where  he  made  a  rich  collection  of  minerals. 
He  published  an  "  Essay  of  a  Geological  Method," 
(1819.)    Died  in  1836. 

Dubuisson,  (Paul  Ulrich,)  a  mediocre  French 
writer  of  dramas,  etc.,  was  born  at  Laval  in  1746.  He 
was  guillotined  in  1794.  ^ 

Duby,  dii'be',  (Pierre  Ancher  Tobieseii — 6n'- 
shaiR^  to'be''z6N',)  a  Swiss  linguist  and  medallist,  born 
in  the  canton  of  Soleure  in  1721,  received  the  title  of 
interpreter  to  the  Royal  Library  of  Paris.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  Medals  relating  to  Sieges,  entitled  "Recueil 
de  Pieces  obsidionales."    Died  in  1782. 

Due.    See  Leduc  and  Ducq. 

Due,  diik,  (Joseph  Louis,)  a  French  architect,  born 
in  Paris  in  1802,  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1825.  In 
1854  he  was  selected  to  enlarge  the  Palais  de  Justice. 

Due,  du,  dii  diik,  (Fronton,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born 
at  Bordeaux  in  1558,  was  professor  of  theology  at  tlie 
College  of  Clermont  in  Paris.  He  published  a  good 
edition  of  the  works  of  Chrysostom,  (1609-24,)  edited  the 
works  of  some  other  Fathers,  and  wrote  a  curious  book 
on  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  entitled  "  The  Tragical  History 
of  the  Pucelle  de  Domremy,  newly  divided  into  Acts  and 
represented  by  Personages,"  (1581.)    Died  in  1624. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Duea,  del,  d^l  dooHci,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  archi- 
tect of  the  sixteenth  century,  born  in  Sicily,  was  a  pupil 
of  Michael  Angelo.  Among  his  works  are  the  Palazzo 
Panfili,  Palazzo  Strozzi,  and  the  Villa  Mattei,  all  at  Rome. 

Du  Camp  or  Dueamp,  dii'kON',  (Maxime,)  a  French 
writer  and  artist,  a  son  of  Theodore  J.,  noticed  below, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1822.  Having  twice  visited  Asia 
Minor,  Greece,  etc.,  he  published  "Souvenirs  et  Pay- 
sages  d'Orient,"  and  an  elegant  work  entitled  "Egypt, 
Nubia,  Palestine,  and  Syria,"  (1852,)  with  photographic 
illustrations, 

DuCamp,  (Theodore  Joseph,)  a  skilful  French  sur- 
geon, born  at  Bordeaux  in  1793,  improved  the  metliod 
of  treating  diseases  of  the  urinary  organs.    Died  in  1824. 

Ducaneel,  dii'kSN^sSK,  (Charles  Pierre,)  a  French 
dramatist  and  lawyer,  born  in  1766  ;  died  in  1835. 

Du  Cange  or  Ducange,  dii'kdNzh',  (Charles  du 
Fresne — dii'fRin',)  Sieur  du  Cange,  a  French  historical 
writer,  born  at  Amiens  in  1610.  He  was  educated  for  the 
law,  but  did  not  practise  it  long.  He  was  learned  in  the 
languages,  history,  geography,  law,  antiquities,  etc.,  and 
wrote  a  great  number  of  works,  among  which  are  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Empire  of  Constantinople  under  the  French 
Emperors,"  "Byzantine  History  Illustrated,"  and  "Glos- 
sary of  Latin  Words  used  in  the  Dark  and  Middle  Ages," 
("Glossarium  ad  Scriptores  medise  et  infimas  Latinita- 
tis,")  which  is  highly  prized.  He  left  many  manuscripts 
on  various  subjects.  In  1668  he  became  a  resident  of 
Paris.  "One  is  appalled,"  says  Voltaire,  "at  the  im- 
mensity of  his  learning  and  his  labours."    Died  in  1688. 

See  DuFRESNE  d'Aubigny,  "Memoires  historiques  pour  servir 
i  I'Histoire  de  C.  du  Fresne  du  Cange;"  Hardouin,  "  Essai  sur  la 
Vie,  etc.  de  Du  Cange;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Dueange  or  Du  Cange,  (Victor  Henri  Joseph 
Brahain  —  bRt'dN',)  a  French  novelist  and  dramatist, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1783.  For  the  liberal  political 
opinions  expressed  in  his  novel  of  "Valentine,"  (1821,) 
he  was  imprisoned  six  months.  He  wrote,  among  other 
works,  two  novels,  entitled  "Leonide"  (1823)  and  "La 
Lutherienne,"  (1825,)  and  many  dramas.    Died  in  1833, 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraiie." 

Duearel,  duOca-r^K  or  dii'kt'reK,  (Andr6  Coltee — 
koKti',)  a  learned  antiquary,  born  at  Caen,  in  Normandy, 
about  1 7 14.  He  passed  his  mature  life  in  England,  and  was 
appointed  commissary  of  Saint  Catherine's  and  commis- 
sary of  Canterbury  about  1755.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  Besides  other  works,  he  wrote  a  "  Treatise 
on  the  Anglo-Gallic  Medals  of  the  Ancient  Kings  of  Eng- 
land," (1757,)  and  "Anglo-Norman  Antiquities,"  (1767,) 
which  is  esteemed  valuable.    Died  in  London  in  1785. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 


Duearla-Bonifas,  dii'klR'lt'  bo'ne'fas',  (Marc,)  a 
French  physicist,  born  at  Vabre  in  1738  ;  died  in  181 6. 

Du  Cart,  dii  k^Rt,  or  Dueart,  (Izaak,)  a  Dutch 
painter  of  flowers,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1630.  He 
painted  flowers  on  satin  and  vellum  with  a  fidelity  at 
that  time  unequalled.  His  productions  are  still  prized 
by  amateurs.    Died  in  1694. 

Ducas.    See  Constantine  Ducas. 

Du'eas,  (Michael,)  \}llixarik  0  AoC/caf,]  a  Greek  his- 
torian, who  was  descended  from  the  imperial  family  of 
Ducas,  and  flourished  about  1450.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  Decadence  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  1355  to 
1453,"  which  forms  part  of  the  collection  called  "  His- 
toria  Byzantina."  It  is  esteemed  judicious  and  impartial, 
but  is  written  in  a  barbarous  style.  He  was  living  at 
Lesbos  in  1462. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Raichs." 

Dueasse,  dii^ktss',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  doctor  of 
theology,  eminent  as  a  canonist;  died  in  1706. 

Dueasse,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  successful  French  naval 
officer,  born  in  Bearn.  He  was  a  captain  in  the  marine 
when  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Saint  Domingo  in 
1691.  He  defended  that  island  against  the  English  and 
Spaniards,  and  defeated  Admiral  Benbow  in  1702,  near 
Sainte-Marthe.  In  1703  he  was  made  chief  of  a  squad- 
ron, and  retired  from  the  office  of  governor.  He  was 
raised  to  the  grade  of  lieutenant-general,  and  commanded 
the  fleet  which -invested  Barcelona  in  17 14.  Died  in  1715. 

See  Van  Tenac,  "  Histoire  de  la  Marine;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Generale." 

Dueasse,  (Jean  Marie  Auguste,)  a  skilful  French 
physician  and  writer^^born  at  Toulouse  in  1786. 

Dueaurroy  de  la  Croix,  dii'ko'rwa'  deh  It  kRwl, 
(Adolphe  Marie,)  a  French  jurist,  born  in  Normandy 
in  1788.  He  published  "The  Institutes  of  Justinian 
newly  explained,"  (4  vols.,  1835  ;  8th  edition, 1851,)  which 
had  a  great  and  durable  success.    Died  in  1850. 

Duecio  di  Buoninsegna,  doot'cho  de  boo-6n-^n- 
san'yft,  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  in  or  near  Sienna, 
flourished  between  1280  and  1340.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Segna  or  Boninsegna,  and  was  one  of  the  most  famous 
artists  of  his  time.  About  1310  he  produced  his  great 
work,  the  altar-piece  of  the  Sienna  cathedral,  which 
represents  the  Virgin  and  many  saints. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Dueereeau.    See  Androuet  du  Cerceau. 

Du  Chaillu,  dii  sht'yii',  (Paul,)  a  French  traveller, 
born  about  1830,  became  a  citizen  of  the  United  States. 
He  travelled  in  the  interior  of  Africa  in  1855-56,  and 
published  in  1861  his  "Explorations  and  Adventures  in 
Equatorial  Africa."  His  veracity  has  been  questioned  by 
some  critics.  He  was  the  first  European  that  discovered 
and  described  the  gorilla. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1861. 

Duehal,  du-shaK,  ?  (James,)  an  Irish  Protestant  writer 
on  theology,  born  at  Antrim  in  1697;  died  in  1761. 

Duehalais,  dii^sht^'li',  (Adolphe,)  a  French  anti- 
quary and  numismatist,  born  at  Beaugencyin  1814;  died 
in  1854. 

Duehange,  dii'shSNzh',  (Gaspard,)  a  skilful  French 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1662,  was  a  pupil  of  Jean 
Audran.  He  was  especially  successful  in  reproducing 
the  works  of  Correggio,  after  whom  he  engraved  "  Leda" 
and  "Danae."   Died  in  1756. 

Duehanoy,  d^i'sha'nwa^  (Claude  Francois,)  a 
French  physician  and  writer,  born  at  Vauvilliers  in  1742  ; 
died  in  1827. 

Duehat,  Le,  leh  dii^shS',  (Jacob,)  a  French  critic  and 
editor,  born  at  Metz  in  1658.  He  became  a  Protestant 
exile  in  1700,  and  retired  to  Berlin,  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  judge.  He  published  valuable  editions  of  the 
works  of  Rabelais,  (1711,)  of  the  "Apology  for  Herodo- 
tus" by  Stephanus,  (1735,)  and  of  other  old  French 
works.    Died  in  1735. 

See  J.  H.  S.  Formev,  "Ducatiana,"  2  vols.,  1738;  Niceron, 
"Memoires." 

Duehatel,  dl/shi't^K,  (Charles  Marie  Tanneguy 
— ttn'ge',)  Comte,  a  French  minister  of  state,  born  in 
Paris  in  1803,  was  a  son  of  a  peer  of  France.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1836,  he  became  minister  of  finance,  and  in  April, 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;    ^,  d>,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


DU  CHAT  EL 


797 


DUCKER 


1837,  retired  with  Guizot,  whose  political  opinions  he  ap- 
proved. He  was  minister  of  the  interior  from  October, 
1840,  until  the  revolution  of  1848. 

Duchatel,  (Francois.)    See  Chatel,  du. 

Duchatel,  (Gaspard,)  a  French  Girondist,  born  in 
1766,  was  a  deputy  from  Poitou  to  the  National  Con- 
vention in  1792.  In  the  trial  of  the  king  he  voted  for 
banishment,  as  the  most  practicable  mode  of  saving  his 
life.  He  was  one  of  the  twenty-two  Girondists  pro- 
scribed by  the  Jacobins  and  executed  in  1793. 

Duchdtel,  [Lat.  Castella'nus,]  (Pierre,)  a  French 
bishop  and  scholar,  born  at  Arc,  in  the  diocese  of  Langres. 
In  his  youth  he  worked  with  Erasmus  at  Bale  on  editions 
of  Greek  authors.  Curiosity  led  him  to  visit  Egypt, 
Palestine,  and  Syria.  On  his  return  he  became  reader 
to  Francis  I.,  who  said,  "  He  is  the  only  man  of  letters 
that  I  have  never  exhausted  in  discourse."  He  w-as  ap- 
pointed Piishop  of  Macon  in  1544,  grand  almoner  in  1547, 
and  Bishop  of  Orleans  in  1551.  He  died  in  1552,  leaving 
the  reputation  of  a  virtuous  and  tolerant  prelate  and  one 
of  the  most  learned  and  eloquent  men  of  his  age.  He  op- 
posed the  persecution  of  the  Vaudois  and  Protestants. 

See  Galland,  "Vita  Castellani,"  1674;  Bayle,  "Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Duchatel,  (Tanneguy.)    See  Chatel,  du. 

DuChatelet.  SeeCHASTELLET,(GABRIELLE£MILIE.) 

Duche,  du-sha',  (Jacob,)  D.D.,  an  Episcopal  clergy- 
man, distinguished  for  his  talents  and  eloquence,  was 
born  in  Philadelphia  about  1739.  He  graduated  at  the 
College  of  Philadelphia  in  1757.  On  the  assembling  of 
the  first  Continental  Congress,  in  1774,  he  was  elected 
chaplain ;  and  his  opening  prayer  was  remarkable  for  its 
earnestness  and  pathos,  and  contributed  much  towards 
reconciling  the  discordant  elements  of  that  body.  He 
was  subsequently  chosen  chaplain  of  several  successive 
Congresses.  Yet,  when  the  British  had  taken  Philadel- 
phia, he  not  only  made  his  peace  with  England,  but  wrote 
a  letter  to  Washington  urging  him  to  follow  his  example. 
This  letter  Washington  laid  before  Congress.  Uuche  was 
declared  a  traitor,  and  fled  to  England.  He  afterwards 
returned  to  Philadelphia,  and  died  in  1798. 

Duche  de  Vancy,  dii'sha'  deh  v6N'se^(JosEPH  Fran- 
qois,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1668.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  a  friend 
of  Jean  Baptiste  Rousseau.  Among  his  best  produc- 
tions are  the  tragedy  of  "Absalom,"  which  La  Harpe 
pronounced  a  work  of  merit,  and  the  opera  "Iphigenia 
in  Tauris,"  of  which  Voltaire  said,  "It  recalls  a  grand 
idea  of  what  was  most  excellent  in  the  Greek  tragedy." 
Died  in  December,  1 704. 

Duchemiii.    See  Duclos. 

Ducheuius.    See  Duchesne. 

Duchesne,  dii'shfn',  [Lat.  Duche'nius  or  Querce- 
ta'nus,  1  (Andre,)  one  of  the  most  learned  historians  of 
France,  was  born  in  Touraine  in  1584.  After  finishing 
his  studies  in  Paris,  he  became  geographer  and  histo- 
riographer to  the  king.  His  numerous  and  valuable 
works  have  procured  for  him  the  title  of  "  the  father  of 
French  history."  Among  them  are  "The  Antiquities 
and  Researches  of  the  Grandeur  of  the  Kings  of  France," 
(1609,)  "Ancient  Historians  of  the  Normans,"  in  Latin, 
(1619,)  and  "Contemporary  Writers  of  the  History  of 
the  Franks,"  ("Historias  Francorum  Scriptores  coe- 
tanei,"  1636-49^^  He  was  run  over  by  a  carriage  and 
killed,  near  Paris,  in  1640. 

See  NiCERON,  "Meinoires;"  Lelong,  "  Bibliotheque  Histo- 
rique." 

Duchesne,  (Antoine  Nicolas,)  a  learned  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1747,  wrote  a  "  Manual 
of  Botany,"  (1764,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1827. 

Duchesne,  (Francois,)  a  son  of  Andre,  noticed  above, 
born  in  Paris  in  1616,  cultivated  history  with  zeal,  and 
o'otained  the  title  of  historiographer.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  Chancellors  of  France,"  (16S0,)  and  published 
editions  of  several  works  of  his  father,  viz.  :  "The  Anti- 
quities of  the  Cities  and  Castles  of  France,"  (1647,)  ^^id 
"The  History  of  the  Popes,"  (1653.)    Died  in  1693. 

Duchesne,  (Henri  Gabriel,)  a  French  naturalist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1739,  published,  conjointly  with  M.  Mac- 
quer,  a  "  Naturalist's  Manual,"  (1771,)  and  a  "  Dictionary 
of  Industry,"  (3  vols.,  1776.)    Died  in  1822. 


Duchesne,  (Joseph,)  a  French  physician  and  chemist, 
born  in  Armagnac  about  1544.  In  1593  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  became  physician-in-ordinary  to  Henry  IV. 
He  published  "  Pharmacopoeia  dogmaticorum  restituta," 
and  other  medical  works.    Died  in  1609. 

See  £lov,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Medecine." 

Duchesne  de  Gisors,  dii'shin'  deh  zhe'zoR',  (Jean 
Baptiste  Joseph,)  a  French  miniature-painter,  born  at 
Gisors  (Eure)  in  1770.  He  became  court  painter  during 
the  restoration,  and  painted  on  ivory  the  portraits  of  the 
royal  family.  In  1840  he  was  employed  to  continue  for 
the  Louvre  a  collection  of  enamels'  begun  by  Petitot.  / 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  miniatures  of  Napoleon  I. 
and  of  the  Duchess  of  Berry.    Died  in  1856. 

Duchesnois,  dii'sha'nwa',  (Catherine  Josephine,) 
a  popular  French  tragic  actress,  whose  proper  name  was 
Rafix,  was  born  near  Valenciennes  in  1777.  She  made 
her  debut  at  the  Theatre  Fran9ais  in  1803,  with  complete 
success,  and  continued  to  be  a  favourite  actress  until  she 
retired  in  1820.    Died  in  1835. 

See  A.  DiNAUX,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  Mademoiselle  Du- 
chesnois." 1836. 

Duchoul,  dii^'shooK,  [Lat.  Cau'lius,]  (Guillaume,) 
a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Lyons,  lived  about  1550. 
He  wrote  a  "  Discourse  on  the  Religion  of  the  Ancient 
Romans,"  (1555.)  His  son  Jean  was  a  naturalist,  and 
published  several  treatises. 

Ducis,  dii's^ss',  (Jean  Francois,)  an  eminent  French 
dramatic  poet,  born  at  Versailles  in  August,  1733.  He 
jM-oduced  in  1769  aversion  of  Shakspeare's  "  Flamlet," 
which  was  very  successful.  His  "  Romeo  and  Juliet" 
(1772)  was  received  with  equal  favour.  He  succeeded 
Voltaire  in  the  French  Academy  in  1778,  after  which  he 
produced  imitations  of  "King  Lear"  and  "Macbeth," 
(1784.)  He  favoured  the  Revolution  of  1789,  but  took 
no  active  part  in  it.  His  "Othello"  was  performed  by 
Talma  with  great  success  in  1792.  In  1795  he  composed 
an  original  drama,  "  Abufar,  or  the  Arab  Family,"  which 
I  is  called  his  master-piece.  He  refused  a  pension  offered 
I  to  him  by  Bonaparte.  "  Ducis,"  says  Villemain,  "  was 
one  of  those  men  most  adapted  to  impress  the  imagina- 
tion and  to  leave  a  long  remembrance.  Amidst  that  sort 
of  uniformity  which  involves  the  secondary  minds  of 
an  epoch,  he  had  something  rare  and  original.  .  .  .  He 
meddled  not  with  the  petty  affairs  of  the  world,  nor  Avas 
j  his  life  infested  with  petty  ambitions.  A  distinctive  trait 
j  in  his  character  was  a  noble  independence.  He  submitted 
to  no  yoke,  not  even  to  that  of  his  age  ;  for  in  that  skep- 
tical age  he  was  very  religious.  His  taste  and  solitary 
choice  was  the  reading  of  the  Bible  and  Homer.  This 
explains  how  he  resisted  the  influence  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  was  an  original  thinker  compared  with  his 
contemporaries."    Died  at  Versailles  in  March,  1816. 

See  Villemain,  "  Cours  de  Litterature  ;"  M.  O.  Leroy,  "  Etudes 
sur  Ducis,"  1832;  Campenok,  "  Essais  de  Meinoires,  ou  Lettres  sur 
la  Vie  et  les  Ecrits  de  J.  F.  Ducis,"  1824;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Ducis,  (Louis,)  a  French  historical  painter,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1775.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
David,  and  was  one  of  the  artists  employed  in  1814  to 
restore  pictures  in  the  palace  of  Versailles.  About  1817 
he  produced  "  Francis  I.  knighted  by  Bayard,"  which  is 
in  the  palace  of  Compiegne,  and  "  The  Death  of  Tasso." 
i  He  painted  portraits  of  Napoleon  I.,  Talma,  and  many 
others.  His  uncle  once  said  to  him,  "I  have  sought  to 
be  a  painter  in  verse ;  I  see  with  pleasure  that  you  aim 
to  be  a  poet  on  canvas."    Died  in  1847. 

See  Gl'vot  de  Fere,  "Biographie  des  Artistes  Frangais." 

Duck,  (Arthur,)  an  eminent  English  civilian,  born 
near  Exeter  in  1580.  He  became  chancellor  of  London, 
and  master  of  requests.  In  the  civil  war  he  adhered  to 
the  royal  cause.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  Civil  Law 
of  the  Romans.    Died  in  1649. 

See  Wood,  "Athene  Oxonienses." 

Duck,  (Stephen,)  an  English  peasant-poet,  born  at 
Charlton,  in  Wiltshire.  He  was  self-taught,  became  a 
clergyman,  and  published  rude  specimens  of  poetry. 
In  a  fit  of  insanity,  he  drowned  himself  in  the  Thames 
in  1756. 

See  Joseph  Spence,  "Life  of  S.  Duck." 
Ducker.    See  Duker. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Vi,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^ff^Stt  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DUCKWITZ 


798 


DUDITH 


Duckwitz,  dook'x^its,  (Arnold,)  a  German  political 
economist,  horn  at  Bremen  in  1802,  has  written  on  the 
commerce  and  cnstoms  of  Germany. 

Duck'worth,  (Sir  John  Thomas,)  an  English  admi- 
ral, born  at  Leatherhead,  in  Surrey,  in  1748.  He  entered 
the  navy  in  1759,  and  became  post-captain  in  1780.  In 
June,  1794,  he  won  great  distinction  by  his  skill  and  cour- 
age in  Lord  Howe's  victory  over  the  French.  About  1800 
he  was  made  rear-admiral,  and  two  years  later  was  com- 
mander-in-chief at  Jamaica.  In  1806  he  defeated  the 
French  near  Saint  Domingo,  for  which  Parliament  voted 
him  thanks  and  a  large  pension.  As  vice-admiral,  he 
performed  a  daring  exploit  by  entering  the  Dardanelles 
in  1807.    He  was  knighted  in  1813.    Died  in  1817. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  du  Consulat  at  de  I'Empire ;"  Van  Tenac, 
"  Histoire  generale  de  la  Marine  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Duclerc,  dii'klaiR',  (Charles  Theodore  Eugene,) 
a  French  financier  and  writer  on  political  economy,  was 
born  in  Hautes- Pyrenees  in  181 2. 

Duclercq,  dii'klaiR',  (Jacques,)  a  French  chronicler, 
born  in  1420,  wrote  on  the  events  of  his  own  time.  Died 
after  1467. 

Duclos,  dii'klo',  (Charles  Pineau — pe'no',)  a  witty 
and  ingenious  French  writer,  born  at  Dinan  in  1704, 
was  liberally  educated  in  Paris.  He  acquired  reputation 
by  his  romances  "The  Baroness  of  Luz,"  (1741,)  and 
"Confessions  of  Count  *  *  a  series  of  tableaux  and 
satirical  portraits.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions  in  1739,  and  into  the  French  Academy  in 
1747,  and  was  chosen  perpetual  secretary  of  the  latter 
in  1755.  His  most  admired  work  is  a  series  of  moral 
essays,  entitled  "  Considerations  sur  les  Moeurs  de  ce 
Siecle,"  (1750.)  He  wrote  a  "History  of  Louis  XL," 
(about  1744,)  and  obtained  the  title  of  historiographer 
of  France.  D' Alembert  said  of  him,  "  He  has  more  wit 
in  a  given  time  than  any  man  I  know."  Rousseau 
designated  him  as  one  who  was  at  the  same  time  droit 
et  adroit,  ("upright  and  adroit,")  Plis  "Secret  Memoirs 
of  the  Reigns  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Louis  XV."  are  highly 
praised.    Died  in  1772. 

See  Auger,  "Notice  sur  Duclos;"  Villenave,  "Notice  sur 
Duclos,"  prefixed  to  his  works,  published  by  Belin,  1821  ;  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Luudi,"  tome  ix.  ;  "Memoires  sur  la  Vie  de 
Duclos,  ecrites  par  lui-nieme  ;"  Rousseau,  "Confessions." 

Duclos,  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Toulouse  in  1705,  wrote  an  ode  on  Enthusiasm,  and 
translated  portions  of  Tibullus  and  Horace  into  verse. 
Died  in  1752. 

Duclos,  afterwards  Duohemin,  dii'sheh-m^N',  (Ma- 
rie Anne,)  a  French  actress,  born  in  1664.  She  mar- 
ried an  actor  named  Diichemin.    Died  in  1748. 

Duclos,  (Samuel  Cotreau — kot'ro',)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  in  Paris,  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1666,  and  was  at  one  time  physician-in- 
ordinary  to  the  king.  He  wrote  "  Observations  on  the 
Mineral  Waters  of  France."    Died  in  171 5. 

Ducloz-Dufresnoy,  dii'klo'  diiTRa'nwa',  (Charles 
Nicolas,)  a  French  financier,  born  at  Montcornet  in 
1734.  He  was  elected  alternate  deputy  to  the  States- 
General  by  the  citizens  of  Paris  in  1789.  He  wrote  seve- 
ral able  treatises  on  the  public  finances,  (1790.)  He 
perished  on  the  scaffold  in  1794.  He  was  the  putative 
father  of  the  savant  Walckenaer,  who  wrote  an  article 
on  him  in  the  "Biographie  Universelle." 

Ducornet,  dii^koR^na',  (Louis  Cesar  Joseph,)  a 
French  painter,  born  at  Lille  in  1806.  Having  been 
born  without  arms,  he  learned  to  paint  with  his  feet,  and 
received  a  pension  of  1200  francs  in  1824.  Among 
his  works,  which  have  gained  several  prizes,  are  "  The 
Parting  of  Hector  and  Andromache,"  and  "  Saint  Louis 
dispensing  Justice." 

Ducos,  dii'ko',  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  repub- 
lican, born  at  Bordeaux  in  1765,  He  was  a  deputy  to 
the  Convention  from  the  department  of  Gironcle  in  1792, 
and  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  When  the  Girondist 
leaders  were  proscribed  in  May,  1793,  he  was  at  first 
omitted  from  the  list ;  but,  having  bravely  asserted  their 
innocence  in  the  Convention,  he  was  consigned  to  the 
same  prison  with  them.  He  suffered  death,  with  his 
brother-in-law  Fonfrede  and  others,  in  October,  1793, 

See  Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Girondists."  ^ 

a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long^;  bi,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y, 


Ducos,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  general,  brother  of  Roger 
Ducos,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Dax  in  1756,  He 
fought  bravely  at  Areola,  etc,  in  1796,  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  general  of  brigade  in  1802.  He  served  with  eclat 
in  the  campaigns  from  1805  to  1808.    Died  in  1823, 

Ducos,  (Roger,)  a  French  lawyer  and  politician,  born 
at  Dax  about  1750,  Deputed  to  the  Convention  by  the 
department  of  Landes  in  1792,  he  was  a  moderate  i^arti- 
san  of  the  new  regime,  and  sat  with  the  members  of  the 
Plain.  He  voted,  however,  for  the  death  of  the  king.  In 
1796  he  was  elected  to  the  Council  of  Elders,  and  in  1799 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Directory.  He  appears  to 
have  favoured  Sieyes  in  his  intrigues  against  their  col- 
league Barras,  and  he  co-operated  with  Bonaparte  in  the 
coup  d'etat  of  the  i8th  Brumaire,  (November  9,)  1799, 
after  which  Ducos  became  Third  Consul ;  but  he  soon 
resigned  this  office,  and  was  made  a  senator.  He  was 
exiled  as  a  regicide  in  181 6,  and  died  the  same  year. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Ducos,  (Thi5:odore,)  a  French  minister  of  state,  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1801.  He 
was  elected  in  1834  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  which 
he  acted  with  the  opposition.  In  the  Constituent  Assem- 
bly of  1848  he  opi^osed  socialism,  and  caused  to  be  in- 
serted in  the  constitution  this  phrase  :  "  The  republic  is 
based  on  the  family,  property,  and  public  order,"  He 
supported  Louis  Napoleon,  and  was  minister  of  marine 
from  December,  185 1,  until  his  death  in  April,  1855, 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ducq  or  Due,  Le,  leh  diik  or  diik,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1636,  was  a 
pupil  and  imitator  of  Paul  Potter,  His  subjects  are 
mostly  animals,  robbers,  and  guard-rooms.  In  1671  he 
became  director  of  the  Academy  at  the  Hague.  Died 
about  1695. 

See  Basan,  " Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Ducq,  diik  or  diik,  (Joseph  FRANgois,)  a  Belgian 
painter,  born  at  Ledeghem  in  1762,  He  gained  several 
prizes  at  the  expositions  of  Paris,  where  he  lived  many 
years.  In  181 5  he  became  court  painter  to  the  King  of 
the  Netherlancls.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  "Venus 
rising  from  the  Sea,"    Died  at  Bruges  in  1829, 

Ducray-Duminil,  dii'kRcV  dii'me'neK,  (Francois 
GuiLLAUME,)  a  popular  French  novelist,  born  in  Paris 
in  1761  ;  died  in  1819, 

Ducrest,  du'kki',  (Charles  Louis,)  born  near  Autun 
in  1747,  was  a  brother  of  Madame  de  Genlis,  He  be- 
came a  colonel  in  the  army,  and  wrote  on  political  econ- 
omy.   Died  in  1824. 

Ducrest  de  Villeiieuve,  dii'kR^'  deh  vfeKnuv', 
(Alexandre  Louis,)  a  French  admiral,  born  near  Vitre 
in  1777  ;  died  in  1852, 

See  Salvandy,  "Notice  sur  Ducrest  de  Villeneuve,"  1852. 

Ducreux,  dii'kRuh',  (Francois,)  a  French  historian, 
born  at  Saintes  in  1596,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Canada," 
("  Historia  Canadensis,"  1664.)    Died  in  1666. 

Ducreux,  (Gabriel  Marin,)  a  French  priest,  born 
at  Orleans  in  1743,  wrote  a  history  of  Christianity,  en- 
titled "  Siecles  Chretiens,"  (10  vols.,  1775.)  Died  in  1790. 

Ducreux,  (Joseph,)  a  French  portrait-painter,  born 
at  Nancy  in  1737;  died  in  1802. 

Ducros,  dii^kRo',  (Pierre,)  a  Swiss 4)ainter  and  en- 
graver, born  in  1745.  He  removed  to  Rome,  where,  with 
the  assistance  of  Volpato,  he  produced  fine  views  of 
Roman  scenery  and  monuments.  In  partnership  with 
Montagnani,  he  published  admirable  views  of  Sicily  and 
Malta."  Died  in  1810, 

Du  Deffand.    See  Deffand,  du. 

Dudevant,  Madame,    See  Sand,  (George.) 

Dudinck,  diiMink,  (Josse,)  a  learned  Dutchman,  pub- 
lished a  work  on  bibliography,  entitled  "  Palatium  Apol- 
linis  et  Palladis,"  ("The  Palace  of  A]3ollo  and  Minerva,") 

Dudith,  doo-deet',  (Andrew,)  a  Hungarian  Reformer, 
born  at  Buda  in  1533.  About  1560,  Ferdinand  II.  gave 
him  the  bishopric  of  Tina.  In  1562  he  was  sent  by  that 
emperor  and  the  clergy  of  Hungary  to  the  Council  of 
Trent,  in  which  he  spoke  eloquently  in  favour  of  the  mar- 
riage of  priests  and  other  reforms.  He  married  Reyna 
Strazzi,  resigned  his  bishopric,  was  excommunicated,  and 

short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon- 


DVDLET 


799 


DUER 


became  an  avowed  Protestant.  He  was  learned  in  lan- 
guages and  sciences,  and  wrote  numerous  Latin  works 
on  theology,  etc.  Among  them  are  a  treatise  on  comets, 
and  several  poems.  He  translated  Dionysius  of  Hali- 
carnassus  into  Latin.    Died  at  Breslau  in  1589. 

See  Reuter,  "Vita  Dudithi,"  prefixed  to  his  Orations,  1610 ; 
Samuelfy,  "Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Scriptls  A.  Dudithi,"  1743; 
NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Dud'ley,  (Ambrose,)  Earl  of  Warwick,  a  son  of  the 
Duke  of  Northumberland,  was  born  about  1530.  He 
was  condemned  to  death  as  an  accomplice  in  his  father's 
treason  in  1553,  but  was  pardoned.  In  1557  he  fought 
with  distinction  for  the  Spaniards  at  Saint-Quentin. 
After  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he  was  created  Earl 
of  Warwick,  and  held  several  high  offices.   Died  in  1589. 

Dud'ley,  (Benjamin  Winslow,)  M.D.,  an  American 
surgeon,  born  in  Virginia  in  1785.  He  took  the  degree 
of  M.D.  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1806,  and 
afterwards  pursued  his  professional  studies  in  London 
and  in  Paris.  On  his  return  to  America,  in  1814,  he 
established  himself  as  a  surgeon  in  Lexington,  Kentucky. 
He  was  successful  in  a  multitude  of  difticult  operations 
in  surgery,  and  contributed  various  essays  to  medical 
journals.    Died  in  1870. 

Dudley,  (Charles  Edward,)  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States,  born  in  Staffordshire,  England,  in  1780.  He  be- 
came a  resident  of  Albany,  New  York,  about  181 2,  and 
represented  New  York  in  the  Federal  Senate  from  1828 
to  1833.  He  erected  at  Albany  the  Dudley  Observatory, 
to  which  his  widow  gave  seventy  thousand  dollars  or 
more.    He  died  in  1841. 

Dudley,  (Edmund,)  an  English  lawyer,  notorious  as 
the  minister  employed  by  Henry  VII.  in  extorting  money 
from  his  subjects,  was  born  in  1462.  He  was  chosen 
Speaker  of  the  Commons  in  1504.  Soon  after  the  acces- 
sion of  Henry  VIII.,  Dudley  and  Empson  were  tried  on 
a  charge  of  treason,  and,  to  appease  the  popular  clamour, 
were  executed  in  15 10.  His  son  John  became  Duke 
of  Northumberland. 

Dudley,  (Lord  Guilford,)  the  fourth  son  of  the  Duke 
of  Northumberland,  married  Lady  Jane  Grey  in  1553. 
He  was  beheaded,  with  his  wife,  in  February,  1554. 

Dudley,  (Sir  Henry  Bate,)  an  English  clergyman, 
eminent  as  a  magistrate  and  journalist,  born  at  Fenny 
Compton  in  1745.  He  established  the  "  Morning  Post," 
(1775,)  and  the  "Morning  Herald,"  (1780,)  and  wrote 
"The  Rival  Candidates,"  (1775,)  and  other  plays.  He 
became  rector  of  Willingham  in  1812,  and  prebendary 
of  Ely  in  1816.  In  1812  he  was  rewarded  for  his  services 
as  magistrate  by  a  baronetcy.    Died  in  1824. 

Dudley,  (Lady  Jane.)    See  Grey. 

Dudley,  (John,)  Duke  of  Northumberland,  born  in 
1502,  was  the  son  of  Edmund  Dudley,  noticed  above. 
He  was  created  Viscount  Lisle  in  1542,  and  was  after- 
wards appointed  by  Henry  VIII.  lord  high  admiral  of 
England.  On  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.  (1547)  he 
became  Earl  of  Warwick.  Two  years  later  he  formed  a 
successful  conspiracy  against  the  Protector  Somerset, 
obtained  the  chief  control  of  the  government,  and  was 
made  Duke  of  Northumberland  in  1551.  He  persuaded 
Edward  VI.  to  appoint  Lady  Jane  Grey  successor  to  the 
crown.  At  the  death  of  Edward  (1553)  he  vainly  resisted 
the  accession  of  Mary,  and  was  executed  for  treason. 
Robert,  Earl  of  Leicester,  was  his  son. 

See  Froude,  "  History  of  England,"  vols.  v.  and  vi. ;  also  Hume's 
and  Lingard's  Histories  of  England. 

Dudley,  (John  William  Ward,)  a  son  of  Viscount 
Dudley  Ward,  was  born  about  1781.  He  was  elected 
to  the  House  of  Commons  in  1802,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  talents  for  business.  At  the  death  of  his 
father,  in  1823,  he  entered  the  House  of  Lords.  He  was 
secretary  of  state  for  a  few  months  in  the  ministry  of 
Canning  formed  in  April,  1827.  He  was  a  friend  of  the 
poet  Byron,  and  author  of  a  "  Life  of  Home  Tooke." 
Died  in  1833. 

Dudley,  (Joseph,)  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1647, 
was  a  son  of  Thomas,  noticed  below.  He  became  chief 
justice  of  Massachusetts  in  1686,  chief  justice  of  New 
York  in  1690,  and  was  governor  of  his  native  province 
from  1702  to  1 71 5.    Died  ini  720. 

Dudley,  (Paul,)  F.R.S.,  chief  justice  of  Massachu- 
setts, a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1675.  He 


graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1690,  and,  having  com- 
pleted his  law  studies  at  the  Temple  in  London,  was 
attorney-general  of  Massachusetts  from  1702  to  1 718. 
In  1745  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  Massachusetts. 
Died  in  1751.  He  was  a  man  of  eminent  talents  and 
powerful  eloquence.  Upon  a  bequest  of  his  was  founded 
the  Dudleian  Lecture  at  Harvard. 

Dudley,  (Robert,)  Earl  of  Leicester,  a  son  of  John 
Dudley,  noticed  above,  was  born  about  1532.  He  married 
Amy  Robsart  about  1550.  Soon  after  the  accession  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  1558,  he  became  her  chief  favourite. 
This  partiality  is  attributed  to  his  handsome  person,  po- 
lite address,  and  skill  in  the  arts  of  a  courtier.  She  made 
him  Earl  of  Leicester  and  privy  councillor,  and  bestowed 
on  him  titles  and  estates  with  a  lavish  hand.  His  wife 
died  in  1560,  not  without  the  strongest  suspicions  that  she 
perished  by  violence  and  that  Leicester  was  privy  to  her 
murder.  (See  Robsart.)  In  1578  he  married  the  widow 
of  the  first  Earl  of  Essex,  by  which  act  he  excited  the 
violent  anger  of  the  queen.  He  was  suspected  by  many 
of  having  hastened  the  death  of  Essex.  In  1585  the 
Earl  of  Leicester  commanded  an  army  sent  to  aid  the 
Low  Countries,  which  gave  him  the  title  of  Governor. 
His  operations  there  were  not  successful,  and  proved  his 
incapacity  as  a  general.  When  England  was  threatened 
by  the  Spanish  Armada,  in  1588,  he  was  appointed  lieu- 
tenant-general. He  died  in  the  same  year.  According 
to  Hume,  "  he  was  proud,  insolent,  ambitious,  without 
honour,  without  generosity,  without  humanity,  and  atoned 
not  for  these  bad  qualities  by  such  abilities  or  courage 
as  could  fit  him  for  that  high  trust  and  confidence  with 
which  she  [the  queen]  had  honoured  him."  Motley, 
while  admitting  that  Leicester  was  vain,  arrogant,  and 
often  unjust,  says  he  was  "always  generous  as  the  sun." 

See  Motley's  "United  Netherlands,"  chaps,  vi.  to  xvi.,  par- 
ticularly chap.  vii.  vol.  i.,  and  chap.  x.  vol.  ii. ;  also  Frouue's  "His- 
tory of  England,"  vols,  vii.,  viii.,  ix.,  x. 

Dudley,  (Sir  Robert,)  born  in  Surrey  in  1573,  was 
the  illegitimate  son  of  the  Earl  of  Leicester  and  Lady 
Douglas  Sheffield.  He  was  knighted  for  his  conduct  at 
the  capture  of  Cadiz  in  1596.  Having  been  outlawed 
for  the  abduction  of  Miss  Southwell,  he  settled  at  Flor- 
ence, where  he  lived  in  grand  style,  assumed  the  title 
of  Earl  of  Warwick,  and  was  made  a  duke  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  navigation,  en- 
titled "  Deir  Arcano  del  Mare,"  and  a  few  other  works, 
and  improved  the  harbour  of  Leghorn.  Died  in  1639, 
or,  according  to  some  authorities,  in  1649. 

See  Campbell's  "Lives  of  British  Admirals." 

Dudley,  (Thomas,)  one  of  the  early  governors  of 
Massachusetts,  was  born  in  Northampton,  England,  in 
1576.  He  served  for  some  time  in  the  army,  but,  having 
joined  the  nonconformists,  came  to  America  in  1630  as 
deputy-governor  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  zealous  in 
promoting  the  temporal  and  religious  interests  of  the 
colony,  and  was  governor  from  1634  to  1640,  and  again 
from  1645  to  1650.    Died  in  1652. 

Dudoyer.    See  Doligny. 

Duebner.    See  Dubner. 

Duelli,  doo-eKlee,  (Raimond,)  a  German  priest  and 
antiquary,  born  about  1670,  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  the  Teutonic  Knights  Hospitalers 
of  Jerusalem,"  (1727.)    Died  in  1740. 

Duentzer.    See  Duntzer. 

Du'er,  (John,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  American  jurist 
and  legal  writer,  born  at  Albany,  New  York,  in  1782. 
His  father,  Colonel  William  Duer,  was  a  soldier  of  the 
Revolution.  After  serving  two  years  in  the  army,  he 
embraced  the  profession  of  law,  and  commenced  practice 
in  Orange  county,  but  removed  to  New  York  City  about 
1820.  He  was  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  to 
revise  the  statutes  of  the  State  in  1825.  In  1849  he  was 
elected  judge  of  the  superior  court  of  the  city  of  New 
York,  and  in  1857  succeeded  Chief-Justice  Oakley  as 
presiding  judge.  Died  August  8,  1858.  His  "  Law  and 
Practice  of  Marine  Insurance,"  (2  vols.  8vo,)  published 
in  1845-46,  says  the  "London  Magazine  and  Quarterly 
Review  of  Jurisprudence,"  "so  far  as  it  has  gone,  is  the 
most  complete  and  able  treatise  on  the  subject  which 
has  ever  appeared  in  our  language."  He  was  also  author 
of  other  legal  works. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DUER 


800 


DUFRENOr 


Duer,  (William  Alexander,)  a  jurist,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Dutchess  county,  New  York, 
in  1780.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1802,  became  a 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  New  York  in  1822,  and 
was  elected  president  of  Columbia  College  in  1829.  He 
wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the  Constitutional  Jurisprudence 
of  the  United  States,"  (1856.)    Died  in  1858. 

Duenihoffer.    See  Durnhoffer. 

Du  Fail,  dii'ftl'  or  dii'ft'ye,  (Noel,)  a  French  writer 
of  tales,  lived  about  1550. 

Dufau,  du-'ib',  (Fortun^,)  a  French  historical  painter, 
born  in  Saint  Domingo.  He  became  a  pupil  of  David 
in  Paris,  and  a  partisan  of  the  Revolution.  Among  his 
most  admired  works  is  "  Ugolino  in  Prison."  Died  in 
1821. 

Dufau,  (Pierre  Armand,)  a  French  author,  born  at 
Bordeaux  in  1795.  He  wrote,  with  Guadet,  a  "History 
of  France  from  Charles  IX.  to  Henry  IV.,"  (7  vols.,  1821,) 
and  other  historical  works.  He  also  published  a  "  Treat- 
ise on  Statistics,"  which  was  crowned  by  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1841,  and  several  works  on  political  econ- 
omy. From  1840  to  1855  he  was  director  of  the  Royal 
Institution  for  the  education  of  the  blind  in  Paris. 

Dufaure,  dUToR',  (Jules  Armand  Stanislas,)  a 
French  orator  and  minister  of  state,  born  at  Saujon 
(Charente-Inferieure)  in  1798.  He  practised  law  in  Bor- 
deaux, and  in  1834  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties, in  which  he  acted  with  the  opposition.  In  1839  he 
became  minister  of  public  works  in  the  coalition  ministry 
of  Soult,  which  was  dissolved  in  March,  1840.  He  after- 
wards exerted  much  influence  in  the  Chamber  as  the 
chief  of  a  third  party.  Under  the  republic  of  1848  he 
was  a  leader  of  the  moderate  democrats,  became  minister 
of  the  interior  in  October,  and  resigned  in  December  of 
that  year.  He  filled  the  same  office  for  five  months  in 
1849.  Since  the  coup  d'etat  of  December,  1851,  he  has  not 
held  office,  but  has  attained  great  eminence  at  the  bar. 

See  VicoMTE  de  Cormenin,  (Timon,)  "fitudes  sur  les  Orateurs 
parlementaires." 

Dufay,  dilTa',  (Charles  FRANgois  de  Cisternay — 

deh  ses't§R'na^)  a  French  savant,  born  in  Paris  in  1698, 
served  for  a  time  in  the  army.  Having  been  admitted 
into  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  he  retired  from  the  service, 
and  wrote  treatises  on  chemistry  and  five  other  sciences, 
which  the  Academy  thought  worthy  to  be  published.  He 
originated  the  theory  of  two  kinds  of  electricity,  namely, 
vitreous  and  resinous.  About  1732  he  was  chosen  director 
of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  which  he  greatly  enlarged  and 
rendered  the  finest  in  Europe.  Died  in  1739. 
See  FoNTENELLE,  "  Elogc  de  Dufay." 

Dufay,  (GuiLLAUME,)  a  French  or  Flemish  composer, 
lived  about  1400,  and  made  important  improvements  in 
the  art  of  music. 

Duff,  (Alexander,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  Presbyterian  mis- 
sionary, born  in  Perthshire  about  1806.  In  the  service 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland  he  went  to  India  in  1830, 
and  laboured  zealously  as  a  missionary.  He  published, 
besides  other  essays,  a  volume  entitled  "On  India  and 
India  Missions,"  (1839,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  He 
adhered  to  the  Free  Church,  organized  in  1843,  since 
which  he  has  been  the  chief  agent  of  the  mission  sus- 
tained by  that  church  at  Calcutta,  where  he  laboured  as 
a  missionary  for  many  years  with  devoted  zeal  and  emi- 
nent success.  He  visited  the  United  States  in  1854, 
sailed  a  second  time  for  India  in  1855,  and  returned  to 
England  in  1863. 

Duff,  (Mountstuart  Elphinstone  Grant,)  called 
Grant  Duff,  a  British  politician,  born  in  1829.  He 
published  "  Studies  in  European  Politics."  In  1857  he 
was  elected  to  Parliament,  as  a  Liberal,  for  Elgin.  He 
was  appointed  under-secretary  for  India  in  December, 
1868. 

Durfer-in,  Lady,  a  granddaughter  of  Richard  Brins- 
ley  Sheridan,  and  a  sister  of  Mrs.  Norton.  Her  maiden 
name  was  Selina  Sheridan.  She  composed  a  number 
of  popular  ballads,  among  which  is  "  The  Irish  Emigrant's 
Lament."  She  was  married  in  1825  to  Baron  Dufiferin, 
(Price  Blackwood,)  who  died  in  1841. 

Dufferin,  (Frederick  Temple  Blackwood,)  Lord, 
a  British  peer,  author,  and  scholar,  only  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Florence  about  1826.    He  published, 


in  1856,  "Letters  from  High  Latitudes,  being  some 
Account  of  a  Voyage  to  Iceland  and  Spitzbergen,"  which 
is  highly  praised. 

Duffet,  dliTi',  Douffet,  or  Douffeit,  dooTi',  (Ge- 
rard,) an  eminent  Flemish  painter  of  history  and  por- 
traits, born  at  Liege  about  1600.  He  studied  and  worked 
some  years  in  Rome,  and  returned  to  Liege,  where  he 
acquired  a  high  reputation.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  a  "Discovery  of  the  Holy  Cross,"  (at  Dusseldorf,) 
and  a  picture  of  himself  and  B.  Flemael  employed  in 
painting  each  other's  portraits.  His  works  are  admired 
for  originality  of  composition,  boldness  of  design,  beauty 
of  colour,  and  variety  of  expression.    Died  about  1660. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Duffy,  (Charles  Gavan,)  an  Irish  journalist,  and 
a  leader  of  Young  Ireland,  was  born  in  Ulster  in  1816. 
In  1842  he  founded  in  Dublin  a  journal  called  "The 
Nation,"  which  supported  the  policy  of  O'Connell. 

Dufieu,  duTe-uh',  (Jean  Ferapied  —  fRi-pe-a',)  a 
French  writer  on  physiology,  born  at  Tence  in  173^77 died 
in  1769. 

Duflcs,  dii'flo',  (Claude,)  a  French  engraver  with 
the  burin,  born  in  Paris  in  1678,  was  the  most  skilful 
rival  of  Francois  Poilly.  His  works,  after  various  Italian 
and  French  masters,  are  engraved  with  great  neatness. 
Among  them  is  "  The  Pilgrims  of  Emmaus,"  after  Paul 
Veronese.    Died  in  1747. 

Du  Fosse.    See  Fosse. 

Dufouart,  duToo'tR^,  (Pierre,)  a  skilful  French  sur- 
geon, born  in  the  department  of  Bigorre  in  1737,  was 
chosen  in  1791  inspector-general  of  the  hospitals  of 
Paris.  He  published  an  excellent  treatise  on  gun-shot 
wounds,  entitled  "Analyse  des  Blessures  d'Armes-a-feu, 
et  de  leur  Traitement,"  (1801.)    Died  in  1813. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Dufour,  diiTooR',  (Gabriel  Michel,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Moulins  (AUier)  in  1811.  His  "Treatise  on 
Administrative  Law  Applied"  (4  vols.,  1844)  is  said  to 
be  the  most  complete  on  that  subject. 

Dufour,  (Georges  Joseph,)  a  French  general,  born 
in  Burgundy  in  1758;  died  in  1820. 

Dufour,  diiTooR^,  (Guillaume  Henri,)  a  Swiss  gen. 
eral,  born  at  Constance  in  1787,  entered  the  French  army 
in  1809.  He  wrote  a  "Manual  of  Tactics,"  (1842,)  and 
other  military  works.  The  unity  and  integrity  of  the 
Swiss  republic  having  been  menaced  by  the  Sonderbund, 
a  Catholic  faction,  he  was  appointed  in  1847  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Swiss  federal  army.  He  quickly  sup- 
pressed the  rebellion,  after  giving  proof  of  his  modera- 
tion as  well  as  military  skill. 

Dufour,  (Leon,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  about  1782, 
practised  medicine  at  Saint-Sever.  He  published  "  Ana- 
tomical and  Physiological  Researches  on  the  Hemiptera," 
(1833,)  and  other  works. 

Dufour,  (Louis.)    See  Longuerue. 

Dufour,  (Philippe,)  a  French  Protestant  antiquary, 
born  at  Manosque  in  1622.  His  family  name  was  Syl- 
vestre,  which  he  exchanged  for  Dufour,  his  mother's 
name.  He  formed  a  cabinet  of  medals,  and  corresponded 
with  many  eminent  literati.  He  wrote,  among  other 
works,  "Moral  Instructions  of  a  Father  for  his  Son," 
(often  reprinted.)    Died  in  1687. 

Dufrenoy,  dii'fRa'nwi',  (Adelaide,)  an  eminent 
French  poetess,  whose  maiden  name  was  Gillette- 
Billet,  born  in  Paris  in  1765.  She  lived  mostly  in  Paris, 
where  her  soirees  were  frequented  by  Condorcet,  La 
Harpe,  etc.  Her  husband  having  lost  his  fortune,  she 
resorted  to  authorship  for  a  living,  and  wrote  several 
poems  which  entitle  her  to  a  place  in  the  first  rank  of 
the  female  poets  of  France.  Her  poem  "The  Last 
Moments  of  Bayard"  was  crowned  by  the  Institute  in 
181 5.  Among  her  works  are  odes,  elegies,  tales,  dramas, 
etc.,  whose  merit  consists  in  the  genuine  expression  of 
a  loving  and  suffering  heart.    Died  in  1825. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Dufrenoy,  (Charles  Alphonse.)   See  Dufresnoy. 

Dufrenoy,  (Pierre  Armand,)  an  eminent  French 
geologist,  a  son  of  Adelaide,  born  at  Sevran  (Seine-et- 
Oise)"in  1792.  In  conjunction  with  £lie  de  Beaumont, 
he  was  ordered  in  1823  to  make  a  geological  survey  of 
France,  the  important  result  of  which  was  a  large  geo- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


DUFRESNE 


80 1 


DVGVA 


logical  map,  with  three  volumes  of  explanatory  text, 
(1841.)  This  text  develops  the  theories  of  the  two 
authors,  which  are  entirely  accordant.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  an  excellent  "Treatise  on  Mineral- 
ogy," (4  vols.,  1847.)  A  new  theory  propounded  in  his 
memoir  "  On  the  Volcanic  Formations  of  the  Vicinity 
of  Naples"  has  become  one  of  the  laws  of  geology, 
lie  was  a  member  of  the  Institute,  inspector-general  of 
mines,  and  for  many  years  professor  of  mineralogy  in 
the  Museum  of  Natural  History.  Died  in  March,  1857. 
See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Geneiale." 

Dufresne.    See  Francheville  and  Quinault. 

Dufresiie,  diiTRen',  (Bertrand,)  a  French  financier, 
born  in  Beam  in  1736.  He  was  chief  clerk  of  finance 
under  Necker,  who  made  him  director  of  the  public 
treasury  about  1790.  During  the  reign  of  terror  he  was 
imprisoned  by  the  Jacobins.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1795,  and  in  1800  was  ap- 
pointed director-general  of  the  treasury,  which  prospered 
under  his  skilful  management.    Died  in  1801. 

Dufresnoy.    See  Dufresny. 

Dufresnoy.  See  Lenglet-Dufresnoy  and  Ducloz. 

Dufresnoy,  diiTRk''nwa',  (Andre  Ignace  Joseph,) 
a  French  physician,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1733.  He 
was  appointed  physician-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  North 
in  1793,  but  was  soon  discharged  for  an  act  of  humanity 
to  a  royalist.  He  was  the  first  who  cultivated  in  France 
the  Rhus  radicals,  and  in  one  of  his  letters  he  ex- 
pressed his  impatience  to  see  his  dear  r//?/j-.  This  letter 
was  intercepted  by  certain  officious  patriots,  who  de- 
nounced him  to  the  Tribunal  for  a  traitorous  correspond- 
ence with  the  Russians.  He  was  arrested  on  this  charge, 
but  was  released  from  danger  by  the  revolution  of  the 
9th  Thermidor,    Died  in  1801. 

See  "Biographie  Medicale." 

Dufresnoy,  written  also  Dufrenoy,  (Charles  Al- 
PHONSE,)  a  French  historical  painter  and  poet,  born  in 
Paris  in  161 1,  was  the  son  of  an  apothecary.  Having 
received  lessons  from  Perrier  and  Vouet,  he  visited  Rome 
and  studied  the  works  of  Ra])hael.  He  went  to  Venice 
in  1653,  and  returned  to  France  in  .1656.  He  had  a  fair 
reputation  for  correctness  of  design,  and  was  a  good 
colorist.  He  wrote,  in  Latin  verse,  a  critical  treatise 
on  painting,  "De  Arte  Graphica,"  which  was  much  ad- 
mired, and  was  translated  into  English  by  Dryden.  Died 
in  1665. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire  ;"  Lecarpentier,  "  Notice 
sur  A.  Dufresnoy,"  18 12. 

Dufresny,  du''fRk'ne',  or  Dufresnoy,  diiTRi'nwi', 
(Charles  RiviiRE,)^a  witty  French  dramatist  and  artist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1648,  was  a  great-grandson  of  Henry 
IV.,  and  a  valet-de-chambre  of  Louis  XIV.  He  had  a 
natural  talent  for  music  and  painting,  excelled  in  land- 
scape-gardening, and  was  appointed  controller  of  the 
royal  gardens.  He  wrote  several  successful  comedies, 
among  which  are  "The  Spirit  of  Contradiction,"  in  prose, 
(1700,)  "The  Village  Coquette,"  in  verse,  (1715,)  and 
"Le  Faux-sincere."  "He  sparkles  with  wit,"  says  La 
Harpe,  "and  his  wit  is  perfectly  original."  ("Cours  de 
Litterature.")    Died  in  1724. 

See  Voltaire,  "  ^crivains  du  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Qu^rard, 
"La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Dufresse,  diiTRiss',  (Simon  Camille,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1762  ;  died  in  1833. 
Dufriohe-Valaze.    See  Valazi^. 
Dufrische.    See  Frische. 

Duganne,  du-gan',  (Augustine  Joseph  Hickey,)  an 
American  poet  and  litth-ateiir,  born  in  Boston  in  1823, 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "Comprehensive  Sum- 
mary of  General  Philosophy,"  (1845,)  and  "Class-Book 
of  Governments  and  Civil  Society,"  (1859.)  His  principal 
poetical  works  are  "Home  Poems,"  (1844,)  "The  Iron 
Harp,"  (1847,)  and  "The  Lydian  Queen,"  a  tragedy. 

Du-gard^  (William,)  an  eminent  English  teacher, 
born  in  Worcestershire  in  1605,  became  master  of  the 
Merchant-Tailors'  School,  London,  about  1642.  He 
published  a  Greek  grammar,  a  "  Lexicon  Graeci  Testa- 
menti,"  and  other  school-books.    Died  in  1662. 

Dugas-Montbel,  dii'g^s'  m6N'bgK,  (Jean  Baptiste,) 
an  excellent  French  Hellenist,  born  at  Saint-Chamond 
in  1776,  was  a  merchant  of  Lyons  in  early  life.    At  the 


age  of  thirty  he  began  to  study  Greek,  and  settled  in 
Paris  in  1810.  He  produced  a  translation  of  Homer, 
(1815-18,)  which  is  regarded  as  the  best  prose  version  in 
the  French  language.  A  copious  commentary  accom- 
panies it.  He  was  a  free  associate  of  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions.  He  represented  Lyons  in  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  1831-33.    Died  in  1834. 

See  J.  B.  Dumas,  "  filoge  de  Dugas-Montbel,"  1835;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale."  • 

Dugazon,  dii^gt'ziN',  (Jean  Baptiste  Henri  Gour- 
gault — gooR^go'',)  a  popular  French  comedian,  born  at 
Marseilles  in  1743;  died  in  1809. 

His  wife,  Louise  LEPfevRE,  born  at  Berlin  in  1755, 
was  a  successful  actress.    Died  in  1821. 

Dug'dale,  (Sir  William,)  an  eminent  English  anti- 
quary, born  at  Shustoke,  in  Warwickshire,  in  1605.  He 
became  a  resident  of  London  in  1638,  and  was  appointed 
a  pursuivant-at-arms,  by  the  name  of  Blanch  Lyon.  In 
1640  he  was  made  rouge-croix  pursuivant-in-ordinary. 
He  was  a  royalist  in  the  civil  war.  In  1655  Dugdale  and 
Dodsworth  published  the  first  volume  of  their  great  and 
celebrated  woVk  on  English  monasteries,  "Monasticon 
Anglicanum,"  (3  vols.,  1655-73.)  This  contains  a  record 
of  the  history  and  descent  of  the  greater  part  of  the  landed 
property  of  England.  He  wrote  several  other  valuable 
works,  among  which  are  "The  Antiquities  of  Warwick- 
shire," (1656,)  "Origines  Juridiciales,"  (1666,)  and  "The 
Baronage  of  England,"  (1675.)  In  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.  he  was  knighted,  and  obtained  the  office  of  Norroy 
king-at-arms.    Died  in  1686. 

See  "Life,  Diary,  and  Correspondence  of  W.  Dugdale,"  edited 
by  Hamper,  1827;  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Duges,  dii^zhi',  (Antoine  Louis,)  an  eminent  French 
physician,  born  at  Mezieres  (Ardennes)  in  1797.  He 
became  professor  of  pathology  and  operative  medicine 
at  Montpellier  about  1825,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Manual  of  Obstetrics,"  (1826,)  and  an  able 
"  Treatise  on  the  Comparative  Physiology  of  Man  and 
Animals,"  (3  vols.,  1838.)  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences.    Died  in  1838. 

See  Queraru,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Dughet,  dii'ga',  (Gaspard,)  a  distinguished  landscape, 
painter,  sometimes  called  Le  Guaspre,  (leh  gtspR,)  or 
Gaspre  Poussin,  (poo'sAn',)  was  born  of  a  French 
family  at  Rome  in  1613.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  famous 
Nicolas  Poussin,  who  married  his  sister.  It  is  stated 
that  he  hired  four  houses  at  the  same  time  near  Rome  and 
Tivoli,  that  he  might  observe  a  great  diversity  of  scenes. 
He  had  great  executive  facility,  and  a  vague,  agreeable 
manner.  His  works  present  a  great  variety  of  compo- 
sition and  of  effects.  He  painted  many  real  scenes  in 
the  vicinity  of  Rome,  enriched  with  details  of  his  own 
invention.  He  excelled  in  the  treatment  of  clouds  and 
the  foliage  of  trees,  which  he  represented  in  their  char- 
acteristic forms.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  "  Abraham 
and  Isaac  going  to  the  Sacrifice."   Died  in  Rome  in  1675. 

See  Pascoi.i,  "Vite  de'  Pittori  e  Scultori  moderni,"  1730-36: 
Bryan,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Dughet,  (Giovanni,)  a  younger  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  about  1615,  was  also  a  pupil  of  N.  Poussin. 
He  renounced  painting  at  an  early  age,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  engraving  with  the  burin  and  point.  He  worked 
in  Rome,  and  engraved  many  works  of  N.  Poussin,  amjong 
which  is  "The  Seven  Sacraments." 

Dugommier,  dii'go'me-i',  (Jean  Franqois  Co- 
quille — ko'ke'ye,)  a  French  general,  born  in  the  isle  of 
Guadeloupe  in  1736.  He  favoured  the  popular  cause  in 
the  Revolution,  and  went  to  Paris  in  1792.  As  general  of 
division,  he  commanded  at  the  successful  siege  of  Toulon 
in  1793,  where  Bonaparte  acted  under  his  orders.  The 
next  year  he  was  appointed  to  command  the  army  of 
the  Eastern  Pyrenees,  and  gained  advantages  over  the 
Spaniards  at  Saint-Elme  and  other  places.  He  was  killed 
in  November,  1794,  at  the  battle  of  Sierra  Negra,  near 
Figuieres,  where  the  Spaniards  were  defeated.  Bona- 
parte mentioned  him  in  his  last  will,  honoris  catisd,  and 
left  a  legacy  to  his  son. 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Girondists." 

Dugua,  dii'gii'S',  (Charles  Franqois  Joseph,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1744.    For  his 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,  k,  ^ittural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

5» 


DVGVAT-TROVIN 


802 


DUHESME 


services  at  the  siege  of  Toulon  in  1793  he  was  made  a 
general  of  division.  In  1798  he  accompanied  Bonaparte 
to  Egypt.  In  the  absence  of  Kleber,  who  had  been 
wounded,  Dugua  commanded  his  division  at  the  battle 
of  the  Pyramids.  He  went  to  Saint  Domingo  in  1801 
as  chief  of  the  staff  of  Leclerc,  and  died  there  in  1802. 

See  A.  DUiMEGE,  "  Memoires  du  General  Dugua,"  4  vols.,  1838. 

Duguay-Trouin,  dvighf  tRoo'dN',  (Ren6,)  a  brave 
and  successftil  French  admiral,  born  at  Saint-Malo  in 
1673.  Having  obtained  command  of  a  privateer  frigate 
in  1 69 1,  he  performed  several  daring  exploits,  and  took 
many  prizes  from  the  English.  In  1694  he  was  taken 
prisoner  by  an  English  squadron  and  carried  into  port, 
but  soon  escaped,  and  returned  to  France.  He  entered 
the  royal  marine  in  1697,  and  displayed  great  skill  and 
prudence  as  captain  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession, 
which  began  in  1702,  Between  1703  and  1705  he  cruised 
on  the  coasts  of  England,  defeated  a  Dutch  fleet,  and 
captured  several  ships.  In  1707  his  squadron,  united  to 
that  of  Forbin,  intercepted  a  large  English  convoy  and 
took  three  of  the  ships  of  war  by  which  it  was  escorted. 
He  gained  great  glory  by  the  capture  of  Rio  Janeiro 
in  171 1.  In  1 71 5  he  was  appointed  vice-admiral,  and 
lieutenant-general  in  1728.  His  disposition  was  modest 
and  generous.  He  died  in  1736,  leaving  Memoirs  of  his 
life,  which  were  published  in  1740  and  translated  into 
English  in  1742. 

See,  also,  M.  de  la  Landei.le,  "  Histoire  de  Duguay-Trouin," 
1844  ;  AuRiEN  Richer,  "  Vie  de  R.  Duguay-Trouin,"  1784  and  1835  ; 
Antoine  Thomas,  "  Eloge  de  Duguay-Trouin,"  1761 ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Duguernier,  dii'ggR'ne-i',  (Louis,)  a  French  por- 
trait-painter, born  about  1550,  acquired  celebrity  in  min- 
iatures, which  he  painted  on  vellum.  He  painted  the 
portraits  of  the  most  distinguished  personages  of  his 
time. 

Duguernier,  { Louis, )  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
a  skilful  portrait-painter,  and  worked  in  Paris.  Nagler 
states  that  he  was  exiled  on  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  Nantes,  (  1685  ;)  but,  according  to  another  account, 
he  died  in  Paris  in  1659.  He  left  three  sons  who  were 
painters,  one  of  whom,  named  Pierre,  was  reputed  the 
best  painter  on  enamel  of  his  time. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Du  Guesclin  or  Duguesclin,  dii'gi'kl5.N',  (Ber- 
TRAND,)  a  famous  French  captain,  born  near  Rennes 
about  1314.  He  distinguished  himself  in  fighting  against 
the  English,  who  then  held  many  places  in  P'rance.  In 
1356  he  defeated  the  Duke  of  Lancaster  at  Rennes,  and 
forced  him  to  raise  the  siege.  About  1364  Charles  V. 
gave  him  command  of  an  army,  with  which  he  defeated 
the  King  of  Navarre.  The  next  year  he  led  a  large 
army  against  Pedro  the  Cruel  of  Castile,  who  was  unable 
to  resist  him  until  the  English  Black  Prince  came  to  his 
assistance.  In  a  battle  that  followed  in  1367  the  Black 
Prince  was  the  victor,  and  took  Du  Guesclin  prisoner,  but 
soon  released  him.  In  1369,  when  the  war  was  renewed 
between  the  French  and  the  English,  he  was  appointed 
Constable  of  France.  After  he  took  the  command  the 
English  ceased  to  conquer,  and  in  1374  he  had  expelled 
them  from  nearly  every  province  of  France.  Died  in 
1380.  "  He  seems  to  have  been,"  says  Hume,  "  the  first 
consummate  general  that  had  yet  appeared  in  Europe." 

See  Froissart,  "Chronicles;"  Claude  Menard,  "Histoire 
de  B.  Duguesclin,"  1618;  Guvako  de  Bervu.le,  "Vie  de  Dugues- 
clin," 1767;  Jamison,  "Life  of  Duguesclin,"  1864;  Fkeminville, 
"  Histoire  de  Bertrand  Duguesclin,"  1841. 

Duguet,  dii^gi',  (Jacques  Joseph,)  a  French  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Montbrison  in  1649.  He  became  a  priest 
of  the  Oratory  in  1667,  and  was  attached  to  the  principles 
of  the  Jansenists.  He  published  many  esteemed  works 
on  religion  and  morality,  among  which  are  "  Conduct 
of  a  Christian  Lady,"  (1725,)  "The  Work  of  Six  Days," 
(1732,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  the  Principles  of  the  Chris- 
tian Faith,"  (1736.)    Died  in  1733. 

See  Andr^,  "L'Esprit  de  J.  J.  Duguet,"  etc.,  Paris,  1764. 

Du  Haillan,    See  Haillan,  d'. 

Duhalde,  dii'hSkK,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  in  Paris  in  1674.  He  was  employed  by  his  supe- 
riors to  digest  and  edit  the  letters  received  from  the 
foreign  missionaries  of  the  Society.    The  result  of  his 


labours  is  a  work  entitled  "Lettres  edifiantes  et  curi- 
euses  ecrites  des  Missions  etrangeres,"  which  contains 
much  interesting  and  valuable  information.  In  1735  he 
published  a  "  Historical,  Geographical,  and  Physical 
Descrii)tion  of  the  Chinese  Empire,"  the  first  work  in 
which  China  had  been  described  with  such  detail  and 
exactness  by  a  European.  Died  in  1743. 
See  MoREKi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Duhamel  or  Du  Hamel,  dii'ht'm^K,  (Jean  Bap- 
tiste,) a  French  philosopher  and  savant,  born  at  Vire 
in  1624,  became  curate  of  Neuilly-sur-Marne.  He  was  a 
diligent  student  of  natural  philosophy  and  other  sciences, 
and  gained  reputation  in  1660  by  a  treatise  on  Astro- 
nomy, ("Astronomia  Physica.")  At  the  formation  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  (1666)  he  was  chosen  perpetual 
secretary.  He  published  an  interesting  "  History  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,"  {1698,)  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Old  and  New  Philosophy,"  for  the  use  of  colleges, 
(1678,)  and  other  scientific  works,  which  were  once  highly 
prized,  but  are  not  much  read  at  present.  Died  in  1706. 
The  above-named  works  are  all  in  Latin,  which  he  wrote 
with  great  purity  and  elegance. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  Fontenelle,  "Eloges  des  Acade- 
miciens;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Du  Hamel,  (Jean  Marie  Constant,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  in  1797,  became  in  1851  professor 
in  the  Faculty  of  Sciences.  He  succeeded  Poisson  as 
member  of  the  Institute  in  1840.  He  wrote  a  work  on 
analysis,  ("  Cours  d'Analyse  de  I'ficole  Polytechnique," 
1841.) 

Duhamel  or  Du  Hamel,  (Jean  Pierre  Franqois 
Guillot  —  ge''yo',)  a  French  savant  and  metallurgist, 
born  at  Nicorps  in  1730.  He  made  improvements  in 
the  art  of  mining  and  working  metals  ;  and,  when  the 
School  of  Mines  was  founded,  about  1787,  he  was  chosen 
professor  of  metallurgy,  etc.  In  1786  he  was  received 
into  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  About  1795  he  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Institute  and  inspector-general  of  mines. 
He  was  a  savant  of  the  old  school, — profound,  practical, 
unassuming.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  manual 
for  miners,  entitled  "Subterranean  Geometry,"  (1788,) 
"which,"  says  Cuvier,  "is  an  indispensable  work,  and 
is  at  the  present  time  the  manual  of  all  who  practise  the 
art  of  mining  in  France."    Died  in  1816. 

See  Cuvier,  "  filoges  historiques,"  tome  iii. ;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie G^n^rale." 

Duhamel  du  Monceau,  dxx'ht'mhV  dii  m6N''so', 
(Henri  Louis,)  an  eminent  economist  and  botanist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1700,  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  French 
savants  of  the  eighteenth  century,  in  respect  to  the  extent, 
variety,  and  utility  of  his  researches  in  botany,  phy- 
siology, agriculture,  etc.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1728,  after  which  he  wrote 
more  than  sixty  memoirs,  nearly  all  on  important  sub- 
jects. He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Culture  of  Land,"  (1751,)  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Trees  and  Shrubs  which  grow  in  France  in  the  Open 
Ground,"  (1755,)  and  one  entitled  "De  la  Physique  des 
Arbres,"  (1758,)  treating  of  the  structure,  anatomy,  and 
physiology  of  plants.  This  is  regarded  as  his  most 
important  work. 

See  Cuvier,  "Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles;"  "Biographie 
Universelle ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Encyclopaedia 
Britannica." 

Duhan,  dii^hSN',  (Charles  Gilles,)  a  French  Prot- 
estant, born  in  Champagne  in  1685,  removed  to  Ber'in, 
where  he  became  preceptor  to  the  prince-royal,  (Frede- 
rick the  Great.)  After  the  accession  of  that  prince  (1740) 
Duhan  was  made  a  privy  councillor.    Died  in  1746. 

Duhan,  (Laurent,)  a  French  philosopher,  born  at 
Chartres  about  1656,  published  "  Philosophus  in  utram- 
que  Partem,"  (1694.)    Died  in  1726. 

Duhem,  dli'SN'  or  dii-hgn/,(PiERRE  JoSEPH,)a  French 
Jacobin,  born  at  Lille  in  1760,  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
vention, 1792-95.  Died  in  1807. 

Duhesme,  dii'him',  (Philippe  Guillaume,)  Count, 
a  French  general,  born  in  Burgundy  in  1766.  He  was 
made  general  of  division  in  1794  for  his  services  at  Gran- 
jean  and  Maestricht.  His  passage  of  the  Rhine  at 
Diersheim,  in  1 797,  was  much  applauded.  He  afterwards 
commanded  in  Italy  and  Spain,  where  he  gained  several 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  f^t;  mli;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DUIGENAN 


803 


DULON 


victories,  and  received  the  title  of  count  in  1814.    In  the 
Hundred  Days  he  took  arms  for  Napoleon,  and  was 
wounded  and  taken  prisoner  at  Waterloo,  where  he  was 
massacred  by  a  Prussian  soldier,  June  18,  1 81 5. 
See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Duigenan,  doog'e-nan,  (Patrick,)  an  Irish  civilian, 
born  in  1735,  in  the  county  of  Leitrim.  He  was  a  judge, 
privy  councillor,  and  member  of  Parliament,  and  wrote 
several  political  pamphlets.  He  promoted  the  Union, 
and  opposed  Catholic  emanci]jation.    Died  in  1816. 

Du-iFi-us  or  Du-il'Ii-us,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  general, 
elected  consul  in  261  B.C.,  is  noted  as  the  first  Roman 
who  obtained  a  naval  victory  over  the  Carthaginians.  In 
the  first  Punic  war  he  built  a  number  of  ships  after  the 
model  of  one  captured  from  the  enemy.  This  fleet  under 
his  command  defeated  that  of  Carthage,  near  the  Lipari 
Islands,  in  260,  on  which  occasion  the  Romans  used  vrith 
great  advantage  the  new  invention  of  grappling-irons,  and 
boarded  the  ships  of  the  enemy.  He  afterwards  com- 
manded the  land-army,  and  defeated  the  Carthaginians 
in  Sicily. 

See  PoLYBius,  book  i. ;  Diodorus  Siculus,  book  xxiii. 

Duilius,  (Marcus,)  a  Roman  tribune,  who,  about 
450  B.C.,  persuaded  the  people  to  assume  an  attitude  of 
determined  hostility  to  the  decemvirs  by  withdrawing  to 
Mons  Sacer. 

Duisbuig,  doo'is-bdoRG,  written  also  Duisbourg, 
(Peter,)  a  German  chronicler,  lived  about  1320.  He 
wrote  a  '*  History  of  Prussia." 

Duiven,  doi^en,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  portrait-painter,  born 
at  Gouda  in  1610;  died  in  1640. 

Dujardin,  dli'zhtR'diN',  (Benigne,)  a  French  author 
who  assumed  the  name  of  Boispr^;aux,  (bw^'pRk''5',) 
flourished  about  1740. 

Dujardin,  (Felix,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Tours 
in  1801.  He  cultivated  geology,  botan}^  and  zoology,  and 
became  professor  of  mineralogy  at  Toulouse  in  1839. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  a  "Natural  History  of  Infu- 
soria," (1841,)  and  a  "Manual  of  the  Observer  with  the 
Microscope,"  (1843.)    Died  in  April,  i860. 

Dujardin,  dii'zhtRMiN',  sometimes  written  De  Jar- 
dyn,  (Karel,)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter,  was  born  in 
Amsterdam  about  1640.  He  is  called  the  most  excellent 
pupil  of  Berghem.  He  studied  and  worked  in  Rome, 
and  returned  to  his  native  place,  where  he  was  very  suc- 
cessful. He  painted  history,  animals,  pastoral  scenes, 
and  other  familiar  subjects.  He  excelled  in  colour, 
expression,  and  chiaroscuro.  Some  of  his  works  are 
regarded  as  master-pieces,  and  brijig  high  prices.  His 
"Charlatan"  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  most  highly-prized 
tableaux  of  that  kind  which  the  gallery  of  the  Louvre 
contains.  Having  visited  Italy  a  second  time,  he  died  at 
Venice  in  1678. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Pelntres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Duke,  (Richard,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
Devonshire,  was  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
and  prebendary  of  Gloucester.  He  wrote  several  medi- 
ocre poems,  and  published  sermons  which  are  com- 
mended. He  co-operated  with  others  in  the  translation 
of  Ovid  and  Juvenal.    Died  in  171 1. 

Duker,  doo^ker,  (Karl  Andreas,)  a  German  scholar, 
born  at  Unna,  Prussia,  in  1670.  He  studied  under 
Perizonius  at  Franeker.  In  1716  he  was  associated  with 
Drakenborch  in  the  chair  of  history  and  eloquence  at 
Utrecht  vacated  by  Burmann.  His  principal  work  is  an 
edition  of  Thucydides,  (1731,)  which  attests  his  profound 
knowledge  of  Greek  and  was  for  a  long  time  the  best 
edition  of  that  author.  He  also  edited  Florus,  (1722.) 
He  resigned  his  chair  in  1734.  Died  at  Mydrecht  in 
1752. 

See  Ersch  und  GRUBER,"Al!gemeiiie  Encyklopaedie ;"  C.  Saxius, 
"Laudatio  C.  A.  Dukeri,"  8vo,  1788. 

Duker,  doo''ker,  (Karl  Gustavus,)  a  Swedish  gen- 
eral, distinguished  in  the  wars  of  Charles  XII.  He 
fought  at  Pultowa  in  1709,  when  he  was  made  prisoner. 
In  1 712,  as  lieutenant-general,  he  commanded  a  corps 
in  the  isle  of  Riigen,  and  surrendered  Stralsund  after  a 
brave  defence  in  1715.  He  was  afterwards  made  a  field- 
marshal,  senator,  and  count.    Died  in  1732. 

See  Ersch  und  GKUBER,"Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Voltaire, 
"Histoire  de  Charles  XII." 


Dulac.    See  All^on. 

Dulard,  diiHtR',  (Paul  Alexandre,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1696;  died  in  1760. 
Dulauloy.    See  Randon. 

Dulaure,  dii'loR^  (Jacques  Antotne,)  a  French  re- 
publican, known  as  an  able  and  prolific  writer,  was  born 
at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1755.  In  1788  he  published  the 
first  volumes  of  a  "Description  of  France."  Elected  to 
the  Convention  in  1792,  he  voted  for  the  death  of  the 
king.  He  wrote  many  political  pamphlets,  was  pro- 
scribed as  a  Girondist  in  1793,  and  saved  his  life  by 
flight.  He  was  one  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  in 
1796-98.  He  produced  a  "History  of  Paris  from  the 
Earliest  Times,"  (10  vols.,  1821, )  and  "Historical 
Sketches  of  the  Revolution,"  (6  vols.,  1825.)  Died  in 
1835. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale:"  Taillandier,  "Notice 
sur  J.  A.  Dulaure." 

Du  Laurens  or  Dulaurens,  dul6'r6N',  (Andr^:,)  a 
learned  French  physician,  born  at  Aries  about  1550, 
became  first  physician  to  Henry  IV.  in  1606.  He  pub- 
lished several  professional  works  in  Latin,  one  of  which 
was  very  successful,  viz.,  "  Anatomical  Description  of  the 
Human  Body,"  (1595.)  Renauldin  praises  the  elegance 
of  its  style.  Died  in  1609. 

See  H.  RoDRiGUES,  "Notice  sur  Dulaurens,"  etc.,  Montpellier, 
1842. 

Dulaurens,  (Henri  Joseph,)  a  French  writer  and 
abbe,  born  at  Douai  in  17 19.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"Satire  against  the  Jesuits,"  (1761,)  and  "The  Evangile 
of  Reason."  In  1767  he  was  sentenced  to  perpetual 
imprisonment  as  author  of  anti-religious  work-s.  Died 
in  1797. 

Dulaurier,  dli'lo^-e-i',  (Edouard,)  a  French  Orien- 
talist, born  at  Toulouse  in  1807,  became  professor  of 
the  Javanese  and  Malay  languages  at  Paris  in  1841. 

Dulcino,  dool-chee'no,  [Lat.  Dulci'nus,]  an  Italian 
theologian,  and  leader  of  a  sect  called  Dulcinists,  was 
born  at  Novara.    He  was  put  to  death  in  1307. 

Dulcis,  diirs^ss',  (Catherin,)  a  Protestant  noted  as 
a  linguist,  was  born  in  Savoy  in  1540.  He  was  professor 
of  modern  languages  at  Wittenberg  and  at  Cassel,  and 
wrote  "Principles  of  the  Italian  Languages,"  and  other 
works. 

Dulin,  dii'liN',  (Pierre,)  a  French  painter  of  history, 
born  in  Paris  in  1670,  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1696, 
and  died  in  1748. 

Du  Lis,  dii  l6ss,  or  Dulis,  (Charles,)  a  Frenchman 
descended  from  a  brother  of  Joan  of  Arc,  was  born 
about  1560.  He  was  a  privy  councillor  of  Henry  IV. 
He  wrote  a  valuable  notice  of  the  genealogy,  actions, 
and  arms  of  Joan  of  Arc,  (,1610.)    Died  about  1632. 

Dulk,  ddolk,  (Friedrich  Philipp,)  a  German  chemist, 
born  at  Schirwindt,  in  Prussia,  in  1788,  became  professor 
of  chemistry  at  Konigsberg.  He  published  a  "  Manual 
of  Chemistry,"  (1834,)  and  other  works. 

Dullaert,  diil'laRt,  (Heyman,)  a  skilful  Dutch  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1636.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Rembrandt,  whose  manner  he  imitated 
with  such  success  as  to  puzzle  Houbraken  and  other 
connoisseurs.  His  "  Hermit  Kneeling"  is  an  instance 
of  this  imitation.  In  consequence  of  feeble  health,  he 
did  not  produce  a  great  number  of  pictures.  He  was 
skilled  in  many  languages,  wrote  verses  with  facility, 
and  translated  Tasso's  epic  poem.    Died  in  1684. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc 

Duller,  dooKler,  (Eduard,)  a  popular  German  poet 
and  historian,  born  in  Vienna  in  1809.  He  produced  a 
successful  drama,  "Master  Pilgrim,"  (1828,)  and  "The 
Prince  of  Love,"  a  poem,  (1842")  He  settled  in  Mentz 
(Mayence)  in  1849,  after  which  he  devoted  himself  to 
history.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  History  of  the  German 
People,"  (2  vols.,  1840,)  and  a  continuation  of  Schiller's 
"History  of  the  Revolt  of  the  Netherlands,"  (3  vols., 
1841.)  He  published  a  volume  of  poems,  "Gesammelte 
Gedichte,"  (1845.)    l^ied  in  1853. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon ;"  Weber,"  Geschichte 
der  Deutschen  Literatur." 

Dulon,  doo'lon,  (Ludwig,)  a  Prussian  performer  on 
the  flute,  born  in  1769,  became  blind  in  infancy.  He 
composed  music  for  the  flute.    Died  in  1826. 


€  as     c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  tiasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this.    (2^=  See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DULONG 


DUMAS 


Dulong,  du'l6N',  (Pierre  Louis,)  a  French  chemist 
and  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Rouen  in  1785.  He 
studied  chemistry  with  Berthollet,  and  discovered  the 
chloride  of  nitrogen  in  181 2.  In  co-operation  with  Ber- 
zelius,  he  analyzed  water,  and  made  researches  in  the 
animal  heat  produced  by  respiration  and  the  combustion 
of  carbon  in  the  lungs.  He  succeeded  Petit  as  professor 
of  physique  in  the  Polytechnic  School,  and  in  1823  was 
admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  for  which  he 
wrote  memoirs  on  the  theory  of  heat,  the  elastic  force 
of  steam,  etc.    Died  in  Paris  in  1838. 

See  JStienne  Arago,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Conversation  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Dulong  de  Rosnay,  dii^lSN'  deh  ro'ni',  (Louis 
Henri,)  Comte,  a  French  general,  born  in  Champagne 
in  1780 ;  died  in  1828. 

Du  Lorens,  dii  lo^rSw',  (Jacques,)  a  French  satirical 
poet,  born  at  Chateauneuf  in  1583;  died  about  1650. 

Dumaniant,dii'mt^ne^6N'',(ANTOiNE  Jean,)  a  French 
comic  author,  whose  family  name  was  BouRLiN,  (booR^- 
IcLn',)  born  at  Clermont  in  Auvergne,  or  Clermont-Fer- 
rand, in  1754.  He  lived  in  Paris,  where  for  some  time 
he  performed  on  the  stage.  He  wrote  many  comedies, 
some  of  which  were  successful,  especially  his  "Open 
War,  or  Ruse  against  Ruse,"  (1786.)    Died  in  1828. 

Diimanoir,du'mt'nwiR',(PHiLiPPE,)  a  French  drama- 
tist, born  in  Guadeloupe  in  1808. 

Dumanoir  le  Pelley,  du^mt^nw^R'  leh  pa^li', 
(Pierre  Etienne  Ren6  Marie,)  Count,  a  French 
admiral,  born  at  Granville  in  1770.  As  chef-de-division 
he  conducted  the  convoy  attached  to  the  army  which 
invaded  Egypt  in  1798.  The  next  year  he  commanded 
one  of  the  two  ships  which  escorted  Bonaparte  back  to 
France,  and  was  made  a  rear-admiral.  At  the  battle 
of  Trafalgar  in  1805  he  commanded  the  vanguard,  and 
escaped  with  four  ships,  which  were  taken  a  few  days 
later.  He  was  made  a  count  in  1814,  and  vice-admiral 
in  1819.    Died  in  1829. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gdnerale." 

Dumaresq,  du-mt-r^sk',  (Henry,)  a  brave  British 
officer,  born  in  1792,  served  in  the  Peninsula,  was  se- 
verely wounded  at  Waterloo,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-colonel  in  181 7.    Died  in  1838. 

Dumarest,  dii'mS'ri',  (Ramberi',)  a  skilful  French 
engraver  of  medals,  born  at  Saint-Etienne,  in  Forez,  in 
1750.  He  resided  in  Paris,  and  became  a  member  of 
the  Institute.  About  the  time  of  the  Revolution  his 
medal  of  J.  J.  Rousseau  gained  the  first  prize.  He  en- 
graved the  medal  which  the  Institute  gives  to  each  of 
its  members,  and  one  for  the  Peace  of  Amiens.  Died 
in  1806. 

Dumarsais,  dii'mtR^sa',  (Q^sar  Chesneau,)  an  emi- 
nent French  grammarian,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1676, 
became  a  citizen  of  Paris  about  1702.  His  works  are 
more  highly  appreciated  by  posterity  than  they  were  by 
his  contemporaries,  and  his  "Treatise  on  Tropes  or 
Figures"  is  especially  commended.  He  also  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  Logic,"  and  "Principles  of  Grammar." 
"He  was,"  says  Voltaire,  "  one  of  those  obscure  sages 
who  judge  soundly  of  all,"  etc.    Died  in  1756. 

See  De  Gerando,  "  Eloge  de  Du  Marsais,"  1S05;  D'Alembert, 
"filogc  de  Du  Marsais,"  in  the  "  Encyclopedie,"  tome  vii. 

Dumas,  dii^mi.',  (Adolphe,)  a  French  poet,  cousin 
of  Alexandre,  noticed  below,  born  at  Bompas  (Vaucluse) 
in  1806  ;  died  in  1861. 

Dumas,  (Alexandre,)  a  celebrated  French  novelist 
and  dramatist,  born  at  Villers-Cotterets  (Aisne)  in  1803. 
His  early  education  was  very  defective.  At  the  age  of 
twenty  he  went  to  Paris  to  seek  his  fortune,  and  by  the 
favour  of  General  Foy  obtained  a  clerkship  in  the  bureau 
of  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  He  produced  in  1828  "Henri 
III,"  a  drama,  the  great  success  of  which  was  a  triumph 
of  the  new  romantic  school  over  the  classic.  He  wrote 
many  other  successful  dramas,  among  which  are  "An- 
tony," a  tragedy,"  ( 1831, )  and  "Mdlle.  de  Belle  Isle,"  a 
comedy,  (1837.)  The  immorality  of  "Antony"  was  pro- 
nounced scandalous  even  by  the  French.  He  excels  in 
the  construction  of  plots,  and  exhibits  a  marvellous  exam- 
ple of  literary  fecundity.  Dumas  also  obtained  great 
popularity  as  a  novelist.  Among  his  principal  romances 
are  "The  Three  Musketeers,"  ("Les  trois  Mousque- 


taires,"  1844-45,  3°  vols.,)  and  "The  Count  of  Monte- 
Christo,"  ("  Le  Comte  de  Monte-Christo,"  1845,  12  vols.) 
These  are  much  admired  for  the  verve  and  faculty  of 
improvisation  which  they  display.  Pie  made,  it  is  said, 
a  free  use  of  the  assistance  of  other  writers  in  the  com- 
position of  his  works.    Died  in  December,  1870. 

See  L.  DE  Lomenie,  "Notice  sur  M.  A.  Dumas,"  1845;  Alex- 
andre Dumas,  "Memoires,"  Paris,  10  vols.,  1850-52;  EucitNE  de 
MiRECouRT,  "Fabrique  de  Romans:  Maison  A.  Dumas  et  Com- 
pagnie,"  1846;  Charles  Robin,  "Notice  sur  A.  Dumas,"  1848. 

Dumas,  (Alexandre,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1824,  and  is  widely  known  as  a  romancer 
and  comic  author.  Among  his  romances  are  "  Cesarine," 
(1848,)  and  "Trois  Hommes  forts,"  (4  vols.,  1850.)  He 
produced  in  1852  "La  Dame  aux  Camelias,"  a  comedy, 
which  was  highly  applauded.  His  comedy  "  Demi- 
Monde"  (1855)  was  also  very  successful.  His  works 
are  censured  as  immoral. 

Dumas,  (Alexandre  Davy  de  la  Pailleterie — 
pt^yeh-tre',)  a  French  general,  born  at  Jeremie  in  1762, 
was  the  father  of  Alexandre,  noticed  above.  His  mother 
was  a  negress,  named  Dumas.  He  was  made  a  general 
of  brigade  in  July,  1793,  and  general  of  division  in  Sep- 
tember of  that  year.  He  defeated  Wurmser  at  Mantua 
in  1796,  and  for  his  services  in  the  Tyrol  in  1797  was 
saluted  by  Bonaparte  with  the  title  of  "the  Horatius 
Codes  of  the  Tyrol."  In  1798  he  commanded  the  cavalry 
in  Egypt,  and  was  at  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids.  He 
died  in  1806,  having  been  disabled  by  ill  health  for  several 
years. 

See  "Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Frangais;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic Generale." 

Dumas,  (Charles  Louis,)  an  eminent  French  phy- 
sician, born  in  Lyons  in  1765,  graduated  at  Montpellier. 
In  1795  he  obtained  the  chair  of  anatomy  and  physiology 
in  that  city.  He  was  afterwards  chosen  professor  of  clinic 
medicine,  dean  of  the  Faculty,  a  corresponding  member 
of  the  Institute,  member  of  the  legion  of  honour,  etc. 
He  wrote  many  learned  works,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant are  "Principles  of  Physiology,"  (4  vols.,  1800,) 
"The  Future  Progress  of  the  Science  of  Man,"  (1804,) 
and  "Doctrine  of  Chronic  Diseases,"  (1812.)  The  last 
is  highly  praised.    Died  at  Montpellier  in  April,  18 13. 

See  Prunelle,  "Eloge  de  C.  L.  Dumas,"  1814;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Dumas,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  an  eminent  French  chem- 
ist and  senator,  born  at  Alais  (Gard)  in  July,  1800.  He 
went  about  1814  to  Geneva,  where  he  studied  chemistry 
and  botany  and  became  the  scientific  associate  of  Pre- 
vost.  Having  removed  to  Paris  in  1821,  he  was  chosen 
tutor  of  chemistry  in  the  Polytechnic  School  in  1823. 
He  married  the  daughter  of  the  celebrated  chemist  A. 
Brongniart.  He  acquired  a  wide  reputation  by  his  re- 
searches on  isomerism,  the  law  of  substitutions,  the 
atomic  weights  of  elements,  and  other  parts  of  chemical 
philosophy.  His  labours  have  contributed  greatly  to 
simplify  the  study  of  organic  chemistry.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Institute  in  1832,  and  became  professor  of  organic 
chemistry  in  the  School  of  Medicine  in  1834.  He  pub- 
lished many  important  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Treat- 
ise on  Chemistry  applied  to  the  Arts,"  (8  vols.,  1828-45,) 
and  "  Lectures  on  Chemical  Philosophy,"  ("  Le9ons  sur  la 
Philosophic  chimique,"(  1837.)  His  works  are  remarkable 
for  elegance  of  style.  From  October,  1849,  to  January, 
1 85 1,  he  was  minister  of  agriculture  and  commerce.  He 
was  nominated  senator  and  vice-president  of  the  council 
of  public  instruction  about  the  end  of  1851.  France  is 
indebted  to  him  for  the  organization  of  a  system  of  in- 
struction in  agriculture,  and  the  institution  of  a  European 
sanitary  congress. 

See  "  Galerie  historique  des  Membres  du  Senat;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Dumas,  (Louis,)  a  French  musician,  born  at  Nimes  in 
1676.  He  wrote  "The  Art  of  Music,  taught  and  prac- 
tised by  the  Method  of  the  Typographic  Bureau,"  and 
"La  Bibliotheque  des  Enfants."  He  was  tutor  of  the 
Marquis  de  Montcalm  who  fell  at  Quebec.   Died  in  1744. 

Dumas,  (Mathieu,)  Count,  a  French  general  and 
historian,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1753.  He  was  aide-de- 
camp of  Count  de  Rochambeau  in  the  United  States, 
where  he  served  three  campaigns,  1780-82.  In  the 
revolution  of  1789  he  was  identified  with  the  party  of  La 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,    long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fJr,  fill,  fit;  mit;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


DUMAS  805  DUMONT 


Fayette,  and  was  charged  with  several  important  missions. 
In  1791  Colonel  Dumas  commanded  the  troops  which 
guarded  Louis  XVI.  on  his  return  from  Varennes,  and 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  marechal-de-camp.  He  was 
a  moderate  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1791 
and  1792,  and  was  condemned  to  death  in  the  reign  of 
terror,  but  escaped  to  Switzerland.  About  1800  he  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  general  of  brigade,  and  was  appointed 
councillor  of  state.  He  became  a  general  of  division  in 
1805,  and,  as  aide-major-general  of  Napoleon,  made  the 
campaigns  of  Ulm  and  Austerlitz,  and  that  of  Austria 
in  1809.  He  accompanied  the  grand  army  to  Moscow 
(1812)  as  intendant-general  of  the  administrative  service. 
In  1814  he  entered  the  service  of  Louis  XVIII.,  and  in 
the  Hundred  Days  accepted  a  command  from  Napo- 
leon. He  published  a  narrative  of  the  French  campaigns 
from  1798  to  1807,  entitled  "  Precis  des  Evenements  mili- 
taires,"  (19  vols.,  1816-26,)  which  is  highly  prized.  He 
co-operated  with  La  Fayette  in  the  revolution  of  1830, 
after  which  he  was  created  a  peer  of  France.  Died  in 
Paris  in  October,  1837. 

See  his  autobiographic  memoirs,  entitled  "Souvenirs,"  3  vols., 
1839,  and  English  version  of  the  same;  "  Histoire  des  Generaux 
Frangais;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Dumas,  (Rene  FRANgois,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  at 
Lons-le-Saulnier  in  1757,  was  notorious  for  cruelty  as 
president  of  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  in  1793.  As  a 
partisan  of  Robespierre,  he  was  guillotined,  July  28,  1794. 

Dumay,  dii'ma',  (Louis,)  a  French  publicist,  born  in 
the  first  part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Science  of  Princes,  or  Con- 
siderations on  Coups  d'fitat  by  Naude,  with  Reflections," 
(1673,)  which  was  greatly  esteemed.    Died  in  1681. 

Dumay,  (Paul,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1626,  associated  or  corresponded  with  the  most  eminent 
scholars,  and  wrote  admired  Latin  verses.  His  poem 
in  honour  of  the  Due  d'Enghien,  entitled  '*  Enguinneis," 
(1643,)  was  praised  by  Gronovius.    Died  in  171 1. 

Dumee,  dii'mi^  (Jeanne,)  a  French  astronomer,  born 
in  Paris  in  the  seventeenth  century.  She  published  a 
"Discourse  on  the  Opinion  of  Copernicus  respecting 
the  Mobility  of  the  Earth,"  which  has  some  merit. 

Dumerbion,  dii'm^R'be'^N',  (Pierre  J.,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Montmeillant  in  1734;  died  in  1797. 

Dumeril,  du'nicVr^K,  (Andr6  Marie  Constant,)  a 
French  physician  and  naturalist  of  high  reputation,  born 
at  Amiens  on  the  ist  of  January,  1774,  was  a  pupil  of 
Cuvier.  He  was  chosen  professor  of  anatomy  a  la  fa- 
ctdte  in  Paris  in  1800,  and  admitted  into  the  Institute 
about  181 5.  For  four  years  he  supplied  the  place  of 
Cuvier  as  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  Ecole  Cen- 
trale.  In  1822  he  exchanged  his  chair  of  anatomy  for 
that  of  physiology,  and  in  1825  succeeded  Lacepede  as 
professor  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes.  He  published  in 
1803  a  "Treatise  on  Natural  History,"  a  fourth  edition 
of  which  was  entitled  "  Elements  des  Sciences  natu- 
■felles,"  (2  vols.,  1846.)  His  greatest  work  is  a  "Natural 
History  of  Reptiles,"  ("  Erpetologie  generale,"  9  vols., 
1834-54,)  in  which  Bibron  co-operated.  About  1830  he 
became  professor  of  medical  pathology  in  the  Faculty  of 
Medicine  at  Paris. 

Dumesnil,  (Jean  Baptists.)    See  Gardin-Dumes- 

NIL. 

Dumesnil,  dii'm^'n^K,  (Louis  Alexis  LemaJtre,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Caen  in  1783,  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,"  (1822,)  and  other  historical 
works.    Died  in  1858. 

Dumesnil,  (Marie  Franqoise,)  a  celebrated  French 
actress,  born  near  Alen9on  in  171 1.  She  made  her  debut 
in  Paris  in  1737.  She  was  most  successful  in  tragedy, 
and  in  the  expression  of  fierce  or  sublime  passions.  It 
has  been  said  that  she  created  the  role  of  Meroi>e  in  Vol- 
taire's tragedy  of  that  name.  Voltaire,  La  Harpe,  and 
other  poets  have  paid  tributes  of  admiration  to  this 
actress.  Dorat,  in  his  poem  "Theatrical  Declamation," 
speaks  of  her  in  high  terms.  She  retired  from  the  stage 
in  1776,  and  died  about  1802. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance  ;"  Marmontel,  "Memoires." 

Dum'mer,  (Jeremiah,)  an  American  writer,  born  in 
Boston  about  1680.  He  was  sent  to  England  as  an  agent 
of  Massachusetts,  and  became  a  friend  of  Lord  Boling- 


broke.  He  wrote  an  able  defence  of  the  charters  of 
New  England,  (1721,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1739. 

Dum'no-rix,  an  ambitious  chieftain  of  the  ^dui,  a 
nation  of  Gaul,  was  the  brother  of  Divitiacus.  He 
figures  largely  in  the  "  Commentaries"  of  Caesar,  who, 
for  the  sake  of  Divitiacus,  once  pardoned  Dumnorix  for 
a  conspiracy  against  the  Romans.  Having  subsequently 
disobeyed  the  order  to  follow  Caesar  in  the  invasion  of 
Britain,  he  was  killed  by  Caesar's  soldiers  about  59  B.C., 
exclaiming,  with  his  latest  breath,  "I  am  a  free  citizen 
of  a  free  state." 

See  C^SAR,  "De  Bello  Gallico." 

Dumolard,  dii'mo'lSR',  (Joseph  Vincent,)  a  French 
politician,  born  in  Dauphine  in  1766;  died  in  1820. 
Dumolin.    See  Dumoulin. 

Dumolinet,  dU''mo'le'ni',  (Claude,)  a  French  priest 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Chalons-sur-Marne  in  1620,  wrote 
a  "  History  of  the  Popes  by  their  Medals,"  and  disserta- 
tions on  several  points  of  antiquity.    Died  in  1687. 

Dumon,  dii''m6N'',  (Pierre  Sylvain,)  a  French  states- 
man, born  at  Agen  in  1797,  became  minister  of  finance 
in  1847. 

Dumonceau,  dii^miN^so',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Brussels  in  1760.  He  entered  the  French 
army  in  1792,  and  in  1794  fought  in  Holland  under  Piche- 
gru,  who  gave  him  command  of  the  Hague.  He  became 
general-in-chief  in  the  service  of  the  Batavian  republic 
in  1805,  obtained  a  marshal's  baton' in  1806  or  1807,  and 
repulsed  the  English  at  Walcheren  in  1809.  In  1813  he 
gained  a  victory  over  the  Russians  at  Pirna.  Died  in  1821. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Frangais." 

Dumont,  dii^niiN^,  (Andr^,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born 
in  Picardy  in  1764,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention, 
1792-95.  He  took  side  against  Robespierre  on  the  9th 
Thermidor.    Died  in  1836. 

Dumont,(  Augustin  Alexandre,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1823, 
and  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension.  He  executed  marble 
statues  of  Poussin,  (for  the  Institute,)  Saint  Louis,  (for  the 
Luxembourg,)  and  of  several  other  Frenchmen.  In  1838 
he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Institute.  Among  his 
later  works  are  figures  of  Glory  and  Immortality,  for  the 
new  Louvre,  (1857.) 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Dumont,  (Charles  Henri  Fr^d^ric,)  a  French 
writer,  born  near  Abbeville  in  1758,  was  the  author  of  a 
"  Manual  for  Mayors,"  a  "  Dictionary  of  Forests,"  ("  Dic- 
tionnaire  forestier,"  1802,)  and  other  useful  works.  Died 
in  1830. 

Dumont,  Comte  de  Gages.    See  Gages. 

Du-m6nt^  (Ebenezer,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Vevay,  in  Southern  Indiana,  about  181 5,  was  a  lawyer 
before  the  civil  war.  He  became  a  brigadier-general 
about  September,  1861,  and  gained  a  victory  at  Lebanon, 
Kentucky,  in  May,  1862.  He  represented  the  sixth  dis- 
trict of  Indiana  in  Congress  in  1863-65,  having  been 
elected  by  the  Republicans. 

Dumont,  (Francois,)  a  sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in 
1688.  He  gained  the  first  prize  of  the  Academy  at  an 
early  age,  and  was  received  as  a  member  of  the  same  in 
1 712,  when  he  produced  in  marble  his  "Thunderstruck 
Titan,"  ("Titan  foudroye.")    Died  in  1726. 

Dumont,  (Gabriel,)  a  learned  Protestant  minister 
and  Orientalist,  born  in  Dauphine  in  1680;  died  in  1748. 

Dumont,  (Gabriel  Martin,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  about  1720.    He  was  living  in  1790. 

Dumont,  (George,)  a  statistical  writer,  born  in  Paris 
in  1725  ;  cUed  in  1788. 

Dumont,  (Jacques  Edme,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris  in  1761,  was  a  grandson  of  Fran9ois  Dumont, 
noticed  above,  and  the  father  of  Augustin  Alexandre. 
He  adorned  the  Louvre,  Luxembourg,  and  other  public 
edifices  with  statues  and  bas-reliefs,  among  which  are 
statues  of  Marceau,  Colbert,  (1808,)  and  Malesherbes, 
(1829.)    Died  in  1844. 

Dumont,  (Jean,)  a  historian,  born  in  France  about 
1650,  became  a  resident  of  Vienna.  The  Emperor  of 
Germany  a])pointed  him  historiographer,  and  gave  him 
the  title  of  baron.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Treaties 
of  Peace  of  the  Seventeenth  Century,"  ("Corps  univer- 
sel  diplomatique  du  Droit  des  Gens,"  8  vols.,  1726,)  a 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  Y^, guttural ;  N,  nasal-  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,  (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DUMONT 


806 


DUMOURIEZ 


'•Collection  of  Treaties  made  from  the  Time  of  Charle- 
magne to  the  Present  Time,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1726. 

Dumont,  (Jean,)  a  French  historical  painter,  called 
"the  Roman,"  was  born  in  Paris  in  1700,  and  studied 
in  Rome.  "His  talent,"  says  Auguis,  "was  not  equal 
to  his  reputation."  He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Paris  in  1728.    Died  in  1781. 

Dumont,  dii'mdN',  (Pierre  Etienne  Louis,)  an 
eminent  Swiss  author,  born  of  a  French  family  at  Geneva 
in  1759.  He  was  ordained  minister  of  a  Protestant  church 
in  Geneva  in  1781.  In  consequence  of  the  defeat  of  the 
Liberal  party  in  the  Swiss  state,  he  emigrated  about 
1782,  and  went  to  Saint  Petersburg.  There  he  gained 
reputation  as  an  eloquent  preacher  ;  but,  after  a  residence 
of  eighteen  months,  he  accepted  an  invitation  from  Lon- 
don to  become  the  tutor  of  the  sons  of  Lord  Shelburne. 
He  became  intimate  with  Bentham  and  Romilly.  In  1789 
and  1790  he  was  in  Paris,  where  he  was  patronized  by 
Mirabeau,  whom  he  assisted  in  composing  his  speeches 
and  reports.  About  1792  he  returned  to  England,  and, 
as  secretary  or  coadjutor  of  Bentham,  he  began  the  im- 
portant task  of  polishing  and  popularizing  his  great 
works  on  legislation,  which  were  then  in  a  rude  and  con- 
fused state.  "  M.  Dumont  was  admirably  qualified," 
says  Macaulay,  "to  supply  what  was  wanting  in  Mr. 
Bentham.  In  the  qualities  in  which  the  French  writers 
surpass  those  of  all  other  nations, — neatness,  clearness, 
precision,  condensation, — he  sur]3assed  all  French  wri- 
ters." Among  the  works  of  Bentham  edited  by  Dumont 
(in  French)  are  "Traites  de  Legislation,"  (1802,)  and 
"Theoriedes  Peines  et  des  Recompenses,"  (1810.)  From 
1814  until  1829  he  lived  in  Geneva,  where  he  became  a 
member  of  the  representative  council.  He  died  in  Milan 
in  1829,  leaving  "Recollections  of  Mirabeau,"  ("Sou- 
venirs sur  Mirabeau,")  since  published,  which,  remarks 
Macaulay,  "is  a  very  amusing  and  instructive  book, 
and  a  relic  of  a  wise  and  virtuous  man." 

See  Macaulay,  Review  of  Diimont's  "Recollections  of  Mira- 
beau;" A.  P.  Decandolle,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Merits  de  M. 
Dumont,"  1829 ;  Simonde  de  Sismondi,  "Notice  necrologique  sur 
M.  Dumont,"  1829;  "Encyclopedia  Britannica." 

Dumont  de  Courset,  dii'm6N'  deh  kooR-sa', 
(Georges  Louis  Marif^)  Baron,  a  French  botanist, 
born  near  Boulogne  in  1746.  At  his  chateau  De  Courset 
he  formed  gardens  famous  for  their  extent  and  beauty. 
He  wrote  a  successful  work  entitled  "Le  Botaniste- 
Cultivateur,"  (1798,  5  vols.,)  containing  a  description  of 
8700  foreign  and  indigenous  plants.    Died  in  1824. 

Dumont  d'Urville,  dii'miN^  diiR^eK,  (Jules  S^:bas- 
TIEN  C6sar,)  a  celebrated  French  navigator  and  bota- 
nist, born  at  Conde-sur-Noireau,  Normandy,  in  1790, 
entered  the  navy  in  1807.  Having  been  raised  to  the 
rank  of  captain,  he  commanded  the  corvette  Astrolabe, 
which  was  sent  in  1826  to  obtain  tidings  of  La  Perouse 
and  to  make  hydrographic  observations.  In  this  voyage 
he  made  coast-surveys  of  New  Zealand,  New  Guinea, 
New  Britain,  etc.,  and  found  evidence  that  La  Perouse 
had  been  wrecked  on  one  of  the  Solomon  Islands  named 
Vanikoro.  The  results  of  the  expedition,  which  made 
rich  contributions  to  natural  history,  were  published 
under  the  title  of  "Voyage  de  Decouvertes  autour  du 
Monde,"  (22  vols.,  1832-34.)  In  1837  he  sailed  with  the 
Astrolabe  and  Zelee  on  a  voyage  of  Antarctic  discovery. 
In  January,  1840,  he  discovered  land,  which  he  named 
Terre  Adelie,  situated  in  latitude  66^  30'  south  and  lon- 
gitude 138°  21^  east.  On  his  return  in  November,  1840, 
he  was  made  a  rear-admiral,  and  began  the  publication 
of  his  "  Voyage  au  Pole  sud  et  dans  I'Oceanie,"  (24  vols., 
1841-54.  Eleven  volumes  of  this  work  were  written  by 
the  other  naturalists  of  the  expedition.  He  was  killed 
by  a  railway-accident  near  Versailles  in  May,  1842. 

See  De  Barins.  "  Vie  et  Voyages  de  TAmiral  Dumont  d'Urville," 
1844;  Lesson,  "  Notice  historique  sur  Dumont  d'Urville,"  1846; 
Isidore  Lebrun,  "  Biographic  de  Dumont  d'Urville,"  in  the  "An- 
nates maritimes." 

Dumortier,  dii'moR^te-i',  (Barthijilemy  CiiArles,) 
a  Belgian  botanist,  was  born  at  Tournay  in  1797. 

Dumoulin,  du^moo'liN',  or  Dumolin,  dii'mo^^N', 
[Lat.  MoLiN^'us,]  (Charles,)  an  eminent  French  jurist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1500,  was  a  relative  of  Queen  Anne 
l^oleyn.    He  embraced  the  Protestant  religion,  for  which 


he  was  often  persecuted  and  was  once  driven  out  of 
France  by  violence.  He  resided  at  Paris,  Orleans, 
Lyons,  etc.  In  1564  he  published  a  work  against  the 
acts  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  which  made  a  great  sen- 
sation. The  French  estimate  him  as  one  of  the  greatest 
jurisconsults  and  most  learned  men  of  his  time.  "His 
name,"  says  De  Thou,  "was  venerated  not  only  for  his 
solid  judgment  and  profound  learning,  but  also  for  his 
probity  and  purity  of  character."  He  died  in  December, 
1566,  leaving  several  volumes  of  legal  works. 

See  Brodeau,  "Vie  de  Dumoulin,"  prefixed  to  his  works,  dated 
1681,  5  vols,  folio;  notice  by  Dupin  aine  in  "  Encyclopedie  des  Gens 
du  Monde;"  Henrion  de  Pansey,  "filoge  de  C.  Dumoulin,"  1769; 
NiCEKON,  "Memoires;"  Hello,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages 
de  C.  Dumoulin,"  1839;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate." 

Dumoulin,  (Evariste,)  a  French  journalist,  born  in 
the  Gironde  in  1776,  favoured  the  popular  cause  in  the 
Revolution.  In  1815  he  removed  to  Paris  and  became 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Constitutionnel,"  a  new 
journal  which  opposed  the  government.-  His  articles 
contributed  greatly  to  the  popularity  of  this  journal. 
Next  to  Thiers  he.  took  the  most  prominent  part  in  the 
protest  of  the  journalists  against  the  ordinances  of  July, 
1830.    Died  in  1833. 

Dumoulin,  (Pierre.)    See  Moulin. 

Dumouriez,  dii'moo're-i',  (Anne  FRANgois  Du- 
perier  —  dii'pa^re-a',)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Paris  in 
1707.  He  was  appointed  commissary  of  war  in  1732, 
and  intendant  of  the  army  of  De  Broglie  in  1759.  He 
wrote  "Richardet,"  a  poem  in  imitation  of  Forteguerri, 
(1766,)  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1769. 

Dumouriez,  (Charles  FRANgois,)  a  celebrated 
French  general  and  statesman,  born  at  Cambrai  in  1739, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  In  early  youth  he  was 
initiated  in  the  arts  of  diplomacy  by  an  uncle  who  was 
in  the  foreign  office.  At  the  close  of  the  Seven  Years' 
war  (1763)  he  had  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  and  re- 
ceived twenty-two  wounds.  He  served  with  distinction 
as  quartermaster-general  in  the  expedition  against  Cor- 
sica in  1768.  About  1770  the  Duke  of  Choiseul  sent 
him  on  a  secret  political  mission  to  Poland,  whence  he 
was  soon  recalled  in  consequence  of  the  dismissal  of 
tliat  minister.  He  was  then  confined  nearly  a  year  in 
the  Bastille  for  some  political  reasons  or  pretexts,  and 
was  released  in  1774.  Before  the  Revolution  he  was  for 
more  than  ten  years  commandant  of  Cherbourg,  where 
he  ably  directed  the  construction  of  the  port  and  the 
great  naval  works  which  he  had  planned. 

In  1790  he  favoured  the  moderate  or  constitutional 
party,  and  became  intimate  with  the  Girondist  leaders, 
who  discerned  in  him  a  rare  combination  of  the  qualities 
requisite  for  those  critical  times,  both  as  a  general  and 
a  diplomatist.  His  mind  was  at  once  powerful,  flexible, 
and  resolute.  He  possessed,  besides,  a  spontaneous, 
direct,  and  captivating  eloquence.  In  March,  1792,  he  was 
appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  became  the 
master-spirit  of  the  government.  He  gained  the  confi- 
dence of  the  king,  to  whom  he  appears  to  have  been 
loyal.  A  few  weeks  after  Dumouriez  became  minister, 
war  was  declared  against  Austria.  In  June,  1792,  he 
resigned  his  office,  and  in  August  of  the  same  year  be- 
came general-in-chief  of  the  army  in  place  of  La  Fayette. 
He  defended  the  passes  of  the  forest  of  Argonne  against 
a  superior  Prussian  force  which  was  marching  in  triumph 
towards  Paris.  It  is  now  admitted  that  the  dilatory 
movements  of  the  Prussian  general  were  caused  by 
secret  negotiations  pending  between  him  and  Dumouriez 
for  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVI. 

The  Prussians  having  abandoned  the  invasion  of 
France  in  October,  Dumouriez  undertook  a  campaign 
against  Planders  with  about  100,000  men.  In  November, 
1792,  he  defeated  the  Austrians  at  the  battle  of  Jemmapes, 
(the  first  pitched  battle  that  had  been  gained  by  the 
republican  army,)  which  was  followed  by  the  speedy 
conquest  of  Belgium.  At  this  ])eriod,  as  Lamartine  says, 
Dumouriez  "was  the  virtual  dictator  of  all  parties,"  and 
such  he  might  have  continued  if  he  had  not  striven 
against  the  tide  which  imi)elled  him  on  to  fortune."  But, 
from  loyalty  to  the  Bourbons,  hostility  to  the  Jacobins, 
or  soine  other  cause,  he  paused  in  the  career  of  victory, 
and  plotted  a  counter-revolution  in  concert  with  the 
Austrians.    Rumours  of  his  defection  having  reached 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;     h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DUMOUSTIER 


807 


DUN  COMBE 


Paris,  the  Convention  sent  four  commissioners,  in  April, 
1793,  to  summon  him  to  their  bar.  On  his  refusal  to 
obey  this  summons,  they  ordered  his  soldiers  to  arrest 
him.  "This  is  too  much  !"  exclaimed  Dumouriez.  "It 
is  time  to  resist  such  audacity  !"  and  the  deputies  were 
instantly  seized  by  his  hussars  and  taken  as  prisoners 
to  the  Austrian  camp.  His  army,  however,  refusing  to 
join  in  his  designs,  he  was  compelled  to  escape  with  a 
few  adherents,  and  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in  exile. 
He  was  pensioned  by  England,  and  died  near  Henley-on- 
Thanies,  in  Buckinghamshire,  in  1823,  leaving  memoirs 
of  his  life  and  several  political  treatises. 

See  "Memoires  de  Dumouriez,"  written  by  himself,  2  vols.,  1794, 
and  an  English  translation  of  the  same,  by  John  Fekwick  ;  also, 
Ledieu,  "Dumouriez  et  la  Revolution  Frangaise,"  1826;  Thiers, 
"History  of  the  French  Revolution ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Dumoustier,  du'moos''te-i',  (  Pierre,  )  Count,  a 
French  general,  who  was  born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1771. 
For  his  conduct  at  Pultusk  he  was  made  general  of  bri- 
gade about  1806.  After  he  had  served  several  campaigns 
in  Spain,  he  became  general  of  division  in  181 1.  He  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Lutzen,  (1813.)    Died  in  1831. 

Dumoutier, dii'moo^te-a',  (Daniel,)  a  skilful  French 
portrait-painter,  was  born^n  Paris  about  1550.  He  holds 
a  high  rank  among  the  early  French  artists,  and  has  left 
portraits  of  several  kings,  from  Henry  H.  to  Louis  XHI. 
Died  in  1631. 

Dun,  Lord.    See  Erskine,  (David.) 

Duuasus,  the  Latin  of  Downes,  which  see. 

Dun-bar'',  (George,)  a  Scottish  scholar,  born  in  1774. 
He  was  professor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh from  1805  until  1851.  He  published  several  use- 
ful educational  works,  of  which  the  most  important  is  an 
excellent  "Greek  and  English  Lexicon,"  (1840.)  Died 
in  1857. 

Dunbar,  (William,)  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  early 
Scottish  poets,  was  born  at  Salton  about  1465.  He  be- 
came a  Franciscan  friar  and  itinerant  preacher.  He  was 
afterwards  employed  by  James  IV.,  probably  as  clerk  or 
secretary  of  embassy,  and  in  1500  he  received  the  grant 
of  a  small  pension,  which  was  eventually  increased  to 
;^8o.  In  1 503  he  produced  "  The  Thistle  and  the  Rose," 
an  allegory  in  honour  of  the  marriage  of  James  IV.,  which 
is  one  of  his  best  works.  He  excels  in  allegory  and  in 
didactic  and  humorous  poetry.  Sir  Walter  Scott  thought 
him  "  unrivalled  by  any  poet  that  Scotland  had  yet  pro- 
duced." Among  his  principal  poems  are  "The  Golden 
Terge  or  Targe,"  "The  Merle  and  Nightingale,"  and 
"The  Jousts  between  the  Tailor  and  Souter."  Died 
about  1530. 

See  Warton,  "History  of  English  Poetry;"  Ellis,  "Specimens 
of  Early  English  Poetry;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of 
Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;" 
"  Encyclopsedia  Britannica." 

Dunc'an  I.,  King  of  Scotland,  was  the  son  of  Beatrix, 
who  was  a  daughter  of  King  Malcolm  H.  After  a  reign 
of  a  few  years'  duration,  he  was  murdered  at  Elgin  about 
1040  by  Macbeth,  whose  story  has  been  dramatized  by 
Shakspeare.    Duncan's  son,  Malcolm  III.,  became  king. 

Dunc^an,  (Adam,)  Viscount  of  Camperdown,  an  able 
British  admiral,  born  at  Dundee  in  1731.  He  entered 
the  navy  about  1746,  and  was  made  a  post-captain  in 
1761.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Cape  Saint  Vincent 
in  1780,  and  was  made  a  rear-admiral  in  1789,  and  vice- 
admiral  in  1795,  when  he  commanded  in  the  North  Sea. 
During  the  war  against  the  Dutch,  an  alarming  mutiny 
broke  out  in  the  English  navy  in  1797,  and  Duncan  was 
deserted  by  nearly  all  his  ships.  The  mutineers  having 
returned  to  their  duty,  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
the  Dutch  near  Camperdown  in  October,  1797,  for  which 
he  was  created  Viscount  Duncan  of  Camperdown.  Died 
in  1804.  He  had  married  the  daughter  of  Lord-Presi- 
dent Dundas,  and  left  two  sons. 

See  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  British  Admirals;"  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  " Encyclopsedia 
Britannica." 

Duncan,  (Andrew,)  a  Scottish  physician,  born  in 
Edinburgh  in  1745.  He  delivered  clinical  lectures  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  from  1773  to  1776,  and  wrote 
some  medical  treatises.    Died  in  1828. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 


Dunc'an,  [Fr.  pron.  duN'kSN^]  (Daniel,)  an  eminent 
French  physician,  of  Scottish  descent,  born  at  Montau- 
ban  in  1649.  After  graduating  about  1673,  he  lived  some 
years  in  Paris.  In  1685,  to  escape  persecution  as  a  Prot. 
estant,  he  retired  to  Geneva,  and  thence  to  I^erne,  where 
he  was  professor  of  anatomy.  He  practised  a  number 
of  years  at  the  Hague,  and  about  17 14  settled  in  London, 
where  he  died  in  1735.  ^'^^  author  of  "La  Chimie 

naturelle,"  (1680,)  and  of  several  other  works. 

Duncan,  (Henry,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  minister  and 
author,  born  near  Dumfries  in  1774,  was  presented  to 
the  church  of  Ruthwell  in  1799.  He  was  the  founder 
of  savings-banks,  and  author  of  several  works,  among 
which  are  "The  Cottage  Fireside,"  and  "The  Sacred 
Philosophy  of  the  Seasons,"  (4  vols.,  1836.)  Died  in  1846. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  Dr.  Duncan,"  published  by  his  son  in  1848; 
Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Duncan,  (John,)  D.D.,  grandson  of  Daniel,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  1720.  He  published  an  "Essay  on 
Happiness,"  a  poem,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1808. 

Dunc'an,  (Johnson  K.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Pennsylvania,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1849.  He 
took  arms  against  the  Union,  and  commanded  Forts 
Jackson  and  Saint  Philip,  below  New  Orleans.  He 
surrendered  those  forts  about  April  29,  1862,  after  tho 
Union  fleet  had  passed  them.  Died  in  1863,  aged  about 
thirty-six  vears, 

Duncan,  (Joseph,)  an  American  general  and  politician, 
born  in  Kentucky  about  1790.  He  served  with  credit  in 
the  second  war  with  Great  Britain,  and  at  its  close  settled 
in  Illinois.  While  in  the  legislature  of  that  State,  he 
was  chiefly  instrumental  in  the  passage  of  the  law  estab- 
lishing common  schools.  Pie  was  afterwards  Governor 
of  Illinois,  and  from  1827  to  1835  a  representative  in 
Congress.    Died  in  1844. 

Duncan,  (Mark,)  a  Scottish  physician,  was  the  an- 
cestor of  Daniel,  noticed  above.  He  became  principal 
of  the  Calvinist  college  at  Saumur,  France,  and  wrote 
a  treatise  on  Logic,  ("  Institutiones  Logicae,"  1612.)  Died 
in  1640. 

His  son  Mark  was  a  distinguished  poet  and  soldier. 
(See  Cerisantes.) 

Duncan,  (Philip  Bury,)  an  English  scholar  and 
philanthropist,  born  in  South  Warnborough  in  1772.  He 
lived  mostly  at  Oxford  and  Bath,  was  a  Fellow  of  New 
College,  Oxford,  and  keeper  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum. 
He  contributed  largely  to  charitable  purposes.  He  wrote 
"  Essays  on  Various  Subjects,"  and  other  works.  Died 
near  Bath  in  1863. 

Duncan,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  artist,  born  in  Perth- 
shire in  1807.  He  painted  subjects  of  Scottish  history., 
Died  in  Edinburgh  in  1845. 

Duncan,  (William,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  at  Aber- 
deen in  1717.  He  became  a  resident  of  London  about 
1740.  His  translation  of  Cicero's  "Select  Orations," 
with  notes,  and  his  "Elements  of  Logic,"  (1748,)  were 
esteemed  and  often  reprinted.  In  1752  he  was  chosen 
professor  of  philosophy  in  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen. 
Died  in  1760. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Duncker,  doonk'ker,  or  Dunker,  (Baltiiasar  An- 
TOINE,)  a  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Saal,  in  Pome- 
rania,  in  1746.  He  studied  and  worked  some  years  in 
Paris,  where  he  painted  history  and  landscapes.  He 
also  made  etchings  of  paintings  in  the  cabinet  of  the 
Due  de  Choiseul.    Died  at  Berne  in  1807. 

Duncker,  (Maximilian  Wolfgang,)  a  German  his- 
torian, born  in  Berlin  in  1812.  He  became  professor  of 
history  at  Halle  about  1840,  and  was  a  prominent  mem- 
ber of  the  National  Assembly  of  Frankfort  in  1848.  He 
has  published  "  Origines  Germanicae,"  (1840,)  a  "  History 
of  Antiquity,"  ("Geschichte  des  Alterthums,"  1852,)  and 
other  works. 

Dun'combe,  (Rev.  John,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
1730,  became  vicar  of  Heme.  He  published  a  few 
sermons,  "  The  Feminead,"  a  poem,  and  a  version  of 
the  emperor  Julian's  works.  Under  the  signature  of 
"Crito,"  he  contributed  to  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine" 
for  many  years.    Died  in  1785. 

Duncombe,  (Thomas  Slingsby,)  an  English  radical 
legislator,  born  in  1796.    He  was  elected  to  Parliament 


•e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  H,  K,gtitiural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.  (^[^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BUNCOMBE 


808 


DUNGLISON 


1826,  and  represented  Finsbury  (London)  from  1834 
until  his  death.  He  was  a  witty  and  fluent  speaker,  and 
very  popuhir  with  the  voters.  No  man  ever  sat  so  long 
for  any  metropolitan  borough.  lie  constantly  advocated 
the  vote  by  ballot,  extended  suffrage,  and  other  reforms. 
In  1858  he  carried  an  important  motion,  which  resulted 
in  the  relief  of  the  Jews  from  political  disabilities.  Died 
in  November,  1861. 

See  a  "Life  of  Thomas  S.  Duncombe,"  by  his  son  Thomas,  2 
vols.,  1868. 

Duncombe,  (William,)  an  English  writer,  father  of 
the  Rev.  John  Duncombe,  noticed  above,  was  born  in 
London  in  1690.  He  published  several  successful  works, 
among  which  are  a  translation  of  Racine's  "Athalie," 
a  poetical  version  of  Horace,  (in  which  he  was  assisted 
by  his  son,)  and  "  L.  J.  Brutus,"  a  tragedy.  Died  in 
1769. 

Dun-das',  (Sir  David,)  a  British  general,  born  in  or 
near  Edinburgh  about  1735.  He  entered  the  army  in 
1752,  was  aide-de-camp  to  General  Elliott  in  1761,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  colonel  in  1781.  In  1788,  after 
studying  tactics  in  Prussia,  he  wrote  "  Principles  of 
Military  Movements,"  which  were  adopted  as  rules  for 
the  royal  army.  He  obtained  the  grade  of  major-general 
in  1790,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Tournay  in  1794. 
In  1804  he  was  made  governor  of  Chelsea  Hospital  and 
knight  of  the  Bath,  and  in  1809  he  succeeded  the  Duke 
of  York  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  army. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Dundas,  (Henry,)  Lord  Melville,  a  Scottish  lawyer 
and  statesman,  born  about  1740.  He  was  appointed 
lord  advocate  of  Scotland  in  1775,  and  treasurer  of  the 
British  navy  in  1783.  He  was  one  of  Pitt's  most  useful 
and  steadfast  supporters.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
cabinet  as  secretary  of  state  for  the  home  department  in 
1 791,  and  a  few  years  later  exchanged  that  office  for  the 
place  of  secretary  at  war.  Having  resigned  this  office  at 
the  dissolution  of  Pitt's  ministry,  he  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  as  Viscount  Melville,  in  1802.  Lord  Brougham 
says  "  he  was  an  admirable  man  of  business,  and  a  skil- 
ful debater."  In  1804  he  was  appointed  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty.  The  next  year  the  Commons  impeached  him 
for  misapplication  of  the  public  money,  for  which  he  was 
tried  by  the  Lords  and  acquitted.  Died  in  1811,  leaving 
the  title  to  his  son,  Robert  Saunders. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
Brougham,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III." 

Dundas,  (Sir  James  Whitley  Deans,)  a  British  ad- 
miral, born  in  1785,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  James  Deans.  He 
assumed  the  name  of  Dundas  about  1808.  He  became 
rear-admiral  in  1841,  and  commanded  the  fleet  which 
operated  against  Russia  in  the  Black  Sea  in  1854,  but 
did  not  perform  any  important  action.  He  resigned,  or 
was  recalled,  about  the  end  of  1854,  and  Sir  E.  Lyons 
succeeded  to  the  command.    Died  in  1862. 

Dundas,  (Richard  Saunders,)  a  British  admiral, 
born  at  Melville  Castle,  Scotland,  in  1802,  was  a  son  of 
the  third  Viscount  Melville.  He  entered  the  navy  in 
1 81 7,  and  became  a  post-captain  in  1824.  About  1840 
he  served  with  distinction  in  the  Chinese  war.  He 
obtained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1853,  and  the  com- 
mand of  the  fleet  in  the  Baltic,  vice  Sir  Charles  Napier, 
in  February,  1855.  His  principal  exploit  was  the  very 
effective  bombardment  of  Sweaborg  in  1855.  He  was 
made  a  vice-admiral  in  1858.    Died  in  1861. 

Dundas,  (Robert,)  an  eminent  Scottish  lawyer,  born 
in  1685,  was  the  father  of  Lord  Melville.  He  was  ap- 
pointed lord  advocate  of  Scotland  in  1720,  and  lord 
president  of  the  court  of  session  in  1748.  Died  in 
1753. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Dundas,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1 713.  After  filling  other  high  offices, 
he  was  appointed  president  of  the  court  of  session  in 
1760.    Died  in  1787. 

Dundee.    See  Graham,  (John.) 

Dundonald,  Earl  of.  See  Cochrane,  (Archi- 
bald.) 

Dun-don'ald,  (Thomas  Cochrane,)  tenth  Earl  of, 
a  distinguished  British  admiral,  born  in  1775,  was  the 


eldest  son  of  Archibald,  Earl  of  Dundonald.  (See  CocH 
rane,  Archibald.)  He  entered  the  navy  in  1793,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  post-cai>tain  in  1801,  after  capturing 
many  prizes  from  the  P'rench,  In  1809  he  commanded 
the  fire-ships  that  destroyed  the  French  fleet  in  the 
Basque  Roads,  and  was  rewarded  with  knighthood  for 
that  daring  and  successful  exploit.  About  this  time  he 
was  elected  by  the  Whigs  to  Parliament,  where  he  was 
an  active  opponent  of  the  ministry.  In  1814  he  was 
accused  of  spreading  a  false  report  of  Napoleon's  death, 
which  caused  a  great  rise  in  the  funds,  and  by  the  influ- 
ence of  party  spirit  was  convicted,  fined  ^  1000,  sen- 
tenced to  imprisonment  for  one  year,  and  dismissed  from 
the  naval  service.  Before  the  expiration  of  his  term  of 
imprisonment,  his  constituents,  believing  him  to  be  inno- 
cent, re-elected  him  to  Parliament.  The  injustice  of  his 
condemnation  was  recognized  many  years  before  his 
death.  He  commanded  the  fleet  of  Chili  from  1818  to 
1822,  and  that  of  Brazil  in  1822  and  1823.  In  1827  he 
distinguished  himself  as  admiral  of  the  Greeks  in  their 
revolt  against  Turkey.  He  inherited  the  earldom  in  1831, 
and  was  restored  to  his  rank  in  the  navy  in  1833.  He 
was  made  vice-admiral  of  the  white  in  1851,  and  full  ad- 
miral about  1854.  Died  in  i860.  His  "  Autobiography  of 
a  Seaman"  has  since  appeared.  "  He  performed  greater 
actions  with  smaller  means,"  says  the  "North  British 
Review"  for  February,  1861,  "than  any  other  captain 
or  commander  recorded  in  history.  He  combined  the 
chivalrous  audacity  of  Sir  Sydney  Smith  and  the  cal- 
culated dash  of  Nelson,  with  an  originality  of  conception 
to  which  neither  of  them  so  much  as  approximated." 
See,  also,  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  i860. 

Dunfermline,  Baron.    See  Abercromby,  (James.) 

Dungal,  diin-gauK,  a  scholar  and  teacher,  sujDposed 
to  have  been  a  native  of  Ireland,  became  a  resident  of 
France.  Charlemagne  having  consulted  him  respecting 
an  eclipse  of  the  sun  which  occurred  in  810,  he  an- 
swered in  a  long,  letter,  which  is  extant. 

Dunglison,  dflng^gll-son,  (Robley,)  M.D.,  a  physi- 
cian and  author,  distinguished  for  his  profound  and  varied 
learning,  as  well  as  for  his  numerous  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  medical  literature,  was  born  at  Keswick,  county 
of  Cumberland,  England,  January  4,  1798.  His  medical 
education,  begun  at  Keswick,  was  carried  on  in  London. 
He  subsequently  attended  a  course  of  lectures  at  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  and  also  a  course  at  the  Ecole 
de  Medecine  of  Paris.  He  graduated  in  medicine  in  1823 
at  the  University  of  Erlangen,  in  Germany.  In  1824  he 
was  engaged  by  the  University  of  Virginia,  then  newly 
established,  to  fill  a  chair  of  medicine  (including  anatomy 
and  physiology)  in  that  institution,  and,  in  accordance 
with  this  arrangement,  he  came  to  America  in  the  autumn 
of  the  same  year.  He  held  this  position  until  October, 
1833,  when  he  accepted  the  professorship  of  materia 
medica,  therapeutics,  etc.  in  the  University  of  Maryland. 
In  the  summer  of  1836  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
the  institutes  of  medicine  in  the  Jefferson  College  of 
Philadelphia,  that  chair  having  been  newly  created  for 
him.  He  continued  to  fulfil  the  duties  of  this  position 
with  the  highest  credit  to  himself  and  to  the  institution 
until  within  a  year  of  his  death.  It  was  owing  in  a  great 
measure  to  his  talents,  reputation,  and  personal  influence 
that  the  Jefferson  College  rose  rapidly,  from  the  inferior 
position  which  it  had  held  before  his  accession  to  its 
faculty,  to  the  very  first  rank  among  the  medical  schools 
of  America.    He  died  the  1st  of  April,  1869. 

Dr.  Dunglison  enjoyed  the  friendship  and  confidence 
of  the  ex-Presidents  Jefferson  and  Madison,  both  of 
whom  he  attended  in  the  capacity  of  medical  adviser. 
To  Mr.  Madison  he  dedicated  his  first  inrportant  work,— 
his  "  Human  Physiology."  Although  assiduous  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  sciences  more  immediately  connected 
with  his  profession,  he  found  time  to  give  a  share  of  his 
attention  to  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  including  philo- 
logy and  general  literature.  Among  the  many  objects  of 
his  benevolence,  he  took  a  particular  and  deep  interest 
in  the  Philadelphia  Institution  for  the  Blind,  and  gave 
liberally  of  his  time  and  services,  that  he  might  lighten 
the  privations  and  enhance  the  enjoyments  of  that  un- 
fortunate class  for  whose  sake  it  had  been  established. 

As  a  man.  Dr.  Dunglison  was  distinguished  for  his  free- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  it,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DUNHAM  809  DUNS  SCOTUS 


dom  from  prejudice,  for  a  dispassionate  fairness  in  all  his 
judgments  of  men  and  things,  as  well  as  for  a  liberal  and 
kindly  spirit  which  constantly  prompted  him  to  acts  of 
courtesy  and  beneficence.  His  character  commanded  the 
universal  respect,  esteem,  and  confidence  of  that  large 
circle  who  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  his  friendship. 

Among  his  numerous  works  we  may  name  his  "  Hu- 
man Physiology,"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1832  ;  8th  edition,  1856,) 
his  "Dictionary  of  Medical  Science,"  of  which  the  first 
edition  appeared  in  1833,  "  Elements  of  Hygiene,"  (1835  ; 
2d  edition,  published  under  the  title  of  "  Human  Health," 
1844,)  "  General  Therapeutics,  or  Principles  of  Medical 
Practice,"  (1836;  6th  edition,  1857,)  "New  Remedies," 
(1839;  7th  edition,  1856,)  "Medical  Student,"  (1837;  2d 
edition,  1844,)  and  his  "  Practice  of  Medicine,"  (2  vols., 
1842  ;  3d  edition,  1848.) 

He  made  numerous  contributions  not  only  to  the  prin- 
cipal medical  and  surgical  journals  published  in  the 
United  States,  but  also  wrote  articles  for  several  of  the 
scientific  and  literary  periodicals  of  Great  Britain.  Of 
all  his  works  his  "Medical  Dictionary"  is  probably  the 
most  widely  known:  its  success  has  scarcely  had  a 
parallel  in  this  department  of  literature.  The  number 
of  copies  sold,  from  the  date  of  its  first  publication  up 
to  the  present  time,  (1869,)  has  reached  nearly  60,000. 
(For  a  particular  account  of  Dr.  Dunglison's  various 
publications,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Allibone's  "  Dic- 
tionary of  Authors.") 

See  the  notice  of  Dr.  Dunglison  in  the  "American  Joumal  of 
the  Medical  Sciences"  for  July,  1S69,  by  Dr.  S.  H.  Dicksox  :  and 
"Memoir  of  Dr.  Robley  Dunglison,"  by  his  son,  Dk.  R.  J.  Dun- 
glison, 1870. 

Dunham,  diin'am,  (S.  Astley,)  LL.D.,  an  English 
author  of  the  present  century.  He  wrote  the  following 
able  works;  "History  of  Poland,"  {1830,)  "  History  of 
Spain  and  Portugal,"  (1832,)  "History  of  Europe  during 
the  Middle  Ages,"  and  "Plistory  of  the  Germanic  Em- 
pire," (1837.)    Died  in  1858. 

Duni,  doo'nee,  (Egidio,)  a  Neapolitan  composer,  born 
at  Matera  in  1709.  He  settled  in  Paris,  and  composed 
successful  operas.    Died  in  1775. 

Dunker.    See  Duncker. 

Dunk'iii,  (Rev.  William,)  an  Irish  poet,  was  a  friend 
of  Dean  Swift.  He  published  a  volume  of  Epistles  in 
1 741.  After  his  death  his  Poetical  Works  were  pub- 
lished in  2  vols.,  (1774.) 

Dun'lap,  (William,)  an  American  painter  and  au- 
thor, was  born  at  Perth  Amboy,  New  Jersey,  in  1766. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Sir  Benjamin  West  in  London.  On 
his  return  to  America  he  devoted  himself  to  portrait- 
painting  and  dramatic  composition  in  New  York,  and 
was  manager  of  the  Park  Theatre  from  1798  till  1805. 
Thenceforth  his  efforts  were  variously  directed  to  his 
profession  as  an  artist,  to  literature,  to  the  career  of  a 
theatrical  manager,  etc.  In  1821,  when  Dunlap  was  in 
his  fifty-fifth  year,  appeared  his  first  great  painting, 
"Christ  Rejected,"  (18  feet  by  12,)  after  the  plan  of 
West's  picture  on  the  same  subject,  and  in  1828  he 
painted  "Calvai-y,"  (18  feet  by  14,)  both  of  which  were 
exhibited  with  success  in  the  principal  cities  of  the 
United  States.  His  "  History  of  the  American  Thea- 
tre" was  published  in  1833,  and  his  "History  of  the 
Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  the  United 
States"  appeared  in  1834.  He  also  wrote  a  "Life  of 
Charles  Brockden  Brown."    Died  in  1839. 

Dun'lop,  (Alexander,)  a  distinguished  scholar,  of 
Scottish  extraction,  born  in  1684.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Glasgow  in  1720. 
His  Greek  Grammar  was  long  used  in  the  Universities 
of  Scotland.    Died  in  1742. 

Dunlop,  (John,)  a  British  author,  born  probably  in 
Scotland.  He  published  a  "History  of  Fiction,"  (Lon- 
don, 1814,)  which  passed  through  several  editions,  a 
"  History  of  Roman  Literature,"  and  "  Memoirs  of  Spain 
during  the  Reigns  of  Philip  IV.  and  Charles  II.,"  (1834,) 
said  to  be  a  work  of  merit. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1814;  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1815. 

Dunlop,  (William,)  a  brother  of  Alexander,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Glasgow  in  1692.  He  was  an  eloquent 
preacher,  and  became  professor  of  divinity  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh  in  1716.    He  published  a  valuable 


"Collection  of  Confessions  of  Faith,  Catechisms,  Books 
of  Discipline,"  etc.    Died  in  1720. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Dunn,  (Samuel,)  an  English  mathematician,  born  at 
Crediton.  He  taught  mathematics  at  Crediton  and 
Chelsea,  and  published  several  works  on  astronomy  and 
navigation,  (1759-93.)    Died  in  1792. 

Dun'ning,  (John,)  Lord  Ashburton,  an  eminent 
English  lawyer,  born  at  Ashburton  in  1731.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1756,  and  a  few  years  later  was  re- 
corder of  Bristol.  In  1767  he  was  appointed  solicitor- 
general,  and  soon  after  was  returned,  by  the  borough  of 
Calne,  to  Parliament,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  Whigs. 
He  was  very  successful  in  his  profession,  and  was  re- 
garded by  many  as  the  first  advocate  in  England  at  that 
time.  His  style  of  oratory  was  brilliant,  witty,  and 
sarcastic  ;  but  his  gestures  were  not  graceful,  and  his  per- 
son was  the  reverse  of  imposing.  In  1780  he  married 
Elizabeth  Baring.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as 
Baron  Ashburton,  in  1782,  and  was  appointed  chancellor 
of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,    Died  at  Exmouth  in  1783. 

See  Sir  William  Jones's  Eulogy  on  Dunning,  in  his  Works,voi.  iv. 

Dunod,  dii'no',  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  near  Saint-Claude  in  1657;  died  in  1725. 

Dunod  de  Charnage,  du''no' deh  shtR'ntzh',  (Fran- 
cois Ignace,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Saint-Claude  in 
1679.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  law  at  Besan5on 
in  1720.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  Burgundy,"  (1735,) 
which  was  much  esteemed,  and  several  able  legal  works. 
Died  in  1752. 

Dunod  de  Charnage,  (Sophie  £douard,)  a  French 
administrator,  born  at  Besan^on  in  1783;  died  in  1826. 

Dunois,  dii'nwi',  (Jean,)  the  "Bastard  of  Orleans," 
a  famous  French  captain,  born  in  Paris  in  1402,  was  a 
natural  son  of  Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  who  was  a 
brother  of  the  king,  Charles  VI.  He  defeated  the  Eng- 
lish at  Montargis  in  1427,  and  shared  with  Joan  of  Arc 
the  honour  of  raising  the  siege  of  Orleans  in  1429.  In 
1436  he  made  himself  master  of  Paris.  Having  obtained 
the  chief  command,  with  the  title  of  lieutenant-general, 
he  conquered  Normandy  from  the  English  about  1448, 
and  expelled  the  same  enemy  from  Guienne  in  1453.  In 
reward  for  these  services,  Charles  VII.  declared  him  a 
prince  of  the  blood,  with  the  title  of  Count  of  Orleans. 
Dunois  is  one  of  the  most  popular  names  among  the 
national  heroes  of  France.    Died  in  1468. 

He  left  a  son  Fran(JOIS,  Count  of  Dunois  and  Longue- 
ville,  ancestor  of  the  celebrated  Due  de  Longueville. 

See  Aime-Champollion,  "Louis  et  Charles  d'Orleans;"  An- 
SELME,  "  Histoire  genealogique ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Dunoyer,  di^nw^'ya',  (Anne  Marguerite  Petit,) 
Madame,  a  French  writer  of  fiction,  born  at  Nimes 
about  1663,  was  a  Protestant,  and  became  an  exile.  She 
wrote  "Lettres  historiques  et  galantes,"  (7  vols.,  1704.) 
Died  in  1720. 

Dunoyer,  (Charles  Barthelemi  Pierre,)  a  French 
economist,  born  at  Carennac  (Lot)  in  1786.  During  the 
restoration  he  edited  (with  Charles  Comte)  the"Cen- 
seur,"  an  able  and  liberal  periodical.  He  was  admitted 
into  the  Institute  in  1832,  and  was  prefect  of  La  Somme 
from  1833-37.  His  chief  work  is  "On  the  Liberty  of 
Labour,"  (3  vols.,  1845.) 

Duns  Escoto.    See  Duns  Scotus. 

Duns-Scot.    See  Duns  Scotus. 

Duns  Sco'tus,  [Fr.  Duns-Scot,  duN^sko' ;  It.  Duns 
EscoTO,  doons  Ss-ko'to,]  (John,)  surnamed  the  Sub- 
tle Doctor,  a  famous  theologian  and  metaphysician, 
supposed  to  have  been  born  about  1265  at  Dunse,  in 
Scotland.  The  Irish  and  English,  however,  claim  him 
as  their  countryman.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  Merton  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  and  a  Franciscan  friar.  In  1301  he  was 
chosen  professor  of  theology  at  Oxford,  where  he  is  said 
to  have  lectured  to  an  immense  class.  About  1307  he 
professed  theology  in  Paris.  He  wrote  many  works  on 
metaphysics,  theology,  etc.,  and  was  reputed  one  of  the 
greatest  doctors  of  his  time.  He  founded  a  new  school, 
the  Scotists,  which  for  several  centuries  maintained  a 
rivalry  with  the  Thomists,  or  disciples  of  Aquinas.  Died 
at  Cologne  in  1308.  "  The  greatest  of  the  Schoolmen," 
says  Hallam,  "  were  Thomas  Aquinas  and  Duns  Scotus. 
They  were  founders  of  rival  sects,  which  wrangled  with 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  VL, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ((J^=^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DUNSTABLE 


8io 


DUPERRET 


each  other  for  two  or  three  centuries."  Introduction 
to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  J.  CoLGAN,  "Tractatusde  Vita  Joannis  Scoti,"  1655;  Cham- 
bers, "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  Alonzo  de 
Guzman,  "  Vida  de  J.  Duns  Scoto,"  1671 ;  Lucas  Wadding,  "  Vita 
J.  Duns  Scoti,"  Lyons,  1644. 

Dunstable,  dun''sta-b'l,  or  Dunstaple,  (John,)  an 
English  musical  composer,  born  at  Dunstable  about 
1400  ;  died  in  1458. 

Dun'stan,  Saint,  an  eminent  and  ambitious  English 
prelate  and  statesman,  born  at  Glastonbury  in  925  A.D. 
He  became  noted  for  monkish  austerity,  and  obtained 
the  chief  power  in  the  reign  of  Edred,  which  began  in 
946.  King  Edgar  made  him  Bishop  of  London,  and  in 
959  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  L)unstan  exerted  his 
paramount  influence  in  this  and  the  next  reign  to  secure 
the  papal  supremacy.  He  exalted  and  enriched  the 
monks  at  the  expense  of  the  secular  clergy,  who  were 
expelled  from  their  livings.  On  the  accession  of  Ethelred 
n.,  in  978,  Dunstan  lost  his  political  power.  Died  in  988. 

See  W.  Robinson,  "Life  of  Saint  Diinstan,"  1844;  Eadmer, 
"  Life  of  Dunstan  ;"  William  of  Malmesbury,  "  History;"  W.  F. 
Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury,"  vol.  i.  chap.  vii. 

Dun'ster,  (Charles,)  an  English  clergyman,  was  for 
many  years  rector  of  Petworth.  He  published  "  Notes 
on  Paradise  Regained,"  and  other  works.  Died  about 
1816. 

Duiister,  (Henry,)  an  English  divine,  who  on  his 
arrival  in  Massachusetts  in  1640  was  chosen  the  first 
president  of  Harvard  College.  He  was  an  excellent 
Oriental  scholar,  but  was  compelled  to  resign  in  1654 
for  preaching  against  infant  baptism.    Died  in  1659. 

Dun''t9n,  (John,)  an  eccentric  English  author  and 
bookseller,  born  at  Graffham  in  1659.  Having  served 
an  apprenticeship  to  a  London  bookseller,  he  opened  a 
shop  of  his  own  in  London  about  1685.  He  married  an 
aunt  of  the  celebrated  John  Wesley.  He  failed  in  busi- 
ness once,  or  oftener.  He  wrote  a  great  number  and 
variety  of  curious  books,  among  which  are  "  The  Athe- 
nian Mercury,"  (20  vols.,  1690-96,)  "The  Dublin  Scuffle," 
(1699,)  and  "The  Life  and  Errors  of  John  Dunton, 
with  the  Lives  and  Characters  of  a  Thousand  Persons," 
(1705.)  He  was  a  dissenter,  a  supporter  of  the  Whig 
party,  and  a  person  of  great  fertility  in  projects.  Died 
^'n  1733- 

Diintzer,  dunt'ser,  or  Duentzer,  (Johann  Hein- 
rich  Joseph,)  a  German  writer  and  philologist,  born 
at  Cologne  in  1813.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
"The  Eaust  of  Goethe,"  (2  vols.,  1836,)  "  Homer  and  the 
Epic  Cycle,"  (1839,)  and  a  "  Commentary  on  the  Poems 
of  Horace,"  (5  vols.,  1840-44.) 

Dunz,  doonts,  (Johann,)  a  skilful  Swiss  painter  of 
portraits  and  flowers,  was  born  at  Berne  in  1645  ;  died 
in  1736. 

Dupain-Montesson,  dii'piN'  m6N^ti^s6N',  a  French 
geometer  and  writer  on  military  tactics,  born  about  1720  ; 
died  about  1790. 

Du  Pan.    See  Mallet  du  Pan. 

Dupanloup,  dii'pSN^loo',  (F^lix  Antoine  Phili- 
BERT,)  a  distinguished  French  bishop,  born  at  Saint- 
Felix,  Savoy,  in  1802.  He  was  naturalized  in  1833,  and 
made  Bishop  of  Orleans  in  1849.  In  1854  he  was  elected 
to  the  French  Academy.  Among  his  works  is  a  popular 
treatise  on  Education,("Deriiducation,"  3  vols., 1855-57.) 

See  Lavedan,  "  Monseigneur  Dupanloup,"  1849;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Duparquet,  dii'ptR^ki',  (Jacques  Diel,)  a  French 
officer,  was  appointed  Governor  of  Martinique  in  1638. 
In  1650  he  planted  a  colony  in  Grenada,  and  soon  after 
purchased  those  two  islands,  together  with  Saint  Lucia, 
from  the  King  of  France,  who  gave  him  the  title  of  lieu- 
tenant-general. He  is  praised  for  his  kind  and  generous 
treatment  of  the  aborigines.    Died  in  1658. 

Dupasquier,  dii'pfs'ke-i',  (Gaspard  Alfonse,)  a 
French  chemist,  born  at  C!Kassy  (Rhone)  in  1793;  died 
in  1848. 

Dupaty,  dU''pS''te',  (Charles  Marguerite  Jean 
Baptiste  Mercier,)  a  French  litterateur  and  magistrate, 
born  at  Rochelle  in  1746.  He  was  successively  advo- 
cate-general and  president  inortier  in  the  parliament 
of  Bordeaux.  He  wrote  a  valuable  work  called  "  His- 
torical Reflections  on  the  Criminal  Laws,"  (1788,)  and 


"Letters  on  Italy,"  (1788,)  which  had  a  brilliant  success 
and  were  often  reprinted.  La  Harpe  designated  the  latter 
as  "a  melange  of  good  sense  and  false  wit."  Died  in 
1788.  Two  of  his  sons  became  eminent,  one  as  sculptor 
and  the  other  as  author. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Conespondance." 

Dupaty,  (Charles  Mercier,)  an  eminent  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1771,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Lemot  in  Paris,  where 
in  1799  he  gained  the  grand  prize  for  sculpture  for  his 
"  Pericles  visiting  Anaxagoras."  He  studied  several 
years  at  Rome,  and  adopted  the  antique  style  with  great 
success.  In  1816  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Insti- 
tute. He  was  patronized  by  the  government,  for  which 
he  executed  a  statue  of  Louis  XIII.  His  "  Ajax  pursued 
by  Neptune"  is  considered  his  principal  work.  Died  in 
November,  1825. 

See  CoupiN,  "Notice  sur  Charles  Dupaty,"  1825;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Dupaty,  (Louis  Emmanuel  Charles  Mercier,)  a 
French  poet,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  the 
Gironde  in  1775.  He  produced  a  successful  comedy, 
"The  Military  Prison,"  (1803,)  several  comic  operas, 
and  a  poem  entitled  the  "Informers,"  (" Delateurs," 
1819.)  He  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1835. 
Died  in  1851. 

Duperac,  dii^pk'rtk',  (Etienne,)  a  French  architect 
and  painter,  born  in  Paris,  published  a  work  "On  the 
Antiquities  of  Rome,"  which  is  highly  prized.  Died  in 
1601. 

Duperche,  dii^p^Rsh',  (J.  J.  M.,)  a  French  dramatist 
and  able  translator,  born  about  1775.  He  produced 
many  successful  dramas  and  novels.    Died  in  1829. 

Duperier,  du'pi''re-i',  (  Charles,  )  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Aix,  in  Provence,  became  a  resident  of  Paris. 
His  verses  in  honour  of  the  king  gained  the  prizes  of  the 
Academy  in  1681  and  1683,  and  he  acquired  still  higher 
reputation  by  his  Latin  poems.  He  excelled  most  in  the 
ode.  Menage  calls  him  the  prince  of  the  lyric  poets  of 
his  age.    Died  in  1692. 

See  "  Menagiana." 

Duperray,  dU''pi^ra',  (Michel,)  a  French  jurist  and 
advocate  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Mans  about  1640; 
died  in  1730. 

Duperre,  dii'pa'ra',  (Victor  Guy,)  Baron,  an  able 
French  admiral,  born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1775.  He  was 
made  captain  of  a  frigate  in  1806,  and  in  1808  defended 
himself  with  success  against  two  English  ships  near 
L'Orient.  In  1809  he  was  sent  to  India  with  one  frigate, 
and  captured  several  vessels  of  the  enemy.  He  became 
baron  and  rear-admiral  in  1810,  and  vice-admiral  in  1826. 
He  commanded  the  fleet  of  one  hundred  and  three  ves* 
sels  of  war  which  Charles  X.  sent  in  1830  to  attack 
Algiers.  ( See  Bourmont.  )  For  his  services  in  the 
capture  of  Algiers  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  and  to 
the  rank  of  admiral  in  1830.    Died  in  1846. 

See  F.  Chasseriau,  "  Vie  de  I'Amiral  Duperre  ;"  L.  deLom^nie, 
"Galerie  des  Contemporains  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Duperret,  dii'pi^ra',  (Claude  Romain  Laus,)  a 
French  republican,  born  about  1746.  In  the  Convention 
of  1792  he  acted  with  the  Girondists,  and  voted  for  the 
banishment  of  the  king.  He  was  elected  as  deputy, 
says  Lamartine,  as  the  most  honest  man,  against  his  own 
wish.  He  shared  the  proscription  of  his  party,  and  was 
executed  in  October,  1793. 

Duperrey,  dii^pi^ri',  (Louis  Isidore,)  a  French  navi- 
gator and  savant,  born  in  Paris  in  1786.  He  served  as 
hydrographer  in  the  Uranie,  under  De  Freycinet,  who 
made  explorations  in  the  North  Pacific,  1817-20.  He 
commanded  an  expedition  sent  out  in  1822  to  explore  the 
hydrography  and  natural  history  of  the  islands  in  the 
Pacific.  He  surveyed  parts  of  Australia,  New  Zealand, 
New  Guinea,  etc.,  discovered  several  groups  of  islands, 
one  of  which  received  the  name  of  Duperrey,  and  re- 
turned, without  the  loss  of  a  man,  in  April,  1825.  His 
"Voyage  around  the  World  in  the  Corvette  LaCoquille" 
(1826-30)  is  considered  a  very  valuable  contribution  to 
the  sciences.  Duperrey  wrote  the  historical  part  of  this 
work,  and  the  volumes  on  hydrography  and  physical 
science.    He  was  elected  to  the  Institute  in  1842. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "  Notice  sur  les  Travaux 
de  M.  L.  L  Duperrey,"  etc.,  Paris,  1842. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^l,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DUPERRON 


8ii 


DUPIN 


Duperron.    See  Anisson-Duperron. 

Duperron.    See  Anquetil-Duperron. 

Duperron,  dii^pa^roN',  (Jacques  Davy,)  a  learned 
and  eloquent  French  cardinal,  was  born  at  Saint-Lo,  in 
Normandy,  (or,  as  some  assert,  near  Berne,  in  Switzer- 
land,) in  1556.  He  was  educated  as  a  Protestant,  but 
became  a  Catholic  in  his  youth.  He  acquired  the  favour 
of  Henry  IV.,  who  appointed  him  Bishop  of  Evreux  in 
1591  ;  and  he  was  the  chief  agent  in  the  conversion  of 
that  king  to  the  Roman  communion.  He  was  very 
skilful  in  disputation,  and  in  1600  gained  an  advantage 
over  Du  Plessis-Mornay  in  a  famous  conference.  (See 
Morn  AY.)  He  obtained  a  cardinal's  hat  in  1604,  and 
died  in  Paris  in  1618,  leaving  several  theological  works 
and  short  poems. 

See  Pelletier,  "Vie  du  Cardinal  Duperron,"  1618 ;  "Perro- 
niana,"  by  C.  Dupuy,  1669;  Sully,  "Memoires;"  Levesque  de 
BiT/iiGNY,  "  Vie  du  Cardinal  Duperron,"  1768 ;  Sismondi,  "  His- 
toire  des  Francais." 

Dupetit-Thouars,  dii'peh-te'  too'SR',  (Abel  Au- 
bert — 5'baiR^,)  a  French  admiral,  born  about  1792.  In 
1837  he  commanded  the  Venus,  sent  on  a  voyage  of  cir- 
cumnavigation, at  the  end  of  which  in  1839  he  was  made 
a  rear-admiral.  Pie  obtained  comn\and  of  the  naval  forces 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Having  received  some  provocation 
from  the  natives  of  Tahiti,  he  seized  that  island  in  1842, 
but  he  was  recalled  by  Guizot,  who  disavowed  his  act. 
He  afterwards  j^ublished  a  "Voyage  round  the  World 
in  the  fVigate  Venus,"  (10  vols.)  He  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  board  of  admiralty  in  1848. 

See  "L'Amiral  Dupetit-Thouars,"  Paris,  1844. 

Dupetit-Thouars,  (Aristide  Aubert,)  a  French 
naval  officer,  born  near  Saumur  in  1760.  In  1792  he 
commanded  a  vessel  sent  out  in  search  of  La  Perouse, 
but  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Portuguese,  and  the  en- 
terprise failed.  He  passed  about  three  years  in  the 
United  States,  (1794-97.)  In  Bonaparte's  expedition  to 
Egypt  he  was  captain  of  the  Tonnant,  which  carried 
his  friend  Dolomieu  the  geologist.  He  displayed  heroic 
courage  at  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  in  which  he  was  killed, 
August  I,  1798.  His  character  is  said  to  have  been  very 
noble. 

See  J.  de  i.aGravi6kk,  "  Guerres  maritimes  de  la  Republique," 
etc. ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Dupetit-Thouars,  (Louis  Marie  Aubert,)  an  emi- 
nent French  botanist,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Saumur,  in  Anjou,  about  1756.  In  1792  he  made  a 
botanical  excursion  to  the  Isle  of  France,  where  he 
expected  to  join  his  brother,  but  was  disappointed.  He 
remained  there  and  in  Bourbon  about  nine  years,  and 
returned  home  with  his  collections  in  1802.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Institute  about  1820,  and  lived 
mostly  in  Paris.  Among  his  publications  are  a  "  History 
of  Plants  collected  in  the  Isles  of  France,  Bourbon,  and 
Madagascar,"  (1804,)  "The  French  Orchard,"  a  treatise 
on  the  culture  of  fruit-trees,  a  "Flora  of  the  Southern 
Isles  of  Africa,"  and  "  Melanges  of  Botany  and  Travels," 
(1811.)  He  wrote  for  the  "Biographic  Universelle" 
many  articles  on  botanists  and  physicians.  Died  in  May, 
1831.  He  was  author  of  an  "Essay  on  the  Organiza- 
tion of  Plants,"  (1805,)  and  other  treatises  on  vegetable 
physiology.  He  originated  a  new  and  ingenious  theory 
of  the  formation  of  annual  layers  of  wood,  and  of  the 
production  of  buds. 

See  P.  Floukens,  "  filoge  historique  de  A.  Dupetit-Thouars," 
1845  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Duphot,  dii'fo',  (Leonard,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Lyons  about  1770.  He  accompanied  Joseph  Bona- 
parte in  an  embassy  to  Rome  in  1797,  and  was  killed  the 
same  year,  in  a  conflict  between  the  papal  soldiers  and 
some  Roman  citizens  who  favoured  a  revolution. 

Dupin,  dii'piN',  (Andr6  Marie  Jean  Jacques,)  an 
eminent  French  lawyer,  orator,  and  legislator,  born  at 
Varzy  (Nievre)  in  February,  1783.  He  was  one  of 
the  counsel  for  Marshal  Ney  in  1815,  and  signalized  his 
courage  and  eloquence  in  the  defence  of  many  persons 
tried  for  political  offences,  among  whom  was  Beranger, 
(1821.)  In  1826  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties, in  which  he  continued  to  sit  for  many  years.  He 
was  the  reporter  (rapporteur)  of  the  famous  address  of 
the  two  hundred  and  twenty-one  deputies  in  March, 
1830,  and  firmly  opposed  the  ordinances  which  caused  the 


revolution  of  1830.  He  was  appointed  procureur-general 
of  the  court  of  cassation,  and  a  member  of  the  first  cabi- 
net of  Louis  Philippe,  to  whose  elevation  he  contributed 
perhaps  more  than  any  other  man.  Between  1832  and 
1848  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  Chamber  eight 
times.  On  the  24th  of  February,  1848,  he  presented  the 
infant  Count  of  Paris  to  the  deputies  and  proposed  that 
he  should  be  recognized  as  successor  to  the  throne  just 
abdicated.  He  acquiesced,  however,  in  the  republic,  and 
in  the  Constituent  Assembly  he  took  a  prominent  part 
in  defending  social  order,  and  was  president  of  the  com- 
mittee of  legislation.  He  displayed  great  firmness  and 
coolness  as  president  of  the  Assembly  in  the  stormy 
period  of  1849-50.  M.  Dupin  retired  from  public  life 
in  1852.  He  had  been  elected  to  the  French  Academy, 
in  place  of  Cuvier,  in  1832.  He  '.vas  author  of  many 
legal  and  political  works,  among  which  are  "  Principia 
Juris  Civilis,"  (5  vols.,  1806,)  and  "Memoires  et  Plai- 
doyers,"  (20  vols.,  1806-30.)  "  He  is  the  greatest  reviser 
of  trials,"  says  an  anonymous  French  biographer,  "the 
greatest  redresser  of  wrongs,  in  the  world.  ,  .  .  If  he  be 
not  the  most  eloquent  he  is  certainly  the  most  original 
of  our  orators.  At  times  his  bonmots  have  created  a 
majority  or  upset  a  cabinet."  He  was  reappointed  pro- 
cureur-general  of  France  in  1857.  He  died  in  November, 
1865. 

See  L.  DE  LoMENiE,  "Galerie  des  Contemporains ;"  Ortolan, 
"  Notice  sur  Dupin,"  1S40;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Dupin,  (Claude,)  a  French  economist,  born  at  Cha- 
teauroux  probably  about  1700.  He  wrote  "  GEcono- 
miques,"  (3  vols.,  1745,)  and  several  other  works.  He 
died  at  an  advanced  age  in  1769. 

His  second  wife,  nie  Mademoiselle  Fontaine,  was 
distinguished  for  wit  and  beauty.  Her  house  in  Paris 
was  the  resort  of  Fontenelle,  Marivaux,  and  other  au- 
thors. She  employed  J.  J.  Rousseau,  when  he  was  yet 
unknown  to  fame,  as  the  preceptor  of  her  son;  but  she 
was  so  little  aware  of  his  talents  that  she  never  invited 
him  to  her  assemblies.    Died  about  1800. 

The  authoress  Madame  Dudevant  (George  Sand)  is  a 
descendant  of  Claude  Dupin. 

See  J.  J.  Rousseau,  "Confessions;"  George  Sand,  "  Histoire 
de  ma  Vie." 

Dupin,  (  Claude  Franqois  £tienne,  )  Baron,  a 
French  writer,  born  at  Metz  in  1767,  was  the  author  of 
several  able  works  on  the  Statistics  of  the  Department 
of  Deux-Sevres.  He  married  the  widow  of  Danton  in 
1796.    Died  in  1828. 

Dupin,  (Fran(;ois  Pierre  Charles,)  Baron,  a  dis- 
tinguished French  geometer  and  senator,  brother  of 
Andre,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Varzy  (Nievre)  in 
1784.  He  entered  the  navy  as  an  engineer  in  1803.  In 
1813  he  founded  the  Maritime  Museum  at  Toulon.  He 
volunteered  to  defend  his  friend  Carnot  by  his  pen  and 
voice  in  1815  ;  but  his  client  avoided  the  trial  by  going 
into  exile.  In  1816  he  obtained  leave  to  visit  England 
in  order  to  examine  the  public  works  and  military  re- 
sources of  that  country.  He  published  the  results  of 
these  observations  in  an  important  work  entitled  "  Travels 
in  Great  Britain  between  1816  and  1821,"  (6  vols.,  1820- 
24,)  which  was  received  with  great  favour  on  both  sides 
of  the  Channel.  He  vi^as  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1818,  and  became  professor  of  mechanics 
in  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers  about  1820. 
His  lectures  were  published  (in  1825-26)  in  three  works, 
entitled  "Geometry  applied  to  the  Arts,"  "Mechanics 
a])plied  to  the  Arts,"  and  "La  Dynamic,"  or  "Science 
of  Force,"  which  were  very  successful. 

M.  Dupin  made  an  application  of  statistics  to  moral 
and  political  questions  in  his  work  "On  the  Productive 
and  Commercial  Power  of  France,"  ("Sur  les  Forces 
productives  et  commerciales  de  la  France,"  2  vols.,  1827,) 
which  was  popular  with  the  Liberal  party.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1828,  and  acquired 
distinction  as  a  speaker.  In  1831  he  became  a  councillor 
of  state,  and  in  1834  was  minister  of  marine  for  the  space 
of  three  days.  He  was  created  a  peer  of  France  in  1837. 
In  the  Assembly  of  1848  and  1849  he  voted  with  the 
majority,  and  in  1852  he  was  appointed  a  senator. 

See  "Notice  historique  sur  M.  le  Baron  C.  Dupin,"  Paris,  1837; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


c  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DUPIN 


812 


DUPONT 


Dupin,  (Louis  Ellies,)  a  French  theologian  and  his- 
torian of  great  merit,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1657.  He 
became  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  and  professor  of  phi- 
losophy in  the  Royal  College.  He  composed,  besides 
other  works,  a  complete  history  of  theological  literature, 
— at  least  within  the  limits  of  the  Church, — entitled  "Bi- 
bliotheque  universelle  des  Auteurs  ecclesiastiques,"  (58 
vols.,  1686-1704.)  "It  is  unquestionably,"  says  Hallam, 
"  the  most  standard  work  of  that  kind  extant.  The  im- 
mense erudition  requisite  for  such  an  undertaking  may 
have  rendered  it  inevitable  to  fall  into  some  errors.  .  .  . 
Integrity,  love  of  truth,  and  moderation  distinguish  this 
history  perhaps  beyond  any  other."  ("  Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  Europe.")  The  pope,  in  a  letter  to 
Louis  XIV.,  called  Dupin,  who  had  written  against  the 
papal  supremacy,  "a  man  of  pernicious  doctrine."  He 
was  a  Jansenist.    Died  in  Paris  in  June,  1 7 19. 

See  NiCERON,"  Memoires ;"  Moreri,"  Dictionnaire  Historique ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Dupin,  Madame.    See  Dupin,  (Claude.) 

Dupin,  (Philippe,)  born  at  Varzy  in  1795,  was  an 
able  lawyer.  He  practised  in  Paris  many  years,  and  was 
elected  a  deputy  in  1830  and  in  1842.  He  was  a  brother 
of  the  celebrated  lawyer  and  legislator.  Died  at  Nice  in 
1846. 

Dupin  de  Francueil,  dii'piN'  deh  fRSN^kuF  or  fRSN'- 
kuh'ye,  (Marie  Aurore,)  a  French  lady,  born  in  1750, 
was  the  daughter  of  the  famous  Marshal  Maurice  de 
Saxe.  After  the  death  of  her  first  husband.  Count  de 
Horn,  she  was  married  to  Dupin  de  Francueil,  the  son 
of  Claude  Dupin,  noticed  above.  The  issue  of  this 
marriage  was  Maurice  Dupin,  the  father  of  the  well- 
known  authoress  Madame  Dudevant,  (George  Sand.) 
The  latter  in  her  infancy  was  under  the  care  of  the  sub- 
ject of  this  article,  who  died  in  1821. 

Dupinet,  dii^pe'nk',  (Antoine,)  a  French  Protestant, 
lived  in  Lyons  and  Paris.  He  made  a  French  version 
of  Pliny's  "Natural  History,"  (1542,)  which  was  highly 
praised  by  Bayle,  and  wrote  "The  Conformity  of  the 
Reformed  Church  of  France  with  the  Primitive  Church," 
(1565,)  besides  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1584. 

Duplanil,  dli^plt^neK,  (J.  D.,)  a  French  medical  writer, 
born  in  1740  ;  died  in  1802. 

Dupleix,  dii^pla',  (Joseph,)  Marquis,  an  enterprising 
Frenchman,  born  about  1695,  was  the  son  of  a  director 
of  the  East  India  Company.  Having  received  a  liberal 
education  and  made  great  progress  in  the  exact  sciences, 
he  was  appointed  in  1720  a  member  of  the  council  at 
Pondicherry.  Ten  years  later  he  became  director  of 
the  factory  at  Chandernagore,  in  Bengal,  which  speedily 
prospered  under  his  management.  He  made  a  large 
fortune  by  commercial  operations.  In  1742  he  was  ap- 
pointed Governor  of  Pondicherry  and  of  all  the  French 
possessions  in  India.  His  aspiring  and  capacious  mind 
was  the  first  that  formed  the  project  of  founding  a  Eu- 
ropean empire  on  the  ruins  of  the  Mogul  monarchy.  By 
intrigues  with  native  princes  and  a  few  battles  he  became 
master  of  the  Carnatic,  and  about  1750  was  the  greatest 
potentate  in  India.  The  English,  alarmed  at  his  success, 
resolved  to  counteract  him  by  force,  and  gave  the  com- 
mand of  their  troops  to  Captain  Clive,  who  gained  several 
victories  over  the  French  and  their  allies.  Dupleix  was 
not  supported  by  his  employers  in  France,  who  disap- 
proved his  policy.  Having  been  superseded  m  1754,  he 
returned  to  Paris,  where  he  died  poor  in  1763.  He  had 
spent  his  own  fortune  in  the  service  of  the  Company, 
who  refused  to  repay  him.  About  1748  he  had  been  re- 
warded with  the  title  of  Marquis  for  his  able  defence  of 
Pondicherry  against  the  English  fleet  under  Boscawen. 

See  Mill,  "History  of  British  India;"  Collin  de  Bar,  "His- 
toire  de  I'lnde  ancienne  et  inoderne,"  1814;  Claude  Noel  Le 
FfevRE,  "fiioge  de  Dupleix,"  1818. 

Dupleix,  (SciPiON,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Con- 
dom in  1569.  About  1619  Louis  XIII.  gave  him  the 
title  of  historiographer,  and  charged  him  to  write  a  gen- 
eral history  of  France.  He  produced  a  voluminous  work 
on  that  subject,  (1621-43,)  which  was  soon  supplanted 
by  better  histories.    Died  in  1661. 

Duplessis.    See  Richelieu,  Cardinal. 

Duplessis,  dii^pli'se',  (Joseph  Siffrein,  seTRiN',)  a 
skilful  French  portrait-painter,  born  at  Carpentras  in 


1725.  He  studied  several  years  in  Rome  under  Subley- 
ras,  and  settled  in  Paris  in  1752,  where  he  painted  with 
success.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1774.  Among  his  best  works  are  portraits  of  Dr.  Frank- 
lin, Necker,  and  Marmontel.    Died  in  1802. 

Duplessis,  (MichelToussaintChr^tien,)  a  French 
monk  and  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1689,  was  an  inmate 
of  the  abbey  of  Saint-Germain-des-Pres.  He  wrote  a 
"Historical  Notice  of  Upper  Normandy,"  (1740,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1767. 

Duplessis,  (Pierre  Alexandre  Gratet — gRt't^^) 
a  French  scholar  and  bibliographer,  born  at  Janville  in 
1792,  was  professor  in  several  colleges.  He  published 
"The  Flower  of  French  Proverbs,"  (1851,)  and  a  good 
edition  of  La  Rochefoucauld's  "  Reflections  and  Maxims." 
Died  in  1853. 

Duplessis-Mornay.    See  Mornay. 

Duplessis-Praslin.    See  Choiseul. 

Duponceau,  du-pon'so,  [Fr.  pron.  dii'pdN'so^]  (Pe- 
ter S.,)  a  lawyer  and  scholar,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Rhe, 
on  the  coast  of  France,  in  1760,  came  to  America  in  1777 
with  Baron  Steuben,  whom  he  served  as  secretary  and 
aide-de-camp.  He  quitted  the  army  in  1780,  on  account 
of  ill  health,  and  studied  law,  which  he  practised  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  became  eminent  in  his  profession.  Besides 
treatises  on  philology  and  essays  on  various  subjects,  he 
published  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Nature  and  Extent 
of  the  Jurisdiction  of  the  Courts  of  the  United  States," 
(1824.)  He  received  a  prize  of  the  French  Institute  for 
a  "  Memoir  on  the  Indian  Languages  of  North  America," 
(1835.)  He  was  for  some  years  president  of  the  Ameri- 
can Philosophical  Society.   Died  in  Philadelphia  in  1844. 

See  "Discourse  in  Commemoration  of  Peter  S.  Duponceau,"  bj 
R.  Dunglison,  M.D.,  Philadelphia,  1844. 

Dupont,  dii'p6N',  or,  more  fully,  Dupont  de  L'Eure, 

dii'p^N''  deh  luR,  (Jacques  Charles,)  a  French  Liberal 
legislator,  born  at  Neubourg  (L'Eure)  in  1767.  He  was  a 
judge  under  the  first  republic  and  the  empire,  and  became 
president  of  the  imperial  court  at  Rouen  in  181 1.  From 
1817  to  1848  he  constantly  represented  his  native  depart- 
ment in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  He  was  appointed 
minister  of  justice  in  August,  1830,  but  resigned  about 
the  end  of  that  year,  after  which  he  sat  with  the  oppo- 
sition in  the  Chamber.  His  long  services  and  his  high 
character  for  integrity  caused  him  to  be  chosen  president 
of  the  provisional  government  formed  in  February,  1848. 
He  retired  from  public  life  in  1849,  and  died  in  1855. 
He  was  respected  by  all  parties. 

See  Louis  Blanc.  "Histoire  de  dix  Ans." 

Dupont,  (Pierre,)  a  popular  French  song-writer, 
born  at  Lyons  in  1821.  He  produced  about  1842  a  poem 
entitled  "The  Two  Angels,"  which  was  crowned  by  the 
French  Academy.  Among  his  popular  productions  are 
the  "Song  of  Bread"  and  the  "Song  of  the  Workers." 
In  many  of  his  songs  he  manifests  republican  or  socialistic 
tendencies. 

See  C.  Baudelaire,  "  Notice  sur  P.  Dupont,"  1849 ;  E.  de  Mire- 
couRT,  "P.  Dupont,"  1854. 

Dupont,  or,  more  fully,  Dupont  de  I'^^tang,  dii''p6N' 
deh  Wthn',  (Pierre,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Cha- 
bannais  in  1765.  He  became  a  general  of  division  in 
1797.  About  1 801  he  defeated  the  Austrians  under  Belle- 
garde  near  the  Mincio.  He  rendered  important  services 
at  Jena  in  1806,  and  at  Friedland.  In  1808  he  commanded 
an  army  in  Spain,  and  obtained  some  successes  ;  but  in 
July  of  that  year  he  was  defeated  at  Baylen,  where  he 
surrendered  about  18,000  men  as  prisoners  of  war.  For 
this  disaster  he  was  disgraced  by  Napoleon  and  con- 
demned to  an  indefinite  imprisonment.  He  was  minister 
of  war  under  Louis  XVIII.  from  April  to  December, 
1814.  "  In  the  whole  French  army,"  says  Alison,  "  there 
was  not  a  general  of  division  who  bore  a  higher  character 
than  Dupont,"  [before  his  Spanish  campaign.]  ("  History 
of  Europe.")    Died  in  1838. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  Vedel,  "Precis  des  Ope- 
rations niilitaires  en  Espagne." 

Dupont,  or,  more  fully,  Dupont  de  Nemours,  dii'- 
p(!)N''deh  neh-mooR',  (Pierre  Samuel,)  a  F'rench  author 
and  economist,  born  in  Paris  in  1739.  As  a  disciple  of 
Quesnay,  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  commerce 
and  political  economy,  and  gained  reputation  by  his 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  vi,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon^* 


DUPONT 


813 


DUPUIS 


writings  on  those  subjects.  The  prime  ministers  Tur- 
got  and  Vergennes  enlisted  his  talents  in  the  public  ser- 
vice. During  the  ministry  of  Calonne  he  was  made 
councillor  of  state,  and  in  1787  he  was  secretary  of  the 
Assembly  of  the  Notables.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
National  Assembly  in  1790,  of  which  he  was  twice  chosen 
president,  and  defended  the  king  at  the  peril  of  his  own 
life  in  the  insurrection  of  August  10,  1792.  He  was 
chosen  one  of  the  Council  of  Elders,  and  a  member  of 
the  Institute  about  1796.  From  1798  to  1802  he  resided 
in  New  Jersey,  United  States,  whither  he  retired  to 
escape  from  persecution.  He  refused  all  the  public 
offices  that  Napoleon  offered  him.  Having  emigrated 
in  1815  to  Delaware,  he  died  there  in  1817.  He  had 
composed  for  the  Institute  many  treatises  on  public 
economy,  natural  history,  etc.,  and  published  "Philoso- 
phic de  rUnivers,"  (1796.)  His  sons  were  proprietors 
of  the  powder-mills  near  Wilmington,  Delaware. 

See  Daciek,  "  £loge  de  Dupont  de  Nemours,"  in  "Recueil  de 
I'Academie  des  Inscriptions;"  Aime  Boullee,  "Notice  biogra- 
phique  sur  P.  Poivre  at  Dupont  de  Nemours,"  1S35;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Du-p6nt',  (Samuel  Francis,)  an  able  American 
rear-admiral,  born  at  Bergen  Point,  New  Jersey,  in  1803, 
was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He  entered  the  navy 
at  an  early  age,  and  gained  the  rank  of  commander  in 
1845.  In  the  summer  of  1861  he  obtained  command  of 
the  Atlantic  blockading  squadron.  He  commanded  the 
large  naval  expedition  which  gained  possession  of  Port 
Royal  harbour.  South  Carolina,  by  a  victory  over  two 
forts  at  the  entrance,  in  November,  1861.  In  July,  1862, 
he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  He  com- 
manded the  fleet  of  iron-clad  vessels  which  attacked  Fort 
Sumter  in  April,  1863,  and  was  defeated,  with  the  loss 
of  the  monitor  Keokuk  sunk.  Four  other  monitors  were 
disabled.  The  flag-ship  of  Dupont  in  this  battle  was  the 
Ironsides.  He  was  relieved  of  the  command  in  June, 
1863,  and  died  in  June,  1865.  Dupont  was  a  man  of 
imposing  presence  and  great  personal  dignity. 

See  J.  T.  Headlev,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders," 
1867. 

Duport,  dii'poR',  (Adrien,)  an  eminent  French  law- 
yer, born  about  1758.  He  was  deputed  by  the  noblesse 
of  Paris  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  was  a  pro- 
minent partisan  of  the  new  regime  in  the  first  years  of 
the  Revolution.  In  the  National  Assembly  Earnave 
and  Duport  were  leaders  of  the  popular  party  for  a 
time  ;  but  after  the  arrest  of  the  king  at  Varennes,  June, 
1 791,  they  became  decided  royalists.  It  is  stated  that 
he  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  introducing  the  trial  by 
jury  into  French  legislation.  Duport  was  president 
of  the  Criminal  Tribunal  of  Paris  when  the  insurrection 
of  August  10,  1792,  forced  him  to  fly.  He  died  in 
exile,  at  Appenzel,  in  1798.  His  speech  against  capital 
punishment  in  1791  is  highly  praised  by  Lamartine  for 
its  profound  logic. 

See  Lamartine,  "Histoire  des  Constituants ;"  Thiers,  "His- 
tory of  the  French  Revokition." 

Du-p6rt^  (James,)  D.D.,  born  at  Cambridge,  Eng- 
land, in  1606.  He  became  eminent  as  a  Greek  scholar, 
and  was  chosen  regius  professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge 
in  1632.  After  the  restoration  he  was  chaplain  to  Charles 
II.,  and  Dean  of  Peterborough.  He  published  "  Gno- 
mologia  Homeri,"  Sermons,  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1679. 

Duport,  (Paul,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1798,  wrote  popular  comedies  and  vaudevilles. 

Duport-Dutertre,  dii^poR'  dii'taRtR',  (Marguerite 
Louis  FRANgois,)  a  minister  of  state,  born  at  Paris  in 
1754.  In  the  constitutional  ministry  formed  in  Novem- 
ber, 1790,  he  was  minister  of  justice.  He  was  attached 
to  the  party  or  principles  of  Barnave  and  Adrien  Duport. 
Removed  from  office  in  March,  1792,  and  proscribed  by 
the  dominant  party,  he  escaped  by  flight  until  the  next 
year.  He  was  condemned  by  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal 
and  executed  in  1793. 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Girondists." 

Duportail,  dii'poR'tSI'  or  du'poR'tt'ye,  (Lebegue, 
leh-b^g',)  a  French  officer,  who  served  with  distinction 
in  the  United  States  under  La  Fayette,  with  whose  po- 
litical opinions  he  agreed.  By  the  influence  of  La  Fayette 


he  was  appointed  minister  of  war  in  November,  1 790.  The 
hostility  and  violence  of  the  Assembly  induced  him  to 
resign  in  December,  1791.  In  the  reign  of  terror  he 
escaped  death  by  exile  to  America  about  1794.  He 
embarked  for  France  in  1802,  but  died  during  the 
passage.  * 

Dup'pa,  (Brian,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Lewis- 
ham  in  1588.  He  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Charles  1. 
in  1634,  and  tutor  to  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1638.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Salisbury  in  1641,  and  of  Winchester 
about  1660.  He  published  sermons  and  other  religious 
works.    Died  in  1662. 

Duppa,  (Richard,)  an  English  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  about  1 766.  He  published  several  books  of  travels 
in  Europe,  "The  Life  and  Works  of  Michael  Angelo," 
(1806,)  "The  Life  of  Raphael,"  (1816,)  a  "Translation 
of  Virgil's  Bucolics,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  183 1. 

Duprat,  dii^pRS',  (Antoine,)  a  cardinal  and  chancellor 
of  France,  born  at  Issoire  in  1463.  He  became  first 
president  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris  in  1507,  and  chan- 
cellor in  1515.  As  the  favourite  minister  of  Francis  I., 
he  rendered  himself  the  object  of  the  popular  odium  by 
subverting  civil  and  religious  liberty.  He  procured  the 
passage  of  atrocious  laws  against  the  Reformers.  In 
1527  he  obtained  a  cardinal's  hat.    Died  in  1535. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Histoire  Universelle." 

Duprat,  (Jean,)  a  French  merchant  of  Avignon,  was 
a  Girondist  member  of  the  Convention,  in  which  he 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  king  in  1792.  He  was  con- 
demned by  the  Jacobins,  and  executed  with  the  leaders 
of  his  party,  in  October,  1793,  aged  about  thirty-six. 

Duprat,  (Pardoux,  plii'doo',)  an  eminent  French 
jurist,  born  at  Aubusson  about  1520.  He  resided  some 
years  in  Lyons,  and  wrote  esteemed  works  on  Roman 
law.    Died  in  or  before  1570. 

Duprat,  (Pascal,)  a  French  republican  journalist, 
born  in  the  department  of  Landes  in  1812.  Soon  after 
the  revolution  of  1848  he  co-operated  with  Lamennais  in 
founding  the  journal  entitled  "Le  Peuple  Constituant," 
and  was  elected  to  the  National  Assembly.  He  was  one 
of  the  chiefs  of  the  party  which  made  Cavaignac  dictator 
in  1848,  and  was  banished  about  1852. 

Dupre  d'Aulnay,  dii'pRk' do^na',  (Louis,)  a  French 
writer  of  fiction,  b(,)rn  in  Paris  about  1670;  died  in  1758. 

Dupre  de  Saint -Maur,  dii'pRa'  deh  s^N'moR', 
(Nicolas  Franqois,)  a  French  writer,  who  promoted  a 
taste  for  English  literature  in  France,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1695.  The  success  of  his  version  of  "  Paradise  Lost" 
opened  for  him  the  doors  of  the  Academy  in  1733. 
afterwards  produced  a  useful  work,  entitled  "Essay  on 
Money,  or  Reflections  on  the  Relations  between  Money 
and  Articles  of  Food,"  (1746,)  and  "Tables  of  Mortality," 
which  Buff"on  praised  and  inserted  in  his  works.  Died 
in  1774. 

Duprez,  dii'pRa',  (Gilbert  Louis,)  a  French  tenor 
singer  of  great  celebrity,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1806. 
After  performing  in  Italy  for  some  years,  he  made  a 
successful  delmt\w  Paris  in  1837.  He  became  the  chief 
favourite  of  the  Parisians,  and  was  especially  admired  in 
the  opera  of  "William  Tell." 

Dupuis,  du'pii-e^  almost  dii^pwe',  (Charles,)  born 
in  Paris  in  1685,  was  esteemed  one  of  the  best  engravers 
of  his  time.  He  worked  some  years  in  England,  and 
returned  to  Paris.  The  "Marriage  of  the  Virgin,"  after 
Vanloo,  is  called  his  master-j^iece.    Died  in  1742. 

Dupuis,  (Charles  Franqois,)  a  distinguished  French 
philosopher  and  savant,  born  at  Trie-le-Chateau  (Gise) 
in  1742.  He  was  educated  in  Paris,  and  in  1766  became 
professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  College  of  Lisieux.  For 
several  years  he  attended  the  astronomical  lectures  of 
Lalande,  with  whom  he  was  very  intimate.  He  directed 
his  researches  to  the  origin  of  the  figures  or  symbols 
which  represent  the  constellations  of  "the  zodiac.  The 
new  theory  which  he  formed  was  explained  in  a  volume 
entitled  "Memoir  on  the  Origin  of  the  Constellations, 
and  on  the  Explanation  of  Mythology  by  Astronomy," 
(1781.)  This  work  attracted  much  attention  among  the 
learned.  A  few  years  later  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  Latin  eloquence  in  the  College  of  France,  and  in 
1788  was  admitted  to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  As 
a  member  of  the  Convention,  1792-95,  he  acted  and 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  o,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (S^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DUPUIS 


814 


DVRAMANO 


spoke  with  moderation.  In  1794  he  produced  his  cele- 
brated "Origin  of  all  Cultcs,  or  Universal  Reh'gion," 
which  excited  much  controversy  by  the  novelty  and  bold- 
ness of  its  speculations.  It  is  stated  that  the  interest  ex- 
cited by  this  work  caused  the  apjjointment  of  the  scien- 
tific commission  which  accompanied  Bonaparte  to  Egypt. 
Dupuis  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Institute. 
In  Bonaparte's  consulate  he  was  president  of  the  legis- 
lative body.  Among  his  later  works  is  a  "Memoir  on 
the  Zodiac  of  Tentyra,"  to  which  he  assigns  a  date 
anterior  by  many  centuries  to  the  first  historical  period. 
The  researches  of  Champollion,  however,  appear  to  have 
fully  disproved  this  opinion.    Died  near  Dijon  in  1809. 

See  Dacier,  "  Notice  sur  Dupuis,"  1812 ;  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de 
Dupuis,"  by  his  widow,  1813;  "  Nouvelle  Biographle  Generale." 

Dupuis,  (Nicolas  Gabriel,)  a  French  engraver, 
brother  of  Charles,  noticed  above,  and  a  pupil  of  Du- 
change,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1695.  His  style  is  pure 
and  correct.  Among  his  admired  works  are  "  y^neas 
saving  his  Father  from  Burning  Troy,"  after  Vanloo,  and 
"The  Adoration  of  the  Kings,"  after  Paul  Veronese. 
Died  in  1771. 

See  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Dupuis,  du-pvvee',  (Thomas  Saunders,)  a  musical 
composer,  born  in  London  in  1733.  He  was  an  excel- 
lent performer  on  the  organ.  In  1779  he  was  appointed 
organist  and  composer  of  the  royal  chapel.  He  died  in 
1796,  after  which  his  select  works  were  published  by 
John  Spencer,  nephew  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough. 

Dupuy,  dii'pU-e'',  [Dutch,  Van  de  Putte,  vtn  der 
piit'ieh,]  (Henry,)  [Lat.  Enri'cus  Putea'nus,]  a  Dutch 
scholar,  was  born  at  Venloo  in  1574.  He  succeeded  his 
teacher,  Justus  Lipsius,  in  the  chair  of  belles-lettres  at 
Louvain,  which  he  filled  from  1606  to  1646.  He  wrote 
many  learned  works  on  history,  philosophy,  etc.,  among 
which  are  "Historia  Insubrica,"  and  "Belli  et  Pacis 
Statera,"  (1633.)    Died  in  1646. 

Dupuy,  dii'pu-e',  (Louis,)  a  French  scholar  of  great 
learning,  born  in  Le  Bugey  in  1709.  He  became  princi- 
pal editor  of  the  "  Journal  des  Savans,"  which  he  directed 
for  thirty  years  with  much  critical  ability.  In  1756  he 
was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  of  which 
he  was  made  perpetual  secretary  in  1773,  and  to  which 
he  contributed  many  treatises.  He  wrote  "  Observa- 
tions on  Infinitesimals,  and  the  Metaphysical  Principles 
of  Geometry,"  and  other  mathematical  works.  Died 
in  1795. 

See  Desessarts,  "Les  Siecles  litt^raires." 

Dupuy,  (Pierre,)  a  French  historical  writer,  born  at 
Agen  in  1582,  became  successively  councillor  and  libra- 
rian to  the  king.  He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Rights 
and  Liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church,"  (1639,)  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Most  Illustrious  Favourites,  Ancient  and 
Modern,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  165 1. 

His  brother  Jacques  was  also  royal  librarian,  and  aided 
in  some  of  the  productions  of  Pierre.    Died  in  1656. 

See  N.  RiGAULT,  "Vita  Petri  Puteani,"  in  the  "Vitie  Selectorum 
"iliquot  Virorum,"  London,  1681. 

Dupuy-Demportes,  dii'pii-e'  dSN^poRt',  (Jean  Bap- 
TiSTE,)  a  French  litth'ateiir.    Died  in  1770. 

Dupuy  des  Islets,  dii^pii-e'  da'ze'li'.  Chevalier, 
a  French  poet,  born  in  Hayti  about  1770;  died  in  1831. 

Dupuy-Montbruii.    See  Mon  th  run. 

Dupuytren,  dii'pii-e''tR6N^  (Guillaume,)  Baron,  a 
celebrated  French  surgeon  and  anatomist,  born  at  Pierre- 
Buffiere,  near  Limoges,  in  1777.  He  was  educated  in 
Paris,  where,  in  1803,  he  obtained  the  place  of  second 
surgeon  of  the  Hotel-Dieu.  He  was  appointed  inspector- 
general  to  the  University  in  1808,  professor  of  surgery 
in  1811,  and  chief  surgeon  of  the  Hotel-Dieu  about  1816. 
On  the  accession  of  Charles  X.  he  became  first  surgeon 
to  the  king.  His  practice  was  very  lucrative,  and  his 
reputation  more  extensive  than  that  of  any  French  sur- 
geon of  his  time.  He  made  improvements  in  surgical 
operations,  invented  some  valuable  instruments,  and 
was  an  eloquent  and  popular  lecturer.  He  did  not  pub- 
lish any  extensive  work,  but  his  lectures  were  printed 
in  the  medical  periodicals,  and  his  opinions  were  reported 
in  the  works  of  Royer-Collard,  Sanson,  etc.  Dupuytren 
was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  His  contribu- 


tions to  the  knowledge  of  morbid  anatomy  form  perhaps 
his  chief  title  to  a  durable  reputation.  Died  in  Paris  in 
February,  1835. 

See  ViDAL  DE  Cassis,  "  Essai  historique  sur  Dupuytren,"  1835; 
Pariset,  "iSloge  de  Dupuytren,"  1836;  Cruveilhier,  "Vie  de 
Dupuytren,"  1841;  Bakuinet,  "Notice  sur  Dupuytren,"  1853; 
Isidore  Bourdon,  "  lUuslres  Medecins  et  Naturalistes ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biogrnphie  Generale." 

Duquerie.    See  Callard  de  la  Duquerie. 

Duquesne,  dii'kgn',  (Abraham,)  a  French  naval 
hero,  born  at  Dieppe  in  1610.  He  had  acquired  a  repu- 
tation for  courage  and  talents  when,  in  1637,  he  was 
chosen  to  command  a  ship  in  the  war  with  Spain.  He 
rendered  important  services  at  Tarragona  in  1641,  and 
at  the  Cape  de  Gates  in  1643.  ^  years  later,  as  \  ice- 
admiral  of  the  Swedish  fleet,  he  gained  several  victories 
over  the  Danes.  About  1650  he  was  made  a  commodore. 
He  fought  under  D'Estrees  against  the  Dutch  under 
De  Ruyter  in  May,  1673.  Having  obtained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general,  he  defeated  the  Dutch  near  Catanea 
in  1676,  where  the  admiral  De  Ruyter  was  killed.  The 
king  once  avowed  to  Duquesne  that  his  religion  (Prot- 
estantism) was  an  obstacle  to  his  promotion.  For  this 
reason  he  never  received  a  marshal's  baton,  though  he 
was  the  most  able  and  successful  admiral  that  France 
had  then  produced.  He  was,  however,  created  a  mar- 
quis, and  was  excepted  from  the  operation  of  the  decree 
which  revoked  the  edict  of  Nantes.    Died  in  1688. 

See  E.  Sue,  "  Histoire  de  la  Marine  ;"  Andre  Richer,  "Vie  du 
Marquis  Duquesne,"  1783;  Feret,  "  Esquisse  de  la  Vie  de  Du- 
quesne," 1844;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Duquesne,  (Abraham,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
an  able  seaman.  In  1690  he  commanded  an  expedition 
to  the  East  Indies,  of  which  Challes  published  an  ac- 
count, (3  vols.,  1721.) 

Duquesne,  (Arnaud  Bernard  d'Icard — de'klR',) 
a  French  priest,  writer,  and  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne, 
born  in  Paris  about  1732;  died  in  1791. 

Duquesne,  (Henri,)  a  son  of  Abraham,  (the  first  of 
the  name,)  was  born  in  1652,  and  became  a  captain  in  the 
navy  in  1675.  He  served  with  distinction  at  the  battle 
near  Catanea  in  1676.  When  the  edict  of  Nantes  was 
revoked,  (1685,)  he  withdrew  to  Switzerland.  He  wrote 
"Reflections  on  the  Eucharist,"  (1718.)    Died  in  1722. 

Duquesnoy,  dii'ka'nw^',  (Adrien,)  a  French  lawyer, 
born  in  1759,  was  deputed  to  the  States-General  by  Bar- 
le-Duc  in  1789,  and  acquitted  himself  with  credit.  He 
edited  a  journal  called  "The  Friend  of  the  Patriots," 
which  was  issued  until  August  10,  1792.  In  the  reign 
of  terror  he  was  arrested,  but  was  saved  by  the  fall  of 
Robespierre.    Died  in  1808. 

Duquesnoy,  dii'ki'nwi',  (Francois,)  an  excellent 
Flemish  sculptor,  born  at  Brussels  in  1594,  was  better 
known  by  the  name  of  FRANgois  Flamand.  About 
1619  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  became  an  intimate 
friend  of  Nicolas  Poussin  and  worked  many  years.  He 
excelled  in  the  representation  of  infants,  and  was  consid- 
ered by  some  as  the  best  sculptor  of  his  time.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  statues  of  Saint  Susanna  (in  Rome) 
and  of  Saint  Andrew,  (in  the  basilica  of  Saint  Peter's.) 
He  was  on  his  way  to  Paris,  whither  he  had  been  in- 
vited by  Richelieu,  when  he  died  at  Leghorn  in  1646. 

See  CicoGNARA,  "  Storia  della  Scultura." 

Duquesnoy,  (Jerome,)  a  skilful  sculptor,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Brussels  in  1612.  He  worked 
some  years  at  Rome,  and  was  appointed  sculptor  to 
Philip  IV.  of  Spain  in  1645.  He  was  executed  for  some 
alleged  crime  at  Ghent  in  1654. 

Duraeus.    See  Dury. 

Diu-am  or  Durao,  doo-rowN',  (Antonio  Figueira — 
fe-ga'e-ra,)  a  Portuguese  Latin  poet,  born  in  Lisbon  about 
i6i7T^died  in  1642. 

Duramor  Durao,  doo-rowN',  (Joze  de  Santa  Rita,) 
a  Brazilian  epic  poet,  born  near  Mariana  in  1737.  He 
was  educated  in  Portugal,  where  he  resided  nearly  all 
his  life,  and  became  a  monk.  He  wrote  a  popular  and 
national  epic  poem,  entitled  "  Caramurii,  or  the  Discovery 
of  Bahia,"  (1781.)    Died  in  Lisbon  in  1783. 

See  Adolfo  de  Varnhagen,  "  Epicos  Brazileiros,"  1845;  Pe- 
reira  d.^.  Sylva,  "Plutarco  Brazlleiro." 

Duramano,  doo-rJ-nuVno,  (Francesco,)  a  Venetian 
painter  of  flowers,  flourished  about  1750. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  Hr,  {ill,  fitj  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DURAMEAU 


DURANTI 


Durameau^  dii^rS'mo',  (Louis  Jean  Jacques,)  a 
French  historical  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1733.  His 
"  Continence  of  Bayard"  and  "  Saint  Louis  washing  the 
Feet  of  the  Poor"  are  admired.    Died  in  1796. 

Duran,  doo-rin',  (Don  Augustin,)  an  eminent  Span- 
ish author  and  critic,  born  in  Madrid  about  1794.  He 
obtained  an  office  in  the  department  of  public  instruction 
in  1821,  but  was  removed  in  1823  for  his  liberal  opinions. 
In  1828  he  published  an  "Essay  on  the  Influence  which 
Modern  Criticism  has  exercised  on  the  Decline  of  the 
Old  Drama,"  ( teatro  antiguo,)  which  produced  a  revolu- 
tion in  favour  of  the  romantic  school.  His  "  Romancero 
de  Romances  Moriscos,"  (5  vols.,  1828-32,)  (a  collection 
of  old  ballads,)  had  great  success.  About  1835  he  was 
appointed  secretary  or  librarian  in  the  National  Library 
of  Madrid.  He  has  recently  written  an  important  history 
and  bibliography  of  the  Spanish  drama,  which  perhaps 
is  not  yet  printed. 

Durand,  dii'roN'',  a  learned  French  Benedictine,  born 
at  Neubourg  about  1012,  acquired  much  influence,  and 
was  consulted  by  William  the  Conqueror.  He  pro- 
moted a  taste  for  religious  music.    Died  in  1089. 

Du-rand',  (Asher  Brown,)  an  eminent  American 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Jefferson,  New  Jersey,  in 
1796.  He  engraved  Trumbull's  "Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence," a  number  of  portraits  for  "The  National 
Portrait-Gallery,"  and  other  works.  About  1835  he  began 
to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  painting.  He  became 
an  excellent  landscape-painter,  and  produced  many  pic- 
tures of  American  mountain-scenery.  Among  his  paint- 
ings are  "The  Capture  of  Major  Andre,"  "Primeval 
Forest,"  and  "Franconia  Mountains." 

See  H.  T.  Tuckerman,  "Book  of  the  Artists,"  1867;  Dunlap, 
"Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  America." 

Durand,  (Catherine  Bedacier  —  bi'dt'se-i',)  a 
French  novelist  and  poetess,  wrote  the  "Comtesse  de 
Mortane,"  (1699,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  Paris  in  1736. 

Durand,  (Charles  Etienne,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1762.  Pie  restored  the  ancient 
temple  at  Nimes  called  "Maison  carree."   Died  in  1840. 

Durand,  (David,)  a  learned  French  Protestant  writer, 
born  in  Languedoc  about  1680.  After  being  chaplain  to 
a  French  regiment  in  Spain,  he  went  about  1714  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  preached  about  fifty  years.  He  wrote 
•'The  Religion  of  Mohammed,"  (1721,)  a  "History  of 
jhe  Sixteenth  Century,"  (6  vols.,  1725-29,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  London  in  1763. 

See  A.  A.  Bakbier,  "Notice  siir  la  Vie  et  les  £crits  de  D.  Du- 
rand," iSog;  MM.  Haag,  "La  France  protestante ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Durand,  (FRANgois  Jacques,)  an  eloquent  French 
Protestant  preacher,  born  near  Alen9on  in  1727.  He 
became  professor  of  history  at  Lausanne,  and  published 
Sermons,  a  "Treatise  on  the  Statistics  of  Switzerland," 
an  "Epitome  of  Sciences  and  Arts,"  (1762,)  which  had 
great  success,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1816. 

See  A.  Delille,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  F.  J.  Durand,"  1805. 

Durand  or  Duranti,  doo-rSn^'tee,  (Guillaume,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Puymisson  about  1230,  was  sur- 
named  the  "  Speculateur."  In  1287  he  became  Bishop 
of  Mende.  He  wrote  a  work  on  canon  law,  called 
''Speculum  Judiciale."    Died  in  1296. 

See  S.  Maiolo,  "Duranti  Vita." 

Durand,  (Jacques,)  a  French  historical  painter,  born 
at  Nancy  in  1699;  died  in  1767. 

Durand,  (Jean  Nicolas  Louis,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1760.  Having  received  lessons  from 
Panseron,  he  became  draughtsman  to  Boulee,  the  king's 
architect.  In  1780  he  gained  a  prize  in  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy. He  also  obtained  several  of  the  prizes  offered  by 
the  Convention  in  1793  for  public  structures.  About 
1794  he  was  appointed  professor  of  architecture  in  the 
Polytechnic  School,  for  the  use  of  which  he  published  an 
important  work,  entitled  "A  Collection  and  Comparison 
of  Edifices  of  all  Kinds,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  (1800,) 
and  "Lectures  on  Architecture,"  (2  vols.,  1802,)  also  an 
excellent  performance.    Died  in  1834. 

See  RoNDELET,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  N.  L. 
Durand,"  1835. 

Durand,  (Dom  Li^opold,)  a  French  architect  and 
monk,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1666 ;  died  in  1749. 


Durand,  (Pierre  Bernard,)  a  French  botanist,  born 
in  Calvados  in  1814;  died  in  1853. 

Durand-Brager,  dii''r6N'  bRt'zhi',  (Jean  Baptiste 
Henri,)  a  distinguished  French  marine  and  landscape 
painter,  born  near  Dol  (Ile-et-Vilaine)  in  1814.  In  1840 
he  went  to  Saint  Helena  on  the  staff  of  Prince  de  Join- 
ville,  and  after  his  return  published  a  "Description  of 
Saint  Helena,"  richly  illustrated,  (1844.)  He  produced 
a  Panorama  of  Rio  Janeiro,  and  received  a  commission 
to  paint  the  principal  actions  and  scenes  of  the  campaign 
against  Morocco,  in  which  he  took  part  about  1845. 
has  published  several  other  successful  works. 

Durand  de  Maillane,  dii^rSN'  deh  mt'ytn',  (Pierre 
ToussAiNT,)  a  French  lawyer,  born  at  Saint-Remi  in 
1729.  Elected  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  he  was  one 
of  the  committee  who  framed  the  civil  constitution  of 
the  clergy.  In  the  Convention  of  1792  he  opposed  the 
execution  of  the  king,  and  voted  for  his  banishment. 
During  the  reign  of  Jjonaparte  he  was  a  judge  at  Taras- 
con  and  Aix  until  1809.  He  was  author  of  several 
esteemed  treatises  on  canon  law.    Died  in  1814. 

See  "Notice  sur  Durand  de  Maillane,"  prefixed  to  his  "Histoire 
de  la  Convention  Nationale." 

Durand  de  Saint-Pourgain,  dii'rSN'  deh  s^N'pooR'- 
siN^  (GuiLLAUiME,)  a  French  scholastic  doctor  and 
bishop,  born  in  Auvergne  ;  died  in  1334. 

Durande,  clii'rdNd',  (Jean  Fran(JOIS,)  a  French  bot- 
anist, born  at  Dijon,  became  professor  of  botany  in  that 
city.    Died  in  1794. 

Durandi,  doo-rinMee,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
antiquary,  born  near  Vercelli  in  1739.  He  wrote  numer- 
ous operas,  some  of  which  were  performed  with  success 
at  Turin;  "  Arianna,"  an  admired  pastoral;  and  several 
works  on  history  and  geography.    Died  in  181 7. 

See  De  Gregori,  "Vita  di  J.  Durandi,"  1S17. 

Durando,  doo-rSu'do,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  general, 
born  at  Mondovi  in  1807.  He  was  minister  of  war  at 
Turin  during  the  Crimean  war,  1854-55,  commanded  a 
division  at  vSolferino,  June,  1859,  and  became  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  in  the  cabinet  of  Ratazzi  in  March,  1861. 

Durando,  (Giovanni,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
and  an  eminent  Italian  general  of  the  present  age,  com- 
manded the  first  corps-d'armee  against  the  Austrians,  and 
was  wounded  at  Custozza  in  June,  1866. 

Durant,  dli'rSN',  (Gilles,)  a  French  poet  and  ad- 
vocate, was  born  at  Clermont  about  1550,  and  settled 
near  Paris.  He  is  supposed  to  have  written  part  of  the 
"  Satire  Menippee,"  which  promoted  the  cause  of  Henry 
IV.  by  ridiculing  the  League.  His  works,  which  were 
much  admired,  consist  of  odes,  sonnets,  songs,  etc. 
Died  in  161 5. 

See  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Durante,  doo-r^n'ti,  (Castore,)  an  Italian  botanist, 
born  at  Gualdo,  became  physician  to  Pope  Sixtus  V,, 
and  wrote  many  works,  which  were  once  esteemed.  Died 
at  Viterbo  in  1590. 

Durante,  (Francesco,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
Italian  composers,  was  born  in  Naples  in  1693.  He  was 
the  pupil  of  Scarlatti,  and  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
the  modern  school  which  produced  Sacchini,  Pergolesi, 
etc.  His  style  was  severe,  his  harmony  pure,  and  his 
modulations  natural.  He  confined  himself  mostly  to 
sacred  music.    Died  in  Naples  in  1755. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Durante  Alighieri.    See  Dante. 

Durante  da  Gualda,  doo-rin'ta  di  goo-iKdi,  (Pie- 
TRO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  about  1460. 

Duranti.    See  Durand,  (Guillaume.) 

Duranti,  doo-ran'tee,  (Durante,)  Count,  a  popular 
Italian  poet  and  orator,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  at 
Brescia  in  1718.  His  memory  was  such  that  he  could 
repeat  a  poem  which  he  had  read  or  heard  but  once. 
He  imitated  Ariosto  in  satirical  epistles  with  success, 
and  wrote  lyric  verses  which  were  celebrated  through  all 
Italy.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  resided  at  the  court 
of  the  King  of  Sardinia,  as  gentleman  of  the  chamber. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  a  satirical  poem  entitled 
"Custom,"  or  "Fashion,"  ("  Uso,"  1778.)  Several  of 
his  orations  were  printed.  His  moral  character  is  said 
to  have  been  pure.    Died  in  1780. 

See  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r.  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DVRANTI 


8i6 


DURER 


Duranti,  dii'rdN^te',  (Jean  Etienne,)  a  French  judge, 
born  at  Toulouse  about  1534,  became  first  president  of 
the  parliament  of  Toulouse  in  1581.  For  his  fidelity  to 
the  king  he  was  massacred  by  a  mob  of  furious  partisans 
of  the  Catholic  League  in  1589.  He  was  author  of  a 
book  "  On  the  Rites  of  the  Catholic  Church,"  {"  De  Riti- 
bus  Ecclesiae,"  1581.) 

See  PoNSARD,  "filoge  de  J.  fitienne  Duranti,"  1770;  De  Thou, 
"  Histoire." 

Duranton,  dii'rdN^t^N',  (Alexandre,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Cusset  (Bourbonnais)  in  1782,  was  the 
author  of  a  "Course  of  French  Law,"  (4th  edition,  22 
vols.,  1844.) 

Durao.    See  Duram. 

Duras.  See  Durfort,  (Gui  Alphonse  and  Louis.) 
Duras,  de,  deh  dii'ras'',  (Claire  Lechat  de  Ker- 

saint — leh-sht'  deh  kSk'siN',)  Duchess,  a  French  au- 
thoress, born  at  Brest  in  1778,  was  a  daughter  of  the 
Count  de  Kersaint,  who  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
vention and  executed  in  1793.  She  became  the  wife 
of  the  Due  de  Duras,  and  the  friend  of  Madame  de 
Stael.  After  the  restoration  she  was  one  of  the  orna- 
ments of  the  French  court.  She  produced  two  novels, 
*'  Ourika,"  (1823,)  and  "Edouard,"  which  had  prodigious 
success.    Died  in  1828. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Portraits des  Femmes ;"  Barante,  "  Notice 
sur  Madame  la  Duchesse  de  Duras,"  1828;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gen^rale." 

Duras,  de,  (Jacques  Henri  de  Durfort — deh  diiR'- 
foR',)  Duke,  a  French  marshal,  born  of  a  noble  family 
of  Guienne  about  1624,  was  a  nephew  of  the  famous 
Turenne.  He  fought  at  the  battle  of  Nordlingen  and 
the  capture  of  Landau.  As  lieutenant-general,  he  served 
with  distinction  in  Italy  and  Flanders.  He  was  created 
a  marshal  of  France  in  1675,  and  a  duke  in  16S9.  Died 
in  1704. 

Duras,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  Duke,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1684.  He  rendered  important  ser- 
vices in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  (1701-12, ) 
and  was  made  lieutenant-general  in  1720.  He  after- 
wards became  marshal  of  France,  and  in  1745  defeated 
the  enemy  at  Etlingen.    Died  in  1770. 

Durazzo,  doo-r^t'so,  a  noble  family  of  Genoa,  which 
furnished  many  doges  to  the  republic,  and  several  car- 
dinals to  the  Church,  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries. 

Durbach,  (Anne  Louise.)    See  Karschin. 

Dur^'bin,  (John  Price,)  an  American  Methodist  min- 
ister, born  in  Bourbon  county,  Kentucky,  in  1800,  gradu- 
ated at  the  Cincinnati  College  in  1825.  He  was  elected 
chaplain  of  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  in  183 1,  and 
president  of  Dickinson  College,  in  Pennsylvania,  in  1834. 
After  a  visit  to  Europe,  he  published  "Observations  in 
Europe,  principally  in  France  and  Great  Britain,"  (2 
vols.,  1844,)  and  "Observations  in  Egypt,  Palestine, 
Syria,  etc.,"  (2  vols.,  1845.)  resigned  the  presidency 
of  Dickinson  College  in  1845.  Since  1851  he  has  been 
secretary  of  the  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.  He  is  now  (1869)  in  the  fiftieth  year 
of  his  pastoral  services. 

Durdent,  dUR^SN',  (Rene  Jean,)  a  prolific  French 
writer,  born  at  Rouen  about  1776.  He  had  great  facility 
in  composition,  and  wrote  for  the  booksellers  mediocre 
works  of  fiction,  history,  criticism,  etc.,  which  had  a  tem- 
porary success.    Died  in  1819. 

Dureau  de  la  Malle,  (or  de  Lamalle,)  dii'ro'  deh 
It  mtl,  (Adolphe  Jules  C^sar  Auguste,)  a  learned 
French  poet  and  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1777.  He 
produced  in  1807  a  poem  entitled  "The  Pyrenees,"  and 
in  1811  a  poetical  version  of  the  "  Argonautica"  of  Vale- 
rius Flaccus.  In  1818  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions,  which  he  enriched  with  many  antiquarian 
treatises.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Bayard,  or 
the  Conquest  of  the  Milanese,"  a  poem,  (2  vols.,  1823,) 
and  "The  Political  Economy  of  the  Romans,"  (2  vols., 
1840.)    Died  in  1857. 

See  LouANDKE  et  P.ourquelot,  "La  Litterature  Fran^aise;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Dureau  de  la  Malle,  (or  de  Lamalle,)  (Jean  Bap- 
tiste Joseph  Ren6,  )  a  French  scholar  and  eminent 
translator,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Saint 
Domingo  in  1742.    He  was  educated  in  Paris,  where  he 


afterwards  resided.  His  house  was  the  resort  of  the 
most  eminent  authors,  namely,  Delille,  D'Alembert, 
Marmontel,  and  La  Harpe.  In  1790  he  produced  an 
admired  version  of  Tacitus,  superior  to  any  ]neviously 
made  in  French.  He  was  also  successful  in  translating 
Sallust,  and  began  a  version  of  Livy,  which,  interrupted 
by  his  death,  was  finished  by  M.  Noel.  He  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  legislative  body  in  1802,  and  of  the 
French  Academy  in  1804.  Died  in  1807. 
See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Durel,  (David.)    See  Durell. 

Du-reP,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  learned  English  theologian, 
born  in  the  isle  of  Jersey  in  1626,  was  an  adversary  of 
the  Puritans.  He  passed  many  years  in  France  during 
the  English  civil  war  and  the  Commonwealth.  About 
1660  he  became  preacher  at  the  French  Church  in  Lon- 
don. He  was  appointed  Canon  of  Windsor  in  1663  or 
1664,  and  Dean  of  Windsor  in  1677.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  theological  works,  a  "Defence  of  the  Church  of 
England,"  (1669.)    Died  in  1683. 

Du-relP  or  Durel,  (David,)  D.D.,  an  English  biblical 
critic,  born  in  the  isle  of  Jersey  in  1728.  He  became 
a  Fellow  of  Hertford  College,  (Oxford,)  and  principal 
of  the  same  in  1757.  His  "Critical  Remarks  on  Job, 
Psalms,  Proverbs,"  etc.  (1772)  are  commended.  He  also 
published  "  The  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Parallel  Prophecies 
of  Jacob  and  Moses  relating  to  the  Twelve  Tribes," 
(1764.)    Died  in  1775, 

Diirer  or  Duerer,  dii'rer,  (Albert  or  Albrecht,)  a 
celebrated  German  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Nu- 
remberg on  the  20th  of  May,  1471,  was  the  son  of  a  gold- 
smith, who  designed  that  he  should  learn  the  same 
occupation.  He  became  in  i486  a  pupil  of  Michael 
Wohlgemuth,  a  painter  of  Nuremberg.  In  1490  he 
began  a  tour,  in  the  course  of  which  he  visited  various 
countries  of  Germany.  He  returned  to  Nuremberg  in 
1494,  and,  to  please  his  father,  entered  into  an  ill-assorted 
marriage.  Soon  after  his  return  he  produced  a  drawing 
of  "Orpheus,"  which  was  much  admired.  In  1505  he 
visited  Venice,  where  he  remained  eight  months,  and 
painted  the  "  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Bartholomew,"  and 
other  works,  for  which  "  he  received,"  says  Ruskin,  "the 
rarest  of  all  rewards  granted  to  a  good  workman,  and 
for  once  in  his  life  was  understood."  During  his  visit 
to  Italy  he  formed  a  friendship  with  Raphael.  About 
1508  he  was  appointed  court  painter  to  Maximilian  I., 
for  whom  he  painted  "The  Virgin  with  many  Angels," 
and  other  historical  pictures.  He  was  also  patronized 
by  Charles  V.  as  court  painter. 

DUrer  surpassed  all  the  painters  and  engravers  of 
Germany  in  exuberance  of  imagination  and  in  sublimity 
and  correctness  of  design.  He  was  successful  in  history, 
portraits,  and  landscapes.  Vasari  expresses  the  opinion 
that  he  would  have  equalled  the  great  masters  of  Italy 
if  he  had  been  a  native  of  Tuscany  and  had  studied  in 
Rome.  Some  critics  regret  the  absence  of  the  ideal  in 
his  works.  Among  his  master-pieces  in  painting  are  a 
"Crucifixion,"  (151 1,)  "Adam  and  Eve,"  an  "Adoration 
of  the  Magi,"  and  portraits  of  Raphael,  Erasmus,  and 
Melanchthon,  who  were  his  friends.  He  is  the  reputed 
inventor  of  the  art  of  etching  and  the  art  of  printing 
wood-cuts  in  two  colours.  His  engravings  (on  copper) 
of  "Adam  and  Eve,"  "The  Knight  and  Death,"  and 
the  "Revelation  of  Saint  John"  (on  wood)  are  very  cele- 
brated. All  his  engravings  are  after  his  own  designs, 
and  are  finished  with  great  neatness  and  refinement.  He 
wrote  several  works  on  geometry  and  perspective,  and 
contributed  to  polish  and  purify  the  German  language, 
in  which  those  works  are  written.  It  appears  that  he 
favoured  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation.  He  died  at 
Nuremberg  in  April,  1528.  His  death  is  said  to  have 
been  hastened  by  domestic  misery.  His  wife,  covetous, 
insatiable,  and  imperious,  would  neither  permit  him  to 
work  in  peace  and  quietness  nor  to  recreate  himself  in 
the  society  of  his  friends.  His  gentle  disposition  and 
delicate  sensibility  rendered  him  especially  liable  to  be 
thus  victimized.  "This  artist,"  says  Michiels,  "has 
become  the  symbol  of  his  epoch.  An  inexhaustible 
imagination,  an  intelligence  which  could  observe  life  in 
its  most  delicate  shades,  a  profound  sentiment  of  grace, 
naivete,  and  sublimity,  and  an  earnest  spirit  joined  to  the 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,«o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


BURET 


817 


DUROC 


courage  required  for  protracted  studies,  were  the  quali- 
ties which  distinguished  him." 

See  J.  Heller,  "Das  Leben  iind  die  Werke  A.  Diirers,"  1827- 
31 ;  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  Ersch  und 
Grubek,  "Allgemeine  Eiicyklopaedie  ;"  A.  Michiels,  "  Etudes  sur 
rAllemagiie ;"  Leopold  Schefer,  "An  Artist's  Married  Life;" 
G.  C.  Nagi.er,  "A.  Diirer  und  seine  Kunst,"  1837;  Rotii,  "Leben 
A.  Diirers,"  1791;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  tor  January,  1833; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1861. 

Duret,  dii'ri',  (Claude,)  a  French  naturalist  and  lin- 
guist, born  at  Moulins  ;  died  in  161 L 

Duret,  (Francisque,)  an  eminent  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Paris  about  1805.  He  studied  in  Rome,  and 
about  183 1  gained  a  prize  by  his  statue  of  "Mercury." 
He  adorned  several  churches  and  public  edifices  of  Paris 
with  statues,  among  which  are  those  of  Moliere,  (in  the 
Hall  of  the  Institute,)  Richelieu,  and  Chateaubriand. 
At  the  Exposition  of  1855  he  received  a  grand  medal. 
He  is  a  member  of  the  Institute. 

Duret,  (Jean,)  born  in  Paris  in  1563,  was  a  skilful 
physician,  and  a  bitter  partisan  of  the  League  against 
Henry  of  Navarre.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  in  the  Royal  College,  and  became 
physician  to  the  queen  Marie  in  1610,  after  the  death 
of  Henry  IV.    Died  in  1629. 

Duret,  (Louis,)  an  eminent  French  physician,  father 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Bage  in  1527.  He  came 
to  Paris  in  youth,  and  graduated  in  1552.  From  1568  to 
1586  he  was  a  professor  in  the  Royal  College,  and  was 
successively  physician  to  Charles  IX.  and  Henry  III. 
His  most  important  work  is  a  commentary  on  Hippocra- 
tes, (1588,)  which  Boerhaave  called  "an  inestimable 
book."    Died  in  1586. 

See  Chomel,  "filoge  de  L.  Duret,  Medecin  celebre,"  1765  ;  Ni- 
CERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Biographic  Medicale." 

Duret,  (Noel,)  a  French  astronomer,  born  at  Mont- 
brison  in  1590,  was  a  professor  of  mathematics  in  Paris, 
and  obtained  the  title  of  cosmographer  to  the  king.  He 
wrote  a  "New  Theory  of  the  Planets,"  (1635,)  and  other 
works.    Died  about  1650. 

Dur'fee,  (Job,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at  Tiverton, 
Rhode  Island,  in  1790.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  in  1820,  and  became  chief  justice  of  Rhode 
Island  in  1835.  He  wrote  a  poem,  entitled  "  What 
Cheer?"  (1832,)  on  the  adventures  of  Roger  Williams. 
Died  in  1847. 

D'Urfey,  dur'fe,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist  and 
wit,  born  at  Exeter,  in  Devonshire,  He  was  a  favourite 
at  the  court  of  Charles  II.,  and  author  of  several  success- 
ful and  licentious  dramas.  He  wrote  popular  songs  and 
odes,  which  were  published  with  the  title  "  Laugh  and  be 
Fat"  According  to  Addison,  his  ode  entitled  "  Joy  to 
Great  Caesar"  "  gave  the  Whigs  such  a  blow  as  they  were 
not  able  to  recover  that  whole  reign."   Died  in  1723. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica  ;"  Gibber,  "Lives  of  the 
Poets." 

Durfort,  de,  deh  diiRToR',  (Gui  Alphonse,)  Duke  of 
Lorges,  (loRzh,)  a  French  marshal,  born  in  1628,  was  a 
younger  brother  of  the  first  Duke  of  Duras.  He  served 
as  lieutenant-general  in  the  army  of  his  uncle  Turenne, 
whose  talents  in  a  great  measure  he  inherited.  In  1692 
he  gained  the  battle  of  Pfortzheim.  He  had  received  a 
marshal's  baton  in  1676.    Died  in  1703. 

See  Voltaire,  "Si^cle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Saint-Simon,  "Me- 
moires." 

Durfort,  de,  (Louis,)  sometimes  called  Durfort- 
Duras,  (dii'ris',)  Count,  the  youngest  brother  of  the 
preceding,  emigrated  to  England,  where  Charles  II.  gave 
him  the  title  of  Baron  Duras.  At  the  time  of  the  peace 
of  Nymwegen  (1678)  he  was  ambassador  at  the  court  of 
France.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Feversham,  and  be- 
came general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  James  II.,  which 
defeated  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  in  1685  at  Sedgemoor. 

Durfort-Duras.    See  Duras. 

Durfort-Duras,  de,  deh  diiRToR'  du'rSs',(EMMANUEL 
YtiACVvi,)  Due,  born  in  1715,  inherited  the  title  of  duke 
from  his  father,  Jean  Baptiste.  He  became  first  gentle- 
man of  the  chamber,  a  knight  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  one 
of  the  forty  members  of  the  French  Academy,  and  mar- 
shal of  France.  As  lieutenant-general,  he  made  all  the 
campaigns  of  the  Seven  Years'  war.  He  was  a  finished 
model  of  a  courtier.    Died  in  1789. 


Durg^,  ddoR'gS,  a  Sanscrit  word  signifying  "difficult 
of  access,"  "impregnable,"  and  forming  the  name  of 
Siva's  consort  in  her  character  of  active  virtue.  (See 
Parvati.) 

Durham,  dilr'am,  (James,)  an  eminent  Scottish  divine, 
born  in  1622.  He  became  minister  of  Blackfriars'  Church, 
Glasgow,  about  1647,  and  was  a  very  popular  preacher. 
In  1650  he  was  appointed  professor  of  divinity  in  the 
College  of  Glasgow.  He  was  chaplain  to  Charles  II. 
about  1650,  and  in  165 1  preached  a  sermon  before  Crom- 
well, who  rebuked  him  for  meddling  with  political  affairs 
in  the  pulpit.  He  wrote  "Commentaries  on  Revela- 
tion," (1660,)  often  reprinted,  "Expositions  of  the  Ten 
Commandments,"  (1675,)  and  several  religious  treatises. 
His  works  were  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1658. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Durham,  dur'am,  (John  George  Lambton,)  Earl 
OF,  an  able  English  statesman,  born  at  Lambton  Castle, 
Durham,  in  1792,  was  a  son  of  William  Henry  Lambton. 
He  married  Miss  Cholmondeley  in  1812,  and  the  daugh- 
ter of  Earl  Grey  in  1816.  In  1813  he  was  returned  to 
Parliament,  where  he  acted  with  the  Whig  party,  of 
which  he  was  one  of  the  most  liberal  members.  He 
was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  liaron  Durham,  in  1828.  In 
1830  he  became  lord  privy  seal  in  the  cabinet  of  Lord 
Grey,  and  was  one  of  the  four  persons  who  prepared  the 
Reform  bill  of  the  ensuing  year.  He  made  an  eloquent 
speech  in  favour  of  the  second  Reform  bill.  He  resigned 
his  place  in  the  ministry  in  1833,  and  was  then  created 
Earl  of  Durham.  He  was  sent  on  a  special  mission  to 
Russia  in  1833,  and  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Russia 
in  1836.  In  1838  he  was  sent  as  Governor-General  to 
Canada,  with  extraordinary  powers,  to  restore  peace  and 
order  in  that  province,  then  disturbed  by  rebellion.  He 
returned  suddenly  in  December,  1839,  in  consequence  of 
his  disagreement  with  the  ministry  at  home.  He  died 
in  July,  1840,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  George 
Frederick,  born  about  1828.  Lord  Durham  was  a  great 
favourite  with  the  advanced  Liberals. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Durham,  (Joseph,)  an  English  sculptor,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1822.  Among  his  works  are  a  bust  of  Jenny 
Lind,  and  "  Paul  and  Virginia,"  (1857.) 

Durham,  (Sir  Philip  Charles  Calderwood,)  a 
British  admiral,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1763  ;  died  in  1845. 

See  A.  Murray,  "Life  of  Admiral  Durham,"  1846. 

Duringer,  doo'ring-er,  (Melchior,)  professor  of  ec- 
clesiastical history  at  Berne,  was  born  about  1647  ;  died 
in  1723. 

Diiringsfeld,  von,  (Ida.)    See  Reinsberg. 

Du'ris  [Aof'ptf]  of  Samos,  a  Greek  historian,  a  brother 
of  Lynceus,  was  born  about  350  B.C.  His  most  important 
work  was  a  history  of  Greece,  entitled  "Macedonica  and 
Hellenica,"  or  ";?  ribv  'E^iXrjviKiov  'Icropta,^^  of  which  frag- 
ments are  extant  He  became  chief  ruler  of  Samos. 
Died  after  280  B.C. 

Durival,  dU're^^tK,  (Jean,)  a  French  writer,  brother 
of  Nicolas  L.,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Saint-Aubin 
in  1725.  He  was  minister  to  Holland  in  1777.  About 
this  date  he  assisted  Mirabeau  in  translating  Watson's 
"Philip  II."  into  French.    Died  in  1810. 

Durival,  (Nicolas  Luton — lii't^N',)  a  French  writer, 
born  at  Commercy  in  1733,  published  a  "Description 
of  Lorraine,"  (4  vols.,  1778-83,)  which  is  regarded  as  a 
model  for  works  of  that  kind.    Died  in  1795. 

Durivier,  duYe\-e-k\  (Jean,)  a  French  engraver  of 
medals,  born  at  Liege  in  1687.  He  settled  in  Paris,  re- 
ceived the  title  of  engraver  to  the  king,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  Academy.    Died  in  Paris  in  176L 

Diirnhoffer  or  Duernhoffer,duRn'hoffer,  (Lorenzo,) 
a  German  poet  and  pastor,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1532, 
was  a  friend  of  Melanchthon.    Died  in  1594. 

Duroc,  dii'rok',  (Gerard  Christophe  Michel,) 
Duke  of  Friuli,  a  favourite  officer  of  the  court  and 
camp  of  Bonaparte,  was  born  at  Pont-a-Mousson  in  1772. 
In  the  early  wars  of  the  republic  he  was  aide-de-camp 
of  General  Lespinasse  ;  and  in  1796  he  became  aide-de- 
camp of  Bonaparte,  whom  he  followed  to  Egypt  in  1798. 
During  the  consulate  and  the  empire  he  was  employed 
on  important  missions,  and  was  sent  successively  to  the 
courts  of  Berlin,  Vienna,  and  Saint  Petersburg.   In  these 


■€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

52 


DUROCHER 


8i8 


DUSSJULX 


difficult  affairs  he  acquitted  himself  to  the  satisfaction 
of  Napoleon,  who  ever  treated  him  with  confidence,  and 
who  made  him  marshal  of  his  palace  and  Duke  of  Friuli. 
"Duroc  loved  Napoleon  for  himself,"  says  Alison,  "and 
possessed  perhaps  a  larger  share  of  his  confidence  than 
any  of  his  other  generals."  He  accompanied  the  emperor 
in  the  campaigns  of  1805-06  and  1807,  and  was  killed  by 
his  side  at  Mackersdorf,  in  Saxony,  May,  1813.  Bona- 
parte wept  as  he  pressed  the  hand  of  the  dying  man, 
and  said,  "  Duroc,  there  is  another  world,  where  we  shall 
meet  again." 

See  "  Memorial  de  Saint-Helene  ;"  Alison,  "  History  of  Europe  ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Durocher.    See  GuiRiN  du  Rocher. 
Duroi.    See  Duroy. 

Duroi,  dii'rwa',  (Johann  Philipp,)  a  German  botanist, 
born  in  1741  ;  died  in  1786. 

Durosnel,  dii'ro'neK,  (Antoine  Jean  Auguste 
Henri,)  born  in  Paris  in  1771,  became  in  1809  a  gene- 
ral of  division,  and  aide-de-camp  to  Napoleon.  During 
the  Hundred  Days  he  was  second  in  command  of  the 
national  guard  of  Paris.  He  was  aide-de-camp  to  Louis 
Philippe  in  1832,  and  was  made  a  peer  in  1837.  Died 
in  1849. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Frangais." 

Duroy, dii^rwi', or  Deroy,[Lat.  Regius,]  (Hendrik,) 
a  Dutch  physician,  born  in  1598  at  Utrecht,  where  he 
was  professor  of  medicine  for  forty  years,  ending  at 
his  death.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  works  on  Physiology, 
(1641,)  Natural  Philosophy,  (1651,)  and  Medicine.  He 
was  involved  in  a  quarrel  with  Descartes,  who  charged 
him  with  plagiarism.    Died  in  1679. 

See  £lov,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Medecine." 

Du  Rozoir,  dii  ro'zw^R',  (Charles,)  a  French  editor 
and  historical  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1790,  became  pro- 
fessor of  history  in  the  college  Louis-le-Grand  in  181 8. 
He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  Michaud's  "  Biographic 
Universelle,"  and  of  other  valuable  works.  He  published 
a  "Programme  of  Roman  History."    Died  in  1844. 

Durri.    See  Doorree. 

Durrieu,  dii're-uh',  (Antoine  Simon,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Grenade  (Landes)  in  1775  >  ^'^^^ 
in  1862. 

Durrius,  door're-us,  (Johann  Conrad,)  a  German 
author,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1625,  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Compendium  of  Moral  Theology,"  which  was 
often  reprinted.    Died  in  1677. 

Durufle,  dU'rii''fiy,(Louis  Robert  Parfait — ptR''fa',) 
a  French  poet,  born  at  Elbeuf  in  1742 ;  died  in  1793. 

Durutte,  dii'rut',  (Joseph  Franqois,)  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  at  Douai  in  1767  ;  died  in  1827  or  1837. 

See  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Frangais." 

Duruy,  dii'rii-e',  (Victor,)  a  French  historical  writer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1811,  became  professor  of  history  at  the 
Lycee  Napoleon,  and  published,  for  the  use  of  schools, 
many  popular  historical  works,  among  which  are  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Romans,"  (1844,)  and  a  "History  of  France," 
(1852.) 

Durv^sas,  dooR-vS'sas,  an  irascible  and  famous  Hin- 
doo sage,  who  was,  in  his  own  estimation,  "a  very  mine 
of  penitential  merit."  Sakoontala,  the  heroine  of  Kali- 
dasa's  drama  "  The  Lost  Ring,"  having  failed,  through 
absence  of  mind,  to  show  him  the  respect  he  deemed  his 
due,  he  cursed  her ;  and  on  this  curse  the  plot  of  the 
story  turns. 

See  "Sakoontala,"  translated  by  Professor  M.  Williams,  of 
Oxford,  1856. 

Durville.    See  Dumont  d'Urville, 

Du'ry,  [Lat.  Dur^'us,]  (John,)  a  Scottish  clergyman, 
who  laboured  and  travelled  many  years  to  effect  a  union 
between  the  Lutherans  and  the  Calvinists.  He  wrote 
"An  Earnest  Plea  for  Gospel  Communion,"  (1654,)  and 
other  works.    Died  after  1674. 

Duryee,  dur-ya',  (Abram,)  an  American  officer,  born 
m  New  York  City  in  1815.  He  commanded  a  regiment 
of  zouaves  at  the  battle  of  Great  Bethel  in  1861,  and 
was  made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  the  same  year. 

Duryer  or  Du  Ryer,  dii^re-i',  (Andr6,)  a  French 
scholar,  born  at  Marcigny,  in  Burgundy,  lived  about  1640. 
He  was  consul  at  Alexandria,  and  lived  many  years  in 


the  East.  He  published  a  translation  of  the  "Gulistan" 
of  Saadi,  (1634,)  and  one  of  the  Koran,  (1647,)  which  was 
very  successful. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary,"  edition  of  Des- 
maiseaux. 

Duryer,  (Pierre,)  a  French  dramatist  and  litterateur, 
born  in  Paris  in  1605.  He  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy  in  1646,  when  the  celebrated  Corneille  was  his 
competitor.  Before  that  year  he  had  produced  several 
successful  tragedies,  and  in  1647  appeared  the  tragedy 
of  "  Scevole,"  which  is  esteemed  his  best  work.  He 
published  bad  versions  of  the  works  of  Cicero  and  of 
other  Latin  authors.    Died  about  1658. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Dusart,  dii'saRt',  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Haarlem  in  1665.  He  was  a  pupil  and  successful 
imitator  of  Van  Ostade.  His  favourite  subjects  were 
the  life,  actions,  and  manners  of  villagers  and  peasants. 
Died  in  1704. 

See  Basan,  "Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Dusaulchoy  de  Bergemont,  du^zS'shw^Meh  b^Rzh'- 
m^N^  (Joseph  Franqois  Nicolas,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Toul  in  1761.  He  edited  several  journals  be- 
tween 1790  and  1800,  and  was  imprisoned  in  the  reign 
of  terror.  He  wrote  spirited  songs  and  other  agreeable 
verses,  among  which  are  "The  Victories  of  the  French 
Armies,"  (1808,)  and  "The  Poetic  Nights,"  (1825.) 
Among  his  prose  works  is  "  The  Censor,"  (2  vols.,  1818.) 
Died  in  1835. 

Dusaulx.    See  Dussaulx. 

Dusch,  doosh,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  German  poet,  born 
at  Zelle,  Hanover,  in  1725.  He  became  in  1766  director 
of  a  college  in  Altona,  where  he  taught  philosophy  and 
mathematics.  He  excelled  in  didactic  poetry,  and  in  the 
art  of  enlivening  dry  themes  of  morality  and  philosophy 
by  the  charms  of  his  diction.  His  chief  poem  is  entitled 
"The  Sciences,"  ("Die  Wissenschaften.")  His  "Letters 
on  the  Fonnation  of  Taste"  ("Moralische  Briefe  zur 
Bildung  des  Geschmacks,"  6  vols.,  1764)  is  called  an 
excellent  work.    Died  at  Altona  in  December,  1787. 

Duseigneur,  du'san'yuR',  (Jean  Bernard,)  a  distin- 
guished French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1808.  Among 
his  successful  works  is  "Roland  Furieux,"  or  "Orlando 
Furioso,"  (1831.) 

Du  Sejour.    See  Dionis. 

Dush-yan'ta,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  ddosh-yiin'ta,] 
a  celebrated  king  of  India,  the  hero  of  Kalidasa's  drama 
of  "Sakoontala,  or  the  Lost  Ring." 

See  "Sakoontala,"  translated  by  Professor  M.  Williams,  of 
Oxford,  1856. 

Du  Sommerard,  dii  som'rtR',  (Alexandre,)  a 
French  antiquary,  born  at  Bar-sur-Aube  in  1779.  He  was 
appointed  a  member  of  the  cour  des  comptes  in  1807,  and 
conseiller  referendaire  of  the  same  in  1823.  He  devoted 
much  time  to  the  study  and  search  of  monuments  of 
mediaeval  arts,  and  made  a  rich  collection  of  manuscripts, 
arms,  costumes,  etc.,  which  he  deposited  in  the  Hotel 
de  Cluny,  now  a  public  museum.  He  published,  besides 
other  minor  works,  "The  Arts  of  the  Middle  Ages," 
("Les  Arts  au  Moyen  Age,"  5  vols.,  1839-43,)  which  is 
highly  commended.    Died  in  1842. 

See  Louandre  et  Bourquelot,  "La  Litterature  Fran^aise." 

Dussault,  dii'so',  (Jean  Joseph,)  an  able  French 
journalist  and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1769.  He  was  a 
tutor  in  the  college  Du  Plessis  until  the  Revolution  de- 
prived him  of  that  place.  During  the  first  republic  he 
wrote  for  Freron's  "Orator  of  the  People."  In  1800 
he  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "Journal  des  De- 
bats,"  then  just  established,  which  position  he  held  until 
181 7.    Died  in  1824. 

Dussaulx  or  Dusaulx,  dii^sS',  (Jean,)  a  French  litte- 
rateur, born  at  Chartres  in  1728.  Having  published  a  good 
prose  version  of  Juvenal,  he  was  admitted  into  the  Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions  in  1776.  He  adopted  the  principles 
of  the  Revolution,  and  as  a  member  of  the  Convention 
acted  with  moderation  and  opposed  the  execution  of 
the  king.  In  1796  and  1797  he  was  one  of  the  Council 
of  Elders.  He  wrote  several  "Essays  on  the  Passion 
for  Gaming,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1799. 

See  "Memoires  sur  la  Vie  de  Dussaulx,"  by  his  widow,  1801; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  filr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DUSSEK 


819 


DUVAL 


Dussek,  cloos'sgk,  (Johann  Ludwig,)  an  eminent 
German  composer  and  pianist,  was  born  at  Czaslau,  in 
Bohemia,  about  1760.  He  performed  in  Paris,  London, 
and  other  cities,  and  composed  for  the  piano  numerous 
concertos,  symphonies,  sonatas,  etc.,  some  of  which  were 
very  popular.  From  1806  until  his  death  in  181 2  he  was 
in  the  service  of  Prince  Talleyrand  as  director  of  music. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Dussieux,  dii^se-uh',  (firiENNE  Louis,)  a  French 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1815,  published  "  Historical 
Geography  of  France,"  (1844,)  "  Essay  on  the  Invasion 
of  Europe  by  the  Huns,"  ( Hongrois,)  and  other  works. 

Dutems,  dii'tdN',  (Jean  Francois  Hugues,)  better 
known  as  Abbe  Dutems,  born  in  Franche-Conite  in  1745, 
became  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
torical Picture  of  the  Archbishops,  Bishops,  etc.  of 
France,"  (4  vols.,  1775,)  ^  "Life  of  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough,"  (3  vols.,  1808.)    Died  in  181 1. 

Dutens,  dii'tSN',  (Joseph  Michel,)  a  French  political 
economist,  nephew  of  Louis,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Tours  in  1765.  He  was  sent  to  England  in  1818  by 
the  government,  to  examine  the  inland  navigation  of 
that  country,  and  published,  in  1819,  "Memoirs  on  the 
Public  Works  of  England."  His  most  important  work 
is  "The  Philosophy  of  Political  Economy,"  (2  vols., 
1835,)  which  was  severely  criticised  by  the  disciples  of 
Adam  Smith.  He  agrees  with  Quesnay  in  the  opinion 
that  the  riches  of  a  nation  proceed  from  agriculture 
rather  than  from  manufactures  or  trade.    Died  in  1848. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Dutens,  (Louis,)  a  French  Protestant  writer,  born  at 
Tours  in  1730.  In  his  youth,  for  the  sake  of  religious 
liberty,  he  emigrated  to  London.  He  learned  Greek 
and  several  Oriental  languages.  About  1760  he  became 
charge-d'affaires  at  the  court  of  Turin,  where  he  wrote 
"  Researches  on  the  Origin  of  Discoveries  attributed  to 
the  Moderns,"  (1766,)  which  was  received  with  favour. 
About  this  time  he  was  presented  to  the  rich  living 
of  Elsdon.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London,  and  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  at  Paris. 
He  published  many  valuable  works,  among  which  are  a 
"Treatise  on  Greek  and  Phoenician  Medals,"  (1773,)  and 
"Journal  of  Travels  to  the  Principal  Cities  of  Europe," 
(1775.)   Died  in  London  in  1812. 

See  his  "  Memoires  d'un  Voyageur  qui  se  repose,"  2  vols.,  1806; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1S06. 

Dutertre.    See  Duport-Dutertre. 

Dutertre,  dii'tiRtR',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  Do- 
minican, born  at  Calais  in  1610.  He  was  sent  in  1640  as 
missionary  to  the  Antilles,  where  he  laboured  eighteen 
years,  and  composed  a  "General  History  of  the  Antilles 
inhabited  by  the  French."    Died  in  Paris  in  1687. 

Dutheil'de  la  Porte,  dii't^r  (dii't^'ye)  deh  li  poRt, 
(or  Laporte  du  Theil,)  (FuANgois  Jean  Gabriel,)  a 
French  Hellenist,  son  of  Jean  Gabriel,  noticed  below, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1742.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1770,  and  published  trans- 
lations of  Callimachus  (1775)  and  ^ischylus,  (2  vols., 
1794.)  In  conjunction  with  Coray  and  Gosselin,  he  was 
employed  by  the  government  to  translate  the  Geography 
of  Strabo,  which  was  half  finished  when  he  died  in  181 5. 

See  SiLVESTRE  DE  Sacy,  "Notice  abrege  sur  la  Vie  dc  M.  de  La- 
porte-Dutheil,"  1816. 

Dutheil  de  la  Porte,  (Jean  Gabriel,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  Ijorn  about 
16J83.  In  1735  he  was  minister  to  Vienna,  and  in  1748 
he  was  ambassador  extraordinary  to  the  Congress  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle.    Died  in  1755. 

Duthilloeul,du''te'yuK,  (Hippolyte  Romain  Joseph,) 
a  French  bibliographer,  born  at  Douai  in  1788,  wrote 
several  biographies,  and  other  works. 

Dutillet,  (Jean.)    See  Tillet. 

Dutour,  dli'tooR',  (Etienne  Francois,)  a  French 
savant,  born  at  Riom  in  171 1,  was  a  correspondent  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  author  of  treatises  on 
Magnetism,  Electricity,  the  Diffraction  of  Light,  etc. 
Died  at  Riom  in  1784. 

Du  Tramblay.    See  Dutremri.ay. 

Dutremblay  or  Du  Tramblay,  dii'tRSN'blk',  (An- 
TOINE  Pierre,)  Baron,  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris 
in  1745,  was  the  author  of  numerous  fables.  Died  in  1819. 


Dutrochet,  dii'tRo'shi',  (Rene  Joachim  Henri,)  a 
French  physiologist  and  natural  philosopher,  born  al 
the  chateau  de  Neon,  Poitou,  in  1776.  He  graduated 
as  M.D.  in  1806,  and  became  military  physician  to  Josejjh 
Bonaparte  in  Spain  in  1808,  but  returned  to  France  in 
1809.  He  published  a  series  of  essays  on  physiology, 
which  present  new  ideas,  and  among  which  are  "Ob- 
servations on  the  Structure  of  Feathers,"  (1819,)  and 
"Researches  in  Endosmosis  and  Exosmosis,"  (1828.) 
His  former  works  appeared  revised  in  a  collection 
called  "Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'Histoire  anatomique 
et  physiologique  des  Vegetaux  et  Animaux,"  (1837.) 
Died  in  Paris  in  1847. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  Adolphe  Brongniart, 
"Notice  sur  H.  Dutrochet,"  1852;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Duvair,  dii'vaR',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  writer  and 
moralist,  distinguished  for  learning  and  probity,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1556.  He  opposed  the  League,  and 
became  first  president  of  the  parliament  of  Provence  in 
1599.  In  16 16  he  was  chosen  keeper  of  the  seals.  He 
made  a  French  version  of  Epictetus,  and  wrote  several 
excellent  treatises  on  philosophy  and  other  subjects, 
among  which  is  one  on  "French  Eloquence."  He  was 
regarded  as  one  of  the  best  writers  of  his  time.  Died  in 
1621. 

See  C.  A.  Sapev,  "Essai  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Du  Vair,"  1847. 

Duval.    See  Espremenil. 

Duval,  dii^'Sl',  (Alexandre  Vincent  Pineu — pe'- 
nuh',)  a  popular  French  dramatist,  born  at  Rennes  in 
1767.  He  produced  in  1802  "Edward  in  Scotland,"  a 
political  drama,  which  was  warmly  applauded.  He  ex- 
celled in  invention,  in  dialogue,  and  in  variety  of  effects. 
His  works  are  numerous,  and  consist  chiefly  of  comedies 
and  comic  operas.  He  was  elected  to  the  French  Acad- 
emy in  1812  in  the  place  of  Legouve.    Died  in  1842. 

His  brother,  Henri  Charles,  born  in  1770,  wrote  a 
"  History  of  France  in  the  l\eign  of  Charles  VI.,"  (1842,) 
and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1847. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  Ballanche,  "  Discours 
de  Reception  k  1' Academic  Fran^aise." 

Duval,  (  Amaury  Pineu,)  a  French  litteratein-,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rennes  in  1760.  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1811.  In  1816  he 
was  selected  by  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  to  replace 
Ginguene  in  the  commission  of  the  "  Histoire  Litteraire 
de  France,"  for  which  work  he  wrote  many  articles.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Duval,  (Charles,)  a  French  architect,  born  at  Beau- 
vais  in  1800. 

Duval,  (Eugene  Emmanuel  Amaury.)  a  French 
painter  of  history  and  portraits,  son  of  Amaury  Pineu, 
noticed  above,  was  born  near  Paris  in  1808. 

Duval,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  legislator  and  advo- 
cate, who,  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  opposed 
the  execution  of  the  king,  was  proscribed  as  a  Girondist, 
and  escaped  by  concealment.  When  the  Convention  was 
dissolved,  in  1795,  passed  into  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred.    Died  in  1819. 

Duval,  dii'vtl',  (Nicolaas,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
the  Plague  in  1644.  He  was  employed  at  Loo  by  Wil- 
liam HI.  of  England.    Died  in  1732. 

Duval,  (Pierre,)  a  nephew  of  Nicolas  Sanson,  was 
born  at  Abbeville,  France,  in  1618.  He  cultivated  and 
taught  geography  with  success,  and  received  the  title  of 
royal  geographer.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "The 
World,  or  Universal  Geography,"  and  a  "  Description  of 
France,"  (1691.)    Died  in  1683. 

Duval,  (Valentine  Jameray — zhtn/ri',)  was  born 
of  poor  parents  in  Champagne  in  1695.  In  early  youth 
he  became  a  servant  of  certain  hermits  near  Luneville, 
and  contracted  a  passion  for  study.  The  Duke  of  Lor- 
raine (Leopold)  sent  him  to  college,  and  founded  for  him 
a  chair  of  history  at  Luneville,  where  Duval  lectured  with 
success.  About  1730  he  became  librarian  to  Francis, 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  in  1748  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  imperial  cabinet  at  Vienna.  He  wrote 
two  treatises  on  medals  and  coins.    Died  in  1775. 

See  "Vie  de  Duval,"  1788;  L.  Brightwell,  "Bypaths  of  Bio- 
graphy ;"  Cari.  Dielitz,  "  V.  J.  Duvals  hochst  merkwiirdige  Lebens- 
geschichte,"  1839. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  g,  h,  v.,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.] 


820 


DUrCKINCK 


Duval,  (Vincent,)  a  French  physician,  skilled  in  the 
treatment  of  deformed  feet,  was  born  in  Eure  in  1796. 

Duval  le  Camus,  dii'vtK  leh  kt'miiss',  (Pierre,)  a 
skilful  French  painter,  born  at  Lisieux  (Calvados)  in  1 790. 
He  painted  portraits,  genre,  landscapes,  and  familiar 
scenes.  Among  his  works  are  **L'Ennui,"  (1827,)  and 
"The  Passage  of  the  Ford,"  (1837.)    Died  in  1854. 

Duval  Leroy,  (or  le  Roy,)  dii'vftl'  leh-Kwa^  (Nico- 
las Claude,)  a  French  mathematician,  born  at  Bayeux 
about  1730,  published  "Elements  of  Navigation,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1810. 

Duvau,  clU\5',  (Auguste,)  a  French  botanist  and 
Utterateiir,  born  at  Tours  in  1771,  contributed  to  the 
"Biographic  Universelle"  the  articles  on  Tournefort, 
Schiller,  Lessing,  Wieland,  Wallenstein,  and  many 
others.    Died  in  1831. 

Duvaucel,  dii\'6's§K,  (Alfred,)  an  able  French  natu- 
ralist, born  in  Paris  in  1792,  was  a  step-son  and  pupil  of 
the  illustrious  Cuvier.  He  had  a  great  facility  in  acquir- 
ing languages,  and  made  extensive  attainments  in  natural 
history.  In  181 7  he  went,  with  the  title  of  naturalist  to 
the  king,  on  a  scientific  excursion  to  India,  which  he  ex- 
plored about  six  years  with  M.  Diard.  They  made  rich 
collections  of  animals,  minerals,  etc.  for  the  Museum  of 
Paris.    Pie  died  at  or  near  Madras  in  1824. 

See  Cuvier,  "Notice  sur  les  Voyages  de  M.  Duvaucel,"  in  the 
"  Memoires  de  I'Academie  des  Sciences." 

Duvaucel,  (Charles,)  a  French  astronomer,  born  in 
Paris  in  1734;  died  in  1820. 

Duvenede,  van,  vSn  dii^eh-nid',  (Marc,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Bruges  about  1674,  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo 
Maratta  in  Rome.  He  returned  to  Bruges,  and  painted 
pictures  for  churches.  His  "Martyrdom  of  Saint  Law- 
rence" is  praised  by  Descamps.    Died  in  1729. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Duverdier,  dii'v^R^de-i',  (Antoine,)  a  French  bib- 
liographer, was  born  at  Montbrison  in  1544.  He  was 
counsellor  to  the  king,  and  gentleman  of  the  chamber. 
He  is  chiefly  known  by  his  "  Bibliotheque  de  A.  Du- 
verdier," (1585,)  a  catalogue  of  French  authors.  Died 
in  1600. 

Duverdier,  (Gilbert  Saulnier — s6^ie-i',)  a  French 
historian,  who  died  in  Paris  in  1686. 

Duvergier,  diiV^R^zhe-y,  (Jean  Baptiste  Marie,) 
a  French  jurist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1792,  published  a 
"  Complete  Collection  of  Laws,  Decrees,  etc.,"  (24  vols., 
1824-28.)    In  1855  he  became  a  councillor  of  state. 

Duvergier  de  Hauranne,  dii'v^R^zhe-^'  deh  ho^rtn'. 
Abbe  of  Saint-Cyran,  (se^r6N',)  a  noted  French  Jansenist 
theologian,  was  born  at  Bayonne  in  1581.  He  formed 
a  friendship  with  Jansenius  at  Louvain,  and  afterwards 
became  a  resident  of  Paris.  He  acquired  great  distinc- 
tion and  influence  by  his  ascetic  life  and  his  zeal  for 
reforms.  In  1620  he  was  chosen  Abbe  of  Saint-Cyran. 
Among  his  friends  or  disciples  were  Arnauld  and  other 
recluses  of  Port-Royal.  He  published  several  tracts 
against  the  Jesuit  Garasse.  In  1638  he  was  imprisoned 
by  Richelieu  at  Vincennes.  He  was  released  in  1642, 
and  died  in  1643. 

See  Lancelot,  "  Memoires  touchant  la  Vie  de  Monsieur  de  Saint- 
Cyran  ;"  Racine,  "  Histoire  de  Port-Royal ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "  His- 
toire  de  Port-Royal." 

Duvergier  de  Hauranne,  (Jean  Marie,)  a  French 
legislator,  born  at  Rouen  in  1771.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from  September,  181 5,  until 
1823,  and  supported  liberal  principles.  He  wrote  several 
legal  works.    Died  in  1831. 

Duvergier  de  Hauranne,  (Prosper,)  an  eminent 
French  statesman,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Rouen  in  1 798.  He  was  identified  with  the  Doctrinaires  in 
politics,  and  in  183 1  entered  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in 
which  he  acquired  much  influence.  He  was  one  of  the 
master-spirits  of  the  coalition  formed  by  several  shades 
of  opposition  in  1837,  and  maintained  the  maxim  "The 
king  reigns,  but  does  not  govern."  He  was  one  of  the 
chief  agitators  of  electoral  reform  in  1846  and  1847,  and 
in  the  Assembly  of  1848  acted  with  the  conservatives. 
Having  opposed  the  coup  d''etat  of  December,  1851,  he 
was  exiled  for  a  few  months.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
Parliamentary  Government  in  France,"  (2  vols.,  1 857.) 

See  Louis  Blanc,  "  Histoire  de  dix  Ans." 


Duvernet,  dii^^R'ni',  (Theophile,)  Abb6,  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Ambert  in  1730,  wrote  a  "Life  of  Vol- 
taire," which  had  a  large  sale,  but  has  not  much  merit. 
Died  in  1796. 

See  VoLTAiKE,  "  Correspondance." 

Duverney,   dii'v^R'ni',  (Joseph  Guichard— ge'- 

shtR',)  an  eminent  French  anatomist,  born  at  Feurs,  in 
Forez,  in  August,  1648.  He  went  to  Paris  in  his  youth, 
and  soon  became  distinguished  as  an  eloquent  lecturer 
on  anatomy.  His  elocution  was  so  graceful  and  impress- 
ive that  famous  actors  attended  his  course  to  receive 
instruction  in  their  art.  He  was  received  into  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  in  1676,  and  was  appointed  professor 
of  anatomy  in  the  Jardin  du  Roi  in  1679.  He  wrote  an 
excellent  treatise  "On  the  Organ  of  Hearing,"  (1683,) 
and  other  anatomical  works.    Died  in  1730. 

See  "  Biographie  M^dicale;"  Fontenelle,  "iSloges  des  Acad^- 
miciens." 

Duvernoy,  diiVgR'nwl',  (Georges  Louis,)  an  emi- 
nent French  zoologist  and  anatomist,  born  at  Montbe- 
liard  in  1777.  About  1802  he  was  employed  by  Cuvier 
as  editor  of  his  "Lectures  on  Comparative  Anatomy," 
and  he  published  the  last  three  volumes  of  that  work 
in  1805.  He  practised  medicine  at  Montbeliard  nearly 
twenty  years,  and  became  professor  of  natural  history  al, 
Strasbourg  in  1827.  In  1837  he  succeeded  Cuvier  as  pro- 
fessor in  the  College  of  France,  and  in  1850  he  exchanged 
that  place  for  the  chair  of  comparative  anatomy.  He 
wrote  numerous  and  important  works  on  anatomy  and 
zoology,  among  which  is  "  Lectures  on  the  History  of 
Organized  Bodies,"  (1842,)  and  contributed  to  the  "Dic- 
tionary of  Natural  Sciences."   Died  in  Paris  in  1855. 

See  QuERARU,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Duvernoy,  (Jean  Georges,)  a  French  anatomist 
and  writer,  born  at  Montbeliard  in  1691.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Tubingen  in  17 15,  and  in  1725 
obtained  the  chair  of  anatomy  and  surgery  in  the  Acad- 
emy of  Saint  Petersburg,  which  he  filled  until  1746. 
Died  in  1759. 

Duveyrier,  dii^va're-i',  (Anne  Honor^;  Joseph,) 
a  French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1788.  He  wrote, 
under  the  assumed  name  of  M^:lesville,  many  suc- 
cessful comedies  and  vaudevilles. 

Duveyrier,  (Charles,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Paris  in  1803,  wrote  "La  Marquise  de  Senne- 
terre,"  (1837,)  and  other  popular  comedies. 

Duviquet,  dii^e'ki',  (Pierre,)  a  French  critic,  born 
at  Clamecy  in  1766.  In  the  Revolution  he  acted  with 
the  po])ular  party,  and  in  1798  was  one  of  the  Council  of 
Five  Plundred.  From  1814  to  1830  he  was  employed  as 
editor  of  the  "Journal  des  Debats,"  for  which  he  wrote 
able  critiques  on  the  drama.    Died  in  1835. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Duvivier,  dii^e've-i',  (Franciade  Fleurus,  fR^N'- 
se''td' fluh^riiss',)  a  trench  general,  born  at  Rouen  in 
1794,  served  with  distinction  in  Algeria  from  1830  to 
1840.  On  the  formation  of  the  republic,  in  1848,  he  be- 
came a  general  of  division.  He  was  mortally  wounded 
in  a  fight  with  the  insurgents  of  Paris  in  June,  1848.  He 
wrote  several  military  works. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Duvoisin,  diiVwi^z^N',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
bishop,  born  at  Langres  in  1744.  He  was  a  professor  in 
the  schools  of  the  Sorbonne  before  the  Revolution,  and 
was  an  exile  from  1792  till  1802.  About  the  latter  date 
he  became  Bishop  of  Nantes.  He  was  one  of  the  four 
bishops  chosen  to  reside  with  the  pope  during  his  cap- 
tivity in  France.  Besides  other  works,  he  published 
"Evangelical  Demonstration,"  and  "Defence  of  Social 
Order  against  the  Principles  of  the  French  Revolution," 
(1798.)  ^Died  in  1813. 

See  Querakd,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Duyckinck,  dl'kink,  (Evert  Augustus,)  an  Ameri- 
can essayist  and  critic,  born  in  the  city  of  New  York  in 
1816.  He  founded  the  "Literary  World"  in  1847,  ^'""^ 
edited  it  for  several  years.  In  conjunction  with  his 
brother  George  L.,  he  published  a  valuable  work  entitled 
"Cyclopoedia  of  American  Literature,  embracing  Per- 
sonal and  Critical  Notices  of  Authors,"  (2  vols.,  1856; 
new  edition,  with  Supplement,  1866.) 


5,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


DUrCKINCK 


821 


DTER 


Duyckinck;  (George  Long,)  an  essayist  and  scholar, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  New  York  in  1822 
or  1823.  He  contributed  to  the  "Literary  World"  and 
the  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  and  wrote  a 
"  Life  of  George  Herbert,"  (1858.)  Died  in  March,  1863. 

Duyse,  van,  vin  doi'zeh,  (Prudens,)  a  Dutch  anti- 
quary and  poet,  born  at  Dendermonde  in  1805. 

Duzi,  doot'see,  or  Ducci,  doot'chee,  (Virgilio,)  an 
ItaHan  painter,  born  at  Citta  di  Castello,  lived  about  1600. 

Dwap^yana.    See  Vyasa. 

Dwight,  dwlt,  (Edmund,)  an  American  merchant  and 
patron  of  learning,  born  at  Springfield,  Massachusetts, 
in  1780,  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1799.  He  was  a 
partner  of  the  firm  which  established  large  cotton-mills 
at  Chicopee  Falls  and  Holyoke.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  proposed  to  establish  normal  schools 
in  Massachusetts,  and  he  subsequently  gave  ten  thousand 
dollars  towards  their  support.    Died  in  1849. 

Dwight,  (Harrison  Gray  Otis,)  an  American  mis- 
sionary, born  about  1803.  He  published  "Christianity 
Revived  in  the  East,"  (1850.)    Died  in  1862. 

Dwight,  (Sereno  Edwards,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  son  of  President  Dwight,  was  born  at  Greenfield 
Hill,  Connecticut,  in  1786.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1803.  After  practising  law  for  nearly  ten  years,  he 
studied  divinity,  and  was  several  years  pastor  of  Park 
Street  Church,  but  afterwards  taught  school  in  New 
Haven  and  Boston.  From  1833  to  1836  he  was  presi- 
dent of  Hamilton  College,  New  York.  Died  in  1850. 
Dr.  Dwight  edited  the  works  of  his  great-grandfather, 
Jonathan  Edwards,  (10  vols.  8vo,)  to  which  he  added  a 
life  of  the  author.  A  volume  of  his  discourses,  with  a 
memoir  of  his  life,  has  been  published  by  W.  T.  Dwight. 

Dwight,  (Theodore,)  an  able  American  journalist, 
born  at  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  in  1765,  was  a 
brother  of  Timothy  Dwight,  noticed  below.  He  gained 
distinction  as  a  lawyer,  and  was  a  prominent  leader  of 
the  Federal  party.  He  edited  "The  Hartford  Mirror," 
an  organ  of  the  Federalists,  was  secretary  of  the  Hart- 
ford Convention  in  1814,  and  founded,  about  181 7,  the 
"New  York  Daily  Advertiser,"  which  he  edited  with 
great  ability  until  1836.    Died  in  1846. 

Dwight,  (Timothy,)  an  eminent  American  divine 
and  scholar,  born  at  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  on 
the  14th  of  May,  1752,  was  a  son  of  Timothy  Dwight, 
a  merchant.  His  mother,  Mary  Edwards,  a  daughter 
of  the  celebrated  Jonathan  Edwards,  was  a  woman  of 
talents  and  rare  worth.  In  1765  he  entered  Yale  Col- 
lege, where  he  graduated  in  1769.  He  acted  as  tutor  in 
that  college  for  six  years,  from  1771  to  1777.  In  1774 
he  finished  "The  Conquest  of  Canaan,"  an  epic  poem, 
(printed  in  1785.)  He  married  a  lady  named  Woolsey 
in  1777,  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  became  a  chaplain 
in  the  army  the  same  year.  Having  left  the  army  in 
October,  1778,  he  worked  on  a  farm  in  Northampton  for 
five  years,  during  which  he  aided  to  support  his  mother, 
and  preached  occasionally  at  several  adjacent  villages. 
In  1783  he  was  ordained  minister  of  the  Congregational 
church  of  Greenfield,  Connecticut.  His  salary  being 
insufficient  for  the  support  of  his  family,  he  opened  an 
academy,  (at  Greenfield,)  which  had  a  high  reputation. 

He  was  chosen  president  of  Yale  College  in  1795,  '^"^^ 
was  annually  appointed  professor  of  theology  there  for 
ten  years.  This  appointment  was  made  permanent  in 
1805.  He  also  performed  the  functions  of  preacher  at 
the  chapel  of  the  college.  He  published  "Greenfield 
Hill,"  a  poem,  (1794,)  and  a  number  of  occasional  ser- 
mons at  difi"erent  times.  He  continued  to  preside  over 
Yale  College  until  his  death,  and  rendered  important 
services  as  a  teacher  of  youth,  for  which  he  was  emi- 
nently qualified.  His  principal  works  are  "Theology 
Explained  and  Defended  in  a  Series  of  One  Hundred 
and  Seventy-three  Sermons,"  (5  vols.,  1818,)  which  is 
highly  esteemed,  and  "Travels  in  New  England  and 
New  York,"  (4  vols.,  1821.)  "This  work,"  says  Southey, 
"though  the  humblest  in  its  pretences,  is  the  most  im- 
portant of  his  writings,  and  will  derive  additional  value 
from  time.  .  .  .  The  remarks  upon  natural  history  are 
those  of  an  observant  and  sagacious  man  who  makes  no 
pretences  to  science  :  they  are  more  interesting,  therefore, 
than  those  of  a  merely  scientific  traveller."  ("London 


Quarterly  Review,"  vol.  xxx.,  October,  1823.)  He  died 
at  New  Haven  in  January,  1817. 

See  his  Life  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography,"  vol.  iv.,  second 
series,  by  William  B.  Sprague;  "Life  of  Dr.  Dwight,"  by  his  son, 
Serexo  E.  Dwight;  Griswold,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America,"  and 
"Prose  Writers  of  America;"  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distin- 
guished Americans,"  vol.  i. ;  Duyckinck,  "  Cyclopsedia  of  .American 
Literature,"  vol.  i. ;  Sprague,  "Annals  of  the  American  Pulpit." 

Dwight,  (Wilder,)  Lieutenant-Colonel,  a  brave 
American  officer,  born  at  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  in 
1833,  was  a  brother  of  General  William  Dwight.  He  died 
of  wounds  received  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September 
17,  1862. 

See  "Life  and  Letters  of  Wilder  Dwight,"  1868. 

Dwight,  (William,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Massachusetts.  He  served  in  Louisiana  in  May,  1863, 
and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Pleasant  Hill,  under  Gen- 
eral Banks,  April,  1864. 

Dyce,  (Rev.  Alexander,)  a  British  editor  and  critic, 
born  in  Edinburgh  about  1798.  He  became  a  resident 
of  London  in  1827,  after  which  he  gave  proof  of  his 
critical  ability  in  editions  of  Webster,  Middleton,  Beau- 
mont and  Fletcher,  Marlowe,  and  other  old  dramatists. 
In  1858  he  published  an  excellent  edition  of  Shakspeare, 
in  6  vols.,  "which  is,"  says  the  Athenaeum,  "the  most 
perfect  te.xt  now  to  be  obtained,  with  brief  annotations' 
sufficient  for  all  practical  purposes."  He  wrote  the 
lives  of  Shakspeare,  Pope,  and  Akenside  in  a  collection 
called  the  "  Aldine  Poets."    Died  in  May,  1869. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1S59. 

Dyce,  (William,)  R.A.,  a  painter  of  history,  was 
born  at  Aberdeen,  in  Scotland,  about  1806.  He  began 
to  exhibit  in  the  Royal  Academy  in  1827.  His  picture 
of  "Joash  shooting  the  Arrow  of  Deliverance"  (1844) 
procured  him  a  high  reputation  and  admission  into  the 
Royal  Academy  as  associate.  He  was  one  of  the  artists 
employed  to  decorate  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament,  and 
painted  in  the  Plouse  of  Lords  a  fresco  of  the  "Baptism 
of  Ethelbert,"  which  is  much  admired.  Among  his  oil- 
paintings  are  a  "  Madonna  and  Child,"  (1846,)  and  "The 
Meeting  of  Jacob  and  Rachel,"  (1850.)    Died  in  1864. 

Dyche,  (Thomas,)  an  English  teacher  and  educa- 
tional writer.    Died  in  1750. 

Dyck,  van,  (Anthony.)    See  Vandyke. 

Dyck,  van,  vSn  dik,  (Floris,)  born  in  Haarlem  in 
1577,  was  a  skilful  painter  of  history  and  of  fruits.  The 
Museum  of  the  Louvre  contains  two  of  his  works,  repre- 
senting scenes  in  the  life  of  Hagar. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Dyck,  van,  (Philip,)  an  excellent  painter,  born  in 
Amsterdam  in  1680,  is  regarded  by  the  Dutch  as  the 
last  of  their  great  painters.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Arnold 
Boonen.  In  1710  he  settled  at  Middelburg,  where  he 
gained  a  high  reputation,  and  imitated  Gerard  Dow 
with  success.  He  afterwards  worked  at  the  Hague, 
and  was  employed  as  painter  by  the  States  of  Holland. 
He  painted  portraits,  history,  and  cabinet  pictures,  imi- 
tated nature  with  fidelity,  and  finished  his  work  with 
care.  Among  his  works  are  "Susanna  and  the  Elders," 
and  a  portrait  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.    Died  in  1752. 

See  Desca.mps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Dy'er,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English  poet,  born  about 
1 540.  He  was  employed  in  several  embassies  by  Queen 
Elizabeth,  who  knighted  him.  He  associated  with  the 
famous  Dr.  Dee,  and  was  reputed  a  Rosicrucian.  His 
works  consist  of  pastoral  odes  and  madrigals. 

See  Ellis,  "Specimens  of  the  Early  English  Poets." 

Dyer,  (George,)  an  English  scholar,  antiquary,  and 
divine,  born  in  London  in  1755.  Having  officiated  as  a 
Baptist  minister  at  Oxford,  he  became  a  resident  of  Lon- 
don in  1792,  and  applied  himself  with  success  to  literary 
pursuits.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  University  of 
Cambridge,"  and  edited  the  Greek  Testament,  and  seve- 
ral plays  of  Euripides.  He  contributed  the  original 
portions  (except  the  preface)  of  "  Valpy's  Classics,"  (141 
vols.,)  on  which  he  was  employed  from  1819  to  1830,  and 
published  some  poems  and  other  works.  Charles  Lamb, 
who  was  his  friend,  has  commemorated  his  merit  as  an 
author  and  a  man,  in  his  Essays.    Died  in  1841. 

Dyer  or  Deyer,  (Sir  James,)  an  English  jurist,  born 
at  Roundhill  in  15 ii.    He  becaine  eminent  in  his  pro- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


DTER 


822 


EARLE 


fession,  and  in  1552  was  elected  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons.    From  1560  until  his  death,  in  1582,  he  was 
chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas.    His  Reports  were 
recommended  to  students  by  Lord  Coke. 
See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Dyer,  (John,)  a  British  poet,  born  in  1700,  was  the 
son  of  a  Welsh  solicitor.  In  his  youth  he  was  an  itine- 
rant painter.  In  1727  he  produced  his  "  Grongar  Hill," 
which  is  regarded  as  his  best  poem.  "The  scenes  which 
it  displays,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "  are  so  pleasing,  the 
images  which  they  raise  are  so  welcome  to  the  mind, 
that  when  it  is  once  read  it  will  be  read  again."  He 
went  to  Italy  to  study  painting,  and  wrote  there  "The 
Ruins  of  Rome,"  a  poem,  which  was  much  admired. 
After  his  return  he  took  orders,  married  Miss  Ensor, 
and  obtained  the  livings  of  Calthorpe,  Coningsby,  Bed- 
ftnd,  and  Kirkby.  1\\  1757  he  published  his  longest 
pjem,  "The  Fleece,"  which  was  unfavourably  criticised 
by  Johnson.  Dr.  Drake,  on  the  other  hand,  thinks  "  it 
contains  a  vast  variety  of  landscapes,  drawn  and  coloured 
in  the  most  spirited  and  fascinating  style."  Dyer  was  a 
man  of  pure  morality  and  amiable  temper.  Died  in  1758. 

See  Johnson's  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets." 

Dyer,  (Mary,)  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
or  Quakers,  who  suffered  death  for  her  religion.  She 
was  hanged  on  Boston  Common  in  1660. 

See  Hii.dreth's  "  History  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xii. 

Dyer,  (Samuel,)  an  English  scholar,  born  about  1725, 
was  noted  for  his  wit  and  convivial  habits.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  literary  club  composed  of  Dr.  Johnson 
and  his  friends.  About  1758  he  revised  the  English 
edition  of  Plutarch's  "Lives,"  for  which  he  made  new 
translations  of  the  lives  of  Pericles  and  Demetrius.  Died 
in  1772. 

Dyer,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman,  who,  in 
1662,  was  ejected  from  Cholesbury,  in  Buckingham- 


shire, for  nonconformity.  His  Sermons,  printed  in  1663- 
66,  are  said  to  resemble  the  style  of  Bunyan.  He  after- 
wards joined  the  Society  of  Friends.  Died  in  1696,  aged 
sixty. 

Dyke,  (Daniel,)  an  eminent  English  Puritan  divine, 
who  wrote  a  treatise  "On  Repentance,"  (1631,)  and  Ser- 
mons, which  were  highly  praised  by  Bishop  Wilkins. 
Died  about  1614. 

Dy'mond,  (Jonathan,)  an  eminent  English  moralist 
and  writer,  born  at  Exeter  in  1796,  was  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  Friends.  He  became  a  linen-draper  in  his 
native  city.  He  advocated  the  principles  of  peace  in 
an  able  work  entitled  ati  "Inquiry  into  the  Accordancy 
of  War  with  the  Principles  of  Christianity,"  (1823.)  He 
also  wrote  "Essays  on  the  Principles  of  Morality,  and 
on  the  Private  and  Political  Rights  and  Obligations  of 
Mankind,"  (1829,)  which  has  passed  through  nimierous 
editions.  Commenting  on  this  work,  Professor  George 
Bush  remarks,  "  Whether  we  regard  the  soundness  and 
lucidness  of  his  reasonings,  the  temper,  candour,  and 
wisdom  of  his  conclusions,  the  elegance  of  his  style,  the 
felicity  of  his  illustrations,  or  the  singularly  excellent 
spirit  which  pervades  the  whole,  the  Essays  of  Dymond 
are  entitled  to  rank  high  in  the  highest  class  of  ethical 
productions."  (See  Preface  to  the  American  edition  of 
Dymond's  "Essays,"  New  York,  1834.)  Died  in  1828. 

See  a  Review  of  Dymond's  Essays,  by  Robert  Southky,  in  the 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1831,  vol.  xliv. ;  "Chris- 
tian Examiner,"  vol.  xviii.  ;  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Dzahabi,  dzlh'ha-bee,  or  Dzehebi,  (Ahmed,  ^h'- 

med,)  a  famous  Arabian  historian  and  jurist,  born  at 
Damascus  in  1275  >  died  in  1347. 

Dzatee  or  Dzati,  dzS'tee,  surnamed  RouMi,  (roo'- 
mee,)  a  Turkish  poet,  born  at  Carasi ;  died  in  1546. 

Dzondi,  dzon'dee,  (Carl  Heinrich,)  a  German  med- 
ical  writer,  born  in  Saxony  in  1770;  died  in  1835. 


E. 


Eachard.    See  Echard. 

Eachard,  gtch'ard,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  English  clergy- 
man, born  in  Suffolk  in  1636.  He  became  a  Fellow  of 
Catherine  Hall,  Cambridge,  in  1658,  and  Master  of  the 
same  in  1675.  He  displayed  a  talent  for  ridicule  in  his 
works,  among  which  were  "The  Ground  and  Occasions 
of  the  Contempt  of  the  Clergy  and  Religion  inquired 
into,"  (1670,)  and  a  "Dialogue  on  Hobbes's  State  of 
Nature,"  (1672.)  "I  have  known  men  happy  enough  at 
ridicule,"  says  Dean  Swift,  "who  upon  grave  subjects 
were  perfectly  stupid  ;  of  which  Dr.  Eachard  was  a  great 
instance."    Died  in  1697. 

See  Thomas  Davies,  "Life  of  J.  Eachard;"  "  Biographia  Britan- 
nica." 

Eadgar.    See  Edgar. 

Eadie,  ee'de,  (John,)  a  Scottish  Presbyterian  divine 
and  biblical  critic,  born  at  Alva,  in  the  county  of  Stir- 
ling, about  1814.  He  has  published  several  popular 
works,  among  which  are  the  "  Biblical  Cyclopaedia,"  (6th 
edition,  1857,)  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Kitto,"  and  a  "Condensed 
Concordance  to  the  Scriptures,"  (20th  edition,  i860.) 
He  succeeded  Dr.  Mitchell  as  professor  of  biblical  litera- 
ture to  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  in  1843.  ^s, 
or  was  recently,  pastor  of  a  congregation  in  Glasgow. 

Eadmer,  gd'mer,  or  Edmer,  an  English  historian  and 
monk,  was  the  friend  and  companion  of  Bishop  Anselm. 
He  wrote  the  "Historia  Novorum,"  or  "History  of  his 
own  Times"  from  1066  to  11 22,  which  contains  valuable 
information,  and  the  "  Life  of  Anselm."  He  was  elected 
Bishop  of  St.  Andrew's  in  1120.    Died  about  1124. 

Eadmund.    See  Edmund. 

Eadred.    See  Edred. 

Eadward.    See  Edward. 

Eadwig.    See  Edwig. 

Eagles,  ee'glz,  (Rev.  John,)  an  English  writer  and 
artist,  born  at  Bristol  about  1784.  He  contributed  to 
"Blackwood's  Magazine"  and  other  periodicals.  A  vol- 
ume of  his  contributions  to  Blackwood  was  published, 
under  the  title  of  "The  Sketcher,"  in  1856.  Died  in  1855. 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  December,  1855. 


Eames,  eemz,  }  (John,)  an  English  savant,  wrote 
papers  on  "Natural  Philosophy,"  etc.  for  the  "Philo- 
sophical Transactions"  from  1726  to  1742,  and  was  as- 
sociated with  J.  Martyn  in  publishing  an  Abridginent 
of  the  said  Transactions,  (1719-33.)    Died  in  1744. 

Eandi,  i-duMee,  (Giuseppe  Antonio  Francesco 
GiROLAMO,)  born  at  Saluces,  Piedmont,  in  1735,  became 
professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Turin  in  1788.  He  wrote  "Elements  of  Geometry 
and  Physics,"  (1793,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1799. 

idaque,  the  French  of  ^F^acus,  which  see. 

Eardley,  erd'le,  (Sir  Culling,)  an  English  publicist, 
born  at  Hatfield  in  1805.  He  was  noted  for  his  zealous 
assertion  of  Protestantism.    Died  in  1863. 

Earle,  erl,  (J.\mes,)  an  American  portrait-painter,  born 
in  Massachusetts,  studied  in  London.  Died  in  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  in  1 796.  He  held  a  high  rank  among 
American  artists  of  his  time. 

Earle,  erl,  (John,)  an  English  bishop,  born  at  York 
in  1601,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1624,  and  became  chap- 
lain and  tutor  to  Prince  Charles,  (afterwards  Charles  II.,) 
whom  he  followed  into  exile.  In  1662  he  was  appointed 
Bisho])  of  Worcester,  and  in  1663  transferred  to  the  see 
of  Salisbury.  He  wrote  a  popular  work  entitled  "  Micro- 
cosmography,"  a  delineation  of  character  and  manners, 
and  translated  into  Latin  the  "Eikon  Basilike."  His 
character  was  excellent.  Burnet  says,  "  Earle  was  the 
man  of  all  the  clergy  for  whom  the  king  had  the  greatest 
esteem."    Died  in  1665. 

See  Wood,  "Athena  Oxonienses." 

Earle,  (Pliny,)  an  American  inventor,  born  at  Leices- 
ter, Massachusetts,  in  1762.  He  invented  a  machine 
for  making  cards  which  are  used  in  carding  wool  and 
cotton.    Died  in  1832. 

Earle,  (Thomas,)  an  American  writer  and  philan- 
thropist, son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Leicester, 
Massachusetts,  in  1791.  He  practised  law  in  Philadelphia 
for  many  years.  He  was  one  of  the  most  influential 
members  of  the  State  Constitutional  Convention  of  1837, 


a.  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  s/ior/;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mhX\  n6t;  good;  moon; 


EARLOM 


823 


EBELMEN 


and  in  1840  was  the  candidate  of  the  Liberty  party  for 
the  Vice-Presidency.  Died  in  1849.  Among  his  works 
are  treatises  on  penal  law  and  on  States'  rights. 

His  brother  Pliny,  a  physician,  born  in  1809,  published 
in  1841  a  work  on  the  asylums  for  the  insane  in  Europe. 

Harlom,  er'lom,  (Richard,)  one  of  the  most  eminent 
English  engravers  of  his  time,  was  born  in  London  about 
1742,  or,  as  some  say,  in  1728.  He  has  probably  never 
been  surpassed  as  a  mezzotinto  engraver.  Among  his 
master-pieces  is  "The  Royal  Academy."  He  engraved 
the  works  of  many  Italian  and  Flemish  painters  ;  he  also 
left  fruit-  and  flower-pieces,  after  Huysum,  and  a  collection 
of  prints  after  Claude  Lorrain,  entitled  "  Liber  Veritatis," 
(3  vols.,  1 777-1804.)    Died  in  1822, 

Early,  er'le,  (John,)  an  eminent  American  divine, 
IJishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  was 
born  in  Virginia  in  1785.  At  an  early  age  he  became  an 
itinerant  preacher,  and  was  chosen  bishop  in  1854. 

Early,  (Jubal  A.,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Vir- 
ginia about  1 81 8,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1837.  He 
commanded  a  division  of  General  Lee's  army  at  Gettys- 
burg, July  2-3,  1863.  In  July,  1864,  he  invaded  Mary- 
land, and  sent  a  body  of  cavalry  on  a  raid  to  Chambers- 
burg,  which  they  burned.  Having  moved  his  army  back 
to  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  he  was  defeated  by  Sheridan 
on  the  Opequan  Creek  and  at  Fisher's  Hill  on  the  19th 
and  20th  of  September.  On  the  19th  of  October,  1864, 
he  surprised  the  Union  army  at  Cedar  Creek,  in  the 
absence  of  General  Sheridan  ;  but  the  latter,  having  ar- 
rived in  the  afternoon,  gained  a  decisive  victory.  General 
Early  losing  the  greater  part  of  his  artillery  and  trains. 

East,  (Sir  Edward  Hyde,)  an  English  jurist,  born 
about  1764,  published  "King's  Bench  Rejiorts,  1800- 
1812,"  which  are  highly  commended,  and  another  excel- 
lent legal  production,  entitled  "  Pleas  of  the  Crown," 
(i8o3.^>    Died  in  1847. 

East'burn,  (James  Wallis,)  a  poet  and  Episcopal 
clergyman,  born  in  England  in  1797.  He  became  in  181 8 
rector  of  a  church  in  Accomac  county,  Virginia.  In  con- 
junction with  Robert  C.  Sands,  he  wrote  "  Yamoyden,"  a 
romantic  poem  founded  on  the  history  of  the  Indian 
king  Philip.    Died  in  1819. 

See  "  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1821. 

Eastburn,  (Manton,)  D.D.,  a  bishop,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  England  in  1801.  Having  been 
brought  by  his  parents  to  New  York,  he  graduated  at 
Columbia  College  in  1817.  He  received  holy  orders  in 
1822,  and  was  for  many  years  pastor  of  the  Church  of 
the  Ascension  in  New  York.  He  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Massachusetts  in  1843. 

East'lake,  (Sir  Charles  Lock,)  an  eminent  English 
historical  painter,  born  at  Plymouth  in  1793.  He  be- 
came a  pupil  of  Fuseli  in  the  Royal  Academy,  and  visited 
Italy  and  Greece  about  181 8,  after  which  he  passed  some 
years  in  Rome.  In  1828  he  produced  a  remarkable  pic- 
ture of  "  Pilgrims  to  Rome  first  coming  in  Sight  of  the 
Holy  City."  He  was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in 
1830,  and  president  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1850.  His 
picture  of  "  Christ  Weeping  over  Jerusalem"  was  greatly 
admired  for  a  union  of  refinement  with  earnest  religious 
feeling.  He  has  enriched  the  literature  of  art  with  valu- 
able works,  among  which  are  a  version  of  Goethe's 
"Theory  of  Colours,"  (1840,)  and  "Materials  for  a  His- 
tory of  Oil-Painting,"  (1847.)  Died  about  the  end  of  1865. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  "  London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1848;  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for 
February,  1866. 

Eastlake,  (Elizabeth  Rigby,)  Lady,  wife  of  the 
preceding,  to  whom  she  was  married  in  1849.  Among 
her  works  are  "Letters  from  the  Shores  of  the  Baltic," 
(1841,)  and  "Livonian  Tales." 

East'man,  (Charles  G.,)  an  American  poet  and 
journalist,  born  in  Oxford  county,  Maine,  in  1816.  He 
became  about  1846  editor  of  the  "Vermont  Patriot," 
published  at  Montpelier,  and  produced  a  volume  of 
poems  in  1848. 

Eastman,  (Mary  Henderson,)  an  American  writer, 
born  at  Warrenton,  Virginia,  about  181 8.  She  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "  Romance  of  Indian  Life," 
(1852,)  and  "Aunt  Phillis's  Cabin,"  designed  as  a  reply 
to  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin." 


East'wick,  (Edward  B.,)  an  English  Orientalist, 
born  in  Berkshire  in  1814.  He  was  employed  in  India 
as  interpreter  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company. 
About  1845  he  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
in  the  College  of  Haileybury.  He  has  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Dry  Leaves  from  Young  Egypt,"  (1849,) 
a  version  of"  Gulistan,"  from  the  Persian,  (1852,)  "  Lights 
of  Canopus,"  (1854,)  and  a  version  of  "The  Four  l3er- 
vishes,"  a  Persian  tale. 

Eaton,  ee'ton,  (  Amos,  )  a  distinguished  American 
naturalist,  born  in  1777,  graduated  at  Williams  College, 
studied  law  in  early  life,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar. 
On  the  organization  of  the  Rensselaer  Institute,  about 
1828,  at  Troy,  New  York,  he  was  appointed  principal  and 
senior  professor,  which  position  he  held  till  his  death  in 
1842.  He  published  a  text-book  on  botany,  which  passed 
through  numerous  editions,  an  "  Index  to  the  Geology 
of  the  Northern  States,"  and  other  scientific  works.  By 
his  writings  and  zeal  in  the  cause  of  natural  science  he 
did  much  to  promote  the  study  of  natural  history  in  the 
United  States  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century. 

Eaton,  ee'ton,  (John,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  1575,  preached  at  Wickham  Market,  and  wrote  Anti- 
noniian  treatises  on  Faith  and  Justification.  Died  in  1641. 

Eaton,  (Horace,)  born  in  \Vindsor  county,  Vermont, 
in  1804,  was  elected  Governor  of  Vermont  in  1846,  and 
was  for  several  years  State  superintendent  of  common 
schools.    Died  in  1855. 

Eaton,  (William,)  an  American  soldier,  born  in 
Woodstock,  Connecticut,  in  1764.  He  was  sent  as  con- 
sul to  Tunis  in  1798,  and  was  involved  in  a  series  of 
negotiations  and  disputes,  which  he  conducted  with  great 
ability  and  courage.  After  hostilities  had  begun  between 
the  United  States  and  Tripoli  in  1801,  he  made  an  at- 
tempt to  revolutionize  Tripoli  by  means  of  an  army  which 
he  commanded;  but  a  treaty  of  peace  in  1805  rendered 
his  attempt  abortive.    Died  in  1811. 

See  a  "Life  of  W.  Eaton"  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography," 
vol.  ix.,  ist  series,  by  C.  C.  Felton. 

Ebben,  Sb'ben,  or  Ebbon,  ^b'bon,  a  German  monk 
of  the  twelfth  century,  wrote  a  "Life  of  Otho,  Bishop 
of  Bamberg." 

Ebbesen,  §b'beh-sen,  (Niels,  or  Nicholas,)  a  Danish 
patriot,  who  took  arms  against  Count  Gerard,  a  petty 
tyrant,  whom  he  killed.  He  afterwards  defeated  the 
army  of  Gerard,  but  lost  his  life  in  the  action,  in  1340. 

Eb'bon,  [Fr.  pron.  i^b^N',]  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born 
about  775  a.d.  He  became  Bishop  of  Rheims  in  816, 
and  aided  Lothaire  in  rebellion  against  Louis  le  Debon- 
naire.    Died  in  851. 

E'bed  Je'su,  a  Syrian  writer,  who  became  Nestorian 
Bishop  of  Nisibis  about  1290.  Died  in  1318.  Among 
his  numerous  works  is  "The  Book  of  the  Pearl,"  a  treat- 
ise on  the  truth  of  the  Christian  religion. 

Ebel,  a'bel,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German  geolo- 
gist, born  at  Ziillichau  in  1764.  He  wrote  a  popular 
"Guide  to  Travellers  in  Switzerland,"  (1793,)  an  able 
treatise  on  the  geology  of  the  Alps,  ("Ueber  den  Bau 
der  Erde  in  den  Alpen-Gebirgen,"  1808,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1830. 

Ebel,  (Johann  Philipp,)  a  German  writer,  born  in 
1592  ;  died  in  1627. 

Ebeling,  a'beh-liug^  (Christoph  Daniel,)  a  German 
historian  and  scholar,  born  in  Hildesheim,  Hanover,  in 
1 741,  was  for  many  years  professor  of  history  and  of 
Greek  at  Hamburg.  His  principal  work  is  a  valuable 
"History  and  Geography  of  North  America,"  (7  vols., 
1796-1816.)    Died  in  1817. 

Ebelmen,  WhlVmb-H',  (Jacques  Joseph,)  an  eminent 
French  chemist,  born  at  Beaume-les-Dames  in  1814.  He 
became  professor  of  docimacy  in  the  Ecole  des  Mines 
in  1845.  In  1847  was  appointed  an  engineer  of  the 
first  class,  and  director  of  the  porcelain  manufactory  at 
Sevres,  the  products  of  which  he  raised  to  a  higher  state 
of  perfection.  He  wrote  for  the  "Annales  des  Mines" 
and  "  Annales  de  Physique  et  de  Chimie"  many  treatises, 
among  which  was  one  "  On  the  Decomposition  of  Rocks," 
(1848.)  He  died  in  1852,  a  few  days  after  he  had  been 
appointed  engineer-in-chief  of  mines. 

See  M.  Chevreul,  "Notice  sur  Ebelmen,"  1855;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^^Se#  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


EBER 


EBU-THALIB 


Eber,  a'ber,  [Lat.  Ebe'rus,]  (Paul,)  a  German  Prot- 
estant theologian,  born  at  Ritzingen  in  151 1,  was  a  friend 
of  Melanchthon,  with  whom  he  attended  the  Conference 
of  Worms  in  1 541.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Wittenberg  in  1556,  and  wrote,  among  other  works, 
(in  Latin,)  an  "Exposition  of  the  Gospels,"  and  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Jews,"  (1561.)    Died  in  1569. 

See  M.  Adam,  "  Vitae  Eruditorum ;"  Balthasar  Menz,  "Oratio 
de  Vita  et  Rebus  gestis  P.  Eberi,"  1581 ;  G.  H.  Sixt,  "P.  Eber, 
der  Schiiler,  Freund  und  Amtsgenosse  der  Reformatoren,"  1843. 

Eb'er-ard,  a  son-in-law  of  the  emperor  Lothaire,  ob- 
tained about  845  A.D.  the  duchy  of  Friuli,  then  one  of 
the  most  important  fiefs  of  Italy.  He  was  the  father  of 
Berenger,  King  of  Italy. 

Eberhard,  a''ber-haRt^  or  Sb'er-haRt^  (August  Gott- 
LOB,)  a  German  savant  and  writer,  born  at  Belzig,  Prus- 
sia, in  1769.  Among  his  prose  works  are  stories  entitled 
"Ferdinand  Werner,"  (1802,)  and  "Hannchen  and  the 
Chickens,"  which  had  a  great  success.  His  poem  "The 
First  Man  and  the  Earth"  ("Der  erste  Mensch  und  die 
Erde,"  1828)  is  praised  for  its  noble  style.  Died  in  1845. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Eberhard,  (Christoph,)  a  German  natural  philoso- 
pher, born  in  1655  ;  died  in  1730. 

Eberhard,  (Johann  August,)  a  German  philosopher 
and  elegant  writer,  born  at  Halberstadt  in  1739.  He  pub- 
lished in  1772  an  "Apology  for  Socrates,"  which  exercised 
great  influence  in  the  propagation  of  that  theological  sys- 
tem popularly  known  as  neology  or  rationalism.  This 
work  was  severely  criticised  by  Lessing  and  others,  and 
hindered  Eberhard's  advancement  in  the  Church.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  history  at  Halle  in  1778.  In 
philosophy  he  was  a  staunch  partisan  of  Leibnitz,  and 
an  adversary  of  Kantism.  He  wrote,  among  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  Philosophy,"  (1788,)  and  a  "Dictionary 
of  German  Synonyms,"  (6  vols.,  1 793-1802,)  which  was 
universally  admired.    Died  in  1809. 

See  F.  NicoLAi,  "  Gedaclitnissschi  ift  auf  J.  A.  Eberhard,"  Ber- 
lin, 1810;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Eberhard,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  at  Hochstadt  in  1743  ;  died  in  1772. 

Eberhard,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  at  Altona  in  1727;  died  in  1779. 

Eberhard,  (Konrad,)  a  distinguished  German  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Hindelang  in  1768.  He  became  professor 
of  sculpture  in  the  Academy  of  Munich  in  1816.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Leda  and  the  Swan,"  and  a  statue  of 
Saint  Michael. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Eb'er-hard  or  Evrard  de  Bethune,  a  Flemish 
grammarian  of  the  twelfth  century,  wrote  a  Latin  Gram- 
mar. 

Eberle,  a'ber-leh,  (Adam,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1805;  died  at  Rome  in  1832. 

Eb'er-le,  (John,)  an  American  medical  writer,  born 
in  Lancaster  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1788,  graduated  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1809.  He  published 
about  1822  a  "Treatise  on  Therapeutics,"  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  establishing  the  Jefferson  Medical  College 
in  Philadelphia,  and  became  a  professor  in  that  institu- 
tion.   Died  in  1838. 

See  S.  D.  Gross,  "American  Medical  Biography." 

Eberlin,  a'ber-leen',  (Daniel,)  a  German  musician, 
born  at  Nuremberg  about  1630.  He  became  succes- 
sively soldier,  chapel-master,  and  banker.  Died  at  Cas- 
sel  in  1685. 

Ebers,  a'bers,  (Emil,)  a  German  painter,  distinguished 
for  humour  and  comic  talent,  was  born  at  Breslau  in 
1807.    Among  his  subjects  are  smugglers,  outlaws,  etc. 

Ebersberger,  a'bers-bgRG'er,  or  lEbersperger, 
a'bers-p^RG^er,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  engraver 
of  maps,  born  at  Lichtenau  in  1695;  died  in  1760. 

Eberstein,  von,  fon  a'ber-stin',  (Wilhelm  Lud- 
wiG,)  Baron,  a  German  metaphysical  philosopher,  born 
in  1762  ;  died  in  1805. 

Ebert,  a'b^Rt,  (Friedrich  Adolph,)  a  distinguished 
German  bibliographer,  born  at  Taucha,  near  Leipsic,  in 
1791.  He  was  appointed  director  of  the  Royal  Library 
of  Dresden  in  1828.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a 
"Life  of  Napoleon,"  (1817,)  and  a  "Universal  Biblio- 
graphic Dictionary,"  (2  vols.,  1820-30.)    Died  in  1834. 


Ebert,  (Johann  Arnold,)  a  German  poet,  born  at 
Hamburg  in  1723.  He  was  for  a  long  time  professor 
in  the  Carolinum  of  Brunswick.  His  German  version 
of  young's  "  Night  Thoughts"  (1790-95)  is  praised  by 
Guizot.  He  translated  other  English  works,  and  wrote 
lyric  verses  of  some  merit.    Died  in  1795. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruder,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ebert,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  German  philosopher,  born 
at  Breslau  in  1737,  became  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Wittenberg.  He  published  "Principles  of  Practical 
Philosophy,"  (1784,)  and  other  works  for  the  instruction 
of  youth.    Died  in  1805. 

Ebert,  (Theodor,  )  a  German  Hebraist,  who  was 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  He  pub- 
lished several  works.    Died  in  1630. 

Eberus,  (Paul.)    See  Eber. 

Eberweiu.    See  Ebroin. 

E'bi-011,  the  supposed  founder  of  the  E'bionites,  a 
sect  of  heretics  who  existed  in  the  East  in  the  first  cen- 
tury. They  rejected  the  New  Testament  and  observed 
the  Mosaic  law,  but  professed  to  be  Christians.  Origen 
and  some  others,  however,  derive  the  name  of  Ebionites 
from  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  "poor." 

See  Matter,  "Histoire  du  Gnosticisme." 

Eble,  §b''la^  (Jean  Baptiste,)  an  eminent  French 
general,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1758.  As  general  of  bri- 
gade, he  directed  the  sieges  of  Ypres,  Nieuvvpoort,  Bois- 
le-Duc,  etc.  He  was  made  a  general  of  division  in 
1793.  In  1795  he  made  the  campaign  of  the  Palatinate, 
under  Moreau,  and  in  1800  commanded  the  artillery  at 
the  victory  of  Hohenlinden.  In  the  Russian  campaign 
of  1812  he  was  chief  commandant  of  the  pontoon-train, 
and  rendered  great  services  at  the  passage  of  the  Bere- 
zina, where  it  is  said  Bonaparte  was  saved  by  his  energy 
and  skill.  He  died  from  the  effects  of  cold  and  exposure 
on  this  occasion,  just  as  he  was  appointed  inspector- 
general  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  artillery  of  the 
grand  army. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Francais." 

Ebn.    See  Ibn. 

Ebn-Koteybah.    See  Ibn-Koteybah. 

Ebner,  ^b'ner,  (Erasmus,)  a  German  poet,  born  at 
Nuremberg  in  151 1,  was  a  pupil  of  Melanchthon.  He 
wrote  Latin  epigrams  which  were  printed  with  those  of 
Melanchthon,  and  chscovered  that  cadmium  and  copper 
fused  together  produce  brass.    Died  in  1577. 

Eboli,  ^b'o-lee  or  a'bo-lee,  (Ana  de  Mendoza — di 
mgn-do'tha,)  Princess  of,  a  Spanish  lady,  born  about 
1535  or  1540,  became  the  wife  of  Ruy  Gomez  de  Sylva, 
Prince  of  Eboli.  She  was,  it  is  said,  the  mistress  of  Philip 
II.,  and  was  suspected  of  being  an  accomplice  of  Antonio 
Perez  in  the  assassination  of  Escovedo.  She  was  ar- 
rested in  1579  and  imprisoned,  but  was  soon  released. 

See  Mignet,  "Antonio  Perez  et  Philippe  IL" 

Ebrard,  a''bR3.Rt,  (Johann  Heinrich  August,)  a 
prominent  German  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Er- 
langen  in  181 8.  He  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Erlangen  in  1847.  He  edited  a  review  called  "The 
Future  of  the  Church,"  (1845-47,)  and  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "  Christian  Dogmatics,"  (2  vols.,  1852,)  and 
"The  Divine  and  Human  ( Gottmenschlichkeit )  in  Chris- 
tianity," (1844.)  Many  of  his  sermons  have  been  pub- 
lished. He  is,  or  was  recently,  preacher  and  councillor 
of  the  Consistory  at  Spire. 

Eb're-mar,  written  also  Evermer,  third  Patriarch 
of  Jerusalem,  was  born  near  Therouanne.  He  was  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  patriarch  in  1103.    Died  after  1122. 

E'broin,  [Lat.  Ebroi^'nus,]  written  also  Eberwein, 
a  powerful  and  ambitious  Frank,  was  mayor  of  the  palace 
under  Clotaire  HI.  (King  of  Neustria)  and  under  Theo- 
doric  III.    He  was  killed  in  681  a.d. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Francais." 

Ebu.    See  Aboo. 

Ebu-Beker.    See  Aboo-Bekr. 

Eb'ur-y,  (Robert  Grosvenor,)  Lord,  an  English 
peer,  a  son  of  the  second  Earl  Grosvenor,  was  born  in 
1 80 1.  He  was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons 
from  1822  to  1857,  and  was  then  raised  to  the  peerage. 
He  supported  several  bills  for  the  promotion  of  civil 
and  religious  liberty. 

Ebu-Thalib.    See  Aboo-TAlib. 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fXt;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon ; 


ECATARINA 


825 


ECKHEL 


Ecatarina.    See  Catherine,  Empress  of  Russia. 

Ecbert.    See  Egbert. 

Eccard.    See  Eckhart. 

Eccelino  da  Romano.    See  Romano. 

Ecclielensis.    See  Echellensis. 

Eccius.    See  EcK. 

Eccles,  ^k'klz,  (Ambrose,)  an  Irish  critic,  published 
editions  oi  "  Cymbeline,"  "King  Lear,"  and  the  "Mer- 
chant of  Venice,"  with  copious  notes  and  critical  essays 
on  these  dramas  by  himself  and  others.    Died  in  1809. 

Eccles,  ^k''klz,  (John,)  an  excellent  English  musical 
composer,  set  some  of  Congreve's  songs  to  music,  with 
a  success  that  gained  great  applause.    Died  in  1735. 

Eccles,  (Solomon,)  an  English  musician,  father  of 
the  preceding,  lived  about  1680. 

Ecgberht  or  Ecgbert,    See  Egbert. 

idchard,  a^shtR',(jACQUES,)  a  French  Dominican  friar, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1644,  wrote  a  work  on  the  authors  who 
had  been  members  of  his  order,  entitled  "Scriptores 
Ordinis  Praedicatorum  recensiti,"  (1721,)  which  is  highly 
commended.    Died  in  1724. 

Echard,  etch^'ard,  (Rev.  Lawrence,)  an  English  his- 
torian, born  in  Suffolk  about  1670,  obtained  Alford  and 
other  livings  in  Suffolk.  He  is  the  author  of  a  "General 
Ecclesiastical  History,"  (1702,)  and  of  a  "History  of 
England  to  1688,"  (3  vols.,  1707-18,)  which  was  once 
quite  popular,  but  has  ceased  to  be  read  since  the  pub- 
lication of  Rapin.    Died  in  1730. 

E-eh-el-len'sis,  (Abraham,)  a  learned  Maronite,  born 
at  Eckel,  Syria.  After  professing  Syriac  and  Arabic  at 
Rome,  he  came  to  Paris  about  1630  to  assist  in  the  edi- 
tion of  Le  Jay's  Polyglot  Bible,  and  received  the  title  of 
interpreter  to  the  king.  He  returned  to  Rome  in  1653. 
He  wrote  an  "  Oriental  Chronicle,"  and  translated  sev- 
eral works  from  the  Arabic.    Di^d  in  1664. 

Echeverri,  de,  dk  etch-^-v^r-ree',  sometimes  written 
Etcheverri,  (Juan,)  the  most  famous  of  the  Basque 
poets,  born  at  Tafalla,  in  Navarre,  about  1550,  wrote  the 
"Mysteries  of  the  Faith,"  and  other  religious  poems. 

E-ehid'na,  [Gr.  "Exi^va,]  in  the  Greek  mythology,  a 
daughter  of  Tartarus,  represented  as  a  monster,  half 
woman  and  half  serpent,  was  the  mother  of  the  Chimaera, 
Cerberus,  the  Sphinx,  and  other  monsters. 

Echinus,  (Sebastian.)    See  Erizzo. 

E-ehi^on,  ['E^y^'w^^,]  a  Greek  painter  and  statuary,  who 
lived  about  350  B.C.,  is  ranked  by  Pliny  among  the  great 
painters,  and  is  praised  by  Cicero. 

E'-eho,  [Gr.  'H;\:w,]  a  nymph  of  classic  mythology,  and 
an  attendant  of  Juno,  was  called  a  daughter  of  the  Air. 
The  poets  feigned  that  Juno,  offended  by  her  unruly 
tongue,  changed  her  into  an  echo,  and  ordained  that  she 
should  not  be  able  to  speak  until  another  had  spoken, 
nor  be  silent  after  another  had  spoken  to  her.  She  was 
disappointed  in  her  love  of  Narcissus,  and  pined  away 
until  nothing  remained  of  her  but  her  voice. 

Eck,  gk,  Eckius,  ek'ke-us,  or  Eccius,  Echius,  a'ke- 
tis,  (Johann,)  a  German  theologian,  famous  as  an  able 
antagonist  of  Luther,  was  born  at  Eck,  in  Suabia,  in  14S6. 
He  became  a  professor  in  the  University  of  Ingolstadt. 
In  1 5 19  he  disputed  against  Luther  at  Leipsic,  and  in 
1530  was  chosen,  with  others,  to  controvert  the  Lutheran 
Confession  of  Faith  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg.  He  wrote 
a  "  Manual  of  Controversy,"  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1543- 

See  Arnold,  "Kirchen-  und  Ketzer-Historie." 

Eck  or  Eckius,  (Leonard,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
in  1480,  acquired  a  great  reputation  as  a  lawyer,  and  was 
emi)loyed  by  Charles  V.    Died  at  Munich  in  1550. 

Eck,  van,  vSn  Ik,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born 
at  Arnheim.  He  became  professor  of  civil  and  modern 
law  at  Utrecht  in  1692.  He  wrote  "  Principles  of  Civil 
Law,"  ("  Principia  Juris  Civilis,"  1689,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1732. 

Eckard.    See  Eckhard  and  Eckhart. 

Eckard,  dk'k§,Rt,  (Georg  Ludwig,)  a  German  por- 
trait-painter of  high  reputation,  born  at  Hamburg  in 
1769  ;  died  in  1794. 

Eckart,  (Dietrich  Gotthard,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  at  Eilenburg  in  1696  ;  died  in  1760. 

Eckartshausen,  von,  fon  gk'kiRts-how'zen,  (Karl,) 
a  German  writer,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1752,  became  aulic 


councillor  at  Munich.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  God  is  the  Purest  Love,"  ("  Gott  ist  die  reinste  Liebe," 
1784,)  which  had  great  success.    Died  in  1803. 

Eckerbrecht,  gk'ker-bRgict^  (Philipp,)  a  German 
astronomer,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1594,  was  a  pupil  or 
friend  of  Kepler.    Died  in  1667. 

Eckermann,  gk^ker-mSn^  (Johann  Peter,)  a  Ger- 
man  litteratetcr,  born  at  Winsen,  Hanover,  in  1792.  He 
published  in  1821  a  volume  of  poems,  which  procured 
for  him  the  friendship  of  Goethe,  and  he  co-operated 
with  that  author  in  the  complete  edition  of  his  works 
at  Weimar,  In  1832-33  he  published  the  posthumous 
works  of  Goethe,  in  accordance  with  his  last  will.  His 
"  Conversations  with  Goethe"  (  "  Gesprache  mit  Gothe," 
3  vols.,  1836-48)  has  been  translated  into  various  lan- 
guages.   Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1836;  Brockhaus, 
"  Conversatioiis-Lexilcon." 

Eckersberg,  gk'kers-b^RG',  (Christoph  Wilhelm,) 
an  eminent  Danish  painter,  born  in  Holstein  about  1782, 
studied  in  Paris  and  Italy.  He  painted  history,  por- 
traits, and  marine  pieces  with  great  success.  Among 
his  works  is  "The  Death  of  Balder."    Died  in  1853. 

Eck'ford,  (Henry,)  a  distinguished  naval  architect, 
born  in  Scotland  in  1775.  He  served  an  apprenticeship 
to  a  shipbuilder  in  Quebec,  and  in  1796  established  him- 
self in  business  in  New  York.  He  was  soon  distinguished 
for  the  superiority  of  his  vessels  in  strength  and  speed, 
and  in  the  second  war  with  Great  Britain  was  employed 
by  the  government  to  furnish  fleets  for  the  lakes.  He 
afterwards  built  many  vessels  of  war  for  foreign  nations, 
established  a  professorship  of  naval  architecture  at  Co- 
lumbia College,  and  in  1831  accepted  the  appointment 
of  naval  constructor  for  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Died  at 
Constantinople,  November  12,  1832. 

See  Henry  Howe,  "Lives  of  Eminent  American  Mechanics," 
etc.,  1847. 

Eckhard,  Sk'hiRt,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Quedlinburg  in  1723,  wrote  many 
literary  treatises.    Died  in  1794. 

Eckhard,  (Johann  Georg.)    See  Eckhart. 

Eckhard,  (Tobias,)  a  German  Hellenist,  born  at  De- 
litzsch  in  1558;  died  in  1652. 

Eckhard,  (Tobias,)  a  distinguished  German  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Jiiterbock,  Saxony,  in  1662.  He  was  rector 
of  the  Academy  of  Quedlinburg.  He  published  (in  Latin) 
a  treatise  on  logic,  "Ars  Rationis,"  (1714,)  "Technica 
Sacra,"  (1716,)  a  treatise  on  philosophy,  (1717,)  "Testi- 
monies to  Christ  by  those  who  were  not  Christians," 
(1725,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1737. 

See  C.  H.  Eckhard,  "Vita  T.  Eckhardi,"  1739. 

Eckhart  or  Eckhard,  von,  fon  gk'hiRt,  written  also 
Eccard  and  Eckard,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  his- 
torian, born  at  Duingenin  1674.  Through  the  influence 
of  Leibnitz  he  obtained  a  chair  of  history  at  Helmstedt  in 
1706.  He  succeeded  Leibnitz  as  librarian  at  Hanover. 
To  escape  his  creditors  he  retired  to  Cologne,  where  he 
joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  He  afterwards  be- 
came librarian  and  counsellor  to  the  Bishop  of  Wiirtz- 
burg.  He  was  author  of  several  Latin  histories,  which 
are  valued  for  research  and  criticism,  viz.,  a  "  History  of 
the  Princes  of  Upper  Saxony,"  (1722,)  "History  of  the 
Middle  Ages,"  ("Corpus  historicum  medii  ^vi,"  1723,) 
and  a  work  "On  the  Origin  of  the  Germans,"  ("De 
Origine  Germanorum,"  1750.)    Died  in  1730. 

Eckhel,  gk'hel,  (Joseph  Hilary,)  a  pre-eminent 
Austrian  numismatist,  born  at  Enzersfeld  in  1737,  en- 
tered the  order  of  Jesuits.  Having  made  extensive  re- 
searches in  Italy  and  attained  great  proficiency  in  the 
knowledge  of  medals,  he  was  appointed,  in  1774,  director 
of  the  imperial  cabinet  of  medals  at  Vienna,  and  pro- 
fessor of  antiquities.  In  1775  ^''^  published  an  excellent 
work  on  medals,  entitled  "  Numi  Veteres."  His  capital 
work  is  "Doctrina  Numorum  Veterum,"  (8  vols.,  1792- 
98,)  a  systematic  treatise  on  the  science  of  numismatics, 
which  the  perfection  of  the  plan,  the  extent  of  the  re- 
searches, and  the  soundness  of  the  criticism  render  per- 
haps the  best  work,  on  the  whole,  which  is  to  be  found 
on  that  subject.    Died  in  1798. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Aubim 
Louis  Millin,  "Notice  historique  sur  J.  H.  Eckhel,"  Paris,  1798; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


e  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


826  EDGEWORTH 


ECKHOF 


Eckhof,  Sk^hof,  (Conrad,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
German  actors,  was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1720.  He  ex- 
celled in  tragedy,  and  was  called  "the  Garrick  of  Ger- 
many." He  produced  "The  Desert  Isle,"  and  other 
comedies.    Died  in  1778. 

Eckhout.    See  Eeckhout. 

Eckmiihl,  Prince  of.    See  Davoust. 

Eckstein,  von,  fon  Sk'stln,  (Ferdinand,)  Baron,  a 
publicist,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1790,  was  converted  to 
Roman  Catholicism.  He  removed  to  France,  and  edited 
the  "  Catholique,"  (1826-29,)  in  which  he  advocated  the 
doctrines  of  De  Maistre. 

^cluse.    See  Lecluse. 

ficluse  des  Loges,  de  1',  deh  li'kliiz'  di lozh,  (Pierre 
Mathurin,)  born  at  Falaise,  France,  in  1 715,  was  a 
doctor  of  the  Sorbonne.  His  reputation  rests  chiefly  on 
his  edition  of  Sully's  "Memoirs."    Died  about  1783. 

^colampade.    See  CEcolampadius. 

Ec-phan'ti-des,['EA:^avn'(5;7f,]an  Athenian  comic  poet, 
who  lived  about  450  B.C.    His  works  are  not  extant, 

Ecqueviily,  d',  dek^verye',  (Armand  FRANgois,) 
Count  and  Marquis,  a  French  general,  was  born  of  a 
noble  family  of  Champagne  in  1747.  He  emigrated  in 
1791,  and  served  under  the  Prince  of  Conde,  as  quarter- 
master-general of  cavalry,  in  1794.  Returning  to  France 
with  the  king,  he  was  made  lieutenant-general  in  1814, 
and  marquis  in  1820.    Died  in  1830. 

Edebali,  ed-eb'd-lee,  Sheik,  a  Mussulman,  noted  for 
devotion  and  learning,  born  in  Caramania  about  1210, 
founded  a  monastery  which  was  much  frequented.  Oth- 
man,  the  founder  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  married  the 
daughter  of  Edebali.    Died  in  1326. 

Edelinck,  a''deh-link,  (Caspar,)  a  Flemish  engraver, 
was  a  brother  and  pupil  of  Gerard,  noticed  below. 

His  brother  John,  born  about  1630,  was  also  an  en- 
graver, and  worked  some  time  with  Gerard. 

Edelinck,  gd^el-ink  or  aMeh-link^  (Gerard,)  a  cele- 
brated Flemish  engraver,  born  in  Antwerp  in  1649,  re- 
moved to  Paris  at  an  early  age,  and  received  the  title 
of  engraver  to  the  cabinet  of  Louis  XIV.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  "The  Holy  Family,"  after  Raphael,  the 
"Crucifixion,"  after  Lebrun,  the  "Virgin,"  after  Guido, 
"  The  Combat  of  Cavalry,"  after  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and 
portraits  of  many  eminent  men.  His  works  are  highly 
finished,  and  are  characterized  by  freedom  of  touch, 
fidelity  of  design,  and  perfect  harmony  of  execution. 
Died  in  1707.  He  is  reckoned  among  the  engravers 
of  the  first  class.  "  No  one  but  Audran,"  says  Ponce, 
"can  be  placed  on  a  par  with  him." 

His  son  Nicolas  engraved  at  Venice  a  "  Madonna  and 
Child,"  after  Correggio,  and  other  subjects.  Died  in  1730. 

See  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Edelmann,  a'del-min'  or  i'deKmSN',  (Jean  FR^Dfi- 
RIC,)  a  musical  composer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1749,  was 
a  violent  revolutionist.  He  was  guillotined  in  1794,  after 
he  had  procured  the  death  of  several  persons. 

Edelmann,  a'del-mln^  (Johann  Christian,)  a  Ger- 
man deist,  born  in  Saxony  in  1698.  He  wrote  "The 
Divinity  of  Reason,"  (1742.)  Guizot  calls  him  a  fameux 
esprit-fort.    Died  in  1767. 

See  Wii.HELM  Elstek,  "  Erinnerung  an  J.  C.  Edelmann,"  1830; 
Edelmann's  Autobiography,  ("  Selbstbiographie,")  published  by 
Carl  R.  W.  Klose,  Berlin,  1849. 

Edema,  a'deh-mS,  (Gerard,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Friesland  about  1655,  is  said  to  have 
travelled  in  America  for  artistic  purposes,  and  finally 
settled  in  England.    Died  about  1700. 

See  Bryan,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

E'den,  (Sir  Frederick  Morton,)  an  English  diplo- 
matist and  writer  on  political  economy,  published  in 
1797  "The  State  of  England,"  which,  says  McCulloch, 
"is  the  grand  storehouse  of  information  respecting  the 
labouring  classes  of  England."  He  also  wrote  "  Friendly 
Societies,"  "  Maritime  Rights  of  Great  Britain,"  and 
other  works.  From  1792  to  1796  he  was  ambassador  to 
Berlin,  Vienna,  and  Madrid.    Died  in  1809. 

Eden,  (George.)    See  Auckland,  Lord. 

Eden,  (Sir  Morton,)  an  English  diplomatist,  who 
was  ambassador  to  several  continental  courts  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as 
Lord  Henley,  and  died  in  1802. 


Eden,  (Richard,)  an  Englishman,  who  was  the  first 
to  publish  collectively  the  results  of  maritime  enterprise 
which  followed  the  discovery  of  America.  He  translated, 
from  the  Latin,  "  Decade  of  Voyages,"  by  Vertomanus, 
(1576,)  and  other  works  on  navigation  and  geography. 
His  "  History  of  Travel  in  the  West  and  East  Indies" 
is  partly  original  and  partly  translated.  He  is  by  some 
considered  as  superior  to  Hakluyt. 

Eden,  (William.)    See  Auckland,  Lord. 

E-de'ni-us,  (Jordan,)  a  Swedish  savant,  born  in  1624, 
was  chosen  professor  of  theology  at  Upsal  in  1659.  He 
wrote  an  "  Epitome  of  Ecclesiastical  History,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1666. 

Eder,  a^der,  (Georg,)  a  German  Catholic  theologian, 
born  at  Freysingen  in  1524.  He  was  rector  of  the 
University  of  Vienna,  and  a  councillor  of  the  emperor 
Ferdinand.  He  wrote  "Economy  of  the  Scriptures," 
("CEconomia  Bibliorum,"  1568,)  often  reprinted,  and 
other  works,  mostly  polemical.    Died  in  1586. 

Ed'gar  or  Eadgar,  a  Saxon  king  of  England,  sur- 
named  the  Peaceable,  was  the  son  of  Edmund  I.  and 
Elgiva,  and  was  born  in  943  a.d.  He  ascended  the 
throne  at  the  death  of  his  brother  Edwy,  in  959.  Dun- 
stan.  Bishop  of  London,  and  afterwards  primate,  early 
acquired  an  ascendency  over  Edgar,  and  retained  during 
the  whole  reign  the  chief  control  of  affairs,  which  he 
directed  to  the  aggrandizement  of  the  church  and  clergy. 
Consequently,  Edgar  is  pompously  eulogized  by  the 
monkish  chroniclers,  though  his  morals  were  depraved. 
He  married  first  Elfleda  and  then  Elfrida,  and  founded 
many  monasteries.  It  is  usually  said  that  he  extirpated 
the  wolves  from  England.  He  died  in  975,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Edward  the  Martyr. 

See  Hume's  "History  of  England,"  chap.  ii. 

Edgar  or  Eadgar  Atlieling,  a  Saxon  prince,  wa.s 
a  grandson  of  King  Edmund  Ironside.  His  father  Ed- 
ward was  exiled  by  Canute  in  1017,  and  went  to  Hun- 
gary, where  Edgar  was  born.  At  the  death  of  Edward 
the  Confessor,  in  1066,  Edgar  was  the  nearest  heir  to  the 
throne,  and  was  proclaimed  at  London  just  after  the 
battle  of  Hastings  ;  but  he  submitted  to  William  the  Con- 
queror, who  spared  him  in  consideration  of  his  feeble 
character.  He  was  induced  to  engage  in  several  unsuc- 
cessful revolts  against  the  Norman  king,  and  took  refuge 
in  Scotland  at  the  court  of  Malcolm,  who  had  married 
his  sister.  About  1091  he  was  received  in  peace  at  the 
court  of  William  Rufus.    Died  about  1120. 

Ed'gar,  King  of  Scotland,  was  the  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  the  son  of  Malcolm  III.,  who  died  in  1093. 
Donald  Bane  then  usurped  the  throne,  until  Edgar  Athe- 
ling  raised  an  army  and  deposed  him,  in  1097,  when 
Edgar  became  king.  His  sister  Matilda  became  the 
wife  of  Henry  I.  of  England.  Edgar,  after  a  peaceful 
reign,  died  in  1107,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Alexander  I. 

Edgeworth,  (Abbe.)    See  Firmont. 

Edgeworth,  gj''worth,  (Maria,)  a  popular  English 
authoress,  born  near  Reading,  Berkshire,  January  i,  1767, 
was  the  daughter  of  Richard  Lovell  Edgeworth  (see  be- 
low) and  his  first  wife.  Miss  Elers.  In  1782  she  removed 
with  her  father  to  his  paternal  estate  at  Edgeworthstown, 
in  Ireland,  where  she  continued  to  reside  nearly  all  the 
remainder  of  her  life.  She  was  associated  with  her  father 
in  several  literary  labours,  the  first  result  of  which  was 
a  "Treatise  on  Practical  Education,"  in  1798,  followed 
by  an  "  Essay  on  Irish  Bulls,"  (1802,)  which  was  very 
successful.  In  1801  she  began  to  issue  a  series  of  novels 
of  superior  merit  and  of  good  moral  tendency,  which 
were  received  with  general  and  lasting  favour,  viz., 
"Castle  Rackrent,"  "Belinda,"  (1801,)  "Patronage," 
(1814,)  "  Ormond,"  (1817,)  "Helen,"  etc.,  (1834.)  In 
1823  she  made  a  visit  to  Abbotsford,  the  home  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  who  greatly  admired  her  writings,  and 
once  said,  "  If  I  could  but  hit  Miss  Edgeworth's  wonder- 
ful power  of  vivifying  all  her  persons  and  making  them 
live  as  beings  in  your  mind,  I  should  not  be  afraid." 
Besides  the  above-named  works,  she  published  several 
volumes,  respectively  entitled  "Moral  Tales,"  (1801,) 
"Popular  Tales,"  (1804,)  and  "Tales  of  Fashionable 
Life,"  (1809-12,)  and  co-operated  with  her  father  in 
the  "Parent's  Assistant"  and  "Early  Lessons."  "The 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  moonj 


EDGEWORTH 


827 


EDREES 


writings  of  Miss  Edgeworth,"  says  Lord  Jeffrey,  "ex- 
hibit a  singular  union  of  sober  sense  and  inexhaustible  in- 
vention, and  a  minute  knowledge  of  all  that  distinguishes 
manners  or  touches  on  happiness  in  every  condition  of 
human  fortune."    Died  in  May,  1849. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review,"  July,  1809,  (vol.  xiv.,)  July,  1812,  (vol. 
XX.,)  and  August,  1817,  (vol.  xxviii. ;)  Sir  Walter  Scott's  critique 
in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  January,  1814,  (vol.  xxii.;)  also  "  Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  October,  1867;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
October,  i8ii. 

Edgeworth,  (Richard  Lovell,)  an  ingenious  Eng- 
lish author  and  philosopher,  born  at  Bath  in  1744,  was 
the  fati^er  of  Maria  Edgeworth,  the  popular  novelist. 
Much  his  childhood  was  passed  at  Edgeworthstown, 
Ireland,  where  his  father's  estate  was  situated.  While 
a  student  at  Oxford,  when  he  was  only  about  nineteen, 
he  married  Miss  Elers,  with  whom  he  resided  for  some 
time  in  Berkshire,  where  he  formed  an  intimacy  with 
Thomas  Day  and  Dr.  Darwin,  He  was  distinguished  by 
his  genial  character,  versatile  talents,  and  mechanical 
ingenuity.  In  17S0  he  was  chosen  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society.  In  1782  he  fixed  his  residence  permanently  at 
Edgeworthstown,  where  he  was  actively  engaged  in  the 
education  of  his  numerous  children  and  in  the  duties 
of  magistrate,  legislator,  and  author.  Besides  the  works 
in  which  his  daughter  co-operated,  (see  Edgeworth, 
Maria,)  he  wrote  "Professional  Education,"  "Letter 
on  the  Telegraph,"  and  Memoirs  of  himself,  and  contrib- 
uted to  the  "Philosophical  Transactions"  treatises  on 
mechanics  and  natural  philosophy.  In  the  course  of 
his  life  he  married  four  wives,  two  of  whom  were  sisters, 
named  Sneyd.    Died  in  181 7. 

See  "Memoirs  of  R.  L.  Edgeworth,"  by  himself,  and  concluded 
by  his  daughter;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1809,  August, 
1820;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1820. 

Edgeworth,  (Roger,)  an  English  Catholic  divine, 
was  chancellor  of  Wells  in  1554.  He  published  a  vol- 
ume of  sermons.    Died  about  1560. 

Ed-^i'va  or  Ogive,  Queen  of  France,  was  a  daughter 
of  Edward,  King  of  the  West  Saxons,  and  a  granddaughter 
of  Alfred  the  Great.  She  was  married  to  Charles  the 
Simi)le  of  France  in  919.  Louis  d'Outre-Mer  was  her  son, 

Edinburgh,  Duke  or  See  Alfred,  (Ernest  Al- 
berl) 

Edith.    See  Editha. 

Ed'i-tha,  Salnt,  daughter  of  Edgar,  King  of  Eng- 
land, and  Wilfrida,  took  the  monastic  vows  at  the  age 
of  fifteen,  and  died  about  984  A.D.,  aged  twenty-three. 

Editha  or  E'dith,  an  Anglo-Saxon  queen,  was  a 
daughter  of  Earl  Godwin,  and  was  married  in  1044  to 
King  Edward  the  Confessor.  Her  virtues  and  accom- 
plishments have  been  highly  celebrated  by  historians 
and  poets.  King  Edward  is  said  to  have  treated  her 
with  neglect  and  severity, 

Edmer.    See  Eadmer. 

Edmondes,  gd'munz,  or  Ed'mond.s,  (Sir  Clement,) 
an  English  writer,  born  in  1566,  obtained  some  places  at 
court.  He  wrote  "  Observations  on  the  Commentaries 
of  Caesar,"  (1600-1609.)    Died  in  1622. 

Edmondes  or  Edmonds,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English 
statesman,  born  at  Plymouth  in  1563,  was  employed  with 
success  in  negotiations  with  several  European  courts  in 
the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  James  I,  In  1616  he  was 
chosen  privy  councillor.  His  letters  and  papers  were 
published  by  Dr.  Birch.    Died  in  1639. 

Edmonds.    See  Edmondes. 

Ed'monds,  (John  W.,)  an  American  painter,  born 
in  Hudson,  New  York,  in  1806.  In  1835  he  commenced 
sending  paintings  in  oil  to  the  exhibitions  of  the  Acad- 
emy. Among  these  were  "Sparking,"  "The  City  and 
Country  Beaux,"  "Dominie  Sampson,"  etc.  In  1840  he 
embarked  for  Europe,  and  spent  the  subsequent  winter 
and  spring  in  Rome.  Since  his  return  he  has  followed 
his  profession  in  New  York. 

See  Tuckerman's  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Edmonds,  (John  Worth,)  an  American  jurist  and 
advocate  of  spiritualism,  born  at  Hudson,  New  York, 
in  1799.  He  graduated  at  Union  College,  and  subse- 
quently practised  law  in  New  York.  Being  appointed, 
in  1843,  one  of  the  inspectors  of  State  prisons,  he  effected 
an  important  reform  in  prison-discipline.  He  became 
one  of  the  circuit  judges  of  the  State  in  1845,    He  pub- 


lished in  1853  ^^is  principal  work,  entitled  "Spiritual- 
ism," (2  vols,) 

See  Livingston's  "Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans." 

Ed'mond-spn,  (Henry,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
1607,  wrote  "Lingua  Linguarum,"  (1655,)  and  a  work  on 
Latin  Homonyms  and  Synonyms.    Died  in  1659. 

Edmondson,  (Joseph,)  an  English  writer  and  anti- 
quary, was  appointed  Mowbray  herald-extraordinary  in 
1764.  He  wrote  a  "  Companion  to  the  Peerage,"  (1776,) 
a  "Complete  Body  of  Heraldry,"  (1780,)  and  several 
other  esteemed  works.    Died  in  1786. 

Edmonstone,  (Sir  Archibald,)  a  British  writer, 
born  in  1795,  published  a  "Journey  to  Two  of  the  Oases 
of  Upper  Egypt,"  (1822,)  "The  Progress  of  Religion,"  a 
poem,  (1842,)  and  other  works. 

Ed'mund  the  Martyr,  King  of  the  East  Angles, 
born  in  840  A.D.,  began  to  reign  in  855.  In  870  he  was 
defeated  in  battle  by  the  Danes  under  Hinguar  and 
Hubba,  who  took  him  prisoner  and  put  him  to  death. 

Edmund  or  Eadniund  I,,  King  of  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
born  about  922,  was  the  son  of  Edward  the  Elder  and 
Edgiva  his  wife,  and  grandson  of  Alfred  the  Great.  He 
succeeded  his  half-brother,  Athelstane,  in  941,  and  mar- 
ried Elgiva.  His  brief  reign  gave  evidence  of  his  courage, 
prudence,  and  other  kingly  qualifications.  He  was  as- 
sassinated by  Liof,  an  outlaw,  at  a  feast  in  946.  He  left 
two  infant  sons,  Edwy  and  Edgar,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother  Edred. 

See  Hume's  "  History  of  England,"  chap.  ii. 

Edmund  or  Eadmund  II.,  surnamed  Ironside,  a 
king  of  England  of  the  Saxon  dynasty,  born  in  989  A.D., 
was  the  son  of  Ethelred  II.,  who  died  in  1016.  Before 
this  event,  Edmund  had  signalized  his  valour  in  battle 
against  the  Danish  invaders  under  Canute,  and  at  his 
accession  he  found  the  greater  part  of  the  kingdom  in 
the  power  of  that  enemy.  After  the  Danes  gained  a 
victory  at  Assandun,  Edmund  and  Canute  agreed  by  a 
treaty  to  divide  the  kingdom,  of  which  the  former  re- 
ceived the  southern  and  the  latter  the  northern  part, 
Edmund  survived  this  treaty  about  a  month,  and,  as 
Hume  thinks,  was  murdered  in  1016,  when  Canute  be- 
came master  of  the  whole  kingdom.  Edmund's  half- 
brother,  Edward  the  Confessor,  afterwards  became  king. 
Freeman  calls  Edmund  "a  true  king  of  men,  a  hero 
worthy  to  wield  the  sword  of  Alfred  [Alfred]  and 
/Ethelstan," 

See  Freeman,  "History  of  the  Norman  Conqiiest,"  vol.  i.  chap, 
v.,  p.  419  ;  H  UMH,  "  History  of  England,"  chap.  iii. ;  Turner,  "  His- 
tory of  the  Anglo-Saxons." 

Edmund  of  Langley,  Duke  of  York,  born  in  1341, 
was  the  fifth  son  of  Edward  III.  of  England,  and  was 
the  head  of  the  house  of  York,  famous  in  the  war  of 
the  Roses.  He  married  Isabella  of  Castile,  and  left 
two  sons,  Edward  and  Richard.    Died  in  1402. 

Edmund,  Saint,  an  English  prelate,  sometimes  called 
Edmund  Rich  and  Edmund  of  Pontigny,  born  at 
Abingdon,  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1234. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  taught  logic  at 
Oxford.  He  died  in  1242,  and  was  canonized  by  Inno- 
cent IV.  in  1249. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  iii.  chap.  iii. 

Ed'mund  Plan-tag'e-net,  Earl  of  Kent,  the  son  of 
Edward  I.  of  England,  was  born  in  1301.  In  the  reign 
of  Edward  II.  he  aided  the  queen,  Isabella,  to  depose  the 
king  and  to  crown  the  young  prince  Edward  III.  He 
was  executed  on  a  charge  of  treason  in  1330. 

Edom,  a  name  of  Esau,  the  son  of  Isaac.   See  Esau. 

Ed'red  or  Eadred,  King  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  was 
the  younger  son  of  Edward  the  Elder,  and  brother  of 
Edmund  I.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  946  a.d.  In  this 
reign  the  ambitious  Dunstan  acquired  the  ascendency 
which  he  maintained  through  several  ensuing  reigns. 
He  died  in  955,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Edwy. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England,"  chap.  ii. 

Edrees  or  Edris,  ed-rees',  I,,  a  descendant  of  Alee, 
son-in-law  of  Mohammed,  was  the  founder  of  the  dynasty 
of  the  Edrisites  or  Edrisides,  which  reigned  in  Africa 
nearly  two  hundred  years.  When  his  party  was  defeated 
by  the  Abbassides  in  784  A.D.,  he  fled  to  Barbary,  or  Mau- 
ritania, where  he  was  recognized  as  imam,  or  chief,  about 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


EDREES 


828 


EDWARD 


7S9.  He  was  poisoned  in  793  by  an  emissary  of  Haroun- 
al-Raschid. 

Edrees  or  Edris  II.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
793,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  is  represented  as  a 
learned,  wise,  and  just  ruler.  He  founded  the  city  of 
Fez,  and  reigned  in  peace.  He  died  in  828,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Mohammed. 

See  Ibn-Khaldoun,  "  Histoire  des  Berberes,"  translated  by 
Slane,  1854. 

Edreesee  or  Edrisi,  ed-ree'see,  an  eminent  Arabian 
geographer,  born  at  Ceuta,  Africa,  about  iioo,  was  a 
descendant  of  the  dynasty  above  named,  which  ceased 
to  reign  in  919.  He  lived  at  the  court  of  Roger  H.  of 
Sicily,  for  whom  he  made  a  silver  terrestrial  globe  and 
wrote  his  celebrated  treatise  on  Geography,  {1154.)  In 
1619  Gabriel  Sionita  and  J.  Hesronita  published  a  Latin 
version  of  an  abridgment  of  Edreesee's  Geography  ;  and 
since  thut  time  the  manuscript  of  the  entire  work  has 
been  found  and  translated  into  French  by  M.  Jaubert, 
(1836-40.) 

See  Haji-Khalfa,  "  Lexicon  Bibliographicum ;"  Casiri,  "  Biblio- 
theca  Arabico-Hispana." 

Ed'ric,  Duke  of  Mercia,  was  a  treacherous  minister 
of  Ethelred  11.  When  England  was  invaded  by  the 
Danes,  he  deserted,  and  fought  against  the  Anglo-Saxon 
king.    He  was  put  to  death  by  Canute. 

Ed'ridge,  (Henry,)  an  English  painter  of  landscapes 
and  miniatures,  born  at  Paddington  in  1768,  died  in 
1821. 

Edris.    See  Edrees. 
Edrisi.    See  Edreesee. 

Ed'ward  or  Eadward  I.,  surnamed  the  Elder, 
King  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  was  the  third  son  of  Alfred  the 
Great  and  Alsvvitha.  At  the  death  of  Alfred,  in  901  A.D., 
he  was  acknowledged  as  his  successor  by  the  Wittena- 
gemote.  He  inherited  his  father's  military  talents,  and 
found  abundant  occasion  to  exercise  them.  He  defeated 
his  cousin  Ethelwald,  who  raised  an  army  to  contest  his 
title  to  the  throne,  and  waged  a  successful  war  against 
the  Northumbrians  and  Danes.  He  married  two  or 
three  wives,  the  last  of  whom  was  Elgiva,  and  left  three 
sons,  Athelstane,  Edmund,  and  Edred,  who  all  reigned 
successively.    Died  in  925. 

See  Hume's  "History  of  England,"  chap.  ii. 

Edward  or  Eadward  II.,  surnamed  the  Martyr, 
King  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Edgar, 
and  great-grandson  of  the  preceding.  He  was  born 
about  960  A.D.,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  975.  His 
step-mother,  Elfrida,  took  measures  to  obtain  the  crown 
for  her  son  Ethelred;  but  she  was  defeated  by  Saint 
Dunstan,  the  primate  of  England.  A  council  having 
been  assembled  during  this  reign  at  Calne  to  decide  be- 
tween the  secular  clergy  and  the  monks  of  Saint  Dunstan, 
the  part  of  the  floor  on  which  the  former  sat  suddenly 
gave  way.  The  monks  claimed  this  as  a  miracle  in  their 
favour,  and  consequently  prevailed.  Edward  was  assas- 
sinated by  order  of  Elfrida  in  978,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  half-brother,  Ethelred  H. 

See  Hume's  "History  of  England,"  chap.  ii. 

Edward  or  Eadward  III.,  surnamed  the  Con- 
fessor, King  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  was  the  son  of 
Ethelred  H.,  (by  his  second  wife,  Emma  of  Normandy,) 
and  was  half-brother  of  Edmund  Ironside.  He  was 
born  at  Islip  about  1004.  When  England  was  invaded 
by  the  victorious  Danes,  Edward  and  his  mother  found 
refuge  with  the  Duke  of  Normandy,  and  remained  there 
till  1040.  Canute,  having  conquered  England,  married 
Edward's  mother,  Emma,  in  1017.  When  Hardicanute 
died,  in  1042,  Edward,  who  was  the  half-brother  of  the 
late  king,  was  proclaimed  his  successor.  In  1044  he 
married  Editha,  daughter  of  Earl  Godwin,  but  with  the 
express  condition  that  she  should  not  share  his  bed  : 
hence  he  was  canonized  with  the  title  of  "Confessor." 
He  showed  partiality  to  the  Normans,  and  in  his  reign 
a  powerful  Norman  party  was  formed  in  the  island.  lie 
died,  without  issue,  in  Jai^uary,  1066,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  wife's  brother,  Harold,  whose  title  was  disputed 
by  the  Duke  of  Normandy.  Edward  was  the  last  of  the 
Saxon  line  that  reigned  in  England. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England,"  chap.  iii. ;  Jerome  Porter, 
"  Life  of  Saint  Edwayd,  King  and  Confessor,"  1710. 


Edward  I.,  King  of  England,  surnamed  Longshanks, 
born  at  Westminster  in  1239,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Henry 
III.  and  Eleanor,  daughter  of  the  Count  of  Provence.  He 
was  married  in  early  youth  to  Eleanor  of  Castile.  In  1263 
he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  civil  war  between  his 
father  and  the  barons  under  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  who 
took  him  prisoner  in  1264.  Having  escaped  from  cus- 
tody in  1265,  he  gained  a  complete  victory  over  Leicester 
at  Evesham.  After  the  end  of  this  civil  war,  his  iiext 
important  enterprise  was  a  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land  in 
127 1,  where  he  maintained  his  reputation  for  prowess. 
On  his  homeward  journey  he  found  that  his  father  had 
died,  in  1272,  and  he  was  crowned  soon  after  his  arrival,  in 
1274.  He  began  the  conquest  of  Wales  in  1277,  and  com- 
pleted it  in  1282,  when  Llewellyn,  prince  of  that  country, 
was  slain  in  battle.  In  1291,  the  numerous  competitors 
for  the  throne  of  Scotland,  then  vacant,  having  referred 
their  claims  to  Edward  as  lord  paramount,  he  decided  in 
favour  of  John  Baliol,  and  received  from  him  the  oath 
of  fealty,  thus  paving  the  way  to  the  conquest  of  that 
kingdom.  The  Scotch  \\\  1294  took  arms  to  regain  their 
independence  ;  but  Edward  speedily  overpowered  them, 
dethroned  Baliol,  and  seized  the  kingdom.  The  cele- 
brated and  heroic  William  Wallace  renewed  the  contest 
in  1297,  gained  a  victory  at  Stirling,  and  expelled  the 
English  troops  from  all  the  Scotch  fortresses.  The  war 
was  alternately  suspended  by  truce  and  feebly  prosecuted 
until  1303,  when  Edward  invaded  Scotland  with  a  large 
army  and  effected  its  temporary  subjection.  Wallace 
was  taken,  and  hanged  in  London  in  1305.  Edward 
died  in  1307,  while  on  his  march  to  Scotland,  where 
Robert  Bruce  had  again  raised  the  national  standard 
against  him.  He  was  one  of  the  most  able,  ambitious, 
and  politic  princes  that  ever  filled  the  English  throne; 
but  his  character  was  deeply  disgraced  by  his  vindictive 
treatment  of  Wallace  and  by  other  acts  of  injustice. 
His  reign  is  rendered  memorable  by  the  confirmation 
of  the  Great  Charter,  the  institution  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  great  improvement  in  common  law. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England,"  chaos,  xiii.  and  xiv.  ;  also,  the 
character  of  Edward  L  in  Gardiner's  "Tiistory  of  England  from 
1603  to  1616,"  pp.  15  and  i6;  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol. 
ii.  chaps,  xviii.-xxii. 

Edward  II.,  King  of  England,  the  eldest  surviving  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Caernarvon,  Wales,  in  1284. 
In  his  minority  he  became  subject  to  the  pernicious  influ- 
ence of  his  favourite.  Piers  Gaveston,  who  was  banished 
in  1300  by  Edward  I.  In  1301  Edward  was  created  Prince 
of  Wales,  and  in  July,  1307,  he  became  king.  One  of 
his  first  acts  was  to  recall  Gaveston  from  exile  and  create 
him  Earl  of  Cornwall.  In  1308  he  married  Isabella, 
daughter  of  Philip  V.  of  France,  a  corrupt  and  ambitious 
woman.  The  insolence  of  Gaveston,  who  had  acquired 
a  complete  ascendency  over  his  imbecile  king,  provoked 
the  barons  to  form  a  league  against  that  favourite,  who 
was  executed  in  13 12.  In  13 14  Edward  invaded  Scot- 
land with  a  large  army,  which  in  the  same  year  was 
routed  with  great  loss  by  Bruce  at  Bannockburn,  and 
Scottish  independence  was  thus  secured.  The  king's  new 
favourite,  Hugh  Spencer  or  Despencer,  involved  him  in 
another  quarrel  with  his  barons.  The  queen,  who  hated 
the  favourite  and  despised  her  consort,  put  herself  at  the 
head  of  a  powerful  party,  who  took  arms  in  1326  with  the 
avowed  purpose  of  removing  Spencer  fronr  power.  The 
king  being  generally  deserted,  the  queen's  party  easily 
prevailed  ;  Spencer  was  executed,  and  Edward  was  de- 
throned and  confined  in  prison.  The  king's  son,  a  minor, 
was  proclaimed  in  Parliament  as  Edward  HI.,  under  the 
regency  of  Isabella  and  her  favourite,  Roger  de  Mor- 
timer, the  latter  of  whom  is  charged  with  causing  the 
murder  of  the  deposed  king,  which  was  perpetrated, 
with  circumstances  of  great  atrocity,  in  Berkeley  Castle 
in  1327. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England,"  chap,  xiv.;  F^^lkland, 
(Henry  Gary,)  "History  of  King  Edward  IL,"  16S0. 

Edward  III.,  King  of  England,  born  at  Windsor  in 
1312,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Edward  II.  and  Isabella  of 
France.  He  was  proclaimed  king  on  January  25,  1327, 
under  the  nominal  regency  of  twelve  nobles  and  bishops, 
while  the  queen  and  Mortimer  exercised  the  power  in 
reality.  In  1328  Edward  married  Philippa  of  Hainault, 
and  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Robert  Bruce,  King 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  J?,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  ftt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


EDWARD 


829 


EDWARD 


of  Scotland.  In  1330  the  young  king  ordered  the  arrest 
of  Mortimer,  who  after  trial  was  put  to  death.  The  queen- 
mother  was  at  the  same  time  confined  to  her  own  house, 
and  ceased  to  exercise  political  power.  After  the  death 
of  King  Robert,  Edward,  in  violation  of  the  treaty,  sup- 
ported Edward  Baliol  in  his  pretensions  to  the  Scottish 
throne,  and  in  1333  defeated  the  Scotch  at  Halidon  Hill, 
when  Baliol  became  for  a  time  master  of  Scotland.  But 
repeated  invasions  by  the  English  were  required  in  the 
ensuing  years  to  prevent  his  expulsion  ;  for  the  Scotch 
detested  him  as  a  vassal  and  partisan  of  the  English 
king. 

The  attention  of  Edward  was  diverted  from  Scotland 
by  a  new  and  important  project,  namely,  the  conquest  of 
France,  the  crowii  of  which  he  claimed  by  inheritance, 
as  nephew  of  the  late  king,  Charles  IV.,  (who  left  no 
male  issue,)  while  Philip  VL  was  recognized  as  the  law- 
ful heir  by  the  French  people.  Hostilities  began  in  1340 
by  a  sea-fight  in  which  the  English  were  victorious,  after 
which  a  long  truce  was  concluded.  Renewing  the  war 
in  1346,  Edward,  with  his  son  the  Black  Prince,  invaded 
France  and  gained  a  great  victory  at  Crecy.  After  a 
long  siege,  Calais  was  surrendered  to  the  English  king, 
(1347,)  who  was  prevented  from  a  disgraceful  act  of  ven- 
geance against  six  citizens,  who  offered  their  lives  as  a 
sacrifice  for  the  city,  only  by  the  entreaties  of  Queen 
Philippa.  A  truce  of  about  eight  years  followed  the  re- 
duction of  Calais. 

In  September,  1356,  the  Black  Prince  gained  a  com- 
plete victory  at  Poitiers,  where  the  French  king  John 
was  taken  prisoner.  In  1360  a  treaty  of  peace  was  made, 
by  which  Edward  retained  several  French  provinces. 
Charles  V.,  having  become  King  of  France,  renewed  the 
war  in  1370,  and  in  a  few  years  recovered  nearly  all 
that  the  English  had  conquered.  The  Black  Prince 
died  in  1376,  and  King  Edward  in  1377,  leaving  the 
crown  to  his  grandson,  Richard  II.  The  reign  of  Ed- 
ward, though  arbitrary,  was  very  popular  with  his  sub- 
jects, elated  with  the  glory  which  attended  his  military 
enterprises,  and  favoured  with  domestic  peace  and  pros- 
perity. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England,"  chaps,  xv.  and  xvi.  ;  Robert 
HowAKD,  "  History  of  tlie  Reigns  of  Edward  III.  and  Richard  II.," 
1690;  William  Longman,  "Life  and  Times  of  Edward  III.,"  2 
vols.,  1869;  ViDAi.iN,  "fidouard  III  et  la  Regence,  011  Essai  sur 
las  Moeurs  du  XlVe  Siecle,"  Paris,  1843. 

Edward  IV.,  King  of  England,  born  at  Rouen  in 
1441,  was  the  son  of  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  who  was  a 
grandson  of  Edmund  of  York,  a  younger  son  of  Edward 
III.  This  Richard  also  inherited  from  his  mother  the 
title  of  Earl  of  March,  and  with  that  title  all  the  right  to 
the  throne  transmitted  by  Lionel  of  Clarence,  another 
son  of  Edward  III.  The  subject  of  this  article,  then 
styled  the  Earl  of  March,  first  appears  on  the  scene  of 
the  civil  wars  of  York  and  Lancaster  in  1460,  when  his 
army  defeated  the  Lancastrians  near  Northampton,  and 
took  the  king  (Henry  VI.)  a  prisoner.  In  the  same  year 
his  father,  the  Duke  of  York,  was  defeated  and  killed  in 
the  battle  of  Wakefield,  at  which  Edward  was  not  pres- 
ent. Having  gained  a  battle  at  Mortimer's  Cross,  he 
entered  London,  was  received  with  favour  and  acclama- 
tion, and  was  proclaimed  king,  March  4,  1461.  His 
bravery,  personal  beauty,  affability,  and  other  popular 
qualities  contributed  much  to  his  success. 

But  Margaret  of  Anjou,  the  ambitious  and  indomitable 
queen  of  Henry  VI.,  soon  raised  another  army  to  renew 
the  contest.  At  Towton,  in  1461,  the  Lancastrians  were 
defeated  with  great  loss,  and  Margaret  escaped  to  Scot- 
land. In  1464  the  Lancastrian  army  was  again  defeated, 
at  Hexham,  Henry  VI.  was  made  prisoner,  hostilities 
were  suspended  for  several  years,  and  the  war  appeared 
to  be  terminated.  In  1464  Edward  married  Elizabeth 
Woodville,  a  person  of  rather  obscure  condition,  by 
which  he  gave  great  offence  to  the  nobility,  especially  to 
the  Earl  of  Warwick,  *'  the  King-Maker,"  a  great  leader 
of  the  Yorkist  party.  This  nobleman,  conspiring  with 
Queen  Margaret,  compelled  Edward  to  retire  to  Holland 
in  1470,  when  Henry  VI.  was  released  from  the  Tower 
to  assume  again  the  form  of  royalty.  The  next  year 
Edward  returned  with  an  army,  gained  a  victory  at  13ar- 
net,  where  Warwick  was  slain,  and  recovered  the  throne. 
At  the  great  battle  of  Tewkesbury,  May,  1471,  the  Lan- 


castrians were  finally  defeated,  and  Margaret,  with  her 
son,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victor.  She  was  confined 
in  the  Tower,  and  her  son  was  murdered  in  Edward's 
presence.  Such  was  the  tragical  end  of  the  War  of  the 
Roses,  in  which  the  old  nobility  of  England  was  almost 
annihilated.  The  subsequent  events  of  this  reign  were 
unimportant.  Edward  died  in  1483,  leaving  the  crown 
to  his  son,  Edward  V. 

Edward  IV.  is  described  by  Hume  as  "a  prince  more 
splendid  and  showy  than  either  prudent  or  virtuous  ; 
brave,  though  cruel;  addicted  to  pleasure,  though  capa- 
ble of  activity  in  great  emergencies."  He  forms  a  promi- 
nent character  in  Bulwer's  "Last  of  the  Barons." 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England,"  chap.  xxii. ;  William  Ha- 
BiNGTON,  "History  of  King  Edward  IV.,"  1640. 

Edward  V.,  King  of  England,  the  eldest  son  of 
Edward  IV.  and  Elizabeth  Woodville,  was  born  in  West- 
minster in  1470,  and  succeeded  his  father  on  the  9th  of 
April,  1483.  His  uncle,  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
by  the  will  of  the  late  king,  became  regent  during  the 
minority.  This  wicked  and  crafty  usurper,  aspiring  to 
wear  the  crown  himself,  obtained  possession  of  the  young 
king  and  his  brother,  whom  he  secretly  ordered  to  be 
put  to  death.  They  disappeared  in  June,  1483  ;  and  it  is 
generally  reported  and  believed  that  they  were  suffocated 
with  pillows  in  the  Tower  of  London. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England,"  chap,  xxiii. ;  Miss  Strick- 
land, "  Lives  of  the  Bachelor  Kings  of  England,"  1861;  W.  Hep- 
WOKTH  Dixon,  "Her  Majesty's  Tower,"  i86q. 

Edward  VI.,  King  of  England,  born  at  Hampton 
Court,  October  12,  1537,  was  the  only  surviving  son  of 
Henry  VIII.  and  Jane  Seymour.  He  succeeded  his 
father  January  28,  1547,  the  government  during  his 
minority  being  confided,  by  the  will  of  Henry  VIII.,  to 
sixteen  executors,  who  elected  for  their  president  the 
young  king's  uncle,  Edward  Seymour,  Earl  of  Hertford. 
The  latter,  who  was  created  Duke  of  Somerset  and  as- 
sumed the  title  of  lord  protector,  led  an  army  against 
the  Scotch  in  order  to  compel  the  fulfilment  of  a  certain 
treaty  by  the  marriage  of  Edward  VI.  with  Mary  Stuart. 
The  English  gained  a  victory  at  Pinkie  in  1547,  but  did 
not  eff'ect  their  purpose.  Somerset  favoured  the  Prot- 
estant religion,  and  used  effectual  measures  to  establish 
it.  The  "Bloody  Statute,"  and  other  acts,  of  the  former 
reign  were  repealed  in  Parliament,  images  were  removed 
from  the  chuiThes,  and  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
was  ordered  to  be  used,  (1548.)  About  1550  the  Pro- 
tector was  supplanted  by  John  Dudley,  Earl  of  Warwick 
and  Duke  of  Northumberland,  whose  son  married  Lady 
Jane  Grey,  a  member  of  the  royal  family  of  Tudor. 
When  the  death  of  the  young  king  was  evidently  at 
hand,  he  was  induced  by  Northumberland  to  settle  the 
succession  in  favour  of  Lady  Jane  Grey.    Died  in  1553. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England,"  chaps,  xxxiv.  and  xxxv.  ; 
Miss  Strickland,  "Lives  of  the  Bachelor  Kings  of  England," 
1861 ;  Sharon  Turner,  "History  of  the  Reigns  of  Edward  VI., 
Mary,  and  Elizabeth,"  1829;  Van  ue*  Holk,  "  Leven  van  Edward 
de  Seste,"  1690. 

Ed'ward  [Port.  Duarte,  doo-aR'ti]  I.,  King  of  Por- 
tugal, was  a  son  of  John  I.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1433. 
His  mother  was  an  English  princess,  Philippa  of  Lan- 
caster. He  is  said  to  have  been  a  moderate,  wise,  and 
enlightened  prince  ;  but  his  reign  was  not  prosperous. 
He  died  young,  in  1438,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son, 
Alfonzo  V. 

See  Lopez,  "  Elogios  dos  Reys  de  Portugal." 

Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  surnamed  the  Bl.a.ck 
Prince,  (so  called  from  the  colour  of  his  armour,)  a 
heroic  and  idolized  representative  of  the  spirit  of  chivalry, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Edward  HI.  and  Philippa  of  Hai- 
nan) t.  He  was  born  at  Woodstock  in  1330,  and  at  the 
age  of  fifteen  accompanied  his  father  in  the  invasion  of 
France.  He  commanded  the  main  body  of  the  English 
at  the  victory  of  Crecy,  the  glory  of  which  was  ascribed 
to  him,  and  then  adopted  the  motto  Ich  dle?t,  ("  I 
serve,")  which  is  still  worn  by  his  successors.  In  1356 
he  alone  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Poitiers,  where  he 
won  applause  both  by  his  military  skill  and  his  hu- 
manity to  the  vanquished.  He  married  his  cousin  Joanna, 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Kent,  in  1361,  and,  being  created 
Prince  of  Aquitaine,  held  his  court  at  Bordeaux.  On 
account  of  his  declining  health,  he  returned  to  England 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


EDWARD 


830 


EDWARDS 


in  1371,  and  died  in  1376.  His  son  became  King  Rich- 
ard II. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England,"  chap.  xvi. ;  Arthur  Col- 
lins, "Life  of  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,"  1740;  G.  P.  R.  James, 
"  History  of  the  Life  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince,"  1839. 

Edward  [Port.  Duarte]  of  Braganza,  a  Por- 
tuguese prince,  born  in  1605,  was  brother  of  John  IV., 
who  became  King  of  Portugal  in  1640.  At  this  time 
Edward  was  lieutenant-general  in  the  army  of  the  em- 
peror Ferdinand  III.  The  Spanish  court,  jealous  of  his 
military  talents,  persuaded  the  emperor  to  deliver  him 
into  their  power.  He  was  imprisoned  at  Milan  in  1641, 
and  died  in  1649. 

See  GouvEA,  "  Perfidia  de  Alemania  y  de  Castilla  en  la  Prision  y 
Proceso  de  Don  Duarte,"  1652. 

Edward,  (Charles,)  the  Pretender.  See  Charles 
Edward, 

Ed' ward  Plan-tag'e-net,  born  in  1475,  was  a  son 

of  George,  Duke  of  Clarence,  and  was  styled  Earl  of 
Warwick.  He  was  confined  in  the  Tower  by  Henry 
VII.  in  1485,  and  executed,  as  an  accomplice  of  Perkin 
Warbeck,  in  1499. 

Edwardes,  ^d'wardz,  (Sir  Herbert  Benjamin,)  a 
distinguished  English  officer,  born  in  Shropshire  in  1819 
or  1820.  He  entered  the  army  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany in  1840,  and  fought  at  Moodkee  and  Sobraon  in 
1845.  Having  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant,  he  gained 
a  decisive  victory  over  the  Dewan  Moolraj,  near  the 
Chenab,  in  1848.  For  this  service  he  was  made  an  extra 
Companion  of  the  Bath.  He  published  in  1851  "A  Year 
on  the  Punjaub  Frontier  in  1848-9."  He  was  appointed 
commissioner  of  Peshawur  in  1853,  and  knighted  in  1866. 
Died  in  December,  1868. 

Ed'wards,  (Bela  Bates,)  an  American  theologian, 
born  in  Southampton,  Massachusetts,  in  1802,  graduated 
at  Am.herst  College  in  1824.  He  founded  the  "  American 
Quarterly  Observer"  in  1833,  edited  the  "Biblical  Re- 
pository" from  1835  to  1838,  and  the  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra" 
from  1844  to  1852.  In  1837  he  became  professor  of 
Hebrew,  and  in  1848  professor  of  biblical  literature,  at 
Andover  Seminary.    Died  in  1852. 

See  "Writings  of  Bela  B.  Edwards,  with  a  Memoir,"  by  E,  A. 
Park,  (Boston,  185,,.) 

Ed'wards,  (Bryan,)  M.P.,  an  English  writer,  born 
at  Westbury  in  1743,  removed  in  1759  to  Jamaica,  where 
he  remained  many  years  and  became  a  Wealthy  planter. 
He  published  in  1793  a  "  History  of  the  British  Colonies 
in  the  West  Indies,"  an  interesting  and  well-WTitten 
work,  which  acquired  great  popularity.  He  also  wrote 
a  "  History  of  Saint  Domingo."  Returning  to  England, 
he  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1796,  and  died  in  1800. 

Edwards,  (Edward,)  an  English  artist,  born  in 
London  in  1738,  was  an  excellent  draughtsman.  He 
became  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1773,  and 
teacher  of  perspective  in  that  institution  in  1788.  He 
wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Perspective,"  (1803,)  and  "Anec- 
dotes of  English  PainteA,"  (1808.)    Died  in  1806. 

Edwards,  (Edward,)  an  English  bibliographer,  born 
in  London  in  18 12,  published  about  i860  a  valuable 
work  entitled  "  Memoirs  of  Libraries,  together  with  a 
Practical  Hand-Book  of  Library  Economy."  He  has 
written  many  other  works  on  public  libraries. 

Edwards,  (George,)  an  eminent  English  naturalist 
and  artist,  born  at  Westham  or  Stratford,  Essex,  about 
1693.  Having  travelled  on  the  continent,  he  applied 
himself  after  his  return  to  the  study  of  natural  history, 
supporting  himself  by  drawing  and  colouring  figures 
of  animals.  In  1743  he  began  to  issue  his  excellent 
"  Natural  History  of  Birds,"  with  coloured  plates,  which 
was  received  with  favour  and  procured  his  admission  to 
the  Royal  Society  in  1757.  He  wrote,  also,  "Gleanings 
of  Natural  History,"  (1763.)    Died  in  1773. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  G.  Edwards,"  London,  1776. 

Edwards,  (George,)  M.D.,  an  English  writer  on 
politics  and  political  economy,  born  in  175 1,  lived  in 
London.  Among  his  numerous  productions  are  "  Po- 
litical Interests  of  Great  Britain,"  and  "Means  adequate 
to  the  Present  Crisis."    Died  in  1823. 

Edwards,  (Guillaume  Fr6d6ric,)  M.D.,  a  brother 
of  Milne-Edwards,  born  in  Jamaica  in  1777,  was  a  dis- 
tinguished physiologist  and  ethnologist.    He  lived  in 


Bruges  and  in  Paris.  His  "Physiological  Characters 
of  Human  Races  considered  in  Relation  with  History" 
(1839)  placed  him  in  the  first  rank  of  French  ethnologists. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1832.  He  wrote 
(in  French)  "On  the  Influence  of  Physical  Agents  on 
Life,"  (1824,)  and  other  scientific  works.  Died  near 
Paris  in  1842. 

Edwards,  (Henry  Milne.)  See  Milne-Edwards. 

Edwards,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  learned  English  Calvinistic 
divine,  born  at  Hertford  in  1637,  was  a  son  of  Thomas 
Edwards,  author  of  "Gangraena."  He  became  minister 
of  Trinity  College  Church,  Cambridge,  in  1664.  He 
wrote,  besides  many  other  works,  "The  Authority,  Style, 
and  Perfection  of  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments," (3  vols.,  1693-96,)  and  "  Theologia  Reformata," 
(2  vols.,  1713.)    Died  in  1716. 

Edwards,  (Jonathan,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  born 
at  Wrexham  in  1629,  became  rector  of  Hinton  in  1681. 
He  wrote  a  "  Preservative  against  Socinianism,"  (1698- 
1703.)    Died  in  1712. 

Edwards,  (Jonathan,)  the  greatest  metaphysician 
that  America  has  produced,  and  one  of  the  greatest  that 
ever  lived,  was  born  at  East  Windsor,  Connecticut,  the 
5th  of  October,  1703.  His  father,  Timothy  Edwards,  was 
the  minister  at  East  Windsor,  and  was  a  man  of  rare 
learning  for  those  times.  Jonathan  was  the  only  son  out 
of  thirteen  children.  He  began  the  study  of  Latin  when 
he  was  but  six  years  old.  At  a  very  early  age  he  wrote 
essays  and  other  compositions,  indicating  an  inquiring 
mind  and  reasoning  powers  of  an  uncommon  order  for 
one  so  young.  When  he  was  ten,  he  wrote  a  paper 
ridiculing  the  idea,  which  some  one  had  advanced,  of  the 
materiality  of  the  soul.  While  still  a  child,  he  was  the 
subject  of  deep  and  earnest  religious  impressions.  In  a 
letter  written  at  the  age  of  twelve,  he  speaks  of  "a  very 
remarkable  outpouring  of  the  Spirit  of  God"  in  his  native 
place,  in  which  event  he  evidently  felt  a  deep  interest. 
He  entered  Yale  College  in  1 7 16,  and  before  leaving  that 
institution  as  a  graduate,  in  1720,  he  is  said  to  have  com- 
pletely reasoned  out  for  himself  his  great  doctrine  of  the 
freedom  of  the  will.  After  his  conversion,  which,  accord- 
ing to  his  view  of  the  subject,  did  not  take  place  until  his 
seventeenth  year,  the  whole  universe  seemed  changed 
in  his  sight ;  God's  excellency,  wisdoiri,  purity,  and  love 
were  revealed  to  him  "in  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  in  the 
clouds  and  blue  sky,  and  in  the  grass,  flowers,  and  trees, 
in  the  water  and  in  all  nature."  After  taking  his  degree, 
he  remained  two  years  in  New  Haven,  studying  for  the 
ministry  ;  and  before  he  had  completed  his  nineteenth 
year  he  began  to  preach  to  a  Presbyterian  congregation 
in  the  city  of  New  York.  In  less  than  a  year  he  returned 
to  New  Haven,  and  in  September,  1723,  took  his  degree 
of  master  of  arts.  In  1724  he  became  a  tutor  in  Yale 
College,  where  he  remained  about  two  years.  In  Febru- 
ary, 1727,  he  became  pastor  of  a  church  at  Northampton, 
and  not  long  after  was  married  to  Miss  Sarah  Pierre- 
pont,  of  New  Haven,  who  in  her  unaffected  and  fervent 
piety,  in  the  purity,  sweetness,  and  elevation  of  her  char- 
acter, and  in  her  entire  devotion  to  what  she  felt  to  be 
right,  may  be  said  to  have  been  his  perfect  counterpart. 
After  many  years  of  comparative  happiness, — not  that 
happiness  which  results  from  the  enjoyment  of  indolent 
ease,  but  from  duties  laboriously,  conscientiously,  and 
faithfully  performed, — his  faith  and  virtue  were  destined 
to  undergo  a  great  trial.  A  lax  custom  had  crept  into 
the  Church  of  admitting  to  the  communion-table  all 
those  professing  with  the  congregation,  without  inquiring 
whether  they  were  truly  regenerate,  and  without  regard 
to  the  spiritual  consistency  of  their  life  or  character.  Ed- 
wards believed  it  to  be  required  of  him  to  insist  on  a 
purer  and  higher  standard.  At  length,  after  years  of 
opposition,  he  was  driven  forth,  like  Calvin,  (whose  re- 
ligious views  and  entire  devotion  to  duty  he  so  ably 
represented,)  frotn  his  chosen  field  of  gospel  labour,  not 
knowing  whither  he  should  go,  and  without  any  outward 
means  of  support  for  his  numerous  family.  He  was  soon 
after  offered  the  situation  of  missionary  to  the  Housaton- 
nuck  Indians  at  Stockbridge.  His  friends  in  Scotland 
sent,  it  is  said,  a  considerable  contribution  for  the  sup- 
port of  his  family,  and  his  scanty  income  was  eked  out 
by  the  industry  of  his  wife  and  daughters,  whose  delicate 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  ^i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iorf;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


EDWARDS 


831 


EECKHOUT 


handiwork  was  sent  to  Boston  to  be  sold.  It  was  during 
this  period  of  his  life  that  he  elaborated  and  wrote  out 
his  celebrated  work  on  the  Freedom  of  the  Will.  In  this 
work  he  exhibits  a  power  of  close  and  subtile  reasoning 
which  perhaps  has  never  been  equalled  by  any  other 
writer.  Whatever  we  may  think  of  his  doctrine  that 
philosophic  necessity  is  compatible  with  freedom  of  the 
will,  rightly  defined,  and  with  human  responsibility,  we 
may  safely  assume  that,  as  the  ultimate  interests  of  truth 
are  necessarily  promoted  by  all  true  philosophic  investi- 
gation, they  must  be  best  promoted  by  that  investigation 
which  is  the  most  thorough  and  exhaustive.  In  the  rea- 
soning of  Edwards  we  see  v/hat  the  perfection  of  human 
logic  can  accomplish,  and  are  thus  enabled  to  discern 
more  clearly  its  just  limitations  and  necessary  deficiencies. 

About  the  close  of  1757  Edwards  left  his  field  of  labour 
among  the  Indians,  and  reluctantly  accepted  the  position 
of  president  of  Princeton  College,  in  New  Jersey.  He 
died  there,  of  the  smallpox,  in  March,  1758. 

In  person,  Edwards  was  tall  (above  six  feet)  and 
slender.  He  is  said  to  have  been,  in  middle  life,  much 
emaciated  by  intense  and  constant  application  to  study. 
"He  had,"  says  his  grandson,  "a  high,  broad,  bold 
forehead,  and  an  eye  unusually  piercing  and  luminous ; 
and  on  his  whole  countenance  the  features  of  his  mind 
— perspicacity,  sincerity,  and  benevolence — were  so 
strongly  impressed,  that  no  one  could  behold  it  with- 
out at  once  discovering  the  clearest  indications  of  great 
intellectual  and  moral  elevation."  (See  "Life,"  by  Se- 
reno  E.  D wight.) 

He  left  a  great  number  of  miscellaneous  writings.  The 
titles  of  his  principal  works  are  the  following  ;  "  A  Treat- 
ise concerning  the  Religious  Affections,"  (published  in 
1746  ;)  "An  Inquiry  into  the  Qualifications  for  Full  Com- 
munion in  the  Church,"  (1749;)  "An  Inquiry  into  the 
Modern  Prevailing  Notions  respecting  that  Freedom  of 
the  Will  which  is  supposed  to  be  essential  to  Moral 
Agency,"  etc.,  (1754;)  (this  is  his  most  celebrated  work, 
of  which  we  have  spoken  above  ;)  "The  Great  Christian 
Doctrine  of  Original  Sin  Defended,"  (about  1757  ;)  "The 
History  of  Redemption,"  (1774;)  "A  Dissertation  con- 
cerning the  End  for  which  God  created  the  World," 
<I789  ;)  and  "  A  Dissertation  concerning  the  True  Nature 
of  Christian  Virtue,"  (1788.) 

See  Sereno  Edwards  Dwight,  "Life  of  Jonathan  Edwards," 
1830;  Samuel  Hopkins,  "Life  of  Jonathan  Edwards;"  Samuel 
Miller,  "Life  of  Jonathan  Edwards,"  in  Spakks's  "American 
Biography,"  vol.  viii. ;  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  Gkls- 
WOLD.  "Prose  Writers  of  America;"  Duyckinck,  "Cyclopaedia  of 
American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Edwards,  (Jonathan,)  an  eminent  minister,  born 
at  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  in  1745,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  He  graduated  at  the  College  of  New 
Jersey  in  1765,  and  was  tutor  at  Princeton  College  for 
two  years,  (1767-68.)  In  1769  he  became  pastor  of  the 
church  at  White  Haven,  near  New  Haven,  Connecticut, 
where  he  remained  until  1795,  when  he  was  dismissed  on 
account  of  his  religious  opinions.  He  was  appointed 
president  of  Union  College,  Schenectady,  in  1799.  He 
was  a  man  of  superior  talents  and  great  penetration. 
He  published  a  number  of  sermons  and  treatises  on 
theology.    Died  at  Schenectady  in  August,  1801. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  J.  Edwards,"  by  Tkvon  Edwards,  his  grand- 
son ;  Sprague,  "Annals  of  the  American  Pulpit." 

Edwards,  (Jonathan  W.,)  an  eminent  American 
lawyer,  grandson  of  the  celebrated  Jonathan  Edwards, 
was  born  in  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1772.  He 
graduated  at  Yale,  with  distinguished  honours,  in  1789. 
On  taking  his  second  degree,  in  1791,  he  attacked  with 
so  much  ability  the  law  granting  a  double  portion  of  an 
estate  to  the  eldest  son  (if  the  father  died  intestate)  as  to 
cause  its  repeal.  He  practised  at  Hartford.  Died  in  1831. 

Edwards,  (Justin,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine  and 
author,  born  in  Westhampton,  Massachusetts,  in  1787. 
He  graduated  at  Williams  College  in  18 10,  and  was 
afterwards  for  fifteen  years  pastor  at  Andover,  and  two 
years  in  Boston,  when  he  resigned  his  ministerial  charge 
and  devoted  himself  to  the  cause  of  teinperanoe,  the 
observance  of  the  Sabbath,  and  to  educational  and  lite- 
rary labours.  He  was  for  six  years  president  of  the 
theological  seminary  at  Andover.  As  secretary  of  the 
American  Temperance  Society,  he  prepared  the  "Tem- 


perance Manual,"  of  which  about  two  hundred  thousand 
copies  have  been  printed.  He  was  also  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Boston  Tract  Society.    Died  in  1853. 

Edwards,  (Ninian,)  an  American  judge  and  Senator, 
born  in  Montgomery  county,  Maryland,  in  1775.  He  be- 
came chief  justice  of  Kentucky,  and  Governor  of  Illinois 
in  1809.  He  represented  Illinois  in  the  Senate  of  the 
United  States  from  1818  to  1824,  and  became  Governor 
of  that  State  in  1826.    Died  in  1833. 

Edwards,  (Richard,)  an  English  dramatic  poet,  born 
in  Somersetshire  in  1523,  was  a  Fellow  of  one  of  the  Ox- 
ford Colleges.  He  was  the  principal  contributor  to  the 
"  Paradise  of  Dainty  Devises,"  and  author  of  "  Damon 
and  Pythias,"  a  tragedy,  acted  in  1566.  His  poems  were 
once  popular.    Died  about  1566. 

Edwards,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Presbyterian  theo- 
logian, was  a  violent  opponent  of  the  Independents, 
against  whom  he  wrote  his  "  Gangraena,"  (1646,)  a  very 
vituperative  work.  He  also  wrote  a  "Treatise  against 
Toleration,"  (1647.)  He  was  driven  out  of  the  country, 
and  died  in  Holland  in  1647. 

Edwards,  (Thomas,)  an  English  critic,  born  in  or 
near  London  in  1699,  was  a  student  of  law,  but  did 
not  practise.  He  gained  distinction  by  his  "Canons 
of  Criticism,"  (1747;  7th  edition,  1765,)  in  which  he 
amused  the  public  at  the  expense  of  Warburton  on  the 
subject  of  an  edition  of  Shakspeare  published  by  the 
latter.    Died  in  1757. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Edwards,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Coventry  in  1729,  became  rector  of  a  church  in  that 
place  in  1758,  and  vicar  of  Nuneaton  about  1770.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  "New  English  Trans- 
lation of  the  Psalms  from  the  Original  Hebrew,"  (1755,) 
and  "Selecta  Theocriti  Idyllia,"  (1779.)    Died  in  1785. 

Edwards,  (Tryon,)  an  American  theologian,  a  son 
of  Jonathan  W.,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Hartford, 
Connecticut,  in  1809.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1828,  and  became  pastor  of  a  church  at  New  London, 
Connecticut,  in  1845.  He  published  several  religious 
works. 

Edwards,  (William,)  an  English  engineer  and 
architect,  noted  as  a  builder  of  bridges,  was  born  in 
Glamorganshire  in  1719;  died  in  1789. 

See  "Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difificulties,"  vol.  ii.,  1839. 

Ed'win,  King  of  Northumbria,  was  the  son  of  King 
Ella,  who  died  about  590  A.D.  He  began  to  reign  in  617, 
and  became  one  of  the  most  powerful  princes  of  the 
island.  In  his  reign  Christianity  became  the  established 
religion.  He  was  defeated  in  battle  and  slain  by  Penda, 
King  of  the  Mercians,  in  633  A.D. 

See  Hume's  "History  of  England,"  chap.  i. 

Ed'win,  (John,)  an  excellent  English  comedian,  born 
in  London  in  1749,  first  appeared  on  the  public  stage  in 
1 765.  He  performed  many  years  with  success,  especially 
in  ludicrous  characters.    Died  in  1794. 

See  J.  Williams,  "  Eccentricities  of  Jolin  Edwin,"  London,  1781. 

Ed'wy,  written  also  Eadwig,  King  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  born  about  938  A.D.,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Ed- 
mund I.,  who  died  in  946.  Edwy  became  king  at  the 
death  of  his  uncle  Edred  in  955.  He  appears  to  have 
incurred  the  enmity  of  Dunstan  and  the  monks  by  mar- 
rying Elgiva,  who  was  rather  nearly  related  to  him  by 
blood.  Edwy  banished  Dunstan,  and  the  friends  of  the 
latter  retaliated  by  murdering  Elgiva  and  instigating  a 
successful  rebellion  in  favour  of  the  king's  brother, 
Edgar.    Died  or  was  killed  in  958. 

See  Hume's  "  History  of  England,"  chap.  ii. 

Edzardi,  ^t-saR^dee,  (Esdras,)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  in  1629  at  Hamburg,  where  he  taught  Hebrew 
with  a  high  reputation.    Died  in  1708. 

His  son  Georg  Eleazar  (1661-1727)  was  an  eminent 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Hamburg. 

Edzardi,  (Sebastian,)  a  German  theologian,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1673  ;  died  in  1736. 

Eeckhout,  van  den,  vtn  den  ak'howt,  written  also 
Eckhout,  (Anion,)  a  Flemish  painter  of  flowers  and 
fruit,  born  at  Bruges  about  1656.  He  went  with  Louis  de 
Deyster  to  Italy,  where  he  produced  many  pictines,  the 
figures  of  which  were  painted  by  Deyster.   He  afterwards 


€  zs  k;  (;  as  s;  g  ^ard;  g  as G,  h,  k, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ( ^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


EECKHOVT 


832 


EGERTON 


worked  with  success  in  Lisbon,  where  he  was  assassinated 
in  1695.  1'he  author  of  the  deed  was  never  discovered. 
His  works  present  an  immense  variety  of  flowers,  and  are 
highly  prized. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Eeckhout,  van  den,  (Gersrand,  )  an  excellent 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  162 1.  He  was  a 
pupil  and  successful  imitator  of  Rembrandt,  and  ex- 
celled both  in  history  and  portraits.  His  compositions, 
in  the  o])inion  of  Descamps,  are  rich  and  judicious.  He 
had  a  rare  and  superior  talent  for  expressing  the  charac- 
ter in  the  countenances  of  his  portraits.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  "Christ  in  the  midst  of  the  Doctors," 
*'  Abraham  dismissing  Hagar,"  and  a  portrait  of  his  own 
father.    Died  in  1674. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Eelkhanian.    See  Ilkhanian. 

£ete,  the  French  of  /Eetes,  which  see. 

Effen,  van,  vtn  gffen,  (Justus,)  a  popular  Dutch 
litterateur,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1684.  In  171 1  he  began 
to  issue,  weekly,  in  imitation  of  Addison's  "  Spectator," 
"The  Misanthrope,"  in  French,  which  was  continued  to 
the  end  of  1712.  He  was  chief  editor  of  the  ^'Literary 
Journal,"  an  able  review,  published  in  French  at  the 
Hague,  (1715-18.)  He  was  employed  as  secretary  of 
embassy  to  London  in  1715,  and  again  about  1727,  and 
made  successful  French  translations  of  "  Robinson  Cru- 
soe" and  the  "Tale  of  a  Tub."  P^-om  1731  to  1735  he 
issued,  in  Dutch,  the  "  HoUandsche  Spectator,"  another 
happy  imitation  of  the  model  English  essayist,  which 
obtained  more  permanent  popularity  than  his  other 
works.  The  most  of  his  publications  were  anonymous. 
Died  in  1735. 

See  MoKERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gen^rale;"  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1854. 

Effiat,  (Henri  Coiffier.)    See  Cinq-Mars. 

Effiat,  d',  da'fe-f',  (Antoine  Coiffier— kwiTe-i',) 
Marquis,  a  French  general  and  statesman,  born  in  T581. 
After  serving  several  years  in  the  army,  he  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  London  in  1624,  and  was  appointed  su- 
perintendent of  finances  in  1626.  As  lieutenant-general, 
he  commanded  in  Piedmont  in  1630,  and  was  made 
marshal  of  France  the  next  year.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Lord  Bacon,  who  left  him  a  legacy.  He  died  in  1632, 
leaving  a  high  reputation  for  civil  and  military  talents. 
He  had  three  sons,  one  of  whom  was  Henry,  Marquis 
of  Cinq-Mars. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Fran^ais,"  chap,  xxiii. 

Effing-ham,  Lord,  an  English  nobleman,  who  re- 
signed his  commission  in  the  British  army,  about  1775, 
rather  than  fight  against  the  cause  of  American  liberty. 

Eg'bert,  Ec'bert,  or  Ecgbert,  an  Anglo-Saxon  pre- 
late, born  about  678  A.D.,  was  a  brother  of  the  King  of 
Northumberland,  He  became  Archbishop  of  York  in 
732.    Died  in  766. 

Egbert  or  Ecgbert,  surnamed  the  Great,  King  of 
the  West  Saxons,  (Wessex,)  was  a  descendant  of  Cer- 
dic,  the  first  king  of  Wessex.  After  passing  some  years 
at  the  court  of  Charlemagne,  he  became  king  in  800  a.d. 
In  823  he  defeated  the  Mercians  at  Ellendune,  and  in  a 
few  years  completed  the  conquest  of  Mercia  and  North- 
umbria.  By  his  prudent  policy  and  military  success  all 
the  states  of  the  Heptarchy  were  first  united  into  one 
kingdom,  whose  limits  were  nearly  identical  with  those 
of  England  proper.  This  occurred  in  827.  In  835  an 
army  of  Danes  invaded  the  island  and  were  defeated  by 
Egbert.  He  died  in  836,  or,  according  to  Hume,  in  838, 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  son,  Ethelwulf. 

See  Hume's  "  History  of  England,"  chaps,  i.  and  ii.  ;  Freeman's 
"Norman  Conquest." 

Egede,  gg'eh-deh,  (Hans,)  the  founder  of  the  Danish 
missions  of  Greenland,  was  born  at  Harstad,  in  Norway, 
in  1686,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of  Vaagen  in  1707. 
Having  for  many  years  cherished  the  desire  of  convert- 
irig  the  Greenlanders,  he  obtained  the  assistance  of  the 
king,  Frederick  IV.,  and  a  trading-company  was  formed 
to  co-operate  with  the  mission.  In  1721  Egede  sailed 
with  one  ship  and  forty-five  persons.  They  were  kindly 
received  by  the  natives,  many  of  whom  were  converted. 
The  Danes  were  unable  to  subsist  without  frequent  sup- 
plies from  the  mother-country,  and  the  trading-company 


was  dissolved  in  1727.  Egede  pursued  his  purpose  with 
constancy  through  great  hardships  and  privations,  until 
the  death  of  his  wife  in  1735.  Some  Moravian  mission- 
aries having  arrived  to  continue  the  work,  he  then  re- 
turned to  Copenhagen,  where  he  became  superintendent 
of  a  seminary  for  the  Greenland  mission,  with  the  title 
of  bishop,  and  wrote  a  narrative  of  his  enterprise.  Died 
in  1758. 

See  Host,  "  Literary  History  of  Denmark  under  Christian  VII.," 
(in  German;)  Lund,  "  Biskop  H.  Egedes  Levnet,"  177S  ;  Bodemann, 
"  H.  Egede  der  Apostel  der  Gronlander,"  1853  ;  Eksch  und  Gruber, 
"  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Egede,  (Paul,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1708, 
was  a  fellow-labourer  in  the  mission  above  named,  and 
remained  in  Greenland  until  1740.  He  then  returned 
to  Copenhagen,  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  College 
of  Missions  in  1775,  and  Bishop  of  Greenland  in  1776. 
Died  in  1789. 

idgee,  the  French  of  /Egeus,  which  see. 

Egenod,  gzh'no',  (Henri  FRANgois,)  a  French  jurist 
born  at  Orgelet  in  1697  ?  <^^'ed  in  1783. 

i^geon,  the  French  of  i^ic^ON,  which  see. 

E-ge'ri-a,  sometimes,  but  very  rarely,  written  .SBgeria, 
[Fr.  Eg^;rie,  a''zhi're',]  a  nymph  in  Roman  mythology, 
and  one  of  the  Camenae,  was  regarded  as  a  p -ophetic 
divinity,  from  whom  Numa  derived  inspiration  or  in- 
struction in  relation  to  religion  and  forms  of  worship. 
According  to  tradition,  Numa  had  interviews  with  her 
in  a  grove,  and  when  he  died  she  melted  away  in  tears 
into  a  fountain. 

^gerie.    See  Egeria. 

Egerton,  (Francis  Henry.)  See  Bridgewater, 
Earl  of. 

Eg'er-tpn,  (Francis  Leveson  Gower,)  Earl  of 
Ellesmere,  an  English  nobleman  and  author,  born  in 
London,  January  i,  1800,  was  the  second  son  of  the  first 
Duke  of  Sutherland.  His  family  name  was  Govver.  He 
assumed  the  name  of  Francis  Egerton,  instead  of  his  pa- 
tronymic Francis  Leveson  Govver,  in  1833,  O'"'  becoming 
heir  to  part  of  the  estates  of  the  last  Duke  of  l^ridge- 
water.  He  became  a  lord  of  the  treasury  in  1827,  secre- 
tary for  Ireland  in  1828,  and  secretary  at  war  in  1830. 
He  gained  literary  distinction  by  translations  of  "  Faust" 
and  of  several  poems  of  Schiller  and  Korner,  and  pub- 
lished admired  original  poems,  among  which  are  the 
"Camp  of  Wallenstein"  and  "The  Pilgrimage."  His 
gallery  of  paintings  in  London  was  one  of  the  richest 
owned  by  any  individual  in  the  kingdom.  In  1846  he 
was  created  Earl  of  Ellesmere  and  Viscount  Brackley. 
Besides  the  poems  and  translations  above  named,  he 
wrote  "Mediterranean  Sketches,"  (1843,)  '^'^^  other 
works.    Died  in  1857. 

His  wife,  Lady  Frances,  accompanied  him  in  a  voyage 
up  the  Mediterranean  in  1840,  and  published  a  "Tour  in 
the  Holy  Land." 

See  article  on  Lord  Ellesmere  in  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  June, 
1847. 

Egerton,  (John,)  an  excellent  English  prelate,  born 
in  London  in  1721,  was  the  son  of  Henry  Egerton,  Bishop 
of  Hereford,  and  a  descendant  of  Lord  Ellesmere  the 
chancellor.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Bangor  in  1756, 
of  Lichfield  in  1768,  and  of  Durham  in  1771.  Died  in 
1787.  He  was  the  father  of  the  Earl  of  Bridgewater,  the 
patron  or  originator  of  the  "Bridgewater  treatises." 

See  F.  H.  Egerton,  "Life  of  Thomas  Egerton,  Lord  Ellesmere, 
with  a  Sketch  of  John  Egerton,  Bishop  of  Durham,"  etc. 

Egerton,  (Scroop,)  first  Duke  of  Bridgewater,  an 
English  nobleman,  born  in  the  seventeenth  century,  was 
a  descendant  of  Lord-Chancellor  Egerton.  By  inherit- 
ance he  was  the  fourth  Earl  of  Bridgewater,  and  in  1720 
he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  duke.  His  son  Francis, 
who  inherited  his  title,  became  eminent  for  his  services 
in  inland  navigation. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Egerton,  (Thomas,)  Lord  Ellesmere,  lord  chancel- 
lor of  England,  born  in  Cheshire  in  1540,  was  the  son 
of  Sir  Richard  Egerton.  Having  become  eminent  in  his 
profession,  he  was  chosen  solicitor-general  in  1581,  and 
attorney-general  in  1592.  After  holding  several  other 
high  offices,  he  attained  the  dignity  of  keeper  of  the  great 
seal  in  1596.  He  enjoyed  a  high  degree  of  favour  with 
Queen  Elizabeth  to  the  end  of  her  reign.    After  the  ac- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moonj 


EGG 


833 


EGMONT 


cession  of  James  I.,  in  1603,  he  was  created  Baron  of 
Ellesmere  and  lord  high  chancellor.  He  was  made  Vis- 
count Brackleyin  1616.  In  1617  heresigned  thegreatseal, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Bacon.  He  was  esteemed 
an  excellent  judge  and  a  great  orator,  '*  especially  when 
he  was  provoked."  During  his  last  illness  the  king 
offered  him  the  title  of  Earl  of  Bridgewater,  with  a  pen- 
sion ;  but  he  declined  both,  saying,  "These  things  were 
now  to  him  but  vanities."  Died  in  1617.  His  son  John 
became  the  first  Earl  of  Bridgewater. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors:"  Foss, 
"The  Judges  of  England;"  F.  H.  Egerton,  "Life,  etc.  of  Thomas 
Egerton,  Lord  Ellesmere." 

Egg,  (Augustus,)  A.R.A.,  an  English  painter,  born 
in  London  in  1816.  He  has  illustrated  with  success 
comic  scenes  from  the  works  of  Shakspeare,  Le  Sage, 
and  others.  Among  his  works  are  "  Peter  the  Great 
sees  Catherine,  his  Empress,  for  the  First  Time,"  and  the 
"Life  and  Death  of  Buckingham,"  (1855.)  Died  in  1863. 

Egg,  §k,  (John  Caspar,)  a  Swiss  economist,  born  at 
Ellikon  in  1738;  died  in  1794. 

Eggeling.'gg'geh-ling'  or  gk'eh-ling,  (Johann  Hein- 
RICH,)  a  German  antiquary,  born  at  Bremen  in  1639, 
became  professor  of  history  in  his  native  city.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  a  "Treatise  on  Various  German  Anti- 
quities," ("  De  Miscellaneis  Germanias  Antiquitatibus," 
1694-1700.)    Died  in  17 13. 

Egger,  i'kaiR'  or  gg'zhaiR',  (Smile,)  a  French  linguist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1813.  He  published  editions  of  Varro, 
Longinus,  and  other  classics,  and  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  Elementary  Notions  of  Comparative  Grammar," 
which  reached  the  fifth  edition  in  1S54  and  is  highly 
commended.  In  1855  he  was  chosen  professor  of  Greek 
at  the  Faculte  des  Lettres,  Paris. 

Eggers,  eg'gers,  (Jacob,)  a  Swedish  or  Livonian  engi- 
neer and  military  officer,  born  at  Dorpat  in  1704.  He 
published  a  military  lexicon  of  engineering,  artillery,  etc., 
entitled  "  Kriegs  -  Ingenieur-Artillerie  -  See-  und  Ritter- 
Lexikon,"  (2  vols.,  1757.)    Died  in  1773. 

Eggestein,  eg'ges-tln',  (Henri,)  an  eminent  printer, 
worked  at  Strasburg  in  147 1. 

Egidio  Antonini.    See  Giles  de  Viterbo. 

Egidius.   See  Gilles,  Giles,  and  ^gidius. 

Eg'il,  an  Icelandic  poet  and  warrior  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, who  was  captured  by  Eric,  King  of  Norway,  and 
saved  his  own  life  by  improvising  an  ode  on  the  exploits 
of  that  king,  which  Malte-Brun  says  is  still  extant. 

Eg'ill,  a  Scandinavian  warrior  of  the  seventh  or  eighth 
century,  who  is  said  to  have  performed,  at  the  command 
of  a  tyrant,  a  feat  of  archery  exactly  like  the  celebrated 
exploit  of  William  Tell. 

See  P.  Salanus,  "  Historia  Egilli  at  Asmundi,"  Upsal,  1693. 

Eginard.    See  Eginhard. 

Egineta  orEgina,  Paul  of.    See  Paulus  ^gineta. 

Eg'in-hard,  written  also  Eginard,  Eginhardt,  and 
Einhard,  an'hard,  an  eminent  French  historian  of  the 
ninth  century,  was  born  in  Austrasia,  or  East  France. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Alcuin,  and  was  appointed  secretary 
to  Charlemagne.  The  romantic  story  of  his  courtship 
and  marriage  of  Charlemagne's  daughter  Emma  is  now 
discredited.  (See  Emma.)  After  the  death  of  that  king 
he  passed  into  the  service  of  his  successor,  Louis  le 
Debonnaire,  and  spent  many  of  his  last  years  in  a  monas- 
tery. He  wrote  the  "Life  of  Charlemagne,"  "Annals 
of  the  French  Kings  from  741  to  829,"  and  numerous 
Letters.    Died  about  844. 

See  Sminckius,  "De  Vita  et  Scriptis  Eginhardi,"  171 1 ;  Teulet, 
"Notice  sur  ]Sginhard,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  works,  1840; 
J.  Frese,  "De  Einhardi  Vita  et  Scriptis  Specimen,"  1846. 

Eginhardt.    See  Eginhard. 

Eg'in-ton,  (Francis,)  an  English  artist,  born  about 
1737,  was  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  painting  on  glass, 
and  made  improvements  in  that  art.  He  executed  many 
admired  historical  works  in  the  English  cathedrals.  Died 
in  1805. 

]dgisthe,  the  French  of  ^^Igisthus,  which  see. 

Egizio,  i-j6t'se-o,  (  Matteo,  )  Count,  an  Italian 
savant,  born  in  Naples  in  1674,  was  well  versed  in  law 
and  antiquities.  In  1735  was  secretary  of  embassy 
in  Paris,  and  on  his  return  to  Naples  was  chosen  keeper 
of  the  Royal  Library.  He  wrote  a  few  antiquarian  treat- 
ises.   Died  in  1745. 


Eglantine.    See  Fabre  d'Eglantine. 

Eglinger,  gG'ling'er,  (Nicholas,)  a  Swiss  medical 
writer,  born  at  Bale  in  1645  ;  died  in  17 11. 

Eglinger,  (Samuel,)  a  Swiss  medical  writer,  born  at 
Bale  in  1638;  died  in  1673. 

Eg'lin-ton  and  Win'tpn,  (Archibald  William 
Montgomerie,)  fifteenth  Earl  of,  a  Britisli  peer,  born 
at  Palermo  in  18 12,  succeeded  to  the  earldom  in  18 19. 
He  produced  a  great  sensation  by  a  famous  tournament 
at  Eglinton  Castle,  Ayrshire,  in  1839,  in  which  Louis 
Napoleon  took  part,  with  many  of  the  British  nobility. 
He  was  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  during  the  short  ad- 
ministration of  Lord  Derby,  1852-53,  and  again  in  1858 
-59.  In  politics  he  acted  with  the  Conservatives.  Died 
in  1861. 

Egloff,  gc'lof,  (Louise,)  a  Swiss  poetess,  born  at 
Baden  in  1803,  was  either  born  blind  or  became  so  in 
infancy.  A  volume  of  her  poems  was  published  in  1823, 
Died  in  1834. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Egloffstein,  von,  fon  go'lof-stln',  (Karl  August,)  a 
German  general,  born  at  Egloffstein  in  1771.  He  en- 
tered the  French  army  in  his  youth,  and  served  with 
distinction  in  Germany  and  Spain.  He  commanded  a 
brigade  in  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812.  Died  in  1834. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

;6gly,  d',  di'gle',  (Charles  Philippe  Montlienault 

— m6N'ta'n5',)  born  in  Paris  in  1696,  wrote  a  History  of 
Naples.    Died  in  1749. 

Egmond.    See  Egmont,  (Lamoral  and  Philip.) 

Egmond,  van,  vtn  §g'm6nt,  (Justus,)  a  Dutch  his- 
torical painter  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Leyden  in  1602 
He  worked  in  France,  and  was  patronized  by  Louis 
XIV.    Died  at  Antwerp  in  1674. 

Eg'mond  or  Eg'mont,  van,  [Dutch  pron.  vSn  hg'- 
mont;  Fr.  D'Egmond,  deg^m^N^  ]  (  Karel,)  a  Dutch 
prince,  born  at  Gavre  in  1467,  was  the  son  of  Adolph, 
Duke  of  Gelderland.  He  began  to  rule  that  duchy  in 
1492,  and  defended  it  successfully  against  Maximilian  of 
Germany.  In  1507  he  invaded  Brabant,  and  took  several 
cities;  but  his  progress  was  arrested  by  the  treaty  of 
Cambrai.  Nearly  all  his  life  was  spent  in  war  against  the 
Austrians,  which  he  conducted  with  great  ability,  and 
ended  in  1528  by  rendering  homage  to  Charles  V.  Died 
in  1538. 

See  PoNTANUS,  "Historia  Geldricae;"  Dujardin,  "Histoire  des 
Provinces  unies." 

Egmond,  van,  (Maximilian,)  Count  of  Buren,  an 
able  general  of  Charles  V.,  was  born  probably  in  Flan- 
ders. He  commanded  an  imperial  army  in  1536  against 
Francis  I.,  and  took  Saint-Pol.  "  He  was,"  says  De 
Thou,  "great  in  war  and  great  in  peace."  He  died  in 
1548,  leaving  no  issue  but  a  daughter,  who  was  the  first 
wife  of  William,  Prince  of  Orange. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Histoire,"  vol.  v. 

Egmont,  Earl  of.    See  Perceval,  (John.) 

Eg'mSnt,  (John,)  Count  of,  and  Duke  of  Gelder- 
land, formed  a  conspiracy  against  the  Count  of  Holland 
about  141 5,  and  was  condemned  to  death,  but  escaped  by 
flight.    Died  in  1452. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Egmont  or  Egmond,  [Fr.  pron.  §g'm6N',]  (Lamo- 
ral, It'mo'rtK,)  Count  of.  Prince  de  Gavre,  and  Baron 
of  Fiennes,  one  of  the  most  illustrious  nobles  of  the  Low 
Countries,  was  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1522.  He  was  a 
descendant  of  the  Dukes  of  Gelderland.  In  1546  Charles 
V.  conferred  on  him  the  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece. 
He  married  at  an  early  age  Sabina,  Duchess  of  Bavaria. 
Appointed  commander  of  cavalry  in  the  Spanish  army, 
he  defeated  the  French  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1557,  and 
the  next  year  gained  the  important  victory  of  Gravelines. 
Though  he  continued  constant  in  his  support  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  he  used  his  great  influence  in  favour 
of  peace  and  moderate  measures  in  the  contest  between 
the  Spanish  court  and  the  Reformers.  This  conduct, 
together  with  his  extraordinary  popularity,  provoked  the 
vindictive  jealousy  of  Philip  II.,  who  sent  to  Flanders, 
with  vice-regal  power,  the  Duke  of  Alva,  Egmont's  per- 
sonal enemy.  Egmont  was  arrested,  with  Count  Horn, 
tried  for  treason,  and  executed,  in  1568,  after  several 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  o,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

53 


EGMONT 


834 


EHRENSfFARD 


German  princes  had  made  earnest  efforts  to  save  his  life. 
His  death  became  the  signal  of  a  general  revolt  against 
Philip  II.,  which  resulted  in  the  independence  of  the 
United  Provinces.  It  is  also  the  subject  of  an  admired 
tragedy  by  Goethe.  Motley,  who  has  had  access  to  the 
most  various  and  ample  sources  of  information,  takes  a 
less  favourable  view  of  Egmont's  character  than  most 
other  historians.  (See  "  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic," 
more  especially  the  remarks  on  Egmont's  character  near 
the  end  of  chap.  ii.  Part  iii.) 

See  Bercht,  "Geschichte  des  Grafen  Egmond,"  1810;  P.  J. 
Brunkli.e,  "  filoge  duComte  d'Egmont,"  1820;  Pkescott,  "His- 
tory of  Philip  II.,"  vols.  i.  and  ii. 

Egmont,  (Philip,)  Count  of,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1558,  served  in  the  army  of  Philip  II.,  who  sent 
him  at  the  head  of  a  small  force  to  fight  for  the  League 
against  Henry  IV.  of  France.  When  in  Paris  a  certain 
official  made  to  him  a  public  address  and  began  to  eulo- 
gize his  father,  Egmont  checked  him  by  saying,  "  Say  no 
more  of  that  rebel :  he  deserved  his  fate."  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Ivry  in  1590. 

His  brother  Charles,  Count  of  Egmont,  married 
Marie  of  Lens,  Baroness  of  Aubignies,  became  a  cheva- 
lier of  the  Golden  Fleece,  and  was  constantly  attached 
to  the  cause  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  He  died  at  the 
Hague  in  1620.  The  posterity  of  Lamoral  became  extinct 
in  the  person  of  Procope  Franyois,  Count  of  Egmont,  a 
general  in  the  French  army,  who  died  in  1707,  aged 
thirty-eight. 

Egnatius.    See  Egnazio. 

Egnazio,  Sn-ySt'se-o,  [Lat.  Egna'tius,]  the  assumed 
name  of  Giovanni  Battista  Cipelli,  (che-peKlee,)  an 
Italian  orator  and  author,  born  at  Venice  about  1475. 
He  was  professor  of  eloquence  in  Venice  about  thirty 
years,  (1520-50.)  His  lectures  were  very  popular,  and 
are  said  to  have  attracted  a  class  of  five  hundred  stu- 
dents. He  edited  the  poems  of  Ovid,  and  wrote,  in  Latin, 
several  works,  including  an  "  Epitome  of  the  Lives  of 
the  Roman  Emperors,"  which  has  some  merit.  Died 
in  1553- 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Latinis;"  Ersch  und  Gruber, 
"Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie. " 

Eg're-mont,  (George  O'Brien  Wyndham,)  Earl 
OF,  an  English  nobleman,  born  in  1 751,  inherited  that 
title  at  the  age  of  twelve.  He  was  eminent  for  his  public 
spirit  and  his  liberality  as  a  patron  of  native  artists. 
Died  in  1837. 

Eguia,  de,  di  i-gee'S,  (Francisco  Ramon,)  a  Spanish 
general,  born  at  Durango  in  1750;  died  in  1827. 

idgyptus,  the  French  of  ^Egyptus,  which  see. 

Ehingen,  von,  fon  a'ing-en,  (George,)  a  German 
traveller  and  knight-errant,  born  about  1435.  He  fought 
with  distinction  against  the  Moors  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 
He  wrote  a  narrative  of  his  travels  in  Europe,  Palestine, 
etc.,  (1600.) 

Ehinger,  a'ing-er,  (Elias,)  a  German  theologian,  born 
in  1573,  was  professor  and  rector  at  Augsburg,  and  pub- 
lished several  theological  works.    Died  in  1653. 

See  Jacob  Brucker,  "  Commentatio  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  E.  Ehin- 
geri,"  1724. 

Ehlers,  a'lers,  (Martin,)  a  German  novelist,  born  in 
Holstein  in  1732,  became  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Kiel  in  1776.  His  chief  work  is  "Considerations  on 
the  Morality  of  our  Enjoyments  and  Pleasures,"  (2  vols., 
1790.)  "All  his  thoughts,"  says  Guizot,  "are  those  of 
a  wise  man.  He  presents  a  number  of  important  truths 
with  clearness  and  simplicity."  ("  Biographic  Univer- 
selle.")    Died  in  1800. 

See  Meusel,  "  Lexikon  der  vom  Jahr  1750-1800  verstorbenen 
Deutschen  Schriftsteller." 

Ehninger,  en'ing-er,  ?  (John  W.,)  an  American  painter, 
born  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1827,  studied  in  Paris. 
His  forte  is  genre.  Among  his  works  are  "  The  Foray," 
"  Ars  celare  Artem,"  "  Lady  Jane  Grey,"  and  familiar 
rural  scenes. 

See  H.  T.  Tuckerman,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Ehrenberg,  a'ren-b^Rc',  (Christian  Gottfried,)  a 
'German  naturalist,  celebrated  for  his  microscopic  re- 
searches, was  born  at  Delitzsch,  in  Prussian  Saxony,  in 
X795.  He  studied  medicine  at  Leipsic,  and  took  his  degree 
in  1818.    His  first  writings  were  treatises  on  fungi  and 


other  cryptogamous  plants.  At  the  expense  of  the  Berlin 
Academy,  he  made  with  Dr.  Hemprich  a  scientific  excur- 
sion to  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Syria,  in  which  they  spent 
about  six  years,  (1820-26.)  On  his  return  to  Berlin 
he  was  appointed  adjunct  professor  of  the  Faculty  of 
Medicine.  He  published  his  observations  in  "Scientific 
Travels  through  Northern  Africa  and  Western  Asia," 
(1828,)  and  in  several  special  treatises  entitled  "  Physical 
Symbols  of  Birds,  Insects,"  etc.,  ("  Symbolae  physicae 
Avium,  Insectorum,"  etc.,  1828-34.)  In  1829  he  accom- 
panied Humboldt  in  an  excursion  to  the  Ural  and  Altai 
Mountains.  Having  turned  his  attention  to  the  study 
of  animalcula,  he  made  remarkable  discoveries  with  the 
microscope.  He  published  in  1838  a  description  of  the 
structure  and  habits  of  infusoria,  in  his  great  work  "  The 
Infusoria  as  Perfect  Organisms,"  ("  Die  Infusionsthier- 
chen  als  vollkommene  Organismen.")  He  wrote  other 
works,  in  which  he  announced  that  cretaceous  and  cal- 
careous strata  and  large  portions  of  mountains  are 
composed  of  the  skeletons  of  infusoria  or  microscopic 
organisms.  His  "  Mikro-Geologie,"  (1854-56,)  treating 
of  this  department  of  geology,  is  among  his  most  impor- 
tant works. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Generale." 

Ehrenberg,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  theologian,  born 
at  Elberfeld  in  1776,  became  court  preacher  in  1834. 

Ehrenheim,  a'ren-hlm',  (Fredrick  Wilhelm,)  Ba- 
ron of,  a  Swedish  statesman,  born  at  Broby  in  1753. 
In  1794  he  was  minister  at  the  court  of  Denmark,  and 
a  few  years  later  he  obtained  the  portfolio  of  foreign 
affairs.  When  Gustavus  IV.  was  dethroned,  in  1809, 
Ehrenheim  retired  from  the  public  service.  He  wrote 
an  excellent  treatise  on  "  General  Physics  and  Meteoro- 
logy," and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1828. 

Ehrenmalm,  a'ren-milm'',  (Arvid,)  a  Swedish  travel- 
ler, who  published  in  1742  a  "Journey  through  Nordland 
and  Lapland,"  etc. 

Ehrenpreus,  a'ren-prg-dos,  (Carl,)  a  Swedish  states- 
man, born  at  CErelDro  in  1692.  He  was  employed  by 
Charles  XII.  as  secretary  at  Bender  about  17 10,  and 
after  his  return  to  Sweden  was  made  a  senator  and  a 
count.    Died  in  1760. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ehrenschild,  a'ren-shilt'',  (Conrad  Bierman,)  a 
Danish  statesman,  born  in  1629;  died  in  1698. 

Ehrenschold  or  Ehrenschoeld,  a'ren-sholt^  or 
Ehrenskjold,  a'rens-chilt'',  (Nils,)  a  Swedish  admiral, 
born  in  1674.  In  i7i4ori7i5  he  commanded  the  Swedish 
fleet  which  was  defeated  in  the  Gulf  of  Finland  by  a 
superior  Russian  fleet,  in  which  Peter  the  Great  served 
as  rear-admiral.    Died  in  1728. 

Ehrensteen.    See  Ehrknsten. 

Ehrensten,  a'ren-sten',  written  also  Ehrensteen 
(Eduard,)  a  Swedish  statesman  and  author,  born  at 
Locknevid  in  1620,  was  the  son  of  Philip  Bononius.  In 
1653  he  became  secretary  of  the  king,  Charles  Gustavus, 
and,  having  subsequently  received  letters  of  nobility,  he 
took  the  name  of  Ehrensten.  He  was  appointed  secre- 
tary of  state  in  1659,  and  chancellor  of  the  court  in 
1671.  He  wrote  "De  Forma  Substantiali,"  (1642,)  and 
other  works,  which  are  commended.    Died  in  1686. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ehrenstral.a'ren-stRar,  (David  Clocker,)  a  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1629,  studied 
in  Italy.  In  1661  he  was  appointed  painter  to  the  court 
of  Sweden.    Died  in  1698. 

Ehrensvard.    See  Ehrensward. 

Ehrenswaerd.    See  Ehrensward. 

Ehrensward  or  Ehrenswaerd,  a'ren-s^^Rd'',  (Au- 
gust,) Count  of,  a  Swedish  lield-marshal,  born  in  1710, 
made  himself  famous  by  devising  and  organizing  a  new 
plan  of  national  defence, — a  fleet  of  transport-vessels 
and  gun-boats, — which  was  employed  with  success  on 
several  occasions.  He  also  planned  the  fortifications  of 
Sveaborg.    Died  in  1773. 

See  Gever,"  History  of  Sweden ;"  Axel  M.  Arbin,  "  Aminnelse- 
Tal  ofver  A.  Ehrenswaerd,"  1774. 

Ehrensward  or  Ehrenswaerd,  (Carl  August,)  a 
Swedish  admiral  and  artist,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  about  1745.    He  visited  Italy  about  1780,  and  after 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  Ung;  A,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fl.ll,  fit;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


EHRET 


835 


EIMMART 


his  return  published  an  account  of  his  travels,  illustrated 
with  fine  engravings  by  himself.  He  was  admiral  of  the 
fleet  in  1 789,  and  fought  against  the  Russians.  Died  in 
1800. 

Ehret,  a'r§t,  (Georg  D.,)  a  German  artist,  distin- 
guished for  his  skill  in  drawing  and  painting  plants,  was 
born  in  Baden  in  1 7 10.  He  worked  some  time  in  Bale, 
from  which  he  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  was  employed 
by  Bernard  de  Jussieu.  He  became  intimate  with  Lin- 
naeus in  Holland,  and  designed  the  figures  of  his  beautiful 
"Hortus  Cliffortianus,"  (1737.)  In  1740  he  went  to 
England,  where  he  worked  for  the  Royal  Society  and 
published  a  series  of  engravings  of  plants,  (1748-59.) 
Died  in  1770. 

See  Nagler,  "Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Ehrhardt,  aR'haRt,  (Sigismond  Just,)  a  German 
historian  and  preacher,  born  in  1,733.  wrote  on  the 

early  history  of  Lower  Saxony,  and  "  On  the  Origin  and 
Antiquities  of  Schmalkalden."    Died  in  1793. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ehrhart,  aR'haRt,  (Balthasar,)  a  German  botanist, 
was  born  at  Memmingen,  His  chief  work  is  an  "Eco- 
nomical History  of  Plants,"  of  which  five  volumes  had 
appeared  at  his  death  in  1756.  It  was  continued  and 
completed  by  P.  F.  Gmelin, 

Ehrhart,  (Frederick,)  a  Swiss  botanist,  born  at  Hol- 
darbanc  about  1745,  learned  the  trade  of  apothecary,  and 
in  the  study  of  botany  was  a  pupil  of  Linnaeus  at  Upsal. 
From  1787  to  1792  he  issued  "Fragments  of  Natural 
History,"  in  7  vols.  He  received  in  1787  the  diploma 
of  botanist  to  his  Britannic  Majesty.    Died  in  1795. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ehrmann,  iR^mfiN'  or  aR'mSn,  (Frederic  Louis,)  a 
French  writer,  born  about  1740,  published  "  Elements  of 
Physics,"  (1779.)    Died  in  1800. 

Ehrmann,  aR'min,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German 
medical  writer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1740;  died  about 
1800. 

Ehrmann,  aR'min,  (Marianne,)  a  Swiss  authoress, 
whose  maiden  name  was  Brentano,  (bRen-tS'no,)  born 
at  Rapperschwyl  in  1755.  She  was  married  to  T.  F. 
Ehrmann,  a  geographer.  She  wrote  works  for  the  in- 
struction of  women,  among  which  were  "Amelia,  a  True 
Story,"  (1787,)  and  "The  Solitary  of  the  Alps,"  (1794.) 
"  Her  style  is  clear  and  easy,"  says  Guizot ;  "  her  reflec- 
tions are  always  just,  and  often  new.  All  her  writings 
are  pervaded  by  an  excellent  morality."    Died  in  1795. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Eichendorff,  von,  fon  yKen-doRf,  (Joseph,)  Baron, 
a  popular  German  poet  and  novelist,  born  at  Lubowitz, 
near  Ratibor,  in  1788.  He  became  refe^-eiidar  oi  the  gov- 
ernment at  Breslau  in  1816,  and  afterwards  councillor 
( regierungsrath )  at  Konig.sberg  and  Berlin.  He  wrote 
several  tragedies  and  novels,  some  of  which  are  con- 
sidered master-pieces.  Among  the  latter  are  "  Presenti- 
ment and  Reality,"  (1815,)  and  "Aus  dem  Leben  eines 
Taugenichts,"  ("  From  the  Life  of  a  Good-for-Nothing," 
1824:  translated  into  English  by  C.  G.  Leland  in  1866.) 
His  songs  are  admired  for  melody  and  tenderness.  Died 
in  1857. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Eichens,  J'Kens,  (Friedrich  Eduard,)  an  eminent 
German  engraver,  born  in  Berlin  in  1804.  He  pursued 
his  studies  in  Paris  and  Italj^,  where  he  acquired  reputa- 
tion by  engravings  of  "The  Daughter  of  Titian"  and 
Raphael's  "Vision  of  Ezekiel."  He  returned  to  Berlin 
about  1832,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Royal  Academy. 
His  "Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  after  Raphael,  is  admired. 

EichhofF,  i'kof ,  (Fr^d^ric  Gustavf,)  a  French  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Havre  in  1799.  He  studied  Sanscrit  and 
other  Oriental  languages,  and  wrote,  among  other  works, 
a  "Comparison  of  the  Languages  of  Europe  with  those 
of  India,"  (1836.)  In  1855  he  was  chosen  inspector- 
general  of  the  classes  of  living  languages  in  the  lyceums 
(lycees)  of  France. 

Eichhorn,  iK'hoRn,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  graduated  in  1822;  died  in  1832. 

Eichhorn,  (Johann  Albrecht  Friedrich,)  born  in 
Prussia  in  1779,  was  minister  of  public  instruction  and 
worship  from  1840  to  1848.    Died  in  1856. 


Eichhorn,  (Johann  Conrad,)  a  German  naturalist, 
born  at  Dantzic  in  1718,  wrote  on  aquatic  animals.  Died 
in  1790. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Eichhorn,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  an  excellent  Ger- 
man scholar  and  biblical  critic,  born  at  Dorenzimmern, 
Hohenlohe-Oehringen,  on  the  i6th  of  October,  1752. 
He  was  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Jena  from 
1775  to  1788.  In  the  latter  year  he  obtained  the  chair 
of  Oriental  and  biblical  literature  at  Gottingen,  where 
he  taught  until  his  death.  He  edited  a  periodical  called 
a  "General  Repository  of  Biblical  Literature,"  (10  vols., 
1 787-1801,)  and  published  many  important  works,  among 
which  are  an  "  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,"  (3 
vols.,  1783,)  and  an  "Introduction  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment," (2  vols.,  1804-10.)  His  "Primitive  History" 
("  Urgeschichte,"  3  vols.,  1790-93)  is  admired  for  style 
and  erudition.  He  left  a  "Universal  History,"  (5  vols., 
1799,)  a  "History  of  Literature  from  its  Origin  to  the 
Most  Recent  Times,"  (6  vols.,  1806-12,)  "The  Primitive 
History  of  the  House  of  Guelph,"  (1817,)  and  other  his- 
torical works.  As  a  biblical  critic  he  favours  rationalism 
or  philosophic  skepticism.    Died  in  1827. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  T.  C. 
TvcHSEN,  "Memoria  J.  G.  Eichhorn,"  182S:  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 

Eichhorn,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  an  eminent  Prussian 
jurisconsult  and  historian,  born  at  Jena  in  1 781,  was  a 
son  of  the  preceding.  He  became  professor  of  German 
law  at  Berlin  in  181 1,  and  at  Gottingen  in  181 7.  In  1828 
he  resigned  his  chair  on  account  of  ill  health.  About 
1833  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  council  of  state 
at  Berlin,  and  of  the  commission  of  legislation.  Among 
his  principal  works  is  a  "  History  of  the  States  and  Law 
of  Germany,"  (4  vols.,  1808-18,)  which  has  passed  through 
eight  editions,  and  an  "  Introduction  to  German  Civil 
Law,"  ( Privatrecht. )    Died  at  Cologne  in  1854. 

Eichler,  iK'ler,  (Gottfried,)  a  German  painter  of 
jwrtraits  and  history,  was  born  at  Augsburg  about  1675. 
He  studied  under  Carlo  Maratta  in  Rome,  and  returned 
to  Augsburg,  where  he  received  the  title  of  court  painter. 
Died  in  1757. 

Eichler,  (Gottfried,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1 715,  was  a  skilful  designer  and  engraver  on  copper. 
Died  in  1770. 

Eichler,  (Matthias  Gottfried,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  1748,  lived  at  Berne.  He  engiaved  "  The 
Deluge,"  after  Poussin,  and  many  other  historical  pieces 
and  landscapes.    Died  about  1818. 

See  Nagler,  "Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Eichmann.    See  Dryander,  (Johann.) 

Eichner,  iK'ner,  (Ernst,)  a  German  musician  and 
composer,  born  at  Manheim  in  1740  ;  died  in  1777. 

Eichstad,  iK'stlt,  (Lorenz,)  a  German  medical  wri- 
ter, born  at  Stettin  ;  died  in  1660. 

IJichstadt,  iK'stat,  (Heinrich  Karl  Abraham,)  a 
German  philologer,  born  at  Oschatz  in  1772.  He  was 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Jena,  edited  the  "Literary  Ga- 
zette," and  published  "  Questiones  Philologicae,"  (1796,) 
and  an  edition  of  Lucretius,  (1801.)    Died  in  1848. 

Eichwald,  TK^va]t,  (Edward,)  a  Russian  naturalist, 
of  German  extraction,  born  at  Mittau  in  1795.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  zoology  and  obstetrics  at  Kazan 
in  1823,  after  which  he  made  an  excursion  to  the  Caspian 
Sea  and  Persia.  About  1838  he  became  professor  of 
mineralogy  and  zoology  in  Saint  Petersburg  ;  he  after- 
wards explored  the  scientific  resources  of  parts  of  Russia 
and  Italy.  He  wrote  a  treatise,  in  German,  "  On  the 
Natural  History  of  Lithuania,  Volhynia,  and  Podolia," 
(1830,)  a  "  Fauna  Caspio-Caucasia,"  (1841,)  "  The  Primi- 
tive World  of  Russia,"  ("Die  Urwelt  Russlands,"  4  vols., 
1840-47,)  and  other  works. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Eimmart,  Tm'miRt,  or  Eimart,  I'm^Rt,  (Georg 
Christoph,)  a  German  painter,  born  in  1597;  died  at 
Ratisbon  in  1660. 

Eimmart,  (Georg  Christoph,)  an  ingenious  German 
artist  and  astronomer,  born  at  Ratisbon  in  1638.  He 
painted  portraits  and  history  with  success  at  Nuremberg, 
where  he  settled  in  1660.    He  made  astronomical  obser- 


-e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2l^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


EINARI 


836 


ELBCEUF 


vations,  and  left  many  volumes  of  manuscripts  on  as- 
tronqmy,  meteorology,  etc.    Died  in  1705. 

Ijinari,  i-ni're,  (Gissur,)  the  first  Protestant  Bishop  of 
Skalholt,  Iceland,  received  lessons  from  Luther  at  Wit- 
tenberg, and,  returning  home,  became  the  leader  of  the 
Reformation  in  that  island. 

Einari,  written  also  Einarson,  (Halfdan,)  an  Ice- 
landic savant,  became  in  1755  rector  of  the  Latin  School 
at  Holum.  His  most  important  work  is  "  Sciagraphia," 
or  "  Sketch  of  the  Literary  History  of  Iceland,"  rn  which 
he  notices  four  hundred  and  five  writers.    Died  in  1784. 

See  Kkaft  og  Nyerup,  "  Litteraturlexicon." 

Einarson.    See  Einari. 

Einem,  von,  fon  I^nem,  (Johann  Justus,)  a  German 
writer  and  teacher,  published  a  "Sketch  of  the  Life  of 
Luther,"  (1730,)  and  other  works. 

Einliard.    See  Eginhard. 

Einlieriar,  Tn-ha're-ar,  or  Einherjar,  [from  einn, 
"one,"  "single,"  hence  "singled  out"  or  "chosen,"  and 
heri,  (allied  to  the  German  I/err,)  "lord,"  "hero,"]  in 
the  Norse  mythology,  the  name  given  to  the  chosen 
heroes  who  are  admitted  to  Valhalla.  (See  Odin  and 
Valkyria.) 

Einsiedel,  von,  fon  Tn'see-del,  (Friedrich  Hilde- 
BRAND,)  a  German  writer  and  politician,  born  at  Leipsic 
in  1750 ;  died  in  1828. 

Eioub  or  Eiub.    See  Aiyoob. 

Eira,  I'ri,  or  Eir,  ir,  [etymology  unknown,]  in  the 
Norse  mythology,  the  goddess  of  medicine, 

Eirene,  T-ree'ne,  [Gr.  Eipf/vTj ;  Lat.  Pax  ;  Fr.  La  Paix, 
It  pa,]  the  goddess  of  peace,  in  classic  mythology,  was 
called  a  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Themis.  Altars  and 
statues  were  raised  in  her  honour  at  Athens,  and  a  magni- 
ficent temple  was  erected  to  her  in  Rome  by  Vespasian. 

Eiselen,  I''zeh-len,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German 
publicist,  born  at  Rothemburg  in  1785,  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Halle  in  1829.  He  wrote  a  "Theory 
of  Political  Economy,"  (1843.) 

Eisen,  a'z6N',  (Charles,)  a  French  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  in  Paris  in  1721  ;  died  in  1778. 

Eisen  von  Schwarzenberg,  I'zen  von  shwiRt'sen- 
b§RG',  (Johann  GEORG,)a  German  physician  and  writer 
on  theology,  etc.,  was  born  at  Bolsingen  in  1 71 7.  He  pro- 
moted the  abolition  of  serfdom  in  Livonia.  Died  in  1779. 

Eisengrein,  I'zen-gRin',  (Martin,)  a  German  theolo- 
gian, born  in  1535,  lived  at  Ingolstadt.    Died  in  1578. 

Eisenhart,  I''zen-haRt^  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  dis- 
tinguished German  jurist,  born  at  Spire  in  1720.  He 
published  "  Institutes  of  German  Private  Law,"  ("  Insti- 
tutiones  Juris  Germanici  privati,"  1753,)  and  other  legal 
works.  "  His  style  is  clear  and  precise,"  says  Guizot, 
"his  discussions  are  animated,  and  give  proof  of  equal 
sagacity  and  judgment."  ("  Biographic  Universelle.") 
Died  in  1783. 

See  J.  C.  Wernsdorf,  "Mtmoria  J.  F.  Eisenharti,"  1783; 
HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Eisenmann,  T'zen-man^,  (Gottfried,)  a  German 
medical  writer  and  liberal  politician,  born  at  Wiirtzburg 
in  1795.  He  was  imprisoned  for  political  reasons  from 
1832  to  1841.  Among  his  works  is  a  treatise  "On  Rheu- 
matism," (3  vols.,  1841-43.) 

Eisenmenger,  T'zen-m^ng'er,  (Johann  Andreas,)  a 
German  philologist  and  Hebraist,  born  at  Manheim  in 
1654.  He  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Heidelberg  in  1700,  and  published  "Judaism  Unveiled," 
(1700,)  which  is  regarded  as  a  libellous  work  by  the  Jews 
and  others.    Died  in  1704. 

See  A.  T.  Hartmann,  "J.  A.  Eisenmenger  und  seine  jiidischen 
Gegner,"  1834. 

Eisenschmid,  T'zen-shmit',  (Johann  Kaspar,)  a  skil- 
ful mathematician,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1656,  was  chosen 
in  1699  an  associate  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris. 
He  wrote  a  treatise  on  "  The  Figure  of  the  Earth,"  and 
several  other  works.    Died  in  17 12. 

Eisinga,  T'sing-h.\  (Eise,)  born  in  Holland  in  1744, 
was  a  councillor  of  state,  and  noted  as  the  inventor  and 
maker  of  a  remarkable  planetarium.  He  died  at  Frane- 
ker  in  1828. 

Eiyub.    See  Aiyoob. 

Ekama,  a'ki-md,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  mathematician, 
born  in  Friesland  in  1773 ;  died  in  1826. 


Ekber.    See  Akbar. 

Ekeberg,§k'eh-b&Rg^  (Anders  Gustaf,)  an  eminent 
Swedish  chemist,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1767.  He  made 
some  chemical  discoveries,  and  taught  chemistry  at  Up- 
sal.    Died  in  1813. 

Ekeberg,  (Carl  Gustaf,)  a  Sw^edish  captain  and 
savant,  born  in  17 16,  made  several  voyages  to  India  and 
China,  and  gained  distinction  by  his  useful  observations. 
He  published  an  "  Account  of  the  Rural  Economy  of 
the  Chinese,"  (1754,)  and  a  "Voyage  to  India  in  1770- 
71."  For  his  treatise  on  Inoculation  he  received  medals 
and  pensions  from  several  foreign  powers.  Died  in  1784. 

See  A.  Sparrman,  " Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  C.  G.  Ekeberg,"  1791. 

Ekeblad,  ek'eh-blM^  (  Claudius,  )  Count  of,  a 
Swedish  statesman,  born  about  1700,  was  chosen  in  1761 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.  His  opponents,  styled  the 
party  of  Caps,  prevailed  in  1766,  and  he  lost  his  place, 
but  recovered  it  in  1769,  when  the  Hats,  or  French  party, 
were  in  the  ascendant.    Died  in  1771. 

See  HoEPKEN,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  C.  Ekeblad,"  1773. 

Ek'ins,  (Jeffery,)  an  English  parson,  born  in  Ches- 
hire. He  translated  from  the  Greek  "The  Loves  of 
Medea  and  Jason,"  by  Apollonius  of  Rhodes.  Died  in 
1791. 

Ekstrom  or  Ekstroem,  gk'strom,  (Daniel,)  a  Swe- 
dish mechanician  and  mathematician,  born  at  Ekesog  in 
1 7 II.  He  made  excellent  mathematical  instruments. 
Died  in  1755. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  P.  War- 
GENTEN,  "Gedachtniss  auf  Daniel  Ekstroem." 

ifilagabale.    See  Elagabalus. 

Bl-a-ga-baTus  or  El-a-gab''a-lus,  or  He-li-o-ga- 
baTus,  [Fr.  Slagabale,  i'lt  gt^btK,  or  H:^liogabale, 
a'leVgt'btK,]  (Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,)  a  Ro- 
man emperor,  born  at  Antioch  in  204  A.D.,  was  supposed 
to  be  the  natural  son  of  Caracalla.  His  original  name 
was  Varius  Avitus  Bassianus ;  but,  having  become  a 
priest  in  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  (the  Syrian  Elagabal,) 
he  adopted  the  name  of  that  idol.  In  218  he  was  pro- 
claimed by  the  army  as  successor  to  Caracalla,  and, 
having  defeated  his  rival  Macrinus,  he  assumed  the  name 
of  M.  A.  Antoninus.  His  reign  was  short,  and  was  dis- 
graced by  cruelty,  extravagance,  and  infamous  vices.  He 
was  assassinated  by  his  soldiers  in  222,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Alexander  Severus. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs;"  Gibbon,  "Decline 
and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Lampridius,  "Elagabalus;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate." 

Elbee,  d',  dlVb¥,  (Gigot,  zhe^o',)  a  Vendean  gen- 
eral-in-chief,  born  of  a  French  family  at  Dresden  in  1752. 
He  resided  in  France  when  the  Revolution  began,  and 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  royalists  in  March, 
1793.  His  army  joined  that  of  Cathelineau  and  defeated 
the  republicans  at  Fontenay  and  Saumur.  On  the  death 
of  Cathelineau,  in  June,  Elbee  was  chosen  general-in- 
chief.  He  was  defeated  at  Lu9on,  and  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  Marceau  at  Chantonnay.  He  lost  a  great 
battle  and  was  desperately  wounded  at  Chollet,  in  Oc- 
tober. Having  been  taken  prisoner,  he  was  shot,  by 
order  of  a  court-martial,  in  January,  1794. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution ;"  De  CouR' 
CELLES,  "Histoire  des  Generaux  Francais." 

Elbene.    See  Delbene. 

EPbert,  (Samuel,)  an  American  officer,  born  in  South 
"Carolina  in  1743,  served  with  distinction  as  colonel  in  the 
Revolutionary  war,  and  was  chosen  Governor  of  Georgia 
in  1785.    Died  in  1788. 

Elbeuf  or  Elboeuf,  d',  dSKbuf,  (Charles,)  Duke, 
born  about  1 556,  was  a  son  of  Rene  de  Lorraine,  noticed 
below.    Died  in  1605. 

Elbeuf,  d',  (Charles,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1596,  became  Duke  of  Elbeuf,  and  married  in  1619  an 
illegitimate  daughter  of  Henry  IV.    Died  in  1657. 

Elbeuf,  d',  (Emmanuel  Maurice,)  Prince,  a  grand- 
son of  the  preceding,  born  in  1677,  entered  the  service 
of  the  Emperor  of  Germany.  He  became  owner  of  3 
villa  at  Portici,  and  there  ordered  some  excavationa 
which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  Herculaneum.  Died 
in  1763. 

Elbeuf,  d',  (Ren6  de  Lorraine — deh  lo'rin',)  Mar- 
quis, a  son  of  Claude,  Due  de  Guise.    Died  in  1566. 
Elboeuf.    See  Elbeuf. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  sAorf;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


ELBURCHT  837  ELFLEDA 


Elburcht,  vaii,  vtn  eKbuRKt,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Elburg  about  1550,  worked  at  Antwerp.  He 
painted  landscapes,  storms  at  sea,  and  scriptural  sub- 
jects. 

Elchingen,  Duke  of.    See  Ney. 

EF-eho,  (  Francis  Wemys  Charteris,  )  Lord,  a 
Scottish  politician,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1818.  He  has 
been  for  many  years  a  member  of  Parliament,  and  is 
called  Liberal  Conservative. 

Elci,  gKchee,  (Angelo,)  Count,  an  eminent  Italian 
philologist,  born  of  a  noble  family  in  Florence  in  1764. 
He  published  a  fine  edition  of  Lucan's  "  Pharsalia,"  and 
some  satires  of  his  own.    Died  in  1824. 

EFdad  the  Danite,  a  Jewish  traveller,  lived  in  Ara- 
bia in  the  ninth  century.  He  travelled  in  China,  Persia, 
and  other  countries,  and  wrote  a  narrative  of  his  travels. 

El'don,  (John  Scott,)  Earl  of,  lord  chancellor  of 
England,  was  born  at  Newcastle  in  1751.  His  father, 
William  Scott,  was  a  prosperous  "  coal-fitter,"  or  dealer 
in  coal.  John  Scott  was  educated  at  Oxford,  where  in 
1771  he  gained  a  prize  of  £20  for  a  prose  essay  on  the 
•'Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  Foreign  Travel." 
In  1772  he  ran  away  with  and  married  Elizabeth  Surtees, 
a  lady  of  exquisite  beauty.  He  began  the  study  of  law 
in  the  Middle  Temple  in  1773,  where,  by  the  most  in- 
tense application,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  unrivalled 
reputation  which  he  acquired  as  a  judge.  In  1776  he 
was  called  to  the  bar,  and  practised  in  London  and  on 
the  northern  circuit.  His  great  excellence  as  a  lawyer 
was  publicly  recognized  in  1780  in  the  case  of  Acroyd 
vs.  Smithson  before  Lord  Thurlow.  From  this  time  his 
success  was  rapid  and  uninterrupted.  In  1783  he  was 
returned  to  Parliament,  in  which  he  took  a  prominent 
part  as  a  supporter  of  the  ministry  of  Pitt.  Though  not 
a  brilliant  orator,  he  often  spoke  with  great  effect.  In 
1786  he  warmly  defended  Warren  Hastings  in  the  House. 

In  1788  he  was  appointed  solicitor-general,  and  re- 
ceived the  title  of  baronet.  From  1793  until  1799  he 
officiated  as  attorney-general  amidst  the  excitement  of 
the  French  Revolution.  He  prosecuted  Hardy,  Horne 
Tooke,  and  others  for  treason,  who  were  defended  by 
Erskine  and  acquitted.  In  1799  he  obtained  the  office  of 
chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas,  and  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  as  Baron  Eldon,  a  title  derived  from  a  manor  in 
the  county  of  Durham.  Lord  Kenyon  congratulated  the 
profession  on  this  appointment,  and  predicted  that  Eldon 
would  prove  to  be  "the  most  consummate  judge  that  ever 
sat  in  judgment."  It  is  admitted  that  he  performed  the 
duties  of  this  station  admirably. 

In  April,  1801,  on  the  accession  of  Addington  as  prime 
minister,  Lord  Eldon  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  lord 
chancellor,  which  he  ascribed  to  the  favour  of  the  king. 
The  latter,  having  sent  for  Eldon,  drew  the  seals  out 
from  his  bosom,  saying,  "  I  give  them  to  you  from  my 
heart !"  He  retained  the  great  seal  for  the  period  of 
twenty-six  years,  excepting  an  interval  of  about  a  year  in 
1806-07,  when  Erskine  succeeded  him.  He  possessed 
great  influence  in  the  cabinet  and  in  the  Ujiper  House. 
It  may,  however,  be  mentioned  as  his  reproach  that  he 
constantly  supported  the  Conservative  party,  that  he 
opposed  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  the  Reform  bill, 
and  nearly  every  other  change,  whether  of  useful  reform 
or  useless  innovation.  When  Canning  became  prime 
minister,  in  1827,  Eldon  was  superseded  by  Lord  Lynd- 
hurst,  and  retired  from  public  life.  A  few  years  before 
this  he  had  been  created  Viscount  Encombe  and  Earl  of 
Eldon.    Died  in  1838. 

See  "The  Public  and  Private  Life  of  Lord  Eldon,"  by  Horace 
Twiss,  3  vols.,  1844;  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chan- 
cellors;" Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  ix.  ;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  December  and  June,  1844;  "Westminster 
Review"  for  December,  1844;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1844. 

Eleanor,  gKa-nor,  [Sp.  Leonora,  li-o-no'rl,]  of 
Aragon,  Queen  of  Portugal,  was  a  daughter  of  Ferdi- 
nand of  Aragon.  She  was  married  in  1428  to  a  Portu- 
guese prince,  who  became  in  1433  King  Edw^ard  I.  He 
died  in  1438,  leaving  her  guardian  of  her  minor  son, 
Alfonso  v.,  and  regent.    Died  in  1445. 

Eleanor  [Fr.  El^onore,  i'li'o'noR']  of  Austria,  a 
sister  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  was  born  at  Louvain 
in  1498,  and  was  married  in  15 19  to  Emanuel,  King  of 
P9rtugal,  who  died  about  two  years  later.    In  1530  she 


became  the  consort  of  Francis  I.  of  France,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  first  clause  of  the  treaty  of  Cambrai.  She 
had  two  children,  who  were  the  issue  of  her  first  mar- 
riage. She  survived  Francis,  and  died  in  Spain  in  1558. 
See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Eleanor  of  Castile,  a  daughter  of  Ferdinand  III. 
of  Castile,  was  married  in  1254  to  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
who  became  Edward  I.  of  England,    Died  in  1290. 

Eleanor  [Fr.  El^;onore,  i'li'o^noR^J  of  Guienne, 
Queen  of  France,  and  afterwards  Queen  of  England, 
was  born  about  1122.  She  was  daughter  and  heiress  of 
the  last  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  In  1137  she  married  Louis 
VII.  of  France,  whom  she  followed  on  a  crusade  in  1 147. 
Having  been  divorced  in  1152,  she  married  Henry  II. 
of  England.  In  order  to  revenge  his  infidelity  to  her, 
she  is  said  to  have  instigated  the  king's  sons  to  rebel,  for 
which  she  was  imprisoned  about  fifteen  years.  She  was 
regent  while  her  son,  Richard  I., was  absent  on  a  crusade. 
Died  in  1203. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Eleanor  or  Ellinor  [Port.  Eleonora,  or,  more  fully, 
Eleonora  Tellez,  i-lk-o-no'ri  teKl^z]  of  Portugal, 
a  beautiful  Portuguese  lady,  born  about  1350.  She  be- 
came the  queen  of  Ferdinand  I.  of  Portugal.  She  was 
artful  and  unscrupulous,  and  is  said  to  have  caused  the 
death  of  her  sister.    Died  in  1405. 

See  Laclede,  "Histoire  de  Portugal." 

Eleanor  of  Provence,  Queen  of  England,  was  a 
daughter  of  Raimond  Berenger  IV.,  and  was  married 
to  Henry  III.  of  England  in  1236.  She  was  mother  of 
Edward  I.    Died  in  1291. 

E-le-a'zar,  [Heb.  '^r>''7tN,]  a  high-priest  of  the  Hebrew 
church,  was  a  son  of  Aaron,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the 
high-priesthood  about  1452  B.C. 

See  Exodus  xxviii.  i ;  Numbers  xx.  28,  xxxi.  6 ;  Joshua  xxiv.  33. 

Eleazar,  a  Jewish  high-priest,  who  about  277  B.C. 
sent  to  Ptolemy,  King  of  Egypt,  (in  compliance  with  his 
request,)  seventy-two  wise  men  to  translate  the  Mosaic 
law  into  Greek. 

Eleazar,  a  Jewish  warrior,  was  a  brother  of  Juda& 
Maccabeus.    He  was  killed  in  battle  in  163  B.C. 

Eleazar,  an  eminent  Jewish  scribe,  who  resisted  the 
tyrannical  orders  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  was  put 
to  death  in  167  B.C. 

Eleazar,  a  son  of  Ananias,  a  fanatical  Jew,  instigated 
his  countrymen  to  revolt  against  the  Romans.  During 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  (70  a.d.)  he  was  the 
leader  of  one  of  the  hostile  factions  of  that  city. 

See  JosEPHUS,  "History." 

Eleazar,  a  Jewish  warrior,  noted  for  his  obstinate 
defence  of  Massada  against  the  Romans  in  70  a.d.  When 
resistance  was  no  longer  practicable,  to  avoid  capture  he 
and  his  men  killed  themselves. 

Eleazar  or  Eliezer  of  Garmiza  or  of  Worms,  an 
eminent  Hebrew  rabbi,  lived  about  1240. 

E-lec^tra,  [Gr.  'HAe/crpa,]  one  of  the  Pleiades,  was 
regarded  as"  the  daughter  of  Atlas  and  Pleione,  and  the 
mother  of  Dardanus. 

Electra,  [Gr.  'H?ii/crpa;  Fr.  £lectre,  i'liktR';  It. 
Elettra,  a-lSt'tRi,]  a  daughter  of  Agamemnon,  and  a 
sister  of  Orestes,  was  sometimes  called  Laodice.  Her 
story  has  been  dramatized  by  ^Eschylus,  Sophocles,  and 
Euripides. 

^lectre.    See  Electra. 

E-lec'try-on,  [Gr.  'WAsK-pvov,']  a  son  of  Perseus  and 
Andromeda,  was  King  of  Mycenae,  (or,  as  some  say,  of 
Argos,)  and  father  of  Alcmena.  Returning  victorious 
from  war,  he  was  accidentally  killed  by  Amphitryon, 
who  was  betrothed  to  his  daughter  Alcmena. 

Eleonora  Tellez.    See  Eleanor  of  Portugal. 

Elettra.    See  Electra. 

E-leu'sis,  [Gr.  'E/laia«V,]  a  mythical  person,  called  a 
son  of  Mercury  or  of  Ogyges.  The  town  of  Eleusis  in 
Attica  is  supposed  to  have  derived  its  name  from  him. 

E-leu-the'ri-us  or  E-leu'the-ros,  [Fr.  Eleuthere, 
iOuh'taiR',]  a  native  of  Nicopolis  or  Epirus,  in  Greece, 
was  elected  pope  or  bishop  of  Rome  in  177  A.D.  He 
died  in  192,  and  was  succeeded  by  Victor  I. 

El-fle'da  or  Eth'el-fle^da,  daughter  of  Alfred  the 
Great  of  England,  and  sister  of  Edward  the  Elder,  in- 


as  /t;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as J;  o,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (jJi^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ELFRIC 


838 


ELIOT 


herited  some  of  her  father's  royal  qualities.  She  became 
about  890  the  wife  of  Ethelred,  Count  of  Mercia,  after 
whose  death  she  defended  her  dominions  against  the 
Danes  with  courage  and  ability.    Died  in  922. 
Elfric.    See  Alfric. 

El-fri'da,  queen  of  Edgar,  King  of  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
was  the  mother  of  Ethelred  II.,  and  was  a  woman  of 
infamous  character. 

Elger.    See  Elliger,  (Otmar.) 

EFgin,  (James  Bruce,)  Earl  of,  son  of  Thomas, 
noticed  below,  a  distinguished  British  statesman,  was 
born  in  181 1,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  In  1841  he  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  the  earldom  of  Elgin  and  Kincar- 
dine. From  1842  to  1846  he  was  Governor  of  Jamaica, 
and  in  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  Governor-Gene- 
ril  of  Canada.  In  this  position  his  policy  was  liberal, 
and  his  administration  obtained  the  general  approbation 
of  the  colonists  and  of  the  central  government.  In  1849 
he  was  created  an  English  peer.  He  left  Canada  in  1854, 
and  was  sent  in  1857  to  China  on  a  special  mission,  which 
he  performed  with  ability  and  success,  and  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Canton  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Tien-Tsien  or 
Tientsin,  (1858.)  In  June,  1859,  he  became  postmaster- 
general  in  the  cabinet  of  Palmerston.  He  went  as  am- 
bassador to  China  in  i860,  and,  after  the  success  of  the 
British  army,  entered  Pekin  in  triumph.  He  returned 
home  in  the  spring  of  i86i,  and  was  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  India.    Died  in  1863. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  January,  1864. 

Elgin,  (Thomas  Bruce,)  Earl  of,  seventh  Earl  of 
Elgin  and  Kincardine,  born  in  Scotland  in  1777,  was 
descended  from  King  Robert  Bruce.  He  succeeded  to 
the  peerage  in  childhood,  entered  the  army  at  an  early 
age,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  general.  In  1795  he  was 
appointed  envoy  extraordinary  to  Berlin,  and  in  1799 
was  sent  in  the  same  capacity  to  Constantinople.  While 
engaged  in  the  latter  mission,  he  availed  himself  of  the 
opportunity  to  procure,  with  great  labour  and  expense, 
at  Athens,  a  large  collection  of  statues,  bas-reliefs,  med- 
als, monuments,  and  other  remains  of  ancient  art,  which 
were  purchased  by  the  government  in  181 6,  and  now 
form  part  of  the  British  Museum,  under  the  name  of  the 
"  Elgin  Marbles."  The  government  paid  him  ;[^35,ooo 
for  these  treasures,  for  removing  which  he  was  severely 
satirized  by  Lord  Byron.    Died  in  184 1. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedle  "Quar- 
terly Review"  for  January,  1816  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January, 
i860. 

El-gi'va,  ?  Queen  of  Edmund  I.,  King  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  and  mother  of  Edgar. 

ETi,  [Heb.  '''7^,]  a  Hebrew  high-priest  and  judge,  who 
flourished  about  11 70  B.C.  He  judged  Israel  forty  years, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Samuel. 

See  I.  Samuel  i.,  ii.,  iii.,  and  iv. 

Elia.    See  Lamb,  (Charles.) 

Elian.    See  i^iLiAN. 

Elias,  (of  Scripture.)    See  Elijah. 

Elias,  i-lee'Ss,  (Matthaus,)  a  German  painter,  born 
near  Cassel  in  1658,  worked  at  Paris.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "Transfiguration."    Died  in  1741. 

E-li'as  Le-vi'ta,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  born  probably  in 
Italy  in  1472,  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  writers 
and  skilful  grammarians  among  the  modern  Jews.  He 
taught  Hebrew  in  Rome  and  Venice,  and  published 
many  works,  among  which  were  a  "  Hebrew  Grammar" 
and  a  "Chaldaic,  Talmudic,  and  Rabbinical  Lexicon." 
His  critical  notes  on  the  text  of  Scripture,  entitled  "  Mas- 
sorah,"  (1538,)  are  highly  prized.  Died  at  Venice  in  1 549. 

See  Basnage,  "  Histoire  des  Juifs." 

Elichmami,  a'liK-man',  (Johann,)  a  German  Orien- 
talist and  physician,  born  in  Silesia,  practised  at  Leyden, 
where  he  died  in  1639.  In  the  opinion  of  Sahnasius,  he 
understood  Persian  better  than  any  European  of  his  time. 

]dlie,  the  French  of  Elijah,  which  see. 

^lie  de  Beaumont,  ;Vle'  deh  b5'mc)N',(  Anne  Louise 
Morin-Dumesnil — mo'raN''  dli'mcVn^K,)  an  author- 
ess, born  at  Caen  in  1729,  was  the  wife  of  Jean  Baptiste 
Jacques,  noticed  below.  She  wrote  a  novel  entitled 
♦'Letters  of  the  Marquis  de  Roselle,"  (2  vols.,  1764.) 
Died  in  1783. 


^lie  de  Beaumont,  (Jean  Baptiste  A rmand  Louis 
L6oNc6,)  a  French  geologist,  born  at  Canon  (Calvados) 
in  1798.  He  studied  in  the  £cole  Polytechnique  and  the 
£cole  des  Mines.  In  1823  he  was  sent  with  M.  Dufrenoy 
on  a  scientific  excursion  to  Great  Britain.  He  afterwards 
co-operated  in  a  great  geological  map  of  France.  (See 
Dufrenoy,  P.  A.)  He  became  professor  of  geology  in 
the  College  of  France  in  1832,  chief  engineer  of  mines  in 
1833,  ^""^^  ^  member  of  the  Institute  hi  1835.  Though 
not  a  politician,  he  was  appointed  a  senator  in  1852.  He 
succeeded  Arago  in  1853  as  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences.  Among  his  principal  works  ate 
a  "Glance  at  Mines,"  ("  Coup-d'CEil  sur  les  Mines," 
1824,)  "Researches  in  some  of  the  Revolutions  of  the 
Surface  of  the  Globe,"  (1829,)  and  "Lectures  on  Geol- 
ogy." (3  vols.,  1845  etseq.) 

See  "  Galerie  historique  des  Membres  du  Senat." 

^lie  de  Beaumont,  (Jean  Baptiste  Jacques,)  a 
French  lawyer,  grandfather  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Carentan  in  1732.  He  acquired  a  European  reputation 
by  his  judicial  "  Memoires."  In  reference  to  his  memoir 
of  "  les  Galas,"  Voltaire  pronounced  him  a  true  philoso- 
pher.   He  died  in  1786. 

]^lie  de  la  Poterie,  i'le'  deh  It  pof're',  (Jean  An- 
TOINE,)  a  French  physician,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  about  173 1.  He  died  in  1794,  leaving  a  few  able 
treatises  on  mesmerism,  pharmacy,  etc. 

]Slien,  the  French  of  .-Llian,  which  see. 

Eliezer.    See  Eleazar. 

E-li-e^zer,  a  Jewish  rabbi  and  writer,  surnamed  the 
Great,  lived  in  Palestine  about  100  a.d. 
Eligius.    See  Eloi. 
Eligoum.    See  Elikoum. 

E-li'jah  [Heb.  m^^X  or  rT'?^]  the  Tishbite,  an 
eminent  Hebrew  prophet,  whose  name  is  written  Elias 
in  the  New  Testament,  [Fr.  Elie,  i^le'.]  He  was  a 
native  of  Thisbe.  The  first  recorded  fact  in  his  history 
is  that  he  predicted  to  Ahab  a  great  drought.  (I.  Kings 
xvii.  I.)  He  made  zealous  efforts  to  convert  the  people 
from  idolatry,  and  was  the  honoured  instrument  in  the 
most  signal  manifestations  of  miraculous  power.  Finally, 
favoured  with  an  exemption  from  the  common  doom  of 
mortality,  he  was  translated  to  heaven  about  895  B.C. 

See  I.  Kings  xviii.,  xix.,  xx.,  xxi.  ;  IL  Kings  i.,  ii. ;  Matthew  xi. 
14,  xvii.  3;  Luke  i.  17;  also,  F.  Korn,  "Der  Prophet  Elias;  ein 
Sonnen-Mythus,"  1837;  Krummacher,  "  Elijah  the  Tishbite." 

Elikoom  or  Elikoum  (el-e-koom'')  I.,  written  also 
Eligoum,  a  Christian  prince  of  the  Orpelian  race  in 
Georgia.  About  1 168  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Sultan 
of  Azerbaijan,  who  made  him  governor  of  Ispahan  and 
other  cities  and  in  11 72  ceded  to  him  part  of  Armenia. 
He  had  one  son,  Libarid,  who  succeeded  him. 

Elio,  a''le-o,  (Francisco  Xavier,)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  at  Pampeluna  in  1769.  In  1805  he  took  Buenos 
Ayres  from  the  English,  and  in  181 1  defended  the  royalist 
cause  against  the  insurgents  of  Montevideo.  Recalled  to 
Spain  about  1812,  he  was  appointed  general  of  an  army, 
fought  against  the  French,  aided  to  restore  Ferdinand 
VII.,  and  was  made  Captain-General  of  Valencia  and 
Murcia  in  1814.  He  was  imprisoned  by  the  insurgents 
in  1820,  and  executed  at  Valencia  in  1822. 

See  SouTHEv's  "  History  of  the  Peninsular  War." 

Eliot,  (George.)    See  Evans,  (Marian  C.) 

EFi-ot,  (Jared,)  an  American  preacher  and  botanist, 
born  in"  Connecticut  in  1685,  was  a  grandson  of  John 
Eliot,  the  Apostle  of  the  Indians.    Died  in  1763. 

Eliot,  (John,)  called  "the  Apostle  of  the  Indians," 
was  born  in  England  in  1604,  and  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge. He  emigrated  to  Boston  in  163 1,  and  soon 
became  minister  of  the  church  of  Roxbury.  He  learned 
the  language  of  the  Indians,  and  began  about  1646  to 
preach  to  the  aborigines  of  Massachusetts  in  their  own 
tongue.  In  the  prosecution  of  his  missionary  work 
he  travelled  extensively,  amidst  great  privations  and 
dangers,  and  acquired  great  influence  over  the  Indians, 
many  of  whom  were  converted  by  him.  He  translated  the 
Bible  into  the  Indian  language,  (1661-63.)    Died  in  1690. 

See  a  "Life  of  John  Eliot,"  by  Convers  Francis,  in  Sparks's 
"American  Biography,"  vol.  v.,  ist  series. 

Eliot,  (John,)  an  American  biographer  and  minister, 
born  in  Boston  in  1754,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 


a,  e,  i,  5,  u,  y,  long;    hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  tlr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


ELIOT 


839 


ELIZABETH 


Massachusetts  Historical  Society.  He  published  the 
"New  England  Biographical  Dictionary,"  (1809,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1813. 

El'i-ot,  (Sir  John,)  an  eminent  English  statesman  and 
orator,  born  at  Port  Eliot,  in  Cornwall,  in  April,  1590, 
was  educated  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford.  He  left  college 
in  1610,  soon  after  which  he  travelled  in  France  and 
Italy.  In  1623  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament, 
in  which  he  became  a  leader  of  the  popular  party  and 
an  eloquent  debater.  "For  quickness  and  completeness 
of  classical  allusion,"  says  Forster,  "  Eliot  had  no  rival 
in  Parliament."  In  the  second  Parliament  of  Charles  I. 
he  made  a  great  speech  on  grievances.  He  was  the 
chief  author  of  the  impeachment  of  the  Duke  of  Buck- 
ir-gham,  against  whom  he  uttered  a  powerful  philippic, 
(1626.)  For  this  speech  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower, 
from  which,  however,  he  was  released  about  ten  days 
later.  "  He  had  in  great  perfection,"  says  Forster,  "some 
of  the  highest  qualities  of  an  orator, — singular  power 
of  statement,  clearness  and  facility  in  handling  details, 
pointed  classical  allusion,  keen  and  logical  argument, 
forcible  and  rich  declamation."  In  1629  Eliot  again 
offended  the  king  by  his  remonstrance  against  arbitrary 
impositions,  tonnage  and  poundage.  The  Parliament 
was  suddenly  dissolved  by  the  king,  and  Eliot,  with  many 
other  patriots,  was  committed  to  prison.  As  he  refused 
to  make  dishonourable  concessions,  he  was  confined  in  a 
dark  and  cheerless  apartment  and  treated  with  a  severity 
that  ruined  his  health.  He  died  in  the  Tower  in  No- 
vember, 1632.  During  this  imprisonment  he  wrote  a 
philosophical  work  entitled  "The  Monarchy  of  Man," 
(unpublished,)  which  is  highly  commended. 

See  John  Forster,  "Sir  John  Eliot:  a  Biography,"  2  vols.,  1864; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1864;  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  June,  1865. 

Eliot,  (Samuel,)  an  American  historian,  born  in  Bos- 
ton, December  22,  1821.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  with 
the  highest  honours  of  his  class  in  1839,  and  afterwards 
spent  several  years  in  Europe.  While  in  Rome,  in  1845, 
he  formed  the  plan  of  writing  "  The  History  of  Liberty," 
of  which  two  volumes  appeared  in  New  York  and  Lon- 
don, in  1849,  under  the  title  of  "The  Liberty  of  Rome." 
Part  II.,  entitled  "The  Early  Christians,"  (2  vols.  8vo,) 
was  published  in  1858.  In  1856  he  published  "  A  Manual 
of  United  States  History  from  1492  to  1850."  He  was 
chosen  president  of  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  in  i860. 

Eliott.    See  Elliot. 

Elisabetta,  the  Italian  of  Elizabeth,  which  see. 

Eliseeus,  el-e-see'us,  [Fr.  £lis6,  i'le'zi',]  an  eminent 
Armenian  historian,  was  secretary  of  Vartan,  general  of 
the  Armenian  and  Georgian  armies.  In  449  he  became 
a  bishop.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the  war  of  Vartan 
against  Persia,  a  work  of  superior  merit,  which  has  been 
often  reprinted  and  translated  into  English,  French,  and 
Italian.    Died  in  480  A.D. 

^lisee,  the  French  of  Elisha,  which  see, 

£lisee,  bi'\t'z\\  (Jean  Jacques  Copel,)  known  as 
Father  Elis6e,  a  noted  French  pulpit  orator,  born  at 
Besan5on  in  1726,  preached  in  the  fashionable  churches 
of  Paris.  His  sermons  were  published  and  much  ad- 
mired.   Died  in  1783. 

^lisee,  (Marie  Vincent  Talachon — tt^S'sh^N',)  a 
French  surgeon,  born  at  Lagny  in  1753.  He  emigrated 
in  1792,  and  became  chief  surgeon  of  the  royalist  army. 
In  1797  Louis  XVIH.  chose  him  as  his  first  surgeon. 
Died  in  1817. 

E-li'sha,  [Heb.  V^"!^;  Fr.  £lisee,  i'le^zi',]  the  son 
of  Shaphat,  an  eminent  Hebrew  prophet,  was  a  disciple 
of  Elijah,  whose  mantle  he  inherited  and  by  whom  he 
was  anointed.  (See  I.  Kings  xix.  16-21.)  He  performed 
many  miracles  between  890  and  840  B.C. 

See  IL  Kings  ii.,  iii.,  iv.,  v.,  vi.,  vii.,  viii.,  and  xiii. 

Elisio,  i-lee'se-o,  [Lat.  Elys'ius,]  (Giovanni,)  a  Nea- 
politan physician,  who  lived  about  1550. 
Elissa.    See  Dido. 

E-liz'a-beth  or  E-lis'a-beth,  of  Scripture,  was  the 
wife  of  Zacharias  and  the  mother  of  John  the  Baptist. 
See  Luke  i.  5  to  57. 

Eliz'abeth  or  Isabeau  (e'zt'bo')  of  Angouleme 
was  a  daughter  of  Aimar,  Count  of  Angouleme.  She  was 
married  in  1200  to  King  John  of  England.   Died  in  1245. 


Eliz'abeth  [Ger.  Elisabeth,  i-lee^zd-bSt]  of  Aus- 
TRL\,  Queen  of  France,  born  in  1554,  was  a  daughter  of 
the  emperor  Maximilian  IL,  and  a  granddaughter  of 
Charles  V.  She  was  married  in  1570  to  Charles  IX. 
of  France,  and  had  one  child,  a  daughter,  who  died 
young.  She  expressed  abhorrence  of  the  Massacre  of 
Saint  Bartholomew.  It  is  stated  that  after  the  death  of 
Charles  IX.  she  declined  an  offer  of  marriage  from  Philip 
II.  of  Spain.    Died  in  Vienna  in  1592. 

See  Clary  Darlem,  "  iSlisabeth  d'Autriclie,  Reine  de  France," 
1S47;  Alfred  de  Martonne,  "  Isabelle  d'Autriche,"  1848. 

Eliz''abeth  of  Bosnia  was  the  wife  of  Louis  the 
Great,  King  of  Hungary  and  Poland,  who,  dying  in 
1382,  left  her  regent  during  the  minority  of  his  daughter 
Maria.  She  was  put  to  death  by  Giornard  of  Croatia 
in  1386. 

Eliz'abeth  of  England,  or  of  York,  a  daughter  of 
Edward  IV.  and  Elizabeth  Woodville,  was  born  in  1466. 
She  was  married  to  Henry  VII.  in  i486,  and  became 
the  mother  of  Arthur  and  Henry  VIII. 

Elizabeth,  [Sp.  Isabel,  e-sS-b^K;  It.  Elisabetta, 
i-le-si-bet'ta,]  Queen  of  England,  the  daughter  of  Plenry 
VIII.  and  of  Anne  Boleyn,  was  born  at  Greenwich  on 
the  7th  of  September,  1533.  In  1535  her  father  opened 
a  negotiation  for  a  marriage  between  Elizabeth  and  the 
Duke  of  Angouleme,  son  of  Francis  I.  of  France  ;  but 
the  alliance  was  not  effected.  In  1548  she  was  addressed 
by  the  ambitious  Lord  Seymour,  with  whom  she  indulged 
in  a  brief  flirtation.  She  was  endowed  with  superior 
mental  powers,  which  were  diligently  improved  by  study, 
and,  under  the  tuition  of  Roger  Ascham,  she  attained  a 
proficiency  in  classical  learning.  Before  the  age  of  seven- 
teen she  was  mistress  of  the  Latin,  French,  and  Italian 
languages,  and  had  read  several  Greek  works.  She  was 
attached  by  her  education  to  the  Protestant  Church. 
Her  sister.  Queen  Mary,  who  regarded  her  with  jealousy, 
committed  her  to  the  Tower  in  1554,  on  the  pretext  that 
she  was  concerned  in  Wyatt's  rebellion.  Much  appre- 
hension was  felt  by  the  people  that  attempts  might  be 
made  upon  her  life  ;  but  she  was  released  from  the  Tower 
after  the  lapse  of  a  few  months,  and  removed  to  Wood- 
stock. In  1558  she  declined  an  offer  of  marriage  from 
Eric,  King  of  Sweden. 

On  the  17th  of  November,  1558,  Mary  died,  and  Eliza- 
beth, with  the  general  approbation,  was  proclaimed  queen. 
Her  popularity  was  doubtless  increased  by  the  contrast 
between  her  and  the  late  sovereign.  She  acted  with 
politic  caution  in  her  design  of  restoring  the  Protestant 
religion,  retaining  a  number  of  Romanists  in  her  privy 
council.  She  appointed  William  Cecil  secretary  of  state, 
and  Nicholas  Bacon  keeper  of  the  great  seal.  She  oegan 
the  religious  reform  by  ordering  that  a  large  part  of  the 
service  should  be  read  in  English,  and  forbade  the  host 
to  be  elevated  in  her  presence.  The  Catholic  bishops 
refused  to  officiate  at  her  coronation,  excepting  the  Bishop 
of  Carlisle,  who,  it  seems,  acted  his  part  reluctantly. 
When  Parliament  met  in  1559,  a  bill  was  passed  which 
vested  in  the  crown  the  supremacy  claimed  by  the  pope  ; 
the  mass  was  abolished,  and  the  liturgy  of  Edward  VI. 
restored.  "Thus,"  says  Hume,  "in  one  session,  without 
any  violence  or  tumult,  was  the  whole  system  of  religion 
altered  by  the  will  of  a  young  woman."  At  her  accession 
Elizabeth  found  England  at  war  with  France  and  in  alli- 
ance with  Philip  of  Spain,  who  made  her  an  offer  of  mar- 
riage, which  she  declined.  In  1559  Francis  II.  (King  of 
France)  having  assumed  the  arms  and  title  of  England 
in  right  of  his  wife,  Mary  Stuart,  Elizabeth  retaliated  by 
sending  an  army  to  Scotland,  which  drove  the  French 
out  of  that  kingdom.  In  1562  she  supported  with  money 
and  troops  the  French  Huguenots,  who  were  then  en- 
gaged in  civil  war  with  the  Catholics.  The  next  year  the 
Parliament,  anxious  respecting  the  succession,  voted  an 
address  to  the  queen,  in  which  they  entreated  her  to 
choose  a  husband  ;  but  she  returned  an  evasive  answer, 
and  was  equally  averse  to  decide  in  favour  of  any  claimant 
to  the  succession  or  of  any  suitor  for  her  hand.  Besides 
the  suitors  already  named,  she  gave  encouragement  to  the 
Archduke  Charles  of  Austria,  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  and 
Robert  Dudley,  Earl  of  Leicester,  the  last  of  whom  was 
the  chief  favourite  from  the  early  part  of  her  reign  until 
his  death  in  1588. 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,giittnral;  N,  iiasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,  (^[^^See  Explanations,  j  ).  23.) 


ELIZABETH 


840 


ELIZABETH 


After  the  treaty  with  the  French  in  1564,  England 
was  at  peace  with  foreign  nations  for  more  than  twenty 
y^ars, — a  period  of  national  prosperity  and  progress, 
in  which  commerce  flourished  and  the  naval  power  of  the 
kingdom  was  greatly  increased.  Cecil,  Lord  Burleigh, 
was  Elizabeth's  prime  minister  and  adviser  during  the 
greater  part  of  her  reign.  For  an  account  of  her  rivalry 
with  the  Queen  of  Scots,  who  was  executed  in  1587,  see 
Mary  Stuart. 

As  the  representatives  of  opposite  interests  in  religion, 
Elizabeth  and  Philip  of  Spain  had  long  felt  a  mutual 
hostility,  which  in  1588  resulted  in  the  famous  enterprise 
of  the  Invincible  Armada,  fitted  out  by  Philip  for  the 
invasion  of  England.  This  armament,  which  consisted 
of  more  than  130  vessels  and  about  30,000  men,  was 
commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia.  The  Eng- 
lish harassed  the  Armada  in  the  Channel  by  partial 
attacks,  and  defeated  the  Spaniards  in  a  general  action  on 
the  8th  of  August.  The  Spanish  admiral  then  retreated 
northward,  intending  to  sail  home  by  that  circuitous 
route  ;  but,  a  violent  storm  having  arisen  near  the  Ork- 
ney Isles,  more  than  fifty  of  the  ships  were  wrecked  and 
their  crews  perished.  The  Spanish  loss  was  probably 
not  less  than  20,000  men.  (Motley.)  About  this  time 
Elizabeth  began  to  show  a  decided  partiality  for  the 
Earl  of  Essex.  (See  Essex.)  Hostilities  still  continued 
between  the  English  and  Spaniards  ;  and,  while  Philip 
subsidized  the  French  Catholics,  Elizabeth  sent  an  army 
to  aid  Henry  IV.  in  1590  and  in  several  ensuing  years. 

The  reign  of  Elizabeth  was  considered  eminently 
beneficial  and  glorious  to  the  nation.  It  was  illustrated 
by  such  names  as  Spenser,  Shakspeare,  Sidney,  Bacon, 
and  Raleigh.  Her  personal  character  was  deformed  by 
selfishness,  inconstancy,  deceit,  heartlessness,  and  other 
unwomanly  faults;  but  she  has  generally  been  regarded 
as  a  ruler  of  eminent  ability  as  well  as  courage.  She 
died  in  1603,  after  signifying  her  will  that  King  James  of 
Scotland  should  succeed  her.  (For  a  more  particular 
account  of  Elizabeth's  character,  both  as  a  woman  and  a 
queen,  see  Froude's  "  History  of  England,"  vols.  vii.  to 
X.,  and  Motley's  "United  Netherlands,"  chaps,  vi.,  vii., 
viii.  et  seq.) 

See,  also,  Dr.  Thomas  Birch,  "Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,"  1754;  Camden,  "History  of  Queen  EHzabeth,"  ("Annales 
Rerum  Anghcanarum,"  etc.,  1625;)  Lucy  Aikin,  "  Memoirs  of  the 
Court  of  Queen  EHzabeth,"  1818  ;  Hu.me,  "History  of  England," 
chaps,  xxxviii.  to  xliv. ;  Gkegokio  Leti,  "  Hisloria  ovvero  Vita  di 
Elisabetta,  Regina  d'lnghlUerra,"  1693;  Fii.  von  Raumer,  "Die 
Koniginnen  Elisabeth  von  England  und  Maria  von  Scotland,"  1836: 
Robert  Nauton,  "  Fragmenta  Regalia,  or  Observations  on  the  Late 
Queen  Elizabeth,"  1642;  also  an  article  entitled  "Elizabeth  and 
Mary,"  in  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April.  1867;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1854,  and  October,  1863;  "Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  October  and  November,  1853. 

Eliz'abeth  (or  Elisabeth)  or  Isabelle,  e'zt'bil', 
OF  France,  born  in  Paris  in  1389,  was  a  daughter  of 
Charles  VI.,  and  became  the  consort  of  Richard  II.  of 
England,    Died  in  1409. 

Elizabeth  of  France,  daughter  of  Henry  IV.,  was 
born  in  1602,  and  was  married  to  Philip  IV.  of  Spain  in 
161 5.    Died  in  1644. 

Eliz'abeth,  Saint,  of  Hungary,  born  at  Presburg 
in  1207,  was  a  daughter  of  Andrew  (Andras)  II.,  King 
of  Hungary.  She  was  married  to  Louis,  Landgrave  of 
Thuringia,  in  1221,  and  was  eminent  for  her  fervent  piety 
and  ascetic  life.    Died  in  1231. 

See  "History  of  Saint  Elizabeth  of  Hungary,"  London,  1632; 
Schoppe,  "  Leben  Elisabeth's  der  heiligen,"  1834 ;  Charles  de 
Montalembert,  "Vie  de  S.  Elisabeth  de  Hongrie,"  1836. 

Elizabeth,  (]dlisabeth,)  (Philippine  Marie  He- 
LfeNE,)  a  French  princess,  usually  called  Madame  Eli- 
sabeth, a  sister  of  Louis  XVI.,  was  born  at  Versailles 
in  1764.  During  the  reign  of  terror  she  shared  the 
dangers  and  adversities  of  the  king  with  fortitude,  was 
imprisoned  in  August,  1 702,  and  executed  in  May,  1794. 

See  Parisot,  "  Vie  de  Madame  filisabeth  de  France,"  1S14. 

Elizabeth,  daughter  of  the  King  of  Poland,  married 
Charobert,  King  of  Hungary,  in  13 19.  She  was  mother 
of  three  sons,  one  of  whom,  Louis,  inherited  his  father's 
throne.  By  her  intrigues  and  influence  over  her  brother, 
Casimir  of  Poland,  she  procured  for  Louis  also  the 
throne  of  Poland  in  1370.  She  was  Regent  of  Poland 
from  1370  to  1378.    Died  in  1381. 


Elizabeth  of  Valois,  a  daughter  of  Henry  H.  of 
France,  was  born  in  1545,  and  married  to  Philip  II.  of 
Spain  in  1559.    She  died  at  Madrid  in  1568. 

Elizabeth,  (Charlotte.)    See  Tonna,  Mrs. 

Elizabeth,  Princess  Palatine,  the  datighter  of 
Frederick  V.  of  Bohemia  and  Elizabeth  Stuart  of  Eng- 
land, was  born  in  16 18.  She  received  lessons  in  philo- 
sophy from  Descartes,  who  is  reported  to  have  said  that 
he  "found  none,  except  her,  who  thoroughly  understood 
his  works."  She  was  instructed  in  religion  by  William 
Penn,  whose  friendship  she  highly  valued.  Having 
declined  an  offer  of  marriage  from  the  King  of  Poland, 
she  retired  to  Hervorden,  where  she  died  in  1680.  The 
famous  Prince  Rupert  was  her  brother,  and  George  I. 
of  England  was  her  sister's  son. 

See  Prltdhomme,  "  Biographie  des  Fenimes  cel^bres." 

Eliz'abeth  Alexiev'na,  (i-lSks-e-gv'na,)  Empress 
of  Russia,  born  in  1779,  was  a  princess  of  Baden,  whose 
original  name  was  Louisa  Maria  Auguspa.  In  1793 
she  became  the  consort  of  Alexander  I.,  then  grand  duke. 
Her  character  is  represented  as  very  amiable.  Died  in 
1826. 

Elizabeth  (Elisabeth)  Christiana  or  Christi^ne, 

( kRis-tee'na, )  Queen  of  Prussia,  born  at  Brunswick  in 
171 5,  was  a  daughter  of  Ferdinand  Albert,  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick-Wolfenbiittel.  In  1732  or  1733  she  was  married  to 
Frederick  the  Great.  She  had  a  literary  taste,  and  was 
distinguished  for  modesty,  piety,  and  many  virtues.  She 
translated  several  religious  works  into  French.  Died 
in  1797. 

See  Von  Hahnke,  "Elisabeth  Christine,  Konigin  von  Preussen," 
Berlin,  184S. 

Elizabeth  Christina  or  Christine,  Empress  of 
Germany,  born  in  1691,  was  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel.  She  was  the  wife  of  Charles 
VI.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  the  mother  of  Maria 
Theresa.    Died  in  1750. 

Eliz'abeth  Farnese,  (far-neez';  It.  pron.  faR-na'sa,) 
a  daughter  of  Odouard  II.,  Prince  of  Parma,  was  born  in 
1692.  She  was  married  in  17 14  to  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  and, 
being  crafty  and  ambitious,  soon  acquired  a  complete 
ascendency  over  that  indolent,  timid,  and  uxorious  king. 
(See  Philip  V.)  Charles  III.  was  her  son.  Died  in  1766. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Elizabeth  Farnese,"  London,  4  vols.,  1746. 

Eliz'abetli  Petrovna,  (or  Petrow'na,)  pa-trov^ii. 
Empress  of  Russia,  the  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great  and 
Catherine  I.,  was  born  in  1709.  In  1740  Ivan,  the  infant 
son  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  was  proclaimed  emperor, 
in  accordance  with  the  will  of  the  late  empress  Anna.  By 
a  successful  conspiracy  of  Elizabeth's  partisans,  of  whom 
her  surgeon,  Lestocq,  was  the  leader,  she  obtained  the 
throne  in  1741.  In  the  Seven  Years'  war,  which  began 
in  1756,  she  co-operated  with  the  enemies  of  Frederick 
the  Great  so  successfully  that  her  army  entered  Berlin 
in  1760  ;  and  he  was  probably  saved  from  ruin  only  by 
her  death.  She  was  indolent  and  dissolute,  but  inclined 
to  clemency.  Though  never  married,  she  had  several 
children.  She  founded  the  University  of  Moscow  and 
the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Petersliurg.  She  died  in 
the  winter  of  1761-62,  and  was  succeeded  by  her  nephew, 
Peter  III. 

See  Leclekc,  "  Histoire  de  la  Russie  moderne ;"  Lomonosof, 
"  Panegyricus  Elizabethse  Imperatricis,"  1749;  Wiedemeyer,  "Die 
Regierung  der  Kaiserin  Elisabeth  Petrowna,"  2  vols.,  1834. 

Eliz'abeth  Stu'art,  Queen  of  Bohemia,  born  in  1596 
was  the  daughter  of  James  I.  of  England  and  Anne  of 
Denmark.  She  was  distinguished  for  beauty  and  cap- 
tivating manners.  In  1613  she  became  the  wife  of  the 
Elector  Palatine  Frederick  V.  In  1619  she  prevailed 
on  him  to  accept  the  offered  crown  of  Bohemia.  This 
step  involved  him  in  war  ;  he  was  defeated  in  1620,  and 
lost  even  his  hereditary  state.  Among  her  numerous 
children  was  Prince  Rupert,  the  famous  Cavalier.  Died 
in  England  in  1662. 

See  Miss  PjEngrr.  "Memoirs  of  Elizabeth  Stuart,"  1S25 ;  Gar- 
diner, "  History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  x. 

Eliz'abetli  Wood'ville,  a  daughter  of  Sir  Richard 
Woodville,  was  distinguished  for  her  personal  beauty. 
She  was  married  to  Sir  John  Gray,  and  after  his  death  to 
Edward  IV.  in  1464.  She  was  the  mother  of  Edward  V. 
and  of  Elizabeth,  the  queen  of  Henry  VII.  Died  in  1488. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  ll,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short ;  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ELLAIN 


841 


ELLIOT 


Ellain,  ^^iw',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  physician  avid  poet, 
born  in  Paris  in  1534;  died  in  1621. 

Ellenborough,  eKlen-bur'ruh,  (Edward  Law,) 
Lord,  an  eminent  English  lawyer,  born  at  Great  Sal- 
k^d,  Cumberland,  in  1750,  was  a  son  of  Edmund  Law, 
Bishop  of  Carlisle.  After  practising  some  years  with 
success,  and  becoming  the  leader  of  the  northern  cir- 
cuit, he  was  employed  in  1785  as  leading  counsel  for  the 
defence  in  the  trial  of  Warren  Hastings,  after  Erskine 
had  refused  to  act  on  that  side.  Although  he  could  not 
compete  with  Burke  or  Fox  in  eloquent  declamation  or 
in  logical  argument,  he  managed  the  case  with  a  cer- 
tain skill  and  success.  In  1801  Law  was  appointed  at- 
torney-general. On  the  death  of  Lord  Kenyon,  in  1802, 
he  became  lord  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench,  and 
was  created  Baron  Ellenborough.  In  the  House  of 
Lords  he  opposed  all  measures  for  the  relief  of  Catholics, 
and  voted  for  the  impeachment  of  Lord  Melville  in  1806. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  extremely  grieved  by  the  ac- 
quittal of  William  Hone,  the  popular  author,  in  181 8, 
at  whose  trial  he  presided.  He  died  in  18 18,  and  left 
his  title  to  his  son,  the  present  Earl  of  Ellenborough. 
As  a  judge.  Lord  Brougham  says,  "no  one  could  accuse 
him  of  partiality.  He  despatched  business  with  great 
celerity,  and  for  the  most  part  with  success." 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices ;"  Foss,  "The 
Judges  of  England ;"  Brougham,  "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George 

in." 

Ellenborough,  (Edward  Law,)  first  Earl  of,  a 
Tory  statesman,  and  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1790.  He  inherited  the  title  of  baron  in  1818,  and 
was  appointed  lord  privy  seal  in  1828.  During  the 
brief  ministry  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1835  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Control.  He  was  appointed  Gov- 
ernor-General of  India  in  1842,  and,  having  annexed 
Scinde  and  Gwalior  by  conquest,  was  recalled  in  1844 
and  raised  to  the  rank  of  earl.  He  was  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty  in  1845  and  1846.  On  the  accession  of  the 
Derby-Disraeli  ministry,  in  February,  1858,  he  became 
president  of  the  Board  of  Control.  The  publication  of 
a  despatch  in  which  he  condemned  Lord  Canning's  con- 
duct in  India,  gave  so  much  offence  that  Ellenborough 
resigned  a  few  months  after  his  appointment.  The 
House  of  Lords,  by  a  majority  of  nine,  rejected  a  motion 
to  censure  him  for  his  conduct  in  this  affair. 

See  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1S45. 

Elleiirieder,  eKlen-ree'der,  (Maria,)  a  German 
painter  of  history  and  genre,  was  born  at  Constance  in 
1791.  She  visited  Italy,  and  lived  at  Munich  and  Carls- 
ruhe.  She  is  considered  by  the  Germans  the  most  skilful 
female  artist  of  her  time.  Among  her  works  is  a  picture 
of  "Faith,  Ho])e,  and  Charity." 

Eller,  eKler,  (Johann  Theodor,)  a  German  physi- 
cian and  chemist,  born  at  Pleskau  in  1689.  He  was 
physician  to  Frederick  the  Great,  who  made  him  a 
privy  councillor  in  1755.  He  wrote  "  Observationes  de 
Cognoscendis  et  Curandis  Morbis,"  ("  Observations  on 
the  Diagnosis  and  Cure  of  Diseases,"  1762,)  and  other 
medical  works.    Died  in  1760. 

See  Adelung,  Supplement  to  Jocher,  "AUgemeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon." 

ElTer-y,  (William,)  an  American  patriot,  born  at 
Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1727,  was  educated  at  Har- 
vard College.  He  was  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits 
in  his  native  city  for  some  years,  and  began  the  practice 
of  the  law  in  1770.  Having  established  a  character  for 
integrity,  good  sense,  and  firm  attachment  to  public 
welfare  and  liberty,  he  was  chosen  a  delegate  to  the 
memorable  Congress  of  1776,  in  which  he  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  Placing  himself  by  the 
side  of  Secretary  Thompson,  he  observed  the  expression 
and  manner  of  each  member  in  the  act  of  signing  his 
name,  and  was  convinced  that  the  men  were  equal  to  the 
crisis.  He  continued  to  serve  in  Congress  (with  the 
exception  of  two  years)  until  the  end  of  1785,  being  rather 
eminent  for  his  talents  for  business  than  for  his  powers 
as  a  debater.  Retiring  from  public  service  in  1785, 
he  found  himself  reduced  in  fortune  by  his  patriotisin, 
as  his  dwelling  had  been  burnt  by  the  enemy.  In  1790 
he  was  appointed  to  the  office  of  collector  of  customs 
in  Newport,  which  he  retained  to  the  end  of  his  life. 


His  political  sympathies  were  with  the  Federal  party. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  a  "Life  of  W.  Ellery,"  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography,' 
by  his  son-in-law,  E.  T.  Channing,  vol.  vi.,  ist  series;  Goodrich, 
"Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Independence." 

EUesmere,  Earl  of.  See  Egerton,  (Francis  Lev- 

ESON  GOWER.) 

EUesmere,  Lord.    See  Egerton,  (Thomas.) 

El'let,  (Charles,)  an  American  engineer,  born  at 
Penn's  Manor,  Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1810.  He 
constructed  the  wire  suspension  bridge  at  Fairmount, 
Philadelphia,  (the  first  made  in  America,)  and  that  which 
crosses  the  Niagara  River  below  the  Falls.  He  was 
employed  as  engineer  of  several  railroads.  After  the 
civil  war  began,  he  became  a  colonel  of  engineers,  and 
converted  several  steamers  into  rams  for  military  ope- 
rations on  the  Mississippi  River.  He  received  in  a 
naval  battle  near  Memphis  a  wound,  of  which  he  died  in 
June,  1862. 

EUet,  (Elizabeth  FRiES,)an  authoress,  whose  maiden 
name  was  LuMMis,  was  born  at  Sodus  Point,  New  York, 
in  1818.  She  published,  besides  other  works,  a  volume 
of  poems,  (1835,)  "  Women  of  the  American  Revolution," 
(1848,)  and  "Summer  Rambles  in  the  West,"  (1853.) 

See  Griswold's  "Female  Poets  of  America." 

EUet,  (William  Henry,)  M.D.,  an  American  chem- 
ist, born  in  New  York  about  1804,  became  professor  of 
chemistry,  etc.  in  South  Carolina  College  about  1835. 
He  discovered  a  method  of  preparing  gun-cotton.  The 
poetess  Elizabeth  F.  Ellet  was  his  wife.  Died  in  New 
York  in  1859. 

Elleviou,  ^Kve'oo',  (Pierre  Jean  Baptiste  Fran- 
gois,)  a  French  singer  and  composer,  born  at  Rennes  in 
1769  ;  died  in  1842. 

ElTice,  (Edward,)  an  English  politician  of  the  Whig 
party,  born  about  1786,  was  a  merchant  of  London,  and 
for  many  years  an  influential  member  of  Parliament. 
In  1830  he  became  secretary  of  the  treasury,  and  was 
secretary  of  war  from  April,  1833,  December,  1834. 
His  wife  was  a  sister  of  the  first  Earl  Grey.  Died  in 
1863. 

EUicot.    See  Ellicott. 

EPli-cott,  (Andrew,)  surveyor-general  of  the  United 
States,  born  in  Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1754, 
served  as  an  officer  in  the  Revolution,  and  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  his  life  filled  important  positions 
under  the  Federal  and  State  governments.  In  1790  he 
laid  out  the  Federal  metropolis.  He  was  appointed 
surveyor-general  in  1792;  from  1796  to  1801  he  acted 
as  commissioner  in  settling  the  southern  boundary  of 
the  United  States,  and  from  1812  till  his  death,  in  1820, 
was  professor  of  mathematics,  engineering,  etc.  at  West 
Point.  He  made  valuable  contributions  to  the  Transac- 
tions of  philosophical  societies  of  Europe. 

ElTi-cott  or  ElTi-cot,  (Charles  John,)  an  English 
theologian,  born  near  Stamford  about  1820.  He  became 
professor  of  divinity  in  King's  College,  London,  in  1858, 
and  Bishop  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol  in  1 863.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Commentaries  on  the 
Epistles  of  Saint  Paul  to  the  Galatians,  Ephesians, 
Philippians,  Colossians,"  etc. 

EUies-Dupin.    See  Dupin,  (Louis.) 

EUiger,eKle-ger,(OTTOMAR,)  a  skilful  Swedish  painter, 
born  at  Gottenburg  in  1633.  He  became  painter  to  the 
Elector  Frederick  William  at  Berlin. 

EUiger,  (Ottomar,)  son  of  the  above,  a  skilful  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1666,  was  a  pupil 
of  Lairesse,  and  worked  in  Amsterdam.  He  excelled  in 
architectural  pictures.  Among  his  best  works  are  "The 
Feast  of  the  Gods,"  and  the  "Nuptials  of  Thetis  and 
Peleus."    Died  in  1732. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

EUinger,  eKling-er,  (Andreas,)  a  German  physician, 
born  in  Thuringia  in  1526,  was  professor  at  Leipsic.  He 
wrote  "  Hippocratis  Aphorismi,"  in  Latin  verse,  (1579.) 
Died  in  1582. 

ElTi-ot,  (George,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in  1784, 
commanded  the  fleet  which  operated  against  the  Chinese 
in  1840,  and  became  vice-admiral  in  1847. 

ElTi-ot  or  EPI-ott,  (George  Augustus,)  Lord 
Heathfield,  born  at  Stobbs,  in  Scotland,  in  1718,  entered 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ELLIOT 


842 


ELLIS 


the  army  at  an  early  age.  From  1740  to  1748  he  served 
in  Germany  as  lieutenant-colonel  and  aide-de-camp  of 
George  II.  He  was  second  in  command  at  the  capture 
of  Havana.  In  1775,  having  obtained  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-general, he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Gibraltar, 
the  defence  of  which  was  his  last  and  most  memorable 
achievement.  During  the  siege,  which  commenced  in 
1779  and  continued  more  than  three  years,  he  success- 
fully resisted  the  combined  armaments  of  France  and 
Spain,  displaying  great  prudence  and  humanity,  as  well 
as  high  military  talents.  After  peace  was  restored,  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Heath- 
field  of  Gibraltar.    Died  in  1790. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Elliot,  (Sir  Gilbert,)  sometimes  styled  Lord  Minto, 
was  a  Scottish  judge,  who  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  He  became  lord  justice  clerk,  and 
was  distinguished  for  his  patriotic  efforts  in  favour  of 
the  Protestant  succession. 

Elliot  (Sir  Gilbert)  of  Minto,  a  British  orator,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  the  father  of  the  first  Earl  of  Minto, 
and  was  eminent  as  a  parliamentary  speaker.  He  wrote 
an  admired  pastoral  beginning  thus  : 

"  My  sheep  I  neglected,  I  broke  my  sheep-hook, 
And  all  the  gay  haunts  of  nay  youth  I  forsook." 

Died  in  1777. 

Elliot,  (Sir  Gilbert,)  the  first  Earl  of  Minto,  an 
eminent  Scottish  statesman,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1751, 
was  the  son  of  the  preceding.  In  1774  he  was  returned 
to  Parliament  for  Morpeth.  In  1777  he  married  the 
daughter  of  Sir  George  Aymand.  He  acted  with  the 
party  of  Mr.  Fox  for  several  years,  but  about  1790  he 
changed  sides  and  supported  the  ministry.  In  1793  he 
was  sent,  with  two  other  commissioners,  to  protect  the 
Bourbon  interest  in  Toulon  and  Corsica.  In  1796  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Minto.  He  was  appointed 
Governor-General  of  India  in  1806,  and,  after  an  able  and 
successful  administration,  returned  home  in  1814.  He 
died  in  June  of  that  year.  He  had  been  created  Earl  of 
Minto  in  1813. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Elliot,  (Gilbert  Elliot  Murray  Kyninmound,) 
second  Earl  of  Minto,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1782.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1806,  and 
entered  the  House  of  Lords  in  1814.  He  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Berlin  in  1832,  and  was  appointed  first 
lord  of  the  admiralty,  under  the  Whig  ministry,  in  1835. 
From  1846  to  1852  he  was  lord  privy  seal  in  the  cabinet 
of  Lord  John  Russell,  who  was  his  son-in-law.  He  died 
in  1859,  leaving  several  sons. 

Elliot,  (Miss  Jane,)  a  sister  of  Sir  Gilbert  Elliot  of 
Minto,  wrote  an  admired  dirge  for  the  slain  at  the  battle 
of  Flodden,  entitled  "The  Flowers  of  the  Forest." 

Elliot,  (William,)  an  English  designer  and  engraver, 
born  at  Hampton  Court  in  1717.  He  excelled  in  land- 
scapes.   Died  in  1766. 

ElTi-ot-son,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English  phy- 
sician, born  in  London  about  1795.  He  became  physician 
to  Saint  Thomas's  Hospital  in  1822.  By  new  prescrip- 
tions of  prussic  acid  and  creosote,  and  other  innovations  in 
medical  practice,  he  excited  much  hostility  among  a  por- 
tion of  the  medical  profession.  He  was  chosen  professor 
of  medical  science  in  University  College,  London,  in  1831, 
and  afterwards  became  president  of  the  Royal  Medical 
and  Chirurgical  Society.  He  was  the  author  of  valuable 
works  entitled  "Principles  and  Practice  of  Medicine," 
(1839,)  and  "Human  Physiology,"  (1840.)  Died  in 
August,  1868. 

Elliott.    See  Eliot,  Eliott,  and  Elyot. 

EPlI-ott,  (Charles,)  a  Methodist  minister,  born  in  the 
county  of  Donegal,  Ireland,  in  1792,  emigrated  to  Ohio 
about  1818,  and  edited  the  "  Western  Christian  Advocate" 
for  many  years.    He  wrote  several  religious  works. 

Elliott,  (Charles  Loring,)  an  American  portrait- 
painter,  born  in  Scipio,  New  York,  in  1812.  He  lived 
many  years  in  New  York  City,  and  painted  portraits  of 
many  eminent  persons.  His  works  are  remarkable  for 
fidelity  of  likeness  and  vigorous  colouring.  Died  in  Au- 
gust, 1868. 

See  H.  T.  Tuckerman's  "Book  of  the  Artists,"  1867. 


Elliott,  (Charles  Wyllys,)  an  American  author,  a 
descendant  of  John  Eliot,  "the  Apostle  of  the  Indians," 
was  born  in  Guilford,  Connecticut,  in  181 7.  He  has 
published  a  "  History  of  New  England  from  the  Dis- 
covery of  the  Continent  by  the  Northmen,  in  986,  to 
1776." 

ElTi-ott,  (Ebenezer,)  an  English  poet,  called  "the 
Corn-Law  Rhymer,"  was  born  at  Masborough,  near  Roth- 
erham,  Yorkshire,  on  the  1 7th  of  March,  1 781.  His  father 
was  a  clerk  in  an  iron-foundry,  with  a  small  salary,  and 
was  a  strict  Calvinist.  The  son,  after  having  made  small 
progress  at  school,  where  he  passed  for  a  very  dull  boy, 
was  set  to  work  in  the  foundry  above  mentioned,  in 
which  he  was  employed  many  years.  A  love  of  nature 
and  of  books  counteracted  the  tendency  to  intemperance 
and  other  vices  usual  among  his  associates.  In  his 
seventeenth  year  he  began  to  write  verses,  the  first  of 
which  were  the  "  Vernal  Walk,"  and  "  Night."  In  182X. 
he  removed  to  Sheffield,  where  he  gained  a  competence 
in  the  iron-trade.  Soon  after  this  change  of  residence 
he  wrote  his  most  popular  poem,  the  "Corn -Law 
Rhymes,"  urging  the  repeal  of  duties  on  corn,  which 
excited  general  admiration.  He  wrote  also  "  The  Vil- 
lage Patriarch,"  (1829,)  "Byron  and  Napoleon,"  (1831,) 
"  Love,"  and  a  few  other  poems.  The  poet  Montgomery 
says,  "  I  am  quite  willing  to  hazard  my  critical  credit  by 
avowing  my  persuasion  that  in  originality  and  power  he 
might  have  measured  heads  beside  Byron  in  tremendous 
energy,  Crabbe  in  graphic  description,  and  Coleridge  in 
effusions  of  domestic  tenderness ;  while  in  intense  sym- 
pathy with  the  poor,  in  whatever  he  deemed  their  wrongs 
or  their  sufferings,  he  excelled  them  all."  Died  in  1849. 

See  J.  Serle,  "Life,  Character,  and  Genius  of  Ebenezer  Elliott," 
1850;  "  Brief  Biographies,"  by  Samuel  Smiles,  i860;  John  Wat- 
kins,  "Life,  Poetry,  and  Letters  of  E.  Elliott,"  1850;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1832,  and  October,  1834;  "Westminster  Review" 
for  January  and  April,  1850. 

Elliott,  (Jesse  Duncan,)  an  Ainerican  naval  officer, 
born  in  Maryland  in  1782.  He  was  second  in  command 
under  Commodore  Perry  at  the  battle  of  Lake  Erie, 
September,  1813,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  captain 
in  1 81 8.    Died  in  1845. 

Elliott,  (Stephen,)  an  American  naturalist,  born  at 
Beaufort,  South  Carolina,  in  1771,  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1791.  He  became  president  of  the  Literary 
Society  and  of  the  Philosophical  Society  of  South  Caro- 
lina, and  professor  of  natural  history  at  Charleston.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  valuable  work  entitled  "The  Botany 
of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,"  (2  vols.,  1821-24.)  Died 
in  1830. 

Elliott,  (Stephen,)  D.D.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Beaufort,  South  Carolina,  in  1806.  He  became 
professor  of  sacred  literature  in  South  Carolina  College. 
He  was  ordained  in  1835,  and  was  constituted  Bishop  of 
Georgia  in  1841. 

Elliott,  (William,)  a  politician  and  writer,  born  at 
Beaufort,  South  Carolina,  in  1788.  He  opposed  nullifi- 
cation in  1832,  and  afterwards  wrote  against  secession, 
(185 1.)  Among  his  works  are  "  Fiesco,"  a  tragedy,  (1850,) 
and  several  short  poems. 

ElTis,  (Clement,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Cum- 
berland in  1630,  was  appointed  prebendary  of  South- 
well in  1693.  He  was  the  author  of  several  approved 
works  on  theology.    Died  in  1700. 

See  John  Veneer,  "Life  of  Clement  Ellis,"  1738. 

Ellis,  (George,)  F.R.S.,  a  witty  and  accomplished 
English  writer,  born  in  1745.  During  the  French  Revo- 
lution he  gained  distinction  as  one  of  the  authors  of  the 
"  Rolliad,"  (a  political  satire  against  Pitt  and  his  minis- 
try,) for  which  he  wrote  the  "  Birth-Day  Ode"  and  the 
"Ode  on  Dundas."  In  1790  he  published  "vSpecimens 
of  the  Early  English  Poets,"  which  is  thought  to  have 
rendered  an  essential  service  to  the  national  literature. 
Ellis  was  distinguished  for  his  refined  taste  as  well  as 
for  his  literary  attaimnents.  In  1800  he  became  the 
friend  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  who  addressed  to  him  the 
fifth  canto  of  "  Marmion,"  and  who  is  reported  to  have 
said  "  he  was  one  of  the  most  accomplished  scholars 
and  delightful  companions  he  had  ever  known."  In 
1797-98  he  wrote  many  articles  for  "  The  Anti- Jacobin," 
a  weekly  paper  under  the  auspices  of  Canning.  Died 
in  1815. 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  iong;    6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  m&t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ELLIS 


843 


ELLWOOD 


Eriis,  (George  Edward,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished  Uni- 
tarian divine  and  author,  born  in  Boston  in  1815.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1833,  and  about  1838  was  or- 
dained pastor  at  Charlestown.  In  1857  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  in  tlie  Divinity  School  at  Cam- 
bridge, a  position  which  he  held  for  five  years.  He 
wrote  several  memoirs  for  Sparks's  "American  Biog- 
raphy," and  a  "Half-Century  of  the  Unitarian  Contro- 
versy," (1857.)  In  1864  he  gave  a  course  of  Lowell 
Lectures  on  the  "Evidences  of  Christianity." 

Ellis,  (George  James  Welbure  Agar,)  Lord  Dover, 
an  English  author,  born  in  1797,  was  educated  at  Oxford. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  181 8  and  at  several  sub- 
sequent periods.  In  183 1  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
as  Baron  Dover,  and  the  next  year  was  chosen  president 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  "  Life  of  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,"  (1831,)  and 
"  The  Ellis  Correspondence,  illustrative  of  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1688."  He  also  contributed  to  the  Edinburgh 
and  London  Quarterly  Reviews.    Died  in  1833. 

Ellis,  (Henry,)  an  English  navigator,  born  in  1721. 
He  accompanied  an  expedition  which  sailed  from  Eng- 
land in  1746  in  search  of  a  Northwest  passage.  Captains 
Moore  and  Smith  commanded  this  expedition,  Ellis  being 
employed  as  naturalist  and  agent  of  the  committee  which 
sent  it  out.  He  published  a  narrative  of  his  voyage, 
(1748,)  and  was  afterwards  Governor  of  New  York  and 
Georgia.    Died  in  1806. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie. " 

Ellis,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
London  in  1777.  He  became  assistant  librarian  of  the 
British  Museum  in  1805.  In  1823  he  published  the 
first  series  of  "Original  Letters  illustrative  of  English 
History,"  (3  vols.,  second  series,  1827;  third  series, 
1846,  4  vols.)  He  was  principal  librarian  of  the  British 
Museum  from  1827  to  1856.  Among  his  valuable  works 
are  "Elgin  Marbles  of  the  Classic  Ages,"  (2  vols.,  1847,) 
and  "The  Townley  Gallery  of  Sculpture,"  (1847.)  Died 
in  January,  1869. 

Ellis,  (Sir  Henry,)  K.C.B.,  an  English  officer,  who 
in  1816  accompanied  Lord  Amherst  as  secretary  of 
embassy  to  China  with  dormant  credentials  as  minister 
plenipotentiary,  and  published  an  interesting  Journal 
of  the  Embassy,  with  Observations  on  China  and  the 
Chinese.    Died  in  1855. 

Ellis,  (John,)  a  literary  scrivener,  born  in  London  in 
1698,  was  a  particular  favourite  of  Dr.  Johnson,  who 
said,  "  The  most  literary  conversation  that  I  ever  enjoyed 
was  at  the  table  of  Jack  Ellis  the  money-scrivener,  with 
whom,  at  one  period,  I  used  to  dine  generally  once  a 
week."  He  wrote  "The  South  Sea  Dream,"  (1720,)  a 
poem,  and  often  exercised  his  talent  in  poetical  squibs. 
He  also  translated  Ovid's  "Epistles,"  and  other  Latin 
poems.    Died  about  1791. 

Ellis,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English  naturalist, 
born  in  London  about  17 10,  was  a  merchant  in  early  life. 
In  1754  he  published  an  "Essay  towards  the  Natural 
History  of  Corallines,"  in  which  the  opinion  was  first 
advanced  that  they  are  of  animal  origin.  He  also  wrote 
treatises  on  "  Coftee,"  the  "  Bread-Fruit  Tree,"  and  other 
subjects.    Died  in  1776. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ellis,  (Sir  Richard.)    See  Ellys. 

Ellis,  (Robert  Leslie,)  an  English  philosopher  and 
mathematician  of  Cambridge,  was  born  in  181 7.  He 
edited,  in  conjunction  with  James  Spedding  and  D. 
Denon  Heath,  "The  Philosophical  Works  of  Lord 
Bacon,"  (5  vols.,  1857-58.)    Died  in  1859. 

Ellis,  (Sarah,)  a  popular  English  authoress,  whose 
maiden  name  was  Stickney,  was  born  about  181 2.  She 
was  married  to  William  Ellis,  author  of  "  Polynesian 
Researches,"  in  1837,  before  which  she  had  published  a 
successful  work,  "The  Poetry  of  Life."  She  rendered 
important  services  to  female  education  by  numerous 
works,  among  which  are  "The  Women  of  England," 
(1838,)  "The  Daughters  of  England,"  (1842,)  "The 
Wives  of  England,"  (1843,)  "  The  Mothers  of  England," 
(1843,)  "Family  Secrets,"  (1841-43,)  and  "Pictures  of 
Private  Life,"  (3  vols.,  1844.) 

Ellis,  (William,)  an  English  surgeon,  who  accom- 
panied Captain  Cook  in  his  third  voyage,  (1776-79,)  and 


published  a  well-written  narrative  of  that  voyage,  (2  vols., 
1782.)    Died  at  Ostend  in  1785. 

Ellis,  (Rev.  William,)  an  eminent  English  missionary 
and  author.  He  was  sent  by  the  London  Missionary 
Society  to  the  South  Sea  Islands  in  1816,  and  returned 
home  in  1825.  In  1829  he  published  his  very  interesting 
"Polynesian  Researches,"  (2  vols.  8vo,)  and  in  1838 
a  "  History  of  Madagascar,"  (2  vols.)  "  Here  is  a  work 
as  copious,  as  comprehensive,  as  minute,  and,  as  far  as 
we  can  judge,  as  accurate,  as  it  would  be  possible  to 
produce."  ("London  Eclectic  Review.")  He  married 
Sarah  Ellis,  noticed  above,  in  1837, 

Ellis,  (William,)  an  English  economist  and  writer 
on  social  science,  was  born  near  London  in  1800.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  successful  efforts  to  introduce 
the  study  of  political  economy  into  schools.  He  wrote 
"  Outlines  of  Social  Economy,"  "  Phenomena  of  Indus- 
trial Life,"  "  Progressive  Lessons  in  Social  Science,"  and 
other  works. 

EUisen.    See  Ellissen. 

EUissen,  el'lis-sen,  or  EUisen,  (Adolf,)  a  German 
critic  and  historian,  born  at  Gar  tow,  Liineburg,  in  1 81 5, 
was  a  moderate  democratic  member  of  the  parliament 
of  Frankfort  in  1848.  He  translated  Montesquieu's 
"Esprit  des  Lois,"  (1844.)  Among  his  works  are  an 
"Essay  of  a  Polyglot  of  European  Poetry,"  ("  Versuch 
einer  Polyglotte  der  Europaischen  Poesie,"  1846,)  and 
one  "On  the  History  of  Athens  since  the  Loss  of  its 
Liberty,"  (1848.) 

ElPis-ton,  (Robert  William,)  a  celebrated  English 
actor,  born  in  London  in  1774,  ran  away  from  school, 
and  appeared  on  the  stage  for  the  first  time  at  Bath  in 
1 79 1.  After  obtaining  success  in  the  provinces,  he  made 
his  debut  at  the  Haymarket  in  1796.  In  1803  he  was 
prii"pcipal  actor  and  acting  manager  of  that  theatre,  where 
he  acquired  great  popularity.  When  Drury  Lane  was 
rebuilt  after  the  fire,  Ellistou  became  one  of  its  leading 
performers.  He  was  the  lessee  of  the  theatre  last  named 
from  1 819  to  1826,  when  he  became  insolvent.  He  was 
very  successful  in  a  great  variety  of  characters ;  and  he 
is  generally  regarded  as  the  most  excellent  comedian  that 
the  English  nation  has  produced.    Died  in  183 1. 

See  G.  Raymond,  "Memoirs  of  Elliston,"  1846. 

EUs'wprth,  (Ephraim  Elmer,)  a  brave  American 
patriot,  born  at  Mechanicsville,  Saratoga  county,  New 
York,  in  1837.  He  removed  to  Chicago  before  he  was 
of  age,  and  studied  law.  He  organized  about  1859  a 
zouave  corps  which  became  noted  for  the  excellence  of 
its  discipline.  In  March,  1861,  he  accompanied  Presi- 
dent Lincoln  to  W^ashington,  and  in  April  he  went  to 
New  York  City,  where  he  organized  a  zouave  regiment 
of  firemen,  of  which  he  became  the  colonel.  He  was 
ordered  to  Alexandria,  where  he  saw  a  rebel  flag  floating 
over  a  hotel.  He  ascended  to  the  roof  and  took  down 
the  flag,  for  which  act  Jackson,  the  keeper  of  the  hotel, 
immediately  shot  him  dead,  in  May,  1861.  Jackson  was 
instantly  afterwards  killed  by  one  of  the  soldiers  of 
Ellsworth. 

Ellsworth,  (Oliver,)  Chief  Justice  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  in  Windsor,  Connecticut,  April  29, 
1745.  He  graduated  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  in  1766, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1771,  and  chosen  a  delegate 
to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1777.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Convention  which  in  1787  formed  the  Federal 
Constitution,  and  was  elected  in  1789  to  the  Senate  of  the 
United  States.  He  acquired  distinction  as  a  debater, 
and  acted  with  the  Federal  party.  According  to  John 
Adams,  "  he  was  the  firmest  pillar  of  Washington's 
whole  administration  in  that  body."  He  was  appointed 
chief  justice  of  the  United  States  by  Washington  in 
1796.  His  official  conduct  in  this  position  was  generally 
approved.  He  was  sent  to  Paris  in  1799  as  envoy  ex- 
traordinary, and,  with  his  colleagues  Davie  and  Murray, 
negotiated  a  treaty  with  France.  He  died  in  1807, 
leaving  a  high  reputation  for  ability  and  integrity. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. ;  "Encyclopaedia  Americana." 

ElPwood,  (Thomas,)  an  English  author,  born  at 
Crowell,  in  Oxfordshire,  in  1639,  adopted  at  an  early 
age  the  religion  of  the  "  Friends,"  or  Quakers,  among 
whom  he  became  a  prominent  member  and  a  public 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (S^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ELLTS  844  ELPHINSTONE 


fltinister.  In  1662,  having  a  desire  to  improve  himself 
in  learning,  he  procured,  by  the  mediation  of  Isaac  Pen- 
ington  and  Dr.  Paget,  the  place  of  reader  to  the  poet 
Milton,  who  was  then  blind  and  resided  in  London.  Ell- 
wood  says,  "  he  kept  always  a  man  to  read  to  him,  which 
usually  was  the  son  of  some  gentleman,  whom  in  kind- 
ness he  took  to  improve  in  his  learning.  ...  I  went 
every  day  in  the  afternoon,  (except  on  the  first  days  of 
the  week,)  and,  sitting  by  him  in  his  dining-room,  read 
to  him  in  such  books  in  the  Latin  tongue  as  he  pleased 
to  hear."  Thus  they  went  on  pleasantly  together  for  six 
weeks,  when  ill  health  compelled  Ellwood  to  leave  Lon- 
don. The  world  is  indebted  to  his  suggestion  for  Milton's 
second  epic  poem,  "Paradise  Regained."  In  1665  Ell- 
wood paid  a  visit  to  Milton  at  Giles-Chalfont,  where, 
says  he,  *'  after  some  common  discourse  had  passed  be- 
tween us,  he  called  for  a  manuscript  of  his,  which  he 
delivered  to  me,  bidding  me  take  it  home  with  me  and 
read  it  at  my  leisure,  and,  when  I  had  done  so,  return  it 
to  him  with  my  judgment  thereon."  He  found  it  was 
"  Paradise  Lost,"  and,  when  he  returned  it,  was  asked 
by  the  author  how  he  liked  it  and  what  he  thought  of  it. 
Ellwood  "modestly  and  freely"  answered  this  question, 
and  added,  "  Thou  hast  said  much  here  of  Paradise 
Lost ;  but  what  hast  thou  to  say  of  Paradise  Found 
"  He  made  no  answer,  but  sat  some  time  in  a  muse." 
Ellwood  published  a  "Sacred  History,"  (1705,)  and  a 
poem  called  "  Davideis,"  (1712.)  He  died  in  1713,  leaving 
interesting  "Memoirs  of  his  own  Life,"  (1714.) 

See,  also,  "The  Penns  and  Peningtons,"  by  Makia  Webb,  Lon- 
don, 1867;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  xiii.,  1826. 

EPlys,  (Anthony,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  1693, 
became  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in  1752.  He  wrote 
"  Tracts  on  the  Liberty,  Spiritual  and  Temporal,  of 
Subjects  in  England,"  and  a  few  other  works.  Died 
in  1 761. 

Eilys  or  El'lis,  (Sir  Richard,)  a  grandson  of  the 
English  patriot  Hampden,  was  a  member  of  Parliament 
from  1 7 15  to  1734.  He  excelled  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and 
biblical  criticism,  on  which  he  published  a  work  called 
"  Fortuita  Sacra,"  (1728.)    Died  in  1742. 

Elmacin,  gl-ml-seen',  (George,)  [Lat.  Geor'gius 
Elmaci'nus,]  written  also  Elmakin  (el-md-keen')  and 
Almakin,  an  Oriental  historian  and  Christian,  born 
in  Egypt  in  1223,  became  secretary  to  the  court  of  the 
Sultans  of  Egypt.  He  wrote,  in  Arabic,  a  history  of  the 
world  from  the  creation  to  1118  a.d.,  which  obtained 
European  celebrity,  and  part  of  which  was  translated  by 
Erpenius  about  1625.    Died  in  1273. 

See  HoTTiNGER,  "Bibliotheca  Orientalis." 

Elmacinus,  (Georgius.)    See  ELMAcfN. 
Elmakin.    See  ELMActN. 

Elmenliorst,  ^Kmen-hoRst',  (Geverhard,  Ger- 
hard, or  Gerhart,)  a  distinguished  German  critic,  born 
at  Hamburg,  published  notes  on  Arnobius,  (1603,)  Minu- 
cius  Felix,  and  other  old  authors.    Died  in  1621. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Elmenhorst,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  poet  and  pastor, 
born  at  Parchim  in  1632,  wrote  "Spiritual  Songs,"  and 
"  Dramatologia  antiquo-hodierna,"  (1688.)  Died  in  1704. 

Elmer.    See  Aylmer. 

Elmes,  glmz,  (Harvey  Lonsdale,)  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish architect,  born  near  Chichester  about  1814,  was  the 
son  of  James  Elmes,  noticed  below,  with  whom  he  en- 
tered into  partnership  in  London.  His  reputation  as  an 
architect  is  chiefly  founded  on  the  erection  of  Saint 
George's  Hall,  Liverpool,  his  design  for  which  was  pre- 
ferred to  those  of  about  eighty  competitors.  This  edifice, 
which  is  esteemed  the  principal  ornament  of  Liverpool, 
and  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  the  Corinthian  order 
in  England,  was  finished  about  1855.  It  is  490  feet  long 
by  165  feet  wide.  Before  its  completion  Mr.  Elmes's 
health  failed;  he  died  in  Jamaica  in  1847. 

Elmes,  (James,)  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  London  in  1782.  He  M'as  architect  of  several  public 
and  private  buildings  of  London,  and  acquired  distinction 
as  a  writer.  He  published  "The  Life  and  Works  of  Sir 
Christopher  Wren,"  (1823,)  "School  of  the  Fine  Arts," 
(3  vols.,  1825,)  "Ecclesiastical  and  Civil  Dilapidations," 
(3d  edition,  1829,)  "Thomas  Clarkson,  a  Monograph," 
(1854,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1862. 


El'more,  (Alfred,)  an  Irish  historical  painter,  born 
at  Clonakilty,  county  of  Cork,  about  i8i6.  He  became 
a  student  in  London,  where  he  worked  with  success. 
Among  his  chief  productions  are  "  Rienzi  in  the  Forum," 
(1844,)  "The  Fainting  of  Hero,"  (1846,)  "The  Inventor 
of  the  Stocking-Loom,"  (1847,)  and  "The  Emperor 
Charles  V.  at  Yuste,"  (1856.) 

EFmore,  (Franklin  Harper,)  an  American  financier 
and  politician,  was  born  in  Laurens  district.  South 
Carolina,  in  1799.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  in 
i837-39>  and  was  president  of  the  Bank  of  the  State  of 
South  Carolina  from  1840  to  1850.  In  this  year  he 
was  chosen  to  fill  a  vacancy  in  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  caused  by  the  death  of  John  C.  Calhoun.  *  Died 
in  May,  1850. 

Elms'ley,  (Peter,)  an  eminent  English  critic,  and 
one  of  the  first  Greek  scholars  of  his  time,  was  born  in 
1773.  He  wrote  articles  for  the  early  numbers  of  the 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  about  1802.  In  1819  he  was  chosen 
to  assist  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  unrolling  the  Hercula- 
nean  manuscripts.  After  this  date  he  lived  chiefly  at 
Oxford,  where,  in  1823,  he  became  professor  of  history. 
He  published  excellent  editions  of  several  dramas  by 
Euripides  and  Sophocles,  which  gained  him  a  European 
fame.  Southey,  speaking  of  the  Edinburgh  Reviewers, 
said,  "  Elmsley  has  more  knowledge  and  a  sounder  mind 
than  any  or  all  of  them."    Died  in  1825. 

^loi,  i'lwi',  [Lat.  Elig'ius,]  a  French  benefactor, 
born  near  Limoges  in  588  a.d.,  became  a  favourite  min- 
ister of  King  Dagobert,  and  founded  monasteries  and 
hospitals.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Noyon  in  640. 
Died  in  659. 

See  Saint-Ouen,  "Vita  Eligii;"  Barthelemv,  "Viede  Saint- 

Eloi." 

Elorza.    See  Churruca  y  Elorza. 

idloy,  i^lwi',  (Nicolas  Francois  Joseph,)  a  Flemish 
physician,  born  at  Mons  in  1 714,  was  employed  profes- 
sionally by  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
torical Dictionary  of  Medicine,  Ancient  and  Modern," 
(4  vols.,  1778.)    Died  in  1788. 

Elphege,  SKfe-ge, }  written  also  Alphege,  an  English 
prelate,  born  in  954  a.d.,  became  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury in  1006.  He  was  killed  by  the  Danish  pirates 
in  loii. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  i.,  1S60. 

EFphin-stpn,  (Arthur,)  Lord  Balmerino,  a  Scottish 
Jacobite,  born  in  1688.  On  the  accession  of  George  I. 
he  took  arms  for  the  Stuart  cause,  and  fought  at  SherifF- 
muir.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  CuUoden 
in  1745,  and,  after  trial,  was  executed  in  1746. 

Elphinston,  (James,)  an  eccentric  Scottish  gram- 
marian, born  in  Edinburgh  in  1721,  was  for  many  years 
principal  of  a  successful  school  at  Kensington,  near 
London.  He  associated  with  Dr.  Johnson,  by  whom  he 
was  highly  esteemed,  and  he  made  versions  of  certain 
Latin  mottoes  of  the  "  Rambler,"  which  were  adopted 
by  the  editor  of  that  work.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  "Education,"  a  poem,  (1763,)  "Propriety  ascer- 
tained in  her  Picture,"  and  "  English  Grammar  reduced 
to  Analogy,"  (1765,)  in  which  he  advocated  a  reform  of 
orthography  on  phonetic  principles.    Died  in  1809. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Elphinston,  (John,)  an  able  naval  officer,  born  in  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland  in  1720.  In  1768  his  government 
placed  him  at  the  disposal  of  Catherine,  Empress  of 
Russia,  who  employed  him  as  admiral  of  the  fleet  sent 
against  the  Turks  in  1770.  After  fighting  one  battle 
near  Scio,  and  burning  a  Turkish  fleet,  he  quarrelled 
with  Orloff",  the  Russian  general-in-chief,  and  left  the 
service.    Died  in  1774. 

See  RuLHi^RES,  "Histoire  de  I'Anarchie  de  Pologne." 

EFphin-stone,  (George  Keith,)  Viscount  Keith,  a 
distinguished  British  admiral,  born  in  Scotland  in  1746, 
was  the  son  of  Viscoimt  Elphinstone.  As  post-captain 
he  served  in  America  about  1776.  In  1795  he  obtained 
the  rank  of  vice-admiral,  and  captured  Cape  Town.  In 
1800  he  was  commander-in-chief  in  the  Mediterranean, 
where  he  took  Malta  and  Genoa.  For  his  services  in 
Egypt  he  was  raised  to  the  British  peerage,  as  Baron 
Keith,  (1801,)  and  obtained  the  rank  of  admiral.  In  1814 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  3?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ELPHINSTONE 


845 


ELTON 


he  was  created  a  viscount  of  the  United  Kingdom.  He 
died  in  1823. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Elphinstone,  (George  William  Keith,)  C.B.,  a 
British  general,  born  about  1782,  was  descended  from 
the  noble  Scottish  family  of  Elphinstone.  After  serving 
in  many  campaigns,  he  became  lieutenant-colonel  in  1813, 
and  gained  distinction  at  Waterloo.  In  1837  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  He  commanded 
the  army  which  was  defeated  in  Afghanistan,  a  short 
time  before  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1842. 

Elphinstone,  (Hon.  Mountstuart,)  a  British  his- 
torian and  statesman,  born  in  1779,  was  the  fourth  son 
of  the  eleventh  Lord  Elphinstone,  He  entered  the  civil 
service  of  the  East  India  Company  in  1795,  became  sec- 
retary to  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  in  1803,  and  ambassador 
to  the  court  of  Cabool  in  1808.  He  published  in  1815  an 
"  Account  of  the  Kingdom  of  Cabool,"  a  standard  his- 
torical work  of  great  merit.  From  1810  to  181 7  he  was 
resident  at  the  court  of  Poona.  He  was  appointed  com- 
missioner of  that  province  in  181 7,  and  Governor  of 
Bombay  in  1819.  "His  policy,  so  far  as  India  is  con- 
cerned," says  Bishop  Heber,  "  appeared  to  me  peculiarly 
wise  and  liberal."  The  same  writer  adds,  "  Mr.  Elphin- 
stone is  in  every  respect  an  extraordinary  man,  possess- 
ing great  activity  of  mind  and  body,  remarkable  talent 
for  and  application  to  public  business,"  etc.  He  resigned 
his  office  in  November,  1827,  and  returned  to  England 
in  1829.  In  1836  he  declined  the  offer  of  the  Governor- 
Generalship  of  India,  on  account  of  his  health.  His 
"  History  of  India  :  the  Hindoo  and  Mohammedan  Pe- 
riods" (2  vols.,  1 841)  is  highly  commended.  He  was 
never  married.    He  died  in  November,  1859. 

See  "Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,"  vol.  xviii.  part  ii.  p. 
221;  J.  W.  Kaye,  "  Lives  of  Indian  Officers;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  1815,  and  September,  1841. 

Elphinstone  or Elphinston,  (William,)  an  eminent 
Scottish  statesman  and  prelate,  founder  of  King's  Col- 
lege, Aberdeen,  was  born  at  Glasgow  about  1435.  He 
studied  law  in  France,  and  became  professor  of  that 
science  in  Paris.  Having  returned  home  about  1470,  he 
obtained  several  high  civil  offices,  and  in  1484  was  chosen 
Bishop  of  Aberdeen.  Soon  after  this  he  was  em])loyed 
with  honour  as  negotiator  at  several  foreign  courts.  In 
1492  he  accepted  the  office  of  lord  privy  seal,  which  he 
appears  to  have  retained  until  his  death.  In  1494  he 
obtained  a  papal  bull  for  the  foundation  of  a  university 
which  was  built  in  1506.  He  wrote  a  book  of  canons 
and  a  "History  of  Scotland."    Died  in  15 14. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

El'ring-ton,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  a  skilful  Irish  mathe- 
matician, born  near  Dublin  about  1760.  He  became 
professor  of  mathematics  in  Dublin  University  in  1795, 
provost  of  Trinity  College  in  1811,  Bishop  of 'Limerick 
in  1820,  and  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Leighlin  and 
Ferns  in  1822.  He  published  an  edition  of  Euclid  which 
is  used  as  a  text-book  in  Dublin  University,  and  an  edi- 
tion of  Juvenal.    Died  in  1835. 

Elsasser,  ll'sis^ser,  (Frikdrich  August,)  a  German 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Berlin  in  1810;  died  at  Rome 
in  1845.  Among  his  works  is  the  "Grotto  of  Sirens" 
at  Tivoli. 

Elsevier.    See  Elzevir. 

Elsheimer,  glss'hl'mer,  or  Elzheimer,  llts'hT'mer, 
(Adam,)  an  excellent  German  landscape-painter,  born 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1574,  was  known  among  the 
Italians  by  the  name  of  il  Tedesco,  [i.e.  "the  German.") 
He  worked  mostly  in  Rome,  where  he  acquired  a  high 
reputation  by  his  good  taste  and  his  fidelity  in  the  imita- 
tion of  nature.  He  excelled  in  colour  and  chiaroscuro. 
His  works  are  of  small  dimensions  and  very  highly 
finished.  Besides  many  landscapes,  he  painted  a  "  Flight 
into  Egypt,"  which  is  much  admired,  "  Ceres  in  Search 
of  her  Daughter,"  and  other  historical  and  mythological 
pieces.    Died  in  Rome  in  1620. 

See  Bryan,  "Dictionary  of  Painters  and  Engravers;"  J.  D. 
Passavant,  "A.  Elsheimer,  Maler  aiis  Frankfurt,"  1847. 

Elshoecht,  IV&o'lW,  or  Elshoect,  (Carle,)  a  skilful 
French  statuary,  born  at  Dunkirk  in  1797,  was  a  pupil  of 
Bosio.  He  gained  a  gold  medal  for  his  statue  of  "  Inno- 
cence," (1825.)    He  adorned  several  buildings  of  Paris 


with  busts  of  Mirabeau,  Moliere,  Poussin,  and  Claude 
Lorrain,  and  the  Tuileries  with  a  group  representing  the 
Genius  of  Asia.    Died  in  1856. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Elshoect.    See  Elshoecht. 
Elsholtz.    See  Elsholz. 

Elsholz,  von,  or  Elsholtz,  fon  Sls'holts,  (Franz,)  a 
German  comic  poet,  born  in  Berlin  in  1 791,  obtained  in 
early  life  an  office  of  secretary  in  the  public  service  at 
Cologne.  He  produced  "The  New  Achilles,"  and  a 
successful  drama  called  "Come  here,"  ("Komm  her," 
1824.)  His  comedy  "The  Lady  at  Court"  ("Die  Hof- 
dame")  attracted  much  attention. 

Elsholz  or  Elsholtz,  (Johann  Sigismund,)  a  Ger- 
man botanist,  born  at  P>ankfort-on-the-Oder  in  1623. 
He  became  physician  to  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  in 
1656,  and  lived  in  Berlin.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Flora  Marchica,"  (1663.)    Died  in  1688. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Boedi- 
ker,  "  Ehrengedachtniss  J.  S.  Elsholzen's,"  1688. 

Eisner,  glss'ner,  (Christoph  Friedrich,)  a  German 
medical  writer,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1 749;  died  in 
1820. 

Eisner,  (Jakob,)  a  learned  German  Protestant  theo* 
logian,  born  at  Saalfeld,  in  Prussia,  in  1692.  He  became 
in  1722  rector  of  the  College  of  Joachimsthal,  in  Berlin, 
and  afterwards  first  preacher  to  the  court.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  a  commentary  on  the  New 
Testament,  ("  Observationes  sacrae  in  Novi  Foederis 
Libros,"  2  vols.,  1720-28.)    Died  in  1750. 

See  Adelung's  Supplement  to  Jocher,  "AUgemeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon." 

Eisner,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  meritorious  Ger- 
man economist,  born  at  Gottesburg,  in  Silesia,  in  1784. 
He  was  a  practical  farmer,  and  studied  rural  economy 
in  various  countries.  He  published  many  works,  among 
which  are  a  "Manual  for  the  Propagation  of  Merino 
Sheep,"  (1832,)  and  a  "Shepherd's  Catechism,"  (1841.) 

Elss'ler,  (Fanny,)  a  German  danseuse,  born  in  Vi- 
enna in  1811.  She  performed  with  great  applause  in 
Vienna,  Berlin,  Paris,  and  London.  In  1841  she  visited 
the  United  States. 

El'stob,  (Elizabeth,)  an  English  linguist,  sister  of 
William,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Newcastle  in  1683. 
She  was  noted  for  her  knowledge  of  the  Saxon  language. 
She  translated  Scudery's  "Essay  on  Glory,"  and  pub- 
lished a  "Saxon  Grammar,"  (1715,)  and  "Saxon  Homi- 
lies." From  1739  to  1756  she  was  governess  to  the 
children  of  the  Duchess  of  Portland.    Died  in  1756. 

Elstob,  (William,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at 
Newcastle  in  1673,  was  a  Fellow  of  one  of  the  Oxford 
colleges,  and  an  excellent  Saxon  scholar.  He  became 
rector  of  Saint  Swithin,  London,  in  1702.  He  published 
an  edition  of  "  Ascham's  Latin  Letters,"  "  An  Essay  on 
the  Affinity,  etc.  between  the  two  Professions  of  Law 
and  Divinity,"  and  began  an  edition  of  Saxon  laws, 
which  was  finished  after  his  death  by  Wilkins.  Died 
in  1 714. 

Elsynge,  eKsinj, .''  (Henry,)  an  English  civil  officer  and 
writer,  born  at  Battersea,  Surrey,  in  1598.  After  leaving 
college  and  travelling  a  few  years,  he  obtained  the  office 
of  clerk  of  the  House  of  Commons,  which  he  kept  during 
the  Long  Parliament,  and  resigned  in  1648.  "  Mr.  El- 
synge," says  Whitelocke,  "was  the  best  I  ever  knew  to 
take  the  sense  of  the  House  and  put  it  into  apt  terms." 
He  published  a  much-esteemed  work  on  the  "  Manner 
of  Holding  Parliaments  in  England."    Died  in  1654. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

El'ton,  (Sir  Arthur  Hallam,)  an  English  writer, 
son  of  Charles  Abraham,  noticed  below,  and  a  nephew 
of  Henry  Hallam  the  historian,  was  born  in  1818.  He 
wrote  a  tale  entitled  "  Below  the  Surface." 

Elton,  (Charles  Abraham,)  an  English  poet,  born 
in  1778,  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1804,  and  a 
poetical  version  of  the  remains  of  Hesiod,  (1809,)  which 
is  highly  praised  by  the  "Edinburgh  Review."  In  1814 
he  published  "  Specimens  of  the  Classic  Poets  from 
Homer  to  Tryphiodorus,  translated  into  English  Verse," 
(3  vols.,)  in  which  there  are  many  brilliant  and  spirited 
passages.    Died  in  1853. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  i8og. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (g^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ELFENICH 


846 


EMERSON 


Elvenich,  §l'veh-niK',  (Peter  Joseph,)  a  German 
Catholic  philosopher,  born  at  Embken  in  1796,  is  called 
the  chief  of  Hermesianism,  on  which  he  wrote  several 
treatises. 

Elves,  [Norse,  Alfar,  SKfar,  in  the  singular,  Alfi,  sig- 
nifying "  Spirit,"]  the  name  given  in  the  Norse  mythology 
to  a  class  of  subordinate  beings  or  deities  who  are  sup- 
posed to  inhabit  that  part  of  the  atmosphere  which  is 
nearest  the  earth's  surface  and  the  interior  of  the  earth. 
The  former  are  aerial  beings,  and  are  called  light-elves, 
(Ljosalfar  :)  they  preside  over  the  plants  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth.  The  latter  dwell  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth, 
and  are  distinguished  as  dark-elves,  (Dokkalfar  or  Svart- 
alfar :)  they  have  charge  of  the  ores  and  minerals  lying 
within  the  earth,  and  are  skilful  workers  in  metal.  The 
Dwarfs  (Dwergar)  nearly  resemble  the  dark-elves  :  they 
work  in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  and  possess  magic  or 
supernatural  powers. 

See  Thorpe's  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vols.  i.  and  ii.,  more  par- 
ticularly pp.  56  and  57. 

Elvius,  &l've-us,  (Pehr,)  the  Elder,  a  Swedish  writer 
and  savant,  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Elvius,  (Pehr,)  a  scientific  Swedish  traveller,  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Upsal  in  17 10.  He  was  em- 
ployed in  the  survey  and  exploration  of  Sweden  about 
1745,  of  which  he  wrote  an  account.    Died  in  1749. 

See  O1.OF  Celsius,  " Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  P.  Elvius,"  1749; 
Olof  Dalin,  "Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  P.  Elvius,"  1750. 

Elwart,  gKvtR',  (Antoine,)  a  French  composer  of 
operas,  symphonies,  etc.,  born  in  Paris  in  1S08,  gained 
the  grand  prize  of  the  Institute  in  1834. 

Ei'wes,  (John  Meggot,)  an  English  miser,  born  in 
London  in  1 7 14,  became  member  of  Parliament  about 
1774.  He  is  said  to  have  left  more  than  ;(^5oo,ooo.  Died 
in  1789. 

See  E.  ToPHAM,  "Life  of  J.  Elwes,"  1790;  "Retrospective  Re- 
view," vol.  ix.,  1824. 

Elye,  ee'lT  or  i'le',  (Elias,)  a  Swiss  philologist,  born 
at  Laufen  about  1400,  was  the  first  who  introduced  the 
printing-press  into  Switzerland.    Died  about  1475. 

El'y-ot,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  diplomatist  and 
author,  eminent  for  his  profound  learning,  was  sent  by 
Henry  VIII.  on  a  mission  to  Rome  about  1532,  and  to 
the  court  of  Charles  V.  a  few  years  later.  He  composed 
admired  works  entitled  "The  Governor,"  (1531,)  and 
"  The  Castle  of  Health,"  (1534.)  His  "  Latin  Dictionary" 
(1538)  passed  through  many  editions.    Died  in  1546. 

EFys  or  EPlis,  (Rev.  Edmund,)  an  English  poet  and 
nonjuror,  published  "  Divine  Poems,"  (1658.)  Died  after 
1693- 

Elysium,  or  Elysian  Fields.    See  Pluto. 
Elzevier.    See  Elzevir. 

Elzevir,  SKzeh-vir,  [Dutch,  Elzevter  or  Elsevier, 
SKzeh-veer',]  the  name  of  a  family  of  Dutch  printers  and 
publishers,  who  were  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  their 
typography,  and  rendered  great  services  to  literature  by 
the  publication  of  classic  authors.  The  most  distin- 
guished are  the  following: 

Elzevir,  (Lewis,  or  Lodewijk,)  the  first  eminent 
member  of  the  family,  was  born  about  1540,  and  settled  at 
Leyden.  Some  of  his  publications  are  dated  1592.  He 
died  about  161 7,  leaving  four  sons,  Matthew,  Lewis,  Gilles, 
and  Bonaventure,  who  were  publishers.  Matthew  died 
in  1640,  and  left  sons  named  Isaac,  Abraham,  and  Bona- 
venture. The  last  two  were  partners,  and  published  at 
Leyden  the  master-pieces  of  typography  which  rendered 
the  name  of  Elzevir  famous.  Among  these  are  the  works 
of  Virgil,  Pliny,  Livy,  and  Cicero.  They  both  died  be- 
tween 1650  and  1660. 

Lewis  III.,  a  son  of  Lewis  IL,  established  a  press  at 
Amsterdam  in  1638,  and  produced  fine  editions  of  many 
authors.    He  died  about  1670. 

Daniel,  a  son  of  Abraham,  (or,  as  others  say,  of  Bona- 
venture,) was  the  last  of  the  family  that  excelled  in  the 
art  of  printing.    He  lived  at  Leyden,  and  died  in  1680. 

See  A.  DE  Reume,  "  Recherches  historiques,  etc.  sur  les  Elsevier," 
Brussels,  1847  ;  Dodtvan  Flensburg,  "  Overde  Elzeviers,  Lodewijk 
den  Vader,"  etc.,  1851. 

El'zey,  (Arnold,)  an  American  general,  was  born  in 
Maryland  about  1815.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war, 
and,'on  the  breaking  out  of  the  rebellion  of  1861,  entered 


the  Confederate  army.  He  was  made  brigadier-general 
in  1862, 

Elzheimer.    See  Elsheimer. 

Emadee  or  Emadi,  e-mi'dee,  a  celebrated  Persian 
poet,  surnamed  Sheheriari,  because  he  resided  in  She- 
heriar,  lived  in  the  reign  of  Malek  II.,  one  of  the  Sel- 
jukides.  He  published  a  divan,  or  a  collection  of  four 
thousand  verses,  and  died  in  1177. 

See  D'Herbelot,  "  Bibliotheque  Orientale." 

Emanuel.    See  Emmanuel  and  Manuel. 

Eman'uel  ben  SoPomon,  a  famous  Hebrew  poet, 
a  native  of  Rome,  lived  in  that  city  about  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  century.   He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  called 

Mechabberoth"  or  "  Mechaberoth,"  (*'  Poetic  Compo- 
sitions,") and  of  several  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures. 
He  is  called  by  some  rabbis  "the  Voltaire  of  the  He- 
brews," and  is  reputed  the  most  elegant  poet  that  his 
nation  has  produced  since  their  dispersion. 

Emanuele,  k-ma-noo-a'lk,  (surnamed  Era  Como, 
from  the  place  of  his  birth.)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Como  in  1625  ;  died  in  1701. 

Embury,  gn/ber-e,  (Emma  Catherine,)  an  Ameri- 
can writer,  daughter  of  Dr.  James  R.  Manley,  of  New 
York,  was  married  to  Daniel  Embury,  Esq.,  of  Brooklyn, 
in  1828.  She  published  "Guido,  and  other  Poems," 
"Constance  Latimer,  or  the  Blind  Girl,"  and  "Nature's 
Gems,  or  American  Wild- Flowers."    Died  in  1863. 

See  Griswold's  "Female  Poets  of  America." 

Emelraet,  a'mel-rlt',  a  Flemish  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Brussels  about  1612.  He  passed  some  years  in 
Rome,  and  afterwards  settled  in  Antwerp.  He  worked 
principally  for  the  churches,  painted  often  the  landscape 
for  the  pictures  of  other  artists,  and  was  regarded  as  one 
of  the  best  landscape-painters  of  Flanders. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Emeri.    See  Emery. 

fimeriau,  am're'6',  (Maurice  Julien,)  a  French 
admiral,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1762.  He  commanded  a 
ship  at  Aboukir  in  1798,  where  he  was  wounded  and 
made  prisoner.  He  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1802,  a 
count  in  1810,  and  a  vice-admiral  in  1811.  About  1812-15 
he  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  fleet  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  resisted  the  English  with  success.  He  was 
placed  on  the  retired  list  in  1816.    Died  in  1845. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Emeric.    See  Eymeric. 

^meric-David,  im'r^k'  dS'vid',  (  Toussaint  Ber- 
nard,) a  French  archaeologist  and  writer  on  art,  was 
born  at  Aix  (Provence)  in  1755.  He  practised  law  at 
Aix  in  his  youth,  and  sat  in  the  legislative  body  from 
1809  to  1814.  In  1815  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions,  for  which  he  wrote  memoirs  on  Greek 
mythology,  etc.  He  was  author  of  a  "  Historical  Dis- 
course on  Modern  Painting,"  (1807,)  of  a  "History  of 
Painting  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1842,)  and  of  many 
articles  in  the  "Biographie  Universelle."   Died  in  1839. 

See  Fauriel,  in  the  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  France,"  tome  xx. ; 
"  Nf>uvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

]6merigon,  im're%6N',(BALTHASAR  Marie,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  about  1714,  published  an  excellent  "Treatise 
on  Assurances  (or  Sureties)  and  Contracts,"  etc.,  (1784,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1785. 

Em'er-son,  (George  B.,)  a  distinguished  American 
teacher  and  writer  on  education,  was  born  in  York 
county,  Maine,  in  1797.  He  taught  in  Boston  for  many 
years,  and  was  president  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural 
History.  He  wrote  "Lectures  on  Education,"  and  a 
"  Report  of  the  Trees  and  Shrubs  growing  naturally  in 
the  Forests  of  Massachusetts,"  (1846.) 

Emerson,  (Ralph  Waldo,)  an  American  essayist, 
poet,  and  speculative  philosopher,  was  born  in  Boston 
in  1803.  Pie  entered  Harvard  in  1817,  and  took  the  de- 
gree of  A.B.  in  182 1.  While  at  college  he  is  said  to  have 
spent  much  of  his  time  in  the  library,  and,  although  not 
distinguished  for  his  proficiency  in  the  regular  studies 
of  the  curriculum,  he  was  superior  to  most  of  his  class- 
mates in  his  knowledge  of  general  literature.  His 
health  failing  about  1827,  he  spent  the  ensuing  winter  in 
Florida.  In  1829  he  was  ordained  at  the  Second  Uni- 
tarian Church  of  Boston,  as  colleague  of  Henry  Ware ; 
but  he  resigned  this  position  in  1832,  because  he  could 
not  accept  the  views  of  his  Church  in  regard  to  the 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


EMERSON 


847 


EMMANUEL 


Lord's  Supper.  In  December  of  the  same  year  he  sailed 
for  Europe,  and  returned  to  his  native  land  in  the  au- 
tumn of  1833.  Soon  after,  he  commenced  his  career  as 
lecturer,  his  discourses  embracing  almost  every  variety 
of  topic,  from  simple  "Water"  to  "Milton,"  "Human 
Culture,"  and  universal  "Nature."  A  volume  of  his 
"Essays"  appeared  in  1841,  and,  by  its  freshness  and 
originality  of  thought  and  sparkling  beauty  of  expression, 
excited  much  attention.  In  1840,  on  the  establishment 
of  the  "Dial,"  (the  organ  of  the  New  England  Transcen- 
dentalists,)  he  became  one  of  the  contributors  to  that 
periodical,  and  was  afterwards  its  editor  from  1842  to 
1844.  A  second  volume  (or  series)  of  "Essays"  made 
its  appearance  in  1844.  It  was  characterized  by  the  same 
striking  peculiarities  of  thought  and  expression  that  had 
previously  attracted  so  many  readers,  and  soon  procured 
for  him  a  multitude  of  admirers  on  both  sides  of  the  At- 
lantic. A  collection  of  his  poems  was  published  in  1846. 
In  the  following  year  he  visited  England,  in  order  to  fulfil 
an  engagement  which  he  had  made  to  deliver  a  series 
of  lectures  before  various  institutes  and  societies  in  that 
country.  In  1850  he  issued  a  small  volume,  entitled 
"  Representative  Men,"  one  of  the  most  important  of  all 
his  publications  :  it  is  doubtless  that  upon  which  his 
permanent  reputation  as  a  thinker  will  principally  rest. 
It  consists  of  a  series  of  characters  or  mental  portraits, 
each  of  which  is  designed  to  represent  a  class  :  i.  Plato, 
or  the  Philosopher ;  2.  Swedenborg,  or  the  Mystic ; 
3.  Montaigne,  or  the  Skeptic;  4.  Shakspeare,  or  the 
Poet ;  5.  Napoleon,  or  the  Man  of  the  World  ;  6.  Goethe, 
or  the  Writer.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  the 
judgments  formed  of  Mr.  Emerson's  writings,  and  more 
especially  of  the  last-named  work,  must  vary  according 
to  the  habits  of  thought  and  prepossessions  of  the  critic; 
the  more  so  as  our  author  does  not  attempt  to  establish 
his  positions  by  any  process  of  reasoning ;  he  simply 
announces  his  views,  leaving  his  reader  to  accept  them 
or  not,  as  he  may  have  the  capacity  to  do  so,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  scriptural  saying,  "He  that  is  able  to  re- 
ceive it,  let  him  receive  it."  In  his  philosophical  or 
metaphysical  views  he  may  be  said  to  approximate  the 
celebrated  German  transcendentalist  Fichte.  Mr.  Emei- 
son's  "English  Traits"  (1856)  is  one  of  his  most  popular 
and  attractive  books,  although  many  of  the  remarks  and 
statements  contained  in  it  require  to  be  received  with 
liberal  qualifications. 

Mr.  Emerson  is  distinguished  for  originality,  as  well 
as  for  subtlety  of  intellect.  One  cannot,  however,  help 
suspecting  that,  in  his  love  of  originality  and  his  anxiety 
to  shake  himself  wholly  free  from  the  trammels  of  the 
past,  he  sometimes  runs  into  errors  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, from  which  his  good  sense  and  rare  sagacity  might 
otherwise  have  preserved  him.  "As  a  writer,"  observes 
an  accomplished  critic,  "Mr.  Emerson  is  distinguished 
for  a  singular  union  of  poetic  imagination  with  practical 
acuteness.  .  .  .  The  brilliant  transcendentalist  is  evidently 
a  man  not  easy  to  be  deceived  in  matters  pertaining  to 
the  ordinary  course  of  human  affairs.  .  .  .  His  observa- 
tions on  society,  on  manners,  on  character,  on  institu- 
tions, are  stamped  with  rare  sagacity.  .  .  .  His  style  is 
in  the  nicest  harmony  with  the  character  of  his  thought. 
It  is  condensed  almost  to  abruptness.  Occasionally  he 
purchases  compression  at  the  expense  of  clearness."* 
"There  never  was,"  says  Mr.  Alger,  "a  bolder  champion 
of  mental  freedom  for  himself  and  for  all  men.  His  rich 
and  vigorous  freshness  has  been  an  invaluable  tonic  to 
his  contemporaries."  But  the  same  writer  justly  observes 
that  "the  emphasis  of  his  statements  is  often  fatal  to  the 
needful  qualifications  ;  but  that  requires  his  readers  to  be 
thinkers  too,  and  not  passive  recipients  of  his  thinking." 
("Christian  Examiner"  for  May,  1868.)  As  a  poet,  Mr. 
Emerson's  merits  are  of  a  high  order,  although  his  poetry 
is  not  of  a  kind  to  be  popular  with  the  generality  01 
readers.  A  number  of  his  more  recent  poems  have 
appeared  as  ccntributions  to  the  "Atlantic  Monthly." 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  December.  1S47  ;  "  Westminster 
Review"  for  March,  1S40,  and  October,  1856;  "Eraser's  Magazine" 
for  May,  1^67;  "Christian  Examiner,"  vols.  xxx.  and  xxxviii.;  Al- 
LiBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of 
America ;"  Duvckinck,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. 


*  See  Mr.  Whipple's  article  on  Emerson,  in  the  "  New  Ameri- 
can Cyclopasdia." 


Em'^r-spn,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Hurworth,  near  Darlington,  in  1701. 
He  was  educated  at  home  by  his  father,  who  was  a  school- 
teacher. At  his  father's  death,  he  conducted  the  school 
a  short  time,  and  then  retired  from  all  business  except 
writing  on  mathematics.  Among  his  numerous  works 
(which  for  some  time  were  probably  the  best  mathe- 
matical works  in  the  language,  except  those  of  Simpson) 
are  "Doctrine  of  Fluxions,"  (1748,)  "Principles  of  Me- 
chanics," (1754,)  and  "Method  of  Increments."  He 
was  eccentric  in  his  habits.    Died  in  1782. 

See  "  Biographia  Brltannica." 

^mery,  imW,  (Edouard  F6lix  Etienne,)  a 
French  medical  writer,  born  in  Dauphine  in  1788,  prac- 
tised in  Paris.    Died  in  1856. 

:6mery.  (Jacques  Andr£,)  a  French  Catholic  divine, 
born  at  Gex  in  1732,  entered  the  community  of  Saint- 
Sulpice,  Paris,  about  1750.  In  1782  he  was  chosen 
superior-general  of  his  order.  He  is  commended  for 
his  wise,  firm,  and  moderate  conduct  during  the  reign 
of  terror,  in  which  he  was  twice  imprisoned.  He  wrote 
"The  Spirit  of  Leibnitz,"  (1772,)  the  "Christianity 
( Christianisme)  of  Lord  Bacon,"  (1799,)  and  other 
learned  works.    Died  in  181 1. 

See  PicoT,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  A.  £mery,"  1811. 

Em'er-y,  (John,)  an  English  comic  actor,  born  at 
Sunderland  in  1777;  died  in  1822. 

^mery,  d',  dim're',  (Michel  Particelli — ptR'te'si'- 
le',)  SiEUR,  a  French  financier,  of  Italian  descent,  born  at 
Lyons;  died  in  1650. 

^mile  or  Emili,  (Paul.)    See  Emilio. 

Emilian.    See  ^milian. 

^milien,  the  French  of  .Emilian,  which  see. 

Emilio,  i-mee'le-o,  (Paolo,)  or  Emili,  i-mee'lee, 
(Paul,)  [Lat.  Pau'lus  i^iMiL'ius  ;  Fr.  Paul  Emile,  pol 
i'm^K,]  an  Italian  historian,  born  at  Verona,  removed 
to  Paris  about  1495,  '^'^'^^■>  the  order  of  the  king,  wrote 
a  Latin  "History  of  France,"  ("De  Rebus  gestis  Fran- 
corum,"  1 5 16-19,)  vvhich  was  admired  and  often  reprinted. 
The  style  is  pure  and  concise.  Erasmus  expressed  a  high 
opinion  of  Emilio's  learning.    Died  in  Paris  in  1529. 

See  TiRABoscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Emilius.    See  ^milius,  and  Paulus. 

Emilius  Macer.    See  Macer. 

Emin,  i-meen',  (Feodor  Alexandrovitch,)  a  Rus- 
sian historian  and  novelist,  born  about  1735.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "  History  of  Russia  to  1213,"  (1767.)  Died 
in  1770. 

Em'lyn,  (Henry,)  an  English  architect,  born  about 
1730 ;  died  in  1815. 

Emlyn,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Unitarian  minister, 
born  at  Stamford  in  1663.  In  1691  he  settled  in  Dub- 
lin, where  he  preached  a  number  of  years.  He  was 
fined  and  imprisoned  about  two  years  for  his  doctrines. 
He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke,"  (1731,)  and 
several  controversial  works.    Died  in  1743. 

See  "  Life  of  Thomas  Emlyn,"  by  his  son. 

Em'ma,  a  daughter  of  Charlemagne,  who,  according 
to  a  doubtful  legend,  was  married  to  Eginhard.  It  is 
reported  that  before  their  marriage  she  once  carried 
Eginhard  from  the  palace,  lest  his  traces  in  the  snow 
might  betray  the  secret  of  his  visit.    Died  in  837  a.d. 

See  J.  C.  Dahl,  "  Ueber  Eginhard  und  Emma,"  1S17;  Egin- 
hard, "Vita  Caroli  Magni." 

Em'ma,  Queen  of  England,  was  a  daughter  of  Richard 

I.  ,  Duke  of  Normandy.  She  was  married  first  to  Ethel- 
red  II.,  and  became  mother  of  Edward  the  Confessor. 
About  1017  she  was  married  to  Canute  the  Great,  by 
whom  she  had  a  son,  Hardicanute.    Died  in  1046. 

Em-man'u-el,  [Port.  Manoel,  mi-no-^K,]  surnamed 
THE  Great,  King  of  Portugal,  born  at  Alconcheta  in 
1469,  was  the  son  of  Ferdinand,  Duke  of  Viseu,  a  younger 
branch  of  the  reigning  family.    Upon  the  death  of  John 

II.  ,  in  1495,  he  succeeded  to  the  throne.  He  married  the 
widow  of  the  late  prince-royal,  Alonzo  or  Alphonso,  Isa- 
bella of  Castile,  whose  consent  he  obtained  only  on  the 
condition  that  he  should  banish  the  Moors  and  Jews 
from  the  kingdom,  which  was  repugnant  to  his  own  more 
liberal  principles.  During  his  reign  the  glory  and  power 
of  Portugal  attained  their  greatest  height  by  the  dis- 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as z;  th  as  in  this.  (2l^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


EMMJNUEL 


848 


EMPEREUR 


coveries  and  victorious  expeditions  of  Vasco  da  Gama, 
Almeida,  Albuquerque,  and  Alvares  de  Cabral.  From 
1497  to  1520  these  famous  captains  maintained  the  as- 
cendency of  the  Portuguese  arms  in  India  and  Brazil.  In 
15 19  Emmanuel  married  Eleonore,  sister  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  He  died  in  1521,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  John  III. 

See  A.  DE  Varnhagen,  "  Retratos  e  Eiogios  des  Personagens 
ilustres  de  Portugal,"  1842;  Laclede,  "  Histoire  generalede  Portu- 
gal;" H.  OsoRio,  "  De  Rebus  Emmanuelis  Regis  Lusitanise  gestis," 
1571  ;  translated  into  English  by  James  Gibbs,  1752. 

Em-man'u-el  Phil'i-bert,  surnamed  Tete  de  Fer, 
tit  deh  faiR,  {i.e.  "Iron-headed,")  Duke  of  Savoy,  an 
Italian  general  of  great  ability,  born  at  Chambery  in 
1528,  was  a  son  of  Charles  III.  of  Savoy.  He  entered 
the  service  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  1548,  and  in 
1553  obtained  the  chief  command  of  the  imperial  army 
in  the  war  against  the  French.  He  gained  a  great  vic- 
tory over  them  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1557.  In  1559  he 
married  Margaret,  a  sister  of  Henry  II.  of  France,  and 
recovered  part  of  his  paternal  dominions,  which  had  been 
seized  by  the  French.  In  1574  he  obtained  from  Henry 
III.  the  evacuation  of  all  Piedmont,  the  condition  of 
which  was  greatly  improved  by  his  wise  statesmanship. 
Died  in  1580.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles 
Emmanuel. 

See  G.  Tosi,  "Vita  Emmanuelis  Philiberti,"  1596;  Brusl^  de 
MoNTPLAiNCHAMP,  "  Histoire  de  Emmanuel  Philibert,"  1692;  De 
Thou,  "  Historia." 

Emmerich,  ^m'meh-riK,  (Georg,)  a  German  physi- 
cian, born  at  Konigsberg  in  1672,  wrote  several  able 
treatises.    Died  in  1727. 

Emmery,  gm're',  (Jean  Louis  Claude,)  Count  of 
Grozyeulx,  a  learned  French  lawyer  and  legislator,  born 
at  Metz  in  1752,  was  a  member  of  the  National  As- 
sembly in  1790.  He  became  a  senator  in  1802.  Died 
in  1823. 

Em'met,  (Robert,)  an  eloquent  Irish  enthusiast, 
born  in  Cork  in  1780,  was  a  brother  of  Thomas  Addis 
Emmet.  He  was  an  ardent  but  misguided  partisan  of 
Irish  independence,  and  appears  to  have  been  a  sincere 
patriot.  Like  his  brother,  he  was  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
"United  Irishmen."  In  July,  1803,  he  rashly  put  him- 
self at  the  head  of  a  party  of  insurgents  consisting  of  the 
rabble  of  Dublin,  who  murdered  the  chief  justice.  Lord 
Kilwarden,  and  others,  but  were  quickly  dispersed  by 
the  military.  Emmet  was  arrested,  was  tried,  and,  after 
an  eloquent  and  impassioned  speech  in  vindication  of  his 
course,  suffered  with  intrepid  courage  a  felon's  death, 
September,  1803.  The  poet  Moore  commemorated  his 
tragic  fate  and  his  attachment  to  Miss  Curran  in  two  of 
his  "  Irish  Melodies." 

See  Madden,  "  United  Irishmen,"  vol.  iii.  ;  John  W.  Burke, 
"Life  of  Robert  Emmet." 

Emmet,  (Thomas  Addis,)  an  eloquent  Irish  lawyer, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Cork  in  1764. 
He  was  liberally  educated,  was  called  to  the  bar  in  "1790, 
and  became  a  leader  of  the  "  United  Irishmen."  He  was 
arrested  in  1798,  and  imprisoned  in  a  dungeon  for  about 
three  years.  In  1804  he  emigrated  to  New  York,  where 
he  practised  law  with  great  success,  and  became  attorney- 
general  of  the  State  of  New  York  in  1812.  He  died  in 
1827.  "That  he  had  great  qualities  as  an  orator,"  says 
udge  Story,  "cannot  be  doubted  by  any  one  who  has 
eard  him.  His  mind  possessed  a  good  deal  of  the  fer- 
vour which  characterizes  his  countrymen.  It  was  quick, 
vigorous,  searching,  and  buoyant."  He  wrote  pieces  of 
Irish  history  illustrative  of  the  condition  of  the  Catholics 
of  Ireland,  (1807.) 

See  "Memoirs  of  Thomas  Addis  Emmet,"  by  Charles  Glidden 
Haynes,  1829 ;  a  sketch  of  Emmet's  character  in  the  Miscella- 
neous Works  of  Joseph  Story  ;  T.  McGee,  "  O'Connell  and  his 
Friends." 

Emmius,  grn'me-iis,  (Ubbo.)  a  Dutch  scholar  and 
historian,  born  in  1547,  was  emment  for  his  knowledge 
of  ancient  languages  and  history,  and  for  modesty  and 
other  virtues.  After  teaching  many  years  in  Norden  and 
Leer,  he  was  chosen  in  16 14  professor  of  history  and 
Greek  in  the  University  of  Groningen,  of  which  he  was 
also  rector.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Friesland,"  (1596,) 
a  "General  Chronology,"  (1619,)  "Ancient  Greece  Illus- 
trated," ("Vetus  Grsecia  illustrata,"  1626,)  a  valuable! 


work  on  the  history  and  topography  of  Greece,  and  a 
few  other  works.    Died  in  1625. 

See  Foppens,  "Bibliotheca  Belgica;"  N.  Mulerius,  "  Elogiura 
U.  Emmii,"  1628;  Nicekon,  "Memoires." 

Em'mons,  (Ebenezer,)  M.D.,  an  American  geologist, 
born  in  Middlefield,  Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  in 
1798,  became  professor  of  natural  history  in  Williams 
College  in  1833.  When  the  geological  survey  of  New 
York  was  ordered  by  the  government,  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  geologists-in-chief.  Several  volumes  of  his 
Reports  were  published  in  the  "  Natural  History  of  New 
York."  He  advanced  the  novel  opinion  that  beneath 
the  oldest  member  of  the  Silurian  system  there  is  a  series 
of  fossiliferous  rocks,  to  which  he  applied  the  term  "  Ta- 
conic."    He  died  in  North  Carolina  in  October,  1863. 

Emmons,  (Nathaniel,)  an  American  theologian, 
born  in  East  Haddam,  Connecticut,  in  1745,  preached 
for  many  years  at  Franklin,  Massachusetts.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  theology.    Died  in  1840. 

Emo,  a'mo,  (Angelo,)  an  able  Venetian  statesman 
and  admiral,  born  in  1731.  Having  served  with  success 
against  the  Algerine  pirates,  he  was  made  vice-admiral 
in  1765,  and  compelled  the  Dey  of  Algiers  to  sign  a  treaty 
favourable  to  Venice.  He  then  obtained  the  rank  ot 
captain-general  and  admiral  of  all  the  maritime  forces. 
In  1772  he  was  appointed  a  senator,  and  about  1780  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Ten.  He  afterwards  held 
other  high  offices  with  credit.    Died  in  1792. 

See  Meneghelli,  "Di  A.  Emo  e  delle  sue  Gesta,"  1836. 

Em'o-ry,  (John,)  an  American  Methodist  bishop, 
born  in  Queen  Ann  county,  Maryland,  in  1789.  He  was 
elected  a  bishop  about  1832.  He  wrote  several  contro- 
versial treatises.    Died  in  1835. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Bishop  Emory,"  by  his  son  Robert. 

Emory,  (Robert,)  a  Methodist  minister,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  18 14.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Disci])line  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,"  (1843.)    Died  in  1848. 

Emory,  (William  H.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Maryland  about  181 2,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1 83 1.  He  became  a  lieutenant  of  topographical  engi- 
neers  about  1839,  and  gained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1851. 
He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  early 
in  1862,  and  commanded  a  division  under  General  Banks 
in  Louisiana  in  1863,  and  a  corps  in  1864.  He  repulsed 
the  enemy  at  Pleasant  Hill,  April  7  of  that  year.  He 
fought  with  distinction  at  Opequan  Creek,  September 
19,  and  Cedar  Creek,  October  19,  1864. 

Empecinado.    See  Diaz,  (Juan  Martin.) 

Empedocle.    See  Empedocles. 

Em-ped'o-cles,  [Gr.  'EfnredoKlr)^ ;  Fr.  Empedocle, 
SN'pi'dokK;  It.  Empedocle,  ^m-pa'do-klk,]  a  celebrated 
Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Agrigentum,  Sicily,  flourished 
about  450  B.C.  It  is  not  known  who  were  his  teachers. 
He  excelled  in  medicine  and  poetry  as  well  as  philosophy. 
By  these  merits  he  acquired  great  influence  in  his  native 
state,  which  he  is  said  to  have  transformed  into  a  repub- 
lic, after  refusing  to  accept  the  off"er  of  royalty.  He  origi- 
nated or  adopted  the  theory  that  nature  consists  of  four 
elements, — fire,  air,  earth,  and  water.  He  ap])ears  to  have 
taught  the  Hindoo  philosophy  that  the  soul  has  been 
banished  into  the  body  in  order  to  punish  it,  and  that  it 
migrates  through  animal  and  vegetable  bodies  until  it 
shall  be  entirely  purified.  The  po])ular  tradition  that  he 
threw  himself  into  the  crater  of  Mount  Etna  to  immor- 
talize his  name  is  probably  fabulous.  His  greatest  work 
was  a  poem  on  the  "  Nature  and  Principles  of  Things," 
of  which  fragments  are  extant.  Lucretius,  in  his  great 
poem,  "  De  Rerum  Natura,"  expresses  his  admiration  of 
Empedocles. 

See  Ritter,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  G.  H.  Lewes,  "Bio- 
graphical History  of  Philosophy ;"  Diogenes  Laertius  ;  Scina, 
"  Memorie  sulla  Vita  de  Empedocle,"  2  vols.,  1813;  J.  G.  New- 
mann,  "  Programma  de  Empedocle  Philosopho,"  1690;  Heinrich 
Stein,  "Dissertatio  de  Empedoclis  Scriptis,"  1851. 

Empereur,  L',  16N'peh'ruR',  (Constantijn,)  a  Dutch 
Orientalist,  born  at  Oppyck,  was  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent pupils  of  Erpenius.  He  obtained  the  chair  of 
Hebrew  in  Leyden  in  1627,  and  became  councillor  to 
Maurice  of  Nassau  in  1639.  He  translated  portions  of 
the  Talmud  and  other  Jewish  writings,  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  the  Forensic  Laws 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  hn^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


EMPIRICUS 


849 


ENFANT 


of  the  Hebrews,"  and  a  "Key  to  the  Talmud,"  ("Clavis 
Talmudica,"  1634.)    Died  in  1648. 

See  Trigland,  "Oratio  in  Obitiim  C.  L'Empereur,"  1648. 

Empiricus  Sextus.    See  Sextus. 

Empis,  SN^pe',  (Adolphe,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1790.  He  produced  successful  comedies  and 
operas,  which  in  1847  opened  to  him  the  doors  of  the 
French  Academy.  Among  his  works  are  "Joan  of  Arc," 
an  opera,  (1822,)  and  "A  Change  in  the  Ministry,"  a 
comedy,  (1831.) 

Empoli,  ^m'po-lee,  (Jacopo  Chimenti,)  an  Italian 
painter  in  oil,  usually  called  L'Empoli,  was  born  at 
Empoli  in  1554.  He  worked  mostly  in  Florence,  the 
churches  of  which  contain  many  of  his  pictures.  Among 
his  chief  productions  are  "Saint  Yves,"  "The  Virgin 
with  Saint  Nicholas,"  and  an  "Annunciation."  His 
design  and  colour  are  commended.  He  also  painted 
portraits  with  success.    Died  in  1640. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Empoli,  d',  dgm'po-lee,  (Giovanni,)  a  Florentine, 
who  lived  about  the  year  1500,  in  the  service  of  the  Por- 
tuguese king,  sailed  with  Albuquerque  to  India  in  1503, 
and  wrote  a  brief  account  of  the  voyage. 

See  Lafiteau,  "  Histoire  des  Conquetes  des  Portugais." 

Em-po'ri-us,  a  Latin  grammarian,  who  lived  in  the 
fifth  or  sixth  century,  left  some  extant  works  on  rhetoric. 

Empson,  (Richard.)    See  Dudley,  (Edmund.) 

Emp'son,  (William,)  an  English  editor  and  writer 
on  various  subjects,  born  about  1 790.  He  was  for  several 
years  editor  of  the  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  to  which  he 
contributed  many  articles  between  1823  and  1850.  Died 
in  1852. 

Emser,  gm'ser,  (Hieronymus,)  a  German  Catholic 
theologian,  noted  as  an  adversary  of  Luther,  was  born 
at  Ulm  in  1477.  He  became  secretary  of  Duke  George 
of  Saxony,  who  gave  him  a  benefice  in  Dresden.  In 
1523  he  published  a  criticism  on  Luther's  version  of  the 
New  Testament.  He  also  made  a  German  translation 
of  the  New  Testament,  (1527,)  which  was  adopted  by  the 
Catholics.    Died  in  1527. 

SeeWALDAU,  "Nachricht  von  H.  Emser's  Leben,"  1783. 

^nambuc,  d',  di'nSN'biik',  (Pierre  Vandrosque 
Diel — vSN'dRosk'  de'el',)  an  able  French  mariner  and 
colonial  governor,  who,  with  the  permission  of  Richelieu, 
planted  a  colony  in  the  isle  of  Saint  Christopher  in  1625. 
He  also  formed  the  first  settlement  in  the  isle  of  Mar- 
tinique, in  1635.  ^'^^^  1636,  and  was  succeeded  as 
governor  by  his  nephew,  Diel  Duparquet. 

Encelade.    See  Enceladus. 

En-9el'a-dus,  [Gr.  ''E.yKD.ado^ ;  Fr.  Encelade,  5n'- 
sk'ltd',]  a  son  of  Tartarus,  and  one  of  the  giants  that 
rebelled  against  Jupiter.  According  to  one  tradition,  he 
was  buried  under  the  island  of  Sicily  or  Mount  Mtx\2i, 
and  his  struggles  caused  earthquakes. 

Encina.    See  Enzina,  (Juan  de  la.) 

Encinas  or  Enzinas,  §n-thee'nis,  often  called  Dry- 
ander,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  Reformer,  born  at  Burgos 
about  1520.  Having  been  converted  to  Lutheranism,  he 
went  to  Wittenberg  about  1541,  and  acquired  the  friend- 
ship of  Luther  and  Melanchlhon.  He  produced  a  Span- 
ish translation  of  the  New  Testament,  (1543,)  which  he 
presented  to  Charles  V.  at  Brussels.  For  this  offence 
he  was  imprisoned  about  a  year.  Having  escaped  from 
prison,  he  went  to  England.    Died  in  1552. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary:"  N.  Antonio, 
"  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova ;"  Mrs.  Charles,  "  Martyrs  of  Spain," 
etc.,  1865. 

Encinas,  (Juan,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Burgos,  was  also  a  Protestant.  He  went  to  Rome,  or 
was  sent  thither  by  his  father.  There  he  openly  avowed 
his  principles,  and  suffered  death  by  fire  in  1545. 

See  Mrs.  Charles,  "Martyrs  of  Spain,"  etc. 

Enciso,  de,  di  §n-thee'so,  (Diego  Ximenes,)  a  Span- 
ish dramatic  poet,  born  at  Seville,  lived  about  1620-40. 
He  wrote  "  El  Principe  Don  Carlos,"  and  other  dramas, 
which  display  superior  talents. 

Enciso,  de,  (Don  Martin  Fernandez,)  a  Spanish 
geographer,  accompanied  the  expeditions  to  Central 
America,  and  published  "Suma  de  Geografia,"  (1519.) 

Encke,  Snk'keh,  (Johann  Franz,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man astronomer,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1791.    He  gained 


distinction  by  his  determination  of  the  orbit  of  the  comet 
of  1680,  and  of  the  distance  of  tHe  earth  from  the  sun, 
and  published  "The  Distance  of  the  Sun,"  ("Die  Ent- 
fernung  der  Sonne,"  2  vols.,  1822-24.)  He  afterwards 
made  important  and  successful  investigations  into  the 
orbit  and  period  of  the  comet  of  Pons,  since  known  as 
Encke's  comet.  About  1825  Jie  became  director  of  the 
Royal  Observatory  of  Berlin,  and  secretary  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.  After  1830  he  published  the  "Astro- 
nomische  Jahrbiicher,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1865. 

See  G.  Hagen,  "Memoir  of  Encke,"  in  the  "Smithsonian  Re- 
port" for  1868. 

Encontre,  6n'k6NtR',  (Daniel,)  a  French  Protestant 
divine,  eminent  for  talents  and  learning,  born  at  Nimes 
in  1762,  was  ordained,  but  was  unable  to  preach,  on  ac- 
count of  a  defect  in  the  vocal  organs.  He  became  in 
1808  professor  of  sciences  in  the  Academy  of  Montpel- 
lier,  and  in  1814  he  accepted  the  chair  of  theology  at 
Montauban.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  Theory  of 
Probabilities,"  "Elements  of  Plane  Geometry,"  a  "Dis- 
sertation on  the  True  System  of  the  World,"  (1807,)  and 
many  other  works.    Died  in  181 8. 

See  Juillerat-Chasseur,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Daniel 
Encontre,"  1821. 

Ende,  von,  fon  gn'deh,  (Friedrich  Albrecht,) 
Baron,  a  German  general,  born  at  Celle  in  1765  ;  died 
in  1829. 

Ender,  In'der,  (Johann,)  a  German  painter,  born  in 
Vienna  in  1793.  He  went  to  Rome  as  imperial  pen- 
sioner in  1820,  and  afterwards  worked  in  Vienna  with 
success  in  portraits  and  history.    Died  in  1854. 

Ender,  (Thomas,)  a  landscape-painter,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Vienna  about  1794.  He  went 
about  1817  with  a  scientific  expedition  to  Brazil,  from 
which  he  brought  home  many  designs.  He  accompanied 
Metternich  to  Italy,  where  he  worked  some  years.  His 
landscapes  are  admired  for  the  vigorous  effects  of  light 
which  they  display. 

En'der-bie,  (Percy,)  a  British  author,  published  a 
mediocre  history  of  Wales,  (1661.) 

En'di-cott,  (John,)  one  of  the  first  colonial  Gov- 
ernors of  Massachusetts,  born  at  Dorchester,  England, 
in  1589.  In  1636  he  conducted  an  expedition  against 
the  Peqnot  Indians.  He  was  several  years  Deputy-Gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts,  and  in  1644  was  chosen  Governor. 
He  was  again  Governor  in  1649,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  1650  and  1654,  was  regularly  re-elected  to  the  same 
office  till  his  death  in  1665.  Governor  Endicott  was  a 
zealous  Puritan,  and  was  especially  severe  in  executing 
the  laws  against  those  who  differed  from  the  prevailing 
religion. 

Endlicher,  gnt'liK-er,  (Stephen  Ladislaus,)  an  emi- 
nent botanist  and  linguist,  born  at  Presburg,  in  Hungary, 
in  1804.  Having  studied  Oriental  languages  and  natural 
sciences,  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Imperial 
Library,  Vienna,  in  1828,  and  professor  of  botany  in  the 
University  in  1840.  He  liberally  expended  his  fortune 
in  the  promotion  of  science,  and  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Academy  of  Vienna.  He  published,  in  Latin, 
many  works  on  botany,  the  most  important  of  which  is 
his  "Genera  of  Plants  arranged  in  the  Natural  Order," 
(1836-40,)  and  "  Rudiments  of  Chinese  Grammar,"  (1845,) 
with  various  other  well-written  works.  He  sympathized 
with  the  people  in  the  insurrection  of  1848.  Died  in 
1849. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic Generale." 

En-dym'i-on,  [Gr.  ''Ev6vnudv,]  in  the  Greek  mythology, 
was  represented  as  a  beautiful  youth,  a  darling  of  Diana, 
(Selene,)  and  a  perpetual  sleeper.  One  of  the  various 
traditions  announces  him  as  a  king  of  Elis.  His  eternal 
sleep  is  ascribed  to  different  causes. 

See  Smith's  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and 
Mythology." 

Enea,  the  Italian  of  ^neas,  which  see. 
Eneas.    See  ^Eneas. 
Eneas  Sylvius.    See  Pius  II. 
Enee,  the  French  of  ^neas,  which  see. 
Enemann,  hn^eh.-xnlx\',  (Mikael,)  a  Swedish  Orien- 
talist, born  at  Enkoping  in  1676;  died  in  1714. 
Enfant,  L'.    See  L'Enfant. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  K,guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

54 


ENFANTIN 


ENGHELRAMS 


Enfantin,  dN'fSN't^N',  (Barth^lemi  Prosper,)  a 
French  arch-socialist,  born  in  Paris  in  1796,  is  called 
one  of  the  founders  of  Saint-Simonism.  He  began  to 
propagate  the  doctrines  of  Saint-Simon  about  1825,  and 
in  1830  had  united  numerous  followers  into  an  associa- 
tion founded  on  community  of  property.  A  disagree- 
ment between  him  and  Bazard  resulted  in  a  schism,  after 
which  Enfantin  assumed  the  name  of  "the  Living  Law 
and  the  Messiah."  Charged  with  corruption  of  public 
morals,  he  was  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  one  year 
in  1832.  After  that  event  his  disciples  were  dispersed, 
and  he  was  employed  as  director  of  the  Paris  and  Lyons 
Railway.    Died  in  1864. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Geiierale." 

En'field,  (William,)  LL.D.,  an  English  author  and 
dissenting  minister,  born  at  Sudbury  in  174 1,  officiated 
successively  in  the  Unitarian  churches  of  Liverpool, 
Warrington,  and  Norwich.  He  published  several  volumes 
of  popular  sermons,  a  "Preacher's  Directory,"  which  was 
highly  esteemed,  and  said  to  be  the  best  work  of  the 
kind,  and  largely  assisted  Dr.  Aikin  in  his  "  General 
Biographical  Dictionary."  Besides  several  educational 
works,  he  published  in  1791  a  "History  of  Philosophy 
from  the  Earliest  Periods  to  the  Present  Century," 
abridged  from  Brucker's  History.    Died  in  1797. 

See  Aikin,  "Memoirs  of  Enfield,"  prefixed  to  his  "Sermons." 

Engau,  ^ng'gow,  (Johann  Rudolf,)  a  German  juris- 
consult, born  at  Jena  in  1708.  He  became  professor  of 
law  in  the  University  of  Jena  in  1740,  and  councillor  of 
the  court  of  Saxe- Weimar  in  1748.  "His  numerous 
writings,"  says  Guizot,  "  attest  his  vast  knowledge,  and 
are  highly  esteemed  in  Germany."  Among  them  are 
(in  Latin)  "Elements  of  German  Civil  Law,"  (1736,) 
and  "Elements  of  Criminal  Law,"  (1738.)  Died  in  1755. 

See  "Biographie  Universelle;"  Hirsching,  "  Historisch-litera- 
risches  Handbuch." 

Engel,  ^ng'el,  (Johann,)  a  German  astronomer,  born 
in  Bavaria;  died  in  15 12. 

Engel,  (Johann  Jakob,)  an  excellent  German  author, 
born  at  Parchim  (Mecklenburg)  in  1 741.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  belles-lettres  in  Berlin  from  1776  to  1787,  and 
was  preceptor  of  the  prince  Frederick  William,  who 
ascended  the  throne  in  1787.  His  comedy  "  The  Grateful 
Son"  (1770)  was  very  successful.  In  1775  he  published 
"The  Philosopher  for  the  World,"  ("  Der  Philosoph  fur 
die  Welt,"  2  vols.,)  which  is  admired  for  great  clearness, 
facility,  and  elegance.  He  afterwards  produced  "  Lorenz 
Stark,"  (1795,)  a  romance,  which  was  very  popular,  and 
a  "  Mirror  for  Princes,"  ("  Furstenspiegel.")  His  works 
are  characterized  by  an  excellent  judgment,  and  by  a 
refinement  of  taste  and  purity  of  diction  which  are  rare 
among  the  Germans.    Died  in  1802. 

See  F.  NicoLAi,"  Gedachtnissschrift  auf  J.  J.  Engel,"  1806 ;  "  Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Engel,  (Karl  Christian,)  a  dramatist,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Parchim  in  1752.  He  wrote 
"  Biondetta,"  a  comedy,  and  a  metaphysical  essay,  en- 
titled "  Nous  nous  reverrons,"  ("  We  shall  see  each  other 
again,"  1787,)  which  caused  a  great  sensation.  Died  in 
1801. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Engel,  Sng'el,  (Samuel,)  a  Swiss  geographer  and 
economist,  born  at  Berne  in  1702,  wrote  an  "Essay  on 
the  Question,  '  When  and  how  was  America  peopled  ?' " 
(1767,)  and  several  works  on  rural  economy.  Died  in 
1784. 

En-gel-ber'ga,  sometimes  written  Engelberta  and 
Angilberga,  Empress  of  Germany,  was  married  in  856 
A.d.  to  Lewis  H.  of  Germany.  Having  been  accused  of 
conjugal  infidelity  by  two  courtiers,  she  was  about  to  be 
subjected  to  the  ordeal  of  fire  and  water,  when  Boson, 
Count  of  Aries,  came  forward  as  her  champion.  He 
defeated  her  accusers  in  single  combat,  and  forced  them 
to  retract.    Died  in  890  A.D. 

Engelbert,  ^ng'el-b^Rt',  a  German  historian,  born  in 
the  thirteenth  century.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  History 
of  the  Roman  Empire."    Died  in  1331. 

Engelbert,  Saint,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  became 
tutor  to  Henry,  a  son  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II.,  about 
1220.    He  was  assassinated  by  his  cousin  in  1225. 


Engelberta  or  Engelberda.    See  Engelberga. 

Engelbrecht,  ^ng^gel-bR^Kt',  (Engelbrechtson, 
^ng'gel-bR^Kt^son,)  a  Swedish  statesman  and  general, 
was  born  in  Dalecarlia  about  1390.  When  Eric  XIII. 
was  deposed,  Engelbrecht  was  selected  to  administer 
the  government  jointly  with  Charles  Canutson  ;  but  the 
former  was  soon  after  assassinated  by  Magnus  Bengtson, 
in  1436. 

See  J.  J.  Palm,  "  Dissertatio  de  Meritis  Engelbrechti,"  1802. 

Engelbrecht,  ^ng'el-bRlKt^  (Johann,)  a  German 
visionary  and  fanatical  religionist,  born  at  Brunswick  in 
1599  ;  died  in  1642. 

Engelbrechtsen  or  Enghelbrechtsen,  gng'hel- 
bR^Kt'sen,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden 
ill  1468,  was  the  first  of  his  nation  who  used  oil-colours. 
He  is  considered  one  of  the  ablest  painters  of  his 
time.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  "  Descent  from 
the  Cross,"  (in  Paris,)  "  The  Lamb  of  the  Apocalypse," 
(at  Utrecht,)  and  "  The  Sacrifice  of  Abraham,"  (in  Paris.) 
Died  in  1533. 

See  DesCamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Engelgrave,  gng'el-gRiVeh,  (Hendrik,)  a  learned 
Jesuit  and  preacher,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1610.  He  be- 
came rector  of  colleges  at  Cassel,  Bruges,  and  Antwerp. 
His  sermons  were  often  reprinted,  under  the  title  of 
"  Gospel  Light,"  ("  Lux  Evangelica,"  1648.)  Died  in  1670. 

Engelhardt,  gng'el-haRt,  (Johann  Georg  Veit,)  a 
German  theologian,  born  at  Neustadt  (an-der-Aisch)  in 
1 791.  He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Erlangen  in 
1822.  Among  his  principal  works  is  a  "History  of 
Dogmas,"  (" Dogmengeschichte,"  1839.)    Died  in  1855. 

Engelhardt,  (Karl  August,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Dresden  in  1768.  He  published  "The  Friend  of 
Children,"  ("Der  Kinderfreund,"  12  vols.,  1797-1814,) 
"Poems,"  ("Gedichte,"  3  vols.,  1820-23,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1834. 

Engelmann,  6N'zh§Km6N'  or  gng'el-mln^  (Gode- 
FROY,)  one  of  the  inventors  or  improvers  of  lithography, 
was  born  at  Mulhouse,  (Haut-Rhin,)  in  France,  in  1788. 
In  1816  he  founded  the  first  important  and  successful 
lithographic  establishment  in  Paris,  in  which  he  was  aided 
by  Vernet,  Girodet,  Isabey,  and  other  artists.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Treatise  on  Lithography,"(i839.)  Died  in  1839. 

See  G.  Peignot,  "  Essai  historique  sur  la  Lithographic." 

Engelschall,  gng'el-shir,  (Joseph  Friedrich,)  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Marburg  in  1739.  He  wrote  short 
lyric  poems,  epistles,  epigrams,  and  prose  essays,  which, 
in  the  opinion  of  Schoell,  entitle  him  to  a  prominent 
place  among  German  authors  of  the  second  rank.  Died 
in  1797. 

Engelstoft,  gng'els-toft',  (Christian  Thorning,)  a 
learned  Danish  theologian,  iDorn  at  Naesberg  in  1805. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Copenhagen  in 
1845,  Bishop  of  Funen  in  1851.  He  has  written  on 
church  history,  etc. 

Engelstroem.    See  Engestrom. 

Engenio,  d',  dln-ja'ne-o,  (Cesare  Caracciolo — kl- 
rit-she-o'lo,)  an  Italian  historian,  flourished  about  1600. 
He  wrote  a  "Description  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples," 
(1618.) 

Engestrom  or  Engestroem,  gng'geh-stRom'',  written 
also  Engelstroem,  (Gustaf,)  a  Swedish  savant,  born 
at  Lund  in  1738.  He  was  president  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Stockholm,  and  wrote  several  treatises  on 
chemistry  and  mineralogy.    Died  in  1815. 

Engestrom  or  Engestroem,  (Lars,)  a  Swedish 
statesman,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Stock- 
holm in  1 75 1,  and  entered  the  civil  service  in  1770. 
Appointed  secretary  of  foreign  affairs  in  1776,  he  dis- 
played superior  diplomatic  talents,  and  was  sent  as  am- 
bassador to  London,  Berlin,  and  other  courts,  between 
1788  and  1798.  In  1809  he  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  and  received  the  title  of  baron.  In  18 16  he  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  count.    Died  in  1826. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Enghelbrechtsen.    See  Engelbrechtsen. 

Enghelrams,  eng'hel-rSms^  (Cornelis,)  an  able 
Flemish  painter,  born  at  Malines  in  1527.  Among  his 
works  is  "The  Conversion  of  Saint  Paul,"  at  Hamburg. 
Died  in  1583. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n3t;  good;  moon  ; 


ENGHIEN 


851 


ENTINCK 


Enghien,  d',  dSN'ge^S^N',  (Louis  Antoine  Henri 
de  Bourbon — deh  booR'b6N',)  Due,  a  French  prince, 
born  at  Chantilly  in  1772,  was  the  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Bourbon,  and  related  to  the  royal  family.  He  emigrated 
in  1789,  and,  after  travelling  a  few  years,  entered  the 
army  under  his  grandfather,  the  Prince  of  Conde,  and 
fought  bravely  against  the  republic  from  1793  until  1801, 
when  the  army  was  disbanded.  He  then  retired  to  Et- 
tenheim,  in  Baden,  where  he  w^as  arrested,  though  on 
neutral  territory,  in  1804,  on  suspicion  of  conspiracy,  and 
taken  to  the  castle  of  Vincennes,  near  Paris.  After  a 
hurried  trial  before  a  military  tribunal,  he  was  sentenced 
and  shot  in  March,  1804.  This  deed  excited  general  and 
deep  indignation  against  Bonaparte,  and  is  commonly 
regarded  as  one  of  the  worst  crimes  by  which  his  memory 
is  stained.  (See  Bonaparte,  Napoleon.) 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire;"  Firmas- 
Peri^s,  "Notice  historique  sur  L.  A.  Due  d'Enghien,"  1814. 

Engilbert.    See  Angilbert. 

England,  ing'gland,  (John,)  a  Catholic  theologian, 
born  at  Cork,  Ireland,  in  1786.  He  was  in  1820  appointed 
the  first  Bishop  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  where 
he  founded  an  academy  and  the  *'  Charleston  Catholic 
Miscellany."  He  wrote  many  treatises  on  theology, 
etc.    Died  in  1842. 

England,  ing'gland,  (Sir  Richard,)  a  British  general, 
born  in  Canada  in  1793.  He  was  sent  to  India  in  1842, 
and  distinguished  himself  in  the  Afghan  war.  He  com- 
manded a  division  at  the  Alma  and  at  Inkerman,  etc., 
(1854-55.) 

En'gle-field,  (Sir  Henry  Charles,)  M.P.,  an  English 
antiquary  and  astronomer,  born  in  1752,  was  a  person  of 
extensive  and  accurate  attainments  in  science.  In  1788 
he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  wrote 
a  treatise  on  the  Orbits  of  Comets,  a  "  Walk  through 
Southampton,"  (1801,)  and  "Beauties,  Antiquities,  etc. 
of  the  Isle  of  Wight,"  (1816.)    Died  in  1822. 

English,  ing'glish,  (George  Bethune,)  an  American 
adventurer  and  linguist,  born  in  Boston  in  1789.  About 
1820  he  entered  the  army  of  the  Pasha  of  Egypt,  and 
served  as  an  officer  in  an  expedition  against  Sennaar. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  theology,  etc.  Died  in 
1828. 

English,  (Thomas  Dunn,)  an  American  poet  and 
novelist,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1819.  He  published  a 
collection  of  poems  in  1855. 

Engramelle,  6N'gRt'm§K,  (Marie  Dominique  Jo- 
seph,) a  French  naturalist  and  musician,  born  in  Artois 
in  1727.  He  published  "The  Butterflies  of  Europe,"  (8 
vols.,  1779-93.)    Died  in  1781. 

See  FiiTis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Engstrom  or  Engstroem,  gng'stRom,  (Johan,)  a 
Swedish  poet  and  novelist,  born  in  1794.  He  published 
"The  ^olian  Harp,"  (1830,)  and  other  poems. 

Enjedin,  §n'yeh-deen',  or  Enyedin,  [Lat.  Enje'- 
DIUS,]  (George,)  a  noted  Unitarian  writer,  born  at  Enyed, 
in  Transylvania,  was  superintendent  of  the  churches  in 
the  province  above  named.    Died  in  1597. 

Enjedius.    See  Enjedin. 

Ennebel,  gn'neh-bgK,  (Louis,)  a  Belgian  theologian 
and  canonist,  born  at  Louvain  in  1652;  died  in  1720. 

Ennemoser,  gn''neh-mo''zer,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent 
German  physician  and  writer  on  magnetism  and  phy- 
siology, born  in  the  Tyrol  in  1787.  He  was  professor  at 
Bonn  from  1820  to  1841,  after  which  he  practised  at  Mu- 
nich. Among  his  works  are  "  Magnetism  in  its  Relations 
to  Nature  and  Religion,"  (1842,)  and  "  Der  Magnetis- 
tnus,"  (1844,)  which  was  translated  into  English  by  Wil- 
liam Howitt,  ("  History  of  Magic,"  1854.)    Died  in  1854. 

Ennery,  (Adolphe.)    See  Dennery. 

Ennery,  d',dgn're',  (Michelet,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  at  Metz  in  1709,  made  a  large  collection  of  medals 
and  coins.  His  cabinet  at  Paris,  which  contained  over 
twenty  thousand  medals,  was  sold  and  dispersed  after 
his  death.    Died  in  1788. 

En'ni-us,  (Quintus,)  a  Roman  epic  poet  of  great 
celebrity,  born  of  a  Greek  family  at  Rudias,  in  Calabria, 
about  239  i?.c.  In  early  life  he  became  a  citizen  of  Rome, 
where  he  obtained  the  patronage  and  friendship  of  Cato, 
vScipio,  and  others.  He  contributed  perhaps  more  than 
any  other  early  Latin  writer  towards  forming  the  na- 


tional literature  of  Rome.  His  principal  work,  called 
the  "  Annals,"  a  historical  epic,  was  for  a  long  time  the 
most  popular  poem  in  the  language.  He  also  wrote 
several  tragedies  and  comedies.  He  is  said  to  have  first 
introduced  from  the  Greek  the  heroic  hexameter  into 
Latin  poetry.  His  works  are  all  lost,  except  some  frag- 
ments quoted  by  Cicero  and  others.  *•  He  stands  out 
prominently  in  that  early  time,"  says  Professor  Sellar, 
"as  a  man  of  true  genius  and  of  a  great  and  original 
character.  .  .  ,  Whatever  in  the  later  poets  is  most  truly 
Roman  in  sentiment  and  morality,  appears  to  be  con- 
ceived in  the  spirit  of  Ennius.  .  .  .  The  variety  and 
extent  of  his  works  bear  witness  to  remarkable  learning 
as  well  as  a  strong  productive  energy."  He  was  a  great 
favourite  of  Cicero,  who  often  quotes  him,  and  he  was 
highly  eulogized  by  Lucretius,  Propertius,  Aulus  Gellius, 
and  Ovid.    Died  in  169  B.C. 

See  Sellar,  "  Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic,"  chap.  iv.  ;  Vossius, 
"DePoetis  Latinis;"  Sagittarius,  "De  Vitaet  Scriptis  L.  Andro- 
nici,  Ennii,"  etc. ;  H.  Forelius,  '"De  Ennio  Diatriba,"  Upsal,  1707. 

En-no'di-us,  (Magnus  Felix,)  Saint,  one  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  Latin  Church,  and  a  distinguished  writer, 
born  at  Aries  about  473  a.D.  He  obtained  the  bishopric 
of  Pavi'a  (Papia)  about  511.  He  wrote  a  "Panegyric  on 
King  Theodoric,"  an  "  Apology  for  Pope  Symmachus," 
"  The  Fourth  Council  of  Rome,"  and  a  "  Life  of  Saint 
Epiphanius  of  Pavi'a."  He  was  sent  to  Constantinople 
by  the  pope  in  515  and  again  in  517  to  negotiate  a  union 
between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches,  but  did  not 
succeed  in  eiTecting  that  object.    Died  in  521. 

See  SiKMOND,  "  Vita  Ennndii,"  prefixed  to  his  edition  of  the  works 
of  Saint  Ennodius. 

Enobarbus.    See  Ahenobarbus. 

E'noch,  [Heb.  I^ri;  Ger.  Enoch,  a'noK,  or  Henoch, 
ha'noK,  ]  an  antediluvian  patriarch,  born  in  the  year 
3378  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Jared,  and  father  of  Methuselah. 
He  was  pre-eminently  favoured  by  a  holy  life  and  immu- 
nity from  death.  At  the  age  of  three  hundred  and  sixty- 
five  he  "was  translated  that  he  should  not  see  death." 
(Hebrews  xi.  5  ;  Genesis  v.  24.)  The  book  of  Enoch, 
quoted  in  the  Epistle  of  Jude,  was  extant  in  the  time  of 
the  primitive  Christians,  but  was  rejected  as  apocryphal 
by  the  Fathers  and  by  the  Church. 

^noch,  i''nok',  (Louis,)  a  French  Hellenist  and  gram- 
marian, born  at  Issoudun,  became  principal  of  the  Col- 
lege of  Geneva  in  1556.    Died  about  1570. 

His  son  Enoch  was  a  poet.    Died  about  1590. 

Enrico  of  Portugal.    See  Henry. 

Enriquez  Gomez,  §n-ree'k^th  go'm^th,  (Antonio,) 
or  Enriquez  de  Paz,  (di  pSth,)  a  Spanish  poet  and 
writer  of  fiction,  lived  about  1650.  Among  his  works  is 
"The  Pythagorean  Age." 

Ens,  ^ns,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  theologian  and  writer,  born 
in  1682,  preached  at  Utrecht.    Died  in  1732. 

Ens,  §nss,  (Kaspar,)  a  prolific  and  mediocre  German 
writer  in  Latin,  born  about  1570. 

Ense.    See  Varnhagen  von  Ense. 

Ensenada,  de,  di  ^n-s^-na'DS,  (Zenon  Silva,)  Mar- 
quis, a  Spanish  statesman,  born  near  Valladolid  in  1690. 
He  was  appointed  first  minister  of  state  by  Ferdinand  VI., 
who  began  to  reign  in  1746,  and  at  the  same  time  was 
created  a  marquis.  The  administration  of  Ensenada  was 
wise  and  economical,  and  improved  the  condition  of 
Spain.    Died  in  1762. 

En'sor,  (George,)  an  Irish  writer,  born  in  Dublin 
about  1769.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "The 
Independent  Man,"  (1806,)  and  "Defects  of  the  English 
Laws  and  Tribunals,"  (1812.)    Died  in  1843. 

Ent,  (Sir  George,)  an  eminent  English  physician,  born 
in  Kent  in  1604,  acquired  a  large  practice,  and  was 
knighted  by  Charles  II.  He  wrote  a  defence  of  Har- 
vey's theory  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Died  in  1689. 

En-telTus,  a  celebrated  athlete  and  a  friend  of  ^neas, 
is  mentioned  in  Virgil's  "yEneid"  (book  v.)  as  having 
conquered  Dares  in  the  funeral  games  of  Anchises. 

En'tick  or  En'tinck,  (John,)  an  English  writer, 
born  in  1713,  was  employed  by  the  booksellers  to  com- 
pile several  histories  and  other  works.  His  Latin  and 
English  Dictionary  was  successful,  and  has  been  re- 
printed.   Died  in  1773. 

Entinck.    See  Entick. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


E  NT  IN  OP  us 


852 


EPJPHRODITUS 


En-tin'o-pus,  an  architect,  born  in  the  island  of  Can- 
dia,  is  noted  as  the  founder  of  Venice.  It  is  reported 
that  he  built  the  first  house  there,  in  405  A.D. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Entius.    See  Enzio. 

Entraigues  or  Antraigues,  d',  d6N''tRig',  (Emma- 
nuel Louis  Henri  de  Launey — deh  15'na',)  Count, 
a  French  politician,  born  in  Vivarais.  He  published 
in  1788  an  eloquent  "Memoir  on  the  States-General," 
wliich  was  extremely  revolutionary.  Having  been  de- 
puted by  the  noblesse  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  he 
changed  his  course,  and  acted  with  the  royalists.  He 
emigrated  about  1790,  and  was  assassinated  near  Lon- 
don by  one  of  his  servants  in  181 2. 

Entrecasteaux,  d',  d6NtR^kts''t6'',  (Joseph  Antoine 
Bruni — bRii'ne',)  a  French  navigator,  born  at  Aix  about 
1740,  entered  the  navy  young,  and  soon  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  talents  and  steady  courage.  In  1785  he  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  naval  forces  in  India,  and 
in  1791  was  sent,  with  the  rank  of  rear-admiral,  in  search 
of  the  lost  navigator  La  Perouse.  Although  he  failed  in 
this  object,  he  made  important  discoveries  on  the  coasts 
of  Australia,  Van  Diemen's  Land,  etc.  He  died  at  sea, 
near  Java,  in  1793.  The  narrative  of  the  voyage  was 
pubhshed  in  1808  by  Rossel,  one  of  his  officers. 

See  De  Rossel,  "Voyage  de  D' Entrecasteaux,"  etc. 

Entrecolles.    See  Dentrecolles. 

E-ny'o,  [^Evvw,  ]  the  Greek  name  of  the  goddess  of 
war.    (See  Bellona.) 

Enzina  or  Encina,  de  la,  da  IS  gn-thee'nS,  (Juan,) 
a  popular  Spanish  poet,  born  in  Old  Castile  about  1468, 
is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Spanish  theatre.  He 
was  patronized  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  He  published 
in  1496  the  first  edition  of  his  works,  comprising  odes, 
comedies,  and  a  poem  called  "A  Vision  of  the  Temple 
of  Fame."  His  "Art  of  Making  Verses"  ("Arte  de 
Trovar")  was  received  with  favour,  and  his  "  Placida  y 
Victoriano"  is  called  a  master-piece  of  dramatic  art. 
His  works  are  characterized  by  purity  of  style,  brilliant 
ideas,  and  natural  imagery.  He  was  also  distinguished 
as  a  musician,  and  became  musical  director  to  Pope  Leo 
X.  He  went  as  a  pilgrim  to  Palestine  in  15 19.  Died 
about  1534. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Enzinas.    See  Encinas,  (Francisco.) 

Enzio,  gn'ze-o,  or  Enzo,  ^n'zo,  [Lat.  En'tius,]  a 
nominal  king  of  Sardinia,  born  about  1224,  was  a  natu- 
ral son  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  the  war  which  his  father  waged  against  the 
pope  and  the  Guelphs.  He  gained  a  great  naval  victory 
over  the  Genoese  in  1241.  In  1249  he  was  made  prisoner 
at  Fossalto  by  the  Guelphs,  who  kept  him  in  prison  until 
his  death,  in  1272. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Enzo.    See  Enzio. 

Eoban,  a'o-bin,  (Helius,)  [Lat.  Eoba'nus  Hes'sius,] 
a  German  poet,  born  at  Bockendorf,  in  Hesse,  in  1488. 
He  was  professor  of  rhetoric  and  poetry  at  Nuremberg 
seven  years,  between  1526  and  1533,  after  which  he  ob- 
tained a  similar  position  at  Erfurt  and  Marburg.  He 
translated  into  Latin  verse  Homer's  "Iliad"  and  the 
Idyls  of  Theocritus,  and  wrote  Latin  eclogues,  and  other 
poems.  His  "  Iliad"  was  often  reprinted.  Died  in  1540. 

See  Lossius,  "H.  Eoban  und  seine  Zeitgenossen ;"  M.  Adam, 
"  Vitae  Gei  manorum  Philosophorum."  , 

Eobanus.    See  Eoban. 

Eoetvoes.    See  Eotvos. 

idole,  the  French  of  ^Eolus,  which  see. 

£on  de  Beaumont,d',  di'(!)N'deh  b6^m6N',(CHARLES 
Genevieve  Louise  Auguste  Andr6  TiMOTH^E,)sty]ed 
Chevalier  d'£on,  a  famous  French  diplomatist,  born 
at  Tonnerre  in  1728.  Having  gained  reputation  by 
writing  an  Essay  on  the  Finances  of  France,  he  was  em- 
ployed about  1755  on  a  mission  to  the  court  of  Russia, 
with  which  he  negotiated  an  advantageous  treaty.  In 
1759  he  served  with  credit  as  captain  in  the  French  army 
in  Germany.  A  few  years  later  he  was  minister  pleni- 
potentiary to  London,  but  was  superseded  soon  after  his 
appointment.  On  his  return  to  France,  about  1777,  the 
government,  for  some  mysterious  reason,  required  him 


to  assume  the  female  dress,  which  he  wore  for  the  rest 
of  his  life.  Being  reduced  to  poverty,  he  supported  him- 
self in  his  later  years  by  giving  lessons  in  the  art  of 
fencing.  He  was  author  of  many  historical  and  political 
essays.    Died  in  1810. 

See  "Memoires  du  Chevalier  D'fion,"  by  F.  Gaillardet  ; 
Grimm,  "  Correspondance  ;"  Bachaumont,  "Memoires." 

E'os,  [Gr.  'Hwf,]  of  the  Greek  mythology,  corresponds 
to  the  Latin  Aurora,  the  goddess  of  morning.  She  was 
supposed  to  be  a  daughter  of  Hyperion,  a  sister  of  Diana 
or  Selene,  and  the  wife  of  Tithonus. 

Eosander,  i-o-zin'der,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  an 
eminent  German  architect,  of  Swedish  origin,  born  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  employed 
by  the  Elector  Frederick  on  a  palace  in  Berlin,  and  on 
other  edifices.  That  prince  also  sent  him  as  ambassador 
to  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden.  Among  his  works  is  the 
palace  of  Schonhausen,  Berlin.  Died  in  Dresden  in  1729. 

See  Hirsching,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Eotvos  or  Eoetvoes,  i'ot-vosh,  (Joseph,)  a  popu- 
lar Hungarian  author  and  statesman,  born  at  Buda  (or 
Oten)  in  1813.  He  produced  about  1833  "The  Critics," 
a  comedy,  and  "The  Revenge,"  a  tragedy.  His  reputa- 
tion was  increased  by  "The  Carthusian,"  a  novel,  (1838- 
41.)  He  defended  Kossuth  in  a  pamphlet  (1841)  which 
proved  that  he  possessed  polemical  abilities  of  a  high 
order.  He  was  afterwards  one  of  the  chief  orators  of 
the  popular  party  in  the  Diet.  His  political  novel  "The 
Village  Notary"  (1844-46)  had  great  popularity,  and  was 
translated  into  English  and  German.  From  February, 
1867,  until  his  death,  in  1871,  he  was  Hungarian  minister 
of  worship  and  public  instruction. 

E-pam-i-non'das,  [Gr.'ETra/ietvwvdaf  or  'E7ra//^vcjv(5(if,l 
an  illustrious  Theban  statesman  and  general,  a  son  of 
Polymnis,  was  born  about  the  year  412  B.C.  He  re- 
ceived instruction  from  Lysis  of  Tarentum,  a  Pythago* 
rean  philosopher.  He  first  distinguished  himself  on  the 
field  of  Mantinea,  where  he  and  his  friend  Pelopidas 
performed  prodigies  of  valour,  under  the  standard  of 
Sparta,  (385.)  In  youth  he  loved  retirement  and  study, 
and,  it  is  said,  preferred  poverty  from  principle.  The 
aristocrats  of  Thebes,  aided  by  Spartan  soldiery,  gained 
the  ascendency,  and  banished  Pelopidas  and  other  popu- 
lar chiefs;  but  Epaminondas,  being  regarded  as  a  specu- 
lative philosopher,  was  not  included  in  the  proscription. 
When  he  was  about  forty  years  of  age,  at  a  congress  of 
deputies  from  the  Grecian  states  he  spoke  eloquently 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  Spartan  power,  and 
acquired  the  reputation  of  one  of  the  best  orators  of 
Greece.  When,  soon  after  this,  Sparta  declared  war 
against  Thebes,  Epaminondas  was  nominated  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Theban  army,  consisting  of  6000 
foot  and  500  horse,  to  which  Sparta  opposed  10,000 
foot  and  1000  horse.  The  armies  met  at  Leuctra,  where 
the  Spartans  were  totally  routed,  with  a  loss  of  4000  men, 
in  372  B.C.  This  battle  was  a  fatal  blow  to  the  supremacy 
of  Sparta,  and  became  forever  memorable  for  the  pro- 
found and  skilful  combinations  in  the  military  art  of 
which  Epaminondas  gave  the  first  example.  He  invaded 
Peloponnesus  in  369,  and  threatened  Sparta,  which  was 
defended  with  firmness  and  success  by  Agesilaus.  He 
commanded  the  Thebans  at  the  battle  of  Mantinea,  (July 
4,  363,)  and  ha'd  just  achieved  a  glorious  victory,  when 
he  received  a  mortal  wound.  Some  writers  date  this 
event  in  362  B.C.  Cicero  maintains  that  Epaminondas 
was  the  greatest  man  that  Greece  has  produced ;  and 
all  parties  admit  that  he  was  one  of  the  most  perfect 
models  of  the  statesman,  warrior,  patriot,  and  sage. 

See  Plutarch,  "Pelopidas;"  Grote,  "History  of  Greece," 
chaps.  Ixviii.,  Ixix.,  Ixxx. ;  Seran  de  la  Tour,  "Histoire  d'Epa- 
minondas,"  1739;  A.  G.  Meissner,  "Epaminondas,"  (in  German, 
1801 ;)  Cornelius  Nepos,  "Epaminondas;"  Diodorus  Siculus, 
book  XV. ;  E.  Bauch,  "  Epaminondas  und  Theben's  Kampf  um  die 
Hegemonic,"  1834. 

Ep'a-phras,  a  primitive  Christian  minister  of  Colosse, 
was  a  fellow-prisoner  with  the  Apostle  Paul  in  Rome 
about  66  A.D. 

See  Colossians  i.  7,  iv.  12;  Philemon,  23d  verse. 

E-paph-ro-di'tus,  [Fr.  £paphrodite,  i'pt'fRo^d^t',] 
one  of  the  primitive  Christians,  was  a  companion  and 
"fellow-soldier"  of  the  Apostle  Paul. 

See  Philippians  ii.  25  and  iv.  iS. 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  lono-;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  \\,  y,  shori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


EPEE 


853 


EPICURUS 


£pee,  de  1',  deh  li'p^',  (Charles  Michel,)  a  French 
abbe,  born  at  Versailles  in  1712,  was  distinguished  for 
his  successful  devotion  to  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb.  He  refused,  as  a  Jansenist,  to  sign  a  formulary, 
and  thus  hindered  his  success  in  the  church  at  Paris ; 
but  he  afterwards  obtained  a  canonicate  in  the  church  of 
Troyes.  He  had  inherited  an  income  of  seven  thousand 
francs,  when,  casually  meeting  with  two  sisters  who  were 
deaf-mutes,  he  thenceforth  devoted  his  life  and  fortune 
to  the  gratuitous  instruction  of  that  class.  His  institution 
acquired  a  wide  reputation,  and  at  his  death  passed  into 
the  hands  of  Abbe  Sicard.  He  wrote  several  treatises 
on  the  subject  of  his  pursuits.  He  has  the  credit  of  being 
the  first  who  used  natural  signs  or  gestures  in  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  deaf  and  dumb.    Died  in  1789. 

See  J.  Valette,  "Vie  de  VAhhi  de  I'fipee,"  1857;  Bebian, 
"filoge  de  C.  M.  de  I'fipee;"  E.  Morel,  "Notice  sur  I'Abbe  de 
I'^pee,"  1833;  F.  Berthier,  "  L'Abbd  de  I'jSpee,  sa  Vie,  son 
Apostolat,  etc.,"  1852. 

^pernon,  d',  di''p§R''n6N',  written  also  Espernon, 
(Jean  Louis  de  Nogaret  de  la  Vallette — no'gt'rk' 
deh  It  vt'l^t',)  Due,  sometimes  called  Caumont,  a  noted 
French  courtier,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1554.  He  was  a 
favourite  of  Henry  HI.,  who  created  him  Duke  of 
Espernon  and  in  1587  appointed  him  admiral  of  France. 
In  the  next  two  reigns  he  also  held  high  offices.  He 
was  in  the  carriage  of  Henry  IV.  when  that  king  was 
assassinated,  and  was  suspected  of  complicity  in  the 
crime.    Died  in  1642. 

See  G.  GiRARD,  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  du  Due  d'Espernon,"  1655, 
translated  into  English  by  Charles  Cotton,  1670. 

^phialte.    See  Ephialtes. 

E-phi-al'tes,  [Gr.  'E(piuATr/g;  Fr.  £phialte,  i'fe'tlt',] 
in  the  Greek  mythology,  a  giant,  supposed  to  be  the  son 
of  Neptune  and  Iphimedi'a.  He  and  his  brother  Otus 
are  said  to  have  grown  nine  inches  every  month.  When 
only  nine  years  old,  they  attempted  to  scale  the  heavens 
by  piling  Mount  Ossa  on  Olympus  and  Pelion  upon 
Ossa  ;  but  they  were  slain  by  Apollo,  (or,  as  one  account 
says,  by  Diana.)    (See  Iphimedia.) 

±jphialtes,  an  Athenian  orator,  lived  about  350  B.C. 
He  was  one  of  the  ten  orators  whom  Alexander  the  Great 
required  to  be  delivered  to  him.  They  were  saved  by  the 
intervention  of  Demades. 

Ephialtes,  a  Greek  traitor,  who,  while  Leonidas  was 
defending  the  pass  of  Thermopylae,  guided  the  Persian 
invaders  through  a  defile,  by  which  they  turned  the  posi- 
tion of  the  Greeks. 

Ephialtes,  an  Athenian  statesman  and  general,  was  a 
political  friend  of  Pericles.  He  was  the  principal  author 
of  a  law  which  diminished  the  power  of  the  Areopagus 
and  changed  the  government  into  an  unmixed  democracy. 
Several  ancient  historians  commend  his  integrity  and 
other  virtues.  He  was  assassinated  by  the  aristocrats 
in  456  B.C. 

See  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece ;"  Thirlwall,  "  History  of 
Greece;"  Plutarch,  "Pericles;"  Cicero,  "De  Republica." 

E-phip'pus,  ['E^iTTTTOf,  ]  an  Athenian  poet  of  the 
middle  comedy,  lived  about  340  B.C.  The  titles  of  some 
of  his  plays  have  been  preserved  by  Athenaeus. 

Ephippus  of  Olynthus,  a  Greek  historian  who  wrote 
an  account  of  Alexander  the  Great,  which  is  lost. 

^phore.    See  Ephorus. 

Eph'9-rus,  [Gr.  ''E(l)opog;  Fr.  Ephore!,  iToR',]  an  emi- 
nent Greek  historian,  born  probably  about  400  B.C.  He 
studied  rhetoric  with  Isocrates,  who  persuaded  him  to 
devote  himself  to  history  in  preference  to  oratory.  His 
principal  work  was  a  general  history  of  Greece  and  of 
the  Barbarians  from  the  siege  of  Troy  to  340  B.C.,  only 
a  few  fragments  of  which  have  not  come  clown  to  us. 
He  has  a  good  reputation  for  sincerity  and  veracity  as 
a  historian.  His  style  is  clear  and  elegant,  but  rather 
feeble  and  diffuse.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about 
330  B.C. 

See  Plutarch,  "Lives  of  the  Ten  Orators;"  C.  Muller,  "De 
Ephoro,"  in  his  "  Fragmenta  Historicorum  GrjEcorum." 

E'phra-em  or  E'phra-im,  [Lat.  Ephrae'mus,]  writ- 
ten also  Ephrem,  the  Syrian,  an  eminent  ecclesiastical 
writer  of  the  fourth  century,  born  at  Nisibis.  In  youth 
he  adopted  the  monastic  life  in  a  cave  near  Edessa, 
where  he  improved  his  time  in  study  and  writing.  He 
zealously  opposed  Arianism  with  his  voice  and  pen. 


The  bishopric  of  Edessa  was  offered  to  him,  but  was 
declined.  According  to  some  accounts,  he  renounced 
his  solitary  way  of  life  many  years  before  his  death.  He 
was  venerated  as  a  prophet  by  his  contemporaries.  He 
wrote,  in  Syriac,  numerous  sermons,  hymns,  commenta- 
ries, etc.,  which  were  very  popular,  and  are  still  extant. 
Died  about  378  a.d.  Gerard  Voss  published  a  Latin 
version  of  his  works,  (1586-97.)  An  edition  of  his  works 
in  Syriac  and  Greek  was  published  by  the  Assemani  at 
Rome,  (6 vols.,  1732-46.) 

See  Villemain,  "Tableau  de  I'filoquence  chretienne  au  qua- 
trieme  Siecle;"  Cave,  "Scriptorum  Ecclesiasticorum  Historia;" 
Lengerke,  "  Commentatio  critica  de  Ephraemo  Syro,"  1828. 

E'phra-ira,  [Heb.  □"'*12X,]  one  of  the  Hebrew  patri- 
archs, was  the  second  son  of  Joseph,  and  a  favourite 
grandson  of  Jacob. 

See  Genesis,  chap,  xlviii. 

idphraim  [Fr.  pron.  iTRt'iN']  de  Nevers,  a  French 
monk,  who  was  sent  as  missionary  to  India  about  1645, 
and  laboured  many  years  at  Madras.  He  was  confined 
in  prison  by  the  Inquisitors  of  Goa,  and  liberated  by  the 
King  of  Golconda  about  1650. 

Ephrem.    See  Ephraem. 

^picharme.    See  Epicharmus. 

Ep-i-ehar'mus,  [Gr.  'Eirixapfiog ;  Fr.  £picharme, 
i'pe'shSRm',]  a  Greek  poet  and  philosopher,  born  in  the 
island  of  Cos,  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life  at  Sy- 
racuse, to  which  he  removed  about  485  B.C.  He  was  a 
disciple  of  Pythagoras,  and  is  called  by  Aristotle  the 
inventor  of  comedy.  Plato  designates  him  as  the  first 
of  comic  writers.  His  productions,  of  which  scarcely 
anything  remains  but  the  titles,  were  partly  political 
dramas,  and  partly  parodies  of  mythological  subjects. 
He  was  an  elegant  and  original  writer.  He  wrote  also 
treatises  on  philosophy  and  morality.  He  died  about 
450  B.C.,  aged  ninety  or  more.  Some  of  his  philosophical 
ideas  were  adopted  by  Plato. 

See  O.  Muller,  "The  Dorians;"  Diogenes  Laertius;  H. 
Harless,  "De  Epicharmo,"  1822;  Grysar,  "De  Doriensium  Co- 
moedia,"  1828. 

E-pic'ra-tes,  [Gr.  'EmKpaTrjg,]  an  Athenian  orator, 
who  lived  about  390  B.C.,  belonged  to  the  democratic 
party. 

Epicrates,  an  Athenian  comic  poet  of  the  middle 
comedy,  flourished  about  360  B.C.  Fragments  of  his  plays 
are  extant. 

^pictete.    See  Epictetus. 

Ep-ic-te'tus,  [Gr.'EmKTTj-og;  Fr.  Epictete,  k'phVtkt'; 
Ger.  Epiktet,  i-pik-tat';  It.  Epitetto,  i-pe-tet'to,]  a 
celebrated  Stoic  philosopher,  was  born  at  Hierapolis,  in 
Phrygia,  about  60  A.D.  He  was  a  freedman  of  Epaphro- 
ditus,  a  favourite  servant  of  Nero.  He  retired  from  Rome 
to  Nicopolis,  in  Epirus,  in  consequence  of  an  edict  by 
which  Domitian  banished  the  philosophers,  in  89  a.d. 
Few  other  events  of  his  life  are  known.  He  acquired  a 
great  reputation  as  a  teacher  of  philosophy,  which  he  made 
subservient  to  practical  morality.  His  life  was  an  exam- 
ple of  temperance,  moderation,  and  other  virtues.  His 
temper  and  principles  were  less  austere,  and  more  allied 
to  the  spirit  of  the  gospel,  than  those  of  the  early  Stoics. 
He  left  no  written  works  ;  but  his  doctrines  were  recorded 
by  his  disciple  Arrian  in  eight  books,  four  of  which  have 
come  down  to  us.  No  heathen  philosopher  taught  a 
higher  or  purer  sj^stem  of  morality.  "The  maxim  suj^er 
and  abstain  (from  evil),"  says  Professor  Brandis,  "  which 
he  foUow^ed  throughout  his  life,  was  based  with  him  on  the 
firm  belief  in  a  wise  and  benevolent  government  of  Provi- 
dence; and  in  this  respect  he  approaches  the  Christian 
doctrine  more  than  any  of  the  earlier  Stoics,  though 
there  is  not  a  trace  in  the  Epictetea  to  show  that  he  was 
acquainted  with  Christianity."  (Smith's  "Dictionary  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  Mythology.")  His 
"Enchiridion,"  or  "Manual,"  has  been  translated  into 
English  by  Mrs.  E.  Carter. 

See  Ritter,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  Fabricius,  "  Biblio- 
theca  Grasca;"  J.  F.  Beyer,  "  Ueber  Epiktet  und  sein  Handbuch 
der  Stoischen  Moral,"  1795;  G.  Boileau,  "Vie  d'£pictete  et  sa 
Phllosophie,"  1655,  and  English  version  of  the  same,  by  J.  Davies, 
1670.  \ 

Epicure  artd  Epicure.    See  Epicurus. 
Ep-i-cu'rus,  [Gr.  'Errkoupof ;  Fr.  Epicure,  i'pe'kiiR'; 
It.  Epicuro,  i-pe-koo'ro ;  Ger.  Epikur,  i-pe-kooR',]  an 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  y.,  guttural ;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jt^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


EPICTDES 


854 


EPISCOPIUS 


eminent  Greek  philosopher,  the  founder  of  the  Epicurean 
sect,  was  born  in  the  island  of  Sainos  about  340  h.c.  He 
was  the  son  of  Neocles,  an  Athenian  ;  he  studied  under 
Pamphilus  in  Samos,  and  under  Xenocrates  in  Athens, 
which  he  visited  at  the  age  of  eighteen  ;  but  he  professed 
to  be  self-taught,  (aiitodidados.)  He  then  travelled  in 
Ionia,  and  spent  several  years  in  Mitylene  and  Lampsacus. 
Here  he  began  to  teach  new  doctrines,  and  made  numer- 
ous disciples.  In  the  year  309  he  removed  to  Athens, 
where  he  bought  a  garden,  and  founded  a  new  school  of 
philosophy,  which  bears  his  name.  His  school  became 
very  popular,  and  exerted  an  important  influence  on 
many  succeeding  ages.  Diogenes  Laertius  says  that 
Epicurus  "  had  so  many  friends  that  even  whole  cities 
could  not  contain  them."  It  is  said  that  he  objected  to 
a  community  of  property,  as  tending  to  excite  mutual 
distrust.  Gassendi  has  ably  defended  Epicurus  against 
the  accusations  of  the  Stoics  and  the  prejudices  of  the 
Schoolmen  with  respect  to  his  doctrines  and  his  private 
life  ;  though  he  recognizes  a  mixture  of  error  in  his 
system. 

His  principles  are  the  reverse  of  Stoicism,  and  form  a 
system  of  materialism  founded  on  utility.  (See  Zeno.) 
He  taught  that  the  gods  live  forever,  far  remote  from 
human  affairs,  in  a  state  of  passionless  repose,  indifferent 
alike  to  the  virtues  and  the  crimes  of  mankind.  Cicero 
supposes  that  Epicurus  had  no  belief  whatever  in  any 
gods,  but  that  he  nominally  acknowledged  their  existence 
that  he  might  not  offend  the  prejudices  of  the  Athenians. 
(See  his  "De  Natura  Deorum,"  i.  30.)  When  he  pro- 
posed pleasure  or  happiness  as  the  supreme  good,  he 
qualified  this  doctrine  by  the  maxim  that  temperance  is 
necessary  in  order  to  enjoy  the  noble  and  durable  pleas- 
ures which  are  proper  to  human  nature.  Chrysippus, 
an  opponent,  admits  the  purity  of  his  moral  character, 
but  insinuates  that  it  was  owing  to  his  insensibility.  He 
took  no  part  in  political  affairs,  seeking  in  self-reliance 
and  internal  resources  a  compensation  for  the  loss  of 
national  liberty. 

He  derived  the  basis  of  his  philosophy,  both  his  psy- 
chology and  his  physics,  from  Democritus,  who  taught 
that  the  universe  consists  of  space  (or  vacuum)  and  of 
matter,  which  is  composed  of  eternal  indivisible  atoms 
of  various  kinds;  and  that  everythiiig — the  soul  as  well 
as  the  body — is  formed  by  the  fortuitous  concurrence  of 
these  atoms;  that  all  our  knowledge  is  derived  from 
sensations ;  that  sensation  is  produced  by  images  or 
emanations  flowing  from  external  objects.  Lucretius  was 
a  follower  of  the  Epicurean  philosophy,  which  is  fully 
explained  in  his  admirable  poem  "  De  Rerum  Natura." 
(See  Lucretius.)  Of  the  voluminous  writings  of  Epi- 
curus nothing  now  remains  but  a  few  letters  preserved 
in  the  works  of  Diogenes  Laertius,  and  fragments  of 
his  treatise  on  Nature  found  at  Herculaneum.  Died 
in  270  B.C. 

See  Gassendi,  "De  Vita  et  Moribus  Epicuri,"  1647;  and  "Syn- 
tagma Philosophiae  Epicuri,"  1659;  Rondel,  "  La  Vie  d'fipicure," 
1679;  RiTTER,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  G.  H.  Lewes,  "Bio- 
graphical History  of  Philosophy;"  Mackintosh,  "Progress  of 
Ethical  Philosophy;"  Diogenes  Laertius;  Ersch  und  Gruber, 
" Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  C.  Mallet,  "Epicure,"  in  his 
"fitudes  philosophiques,"  1843. 

Ep-i-9y'des,  [Gr.  'YiixiKv^riq^  a  Syracusan  general,  who 
served  with  distinction  under  Hannibal  in  Italy.  In  214 
B.C.  he  and  his  brother  Hippocrates  took  Syracuse,  of 
which  they  had  command  when  it  was  besieged  by  Mar- 
cellus,  213  B.C. 

^pigene.  _  See  Epigenes. 

E-pig'e-nes,  ['ETriyevT?^,]  an  Athenian  poet  of  the 
middle  comedy,  lived  probably  about  375  B.C. 

Epigenes,  [Fr.  Epig^ine,  i'pe^zhkn',]  a  Greek  astron- 
omer, who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  before  the  Christian 
era.    He  is  mentioned  by  Seneca  and  Pliny. 

]dpigones.    See  Epigoni. 

E-pig'o-ni,  [Gr.  'Emyowi;  Fr.  Epigones,  ^'pe'gon',] 
a  term  which  signifies  "heirs"  or  "descendants,"  was 
applied  to  the  sons  of  the  seven  chiefs  who  conducted 
an  expedition  against  Thebes  to  restore  Polyni'ces,  and 
who  were  all  killed  except  Adrastus.  Ten  years  later, 
the  Epigoni  —  namely,  Alcmason,  Thersander,  Dio- 
medes,  /Egialeus,  Promachus,  Sthenelus,  and  Euryalus 
— renewed  the  enterprise  and  took  Thebes.    The  war 


of  the  Epigoni  was  celebrated  by  several  ancient  epic 
and  dramatic  poets. 

Epiktet,  the  German  of  Epictetus,  which  see. 

Epikur.    See  Epicurus. 

Ep-i-men'i-des,  [Gr.  'Emuev'id?)^ ;  Fr.  Epim6nide, 

i'pe'mi-'ntid',]  an  eminent  Greek  poet  and  prophet,  born 
in  Crete,  is  supposed  to  havQ  lived  about  600  B.C.  By 
some  writers  he  was  reckoned  among  the  seven  wise 
men  of  Greece.  A  tradition  was  current  that  in  early 
youth  he  fell  asleep  in  a  cave,  and  remained  in  that  state 
more  than  fifty  years,  after  which  he  was  reputed  to  be 
an  inspired  prophet,  and  was  noted  for  his  skill  in  medi- 
cine. About  596  B.C.  he  accepted  the  invitation  of  the 
Athenians  to  come  and  purify  their  city,  then  visited  by 
the  plague.  He  wrote  a  poem  on  the  Argonautic  expe- 
dition, which  is  not  extant.  Other  works  were  ascribed 
to  him  by  the  ancients. 

See  C.  F.  Heinrich,  "  Epimenides  aus  Creta,"  1801 ;  Grabener, 
"Dissertatio  de  Epimenide,"  1742. 

idpimethee.    See  Epimetheus. 

Ep-i-me'theus,  [Gr.  'Em/xTjOevg ;  Fr.  Epim^;th6e, 
k^pe^mk^ty,].  a  mythical  personage,  said  to  be  a  son  of 
lapetus,  a  brother  of  Prometheus,  and  the  husband  of 
Pandora.  (See  Prometheus.)  His  name  signifies  "  after- 
thought." 

idpinac  or  Espinac,  d',  d^'pe'ntk',(PiERRE,)  a  French 
prelate,  born  at  the  chateau  d'Epinac  in  1540,  was  made 
Archbishop  of  Lyons  in  1574.  He  was  a  violent  partisan 
and  instigator  of  the  Catholic  League  against  Henry  III. 
and  Henry  IV.    Died  in  1599. 

]^pinat,  i^pe^nt^  (Fleury,  )  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Montbrison  in  1764,  was  a  pupil  of 
David.  Among  his  works  is  "  The  Lady  of  the  Lake." 
Died  in  1830. 

]dpinay,  d',  di''pe'na',  (Louise  Florence  Petronille 
de  la  Live — pk'tRo^n^F  deh  It  l^v,)  Madame,  a  French 
authoress,  born  about  1725.  She  was  married  in  youth 
to  M.  d'Epinay,  who  deserted  her.  She  afterwards  formed 
liaisons  with  Grimm  and  with  J.  J.  Rousseau,  for  whom 
she  built  the  hermitage  at  Montmorenci  about  1755.  She 
wrote  a  work  on  education,  called  "Conversations  of 
Emilie,"  (1783,)  which  was  crowned  by  the  French  Acad- 
emy. Died  in  1783.  Her  autobiographic  Memoirs  were 
published  in  1818,  (3  vols.) 

See  Rousseau,  "Confessions;"  Sainte-Beuve,  " Causeries  du 
Lundi ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  December,  1818. 

^piphane.    See  Epiphanius. 

Ep-i-pha'ni-us,  [Gr.  'EnKpavcog,']  a  Greek  philosopner 
and  founder  of  a  sect,  was  a  son  of  Carpocrates,  noticed 
in  this  work,  and  lived  between  150  and  200  A.D. 

Epiphanius  of  Alexandria,  a  Greek  mathemati- 
cian, who  lived  about  the  second  century  of  our  era. 

Epiphanius,  [Fr.  Epiphane,  a'pe'fln',]  Saint,  a  dog- 
matical bishop,  born  near  Eleutheropolis,  in  Palestine, 
about  310  A.D.,  passed  a  part  of  his  youth  in  Egypt, 
where  he  imbibed  ascetic  notions.  Returning  to  Pales- 
tine, he  became  a  disciple  of  Hilarion.  About  368  he 
was  chosen  Bishop  of  Constantia,  formerly  called  Sala- 
mis,  in  the  island  of  Cyprus.  He  exhibited  a  rather 
violent  zeal  against  Origen  and  the  Arians,  which  in- 
volved him  in  many  contentions,  and  he  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  deposition  of  Chrysostom.  He  wrote  "  Pana- 
rium,"  a  treatise  against  heresies,  and  several  other  works, 
in  Greek.  They  contain  many  errors,  but  are  valued  for 
passages  quoted  from  other  authors  whose  works  are  lost. 
Died  in  402  a.d. 

See  Neander,  "  History  of  the  Church;"  Cave,  "Historia  Lite- 
raria." 

Ep-i-pha'm-us  S-eho-las'ti-cus  lived  about  510 
A.D.,  and  was  a  friend  of  Cassiodorus.  He  translated  into 
Latin  the  Ecclesiastical  Histories  of  Sozomen,  Socrates, 
and  Theodoret,  and  other  Greek  works. 

Ep-is-co'pi-us,  (Simon,)  a  Dutch  divine,  whose  pro- 
per name  was  Bisschop,  (bis'Kop,)  born  in  Amsterdam 
in  1583.  He  was  eminent  for  his  learning,  charity,  and 
liberality,  and  became  the  principal  pillar  of  the  Arminian 
party,  or  Remonstrants.  He  was  professor  of  theology 
in  the  University  of  Leyden  from  1612  until  1618,  when 
the  Synod  of  Dort  banished  him  from  Holland  for  his 
opinions.  Having  passed  some  years  in  France,  he  re- 
turned to  his  native  land  in  1626,  and  in  1634  became 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


EPITETTO 


855 


ERJSO 


rector  of  a  college  in  Amsterdam.  He  wrote  the  "Con- 
fession of  the  Remonstrants,"  a  treatise  on  Predestina- 
tion, and  other  theological  works.    Died  in  1643. 

See  J.  KoNijNENBURG,  "  Laudatio  Simonis  Episcopii,"  1791  ; 
Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  P.  van  Limborch, 
''Levenvan  S.  Episcopius,"  Amsterdam,  1693;  Frederick  Cal- 
DER,  "Memoirs  of  Simon  Episcopius." 

Epitetto,  the  Italian  of  Epicte  i  us,  which  see. 

Epo  or  Epona.    See  Hippona. 

Ep-O-ni'na,  a  woman  of  Gaul,  noted  for  her  conjugal 
devotion,  was' the  wife  of  Julius  Sabinus,  a  chief  of  the 
Lingones,  who  revolted  against  Vespasian.  She  was 
put^to  death,  with  her  husband,  in  78  a.d. 

Eppendorf,  von,  fon  §i/pen-doRf,  (Heinrich,)  a 
German  writer,  an  adversary  of  Erasmus,  was  born  in 
Misnia.    Died  about  1554. 

idpremenil.    See  Espr^mesnil. 

Equicola,  k-kwee'ko-ll,  (Mario,)  an  Italian  historian 
and  philosopher,  born  at  Alveto  about  1460.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  a  "History  of  Mantua,"  (1521,)  and  a 
curious  philosophic  treatise  on  "  Love,"  ("  Delia  Natura 
d'Amore,"  1525.)    Died  in  1539.  ^ 

Eraclito,  the  Italian  of  Heraclitus,  which  see. 

E-ra'cli-us,  a  Roman  painter  of  the  tenth  or  eleventh 
century,  wrote  an  essay  on  the  "Arts  of  the  Romans,"  in 
which  he  treats  of  painting  in  oil  and  on  glass. 

£rard.    See  Errard. 

^rard,  i'rtR',  (Jean  Baptiste  Orph^;e  Pierre,)  a 
nephew  of  the  following,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1794.  He 
repaired  in  1850  the  organ  of  the  Tuileries,  which  had 
been  damaged  by  the  populace  in  1830.    Died  in  1855. 

^rard,  (S^ibastien,)  a  French  inventor  of  musical 
instruments,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1752.  In  1780  he 
began,  in  Paris,  the  manufacture  of  pianos,  (then  almost 
unknown,)  in  which  he  made  improvements.  His  piano- 
factory,  in  which  his  brother  John  Baptist  was  a  part- 
ner, became  the  most  celebrated  in  Europe.  His  harp 
with  double  action,  invented  about  1811,  had  a  great 
sale.  In  1823  he  produced  the  grand  piano  with  repeat- 
ing movement,  (d.  double  echappement.)  He  finished  in 
1830  an  organ  for  the  chapel  of  the  Tuileries,  which  is 
his  master-piece.    Died  in  1831. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

idrasistrate.    See  Erasistratus. 

Er-a-sis'tra-tus,  [Gr.'Epaaforparof ;  Fr.  Erasistrate, 
i''rt^ze'stRtt',]  a  celebrated  Greek  physician  and  anato- 
mist, supposed  to  have  been  born  at  lulls,  in  the  island 
of  Ceos.  He  was,  according  to  Pliny,  a  grandson  of 
Aristotle,  and  lived  between  300  and  250  B.C.  He  gained 
much  credit  at  the  court  of  Seleucus  Nicator  by  discern- 
ing and  remedying  the  secret  malady  of  his  son  Antio- 
chus,  who  pined  with  a  hopeless  passion  for  Stratonice, 
his  own  step-mother.  He  practised  chiefly  in  Alexandria, 
with  a  high  reputation  as  a  teacher  of  anatomy  and  medi- 
cine, and  was  regarded  as  the  first  anatomist  of  his  time. 
His  most  important  discoveries  were  those  of  the  vice 
lactecE,  and  the  functions  of  the  brain  and  nervous  system. 
For  blood-letting  and  cathartics  he  substituted  dieting, 
bathing,  and  exercise.    His  writings  are  not  extant. 

See  Haller,  "Bibliotheca  Anatomica;"  Leclerc,  "Histoire  de 
la  Medecine." 

:drasme,  (Didier.)    See  Erasmus,  (Desiderius.) 

E-ras'mus,  (Desiderius,)  [Fr.  Didier  (or  D^sir^;, 
di'ze''rk')  Erasme,  de'de-4.'  i'rtsm',]  surnamed  Roter- 
da'mus  or  Roterdamen^'is,  a  celebrated  Dutch  scholar 
and  philosopher,  pre-eminent  as  a  restorer  of  learning, 
was  born  at  Rotterdam  on  the  28th  of  October,  1465,  or, 
according  to  some  authorities,  in  1467.  He  was  a  natural 
son  of  Gerard  Praet,  a  resident  of  Gouda,  who  by  a  false 
report  of  the  death  of  Margaret  (the  mother  of  Erasmus) 
was  induced  to  enter  the  priesthood. 

The  subject  of  this  article,  at  first  named  Gerhardus 
Gerhardi,  or  Gerard  son  of  Gerard,  was  educated  at 
Utrecht  and  Deventer.  He  studied  at  Deventer  about 
six  years,  and  made  rapid  progress  under  the  tuition  of 
Alexander  Hegius.  Having  become  an  orphan  about 
the  age  of  thirteen,  he  was  urged  by  his  guardians  (who 
defrauded  him  of  his  patrimony)  to  enter  a  monastery  ; 
but  he  felt  a  decided  aversion  to  that  mode  of  life.  At 
length  he  was  enticed  or  compelled,  in  i486,  to  become 
a  monk  and  an  inmate  of  the  convent  of  Stein.    Here  he 


pursued  the  study  of  the  classics  and  acquired  a  reputa- 
tion  as  a  Latin  scholar.  He  was  employed  as  secretary 
by  the  Bishop  of  Cambray  for  five  years,  1492-96,  and 
at  the  latter  date  obtained  permission  to  go  to  Paris, 
where  he  passed  some  time  in  the  College  de  Montaigu. 
He  earned  a  subsistence  in  Paris  by  acting  as  tutor.  It 
is  related  that  while  in  the  French  capital,  being  almost 
in  rags,  he  wrote  to  a  friend,  "  As  soon  as  I  get  money 
I  will  buy,  first  Greek  books,  and  then  clothes." 

In  1498  he  visited  England,  where  he  formed  friend- 
ships with  Sir  Thomas  More  and  John  Colet,  and  studied 
Greek  at  Oxford.  He  returned  to  the  continent  in  1499, 
and  in  1506  went  to  Italy,  where  he  associated  with  the 
most  eminent  scholars,  passed  several  years  in  travel 
and  in  the  study  of  Greek,  and  obtained  from  the  pope  a 
dispensation  from  his  monastic  vows.  He  accepted  in 
1 5 10  an  invitation  to  visit  England,  and  was  employed 
for  a  few  years  as  professor  of  divinity  and  of  Greek  at 
the  University  of  Cambridge.  In  i5iohe  produced  and 
dedicated  to  Sir  Thomas  More  his  "Praise  of  Folly," 
("  Encomium  Moriae,")  a  witty  satire  against  all  profes- 
sions, but  especially  against  the  mendicant  monks.  It 
met  with  a  rapid  sale,  and  was  received  with  almost 
universal  applause. 

Erasmus  was  now  at  the  head  of  the  literary  world, 
and  made  zealous  efforts  to  dispel  the  inveterate  igno- 
rance and  prejudices  which  then  prevailed.  The  greatest 
monarchs  solicited  the  honour  of  his  presence  in  their 
capitals.  About  1515  the  Archduke  Charles,  (afterwards 
Charles  V.,)  whose  court  was  at  Brussels,  gave  Erasmus 
the  title  of  royal  councillor,  with  a  pension  of  400  florins, 
which  enabled  him  to  gratify  his  inclination  to  travel. 
It  appears  that  he  never  remained  long  in  one  place. 
Among  his  remarkable  works  is  a  collection  of  proverbs, 
etc.,  entitled  "  Adagia,"  which  was  published  about  1500, 
and  is  a  monument  of  his  immense  and  multifarious 
learning. 

In  1 5 16  he  published  an  excellent  edition  of  the  Greek 
Testament,  with  Latin  version  and  notes, —  the  first 
edition  ever  printed, — a  work  for  which  he  was  eminently 
qualified.  By  his  witty  and  satirical  writings  against  the 
abuses  and  corruptions  of  the  Roman  Church  he  con- 
tributed greatly  to  the  success  of  the  Reformation;  and 
at  one  time  he  was  favourable  to  the  Protestants.  But 
he  was  offended  at  the  radical  course  of  Luther,  some  of 
whose  tenets  he  did  not  approve,  and  the  timidity  or 
moderation  of  his  character  prevented  his  open  revolt 
against  the  pope  and  the  Church  of  Rome.  His  "  pas- 
sionless moderation"  and  neutral  position  in  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  exposed  him  to  annoyance  from  the  zealots 
of  both  parties,  who  considered  him  lukewarm  or  hereti- 
cal. In  1 52 1  he  removed  to  Bale,  where,  the  next  year, 
appeared  his  celebrated  "Colloquies,"  professedly  in- 
tended for  the  instruction  of  youth  in  Latin  and  morals, 
but  aiming  many  hard  blows  against  the  Roman  Church. 
In  one  year  twenty-four  thousand  copies  of  this  work 
were  printed,  all  of  which  were  sold.  His  alienation  from 
the  Reformers,  however,  increased,  and  he  engaged  in 
1524  in  a  dispute  on  Free  Will  with  Luther,  who  de- 
nounced him  in  severe  language.  He  died  at  Bale  on 
the  I2th  of  July,  1536. 

His  epistles  are  very  voluminous,  and  contain  rich 
stores  of  materials  for  literary  history.  He  is  considered 
the  greatest  wit  and  most  eminent  scholar  of  the  age  in 
which  he  lived,  and  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  and 
successful  among  those  who  have  laboured  to  restore 
classical  learning  and  sound  philosophy.  His  views  on  the 
subject  of  war  appear  to  have  been  perfectly  accordant 
with  those  of  Penn  and  Barclay.  His  complete  works  were 
published  in  nine  volumes  (1541)  by  Beatus  Rhenanus. 

See  BuRiGNV,  "Vie  d'firasme,"  1757;  Lives  of  Erasmus,  by 
Adolph  Muli.er,  (in  German,  1828,)  and  Jortin,  (in  English,  1758  ;) 
Knight,  "Life  of  Erasmus,"  1726,  and  notice  in  Bayle's  "Dic- 
tionary;" also,  Charles  Butler,  "Life  of  Erasmus,"  1825;  Me- 
Rui.A,  "Vita  D.  Erasmi,"  1607;  "London  Quarterly  Raview"  for 
July,  1859;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  v.,  1822. 

E-ras'mus  Jo-an'nis,  [Fr.  £rasme  de  Jean,  ^'rSsm' 
deh  zh6N,]  a  Dutch  theologian  and  Unitarian  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  He  had  a  dispute  with  Socinus  at 
Cracow.    Died  after  1593. 

Eraso,  i-rS.'so,  (Don  Benito,)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  in  Navarre  in  1789,  was  a  colonel  in  the  army  at 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  Y., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ERASTH 


856 


ERHARD 


the  death  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  {1833.)  He  then  took  arms 
in  favour  of  Don  Carlos,  obtained  the  rank  of  general, 
and  commanded  in  several  engagements  during  the  civil 
war.    Died  in  1835. 
Erasth.    See  Erastus. 

E-ras'tus  or  Erasth,  i-rSst',  (Thomas,)  a  Swiss  phy- 
sician, whose  family  name  was  Lieber,  (lee'ber,)  born 
at  Baden  in  1524.  He  was  a  skilful  practitioner  of  medi- 
cine, on  which  he  wrote  several  treatises.  For  many 
years  he  was  professor  of  medicine  at  Heidelberg,  with 
the  title  of  physician  to  the  Elector,  Frederick  III.  In 
1580  he  removed  to  Bale,  where  he  obtained  the  chair  of 
moral  philosophy.  His  name  is  identified  with  certain 
opinions  on  the  relation  of  church  and  state,  since  called 
Erastianism.  His  "  Theses  on  Excommunication,"  pub- 
lished after  his  death,  became  the  subject  of  much  dis- 
putation. He  proposed  that  offences  against  morality 
should  be  punished  by  the  civil  power,  rather  than  by 
the  church.    Died  in  1583. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica;"  MoRi^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Histo- 
rique;"  Wordsworth,  "Ecclesiastical  Biography." 

Erath,  a'rit,  (Anton  Ulrich,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Brunswick  in  1709,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Bruns- 
wick," (in  Latin,  1745.)    Died  in  1773. 

Erath,  von,  fon  a'rtt,  (Augustin,)  a  German  theo- 
logian, born  in  Suabia  in  1648,  published  the  "Noble 
Order  of  the  Golden  Fleece,"  ("Augustus  Velleris  Aurei 
Ordo,"  1694,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  17 19. 

Er'a-to,  ['Eparw,]  in  Greek  mythology,  was  one  of 
the  nine  Muses,  and  presided  over  erotic  poetry  and 
pantomimic  performances.  She  was  represented  with  a 
lyre  in  her  hand. 

^ratosthene.  _See  Eratosthenes. 

Er-a-tos'the-nes,  [Gr.  'EpaToodevT]^ ;  Fr.  Sratos- 
THENE,  a'rt'tos^t^n',]  a  famous  Greek  geometer  and 
astronomer,  born  at  Cyrene  in  276  B.C.,  was  a  pupil  of 
Ariston  of  Chios,  and  of  Callimachus  the  poet.  He  was 
for  many  years  superintendent  of  the  great  library  of 
Alexandria  in  the  reigns  of  Ptolemy  Evergetes  and  his 
successor.  He  acquired  durable  celebrity  by  his  astro- 
nomical labours,  and  is  recognized  by  Delambre  as  the 
first  founder  of  genuine  astronomy.  Among  his  remarka- 
ble operations  was  the  measurement  of  the  obliquity  of 
the  ecliptic,  which  he  computed  to  be  23°  51'  2o'^  He 
also  made  a  memorable  attempt  to  ascertain  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  earth  by  a  method  which  has  been  used  with 
success  in  modern  times,  and  which  was  invented  by  him. 
He  rendered  important  services  to  the  science  of  geogra- 
phy, and  wrote  works  on  philosophy,  grammar,  etc., 
which  are  not  extant.    Died  about  196  B.C. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Gr£Eca;"  Delambre,  "HIstoire  de 
I'Astronomie  ancienne." 

Erauso,  d',  da-row'so,  (Catalina,)  a  Spanish  heroine, 
surnamed  LA  MoNjA  Alferez,  (li  mon'ni  ai-fa'rgth,) 
("the  Ensign  Nun,")  was  born  at  Saint  Sebastian,  in 
Biscay,  in  1592.  She  was  placed  when  an  infant  in  the 
convent  of  her  native  town,  from  which  she  effected  her 
escape  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  Disguised  as  a  man,  she 
embarked  for  South  America,  and,  after  various  romantic 
adventures,  entered  the  army  and  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation for  courage.  On  her  return  to  Spain,  in  1624,  she 
obtained  a  pension  from  Philip  III.,  and  was  received 
with  great  favour  by  Pope  Urban  VIII.  The  time  of 
her  death  is  not  known.  Her  Memoirs,  by  herself,  were 
published  by  Don  J.  M.  Ferrer,  (Paris,  1829.) 

See,  also,  De  Quincey's  account  of  the  Spanish  Nun,  in  "Nar- 
rative and  Miscellaneous  Papers,"  vol.  i. 

Er'^ehem-bert  [Lat.  Erchember'tus]  or  Er'-ehem- 

pert,  a  monk  and  historian,  lived  about  860-900  a.d. 
He  wrote  a  "Chronicle  of  the  Lombards,"  of  which  a 
part  is  extant. 

Er-ehin'o-ald  was  elected  mayor  of  the  palace  of 
Neustria  in  640  A.D.,  in  the  reign  of  Clovis  II.,  and  gov- 
erned the  kingdom  for  many  years.    Died  about  660. 

Ercilla  y  Arteaga,  de,  di  CR-th^Kyi  e  aR-ti-^'gi, 
(Fortunio  Garc{a,)  a  Spanish  jurist,  who  flourished 
about  1550,  was  the  father  of  the  following, 

Ercilla  y  Zuniga,  ^R-th^Kya  e  thoon-yee^gS,  (Alon- 
SO,)  the  first  epic  poet  of  Spain,  born  at  Bermeo  about 
1530,  was  the  son  of  Fortunio  Garcia,  Lord  of  Ercilla, 
In  early  youth  he  was  a  page  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  whom 


he  attended  in  a  voyage  to  England  in  1554.  In  the  same 
year  he  enlisted  as  a  volunteer  in  an  expedition  against 
the  Araucanians,  a  brave  native  tribe  of  South  America. 
Amidst  the  tumults  and  dangers  of  this  war,  in  which 
he  performed  a  conspicuous  part,  he  composed  his  "Arau- 
cana,"  which  is  thought  to  be  the  best  heroic  poem  that 
Spain  has  produced,  and  is  at  the  same  time  a  historical 
record  of  events  that  the  author  witnessed.  It  was  first 
printed  in  1577,  and  has  acquired  a  European  reputation. 
He  died  in  obscurity  and  poverty  in  Spain  about  1600. 

See  Voltaire,  "Essai  sur  la  Poesieepique ;"  Longfellow,"  Poets 
and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  Ticknor,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature," 

Erckmann-Chatrian,  ^Rk'mdN'  sht^tre'dN^,  the 
name  of  a  literary  partnership  which  has  become  cele- 
brated as  the  source  from  which  has  proceeded  a  series 
of  interesting  works  on  the  customs  of  the  Germans,  and 
on  the  history  and  romance  of  the  wars  of  the  French 
Revolution  and  Empire.  Among  the  most  popular  of 
these  works  are  "  Stories  of  the  Borders  of  the  Rhine," 
("Contes  des  Bords  du  Rhin,")  "La  Maison  forestiere," 
"The  Conscript  of  i8i3,""The  Invasion,"  and  "  Water- 
loo." Of  this  partnership  liMiLE  Erckmann  was  born 
at  Phalsbourg,  in  France,  in  1825 ;  Alexandre  Cha- 
trlan  was  born  in  1826. 

Ercolanetti,  CR-ko-lS-net'tee,  (Ercoi.ano,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Perugia  in  161 5  ;  died  in  1687. 

Ercolani,  ^R-ko-li'nee,  (Giuseppe  Maria,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  prelate,  born  at  Sinigaglia  about  1690.  He  wrote 
two  admired  poems,  entitled  "Maria,"  (1725,)  and  "La 
Sulamitide  ;"  also  a  treatise  on  architecture,  ( 1 744.)  Died 
at  Rome  about  1760. 

Erdelyi,  ^R-dal-yee,  (JAnos,)  a  Hungarian  poet,  born 
in  1814.  He  gained  distinction  by  a  volume  of  lyric 
poems,  published  in  1844,  and  "Legends  and  Popular 
Tales  of  Hungary,"  (5  vols.,  1845-48.) 

Erdl,^Rtl,  (Michael  Pius,)  askilful  German  anatomist 
and  physiologist,  born  in  1 81 5,  was  professor  of  physiol- 
ogy and  comparative  anatomy  at  Munich.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  the  Eye,  "On  the  Circulation  of  Infusoria," 
(1841,)  "The  Development  of  Man  and  of  the  Chick  in 
the  Egg,"  (1846,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1848. 

Erdmann,  ^Rt^min,  (Johann  Eduard,)  a  German 
philosopher  and  disciple  of  Hegel,  born  at  Volmar,  in 
Livonia,  in  1805.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Halle  about  1836.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
an  "Essay  of  a  Scientific  Exposition  ( Darstelbing)  of 
the  History  of  Modern  Philosophy,"  (4  vols.,  1834-51,) 
"Nature  and  Creation,"  (1840,)  '^Elements  of  Psycho- 
logy," (3d  edition,  1847,)  and  "On  Ennui,"  ("  Ueber  die 
Langweile,"  1852.) 

Erdmann,  (O  rro  Linne — lin-na',)  a  German  chemist, 
born  at  Dresden  in  1804,  published  a  valuable  "Manual 
of  Chemistry,"  (1828,)  and  a  treatise  on  drugs. 

Erdt,  §Rt,  (Paulin,)  a  German  monk,  born  at  Wer- 
tach  in  1737,  published  a  "Literary  History  of  Theology," 
("  Historia  literaria  Theologiae,"  1785.)    Died  in  1800. 

:drebe.    See  Erebus. 

Er'e-bus,  [Gr.  "EpeiSof  ;  Fr.  £rebe,  i''r§b',]  in  classic 
mythology,  was  represented  as  a  son  of  Chaos.  The 
name  was  also  applied  to  the  dark  and  gloomy  region 
or  space  under  the  earth,    (See  Pluto.) 

]6rechthee.    See  Erechtheus. 

E-re-eh'theus,  [Gr,  'Y.pzx<dtvq;  Fr.  £rechth^e,  WIV- 
ta',]  a  fabulous  or  semi -fabulous  hero,  supposed  to  have 
been  a  son  of  Vulcan  and  the  father  of  Cecrops.  Ac- 
cording to  another  tradition,  he  was  a  son  of  Pandion. 
He  is  considered  by  many  critics  as  the  same  as  Erich- 
thonius.  Homer  mentions  him  as  a  king  of  Athens. 
The  Erechtheum,  a  temple  of  Minerva  on  the  Acropolis, 
is  said  to  have  been  built  by  him, 

Eredia,  d',  di-ri-dee'd,  (LuiGi,)  a  Sicilian  poet,  born 
at  Palermo  ;  died  in  1604, 

Eremita.    See  Ermite,  (Daniel  l',) 

Erevantsi,gR-e-v3,nt'see,  (Melchisedec,)  an  eminent 
Armenian  doctor  and  monk,  born  in  1550,  wrote  an 
"Analysis  of  Aristotle's  Philosophy,"    Died  in  163 1. 

Erhard,  ^R^hiRt,  (Heinrich  August,)  a  German 
archaeologist,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1793.  He  practised  medi- 
cine in  early  life,  and  became  archivist  at  Magdeburg  in 
1824.  In  1831  he  obtained  a  similar  ofiice  at  Miinster. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  History  of  the  Revival  of  Litera- 


a,  e,  1,  5,  u.  y,  lo7ig;     6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,    short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  flit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


ERHJRD 


857 


ERICSSON 


ture  in  Germany  down  to  the  Reformation,"  (1827-32,) 
and  a  "  History  of  Munster,"  (1837.)    Died  in  185 1. 

Erhard,  (Johann  Benjamin,)  a  German  philosopher 
and  physician,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1766;  died  in  1827. 

See  Varnhagenvon  Ense,  "  Denkwiirdigkeiten  des  Philosopher! 
und  Arztes  J.  B.  Erhard,"  1830. 

Erhardt,  ^R'hiRt,  (Simon,)  a  German  philosopher, 
born  at  Ulm  in  1776,  wrote  '*The  Idea  and  Object  of 
Philosophy,"  (1817,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1829. 

Er'i-bert,  [Lat.  Eriber'tus,]  an  ambitious  Italian 
prelate,  obtained  in  1018  the  archbishopric  of  Milan, 
and  the  highest  rank  among  the  princes  of  Italy.  He 
procured  the  crown  of  Italy  for  Conrad  the  Salic,  who 
in  return  made  him  Lieutenant  of  Lombardy.  In  1035 
Eribert  was  involved  in  a  civil  war  against  the  Vavas- 
seurs,  with  whom  Conrad  united.  An  important  result 
of  this  war  was  the  edict  of  Conrad  which  rendered  fiefs 
hereditary  and  settled  the  public  law  of  Europe.  Died 
in  1045. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Er'ic  or  Er'ik  I.,  surnamed  the  Good,  King  of  Den- 
mark, began  to  reign  about  1095.  It  was  by  his  request 
that  the  pope  gave  Denmark  an  archbishop.  He  was 
noted  for  piety,  and  undertook  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusa- 
lem, but  died  on  the  way,  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  in 
1103.  His  brother,  Nicholas,  obtained  the  throne  in 
1 105.    Eric  I.  left  three  sons,  Harold,  Canute,  and  Eric. 

Eric  II.,  King  of  Denmark,  who  was  probably  a  son 
of  Eric  I.,  succeeded  to  the  throne  about  the  year  1135. 
He  was  involved  in  a  war  with  the  Vandals,  occasioned 
by  their  piratical  habits.  He  was  assassinated  in  1137, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Eric  III. 

Eric  III.,  King  of  Denmark,  surnamed  THE  Lamb, 
a  son  or  nephew  of  the  preceding,  began  to  reign  about 
1 138.  He  retired  into  a  monastery  at  Odensee,  where 
he  died  in  1 147. 

Eric  IV.,  v.,  and  VI.,  Kings  of  Denmark  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  reigned  during  a  period  fruitful  in 
revolutions  and  disorders.  Powerful  vassals  aspired  to 
independence,  and  the  clergy  admitted  no  supremacy  but 
that  of  the  pope.  Eric  IV.  began  to  reign  in  1241,  and 
died  by  violence  in  1250.  Eric  V.  succeeded  his  father, 
Christopher  I.,  in  1259,  and  was  assassinated  in  1286. 
His  son,  Eric  VI.,  began  to  reign  in  1286,  waged  war 
against  Norway,  and  died  in  13 19,  leaving  the  throne  to 
his  brother,  Christopher  II. 

Eric  VII.  and  VIII.  of  Denmark.  See  Eric  XIII. 
of  Sweden. 

Er'ic  or  Er'ik  I.  to  VIII.,  the  name  of  a  series  of 
kings  who  reigned  in  Sweden  duriiig  the  ninth  and  tenth 
centuries,  of  whose  history  little  is  known,  Eric  VIII. 
ascended  the  throne  about  954  a.d.  It  is  said  that  he 
instituted  the  rank  and  title  of  earl  among  the  Swedes. 

Eric  IX.,  surnamed  Saint,  was  elected  King  of  Swe- 
den in  II 52.  Being  animated  with  zeal  for  the  conver- 
sion of  infidels,  he  conducted  a  crusade  against  the  Finns, 
who  made  a  successful  resistance.  Soon  after  his  return 
he  was  killed  by  Magnus,  a  Danish  prince,  who  invaded 
Sweden  with  an  army  about  1 160.  He  left  a  son,  Canute, 
(Knut,)  who  became  king  in  1168. 

Eric  X.,  King  of  Sweden,  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
reigned  from  1210  to  1216.  He  was  son  of  Knut,  or  Ca- 
nute, and  is  regarded  as  the  first  king  of  Sweden  who 
was  solemnly  crowned.    He  was  succeeded  by  John  I. 

Eric  XI.  of  Sweden,  son  of  Eric  X.,  ascended  the 
throne  in  1222,  and  died,  without  issue,  in  1250,  when  the 
throne  passed  to  the  house  of  Folkungar. 

Eric  XII.,  King  of  Sweden,  was  the  son  of  King  Mag- 
nus and  Blanche  of  Namur.  In  134.}.  he  was  declared 
a  colleague  of  his  father  by  a  powerful  party  of  clergy 
and  nobles.  A  civil  war  that  followed  was  terminated 
by  a  partition  of  the  country  between  Magnus  and  Eric. 
Died  in  1359. 

See  Geyer,  "  Histoire  de  la  Suede." 

Eric  XIII.,  King  of  Sweden,  reckoned  Eric  VII.  or 
VIII.  of  Denmark,  was  born  in  1382.  He  was  the  son 
of  the  Duke  of  Pomerania,  and  grand-nephew  of  Queen 
Margaret  of  Waldemar,  who  had  united  the  crowns  of 
Denmark  and  Sweden.  After  her  death,  in  141 2,  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne.  He  married  Philippa,  daughter 
of  Henry  IV,  of  England.    By  his  oppressive  measures 


and  lack  of  kingly  qualities  he  alienated  his  subjects, 
who  revolted  and  drove  him  from  the  kingdom  about 
1438,  He  retired  to  the  island  of  Riigen,  where  he  died 
about  1450. 

Eric  XIV.,  King  of  Sweden,  son  of  Gustavus  Vasa, 
was  born  about  1535,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1560. 
He  patronized  science,  and  founded  literary  institutions. 
His  proposal  of  marriage  to  Queen  Elizabeth  of  Eng- 
land having  been  declined,  he  resolved  to  wed  Cathe- 
rine Mansdoter,  the  daughter  of  a  corporal,  and  gave 
her  the  title  of  queen.  His  violent  character  and  mis- 
government  rendered  him  so  unpopular  that  his  brothers, 
with  other  nobles,  conspired  against  him,  and  in  1568  he 
was  deposed  from  the  throne  and  confined  in  prison, 
where  he  died,  or  was  killed,  in  1577.  His  brother  John 
was  his  successor. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Olof 
Celsius,  "  Konung  Eriks  Historia,"  1774,  (translated  into  French 
by  Genest,  1777.) 

Eric  the  Red,  a  Scandinavian  navigator,  the  reputed 
discoverer  of  North  America,  He  emigrated  to  Iceland 
about  982  A.D.,  after  which  he  discovered  Greenland, 
where  he  planted  a  colony.  He  sent  out,  about  1000  a.d., 
an  exploring  party  under  his  son  Lief,  who  discovered 
a  continent,  part  of  which  they  called  Markland,  and 
another  part  Vinland,  (supposed  to  correspond  to  the 
southern  portion  of  New  England.)  Tradition  adds 
that  he  or  his  son  formed  a  settlement  in  Vinland. 

Eric  Olai,  gr'ik  o-lS'e,  or  Eric  of  UPSAL,a  Swedish 
historian  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  a  doctor  of  theology 
in  Upsal.  He  composed,  by  order  of  Charles  VIII.,  a 
Latin  history  of  Sweden. 

Ericeira  or  Ericeyra,  i-re-sa^-rl,  (Fernando  de 
Menezes — di  mi-na'z§s,)  CounVof,  an  eminent  Por- 
tuguese author  and  statesman,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1614, 
was  distinguished  for  his  learning  and  for  his  civil  and 
military  services.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  Tangier,"  a 
'*  History  of  Portugal,"  and  other  esteemed  works.  Died 
in  1699. 

Ericeira  or  Ericeyra,  (Francisco  Xavier  de  Me- 
nezes,) Count,  a  Portuguese  general  and  author,  born 
at  Lisbon  in  1673,  was  the  son  of  Luiz,  noticed  below. 
The  Portuguese  rank  him  among  their  most  eminent 
men  as  a  writer  and  public  functionary.  He  was  a  Fel- 
low of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He  wrote  an  epic 
poem  entitled  "  Henriqueida,"  (1741,)  and  many  occa- 
sional poems ;  he  also  made  a  translation  of  Boileau's 
"  Art  of  Poetry,"  which  was  admired  by  the  author  of 
the  original.    Died  in  1743. 

See  J.  Barboza,  "  Elogio  do  I.  Conde  da  Ericeira,"  1785. 

Ericeira  or  Ericeyra,  (Luiz  de  Menezes,)  Count, 
the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Lisbon  in  1632. 
He  gained  distinction  as  a  statesman,  general,  and 
author.  He  wrote  an  esteemed  "  History  of  Portugal" 
( in  Latin  )  from  1640  to  1668,  and  various  other  works. 
In  a  fit  of  insanity  he  committed  suicide  in  1690, 

Ericeyra.    See  Ericeira. 

Erichsen,  Ir'ik-sen,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  sur- 
geon of  the  present  age,  published  an  important  work 
entitled  "The  Science  and  Art  of  Surgery,"  (1853,) 
which  has  been  reprinted  in  the  United  States.  He  was 
for  some  time  professor  of  surgery  in  University  College, 
London. 

Er-i-eh-tho'ni-us,  [Gr.  'Y.pLxdovLog,]  a  fabulous  king 
of  Athens,  called  a  son  of  Vulcan,  was  regarded  by  some 
writers  as  identical  with  Erechtheus,  (which  see,) 
According  to  tradition,  he  was  the  successor  of  Amphic- 
tyon,  and  the  father  of  Pandi^on, 

Ericius.    See  Erizzo,  (Sebastiano.) 

Er'ics-son,  (John,)  an  eminent  Swedish  engineer, 
inventor  of  the  caloric  engine,  was  born  in  the  province 
of  Vermeland  in  1803.  After  he  had  served  several 
years  in  the  army,  he  removed  to  England  about  1826, 
and  made  unsuccessful  experiments  with  an  engine  which 
he  proposed  to  run  without  steam.  He  produced  in 
1829  a  locomotive  which  ran  fifty  miles  per  hour  on 
the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway.  About  1833 
exhibited  in  England  a  caloric  engine,  which  attracted 
much  attention  among  scientific  men.  He  also  invented 
the  important  application  of  the  screw  or  propeller  to 
steam  navigation,  and  about  1840  came  to  the  United 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard,  g  as     g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23,) 


ERIGENA 


858 


ERMITE 


States,  where  he  received  aid  from  government  in  re- 
ducing his  inventions  to  practice.  He  built  the  iron- 
clad steamer  Monitor,  which  successfully  opposed  the 
Merriniac  in  Hampton  Roads,  March  9,  1862. 

See  "  Ericsson  and  his  Inventions,"  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly," 
July,  1862. 

E-rig'e-na,  (Joannes  Scotus, )  [Fr.  Jean  Scot 
£rigene,  zh6N  sko  ti're'zh^n',]  a  philosopher  and  intel- 
lectual giant,  was  a  native  of  Ireland,  or  Erin,  as  his  name 
indicates,  and  lived  about  850  a.d.  He  passed  the  most 
of  his  mature  life  in  France,  at  the  court  of  Charles  the 
Bald,  who  liberally  patronized  him.  He  was  celebrated 
for  classical  learning  and  subtlety  as  a  disputant  in  scho- 
lastic theology.  Hallam  thinks  '*  he  was,  in  a  literary  and 
philosophical  sense,  the  most  remarkable  man  of  the 
dark  ages :  no  one  else  had  his  boldness  and  subtlety  in 
threading  the  labyrinths  of  metaphysical  speculations." 
His  writings  on  theology  were  considered  heterodox  by 
the  Roman  Church.  He  translated  from  the  Greek  the 
works'  of  Dionysius  Areopagita,  and  wrote  a  "  Treatise 
on  Predestination."  His  principal  production  is  entitled 
"  On  the  Division  of  Nature,"  ("  De  Divisione  Naturae,") 
and  treats  of  theology,  metaphysics,  etc.  It  was  printed 
at  Oxford  in  1681.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about 
875  A.D. 

See  S.  Rene  Taillandier,  "Jean  Scot  ^^rigene  et  la  Philosophic 
scolastique ;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen." 

:drigeiie.    See  Erigena. 

E-rig'o-ne,  [Gr.  'Yipiyovrj,]  a  daughter  of  Icarius,  be- 
loved by  Bacchus.  It  was  fabled  that  she  killed  herself 
from  grief  for  the  death  of  her  father,  and  was  placed 
among  the  stars  as  the  constellation  Virgo. 

Erik.    See  Eric. 

E-rin'na,  [Gr.  'B.pLvva ;  Fr.  Srinne,  bi'rhx\\]  a  Greek 
poetess,  who  lived  about  600  B.C.,  was  a  contemporary 
and  friend  of  Sappho,  and  a  native  of  Rhodes  or  Telos. 
She  died  unmarried  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  leaving  a 
poem,  called  "  The  Distaff,"  in  three  hundred  hexameter 
verses,  few  of  which  are  extant.  Some  ancient  critics 
thought  her  verses  compared  favourably  with  those  of 
Homer. 

See  RiCHTER,  "Sappho  mid  Erinna;"  Bode,  "  Geschichte  der 
Hellenischen  Dichtkmist." 

£rinne.    See  Erinna. 

E-rin'nys,  plural  E-rin'ny-es,  [Gr.  '^pLvvvg,  'Eptv- 
weg,]  a  name  applied  to  the  Furies,  or  Eumenides,  per- 
sonifications of  the  avenging  spirit.    (See  Eumenides.) 

E-riph'i-le,  sister  of  Adrastus,  King  of  Argos,  and 
wife  of  Amphiaraus.  She  was  bribed  by  Polynices  to  dis- 
cover the  hiding-place  of  her  husband,  who  was  unwilling 
to  accompany  the  Argives  in  their  expedition  against 
Thebes.  Amphiaraus,  before  his  departure,  charged  his 
son  Alcmaeon  to  murder  his  mother,  which  order  was 
obeyed. 

E'ris,  [Gr.  'Ept^ ;  Lat.  Discor'dta  ;  Fr.  Sris,  k'rhss', 
or  DiscoRDE,  d^s'koRd',]  the  goddess  of  discord,  in  clas- 
sic mythology,  was  called  a  daughter  of  Night. 

Erizzo,  ^-r^t'so,  (Francesco,)  a  Venetian  general 
and  doge,  born  about  1570.  After  he  had  obtained  the 
rank  of  commander-in-chief,  he  was  elected  doge  in  1632. 
In  1645  the  senate  gave  him  supreme  command  of  a 
large  armament  which  they  prepared  to  resist  the  vic- 
torious progress  of  the  Turks  in  Candia  ;  but  just  as  he 
was  ready  to  sail  he  died,  in  January,  1646. 

See  M.  Trevisano,  "Vita  di  F.  Erizzo,"  1651 ;  Daru,  "His- 
toire  de  Venise." 

Erizzo,  [Lat.  ERig'ius  or  Echi'nus,]  (Sebastiano,) 
a  noble  Italian,  born  in  Venice  in  1525,  was  eminent  as 
an  antiquary,  author,  and  senator.  He  was  an  excellent 
classical  scholar,  and  had  a  remarkable  memory.  His 
"Discourse  on  Ancient  Medals"  (1559)  had  such  suc- 
cess that  three  editions  were  issued  in  one  year,  and  it 
opened  a  new  era  in  the  science  of  numismatics.  He 
wrote  other  works,  and  translated  several  Dialogues  of 
Plato.    Died  in  1585. 

See  Nani,  "  Storia  Veneta." 

Erlach,  ^R^ltk',  [Ger.  pron.  ^R'liK,]  or  D'Erlach, 

dlR'lSk',  (Charles  Louis,)  a  Swiss  general,  born  at 
Berne  in  1746;  died  in  1798. 

See  Er.sch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 


Erlacb,  d',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  successful  Swiss  general, 
born  at  Berne  in  1595.  After  making  several  campaigns 
in  Germany,  he  entered  the  service  of  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus,  who  made  him  quartermaster  of  his  army  and  in 
1632  appointed  him  a  councillor.  At  the  death  of  the 
Duke  of  Weimar,  Erlach  became  commander  of  his  army, 
and  passed  into  the  service  of  the  French  king.  In  1648 
he  fought  at  the  battle  of  Lens  under  the  Prince  of  Cond^, 
who,  on  presenting  him  to  Louis  XIV.  after  the  action, 
said,  "  Sire,  behold  the  man  to  whom  you  owe  the  victory 
of  Lens."  On  the  defection  of  Turenne,  the  king  gave 
to  Erlach  the  chief  command,  and  soon  after  a  marshal's 
baton.  He  survived  this  promotion  only  a  few  days,  and 
died  in  1650. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Franfais;"  A.  d'Eklach,  "Md- 
moires  concernant  le  General  J.  L.  d'Erlach,"  1784, 

Erlach,  d',  (Jean  Louis,)  an  able  admiral  in  the 
Danish  service,  born  at  Berne  in  1648,  became  commo- 
dore in  1672,  and  vice-admiral  in  1678.  He  was  em- 
ployed in  the  war  which  Denmark  and  France  waged 
against  the  Swedes  in  1678.    Died  in  1680. 

Erlach,  d',  (J^;r6me,)  a  skilful  Swiss  general,  born 
in  1667,  entered  the  service  of  the  emperor  Leopold  in 
1702,  and  was  employed  in  the  wars  of  the  Spanish  suc- 
cession. In  1712  he  was  created  a  count  of  the  German 
Empire.    Died  in  1748. 

Erlach,  d',  (Sigismund,)  a  Swiss  general,  born  at  or 
near  Berne  in  1614,  served  in  the  French  army  under 
his  uncle  Jean  Louis,  noticed  above,  (the  first  of  the 
name.)  He  obtained  the  rank  of  marechal-de-camp  in 
1650,  and  was  afterwards  general  of  the  Helvetic  army. 
Died  in  1699. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Erie,  erl,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
Dorsetshire  in  1793.  He  was  appointed  chief  justice  of 
the  court  of  common  pleas  in  1859. 

Erlon.    See  Drouet  d'Erlon. 

Erman,  ^R'mln,  (Georg  Adolf,)  a  German  natural 
philosopher,  born  in  Berlin  in  1806.  He  performed 
(1828-30)  a  voyage  around  the  world,  and  made  a  series 
of  magnetic  observations  which  served  as  the  basis  of 
Gauss's  theory  of  terrestrial  magnetism.  He  published, 
in  German,  a  "  Voyage  around  the  World  through  North- 
ern Asia  and  the  Two  Oceans,"  (5  vols.,  1833-42,)  and 
was  afterwards  professor  of  physics  in  Berlin. 

Erman,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  German  writer,  the  father 
of  Paul,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Berlin  in  1733.  He 
became  principal  of  the  French  College  in  his  native 
city,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He 
wrote  "  Historical  Memoirs  of  the  French  Refugees  in 
Prussia,"  (9  vols.,  1782-94.)    Died  in  1814. 

See  P.  Buttmann,  "Denkschrift  auf  Herrn  Erman,  Vater," 
1814. 

Erman,  (Paul,)  the  father  of  Georg  Adolf,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  Berlin  in  1764.  He  was  professor  of 
physical  science  in  the  University  of  Berlin,  and  a  secre- 
tary of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  for  which  he  wrote 
treatises  on  galvanism  and  other  subjects.  Died  in  1851. 

Ermenald.    See  Ermoldus. 

Ermengarde,  er'men-gard,  or  Hermengarde.Queen 

of  Provence,  was  a  daughter  of  Louis  II.,  Emperor  of 
Germany,  and  Engelberga.  She  was  born  in  855,  and 
was  married  in  877  a.d.  to  Boson,  brother-in-law  of 
Charles  the  Bald  of  France,  who  gave  Boson  the  gov- 
ernment of  Provence.  She  persuaded  her  husband  to 
assume  the  title  of  King  of  Aries.  Her  ambition  in- 
volved Boson  in  a  disastrous  war  with  Louis  III.  of 
France.  After  the  death  of  her  husband  (888)  she  gov- 
erned Provence  as  guardian  of  her  minor  son  Louis. 
See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Er'mens,  [Fr.  eii'mSN',]  (Joseph,)  born  at  Brussels 
in  1736,  left  in  manuscript  a  "Bibliography  of  the  Low 
Countries,"  or  "  Catalogue  Raisonne"  of  all  books  which 
treat  of  the  history  of  that  country.    Died  in  1805. 

Er'me-ric  [Lat.  Ermeri'cus]  or  Her'menric,  King 
of  the  Suevi,  invaded  Spain,  and  obtained  Galicia  by 
conquest  in  the  reign  of  Plonorius.  He  repulsed  an 
attack  of  Gonderic  the  Vandal  in  419  a.d.    Died  in  440. 

Ermite,  1',  l^u^m^t',  [Lat.  Eremi'ta,]  (Daniel,)  a 
Flemish  writer,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1584,  was  a  friend 
or  protege  of  Scaliger.   He  entered  the  service  of  Cosimo 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  /oh£-;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  %  short;       j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  f^t;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon. 


ER  MOLD  us 


859 


ERNST 


de'  Medici,  who  employed  him  as  secretary  and  sent  him 
on  missions  to  several  courts.  He  wrote  "Iter  Ger- 
manicum,"  (a  "Journey  to  Germany,"  1637,)  and  an 
essay  on  "Court  Life  and  Civil  Life,"  ("  Aulicae  Vitae  ac 
civilis  Libri  IV.,")  which  is  praised  for  style  and  other 
merits.  It  was  published  by  Graevius  in  1701.  Died  at 
Leghorn  in  1613. 

Er-moFdus  or  Er'me-nald,  (Nigel'lus,)  a  French 
monk  and  writer  of  the  ninth  century,  composed  a  Latin 
poem  on  the  military  and  other  acts  of  Louis  le  Debon- 
naire,  (826,)  which  is  valued  for  the  historical  facts  which 
it  records. 

Ernest,  er'nest,  [Ger.  Ernst,  eRnst,]  Prince  of  An- 
halt,  born  at  Amber  in  1608,  was  mortally  wounded  at 
Lutzen,  wher^he  fought  for  Gustavus  Adolphus,  in  1632. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ernest,  (Ernst,)  Archduke  of  Austria,  born  at  Vienna 
in  1533,  was  a  son  of  Maximilian  II.  In  1592  he  was 
appointed  Governor  of  the  Low  Countries  by  Philip  11. 
He  was  generally  considered  an  incapable  governor. 
Died  in  1595. 

See  Prescott,  "Philip  II." 

Ernest,  (Ernst,)  Duke  of  Austria,  born  in  1378,  was 
the  third  son  of  Leopold  V.  He  ruled  over  Carinthia, 
Styria,  and  Carniola,    Died  in  1424. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ernest,  (Ernst,)  Margrave  of  Austria,  was  a  son  of 
Albert  the  Victorious.  He  took  arms  against  the  em- 
peror Henry  IV.  as  an  ally  of  Otho  of  Bavaria,  and  was 
killed  in  battle  in  1075. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ernest,  (Ernst,)  Duke  of  Bavaria,  succeeded  his 
father,  John,  in  1397.    Died  in  1438. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ernest  (Ernst)  of  Bavaria,  Archbishop  of  Cologne, 
born  in  1554,  was  a  younger  son  of  Albert  V.  of  Bavaria. 
He  became  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  and  Elector  in  1583. 
Died  in  1612. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ernest,  (Ernst,)  Prince  of  Holstein-Schauenburg, 
was  born  in  1569;  died  in  1622. 

Ernest,  (Ernst,)  Archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  son  of 
the  Elector  of  Saxony,  was  born  in  1466.  He  was  elected 
archbishop  in  1476.    Died  in  1513. 

Ernest  (Ernst)  of  Mansfeld.    See  Mansfeld. 

Ernest,  (Ernst,)  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg,  the  eldest 
brother  of  Albert,  consort  of  Queen  Victoria,  was  born 
in  1 81 8.  He  began  to  reign  in  1844,  and  showed  him- 
self favourable  to  reform  and  the  unity  of  Germany. 

Ernest,  (Ernst,)  surnamed  the  Pious,  Duke  of  Saxe- 
Gotha,  born  in  1601,  was  a  brother  of  Bernard  of  Saxe- 
Weimar.  He  fought  for  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  war.  At  the  battle  of  Lutzen,  after  Gustavus  fell, 
Ernest  defeated  Pappenheim.  He  obtained  the  duchy 
of  Gotha  in  1640,  and  became  the  founder  of  the  house 
of  Saxe-Gotha.  He  had  a  good  reputation  for  ability 
and  virtue.    Died  in  1675. 

See  A.  Teissier,  "Vie  d'Ernest  le  Pieux,"  1707;  Redenbacher, 
"  Ernst  der  Fromme,  Herzog  von  Goiha,"  1851. 

Ernest,  (Ernst,)  Duke  of  Saxe-Gotha,  born  about 
1745,  began  to  reign  in  1772.  He  was  a  distinguished 
astronomer,  and  founded  an  observatory  at  Seeberg,  near 
Gotha.  The  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the  meridian  by 
Zach  was  made  under  his  auspices.    Died  in  1804. 

Ernest,  (Ernst,)  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  head  of  the 
branch  called  Ernestine,  was  born  in  1441,  and  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Frederick  II.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1464. 
He  inherited  Thuringia  at  the  death  of  his  uncle  in  1482. 
Died  in  i486,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Frederick  III. 

Ernest  (Ernst)  I.  of  Zell,  Duke  of  Brunswick- 
Liineburg,  born  at  Ultzen  in  1497,  was  one  of  the  first 
proselytes  of  Luther.  He  abolished  the  Romish  worship 
in  his  duchy,  and  signed  in  1529  the  famous  protest 
against  the  decree  of  the  Diet  of  Spire.  He  joined  the 
league  of  Schmalkalden  about  1532,  and  rendered  great 
services  to  his  party  in  the  wars  that  followed.  Died  in 
1546.  • 

See  Mor^ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Er'nest  Au-gus'tus,  [Ger.  Ernst  August,  iRnst 
ow'gdost,]  the  first  Elector  of  Hanover,  born  in  1629, 


was  a  son  of  George,  Duke  of  Brunswick-Liineburg.  He 
married  Sophia,  a  daughter  of  Frederick,  King  of  Bohe- 
mia, and  had  a  son  who  became  George  I.  of  England. 
He  joined  the  coalition  against  Louis  XIV.  of  France, 
and  distinguished  himself  in  several  battles  between  1675 
and  1690.  He  obtained  the  dignity  of  Elector  in  1692. 
Died  in  1698. 

Ernest  Augustus,  King  of  Hanover,  born  in  1771, 
was  a  younger  son  of  George  III.  of  England.  He  was 
styled  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  before  his  accession  to 
the  throne,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  field-marshal  in  the 
British  army.  He  married  in  181 5  Frederica  of  Meck- 
lenburg-Strelitz.  On  the  death  of  William  IV.,  in  1837, 
he  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Hanover.  He  died  in  185 1, 
and  left  the  throne  to  his  son,  George  V. 

Er'nest  Cas'i-mir,  [Ger.  Ernst  Kasimir,  ^Rnst 
ki'ze-meeR,]  Count  of  Nassau,  born  at  Dillenburg  in 
1573,  was  a  son  of  John,  Count  of  Nassau.  In  1597  he 
entered  the  service  of  the  United  Provinces  as  captain. 
He  fought  against  the  Spaniards  in  many  sieges  and 
battles,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  general,  and  gained 
several  victories.   He  was  killed  at  Roermonde  in  1632. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ernesti,  §R-nes'tee,  (August  W ilhelm,)  a  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Frohndorf  (Thuringia)  in  1 733,  was  a  nephew 
of  the  celebrated  J.  A.  Ernesti.  He  succeeded  his  uncle 
as  professor  of  eloquence  at  Leipsic  in  1770.  He  spoke 
and  wrote  Latin  with  elegance  and  facility,  and  filled 
the  chair  above-named  with  great  distinction.  His  most 
important  work  is  an  edition  of  Livy,  (3  vols,,  1769.) 
Died  in  1801. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ernesti,  (Jacob  Daniel,)  a  German  Lutheran  theo- 
logian, born  at  Rochlitz  in  1640 ;  died  in  1707. 

Ernesti,  (Johann  August,)  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated critics  that  Germany  has  produced,  was  born  at 
Tennstedt,  in  Thuringia,  in  August,  1 707.  He  was  a 
son  of  Johann  Christoph,  pastor  of  Tennstedt,  and  was 
educated  at  Wittenberg  and  Leipsic.  In  1734  he  became 
rector  of  the  school  of  Saint  Thomas,  in  Leipsic.  He 
was  chosen  professor  of  ancient  literature  in  the  univer- 
sity of  that  city  in  1742,  after  he  had  published  an  excel- 
lent edition  of  the  w^orks  of  Cicero,  (in  5  vols.,  1737-39,) 
which  is  his  principal  title  to  celebrity.  In  the  same 
university  he  obtained  the  chair  of  eloquence  in  1756, 
to  which  the  chair  of  theology  was  added  in  1758.  He 
edited  the  works  of  Homer,  (1759-65,)  Polybius,  and 
Tacitus,  (1752.)  He  developed  a  new  system  of  biblical 
criticism  in  his  "Institutes  of  an  Interpreter  of  the  New 
Testament,"  ("Institutio  Interpretis  Novi  Testamenti," 
1 761,)  which  is  regarded  as  a  work  of  great  merit.  In 
theology  he  belonged  to  the  rationalistic  school.  Ernesti 
imitated  the  style  of  Cicero  with  success,  and  was  con- 
sidered by  many  judges  the  first  Latinist  of  his  time. 
He  was  author  of  other  theological  and  philological 
works.    Died  in  1781. 

See  J.  VAN  Voorst,  "Oratio  de  J.  A.  Ernesto,"  Leyden,  i&>4; 
"J.  A.  Emesti's  Verdienste  in  Theologie  und  Religion,"  Berlin, 
1783;  E.  F.  VoGEL,  "  Oratio  de  J.  A.  Ernesti  Mentis  in  Jur'spru- 
dentiam,"  1829;  August  W.  Ernesti,  "Memoria  J.  A.  Ernesti," 
1781. 

Ernesti,  (Johann  Christian  Gottlob,)  a  German 
scholar  and  critic,  born  at  Arnstadt  in  1756,  was  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  and  cousin  of  August  Wil- 
helni.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Leipsic 
in  1782,  and  published,  among  other  works,  a  good  edi- 
tion of  Silius  Italicus,  (1791,)  a  valuable  "Lexicon  of 
Greelc  Rhetorical  Technology,"  (1795,)  and  an  elegant 
German  version  of  Cicero's  best  works,  "Spirit  and  Art 
of  Cicero,"  ("Ciceros  Geist  und  Kunst,"  1799-1802.) 
Died  in  1802. 

See  Meusel,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 

Ernesti,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  scholar, 
brother  of  Jacob  Daniel,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1652. 
He  wrote  a  "Compendium  of  Profane  Hermeneutics," 
(1699,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1729. 

Ernouf,  CR'noof ,  (Jean  Augustin,)  Baron,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Alengon  in  1753.  He  became  a  general 
of  division  in  1793,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Fleurus 
and  Novi.    Died  in  1827. 

Ernst,  the  German  of  Ernest,  which  see. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y.,giitttiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2l^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ERNST 


860 


ERSKINE 


Ernst,  gRnst,  [Lat.  Ern'stius,]  (Heinrich,)  a  learned 
Danish  jurist,  born  at  Helmstedt  in  1603,  wrote,  in  Latin, 
many  able  works  on  law,  religion,  and  other  subjects, 
among  which  are  "  Sabbatismos,"  and  "  Introduction  to 
the  True  Life,"  (1643.)    Died  in  1665. 

See  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "  Litteraturlexicon.'* 

Ernst,  (Heinrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German  violinist, 
born  at  Briinn  in  1814;  died  in  1865. 

Ernst  August.    See  Ernest  Augustus. 

Ernst  Kasimir.    See  Ernest  Casimir. 

Ernsting,  ^Rn'sting,  (Arthur  Conrad,)  a  German 
botanist,  born  at  Sachsenhagen  in  1709,  published  a 
"Description  of  the  Families  of  Plants,"  (1762,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1768. 

Ernstius.    See  Ernst. 

Ernulph.    See  Arnulph. 

Eroles,  de,  di  i-ro-lgs',  Barqn,  a  Spanish  general, 
noted  for  energy  and  audacity,  born  in  Catalonia  in  1785, 
took  an  active  part  in  the  guerilla  war  against  the  French 
in  1809-10.  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  royalists  in  1820, 
and  in  1822  a  member  of  the  Supreme  Regency,  formed 
during  the  king's  captivity.  In  the  same  year  he  com- 
manded at  two  battles,  in  which  the  royalists  were  totally 
defeated  by  Mina.    Died  in  1825. 

]firope,  the  French  of  TErope,  which  see. 

E'ros,  ["Epcjf,]  the  Greek  name  of  the  god  of  love, 
corresponding  to  the  Cupido  of  the  Romans.  He  was 
generally  regarded  as  a  son  of  Aphrodite,  (Venus,)  and 
was  personified  as  a  beautiful  boy  with  wings  and  armed 
with  a  bow  and  arrows.  (See  Cupid.) 

Erostratus.    See  Herostratus. 

Erotianus,  e-ro-she-a'nus,  ['Epcjuawf,]  a  Greek  wri- 
ter, who  lived  in  the  first  century  of  our  era,  in  the  reign 
of  Nero,  is  sometimes  called  Herodianus.  He  wrote, 
in  Greek,  a  glossary  of  Hippocrates,  which  explains  some 
obscure  terms  found  in  that  writer.  It  was  first  printed 
in  Paris  in  1564. 

Er'o-vant  II.,  King  of  Armenia,  occupied  the  highest 
rank  among  the  Armenian  generals  in  the  reign  of  Sana- 
drook,  (Sanadrouk.)  At  the  death  of  that  prince,  68  a.d., 
he  usurped  the  throne.  In  78  he  founded  a  new  and 
splendid  capital,  which  he  named  Erovantaschad.  Ar- 
dasches  IL,  the  son  of  Sanadrook,  having  raised  an  army 
in  Persia,  came  back  to  recover  his  throne.  In  the  battle 
that  followed,  Erovant  was  defeated  and  killed  in  the 
year  88. 

Er-pe'ni-us,  or  Van  Erpen,  vtn  gR'pen,  (Thomas,) 
a  celebrated  Orientalist,  born  at  Gorkum,  in  Holland,  in 
1584,  graduated  at  Leyden  in  1608,  and  afterwards  pur- 
sued his  favourite  studies  in  England,  France,  Italy,  etc. 
In  1613  he  was  chosen  professor  of  Arabic  and  other 
Oriental  languages,  except  Hebrew,  in  the  University  of 
Leyden.  In  1619  a  second  chair  of  Hebrew  was  founded 
in  his  favour.  He  kept  an  Arabic  press  in  his  own  house. 
His  labours  have  rendered  important  services  to  Oriental 
learning,  and  have  scarcely  been  surpassed  in  the  same 
department,  although  his  career  was  closed  by  a  prema- 
ture death.  His  most  important  works  are  an  "  Arabic 
Grammar,"  (1613,)  the  first  composed  in  Europe,  a 
"Collection  of  Lokman's  Arabic  Proverbs,"  translated 
into  Latin,  an  Arabic  version  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
"  Historia  Saracenica,"  an  edition  of  Elmacin's  history, 
with  Latin  version,  (1625.)    Died  in  1624. 

See  P.  ScRiVARius,  "Manes  Erpinianse,"  1625;  G.  J.  Vossius, 
"Oratio  in  Obitum  T.  Erpenii,"  1625;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Errante,  Sr-r^n'ti,  (Giuseppe,)  a  skilful  Italian  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Trapani  in  1760,  passed  the 
greater  part  of  his  life  in  Milan.  Among  his  works  are 
"Endymion"  and  "Psyche."    Died  in  1821. 

Errard.    See  £rard. 

Errard,  k'riR',  (Charles,)  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Bressuire  about  1570.  He  received  the  title  of  painter 
to  the  king.    Died  about  1635. 

Errard,  (Charles,)  a  French  painter  and  architect,  a 
son  and  pupil  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Nantes  in 
1606.  He  painted  historical  subjects,  among  which  is 
"Saint  Paul  restored  to  Sight."  In  1646  he  began  to 
decorate  the  Palais  Royal  for  Louis  XIV.  He  afterwards 
adorned  the  Louvre,  Tuileries,  the  chateau  of  Versailles, 
and  other  palaces.  He  was  one  of  the  twelve  artists  who 


founded  the  Academy  of  Painting  at  Paris  in  1648.  He 
had  the  principal  part  in  the  foundation  of  the  French 
Academy  of  Art  in  Rome  in  1666,  and  was  director  of 
that  institution  until  1683.  He  published  (with  Cham- 
bray)  a  "Comparison  of  Ancient  with  Modern  Archi- 
tecture," (1666.)  Died  at  Rome  in  1689. 
See  MiLiziA,  "  Memoiie  degli  Architetti/'  etc. 

Errard  or  firard,  i^rtii',  (Jean,)  a  French  military 
engineer,  born  at  Bar-le-Duc,  was  employed  by  Henry 
IV.,  who  called  him  the  first  of  engineers.  He  wrote  an 
able  treatise  on  Fortification,  (1594.)    Died  about  1620. 

Er-Rasheed  or  Er-Rashid.  See  Ar-Rasheed  and 
Haroun-al-Raschid. 

Erri,  degli,  diKyee  gr'ree,  (Pellegrino,)  an  Italian 
Orientalist,  born  at  Modena  in  1511,  produced  an  Italian 
version  of  the  Psalms  of  David,  (1573.)    Died  in  1575. 

Errico,  §r-ree'ko,  or  Enrico,  In-ree'ko,  (Scipione,) 
a  popular  Italian  poet  and  priest,  born  in  1592  at  Mes- 
sina, where  he  obtained  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy 
and  the  title  of  poet-laureate.  He  wrote  "The  Wars  of 
Parnassus,"  (a  history  of  literary  quarrels,  1643,)  "  Deida- 
mia,"  a  drama,  (1644,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1670. 

See  MoNGiTORE,  "  Bibliotheca  Sicula." 

Erscli,  gRsh,  (Johann  Samuel,)  an  eminent  encyclo- 

pasdist,  and  founder  of  German  bibliography,  was  born  at 
Gross  Glogau,  in  Silesia,  in  1766.  He  published  between 
1793  and  1809  a  "General  Repertory  of  Literature,"  (8 
vols.,)  and  a  work  entitled  "Literary  France,"  ("Das 
gelehrte  Frankreich,"  5  vols.,  1 797-1 806.)  About  1800 
he  was  chosen  librarian  of  the  University  of  Jena,  and 
in  1803  professor  of  geography  at  Halle.  His  principal 
work  is  the  great  "  Encyclopaedia  of  Sciences  and  Arts," 
("Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  der  Wissenschaften  und 
Kiinste,")  by  Ersch  and  Gruber,  of  which  he  edited  17 
vols.,  (1818-28.)  After  the  death  of  Ersch  (1828)  it  was 
continued  by  Gruber  and  others. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  "  Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Erskine,  er'skin,  (David,)  Lord  Dun,  an  eminent 
Scottish  lawyer,  born  at  Dun  in  1670,  became  lord  of 
session  in  1711,  and  was  a  commissioner  in  the  court  of 
justiciary  from  1713  to  1750.  He  published  a  valuable 
work,  styled  "Lord  Dun's  Advices."    Died  in  1755. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Erskine,  (David  Stewart,)  Earl  of  Buchan,  and 
Lord  Cardross,  a  literary  Scottish  nobleman  and  anti- 
quary, born  in  1742,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Henry  David, 
tenth  Earl  of  Buchan,  and  was  a  brother  of  Lord-Chan- 
cellor Erskine.  About  1766  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  and  appointed  secretary  to  the  British 
embassy  in  Spain.  In  1780  he  took  the  principal  part 
in  founding  the  Society  of  Scottish  Antiquaries,  and  in 
1791  instituted  an  annual  festive  commemoration  of  the 
poet  Thomson.  He  wrote  several  antiquarian  treatises. 
Died  in  1829. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Erskine,  (Ekenezer,)  the  founder  of  a  sect  in  Scot- 
land designated  as  Seceders,  born  in  1680,  was  a  son  of 
Henry  Erskine,  noticed  below.  From  1703  to  1731  he 
ministered  at  Portmoak,  in  Kinross,  where  he  became 
eminent  and  popular  as  a  theologian,  preacher,  and 
writer.  In  1731  he  accepted  a  call  from  the  church 
of  Stirling.  About  1732  a  controversy  arose  in  the 
Church  of  Scotland  respecting  lay  patronage,  on  which 
subject  Mr.  Erskine  opposed  the  action  of  the  General 
Assembly,  and  was  suspended  from  the  ministry.  In 
1736  Erskine  and  his  friends  organized  the  "Secession 
Church."  His  sermons  and  other  writings  have  been 
often  reprinted,  and  are  much  admired.  Died  in  1754. 
The  Secession  Church  in  1847  formed  a  union  with  the 
Relief  Synod,  and  took  the  name  of  the  United  Presbyte- 
rian Church. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Erskine,  (Henry,)  a  Scottish  clergyman,  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1624.  He  became  pastor  at 
Cornhill,  was  ejected  in  1662,  and  banished  about  16S2. 
He  was  imprisoned  in  1685.    Died  in  1690. 

Erskine,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  Scottish  patriot,  born 
about  1650.  He  was  third  Lord  Cardross,  eldest  son  of 
the  second  Lord  Cardross,  and  ancestor  of  Lord-Chan- 


5,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAorf;  a,  e,  j,  p,  obscure;  f^r,  fUll,  fit;  mgt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ERSKINE 


86i 


ERSKINE 


cellor  Erskine,  Having  been  persecuted  by  fine  and  im- 
prisonment on  account  of  his  religion,  he  emigrated  about 
1680  to  South  Carohna,  whence  he  was  driven  by  the 
Spaniards.  He  next  went  to  Holland,  enlisted  in  the 
service  of  the  {"rince  of  Orange,  and  returned  with  him 
to  England  in  1688.  He  was  restored  to  his  estates  and 
made  a  privy  councillor.    Died  in  1693. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Erskine,  (Hon.  Henry,)  an  able  Scottish  lawyer,  born 
in  Edinburgh  in  1746,  was  the  second  son  of  David,  tenth 
Earl  of  Buchan,  and  brother  of  the  lord  chancellor.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1768,  and  appointed  lord  advo- 
cate of  Scotland  in  1782.  On  the  accession  of  Pitt  as 
premier  he  was  removed,  but  obtained  the  same  high 
office  in  1806  under  the  Whig  ministry,  and  was  elected 
to  Parliament.  He  was  an  eloquent  and  witty  advo- 
cate, and  for  some  years  was  considered  the  leader  and 
brightest  ornament  of  the  Scottish  bar.  Probably  none 
of  his  competitors  equalled  him  in  professional  tact,  in 
suavity  of  temper,  or  in  fascination  of  manner.  As  a 
statesman  he  constantly  supported  the  Whig  or  Liberal 
party.  He  died  in  181 7,  leaving  two  sons,  Henry  and 
George,  the  former  of  whom  is  the  present  Earl  of  Buchan. 
"In  his  long  and  splendid  career  at  the  bar,"  says  Lord 
Jeffrey,  "  he  was  distinguished  not  only  by  the  peculiar 
brilliancy  of  his  wit  and  the  gracefulness  and  vivacity 
of  his  eloquence,  but  by  the  still  rarer  power  of  keeping 
those  seducing  qualities  in  perfect  subordination  to  his 
judgment." 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Erskine,  (John,)  Baron  of  Dun,  an  eminent  Scottish 
Reformer,  born  near  Montrose  about  1508.  At  an  early 
age  he  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Protestants  in 
Scotland.  He  first  introduced,  it  is  said,  the  study  of 
the  Greek  language  into  the  schools  of  Scotland,  about 
1534.  Li  1557  he  was  appointed  a  commissioner  to  attend 
the  marriage  of  Queen  Mary  in  France.  About  1560  he 
was  (Srdained  as  a  minister.  He  assisted  in  compiling 
the  Second  Book  of  Discipline  in  1577.    Died  in  1591. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Erskine,  (John,)  Colonel,  a  Scottish  officer,  born 
in  1661,  was  the  third  son  of  Lord  Cardross.  Having 
served  in  Holland  under  the  Prince  of  Orange,  he  was 
appointed  in  1688  lieutenant-governor  of  Stirling  Castle, 
and  afterwards  governor  of  Dumbarton  Castle.  In  1707 
he  was  elected  to  the  British  Parliament.  His  son  John 
was  an  eminent  jurist.    Died  in  1743. 

Erskine,  (John,)  eighteenth  Lord  Erskine,  and  elev- 
enth Earl  of  Mar,  an  ambitious  and  corrupt  Scottish 
politician,  born  at  Alloa  in  1675,  was  the  son  of  Charles, 
tenth  Earl  of  Mar.  At  the  accession  of  Queen  Anne, 
in  1702,  he  joined  the  Tories,  and  in  1708  was  chosen 
secretary  for  Scotland,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
powerful  leaders  of  the  Jacobites.  In  September,  1715, 
he  raised  the  standard  of  the  Pretender,  and,  though 
destitute  of  military  skill,  assumed  the  command  of  the 
insurgents,  amounting  to  12,000  men.  He  was  defeated 
by  Argyle  at  Dunblane  in  November,  and  soon  after 
escaped  with  his  master  to  the  continent,  where  he  con- 
tinued to  plot  for  several  years,  and  died  in  1732. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Erskine  (John)  of  Carnoch,  an  eminent  Scottish 
jurist,  born  in  1695,  was  the  son  of  Colonel  John  Er- 
skine, and  a  cousin  of  Lord-Chancellor  Erskine.  In 
1737  he  was  chosen  professor  of  Scottish  law  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1754  published  "Prin- 
ciples of  the  Law  of  Scotland,"  which  became  a  leading 
authority  in  the  courts.  He  retired  from  his  chair  in  the 
university  in  1765,  and  died  at  his  estate  of  Cardross  in 
1768.  He  left  an  extension  of  the  above  work,  which 
appeared  in  1773,  entitled  "An  Institute  of  the  Law  of 
Scotland."  It  is  a  standard  work  of  great  merit,  whose 
authority  is  as  unquestionable  as  "  Coke  upon  Littleton." 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Erskine,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  Scottish  divine, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1721.  In  1744  he 
was  ordained  minister  of  Kirkintilloch,  near  Glasgow. 
From  1753  to  1758  he  preached  at  Culross,  and  in  the 
latter  year  removed  to  the  New  Grey-Friars',  a  church 
of  Edinburgh.    He  was  for  many  years  the  leader  of  the 


popular  or  orthodox  party  in  the  Church,  —  the  same 
which  in  1843  seceded  and  formed  the  "Free  Church." 
In  1767  he  became  a  colleague  of  Dr.  Robertson  in 
the  Old  Grey-Friars'  Church,  Edinburgh.  Among  his 
writings  on  theology — which  are  numerous  and  highly 
prized — are  "Theological  Dissertations,"  (1765,)  and 
"  Sketches  and  Hints  of  Church  History,"  (1790.)  Died 
in  1803. 

See  Sir  H.  Moncrieff  Wellwood,  "Life  of  John  Erskine,'' 
1818  ;  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Erskine,  (Ralph,)  an  eminent  Scottish  divine,  born 
at  Monilaws  in  1685,  was  the  brother  of  Ebenezer  Er- 
skine, noticed  above.  He  was  ordained  in  171 1  as  min- 
ister of  Dunfermline,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
a  preacher  and  writer  on  theology.  About  1736  he 
co-operated  with  his  brother,  and  joined  the  Seceders. 
(See  Erskine,  Ebenezer.)  He  published  sermons  and 
"Gospel  Sonnets."    Died  in  1752. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Erskine,  (Thomas,)  Lord,  an  illustrious  British 
orator  and  advocate,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  January,  1750, 
was  the  youngest  son  of  Henry  David,  Earl  of  Buchan. 
He  received  his  education  at  the  high-schools  of  Edin- 
burgh and  of  Saint  Andrew's.  As  his  father  could  not 
afford  to  defray  the  expense  of  preparing  him  for  a 
learned  profession,  he  entered  the  navy  in  1764  as  mid- 
shipman. After  the  lapse  of  four  years,  being  disap- 
pointed in  his  hope  of  promotion,  he  purchased  an 
ensign's  commission  in  the  army.  In  1770  he  married 
the  daughter  of  Daniel  Moore,  M.P.,  with  whom  he  lived 
in  uninterrupted  harmony.  The  same  year  his  regiment 
was  ordered  to  Minorca,  where  he  spent  two  years  profit- 
ably in  the  systematic  study  of  English  literature.  Re- 
turning home  in  1772,  he  passed  several  months  in 
London,  where  he  produced  a  sensation  in  the  higher 
circles  by  his  graceful  volubility,  his  genial  temper,  and 
his  charming  social  qualities.  Rendered  restless  by  the 
consciousness  of  grand  dormant  powers  and  faculties,  he 
happened  one  day,  in  1774,  to  enter  court,  in  which  Lord 
Mansfield,  the  presiding  judge,  invited  him  to  sit  by  his 
side.  Thinking  that  he  could  make  a  better  speech  than 
any  that  he  heard  in  that  trial,  he  resolved  to  study  law. 
In  1775  he  was  admitted  a  student  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  and 
in  1776  was  matriculated  at  Cambridge,  as  the  degree 
of  A.M.  would  shorten  the  term  required  to  qualify  him 
for  the  bar, — to  which  he  was  called  in  1778. 

The  first  cause  in  which  he  was  engaged  was  that  of 
Captain  Baillie,  tried  for  a  libel  on  the  Earl  of  Sandwich,  a 
member  of  the  cabinet.  "  Then  was  exhibited,"  says  Lord 
Campbell,  "the  most  remarkable  scene  ever  witnessed  in 
Westminster  Hall.  It  was  the  debut  oi  a  barrister,  wholly 
unpractised  in  public  speaking,  before  a  court  crowded 
with  the  men  of  the  greatest  distinction,  belonging  to  all 
parties  in  the  state.  And  I  must  own  that,  all  the  circum- 
stances considered,  it  is  the  most  wonderful  forensic  effort 
of  which  we  have  any  account  in  our  annals."  The  im- 
pression made  on  the  audience  was  such  that  before  he 
left  the  court  a  large  number  of  retainers  were  presented 
to  him  by  the  attorneys  who  flocked  around  him.  He  had 
risen  at  one  bound  to  the  highest  rank  in  his  profession. 
In  1 781  he  made  a  great  and  successful  plea  in  defence  of 
Lord  George  Gordon,  indicted  for  treason,  in  which  logic 
and  passion  were  combined  with  consummate  art. 

In  1783,  by  the  influence  of  the  Whig  leaders,  Erskine 
obtained  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Commons,  where  his 
success  was  not  equal  to  the  high  expectations  that  had 
been  raised.  In  the  election  of  1784  he  lost  his  seat. 
He  could  not  adapt  himself  to  the  tenor  of  parliament- 
ary debate  with  the  same  success  that  attended  him  in 
the  forum.  In  1789,  in  the  trial  of  Stockdale,  he  vindi- 
cated the  freedom  of  the  press  by  another  triumph  of 
eloquence.  In  1790  he  was  again  returned  to  Parliament 
for  Portsmouth,  and  continued  to  support  the  principles 
of  Fox,  even  in  the  crisis  of  the  French  Revolution,  by 
which  the  Whigs  were  divided.  In  1794  Erskine  ap- 
peared as  the  champion  of  public  liberty  in  the  state 
trials,  when  the  ministry  attempted  to  put  down  the 
friends  of  reform  by  the  law  of  "  constructive  treason." 
He  spoke  seven  hours  in  defence  of  Hardy,  who  was 
acquitted,  amidst  the  rapturous  applause  of  the  popular 
party.  Next  came  the  case  of  John  Horne  Tooke,  which 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ERSKINE 


862 


ESCHENBACH 


had  a  similar  result.  In  1802  he  was  made  chancellor 
of  the  duchy  of  Cornwall.  On  the  formation  of  the 
Grenville  ministry,  in  January,  i8o6,he  became  lord  chan- 
cellor, and  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Erskine 
of  Restormel  Castle.  In  consequence  of  a  change  in  the 
ministry,  he  retired  from  office  in  1807.  Lord  Campbell, 
late  chancellor  of  England,  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that 
"  as  an  advocate  in  the  forum  he  is  without  an  equal  in 
ancient  or  modern  times."  He  did  not  aim  at  wit  or 
ornament  in  his  speeches,  though  his  diction  was  pure, 
simple,  and  full  of  variety.  *'  But  he  spoke  as  his  clients 
respectively  would  have  spoken,  being  endowed  with  his 
genius  ;  and  those  who  heard  him  seemed  to  be  inspired 
with  a  new,  ethereal  existence."  Died  in  November,  1823. 
His  principal  publications  are  "Armata,"  a  political  ro- 
mance, and  a  "  View  of  the  Causes  and  Consequences 
of  the  War  with  France,"  which  ran  through  forty-eight 
editions.  He  left  several  daughters,  and  three  sons,  of 
whom  the  eldest,  David  Montague,  inherited  the  title 
of  Lord  Erskine. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;"  Foss, 
"The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  ix.  ;  Lord  Brougham,  "Speeches 
of  Lord  Erskine,  with  a  Prefatory  Memoir;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1858. 

Erskine,  (Thomas,)  of  Linlethan,  a  member  of  the 
Scottish  bar,  distinguished  as  a  biblical  scholar,  wrote 
"  Remarks  on  the  Internal  Evidence  for  the  Truth  of 
Revealed  Religion,"  (3d  edition,  1821,)  an  "Essay  on 
Faith,"  and  "The  Doctrine  of  Election  Illustrated," 
(1837.) 

Erskine,  (Thomas  Alexander,)  sixth  Earl  of  Kellie, 
a  musical  composer,  born  in  1732,  was  the  son  of  the 
fifth  Earl  of  Kellie.  He  devoted  his  attention  chiefly 
to  music,  studied  with  Stamitz  at  Manheim,  and  gained 
distinction  as  a  composer  and  performer.    Died  in  1781. 

Erslev.    See  Erslew. 

Erslew  or  Erslev,  Sr'sI^v,  (Thomas  Han'sen,)  a 
Danish  bibliographer,  born  at  Randers  in  1803.  He  was 
appointed  director  of  the  archives  of  the  ministry  of 
worsh''%  in  1849.  His  most  important  work  is  a  "  Gen- 
eral Dictionary  of  the  Authors  of  Denmark,"  ("Alminde- 
ligt  Forfatter-Lexicon  for  Danmark,"  etc.,  3  vols.,  1841- 
53,)  to  which  he  has  added  a  supplement. 

Ertborn,  van,  vtn  gRt'boRn,  (Joseph  Charles  Em- 
manuel,) Baron,  a  Belgian  linguist  and  writer  on  art 
and  literature,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1778,  wrote  "His- 
torical Researches  on  the  Academy  of  Antwerp  and  the 
Artists  which  it  produced,"  (1806.)    Died  in  1823. 

Ertinger,  ^R^t^N^zhi',  (Francois,)  a  French  en- 
graver, born  at  Colmar  in  1640,  engraved  after  Rubens 
and  Poussin. 

Ertogrul,  eR'to-gRool,  a  Turkish  chief,  son  of  Soli- 
man  Shah,  and  father  of  Othman,  the  founder  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire.  He  ruled  a  tribe  of  Carismians,  on 
the  Sangara  River,  near  the  Black  Sea,  for  the  space 
of  fifty  years,  and  preached  the  Moslem  religion  with  a 
sword  in  his  hand.  He  took  the  city  of  Kutaia  from 
the  Greeks  in  1281,  and  died  soon  after  that  date. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Erwin,  ^R'^in,  (John,)  a  German  architect,  who  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Erwin  von  Steinbach,  as  architect  of 
the  cathedral  of  Strasburg.    Died  in  1339. 

Erwin  von  Steinbach,  §R'\^in  fon  stTn'biK,  a  Ger- 
man architect,  born  at  Steinbach,  near  Biihl.  He  was 
the  chief  architect  of  the  doorway  and  tower  of  the 
Strasburg  cathedral,  one  of  the  most  imposing  and 
admirable  specimens  of  the  modern  Gothic  style.  He 
commenced  this  tower  in  1275,  and  died  in  13 18,  after 
which  it  was  continued  by  his  son  John,  who  died  in 
1339.  It  has  a  greater  altitude  than  any  other  struc- 
ture in  Europe,  being  about  436  French  feet,  or  more 
than  465  English  feet,  in  height. 

See  MiLiziA,  "Memorie  degli  Architetti ;"  Pingeron,  "Vies  des 
Architectes  anciens  et  modernes;"  Joseph  Bader,  "Meister  Erwin 
von  Steinbach  und  seine  Heimath,"  1844. 

Erxleben,  ^Rks'la-ben,  (Johann  Christian  Poly- 
carp,)  an  eminent  German  naturalist,  born  at  Quedlin- 
burg,  Saxony,  in  1744.  He  was  chosen  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Gottingen  in  1 771.  He  gained  a  high  repu- 
tation by  his  works,  some  of  which  are  said  to  be  models 
of  accuracy.    He  published  "Elements  of  Natural  His- 


tory," (1768,)  "  Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  ("Na- 
turlehre,"  1772,)  and  "  Systema  Regni  Animalis  per 
Classes,  Ordines,  Genera,  Species,  Varietates,  cum  His- 
toria  Animalium;  Classis  I.,  Mammalia,"  ("System 
of  the  Animal  Kingdom  by  Classes,  Orders,  Genera," 
etc.,  1777.)  "There  exists  not  in  zoology,"  says  the 
"  Biographie  Universelle,"  "a  more  exact  and  com- 
plete treatise  than  this  history  of  the  mammalia."  Died 
in  1777. 

His  mother,  Dorothy  Leporin,  born  in  1715,  was 
eminent  for  her  attainments  in  medical  science.  She 
received  a  diploma  from  the  University  of  Halle  in  1754, 
and  practised  medicine.    Died  in  1762. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Eryceira.    See  Ericeira. 

Er-y-gi'na,  [Fr.  £rycine,  i're-sJn',]  a  surname  of 
Venus,  derived  from  Mount  Eryx,  in  Sicily,  where  she 
had  a  temple. 

^rycine.    See  Erycina. 

E^ryx,  [Gr.  *Epv^,]  a  son  of  Butes  and  Venus,  killed 
by  Hercules  in  a  combat  with  the  cestus.  (See  Virgil's 
"^neid,"  book  v.,  lines  402  -12.)  A  mountain  in  Sicily, 
near  Drepanum,  was  named  Eryx,  from  his  having  been 
buried  there. 

Erzilla.    See  Ercilla. 

Es,  van,  vtn  Ss,  (Jacob,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  in 
Antwerp  about  1570,  excelled  in  the  imitation  of  shells, 
flowers,  and  fruits.    He  is  praised  by  Descamps. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Esaias.    See  Isaiah. 

E-sa'i-as  of  Egypt,  a  monk,  who  lived  in  Egypt  in 
the  fourth  century,  and  wrote,  in  Greek,  a  number  of 
works,  some  of  which  were  published  in  1684. 

E'sau,  [Heb.  ItJ'J^,]  the  eldest  son  of  Isaac  and  Rebecca, 
born  about  1836  B.C.,  lived  in  Mount  Seir  or  Edom.  He 
was  sometimes  called  Edom,  which  signifies  "  red,"  and 
was  the  ancestor  of  the  Edomites.  , 

See  Genesis  xxv.  25;  xxvii.,  xxxii.,  xxxiii.,  and  xxxvi. 

Escalante,  gs-kd-lin'ti,  (Juan  Antonio,)  a  Span- 
ish historical  painter,  born  at  Cordova  in  1630,  lived  in 
Madrid,  and  adorned  the  churches  of  that  city  with  his 
works,  among  which  is  "  The  Life  of  Saint  Gerard." 
He  imitated  Tintoret  and  Titian  with  moderate  success. 
Died  in  1670. 

Escalante,  d',  d§s-k§,-lln'ti,  (Juan,)  was  one  of  Cor- 
tez's  principal  officers  when  he  undertook,  in  15 18,  the 
conquest  of  Mexico.  He  received  from  Cortez  the  com- 
mand of  the  colony  or  town  founded  by  him  at  Vera 
Cruz.  He  was  killed  in  a  battle  against  a  Mexican  chief 
in  1 5 19. 

See  Prescott's  "Conquest  of  Mexico." 

Escale.    See  Scala. 
Escarbot    See  Lescarbot. 

Eschasseriaux,  I'shts're^o',  (Joseph,)  Baron,  a 
French  Jacobin,  born  near  Saintes  in  1753.  He  was  an 
active  member  of  the  Convention,  1792-95,  and  of  the 
Tribunate,  1800-04.    Died  in  1823. 

Eschasseriaux,  (Ren6,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1754,  was  an  able  and  moderate  member  of  the 
Convention,  and  of  various  legislative  assemblies  in 
succession.  In  1798  he  made  an  important  report  on 
the  subject  of  supplying  horses  for  the  cavalry.  Died 
in  1 83 1. 

Eschels-Kroon,  gsh'els-kRon',(  ADOLPHUS,)a  Danish 
traveller,  born  in  1736,  passed  many  years  in  the  East 
Indies,  where  he  was  agent  of  Denmark  from  1782  to 
1784.  He  wrote  a  "Description  of  Sumatra,"  (1782,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1793. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Eschenbach,  gsh'en-b^K',  (Andreas  Christian,)  a 
learned  Gentian  writer,  born  in  1663  at  Nuremberg, 
where  he  became  professor  of  Greek  in  1695.  He  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  the  works  of  Orpheus,  (1689,)  "Epi- 
genes  on  Orphic  Poetry,"  ("  Epigenes  de  Poesi  Orphica," 
1702,)  "  Dissertationes  Academicae,"  (1705,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1705. 

Eschenbach,(CHRisTiANEhrenfried— a'ren-fReet',) 
a  German  physician,  born  at  Rostock  in  1 7 12,  wrote 
"Elements  of  Surgery,"  (1745,)  "Medicina  Legalis," 
(1746,)  and  other  professional  works.    Died  in  1788. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ESCHENBACH 


863 


ESKIL 


Esolie.Mbach,  von,  fon  gsh'en-bSK'',  (Wolfram,)  a 
famous  L'erman  poet  or  minnesinger,  was  born  in  Bava- 
ria, and  Ocurished  about  1200.  According  to  the  custom 
of  the  mecM.Teval  bards,  he  wandered  from  castle  to  castle, 
and  found  a  welcome  at  the  courts  of  several  princes. 
His  principal  poems  are  entitled  "Titurel"  and  "  Parci- 
val."  He  is  generally  admitted  to  have  been  the  greatest 
German  poet  anterior  to  the  revival  of  German  literature. 

See  Gervinus,  "  Geschichte  der  poetischen  National-Literatur," 
1837;  San  Marte,  "Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,"  Magdeburg,  2 
vols.,  1841 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Eschenburg,  gsh'en-booRc',  (Johann  Joachim,)  a 
German  litterateury  born  at  Hamburg  in  1743.  He  was 
professor  in  a  college  of  Brunswick,  and  aulic  councillor. 
He  produced  good  German  prose  versions  of  Shak- 
speare's  Dramatic  Works,  (14  vols.,  1775-87,)  and  of 
other  foreign  works  ;  he  also  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Handel," 
(1785.)  His  "Manual  of  Classical  Literature"  reached 
the  eighth  edition  in  1837.    Died  in  1820. 

Eschenmayer,  Ssh'en-mT'er,  (Karl  Adolf,)  a  Ger- 
man philosopher,  metaphysician,  and  mystic,  born  at 
Neuenberg,  in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1768.  He  became  in 
181 1  professor  of  philosophy  and  medicine  at  Tubingen. 
From  1818  to  1836  he  filled  the  chair  of  practical  philo- 
sophy in  the  same  university.  Among  his  chief  works 
are  a  "  System  of  Moral  Philosophy,"  (1818,)  and  "  Phi- 
losophy of  Religion,"  (3  vols.,  1818-24.)    Died  in  1854. 

See  RiTTER,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Escher,  gsh'er,  (F.  A.,)  a  German  scholar,  known 
as  the  translator  of  Horace,  was  born  in  1777;  died  in 
1802. 

Escher,  §sh'er,  (Henry,)  a  Swiss  statesman,  born  at 
Zurich  in  1626,  acquired  by  his  talents  and  virtues  great 
influence  in  the  state.    Died  in  17 10. 

Escher,  (Jean  Henri  Alfred,)  a  prominent  Swiss 
statesman,  born  at  Zurich  in  1819,  acted  with  the  Libe- 
rals against  the  Jesuits  and  the  Sonderbund.  In  1847 
he  was  president  of  the  grand  council,  and  advocated  a 
reform  of  the  federal  system,  tending  to  a  greater  cen- 
tralization. He  was  chosen  president  of  the  new  council 
of  regency  in  1848,  and  vice-president  of  the  national 
council  in  1856. 

Escher,  (Johann  Caspar,)  a  Swiss  magistrate,  born 
at  Zurich  in  1678.  He  was  employed  in  various  impor- 
tant negotiations.    Died  in  1762. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  David 
Wvss,  "  Lebensgeschichte  J.  C.  Eschers,"  1790. 

Escher,  (Johann  Conrad,)  surnamed  von  der 
LiNTH,  (fon  d^r  lint,)  a  Swiss  geologist,  born  at  Zurich 
in  1768,  gained  much  credit  by  the  improvement  of  the 
channel  of  the  river  Linth,  whence  his  surname  is  derived. 
He  published  "Geological  Observations  on  the  Alps," 
(1795,)  and  "The  Formation  of  the  Great  Chain  of  the 
Jura,"  (1820.)    Died  in  1823. 

See  Johann  J.  Hottinger,  "  H.  C.  Escher  von  der  Linth ;  Cha- 
rakterbild  eines  Republikaners,"  1852. 

Escherny,  d',  di'sh^R'ne',  (Fran{;:oi.s  Louis,)  Count, 
a  French  litferatejir,  born  at  Neufchatel  in  1733.  He 
went  to  Paris  in  1762,  and  became  intimate  with  Diderot, 
D'Alembert,  and  Rousseau.  His  principal  works  are 
an  "Essay  on  Equality,"  and  "Lacunae  of  Philosophy," 
(1783.)    Died  in  1815. 

Eschil.    See  Eskil, 

Eschine,  the  French  of  ^schines,  which  see. 
Eschines.    See  ^Eschines. 

Eschius,  gs'ke-us,  or  Van  Esche,  vtn  Ss'Keh,  (Ni- 
colaas,)  a  Dutch  Catholic  priest  and  writer,  born  near 
Bois-le-Duc  in  1507;  died  in  1578. 

Eschricht,  gsh'riKt,  (Daniel  Frederik,)  a  Danish 
physician  and  physiologist,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1798. 
He  became  professor  of  medicine  in  the  University  of 
Copenhagen  in  1836,  and  published  several  valuable 
works  on  physiology,  zoology,  etc. 

Eschscholtz,  gsh'sholts,  (Johann  Friedrtch,)  a 
German  naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Dorpat  in  1793. 
He  accompanied  Kotzebue  as  physician  in  his  voyage  of 
discovery,  181 5-18,  and  in  a  second  voyage  about  1823. 
He  wrote  a  description  of  two  thousand  animals,  which 
was  published  with  Kotzebue's  narrative  in  1830,  and 
published  " Entomographien,"  (1823,)  and  a  "Zoological 


Atlas,"  ( 1 829-33.)  Diedini83i.  The  genus  Eschscholt- 
zia  was  named  in  honour  of  him  by  Chamisso. 

Eschyle,  the  French  for  ^schylus,  which  see. 

Eschylus.    See  ^schylus. 

Esclava,  de,  di  gs-kli^vS,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish 
writer  of  romances,  born  in  Aragon  about  1570. 

Escobar,  de,  da  gs-ko-biR',  (Antonio,)  a  Portuguese 
litterateur,  born  at  Coimbra,  wrote  many  and  various 
works.    Died  in  1681. 

Escobar,  de,  d^  gs-ko-b^R',  (Bartolom6,)  a  Spanish 
missionary  and  writer,  born  at  Seville  in  1562,  preached 
in  the  West  Indies  and  at  Lima.    Died  at  Lima  in  1624. 

Escobar,  de,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  Hellenist  and 
writer,  born  at  Valencia;  died  after  1557. 

Escobar,  de,  (Maria,)  a  Spanish  lady,  born  at  Tru- 
xillo,  was  the  wife  of  Diego  de  Chaves,  who  followed 
Pizarro  to  the  conquest  of  Peru,  about  1540.  She  was 
the  first  who  carried  wheat  to  Peru. 

Escobar  y  Mendoza,  gs-ko-b^R'  e  mgn-do'thJ, 
(Antonio,)  a  famous  casuist  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Valla- 
dolid,  in  Spain,  in  1589.  He  was 'a  popular  preacher, 
and  a  learned  writer  on  theology,  but  was  severely  cen- 
sured by  Pascal  and  others  for  teaching  a  lax  morality. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  "  Moral  Theology,"  (1646,)  a  "Treat- 
ise on  Justice  and  Law,"  and  another  on  "Cases  of  Con- 
science," ("  Summula  Casuum  Conscientiae,"  1626.)  It 
was  to  refute  the  doctrines  and  sophisms  broached  in  the 
last  work  that  Pascal  wrote  the  fifth  and  sixth  of  his 
admirable  "  Provincial  Letters."  Died  in  1669.  In  the 
dictionary  of  the  French  Academy  Escobar  is  a  synonym 
for  an  "adroit  hypocrite." 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature ;"  N.  Antonio, 
"Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Escoiquiz,  §s-ko-e-k^th',  sometimes  written  Escoi- 
quitz,  (Don  Juan,)  a  Spanish  priest  and  courtier,  born 
in  Navarre  in  1762,  was  appointed  preceptor  of  the  king's 
son,  afterwards  Ferdinand  VII.  The  latter  employed 
him  in  secret  negotiations  with  Napoleon,  and  when  he 
became  king,  in  1808,  made  him  a  councillor  of  state. 
He  had  a  paramount  influence  with  Ferdinand,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  France ;  and  he  was  his  principal  agent 
or  adviser  in  the  conferences  at  Bayonne,  which  resulted 
in  his  forced  abdication.  Escoiquiz  returned  to  Spain 
with  Ferdinand  in  1814,  and  was  appointed  minister;  but 
he  was  dismissed  the  same  year,  and  exiled  from  court. 
He  wrote  an  epic  poem  of  little  merit,  entitled  "The 
Conquest  of  Mexico,"  (1802,)  and  translated  Milton's 
"Paradise  Lost"  into  Spanish.    Died  in  1820. 

See  SouTHEY,  "History  of  the  Peninsular  War;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Escosura,  de  la,  dk  IS  Is-ko-soo'rS,  (Don  Patricio,) 
a  Spanish  author  and  politician,  born  at  Madrid  in  1807. 
He  became  secretary  of  state  about  1843,  ^^^^"^  which  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Narvaez  ministry.  He  retired  from 
office  in  1846,  and  was  minister  of  the  interior  in  1854- 
55.  Among  his  works  are  romances  entitled  "El  Conde 
de  Candespina,"  (1832,)  and  "  Ni  Reyni  Roque,"  (1835,) 
several  dramas,  a  "Manual  of  Mythology,"  (1843,)  and 
the  text  of  "Artistic  and  Monumental  Spain." 

Escousse,  §s'kooss',  (Victor,)  a  French  poet,  born 
in  Paris  in  1813.  He  produced  "Farruck  the  Moor," 
("  Farruck  le  Maure,")  a  drama,  (1831,)  which  was 
applauded,  and  some  songs.  He  committed  suicide  in 
February,  1832,  in  company  with  his  ffiend  Lebras. 

Esciilape,  the  French  of  ^F^sculapius,  which  see. 

Esculapius.    See  i^^scuLAPius. 

Esdras  of  Scripture.    See  Ezra. 

Es'dras,  an  Armenian,  was  chosen  Patriarch  of  Ar- 
menia in  628  a.d.  In  concert  with  Heraclius,  the  Greek 
emperor,  he  called  a  council  in  629,  approving  the  reunion 
of  the  Armenian  and  Greek  Churches  ;  but  the  bishops 
of  Persian  Armenia  opposed  the  measure.    Died  in  639. 

Esiodo,  the  Italian  of  Hesiod,  which  see. 

Es'kil,  written  also  Eschil  or  Eskild,  an  ambitious 
Swedish  prelate,  became  in  1 138  Archbishop  of  Lund  and 
Primate  of  Denmark.  He  founded  several  monasteries, 
took  part  in  political  contests,  and  was  sometimes  in  open 
war  with  the  king.  He  performed  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
Holy  Land,  and  wrote  a  work  on  Ecclesiastic  Law.  Died 
in  1187  or  1181. 

See  Kraft  og  Nverup,  " Litteraturlexicon. " 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ESKILD 


864 


ESPIC 


Eskild.    See  Eskil. 

Esmark,  Ss'maRk,  or  Esmarch,  (Jens,)  a  Danish 
geologist  and  mineralogist,  born  in  1763,  published 
several  works  on  mineralogy.  He  became  professor  of 
metallurgy  at  Christiania  in  1814.    Died  about  1838. 

See  "Biografi  ofver  J.  Esmark,"  Stockholm,  1839. 

Esmenard,  §s'meh-ntR',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  born  in 
Provence,  in  France,  in  1772,  served  many  years  in  the 
army,  and  became  lieutenant-colonel.  During  the  resto- 
ration he  resigned  his  commission,  and  rendered  impor- 
tant services  to  the  republic  of  Colombia.  He  afterwards 
became  an  editor  of  the  "Gazette  de  France,"  "Journal 
des  Debats,"  and  "  Mercure,"    Died  in  1842. 

Esmenard,  (Joseph  Alphonse,)  a  French  didactic 
poet,  born  at  Pelissanne  (Bouches-du-Rhone)  in  1769, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  emigrated  as  a 
royalist  in  1792,  returned  to  Paris  about  the  end  of  1799, 
and  associated  himself  with  La  Harpe  and  Fontanes  as 
an  editor  of  the  "Mercure  de  France."  About  1801  he 
accompanied  General  Leclerc  as  secretary  in  the  expedi- 
tion to  Hayti.  He  published  in  1805  "La  Navigation," 
a  poem,  which  was  composed  at  sea  and  is  admired  for 
the  fidelity  of  its  descriptions  and  the  harmony  of  its 
versification.  His  opera  of  "  Trajan"  was  performed  with 
applause  in  1808.  He  was  elected  to  the  Institute  (class 
of  French  literature)  in  1810.  He  was  thrown  out  of 
his  coach  and  killed  near  Naples  in  June,  181 1. 

See  "  Nouvelie  Biographie  Generale." 

iSson,  the  French  of  tEson,  which  see. 

Esop.    See  ^sop. 

^sope,  the  French  of  i^^sop,  which  see. 

Espagnac,  d',  d^s^ptn'ytk',  (  Jean  Baptiste  Joseph 
Damazit  de  Sahuguet  —  dt'mt'ze'  deh  siVgi', ) 
Baron,  a  French  general,  born  at  Brive-la-Gaillarde  in 
1 713.  He  served  several  campaigns  in  Germany,  became 
aide-major-general  under  Marshal  Saxe,  and  obtained  the 
grade  of  lieutenant-general  in  1780.  He  wrote  a  "Life 
of  Marshal  Saxe,"  and  an  "Essay  on  the  Science  of 
War,"  (1751.)    Died  in  1783. 

Espagnandel,  L',  Ms'f^n'yh^'dlV,  (Mathieu,  )  a 
French  sculptor,  born  in  1610,  adorned  several  churches 
of  Paris  with  his  works.    Died  in  1689. 

Espagne,  d',  (Don  Carlos.)    See  Espana. 

Espagne,  d',  dgs^ptn^  (Charles,)  a  valiant  French 
warrior,  was  made  Constable  of  France  in  1350,  and 
became  a  great  favourite  with  the  king.  He  was  assas- 
sinated in  1354  by  Charles,  King  of  Navarre. 

Espagne,  d',  (Jean,)  a  French  Protestant  theologian, 
born  in  Dauphiny  in  1591.  He  preached  in  Holland, 
and  afterwards  settled  in  London,  where  he  was  pastor 
of  a  French  church.  He  published  many  works,  which 
were  often  reprinted,  the  best-known  of  which  is  "  Pop- 
ular Errors  in  the  Knowledge  of  Religion,"  (1648.)  Died 
in  London  in  1659. 

Espagne,  d',  (Jean  Louis  Brigitte,)  Comte,  a 
French  general  of  division,  born  at  Auch  (  Armagnac) 
in  1766.  He  defeated  the  Austrians  at  San  Michele,  in 
Italy,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Heilsberg  in  1807. 
He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Essling,  in  1809. 

Espagne,  d',  [Sp.  De  Espana,  hs-\A\Vy^,\  or  De  la 
Cerda,  dk  li  th^R'di,  (Louis,)  was  a  grandson  of  Fer- 
dinand de  la  Cerda,  a  Spanish  prince,  and  a  brother  of 
Charles,  noticed  above.  He  became  admiral  of  France 
in  1341,  and  fought  for  Charles  de  Blois  in  the  war  for 
the  succession  of  Brittany. 

Espagnet,  d',  dSs'ptn'yi',  (Jean,)  a  French  alchemist 
of  Bordeaux,  lived  about  1610-40.  He  wrote  two  Latin 
works  which  were  regarded  as  classic,  viz.,  "Secret 
of  the  Hermetic  Philosophy,"  ( "  Arcanum  Philosophiae 
Hermeticae,"  1623,)  and  a  "Manual  of  the  Restored  Phi- 
losophy," (1633.) 

Espagnoletto.    See  Spagnoletto. 

Espana.    See  Espagne,  d',  (Louis.) 

Espana,  de,  di  Ss-pin'ya,  [Fr.  D'Espagne,  dSs'ptn',] 
(Don  Carlos,)  Count,  a  Spanish  general,  born  in 
France  in  1775.  He  fought  against  the  French  in  the 
war  which  began  in  1808,  and  rendered  important  ser- 
vices at  Badajoz,  Albuera,  Salamanca,  etc.,  for  which 
he  was  rewarded  with  the  place  of  Captain-General  of 
Aragon.    He  was  assassinated  in  1839. 

Esparbes.    See  Aubeterre. 


Espartero,  gs-paR-ta'ro,  (Don  Baldomero,)  Duke  de 
la  Vittoria,  (di  IS  v^t-to're-S,)  a  Spanish  statesman  and 
general,  born  at  Granatula,  La  Mancha,  in  1792  or  1793, 
was  the  son  of  a  mechanic.  He  enlisted  in  the  army 
in  1808,  and  went  in  1815  to  South  America,  where  he 
fought  against  Bolivar,  and  became  a  colonel  in  1822. 
He  returned  to  Spain  in  1825,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier. 
When  the  civil  war  began,  in  1833,  he  took  arms  for  the 
young  queen  Isabella,  and  was  appointed  commandant- 
general  of  Biscay.  He  became  a  lieutenant-general  in 
1835,  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  North 
in  1836.  In  1837  he  defended  Madrid  from  an  attack 
of  the  Carlist  army,  which  he  drove  back  across  the 
Ebro.  He  gained  victories  at  Burgos  and  other  places 
in  1838  and  1839,  for  which  he  was  made  a  grandee  of 
the  first  class,  as  Duke  de  la  Vittoria  y  Morella.  The 
war  terminated  by  the  submission  of  the  Carlistsin  1840. 
In  May,  1841,  Espartero  was  appointed  by  the  Cortes 
Regent  of  Spain  during  the  minority  of  Isabella.  He 
acted  at  first  with  energy  in  the  suppression  of  revolts 
at  Barcelona,  but  was  unable  to  resist  a  coalition  of  pro- 
gresistas  and  moderados.  An  army  of  insurgents  under 
Narvaez  having  entered  Madrid  in  July,  1843,  Espartero 
was  exiled,  and  passed  several  years  in  England.  He 
was  permitted  to  return  to  Spain  in  1847  or  1848.  By 
another  revolution,  Narvaez,  the  leader  of  the  absolutists, 
was  driven  from  power,  July,  1854,  and  Espartero  again 
became  prime  minister  of  a  cabinet  in  which  O'Donnell, 
his  political  enemy,  was  minister  of  war.  This  rivalry 
resulted  in  a  dissolution  of  the  ministry  in  July,  1856, 
and  in  the  triumph  of  O'Donnell. 

See  "Espartero;  Historia  de  su  Vida,"  etc.,  by  Jose  Segundo 
Florez,  3  vols.,  1844;  L.  deLomenie,  "Galerie  desContemporaiiis," 
(republished  in  i2mo,  1844;)  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  Oc- 
tober, 1843. 

Espejo,  §s-pa''Ho,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish  traveller, 
born  at  Cordova,  was  the  leader  of  a  small  expedition 
which  in  1582  explored  the  regions  north  of  Mexico  and 
discovered  New  Mexico.  The  account  of  his  journey  is 
preserved  in  Hakluyt's  collection. 

See  A.  VON  Humboldt,  "  Essai  sur  la  Nouvelie  Espagne." 

Espen,  van,  vtn  gs'pen,  (Zeger  Bernard,)  a  Flem- 
ish casuist  and  priest,  born  at  Louvain  in  1646,  was 
eminent  for  skill  in  canon  law.  He  obtained  in  the 
University  of  Louvain  a  chair  of  law,  which  he  filled 
many  years.  His  connection  with  the  party  of  Port- 
Royal  caused  him  to  lo.se  this  place  about  1728.  He 
published  several  works,  of  which  the  most  important 
is  his  "  Universal  Ecclesiastical  Law."    Died  in  1728, 

See  De  Bellegarde,  "Vie  de  Van  Espen,"  1767;  Bavay,  "Van 
Espen,  Jurisconsulte  et  Canoniste  Beige,"  1846. 

Espencaeus.    See  Espence,  d'. 

Espence,  d',  d§s'p8Nss',  [Latin,  Espenc^'us,  ] 
(Claude,)  a  French  priest,  born  near  Chalons-sur-Marne 
in  151 1,  became  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  and  rector  of 
the  University  of  Paris.  Dupin  expresses  a  favourable 
opinion  of  him.  He  wrote  many  and  various  works, 
among  which  is  the  "Education  of  a  Christian  Prince," 
(1548.)    Died  in  1571. 

Esper,  ls''per,  (Eugen  Johann  Christoph,)  a  Ger- 
man entomologist,  born  at  Wunsiedel,  Bavaria,  in  1742, 
became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Erlangen  in  1782. 
He  published  "The  Butterflies  of  Europe,  figured  after 
Nature,"  (1777-1807,)  and  a  work  on  Zoophytes,  ("Die 
Pflanzenthiere  in  Abbildungen  nach  Natur,"  1 788-1809.) 
Died  in  1810, 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Esper,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German  naturalist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Drossenfeld  in  1732, 
He  wrote  "The  Marvellous  Adventures  of  many  Tra- 
vellers," (2  vols.,  1762,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1781. 

Espercieux,  gs'p§R'se-uh^  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  skilful 
French  sculptor,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1758,  worked  in 
Paris.  Among  his  works  are  statues  of  Moliere,  Racine, 
Napoleon,  (1810,)  and  Voltaire,  (1814.)    Died  in  1840. 

Esperiente.    See  Callimachus. 

Espernon.    See  £pernon. 

Espiard,  es'pe-t,R',  (Francois  Ignace  de  la  Borde,) 
born  at  Besan90iiTn  1707,  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  Genius 
and  Character  of  Nations,"  (1743.)    Died  in  1777. 

Espic,  ds'p^k',  (Jean  Barth^lemy,)  a  French  poet 
and  teacher,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1767 ;  died  in  1844. 


a,  e,  1,  0,  u,  y,  long;  \  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ESPINJC 


I 

865 


ESQUIROL 


Espinac.    See  fipiNAC. 

Espinasse,  es'pe'3itss',  (Esprit  Charles  Marie,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Saissac,  in  Aude,  in  1815,  be- 
came aide-de-camp  to  Napoleon  III.  about  1852.  In 
the  Crimean  war,  in  1855,  he  served  with  distinction  at 
the  Tchernaya  and  other  places,  and  was  made  gen- 
eral of  division.  In  1858  he  acted  for  a  few  months  as 
minister  of  the  interior.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Magenta,  June,  1859. 

Espinasse,  de  1',  deh  l^s'pe'ntss',  (Augustin,) 
Count,  a  French  general,  born  at  Pouilly-sur-Loire  in 
1736,  commanded  the  artillery,  under  Bonaparte,  at  the 
siege  of  Mantua,  and  at  Areola  in  1796.    Died  in  1816. 

Espinasse,  de  1',  (Claire  FRANgoiSE  or  Julie 
Jkanne  El^onore,)  a  French  lady,  remarkable  for  her 
talents,  imagination,  and  sensibility,  was  born  in  1732. 
In  1752  she  became  the  protegee  of  the  witty  Madame 
du  Deffand,  with  whom  she  lived  in  Paris  about  ten 
years,  until  her  patroness  was  induced  by  jealousy  to 
dissolve  the  connection.  Having  gained  the  special 
favour  of  D'Alembert,  she  formed  a  brilliant  literary 
circle  in  her  own  salon,  which  was  the  resort  of  the  elite 
of  Paris.  Her  death  was  hastened  by  her  excessive  sen- 
sibility and  unhappy  attachments.  She  died  in  1776, 
"leaving  on  the  minds  of  almost  all  the  eminent  men 
of  France,"  says  Lord  Jeffrey,  "  an  impression  of  talent 
and  of  ardour  of  imagination  which  seems  to  have  been 
considered  as  without  example."  Her  letters  to  M.  de 
Guibert  (2  vols.,  1809)  are  admirable  in  style  and  spirit. 

See  D'Alembert,  "Aux  Manes  de  Mile.  Lespinasse;"  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi;"  Marmoxtel,  "  Memoires ;"  Vol- 
taire, "  Correspondance ;"  and  critique,  by  Lord  Jeffrey,  in  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1810. 

E-spinel,  gs-pe-nSK,  (Vincente,  )  a  popular  Spanish 
poet,  born  at  Ronda  about  1544,  was  ordained  a  priest, 
but,  never  receiving  any  valuable  preferment,  passed  his 
life  in  great  poverty.  He  was  thoroughly  versed  in  the 
ancient  and  modern  languages.  He  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation, and  was  considered  one  of  the  best  poets  of  his 
age  for  purity  of  style  and  fertility  of  imagination.  He 
translated  into  Spanish  verse  Horace's  "Art  of  Poetry" 
and  Odes,  and  wTote  "The  House  of  Memory,"  ("La 
Casade  Memoria,")  and  numerous  songs.  Died  in  1634. 
His  novel  "Marcos  de  Obregon"  (1618)  is  said  to  be 
seasoned  with  fine  pleasantry.  Le  Sage  derived  from 
the  last-named  work  some  materials  for  his  "  Gil  Bias." 

See  Ticknor,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature ;"  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  His- 
pana  Nova." 

Espinosa,  §s-pe-no'sl,  (Jacinto  Geronimo,)  an  ex- 
cellent Spanish  painter,  born  at  Cocentayna,  in  Valencia, 
in  1600.  He  excelled  in  chiaroscuro,  in  correctness  of 
design,  and  in  the  expression  of  his  figures.  He  worked 
mostly  in  Valencia,  the  churches  of  which  he  adorned 
with  many  pictures.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Mary 
Magdalene,"  a  "Nativity  of  the  Saviour,"  and  a  "Holy 
Family."    Died  at  Valencia  in  1680. 

See  Bermudez,  "Diccionario  Historico." 

Espinosa,  (Jost,)  a  Spanish  painter  and  engraver, 
born  at  Valencia  in  1721  ;  died  in  1784. 

Espinosa,  (Juan,)' a  Spanish  poet  and  soldier,  born 
at  Bellovado  about  1540,  became  secretary  of  Gonzales 
de  Mendoza,  Captain-General  of  Sicily.  He  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  poem  on  "The  Praise  of  Women," 
(1580,)  which  contains  beautiful  passages  and  was  re- 
ceived with  favour.    Died  about  1595. 

Espinosa,  (Nicolas,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Valencia 
about  1520,  wrote  a  continuation  of  Ariosto's  "Orlando 
Furioso,"  (1555.) 

Espinosa,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  poet  and  critic,  born 
at  Antequera  about  1582.  He  became  almoner  to  the 
Duke  of  Medina-Sidonia.  He  displayed  his  taste  in  a 
collection  of  specimens  of  Spanish  poets,  "Tesoro  de 
Poesias,"  (1605,)  on  which  his  reputation  chiefly  rests. 
He  wrote  the  "Concealed  Treasure,"  ("Tesoro  escon- 
dido,"  1644,)  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1650. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova;"  Ticknor, 
"  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Espinosa,  de,  di  gs-pe-no's^,  (Don  Diego,)  an  emi- 
nent Spanish  statesman  and  cardinal,  born  in  Old  Cas- 
tile in  1502.    His  ability  and  fame  as  a  lawyer  insured 


his  rapid  promotion  to  the  highest  dignities  and  to  th<? 
favour  of  Philip  II.,  who  made  him  president  of  the  roya: 
council  (the  highest  place  in  the  kingdom)  and  Inquisi- 
tor-General. In  1568  he  was  created  a  cardinal.  He  was 
an  intolerant  and  relentless  enemy  of  religious  liberty  and 
reform.  For  a  few  years  he  exercised  almost  unbounded 
influence  over  the  king  ;  but  he  lost  the  royal  favour  by 
his  arrogance.  Philip  announced  to  him  his  disgrace  bv 
saying,  "  Cardinal,  remember  that  I  am  the  president.'' 
Espinosa  died  shortly  after  this  blow,  in  1572.  The 
death  of  the  king's  son,  Don  Carlos,  is  imputed  to  him 
by  some  writers. 

See  AuBERV,  "  Histoire  des  Cardinaux;"  Prescott,  "History 
of  Philip  IL,"  vol.  iii.  book  vi.  chap.  i. ;  Motley,  "Rise  of  the 
Dutch  Republic,"  vol.  ii. 

Espremesnil,  d',  (or  iSpremenil,  d',)  di'pRi'm^^n^K. 
(Jacques  Duval,)  a  French  economist,  a  son-in-law  of 
the  famous  Dupleix,  became  chief  of  the  supreme  coun- 
cil of  Madras  about  1746.    Died  in  France  in  1767. 

Espremesnil,  d',  (or  ^premenil,  d',)  (Jean  Jacques 
Duval,)  a  French  advocate,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Pondicherry,  in  India,  in  1746.  He  was  richly 
endowed  with  personal  and  mental  advantages.  In  1787 
he  was  one  of  the  most  eloquent  and  prominent  mem- 
bers of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  and  in  1789  he  was  one 
of  the  chief  agitators  of  the  popular  party.  In  a  con- 
test between  the  court  and  the  Parliament  he  asserted  the 
rights  of  the  latter  so  boldly  that  he  was  committed  tc 
custody.  Having  been  deputed  to  the  States-General 
by  the  noblesse  of  Paris,  he  changed  his  course,  and  ir 
1790  defended  bravely  the  royal  cause  in  the  Assembly. 
He  retired  from  that  body  in  1791.  He  was  condemned 
by  the  Revolutionary  Tribun.'J,  and  executed  in  1794. 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Girondists;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Esprit,  gs'pRe',  (Jacques,)  usually  called  the  Abb6 
Esprit,  born  at  Beziers,  in  France,  in  161 1.  By  his 
agreeable  manners  and  conversation  he  gained  the  favour 
of  Seguier  and  the  Prince  of  Conti,  who  each  gave  him 
a  large  pension.  Although  only  a  mediocre  writer,  he 
was  in  1639  admitted  into  the  French  Academy.  The 
work  called  "  Falsity  of  Human  Virtues"  is  supposed  tc 
have  been  written  by  him.    Died  in  1678. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  Tallemant,  "  Historiettes." 

Espronceda,  de,  da  §s-pRon-tha'DS,  (Jos6,)  a  popu- 
lar vSpanish  poet  and  politician,  born  near  Almendralejo, 
in  Estremadura,  in  1810.  In  early  youth  he  devoted  him- 
self to  poetry  and  politics,  and  became  so  obnoxious  to 
government  by  his  radical  principles,  or  his  connection 
with  a  secret  society,  that  he  was  imprisoned  about  the 
age  of  fifteen,  and  banished  a  few  years  later.  He  passed 
several  years  in  London.  In  1830  he  fought  with  the 
popular  party  at  the  barricades  of  Paris.  On  the  death 
of  the  Spanish  king,  in  1833,  he  returned  to  Madrid  and 
entered  the  queen's  body-guards.  Again  banished  to 
Cuellar  for  a  too  free  expression  of  his  opinions,  he  there 
wrote  his  popular  novel  "  Sancho  Saldana,  or  the  Cas- 
tellan of  Cuellar,"  (1834.)  A  new  regime  having  suc- 
ceeded, he  obtained  his  liberty,  and  returned  to  Madrid 
about  1835.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  revolutionary 
contests  of  1835-36.  In  1841  he  was  appointed  secre- 
tary of  embassy  to  the  Hague,  and  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Cortes,  but  died  prematurely  in  1842.  The 
Spanish  critics  highly  extol  his  "Hymn  to  the  vSun," 
"  Pirate,"  "Executioner,"  and  "The  Devil  World,"  ("El 
Diablo-Mundo,")  which  was  left  unfinished.  His  poetry 
has  some  characteristics  of  the  Byronic  school.  Among 
his  works  are  poems  entitled  "El  Pelayo,"  and  "The 
Student  of  Salamanca." 

See  Kennedy's  "Modem  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Spain." 

Es'py,  (James  P.,)  an  American  meteorologist,  born 
in  Washington  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1785.  He  pub- 
lished "The  Philosophy  of  Storms,"  (1841,)  and,  among 
other  opinions,  maintained  that  rain  might  be  produced 
by  human  agency  in  all  kinds  of  weather.    Died  in 

Esquirol,  §s'ke'roK,  (Jean  Etienne  Dominique,) 
a  French  physician,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1772.  He 
founded  at  Paris  in  1799  an  asylum  for  the  insane,  which 
became  a  model  institution.  In  181 7  he  commenced  a 
course  of  clinical  lectures  for  mental  maladies.  He 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Jl^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

55 


ESQUJROS 


866 


ESTACO 


appears  to  have  rendered  important  services  to  humanity, 
and  to  have  promoted  a  reform  in  the  harsh  regime  to 
which  the  insane  were  subjected.  He  was  chosen  chief 
physician  of  the  asylum  at  Charenton  in  1826.  In  1838 
he  published  a  work  on  insanity,  "  Des  Maladies  men- 
tales,"  (2  vols.,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1840. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire;"  Pariset,  "  Histoire  des 
Membres  de  I'Academie  de  Medecine ;"  Leuret,  "  Notice  sur  M. 
Esquirol,"  1841. 

Esquiros,  gs'ke^ros',  (Henri  Alphonse,)  a  French 
socialist,  poet,  and  novelist,  born  in  Paris  in  18 14.  He 
published  "Charlotte  Corday,"  a  novel,  (1840,)  "The 
Evangel  of  the  People,"  "Songs  of  a  Prisoner,"  (1841,) 
and  a  "  History  of  the  Mountain,"  ( Afonfao-/Mrc/s, )  {1S4J.) 
He  was  exiled  for  his  political  radicalism  about  Decem- 
ber 2,  185 1. 

Esquivel  de  Alava.    See  Alava. 

Esra.    See  Ezra. 

Ess,  van,  vtn  es,  (Karl,)  a  Catholic  theologian  and 
Benedictine  monk,  born  at  Warburg,  in  Westphalia,  in 
1770.  In  co-operation  with  his  cousin,  Leander  van  Ess, 
he  published  a  German  version  of  the  New  Testament, 
(1807,)  which  was  often  reprinted.    Died  in  1824. 

See  Ersch  und  Cruder,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ess,  van,  (Leander,)  a  theologian,  born  at  Warburg 
in  1772;  died  about  1846. 

Essarts,  des,  dh.  zk's^R',  (Charlotte,)  Countess  of 
Romorentin,  (ro^mo^rdN'tiN'.)  After  being  the  mistress 
of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  she  became,  in  1630,  the  wife 
of  Marshal  L'Hopital.    Died  in  165 1. 

Essarts,  des,  (Pierre,)  a  French  politician,  born 
about  1360,  became  provost  of  Paris  in  1408,  and  super- 
intendent of  finances.  He  deserted  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, and  joined  the  faction  of  Orleans.  He  was 
executed  in  1413. 

Esse,  d',  di'sV,  (Andri^  de  Montalembert — deh 
m6N'tt'l6N'baiR',)  one  of  the  most  valiant  French  cap- 
tains of  his  time,  was  born  in  Poitou  in  1483.  He  served 
in  the  Italian  campaigns  with  such  distinction  that  Fran- 
cis I.  chose  him  as  his  comrade  in  the  tournament  of 
1520.  In  1543  he  defended  Landrecy  with  success  against 
Charles  V.,  and  in  1548  commanded  in  Scotland,  where 
he  gained  some  advantages  over  the  English.  He  was 
killed  at  the  siege  of  Therouanne  in  1558. 

See  Brantome,  "  Vies  des  grands  Capitaines;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Essen,  gs'sen,  (Hans  Henrik,)  Count  of,  a  Swedish 
field-marshal,  born  in  West  Gothland  in  1755.  He  was 
made  governor  of  Stockholm  about  1796,  and  grand 
equerry  in  1 800.  He  defended  Stralsund  against  the 
French  in  1807.  Charles  XIIL,  who  came  to  the  throne 
in  1809,  appointed  him  a  councillor  of  state,  with  the  title 
of  count,  and  sent  him  on  an  embassy  to  Paris.  For  his 
success  against  the  Norwegians  in  1814  he  was  made  a 
field-marshal,  and  Governor  of  Norway.  He  was  reputed 
one  of  the  greatest  Swedish  generals  of  his  time.  Died 
in  1824. 

See  Thiers,  "Histoire  de  I'Empire." 

Essenius,  §s-sa'ne-us,  (Andreas,)  a  Dutch  divine, 
born  at  Bommel  in  161 8.  He  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Utrecht  in  1653,  and  wrote,  among  many  works,  "  Sys- 
tema  Theologicum,"  (1659.)    Died  in  1677. 

Essex.  See  Capel,  (Arthur,)  and  Cromwell, 
(Thomas.) 

Es'sex,  (James,)  an  English  architect,  born  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1723,  was  educated  at  King's  College.  He 
acquired  distinction  by  his  skill  in  Gothic  architecture, 
and  by  restoring  the  chapel  of  King's  College.  He  also 
repaired  other  colleges  in  Cambridge,  and  the  cathedrals 
of  Ely  and  Lincoln.  He  wrote  several  approved  works 
on  Architecture.    Died  iu  1784. 

Essex,  (Robert  Devereux,)  second  Earl  of,  born 
at  Netherwood  in  1567,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Walter,  the 
first  Earl.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  In  1587  he 
served  as  captain-general  of  cavalry  in  the  army  com- 
manded by  his  stepfather,  the  Earl  of  Leicester.  On 
the  death  of  the  latter,  in  1588,  Essex,  whose  person  and 
manners  were  very  agreeable,  and  who  was  endowed  with 
many  virtues,  becaine  the  special  favourite  of  the  queen, 
and  the  rival  of  Raleigh.  In  1590  he  married  a  daughter 
of  Sir  Francis  Walsingham,  and  widow  of  Sir  Philip  Sid- 


ney. He  displayed  courage  and  capacity  in  the  victorious 
expedition  against  Cadiz  in  1596,  of  which  he  commanded 
the  land-forces,  and  Lord  Effingham  the  navy.  The  next 
year  he  was  named  earl  marshal  of  England.  In  1598 
he  quarrelled  with  the  queen,  and,  receiving  from  her  a 
box  on  the  ear,  he  indulged  his  pride  and  resentment  so 
far  as  to»withdraw  from  court  for  several  months.  In 
1599  he  was  unsuccessful  in  an  expedition  against  the 
Irish  rebels,  and  again  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the 
queen,  who  ordered  him  to  be  confined,  intending  to  cor- 
rect rather  than  ruin  him.  Having  been  examined  before 
the  privy  council,  he  was  suspended  from  office.  Trusting 
to  his  general  popularity,  and  led  by  his  impetuous  tem- 
per, he  attempted  to  compel  the  queen  by  force  to  dis- 
miss his  enemies.  For  this  purpose  he  marched  with 
about  two  hundred  retainers  into  London,  and  vainly 
invoked  the  aid  of  the  citizens  ;  he  was  arrested,  convicted 
of  treason,  and  executed  in  1601.  Elizabeth  signed  the 
warrant  for  his  execution  very  reluctantly,  and  was  in- 
consolable for  his  loss.  He  is  admitted  to  have  been 
by  nature  noble  and  generous ;  but  his  vanity,  ambition, 
and  imprudence  rendered  these  advantages  of  no  avail. 

See  \V.  B.  Devereux,  "Lives  and  Letters  of  the  Earls  of  Essex," 
etc.  ;  Hume,  "  HLstory  of  England  ;"  Clarendon,  (Edward  Hyde,) 
"The  Characters  of  Robert,  Earl  of  Essex,  and  George,  Duke  of 
Buckingham,"  1700;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1853. 

Essex,  (Robert  Devereux,)  third  Earl  of,  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  London  in  1592,  and  restored 
to  his  father's  rank  and  titles  by  James  I.  In  1605  he 
married  Lady  Frances  Howard,  who  was  only  thirteen 
years  of  age.  She  indulged  a  passion  for  Lord  Roches- 
ter, and  procured  a  divorce  from  Essex,  whom  she  hated. 
After  several  years  spent  in  retirement  at  his  country 
mansion,  in  1620  he  served  in  the  army  of  the  Elector 
Palatine  in  Holland,  where  he  gave  proof  of  military 
talents.  Having  inherited  a  share  of  his  father's  noble 
qualities,  he  became  a  popular  favourite,  and,  in  the 
troubles  of  Charles  I.'s  reign,  encouraged  the  opposi- 
tion. The  king,  however,  in  1641  appointed  him  lord 
chamberlain,  and  lieutenant-general  of  a  part  of  the 
army.  When  Charles  fled  from  London,  he  ordered 
Essex  to  follow  him ;  but  the  earl  refused  to  do  so,  and 
was  deprived  of  his  commission.  He  was  now  the  most 
popular  leader  of  the  Presbyterian  party. 

In  1642  the  Parliament  gave  him  the  chief  command 
of  the  army.  The  same  year  he  fought  the  indecisive 
battle  of  Edgehill,  and  in  1643  besieged  and  took  the 
fortified  town  of  Reading.  After  suffering  reverses  in 
Cornwall,  the  army  of  Essex  defeated  the  royalists  at 
Newbury  in  1644.  He  was  considered  too  slow  and 
vacillating  by  the  more  zealous  republicans,  who  thought 
he  was  averse  to  a  decisive  triumph  of  their  cause.  They 
therefore  passed  the  "  Self-denying  Ordinance,"  by  which 
members  of  both  Houses  were  excluded  from  command 
in  the  army,  and  Essex  resigned  in  1644.    A  pension  of 

10,000  was  settled  on  him.  At  his  death  the  title 
became  extinct.    Died  in  1647. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England ;"  R.  Codrington,  "Life  of 
Robert,  Earl  of  Essex,"  1646;  "Lives  of  the  Warriors  of  the  Civil 
Wars  of  France  and  England,"  by  Sir  Edward  Cust,  London,  1867. 

Essex,  (Thomas  Cromwell,)  Earl  of.  See  Caom- 

WELL. 

Es.sex,  (Walter  Devereux,)  first  Earl  of,  an  Eng- 
lish statesman  and  commander  of  superior  ability,  born 
in  Caermarthenshire  about  1540.  He  inherited,  at  the 
age  of  nineteen,  the  title  of  Viscount  Hereford,  and  mar- 
ried Lettice  Knollys  or  Knolles.  To  reward  his  military 
services  against  the  "rebellion  of  the  north"  in  1569,  he 
was  created  Earl  of  Essex  in  1572.  He  became  a  great 
favourite  with  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  an  army  sent  in  1573  to  subdue  the  insurgents 
in  Ulster.  His  success  in  this  enterprise  was  hindered 
by  the  intrigues  of  his  rival  Leicester,  or  by  the  acts  of 
the  lord  deputy.  He  resigned  his  command  in  1575,  but 
was  persuaded  to  return  with  the  title  of  earl  marscial  of 
Ireland.  He  died  at  Dublin  in  1576.  His  widow  Lettice 
married  the  Earl  of  Leicester. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England." 

Essling,  Prince  of.    See  Massena. 

Esta90,  §s-ta'so,  (Achille,)  [Lat.  Achil'les  Sta'- 
Tius,]  a  Portuguese  poet  and  scholar,  born  at  Vidigueira 
in  1524.    He  studied  at  Louvain  and  Paris,  became  emi- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  !ong;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ESTAING  S67  ESTERHAZr 


nent  for  learning,  and  obtained  a  chair  in  the  college  di 
Sapienza,  at  Rome.  About  1562  Pope  Pius  IV,  appointed 
him  secretary  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  He  also  acted 
as  Latin  secretary  to  Pius  V.  He  published  a  collection 
of  elegant  Latin  verses,  ("Sylvae  aliquot,"  1549,)  and 
notes  on  Horace's  "Art  of  Poetry,"  on  Catullus,  Cicero, 
and  other  classic  authors.    Died  in  1 581.  # 

See  Caspar  EsTAgo,  "Familia  dos  Estates ;"  De  Thou,  "  His- 
toria  sui  Temporis." 

Estaing,  Ss^t^N',  [It.  Stagxo,  stSn'yo,!  an  ancient 
and  noble  family  of  Rouergue,  in  France.  Chevalier 
d'Estaing  in  1214  saved  Philip  Augustus  from  imminent 
peril  at  the  battle  of  Bouvines.  FRANgois,  born  in  1460, 
became  Bishop  of  Rhodez  in  1 501,  and  died  in  1529. 
Joachim,  Count  d'Estaing,  born  about  161 7,  was  noted 
'{ox  military  talents.  He  wrote  a  "  Genealogical  Account" 
of  his  family.    Died  in  1688. 

Estaing,  d',  d^s'tiN^  (Charles  Hector,}  Count,  a 
French  admiral,  was  born  in  Auvergne  in  1729.  He 
served  in  India  under  De  Lally  about  1758.  In  1763 
he  was  chosen  lieutenant-general  of  the  naval  armies, 
though  his  experience  was  gained  in  the  land-service. 
In  1778,  as  vice-admiral,  he  commanded  the  fleet  sent  to 
aid  the  American  republic.  Just  as  this  fleet  met  that 
of  Lord  Howe,  near  Rhode  Island,  in  August,  1778,  a 
violent  storm  separated  them,  with  much  damage  to  the 
French.  Having  captured  the  isle  of  Grenada,  in  1779, 
he  returned  to  France  in  1780,  and,  as  commandant  of 
the  national  guard  of  Versailles  in  1790-91,  co-operated 
with  La  Fayette  in  efforts  to  save  the  lives  of  the  king 
and  queen.    He  was  guillotined  in  April,  1794. 

See  Leboucher,  "  Histoire  de  la  Guerre  de  I'lndependance  des 
Ctats-Unis;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Estampes.    See  £tampes. 

Estampes-Valen5ay.    See  fiTAMPES-VALExgAY. 

Estancelin,  is'tdxs'ldN',  (Louis,)  a  French  writer 
on  commerce,  navigation,  etc.,  born  at  Eu  in  1777. 

Est'court,  (Richard,)  an  English  actor,  born  at 
Tewkesbury  in  1668,  performed  in  London  with  success 
as  a  comedian,  and  excelled  in  mimicry.  He  was  pur- 
veyor of  the  Beefsteak  Club,  and  is  favourably  mentioned 
in  the  "  Tatler"  and  "  Spectator."  He  wrote  "  The  Fair 
Example,"  a  comedy.    Died  in  1713. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Este,  §s'te  or  es'ti,  one  of  the  most  illustrious  sove- 
reign houses  of  Italy,  and  perhaps  the  most  ancient 
among  those  which  have  preserved  their  power  and  titles 
to  the  present  time.  The  following  are  a  few  of  the 
prominent  persons  who  have  inherited  the  marquisate 
of  Este,  or  the  duchies  of  Ferrara  and  Modena.  Among 
the  first  who  appears  on  record  is  Oberto  I.,  who  pos- 
sessed fiefs  in  Tuscany  and  Lunigiana,  and  married  the 
daughter  of  Otho,  King  of  Italy.  He  died  about  972, 
and  left  a  son,  Oberto  II.,  who  ruled  Lunigiana  and 
Obertenga.  Alrertazzo  II.,  who  succeeded  about  1020, 
added  to  the  above  the  fiefs  of  Este,  Rovigo,  and  other 
small  towns  of  Lombardy,  and  married  a  princess  of  the 
great  German  house  of  Guelph  or  Welf  Their  son, 
styled  Guelph  IV.,  was  invested  in  1071  with  the  duchy 
of  Bavaria,  and  is  the  ancestor  of  the  royal  line  of  Bruns- 
wick and  Hanover.  Orizzo,  who  began  to  reign  in  1 137, 
was  the  first  who  assumed  the  title  Marquis  of  Este.  In 
1208  the  citizens  of  Ferrara,  then  a  republic,  elected 
Azzo  VL,  Marquis  of  Este,  as  their  sovereign.  During 
the  civil  war  which  raged  between  the  Guelphs  and 
Ghibelines  in  the  thirteenth  century,  the  Marquis  of 
Este,  Azzo  VII.,  was  the  chief  of  the  former  faction.  He 
reigned  with  glory  from  121 5  to  1264.  Obizzo  II.  suc- 
ceeded in  1264  to  the  titles  of  Marquis  of  Este  and 
Lord  of  Ferrara.  In  1288  a  deputation  from  Modena 
offered  to  him  the  perpetual  sovereignty  of  their  city, — 
an  example  which  was  followed  by  Reggio.  Died  in 
1293.  Alfonzo  L,  Duke  of  Ferrara  and  of  Modena,  a 
son  of  Ercole  I.,  was  an  able  statesman  and  warrior. 
He  reigned  from  1505  to  1534,  and  married  the  famous 
Lucretia  Borgia.  He  was  involved  in  war  with  the  pope 
Julius  II.,  who  took  from  him  Modena  and  Reggio  ;  but 
Charles  V.  in  1531  confirmed  his  rights  over  those  cities. 
His  son,  Ercole  (or  Hercules)  II.,  succeeded  him  in 
1534,  and  married  Renee,  daughter  of  Louis  XII.  of 
France.  He  died  in  1559.  Cardinal  Ippolito,  a  brother 


of  Alfonzo  I.,  was  accounted  the  greatest  patron,  of 
learning  in  his  time.  Died  in  1520.  Alfonzo  II.,  who 
succeeded  his  father  in  1559,  tarnished  his  fame  by  the 
imprisonment  of  Tasso,  who  had  been  an  ornament  of 
his  court.  Having  died  without  issue  in  1597,  and  named 
his  cousin  Cesare  as  heir,  the  pope  claimed  Ferrara  as 
devolved  to  the  see  of  Rome,  by  which  it  has  since  been 
held.  Cesare,  Duke  of  Modena,  transferred  the  court 
from  Ferrara  to  Modena.  He  died  in  1628,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Alfonzo  HI.,  who,  after  a  short 
reign,  abdicated  and  turned  monk.  Francks  I.,  son  of 
Alfonzo  III.,  succeeded  in  1629,  and  died  in  1658,  leaving 
the  duchy  to  his  son,  Alfonzo  IV.  The  latter  had  a 
daughter,  Mary,  who  was  married  to  James  II.  of  Eng- 
land, and  a  son,  Francis  II.,  who  succeeded  in  1662. 
He  died  without  issue  in  1694,  when  his  uncle,  Cardinal 
Rinaldo,  became  the  heir.  By  the  marriage  of  the  latter 
with  Charlotte,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Brur.swick,  two 
branches  of  the  house  of  Este,  which  had  been  separated 
since  1070,  were  reunited.  He  died  in  1737.  His  son, 
Francis  HI.,  Duke  of  Modena,  etc.,  born  in  1698,  com- 
manded the  Spanish  armies  in  Italy  in  the  war  of  the 
Austrian  succession.  Died  in  1780.  Ercoi.k  III.,  (i 727 
-1803,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  married  tlie  Duchess  of 
Massa-Carrara,  and  left  an  only  child,  Maria  Beatrice, 
who  became  the  wife  of  Ferdinand,  .'\rchduke  of  Austria. 
In  1797  the  duchy  of  Modena  was  annexed  to  the  Cisal- 
pine republic  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio.  By  the 
peace  of  Paris,  (1814,)  Francis  IV.,  son  of  Maria  Bea- 
trice, recovered  his  dominions,  which  he  left  at  his  death, 
in  1846,  to  his  son,  Francis  V.   (See  Francis  V.) 

See  SisMONor,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes;"  Pompeo 
LiTTA,  "  Famiglie  celebri  Italiane;"  Crawfurd,  "History  of  the 
House  of  Este,"  London,  1681. 

E.ste,  es'te,  (Rev.  Charles,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  1753,  was  ordained  in  1777,  and  became  one  of  the 
chaplains  at  Whitehall.  He  was  one  of  the  editors  of 
"The  World,"  a  daily  journal,  and  published  a  "Journey 
through  Flanders,  Germany,"  etc.,  (1795.)   Died  in  1829. 

Este,  d',  des'ta,  (Cardinal  Ippolito,)  an  Italian  pre- 
late, born  in  1479,  was  a  brother  of  Alfonzo  I.,  Duke  of 
Modena,  and  was  noted  as  a  patron  of  learned  men. 
Ariosto  passed  a  long  time  in  his  service.    Died  in  1520. 

See  Muratori,  "  Annali  d'ltalia." 

Esterhazy  or  Eszterhazy,  §s-ter-hi'ze,  a  noble 
family  of  Hungary,  which  traces  its  origin  to  Paul  d'Es- 
teras,  who  lived  in  the  tenth  century,  and  has  produced 
in  the  space  of  eight  hundred  years  many  eminent  men. 
The  most  celebrated  of  these  was  Paul  Esterhazy  de 
Galantha,  son  of  Nicholas,  born  at  Kis-Martony  (or  Ei- 
senstadt)  in  1635.  He  displayed  literary  talents  at  a  very 
early  age,  and  served  in  the  Austrian  army  with  such 
success  that  he  was  made  a  field-marshal  before  he  was 
thirty  years  old.  In  1681  Count  Esterhazy  was  elected 
Governor-General  or  Palatine  of  Hungary,  and  in  1686 
took  Buda  from  the  Turks.  He  co-operated  with  the 
Austrian  court  in  the  subversion  of  civil  and  religious 
liberty.  He  was  created  a  prince  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  in  1687.  He  used  his  great  wealth  in  the  liberal 
patronage  of  art  and  literature.    Died  in  1713. 

Esterhazy  or  Eszterhazy,  (Nicholas  Joseph,) 
grandson  of  Paul,  born  in  17 14,  succeeded  in  1762  to 
his  titles  and  estates.  He  was  a  knight  of  the  Golden 
Fleece,  privy  councillor,  and  field-marshal -general.  In 
1783  the  dignity  of  prince,  which  was  previously  confined 
to  the  eldest  son  of  the  family,  was  extended  to  all  his 
descendants.  He  patronized  literature  and  the  arts,  es- 
pecially music,  and  collected  at  his  palace  of  Eisenstadt 
the  first  musicians  of  his  time.    Died  in  1790. 

Esterhazy  de  Galantha,  ^s-ter-hd^ze  di  gi-lSn'tS, 
(Nicholas,)  Prince,  a  magnate  of  Hungary,  born  in 
1765,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  married  in  1783 
the  Princess  of  Lichtenstein.  In  1792,  as  ambassador 
to  the  election  of  Francis  II.,  he  displayed  extraordinary 
magnificence.  For  his  alacrity  in  defending  the  Austrian 
throne  against  the  French,  about  1797,  he  was  made  a 
field-marshal  and  privy  councillor,  and  was  employed  in 
diplomatic  missions  to  Paris,  London,  and  Saint  Peters- 
burg from  1801  to  1816.  His  immense  revenues  enabled 
him  to  su])port  a  liberal,  or  rather  a  prodigal,  expenditure. 
Died  in  1833. 


€  as     c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ESTER  HAZY 


868 


EST R  ELLA 


Esterhazy  de  Galantha,  (  Paul  An  i  ony,  )  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1786.  He  represented 
Austria  at  the  court  of  London  from  181 5  to  1818  and 
from  1830  to  1838.  He  favoured  the  national  and  liberal 
movement  which  preceded  the  revolution  of  1848,  and 
held  office  for  a  short  time  in  the  Batthyanyi  ministry, 
but  resigned  before  the  war  began.  He  owiis  larger 
estates  in  land  than  any  other  subject  of  Austria. 

Esther,  es'ter,  [Heb.  "^HDJ^,  ]  a  Jewess,  whose  original 
name  was  Hadas'sah,  (or,  according  to  some  writers, 
Edissa,)  and  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  450 
B.C.  at  Susa,  (vShushan,)  the  ca]:)ital  of  Persia.  She  was  a 
cousin  and  adopted  daughter  of  Mordecai,  and  on  account 
of  her  beauty  was  selected  as  the  queen  of  Ahasuerus, 
King  of  Persia,  who  is  supposed  to  be  the  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus  of  profane  history.  She  has  the  honour  of 
giving  her  name  to  a  canonical  book  of  the  Bible.  The 
authorship  of  this  book  is  not  ascertained. 

See  A.  NiccoLAi,  "L'Ester,  Dissertazione,"  Florence,  1765. 

Estienne.    See  Etienne. 

Es'ti-us  or  van  Est,  vtn  gst,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch 
Catholic  divine,  born  at  Gorkum  in  1542,  was  a  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  Douay.  He  wrote  commentaries 
on  the  Epistles,  and  other  theological  works.  Died  in 
1613. 

Estocart,  L',  l^s'to^klR',  (Charles,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor, who  worked  in  Paris  about  1650. 
IJstocq.    See  Lestocq. 
Estoile.    See  Etoile,  de  l'. 

Estor,  ^s'toR,  (JoHANN  Georg,)  a  German  jurist  and 
legal  writer,  born  in  Hesse  in  1699,  became  professor  of 
law  at  Jena  in  1735.    Died  in  1773. 

Estourmel,  d',  des'tooR^-n§K,  (Alexandre  C^sar 
Louis,)  Comte,  a  French  legislator,  born  in  Paris  in 
1780.  He  was  one  of  the  twenty-nine  deputies  who 
gave  the  influence  of  their  names  to  the  insurgents  who 
dethroned  Charles  X.  In  1833  he  was  sent  on  a  mission 
to  the  United  States,  from  which  he  soon  returned. 

Estourmel,  d',  (FRANgois  de  Sales  Maria  Joseph 
Louis,)  Comte,  a  French  traveller,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  1783  ;  died  in  1852. 

Estourmel,  d',  (Louis  Marie,)  Marquis,  born  in 
Picardy,  France,  in  1744.  As  a  member  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly,  he  opposed  the  Revolution.  He 
afterwards  served  in  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  and  be- 
came a  general  of  division.  In  1805  and  in  1811  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  legislative  body.  Died  in  1823. 

Estouteville,  d',  dgs'toot''veK,(GuiLLAUME,)a  French 
prelate,  born  in  1403.  He  obtained  successively  six 
bishoprics,  some  of  which  were  in  Italy,  and  was  at  the 
same  time  Archbishop  of  Rouen.  He  built  the  towers 
of  the  cathedral  of  Rouen.    Died  in  1483. 

Estrada,  de,  d^  ^s-tR^VDa,  (Bari-olom^;  Ruiz,)  a 
Spanish  pilot,  who  served  under  Pizarro  in  South  Ame- 
rica. He  conducted  Pizarro  and  Almagro  to  the  Rio 
Peru  about  1525. 

Estrades,  d',  d^s^tRtd',  (Godefroi,)  Comte,  an  able 
French  general  and  negotiator,  born  at  Agen  in  1607,  was 
employed  in  several  foreign  missions  from  1637  to  1647. 
As  lieutenant-general,  he  commanded  at  the  siege  of 
Dunkirk  in  1652,  and  at  Rochelle  in  1653.  He  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  England  in  i66r,  and  obtained  the 
cession  of  Dunkirk  to  France.  For  his  military  services 
in  Holland  from  1672  to  1675  he  was  created  marshal  of 
France.  He  negotiated  on  the  part  of  France  the  peace 
of  Nymwegen  in  1678,  and  was  chosen  governor  of  the 
Duke  of  Chartres  in  1685.  He  was  reputed  one  of  the 
ablest  negotiators  of  his  time.    Died  in  1686. 

See  MiGNET,  "  Negociations  relatives  a  la  Succession  d'Espagne  ;" 
"  Nouveile  Biographic  Generale  ;"  and  his  "  Lettres,  Memoires," 
etc.,  published  by  J.  Aymon,  5  vols.,  1709. 

Estrees,  d',  dSs'tR^V,  (Antoine,)  a  son  of  Jean,  (the 
first  of  that  name,)  noticed  below,  was  at  one  time  grand 
master  of  artillery,  and  defended  Noyon  against  the 
Duke  of  Mayenne  in  1593.  Henry  IV.  for  this  service 
appointed  him  Governor  of  the  Isle  of  France. 

Estrees,  d',  (C^sar,)  Cardin.\l,  a  son  of  Fran9ois 
Annibal,  and  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1628.  Soon  after  graduating  in  the  Sorbonne,  he  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Laon.  Having  been  made  a  car- 
dinal, he  was  sent  as  minister  to  Rome,  where  he  con- 


curred in  the  election  of  Innocent  XI.  in  1676.    He  was 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1714. 
See  D'Alhmbekt,  "  Histoire  des  Membres  de  TAcademie." 

Estrees,  d',  (FRANgois  Annihal,)  a  French  general 
and  peer,  born  in  1573,  was  the  son  of  Antoine,  and 
brother  of  Gabrielle.  He  was  for  a  short  time  Bishop 
of  Noyonfbut  exchanged  the  church  for  the  army,  in 
which  his  talents  and  services  procured  for  him  a  mar- 
shal's baton  in  1626.  Richelieu  sent  him  to  Rome  as 
envoy  extraordinary  in  1636.  He  officiated  as  constable 
at  the  coronation  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  soon  after  created 
him  Duke  of  Estrees.    Died  in  1670. 

S*e  B.AZiN,  "  Histoire  de  Louis  XIII ;"  J.  Chassebras,  "filoge 
de  F.  A.  Due  d'Estrees,"  16S7. 

Estrees,  d',  (Gabrielle,)  a  beautiful  French  lady, 
born  about  1571,  was  the  daughter  of  Antoine,  and  a 
sister  of  the  preceding,  the  first  Duke  of  Estrees.  She 
became  the  mistress  of  Henry  IV.,  who  designed  to 
marry  her  and  raise  her  to  the  throne  ;  but  she  died 
suddenly  in  1599.  It  is  said  that  he  was  more  attached 
to  her  than  to  any  other  woman,  and  that  his  partiality 
was  merited  by  her  amiable  qualities. 

See  Tallemant  des  Reaux,  "  Historiettes ;"  Sainte-Beuve, 
"Causeries  du  Lundi;"  Lamothe-Langon,  "Memoires  de  G. 
d'Estrees,"  2  vols.,  1829. 

Estrees,  d',  (Jean,)  a  skilful  French  officer,  born  in 
i486  of  a  noble  family  in  Picardy.  He  followed  Francis 
I.  to  the  battles  of  Marignao,  (151 5,)  Pavi'a,  (1525,)  and 
Cerisoles,  (1544.)  In  1550  he  was  chosen  grand  master 
and  captain-general  of  the  artillery.  He  embraced  the 
Reformed  doctrines,  and  became  attached  to  the  cause 
of  Henry  of  Navarre.    Died  in  157 1. 

See  Brantome,  "  Vies  des  grands  Capitaines ;"  Mor^ri,  "  Dic- 
tionnaire  Historique." 

Estrees,  d',  (Jean,)  Comte,  a  French  marshal,  a  son 
of  Fran9ois  Annibal,  was  bornjn  1624.  As  lieutenant- 
general,  he  commanded  a  corps-d'armee  at  Valenciennes 
in  1655.  Having  entered  into  the  marine  service,  he 
became  a  vice-admiral  in  1670,  and  commanded  the 
French  fleet  at  Solebay  against  De  Ruyter  in  1672.  He 
gained  advantages  over  the  Dutch  at  Cayenne  and  To- 
bago in  1676-77,  and  was  made  a  marshal  of  France  in 
1681,  being  the  first  naval  officer  who  ever  obtained  that 
rank.    Died  in  1707,  leaving  a  son,  Victor  Marie. 

See  Leon  Guerin,  "  Les  Marins  illustres  dela  France  ;""  Nou- 
veile Biographie  Generale." 

Estrees,  d',  (Jean,)  a  French  courtier  and  priest, 
nephew  of  Cardinal  d'Estrees,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1666. 
He  was  ambassador  to  Spain  in  1703,  and  succeeded 
Boileau  in  the  French  Academy  in  171 1.  The  king 
appointed  him  in  17 16  successor  to  Fenelon  as  Arch- 
bishop of  Cambray  ;  but  he  died  before  his  consecration, 
in  1718. 

Estrees,  d',  (Louis  C^:sar  Letellier — leh-ti'le-^',) 
Comte,  born  in  1697,  was  a  nephew  (sister's  son)  of 
Victor  Marie,  and  was  styled  in  youth  Chevalier  de 
Louvois.  He  was  a  grandson  of  the  famous  minister 
Louvois.  In  1739  he  assumed  the  name  of  Comte 
d'Estrees.  As  lieutenant-general,  he  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  Flanders  from  1744  to  1748.  In  1756  he 
became  a  marshal  of  France,  received  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  army  in  Germany,  and  defeated  the  Duke 
of  Cumberland  near  Hastenbeck  in  1757.  He  died, 
without  issue,  in  177 1. 

See  "Nouveile  Biographie  Generale." 

Estrees,  d',  (Victor  Marie,)  Due,  an  admiral,  the 
son  of  Jean,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1660. 
He  obtained  in  1684  the  reversion  of  the  vice-admiralty 
possessed  by  his  father.  At  the  death  of  his  uncle,  in 
1687,  he  inherited  the  title  of  duke.  In  1690  he  de- 
stroyed the  fleet  of  the  English  admiral  Torrington.  In 
the  war  of  the  S]5anish  succession  he  commanded  the 
fleet  sent  to  aid  Philip  V.  of  Spain.  He  was  made  a 
marshal  of  France  in  1703,  and  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  about  1 7 14.  He  was  a  good  scholar  and  a 
patron  of  learning.    Died  in  1737. 

See  L.  Guerin,  "Les  Marins  illustres  de  la  France;"  Henne- 
QUIN,  "  Biographie  maritime;"  Rene  Biet,  "  filoge  de  M.  \z  Mare- 
chal  d'Estrees,"  1739. 

Estrella,  Ss-tRgKyS,  (Juan  Cristoval  Calvete — 
kSl-va'ti,)  a  Spaniard,  who  wrote  a  "Narrative  of  the 
Voyage  of  Philip  of  Spain  to  Flanders  in  1549." 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ky  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


ESTRUP 


869 


ETIENNE 


Estrup,  ^s'tRoop,  (Hektor  Frederik  Janson,  )  a 
Danish  writer,  born  about  1794;  died  in  1846. 

Eszterhazy.    See  Esterhazy. 

^tampes,  i'tS.Mp',  or  Estampes,  i'tSMp',  (Anne,) 
Duchess  of,  called  at  first  Mademoiselle  de  Heilly, 
a  French  lady,  born  in  1508.  She  was  a  mistress  of 
Francis  I.,  over  whom  her  beauty  and  talent^  acquired 
great  influence.  She  was  complimented  as  "the  fairest 
among  the  learned,  and  the  most  learned  among  the 
fair."    Died  about  1576. 

idtampes  or  Estampes,  d',  (Jacques,)  Marquis  de 
Ferte-Imbaut,  a  French  general,  born  in  1590.  He 
displayed  skill  and  courage  in  many  campaigns  in  Flan- 
ders, and  was  lieutenant-general  at  the  battle  of  Lens 
in  1648.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  165 1.  Died 
in  1668. 

^tampes  or  Estampes -Valen9ay,  d',  di'tSMp' 
vS'lON^si',  (  Henri,  )  a  naval  officer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1603,  commanded  the  French  squadron  which  blockaded 
Rochelle  under  the  orders  of  Richelieu.  In  1652  he 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  in 
1670  was  chosen  grand  prior  of  France.    Died  in  1678. 

See  MoKERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Etchegoyen,  i'chi'go^e'en',  a  French  philosopher, 
born  near  Pau  (Beam)  about  1786.  He  published  a 
work  entitled  "  On  Unity,  or  a  Philosophic  Treatise  on 
the  Identity  of  the  Principles  of  Mathematics,  General 
Grammar,  and  the  Christian  Religion,"  (4  vols.,  1836- 
42,)  which  is  highly  commended.    Died  in  1843. 

Etcheverri.    See  Echeverrl 

^teocle.    See  Eteocles. 

E-te'o-cles,  [Gr.  'Erfo/cAf/f;  Fr.  Et^ocle,  i't^okK,] 
a  son  of  CEdipus,  after  whose  death  he  and  his  brother 
Polynices  agreed  to  reign  alternately  at  Thebes.  Eteo- 
cles having  usurped  the  sole  power,  his  brother  fled  to 
Adrastus,  who  espoused  his  cause  and  led  the  expedi- 
tion of  the  Seven  against  Thebes.  Eteocles  was  killed 
by  Polynices  in  a  single  combat, 

£tex,  i't^ks',  (Antoine,)  a  successful  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Paris  in  1808.  Among  his  works  are  statues  of 
Charlemagne  at  the  Luxembourg,  Saint  Augustine  at  the 
Madeleine,  busts  of  Chateaubriand  and  Cavaignac,  and 
two  colossal  groups  which  decorate  the  Arc  de  I'Etoile. 

Eth'el-bSld,  King  of  Mercia,  who  began  to  reign  in 
716  A.D.,  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  princes  who  ruled 
this  part  of  the  Heptarchy.  He  was  defeated  by  Cuthred, 
King  of  Wessex,  in  754  and  in  757,  and  soon  after  was 
killed  by  Beornred,  one  of  his  officers. 

Ethelbald,  King  of  Wessex,  or  of  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
was  the  eldest  surviving  son  of  Ethelvvolf,  and  brother 
of  Alfred  the  Great.  While  his  father  was  absent  from 
the  kingdom  in  855,  Ethelbald  aspired  to  the  throne  with 
such  success  that  Ethelwolf,  for  the  sake  of  peace,  ceded 
to  him  the  kingdom  of  Wessex.  He  married  his  father's 
widow,  Judith  of  France.  Died  in  860,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  Ethelbert. 

Eth'el-bert,  King  of  Kent,  son  of  Hermenric,  began 
to  reign  about  560  a.d.  By  a  victory  over  Ceaulin,  King 
of  Wessex,  he  obtained  the  ascendency  in  the  Heptarchy, 
Before  the  death  of  his  father  he  married  Bertha  of 
Paris,  a  French  princess,  who  was  a  zealous  Christian 
and  gained  great  influence  over  the  king  and  people. 
The  conversion  of  Ethelbert,  with  many  of  his  subjects, 
was  completed  by  the  agency  of  a  Roman  monk,  Augus- 
tine, who  arrived  in  597.  Under  Ethelbert's  wise  reign 
the  kingdom  was  prosperous.  He  was  the  author  of  the 
first  written  laws  among  the  Anglo-Saxons.  Died  in  616. 

See  Lingard's  "  History  of  England." 

Ethelbert,  King  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  a  son  of  Ethel- 
wolf,  succeeded  his  brother  Ethelbald  in  860  A.D.  During 
the  life  of  his  father,  in  852,  he  had  been  made  king  or 
regent  of  Kent,  Essex,  and  Sussex,  to  which  Wessex  was 
added  at  the  death  of  Ethelbald.  The  kingdom  was 
infested  by  the  Danes  during  his  reign.  He  died  in  865 
or  866,  and  left  the  throne  to  his  brother,  Ethelred. 

Ethelfleda.    See  Elfleda. 

Eth'el-frid  or  A'del-frid,  King  of  Northumbria, 
began  to  reign  in  593  a.d.  He  was  killed  in  battle 
fighting  against  Redwald  in  617. 

Eth-el-gi'va,  an  ambitious  concubine  of  Edwy,  King 
of  the  Anglo-Saxons.    Her  influence  over  Edwy  excited 


the  jealousy  of  his  subjects,  who  put  her  to  death  in  958 

A.D. 

Ethelnoth.    See  Agelnoth. 

Eth'el-red  I.,  written  also  Ethelred,  King  of  Wes- 
sex, and  head  of  the  Saxon  Heptarchy,  the  fourth  son 
of  Ethelwolf,  became  king  in  866  a.d.  In  the  same  year 
a  large  army  of  Danes  invaded  the  island,  and  in  a  few 
years  had  conquered  about  half  of  the  kingdom.  In  870 
the  English  under  Alfred  defeated  the  Danes  at  Ash- 
Tree  Hill.  The  next  year  the  Danes  defeated  the  English 
at  Merton,  where  Ethelred  received  a  mortal  wound. 
His  brother,  Alfred  the  Great,  was  his  successor. 

Ethelred  II.,  written  also  JGthelred,  surnamed  the 
Unready,  King  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  was  the  son  of 
Edgar  and  Elfrida.  He  was  born  about  968  A.D.,  and 
succeeded  his  half-brother,  Edward  the  Martyr,  in  978. 
The  crimes  of  Elfrida  rendered  the  people  disafl"ected  to 
her  son,  who  was  accepted  only  because  there  was  no 
other  heir.  His  reign  was  perhaps  the  most  disastrous 
and  inglorious  in  English  history.  The  kingdom  was  re- 
peatedly ravaged  by  the  Danes,  who,  after  extorting  large 
sums  of  money  as  the  price  of  peace,  soon  returned  for 
more,  and  demanded  each  time  a  larger  tribute.  In  1002 
Ethelred  ordered  a  general  massacre  of  the  Danish 
settlers  in  his  realm,  which  was  avenged  by  Sweyn,  King 
of  the  Danes,  who  took  London  in  1014.  Ethelred  then 
fled  to  the  court  of  the  Duke  of  Normandy,  whose  sister 
Emma  he  had  married.  He  died  in  1016,  leaving  two 
sons,  Edmund  Ironside  and  Edward  the  Confessor,  who 
became  kings. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap.  ii. ;  Freeman, 
"  Norinan  Conquest,"  vol.  i.  chap.  v. 

Eth'el-werd  or  Eth'el-ward,  an  Anglo-Saxon 
writer  of  the  eleventh  century,  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons,"  in  Latin. 

Eth'el-wold,  a  learned  Anglo-Saxon  prelate,  born 
about  925,  was  a  friend  of  Dunstan,  He  became  Bishop 
of  Winchester  in  963,  founded  several  monasteries,  and 
made  a  reform  in  the  monastic  orders  by  the  expulsion 
of  married  priests.    Died  in  984. 

Eth'el-wolf,  (eth'el-woolf,)  King  of  Wessex,  or  of  the 
Saxon  Heptarchy,  the  eldest  son  of  Egbert,  began  to  reign 
in  836  A.D.  The  country  in  this  reign  was  harassed  by 
frequent  invasions  of  the  Danes,  who  in  851  plundered 
London.  Soon  after  this  they  were  defeated  with  great 
loss  at  Okeley  by  Ethelwolf.  He  had  five  sons,  Ethel- 
stan,  (who  died  before  his  father,)  Ethelbald,  Ethelbert, 
Ethelred,  and  Alfred  the  Great.  In  856  he  married  Judith 
of  France,  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bald,  and  resigned 
Wessex  to  Ethelbald.    Died  in  858. 

See  William  of  Malmesbury,  "DeGestis  Regum  Anglorum. " 

Ethelwolf,  an  Anglo-Saxon  monk  of  the  eighth  and 
ninth  centuries,  born  before  770,  wrote  a  metrical  history 
of  the  Abbots,  etc.  of  the  monastery  of  Lindisfarne,  which 
is  of  some  historical  value,  and  has  some  interest  as  the 
only  specimen  of  Anglo-Latin  poetry  of  that  period. 

Eth'er-ege  or  Etheridge,  (Sir  George,)  an  English 
wit  and  dramatic  author,  born  about  1636,  wrote  several 
licentious  and  successful  comedies,  among  which  are 
"  Love  in  a  Tub,"  and  "  Sir  Fopling  Flutter,  or  the  Man 
of  Mode."  James  II.  sent  him  as  minister  to  Ratisbon 
about  1687,    Died  about  1690. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Etheridge,    See  Etherege. 

Ethicus.    See  i^Lrmcus. 

]6thra,  the  French  of  ^^^thra,  which  see. 

Eth'ryg,  written  also  Etheridge,  [Lat.  Edry'cus,] 
(George,)  was  professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford  in  1553. 
He  published  a  Latin  version  of  Justin  Martyr,  and 
several  other  works.    He  was  a  zealous  Catholic. 

]6tienne,  a'te'^n',  written  also  Estienne,  (Antoine,) 
son  of  Paul,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Geneva  in  1594, 
In  1614  he  obtained  the  title  of  printer  to  the  King  of 
France,  with  a  pension  of  50olivres,  and  published  many 
valuable  editions  of  ancient  authors.    Died  in  1674. 

]6tienne,  i'te'gn',  or  Estienne,  (Charles,)  a  scholar 
and  physician,  born  in  Paris  about  1504.  In  1551  he  en- 
gaged in  printing  in  Paris,  and  was  appointed  printer  to 
the  king.  His  editions  were  models  of  typography  and 
accuracy.  He  compiled  several  dictionaries,  a  "  Thesau- 
rus Ciceronis,"  (1557,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1564. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (S^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.] 


ETIENNE 


870 


ETTY 


S5tienne,  (Charles  Guillaume,)  a  French  dramatic 
poet,  born  at  Chamouilly  in  1778.  He  produced  in  1807 
the  successful  comedy  of  "  Brueys  et  Palaprat."  His 
comedy  of  "Two  Sons-in-Law"  ("Deux  Gendres") 
opened  to  him  the  French  Academy  in  181 1.  After  the 
restoration  he  became  editor  of  the  "  Constitutionnel," 
which  he  rendered  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  liberal 
organs  of  Paris.  His  "  Letters  on  Paris,"  which  appeared 
in  the  "Minerve,"  were  read  with  avidity.  He  sat  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1822  to  1839,  when  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage.  He  was  author  of  numerous 
comedies  and  operas.    Died  in  1845. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  Leon  Thiess^,  "  M. 
Jfitienne;  Essai  biographique  et  litteraire,"  1853;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

£ tienne  or  Estienne,  [Eng.  Ste'phens;  Lat.  Steph'- 
ANUS,]  (Henry  I.,)  born  in  Paris  about  1470  or  1460,  was 
the  head  of  a  remarkable  family  of  printers  and  scholars, 
who  greatly  promoted  the  progress  of  learning  by  the 
issue  of  good  editions  of  classic  authors.  He  began  to 
print  books  about  1503,  and  chose  the  device  "Plus  olei 
quam  vini,"  ("More  oil  than  wine.")  His  publications, 
were  chiefly  scientific  or  theological.  He  died  in  1520, 
leaving  three  sons,  Francis,  Robert,  and  Charles.  Simon 
de  Colines  married  his  widow,  and  continued  the  business 
in  partnership  with  Francis. 

Etienne  or  Estienne,  (Henry  H.,)  son  of  Robert 
fitienne,  (the  first  of  that  name,)  born  in  Paris  in  1528, 
is  considered  by  some  the  most  eminent  of  the  whole 
family.  In  childhood  he  showed  a  remarkable  aptitude 
in  acquiring  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages,  and  about 
the  age  of  eighteen  he  began  to  assist  his  father  in  his 
business.  In  1547  he  visited  Italy,  where  he  passed 
three  years  in  the  search  of  ancient  literary  treasures. 
He  established  a  press  in  Paris  about  1556,  and  adopted 
as  his  emblem  the  olive-tree.  At  the  death  of  his  father, 
in  1559,  Henry  appears  to  have  removed  to  Geneva  and 
to  have  taken  charge  of  his  father's  establishment.  The 
number  of  works  which  he  printed  and  edited  is  immense. 
His  celebrated  Greek  "Thesaurus,"  or  "Dictionary," 
(1572,)  would  alone  insure  him  an  enduring  reputation. 
The  learned  bestowed  on  this  the  highest  eulogies  ;  but 
the  sale  of  it  was  retarded  by  its  great  price,  (especially 
after  an  abridgment  was  published  by  Scapula,)  and  the 
author  was  involved  in  pecuniary  difficulties.  He  pub- 
lished, among  others,  editions  of  Herodotus,  yEschylus, 
Plato,  Horace,  Virgil,  Pliny,  and  Plutarch.  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  time  he  led  a  wandering  life,  passing  several 
years  in  Paris,  and  in  other  parts  of  France.  He  pro- 
fessed the  Reformed  religion,  and  was  one  of  the  most 
learned  men  that  have  ever  lived.  He  died  in  Lyons  in 
1598,  leaving  one  son,  Paul,  and  a  daughter,  who  was 
the  wife  of  Isaac  Casaubon. 

See  Maittaire,  "Stephanorum  Historia,"  1709;  Renouard, 
"Annalesdes  Estienne,"  1843;  Firmin  Didot,  "  Oljservations  siir 
Henri  Estienne,"  1826;  Leon  Feugere,  "Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les 
Ouvrages  de  H.  Estienne,"  1853;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
April,  1S65  ;  also  Ambrose  Firmin  Didot's  notice  in  the  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

idtienne  or  Estienne,  (Henry  III.,)  son  of  Robert, 
(the  second  of  that  name,)  became  treasurer  of  the 
French  royal  palaces.  He  had  a  son  Henry,  who  had 
some  reputation  as  a  poet,  and  was  the  author  of  the 
"Art  of  making  Devices"  and  "The  Triumphs  of  Louis 
the  Just,"  (1649.) 

Etienne  or  ISstienne,  (Paul,)  son  of  Henry  fitienne, 
(the  second  of  that  name,)  born  at  Geneva  in  1566,  applied 
himself  to  the  same  pursuits  in  which  his  ancestors  had 
acquired  such  fame.  After  travelling  for  several  years  in 
various  countries  of  Europe,  he  returned  to  Geneva,  and 
became  successor  to  his  father  in  1599.  He  produced 
fine  editions  of  Euripides,  Sophocles,  and  other  classic 
authors.    Died  about  1627. 

Etienne  or  Estienne,  (Robert  I.,)  born  in  Paris  in 
1503,  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  printers  of  this 
family,  and  one  of  the  most  excellent  scholars  of  his 
time.  He  was  well  versed  in  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew. 
In  1526  he  established  a  press,  from  which  he  issued 
editions  of  the  classics  that  were  superior  to  all  former 
editions  and  in  many  cases  were  enriched  with  notes 
and  prefaces  by  himself.  In  1532  he  published  an  edition 
of  the  Bible  in  Latin,  and  in  the  same  year  an  important 


original  work,  "Thesaurus  Linguae  Latmae,"  which  has 
often  been  reprinted.  In  1539  he  was  appointed  printer 
to  the  king.  As  litienne  was  a  Protestant,  this  favour 
excited  the  jealousy  of  the  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne,  who 
instigated  a  charge  of  heresy  against  him ;  but  he  was 
protected  by  Francis  I.  as  long  as  the  latter  lived. 
After  the  accession  of  Henry  II.,  (1547,)  the  vexations 
to  which  he  was  subjected  by  the  Catholics,  who  wished 
to  stop  the  sale  of  his  Bible,  induced  him  to  remove  to 
Geneva  in  1552.  He  compiled  the  first  "Latin-French 
Dictionary,"  (1543,)  which  was  much  esteemed.  His 
contemporaries  ranked  him  among  the  greatest  scholars 
that  ever  lived.  He  died  in  1559,  leaving  three  sons, 
Henry,  Robert,  and  Francis. 

See  Maittaire,  "Stephanorum  Historia,"  1709;  Nici^ron, 
"Memoires;"  A.  F.  Didot's  article  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale ;"  and  his  "  Essai  sur  la  Typographic ;"  also  "  London  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  April,  1865. 

ijtienne  or  Estienne,  (Robert  II.,)  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Paris  about  1530.  As  he  preferred  the 
old  religion,  he  refused  to  follow  his  father  to  Geneva, 
and  opened  a  printing-office  in  Paris  about  1556.  In  1561 
he  received  the  title  of  printer  to  the  king.  Died  in  1 571, 
leaving  two  sons,  Robert  and  Henry. 

Etienne  or  Estienne,  (Robert  III.,)  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Paris,  and  commenced  business 
as  a  printer  in  1572.  He  was  a  man  of  talents  and  cul- 
tivation, and  author  of  several  poetical  pieces.  He 
translated  the  "  Rhetoric"  of  Aristotle  into  French. 
Died  about  1630. 

See  Gresweli,,  "Parisian  Greek  Press;"  A.  A.  Renouard, 
"Annalesdes  Estienne,"  1843  ;  Didot,  "  Essai  sur  la  Typographic." 

Etienne  de  Blois.  See  Stephen,  King  of  England. 

]dtienne  de  Tournay,  i''te-en'  deh  tooR'ni',  a  French 
prelate,  born  at  Orleans  in  1132;  died  in  1203. 

^toile  or  Estoile,  de  1',  deh  li'twiK,  (Claude,)  born 
in  Paris  about  1597,  was  the  son  of  Pierre,  noticed  below. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  French  Academy, 
and  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Cardinal  Richelieu.  His  prin- 
cipal productions  were  "The  Fair  Slave,"  atragi-comedy, 
and  some  fugitive  ])oems.    Died  in  165 1. 

idtoile  or  Estoile,  de  1',  (Pierre,)  a  French  chroni- 
cler, born  in  Paris  about  1544,  was  a  crier  (grand  mtdien- 
cier)  of  the  chancery.  He  left  a  promiscuous  journal 
of  events,  anecdotes,  manners,  customs,  etc.  diu'ing  the 
reigns  of  Henry  HI.  and  Henry  IV.,  (i 574-1 610,)  which 
was  published,  the  first  part  in  162 1  and  the  second 
part  in  17 19.  It  is  highly  prized  by  antiquaries  and 
students  of  history,  and  appears  to  have  been  written 
with  candour.    Died  in  161 1. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Ettmiiller,  gt'mvirier,  (Ernst  Moritz  Ludwig,)  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Gersdorf,  near  Lobau,  in 
1802.  He  is  distinguished  for  his  researches  in  ancient 
German  literature.  In  1833  he  became  professor  of 
German  at  Zurich.  He  published,  besides  editions  of 
old  German  poets,  several  epic  poems,  among  which  is 
"  The  Chiefs  of  the  Royal  German  Houses,"  ("  Deutsche 
Stammkonige,"  1844,)  also  an  "Anglo-Saxon  Lexicon," 
(1852.) 

Ettmiiller,  (Michael,)  an  eminent  German  physician, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1644.  He  graduated  in  1668,  and  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  in  1676.  He 
acquired  great  popularity  as  professor  of  botany  and 
surgery  in  Leipsic.  His  works  were  often  reprinted, 
with  the  title  of  "Opera  Omnia."    Died  in  1683. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ettmiiller,  (Michael  Ernst,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1673.  He  practised  in  Leipsic, 
and  was  successively  professor  of  anatomy,  ])hysiology 
and  medicine  in  the  university  of  that  city.  Died'  in  1732. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Et'ty,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  historical 
painter,  born  at  York  in  1787,  was  a  pupil  of  Sir  Thomas 
Lawrence.  He  visited  Italy  in  1816,  and  again  in  1822, 
and  copied  with  rapidity  many  of  the  old  masters.  His 
picture  of  "Cleopatra  arriving  in  Cilicia,"  exhibited  in 
the  Academy  in  1821,  was  very  successful.  In  1824  he 
was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Hi.^ 
favourite  subjects  were  nude  female  figures.  He  attained 
a  high  rank  among  English  painters,  and  is  considered 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,    short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fHU,  f^t;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


EUBCEUS 


871 


EUDES 


unrivalled  as  a  colorist.  Among  his  best  productions  are 
•'Pandora  crowned  by  the  Seasons,"  (1824,)  "The  Com- 
bat:  Woman  pleading  for  the  Vanquished,"  (1825,) 
"Joan  of  Arc,"  "Ulysses  and  the  Sirens,"  and  "The 
Judgment  of  Paris,"  (1826.)  In  1848  a  collection  of 
one  hundred  and  thirty  of  his  pictures  was  exhibited  in 
London.    Died  in  1849. 

See  his  "Autobiography;"  A.  Gilchrist,  "Life  of  William 
Etty,"  1S55  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1855. 

Euboeus,  ii-bee'us,  [EvSoLog,]  of  Paros,  a  celebrated 
Greek  writer  of  parodies,  lived  about  350  B.C.  His  works 
are  not  extant. 

Eubulide.    See  Eubulides. 

Eu-bu'li-des,  [Gr.  Ev6ov?u67]c;  Fr.  Eubulide,  uh'bii'- 
Ihd',]  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Megaric  school,  was 
a  native  of  Miletus  and  an  adversary  of  Aristotle.  He 
flourished  probably  about  350  B.C.  He  was  the  reputed 
author  of  several  sophistical  syllogisms,  among  which 
was  the  sorites,  and  was  one  of  the  successors  of  Euclid 
in  the  school  of  Megara. 

See  Mallet,  "  Histoire  de  I'^cole  de  Megare." 

Eubulides,  [EvSovXldrjg,]  a  Greek  statuary  of  un- 
certain date.  He  made  a  group  of  statues  of  Apollo, 
Athena,  Zeus,  and  the  Muses,  which  he  dedicated  in  a 
temple  at  Athens.    This  group  was  found  in  1837. 

Eu-bu'lus,  [EvSovXog,]  an  eminent  Greek  comic  poet 
of  the  middle  comedy,  lived  at  Athens  about  375  B.C. 
He  composed  many  comedies  on  mythological  subjects, 
and  in  simple,  elegant  language.  Small  fragments  of  his 
works  are  extant. 

See  Clinton,  "Fasti  Hellenic!." 

Eu-ehe'ri-us,  [Fr.  Eucher,  uh'shaiR',]  a  native  of 
Gaul,  became  Bishop  of  Lyons  about  434  a.d.  He  wrote 
several  religious  works,  which  are  extant.  Died  about 
450  A.D. 

Eucleides  or  Euclides.    See  Euclid. 

Eu'clid,  Eu-cli'des,  Eu-kli'des  or  Eu-clei'des, 
[Gr.  EvkMStic;  Fr.  EucLiDE,  uh'kl^d', ]  OF  Alexan- 
dria, a  celebrated  Greek  geometer,  whose  name  is  nearly 
synonymous  with  geometry,  but  of  whose  life  we  have 
only  scanty  information.  He  taught  mathematics  in  the 
capital  of  Egypt  in  the  reign  of  the  first  Ptolemy,  (323 
-283  B.C.,)  and  appears  to  have  been  a  disciple  of  the 
Platonic  philosophy.  Having  been  asked  by  Ptolemy  if 
geometry  could  be  mastered  by  some  easier  method  than 
the  ordinary  one,  he  returned  the  witty  and  celebrated 
answer,  "  There  is  no  royal  road  to  geometry."  He  was 
the  editor  or  author  of  the  most  ancient  systems  of  geo- 
metry which  are  extant,  and  surpassed  all  competitors  in 
the  luminous  exposition  of  his  theorems  and  the  rigorous 
order  of  his  demonstrations.  For  about  two  thousand 
years  no  improvement  was  made  on  his  labours,  and  his 
Elements  were  considered  an  almost  perfect  standard. 

See  Delambre,"  Histoire  de  I'Astronomie  ancienne  ;"  Montucla, 
"Histoire  des  Matheniatiques ;"  Smith,  " Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Biography  and  Mythology." 

Euclid,  Euclides,  Euklides,  or  Eucleides,  [Gr. 

EvuMdrig;  Fr.  Euclide,]  of  Meg'ara,  a  Greek  philoso- 
pher, an  eminent  disciple  of  Socrates,  flourished  about 
400  B.C.  He  also  derived  some  of  his  doctrines  from  the 
Eleatic  school.  On  the  death  of  Socrates,  399  B.C.,  he 
removed  to  Megara,  where  he  founded  the  school  called 
Megaric  or  Dialectic.  He  appears  to  have  combined  in 
his  system  the  ethics  of  Socrates  with  the  ontology  or 
metaphysics  of  the  Eleatics.  In  the  fifteenth  century  he 
was  often  confounded  with  Euclid  the  great  geometer. 

See  Mallet,  "  Histoire  de  I'ficole  de  Megare;"  G.  H.  Lewes, 
"Biographical  History  of  Philosophy;"  "Dictionnaire  des  Sciences 
philosophiques." 

Euclide.    See  Euclid  and  Euclides. 

Eu-cli'des  or  EU-clei'des  [Gr.  EvkXelSi]^;  Fr.  Eu- 
clide, ul/kl^d']  was  archon  of  Athens  in  403  B.C.  During 
his  archonship  the  ancient  laws  of  Solon  were  restored. 

Euclides,  an  Athenian  sculptor,  mentioned  by  Pau- 
sanias,  lived  about  372  B.C. 

Euclides,  a  Spartan  general,  a  brother  of  Cleomenes 
III.,  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Sellasia,  223  B.C. 

Euclides,  ({he  geometrician.)  See  Euclid  of  Alex- 
andria. 

Euclides,  (the  philosopher.)  See  Euclid  of  Meg- 
ara. 


Eu'cra-tes,  [Gr.  EvKpuTTjg ;  Fr.  Eucrate,  uh^kRtt',] 
an  Athenian  general,  a  brother  of  Nicias,  lived  about 
420  B.C.    He  was  put  to  death  by  the  Thirty  Tyrants. 

Eucratide.    See  Eucratides. 

Eu-crat'i-des,  [Gr.  EvKpaTidrjg  ;  Fr.  Eucratide,  uh'- 
kRt^t^d',]  a  powerful  king  of  Bactria,  reigned  probably 
between  180  and  150  B.C.,  and  was  contemporary  with 
Mithridates  I.  of  Parthia.  He  waged  war  against  De- 
metrius, King  of  India,  and  made  extensive  conquests  in 
the  northern  part  of  that  empire.  He  was  assassinated 
by  his  own  son. 

Eiic-te'mon,  [  Ev/cr^^wv,  ]  an  Athenian  astronomer, 
who  lived  about  432  B.C.,  was  a  friend  and  associate  of 
Meton,  the  inventor  of  the  cycle  of  nineteen  years.  He 
corrected  the  time  assigned  by  Hesiod  for  the  heliacal 
setting  of  the  Pleiades. 

Eudaemon,  u-dee'mon,  (Johannes  Andreas,)  born 
in  the  isle  of  Candia  about  1560,  came  to  Rome  in  his 
youth,  and  joined  the  Jesuits  in  1 581.  He  was  a  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  and  rector  of  the  Greek  College 
in  Rome.  He  wrote  an  apology  for  Henry  Garnet,  an 
English  Jesuit,  which  was  answered  by  Isaac  Casaubon, 
and  he  was  the  reputed  author  of  a  libel  against  Louis 
XIII.  of  France,  "  Ad  Ludovicum  XIII.  Admonitio," 
(1625.)    Died  in  1625. 

Eu-dam^i-das,  [Em^ajiLdag,']  a  Spartan  general,  who 
lived  between  400  and  375  B.C. 

Eudamidas,  a  king  of  Sparta,  a  son  of  Archidamus 
III.,  began  to  reign  about  330  B.C. 

Eudeme.    See  Eudemus. 

Eu-de'mus  [Gr.  Evdr/fiog ;  Fr.  Eudeme,  uh'd^m'] 
of  Rhodes,  a  Greek  Peripatetic  philosopher,  who  flou- 
rished about  330  B.C.  He  was  one  of  the  principal  dis- 
ciples of  Aristotle,  and  rendered  important  services  as 
editor  and  commentator  of  the  works  of  his  master. 
Several  modern  critics  ascribe  to  Eudemus  certain 
works  which  others  suppose  to  have  been  written  by 
Aristotle  himself.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of 
Geometry  and  Astronomy,"  which  is  not  extant. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca  ;"  Diogenes  Laertius. 

Eudemus,  [Gr.  Ev6t]^og ;  Fr.  Eudeme,]  a  general  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  He  obtained  command  of  the 
army  left  in  India,  and,  after  the  death  of  Alexander, 
conquered  the  dominions  of  Porus,  whom  he  killed  by 
insidious  means.  He  joined  Eumenes  in  a  war  against 
Antigonus,  by  whom  he  was  put  to  death  about  316  B.C. 

Eudemus,  a  celebrated  Greek  anatomist,  who  lived 
probably  in  the  third  century  B.C.  According  to  Galen, 
he  was  a  contemporary  of  Erasistratus. 

Eudes.    See  Eudo. 

Eu'des, [Fr.  pron.  ud,]  Count  of  Paris,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Robert,  Duke  of  France.  In  885  a.d.  he  ably 
defended  Paris  against  the  Normans  for  nearly  a  year. 
At  the  death  of  Charles  le  Gros,  in  888,  Eudes  was  elected 
King  of  France  by  many  of  the  nobles.  The  throne  being 
contested  by  Charles  III.,  Eudes  made  peace  by  ceding 
to  him  the  country  between  the  Seine  and  the  Rhine. 
Died  in  898. 

Eudes  I.,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  succeeded  his  brother, 
Hugh  (Hugues)  I.,  in  1078.  He  once  attacked  Anselm, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  with  the  design  to  rob  him, 
but  was  so  affected  by  his  venerable  aspect  that  he 
changed  his  mind.  He  afterwards  departed  on  a  crusade 
to  Palestine,  and  died  in  Cilicia  in  1103. 

Eudes  II.,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  was  the  son  of  Hugh 
II.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1142.  In  1143  he  compelled 
Thibaut  of  Champagne  to  render  homage  for  the  county 
of  Troyes  and  other  fiefs.  Died  in  1162,  and  left  the 
duchy  to  Hugues  HI. 

Eudes  III.,  grandson  of  Eudes  II.,  became  Duke  of 
Burgundy  in  1 190.  He  refused  the  chief  command  of  the 
crusaders  in  1201,  and  remained  at  home.  In  1214  he 
commanded  a  wing  of  the  French  army  at  the  battle  of 
Bouvines.  Diedini2i8.  His  son,  Hugh  IV.,  was  his  heir. 

Eudes  IV.,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  was  the  son  of  Robert 
II.,  and  succeeded  his  brother,  Hugh  V.,  in  13 15.  He 
married  in  1318  the  daughter  of  Philip,  King  of  France. 
In  a  long  and  prosperous  reign  he  was  a  powerful  sup- 
port to  the  throne  of  Charles  the  Fair,  who  was  his 
nephew,  and  of  Philip  of  Valois,  who  married  Eudes's 
sister.    Died  in  1350. 


«  as  /t;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  o,  H,    guttural;  N,  tmsal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (jJl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


EUDES 


872  EUGENE 


Iiudes,  Count  of  Champagne,  was  an  ambitious  and 
warlike  baron,  and  one  of  the  most  powerful  feudatories 
of  the  kingdom.  In  an  attempt  to  make  himself  master 
of  Lorraine,  he  was  defeated  and  killed  in  1037. 

Eudes,  ud,  (Jean,)  a  French  priest,  born  at  Ry,  near 
Argentan,  in  1601,  was  a  brother  of  Mezeray  the  historian. 
About  1645  he  founded  for  the  promotion  of  missions 
a  new  community  called  Eudistes,  which  was  dissolved 
at  the  Revolution.  He  wrote  several  devotional  works. 
Died  in  1680. 

Eudes  de  Mezeray.    See  M^izeray. 

Eu'do  [Fr.  EuDON,  uh'ddN']  or  Eudes,  Duke  of 
Aquitaine  and  Vasconie,  ( Gascony, )  born  in  665  A.D., 
succeeded  his  father  Boggison  about  681.  He  added  to 
his  dominions  large  tracts  obtained  by  conquest  from  the 
Kings  of  Austrasia  and  Neustria.  In  720  a  large  army 
of  Saracens  invaded  his  dominions,  and  were  signally 
defeated  near  Toulouse,  the  capital  of  Eudo.  About  732 
Aquitaine  was  invaded  by  Abderrahman  the  Saracen,  who 
defeated  Eudo.  The  latter  then  solicited  the  aid  of  his 
former  enemy,  Charles  Martel,  who  gained  an  important 
victory  over  the  Saracens  at  Poitiers.   Died  in  735  a.d. 

Eudocia,  u-do'she-a.,  [Gr.  Et-Jo/ck;  Fr.  Eudocie, 
uhMo'se',]  sometimes~called  Eudoxia,  a  Roman  em- 
press, distinguished  for  her  beauty  and  talents,  the  wife 
of  Theodosius  II.,  was  born  at  Athens  about  394  a.d., 
and  was  called  Athenais  before  her  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity. She  was  married  in  421  a.d.  Theodosius  be- 
came jealous,  and  banished  her  in  449  to  Palestine,  where 
she  died  in  460  or  461.  She  wrote  several  poems,  among 
which  was  a  Paraphrase  of  the  first  Eight  Books  of  the 
Old  Testament. 

See  Gibbon,  "History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire." 

Eudocia.  See  Eudoxia. 
Eudocie.  See  Eudocia. 
Eudokia.  See  Eudocia. 
Eudon.    See  Eudo. 

Eii-do'rus,  [Gr.  E^dwpof;  Fr.  Eudore,  uh^oR',]  a 
Greek  philosopher,  who  lived  probably  before  the  Chris- 
tian era,  and  was  a  commentator  on  Aristotle's  "Meta- 
physics." 

Eudoxe.    See  Eudoxus. 

Eudoxia.    See  Eudocia. 

Eu-dox'i-a,  [Gr.  Y.v6o^ia ;  Fr.  Eudoxie,  uh'dok^se',] 
sometimes  called  Eudocia,  Empress  of  the  East,  was  of 
French  origin,  and  was  married  to  Arcadius  in  395  A.D. 
She  acquired  a  complete  ascendency  over  that  feeble 
prince,  and  procured  the  exile  of  Chrysostom,  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople.    Her  son  reigned  as  Theodosius  II. 

Eudoxia  or  Eudocia,  a  Roman  empress,  daughter 
of  Theodosius  II.  and  Eudocia,  noticed  above,  became 
the  wife  of  Valentinian  III.  Petronius  Maximus,  having 
assassinated  the  emperor  and  usurped  the  throne,  (455 
A.D.,)  compelled  Eudoxia  to  be  his  wife.  She  avenged 
herself  by  inviting  Genseric  the  Vandal,  who  sacked  Rome 
and  carried  her  to  Africa. 

See  Gibbon,  "History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire." 

Eudoxia  or  Eudocia  was  the  wife  of  Constantine 
Ducas,  who  became  Emperor  of  Constantinople  in  1059. 
He  died  in  1067,  leaving  three  minor  sons,  Constantine, 
Michael,  and  Andronicus,  under  the  tutelage  of  their 
mother.  She  married  Romanus  Diogenes  in  1068,  and 
three  years  later  was  forced  to  resign  the  royal  power 
to  her  son  Michael.  She  was  the  author  of  a  learned 
work,  entitled  "  Ionia,"  on  the  genealogy  and  metamor- 
phoses of  gods,  heroes,  and  heroines. 

Eudoxie.    See  Eudoxia. 

Eii-dox'i-us,  a  native  of  Armenia.  He  embraced 
the  doctrines  of  Arius  in  their  full  extent,  and  was 
chosen  Bishop  of  Antioch  about  356,  and  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  in  360.    Died  in  370. 

Eudoxius,  surnamed  Heros,  or  the  Hero,  a  Roman 
jurist,  who  lived  about  the  fifth  centory. 

Eii-dox'us,  [Gr.  Y^vdo^vg ;  Fr.  Eudoxe,  uhMoks',]  a 
celebrated  Greek  astronomer,  born  at  Cnidus,  in  Caria, 
lived  about  370  B.C.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Archytas,  and 
a  friend  or  disciple  of  Plato.  He  opened  a  school  in 
Athens,  which  was  very  flourishing.  Pliny  informs  us 
that  he  approximately  determined  the  length  of  the  year 


at  365^  days.  Eudoxus  is  also  said  to  have  originated  the 
doctrine  of  the  concentric  solid  crystalline  spheres,  by 
which  the  apparent  motions  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets 
were  explained.  Cicero  thought  him  the  greatest  astrono- 
mer that  had  ever  lived.    His  works  are  not  extant. 

See  Delambre,  "Histoire  de  I'Astrononiie  ancienne." 

Eudoxus,  an  Athenian  comic  poet  of  the  new  com 
edy,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  third  century  B.C. 

Eudoxus  OF  Cyzicus,  a  Greek  navigator,  who  lived 
about  130  B.C.,  and  was  sent  by  Ptolemy  Evergetes  on 
an  exploring  or  trading  expedition  to  India,  from  which 
he  returned  with  success.  It  is  supposed  he  afterwards 
attempted  to  reach  India  by  sailing  round  Africa,  but 
that  he  failed  in  that  enterprise.  He  made  no  important 
discoveries. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  Boehmer,  "Dissertatio 
de  Eudoxo,"  1715;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Eu-ga-le'nus,  (Severin,)  a  Dutch  physician,  born 
at  Dokkum,  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the  Scurvy,"  (1588,) 
which  was  often  reprinted. 

Eu'ga-mon,  [Eiya/zwv,]  a  Greek  epic  poet  of  Cyrene, 
lived  probably  about  560  B.C.  He  wrote  a  poem  called 
"Telegonia,"  which  was  designed  as  a  continuation  of 
the  "  Odyssey :"  it  is  not  extant. 

Eugen,  the  German  of  Eugenius  and  Eugene,  which 
see. 

Eugene,  the  French  of  Eugenius,  which  see. 

Eu-gene',  [Fr.  Eugene,  uh'zhin';  Ger.  Eugen, 
oi-gan',]  Prince,  (or,  more  fully,  Franqois  Eugene  de 
Savoy — deh  stVwi',)  one  of  the  most  celebrated  gene- 
rals of  modern  times,  born  in  Paris  in  1663,  was  the  grand- 
son of  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  His  father  was  Eugene  Maurice, 
Count  de  Soissons,  and  his  mother  Olympia  Mancini,  a 
niece  of  Cardinal  Mazarin.  He  was  destined  for  the 
church,  but,  disliking  the  study  of  theology,  he  applied 
to  Louis  XIV.  for  the  command  of  a  regiment,  which 
was  refused.  Deeply  resenting  this  refusal,  he  offered 
his  services,  in  1683,  to  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  by  whom 
he  was  so  rapidly  promoted  in  the  war  against  the  Turks 
that  he  was  general-major  at  the  siege  of  Belgrade,  in 
1688.  In  1691  he  was  appointed  to  command  the  Impe- 
rial army  in  Piedmont,  where  he  gained  advantages  over 
the  French,  and  received  the  commission  of  field-marshal. 

About  1694  he  rejected  the  offer  of  a  marshal's  baton, 
with  a  large  pension,  which  Louis  XIV.  proposed  to  him 
as  an  inducement  to  return  to  the  French  service.  He  re- 
ceived the  command  of  the  Austrian  army  of  Hungary,  and 
in  1697  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Turks  at  Zenta. 
The  war  of  the  Spanish  succession  soon  called  him  to 
a  more  arduous  and  brilliant  career.  In  1701  he  com- 
manded in  Italy,  where  he  outgeneralled  the  able  French 
marshal  Catinat,  and,  by  an  act  of  successful  audacity, 
surprised  Villeroi  in  Cremona  and  made  him  a  prisoner. 
Vendome,  having  taken  the  command,  proved  himself 
a  more  equal  match  for  Eugene,  who  at  the  indecisive 
battle  of  Luzara,  in  1702,  lost  the  best  part  of  his  army. 
At  the  end  of  this  campaign  he  was  made  president  of 
the  council  of  war  in  Vienna.  Eugene  and  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough  being  associated  in  the  command  of  the 
allies,  their  congenial  qualities  and  hearty  co-operation 
contributed  greatly  to  their  success.  On  the  13th  of 
August,  1704,  they  defeated  the  French  at  the  famous 
battle  of  Blenheim.  To  check  the  victorious  French 
army,  he  was  again  sent  to  Italy  in  1705,  and,  engaging 
with  the  Duke  of  Vendome,  was  wounded  and  defeated 
at  the  battle  of  Cassano.  But  in  1706  he  gained  a  corr- 
plete  victory  at  Turin,  and  drove  the  French  out  of  Italy. 
He  returned  to  Vienna  in  1707,  and  was  received  with 
great  applause.  Appointed  to  command  the  Imperial 
army  in  Flanders,  he  co-operated  with  Marlborough  in 
the  victory  of  Oudenarde,  (1708,)  and  in  the  great  battle 
of  Malplaquet,  (1709,)  which  the  allies  claimed  as  a  vic- 
tory, although  they  lost  25,000  men.  Eugene,  who  advised 
the' attack  against  the  opinion  of  the  Dutch  deputies,  was 
censured  for  temerity  in  this  affair. 

In  1 7 12  he  performed  a  diplomatic  mission  to  London, 
but  did  not  succeed  in  preventing  the  defection  of  the 
English  from  the  alliance  against  France,  or  in  restoring 
Marlborough  to  the  command  from  which  he  had  just 
been  dismissed.  He  returned  to  the  army  in  Flanders 
in  1712,  and,  having  made  another  campaign  with  little 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon 


EUGENE 


873 


EULER 


success,  began  to  think  of  peace.  In  March,  17 14,  he 
signed  with  Marshal  Villars  a  treaty  of  peace  at  Rastadt. 
In  1716  and  1717  he  gained  great  victories  at  Peter- 
waradin  and  Belgrade  over  the  Turks,  who  were  vastly 
superior  in  number.  After  the  end  of  this  war  he  was 
employed  many  years  in  civil  affairs,  and  was  treated  with 
great  honour  and  confidence  by  Charles  VI.  of  Germany. 
He  died,  having  never  been  married,  in  1736.  He  was 
regarded  by  some  as  the  greatest  general  of  his  time, 
though  he  made  no  remarkable  improvements  in  the  art 
of  war.  His  success  was  due  not  so  much  to  skill  in 
strategy  as  to  his  audacity  and  decision,  the  admirable 
rapidity  of  his  coiip-d''ceil,  and  his  promptitude  to  perceive 
and  rectify  his  errors. 

See  John  Campbell,  "  Military  History  of  Prince  Eugene  and 
the  Duke  of  Marlborough,"  2  vols.,  1736;  "  Histoire  dii  Prince 
Eugene,"  by  Mauvillon,  5  vols.,  1740;  Dumont  et  Rous.set, 
"Histoire  militaire  du  Prince  Eugene,"  1729-43;  Ferrari,  "  De 
Rebus  gestis  Eugenii,"  1747;  Prince  de  Eigne,  "Vie  du  Prince 
Eugene,"  1S09;  AIajor-General  J.  Mitchell,  "Biographies  of 
Eminent  Soldiers  of  the  Last  Four  Centuries,"  1865;  F.  von  Kaus- 
LER,  "  Leben  des  Prinzen  Eugen  von  Savoyen,"  2  vols.,  1838-39; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1810. 

Eugene  de  Beauharnais.    See  Beauharnais. 

Eu-gen'i-cus,  an  eloquent  Greek  theologian,  became 
Archbishop  of  Ephesus  in  1436  A.D.  He  opposed  the 
union  of  the  Greek  with  the  Latin  Church,  with  great 
eloquence  and  vehemence,  at  the  Council  of  Florence, 
(1438.)    Died  in  1447. 

Eugenie,  uh'zha'ne',  (or,  more  fully,  Eugenie  Marie 
de  Montijo  —  deh  m^N^te^zho',)  Empress  of  France, 
a  daughter  of  the  Count  of  Montijo,  a  Spanish  grandee, 
was  born  at  Granada,  Spain,  on  the  5th  of  May,  1826. 
Her  mother,  Maria  Manuela  Kirkpatrick,  was  of  Scot- 
tish extraction.  Eugenie  received. the  title  of  Countess 
of  Teba,  and  was  educated  in  France  and  England.  In 
185 1  she  appeared  at  the  festivals  of  L'Elysee,  Paris, 
where  her  beauty  and  graces  attracted  the  notice  of  Louis 
Napoleon,  to  whom  she  was  married  in  January,  1853. 

See  "Notice  sur  I'lmperatrice  des  Frangais,"  etc.,  Paris,  1853; 
Vapereau,  "  Dictionnaire  universel  des  Contemporains,"  1858; 
"  Eminent  Women  of  the  Age,"  1868. 

Eugenics  Bulgaris.    See  Eugenius  Bulgaris. 

Eii-ge'ni-us,  a  Greek  physician,  mentioned  by  Galen, 
lived  probably  about  the  first  century. 

Eugenius,  a  Gaul,  who  was  noted  for  his  rhetorical 
talents,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor  about  392  a.d.  He 
was  defeated  by  Theodosius  and  put  to  death  in  394. 

Eugenius  [Fr.  Eug^ine,  uh^zh.^n';  Ger.  Eugen,  oi- 
gan']  I.,  a  native  of  Rome,  was  elected  pope  in  654  as 
successor  to  Martin  I.,  who  was  banished  by  the  emperor 
Constans  II.    Died  in  658. 

Eugenius  II.,  a  Roman  by  birth,  was  elected  pope  in 
824  a.d.  in  place  of  Pascal  I.  He  held  a  council  at  Rome 
in  826  for  the  reformation  of  the  clergy.  This  council 
issued  an  injunction  that  the  believers  should  learn  to 
read  and  write.  He  died  in  827,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Valentinus. 

Eugenius  III.,  (Bernard  of  Pisa,)  elected  pope  in 
1 145,  as  successor  to  Lucius  II.,  was  a  native  of  Pisa, 
and  a  disciple  of  Saint  Bernard.  At  this  period  the 
Roman  senate  and  people,  excited  by  the  preaching  of 
Arnaldo  da  Brescia,  were  in  a  state  of  revolt  against  the 
papal  power.  The  pope,  therefore,  retired  to  Viterbo,  and 
then  to  France,  where  he  favoured  the  second  crusade 
by  the  offer  of  indulgences.  He  returned  to  Rome  about 
1 152,  and  died  in  11 53.    Anastasius  IV.  succeeded  him. 

Eugenius  IV.,  (Gabriele  Condolmero,  )  born  at 
Venice  about  1383,  was  chosen  pope  in  143 1.  He  was 
soon  involved  in  a  contest  with  the  Council  of  Bale, 
which  had  been  convoked  by  the  late  pope,  Martin  V., 
for  the  reformation  of  the  Church,  and  which  refused  to 
own  his  supremacy.  Having  failed  in  an  attempt  to 
dissolve  this  council,  he  ordered  them  to  transfer  their 
sessions  to  Ferrara.  They  summoned  him  to  appear 
before  the  council  in  sixty  days  ;  and  he  answered  by  a 
bull  declaring  the  council  dissolved,  and  calling  another 
at  Ferrara  in  1437.  The  council  then  deposed  the  pope 
for  contumacy,  (1438,)  and  elected  in  his  stead  Amadeus 
of  Savoy,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Felix  V.  Eugenius, 
however,  persisted  in  his  course,  and  anathematized  the 
bishops  who  remained  at  Bale.  Thus  a  great  schism  in 
the  Church  was  produced,  which  continued  until  the 


death  of  Eugenius.  A  formal  but  insincere  convention 
was  signed  in  1439  by  Eugenius  and  John  Palaeologus 
for  the  reunion  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  Churches.  He 
waged  war  against  the  Duke  of  Milan  and  the  King  of 
Aragon,  and  instigated  the  Kings  of  Poland  and  Hungary 
to  violate  their  treaty  with  the  Turks.  He  died  in  1447, 
when  Nicholas  V.  was  chosen  his  successor,  and  Felix 
V.  resigned. 

See  Platina,  "Vitse  Pontificum  ;'  Artaud  de  Montor,  "His- 
toire des  souverains  Pontifes ;"  Gibbon,  "History  of  the  Decline 
and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  chap.  Ixvi. 

Eugenius,  Saint,  [Fr.  Saint-Eugene,  siN^tuh^zhin'; 
Ger.  Sankt  Eugen,  sSnkt  oi-gan',]  was  chosen  Bishop 
of  Carthage  about  480  A.D.,  when  the  church  was  divided 
between  the  Catholics  and  the  Arians,  the  latter  of  whom 
were  favoured  by  the  Vandal  king  Huneric.  A  few  years 
later  the  Arians  persecuted  their  opponents,  and  exiled 
Eugenius.  He  wrote  an  "Exposition  of  the  Catholic 
Faith,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  505  A.D. 

Eu-ge'ni-us  or  Eu-ge'ni-os  Bul-ga'ris,  a  Greek 
prelate,  born  at  Corfu  in  1716.  He  taught  philosophy 
at  Corfu,  Yanina,  and  Constantinople.  His  reputation 
having  spread  to  the  court  of  Russia,  the  empress  Cath- 
erine, in  1775,  made  him  Archbishop  of  Slavonia  and 
Cherson.  His  writings,  which  are  in  Greek,  have  con- 
tributed much  to  the  revival  of  learning  and  science  in 
Greece.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Logic,"  (1766,) 
and  a  poetical  Greek  version  of  Virgil,  (1786-94.)  It 
is  stated  that  his  scientific  works  are  written  in  ancient 
Greek,  and  the  others  in  modern.    Died  in  1806. 

Eu'ge-on  of  Samos,  an  ancient  Greek  historian,  lived 
about  500  B.C. 

Euhemerus.    See  Evemerus. 

Euklides.    See  Euclid  and  Euclides. 

Eu-la'li-a,  [Fr.  Eulalie,  uh'lt'le',]  Saint,  a  Chris- 
tian martyr,  born  at  Merida,  in  Spain,  about  290  A.D. 
She  perished  at  the  stake  under  the  reign  of  Maximian, 
aged  about  fourteen. 

See  Tillemont,  "Memoires  ecclesiastiques." 

Euler,  yoo'ler,  [Ger.  pron.  oi'ler,]  (Christoph,)  a 
son  of  Leonard,  born  in  1743,  became  a  major  in  the 
Russian  army,  and  cultivated  astronomy  with  success. 
He  was  selected  with  others  by  the  Academy  of  Saint 
Petersburg  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus  in  1769. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Euler,  (JoHANN  Albrecht,)  the  eldest  son  of  Leonard 
Euler,  born  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1734,  inherited  a  good 
share  of  his  father's  talents  for  mathematics.  Having 
resided  some  years  in  Berlin,  he  returned  to  Saint  Peters- 
burg about  1766,  and  obtained  a  chair  of  philosophy. 
He  afterwards  served  as  secretary  of  the  Imperial  Acad- 
emy, and  councillor  of  state.  In  1762  he  shared  with 
Clairaut  the  prize  proposed  by  the  Academy  of  Saint 
Petersburg  on  the  theory  of  comets.  He  assisted  his 
father  in  a  treatise  on  the  theory  of  the  moon,  which 
obtained  the  prize  of  the  Academy  of  Paris  in  1770.  He 
wrote  many  other  treatises  on  astronomy,  optics,  and 
physics.    Died  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1800. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Euler,  (Karl,)  second  son  of  the  great  geometer, 
born  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1740,  graduated  at  Halle. 
Returning  to  Saint  Petersburg  in  1766,  he  was  appointed 
physician  to  the  court  and  to  the  Imperial  Academy.  He 
gained  the  prize  proposed  by  the  Academy  of  Paris  in 
1760  for  a  treatise  on  the  Mean  Velocity  of  the  Planets. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Euler,  (Leonard,)  a  celebrated  Swiss  geometer,  born 
at  Bale  on  the  15th  of  April,  1707,  was  the  pupil  of  John 
Bernoulli  in  his  native  city.  About  1727  he  accompanied 
Nicholas  and  Daniel  Bernoulli  to  Saint  Petersburg, 
whither  they  had  been  invited  to  teach  in  the  new  Acad- 
emy, in  which  he  obtained  a  place  as  assistant  professor. 
In  1733  he  succeeded  Daniel  as  professor  of  mathematics. 
Here  he  composed  an  immense  number  of  memoirs, 
which  display  a  profound,  inventive  genius  and  an  ex- 
traordinary fecundity  of  mind.  It  is  stated  that  he  wrote 
more  than  half  of  the  forty-six  volumes  published  by  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg  from  1727  to  1783.  From 
1 74 1  to  1766  he  lived  in  Berlin,  having  been  invited  by 
Frederick  the  Great  to  assist  in  the  formation  of  the  Berlin 
Academy,  which  he  enriched  with  his  writings.    In  1755 


€  as  k;  g  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Yi^  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ((J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


EUMATHIUS 


874 


EUPHORION 


he  was  chosen  an  associate  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
of  Paris,  which  awarded  him  several  prizes.  Returning 
to  Saint  Petersburg,  he  published,  in  French,  his  popular 
work  on  physical  philosophy,  "Letters  to  a  German 
Princess,"  (1768.)  He  greatly  improved  the  integral 
calculus,  the  indeterminate  analysis,  and  the  science  of 
mechanics  by  analysis,  and  is  reckoned  one  of  the  great- 
est mathematicians  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  '*  Mechanics  ;  or  the  Science  of 
Motion  analytically  explained,"  ("Mechanica;  sive  Mo- 
tus  Scientia  analytice  exposita,"  2  vols.,  1736,)  "Intro- 
duction to  the  Analysis  of  Infinites,"  ("  Introductio  in 
Analysin  Infinitorum,"  1748,)  a  "Treatise  on  Naval 
Science,"  (1749,)  a  Treatise  on  the  Integral  Calculus, 
("  Institutiones  Calculi  Integralis,"  1768,)  a  "Treatise 
on  Dioptrics,"  (177 1,)  and  a  "Theory  of  the  Moon's 
Motion,"  (1772.)  He  was  blind  during  the  last  sixteen 
years  of  his  life.  He  died  in  September,  1783.  He  left 
several  sons,  who  became  eminent  in  science.  "  His 
genius,"  says  Condorcet,  "  was  equally  capable  of  the 
greatest  efforts  and  of  the  most  continuous  labour.  He 
multiplied  his  productions  marvellously,  and  yet  was 
original  in  each.  His  brain  was  always  active,  and  his 
soul  always  calm."  Euler's  memory  was  so  extraor- 
dinary that  he  knew,  it  is  said,  the  "  ^Eneid"  by  heart. 
He  was  a  man  of  deep  and  earnest  religious  convictions, 
and  had  family  worship  daily  in  his  own  house. 

See  Condorcet,  "J^loge  de  L.  Euler;"  Nicholas  von  Fass, 
"filoge  de  L.  Euler;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale,"  article 
"Euler." 

Eumathius  or  Eumathe.    See  Eustathius. 
Eumele.    See  Eumelus. 

Eu-me'lus,  [Gr.  EvfirjTioc;  Fr.  Eum£:le,  uh'miK,]  a 
son  of  Admetus  and  Alcestis,  was  one  of  the  chiefs  of 
the  Greek  army  which  besieged  Troy.  His  horses  were 
distinguished  for  fleetness. 

Eumelus  [Ev/j.7]Xo^]  of  Corinth,  a  very  ancient  Greek 
epic  poet,  flourished  about  750  B.C.   His  works  are  lost. 

Eumelus,  a  Greek  painter,  who  lived  probably  about 
200  A.D.  His  picture  of  Helen  was  placed  in  the  Forum 
at  Rome. 

Eimiene.    See  Eumenes. 

Eu'me-nes,  [Gr.  Ev/zevw;  Fr.  Eum^ne,  uh-min',]  a 
favourite  officer  and  confidential  secretary  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  was  born  at  Cardia,  in  the  Thracian  Cherso- 
nesus,  about  360  B.C.  He  attended  Alexander  in  his 
expedition  against  Persia  about  330  B.C.,  commanded  a 
division  of  the  army,  and  was  highly  esteemed  by  that 
prince  for  his  bravery  and  military  talents.  When  the 
conquests  of  their  departed  chief  were  divided  among 
the  Macedonian  generals,  Eumenes  received  Cappado- 
cia,  Pontus,  and  Paphlagonia.  He  was  an  ally  of  Per- 
diccas  in  the  war  between  the  latter  and  Ptolemy,  and 
gained  a  complete  victory  over  Craterus  in  the  year  321. 
In  this  action  Craterus  was  killed.  After  the  death 
of  Perdiccas  (321)  Antipater  and  Antigonus  combined 
against  Eumenes,  who  defended  himself  for  several 
years.  The  Macedonians  were  jealous  of  Eumenes  be- 
cause he  was  an  alien.  At  length,  by  means  of  treachery, 
Antigonus  took  him  prisoner  and  put  him  to  death  in 
317  or  316  B.C.  He  was  one  of  the  few  among  Alexan- 
der's officers  who  continued  loyal  to  the  royal  family. 

See  "Life  of  Eumenes,"  in  Plutarch,  who  compares  him  with 
Sertorius;  Cornelius  Nepos,  "Eumenes;"  Arrian,  "Anabasis;" 
B.  Geer,  "Specimen  historicum  de  Eumene  Cardiano,"  1838; 
Thirlwall,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Eumenes  [Fr.  Eumene]  I.,  King  or  Governor  of 
Pergamus.  He  began  to  reign  about  262  B.C.,  defeated 
Antiochus  Soter  near  Sardis,  and  died  about  240  B.C. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  cousin,  Attains  I. 

Eumenes  II.,  King  of  Pergamus,  a  son  of  Attains  I., 
began  to  reign  in  197  B.C.  He  was  a  faithful  and  efficient 
ally  of  the  Romans  in  their  war  against  Antiochus  the 
Great  about  190,  and  was  rewarded  by  the  addition  to 
his  kingdom  of  Mysia,  Lydia,  and  Phrygia.  By  his 
political  sagacity  he  greatly  increased  the  importance 
of  his  kingdom,  which  prospered  in  a  long  peace.  He 
patronized  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  founded  at  Per- 
gamus a  celebrated  library,  which  became  a  rival  to  that 
of  Alexandria.    He  died  about  159  B.C. 

See  PoLVBius,  "  History;"  Appian,  "Syriaca;"  Livy,  "History 
of  Rome." 


Eu-men'i-des  [Gr.  EvfievLdrj^ ;  Ger.  Eumeniden, 
oi^meh-nee'den]  or  E-rin'ny-es,  often  called,  in  Latin, 
Fu'ri-ae  and  Di'rae,  the  Greek  name  of  the  Furies,  or 
goddesses  who  punished  crimes  in  this  world  and  after 
death,  and  pursued  the  guilty  with  burning  torches. 
Some  writers  limit  the  number  of  Furies  to  three, 
namely,  Tisiphone,  Alecto,  and  Megaera. 

Eu-me'ni-us,  a  Latin  grammarian  and  rhetorician, 
born  at  Autun  about  260  A.D.  He  taught  rhetoric  in 
Rome,  and  then  in  Autun.  Four  of  his  discourses  are 
extant,  one  of  which  is  a  panegyric  on  Constantine, 
spoken  in  his  presence. 

Eumolpe.    See  Eumolpus. 

Eu-mol'pus,  [Gr.  Ev/io^itto^  ;  Fr.  Eumolpe,  uh'- 
molp',]  a  Thracian,  who  was  regarded  as  a  priestly  bard 
and  founder  of  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  was  called  a 
son  of  Neptune  and  Chione.  According  to  one  tradi- 
tion, he  fought  for  the  people  of  Eleusis  against  the 
Athenians,  and  was  killed  in  battle. 

Eunape.    See  Eunapius. 

Eu-na'pi-us,  [Gr.  Evvamog ;  Fr.  Eunape,  uh'ntp',]  a 
heathen  Sophist  and  physician,  born  at  Sardis,  in  Lydia, 
about  347  A.D.  He  lived  at  Athens,  was  a  Neoplatonist, 
and  a  violent  opponent  of  Christianity,  He  wrote,  in 
Greek,  a  work  entitled  "  Lives  of  Philosophers  and  So- 
phists," which  is  extant.  "It  is  of  great  importance  for 
literary  and  philosophic  history,"  says  Boissonade,  "as 
without  it  there  would  be  an  immense  void  in  the  his- 
tory of  Eclecticism."  He  left  a  continuation  of  Dexippus's 
history  from  270  to  404  A.D.,  which  has  not  come  down 
to  us. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grasca." 

Eu-ni'cus,  [Etivi/iOf,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  who 
lived  in  the  fifth  century  B.C. 
Eunome.    See  Eunomus. 

Eu-no'mi-us,  [Gr.  Evv6/j.ioc,]  the  founder  of  an  Arian 
sect  called  Eunomians,  was  born  at  Dacora,  in  Cap- 
padocia,  and  was  a  man  of  superior  talents.  About  360 
A.D.,  Eudoxius,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  ordained  him  Bishop 
of  Cyzicus,  but  afterwards  deposed  him  for  heresy.  He 
was  an  ultra-Arian,  and  opposed  the  worship  of  martyrs 
and  relics.  He  was  several  times  banished  by  successive 
emperors,  and  suffered  persecution  with  firmness  and 
constancy.  His  writings  are  nearly  all  lost,  except  a 
"  Confession  of  Faith."  Saint  Basil,  and  Saint  Gregory  of 
Nyssa,  wrote  books  to  refute  his  doctrines.  Died  in394A.D. 

See  RiTTER,  "History  of  Christian  Philosophy." 

Eu^no-mus,  [Gr.  Evvo/nog;  Fr.  Eunome,  uh''nom',] 
one  of  the  early  kings  of  Sparta,  supposed  to  have  lived 
nine  hundred  years  or  more  B.C.  According  to  some 
writers,  he  was  the  father  of  Lycurgus.  Simonides  calls 
him  a  brother  of  Lycurgus. 

Eu'nus,  a  native  of  Syria,  was  the  leader  of  the  in- 
surgents in  the  servile  war  which  broke  out  in  Sicily  in 
135  B.C.  He  defeated  several  Roman  armies  in  succes- 
sion, but  was  captured  about  133  B.C.,  and  died  in  prison 
soon  afterwards. 

Euphante.    See  Euphantus. 

Eu-phan'tus  [Gr.  Evcpavrog ;  Fr.  Euphante,  uh'- 
ftnt'j  of  Olynthus,  a  Greek  poet  and  Pythagorean  phi- 
losopher, who  wrote  about  330  B.C.  He  was  a  preceptor 
of  Antigonus  I.  of  Macedonia,  to  whom  he  dedicated  a 
work,  rifpt  BaoLleLa^,  ("  On  Royalty,")  which  was  highly 
commended.    He  composed  also  numerous  tragedies. 

Eu-phe'mi-a,  (Flavia  ^Elia  Marcia,)  an  empress 
of  the  East,  was  originally  a  slave  named  Lupicina,  and 
was  married  to  a  Thracian  of  obscure  condition,  who  in 
518  ascended  the  throne  of  Constantinople  as  Justin  I. 

Euphorbe.    See  Euphorbus. 

Eu-phor'bus,  [Gr.  Ev(j>op6oc ;  Fr.  Euphorbe,  uh^- 
foRb',]  a  brave  Trojan  warrior,  killed  by  Menelaus.  Py- 
thagoras professed  that  his  soul  was  the  same  which  had 
animated  Euphorbus. 

Euphorbus,  a  physician,  who  lived  at  Rome  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  was  a  brother  of  Antonius  Musa.  He 
was  employed  professionally  by  King  Juba,  who  in  honour 
of  him  named  a  certain  plant  Euphorbia,  which  is  still 
the  name  of  a  numerous  genus. 

Eu-pho'ri-on,  [Eu^optwv,]  a  tragic  poet  of  Athens, 
was  the  son  of  yEschylus.  He  is  said  to  have  gained 
the  prize  four  times  with  his  father's  posthumous  trage- 


e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  /ong;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iorS;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


£  UP  HO  R  ION 


875 


EUR  rD  ICE 


dies.  He  wrote  several  of  his  own,  one  of  which  was 
crowned  in  competition  with  Sophocles  and  Euripides. 

Euphorion,  an  eminent  Greek  poet  and  grammarian, 
born  at  Chalcis,  in  Eubcea,  about  275  B.C.  He  lived 
some  years  at  Athens,  and  became  librarian  to  An- 
tiochus  the  Great  about  220  B.C.  He  wrote  epic  poems 
entitled  "  Hesiodos,"  "Mopsopia,"  and  "Chiliades," 
(Xt?.Mde^;)  also  several  epigrams.  His  poems  were  very 
popular  among  the  Romans  of  the  Augustan  age  ;  but 
his  style  was  censured  by  Cicero  and  others  as  aflfect- 
edly  obscure.  He  was  author  of  a  celebrated  treatise 
on  grammar,  and  of  other  prose  works.  Only  small 
fragments  of  his  writings  are  extant. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Graecis;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca 
Graeca;"  A.  Meineke,  "Dissertatio  de  Euphorionis  Vita  et  Scrip- 
tis,"  1823. 

Euphorion,  a  Greek  statuary,  whose  works  were  not 
extant  in  the  time  of  Pliny,  by  whom  he  is  mentioned. 

Euphraeus,  u-free'us,  or  Eu-phra'tes,  [Gr.  Ev<l>paLog 
or  Eip/juTT/f,]  a  native  of  Oreus,  in  Euboea,  was  a  disci- 
ple of  Plato,  and  became  a  favourite  of  Perdiccas,  King 
of  Macedonia.  After  the  de^lth  of  the  latter  he  returned 
to  Oreus  and  opposed  the  party  of  Philip  of  Macedon. 

Eu-phra'nor,  [Eippuvup,]  a  celebrated  Greek  painter 
and  sculptor,  born  in  Corinth,  flourished  between  365  and 
325  B.C.  He  was  pupil  of  Ariston,  and  a  contemporary 
of  Apelles  and  Praxiteles.  It  appears  that  he  worked 
in  Athens,  as  Pliny  ranks  him  among  Athenian  artists. 
He  was  the  first  artist  who  represented  heroes  with 
proper  dignity.  He  painted  in  encaustic  and  worked  in 
marble  and  bronze,  and  was  equally  successful  in  paint- 
ing and  sculpture.  Pliny  and  Plutarch  highly  applaud  his 
productions.  Among  his  master-pieces  in  painting  are 
"The  Twelve  Gods,"  "The  Battle  of  Mantinea,"  and  the 
"  Feigned  Insanity  of  Ulysses  and  in  sculpture,  a  statue 
of  Paris,  and  colossal  statues  of  **  Valor"  and  "  Greece." 

See  Pliny,  "Natural  History." 

Euphrate.  See  Euphrates. 
Euphrates.    See  EupfiR^.us. 

Eu-phra'tes,  [Gr.  Ei'opurTjg ;  Ft.  Euphrate,  uh'- 
fRtt',]  an  eminent  Stoic  philosopher,  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Hadrian,  in  the  second  century.  He  was  a  native  of 
Syria  or  Egypt,  and  a  friend  of  Pliny  the  Younger,  who 
eulogizes  his  virtues  and  talents,  (Epist.  i.  10.) 

Euphrates,  a  heretic,  who,  in  the  second  century, 
founded  the  sect  of  Ophites. 

Eu'phron,  an  Athenian  comic  poet  of  the  new  com- 
edy, lived  about  300  B.C. 

Eu-phros'y-ne,  [Gr.  Eic^poavvj],]  one  of  the  Three 
Graces,  (in  Greek,  "Charites,")  supposed  to  be  the  off- 
spring of  Venus.  The  Greeks  personified  in  her  the 
genius  of  Mirth  or  Joy.    (See  Charites.) 

Euphrosyue,  an  empress,  was  the  wife  of  Alexis  III., 
who  in  1 195  obtained  the  throne  of  Constantinople  by  a 
conspiracy  of  which  she  was  a  chief  instigator.  By  her 
courage  and  talents  she  acquired  a  nearly  absolute  ascen- 
dency over  Alexis,  but  exposed  herself  to  public  contempt 
by  her  immoral  excesses.    She  died  in  exile  about  12 15. 

Eu'po-lis,  [Ev~o7.ig,]  an  excellent  Athenian  comic 
poet  of  the  old  comedy,  was  born  about  446  B.C.,  and 
was  a  rival  of  Aristophanes.  Several  of  his  plays  ob- 
tained the  honour  of  a  triumph.  He  is  ranked  by 
Horace  w'.th  Cratinus  and  Aristophanes,  (see  Satires, 
book  i.  iv.  I,)  and  in  the  opinion  of  some  critics  he  sur- 
passed Aristophanes  in  the  graces  of  diction.  He  often 
chose  political  subjects,  and  severely  satirized  the  per- 
sons and  conduct  of  eminent  men  then  living.  Only 
small  fragments  of  his  works  are  extant.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  died  about  410  B.C.  According  to  one  account, 
he  was  killed  in  a  naval  action. 

See  Clinton,  "Fasti  Hellenici  ;"  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca 
Graeca;"  Suidas,  "Eupolis:"  C.  W.  Lucas,  "Cratinus  et  Eupolis," 
Bonn,  1826;  Stevenakt,  "£tude  sur  le  Poete  Eupolis,"  1850. 

Eupompe.    See  Eupompus. 

Eu-pom'pus  [Gr.  Ei/To^-of  ;  Fr.  Eupompe,  uh'p^Mp'] 
of  Sicyon,  a  celebrated  Greek  painter,  a  contemporary 
of  Zeuxis,  lived  about  350-370  B.C.,  and  was  the  master 
of  Pamphilus.  He  is  called  the  founder  of  a  new  school, 
the  Sicyonian.  In  answer  to  the  young  sculptor  Lysippus, 
who  consulted  him  on  the  choice  of  a  model,  he  said, 
*'  Follow  nature." 


Eu'ric  [Lat.  Euri'cus]  orEv'a-ric,  [Lat.  Evari'cus,] 

an  able  and  warlike  king  of  the  Visigoths,  began  to  reign 
in  466  A.D.  He  enlarged  his  dominions  by  conquest 
until  they  extended  from  the  Loire  to  the  Pyrenees  and 
from  the  Rhone  to  the  ocean.  His  alliance  was  courted 
by  Franks,  Romans,  Vandals,  and  other  nations.  Died 
in  484. 

See  Gibbon,  "History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire." 

Euripide.    See  Euripides. 

Eu-ripl-des,  [Gr.  EipL-ldrjg;  Fr.  Euripide,  uh're'- 
p^d',]  one  of  the  three  great  tragic  poets  of  Greece,  was 
born  at  Salamis  in  480  B.C.  According  to  a  popular  tra- 
dition, he  was  born  on  the  day  of  the  battle  of  Salamis. 
His  parents,  Mnesarchus  and  Clito,  were  Athenians  who 
sought  refuge  at  Salamis  from  the  Persian  invaders. 
He  studied  rhetoric  under  Prodicus,  and  philosophy  or 
physics  under  Anaxagoras.  About  the  age  of  twenty- 
five  he  produced  his  "  Peliades,"  the  first  of  his  dramas 
which  was  performed.  He  maintained  an  animated 
rivalry  with  Sophocles,  (who  was  his  senior,)  and  gained 
the  first  prize  in  several  dramatic  contests.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Socrates,  who,  it  is  said,  seldom  went  to  the 
theatre  except  when  the  tragedies  of  Euripides  were 
performed.  Euripides  composed  seventy-five  —  or,  as 
some  say,  ninety-two  —  tragedies,  of  which  eighteen 
are  still  extant.  Among  his  most  admired  works  are 
"Hecuba,"  "Ion,"  "Alcestis,"  "Medea,"  "Helena," 
"  Iphigenia  in  Aulis,"  "  Hippolytus,"  and  "Bacchas," 
His  other  extant  dramas  are  "  Heraclidae,"  "The  Sup- 
pliants," ("  Supplices,")  "  Hercules  Furens,"  "  Orestes," 
"Troades,"  "  Electra,"  "Andromache,"  "Iphigenia  in 
Tauris,"  "  Rhesus,"  and  "  Phoenissae."  His  style  is  distin- 
guished by  elegance,  perspicuity,  and  harmony.  Cicero 
and  Milton  were  great  admirers  of  Euripides,  and  Aris- 
totle calls  him  "the  most  tragic  of  poets."  "When  we 
look  only  at  the  highest  excellences  of  Euripides,"  says 
Hallam,  "there  is  perhaps  a  depth  of  pathos  and  an 
intensity  of  dramatic  effect  which  Racine  himself  has 
not  attained."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Eu- 
rope.") About  the  year  408  he  retired  from  Athens, 
where  a  violent  and  unscrupulous  faction  was  arrayed 
against  him,  and  found  repose  at  the  court  of  Archelaus, 
King  of  Macedon,  who  treated  him  with  much  favour. 
According  to  a  prevalent  but  doubtful  tradition,  he  was 
killed  by  a  pack  of  hounds  in  406  B.C. 

See  C.  Hasse,  "De  Euripide  Poeta,"  1833;  Jodrell,  "Illus- 
trations of  Euripides,"  3  vols.,  17S1 ;  F.  Jacobs,  "Animadversiones  in 
Euripidis  Tragcedias,"  1790;  Zirndorfer,  "De  Chronologia  Fabu- 
larum  Euripidearum,"  iNIarburg,  1S39  :  Hartung,  "  Euripides  Resti- 
tutus,"  2  vols.,  1844;  Fabricius,"  Bibliotheca  Graeca  ;"  Bouterwek, 
"  De  Philosophia  Euripidis,"  1819  ;  J.  Lapau.me,  "  De  Euripidis  Vita 
et  Fabulis  Dissertatio,"  1848;  Reuter,  "Dissertatio  de  ^schylo, 
Sophocle  et  Euripide,"  1831 ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Septem- 
ber, 1838  ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1840. 

Eu-ro'pa,  [Gr.  EvpuTrrj ;  Fr.  Europe,  uh''rop',]  in 
classic  mythology,  a  daughter  of  Agenor,  King  of  Phoe- 
nicia, and  a  sister  of  Cadmus.  The  poets  feigned  that 
she  was  carried  off  by  Jupiter,  who  previously  assumed 
the  form  of  a  bull.  She  became  the  mother  of  Minos 
and  Rhadamanthus. 

Europe.    See  Europa. 

Euryale.    See  Euryalus. 

Eu-ry'a-lus,  [Gr.  Evpva/.og;  Fr.  Euryale,  uh're'tl',] 
a  son  of  Mecisteus,  was  one  of  the  ArgonauttE,  and  one 
of  the  Epigoni,  (which  see.)  He  was  distinguished  for 
his  bravery  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  where  he  was  a  com- 
panion of  Diomede. 

Euryalus,  a  beautiful  young  Trojan  mentioned  by 
Virgil.    (See  "/Eneid,"  books  v.  and  ix.) 

Eu-ry-cli'das,  [EipvK?.ei6ag,]  an  Athenian  orator,  lived 
about  220  B.C. 

Eu-ryd'i-ge,  [Gr.  EvpvdtKT),]  the  wife  of  Orpheus,  was 
bitten  by  a  serpent  as  she  fled  from  Aristaeus,  and  died. 
The  poets  feigned  that  Orpheus  descended  to  the  lower 
regions  and  persuaded  Pluto  to  restore  her  to  life  on 
condition  that  she  should  walk  behind  her  husband  and 
he  should  not  look  back  until  they  had  arrived  in  the 
upper  world.  But  Orpheus,  unable  to  resist  his  longing 
to  see  her  again,  turned  back,  and  thus  lost  her  forever. 
(See  Orpheus.) 

See  Virgil's  "Georgics,"  book  iv.  454-527. 


«  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (S^=~See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


EURTDICE 


876 


EUSTACE 


Eurydice,  {Y.vpvdLKri,]  the  wife  of  Amyntas,  King  of 
Macedonia,  was  the  mother  of  Alexander,  Perdiccas,  and 
Philip,  all  of  whom  became  kings  ;  the  last  was  the  father 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  She  is  charged  with  attempting 
the  life  of  her  husband,  and  with  taking  the  life  of  her 
eldest  son,  about  365  B.C. 

Eurydice,  a  Macedonian  princess,  a  daughter  of  An- 
tipater,  became  the  queen  of  Ptolemy,  son  of  Lagus, 
about  320  B.C.,  and  mother  of  Ptolemy  Ceraunus.  Her 
niece  Berenice  having  gained  her  husband's  affections, 
Eurydice  retired  to  the  court  of  Seleucus,  King  of  Syria. 

Eurydice,  sometimes  called  Ade'a,  a  daughter  of 
Amyntas  III.  of  Macedonia.  Her  mother  was  Cynane, 
a  half-sister  of  Alexander  the  Great.  About  322  B.C. 
she  was  married  to  Arrhidasus,  a  son  of  King  Philip. 
She  was  a  rival  competitor  for  the  regency  with  Olympias, 
by  whose  order  she  was  put  to  death,  316  B.C. 

Eu-ryl'o-ehus,  [EhpyXoxog,]  a  Spartan  general,  who 
was  defeated  and  killed  in  battle  by  the  Athenians  about 

426  B.C. 

Eu-rym'e-don,  [Ei'pv//e(5wi^,]  an  Athenian  general, 
who  took  part  in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  He  and  Sopho- 
cles commanded  an  army  and  fleet  sent  against  Sicily  in 
425  B.C.  ;  but  their  operations  were  arrested  soon  after 
their  arrival  by  a  peace  or  truce  negotiated  by  Hermo- 
crates.  In  conjunction  with  Demosthenes,  Eurymedon 
commanded  an  armament  sent  against  Syracuse  in  414. 
He  was  killed  in  a  naval  battle  in  the  harbour  of  that 
city  in  413  B.C. 

See  Plutarch,  "Nicias." 

Eii'ry-phon,  [Evpv^wv,]  an  emineijt  Greek  physician 
of  Cnidos,  said  to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  Hippocrates, 
about  350  B.C.    He  is  quoted  by  Galen. 

Eurysthee.    See  Eurystheus. 

Eurysthene.  _  See  Eurysthenes. 

Eu-rys'the-nes,  [Gr.  EvpvadsvT]g ;  Fr.  Eurysthene, 
uh''res''tan',]  a  son  of  Aristodemus,  King  of  Sparta,  had 
a  twin-brother,  Procles.  As  their  mother  refused  to  say 
which  was  the  eldest,  the  oracle  of  Delphi  decided  that 
they  should  reign  jointly.  After  their  death  the  throne 
continued  to  be  shared  between  two  kings,  one  of  whom 
was  descended  from  Eurysthenes  and  the  other  from 
Procles. 

See  Clinton,  "Fasti  Hellenici;"  Muller,  "The  Dorians." 

Eu-rys'theus,  [Gr.  Evpvodevg;  Fr.  Eurysthee,  uh'- 
r^s^ta',]  a  fabulous  king  of  Argos  and  Mycenae,  was  a 
son  of  Sthenelus.  Juno  hastened  his  birth  that  he  might 
have  the  advantage  over  Hercules,  as  the  younger  of 
the  two  was  ordained  by  Jupiter  to  serve  the  other.  He 
was  a  severe  taskmaster,  and  imposed  on  Hercules  the 
well-known  twelve  labours.  (See  Hercules.)  He  was 
slain  by  Hyllus,  a  son  of  Hercules. 

EiisMen,  (Rev,  Lawrence,)  an  English  poet  and 
clergyman,  was  born  in  Spotsworth,  Yorkshire.  Having 
written  an  epithalamium  on  the  marriage  of  the  Duke 
of  Newcastle,  the  latter  procured  his  appointment  as 
poet-laureate  in  1718.  He  wrote  a  few  articles  for  the 
"  Spectator,"  and  some  occasional  poems,  and  was  noticed 
in  Pope's  "Dunciad."  Died  in  1730.  His  version  of 
Claudian's  "  Court  of  Venus"  was  highly  praised  by 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Guardian,"  in  which  it  was 
inserted.    (See  "Guardian,"  Nos.  127  and  164.) 

Eusebe,  the  French  for  Eusebius,  which  see. 

Eii-se'bi-a,  (Aurelia,)  a  Roman  empress,  was  mar- 
ried to  Constantius  about  353  A.D.  She  patronized 
learning,  and  is  charged  with  favouring  Arianism.  She 
died  childless  in  360. 

Eu-se'bi-us,  [Gr.  EvoeISloc ;  Fr.  Eusebe,  uh'zib',  ] 
Bishop  of  Emesa,  in  Phoenicia,  was  born  near  Edessa 
about  300  A.D.  He  refused  the  bishopric  of  Alexandria, 
from  which  Athanasius  was  deposed  in  341,  and  soon 
afterwards  became  Bishop  of  Emesa.  He  is  said  to  have 
favoured  the  doctrines  of  the  Semi-Arians.  His  numer- 
ous works  were  once  admired  for  learning  and  eloquence, 
but  are  nearly  all  lost.    Died  about  360. 

Eusebius  of  Doryl^um,  [Fr.  Eusebe  de  Doryl^e, 
uh-zib'  deh  cWre'W,]  a  Greek  theologian  of  the  fifth 
century.  He  became  Bishop  of  Dorylaeum,  and  a  zealous 
opponent  of  Eutyches. 

Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  [  Fr.  Eusebe  de  Nico- 
H^DIE,  uh'zW  deh  ne'ko'mk'de',]  an  eminent  and  am- 


bitious Arian  prelate,  was  a  friend  of  Eusebius  Pamphili. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Berytus  and  of  Nicomedia.  At 
the  Council  of  Nice,  325  a.d.,  he  refused  to  sign  the 
condemnation  of  Arius,  and  was  consequently  banished  ; 
but,  finding  a  powerful  patron  in  Constantia,  sister  of  the 
emperor,  he  was  restored  to  his  see.  Having  acquired 
paramount  influence  at  court,  he  assembled  a  council  at 
Tyre  in  334,  by  which  Athanasius  was  condemned.  He 
also  procured  the  restoration  of  Arius,  and,  after  his 
death,  became  the  chief  of  the  Arian  party,  who  were 
also  called  Eusebians.  In  339  he  obtained  the  bishopric 
of  Constantinople.  His  name  is  identified  with  a  modi- 
fied form  of  Arianism,  (i.e.  the  Homoiousian  doctrine.) 
Died  in  342  a.d. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "M^moires  eccl^siastiques  ;"  Neander,  "His- 
tory of  the  Church  ;"  Cave,  "Historia  Literaria." 

Eusebius  Pam'phili,  [Fr.  Eusebe  Pamphile,  uh'- 
z^b'  poN'f^K,]  an  eminent  writer  and  theologian,  called 
"  the  Father  of  Ecclesiastical  History,"  was  born  in  Pales- 
tine, probably  at  Caesarea,  about  266  a.d.  He  assumed  the 
surname  Pamphili  in  memory  of  his  friend  Pamphilus 
the  Martyr.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Caesarea 
about  314,  and  retained  that  dignity  until  his  death.  At 
the  Council  of  Nice,  summoned  in  325  to  condemn 
Arius,  he  was  selected  by  the  emperor  Constantine  to 
deliver  the  opening  address;  but  he  objected  to  some  of 
the  terms  of  the  creed  therein  adopted.  He  was  after- 
wards charged  with  favouring  Arianism,  and  actually 
used  his  influence  to  reinstate  Arius.  At  the  Council 
of  Tyre,  in  334,  he  was  one  of  the  bishops  who  censured 
Athanasius,  the  orthodox  leader,  and  was  chosen  by  his 
colleagues  to  defend  their  decision  before  the  emperor, 
who  was  his  friend.  He  was  a  man  of  superior  talents 
and  of  great  learning.  His  most  important  works 
(which  are  written  in  Greek)  are  an  "Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory" from  the  Christian  era  to  324  A.D.,  a  '*  Universal 
History  or  Chronicle,"  a  "  Life  of  Constantine,"  "  Gospel 
Preparation,"  ("  PreparatioEvangelica,")andawork  "  On 
the  Proof  or  Demonstration  of  the  Gospel,"  ("De  De- 
monstratione  Evangelica."  He  wrote  many  other  works, 
which  have  not  been  preserved.  His  History  is  written 
in  a  moderate  and  impartial  spirit,  and  is  highly  prized ; 
but  his  merit  as  a  man  and  a  Christian  is  variously  esti- 
mated. Jerome  calls  him  the  "  Prince  of  the  Arians." 
The  manuscript  of  his  "Universal  History"  was  found 
at  Constantinople  about  1818.    Died  about  340. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "  Memoires  ecclesiastiques ;"  Cave,  "Historia 
Literaria;"  Neander,  "History  of  the  Church;"  Gibbon,  "His- 
tory of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire ;"  "  Biographie 
Universelle  ;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Eusebius  of  Samosata,  an  eminent  orthodox  prelate, 
so  named  from  the  place  of  his  birth,  (the  modern  Sumei- 
sat,)  on  the  Euphrates.  He  was  bishop  of  his  native 
place  in  361  a.d.,  and  perhaps  before  that  date.  Having 
been  intrusted  with  the  documents  which  proved  the 
election  of  Meletius  as  Bishop  of  Antioch,  he  firmly 
refused  to  give  them  up  to  the  Arians,  who  wished  to 
annul  the  election,  although  their  wish  was  seconded  by 
the  order  of  the  emperor.  He  was  banished  by  V alens 
about  371,  and  restored  to  his  see  in  378  a.d.  About 
379  he  was  killed  by  an  Arian  who  threw  a  stone  on 
his  head  from  the  roof  of  a  house. 

See  Ceillier,  "  Histoire  des  Auteurs  sacres,"etc. 

Eusebius,  Pope,  succeeded  Marcellus  I.  in  310  a.d., 
and  died  after  a  pontificate  of  a  few  months.  He  was  a 
Greek  by  birth. 

Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Vercelli,  born  in  Sardinia  in  the 
fourth  century,  was  noted  for  his  zeal  against  Arianism. 
Soon  after  the  Council  of  Milan,  355  A.D.,  he  was  ban- 
ished to  Palestine  by  Constantius ;  but  on  the  accession 
of  Julian,  in  361,  he  was  relieved  from  persecution.  He 
co-operated  with  Athanasius  in  the  Council  of  Alexan- 
dria in  362.  Two  of  his  pastoral  letters  are  extant.  Died 
about  370. 

See  Ceillier,  "  Histoire  des  Auteurs  sacres,"  etc. 

Eustace  or  Eustache.    See  Eustasius. 

Eus'tace,  (John  Chetwode,)  an  English  writer  and 
Roman  Catholic  priest,  born  about  1765.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "An  Elegy  to  I3urke,"  (1797,)  and 
a  "Classical  Tour  through  Italy,"  (2  vols.,  1813,)  which 
was  received  with  favour,  but  is  said  to  be  inaccurate. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lon^^;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,    sAor/;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon ; 


E  VST  ACHE 


^77 


EUTTCHUNUS 


The  sixth  edition  was  published  in  4  vols.,  1821.  A  sup- 
plement to  this  work  was  published  by  R.  Colt  Hoare 
in  1819.    Eustace  died  at  Naples  in  1815. 
See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1813. 

Eustache,  uh^sttsh',  (David,)  a  French  Protestant 
minister,  born  in  Dauphine.  He  published  numerous 
sermons  and  controversial  works.    Died  about  1660, 

Eustachi  or  Eustachio.    See  Eustachius. 

Eu-sta'-ehi-us,  [It.  Eustachio,  ^-oo-st3,'ke-o,  or  Eu- 
stachi, §-oo-sti'kee,]  (Bartolommeo,)  a  pre-eminent 
Italian  anatomist,  was  born  at  San  Severino,  in  the  March 
of  Ancona.  He  studied  medicine  in  Rome,  where  he 
also  settled  as  a  practitioner,  and  was  professor  in  the 
college  di  Sapienza  in  1562.  But,  though  patronized  by 
Cardinal  Borromeo  and  widely  celebrated  as  an  anato- 
mist, he  did  not  obtain  pecuniary  success,  and  died,  as  he 
lived,  in  poverty.  He  was  perhaps  the  greatest  anatomist 
of  his  time ;  and  probably  no  other  anatomist,  ancient 
or  modern,  has  made  so  many  discoveries.  His  most 
important  work,  "On  the  Controversies  of  Anatomists," 
("De  Anatomicorum  Controversiis,")  was  announced  by 
him  as  ready  for  the  press,  but  was  not  published,  and  is 
not  now  extant.  His  anatomical  plates,  about  forty  in 
number,  engraved  in  1552,  after  having  been  lost  a  cen- 
tury and  a  half,  were  published  in  1712,  being  a  valuable 
acquisition  to  science,  as  well  as  a  most  interesting  relic 
of  their  illustrious  author.  He  also  published  an  edition 
of  Erotianus's  Lexicon,  and  several  treatises  collected 
with  the  title  "Opuscula  Anatomica."  A  part  of  the 
ear  derives  from  him  the  name  of  "  the  Eustachian  tube." 
Died  in  1574. 

See  Hali,er,  "  Bibliotheca  Anatomica  ;"  Cuvier,  "  Hisfoire  des 
Sciences  natiirelles ;"  G.  C.  Gentili,  "  Elogio  di  B.  Enstachio," 
1837;  Sprengel,  "  Gescliichte  der  Arzeneikunde." 

Eu-sta'si-us  ( u-sta'she-us )  or  Eu-sta'chi-us,  [Fr. 

Eustace,  us'ttss',  or  Eustache,  us'ttsh',]  Abl>e  of 
Luxeu,  (now  Luxeuil,)  was  born  in  Burgundy  about  560 
a.d.   He  was  employed  by  Saint  Columbanus  as  teacher 
or  director  of  his  school  at  Luxeu.    Died  in  625. 
Eustathe.    See  Eustathius. 

Eu-sta'thi-us  [Gr.  Erara^wf ;  Fr.  Eustathe,  uh'- 
sttt']  of  Cappadocia,  a  Neoplatonic  philosopher,  was  a 
]Hipil  of  Jamblichus,  and  lived  about  350  A.D.  He  was 
celebrated  for  his  eloquence. 

Eustathius,  Archbishop  of  Thessalonica,  celebrated 
as  a  commentator  on  Homer,  lived  at  Constantinople. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Myra,  in  Lycia,  about  1175,  ^"c^  after- 
wards Archbishop.  His  voluminous  commentary  on 
Homer's  "Iliad"  and  "Odyssey"  is  an  immense  and 
valuable  store  of  ancient  erudition,  consisting  chiefly  of 
extracts  from  the  earlier  scholiasts,  as  Apion,  Porphyry, 
and  Demosthenes  of  Thrace.  It  was  first  printed  in 
1542.  He  also  wrote  a  commentary  on  Dionysius  Peri- 
egetes,  which  is  extant,  and  one  on  Pindar,  which  has 
been  lost.    Died  about  1200. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grsca." 

Eustathius,  sometimes  written  Eumathius,  a  Greek 
novelist,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  twelfth 
century.  His  name  appears  as  author  of  a  licentious 
work  in  Greek  called  "  The  Drama  of  Hysmine  and 
Hysminias." 

Eustathius,  [Gr.  ^vaTudiog ;  Fr.  Eustathe,]  Saint, 
born  at  Sida,  in  Pamphylia,  became  Bishop  of  Berea, 
from  which  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Antioch.  He 
opposed  with  zeal  the  doctrine  of  Arius,  and  spoke  elo- 
quently on  the  subject  at  the  Council  of  Nice,  325  A.D. 
Eusebius,  the  Arian  leader,  caused  him  to  be  deposed 
and  exiled  about  330.  His  writings  are  lost.  Died  about 
337,  or,  according  to  some,  in  360  A.D. 

See  Chillier,  "  Histoire  des  Auteurs  sacres,"  etc. 

Eu-sta'tW-us  Ro-ma'nus,  a  celebrated  Byzantine 
jurist,  who  flourished  at  Constantinople  between  950  and 
1000  A.D. 

Eus^tis,  (William,)  an  American  physician  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1753.  He 
served  as  a  surgeon  in  the  army  during  the  Revolutionary 
war,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1800. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  of  war  by  President  Madi- 
son in  1809,  resigned  in  1812,  and  was  sent  as  minister 


to  Holland  in  1814.    In  1823  he  was  elected  Governor 
of  Massachusetts.    Died  in  1825. 

Eu-sto'-ehi-um,  (Julia,)  a  pious  Roman  lady,  was  a 
disciple  of  Saint  Jerome,  who  dedicated  to  her  his  com- 
mentary on  Isaiah.  She  became  an  inmate  of  a  convent 
in  Palestine  in  385  A.D.    Died  in  419, 

Eustratius,  u-stra'she-us,  Bishop  of  Nice,  lived  in  the 
twelfth  century,  and  wrote  a  commentary  on  Aristotle. 

Eu-ter'pe,  [Gr.  Evtepttti,]  a  name  given  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  to  one  of  the  nine  Muses,    She  presided  over  / 
lyric  poetry,  and  was  represented  with  a  flute. 

Euthycrate.    See  Euthycrates. 

Eu-thyc'ra-tes,  [Gr.  EvevKparTjg ;  Fr.  Euthycrate, 
uh^te'kRit',]  a  Greek  sculptor,  who  lived  about  300  B.C., 
was  a  son  and  pupil  of  Lysippus.  His  works  were  more 
remarkable  for  correctness  and  severity  than  for  grace. 

Euthydeme.    See  Euthydemus. 

Eii-thy-de'mus,  [Gr.  Evevdi]fj.og ;  Fr.  Euthydeme, 
uh^te'dim',]  a  Greek  sophist,  whom  Xenophon  mentions 
as  an  opponent  in  argument  of  Socrates,  He  afterwards 
became  a  disciple  of  that  philosopher,  by  whose  wisdom 
he  had  been  confounded. 

Euthydemus,  an  Athenian  general,  who  had  a  high 
command  in  the  army  which  besieged  Syracuse  in 
413  B.C. 

Euthydemus,  a  powerful  king  of  Bactria,  formed  an 
allianfe  with  Antiochus  the  Great  about  210  B.C.  Silver 
coins  of  this  king  (with  Greek  inscriptions)  have  been 
found  at  Bokhara  and  Balk. 

Euthyme.    See  Euthymius. 

ES-thym'i-us,  J^Fr.  Euthyme,  uh't^m',]  Saint,  an 
Armenian  priest,  born  in  377  a.d.,  lived  in  Palestine, 
built  several  monasteries,  and  converted  the  empress 
Eudocia.    Died  in  473. 

Eu-thym'i-us  Zig-a-be'nus,  a  Byzantine  monk,  lived 
about  HOC.  He  wrote,  in  Greek,  a  work  in  defence  of 
the  orthodox  faith,  which  was  printed  in  1536. 

Eutocius,  li-to'she-us,  [Gr.  EvroKiog,]  a  Greek  geom- 
eter of  Ascalon,  in  Palestine,  lived  about  550  A.D.,  and 
was  the  pupil  of  Isidorus  the  architect.  The  only  extant 
works  of  this  author  are  Commentaries  on  Apollonius  and 
Archimedes.  His  comments  on  Archimedes's  "Treatise 
on  the  Sj^here  and  Cylinder"  are  interesting  and  valu- 
able. He  gives  various  modes  for  solving  the  problem 
of  the  duplication  of  the  cube. 

Eutrope.    See  Eutropius. 

Eu-tro'pi-us,  [  Fr.  Eutrope,  uh'tRop',  ]  sometimes 
called  Fla'vius  Eutro^'pius,  a  Latin  historian  of  the 
fourth  century.  He  was  secretary  to  the  emperors  Con- 
stantine  and  Julian,  the  latter  of  whom  he  attended  in 
his  expedition  against  the  Parthians.  He  wrote  an 
"Epitome  of  Roman  History"  ("  Breviarium  Rerum  Ro- 
manorum")  from  the  foundation  of  the  city  to  the  time 
of  Valens,  which  has  been  popular  for  many  centuries 
and  extensively  used  as  a  school-book  in  modern  times. 
The  language  is  pure,  and  the  style  clear  and  simple. 
Little  is  known  of  the  author's  life. 

See  SuiDAS,  "Eutropius;"  Gennadius,  "De  Viris  ilh\stribus 
MoLLER,  "Disputatio  de  Eutropio,"  1685. 

Eii'ty-ehes,  [Gr.  Evtvxvc]  the  founder  or  head  of  a 
heretical  sect  called  Eutychians,  born  about  375  A.D., 
became  noted  for  his  piety  and  ascetic  zeal,  and  was 
superior  of  a  monastery  near  Constantinople.  In  warmly 
opposing  a  doctrine  ascribed  to  Nestorius,  he  erred  in 
the  opposite  extreme,  teaching  that  there  is  only  one 
nature  in  Christ, — that  is,  the  divine.  For  this  he  was 
condemned  by  the  Council  of  Constantinople  in  448. 
His  opinion,  however,  was  adopted  by  the  empress  Eu- 
docia and  others  in  high  station,  and  Theodosius  II. 
assembled  in  449  a  council  at  Ephesus,  which  reversed 
the  former  decision.  The  CEcumenical  Council  of  Chal- 
cedon  in  451  annulled  the  acts  of  the  Council  of  Ephesus. 
This  sect  became  numerous  in  the  East,  and  received 
the  name  of  Monophysites. 

See  Pluquet,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Heresies;"  Althusius,  "  His- 
toria  Eutychiana,"  1659;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Eutyches  or  Eii-ty-ehl-us,  a  Latin  grammarian,  a 
disciple  of  Priscian,  lived  in  the  sixth  century. 

Eii-ty-Gh-i-a'nus,  [Fr.  Eutychien,  uh^te'ke-dN',] 
Pope  or  Bishop  of  Rome,  was  a  native  of  Tuscany.  He 
succeeded  Felix  I.  in  275  a.d.,  and  died  in  283. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  /lard;  g  as G,  H,  K,  gtiUural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


EUTTCHIDES 


878 


EVANS 


Eu-ty-eh'i-des  \Ei)Tvxi6riq\  of  Sic  yon,  a  Greek  sculp- 
t(;r,  who  lived  about  300  B.C.,  was  a  pupil  of  Lysippus. 
He  made  a  statue  of  the  Eurotas,  which  is  mentioned 
by  Pliny,  "in  quo  artem  ipso  amne  liquidiorem  plurimi 
dixere,"  ("in  which  many  said  the  art  showed  itself  more 
liquid  than  the  river  itself.") 

Eutychien.    See  Eutychianus. 

Eu-ty-eh'i-us,  [Gr.  YAiTvxioq^  born  at  Fostat,  in  Egypt, 
in  876  A.D.,  became  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  in  933.  He 
was  learned  in  theology,  history,  and  medicine,  on  which 
he  wrote  several  works.  His  "  Universal  History"  ac- 
quired a  high  reputation  among  the  Orientals.  J.  Selden 
published  a  part  of  this,  with  a  Latin  version.  Died 
about  940. 

E-vag'o-ras,  [Gr.  Y^haybpaq;  Fr.  Evagore,  kVt'goR',] 
King  of  Salamis,  in  Cyprus,  was  descended  from  Teucer, 
son  of  Telamon.  He  reigned  from  410  to  375  H.C.  Aided 
by  the  Athenians  and  the  King  of  Egypt,  he  carried  on 
a  war  ten  years  against  the  King  of  Persia,  whose  army 
invaded  Cyprus,  and  he  obtained  peace  on  not  unfavour- 
able terms  in  376.  He  was  assassinated  in  374,  and  left 
the  throne  to  his  son  Nicocles.  Isocrates  the  orator 
describes  Evagoras  as  an  able  ruler.  Evagoras  H., 
supposed  to  have  been  a  son  of  the  preceding,  became 
King  of  Salamis  after  the  death  of  Nicocles,  and  was 
dethroned  by  Protagoras. 

See  Xenophon,  "Hellenica." 

idvagore.    See  Evagoras. 
^vagre.    See  Evagrius. 

E-va^gri-us  [Fr.  Evagre,  iVtgR']  of  Antioch. 
During  a  schism  in  the  Church,  E^grius  and  Flavian 
were  respectively  elected  to  the  dignity  of  Patriarch  of 
Antioch  by  the  two  different  parties  in  388  A.D.  Eva- 
grius translated  into  Latin  a  "  Life  of  Saint  Anthony" 
by  Athanasius.    Died  after  392. 

Evagrius,  [Gr.  Eiaypwf,]  surnamed  Pon'ticus,  [Fr. 
fivAGRE  DE  Pont,  i^vtgR'  deh  p6N,]  a  monk,  born  near 
the  Euxine  Sea,  in  the  fourth  century,  was  noted  for 
piety  and  learning.  He  removed  to  Egypt,  and  passed 
many  years  in  the  monastery  of  Nitria.  He  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  "Monachus"  and  "Gnosticus."  Died 
about  400. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "Memoires  ecclesiastiques." 

Evagrius,  surnamed  the  Scholastic,  born  at  Epi- 
phania,  in  Syria,  in  the  sixth  century,  became  an  emi- 
nent advocate  of  Antioch,  and  obtained  the  dignity  of 
quaestor.  He  wrote,  in  Greek,  an  ecclesiastical  history 
from  431  A.D.  to  593,  which  is  a  respectable  work  in  point 
of  authenticity  and  style. 

Evald.    See  Ewald. 

Evald  or  Ewald,  a'v^ilt,  (Johannes,)  the  most  emi- 
nent Danish  poet  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  born  in 
Copenhagen  in  1743.  He  was  educated  for  the  church  ; 
but,  finding  such  studies  uncongenial  to  his  romantic 
and  ambitious  ideas,  he  furtively  enlisted  in  the  Prussian 
service  about  the  age  of  sixteen.  Failing  to  obtain  a 
more  eligible  rank  than  that  of  a  private  in  the  infantry, 
he  soon  deserted  to  the  Austrian  standard,  under  which 
he  fought  several  battles  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  Dis- 
enchanted from  his  youthful  illusions  of  military  glory, 
he  returned  home  to  study  theology ;  but  a  disappoint- 
ment in  love  soon  diverted  him  from  this  pursuit  and 
rendered  him  weary  of  life.  He  appears  to  have  been 
unconscious  of  his  poetical  genius  until  he  was  employed 
to  write  a  poem  on  the  death  of  Frederick  V.,  (1766,) 
which  excited  general  admiration.  His  reputation  was 
increased  by  his  "  Temple  of  Fortune,"  his  tragedy  of 
"Rolf"  or  "Rollo,"  (1770,)  and  the  "Death  of  Balder," 
a_  drama,  (1773.)  The  last  is  considered  his  master- 
piece, and  was  superior  to  any  Danish  drama  which  had 
then  appeared.  He  also  wrote  "  Harlequin  Patriot,"  a 
satirical  comedy,  "The  Fisherman,"  an  opera,  (1778,) 
a  beautiful  elegy,  entitled  "Hope  and  Memory,"  and 
several  other  works.  His  writings  are  pervaded  by  a 
high  moral  tone.  He  suffered  much  in  his  later  years 
from  a  chronic  malady,  and  received  a  rather  sparing 
pecuniary  aid  from  government.    Died  in  1781. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Howitt, 
"  Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe,"  vol.  i.  chap.  ii.  ; 
Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  C.  Molbech, 
"J.  Ewalds  Levnet  med  Bidrag  til  hans  digtervaerkers  Historie," 
1831. 


E-van'der,  [Gr.  YMv^poq ;  Fr.  Evandre,  ^'v6NdR',] 
a  semi-fabulous  Grecian  hero,  supposed  to  have  been 
a  son  of  Hermes.  He  emigrated  from  Arcadia  to  Italy, 
where  he  founded  Pallantium  and  became  an  ally  of 
^neas  against  Turnus.  He  was  the  father  of  Pallas. 
(See  Virgil's  ".^neid.") 

E-van'der  Au-li-a'nus,  an  Athenian  sculptor,  who 
worked  at  Rome  about  40  B.C. 

fivandre.    See  Evander. 

Evangeli,  i-v^n'ji-lee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  linguist,  born  at  Cividale  in  1742,  filled  for  thirty 
years  the  chair  of  belles-lettres  in  Padua.  He  made  a 
Latin  version  of  Gray's  "Elegy,"  ("Elegia  in  rusticum 
Sepulchretum,"  1772,)  wrote  a  poem  entitled  "Musical 
Love,"  ("  Amor  musico,")  and  turned  some  poetry  of 
the  Bible  into  Italian  verse.    Died  in  1805. 

Evangelista,  i-vin-j^i-l^s'ti,  of  Canobio,  an  Italian 
canonist  and  civilian,  born  in  1511  ;  died  in  1595. 

Ev'ans,*  (Abel,)  an  English  wit,  was  a  graduate  of 
Oxford  in  1699,  and  had  a  great  reputation  as  an  epi- 
grammatist. He  wrote  "Vertumnus,"  "The  Appari- 
tion," and  other  small  poems.  His  name  occurs  in  the 
following  couplet : 

"Alma  novem  genuit  celebres  Rhedyclna  poetas, 
Bubb,  Stubb,  Cobb,  Crabb,  Young,  Carey,  Tickell,  Evans." 

Evans,  (Caleb,)  D.D.,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
born  at  Bristol  in  1737,  preached  in  his  native  city.  He 
published  several  sermons,  and  a  letter  to  John  Wesley 
in  which  he  defends  the  rights  of  the  American  colonies. 
Died  in  1791. 

Ev'ans,  (Sir  De  Lacy,)  K.C.B.,  a  general  of  the 
British  army,  born  at  Moig,  Ireland,  in  1787.  He  fought 
as  a  commissioned  officer  in  the  Peninsula  from  1810  to 
1813,  and  against  the  Americans  at  Baltimore,  Washing- 
ton, and  New  Orleans  in  1814.  He  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  181 5.  In  183 1  he  was  elected  to 
Parliament,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  Liberal  party. 
He  obtained  command  in  1835  of  a  legion  of  10,000 
men  raised  to  suppress  the  Carlist  rebellion  in  Spain. 
He  defeated  the  Carlists  in  several  actions  in  1836  and 
1837.  In  1846  he  became  a  major-general,  and  in  1854, 
as  lieutenant-general,  obtained  command  of  a  division  of 
the  army  in  the  East.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the 
Alma  and  Inkerman,  1854.    Died  in  1870. 

Ev'ans,  (Evan,)  a  Welsh  poet  and  clergyman,  born 
in  Cardiganshire  in  1730.  He  published  "Love  of  our 
Country,"  a  poem,  and  "Specimens  of  Welsh  Poetry," 
with  an  English  version  and  notes.    Died  in  1790. 

See  Owen,  "Cambrian  Biography." 

Evans,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  English  dissenting  divine, 
born  at  Wrexham  in  1680,  became  successor  to  Daniel 
Williams  in  London.  His  "Discourses  on  Christian 
Temper"  (4th  edition,  1729)  were  highly  commended  by 
Dr.  Watts,  Dr.  Doddridge,  and  others,  and  have  often 
been  reprinted.    Died  in  1730. 

See  "Life  of  John  Evans,"  by  Dr.  John  Erskine. 

Evans,  (John,)  LL.D.,  born  at  Usk,  in  Monmouth- 
shire, in  1767,  was  minister  of  a  General  Baptist  congre- 
gation in  London  from  1792  to  1827.  He  wrote  a  "Brief 
Sketch  of  the  Different  Denominations  of  Christians," 
(1794,)  which  passed  through  eighteen  editions  and  was 
translated  into  several  languages.  He  sold  the  copy- 
right for  ten  pounds.    Died  in  1827. 

Evans,  (John  Harrington,)  an  English  Baptist  min- 
ister, born  at  Salisbury  in  1785,  preached  in  John  Street 
Chapel,  London,  about  thirty  years.  He  published  Let- 
ters, Sermons,  and  other  religious  works.    Died  in  1849. 

See  "Memoirs  of  J.  H.  Evans,"  by  his  son,  1852. 

Ev'ans,  (Lewis,)  an  x\merican  geographer,  born  about 
1700.  He  published  a  Map  of  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
and  other  colonies  in  1749.    Died  in  1756. 

Evans,  (Marian  C.,)  an  English  novelist,  born  in  the 
north  of  England  about  1820.  She  published,  under  the 
assumed  name  of  George  Eliot,  popular  novels,  entitled 
"Adam  Bede,"  (1858,)  "The  Mill  on  the  Floss,"  (1859,) 
"  Scenes  of  Clerical  Life,"  "  Romola,"  (1863,)  and  "  Felix 
Holt  the  Radical,"  (1866 ;)  also  a  poem,  entitled  "The 
Spanish  Gypsy,"  (1868.)    Miss  Evans  was  married,  a 


*  The  name  Evans  is  variously  pronounced,  both  in  England  and 
America, — often  iv'anz,  but  perhaps  still  more  frequently  ^v'anz. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  iS,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


EVANS 


879 


EVERARD 


few  years  since,  to  the  distinguished  writer,  G.  H. 
Lewes,  Esq. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1S60 :  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1859;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1859, 
and  Mav,  i860;  ''British  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1863,  and 
October',  1868;  "Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1859;  "Novels  of 
George  Eliot,"  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  October,  1866. 

Evans,  (Nathan  G.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
South  Carolina  about  1828,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1848.  He  commanded  the  insurgents  at  Ball's  Bluff, 
October,  1861. 

Evans,  (Oliver,)  an  American  inventor  and  mechan- 
ist, born  at  Newport,  Delaware,  in  1755.  He  is  said  to 
have  invented  the  first  steam-engine  constructed  on  the 
high-pressure  system,  the  drawings  and  specifications  of 
which  he  sent  to  England  about  1795.  He  projected  a 
railroad  to  connect  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  but 
lacked  the  means  to  realize  it.    Died  in  1819. 

Evans,  (Robert  Wilson,)  an  English  author,  born 
at  Shrewsbury  about  1790,  was  vicar  of  Heversham.  He 
published  several  esteemed  works,  among  which  is  "The 
Rectory  of  Valehead,"  (15th  edition,  1852.) 

Evans,  iv'anz,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  controversial 
writer  and  minister  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  or  Quakers, 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  1798.  In  1827  and  1828  he 
opposed  the  Unitarian  views  of  Elias  Hicks,  in  a  series 
of  able  papers  in  "The  Friend."  He  also  published 
(1828)  an  "Exposition  of  the  Faith  of  the  Religious 
Society  of  Friends,"  etc.,  which  is  probably  the  most 
complete  exhibition  extant  of  the  doctrines  of  the  early 
Quakers  in  relation  to  the  divinity  and  ofiices  of  Christ. 
In  1837  he  narrowly  escaped  shipwreck  on  a  voyage  to 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  when  by  over-exertion  at 
the  pumps  (and  other  efforts  to  save  the  sinking  vessel) 
his  health  sustained  a  serious  and  irreparable  injury. 
From  1837  to  1854  he  edited,  in  conjunction  with  his 
brother,  William  Evans,  "The  Friends'  Library,"  a  col- 
lection of  the  standard  religious  writings  of  the  Society, 
in  fourteen  volumes.  He  died  May  25,  1868.  He  was 
distinguished  for  rare  acuteness  as  well  as  comprehen- 
siveness of  intellect,  for  a  most  kindly  and  benevolent 
spirit,  and  for  an  unquenchable  zeal  in  defence  of  what 
he  believed  to  be  the  principles  of  truth. 

See  notice  in  the  Philadelphia  "  North  American  and  United 
States  Gazette"  of  June  22,  1868,  which  was  afterwards  reprinted  in 
pamphlet  form. 

Ev'an-son,  (Edward,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  173 1,  became  vicar  of  South  Mimms  in  1768,  and 
rector  of  Tewkesbury  in  1770.  He  was  prosecuted  for 
altering  the  liturgy  and  preaching  unsound  doctrine,  but 
was  acquitted.  In  1778  he  resigned  his  livings,  and 
:)pened  a  school  at  Mitcham.  He  published  several 
.Tacts  against  the  Trinity  and  other  doctrines  of  evan- 
gelical religion.    Died  in  1805. 

Evaric.    See  Euric. 

^variste.    See  Evaristus. 

Ev-a-ris'tus,  [Fr.  Evariste,  i'vt'r^st',]  Saint,  a 
Greek  by  birth,  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Rome  in  100  A.D. 
as  successor  to  Saint  Clement.  He  suffered  in  Trajan's 
persecution,  and  is  honoured  as  a  martyr  by  the  Church, 
though  history  does  not  inform  us  of  the  manner  of  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  109  a.d. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Ev'arts,  (Jeremiah,)  an  American  editor,  born  in 
Sunderland,  Vermont,  in  1781,  studied  law.  He  became 
editor  of  "The  Panoplist,"  a  religious  paper  of  Boston, 
about  1810,  and  of  the  "Missionary  Herald"  in  1820. 
In  1 82 1  he  was  chosen  corresponding  secretary  of  the 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions.  Died 
in  1 83 1. 

See  E.  C.  Tracy,  "Memoirs  of  J.  Evarts,"  1845. 

Evarts,  (William  M.,)  an  eminent  American  lawyer, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Boston,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1818.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1837,  studied  law  at  Harvard  University,  and  began  to 
practise  in  the  city  of  New  York  about  1840.  He  be- 
came an  active  member  of  the  Republican  party.  In 
the  trial  of  President  Johnson,  in  the  spring  of  1868, 
he  was  the  principal  counsel  for  the  respondent,  who 
nominated  him  attorney-general  of  the  United  States 
about  July  i  of  that  year. 


Eve,  eev,  [Heb.  mn,  Hevah  or  Chavah;  Arab.  Haw  a, 
hl'wi;  Gr.  Eia;  Lat.  E'vA,]  the  wife  of  Adam,  and  the 
original  mother  of  the  human  race. 

See  Genesis  ii.,  iii.,  and  iv. ;  II.  Corinthians  xi.  3;  I.  Timothy 
ii.  13. 

^veillon,  i''vi'y6N',  (Jacques,)  a  French  priest,  born 
at  Angers  in  1572,  was  learned  in  canon  law,  and  wrote 
several  theological  works.    Died  in  1651. 

Ev'e-lyn,  (John,)  an  English  author  and  gentleman, 
eminent  for  his  accomplishments,  public  services,  and 
honourable  life,  was  born  at  Wotton,  in  Surrey,  on  the 
31st  of  October,  1620,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  In  1644 
he  visited  the  continent,  where  he  passed  seven  years 
in  travel  and  in  the  diligent  study  of  natural  philosophy 
and  the  fine  arts.  Returning  to  England  in  1652,  he 
settled  at  Say's  Court,  near  Deptford,  with  his  wife, 
whose  maiden  name  was  Browne.  After  the  restora- 
tion he  was  employed  in  important  public  services,  as 
member  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  commissioner  for  the 
rebuilding  of  Saint  Paul's,  etc.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
members  of  the  Royal  Society,  formed  in  1662.  In  1664 
he  published  his  most  important  and  popular  work, 
"Sylva,  or  a  Discourse  on  Forest-Trees,"  which  widely 
diffused  a  taste  for  rural  occupations,  and  gave  an  ef- 
fectual impulse  to  the  propagation  of  timber.  "Evelyn's 
'  Sylva,' "  says  Scott,"  is  still  the  manual  of  British  planters, 
and  his  life,  manners,  and  principles,  as  illustrated  in  his 
Memoirs,  ought  equally  to  be  the  manual  of  English 
gentlemen."  Sir  Walter  here  refers  to  his  Diary  from 
1641  to  1705,  a  work  of  great  historical  interest  and 
value.  Evelyn  also  wrote  "Sculptura,  a  History  of  the 
Art  of  Engraving,'*  (1662,)  a  "Treatise  on  Architecture," 
(1664,)  several  treatises  on  Horticulture,  and  various 
other  works.  His  "  Sylva"  was  the  first  book  printed  by 
order  of  the  Royal  Society.    Died  in  February,  1706. 

See  "  Blographia  Britannica ;"  Evelyn's  "Diary;"  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1818;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
July,  1854. 

Evelyn,  (John,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Say's 
Court  about  1655,  was  an  elegant  scholar.  He  translated 
Plutarch's  Life  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  wrote  some 
original  verses.    Died  in  1698. 

;6veniere.    See  Evemerus. 

E-vem'e-rus  or  Eu-hem'e-rus,  [Gr.  'Evfjfiepog;  Fr. 
£v6mere,  a.\-a''maiR',]  a  Greek  philosopher,  who  lived 
about  300  B.C.,  and  was  a  friend  of  Cassander,  King  of 
Macedonia.  He  wrote  a  Sacred  History,  {'lepu  'Avaypacprj,) 
in  which  he  expressed  his  dissent  from  the  established 
polytheism,  and  aimed  to  prove  that  the  pagan  deities 
were  mortals.  This  work  was  very  popular  with  the 
Epicureans,  and  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Ennius. 
The  original  and  version  are  both  lost. 

E-ve'nor,  [Eviyvwp,]  a  Greek  painter,  was  the  father 
and  master  of  Parrhasius.    He  lived  about  420  B.C. 

E-ve'nus,  [Et-T^vof,]  a  Greek  poet  of  Paros,  who  wrote 
about  450  B.C.,  and  from  whom  Socrates  is  said  to  have 
taken  lessons  in  poetry.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  author  of  numerous  epigrams  found  in  the  Greek 
Anthology. 

Everaerts.  See  Everard. 

^verard.    See  Everardi,  (Angelo.) 

Everard,  a'veh-raRt^  or  Everaerts,  a'veh-riRts,(EGl- 
DIUS,)  a  Dutch  physician,  born  at  Berg-op-Zoom,  ]irac- 
tised  at  Antwerp,  where  he  published  in  1583  a  treatise 
"  On  the  Marvellous  Virtues  of  the  Peruvian  Weed  called 
Tobacco." 

Everard,  (Joannes  Secundus,)  a  popular  poet,  son 
of  Nicolaas,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  the  Hague  in 
1511.  He  studied  law,  and  about  1533  went  to  Spain, 
where  he  became  Latin  secretary  to  the  emperor  Charles 
V.  He  gained  an  extensive  reputation  by  his  Latin 
poem  entitled  "Basia."    Died  in  1536. 

Everard  or  Everardi,  i'veh-raR'dee,  (Nicolaas,) 
an  eminent  Dutch  jurist,  born  at  Grypskerk  in  1473,  was 
a  friend  of  Erasmus.  He  was  president  of  the  supreme 
court,  or  grand  council,  of  Holland,  at  the  Hague,  from 
1509  to  1527,  and  was  eminent  for  learning  and  probity. 
He  published  "Topica  Juris,"  (1516.)    Died  in  1532. 

See  FOPPENS,  "BIbliotheca  Belgica." 

Everard,  (Nicolaas  Grudius,)  a  Latin  poet,  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Louvain  about  15 15.  He  was 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  ^ard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Y., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this.    (S^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


EVERARDI 


EVERETT 


a  councillor  to  Philip  II.,  and  secretary  of  the  order  of 
the  Golden  Fleece.  He  wrote  admired  poems  called 
*'  Negotia,  sive  Poemata  Sacra,"  (1566,)  and  "Otia,  sive 
Poemata  Profana,"  (1612.)    Died  at  Venice  in  1571. 

His  brother,  Adrian  Marius,  also  gained  distinction 
as  a  Latin  poet.  His  verses  were  printed  in  16 12  with 
those  of  Nicolaas  and  Joannes.    Died  in  1568. 

Everardi.    See  Everard. 

Everardi,  i-vi-raR'dee,  [Fr.  Sverard,  i'veh-rtR',] 
(Angelo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Brescia  in  1647, 
died  prematurely  in  1678. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Everdingen,  van,  vin  ev'er-ding'en  or  a'ver-ding"- 

iien,  (Albert,)  an  excellent  Dutch  landscape-painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Alkmaar  in  1621,  studied  with  Savery 
and  Peter  Molyn,  both  of  whom  he  surpassed.  He 
travelled  in  Norway,  the  wild,  rugged,  and  picturesque 
scenery  of  which  afforded  many  subjects  for  his  art.  He 
excelled  also  in  marine  views  and  storms,  and  executed 
admirable  engravings  in  aqua-fortis.  Died  at  his  native 
place  in  1675. 

His  brother  C^SAR,  born  at  Alkmaar  in  1606,  was  a 
skilful  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  and  an  able  archi- 
tect.   Died  at  Alkmaar  in  1679. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Ev'er-ett,  (Alexander  Hill,)  an  American  scholar 
and  diplomatist,  born  in  Boston  in  1792,  was  a  brother 
of  Edward  Everett,  noticed  below.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  University  in  1806,  and  studied  law  under  John 
Q.  Adams,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Russia  as  secretary 
of  legation  about  1809.  He  published  in  1821  a  work 
entitled  "Europe,  or  a  General  Survey  of  the  Principal 
Powers,"  etc.  In  1825  he  was  appointed  minister  to  the 
court  of  Spain,  where  he  remained  several  years.  He 
published  "  America,  or  a  General  Survey  of  the  Political 
Situation  of  the  Several  Powers  of  the  Western  Conti- 
nent." Having  returned  home  about  1830,  he  became 
editor  of  the  "  North  American  Review,"  to  which  he 
contributed  many  literary  and  political  articles.  He 
conducted  this  review  for  about  five  years  with  great 
ability.  He  became  an  adherent  of  the  Democratic 
party  and  a  political  friend  of  General  Jackson  about 
1832,  after  which  he  was  nominated  several  times  as  a 
candidate  for  Congress,  but  was  not  elected.  In  1845 
published  a  volume  of  poems.  He  was  appointed  com- 
missioner to  China  in  1845,  ^'""^  ^'^^  at  Canton  in  May, 
1847.         had  married  Lucretia  Peabody  about  1816. 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America;"  Allibone,  "Dic- 
tionary of  Authors." 

Everett,  (Edward,)  a  distinguished  American  orator, 
scholar,  and  statesman,  was  born  in  Dorchester,  Nor- 
folk county,  Massachusetts,  on  the  iith  of  April,  1794. 
His  father,  the  Rev.  Oliver  Everett,  was  for  a  number 
of  years  the  minister  of  the  New  vSouth  Church,  in  Bos- 
ton, and  in  1799  was  appointed  judge  of  the  circuit  court. 
While  preparing  for  college,  Edward  Everett  attended  a 
school  kept  by  Ezekiel  Webster,  brother  of  the  cele- 
brated Daniel  Webster,  who  on  one  occasion,  during 
Ezekiel's  absence,  took  charge  of  the  school  for  a  week. 
It  was  thus  that  the  acquaintance  began  between  two 
individuals  who  were  afterwards  destined  to  act  together 
a  distinguished  part  in  their  country's  history.  Edward 
Everett  entered  Harvard  in  the  summer  of  1807,  and 
graduated,  with  the  highest  honours  of  his  class,  in  1811. 
He  immediately  commenced  the  study  of  divinity  under 
President  Kirkland.  In  February,  1814,  he  was  ordained 
as  minister  of  Brattle  Street  Church,  Boston.  In  1815 
he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  the  Greek  professorship 
at  Harvard  ;  but,  in  order  more  fully  to  qualify  himself 
for  the  position,  he  visited  Germany,  and  went  through 
a  course  of  study  at  the  University  of  Gottingen.  He 
afterwards  made  the  tour  of  Europe.  Returning,  after 
an  absence  of  four  years,  to  his  native  country,  in  1 8 19, 
he  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  professorship,  and 
gave  to  the  study  of  Greek  literature  an  impulse  the 
influence  of  which  is  still  felt  in  America.  In  1822  he 
married  the  daughter  of  the  Hon.  Peter  Chardon  Brooks. 
In  1824  he  was  elected  to  Congress,  and  took  his 
seat  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  in  1825,  as  a 
supporter  of  John  Quincy  Adams.     He  continued  in 


Congress  ten  years.  In  1835  he  was  elected  Governor 
of  Massachusetts.  During  the  four  years  of  his  official 
term  the  Board  of  Education  was  organized,  the  normal 
schools  founded,  and  other  important  public  measures 
adopted  or  carried  on.  In  the  gubernatorial  election 
of  1839,  Mr.  Everett  failed  to  be  re-elected  by  a  single 
vote  only.  Thus  released  from  public  duty,  he  visited 
Europe  the  second  time  in  the  summer  of  1840,  and 
passed  the  winter  in  Italy.  On  the  election  of  General 
Harrison  to  the  Presidential  chair,  Webster  became  sec- 
retary of  state,  and,  chiefly  through  his  influence,  Everett 
was  appointed  minister  at  the  court  of  Saint  James. 
Several  important  questions,  including  that  of  the  north- 
eastern boundary,  were  then  agitated  between  the  two 
countries.  Mr.  Everett  performed  his  difficult  diplomatic 
duties  in  a  manner  that  reflected  the  highest  credit  upon 
himself  and  distinguished  honour  upon  the  administra- 
tion with  which  he  was  connected.  Having  returned 
home  in  1845,  he  was  soon  after  elected  president  of 
Harvard  University.  He  resigned  this  position  in  1849. 
In  1852  Mr.  Everett  was  called  by  President  Fillmore  to 
the  office  of  secretary  of  state,  left  vacant  by  the  death 
of  Daniel  Webster ;  he  held  this  place,  however,  only 
four  months, — that  is,  until  the  inauguration  of  Franklin 
Pierce,  March  4,  1853.  Previously  to  his  retiring  from 
the  cabinet  he  had  been  elected,  by  the  legislature  of 
Massachusetts,  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States.  Al- 
though in  feeble  health,  he  applied  himself  assiduously, 
during  that  exciting  period,  to  the  discharge  of  his  public 
duties.  In  May,  1854,  in  compliance  with  the  earnest 
recommendation  of  his  physician,  he  resigned  his  seat 
in  Congress,  and  withdrew  to  private  life.  As  soon  as 
his  health  was  somewhat  restored,  he  commenced  his 
labours  in  behalf  of  the  Mount  Vernon  Fund,  the  object 
of  which  was  to  purchase  the  home  and  burial-place  of 
the  immortal  Washington,  (then  in  the  possession  of  his 
nephew,  Bushrod  Washington,)  in  order  that  it  might 
for  all  future  time  belong  to  the  American  people  as  a 
place  of  public  resort  and  pilgrimage.  The  sum  collected 
for  this  noble  purpose  by  the  efforts  of  Mr.  Everett  (as 
the  result  of  his  lectures,  writings,  etc.)  amounted  to 
scarcely  less  than  one  hundred  thousand  dollars. 

Mr.  Everett  was  by  temperament  and  mental  constitu- 
tion strongly  conservative.  This  tendency  was  perhaps 
strengthened  by  the  obvious  consideration  that,  without  a 
measure  of  the  spirit  of  conciliation  and  mutual  conces- 
sion, the  government  of  a  free  people,  spread  over  a  vast 
extent  of  territory  and  having  agreat  diversity  of  interests, 
would  necessarily  be  exposed  to  continual  jars,  if  not 
fatal  collisions.  His  tastes  and  his  principles  alike  made 
him  averse  to  all  discord  and  violence  ;  and,  like  many 
others,  he  was  led  to  hope  that,  by  a  moderate  and  con- 
ciliatory policy  on  the  part  of  the  North,  the  spirit  of 
Southern  slavery — that  great  source  of  peril  to  the  nation 
— might  be  rendered  more  mild  and  less  aggressive. 
When  at  length  the  assault  committed  by  Brooks  upon 
Mr.  Sumner  in  the  Senate,  and  the  subsequent  outrages  of 
the  pro-slavery  party  in  Missouri  and  Kansas,  had  excited 
deep  and  general  indignation  among  the  people  of  the 
non-slaveholding  States,  Mr.  Everett's  anxiety  seemed  to 
increase,  with  the  increasing  danger,  to  avert,  if  possible, 
the  dreadful  scourge  of  civil  war  from  his  hitherto  pros- 
perous and  happy  country.  With  this  view,  he  allowed 
his  viame  to  go  before  the  people  as  a  representative  of 
the  party  of  conciliation  and  compromise,  by  which  party 
he  was  chosen  in  the  summer  of  i860  a  candidate  for 
the  Vice-Presidency,  John  Bell,  of  Tennessee,  being  the 
nominee  for  President.  In  the  ensuing  election  they 
received  only  thirty-nine  electoral  votes,  and  Mr.  Lin- 
coln was  chosen  President  by  a  large  majority.  The 
events  of  the  next  few  months  showed  that  the  Southern 
leaders  had  for  many  years  been  making  preparations 
for  a  separation  from  the  Union,  and  that  the  election 
of  Mr.  Lincoln  merely  furnished  them  with  a  plausible 
pretext  before  the  people  for  carrying  their  schemes  into 
effect.  When  Mr.  Everett  perceived  that  war  was  inevi- 
table, and  that  the  nation  could  only  be  preserved  by 
putting  down  the  rebellion  by  force  of  arms,  he  gave  all 
his  energies  and  influence  towards  the  support  of  the 
Federal  government.  He  died  of  an  affection  of  the  lungs, 
terminating  in  apoplexy,  on  the  15th  of  January,  1865. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


EVERMER 


88i 


EWING 


Edward  Everett  affords  a  remarkable  example  of  an 
almost  universal  culture, — of  the  successful  prosecution 
of  the  most  diversified  pursuits,  combined  with  rare  accu- 
racy and  thoroughness  in  those  departments  of  learning 
to  which  he  more  especially  devoted  himself.  His  lite- 
rary productions  consist  chiefly  of  his  elaborate  public 
speeches  and  addresses  delivered  on  various  occasions. 
He  also  contributed  several  important  articles  to  the 
"  North  American  Review."  Among  these  we  would  call 
especial  attention  to  one  which  most  a])ly  discussed  the 
doctrine  of  nullification,  (then  rife  in  South  Carolina,) 
published  in  October,  1830.  His  published  speeches  and 
addresses  are  perhaps  not  surpassed  in  value  by  those 
of  any  other  American  orator,  if,  in  addition  to  the  grace 
and  elegance  of  the  style,  we  take  into  consideration  the 
correct  and  valuable  information  which  they  contain. 

For  some  excellent  remarks  on  the  character  of  Mr.  Everett,  both 
as  a  gentleman  and  a  scholar,  see  "Character  and  Characteristic 
Men,"  by  E.  P.  Whipple,  pp.  243-252;  see.  also,  "A  Memoir  of 
Edward  Everett,"  Boston,  1865;  "Christian  Examiner"  for  Novem- 
ber, 1850;  Griswold's  "Prose  Writers  of  America;"  "National 
Portrait- Galler)'  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iv. ;  "Golden 
Age  of  American  Oratory,"  by  Edward  G.  Parker,  Boston,  1857; 
"  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1825,  January,  1837,  and 
October,  1850;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1840. 

Evermer.    See  Ebremar. 

Evers,  i-vaia',  (Charles  Joseph,)  Baron,  a  Belgian 
general  in  the  French  service,  born  at  Brussels  in  1773  ; 
died  in  1818. 

Ev'ers-ley,  (Charles  Shaw  Lefevre,)  Viscount, 
an  English  legislator,  born  in  London  in  1794.  His 
family  name  was  Shaw.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament 
as  a  Whig  in  1830,  and  became  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons  in  1839.  He  was  re-elected  to  that  office 
in  1841,  in  1847,  ^"'i  i^i  1852,  and  ceased  to  be  Speaker 
in  1857,  when  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Viscount 
Eversley.  His  official  conduct  was  highly  approved  by 
both  parties.    He  was  remarkable  for  dignity  of  manner. 

Everts,  (Nicolaas.)    See  Everard. 

Evertsen,  §v'ert-sen,  a  Dutch  family  which  produced 
several  distinguished  naval  officers,  of  whom  five  were 
brothers.  Cornelius,  a  vice-admiral,  was  killed  in  battle 
with  the  English,  July,  1666.  His  brother  John,  hold- 
ing the  same  rank  in  the  navy,  was  killed  in  the  ensuing 
month.  Cornelius,  the  son  of  John,  attained  the  rank 
of  vice-admiral,  and  died  in  1679. 

See  J.  C.  DE  JoNGE,  "  Vie  de3  Amiraux  de  Zelande  J.  et  C.  Evert- 
sen," 1817. 

iSvesque.    See  L^vesque. 

Evliya  or  Evleea,  §v-lee'a,  (Effendi,)  a  noted 
Turkish  traveller,  born  in  Constantinople  in  161  r,  passed 
the  greater  part  of  his  mature  life  in  travel  through  Asia 
and  Europe.  He  often  accompanied  military  expeditions 
or  diplomatic  missions  as  secretary.  He  wrote  several 
volumes  of  Travels,  which,  although  they  display  more 
credulity  than  judgment,  are  well  adapted  to  give  an 
insight  into  the  Turkish  character  and  mode  of  thought. 
Died  about  1680. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "  Notice  of  Evlya  EfFendi,"  in  his  "  Histoire 
de  I'Empire  Ottoman." 

E-vo'di-us,  an  intimate  friend  of  Saint  Augustine,  was 
born  at  Tagaste,  (Africa.)  He  became  Bishop  of  Uzalis, 
near  Utica,  about  396  a.d.  He  wrote  letters  to  Saint 
Augustine,  which  are  extant. 

Evremond,  ivR^m^N',  (Charles  de  Saint-Denis 
— deh  siN'deh-ne',)  Seigneur  de  Saint-Evremond,  a 
French  courtier,  wit,  z.x\A  litterateur,  born  at  Saint-Denys- 
le-Guast,  near  Coutances,  in  1613.  He  entered  the  army 
at  an  early  age,  and,  by  his  bravery,  wit,  and  polite 
accomplishments,  attracted  the  notice  of  Turenne  and 
Conde,  with  the  latter  of  whom  he  became  intimate. 
In  the  war  of  the  Fronde,  about  1650,  he  supported  the 
royal  cause,  and  was  promoted  by  the  king.  For  some 
political  offence,  Louis  XIV.  ordered  him  to  be  confined 
in  the  Bastille  in  1661  ;  but  he  escaped  to  England  in 
1662,  was  received  with  great  favour  at  court,  and  never 
returned  to  France.  Charles  II.  granted  him  a  pension 
of  ;i^300.  His  letters,  essays,  dramas,  etc.  (in  French) 
gained  him  much  temporary  reputation  ;  but  they  are 
mostly  of  a  trifling  character,  and  have  little  merit  ex- 
cept the  natural  and  graceful  style.    Died  in  1703. 

See  P.  Desmaiseaux,  "Vie  du  Sieur  de  Saint-lSvremond,"  1705; 
C.  CoTOLENDi,  "  Saint-Evremontiana,"  Amsterdam,  1701. 


Ewald,  a'Mlt,  (Georg  Heinrich  August,)  an  emi- 
nent German  Orientalist  and  biblical  critic,  was  born  at 
Gottingen  in  1803.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Gottingen  about  1827,  and  of  Oriental  languages  in  the 
same  university  in  1835.  He  published  a  good  Hebrew 
grammar,  (1835.)  From  1837  to  1848  he  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Tubingen.  In  1848  he  resumed  his  former 
functions  at  Gottingen.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"The  Poetical  Books  of  the  Old  Testament,"  (1835-37,) 
a  "  History  of  the  People  of  Israel  until  the  Advent  of 
Christ,"  (3  vols.,  1843-50,)  and  "The  Prophets  of  the 
Old  Testament,"  ("Die  Propheten  des  alten  Bundes," 
2  vols.,  1840.)  In  his  religious  views  he  inclined  towards 
rationalism. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon  ;"  E.  Renan,  in  the 
"Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  November  15,  1855;  Cari,  Wex, 
"  Professor  Ewald  als  Punier  gewurdigt,"  Rostock,  1843 ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Geneiale." 

Ewald,  (Johann  Ludwig,)  a  German  Protestant 
theologian  and  writer,  born  in  Hesse-Darmstadt  in  1748. 
After  he  had  preached  rationalism  some  years  at  Offen- 
bach, he  avowed  his  conversion  to  evangelical  doctrines. 
In  1 781  he  became  court  preacher  at  Detmold.  In  1796 
he  removed  to  Bremen,  and  to  Heidelberg  in  1805.  He 
published  many  works.    Died  in  1822. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ewald,  (Johanne.s.)    See  Evald. 

Ewald,  i'vilt,  or  Evald,  (John,  )  a  Danish  general, 
born  at  Cassel  in  1744.  He  fought  for  the  British  in  the 
United  States  in  1776-82,  and  entered  the  Danish  ser- 
vice in  1788.  Having  risen  to  the  rank  of  general,  he 
distinguished  himself  in  defence  of  the  neutrality  of  Den- 
mark about  1806.  He  was  author  of  an  able  and  very 
successful  treatise,  "Instructions  in  War,"  ("Belehrun- 
gen  iiber  den  Krieg,"  1798.)  Died  in  1813.  Malte-Brun 
represents  him  as  a  brother  of  the  poet  Evald. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ew'art,  (yoo'art, )  (William,)  an  English  Liberal 
legislator,  born  in  Liverpool  in  1798,  was  educated  for  the 
law.  He  represented  the  burghs  of  Dumfries  district  in 
Parliament  for  many  years,  beginning  in  1841.  About 
1850  he  procui  ed  the  passage  of  an  act  to  establish  free 
public  libraries,  and  laboured  for  the  abolition  of  capital 
punishment.    Died  in  1869. 

Ew'bank,  (  Thomas,)  a  writer  on  practical  mechanics, 
born  in  the  county  of  Durham,  England,  in  1792,  emi- 
grated to  New  York  about  1820,  and  was  appointed 
commissioner  of  patents  in  1849.  Among  his  works  are 
a  "Descriptive  and  Historical  Account  of  Hvdraulic  and 
other  Machines,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  (1842,)  and 
"Thoughts  on  Matter  and  Force,"  (1858.)  Died  in  1870. 

Ew'ell,  (yoo'el,)  (Richard  Stoddard,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  the  District  of  Columbia  about  1818, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1840.  He  became  a  captain 
about  1849,  resigned  his  commission  in  1861,  and  took 
arms  against  the  Union.  He  commanded  a  division  in 
several  battles  near  Richmond  in  June,  1862,  and  lost  a 
leg  in  August  near  Bull  Run.  Having  been  raised  to 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  he  commanded  a  corps  of 
Lee's  army  at  Gettysburg,  July,  1863.  He  took  part  in 
the  battles  of  the  Wilderness  and  Spottsylvania  Court- 
House,  May,  1864.  He  was  taken  prisoner  near  the 
Appomattox  River,  April  6,  1865. 

See  "Southern  Generals,"  anonymous,  New  York,  1865. 

Ewers,  a'^ers,  (Johann  Philipp  Gustav,)  a  German 
historian,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Corbie  in  1 781.  He 
became  professor  of  history  at  Dorpat  in  1810,  and 
])ublished  several  works  on  the  history  and  statistics  of 
Russia.    Died  in  1830. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ew'ing,  (yoo'ing,)  (Rev.  Greville,)  a  Scottish  theo- 
logian, born  in  Edinburgh  in  1767,  was  for  many  years 
pastor  of  an  Independent  church  in  Glasgow.  He  gained 
distinction  as  an  expositor  of  Scripture,  and  published 
a  "Greek  and  English  Lexicon,"  (1802,)  "Letters  to  the 
Jews,"  and  several  religious  treatises.    Died  in  1841. 

Ew'ing,  (John,)  an  American  Presbyterian  minister, 
born  in  Maryland  in  1732.  He  became  pastor  of  a 
church  in  Philadelphia  in  1759,  and  provost  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  in  1779.    He  contributed  to  the 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,  y., guttural ;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

'56 


EWING 


882 


ETCK 


Transactions  of  tlie  American  Philosophical  Society. 
Died  in  1802. 

Ewing,  (Thomas,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Ohio  county,  Virginia,  in  December,  1789.  He  was 
taken  to  the  State  of  Ohio  about  1792  by  his  father, 
who  was  not  able  to  give  him  much  education  at  school. 
After  he  was  twenty-one  years  of  age,  he  entered  the 
Ohio  University  at  Athens.  He  studied  law,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1816,  and  practised  with  success  in 
the  courts  of  Ohio  and  in  the  supreme  court  of  the 
United  States.  He  represented  Ohio  in  the  Senate 
of  the  United  States  from  March,  183 1,  to  March,  1837, 
during  which  period  he  acted  with  the  Whig  party. 
He  supported  General  Harrison  for  the  Presidency  in 

1840,  and  became  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  March, 

1841.  In  September,  1841,  he  resigned  because  Presi- 
dent Tyler  vetoed  a  bill  for  a  national  bank  (for  the 
regulation  of  exchanges)  of  which  Mr.  Ewing  was  in 
part  the  author.  He  v/as  secretary  of  the  interior  from 
March,  1849,  until  the  death  of  President  Taylor,  July, 

1850.  In  the  latter  part  of  1850  he  was  appointed  a 
Senator  of  the  United  States,  to  fill  a  vacancy  caused  by 
the  removal  of  Thomas  Corwin  to  a  seat  in  the  cabinet. 
He  opposed  Clay's  Compromise  bill  and  the  Fugitive 
Slave  bill.  After  his  retirement  from  the  Senate,  March, 

1 85 1,  he  resumed  the  practice  of  law  at  Lancaster,  Ohio. 
Died  in  1871. 

Exauvillez,  d',  d^k'sS've'yi',  (Philippe  Iri^nee 
Boistel — bwis't^K,)  a  French  Catholic,  born  at  Amiens 
in  1786,  wrote  "The  Good  Curate,"  (1827,)  and  other 
popular  religious  works.  He  made  a  French  version 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  works,  from  which  he  omitted  all 
passages  contrary  to  Roman  Catholicism. 

Excelmaiis,  ^k'sel'mdN',  or  Exelmans,  (R^;mi  Jo- 
seph Isidore,)  Baron,  an  eminent  French  general,  was 
born  at  Bar-le-Duc  in  1775.  He  entered  the  army  young, 
and  became  aide-de-camp  to  Murat  in  1801.  For  his 
gallant  conduct  at  Austerlitz,  in  1805,  he  was  made  a 
colonel.  He  served  with  distinction  at  Eylau,  where  he 
won  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade,  and  at  Friedland,  in 
1807.  In  181 1  he  was  grand  equerry  of  Murat,  then  King 
of  Naples;  but  in  1812  he  returned  to  France,  was  cre- 
ated a  baron,  and  commanded  a  division  in  the  campaign 
of  Russia.  He  displayed  great  courage  and  skill  at  Bo- 
rodino, and  in  the  campaign  of  1 8 14  in  France.  At 
Waterloo  he  commanded  a  corps  of  cavalry  of  the  re- 
serve. After  an  exile  of  four  years,  he  returned  to  France 
in  1819.  He  was  restored  to  his  rank  as  a  peer  in  1831, 
and  became  a  marshal  of  France  about  1850.  Died  in 
1851  or  1852. 

See  J.  Nollet-Fabert,  "  Notice  siir  M.  le  Marechal  Exelmans," 
1851 ;  "  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Fi  angais." 

Exelmans.    See  Excelmans. 

Exeter,  Bishop  of.    See  Phillpotts,  (Henry.) 

Exinieno,  &k-se-ma'no,  (Don  Antonio,)  a  learned 
Spanish  Jesuit  and  ingenious  author,  born  at  Balbastro, 
in  Aragon,  in  1732.  On  the  suppression  of  his  order 
he  removed  to  Rome.  He  wrote  the  "Military  History 
of  Spain,"  ( 1769,)  the  style  of  which  is  admired,  and  a 
treatise  on  the  "Origin  and  Principles  of  Music,  with  a 
History  of  its  Progress,"  etc.,  (1774,)  which  is  his  chief 
production.    Died  in  Rome  in  1798. 

Exmouth,  gks'miith,  (Edward  Pellew,)  Viscount, 
an  eminent  English  admiral,  born  at  Dover  in  1757, 
entered  the  navy  in  1770.  He  took  a  conspicuous  part 
in  the  battle  of  Lake  Champlain  in  1776,  and  became  a 
post-captain  in  1782.  During  the  war  against  France 
he  captured  a  number  of  the  enemy's  ships,  for  which 
service  he  was  knighted  about  1794.  He  was  elected 
member  of  Parliament  in  1802,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
rear-admiral  in  1804,  with  a  command  in  the  East  Indies. 
As  vice-admiral,  he  was  ajipointed  commander-in-chief 
in  the  Mediterranean  in  1 810.  In  181 4  he  was  created 
Baron  Exmouth  and  promoted  to  the  rank  of  full  admi- 
ral. In  1816  Lord  Exmouth  commanded  a  perilous  ex- 
pedition against  the  Algerines,  who  had  violated  a  treaty 
for  the  abolition  of  Christian  slavery.  The  English  and 
Dutch  fleets  attacked  Algiers  on  the  26th  of  August,  and 
directed  their  fire  with  such  skill  and  effect  that  the  Dey, 
after  an  obstinate  resistance,  was  compelled  to  submit 
on  the  same  day,  and  about  twelve  hundred  captives 


were  liberated.  In  this  action  the  admiral's  coat  was 
torn  by  a  cannon-ball.  On  his  return  to  England,  Lord 
Exmouth  was  received  with  unbounded  applause,  and 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  viscount.  He  retired  from 
public  service  in  1821,  and  died  in  1833. 

See  Edward  OsLER,  "  Life  of  Admiral  Exmouth,"  1835;  "Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1835. 

Exner,  eks'ner,  (Franz,)  a  German  philosopher,  born 
in  Vienna  in  1802,  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Prague 
from  1 83 1  to  1848.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  one 
"On  Nominalism  and  Realism,"  (1841,)  and  the  "Doc- 
trine of  the  Unity  of  Thought  and  Existence,"  (1845.) 

Expilly,  ^ks'pe'le',  (Claude,)  a  French  lawyer  and 
councillor  of  state,  born  at  Voiron  in  1561.  He  was  em- 
ployed by  Henry  IV.  and  Louis  XIII.  as  negotiator  in 
Piedmont  and  Savoy,  and  became  president  of  the  Par- 
liament of  Grenoble.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Chevalier 
Bayard,"  (1650.)    Died  in  1636. 

See  J.  C.  Martin,  "  Histoire  et  Vie  de  Claude  Expilly,"  1S03. 

Expilly,  (Jean  Joseph,)  Abb^;,  a  French  geographer, 
born  at  Saint-Remi,  Provence,  in  17 19,  performed  many 
journeys  in  the  public  service,  and  others,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  collecting  materials  for  his  works.  He  was  a 
prolific  and  accurate  writer,  and  published,  between  1750 
and  1770,  treatises  on  geography,  which  were  among  the 
best  of  that  period.  Among  these  is  a  "  Geographical 
and  Historical  Dictionary  of  Gaul  and  of  France,"  (6 
vols.,  1762-70.)    Died  in  1793. 

Expilly,  (Louis  Alexandre,)  a  French  priest  and 
revolutionist,  born  at  Brest  in  1742,  became  a  deputy  to 
the  States-General  in  1789,  and  was  one  of  the  framers 
of  the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy.  In  1790  he  was 
chosen  constitutional  Bishop  of  Finisterre.  He  was  con- 
demned on  a  charge  of  Federalism,  and  executed  in  1 794. 

Ex-u-pe'ri-us,  [Fr.  Exupere,  ^k'sii^paiR^,]  Bishop 
of  Toulouse,  lived  about  400  a.d.,  and  was  eminent  for 
charity. 

Eyb,  von,  fon  Tp,  (Albrecht,)  a  German  ecclesiastic 
of  high  reputation,  born  about  1420,  became  chamber- 
lain to  Pope  Pius  II.  He  published  a  compilation  from 
ancient  authors,  entitled  "The  Poetic  Pearl,"  ("Marga- 
rita poetica,"  1472,)  often  reprinted.    Died  about  1478. 

Eyck,  van,  vtn  Ik,  (Hubert,)  a  famous  Flemish 
painter,  born  in  1366,  was  a  brother  of  Jan,  with  whom 
he  worked  in  partnership  at  Bruges  and  Ghent.  They 
sometimes  painted  together  on  the  same  picture, — for 
example,  the  altar-piece  of  a  church  in  Ghent  represent- 
ing the  Adoration  of  the  Lamb,  which  is  called  their 
master-piece.  To  these  brothers  is  ascribed  the  inven- 
tion of  oil-painting,  or,  more  properly,  an  improved 
method  of  preparing  the  pigments.  (See  Eyck,  Jan  van.) 
Died  in  1426. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Eyck,  van,  (Jan,)  a  celebrated  Flemish  painter, 
sometimes  called  John  of  Bruges,  was  born  at  or  near 
Maaseyck  about  1390,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Hubert,  his 
brother.  He  worked  mostly  at  Ghent  and  Bruges. 
About  1425  he  obtained  the  favour  of  Philip  the  Good, 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  who  employed  him  as  an  artist  and 
ambassador.  He  had  received  from  nature  the  qualities 
requisite  for  a  great  painter.  He  and  his  brother  were 
the  first  who  attained  to  great  success  in  oil-painting, 
having  discovered  a  new  vehicle  of  colour,  composed  of 
siccative  oils  and  resins.  His  pictures  preserve  to  the 
present  time  an  admirable  freshness  and  brilliancy  of 
colour.  "His  colour,"  says  Emeric-David,  in  the  "Bio- 
graphic Universelle,"  "though  inferior  in  harmony  to 
that  of  modern  master-pieces,  has  more  vivacity." 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Adoration  of  the  Magi," 
a  "Virgin  and  Child,"  and  a  "Saint  Jerome."  Died 
about  1440. 

See  A.  MiCHiELS,  "  Histoire  de  la  Peinture  Flamande;"  Carton, 
"Les  trois  Fr^res  Van  Eyck,"  etc.,  1848. 

Eyck,  van,  (Kaspar,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at 
Antwerp,  lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century.    He  painted  marine  views  with  skill. 

Eyck,  van,  (Margaret,)  a  sister  of  Hubert  and  Jan, 
was  a  successful  painter.  She  refused  an  offer  (or  offers) 
of  marriage  because  she  preferred  to  devote  herself  to 
art.  She  probably  worked  with  her  brothers  in  Bruges 
and  Ghent. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ETCK 


883 


EZRA 


Eyck,  van,  (Nicolaas,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  in 
Antwerp  about  1630,  acquired  a  great  reputation  for 
battle-pieces.   The  particulars  of  his  life  are  not  known. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flaniands,"  etc. 

Eyckens.    See  Eykens. 

Eyer.    See  Ayrer,  (Jakob.) 

Eyke  de  Rebkow.    See  Rebkow. 

Eykens,  I'kens,  or  Eyckens,  Ik'kens,  (Jan,)  a  son 
of  Pieter,  noticed  below,  was  a  skilful  painter  of  flowers 
and  fruits.    Died  in  1669. 

Eykens  or  Eyckens,  (Pieter,)  called  the  Elder, 
a  skilful  Flemish  historical  painter,  born  in  Antwerp 
about  1600.  He  worked  in  his  native  city,  the  churches 
of  which  contain  the  most  of  his  paintings.  Among  them 
are  a  "Last  Supper,"  a  "Saint  Catherine  Disputing," 
and  "Elijah  Ascending  in  a  Chariot  of  Fire."  His  design, 
colour,  and  expression  are  praised  by  Descamps,  He 
sometimes  painted  figures  for  the  works  of  landscape- 
painters. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc, 
Eymar,  a'mtR',(CLAUDE,)  a  literary  French  merchant, 
born  in  Marseilles  in  1744.    He  wrote  commentaries  on 
Rousseau's  works,  and  essays  on  various  subjects.  Died 
in  1822. 

Eymar,  d',  di'mtR',  (  Ange  Marie,)  Comte,  a  French 
litth-ateicr^  born  at  Marseilles  about  1740 ;  died  at  Geneva 
in  1803. 

Eymer.    See  Hymir. 

Eymeric,  i-mi-r^k',  (Nicolas,)  a  native  of  Gerona, 
in  Spain,  born  about  1320,  entered  the  Dominican  order, 
and  was  accounted  the  greatest  canonist  of  his  time.  He 
was  made  Inquisitor-General  in  1356,  and  wrote  "The 
Inquisitor's  Directory,"  the  atrocious  maxims  of  which 
became  the  guide  of  Torquemada,    Died  in  1399. 

Eynard,  i'ntR',  (J.  G.,)  a  merchant,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1775,  removed  to  Geneva  in  his  youth.  About  1824 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  cause  of  Greek  nationality, 
and  in  1829  he  loaned  or  advanced  700,000  francs  to 
the  Greek  treasury, 

Eynde,  van  den,  vSn  den  In'deh,  [Lat,  Eyn'dius,] 
(Jakob,)  a  Dutch  writer,  born  at  Delft  about  1575,  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  Latin  poems,  (1611,)  and  a  "Chronicle 
of  Zealand,"  (1634.)    Died  in  1614. 

Eynden,  van,  vtn  TnMen,  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  animals,  flowers,  etc.,  born  at  Nymwegen  in  1733; 
died  about  1800. 

Eynden,  van,  (Roland,)  a  Dutch  writer  and  painter, 
6orn  at  Dort  in  1748,  published,  in  conjunction  with 
Vander  Villigen,  a  "History  of  the  Painters  of  the  Low 
Countries,"  from  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
which  is  esteemed  valuable.    Died  in  1819. 

Eyndius.    See  Eynde,  van  den. 

Eyre,  air,  (Edward  John,)  an  Englishman,  distin- 
guished as  an  explorer  of  Australia,  was  born  about 
1818.  He  published  in  1845  "Discoveries  in  Central 
Australia,"  In  1864  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Ja- 
maica, He  was  censured  for  the  severity  with  which 
he  suppressed  an  insurrection  in  October,  1865,  and  was 
removed  soon  after  that  date. 

Eyre,  (Sir  James,)  an  English  judge,  born  in  Wilt- 
shire in  1734.  After  practising  law  in  London,  he  be- 
came recorder  of  that  city  in  1762.  He  was  a])pointed 
a  baron  of  the  exchequer  in  1772,  and  first  commissioner 
of  the  great  seal  in  1792.  He  held  the  office  of  lord 
chief  justice  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  from  1793 
until  his  death  in' 1799, 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Eyries,  i're-gs',  (Jean  Baptiste  BENotT,)  a  French 
geographer  and  translator,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1767. 


He  translated  from  the  English  and  German  many  works 
on  geography  and  narratives  of  voyages,  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Geographical  Society  of  Paris,  and  editor 
of  the  "Annales  des  Voyages."  He  wrote  many  articles 
for  Michaud's  "Biographic  Universelle,"  and  published 
with  Pinkerton  an  "Abridgment  of  Modern  Geography," 
(2  vols.,  1827.)    Died  in  1846. 

Eysel,  T'zel,  (Johann  Philipp,)  a  German  physician 
and  writer,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1652  ;  died  in  1717. 

Eytelwein,  T'tel-wTn',  (Johann  Albrecht,)  a  Prus- 
sian engineer  born  at  Frankfort  in  1764.  He  published 
a  "Manual  of  the  Mechanics  of  Solid  Bodies  and  Hy- 
draulics," (1801,)  a  "Manual  of  Perspective,"  (1810,) 
and  other  works.    Died  about  1840. 

Eytzing,  von,  fon  Tt'sing,  (Michael,)  a  German  his- 
torian of  the  sixteenth  century,  published  a  history  of 
events  in  the  Low  Countries  from  1559  to  1583,  entitled 
"  On  the  Belgic  Lion,"  ("  De  Leone  Belgico,"  etc.,  1583.) 

Ezechias,  the  French  of  Hezekiah,  which  see, 

^zechiel.    See  Ezekiel, 

Ez-ed-deen  or  Ez-ed-din,  gz-ed-deen',  an  Arabian 
poet,  born  in  1181  ;  died  in  1261, 

E-ze'ki-el,  [Heb,  SxpiH' ;  Fr,  Ezechiel,  i'zi'she'eK 
or  i''za'ke-^l' ;  Ger,  Ezechiel,  et-sa'ke-il,]  one  of  the 
four  greater  prophets,  was  a  contemporary  of  Daniel. 
During  the  first  Babylonian  captivity  he  was  removed, 
with  other  captives,  about  600  B,C.,  to  the  river  Chebar, 
an  affluent  of  the  Euphrates.  He  began  to  prophesy 
and  to  proclaim  the  judgments  of  God  against  idolatry 
and  other  sins  in  595  B.C.  His  prophecies  are  generally 
considered  obscure,  but  are  remarkable  for  bold  and 
magnificent  imagery.  Many  critics  concede  to  him  con- 
siderable poetical  genius  and  great  energy  of  character. 
The  data  of  his  external  life  are  very  deficient.  The 
only  imjDortant  event  of  his  personal  history  noticed  in 
his  writings  is  the  death  of  his  wife,  (chap,  xxiv,  18.) 
The  New  Testament  contains  no  mention  of  Ezekiel,  nor 
any  quotation  from  the  book  which  bears  his  name. 

See  C.  F.  Boerner,  "Dissertatio  de  Ezechiele  Propheta,"  1719. 

Ezekiel,  a  Jewish  poet,  who  lived  at  Alexandria,  and 
wrote,  in  Greek,  a  drama  on  the  Exodus  from  Egypt, 

E-ze'ki-el,  an  Armenian  astronomer,  born  about  673 
a.d.  After  travelling  in  Greece,  he  opened  in  his  native 
place  in  710  a  school,  which  became  flourishing.  He 
wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the  Zodiac,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  727, 

Ezengatsi,  Iz-en-git'see,  written  also  Ezenkantsi, 
(HoVAN,  i.e.  John,)  an  eminent  Armenian  writer  and 
priest.    Died  about  1325. 

Ez'nig,  Ez'nag,  or  Ez'nik,  an  Armenian  writer  and 
theologian,  born  in  397  A.D.;  died  in  478. 

Ezuik,    See  Eznig, 

Ezquerra,  eth-ker^  or  Esquerra,  ^s-ker'ri,  a  Span- 
ish poet  and  priest,  born  in  Biscay  about  1568.  His 
reputation  is  founded  on  his  "Epistle  to  Bartholomew 
Argensola,"  the  style  of  which  is  a  model  of  elegance, 
purity,  and  grace.    Died  in  1641. 

Ez'ra,  [Heb.  X"^T>  ;  Lat.  Es^dras  ;  Fr.  Esdras,  €s'- 
dRSs' ;  Ger.  Es'ra  or  Es'dras,]  an  eminent  Jewish  scribe 
and  refoi-mer,  was  the  author  of  the  canonical  book  which 
bears  his  name,  and  perhaps  of  the  two  books  of  Chroni- 
cles. He  was  probably  born  in  Babylon.  After  the  temple 
had  been  rebuilt  at  Jerusalem,  P^zra  received  authority 
from  the  King  of  Persia,  about  458  B.C.,  to  lead  a  large 
number  of  captive  Jews  back  to  their  fatherland.  (See 
Ezra  vii,,  viii.,  ix.,  and  x.,  and  Nehemiah  viii.)  He  was 
Governor  of  Judea  until  445  B.C.  He  is  called  the  "  Re- 
storer of  the  Scriptures,"  which  he  appears  to  have  revised. 

Ezzelino,  (da  Romano.)    See  Romano. 


<  as ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K^gutiural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^l^^See  Explanations,  p,  23.1 


FABBRA 


884 


FABIUS 


F. 


Fabbra,  della,  dlVM.  fab'bRS,  (Luigi,)  a  distinguished 
professor  of  medicine  in  the  University  of  Ferrara,  born 
in  that  city  in  1655  ;  died  in  1723. 

Fabbrizi,  de',  di  fdb-bR^t'see,  (Luigi  Cinzio,)  an 
Italian  writer,  born  in  Venice  about  1450,  published 
"  Origine  de'  volga  i  Proverbi,"  (1526.)  Died  about  1526. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Fabbroni.    See  Fabroni, 

Faber.    See  Fab  re,  Le  F^vre,  and  FfevRE. 

Faber,  (Antoine  and  Claude.)    See  Favre. 

Faber,  fl'ber,  (Basil,)  a  German  scholar  and  Prot- 
estant writer,  born  at  Sora,  or  Sorau,  in  1520.  His  chief 
work  is  "Treasury  of  Scholastic  Learning,"  ("Thesaurus 
Eruditionis  scholasticae,"  1571,)  often  reprinted.  Died 
about  1575. 

Faber,  (Felix,)  an  author  and  itinerant  preacher, 
whose  original  name  was  Schmidt,  born  at  Zurich  about 
1442  ;  died  at  Ulm  in  1502. 

Fa'ber,  (Frederick  William,)  a  Roman  Catholic 
priest  and  writer,  nephew  of  George  Stanley  Faber,  no- 
ticed below,  was  born  in  England  in  1815.   Died  in  1863. 

See  BowDEN,  "  Life  of  F.  VV.  Faber,"  1869. 

Faber,  (George  Stanley,)  an  eminent  English  theo- 
logian, born  near  Bradford,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1773.  He 
studied  at  University  College,  Oxford.  Having  graduated 
in  1803,  he  rose  through  several  preferments  to  be  a  pre- 
l)endary  in  the  cathedral  of  Salisbury  in  1831.  Among 
his  principal  works  we  may  name  his  "View  of  the 
Mosaical  Records,"  ("Horae  Mosaicae,"  1801,)  "On  the 
Mysteries  of  the  Cabyri,  or  the  Great  Gods  of  Phoenicia," 
(  1803,)  "  Difficulties  of  Lifidelity,"  ( 1824,)  (a  masterly 
production,)  "  Difficulties  of  Romanism,"  (1826,)  "View 
of  the  Prophecies  relating  to  Judah  and  Israel,"  and 
"The  Sacred  Calendar  of  Prophecy,"  (3  vols.,  1828.) 
His  productions  evince  great  learning  and  research  and 
a  spirit  of  fervent  piety,  and  are  regarded  by  competent 
critics  as  among  the  most  valuable  that  have  been 
written  on  those  subjects.    Died  in  1854. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  May,  1854;  Allibone,  "Dic- 
tionary of  Authors." 

Faber,  ft'bi',  Fabre,  flbR,  or  Le  Fevre,  leh  fIvR, 
(Jean,)  a  celebrated  French  lawyer  and  jurist,  born  in 
Angouleme  ;  died  in  1340. 

Faber,  fl'ber,  (Johann,  )  surnamed  the  Hammer 
OF  Heretics,  a  German  theologian  and  zealous  adver- 
sary of  Luther,  was  born  at  Leutkirch,  in  Suabia,  about 
1475.  He  became  a  Dominican  monk.  He  published, 
besides  other  polemical  works  against  the  Protestants, 
the  "Hammer  of  Heretics,"  ("Malleus  Haereticorum," 
1524.)  In  1 53 1  he  became  Bishop  of  Vienna.  Died  in 
1541- 

See  Kettner,  "  Dissertatio  de  J.  Fabri  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1737. 

Faber,  (Johann,)  a  German  Catholic  theologian  and 
controversialist,  born  at  Heilbronn  about  1 500;  died 
about  1560. 

Faber,  (Johann,)  a  German  botanist  and  physician, 
born  at  Bamberg  about  1570,  practised  in  Rome,  and 
was  physician  to  Pope  Urban  VIII. 

Faber,  (Johann  Ernst,)  a  German  Orientalist  and 
writer,  born  at  Simmerthausen  in  1745  ;  died  in  1774. 

Faber,  (Pierre,)  a  French  classical  scholar,  born  in 
Auvergne  about  1530;  died  about  1615.  Pie  wrote 
commentaries  on  Cicero,  (1601.) 

Faber,  (Samuel,)  a  Swiss  writer,  born  at  Altorf  in 
1657.  His  ch'.-"  work  is  "The  World  in  a  Nutshell," 
("Orbis  Terrarum  in  Nuce.")    Died  in  1716. 

Faber  Stapulensis.    See  Lefevre  d'Estaples. 

Fabert,  fS'bert  or  ffbaiR',  (Abraham,)  a  noted  orna- 
mental printer,  born  at  Metz  about  1560;  died  in  1638. 

Fabert,  (Abraham,)  a  famous  French  general,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Metz  in  1599.  After  having 
distinguished  himself  in  several  battles,  he  was  created 
marshal  of  France  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1658,  and  at  the 
same  tiine  was  appointed  governor  of  Sedan,  at  which 
place  he  died  in  1662.    His  exploits  and  good  fortune 


were  so  extraordinary  that  they  were  by  many  ascribed 
to  magic. 

See  CouRTiLZ  DE  Sandras,  "Vie  du  Marechal  Fabert,"  1697; 
J.  DE  LA  Barre,  "Vie  du  Mardchal  Fabert,"  1752;  Voltaire, 
"  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Begin,  "filoge  du  Marechal  Fabert," 
1837. 

Fa'bi-an  or  Fabyan,  (Robert,)  a  noted  merchant 
and  sheriff  of  London,  born  about  1450,  was  the  author  of 
"Concordance  of  Histories,"  or  "Fabian's  Chronicle," 
(1516,)  which  treats  of  English  history.    Died  in  1512. 

See  DiBDiN,  "Typographical  Antiquities." 

Fa'bi-an,  [Lat.  Fabia'nus;  Fr.  Fabien,  fS'be-dN',] 
Saint,  was  elected  pope  in  236  a.d.,  and  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom under  the  emperor  Decius  in  250. 

Fa-bi-a'nus,  (Papir'ius,)  a  Roman  philosopher  of  the 
first  century,  wrote  numerous  treatises  on  philosophy. 
The  two  Senecas  expressed  a  high  opinion  of  his  works. 

Fabii,  fa'be-T,  a  powerful  patrician  house  of  ancient 
Rome,  which  became  conspicuous  soon  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  republic.  Three  brothers  named  Fabius 
obtained  seven  successive  consulships  between  486  and 
479  B.C. 

Fa-bi-oTa,  Saint,  a  Roman  lady  of  the  illustrious 
house  of  Fabius,  was  celebrated  for  her  piety  and  benevo- 
lence, and  was  the  founder  of  hospitals  in  Italy.  Died 
about  400  a.d. 

See  Baillet,  "  Vies  des  Saints." 

Fa''bi-u.s  Am-bus'tu.s,  (Marcus,)  a  general,  was 
consul  in  360,  in  356,  and  in  354  B.C.,  and  afterwards 
dictator  of  Rome  about  351  B.C.  He  was  the  father  of 
Fabius  Maximus  Rullianus,  noticed  below.  He  defeated 
the  Hernici  and  Tarquinians. 

Fa'bi-us  Max'i-mus,  (Quintus,)  a  son  of  the  fol- 
lowing, and  grandson  by  adoption  of  Paulus  ^Emilius, 
was  chosen  consul  122  B.C.  Having  the  department  of 
Transalpine  Gaul,  he  carried  on  a  successful  war  against 
the  Arverni  and  the  Allobroges.  On  one  occasion  he 
defeated  the  enemy,  who  lost  120,000  men,  while  the 
loss  of  the  Romans  was  very  small.  For  this  victory 
he  received  the  surname  of  Allobrogicus. 

Fa'bi-us  Max'i-mus  -ai-mil-i-a'nus,  (Quintus,) 
son  of  the  consul  Paulus  ^milius,  passed  by  adoption 
into  the  house  of  Fabius.  He  was  elected  consul  of  Rome 
147  B.C.  He  carried  on  a  successful  war  in  Spain  against 
Viriathus,  a  famous  general  commanding  the  Lusita- 
nians.  Like  the  great  Fabius  Cunctator,  he  pursued  in 
his  wars  the  defensive  policy. 

Fa'bi-us  Max'i-mus  Gur'ges,  (Quintus,)  a  son  of 
Fabius  Maximus  Rullianus,  was  consul  in  292  B.C.,  and 
again  in  276.  He  was  the  grandfather  of  the  great  Fabius 
Cunctator. 

Fa'bi-us  Max'i-mus  Rul-Ii-a'nus,  (Quintus,)  a 
famous  general,  was  five  times  consul  (322-295  B.C.) 
and  twice  dictator  of  Rome.  He  also  held  many  other 
high  offices.  He  gained  victories  over  the  Samnites  in 
325,  in  322,  and  in  296  B.C.  He  was  reputed  the  greatest 
Roman  general  of  his  time. 

See  Niebuhr,  "  History  of  Rome;"  Livy,  "History  of  Rome;" 
Valerius  Maximus,  "History  of  Rome;"  Aurelius  Victor, 
"  Viri  illiistres." 

Fa'bl-us  Max'i-mus  Vgr-ru-co'sus,  (Quintus,) 
surnamed  Cuncta'tor,  the  greatest  of  the  Fabian  line, 
was  consul  for  the  first  time  in  233  B.C.,  when  he  con- 
quered the  Ligurians  and  had  the  honour  of  a  triumph. 
After  the  Carthaginians  had  taken  Saguntum,  the  Romans 
sent  Fabius  to  Carthage  at  the  head  of  their  ambassadors. 
After  the  defeat  of  the  Roman  armies  at  Thrasymene 
in  217,  a  dictator  being  thought  necessary,  Fabius  was 
chosen  to  that  office.  He  marched  against  Hannibal, 
and  firmly  adhered  to  the  policy  of  carrying  on  only  a 
defensive  war,  in  which  he  was  so  successful  that  the 
Carthaginian  general  was  unable  to  obtain  any  advan- 
\  tage  over  him.  Minucius,  master  of  the  Roman  cavalry, 
j  at  one  time  obtaining  command  of  part  of  the  army, 
engaged  with  Hannibal,  and  would  have  been  entirely 
I  defeated  if  Fabius  had  not  hastened  to  assist  him,  after 


1,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,6,  u,  y,  5ho7-t;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FJBIUS 


885 


FAB RICE 


which  Minucius  gave  up  his  command  to  Fabius.  The 
dictatorship  of  Fabius  having  expired,  Paulus  iEmilius 
and  Terentius  Varro  were  appointed  consuls,  and,  pur- 
suing a  different  method,  were  totally  defeated  at  the 
battle  of  Cannae,  in  216  B.C.,  after  which  the  Romans 
returned  to  the  defensive  policy  of  Fabius.  He  was 
chosen  consul  for  the  fifth  time  in  209  B.C.  His  uniform 
success  against  the  most  formidable  enemy  of  Rome 
justly  won  for  him  the  name  of  Maximus.  Ennius  spoke 
of  hfm  as  one  "  qui  nobis  cunctando  restituit  rem."  Died 
about  203  B.C. 

See  Plutarch,  "  Lives ;"  Livy,  "History  of  Rome,"  books  xx.- 
xxiv.  and  xxvi.-xxx.  ;  Niebuhr,  "History  of  Rome;"  Polybius, 
book  iii. ;  "  Nouvelle  Eiographie  Generale." 

Fa'bi-us  Pic'tor,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  painter,  was 
the  grandfather  of  the  historian  Fabius  Pictor.  He 
painted  the  temple  of  Salus  ("  Safety")  about  304  B.C. 

Fabius  Pictor  (Quintus)  was  the  first  Roman 
historian,  and  is  sometimes  called  "the  father  of  Latin 
history."  His  works  are  known  as  the  "Annals  of  Fa- 
bius Pictor."  He  lived  at  the  time  of  the  second  Punic 
war,  and  died  after  216  B.C.  His  History,  which  was 
highly  esteemed  by  the  ancients,  is  lost,  except  small 
fragments. 

See  Whiste,  "  De  Fabio  Pictore  cjeterisque  Fabiis  historicis," 
1832;  MoLLER,  "De  Q.  Fabio  Pictore,"  1690. 

Fabius  Planciades  Fulgentius.  See  Fulgentius. 

Fa'bi-us  Vib-u-la'nus,  (K/Eso,)  a  Roman  command- 
er, was  chosen  consul  in  484,  in  481,  and  in  479  B.C. 
He  rendered  himself  very  popular  with  the  plebeians, 
and  gained  victories  over  the  Veientes  and  .^qui.  During 
his  third  consulship  the  Fabian  family  volunteered  to 
make  a  campaign  against  the  Veientes  without  the  aid 
of  other  citizens.  Kaeso  led  out  three  hundred  and  six 
Fabii,  (among  whom  was  his  brother  Marcus,)  attended 
by  their  clients  or  servants,  and  occupied  a  fortified  post 
on  the  Cremera,  which  enters  the  Tiber  near  Rome. 
They  gained  several'  victories,  but  at  length  were  sur- 
prised and  all  killed  in  477  B.C. 

See  Niebuhr,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  Livy,  "History  of  Rome  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Fabius  Vibulanus,  (Marcus,)  a  Roman  general, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  was  consul  in  483 
and  480  B.C.  He  was  killed  at  Cremera  in  477.  ( See 
preceding  article.) 

Fabius  Vibulanus,  (Quintus,)  a  son  of  Marcus, 
was  the  only  one  of  the  Fabii  who  escaped  from  being 
massacred  at  Cremera  by  the  Veientes  in  477  B.C.  The 
different  branches  of  the  great  Fabian  house  were  de- 
scended from  him.  He  was  consul  in  467,  465,  and  459 
B.C.,  and  defeated  the  Volsci.  Appius  Claudius  and  Q. 
Fabius  Vibulanus  were  the  chiefs  of  the  decemvirate 
formed  in  450,  and  were  exiled  for  their  tyrannical  acts. 

Fabre,  fIbR,  (Antoine  FRANgois  Hippolyte,)  a 
French  medical  writer,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1797.  He 
edited  the  "  Lancette  Fran9aise,"  and  won  a  medal  of  the 
Institute  in  1833       a  work  on  cholera.    Died  in  1853. 

Fabre,  (Denis,)  a  French  advocate,  born  at  Mont- 
pellier,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1792,  and 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  He  was  killed  in  a 
battle  against  the  Spaniards  in  January,  1794. 

Fabre,  (Francois  Xavier  Pascal,)  an  able  French 
painter,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1766,  was  a  pupil  of 
David.  He  worked  many  years  at  Rome  and  Florence. 
Among  his  best  works  are  "The  Judgment  of  Paris," 
"The  Preaching  of  John  the  Baptist,"  and  a  portrait  of 
Alfieri.    He  died  at  Montpellier  in  1837. 

Fabre,  (Jean  Claude,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1668.  He  wrote  a  continuation 
of  Fleury's  "Ecclesiastic  History,"  (16  vols.,  1734,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1753. 

Fabre,  (Jean  Raymond  Auguste,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Jaujac  in  1792,  was  a  brother  of  Marie  Joseph 
Victorin.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  poem  called 
"Caledonie,"  (1823,)  which  was  received  with  favour, 
and  "Irene,"  a  tragedy,  (1825.)    Died  in  1839. 

See  Sabbatier,  "Vies  de  Victorin  et  d'Auguste  Fabre." 

Fabre,  (Marie  Joseph  Victorin,)  a  distinguished 
French  poet  and  orator,  born  at  Jaujac  in  1785.  He 
pr-duced  in  1808  a  "Eulogy  on  Corneille,"  (in  prose,) 
which  was  crowned  by  the  Institute.    Among  his  finest 


works  are  "The  Death  of  Henry  IV.,"  a  poem,  (1808,) 
an  "Ode  on  Tasso,"  a  "Eulogy  on  Montaigne,"  (1812,) 
and  "  Literary  History  of  France  in  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury," ("Tableau  litteraire  de  la  France  au  dix-huitieme 
Siecle,"  1810.)    Died  in  1831. 

See  Sabbatier,  "Viesde  Victorin  et  d'Auguste  Fabre,"  1832; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Fabre  de  I'Aude,  fSbR,  deh  lod,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a 
French  statesman,  born  at  Carcassonne  in  1755.  He 
was  proscribed  during  the  reign  of  terror,  but  in  1795 
was  named  deputy  to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and 
became  commissioner  of  finance.  At  the  coronation  of 
Bonaparte,  Fabre,  as  president  of  the  tribunes,  delivered 
a  congratulatory  address  to  the  emperor.  He  was  ap- 
pointed senator  in  1807,  and  received  the  title  of  count 
of  the  empire.  He  was  afterwards  chosen  a  member  of 
the  grand  council  of  administration  of  the  senate.  Died 
in  1832. 

Fabre  d'lSglantine,  flbR  di'gl6N't^n',  (  Philippe 
Francois  Nazaire,)  one  of  the  leading  French  Jacobins, 
born  at  Carcassonne  in  1755.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  Revolution  he  leagued  himself  with  Danton,  La 
Croix,  and  Camille  Desmoulins,  and  participated  in  all 
the  excesses  of  this  party.  He  was  chosen  as  deputy 
from  Paris  to  the  National  Convention.  He  voted  for 
the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  without  appeal,  and  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  committee  of  public  safety.  He  was 
one  of  the  instigators  of  the  decree  which  ordered  that 
no  English  or  Hanoverian  prisoners  should  be  made. 
He  was  accused  of  royalist  principles,  or  vioderantisme, 
and,  with  Danton,  was  executed  in  1794.  He  had  writ- 
ten numerous  comedies. 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Girondists;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale;"  "Biographie  Universelle." 

Fabre  d'Olivet,  ftbR  do'le'vi',  (M.,)  a  French  phi- 
lologist and  fanciful  litterateur,  born  at  Ganges  (Langue- 
doc)  in  1768.  He  produced  numerous  plays,  poems, 
treatises  on  philology,  history,  etc.  He  found,  it  is  said, 
allegories  or  mystic  meanings  in  every  word,  syllable, 
and  figure.    Died  in  1825. 

Fabretti,  fi-bRet'tee,  (Rafael,)  an  excellent  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Urbino  about  161 5.  He  was  secre- 
tary to  Pope  Alexander  VIII.,  and  in  the  pontificate  of 
Innocent  XII.  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  archives  in 
the  castle  of  Saint  Angelo.  His  principal  works  are 
"De  Columna  Trajani,"  ("On  the  Column  of  Trajan," 
1683,)  and  "  Inscriptionum  Antiquarum  Explicatio," 
("Explanation  of  Ancient  Inscriptions,"  1699.)  Died  at 
Rome  in  1700. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Fabri.    See  Peiresc,  (Fabri  de.) 

Fabri,  fi'bRee,  (Alessandro,)  a  noted  scholar  and 
author,  born  near  Bologna  in  1691.  He  wrote  with  great 
elegance,  both  in  Latin  and  Italian.    Died  in  1768. 

Fabri,  ft'bRe',  (Honors,)  a  learned  French  Jesuit, 
born  about  1607,  wrote  numerous  works,  among  which 
are  a  "Treatise  on  Plants  and  the  Generation  of  Ani- 
mals," (1666,)  and  "Synopsis  Optica,"  (1667.)  Died  in 
1688. 

Fabri  de  Hilden.    See  Fabrice  de  Hilden. 

Fabriani,  fi-bRe-i'nee,  (Severino,)  an  Italian  author 
and  philanthropist,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Modena  in  1792. 
He  assisted  Baraldi  in  his  "Memoirs  on  Religion,  Lite- 
rature," etc.,  and  published  several  biographies.  He 
devoted  much  time  to  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb.    Died  in  1849. 

Fabriano,  da,  dS  fS-bRe-i'no,  (Gentile,)  a  skilful 
painter  of  the  Roman  school,  born  at  Fabriano,  in  the 
March  of  Ancona,  about  1370.  He  worked  at  Venice 
and  in  Rome,  where  he  painted  the  history  of  Saint  John 
in  the  church  of  San  Giovanni  Laterano.  He  is  called 
one  of  the  best  painters  of  his  time.    Died  in  1450. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy;"  Baldinucci,  "Notizie;"  P.  Benedetti,  "  Memorie 
delle  Opere  di  Maestro  Gentile  da  Fabriano,"  1830. 

Fabrice.    See  Fabrizio. 

Fabrice  de  Hilden,  ft'bR^ss'  deh  hil'den,  [Lat  Fa- 
BRig'ius  Hilda'nus,]  called  also  Fabri  (fa'bRee)  de 
Hilden,  (Wilhelm,  )  a  skilful  surgeon  and  writer, 
derived  his  surname  from  a  village  near  Cologne,  where 
he  was  born  in  1560.    Died  in  1634. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (gl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FABRICIUS 


886 


FAB  RON  I 


Fabricius,  fi-bRee'se-us,  (Andreas,)  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic divine,  born  near  Liege  in  1520.  He  wrote  "Har- 
mony of  the  Augustinian  Confession,"  ("Harmonia  Con- 
fessionis  Augustinianae,"  1573.)    Died  in  1581. 

Fabricius,  fS-bRit'se-us,  (David,)  a  German  as- 
tronomer, born  at  Essen  in  1564.  He  is  said  to  have 
discovered  spots  in  the  sun.  Among  his  works  are 
"Letters  to  Kepler."    Died  in  161 7. 

See  Ersch  unci  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Fabricius,  (Franz,)  a  theological  writer,  called  also 
Lefevre,  born  in  Rhenish  Prussia  in  1524;  died  in  1573. 

Fabricius,  fa-bRit'se-us,  (Frederick  Ernest,)  a 
German  or  Swedish  nobleman,  who  was  a  companion  or 
attendant  of  Charles  XH.  at  Bender.  He  wrote  "Anec- 
dotes of  the  Residence  of  the  King  of  Sweden  at  Bender," 
('•  Anecdotes  du  Sejour  du  Roi  a  Bender,"  1760.)  Died 
after  1727. 

Fabricius,  or  Goldschmidt,  (Georg,)  a  German 
philologist  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Chemnitz  in  15 16. 
He  was  president  of  the  College  of  Meissen  from  1553 
to  1 571.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Description  of  Rome," 
(1550,)  and  "  Res  Germanise  et  Saxoniae  memorabiles," 
(1609.)    Died  in  1571. 

See  Baumgarten-Crusius,  "  Program  ma  de  G.  Fabricii  Vita," 
1839. 

Fabricius,  (Jakob,)  a  German  physician  and  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Rostock  in  1577.  He  was  physician 
to  the  King  of  Denmark.    Died  at  Copenhagen  in  1652. 

Fabricius,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  Swiss  theological  writer, 
born  at  Schaffhausen  in  1632  ;  died  in  1696. 

Fabricius,  (Johann,)  a  German  astronomer,  son  of 
David,  noticed  above,  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  spots  of 
the  sun,  ("De  Maculis  in  Sole  observatis,"  1611.)  Died 
in  1625. 

Fabricius,  (Johann,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at 
Dantzic  in  1608,  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Rostock, 
and  published  "Specimen  Arabicum,"  (1638.)  Died  in 
1653- 

Fabricius,  (Johann,)  a  German  Protestant  writer  and 
professor  of  theology,  born  at  Altorf  in  1644.  Among  his 
works  is  "Amoenitates  theologicae,"  (1699.)  He  taught 
theology  at  Altorf  for  many  years.    Died  in  1729. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Fabricius,  (Johann  Albrecht,)  a  German  scholar 
and  writer,  eminent  for  his  profound  and  various  learn- 
ing, born  at  Leipsic  on  the  nth  of  November,  1668,  was 
a  son  of  Werner  the  composer.  He  became  professor  of 
eloquence  and  philosophy  at  Hamburg  about  1700.  He 
published  numerous  and  excellent  works,  among  which 
are  "Bibliotheca  Latina,  sive  Notitia  .Scriptorum  Vete- 
rum  Latinorum,"  (3  vols.,  1697,)  "Bibliotheca  Graeca," 
(14  vols.  4to,  1705-28,)  containing  notices  of  all  the  Greek 
authors  who  lived  before  the  subversion  of  the  Eastern 
Empire;  "  Bibliographia  Antiquaria,"  (1713,)  and  "Bib- 
liotheca Latina  Ecclesiastica,"  (1718.)  He  passed  the 
greater  part  of  his  mature  life  at  Hamburg,  where  he 
died  in  April,  1736. 

See  Reimar,  "De  Vita  et  ScriptisJ.  A.  Fabricii  Commentarius," 
1737;  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Fabricius,  (Johann  Andreas,)  a  German  scholar 
and  teacher,  born  at  Dodendorf  in  1696,  published  an 
"  Abridgment  of  General  Literary  History,"  (3  vols., 
1752-54.)    Died  in  1769. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Fabricius,  (Johann  Christian,)  the  most  eminent 
entomologist  of  his  time,  born  at  Tondern,  in  the  duchy 
of  Slesvvick,  in  January,  1743,  studied  under  Linnaeus  at 
Upsal.  In  1775  he  was  appointed  professor  of  natural 
history  at  Kiel,  and  about  the  same  time  published  his 
"  Systema  Entomologios."  In  this  work,  at  the  sugges- 
tion of  Linnaeus,  he  made  an  arrangement  of  insects 
according  to  the  organs  of  the  mouth.  Besides  the 
treatise  mentioned  above,  he  wrote  "  Philoso])hia  Ento- 
mologia,"  (1778,)  "  Supjjlementum  Entomologias,"  (1797,) 
and  others  of  a  similar  nature.    Died  at  Kiel  in  1807. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Fabricius,  (Karel,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Delft  in 
1624,  excelled  in  perspective  and  portraits.   Died  in  1654. 

Fabricius,  (Theodor,)  a  German  Reformer  and  the- 
ologian, born  at  Anholt  in  1501,  wrote  several  religious 


works.  He  taught  Hebrew  at  Wittenberg,  and  acquired 
the  friendship  of  Luther.    Died  in  1570. 

See  Ersch  mid  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Fabricius,  (Theodosius,)  a  Lutheran  theologian,  and 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Nordhausen  in  1560, 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Gottingen.  His  work  en- 
titled "  Harmony  of  the  Four  Evangelists"  was  published 
in  the  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  German  languages. 
Died  in  1597. 

Fabricius,  (Vincenz,)  a  German  physician,  jurist, 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1612  ;  died  in  1667. 

Fabricius,  (Werner,)  a  composer  and  musician,  born 
in  Holstein  in  1633,  was  the  father  of  Johann  Albrecht, 
noticed  above.    He  lived  at  Leipsic.    Died  in  1679. 

Fabricius  Hildanus.    See  Fabrice  de  Hilden. 

Fa-brig'i-us  (fa-brish'e-us)  Lus-gi'nus,  (Caius,)  a 
Roman  statesman,  celebrated  for  his  great  integrity  and 
simplicity  of  life,  became  consul  282  B.C.  About  280  he 
was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Pyrrhus,  who  was  encamped 
with  an  army  near  Tarentum.  His  conduct  on  this  oc- 
casion was  a  celebrated  theme  of  ancient  historians  and 
poets.  He  refused  the  rich  presents  or  bribes  which 
Pyrrhus  offered  him.  According  to  tradition,  the  phy- 
sician of  Pyrrhus  proposed  to  poison  his  master,  expect- 
ing a  reward  from  the  Romans,  but  Fabricius  not  only 
rejected  his  offer,  but  exposed  his  treachery  to  Pyrrhus. 
Fabricius  gained  victories  over  the  Samnites,  the  Bruttii, 
and  other  allies  of  Pyrrhus,  about  277  B.C. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "History  of  Rome;"  Pliny,  "Natural  History," 
book  xxxiv. 

Fa-brig'i-us  Vei-en'to,  a  Latin  author.  Having 
written  a  satirical  work  entitled  "Codicilli,"  which  was 
supposed  to  be  directed  against  the  senators  and  priests, 
he  was  banished  by  Nero  in  62  a.d.  After  Nero's  death 
he  returned  to  Rome,  and  was  received  with  great  favour 
by  Domitian. 

Fabrini,  fa-bRee'nee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  gram- 
marian, born  in  Tuscany  in  1516;  died  about  1580. 

Fabris,  f^'bR^ss,  (Niccol6,  )  an  ingenious  Italian 
mechanician,  born  at  Chioggia  in  1739;  died  in  1801. 

Fabrizio,  fa-bR^t'se-o,  (Geronimo,)  [Lat.  Hieron'- 
YMUS  FABRig'ius  AB  Acquapenden'te  ;  Fr.  Fabrice, 
fl'bR^ss',  ]  an  eminent  Italian  anatomist  and  surgeon, 
was  born  at  Acquapendente,  near  Orvieto,  in  1537.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Fallopius,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1562  as 
professor  at  Padua.  He  wrote  many  short  treatises  on 
anatomy  and  surgery.  Among  his  pupils  was  the  cele- 
brated Dr.  Harvey,  whose  great  discovery  was  perhaps 
suggested  by  some  new  observations  which  Fabrizio 
made  on  the  valves  of  the  veins.  He  obtained  great 
success  and  celebrity  as  a  teacher  of  anatomy.  Died 
in  1619. 

See  Thuii.ius,  "  Memoria  H.  Fabricii  ab  Acquapendente,"  1619; 
CuviER,  "Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles ;"  Salvadori,  "No- 
titije  de  H.  Fabricio,"  1837. 

Fabrizzi,  fi-bR^t'see,  (Antonio  Maria,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Perugia  in  1594,  was  a  pupil  of  Annibal 
Caracci.    Died  in  1649. 

Fabroni,  fa-bRo'nee,  or  Fabbroni,  flb-bRo'nee, 
(Angelo,)  an  eminent  Italian  biographer  and  Latin 
scholar,  born  at  Marradi  in  September,  1732.  He  pro- 
duced in  1766  the  first  volume  of  the  "Lives  of  Italians 
eminent  for  Learning  who  flourished  in  the  Seventeenth 
and  Eighteenth  Centuries,"  ("Vitas  Italorum  doctrina 
excellentium  qui  Saeculis  XVII.  et  XVIII.  floruerunt," 
20  vols.,)  which  is  his  principal  work.  In  1767  he  was 
appointed  prior  or  president  of  the  church  of  San  Lo- 
renzo, Florence.  He  is  sometimes  called  "the  Plutarch 
of  Modern  Italy."    Died  at  Pisa  in  1803. 

See  TiPAi.DO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri;"  Fabroni,  "Vita: 
Italonnn,"  etc.,  vol.  xx. 

Fabroni  or  Fabbroni,  (Giovanni  Valentino,)  an 
Italian  naturalist  and  writer  on  physical  science,  was 
born  at  Florence  on  the  13th  of  February,  1752.  He 
aj^plied  various  physical  sciences  to  obiects  of  general 
utility.  He  was  director  of  the  Museum  of  Florence,  and 
wrote  many  useful  treatises  on  botany,  chemistry,  rural 
economy,  etc.  Cuvier  characterized  him  as  a  "living 
encyclopaedia."     Died  in  December,  1822. 

See  Cuvier,  "  £ loges  historiques,"  tome  iii. ;  Tipaldo,  "Bio- 
grafia degli  Italiani  iHustri;"  G.  Fabroni  Pelli,  "Biografia  del 
Cavaliere  G.  Fabroni,"  1837. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FAB  ROT 


887 


FJGIUS 


Fabrot,  ffbRo',  [Lat.  Fabro'tus,]  (Charles  Anni- 
BAL,)  a  celebrated  P>ench  jurist,  born  at  Aix  in  1580. 
He  was  professor  in  the  University  of  Aix,  and  the  au- 
thor of  several  legal  treatises,  one  of  which  is  entitled 

Basilicon."    Died  in  Paris  in  1659. 

See  C.  GiRAUD,  "Notice  sur  I3  Vie  de  C.  A.  Fabrot,"  1833. 

Fabry,  fa'bRe',  (Jean  Baptiste  Germain,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Cornus  in  1780.  He  was  editor  of  the 
"Spectateur  Frangais,"  (12  vols.,  1805-12,)  and  wrote  a 
history  of  the  Hundred  Days,  entitled  "Itineraire  de 
Bonaparte  de  I'lsle  d'Elbe  a  Sainte-Helene,"  ("Account 
of  the  Journey  of  Bonaparte  from  Elba  to  Saint  Helena," 
1817.)    Died  in  1821. 

Fabvier,  ft've-a',  (Charles  Nicolas,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  iDorn  at  Pont-a-Mousson  in  1782.  He 
served  with  distinction  in  Germany  and  Spain,  and  was 
severely  wounded  at  Moscow  in  1812.  In  1814  he  signed 
with  Colonel  Davis  the  capitulation  of  Paris.  In  1823 
he  went  to  the  assistance  of  the  Greeks,  and  rendered 
essential  service  in  organizing  an  army.  After  his  return 
he  was  created  in  1839  lieutenant-general,  and  in  1845  a 
peer  of  France.  He  was  the  author  of  several  military 
and  historical  treatises.    Died  in  1855. 

Fabyan.    See  Fabian. 

Facchetti,  fik-ket'tee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Mantua  in  1535  ;  died  in  Rome  in  1613. 

Facciardi,  fat-chaR'dee,  (Cristoforo,)  an  Italian 
Capuchin  and  eloquent  preacher,  born  near  Rimini,  lived 
about  1570-90. 

Faccini,  fit-chee'nee,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  architecture,  born  at  or  near  Ferrara  about 
1520  ;  died  in  1577. 

Faccio.    See  Fatio. 

Facciolati,  tlt-cho-li'tee,  or  Facciolato,  fit-cho- 
la'to,  [Lat.  Facciola'tus,](Giacomo,)  an  eminent  Italian 
philologist,  born  at  Torreglia,  near  Paclua,  in  1682.  He  was 
a  professor  of  logic  or  classical  literature  in  the  University 
of  Padua.  He  published  an  improved  edition  of  a  dic- 
tionary called  "Calepino,"  (1731,)  wrote  several  works 
on  grammar  and  logic,  and  commenced  an  excellent 
Latin  Lexicon,  which  was  finished  by  his  pupil  Forcel- 
LINI,  (which  see.)    Died  at  Padua  in  1769. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentiiim ;"  G.  B. 
Ferrari,  "Vita  J.  Facciolati,"  1799;  Giuseppe  Gennari,  "Vita 
di  J.  Facciolati,"  Padua,  1818. 

Facini,  fa-chee'nee,  or  Faccini,  flt-chee'nee,  (Pie- 
tro,) an  able  Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna  about  1560, 
was  a  pupil  and  afterwards  a  rival  of  Annibal  Caracci. 
His  chief  merits  w'ere  a  vivacity  of  attitude,  and  skill 
in  colouring,  especially  in  carnation.    Died  in  1602. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Fa-cun'dus,  a  Latin  theologian  and  bishop,  who  lived 
in  Africa  about  550  a.d.  He  defended  the  decision  of  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  against  the  decree  of  the  emperor 
Justinian. 

Fadhl-Ibn -Yahy a  - Al-Barmakee,  (-Barmaki  or 
-Barmeki,)  f^d'l  Ib'n  ySh'he-i  SI  baR'mek-ee,  vizier  of 
Haroun-al-Raschid,  was  born  about  762  A.D.  He  was 
a  brother  of  Jaafar,  and  one  of  the  Barmecides,  which 
see.    Died  about  807  a.d. 

See  Aboolfeda,  "Annales  Moslemici." 

Fadlalla  or  Fadlallah,  fSd-lSKlah,  a  Persian  his- 
torian, born  at  Hamadan,  lived  about  1290.  He  wrote 
a  "History  of  the  Moguls." 

Fadl-Ibn-Rabee,  (-Rabi,)  f^d'l  Tb'n  rWee,  became 
vizier  of  Haroun-al-Raschid  about  803  a.d.,  which  posi- 
tion he  continued  to  hold  until  the  death  of  that  sove- 
reign. In  the  contest  between  the  caliph's  sons  Ameen 
and  Mamoon,  Fadl  sided  with  the  former,  and  was  con- 
sequently obliged  to  fly  when  Mamoon  ascended  the 
throne.    Died  about  824  A.D. 

See  Ibn-Khali.ikan,  "Biographical  Dictionary." 

Fadl-Ibn-Sahal,  (or  -Sahl.)  m']  ib'n  sah'hal,  (or 
sSh'],)  a  descendant  of  the  ancient  kings  of  Persia,  and 
vizier  of  the  celebrated  caliph  Mamoon,  was  clothed 
with  absolute  power  by  this  prince.  He  was  assassi- 
nated by  an  opposite  faction  in  818  A.D. 

See  Elmacin,  "Historia  Saracenica." 

Faed,  fad,  (Thoma.s,)  a  Scottish  painter,  born  at  Burley- 
Mill  in  1826.  He  settled  in  London  about  1852.  Among 


his  works  are  "  Walter  Scott  and  his  Friends  at  Abbots- 
ford,"  "Home  and  the  Homeless,"  "Highland  Mary," 
and  "Sunday  in  the  Backwoods." 

Faenza,  da.dS  fa-gn'zS,  (Giambattista  Bertucci^ 
b§R-toot'chee,)  an  Italian  painter  of  the  Bolognese  school, 
flourished  about  1500. 

Faerna,  fl-^R'na,  or  Faerno,  fd-§R'no,  [Fr.  Faerne, 
fS'^Ri/,]  (Gabriele,)  a  celebrated  modern  Latin  poet, 
born  at  Cremona,  in  Italy.  His  most  important  work 
was  his  Collection  of  a  Hundred  Fables  in  Latin  verse, 
(1564,)  the  subjects  of  which  were  taken  from  i^isop  or 
Phaedrus.  He  was  patronized  by  Pope  Pius  IV.  Died 
in  1561. 

See  Jan  Hendrik  Kroon,  "  Commentatio  de  Fabulis  G.  Faerni," 
1824;  Tiuaboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratiira  Italiana." 

Fagan,  ft%6N',  (Christophe  Barth^lemi,)  a  French 
writer  of  comedies,  born  at  Paris  in  1702;  died  in  1755. 

Fage,  ftzh,  (Durand,)  a  French  Protestant,  called 
"the  Prophet  of  the  Cevennes,"  born  at  Aubais  in  1681, 
was  one  of  the  Camisards. 

Fage,  La.    See  La  Face,  (Raimond.) 

Fagel,  f^'nel,  (Frans  Nicolaas,)  nephew  of  Kaspar, 
noticed  below,  was  a  distinguished  military  commander. 
He  was  successively  general  of  infantry  in  the  service  of 
the  States-General,  and  lieutenant-field-marshal  to  the 
Emperor  of  Germany.  His  greatest  exploits  were  at 
the  battle  of  Fleurus  in  1690,  the  defence  of  Mons,  the 
siege  of  Namur,  the  capture  of  Bonn  in  1703,  and  several 
other  battles  in  Flanders.    Died  in  1718. 

Fagel,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  politician,  born  in  1706, 
was  an  adherent  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  A  transla- 
tion of  Lady  Montagu's  Letters  (published  in  1764)  was 
ascribed  to  him.    Died  in  1790. 

Fagel,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  diplomatist,  born  at  the 
Hague,  was  an  adherent  of  the  house  of  Orange.  Having 
been  sent  as  minister  to  London,  he  signed  a  treaty 
between  Holland  and  Great  Britain  in  1814.  He  became 
secretary  of  state  in  1824.    Died  in  1834. 

Fagel,  (Kaspar,)  a  celebrated  Dutch  statesman,  born 
at  Haarlem  in  1629.  In  1670  he  was  elected  master  of 
the  rolls  of  the  States-General,  and  in  1672  was  created 
grand  pensionary.  It  was  partly  by  his  influence  that 
William  III.  was  placed  upon  the  throne  of  England. 
In  1682  Count  d'Avaux,  ambassador  of  France  in  Hol- 
land, made  great  efforts  to  win  Fagel  to  the  French 
interests,  and  even  offered  a  large  bribe,  which  was  nobly 
refused.    Died  in  1688. 

See  Ersch  iind  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Macau- 
lay,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  v. ;  Lenting,  "  Specimen  historico- 
politicum  de  G.  Fagelio,"  1849. 

Faggiuola,fld-joo-o'ia,(UGUCCiONE,  oo-goot-cho'ni,) 
a  celebrated  Italian  general,  chief  of  the  Ghibelines,  and 
Lord  of  Pisa.  He  won  several  battles  over  the  Neapoli- 
tans and  Florentines;  and  in  August,  1315,  he  gained 
the  memorable  victory  of  Monte-Catini.  He,  however, 
made  himself  so  odious  to  the  Pisans  by  his  severity 
that  he  was  driven  from  Pisa  and  from  Lucca.  He  died 
at  the  siege  of  Padua  in  13 19. 

See  Leo  and  Botta,  "Histoire  d'ltalie." 

Faggot,  fSg'got,  (Jakob,)  a  distinguished  engineer  and 
metallurgist,  born  in  the  province  of  Upland,  in  Sweden, 
in  1699,  was  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and 
published  a  valuable  work  on  rural  economy.  Died  in 
1778. 

See  H.  Nicander,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  bfver  J.  Faggot,"  1778. 

Fagiuoli,  fS-joo-o'lee,  (Giambattista,)  a  celebrated 
comic  and  burlesque  poet,  born  at  Florence  in  1660.  His 
works  were  very  voluminous.    Died  in  1742. 

Fagius,  fa'je-us  or  fa'ge-us,  (Paul,)  a  learned  Prot- 
estant theologian  and  Hebraist,  born  in  the  Palatinate 
in  1504.  His  family  name  was  BtlCHER,  (Beech,)  which, 
according  to  the  custom  of  that  age,  he  changed  into  its 
Latin  equivalent.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg  under  the 
celebrated  Wolfgang  Capito,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1544 
as  professor  of  HelDrew  at  Strasburg.  In  1549,  at  the 
solicitation  of  Cranmer,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  he 
visited  England,  where  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair 
of  theology  at  Cambridge  ;  but  his  sudden  death  pre- 
vented him  from  performing  the  duties  of  that  office. 
Eight  years  after  his  death  his  body  was  burnt,  by  the 


c  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  ;;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FAG NAN 


888 


FAIRFAX 


order  of  Queen  Mary.  Fagius  was  the  author  of  numer- 
ous classical  and  critical  works.    Died  about  1550. 

See  "De  Vita,  Obitu  et  Combustione  Buceri  et  P.  Fagii,"  1562; 
Feuerlein  et  Seyfkied,  "Tentamen  historicum  de  Vita  P.  Fagii," 
1736. 

Fagnaii,  ftn'ySN',  (Marie  Antoinette,)  a  French 
romancer,  born  in  Paris,  wrote  "The  Mirror  of  Oriental 
Princesses,"  (1755,)  and  other  tales.    Died  about  1770. 

Fagnani,  fdn-yi^nee,  (Giovanni  Marco,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  scholar,  born  at  Milan  in  1524;  died  in  1609. 

Fagnani  or  Fagnano,  fin-yd^io,  (Giulio  Carlo,) 
Marquis  of  Toschi,  an  eminent  Italian  mathematician, 
born  at  Sinigaglia  in  1682,  or,  as  some  say,  in  1690.  He 
published  a  collection  of  mathematical  treatises,  ("  Pro- 
duzioni  matematiche,"  2  vols.,  1750.)    Died  in  1766. 

See  Manciani,  "  Elogi  storici  di  F.  Cotnmandino,  G.  C.  Fa- 
gnani," etc.,  1828;  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Fagnani,  (Prospero,)  an  eminent  Italian  canonist, 
born  in  1598,  wrote  a  "Commentary  on  the  Decretals," 
(1661.)    Died  in  1678. 

Fagon,  ft'g6N',  (Gui  Crescent,)  a  distinguished 
French  physician  and  botanist,  born  in  Paris  in  1638. 
He  became  first  physician  to  Louis  XIV.  in  1693.  Died 
in  1718. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  !£loges  des  Academiciens ISloy,  "Dic- 
tionnaire  de  la  Medecine;"  Antoine  de  Jussieu,  "filoge  de  M. 
Fagan,"  1718. 

Fahie,  fa,  ?  (Sh-  William  Charles,)  a  British  admiral, 
born  in  1763  ;  died  in  1833. 

Fahlcranz,  faKkRints,  (Carl  Johann,)  a  celebrated 
Swedish  landscape-painter,  born  in  the  province  of  Falun 
in  1774.  He  painted  many  excellent  pictures  of  the  wild 
and  mountainous  scenery  of  Sweden  and  Norway. 

Fahlcranz,  (Christian  Erik,)  a  Swedish  poet  and 
ecclesiastic,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1790.  He 
is  the  author  of  a  witty  piece  entitled  "  Noah's  Ark," 
and  "  Ansgarius,"  an  epic  poem.  He  became  Bishop 
of  Westerns,  and  in  1839  associate  editor  of  the  "  Eccle- 
siastic Journal,"  ("  Ecclesiastik  Tidskrift.") 

Fah-le'ni-us,  (Eric,)  a  noted  Swedish  scholar,  lived 
about  1700.  He  was  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Pernau,  in  Livonia. 

Fahrenheit,  fir'en-hlt''  or  fi'ren-hit'',  (Gabriel  Da- 
niel,) an  eminent  German  natural  philosopher  and 
maker  of  philosophical  instruments,  was  born  at  Dantzic 
about  1690.  He  became  a  resident  of  Amsterdam,  and 
invented  the  thermometer  which  bears  his  name.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  used  mercury  in  the 
construction  of  thermometers.  He  fixed  the  zero  of  his 
scale  at  the  point  to  which  the  mercury  sank  in  the 
winter  of  1709,  and  reproduced  the  same  degree  of  cold 
by  a  mixture  of  sal-ammoniac,  common  salt,  and  snow. 
Died  in  1740. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Faider,  fl'der,  [Fr.  pron.  f^'daiR',]  (Charles,)  a  Bel- 
gian jurist  and  writer,  born  about  1805.  He  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  justice  in  1852. 

Faidit.    See  Faydit. 

Faiguet  de  Villeneuve,  fi%i'  deh  vM''nuv',  (Joa- 
chim,) one  of  the  earliest  French  writers  on  political 
econoiny,  born  at  Moncontour,  in  Brittany,  in  1 703.  Died 
about  1780. 

_  Faille,  de  la,  deh  It  ftl  or  ft'ye,  (  Germain,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Castelnaudary  in  1616;  died  in  1 711. 
He  wrote  "Annals  of  Toulouse,"  (2  vols.,  1687-1701.) 

Fain,  fiN,  (Agathon  Jean  FRANgois,)  Baron,  a 
French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1778.  He  attended 
Napoleon  I.  in  his  campaigns  in  the  capacity  of  sec- 
-etary,  (secretaire-archiviste.)  He  wrote  "Historical 
Memoirs  of  the  Last  Three  Years  of  the  Reign  of 
Napoleon,"  (1823-27.)    Died  in  1837. 

Faini,  fl-ee'nee,  (Madame  Diamante,)  an  Italian 
poetess,  who  wrote  in  Latin  and  French  with  great  ele- 
gance and  purity  of  diction.    Died  at  Salo  in  1770. 

See  G.  PoNTARA,  "  Vita  della  Signora  Faini,"  1774;  A.  Bro- 
GNOLi,  "  Elogio  storico  di  D.  Faini,"  1785. 

Faipoult.    See  Faypoult. 

Fair'bairn,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  a  British  civil  en- 
gmeer  and  mechanician,  born  at  Kelso,  on  the  Tweed, 
in  1789.  He  is  distinguished  for  the  introduction  of  iron 
water-wheels  and  other  iron  machinery,  and  as  one  of 
the  first  constructors  of  iron  ships,  which  he  began  to 


build  about  1835.  He  is  author  of  several  woi  ks,  one  of 
which  is  entitled  "  Mills  and  Mill-Work,"  and  has  made 
important  contributions  to  the  Philosophical  Transactions 
and  the  Transactions  of  the  Philosophical  Society  of  Man- 
chester.   Among  his  works  are  numerous  iron  bridges. 

See  Samuel  Smiles,  "Industrial  Biography,"  1864;  "North 
British  Review"  for  August,  1850. 

Fair'banks,  (Erastus,)  born  at  Brimfield,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1792,  was  an  extensive  manufacturer  of  platform 
scales.  He  was  chosen  Governor  of  Vermont  in  i860. 
Died  in  1864. 

Fairclough.    See  Featley. 

Fair'fax,  (Edward,)  a  celebrated  English  poet,  son 
of  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax,  was  born  at  Denton,  in  York- 
shire, in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  His 
principal  work  is  a  translation  of  Tasso's  "Jerusalem 
Delivered,"  (1600,)  which  he  rendered,  verse  for  verse, 
with  a  fidelity  and  facility  rarely  equalled.  King  James 
placed  this  translation  above  all  other  works  of  English 
poetry.  Waller  recognizes  him  as  his  master  in  the  art 
of  verse ;  and  Dryden,  in  comparing  him  to  Spenser, 
gave  the  preference  to  Fairfax  on  the  score  of  harmony. 
He  also  wrote  a  "  History  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince," 
in  verse,  and  a  treatise  on  " Demonology."  His  version 
of  Tasso  has  often  been  reprinted  in  England,  and  once 
in  the  United  States,  (1855.)    Died  in  1632. 

See  Preface  to  Fairfax's  Tasso,  1749  ;  "  Biographia  Britannica  ;" 
Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Fairfax,  (Robert,)  an  English  musician  and  com- 
poser, flourished  about  1510-20. 

Fairfax,  (Thomas,)  Lord,  one  of  the  most  conspic- 
uous actors  in  the  rebellion  against  Charles  I.  of  England, 
and  general  of  the  parliamentary  forces,  was  born  at 
Denton,  in  Yorkshire,  in  January,  1611.  He  was  the 
son  of  Ferdinando,  Lord  Fairfax,  and  Mary,  daughter 
of  Edmund  Sheffield,  Lord  Mulgrave.  Having  strong 
inclinations  for  a  military  life,  he  went  to  Holland,  and 
served  as  a  volunteer  under  Horace,  Lord  Vere,  whose 
daughter  he  afterwards  married.  When  Charles  endeav- 
oured to  form  a  body-guard  at  York,  the  people,  fearing 
that  he  would  raise  an  army,  deputized  Fairfax  to  present 
a  petition  to  him  entreating  him  not  to  do  it.  Although 
the  king  tried  to  shun  him,  Fairfax  succeeded  in  pre- 
senting the  petition,  in  the  presence  of  about  one  hundred 
thousand  persons.  When  the  civil  war  broke  out,  (1642,) 
the  father  of  Lord  Fairfax  received  from  Parliament  the 
commission  of  commander-in-chief  of  the  Northern 
forces,  and  he  himself  that  of  general  of  cavahy.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  this  war  by  his  activity  and 
bravery,  particularly  at  Marston  Moor,  where  he  com- 
manded the  right  wing  and  where  the  king's  army  was 
totally  defeated,  (July  2,  1644,)  and  at  the  capture  of 
York.  Fairfax  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of 
the  parliamentary  forces  early  in  1645,  with  Cromwell  as 
his  lieutenant-general.  On  the  14th  of  June  the  battle 
of  Naseby  was  fought,  on  which  occasion  Lord  Fairfax 
gained  a  decided  victory.  On  the  i6th  he  besieged 
Leicester,  which  surrendered  on  the  i8th.  He  afterwards 
defeated  Lord  Goring,  took  Bridgewater  by  assault,  and 
made  himself  master  of  several  other  places.  On  the 
loth  of  September  he  forced  Bristol  to  surrender.  In 
September,  1646,  he  captured  Oxford,  the  last  stronghold 
of  the  king,  who  fled  for  protection  to  Scotland.  Lord 
Fairfax  then  went  to  London,  where  he  was  compli- 
mented and  thanked  by  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  and 
was  immediately  sent  with  two  hundred  thousand  pounds 
to  Scotland  to  obtain  the  king,  the  Scotch  having  agreed 
to  deliver  him  up  for  that  sum.  Soon  after  this  he 
yielded  to  the  superior  genius  of  Cromwell,  and  when 
on  his  father's  death,  which  took  place  about  March, 
1648,  he  succeeded  to  all  his  titles,  he  still  continued  to 
fight  for  Cromwell.  He  was  nominated  one  of  the  judges 
of  the  king  ;  but  he  refused  to  serve  in  that  trial.  In  the 
spring  of  1649  he  was  appointed  commander  of  all  the 
forces  in  England  and  Ireland.  He  resigned  his  com- 
mission in  June,  1650.  About  the  end  of  1659  he  joined 
General  Monk  against  Lambert,  was  appointed  councillor 
of  state,  and  also  chairman  of  the  committee  delegated 
by  the  Chamber  of  Commons  to  go  to  the  Hague  and 
persuade  Charles  II.  to  return  and  take  the  royal  func- 
tions.   He  was  received  by  that  prince,  whose  restora- 


a.  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m£t;  n6t;  gooQ;  moon; 


FAIRFAX 


889 


FALCONER 


tion  to  the  throne  was  partially  owing  to  the  sincere 
efforts  of  Lord  Fairfax.  After  these  events,  he  retired 
to  his  estates,  where  he  died  of  a  fever  in  February,  167 1, 
at  the  age  of  sixty  years. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England;"  Villemain,  "  Histoire  de 
Cromwell;"  Guizot,  "  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  d'Angleterre ;" 
"Monk's  Contemporaries,"  by  Guizot,  London,  1865;  Hartley 
Coleridge,  "  Lives  of  Distinguished  Northerns;"  Richard  Bell, 
"  Fairfax  Correspondence — Memorials  of  the  Civil  War,"  etc.,  2  vols., 
1S49;  Sir  Edward  Cust,  "  Lives  of  the  Warriors  of  the  Civil  Wars 
of  France  and  England,"  London,  1867. 

Fair'fax,  (Thomas,)  Lord,  of  the  same  family  as  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1691.  Owning  large  estates 
in  Virginia,  he  left  England  and  settled  in  that  colony, 
in  the  county  of  Frederick.  He  was  a  patron  and  friend 
of  General  Washington  in  his  younger  days ;  and  in  the 
Revolutionary  war  the  hospitality  and  noble  qualities  of 
Lord  Fairfax  caused  him  to  be  held  in  so  much  vene- 
ration that  his  property  was  equally  respected  by  the 
Americans  and  the  English.    Died  in  1782. 

Fair'field,  (Sumner  Lincoln,)  an  American  poet, 
born  at  Warwick,  Massachusetts,  in  1803.  He  published 
in  1830  "Abaddon,  the  Spirit  of  Destruction,  and  other 
Poems."  l\\  "The  Last  Night  of  Pompeii"  he  claimed 
to  have  suggested  the  leading  ideas  in  Bulwer's  famous 
novel  of  "  The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii,"  which  appeared 
about  two  years  later.    Died  in  1844. 

See  a  Memoir  of  his  Life,  by  his  widow,  1846;  Griswold,  "Poets 
and  Poetry  of  America;"  Duvckinxk,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American 
Literature." 

Fair'holt,  (Frederick  William,)  a  British  artist  and 
writer,  published  in  1854  a  "  Dictionary  of  Terms  in  Art." 

Faistenberger,  fi'sten-b^R'ger,  (Anton,)  a  Tyrolese 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Innspruck  in  1678,  was  a  pupil 
of  Gaspard  Poussin  at  Rome.    Died  in  Vienna  in  1721. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Fai'thorne,  (William,)  an  English  engraver,  born  in 
London  about  1616.  He  was  an  adherent  of  the  royal- 
ists, and  was  for  a  time  imprisoned  in  London.  Having 
refu.sed,  after  his  release,  to  take  the  oath  of  obedience 
to  Cromwell,  he  was  banished  from  England,  and  went  to 
France,  where  he  studied  engraving  under  Champagne. 
About  1650  he  returned  to  England,  where  he  died  in 
1691.  His  engravings  of  "Christ  at  Prayer  in  the  Gar- 
den of  Olives,"  and  of  the  "  Marriage  of  Cana  in  Galilee," 
were  among  his  principal  works.  He  was  also  the  author 
of  a  "Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Engraving." 

See  Strutt,  "Dictionary  of  Engravers." 

Faithorne,  (  William,  )  a  son  of  the  preceding,  en- 
graved portraits  in  mezzotint.    He  died  about  1686. 

Fakhr-Eddaulah.    See  Fakhr-ed-Dowlah. 

Fakhr-ed-Deen  or  Fakhr- ed-Din,  (or-Dyn,)  f^K'r 
ed-deen,  {i.e.  the  "Glory  of  the  Religion.")  There  have 
been  many  Moslem  doctors  of  this  name,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  whom  is  the  Imam  Fakr-ed-Deen-Razee,  (or 
-Razy,)  who  was  born  at  Rei,  a  city  of  Persia,  about  1150 
A.D.  He  is  esteemed  one  of  the  ablest  Mohainmedan 
doctors  that  ever  lived.  He  composed  numerous  works 
on  theology,  philosophy,  and  mathematics.  Died  in  1210. 

See  Aboolfaraj,  "  Historia  Dyuastiarum,"  translated  by  Pocock  ; 
Aboolfeda,  "Annales." 

Fakhr-ed-Deen,  better  known  as  Facardin  Ameer, 
(or  Amir,)  Prince  of  the  Druzes,  born  in  1574,  was  con- 
quered by  Amurath  IV.  and  taken  to  Constantinople, 
where  he  was  put  to  death  in  1635. 

Fakhr-ed-Deen  Binakeetee,  or  Fakhr-ed-Din 
Binakiti,  faK'r  ed-deen  bin-a-kee'tee,  (Aboo  Solyman 
Daood,)  a  Persian  historian,  born  at  Binakeet  (Bina- 
kit)  in  1329. 

Fakhr-ed-Dowlah  or  -Eddaulah,  fSK'r  ed-dow'lah, 
(Alee,)  a  prince  who  ruled  over  part  of  Persia  towards 
the  close  of  the  tenth  century.    Died  in  997  A.D. 

Falaize,  fS'liz',  (Caroline  Philiberte,)  originally 
named  Jacquemain,  (zhtk'miN',)  a  French  authoress, 
born  at  Chateauroux  in  1792  ;  died  in  1852. 

Falbaire,  de,  deh  ftl'biR',  (Charles  George  Fe- 
nouillot — feh-noo'yo',)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at 
Salins  in  1727.  Among  his  most  successful  plays  were 
"  The  Honest  Criminal"  and  "  The  Two  Misers,"  Died 
in  1800. 

Falcand,  fSKkSN',  [Lat.  Falcan'dus,]  (Hugo,)  a 
historian  of  the  twelfth  century,  supposed  to  have  been 


born  in  Normandy,  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  History  of  Sicily" 
from  1146  to  1169.  Falcand  witnessed  the  events  which 
he  has  recorded.  His  work  is  highly  commended  by 
Gibbon. 

See  Gibbon,  "History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,"  chap.  Ivi.  ;  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Latinis." 

Falcieri,  fdl-che-a'ree,  (Biagio,)  a  skilful  painter  of 
the  Venetian  school,  born  at  San  Ambrogio  in  1628. 
Among  his  master-pieces  is  "The  Council  of  Trent." 
Died  in  1703. 

Falck,  f^lk,  (AntoON  Reinhard,)  a  distinguished 
Dutch  statesman,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1776.  He  became 
secretary  of  state  in  1814,  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon.  In 
1818  he  was  appointed  minister  of  public  instruction, 
and  in  1832  received  the  title  of  minister  of  state.  He 
wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Influence  of  Dutch  Civilization 
on  the  Nations  of  Northern  Europe."    Died  in  1843. 

See  Quetelet,  "Hommage  i  la  Memoire  d'A.  R.  Falck,"  1844. 

Falck,  fiik,  (Jeremias,)  a  German  engraver  of  his- 
tory and  portraits,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1629,  worked  in 
Holland  and  Sweden.    Died  about  1710. 

Falck,  (John  Peter.)    See  Falk. 

Falck  or  Falk,  falk,  (Niels,)  a  Danish  jurist,  born 
near  Tondern  in  1784,  was  elected  president  of  the  Diet 
in  Sleswick-Holstein  in  1838.  He  published  a  treatise 
"  On  the  Duchy  of  Sleswick  in  its  Present  Relations  to 
Denmark  and  Holstein."    Died  in  1850. 

Falckenstein,  fiKken-stln^,  (Johann  Heinrich,) 
the  author  of  numerous  historical  and  antiquarian  works, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  born  in  Silesia  in  1682 ;  died 
in  1760. 

Falco,    See  Conchillos-Falco. 

Falco,  di,  de  fSKko,  (Benedetto,)  a  learned  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Naples,  lived  about  1530. 

Fal'con-berg  or  FaPcon-bridge,  (fau'kon-brij,) 
(Mary,)  Countess  of,  a  daughter  of  Oliver  Cromwell, 
born  about  1636,  became  the  wife  of  Viscount  Falcon- 
berg.  She  was  a  person  of  superior  talents.  Died  in 
1712. 

Falconbridge,  fau'kon-brij,  (Alexander,)  an  Eng- 
lish traveller  who  visited  Africa,  was  the  author  of  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Slave-Trade  of  the  African  Coast," 
(1789.)    Died  in  1792. 

His  wife,  Anna  Maria,  who  accompanied  him,  wrote 
"Two  Voyages  to  Sierra  Leone,"  (1791.) 

Falcone,  fal-ko'ni,  (Aniello  or  Angelo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Naples  in  1600,  excelled  in  painting 
ijattles.  He  was  the  master  of  Salvator  Rosa.  Died 
in  1680. 

Falcone,  di,  de  fSl-ko'ni,  (  Benedetto,  )  an  Italian 
chronicler,  born  at  Benevento,  lived  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. 

Falconer,  faw'kon-er  or  fawk'ner,  (Sir  David,)  a 
Scottish  jurist,  born  in  1639,  was  lord  president  of  Scot- 
land, and  author  of  "  Decisions  of  the  Lords  of  Council," 
(1701.)    Died  in  1685. 

Falconer,  (Hugh,)  M.D.,  a  British  naturalist  and 
palaeontologist,  born  at  Forres,  Scotland,  about  1808. 
He  was  a  surgeon  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, and  discovered  numerous  fossils  in  the  Sivalik 
Hills,  which  are  described  in  the  "  Fauna  antiqua  Siva- 
lonis,"  (1846,)  of  which  Falconer  and  T.  Proby  Cautley 
were  joint  authors.    Died  in  January,  1865. 

See  a  biographical  notice  prefixed  to  the  "  Palaontological  Me- 
moirs of  Hugh  Falconer,"  2  vols.,  London,  1868. 

Falconer,  faw'kon-er,  (Thomas,)  an  English  scholar, 
brother  of  Dr.  William  Falconer,  noticed  below,  was 
born  at  Chester  in  1736.  He  edited  Strabo,  and  wrote 
several  works.    Died  in  1792. 

Falconer,  (Thomas,)  an  English  lawyer  and  able 
writer,  a  grandson  of  Dr.  William  Falconer,  was  called 
to  the  bar  about  1830,  and  was  appointed  a  judge  of 
county  courts  in  Wales  in  1851. 

Falconer,  (William,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at  Edin- 
burgh about  the  year  1735.  He  early  became  an  orphan, 
and,  owing  to  the  narrowness  of  his  resources,  passed 
but  little  time  at  school.  He  afterwards  went  to  sea  as 
a  common  sailor, — a  position  which  was  little  calculated 
to  develop  his  poetical  genius.  At  the  age  of  eighteen 
he  embarked  as  boatswain  on  the  ship  Britannia,  which 
was  wrecked  on  the  passage  from  Alexandria  to  Venice. 


«  as  >t;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FJLCONER 


890 


FALKLAND 


Falconer  ard  two  of  his  companions  were  the  only  ones 
who  were  saved.  This  disaster  furnished  him  with 
the  subject  of  a  poem,  called  "  The  Shipwreck,"  which 
he  published  in  London  in  1762,  and  which  at  once 
acquired  for  him  a  high  reputation  as  a  poet.  Falconer 
returned  to  Scotland  after  the  publication  of  his  peom, 
and  remained  some  time  at  Gladsmuir,  with  his  relation 
the  celebrated  historian  Robertson.  In  1769  he  em- 
barked as  treasurer  in  the  frigate  Aurora  for  the  East 
Indies,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  shipwrecked  ;  for 
nothing  was  heard  from  the  vessel  after  it  left  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.  Besides  the  work  previously  mentioned, 
Falconer  wrote  a  "  Nautical  Dictionary,"  a  poem  "  Upon 
the  Death  of  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales,"  and  an  ode 
entitled  "The  Demagogue,"  a  political  satire. 

See  J.  MiTFORD,  "Memoir  of  Falconer,"  prefixed  to  an  edition 
of  liis  poems,  1836;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Emi- 
nent Scotsmen;"  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Falconer,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  physician, 
born  at  Chester  about  1743.  He  was  the  author  of  an 
"Essay  upon  the  Waters  of  Bath,"  "Observations"  re- 
lating to  the  Gout,  "Remarks  on  the  Influence  of  Cli- 
mate, Situation,  etc.  on  the  Disposition  and  Temper, 
Manners,  Laws,  and  Customs,  Government  and  Religion, 
of  Mankind,"  (17S1,)  and  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Influ- 
ence of  the  Passions  on  the  Disorders  of  the  Body," 
(1788.)  He  resided  many  years  at  Bath.  Died  in  1824. 
He  left  an  only  son,  the  Rev.  Thomas  Falconer,  born 
in  1772 ;  died  in  1839. 

See  notice  of  \V.  Falconer  in  the  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie"  of 
Ersch  und  Gruber. 

Falconet,  ftrko'ni',  (Andr^,)  a  distinguished  French 
physician,  born  at  Roanne  in  1611  or  1612.  He  was  med- 
ical counsellor  to  the  King  of  France,  and  the  author  of 
a  work  on  the  treatment  of  scurvy.    Died  in  1691. 

Falconet,  (Camille,)  a  distinguished  physician  and 
medical  writer,  son  of  Noel,  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Lyons  in  1671,  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions  and  Belles-Lettres,  to  which  he  contributed 
several  dissertations.    Died  in  Paris  in  1762. 

SiC  Qui^RARD,  -'La  France  Litteraire." 

Falconet,  (£tienne  Maurice,)  a  distinguished 
French  sculptor,  born  at  Paris  in  1 7 16,  was  a  pupil  of 
Lemoine.  His  statue  of  Milo  of  Crotona  opened  to  him 
the  Academy  of  Paris  in  1745.  Having  been  invited  by 
the  empress  Catherine  II.,  he  went  to  Saint  Petersburg 
in  1766,  and  spent  about  twelve  years  on  a  colossal  bronze 
equestrian  statue  of  Peter  the  Great,  which  is  his  principal 
work  and  is  generally  admired.  He  returned  to  France 
in  1 778.  He  wrote  a  Commentary  on  the  books  of  Pliny 
which  treat  on  sculpture  and  painting,  and  several  treat- 
ises on  art.    Died  in  Paris  in  1791. 

See  CicoGNARA,  "Storia  della  Sciiltura;"  L.  Brightwell,  "By- 
paths of  Biography." 

Falconet,  (Noel,)  a  noted  physician  and  medical 
writer,  son  of  Andre,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Lyons 
in  1644.  He  was  appointed  consulting  physician  to  the 
king.    Died  at  Paris  in  1734. 

Falconetto,  fSl-ko-net'to,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  a 
painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  born  at  Verona,  flou- 
rished about  1500. 

Falconetto,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Italian  architect, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Verona  in  1458,  built 
the  Rotunda  of  Padua,  and  other  admired  edifices  in 
that  city.  His  master-piece  is  the  palace  of  Louis  Cor- 
naro,  his  intimate  friend,  with  whom  he  resided  many 
years.    Died  in  1534. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Fal-co'ni-a,  (Proba,)  a  Latin  poetess,  who  lived  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century.  She  composed  a 
poem  upon  the  "Civil  Wars  of  Rome,"  which  is  lost, 
and  a  "  Cento  Virgilianus,"  which  is  extant.  The  sub- 
ject of  the  latter  is  sacred  history. 

Falconieri,  fal-ko-ne-a'ree,  (Ottavio,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Florence  in  1646;  died  in  1676. 

Falcucci,  fal-koot'chee,  (Niccol6,)  or  Nicholas  of 
Florence,  a  celebrated  Italian  physician,  supposed  to 
have  been  born  about  1350.  His  medical  skill  procured 
for  him  the  title  of  "the  Divine."    Died  in  141 1. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 


Falda,  flKdJ,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  skilful  Italian 
engraver,  born  in  the  Milanese  about  1640.  He  engraved 
some  monuments  at  Rome.    Died  about  1700. 

Faldoni,  fil-do'nee,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  landscapes,  and  an  excellent  engraver,  was  born 
in  the  March  of  Treviso  about  1690. 

Faleiro,  fd-la^-ro,  or  Falero,  fi-la'ro,  (Ruy,)  a 
Portuguese  geographer  and  mathematician.  Having 
formed  ah  agreement  with  Magellan  in  a  project  to  dis- 
cover a  new  route  to  the  Moluccas,  he  offered  his  services 
to  Charles  V.  in  1518.  His  offer  was  accepted;  but  a 
difficulty  arose  between  Faleiro  and  Magellan,  who 
departed  without  him.    Died  in  1 523. 

Faletti,  fl-let'tee,  or  Falletti,  fil-let'tee,  (Geronimo,) 
Count  of  Trino,  an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Trino,  in 
Montferrat,  about  15 18.  He  was  the  author  of  an  "Ac- 
count of  the  War  in  Germany  in  the  Time  of  Charles 
v.,"  (1552,)  in  verse,  and  other  historical  works.  Died 
in  1564. 

Falgani,  fai-gcVnee,  (Gaspare,)  an  Italian  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Florence  about  1620. 

Falieri,  f^-le-a'ree,  or  Faliero,  fS-le-a'ro,  (Marino,) 
became  Doge  of  Venice  in  1354.  He  incited  the  ple- 
beians to  a  conspiracy  against  the  nobles,  in  which  the 
latter  were  to  have  been  massacred  ;  but,  the  plot  being 
revealed,  Falieri  was  tried  for  his  crime  and  beheaded  in 
April,  1355.  This  event  forms  the  subject  of  Byron's 
well-known  drama  "Marino  Faliero."  In  the  hall  of  the 
Grand  Council  of  Venice  the  portraits  of  the  doges  are 
placed,  but  instead  of  that  of  Falieri  there  is  represented 
a  ducal  throne  covered  with  a  pall,  with  this  inscription  : 
"  Here  is  the  place  of  Marino  Falieri,  beheaded  for  his 
crimes."    He  was  about  eighty  years  old. 

See  Marino  Sanuto,  "Vite  de'  Duchi  de  Venezia;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale;"  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Falieri  or  Faliero,  (  Vitale,)  became  Doge  of  Venice 
about  1084.  He  increased  the  power  and  commercial 
prosperity  of  the  republic.    Died  about  1096. 

Faliero,  f^-le-a'ro,  (Angelo,)  an  eminent  Venetian 
senator,  who  persuaded  his  fellow-citizens  to  reject  the 
proposition  made  by  the  doge  Pietro  Ziani,  in  1225,  to 
remove  the  seat  of  government  to  Constantinople. 

Faliero,  (Ordelafo,)  a  Venetian  general,  who  was 
elected  doge  in  (102.  In  the  sani<.  year  he  conducted  a 
fleet  to  aid  Baldwin  I.  and  the  Crusaders  in  the  conquest 
of  Palestine.  He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Zara  in  in 7. 

Falk,  fdlk,  (Johann  Daniel,)  a  German  litterateur 
and  philanthropist,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1770.  He  founded 
at  Weimar  an  institution  for  the  education  of  destitute 
children,  known  as  Falk's  Institute.  Among  his  works 
we  may  cite  a  satire  in  verse,  entitled  "  Men  and  Heroes," 
(1796,)  and  his  dramatic  poem  "Prometheus,"  (1804.) 
Died  in  1826. 

See  Gervinu.s,  "  Geschichte  der  poetischen  National-Literatur," 
etc.;  A.  Wagner,  "Falk's  Liebe,  Leben,  und  Leiden  in  Gott," 
1818;  "Falkiana,"  Hamburg,  1811. 

Falk,  f^lk,  (JoHAN  Pehr,)  a  Swedish  physician  and 
distinguished  botanist,  born  in  1727.  He  was  employed 
by  Linnasus  as  tutor  to  his  son,  and  became,  about  1765, 
professor  of  botany  or  pharmacy  in  Saint  Petersburg. 
He  was  one  of  the  naturalists  appointed  in  1768  to 
make  a  scientific  exploration  of  Russia,  and  wrote  "  Me- 
moirs on  the  Topography  of  the  Russian  Empire,"  (3 
vols.,  1784-86.)  In  a  fit  of  hypochondria,  he  killed  him- 
self in  1774. 

See  "Biographie  Medicale." 

Falkland,  fauk'land,  (Henry  Lucius  Gary,)  third 
Viscount,  a  son  of  the  second  Lord  Falkland,  is  repre- 
sented as  a  young  man  of  great  promise.  He  wrote  a 
play  called  "The  Marriage-Night,"  (1664.)  He  died  in 
the  prime  of  life  in  1663. 

Falkland,  (Lucius  Gary,)  second  Viscount,  eldest 
son  of  Henry,  Viscount  Falkland,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  born  at  Burford,  in  the  county  of  Oxford,  in  1610. 
He  studied  at  Dublin,  and  afterwards  at  Cambridge. 
Possessing  a  good  memory,  great  talents,  and  a  pas- 
sionate love  of  literature,  he  progressed  so  rapidly  in  the 
study  of  the  classics  that,  besides  the  Greek  historians, 
he  had  read  all  the  Greek  and  Latin  poets  before  he  had 
arrived  at  the  age  of  twenty-three.  In  1633,  at  the 
death  of  his  father,  he  became  gentleman  of  the  chamr 


a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FJLKNER 


FJNNIUS 


ber  of  the  king,  and  in  1639,  although  he  was  disap- 
pointed in  the  hope  which  had  been  held  out  to  him  of 
a  command  in  the  army  sent  against  the  Scotch,  he  went 
as  a  volunteer.  In  1640  Lord  Falkland  was  chosen 
member  of  Parliament,  in  which  capacity  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  efficiency.  In  the  contest  between  Charles 
I.  and  the  people,  he  at  first  acted  with  the  latter,  and 
favoured  the  prosecution  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford;  but, 
becoming  convinced  that  the  popular  party  were  going 
too  far,  he  attached  himself  to  the  interests  of  the  king, 
to  whom  he  afterwards  adhered  with  exemplary  fidelity, 
and  by  whom  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state.  After 
the  battle  of  Edgehill,  where  the  royal  army  was  victorious. 
Lord  Falkland  exposed  himself  to  imminent  danger  in 
saving  the  lives  of  his  enemies  who  had  laid  down  their 
arms.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Newbury,  on  the 
20th  of  September,  1643,  where,  having  insisted  on  going 
in  the  first  rank  of  Lord  Byron's  cavalry,  he  was  shot  at 
the  first  charge  :  his  body  was  not  found  until  the  next 
day.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "A  Discourse 
on  the  Infallibility  of  the  Church  of  Rome,"  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  assisted  Chillingworth  in  his  "  History  of 
Protestantism." 

See  Clarendon,  "History  of  the  Rebellion;"  Macaulav, 
"History  of  England,"  vol.  v.;  Walpole,  "Royal  and  Noble  Au- 
thors." 

Falkner,  fauk'ner,  (Thomas,)  an  English  missionary, 
born  at  Manchester,  studied  surgery  in  London  and 
Cadiz,  where  he  was  persuaded  to  become  a  Jesuit  and 
to  go  to  South  America.  He  exercised  his  ministry  in 
the"  vice-royalty  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  as  far  south  as 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  where  his  great  ability  as  a  physician 
and  surgeon  was  very  useful  to  him.  After  remaining 
forty  years  in  that  country,  he  returned  to  England,  where 
he  published  a  work  in  1774,  entitled  "Descriptions  of 
Patagonia  and  the  Adjoining  Countries."   Died  in  1780. 

See  QuEKARD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire." 

Fallaro,  fal-lS'ro,  (Giacomo,)  a  painter  of  the  Vene- 
tian school,  flourished  about  1530.  He  is  praised  by 
Vasari. 

Fallati,  fSl-li'tee,  (Johann,)  a  German  writer,  of  Ital- 
ian extraction,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1809,  published  an 
"Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Statistics,"  (1843,)  and 
other  treatises.    Died  in  1854. 

Falle,  faul  or  fSl,  (Philip,)  born  in  the  isle  of  Jersey 
in  1655,  was  the  author  of  a  learned  work  entitled  "An 
Account  of  the  Island  of  Jersey."    Died  in  1742. 

Fallet,  fa'li',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  dramatist  and  poet, 
born  at  Langres  in  1753  ;  died  in  1801. 

Falletti.    See  Falettl 

Fallmerayer,  fSKmeh-rfer,  (Philipp  Jacob,)  a  dis- 
tinguished German  linguist  and  historian,  born  in  the 
Tyrol  in  1791.  He  performed  several  journeys  to  Pales- 
tine, Egypt,  Greece,  etc.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Morea  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1830-36,)  and 
"  Fragments  from  the  East,"  (1845.)  Died  in  A]Dril,  1862. 

Falloppio,  fal-lop'pe-o,  sometimes  written  Fallopio, 
[Lat.  Fallo'pius  ;  Fr.  Fallope,  ft'lop',]  (Gabriello,)  a 
celebrated  Italian  surgeon  and  anatomist,  born  at  Modena 
about  1523.  He  at  first  studied  at  Ferrara  under  Antonio 
Musa  Brasavola,  and  afterwards  at  Padua.  About  1550 
he  became  professor  of  surgery  and  anatomy  at  Padua, 
where  he  succeeded  Vesalius.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  valuable  anatomical  works,  of  which  only  his 
"Anatomical  Observations"  (1561)  was  published  before 
his  death.  He  was  one  of  the  three  anatomists  who, 
according  to  Cuvier,  restored,  or  rather  created,  the 
science  of  anatomy  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Died  ac 
Padua  in  1562.  He  was  an  excellent  teacher  and  a  skilful 
operator.  He  discovered  or  first  described  several  parts 
of  the  human  body  which  bear  his  name.  "  No  one,' 
says  Hallam,  "had  understood  that  delicate  part  of  the 
human  structure,  the  organ  of  hearing,  so  well  as  Fal- 
lopius;  though  even  he  left  much  for  others."  ("Intro- 
duction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  £lov,  " Dictionnaire  de  la  Mede- 
cine." 

Falloux,  de,  deh  ft'loo',(FR^u6Ric  Alfred  Pierre,) 
ViCOMTE,  a  French  statesman  and  able  writer,  born  at 
Angers  in  May,  1811.  He  published  a  "  History  of  Louis 
XVI."  in  1840,  and  favoured  the  formation  of  a  republic 


in  1848.    He  was  minister  of  public  instruction  from 
December  20,  1848,  to  October,  1849.    Since  the  latter 
date  he  has  not  been  in  public  office.    He  became  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1857. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

FaFlows,  (Fearon,)  born  about  1790,  became  astro- 
nomer-royal at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1821.  Died 
in  1 83 1. 

Falret,  fSKri',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  physician, 
born  in  1794,  wrote  on  mental  maladies. 

Fals,  fdls,  (Raymond,)  a  Swedish  engraver  of  medals, 
born  at  Stockholm  in  1658;  died  in  1703. 

Falsen,  fSKsen,  (Christian  Magnus,)  a  Norwegian 
historian  and  jurist,  born  near  Christiania  in  1782,  wrote 
a  "  History  of  Norway  under  Harold  Haarfager  and  his 
Male  Descendants."    Died  in  1830. 

FaFstaf,  Fas'tolff,  or  Falstolf,  (Sir  John,)  a  famous 
English  captain,  born  in  Norfolk  about  1377.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  battle  of  Agincourt,  (1415,)  and 
other  actions  in  France.  After  the  death  of  Henry  V.  he 
was  Governor  of  Anjou  and  Maine.    Died  in  1459. 

Falster,  fiKster,  (Christian,)  a  Danish  critic  and 
poet,  born  about  1690,  lived  at  Flensburg.  He  produced 
a  number  of  satires,  which  were  favourably  received ; 
also  "Amoenitates  Philologicae,"  (3  vols.,  1729-32,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  -1752. 

See  Jens  Hansen,  "  Programmata  II.  de  Vita  et  Rebus  gestis 
C.  Falsteri,"  1769-71. 

Famin,fS'm^N',  (Stanislas  Marie  C^sar,)  a  French 
historical  writer,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1799.  Among 
his  works,  which  are  highly  commended,  are  "A  His- 
tory of  the  Invasion  of  Italy  by  the  Saracens  in  the 
Seventh,  Eighth,  Ninth,  and  Tenth  Centuries,"  (1843,) 
and  "Histoire  monetaire  du  Portugal,"  (in  manuscript.) 
Died  in  1853. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generalc." 

Fanachen.    See  Achen. 

Fancelli,  fIn-cheKlee,  (Jacopo  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Rome  about  1630. 

Fancelli,  (Pietro,)  an  eminent  Italian  historical 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1764;  died  in  1850. 

See  Massini,  "  Cenno  biografico  di  P.  Fancelli,"  1850. 

Fan'court,  (Samuel,)  an  English  dissenting  minister 
of  Salisbury,  born  about  1678,  commenced  in  London  the 
first  circulating  library  that  was  established  in  England. 
Died  in  1768. 

Fane,  (Sir  Henry,)  a  British  general,  born  in  1778, 
commanded  a  brigade  of  cavalry  at  Talavera  (1810)  and 
other  battles  in  the  Peninsula.  He  became  commander* 
in-chief  in  India  about  1835.    Died  in  1840. 

Fanelli,  fd-nlKlee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  advocate, 
born  at  Venice,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Athens,"  (1707.) 

Fanelli,  (Virgilio,)  a  Florentine  sculptor,  who  died 
at  Toledo,  in  Spain,  in  1678. 

Faneuil,  popularly  pronounced  fun'el, (Peter,)  founder 
of  Faneuil  Hall,  Boston,  was  born  in  NewRochelle,  New 
York,  in  1700.  About  1740  he  erected  for  the  town,  at  his 
own  expense,  the  building  which  has  since  been  famous 
as  the  scene  of  the  most  memorable  public  meetings  held 
in  Boston.    Died  in  1743. 

Fange,  fSN'zhi',  (Augu.stin,)  a  French  Benedictine, 
born  near  Verdun  about  1720;  died  about  1791. 

Fan'nin,  (James  W.,)  Colonel,  an  officer  in  the 
Texan  war  of  independence,  a  native  of  North  Carolina, 
was  one  of  the  three  hundred  and  fifty-seven  massacred 
at  Goliad  by  order  of  Santa  Anna,  March  27,  1836. 

Fan'ning,  (David,)  an  American  Tory  and  outlaw, 
notorious  for  his  daring  exploits  and  for  his  barbarity, 
was  born  in  North  Carolina  about  1756.  He  became  the 
leader  of  a  band  during  the  Revolution.    Died  in  1825. 

Fan'ni-us,  (Caius,)  surnamed  Strabo,  a  Roman 
consul,  during  whose  administration  (161  B.C.)  a  law, 
called  from  him  "Lex  Fannia,"  was  passed,  to  restrain 
the  luxury  of  the  people. 

Fannius,  (Caius,)  son  of  the  preceding,  and  a  friend 
of  Scipio  Africanus,  was  elected  consul  122  B.C.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  orators  of  his  age. 

Fannius,  (Caius,)  a  Latin  historian  and  orator,  and 
a  friend  of  Pliny  the  Younger.  He  commenced  a  work 
entitled  "  Exitus  occisorum  aut  relegatorum  a  Nero," 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as j;  o,  H,  Yi, guttural ;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FANNIUS 


892 


FARADAY 


but  died  after  he  had  completed  only  three  volumes.  A 
few  fragments  of  his  writings  remain. 

Fau'm-us  Ce'pi-o,  one  of  a  party  who  conspired 
against  the  emperor  Augustus  ;  but  his  design  was  de- 
tected, and  he  was  put  to  death.  He  forms  the  subject 
of  one  of  Martial's  epigrams. 

Fan''m-us  Quad-ra'tus,  a  Latin  poet,  whose  bust 
and  works  were  placed  in  the  library  founded  by  Augustus, 
and  who  was  tlie  subject  of  the  fourth  satire  of  Horace. 

Fano,  da,  dS  fa'no,  (Bartolommeo,)  a  painter  of  the 
Roman  school,  born  about  1460 ;  died  after  1534.  His 
son  PoMPEO  was  a  painter. 

Fanoli,  fa'no-lee,  (Michele,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
lithographer,  born  near  Venice  in  1807. 

Fansaga,  fin-si'gi,  (Cosimo,)  an  Italian  architect 
and  sculptor,  born  in  1591  ;  died  at  Naples  in  1678. 

Fan'shawe,  (Anne  Harrison,)  wife  of  Sir  Richard 
Fanshawe,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1625.  She  was 
distinguished  for  her  talents  and  accomplishments,  and 
left  interesting  autobiographic  "  Memoirs,"  (1829.)  Died 
in  1680. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1829. 

Fanshawe,  (Catherine,)  a  literary  English  lady 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  She  associated  with  Scott, 
Southey,  Joanna  Baillie,  and  other  authors,  and  wrote 
verses,  among  which  is  an  enigma  on  the  letter  H. 

Fanshawe  or  Fanshaw,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  Eng- 
lish diplomatist  and  poet,  born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1608, 
studied  at  Cambridge.  He  was  sent  as  minister-resident 
to  the  court  of  Spain  by  Charles  I.  At  the  commence- 
ment of  the  revolution  he  joined  the  king's  party,  and 
was  taken  prisoner  in  165 1  at  the  battle  of  Worcester, 
and  detained  in  confinement  for  several  years.  After 
the  restoration  he  was  made  privy  councillor  for  Ireland, 
then  envoy  extraordinary,  and  afterwards  ambassador  to 
Portugal,  where  he  negotiated  the  marriage  of  Charles 
II.  with  the  princess  Catherine.  In  1664  he  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Spain,  where  he  died  in  1666.  Not- 
withstanding the  cares  of  office  and  the  troubles  of  that 
period,  Fanshawe  found  time  for  literary  pursuits.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  translations  into  English  poetry, 
among  which  were  the  "  Pastor  Fido"  of  Guarini,  and  the 
"  Lusiad"  of  Camoens. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica;"  "Westminster  Review"  for  Octo- 
ber, 1829. 

Fant,flnt,  (Erik  Michael,)  a  Swedish  historian,  born 
in  Sudermanland  in  1754.  He  became  professor  of  his- 
tory at  Upsal  in  1781,  and  made  a  collection  of  materials 
for  Swedish  history.  He  commenced  a  work  entitled 
"Mediaeval  Writers  of  Swedish  History,"  ("Scriptores 
Rerum  Suecicarum  Medii  ^vi,")  the  first  volume  of 
which  was  published  in  1818.    Died  in  1817. 

Fantetti,  fin-tet'tee,  (Cesare,)  a  Florentine  engraver, 
born  about  1660,  engraved,  at  Rome,  thirty-seven  of 
Raphael's  subjects  from  the  Bible. 

Fantin  des  Odoards,  fdN'tiN'  di''zoMo'tR',  (An- 
TOINE  £tienne  Nicolas,  )  a  French  historian,  born 
at  Pont-de-Beauvoisin  in  1738.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"  History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (6th  edition,  181 7.) 
Died  in  1820. 

See  "Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Fantoni,  fin-to^nee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  physician, 
son  of  Giovanni  Battista,  noticed  Ijelow,  born  at  Turin 
in  1675.  He  was  professor  of  anatomy  in  his  native  city, 
and  wrote  many  anatomical  works,  which  are  remarkable 
for  their  pure  and  elegant  Latin  style.    Died  in  1758. 

Fantoni,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  Italian  lyric  poet, 
born  at  Fivizzano,  Tuscany,  in  1755.  ^^^^^  ^  m-s^w  of 

unstable  character,  and  was  successively  a  monk,  a  cap- 
tain in  the  French  army,  and  professor  of  eloquence  at 
Pisa.  He  produced  "  Horatian  and  Anacreontic  Odes," 
("Odi  Oraziane  ed  Anacreontiche,"  1785,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1807. 

See  "Autobiographic  Memoirs,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his 
Poems,  3  vols.,  1823;  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri," 
vol.  i.  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Fantoni,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  medical  writer, 
born  in  Piedmont  in  1654,  became  professor  of  medicine 
at  Turin.    Died  in  1692. 

Fantosme,  fan'tom,  (Jordan,)  a  poet  and  historian, 
lived  in  England  in  the  twelfth  century.    He  wrote,  in 


verse,  a  history  of  the  wars  and  events  which  he  wit- 
nessed in  1173  and  1174.    It  was  published  about  1840. 

Fantucci,  fdn-toot'chee,  or  Fantuzzi,  fin-toot'see, 
(Marco,)  Count,  an  Italian  litterateur  and  antiquary, 
born  at  Ravenna  in  1745.  He  published  "Monuments 
of  Ravenna,"  etc.,  ("  Monumenti  Ravennati  de'  Secoli 
di  mezzo,"  6  vols.,  1801-04,)  ^I'ltl  "On  Honest  People," 
("  De  Gente  honesta.")    Died  in  1806. 

Fantuzzi,  fSn-toot'see,  a  family  of  Bologna,  which 
produced  several  distinguished  writers.  Giovanni  Bat- 
tista published  a  work  on  the  Peripatetic  Philosophy 
in  1536.  Giovanni  Fantuzzi,  born  at  Bologna,  lived 
about  1780.  He  contributed  much  to  the  literature  of 
Bologna  by  his  work  entitled  "Notices  of  the  Bolognese 
Authors,"  ("  Notizie  degli  Scrittori  Bolognesi,"  9  vols, 
fob,  1781-94.) 

Fantuzzi,  fin-toot'see,  (Antonio,)  sometimes  called 
Antonio  da  Trento,  an  Italian  painter  and  skilful  en- 
graver, born  at  Trent,  worked  at  Fontainebleau  with 
Primaticcio.    Died  about  1550. 

See  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario." 

Fanuoci.fa-noot'chee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Ital- 
ian historian,  born  at  Pisa  in  1756,  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Three  Great  Maritime  Nations  of  Italy,  the  Vene- 
tians, Genoese,  and  Pisans,"  (4  vols.,  1817-22.)  Died 
in  1834. 

Fanzoni,  f§.n-zo'nee,  or  Fenzoni,  fSn-zo'nee,  (Fer- 
RAU,)  called  also  Ferrau  da  Faenza,  a  skilful  painter 
of  the  Bolognese  school,  was  born  at  Faenza  in  1562; 
died  in  1645. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Fa  Presto.    See  Giordano,  (Luca.) 

Far^'a-day,  (Michael,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  chemist 
and  natural  philosopher  of  great  eminence,  was  born  at 
Newington,  in  the  county  of  Surrey,  in  1791.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  blacksmith,  by  whom  he  was  apprenticed 
to  a  bookbinder  and  stationer  at  an  early  age.  His 
education,  consequently,  was  not  very  liberal.  During 
his  apprenticeship  he  employed  his  leisure  time  in  the 
construction  of  an  electric  machine  and  other  apparatus. 
Having  attended  four  lectures  on  chemistry  delivered 
by  Sir  H.  Davy,  and  taken  notes  of  them,  he  wrote  a 
letter  to  that  great  chemist,  enclosing  a  copy  of  the  notes, 
and  soliciting  his  patronage  in  order  to  obtain  scientific 
employment.  This  occurred  in  December,  1812.  In  1813, 
by  the  influence  of  Davy,  he  obtained  the  position  of 
assistant  in  the  laboratory  of  the  Royal  Institution.  In 
the  same  year  he  accompanied  Sir  H.  Davy  in  a  journey 
on  the  continent.  The  celebrity  of  Faraday  is  chiefly 
founded  on  his  discoveries  in  electricity  and  electro- 
magnetism.  He  discovered  the  rotation  of  a  magnet  on 
itself  produced  by  an  electric  current  properly  directed. 
As  Ampere  had  made  magnets  by  electricity,  so  Faraday 
produced  electrical  phenomena  by  magnets.  He  is  con- 
sidered as  the  founder  of  the  science  of  magneto-elec- 
tricity. In  1831  he  commenced  a  series  of  memoirs  on 
these  subjects,  which  appeared  first  in  the  "  Philosophical 
Transactions,"  and  have  since  been  collected  in  three 
volumes,  entitled  "  Experimental  Researches  in  Elec- 
tricity," (1839- 1 844- 1 85 5.)  He  received  the  Rumford 
medal  and  royal  medal  in  1846  for  his  discovery  of  dia- 
magnetism.  Among  the  results  of  his  chemical  experi- 
ments are  the  condensation  into  a  solid  form  of  carbonic 
acid  gas  and  other  gases,  and  the  production  of  excellent 
optical  glass.  His  researches  and  writings  have  contrib- 
uted to  establish  the  theory  that  electricity,  caloric,  and 
light  are  modifications  of  the  same  power  or  principle 
and  are  convertible  into  each  other.  These  speculations 
conducted  him  to  the  surprising  discovery  of  the  action 
of  electricity  on  light. 

From  1827  until  his  death,  Faraday  delivered  annual 
lectures  on  chemistry,  etc.  at  the  Royal  Institution,  in 
which  he  was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  1835. 
His  lectures  were  rendered  very  attractive  and  popular 
by  his  graceful  elocution  and  his  admirable  tact  as  an 
experimenter,  joined  with  his  genius  as  an  interpreter 
of  nature.  "Nothing,"  says  Professor  de  la  Rive,  "can 
give  a  notion  of  the  charm  which  he  imparted  to  these 
improvised  lectures,  in  which  he  knew  how  to  combine 
animated  and  often  eloquent  language  with  a  judgment 
and  art  in  his  experiments  which  added  to  the  clearness 


a,  e,  1,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fSll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FAR  A  J 


893 


FAR  IN  ELL  I 


and  elegance  of  his  exposition.  He  exerted  an  actual 
fascination  upon  his  auditors  ;  and  when,  after  having 
initiated  them  into  the  mysteries  of  science,  he  terminated 
his  lecture,  as  he  was  in  the  habit  of  doing,  by  rising 
into  regions  far  above  matter,  space,  and  time,  the  emo- 
tion which  he  experienced  did  not  fail  to  communicate 
itself  to  those  who  listened  to  him,  and  their  enthusiasm 
had  no  longer  any  bounds. 

"Faraday  was,  in  fact,  thoroughly  religious;  and  it 
would  be  a  very  imperfect  sketch  of  his  life  which  did  not 
insist  upon  this  peculiar  feature  which  characterized  him. 
His  Christian  convictions  occupied  a  great  place  in  the 
whole  of  his  being ;  and  he  showed  their  power  and  sin- 
cerity by  the  conformity  of  his  life  to  his  principles.  It 
was  not  in  arguments  derived  from  science  that  he  sought 
the  evidences  of  his  faith.  He  found  them  in  the  revealed 
truths  at  which  he  saw  that  the  human  mind  could  not 
arrive  by  itself  alone,  even  though  they  are  in  such  great 
harmony  with  that  which  is  taught  by  the  study  of  nature 
and  the  marvels  of  creation.  Faraday  had  long  and 
justly  perceived  that  scientific  data,  so  movable  and 
variable,  cannot  suffice  to  give  to  man  a  solid  and  im- 
pregnable basis  for  his  religious  convictions  ;  but  he  at  the 
same  time  showed  by  his  example  that  the  best  answer 
which  the  man  of  science  can  give  to  those  who  assert 
that  the  progress  of  science  is  incompatible  with  these 
convictions,  is  to  say  to  them, '  And  yet  I  am  a  Christian.'  " 
(See  "Annual  Report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution" 
for  1867,  pp.  227-245.)  He  was  one  of  the  eight  foreign 
members  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris,  an  honour 
reserved  exclusively  for  savants  of  the  highest  rank  and 
merit.  English  and  foreign  writers  concur  in  ascribing 
to  him  an  honourable  character,  free  from  jealousy,  and 
animated  with  a  disinterested  love  of  science.  Among 
his  later  works  is  "Experimental  Researches  in  Chem- 
istry and  Physics,"  (1859.)    Died  in  August,  1867. 

See  John  Tyndai.l,  "  M.  Faraday  as  a  Discoverer,"  186S  ;  "  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  December,  1846;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for 
April,  186S. 

Faraj  or  Faradj,  fir'aj,  written  also  Farage  and  Fer- 

ruj,  became  Sultan  of  Egypt  about  1399.  His  army  was 
defeated  byTaimoor  near  Haleb  (Aleppo)  in  1400.  He 
was  assassinated  at  Damascus  in  1412. 

Farcy,  ftR^se',  (FkANgois  Charles,)  a  French  writer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1792,  was  chief  editor  of  the  "Journal 
des  Artistes"  from  1827  to  1835. 

Farcy,  (Jean  Georges,)  a  French  poet  and  prose- 
writer,  born  in  1800,  was  a  friend  of  M.  Cousin,  who 
dedicated  to  him  his  translation  of  the  laws  of  Plato.  He 
left  a  volume  of  melanges  in  prose  and  verse,  which  are 
highly  commended.  He  was  killed  in  Paris,  fighting  for 
the  popular  cause,  in  July,  1830. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Critiques  et  Portraits  litteraires." 

Fardella,  faR-deKll,  (Giovannf  Battista,)  an  Italian 
genera],  born  in  1762  ;  died  in  1836. 

Fardella,  (Michelangelo,)  an  Italian  philosopher, 
professor  of  theology  and  geometry  at  Rome,  and  of 
astronomy  and  medicine  at  Padua,  was  born  at  Trapani, 
in  Sicily,  in  1650.  He  left  some  valuable  mathematical 
and  philosophical  works.    Died  in  1718. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  Manchso,  "  Elogio  del  Cavaliere  M. 
Fardella,"  1839;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Far'dulf  or  Far-dul'fus,  a  favourite  of  Desiderius, 
the  last  king  of  the  Lombards,  was  appointed  by  Charle- 
magne abbot  of  Saint-Denis  in  790. 

Fare,  de  la,  deh  li  ftR,  (Charles  Auguste,)  Mar- 
quis, a  French  soldier  and  writer,  born  in  Ardeche  in 
1644,  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "Memoirs  of 
the  Principal  Events  of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIV."  Died 
in  1 712. 

Farel,  fi'rgK,  (Guillaume,)  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished Protestant  Reformers  in  France,  was  born  near 
Gap  in  1489.  He  studied  in  Paris  under  Lefevre  d'fita- 
ples,  and  in  1524  publicly  maintained  at  Bale  a  number 
'Df  theses  on  controverted  points.  He  afterwards  visited 
successively  the  principal  towns  of  Switzerland,  where 
his  impetuous  and  fervent  eloquence  made  numerous 
converts  to  the  Protestant  cause.  He  was  chiefly  instru- 
mental in  establishing  the  Reformed  religion  at  Geneva 
about  1532;  and  through  his  influence  Calvin  was  in- 
duced to  remain  in  that  city.    Farel  had  a  share  in  the 


confession  of  faith  and  plan  of  ecclesiastical  discipline 
drawn  up  by  Calvin  in  1537.  The  following  year,  how- 
ever, they  were  compelled  to  leave  Geneva,  and  Farel 
repaired  to  Neufchatel,  where  he  organized  a  church. 
(See  Calvin.)  He  died  in  1565,  leaving  a  number  of 
religious  works.  He  was  more  eminent  as  a  preacher 
than  as  a  writer. 

See  D.  Ancillon,  "Vie  de  G.  Farel,"  1691 ;  Choupart,  "  His- 
toire  de  Guillaume  Farel;"  Von  Kirchhofer,  "Das  Leben  W. 
Farels,"  Zurich,  1831 ;  C.  Schmidt,  "Etudes  sur  Farel,"  1834; 
Rev.  William  M.  Blackburn,  "William  Farel  and  the  Story  of 
the  Swiss  Reform,"  Philadelphia,  1865;  Bayle,  "Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary;"  Haag,  "La  France  protestante ;"  G.  Goguel, 
"Vie  de  G.  Farel  Reformateur,"  1841. 

Farelli,  fi-rel'lee,  (Giacomo,)  a  painter  of  the  Nea- 
politan school,  born  in  1624;  died  in  1706. 

Faret,  fl'r^',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Bourg-en-Bresse  about  1600.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
members  of  the  French  Academy,  and  author  of  several 
works  in  prose  and  verse.  "  He  had,"  says  Pelisson, 
"much  purity  and  neatness  in  style,  and  much  genius 
for  language  and  eloquence."    Died  in  1646. 

See  Pelisson,  "Histoire  de  I'Academie." 

Fa'rey,  (John,)  an  English  geologist  and  surveyor, 
born  at  Woburn  in  1766.  He  wrote  a  "General  View 
of  the  Agriculture  and  Minerals  of  Derbyshire,"  (2  vols., 
1811.)    Died  in  1826. 

Farey,  (John,)  an  English  civil  engineer  and  draughts- 
man, son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Lambeth  in  1 791. 
He  received  a  gold  medal  for  the  invention  of  a  machine 
for  drawing  ellipses.    Died  in  185 1. 

Farge.    See  La  Farge,  (Madame.) 

Faria,  de,  di  fS-ree'S,  (Manoel  Severim,)  a  Portu- 
guese antiquary  and  theologian,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1 581 
or  1582,  was  the  author  of  some  able  historical  and 
political  works,  among  which  are  "The  Lives  of  Joao  de 
Barros  and  Luiz  de  Camoens,"  (1624,)  and  "Noticiasde 
Portugal,"  (1655,)    Died  in  1655. 

Faria,  de,  (Thom6,)  a  Portuguese  Carmelite,  born  at 
Lisbon,  made  a  translation  of  the  "  Lusiad"  of  Camoens 
into  Latin  poetry,  which  has  been  much  admired  for  its 
elegance  and  purity.    Died  in  1628. 

Faria  y  Souza,  (or  Sousa,)  de,  di  fS-ree'S  e  s5'zl, 
(Manoel,)  a  distinguished  Portuguese  historian  and 
poet,  born  at  Pombeiro  or  Souto  in  1590.  He  became 
secretary  of  the  Spanish  embassy  at  Rome  about  1630, 
and  returned  to  .Spain  in  1634,  after  which  he  resided  at 
Madrid.  His  histories  are  written  in  the  Spanish  language. 
Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  "Commentary  on  the 
Lusiad  of  Camoens,"  (2  vols.,  1639,)  "Asia  Portuguesa," 
(3  vols.,  1666,)  a  History  of  Portugal  to  1557,  ("La  Eu- 
ropa  Portuguesa,"  3  vols.,  1667,)  and  "Various  Poems," 
or  "  Fuente  de  Aganippe."  As  a  poet,  he  belongs  to  the 
school  of  Gongora.    Died  in  1649. 

See  his  life,  in  Portuguese,  by  F.  Moreno  Porcel,  1733;  Long- 
fellow, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca 
Hispana  Nova;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Farina.    See  La  Farina. 

Farina,  fi-ree^nS,  (Fabrizio,)  a  Tuscan  sculptor,  who 
flourished  about  1600,  and  worked  in  porphyry. 

Farinacci,  fa-re-nSt'chee,  or  Farinaccio,  fd-re-nit'- 
cho,  (Prospero,)  an  Italian  lawyer,  celebrated  for  his 
talents  and  his  vices,  was  born  at  Rome  in  1544  or  1554. 
Died  in  1618.  His  numerous  legal  writings  were  col- 
lected and  published  at  Antwerp  in  1620. 

See  Taisand,  "  Vies  des  plus  celebres  Jurisconsultes." 

Farinato,  fS-re-n^'to,  (Orazio,)  a  skilful  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Verona  about  1500. 

Farinato,  (Paolo,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Verona  about  1525,  was  a 
pupil  or  imitator  of  Titian  and  Giorgione.  He  painted 
in  oil  and  fresco,  and  excelled  in  design.  Among  his 
best  works  is  "The  Miracle  of  the  Loaves  and  Fishes." 
Died  in  1606. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Farinelli,  fl-re-neKlee,  (Carlo,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
soprano  singer,  whose  proper  name  was  Carlo  Broschi, 
was  born  at  Naples  in  1705.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Porpora. 
He  performed  with  great  applause  in  London  in  1734 
and  1735.  About  1737,  invited  by  the  Queen  of  Spain, 
he  went  to  Madrid,  in  order  to  soothe  the  nervous 
agitation  or  melancholy  spirit  of  King  Philip  V.  He 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Jf^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FARINGDON 


894 


FARNHAM 


succeeded  in  this  effort,  and  became  the  favourite  attend- 
ant and  adviser  of  the  king.  It  is  said  that  he  never 
abused  his  great  influence  at  court,  and  that  he  gave  a 
good  example  of  integrity  and  benevolence.  He  enjoyed 
equal  favour  with  Philip's  successor,  Ferdinand  VI.  Died 
at  Bologna  in  1782. 

See  GiovENALE  Sacchi,  "Vita  di  Carlo  Broschi  detti  Farinelli," 
1784;  Fetis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Far'ing-dpn  or  Far'in-don,  (Anthony,)  an  elo- 
quent preacher  of  the  Anglican  Church,  born  at  Sunning, 
Berkshire,  in  1596.  He  became  vicar  of  Bray  in  1634, 
was  ejected  during  the  rebellion,  and  was  subsequently 
pastor  of  Saint  Mary  Magdalene,  London.  He  j^ublished 
a  volume  of  Sermons,  (1647,)  which  are  highly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1658. 

Far'ing-tpn,  (George,)  an  English  painter,  born  in 
Lancashire  in  1754,  was  a  pupil  of  West.  Died  in  India 
in  1788.  His  brother  Joseph,  a  landscape-painter,  died 
in  1818. 

Farini,  fl-ree'nee,  (Carlo  Luigi,)  a  popular  Italian 
statesman,  historian,  and  orator,  born  at  Russi,  in  the 
Roman  States,  in  October,  1822.  He  studied  medicine, 
and  wTote  several  medical  treatises.  About  1842  he  was 
proscribed  for  his  political  opinions,  (which,  however, 
were  moderate  rather  than  radical,)  and  went  into  exile. 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  for  Faenza  in 
1848,  and  was  minister  of  public  instruction  in  Piedmont 
about  nine  months  in  1850.  In  1859  he  was  dictator 
at  Modena  after  the  expulsion  of  the  duke.  He  was 
minister  of  commerce  in  the  last  cabinet  of  Cavour,  and 
president  of  the  council  (prime  minister)  from  December, 
1862,  to  March  24,  1863,  when  he  resigned  on  account 
of  ill  health.  His  chief  works  are  "II  Stato  Romano," 
(a  History  of  Rome  from  1815  to  1850,)  and  a  continua- 
tion of  Botta's  "  History  of  Italy."  Died  in  1866.  The 
Hon.  W.  E.  Gladstone  published  a  translation  of  his  "II 
Stato  Romano,"  in  2  vols.,  (185 1.) 

See  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1852 ;  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  April,  1852. 

Farini,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  mathematician,  born 
near  Ravenna  in  1778;  died  in  1822. 

Farjat,  fSR^zht',  (Benoit,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Lyons  m  1646,  worked  in  Rome.  Among  his  best 
works  are  the  "  Baptism  of  Jesus  Christ,"  and  the  "  Com- 
munion of  Saint  Jerome." 

Faiiati,  faR-li'tee,  (Daniele,)  an  Italian  monk  and 
historian,  born  at  Friuli  in  1690 ;  died  in  1773. 

Far'mer,  (Hugh,)  an  eminent  English  dissenting 
minister  and  eloquent  preacher,  was  born  near  Shrews- 
bury in  1 7 14.  He  preached  in  London,  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Miracles,"  (1771,) 
an  "Essay  on  the  Demoniacs  of  the  New  Testament," 
(1775,)  and  "  Worship  of  Human  Spirits  in  the  Ancient 
Heathen  Nations,"  (1783.)    Died  in  1787. 

See  Michael  Dodson,  "Life  of  H.  Farmer,"  1804. 

Far'mer,  (John,)  an  American  genealogist,  born  in 
Chelmsford,  Massachusetts,  in  1789.  He  published  a 
"Genealogical  Register  of  the  First  Settlers  of  New 
England,"  (1829.)    Died  in  1838. 

Farmer,  (Richard,)  a  learned  and  ingenious  English 
author  and  critic,  born  at  Leicester  in  1735.  His  prin- 
cipal work  was  his  "  Essay  upon  the  Learning  of  Shak- 
speare,"  (1766,)  in  which  he  maintains  that  Shakspeare 
derived  his  knowledge  of  classic  authors  from  transla- 
tions. He  became  prebendary  of  Canterbury  in  1782, 
and  canon  of  Saint  Paul's  in  1788.    Died  in  1797. 

See  Nichols,  "Literary  Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century." 

Far'na-by  or  Far'na-bie,  (Thomas,)  a  grammarian, 
born  in  London  about  1575,  obtained  a  high  reputation 
and  great_  success  as  a  teacher,  and  was  the  author  of 
several  critical  and  grammatical  works.  Died  in  1647. 
According  to  Anthony  Wood,  "he  was  the  chief  gram- 
marian, poet,  Latinist,  and  Grecian  of  his  time,  and  his 
school  was  so  much  frequented  that  more  churchmen 
and  statesmen  issued  thence  than  from  any  school  taught 
by  one  man  in  England." 

See  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses." 

Farn'bor-ough,  (Charles  Long,)  Lord,  an  English 
politician,  born  in  1761,  became  postmaster-general. 
He  was  a  friend  of  William  Pitt.    Died  in  18^8. 


Farnese,  faR-na'si,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  diplo- 
matist, born  in  1520,  was  a  grandson  of  Pope  Paul  HI. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Parma,  and  was  employed  by  Paul 

III.  in  missions  to  France  and  Germany.    iJied  in  1589. 
Farnese,  far-neez',  [It.  pron.  faR-na'si;  Lat.  Farne'- 

sius,]  (Alexander,)  Duke  of  Parma,  a  celebrated  gen- 
eral, born  in  1546,  was  anephewof  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and 
the  eldest  son  of  Ottavio  Farnese  and  Margaret  of  Austria. 
In  1565  he  married  Mary,  niece  of  King  John  of  Portugal. 
When  his  mother  was  made  Regent  of  Flanders,  he  ac- 
companied her  to  that  country ;  he  afterwards  fought 
under  Don  John  of  Austria,  and  distinguished  himself 
by  his  great  courage  and  presence  of  mind,  particularly 
at  the  naval  battle  of  Lepanto,  (1571.)  Upon  the  death 
of  Don  John,  (1578,)  Farnese  was  invested  with  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Low  Countries,  where  he  gained  many 
important  victories.  He  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  Invincible  Armada  in  1588  ;  but,  being  shut  up  in 
Antwerp  by  the  Dutch  fleet,  he  was  unable  to  take  any 
part  in  the  action  which  resulted  so  disastrously  to  Spain. 
During  the  civil  war  in  France  he  marched  against 
Henry  IV.  and  compelled  him  to  raise  the  siege  of  Paris, 
(1590.)  After  this  he  successfully  opposed,  at  the  same 
time,  two  of  the  greatest  generals  of  that  period,  Henry 

IV.  of  France,  and  Maurice  of  Nassau.  He  received  a 
wound  in  December,  1592,  of  which  he  died  in  Arras  at 
the  age  of  forty-seven.  While  in  the  midst  of  his  mili- 
tary career,  upon  receiving  information  of  th.''  death  of 
his  father,  he  asked  permission  of  Philip  II.  to  return  to 
Italy,  in  order  to  take  possession  of  his  dukedom  ;  but,  as 
his  services  were  invaluable  to  that  monarch,  his  request 
was  not  granted,  so  that  he  never  entered  his  provinces 
after  he  became  their  sovereign.  "  He  possessed,"  says 
Motley,  comparing  him  with  Don  John  of  Austria,  "  far 
greater  power  for  governing  men,  whether  in  camp  or 
cabinet.  .  .  .  Cool,  incisive,  fearless,  artful,  he  united 
the  unscrupulous  audacity  of  a  condottiere  with  the  wily 
patience  of  a  Jesuit." 

See  Motley,  "Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  part  vi.  chaps,  i.- 
vii.  ;  De  Thou,  "Historia  sui  Temporis  ;"  Strada,  "De  Bello 
Belgico;"  G.  Donuini,  "De  Rebus  in  Gallia  gestis  ab  Alexandre 
Farnesio,"  1671. 

Farnese,  (Odoardo,)  a  son  of  Ranuccio,  noticed  be- 
low, succeeded  him  in  authority  in  1622.  He  took  part 
with  France  in  a  war  against  Spain,  and  afterwards  fought 
against  Pope  Urban  VIII.  He  died  in  1646,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Ranuccio  II.,  who  was  born  about 
1630  and  reigned  from  1646  until  1694.  Francesco  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Ranuccio  II.  ;  on  the  death  of  this 
prince,  in  1727,  his  brother  Antonio  followed  him  as  the 
eighth  Duke  of  Parma  and  Piacenza.  Diedini73i.  An- 
tonio was  the  last  of  the  family  of  Farnese  who  occupied 
the  ducal  throne. 

Farnese,  (Ottavio,)  a  son  of  Pietro  Luigi,  noticed 
below,  was  born  about  1520.  He  married  Margaret  of 
Austria,  natural  daughter  of  Charles  V.,  and  became  the 
second  Duke  of  Parma  and  Piacenza  upon  the  death  of 
his  father.  He  appears  to  have  governed  with  as  much 
mildness  and  discretion  as  his  father  did  with  despotism. 
Died  in  1586. 

Farnese,  (Pietro  Luigi,)  was  created  first  Duke  of 
Parma  and  Piacenza  in  1545  by  his  father.  Pope  Paul 
HI.  He  was  notorious  for  his  vices  and  tyranny.  He 
was  assassinated  in  1547. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes;"  Pompeo 
LiTTA,  "Vita  di  Pier  Luigi  Farnese,"  1821. 

Farnese,  (  Ranuccio,  )  a  son  of  Alexander,  the  cel- 
ebrated Duke  of  Parma,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1569, 
and  began  to  reign  in  1592.  He  was  notorious  for  tyranny 
and  cruelty.    Died  in  1622. 

Farnesius.    See  Farnese,  (Alexander.) 

Fames' worth  or  Farne' worth,  (Ellis,)  an  Eng- 
lish divine  of  the  eighteenth  century,  born  in  Derbyshire. 
He  translated  into  English,  from  the  Italian,  Davila's 
"  History  of  the  Civil  Wars  in  France,"  and  the  works 
of  Machiavel.    Died  in  1763. 

Farn'ham,  (Eliza  W.,)  (originally  Miss  Woodson,) 
an  American  authoress  and  philanthropist,  born  in  Rens- 
selaerville,  New  York,  in  1815.  In  1836  she  was  mar- 
ried to  Thomas  J.  Farnham,  noticed  below.  She  was 
for  four  years  matron  of  the  female  department  of  the 
State  prison  at  Sing  Sing,  and  was  highly  successful  in 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m£t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FJRNHJM 


895 


FARRAGUT 


hei  efforts  to  govern  by  kindness.  She  published  "Life 
in  Prairie-Land,"  "California  Indoors  and  Out,"  and 
"My  Early  Days."    She  died  in  1864. 

Farnham,  (Thomas  J.,)  an  American  traveller  and 
writer,  born  in  Vermont  in  1804,  published  "Travels  in 
Oregon  Territory,"  (  1842, )  and  "  Travels  in  California 
and  Scenes  in  the  Pacific,"  (1845.)  Died  in  California 
in  1848. 

Farochon,  ft'ro'sh6N',  (Jean  Baptisi  e  Eugene,)  a 
French  statuary  and  engraver  of  medals,  born  in  Paris 
in  1807. 

Farquhar,  far'kar,  (George,)  a  distinguished  dra- 
matic writer,  born  at  Londonderry,  in  Ireland,  in  1678, 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Dublin,  and  after- 
wards settled  in  London.  Among  his  principal  pro- 
ductions were  "Love  and  a  Bottle,"  (1698,)  "Twin 
Rivals,"  (1703,)  and  "The  Beaux  Stratagem,"  (1707.) 
Died  in  London  in  1707. 

See  a  notice  of  his  life,  by  Leigh  Hunt,  prefixed  to  Farquhar's 
Works,  1849;  "Lives  of  the  British  Dramatists,"  by  Campbell, 
Leigh  Hunt.  etc. 

Farr,  (Samuel,)  an  English  physician,  born  at  Taun- 
ton in  1741.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Elements 
^    of  Medical  Jurisprudence,"  (1788.)    Died  in  1795. 

Farr,  (William,)  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  an  English  writer  on 
statistics  and  public  health,  born  at  Kenley,  in  Shrop- 
shire, in  1807.  He  promoted  sanitary  reform  by  a 
number  of  works,  among  which  are  "  Vital  Statistics," 
{1837,)  and  "Statistical  Nosology." 

Far'ra-gut,  (David  Glas'coe,)  a  celebrated  Ameri- 
can admiral,  born  near  Knoxville,  Tennessee,  on  the 
5th  of  July,  1 801.  His  father  was  a  Spaniard,  a  native 
of  Minorca,  who  fought  for  the  United  States  in  the 
Revolution  and  attained  the  rank  of  major.  He  entered 
the  navy  in  181 2,  became  a  lieutenant  in  182 1,  and  was 
assigned  to  duty  at  Norfolk  navy-yard  in  1824.  He 
remained  there  until  1833,  and  married  Virginia  Loyall, 
of  Norfolk.  In  1841  he  received  a  commission  as  com- 
mander. Besides  being  well  versed  in  naval  science, 
he  spoke  fluently,  it  is  said,  several  modern  languages. 
He  was  appointed  commander  of  the  navy-yard  at  Mare 
Island,  California,  about  1854,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
captain  in  1855.  In  April,  1861,  he  went  to  Washington 
and  offered  his  services  to  fight  for  the  Union  ;  l)ut  the 
government  had  no  ship  for  him  to  command,  as  Toucey, 
the  late  secretary  of  the  navy,  had  scattered  the  navy 
over  distant  parts  of  the  world.  He  was  employed  for 
some  time  as  a  member  of  the  naval  retiring  board. 

In  January,  1862,  the  government  fitted  out  for  the 
capture  of  New  Orleans  an  armament,  of  which  Farra- 
gut  was  appointed  commander.  He  sailed  from  Hamp- 
ton Roads  about  the  3d  of  February  to  Ship  Island, 
which  was  used  as  a  rendezvous.  The  expedition  was 
accompanied  by  a  land-army  under  General  B.  F.  But- 
ler. New  Orleans  was  defended  against  attacks  from 
the  Gulf  by  Fort  Jackson  and  Fort  Saint  Philip,  about 
seventy  miles  below  the  city,  and  by  many  gunboats 
and  steam-rams.  On  the  i8th  of  April,  Farragut,  who 
had  selected  the  Hartford  as  his  flag-ship,  and  whose 
fleet  consisted  of  wooden  steamers  and  bomb-vessels 
or  mortar-boats,  began  to  bombard  Fort  Jackson.  The 
sides  of  some  of  his  vessels  were  protected  by  an  armour 
of  heavy  chain  cables.  He  bombarded  the  fort  for  six 
days  without  success,  and  then  resolved  to  try  the  peril- 
ous experiment  of  running  past  the  forts  in  the  darkness. 
Before  daylight  on  the  24th,  his  fleet  advanced  in  two 
columns,  one  of  which  was  composed  of  the  Hartford, 
Brooklyn,  Richmond,  Scioto,  Iroquois,  Itasca,  etc.  ;  the 
other  of  the  Cayuga,  Pensacola,  Mississippi,  and  five 
others.  A  grand  and  terrific  spectacle  was  then  ex- 
hibited when  the  guns  of  both  the  forts  opened  on  the 
Union  fleet,  which  was  also  assailed  by  the  iron-clad  ram 
Manassas,  and  by  a  number  of  gun- boats  and  fire-rafts 
rushing  down  the  river.  Of  the  seventeen  Union  vessels 
engaged  in  this  action,  thirteen  passed  the  forts  safely, 
and  sunk  or  burned  the  fleet  of  the  enemy,  including 
the  Manassas.  Farragut  lost  in  this  battle,  which  lasted 
about  one  hour  and  a  half,  36  killed  and  135  wounded. 
Captain  Craven,  of  the  Brooklyn,  silenced  Fort  Saint 
Philip  as  he  passed  it.  "The  passing  of  the  forts  Jack- 
son and  Saint  Philip,"  says  Farragut,  "  was  one  of  the 


most  awful  sights  and  events  I  ever  saw  or  expect  to 
experience.  The  smoke  was  so  dense  that  it  was  only 
now  and  then  you  could  see  any  thing  but  the  flash  of 
the  cannon  and  the  fire-ships  or  rafts,  one  of  which  was 
pushed  down  upon  us  (the  Hartford)  by  the  ram  Manas- 
sas, and  in  my  effort  to  avoid  it  ran  the  ship  on  shore,  and 
then  the  fire-raft  was  pushed  alongside,  and  in  a  moment 
the  ship  was  one  blaze  all  along  the  port  side.  But, 
thanks  to  the  good  organization  of  the  fire-department 
by  Lieutenant  Thornton,  the  flames  were  extinguished, 
and  at  the  same  time  we  backed  off  and  got  clear  of  the 
raft."  (Letter  to  G.  V.  Fox,  dated  April  27,  1862.)  He 
moved  up  to  New  Orleans,  which,  being  entirely  inde- 
fensible against  the  guns  of  the  fleet,  was  evacuated  by 
the  rebel  army.  According  to  the  "  Rebellion  Record" 
and  other  authorities,  the  city  surrendered  on  the  25th  ; 
but  Farragut,  in  the  letter  just  cited,  says,  "I  demanded 
the  surrender  of  the  city  yesterday  of  the  mayor.  His 
reply  was  that  the  city  was  under  martial  law,  and  he 
would  consult  General  Lovell.  His  lordship  said  he 
would  surrender  nothing,  but  at  the  same  time  he  would 
retire  and  leave  the  mayor  unembarrassed."  The  cap- 
ture of  New  Orleans  was  one  of  the  most  important 
victories  of  the  war. 

Farragut  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in 
July,  1862,  having  previously  obtained  command  of  the 
Western  Gulf  blockading  squadron.  About  the  end  of 
June  he  attacked  the  batteries  at  Vicksburg,  which  were 
found  to  be  impregnable  to  an  attack  On  the  river-front. 
Having  been  ordered  to  co-operate  with  General  Grant 
against  Vicksburg,  he  attempted,  in  March,  1863,  to  pass 
the  batteries  of  Port  Hudson.  The  Hartford  and  Al- 
batross, which  were  lashed  together,  succeeded,  after  a 
desperate  contest;  but  the  Richmond  and  others  were 
disabled,  and  dropped  down  the  river.  His  next  great 
enterprise  was  directed  against  the  defences  of  Mobile, 
the  port  of  which  the  government  desired  to  close  against 
the  ingress  of  blockade-runners.  The  entrance  to  Mobile 
Bay  was  defended  by  Fort  Morgan  and  Fort  Gaines,  and 
the  insurgents  had  in  the  bay  a  powerful  iron-clad  ram, 
called  the  Tennessee,  besides  three  gunboats.  Co- 
operating with  a  land-army  under  Generals  Canby  and 
Granger,  the  fleet  of  Farragut,  consisting  of  fourteen 
wooden  steamers  and  gunboats  and  four  iron-clad  moni- 
tors, passed  Fort  Morgan  on  the  5th  of  August,  1864, 
and  entered  the  bay.  The  admiral  lashed  himself  near 
the  maintop  of  the  Hartford,  (according  to  one  account,) 
in  order  that  he  might  be  able  to  overlook  the  whole 
scene.  He  states  in  his  report  that  he  "had  an  elevated 
position  in  the  main  rigging,  near  the  top."  In  the  early 
part  of  the  action  the  monitor  Tecumseh  was  sunk  by 
a  torpedo.  Just  after  his  fleet  passed  the  forts,  it  en- 
countered the  Tennessee  ;  and  "  then  began,"  says  Far- 
ragut, "  one  of  the  fiercest  naval  combats  on  record. 
The  monitors,  and  such  of  the  wooden  vessels  as  I  thought 
best  adapted  for  the  purpose,  w^ere  immediately  ordered 
to  attack  the  ram,  not  only  with  their  guns,  but  bows  on 
at  full  speed."  The  Tennessee  was  "sore  beset,"  and 
never  fired  a  gun  from  the  time  the  Hartford  struck  her 
until  her  surrender.  A  few  days  after  this  victory  the 
Union  forces  took  Fort  Gaines  and  Fort  Morgan,  with 
their  garrisons,  and  rendered  the  access  of  blockade- 
runners  to  Mobile  impossible.  The  Congress  which 
met  in  December,  1864,  recognized  the  obligations  of 
the  country  to  Farragut  by  creating  for  him  the  grade  of 
vice-admiral.  His  character  is  described  by  the  "  United 
States  Service  Magazine"  for  January,  1865,  in  the  fol- 
lowing terms:  "The  stainless  honour,  the  straightfor- 
ward frankness,  the  vivacity  of  manner  and  conversation, 
the  gentleness,  the  flow  of  good  humour,  the  cheerful, 
ever-buoyant  spirit  of  the  true  man, — these  will  be  added 
to  the  complete  education,  the  thorough  seamanship,  the 
devotion  to  duty,  and,  lastly,  the  restless  energy,  the  dis- 
dain of  obstacles,  the  impatience  of  delay  or  hesitation, 
the  disregard  of  danger,  that  stand  forth  in  such  promi- 
nence in  the  portrait,  deeply  engraven  on  the  loyal  Ameri- 
can heart,  of  the  Great  Admiral."  He  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  admiral  July  25,  1866,  and  held  a  higher 
rank  than  any  other  ofiicer  of  the  United  States  navy. 
Died  at  Portland,  Maine,  in  August,  1870. 

See  J.  T.  Headley,"  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  1867. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.  (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FAR  RANT 


896 


FAUCHER 


Far'rant,  (Richard,)  an  English  composer  of  church 
music,  was  a  gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal.  His  an- 
thems are  regarded  as  master-pieces.  Died  about  1585. 

Far'rar,  (John,)  an  American  mathematician,  born 
in  Lincoln,  Massachusetts,  in  1779,  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1803.  He  became  professor  of  mathematics  and 
natural  philosophy  in  that  college  in  1807.  He  translated 
Lacroix's  "Elements  of  Algebra,"  and  other  French 
works,  and  contributed  some  articles  to  the  "North 
American  Review."    Died  in  1853. 

Far'ren,  (Eliza,)  a  popular  English  actress,  and 
Countess  of  Derby,  born  in  1759,  was  the  daughter  of  a 
surgeon  of  Cork.  She  performed  with  great  applause  at 
the  theatres  of  Liverpool  and  London.  In  1797  she  was 
married  to  Lord  Derby.    Died  in  1829. 

Farsetti,  faR-set'tee,  a  noble  Italian  family,  one  branch 
of  which  settled  at  Florence  and  another  at  Venice.  Giu- 
seppe ToMMASO  Farsetti,  a  chevalier  of  the  order  of 
Malta,  was  the  author  of  numerous  miscellaneous  works. 
He  collected  a  large  number  of  poems  in  Latin  and 
Italian  of  great  taste  and  elegance,  by  requesting  all  the 
poets  of  his  time  to  compose  and  send  one  or  more  pieces 
of  the  best  quality  for  the  collection.    Died  about  1775. 

Farsetti,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at 
Venice  in  1705  ;  died  in  1774. 

Farulli,  fd-rooKlee,  (Giorgio  Angelo,)  a  voluminous 
Italian  historical  writer;  died  at  Florence  in  1728. 

Farwharson,  far'hwar-son,  a  Scottish  mathematician, 
whom  Peter  the  Great,  when  he  visited  England  in  1698, 
induced  to  return  with  him  to  Moscow.  In  1701  he 
founded  in  that  city  the  first  Russian  school  of  marine, 
and  in  17 16  became  professor  of  mathematics  at  Saint 
Petersburg.  Farwharson  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
introduce  the  Arabic  figures  into  Russia.    Died  in  1739. 

Fasch,  fish,  (Augustin  Heinrich,)  a  German  medi- 
cal writer,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1639;  died  in  1690. 

Fasch,  (Karl  Friedrich  Christian,)  a  German 
musical  composer,  born  at  Zerbst,  in  Anhalt-Dessau,  in 
1736.  His  "  Kyrie  and  Gloria"  for  sixteen  voices  is 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  exquisite  productions  of  its 
kind.  Fasch  was  the  founder  of  the  Academy  of  Sing- 
ing at  Berlin,  ( Berliner  Singakadeinie.)    Died  in  1800. 

See  Karl  F.  Zelter,  "  Biographie  von  C.  F.  Fasch,"  1801. 

Fasch  or  Faesch,  f^sh,  (Sebastian,)  a  Swiss  anti- 
quary, born  at  Bale  in  1647;  died  in  1712. 

Fascitelli,  fi-she-teKlee,  (Onorio,)  a  Latin  poet, 
born  at  Isernia,  Naples,  in  1502;  died  in  1564. 

Fasel,  fi'zel,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, and  professor  of  medicine  at  Jena,  born  in  the 
duchy  of  Weimar  in  1721  ;  died  in  1767. 

Fasolato,  fa-so-l§,'to,  (Agostino,)  a  Venetian  sculp- 
tor, lived  about  1700,  and  made  a  famous  group  of  "The 
Fall  of  Rebellious  Angels"  at  Padua. 

Fasolo,  f^'so-lo,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  painter,  a 
pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  born  at  Pavi'a,  lived  about  1 540. 

Fasolo  or  Fassolo,  fis'so-lo,  (Giovanni  Antonio,) 
an  Italian  painter,  pupil  of  Paul  Veronese,  was  born  at 
Vicenza  in  1528;  died  in  1572. 

Fassin,  de,  deh  ft's^N',  (Nicolas  Henri  Joseph,)  a 
skilful  Belgian  landscape-painter,  born  at  Liege  in  1728, 
worked  at  Geneva,  Brussels,  and  Liege.    Died  in  181 1. 

See  F.  VAN  Hulst,  "Biographie  de  N.  H.  J.  de  Fassin,"  1837. 

Fassolo.  See  Fasolo. 
Fastolf.    See  Falstaf. 

Fatah-  (or  Fat'h-)  Abu-N^sr.    See  Alfath. 

Fateh-Alee-  (or  Ali-)  Shah,  fit'eh  a'lee  shah,  written 
also  Futteh-Aly-Shah  and  Feth-Ali-Shah,  (called, 
before  his  accession  to  the  throne,  B^ba-Khin,  \A'\A 
kSu,)  King  of  Persia,  born  about  1762,  began  to  reign 
in  1798.  About  1802  war  broke  out  between  Persia  and 
Russia,  who  fought  for  the  possession  of  Georgia.  This 
war  was  ended  in  1813  by  a  treaty  in  which  Fateh-Alee- 
Shah  ceded  Georgia  to  Russia.  A  dispute  about  bound- 
aries occasioned  a  renewal  of  the  war  in  1826,  when  the 
Persians  were  again  defeated.  Peace  was  restored  in  1828. 
Died  in  1834. 

See  Malcolm,  "History  of  Persia;"  W.  G.  Ouselev,  "Travels 
in  Various  Countries  of  the  East,"  1823;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gdnerale." 

Fathime.    See  Fatimah. 
Fathimites.    See  Fatimites. 


Fatimah,  fi'te-mah,  f  Fr.  Fathime,  ft't^m';  Gei. 
Fatime,  ft-tee'meh,]  written  also  Fathimet,  the  only 

daughter  of  Mohammed,  was  born  at  Mecca  before  her 
father  assumed  the  character  of  a  religious  teacher. 
While  still  very  young,  she  was  married  to  her  cousin 
Alee,  who  was  surnamed  the  "Lion  of  God."  Fatimah 
died  about  six  months  after  her  father. 
See  Aboolfeda,  "Vie  de  Mahomet." 

Fatime.    See  Fatimah. 

Fatimides  or  Fatimiden.    See  Fatimites. 

Fat'i-mites,  sing.  Fat'i-mite,  [Fr.  pron.  ft'te'mjt'; 
Ger.  Fatimiden,  fa-te-mee'den ;  Lat.  Fatim'id^  or 
Fatimi't^,]  the  name  of  a  celebrated  Moslem  dynasty, 
the  rulers  of  which  claimed  to  be  descended  froili  Fati- 
mah, the  daughter  of  Mohammed.  The  Fatimite  caliphs 
ruled  in  Egypt  about  two  hundred  years, — that  is,  from 
about  970  to  II 70.  The  founder  of  this  dynasty  was 
the  Sheeite  Al-Mahdee-Aboo-Mohammed  Obeydallah, 
(often  called  simply  Obeydallah,)  who  about  910  over- 
threw the  dynasty  of  the  Benee-Aghlab  (the  seat  of 
whose  power  was  at  Tunis)  and  conquered  a  large  part 
of  Eastern  Africa.  He  died  in  934.  One  of  his  descend- 
ants, Moez  or  Mooiz,  nearly  forty  years  later,  subdued 
Egypt  and  Western  Africa,  and  established  his  throne 
at  Cairo.  Al-Adhed,  the  fourteenth  and  last  calij>h  of 
this  dynasty,  was  dethroned  by  the  celebrated  Saladin 
(Sala-ed-Deen)  the  Aiyoobite.  From  Al-Mahdee's  name 
of  Obeydallah  his  successors  are  often  called  Obeydites. 

Fatio  (or  Faccio)  de  Duillers,  fd'te-o  (or  fSt'cho) 
de  dwee'ya,  (Nicolas,)  a  celebrated  mathematician,  as- 
tronomer, and  religious  enthusiast,  was  born  at  Bale  in 
1664.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don in  1688.  Among  his  discoveries  were  a  method  for 
forming  glasses  for  telescopes,  one  for  measuring  the 
velocity  of  vessels,  and  one  for  the  perfect  regulation  of 
watches.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  mathematical 
works.  Died  in  England  in  1753.  He  pretended  to  be 
able  to  work  miracles. 

See  Senebier.  "  HIstoire  litteraire  de  Geneve." 

Fatouville,  de,  deh  {^'ioo'vhV,  a  French  dramatic 
writer  of  Normandy,  lived  about  1670. 
Fattore,  II.    See  Pennl 

Faucci,  fowt'chee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  engraver,  born 
at  Florence  in  1729,  settled  in  London. 

Fauchard,  fo'shtR',  (Pierre,)  a  celebrated  dentist, 
born  in  Brittany  about  1680,  is  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  the  art  of  dentistry.  He  wrote  a  valuable  work  en- 
titled "  The  Surgeon-Dentist ;  or,  Treatise  on  the  Teeth," 
(1728.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1761. 

Fauche-Borel,  fosh  bo'r^K,  (Louis,)  born  at  Neuf- 
chatel  in  1762,  was  a  zealous  adherent  of  the  royal  family 
during  the  Revolution.  After  the  accession  of  Napoleon 
he  was  engaged  in  several  attempts  to  restore  the  Bour- 
bons.   Died  in  1829. 

See  Louis  Fauche-Borel,  "Meinoires,"  4  vols.,  1828. 

Faucher,  fo'shi',  (C6sar  and  Constantin,)  French 
generals,  born  at  La  Reole  in  1759,  were  twin  brothers. 
They  served  with  distinction  in  the  army  of  the  republic 
in  La  Vendee  in  1793,  fighting  side  by  side.  During 
the  empire  they  Were  engaged  in  civil  pursuits ;  but 
in  March,  1 81 5,  they  accepted  office  under  Napoleon. 
Having  been  falsely  accused  of  treason,  they  were  shot 
at  Bordeaux  in  September,  1 81 5. 

Faucher,  (Jean,)  a  French  Protestant  minister  and 
polemical  writer  ;  died  at  Nimes  in  1628. 

Faucher,  (Leon,)  a  French  minister  of  state  and  able 
writer  on  political  economy  and  finance,  was  born  at 
Limoges  in  September,  1803.  He  contributed  many 
articles  to  the  "Courrier  Fran9ais"  and  the  "Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes."  In  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  to  which 
he  was  elected  in  1846,  he  acted  with  the  gauche.  He 
was  minister  of  the  interior  from  December,  1848,  to  May, 
1849,  and  from  April  to  October,  1851.  He  was  liberal 
in  politics,  but  not  a  republican.  Among  his  works  are 
"  Studies  on  England,"  (1845,)  and  "Miscellanies  of  Po- 
litical Economy  and  Finance,"  ("  Melanges  d'ficonomie 
politique  et  de  Finances,"  2  vols.,  1856.)  Died  at  Mar- 
seilles in  December,  1854,  He  resolutely  declined  to  hold 
any  office  under  Louis  Napoleon  after  the  latter  had 
usurped  imperial  power. 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolongedj  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


FJUCHET 


897 


FAUST  A 


Alluding  to  the  conduct  of  Faucher  on  this  occasion, 
a  writer  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  remarks,  "We  do 
not  remember  an  example  in  political  history  of  greater 
sacrifices  made  by  an  ambitious  and  ardent  man  to  his 
sense  of  public  duty  and  personal  dignity." 

See  Lavergne,  "Biographie  de  Leon  Faucher,"  in  the  "Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes,"  January  i,  1855;  Leox  Faccher,  "Corres- 
pondance.  Vie  parlementaire,"  2  vols.,  186S;  and  article  on  "  Leon 
Faucher"  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1868. 

Fauchet,  f5^sha',  (Claude,)  a  French  historical  writer, 
born  in  Paris  about  1530,  published  "  Gallic  and  French 
Antiquities,"  (1579,)  and  "  Origin  of  Dignities  and  Magis- 
trates in  France."    Died  in  1601. 

Fauchet,  (Claude,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  in 
Nivernais  in  1744-  He  joined  the  revolutionary  party 
in  17S9,  and  delivered  in  favour  of  their  cause  his  "  Dis- 
course upon  the  National  Religion,"  and  "Civic  Eulog}' 
on  Franklin."  He  became  constitutional  Bishop  of  Cal- 
vados in  1 791.  He  was  opposed  to  the  death  of  the  king, 
and  showed  great  courage  in  condemning  those  who 
favoured  it.  Having  been  accused  as  an  accomplice  of 
Charlotte  Corday,  he  was  condemned  and  executed  as  a 
Girondist  in  October,  1793. 

See  Abbe  Valmerox,  (Jarrv,)  "Vie  de  I'Abbe  Fauchet." 

Faucheur,  Le,  leh  fo'shuR',  (Michel,)  an  eloquent 
French  Protestant  minister;  died  in  Paris  in  1657. 

Faugere,  fo'zhaiR',  (.\rnaud  Prosper,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Bergerac  in  1810.  He  gained,  three 
times,  the  prize  of  eloquence  offered  by  the  P>ench  Acad- 
emy. One  of  these  prizes  was  awarded  for  his  "  Eulogj' 
on  Pascal,"  (1842.)  He  also  edited  the  works  of  Pascal, 
"Pensees,  Fragments  et  Lettres  de  Blaise  Pascal,"  (2 
vols.,  1844.)  This  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  correct 
and  complete  edition  of  Pascal's  "Thoughts."  In  1864 
he  published  a  revised  edition  of  the  "Memoirs  of  Ma- 
dame Roland," 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Faujas  de  Saint-Fond,  fo'zhls'  deh  sts'ib^^,  (Bar- 
TH^LEMV,)  an  eminent  French  geologist  and  traveller, 
born  at  Montelimart  in  1741.  He  was  a  friend  of  Buf- 
fon,  by  whose  influence  he  obtained  the  place  of  adjoint- 
naturaliste  in  the  Museum  of  Paris,  and  that  of  commis- 
sioner of  mines.  He  explored  France,  England,  Germany, 
Italy,  etc.  In  1793  he  became  professor  of  geology  in 
the  Jardin  des  Plantes.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
"  Mineralogy  of  Volcanoes, "( 1784,)  "Travels  in  England 
and  Scotland,"  (1797,)  and  an  "Essay  on  Geology,  or 
Memoirs  subservient  to  the  Natural  History  of  the 
Globe,"  (2  vols.,  1803-09.)    Died  in  1819. 

See  Qlerard,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  Louis  de  Freycinet, 
"Essai  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  B.  Faujas  de  Saint-Fond,"  1820;  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Fanlcon,  fS'koN',  (Marie  Felix,)  a  French  politician 
and  jurist,  born  at  Poitiers  in  1758;  died  in  1843. 

Faulhaber,  fowKhi'ber,  (Christoph  Erhardt,)  a 
German  mathematician,  born  at  Ulm  in  1708;  died  in 
1781. 

Faulhaber,  (Johann,)  a  German  mathematician  and 
engineer,  born  at  Ulm  in  1580,  was  the  author  of  "In- 
ventions for  the  Delineations  of  Redoubts  and  Fortifica- 
tions," and  other  treatises.    Died  in  1635. 

See  Montucla,  "Histoire  des  Mathematiques." 

Faulkner,  fauk'ner,  (George,)  the  first  Irish  printer 
of  any  note,  born  about  1700,  was  apprenticed  to  the 
celebrated  Bowyer,  and  established  himself  in  Dublin 
in  1727.  He  enjoyed  tke  friendship  and  patronage  of 
Dean  Swift,  Lord  Chesterfield,  and  other  celebrated 
men  of  the  time.    Died  in  1775. 

Fau'na,  a  goddess  of  ancient  Italy  or  Latium,  said  to 
be  a  daughter  of  Picus,  and  wife  of  Faunus,  She  was 
sometimes  identified  with  the  Bona  Dea  and  with  Ops. 

Fau'ni,  [Eng.  Fauns  ;  Fr.  Faunes,  f5n,]  mythical 
beings  whom  the  ancient  Romans  represented  as  having 
human  bodies  with  the  legs  and  feet  of  the  goat.  They 
were  sportive  and  frolicsome,  and  presented  some  ana- 
logy to  the  Satyrs  of  the  Greek  mythology. 

Faun'tle-roy,  (Thomas  T.,)  an  American  officer, 
born  in  Virginia,  served  in  the  Confederate  army  in 
1 86 1,  and  was  made  a  brigadier-general. 

Fau'nus,  [Fr.  Faune,  fon,]  a  rural  divinity  and  king 
of  the  ancient  Latins,  was  supposed  to  be  the  son  of 


Picus  and  the  father  of  Latinus.  He  was  worshipped  aa 
the  god  of  fields  and  shepherds,  and  was  considered  as 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  religion  of  Latium.  He  was 
sometimes  identified  with  the  Arcadian  Pan  of  the  Greeks. 

Fauques,  fok,  (Marianne  Agnes,)  a  French  au- 
thoress, born  at  Avignon  about  1720.  Having  visited 
London,  she  became  a  teacher  of  the  French  language, 
and  numbered  among  her  pupils  the  celebrated  linguist 
Sir  William  Jones.  She  wrote  numerous  W'orks  in  French 
and  English,  among  which  are  "  The  Triumph  of  Friend- 
ship," (175 1,)  and  "  The  Viziers,  or  the  Enchanted  Laby- 
rinth."   She  was  living  in  1777. 

See  Prudhomme,  "Biographie  des  Femmes  celebres." 

Faur,  du,  (Gui.)    See  Pibrac. 

Faure,  f5R,  (FRANgois.)  Bishop  of  Amiens,  in  France, 
and  one  of  the  preceptors  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  born  near 
Angoulenie  in  1612;  died  in  1687. 

Faure,  (Joseph  Desir^  Felix,)  a  French  judge,  and 
afterwards  a  peer,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1780. 

Faure,  (Louis  Joseph,)  a  French  statesman  under 
Bonaparte  and  Louis  XVIII.,  born  in  1760  ;  died  in  1837. 

Fauriel,  ioxt-lV,  (Claude  Charles,)  an  eminent 
French  philologist  and  historian,  born  at  Saint-Etienne 
in  1772,  was  a  nephew  of  the  Abbe  Sieyes.  He  was  inti- 
mate with  Guizot,  Manzoni,  and  Madame  de  Stael,  who 
characterized  him  as  "inexhaustible  in  knowledge  and 
kindness."  Among  his  principal  works  are  a  "History 
of  Southern  Gaul  under  the  Rule  of  the  German  Con- 
querors," (1836,)  and  "  HistoiT  of  Provencal  Literature," 
(1846.)  A  chair  of  foreign  literature  was  founded  for  him 
in  Paris  in  1830.  His  "  Popular  Songs  of  Modern 
Greece"  (with  a  French  version,  1825)  had  great  suc- 
cess. In  the  opinion  of  E.  Renan,  "  Fauriel  is  without 
contradiction  the  man  of  our  age  who  has  put  into 
circulation  the  most  ideas."    Died  in  Paris  in  July,  1844, 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "£tude  sur  Fauriel,"  in  the  "Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes"  for  May  15  and  June  i,  1S45  ;  Rexax,  noiice  in  the 
"Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  December,  1S55;  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie Generale." 

Fauris  de  Saint- Vincens,  fo'r^ss'  deh  siN^•iN'- 
s6n',  (Alexandre  Jules  Antolne,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  at  Aix  in  1750  ;  died  in  1819.  His  father,  Jules 
Franc^ois  Paul,  born  in  1718,  wrote  on  numismatics; 
died  in  1798. 

Faust,  fowst,  or  Fust,  foost,  (Johann,)  a  wealthy  citi- 
zen of  Mentz,  supposed  to  have  shared  in  the  invention 
of  printing.  Having,  after  his  law-suit  with  Gutenberg, 
gained  possession  of  his  printing-apparatus,  he  carried 
on  the  business  with  his  son-in-law,  Peter  Schofter,  who 
made  important  improvements  in  the  art.  (See  Guten- 
berg.)   Died  in  1460. 

Faust,  fowst,  or  Faus'tus,  (Dr.  John,)  a  famous 
magician  and  astrologer,  born  in  AViirtemberg  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  German  tradi- 
tion is,  that,  after  spending  a  large  fortune  in  his  astro- 
logical studies,  he  made  a  league  for  twenty-four  years 
with  the  devil,  who  gave  him  a  spirit  named  Mephis- 
topheles  for  his  servant.  Having  lived  luxuriously 
through  the  appointed  time,  and  astonished  the  world 
by  his  wonderful  performances,  he  was  destroyed  by  the 
fiend  at  midnight.  It  is  the  general  opinion  that  Dr. 
Faust  really  existed,  and,  by  his  jugglery  and  magical 
arts,  deluded  people  into  the  belief  that  he  was  leagued 
with  evil  spirits.  This  legend  has  formed  the  subject  of 
numerous  dramas,  romances,  and  poems  :  the  most  cele- 
brated of  these  are  Goethe's  "  Faust,"  Lessing's  poetical 
fragment  entitled  "  Faust  and  the  Seven  Spirits,"  and 
Marlowe's  tragedy  "  The  Life  and  Death  of  Dr.  Faustus." 

See  Dl'NTZER,  "Die  Sage  von  Dr.  Faust  untersucht;"  H. 
Heine,  "La  Legende  de  Faust,"  in  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes," 
February,  1852;  Meyer,  "  Studien  zu  Gothe's  Faust,"  1S47. 

Faus'ta,  (  Flavia  Maximla.na,  )  a  Roman  empress, 
the  daughter  of  Maximian,  became  the  wife  of  Constan- 
tine  the  Great  in  307  .\.D.  She  is  said  to  have  procured 
the  death  of  Crispus,  her  step-son,  by  a  false  accusation. 
His  innocence  having  become  evident,  she  was  put  to 
death  in  326. 

Faus'ta  Cor-ne'li-a,  a  daughter  of  the  Roman  dictator 
Sulla,  was  born  about  88  B.C.  She  was  married  about 
55  to  T.  Annius  Milo,  and  was  notorious  for  her  conjugal 
infidelity. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  Yi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

57 


FAUSTINA 


898 


FAWKES 


Faus-ti'na,  (An'nia,)  daughter  of  the  following,  and 
wife  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  The  infamy  of  her  conduct 
even  surpassed  that  of  her  mother.  Died  in  Cappadocia 
in  176  A.D. 

Faustina,  [Fr.  Faustine,  fos't^n',]  (  Annia  Gale- 
RIA,)  a  daughter  of  Antoninus  Verus,  one  of  the  Roman 
consuls,  was  born  in  105  A.D.  She  became  the  wife  of 
the  emperor  Antoninus,  and  was  notorious  for  her  licen- 
tiousness. She  died  in  the  third  year  of  her  husband's 
reign,  141  A.D. 

Faustina  Bordoni,f6w-stee'n^  boR-do'nee,  (or  Bor- 
done,  boR-do'na,)  an  Italian  singer,  born  in  1702,  was 
married  in  1730  to  Jean  Adolphe  Hasse.    Died  in  1783. 

Fausto,  fows'to,  (Sebastiano,)  surnamed  da  Longi- 
ANO,  a  learned  Italian  author,  who  lived  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  made  numerous  translations  from  the  Latin 
and  Greek. 

Faus'tus  OF  Byzantium,  Bishop  of  Cappadocia,  born 
at  Constantinople  about  320  A.D.  His  principal  work, 
entitled  "Byzantine  History,"  is  written  in  Armenian. 
His  style  was  far  from  elegant;  but  his  history  contains 
valuable  information  not  to  be  found  elsewhere. 

Faus'tus,  surnamed  Reiensis  or  Regensis,  a  monk, 
born  in  Bretagne,  became  Bishop  of  Riez  about  470  a.d. 
He  was  a  chief  of  the  Semi-Pelagians.    Died  about  490. 

Fauveau,  fo'vo',  [Lat.  Ful'vius,]  (Pierre,)  born  in 
Poitou,  was  the  author  of  Latin  poems,  which  were  pubr 
lished  in  the  "Delicise  Poetarum  Gallorum."  Died  in 
1562. 

Fauveau,  de,  deh  fo'vo',  (F^licie,)  a  sculptor,  born 
at  Florence,  of  French  parents,  about  1802.  Among  her 
works  is  a  monument  of  Dante  and  a  statue  of  Sainte- 
Genevieve. 

Fauvel,  fo'v^K,  a  French  antiquary,  born  in  1753  ; 
died  in  1838. 

Fava,  fa'vl,  (Pietro  Ercole,)  Count,  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1669  ;  died  in  174.4. 

Favard  de  Langlade,  ft'vtR'  deh  IdN'gltd',  (Guil- 
LAUME  Jean,)  a  French  jurist,  born  in  1762  ;  died  in  183 1. 

Favart,  ft^vtR',  (  Antoine  Pierre  Charles,  )  a 
French  dramatist  and  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1784. 

Favart,  (Charles  Simon,)  a  popular  French  dramatist 
and  voluminous  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  17 10,  was  the 
grandfather  of  the  preceding.  Among  his  best  works 
is  his  comedy  of  "  Solomon  II.,  or  the  Three  Sultans." 
Died  in  1792.  His  Memoirs  and  Correspondence  were 
pul)lished  in  1809,  in  3  volumes. 

Favart,  (Marie  Justine  Benoite  Duronceray — 
dii'rdNss'ra',)  wife  of  Charles  Simon,  noticed  above,  and 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  actresses  of  her  time,  was 
born  at  Avignon,  in  France,  in  1727.  In  her  plays  she 
was  distinguished  by  her  grace  and  versatility  of  power. 
She  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  authoress  of  three 
works  which  appeared  under  her  husband's  name,  viz., 
"Annette  and  Lubin,"  "  Bastien  and  Bastienne,"  and  the 
"Fete  of  Love."    Died  in  1772. 

See  "Memoires  de  C.  S.  Favart,"  1809. 

Favart  d'Herbigny,  ftVtR'  d^R^b^n^ye',  (Nicolas 
R:6mi,)  a  French  military  engineer,  and  general  in  the 
corps  of  engineers,  born  at  Rheims  in  1735.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  defence  of  Belle-Isle  against  the 
British  in  1761,  and  wrote  a  valuable  work,  entitled 
"Memoirs  on  the  Defence  of  Coasts  and  upon  Military 
Reconnoissances."    Died  in  1800, 

Fave,  ft\y,  (Alphonse,)  a  French  officer  and  writer 
on  military  tactics,  born  at  Dreux  in  1812. 

Favelet,  fSv'li',  (Jean,)  a  Flemish  physician,  and 
medical  professor  in  the  University  of  Louvain,  born 
near  Antwerp  in  1674;  died  in  1743. 

Favereau,  ftv'R5',  (Jacques,)  a  French  advocate  and 
poet,  born  at  Cognac  in  1590.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
number  of  small  poems  which  won  for  him  a  consider- 
able reputation.  Died  in  1638.  "  La  Milliade,"  a  satire 
in  verse  against  Richelieu,  was  ascribed  to  him. 

Favier,  fS've-i',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  celebrated  PVench 
writer  on  civil  law  and  politics,  born  at  Toulouse  about 
1720.  He  published  a  "  Historical  and  Political  Essay 
upon  the  Government  of  Holland,"  (2  vols.,  1748,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1784. 

Fa-voTi-us  or  Favoli,  fS-vo'lee,  (Hugo,)  a  Dutch 
physician,  of  Italian  extraction,  born  at  Middelburg  in 


1523.  He  visited  Turkey  and  Greece,  and  published  an 
account  of  his  travels,  entitled  "  Hodoeporicon  Byzan- 
tium," (1563,)  written  in  Latin  hexameter  verse.  Died 
in  1585. 

Fa-vo'ni-us,  (Marcus,)  a  Roman  senator,  was  a  par- 
tisan of  the  Optimates,  a  friend  of  Cato  Lfticensis,  and  an 
opponent  of  Pompey.  He  was  elected  praetor  in  49  B.C., 
and  fought  against  Caesar  in  the  civil  war.  He  was  nick- 
named "  the  ape  of  Cato,"  whom  he  took  as  his  model. 
Having  joined  the  army  of  Brutus  and  Cassias,  he  was 
taken  prisoner  at  Philippi  and  put  to  death  in  42  B.C. 

Fav-o-ri'nus  or  Phavori'nus,  [^a6uplvog,\  a  Greek 
writer,  a  native  of  Aries,  in  Gaul,  removed  to  Rome, 
where  he  became  celebrated  under  the  reigns  of  Trajan 
and  Adrian  for  his  learning  and  literary  productions. 
Of  his  numerous  works  but  a  few  fragments  are  now 
extant.  Favorinus  was  a  friend  of  Plutarch,  from  whom 
he  received  the  dedication  of  a  work. 

See  Philostratus,  "Vitje  Sophistarum ;"  Diogenes  Laer- 
Tius;  Marres,  "Dissertatio  de  Favorini  Vita,"  1853. 

Favorinus,  known  also  as  Va-ri'nus  or  Guarino, 

gwS-ree'no,  Bishop  of  Nocera,  born  near  Camerino,  in 
Italy.  He  was  noted  for  his  learning,  and  as  the  pre- 
ceptor of  Giovanni  de'  Medici,  afterwards  Pope  Leo  X. 
Died  in  1537. 

Favoriti,  fA-vo-ree'tee,  (Agostino,)  an  Italian  priest 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Lucca  in  1624 ;  died  in  1682. 

Favras,  de,  deh  ftv'ras^  (Thomas  Mahi — mt^e',) 
Marquis,  born  at  Blois  in  1745.  He  entered  the  French 
army,  and  became  lieutenant  in  the  Swiss  body-guards 
of  the  Count  of  Provence.  He  afterwards  had  the  com- 
mand of  a  legion  in  Holland.  In  1789  he  was  accused 
by  the  revolutionary  party  of  conspiracy,  and  crimes  of 
which  he  was  innocent.  Pie  was  condemned  to  death 
and  executed  in  1790. 

Favrat,  fav^r^t,  (Franz  Andreas,)  a  Prussian  gene- 
ral, noted  for  his  physical  strength,  born  in  1 730;  died 
in  1804. 

Favre,  fSvR,  [Lat.  Fa'ber,]  (Antoine,)  an  eminent 
French  jurist,  born  at  Bourg-en-Bresse  in  1557,  was  for 
many  years  a  judge  and  senator  at  Chambery.  He  pub- 
lished several  valuable  works.    Died  in  1624. 

Favre,  (Claude  de.)    See  Vaugelas. 

Favre,  (Jules  Gabriel  Claude,)  an  eloquent  French 
republican  and  orator,  born  at  Lyons  in  1809,  became  an 
advocate  in  Paris.  On  the  formation  of  the  republic, 
in  February,  1848,  he  became  secretary-general  in  the 
ministry  of  the  interior.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  of  1848.  Since  Napoleon  III.  obtained 
the  chief  power,  M.  Favre  has  been  a  leader  of  the  op- 
position. He  is  distinguished  for  his  radical  opinions 
and  independence  or  audacity  of  character.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  corps  legislatif  in  1858  and  in 
1869,  and  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1868. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Favre,  (Pierre,)  a  learned  Jesuit,  born  in  the  diocese 
of  Geneva  in  1506.  He  was  the  companion  of  Loyola, 
to  whom  he  rendered  important  aid  in  establishing  the 
order  of  the  latter  through  Europe.  Many  stories  are 
told  of  his  great  piety  and  miraculous  performances. 
Died  in  1546. 

Favyn,  ft'viw',  (Andr6,)  a  French  historical  writer, 
born  in  Paris  between  1550  and  1590.  Among  his  works 
were  a  "History  of  Navarre,"  (1612,)  and  a  "History 
of  the  Military  Orders  of  Christian  Kings  and  Princes." 

Faw'cet,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  general  and 
writer,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1728.  He  served  with  dis- 
tinction on  the  continent  during  the  Seven  Years'  war. 
He  translated  from  the  French  the  "  Reveries"  of  Count 
de  Saxe,  (1757,)  and  from  the  German  "Rules  for  the 
Prussian  Cavalry  and  Infantry,"  (1759.)    Died  in  1804. 

Faw'cett,  (John,)  an  English  Baptist  minister  and  re- 
ligious writer,  born  near  Bradford  in  1740 ;  died  in  1817. 

Fawkes,  fauks,  (Francis,)  an  English  poet  and  lit- 
terateur, born  in  Yorkshire  about  1725.  He  was  the 
author  of  "  Bramham  Park,"  and  other  poems,  and  made 
good  translations  from  Anacreon,  Sappho,  Theocritus, 
and  Musaeus.    Died  in  1777. 

See  Nichols,  "  Literary  Anecdotes,"  etc. 

Fawkes,  (Guy  or  Guido,)  one  of  the  chief  conspira- 
tors in  the  Gunpowder  Plot  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  was 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FAXARDC 

M.  


899  FEARNE 


a  Catholic,  and  a  native  of  Yorkshire.  In  1604,  Robert 
Catesby,  Thomas  Percy,  Guy  Fawkes,  and  others  con- 
spired to  blow  up,  with  gunpowder,  the  House  of  Par- 
liament and  kill  the  king"^  with  the  Lords  and  Commons, 
their  motive  being  a  fanatical  zeal  against  the  Protest- 
ants. They  hired  a  vault  under  the  House  of  Lords, 
placed  in  it  thirty-six  barrels  of  gunpowder,  and  arranged 
that  Fawkes  should  explode  it  on  the  5th  of  November, 
1605.  Before  that  time  arrived.  Lord  Mounteagle,  a 
Catholic  peer,  received  an  anonymous  letter  advising 
him  to  absent  himself  from  Parliament  and  intimating 
that  a  great  catastrophe  was  impending  over  that  body. 
This  excited  the  suspicion  of  the  king  and  others,  who 
searched  the  cellars  in  the  vicinity  and  found  Fawkes 
with  matches  and  a  dark  lantern  about  midnight,  No- 
vember 4.    He  was  tried  and  executed  in  January,  1606. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England;"  Gardiner,  "History  of 
England  from  1603  to  1616,"  chap.  v. 

Faxardo.    See  Saavedra. 
Fay.    See  Dufay. 

Fay,  fi  or  fi'e,  (  Andras,  )  a  Hungarian  novelist, 
poet,  and  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Kohany  in  1786.  As 
a  prose  writer  he  may  be  ranked  among  the  best  his 
country  has  produced. 

Fay,  (Theodore  Sedgwick,)  an  American  writer, 
born  in  New  York  in  1807.  He  produced,  besides  other 
works,  "Norman  Leslie,"  a  novel,  (1835,)  a  poem  en- 
titled "Ulric,  or  the  Voices,"  (1851,)  and  a  "History  of 
Switzerland."  He  was  sent  as  minister-resident  to  Swit- 
zerland in  1853. 

See  Grisvvold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America;"  Duyckinck, 
"  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. 

Fayderbe  or  Fay-d'Herbe,  fa'diRb',  (  Lucas,)  an 
able  Flemish  sculptor  and  architect,  born  at  Malines  in 
161 7,  was  a  pupil  of  Rubens.    Died  in  1694. 

See  G.  A.  Vanderpoel,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  L.  Fay- 
d'Herbe,"  1854. 

Faydit  or  Faidit,  f^'de',  (Anselme  or  Gancei.m,)  a 
French  troubadour,  born  in  Limousin.  After  he  had  led 
for  some  time  the  strolling  life  of  a  buffoon  and  juggler, 
he  found  a  patron  in  Richard  Coeur-de-Lion,  whom  he 
accompanied  in  his  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land.  Died 
in  1220. 

See  "  Histoire  litt^raire  des  Troubadours  ;"  Longfellow,  "Poets 
and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Faydit,  (Pierre,)  a  French  priest  and  theological 
writer,  born  in  Auvergne.  He  is  particularly  noted  for 
the  part  he  took  in  the  dispute  between  France  and  Pope 
Innocent  XL,  on  which  occasion  he  preached  against 
the  pontiff  with  great  boldness.    Died  in  1709. 

Faye.    See  Lafaye. 

Faye,  f^'y^h,  (Andreas,)  a  Norwegian  preacher  and 
writer,  born  at  Drammen  in  1802,  i^ublished  a  "  History 
of  Norway,"  (1831,)  and  several  educational  works, 

Faye,  fi,  (Herv6  Auguste  Etienne  Alhans,)  a 
French  astronomer  and  writer,  born  in  the  department 
of  Indre  in  1814.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
He  discovered  in  1843  ^  ^^^^  comet,  which  bears  his 
name. 

Faye,  (Jacques,)  Lord  of  Espeisses,  a  jurist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1542,  When  the  Duke  of  Anjou  was  elected 
King  of  Poland,  he  accompanied  that  prince  to  Warsaw, 
and  rendered  him  efficient  service  in  conciliating  some 
of  the  principal  inhabitants.  Upon  the  death  of  Charles 
IX.,  when  the  Duke  of  Anjou  mounted  the  throne  of 
France  as  Henry  HI.,  Faye  still  retained  his  confidence, 
and  held  many  stations  of  importance  under  him.  Upon 
the  death  of  this  prince  he  joined  Henry  IV.  He  greatly 
distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Paris,  but  died  soon 
after,  in  1590,  of  a  fever.  He  was  the  author  of  some 
political  works. 

See  De  Thoit,  "Histona  sui  Temporis;"  Taisand,  "Vies  des 
plus  cel^bres  Jurisconsultes." 

Fayette,  de  la,  deh  It  fi'lt',  (Gilbert  Motier— 
mo'te-a',)  was  appointed  marshal  of  France  in  1428  by 
the  regent,  afterwards  Charles  VII.    Died  in  1464. 

Fayette,  de  la,  (Marie  Madeline  Pioche  de  la 
Vergne' — pe'osh'  deh  It  v^Rii,)  Countess,  a  distin- 
guished French  writer  of  romances,  born  in  1632.  The 
most  important  of  her  works  were  "Zaide"  and  "The 
Princess  of  Cleves."  She  also  wrote  a  historical  romance, 


entitled  "  History  of  Henrietta  of  England."  Died  in 
1693. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  of  Celebrated  Women." 

Fayette,  La,  General.    See  La  Fayette. 

FayoUe,  ft'yoK,  (Francois  Joseph  Marie,)  a  French 
litterateur,  musician,  and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1774, 
wrote,  besides  other  works  in  prose  and  verse,  "The 
Four  Seasons  of  Parnassus,"  (16  vols.,  1805-09,)  and  a 
F"rench  version  of  Gerber's  "  Dictionary  of  Musicians," 
(1810-12.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1852. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  F^tls,  "  Biographie  Uni- 
verselle  des  Musiciens. " 

Fayot,  ft'yo',  (  Alfred  Charles  Fr6d^:ric,  )  a 
French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  History  of  France  from  1793  to  the  Acces- 
sion of  Charles  X.,"  (16  vols.,  1830.)    Died  in  1861. 

Faypoult  de  Maisoncelle,  fa'poo'  deh  mi'ziN^seK, 
(GuiLLAUME  Charles,)  an  able  French  statesman,  born 
in  Champagne  in  1752,  became  minister  of  finance  in 
1795,  minister  plenipotentiary  at  Genoa  in  1796. 

His  services  here  were  recognized  by  a  medal  which  the 
Genoese  senate  ordered  to  be  struck  in  honour  of  Bona- 
parte and  Faypoult.  He  was  minister  of  finance  in  Spain 
under  Joseph  Bonaparte  about  1810-13.    Died  in  1817. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Fazaree  or  Fazary,  Al,  il  fi-z^'ree,  or  Fezari, 
(Mohammed  Ibn  Ibraheem,)  a  Moslem  astronomer  of 
the  eighth  century,  translated  some  important  Indian 
mathematical  tables  into  Arabic. 

Fazelli,  fSd-zeKlee,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  historian, 
and  professor  of  philosophy  at  Palermo,  born  at  Sacca, 
in  Sicily,  in  1498.  His  chief  work  is  his  "  History  of 
Sicily,"  (1558,)  esteemed  for  its  accuracy  and  elegance 
of  style.    Died  in  1570. 

Fazio,  fSt'se-o,  (  Bartolommeo,  )  a  distinguished 
Latin  scholar  and  historian,  born  in  the  republic  of 
Genoa.  He  was  patronized  by  Alfonso  of  Aragon,  King 
of  Naples,  whose  history  he  wrote.  His  most  important 
work  was  a  "History  of  the  Illustrious  Men  of  his  own 
Time,"  ( "  De  Viris  Mv\  sui  illustribus  Liber,"  1745.) 
Died  in  1457. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis." 

Fazio  degli  Uberti,  fat'se-o  dil'yee  oo-b^R'tee,  a 
famous  Italian  poet,  born  at  Florence  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  was  an  ardent  Ghibeline.  He  wrote  a  long 
descriptive  poem  entitled  "  Ditta  Mundi,"  or  "II  Ditta- 
mondo,"  in  which  he  proposed  to  imitate  or  rival  Dante. 
It  was  printed  in  1474.    Died  in  1367. 

Fazy,  ft'ze',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  Swiss  statesman  and 
journalist,  born  at  Geneva  in  1796.  He  edited  several 
liberal  journals  at  Paris  between  1826  and  1835.  Hav- 
ing returned  to  Geneva,  he  became  the  leader  of  the 
democratic  party,  which  triumphed  in  the  revolution  of 
1846.  He  was  afterwards  president  of  the  council  of 
state  of  his  canton,  and  had  the  chief  control  of  its 
affairs  for  many  years.    He  published  various  works. 

Fazzini,  fat-see'nee,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  natural 
philosopher,  born  in  1787  ;  died  in  1837. 

Fea,  fa'a,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Pigna, 
in  Piedmont,  in  1753.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
the  "  Philological,  Critical,  and  Antiquarian  Miscellany," 
(1790,)  and  "Descrizione  de  Roma  e  dei  Contorni  con 
vedute,"  (3  vols.,  1824,)  which  are  said  to  have  great 
merit.    Died  about  1834. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Fearii,  fern,  (John,)  an  English  metaphysician,  pub- 
lished a  "Review  of  Berkeley,  Reid,  and  Stewart," 
(1813,)  "Primary  Vision,"  (1815,)  and  a  work  on  "The 
Human  Mind." 

Fearne,  fern,  (Charles,)  an  English  jurist  and 
writer  of  high  reputation,  born  in  London  in  1749.  His 
chief  work  is  an  "Essay  on  Contingent  Remainders," 
(1772  ;  4th  edition,  enlarged,  1791. )  Died  in  1791.  "  It 
was  reserved  for  Mr.  Fearne,"  says  Judge  Story,  "to 
honour  the  profession  by  a  treatise  so  profound  and 
accurate  that  it  became  the  guide  of  the  ablest  lawyers, 
yet  so  luminous  in  method  and  explanations  that  it  is 
level  to  the  capacity  of  every  attentive  student.  He  has 
in  fact  exhausted  the  subject,  and  this  chef-d''ceuvre  will 
forever  remain  a  monument  of  his  skill,  acuteness,  and 
research." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  tiasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.   (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


F  EARN  LET 


Fearnley,  fern'le,  (Thomas,)  a  Norwegian  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Frederickshall  in  1802.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  "The  Glacier  of  Grindenwald,"  and 
*  A  Scene  in  Norway,"  which  was  purchased  by  Thor- 
waldsen.    Died  in  1842, 

Featherstonehaugh,  feth'er-ston-hau^  (George 
\V.,)  an  American  traveller,  published  a  "Geological 
Report  of  the  Elevated  Country  between  the  Missouri 
and  Red  Rivers,"  (1835,)  and  other  works.  Died  Sep- 
tember 28,  1866. 

Featly,  feet'le,  or  Fair'clough,  (Daniel,)  a  learned 
English  theologian  and  controversialist,  born  at  Charlton, 
in  Oxfordshire,  in  1582.  His  "Ancilla  Pietatis"  (1626) 
was  very  popular.  He  also  wrote  "Clavis  Mystica," 
(1636,)  and  a  treatise  against  the  Anabaptists,  entitled 
"The  Dippers  Dipt,"  (1647.)    Died  in  1645. 

Febre  or  Febvre,Le,  leh  f^vR,  (Valentine,)  a  skilful 
Flemish  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Brussels  in  1642 
or  1643.  He  worked  mostly  in  Venice,  and  imitated 
Paul  Veronese.  He  engraved  numerous  works  of  Titian 
and  Paul  Veronese.    Died  about  1700. 

Febure,  fa'biiR',  or  Fevre,  (Michel,)  a  French 
missionary  and  Orientalist,  lived  about  1650-80.  Among 
his  works  are  "The  Present  State  of  Turkey,"  (1674,) 
and  a  "Treatise  on  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the 
Ottomans,"  etc. 

Fechner,  feK'ner,  (Gustav  Theodor,)  a  German 
natural  philosopher  and  poet,  born  near  Muskau  in  1801. 
He  obtained  the  chair  of  physics  at  Leipsic  in  1834,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  researches  in  galvanism.  He 
published  a  number  of  able  works  on  organic  chemistry, 
anthropology,  etc.,  also  humorous  essays,  which  were 
very  popular. 

Fecht,  f^Kt,  (Johann,)  a  learned  Lutheran  theologian, 
writer,  and  professor  of  Hebrew,  theology,  and  meta- 
physics, was  born  at  Saltzburg  in  1636;  died  at  Rostock 
in  1 716. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Feck'en-ham,  de,  (John,)  an  English  Catholic 
theologian,  whose  original  name  was  How'man,  born 
in  Worcestershire  about  1 516.  He  was  appointed  chap- 
lain to  Bonner,  Bishop  of  London,  and  when  that  prelate 
was  deprived  of  his  bishopric,  under  Edward  VL,  he  was 
sent  to  the  Tower.  Upon  the  accession  of  Mary  to  the 
throne,  (1553,)  Feckenham  was  appointed  her  chaplain, 
and  was  sent  to  Lady  Jane  Grey  a  short  time  before  her 
death,  to  endeavour  to  reclaim  her  to  the  Catholic  faith  ; 
but  without  success.  During  the  bloody  persecutions 
that  followed,  he  used  all  his  influence  in  favour  of  mode- 
ration towards  the  suffering  Protestants.  Pie  even  went 
so  far  as  to  intercede  with  the  queen  for  her  sister,  the 
princess  Elizabeth,  who,  when  she  became  queen,  offered 
him  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury  if  he  would  con- 
form to  the  rules  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  —  which, 
however,  he  refused  to  do.  After  having  opposed  the 
Reformation  in  the  House  of  Lords,  where  he  was  the 
last  mitred  abbot,  he  was  imprisoned  in  1560.  He  died 
in  prison  in  the  island  of  Ely  in  1585. 

.See  Wood,  "  Athenje  Oxonienses." 

Fedele,  fi-da'li,  (Cassandra,)  an  Italian  lady,  cele- 
trated  for  her  great  learning  and  accomplishments,  was 
born  in  Venice  in  1465.  She  possessed  the  friendship 
of  Pope  Leo  X.,  Louis  XII.  of  France,  and  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  of  Spain :  the  latter  tried  to  draw  her  to 
the  court  of  Castile,  but  without  success.  Died  about 
1558. 

See  F.  ToMAsiNi,  "Vita  della  Signora  C.  Fedele,"  1636. 

Fedelissimi,  fi-di-l^s'se-mee,  (Giovanni  Battista,) 
an  Italian  poet  and  physician,  born  at  Pistoia,  lived  about 
1620. 

Feder,  fa'der,  (Johann  Georg  Heinrich,)  a  learned 
German,  who  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen, 
born  near  Bayreuth  in  1740;  died  in  1821, 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  ("J.  G.  H.  Feders  Leben,"  1825 ;) 
Oertel,  "De  Vita  et  Fatis  J.  G.  H.  Federi,"  1789. 

Federici,  ft-di-ree'chee,  (Camillo,)  originally  Gio- 
vanni Battista  Viassolo,(ve-as'so-lo,)  one  of  the  most 
popular  Italian  dramatists  of  recent  times,  born  in  Pied- 
mont in  April,  1749.  He  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
a  new  dramatic  school  in  Italy,  and  his  plays  are  dis- 
tinguished by  a  higher  moral  tone  than  those  of  his 


FEITH 

 3i  

predecessors.  Among  his  best  pieces  are  comedies  called 
"The  Sculptor  and  the  Blind  Man,"  "Henry  IV.  at  the 
Passage  of  the  Marne,"  and  "  I  falsi  Galantuomini."  Died 
at  Padua  in  December,  1802. 

See  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri;"  Ugoni,  "Delia 
Letteratura  Italiana." 

Federici,  (Cesare.)    See  Fedrici. 

Federici,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  republican  general, 
born  at  Naples  in  1748.  He  obtained  the  chief  command 
at  Naples  in  1799.  Having  surrendered  to  the  royalists 
as  a  prisoner  of  war,  he  was  treacherously  put  to  death 
in  1799. 

Federici,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  poet  and  jurist,  born  at 
Brescia  about  1540;  died  about  1607. 

Federmann,  fa'der-mdn^,  (Nikolaus,)  a  German, 
born  at  Ulm,  commanded  an  expedition  which  explored 
New  Granada  about  1537. 

Fedrici,  fi-dRee'chee,  or  Federici,  fa-di-ree'chee, 
(Cesare,)  a  Venetian  merchant  and  traveller,  spent  many 
years  in  the  East  Indies.  He  published,  on  his  return, 
an  interesting  book,  entitled  "  Voyage  to  the  East  Indies," 
etc.,  (1587.) 

Fedrigotti,  f^-dRe-got'tee,  (Geronimo,)  an  Italian 
lyric  poet  of  superior  merit,  born  in  1742  ;  died  in  1776. 

Fee,  fa,  (Antoine  Laurent  Apollinaire,)  a  French 
physician  and  eminent  botanist,  and  first  professor  at 
the  military  hospital  of  Strasbourg,  was  born  in  1789. 
He  published  a  "Flora  of  Virgil,"  or  "Critical  Nomen- 
clature of  the  Plants,  Fruits,  etc.  mentioned  by  Virgil," 
(1822,)  "Methode  lichenographique,"  (1824,)  being  a 
description  of  lichens,  (regarded  as  the  best  work  on 
this  subject,)  and  other  scientific  works ;  also,  a  "Life  of 
Linnaeus,"  (1832.) 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  LItteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Fehling,  failing,  (Heinrich  Christoph,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Sangerhausen  in  1653;  died  in  1725. 

Fehr,  faR,  (Johann  Michael,)  a  learned  German 
physician,  born  in  Franconia  in  1610,  became  imperial 
physician  to  Leopold  I.    Died  in  1688. 

Fehrmann,  f3:R'man,  (Daniel,)  a  Swedish  engraver 
of  medals,  born  in  Stockholm  in  1710;  died  in  1780. 

Fei,  fa'ee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  historical  painter, 
called  del  Barbiere,  was  born  in  Florence  in  1543. 

Feijou.    See  Feyjou. 

Fein,  fin,  (Eduard,)  a  German  jurist  and  legal  writer, 
born  at  Brunswick  in  1813,  became  professor  of  Roman 
law  at  Jena  in  1845.  published,  among  other  works, 
a  continuation  of  Gliick's  "Complete  Explanation  of  the 
Pandects,"  (44th  vol.,  185 1.)  He  became  professor  of 
law  at  Tubingen  in  1852.    Died  in  1857. 

Fein,  (Georg,)  a  German  democrat  and  revolutionist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Helmstedt  in  1803. 
He  was  connected  with  secret  political  societies,  and 
was  often  banished  and  expelled  from  various  states  in 
which  he  sought  refuge. 

Feitama,  fT'tS-ma,  (Sibrand,)  a  Dutch  dramatic 
writer,  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1694.  Among  his  works 
are  two  tragedies,  "Fabricius,"  and  the  "Triumph  of 
Poetry  and  Painting."  He  made  excellent  translations 
of  Fenelon's  "Telemaque"  and  Voltaire's  "  Henriade" 
into  Dutch  verse,  and  of  several  plays  of  Lamotte,  Cor- 
neille,  and  other  French  writers.    Died  in  1758. 

See  Jan  de  Kruyff,  "  Leven  van  S.  Feitama,"  Leyden,  1782. 

Feith,  fit,  [Lat.  Fei'thius,]  (Everard,)  a  distin- 
guished Dutch  scholar,  born  at  Elburg  about  1597. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "Athenian  Antiquities" 
and  "Antiquities  of  Homer,"  (1677,)  the  latter  of  which 
was  highly  esteemed.  The  death  of  Feith  is  enveloped 
in  mystery.  As  he  was  walking  one  day  in  Rochelle,  a 
citizen  invited  him  to  enter  his  house.  He  entered,  and 
was  never  seen  or  heard  of  afterwards,  notwithstanding 
the  thorough  search  of  the  magistrates.  He  was  young 
when  he  disappeared. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Feith,  (Rhijnvis  or  Rhynvis,)  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent Dutch  poets  of  modern  times,  born  at  Zwolle,  in 
Overyssel,  in  1753.  He  studied  law  at  Leyden,  where 
he  graduated  in  1770.  Among  his  best  productions  are 
his  didactic  poem  "The  Grave,"  ("  Het  Graf,"  1792,) 
the  tragedies  of  "  Inez  de  Castro,"  (1793,)  "Thirza,"  and 


900 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  f,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon 


FEIZEE 


901 


FELIX 


"Johanna  Gray,"  and  numerous  hymns  and  odes  of  great 
beauty.  His  "  Letters  on  Various  Subjects"  ("  Brieven 
over  verscheiden  Onderwerpen,"  6  vols.,  1784-94)  are 
among  his  most  admired  prose  writings.    Died  in  1824. 

His  son  Peter  Rutger  was  also  a  poet. 

See  "  Gedenksuil  voor  Mr.  R.  Feith,"  1825 ;  Cornelis  Loots, 
"  Hiilde  aan  de  Nagedachtenis  van  Mr.  R.  Feith;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Feizee  or  Feizi,  fi'zee,  written  also  Fyzee  and  Fey- 
azi,  (Abool-Feiz-Hindee,)  an  eminent  poet,  born  at 
Agra,  in  India,  in  1547,  was  a  brother  of  the  famous 
Abool-Fazl.    He  wrote  in  Persian.    Died  in  1595. 

Fejer,  fi-yaR,  (Gyorgy,)  a  distinguished  Hun-garian 
writer,  born  at  Keszthely  in  1766.  His  chief  production 
is  entitled  Codex  diplomaticus  Hungarias  ecclesiasticus 
ac  civilis."  This  valuable  work  is  composed  of  twenty- 
eight  (or  twelve)  large  volumes  relating  to  the  history 
of  Hungary,  published  in  1829-44.  He  became  librarian 
of  the  University  of  Pesth  and  Buda  in  1824. 

Feldbausch,  f^lt'bowsh,  (Felix  Sebastian,)  a  Ger- 
man scholar  and  educational  writer,  born  at  Manheim 
in  1795. 

Feldmann,  fglt'mSn,  (Leopold,)  a  German  dramatist, 
of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Munich  in  1803,  was  the 
author  of  several  popular  comedies. 

Felekee  or  Feleki,  flKe-kee,  a  distinguished  Persian 
poet,  whose  true  name  was  Abool-Nizam-Moham- 
med;  but,  having  devoted  himself  to  astronomy  and 
astrology,  he  received  the  title  of  Felekee,  ("Celestial.") 
Died  in  11 82. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Gescliichte  der  schonen  Redekiinste  Per- 
sians." 

Feletz,  de,  deh  fi'las',  (Charles  Marie  Dorimond,) 
Abbe,  a  P'rench  critic,  born  near  Brives-la-Gaillarde  in 
1767.  He  contributed  a  number  of  learned  and  elegant 
essays  to  the  "Journal  des  Debats"  and  the  "  Mercure 
de  France."  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1827,  and  was  also  director  of  that  institu- 
tion. Among  his  works  is  "Melanges  de  Philosophie  et 
Litterature,"  (6  vols.,  1828.)  He  wrote  for  the  "Journal 
des  Debats"  about  twenty-five  years,  and  defended  the 
classical  against  the  romantic  school.    Died  in  1850. 

See  M.  Delpit,  "Notice  sur  M.  de  Feletz,"  1852  ;  Villemain, 
"De  M.  de  Feletz  et  de  qiielques  Salons  de  son  Temps,"  1852; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Felibien,  fi'le'be4,N',  (Andr:^,)  a  French  architect 
and  able  writer  on  art,  born  at  Chartres  in  1619.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  eight  members  of  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions,  and  in  1673  became  keeper  of  the  Royal 
Cabinet  of  Antiquities.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Conversations  on  the  Lives  and  Works  of  the  Most  Ex- 
cellent Painters,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  ("  Entretiens  sur 
les  Vies  et  sur  les  Ouvrages  des  plus  excellents  Peintres," 
etc.,  5  vols.,  1666-88,)  which  was  translated  into  various 
languages.    Died  in  1695. 

See  NiCEKON,  "Memoires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdnerale." 

Felibien,  (Jacques,)  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian 
and  writer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Chartres 
in  1636  ;  died  in  1716. 

Felibien,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  an  architect,  son  of 
Andre,  noticed  above,  was  born  about  1658.  He  pos- 
sessed his  father's  taste  for  the  fine  arts,  and  left  several 
works  on  the  subject,  the  principal  of  which  is  entitled 
"  Historical  Collection  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  the  Most 
Celebrated  Architects,"  (1687.)    Died  in  1733. 

Felibien,  (Michel,)  a  Dominican,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Chartres  in  1666.  Pie  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Royal  Abbey  of  Saint-Denis  in  France," 
and  a  "History  of  the  City  of  Paris."    Died  in  1719, 

Felice,  f4-lee'chi,  (Costanzo,)  [Lat.  Constan'tius 
FELig'ius,]  an  Italian  of  the  sixteenth  century,  born  near 
Ancona,  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the 
Conspiracy  of  Catiline." 

Felice,  (Fortunato  Bartolommeo,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  author,  and  professor  of  philosophy  at  Naples, 
was  born  at  Rome  in  1725.  He  published  in  1770  his 
greatest  work,  entitled  "  Encyclopaedia,  or  an  Accurate 
Universal  Dictionary  of  Human  Knowledge,"  (42  vols.,) 
in  which  he  was  assisted  by  several  eminent  savants, 
including  Haller.    Died  in  1789. 

See  Feller,  "Biographie  Universelle,"  edited  by  Weiss. 


Feliciano,  fi-le-chi'no,  (Felice,)  surnamed  Anti- 
quario,  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Verona  about  1420. 
He  collected  inscriptions,  medals,  and  other  antiquities, 
and  wrote  a  number  of  epigrams. 

Feliciano,  (Giovanni  Bernardino,)  an  Italian 
scholar  and  physician,  born  at  Verona  about  1490.  He 
translated  a  number  of  medical  and  philosophical  works 
from  the  Greek  and  Latin.    He  was  living  in  1550. 

Feliciano,  or  Feliciani,  fi-le-chi^nee,  (Porfirio,  ) 
an  Italian  bishop  and  Latin  poet,  born  in  Vaud  in  1562  ; 
died  in  1632. 

Fe-li9''i-tas,  Saint,  a  Roman  lady  and  Christian 
martyr  of  noble  birth,  lived  under  the  reign  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  Antoninus.  She  suffered  martyrdom  in  164 
A.D.,  having  previously  witnessed  the  death  of  her  seven 
sons. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Poetry  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Felino,  de,  deh  fi-lee'no,  (Guillaume  L:6on  du 
Tillot — dii  te^yo',)  Marquis,  born  at  Bayonne,  in  France, 
in  1711.  Being  appointed  in  1759  prime  minister  of 
Parma,  he  commenced  a  series  of  reformations  which 
added  greatly  to  the  prosperity  of  the  country.  He 
expelled  the  Jesuits,  founded  a  university,  and  liberally 
patronized  education.  In  1765  he  was  created  Marquis 
of  Felino.    Died  at  Paris  in  1774. 

Felinski,  fa-lin'skee,  (Aloys,)  a  Polish  poet  and 
political  essayist,  born  at  Ossow  in  1773,  was  secretary 
of  Kosciusko  about  1794.  In  1809  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  poetry  and  rhetoric  at  Krzemicniec.  Died 
in  1822  or  1820. 

Felix,  (  Antonius,  )  a  profligate  Roman  officer,  a 
freedman  of  the  emperor  Claudius,  became  Governor  of 
Judea  about  60  A.D.  According  to  Tacitus,  "he  exer- 
cised the  sovereign  power  with  the  character  of  a  slave." 
He  was  removed  from  office  in  62  a.d. 

See  Acts  xxiii.  24,  and  xxiv.  24,  27. 

FeTix  I.,  Saint,  was  elected  pope  in  269.  At  this 
time  the  Christians  suffered  persecutions  under  the  em- 
peror Aurelian,  and  Saint  Felix  himself  was  condemned 
to  death.    He  died,  however,  in  prison,  in  274. 

Felix  II.,  Pope,  or,  as  some  say,  Antipope,  was  chosen 
by  the  Arians,  or  the  emperor  Constantius,  in  355,  to 
succeed  Liberius,  who  had  been  banished.  Upon  the 
return  of  Liberius,  in  358,  Felix  was  driven  from  the  city. 
Died  in  365.  He  was  canonized  as  a  saint  of  the  Roman 
Church, 

Felix  II.  or  III.,  a  native  of  Rome,  was  chosen  pope 
in  483.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  great-grandfather  of 
Gregory  the  Great.  In  484  or  485  he  condemned  Aca- 
cius.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  who  was  accused  of 
heresy  but  was  protected  by  the  emperor.  This  act  ot 
Felix  occasioned  the  first  schism  between  the  Eastern 
and  the  Western  Church.    Died  in  492. 

Felix  III.  or  IV.  became  pope  in  526.  He  was  ap- 
pointed by  Theodoric,  King  of  the  Goths,  against  the 
wishes  of  the  clergy  and  people  of  Rome.    Died  in  530. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Felix  v.,  Pope  or  Antipope.  See  Amadeus  VIII. 
of  Savoy. 

FeTix,  Bishop  of  Urgel,  in  Catalonia,  lived  in  the 
eighth  century.  He  advanced  the  doctrine  that  our 
Saviour,  according  to  the  human  nature,  was  only  the 
adopted  Son  of  God,  This  doctrine  was  condemned  in 
several  councils,  and  Felix  was  sent  to  Rome,  where  he 
abjured  it  before  Pope  Adrian ;  but  when  he  returned 
to  his  diocese  he  relapsed  into  his  former  opinion.  He 
was  deposed  and  banished  about  800.  His  doctrine  was 
called  Adoptionism.    Died  about  818. 

See  Eginhard,  "  Annales  ;"  Baronius,  "Annales." 

Felix.    See  Rachel,  (Mademoiselle.) 

Felix,  (Cassius.)    See  Cassius  Felix. 

Felix,  (MiNucius.)    See  Minucius. 

Felix,  surnamed  Pratensis,  a  native  of  Tuscany,  and 
son  of  a  Jewish  rabbi,  became  a  Christian,  and  translated 
the  Hebrew  Psalms  and  other  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment into  Latin.    Died  in  1557. 

F^lix,  Saint,  a  French  prelate,  born  about  512  a.d,, 
became  Bishop  of  Nantes  in  549.  He  is  said  to  have 
displayed  much  political  ability,  and  to  have  constructed 
useful  public  works.    Died  about  583. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


902  FENDJ 


FELIX 


Felix,  Saint,  liishop  of  Ravenna,  incited  the  people 
of  that  city  to  revolt  against  Justinian  II.,  who  punished 
him  with  the  loss  of  his  eyes.    Died  in  716  A.D. 

Felix  de  Tassy,  fi^^ss'  deh  tt'se',  (Charles  Fran- 
cois,) a  skilful  P>ench  surgeon,  born  in  Paris,  was  ap- 
pointed first  surgeon  to  Louis  XIV.    Died  in  1703. 

Fell,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at  I.ongworth, 
in  Berkshire,  in  1625,  was  a  son  of  Samuel  Fell,  noticed 
below.  He  became  Dean  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
about  1660,  and  Bishop  of  Oxford  in  1676.  He  wrote 
a  number  of  works,  including  a  "Life  of  Henry  Ham- 
mond," (1660,)  and  an  edition  of  the  New  Testament  in 
Greek,  (1675,)  which  was  favourably  received.  Died  in 
1686. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica ;"  Wood,  "Athense  Oxonienses." 

Fell,  (John,)  an  English  dissenting  theologian,  born 
at  Cockermouth,  in  Cumberland,  in  1735.  Among  his 
works  we  may  mention  his  "  Genuine  Protestantism,  or 
the  Inalienable  Rights  of  Conscience  defended,"  (1773.) 
Died  in  1797. 

Fell,  (Samuel,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in  London 
in  1594,  was  the  father  of  John  Fell,  Bishop  of  Oxford. 
He  became  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford  in 
1626,  and  Dean  of  Christ  Church  in  1638.    Died  in  1648. 

Felle,  fel,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  traveller  and  Domi- 
nican monk,  born  at  Diepjie  in  1639  ;  died  in  17 10. 

FeFlen-berg,  von,  [Ger.  pron.  fon  feKlen-bcRG^] 
(Philip  Emanuel,)  a  celebrated  Swiss  philanthropist, 
was  born  at  Berne  in  June,  1771.  His  mother  was  a 
descendant  of  the  Dutch  admiral  Van  Tromp.  He  tra- 
velled in  his  youth  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  informa- 
tion. About  1799  he  founded  at  Hofwyl,  near  Berne,  an 
institution  designed  to  supply  a  practical  education  to 
poor  children  by  means  of  a  model  farm,  a  manual- 
labour  school,  and  a  normal  school.  His  institution  ac- 
quired a  high  reputation,  and,  together  with  his  writings, 
exercised  an  extensive  influence.  He  was  the  author 
of  many  works  on  agriculture  and  education.  Died  in 
November,  1844. 

See  Hamm,  "  Fellenbergs  Leben  und  Wirken,"  1845;  E.  Roch- 
Hoi.z,  "  Gesprache  iiber  E.  von  Fellenberg  iind  seine  Zeit,"  1834; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Geneiale  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  De- 
cember, 1818. 

Feller,  feKler,  (Joachim,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at 
Zwickau  in  1628.  He  wrote  a  number  of  Latin  poems, 
and  contributed  to  the  "  Acta  Eruditorum."  Died  in  1691. 

See  JocHER,  "Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Feller,  (Joachim  Friedrich,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1673,  was  the  author  of  several  valu- 
able historical  works,  and  assisted  in  Leibnitz's  "History 
of  tlie  House  of  Brunswick."    Died  in  1726. 

Feller,  de,  deh  feKler  or  f^^laiR^,  (FRANgois  Xavier,} 
a  learned  Jesuit,  born  at  Brussels  in  1735,  ^^""^  author, 
among  other  works,  of  a  "  Historical  Dictionary,"  in 
French,  which  passed  through  numerous  editions.  This 
was  written  with  a  view  to  serve  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  is  censured  for  lack  of  impartiality.  Died 
in  1802. 

See  Desdoyarts,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Feller,"  1802. 

Fellon,  fin(l)N',  (Thomas  Bernard.)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Avignon  in  1672,  published  fune- 
ral orations  on  Louis  XIV.,  Louis,  Dauphin  of  France, 
and  others.    Died  in  1759. 

FeFlowes,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  English  traveller  and 
antiquary,  born  in  Nottingham  in  1799.  He  explored  in 
1838  various  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  and  discovered  the 
ruins  of  Xanthus,  the  capital  of  ancient  Lycia.  In  1839 
he  published  his  "Journal  written  during  an  Excursion 
in  Asia  Minor."  As  an  agent  of  the  British  Museum,  he 
visited  Lycia  again  in  1839,  and  discovered  many  other 
ruined  cities  with  beautiful  sculptures,  which  he  described 
in  "  An  Account  of  Discoveries  in  Lycia,"  (1841.)  Having 
obtained  from  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  a  firman  permitting 
him  to  remove  works  of  art,  he  conducted  a  party  of 
explorers  to  the  valley  of  the  Xanthus  in  1841,  and 
brought  home  a  collection  of  Xanthian  marbles,  which 
are  now  in  the  British  Museum.    Died  in  i860. 

See  "Gentleman's  NLigazine"  for  January,  1861. 

Fellowes,  (Rev.  Robert,)  an  English  writer  on 
theology,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1770,  was  a  friend  of  the 
famous  Dr.  Parr.    He  published,  besides  other  works, 


"  Christian  Philosophy,"(i  798,)  a  "Guide  to  Immortality," 
(3  vols.,  1804,)  and  a  "  Body  of  Theology,"  (2  vols.,  1807.) 
He  withdrew  from  the  Anglican  Church,  of  which  he 
had  been  ordained  a  priest,  and  became  editor  of  the 
"London  Critical  Review."    Died  in  1847. 

Felsing,  fgl'sing,  (Jakob,)  an  excellent  German  en- 
graver, born  at  Darmstadt  in  1802.  He  studied  and 
worked  for  about  ten  years  in  Italy,  and  returned  in 
1832  to  Darmstadt,  where  he  obtained  the  title  of  en- 
graver to  the  court.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  The 
Marriage  of  Saint  Catherine,"  after  Correggio  ;  a  "  Holy 
Family,"  after  Overbeck;  and  a  "Violin-Player,"  after 
Raphael. 

FePtham  or  FelFtham,  (Owen,)  a  learned  English 
writer  under  the  reign  of  James  L,  was  born  about  1608. 
He  was  a  zealous  royalist  in  the  civil  war.  He  is  chiefly 
celebrated  as  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Resolves, 
Divine,  Moral,  and  Political,"  (2d  edition,  1628.)  Died 
about  1678.  "He  is  one  of  our  worst  writers  in  point 
of  style,"  says  Hallam,  who  thinks  him  "  not  only  a 
laboured  and  artificial,  but  a  shallow,  writer."  ("Intro- 
duction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See,  also,  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  x.,  1824. 

FePtpn,  (Cornelius  Conway,)  LL.D.,  a  distin- 
guished American  scholar  and  author,  was  born  at  West 
Newbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1807.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard with  high  honours  in  1827.  He  was  appointed 
Latin  tutor  in  that  institution  in  1829,  Greek  tutor  in  1830, 
and  professor  of  Greek  in  1832.  In  1834  he  was  selected 
to  fill  the  chair  of  Eliot  professor  of  Greek  literature, 
which  position  he  held  until  i860,  when  he  succeeded  Dr. 
Walker  as  president  of  the  imiversity.  He  contributed 
many  articles  to  "The  North  American  Review,"  "The 
Christian  Examiner,"  "Bibliotheca  Sacra,"  and  other 
leading  reviews  and  journals  of  the  country.  Of  his 
numerous  classical  works,  his  "Iliad"  of  Homer,  issued 
in  1833,  "Greek  Reader,"  (1840,)  "  Panegyricus"  of 
Isocrates,  (1847,)  "Agamemnon"  of  .•Elschylus,  (1847,) 
"The  Clouds"  of  Aristophanes,  and  "The  Birds"  of 
Aristophanes,  have  each  passed  through  several  editions, 
and  the  two  last  have  been  reprinted  in  England.  Among 
his  most  important  works  is  "Greece,  Ancient  and  Mod- 
ern :  Lectures  delivered  before  the  Lowell  Institute,"  (2 
vols.,  1867.)    Died  in  1862. 

FePtpn,  (Henry,)  an  English  divine, born  in  London 
in  1679.  He  became  rector  of  Whitewell,  Derbyshire, 
in  171 1,  and  principal  of  Edmund  Hall,  Oxford,  in  1722. 
He  published,  besides  a  number  of  sermons,  a  "Disser- 
tation on  reading  the  Classics  and  forming  a  Just  Style," 
(171 1.)    Died  in  1740. 

See  William  Felton,  "Life  of  Henry  Felton,"  1748. 

Feltoii,  (John,)  a  native  of  Ireland,  notorious  for 
having  assassinated,  in  1628,  George  Villiers,  Duke  of 
Buckingham,  the  favourite  of  James  I. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England." 

Felton,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Yar- 
mouth about  1563,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Bristol  in 
161 7,  and  translated  to  the  see  of  Ely  in  1619.  He  was 
one  of  the  persons  employed  by  James  I.  in  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible.    Died  in  1626. 

Feltre,  Duke  of.    See  Clarke. 

Feltrino,  fgl-tiiee'no,  (Andrea,)  a  painter  of  the  Flor- 
entine school,  born  about  1490 ;  died  about  1554. 

Feltro,  da,  di  f^KtRo,  (Morto,)  a  Venetian  painter 
of  arabesques,  born  at  Feltre  about  1474,  had  a  high 
reputation  as  a  decorative  painter,  and  was  an  assistant 
of  Giorgione.  He  was  killed  in  battle  near  Zara  about 
1519- 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Fenaroli,  fi-ni-ro'lee,  (Camilla  Solar  d'Asti — so- 

laR'  das'tee,)  an  Italian  poetess,  born  at  Brescia  about 
1705  ;  died  in  1769. 

Fenaroli  or  Feneroli,  fi-ni-ro'lee,  (Fedele,)  an 
Italian  composer,  born  at  Lanciano,  in  the  Abruzzi,  in 
1732,  was  professor  of  music  at  Naples.    Died  in  1818. 

Fenaruolo,  fi-na-roo-o'lo,  (Geronimo,)  an  Italian 
poet,  a  native  of  Venice,  died  about  1570. 

Fendi,  fen'dee,  (Peter,)  an  eminent  German  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Vienna  in  1796,  was  also 
an  engraver.    He  painted  many  subjects  of  German  his- 


a,  e,  I.  o,  u,  y,  long ;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  v.,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FENEL 


FENN 


toiy,  and  the  portraits  of  the  eminent  numismatists  of 
Europe.    Died  in  1842. 

Fenel,  fa'n^l',  (Jean  Baptiste  Pascal,)  a  French 
abl)ot,  born  in  Paris  in  1695,  was  the  author  of  several 
historical  and  antiquarian  essays.    Died  in  1753. 

Fenelon,  fgn^eh-lon  or  fin'I^N',  (Francois  de  Sa- 
lignac  de  la  Mothe,'(or  la  Motte)— deh  st'J^n'ytk'  deh 
IS  mot,)  Archbishop  of  Cambray,  an  illustrious  French 
prelate  and  author,  born  at  the  chateau  de  Fenelon,  in 
Perigord,  August  6,  1651.  He  was  sent  about  the  age 
of  twelve  to  the  College  of  Cahors,  from  which  he  passed 
to  the  college  Du  Plessis  in  Paris,  and  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  philosophy  and  theology.  At  the  age  of 
fifteen  he  preached  his  first  sermon,  which  elicited  so 
much  applause  that  his  uncle,  the  Marquis  de  Fenelon, 
fearing  it  would  have  a  bad  effect  on  one  so  young,  sent 
him  to  the  seminary  of  Saint-Sulpice.  He  was  ordained 
as  a  priest  about  1675,  '^f^^i'  which  he  was  employed 
for  ten  years  in  Paris  as  superior  of  a  community  called 
"Nouvelles  Catholiques,"  founded  for  the  instruction 
of  new  converts.  Among  his  earliest  publications  was 
an  argument  against  the  Protestant  religion,  entitled 
"Traite  du  Ministere  des  Pasteurs."  Soon  after  the 
edict  of  Nantes  was  revoked,  (1685,)  Louis  XIV.  sent 
Fenelon  to  convert  the  Protestants  of  Poitou.  In  this 
mission  he  employed  mildness  and  persuasion  in  prefer- 
ence to  military  power. 

In  1689  Fenelon  was  appointed  preceptor  to  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  a  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  the  pre- 
sumptive heir  to  the  throne,  a  prince  of  violent  and 
irascible  temper.  He  performed  the  duties  of  this  highly 
responsible  position  with  great  ability,  and,  it  appears, 
effected  a  decided  improvement  in  the  temper  and  con- 
duct of  his  pupil,  for  whom  he  composed  "  Dialogues 
of  the  Dead,"  and  other  works.  He  gained  the  favour 
and  confidence  of  Madame  de  Maintenon.  In  1693  he 
was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Archbishop  of  Cambray  in  February,  1695,  and 
accepted  the  office  on  condition  that  he  should  reside  for 
nine  months  of  the  year  in  his  diocese  and  devote  three 
months  to  the  instruction  of  the  Duke  of  Anjou  and  the 
Duke  of  Berry,  grandsons  of  the  king.  Fenelon  excited 
general  admiration  at  court  by  his  ready  and  brilliant 
wit  and  the  graceful  amenity  of  a  character  in  which, 
it  has  been  remarked,  *'  the  aj^ostle  and  the  great  lord 
seemed  to  be  strangely  united." 

About  this  time  great  excitement  was  produced  in  the 
religious  world  of  France  by  the  mystical  sentiments  and 
writings  of  Madame  Guyon,  of  whom  Fenelon  was  an 
intimate  friend.  His  sympathy  with  her  involved  him 
in  a  long  controversy  with  Bossuet,  who  condemned  the 
quietism  of  Madame  Guyon  and  somewhat  arrogantly 
insisted  that  Fenelon  should  define  his  position  on  the 
subject.  The  latter  accordingly  wrote  his  " Explication 
des  Maximes  des  Saints,"  (1697,)  which  was  regarded  as 
an  indirect  apology  for  Guyonism.  Fenelon  was  de- 
nounced by  Bossuet  to  the  king,  and  was  dismissed  from 
court  in  disgrace.  He  appealed  to  the  judgment  of  the 
pope,  who,  after  long  hesitation,  yielding  to  the  impe- 
rious will  of  Louis  XIV.  and  the  menaces  of  his  agents, 
decided  against  the  "Maximes  des  Saints"  in  March, 
1699.  Fenelon  submitted  with  dignity,  and  publicly 
expressed  his  acquiescence  in  this  decision.  He  might 
perhaps  have  been  restored  to  favour  at  court,  if  a  book, 
which  he  wrote  to  amuse  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  had 
not  been  made  public,  in  1699,  through  the  infidelity  of 
a  servant  whom  he  employed  to  transcribe  the  manu- 
script. This  was  "Les  Aventures  de  Telemaque,"  his 
most  celebrated  production,  and  one  of  the  most  popular 
works  in  the  French  language.  Louis  XIV.  suspected 
that  this  was  a  covert  satire  against  his  despotic  regime, 
and  endeavoured  to  suppress  it.  While  Fenelon  was 
thus  proscribed  at  the  French  court,  he  was  so  highly 
honoured  for  his  Christian  virtues  and  wisdom  among 
the  nations  of  Europe,  that,  when  adjacent  parts  of 
France  were  ravaged  by  hostile  armies,  the  diocese  of 
Camcray  was  protected  from  spoliation  by  the  orders 
of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene.  His 
eloquence  and  wisdom  in  conversation  are  highly  ex- 
tolled by  Saint-Simon  and  other  contemporaries.  "We 
feel  the  power  and  ascendency  of  his  rare  genius,"  says  La 


Bruyere,  "whether  he  preaches  without  preparation,  or 
pronounces  a  studied  discourse,  or  explains  his  thoughts 
in  conversation."  He  died  on  the  7th  of  January,  1715. 
Besides  the  above-named  works,  he  wrote  "  Dialogues 
on  the  Eloquence  of  the  Pulpit,"  a  "Demonstration  of 
the  Existence  of  God,"  "  On  the  Temporal  Power  of  the 
Mediaeval  Popes,"  an  excellent  "Treatise  on  the  Edu- 
cation of  Girls,"  and  a  number  of  political  treatises.  He 
ranks  among  the  most  excellent  masters  of  graceful  and 
eloquent  diction  that  France  has  produced. 

"  He  had  all  the  qualities,"  says  Sir  James  Mackintosh, 
"  which  fit  a  man  to  be  the  preceptor  of  a  prince,  and' 
which  most  disable  him  to  get  or  to  keep  office.  Even 
birth  and  urbanity  and  accomplishments  and  vivacity 
were  an  insufficient  atonement  for  his  genius  and  virtue." 
The  same  writer  remarks,  in  another  place,  "  Fenelon 
in  his  writings  exhibits  more  of  the  qualities  which 
predispose  to  religious  feelings  than  any  other  equally 
conspicuous  person  :  a  mind  so  pure  as  steadily  to  con- 
template supreme  excellence  ;  a  heart  capable  of  being 
touched  and  affected  by  the  contemplation ;  a  gentle  and 
modest  spirit,  not  elated  by  the  privilege,  but  seeing  its 
own  want  of  worth  as  it  came  nearer  to  such  brightness, 
and  disposed  to  treat  with  compassionate  forbearance 
those  errors  in  others  of  which  it  felt  a  humbling  con- 
sciousness." "There  was  indeed,"  says  Macaulay,  "  one 
Frenchman  who  has  discovered  those  principles  which 
it  now  seems  impossible  to  miss, — that  the  many  are 
not  made  for  the  use  of  one  ;  that  the  truly  good  govern- 
ment is  not  that  which  concentrates  magnificence  in  a 
court,  but  that  which  diffiises  happiness  among  a  people. 
These  were  the  doctrines  which  Fenelon  taught."  (See 
review  of  Dumont's  "  Recollections  of  Mirabeau,"  in 
Macaulay's  "Essays.") 

See,  also,  Ramsay,  "Vie  de  Fenelon;"  Cardinal  de  Bausset, 
"  Histoire  de  Fenelon,"  4  vols.,  1808  ;  Gosselin,  "  Histoire  litteiaiio 
de  Fenelon,"  1843;  Mackintosh,  "View  of  the  Progress  of  Ethical 
Philosophy  :"  Charles  Butler,  "  Life  of  Fenelon,"  1810 ;  Alphonse 
DE  Lamartine,  "  Fenelon,"  Paris,  1854;  Henri  Lemaire,  "  Vie  de 
Fenelon,"  1S26;  Thomas  C.  Upham,  "Life  of  Fenelon;"  J.  F.  de 
Laharpe,  "  Eloge  de  F.  Salignac  de  Lamotte-Fenelon,"  1771 ;  Jean 
SiFFREiN  Maury,  "  filoge  de  Fenelon,"  1771;  Roy,  "  Histoire  de 
Fenelon,"  1842;  Albert  Werfer,  "  Leben  des  F.  Fenelon,"  etc., 
1852;  A.  Celarier,  "Histoire  de  Fenelon,"  1844;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale;"  "Biograpliie  Universelle,"  by  M.  Villemain; 
"Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  F'rench  Writers,"  by  Mrs.  Shelley, 
vol.  i. 

Fenelon,  de,  deh  fi''neh-16N'  or  fin^dN',  (Bertrand 
de  Salignac — deh  st'l^n^ytk', )  Marquis,  a  distin- 
guished French  soldier,  writer,  and  ambassador  of 
Charles  IX.  at  the  court  of  England.  His  master  hav- 
ing charged  him  to  apologize  to  Queen  Elizabeth  for  the 
Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  he  an.swered,  "  Sire, 
address  yourself  to  those  who  have  advised  you  to  it." 
He  was  the  author  of  several  diplomatic  works.  Died 
in  1589. 

Fenelon,  de,  (Gabriel  Jacques  de  Salignac,)  Mar- 
quis, nephew  of  the  illustrious  Archbishop  of  Cambray, 
was  lieutenant-general  of  the  French  armies,  and  am- 
bassador from  Louis  XV.  to  the  States  of  Holland.  He 
wrote  several  diplomatic  memoirs.  He  was  killed  by  a 
cannon-ball  at  the  battle  of  Rocour  in  October,  1746. 

Fenelon,  de,  (J.  B.  A.  Salignac,)  a  French  ecclesi- 
astic and  philanthropist,  born  in  Perigord,  was  appointed 
almoner  to  the  queen  of  Louis  XV.  The  young  Savoy- 
ards of  Paris  interested  him  so  much  that  he  received 
the  title  of  "Bishop  of  the  Savoyards."  During  the 
Revolution  he  was  arrested  as  a  suspected  person,  and, 
although  his  innocence  was  proved,  he  was  beheaded  in 
July,  1794. 

Fen-es-tePla,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  historian,  born  49 
B.C.,  was  the  author  of  "Annals"  which  were  esteemed 
by  his  contemporaries  and  are  often  quoted  by  Pliny  and 
others.   Few  fragments  only  are  extant   Died  in  21  A.D. 

Fenin,  fi''niN',  (Pierre,)  a  French  chronicler,  born 
in  Artois,  wrote  a  history  of  the  civil  war  between  the 
houses  of  Burgundy  and  Orleans,  which  was  printed  in 
1837.    Died  in  1506. 

Fenn,  (Lady  Eleanor,)  an  English  writer  of  educa- 
tional works,  whose  assumed  name  was  Mrs.  Lovechild, 
was  born  about  1744;  died  in  1813. 

Fenn,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  Nor- 
wich in  1739,  published  a  work  entitled  "Original  Letters 


<  a-!  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  v., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FENNER 


FEODOR 


written  under  the  Reigns  of  Henry  VI.,  Edward  IV.,  and 
Richard  III.,"  which  were  the  productions  of  different 
p£rsons  of  distinction,  and  contained  many  curious  and 
II  teresting  anecdotes.    Died  in  1794. 

Feii'iier,  (William,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  born 
in  1560.  He  became  rector  of  Rochford,  Essex,  in  1629. 
Died  in  1640.  A  volume  of  his  sermons  and  other  works 
was  published  in  1657. 

Fenner  von  Fenneberg,  fen'ner  fon  fen'neh-l^gRc', 
leader  of  the  insurrection  in  the  Palatinate  in  1848,  was 
a  native  of  the  Tyrol.  After  the  failure  of  his  projects, 
he  went  to  America,  where,  in  1851,  he  founded  in  New 
York  a  journal  called  the  "Atlantis." 

Fenoillet,  feh-nwi'yi',  or  Fenouillet,  feh-noo'yi', 
(Pierre,)  a  French  prelate,  born  at  Annecy,  was  chaplain 
to  Henry  IV.,  and  Bishop  of  Montpellier.  He  wrote, 
among  other  treatises,  "  Remonstrances  to  the  King 
against  Duels."    Died  in  1652. 

Fenollar,  fi-nol-y^R',  (Bernardo,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  at  Valencia  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Vetus." 

Fenouillot.    See  Fenoillet  and  Falbatre. 
Fen'rir  or  Fen'ris,  called  also  Fenrisulfr  or  Fen- 

risulf,  (fgn'ris-dolf ,)  in  the  mythology  of  the  Northmen, 
the  name  of  a  monster,  regarded  as  the  most  terrible 
enemy  of  the  /Esir.  He  was  the  offspring  of  Loki,  the 
god  of  evil,  and  the  female  Jotun  Angurboda,  (AngrboSa, 
the  "anguish-boding.")  When  he  was  young,  the  gods 
with  great  difficulty  succeeded  in  binding  him,  (for  an 
account  of  this,  see  Tyr;)  but  at  the  approach  of  Ragnarok 
or  Ragnarock  (the  twilight  of  the  gods)  he  will  at  length 
break  loose.  He  will  then  rush  forth  with  gaping  mouth, 
his  upper  jaw  touching  heaven  and  his  nether  jaw  the  earth, 
and  if  there  were  room  he  would  gape  even  more  widely. 
He  will  first  devour  the  sun,  causing  a  severe  loss,  as 
may  well  be  supposed,  to  mankind.  Immediately  after- 
wards, in  the  great  battle  with  the  gods,  he  will  swallow 
Odin,  but  will  the  next  moment  be  slain  by  Vidar. 
Some  writers  suppose  that  by  the  wolf  Fenrir  is  typified 
volcanic  fire.  The  name  is  probably  derived  from  the 
same  root  as  fen,  a  "marsh"  or  low  place.  Fenrir  may 
signify  the  inhabitant  of  the  lower  world  or  the  abyss. 
The  monsters  of  the  deep  destined  to  destroy  the  bene- 
ficent gods  (iEsir)  may  denote  the  blind  and  terrible 
powers  which  reside  in  the  elements,  and  which,  when 
they  once  break  loose,  are  so  destructive  to  the  products 
of  human  intellect  and  industry;  "because,"  says  Schil- 
ler, "the  elements  hate  the  creations  of  the  human 
hand."* 

See  the  account  of  Ragnarok  in  Thorpe's  "  Northern  Mytho- 
logy," vol.  i.  pp.  80,  81,  82  ;  also  p.  181  etseq.  ;  Mallet's  "  Northern 
Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.,  fable  xxxii.  ;  Keyser's  "Religion  of  the  North- 
men;" Petersen's  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Fen'tou,  (Edward,)  an  English  navigator,  born  about 
1550.  In  1577  he  accompanied  Sir  Martin  Frobisher  on 
his  second  voyage  to  the  North  Seas,  as  the  commander 
of  a  small  vessel.  After  making  two  voyages  in  the 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  discover  a  passage  by  the  north- 
west to  the  South  Seas,  he  was  given  the  command  of 
four  vessels  to  continue  his  explorations.  He  sailed  first 
towards  Africa,  and  then  towards  the  Strait  of  Magellan. 
He  fell  in  with  three  Spanish  ships,  one  of  which  he 
succeeded  in  sinking,  after  a  severe  engagement.  He 
then  returned  to  England,  and  obtained  the  command 
of  a  vessel  in  the  armament  sent  against  the  famous 
Armada  in  1588,  on  which  occasion  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  skill  and  bravery.    Died  in  1603. 

See  Fuller,  "Worthies  of  England ;"  J.  B.^rrow,  "Memoirs 
of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  Reign." 

Fenton,  (Elijah,)  a  distinguished  English  poet,  born 
near  Newcastle,  Stafifordshire,"in  1683.  He  graduated  at 
Oxford  about  1704.  He  was  secretary  to  the  Earl  of 
Orrery,  who  appointed  him  preceptor  to  his  only  son. 
He  assisted  Pope,  whose  esteem  and  friendship  he 
possessed,  in  the  translation  of  the  "  Odyssey,"  his  por- 
tion being  the  first,  fourth,  nineteenth,  and  twentieth 
books.  Among  his  other  works  were  the  tragedy  of 
"Mariamne,"  (1723,)  which  was  successful,  and  brought 


*  "  Denn  die  Elemente  hassen 

Das  Gebild'  der  Menschenhand." 

Das  Lied  von  der  Glocke. 


him  about  £\ooo,  a  "Life  of  Milton,"  (1727,)  which  is 
highly  praised  by  Johnson,  and  several  poem.s.  Died 
in  Berkshire  in  July,  1730. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets." 

Fenton,  (Sir  Geoffrey,)  an  able  statesman  and 
translator,  was  a  brother  of  Edward,  noticed  above.  He 
produced  "  Golden  Epistles  from  Guevara  and  other 
Authors,"  (1575,)  and  an  English  version  of  Guicciar- 
dini's  "  History  of  the  Italian  Wars,"  (1579.)  He  was 
for  many  years  secretary  of  state  in  Ireland  in  the  reigns 
of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  James  I.    Died  in  1608. 

See  Warton,  "  History  of  English  Poetry." 

Fen'ton,  (Reuben  E.,)  an  American  lawyer  and  legis- 
lator, born  at  Carroll,  Chautauqua  county.  New  York, 
in  July,  1819.  He  represented  the  thirty-third  district 
of  New  York  in  Congress  for  four  successive  terms, 
from  December,  1857,  to  March,  1865,  and  acted  with 
the  Republican  party.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his 
talents  for  business.  In  November,  1864,  he  was  elected 
Governor  of  New  York  for  two  years.  He  was  re- 
elected in  1866,  and  was  chosen  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  in  1869. 

Fen'wick,  (George,)  the  proprietor  of  a  plantation 
near  Saybrook,  Connecticut,  came  to  America  in  1636. 
Having  returned  to  England,  he  was  appointed  one  of 
the  judges  in  the  trial  of  Charles  I.    Died  in  1657. 

Fenwick,  (George,)  an  English  theologian  of  the 
Hutchinsonian  school,  was  rector  of  Hallaton,  Leicester- 
shire. He  published  "Thoughts  on  the  Hebrew  Titles 
of  the  Psalms,"  (1749.)    Died  in  1760. 

Fenwick,  ( Sir  John,  )  a  Roman  Catholic  agitator 
and  conspirator  during  the  reign  of  William  HI.,  was 
born  in  England  near  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  He  was  highly  connected,  having  married  a 
sister  of  the  Earl  of  Carlisle.  In  1696  he  was  arrested 
for  high  treason;  but  the  government  failed  to  convict 
him,  in  consequence  of  one  of  the  cliief  witnesses  having 
been  prevailed  upon  by  Fenwick's  friends  to  hide  himself 
on  the  continent.  Thereupon  he  was  tried  under  a  bill' of 
attainder,  which,  after  an  extraordinary  excitement  and 
conflict,  passed  both  Houses  of  Parliament  and  received 
the  royal  assent.  He  was  executed  the  28th  of  January, 
1697.  He  was  the  last  person  who  suffered  death  in 
England  by  an  act  of  attainder.  For  an  extremely 
interesting  account  of  his  trial,  see  Macaulay's  "History 
of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xxii. 

Fen'wicke,  (John,)  an  Englishman,  born  in  1618, 
noted  as  the  founder  of  a  colony  in  New  Jersey,  was  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He  obtained  in  1673 
a  grant  of  land  in  West  Jersey,  emigrated  in  1675,  and 
settled  in  Salem.  His  claim  to  the  proprietorship  was 
disputed  by  Governor  E.  Andros,  who  arrested  him  in 
1678  and  confined  him  in  prison  for  two  years.  He  died 
poor  in  1683,  after  he  had  conveyed  or  transferred  his 
claim  to  William  Penn. 

See  L.  Q.  C.  Elmer,  "  History  of  the  Early  Settlement  of  Cum- 
berland County,  New  Jersey,"  1869. 

Fenyes,  f^n-y^sh,  (Alexius,)  a  Hungarian  geogra- 
pher, born  in  the  county  of  Bihar  in  1807.  He  published 
two  valuable  works,  entitled  "  Present  Condition  of  Hun- 
gary and  the  Adjacent  Countries  in  their  Geographical 
and  Statistical  Relations,"  (6 vols.,  1839,)  and  "Statistics 
of  Hungary,"  (1849.) 

Feo,  fa'o,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  composer,  born  at 
Naples  about  1699.  He  produced  a  number  of  masses, 
litanies,  etc.,  and  a  successful  opera,  entitled  "  Iperm- 
nestra." 

Feodor,  fa'o-dor,  sometimes  written  Fedor,  I.,  (Ivan- 
ovitch,)  Czar  of  Russia,  the  last  of  the  dynasty  of  Rurik, 
was  born  in  1557,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  1584. 
Under  his  reign  the  Church  of  Russia  was  declared  in- 
dependent of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  ;  and  from 
that  time  it  had  a  separate  patriarch.    Died  in  1598. 

See  Karamzin,  "  Histoire  de  I'Empire  de  Russie." 

Feodor  or  Fedor  II.,  (Alexievitch,)  elder  brother 
of  Peter  the  Great,  became  Czar  of  Russia  in  1676,  and 
distinguished  his  reign  by  passing  some  important  laws 
of  a  reformatory  character.    Died  in  1682. 

Feodor  or  Fedor,  fa'o-dor,  (IvANOvrrcH,)  a  Russian 
or  Kalmuck  painter  and  engraver,  born  about  1765,  near 
the  frontier  between  Russia  and  China.    He  studied  at 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fl,ll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FEOFAN 


FERDINAND 


Rome,  became  a  skilful  draughtsman,  and  accompanied 
Lord  Elgin  to  Athens  about  1800.  He  made  drawings  of 
the  bas-reliefs  and  other  antique  monuments  of  Athens, 
called  the  Elgin  Marbles.    Died  in  182 1. 

Feofan  or  Feophan,  fi-o-fin',  an  eminent  Russian 
prelate  and  writer,  born  at  Kiev  in  168 1.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Pleskov  and  Narva  about  17 16,  and  Archbishop 
of  Novogorod  in  1721.  He  co-operated  with  Peter  the 
Great  in  his  projects  of  improvement  and  civilization. 
Died  in  1736. 

Fer,  de,  deh  faiR,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  geographer, 
born  in  1646;  died  in  1720. 

Fer  de  la  Nouerre,  de,  deh  f^R  deh  It  noo^aiR',  a 
French  captain  of  artillery,  and  the  author  of  "  Science 
of  Navigable  Canals."    Died  about  1790. 

Ferabosco,  fi-ra-bos'ko,  (Alfonso,)  a  composer, 
born  at  Greenwich  about  1550,  was  a  son  of  an  Italian 
musician.  He  composed  madrigals,  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation. 

Feraldo.    See  F6raud,  (Raimond.) 

Feraud,  ik'xb',  (Jean  Franqois,)  a  French  gramma- 
rian, born  at  Marseilles  in  1725,  published  a  valuable 
"Grammatical  Dictionary  of  the  French  Language." 
Died  in  1807. 

Feraud  or  Feraudi,  (Wxc/dt',  sometimes  written 
Feraldo  or  Ferrando,  (Raimond,)  a  Proven9al  poet, 
«vho  died  about  1324. 

Ferber,  fgR'ber,  (Johan  Jakob,)  a  distinguished 
Swedish  mineralogist,  born  at  Carlscrona  in  1743.  He 
studied  under  Linnseus,  Wallerius,  and  Cronstadt,  ex- 
plored the  mines  of  Germany,  France,  etc.,  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  natural  history  and  philosophy 
at  Mittau  in  1774.  He  removed  to  Saint  Petersburg  in 
1783,  and  entered  the  service  of  the  King  of  Prussia  in 
1786.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  his  "  Descriptions 
of  the  Quicksilver-Mines  of  Idria,"  (1774,)  and  "Minera- 
logical  History  of  Bohemia,"  (1774.)    Died  in  1790. 

See  Meusel,  "  Lexikon  der  vom  Jahre  1750-1800  veistorbenen 
Deutsche!!  Schriftsteller." 

Ferchault  de  Reaumur.    See  Reaumur. 

Fer'di-nand  [Ger.  pron.  f^RMe-nSnt']  I.,  (Karl  Leo- 
pold Franz,)  Emperor  of  Austria,  born  at  Vienna  in  1 793, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Francis  I.,  and  uncle  of  Franz 
Joseph,  the  present  emperor.  He  married,  in  183 1,  Maria 
Anna  Carolina,  a  daughter  of  Victor  Emmanuel  of  Sar- 
dinia. He  ascended  the  throne  on  the  2d  of  March,  1835. 
As  he  was  subject  to  a  chronic  disorder  by  which  his 
mind  was  impaired,  the  government  was  directed  chiefly 
by  Metternich  as  prime  minister.  In  consequence  of 
the  revolutionary  agitations  which  prevailed  in  1848,  he 
abdicated  in  favour  of  his  nephew,  Franz  Joseph,  in 
December  of  that  year.  ^ 

Ferdinand  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  younger 
brother  of  Charles  V.,  was  born  at  Alcala,  in  Spain,  in 
1503.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
bella of  Spain.  Having  married  Anne,  sister  and  heiress 
of  Louis,  King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  upon  the  death 
of  that  monarch,  in  1526,  he  laid  claim  to  both  crowns, 
and  was  recognized  by  the  Bohemians  ;  bat  in  Hungary 
he  met  with  opposition.  John  Zapolya,  Vayvode  of 
Transylvania,  having  been  elected  king  by  some  of  the 
Hungarian  lords,  called  in  the  Turks  to  assist  him,  and 
defeated  Ferdinand,  who  had  marched  against  him. 
After  this  a  compromise  was  effected,  each  retaining 
part  of  the  kingdom.  He  obtained  in  1521  the  sove- 
reignty of  the  German  provinces  of  Austria  by  the  con- 
sent of  Charles  V.  Ferdinand  was  elected  King  of  the 
Romans  in  1531,  and  succeeded  Charles  V,,  who  abdi- 
cated the  imperial  throne  in  August,  1556.  His  title  was 
confirmed  by  the  Diet  in  1558.  As  a  monarch,  he  was 
distinguished  for  his  moderation  and  justice,  and  was  a 
liberal  patron  of  learning.  Died  in  Vienna  in  July,  1564. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Maximilian. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Alfonso 
DeUlloa,  "Vita  del  Imperatore  Ferdinando  L,"  1565;  F.  B.  BucH- 
HOLTZ,  "GeschichtederRegierung  Ferdinand's  I.,"  10  vols.,  1830-41. 

Ferdinand  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  son  of  Charles, 
Duke  of  Styria,  and  grandson  of  Ferdinand  I.,  was  born 
in  July,  1578.  Through  the  influence  of  his  cousin,  the 
emperor  Matthias,  he  was  crowned  King  of  Bohemia 
in  161 7,  after  having  promised  religious  liberty  to  the 


Bohemian  Protestants.  Frederick,  Elector  Palatine,  re- 
solved to  oppose  him ;  and,  as  Ferdinand  had  refused 
to  protect  his  Protestant  subjects  against  the  Catholics, 
the  Bohemians  declared  that  he  had  broken  his  oath 
and  that  the  throne  was  vacant.  This  led  to  the  famous 
Thirty  Years'  war.  At  the  time  that  Ferdinand  lost  the 
crown  of  Bohemia,  he  was  recognized  King  of  Hungary, 
and,  upon  the  death  of  Matthias,  was  elected  emperor, 
in  1619.  Frederick,  after  some  hesitation,  accepted  the 
crown  of  Bohemia,  which  had  been  offered  to  him  by  the 
States,  and  leagued  himself  with  all  the  enemies  of  the 
house  of  Austria.  At  the  battle  of  Prague,  which  was 
fought  in  1620,  the  Palatine  was  defeated  by  the  army 
of  Ferdinand  under  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  and  he  lost 
both  his  new  and  his  old  dominions;  and  in  1623  the 
emperor  gave  Maximilian  full  power  in  the  Palatinate. 
In  1624  another  Protestant  league  was  formed  against 
Ferdinand,  with  the  King  of  Denmark  at  its  head ;  but 
the  latter  was  defeated  by  the  imperialist  general  Wal- 
lenstein,  and  was  forced  to  accept  peace  on  humiliating 
terms.  Ferdinand,  thinking  that  the  time  had  now  ar- 
rived to  extinguish  Protestantism  in  his  empire,  as  he 
could  command  an  army  of  150,000  men,  while  the  league 
could  muster  only  30,000,  was  preparing  to  execute  this 
design,  when  a  new  league  was  formed,  about  1630,  by 
Sweden,  France,  and  Venice,  with  Gustavus  Adolphus 
at  its  head,  who  gained  many  brilliant  and  important 
victories  over  the  emperor.  But  at  the  battle  of  Lutzen, 
(1632,)  where  the  Protestant  arms  were  crowned  with 
the  most  splendid  success,  the  Swedish  monarch  was 
killed.  The  league  was  then  directed  by  Chancellor 
Oxenstiern ;  and  Ferdinand,  more  fortunate  with  his 
arms,  succeeded  in  making  peace  with  some  of  the  allies, 
and  procured  the  election  of  his  son,  Ferdinand  Ernest, 
as  King  of  the  Romans.  As  a  monarch,  Ferdinand  pos- 
sessed great  ability,  but  was  tyrannical  and  bigoted. 
Died  in  February,  1637. 

See  ScHii.i.RR,  "  History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War;"  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "Ailgen^ine  Encyklopaedie;"  J.  P.  Silbert,  "Ferdinand 
IL,  Romischer  Kaiser,"  1836;  Friedrich  Hurter,  "Geschichte 
Kaiser  Ferdinand's  IL,"  4  vols.,  1850-53. 

Ferdinand  III.,  born  in  1608,  succeeded  his  father, 
Ferdinand  IL,  in  1637,  on  the  imperial  throne  of  Ger- 
many. The  crowns  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary  having 
been  secured  to  him,  he  was  elected  emperor  with 
little  opposition  ;  but  during  the  first  years  of  his  reign 
he  met  with  continual  reverses.  The  Swedes,  led  on  by 
their  general,  Bernhard  of  Saxe-Weimar,  and  assisted  by 
the  French,  were  scarcely  less  successful  than  they  had 
been  under  Gustavus  Adolphus ;  but  the  Duke  of  Saxe- 
Weimar  died  in  the  midst  of  his  victories,  —  as  some 
suppose,  by  poison.  The  war  was  still  urged  with  such 
vigour  by  Louis  XIII.  and  Cardinal  Richelieu  that  the 
Austrians  were  beaten  in  nearly  every  battle  until  Oc- 
tober, 1648,  when,  after  the  death  of  the  French  monarch 
and  his  prime  minister,  the  emperor  signed  the  treaty 
known  as  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  which  secured  re- 
ligious liberty  to  the  Protestants.  Ferdinand  died  in 
1657,  deeply  regretted  by  his  subjects,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Leopold  1. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Ferdinand  [Sp.  Fernando,  feR-ndu'do]  I.,  King  of 
Aragon  and  Sicily,  surnamed  the  Just,  born  in  1373, 
was  the  second  son  of  Juan  I.  of  Castile.  Lfe  became 
King  of  Aragon  in  141 2,  and  died  in  1416,  leaving  the 
throne  to  his  son,  Alfonso  V. 

Ferdinand  II.  of  Aragon.  See  Ferdinand  V.  of 
Castile. 

Ferdinand  (Fernando)  I.,  King  of  Castile,  a  son 
of  Sancho  III.,  was  crowned  in  1035.  In  1038  his 
brother-in-law,  Bermudo,  King  of  Leon,  having  invaded 
Castile,  Ferdinand  defeated  him  in  a  battle,  in  which 
Bermudo  was  slain.  Ferdinand  thus  became  King  of 
Leon  and  the  most  powerful  monarch  in  Spain.  He 
afterwards  carried  on  a  successful  war  against  the  Moors, 
and  forced  the  Kings  of  Saragossa  and  Toledo  to  become 
his  tributaries.  Historians  speak  in  high  terms  of  the 
ability  and  virtues  of  this  prince.  Died  in  1065.  He 
left  Castile  to  his  son  Sancho,  and  Leon  to  his  second 
son,  Alfonso. 

See  Ferreras,  "Historia  general  de  Espana." 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,  Yi,guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FERDINAND 


906 


FERDINAND 


Ferdinand  (Fernando)  II.  of"  Leon,  a  son  of  Alfonso 
VII.,  mounted  the  throne  of  Leon  in  1157,  at  the  same 
time  that  his  brother,  Sancho  III.,  became  King  of  Cas- 
tile. It  was  under  the  reign  of  this  monarch  that  the 
famous  order  of  the  Christian  knights  of  Saint  James  was 
founded.  Ferdinand  carried  on  successful  wars  against 
the  Moors,  in  which  he  displayed  great  generalship  and 
intrepidity.  Died  in  1187.  He  was  particularly  noted 
for  his  generosity. 

Ferdinand  (Fernando)  III.,  called  the  Saint,  a 
son  of  Alfonso  IX.,  King  of  Leon,  and  Berengaria,  Queen 
of  Castile.  He  became  King  of  Castile  in  121 7,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1230.  In  his  Moorish  wars  he  con- 
quered the  kingdom  of  Baeza,  took  Cordova,  Seville,  and 
several  other  rich  and  important  places,  and  made  the 
Kings  of  Granada  and  Murcia  his  tributaries.  He  died 
in  1252,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Alfonso  X. 

See  Miguel  de  Herhera,  "Cronica  del  Rev  Fernando  III.," 
1554;  H.  Fi.OKEZ,  "  Elogio  del  S.  Rey  Fernando  III.,"  1754. 

Ferdinand  (Fernando)  IV,,  King  of  Castile  and 
Leon,  born  at  Seville  in  1285,  was  the  son  of  Sancho  IV., 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1295.  Like  the  preceding,  he 
gained  many  victories  over  the  Moors.  He  was  vindic- 
tive, passionate,  and  unjust.  He  died  in  13 12,  and  left 
the  throne  to  his  son,  Alfonso  XI. 

Ferdinand  (Fernando)  V.,  King  of  Castile  and 
Aragon,  surnamed  THE  Catholic,  was  born  at  Sos  on 
the  loth  of  March,  1452.  He  was  the  son  of  Juan  II., 
King  of  Aragon.  At  this  time  Juan's  son  Carlos,  Prince 
of  Viana,  was  the  presumptive  heir  to  the  throne  of  Ara- 
gon and  Navarre.  In  146 1  the  Prince  of  Viana  died,  and 
soon  after  the  Aragonese  tendered  the  oaths  of  allegiance 
to  Ferdinand,  as  heir-apparent  to  that  monarchy.  In 
very  early  life  he  was  trained  to  the  use  of  arms,  and 
was  schooled  in  all  the  military  science  of  that  age,  and, 
while  yet  a  boy,  exhibited  great  discretion  and  superior 
prowess  on  the  field  of  battle.  In  1469  he  married  the 
infanta  Isabella,  on  whom  had  been  fixed  the  succession 
to  the  throne  of  Castile.  The  glory  of  their  reign  and 
the  commencement  of  the  highest  prosperity  and  gran- 
deur of  the  Spanish  monarchy  are  chiefly  to  be  attributed 
to  the  eminent  qualities  of  this  princess.  Spain  at  this 
period  was  divided  into  the  kingdoms  of  Castile,  Aragon, 
Navarre,  and  Granada,  the  latter  of  which  was  still  pos- 
sessed by  the  Moors  ;  but  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  before 
the  close  of  their  reign,  by  energetic  and  politic  measures 
united  the  four  sovereignties  under  their  sway.  In  1474 
Henry  IV.  of  Castile  died,  and  Isabella  was  proclaimed 
queen  at  Segovia.  Her  title,  however,  was  disputed  by 
the  princess  Joanna,  whom  Henry  had  acknowledged  to 
be  his  legitimate  daughter.  Joanna  received  assistance 
from  several  of  the  Castilian  grandees  and  her  uncle, 
Alfonso  of  Portugal,  who  invaded  Spain  to  defend  her 
cause.  Ferdinand  soon  placed  himself  at  the  head  of 
an  army,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Portu- 
guese at  Toro,  which  caused  Alfonso  to  withdraw  to  his 
own  dominions.  In  a  short  time  the  entire  kingdom  of 
Castile  submitted  to  Isabella,  and  finally,  in  1479,  a  treaty 
of  peace  was  ratified  at  Lisbon.  The  same  year  Ferdi- 
nand was  crowned  King  of  Aragon  at  the  death  of  Juan 
XL  The  two  sovereigns  immediately  commenced  a  course 
of  salutary  reforms,  especially  in  Castile,  where  during 
the  reign  of  Henry  oppression  and  rapine  had  been  car- 
ried to  great  excesses  by  the  nobility.  Various  courts 
of  justice  were  also  formed,  over  which  the  king  and 
queen  frequently  presided  in  person.  A  successful  at- 
tempt was  likewise  made  for  reducing  the  power  of  the 
great  feudal  lords,  who  had  frequently  held  the  authority 
of  their  sovereigns  in  contempt.  In  1480  an  indelible 
stain  was  fastened  on  the  otherwise  unsullied  fame  of 
Isabella  by  the  establishment  of  the  Inquisition.  Ferdi- 
nand subsequently  gave  his  consent  for  its  introduction 
into  Aragon.  After  the  king  and  queen  had  fully  estab- 
lished their  authority  at  home,  they  turned  their  attention 
towards  the  conquest  of  Granada,  the  most  fertile  portion 
of  Spain.  The  invasion  of  that  kingdom  was,  however, 
anticipated  by  the  Moorish  sovereign,  who  in  148 1  sur- 
prised and  captured  the  fortress  of  Zahara,  in  Andalusia. 
Soon  after  the  Castilians  took  the  strongly-fortified  city 
of  Alhama,  in  the  heart  of  the  Moorish  dominions.  This 
exploit  struck  the  Moslems  with  terror,  while  it  greatly 


inspirited  the  Christians,  The  war  was  now  vigorously 
urged  forward  by  Ferdinand,  who  commanded  in  person, 
and  by  Isabella,  who  was  untiring  in  her  efforts  to  en- 
courage the  nation  and  to  keep  in  the  field  an  efficient 
army.  She  imparted  to  the  people  her  own  zeal  and 
heroic  enterprise,  which  wavered  not  until  the  capitula- 
tion of  the  royal  city  of  Granada,  in  November,  1491.  In 
i486  Columbus  visited  the  court  of  Spain,  to  solicit  from 
the  sovereigns  the  assistance  which  would  enable  him 
to  prosecute  a  voyage  of  discovery.  At  this  time  their 
treasury  was  drained,  and  the  Moorish  war  engrossed 
their  entire  attention  :  so  that  they  were  unable  either  to 
fit  out  the  armament  which  he  wished,  or  to  decide  on 
the  policy  of  the  adventure.  However,  when  the  war 
was  finished,  Isabella  made  those  arrangements  with  the 
illustrious  Genoese  which  opened  to  the  Castilians  a  far 
greater  empire  than  the  one  just  obtained.  In  1492  an 
edict  was  issued  for  the  expulsion  of  all  Jews  from  the 
kingdom.  In  1493  Columbus  returned  from  his  success- 
ful voyage  to  the  New  World,  The  same  year  they 
obtained  a  papal  bull  by  which  their  titles  were  confirmed 
to  all  territories  which  they  should  discover  in  the  West- 
ern hemisphere,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  next  turned 
their  attention  to  the  education  of  the  Spanish  youth. 
They  invited  learned  men  to  settle  in  their  dominions, 
and  founded  universities  throughout  the  kingdom.  In 
1495  Charles  VIII,  of  France  invaded  Italy  and  took 
possession  of  Naples,  The  proximity  of  so  powerful  an 
army  to  his  Sicilian  possessions  filled  the  mind  of  Fer- 
dinand with  apprehension.  He  fitted  out  an  army  to 
assist  the  Neapolitan  king,  the  command  of  which  he 
gave  to  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  known  in  history  as  the 
"Great  Captain,"  who  landed  in  Italy  in  May,  and,  after 
a  series  of  brilliant  victories  gained  over  much  larger 
forces,  expelled  the  French  and  firmly  established  the 
King  of  Naples  on  his  throne.  Subsequently  treaties  of 
marriage  were  formed  by  the  Spanish  monarchs  for  their 
only  son.  Prince  Juan,  with  Margaret,  the  daughter  of 
the  emperor  Maximilian,  and  for  the  princess  Joanna 
with  the  emperor's  son  Philip ;  and,  to  cement  their  friend- 
ship with  England,  their  youngest  daughter,  known  as 
Catherine  of  Aragon,  was  married  to  Arthur,  Prince  of 
Wales, 

In  1497  the  nation  sustained  a  great  calamity  in  the 
death  of  Prince  Juan,  Two  years  later,  his  sister,  the 
Princess  of  Portugal,  died.  In  1501,  the  Moors  having 
revolted,  Ferdinand  compelled  them  all  either  to  be 
baptized  or  to  leave  the  kingdom.  The  majority  chose 
the  former  alternative.  In  1500  Ferdinand  concluded  a 
treaty  with  Louis  XII,  of  France,  by  which  they  divided 
the  kingdom  of  Naples  equally  between  them.  The 
Great  Captain  had  previously  sailed  for  Italy  with  a  pow- 
erful army,  and  in  a  short  time  the  division  was  made. 
Disputes,  however,  soon  arose  between  the  invaders, 
which,  after  a  war  of  four  years,  resulted  in  the  complete 
overthrow  of  the  French  in  Italy,  and  the  firm  establish- 
ment of  the  authority  of  Ferdinand  over  all  the  kingdom 
of  Naples.  In  November,  1504,  Queen  Isabella  died, 
and  Ferdinand  was  appointed  Regent  of  Castile,  on 
account  of  the  insanity  of  his  daughter  Joanna,  the  heir- 
apparent  to  that  throne.  In  1505  Ferdinand  married 
Germaine  de  Foix,  niece  of  Louis  XII,  In  1508  the 
treaty  of  Cambray  was  signed  by  the  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, the  King  of  Aragon,  the  King  of  France,  and  the 
pope,  for  the  division  of  the  Venetian  republic.  After  a 
decisive  battle  gained  by  the  allies,  the  Spanish  monarch 
received  several  cities  as  his  share,  which  were  incorpo- 
rated into  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  In  1511  a  treaty  was 
formed  by  the  Spanish  king  and  the  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many for  driving  the  French  from  Italy,  which  was  ac- 
complished after  the  battle  of  Ravenna.  Jean  d'Albret, 
King  of  Navarre,  having  leagued  himself,  offensively  and 
defensively,  with  Louis  of  France,  the  King  of  Aragon 
invaded  his  dominions,  drove  him  from  the  throne,  and 
in  1 5 13  completed  the  entire  subjugation  of  that  king- 
dom. Ferdinand  died  in  January,  1516.  As  a  sovereign, 
he  was  brave,  affable,  indefatigable  in  business,  temperate 
in  his  habits,  and  strongly  attached  to  the  Catholic  re- 
ligion ;  but  he  was  bigoted,  cruel,  selfish  in  the  extreme, 
and  ungenerous  to  those  to  whom  he  was  greatly  indebted. 
For  shrewdness  and  policy  he  excelled  every  other  mon- 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \x,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mlt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


FERDINAND 


FERDINAND 


arch  of  his  age.  He  was  succeeded  by  Prince  Carlos, 
celebrated  as  Charles  V.  of  Germany,  son  of  Philip  of 
Austria  and  Joanna. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  3  vols., 
1838;  Mariana,  "  Historia  de  Rebus  HispanijE  ;"  Hernando  del 
PuLGAR,  "Cronica  de  los  Seiiores  Reyes  Catolicos,"  1545;  Bal- 
THASAR  Gracian,  "  El  politico  D.  Fernando  el  Catolico,"  1641. 

Ferdinand  (Fernando)  VI.  of  Spain,  surnamedTHE 
Wise,  son  of  Philip  V.  and  Mary  of  Savoy,  was  born  at 
Madrid  in  1713,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  1746.  The 
earlv  part  of  his  reign  was  distinguished  by  the  many 
wise  and  just  laws  which  he  enacted,  by  the  encourage- 
ment that  he  gave  to  commerce,  manufactures,  and  the 
arts,  and  by  the  successful  efforts  he  made  to  promote 
literature  and  science  in  Spain.  Ferdinand  was  subject 
to  long  fits  of  melancholy,  which  materially  interfered 
with  his  various  plans  for  the  welfare  of  his  subjects. 
He  died,  without  issue,  in  1759,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother,  Charles  HI. 

Ferdinand  (Fernando)  VII.,  son  of  Charles  IV., 
King  of  Spain,  and  Maria  Louisa  of  Parma,  was  born  in 
1784.  When  lie  was  six  years  of  age,  he  was  proclaimed 
Prince  of  Asturias  and  heir-apparent  to  the  Spanish 
crown.  He  was  kept  in  servile  subjection  by  the  queen 
and  Godoy,  the  court  favourite,  but  was  provided  with 
competent  instructors.  In  1802  Ferdinand  married  Maria 
Antoinette,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  IV.,  King  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.  This  princess,  possessing  much  talent  and 
energy,  attempted  to  raise  her  husband  to  his  proper 
station  at  court;  but,  being  unsuccessful,  they  were  both 
obliged  to  go  into  retirement.  She  died  in  1806,  under 
circumstances  which  created  a  belief  that  Godoy  had 
caused  her  to  be  poisoned.  The  favourite  afterwards  ac- 
cused Ferdinand  of  plotting  against  the  life  of  the  king, 
and  caused  him  to  be  thrown  into  prison  ;  but  he  was 
liberated  not  long  after.  In  1808  Charles  IV.,  alarmed 
by  the  French  invasion,  abdicated  in  Ferdinand's  favour  ; 
but  Napoleon  succeeded  by  intrigue  in  drawing  them 
to  France,  where  he  detained  them  for  several  years  and 
caused  them  both  to  resign  their  authority.  In  1813, 
when  Joseph  Bonaparte  had  been  repeatedly  driven  from 
his  capital,  Napoleon  restored  Ferdinand  to  power.  His 
reign  was  subsequently  disturbed  by  the  disputes  of  the 
two  parties  called  the  Liberals,  or  those  who  favoured 
the  Constitution  of  1812,  and  the  Absolutists,  or  Apos- 
tolical party,  the  monarch  favouring  the  latter.  Fer- 
dinand had  two  daughters  by  his  fourth  wife,  Maria 
Christina,  daughter  of  Francis,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 
The  eldest  of  these,  Maria  Isabella,  became  Queen  of 
Spain  upon  her  father's  death  in  1833. 

See  SouTHEY,  "  History  of  the  Peninsular  War ;"  De  Pradt, 
"Memoires  sur  la  Revolution  d'Espagne,"  1S16;  General  Fov, 
"  Guerre  de  la  Peninsule,"  4  vols. ;  Godoy,    Memoirs,"  4  vols. 

Ferdinand  I.,  II.,  and  III.  of  Bohemia.  See  Ferdi- 
nand I.,  II.,  and  HI.,  Emperors  of  Germany  and 
Austria. 

Ferdinand  [It.  Ferdinando,  feR-de-nlnMo]  I.,  King 
of  Naples,  natural  and  only  son  of  Alfonso,  King  of  Ara- 
gon,  was  born  in  1423,  legitimized  by  Pope  Eugene  IV., 
and  crowned  King  of  Naples  in  1458.  The  false  and  cruel 
character  of  Ferdinand  soon  caused  a  general  revolt  of 
his  subjects,  who  invited  John  of  Anjou  to  take  posses- 
sion of  the  throne.  At  first  Ferdinand  met  with  some 
severe  losses  ;  but,  assisted  by  Pope  Pius  II,  and  the 
Duke  of  Milan,  he  gained,  in  August,  1462,  at  Troia,  a 
decisive  victory  over  the  French,  by  which  success  his 
power  was  completely  restored.  In  1485  the  barons, 
assisted  by  Pope  Innocent  VIII.,  revolted  against  Fer- 
dinand, who  obtained  peace  only  on  granting  their  de- 
mands ;  but  as  soon  as  they  disarmed  he  caused  the 
barons  to  be  arrested  and  put  to  death.  For  this  treach- 
erous proceeding  he  was  excommunicated  by  the  pope. 
Ferdinand  died  in  1494,  detested  by  his  subjects,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Alfonso  II. 

See  Mariana,  "Historia  de  Rebus  Hispaniae ;"  Sismondi, 
"  Histoire  des  R^publiques  Italiennes;"  Guicciardini,  "  Istoria 
d'ltalia;"  Pontano,  "Historia  Neapolitana  ab  Anno  1458  ad  Annum 
1494,"  1617. 

Ferdinand  (Ferdinando)  II.,  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  son  of  Alfonso  II.,  was  born  about  1468,  and 
ascended  the  throne  of  Naples  in  January,  1495.  The 
Neapolitans,  having  a  long  time  conceived  a  hatred  for 


the  house  of  Aragon,  now  revolted,  and  Ferdinand  was 
obliged  to  leave  Naples,  which  was  shortly  afterwards 
invested  by  the  French  under  Charles  VIII.  But,  on 
obtaining  assistance  from  the  King  of  Aragon,  who  sent 
him  troops  commanded  by  the  great  captain  Gonsalvo 
de  Cordova,  Ferdinand  succeeded  in  driving  the  French 
from  Naples.    He  died,  without  issue,  in  1496. 

See  Guicciardini,  "Istoria  d'ltalia;"  Philippe  de  Comines, 
"  Chronique." 

Ferdinand  (Ferdinando)  III.  of  Naples.  See 
Ferdinand  V.  of  Spain. 

Ferdinand  (Ferdinando)  IV.,  King  of  Naples,  after- 
wards called  Ferdinand  I.  of  the  United  Kingdoms  of 
the  Two  Sicilies,  was  born  in  1 75 1.  He  was  a  younger 
son  of  Charles  III.  of  Spain.  He  began  to  reign  when 
he  was  but  eight  years  old.  The  Marcpiis  Tanucci,  who 
possessed  much  ability  as  a  minister,  was  appointed 
regent.  He,  however,  totally  neglected  the  education  of 
the  young  prince.  In  1768  Ferdinand  married  Maria 
Carolina  of  Austria,  daughter  of  Maria  Theresa,  who, 
being  a  princess  of  great  ambition,  cruelty,  and  energy, 
misgoverned  Naples  under  her  husbancl's  name.  In 
1777,  Tanucci,  who  had  been  created  prime  minister,  was 
dismissed,  and  John  Acton,  an  Englishman,  came  mto 
power.  His  administration  was  even  far  less  beneficial 
than  Tanucci'.s.  In  1792  the  court  of  Naples  joined  the 
allies  against  France,  but  four  years  later  purchased  a 
peace  from  the  French  Directory.  In  1798  it  formed 
a  secret  alliance  with  Russia,  Austria,  and  England,  and 
the  Neapolitan  army  marched  against  the  French,  by 
whom  they  were  defeated  about  the  end  of  1798.  The 
queen,  becoming  alarmed,  fled  to  Sicily,  whither  she  was 
followed  by  the  king  in  1799.  The  successes  of  the  allies 
in  1799  restored  to  power  Ferdinand  and  his  queen,  who, 
by  the  aid  of  Lord  Nelson,  inflicted  a  treacherous  and 
bloody  revenge  on  the  republicans.  Many  of  the  best  and 
noblest  citizens  of  Naples  were  then  executed.  Ferdi- 
nand formed  a  treaty  of  peace  with  France  in  1801,  but  in 
1805  entered  another  secret  alliance.  Napoleon  I.  then 
declared  that  the  Bourbon  dynasty  had  ceased  to  reign 
at  Naples,  and  created  Murat  sovereign  of  that  kingdom. 
Ferdinand  retired  to  Sicily,  where  he  was  protected  by 
the  British  until  the  overthrow  of  the  French  emperor. 
In  181 2  he  was  induced  to  resign  his  authority  into  the 
hands  of  his  son  Francis.  On  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  in 
1814,  he  was  restored  to  the  throne  of  Naples.  In  1816 
he  united  the  kingdoms  of  Naples  and  Sicily  under  the 
same  form  of  government.  He  died,  generally  detested, 
in  1825,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis  1. 

See  BoTTA,  "Storia  d'ltalia  dal  1789  al  1814;"  Thiers,  "His- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution,"  and  his  "History  of  the  Consulate 
and  of  the  Empire." 

Ferdinand  (Ferdinando)  II.,  King  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  born  in  1810,  was  a  son  of  Francis  I.  He  began 
to  reign  in  November,  1830,  and  married  Maria  Theresa, 
an  Austrian  princess,  in  1837.  His  oppressive  and 
despotic  reign  provoked  a  series  of  conspiracies  and  in- 
surrections, which  were  suppressed  with  great  cruelty. 
He  was  nicknamed  "Bomba."  He  died  in  1859,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis  II. 

See  Gladstone,  "Letters  to  Lord  Aberdeen,"  1851;  Farini, 
"  II  Stato  Romano,"  and  English  version  of  the  same,  by  W.  E. 
Gladstone,  1851. 

Ferdinand  (or  Fernando)  I.,  King  of  Portugal,  son 
of  Peter  the  Cruel  and  Constance  of  Castile,  born  at 
Coimbra  in  1345,  ascended  the  throne  in  1367.  He 
engaged  in  a  war  with  Henry  II.  of  Castile,  who  invaded 
Portugal,  and,  after  gaining  two  victories,  compelled 
Ferdinand  to  sue  for  peace,  the  articles  of  which  were 
signed  in  1371.  Died  in  1383.  Ferdinand  left  behind 
him  the  reputation  of  a  just  and  beneficent  prince. 

Ferdinand  (or  Fernando)  II.,  King  of  Portugal,  a 
younger  son  of  Queen  Maria  II.,  was  born  about  1838, 
He  succeeded  his  brother,  Don  Pedro  V.,  in  November, 
1861. 

His  father,  Ferdinand  Augustus  of  Saxe-Coburg, 
had  married  the  Portuguese  queen  Maria  II.,  after  whose 
death,  in  1853,  he  was  for  a  short  time  regent  of  the 
kingdom. 

Ferdinand  [It.  Ferdinando,  f^R-de-ninMo]  I.  de' 
Medici,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  born  in  1549,  was  a 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guthcral;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FERDINAND 


908 


FERGUSON 


younger  son  of  Cosimo  I.  He  succeeded  his  brother, 
Francesco,  in  1587.    Died  in  1609. 

Ferdinand  (Ferdinando)  II.,  Grand  Duke  of  Tus- 
cany, born  in  1610,  was  a  son  of  Cosimo  II.,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  1620.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  literature 
and  art.  He  died  in  1670,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Cosimo  III. 

Ferdinand  (Ferdinando)  III.  of  Tuscany,  born  in 
1769,  was  a  son  of  Pietro  Leopoldo,  and  a  brother  of 
Francis  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany.  He  began  to  reign 
in  1791,  was  expelled  by  the  French  about  1800,  and  re- 
stored in  1 8 14.  He  was  more  liberal  and  mild  than  the 
other  Italian  princes  of  that  period.  Died  in  1824,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Leopold  II. 

See  GoNNELLi,  "  Elogio  di  Ferdinando  III.,"  1824;  Zeller, 
"  Histoire  d'ltalie." 

Ferdinand,  (Ferdinando,)  Duke  of  Parma,  born  in 
1757,  was  a  son  of  Philip  of  Bourbon.  His  mother  was 
Elizabeth,  a  daughter  of  Louis  XV.  of  France.  He  began 
to  reign  in  1765,  and  left  the  direction  of  affairs  to  the 
Marquis  de  Felino.    Died  in  1802. 

Ferdinand,  (Fernando,)  son  of  James  II.,  King  of 
Aragon,  born  at  Valencia  in  1228.  James  had  divided 
the  kingdom  among  his  sons,  which  produced  a  war 
between  Don  Ferdinand  and  his  brother,  Don  Pedro, 
in  which  the  former  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner. 
Don  Pedro  ordered  him  to  be  thrown  into  the  river 
Cinga.    This  occurred  in  1275. 

Ferdinand,  or  Fernando,  Infante  of  Portugal,  born 
in  1402,  was  a  younger  son  of  John  I.  He  accompanied 
a  Portuguese  army  which  invaded  Barbary  in  1437  and 
was  defeated.  He  remained  as  a  hostage  in  the  power 
of  the  Moors,  and  died  at  Fez  in  1443. 

Ferdinand,  (August  Franz  Anton,)  Duke  of  Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha,  and  prince-consort  of  Portugal,  was  born 
in  r8i6.  He  married  Maria,  Queen  of  Portugal,  in  1836. 
His  son  became  king  in  1855,  with  the  title  of  Pedro  V. 

Ferdinand  (Fernando)  of  Aragon,  Archbishop  of 
Saragossa,  and  grandson  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  was 
born  at  Madrid  in  15 14.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  valuable  history  of  the  kings  and  prelates  of  Aragon. 
Died  in  1575. 

Ferdinand  of  Bavaria,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  and 
Prince-Bishop  of  Liege  and  Miinster,  was  born  in  1577. 
He  commanded  a  body  of  troops  which  fought  against 
the  Protestants  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war.  During  his 
reign,  there  were  a  series  of  bloody  revolts  at  Liege. 
Died  in  1650. 

Ferdinand,  or  Fernando,  Duke  of  Braganza,  a  Por- 
tuguese general,  born  in  1403,  was  a  son  of  Alfonso,  the 
first  Duke  of  Braganza.    Died  in  1478. 

Ferdinand  (Fernando)  of  Cordova,  celebrated  for 
his  universal  knowledge,  was  born  about  1420.  He 
signalized  his  bravery  under  John  II.  of  Castile  in 
the  war  against  the  Moors ;  but,  preferring  the  pen  to 
the  sword,  he  retired  from  the  army,  and  occupied  the 
chair  of  professor  in  several  Spanish  universities.  He 
stood  high  in  the  favour  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  who 
granted  him  a  pension.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
works  on  theology,  etc.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died 
about  1480. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Ferdinand  (Charles  Joseph)  of  Este,  Archduke 
of  Austria,  born  in  1781,  was  a  son  of  Ferdinand  Charles 
Anton  Joseph,  and  a  nephew  of  the  emperor  Leopold. 
He  commanded  an  army  against  the  French,  and  after- 
wards against  the  Poles,  in  both  instances  unsuccess- 
fully.   Died  in  1850. 

Ferdinand  (Fernando)  of  Spain,  Cardinal,  born 
in  1609,  was  the  third  son  of  Philip  HI.  of  Spain.  He 
became  Governor  of  the  Low  Countries  in  1633,  and 
invaded  France  in  1636.    Died  in  1641. 

See  Schiller,  "  History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War ;"  Coxe,  "  His- 
tory of  the  House  of  Austria,"  3  vols.,  1807. 

Ferdinand  (Fernando)  de  Jesus — da  h^-soos',  a 
Spanish  Carmelite  and  ecclesiastical  writer,  born  at  Jaen 
in  1 570.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Commentaries 
on  Aristotle."    Died  at  Granada  in  1644. 

Ferdinand  de  Talavera — da  t3.-la-va'ra,  a  Spanish 
monk,  and  confessor  to  Queen  Isabella  of  Castile,  was 
born  at  Talavera  de  la  Reyna  in  1445.  Pie  was  appointed 


Archbishop  of  Granada  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  Died 
in  1507. 

Ferdinandi,  fgR-de-nSu'dee,  (Epifanio,)  a  distin- 
guished Italian  philosopher  and  physician,  born  at  Mi- 
sagna,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  in  1569.  He  was  the 
author  of  numerous  philosophical  and  medical  works, 
among  which  is  "  Centum  Historiae,  sen  Observationes 
et  Casus  Medici,"  (1621,  often  reprinted.)    Died  in  1638. 

Ferdinandi,  f^R-de-ninMee,  or  Fernandi,  (Ik-wW- 
dee,  (Francesco,)  called  Imperiali,  a  painter  of  the 
Roman  school,  who  worked  at  Rome  in  1730. 

Ferdoucy  or  Ferdousi.    See  Firdousee. 

Ferdusi.    See  P'irdousee. 

Fereedoon,  Feridoun,  or  Feridun,  fir'ee-doon',  a 
king  of  ancient  Persia,  of  the  Peshdadian  dynasty,  was 
a  son  of  the  famous  Jemsheed,  (or  Jamshid.)  He  is 
regarded  by  the  Persians  as  a  model  of  every  virtue. 

See  Atkinson's  "Abridgment  of  the  Shah-Nanieh  of  Firdausi," 
London,  1832;  and  "A  Short  History  of  Persia,"  in  vol.  v.  of  Sir 
William  Jones's  Works. 

Feretrius,  a  surname  of  Jupiter,  which  see. 

Ferg,  fguG,  (Paul  Franz,)  an  excellent  German  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Vienna  in  1689;  died  about  1740. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Fer'gus  I.,  King  of  Scotland,  was  engaged  in  wars 
with  the  Romans  and  Britons.    Died  about  450  a.d. 

Fergus  II.  succeeded  Eugene  VII.  in  764.  He  was 
killed  in  767. 

Fer''gus-on,  (Adam,)  a  distinguished  Scottish  writer 
and  metaphysician,  born  in  Perthshire  in  1724,  studied 
at  the  University  of  Saint  Andrew's  and  at  that  of  Edin- 
burgh. He  filled  for  some  years  the  ofiice  of  chaplain 
in  a  Highland  regiment.  In  1759  he  was  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  where  in  1764  he  became  professor  of  moral 
philosophy.  In  1767  he  published  his  first  work,  an 
"  Essay  on  the  History  of  Civil  Society,"  which  was 
translated  into  several  languages.  In  1778  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  to  the  five  commissioners  sent  to  the 
United  States  to  effect  a  reconciliation.  Of  his  numerous 
works  the  most  important  is  his  "  History  of  the  Progress 
and  Termination  of  the  Roman  Republic,"  (3  vols.,  1783.) 
Died  in  1816. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;" 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1867. 

Ferguson,  (James,)  an  eminent  self-taught  astrono- 
mer and  mechanician,  born  near  Keith,  in  the  north  of 
Scotland,  in  17 10.  His  father,  though  a  day-labourer, 
succeeded  in  teaching  all  his  children  to  read  and  write. 
Ferguson's  mechanical  genius  was  first  developed  when 
he  was  but  seven  or  eight  years  old.  The  roof  of  their 
cottage  had  partly  fallen  in,  and  his  father,  in  order  to 
raise  it,  used  a  lever  and  fulcrum.  It  appeared  almost 
incredible  to  young  Ferguson  that  one  man  could  raise 
such  a  great  weight.  He  began  to  experiment  with 
levers  of  different  sizes.  To  these  he  added  the  wheel 
and  axle,  and  drew  up  a  short  treatise  on  the  subject. 
His  father  having  placed  him  with  a  farmer  to  take 
charge  of  sheep,  he  began  to  study  the  stars  at  night,  and 
to  construct  models  of  mills,  spinning-wheels,  etc.  in  the 
daytime.  He  afterwards  went  to  live  with  a  farmer 
named  Glashan,  who  treated  him  with  great  kindness 
and  allowed  him  leisure  for  his  studies.  He  also  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Mr.  Grant,  a  gentleman  who  soon 
took  Ferguson  into  his  service  and  placed  him  under  the 
instruction  of  his  butler,  Robert  Cautley,  an  ingenious 
and  well-informed  man,  from  whom  he  acquired  some 
knowledge  of  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry.  In 
order  to  amuse  himself  during  an  illness,  he  constructed 
a  wooden  clock,  which  was  a  good  time-keeper.  He 
also  foriiied  a  wooden  watch  with  a  whalebone  spring, 
and  began  to  earn  small  sums  by  repairing  and  cleaning 
clocks.  Pie  turned  his  attention  to  drawing  patterns  for 
needle-work,  copying  pictures,  and  taking  portraits  in 
India-ink.  In  the  last  employment  he  was  so  successful 
that  he  was  induced  to  go  to  Edinburgh,  where,  through 
the  patronage  of  the  Marchioness  of  Douglas,  he  gained 
a  sufficient  sum  to  support  himself  and  to  assist  his  pa- 
rents. He  followed  this  profession,  as  a  means  of  obtain- 
ing a  livelihood,  for  about  twenty-six  years.  He  invented 
an  orrery  on  a  less  intricate  plan  than  those  formerly 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAorf;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FERGUSON 


FERNANDES 


constructed.  In  1743  he  removed  to  London.  In  1747 
he  published  a  "  Dissertation  on  the  Phenomena  of  the 
Harvest  Moon,"  and  in  1748  commenced  lecturing  on 
astronomy  and  mechanics.  He  was  patronized  by  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  George  III.,  who,  after  he 
ascended  the  throne,  granted  Ferguson  a  pension  of  fifty 
pounds  a  year  from  his  privy  purse.  Ferguson  said  that 
the  best  machine  he  ever  invented  was  the  Eclipsareon, 
which  showed  the  time,  quantity,  duration,  and  ])rogress 
of  solar  eclipses  in  all  parts  of  the  earth.  Among  his 
most  important  works  we  may  mention  "Astronomy  ex- 
plained upon  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Principles,  and  made 
easy  to  those  who  have  not  studied  Mathematics,"  {2 
vols.,  1 82 1,)  and  "Lectures  on  Subjects  in  Mechanics, 
Hydrostatics,  Pneumatics,  Optics,"  etc.    Died  in  1776. 

See  his  "Autobiography;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary 
of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  C.  Henderson,  "  Life  of  James  Ferguson," 
Edinburgh,  1867;  "Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  i., 
1839;  C.  L.  Brightwell,  "Annals  of  Industry  and  Genius." 

Ferguson  or  Fergusson,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  poet, 
born  in  Edinburgh  in  1750.  He  published  a  volume  of 
poems  in  1773.  His  habits  were  very  dissipated.  He 
became  insane  and  died  in  1774. 

See  D.  Irving,  "  Life  of  R.  Ferguson,"  1810;  A.  Peterkin, 
"Life  of  R.  Ferguson." 

Ferguson,  (Robert,)  M.D.,  a  British  medical  writer, 
born  in  1799.  He  published  a  work  "On  Puerperal 
Fever."    Died  in  1865. 

Ferguson,  (Roijert,)  a  British  poet  and  prose  writer, 
born  at  Carlisle  about  1820.  He  published  a  collection 
of  poems,  entitled  "The  Shadow  of  the  Pyramid,"  (1847,) 
and  "The  Pipe  of  Repose ;  or,  Recollections  of  Eastern 
Travel,"  (1848.) 

Ferguson,  (William,)  a  Scottish  painter  of  still  life. 
Died  in  1690. 

Fer'gus-son,  (James,)  a  celebrated  architect,  born  at 
Ayr,  in  Scotland,  in  1808.  After  spending  ten  years  in 
India  and  China,  he  returned  to  England  and  employed 
his  time  in  literary  and  scientific  studies.  In  1849 
Drought  forward  a  new  theory  in  regard  to  fortifications, 
in  which  he  advocated  the  superiority  of  round  forts  to 
those  formed  of  angles,  and  the  use  of  earth-work  for 
masonry,  and  of  terraces.  His  plan  was  at  first  ridiculed  ; 
but  after  the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  where  Mr.  Fergusson's 
suggestions  had  produced  important  results,  it  was  re- 
ceived far  more  favourably.  He  is  the  author  of  numerous 
works  upon  architecture  and  fortifications,  among  which 
we  may  cite  "An  Essay  on  the  Ancient  Topography  of 
Jerusalem,"  (1847,)  "Picturesque  Illustrations  of  An- 
cient Architecture  in  Hindostan,"  (1848,)  "The  Palaces 
of  Nineveh  and  Persepolis  Restored,"  (1851,)  "  Illustrated 
Hand-Book  of  Architecture,"  (1855,)  and  the  "Peril  of 
Portsmouth,  or  French  Fleets  and  English  Forts." 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1857,  and  July,  1863; 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1859. 

Ferhad-  (fer-hSdO  Pasha,  a  Turk,  who  became  grand 
vizier  of  Amurath  HI.  in  1581.  He  was  defeated  near 
Nicopolis,  for  which  he  was  put  to  death  in  1596. 

Ferichtah.    See  Fekishi  a. 

Ferid-eddin-Attar,  (or  -Athar.)    See  Attar-Fe- 

RKK1)-EI)-DeEN. 

Feridoun  or  Feridun.    See  Fereedoon. 

Feriol  or  FerrioL    See  Pont-de-Veyle. 

Ferishta,  Ferischtah,  or  Ferichtah,  fer'ish-tah, 
(Mohammed-Ka.sim,  mo-hdni'med  ki'sitn,)  an  emi- 
nent Persian  historian,  born  at  Astrabad  about  1550,  or, 
according  to  some  accounts,  1570.  His  great  work  was 
a  "  History  of  India,"  commencing  about  the  close  of 
the  tenth  century ;  though  in  the  introduction  he  gives  a 
short  account  of  Indian  history  previous  to  the  invasion 
of  the  Mohammedans.  It  was  translated  into  English 
by  Alexander  Dow,  (2  vols.,  1768.)  A  better  English 
version  was  published  by  General  Briggs,  "History  of 
the  Rise  of  the  Mahomedan  Power  in  India,"  (London, 
4  vols.  8vo,  1829.)  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about 
1625. 

See  Von  Hammer,  article  in  the  "Wiener  Jahrbiicher,"  vol.  li. ; 
Briggs,  Preface  to  Translation  of  the  "History  of  the  Mahomedan 
Power  in  India." 

Ferloni,  f^R-lo'nee,  (Severing  Antonio,)  a  learned 
Italian  ecclesiastic,  born  in  the  Papal  States  in  1740,  was 
a  partisan  of  Napoleon.    Died  in  1813. 


Fermanel,  f^R^mt^iSK,  a  French  traveller,  visited 
Palestine  and  other  parts  of  Asia  Minor  in  1630,  and 
published,  after  his  return,  a  "  Voyage  to  Italy  and  the 
Levant." 

Fermat,  de,  deh  f§R^mt',  (Pierre,)  a  celebrated 
French  mathematician  and  lawyer.  According  to  sev- 
eral biographers,  he  was  born  at  Toulouse  in  1595;  but 
Dr.  Hoefer  states  that  he  was  born  near  Montauban  in 
1601.  He  -was  one  of  the  counsellors  of  the  parlia- 
ment of  Toulouse,  and  cultivated  mathematics  as  a  re- 
creation. He  corresponded  with  Descartes,  Roberval, 
Mersenne,  and  others.  The  French  savants  claim  that 
he  is  entitled  to  a  great  part  of  the  honour  of  the  dis- 
covery of  the  differentia]  calculus,  which  is  generally 
awarded  to  Newton.  He  made  important  discoveries 
in  the  theory  of  numbers,  and  invented  a  method  of 
finding  maxima  and  minima.  According  to  La  Place, 
Fermat  shares  with  Pascal  the  honour  of  the  invention 
of  the  calculus  of  probabilities.  He  died  at  Toulouse 
in  January,  1665,  leaving  several  works,  which  were 
published  by  his  son  Samuel,  under  the  title  of  "Varia 
Opera,"  (1679.)  He  had  married  Louise  du  Long  about 
1631.  "The  geometer  next  in  genius  to  Descartes," 
says  Hallam,  "and  perhaps  nearer  to  him  than  to  any 
third,  was  Fermat,  a  man  of  various  acquirements,  of 
high  rank  in  the  parliament  of  Toulouse,  and  of  a  mind 
incapable  of  envy,  forgiving  of  detraction,  and  delighting 
in  truth,  with  almost  too  much  indifference  to  praise." 
("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques ;"  Genty,  "  De 
rinfluence  de  Fermat  sur  son  Siecle,"  1784 ;  "Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes"  for  May,  1845;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Fermat,  de,  (Samuel,)  a  French  lawyer  and  poet,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1632,  was  a 
counsellor  to  the  parliament.  He  wrote  several  treatises 
on  law  and  other  subjects.    Died  in  1690. 

Ferme,  ferm,  (Charles,)  a  Scottish  divine,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  became  minister  at  Fraserburgh  about  1600. 
He  wrote  a  Latin  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Roinans,  (1651.)    Died  about  1618. 

Fermin,  f^R^min  or  fgR'm^N',  (Philippus,)  a  Dutch 
physician  and  traveller,  born  at  Maestricht.  He  visited 
Surinam  in  1754,  resided  there  nearly  ten  years,  and 
published  several  works  relating  to  the  geography  and 
natural  history  of  that  colony. 

Fermo,  da,  dS  f^R'mo,  (Lorenzino,)  an  able  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Fermo,  flourished  about  1660. 

Fermor,  f^R'moR,  (Wilhelm,)  Coun  r  of,  a  Russian 
general,  born  at  Pleskov  in  1704,  served  with  distinction 
in  the  Seven  Years'  war  and  against  the  Turks,  and 
was  subsequently  created  a  counL  He  commanded  the 
Russian  army  which  Frederick  the  Great  defeated  at 
Zorndorf  in  1 761.    Died  in  1771. 

Fern,  (Fanny.)    See  Parton. 

Fernand,  f^R^nfiN',  [Lat.  Phernan'dus,]  Ferrand, 
fi'rSN',  or  Frenand,fReh'n6N',  (Charles,)  a  teacher  of 
theology  and  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Paris,  was 
born  at  Bruges  about  1450.  He  became  blind  in  child- 
hood. He  was  the  author  of  several  ecclesiastical  works. 
Died  in  1496. 

See  Valere  Andre,  "Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Fernand,  fer-nSnd',  or  Fernan,  fer-nin',  (Gonzalez,) 
a  famous  Castilian  hero  or  cavalier,  born  about  910  A.D., 
was  the  first  Count  of  Castile.  He  gained  several  vic- 
tories over  the  Moors.  His  adventures  were  favourite 
subjects  of  Spanish  writers  of  romance.    Died  after  950. 

Fernand  Nunez,  (or  Nunes,)  de,  di f^r-nSnd'  noon'- 
ygth,  (or  noon'ygs,)  Count,  a  Spanish  noble,  born  in 
Madrid  in  1778.  As  a  partisan  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  he 
was  declared  a  traitor  to  France  and  Spain  by  Napoleon 
I.  He  escaped,  however,  the  vengeance  of  the  emperor ; 
and  when  Ferdinand  returned  to  his  kingdom,  in  1814, 
Fernand  Nunez  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  England,  and 
subsequently  to  Paris.    Died  in  1821. 

Fernandes,  fgR-nSnMSs,  (Alvaro,  ai'v^-ro,)  a  dis- 
tinguished Portuguese  navigator,  explored  the  west  coast 
of  Africa  about  1448. 

Fernandes,  fgR-nSu'des,  or  Ferdinand,  feRMe-n^nt, 
(Valentin,)  a  German  printer  and  translator,  lived  at 
Lisbon  about  1500.  He  translated  part  of  Marco  Polo's 
Travels  into  Portuguese,  (1502.) 


■e  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi, giitkiral ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FERNANDES 


910 


FERRANDO 


Fernandes  or  Fernandez,  (Vasco,)  an  eminent 
Portuguese  painter,  born  at  Viseu  in  1552.  Little  is 
known  of  his  life. 

Fernandez.    See  Hernandez. 

Fernandez,  feR-nan'cleth,(  Alfonzo,)  a  Spanish  monk 
and  historian,  born  at  Palencia  in  1572;  died  in  1640. 

Fernandez,  (An  ion  10  de  Arias — di  S're-ds,)  a 
celebrated  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Madrid.  His  pic- 
tures had  once  a  high  reputation.    Died  in  1684. 

Fernandez,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  historian  and  soldier, 
born  at  Palencia.  He  embarked  for  Peru  in  1545,  and 
entered  the  service  of  the  viceroy  Hurtado  de  Mendoza, 
as  historiographer,  in  1555.  He  w^rote  a  *' History  of 
Peru,"  (157 1,)  which  is  said  to  be  the  best  contemporary 
work  on  that  subject. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Fernandez,  feR-nSnM^z,  (Diniz,)  a  Portuguese  navi- 
gator, born  in  Lisbon,  sailed  about  1446  on  an  exploring 
expedition  to  Africa,  and  discovered  the  mouth  of  the 
Senegal,  and  the  promontory  at  the  extreme  western  part 
of  Africa,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Cape  Verd. 

Fernandez,  (  Francisco,  )  a  celebrated  Spanish 
painter,  born  in  Madrid  in  1605  ;  died  in  1646. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "Vies  des  Peiutres  Espagnols." 

Fernandez,  (Joao,)  a  Portuguese  traveller,  who  about 
1446  visited  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  first  European  who  penetrated  into  the 
interior  of  that  continent,  which  he  entered  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Rio  do  Ouro. 

Fernandez,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  captain  and  navigator, 
entered  in  1 533  the  service  of  Alvarado  in  South  America. 
He  accompanied  Antonio  de  Sedeno  in  an  expedition  to 
Venezuela.    Died  in  1538. 

Fernandez,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  pilot  and  navigator, 
discovered  in  1563  the  two  islands  which  bear  his  name, 
and  planted  a  colony  on  the  larger  island,  which  is  eigh- 
teen miles  long.  The  adventures  of  Alexander  Selkirk 
on  this  island  are  supposed  to  have  formed  the  basis  of 
De  Foe's  story  of  "  Robinson  Crusoe."  Other  discoveries 
in  the  Southern  Ocean  are  ascribed  to  him.  Died  in  1576. 

See  Anson,  "  Voyage  round  the  World,"  etc. 

Fernandez,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  painter  and  disciple 
of  Eugenio  Caxes,  was  born  in  Madrid  about  1594;  died 
in  1654. 

Fernandez  de  Cordova.    See  Gonzalvo. 

Fernandez  de  Laredo,  f^R-ndn'd^th  di  la-ra'Do, 
(Juan,)  a  Spanish  painter  in  fresco,  born  at  Madrid  in 
1632  ;  died  in  1692. 

Fernandez  Navarrete.    See  Mudo,  el. 

Fernandez  Villareal,  feR-nin'd^z  vil-LVra'Sl,  (Ma- 
ngel,) a  Portuguese  writer,  born  in  Lisbon,  published  a 
curious  work  on  the  imprisonment  of  the  Portuguese 
prince  Duarte  in  Germany,  "  El  Principe  vendido,"  etc., 
(1643.)  ^^''^s  accused  of  observing  the  Mosaic  law, 

and  was  strangled  in  Lisbon  in  1652. 

Fernandi.    See  Ferdinandi. 

Fernau,  f^R^now,  (Karl,)  originally  Sebastian 
Francis  Daxenberger,  a  German  litterateur,  born  at 
Munich  in  1809,  wrote  "Mythical  Poems,"  and  several 
dramas,  among  which  is  one  called  "  Bianca  Capello." 

Ferne,  fern  or  farn,  (Henry,)  a  learned  English 
prelate,  born  at  York  in  1602,  was  one  of  the  first  who 
openly  defended  by  his  writings  the  cause  of  Charles  L 
After  the  restoration  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Chester,  in 
1660.    Died  in  1661. 

Ferne,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  antiquary,  father  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Lincolnshire  ;  died  about  16 10.  He 
published  "The  Blazon  of  the  Gentry,"  (1586.) 

Ferneham,  farn'ham,  ?  (Nicholas,)  an  English  phy- 
sician and  naturalist,  gave  much  attention  to  botany.  He 
became  physician  to  Henry  HL,  and  afterwards  Bishop 
of  Durham.    Died  in  1241. 

Fernel,  fCR'neK,  [Lat.  Ferne'lius,]  (Jean,)  an  emi- 
nent French  physician,  surnamed  the  modern  Galen, 
was  born  at  Clermont  in  Beauvoisis  in  1497.  prac- 
tised iw  Paris,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  prac- 
titioner, a  professor,  and  an  elegant  writer.  About  1547 
he  received  the  title  of  first  physician  to  Henry  H.  He 
was  the  teacher  of  Vesalius.  He  wrote  numerous  works 
on  anatomy,  pathology,  therapeutics,  etc.,  among  which 


are  "De  abditis  Rerum  Causis,"  (1548,)  and  "J.  Fernelii 
Medicina,"  (1554,)  often  reprinted.    Died  in  April,  1558. 

See  G.  Plantius,  "Vita  Fernelii;"  De  Thou,  "  Hisiorijf  sui 
Temporis;"  P>ayi.e,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Fernow,  fgR'no,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  a  German  author 
and  critic,  born  at  Blumenhagen,  in  Prussia,  in  1763. 
He  studied  the  theory  and  history  of  art  at  Rome  under 
the  direction  of  his  friend  Carstens,  whose  life  he  wrote, 
(1806.)  Among  his  works  are  "  Roman  Studies,"  ("  Ro- 
mische  Studien,"  1806-08,)  "Ariosto's  Lebenslauf," 
(1809,)  and  "  Francesco  Petrarca,"  (1818.)  Died  in  1808. 

See  J.  Schopenhauer,  "  C.  L.  Fernow's  Lcben,"  1810. 

Feron,  (Firmin  Eloi,)  a  painter  of  history, 

born  in  Paris  in  1802,  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1825. 

Fe-ro'ni-a,  [Fr.  Feronie,  fa'ro'ne',]  an  ancient  Italian 
divinity,  whose  worship  originated  with  the  Sabines.  Her 
character  is  not  well  understood. 

Feroze  or  Ferose.    See  Fyroz. 

Ferracino,  fer-rd-chec'no,  (Bartolommeo,)  a  cele- 
brated Italian  mechanician  and  engineer,  was  born  near 
Bassano  in  1692.  Among  his  inventions  were  a  saw 
driven  by  the  wind,  a  hydraulic  engine  which  raised  water 
to  the  height  of  thirty-five  feet,  and  a  bridge  over  the 
Brenta  at  Bassano,  which  won  for  him  a  high  reputation. 
The  inhabitants  of  Bassano  raised  a  monument  to  his 
memory.    Died  in  1777. 

See  F.  Memmo,  "Vita  di  Bartolommeo  Ferracino." 

Ferracuti,  f^r-rS-koo'tee,  (Giovanni  Domenico,)  an 
Italian  landscape-painter,  born  at  Macerata,  flourished 
about  1700.    He  was  a  pupil  of  Claude  Lorrain. 

Ferraiuoli  or  Ferrajuoli,  fer-ra-yoo-o'lee,  (Nunzio,) 
a  Neapolitan  landscape-painter,  born  in  Nocera,  near 
Salerno,' in  1661  ;  died  in  1735. 

Ferramola,  f^r-rS-mo'lS,  (Fioravante,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Brescia;  died  in  1528. 

Ferrand,  fa^rSN',  a  French  traveller  and  physician, 
born  about  1670.  He  became  medical  adviser  to  the 
Khan  of  the  Tartars  of  Crimea,  and  wrote  several  works 
relating  to  that  country. 

Ferrand,  (Antoine,)  a  distinguished  French  writer 
of  epigrams,  born  in  Paris  in  1678;  died  in  that  city  in 
1719. 

Ferrand,  (Antoine  Francois  Claude,)  Count,  a 
French  writer  on  politics,  history,  etc.,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1 75 1.  He  emigrated  as  a  royalist  in  1789.  In  1814 
he  became  director-general  of  the  post-office.  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  by  the  king 
in  1816.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Spirit  of  History," 
("L'Esprit  de  THistoire,"  1802;  6th  edition,  4  vols., 
1826.)    Died  in  1825. 

SeeCASiMiR  Delavigne,  "Discoursde Reception" at  the  French 
Academy. 

Ferrand,  (Jacques,)  a  French  physician  and  writer, 
born  at  Agen,  lived  about  1620. 

Ferrand,  (Jacques,)  a  distinguished  French  general, 
born  in  1746;  died  in  1804. 

Ferrand,  (Jacques  Philippe,)  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Joigny  about  1653,  was  a  member  of  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy of  Painting,  and  the  author  of  a  work  entitled 
"Art  of  the  Fire,  or  Manner  of  Enamelling."  Died  in 
1732. 

Ferrand,  (Louis,)  a  French  advocate  and  writer  on 
theology,  born  in  Toulon  in  1645,  was  versed  in  Hebrew 
and  other  Oriental  languages.  He  was  the  author  of 
numerous  works,  among  which  is  "  Reflections  on  the 
Christian  Religion,"  (1679.)    Died  in  1699. 

Ferrand,  (Marie  Louis,)  a  French  general,  boiu  in 
Besan9on  in  1753,  accompanied  Leclerc  in  his  expedition 
against  Hayti  in  1802,  and,  on  the  death  of  that  general, 
succeeded  to  the  chief  command.  Having  failed  in  an 
attempt  to  suppress  a  revolt  in  Saint  Domingo,  he  shot 
himself  in  1808. 

Ferrand  de  la  Caussade,  f4'r6N'  deh  It  ko'std', 
(Jean  Henri  Becays — bi'ka',)  a  French  general,  born 
in  Mont-Flanquin,  in  Agenois,  in  1736,  served  under 
Dumouriez  at  the  defence  of  Valenciennes,  where  he 
greatly  distinguished  himself.    Died  in  Paris  in  1805. 

Ferrando,  fer-rdn'do,  (Gonsalvo,)  a  Spaniard,  born 
at  Oviedo  in  the  fifteenth  century,  introduced  lignum 
Giiaiaciim  into  Europe,  and  wrote  a  tract  on  it. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


FERRANDUS 


911 


FERRAUD 


Ferrandus,  (  Fulgen'tius,  )  [  Fr.  Fulgence  Fer- 
RAND,  fiiKzli6.\ss'  fi'rSx',]  a  Christian  writer,  born  in 
Africa,  was  a  deacon  of  the  Church  of  Carthage.  Among 
his  works  is  "  Breviatio  Canonuni."   Died  about  550  a.d. 

Ferrantini,  fer-ran-tee''nee,  (Gabriele,)  an  Italian 
painter,  l)orn  at  Bologna  about  1580,  was  called  Ga- 
briele DEGLi  OccHiALi,  {dkVytt  ok-ke-i'lce.)  He  ex- 
celled in  frescos.    Among  his  pupils  was  Guido  Reni. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Fei'^rar,  (Nicholas,)  a  learned  English  gentleman, 
born  in  London  in  1 592,  had  a  high  reputation  for  piety. 
He  formed  at  Little  Gidding  a  community  called  "the 
English  nunnery,"  the  inmates  of  which  were  his  relatives. 
The  whole  book  of  Psalms  was  repeated  by  them  every 
day,  and  this  devotion  was  practised  by  them  every  hour 
of  the  night.    Died  in  1637. 

See  P.  Peckard,  "  Life  of  N.  Ferrar,"  1790. 

Ferrar,  (Robert,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  York- 
shire, was  appointed  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  by  Edward 
VL  in  1548.  On  the  accession  of  Mary  he  was  con- 
demned as  a  heretic,  and  burnt,  in  1555. 

Ferrara,  f^r-ri'ra,  (Alfeo,)  a  distinguished  phj'sician, 
born  in  Sicily  in  1777,  was  the  author  of  a  "Memoir 
upon  the  Waters  of  Sicily,"  and  other  works.  Died  at 
Paris  in  1829. 

Ferrara,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian,  celebrated  as  a  sword- 
smith,  lived  about  1520-50.    He  worked  in  Spain. 

Ferrara,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  economist  and  writer 
on  statistics,  born  at  Palermo  in  1810.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Importance  of  Political  Econ- 
omy," (1849.) 

Ferrara,  (Michele,)  an  Italian  chemist  and  writer  on 
pharmacy,  born  in  Terra  di  Lavoro  in  1763  ;  died  in  181 7. 

Ferrara,  (Renee,  )  Duchess  of.  See  Renee  of 
France, 

Ferrara,  da,  d^  f?r-ra'ri,(  Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  the  school  of  Ferrara,  flourished  about  1450. 
See  Vasari,  *'  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Ferrara,  da,  (Ercole.)    See  Grandi. 

Ferrari,  fer-rS'ree,  (Antonio,)  surnamed  Galateo, 
[Lat.  Gal.vte'us  Leccen'sis,]  an  Italian  physician  and 
antiquary,  born  in  Galatina,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
in  1444,  was  the  author  of  several  philosophical  and 
historical  works.  He  passed  the  latter  part  of  his  life 
at  Lecce,  where  he  died  in  1 5 16. 

Ferrari,  (Antonio  Felice,)  an  Italian  painter  of  the 
school  of  Ferrara,  born  in  1668;  died  in  1719. 

Ferrari,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  religionist,  born 
at  Milan  in  1497.  He  founded  the  religious  order  or 
*     institution  of  Barnabites.    Died  in  1544. 

Ferrari,  (Bartolommeo,)  a  Venetian  sculptor,  born 
in  1780.  He  executed  a  number  of  superior  works  in 
marble,  bronze,  and  wood,  and  completed  the  restora- 
tion of  the  bronze  winged  lion  which  adorns  the  Piazzetta 
at  Venice.    Died  in  1844. 

Ferrari,  [Lat.  Ferra'rius, ]  (Francesco  Bernar- 
dino,) a  learned  Italian,  born  at  Milan  in  1577,  became 
librarian  of  the  Ambrosian  Library  about  1609.  He 
wrote  several  ecclesiastical  and  antiquarian  works, 
among  which  is  "  De  Ritu  sacrarum  Ecclesiae  Catholic^e 
Concionum,"  (1612.)  Died  in  1669,  He  collected  the 
nianuscrii^ts  and  books  which  formed  the  commencement 
of  the  Ambrosian  Library. 

Ferrari,  (Gaudenzio,)  an  eminent  painter  and  sculp- 
tor of  the  Milanese  school  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  was 
bcrn  at  Valduggia  in  1484.  He  studied  under  B.  Luini. 
Iii  1 5 16  he  aided  Raphael  in  painting  frescos  in  the  Vati- 
can at  Rome.  He  worked  mostly  at  Varallo.  His  style 
is  somewhat  Raphaelesque  ;  but  he  is  deficient  in  taste 
and  harmony  of  colour.  He  is  regarded  as  the  greatest 
painter  of  the  Milanese  school  after  Leonardo  da  Vinci. 
His  subjects  are  all  religious.    Died  at  Milan  in  1550. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  G.  Bordiga,  "Vita  di 
Gaudenzio  Ferrari,"  1821  ;  Lomazzo,  "Idea  del  Tempio  della  Pit- 
tura;"  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Ferrari,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  Orientalist 
and  naturalist,  born  at  Sienna  in  1584,  wnote  "Nomen- 
clator  Syriacus,"  (1622,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1655. 

Ferrari,  (Giovanni  Matteo,)  an  Italian  physician 
and  medical  writer,  born  near  Milan  ;  died  in  1472. 


Ferrari,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  philosopher,  born  at 
Milan  in  181 1,  became  a  resident  in  France.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  Strasbourg  in  [841. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Vico  and  Italy,"  (1839,)  and  an 
"  Essay  on  the  Principle  and  Limits  of  the  Philosophy 
of  History,"  (1847.)    Both  are  in  French. 

Ferrari,  (Gregorio,)  a  skilful  painter  of  the  Genoese 
school,  born  in  1644;  died  in  1726.  His  son  Lorenzo, 
called  Abbe  Ferrari,  was  also  a  painter.  He  was  born 
in  1680,  and  died  in  1744. 

Ferrari,  (Guido,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  Jesuit,  born 
at  Novara  in  171 7.  He  wrote  several  antiquarian  and 
historical  works.    Died  in  1791. 

Ferrari,  (Luca,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Reggio  in 
1605,  studied  under  Guido  Reni,  and  imitated  his  style 
successfully.    Died  in  1654. 

Ferrari,  (Ludovico,)  an  Italian  mathematician,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1522,  was  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated  Car- 
dan. He  discovered  the  mode  of  resolving  equations 
of  the  fourth  degree  which  is  called  by  his  name.  Died 
in  1565. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Math^tnatiques." 

Ferrari,  (Luigi,)  son  of  the  sculptor  Bartolommeo 
Ferrari,  born  at  Venice  in  1810,  is  ranked  among  the 
most  distinguished  sculptors  of  the  present  time.  His 
figures  of  "Melancholy"  and  "The  Lotos-gathering 
Nymph"  are  esteemed  master-pieces. 

Ferrari,  (Luigi  Maria  Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian 
ecclesiastic,  and  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy  at  Bologna,  born  at  Milan  in  1747.  He  was 
the  author  of  various  works  upon  religious  subjects  and 
upon  hydraulics.    Died  in  1820. 

Ferrari,  (Orazio,)  a  Genoese  painter,  born  at  Voltri 
in  1606;  died  in  1657. 

Ferrari,  (Ottaviano,)  an  Italian  scholar,  born  at 
Milan  in  15 18,  published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Origin  of 
the  Romans,"  (1607,)  and  other  critical  and  antiquarian 
works.    Died  in  1586. 

Ferrari,  (Ottavio,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  nephew  of 
Francesco  Bernardino,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Milan 
in  1607.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  and  Greek 
literature  at  Padua  in  1634.  Among  his  chief  works 
is  "Sources  (or  Elements)  of  the  Italian  Language," 
("Origines  Linguae  Italicas,"  1676.)    Died  in  1682. 

See  J.  Fabricius,  "Vita  Ferrari!,"  1710. 

Ferrari,  de',  da  fer-r^'ree,  (Giovanni  Andrea,)  a 
Genoese  painter  of  history,  landscapes,  and  animals,  was 
born  about  1600  ;  died  in  1669. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Ferraris,  fer-r3.''ris,  (Joseph,)  Count  of,  a  celebrated 
commander,  born  at  Luneville  in  1726.  He  served  in 
the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession,  and  afterwards  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war.  About  1777  he  published  the  twenty- 
five-sheet  map  of  the  Netherlands  which  is  called  by  his 
name.  He  was  appointed  vice-president  of  the  imperial 
council  of  war  in  1798,  and  in  1801  field-marshal.  Died 
in  1807. 

Fer^rars,  (Edward,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  War- 
wickshire, was  the  author  of  several  dramas,  which  have 
been  lost.    Died  in  1564. 

Ferrars  or  Ferrers,  (George,)  an  English  lawyer, 
poet,  and  historian,  born  near  Saint  Alban's  about  15 12. 
He  became  a  favourite  courtier  of  Plenry  VIII.,  and 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Queen  Mary."  He 
contributed  to  "The  Mirror  for  Magistrates"  six  trage- 
dies or  poems,  among  which  are  "The  Fall  of  Robert 
Tressilian"  and  "The  Tragedy  of  King  Richard  II." 
Died  in  1579. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica;"  Warton,  "History  of  English 
Poetry." 

Ferrars,  (Henry,)  a  relative  of  Edward,  noticed 
above,  born  about  1 560,  was  the  author  of  several  treatises 
on  antiquities  and  heraldry.  He  was  a  friend  of  the 
celebrated  Camden.    Died^n  1633. 

Ferrata,  fgr-r^'ti,  (Ercole,)  an  eminent  Italian 
sculptor,  born  near  Como  about  1610;  died  in  1685. 

Ferrato  Sasso.    See  Salvi. 

Ferraud,  fa'ro',  or  Feraud,  fi'r5',  a  French  deputy  to 
the  National  Convention,  born  in  Armagnac  in  1764,  was 
an  adherent  of  the  Girondists,  and  voted  for  the  death 
of  the  king.    While  resisting  the  populace,  who  were 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  h,  y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FERREIN 


912 


FERRO 


endeavouring  to  force  the  doors  of  the  Convention,  in 
May,  1795,  he  was  killed  by  a  pistol-shot. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  Generale." 

Ferrein,  f^'rAw',  (Antoine,)  a  distinguished  French 
anatomist  and  physician,  born  near  Agen  in  1693  '■>  ^^^'^ 
in  1769.    He  was  author  of  several  anatomical  works. 

Ferreira,  fer-ra^-rS,  (Alexandre,)  a  Portuguese 
nistorian,  born  in^5porto.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the 
Knights  Templars,"  which  is  highly  esteemed.  Died  in 
1737- 

Ferreira,  fer-ra^-rS,  (Alexandre  Rodrigues,)  a 
Brazilian  naturalisT^nd  traveller,  born  at  Bahia  in  1756. 
He  spent  nine  years  in  exploring  Brazil,  from  1784  to 
1793.    Died  in  1815. 

Ferreira,  (Antonio,)  a  celebrated  poet,  sometimes 
called  "the  Portuguese  Horace,"  was  born  at  Lisbon 
in  1528.  He  became  a  professor  at  the  University  of 
Coimbra,  and  wrote,  besides  numerous  sonnets,  odes, 
epistles,  and  epigrams,  a  tragedy  of  "Inez  de  Castro," 
which  ranks  among  the  most  beautiful  productions  in 
the  Portuguese  language.  He  was  one  of  the  principal 
promoters  of  classical  taste  in  Portuguese  poetry.  His 
epistles  (  Cartas)  are  regarded  by  some  critics  as  his  best 
works.    Died  in  1569. 

See  F.  Denis,  "Resume  de  I'Histoire  litteraire  du  Portugal;" 
Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  Barbosa  Machado, 
"Bibliotheca  Lusitana;"  J.  M.  da  Costa  e  Sylva,  "  Ensaio  sobre 
OS  melhores  Poetas  Portuguezes,"  1852. 

Ferreira,  (Christovao,)  a  Portuguese  Jesuit,  born 
about  1580  at  Torres- Vedras,  went  as  a  missionary  to 
Japan,  where  he  remained  twenty-four  years,  and  suffered 
martyrdom  at  Nagasaki  about  1652. 

Ferrer,  fer-raiR',  (Bartolome,)  a  Spanish  navigator, 
was  chief  pilot  of  an  expedition  which,  under  Cabrillo, 
explored  the  coast  of  California  in  1542.  He  succeeded 
to  the  command  on  the  death  of  Cabrillo,  January,  1543. 

Ferrer,  (Jayme,)  a  Spanish  cosmographer,  was  sum- 
moned to  court  in  1496,  and  employed  to  fix  a  line  of 
demarcation  which  should  separate  the  Spanish  from  the 
Portuguese  possessions  in  the  New  World. 

Ferreri,  fgr-ra'ree,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  sculptor  and 
painter,  born  at  Milan  in  1673  ;  died  in  1744. 

Ferreri,  (Zaccaria,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  in  1479  in 
Vicenza,  Italy,  was  appointed  by  Pope  Leo  X.,  in  15 19, 
Bishop  of  Guardia,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  Died 
about  1530. 

Ferreras,  de,  di  f^r-ra'ris,  (Juan,)  a  learned  Spanish 
ecclesiastic  and  historian,  born  near  Astorga  in  1652.  He 
assisted  in  conipiling  the  great  Spanish  Dictionary;  but 
his  principal  work  is  his  "  Historical  and  Chronological 
Synopsis  of  Spain,"  (16  vols.  4to.)  It  comes  down  to 
1588,  and  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  accuracy.  Died  in 
1735- 

Ferrero,  f§r-ra'ro,  (Edward,)  a  general,  born  in  Spain 
about  1832,  came  to  the  United  States  in  his  childhood. 
As  colonel,  he  served  with  distinction  in  the  Union  army 
at  Newbern,  and  at  Antietam,  September,  1862,  and  was 
not  long  after  appointed  a  brigadier-general.  He  com- 
manded a  division  of  the  army  which  besieged  Peters- 
burg in  June,  1864. 

Ferrers,  (George.)    See  Ferrars. 

Ferreti,  f^r-ra'tee,  or  Ferreto,  f!r-ra'to,  [Lat.  Fer- 
Re'tus,]  an  Italian  historian  and  poet,  born  at  Vicenza 
about  1296,  wrote  a  History  of  Italy  from  1230  to  13 18. 

Ferreti,  (Emilio,)  a  distinguished  Italian  jurist  and 
legal  writer,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1489,  was  secretary  to 
Pope  Leo  X.  He  afterwards  became  counsellor  to  the 
Parliament  of  Paris,  and  French  ambassador  to  Charles 
V.  of  Germany,  whom  he  afterwards  accompanied  on  his 
African  expedition.    Died  in  1552. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Ferreti,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  at  Vicenza  in  1639.  ite  wrote  "Musae  Lapidarias 
Antiquorum  in  Marmoribus  Carmina,"  (1672.)  Died  in 
1682. 

Ferreti,  (Giovanni  Domenico,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1692.  His  design  is  correct, 
and  his  colouring  vivid.    Died  after  1750. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "Diziona- 
rio;"    Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


Ferreti,  (Giulio,)  an  Italian  jurist  and  writer  on  law, 
born  in  Ravenna  in  1480;  died  in  1547. 

Fer'rey,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  architect,  born  at 
Christ  Church,  in  Hampshire,  in  1810,  was  a  pupil  of  A. 
Pugin.  Among  his  principal  structures  are  churches  at 
Taunton  and  Eton,  and  Saint  Stephen's  Church,  West- 
minster. He  is  the  author  of  a  treatise  "  On  the  An- 
tiquities of  the  Priory  of  Christ  Church,"  (1834.)  His 
works  are  mostly  in  the  Gothic  style. 

Ferri,  f^r^ree,  or  Ferro,  fer'ro,  [Lat.  Fer'rius,]  (Al- 
PHONSO,)  an  Italian  physician,  was  first  surgeon  to  Pope 
Paul  III.,  and  the  author  of  several  medical  and  surgical 
works.     Died  about  1580. 

Ferri,  (Ciro,)  a  distinguished  Italian  painter  and 
architect,  born  in  Rome  in  1634,  was  a  pupil  of  Pietro 
da  Cortonn,  whose  style  he  imitated  successfully.  He 
excelled  as  a  fresco-painter,  and  assisted  Pietro  da  Cor- 
tona  in  many  of  his  great  works.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  an  almost  universal  artist.    Died  in  1689. 

See  Winckelmann,  "  Neues  Mahler- Lexikon ;"  Lanzi,  "  History 
of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzr,  " Dizionario." 

Ferri,  (Geronimo,)  a  learned  Italian  writer,  born  in 
Romagna  in  17 13.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  rhetO' 
ric  in  the  University  of  Ferrara  by  Pope  Clement  XIV, 
He  was  the  author  of  various  works.    Died  in  1766. 

Ferri,  (Paul.)    See  Ferry. 

Fer'ri-ar,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  born  at 
Chester  in  1764,  wrote  "Medical  Histories  and  Reflec- 
tions," (3  vols.,  1792-98,)  and  "Illustrations  of  Sterne," 
(1798.)    Died  in  1815. 

Ferrier,  fa're-a',  (Auger,)  a  French  physician  and 
medical  writer,^l3orn  near  Toulouse  in  1513;  died  in 
1588. 

Fer'ri-er,  (James  F.,)  a  British  writer  on  moral  phi- 
losophy, born  in  Edinburgh  about  1808,  was  a  son- 
in-law  of  Professor  John  Wilson.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  political  economy  in 
the  University  of  Saint  Andrew's  in  1845.  His  most 
important  work  is  "  Institutes  of  Metaphyics,  the  Theory 
of  Knowing  and  Being,"  (1854,)  which  was  favourably 
received.    Died  in  1864. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  1855,  and  March, 
1867;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1867. 

Ferrier,  (Jean,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Rodez  in 
1619,  wrote  against  the  Jansenists.  He  became  con- 
fessor to  Louis  XIV.  in  1670.    Died  in  1670  or  1674. 

Ferrier,  (J^remie,)  a  French  professor  of  theology, 
born  about  1560.  He  was  a  Protestant  minister  at 
Nimes,  and  argued  in  1602  that  the  pope  was  Anti- 
christ. About  1612  he  became  a  Roman  Catholic.  He 
was  regarded  as  a  traitor  by  the  Protestants  before  his 
public  avowal  of  his  conversion.    Died  in  1626. 

Ferrier,  sometimes  called  erroneously  Ferriere, 
(Louis,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Aries  in  1652 ;  died  in 
1721. 

Ferrier,  (Miss  Mary,)  a  Scottish  novelist,  born  in 
Edinburgh  about  1782.  She  produced  a  number  of  suc- 
cessful novels,  among  which  are  "Marriage,"  (1818,) 
"The  Inheritance,"  (1824,)  and  "Destiny,  or  the  Chiefs 
Daughter,"  (183 1.)  She  was  intimate  with  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  who  described  her  as  a  "gifted  personage,  having, 
besides  her  great  talents,  conversation  the  least  exigeante 
of  any  author — female,  at  least — whom  he  had  ever  seen." 
Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1842. 

Ferrier,  du,  dii  fi^re-i',  (Arnaud,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Toulouse  about  1506.  He  represented  Henry 
11.  of  France  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  where  he  gave 
offence  by  his  liberal  sentiments.  He  afterwards  avowed 
himself  a  Protestant,  and  became  chancellor  of  Henry 
of  Navarre.    Died  in  1585. 

See  De  Thou,  "Historia  sui  Temporis;"  Bayle,  "Historical 
and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Ferriere.    See  La  Ferriere. 

Ferrieres  or  Ferriere,  de,  deh  fi're-aiR',  (Claude,) 
a  distinguished  French  lawyer,  born  in  Paris  in  1639, 
was  the  author  of  numerous  legal  works.   Died  in  17 14. 

Ferro,  del,  d§l  fer''ro,  (Scipione,)  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Bologna  about  1465.  He  discovered  a 
method  to  resolve  equations  of  the  third  degree.  Died 
about  1525,  or  after  that  date. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  m5t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


FERRON  913  FETI 


rerron,  Le,  leh  {k'r6N\  (Arnoul,)  a  French  jurist 
and  historian,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1515.  He  wrote,  in 
elegant  Latin,  a  continuation  of  Paolo  Emilio's  "History 
of  France,"  (1554.)    Died  in  1563. 

Ferroiii,  fer-ro'nee,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Milan  in  1687. 

Ferrucci,  fer-root'chee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Fiesole.  He  died  at  an  advanced  age  in  1522. 

Ferrucci,  (Francesco,)  surnamed  del  Tadda,  a  Flor- 
entine sculptor,  who  worked  in  porphyry.  Died  in  1585. 

Ferrucci,  (Nicodemo,)  a  skilful  painter  of  the  Flor- 
entine school,  born  at  Fiesole  ;  died  in  1650. 

Ferrucci,  (Pompeo,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Fie- 
sole, lived  at  Rome.    Died  about  1625. 

Ferry,  fa're',  (Claude  Joseph,)  a,  French  statesman 
and  savant,  born  near  Saint-Die  in  1756.  He  was  a 
republican  member  of  the  Convention  of  1792,  and 
succeeded  Mains  as  examiner  in  the  Polytechnic  School 
in  1812,  but  was  deprived  of  that  place  in  1814.  Died 
in  1845. 

Fer'ry,  (Orris  S.,)  an  American  Senator,  born  at 
Bethel,  Connecticut,  in  1823,  became  a  lawyer,  and  set- 
tled at  Norwalk.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress 
for  the  fourth  district  of  Connecticut  in  1859.  Having 
entered  the  army  as  colonel  in  1861,  he  was  appointed  a 
brigadier-general  about  March,  1862.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of 
Connecticut  for  six  years,  March,  1867-73. 

Ferry  or  Ferri,  [Lat.  Fer'rius,]  (Paul,)  an  elo- 
quent French  Protestant  minister,  born  at  Metz  in  1 591. 
He  preached  in  his  native  place  more  than  fifty  years, 
and  acquired  great  influence.  He  wrote  many  theological 
works,  among  which  is  "Scholastici  Orthodoxi  Speci- 
men," (1616.)    Died  in  1669. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Haag,  "La 
France  protestaute." 

Fersen,  von,  fon  f^R'sen,  (Axel,)  a  Swedish  general 
and  senator,  born  about  1715.  He  was  an  active  and 
prominent  member  of  the  Diet,  and  opposed  the  policy 
of  Gustavus  III.    Died  in  1794. 

See  Gever,  "  Histoire  de  la  Suede." 

Fersen,  von,  (Axel,)  Count,  marshal  of  Sweden,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1750.  He 
entered  the  French  service,  and  fought  for  the  United 
States,  1778-82.  In  the  disguise  of  a  coachman,  he 
conducted  Louis  XVI.  and  his  family  out  of  Paris  in  his 
flight  to  Varennes,  1 79 1.  He  returned  to  Sweden,  and 
was  appointed  marshal  of  the  kingdom  about  1 801.  He 
was  murdered  in  1810  by  a  mob,  who  suspected  him  of 
complicity  in  the  death  of  Prince  Christian. 

See  Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Girondists;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Ferte-Imbaut,  de  la,  deh  It  f^R^ti'  SnW,  Mar- 
quise, a  celebrated  French  lady,  was  a  daughter  of 
Madame  Geoffrin.  She  was  married  in  1733  to  the 
Marquis  de  la  Ferte-Imbaut. 

Ferte,  La.    See  La  Fert^:. 

Fertiault,  f^R'te'o',  (Francois,)  a  French  poet  and 
litterateur,  born  at  Verdun  in  1814. 

Ferus,  fa'rus,  (Johann,)  a  learned  German  ecclesi- 
astic, whose  original  name  was  Wild,  (<vilt,)  born  at 
Metz  in  1494.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  books 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  which  are  commended 
by  Dupin  and  Bayle.    Died  in  1554. 

Ferussac,  de,  deh  fi'rii'stk',  (Andr6  Etienne  Just 
Pascal  Joseph  FRANgois  d'Audebard— dod'blR',) 
Baron,  a  French  naturalist,  the  son  of  Jean  Baptiste 
Ferussac,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1786  or  1784.  He 
published  an  important  work,  entitled  "Natural  History 
of  Terrestrial  and  Fluviatile  Mollusca,"  (1817,)  and  other 
treatises  on  natural  history.  He  founded  and  edited  a 
valuable  scientific  journal,  called  "  Bulletin  universel  des 
Sciences,"  (1823-30.)   Died  in  Paris  in  1836. 

Ferussac,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste  Louis  d'Audebard,) 
Baron,  a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Clerac,  in  Langue- 
doc,  in  1745.  He  was  a  captain  in  the  navy  before  the 
Revolution.  He  wrote  a  work  on  fresh-water  mollusca, 
(1807.)    Died  in  1815. 

Fesca,  fls'kS,  (Friedrich  Ernst,)  a  German  musi- 
cian and  composer,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1789.  He 
produced  a  number  of  symphonies,  overtures,  etc.,  and 


two  operas,  entitled  "Cantemira,"  and  "Omar  and 
Leila."    Died  in  1826. 

Fesch,  fgsh,  (Joseph,)  born  in  Corsica  in  1763,  was 
half-brother  to  the  mother  of  Napoleon.  Soon  after  the 
concordat  concluded  by  Bonaparte  with  Pius  VII.  in 
1801,  Fesch  was  created  Archbishop  of  Lyons,  and  in 
1803  was  made  a  cardinal.  In  1805  he  was  appointed 
grand  almoner,  and  senator  of  the  empire.  When  offered 
the  archbishopric  of  Paris,  in  1809,  Cardinal  Fesch, 
offended  by  Bonaparte's  unkindness  to  the  pope,  refused 
the  promotion,  and  in  the  Council  of  Paris,  in  1810,  boldly 
condemned  the  conduct  of  the  emperor.  For  this  he 
was  banished  to  Lyons,  where  he  remained  until  1814. 
After  the  battle  of  Waterloo  he  took  refuge  at  Rome, 
and  died  there  in  1839.  His  celebrated  collection  of 
pictures,  medals,  etc.  was  sold  at  auction. 

See  "Le  Cardinal  Fesch,  Fragments  biographiques,"  Lyons, 
1841 ;  Thiers,  "  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire." 

Fessard,  fa'stR',  (Pierre  Alphonse,)  a  French  statu- 
ary, born  in  Paris  in  1798;  died  in  1844. 

Fes''sen-den,  (Thomas  Green,)  an  American  satirical 
poet,  born  in  Walpole,  New  Hampshire,  in  1771,  gradu- 
ated at  Dartmouth  College  in  1796,  and  studied  law. 
He  produced  a  poem  called  "The  Country  Lovers," 
which  was  very  popular,  went  to  England  in  1801,  and 
there  published,  in  1803,  his  humorous  poem  "Terrible 
Tractoration,"  (on  the  Metallic  Tractors  of  Dr.  Perkins.) 
He  settled  in  Boston  about  1804,  and  became  the  editor 
of  the  "New  England  Farmer."    Died  in  1837. 

See  Duvckinck's  "  Cyclopsedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Fessenden,  (William  Pitt,)  an  American  Senator, 
a  son  of  the  Hon.  Samuel  Fessenden,  was  born  at  BoS' 
cawen.  New  Hampshire,  on  the  i6th  of  October,  1806. 
He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1823,  studied  law, 
and  began  to  practise  at  Portland,  Maine,  about  1828. 
In  1840  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  by  the 
Whigs  of  Maine.  He  served  in  the  legislature  of  that 
State  in  1845  ^'^^^  1846,  after  which  he  passed  several 
years  in  the  practice  of  his  profession.  He  was  elected 
a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of 
Maine  in  1853  or  1854,  and  about  that  time  joined  the 
Republican  party.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a 
debater,  was  re-elected  a  member  of  the  United  States 
Senate  in  1859,  and  was  appointed  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee on  finance.  In  July,  1864,  he  was  appointed  to 
the  office  of  secretary  of  the  treasury,  rendered  vacant 
by  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Chase.  He  resigned  this  post 
about  February,  1865,  and  in  March  of  that  year  resumed 
his  seat  in  the  Senate,  to  which  he  had  again  been  elected 
for  a  term  of  six  years.  He  was  one  of  the  seven  Re- 
publican Senators  who  decided  that  President  Johnson 
was  not  guilty  of  high  crimes  or  misdemeanours,  May 
16,  1868.    Died  in  September,  1869. 

FessTer,  (Ignaz  Aurelius,)  a  historian  and  novelist, 
born  in  Lower  Hungary  in  1756,  was  professor  of  Ori- 
ental languages  at  Lemberg  about  1784.  His  principal 
work  is  a  "History  of  Hungary,"  (10  vols.,  1812-25.) 
He  also  wrote  several  historical  romances,  and  an  inter- 
esting autobiography,  (1826.)  Died  at  Saint  Petersburg 
in  1839. 

Festa,  f^s'tS,  (Constantino,)  an  Italian  musician 
and  composer  of  madrigals,  became  a  singer  in  the  pon- 
tifical chapel  at  Rome  in  1517.    Died  in  1545. 

Fes'tus,  (Porcius,)  a  Roman  officer,  who  in  62  A.D. 
succeeded  Felix  as  Governor  of  Judea.  He  gained  an 
honourable  and  durable  distinction  by  his  conduct  in  the 
case  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  who  was  arraigned  before  him 
by  the  Jews.   (See  Acts  xxiv.  27,  xxv.  and  xxvi.) 

Festus,  (Sextus  Pompeius,)  a  Latin  grammarian, 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  third  or  fourth  century. 
His  name  is  attached  to  a  glossary  entitled  "De  Signifi- 
catione  Verborum,"  ("On  the  Signification  of  Words,") 
which,  though  not  preserved  entire,  is  very  important  for 
the  explanation  of  Latin  grammar  and  Roman  antiquities. 
It  is  an  epitome  of  a  work  by  M.  Verrius  Flaccus,  which 
is  lost.  The  epitome,  however,  contains  valuable  notes 
and  criticisms  added  by  Festus. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Latina." 

Feth-Ali-Schah.  See  Fateh-Alee-  (or  Ali-)  Shah. 
Feti,  fa'tee,  (Domenico,)  sometimes  called  II  Man- 
TUANO,  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  at  Rome  in 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  v.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

58 


FETIS 


914 


FEVRE 


1589,  was  a  pupil  of  Cigoli,  He  worked  at  Mantua 
and  Venice,  injured  his  health  by  dissipation,  and  died 
in  1624.  His  works  are  chiefly  oil-pictures  of  religious 
subjects. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Fetis,  fi't^ss',  (FRANgois  Joseph,)  a  Belgian  com- 
poser, critic,  and  biographer,  born  at  Mons  in  1784.  He 
became  professor  of  composition  in  Paris  in  182 1,  and 
founded  in  1827  the  "Revue  Musicale,"  which  was  re- 
garded as  high  authority.  He  composed  several  operas 
and  pieces  of  sacred  music.  In  1833  ^'^^  appointed 
director  of  the  Conservatory  of  Brussels.  He  published, 
besides  several  treatises  on  music,  a  "Universal  Biog- 
raphy of  Musicians,"  (8  vols.  8vo,  1834-44,)  which  is  the 
most  complete  work  on  the  subject.  He  also  published, 
in  1869,  a  "General  History  of  Music  from  the  Earliest 
Times  down  to  the  Present,"  in  8  vols.    Died  in  1871. 

See  a  notice  of  M.  Fetis,  in  his  "  Biographie  Universelle  des 
Miisiciens;"  Gollmick,  "  Herr  F^tis  als  Mensch,  Kritiker,  etc.," 
1852. 

Feuchere,  fuh'shaik',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1807  ;  died  in  1852. 

Feucheres,  de,  deh  fuh'shaiR',  (Sophie,)  Baronne, 
born  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  in  1795.  Her  maiden  name 
was  Dawes.  She  was  the  mistress  of  the  Due  de  Bour- 
bon, who  was  found  dead  in  his  chamber  in  1830.  She 
was  suspected  of  being  accessory  to  his  death,  but  after 
trial  was  acquitted.    Died  in  1841. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Feuchtersleben,  von,  fon  foiK'ters-la^ben,  (Eduard 
or  Ernst,)  a  German  philosopher  and  physician,  born 
in  Vienna  in  1806.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Zur  Diatetik  der  Seele,"  (1838.)    Died  in  1849. 

Feuerbach,  foi'er-biK^,  (Anselm,)  eldest  son  of  the 
eminent  jurist  Paul  Johann  Alselm,  noticed  below,  was 
born  in  1798.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled 
"The  Apollo  of  the  Vatican,"  and  other  archaeological 
treatises.    Died  in  1851. 

Feuerbach,  (Friedrich  Heinrich,)  an  Orientalist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1806.  He  wrote 
"Religion  of  the  Future,"  (1843-47.) 

Feuerbach,  (Ludwig  Andreas,)  a  speculative  phi- 
losopher and  skeptic,  a  son  of  the  celebrated  jurist,  was 
born  at  Anspach  in  1804.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  Modern  Philosophy  from  Lord 
Bacon  to  Spinoza,"  (1833,)  and  "The  Essence  of  Chris- 
tianity," ("  Das  Wesen  des  Christenthums,"  1841.)  He 
is  a  disciple  of  Hegel, 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Feuerbach,  (Paul  Johann  Anselm,)  an  eminent 
German  jurist  and  reformer  of  criminal  law,  born  at  Jena 
in  1775.  His  first  important  work  was  entitled  "Anti- 
Plobbes,  or  on  the  Limits  of  Civil  Power,  and  the  Com- 
pulsory Right  of  Subjects  against  their  Sovereigns," 
(1798;)  and  the  same  year  he  published  his  "Examina- 
tion of  the  Crime  of  High  Treason."  In  his  "Review 
of  the  Fundamental  Principles  and  Ideas  of  Penal  Law," 
(2  vols.,  1799,)  and  the  "Library  of  Penal  Law,"  he  en- 
tirely remodelled  the  science  of  criminal  jurisprudence, 
and  introduced  into  it  most  important  and  salutary 
reforms.  In  1804  he  brought  out  his  "Critique  of  a 
Project  of  a  Penal  Code  for  Bavaria,"  in  consequence 
of  which  he  was  soon  after  commissioned  to  draw  up  a 
criminal  code  for  that  kingdom,  which  also  formed  the 
basis  of  a  reform  in  the  penal  codes  of  other  German 
states.  In  1812  he  published  "Considerations  on  the 
Jury,"  in  which  he  censures  the  defects  of  French  legis- 
lation, and  in  1828  his  "Exposition  of  Remarkable 
Crimes,"  one  of  his  most  celebrated  works.  Feuerbach 
was  appointed  about  181 7  first  president  of  the  court  of 
appeal  at  Anspach.  In  1832  appeared  his  treatise  en- 
titled "Kaspar  Hauser ;  an  Instance  of  a  Crime  against 
a  Soul,"  (  Verbrechens  am  Scelenleben,)  in  which  he  gives 
the  result  of  his  investigations  in  that  remarkable  case. 
He  was  a  firm  opposer  of  all  civil  and  ecclesiastical  ag- 
gressions, and  especially  deserves  the  gratitude  of  man- 
kind for  the  humanity  he  has  infused  into  legislation. 
Died  at  Frankfort  in  1833. 

See  "Lcben  und  Wirken  Anselm  von  Feuerbach,"  by  his  son, 
1852;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


Feuerlein,  foi'er-lTr/,  (GeorgChristoph,)  a  German 
physician  and  writer,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1694  or  1695; 
died  in  1756. 

Feuerlein,  (Jakob  Wilhelm,)  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Nuremberg  in  1689  ;  died  in  1776. 

Feuerlein,  (Johann  Conrad,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Wohrd  in  1725  ;  died  at  Nuremberg  in  1788. 

Feugere,  fuh'zhaiR^  (Leon  Jacques,)  a  French  litte- 
rateur^ born  at  Villeneuve-sur-Yonne  in  1810;  died  in 
1858. 

Feuillade,  de  la,  deh  It  fuh'ytcK,  (Franqois  d'Au- 
busson — d5''bU's6N',)  Vicomte,  chevalier  of  the  order 
of  Saint  Louis,  distinguished  himself  in  the  wars  again.?! 
the  Spaniards  and  the  Turks,  and  in  1675  was  createc 
by  Louis  XIV.  marshal  of  France.    Died  in  1691. 

Feuillade,  de  la,  (Louis,)  Due,  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  created  marshal  of  France  in  1724.    Died  in  1725. 

Feuillet,  fuh'y^^  sometimes  written  Feuillee,(Louis,) 
a  French  botanist  and  astronomer,  born  near  Forcalquier, 
in  Provence,  in  1660.  He  was  the  companion  of  J.  Cas- 
sini  in  a  geographical  and  hydrographical  voyage  to  the 
Levant.  Between  1703  and  1712  he  travelled  in  South 
America.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Medicinal 
Plants  of  Peru  and  Chili,"  (3  vols.,  1714,)  and  a  "Journal 
of  Observations,  Mathematical  and  Botanical,  made  on 
the  Eastern  Coasts  of  South  America  and  in  the  West 
Indies,"  (2  vols.,  1714.)    Died  at  Marseilles  in  1732. 

See  Lelong,  "  Bibliotheque  historique  de  France;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Feuillet,  (Nicolas,)  a  noted  French  preacher  and 
moralist,  born  in  1622;  died  in  Paris  in  1693. 

Feuillet,  (Octave,)  a  French  novelist  and  dramatist, 
born  at  Saint-Lo  (Manche)  in  1822.  Among  his  works 
are  comedies  called  "The  Crisis,"  ("La  Crise,"  1848,) 
and  "Dalila,"  (1857.)  He  was  elected  to  the  French 
Academy  in  1862. 

Feuquieres,  de,  deh  fuh'ke-aiR',  (Antoine  de  Fas 
— deh  pS.,)  Marquis,  a  distinguished  French  general, 
grandson  of  the  following,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1648. 
He  served  with  eminent  ability  from  1667  until  1697.  He 
wrote  an  able  work  on  military  tactics,  entitled  "  Memoires 
sur  la  Guerre,"  (4  vols.,  1731.)    Died  in  1711. 

Feuquieres,  de,  or  Feuquiere,  (Manasses  de  Pas,) 
Marquis,  a  French  general  and  diplomatist,  born  at 
Saumur  in  1590.  Having  been  sent  on  a  mission  to  Ger- 
many after  the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  he  formed 
an  alliance  with  that  country  against  Austria.  He  was 
killed  at  the  siege  of  Thionville  in  1640. 

His  son  Isaac,  also  a  general  and  ambassador,  was 
appointed  Viceroy  of  America  in  1 660.    Died  in  1688. 

Feutry,  fuh'tRe',  (Aime  Ambroise  J[oseph,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Lille  in  1720;  died  in  1789. 

Feval,  fi'vtK,  (Paul,)  a  popular  French  novelist, 
born  at  Rennes  in  November,  1817.  He  began  his 
literary  career  as  a  writer  for  several  journals  of  Paris. 
In  1844  he  produced,  under  the  assumed  name  of  Sir 
Francis  Trolopp,  "The  Mysteries  of  London,"  (11  vols.) 
Among  his  works  are  "Captain  Spartacus,"  (1845,)  and 
"The  Iron  Man,"  ("L'Homme  de  Fer,"  1856.) 

See  C.  Robin,  "Biographie  de  P.  Feval,"  1848. 

Feversham,  Earl  of.    See  Durfort,  (Louis.) 

Fevre.    See  Le  Febvre  and  Le  Fevre. 

Fevre,  Le,  (Anne.)    See  Dacier,  Madame. 

Fevre,  Le,  leh  f^vR  or  leh  fevR,  (Claude,)  a  French 
portrait-painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Fontainebleau  in 
1633,  was  patronized  by  Louis  XIV.  He  'painted  some 
subjects  of  sacred  history.    Died  in  London  in  1675. 

Fevre,  Le,  (Jacques,)  a  French  polemical  writer  on 
theology,  born  at  Lisieux.  He  wrote  against  the  Prot- 
estant doctrines.    Died  in  1716. 

Fevre,  Le,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  or  Lefebvre  de  Ville- 
brune,  a  French  philologist,  born  at  Senlis  in  173Z 
He  was  master  of  many  ancient  and  modern  languages. 
Among  his  chief  works  is  a  translation  of  Athenaeus. 
He  became  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Syriac  in  the  Col- 
lege of  France  in  1792.  Died  in  1809. 
j  Fevre,  Le,  (Nicolas,)  [Lat.  Nicola'us  Fa'ber,]  a 
French  scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1544,  published  a 
valuable  edition  of  Seneca,  with  notes.  As  a  critic  he 
is  highly  commended  by  Lipsius  and  Scaliger.  Died 
in  161 1. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  \  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  ftt;  mk.t;  nSt;  good;  moon  ; 


FEFRE 


915 


FICHTE 


Pevre,Le,  (Roland,)  a  French  portrait-painter,  born 
about  1605,  worked  in  England,  where  he  died  in  1677. 

Fevret,  feh-vRa',  (Charles,)  a  learned  and  distin- 
guished French  jurist,  born  in  1583  at  Semur-en-Auxois. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  canon  law,  one  of  which  is 
entitled  "Traite  de  I'Abus,"  (1653.)    Died  in  1661. 

His  son  Pierre,  born  in  1625,  founded  the  public 
library  of  Dijon.    Died  in  1706. 

Fevret  de  Fontette,  feh-vRa'  deh  f6N'tet'',  (Charles 
Marie,)  a  learned  French  lawyer,  a  great-grandson  of 
Charles  Fevret,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Dijon  in  17 10. 
He  commenced  a  new  edition  of  Lelong's  "  Bibliotheque 
historique  de  la  France,"  and  published  one  volume  of 
that  important  work.    Died  in  1772. 

See  Barbeau  de  la  Bruvere,  "Vie  ds  Fevret  de  Fontette," 
2  vols.,  1775. 

Few,  (William,)  Colonel,  an  American  patriot,  born 
in  Maryland  in  1748,  removed  to  Georgia  about  1776. 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1780,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  Convention  which  framed  the  Federal 
Constitution  in  1787.  He  served  with  distinction  in  seve- 
ral battles  with  the  British  and  Indians.  He  was  United 
States  Senator  from  1789  to  1793.    Died  in  1828. 

Feydeau,  iWdb',  (Mathieu,)  a  zealous  French  Jan- 
senist,  born  in  Paris  in  1616,  was  one  of  the  ecclesiastics 
expelled  by  the  faculty  of  the  Sorbonne  for  refusing  to 
condemn  Arnauld.  He  was  the  author  of  "Reflections 
on  the  History  and  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,"  (2  vols., 
1673.)    Died  at  Annonay  in  1694. 

Feyerabend,  fl^er-^'bint,  (Sigismond,)  a  German 
painter,  engraver,  and  bookseller,  born  at  Frankfort 
about  1526  ;  died  after  1585. 

Feyjoo  (or  Feijoo)  y  Montenegro,  fi-e-Ho'  e  mon- 
ti-na'gRo,  (Francisco  Benito  Jeronimo,)  a  learned 
Spanish  moralist  and  critic,  sometimes  called  "  the 
Spanish  Addison,"  was  born  at  Cardamiro  in  1676,  or, 
as  others  say,  in  1701.  He  became  a  Benedictine  monk, 
and  abbot  of  .the  monastery  of  Oviedo.  He  attacked 
prevailing  errors  and  prejudices  in  a  series  of  essays, 
entitled  "Teatro  critico  sobre  los  Errores  coniunes,"  (16 
vols.  8vo,  1738-46.)  He  also  published  "  Cartas  eruditas 
y  curiosas,"  (8  vols.  8vo,  1746-48.)  His  works  contributed 
much  to  the  diffusion  of  science  and  good  morals.  Died 
at  Oviedo  in  1764. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  CampomaneS; 
"  Vida  de  Feyjoo,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  the  works  of  Feyjoo, 
33  vols.,  1780. 

Feynes,  de,  deh  fin,  (Henri,)  a  French  traveller,  born 
in  Provence  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  spent  nearly 
eighteen  years  in  Asia,  and  on  his  return  published  an 
account  of  his  travels. 

Fezensac,  de,  deh  feh-z6N'ztk',  (Raymond  Emery 
Philippe  Joseph  de  Montesquiou  —  deh  m6N''tes''- 
ke-oo',)  Due,  a  French  general  of  division,  born  in  1784, 
wrote  "Souvenirs  militaires  de  1804  a  1814,"  (Paris, 
1863,)  which  has  a  high  reputation.    Died  in  1867. 

See  VvPEREAi;,  " Dictionnaire  universel  des  Contemporains,  ' 
1858;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1868. 

Fiacchi,  fe-Sk'kee,  (Luigi,)  an  able  Italian  critic  and 
poet,  born  at  Scarperi,  in  Tuscany,  in  1754,  was  some- 
times called  Clasio.    Died  in  1825. 

See  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustii." 

Fiacco,  fe-ik'ko,  or  Flacco,  ^Wko,  (Orlando,)  a 
painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  born  at  Verona,  lived 
about  1550. 

Fialetti,  fe-S-let'tee,  (Odoardo,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Bologna  in  1573,  was  a  pupil  of 
the  celebrated  Tintoretto.    Died  in  1638. 

Fialho,  fe-SKyo,  (Manoel,)  a  Portuguese  historian, 
born  at  Evora  in  1659.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Evora, 
entitled  "Evora  gloriosa,"  (1728.)    Died  in  1718. 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "  Bibliotheca  Lusitana." 

Finlho-Ferreira,  fe-^Kyo  f^R-ra^-ri,  (Antonio,)  a 
Portuguese  traveller  and  captain, ^as  born  at  Macao. 
He  commanded  a  fleet  in  1633,  after  which  he  travelled 
by  land  from  India  to  Lisbon,  and  returned  by  sea.  He 
published  a  narrative  of  his  travels  in  1643. 

Fiamma,  fe-im'm^,  (Galvaneo,)  an  Italian  histo- 
rian, born  at  Milan  in  1283,  wrote  a  "History  of  Milan 
from  the  Origin  of  the  City  until  the  Year  1336."  Died 
in  1344. 


Fiamniingo,  fe-3.m-min'go,  (Arrigo,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  whose  name  is  not  known.  He  worked  in  Rome 
for  Pope  Gregory  XIII.    Died  about  1600. 

Fiammingo,  11,^1  fe-3.m-min'go,  (orFiamingo,)  ("the 
Fleming,")  the  name  given  by  the  Italians  to  several 
artists  of  the  Netherlands.  See  Calvaert,  (Denis,)  and 
DuQUESNOY,  (Francois.) 

Fiasella,  fe-i-seKli,  (Domenico,)  a  painter  of  the 
Genoese  school,  born  at  Sarzana  in  1589;  died  in  1669. 

Fibonacci.    See  Leonardo  da  Pisa. 

Fichard,  fe'shSR^  or  fiK'aRt,  (Johann,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1512;  died  in  1591. 

Ficherelli,  fe-ki-reKlee,  or  Ficarelli,  fe-kS-reKlee, 
(Felice,)  a  skilful  Florentine  painter,  born  at  San  Ge- 
migiano  about  1605,  was  surnamed  RiPOSO.  Diedin  1660. 

Fichet,  fe^sh^^  (Alexandre,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
scholar,  born  in  Savoy  in  1588;  died  in  1659. 

Fichet,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  theologian  and  rhet- 
orician, born  at  Aunay,  near  Paris.  He  became  rector 
of  the  University  of  Paris  in  1467,  and  was  employed  in 
diplomacy  by  Louis  XI.  About  1470  he  established  in 
the  Sorbonne  a  pr«inting-press, — probably  the  first  used 
in  Paris. 

Fichte,  fiic'teh,  (Immanuel  Hermann,)  son  of  the 
eminent  philosopher  Johann  Gottlieb,  was  born  at  Jena 
in  1797.  He  studied  at  Berlin,  and  became  in  1842 
professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Tubingen. 
He  is  the  chief  of  a  school  which  affects,  it  has  been  said, 
a  jitste  milieu  between  mysticism  and  materialism.  He 
has  written  numerous  works  relating  to  metaphysics, 
theology,  etc.,  in  some  of  which  he  has  sought  to  defend 
and  explain  the  views  of  his  fother.  His  "Speculative 
Theology,"  in  3  vols.,  appeared  in  1847. 

Fichte,  (Johann  Goitlieb,)  the  second  in  order  of 
the  four  great  teachers*  of  intellectual  and  moral  phi- 
losophy in  Germany,  was  born  near  Bischofswerda,  in 
Upper  Lusatia,  in  1762.  He  studied  at  the  Universities 
of  Jena,  Leipsic,  and  Wittenberg.  He  afterwards  spent 
several  years  as  private  teacher  in  Zurich,  where  he 
formed  a  friendship  with  the  celebrated  Pestalozzi. 
Leaving  Switzerland,  he  visited  Leipsic,  Warsaw,  and 
lastly  Konigsberg,  where  he  became  acquainted  with 
Kant,  and  published  anonymously  his  first  important 
work,  entitled  an  "Attempt  at  a  Criticism  of  all  Revela- 
tion," ("  Versuch  einer  Kritik  aller  Offenbarung,")  which 
attracted  much  attention  and  was  at  first  generally  attrib- 
uted to  Kant  himself.  The  fame  of  this  work  procured 
Fichte  a  call  to  the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Jena,  where 
he  developed  his  system  of  metaphysics,  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  of  "  Wissenschaftslehre,"  ("Doctrine  or 
Principles  of  Science.")  Having  been  accused  of  holding 
atheistical  opinions,  he  resigned  his  professorship  about 
1799,  and  soon  after  made  to  the  public  an  "Appeal 
against  the  Charge  of  Atheism,"  ("Appellation  gegen 
die  Anklage  des  Atheismus.")  This,  however,  was  con- 
sidered by  many  not  to  be  a  successful  refutation  of  the 
objections  which  had  been  made  to  his  doctrines.  He 
ap]oears  to  have  held  that  God  was  not  a  Being,  j^roperly 
so  called,  but  a  supreme  Law,  or  rather  a  system  of  laws', 
intellectual,  moral,  and  spiritual,  without  what  we  call 
"  personality,"  or  personal  consciousness  ;  although  there 
are  passages  in  his  works  which  seem  to  indicate  that 
sometimes,  at  least,  his  views  approximated  those  of  the 
Theists.  He  was  afterwards  for  a  few  months  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Erlangen;  but  when  Germany  became 
the  theatre  of  war  he  withdrew  for  a  time  to  Konigsberg. 
In  1 8 10  he  was  made  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  new 
University  at  Berlin. 

Fichte  took  a  deep  interest  in  the  cause  of  German 
independence,  and  employed  all  his  influence  and  elo- 
quence tostiiiup  the  patriotism  of  his  countrymen  against 
the  domination  of  the  French,  during  the  contest  which 
terminated  in  the  fall  of  Napoleon  in  1813.  He  died 
in  January,  1814.  Besides  the  different  publications  ex- 
pounding his  peculiar  system  of  philosophy,  his  most 
important  works  are  "On  the  Destination  of  Man," 
("  Ueber  die  Bestimmung  des  Menschen,")  "  Foundatio'- 
of  Natural  Right,"  ("Grundlage  des  Naturrechts,")  anr 
his  "  System  of  Ethics,"  ("  System  der  Sittenlehre.'-; 


*  Kant,  Fichte,  Schelling,  and  Hegel. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (2!^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.J 


FICHTEL 


916 


FIELD/NG 


His  '*  Addresses  to  the  German  Nation"  {"  Reden  an 
die  Deutsche  Nation")  are  replete  with  eloquence  and 
fervid  patriotism.  His  collected  works  were  published 
in  8  vols.,  (Berlin,  1845-46.) 

"Among  the  illustrious  four  whose  names  are  most 
intimately  associated  with  the  recent  movement  in  Ger- 
man philosophy,"  says  Professor  Hedge,  "his  [Fichte's] 
function  is  that  of  moralist ;  a  preacher  of  righteousness. 
.  .  .  Few  philosophers  have  so  honoured  their  theories 
with  personal  illustrations.  He  carried  his  philosophy 
into  life  ajid  his  life  into  philosophy,  acting  as  he  spoke, 
from  an  eminence  above  the  level  of  the  world."  ("  Prose 
Writers  of  Germany.") 

See,  also,  Immanuel  Hermann  Fichte,  "J.  G.  Fichte's  Leben," 
etc.,  2  vols.,  1830;  Carl  Beyer,  "Zu  Fichte's  Gedachtniss,"  1835; 
William  Smith,  "  Memoir  of  J.  G.  Fichte,"  1846;  Wilhelm  Busse, 
"  J.  G.  Fichte  und  seine  Beziehung  zur  Gegenwart  des  Deutschen 
Volkes,"  2  vols.,  1848-49;  "Leben  des  Philosophen  und  Professors 
J.  G.  Fichte,"  Bautzen,  1851  ;  Ersch  und  Grube-r,  "Allgemeine 
Encyklopaedie  ;"  Ritter,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  G.  H.  Lewes, 
*'  Biographical  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  De  Remusat,  "  De  la  Philo- 
sophie  Allemande ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1845. 

Fichtel,  fiK''tel,  (Johann  Ehrenreich,)  a  distin- 
guished mineralogist,  born  at  Presburg,  in  Hungary,  in 
1732.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Memoirs  upon 
the  Mineralogy  of  Transylvania."    Died  in  1795. 

Ficino,  fe-chee'no,  (Marsilio,  maR-see'le-o,)  [Lat. 
Marsil''ius  Fici'nus  ;  Fr.  Marsile  Ficin,  mtR's^K  fe'- 
siN^,]  a  celebrated  Italian  philosopher  and  scholar,  born 
at  Florence  on  the  19th  of  October,  1433.  He  was  edu- 
cated by  Cosimo  de'  Medici,  studied  Greek,  and  became 
an  admirer  of  the  Platonic  philosophy.  He  was  the 
president  of  the  Platonic  Academy  founded  at  Florence 
by  Cosimo  de'  Medici  about  1450,  and  produced  a  Latin 
translation  of  the  works  of  Plato  about  1484.  "This 
version,"  says  Hallam,  "has  the  rare  merit  of  being  at 
once  literal,  perspicuous,  and  in  good  Latin."  ("Intro- 
duction to  the  Literature  of  Europe." )  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Life  of  Plato,"  "Theologia 
Platonica  de  Immortalitate,"  (1488,)  and  "On  the  Chris- 
tian Religion,"  ("De  Religione  Christiana,"  15 10.)  Died 
in  1499. 

See  Giovanni  Corsi,  "Vita  Ficini,"  written  in  1506,  published  in 
1772;  ScHELHORN,  "  CoiDmentarius  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  M.  Ficini;" 
NiCERON,  "  Memoires ;"  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Ency- 
klopaedie;" Brucker,  "  History  of  Philosophy;"  A.M.  Bandini, 
"  Conimentarius  de  Vita  AL  Ficini,"  1771. 

Ficoroni,  fe-ko-ro^nee,  (  Francesco,  )  an  Italian 
scholar  and  antiquary,  born  near  Rome  in  1664.  He 
was  the  author  of  numerous  works,  chiefly  on  Roman 
antiquities.    Died  in  1747. 

Ficquelmont,  fe'k^l'm^N',  (Karl  Ludwig,)  a  dis- 
tinguished general  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Lorraine  in 
1777.  He  served  in  the  Austrian  army  in  the  principal 
campaigns  against  the  French,  and  became  lieutenant- 
field-marshal  in  1830.    Died  in  1859. 

Ficquet,  fe'ka'',  (Etienne,)  a  distinguished  French 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1731  ;  died  in  1794. 

Fidani,  fe-d§.''nee,  (Orazio,)  a  Florentine  painter, 
born  about  1610  ;  died  after  1642. 

Fidanza,  fe-dan'zS,  (Francesco,)  a  skilful  painter  of 
landscapes  and  marine  views,  born  in  1747,  belonged  to 
the  Roman  school.    Died  in  Milan  in  1819. 

His  brother  Gregorio  was  also  a  landscape-painter. 
Died  about  182L 

Fiddes,  fidz  or  fidMes,  (Richard,)  an  English  writer, 
and  a  priest  of  the  Anglican  Church,  born  near  Scar- 
borough in  167 1.  He  became  rector  of  Halsham  about 
1694.  He  published  a  "System  of  Divinity,"  (2  vols., 
1718-20,)  and  a  "Life  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,"  (1724,)  in 
which  he  showed  himself  so  unjust  to  the  Reformers 
that  he  was  suspected  of  being  a  Roman  Catholic.  Died 
in  1725. 

FidelLs,  fe-da'l^ss,  (Fortunio,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  in  Sicily  about  1550,  wrote  a  work  on  legal  medi- 
cine, (1602.)    Died  in  1630. 

Fidenza  or  Fidanza,  (John.)  See  Bonaventure, 
Saint. 

Field,  (Barron,)  an  English  lawyer  and  botanist, 
born  probably  in  London  about  1786.  He  published 
"An  Analysis  of  Blackstone's  Commentaries,"  (181 1,) 
and  "Memoirs  of  New  South  Wales,"  (1826.)  Died 
in  1846. 


Field,  (Cyrus  W.,)  an  American  merchant,  distin- 
guished by  his  successful  efforts  to  open  telegraphic 
communication  between  Europe  and  America,  was  born 
at  Stockbridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1819.  He  acquired  a 
fortune  by  trade  in  the  city  of  New  York,  whither  he  had 
removed  before  he  was  of  age.  About  1854  he  procured 
a  charter  for  a  telegraph  from  the  American  continent  to 
Newfoundland,  designing  to  connect  it  with  a  submarine 
Atlantic  cable.  To  this  arduous  enterprise  he  devoted 
his  time  and  fortune  during  many  years.  He  organized 
the  "Atlantic  Telegraph  Company"  in  1856,  and  accom- 
panied the  expeditions  sent  out  from  England  to  lay  the 
cable  in  1857  and  1858.  After  two  failures,  Mr.  Field 
and  his  coadjutors  succeeded,  and  began  to  operate  with 
the  Atlantic  telegraph,  in  August,  1866. 

Field,  (David  Dudley,)  an  American  jurist,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Haddam,  Connecticut,  in  1805, 
was  educated  at  Williams  College.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1828,  and  commenced  the  practice  of  law  in 
New  York  City.  Pie  gained  distinction  by  his  writings 
on  law  reform,  and  was  appointed  a  commissioner  on 
practice  and  pleadings  by  the  legislature  in  1847.  He 
was  appointed  in  1857  president  of  a  commission  to 
digest  a  political  code,  a  penal  code,  and  a  civil  code. 

Field,  (George,)  an  English  chemist  and  writer  on. 
various  subjects,  born  about  1777.  He  published  "  Chro- 
matics, or  Harmony  of  Colours,"  (new  edition,  1845,) 
"Outlines  of  Analytical  Philosophy,"  (2  vols.,  1839,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1854. 

Field,  (John,)  an  English  astronomer,  said  to  have 
been  the  first  in  England  that  adopted  the  Copernican 
system.    Died  about  1587. 

Field,  (John,)  a  skilful  musician  and  composer  for  the 
piano,  born  at  Dublin  in  1782.  He  visited  successively 
France,  Germany,  and  Russia,  where  his  performances 
were  greatly  admired.    Died  at  Moscow  in  1837. 

Field,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  actor,  born  about 
1570.  While  still  very  young,  he  appeared  on  the  stage, 
and  at  length  became  a  member  of  Shakspeare's  company 
of  players.  He  was  the  author  of  two  spirited  comedies, 
entitled  "A  Woman  is  a  Weathercock,"  and  "Amends 
for  the  Ladies." 

Field,  (Richard,)  a  learned  and  liberal  English  divine, 
born  at  Hempstead,  in  Hertfordshire,  in  1561.  He  had 
a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher.  He  became  rector  of 
Burghclere,  canon  of  Windsor  in  1604,  and  chaplain  to 
James  I.  He  wrote  an  important  work,  entitled  "  Of  the 
Church,"  (1606,)  which  is  highly  praised  by  Coleridge. 
Died  in  1616. 

See  "  Memorials  of  the  Life  of  R.  Field,"  by  his  son,  Nathaniel, 
1716. 

Field,  (Stephen  J.,)  an  American  jurist,  a  brother  of 
David  Dudley,  noticed  above,  was  chief  justice  of  the 
supreme  court  of  California  from  1859  to  1863.  He  was 
appointed  an  associate  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of 
the  United  States  in  1863  or  1864. 

Field^iiig,  (Copley  Vandyke,)  a  celebrated  English 
landscape-painter,  born  about  1787.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  to  distinguish  himself  in  water-colour  paintings,  of 
which  he  produced  a  great  number.  Pie  held  for  a  long 
time  the  office  of  president  of  the  Society  of  Painters  in 
Water-Colours.  He  represented  British  mountain-  and 
lake-scenery  and  the  downs  of  Southern  England  with  a 
success  which  has  perhaps  not  been  equalled  by  any 
other  artist.    Died  in  1855. 

Fielding,  (Henry,)  a  celebrated  English  novelist, 
born  at  Sharpham  Park,  Somersetshire,  on  the  22d  of 
April,  1707.  He  was  the  son  of  Edmund  Fielding,  who 
served  as  lieutenant-general  under  the  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough, and  great-grandson  of  William,  third  Earl  of 
Denbigh.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  commenced  the 
study  of  law  at  Leyden  ;  but,  owing  to  financial  difficul- 
ties, he  returned  to  London  at  the  expiration  of  two 
years,  where  he  abandoned  himself  to  the  wildest  dissi- 
pation. At  this  period  he  published  the  comedy  entitled 
"  Love  in  Several  Masques,"  which  met  with  some  suc- 
cess and  was  followed  by  numerous  other  plays.  In 
1734  he  married  a  lady  of  great  beauty  and  accomplish- 
ments, by  whom  he  obtained  ,^1500.  Continuing  his 
excesses,  in  a  short  time  he  was  reduced  to  poverty.  He 
now  recommenced  the  study  of  law  with  great  assiduity, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  lo7ig;  i,  h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FIELDING 


FIE  SCO 


and  would  doubtless  have  succeeded  well  in  that  profes- 
sion had  not  violent  attacks  of  the  gout  prevented  him 
from  attending  the  circuits.  He  therefore  applied  him- 
self to  literature  as  a  means  of  support,  and  soon  after 
became  the  editor  of  a  paper  called  "  The  Champion." 
In  1742  he  published  the  novel  "Joseph  Andrews," 
which  was  intended  as  a  satire  on  Richardson's  "  Pamela." 
In  1749  appeared  "Tom  Jones,"  the  greatest  of  his 
works,  and  in  1751  "Amelia"  was  issued,  of  which  Dr. 
Johnson  has  observed  that  it  "was  perhaps  the  only 
book  of  which,  being  printed  off  betimes  one  morning,  a 
new  edition  was  called  for  before  night."  In  1750  he 
was  appointed  justice  of  the  peace  for  the  county  of 
Middlesex,  in  which  position  he  distinguished  himself 
by  his  ability  and  activity.  He  was  successful  in  extir- 
pating numerous  gangs  of  robbers  which  had  previously 
been  a  terror  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  metropolis.  The 
best-known  of  his  works  are  "Joseph  Andrews,"  "Tom 
Jones,"  and  "Amelia,"  which  have  justly  placed  him 
in  the  highest  rank  of  British  novelists.  His  greatest 
strength  appears  to  have  been  in  portraying  characters 
of  those  in  the  lower  orders  of  society.  His  works 
display  much  wit  and  vigour,  and  his  delineations  are 
remarkable  for  their  fidelity  to  nature.  Though  it  is 
claimed  that  his  writings  have  a  moral  tendency,  the 
coarseness  and  vulgarity  of  many  of  his  characters  render 
their  utility  extremely  problematical.  Fielding  was  the 
author  of  numerous  works  in  addition  to  those  mentioned 
above.  Among  these  were  a  "  History  of  Jonathan  Wild 
the  Great,"  "  The  Journey  from  this  World  to  the  Next," 
and  some  important  legal  treatises.  It  is  stated  that  all 
his  works  have  been  translated  into  the  French  language. 
Fielding  died  at  Lisbon  in  1754,  whither  he  had  gone  in 
the  hope  of  benefiting  his  health.  A  monument  was 
erected  to  his  memory  in  that  city  through  the  influence 
of  the  French  consul.  Chevalier  Meyronnet.  Lady  Mary 
Montagu,  who  was  a  kinswoman  of  Fielding,  in  speaking 
of  him,  observes,  "There  was  a  great  similitude  between 
his  character  and  that  of  Sir  Richard  Steele.  Fielding 
had  the  advantage  both  in  learning  and,  in  my  opinion, 
in  genius  ;  they  both  agreed  in  wanting  money  in  spite 
of  all  their  friends,  and  would  have  wanted  it  if  their 
hereditary  lands  had  been  as  extensive  as  their  imagi- 
nation." Sir  James  Mackintosh  remarks,  "  Fielding 
will  forever  remain  the  delight  of  his  country,  and  will 
always  retain  his  place  in  the  libraries  of  Europe,  not- 
withstanding the  unfortunate  grossness,  the  mark  of  an 
uncultivated  taste." 

See  Murphy,  "Life  and  Genius  of  Fielding;"  Lawrence,  "Life 
of  Fielding,"  1855;  Sir  W.  Scott,  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works; 
Disraeli,  "Quarrels  of  Authors  ;"  William  Watson,  "  Life  of  H. 
Fielding,"  Loudon,  1808;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January, 
1856;  E.  P.  Whipple,  critique  in  the  "North  American  Review" 
for  January,  1849;  "North  British  Review"  for  November,  1855. 

Fielding,  (Sir  John,)  a  half-brother  of  the  great  novel- 
ist, whom  he  succeeded  as  justice  of  the  county  of  Middle- 
sex. Although  blind  for  many  years,  he  fulfilled  the 
duties  of  his  oflice  with  much  ability ;  and  he  received 
the  order  of  knighthood  in  1761.  He  was  the  author 
of  three  works,  viz.,  "  Extracts  from  the  Penal  Laws," 
(1761,)  "Universal  Mentor,"  (1762,)  and  "Description 
of  the  Cities  of  London  and  Westminster,"  (1777.) 
Died  in  1780. 

Fielding,  (Sarah,)  an  English  authoress  of  great 
learning,  sister  of  the  novelist,  was  born  in  1714.  Her 
principal  works  were  a  novel,  entitled  "  The  Adven- 
tures of  David  Simple,"  and  an  excellent  translation  of 
Xenophon's  "  Memoirs  of  Socrates,  with  the  Defence 
of  Socrates  before  his  Judges."    Died  at  Bath  in  1768. 

Fields,  (James  T.,)  an  American  poet,  born  in  Ports- 
mouth, New  Hampshire,  in  1820.  He  became  a  partner 
of  the  publishing-house  of  Ticknor  &  Fields,  Boston. 
Among  his  poems  are  "Commerce,"  (1838,)  "The  Post 
of  Honour,"  (1848,)  and  "  The  Fair  Wind."  "The  poems 
Mr.  Fields  has  given  us,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "are 
evidently  the  careless  products  of  a  singularly  sensitive 
and  fertile  mind, — indications  rather  than  exponents  of 
its  powers."    ("Poets  and  Poetry  of  America.") 

Fiennes,  fenz,  ?  (Nathaniel,)  a  son  of  William,  Lord 
Saye,  born  at  Broughton,  Oxfordshire,  in  1608.  Having 
joined  the  army  of  Parliament  in  the  civil  war,  he  was 
appointed  governor  of  Bristol,  which  he  surrendered  to 


Prince  Rupert  in  1643.  For  this  act  he  was  sentenced 
to  death,  but  was  pardoned.  He  afterwards  became  a 
prominent  member  of  Parliament,  and  a  partisan  of 
Cromwell,  who  in  1654  or  1655  appointed  him  lord  keeper 
of  the  great  seal.  He  was  one  of  the  lords  of  the  Upper 
House  convened  in  1658.    Died  in  1669. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica;"  Noble,  "Memoirs  of  Cromwell." 

Fiennes,  (William,)  Lord  Saye  and  Sele,  an  English 
statesman,  born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1582,  was  created  a 
viscount  in  1624.  He  co-operated  with  Hampden  and 
Pym  in  opposition  to  the  arbitrary  government  of  Charles 
I.  At  the  commencement  of  the  rebellion  (1642)  he  took 
sides  with  the  Parliament.  About  1650  he  left  the  Presby- 
terians and  joined  the  Independents.  Lord  Saye  exerted 
a  great  influence  in  public  affairs,  and  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Cromwell.  At  the  restoration  he  was  appointed 
lord  privy  seal  and  chamberlain  of  the  royal  household 
by  Charles  II.  Died  in  1662.  "He  was,"  says  White- 
locke,  "a  person  of  great  parts,  wisdom,  and  integrity." 

See  Lloyd,  "State  Worthies;"  Wood,  "Athense  Oxonienses." 

Fiennes,  de,  deh  fe'^n',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  an  Orien- 
tal scholar,  born  at  Saint-Germain,  near  Paris,  in  1669, 
became  professor  of  Arabic  in  the  College  of  France  in 
1 7 14.  He  was  also  interpreter  to  the  king.  Died  in  1744. 

Fiennes,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste  Helin,)  an  Orientalist 
and  diplomatist,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Saint- 
Germain-en-Laye  in  17 10.  He  became  interpreter  to 
the  king  for  Oriental  languages  in  1746,  and  professor  of 
Arabic  at  the  College  of  France  in  1748.    Died  in  1767. 

Fiennes,  de,  (Maximilien  FRANgois,)  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  in  1669,  took  part  in  many  battles  in  Flanders, 
and  commanded  an  army  about  1712-14.    Died  in  1716. 

Fiennes,  de,  (Robert,)  a  French  commander,  ren- 
dered important  services  to  King  John  and  Charles  V., 
and  was  rewarded  with  the  office  of  Constable  of  France 
in  1356.    Died  about  1382. 

Fieschi.    See  Innocent  IV. 

Fieschi,  fe-^s'kee,  singular  Fiesco,  fe-§s'ko,  [Fr. 
FiESQUE,  fe'isk',]  Counts  of  Lavagna,  the  name  of  one 
of  the  four  principal  families  of  Genoa  or  Liguria.  The 
Fieschi  in  the  twelfth  century  aspired  to  supreme  power, 
and  resisted  the  republic  of  Genoa  without  success. 
Among  the  eminent  members  of  this  family  were  Popes 
Innocent  IV.  and  Adrian  V.  The  Fieschi  were  attached 
to  the  Guelph  party. 

Fieschi,  (Joseph  Marco,)  born  in  Corsica  in  1790, 
was  the  inventor  of  the  so-called  infernal  machine,  and 
the  principal  agent  in  the  attempt  on  the  life  of  the 
French  king,  Louis  Philippe.  His  machine,  consisting 
of  twenty-four  musket-barrels,  was  discharged  in  July, 
1835,  while  the  king,  at  the  head  of  a  military  procession, 
was  going  to  a  review.  Louis  Philippe  was  very  slightly 
injured  ;  but  ten  others,  including  Marshal  Mortier,  were 
instantly  killed.  Fieschi,  with  his  accomplices,  was  exe- 
cuted in  February,  1836. 

See  Louis  Blanc.  "  Histoire  de  dix  Ans." 

Fiesco,  fe-ks^ko,  (Giovanni  Luigi,)  sometimes  writ- 
ten Fieschi,  Count  of  Lavagna,  born  in  1525.  He  was 
the  chief  of  one  of  the  most  powerful  families  of  Genoa, 
and  aspired  to  supreme  power.  In  this  he  was  prevented 
by  the  more  influential  house  of  Doria,  against  which  he 
formed  a  powerful  conspiracy.  He  received  assistance 
in  this  enterprise  from  Pope  Paul  III.,  the  court  of 
France,  and  Pietro  Luigi  Farnese,  Duke  of  Parma  and 
Piacenza.  Fieschi  endeavoured  to  procure  the  assassi- 
nation of  Andrew  Doria,  the  chief  of  that  family,  and  his 
nephew  Giovannino,  while  they  were  at  a  banquet.  In 
this,  however,  he  was  unsuccessful.  Having  resolved  on 
another  attempt,  the  arrangements  were  made  with  so 
great  caution  that  no  suspicions  were  aroused  against 
the  conspirators.  On  the  night  of  the  2d  of  January, 
1547,  after  the  city  had  become  quiet,  Fieschi  sent 
part  of  his  followers  to  seize  the  palace  of  the  Doria. 
He  proceeded  to  the  harbour  to  capture  his  enemy's 
galleys.  As  he  was  passing  from  one  ship  to  another, 
the  plank  broke  under  him,  and,  encumbered  by  his 
armour,  he  was  unable  to  save  himself.  His  companions 
did  not  perceive  the  accident  until  too  late  to  rescue  him. 
In  the  attack  on  the  palace,  Giovannino  Doria  was  killed, 
but  his  uncle  escaped.    As  a  consequence  of  this  con« 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  c,  H,  y:.^  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FIESOLE 


FILIASSl 


spiracy,  most  of  the  family  of  Fieschi  were  put  to  death. 
Schiller  wrote  a  tragedy  on  the  conspiracy  of  Fiesco. 

See  E.  ViNCENS,  "Histoire  de  la  Rf^piiblique  de  Genes;"  Sis- 
MONDi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes ;"  A.  Mascardi, 
"  Coiigiura  del  Conte  G.  L.  de  Fieschi,"  1627,  (translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Hugh  Hare,  1693.) 

Fiesole,  da,  da  fe-a'so-li  or  fe-gs'o-li,  (  Fra  Gio- 
vanni,) an  Italian  painter,  whose  original  name  was  Santi 
TosiNi,  or,  according  to  Vasari,  Giovanni  Guido,  was 
born  at  Mugello,  in  Tuscany,  in  1387.  He  was  surnamed 
Fra  Angelico  or  Eeato  Angelico,  and  was  one  of  the 
most  eminent  among  the  restorers  of  painting  in  Italy. 
He  is  highly  praised  by  Ruskin,  who  says,  "In  Angelico 
you  have  the  entirely  spiritual  mind,  incapable  of  con- 
ceiving any  wickedness  or  vileness  whatever."  ("  Modern 
Painters,"  vol.  v,  p.  300.)  He  was  employed  by  Pope 
Nicholas  V.  to  paint  his  private  chapel  in  the  Vatican, 
and  the  chapel  of  Saint  Lorenzo.  His  easel-picture 
representing  the  "  Coronation  of  Mary,"  which  is  con- 
sidered a  master-piece,  now  adorns  the  entrance-hall  of 
the  Louvre  at  Paris.  He  devoted  himself  exclusively 
to  sacred  subjects;  and  the  purity  and  deep  religious 
feeling  which  characterize  all  his  works  are  a  faithful 
reflection  of  his  own  life  and  character.  Among  his  chief 
works  are  an  "Annunciation,"  and  the  "  Last  Judgment." 
Died  about  1455. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy  ;"  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters  ;" 
Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario." 

Fievee,  fe'a^vi',  (Joseph,)  a  French  litterateur  and 
politician,  born  in  Paris  in  1767.  He  wrote  for  the 
"Journal  des  Debats"  and  other  journals,  published 
several  successful  novels  and  political  treatises,  and 
was  appointed  censor  in  1805.  About  1808  he  became 
master  of  requests.    Died  in  Paris  in  1839. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  v. 

Figino,  fe-jee'no,  or  Figine,  fe-jee'ni,  (Ambrogio,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Milan  about  1550,  excelled  in 
portraits.    Died  after  1595. 

Figliucci,  f^l-yoot'chee,  (Felice,)  an  Italian  philo- 
sopher and  voluminous  writer,  born  at  Sienna,  made 
translations  from  Plato  and  Aristotle,  and  wrote  several 
commentaries  on  the  works  of  the  latter.  Died  about  1590. 

Figrelius,  fe-gRa'le-iis,  called  also  Griepenhielm  or 
Greifenhelm,  (  Edmund,  )  a  Swedish  antiquary,  and 
professor  of  history  in  the  University  of  Upsal.  He  was 
preceptor  of  Charles  XL,  by  whom  he  was  created  baron, 
senator,  and  chancellor  of  the  court.    Died  in  1676. 

Figueiras.    See  Figuieira. 

Figueiredo,  de,  (Antonio  Pereira.)  See  Pereira. 

Figueiredo,  de,  da  fe-gi-e-ra'do,  (Manoel,)  a  Por- 
tuguese savant  and  scientific  writer,  born  near  Lisbon  in 
1568;  died  about  1630, 

Figueroa,  de,  dkfe-gi-ro'S,  (Bartolom^  Cayrasco,) 
a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Logrono  about  1540.  He  was 
the  first  to  introduce  into  Spanish  poetry  the  measure 
termed  esdrtixolos,  or  the  sdruccioli  of  the  Italians. 

Figueroa,  de,  (Cristoval  Suarez,)  a  distinguished 
Spanish  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Valladolid 
about  1586.  He  translated  into  Spanish  the  "Pastor 
Fido"  of  Guarini,  and  was  the  author  of  a  pastoral  en- 
titled "La  constante  Amarilis."    Died  in  1650. 

Figueroa,  de,  (Francisco,)  a  celebrated  Spanish 
poet,  surnamed  THE  Divine,  born  at  Alcala  de  Henares 
about  1540.  He  entered  the  army  young,  and  served  in 
Italy  and  Flanders.  He  wrote  pastorals  in  imitation  of 
the  Italians.  He  caused  most  of  his  poems  to  be  burnt 
a  short  time  before  his  death ;  but  the  few  that  remain 
attest  the  superiority  of  his  poetical  genius.  Died  about 
1620. 

See  TicKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Longfellow, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Figueroa,  de,  (Garcias  y  Silva,  gaR-///ee'Ss  e  s^KvS,) 
a  Spanish  diplomatist,  born  at  Badajos  in  1574.  In  1618 
he  was  ambassador  at  the  court  of  Shah  Abbas,  in  Persia. 
On  his  return  he  published  an  interesting  account  of  his 
travels  in  India  and  Persia.    Died  about  1625. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Figueroa,  de,  (Don  Lopez,)  a  Spanish  officer  under 
Philip  II.,  born  at  Valladolid  about  1520,  He  was  con- 
spicuous for  his  bravery  in  the  war  against  the  Moors,  I 


and  at  the  naval  battle  of  Lepanto,  where  he  served 
under  Don  John  of  Austria.    Died  in  1595. 

Figuieira,  fe-ge-a'ra,  or  Figueiras,  fe-ga'rSs,  (Guil- 
lem,)  a  celebrated  Proven9al  troubadour,  was  born  at 
Toulouse  about  1190. 

Figuier,  fe'gej,',  (Louis  Guillaume,)  a  French 
chemist,  was  born  at  Montpellier  in  1819.  He  became 
professor  in  the  School  of  Pharmacy  in  Paris  in  1853. 
Among  his  numerous  and  valuable  works  may  be  named 
his  "Exposition  and  History  of  the  Principal  Modern 
Scientific  Discoveries,"  (3  vols.,  1855,)  and  "Vies  des 
Savants  illustres,"  (1866.) 

Fig'u-lus,  (P.  Nigid'ius,)  a  Roman  Pythagorean 
philosopher,  born  about  100  B.C.,  was  celebrated  for  his 
learning.  He  was  a  friend  of  Cicero,  and  was  one  of 
the  senators  appointed  in  63  to  receive  testimony  in  the 
case  of  Catiline.  He  became  praetor  in  59  B.C.,  and  was 
a  partisan  of  Pompey  in  the  civil  war.    Died  in  44  B.C. 

Filamondo,  fe-lS-mou'do,  (Rafael  Maria,)  Bishop 
of  Suessa,  born  at  Naples  about  1650 ;  died  in  17 16. 

Filangieri,  fe-lin-je-a'ree,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  gen- 
eral, son  of  Gaetano,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Naples 
in  1785.  He  commanded  the  army  which  took  Messina 
in  1848  and  Palermo  in  1849,  after  which  he  was  Gov- 
ernor of  Sicily.    Pie  was  created  Duke  of  Taormina. 

Filangieri,  (Gaetano,)  an  Italian  writer  on  political 
economy,  and  one  of  the  most  celebrated  publicists  of 
his  time,  was  born  at  Naples  in  1752.  In  1771  he  com- 
menced two  works,  one  upon  private  and  public  edu- 
cation, and  the  other  entitled  "  Morality  for  Princes," 
neither  of  which  was  finished.  He  rendered  important 
services  to  humanity  and  legislative  reform  by  his  great 
work  entitled  "  Scienza  della  Legislazione,"  the  first 
volume  of  which  appeared  in  1780  and  gave  him  an  en- 
viable reputation  throughout  Europe.  In  1787  he  was 
appointed  by  Ferdinand  IV.  a  member  of  the  board  of 
finance.  He  died  in  1788.  His  "Science  of  Legisla- 
tion," which  was  not  quite  finished  at  his  death,  passed 
through  numerous  editions,  and  was  translated  into  Ger- 
man, French,  English,  and  Spanish.  At  the  request  of 
Dr.  Franklin,  the  author  sent  a  number  of  copies  to 
America. 

See  Salfi,  "Life  of  Filangieri,"  in  a  French  translation  of  his 
works  published  in  Paris  in  1822  ;  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani 
illustri;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  Donato  Tommasi, 
"  Elogio  storico  del  Cavaliere  G.  Filangieii,"  17S8;  Carnevali, 
"Vita  del  Cavaliere  G.  Filangieri;"  G.  Bianchetti,  "Elogio  di  G. 
Filangieri,"  1819. 

Filarete,  fe-lJ-ra'ti,  (Antonio,)  a  Florentine  architect 
and  sculptor,  flourished  about  1450.  Among  his  works 
was  the  grand  hospital  of  Milan,  built  in  1456. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors." 

Filastre  or  Fillastre,fe^ltstR', (Guillaume,)  a  French 
prelate  and  Greek  scholar,  born  in  Maine  about  1347. 
He  translated  some  works  of  Plato,  and  wrote  commen- 
taries on  Ptolemy.    Died  at  Rome  in  1428. 

Filelfo,  fe-leKfo,  [Lat.  Philel^phus  ;  Fr.  Philelphe, 
fe^Slf ,]  (Francesco,)  a  celebrated  Italian  philologist  and 
poet,  born  at  Tolentino  in  1398.  He  became  an  eminent 
Greek  scholar,  and  obtained  the  cliair  of  belles-lettres 
at  Florence  in  1429.  Having  written  satires  against 
the  Medici  and  made  many  enemies  among  the  literati, 
he  was  obliged  to  quit  Florence  in  1434.  He  became 
professor  at  Milan  in  1440.  About  1466  he  removed  to 
Rome,  where  he  taught  philosophy.  His  habits  are  said 
to  have  been  very  licentious.  He  wrote  a  poem,  "La 
Sforziade;"  "Epistles,"  ( " Epistolarum  Libri  XVI.," 
1485  ;)  Latin  Odes,  ( 1497, )  and  other  works.  Died  at 
Florence  in  1481. 

See  C.  RosMiNi,  "Vita  di  Filelfo,"  3  vols.,  1808;  Meucci,  "Phi- 
lelphi  Vita,"  1741 ;  Lancelot,  "Vie  de  Philelphe;"  Paolo  Giovio, 
"Elogia;"  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Filesac,  f^Kstk',  (Jean,)  a  learned  French  theologian, 
born  in  Paris  about  1550.  He  was  chosen  rector  of  the 
University  of  Paris  in  1586.  His  chief  work  is  a  "Treat- 
ise on  the  Authority  of  Bishops,"  (1606.)    Died  in  1638. 

Filhol,  f^KyoK,  (Michel  Antoine,)  a  French  en- 
graver, born  in  1759,  published  "Complete  Gallery  of 
the  Napoleon  Museum,"  ("Galerie  complete  du  Musee 
Napoleon,"  10  vols.,  1804-14.)    Died  in  1812. 

Filiassi,  fe-le-ds'see,  (Giacomo,)  Count,  an  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Venice  in  1750,  published  a  "Treatise 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  till,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FILICAIA 


919 


FINELLI 


upon  the  Prevailing  Winds  in  the  Venetian  Marshes," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1829. 

Filicaia  or  Filicaja,  da,  di  fe-le-ka'yS,  (Vincenzo  or 
ViNCENZio,)  a  celebrated  Italian  lyric  poet,  and  senator 
of  Florence,  was  born  in  that  city  in  1642.  He  published 
numerous  poems  in  Latin  and  Italian,  which  were  re- 
markable for  their  spirit  and  elegance.  His  "Ode  on 
the  Victory  over  the  Turks"  gained  for  him  the  reputa- 
tion of  the  first  Italian  poet  of  his  time.  He  married 
Anna  Capponi  in  1673,  and  was  patronized  by  Queen 
Christina  of  Sweden.  Among  his  most  admirable  com- 
positions are  sonnets  entitled  "La  Providenza"  and 
"L'ltalia,"  which  are  sublime  in  thought,  imagery,  and 
style.  His  moral  character  is  represented  as  excellent. 
He  died  at  Florence  in  September,  1707.  "At  Paris," 
says  Macaulay,  "  Addison  eagerly  sought  an  introduction 
to  Boileau ;  but  he  seems  not  to  have  been  at  all  aware 
that  at  Florence  he  was  in  the  vicinity  of  a  poet  with 
whom  Boileau  could  not  sustain  a  comparison, — of  the 
greatest  lyric  poet  of  modern  times,  of  Vincenzio  Filicaja. 
This  is  the  more  remarkable  because  Filicaja  was<''the 
favourite  poet  of  the  all-accomplished  Somers,  under 
whose  protection  Addison  travelled."  ("Review  of  the 
Life  and  Writings  of  Addison,"  in  Macaulay's  "  Essays.") 

See  Negri,  "  Istoria  dei  Fiorentini  Scrittori ;"  Fabroni,  "Vit£e 
Italorum  doctriiia  excellentium  ;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Lettera- 
tura  Italiana ;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Lives 
of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by  Rev.  Henry  Stebbing,  London,  1S31 ; 
"Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  x.,  1824. 

Filippi,fe-l^p'pee,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Ferrara  about  1510;  died  in  1574. 

Filippi,  de,  di  fe-l^p'pee,  (Filtppo,)  a  naturalist,  son 
of  Giuseppe,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Milan  in  1814. 
He  published  "The  Three  Kingdoms  of  Nature,"  ("I 
tre  Regni  della  Natura,"  1852,)  and  other  works. 

Filippi,  de,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  medical  writer, 
born  in  Piedmont  in  1781.  He  was  chief  physician  of 
the  Italian  army  in  1814.    Died  in  1856. 

Filippini,  fe-l^p-pee'nee,  (Antonio  Pietro,)  an  ec- 
clesiastic, born  in  the  island  of  Corsica  in  1529,  wrote  a 
"History  of  Corsica." 

FiPlans,  (James,)  a  Scottish  sculptor,  born  in  Lanark- 
shire in  1808,  was  apprenticed  to  a  weaver,  and  after- 
wards to  a  stone-mason.  About  1836  he  settled  in  London 
as  a  sculptor.  Among  his  best  works  are  a  bust  of  John 
Wilson,  "The  Blind  Teaching  the  Blind,"  and  a  "Boy 
and  Fawn."    Died  in  Glasgow  in  1852. 

See  Paterson,  "Life  of  James  Fillans,"  1854. 

Filleau,  fe^y5',  (Jean,)  a  French  lawyer,  noted  as  an 
adversary  of  the  Jansenists,  was  born  at  Poitiers  in  1600. 
He  wrote  an  "Account  of  the  Proceedings  and  Doctrines 
of  the  Jansenists."    Died  in  1682. 

Filleul,  fe''yuK,  or  Filleuil,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  poet 
and  dramatist,  born  at  Rouen  about  1530. 

Fill'more,  (Mil'lard,)  the  thirteenth  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  in  Cayuga  county.  New 
York,  on  the  7th  of  January,  1800.  He  was  not  liberally 
educated;  but,  after  learning  the  trade  of  a  fuller,  he 
studied  law,  and  supported  himself  for  several  years  by 
teaching  school.  In  1821  he  removed  to  Erie  county, 
New  York,  where  he  practised  law  with  success.  He 
married  Abigail  Powers  in  1826,  and  was  elected  to 
Congress  in  1832  by  the  Anti- Jackson  party.  He  was 
re-elected  as  a  Whig  in  1836,  1838,  and  1840,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  talents  for  business  and  dili- 
gent attention  to  it.  In  the  session  of  1841-42  he  was 
chairman  of  the  committee  of  ways  and  means,  and  was 
the  chief  author  of  the  tariff  of  1842.  He  was  nomi- 
nated for  the  office  of  Governor  of  New  York  in  1844, 
but  was  not  elected.  In  1847  he  was  elected  comptroller 
of  that  State.  Having  been  nominated  as  the  Whig 
candidate  for  Vice-President,  he  was  elected  in  Novem- 
ber, 1848,  when  General  Taylor  was  chosen  President. 
He  was  raised  to  the  office  of  President  by  the  death  of 
President  Taylor  on  the  9thof  Julv,  1850.  He  appointed 
Daniel  Webster  secretary  of  stale,  and  approved  Mr. 
Clay's  Compromise  Bill  of  1850.  Many  of  the  Northern 
Whigs  were  offended  by  his  signature  of  the  act  for  the 
rendition  of  fugitive  slaves.  During  his  administration 
his  opponents  had  a  majority  in  both  Houses  of  Con- 
gress. On  the  expiration  of  his  term,  in  March,  1853, 
he  returned  to  Buffalo,  his  former  residence.    He  was 


nominated  as  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency  by  the 
American  party  in  1856,  but  received  no  electoral  votes 
except  those  of  Maryland. 

FiPmer,  ( Sir  Robert,  )  an  English  political  writer, 
born  in  the  county  of  Kent.  He  was  a  staunch  advocate 
of  absolute  monarchy,  and  endeavoured  to  prove  that  this 
was  the  true  and  natural  form  of  government.  Locke 
wrote  two  treatises  to  refute  this  theory.  Filmer  wrote, 
among  other  works,  "The  Anarchy  of  a  Limited  and 
Mixed  Monarchy,"  and  "  Patriarcha."    Died  in  1688. 

Filon,  fe'16N',  (Charles  Auguste  Desire,)  a  French 
historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1800.  He  was  professor  of 
history  in  several  colleges,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  Europe  in  the  Sixteenth  Century," 
(2  vols.,  1838,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Roman  Senate,'' 
(1850.) 

Fim'bri-a,  (Caius  Flavius,)  a  Roman  general,  who 
was  a  violent  partisan  of  Marius.  Having  been  chosen 
lieutenant  (legatiis)  to  the  consul  Valerius  Flaccus,  who 
was  sent  to  Asia  to  replace  Sulla,  Fimbria  corrupted  the 
soldiers,  caused  the  consul  to  be  assassinated,  and  took 
the  command  of  the  army,  in  which  he  was  sanctioned 
by  the  Roman  senate.  After  committing  great  outrages, 
he  was  surrounded  by  the  army  of  Sulla.  Fimbria,  per- 
ceiving that  it  would  be  impossible  to  resist,  as  his  soldiers 
were  deserting  him,  put  an  end  to  his  own  life,  in  85  B.C. 

Finaeus.    See  Fine. 

Finch,  (Anne,)  Countess  of  Winchelsea,  an  English 
poetess,  born  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Of  her  poems 
we  may  cite  "The  Spleen"  and  the  tragedy  of  "Aristo- 
menes."    Died  in  1720. 

Fiilch,  (Daniel,)  second  Earl  of  Nottingham,  bom 
in  1647,  was  a  son  of  Heneage  Finch.  He  was  one  of 
the  privy  councillors  who  upon  the  death  of  Charles  II. 
proclaimed  the  Duke  of  York  king.  Upon  the  accession 
of  William  and  Mary  (1689)  he  refused  the  office  of  lord 
high  chancellor,  but  was  appointed  secretary  of  state. 
He  rendered  so  much  service  to  William  that  James  II., 
in  making  a  declaration  in  regard  to  his  intended  inva- 
sion, excluded  Finch  from  the  general  pardon.  He  re- 
signed office  in  1694,  and  again  became  secretary  in  1702. 
He  wrote  a  work  on  the  Trinity,  (1721,)  for  which  he  was 
thanked  by  the  University  of  Oxford.    Died  in  1730. 

See  Walpole,  "Royal  and  Noble  Authors;"  Macaulay,  "His- 
tory of  England." 

Finch,  (Heneage.)    See  Nottingham. 

Finch,  (Henry,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in  Kent  about 
1550  ;  died  in  1625. 

Finch,  (Robert,)  a  distinguished  English  antiquary 
and  traveller,  born  in  London  in  1783.  He  died  at  Rome 
in  1830,  leaving  his  valuable  library  and  collection  of 
antiquities  to  the  Ashmolean  Museum  of  Oxford. 

Finch,  (William,)  an  English  traveller,  who  lived 
about  1610,  visited  India  and  Africa,  where  he  obtained 
much  valuable  geographical  information,  which  was  pub- 
lished after  his  return. 

Finck,  (Thomas,)  a  Danish  mathematician,  physician, 
and  first  professor  of  rhetoric  and  medicine  at  Copen- 
hagen, born  in  South  Jutland  in  1561.  He  was  the  author 
of  various  scientific  and  medical  works.    Died  in  1656. 

Fin'den,  (William,)  a  skilful  English  line-engraver, 
born  in  1787.  He  engraved  illustrations  for  numerous 
books,  among  which  is  "  Don  Quixote."  He  also  published 
many  illustrated  works,  entitled  "The  Bvron  Gallery," 
"The  Gallery  of  the  Graces,"  "The  Gaflery  of  British 
Art,"  etc.    Died  in  1852. 

Find'lay,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  divine,  born  in  1721, 
published  a  "Vindication  of  the  Sacred  Books  and  of 
Josephus  against  Voltaire,"  (1770,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1814. 

Fine,  f^n,  sometimes  written  Fine,  (Oronce,  o^r^Nss',) 
[Lat.  Oron'tius  FiN/*;'us,]  a  celebrated  French  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Brian9on  in  1494.  In  1530  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal  College. 
Among  his  mechanical  inventions  was  a  clock  of  peculiar 
construction.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  scientific 
works.    Died  in  1555. 

See  Niceron,  "  Memoires ;"  Delambre,  "  Histoire  de  I'Astro- 
nomie  au  Moyen-Age." 

Finelli,  fe-nel'lee,  (Carlo,)  an  able  Italian  statuary, 
born  at  Carrara  in  1780,  was  a  pupil  of  Canova.  Among 


as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ((^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FINELLI 


920 


FIR  DO  US  EE 


his  master-pieces  are  statues  of  Raphael  and  of  the 
archangel  Michael.    Died  in  1854. 

Fiuelli,  (GiULiANO,)  an  Italian  sculptor  and  architect, 
born  at  Carrara  in  1602  ;  died  about  1658. 

Finet,  fe-net'  or  fe'n^',  (Sir  John,)  an  English  author 
and  wit,  born  near  Dover  in  1571.  His  principal  work 
was  "  Fineti  Philoxenus,"  which  treated  of  the  etiquette 
of  the  English  court.    Died  in  1641. 

Fingal,  fing'gal  or  fing'gaul.  King  of  Morven,  a  prov- 
ince of  ancient  Caledonia,  and  father  of  the  poet  Ossian, 
by  whom  he  was  celebrated  for  his  heroic  exploits,  was 
born  in  282.  A  great  part  of  his  time  was  devoted  to 
the  wars  against  the  Romans,  who  then  held  sway  over 
a  large  portion  of  Britain. 

Finiguerra,  fe-ne-gw§R'rS,  (Tommaso  or  Maso,)  an 
Italian  sculptor  and  goldsmith,  who  is  believed  to  have 
been  the  inventor  of  the  art  of  taking  engravings  from 
metallic  plates  on  paper.    Died  in  1475. 

See  Strutt,  "Dictionary  of  Engravers ;"  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the 
Painters,"  etc. 

Fink,  fink,  (Gottfried  Wilhelm,)  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Suiza  in  1 783,  published  several  works  on  the- 
ology and  music,  and  in  1827  was  editor  of  the  "Uni- 
versal Musical  Gazette."    Died  in  1846. 

Fink,  von,  fon  fink,  (Friedrich  August,)  a  Prussian 
general,  born  in  Mecklenburg  in  17 18.  In  1759  he  was 
sent  by  the  king,  Frederick  II.,  to  oppose  Marshal  Daun, 
by  whose  greatly  superior  force  he  was  defeated  at 
Maxen.  For  this  he  was  imprisoned  and  dismissed  from 
the  army.    Died  at  Copenhagen  in  1766. 

Finkenstein,von,fon  fink'en-stTn^(CARL  Wilhelm 
FiNCK,)  Count,  a  Prussian  minister  of  state,  born  in 
1714.  He  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  for  many  years 
between  1750  and  his  death.    Died  in  1800. 

Fin^'lay,  (fin'le,)  (George,)  a  British  historian,  born 
in  Scotland  about  1800,  resided  some  years  at  Athens. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "  Greece  under  the  Ro- 
mans," (1843,)  "History  of  the  Byzantine  and  Greek 
Empires  from  1057  to  1453,"  (1854,)  and  "Greece  under 
the  Othman  and  Venetian  Dominion  from  1453  to  1821." 
These  productions  are  highly  commended. 

See  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  October,  1844:  "North  British 
Review"  for  February,  1855. 

Finlay,  (John,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  prose  writer,  born 
at  Glasgow  in  1782.  Among  his  works  are  "Wallace, 
or  the  Vale  of  Ellerslie,"  (1802,)  a  "Life  of  Cervantes," 
and  a  "Collection  of  Scottish  Ballads,  Historical  and 
Romantic,"  (1808.)    Died  in  1810. 

Fin'lay-spn,  (George,)  a  Scottish  surgeon,  born  at 
Thurso  about  1790,  accompanied  an  embassy  to  Siam 
and  Hue  in  1822.  He  published  "The  Mission  from 
Bengal  to  Siam  and  Hue,"  (1822.)    Died  in  1823. 

Finlayson,  (James,)  a  Scottish  Presbyterian  minister, 
born  about  1750.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  logic 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  about  1788,  and  after- 
wards became,  as  minister,  the  colleague  of  Dr.  Blair.  He 
had  great  influence  in  the  affairs  of  the  church.  Died 
in  1808. 

See  a  notice  of  his  life  prefixed  to  a  volume  of  his  sermons,  1809 ; 
Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

FinTey,  (James  Bradley,)  a  Methodist  minister  and 
author,  born  in  North  Carolina  in  1781.  He  became 
chaplain  of  the  Ohio  penitentiary  in  1845.  Died  in  1857. 
His  "Prison  Life,"  "Autobiography,"  and  several  of 
his  other  works  have  had  an  extensive  circulation. 

Finley,  (Robert,)  born  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  in 
1772,  was  for  many  years  a  tutor  in  Princeton  College. 
He  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  American  Coloni- 
zation Society.  He  was  pastor  at  Baskingridge,  New 
Jersey,  from  1795  to  181 7.    Died  in  181 7. 

Finley,  (Samuel,)  a  Presbyterian  minister,  born  in 
Armagh,  Ireland,  in  1715,  came  to  America  in  1734.  He 
was  chosen  president  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in 
1 761.    Died  in  1766. 

Finn,  (Henry  J.,)  a  popular  American  comic  actor, 
born  at  Sydney,  Cape  Breton,  about  1 784.  He  performed 
in  London  and  New  York,  and  wrote  several  humorous 
works.  He  was  lost  in  the  steamer  Lexington,  which 
was  burned  in  1840. 

Fin'ney,  (Charles  G.,)  an  American  theologian  and 
popular  preacher,  born  in  Litchfield  county,  Connecticut, 


in  1792.   He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Lectures 
on  Revivals,"  (1835;  ^3^^  edition,  1840,)  and  "Lectures 
on  Systematic  Theology,"  (1847.)    He  became  president 
of  Oberlin  College,  Ohio,  in  1852. 
See  Bartlett,  "Modern  Agitators." 

Fino,  fee'no,  (Alemanio,)  an  Italian  historian  and 
elegant  writer,  born  at  Bergamo.  Among  his  works  are 
"The  History  of  Crema,"  (1566,)  and  "The  War  of 
Attila,  the  Scourge  of  God,"  (1569.)    Died  about  1586. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Fino  Fini,  fee'no  fee'nee,  surnamed  Adriano,  an 
eminent  Italian  scholar  and  Orientalist,  born  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Adria  in  143 1  ;  died  in  151 7. 

Finoglia,  fe-n6Kya,  (Paolo  Domenico,)  an  able  Ital- 
ian painter,  born  at  Orta,  (Naples;)  died  in  1656. 

Fioravanti,  fe-o-ri-van'tee,  (Leonardo,)  an  Italian 
physician  and  surgeon,  was  a  native  of  Bologna.,  He 
wrote,  among  other  works,  "The  Mirror  of  Universal 
Science."    Died  in  1588. 

Fioravanti,  (Valentino,)  an  Italian  composer,  born 
at  Rome  about  1765,  produced  successful  operas,  among 
which  were  "I  Virtuosi  ambulanti"  and  "II  Furbo  con- 
tra Furbo."    Died  in  1837. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Fiore,  del,  dh\  fe-o'ri,  (Jacobello,)  a  painter  of  the 
Venetian  school,  flourished  from  1400  to  1436.  He  was 
a  son  of  a  painter  named  Francesco  del  Fiore.  The 
beauty  and  grace  of  his  figures  are  praised.  His  master- 
piece is  a  "Coronation  of  the  Virgin." 

See  Vasari,"  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Lanzi,"  History  of  Painting 
in  Italy." 

Fiore,  del,  (Niccol6  Antonio,)  often  called  Colan- 
TONio  DEL  Fiore,  a  Neapolitan  painter,  born  at  Naples 
in  1352.    He  painted  in  distemper.    Died  in  1444. 

Fiorentini,  fe-o-ign-tee^iee,  (Francesco  Maria,)  an 
Italian  historian,  born  at  Lucca  about  1610  ;  died  in  1673. 

Fiorentino,  fe-o-ren-tee'no,  (Agostino,)  a  Floren- 
tine sculptor,  flourished  from  1442  to  1461. 

Fiorentino,  (Pietro  Angelo,)  an  Italian  litterateur^ 
born  in  Naples  in  1810.  Lie  became  a  resident  of  Paris 
about  1835,  and  contributed  to  the  "Moniteur"  and  other 
journals.    Among  his  works  are  several  dramas. 

Fiorentino,  (Stefano,)  called  Stefano  da  Ponte- 
Vecchio,  and,  also,  Lo  Scimmia,  ("The  Ape,")  a  Flor- 
entine painter,  born  in  1301,  was  a  pupil  of  Giotto.  He 
is  highly  praised  by  Vasari.  Only  one  of  his  works  is 
extant, — a  fresco  of  Christ  at  Florence.    Died  in  1350. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Fiorgyn,  Fiorgvin,  or  Fiorgynn.    See  Hlodyn. 

Fiori,  (Federigo.)    See  Baroccl 

Fiori,  fe-o'ree,  (Giorgio,)  a  noted  Italian  lawyer,  born 
at  Milan  about  1450.  He  wrote  a  history,  in  Latin,  of  the 
Italian  and  German  wars  of  his  time.    Died  about  15 12. 

Fiori,  (Giuseppe,)  a  Sicilian  poet.    Died  in  1646. 

Fiori,  de',  di  fe-o'ree,  (Mario,)  an  Italian  flower- 
painter,  born  in  1603  ;  died  in  1673. 

Fiorillo,  fe-o-r6Klo,  (Johann  Dominicus,)  a  German 
artist  and  writer  upon  art,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1748. 
He  produced  several  good  pictures,  but  is  chiefly  known 
as  the  author  of  two  excellent  works,  entitled  "  History 
of  the  Arts  of  Design  from  their  Revival  to  the  Most 
Recent  Times,"  (5  vols.,  1798-1808,)  and  "  History  of 
the  Arts  of  Design  in  Germany  and  the  Netherlands," 
(4  vols.,  1815-20.)  He  was  for  many  years  professor  of 
art  in  the  University  of  Gottingen.    Died  in  1821. 

Fiorini,  fe-o-ree'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  Bo- 
lognese  painter,  flourished  about  1560-90.  He  worked 
in  partnership  with  Cesare  Aretusi,  who  coloured  the 
works  which  were  designed  by  Fiorini. 

His  son  Gabriello  was  a  sculptor. 

Fiorini,  (Pietro,)  an  able  Italian  architect,  a  son  of 
Gabriello,  began  to  work  in  1581.  He  designed  several 
churches  of  Bologna.    Died  in  1622. 

Firdousee  or  Firdausi,  fir-dow'see  or  fgr-dow'see, 
written  also,  but  less  correctly,  Firdusi,  Firdousi,  and 
Ferdoucy,  fir-doo'see,  the  surname  by  which  the  greatest 
of  the  Persian  poets,  Abool-Kasim-Mansoor,  (Abu'l- 
Kasim-Mansur,  or  Abou'l-Casim-Mansour,  VhobX 
ki'sim  mdn-sooR',)  is  generally  known.  He  was  born  at 
or  near  Toos,  (Tus,)  in  Khorassan,  about  940  a.d.  His 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  4,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  flLll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FIRDOUSEE  921  FIRMIN 


surname  Firdousee  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been 
given  him  because  his  father  was  a  gardener,  from  the 
Persian  firdous  or  firdaus,  signifying  a  "garden,"  also 
"  paradise  ;"  according  to  others,  the  name  implied  a 
lofty  eulogium  on  his  poetry,  as  being  worthy  to  be  sung 
in  Paradise,  or  because  when  it  was  recited  at  the  court 
of  Mahmood  the  hearers  imagined  themselves  to  be  in 
Paradise.  Firdousee  had  made  himself  intimately  ac- 
quainted with  the  early  history  of  Persia  as  it  was  known 
through  the  ancient  chronicles  and  traditions.  With 
these  as  a  basis,  he  composed  his  great  poem  the  "  Shah- 
Namah"  or  "  Shah-Nameh,"  (shih  ni'mah,)  or  "Book 
of  Kings."  As  originally  written,  it  is  said  to  have  con- 
tained 60,000  distichs  or  couplets  ;  but  none  of  the  exist- 
ing manuscripts  have  more,  it  is  stated,  than  about  56,000 
distichs.  When  the  fame  of  Firdousee  became  known, 
the  Sultan  Mahmood  invited  him  to  his  court  at  Ghiznee, 
(Gazna ;)  and  he  is  said  to  have  been  charmed  with  the 
wit  and  genius  of  the  poet.  While  the  latter  was  writing 
the  "Shah-Namah,"  Mahmood  directed  that  he  should 
be  paid  out  of  the  royal  treasury  a  thousand  pieces  of 
gold  for  every  thousand  couplets  that  he  should  com- 
pose ;  but,  through  the  envy  or  jealousy  of  influential 
courtiers,  he  received  but  a  very  small  part  of  what  was 
due  to  him.  When  at  last,  after  a  labour  of  thirty  years, 
his  immortal  poem  was  completed,  Mahmood,  in  an  im- 
pulse of  generous  admiration,  ordered,  it  is  said,  that  an 
elephant-load  of  gold  should  be  given  to  the  poet.  But 
afterwards,  either  repenting  of  his  too  great  liberality, 
or  else  influenced  by  the  representations  of  Firdousee's 
enemies,  he  revoked  the  order,  and  sent  him  60,000 
dirhems  (small  silver  coins)  instead.  The  money  arrived 
while  the  poet  was  in  one  of  the  public  baths.  Enraged 
and  rendered  utterly  reckless  by  this  illiberal  treatment, 
he  gave  one-third  of  the  coins  to  the  man  who  brought 
them,  another  third  to  a  seller  of  refreshments,  and 
the  remainder  to  the  keeper  of  the  bath.  When  Mah- 
mood learned  how  his  gift  had  been  received,  he  was 
filled  with  wrath,  and  ordered  that  the  poet  should  be 
trampled  to  death  under  the  feet  of  an  elephant.  Fir- 
dousee, in  the  greatest  consternation,  hastened  into  the 
king's  presence,  and,  falling  at  his  feet,  implored  his  for- 
giveness, at  the  same  time  reciting  a  poem  in  which  he 
spoke  in  terms  of  the  most  glowing  eulogy  of  the  glories 
of  Mahmood's  reign.  The  king  pardoned  him,  and,  ac- 
cording to  some  accounts,  sought  to  make  reparation  for 
his  former  unworthy  treatment.  But  the  wound  inflicted 
upon  the  mind  of  ther  poet  was  too  deep  to  be  forgiven. 
With  a  truly  Oriental  duplicity,  he  obtained  from  the 
royal  librarian  the  copy  of  the  "  Shah-Namah"  which  he 
had  presented  to  the  king,  ostensibly  for  the  purpose  of 
making  some  correction,  and  wrote  in  it  a  most  scathing 
satire  on  Mahmood ;  he  then  fled  from  Ghiznee  and 
sought  refuge  in  Bagdad.  When  the  caliph  learned  that 
Firdousee  was  residing  in  his  capital,  he  invited  him  to 
his  court,  and  treated  him  with  the  greatest  honour  and 
liberality.  Firdousee  added  to  his  great  poem  1000  dis- 
tichs in  praise  of  the  caliph,  who  gave  the  poet  60,000 
pieces  of  gold.  Some  authors  say  that  Firdousee  sent 
the  satire  to  Mahmood  by  the  hand  of  a  friend,  who 
supposed  it  to  be  a  petition  of  some  sort. 

The  events  of  his  life,  however,  are  very  differently 
related  by  different  authors.  According  to  one  story, 
Mahmood  after  a  time  not  only  repented  of  his  injustice 
and  permitted  the  poet  to  return  to  Toos,  his  native  city, 
but  severely  punished  those  courtiers  by  whose  counsel 
he  had  been  misled,  and  finally,  as  a  tardy  reparation 
for  his  wrongs,  sent  Firdousee  100,000  pieces  of  gold. 
Meanwhile,  the  days  of  the  immortal  bard  were  drawing 
to  their  close.  He  one  day  heard  a  child  singing  in  the 
streets  of  Toos  some  of  his  own  verses,  which  so  vividly 
recalled  his  bitter  wrongs  and  sufferings  that  he  was 
seized  with  faintness,  and,  having  been  carried  to  his 
house,  he  soon  after  expired.  It  is  said  that  while  the 
mortal  remains  of  the  poet  were  passing  through  one  of 
the  gates  of  Toos  to  the  cemetery  without  the  city,  the 
train  of  camels  bearing  the  munificent  but  tardy  present 
of  the  sultan  was  entering  by  another.  One  of  the  daugh- 
ters of  the  deceased,  to  whom  the  gold  was  offered,  re- 
jected it  with  indignant  disdain  ;  but  her  sister  consented 
to  accept  it  in  order  to  construct  a  work  of  public  utility 


which  her  father  had  long  had  at  heart  :  this  was  the 
erection  of  a  stone  dike  to  prevent  the  overflow  of  the 
river  near  his  native  town.  Thus  his  wish  was  at  last 
fulfilled,  though  not  until  after  his  death.  When  Fir. 
dousee  died,  he  was  eighty,  or,  as  some  authorities  say, 
eighty-two  years  of  age.  Although  to  a  European  mind 
many  of  the  incidents  related  in  the  "Shah-Namah"  would 
appear  extravagant,  it  is,  nevertheless,  of  all  the  great 
Mohammedan  poems  that  which  corresponds  most  nearly 
to  the  taste  of  the  Western  nations  and  to  the  principles 
of  European  criticism.  Sir  William  Jones  styles  the 
"  Shah-Namah"  "  a  glorious  monument  of  Eastern  genius 
and  learning,  which,  if  it  should  ever  be  generally  under- 
stood in  its  original  language,  will  contest  the  merit  of 
invention  with  Homer  himself"  (See  article  "  Firdousi" 
in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale,"  and  the  biblio- 
graphic references  subjoined.  Of  these,  perhaps  the 
most  valuable  for  the  English  reader  are  the  preface  to 
Julius  von  Mohl's  translation  and  commentary  of  the 
"Shah-Namah,"  Sir  W.  Gore  Ouseley's  "Biographical 
Notices  of  the  Persian  Poets,"  and  the  biographical  notice 
prefixed  to  the  "  Abridgment  of  the  Shah-Nameh,"  by 
J.  Atkinson,  London,  1832.) 

See,  also,  J.  van  Wallenburg,  "  Notice  sur  le  Scliah  Nameh  de 
Ferdoiissi,"  1810;  De  Sacy,  articje  in  the  "Magasin  Encyclop^- 
dique,"  1813  ;  Von  Hammer,  "  Geschichte  der  schbnen  Redekiinste 
Persiens,"  and  an  article  in  the  "Wiener  Jahrbiicher,"  vol.  ix. ; 
Alexander  Ross,  "  Essay  on  the  Life  and  Genius  of  Firdousi,"  in 
the  "Annals  of  Oriental  Literature,"  1820  ;  Robinson,  "  Sketch  of 
the  Life  and  Writings  of  P'erdoosee,"  in  "Memoirs  of  the  Literary 
and  Philosophical  Society  of  Manchester,"  2d  series,  1824  ;  De  Star- 
kenfels,  "Vie  de  Firdousi;"  E.  Nazarianz,  article  on  the  "Life 
and  Writings  of  Firdousee,"  (in  Russian,)  1851 ;  "Retrospective 
Review,"  vol.  iv.,  1821. 

Fireiizuola,  fe-ren-zoo-o'lS,  (Agnolo,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  writer,  born  at  Florence  in  1493.  He  was  the 
author  of  satirical  poems,  sonnets,  prose  essays,  novels, 
and  dramas.  His  two  comedies  entitled  "  I  Lucidi"  and 
"La  Trinuzia"  are  greatly  admired,  and  both  his  prose 
writings  and  poems  are  ranked  among  the  Italian  classics. 
Died  about  1545. 

See  Niceron,  "M^nioires;"  Tiraboschi,  "Storia  della  Lettera- 
tura  Italiana;"  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  G. 
Negri,  "Istoria  de'  Fiorentini  Scrittori." 

Fir-ma'nus,  (Tarutius,)  a  Roman  astronomer,  was 
a  contemporary  and  friend  of  Cicero. 

Firmenich,  f^R'meh-niK^,  (Johannes  Matthias,) 
a  German  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Cologne  in  1808. 

Firmian,  von,  fon  fecR'me-an,  (Karl  Joseph,) 
Coun  t,  an  Austrian  statesman,  born  in  the  Tyrol  in  1716. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  aulic  council  at  Vienna  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  VI.,  after  whose  death  he  was  Governor 
of  Austrian  Lombardy,  to  which  he  rendered  important 
services.  He  founded  libraries,  and  liberally  patronized 
artists  and  men  of  letters.    Died  in  1782. 

See  Paolo  Frisi,  "  Elogio  di  T.  Pomponio  Attico,"  1780  ;  Angelo 
Teodoro  Villa,  "C.  Comitis  Firmiani  Vita,"  1783. 

Fir'mi-cus  Ma-ter'nus,  (Julius  or  Villius, )  an 
ecclesiastic  of  the  fourth  century.  By  some  he  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  Bishop  of  Milan.  The  work  by  which 
he  is  chiefly  known  was  addressed  to  the  Roman  em- 
perors Constantius  and  Constans,  entitled  "  De  Errore 
Profanarum  Religionum."  His  treatise  is  a  forcible  and 
striking  exposition  of  the  excellence  and  purity  of  the 
Christian  religion  as  contrasted  with  the  immoralities 
and  absurdities  of  paganism.  It  was  printed  by  Matthias 
Flaccius  in  1562.  There  is  also  extant  a  work  on  as- 
tronomy, called  "  Mathesis,"  by  Firmicus  Maternus. 

See  Hertz,  "Dissertatio  de  J.  Firmico  Materno,"  1817. 

Fir-miPi-an,  [Fr.  Firmilien,  f6r'me'le-&N',]  Saint, 
Bishop  of  Cesarea.  He  was  successful  in  quelling  the 
Novatian  doctrines,  and  united  with  Saint  Cyprian  against 
Pope  Stephen  in  the  dispute  in  relation  to  the  re-baptism 
of  heretics.  Firmilian  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Origen, 
and  was  distinguished  even  among  the  Christian  Fathers 
for  his  exemplary  piety.  He  presided  at  the  Council  of 
Antioch  in  the  trial  of  Paul  of  Samosata.  Died  at  Tarsus 
in  269  A.D. 

See  Eusebius,  "Historia  Ecclesiastica ;"  Baillet,  "Vies  des 
Saints." 

Fir'min,  (Giles,)  an  English  physician  and  noncon- 
formist minister,  born  in  Suffolk  in  161 7,  wrote  a  work 
entitled  "The- Real  Christian."    Died  in  1697. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  v.,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2l^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FIRM  IN 


922 


FISK 


Fir'min,  (Thomas,)  a  distinguished  English  philan- 
thropist, born  at  Ipswich  in  1632.  Though  a  Socinian, 
he  was  held  in  high  estimation  by  many  of  the  ecclesi- 
a^itics  of  the  Established  Church, especially  by  Archbishop 
Tillotson.  He  founded  two  houses  to  supply  the  poor 
with  work,  and  liberally  contributed  to  many  of  the  be- 
nevolent institutions  of  his  time.  He  published  a  work 
entitled  "Proposals  for  the  Employing  of  the  Poor,  and 
for  the  Prevention  of  Beggary."    Died  in  1697. 

See  Cornish,  "Life  of  T.  Firmin,"  1780;  "Retrospective  Re- 
view," vol.  xii.,  1825. 

Fir'mont,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  f^R^m^N',]  (Henry 
Essex  Edgeworth,)  a  Catholic  priest,  vicar-general  of 
the  church  of  Paris,  born  at  Edgeworthstown,  in  Ireland, 
in  1745,  removed  to  France  when  quite  young.  He 
performed  the  office  of  confessor  to  Louis  XVI.,  and 
accompanied  that  unfortunate  monarch  to  the  scaff"old. 
Firmont  died  in  1807,  greatly  lamented  by  the  royal 
family.    Louis  XVIII.  composed  his  epitaph. 

Fir'mus  or  Fir'mi-us,  a  native  of  Seleucia,  in  Syria. 
Having  obtained  great  wealth  and  power,  he  seized  Alex- 
andria, was  proclaimed  Augustus,  and  formed  an  alliance 
wiih  Zenobia.  The  emperor  Aurelian,  having  defeated 
and  taken  him  prisoner,  ordered  him  to  be  crucified. 

Fischart,  fish'aRt,  (Johann,)  surnamed  Mentzer,  a 
celebrated  German  satirist,  was  born  at  Mentz  or  Stras- 
burg  about  1545.  His  satires  in  prose  and  verse  are 
distinguished  for  their  moral  tone  as  well  as  caustic  wit, 
and  give  a  faithful  picture  of  the  manners  of  his  time. 
He  wrote  a  descriptive  poem,  called  "Gliickhafft  Schiff," 
(1576,)  which  was  much  admired.    Died  in  1614. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Fischer,  fish'er,  (Christian  August,)  a  German 
litterateur,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1771,  was  the  author  of 
"  Mountain  Travels,"  "  Picture  of  Madrid,"  (1802,)  "  Pic- 
ture of  Brazil,"  (1819,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1829. 

Fischer,  (Edmund  Rudolf,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Hasen-Preppach  in  1687,  became  in  1758  general 
superintendent,  or  Protestant  archbishop.  Died  in  1776. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Fischer,  (Friedrich  Christoph  Jonathan,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist  and  historian,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1750.  His 
chief  work  is  a  "History  of  German  Commerce,"  (1791.) 

Fischer,  (Gotthelf,)  a  German  naturalist  and  chem- 
ist, born  at  Waldheim  in  1771  or  1775,  became  professor 
of  natural  history  at  Moscow  about  1804.  Lie  wrote  on 
anatomy,  natural  history,  etc. 

Fischer,  (Gotthelf  August,)  a  German  mathema- 
tician and  scientific  writer,  born  in  1763  ;  died  in  1832. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Fischer,  (Johann  Andreas,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Erfurt  in  1667.  He  wrote  "  Iliad  in  a  Nutshell, 
or  Synoptic  Medicine,"  ("  Ilias  in  Nuce,  seu  Medicina 
synoptica,"  1716,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1729. 

Fischer,  (Johann  Eberhard,)  a  German  historian 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Essling  in  1697;  died  at  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1771. 

Fischer,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  an  eminent  German 
philologist,  born  at  Coburg  in  1 726,  resided  chiefly  at  Leip- 
sic. He  edited  Anacreon,  Justin,  Ovid,  and  other  classics, 
and  wrote  works  on  biblical  criticism.    Died  in  1799. 

Fischer,  (Joseph  Emanuel,)  an  architect,  born  about 
1680,  was  a  son  of  J.  B.  Fischer  von  Erlach,  noticed  below. 
He  is  said  to  have  constructed  in  1727  a  steam-engine  for 
carrying  water  in  the  garden  of  Schwarzenberg, 

Fischer,  (Kuno,  koo'no,)  a  German  writer  of  great 
merit,  chiefly  known  as  a  philosophical  critic  and  histo- 
rian, was  born  at  Sondewalde,  in  Silesia,  in  1824.  In 
1856  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  Jena. 
He  has  written  "  Diotima  ;  or.  The  Idea  of  the  Beautiful," 
(1849,)  "History  of  Modern  Philosophy,"  (2  vols.,  1852- 
55,)  "  Bacon  of  Verulam,"  (1856,)  and  other  works.  As 
a  lecturer  on  philosophy  he  is  eminently  popular. 

Fischer,  von,  fon  fishier,  (Karl,)  a  noted  German 
architect,  born  at  Manheim  in  1782,  became  professor  of 
architecture  at  Munich  about  1809.    Died  in  1820. 

Fischer  von  Erlach,  fishier  fon  ^r^ISk,  (Johann 
Bernhard,)  Baron,  a  celebrated  German  architect,  born 
at  Prague  (or,  according  to  some  authorities,  at  Vienna)  in 
1650.    He  built  the  Schonbrunn  palace  and  the  church 


of  San  Carlo  Borromeo  at  Vienna,  and  other  public 
edifices.  He  was  court  architect  to  Joseph  I.  and  to  his 
successor,  Charles  VI.    Died  about  1730. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Fisen,  fee'zen  or  fe'zoN',  (Barthelemy,)  a  Belgian 
Jesuit  and  historian,  born  at  Liege  in  1591 ;  died  in  1649. 

Fish,  (Hamilton,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
the  city  of  New  York  in  1809,  graduated  at  Columbia 
College.  He  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1830,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1843. 
In  1848  he  was  chosen  Governor  of  New  York  by  the 
Whig  party.  Lie  was  a  United  States  Senator  from  185 1 
to  1857,  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise 
in  1854,  and  joined  the  Republican  party  about  that  time. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  President  Grant 
in  the  spring  of  1869. 

Fish,  (Simon,)  an  English  lawyer  and  author,  born  in 
Kent  about  1520,  wrote  "The  Supplication  of  Beggars," 
a  satire  on  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy.  Died  about  1534. 

Fish'er,  (Alvan,)  an  American  painter,  born  in  Need- 
ham,  Massachusetts,  in  1792.  His  rural  and  domestic 
scenes  are  much  admired.  He  also  painted  many  por- 
traits. 

Fish'er,  (Edward,)  a  Calvinistic  writer,  born  in 
Gloucestershire,  England,  was  distinguished  for  his 
knowledge  of  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  languages  and 
ecclesiastical  history.  His  principal  work  was  entitled 
the  "Marrow  of  Modern  Divinity,"  (1646.) 

Fisher,  (John,)  [called  in  Latin  Roffen'sis,  (from 
Roffa,  the  Latin  name  of  Rochester,)]  a  learned  English 
prelate,  born  at  Beverley,  in  Yorkshire,  England,  in  1459. 
Margaret,  Countess  of  Richmond  and  mother  of  Henry 
VII.,  chose  him  as  her  confessor.  In  1501  he  was  ap- 
pointed chancellor  of  the  University  of  Cambridge.  In 
1504  he  became  Bishop  of  Rochester,  and  the  year 
following  accepted  the  presidency  of  Queen's  College. 
While  in  this  position,  he  invited  Erasmus  to  Cambridge 
and  had  him  appointed  professor  of  Greek.  Fisher  took 
an  active  part  against  the  Lutheran  doctrines,  writing 
several  treatises  upon  the  subject.  When  Henry  VIII. 
attempted  to  procure  a  divorce  from  Catherine  of  Ara- 
gon.  Fisher  sided  with  the  queen,  thus  incurring  the 
king's  displeasure.  He  was  soon  deprived  of  his  bish- 
opric, and  after  the  king's  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn, 
refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  he  was  thrown 
into  the  Tower.  The  king  was  still  further  exasperated 
by  Pope  Paul  HI.  having  conferred  the  title  of  cardinal 
upon  Fisher,  and  resolved  to  put  Kim  to  death.  He  was 
soon  after  brought  to  trial,  and  executed  in  June,  1535. 

See  Dr.  Bailey,  "  Life  of  Bishop  Fisher,"  1655 ;  Richard  Hall, 
"  Life  of  J.  Fisher,"  17^9;  J.  Lewis,  "  Life  of  John  Fisher,"  1855; 
Burnet,  "History  of  the  Reformation;"  Hartley  Coleridge, 
"Lives  of  Distinguished  Northerns." 

Fisher,  (John,)  an  English  Jesuit,  whose  proper  name 
was  PiERCY,  was  born  in  Yorkshire.  He  held  public 
disputes  with  several  Protestant  divines,  and  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  Faith,"  (1600.)    Died  after  1641. 

Fisher,  (John,)  born  in  Middlesex,  England,  in  1748, 
became  successively  Bishop  of  Exeter  and  of  Salisbury 
about  1804.  He  was  appointed  to  superintend  the  edu- 
cation of  the  princess  Charlotte  of  Wales.  Died  in  1825. 

Fisher,  (Payne,)  [Lat.  Paga'nus  Pisca'tor,]  an 
English  poet,  born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1614.  During  the 
protectorate  of  Cromwell  he  was  regarded  as  the  poet- 
laureate.  He  served  as  a  major  in  the  army  of  Charles 
I.    Died  in  1693. 

Fisher,  (Thomas,)  an  English  antiquary  and  writer, 
born  at  Rochester  in  1772.  He  contributed  for  many 
years  to  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine."    Died  in  1836. 

Fisk,  (Pliny,)  an  American  missionary  in  Palestine, 
born  at  Shelburne,  Massachusetts,  in  1792,  graduated  at 
Middlebury  College  in  1814,  and  in  1819  embarked  for 
Palestine.  '  On  reaching  Smyrna,  he  applied  himself  to 
the  study  of  the  Eastern  languages,  which  he  afterwards 
pursued  at  the  college  of  Scio.  Died  at  Beyroot  in  1825. 

Fisk,  (Wilbur,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished  Methodist 
divine,  born  in  Brattleborough,  Vermont,  in  1792.  He 
was  for  several  years  principal  of  the  Wesleyan  Academy 
in  Wilbraham,  Massachusetts,  and  in  1831  was  chosen  the 
first  president  of  the  Wesleyan  University,  Middletown, 
Connecticut,  which,  under  his  direction,  became  perhaps 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lojtg;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  mooni 


FISQUET  923  FITZWILLUM 


the  most  influential  educational  institution  of  the  Meth- 
odist denomination  in  America.  He  was  instrumental 
in  1832  in  establishing  the  Indian  mission  in  Oregon. 
In  1835-36  he  visited  Europe,  and  on  his  return  published 
a  volume  of  travels.    Died  in  1839. 

Fisquet,  fes'k^^  (Honore  Jean  Pierre,)  a  French 
biographer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1818.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Plistory  of  Algeria,"  (1842,)  and 
"Pontifical  France,  or  a  History  of  the  Bishops  who 
have  governed  the  Dioceses  of  France,"  (4  vols.) 

Fitch,  (Ebenezer,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  first 
president  of  Williams  College,  Massachusetts,  was  born 
in  Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1756;  died  in  1833. 

Fitch,  (John,)  an  American  inventor,  born  in  Wind- 
sor, Connecticut,  in  1743.  He  became  a  brass-founder, 
and  afterwards  a  silversmith.  About  1780  he  removed 
to  Kentucky,  where  he  was  appointed  deputy-surveyor, 
and  was  captured  by  the  Indians,  who  took  him  to  De- 
troit and  detained  him  until  he  was  exchanged.  In 
1785  he  began  to  devote  himself  to  the  application  of 
steam  to  navigation,  and  constructed  a  model  of  a  steam- 
boat. Having  petitioned  the  legislatures  of  Pennsylvania, 
New  Jersey,  and  Virginia  for  aid,  without  success,  he 
formed  in  1 786  a  private  company  for  navigation  by  steam. 
In  August,  1787,  he  made  with  a  small  steamboat  an  ex- 
periment on  the  Delaware  River,  with  partial  success. 
He  built  another  boat,  which,  in  1790,  plied  as  a  passen- 
ger-boat on  the  Delaware  at  the  rate  of  about  seven 
miles  an  hour.  Fitch,  however,  gained  no  profit  from 
his  enterprise,  and  afterwards  wandered  about  in  poverty, 
and  was  regarded  by  some  as  an  insane  projector.  He 
died  in  Kentucky  in  1798. 

See  a  life  of  John  Fitch  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography;" 
Thompson  Westcott,  "Life  of  John  Fitch,"  1857;  "Lives  of 
Eminent  American  Mechanics,"  etc.,  by  Henry  Howe. 

Fitch,  (Ralph,)  an  English  traveller,  left  England  in 
1583,  and  spent  eight  years  in  the  East  Indies.  On  his 
return  an  interesting  account  of  his  travels  was  published. 

See  Hakluyt,  "Voyages." 

Fitz-ger'ald,  (Edward,)  Lord,  an  Irish  revolution- 
ist, born  in  1763,  was  a  younger  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Leinster.  F'rom  1773  to  1779  he  resided  in  P'rance, 
where  in  learning  the  language  he  became  partially  as- 
similated to  the  tastes  and  manners  of  the  French. 
Having  entered  the  I'ritish  army,  he  served  with  distinc- 
tion in  the  battle  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  178L 
In  1784  he  returned  home  and  obtained  a  seat  in  the 
Irish  Parliament.  The  sufferings  of  Ireland,  added  per- 
haps to  the  neglect  with  which  he  conceived  himself 
to  be  treated,  rendered  him  disaffected  to  the  English 
government.  He  took  his  seat  with  the  opposition,  and 
aspired  to  rival  Grattan  and  Curran  in  eloquence.  In 
1788  we  find  him  at  Halifax,  America,  with  the  fifty- 
fourth  regiment,  whence  he  travelled  through  the  United 
States  to  New  Orleans.  He  visited  Paris  in  1 791  to 
consult  and  fraternize  with  the  republicans.  In  1792 
he  married  the  beautiful  and  accomplished  Pamela,  the 
protegee  and  supposed  daughter  of  Madame  de  Genlis. 
The  latter  being  employed  by  the  Duke  of  Orleans  as 
governess  of  his  children,  (one  of  whom,  Louis  Philippe, 
became  King  of  France,)  Pamela  was  educated  with 
them.  In  1796  he  joined  the  United  Irishmen,  who  sent 
him  as  their  agent  to  the  continent  to  procure  French 
aid  in  liberating  Ireland.  A  few  months  before  the  time 
set  for  the  insurrection  in  1798,  the  secret  was  divulged 
to  the  English  ministry.  He  resisted  the  officers  who 
arrested  him,  was  wounded,  and  died  in  prison  in  1798. 

See  Thomas  Moore,  "Life  of  Edward  Fitzgerald,"  1831  ;  Ersch 
und  Grubeh,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Fitzgerald,  (Pamela,)  a  French  lady,  supposed  to 
have  been  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans  and 
Madame  de  Genlis.  She  was  educated  by  the  latter, 
and  was  married  about  1 792  to  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald, 
After  his  death  she  became  the  wife  of  a  man  named 
Pitcairn.    Died  in  Paris  in  1831. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Fitzgerald,  (Thomas.)    See  Kildare,  Earl  of. 

Fitz-gib'bpn,  (John,)  Earl  of  Clare,  an  Irish  noble- 
man, born  in  1749.  He  rose  to  be  lord  high  chancellor 
of  Ireland  in  1789,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  vice- 


chancellor  of  the  University  of  Dublin.  He  was  a  zealous 
advocate  for  the  Union.    Died  in  1802. 

Fitzharris.  See  Malmesbury,  (Earl,)  and  Harris, 
(James.) 

Fitz-her'bert,  (Sir  Anthony,)  a  distinguished  Eng- 
lish lawyer  under  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  In  1523  he 
became  one  of  the  justices  of  the  court  of  common  pleas. 
He  wrote  several  able  works,  among  which  are  "The 
Grand  Abridgment,"  (I5I4>)  and  the  "Office  and  Au- 
thority of  Justices  of  the  Peace,"  (1538.)    Died  in  1538. 

Fitzherbert,  (Maria,)  born  in  1756,  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  Waller  Smythe,  of  Hampshire.  Having  become 
a  widow  the  second  time,  she  was  privately  married  in 
1785  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  George  IV. 
After  the  king's  separation  from  the  princess  Caroline, 
Mrs.  Fitzherbert  lived  with  him  for  a  time,  but  at  length 
retired  to  Brighton,  where  she  died  in  1837. 

See  Charles  Langdale,  "Memoirs  of  Mrs.  Fitzherbert." 

Fitzherbert,  (Nicholas,)  grandson  of  Sir  Anthony, 
mentioned  above,  was  born  about  1550.  He  wrote, 
among  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  the  Antiquity  and 
Duration  of  the  Catholic  Religion  in  England,"  (1608.) 
Died  in  1621. 

Fitzherbert,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Jesuit,  born  in 
Staffordshire  in  1552,  was  appointed  rector  of  the  Eng- 
lish College  at  Rome.  Among  other  works,  he  wrote 
a  "Treatise  concerning  Polity  and  Religion,"  (1606-10,) 
and  a  "  Refutation  of  some  of  the  Principles  of  Machi. 
avel."    Died  in  1640. 

Fitzherbert,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  jurist,  a 
relative  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1748, 
wrote  a  "  Dialogue  on  the  Revenue  Laws."  Died  in 
1791. 

Fitzjames,  (Jame.s.)    See  Berwick,  Duke  of. 

Fitzjames,  de,  deh  fets'zhtm'  or  fe'zhtm',  (Charles,) 
Duke,  Marshal  of  France,  and  grandson  of  James  II., 
King  of  England,  born  in  1712.  He  served  chiefly  in 
the  wars  in  Germany.    Died  in  1787. 

Fitz-James,  de,  (Edouard,)  Comte,  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  in  171 5,  was  a  son  of  the  Duke  of  Berwick. 
Died  at  Cologne  in  1758. 

Fitz-James,  de,  (Edouakd,)  Due,  a  French  peer 
and  politician,  born  in  1776,  was  a  grandson  of  Marshal 
Fitz-James.  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  Bourbons.  Died 
in  1838. 

Fitz-pat'rick,  (Benjamin,)  a  lawyer,  born  in  Green 
county,  Georgia,  in  1802,  removed  to  Alabama,  of  which 
he  was  Governor  from  1841  to  1845.  He  became  a  Sen- 
ator of  the  United  States  in  1848,  and  was  re-elected  in 
1853- 

Fitz-roy',  (Robert,)  an  English  navigator,  meteor- 
ologist, and  rear-admiral,  born  in  1805,  was  a  son  of 
General  Lord  Charles  Fitzroy.  As  captain  of  the  Beagle, 
he  was  employed  in  the  survey  of  the  west  coast  of  South 
America  in  1828-30.  He  also  commanded  the  Beagle 
in  a  voyage  round  the  world  performed  between  183 1 
and  1836,  which  expedition  Charles  Darwin  accompanied 
as  naturalist.  The  results  of  this  expedition  appeared 
in  a  "Narrative  of  the  Surveying  Voyages  of  H.M.S 
Adventure  and  Beagle  between  1826  and  1836,  etc.," 
(1839,)  written  by  Captain  Fitzroy  and  Captain  King. 
In  1855  he  was  appointed  chief  of  the  meteorological 
department  of  the  Board  of  Trade.    Died  in  1865. 

Fitz-si'mons  or  Fitz-si''mon,  (Henry,)  an  Irish 
Jesuit,  noted  as  a  polemical  writer,  born  in  Dublin  in 
1569.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  rebellion  of  1641. 
Died  in  1644. 

Fitz-ste'phen,  (William,)  a  learned  English  monk 
and  historian  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Thomas  a  Becket,  of  whose  murder  he  was  an 
eye-witness.  He  wrote  the  "  Life  and  T'assion  of  Arch- 
bishop Becket,"  in  Latin,  to  which  was  prefixed  his 
"  Description  of  the  City  of  London,"  one  of  the  earliest 
and  most  valuable  accounts  of  that  capital.  Died  about 
1191. 

Fitz-wil'liam,  (Charles  William  W^entworth,) 
Earl  of,  a  Liberal  peer,  born  in  London  in  1786,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  William  Wentworth,  noticed  below. 
Before  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1833,  he  was  styled 
Lord  Milton.  He  was  a  warm  friend  of  the  Reform  bill. 
Died  in  1857. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ( J:^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FITZWILLIAM 


FLAM  IN  IN  US 


Fitzwilliam,  (William,)  Earl  of  Southampton,  a 
celebrated  naval  commander,  born  about  1490.  He 
served  against  the  French  in  1513  and  in  1523,  and  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  admiral.  In  1537  he  received  the 
title  of  Earl  of  Southampton,  and  was  made  lord  privy 
seal  in  1539.    Died  in  1542. 

Fitzwilliam,  (William  Wentworth,)  Earl  of,  an 
English  statesman,  nephew  of  the  Marquis  of  Rocking- 
ham, was  born  in  1748.  He  began  his  public  life  as  a 
friend  of  Fox,  but  separated  from  him  on  the  issue  of  the 
French  Revolution,  and  became  president  of  the  council 
under  Mr.  Pitt  in  July,  1794.  In  1795  he  was  for  a  short 
time  Viceroy  of  Ireland.  He  was  again  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  council  in  1806,  and  retired  from  office  in 
1807.    Died  in  1833. 

Fiurelli,  fe-oo-reKlee,  (Tiberio,)  a  famous  Italian 
comedian,  surnamed  Scaramouche,  was  born  at  Naples 
in  1608.  In  early  life  he  removed  to  Paris,  where  he 
died  in  1694. 

Fix,  fiks  or  f^ks,  (Theobald,)  a  Swiss  philologist, 
brother  of  Theodor,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Soleure 
in  1802.  He  contributed  to  the  new  edition  of  Ste- 
phens's "Thesaurus  Linguae  Grascas,"  and  published 
several  editions  of  Greek  classics. 

Fix,  (Theodor,)  a  Swiss  writer  on  political  economy, 
born  at  Soleure  in  1800.  He  made  contributions  to 
several  journals  of  Paris,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Moral  and  Political  Science.    Died  in  1846. 

See  Theobald  Fix,  "  Notice  sur  M.  T.  Fix,"  1846. 

Fixlmillner,  fiks'l-miKner,  or  Fixmillner,  fiks-mil'- 
ner,  (Placidus,)  an  eminent  German  astronomer,  born 
at  Achlenthen,  near  Linz,  in  1721.  His  principal  work 
is  "  Decennium  Astronomicum,"  (1776,)  which  is  the 
record  of  his  observations  for  ten  years.  He  was  a  monk 
of  the  monastery  of  Kremsmiinster.    Died  in  1 79 1. 

Fizeau,  fe'zo',  (Hippolyte  Louis,)  a  French  natural 
philosopher,  born  in  Paris  in  18 19.  He  distinguished 
himself  by  his  researches  into  the  properties  and  motion 
of  light,  and  received  in  1856  the  grand  prize  of  the  In- 
stitute, 10,000  francs.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Adi-ien 
de  Jussieu. 

Fizes,  fez,  (Antoine,)  a  French  physician,  and  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  and  mathematics  at  Montpellier,  was 
born  in  that  city  in  1690.  Pie  published  "  Opera  Medica," 
a  "Treatise  on  Fevers,"  (1749,)  a  "Treatise  on  Physio- 
logy," and  other  works.    Died  in  1765. 

See  EsTEVE,  "  La  Vie  et  les  Principes  de  M.  de  Fizes,"  1765  ;  Des- 
GENETTES,  article  in  the  "  Biographic  Medicale."  •  '• 

Flac-gil'la,  (  ^LIA,  )  wife  of  the  Roman  emperor 
Theodosius  1.,  and  mother  of  Arcadius  and  Honorius, 
was  born  in  Spain,  and  became  empress  in  379  A.D.  She 
left  a  high  reputation  for  piety,  virtue,  and  moderation. 
Died  about  386. 

Flac'cus,  (Caius  Valerius,)  a  Roman  poet,  born 
probably  at  Padua.  He  wrote  a  poem  on  the  Argo- 
nautic  expedition,  ("  Argonautica,")  which  is  a  free  imi- 
tation of  Apollonius  of  Rhodes,  and  contains  beautiful 
passages  and  descriptions.  The  style  is  rather  obscure 
and  artificial.  It  is  supposed  that  several  of  the  last 
books  of  this  poem  are  lost,  or  else  it  was  left  unfinished. 
Eight  books  are  extant.  He  died  about  88  or  90  a.d. 
Quintilian  referred  to  his  death  in  terms  like  these  :  "  We 
have  recently  lost  much  in  Valerius  Flaccus."  The 
critics  are  far  from  being  agreed  as  to  the  merits  of  his 
poem. 

See  the  Preface  of  Burmann's  edition  of  the  "Argonautica,"  1724; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Flaccus,  (Calpurnius.)    See  Calpurnius. 

Flaccus,  (Horatius.)    See  Horace. 

Flaccus,  ( L.  Valerius,  )  a  Roman  general,  was  a 
partisan  of  Marius,  and  commanded  an  army  in  Asia. 
He  was  killed  by  Fimbria  about  86  B.C. 

Flaccus,  (M.  FuLVius,)  a  Roman  officer,  who  was 
consul  in  125  B.C.,  and  a  political  friend  of  the  Gracchi. 
Carbo,  Caius  Gracchus,  and  Flaccus  were  the  triumviri 
for  the  division  of  lands.  Having  taken  arms  for  Caius 
Gracchus,  he  was  put  to  death  by  Opimius  in  121  B.C. 

Flaccus,  (Persius.)    See  Persius. 

Flaccus,  (Q.  FuLVius,)  a  Roman  general,  who  was 
elected  consul  in  237  B.C.    Having  been  re-elected  in 


212,  he  obtained  command  of  an  army,  and  defeated 
Hanno  at  Beneventum.    Died  about  200  B.C. 
See  LiVY,  "History  of  Rome." 

Flaccus,  (Q.  FuLVius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  com- 
manded with  success  in  Spain  in  181  B.C. 

Flaccus,  (  Verrius,  )  a  Roman  grammarian,  lived  in 
the  reign  of  Augustus.  He  wrote  many  and  various 
works,  which  are  not  extant. 

Flaccus  Illyricus.    See  Francowitz.  , 

Flach,  (Matthias.)    See  Francowitz. 

Flachat,  flrsht',  (Jean  Claude,)  a  French  merchant, 
who  lived  and  traded  many  years  in  Constantinople,  and 
published  "Observations  on  the  Commerce  and  Arts 
of  Europe,  Asia,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1766.)    Died  in  1775. 

Flacius.    See  Francowitz. 

Flacourt,  de,  deh  flfkooR',  (Etienne,)  born  at  Or- 
leans, in  France,  in  1607,  was  nominated  commander  of 
Madagascar  in  1648.  He  returned  to  France  in  1655, 
and  published  in  1658  a  "  History  of  Madagascar,"  which 
was  written  with  much  care  and  accuracy  and  contained 
the  first  general  description  of  that  island.  Died  in 
1660. 

Flagg,  (Edmund,)  an  American  writer,  born  at  Wis- 
cassett,  Maine,  in  181  became  a  lawyer,  and  edited 
several  journals.  He  published  a  few  novels,  and  "  Ven- 
ice, the  City  of  the  Sea,  1749-1849,"  (2  vols.,  1853.) 

Flahault  de  la  Billarderie,  de,  deh  deh  It 

b6KytRd^re',  (AuGUSTE  Charles  Joseph,)  Count,  a 
French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1785.  He  became 
colonel  in  1809,  distinguished  himself  in  the  campaign 
of  Russia,  and  was  aide-de-camp  to  Napoleon  in  1813. 
For  his  conduct  at  the  battle  of  Leipsic  ( 1813)  he  was 
made  a  general  of  division,  and  a  count.  He  fought  for 
Napoleon  at  Waterloo.  The  revolution  of  1830  restored 
him  to  his  rank  as  a  peer  and  general.  He  was  am- 
bassador to  Vienna  from  1841  to  1848,  and  became  a 
senator  in  1853.    Died  in  1870. 

Flahaut,  Countess.    See  Souza,  Adele  de. 

Flajani,  fl^-yS'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  surgeon, 
born  near  Ascoli  in  1741,  studied  at  Rome.  Pope  Pius 
VI.  chose  him  for  his  surgeon-in-ordinary.  Died  in  1808. 

Flamael.    See  Flemalle. 

Flam'bard,  (Ralph,)  an  English  prelate,  who  was 
chief  minister  of  William  Rufus.  He  became  Bishop 
of  Durham  in  1099.    Died  in  1128. 

Flameel.    See  Flemalle. 

Flamel,  flt'mgK,  (Nicolas,)  a  scribe,  a  dealer  in 
manuscripts,  and  a  famous  alchemist,  who  lived  in  Paris 
about  1350,  was  the  subject  of  many  marvellous  stories 
which  have  exercised  the  public  credulity.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  acquired  by  some  means  great  wealth, 
which  he  spent  partly  in  the  erection  of  churches  and  in 
works  of  charity.  There  are  several  treatises  on  alchemy 
which  are  ascribed  to  him.    Died  in  1418. 

Sec  "  Histoire  critique  de  N.  Flamel,"  anonymous,  1761. 

Flamen,  fl3.''men,  (Albert,)  a  Flemish  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Bruges,  lived  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. 

Flamen,  flt^mSN',  or  Flamin,  flt^miN',  (Anselme,) 
a  French  sculptor,  born  at  Saint-Omer  in  1647,  worked 
in  Paris.    Died  in  1717. 

Flam-i-ni'nus,  (Lucius  Quintius,)  a  Roman  ad- 
miral, born  about  240  B.C.,  was  a  brother  of  Titus.  He 
commanded  a  fleet  sent  against  Philip  of  Macedon  in 
198  B.C.    Died  in  170. 

Flamininus,  (Titus  Quintius,)  sometimes  called 
Fla-miii'i-us,  a  distinguished  Roman  general,  was 
chosen  consul  198  B.C.,  and  obtained  the  province  of 
Macedonia,  then  the  seat  of  war  with  Philip  of  Macedon. 
He  defeated  the  army  of  Philip  in  Epirus,  and  recovered 
possession  of  Thessaly.  After  the  year  of  his  consulship 
had  expired,  he  was  continued  in  the  command  of  that 
province  by  the  senate.  All  attempts  to  negotiate  a 
peace  having  failed,  the  two  armies  again  met  at  Cyno- 
cephal^e,  in  Thessaly.  The  phalanx  of  Philip  having 
been  broken  by  the  elephants  of  the  Romans,  a  panic 
seized  his  whole  army,  of  whom  8000  were  killed.  After 
this  victory,  in  a  general  concourse  of  Greeks  assembled 
at  the  Isthmian  Games,  196  B.C.,  Flamininus  proclaimed 
liberty  and  independence  to  the  people  of  Corinth, 
Phocis,  Locris,  Thessaly,  etc.  In  183  he  performed  a  mis- 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nftt-  good;  moon 


FLAMINIO 


925 


FLAVIAN 


sion  to  Prusias,  King  of  Bithynia,  to  demand  the  surren- 
der of  Hannibal,  who  frustrated  that  design  by  suicide. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Flaminiinis ;"  Livy,  "History  of 
Rome,"  books  xxxi.-xxxix.  ;  Niebuhr,  "Roman  History." 

Flaminio,  M-mee'ne-o,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an 
Italian  writer,  born  at  Imola  about  1464.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  belles-lettres  at  Seravalla  and  Bologna,  and 
wrote  Latin  poetry  with  moderate  success.  He  also 
wrote,  Ih  prose,  a  Dialogue  on  Education,  and  a  treatise 
"  On  the  Origin  of  Philosophy,"  which  are  better  than 
his  poems.    Died  in  1536. 

Flaminio,  (Marcantonio,)  an  eminent  Latin  poet, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Seravalla  in  1498.  He 
was  patronized  by  Cardinal  Pole,  with  whom  he  lived 
for  many  years,  and  whom  he  accompanied  to  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  in  1545.  He  translated  thirty  Psalms  into 
Latin  verse,  (1558,)  and  wrote  hymns  and  other  Latin 
poems,  "  which,"  says  Ginguene,  "join  to  a  rare  elegance 
something  sweet  and  amiable,  like  his  own  character." 
Died  in  Rome  in  1550. 

See  August  Neander,  "Erimierung  an  M.  A.  Flaminio,"  Ber- 
lin, 1837;  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Tira- 
BOSCHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Fla-min'i-us,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  general,  noted  for 
his  valour,  became  tribune  of  the  people  in  232  B.C.,  and 
procured  the  passage  of  an  agrarian  law  which  was 
violently  opposed  by  the  Optimates.  In  225  or  223  he 
was  elected  consul,  and  led  an  army  against  the  Gauls. 
Having  been  chosen  consul  a  second  time,  he  com- 
manded at  the  battle  of  Lake  Thrasymene,  where,  after 
a  brave  and  desperate  resistance,  the  Romans  were 
defeated  by  Hannibal,  and  Flaminius  was  slain,  in  217 
B.C.  During  this  battle  an  earthquake  destroyed  the 
greater  part  of  several  cities  of  Italy ;  but  it  is  said  the 
armies  were  entirely  unconscious  of  its  shock.  The 
"Via  Flaminia,"  a  great  highway,  was  made  during  his 
censorship,  and  named  in  his  honour. 

His  son  Caius  was  consul  in  185  B.C.,  and  defeated 
the  Ligurians. 

See  Niebuhr,  "Lectures  on  Roman  History;"  Livy,  "History 
of  Rome,"  books  xxi.  and  xxii. 

Fla-miu'i-us,  (Nobilius,)  an  Italian  critic  and  theo- 
logian, born  at  Lucca  in  1532;  died  in  1590. 

Flam'ma,  (Calpurnius,)  a  Roman  officer,  noted  for 
one  heroic  or  daring  action  in  the  first  Punic  war, 

Flamma,  (L.  Volumnius,  )  a  Roman  general,  who 
commanded  in  the  Samnite  war,  296  B.C. 

Flam'steed,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  astronomer, 
and  the  first  astronomer  royal,  was  born  at  Denby, 
near  Derby,  on  the  19th  of  August,  1646,  and  began  the 
study  of  the  stars  at  an  early  age.  He  was  ordained, 
and  obtained  the  living  of  Burstow,  in  1684.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  first  modern  astronomer  who 
understood  the  theory  of  the  equation  of  time,  on  which 
subject  he  published  a  practical  demonstration  about 
1667.  He  made  observations  at  Denby  from  1668  to 
1674,  soon  after  which  he  went  to  London  and  associated 
with  Newton,  Halley,  and  Hook.  About  1675  Charles 
II.  appointed  him  astronomer  royal,  and  gave  him  the 
direction  of  the  'new  observatory  of  Greenwich,  which 
was  finished  in  1676.  Here  he  passed  the  remainder  of 
his  life  in  patient  observation,  and  determined  the  posi- 
tion of  2884  stars.  The  results  of  his  labours  were 
published  in  1725,  with  the  title  of  "Celestial  History," 
("Historia  Coelestis.")  This  work  surpassed  all  pre- 
vious performances  of  the  kind,  contained  the  first  ac- 
curate catalogue  of  the  stars,  and  is  one  of  the  richest 
contributions  ever  made  to  practical  astronomy.  An 
im])erfect  edition  was  published,  without  his  consent,  in 
1712.    He  died  in  December,  1719. 

See  "An  Account  of  the  Rev.  John  Flamsteed,"  1835,  derived 
from  his  own  manuscripts,  which  details  a  celebrated  quarrel  between 
Newton  and  Flamsteed;  Brewster,  "  Life  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton;" 
J.  B.  BioT,  "Notice  sur  Flamsteed,"  Paris,  1827;  Whewell, 
"Newton  and  Flamsteed,"  1836;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
December,  1835;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1836. 

Flandin,  ASnM^n',  (Charles,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Aubues  (Nievre)  in  1803.  He  wrote  several 
treatises  on  arsenic,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Con- 
seil  de  Salubrite,  in  Paris,  in  1845.  His  most  important 
work  is  a  "Complete  Treatise  on  Poisons,"  (3  vols., 
1846-53-) 


Flandin,  (Eugene  Napoleon,)  a  French  painter  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Naples  in  1809.  He  visited  Italy  and 
Algeria,  and  witnessed  the  attack  on  Constantine,  which 
he  painted  in  1838.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  Academy, 
he  was  attached  to  the  Persian  embassy,  and  explored 
the  antiquities  of  Persia,  1839-41.  The  results  of  this 
mission  were  "Studies  on  Persian  Sculpture,"  (3  vols.,) 
"Studies  on  Modern  Persia,"  (100  plates,)  and  a  "Nar- 
rative of  a  Tourney  to  Persia,"  (2  vols.,  1843.)  I"  1844 
he  was  sent  to  the  supposed  site  of  Nineveh,  where  he 
made  many  designs,  which  were  published  by  the  govern- 
ment, (1845-54.) 

Flandrin,  flSN^RiN',  (Auguste,)  a  French  painter, 
born  in  Lyons  in  1804;  died  in  1842. 

Flandrin,  (Jean  Hippolyte,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Lyons  in 
1809,  and  was  one  of  the  best  pupils  of  Ingres.  He 
studied  in  Rome  from  1833  to  1838,  and  settled  in  Paris. 
Among  his  works  are  "Euripides  writing  Tragedies," 
"  Dante  conducted  by  Virgil,"  (1836,)  "  Mater  Dolorosa," 
(1845,)  ^^'^^  "Napoleon  Legislateur,"  (1847,)  ordered  for 
the  Council  of  State.  His  composition  and  design  are 
highly  praised.  He  excelled  also  in  portraits.  He  was 
admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1853.    Died  in  1864. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Flandrin,  (Jean  Paul,)  a  skilful  landscape-painter, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  with  whom  he  studied  in  Rome, 
was  born  at  Lyons  in  1811.  He  is  called  one  of  the 
representatives  of  classic  landscape  in  France.  Among 
his  works  are  "The  Campagna  of  Rome,"  "The  Prome- 
nade of  Poussin  on  the  Tiber,"  (1843,)  a  "View  of 
Rivoli,"  (1844,)  and  "The  Rhone  near  Avignon,"  (1846.) 

Flandrin,  (Pierre,)  a  French  veterinary  writer,  born 
at  Lyons  in  1752;  died  in  1796. 

Flangini,  Mn-jee'nee,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  writer,  born 
in  Venice  in  1733,  was  made  cardinal  in  1789.  In  1801 
the  Austrian  emperor  conferred  on  him  the  titles  of  Pa- 
triarch of  Venice,  count  of  the  empire,  and  councillor  of 
state.  He  translated  from  the  Greek  the  "Apology  of 
Socrates"  by  Plato,  and  the  "  Argonautica"  of  Apollo- 
nius  Rhodius  into  verse,  (2  vols.,  1791-94.)  Died  in  1804. 

See  Tipai.do,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Flassans.    See  Rax  is. 

Flat'man,  (Thomas,)  a  lawyer,  poet,  and  a  skilful 
painter,  born  in  London  in  1633.  He  wrote  songs,  Pin- 
daric odes,  and  other  small  poems,  which  procured  for 
him  a  temporary  popularity.    Died  in  1688. 

Flatters,  flat'ters,  a  German  sculptor,  born  at  Cre- 
velt  in  1784;  died  in  1845. 

Flaugergues,  flS'zhaRg',  ( Honors, )  a  French  as- 
tronomer, born  at  Viviers  in  1755.  In  1815  the  Academy 
of  Nimes  awarded  him  a  prize  for  a  treatise  on  the  tails 
of  comets.    Died  in  1835. 

Flaugergues,  (Pierre  Franqois,)  a  French  lawyer, 
born  at  Rodez  about  1760.  He  was  an  active  member 
of  the  legislative  body  in  1813,  and  was  one  of  the  com- 
mittee of  three  who  prepared  the  address  on  the  state 
of  the  nation  to  Napoleon  in  December  of  that  year. 
Died  in  1836. 

Flav'el,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  nonconformist 
and  Calvinist  divine,  born  in  Worcestershire  about  1627. 
He  became  rector  of  Dartmouth  in  1656,  and  was  ejected 
for  nonconformity  in  1662  ;  after  which  he  preached  in 
private  houses.  His  character  is  represented  as  excel- 
lent. Among  his  works,  which  are  highly  esteemed,  are 
"  Husbandry  Spiritualized,"  (1669,)  "Divine  Conduct," 
(1678,)  and  "Method  of  Grace,"  (1698.)  His  "Token 
for  Mourners,"  says  Dr.  Doddridge,  "is  inimitable." 
Died  at  Exeter  in  1691.  An  edition  of  his  works,  in  six 
volumes,  was  published  in  1820. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Flavel,"  in  an  edition  of  his  select  works,  1833. 

Fla'vi-an,  [Lat.  Flavia'nus;  Fr.  Flavien,  flt^ve- 
In',]  Bishop  of  Antioch,  is  called  a  saint  by  the  Roman 
Catholics.  He  was  an  adversary  of  Arianism,  and  was 
elected  in  381  a.d.  to  the  see  of  Antioch.  The  pope  and 
the  Western  bishops  recognized  Paulinus,  who  had  been 
chosen  Bishop  of  Antioch  by  another  party.  Died  in 
404  A.D. 

Fla'vi-an  or  Fla-vi-a''nus,  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, was  chosen  Pontiff  of  the  Greek  Church  in  a.d. 
447.    By  his  influence  Eutyches  was  condemned  as  a 


€  as     c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2i^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FLAVIGNT 


926 


FLEMALLE 


heretic  in  a  council  held  in  448.  At  another  council, 
assembled  at  Ephesus  in  449,  the  Eutychian  party  pre- 
vailed, and  deposed  or  condemned  Flavian.  He  died  in 
449,  in  consequence,  it  is  said,  of  personal  violence  re- 
ceived from  the  hostile  sect. 

See  Socrates,  "  Historia  Ecclesiastica ;"  Sozomen,  "  Historia 
Ecclesiastica  ;"  Fabkicius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Flavigny,  flS\6n'ye',  (Val6rien,)  a  French  Hebra- 
ist, born  near  Laon,  was  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne.  He 
became  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  College  de  France 
in  1630.  He  was  chiefly  occupied  with  philological  dis- 
cussions respecting  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Bible,  and 
was  involved  in  a  long  dispute  with  Abraham  Echel- 
lensis.    Died  in  1674. 

Flavio,  fli've-o,  (Biondo,)  or  Biondo  Flavio,  [Lat. 
FL/V'vkjs  Blon'dus,]  an  Italian  historian  and  antiquary, 
born  at  Forli  in  1388.  He  was  secretary  to  Pope  Eu- 
genius  IV.  and  to  three  succeeding  pontiffs.  He  illus- 
trated the  antiquities  of  Italy  and  Rome  in  three  works, 
viz.,  "Italia  Illustrata,"  (1474,)  "Ten  Books  of  Rome 
Triumphant,"  ("  Romas  Triumphantis  Libri  X.,"  1482,) 
and  "Three  Books  of  Rome  Restored,"  ("  Romx  Instau- 
ratai  Libri  HI.,"  1482.)  These  works  were  excellent 
for  the  time,  and  are  still  consulted.    Died  in  1463. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis  ;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della 
Letteralura  Italiana." 

FlaVi-us,  (Caius  or  Cneius,)  a  Roman  senator,  of 
plebeian  birth,  who  held  the  office  of  asdile  about  303  B.C. 
He  acquired  great  popularity  by  publishing  legal  for- 
mulas and  technicalities,  the  knowledge  of  which  the 
jDatricians  and  pontiffs  wished  to  be  confined  to  them- 
selves. His  collection  of  legal  rules  was  called  "Jus 
Flavianum." 

Flavins,  (Clemens.)    See  Clemens. 

Flavius,  (Josephus.)    See  Josephus. 

FlaVus,  (Titus  Lartius,)  the  first  Roman  dictator, 
appointed  to  that  office  in  498  B.C. 

Flavy,  de,  deh  flt've',  (Guillaume,)  a  famous  and 
powerful  French  captain,  born  at  Compiegne  about  1398. 
He  had  command  of  Compiegne  when  Joan  of  Arc  was 
captured  there,  (1430,)  and  was  suspected  of  treachery 
in  that  affair.  He  was  notorious  for  his  audacity  and 
crimes,  and  was  assassinated  in  1449. 

Flax'man,  (John,)  an  English  sculptor  of  great  emi- 
nence, was  born  at  York  in  1755.  His  father,  who  was 
a  moulder  of  figures,  brought  him  to  London  in  infancy. 
About  the  year  1770  he  became  a  student  in  the  Royal 
Academy,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  industry 
and  received  a  silver  medal.  In  1782  he  married  Miss 
Denman,  with  whom  he  lived  happily  until  her  death  in 
1820.  In  1787  he  removed  to  Rome,  where  he  executed 
his  admirable  and  sublime  compositions  (in  outline) 
illustrative  of  the  prominent  events  of  the  "Iliad"  and 
"Odyssey"  and  of  the  great  poems  of  ^schylus  and 
Dante.  His  success  in  these  subjects  was  such  as  to 
acquire  for  him  a  very  high  celebrity,  especially  for  in- 
vention and  composition.  After  remaining  in  Rome  about 
seven  years,  he  returned  home,  and  in  1797  was  unani- 
mously elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy. 
About  this  time  he  executed  monuments  of  Lord  Mans- 
field and  Lord  Nelson,  which  are  much  admired,  and 
numerous  marble  groups  of  scriptural  subjects,  for  which 
he  was  peculiarly  qualified  by  his  genius  and  his  piety. 
In  1810  he  became  professor  of  sculpture  in  the  Royal 
Academy.  Among  his  latest  productions  are  the  "  Shield 
of  Achilles,"  his  "  Psyche,"  and  the  group  of  the  "Arch- 
angel Michael  and  Satan."  Pie  died  in  1826.  Canova 
and  other  competent  judges  have  pronounced  him  the 
greatest  sculptor  of  modern  times.  "There  was  Flax- 
man,"  says  Ruskin,  "  another  naturally  great  man,  with 
as  true  an  eye  for  nature  as  Raphael ; — he  stumbles  over 
the  blocks  of  the  antique  statues,  wanders  in  the  dark 
valley  of  their  ruins  to  the  end  of  his  days."  ("  Modern 
Painters.") 

See  Cunningham,  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  British  Painters, 
Sculptors,  and  Architects;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Flecliere  or  Flechiere.  See  Fletcher,  (John  Wil- 
liam.) 

Flechier,  fli'she-i',  (Esprit,)  an  excellent  French 
pulpit  orator,  born  at  Pernes,  (Vaucluse,)  June  10,  1632. 
Having  gained  distinction  by  his  Latin  verses,  eloquent 


conversation,  and  funeral  orations,  he  was  chosen  a  meni- 
ber  of  the  French  Academy  in  1673.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Lavaur  in  1685,  and  Bishop  of  Nimes  in  1687. 
As  an  orator,  he  was  admired  for  his  graceful  style,  noble 
thoughts,  and  harmonious  periods.  He  was  considered 
by  his  contemporaries  as  equal  or  only  second  to  Bos- 
suet ;  but  his  reputation  has  since  declined.  Among 
his  best  works  are  an  "Oration  on  Turenne,"  (1676,) 
and  a  "Life  of  Theodosius  the  Great,"  (1679.)  Died 
at  Montpellier  in  February,  17 10. 

See  Labitte,  "La  Jeunesse  de  Flechier,"  in  the  "Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes,"  May,  1845;  D'Ai.embkrt,  Histoire  des  Membres 
de  I'Academie,"  tomes  i.  and  ii. ;  Fabke  ue  Narbonne,  "  Discours 
sur  la  Vie  de  Flechier,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  ot"  his  works,  10  vols., 
1825. 

Fleck,  fl^k,  (Johann  Friedrich  Ferdinand,)  a 
celebrated  German  actor,  born  at  Breslau  in  1757,  was 
especially  admired  for  his  personation  of  the  prominent 
characters  in  Shakspeare.    Died  in  1801. 

Fleck^'noe,  (Richard,)  an  English  poet  and  drama- 
tist, who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  He  was 
poet-laureate  in  the  time  of  Dryden,  whose  ridicule,  and 
that  of  Pope,  seem  to  have  preserved  Flecknoe's  name 
from  oblivion  more  than  his  own  writings.  He  wrote 
"  Fashionable  Young  Ladies,"  ("  Damoiselles  a  la  Mode," 
1667,)  and  other  plays,  which  were  not  successful.  Died 
about  1680. 

See  Malone,  "Life  of  Dryden;"  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of 
Authors." 

Fleetwood,  (Charles,)  an  English  general,  born 
in  Lancashire,  is  commonly  described  as  a  fanatic  or 
enthusiast  of  small  capacity.  He  was  returned  to  Par- 
lianient  in  1645,  and  became  a  zealous  republican  and 
Puritan.  As  lieutenant-general,  he  distinguished  himself 
at  Dunbar  and  at  the  battle  of  Worcester,  September, 
165 1.  After  the  death  of  Ireton,  (1651,)  Fleetwood 
married  his  widow,  Bridget,  a  daughter  of  Cromwell, 
and  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in 
Ireland.  He  was  also  lord  deputy  of  Ireland  in  1654 
and  1655.  The  Protector  afterwards  gave  him  the  first 
place  among  the  major-generals  whom  he  appointed  in 
1656.  After  the  restoration  he  lived  in  obscurity  until 
his  death,  about  1692.  His  promotion  is  ascribed  to  his 
remarkable  gift  for  praying  and  preaching  extempore. 

See  Hu.ME,  "History  of  England ;"  Guizot,  "Histoire  de  la 
Revolution  d'Angleterre." 

Fleetwood,  (John,)  an  English  writer  on  theology, 
published  "The  Christian  Dictionary,"  (1773,)  and  "  The 
Life  of  Christ,  and  Lives  of  the  Apostles,"  etc.,  (1813.) 

Fleetwood,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English 
divine,  born  in  London  on  the  1st  of  January,  1656. 
After  graduating  at  Cambridge,  he  became  chaplain 
of  King  William  III.  He  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Saint 
Asaph  in  1708,  and  was  promoted  to  the  Bishopric  of 
Ely  in  17 14.  His  sermons,  of  which  a  large  number 
were  published,  were  greatly  admired,  and  he  was  prob- 
ably the  most  eminent  preacher  in  the  Anglican  Church 
of  his  time.  Among  his  works  are  an  "Essay  on  Mira- 
cles," (1701,)  and  "  Chronicon  Preciosum  :  an  Account 
of  English  Money,  the  Price  of  Corn,  Wages,  etc.,  for 
the  Last  Six  Hundred  Years,"  (1707.)  He  published  in 
1 7 12  four  sermons,  with  a  j^reface  which,  though  con- 
demned by  the  House  of  Commons  to  be  burnt,  was 
inserted  in  the  "  Spectator,"  No.  384,  with  commendatory 
remarks  by  the  editor.  He  advocated  Whig  principles 
in  this  preface.    Died  in  August,  1723. 

See  PowEi.L,  "Life  of  Fleetwood"  prefixed  to  his  Works;  "  Bio- 
graphia  Britannica;"  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Fleetwood,  (William,)  an  English  lawyer,  became 
recorder  of  London  about  1569.  He  wrote  some  legal 
and  historical  works.    Died  in  1593. 

Fleischer,  fll'sher,  (Hkinrich  Leberecht,)  an  emi- 
nent German  Orientalist,  born  at  Schandau,  in  Saxony, 
in  1801.  In  1835  he  succeeded  Rosenmiiller  as  pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  languages  at  Leipsic.  He  published 
an  edition  of  Abulfeda's  "  Anteislamica,"  with  a  Latin 
translation,  (183 1,)  and  a  valuable  commentary  on  the 
"Koran  of  Beidhawi,"  (1844.) 

Flemalle,  fla'nitK,  written  also  Flamael,  flI-nilK, 
Flemael,  and  Flameel,  (Bertholet,  b^R''to'la',)  a 
Flemish  painter,  born  at  Liege  in  1614.  He  worked  in 
Paris  some  years.    Died  in  1675. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  lottg;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  shoj't;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fl.ll,  f^t;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


FLEMING 


927 


FLETCHER 


Flem'ing,  (Abraham,)  an  English  classical  scholar 
and  translator,  born  in  London,  lived  about  1580.  He 
translated  Virgil's  "Bucolics,"  (i575»)  Elian's  "His- 
tory," (1576,)  Virgil's  "Georgics,"  (1589,)  and  other 
classic  works. 

Fleming,  (Caleb,)  an  English  Socinian  minister,  born 
in  1698,  succeeded  the  eloquent  James  Foster  at  Pinners' 
Hall,  London,  in  1752.  He  published  many  theological 
writings.    Died  in  1779. 

Fleming,  (Charles,)  a  philologist,  born  at  Perth, 
Scotland,  in  1806.  He  became  professor  of  English  at 
the  College  Louis-le-Grand,  Paris,  in  1829,  and  at  the 
Polytechnic  School  in  1844.  With  M.  Tibbins  he  pub- 
lished an  "  English-French  and  French-English  Dic- 
tionary," (Paris,  2  vols.,  1840,)  which  is  considered  one 
of  the  best  dictionaries  of  the  two  languages  extant. 

Fleming  or  Flemming,  flem'ming,  (Claudius,)  Con- 
stable of  Sweden,  born  in  Finland,  commanded  in  that 
province  when  Sigismond  inherited  the  throne  at  the 
death  of  his  father,  John  HI.,  in  1591.  In  the  civil  war 
that  followed,  Fleming  supported  Sigismond  with  fidelity, 
and  defeated  the  insurgents.    Died  in  1597. 

See  Ersch  und  Grubek,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Geyer, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Suede." 

Flem'ing,  (John,)  an  eminent  Scottish  naturalist, 
born  near  Bathgate,  in  Linlithgowshire,  in  1785,  became 
a  minister  of  the  Church  of  Scotland.  He  preached  at 
Flisk,  in  Fifeshire.  He  produced,  about  1822,  the  "  Phi- 
losophy of  Zoology,"  which  was  highly  esteemed,  and 
obtained  the  chair  of  natural  philosophy  at  King's  Col- 
lege, Aberdeen,  in  1828  or  1832.  His  "  History  of  British 
Animals"  is  a  work  of  high  authority.  He  was  author 
of  a  work  on  "Molluscous  Animals,  including  Shell- 
Fish,"  (1837,)  and  of  many  minor  scientific  treatises. 
Having  identified  himself  with  the  Free  Church,  or- 
ganized about  1843,  he  resigned  his  chair  at  Aberdeen. 
He  became  professor  of  natural  history  or  natural  science 
in  the  Free  Church  College  of  Edinburgh  about  1845. 
Died  in  November,  1857. 

Flem'ing,  (Patrick,)  an  Irish  monk,  born  in  the 
county  of  Lowth  in  1599,  received  at  baptism  the  name 
of  Christopher.  He  taught  philosophy  at  Rome  and 
Louvain,  and  theology  at  Prague,  and  wrote  "  Lives  of 
Irish  Saints."  He  was  murdered  near  Prague  by  some 
fanatical  peasants  in  163 1. 

Fleming,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  theologian,  born  at 
Vester  in  1630.  He  wrote  the  "  Fulfilling  of  Scripture," 
(1681,)  and  other  works.  He  preached  many  years  at 
Rotterdam  after  1676.    Died  in  1694. 

Fleming,  (Robert,)  Jr.,  a  learned  Scottish  author  and 
clergyman,  son  of  the  preceding,  preached  in  Holland  and 
London,  and  published  sermons,  poems,  and  discourses 
on  the  prophecies  of  Scripture,  which  are  highly  esteemed. 
In  1 701  he  issued  a  "Discourse  on  the  Rise  and  Fall  of 
the  Papacy,"  containing  predictions  which  it  is  thought 
have  been  remarkably  verified.  He  expected  that  1848 
would  be  an  important  era  in  the  subversion  of  the  papal 
power.    Died  in  1 716. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Flemming,  flSm'ming,  (Hans  Heinrich,)  Count, 
born  in  Pomerania  in  1632,  distinguished  himself  at  the 
siege  of  Vienna  in  1683,  and  was  made  count  of  the 
empire.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  field-marshal  about 
16S8.    Died  in  1706. 

Flemming,  (Jakob  Heinrich,)  an  able  general,  born 
in  Pomerania  in  1667.  He  entered  the  service  of  Au- 
gustus of  Saxony,  who  became  King  of  Poland,  He 
had  a  high  command  in  the  war  against  Charles  XII. 
of  Sweden,  and  was  appointed  field-marshal  and  chief 
minister  of  Augustus  about  17 12.  He  defeated  the 
Swedes  under  Steinbock  in  Pomerania,  and  was  after- 
ward victorious  over  the  revolted  Poles  in  1715.  Died 
in  1728. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  M. 
Ranft,  "  Leben  und  Thaten  des  General  J.  H.  Grafen  von  Flem- 
ming," 1752. 

Flemming,  (Paul,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated  Ger- 
man poets  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Hartenstein,  in  Saxony, 
in  1609.  His  "Spiritual  and  Secular  Poems"  (1642)  are 
greatly  admired  for  their  melody  of  versification,  and  his 
sonnets  display  merit  of  a  high  order.    He  went  with  an 


embassy  sent  by  the  Duke  of  Holstein  to  Persia  in  1636. 
Died  at  Hamburg  in  1640. 

See  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  "  Biographische  Denkmale,"  vol. 
iv. ;  Karl  Schmitt,  "P.  Flemming  nach  seiner  literargeschicht- 
lichen  Bedeutung  dargestellt,"  1851. 

Flemming  or  Flemmynge,  (Richard,)  born  at 
Crofton,  was  appointed  in  1420,  by  Henry  V.,  Bishop 
of  Lincoln.  Having  zealously  opposed  the  opinions  of 
Wycliffe,  he  received  from  the  pope  the  appointment  to 
the  Archbishopric  of  York;  but  Henry  did  not  permit 
him  to  occupy  it.  He  founded  Lincoln  College,  Oxford. 
Died  in  1430. 

Flemming,  (Robert,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
became  Deaii  of  Lincoln  in  1451.  He  published  a  Greek 
and  Latin  Dictionary,  and  a  Latin  poem  in  praise  of 
Pope  Sixtus  IV.    Died  in  1483. 

Flers,  flaiR,  (Camille,)  a  French  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Paris  in  1802.  He  revolted  against  academical 
traditions,  and  aimed  to  paint  nature  in  its  simplicity. 
His  subjects  are  mostly  taken  from  French  scenery. 

Flers,  de,  deh  flaiR,  (Charles,)  a  French  general, 
born  in  1756.  In  1793  he  commanded  the  army  of  the 
Eastern  Pyrenees,  and  had  several  engagements  with  the 
Spaniards.  Being  accused  of  treason,  he  was  arrested  by 
order  of  the  Convention  and  condemned  to  death  in  1794. 

Flesselle,  de,  deh  fli'sll',  (Philippe,)  a  French 
physician,  who  graduated  in  1528.  He  was  employed 
professionally  by  Francis  I.,  Henry  II.,  Francis  II.,  and 
Charles  IX.    Died  in  1562. 

Flesselles,  de,  deh  fla's^K,  (Jacques,)  a  French  civil 
officer,  one  of  the  first  victims  of  the  Revolution,  was  born 
about  1724.  He  held  the  office  of  provost  of  the  mer- 
chants of  Paris,  the  functions  of  which  are  similar  to  those 
of  mayor.  On  the  day  the  Bastille  was  stormed,  July  14, 
1789,  he  was  charged  with  hostility  to  the  popular  cause 
and  shot  by  one  of  the  mob, 

Fletch'er,  (Abraham,)  a  self-taught  English  mathe- 
matician and  physician,  born  at  Little  Broughton  in  1714, 
wrote  the  "Universal  Measurer  and  Mechanic,"  (1762.) 
Died  in  1793. 

Fletcher,  (Alexander,)  a  British  divine,  born  about 
1787,  was  minister  of  Finsbury  Chapel,  London.  He 
published  a  "Guide  to  Family  Devotion,  containing  730 
Hymns,  730  Prayers,"  etc.,  which  passed  through  many 
editions,  "Addresses  to  the  Young,"  (1851,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  i860. 

Fletch'er,  (Andrew,)  an  able  Scottish  republican 
writer  and  orator,  often  called  Fletcher  of  Saltoun, 
was  born  at  Saltoun  in  1653.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Scottish  Parliament,  in  which  he  opposed  the  arbitrary 
measures  of  the  court.  Having  been  outlawed  about 
1680,  he  retired  to  the  continent,  and  fought  against  the 
Turks.  At  the  revolution  of  1688  he  returned  home, 
and  again  became  a  member  of  Parliament.  "  He  was 
by  far  the  most  nervous  and  correct  speaker  in  the  Par- 
liament of  Scotland,"  says  the  Earl  of  Buchan;  "for  he 
drew  his  style  from  the  pure  models  of  anticjuity."  He 
published  several  political  treatises,  among  which  are 
"Two  Discourses  concerning  the  Affairs  of  Scotland," 
(1698.)  Lockhart  praises  the  "undaunted  courage  and 
pathetic  eloquence"  with  which  he  exposed  the  oppres- 
sion to  which  Scotland  was  subjected.  Died  in  London 
in  1 716.  Although  a  determined  foe  to  des})Otism, 
Pletcher  appears  to  have  had  little  confidence  in  the 
capacity  of  the  common  people  for  self-government. 
Macaulay  goes  so  far  as  to  accuse  him  of  being  "the 
author  of  a  plan  for  reducing  a  large  part  of  the  working- 
classes  of  Scotland  to  slavery."  ("  History,"  vol.  i.  p.  501.) 

See  Earl  of  Buchan,  "  Life  and  Writings  of  Andrew  Fletcher," 
1792;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  iv.,  1821. 

Fletcher,  (Andrew,)  Lord  Milton,  a  Scottish  judge, 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1692.  He  became 
a  lord  of  session  in  1 724,  and  keeper  of  the  signet  in  1 748. 
He  was  the  confidential  agent  of  the  Duke  of  Argyll  when 
the  latter  had  the  chief  management  of  Scottish  affairs. 
He  is  commended  for  his  services  in  the  promotion  of 
commerce,  manufactures,  and  agriculture.  Died  in  1766. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Fletcher,  (Giles,)  born  in  Kent,  was  the  brother  ol 
Bishop  Fletcher,  and  father  of  the  poets  Giles  and 
Phineas.    In  1588  he  was  ambassador  to  Russia,  of 


€  as  k;  9  as  .y;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  gtcttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FLETCHER 


928 


FLEURT 


which  nation  he  wrote  a  curious  account,  (1590.)  This 
was  suppressed  by  government,  lest  it  should  give  of- 
fence to  the  Russian  court.    Died  in  16 10. 

Fletcher,  (Giles,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  about 
1588,  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  obtained  the 
living  of  Alderton,  in  Suffolk.  He  wrote  an  admired 
and  picturesque  poem,  "Christ's  Victory  and  Triumph 
in  Heaven  and  Earth  over  and  after  Death,"  (1610.) 
"Giles  seems,"  says  Hallam,  "to  have  more  vigour  than 
his  elder  brother,  [Phineas,  ]  but  less  sweetness  and 
smoothness.  .  .  .  They  both  bear  much  resemblance  to 
Spenser.  .  .  .  They  were  endowed  with  minds  eminently 
poetical,  and  not  inferior  in  imagination  to  any  of  their 
contemporaries."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.")    Died  in  1623. 

See  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets,"  vol.  ii. 

Fletcher,  (James,)  an  English  writer  and  school- 
teacher, born  in  181 1,  lived  in  London.  He  published 
"  The  Siege  of  Damascus,"  "  The  Gem,  and  other 
Poems,"  and  a  "History  of  Poland,"  (1831.)  In  a  fit 
of  insanity,  he  committed  suicide  in  1832. 

Fletcher,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  dramatic 
author,  born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1576,  was  a  son  of 
Richard,  Bishop  of  Bristol  and  London.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Cambridge,  and  became  the  friend  of  Francis 
Beaumont,  with  whom  his  name  is  inseparably  asso- 
ciated as  a  partner  in  authorship.  The  unity  of  feeling 
and  identity  of  genius  between  them  were  such  that  critics 
are  unable  to  assign  their  respective  shares  in  their 
works.  Among  the  dramas  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher, 
which  had  immense  success,  are  "The  Maid's  Tragedy," 
(before  161 1,)  "Philaster,"  (161 1,)  and  "The  Loyal  Sub- 
ject," (1618.)  Fletcher  was  sole  author  of  "The  Faith- 
ful Shepherdess,"  "The  Scornful  Lady,"  (i6i6,)  "The 
Spanish  Curate," comedy,  (1622,)  "Rule  a  Wife  and  Have 
a  Wife,"  a  comedy,  (1624,)  and  many  other  comedies, 
or  tragi-comedies,  in  verse.  Dryden  informs  us  that  in 
his  time  the  plays  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher  were  per- 
formed oftener  than  those  of  vShakspeare.  "  Fletcher," 
remarks  Hallam,  "is  as  much  superior  to  Shakspeare 
in  his  knowledge  of  the  stage,  as  he  falls  below  him  in 
that  of  human  nature.  .  .  .  His  sentiments  and  style, 
where  not  concealed  by  obscurity,  are  very  dramatic. 
His  thoughts  are  noble,  and  tinged  with  the  ideality  of 
romance ;  his  metaphors  vivid,  though  sometimes  too 
forced.  .  .  .  Yet  we  are  seldom  arrested  by  striking 
beauties :  good  lines  occur  in  every  page,  fine  ones  but 
rarely."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 
The  same  critic  censures  the  "protracted  indecency" 
of  these  authors.  (See  Beaumont,  Francis.)  Died 
in  1625. 

See  Langbaine,  "Account  of  the  English  Dramatic  Poets,"  1691. 

Fletcher  or  Flechere,  (John  William,)  a  divine, 
born  at  Nyon,  in  Switzerland,  in  1729.  He  removed  to 
England  in  his  youth,  became  a  priest  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  and  obtained  the  living  of  Madeley,  in  Salop,  in 
1760.  He  was  a  religious  associate  of  John  Wesley,  and 
author  of  several  works,  some  of  which  were  directed 
against  Calvinism.  His  works  were  published  in  8 
vols.,  (1803.)  He  died  in  Shropshire  in  1785.  "No 
Church,"  says  R.  Southey,  "  has  ever  possessed  a  more 
apostolic  minister." 

See  J.,  Benson,  "Life  of  J.  W.  Fletcher." 

Fletcher,  (Phineas,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  1584, 
was  the  son  of  Giles  Fletcher  the  ambassador.  He 
was  educated  for  the  church,  and  obtained  in  1621  the 
living  of  Hilgay.  He  wrote  "The  Locustag,  or  Apollyon- 
ists,"  "Sicelides,  a  Drama,"  and  other  poems.  His 
reputation  as  a  poet  rests  on  "The  Purple  Island,  or  the 
Isle  of  Man,"  (1633,)  an  allegorical  description  of  the 
human  body,  faculties,  and  passions.  Milton  is  said  to 
have  admired  and  imitated  him.  "He  is  entitled,"  says 
Headley,  "to  a  very  high  rank  among  our  old  English 
classics."  Hallam  thinks  him  deserving  of  praise,  but 
that  his  poem  "from  its  very  nature  is  insufferably 
wearisome."  (See  Fletcher,  Giles.)  Died  about  1650. 

See  Johnson  and  Cjlalmeks,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets;" 
"Biograpliia  Britainiica ;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  1820. 

Fletcher,  (Richard,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Kent,  was  the  father  of  John  the  dramatist.    He  became 


chaplain  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  directed  him  in  1586  to 
attend  Mary  Stuart  at  her  execution ;  but  she  declined  to 
listen  to  his  exhortations.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Bristol  in  1589,  of  Worcester  in  1592,  and  of  London  in 
1594.    Died  in  1596. 

Fleuranges,  de,  deh  fluh'rSNzh',  (Robert  de  la 
Marck — deh  It  mtRk,)  Seigneur,  a  brave  French 
officer,  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Sedan  in  1491,  offered 
his  services  to  Louis  XII.  at  an  early  age,  and  became 
the  companion  of  the  Count  of  Angouleme,  afterwards 
Francis  I.  At  the  battle  of  Novara,  or  Asti,  he  is  said 
to  have  received  forty-six  wounds.  In  1525  he  was  taken 
prisoner  with_  Francis  I.  at  the  battle  of  Pavfa.  A  few 
years  after  this  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  marshal 
of  France.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Memorable  Events 
which  occurred  from  1499  to  1521."    Died  in  1537. 

Fleuriau,  fluh^re-5',  (Jerome  Charlemagne,)  Mar- 
quis de  Langle,  (deh  16Ngl,)  a  French  writer,  born  in 
Brittany  about  1742  ;  died  in  1807. 

Fleurieu,  de,  deh  fluh're-uh^  (Charles  Pierre 
Claret — klfri'',)  Count,  a  skilful  French  hydrographer 
and  statesman,  born  in  Lyons  in  1738.  He  entered  the 
navy  in  his  youth,  acquired  skill  in  naval  tactics,  and 
became  director-general  of  the  ports  and  arsenals  in  1776. 
He  was  minister  of  marine  from  October,  1790,  until 
May,  1 791,  after  which  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Institute.  He  planned  the  naval  operations  of  the  war 
against  the  British,  1778  to  1783,  in  which  he  displayed 
great  strategical  skill.  He  published,  besides  other 
writings,  a  valuable  work,  entitled  a  "Voyage  around 
the  World,  made  by  Elienne  Marchand,"  (4  vols.,  1798,) 
with  notes  and  many  charts.  He  became  councillor 
of  state  in  1799,  and  intendant-general  of  the  emperor's 
household,  and  a  senator,  in  1805.  Died  in  1810. 

See  Delambre,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  M.  le  Comte  de  Fleu- 
rieu;" "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gt^ndrale." 

Fleuriot-Lescot,  fluh're'o'  ISs'ko^  (J.  A.  C.,)  born 

in  Brussels  about  1760,  was  a  violent  Jacobin,  and 
acted  for  a  short  time  as  mayor  of  Paris,  until  the  fall 
of  Robespierre,  his  patron,  with  whom  he  was  executed 
in  1794. 

Fleury,  f^uh''re',  (Abraham  Joseph  Benard — bi'. 
uSr',)  a  French  comedian,  born  at  Chartres  in  1751. 
He  performed  in  Paris  with  success  from  1778  to  1818. 
Died  in  1822. 

See  "Memoires  de  Fleury,"  by  J.  B.  Lafitte,  1835. 

Fleury,  (Claude,)  Abb^:,  a  pious  and  learned  eccle- 
siastic, born  in  Paris  in  1640,  practised  law  several  years 
before  he  entered  the  priesthood.  In  1672  Louis  XIV. 
chose  him  for  tutor  to  the  Princes  de  Conti.  He  was 
associated  with  Fenelon  about  sixteen  years  (1689-1705) 
as  sub-preceptor  of  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy,  Anjou,  and 
Berry.  After  their  education  was  finished,  the  king 
gave  him  the  rich  priory  of  Argenteuil.  In  1696  Abbe 
Fleury  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in 
the  place  of  La  Bruyere.  Contemporary  writers  agree 
in  extolling  his  moral  qualities,  his  profound  learning, 
and  his  literary  merit.  He  published  a  work  on  the 
"Morality  of  Christians,"  another  on  "Ecclesiastical 
Law,"  and  a  "Historical  Catechism,"  (1683,)  which  had 
great  success.  His  greatest  work  is  his  "  Ecclesiastical 
History,"  ("Histoire  ecclesiastique,"  20  vols.,  1691- 
1723,)  comprising  a  period  of  about  four  centuries.  His 
style  is  pure,  clear,  and  concise,  and  his  spirit  liberal  and 
candid.  He  was  confessor  to  Louis  XV.  from  17 16  to 
1722.  Voltaire  said,  "His  history  of  the  Church  is  the 
best  that  has  been  written."    Died  in  July,  1723. 

See  RoNDET,  "Notice  sur  Abbe  Fleury"  prefixed  to  an  edition 
of  his  "Opuscules,"  5  vols.,  1780;  C.  E.  Simonetti,  "DerCharak- 
ter  eines  Geschichtsschreibers  in  dem  Leben  und  aus  den  Schriften 
des  Abbts  C.  Fleury,"  1746;  Jaeger,  "Notice  sur  C.  Fleury  consi- 
dere  conime  Historien  de  I'figlise,"  1847  '•  A.  Martin,  "  Essai  sur  la 
Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Fleury,"  1837. 

Fleury,  (Emile  F^:lix,)  a  French  general,  born  in 
Paris  in  1815.  He  served  in  Algeria,  became  a  senator 
in  1865,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Russia  in  1869. 

Fleury,  (Julien,)  a  French  philologist,  born  about 
1650.  He  edited  Apuleius  "ad  usum  Delphini,"  (1688.) 
Died  in  1725. 

Fleury,  de,  deh  fluh're',  (Aim6e  de  Coigny  —  deh 
kw^n^ye',)  Duchesse,  a  literary  French  lady,  born  in 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FLEURT 


929 


Paris  about  1776.  In  1794  she  was  confined  in  the  same 
prison  with  Andre  Chenier,  and  was  the  subject  of  his 
ode  "La  jeune  Captive."  She  wrote  a  novel  entitled 
"Alvar,"  (1818.)    Died  in  1820. 

Fleury,  de,  (Andk6  Hercule,)  Cardinal,  an  emi- 
nent French  statesman,  born  at  Lodeve,  in  Languedoc, 
on  the  22d  of  June,  1653,  was  educated  at  Paris.  To 
superior  mental  faculties  and  wit  he  added  high  literary 
attainments  and  persuasive  eloquence.  In  1677  he  was 
chosen  almoner  to  the  queen,  and  after  her  death,  in  1683, 
he  served  in  the  same  capacity  Louis  XIV.,  who  in  1698 
nominated  him  Bishop  of  Frejus.  Just  before  the  death 
of  Louis  XIV.,  by  a  codicil  to  his  will,  he  appointed 
Fleury  preceptor  to  the  heir-apparent,  aged  about  six 
years,  who  in  1 715  succeeded  as  Louis  XV.  He  per- 
formed the  duties  of  this  office  in  such  a  manner  that  he 
gained  the  affection  and  respect  of  the  young  king,  who 
in  1726  raised  him  to  the  dignitv  of  prime  minister, — an 
event  which  occasioned  ample  demonstrations  of  popu- 
lar joy.  In  the  same  year  he  received  from  the  pope  a 
cardinal's  hat.  Adopting  a  pacific  and  economical  policy, 
he  exercised  his  power  with  wisdom  and  fidelity  until 
his  death.  He  maintained  peace  with  Spain  and  Eng- 
land until  1740,  when  France,  in  spite  of  his  efforts,  was 
involved  in  the  general  war.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.    Died  in  Paris  in  January,  1743. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis 
XIV  ;"  F.  J.  Bataille,  "Jlloge  historique  de  M.  le  Cardinal  A.  H. 
de  Fleury,"  1737;  "  Leben  des  Cardinals  A.  H.  Fleury,"  Freiburg, 
1743- 

Fleury,  de,  (Guillaume  Franqois  Joly.)  See 

JOLY. 

Fleury  de  Chaboulon,  flah're'  deh  shl'boo'l6N', 
(Pierre  Alexandre  Edouard,)  a  Frenchman,  born  in 
1779.  He  became  private  secretary  of  Na[)oleon  on  his 
return  from  Elba,  and  wrote  "Memoirs  of  the  Private 
Life  and  Reign  of  Napoleon  in  1815,"  (2  vols.,  1819,) 
which  had  a  great  success.    Died  in  1835. 

Flex'nian,  (Roger,)  D.D.,  an  English  dissenting 
minister,  born  in  Devonshire  in  1708.  He  wrote  several 
biographies,  and  made  an  index  to  "The  Rambler," 
which  provoked  Dr.  Johnson's  indignation  and  disgust 
by  entering  Milton's  name  thus: — "Milton,  Mr.  John." 
He  preached  in  London  many  years.    Died  in  1795. 

Flin'ders,  (Matthew,)  an  English  navigator,  born 
in  Lincolnshire  about  1760.  He  made  a  voyage  to  New 
Holland  in  1795,  and,  in  company  with  George  Jiass,  dis- 
covered, in  1798,  the  strait  since  called  Bass's  Strait.  As 
captain  of  the  Investigator,  he  explored  the  southern 
coast  of  Australia,  and  discovered  the  Gulfs  of  Spencer 
and  Saint  Vincent.  On  a  homeward-bound  voyage,  being 
compelled  to  put  in  to  the  Isle  of  France,  he  was  de- 
tained a  prisoner  by  the  French  about  six  years,  1803-10. 
He  died  in  England  in  1814,  just  after  he  had  published 
his  "  Voyage  to  Terra  Australis,"  (2  vols.,  1814.) 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1S14. 

Flink  or  Flinck,  flink,  (Govaert,  go'vaRt,)  a  skilful 
Dutch  painter  of  portraits  and  history,  born  at  Cleves  in 
1616,  was  a  pupil  of  Rembrandt,  whose  style  he  imitated 
with  success.  He  worked  at  Amsterdam,  and  was  pa- 
tronized by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg.  Among  his 
works  are  "  .Solomon  praying  for  Wisdom,"  and  a  "  Vir- 
gin and  Child."    Died  in  1660. 

SeeDEscAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  HoUandais,"  etc. 

Flins  des  Oliviers,  de,  deh  fliN  di'zo'ie've^', 
(Claude  Marie  Louis  Carboa— ktR'b6>i^)  a  French 
poet,  born  at  Rheims  in  1757.  He  wrote  "The  Awaking 
of  Epimenides,"  ("  Le  Reveil  d'Epimenide,")  a  drama, 
and  many  other  poems.    Died  in  1806. 

Flint,  (Austin,)  a  distinguished  American  physician 
and  medical  writer,  born  in  Petersham,  Massachusetts, 
in  1812,  graduated  as  M.D.  at  Harvard  in  1833.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Buffalo  Medical  College  in 
1847.  After  having  been  a  professor  in  several  medical 
colleges  in  the  United  States,  he  was  appointed  in  1861 
professor  of  the  principles  and  practice  of  medicine  in 
the  Bellevue  College  Hospital,  New  York,  and  of  pa- 
thology and  practical  medicine  in  the  Long  Island  Col- 
lege Hospital.  He  has  published,  besides  other  valuable 
works,  "  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Patholo^,  Diagnosis, 
and  Treatment  of  Diseases  of  the  Heart,"  (1859,)  and 


FLOQUET 


an  excellent  work  on  the  "  Practice  of  Medicine,"  (1866 ; 
3d  edition,  1868.) 

Flint,  (Austin,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  North- 
ampton, Massachusetts,  in  1836,  studied  at  Harvard,  and 
graduated  at  Jefferson  Medical  College  in  1857.  He 
became  professor  of  physiology  in  the  University  of  Buf- 
falo in  1858,  and  was  afterwards  professor  of  the  same 
branch  in  the  Long  Island  College  Hospital.  His  essay 
on  the  Excretory  Function  of  the  Liver,  translated  into 
French,  received  from  the  Institute  of  France  a  prize  of 
1500  francs.  He  has  made  several  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  the  "  American  Journal  of  Medical  Sciences," 
and  other  periodicals. 

Flint,  (TLMoriiY,)  an  American  author  and  traveller, 
born  at  North  Reading,  Massachusetts,  in  1780.  In  181 5 
he  went  as  a  missionary  to  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi. 
In  1826  he  published  "  Recollections  of  Ten  Years 
passed  in  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi."  He  also  wrote 
"Geography  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,"  (2  vols.,  1828,) 
"Arthur  Clenning"  (1828)  and  other  novels,  and  made 
contributions  to  several  periodicals.  He  died  in  Mas- 
sachusetts in  1840. 

See  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Flin'toff,  (Owen,)  a  British  legal  writer  of  the  present 
century.  He  published  an  excellent  work  on  "The  Law 
of  Real  Property,"  (1839,)  also  "The  Rise  and  Progress 
of  the  Laws  of  England  and  Wales,"  and  an  "  Introduc- 
tion to  Conveyancing,"  (1840.) 

Flipart,  fle'ptR',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  skilful  French 
engraver  and  designer,  born  in  Paris  in  1723,  was  an 
associate  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He  engraved  a  "  Holy 
Family,"  after  Giulio  Romano,  and  some  works  of  Greuze 
and  Vernet.    Died  in  1782. 

Flocco,  flok'ko,  or  Floke,  a  Norwegian  or  Swedish 
pirate,  who  acquired  reputation  by  his  enterprise  in  navi- 
gation. In  865  a.d.  he  visited  Iceland,  and  gave  it  the 
name  which  it  now  bears. 

Flocon,  flo'kiN',  (Ferdinand,)  a  French  journalist, 
born  in  Paris  about  1800'.  He  became  in  1845  chief 
editor  of  the  "  Reforme,"  the  organ  of  the  radical  de- 
mocracy, and  in  February,  1848,  secretary  of  the  pro- 
visional government  formed  by  the  revolutionists.  His 
official  career  ended  in  June  of  that  year. 

Flodoard,  flo'do'ta',  a  French  historian  and  priest, 
born  at  fipernay  in  894  A.D.,  wrote  a  history  of  the 
Church  of  Rheims,  and  a  chronicle  of  events  that  oc- 
curred in  France  from  919  to  966.  He  was  canon  of 
Rheims  when  he  died,  in  966. 

Floerke.    See  Florke. 

Flogel  or  Floegel,  flb'gel,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a 
German  writer,  born  in  Silesia  in  1729,  became  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Liegnitz  in  1774.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  Human  Intellect,"  (1776,)  a  curious  work,  of  great 
research,  "The  History  of  Comic  Literature,"  (4  vols., 
1784-86,)  which  is  commended,  and  a  few  other  works. 
Died  in  1788. 

Floke.    See  Flocco. 

Flood,  fliid,  (Rt.  Hon.  Henry,)  an  eloquent  Irish 
orator,  born  in  1732.  He  was  elected  in  1759  to  the 
Irish  Parliament,  where  he  became  one  of  the  chiefs 
of  the  opposition,  and  a  rival  of  Grattan,  with  whom  he 
was  formerly  intimate.  They  had  a  personal  dispute  in 
the  House  in  1783,  which  was  a  remarkable  display  of 
the  power  of  invective  on  both  sides.  Flood  challenged 
his  opponent ;  but  the  meeting  was  prevented  by  the 
authorities.  About  that  date  Flood  became  a  member 
of  the  English  Parliament,  in  which  he  sat  imtil  1790. 
Mr.  Phillips,  the  biographer  of  Curran,  informs  us  that 
the  latter  once  said,  "  Flood  was  immeasurably  the 
greatest  man  of  his  time  in  Ireland  ;"  but  this  opinion 
is  not  generally  concurred  in.  He  died  in  1791.  His 
speeches  and  poetical  pieces  have  been  published. 

See  W.  Flood,  "  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Henry  Flood,"  1S3S. 

Flood,  (Robert.)    See  Fludd, 

Floquet,  flo'ki',  (£tienne  Joseph,)  a  French  com- 
poser, born  at  Aix  in  1750  ;  died  in  1785. 

Floquet,  (  Pierre  Amable,  )  a  French  historica: 
writer  and  advocate,  born  at  Rouen  in  1797.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  a  "Eulogy  on  Bossuet,"  (1827,)  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Parliament  of  Normandy,"  (  7  vols., 
1840-43,)  which  gained  a  prize  of  the  Institute. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (2[^=*See  Explanations,  p.  2^. 

59 


FLOR 


930 


FLORIMOND 


Flor,  de,  deh  floR,  (Roger,)  a  fampus  military  adven- 
turer, born  about  1264.  In  his  youth  he  fought  with  the 
crusaders  against  the  Saracens.  About  1303  he  entered 
the  service  of  the  emperor  Andronicus,  for  whom  he 
gained  several  victories  over  the  Turks.  He  was  assas- 
sinatedj  by  order  of  the  emperor,  in  1306  or  1307. 

See  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas- Empire." 

Flo'ra,  [Fr.  Flore,  Aor,]  an  ancient  Italian  divinity, 
the  goddess  of  flowers,  appears  to  have  been  wor- 
shipped in  the  time  of  Numa,  or  earlier.  Her  annual 
festival  ( Floralia )  was  celebrated  from  April  28  to  May 
I.  The  Flora  of  the  Romans  corresponded  to  the  Greek 
Chloris. 

Flore,  (Franc.)    See  Floris,  (Frans.) 

Flor'ence  of  Worcester,  (woos'ter,)  a  learned 
monk,  was  the  first  chronicler  who  wrote  in  England 
after  the  Norman  Conquest.  His  chronicle  (in  Latin) 
was  printed  in  1592.    Died  in  11 18. 

Florencourt,  von,  fon  flo'r6N''kooR',  (Franz  Chas- 
sot — sht'so',)  a  German  journalist  and  political  writer, 
of  aristocratic  principles,  was  born  at  Brunswick  in  1803. 
Since  185 1  he  has  lived  in  Vienna. 

Florencourt,  von,  (Wilhelm  Chassot,)  a  German 
antiquary  and  writer  on  numismatics;  born  about  1800. 

Florent,  flo'rSnt,  or  Floris,  flo'ris,  I.,  Count  of  Fries- 
land,  was  killed  in  battle  by  the  men  of  Brabant  in  io6r. 

Florent  II.,  Count  of  Friesland  and  Holland,  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Thierry  V.,  in  109 1,  at  the  age  of  ten. 
Died  in  1 122. 

Florent  III.,  Count  of  Holland,  was  a  son  of  Thierry 
VI.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1157.  He  waged  war  against 
the  Count  of  Flanders,  and  in  1189  followed  the  emperor 
Frederick  I.  in  a  crusade.    He  died  at  Antioch  in  1190. 

Florent  IV.  of  Holland,  born  in  12 10,  began  to  reign 
in  1223.  In  his  reign  a  great  storm  and  inundation 
of  the  sea  covered  a  populous  district  now  occupied  by 
the  Zuyder  Zee,  which  was  then  first  formed.  He  was 
assassinated  in  1235.  , 

Florent  V.,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  about 
two  years  old  at  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1254.  He 
waged  a  long  war  against  the  revolted  West  Frisians 
and  against  the  Flemings.    He  was  assassinated  in  1296. 

Florent-Chretien.    See  Chretien. 

Florentine.    See  Fio renting. 

Flo-ren-ti'nus,  a  Roman  jurist,  who  had  a  high  repu- 
tation, but  of  whom  little  is  known.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  the  time  of  Ulpian,  (who  died  in  228  a.d.,) 
or  later.    He  wrote  many  books  of  "  Institutiones." 

Flores,  flo'res,  (Andres,)  a  minor  Spanish  poet,  born 
at  Segovia  in  1484,  wrote  lyric  poems.  Died  about  1560. 

Flores,  flo'r^s  or  floR,  (Louis,)  born  at  Ghent  in  1570, 
became  a  monk,  and  went  as  a  missionary  to  the  Philip- 
pine Isles.  The  Dutch  imprisoned  him,  and  then  deliv- 
ered him  to  the  Japanese,  who  put  him  to  death  in  1622. 
He  wrote  an  "Account  of  the  State  of  Christianity." 

Flores,  de,  di  flo'r^s,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  novelist, 
who  flourished  about  1 5 10.  He  wrote  "The  History 
of  Cerisel  and  Mirabella,"  ("LaHistoria  de  Cerisel  y 
Mirabella,"  1524,)  which  was  very  popular. 

Florez,  flo'r^th,  (Enrique,)  a  Spanish  monk,  and  an 
excellent  historian  and  numismatist,  born  at  Valladolid 
in  1 701,  devoted  his  life  to  the  investigation  of  history, 
especially  that  of  Spain.  His  first  essay,  entitled  "Key 
to  History,"  ("Clave  historical,"  1743,)  was  very  success- 
ful. He  wrote  a  voluminous  work  on  the  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  Spain,  ("  Esjjaiia  sagrada,"  in  29  vols.,  1747 
-70.)  After  his  death  it  was  continued  and  completed, 
in  forty-six  volumes.  This  work  has  a  high  character 
for  veracity  and  literary  merit.  He  was  also  author  of  a 
learned  antiquarian  treatise  on  medals.    Died  in  1773. 

See  BouTEKWEK,  "  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Espagnole;"  Fran- 
cisco Mendez,  "  Noticias  de  la  Vida  y  Escritos  del  P.  H.  Florez," 
Madrid,  1780. 

Florian,  (Docampo.)    See  Docampo. 

Flo'ri-an,  (in  Latin,  Mar'cus  (or  An'nius)  Floria'- 
nus,)  a  Roman  emj^eror,  who  was  a  half-brother  of  the 
emperor  Tacitus.  At  the  death  of  the  latter,  Florian 
was  proclaimed  his  successor  by  a  part  of  the  army, 
while  the  legions  of  the  East  supported  the  claims  of 
Trobus.  A  few  months  after  this  event,  Florian  was 
killed  by  his  own  soldiers,  in  276  A.D. 


Florian,  de,  deh  flo're'6N',  (Jean  Pierre  Claris— 
klS''r^ss',)  a  French  novelist  and  poet,  was  born  at  the 
chateau  de  Florian,  in  the  department  of  Gard,  in  March, 
1755.  In  youth  or  childhood  he  often  visited  the  house 
of  Voltaire,  who  encouraged  his  literary  aspirations.  He 
became  gentleman-in-ordinary  to  the  Due  de  Penthievre, 
who  treated  him  with  much  favour  and  confidence.  In 
1783  he  published  the  romance  of  "Galatea,"  which 
was  very  popular,  and  was  followed  by  "Numa  Pom- 
pilius,"  (17S6,)  "Estelle,"  (1788,)  and  several  comedies 
and  fables,  which  obtained  the  public  favour.  He  trans- 
lated "  Don  Quixote"  into  French.  He  was  admitted 
into  the  French  Academy  in  1788.  During  the  reign 
of  terror  he  was  imprisoned  several  months,  but  was 
released  by  the  cotip  d'etat  of  9th  Thermidor.  Among 
French  fabulists  he  is  considered  next  to  La  Fontaine. 
Died  near  Paris  in  1794. 

See  RosNV,  "Vie  de  Florian,"  1798;  Lacretellh,  "  filoge  de 
Florian,"  1812;  "Jeunesse  de  Florian,  ou  Memoires  d'un  jeuiie 
Espagnol,"  1807;  Viancin,  "  £ loge  de  Florian,"  1833. 

Floriani,  flo-re-^'nee,  (Francesco,)  a  painter  of  the 
Venetian  school,  born  at  Udine,  flourished  about  1570. 

Florida,  de  la,  di  la  flo-ree'Di,  (Marquis,)  a  Spanish 
general,  born  in  Madrid  about  the  year  1646.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  military  talents  in  the  reigns  of 
Charles  II.  and  Philip  V.,  defended  Milan  in  1706  against 
Prince  Eugene,  and  commanded  under  the  Duke  of 
Vendome  at  the  important  battle  of  Almanza,  in  1707, 
where  the  French  and  Spaniards  defeated  the  English 
and  their  allies.    Died  in  1 7 14. 

Florida  Blanca,  flo-ree'oi  blSn'kS,  (Jos6  Monino — 
mon-yee'no,)  Count  of,  an  eminent  Spanish  statesman, 
born  at  Helin,  in  Murcia,  in  1728,  belonged  by  birth  to 
the  middle  class.  After  studying  law  at  Salamanca,  he 
practised  several  years  with  increasing  reputation,  and 
filled  the  office  of  fiscal  of  the  Council  of  Castile.  About 
1770  he  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Rome,  where  he 
displayed  great. diplomatic  ability,  and  remained  until  the 
resignation  of  the  prime  minister  Grimaldi,  who,  having 
the  privilege  of  naming  his  successor,  selected  Monino, 
who  had  recently  been  created  Count  of  Florida  Blanca. 
He  entered  the  office  in  February,  1 777,  soon  after  which 
Charles  III.  of  Spain  formed  an  alliance  with  France 
against  England.  Monino  carried  on  the  war  with  vigour, 
ability,  and  credit ;  and,  though  his  efforts  to  recover 
Gibraltar  were  frustrated,  the  Spaniards  captured  Florida, 
Minorca,  the  Bahamas,  and  a  fleet  of  fifty-five  merchant- 
vessels.  Peace  having  been  made  with  England  in  Janu- 
ary, 1783,  he  promoted  the  cause  of  popular  education, 
patronized  arts  and  sciences,  and  made  several  wise 
reforms  in  the  domestic  policy  of  Spain.  Just  before  the 
death  of  Charles  III.,  in  1788,  he  testified  his  confidence 
in  his  minister  by  commending  him  to  the  favour  of  his 
successor,  Charles  IV.,  who  retained  him  in  his  service 
until  the  intrigues  of  the  queen  and  the  notorious  Godoy 
effected  his  dismissal  in  1792.  His  disposition  is  said  to 
have  been  amiable,  and  his  moral  character  high.  Died 
in  1808. 

See  CoxE,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Kings  of  Spain  of  the  House  of  Bour- 
bon," 5  vols.,  1815. 

Floridor,  flo'reMoR',  (Josias  de  Soulas — deh  soo'- 
ISs',)  Sieur  de  Prinefosse,  a  popular  French  comedian, 
was  born  of  a  noble  family  in  Brie  in  1608.  Floridor  was 
a  fancy  name  which  he  assumed  when  he  became  an 
actor.  He  performed  the  principal  rdles  in  tragedy  and 
high  comedy,  and  was  a  great  favourite  with  the  public- 
Died  about  167 1. 

Floridus,  flo-ree'dooce,  (France.sco,)  an  Italian  phi- 
lologist, born  about  1500.  He  removed  to  Paris  at  the 
request  of  Francis  I.,  who  gave  him  a  pension.  He 
made  a  translation  into  Latin  verse  of  eight  books  of 
the  "Odyssey,"  (1545,)  which  had  a  great  success.  His 
death  prevented  the  completion  of  it.  He  wrote  an 
"Apology  for  the  Latin  Language,"  (1537,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1547. 

Florigerio,  flo-re-ja're-o,  or  Florigorio,  flo-re-go'- 
re-o,  (Sehastiano,)  an  Italian  painter  of  the  Venetian 
school,  born  at  Udine,  lived  about  1535. 

Florimond  de  Remond,  flo're'miN'  deh  reh-m6N', 
a  French  R^nan  Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Agen  ; 
died  in  1602. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  loftg:  k^h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sJwTt ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


FLO RIO 


931 


FLU  EG  EL 


Florio,  flo're-o,  (Daniele,)  Count,  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Udine  in  17 10;  died  in  1789. 

Florio,  flo're-o,  (John,)  surnamed  the  Resolute,  a 
philologist  and  grammarian,  born  in  London,  of  Italian 
parents,  about  1545.  He  was  professor  of  French  and 
Italian  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  in  the  reign  of 
James  I.  was  appointed  to  teach  those  languages  to  Prince 
Henry.  He  married  a  sister  of  Samuel  Daniel  the  poet. 
He  published  an  Italian  and  English  Dictionary," 
(1597,)  the  most  copious  then  extant,  a  translation  of 
Montaigne's  "Essays,"  (1603,)  and  several  other  works. 
Shakspeare,  it  is  supposed,  ridiculed  him  in  the  character 
of  Holofernes  in  "  Love's  Labour  Lost."    Died  in  1625. 

See  Wood.  "  Atlienae  Oxonienses." 

Floriot,  flo're-o',  (Pierre,)  a  French  moralist,  born 
in  1604,  became  confessor  to  the  recluses  of  Port-Royal. 
He  wrote  a  pious  work  entitled  "La  Morale  du  Pater," 
or  "La  Morale  chretienne,"  ("Christian  Morality,"  5 
vols.,  1672,)  which  was  much  esteemed.    Died  in  169 1. 

Floris,  flo'ris,  (Frans,)  [Fr.  Franc-Flore,  fRfiNK 
floR,]  an  excellent  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1520,  was  surnamed  the  Raphael  of  Flanders.  His 
proper  name  was  Frans  de  Vriend,  (vreend.)  He 
studied  the  works  of  Michael  Angelo  in  Rome,  and 
returned  to  Antwerp.  He  was  eminent  for  boldness  of 
design,  richness  of  invention,  and  facility  of  execution. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  "Nativity,"  a  "Cruci- 
fixion," and  "The  Last  Judgment."  He  is  said  to  have 
been  very  intemperate.    Died  in  1570. 

His  son  and  pupil,  Frans  Floris,  was  a  skilful  painter, 
especially  of  small  pictures. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Floris,  flo'ris,  (Pieter  Willemszoon,)  a  navigator, 
born  at  Dantzic.  He  sailed  to  the  East  Indies  as  factor 
of  the  English  Company  in  1610,  before  which  he  had 
visited  those  regions  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch.  He 
returned  in  1615,  and  wrote,  in  Dutch,  an  interesting 
journal  of  his  voyage,  a  version  of  which  was  published 
by  Purchas.    Died  in  1615. 

'Florke  or  Floerke,  floR'keh,  (Johann  Ernst,)  a 
German  author,  born  at  Altenkalden  in  1767  ;  died  in  1830. 

Flo'rus,  (Drefa'mus,)  a  theologian  and  poet,  who 
probably  wrote  about  850  A.D.,  and  was  a  canon  or 
deacon  of  the  church  of  Lyons.  He  composed,  besides 
Latin  poems,  a  commentary  on  the  Epistles  of  Saint 
Paul,  and  a  refutation  of  I'^rigena  on  predestination. 

Flo'rus,  (Gessius,)  a  Roman  officer,  who  became 
governor  of  Judea  in  64  A.D.  His  cruelty  and  rapacity 
provoked  the  last  revolt  of  the  Jews,  which  resulted  in 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  70  A.D. 

Florus,  (Julius,)  a  celebrated  orator  of  Gaul,  born 
about  20  B.C.,  practised  at  the  Roman  bar,  and  after- 
wards in  his  native  country.  Quintilian  speaks  highly 
of  his  eloquence.    Died  about  55  A.D. 

Florus,  (Lucius  Ann/Eus,)  a  Latin  historian,  who 
lived  in  the  reigns  of  Trajan  and  Hadrian,  and,  accord- 
ing to  some  authors,  was  a  native  of  Spain.  He  wrote 
an  "Epitome  of  Roman  History,"  ("Epitome  de  Gestis 
Romanorum,")  from  the  origin  of  Rome  to  the  time 
of  Augustus,  compiled  probably  from  historians  whose 
works  are  lost.  Critics  observe  that  he  deals  rather 
largely  in  panegyric,  but  give  him  credit  for  being  an 
agreeable  writer  and  generally  exact.  His  style  is  ele- 
gant, but  somewhat  declamatory. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Latinis;"  J.  M.  Heinze,  "Com- 
mentatio  de  Floro  iion  historico  sed  rhetoi  e,"  1787. 

Flotow,  von,  fon  flo'to,  (Friedrich,)  a  German 
composer,  born  at  Teutendorf  in  1811.  He  composed 
operas  entitled  "  Martha,"  "Linda,"  "Albin,"  etc. 

Flotte,  flot,  (Pierre,)  a  French  lawyer,  who  performed 
an  important  part  in  the  quarrel  between  King  Philip 
the  Fair  and  Pope  Boniface  about  1300.  He  was  sent  to 
Rome  with  an  answer  to  the  pope's  bull,  and  is  said  to 
have  used  insulting  language  to  Boniface.  He  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Courtray,  in  1302. 

Flotte,  de,  deh  flot,  (Etienxe  Gaston— gts't^N',) 
Baron,  a  French  littcniteitr,  nephew  of  Lantier  the  poet, 
was  born  near  Marseilles  in  1805.  He  has  written, 
besides  other  poems,  the  "Exile  of  Dante,"  (1833,)  and 
"La  Vendee,"  (1845.) 


Flottes,  flot,  (Jean  Baptiste  Marcel,)  Abb6,  a 
French  writer  and  professor  of  philosophy,  born  at 
Montpellier  in  1789. 

Flottwell,  flot'i^'^l,  (Eduard  Heinrich,)  a  Prussian 
statesman,  born  at  Insterburg  in  1786,  was  appointed 
minister  of  state  in  1844. 

Flourens,  floo'r6N^  (Marie  Jean  Pierre,)  an  emi- 
nent French  physiologist  and  author,  born  near  Beziers 
in  1794.  He  took  his  degree  in  medicine  in  1813,  and 
became  a  resident  of  Paris  in  1814.  In  1822  he  pro- 
duced "  Researches  on  Irritability  and  Sensibility."  He 
was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1828, 
after  he  had  published  an  able  work  called  "  Researches 
on  the  Properties  and  Functions  of  the  Nervous  System 
in  Vertebrate  Animals,"  (1824.)  He  became  professor 
of  comparative  anatomy  in  the  museum  in  1832,  and 
perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1833. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  "  Analysis  of  the  Labours  of 
Cuvier,"  ("Analyse  raisonnee  des  Travaux  de  G.  Cuvier," 
1841,)  "  Buffon,  Histoire  de  ses  Idees  et  de  ses  Tra- 
vaux," (1844,)  "Theory  of  the  Formation  of  the  Bones," 
(1847,)  "Course  of  Comparative  Physiology,"  (3  vols., 
1854,)  and  "  Human  Longevity  and  the  Quantity  of  Life 
on  the  Globe,"  (1854,)  a  very  popular  book.  He  was 
elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1840. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Floyd,  (John,)  an  English  writer  on  theology,  born 
in  Cambridgeshire,  became  a  Jesuit  about  1593.  He 
was  banished  after  that  date. 

Floyd,  (John,)  an  American  officer,  born  in  Virginia 
in  1769.  He  removed  to  Georgia  in  1 791,  and  became 
a  major-general  in  the  second  war  with  Great  Britain. 
From  1827  to  1829  he  was  a  member  of  Congress.  Died 
in  1839. 

Floyd,  (John  B.,)  an  American  lawyer  and  general, 
born  in  Pulaski  county,  Virginia,  in  1805.  He  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  war  by  President  Buchanan  in 
March,  1857.  To  aid  the  cause  of  disunion,  he  trans- 
ferred more  than  one  hundred  thousand  muskets  and 
rifles,  besides  a  great  number  of  cannon,  from  Northern 
armories  to  the  South,  in  i860.  He  resigned  about  De- 
cember 25,  i860,  after  which  he  was  accused  of  being  a 
defaulter,  but  was  not  brought  to  trial.  Having  joined 
the  army  of  the  Confederates,  he  commanded  at  Fort 
Donelson  when  it  was  attacked  by  General  Grant,  Feb- 
ruary, 1862.  When  the  capture  of  the  fort  became  in- 
evitable, he  turned  the  command  over  to  Pillow,  and 
escaped  by  flight.    Died  in  1863. 

Floyd,  (William,)  an  American  patriot,  born  in 
Suffolk  county.  New  York,  in  1734.  He  was  chosen  in 
1774  a  delegate  to  the  first  Continental  Congress,  in 
which  he  continued  to  serve  about  eight  years,  and 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.    Died  in  182 1. 

See  Goodrich,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence." 

Floy'er,  (Sir  John,)  a  skilful  English  physician,  born 
at  Hinters  in  1649.  published  several  professional 

treatises,  and  translated  the  "Sibylline  Oracles"  from 
the  Greek.  His  learning  and  piety  were  commended  by 
Dr.  Johnson,  who  had  been  under  his  medical  care.  He 
was  a  strenuous  advocate  of  cold  baths.    Died  in  1734. 

Fludd,  [Lat.  De  Fluc'tibus,]  (Robert,)  an  English 
physician  and  writer,  born  at  Milgate  in  1574,  was  re- 
puted a  man  of  great  learning,  especially  in  occult 
sciences,  and  was  an  adept  in  the  Rosicrucian  philoso- 
phy. He  published  treatises  on  various  subjects,  abound- 
ing in  abstruse  philosophy  and  visionary  theories,  with 
some  original  ideas.  Kepler  and  Gassendi  did  him  the 
honour  to  write  refutations  of  his  system.  Thomas 
Fuller  says,  "His  works  are  for  the  English  to  slight  or 
admire,  for  the  French  and  other  foreigners  to  under- 
stand or  use."  ("  Worthies  of  England.")  Died  in  1637. 

See  Brucker,  "  History  of  Philosophy." 

Fliie,  de,  deh  flii'eh,  (Nicolas,)  a  Swiss  patriot  and 
hermit,  born  at  the  village  of  Saxeln  in  141 7,  was  revered 
by  his  countrymen  for  his  piety  and  wisdom.  When  the 
confederacy  was  in  great  peril  from  civil  dissension,  he 
restored  harmony  on  the  basis  of  the  Covenant  of  Stantz 

I  formed  in  1481.    Died  in  1487. 

I    Fluegel.    See  Flugel. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PLUG  EL 


932 


FOIX 


Fliigel,  flii'ge],  (Gustav  Lebrechf,)  a  German  Ori- 
ental scholar,  born  at  Bautzen  in  1802.  His  most  im- 
portant work  is  the  edition  of  the  large  encyclopDedic- 
bibliographical  Dictionary  of  Haji  (Hadschi)  Khalfa, 
with  a  Latin  translation  and  commentary,  six  volumes 
of  which  were  completed  in  1852.  lie  was  professor  at 
Meissen  from  1832  to  1850. 

Fliigel,  (JoHANN  GorrFRiED,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man lexicographer,  born  at  liarby,  on  the  Elbe,  in  1788. 
He  brought  out  in  1830  his  "Complete  English-German 
and  German-English  Dictionary,"  (2  vols.,)  and  in  1840 
his  "Triglotte,  or  Merchant's  Dictionary,  in  German, 
English,  and  French,"  (3  vols.)  He  lived  at  Leipsic. 
Died  in  1855. 

Flus'ser,  (Charles  W.,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  Maryland  about  1832.  He  gained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  in  1855.  He  commanded  the  gunboat  Miami, 
and  was  killed  in  a  battle  against  the  iron-clad  Albemarle, 
in  Roanoke  River,  April,  1864. 

Fiygare-Carleii.    See  Carl^n, 

Foa,  fo'S',  (Eugenie,)  originally  named  Gradis,  a 
French  authoress,  born  at  Bordeaux  about  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  She  wrote  "  Le  Petit  Robinson 
de  Paris,"  (1840,)  and  other  moral  tales  for  youth.  Died 
in  Paris  in  1853. 

Fodere,  fo'di'ri',  (Francois  Emanuel,)  an  eminent 
physician,  born  in  Savoy  in  1764.  About  1814  he  was 
elected  professor  of  legal  medicine  in  Strasbourg,  and 
physician  of  the  Royal  College  of  that  place,  where  he 
passed  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  wrote  numerous  valuable 
]>rofessional  works,  among  which  are  a  "Treatise  on 
Legal  Medicine  and  Public  Hygiene,"  (3  vols.,  1798,) 
and  a  "  Natural  History  of  the  County  of  Nice,"  (2  vols., 
1812.)    Died  in  1835. 

See  DucROs,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Travaux  du  Dr.  Fodere," 
1845;  A.  MoTTARD,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  du  Professeur 
Fodere,"  1843. 

Fodhail,  fo-diK  or  fo-daK,  (Aboo-Alee  or  Abfi- 
Ali,  i'boo  a'lee,)  a  Mussulman  saint,  born  at  Samarcand 
or  in  Khorassan.  He  was  a  highway-robber  in  his  youth. 
Many  of  his  sententious  sayings  have  been  preserved. 
Died'  in  803  a.d. 

See  Ibn-Khallikan,  "Biographical  Dictionary;"  Aboolfeda, 
"  Annales." 

Foe,  De.    See  De  Foe. 

Foelix,  fa^leks',  (Jean  Jacques  Gaspard,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Oberstein  in  1791.  He  published  a  "Treat- 
ise on  Private  International  Law,"  ("Traite  du  Droit 
international  prive,"  1843.)    Died  in  1853. 

Foerster.    See  Forsi  er. 

Foes,  fo'es',  (Anuce,)  [Lat.  Anu'tius  Foe'sius,]  an 
eminent  French  physician,  born  at  Metz  in  1528,  studied 
in  Paris,  and  became  an  excellent  Greek  scholar.  About 
1556  he  began  to  practise  medicine  in  Metz,  of  which 
city  he  was  chosen  public  physician.  He  received  offers 
of  patronage  from  several  foreign  princes,  but  declined 
them.  He  acquired  a  wide  reputation  by  his  excellent 
edition  of  Hippocrates,  with  a  Latin  translation,  (1595,) 
and  by  another  valuable  work,  entitled  "CEconomia 
Hippocratis,"  (1588,)  which  explains  obscure  terms  used 
by  that  writer.    Died  in  1595. 

See  WiLLAUME,  "  Notice  siir  A.  Foes,"  1823. 

Fogarasy,  fo'goh-rosh-e,  (JAnos,)  a  Hungarian  jurist, 
born  at  Kasmark  in  1801.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
important  works,  a  "  Hungarian-German  Dictionary," 
(1836,)  "Principles  of  the  Civil  Law  of  Hungary,"  ( 1839,) 
and  "The  Spirit  of  the  Magyar  Language,"  (1845.) 

Fogelberg,  fo'gel-b§Rg^  (Bengt,)  a  Swedish  sculptor, 
born  at  Gothenburg  in  1787.  He  went  in  1820  to  Italy, 
which  became  his  adopted  country.  He  produced  ad- 
mired statues  of  Odin,  Thor,  and  Balder.  A  statue  of 
Psyche  is  called  his  master-piece.  Died  at  Trieste  in 
1854- 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Gendrale." 

Foggia,  fod'ja,  (Francesco,)  an  eminent  Italian  mu- 
sician, born  in  Rome  in  1604.  He  was  cha])el-master 
of  San  Giovanni  Laterano,  Rome,  from  1636  to  1661, 
and  composed  motels,  masses,  and  other  sacred  music. 
He  was  the  first  Italian  that  wrote  the  tonal  fugue.  Died 
at  Rome  in  1688. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Miusiciens." 


Foggini,  fod-jee'nee,  (Pietro  Francesco,)  an  Italian 
scholar  and  priest,  born  at  Florence  in  17 13.  He  held 
high  offices  at  Rome  in  the  gift  of  the  popes,  and  became 
keeper  of  the  Vatican  Library  in  1775.  He  wrote  several 
theological  treatises,  and  published  a  famous  manuscript 
of  Virgil,  (1741,)  which  is  or  was  preserved  in  the  Medi- 
cean  Library,  Florence.    Died  in  1783. 

See  "  Elogio  di  P.  F.  Foggini,"  Florence,  1784. 

Fogliani,  fol-y^'nee,  or  Fogliano,  fdl-y^'no,  [Lat. 
Folfa'nus,]  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  writer  on  music,  born  at 
Modena  ;  died  about  1540. 

Foglietta,  fol-ygt'tS,  or  Foglieta,  fol-ya'tS,  (Uberto,) 
an  admired  Italian  historian,  born  of  a  noble  family  in 
Genoa  in  15 18.  In  1559  he  issued  at  Rome  a  historical 
essay  on  the  Republic  of  Genoa,  which  gave  so  much 
offence  to  the  aristocracy  that  they  condemned  him  to 
exile  and  confiscated  his  property.  He  found  a  liberal 
patron  in  Cardinal  Este,  who  received  him  as  an  inmate 
of  his  house  in  Rome.  Here  he  composed,  in  pure  and 
elegant  Latin,  his  most  important  work,  a  "  History  of 
Genoa  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  1 527,"  ( 1 585,)  on  which 
he  was  emjjloyed  at  his  death.  He  also  wrote  portions 
of  the  history  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  and  other  works. 
Among  the  Italian  writers  of  that  age  he  is  esteemed  one 
of  the  most  classical.    Died  in  1581. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires ;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Lettera- 
tura  Italiana." 

Fogolino,  fo-go-lee'no,  (Marcello,)   an  excellent 

painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  born  at  Vicenza,  was 
living  in  1530.    He  painted  history  and  landscapes  with 
equal  skill.    "The  Adoration  of  the  Magi"  is  called  his 
master-piece. 
Fo-Hi.    See  Foo-Hee. 

Fohr,  foR,  (Karl  Philipp,)  a  German  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Heidelberg  in  1795,  studied  at  Rome 
under  Koch.  Among  his  works  are  two  pictures  of  rare 
excellence,  one  of  which  represents  a  rocky  landscape 
with  a  waterfall.    He  was  drowned  in  the  Tiber  in  1818. 

See  J.  P.  DiEFFENBACH,  "  Lcbcn  des  Malers  C.  Fohr,"  1823. 

Foinard,  fwi^ntR',  (Fr^:d^;ric  Maurice,)  a  learned 
French  priest,  born  at  Conches  about  1685,  published  a 
translation  of  Genesis  with  critical  notes,  and  a  few  other 
works.    Died  in  1743. 

Foisset,  fwi'sa',  (Jean  Louis  S^verin,)  a  French 
author,  born  at  Bligny-sous-Beaune  in  1796.  In  1820  he 
was  engaged  as  assistant  editor  of  the  "  Biographie  Uni- 
verselle," for  which  he  wrote  a  great  number  of  articles, 
including  those  on  Mirabeau  and  Petrarch.  Died  in  1822. 

Foix,  de,  deh  fwA,  (Catherine,)  Queen  of  Navarre, 
born  in  1470,  was  the  daughter  and  heiress  of  Gaston  de 
Foix,  Prince  de  Viane,  and  Madeleine  of  France.  She 
was  married  in  1484  to  Jean  d'Albret,  to  whom  she 
brought  Navarre  as  her  dowry.  She  was  a  great-grand- 
mother of  the  famous  Henry  of  Navarre.   Died  in  1 51 7. 

Foix,  de,  (Gaston  II.,)  Comte,  succeeded  his  father 
in  13 1 5.  He  rendered  important  services  to  the  French 
king  in  the  war  against  the  English,  (1337.)  Died  in  1343. 

Foix,  de,  (Gaston  III.,)  Comte,  Vicomte  de  Beam, 
born  in  133 1,  was  a  son  of  Gaston  II.,  and  was  sur- 
named  Phcerus.  He  married  Agnes,  a  daughter  of 
the  King  of  Navarre  and  a  sister  of  Charles  the  Bad. 
During  the  revolt  of  La  Jacquerie,  1358,  he  assisted  in 
the  rescue  of  the  dauphin.  He  afterwards  waged  with 
success  a  war  against  Count  d'Armagnac.  His  ruling 
passion  was  the  love  of  the  chase,  on  which  he  wrote 
a  treatise,  called  "Miroir  de  Phebus  des  desduicts  de  la 
Chasse."  According  to  Froissart,  he  was  a  brave,  violent, 
and  magnificent  representative  of  the  age  of  chivalry. 
He  died,  without  an  heir,  in  1391,  and  left  his  domain 
to  the  King  of  France. 

Foix,  de,  (Gaston  IV.,)  succeeded  his  father,  Jean 
de  Grailly,  in  1436.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Juan  II. 
of  Aragon  and  Navarre,  who  in  1455  appointed  him 
successor  to  the  throne  of  Navarre.  He  was  a  minister 
of  Charles  VII.  of  France,  and  an  ally  of  Louis  XI. 
Died  in  1472. 

His  son  Gaston,  Prince  de  Viane,  married  Madeleine, 
a  daughter  of  Charles  VII.  of  France,  and  died  in  1470. 

Foix,  de,  (Gaston,)  Due  de  Nemours,  a  brave  French 
prince,  born  in  1489,  was  a  son  of  Jean  de  Foix,  Vis- 


sL,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


I 

FOIX 


933 


FOLLEN 


count  of  Narbonne,  and  the  nephew  of  Louis  XII.  of 
France,  who  in  1505  created  him  Due  de  Nemours.  In 
15 12  he  commanded  the  army  of  Italy  with  brilliant 
success  against  the  Spaniards,  and  in  the  same  year, 
after  he  had  won  the  great  victory  of  Ravenna,  he  was 
killed  in  the  pursuit.  Louis  XII.,  on  hearing  of  his 
loss,  said  he  would  gladly  give  up  every  inch  of  Italian 
ground  if  he  could  thus  restore  his  nephew  to  life. 

See  Brantome,  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaiiies." 

Foix,  de,  (Germaine,)  Queen  of  Aragon,  born  about 
1488,  was  a  niece  of  Louis  XII.  of  France.  She  was 
married  in  1506  to  Ferdinand  V.  of  Castile  and  Aragon, 
her  grand-uncle.  She  had  one  son,  who  died  in  infancy. 
Died  in  1538. 

Foix,  de,  (Louis,)  a  French  architect  and  engineer, 
born  in  Paris,  was  employed  by  Philij)  II.  of  Spain;  and 
it  is  supposed  he  was  one  of  the  architects  of  the  Escu- 
rial.  He  erected  the  remarkable  tower  of  Cordouan,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Garonne,  used  as  a  light-house,  which 
was  commenced  in  1584  and  finished  in  1610.  It  is  one 
hundred  and  eighty  feet  high,  and  is  regarded  as  the 
most  magnificent  light-house  erected  in  modern  times. 

Foix,  de,  (Marc  AntoiiNE,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
the  chateau  de  Fabas  in  1627,  was  noted  as  a  preacher 
and  wrote  a  few  learned  treatises,  one  of  which  is  entitled 
the  "  Art  of  Preaching  the  Word  of  God."  Died  in  1687. 

Foix,  de,  (Odet.)    See  Lautrec. 

Foix,  de,  (Paul,)  an  eminent  French  jurist  and  states- 
man, born  in  1528,  was  descended  from  the  noble  family 
of  Foix.  After  a  profound  study  of  law,  he  was  appointed 
a  judge  in  the  Parliament  of  Paris.  By  counselling  mode- 
ration towards  the  Protestants  in  1559,  he  rendered  him- 
self obnoxious  to  some  persons  in  power,  and  in  1561 
resigned  his  office.  He  became  a  councillor  of  state 
about  1565,  was  employed  by  Charles  IX.  as  ambassador 
to  England,  Venice,  etc.,  and  was  considered  one  of  the 
ablest  negotiators  of  his  time.  In  1576  he  was  made 
Archbishop  of  Toulouse.    Died  in  1584. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis ;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire 
des  Frangais ;"  Montaigne,  "Essais;"  Marc  Antoine  Muket, 
"Oralio  in  funere  P.  Foxii,"  1584. 

Foix,  de,  (Raimond  Roger,)  Comte,  an  able  French 
captain,  succeeded  his  father  in  1188.  In  1191  he  led 
his  vassals  in  a  crusade  against  the  infidels  in  Palestine. 
After  his  return  he  took  arms  in  defence  of  the  Albi- 
genses,  but  without  success.  He  died  in  1222,  and  left 
his  domain  to  his  son,  Roger  Bernard. 

Foix,  de,  (Roger,)  Comte,  a  French  nobleman,  in- 
herited his  title  and  estate  in  1070.  He  joined  the 
crusade  and  went  to  Palestine  in  1095.    I^ied  in  1125. 

Foix,  de,  (Roger  Bernard  II.,)  Comte,  surnamed 
THE  Great,  was  an  ally  of  Raymond,  Count  of  Toulouse. 
He  waged  war  against  the  crusaders  who,  under  De 
Montfort,  invaded  the  county  of  Foix,  and  was  excom- 
municated by  the  pope.    Died  in  1241. 

Foix,  de,  (Roger  Bernard  III.,)  Comte,  a  grand- 
son of  the  preceding,  was  distinguished  as  a  poet.  He 
became  Comte  de  Foix  in  1265.    Died  in  1302. 

Folard,  de,  deh  fi/ltR',  (Jean  Charles,)  a  French 
officer  and  tactician,  born  at  Avignon  in  1669,  entered 
the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  made  himself  proficient  in 
tactics  and  engineering.  He  served  as  aide-de-camp  to 
the  Due  de  Vendome  in  Italy  in  1702,  and  was  wounded 
at  the  battle  of  Cassano  in  1705.  The  freedom  with 
which  he  offered  advice  sometimes  gave  offence  to  his 
superiors  ;  but  the  court  twice  recognized  the  value  of 
his  services  by  granting  him  a  pension.  In  1709  he 
was  severely  wounded  at  Malplaquet.  He  accompanied 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  in  his  last  campaign,  (1718.) 
Folard  acquired  reputation  by  his  version  of  the  His- 
tory of  Polybius,  with  Commentaries,  (6  vols.,  1727-30,) 
which  illustrate  the  tactics  of  the  ancients.  Died  in  1752. 

See  "Memoires  pour  servir  k  THistoire  de  la  Vie  de  Folard," 
Paris,  1753;  "  Nouvelle  Biograv^hie  Generale." 

Folengo,  fo-len'go,  (Giamra titsta,)  an  Italian  monk 
and  scholar,  born  at  Mantua  about  1500.  He  wrote  a 
few  Commentaries  on  Scripture,  which  were  approved 
by  the  Protestant,s.    Died  in  1559. 

'Folengo,  (Teofhx),)  (better  known  by  the  name 
Meri.ino  Coca  jo  or  Coccai,)  a  whimsical  Italian  poet, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  of  a  noble  family 


near  Mantua  in  1491.  He  entered  a  Benedictine  convent 
at  the  age  of  sixteen,  but  soon  exchanged  that  for  a  dis- 
solute life.  He  was  gifted  with  vivacity  and  great  facility 
in  versification,  and  published  licentious  and  burlesque 
poems,  in  a  style  which  he  called  Macaronic,  the  language 
being  a  mixture  of  Latin  and  Italian.  He  returned  to 
the  convent  in  1526.    Died  in  1544. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  Ginguene,  "Histoire  litt^raire 
d'ltalie;"  A.  Dalmistro,  "  Elogio  di  T.  Folengo,"  1803. 

FoTey,  (John  Henry,)  an  eminent  sculptor,  born  in 
Dublin  in  181 8,  studied  in  the  Royal  Academy  of  London. 
His  *' Ino  and  Bacchus"  (1840)  placed  him  in  the  first 
rank  of  modern  British  sculptors.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Lear  and  Cordelia,"  *'  Venus  rescuing  ^neas," 
(1842,)  "Egeria,"  (1856,)  a  statue  of  Selden,  a  statue  of 
John  Hampden  at  the  new  palace  of  Westminster,  and  a 
bronze  statue  of  Viscount  Sir  H.  Hardinge  at  Calcutta. 

Foley,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
Pembrokeshire  in  1757.  He  distinguished  himself  as 
captain  at  the  battle  of  Cape  Saint  Vincent  in  1797,  and 
had  the  honour  of  leading  the  fleet  of  Nelson  into  action 
at  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  in  August,  1798.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  battle  of  Copenhagen,  (1801,) 
and  became  a  vice-admiral  in  1812.  At  this  battle  Sir 
Hyde  Parker  signalled  to  Lord  Nelson  to  discontinue 
the  action  ;  but  Nelson,  putting  the  glass  to  his  blind 
eye,  said  to  Foley,  "  You  know,  Foley,  I  have  only  one 
eye,  and  have  a  right  to  be  blind  sometimes.  I  really  do 
not  see  the  signal."    Died  in  1833. 

Folianus.    See  Foglianl 

Folieta.    See  Foglietta. 

Foligno.    See  Frezzi,  (Federigo.) 

Folkema,  foKkeh-mil,(jACOB,)  an  able  Dutch  engraver, 
born  at  Dokkum  in  1692.  He  engraved  plates  for  books 
after  the  designs  of  Picart,  and  portraits  of  eminent  men. 
Died  in  1767." 

Folkes,  folks,  (Martin,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English 
antiquary,  born  in  London  in  1690,  excelled  in  mathe- 
matics and  philosophy,  was  chosen  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  17 13,  and  succeeded  Sir  Hans  Sloane  as 
president  of  the  same  in  1 741.  He  wrote  several  excel- 
lent treatises  on  ancient  monuments  and  coins,  and  ren- 
dered important  services  to  science.  In  1750  he  became 
president  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  In  1742  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  Dissertation  on  the  Weights  and 
Values  of  Ancient  Coins,"  (1736.)    Died  in  1754. 

FoUen,  foKlen,  (Adolf  Ludwig,)  a  German  poet  and 
scholar,  brother  of  Charles  Follen,  noticed  in  the  next 
article,  was  born  at  Giessen  in  1794.  He  published  in 
1819  his  "Free  Voices  of  Fresh  Youth,"  and  in  1827 
his  "  Picture-Gallery  of  German  Poetry,"  both  of  which 
enjoy  great  popularity.  He  also  made  several  excellent 
translations  from  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Italian.  Died 
in  1855. 

See  Longfellow's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

FolTen,  (Charles  Theodore  Christian,)  born  at 
Romrod,  in  Germany,  in  1795,  was  educated  at  Giessen. 
His  youthful  zeal  for  liberty  having  subjected  him  to  per- 
secution from  the  government,  he  left  his  native  land  in 
1820,  and,  after  a  visit  to  Paris,  he  found  a  home  in  Swit- 
zerland, where  he  was  chosen,  about  1821,  professor  of 
law  in  the  University  of  Bale.  In  1824  the  Holy  Alliance 
demanded  that  he  should  be  delivered  up,  and  he  escaped 
only  by  a  sudden  departure  to  Paris  and  by  emigrating  to 
the  United  States.  Here  he  applied  himself  with  saccess 
to  the  study  of  the  English  language.  By  the  favour  of 
La  Fayette,  he  obtained  influential  friends,  and  was  em- 
ployed as  German  tutor  at  Harvard.  He  studied  divinity 
with  Dr.  Channing  in  1827,  was  admitted  to  the  ministry 
in  1828,  and  officiated  as  teacher  in  the  divinity  school 
at  Cambridge.  From  1831  to  1834  he  was  professor  of 
German  literature  at  Harvard.  In  1836  and  1837  he 
had  charge  of  the  First  Unitarian  Church  in  New  York, 
where  he  gave  offence  by  speaking  against  slavery.  In 
1839  he  accepted  a  call  from  the  church  of  East  Lexing- 
ton, Massachusetts.  In  the  passage  from  New  York  to 
his  home,  in  January,  1840,  he  lost  his  life  by  the  burning 
of  the  steamer  Lexington. 

See  a  Memoir  of  his  life,  by  his  wife,  Eliza  Lee  Follen,  1841. 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,gitttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^=^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FOLLEN 


934 


PONS  EGA 


Follen,  (Eliza  Lee,)  wife  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Boston  in  1787,  was  originally  named  Cabot.  She  was 
the  author  of  "Twilight  Stories,"  "Little  Songs,"  and 
other  popular  works  for  children,  and  was  for  several 
years  editor  of  the  "  Child's  Friend."    Died  in  1859. 

See  Griswold's  "Female  Poets  of  America." 

FoFlett,  (Sir  William  Webb,)  an  able  English 
lawyer,  born  at  Topsham  in  1798,  began  to  practise  law 
about  1823,  and  raj^idly  rose  to  eminence.  He  was  re- 
turned to  Parliament  for  Exeter  by  the  Conservatives  in 
1835,  acted  a  short  time  as  solicitor-general  under  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  (1834-35,)  and  was  twice  re-elected  to  Par- 
liament, in  1837  and  in  1841.  He  was  again  appointed 
solicitor-general  in  1841,  and  became  attorney-general 
in  1844.    Died  in  London  in  1845. 

See  a  notice  of  Sir  W.  Follett  in  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
January,  1846. 

Folleville,  de,  deh  foKv^K,  (Guyot,  ge'o',)  Abb6, 
a  French  priest,  who  in  1793  appeared  in  the  royalist 
army  of  La  Vendee  and  gave  out  that  he  was  the  Bishop 
of  Agra,  sent  by  the  pope  as  apostolic  vicar.  He  was 
received  without  distrust,  and  his  presence  excited  great 
enthusiasm  among  the  army  ;  but  before  long  a  brief  from 
the  pope  informed  the  generals  that  he  was  an  impostor. 
However,  they  kept  the  secret  from  the  soldiers,  and  he 
continued  to  act  his  part  until  the  republicans  captured 
him  and  put  him  to  death,  in  1794. 

Folli,  foKlee,  or  Fuoli,  foo-o'lee,  (Cecilio,)  born  at 
Fanano  in  1615,  was  for  many  years  professor  of  anatomy 
at  Venice. 

Folli,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  physician  and  writer, 
born  in  1624;  died  in  1685. 

Folo,  fo'^lo,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Bassano  in  1764,  worked  at  Rome,  and  imitated 
the  style  of  Raphael  Morghen.  He  engraved  works  of 
several  Italian  masters.    Died  at  Rome  in  1836. 

Folquet,  ioVkk',  or  Foulques,  fook,  a  French  trou- 
badour and  prelate,  born  at  Marseilles  about  1160.  He 
was  appointed  Bishop  of  Toulouse  in  1205,  and  became 
a  cruel  persecutor  of  the  Albigenses.  Dante  has,  how- 
ever, given  him  a  place  in  his  "  Paradiso."  Died  in  1231. 

See  Longfellow's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Foltz,  folts,  (Philipp,)  a  German  painter,  and  pro- 
fessor in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Munich,  born  at  Bingen, 
on  the  Rhine,  in  1805.  He  painted  in  fresco,  in  the  royal 
palace  at  Munich,  a  number  of  illustrations  from  BUrger's 
poems  and  Schiller's  ballads.  Among  his  works  is  a 
large  oil-picture  of  "Otho  of  Bavaria  departing  from  his 
Father's  Palace  for  the  Throne  of  Greece." 

Folz,  or  Volz,  folts,  written  also  Folcz,  (Hans,)  a 
celebrated  German  poet  and  Protestant  Reformer,  born 
at  Worms  in  1479.  He  wrote  lyrics.  Carnival  pieces, 
( Fastnachtspiele )  and  tales  in  rhyme. 

Foublanque,  fon -blank',  (Albany  W.,)  an  eminent 
English  journalist  and  political  writer,  a  son  of  the  fol- 
lowing, was  born  in  London  in  1797.  He  studied  law, 
but  never  practised  it.  About  1822  he  succeeded  Leigh 
Hunt  as  editor  of  the  "Examiner,"  a  Liberal  weekly 
journal,  the  previous  high  character  of  which  was  main- 
tained by  the  caustic  wit  and  literary  abilities  of  Mr. 
Fonblanque.  A  selection  of  his  editorial  articles  ap- 
peared under  the  title  of  "England  under  Seven  Ad- 
ministrations," (3  vols.,  1837.)  He  ceased  to  edit  that 
journal  in  1846,  and  was  chosen  director  of  the  sta- 
tistical department  of  the  Board  of  Trade  in  1852. 

See  R.  H.  Horne,  "  New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1844. 

Fonblanque,  (John  de  Greniek,)  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish lawyer,  b(jrn  in  1759,  descended  from  a  French  Prot- 
estant family,  became  senior  king's  counsel  and  senior 
bencher  of  the  Society  of  the  Middle  Temple.  He  wrote 
an  able  and  learned  "Treatise  on  Equity,"  (1793,)  which 
had  a  wide  circulation  and  was  considered  as  authorita- 
tive by  the  English  courts.    Died  in  1837. 

Fonblanque,  (John  Samuel  Mak  i  in,)  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  about  1787,  became  commissioner  of 
bankrupts.  He  i:)ublished,  in  1825,  "Bankrupt  Stat- 
utes," and,  with  J.  A.  Paris,  M.I).,  "Medical  Jurispru- 
dence," (1823.)    Died  in  1865  or  1866. 

Foncema°ne,  de,  deh  fixss'mtfi',  ("firiENNE  Lau- 
reault — Ic'r^'o'',)  a  French  savant,  born  at  Orleans  in 


1694.  He  was  received  in  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions 
in  1722,  and  chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy 
in  1737.  He  was  eminent  for  learning,  virtue,  and  talents, 
and  distinguished  himself  in  a  literary  war  with  Voltaire 
in  relation  to  the  "Testament  politique"  of  Richelieu, 
which  Voltaire  thought  was  a  fabrication.  He  wrote 
many  able  dissertations,  inserted  in  the  Memoirs  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions.    Died  in  1779. 

See  Sabatier,  "  Les  trois  Siecles  de  la  Litterature  Fran9aise ;" 
De  Chabanon,  "  Eloge  de  M.  de  Foncemagne,"  1780. 

Fondolo,  fon'do-lo,  (Gabrino,)  an  Italian,  who  by 
treachery  obtained  the  sovereignty  of  Cremona  in  1406. 
He  was  executed  by  the  Duke  of  Milan  in  1420. 

Fonfrede,  fiN'fuid',  (Henri,)  a  French  journalist, 
a  son  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1788. 
He  founded  at  Bordeaux,  in  1820,  a  journal  called  "La 
Tribune,"  which  was  soon  suppressed  by  the  govern- 
ment. He  wrote  spirited  political  articles  for  other  jour- 
nals, and  supported  liberal  conservative  principles.  His 
works  were  published  in  10  vols.,  1844.    Died  in  1841. 

See  E.  Ferbos,  "£loge  de  Henri  Fonfrede;"  Charles  Campan, 
"fiioge  liistorique  de  H.  Fonfrede,"  1845. 

Fonfrede,  (Jean  Baptiste  Boyer — bwl'yi',)  an 
eloquent  French  Girondist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1766, 
was  a  brother-in-law  of  Ducos.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Convention  in  1792,  and  was  president  of  that  body  in 
May,  1793.  His  career  was  short  and  memorable.  In 
talents  he  was  ranked  next  to  Vergniaud,  Guadet,  and 
Gensonne.  He  was  imprisoned  in  October,  and  declined 
to  escape  when  an  opportunity  was  offered,  saying  he 
would  share  the  fate  of  Ducos.  He  was  executed  in 
October,  1793. 

See  Lamartine's  "History  of  the  Girondists,"  books  xxxi.  and 
xlvii. 

Fonk,  fonk,  (Peter  Anton,)  a  German  merchant, 
born  near  Cleves  in  1781.  He  was  convicted  of  murder 
at  Treves  in  1822,  but  was  pardoned  by  the  king,  because 
his  guilt  was  not  clearly  proved.    Died  in  1832. 

Fons.    See  La  Fons. 

Fonseca,  da,  da  fon-sa'kl,  (Antonio,)  a  Portuguese 
theologian,  born  in  Lisbon  in  15 17,  obtained  in  1544  the 
chair  of  theology  in  Coimbra.  Having  gained  distinction 
as  a  pulpit  orator,  he  became  preacher  to  the  king,  John 
HI.    Died  in  1588. 

Fonseca,  da,  (Gabriel,)  a  Portuguese  physician, 
born  at  Lamego,  was  chief  physician  of  Pope  Innocent 
X.    Died  in  1668. 

Fonseca,  da,  (Pedro,)  a  Portuguese  Jesuit  and  writer, 
born  at  Cortizada  in  1528,  was  eminent  as  a  professor  of 
philosophy  in  the  University  of  Evora,  and  was  surnamed 
THE  PoRru(iUESE  Aristotle.  He  was  employed  in 
important  affairs  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  His  principal 
works  are  "Institutes  of  Dialectics,"  (1564,)  and  a 
"Commentary  on  the  Metaphysics  of  Aristotle,"  (4  vols., 
1572-94.)  He  is  reputed  the  inventor  of  the  "  Sciencia 
Media,"  a  mode  of  reconciling  free  will  with  predestina- 
tion.   Died  in  1599. 

See  Bakbosa  Machado,  "  Bibliotheca  Lusitana." 

Fonseca,  da,  (Pedro  Joze,)  a  Portuguese  philologist, 
was  the  principal  author  or  editor  of  the  "Dictionary  of 
the  Portuguese  Language"  published  by  the  Academy 
of  Lisbon  in  1793.    Died  in  1816. 

Fon.3eca,  de,  da  fon-sa'kS,  (Eleanora  Pimentel  — 
pe-m^n-teK,)  Marchioness,  a  beautiful  and  gifted  Italian 
lady,  born  in  Naples  in  1768,  became  the  wife  of  the 
Marquis  of  Fonseca  in  1784.  She  sympathized  with  the 
French  republicans,  and  was  an  active  adherent  of  the 
popular  party  in  Naples.  While  the  latter  was  in  the 
ascendant,  she  edited  a  public  journal.  In  1799  the 
royalists  again  prevailed,  and  condemned  her  to  a  felon's 
death.    She  was  hung  in  1799. 

Fonseca,  de,  di  fon-sa'kl,  (Juan  Rodriguez,)  a 
bigoted  vSpanish  ])relate,  born  at  Toro  about  1452,  be- 
came Bishop  of  Palencia  and  of  Burgos,  and  a  councillor 
of  Queen  Isabella.  He  patronized  Torquemada,  and 
opposed  the  enterprise  of  Columbus,  whom  he  called  a 
visionary  and  treated  with  persistent  malignity.  Died  in 
1524. 

See  Charlevoix,  "  Histoire  de  Saint-Domingue ;"  Herrera, 
"  Historia." 

Fonseca  Figuereido  y  Sousa,  de,  di  fon-.sa'ki 
fe-gi-ra'e-do  e  s6''sS,  (Joz6  Maria,)  a  Portuguese  writer. 


i,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  il,  ky  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PONS  EC  A 


935 


FONTANA 


born  at  Evora  in  1690,  was  eminent  as  a  theologian  and 
diplomatist.  He  was  aulic  councillor  of  the  emperor 
Charles  VI.    Died  in  1760. 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "Blbliotheca  Lusitana." 

Fonseca  Scares,  de,  da  fon-sa'ki  so-i'r^s,  (An- 
tonio,) or  Antonio  das  Chagas,  (dSs  shi'gas,)  a  Por- 
tuguese theologian  and  poet,  born  at  Vidigueira  in  1631. 
He  was  noted  for  his  ascetic  piety,  and  wrote  several 
devotional  works.    Died  in  1682. 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "Bibliotheca  Lusitana;"  M.  Godinho, 
"  Vida  de  F.  A.  das  Chagas,"  1687. 

Fontaine,  or  Fontaine  des  Bertins,  f(!)N'tan'  da 
b^R't^N',  (Alexis,)  an  eminent  French  geometer,  born 
at  Claveison,  in  Dauphiny,  about  1705,  came  to  Paris  at 
an  early  age,  where  he  became  intimate  with  Clairaut 
and  Maupertuis.  In  1733  the  Academy  of  Sciences  was 
opened  to  him,  and  in  1734  he  published  his  famous 
memoir  on  the  problem  of  "  Tautochrones,"  which  had 
been  resolved  by  Huyghens  and  Newton  by  different 
methods,  and  in  which  he  was  afterwards  surpassed  by 
Lagrange.  He  made  several  important  discoveries  in 
mathematics  and  dynamics.  Hearing  Nollet  read  in 
the  Academy  a  long  essay  on  the  value  of  various  com- 
modities, Fontaine  said,  "This  man  knows  the  value  of 
everything  except  time."    Died  in  1771. 

See  CoNDORCET,  "filoge  de  Fontaine;"  Querard,  "La  France 
Litteraire." 

Fontaine,  fiN^tin',  (Charles,)  a  French  poet,  born 
in  Paris  in  1515,  translated  Ovid's  "Epistles"  into  verse, 
and  wrote  mediocre  odes,  epigrams,  etc.  Died  about  1 590. 

Fontaine,  (Nicolas,)  a  pious  Jansenist  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1625.  He  joined  the  recluses  of  Port- Royal 
in  1645,  and  shared  the  labours  and  peisecutions  of  Ar- 
nauld,  Nicole,  and  Sacy,  with  whom  he  was  confined  in 
the  Bastille.  He  left  interesting  "Memoirs  of  Port-Royal," 
(2  vols.,  1736.)    Died  in  1709. 

Fontaine,  (Pierre  Franqois  Leonard,)  a  distin- 
guished French  architect,  born  at  Pontoise  on  the  20th 
of  September,  1762.  He  studied  in  Rome,  and  became 
in  his  youth  the  friend  and  associate  of  Charles  Percier, 
and  formed  with  him  a  partnership  which  was  only  dis- 
solved by  death.  About  1801  he  was  appointed  architect 
of  the  Tuileries.  He  was  afterwards  employed  in  the 
extension  or  restoration  of  the  palaces  of  the  Louvre, 
Saint-Cloud,  and  Fontainebleau.  He  erected  the  tri- 
umphal arch  of  the  Carrousel,  (1807,)  and  united  the 
Tuileries  with  the  Louvre.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Institute  in  1812,  and  received  the  title  of  first  architect 
of  Napoleon  in  1813.  With  Percier  he  published  "  Palaces 
and  other  Modern  Edifices  designed  at  Rome,"  (1798,) 
and  a  successful  work  "On  Interior  Decorations,"  (1812.) 
He  retained  the  place  of  chief  architect  under  Louis 
XVIII.  and  his  successors  until  1848.    Died  in  1853. 

See  "Journal  des  Beaux- Arts,"  1842;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 

Fontaine,  La.    See  La  Fontaine. 

Fontaine-Malherbe,  fdN'tAn'  mSl'iRb',  (Jean,)  a 
French  poet,  born  near  Coutances  abt)ut  1740,  wrote  two 
poems  which  were  crowned  by  the  French  Academy, 
viz.,  "The  Rapidity  of  Life,"  (1766,)  and  an  "Epistle  to 
the  Poor,"  (1768.)    Died  in  1780. 

Fontaines.    See  Deskontaines. 

Fontana,  fon-ti'n^,  (Annikal,)  an  Italian  engraver 
on  precious  stones,  born  in  Milan  in  1540,  acquired  a 
high  reputation  in  his  art.    Died  in  1587. 

Fontana,  (Carlo,)  a  celebrated  Italian  architect,  born 
at  Bruciato,  near  Como,  in  1634,  was  a  pupil  of  Bernini. 
He  passed  nearly  all  his  life  in  Rome,  and  was  patronized 
by  several  popes.  Under  Clement  X.  he  constructed  the 
grand  fountain  in  front  of  Saint  Peter's.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  the  Grimani  i>alace,  the  Bolognetti 
palace,  the  theatre  Tordinona,  and  the  portal  of  Santa 
Maria  in  Trastevere.  He  wrote  ample  and  valuable 
descriptions  of  the  Church  of  Saint  Peter,  (1694,)  and 
of  the  Coliseum,  (1725.)    Died  at  Rome  in  1714. 

See  Quatrp;mere  de  Quincv,  "  Dictionnaire  d' Arcliitecture ;" 
FoNTENAi,  "Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Fontana,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  architect  and  en- 
gineer of  celebrity,  was  born  at  Mill,  near  Lake  Como, 
in  1543,  and  went  to  Rome  at  the  age  of  twenty.  His 
patron.  Pope  Sixtus  V.,  employed  him  as  chief  architect 


in  several  great  works,  the  most  memorable  of  which 
was  the  erection  of  the  Egyptian  obelisk  in  front  of  Saint 
Peter's  Church.  About  five  hundred  engineers  having 
offered  their  respective  plans,  that  of  Fontana  was  pre- 
ferred. This  great  triumph  of  mechanical  skill,  which 
was  accomplished  in  1586  amidst  the  applause  of  the 
populace,  was  rewarded  by  a  title  of  nobility  and  a  large 
pension.  Fontana  afterwards  raised  large  obelisks  in  the 
Piazza  del  Popolo  and  in  front  of  San  Giovanni  Laterano. 
He  built  the  palace  of  the  Lateran,  the  Vatican  Library, 
and  the  Quirinal  Palace,  Rome.  In  1592  he  went  to 
Naples,  where  he  designed  the  grand  royal  palace.  Died 
at  Naples  in  1607. 

See  Ticozzi,  "Dizionario;"  Quatrem^re  de  Quincy,  "Dic- 
tionnaire d'Architecture ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Fontana,  (Felice,)  a  learned  Italian  philosopher  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Pomarolo,  in  the  Tyrol,  in  April,  1730, 
was  a  brother  of  Gregorio,  noticed  below,  and  was  edu- 
cated in  the  best  schools  of  Italy.  He  was  for  some  time 
professor  of  philosophy  in  Pisa,  and  afterwards  lived  in 
Florence,  where  he  was  patronized  by  the  grand  duke 
Leopold.  By  the  order  of  this  prince,  he  prepared  ana- 
tomical models  in  wax,  and  a  fine  cabinet  or  museum  of 
natural  history  and  philosophy,  which  is  one  of  the  orna- 
ments of  Florence.  He  wrote  many  ingenious  treatises 
on  chemistry,  physics,  and  physiology.  He  died  in  1805, 
and  was  buried  in  Florence  by  the  side  of  Galileo. 

See  Mangili,  "  Elogio  di  F.  Fontana,"  1813;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Fontana,  (Francesco,)  a  Neapolitan  astronomer, 
published  "New  Observations  on  Celestial  and  Earthly 
Things,"  (1646.)    Died  in  1656. 

Fontana,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  architect,  a  de- 
scendant of  Domenico  Fontana,  was  employed  in  1705 
in  the  erection  of  the  column  of  Antoninus  Pius  on 
Monte  Citorio,  in  Rome. 

Fontana,  (Francesco  Luigi,)  a  learned  Italian  car- 
dinal and  writer,  born  in  1750,  accompanied  the  captive 
po])e  to  Paris  in  1804.    Died  in  1822. 

Fontana,  (Gaetano,)  an  Italian  priest  and  astron- 
omer, born  at  Modena  in  1645.  He  cultivated  as- 
tronomy with  success,  corresponded  with  Cassini,  and 
published  "  Institutio  Physico-Astronomica,"  ("  Physical 
and  Astronomical  Institutes,"  1695.)  Cassini  said  the 
observations  of  Fontana  were  the  most  exact  of  all  that 
were  sent  to  him.    Died  in  1719. 

Fontana,  (Giovanni,)  an  able  Italian  architect,  born 
at  Mili  in  1540,  was  the  brother  of  Domenico,  above 
named.  He  was  at  one  time  architect  of  Saint  Peter's 
Church,  Rome,  and  was  especially  eminent  as  a  hy- 
draulic engineer.    Died  in  1614. 

Fontana,  (Giulio  Cesare,)  a  son  of  Domenico,  was 
an  architect,  and  a  native  of  Rome.  Among  his  best 
works  is  the  Museo  Borbonico  at  Naples.  He  flourished 
about  1600. 

Fontana,  (Gregorio,)  an  eminent  Italian  mathema- 
tician, brother  of  Felice,  noticed  above,  was  born  near 
Roveredo  in  1735.  In  1763  he  became  professor  of  logic 
and  metaphysics  in  the  University  of  Pavia,  in  which, 
a  few  years  later,  he  obtained  the  chair  of  high  mathe- 
matics. Though  he  attempted  no  large  work,  he  left 
numerous  treatises  on  the  latter  science,  and  translated 
several  scientific  works  from  the  English.    Died  in  1803. 

See  G.  B.  Savioli,  "Elogio  di  G.  Fontana,"  1804. 

Fontana,  (Lavinia,)  an  excellent  painter,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1552,  was  a  daughter  of  Prospero  Fontana, 
noticed  below.  She  was  married  to  an  artist  named 
Za]>pi,  and  worked  in  Rome  with  great  success,  espe- 
cially in  portraits.  She  was  appointed  painter  to  Gregory 
XIII.  Some  of  her  portraits  were  attributed  to  Guido. 
Among  her  works  are  a  "Madonna,"  "The  Miracle  of 
the  Loaves,"  and  a  "Holy  Family."    Died  in  1614. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Fontana,  (Prospero,)  an  Italian  painter  of  high 
reputation,  born  in  Bologna  in  15 12,  was  a  pupil  of 
Imola  and  Vasari.  He  was  presented  as  an  excellent 
portrait-painter  by  Michael' Angelo  to  Pope  Julius  HI. 
He  also  painted  historical  subjects  in  fresco,  with  which 
he  adorned  several  churches  in  Rome  and  Bologna. 
He  excelled  in  design  and  composition.    Among  his 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,    guttural;  N,  tiasal;  R,  trilled;  I  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Jt^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FONTANA 


93 


6 


FONTENELLE 


pupils  were  his  daughter  Lavinia  and  the  Caracci.  Died 
at  Rome  in  1597. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Fontana,  (Publio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Paluccio, 
HI  the  diocese  of  Brescia,  in  1548.  He  wrote  the  "Apo- 
theosis of  Tasso,"  a  poem  which  extended  his  reputation 
through  all  Italy.  His  most  popular  work  is  "Del- 
phinis,"  a  Latin  poem,  (1582.)  "Fontana  is  one  of  the 
modern  poets,"  says  J.  Victor  Rossi,  "  who  have  ap- 
proached nearest  to  Virgil  in  beauty  of  imagery  and 
harmony  of  diction."    Died  in  1609. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Fontanella,  fon-tS-nel'ld,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
philologist  and  classical  scholar,  born  in  Venice  in  1768. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Universal  Or- 
thography of  the  Italian  Language,"  ("  Ortografia  enci- 
clopedica  universale  della  Lingua  Italiana,"  1826.)  He 
became  professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  in  Venice.  Died 
in  1827. 

See  his  Autobiography,  entitled  "Vita  di  F.  Fontanella,  scritta 
da  liii  medesinio,"  1825. 

Fontanelle,  (Jean  Gaspard  Dubois.)   See  Dubois. 

Fontanelli,  fon-ti-neKlee,  (  Alfonso  Vincenzo,  ) 
Marquis  of,  an  eminent  Italian  scholar  and  linguist, 
born  at  Reggio  in  1706.  He  was  employed  as  ambas- 
sador by  the  Duke  of  Modena.    Died  in  1777. 

Fontanes,  de,  deh  foN'ttn',  (Jean  Pierre  Makcel- 
LIN,)  born  at  Geneva  in  1721.  His  ancestors  had  been 
exiled  from  France  as  Protestants.  He  was  employed 
as  inspector  of  manufactures  in  Poitou,  and  wrote  treat- 
ises on  agriculture.    Died  in  1774. 

Fontanes,  de,  (Louis,)  Couni',  a  French  statesman 
and  author,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Niort  (Poi- 
tou) in  1757,  and  came  to  Paris  at  an  early  age.  In  1778 
he  began  his  career  as  a  ])oet  by  the  "  Forest  of  Navarre," 
a  descriptive  poem,  which  was  favourably  received,  and 
was  followed  by  "  Le  Verger,"  ("The  Orchard,")  and  an 
"Essay  on  Astronomy,"  (1789.)  The  Directory  having 
proscribed  hin\  and  expelled  him  from  the  Institute, 
he  took  refuge  in  England  in  1797.  In  January  or 
February,  1800,  by  the  order  and  under  the  auspices 
of  the  First  Consul  Bonaparte,  he  pronounced  a  fune- 
ral eulogy  on  Washington,  which  gained  for  the  orator 
an  exalted  reputation,  and  opened  to  him  a  second 
time  the  doors  of  the  Institute,  (Academic  Fran9aise,) 
in  1803.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  author  of  this 
noble  and  eloquent  tribute,  in  analyzing  a  character  so 
heroic  and  so  admirably  balanced  as  that  of  Washington, 
gives  to  his  moderation  and  good  sense  the  pre-eminence 
over  all  his  other  virtues.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
cori)s  legislatif  in  1802,  and  president  of  that  body  in 
January,  1804.  In  this  position  he  maintained  his  repu- 
tation by  his  elegant  addresses  in  reply  to  the  annual 
speeches  from  the  throne.  During  the  empire  he  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  a  peer  of  France,  and  chosen  grand 
master  of  the  Imperial  University  in  1808.  He  was  ap- 
pointed a  senator  in  1810.  It  appears  that  he  had  great 
influence  with  Bonaparte,  who  frequently  admitted  him 
to  private  interviews  and  invited  him  to  his  table.  One 
day,  as  they  were  conversing  on  literature,  Bonaparte  said, 
"  You  like  Voltaire  :  you  are  wrong  :  he  is  a  busybody,  an 
incendiary,  a  scoffer.  He  has  saii])ed  by  ridicule  the  foun- 
dations of  all  authority,  divine  and  human  ;  he  has  caused 
the  revolution  that  has  dishonoured  and  7'uined  ns.  You 
laugh,  monsieur  ;  but  will  you  laugh  when  I  tell  you  that 
among  twenty  of  my  young  officers  nineteen  had  each  a 
volume  of  this  demon  in  his  valise?"  He  was  admitted 
to  the  Chamber  of  Peers  at  the  restoration.  "  He  was," 
says  Chateaubriand,  "my  guide  in  the  world  of  letters, 
and  his  friendship  was  one  of  the  honours  of  my  lite. 
The  school  founded  by  l^oileau,  Racine,  and  Fenelon 
ended  in  him."    Died  in  Paris  in  March,  1821. 

.See  ViLi-EMAiN,  "  filoge  de  P'ontanes,"  iSai  ;  S ainte-P.kuve, 
"Portraits  litteraires :"  Chathauhki  and,  "Memoires  d'Outre- 
Tonibe  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  (Jenerale." 

Fontaney,  de,  deh  fiN'tfu^V,  (Jean,)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  a.stronomer,  who  in  1685  was  sent  by  Colljert  to 
China  on  a  nussion  partly  scientific  and  |)artly  religious. 
He  and  his  companions  were  the  jiioneers  of  the  F'l  ench 
missionary  enterprise  in  China.    After  he  had  laboured 

a,  e,  I,  6,  f ,  y,  long;  ^    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li, 


at  Nankin  and  other  places,  he  returned  to  France  in 
1699.    He  was  living  in  1720. 

Fontanges,  de,  deh  fi.N'tdNzh',  (Marie  Ang^i.ique 
Scoraille  de  Roussille — sko^rS'ye  deh  roo'sM', ) 
DuCHESSE,  a  beautiful  French  lady,  born  in  1661,  was 
the  mistress  of  Louis  XIV.,  over  whom  she  possessed 
great  influence  for  a  few  years.    Died  in  1681. 

Fontanieu,  f6N'tt'ne-uh',(GASPARD  Moise,)  a  French 
writer,  born  about  i70or'was  author  of  a  "History  of 
Charles  VII.,"  (still  in  manuscript.)    Died  in  1767. 

Fontanini,  fon-tS-nee^nee,  (Giusro,)  a  learned  Italian 
critic  and  antiquary,  born  at  Saint  Daniel,  in  Friuli,  in 
1666,  was  educated  for  the  church,  and  lived  mostly  in 
Rome.  Clement  XL  appointed  him  professor  of  elo- 
quence in  the  Roman  University.  In  1706  he  published 
his  famous  "Treatise  on  Italian  Eloquence,"  which  con- 
tains in  the  third  part  a  Catalogue  ( Bibliotheca )  of  classic 
Italian  works,  with  notes.  He  gave  an  improved  and 
enlarged  edition  in  1736.  Apostolo  Zeno  wrote  an 
excellent  critique  on  this  work.  Fontanini  wrote  also 
other  treatises  on  various  subjects,  and  left  unfinished  a 
"Literary  History  of  Friuli."  Clement  XI.  gave  him 
several  rich  benefices,  and  Benedict  XIII.  made  him 
titular  Archbishop  of  Ancyra.    Died  in  1736. 

See  D.  Fontanini,  "  Vita  di  Fontanini,"  Venice,  1755;  Fabroni, 
"Vitx  Italoriim  doctrina  excellentium ;"  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli 
Italiani  illustri." 

Fonte,  fon'ta,  (Moderata,)  an  Italian  lady,  distin- 
guished for  talent,  born  at  Venice  in  1555.  She  married 
Filippo  Giorgi,  a  lawyer,  about  1572.  Her  memory  is 
said  to  have  been  extraordinary.  She  wrote  "  II  Flori- 
doro,"  and  other  poems.  Her  original  name  was  Mo- 
DESTA  Pozzo,  (pot'so.)    Died  in  1592. 

Fontanon,  fiN'tS'ndN'',  (Ani'Oine,)  a  French  advo- 
cate and  jurist,  born  in  Auvergne,  lived  about  1580. 

Fontanus  or  Fonteyn,  fon'tn/,  (Nicolaas,)  a  Dutch 
physician  and  writer,  lived  at  Amsterdam  about  1620-40. 

Fontenai,  (Julien  de.)    See  Coldore. 

Fontenay.    See  Coldor^;. 

Fontenay,  fo.vt'ni',  (Louis  Abel  de  Bonafons — 

bo'nt'f^N^)  usually  called  Abb6  de  Fontenay,  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  near  Castres  in  1737.  He  published  a 
"  Dictionary  of  Artists,"  (2  vols.,  1777,)  and  several  other 
works.    Died  in  1806. 

Fontenay,  Madame.    See  Chimay. 

Fontenay,  (Pierre  Claude,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born 
in  Paris  in  1663.  On  the  death  of  Longueval  he  suc- 
ceeded him  as  compiler  of  the  "  History  of  the  Gal- 
lican  Church,"  of  which  he  finished  the  ninth  and  tenth 
volumes.    Died  in  1742. 

Fontenay,  de,  deh  f6Nt''n^',  (J.  B.  Blain — bliN,)  an 
excellent  French  painter  of  flowers  and  fruits,  born  at 
Caen  in  1654,  was  a  pupil  and  son-in-law  of  Baptiste 
Monnoyer.  He  worked  in  Paris,  and  was  much  em- 
ployed by  Louis  XIV.  at  Versailles,  Marly,  etc.  He  is 
said  to  have  had  no  rival  except  Van  Huysum  and  Mon- 
noyer, the  latter  of  whom  he  equalled.    Died  in  1715. 

See  D'Argenvili.e,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Frangais." 

Fontenelle,  de,  deh  f6n'teh-n§K,  [Fr.  pron.  fiNt'n^K,] 
(Bernard  le  Bovier  —  leh  bo've-i', )  a  celebrated 
French  author,  born  at  Rouen,  February  11,  1657,  was  a 
nephew  of  the  famous  poet  Corneille.  In  the  interval  of 
one  hundred  years  which  elapsed  from  his  birth  to  hi? 
death,  the  greatest  French  authors  began  or  ended  their 
career.  And  though  many  of  these  illustrious  men  sur- 
passed Fontenelle,  either  by  the  force,  the  originality,  or 
the  elevation  of  their  genius,  no  one,  perhaps,  has  been 
more  admired  or  more  influential.  He  owed  this  emi- 
nence chiefly  to  th^variety  of  his  talents,  to  the  popular 
and  congenial  subjects  on  which  he  exercised  them,  to  his 
matchless  social  qualities,  and  to  an  uncommon  share 
of  those  graceful  endowments  for  which  the  French 
are  distinguished.  His  writings  and  principles  were  in 
harmony  with  his  conduct,  which  was  remarkable  for 
moderation  and  self-control. 

The  dramas  and  pastorals  with  which  he  opened  his 
literary  career  were  not  very  successful.  His  "  Dialogues 
of  the  Dead,"  published  in  1683,  formed  the  beginning 
of  his  celebrity,  which  was  greatly  increased  by  his  "  Dis- 
course on  the  Plurality  of  Worlds,"  (1686.)  In  the  latter 
he  displays  his  peculiar  talent  for  rendering  science  at- 

y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  filt;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


FONTENU 


937 


FORBES 


tractive,  by  blending  useful  instruction  with  ingenious 
amusement  and  by  conducting  the  reader  through  easy 
paths  to  extensive,  luminous,  and  profound  views  of  the 
beautiful  and  sublime.  With  great  spirit  and  vivacity 
he  maintains  the  "fascinating  paradox"  that  the  planets 
and  fixed  stars  are  populous  worlds.  He  also  wrote  a 
popular  "History  of  Oracles,"  for  which  Van  Dale's 
work  supplied  the  crude  materials.  In  1691  he  became 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy,  and  in  1699  he  was 
chosen  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
His  "Essay  on  the  Geometry  of  the  Infinite"  (1727)  is 
among  his  most  admired  productions.  On  presenting 
it  to  the  Regent  of  France,  Fonteneile  said,  ''There  is 
a  book  which  only  eight  men  in  Europe  are  capable  of 
understanding;  and  the  author  is  not  one  of  that  num- 
ber !"    Died  in  January,  1757. 

The  mind  of  Fonteneile  was  characterized  by  a  phi- 
losophic spirit  and  a  union  of  judgment  with  subtility  of 
intellect,  to  which  was  often  joined  a  strange  fondness 
for  paradox.  He  professed  to  adopt  these  two  axioms, — 
"  that  everything  is  possible,  and  that  everybody  is  right." 
In  the  opinion  of  Voltaire,  Fonteneile  was  the  most  uni- 
versal genius  of  his  age.  He  once  said,  "  If  I  had  my  hand 
full  of  truths,  I  should  take  good  care  not  to  open  it." 
During  a  period  of  forty  years,  he  composed  eulogies  on 
about  seventy  members  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
This  collection  of  "filoges"  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best 
books  in  the  language. 

See  Charma,  "  Biogiaphie  de  Fonteneile,"  1846;  Trublrt, 
"Memoiies  de  Fonteneile;"  Flourkns,  "  Fontenelie,  Histoire  de 
sesTravaux  et  de  sa  Vie;"  Garat,  "  fiioge  de  Fonteneile  ;"Sainte- 
Beuvk,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  lii.  I  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale;"  "Biographie  Universelle." 

Fontenu,  de,  deh  fiNt'nii',  (Louis  FRANgois.)  a 
French  abbe,  born  of  a  noble  family  in  1667,  visited  Rome 
in  1700.  He  lived  mostly  in  Paris,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles-Lettres,  which 
he  enriched  with  learned  memoirs  on  antiquarian  sub- 
jects.   Died  in  1759. 

Foiitette.    See  Fevret  de  Fontette. 

Fonteyn.    See  Fontanus. 

Fonteyraud,  fiN'tcVro',  (Alcide,)  a  French  writer 
on  political  econotny,  born  in  the  island  of  Maluritius  in 
1822;  died  in  Paris  in  1849. 

Fonti,  fon'tee,  [Lat.  Fon'tius,]  (Bartolommeo,)  an 
Italian  philologist,  born  in  1445  ;  died  in  1513. 

Fontrailles,  de,  deh  f6N'tKtI'or  fiN^tkt'ye,  (Louis 
d'Astarac  —  dSs^tt'rtk',)  Marquis  de  Marestang,  a 
French  gentleman,  remarkable  for  his  factious  intrigues 
and  talents.  He  was  an  enemy  of  Richelieu  and  a  friend 
of  Cinq-Mars,  whose  fate  he  would  have  shared  if  he  had 
not  fled  to  England.    He  died  in  1677. 

Fonvielle,  fdyi've-hV,  (Bernard  FRAwgois  Anne,) 
a  French  royalist  and  writer  on  politics,  etc.,  was  born  at 
Toulouse  in  1759.  He  was  a  secret  agent  of  the  Bour- 
bons in  1794.    Died  in  1837. 

See  his  Autobiography,  entitled  "Mes  Mdmoires  historlques  sur 
la  Revolution,"  4  vols.,  1824. 

Foot,  (Solomon,)  an  American  Senator  and  lawyer, 
born  in  Addison  county,  Vermont,  in  1802.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1842,  and  again  in  1844,  by  the 
Whigs.  In  1850  he  was  chosen  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States.  Having  joined  the  Republican  party  in  1854,  he 
was  re-elected  a  Senator  in  1856.    Died  in  1866. 

Foote,  foot,  (Andrew  Hull,)  a  distinguished  Ame- 
rican rear-admiral,  born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in 
September,  1806.  He  entered  the  navy  about  1822,  be- 
came a  lieutenant  in  1830,  and  a  commander  in  1852.  In 
1856  he  was  sent  to  China,  and  captured  by  storm  a  fort 
near  Canton,  the  garrison  of  which  had  fired  on  one  of 
his  boats.  He  was  appointed  flag-officer  of  the  flotilla  in 
the  Mississippi  River  in  September,  1861.  He  rendered 
important  assistance  to  General  Grant  in  the  capture  of 
Fort  Henry  and  Fort  Donelson  in  February,  1862,  with 
seven  gunboats  which  he  commanded  :  he  was  disabled 
in  the  latter  action  by  a  wound  in  the  ankle.  In  July, 
1862,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  rear-adn\iral.  He 
succeeded  Dupont  in  June,  1863,  as  commander  of  the 
South  Atlantic  squadron,  employed  in  operations  against 
Charleston,  but  died  in  New  York  in  the  same  month. 
Admiral  Foote  was  distinguished  for  his  high  moral 
worth  as  well  as  for  his  ardent  patriotism.    By  his  ex- 


ample and  precept  he  promoted  total  abstinence  from 
spirituous  liquors  in  the  navy. 

See  Headley,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  1S67. 

Foote,  foot,  (Sir  Edward  James,)  a  British  admiral, 
born  in  Kent  in  1767.  He  commanded  the  fleet  which 
blockaded  Naples  in  1799.    Died  in  1833. 

Foote,  (Henry  S.,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Fauquier  county,  Virginia,  in  1800.  He  studied  law,  and 
removed  about  1826  to  Mississippi,  where  he  was  elected 
to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  in  1847.  I"  185 1  he 
was  chosen  Governor  of  Mississippi  by  the  Union  party, 
when  Jefferson  Davis  was  his  competitor.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Confederate  Congress  during  the  civil 
war. 

Foote,  (Jesse,)  an  English  surgeon,  born  in  1744 
wrote  the  "  Life  of  John  Hunter,"  professional  treatises, 
and  other  Mrorks.    Died  in  1827. 

Foote,  (Samuel,)  a  witty  English  comedian,  was  born 
at  Truro,  in  Cornwall,  about  1720,  and  educated  at  Ox- 
ford. Having  spent  his  estate  in  gaming  and  other  vices, 
he  was  induced  by  necessity  to  resort  to  the  stage  in 
1744.  In  1747  he  opened  the  Haymarket  Theatre  on  his 
own  account,  being  at  the  same  time  director,  author,  and 
actor.  Here  he  represented  with  great  success  a  series 
of  satirical  pieces  and  farces,  among  which  were  "  Diver- 
sions of  the  Morning,"  "The  Auction  of  Pictures,"  "The 
Minor,"  "The  Englishman  in  Paris,"  (1753,)  and  "The 
Mayor  of  Garratt,"  (1764.)  He  possessed  great  talents 
for  ridicule  and  mimicry,  and  excelled  in  colloquial 
wit,  which  he  used  at  the  expense  of  others.  "For 
loud,  obstreperous,  broad-faced  mirth,"  said  Johnson, 
"I  know  not  his  equal."    Died  in  1777. 

See  William  Cooke,  "  Memoirs  of  Samuel  Foote,  with  some  of 
his  Writings,"  3  vols.,  1805;  John  Forster,  "Historical  and  Bio- 
graphical Essays;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1854. 

Foppa,  fop'pS,  (ViNCENZO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Brescia  about  1420,  founded  a  flourishing  school  at 
Milan,  which  preceded  that  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  He 
excelled  in  perspective,  and  was  a  good  master  of  de- 
sign.   Died  in  1492. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Foppeiis,  fop'pens,  (Johannes  Frans,)  a  bibliogra- 
pher, born  at  Brussels  in  1689,  was  professor  of  theology 
at  Louvain.  He  wrote  several  works  on  Belgian  history, 
also  the  "Bibliotheca  Belgica,"  (2  vols.,  1739,)  treating 
of  Belgian  authors  and  their  works.    Died  in  1761. 

Forabosco,  fo-rS-bos'ko,  (Girolamo,)  a  Venetian 
portrait-painter,  born  about  1600;  died  after  1659. 

Forbes,  for'bes,  (Alexander,)  Lord  Forbes  of  Pitsli- 
go,  a  Scottish  Jacobite,  born  about  1678,  was  supposed  to 
be  the  original  of  the  Baron  of  Bradwardine  in  Scott's 
"  Waverley."  He  fought  for  the  Pretender  at  Culloden 
in  1746,  after  which  he  fled  to  France.  Died  in  1749. 

Forbes,  (Alexander,)  a  British  writer  of  the  present 
era.  He  published  in  1839  an  esteemed  "History  of 
Upper  and  Lower  California,"  which  he  had  explored. 

Forbes,  (Duncan,)  an  eminent  Scottish  judge  and 
patriot,  born  at  Culloden  in  1686,  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation at  the  bar,  and  was  for  many  years  a  member  of 
the  British  Parliament,  which  he  entered  in  1722.  After 
filling  other  high  stations,  he  was  appointed  in  1737 
lord  president  of  the  court  of  sessions,  and  rendered 
important  services  to  the  crown  in  the  rebellion  of  1745. 
He  published  "Thoughts  on  Religion,  Natural  and  Re- 
vealed," (1735,)  and  other  religious  works.  Warburton 
thought  him  one  of  the  greatest  men  that  Scotland  had 
produced,  "both  as  a  judge,  a  patriot,  and  a  Christian." 
Died  in  1747. 

See  John  Hill  Burton,  "Life  of  Duncan  Forbes,"  1847  :  Cham- 
bers, "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  February,  1816;  "North  British  Review"  for 
May,  1847. 

Forbes,  forbz,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  English  natural- 
ist, born  in  the  Isle  of  Man  in  February,  181 5.  In  1832  he 
went  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  studied  zoology  and  botany. 
He  made  scientific  excursions  through  various  parts  of 
Europe,  and  published  his  valuable  discoveries  in  several 
treatises  on  Mollusca  and  other  marine  animals.  He 
accepted  in  1844  the  professorship  of  botany  in  King's 
College,  London,  and  .distinguished  himself  by  contribu- 
tions to  various  departments  of  natural  history.    In  1854 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  harci;  g  as  J;  c,  H,  K,  p^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FORBES 


938 


FORCE 


he  was  chosen  president  of  the  Geological  Society,  and 
professor  of  natural  history  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. Professor  Forbes  and  S.  Hanley  published  a 
"History  ofJiritish  Mollusca,"  (4  vols.  8vo,  1853.)  Among 
his  works  are  a  "  History  of  British  Star-Fishes,"  (1841,) 
"Travels  in  Lycia,"  (1846,)  and  "Zoology  of  the  Voyage 
of  H.  M.  Ship  Herald,"  (3  vols.  4to.)  He  made  an  ex- 
tensive use  of  the  dredge  as  an  instrument  of  research. 
He  was  profoundly  versed  in  botany,  zoology,  and  geol- 
ogy.   He  died  near  Edinburgh  in  November,  1854. 

See  "  Memoir  of  Edward  P'orbes,  F.R.S.,"  by  the  late  Dr.  George 
Wilson  and  Archibald  Geikie,  F.R.S.E.  and  F.G.S.,  London, 
1861 ;  "  Encyclopasdia  Britannica;"  William  Jerdan,  "Men  I  have 
known,"  London,  1866 ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  1855 ; 
"Eraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1855. 

Forbes,  (James,)  an  English  author,  born  in  London 
in  1749.  He  was  employed  in  the  civil  service  of  the 
East  India  Company,  and  returned  from  India  about 
1784.  He  published  an  interesting  work  entitled  "Ori- 
ental Memoirs,  a  Narrative  of  Seventeen  Years'  Resi- 
dence in  India,  embellished  with  ninety-five  Fine  En- 
gravings and  Coloured  Plates,"  (4  vols.,  1813-15,)  which 
was  received  with  great  favour.    Died  in  1819. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1814. 

Forbes,  (James  David,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  British 
physical  philosopher,  a  grandson  of  Sir  William  Forbes, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Colinton,  near  Edinburgh,  in 
1809.  He  succeeded  Sir  John  Leslie  as  professor  of  nat- 
ural philosophy  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1833. 
In  1843  published  "Travels  in  the  Alps."  He  made 
discoveries  in  the  laws  of  the  motion  of  glaciers,  and  in  the 
phenomena  of  radiant  heat  and  light  in  relation  to  polari- 
zation. He  received  the  Rumford  medal,  and  the  royal 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  In  i860  he  be- 
came principal  of  the  United  College  in  the  University 
of  Saint  Andrew's.  Among  his  works  are  "Norway  and 
its  Glaciers  visited  in  185 1,"  (1853,)  and  the  "Sixth  Dis- 
sertation" prefixed  to  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

See  '"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1861 ;  "North  British 
Review"  for  May,  1854. 

Forbes,  (Sir  John,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  British  phy- 
sician and  medical  writer,  born  in  Banffshire,  Scotland, 
about  1787,  graduated  in  Edinburgh  in  181 7.  He  ac- 
quired distinction  by  translations  of  the  works  of  Auen- 
brugger  and  Laennec  "On  Auscultation,"  (1824,)  and 
practised  successively  at  Penzance,  Chichester,  and  Lon- 
don. He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Cyclopaedia  of 
Practical  Medicine."  In  1835  he  published  a  "Manual 
of  Select  Medical  Bibliography,"  and  afterwards  edited 
the  "  British  and  Foreign  Medical  Review."  About  1840 
he  became  physician-in-ordinary  to  the  queen's  house- 
hold, and  physician-extraordinary  to  Prince  Albert.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Physician's  Holiday, 
or  a  Month  in  Switzerland  in  1848,"  (1849.)  Died  in  1861. 

Forbes,  (John,)  an  English  botanist  and  traveller, 
born  in  1799.  He  attempted  to  ascend  the  river  Zam- 
bezi, in  Africa,  but  died  during  the  journey,  in  1824. 

Forbes,  (John,)  of  Corse,  a  Scottish  divine,  born  in 
1593,  was  the  son  of  Bishop  Patrick  Forbes,  noticed 
below.  From  1619  to  1640  he  was  professor  of  divinity 
in  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  from  which  he  was  ejected 
for  refusing  to  sign  the  Covenant.  He  published  several 
admired  religious  works,  among  which  is  "  Institutiones 
Historico-Theologicae,"  (1645.)    Died  in  1648. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Forbes,  (Patrick,)  Lord  of  Corse  and  Baron  of 
O'Neil,  a  Scottish  divine,  born  in  Aberdeenshire  in  1564. 
Having  embraced  E])iscopacy,  he  was  made  Bishop  of 
Aberdeen  in  1618.  He  wrote  a  "Commentary  on  the 
Revelation  of  Saint  John,"  and  other  religious  works. 
Died  in  1635. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Forbes,  [Lat.  Forbe'sius,]  (William,)  a  Scottish 
bishop,  eminent  for  learning  and  eloquence,  born  at  Aber- 
deen about  1580.  He  became  principal  of  Marischal  Col- 
lege about  1618,  and  minister  in  Edinburgh  a  few  years 
later.  He  was  the  first  Bishoj)  of  Edinburgh,  but  died 
about  three  months  after  his  consecration,  in  1634. 

Forbes,  (Sir  William,)  Baronet  of  Pitsligo,  an  emi- 
nent banker,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1739.  With  Sir 
James  H.  Blair,  he  founded  the  principal  banking  estab- 


lishment of  Edinburgh.  He  wrote  a  "Memoir  of  the 
Life  and  Writings  of  James  Beattie"  the  poet,  (2  vols., 
1806,)  which,  says  Lord  Jeffrey,  "is  a  great  deal  longer 
and  a  great  deal  duller  than  we  are  bound  to  tolerate." 
Scott  lamented  the  loss  of  Forbes  in  the  introduction  to 
one  of  the  cantos  of  "  Marmion."  Sir  William  Forbes 
was  a  member,  with  Johnson,  Burke,  and  Reynolds,  of 
the  famous  Literary  Club  of  London.    Died  in  1806. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Forbin,  foR'b4N',(CLAUDE,)  a  brave  and  skilful  French 
naval  officer,  born  at  Gardanne,  near  Aix,  in  1656.  When 
Chaumont  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Siam,  in  1685, 
Forbin  went  with  him  as  major.  In  1686-87  he  served  as 
admiral  and  general-in-chief  of  the  King  of  Siam.  (See 
Constance,  Faulcon.)  Having  accepted  these  ofiices 
with  reluctance,  he  resigned  them  at  the  end  of  two 
years.  From  1702  to  1710,  m  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession,  as  c/ie/-d'escadre,  he  performed  many  bold 
and  successful  exploits  against  the  English  and  Dutch, 
for  which  he  was  rewarded  by  Louis  XIV.  with  the  title 
of  count.  He  retired  from  service  in  1 7 10,  and  wrote 
entertaining  "  Memoirs  of  his  Life  and  Adventures,"  (2 
vols.,  1730.)  He  is  esteemed  one  of  the  greatest  naval 
commanders  that  France  has  produced.    Died  in  1733. 

See  Richer,  "  Vie  de  Forbin  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Forbin,  de,  deh  foR'biN',  (Louis  Nicolas  Philippe 
AuGUSTE,)  Comte,  a  French  antiquary  and  painter,  born 
on  the  Durance  (department  of  Bouches-du-Rhone)  in 
August,  1777.  He  was  very  accomplished,  and  was  ad- 
mired for  his  personal  qualities.  In  1804  he  became 
chamberlain  to  Pauline  Bonaparte.  He  served  several 
campaigns  as  an  ofiicer  in  the  army.  At  the  restoration 
(1815)  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  royal  museums. 
The  museum  or  gallery  of  the  Luxembourg  was  originated 
by  him.  He  painted  history,  genre,  and  landscape  with 
success,  and  was  a  brilliant  colorist.  He  wrote  a  "  Voyage 
in  the  Levant,"  with  plates,  (1819.)  Among  his  works 
of  art  are  "  Ines  de  Castro,"  (1819,)  "The  Ruins  of  Pal- 
myra," (1824,)  and  "The  Via  Appia."    Died  in  1841. 

See  QuEKARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Forbisserus.    See  Frobisher. 

Forbonnais,  de,  deh  foR'bo'n^^  (FRANgoisVeron — 
vi'roN^,)  an  eminent  French  financier  and  writer,  born  at 
Mans  in  1722,  removed  to  Paris  in  1752,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  Institute.  In  1754  he  published  an  able 
and  important  work,  entitled  "  The  Elements  of  Com- 
merce," which  was  often  reprinted  and  was  translated 
into  many  languages.  In  1756  he  was  chosen  inspector- 
general  of  the  mint,  and  in  1759  chief  clerk  in  the  office 
of  the  controller-general.  The  flourishing  condition  of 
the  finances  for  several  ensuing  years  is  ascribed  to  his 
skill.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  Finances  of  France, 
("  Recherches  et  Considerations,"  etc.,  2  vols,,  1758,) 
which  was  highly  esteemed,  and  several  other  treatises 
on  political  economy.    Died  in  1800. 

See  Delisle  de  Sales,  "Vie  litteraire  de  V.  Forbonnais,"  i8oi. 

Forcade,  foR'kid',  (Eugene,)  a  French  journalist, 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1820.  He  was  a  regular  con- 
tributor to  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  and  edited 
several  Liberal  journals  in  Paris.  Among  his  works  is 
"  Historical  Studies,"  (1853.) 

Forcade-Laroquette,  de,  deh  foR^ktd'  ItWk^t', 
(Jean  Louis  Victor  Adolphe,)  a  French  politician 
and  lawyer,  a  half-brother  of  Marshal  Saint-Arnaud,  was 
born  in  Paris  about  1820.  He  was  appointed  director- 
general  of  the  customs,  etc.  in  1859,  and  minister  of 
finance  in  November,  i860.  Having  been  removed  in 
November,  1861,  he  was  then  appointed  a  senator,  and 
in  1869  minister  of  the  interior. 

Forcadel,  foR'kt'deK,  (Etienne,)  a  French  jurist  and 
legal  writer,  born  at  Beziers  in  1534,  is  chiefly  noted  as 
having  been  a  competitor  of  the  famous  Cujas  for  the 
chair  of  law  at  Toulouse  in  1554.  As  Cujas  absented 
himself  before  the  decision  of  the  question,  Forcadel 
gained  the  place.    Died  in  1573. 

See  Taisamd,  "Vies  des  plus  celebres  Jurisconsultes." 

Force,  (Peter,)  an  American  historian  and  compiler, 
born  in  New  Jersey  in  1790.  He  became  president  of 
the  National  Institute  at  Washington,  District  of  Colum- 
bia.   He  expended  many  years  in  compiling  a  "  Docu- 


i,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  /on^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  %  short;  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  f5r,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


FORCE 


939 


FORDrCE 


mentary  History  of  the  American  Revolution,"  of  which 
nine  volumes  have  been  published,  under  the  title  of 
"American  Archives,"  (1837-53.)  Died  in  January,  1868. 

Force,  de  la,deh  1$  foKss,  (Armand  de  Caumont — 
deh  ko'm^N',)  a  French  general  and  marquis,  born  in 
1615.  He  became  marechal-de-camp  in  165 1,  and  fought 
with  Conde  against  the  court.  He  was  made  a  lieutenant- 
general  in  1655,  and  served  under  Turenne.  Having  be- 
come a  Protestant  exile  in  1685,  he  entered  the  army  of 
the  Dutch  Republic  as  a  general.    Died  in  1701, 

Force,  de  la,  (Armand  Nompar  de  Caumont — 
ne)N'ptR'  deh  ko'm^N',)  Due,  a  French  general,  born 
about  1585,  was  a  son  of  Jacques,  noticed  below.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  the  wars  of  Italy  and  Germany, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  marshal  of  France  in  1652. 
Died  in  1675. 

Force,  de  la,  (Charlotte  Rose  de  Caumont,)  a 
French  authoress,  born  in  Bazadois  in  1650,  was  grand- 
daughter of  Marshal  Force,  noticed  below.  She  was 
married  to  M.  de  Briou  in  1687.  She  wrote  several  ad- 
mired poems  and  historical  romances,  among  which  are 
"Secret  History  of  Navarre,"  (2  vols.,  1696,)  and  "Gus- 
tavus  Vasa,"  (2  vols.,  1698.)    Died  in  1724. 

Force,  de  la,  (Henri  Nompar  de  Caumont,)  Due, 
a  French  general  and  Protestant,  born  in  1582,  was  a 
son  of  Jacques,  noticed  below.  He  presided  over  the 
political  assembly  of  the  Protestants  at  Sainte-Foy  in 
1613,  after  which  he  fought  against  the  royal  troops,  and 
killed  the  Duke  of  Mayenne  in  battle.  He  served  under 
his  father  in  many  campaigns.    Died  in  1678. 

Force,  de  la,  (Jacques  Nompar  de  Caumont,)  Due, 
a  French  general,  born  about  1558,  was  a  son  of  a  Hugue- 
not who  was  killed  in  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholo- 
mew. He  fought  against  the  League  for  Henry  IV., 
whose  confidence  he  enjoyed.  He  was  in  the  carriage 
with  the  king  when  the  latter  was  assassinated  in  1610. 
In  the  civil  war  that  ensued,  he  commanded  the  Protest- 
ants, and  defended  Montauban  in  1621,  soon  after  which 
he  accepted  overtures  of  peace  from  l.ouis  XIII.,  who 
gave  him  a  marshal's  baton  in  1622.  He  commanded 
with  success  in  several  campaigns  against  the  Spaniards 
and  Austrians  between  1630  and  1638.  He  died  in  1652, 
leaving  Memoirs,  which  were  published  in  1843,  (4  vols.) 

Forcellini,  foR-ch^l-lee'nee,  (Egidio,)  [Lat.  ALvaW- 
lus  Forcelli'nus,]  an  eminent  Italian  lexicographer, 
born  near  Padua,  August  26,  1688.  In  1731  he  received 
an  appointment  in  the  Seminary  of  Padua,  with  the  free 
disposal  of  his  time.  He  devoted  about  forty  years  to 
the  great  task  of  compiling  a  Latin  Dictionary,  in  which 
he  was  assisted  by  Facciolati,  and  which  was  published 
in  1 77 1.  This  enduring  monument  of  his  learning  and 
industry,  entitled  "Lexicon  of  all  Latinity,"  ("Totius 
Latinitatis  Lexicon,"  4  vols.,)  is  regarded  as  the  most 
complete  Latin  lexicon  that  has  ever  been  compiled,  and 
entitles  him  to  the  honour  of  having  performed  one  of 
the  most  important  services  ever  rendered  to  the  study 
of  antiquity.    Died  at  Fener  in  April,  1768. 

See  Fehrari,  "  Vita iEgidii  Forcellini,"  Padua,  1792;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale  ;"  "Biographic  Uiilverselie." 

Forcellini,  (Marco,)  an  Italian  poet,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Campo  in  171 1  ;  died  in  1794. 

Forchhammer,  foRk'him^ner,  (Johan  Georg,)  a 
chemist  and  writer,  born  at  Husum,  in  Denmark,  in 
1794.  About  1850  he  was  elected  titular  professor  at 
Copenhagen,  and  succeeded  Oersted  as  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences. 

Forchhammer,  foRK^hSm^mer,  (Paul  Wilhelm,)  an 
antiquary,  born  at  Husum  in  1803.  Having  travelled 
ill  Italy  and  Greece,  he  visited  Asia  Minor  in  1838,  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  site  of  Troy,  being  assisted  in  this 
enterprise  by  the  British  Admiralty.  His  chart  of  Troy, 
with  an  English  text,  appeared  subsequently  in  the  pub- 
lications of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  Among  his 
treatises  is  the  "Topography  of  Athens,"  (1841.) 

Ford,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  dramatic  author, 
born  at  Ilsington  in  1586,  was  contemporary  with  Shak- 
speare.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Middle  Temple  in 
1602,  and  appears  to  have  practised  law  with  success  ; 
but  the  details  of  his  life  are  not  well  known.  He  wrote 
about  sixteen  plays,  (most  of  which  were  performed 
between  1628  and  1639,)  among  which  are  the  tragedies 


of  "Love's  Sacrifice,"  "The  Broken  Heart,"  and  "The 
Lover's  Melancholy."  He  is  admired  for  elegance,  har- 
mony, and  pathos,  but  gives  offence  by  bad  taste  and 
licentiousness.  Hallam  thinks  "  he  does  not  display  one 
particle  of  comic  ability."  "With  none  of  the  moral 
beauty  and  elevation  of  Massinger,  he  has  in  a  much 
higher  degree  the  power  over  tears."  Suckling  thus 
describes  him  in  the  "Sessions  of  the  Poets :" 

"  In  the  dunnps  John  Ford  alone  by  himself  sat, 
Wiih  folded  arms  and  melancholy  hat." 
See  Hazlitt,  "Lectures  on  Dramatic  Literature;"  Baker, 
"  Biographia  Dramatica ;"  Hallam,  "Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe;"  Lord  Jeffrey,  critique  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review" 
for  August,  i8n,  vol.  xviii. ;  "  Lives  of  the  British  Dramatists,"  by 
Campbell,  Leigh  Hunt,  etc.;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
December,  181 1. 

Ford,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  engineer,  born  in  Sus- 
sex in  1605,  was  knighted  by  Charles  I.,  and  served  as 
colonel  in  the  royalist  army.  In  1656,  under  the  auspices 
of  Cromwell,  he  invented  a  machine  to  raise  water  from 
the  Thames.  He  was  a  great  virtuoso,  says  Anthony 
Wood.    Died  in  1670. 

Ford,  (RieHARD,)  an  English  descriptive  writer,  born 
in  London  in  1796.  About  1830  he  visited  Spain,  where 
he  remained  some  years.  After  his  return  to  England 
he  became  a  contributor  to  the  "Quarterly  Review," 
and  published  an  excellent  "  Hand-Book  for  Travellers 
in  Spain  and  Readers  at  Home,"  describing  the  country 
and  cities,  the  natives  and  th^ir  manners,  etc.,  (2  vols., 
1845,)  which  was  praised  by  Irving,  Lockhart,  and  other 
critics.  His  "Gatherings  from  Spain"  (1846)  consists 
chiefly  of  extracts  from  the  preceding  work,  and  "is  the 
best  English  book,"  says  the  "  London  Quarterly  Re- 
view," "that  has  ever  appeared  for  the  illustration  of 
the  topography,  curiosities,  and  the  national  character 
and  manners  of  Spain."    Died  in  September,  1858. 

See  *' Fraser's  Magazine"  for  October,  185S. 

Ford,  (Rev.  Simon,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  East 
Ogwell  in  1619,  became  vicar  of  Reading  in  1651,  and 
of  All-Saints,  Northampton,  in  1659.  He  published  ser- 
mons and  Latin  poems.    Died  in  1699. 

Fordun,  de,  deh  for-dun',  (John,)  the  earliest  Scot- 
tish historian,  lived  about  1350.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  priest  in  the  church  of  Fordun,  or  a  canon 
of  Aberdeen.  He  wrote  a  Latin  chronicle  of  Scot- 
tish affairs  from  the  creation  to  1053,  entitled  "  Scoti 
Chronicon." 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

For-dyce',  (David,)  a  Scottish  moralist,  born  at 
Aberdeen  in  1711,  was  a  brother  of  Sir  William,  noticed 
below.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  moral  philosophy 
in  Marischal  College  in  1742,  and  published  "Dialogues 
concerning  Education,"  (2  vols.,  1745-48,)  a  work  of 
considerable  merit.  Returning  from  a  continental  tour, 
he  was  drowned  at  sea  in  175 1.  He  left  "Theodorus,  a 
Dialogue  on  the  Art  of  Preaching,"  (1752,)  and  "Ele- 
ments of  Moral  Philosophy,"  (1754.) 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Fordyce,  (George,)  an  eminent  Scottish  physician, 
born  near  Aberdeen  in  1736,  was  a  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding. About  the  year  1760  he  settled  in  London,  where 
he  acquired  reputation  by  his  lectures  on  chemistry,  etc. 
He  was  chosen  physician  of  Saint  Thomas's  Hospital  in 
1770,  and  a  P'ellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1776.  He  is 
the  author  of  able  medical  treatises,  and  of  "Elements 
of  Agriculture  and  Vegetation,"  (1765.)    Died  in  1802. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Fordyce,  (James.)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  author  and 
divine,  born  at  Aberdeen  in  1720.  In  1760  he  came  to 
London,  where  he  became  minister  of  a  congregation 
of  dissenters,  and  was  distinguished  for  eloquence  as  a 
preacher.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Ser- 
mons to  Young  Women,"  (2  vols.,  1765;  9th  edition, 
1778,)  and  a  small  volume  of  poems.  Died  in  1796.  He 
was  a  brother  of  Sir  William  Fordyce,  noticed  below. 

Fordyce,  (Sir  William,)  brother  of  David  Fordyce, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Aberdeen  in  1724,  and  was 
educated  at  Marischal  College,  of  which  he  became  lord 
rector  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life.  He  practised  medi- 
cine and  surgery  in  London  with  great  success,  and  ])ub- 
lished  several  medical  treatises,  among  which  are  "  On 


«  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K.guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  Ihis.    (2!:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FORE  IRQ  940  FORMER 


Putrid  and  Inflammatory  Fevers,"  (1773,)  and  "  Frag- 
menta  Chirurgica  et  Medica,"  (1784.)    l)\ed  in  1792. 
See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Foreiro,  fo-ra'e-ro,  (Francisco,)  an  eminent  Portu- 
guese ecclesiasticT^jorn  in  Lisbon,  entered  the  Dominican 
order.  He  was  well  versed  in  languages  and  theology, 
which  he  began  to  teach  in  1540.  He  was  reckoned  the 
most  eloquent  preacher  of  his  time  in  Portugal,  and 
often  preached  before  the  court.  He  was  a  prominent 
member  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  (1561,)  where  he  was 
selected  with  two  others  to  compile  a  catechism,  which 
was  printed  in  1565.  He  published  a  Latin  version  of 
the  book  of  Isaiah,  with  notes,  (1563.)    Died  in  1587. 

See  QuETiF  et  £chard,  "  Scriptores  ordinis  Predicatorum." 

Fox'est,  fo'ri',  (Jean,)  a  French  landscape-painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1636;  died  in  1712, 

For'est  or  Foreest,  van,  vtn  for-ast',  [Lat.  Fores'- 
TUS,]  (PiETER,)  a  skilful  Dutch  physician,  born  at  Alk- 
maar  in  1522,  studied  in  Italy  and  Paris,  He  practised 
with  success  about  forty  years  at  Delft,  and  published 
medical  works  which  display  much  learning  and  judg- 
ment.   Died  in  1597, 

See  £loy,  "  Dictionnaire  historique  de  la  M^decine." 

Foresti,  fo-res'tee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born 
at  Carpi,  published  a  "  Universal  History,"  (6  vols.,  1690,) 
a  work  of  some  merit,  which  after  his  death  was  continued 
by  Apostolo  Zeno.  Its  title  is  "  Mappamondo  historico," 
etc.    Died  about  1700. 

Foresti,  (E,  Felice,)  an  Italian  patriot,  born  near 
Ferrara  about  1793.  He  was  confined  for  a  political 
offence  in  the  prison  of  Spielberg,  Moravia,  from  1822  to 
1835,  and  was  then  exiled  to  America.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  Italian  in  Columbia  College,  New  York,  where 
he  taught  for  many  years.    Died  at  Genoa  in  1858, 

See  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  November,  1859. 

Foresti,  (Jacopo  Filippo,)  (better  known  as  Jacopo 
FiLiPPO  of  Bergamo,)  an  Italian  monk  and  historian, 
born  at  Soldio,  near  Bergamo,  in  1434.  He  published 
in  1483  a  valuable  and  successful  work,  entitled  "Sup- 
plementum  Chronicorum  Orbis,"  etc.,  (a  "  Supplement 
of  Universal  History  from  the  I3eginning  of  the  World 
to  1482.")    Died  in  1520. 

Forestier,  fo'ri''te-i',  (Henri,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Pommeraye  in  1775.  In  1793  he  joined  the  royalist 
army  of  Vendeans,  and,  after  many  successful  battles, 
was  made  general-in-chief  of  the  cavalry.  The  Ven- 
deans were  defeated  and  dispersed,  and  Forestier  fled 
to  England.    Died  in  1806, 

See  T.  MuKET,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vendee." 

Forestus.    See  Forest. 

Forey,  fo'ri',  (£lie  Fr^idi^ric,)  a  French  general, 
born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  served  several  campaigns  in 
Africa,  was  a  prominent  actor  in  the  coup  d'etat  of  De- 
cember, 1851,  and  became  general  of  division  in  1852. 
He  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Sevastopol  in  1854,  and 
commanded  the  division  which  defeated  the  Austrians  at 
Montebello,  May  20,  1859,  In  the  summer  of  1862  he 
was  appointed  general-in-chief  of  an  expedition  against 
Mexico.  He  captured  the  city  of  Mexico  in  1863,  and 
was  made  marshal  of  France. 

Forfait,  foRW,  (Pierre  Alexandre  Laurent,)  a 
French  engineer,  was  born  at  Rouen  in  1752.  He  was 
appointed  by  Bonaparte  minister  of  the  marine  in  No- 
vember, 1799,  and  afterwards  councillor  of  state,  mari- 
time prefect  at  Havre,  and  inspector-general  of  the  flotilla 
destined  for  the  invasion  of  England.  He  wrote  a  "Me- 
moir on  Navigable  Canals,  and  a  Treatise  on  the  Masting 
of  Vessels,"  (1788.)    Died  in  1807. 

Forgeot,  foR'zho',  (Nicolas  J ulten,)  a  French  lawyer 
and  comic  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1758  ;  died  in  1798. 

Forget,  foR'zhi^  (Pierre,)  Sieur  de  Beauvais  et  de  la 
Picardiere,  a  French  poet  and  diplomatist ;  died  in  1638. 

Forget,  (Pierre,)  Sieur  de  Fresnes,  a  French  states- 
man, was  made  secretary  of  state  in  1589,  and  was  em- 
ployed by  Henry  IV.  after  that  date,  lie  drew  up  the 
famous  edict  of  Nantes,  (which  granted  to  the  Protest- 
ants the  free  exercise  of  their  religion,)  and  acted  as 
counsellor  in  the  Treasury  office.    Died  in  1610. 

Forgues,  foRg,  (£mile  Dauran — do'rSN',)  a  French 
litterateur,  who  has  written  in  several  journals  under  the 
name  of  "Old  Nick."  Among  his  works  is  "  The  Minor 


Miseries  of  Human  Life,"  (1841.)  He  translated  "Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin"  into  French. 

Forkel,  foR'kel,  <Johann  Nikolaus,)  a  German  com- 
poser and  writer  on  music,  born  at  Meeder,  near  Coburg, 
in  1749.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Gottingen, 
and  became  director  of  music  in  that  institution  about 
1778.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "General 
History  of  Music,"  (2  vols.,  1 788-1801,  unfinished,) 
"General  Literature  of  Music,"  (1792,)  and  a  "Life  of 
Sebastian  Bach,"  (1803.)  The  first-named  is  a  work 
of  great  erudition  and  research.  He  died  at  Gottingen 
in  1818. 

See  Fins,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Forlenze,  foR-l^n'zk,  (Giuseppe  Niccol6  Blasio,)  a 
Neapolitan  surgeon  and  skilful  oculist,  born  at  Picerno 
in  1769.  He  practised  in  Paris,  where  he  was  appointed 
oculist  to  the  Hotel-Dieu  and  the  Hotel  des  Invalides. 
Died  in  1833. 

Forli,  foR-lee',  (Jacopo  della  Torre— del'li  tor'ri,) 
(better  known  as  Jacopo  Forli,)  an  eminent  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Forli  about  1350,  was  professor  of 
medicine  at  Bologna  and  Padua.  His  medical  writings 
were  once  in  great  vogue.    Died  in  1414. 

Forli,  da,  da  foR-lee',  (Ansovino,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Forli,  lived  about  1500. 

Forli,  da,  (Melozzo.)    See  Melozzo  da  Forli. 

Formaleoni,  foR-mi-li-o'nee,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian 
historical  writer,  born  at  Venice  in  1752,  He  wrote  two 
important  works,  entitled  "Essay  on  the  Ancient  Navi- 
gation of  the  Venetians,"  ("  Saggio  sulla  Nautica  dei 
Veneziani,")  and  a  "Philosophical  History  of  the  Navi- 
gation of  the  Black  Sea,"  (2  vols.,  1788;)  also  several 
tragedies.    Died  in  1797. 

See  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

For'nian,  (Simon,)  a  notorious  English  astrologer 
and  physician,  born  near  Wilton  in  1552,  studied  at  Ox- 
ford. He  practised  medicine  and  fortune-telling  in  Lon- 
don with  success,  and  wrote  on  magic.    Died  in  161 1. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenas  Oxonienses." 

Formey,  foR'mT,  (Johann  Heinrich  Samuel,)  a 
learned  German  writer,  of  French  extraction,  born  at 
Berlin  in  17 11.  He  was  appointed  in  1748  perpetual 
secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  on  the  members 
of  which  he  wrote  many  eulogies.  He  made  valuable 
contributions  to  the  "New  German  Library,"  ("Nou- 
velle  Bibliotheque  Germanique,")  and  was  the  author  of 
several  theological  and  philosophical  treatises,  among 
which  was  a  "Compendium  of  the  Philosophy  of  Wolff," 
in  French,  (6  vols.,  1741-53.)    Died  in  1797, 

See  J.  H.  S.  Formey,  "Souvenirs  d'lm  Citoyen,"  2  vols.,  1789. 

Formey,  (Johann  Ludwig,)  a  Prussian  physician, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Berlin  in  1766.  He 
became  in  1796  physician  to  Frederick  William  II,  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  one  "On  the  Actual  State 
of  Medicine,"  (1809.)    Died  in  1823, 

Formi,  foR'me',  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician,  born 
at  Nimes,  accompanied  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  his  jour- 
ney in  France  in  163 1,  and  wrote  verses  in  his  honour. 
Died  in  1679. 

Formose.    See  Formosus. 

For-mo'sus,  [Fr,  Formose,  foR^'moz',]  elected  pope 
in  891  A.D.  as  successor  to  Stephen  V,,  had  previously 
been  Bishop  of  Porto.  He  crowned  Arnulph  of  Ger- 
many as  Emperor  or  King  of  Italy  in  895.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  pope  who  was  transferred  from 
another  see  to  that  of  Rome.    Died  in  896. 

Fornarina,  La,  li  foR-nt-ree'nl  the  name  of  a  beau- 
tiful Roman  maiden,  whom  Raphael  admired  or  loved, 
and  in  whose  form  he  found  the  model  of  his  ideal 
figures.  He  painted  her  in  the  "  Transfiguration,"  in  the 
fresco  of  "Parnassus,"  and  in  other  compositions, 

Fornaris,  foR-nd'r^ss,  (Fahricio,)  an  Italian  comic 
author,  born  at  Naples,  lived  about  1600.  He  wrote 
"  Angelica,"  from  which  Moliere  borrowed  some  parts 
of  his  "Etourdi," 

Forner,  for-naiR',  (Juan  Pablo,)  a  Spanish  author 
and  critic,  born  at  Merida  in  1756.  He  endeavoured  to 
reform  the  style  of  Spanish  literature  by  satirical  criti- 
cisms against  prevalent  affectation.  Among  his  works  is 
an  "Apology  for  Spain  and  her  Literary  Merit,"  (1786.) 
Died  at  Seville  in  1797. 


i,  c, T,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;    e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


FORNER 


941 


FORSTER 


Forner,  (Don  Pablo,)  a  Spanish  lawyer  and  poet, 
born  at  Palma,  in  the  island  of  Majorca,  in  1750,  prac- 
tised law  in  Madrid,  and  obtained  the  office  of  attorney- 
general.  He  gained  distinction  by  his  eloquence  and 
poetical  talent.  Besides  odes  and  short  poems,  he  wrote 
a  successful  comedy,  called  the  "Enamoured  Philoso- 
pher," ("Filosofo  enamorado,"  1798.)    Died  in  1799. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Fornerod,  foRn'rod',  (Constant,)  a  Swiss  statesman, 
born  in  the  Canton  de  Vaud  in  1820.  He  studied  law, 
became  a  leader  of  the  Liberal  party,  and  gained  distinc- 
tion as  an  orator.  He  was  chosen  president  of  the  coun- 
cil of  state  in  1855,  and  president  of  the  federal  council 
(i.e.  the  highest  officer  in  the  republic)  in  1857,  and  was 
again  elected  to  the  same  office  in  1867. 

For'ney,  (John  W.,)  an  American  politician  and 
journalist,  born  at  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania,  in  181 7.  He 
Degan  to  edit  a  newspaper  at  Lancaster  about  1838,  and 
was  originally  a  Democrat.  In  1845  he  removed  to  Phila- 
delphia, where  he  became  editor  of  the  "  Pennsylvanian," 
a  daily  journal,  which  was  for  many  years  the  chief  organ 
of  the  Democratic  party  in  Pennsylvania.  He  was  clerk 
of  the  national  House  of  Representatives,  1852-55.  He 
supported  James  Buchanan  for  the  Presidency  in  1856. 
In  August,  1857,  he  established  "The  Press"  in  Phila- 
delphia, which  became  an  organ  of  the  Douglas  De- 
mocracy. He  was  chosen  clerk  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives in  December,  1859.  About  the  end  of  i860 
he  left  the  Democratic  party  and  joined  the  Republicans. 
He  became  secretary  of  the  Senate  of  the  United  States 
in  i86r,  and  held  that  office  until  1868. 

For-'rest,  (Edwin,)  a  popular  American  actor,  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1806.  He  performed  the  roles  of 
Othello,  Macbeth,  Richard  III.,  Spartacus,  etc.  with  great 
applause.  He  visited  England  several  times  between 
1834  and  1844.  Mr.  Forrest  has  been  one  of  the  most 
successful  of  American  actors. 

For'rest,  (Thomas,)  a  British  navigator,  was  a  captain 
in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company.  He  was 
author  of  two  valuable  works,  viz.,  "  A  Voyage  to  New 
Guinea  and  the  Moluccas,"  (made  in  1774-76,)  and  a 
"  Voyage  from  Calcutta  to  the  Mergui  Archipelago," 
(1792.) 

For'res-ter,  (Alfred  Henry,)  an  English  artist  and 
comic  writer,  was  born  in  London  in  1806.  About  1828 
he  co-o])erated  with  Hook  and  others  in  the  production 
of  the  "  Humourist  Papers"  in  "  Colburn's  Magazine," 
writing  under  the  name  of  "Alfred  Crowquill."  He 
was  the  first  illustrator  of  "  Punch."  He  has  published 
"Comic  Arithmetic,"  "Railway  Raillery,"  etc. 

Forsell,  Af,  if  foR^s§l,  (Carl,)  a  Swedish  statistician, 
distinguished  for  his  philanthropy,  was  born  at  Skottorp 
in  March,  1783.  He  attended  Bernadotte  as  adjutant 
in  the  war  in  Germany  in  1813,  after  which  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Diet  of  Sweden.  About  1820  he  applied 
steam-power  to  the  navigation  of  Swedish  waters.  He 
was  made  director-general  of  the  department  for  the  sur- 
vey of  land  in  1824,  and  published  an  important  work, 
entitled  "Statistics  of  Sweden,"  (1834.)    Died  in  1848. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Forseti,  for-s§t'e,  written  also  Forsete,  [equivalent 
to  the  Latin  Prases,  "seated  before,"  and  hence  "pre- 
siding," or  "president,"]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the 
god  who  presides  over  justice  and  settles  quarrels.  He 
is  regarded  as  the  son  of  Balder,  {i.e.  of  spotless  inno- 
cence.) His  dwelling  is  called  Glitnir,  (the  "shining,") 
because  full  light  is  necessary  for  the  operations  of  justice. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Keyser,  "Re- 
ligion of  the  Northmen." 

For'shall,  (Rev.  Josiah,)  an  English  biblical  critic, 
born  about  1795.  He  was  secretary  of  the  British  Mu- 
seum from  1828  to  1851.    Died  in  1863. 

Forskal,  foR'skil,  written  also  Forskahl  and  For- 
skael,  (Pehr,)  a  Swedish  naturalist,  born  at  Kalmar  in 
1736.  Being  well  versed  in  Oriental  languages  and  natural 
sciences,  he  was  recommended  by  Linnaeus  to  the  King 
of  Denmark,  who  chose  him  in  1761  to  accompany  Nie- 
buhr  and  others  in  a  scientific  expedition  to  Egypt  and 
Arabia.  While  engaged  in  this  enterprise,  he  died  at 
Yerim,  (Jerim,)  in  Arabia,  in  July,  1763.  The  results 
of  his  labours,  edited  and  published  by  Niebuhr,  are  a  , 


"Fauna  Orientalis,"  (1775,)  and  a  "Flora  ^gyptiaco- 
Arabica,"  (1775,)  which  acquired  for  him  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  naturalist.  "  Forskal  is  one  of  my  best 
disciples,"  said  Linnaeus:  "he  excels  in  the  knowledge 
of  insects,  and  is  but  little  inferior  in  other  branches  of 
natural  history." 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Forster,  foRs'ter,  (Ernst  Joachim,)  a  German  painter 
and  writer  on  art,  born  near  Munich  in  1800,  executed 
a  number  of  frescos  in  the  Glyptothek  and  Arcade  at 
Munich.  Among  his  publications  may  be  named  his 
"History  of  German  Art,"  (3  vols.,  1851,)  and  "Truth 
from  Jean  Paul's  Life,"  ("  Wahrheit  aus  Jean  Paul's 
Leben,"  8  vols.,  1827-33.)  He  edited  the  last  five  vol- 
umes of  the  latter. 

Fors'ter,  [Fr.  pron.  foRs'taiR',]  (FRANgois,)  a  Swiss 
engraver  on  copper,  born  at  Locle  in  1790.  He  became 
a  citizen  of  Paris,  where  he  gained  the  first  grand  prize 
in  1814,  after  which  he  went  to  Rome.  He  engraved  in 
Paris  many  plates  for  the  Musee  Napoleon  and  Musee 
Royal,  and  was  elected  to  the  Institute  in  1844.  Among 
his  best  works  are  the  "  Vierge  de  la  Legende,"  and 
"The  Three  Graces,"  both  after  Raphael,  and  a  portrait 
of  Raphael  by  himself. 

See  "Journal  des  Beaux- Arts"  for  October  10,  1842. 

Fors'ter,  (Frank,)  an  English  civil  engineer,  born  at 
or  near  Newcastle  about  1800.  He  was  employed  by 
Robert  Stephenson  on  the  London  and  Birmingham 
Railway,  and  afterwards  became  chief  engineer  of  the 
metropolitan  sewers.  He  had  resigned  this  office  a  few 
weeks  when  he  died,  in  1852. 

Forster,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  litterateur,  brother 
of  Ernst  Joachim,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1792,  and 
became  a  resident  of  Berlin.  His  works  include  lyric 
poems,  romances,  and  biographical  and  historical  treat- 
ises, among  which  are  "  Albrecht  von  Wallenstein," 
(1834,)  "Prussian  Heroes,"  (4th  edition,  1855,)  and 
"Modern  History  of  Prussia,"  (ist  vol.,  1850.) 

Fors'ter,  (P'roben,)  a  German  philosopher  and  monk, 
born  at  Konigsfeld  in  1709  ;  died  in  1791.  He  published 
several  works  on  philosophy. 

See  Ersch  und  Cruder,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Forster,  (George,)  an  English  traveller,  was  an  em- 
ployee in  the  civil  service  of  the  East  India  Company. 
He  performed  in  1783-84  a  perilous  journey  alone  from 
India  to  Europe  through  Cashmere,  Cabool,  Candahar, 
and  Herat,  and  published  an  interesting  narrative,  en- 
titled "Journey  from  Bengal  to  England,"  etc.,  (2  vols., 
1 790-98.)  He  was  afterwards  envoy  to  the  court  of  Nag- 
pore,  in  the  Deccan,  where  he  died  in  1792. 

Forster,  (Johann,)  a  learned  German  divine,  born  at 
Augsburg  in  1495,  was  a  favourite  disciple  of  Melanch- 
thon.  He  filled  the  chair  of  Hebrew  at  Wittenberg  for 
many  years  with  distinction,  and  published  an  esteemed 
Hebrew  Dictionary,  (1552.)    Died  in  1556. 

Forster,  (Johann,)  a  German  theologian,  born  in 
the  Palatinate  in  1576;  died  in  1613. 

Forster,  (Johann  GEORG,)son  of  the  celebrated  natu- 
ralist noticed  below,  was  born  near  Dantzic  in  1754. 
He  accompanied  his  father  on  his  various  expeditions, 
and  in  1777  published  a  work  entitled  "A  Voyage 
around  the  World  in  1772,  1773,  1775."  He  becatne 
professor  of  natural  history  at  Wilna  in  1784,  and  soon 
after  married  Theresa,  daughter  of  the  philologist  Heyne. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "  History  and  De- 
scription of  the  Bread-FVuit,"  (1784,)  "Views  of  the 
Lower  Rhine,  Brabant,  Flanders,  etc.,"  (3  vols.,  T791,) 
etc.  Forster  is  ranked  among  the  classic  prose  writers 
of  Germany.  Died  in  Paris  in  1794.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Alexander  von  Humboldt.  A  collection  of  his  Letters 
was  published  by  his  widow,  (2  vols.,  1828.) 

See  Moi.KscHOTT,  "Georg  Forster  der  Naturforscherdes  Volks," 
1854;  Grrvinus,  "J.  G.  Forster,"  1843;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "All- 
gemeine Encyklopaedie  ;"  "  Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1856. 

Forster,  (Johann  Retnhold,)  a  celebrated  German 
traveller,  and  one  of  the  first  naturalists  of  his  time,  born 
near  Dantzic,  October  22,  1729.  In  1765  he  was  com- 
missioned by  the  Russian  government  to  visit  the  colo- 
nies in  Asiatic  Russia,  of  which  he  gave  an  accurate 
account  on  his  return.  Having  spent  several  years  in 
England  as  a  teacher,  he  accompanied  Captain  Cook  in 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  o,  h,  v.,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FORSTER 


942 


FORTEGUERRI 


1772  on  his  second  voyage  to  the  South  Sea;  but,  being 
prohibited  from  giving  a  narrative  of  this  voyage,  it  was 
published  in  1777  by  his  son,  who  took  part  in  the  expe- 
dition. After  his  return  to  Germany,  Forster  became  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  at  Halle  in  1780.  Among  his 
works,  which  display  profound  learning,  may  be  named 
"On  the  Linen  of  the  Ancients,"  ("  De  Bysso  Antiquo- 
rum,")  "Observations  made  during  a  Voyage  round  the 
World  on  Physical  Geography,  Natural  History,  and 
Ethic  Philosophy,"  (1778,)  and  "  Zoologia  Indica,"  (1781.) 
Forster  possessed  a  very  retentive  memory,  and  spoke 
and  wrote  seventeen  languages.  He  was  hasty  in  his 
temper  and  unpolished  in  his  manners.  It  is  related  that 
on  being  presented  to  Frederick  the  Great  he  said,  "  I 
have  seen  seven  kings,  four  wild  and  three  tame  ones,  but 
none  to  be  compared  to  your  majesty."    Died  in  1798. 

See  J.  G.  Forster,  "Voyage  round  the  World  in  the  Resolution, 
etc.;"  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encykiopaedie." 

Fors'ter,  (John,)  of  the  Inner  Temple,  an  eloquent 
English  author  and  editor,  born  at  Newcastle  in  181 2. 
He  was  educated  in  the  London  University,  studied  law, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar.  About  1834  he  began  to  write 
for  "  The  Examiner,"  (see  Fonblanque,  Albany,)  of 
which  he  has  been  chief  editor  since  1846.  He  published 
in  1840  "  Lives  of  the  Statesmen  of  the  Commonwealth," 
(7  vols.,)  which  has  obtained  much  popularity.  "  We 
regard  these  biographies,"  says  the  "  London  Morning 
Chronicle,"  "as  additions  of  the  very  highest  value  to 
what  we  may  term  our  political  literature."  His  "Life 
and  Adventures  of  Oliver  Goldsmith"  (1848)  is  greatly 
admired.  "  It  is  executed,"  says  Irving,  "  with  a  spirit,  a 
feeling,  a  grace,  and  an  elegance  that  leave  nothing  to 
be  desired."  He  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  com- 
missioners in  lunacy  in  1856.  He  also  published  "  His- 
torical and  Biographical  Essays,"  (2  vols.,  1858,)  many 
of  which  first  appeared  in  the  Edinburgh  and  Quarterly 
Reviews,  "  Life  of  Sir  John  Eliot,"  (1864,)  and  "  Walter 
Savage  Landor  :  a  Biography,"  (2  vols.,  1869.) 

Forster  or  Foerster,  (Karl,)  a  German  scholar, 
born  at  Naumburg  in  1784,  published  translations  of 
Dante's  "  Vita  Nuova"  and  Tasso's  "  Select  Lyrics,"  and 
finished  in  1838  the  "Library  of  German  Poets  of  the 
Seventeenth  Century,"  begun  by  Miiller.    Died  in  1841. 

See  L.  Forster,  "  Biographische  und  literarische  Skizzen." 

Forster,  (Nathaniel,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
at  Stadscombe,  in  Devonshire,  in  171 7,  became  preben- 
dary of  Bristol  and  vicar  of  Rochdale  in  1754.  He 
edited  Plato's  "  Dialogues,"  (1745,)  and  wrote  an  essay 
"On  the  Antiquity  of  Government,  Arts,  etc.  in  Egypt," 
(1743,)  besides  other  works.    Died  in  1757. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Forster,  (Thomas  Ignatius  Maria,)  a  naturalist 
and  meteorologist,  born  in  London  in  1789.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Natural  History  of  the  Swallow,"  (1808;  6th 
edition,  1817,)  edited  Catullus  in  1816,  and  wrote  essays 
on  meteorology  for  "The  Philosophic  Magazine."  He 
discovered  a  comet  in  1819.  Among  his  various  works 
is  a  "  Perpetual  Calendar,  illustrating  the  Events  of  every 
Day  in  the  Year,"  etc.,  (1824.)    Died  about  1850. 

Forster,  (Valentin,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Wit- 
tenberg in  1530.  Among  his  works  is  "  Historia  Juris 
civilis  Romani,"  (1565,)    Died  in  1608. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encykiopaedie." 

Forster,  (William,)  an  English  philanthropist,  born 
at  Tottenham,  near  London,  in  1784.  He  became  a 
minister  of  the  Society  of  Friends  in  1803,  and  married 
Anna,  a  sister  of  Thomas  Fowell  Buxton,  in  1816.  In 
1820  he  visited  the  United  States.  He  settled  near  Nor- 
wich in  1838.  In  1844-45  he  laboured  as  a  minister  of 
the  gospel  in  France.  He  took  active  measures  to  re- 
lieve the  people  of  Ireland  during  the  famine  of  1846, 
and  visited  various  parts  of  the  island  for  this  purpose. 
In  1849  he  was  commissioned  by  the  Yearly  Meeting  of 
London  to  present  an  address  on  slavery  and  the  slave- 
trade  to  the  sovereigns  and  rulers  of  Christendom.  After 
he  had  obtained  interviews  with  many  European  mon- 
archs,  he  proceeded  to  the  United  States  in  1853,  and 
presented  the  address  to  the  President  and  also  to  the 
Governors  of  several  Southern  States.  His  mission  was 
nearly  fulfilled,  when  he  died  on  the  Holston  River,  in 


Blount  county,  Tennessee,  in  1854.  He  left  one  son, 
William  E.,  noticed  below. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  William  Forster,"  edited  by  B.  Skebohm,  1865. 

Forster,  (William  E.,)  an  English  Liberal  statesman 
and  orator,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and  nephew  of  T. 
F(iwell  Buxton,  was  born  in  1818.  He  married  Jane, 
daughter  of  Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby.  He  was  elected  to 
Parliament  for  Bradford  in  1861.  About  February,  1866, 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Russell  ministry,  and  under- 
secretary for  the  C(^lonies.  He  retired  from  office  in  July, 
1866.  I  le  was  appointed  vice-president  of  the  council  in 
December,  1868,  and  afterwards  became  a  cabinet  minis- 
ter. He  was  the  author  of  the  important  Education  Bill 
which  was  passed  in  1870.  "  He  stands,"  says  the  "  Spec- 
tator" for  January  21,  1871,  "in  the  first  rank  of  English 
statesmen.  There  is  no  man  in  the  cabinet  so  likely,  if 
he  lives,  to  become  prime  minister  as  Mr.  Forster." 

Forstner,  foRst'ner,  (Christoph,)  a  German  diplo- 
matist, born  in  1598;  died  in  1667. 

Forsyth,  for-sith',  (John,)  an  American  statesman, 
was  born  in  Fredericksburg,  Virginia,  in  1780.  After 
graduating  at  Princeton,  he  removed  to  Augusta,  Geor- 
gia, where  he  studied  law.  He  served  with  distinction  as 
a  member  of  Congress  many  years  between  1 8 13  and 
1827,  also  as  United  States  Senator  from  Georgia  in  1818 
and  1819.  From  1819  to  1822  he  was  employed  on  a 
mission  to  Spain.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  the 
State  in  1827,  and  was  chosen  Senator  for  a  second  term, 
commencing  in  1829.  He  was  secretary  of  state  in  the 
cabinet  of  General  Jackson  from  1834  to  1837,  and  also 
in  that  of  Van  Buren,  from  1837  to  1841.    Died  in  1841. 

Forsyth,  for-sTth',  (Joseph,)  born  at  Elgin,  in  Scot- 
land, in  1763,  was  a  classical  teacher  near  London,  While 
making  a  tour  on  the  continent,  he  was  detained  a  pris- 
oner by  the  French  for  several  years.  He  published 
interesting  "Remarks  on  Antiquities,  Arts,  and  Letters 
during  an  Excursion  in  Italy."  Died  in  1815.  Lord 
Byron  called  him  "  an  accomplished  traveller,  of  extraor- 
dinary capacity,  extensive  erudition,  and  refined  taste." 

Forsyth,  (William,)  born  in  Scotland  in  1737,  was 
appointed  in  1784  superintendent  of  the  Royal  Gardens 
at  Kensington,  and  wrote  a  work  on  the  "Culture  and 
Management  of  Fruit-Trees,"  (1802.)    Died  in  1804. 

Forsyth,  (William,)  a  British  barrister,  born  about 
1812,  published  a  "Dictionary  of  the  Statute  Laws  of 
Scotland,"  (1842,)  a  "  History  of  the  Trial  by  Jury," 
(1852,)  and  other  legal  works  ;  also  an  interesting  "Life 
of  Cicero,"  (2  vols.,  1864.) 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1864;  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  January,  1864. 

Fort,  Le.    See  Lefort. 

Forteguerri,  foR-ta-gwgr'ree,  or  Fortiguerra,  foR-te- 
gw^r'ri,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  poet  and  priest,  born  at 
Pistoia  in  1674.  He  became  a  resident  of  Rome,  where 
he  obtained  the  offices  of  chamberlain  to  the  pope  and 
prelate-referendary.  In  171 5  he  was  spending  the  au- 
tumn in  the  country,  where  he  amused  his  friends  by 
reading  the  verses  of  Berni,  of  Pulci,  and  of  Ariosto.  One 
of  the  company  expressed  his  admiration  at  the  art  with 
which  these  poets  had  overcome  the  difficulties  of  the 
octave  rhyme.  Forteguerri  maintained  that  the  diffi- 
culty was  imaginary,  and  engaged  to  produce  on  the 
ensuing  evening  the  first  canto  of  a  poem  which  should 
imitate  them  all.  He  fulfilled  his  promise  with  such 
success  that  his  friends  persuaded  him  to  continue  the 
story.  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  amusing  and  popular 
poem  of  "  Ricciardetto,"  (1738,)  in  which  the  exuber- 
ance and  extravagance  of  the  author's  fancy  are  equal 
to  the  facility,  elegance,  and  freedom  of  his  style.  He 
also  made  an  Italian  version  of  Terence  in  blank  verse. 
Died  in  1735. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri;"  Sebastiano 
CiAMPi,  "Memoriedi  N.  Forteguerri,"  1813;  "Narrative  and  Ro- 
mantic Poetry  of  the  Italians,"  in  the  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  April,  1819;  and  "Italian  Narrative  Poetry,"  in  the  "North 
American  Review"  for  October,  1824,  (by  W.  H.  Prescott.) 

Forteguerri  or  Fortiguerra,  (Scipione,)  called  also 
Carteromaco,  an  Italian  scholar,  born  at  Pistoia  in 
1466.  When  Aldus  Manutius  instituted  his  Academy  at 
Venice,  (the  chief  object  of  which  was  to  perfect  editions 
of  classic  authors,)  about  1495,  ^''^  chose  Forteguerri  as 
secretary  of  this  institution.    Here  he  wrote  his  famous 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fSll,  f4t;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moonj 


FORTESCUE 


943 


FOSCARINI 


discourse  in  praise  of  Greek  learning,  "  Oratio  de  Laudi- 
bus  Literarum  Graecarum,"  (1504,)  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  Greek  about  1500.    Died  in  15 15. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  S.  Ciampi, 
"Memorie  di  S.  Carteromaco,"  181 1. 

For'tes-cue,  (Chichester  Samuel  Parkinson,)  an 
English  statesman,  born  in  1823,  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford, where  he  graduated  in  1844.  He  was  under-secretary 
of  state  for  the  colonies  from  1859  to  1865,  and  was  chief 
secretary  for  Ireland  from  November,  1865,  to  June,  1866. 
In  December,  1868,  he  was  reappointed  to  that  office  by 
Mr.  Gladstone. 

Fortescue,  (Sir  John,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer, 
was  the  son  of  Sir  Henry  Fortescue.  The  date  and 
place  of  his  birth  are  unknown.  He  was  made  lord 
chief  justice  in  1442,  and  grand  chancellor  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VI.,  whose  adverse  fortunes  he  shared  in  the  war 
of  the  Roses.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  work  "  On  the  Praises 
of  British  Laws,"  ("De  Laudibus  Legum  Angliae,") 
which  is  highly  esteemed.  Fuller,  in  his  "Worthies," 
says,  "His  learned  'Commentaries  on  the  Law'  make 
him  famous  to  all  posterity."  He  died,  it  is  supposed, 
about  1485. 

See  Bridgman,  "Legal  Biography;"  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives 
of  the  Lord  Chancellors  ;"  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  iv. 

For'tes-cue-ATand,  (Sir  John,)  first  Baron  For- 
tescue, an  English  judge  and  writer,  a  descendant  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1670.  He  was  appointed  a 
judge  of  the  king's  bench  in  1718,  and  gained  distinction 
by  his  literary  merits.  A  collection  of  his  reports  was 
published  in  1748.    Died  in  1746. 

See  Foss,  "  The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  viii. 

Forti.    See  Fortis. 

Fortia,  foR'te-|,',  (Agricole  Joseph  Franqois  Xa- 
vikr  Pierre  Esprit  Simon  Paul  An toine,)  Marquis  of 
Fortia-d'Urban,  a  French  savant  and  writer,  was  born  at 
Avignon  in  1756.  He  wrote  many  and  various  works, 
among  which  are  "  Melanges  of  Geography  and  History," 
(1795,)  a  "  Life  of  Petrarch,"  (1804,)  "  Historical  View  of 
the  World  from  its  Origin  to  the  Age  of  Alexander," 
(4  vols.,  1810,)  and  an  "  Essay  on  the  Origin  of  Writing," 
(1832.)    Died  in  1843. 

See  RiPERT-MoNTCLAR,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Fortia-d'Ur- 
ban," 1840. 

Fortin,  fok'tdN',  (Augustin  F^lix,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor, born  about  1760 ;  died  in  1832. 

Fortis,  foR't^ss,  or  Forti,  foR'tee,  (Giovanni  Battis- 
TA,)  Abhate,  an  Italian  writer,  sometimes  called  Albert, 
born  at  Padua  or  Vicenza  in  1741.  He  was  noted  for 
versatility  of  talent,  and  was  by  turns  poet,  naturalist, 
journalist,  and  biographer.  He  is  chiefly  remembered 
for  his  "Travels  in  Dalmatia,"  (1774.)    Died  in  1803. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Fortoul,  foR^tooK,  (Hippolyte  Nicolas  Honors,) 
a  PVench  writer  and  minister  of  state,  born  at  Digne 
(Basses-Alpes)  in  181 1.  In  early  life  he  professed  re- 
publican principles,  and  gained  literary  distinction  by 
writing  for  the  "  Revue  de  Paris"  and  other  periodicals. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "The  Grandeur  of  Pri- 
vate Life,"  (1838,)  a  novel.  He  obtained  the  chair  of 
literature  in  the  University  of  Toulouse  about  1840,  and 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Institute  in  1854. 
Soon  after  the  revolution  of  1848  he  was  elected  to  the 
National  Assembly,  and  in  December,  1 85 1,  was  ap- 
pointed by  Louis  Napoleon  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion. He  adopted  an  important  innovation  in  education, 
called  the  system  of  bifurcation,  by  which  sciences  and 
belles-lettres  were  separated.    Died  in  1856. 

See  LouANDRE  et  Bourquelot,  "  La  Litterature  Frangaise  con- 
temporaine;"  F.  Lacointa,  "Notice  sur  M.  H.  Fortoul,"  1853; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

For-tu'na,  [Fr.  Fortune,  foR^tun',]  the  Roman  name 
of  the  goddess  of  chance,  fortune,  and  good  luck,  called 
Tvxv  by  the  Greeks.  Several  temples  of  Fortune  were 
erected  at  Rome  and  other  cities  of  Italy. 

Fortunat.    See  Fortunatus. 

For-tu-na'tus,  [Fr.  Fortunat,  foR^tii'nt',]  (Ve- 
nan'tius  Hono'rius  Clementia'nus,)  Saint,  a  Latin 
poet,  born  at  Ceneda  in  530  A.D.,  became  Bishop  of 
Poitiers. 


Fortune.    See  Fortuna. 

For'tune,  (Robert,)  a  British  traveller  and  horticul- 
turist, born  at  Berwick  in  1813.  He  went  to  China  in 
1843  to  collect  botanical  specimens  for  the  London  Hor- 
ticultural Society.  Having  returned  in  1846,  he  published 
"Three  Years'  Wanderings  in  the  Northern  Provinces 
of  China."  In  1848  he  again  visited  China,  to  procure 
tea-plants  for  the  East  India  Directors.  The  narratives 
of  his  various  journeys  were  published  together  in  1853, 
under  the  title  of  "Two  Visits  to  the  Tea  Countries  of 
China,  etc.,  with  a  Description  of  the  Culture  of  the 
Tea-Plant  and  the  Botany  of  China."  He  afterwards 
produced  a  "  Residence  among  the  Chinese  :  a  Narra- 
tive of  a  Third  Visit  to  China  from  1853  to  1856,"  (1857.) 
"The  value  and  interest  of  these  books  are  very  great." 
("London  Quarterly  Review,"  article  on  "Fortune  and 
Hue,"  July,  1857;  see,  also,  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
October,  1848.) 

For'ward,  (Walter,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  in 
Connecticut  in  1786,  removed  in  1803  to  Pittsburg,  where 
he  practised  law  with  success.  He  was  a  member  of 
Congress  from  1822  to  1825,  and  in  September,  1841,  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury  by  President  Tyler. 
Died  in  1852. 

Forzate,  foRd-ZcVti,  or  Forzati,  foRd-zi'tee,  (Clau- 
Dio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Padua,  lived  about  1560- 
90.    He  wrote  "Recinda,"  a  tragedy. 

Fosbroke,  fos'brook,  or  Fosbrooke,  (Thomas 
Dudley,)  an  English  antiquary  and  clergyman,  born  in 
London  in  1770,  obtained  the  living  of  Walford.  He 
wrote,  among  other  learned  works,  "  British  Monachism," 
(1802,)  and  an  "Encyclopaedia  of  Antiquities  and  Ele- 
ments of  Archaeology,"  (2  vols.,  1823-25.)  Died  in  1842. 

Foscarari,  fos-kd-ri^ree,  (Egidio,)  an  Italian  eccle- 
siastic, born  at  Bologna  in  1 5 12,  became  Bishop  of 
Modena  in  1550.  He  was  one  of  three  members  of 
the  Council  of  Trent  appointed  to  compile  a  catechism 
about  1561.    Died  in  1564. 

Foscari,  fos'k^-ree,  (Francesco,)  a  celebrated  doge 
of  Venice,  was  born  about  1372,  and  elected  doge  in 
1423.  He  waged  war  for  many  years  against  the  Duke 
of  Milan  and  other  Italian  princes.  The  Venetians, 
though  sometimes  defeated,  obtained  possession  of  the 
provinces  of  Crema,  Bergamo,  and  Brescia.  "The  am- 
bition of  Foscari,"  says  Sismondi,  "was  advantageous 
to  the  republic,  but  fatal  to  his  own  happiness."  His 
old  age  was  rendered  unhapj-jy  by  the  ruin  of  his  son, 
unjustly  condemned  and  tortured  by  the  Council  of  Ten. 
He  was  deposed  in  1457,  and  died  about  three  days  after 
that  event.  The  suflferings  of  this  doge  and  of  his  son 
form  the  subject  of  Byron's  tragedy  entitled  "  The  Two 
Foscari." 

See  Daru,  "  HIstoire  de  Venise ;"  Marino  Sanuto,  "Vite  de' 
Duchi  di  Venezia;"  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Ita- 
liennes." 

Foscarini,  fos-ki-ree'nee,  (Marco,)  an  eminent  Ital- 
ian statesman  and  author,  born  in  Venice  about  1696. 
After  having  gained  distinction  by  his  learning,  talents, 
and  eloquence,  he  was  chosen  procurator  of  vSaint  Mark, 
and  employed  successively  in  diplomatic  missions  to 
various  courts  of  Europe.  Before  he  departed  on  his 
first  embassy,  he  had  been  selected  by  the  Council  of 
Ten  to  write  a  continuation  of  Venetian  history.  As 
this  could  not  be  performed  without  the  examination  of 
the  archives  of  Venice,  he  undertook  instead  another 
national  work,  a  "  History  of  Venetian  Literature."  Of 
this  he  published  in  1752  the  first  volume,  "Delia  Let- 
teratura Veneziana,"  which  contains  critical  dissertations 
on  the  rise  and  progress  of  law,  history,  astronomy,  and 
other  sciences  in  Venice,  and  was  highly  appreciated. 
The  pressure  of  various  public  duties  prevented  him 
from  writing  the  second  part  of  his  projected  work.  In 
1762  he  was  elected  doge.    Died  in  March,  1763. 

See  DARU,  "Histoire  de  Venise;"  Tipaldo,  "Biografia  degli 
Italiani  illustri ;"  L.  Arnaldi,  "  Orazione  in  Onore  del  Doge  M. 
Foscarini,"  1765. 

Foscarini,  (Michele,)  a  Venetian  senator  and  histo- 
riographer, eminent  for  talents  and  eloquence,  was  born 
in  1632.  The  Council  of  Ten  in  1678  selected  him  to  con- 
tinue the  history  of  Venice,  begun  by  Cardinal  Bembo. 
He  had  composed  seven  books  when  his  death  occurred, 


c  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  O,  H,  Yi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FOSCHINI 


944 


FOSTER 


in  1692.  This  work  is  esteemed  authentic,  being  derived 
from  the  archives  of  the  republic. 

See  Nic^RON.  "Memoires." 

Foschini,  fos-kee'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  archi- 
tect, born  about  1740,  erected  at  Ferrara  a  number  of 
buildings,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  was  the  theatre, 
considered  one  of  the  finest  in  Italy.    Died  about  1802. 

Fosco,  fos'ko,  [Lat.  Fas'cus,|  (Placido,)  a  skilful 
Italian  physician,  born  in  1509;  died  in  1574. 

Foscolo,  fos'ko-lo,  (Ugo,)  an  eloquent  Italian  poet 
and  prose  writer,  born  at  Zante  or  at  sea  near  Zante 
about  1776,  was  educated  in  Italy.  In  the  political  move- 
ments which  followed  the  Frencli  Revolution  he  took  a 
conspicuous  part  as  a  friend  of  national  independence. 
About  1800  he  produced  a  political  romance,  entitled 
"Letters  of  Jacopo  Ortis,"  ("Lettere  di  Jacopo  Ortis,") 
which  had  immense  popularity.  He  was  an  officer  in 
the  army  which  Napoleon  assembled  for  the  invasion  of 
England  in  1805,  but  did  not  remain  long  in  the  service. 
He  is  praised  for  the  lofty  spirit  of  independence  which 
refused  to  join  in  the  general  homage  or  adulation  to 
Napoleon  in  Italy.  His  admirable  lyric  poem  "The 
Monuments"  ("I  Sepolcri,"  1807)  is  called  his  capital 
work.  He  was  ])rofessor  of  eloquence  at  Pavi'a  for  a 
short  time  in  1808,  and  emigrated  to  England  in  1816. 
He  lectured  on  Italian  literature  in  London  in  1823. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Ricciarda,"  a  tragedy;  an  able 
"Discourse  on  the  Text  of  Dante,"  (1826;)  and  an 
"Essay  on  Petrarch."    Died  near  London  in  1827. 

See  "Vita  di  Ugo  Foscolo,  scritta  da  G.  Pecchio,"  1830;  G. 
Caleffi,  "Cenni  siilla  Vita,  il  Carattere,  etc.  di  Ugo  Foscolo," 
1835;  Maffei,  "  Storia  della  Letteratuia  Italiana,  Secolo  XIX.;" 
LuiGi  Career,  "Vita  di  Ugo  Foscolo."  Venice,  1842;  Longfel- 
low, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Nouvelie  Biographic  Gene- 
rale;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1832. 

Foss,  (Edward,)  an  English  lawyer  and  writer  of 
biography,  born  about  1788,  published  "The  Grandeur 
of  the  Law,  or  the  Legal  Peers  of  England,"  (1843,)  ^^^o 
a  highly  esteemed  work  on  legal  history,  entitled  "The 
Judges  of  England,"  (9  vols.,  1848-64.) 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1866. 

Fossati,  fos-sS'tee,  (Davide  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  engraver,  brother  of  Giorgio,  noticed  below, 
was  born  about  17 14.  He  worked  in  Venice,  where  he 
painted  frescos  in  the  Contarini  palace.  He  etched  "  The 
Family  of  Darius  with  Alexander,"  after  Paul  Veronese, 
and  many  views  of  Venice.    Died  about  1780. 

See  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario." 

Fossati,  (Domenico,)  an  eminent  Italian  scene- 
painter,  born  in  Venice  in  1743,  was  the  son  of  Giorgio, 
noticed  below.  He  was  employed  in  decorating  theatres 
and  palaces  in  Venice  and  Milan.  He  was  killed  by  a 
fall  in  1784. 

Fossati,  (Giorgio,)  an  Italian  architect  and  engraver, 
born  at  Morco,  near  Lugano,  about  1705,  engraved  plates 
for  the  works  of  Palladio. 

Fossati,  (Giovanni  Antonio  Lorenzo,)  an  Italian 
writer  on  medicine  and  phrenology,  was  born  at  Novara 
in  1786.  He  became  a  resident  of  Paris  about  1824, 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  Manual  of  Phrenology,  or  Phy- 
siology of  the  Brain,"  (1845.) 

See  "Nouvelie  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Fossati,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Milan  ;  died  in  1653. 
Fosse.    See  Lafosse. 

Fosse,  du,  dii  fo'si',  (Pierre  Thomas,)  a  learned 
French  writer,  born  at  Rouen  in  1634.  He  became  at 
an  early  age  one  of  the  recluses  of  Port-Royal,  learned 
Hebrew  and  other  languages,  and  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation for  virtue  and  erudition.  He  published,  besides 
other  biographies,  a  "  Life  of  Thomas  a  Becket,"  (1674,) 
and  a  "  History  of  Tertullian  and  Origen,"  (1675,)  both 
in  French.    Died  in  1698. 

See  MoRi^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "  His- 
toire  de  Port- Royal ;"  "  Memoires  de  P.  Thomas  Seigneur  du  Fosse," 
1739- 

Fossombroni,  fos-som-bRo'nee,  (Vittorio,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  statesman  and  writer,  born  at  Arezzo,  in 
Tuscany,  in  1754,  excelled  in  mathematics  and  philoso- 
phy. In  1796  he  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs  of 
the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  he  held  several  offices 


under  the  new  government  which  Bonaparte  established 
in  1799.  After  the  restoration  of  the  grand  duke  (1814) 
Fossombroni  was  again  appointed  minister  of  foreign 
aflfairs,  and  councillor  of  state.  He  published,  in  the 
course  of  his  long  life,  many  treatises  on  hydraulics  and 
mathematics.    Died  in  1844. 

See  Saint-Maurick  Cabany,  "Le  Comte  V.  Fossombroni," 
Paris,  1845. 

Fos't^r,  (BiRKET,)  a  skilful  English  engraver  on 
wood,  born  at  North  Shields  about  1825.  He  has  illus- 
trated the  works  of  several  English  poets  with  wood-cuts. 
He  published  "Christmas  with  the  Poets,"  (1850,)  and 
"Cowper's  Task,  with  Illustrations,"  (1855,)  "which," 
says  the  "London  Quarterly  Review,"  "is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  gift-books  that  has  ever  appeared."  He 
has  also  illustrated  several  other  works. 

Foster,  (Henry,)  an  English  navigator,  born  in  Lan- 
cashire in  1797.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, he  was  selected  to  command  an  expedition  sent  in 
1828  to  make  observations  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean.  In 
January,  1829,  he  had  reached  a  portion  of  land  in  63° 
26'  south  latitude,  which  was  within  the  circle  of  per- 
petual congelation.  During  the  homeward  voyage  he 
was  drowned  in  the  river  Chagres  in  February,  1831. 

Foster,  (James,)  a  very  pojDular  English  dissenting 
minister,  born  at  Exeter  in  1697.  He  began  to  preach 
at  the  Barbican,  London,  in  1724,  and  was  eminent  for 
eloquence  and  fervour  of  spirit.  He  was  an  Independent 
in  his  youth,  and  afterwards  was  ba])tized  by  immer- 
sion. In  1744  he  became  minister  at  Pinners' Hall.  He 
published  an  "Essay  on  Fundamentals,  especially  the 
Trinity,"  (1720,)  several  volumes  of  sermons,  and  other 
works.  Died  in  1753.  Foster  is  the  subject  of  the  fol- 
lowing couplet  of  Pope  ; 

"  Let  modest  Foster,  if  he  will,  excel 
Ten  metropolitans  in  preaching  well." 

See  Pope's  "  Satires,"  preface, 

Foster,  (John,)  an  English  philologist,  born  at  Wind- 
sor in  1 73 1.  He  became  master  of  Eton  School  in  1765. 
He  has  left  a  memorial  of  his  scholarship  and  critical 
sagacity  in  his  "  Essay  on  the  Different  Nature  of  Accent 
and  Quantity,"  (1762;  3d  edition,  1820.)    Died  in  1773. 

Foster,  (John,)  an  English  essayist  and  moralist  of 
great  merit,  born  at  or  near  Halifax  on  the  17th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1770.  He  worked  at  the  trade  of  a  weaver  in 
his  youth,  and  was  educated  for  the  ministry  at  the 
Baptist  College  of  Bristol,  which  he  entered  in  1791. 
He  became  a  Baptist  minister  at  Chichester  about  1797, 
but  did  not  remain  there  long.  He  afterwards  preached 
at  Downend,  near  Bristol,  and  at  Frome  for  a  short 
time.  As  a  minister  he  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
very  popular.  He  was  the  principal  contributor  to  the 
"  Eclectic  Review,"  for  which  he  began  to  write  in  1806. 
His  reputation  is  founded  on  Essays  in  a  Series  of 
Letters  to  a  Friend,  (1805:)  i.  "On  a  Man's  Writing 
Memoirs  of  Himself;"  2.  "On  Decision  of  Character;" 
3.  "  On  the  Application  of  the  Epithet  Romantic;"  4. 
"On  some  of  the  Causes  by  which  Evangelical  Religion 
has  been  rendered  unacceptable  to  Persons  of  Cultivated 
Taste."  These  essays  are  the  productions  of  a  profound 
and  original  thinker.  His  morality  is  high-toned  and  his 
principles  are  liberal.  "I  have  read  with  the  greatest 
admiration  the  Essays  of  Mr.  Foster,"  says  Sir  James 
Mackintosh.  "  He  is  one  of  the  most  profound  and  elo- 
quent writers  that  England  has  produced."  He  married 
Maria  Snooke,  of  Downend,  about  1808,  and  relinquished 
the  labours  of  the  ministry.  The  last  eighteen  years  of 
his  life  were  passed  at  Stapleton,  where  he  died  in  Octo- 
ber, 1843.  Among  his  principal  works  is  an  "  Essay  on 
the  Evils  of  Popular  Ignorance,"  (1819.) 

See  "Life  and  Correspondence  of  John  P'oster,"  by  J.  E.  Ry- 
land,  with  Notices  of  Mr.  Foster  as  a  preacher  and  companion,  by 
John  Sheppard,  2  vols.,  1846;  De  Quincey,  "  Essays." 

Foster,  (John,)  an  English  architect  of  Liverpool, 
born  about  1786,  studied  the  models  of  antiquity  in 
Greece,  In  1824  he  was  chosen  corporation-architect  and 
surveyor  of  the  city  of  Liverpool,  where  he  constructed 
several  churches  and  other  ]3ublic  edifices,  among  which 
is  the  custom-house,  a  sandstone  building.  It  is  the 
largest  structure  in  Liverpool,  but  has  a  very  heavy 
and  dull  appearance.    Died  in  1846. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fdt;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FOSTER 


945 


FOUCHER 


Fos'ter,  (John  G.,)  an  American  general,  born  in  New 
Hampshire  about  1824,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846. 
He  became  a  captain  in  i860,  and  was  one  of  the  garrison 
of  Fort  Sumter  when  it  was  bombarded  in  April,  1861. 
He  commanded  a  brigade  under  Burnside  at  Roanoke 
Island  in  February,  and  at  Newbern  in  March,  1862, 
About  August,  1862,  he  was  appointed  a  major-general 
of  volunteers,  and  commander  of  the  department  of 
Virginia  and  North  Carolina.  He  succeeded  General 
Burnside  in  East  Tennessee  in  December,  1863,  and 
commanded  the  department  of  the  South  in  1864. 

Fester,  (Sir  Michael,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  at 
Marlborough  in  1689.  In  1745  he  was  knighted  and 
api^ointed  judge  of  the  court  of  king's  bench.  He  wrote 
a  "  Discourse  on  the  Crown  Law,"  which  was  much 
esteemed.  Blackstone  called  him  *'a  very  great  master 
of  the  crown  law."    Died  in  1763. 

See  Foss,  "Judges  of  England;"  Bridgman,  "Legal  Biogra- 
phy;" M.  DoDSON,  "  Life  of  Sir  M.  Foster,"  iSii. 

Foster,  (Randolph  S.,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist  divine 
and  author,  president  of  the  Northwestern  University  at 
Evanston,  Illinois,  was  born  in  Williamsburg,  Ohio,  in 
1820.  His  principal  works  are  "Christian  Purity,"  and 
"Ministry  for  the  'I'imes." 

Foster,  (Samuel,)  an  English  mathematician,  born  in 
Northamptonshire,  was  noted  as  an  inventor  of  mathe- 
matical instruments.  He  published  a  treatise  on  the 
"Quadrant,"  (1624,)  and  other  works.  In  1636  he  be- 
came professor  of  astronomy  in  Gresham  College,  Lon- 
don.   Died  in  1652. 

Foster,  (S  tei'Hen  C.,)  an  American  musical  composer 
and  writer  of  songs,  was  born  in  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania, 
in  1826.  He  produced  many  popular  songs  or  ballads, 
among  which  are  "My  Old  Kentucky  Home,"  "Susan- 
nah," "Old  P^olks  at  Home,"  and  "Willie,  we  have 
missed  you."    He  died  in  New  York  in  1864. 

See  "  Atlantic  Monthly"  for  November,  1867. 

Fotherby,  foth'er-by,  (Martin,)  an  English  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1559;  died  in  1619. 

Fotherby,  (Robert,)  an  English  navigator,  who  was 
sent  with  Baffin,  in  1614,  to  explore  the  Northern  Ocean. 
Their  progress  being  arrested  by  ice  about  the  eightieth 
degree  of  latitude,  they  returned  home. 

Fothergill,  fotl/er-gill,  (George,)  an  English  divine, 
born  in  Westmoreland  in  1705,  became  Vicar  of  Bramley 
in  1 75 1,  after  having  been  tutor  in  Queen's  College, 
Oxford.  He  published  several  volumes  of  approved 
sermons.    Died  in  1760. 

Fothergill,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  highly  dis- 
tinguished for  benevolence  and  professional  skill,  was 
born  at  Carr-End,  near  Richmond,  in  Yorkshire,  in 
1712,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  After 
graduating  in  Edinburgh  in  1737,  he  made  the  tour  of 
Europe,  and  settled  in  London,  where  he  obtained  a 
large  practice.  Being  deeply  interested  in  natural  his- 
tory and  rural  economy,  he  laid  out  at  Upton  a  large 
garden,  in  which  he  collected  and  acclimated  such  exotic 
plants  as  are  useful  in  medicine  and  the  arts.  Dr.  Fother- 
gill wrote  numerous  treatises  on  therapeutics,  pharmacy, 
etc.  He  was  a  coadjutor  of  Howard  in  his  efforts  to 
reform  the  management  of  prisons.  Dr.  Franklin  once 
said  of  him,  "I  can  hardly  conceive  that  a  better  man 
ever  existed."    Died  in  December,  1780. 

See  a  Memoir  of  Dr.  Fothergill,  prefixed  to  his  works,  by  John 
Em  lOT,  M.D.,  1781 ;  J.  C.  Lkttsom,  "Account  of  the  Life  of  John 
Fothergill ;"  W.  Hird,  "Tribute  to  the  Memory  of  Dr.  John  Fother- 
gill ;"  Gilbert  Thompson,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  J.  Fothergill," 
1782. 

Fothergill,  (Samuel,)  an  eminent  and  eloquent  min- 
ister of  the  Society  of  Friends,  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Carr-End,  England,  in  1716.  Having  been 
converted  from  a  life  of  dissipation  or  libertinism  about 
the  age  of  twenty-one,  he  soon  appeared  as  a  minister 
of  the  gospel,  in  the  service  of  which  he  travelled  ex- 
tensively in  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and  North  America. 
He  resided  in  Warrington,  and  acquired  a  competence 
by  trade.  Many  of  his  letters  and  some  of  his  sermons 
have  been  published.    Died  in  1773. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Samuel  Fothergill." 

Fo-Thoo-Chhing  or  Fo-Thou-Tchhing,  fo-t'hoo- 
ch'hing,  a  fabulous  or  semi-fabulous  personage,  who  is 


said  to  have  been  born  in  Hindostan,  and  to  have  greatly 
contributed,  by  his  proficiency  in  magic  or  occult  science, 
to  the  establishment  of  the  religion  of  Buddha  in  China, 
about  the  year  310  A.D. 

Foucaud,  foo'kS',  (Jean,)  a  French  fabulist,  born  at 
Limoges  in  1747,  was  a  zealous  revolutionist  about  1790. 
He  imitated  or  translated  into  patois  the  fables  of  La 
Fontaine,  (1809.)    Died  in  1818. 

See  O.  Peconnet,  "Foucaud,  sa  Politique  et  ses  Fables,"i854. 

Foucauld,  foo'kS',  (Louis,)  Marquis  de  Lardimalie, 
born  in  Perigord,  in  France,  in  1755,  was  a  royalist  mem- 
ber of  the  States-General  in  1789-90.    Died  in  1805. 

Foucault,  foo'ko',  (L^ijn,)  a  French  natural  philoso- 
pher, born  in  Paris  on  the  i8th  of  September,  1819.  The 
invention  of  Daguerre  turned  his  attention  to  optics, 
which  he  studied  with  great  success.  He  invented  in 
1844  an  apparatus  by  which  electric  light  is  used  in  optical 
experiments,  microscopic  researches,  &c.  He  was  asso- 
ciated with  M.  Fizeau  in  some  improvements  in  pho- 
tography and  the  theory  of  light,  and  proved  that  the 
velocity  of  light  is  not  the  same  in  a  vacuum  as  in  the  air. 
His  demonstration  of  the  rotary  motion  of  the  earth  by 
the  pendulum  and  gyroscope  attracted  general  attention. 
He  became physicien  to  the  Imperial  Observatory,  (1854,) 
and  was  a  member  of  the  Institute.  About  1855  he  ob- 
tained the  Cojiley  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  for  his 
measurement  of  the  velocity  of  light.    Died  in  1868. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Foucault,  (Nicolas  Joseph,)  a  French  antiquary 
and  administrator,  born  in  Paris  in  1643;  ^^^^  1721. 

Fouche,  foo'shy,  (  Joseph,  )  Duke  of  Otranto,  a 
French  Jacobin,  born  at  Nantes  in  1763,  received  a 
liberal  education,  and  adopted  the  profession  of  advocate. 
As  a  member  of  the  National  Convention,  (1792-95,)  he 
acted  with  the  Jacobins,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  the 
king.  In  1794  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  Jacobin 
club,  as  a  reward  for  his  share  in  the  massacre  of  Lyons, 
and  in  the  same  year,  with  Tallien  and  others,  he  plotted 
the  ruin  of  Robespierre.  He  was  appointed  minister  of 
ti  e  general  police  by  the  Directory  in  July,  1 799.  He 
filled  this  office  many  years,  displaying  great  genius  for 
intrigue  and  artifice  ;  and  it  seems  he  exerted  himself  to 
moderate  the  violence  of  party  and  to  repair  the  evils 
which  he  and  his  accomplices  had  brought  upon  France. 
Under  the  consulate  and  the  empire  he  rendered  impor- 
tant services  to  Bonaparte,  who  in  1806  gave  him  the 
title  of  Duke  of  Otranto.  On  one  occasion  Napoleon 
blamed  Fouche  for  the  cold  reception  which  he  met 
with  in  Paris.  The  minister  reminded  him  that  he  had 
previously  directed  that  nothing  should  be  done  to  pro- 
duce a  forced  or  feigned  enthusiasm,  and  added,  "  In 
spite  of  the  fusion  of  the  Gauls  with  the  Franks,  we  are 
still  the  same  people, — unable  to  tolerate  either  liberty 
or  oppression,"  Having  lost  the  favour  of  Napoleon,  he 
was  dismissed  from  the  police  department  in  1810, 
and  appointed  governor  of  Rome.  After  the  return  of 
Napoleon  from  Elba,  Fouche  served  him  as  minister  of 
police  ;  and  he  was  retained  in  the  same  office  by  Louis 
XVHI.  for  a  short  period.  He  was  banished  in  1816, 
and  died  at  Trieste  in  1820. 

See  "  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  the  Duke  of  Otranto,"  London,  i8i6; 
A.  Serieys,  "  Fouche  de  Nantes,  sa  Vie  privee,"  etc.,  1816 ;  "  Vie  de 
Fouche,"  Paris,  1821  ;  "  Memoiresde  !a  Vie  publique  de  M.  Fouche," 
1819:  "  Meinoires  de  Fouche,"  2  vols.,  1824,  (said  to  have  been 
written  by  Alphonse  de  Beauchamp,  though  it  purports  to  be  an 
autobiography;)  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Foucher,  foo'shi',  (Paul,)  a  French  scholar,  born  at 
Tours  in  1704.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions  in  1753.  ^^^^  ^  "Historical  Treatise 

on  the  Religion  of  the  Persians,"  and  another  on  the 
"  Religion  of  the  Greeks,"  which  were  printed  in  the 
Memoirs  of  the  above-named  Academy.    Died  in  1778. 

Foucher,  (Simon,)  a  French  philosophical  writer, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1644,  became  a  priest.  He  was  an 
admirer  of  the  philosophy  of  Plato,  on  which  he  wrote 
a  treatise,  entitled  "Dissertation  sur  la  Philosophic  des 
Academiciens,"  (1692.)  He  also  wrote  "On  the  Wis- 
dom of  the  Ancients,"  (1682.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1696. 

Foucher,  (Victor  Adkien,)  a  French  jurist  and 
magistrate,  born  in  Paris  in  1803.  He  becaine  director- 
general  of  civil  affairs  in  Algeria,  procureur  at  the  tribu- 
nal of  the  Seine,  and  in  1850  a  member  of  the  court  of 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;     H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (^[^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

60 


FOUCHER 


946 


FOUQUE 


cassation.    He  wrote  several  legal  works,  and  edited  a 
"Collection  of  the  Civil  and  Criminal  Laws  of  Modern 
States,"  (lo  vols.,  1833-58.)     He  rendered  important 
services  to  the  cause  of  order  in  1848. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Poucher  d'Obsonville,  foo'shi'  dob's6N'v^K,  a 
French  traveller  and  naturalist,  born  at  Montargis  in 
1734.  He  went  to  India  by  land  about  1753,  and  re- 
mained there  until  1771.  He  published  "Essays  on 
the  Habits  of  Divers.  Animals,  with  Observations  on 
the  Morals  and  Customs  of  Several  Nations,"  (1783.) 
Died  in  1802. 

Fouchier,  foo^she-i',  (Bertrand,)  a  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Berg^p-Zoom  in  1609,  was  a  pupil  of  A. 
Van  Dyck.  He  also  studied  the  works  of  Tintoret  in 
Italy.    Died  in  1674. 

Fouchy,  de,  deh  foo'she',  (Jean  Paul  Grand- Jean 
— gr6N'zh6N',)  a  French  savant,  born  in  Paris  in  1707, 
was  elected  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences in  1743,  and  performed  the  duties  of  that  office  for 
thirty  years  with  much  ability.    Died  in  1788. 

See  CoNDORCET,  "  filoge  de  M.  de  Fouchy,"  1788. 

Foucquet.    See  Fouquet. 

Fougeret  de  Monbron.    See  Monbron. 

Fougeroux  de  Boudaroy,  foozh^roo'  deh  b6N'dt'- 
Rwi',  (AuGUSTE  Denis,)  a  French  savant,  born  in  Paris 
in  1732,  was  a  nephew  of  the  famous  Duhamel,  (Henri 
Louis.)  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Researches 
among  the  Ruins  of  Herculaneum,"  (1769,)  and  "The 
Art  of  the  Cutler,"  (1772.)    Died  in  1789. 

Foo-hee  or  Fou-hi,  foo-hee,  supposed  to  have  been 
the  first  Emperor  of  China,  born  in  the  province  of 
Shansee,  began  to  reign  about  2950  B.C.  He  is  said  to 
have  instituted  matrimony,  and  to  have  invented  music 
and  writing. 

Fouillou,  foo'yoo',  (Jacques,)  a  French  Jansenist 
polemical  writer,  born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1670;  died 
in  1736. 

Fouilloux,  du,  dii  foo'yoo',  (Jacques,)  a  French 
gentleman,  who  wrote  a  popular  treatise  on  "  Hunting, 
and  on  the  Habits  of  Animals,"  (1560.)    Died  in  1580. 

Fouinet,  foo'e''na',  (Ernes r,)  a  French  poet  and 
novelist,  born  at  Nantes  in  1799;  died  in  Paris  in  1845. 

Foulcher  (or  Foucher)  de  Chartres,  foo'sha'  deh 
shaRtR,  [Lat.  Fulche'rius  Car.muten'sis,]  a  French 
historian,  born  about  1050,  joined  the  crusade  for  the 
conquest  of  the  Holy  Land.  He  was  chaplain  to  Bald- 
win, King  of  Jerusalem,  and  wrote  a  history  of  the  first 
crusade.    Died  about  1 127. 

Foulcoie,  foo'kwi',  [Lat.  FuLCo'ius,]  born  at  Beau- 
vais,  in  France,  about  1020,  was  one  of  the  most  popular 
poets  of  his  time.  The  subjects  of  his  poems  are  legends, 
lives  of  saints,  etc.    Died  about  1083. 

Fould,  foo,  (Achille,)  a  French  financier,  born  in 
Paris  in  1800,  was  a  son  of  a  Jewish  banker.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1842,  and  again 
in  1846.  In  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  1848  he  acted 
with  the  party  of  order,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
financial  ability.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  finance 
three  times  between  October,  1849,  and  January,  1852, 
during  which  period  the  public  credit  was  improved  or 
restored.  He  resigned  in  January,  1852,  soon  after  which 
he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  senator  and  appointed 
minister  of  state  and  of  the  household  of  the  emperor. 
A  large  deficit  having  induced  Napoleon  to  renounce  the 
prerogative  to  raise  money  on  credit  without  the  assent 
of  the  legislative  body,  M.  Fould  was  persuaded  to  re- 
sume the  portfolio  of  finance  in  November,  1861.  He 
was  removed  in  February,  1867,  and  died  the  same  year. 

See  "Biographic  des  Membrcs  du  Senat." 

Foulis,  fow'lis,  (Robert  and  Andrew,)  two  learned 
and  noted  Scottish  printers,  were  brothers  and  residents 
©f  Glasgow,  where  they  followed  their  profession  about 
thirty  years,  and  printed  editions  of  Greek  and  Latin 
classics  remarkable  for  accuracy  and  elegance.  Their 
famous  Horace  (1743)  was  reputed  to  be  faultless,  and  a 
reward  was  offered  to  any  person  who  should  detect  an 
error  in  it.  After  making  handsome  fortunes,  they  were 
ruined  by  the  expense  incurred  in  founding  an  academy 
of  painting  and  sculpture  at  Glasgow.    Their  collection 


of  paintings  was  sold  at  auction  in  1776.  Andrew  died 
in  1774,  and  Robert  in  1776. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
Lemoine,  "  History  of  Printing." 

Foulkes,  (Martin.)    See  Folkes. 

Foullon,  foo'16N'',  (Abel,)  a  French  poet  and  mecha- 
nician, born  in  Maine  in  15 13,  made  a  metrical  version 
of  the  Satires  of  Persius, — the  first  that  appeared  in 
French.    Died  in  1563. 

Foullon  or  Foulon,  (Joseph  Francois,)  a  French 
administrator,  born  at  Saumur  in  171 5.  In  177 1  he  was 
intendant  or  controller  of  finance,  and  in  July,  1789, 
was  appointed  controller-general  in  place  of  Necker,  or 
(according  to  one  account)  administrator  of  the  army. 
A  few  days  after  his  appointment,  before  he  had  entered 
upon  the  office,  he  fell  a  victim  to  the  violence  of  the 
Parisian  mob.  He  proposed  the  repudiation  of  the 
public  debt. 

Sec  Madame  Campan,  "M^moires." 

Foulon  or  Foullon,  foo'16N',  (Johann  £rard,)  a 
Flemish  historian  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Liege  in  1608  or 
1609  ;  died  in  1668. 

Foulon,  foo'16N'  or  fow'Ion,  [Lat.  Fullo'nius,] 
(WiLLEM,)  a  Dutch  poet  and  Protestant,  born  at  the 
Hague  in  1493.  became  rector  of  the  College  of 

Elbing  about  1536.  Among  his  works  are  "Acolas- 
tus,"  a  Latin  drama  on  the  subject  of  the  Prodigal 
Son,  (1540,)  and  the  "Triumph  of  Eloquence,"  a  Latin 
poem.    13ied  in  1568. 

Foulques,  foolk  or  fook,  [Lat.  Ful'co,]  an  eminent 
French  prelate,  born  about  850  A.D.  He  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Rheims  in  883,  and  acquired  great  influence 
both  in  the  church  and  state.  He  promoted  education 
and  morality.  He  was  killed  by  order  of  Baldwin,  Count 
of  Flanders,  in  900. 

See  Baronius,  "Annales." 

Foulques  I.,  Count  of  Anjou,  surnamed  le  Roux, 
was  the  son  of  Ingelger  and  Alinde.    Died  in  938  a.d. 

Foulques  II.,  surnamed  the  Good,  Count  of  Anjou, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  a  patron  of  learning.  He  died 
at  Tours  in  958  a.d, 

Foulques  III.,  Count  of  Anjou,  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, waged  war  against  the  Duke  of  Bretagne  and 
the  Count  of  Blois,  founded  monasteries,  and  visited 
the  Holy  Land.    Died  in  1040. 

Foulques  IV.,  grandson  of  Foulques  III.,  born  at 
Chateaulandon  in  1043,  inherited  Saintonge,  and  con- 
quered Anjou  and  Touraine  from  his  brother  Geoffroi. 
He  married  a  daughter  of  Simon  de  Montfort.  Died 
in  1 109. 

Foulques  V.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  about 
1090,  went  twice  to  Palestine  in  the  crusades,  married 
a  daughter  of  Baldwin  H.  in  1 129,  and  succeeded  him, 
in  1 131,  on  the  throne  of  Jerusalem,  He  was  renowned 
for  courage  and  other  virtues.  Died  in  1 142.  He  left 
his  crown  to  his  sons,  Baldwin  HI,  and  Amaury. 

Foulques,  (Gui.)    See  Clement  IV, 

Foulques  de  Marseille.    See  Folquet. 

Foulques  de  Neuilly,  fook  deh  nuh'ye',  a  French 
priest,  celebrated  for  his  zeal  and  eloquence  and  his 
promotion  of  the  fourth  crusade.  He  directed  his  efforts 
especially  to  the  conversion  of  courtesans,  and  obtained 
from  Pope  Innocent  HI.  a  plenary  indulgence  for  those 
who  should  marry  them.  He  persuaded  many  nobles 
to  join  the  crusade  in  1198.    Died  in  1201. 

See  ViLLEHARDOuiN,  " Histoirc  de  la  Conquete  de  Constanti- 
nople." 

Foulston,  fols'ton,  (John,)  an  English  architect,  was 
born  about  1772.  He  worked  for  many  years  at  Ply- 
mouth, was  architect  of  nearly  all  the  public  buildings 
erected  there  in  that  period,  and  attempted  various 
styles,  including  Grecian,  Ionic,  Doric,  and  Hindoo. 
AiTjong  his  works  are  the  Royal  Hotel  and  Theatre, 
the  E.\'change,  and  the  Town  Hall,  at  Devonport.  Died 
in  1842. 

Fountaine,  fown'tin,  (Sir  Andrew,)  an  English  an- 
tiquary, born  about  1680,  was  tutor  of  Prince  William, 
and  keeper  of  the  mint  from  1727  to  1753.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  ancient  coins.    Died  in  1753. 

Fouque,  (Friedrich  Heinrich  Karl.)  See  La- 
mothe-Fouqu6. 


v-i,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  /on^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fdt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


FOUQUE 


947 


FOURIER 


Fouque,  foo'ki',  (Henri  Auguste,)  Baron  de  la 
Mothe,  (deh  It  mot,)  a  general,  born  at  the  Hague,  of  a 
French  family,  in  1698,  entered  the  Prussian  service  in 
1715.  He  acquired  the  friendship  of  the  prince  royal, 
(afterwards  Frederick  the  Great,)  who,  on  his  accession 
in  1740,  gave  him  a  command  in  the  army  and  deco- 
rated him  with  the  order  of  merit.  He  served  with 
credit  in  all  the  wars  of  that  prince,  and  rose  to  the  rank 
of  general.  In  1760  he  commanded  a  corps-d'armee  at 
Landshut,  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner.  His  cor- 
respondence with  Frederick  has  been  published  with 
the  works  of  that  royal  author.  Lamotte-Fouque,  the 
author  of"  Undine,"  was  his  grandson.    Died  in  1774. 

See  Friedrich  de  la  Motte-Fouqu^,  "  Lebensbeschreibung 
des  Generals  H.  A.  Baron  de  la  Motte-Fouque,"  1824. 

Fouquet,  foo'ki',  (Guillaume,)  Marquis  de  la  Va- 
renne,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  1560,  was  a  favour- 
ite of  Henry  IV.    Died  in  1616. 

Fouquet,  (Henri,)  an  eminent  French  physician, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1727,  graduated  in  1759,  and  prac- 
tised at  Marseilles.  In  1766  he  settled  in  his  native  city, 
and  published  medical  treatises  which  had  a  high  repu- 
tation. He  was  chosen  professor  of  medicine  in  the 
University  of  Montpellier  about  1792.    Died  in  1806. 

See  "Biographic  Medicale;"  Dumas,  "^filogede  Fouquet,"  1807. 

Fouquet  or  Foucquet,  foo'ki',  (Nicolas,)  Marquis 
of  Belle-Isle,  a  noted  French  minister  of  finance,  born 
in  Paris  in  161 5,  was  the  son  of  Francis  Fouquet, 
Vicomte  de  Vaux.  At  the  age  of  thirty-five  he  became 
attorney-general  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris.  In  1652 
he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  finances,  which 
were  then  not  in  a  flourishing  state,  and  did  not  improve 
under  his  direction.  Louis  XIV.  once  demanded  some 
money  of  Fouquet,  who  answered,  "  Sire,  there  is  none 
in  your  majesty's  coffers;  but  Cardinal  Mazarin  will  lend 
you  some."  Fouquet  expended  about  eighteen  million 
francs  on  his  palace  of  Vaux,  which  surpassed  even  the 
royal  residence  of  Fontainebleau.  "Never,"  says  Vol- 
taire, "was  a  dissipator  of  the  royal  finances  more  noble 
and  generous."  The  king  lost  confidence  in  his  integrity 
and  financial  skill,  and  it  is  thought  Colbert  promoted 
his  disgrace.  Fouquet  was  arrested  in  1661,  and,  after  a 
trial  of  three  years'  duration,  sentenced  to  imprisonment 
for  life.  La  Fontaine  wrote  verses  in  his  defence  during 
the  trial.    He  died  in  1680. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XI V  ;"  Madame  de  Sevign^, 
"  Lettres  ;"  D'Auvignv,  "Vies  des  Hommes  illusires  de  la  France;" 
Sainte-Beuve.  "Causeries  du  Lundi." 

Fouquet,  de,  deh  foo'ki',  (Charles  Louts  Ar- 
MAND,)  Comte  de  Belle-Isle,  a  French  general,  born  in 
1693,  was  a  brother  of  Marshal  Fouquet,  Duke  of  Belle- 
Isle.    He  was  killed  in  battle  in  Piedmont  in  1 747. 

Fouquet,  de,  (Charles  Louis  Auguste,)  Due  de 
Belle- Isle,  a  French  general  and  diplomatist,  born  at 
Villefranche  de  Rouergue  in  1684,  was  a  grandson  of  the 
financier  Nicolas  Fouquet.  He  became  marechal-de- 
camp  in  1718,  and  lieutenant-general  in  173 1.  It  appears 
that  his  influence  with  the  king  involved  France  in  the 
general  war  which  began  in  1741.  He  was  made  a  mar- 
shal of  France  in  1 741,  and  gained  some  advantages  over 
the  Austrians  in  Bohemia.  In  1745  he  defeated  the 
eneniy  at  Vintimiglia  and  Montauban.  He  was  appointed 
minister  of  state  in  1756,  and  secretary  of  war  in  1758. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  diplomatist  of  great  ability. 
"  His  whole  life,"  says  Macaulay.  "  was  one  wild  day- 
dream of  conquest  and  spoliation."  ("  Essay  on  Frederick 
the  Great.")    Died  in  176 1. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Si6cle  de  Louis  XV;"  De  Courcelles,  "Dic- 
tionnaire  des  Generaux  P'raugais." 

Fouquier,  foo'kej^i',  (Pierre  £loy,)  a  French  physi- 
cian, born  in  Picardy  ni  1776.  He  practised  and  lectured 
in  Paris,  and  became  one  of  the  consulting  physicians 
of  Charles  X.  He  succeeded  Dr.  Marc  as  first  physician 
to  Louis  Philippe.    Died  in  1850. 

Fouquier-Tinville  or  -Tainville,  foo'ke-i'  tis'vhV, 
(Antoine  Quentin,)  born  near  Saint-Queinin  in  1747. 
Among  the  French  Jacobins  he  was  one  of  the  most 
atrocious.  Under  the  auspices  of  Robespierre,  he  acted 
as  public  accuser  before  the  bloody  tribunal  of  the  Revo- 
'ution.  When  informed  of  the  fall  of  Robespierre,  he 
exclaimed,  "  No  change  for  us  !  justice  must  take  its 


course."    However,  after  he  had  exercised  his  functions 
by  sending  his  former  patron  to  the  guillotine,  he  was 
himself  condemned  to  death,  and  executed  in  1795. 
See  Lamartine,     History  of  the  Girondists." 

Fouquieres,  foo'ke-aiR',  (Jacques,)  an  eminent 
Flemish  landscape-painter,  was  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1580,  and  studied  with  Rubens.  In  162 1  he  went  to 
France,  by  invitation  of  Louis  XI H.,  who  gave  him  a 
commission  to  paint  the  chief  towns  of  the  kingdom. 
Died  in  1659. 

See  Felibien,  "  Entretiens  sur  les  Ouvrages  des  Peintres." 

Four.    See  Dufour  and  Longuerue. 

Fourcroy,  de,  deh  fooR^kRwi',  (Antoine  Francois,) 
CoM  i  E,  an  eminent  French  chemist,  born  of  poor  parents 
in  Paris  in  1755,  was  a  pupil  of  Macquer  and  Bucquet. 
He  graduated  as  M.D.  in  1780,  and  was  appointed  by 
Buffon,  in  1784,  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Jardin  du 
Roi,  the  name  of  which  was  changed  about  1794  to 
the  Museum  of  Natural  History.  He  lectured  there  for 
twenty-five  years  with  great  success.  "The  facility  and 
elegance  of  his  language,"  says  Cuvier,  "  his  copiousness, 
enthusiasm,  and  clearness,  enchanted  his  auditors,  and 
contributed  greatly  to  diffuse  a  taste  for  chemistry  in 
all  ])arts  of  the  world."  In  1793  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Nati(^nal  Convention,  in  which  he  promoted  the 
cause  of  education  and  did  not  partake  in  the  excesses 
of  the  dominant  partj\  He  saved  the  life  of  Darcet  in 
the  reign  of  terror.  He  was  one  of  the  first  members 
of  the  Institute.  He  was  nominated  a  councillor  of 
state  in  December,  1799,  and  director-general  of  public 
instruction  in  1801.  The  schools  flourished  under  his 
wise  direction.  He  published  in  1801  a  "  System  of 
Chemistry,"  ("  Systeme  des  Connaissances  chimiques," 
II  vols.  8vo,)  a  work  of  great  merit.  Among  his  best 
works  is  "The  Philosophy  of  Chemistry,"  ("La  Philoso- 
phic chimique,"  1792.)  He  died  suddenlyin  December, 
1809,  and  left  one  son,  who  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Lutzen. 

See  Cuvier,  "  filoge  de  Fourcroy,"  181 1;  Palissot  de  Beau- 
vois,  "  £;oge  historique  de  Fourcroy,"  1810;  Pariset,  "  £loge  de 
Fourcroy;"  A.  Cattaneo,  "  Cenni  sulla  Vita  di  A.  F.  Fourcroy," 
1839  ;  "  Encyclopsedia  Britannica;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Fourcroy  de  Ramecourt,  fooR^kRwi'  deh  rtm'- 
kooR',  (Charles  Ren6,)  a  French  military  engineer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1715.  He  served  as  engineer  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  marechal- 
de-camp.  The  Academy  of  Sciences  rewarded  his  sci- 
entific services  by  admitting  him  as  a  "free  associate." 
He  wrote  a  treatise  on  "Fortification,''  (1786,)  and  other 
esteemed  works.    Died  in  1791. 

See  Condorcet,  "filoge  de  Charles  Ren^  Fourcroy." 

Fourier,foo're-i',(FRANgois Charles  Marie,)  named 
"  the  Phalansterian,"  the  founder  of  the  famous  system  of 
"  Fourierism,"  a  form  of  socialism,  born  at  Besangon,  in 
France,  in  1772,  was  the  son  of  a  merchant.  After  he  had 
received  his  education  in  his  native  town,  he  was  employed 
a  few  years  in  a  counting-house  in  Lyons.  During  the 
Revolution  he  was  compelled,  in  1793,  to  take  arms,  and 
served  one  or  two  campaigns  on  the  Rhine.  He  em- 
ployed his  leisure  time  while  in  the  army,  and  in  other 
situations,  in  study  and  reflection  upon  the  social  and 
political  theories  which  then  abounded  in  France.  He 
also  acquired  proficiency  in  the  exact  sciences,  not  neg- 
lecting political  economy.  After  leaving  the  army,  he 
passed  several  years  as  a  commercial  traveller  for  mer- 
cantile houses  of  Marseilles  and  Lyons,  diligently  engaged 
in  the  problem  the  solution  of  which  should  remedy  the 
miseries  of  the  present  social  system.  In  1803  he  pub- 
lished, in  a  journal  at  Lyons,  an  article  on  European 
policy  which  attracted  the  favourable  notice  of  Bonaparte. 
At  length,  having,  as  he  thought,  made  the  important 
discovery  of  which  he  was  in  search,  he  published,  in 
1808,  his  "Theory  of  Four  Movements  and  General 
Destinies,"  designed  as  the  prospectus  of  a  more  com- 
plete work,  which  appeared  in  1822,  entitled  a  "Treatise 
on  Domestic  and  Agricultural  Association."  A  later 
edition  was  entitled  "Theory  of  Universal  Unity,"  (4 
vols.,  1841.)  These  works  were  coldly  received  by  the 
public  and  by  the  reviewers.  Numerous  experiments  of 
his  system  of  attractive  industry  and  social  harmony 
have  been  made  in  Europe  and  America ;  but  they  have 


-€  as  ^;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  O,  H,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


948  FOWLER 


FOURIER 


not  been  successful.  Fourier  lived  in  Paris  from  1830 
until  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1837. 

See  L.  DE  LoMENiE,  "Galerie  des  Contemporains ;"  V.  CoN- 
siDKKANT,  "  Exposition  dii  Syst^me  de  Fourier;"  Lechevalier, 
"  fitiides  sur  la  Science  soclale;"  C.  Peli.erin,  "Charles  Fourier, 
sa  Vie  et  sa  Theorie,"  1838;  Victor  Hennequin,  "TWoriedeC. 
Fourier,"  1847. 

Fourier,  (Jean  Baptiste  Joseph,)  Baron,  a  cele- 
brated French  mathematician,  born  at  Auxerre  on  the 
2 1  St  of  March,  1768.  He  espoused  with  ardour  the  popu- 
lar cause  in  the  Revolution;  but,  not  keeping  pace  with 
the  violent  demagogues,  he  was  twice  imprisoned  by  the 
dominant  faction.  When  the  Polytechnic  School  was 
opened,  about  1795,  P'ourier  was  appointed  by  Lagrange 
and  Monge  assistant  professor.  For  his  profound  and 
varied  acquirements  he  was  selected  as  one  of  the  savants 
who  accompanied  Bt)naparte  to  Egypt  in  1798,  after 
which  he  was  secretary  of  the  Institute  of  Egypt.  Here 
he  distinguished  himself  by  his  industry  in  scientific  ex- 
cursions, and  was  employed  with  credit  in  negotiations 
with  the  natives.  He  was  prefect  of  Isere  at  Grenoble 
from  1 801  to  181 5,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  181 7.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academic  P'ran9aise  in  1827.  Besides  several  minor 
treatises,  Fourier  published  a  great  work  on  the  theory 
of  heat,  "  Theorie  analytique  de  la  Chaleur,"  (1822,)  of 
which  M;  Cousin  observes,  "The  grandeur  of  its  results 
has  no  more  been  contested  than  their  certainty,  and,  in 
the  judgment  of  scientific  EurojDe,  the  novelty  of  the 
analysis  on  which  they  rest  is  equal  to  its  perfection. 
M.  Fourier  presents  himself,  then,  with  the  evident  mark 
of  true  genius  :  he  is  an  inventor."  He  left  an  "Analysis 
of  Determinate  Equations,"  (1831.)    Died  in  May,  1830. 

See  V.  Cousin,  "  Eloge  de  Fourier;"  M.  Arago,  "  Eloge  his- 
torique  de  J.  Fourier;"  Champollion-Figeac,  "Fourier  et  Napo- 
leon, I'^gypte  et  les  Cent  Jours;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
October,  1831  ;  see,  also,  an  English  version  ot  Arago's  "  £loge  de 
Fourier,"  Boston,  1859. 

Fourmont,  fooR'miN',  (Claude  Louis,)  an  Orien- 
talist, a  nephew  of  fitienne,  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Cormeilles  in  1708.  About  1733  he  acted  as  interpreter 
in  the  Royal  Library.  He  visited  Egypt  in  1746,  and  pub- 
lished a  "Historical  and  Geographical  Description  of 
the  Plains  of  Heliopolis  and  Memphis,"  (1755.)  t)ied 
in  1780. 

Fourmont,  (Stienne,)  a  French  savant  and  distin- 
guished Orientalist,  born  near  Paris  in  June,  1683,  was 
educated  in  various  colleges  of  the  capital.  He  possessed 
a  powerful  memory,  and  became  eminent  for  his  immense 
erudition,  especially  in  Oriental  languages.  In  171 5  he 
obtained  the  chair  of  Arabic  in  the  Royal  College,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions. 
About  this  time  he  was  employed  to  assist  a  certain 
Chinese,  named  Hoang-Ji,  in  the  compilation  of  a 
Chinese  grammar  and  dictionary.  This  person  having 
died  in  1716,  Fourmont  pursued  the  task  alone,  and  after 
twenty  years'  labour  finished  his  "Grammatica  Sinica," 
(1742,)  one  of  the  best  Chinese  granuiiars  that  have  been 
published  in  Europe.  In  1738  he  was  elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He  wrote  "  Critical 
Reflections  on  the  History  of  Ancient  Nations,"  (2  vols., 
1735,)  ^'""^1  numerous  other  works.    Died  in  1745. 

See  "  Vie  d'fitienne  Fourmont,"  etc.,  prefixed  to  his  "  Reflexions 
sur  rOrigine  des  anciens  Peuples,"  Paris,  1747;  Freret,  "  fiioge 
de  Fourmont;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Fourmont,  (Michel,)  an  accomplished  linguist,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  near  Paris  in  1690. 
In  1720  he  became  professor  of  Syriac  in  the  Royal  Col- 
lege, and  in  1724  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions. He  assisted  his  brother  in  his  labours  on  the 
Chinese  language.  Louis  XV.  sent  Fourmont  with  Abbe 
Sevin  to  Greece  and  other  parts  of  the  Levant  in  1728,  to 
))urchase  manuscripts  and  to  copy  inscriptions.  They 
returned,  with  abundant  success,  in  1732.  Died  in  1746. 
Fourmont  has  been  censured  for  the  unnecessary  de- 
struction of  ancient  monuments  in  Greece. 

See  "  Hisfoire  et  Memoires  de  I'Academie  des  Inscriptions;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Fournel,  fooR'n^K,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  learned  jurist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1745.  He  jjublished  a  number  of  legal 
treatises,  and  a  work  on  "  The  State  of  (iaul  at  the 
Epoch  of  the  Conquest  of  the  Franks."    Died  in  1820. 


Fournet,  fooR'ni',  (Victor,)  a  French  geologist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1801,  became  professor  of  mineralogy  at 
Lyons  about  1834.  He  has  laid  the  ba.se  of  a  new  theory 
on  the  distribution  of  coal-fields  in  France,  and  is  said 
to  have  rendered  important  services  to  science. 

Fourneyron,  fooR'ni^riw',  (BENotT,)a  French  engi- 
neer and  inventor,  born  at  Saint-Etienne  (Loire)  in  1802. 
He  invented  or  improved  a  turbine,  which  obtained  in 
1836  a  prize  of  6000  francs  offered  by  the  Academy  of 
Sciences. 

Fournier,  fooR'ne-i',  (^-douard,)  a  learned  French 
writer,  born  at  Orleans  in  1819,  was  the  author  of  a  "  His- 
tory of  Printing  and  Publishing,"  (1854,)  a  Review  of 
Wise  and  Witty  Sayings  of  Eminent  Men,  ("L'Esprit 
dans  I'Histoire,")  and  other  works. 

Fournier,  (Georges,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Caen 
in  1595.  As  chaplain  in  the  navy,  he  visited  the  coasts 
of  Asia,  and,  after  his  return,  published  useful  treatises 
on  geography,  hydrography,  etc.    Died  in  1652. 

Fournier,  (Marc  Jean  Louis,)  a  Swiss  dramatist, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1820,  became  a  resident  of  Paris  in 
his  youth.  His  drama  the  "Clown,"  ("Paillasse,"  1850,) 
in  which  he  was  assisted  by  Dennery,  had  great  success. 

Fournier,  (Pierre  Simon,)  a  skilful  French  engraver 
and  founder  of  types,  born  in  Paris  in  1712.  He  wrote 
an  "Essay  on  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Art  of 
Engraving  on  Wood,"  (1758,)  and  a  useful  work  called 
"Manuel  typographique,"  (2  vols.,  1764.)    Died  in  1768. 

Fournier,  (Raoul,)  Sieur  du  Rondeau,  a  learned 
French  author,  born  at  Orleans  in  1562,  wrote  approved 
works  on  law,  morality,  philosophy,  religion,  etc.,  also  a 
Latin  ])oem  called  "Cento  Christianus."    Died  in  1627. 

Fournier  de  la  Contamine,  fooR'ne-i'  deh  IS  koN'- 
tS'm^n',  (Marie  Nicolas,)  a  French  Ijlshop,  born  at 
Gex  in  1760.  By  the  influence  of  Cardinal  Fesch,  he 
was  appointed  chaplain,  and  then  almoner,  to  Bona- 
parte, who,  in  1806,  made  him  Bishop  of  Montpellier. 
Died  in  1834. 

Fournier  des  Ormes,  fooR^ne-i'  di'zoRm', 
(Charles,)  a  French  poet  and  landscape  painter,  born 
in  Paris  in  1778,  was  a  grandson  of  Pierre  Simon,  noticed 
above.  He  wrote  a  poem  entitled  "The  Art  of  Painting," 
("La  Peinture,"  1837,)  and  translated  Lucretius's  "  De 
Rerum  Natura"  into  .French  verse,  (1848.)  His  land- 
scapes are  commended.    Died  in  1853. 

See  Querard,  "  La  France  Litt^raire." 

Fournier  de  Pescay,  fooR^ne-i'  deh  pSs'ki',  (Fran- 
cois,) born  at  Bordeaux  in  i77Yr^became  physician  to 
Ferdinand  VII.  at  Valen9ay.  He  wrote  several  treatises 
on  medicine.    Died  about  1833. 

Fournival,  de,  deh  fooR'ne'vtl',  Fournivaux,  fooR'- 
ne\6',  or  Furnival,  fiiR'ne'vtK,  (Richard,)  one  of  the 
most  noted  novelists  ( romanciers )  of  his  time,  was  a  canon 
of  the  church  of  Amiens.  He  wrote  several  works 
about  1250,  one  of  which  is  styled  the  "  Power  of  Love." 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdnerale." 

Fourquevaux,  de,  deh  fooRk'vo',  (Francois  de 
Pavie — deh  pS've',)  Baron,  son  of  the  following,  was 
born  near  Toulouse  in  1561.  After  making  a  tour  in 
Europe  and  Asia,  he  was  gentleman-ordinary  and  stew- 
ard in  the  court  of  Henry  of  Navarre.  He  wrote  the 
"Lives  of  Great  French  Captains,"  (1643.)  Died  in  161 1. 

Fourquevaux,  de,  (Raimond  de  Beccarie  de 
Pavie — deh  bi^kS're'  deh  pt've',)  Baron,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1509,  served  in  several 
campaigns  in  Italy.  In  1557  he  became  Governor  of 
Narbonne.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  military  discipline. 
Died  in  1574. 

Foville,  fo'v^K,  (Achille  Louis,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Pontoise  in  1799.  He  wrote  on  the  brain 
and  cerebral  diseases. 

FSw'l^r,  (Charles,)  an  English  architect,  born  in 
Devonshire  in  1792.  He  gained  the  first  premium  for 
his  design  of  London  Bridge.  Among  his  works  are  the 
Hungerford  Market,  the  Devon  Lunatic  Asylum,  and 
the  Court  of  Bankruptcy,  London. 

Fowler,  (Christopher,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  1611,  left  the  Established  Chu.ch  in  1641,  and  joined 
the  Presbyterians,  among  whom  he  became  a  prominent 
and  zealous  preacher.    Died  in  1676. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


FOWLER 


949 


FOX 


Fowler,  (Edward,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  West- 
erleigh  in  1632,  was  appointed  in  1691  l^ishop  of  Glou- 
cester. He  wrote  "The  Design  of  Christianity,"  (1671,) 
which  was  attacked  by  Bunyan  ;  also,  a  "Discourse  on 
Christian  Liberty,"  (1680.)    Died  in  1714. 

See  "  Biugraphia  Britannica." 

Fowler,  (John,)  a  learned  English  printer,  born  at 
Bristol,  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  Protestant  Refor- 
mation, and  a  good  classical  scholar.  He  removed  his 
press  to  Antwerp,  to  serve  the  Catholics  more  efficiently. 
Died  in  1579. 

See  Fuller,  "Worthies." 

Fow'ifr,  (Orson  Squire,)  an  American  phrenolo- 
gist, born  in  Cohocton,  New  York,  in  1809.  He  has 
published  a  large  number  of  works  on  phrenological 
and  kindred  subjects.  In  connection  with  his  brother, 
Lorenzo  N.  Fowler,  he  has  conducted  the  "  Phreno- 
logical Journal"  for  many  years. 

F6w'ler,  (Thomas,)  born  at  York,  in  England,  in 
1736,  was  a  successful  practitioner  of  medicine  in  that 
city,  and  wrote  several  medical  treatises.  Died  in  1801. 
.  Fownes,  fownz,  (George,)  an  English  chemist,  born 
about  1815,  was  professor  of  practical  chemistry  in  Uni- 
versity College,  London.  He  wrote  a  prize  essay  on 
"Chemistry  as  exemplifying  the  Wisdom  and  Benefi- 
cence of  God,"  (1844.)  '^"d  a  "Manual  of  Elementary 
Chemistry,"  (1844,)  which  is  a  popular  text-book  and 
has  been  reprinted  in  Philadelphia,  (1855.)  I^'cd  in  1849. 

Fox,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  English  civil  engineer,  born 
at  Derby  in  1810.  Among  his  works  are  several  rail- 
ways in  England,  and  bridges  and  railway  stations.  He 
constructed  the  building  for  the  Great  Exhibition  of 
185 1,  according  to  the  plan  of  Sir  Joseph  I'axton,  and 
was  the  architect  of  the  Crystal  Palace  at  Sydenham. 

Fox,  (Charles  James,)  a  celebrated  English  orator 
and  statesman,  born  in  London  on  the  24th  of  January, 
1749,  was  the  third  son  of  Henry  Fox,  the  first  Lord 
Holland,  and  of  Lady  Georgiana  Caroline  Lennox,  a 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Richmond.  His  indulgent 
father  was  not  slow  to  appreciate  his  splendid  promise 
and  hereditary  genius,  and  bestowed  ]iarticular  atten- 
tion on  his  education,  although  it  is  said  that  he  per- 
mitted him  to  follow  his  own  inclinations  without  restraint. 
About  the  age  of  nine  he  was  sent  to  Eton,  where  he 
manifested  a  rare  aptitude  for  all  departments  of  learn- 
ing, and  an  eager  relish  for  the  sports  of  youth  and  for 
all  physical  and  intellectual  pleasures.  In  the  autumn 
of  1764  Fox  went  to  Oxford,  and  entered  Hertford  Col- 
lege, where  he  appears  to  have  been  a  hard  student.  He 
learned  to  read  the  Latin  and  Greek  classics  with  facility, 
and  in  after-life  he  continued  to  delight  in  classic  studies, 
to  which  he  added  an  accurate  knowledge  of  modern  lan- 
guages and  history.  About  this  period  he  began  to  in- 
dulge an  insane  passion  for  gaming  and  other  modes  of 
dissipation,  which  continued  through  his  life  to  obscure 
the  noble  qualities  that  nature  had  given  him.  Leaving 
college  in  1766,  he  went  abroad,  and  passed  two  years 
on  the  continent.  In  May,  1768,  he  was  returned  to 
Parliament  for  Midhurst,  though  he  had  not  yet  attained 
the  age  of  twenty. 

He  entered  Parliament  as  a  supporter  of  the  ministerial 
or  Tory  party,  and  when  Lord  North  became  premier,  in 
1770,  Fox  was  appointed  junior  lord  of  the  admiralty. 
In  1773  he  held  for  a  few  weeks  the  place  of  one  of  the 
lords  of  the  treasury  ;  but,  being  dismissed  for  his  in- 
subordination to  the  court,  he  joined  the  opposition,  and 
found  more  congenial  company  with  Burke  and  other 
"Whig  leaders.  He  strenuously  opposed  Lord  North's 
policy  in  regard  to  American  taxation.  In  March,  1774, 
he  made  a  speech  against  the  Boston  Port  Bill  ;  and  he 
continued  to  defend  the  cause  of  the  colonies  against 
the  insane  policy  of  the  British  ministry.  Fox  was  re- 
turned for  Westminster  in  1780;  and  when  the  American 
war  ended,  in  1782,  he  had  become  the  recognized  leader 
of  the  Whigs  in  the  House  of  Commons,  the  champion 
of  freedom,  and  a  "  consummate  master  of  the  art  of 
debate."  On  the  formation  of  the  new  ministry  under 
Rockingham,  in  1782,  he  accepted  the  office  of  foreign 
secretary,  but  resigned  in  a  few  months,  in  consequence 
of  the  death  of  that  premier.  By  a  coalition  between 
Fox  and  Lord  North,  the  ministry  of  Lord  Shelburne  was 


outvoted  and  compelled  to  resign,  and  in  April,  1783, 
Fox  became  secretary  of  state  in  a  cabinet  of  which  the 
Duke  of  Portland  was  the  premier.  This  ministry  was 
weakened  by  the  hostility  of  the  king ;  and  Fox,  having 
been  defeated  on  his  India  Bill,  was  dismissed  from 
power  in  December,  1783,  when  Mr.  Pitt  became  prime 
minister.  Fox  had  lost  popularity  by  his  coalition  with 
Lord  North,  and  in  the  next  election  his  rival  obtained 
a  large  majority  in  Parliament.  He  was  again  elected 
for  Westminster,  after  a  warm  contest,  in  1784,  and 
made  a  memorable  speech  on  the  scrutiny  which  was 
demanded  by  his  opponent. 

He  powerfully  seconded  Burke  in  the  impeachment 
of  Warren  Hastings  in  1788  and  the  ensuing  years.  The 
warm  political  and  personal  friendship  which  had  long 
existed  between  him  and  Burke  was  broken  by  the 
French  Revolution,  which  Fox  cordially  approved  in  its 
first  stages.  Fox  having  expressed  his  admiration  of 
the  new  French  constitution  in  1 791,  Burke  spoke  on  the 
other  side,  and  declared,  "Our  friendship  is  at  an  end." 
Mr.  Fox  continued  to  be  the  leader  of  the  Whigs,  and 
constantly  opposed  the  long  aggressive  war  which  Pitt 
waged  against  the  French  republic.  He  supported  Wil- 
berforce's  motion  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  in 
1 791,  and  Mr.  Grey's  effort  for  parliamentary  reform  in 
1793.  His  party  having  been  reduced  to  a  small  minority, 
he  resolved,  in  1797,  to  take  no  part  in  legislation,  and 
absented  himself  from  Parliament  for  five  years,  which  he 
passed  in  literary  pursuits.  In  1802  he  visited  Paris,  and 
was  treated  with  marked  attention  by  Bonaparte.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  death  of  Pitt,  in  January,  1806,  the  Whigs, 
under  Lord  Grenville,  came  into  power,  and  Fox  became 
foreign  secretary,  and  the  master-spirit  of  the  govern- 
ment. He  was  negotiating  for  peace  with  France  when 
he  died,  on  the  13th  of  September,  1806,  leaving  the 
reputation  of  an  honest  statesman  and  a  real  philan- 
thropist. Brougham  pronounced  him  "the  most  accom- 
plished debater  that  ever  appeared  on  the  theatre  of 
public  affairs."  "  He  possessed  above  all  moderns," 
says  Mackintosh,  "that  union  of  reason,  simplicity,  and 
vehemence  which  formed  the  prince  of  orators."  He 
left  an  unfinished  history  of  the  reign  of  James  II.,  which, 
says  Lord  Jeffrey,  "we  think  is  an  invaluable  work,  not 
only  as  a  memorial  of  the  high  principles  and  gentle  dis- 
]3ositions  of  its  illustrious  author,  but  as  a  record  of 
those  sentiments  of  true  English  constitutional  indepen- 
dence which  seem  to  have  been  nearly  forgotten  in  the 
bitterness  and  hazards  of  our  recent  contentions.  .  .  . 
We  do  not  think  it  has  any  great  value  as  a  history,  nor 
is  it  very  admirable  as  a  piece  of  composition." 

See  Lord  John  Russell,  "Life  of  Charles  James  Fox,"  3  vols., 
1867  ;  Sydney  Smith,  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  vol.  xiv.,  (July, 
i8og,)  "Quarterly  Review,"  vol  ii.,  (November,  1809,)  and  "Edin- 
burgh Review,"  vol.  xviii.  ;  Samuel  Park,  "Character  of  the  Late 
C.  J.  Fox,"  2  vols.,  1809;  "Memorials  of  Charles  James  Fox,"  by 
Lord  Holland;  Bkougham,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George 
in.  :"  Tkottek,  "Memoirs  of  C.  J.  Fox,"  iSii  ;  "Recollections 
of  C.  J.  Fox,"  by  B.  C.  Walpoi-E,  1806;  "Edinburgh  Review" 
for  July,  1808,  and  January,  1854;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
November,  1809,  December,  181 1,  and  April,  1859. 

Fox,  (Edward,)  an  English  bishop,  born  in  Glouces- 
tershire, was  a  strenuous  ])romoter  of  the  Protestant 
Reformation.  He  was  sent  by  Wolsey,  with  Gardiner, 
to  Rome,  in  1528,  to  procure  the  divorce  of  Queen 
Catherine.  In  1535  he  became  Bishop  of  Hereford,  and 
was  sent  on  a  mission  to  the  Protestant  league  of  Schnial 
kalden.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  dexterity  as  a 
negotiator.  He  wrote  "  On  the  True  Difference  between 
Regal  and  Ecclesiastical  Power,"  ("De  vera  Differentia 
Regiae  Potestatis  et  Ecclesijisticae,"  1534.)   Died  in  1538. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Fox,  (Franci.s,)  an  English  clergyman,  was  vicar  of 
Pottern  and  prebendary  of  Salisbury.  He  published 
the  "New  Testament  Explained,"  (1722,)  and  a  few 
other  works.    Died  in  1738. 

Fox,  (Gkorgk,)  the  founder  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
or  Quakers,  was  born  at  Drayton-in-the-Clay,  (now  called 
Fenny  Drayton,)  Leicestershire,  England,  in  July,  1624. 
His  father,  Christopher  Fox,  was  a  weaver,  so  distin- 
guished for  the  uprightness  of  his  character  that  he  was 
called,  among  his  neighbours,  "righteous  Christer." 
His  mother,  whose  maiden  name  was  Mary  Lago,  was 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FOX 


950 


FOX 


eminent  for  her  piety,  and  by  her  symj^athy  and  encou- 
ragement doubtless  did  much  to  promote  that  religious 
thoughtfuhiess  for  which  her  son  George  was  remark- 
able even  from  his  childhood.  At  an  early  age  he  was 
placed  with  a  man  who  was  a  shoemaker  and  dealt  in 
wool.  He  was  for  some  time  employed  as  a  shepherd, 
an  occupation  well  suited  to  his  cast  of  mind,  and  "  a  fit 
emblem,"  says  William  Penn,  "of  his  future  service  in 
the  Church  of  Christ."  The  parents  of  George  Fox 
were  members  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  they  en- 
deavoured to  educate  their  children  in  its  doctrines  and 
mode  of  worship.  When  he  was  in  his  nineteenth  year, 
being  on  business  at  a  fair,  he  was  invited  by  his  cousin 
and  another  person,  both  professors  of  religion,  to  join 
them  in  drinking  a  jug  of  beer,  and  he,  being  thirsty,  con- 
sented. When  they  had  drunk  a  glass  apiece,  they  began 
to  drink  healths,  and,  calling  for  more  beer,  they  said, 
"  lie  that  would  not  drink  should  pay  all."  Then  George 
Fi  X,  taking  out  a  groat,  laid  it  on  the  table,  saying,  "  If 
it  be  so,  I  will  leave  you."  He  returned  home  much 
distressed.  That  night  he  did  not  go  to  bed,  but  spent 
the  time  in  walking  up  and  down  and  in  earnest  prayer. 
"The  Lord  said  unto  me,"  (we  quote  the  words  of  his 
journal,)  "  Thou  seest  how  young  peoj^le  go  together  into 
vanity,  and  old  people  into  the  earth  :  thou  must  forsake 
all,  young  and  old,  keep  out  of  all,  and  be  a  stranger  to 
all."  "  1  fasted  much,"  he  says,  "  walked  abroad  in  soli- 
tary places  many  days,  and  often  took  my  Bible  and  sat 
in  hollow  trees  and  lonesome  places  till  night  came  on  ; 
and  frequently  in  the  night  walked  mournfully  about  by 
myself."  As  a  remedy  for  his  distress  of  mind,  some  of 
his  relations  advised  him  to  marry;  but  he  "told  them 
he  was  but  a  lad,  and  must  get  wisdom."  He  went  to 
different  priests  for  consolation,  but  found  them  all 
"miserable  comforters."  One  "ancient  priest"  bade  him 
take  tobacco  and  sing  psalms.  Kut  tobacco  he  did  not 
like,  and  psalms  he  was  not  in  a  state  to  sing.  To  sing 
belongs  rather  to  the  joyful  ;*  but  George  Fox  suffered 
what  few,  we  may  hope,  among  the  children  of  men  are 
required  to  suffer.  So  great  was  his  mental  distress 
that,  he  says,  "  1  could  have  wished  I  had  never  been 
born,  or  that  I  had  been  born  blind,  that  I  might  never 
have  seen  wickedness  nor  vanity,  and  deaf,  that  I  might 
never  have  heard  vain  and  wicked  words,  and  the  Lord's 
name  blasphemed."  At  times  he  was  reduced  almost  to 
despair.  On  one  occasion  "  a  great  cloud  came  over  him," 
and  there  arose  in  his  mind  doubts  even  of  the  existence 
of  a  God  ;  but  the  temptation  soon  passed,  and  a  divine 
voice  within  him  said,  "  There  is  a  living  God,  who  made 
all  things."  He  afterwards  "saw  tnat  it  was  good  that 
he  had  gone  through  that  exercise  ;"  for,  meeting  with 
some  who  had  embraced  atheism,  he  was  enabled  to 
speak  with  convincing  power  to  their  minds,  and  forced 
them  to  confess  that  there  is  a  living  God.  Amid  all  his 
trials  he  had  moments  of  great  rejoicing.  He  was  filled 
with  admiration  of  God's  infinite  love,  and  "saw  through 
all  these  troubles  and  temptations,"  and  that  they  were 
"good  for  him,"  being  designed  for  the  perfection  of 
his  faith.  When  all  his  hopes  of  obtaining  comfort  from 
any  human  source  were  gone,  "I  heard,"  he  says,  "a 
voice  which  said,  'There  is  one,  even  Christ  Jesus,  that 
can  speak  to  thy  condition,'  When  I  heard  it,  my  heart 
did  leap  for  joy.  Then  the  Lord  let  me  see  why  there 
was  none  upon  the  earth  that  could  speak  to  my  condi- 
tion, namely,  that  I  might  give  him  all  the  glory." 

Some  of  his  relations,  observing  the  seriousness  of  his 
character,  had  wished  that  he  should  be  educated  for  a 
priest ;  but  one  morning,  as  he  was  walking  in  the  field, 
it  was  shown  to  him  "  that  being  bred  at  Oxtbrd  or  Cam- 
bridge was  not  enough  to  qualify  men  to  be  ministers  of 
Christ;"  at  which  he  wondered,  because  it  was  contrary 
to  what  the  people  were  commonly  taught  to  believe. 
At  the  same  time  he  saw  that  it  was  the  anointing  of  the 
Spirit  which  qualified  one  to  be  a  true  preacher  of  the 
gospel.  At  another  time  it  was  shown  to  him  "that 
God,  who  made  the  world,  did  not  dwell  in  temples  made 
with  hands."  This  also  surprised  him,  because  it  was  so 
different  from  the  prevailing  belief.  He  perceived  that 
many  read  the  Scriptures  without  a  right  understanding 


*  See  James  v.  13. 


of  their  meaning ;  it  was  then  shown  to  him  that  none 
could  read  them  aright  without  a  measure  of  the  same 
Divine  Spirit  that  gave  them  forth.  He  saw  everywhere 
around  him  men  attaching  the  greatest  importance  to  the 
letter,  while  very  few  regarded  the  spirit,  of  the  liible ; 
many  Christian  professors  who  had  an  outward  form  of 
godliness  showed  too  plainly  by  their  conduct  that  they 
were  without  its  life-giving  power.  George  Fox  believed 
that  he  was  called  by  Heaven  to  awaken  men  from  their 
lifeless  forms  and  dogmas  to  a  sense  of  the  vital  im- 
portance of  an  inward,  living,  spiritual  religion.  The 
field  was  already  waiting  for  the  labourers.  He  saw  the 
harvest  white  and  the  heavenly  seed  lying  thick  on  the 
ground,  and  none  to  gather  it ;  for  this  he  mourned  with 
tears.  A  report  having  gone  forth  that  he  had  a  "dis- 
cerning spirit,"  people  came  from  far  and  near  to  hear 
him.  "I  had,"  he  says,  "great  openings  and  prophe- 
cies, and  spoke  unto  them  of  the  things  of  God."  On 
a  subsequent  occasion  he  says,  "  We  had  great  meet- 
ings :  the  Lord's  power  wrought  mightily  and  gathered 
many."  He  was  about  twenty-three  years  old  when  he 
first  began  to  preach,  after  which  he  travelled  much  in 
the  ministry. 

As,  on  the  one  hand,  George  Fox  believed  that  he 
was  required  to  do  many  things  which  in  that  age  were 
generally  considered  to  form  no  part  of  Christian  duty, 
so,  on  the  other,  he  was  forbidden  to  do  many  things 
which  other  religious  professors  permitted  or  enjoined. 
However  small  or  apparently  trivial  the  requirement,  he 
felt  that  he  must  yield  an  absolute  obedience  to  the  Di- 
vine voice  within  his  soul.  It  was  then  deemed  neces- 
sary, as  a  mark  of  honour,  to  address  one's  superiors 
or  equals  always  with  the  plural  pronoun  :  to  "thou"  a 
person  was  generally  regarded  as  an  expression  of  dis- 
respect, or  at  least  of  familiarity.  But  Fox  considered 
that  to  address  a  single  person  with  a  form  of  speech 
which  could  only  in  strictness  be  applied  to  two  or  more, 
was  inconsistent  with  that  simplicity  and  perfect  truth- 
fulness which  the  pure  spirit  of  Christianity  requires. 
He  regarded  also  the  custom  of  taking  off  the  hat,  as 
a  mark  of  respect  to  our  felhnv-men,  as  improper,  and 
thought  that  men  ought  not  to  demand  such  formal 
honours  of  one  another,  but  should  rather  seek  "  the 
honour  that  cometh  from  God  only."  One  of  the  princi- 
pal reasons  alleged  by  Fox  for  not  taking  off  one's  hat  to 
men  was,  that  this  was  an  act  of  homage  due  only  to  the 
Creator,  and  that  it  appears  from  the  words  of  the  Apos- 
tle Paul,  (see  I.  Cor.  xi.  4,)  and  from  the  practice  of  the 
primitive  Christians,  to  have  been  regarded  as  an  es- 
pecial mark  of  reverence  to  God.  He  seems  to  have 
considered  complimentary  forms  and  ceremonies  as  not 
only  opposed  to  Christian  simplicity  and  truthfulness, 
but  as  tending  to  foster  a  spirit  of  pride  and  vain- 
glory incompatible  with  the  humility  which  belongs  to  a 
true  follower  of  the  Redeemer,  and  unfavourable  to  that 
Christian  equality  and  freedom  which  are  necessary  to 
the  most  perfect  society. 

Although  the  rise  of  the  Society  of  Friends  was  pri- 
marily a  religious  movement,  it  has  unquestionably  ex- 
erted an  important  influence  upon  the  political  as  well 
as  the  social  condition  of  England  and  the  United  States. 
"  It  was,"  says  Bancroft,  "  the  consequence  of  the  moral 
warfare  against  corruption, — the  aspiration  of  the  human 
mind  after  a  perfect  emancipation  from  the  long  reign 
of  bigotry  and  su|)erstition."  "  It  marks,"  observes  the 
same  writer,  in  another  place,  "  the  moment  when  in- 
tellectual freedom  was  claimed  unconditionally  by  the 
people  as  an  inalienable  birthright."  (See  "History  of 
the  United  States,"  vol.  i.  p.  451,  and  vol.  ii.  p.  337.) 

As  Fox  believed  it  to  be  required  of  him  that  he  should 
not  doff  his  hat  "to  any,  high  or  low,"  and  that  he 
should,  when  addressing  an  individual,  use  invariably 
the  singular  pronoun,  "  without  any  respect  to  rich  or 
poor,  great  or  small,"  he  gave  great  offence,  and  ex- 
cited the  rage  of  some  who,  he  says,  were  "great  pro- 
fessors of  Christianity."  He  was  thus  furnished  with 
an  answer  to  those  who  thought  this  too  trifling  a  mat- 
ter to  be  so  scrupulous  about ;  for  what  concerned  so 
nearly  the  pride  and  passions  of  men  was  not  so  trivial 
as  to  be  beneath  the  command  of  God. 

Having,  in  1648,  at  Nottingham,  boldly  opposed  a 


5,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;    hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fJr,  f^ll,  fit;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon, 


FOX 


951 


FOX 


priest  respecting  a  point  of  doctrine  in  the  presence 
of  his  congregation,  he  was  arrested  and  sent  to  prison. 
He  was  again  imprisoned  in  1650  at  Derby,  upon  a 
false  accusation  of  blasphemy.  On  that  occasion  Justice 
Bennet,  of  Derby,  called  him  and  his  friends  "Quakers," 
because  he  bade  the  magistrates  "  tremble  at  the  word 
of  the  Lord."  During  his  imprisonment  at  Derby  there 
was  in  the  same  jail  a  young  woman  who  was  to  be  tried 
for  her  life  for  stealing.  "I  wrote,"  says  Fox,  "  to  the 
judge  and  jury,  showing  them  how  contrary  it  was  to  tlie 
law  of  God  in  old  time  to  put  people  to  death  for  steal- 
ing ;  and  moving  them  to  show  mercy."  Throughout 
his  life  he  appears  never  to  have  hesitated  to  rebuke 
falsehood,  injustice,  and  cruelty,  in  whatever  form  they 
exhibited  themselves,  and  without  respect  to  persons. 
He  felt  also  called  upon  to  bear  his  testimony  against  all 
war,  whether  offensive  or  defensive,  alleging  the  com- 
mands of  our  Saviour,  "  Love  your  enemies,"  "  Resist 
not  evil,"  etc.  He  cited  the  same  Divine  authority  to 
prove  not  merely  the  unlawfulness  of  profane  swearing, 
but  of  oaths  of  every  kind.  Their  faithful  adherence  to 
their  convictions,  on  these  and  other  points,  subjected 
Fox  and  his  followers  to  much  bitter  persecution.  He 
had  in  1655  been  imprisoned  at  Launceston.  During 
his  confinement  in  that  place,  one  of  his  friends  went  to 
Oliver  Cromwell  and  desired  that  he  might  be  impris- 
oned in  Fox's  stead.  This  disinterested  conduct  appears 
to  have  greatly  surprised  the  Protector.  Turning  to  his 
councillors,  he  asked,  "Which  of  you  would  do  as  much 
for  me  if  I  were  in  the  same  condition  .''"  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Charles  H,,  many  hundred  Quakers,  who  had 
been  imprisoned  under  the  governments  of  Oliver  and 
Richard  Cromwell,  were  set  at  liberty.  But  soon  after 
the  persecution  against  these  unoffending  people  raged 
more  fiercely  than  ever.  In  1663  Fox  was  again  arrested  ; 
but,  when  he  was  brought  to  be  tried  at  the  assizes,  the 
judge  declared  that,  in  consequence  of  the  errors  in  the 
indictment,  he  was  free  from  all  the  charges  made  against 
him.  But,  as  the  scruples  of  the  Quakers  against  swear- 
ing were  well  known,  the  judge,  in  order  to  find  a  pre- 
text against  him,  required  him  to  take  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance and  supremacy.  On  his  refusing  to  do  so,  he  was 
put  into  a  filthy  prison,  in  which  there  was,  a  part  of  the 
time,  scarcely  any  ventilation,  and  yet  the  rain  came  in 
upon  his  bed,  and  he  was  exposed,  without  any  fire,  to 
the  cold  and  wet  during  a  long  and  severe  winter.  His 
confinement  on  this  occasion  lasted  altogether,  in  differ- 
ent prisons,  nearly  three  years.  He  was  at  length,  in  1666, 
set  at  liberty.  In  1669  he  was  married  to  Margaret  P'eli, 
the  widow  of  Judge  Fell,  a  man  who  was  highly  esteemed 
for  his  moderation  and  good  sense,  as  well  as  for  his 
piety.  He  had  befriended  George  Fox  in  the  early  pe- 
riod of  his  ministry;  and  his  wife  and  daughters  had 
been  convinced  by  Fox's  preaching  and  led  to  embrace 
the  principles  of  the  Quakers.  On  behalf  of  these  prin- 
ciples she  had  suffered  long  imprisonment  and  other 
persecution. 

In  1671  Fox  set  sail  for  Barbadoes,  where  many  were 
convinced  by  his  ministry.  While  in  this  island,  in  com- 
pany with  some  other  Friends,  he  drew  up  an  important 
paper  setting  forth  the  belief  of  the  Society  in  regard  to 
the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  showing 
that  the  charges  which  had  been  made  against  them 
of  denying  the  Divinity  and  Atonement  of  Christ  and 
the  divine  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures,  were  unfounded 
calumnies.  He  afterwards  visited  the  colonies  of  Mary- 
land, New  Jersey,  New  England,  etc.  He  embarked  for 
England  in  March,  1673,  and  arrived  at  Bristol  about 
the  end  of  April.  St)me  months  afterwards  he  was  again 
imprisoned,  for  refusing  to  swear,  in  Worcester  jail. 
While  here  he  had  a  severe  illness,  so  that  his  life  was 
almost  despaired  of.  The  king  would  freely  have  par- 
doned him.  but  Fox  would  not  accept  a  release  from 
prison  on  these  terms  ;  for  to  accept  a  pardon  implied 
that  he  had  committed  something  to  be  forgiven.  After 
remaining  in  jail  for  more  than  a  year,  he  was  at  last  set 
at  liberty,  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  Sir  Matthew 
Hale.  Subsequently,  his  health  having  been  greatly 
impaired  by  his  injprisonment,  he  spent,  f(jr  the  first 
time  since  his  early  youth,  nearly  two  years  in  compara- 
tive repose  at  Swarthmore,  in  Lancashire.    This  place 


had  belonged  to  Margaret  Fell,  and  was  his  ordinary 
residence  during  the  latter  period  of  his  life.  In  1677, 
accompanied  by  Penn,  Barclay,  and  several  others, 
he  visited  the  "Friends"  in  Holland,  and  established 
Monthly  and  Quarterly  Meetings  and  a  Yearly  Meeting 
in  that  country.  After  an  absence  of  several  months,  he 
returned  to  England  the  same  year.  He  died  in  London 
in  1690,  in  the  sixty-seventh  year  of  his  age. 

In  the  religious  history  of  modern  times  there  is  per- 
haps no  more  remarkable  character  than  that  of  George 
Fox.  He  presents  a  rare  example  of  the  greatest  gen- 
tleness and  meekness  joined  with  a  courage  which  no 
dangers  could  appall  and  a  zeal  which  no  obloquy  nor 
suffering  could  abate,  much  less  subdue.  ¥xo\w  early 
manhood  until  the  very  end  of  his  life,  in  spite  of  ridi- 
cule, reproach,  and  the  bitterest  persecution,  he  pursued 
with  an  unfaltering  faith,  and  a  resolution  that  never 
wavered  even  for  a  moment,  the  path  which  had,  as 
he  believed,  been  divinely  appointed  him.  Many  men, 
deemed  brave  and  virtuous,  have,  under  the  pressure  of 
affliction  or  necessity,  been  led  to  reconsider  and  modify 
their  principles,  and,  in  order  to  gain  what  they  con- 
sidered a  great  good,  have  sometimes  been  willing  to 
sacrifice  a  minute  point  of  conscience;  but  George  Fox 
never  changed  or  qualified  his  views  in  the  slightest 
degree,  however  great  the  emergency,  and  what  he  felt 
to  be  right  in  the  beginning  of  his  course  he  maintained 
unswervingly  to  the  end  of  his  life.  If  it  be  thought 
that  he  sometimes  erred  through  excess  of  zeal,  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that,  in  those  times  of  religious  ex- 
citement and  political  commotion,  many  things  were 
considered  allowable,  not  by  the  Quakers  only,  but  by 
a  large  proportion  of  the  religious  community,  which 
would  be  universally  condemned  by  the  spirit  of  a  later 
and  more  lukewarm  age. 

In  person,  George  ¥ox  was  above  the  common  stature. 
He  was  of  a  pleasing  countenance,  and,  though  grave,  of 
easy  and  modest  manners.  "  He  was,"  says  Penn,  "civil 
beyond  all  forms  of  breeding."  "A  most  merciful  man, 
as  ready  to  forgive  as  inapt  to  take  offence."  As  a 
speaker,  he  was  clear,  forcible,  and  convincing.  "  But 
above  all,"  says  Penn,  "  he  excelled  in  prayer.  The 
inwardness  and  weight  of  his  spirit,  the  reverence  and 
solemnity  of  his  address  and  behaviour,  the  fewness  and 
fullness  of  his  words,  have  often  struck  even  strangers 
with  admiration." 

The  i)opular  but  erroneous  idea  that  Fox  was  opposed 
to  all  learning,  has  arisen  doubtless  from  his  having 
maintained  not  merely  that  human  learning  was  insuf- 
ficient of  itself  to  qualify  one  to  be  a  preacher  of  the 
gospel,  but  also  that  a  man  might  be  a  true  gospel  min- 
ister without  any  such  learning  at  all  as  is  given  at  the 
universities.  Nevertheless,  he  clearly  showed  the  high^ 
value  which  he  set  upon  education,  both  by  his  earnest 
recommendation  that  schools  should  be  established 
among  "  Friends"  for  the  proper  instruction  of  their 
children,  and  still  more  by  his  applying  himself,  even 
after  he  had  entered  upon  his  ministry,  to  the  study 
of  the  Hebrew  tongue,  of  which  he  appears  to  have 
acquired  a  respectable  knowledge  ;  for  we  are  assured, 
on  the  authority  of  his  intimate  friend,  GecM'ge  White- 
head,* that  "he  was  able  to  understand,  read,  and  write 
Hebrew." 

It  would  be  a  mistake,  however,  to  regard  Fox  as 
a  man  of  learning,  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the 
phrase,  although  he  well  understood  the  use  and  value 
of  learning.  He  was,  to  adopt  the  wcjrds  of  Coleridge, 
"an  uneducated  man  of  genius."  " 'I'here  exist  folios," 
remarks  the  same  great  critic,  "  on  the  human  under- 
standing and  the  nature  of  man,  which  would  have  a 
tar  juster  claim  to  their  high  rank  and  celebrity,  if  in 
the  whole  huge  volume  there  could  be  found  as  much 
fulness  of  heart  and  intellect  as  burst  forth  m  many  a 
simple  page  of  George  Fox."  ("  Biographia  Literaria," 
chaj).  ix.) 

Fox  wrote  many  epistles  of  advice  and  exhortation  to 
the  various  meetings  of  the  Society;  and  he  has  left  us  a 
journal  of  his  lite,  of  which  Sir  James  Mackintosh  says, 


*  See  his  pamphlet  in  reply  to  the  charges  of  ignorance  made 
against  George  Vox. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  Hiyguttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FOX 


952 


FRJCASTORO 


"  It  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  and  instructive 
documents  in  the  world,  which  no  reader  of  competent 
judgment  can  peruse  without  revering  the  virtue  of  the 
writer."* 

See  George  Fox's  "Journal;"  also  the  Preface  to  it,  by  Wil- 
liam Penn  ;  Marsh's  "Life  of  George  Fox,"  i  vol  8vo ;  Jan- 
ney's  "Life  of  George  Fox,"  i  vol.  8vo ;  "George  Fox,"  an  Ad- 
dress to  the  Society  of  Friends,  by  C.  H.  Spurgeon,  Loiuioii,  1S66; 
also,  "George  Fox,  the  Friends,  and  the  Early  Hajitists,"  by  Wil- 
liam Tallack,  London,  1S68  ;  and  Hermann  Weingarten's  mas- 
terly work  entitled  "  Revolutionskirchen  Englands,"  Leipsic,  186S. 

For  the  doctrinal  views  of  George  P'ox  and  the  early  Quakers,  see 
Barclay's  "Apology  ;"  also  "Dissertation"  appended  to  Jannev's 
"Life  of  Fox;"  and  T.  Evans's  "Exposition  of  the  Faith  of  the 
Religious  Society  of  Friends,"  Philadelphia,  1828. 

For  a  full  account  of  the  various  writings  and  pub'ications  of 
George  Fox,  see  Joseph  Smith's  "Catalogue  of  Friends*  Books," 
vol.  i.  pp.  644-697. 

Fox,  (HkiNRY,)  the  first  Lord  Holland,  was  a  son  of 
Sir  Stephen,  and  the  father  of  the  great  orator  Charles 
J.  Fox.  He  was  secretary  at  war  in  the  reign  of  George 
II.  al)out  1750.  In  1755  he  became  secretary  of  state, 
and  Whig  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons  when  the 
elder  Pitt  was  leader  of  the  opposition.  Fox  had  parlia- 
mentary talents  of  a  very  high  order,  but  was  inferior  to 
Pitt  in  declamation.  According  to  Macaulay,  Fox  re- 
sembled his  more  celebrated  son  in  disposition  as  well 
as  talents.  He  had  the  same  sweetness  of  tem|)er,  the 
same  openness  and  impetu  osity.  Upon  the  dissolution 
of  Newcastle's  ministry,  the  king  sent  for  Fox,  and 
directed  him  to  arrange  a  new  cabinet  in  concert  with 
Pitt ;  but  the  latter  declined  the  coalition  with  his  rival. 
In  1762  he  accepted  office  in  the  ministry  of  I^ord  Hate, 
and  became  ministerial  leader  in  the  House ;  but  in 
the  next  year  Bute  resigned,  and  Fox  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  as  Lord  Holland.  According  to  the  essayist 
above  named,  '*  he  was  the  most  unpopular  statesman 
of  his  time,  not  because  he  sinned  more,  but  because 
he  canted  less."  Died  in  1774,  leaving  his  title  to  his 
son  Stephen. 

See  Macaulay,  review  of  Thackeray's  "History  of  the  Earl  of 
Chatham." 

Fox,  (John,)  an  English  author,  born  at  Boston,  in 
Lincolnshire,  in  1517,  adopted  the  principles  of  the  Re- 
formation. He  was  tutor  in  the  family  of  Sir  Thomas 
Lucy,  and  at  a  later  period  instructed  the  sons  of  the 
Earl  of  Surrey,  then  confined  in  the  Tower.  In  1545 
he  was  accused  of  heresy  and  expelled  from  Magdalene 
College,  of  which  he  was  a  Fellow.  To  escape  perse- 
cution, he  retired  to  Bale,  and  after  the  death  of  Queen 
Mary  returned  to  England  and  received  a  prebend  in 
the  church  of  Salisbury.  He  is  the  author  of  "The 
Acts  and  Monuments  of  the  Church,"  (1563,)  commonly 
called  the  "Book  of  Martyrs,"  a  work  vvliich  obtained 
great  and  deserved  popularity.    Died  in  1587. 

See  a  Life  of  J.  F<ix,  bv  his  son  Samuel;  Fuller,  "Worthies 
of  England;"  "  Biographla  Britannica." 

Fox,  (Luke,)  an  English  navigator,  who  commanded 
a  vessel  sent  out  in  163 1  to  exj^lore  the  Northwest 
passage.  After  making  discoveries  in  Hudson  l^ay,  he 
returned  home,  and  published  an  account  of  the  same, 
dated  1635. 

See  Purcha.s,  "Pilgrimages." 

Fox,  (Margaret.)    See  Fox,  (George.) 

Fox,  [Sp.  pron.  foH,]  (MoRZii.i.o  Sehastian,)  a  Span- 
ish writer,  born  at  Seville  in  1528,  wrote  about  the  age 
of  twenty  a  commentiiry  on  the  "Topics  of  Cicero,"  and 
in  1554  he  published  a  treatise  on  the  "Analogy  of  the 
Philosophical  Views  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,"  which  was 
applauded  by  some  critics.  Philip  H.  appointed  him 
}  receptor  of  his  son  Carlos ;  but  as  he  was  on  his  way 
to  this  new  scene  of  labour  he  perished  by  shipwreck, 
in  1560. 

Fox,  (RiCHARn,)  an  English  bishop  and  statesman, 
born  at  Kopesley,  in  Lincolnshire,  in  1466.  In  the  reign 
of  Henry  VH.  he  officiated  as  keeper  of  the  privy  seal, 
secretary  of  state,  and  ambassador  to  various  courts.  He 
was  appointed  Bishop  of  Winchester  in  1500,  having 
previously  occupied  the  see  of  Durham  and  others.  In 
15 16  he  founded  at  Oxford  the  College  of  Corpus  Christi, 
with  a  chair  of  Greek  and  l>atin.  He  retained  the  favour 
and  confidence  of  Henry  VH.  throughout  his  reign,  and 

*  See  Mackintosh's  "  History  of  the  Revolution  in  1688." 


was  supplanted  by  Wolsey  in  the  councils  of  Henry  VIII. 
Died  in  1528. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Fox,  (Sir  Stephen,)  an  English  politician,  born  at 
Farley,  Wilts,  in  1627,  was  the  father  of  the  first  Lord 
Holland.  He  was  "  clerk  of  the  green  cloth"  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  II.,  and  held  other  offices.  He  built  several 
almshouses,  and  was  the  first  who  projected  Chelsea 
College  as  a  military  hospital.    Died  in  1716. 

Fox,  (Wn.LiAM  Johnson,)  an  English  politician  and 
writer,  was  born  near  Wrentham,  Suffolk,  in  1786.  He 
was  once  a  Unitarian  minister  at  Finsbury,  and  was  a 
frequent  and  able  contributor  to  the  "  Westminster  Re- 
view," In  1847  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Old- 
ham, and  became  a  prominent  member  of  the  advanced 
Liberal  party.  He  published  "Lectures  to  the  Working 
Classes,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1864. 

Foy,  fwa,  (Maximilian  Sebasiten,)  a  French  gene- 
ral and  eminent  orator,  born  at  Ham,  in  Picardy,  in 
February,  1775.  He  served  his  first  campaign  in  1792 
as  lieutenant  of  artillery.  In  1794,  having  expressed  his 
abhorrence  of  the  atrocities  of  the  C(^nvention,  he  was 
sent  to  prison,  and  would  probably  have  been  executed 
had  not  the  crisis  of  the  9th  Thermidor  and  the  death 
of  Robespierre  subverted  that  bloody  regime.  He  made 
the  campaigns  of  1796  and  1 797  as  c(jmmander  of  cavalry 
under  Mt)reau.  Foy  was  one  of  those  republicans  who 
op|>osed  the  assumptic^n  of  imperial  power  by  Napoleon, 
and  thus  retarded  his  own  promotion.  From  1807  to 
1813  he  served  in  Portugal  and  Spain,  where  he  obtained 
the  rank  of  general  of  division  about  1810,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  braver^',  capacity,  and  colloquial 
talents.  He  was  often  wounded  in  battle.  After  Bona- 
l)arte  landed  from  Elba,  in  181 5,  General  Foy  did  not 
long  hesitate  to  join  his  standard  in  defending  the  soil 
of  France  from  invasion,  and  he  led  a  division  at  Water- 
loo, where  he  was  again  wounded.  In  1819  he  was 
elected  by  the  department  of  Aisne  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  where  he  speedily  took  his  place  in  the  first 
rank  of  orators.  His  past  life,  his  noble  character,  added 
to  his  persuasive  manner,  gave  him  great  influence, 
which  he  employed  in  favour  of  a  liberal  and  constitu- 
tional government.  Died  in  Paris  in  November,  1825. 
About  one  million  francs  were  raised  by  national  sub- 
scription for  his  family.  He  left  (unfinished)  a  "  History 
of  the  Peninsular  War,"  (4  vols.,  1827.) 

See  Cuisin,  "  Vie  militaire,  politique,  etc.  du  General  Foy;" 
Paul  Lacroix,  "  £  oge  historique  du  General  Foy;"  Rene  Per- 
rin,  '■  Notice  sur  la  Vie  miliiaire  de  Foy,"  prefixed  to"  Pensees  de 
General  Foy,"  1821  ;  F.  Vidal,  "Vie  du  General  Foy,"  1826. 

Foyatier,  fw^'yt^te-i',  (Denis,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Beson,  near  Feins,  (Loire,)  in  1793.  He  became 
a  student  of  art  in  Paris  in  1816,  and  went  to  Rome 
in  1822.  His  reputation  was  established  by  a  statue  of 
Spartacus,  (1830,)  which  was  purchased  by  the  king. 
Among  his  works  are  a  statue  of  "  Prudence,"  and  an 
equestrian  statue  of  Joan  of  Arc,  inaugurated  at  Orleans 
in  1855. 

Fra  Angelico.    See  Fiesot.e. 

Fra  Bartolommeo.    See  Baccio  della  Porta. 

Fracanzani,  fRl-kln-zi'nee,  or  Fracanzano,  (rA- 

kjn-zd'no,  (Francesco,)  an  able  Italian  i)ainter,  worked 
in  Naples,  and  was  the  master  of  .Salvator  Rosa,  whose 
sister  he  married.  His  colouring  is  brilliant  and  vigor- 
(jus.    Died  about  1657. 

Fracastoro,  fkS-kds-to'ro,  or  Fracastor,  (C^irola- 
MO,)  an  eminent  Italian  author,  born  at  Verona  in  1483, 
was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time,  and  ex- 
celled in  philosophy,  medicine,  matheniatics,  and  poetry. 
Before  the  age  of  twenty  he  was  professor  of  logic  at 
Padua.  His  reputation  is  derived  chiefly  from  a  Latin 
poem  on  the  venereal  disease,  called  "Syphilis,  sive 
Morbus  Gallicus,"  (T530,)  which  has  been  translated  into 
several  languages.  .Scaliger  had  so  high  an  o|)inion  of 
Fracastor's  talents  that  he  composed  a  poem  in  honour 
of  him.  Hallam  i;ives  him  credit  for  "  having  delivered 
the  rules  of  practical  art  in  all  the  graces  of  the  most 
delicious  poetry,  without  inflation,  without  obscurity, 
and  without  affectation."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  Europe.")  He  was  in  his  latter  years  chief 
physician  to  Pope  Paul  III.  and  to  the  Council  of  Trent, 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  /on^,  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  %  short;    e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  filll,  fit;  m6t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


FRACCAROLI 


953 


FRAN CHI 


held  in  1547.  Died  near  Verona  in  August,  1553.  He 
wrote  a  few  scientific  treatises. 

See  F.  O.  Mkncken,  "De  Vita,  Morlbus,  etc.  Frncastorii  Com- 
meiitalio,"  1731  ;  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  I.ongfellow,  "Poets 
and  Poetry  01  Europe." 

Fraccaroli,  fRak-ki-roOee,  (Innocenzo,)  an  able 
Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Castei-Rotto,  near  Verona, 
about  1804.  He  studied  in  Rome,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  sculpture  at  Florence  about  1842.  His  "  Eve 
after  the  Fall"  gained  a  medal  of  the  first  class  at  Paris, 
and  is  called  a  master-piece  of  grace.  Among  his  other 
works  is  a  statue  of  Achilles. 

Frachetta,  fuS-ket'ti,  (CiiRoi.AMO,)  an  Italian  pub- 
licist and  critic,  born  at  Rovigo  about  1560.  In  his 
youth  he  was  secretary  of  Cardinal  Este.  He  wrote  a 
paraphrase  of  Lucretius,  {1589,)  with  notes,  a  volume 
entitled  "On  Reasons  of  State,"  ("Delia  Ragione  di 
Stato,"  1623,)  which  is  commended,  and  a  few  other 
works.    Died  at  Naples  in  1620. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Fra  Diavolo,  fki  de-i'vo-lo,  an  Italian  chief  of  bri- 
gands, whose  proper  name  was  Michel  Pozza,  (pot'sS,) 
was  born  at  Itri.  He  fought  in  the  army  of  Cardinal 
Ruffo  against  the  French  in  1799.  In  1806  he  became 
the  chief  of  a  band  of  insurgents  in  Calabria.  He  was 
arrested  and  hung  at  Naples  in  that  year. 

Fraehii.    See  Frahn. 

Fragoiiard,  fki'go'ntR',  (Alexandre  ^variste,)  a 
French  painter  and  sculptor,  born  at  Grasse  in  1780, 
was  a  pupil  of  David.  Among  his  works  are  "  Maria 
Theresa  presenting  her  Infant  Son  to  the  Hungarians," 
(1822,)  and  "The  Entrance  of  Joan  of  Arc  into  Orleans." 
Died  in  1850. 

Fragonard,  (Jean  Honor^:,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  at  Grasse  in  1732.  After  gaining  tlie  first 
prize  for  painting  in  Paris,  he  went  to  Rome  with  a  pen- 
sion. He  returned  to  Paris,  was  received  in  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  becaine  a  fashionable  artist.  He  is  blamed 
for  the  sensual  and  licentious  tendency  of  his  produc- 
tions.   Died  in  1806. 

Fraguier,  fuS'ge-i',  (Claude  Francois,)  a  French 
savant  and  elegant^iter,  born  in  Paris  in  1666,  became 
a  good  classical  scholar,  and  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
"Jt)urna!  des  Savants."  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1705,  and  into  the  French 
Academy  in  1708.  He  wrote  an  admired  Latin  ])oem, 
called  "Platonic  School  on  the  Perfection  of  Man," 
("Mopsus,  seu  Schola  Platonica  de  Hominis  Perfec- 
tione,"  1 721  ;)  also  dissertations  on  ancient  history,  lite- 
rature, etc.    Died  in  1728. 

See  D'Olivet,  "  £  oge  de  Fraguier;"  Nic^ron,  "Memoires;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic;  Generale." 

Frahn,  fRan,  or  Fraehn,  (Christian  Martin,)  a 
German  antiquary  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Rostock  in 
1782.  He  became  in  1815  director  of  the  Asiatic  Mu- 
seum and  member  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences 
at  Saint  Petersburg.  He  published  "Recension  of  Ma- 
hometan Coins  in  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Peters- 
burg," (1826,)  and  other  sinjilar  works.    Died  in  1851. 

See  DoRN,  "  Vie  de  Frahn,"  prefixed  to  a  supplement  of  the  work 
just  noticed,  1855. 

Fraikin,  fRT'kin  or  fRi'k^N',  (Charles  Auguste,)  a 
successful  l^elgian  sculptor,  born  near  Antwerp  in  1816. 
Among  his  works  are  "  L'Amour  captif,"  "Venus," 
(1848,)  and  "  Le  Sommeil,"  ("Sleep,"  1856.) 

Frain,  fR^N,  (S^ra.stikn,)  an  eminent  French  advo- 
cate, born  at  Rennes  ;  died  in  1645. 

Framery,  fRSm're',  (Nicolas  Stienne,)  a  mediocre 
French  writer,  born  at  Rouen  in  1745;  <^'^fl  i^io. 

Franc,  Le,  leh  fR6N,  (Martin,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Arras  or  Aumale.  His  chief  work  is  "  Ladies'  Cham- 
pion," ("Champion  des  Dames.")    Died  about  1460. 

Fran9ais,  fuftN'si',  (Francois  Louis,)  a  French  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Plombieresin  1814,  obtained  a  first 
medal  in  1848,  and  a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1855. 

Fran9ais  de  Nantes,  fRftN'sV  deh  nftNt,  (Antoine,) 
born  at  Beaurepaire,  in  France,  in  1756,  was  a  warm 
partisan  of  the  Revolution.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Legislative  Assembly  in  1791,  and  to  the  Council  of 
Five  Hundred  in  1797  or  1798.  Under  the  consulate 
and  the  empire  he  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Bonaparte,  who 


made  him  count,  councillor  of  state,  grand  ofiicer  of  the 
legion  of  honour,  and  director-general  of  the  Octrois.  He 
represented  Isere  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1819 
to  1822,  and  voted  with  the  opposition.    Died  in  1836. 
See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Francavilla.    See  Franchevflle,  (Pierre.) 

Fran'ces,  Saint,  an  Italian  lady,  born  in  Rome  in 
1384,  was  noted  for  piety  and  benevolence.  She  died 
in  1440,  and  was  canonized  by  Paul  V.  in  1608. 

See  Baillet,  "Vies  des  Saints." 

Francesca,  della,  deKIi  fRin-chSs'kS,  (Pietro,)  an 
eminent  Italian  painter,  bi;rn  at  Borgo  San  Sepolcro, 
in  Tuscany,  about  1400,  was  often  called  Pietro  Bor- 
ghese.  By  invitation  of  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  he  went  to 
Rome  and  painted  frescos  in  the  Vatican.  He  excelled 
in  foreshortening,  ])erspective,  and  geometry.  "The 
Dream  of  Constantine,"  at  Arezzo,  is  one  of  the  few  works 
of  this  artist  that  have  been  preserved.  He  wrote  treat- 
ises on  perspective  and  geometry.    Died  about  1490. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy." 

Franceschetti,  fRin-ch^s-ket'tee,  (Domenico  Ce- 
SARE,)  a  Corsican  general,  born  at  Bastia  in  1776.  He 
entered  the  service  of  Murat,  King  of  Naples,  rose  to 
the  rank  of  general,  and  distinguished  himself  at  To- 
lentino.  He  attended  Murat  in  his  last  des])erate  ex- 
pedition of  1815,  and  was  taken  prisoner.    Died  in  1835. 

Franceschini,  fR^n-ches-kee^nee,  (Baldassare,)  a 
painter  of  the  Florentine  school,  surnamed  Volterrano, 
was  born  at  Volterra  in  161 1,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Matteo 
Rosselli.  He  worked  in  Florence,  where  he  painted 
the  translation  of  Elijah,  and  other  frescos,  also  many 
oil-paintings.  He  excelled  in  perspective,  colour,  and 
composition.    Died  in  1689. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy ;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario." 

Franceschini,  (Marcan  roNio,)  an  excellent  Italian 
historical  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1648,  was  a  pupil 
of  Carlo  Cignani,  He  was  eminent  for  his  rapidity  of 
execution,  fine  taste,  fertility  of  invention,  and  skill  in 
colouring.  He  painted  frescos  in  Bologna,  Genoa,  and 
Rome,  and  declined  invitations  from  several  princes  of 
Europe.  The  Pope  gave  him  the  title  of  Knight  of  the 
Golden  Spur.  Among  his  chief  works  are  an  "Annun- 
ciation" and  "Saint  John  in  the  Isle  of  Patmos."  He 
also  left  many  oil-paintings.    Died  in  1 729. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Zanotti,  "  Storia 
deirAccademia Clementina  ;"  Malvasia,  "  Felsina  pittrice." 

Francesquito,  fR^n-th^s-kee'to,  written  also  Fran- 
ceschitto,  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Valladolid  in 
1681.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Giordano,  who  predicted  that 
he  would  equal  the  best  painters  of  Italy;  but  he  died 
at  the  age  of  twenty-four,  in  Naples,  whither  he  had 
accompanied  Gioidano. 

Franc-FIore.    See  Floris,  (Frans.) 

Francheville,  fRdNsh'v^K,  or  Francavilla,  fRln-kS- 
v^nS,  written  also  Francqueville,  (Pierre,)  a  skilful 
French  sculptor,  born  at  Cambrai  in  1548.  After  he  had 
worked  in  Italy  with  success,  he  was  invited  to  Paris 
by  Henry  IV.,  who  patronized  him,  and  he  was  after- 
wards sculptor  to  Louis  XIII.  about  1614.  Among  his 
works  is  a  group  of  "Time  bearing  away  Truth,"  ("Le 
Temps  enlevant  la  Verite,")  and  a  statue  of  Goliath. 
Died  about  1620. 

See  Cicognara,  "Storia  della  Scultura;"  Dutilleul,  "Notice 
sur  P.  de  Francqueville,"  1821. 

Francheville,  de,  deh  fR6Nsh\^K,  (Joseph  Du 
Fresne — dii  frin,)  a  French  writer  and  accomplished 
scholar,  born  at  DouUens  in  1704.  He  published  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Finances,"  (3  vols.,  1738-40.)  Having  ac- 
cepted the  invitation  of  Frederick  IL  of  Prussia,  about 
1742,  he  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  at  Berlin.  He  wrote 
a  poem  called  "  Bombyx,  or  the  Silk-Worm,"  (1755.) 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin,  which  he 
enriched  with  treatises  on  history,  antiquities,  etc.,  and 
he  edited  the  "  Literary  Gazette"  of  Berlin  from  1764  to 
his  death.    Died  in  1781. 

See  FoRMEV,  "  Eioge  de  Francheville." 

Franchi,  fRSn'kee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter,  of 
the  Florentine  school,  born  at  Villa  Basilica,  near  Lucca, 
in  1634.    Died  in  1709. 

See  Bartoi.ozzi,  "Vita  di  A.  Franchi  Lucchese,"  1754. 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  k,  trilled;  s  asz;  th  as  in  this,    (2!:^~See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FRJNCHI 


954 


FRANCIS 


Franchi,  (Ausonio,)  the  assumed  name  of  an  Italian 
rationalistic  philosopher,  whose  family  name  was  Hona- 
VINC,  (bo-nd  vee'no.)  He  was  born  at  Pegli,  near  Genoa, 
in  1820.  He  was  a  priest  in  his  youth,  but  renounced 
that  prt)fession.  His  principal  work,  "The  Piiilosophy 
of  the  Italian  Schools,"  (1852,)  is  written  with  much 
ability.  About  1854  he  founded  at  Turin  a  journal  called 
"La  Raoione." 

Franchi,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at 
Carrara  in  1730;  died  at  Milan  in  1806. 

Franchini,  fRin-kee'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1495  ;  died  in  1554. 

Fianchini,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Sienna  in  1704  ;  died  in  1783. 

Francia,  fk^n'chi,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1702,  visited  Vienna  in  1723,  where 
he  painted  for  the  court.  From  1736  to  1744  he  was 
employed  by  the  Swedish  court.    Died  in  1758. 

Francia,  (Francesco,)  a  celebrated  Italian  painter, 
whose  proper  name  was  Francesco  Raibolini,  (rl-bo- 
lee'nee,)  was  born  at  Bologna  about  1450.  He  was  a 
goldsmith  in  his  youth.  His  style  was  a  medium  between 
the  styles  of  Perugino  and  Bellini.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Raphael,  who  praised  his  Madonnas,  saying  he  had  seen 
none  "more  handsome  or  more  devout."  Among  his 
works  is  a  Saint  Sebastian,  which  was  used  for  a  long 
time  as  a  model.  He  was  an  excellent  colorist.  The 
date  of  his  death  is  variously  given  from  15 18  to  1533. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Cai.vi,  "  Memorie  di  F. 
Raibolini  detto  il  Francia;"  Malvasia,  "  Felsina  pittrice ;"  Mrs. 
Jameson,  "Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters." 

Francia,  (Giacomo,)  a  skilful  Italian  painter  of  Bo- 
logna, was  a  son  and  pupil  of  the  preceding,  whom  he 
imitated  with  success.  He  painted  a  Saint  George,  (1526,) 
and  other  saints  and  Madonnas,  which  were  engraved  by 
Agostino  Caracci.    Died  in  1557. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Francia,  (Giulio.)  a  painter  of  the  Bolognese  school, 
was  a  relative  of  Raibolini.    Died  in  1540. 

Francia,  fR^n'se-i  or  fRin'//^e-d,  (Dr.  Jos^;  Gaspar 
Rodriguez,)  Dictator  of  Paraguay,  was  born  near  As- 
sumption al)out  1758.  He  studied  law,  and  practised 
with  success  in  Assumption,  until  the  formation  of  a 
republic  in  Paraguay  in  181 1,  when  he  became  secretary 
of  state.  In  1813  he  was  chosen  joint  consul  with  Ful- 
gencio.  The  republic  having  fallen  into  anarchy,  he  was 
made  dictator  for  three  years  in  1814,  and  perpetual  dic- 
tator in  1817.  His  reign  was  arbitrary  and  severe  ;  but 
he  appears  to  have  repressed  disorders  with  vigour.  A 
system  of  non-intercourse  with  foreign  countries  was 
adopted  by  him,  and  a  "  rigorous  sanitary  line  was  drawn 
round  all  Paraguay."  "  We  might  define  him,"  says 
Carlyle,  "as  the  born  enemy  of  quacks.  So  kw  as  lay 
in  Francia,  no  public  or  private  man  in  Paraguay  was 
allowed  to  slur  his  work."  (See  "Essays,"  vol.  iv.) 
Among  the  most  notorious  of  his  arbitrary  acts  was  the 
detention  of  Bonpland,  a  French  botanist,  who  was  ar- 
rested in  1821  and  released  in  1831.  Dr.  Francia  died 
in  September,  1840,  when  the  power  passed  to  a  junta 
or  directory  of  three. 

See  RoBKRTsoN,  "Life  of  Dr.  Francia;"  Bengger,  "  Essai  his- 
toriqne  sur  la  Revolution  du  Paraguay,"  etc.,  Paris,  1827;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1843. 

Franciabigio,  fRSn-chS-bee'jo,  (Marcantonio,)  a 
skilful  Italian  fresco-painter,  born  at  F'lorence  in  1483, 
was  a  pupil  and  friend  of  Andrea  del  vSarto.  Fie  painted 
the  "Marriage  of  the  Virgin,"  at  Florence,  in  company 
with  Andrea  del  Sarto.  He  excelled  in  perspective  and 
in  colouring.    Died  in  1524. 

See  Vasaki,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Frigerio,  "Vita  di  Marc 
antonio  Frauciabigio." 

Francini,  fRSn-chee'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet 
of  patrician  rank.  He  lived  in  Florence  when  Milton 
visited  that  city  in  1638,  and  was  one  of  seven  Florentines 
specially  mentioned  by  that  poet  as  his  friends.  He 
complimented  Milton  m  an  Italian  ode,  the  last  stanza 
of  which  is  praised  by  Dr.  Johnson  as  "natural  and 
beautiful."  He  is  said  to  have  left  many  poems  in 
manuscript. 

Francis  I.  ok  Austria.  See  Francis  II.  of  Ger- 
many. 


Francis  [Ger.  Franz,  fRints]  I.,  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, born  at  Nancy  in  1708,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Leo- 
pold, Duke  of  Lorraine,  and  a  French  princess,  Elizabeth 
Charlotte  of  Orleans.  In  accordance  with  a  treaty  made 
"\^735»  Francis  received  Tuscany  in  exchange  for  Lor- 
raine, which  was  ceded  to  Stanislas  Leczinski,  on  the 
condition  that  at  his  death  it  should  revert  to  the  crown 
of  France.  He  married  Maria  Theresa,  the  daughter 
and  heiress  of  the  emperor  Charles  VI.,  in  1736,  (see 
Maria  Theresa,)  and  thus  became  the  founder  of  the 
reigning  dynasty  of  Habsburg-Lorraine.  He  was  elected 
Emperor  of  Germany,  as  successor  to  Charles  VH.,  in 
September,  1745,  and  was  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  of  Austria,  which  was  then  at  war  with  France, 
until  peace  was  restored  in  1748.  He  is  represented 
as  a  prince  of  good  disposition  and  moderate  capacity. 
He  died  in  August,  1765,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Joseph  H. 

See  J.  F.  Seyfart,  "  Lebens- und  Reeierungsgesclnchte  Kaiser 
Franz  I.,"  1766;  Coxe,  "  History  of  the  House  of  Austria;"  Vol- 
taire, "Siecle  de  Louis  XV." 

Francis  (Franz)  II.,  (Joseph  Karl,)  Emperor  of 
Germany,  and  Francis  I.  of  Austria,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  Leopold  II.  and  of  Maria  Louisa  of  Spain.  He  was 
born  at  Florence  in  February,  1768,  and  at  an  early  age 
went  to  reside  at  the  court  of  Vienna.  He  married 
Maria  Theresa  of  Naples  in  1790  or  1791,  and  began  to 
reign  over  the  hereditary  states  of  Austria  in  March, 
1792.  In  the  same  year  he  was  elected  Emperor  of 
Germany,  and  was  involved  in  a  war  with  the  French, 
which  was  suspended  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio, 
1797.  (See  Bonaparte.)  In  1799  he  entered  into  a 
coalition  with  Russia  and  England  against  the  French, 
After  gaining  and  losing  many  battles,  the  allies  signed 
a  treaty  of  peace  at  Luneville  in  1801.  He  assumed  the 
title  of  hereditary  Emperor  of  Austria  in  December,  1804, 
and,  in  alliance  with  England  and  Russia,  again  defied 
the  power  of  Napoleon.  This  war  was  ended  by  the 
battle  of  Austerlitz,  December,  1805,  and  the  treaty  of 
Presburg,  by  which  Tyrol  and  Venetia  were  annexed  to 
France.  The  German  empire  having  been  disorganized 
or  subverted,  Francis  renounced  the  throne  of  the  Caesars 
in  August,  1806,  after  which  he  was  styled  Francis  I.  of 
Austria.  In  March,  1809,  he  again  declared  war  against 
Napoleon,  who,  after  the  capture  of  Vienna  and  the  vic- 
tory of  Wagram,  dictated  terms  of  peace  in  October, 
1809.  He  joined  in  1813  the  coalition  which  resulted  in 
the  final  defeat  of  Napoleon,  after  which  he  recovered 
Venice  and  Lombardy,  and  reigned  in  peace  until  his 
death,  in  March,  1835.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Ferdinand  I.  Francis  was  popular  with  his  German 
subjects. 

See  J.  VON  HoRMAVER,  "  Kaiser  Franz  I.  und  Metternich,"  1848  ; 
H  Meynert,  "Franz  II.  und  .sein  Zeitalter,"  1S34. 

Francis  [Fr.  Francois,  fRSN'swJ']  I.,  King  of  France, 
born  at  Cognac  September  12,  1494,  was  the  son  of 
Charles,  Count  of  Angouleme,  (a  cousin-german  of  King 
Louis  XH.,)  and  Louise,  daughter  of  Philippe,  Duke  of 
Savoy.  As  Francis  had  lost  his  father  in  infancy,  Louis 
XII.  took  charge  of  his  education,  created  him  Duke  of 
Valois,  and  gave  him  his  daughter  Claude  in  marriage  in 

1514.  The  king  dying  without  any  son  to  survive  him, 
Francis  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  ist  of  January, 

1 5 15.  In  the  same  year  he  despatched  an  army  under 
Constable  Bourbon  to  conquer  the  Milanese,  defended 
by  a  Swiss  army,  which  the  French  engaged  and  defeated 
at  Marignano.  In  15 19  Francis  was  an  unsuccessful  can- 
didate for  the  empire  of  Germany,  which  was  obtained 
by  his  rival,  Charles  V.  of  Spain.  About  two  years  later, 
a  league  was  formed  against  the  French  king  by  Charles 
v.,  Henry  VHI.  of  England,  and  the  pope,  Leo  X.,  the 
first  result  of  which  was  the  expulsion  of  the  French 
from  the  Milanese.  The  French  were  defeated  in  1524 
at  the  battle  of  Sesia,  in  which  the  famous  Chevalier 
Bayard  fell,  and  in  1525  at  the  decisive  battle  of  Pavi'a, 
where  Francis  commanded  in  person  and  was  taken 
prisoner,  after  receiving  two  wounds.  It  is  commonly 
stated  that  he  wrote  a  report  of  the  event  to  his  mother 
in  these  terms  :  "  Madame,  all  is  lost  except  our  honour," 
("tout  est  perdu  fors  I'honneur.")  He  was  sent  to 
Madrid,  and  closely  confined  until  he  consented  to  the 
conditions  exacted  by  Charles  V., — iiamely,  the  cession 


c,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  j?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FRANCIS 


955 


FRANCIS 


of  Burgundy,  the  renunciation  of  his  claim  to  Flanders, 
and  the  restoration  of  Constable  Bourbon  to  his  estate 
and  rank.  After  he  obtained  his  liberation,  in  1526,  he 
refused  to  fulfil  these  conditions,  and,  forming  an  alliance 
with  Henry  VIII.  and  Pope  Clement,  continued  the  war 
until  1529,  when  the  treaty  of  Cambrai  was  signed,  by 
which  Francis  abandoned  his  claim  to  Italy,  and  married 
Eleonore,  the  sister  of  Charles.  He  afterwards  devoted 
several  years  to  the  promotion  of  commerce,  science, 
literature,  and  industry.  He  founded  the  Royal  College  of 
three  languages  in  Paris  in  153 1,  and  obtained  the  title  of 
"  the  Father  of  French  literature."  In  1539  the  emperor 
surprised  the  European  public  by  asking  permission  of 
his  rival  to  pass  through  France  on  his  way  from  Spain 
to  the  Low  Countries.  Francis  granted  the  request,  and 
entertained  Charles,  who,  it  seems,  gave  him  the  promise 
of  the  duchy  of  Milan.  In  1542  war  was  again  declared, 
and  prosecuted  in  Piedmont  and  Picardy  without  im- 
portant results,  until  the  French  gained  a  decisive  vic- 
tory at  Ceresole,  in  April,  1544,  and  a  treaty  of  peace 
was  signed  at  Crespi  in  September  of  that  year.  P'rancis 
died  in  March,  1547,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Henry  II.  He  left  a  great  reputation  for  gallantry, 
generosity,  and  royal  accomplishments,  but  is  justly 
censured  for  the  persecution  which  the  Protestants 
suiTered  during  his  reign. 

See  Brantome,  "  Memoires ;"  Capekigue,  "  Fran9ois  I  et  la 
Renaissance,"  4  vols.,  1S44;  Michei.et,  "  Renaissance;"  A.  Va- 
RiLi.As,  "  Histoire  de  Francois  1,"  1684;  Gaillaku,  "  Histoive  de 
Frangois  I,"  8  vols  ,  1768;  Mignkt,  "  Rivalite  de  Ciiarles  Quint  et 
de  Francois  I,"  1854-66;  Miss  Pardoh,  "Court  and  Reign  ofFran- 
cis  I.,"  1849;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Francis  II.,  King  of  France,  born  at  Fontainebleau 
in  January,  1543,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Henry  II.  and  of 
Catherine  de  Medicis.  In  1558  he  married  the  beautiful 
Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scots,  and  on  the  loth  of  July, 
1559,  he  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  his  father.  In  con- 
sequence of  his  youth  and  feeble  character,  he  relin- 
quished the  power  of  the  state  into  the  hands  of  the  Due 
de  Guise  and  Cardinal  Lorraine,  who  were  uncles  of 
Mary  Stuart,  and  zealous  Catholics.  Ant(jine  de  Bour- 
bon, King  of  Navarre,  the  Prince  of  Conde,  and  other 
nobles,  jealous  of  the  influence  and  impatient  of  the 
domination  of  the  Guises,  formed  a  coalition  with  the 
Protestants,  who  were  then  objects  of  a  violent  ])ersecu- 
tion.  In  1560  a  cons])iracy  was  discovered  by  the  Guises, 
which  was  the  prelude  of  the  civil  wars  that  afterwards 
raged  in  the  kingdom.  The  States-General  were  assem- 
bled at  Orleans,  and  the  Prince  of  Conde  was  condemned 
to  death  ;  but  he  escaped  this  penalty  in  consequence  of 
the  death  of  the  king,  December  5,  1560.  Francis  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  Charles  IX. 

See  Hknaiilt,  "  Frangois  II,  Roi  de  France,"  1748;  Varili.as, 
"Histoire  de  Francois  II,"  1693;  Davila,  "  Histoiy  of  the  Civil 
Wars  of  France;"  W.  Anderson.  "History  of  France  during  the 
Reigns  of  F  rancis  II.  and  Charles  IX.,"  5  vols.,  1769-82. 

Francis  I.,  (Gknnaro  Giuskppe,)  King  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  born  in  Naples  in  1777,  was  the  son  of  Ferdi- 
nand I.  of  Naples  and  of  Caroline  of  Austria.  In  1797  he 
married  Maria  Clementina,  daughter  of  the  emj^eror  Le(j- 
pold  II.  While  he  was  heir-presumptive  he  favoured  the 
party  of  reform  ;  but  he  afterwards  became  subservient  to 
the  Austrian  policy.  In  1814,  when,  by  the  fall  of  Murat, 
Ferdinand  recovered  Naples,  Francis  became  Governor 
of  Sicily.  He  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  January,  1825. 
His  reign  was  neither  prosperous  nor  popular.  He  died 
in  1830,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Ferdinand  II. 

Francis  II.,  (Maria  Lkopdi.do,)  King  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  a  son  of  Ferdinand  IL,  was  born  in  January, 
1836.  He  succeeded  his  father  on  the  22d  of  May,  1859, 
and  married  the  princess  Maria  Sophia  Amelia  of  Bavaria 
in  the  same  year.  He  persisted  in  the  arbitrary  policy 
which  had  rendered  his  father  odious.  His  subjects 
revolted  in  i860,  and  were  led  to  victory  by  Garibaldi. 
After  a  siege  of  several  months,  Francis  surrendered 
Gaeta  in  February,  1861,  and  his  dominions  have  since 
been  united  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy. 

Francis  (or  Frangois)  I.,  Duke  of  P>retagne,  born  at 
Vannes  in  1414,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Jean  VI.,  and  a 
nephew  of  Charles  VII.  of  France.  He  began  to  reign 
in  T442.  and  formed  an  alliance  with  Charles  VII.  against 
the  English.  His  memory  is  deeply  stained  by  his  cruelty 
to  his  brother  Giles.    Died  in  1450. 


Francis  II.,  the  last  Duke  of  Bretagne,  born  in  1435, 
succeeded  his  uncle,  Arthur  HI.,  in  1459.  The  principal 
events  of  his  reign  were  a  series  of  wars  against  Louis 
XI.  of  France,  of  whom  Francis  was  a  feudatory,  and 
who  desired  to  annex  Bretagne  to  his  kingdom.  The 
duke  formed  an  alliance  with  the  King  of  England  and 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy.  He  was  defeated  in  a  decisive 
battle  by  the  army  of  Charles  VI H.  of  France  in  1488, 
and  died  the  same  year.  His  daughter  Anne  became 
the  wife  of  the  French  king. 

Francis  I.,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  born  in  151 7,  succeeded 
his  father,  Antoine,  in  1 544.  He  died  in  1545,  and  left 
the  dukedom  to  his  son,  Charles  III. 

Francis  II.  of  Lorraine,  a  son  of  Charles  HL,  born 
in  1571,  became  duke  in  1624.  He  abdicated  in  favour 
of  his  son,  Charles  IV.,  the  same  year.    Died  in  1632. 

Francis  IV.,  Duke  of  Modena  and  Reggio,  born  in 
1779,  was  a  son  of  Ferdinand,  Archduke  of  Austria,  and 
Maria  Beatrice  of  Este.  He  began  to  reign  in  1814,  and, 
by  his  despotic  policy,  acquired  the  surname  of  "the 
Tiberius  of  Italy."    Died  in  1846. 

Francis  V.,  Archduke  of  Austria,  and  last  Duke  of 
Modena,  born  in  1819,  was  a  son  of  Francis  IV.,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  January,  1846.  His  reign  was  very  un- 
l)opuIar.  In  the  spring  of  1859  his  subjects  revolted, 
drove  him  into  exile,  and  decided  by  their  votes  that 
Modena  should  be  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia. 

Francis,  Duke  of  Tuscany.    See  Medicis. 

Fran'cis,  (Cunvers,)  an  American  writer,  born  at 
West  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  about  1796.  He  was 
pastor  of  a  Unitarian  church  at  Watertown,  Massa- 
chusetts, from  18 19  to  1842,  and  then  became  professor 
of  pulpit  eloquence  at  Harvard  College.  He  wrote 
several  biogra])hies,  etc.    Died  in  1863. 

Francis,  (Jean  Charles.)    See  FRANgois. 

Francis,  (John  Wakefield,)  an  eminent  American 
physician,  born  in  New  York  in  November,  1789.  He 
graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1809,  and  took  the 
degree  of  M.D.  at  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons in  181 1.  Having  entered  into  partnership  with 
Dr.  Hosack,  he  aided  the  latter  in  editing  the  "  American 
Medical  and  Philosophical  Register,"  (1810-14.)  He 
became  professor  of  materia  medica  in  Coluujbia  Col- 
lege about  1814,  after  which  he  visited  the  principal 
schools  of  medicine  in  Europe.  On  his  return  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  institutes  of  medicine,  and 
in  181 7  obtained  the  chair  of  medical  jurisprudence. 
In  1826  Dr.  Francis,  Dr.  Hosack,  and  other  professors 
resigned  their  chairs  and  organized  the  Rutgers  Medical 
School,  in  which  the  former  was  professor  of  obstetrics 
and  forensic  medicine  for  four  years.  He  was  one  of 
the  editors  of  the  "New  York  Medical  and  Physical 
[ournal,"  (1822-24.)  After  1830  he  devoted  his  lime 
chiefly  to  the  practice  of  his  profession  and  to  literary 
pursuits.  Among  his  numerous  productions  are  "  Cases 
of  Morbid  Anatomy,"(i8i4,)  "  Febrile  Contagion, "(1816,) 
"  Denman's  Practice  of  Midwifery,"  with  notes,  (1825,) 
and  "  Old  New  York,  or  Reminiscences  of  the  Past 
Sixty  Years,"  (1857.)  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  New  York  Academy  of  Medicine,  of  which  he  was 
chosen  president  in  1847.  He  was  prominently  identi- 
fied with  the  interests  of  New  York,  esjiecially  with  its 
literary  and  scientific  institutions.    Died  in  i86l 

See  H.  T.  Tuckerman,  "Life  of  John  W.  Francis,"  1855; 
"National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  i v. ; 
DuvcKiNCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. 

Francis,  (Luke,)  a  Flemish  painter  of  history  and 
portraits,  born  at  Mechlin  in  1574.  He  was  patronized 
at  the  courts  of  France  and  Spain.    Died  in  1643. 

His  son  Luke,  born  at  Mechlin  in  1606,  gained  a  high 
reputation  in  the  same  branches  of  art.  He  worked 
several  years  in  Paris,  and  then  returned  to  Flanders. 
Died  in  1654. 

Francis,  (Rev.  Philip,)  an  eminent  translator,  born 
in  Dublin,  was  the  father  of  Sir  Philip  Francis.  He  lived 
many  years  in  England,  to  which  he  removed  about  1750. 
He  became  chaplain  to  Lord  Holland,  and  a  preceptor 
of  his  son,  the  celebrated  Charles  James  Fox.  lie  pro- 
duced a  poetical  translation  of  Horace,  which  was  suc- 
cessful, and  has  often  been  reprinted,  (8th  edition,  1778,) 
a  translation  of  Demosthenes'  Orations,  (1753-55,)  and 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  h,  Y^yguthiral;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FRANCIS 


956 


FRANCISCO 


several  tragedies.    Dr.  Johnson  considered  his  version 
of  Horace  the  best  that  had  been  made.    Died  in  1773. 
See  Baker,  "  BiographLi  Drainatica. " 

Francis,  (Sir  Philip,)  an  eminent  British  statesman, 
the  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1740, 
and  removed  to  London  about  the  age  of  ten.  He  was 
a  clerk  in  the  war  office  from  1763  to  1772,  and  was  ap- 
pointed in  1773  a  member  of  tlie  Supreme  Council  of 
Bengal,  of  which  Warren  Hastings  was  president.  He 
was  the  leader  of  the  party  which  opposed  the  measures 
of  Hastings.  While  in  this  position  he  fought  a  duel 
with  Hastings,  (who  asserted  that  Francis  was  void  of 
truth  and  honour,)  was  severely  wounded,  and  returned 
to  England  about  December,  1780.  In  1784  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  Parliament,  in  which  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  trial  of  Hastings,  voted  with  Fox 
during  the  French  Revolution,  and  zealously  advocated 
vhe  abolition  of  the  slave-trade.  The  Grenville  ministry 
conferred  on  Francis  the  title  of  Knight  of  the  Bath  in 
1806,  soon  after  which  he  retired  from  Parliament.  He 
died  in  London  in  December,  1818.  He  was  a  writer  and 
speaker  of  decided  ability,  lie  is  generally  believed  to 
have  been  the  author  of  the  famous  "  Letters  of  Junius," 
though  he  always  denied  such  responsibility.  Brougham 
and  Macaulay  are  among  those  who  were  convinced  that 
Francis  was  the  author  of  Junius.  To  account  for  his 
persistence  in  concealing  his  authorship  of  those  letters, 
Lord  Brougham  remarks,  "  He  has  long,  in  his  proper 
person,  possessed  the  admiration  of  all  who  have  a  due 
regard  for  unblemished  public  virtue,  great  talents  and 
accomplishments.  He  might  well  afford  to  forego  the 
applause  of  the  multitude,  which  could  only  be  purchased 
by  a  sacrifice  of  the  tranquillity  so  invaluable  in  the  de- 
cline of  life."  "His  style,"  says  the  same  critic,  "  was 
admirable,  excelling  in  clearness,  abcmnding  in  happy 
idiomatic  terms,  not  overloaded  with  words  or  figures, 
but  not  rejecting  either  beautiful  phrases  or  appropriate 
ornament." 

See  J.  Taylor,  "Junius  identified  with  a  Distinguished  Living 
Character;"  Hekman  Mkrivai.e,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir 
Philip  Francis,"  2  vols.,  1807 ;  Macaulay,  "Essay  on  Warren 
Hasiings  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1868. 

Francis,  Saint,  [It.  San  Francesco,  sSn  fRln- 
ch^s'ko;  Fr.  SAiNT-FuANgois,  siN'fkdN''swi',]  the  cele- 
brated founder  of  an  order  of  mendicant  friars,  called 
Franciscans,  was  born  at  Assisi,  in  Italy,  in  1182.  In 
his  youth,  prompted  by  enthusiasm  and  ascetic  devo- 
tion, he  renounced  his  inheritance,  and  resolved  to  live 
on  public  charity.  Large  numbers  being  attracted  by 
his  preaching  and  exam])le  to  follow  the  same  course, 
he  composed  rules  for  their  organization,  which  Pope 
Innocent  HI.  sanctioned  about  12 10,  and  by  which  they 
were  forbidden  to  have  any  private  property,  and  were 
bound  to  preach  and  labour  without  salaries,  depending 
on  alms  for  their  simple  subsistence.  They  were  named 
Minor  Friars,  and  sometimes  also  Cordeliers,  from  the 
cord  with  which  their  coarse  tunic  was  girded.  About 
the  year  1220  he  visited  Palestine  during  one  of  the 
crusades,  and  attempted  to  convert  Suuan  Meledin,  but 
without  success.  In  1223  Pope  Honorius  published  a 
bull  confirming  the  verbal  sanction  which  the  order  had 
received  from  Innocent  III.  This  fraternity  became  very 
numerous  and  influential.  He  died  near  Assisi  in  1226, 
and  was  canonized  by  Pope  Greg<jry  in  1230. 

See  Chai.ipph,  "Vie  de  Saint- PVangois,"  172S;  Chavin  de 
Mai. AN,  "Vie  de  Saint-FranQois,"  1841;  N.  Papini,  "  Storia  di 
S.  Frai'cesco  di  Assisi,"  2  vols  ,  1825-27;  E.  Vogt,  "  Der  heilige 
Franciscus  von  Assisi,"  1840;  F.  Mokin,  "  S.  Frangois  d'Assise," 
i8S3- 

Francis  de  Pau'lo,  (or  Pau'la,)  [It.  Francesco  di 
Paolo,  (or  Paula,)  fRdn-ch^s'ko  de  pow'lo,  (or  pow'id  ;) 
Fr.  FRAwgois  de  Paule,  fRdN'swa'  deh  pol,|  Saint, 
founder  of  an  order  of  monks  called  Minimi,  was  born 
at  Paulo,  in  Calabria,  in  1416.  In  early  life  he  became  a 
hermit,  and  by  his  asceticism  acquired  a  great  reputa- 
tion for  sanctity.  In  1436  a  monastery  was  built  for  him 
and  his  imitators,  who  were  organized  with  the  name  of 
Eremites,  or  Hermits  of  Saint  Francis,  which  was  after- 
wards changed  to  Minimi.  He  went  to  Paris  about  1483, 
at  the  invitation  of  the  king,  Louis  XL,  who  was  old 
and  sick  and  hoped  his  life  would  be  miraculously  pro- 
longed.   He  lived  to  see  the  order  multiply  rapidly  and 


become  very  numerous  throughout  Europe.  The  rules 
of  this  order  were  approved  by  a  bull  of  Pope  Sixtus 
VI.  in  1474.    Died  in  1507. 

See  C.  DuviviER,  "Vie  et  Miracles  de  S.  Francois  de  Paule," 
1622;  F.  VicTDN.s  "Vita  S.  Fraiicisci  de  Paula,"  Rome,  1625;  L 
TuscANi,  "  Delia  Vita  ed  Miracoli  di  S.  Francesco  de  Paolo,"  Rome, 
1648;  Baillet,  "Vies  des  Sa.nts." 

Francis  de  Sales.    See  Sales,  Saint  Francis  de. 

Francis  Joseph  Charles,  [Ger.  Franz  Joseph 
Karl,  fRints  yo'z^f  k^Rl,]  usually  called  simply  Francis 
Joseph,  Emperor  of  Austria,  the  eldest  son  of  the  Arch- 
duke Francis  Charles  Joseph,  and  a  grandson  of  Francis 
I.,  was  born  on  the  i8th  of  August,  1830.  His  mother 
was  Sophia,  a  daughter  of  the  King  of  Bavaria.  The 
stability  of  the  throne  having  been  im|)erilled  by  the 
insurrections  in  Vienna,  Hungary,  and  Italy,  the  em- 
peror Ferdinand,  a  feeble  prince,  abdicated  in  favour 
of  his  nephew,  the  subject  of  this  article,  December 
2,  1848.  With  the  aid  of  Russia,  his  armies  subju- 
gated the  Hungarians  in  1849.  Many  of  the  Hungarian 
generals  were  executed  after  they  had  surrendered. 
Tlis  army  also  defeated  Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia  at 
Novara  in  1849.  hastened  to  seize  again  the  prero- 

gatives which  Ferdinand  had  given  up,  and  to  perfect  a 
system  of  absolutism.  In  1854  he  married  Elizabeth 
Amelia  Eugenia,  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria. 
The  Austrian  court  in  the  spring  of  1859  demanded  a 
disarmament  on  the  part  of  Sardinia,  which,  supported 
by  Napoleon  III.,  refused  to  comply.  Francis  Joseph 
invaded  Sardinia  about  the  end  of  April,  with  a  large 
army  under  Gyulai,  who  was  soon  forced  to  retire  across 
the  Ticino,  and  was  defeated  at  Magenta  on  the  4th  of 
June  by  the  French  and  Sardinians.  On  the  24th  of 
June,  1859,  the  Austrian  army  of  150,000  men  or  more, 
commanded  by  P^ancis  Joseph  in  person,  was  defeated 
with  great  loss  at  Solferino  by  the  allies,  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  emperor  Napoleon.  The  war  was  ended 
by  the  treaty  of  Villafranca,  (July,  1859,)  and  Lombardy 
was  released  from  Austrian  domination.  (See  Victor 
Emanuel.)  In  1864  he  co-operated  with  Prussia  in  the 
conquest  of  Sleswi.ck-Holstein  and  the  spoliation  of  Den- 
mark. About  the  i8th  of  June,  1866,  war  was  declared 
between  the  Emperor  of  Au.stria  and  the  King  of  Prussia, 
each  of  whom  aspired  to  be  the  head  of  the  German 
Bund.  In  this  war  Italy  was  an  ally  of  Prussia,  and  the 
federal  army  of  Germany  fought  on  the  side  of  Austria, 
i'he  Prussians,  with  wonderful  promptitude  and  rapidity, 
occupied  Hanover,  Saxony,  Hesse,  etc.,  and  the  main 
Prussian  army  entered  Bohemia  about  the  25th  of  June. 
On  the  3d  of  July,  1866,  they  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  grand  Austrian  army  at  Sadowa.  In  this  short 
campaign  of  about  ten  days  the  Austrians  lost  nearly 
100,000  men,  Francis  Joseph  ceded  Venetia  to  Louis 
Napoleon,  and,  after  soliciting  in  vain  the  intervention 
of  France,  made  overtures  for  peace  to  Prussia  about 
July  25,  1866.  The  result  of  this  war  was  a  great  hu- 
miliation of  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  and  the  exclusion 
of  Austria  from  the  German  Confederation  and  from 
Italy.  In  1867  the  constitutional  autonomy  of  Hungary 
was  restored,  and  the  subjects  of  Francis  Joseph  acquired 
an  increase  of  civil  and  religious  liberty. 

See  Edmond  Texier,  "Les  Hommes  de  la  Guerre  d'Orlent: 
Frangois  Joseph  I,"  Pans,  1854. 

Francis  Xavier.    See  Xavier. 

Francisci,  frin-sis'se,  (JtmN,)  a  Danish  poet  and 
physician,  born  at  Ripen  in  1532,  was  chosen  professor 
of  medicine  in  Copenhagen  in  1561.  He  wrote  Latin 
poems,  which  were  received  with  favour.    Died  in  1584. 

Fi'ancisco  de  Borgia,  fran-sis'ko  (or  fKdn-th^s'ko) 
di  boR'jd,  [Fr.  Francois  de  Borgia,  fRdN'sw^'  deh 
boR^zhe-^',]  Saini',  Duke  of  Gandia,  born  at  G.mdia,  in 
Spain,  in  15 10,  was  inclined  in  early  youth  to  the  monastic 
life.  To  divert  him  from  this,  his  parents  placed  him  at 
the  court  of  Charles  V,,  who  received  him  into  his  favour 
and  made  him  Viceroy  of  Catalonia.  In  1546  he  joined 
the  society  of  Jesuits,  then  recently  founded  by  Ignatius 
Loyola,  became  a  zealous  preacher,  and  in  1565  was 
elected  general  of  the  order.  He  died  in  1572,  and  was 
canonized  in  167 1  by  Pope  Clement  X. 

See  Riuauenhira,"  Vida  de  Francisco  de  Borgia,"  1605  ;  Mignht, 
"Cliarles  V  au  Monastere  de  Yuste ;"  "Ignatius  Loyola  and  his 
Associates,"  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1842. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  lon^;    6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  ]?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mfet;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FRANCISCC 


957 


FRJNCCEUR 


Francisco  (or  Francis)  de  Jesu  Maria,  fRan-th^s'- 
ko  dk  h4-soo'  mS-ree'S,  a  Spanish  Carmelite  monk  and 
writer  on  theology,  born  at  Burgos  ;  died  in  1677. 

Fran-cis'co  de  Vi-to'ri-a,  [Sp.  pron,  fuSn-thJs'ko 
dk  ve-to're-S,]  a  Spanish  Dominican  monk,  born  at  Vito- 
ria.  He  published  Theologicae  Praelectiones."  Died 
in  1549. 

Fran'ci-us  or  Fransz,  fR^nss,  (Peter,)  an  excel- 
lent modern  Latin  poet,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1645, 
studied  under  Gronovius  at  Leyden.  He  became,  about 
1675,  professor  of  history,  eloquence,  and  Greek  in  his 
native  city.  "  He  is  justly  reckoned,"  says  the  *'  Bio- 
graphie  Universelle,"  "among  those  moderns  who  have 
cultivated  Latin  poetry  with  most  success."  His  "Poe- 
mata,"  consisting  of  elegies,  epigrams,  etc.,  were  pub- 
lished in  1672.  He  also  produced  Dutch  verses  and 
Latin  orations,  (1692.)    Died  in  1703. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Franck,  fRdNk,  (Adolphe,)  a  French  philosopher, 
born  in  Meurthe  in  1809.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Religious  Philosophy  of  the  Hebrews," 
(1843,)  ^^"^s  editor  of  the  "  Dictionary  of  Philosophic 
Sciences,"  (6  vols.,  1844-52,)  for  which  he  wrote  many 
articles.  He  became  one  of  the  keepers  of  the  Imperial 
Library  in  1854,  and  professor  of  natural  and  public  law 
in  the  College  of  France  in  1856. 

Franck,  Frank,  fuSnk,  or  Francken,  fRSnk'ken, 
(Ambrose,)  a  Flemish  painter  of  history,  born  at  Ant- 
werp about  1545,  was  a  pupil  of  Frans  Floris.  Among 
his  works  is  the  "  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Crepin  and  Saint 
Crepinien."    Died  in  1619. 

Franck,  (Constantine,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1660.  He  excelled  in  battle-scenes.  His 
master-piece  is  the  "Siege  of  Namur  by  William  HL" 
Died  about  1708. 

Franck  or  Francken,  (Francis,)  surnamed  the 
Elder,  a  skilful  painter,  born  at  or  near  Antwerp  about 
1544,  was  a  brother  of  Ambrose,  noticed  above.  He 
painted,  besides  other  historical  works,  "  The  Holy 
Family,"  and  "Christ  in  the  midst,  of  the  Doctors," 
which  is  called  his  master-piece.  Died  at  Antwerp  in 
1616. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Franck,  (Francis,)  called  the  Younger,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1580,  studied  with 
his  father.  After  travelling  in  Italy,  he  returned  to  his 
native  place,  and  was  received  in  the  Academy  in  1605. 
He  is  regarded  by  some  as  the  most  skilful  artist  of  this 
family.  Among  his  works,  which  are  chiefly  historical, 
are  "The  Prodigal  Son,"  and  "Laban  Seeking  his 
Idols."    Died  in  1642. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Franck,  (Gabriel,)  a  Flemish  painter,  was  director 
of  the  Academy  of  Antwerp  in  1634. 

Franck,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  grandson  of  Francis  the 
Elder,  was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1600.  He  excelled  in 
the  representation  of  picture-galleries,  imitating  the 
manner  of  various  artists  with  skill.  His  master-piece 
is  "  Rubens  and  Van  Dyck  Playing  Backgammon."  Died 
in  1653. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Franck,  (Jerome,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Heren- 
thals  about  1542,  was  a  brother  of  Ambrose,  and  a  pupil 
of  Frans  Floris.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a 
painter  of  portraits,  and  was  appointed  first  ])ainter  to 
Henry  III.  of  France.  He  also  painted  history  with 
success  in  Paris  and  Antwerp.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"Nativity,"  (Paris,  1585.)    He  was  living  in  1607. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Franck,  (Sebastian,)  son  of  Francis  the  Elder, 
above  named,  born  about  1575,  lived  at  Antwerp,  and 
painted  landscapes  and  battles  with  success.  Died 
about  1636. 

Franck  von  Franckenau.    See  Frank. 

Francke.    See  Frankp:. 

Francke,  fRink'keh,  written  also  Franke,  (August 
Hermann,)  a  German  Protestant  divine  and  eminent 
philanthropist,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1663.  He  becaine  pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  languages  at  Halle  in  1692,  and  about 
the  same  time  founded  in  that  town  an  orphan-asylum 


and  a  college  for  the  poor,  which  received  the  name  of 
Francke's  Institutions.  He  was  for  many  years  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Halle.  Died  in  1727.  Francke 
belonged  to  the  Evangelical  school  of  theology,  and 
wrote  "Methodus  Studii  Theologiae,"  (1723,)  besides 
other  works. 

See  HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch ;"  M.  Al- 
BERTI,  "  iSIonuinentum  A.  H.  Franckio  positum,"  1727;  Niemeyer, 
"  Uebersicht  von  A.  H.  Francken's  Lebeii,"  etc.,  1788;  Guekicke, 
'•Ueber  A.  H.  Francke,"  Halle,  1827;  G.  E.  Leo,  "Leben  A.  H. 
Francke's,"  1848. 

Francke,  fRtnk'keh,  (Johan  Valentin,)  a  Danish 
critic  and  philologist,  was  born  at  Husum  about  1792. 
He  became  professor  in  the  University  of  Dorpat,  and 
wrote  several  works,  the  principal  of  which  is  his  "Latin 
and  Greek  Inscriptions."    Died  in  1830. 

See  Eksch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Francke  or  Franke,  (Theophilus  August,)  a  theo- 
logian, born  at  Halle  in  1696,  was  a  son  of  August  Her- 
mann, whom  he  succeeded,  in  1727,  as  director  of  the 
institution  at  Halle.    Died  in  1769. 

Francken.    See  Franck,  (Ambrose.) 

Franckenstein,  fRank'en-stIn',  (Christian  Gott- 
fried,) a  German  lawyer  and  historical  writer,  born  at 
Leipsic  in  1661  ;  died  in  171 7. 

His  son  Jakob,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1689,  was  a  jurist; 
died  in  1733. 

Franck'lin,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
London  in  1 721,  became  Greek  ])rofessor  at  Cambridge 
in  1750,  and  was  presented  to  the  livings  of  Ware  and 
Thmidrich  in  1758.  In  1776  he  became  rector  of  Brasted, 
in  Kent.  He  wrote  several  dramas,  and  other  works 
in  prose  and  verse,  and  published  translations  of  Sopho- 
cles (2  vols.,  1759)  and  of  Lucian,  (2  vols.,  1780.)  Died 
in  London  in  1784. 

Fran'co  [Fr.  Francon  or  Frankon,  fR6N''kdN'] 
of  Cologne,  a  celebrated  scholar  and  writer  on  music, 
flourished  at  Liege  about  1050.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  born  at  Cologne.  "  He  is  the  author,"  says  Denne- 
Baron,  "of  the  niost  ancient  treatises  which  are  extant 
on  measured  music  and  regular  harmony,"  namely,  "  Ars 
Cantus  Mensiuabilis,"  and  "Compendium  de  Discantu." 
("Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.") 

See  F  etis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Miisiciens." 

Franco,  fRSn'ko,  (Battista,)  called  Semolei,  an 
eminent  Venetian  painter  and  engraver,  born  in  1498, 
studied  at  Rome,  and  imitated  Michael  Angelo.  He 
practised  his  art  in  several  cities  of  Italy  with  success, 
and  engraved  many  subjects  after  Raphael.  He  was  a 
skilful  designer.  Among  his  paintings  is  "  Hannibal 
assailed  by  a  Storm  under  the  Walls  of  Rome."  Died 
in  Venice  in  1 561. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy." 

Franco,  (Niccol6,)  a  satirical  and  licentious  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Benevento  about  1 5 10.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Temple  of  Love,"  "La  Pri- 
apea,"  (1541,)  and  "Dialogues  on  Beauty,"  (1542.)  He 
was  hung  by  order  of  Pope  Pius  V.  in  1569,  eith'er  for 
the  immoral  tendency  of  his  books  or  for  a  personal 
satire  on  the  pontiff. 

See  TiRABoscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Franco,  (Veronica,)  an  Italian  poetess,  born  at 
Venice  in  1554;  died  about  1595. 

Franco-Barreto,  fR^n'ko  bar-ra'to,  (Joao,)  a  classic 
Portuguese  poet,  born  in  Lisbon  about  1600.  After 
serving  in  the  armament  sent  to  Brazil  in  1646,  he  took 
orders,  and  became  vicar  of  Barreiro  in  1648.  He  pub- 
lished numerous  works  in  verse  and  prose,  among  which 
is  a  poetical  translation  of  the  "  yEneid,"  which  is  com- 
mended for  its  fidelity  and  other  merits,  (1664-70.)  Died 
about  1668. 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "  Bibliotheca  Lusitana." 

Francoeur,  fRdN'kuR',  (Louis  Benjamin,)  a  French 
geometer,  born  in  Paris  in  1773.  He  became  professor 
of  mathematics  at  the  Faculty  of  Sciences  in  1809.  He 
wrote  many  good  school-books,  among  which  are  a 
"Complete  Course  of  Pure  Mathematics,"  (2  vols.,  1809,) 
and  "Elements  of  Statics,"  (1810.)    Died  in  1849. 

See  Francceur  fils,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  L.  B.  Francoeur," 
1854. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FRANCOIS 


958 


FRANKLIN 


Frangois,  fRdN'swi',  (Jean  Charles,)  a  French  en- 
graver, born  at  Nancy  in  1717.  He  was  the  inventor  of 
engraving  in  imitation  of  crayon  or  pencil.  Died  in  1769. 

See  Basan,  '*  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Fran90is,  (Lauren  r,)  a  French  priest,  born  at  Arin- 
thod  in  1698,  vv^as  a  defender  of  revealed  religion  against 
Voltaire  and  other  skej^tics.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  De- 
fence of  the  Christian  Religion  against  the  Objections  of 
Infidels,"  (2  vols,,  1755.)    Died  in  1782. 

Frangois,  (Luc,)  a  Flemish  painter.  See  Francis, 
(Luke.) 

Fraiigois,  (Simon,)  a  French  portrait-painter,  called 
LE  Valentin,  born  at  Tours  in  1606  ;  died  in  1671. 
Frangois  de  Bourbon.    See  Enghien,  Bourbon, 

and  MuNTPENSIER. 

Fran9ois  de  Neufch^teau,  fRoN^swi'  deh  nuh'- 
shd'to',  (Nicolas  Louis,)  Compe,  a  French  statesman 
and  poet,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1750.  In  his  youth  he  was 
for  a  short  time  secretary  to  Voltaire.  He  favoured  the 
Revolution,  and  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly 
in  1 791.  In  October,  1792,  he  was  appointed  minister 
of  justice,  but  declined.  His  comedy  *'  Pamela"  was 
performed  with  success  in  1793.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  executive  Directory  from  September,  1797,  until  May, 
1798,  and  became  minister  of  the  interior  in  July  of  that 
year.  He  was  appointed  a  senator  about  the  end  of  1799, 
and  was  president  of  the  senate  two  years,  1804-06.  In 
this  capacity  he  pronounced  several  eloquent  addresses 
to  the  emperor.  He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Acad- 
emy in  1816,  after  which  he  retired  from  public  life. 
Died  in  1828. 

See  A.  F.  DE  Silvestre,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  M.  le  Comte 
Fraiigois  de  Neul'chateaii,"  1828;  H.  Honnemer,  "  Memoires  sur 
Frangois  de  Neutchaieau,"  1829;  Querard,  "La  France  Litte- 
raire  ;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Franoowitz,  fnln^ko-'i^its',  (Matthias  Flaoh — 
fl^K,)  an  eminent  Protestant  theologian  and  biblical  critic, 
born  in  Istria  in  1521,  assumed  the  name  of  Flaccus 
(or  Flacius)  Illyricus.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Luther  at 
Wittenberg,  where  he  became  a  professor  of  Hebrew  in 
1544.  He  was  chosen  professor  of  theology  at  Jena  in 
1557.  To  superior  talents  he  joined  extensive  learning. 
His  character  is  represented  as  turbulent,  impetuous, 
and  disputatious.  He  wrote  many  controversial  works, 
(partly  against  Melanchthon,)  an  excellent  Ecclesiastical 
History,  entitled  "Centuries  of  Magdeburg,"  published 
in  3  volumes  at  Magdeburg,  (1559-74,)  which  Mosheim 
calls  "an  immortal  work,"  and  "Key  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures," ("  Clavis  Scripturae  Sacrae,"  1567.)  Died  in  1575. 

See  TwESTEN,  "Matthias  B'lacius  Illyricus,"  Berlin,  1844;  J.  B. 
RiTTER,  "  Beschreibung  des  Lebens  Fl  iccii,"  1723;  M.  Adam, 
"Vitas  Germanorum  Theologorum ;"  Niceron,  "Memoires;" 
"  Noiiveile  Biographic  Generale." 

Francucci,  fRdn-koot'chee,  (Tnnocenzio,)  called  also 
Innocenzio  da  Imola,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Imola 
about  1490,  was  a  pupil  of  Francia.  He  lived  in  Bologna, 
and  adorned  the  churches  of  that  city  with  frescos  which 
were  greatly  admired.  The  latest  date  on  his  works  is 
1549.  A  picture  of  the  "Archangel  Michael  and  Satan" 
is  esteemed  his  master-piece. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy;"  Papotti,  "  Elogio  di  L  Francucci,  Imitatore  glorioso 
del  divino  Raffaello,"  1840. 

Frangipani,  fKln-je-p^'nee,  a  powerful  family  of  Rome 
in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  who  derived  their 
name  from  the  distribution  of  bread  in  time  of  famine. 
They  held  the  first  rank  among  the  nobility  until  the 
Colonna  family  and  the  Orsini  gained  the  ascendant. 
Cenzio  Frangipani  produced  a  schism  in  the  Church  in 
1 118  by  the  election  of  the  Antipope  Burdino,  who 
assumed  the  title  of  Gregory  VI H. 

Frangipani,  (Claudio  Cornelio,)  a  jurist,  born  in 
Venice  in  1533,  professed  civil  law  with  great  credit  in 
his  native  city,  and  wrote  several  legal  treatises.  Died 
in  1630. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeinc  Encyklopaedie." 

Frangipani,  (Cornelio,)  a  Venetian  of  noble  descent, 
born  in  Friuli,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  prac- 
tised law  in  Venice,  was  distinguished  as  an  orator,  and 
translated  three  of  Cicero's  orations.    Died  in  1581. 

Frank.    See  Franck. 


Frank,  or  Francke  von  Franckenau,  fRink'keh 
fon  fkSnk'keh-now',  (Georg,)  a  learned  German  physi- 
cian and  elegant  writer,  was  born  in  Naumburg,  in  Mis- 
nia,  in  1643.  He  wrote  agreeable  verses  in  German, 
Latin,  and  Greek.  After  he  had  taught  medicine  at 
Wittenberg,  he  became  chief  physician  and  aulic 
councillor  to  Christian  V.  of  Denmark.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Flora  Francica,"  (1685,)  and 
"Twenty  Medical  Satires,"  ("  Satyrae  Medicae  Viginti," 
1722.)  He  was  created  count  by  the  emperor  in  1691. 
Died  in  1704, 

See  Morbri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  "  Biographic  Med'cale." 

Frank,  or  Francke  von  Franckenau,  (Georg 
Friedrich,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  about  1670, 
was  also  a  physician.  He  became  professor  at  Copen- 
hagen, and  wrote  several  medical  works.    Died  in  1732. 

Frank,  (Jacob,)  a  Polish  Jew,  born  in  1712,  was  the 
founder  of  a  sect  called  Frankists  or  Zoharites.  He 
acquired  a  great  reputation  as  a  Cabalist,  and  made 
many  disciples  in  Podolia  about  1750.  They  rejected  the 
Talmud,  and  professed  faith  in  a  book  called  "Zohar." 
Died  in  1791. 

Frank,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  celebrated  German  phy- 
sician, born  in  the  duchy  of  Baden  in  1745,  graduated 
at  Heidelberg,  succeeded  Tissot  in  1785  in  the  chair 
of  clinics  at  Pavi'a,  and  in  1804  was  appointed  professor 
of  medicine  at  Wilna,  and  soon  after  physician  to  the 
emperor  Alexander  of  Russia.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  his  "System  of  a  Perfect  Medical  Police," 
(1784,)  and  "Special  Pathology  and  Therapeutics." 
I)ied  in  1821.  His  son,  Joseph,  born  in  1771,  was  a 
skilful  physician,  and  the  author  of  several  valuable 
medical  treatises.    Died  in  1842. 

See  "Biographic  des  J.  P.  Frank,"  Vienna,  1802;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "Allgemeinc  Encyklopaedie." 

Frank,  (Sebastian,)  an  excellent  German  prose 
writer,  also  noted  as  a  visionary  theologian,  was  born  at 
Donau worth,  in  Suabia,  about  1500.  He  was  a  zealous 
Reformer,  but  by  his  mystical  opinions  and  writings  was 
involved  in  a  quarrel  with  Luther.  Among  his  numerous 
works  were  a  Chronicle  of  Germany.    Died  about  1545. 

See  Christian  Kari,  Am  Ende,  "  Kleine  Nachlese  zu  den 
vielen  unvoilstandigcn  Nachrichten  von  S.  Frank's  Leben,"  1796- 
99;  S.  G.  Wald,  "De  Vita  et  Systemate  mystico  S.  Franki,"  1793. 

Franke.    See  Francke,  (August  H.) 

Frankel,  fR^n'kel,  (Zacharias,)  a  learned  Jewish 
writer,  born  at  Prague  in  1801.  He  became  chief  rabbi 
at  Dresden  about  1836.  His  works  are  said  to  be  per- 
vaded by  the  spirit  of  progress. 

Franki,  fR^nkl,  (Ludwig  August,)  a  German  poet,  of 
a  Jewish  family,  born  in  Bohemia  in  1810.  His  heroic 
poem  of  "Don  Juan  of  Austria,"  (1846,)  and  an  epic  en- 
titled "Christopher  Columbus,"  (1836,)  are  among  his 
best  works. 

Frank'land,  (Rev.  Thomas,)  an  English  physician, 
born  in  1633.  He  produced,  besides  other  works,  "The 
Annals  of  King  James  Land  Charles  I.,"  (1681,)  which 
are  said  to  be  impartial.    Died  in  1690. 

Frank'lin,  (Anna  Eleanor  Porden,)  an  English 
poetess,  born  in  1795,  was  a  daughter  of  Mr.  Porden, 
architect  of  Eton  Hall.  She  learned  several  ancient  and 
modern  languages,  and  wrote  poems  entitled  "  The  Veils, 
or  the  Triumph  of  Constancy,"  (1815,)  "The  Arctic  Ex- 
pedition," (1818,)  and  "Cceur-de-Lion,  or  the  Third  Cru- 
sade," an  epic  poem,  (1824.)  In  1823  she  was  married 
to  the  great  navigator  Sir  John  Franklin.   Died  in  1825. 

Frank'lin,  (Benjamin,)  an  eminent  American  phi- 
losopher and  statesman,  born  at  Boston,  in  Massachu- 
setts, the  17th  of  January,  1706.  He  was  the  youngest 
son  and  fifteenth  child  of  a  family  of  seventeen  children. 
His  father,  Josiah  Franklin,  emigrated  from  England  to 
America  in  1682:  he  followed  the  business  of  tallow- 
chandler  and  soap-boiler.  Benjamin,  when  only  ten 
years  old,  was  employed  in  his  father's  shop,  in  cutting 
wicks,  going  errands,  etc.  ;  but  soon,  becoming  disgusted 
with  the  monotonous  routine  of  his  duties,  he  conceived 
a  strong  desire  to  go  to  sea.  To  ])revent  this,  his  father 
bound  him  apprentice  to  his  brother  James,  who  was  a 
printer.  Young  Franklin  had  now  free  access  to  books, 
for  which  he  had  evinced  a  fondness  even  from  infancy. 
He  himself  says  he  could  not  remember  the  time  when 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lottg;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


FRANKLIN 


959 


FRANKLIN 


he  did  not  know  how  to  read.  To  gratify  his  thirst  for 
reading,  he  would  often  sit  up  the  greater  part  of  the 
night.  During  his  apprenticeship,  he  made  occasional 
anonymous  contributions  to  a  paper  published  by  his 
brother,  and  once  had  the  gratification  to  hear  his  articles 
warmly  commended  by  some  gentlemen  who  called  at 
the  office,  and  who  little  imagined  him  to  be  the  author. 
He  did  not,  however,  neglect  his  duties  as  a  printer ; 
and  he  became  in  a  few  years  well  skilled  in  his  trade. 
But  the  two  brothers  could  not  agree.  The  elder  appears 
to  have  been  of  a  severe  and  passionate  temper,  which 
the  younger  (as  he  himself  intimates)  may  have  some- 
times provoked  by  his  impertinence.  At  length,  when 
seventeen  years  of  age,  young  Franklin  left  Boston 
without  the  knowledge  of  his  relations,  embarking  in  a 
vessel  bound  for  New  V^ork,  whence  he  proceeded,  partly 
by  water  and  partly  on  foot,  to  Philadelphia.  Here  he 
obtained  employment  as  a  journeyman  printer.  In  the 
following  year,  encouraged  by  the  promise  of  assistance 
from  a  gentleman  in  Philadelphia,  he  resolved  to  set  up 
business  for  himself  With  this  view  he  went  to  England 
in  order  to  purchase  tvpe  and  other  materials  necessary 
for  carrying  on  his  trade.  But,  failing  to  receive  the  aid 
which  he  had  expected  from  his  pretended  friend,  he 
was  obliged  to  work  as  a  journeyman  in  London,  where 
he  remained  more  than  a  year.  He  returned  in  1726  to 
Philadelphia,  and  in  1729,  with  the  assistance  of  some 
friends,  he  established  himself  in  business.  The  next 
year  he  married  Miss  Deborah  Read,  with  whom  he 
had  become  acquainted  in  Philadelphia  before  he  went 
to  England.  In  1729  he  became  the  editor  and  propri- 
etor of  a  newspaj^er,  (the  "  Pennsylvania  Gazette,")  which 
his  talent  for  writing  soon  rendered  very  popular  and 
very  profitable.  In  1732  he  commenced  the  publication 
of  an  almanac  purporting  to  be  by  "Richard  Sauntlers," 
He  sought  to  make  this,  as  well  as  his  paper,  the  vehicle 
of  useful  information  for  the  people,  especially  inculcating 
the  virtues  of  frugality,  industry,  etc.  It  was  commonly 
called  "Poor  Richard's  Almanac,"  under  which  name  it 
acquired  a  wide  celebrity.  He  soon  won  for  himself  a 
high  reputation  for  public  spirit  as  well  as  for  wisdom 
and  foresight.  He  warmly  supported,  both  by  his  per- 
sonal efforts  and  by  his  pen,  every  enterprise  which  in 
his  judgment  was  calculated  to  promote  the  public  good. 
To  hiin  is  due  the  credit  of  founding  the  Philadelphia 
Library,  which  was  commenced  in  1 73 1  and  is  now  one 
of  the  largest  in  the  United  States.  By  his  talents,  pru- 
dence, and  integrity,  he  continued  to  rise  in  the  estima- 
tion of  the  community  in  which  he  lived,  until  he  was 
deemed  worthy  of  the  highest  honours  which  his  country 
could  bestow.  He  was  made  successively  clerk  of  the 
General  Assembly  of  Pennsylvania,  (1736,)  postmaster 
of  Philadelphia,  (1737,)  and  deputy  postmaster-general 
for  the  British  colonies,  (1753.)  A  dispute  having  arisen 
between  the  Assembly  and  the  proprietary  governors, 
in  consequence  of  the  latter  claiming  exemption  from 
taxation,  Franklin  was  sent  in  1757  to  England  to  plead 
the  cause  of  the  people  before  the  privy  council.  His 
representations  and  arguments  prevailed;  and  it  was 
decided  that  the  estates  of  the  proprietaries  should  bear 
their  due  proportion  of  the  public  burdens.  On  his 
return  in  1762,  he  received  the  thanks  of  the  Assembly 
for  the  able  and  faithful  fulfilment  of  his  mission. 

Franklin  had  already  become  distinguished  in  the 
scientific  world  by  his  successful  experiments  on  the 
nature  of  electricity.  In  1752  he  had  made  the  important 
and  brilliant  discovery  of  the  identity  of  lightning  with 
the  electric  fluid,  by  means  of  a  kite.  Some  letters,  giving 
an  account  of  his  first  experiments,  were  sent  to  England 
to  his  friend  Mr.  Collinson,  who  had  them  read  before 
the  Royal  Society  ;  but  they  attracted  little  attention. 

One  paper,"  says  Franklin  in  his  Autobiography,  "which 
I  wrote  for  Mr.  Kinnersley,  on  the  sameness  of  lightning 
with  electricity,  .  .  .  was  laughed  at  by  the  connois- 
seurs." These  papers  were  not  even  thought  worthy 
to  be  printed  in  the  "Transactions"  of  the  society.  At 
the  suggestion  of  Dr.  Fothergill,  they  were  published  in 
a  pamphlet  by  themselves.  A  copy  havmg  fallen  under 
.he  notice  of  the  celebrated  Count' de  Buffon,  it  was,  at 
his  instance,  translated  into  French,  and  excited  great 
attention  on  the  continent.    The  subject  was  brought 


again  before  the  notice  of  the  Royal  Society  ;  ana  "  they 
soon  made  me,"  says  Franklin,  "more  than  amends  for 
the  slight  with  which  they  had  before  treated  me." 
Without  waiting  for  any  application  to  be  made  on  his 
behalf,  they  chose  him  a  member  of  their  body,  and  voted 
that  he  should  be  excused  from  the  customary  payments 
on  admission,  (amounting  to  twenty-five  guineas  ;)  they 
also  bestowed  upon  him  the  Copley  gold  medal,  (dated 
1753,)  and  afterwards  furnished  him  with  their  "Trans- 
actions" without  charge.  Alluding  to  Franklin's  account 
of  his  electrical  experiments,  Sir  Humphry  Davy  ob- 
serves, "A  singular  felicity  of  induction  guided  ail  his 
researches,  and  by  very  small  means  he  established  very 
grand  truths ;  the  style  and  manner  of  his  publication 
are  almost  as  worthy  of  admiration  as  the  doctrines  it 
contains.  .  .  .  He  has  written  equally  for  the  uninitiated 
and  for  the  philosopher."  Before  he  left  England,  in 
1762,  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws  was  conferred  upon 
him  by  the  Universities  of  Edinburgh  and  Oxford. 

In  1764,  Franklin  was  again  sent  by  the  Assembly  as 
agent  to  England.*  The  policy  of  taxing  the  colonies 
had  already  been  agitated  ;  and  he  was  instructed  by  the 
Assembly  to  use  his  efforts  against  such  a  measure. 
But  the  ministry  had  formed  their  plaiis,  and  the  Stamp 
Act  was  passed  early  in  1765.  In  the  examination  before 
the  House  of  Commons  in  1766,  Franklin's  talents,  skill, 
and  varied  information  were  shown  to  great  advantage, 
and  the  repeal  of  the  obnoxious  Stamp  Act  was  the  result. 
But  other  laws,  deemed  equally  objectionable,  remained 
in  force.  In  the  dispute  between  the  American  colonies 
and  the  mother-country.  Franklin  had  sought  sincerely 
and  earnestly  to  prevent  a  disruption  :  when,  however, 
he  became  convinced  that  a  separation  was  inevitable, 
he  returned  home  and  took  an  active  part  in  promoting 
the  cause  of  independence.  He  arrived  at  Philadelphia 
on  the  5th  of  May,  1775,  after  an  absence  of  rather  more 
than  ten  years.  The  day  after  his  arrival  he  was  unani- 
mously elected  by  the  Assembly  of  Pennsylvania  a  dele- 
gate to  the  second  Continental  Congress,  then  about  to 
assemble.  He  was  one  of  the  committee  of  five  chosen 
by  Congress  to  prepare  the  "Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence," which,  having  been  agreed  to  on  the  4th  of  July, 
1776,  he  afterwards  signed  with  the  other  leading  pa- 
triots. Towards  the  close  of  1776  he  was  sent  as  am- 
bassador to  the  court  of  France  :  he  arrived  in  Paris  on 
the  2ist  of  December.  To  Franklin  is  due  the  principal, 
if  not  the  sole,  credit  of  effecting  between  France  and 
the  United  States  the  Treaty  of  Alliance,  the  stipulations 
of  which  were  so  eminently  favourable  to  the  latter 
country.  This  treaty,  signed  at  Paris  the  6th  of  February, 
1778,  may  be  said  to  have  secured  the  independence  of 
the  American  colonies.  Franklin  took  an  important 
part  in  the  negotiation  of  peace  with  England,  and  signed 
the  preliminary  articles  of  a  treaty  of  peace  at  Paris  on 
the  30th  of  November,  1782.  The  definitive  treaty  of 
peace  was  signed  at  Paris  by  Franklin,  Adams,  and  Jay, 
September  3,  1783.  Franklin  afterwards  negotiated  with 
Prussia  a  treaty,  in  which  he  inserted  an  article  against 
privateering.  "This  treaty,"  said  Washington,  "marks 
a  new  era  in  negotiation.  It  is  the  most  liberal  treaty 
which  has  ever  been  entered  into  between  independent 
powers."  He  returned  home  in  September,  1785,  and 
in  the  next  month  was  chosen  President  of  Pennsylvania 
for  one  year.  He  was  re-elected  in  1786  and  1787.  He 
was  a  delegate  to  the  convention  which  met  at  Philadel- 
phia in  May,  1787,  to  form  a  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  It  deserves  to  be  mentioned  that  he  introduced 
a  motion  for  daily  prayers  in  this  convention,  on  which 
occasion  he  said,  "I  have  lived  a  long  time,  and  the 
longer  I  live  the  more  convincing  proofs  I  s^ee  of  this 
truth,  that  God  governs  in  the  affairs  of  men.  And  if  a 
sparrow  cannot  fall  to  the  ground  without  his  notice,  is 
it  probable  that  an  empire  can  rise  without  his  aid.^" 

At  the  close  of  the  convention  he  made  a  speech,  in 
which  he  said,  "  I  consent  to  this  Constitution,  because 
I  expect  no  better,  and  because  I  am  not  sure  that  it  is 
not  the  best."  His  last  public  act  was  the  signature 
of  a  memorial  addressed  to  Congress  by  the  Abolition 
Society,  of  which  he  was  president. 

*  He  was  afterwards  appointed  agent  by  several  of  the  other 
colonies. 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,  Yi,gutttiral;  N,  tiasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Jl^r^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FRANKLIN 


960 


FRANZ 


He  died  in  Philadelphia  on  the  17th  of  April,  1790, 
aged  eighty-four  years,  leaving  a  son,  William,  who  was 
Governor  of  New  Jersey,  and  a  daughter,  Sarah  Bache. 
His  remains  are  entombed  in  the  cemetery  of  Christ 
Church,  at  the  southeastern  angle  of  Fifth  and  Arch 
Streets,  Philadelphia. 

In  i^erson  Franklin  was  of  a  medium  stature,  well 
formed  and  strongly  built,  with  a  light  complexion  and 
gray  eyes.  As  a  philosopher  he  was  remarkable  for 
simplicity  of  character  and  for  practical  common  sense. 
He  deemed  nothing  which  concerned  the  interest  or  hap- 
piness of  mankind  unworthy  of  his  attention;  and  he 
rarely,  if  ever,  bestowed  attention  on  any  subject  without 
permanently  useful  results.  His  services  to  science  and 
liberty  were  expressed  in  this  famous  line  by  Turgot : 
"  Eripuil  coelo  fiilmen,  sceptrumqiie  tyrannis."* 

"He  never  pietended  to  the  accomplishments  of  an 
orator  or  debater.  He  seldom  spoke  in  a  deliberative 
assembly  except  for  some  special  object,  and  then  briefly 
and  with  great  simplicity  of  manner  and  language." 
(Sparks's  "  Life  of  Franklin.") 

Franklin  left  an  interesting  and  highly-instructive 
autobiograi)hy  of  the  earlier  part  of  his  life,  (up  to  his 
fifty-second  year.)  A  continuation  has  been  added  by 
Jared  Sparks,  jjreiixed  to  an  edition  of  Franklin's  eiitire 
works, — the  whole  being  comprised  in  10  vols.  8vo, 
(Boston,  1850.) 

"  Antiquity,"  says  Mirabeau,  "  would  have  raised  altars 
to  this  mighty  genius,  who,  to  the  advantage  of  man- 
kind, compassing  in  his  mind  the  heavens  and  the  earth, 
was  able  to  restrain  alike  thunderbolts  and  tyrants." 
Lord  Chatham,  in  a  public  speech  made  in  1775,  charac- 
terized Franklin  as  "one  whom  all  Europe  held  in  high 
estimation  for  his  knowledge  and  wisdom,  and  ranked 
with  our  Boyles  and  Newtons  ;  who  was  an  honour  not 
to  the  English  nation  only,  but  to  human  nature."  "  His 
style,"  says  Lord  Jeffrey,  "has  all  the  vigour  and  even 
conciseness  of  Swift,  without  any  of  his  harshness.  It 
is  in  no  degree  more  flowery,  yet  both  elegant  and  lively. 
.  .  .  The  peculiar  charm  of  his  writings,  and  his  great 
merit  also  in  action,  consisted  in  the  clearness  with  which 
he  saw  his  object,  and  the  bold  and  steady  pursuit  of 
it  by  the  surest  and  the  shortest  road." 

See  Lord  Jeffrp;v's  articles  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  July, 
1806,  and  August,  1817;  Condorcet,  "  ^ loge  de  Franklin,"  1790; 
Bancroft,  "  History  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  ix.  chap.  xxix. ;  A. 
Norton,  article  in  the  "North  American  Review,"  vol.  vii.  ;  Mi- 
GNET,  "Vie  de  Franklin:"  Bauer,  "Washington  und  Franklin," 
Berlin,  1803-06;  C.  Schmaltz,  "  Leben  Benj.  Franklins,"  1840.  In 
1868  a  corrected  edition  of  his  Autobiography  was  published  by  John 
BiGELow,  who  obtained  the  original  MS.  in  Paris.  See,  also,  Lord 
Brougham,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  IIL,"  vol.  ii. ; 
Parton,  "  Life  and  Times  of  B.  Franklin,"  2  vols.  8vo,  1864. 

Franklin,  (Jane  Griffin,)  Lady,  the  second  wife  of 
Sir  John  Franklin,  was  born  about  1802.  She  was  mar- 
ried about  1828,  and  went  with  her  husband  to  Van 
Diemen's  Land  in  1836.  Her  name  has  been  rendered 
memorable  by  her  persevering  efforts  to  ascertain  the 
fate  of  Sir  John  Franklin.  In  1850  she  sent  out  a  ship 
for  that  purpose  at  her  own  expense.  Other  expeditions 
were  sent  by  the  British  government,  without  success, 
until  1857,  when  she  fitted  out  the  steamer  Fox.  See 
Frankijn,  (Sir  John.) 

Franklin,  (Sir  John,)  a  distinguished  English  navi- 
gator and  Arctic  explorer,  was  born  at  Spilsby,  in 
Lincolnshire,  in  April,  1786.  He  entered  the  navy  as  a 
midshipman  about  1800,  and  in  1801  accompanied  Cap- 
tain Flinders  in  a  voyage  of  exploration  to  Australia. 
He  served  with  distinction  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar, 
October  21,  1805,  and  was  slightly  wounded  in  the  attack 
on  New  Orleans,  January,  181 5.  Having  obtained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant,  he  was  ap])ointed  commander  of  the 
Trent  in  the  Arctic  expedition  which,  under  Captain 
Buchan,  sailed  in  i8i8.  The  ship  of  Captain  Buchan 
was  disabled  soon  after  their  departure,  and  the  expe- 
dition ccmsequently  failed.  In  1819  he  conducted  an 
overland  expedition  sent  to  trace  the  coast-line  of  North 
America,  in  which  service  he  and  his  party  walked  about 
fifty-five  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  On  his  return  to 
England  he  published  a  narrative  of  his  expedition,  and 

*  "  He  wrested  the  thunderbolt  from  heaven  and  the  sceptre  frorp 
tyrants." 


was  raised  to  the  rank  of  capt  tin.  He  was  elected  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1823,  and  married  Miss 
Eleanor  Porden  about  that  date.  In  1825  he  renewed 
the  enterprise  of  exploration  by  land,  and  traced  the 
coast  of  North  America  from  the  mouth  of  the  Copper- 
mine River  to  the  150th  meridian,  for  which  service  he 
was  knighted.  He  afterwards  commanded  the  Rainbow 
in  the  Mediterranean  for  several  years.  Having  lost 
his  first  wife,  he  married  Jane  Griffin  in  1828.  He  was 
Governor  of  Van  Diemen's  Land  from  1836  to  1842. 

The  government  having  ordered  a  new  expedition  to 
discover  a  Northwest  passage,  and  given  the  command 
of  it  to  Sir  John  Franklin,  he  sailed  with  the  Erebus 
and  Terror  in  May,  1845,  ^"^1  never  returtied.  Several 
expeditions  were  sent  in  search  of  him  by  the  English 
and  the  Americans,  without  success;  but  Dr.  Rae  foimd, 
in  1854,  some  relics  of  the  lost  navigators.  Lady 
Franklin  sent  out,  in  1857,  the  steamer  Fox,  under  Cap- 
tain McClintock,  who,  in  the  siuTiiner  of  1859,  discovered 
on  the  shore  of  King  William's  Land  a  record  deposited 
in  a  cairn  by  the  survivors  of  Franklin's  company.  This 
document,  dated  April  25,  1848,  stated  that  Sir  John 
Franklin  died  Jime  11,  1847,  that  the  Erebus  and  Terror 
were  abandoned  April  22,  184S,  when  the  survivors, 
one  hundred  and  five  in  number,  started  for  the  Great 
Fish  River.  Many  relics  were  found  of  this  party,  who 
l^erished  on  their  journey,  probably  soon  after  they  left 
the  vessels.  It  appears  that  Sir  John  is  entitled  to  the 
honour  of  being  the  first  to  discover  a  Northwest  passage. 

See  P.  L.  SiMMONDS,  "Sir  John  F'ranklin  and  the  Arctic  Re- 
gions," 1852;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1823; 
"North  American  Review"  lor  July,  1850,  (vol.  Ixxi.) 

Franklin,  (William,)  the  last  royal  Governor  of 
New  Jersey,  an  illegitimate  son  of  the  celebrated  Dr. 
Franklin,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  about  J73L  He 
served  as  an  officer  in  the  French  war  before  he  was  of 
age.  In  1757  he  went  with  his  father  to  London,  where 
he  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  lie  was 
appointed  Governor  of  New  Jersey  in  1762,  became  a 
Tory  in  the  Revolution,  and  was  confined  in  prison  for 
two  years,  1776-78.  In  17S2  he  removed  to  England, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death,  in  1813.  He  left  a 
son,  William  Temple  Franklin. 

Franklin,  (William  B.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  York,  Pennsylvania,  in  1823,  graduated  at  W^est  Point 
in  1843,  in  the  same  class  with  Ulysses  S.  Grant  He 
served  in  the  Mexican  war,  became  a  captain  in  1857, 
and  colonel  in  the  regular  army  in  i86l  He  served  as 
a  general  under  McClellan  in  several  battles  near  Rich- 
mond in  June,  1862,  commanded  a  corps  at  Malvern 
Hill,  July  I,  and  at  Antietam,  vSeptember  17.  He  was 
appointed  a  major-general  of  volunteers  about  July, 
1862.  In  December,  1862,  he  led  a  grand  division  of 
Burnside's  army  at  Fredericksburg.  He  commanded  a 
division  of  General  Banks's  army  in  the  Red  River 
campaign  of  1864. 

Franquelin,  fuSNk^llN',  (Jean  Auguste,)  a  French 
painter  of  genre,  born  in  Paris  in  1798;  died  in  1839. 

Franscini,  fu^n-shee'nee,  (Stefano,)  a  Swiss  states- 
man of  the  Liberal  party,  born  in  the  canton  of  Tessin 
(Ticino)  in  1796.  He  was  secretary  of  state  from  1830 
to  1837,  after  which  he  was  a  member  of  the  Federal 
Council.  In  1849  or  1850  he  became  minister  of  the  in- 
terior and  of  public  instruction.  He  ))ul)lished,  besides 
other  works,  "Statistics  of  Switzerland,"  ("Statistica 
della  Suizzera,"  3  vols.,  1828-5L)    Died  in  1857. 

Fransoni,  fR^n-so^nee,  or  Franzoni,  fRSn-zo'nee, 
(LuiGi,)  an  Italian  prelate,  born  at  Genoa  in  i789.  He 
became  Archbishop  of  Turin  about  1831,  and  displayed 
a  great  zeal  for  ultramontane  doctrines  and  absolutism. 
He  was  banished  about  1853. 

Fransz,  (Pkter.)    See  Francius. 

Frantz,  fR^nts,  or  Frantzius,  fRint'se-us,  (Wolf- 
gang,) a  German  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Plauen, 
in  Saxony,  in  1564,  was  professor  of  theology  at  Wit- 
tenberg. Among  his  works  is  "  A  Treatise  on  the 
Interpretation  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,"  ("Tractatufs 
de  Interpretatione  Sacras  Scripturae.")    Died  in  1628. 

See  J.  G.  Neumann,  "Programma  de  Vita  W.  Frantzii,"  1709. 

Franz,  fR^nts,  (Agnes,)  born  in  Silesia  in  1794,  wrote 
a  number  of  excellent  and  attractive  works  for  children, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  it,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


FRANZ 


961 


FREDERICK 


among  which  are  "My  Legacy  to  Youth,"  and  the 
"Book  of  Childhood  and  Youth."    Died  in  1843. 

Franz,  (Johann  Michakl,)  a  German  geographer, 
born  at  Oehringen  in  1700;  died  in  1761. 

Franz,  (Johannes,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Nu- 
remberg in  1804.  In  1832  he  accompanied  King  Otho 
to  Greece,  where  he  was  aj^pointed  chief  interpreter. 
He  published  a  "German-Greek  Dictionary,"  {1838,) 
"  Elements  of  Greek  Epigraphy,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1851. 

Franz,  (Karl  Joseph,)  Prince  and  Archduke  of 
Austria,  born  in  1802,  was  a  son  of  Francis  L,  and  the 
father  of  the  present  emperor,  Francis  Joseph,  in  whose 
favour  he  resigned  his  own  right  to  the  throne  in  1848. 

Franzen,  frSnt-snn',  (Frans  Michael,)  a  popular 
Swedish  poet,  born  at  Uleaborg,  Finland,  in  1772,  was 
for  some  time  pastor  of  a  church  in  Stockholm,  and 
about  1832  was  made  Bishop  of  Hernosand.  From 
1824  to  1834  he  acted  as  secretary  of  the  Swedish  Acad- 
emy. He  wrote  biographical  memoirs  of  several  persons, 
assisted  in  an  authorized  and  excellent  version  of  the 
Psalms,  and  published  several  volumes  of  songs  and 
other  poems,  which  are  highly  appreciated  and  have 
acquired  for  him  the  reputation  of  one  of  the  most 
eminent  Swedish  poets  of  his  age.  Died  in  1847.  Among 
his  poems  is  "Columbus,  or  the  Discovery  of  America," 
("Columbus,  eller  Amerikas  Upptackt,"  i?>2,i-) 

See  G.  H.  Meli.ix,  "  Minnes-Tal  ofver  F.  M.  Franzen,"  1848; 
"  Nouvelie  Biographie  Generale." 

Fra  Paolo.    See  Sarpl 

Fra'ser,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  painter,  born  about 
1792.  He  painted  domestic  and  familiar  scenes  with  suc- 
cess. Among  his  works  are  the  "  Interior  of  a  Highland 
Cottage,"  and  "  The  Last  Moments  of  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots."    Died  in  1865. 

Fraser,  (Alexander  Campbell,)  a  Scottish  meta- 
physician, born  in  Argyleshire  about  1818.  He  studied 
under  Sir  William  Hamilton,  and  became  professor  of 
logic  in  the  New  College,  Edinburgh,  in  1846,  and  editor 
of  the  "North  British  ]<evievv"  about  1850.  In  1856  he 
succeeded  Sir  William  Hamilton  as  professor  of  logic 
and  metaphysics  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  lie 
published  a  work  entitled  "Rational  Philosophy  in  His- 
tory and  in  System." 

Fra'ser,  (Charles,)  an  American  painter  and  writer, 
born  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1782,  was  a  lawyer 
for  many  years.  His  portraits  include  La  Fayette,  and 
a  great  number  of  eminent  persons  of  South  Carolina. 
Died  in  i860. 

See  DuNLAP,  "History  of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of 
Design  in  America." 

Fraser,  (James  Baillte,)  a  popular  Scottish  writer 
of  travels,  born  in  1783,  resided  on  his  estate  of  Reelig, 
Inverness-shire.  He  spent  many  years  in  travelling  in 
Asia,  and  published  numerous  entertaining  works,  among 
which  are  "Journal  of  a  Tour  through  part  of  the  Hima- 
laya MoTmtains,"  (1820;)  "Journey  into  Khorasan," 
(1825  ;)  "The  Persian  Adventurer,"  a  romance,  (1828  ;) 
"  History  of  Persia,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  (1847;)  ^"^^ 
"Travels  through  Various  Parts  of  Persia,"  (1838,) 
which,  says  the  "London  Athenaeum,"  "can  hardly  be 
surpassed  in  lively  delineations  and  rapid  but  graphic 
sketches."    Died  in  1856. 

Fraser,  (Simon.)    See  Lovat. 

Fraser,  (Simon,)  a  British  general  of  high  reputation, 
was  second  in  command  of  the  army  which,  under  Bur- 
goyne,  invaded  New  York  in  1777.  He  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Stillwater,  in  October  of  that  year. 

Frassen,  fRi's^N',  (Claude,)  a  French  monk,  born 
near  Peronne  in  1620.  He  published  a  "  Course  of  The- 
ology," (4  vols.,  1672,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  171 1. 

Fratellini,  fR^-tgl-lee'nee,  (Giovanna,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1666,  was  adopted  in  in- 
fancy by  the  grand  duchess  Vittoria.  She  excelled  in 
portraits.    Died  in  1731. 

Fratellini,  (Lorenzo,)  a  Florentine  portrait-painter, 
a  son  of  the  i^receding,  born  about  1690 ;  died  in  1729. 

Fratta,  fRSt'tl,  (Domenico  Maria,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1696;  died  in  1763. 

Frauenlob,  fRow'en-l5i)^  originally  Heinrich  von 
Meissen,  a  famous  Cierman  poet,  was  born  in  the  thir- 


teenth century.  He  composed  "  Songs,"  ("  Lieder,") 
and  witty  or  sententious  sayings,  ("  Spriiche,")  and 
invented  many  varieties  of  metre.  His  works  are  partly 
satirical.    Died  at  Mentz  in  1318. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  K.  G8« 
DEKE,  "  Das  Mittelalter  ;"  "Nouvelie  Biographie  Generale;"  N. 
VoGT,  "Heinrich  P'raiienlob,"  1792. 

Fraunce,  (Abraham,)  an  English  poet,  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  was  educated  at  Cambridge. 
He  was  author  of  "Lawyers'  Logic,"  of  "Arcadian 
Rhetoric,"  a  mixture  of  prose  and  verse,  and  of  several 
small  poems  in  English  hexameter,  published  between 
1587  and  1 591. 

Fraunhofer,  von,  fon  fRown'hoTer,  (Joseph,)  an 
eminent  German  optician,  born  at  Straubing,  in  Bavaria, 
in  March,  1787.  He  was  an  apprentice  to  a  manufac- 
turer of  mirrors,  and  afterwards  became  an  assistant 
of  Reichenbach  in  the  fabrication  of  mathematical  in- 
struments, near  Munich.  He  invented  or  perfected  a 
heliometer  and  micrometer,  and  constructed  the  great 
parallactic  telescope  of  Dorpat.  Among  his  discover- 
ies was  the  fact  that  the  solar  spectrum  is  crossed  by 
about  five  hundred  and  ninety  black  lines.  Died  in 
1826.  We  owe  to  him  the  art  of  making  the  finest  glass 
for  achromatic  telescopes. 

See  Utzschneider,  "  Umriss  der  Lebensgeschichte  des  J.  von 
Fraunhofer;"  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;" 
"  Nouvelie  Biographie  Generale." 

Frayssinous,  fRa''se'noo',  (Denis  Luc,)  a  French 
prelate  and  eminent  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Curieres  in 
1765,  became  chaplain  to  Louis  XVIII.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Bishop  of  Hermopolis  in  1822,  and  grand  mas- 
ter of  the  university  in  1823.  He  was  minister  of  public 
instruction  from  1824  to  1828.  Among  his  writings  is  a 
"Defence  of  Christianity,"  (1823.)    Died  in  1841. 

See  M.  Henrion,  "Vie  de  M.  Frayssinous,"  1842;  "Nouvelie 
Biographie  Generale." 

Fra-zee',  (John,)  an  American  sculptor,  born  at  Rah- 
way.  New  Jersey,  in  1790.  Among  his  works  are  busts 
of  Marshall,  Jackson,  and  W^ebster. 

See  DuNLAP,  "  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  Amer- 
ica ;"  Tuc  KERM  AN,  '■  Hook  of  the  Artists." 

Frea.    See  P'imcga. 

Freard,  (Roland.)    See  Ciiambray. 

Fred-e-ga'ri-us,  [Fr.  Fredegaire,  fRk'di'gSR',]  sur- 
named  ScHOLAS'i'icus.  a  chronicler  who  lived  (probably 
in  P"rance)  in  the  seventh  century.  His  work  treats  of 
the  history  of  the  Franks,  ending  about  640  A.D. 

Fredegonda  or  FredegondLe.    See  Fredegunda. 

Fred-e-gun'da,  [Fr.  Fr6d6gonde,  fra'di'g5Nd',]  a 
queen  of  the  Franks,  notorious  for  her  crimes,  was  Ijorn 
about  545  A.D.  She  became  the  wife  of  Chilperic  I. 
about  565,  after  wliich  she  procured  the  assassination  of 
his  sons  by  a  former  marriage,  and  of  Sigebert,  King  of 
Austrasia.  After  the  death  of  Chilperic  (584)  she  was 
regent  during  the  minority  of  her  son  Clotaire,  and  gained 
victories  in  a  war  against  several  kings.  Died  in  596  A.D. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Frederic.    See  Frederick  and  Friedrich. 
Fred-er-ic'a  So-phi'a  Wil-hel-mi'na,  (wil-hSl- 

mee'na,)  Margravine  of  Baireuth,  daughter  of  Frederick 
William  I.  of  Prussia,  and  favourite  sister  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  was  born  at  Potsdam  in  1709.  She  was  married 
in  1 73 1  to  the  hereditary  prince  of  Baireuth,  and  died  in 
1758,  on  the  day  of  her  brother's  defeat  at  Hochkirchen. 
She  left  interesting  "  Memoirs"  of  her  times,  which  see  ; 
also  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1812. 

Fred'er-ick  [Ger.  Friedrich,  fReed'riK ;  It.  Fede- 
RIGO,  fa-da-ree'go]  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  surnamed 
Barrarossa,  born  in  1 121,  was  a  son  of  Frederick,  Duke 
of  Suabia.  He  was  elected  emperor  on  the  death  of  his 
uncle,  Conrad  HI.,  in  March,  1152.  In  1155  he  passed 
into  Italy  with  an  army,  and  was  crowned  by  Pope  Adrian 
IV.  at  Rome.  He  married  Beatrice,  heiress  of  Burgundy, 
about  II 56,  and  reduced  the  King  or  Duke  of  Poland  to 
become  his  vassal.  He  led  in  1158a  large  army  into 
Italy,  and  subjected  the  revolted  city  of  Milan,  which 
was  punished  with  rigour.  Two  rival  popes,  Victor  IV. 
and  Alexander  HI.,  having  been  elected  in  1159,  Fred- 
erick recognized  the  former  and  was  excommunicated 
by  the  latter.  His  reign  was  disturbed  by  disputes  with 
the  pope,  and  wars  with  the  cities  of  Lombardy.  His 


t  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Y., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (St^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

61 


FREDERICK 


962 


FREDERICK 


army  was  defeated  with  great  loss  by  the  Lombards  near 
Legnano  in  1176.  He  then  made  peace  with  Pope  Alex- 
ander, and  a  truce  with  his  other  enemies  in  Italy.  In 
1 183  the  celebrated  peace  of  Constance  was  concluded 
between  Frederick  and  the  Lombards.  He  joined  the 
third  crusade  with  an  army  of  about  150,000  men  in 
1 189,  and,  having  marched  by  land  as  far  as  Asia  Minor, 
defeated  the  Turks  near  Iconium.  He  was  drowned  in 
the  river  Calycadnus  in  1190.  Frederick  was  ambitious, 
but  rather  liberal,  and  passes  for  one  of  the  greatest  men 
of  his  time.    He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Henry  VI. 

SeeRAUMER,  "  Geschichte  der  Hohenstaufen  ;"  Sismondi,  "  His- 
louedes  Republiqiies  Italieniies  ;"  Wilken,  "  Geschichte  der  Kreuz- 
ziige ;"  Cosmo  Baktoli,  "  Vita  di  F'ederigo  Barbarossa,"  Florence, 
1556;  H.  F.  Massmann,  "Kaiser  Friedrich  im  Kyffliauser,"  1850. 

Frederick  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  was  a  son  of 
Henry  VI.,  and  was  born  at  lesi,  in  Italy,  in  1194.  His 
mother  was  Constance  of  Sicily.  His  education  was 
directed  by  his  guardian.  Innocent  III.  He  had  supe- 
rior talents,  and  was  master  of  the  Greek,  Italian,  French, 
and  Arabic  languages.  He  was  crowned  as  emperor  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1214  or  1215,  after  the  defeat  of  his 
rival,  Otho,  at  Bovines,  and  was  supported  by  the  Ghibel- 
ine  party  in  an  attempt  to  unite  Italy  and  Germany  in 
one  empire.  This  project  was  resisted  by  the  pope  and 
the  Guelphs  in  a  long  contest.  In  1220  he  removed  his 
court  to  Naples,  which  belonged  to  him  by  inheritance, 
and  in  which  he  founded  a  university.  In  accordance 
with  a  vow  extorted  from  him  in  his  youth  by  the  pope, 
he  undertook  a  crusade  against  the  infidels  in  1227,  but 
turned  back  before  he  had  reached  Paletitine,  for  which 
cause  he  was  excommunicated  by  Gregory  IX.  He 
renewed  the  enterprise  in  1228,  obtained  ])ossession  of 
Jerusalem,  and  made  peace  with  the  pope  in  1230.  He 
suppressed  a  rebellion  raised  in  Germany  by  his  son 
Henry,  gained  in  1237  a  great  victory  over  the  Guelphs 
at  Cortenuova,  and  waged  war  against  Gregory  IX.  In 
1245  Innocent  IV.  renewed  the  papal  anathema  against 
him,  and  absolved  his  subjects  from  their  allegiance. 
In  the  midst  of  the  contest  Frederick  died,  in  1250.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Conrad  IV.  Frederick  was 
eminent  for  courage,  generosity,  and  other  royal  qualities. 

See  Raumer,  "Geschichte  der  Hohenstaufen;"  Luden,  "  His- 
toire  d'Alleniagne  ;"  Hoefi.er,  "Kaiser  Friedrich  II.,"  1844;  T.  L. 
Kington,  "  History  of  Frederick  II.,  Emperor  of  the  Romans;" 
Carl  W.  F.  Funk,  "Geschichte  Kaiser  Friedrichs  II.,"  1790. 

Frederick  III.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  surnamed  the 
Pach-'IC,  the  son  of  Ernest,  Duke  of  Austria,  was  born 
at  Innspruck  in  1415.  He  was  elected  emperor  in  1440, 
on  the  death  of  Albert  II.  In  1452  he  went  to  Rorne, 
where  he  received  from  the  pope  the  imperial  crown 
and  that  of  Lombardy.  He  is  censured  for  supineness 
in  defending  Christendom  against  the  Turks,  and  was 
incapable  of  ruling  his  large  empire  with  success.  In 
1485  he  was  involved  in  war  with  Matthias  Corvinus  of 
Hungary,  who  conquered  Vienna  and  Lower  Austria. 
Died  in  1493,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Maximilian. 

See  Luden,  "  Histoire  d'Allemagne ;"  J.  Chmel,  "Geschichte 
Kaiser  Friedrich's  III.,"  1840. 

Frederick  [Dan.  Frederik,  fRa'deh-rik]  I.,  King  of 
Denmark  and  Norway,  born  in  147 1,  was  a  son  of  Chris- 
tian I.,  who  founded  the  dynasty  of  Oldenburg.  In  1522 
he  succeeded  his  nephew.  Christian  II.,  who  was  deposed. 
The  latter  raised  an  army  and  invaded  Norway  in  1532, 
but  was  forced  to  surrender  and  was  confined  in  prison. 
Frederick  favoured  the  propagation  of  Lutheranism  in 
his  kingdom.  He  died  in  1533,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Christian  lit. 

Frederick  II.,  King  of  Denmark  and  Norway,  son 
of  Christian  III.,  was  born  in  1534,  and  ascended  the 
throne  in  1559.  In  1561  he  was  involved  in  a  war  with 
Eric,  King  of  Sweden,  in  which  the  Danes  were  victo- 
;ious.  Peace  was  restored  in  1570.  Frederick  married 
Sophia  of  Mecklenburg,  and  had  several  children.  He 
promoted  commerce,  and  patronized  men  of  science, 
especially  Tycho  Brahe,  the  eminent  astronomer,  for 
whom  he  built  the  Observatory  of  Oranienburg.  He 
died  in  1588,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Christian  IV. 

See  P.  H.  Resen,  "Frederik  II.  Krbnike,"  1680;  Pontanus, 
•Vita  Friderici  II.,  Regis  Danias,"  1735. 

Frederick  III.,  King  of  Denmark  and  Norway,  a 
son  of  Christian  IV.,  was  born  in  1609,  and  succeeded 


to  the  crown  by  inheritance  and  election  in  1648.  In 
1657  Frederick  and  his  senate  declared  war  against 
Charles  Gustavus  of  Sweden,  who  was  so  well  prepared 
that  he  crossed  the  ice  and  suddenly  besieged  Copen- 
hagen. The  Danish  king  was  compelled  to  sign  a  peace, 
by  which  he  gave  up  several  provinces,  in  1658.  Before 
the  end  of  that  year  Charles  Gustavus  again  besieged 
his  capital,  which  was  relieved  by  a  Dutch  fleet,  and 
peace  was  concluded  in  1660.  At  a  diet  held  in  1660- 
61  a  great  change  was  effected  in  the  constitution  by  a 
coalition  of  the  clergy  with  the  bourgeoisie  against  the 
nobles,  so  that  the  monarchy  (which  had  been  elective 
and  limited)  was  made  hereditary  and  absolute.  He 
died  in  1670,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son.  Christian  V. 

See  R.  Manley,  "  History  of  the  Wars  in  Denmark,"  London, 
1670;  R.  Nyerup,  "  Efterretninger  cm  Kong  Frederik  III.,"  1817; 
P.  W.  Becker,  "  Samlinger  til  Danmarks  Historie  under  Frederik 
III.,"  1847. 

Frederick  IV.,  King  of  Denmark,  son  of  Christian 
v.,  was  born  in  1671.  After  he  had  married  Louisa  of 
Mecklenburg-GUstrow,  he  ascended  the  throne  in  1699. 
In  1700  he  formed  an  alliance  with  Peter  the  Great  and 
Augustus,  King  of  Poland,  against  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden,  who  soon  besieged  Copenhagen  and  dictated 
the  terms  of  peace.  During  the  reverses  that  befell 
Charles  XII.  in  1709,  Frederick  again  declared  war,  and 
captured  the  fortress  of  Tonningen,  Stralsund,  and  other 
places.  In  1718  Charles  invaded  Norway  and  besieged 
Frederickshall,  where  he  was  killed  by  a  cannon-ball. 
Frederick  died  in  1730,  regretted  by  his  subjects,  whom 
he  governed  with  ability,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son. 
Christian  VI. 

See  A.  HoiER,  "  Kbnig  Friedrich's  IV.  glorwiirdigstes  Leben," 
1829;  RiEGELs,  "Udkast  til  Fjerde  Frederiks  Historic,"  1799. 

Frederick  V.,  King  of  Denmark,  son  of  Christian 
VI.,  was  born  in  1723.  He  succeeded  his  father  in 
1746,  having  previously  married  Louisa,  daughter  of 
George  II.  of  England.  His  reign  was  remarkable  for 
many  institutions  and  enterprises  for  the  promotion  of 
commerce,  industry,  science,  and  arts.  The  emancipa- 
tion of  serfs  was  tried  with  success  in  some  districts  ;  a 
hospital  and  an  academy  of  fine  arts  were  founded  in 
the  capital.  In  1761  Frederick  sent  Niebuhr  and  others 
on  a  scientific  expedition  to  Egypt  and  Arabia.  He  died 
in  January,  1766,  after  a  prosj^erous  and  pacific  reign, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Christian  VII. 

See  J.  K.  HoEST,  "  Markvardigheder  i  Kong  Frederiks  Levnet 
og  Resjering,"  1820;  G.  L.  Baden,  "  Frederiks  Regjerings  Aarbog." 
1832;  M.  S.  Arentz,  "  Ligpraediken  over  Kong  Frederik  V.,"  1767. 

Frederick  VI.,  King  of  Denmark  and  Norway,  born 
in  1768,  was  the  only  son  of  Christian  VII.  and  Caroline 
Matilda.  He  became  regent  in  1784,  (in  consequence 
of  the  mental  alienation  of  his  father,)  and  king  in  1808. 
I^etween  these  two  dates  he  made  many  reforms.  He 
formed  an  alliance  with  Napoleon  in  1808,  his  capital 
having  been  previously  bombarded  by  the  British.  In 
1813  he  refused  to  join  the  coalition  against  the  French 
emperor.  Russia  and  Sweden  having  entered  into  a 
convention  to  annex  Norway  to  the  latter,  Bernadotte 
attacked  the  dominions  of  Frederick,  who  was  compelled 
to  cede  Norway  in  1814.  He  died  in  1839,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  cousin,  Christian  VIII. 

See  O.  L.  Bang,  "Mindetale  over  Kong  Frederik  VI.,"  1840 ;  H. 
P.  Giessing,  "  Kong  Frederik  VI.  Regjerings  Historie,"  2  vols.,  1850. 

Frederick  VII.,  King  of  Denmark,  and  Duke  of 
Slesvvick  and  Holstein,  born  in  1808,  is  the  only  son  of 
Christian  VIII.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  January,  1848. 
The  German  party  in  Holstein  and  Sleswick  revolted 
in  March  of  the  same  year.  After  several  indecisive 
battles,  the  insurgents  were  defeated  at  Idsted  in  July, 
1850,  and  the  rebellion  was  suppressed  in  January,  1851. 
He  contracted  a  morganatic  marriage  with  the  Countess 
Danner  in  1850.  In  1864  Austria  and  Prussia  united  in 
an  aggressive  war  against  Denmark,  and  conquered  the 
duchies  of  Sleswick  and  Holstein. 

Frederick  [Ger.  Friedrich,  fReed'riK]  I.,  King  of 
Prussia,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1657,  was  a  son  of  Frede- 
rick William,  Elector  of  Brandenburg.  He  succeeded 
his  father  in  1688,  and  was  styled  Frederick  III.  of 
Brandenburg.  His  wife  was  Sophia  Charlotte,  a  sister  of 
George  I.  of  England.  He  joined  the  coalition  against 
Louis  XIV.  of  France  in  1691.  In  1700  the  dukedom  of 


a,  e, :,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FREDERICK 


963 


FREDERICK 


Prussia  was  erected  into  a  kingdom,  with  the  assent  of 
the  emperor,  and  Frederick  gained  the  great  object  of 
his  life,  the  title  of  king,  on  condition  that  he  would  aid 
Austria  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  and  vote 
with  Austria  in  the  Diet.  He  died  in  1713,  and  left 
the  throne  to  his  son,  Frederick  William  I. 

See  Stenzel,  "  Geschichte  des  Pieussischen  Staats  ;"  Franz 
Horn,  "Friedrich  III.,  erster  Kbnig  in  Preussen,"  1816;  J.  G. 
MiTTAG,  "  Geschichte  Friedrich's  I.  Konig's  von  Preussen,"  1734  ; 
Werner  Hahn.  "  P'riedrich  I.  Konig  in  Preussen,"  etc.,  1851. 

Frederick  II.,  surnamed  the  Great,  [Ger.  Fried- 
rich  DER  Grosse,  fReed'riK  d§R  gRos'seh  ;  Fr,  Frederic 
LE  Grand,  fRi'dcVr^k'  leh  gRSw ;  it.  Federigo  il 
Grande,  fi-di-ree'go  ^1  gRSn'da;  Sp.  Federico  el 
Grande,  fk-Di-ree'ko  h\  gRin'da,]  King  of  Prussia,  was 
the  son  of  Frederick  William  I.  and  Sophia  Dorothea, 
who  was  a  daughter  of  George  I.  of  England.  He  was 
born  at  Berlin  on  the  24th  of  January,  1712.  He  received 
from  nature  a  strong  and  acute  intellect,  with  a  rare 
firmness  of  temper  and  intensity  of  wnll.  The  discipline 
and  training  to  which  he  was  subjected  by  his  father 
were  extremely  rigid,  perverse,  and  illiberal ;  the  study 
of  Latin  was  positively  forbidden  to  him.  "  Oliver  Twist 
in  the  parish  workhouse,  Smike  at  Dotheboys  Hall," 
says  Macaulay,  "were  petted  children  when  compared 
with  this  wretched  heir-apparent  of  a  crown."  It  ap- 
pears that  the  prince  would  have  been  put  to  death  by 
his  father  for  desertion,  or  running  away  from  the  army, 
if  he  had  not  been  saved  by  the  intercession  cf  the 
Emperor  of  Germany.  The  penalty  was  commuted  into 
close  confinement.  Frederick  married  (by  compulsion) 
Elizabeth  Christina  of  Brunswick,  in  1733.  favourite 
study  or  resource  in  his  youth  was  French  literature. 
He  wrote  and  read  nothing  but  French. 

He  ascended  the  throne  about  June  I,  1740,  and 
quickly  displayed  a  ])olitical  ability  and  an  unscrupulous 
energy  which  surprised  his  courtiers  and  former  com- 
panions. He  seized  the  opportunity  presented  by  the 
accession  of  Maria  Theresa  in  October,  1740,  and  gave 
the  first  signal  of  the  war  of  spoliation,  called  the  war 
of  the  Austrian  succession,  by  the  sudtlcn  invasion  of 
Silesia,  which  he  occui)ied  without  much  resistance.  In 
April,  1 741,  he  defeated  the  Austrians  at  the  battle  of 
Molwitz;  after  which  Bavaria  and  France  took  arms  as 
allies  of  Frederick.  A  separate  peace  was  concluded  in 
1742  between  him  and  Maria  Theresa,  who  ceded  Silesia 
to  the  victor.  He  renewed  hostilities  in  1744,  and  took 
Prague,  but  was  forced  to  retreat  about  the  end  of  that 
year.  He  commanded  at  Ilohenfriedberg  and  at  Sorr, 
where  the  Austrians  were  defeated,  in  1745,  and  made 
peace  with  Austria  in  December  of  the  same  year.  In  the 
civil  administration  he  was  his  own  prime  minister,  or, 
rather,  sole  minister.  "A  love  of  labour  for  its  own 
sake,  an  insatiable  longing  to  dictate,  to  intermeddle,  to 
make  his  power  felt,  a  profound  scorn  and  distrust  of  his 
fellow-creatures,  indisposed  him  to  ask  counsel,  to  con- 
fide important  secrets,  to  delegate  ample  powers."  (Mac- 
aulay.)  He  was  so  parsimonious  that  in  his  household 
"not  a  bottle  of  cham])agne  was  uncorked  without  his 
express  order,"  He  encouraged  commerce,  manufactures, 
and  the  fine  arts.  Every  form  of  religion  and  of  irre- 
ligion  was  tolerated  by  him.  In  1750  he  attracted  to  his 
court  Voltaire,  whom  he  treated  with  great  favour.  This 
eccentric  friendship,  however,  soon  ended  in  a  violent 
quarrel.    (See  Voltaire.) 

A  powerful  coalition  liaving  been  formed  against 
Frederick  by  Maria  Theresa,  the  Empress  of  Russia,  the 
King  of  France,  and  other  powers,  he  was  thus  involved 
in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  with  no  ally  but  the  English. 
He  began  the  war  by  the  invasion  of  Saxony,  in  August, 
1756,  and,  having  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Lowositz, 
made  himself  master  of  that  country.  He  opened  the 
next  campaign  by  a  march  into  Bohemia,  and  gained  the 
great  battle  of  Prague,  (May,  1757,)  where  he  lost  about 
18,000  men  ;  but  on  the  i8th  oY  June  he  was  defeated 
at  Kolin  by  Marshal  Daun,  and  driven  out  of  Bohemia. 
His  position  now  seemed  desperate  ;  but  his  passion  for 
writing  verses  did  not  fail  even  in  this  gloomy  crisis. 
"  We  hardly  know,"  says  Macaulay,  "  any  instance  of  the 
strength  and  weakness  of  human  nature  so  striking  and 
so  grotesque  as  the  character  of  this  haughty,  vigilant, 


resolute,  sagacious  blue-stocking,  .  .  .  bearing  up  against 
a  world  in  arms,  with  an  ounce  of  poison  in  one  pocket 
and  a  quire  of  bad  verses  in  the  other." 

Frederick  defeated  a  French  army  twice  as  numerous 
as  his  own,  at  Rossbach,  in  November,  and  gained  a 
complete  victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Leuthen  on  the 
5th  of  December,  1757,  when  27,000  of  the  enemy  were 
killed,  wounded,  or  taken.  "  That  battle,"  said  Napoleon, 
"was  a  master-piece.  Of  itself  it  is  sufficient  to  entitle 
Frederick  to  a  place  in  the  first  rank  of  generals."  His 
fame  was  increased  by  a  victory  over  the  Russians  at 
Zorndorf,  near  the  Oder,  in  1758.  The  principal  event 
of  the  campaign  of  1759  was  the  battle  of  Kunnersdorf, 
where  the  Prussians  were  routed  by  the  allies  and 
Frederick's  coat  was  pierced  with  balls.  After  the 
enemy  had  taken  Berlin  and  reduced  him  to  desperation, 
the  tide  of  fortune  turned  in  1760,  at  the  battles  of 
Liegnitz  and  Torgau.  The  campaign  of  1761  was,  on 
the  whole,  disastrous  to  Frederick;  but,  in  consequence 
of  the  death  of  the  empress  P^lizabeth,  January,  1762, 
the  policy  of  Russia  was  changed,  and  Maria  Theresa, 
deserted  by  her  allies,  was  obliged  to  make  peace  in 
February,  1763.  The  result  of  the  war  was  that  Frede- 
rick kept  Silesia  and  ceded  nothing. 

He  has  been  praised  for  the  diligence  and  liberality 
with  which  he  repaired  the  ruinous  state  to  which  the 
war  had  reduced  his  kingdom.  On  the  partition  of 
Poland,  in  1772,  he  acquired  Polish  Prussia  and  a  part 
of  Great  Poland.  By  the  formation  of  the  league  called 
Fiirsteubtnid,  ("Princes'  League,")  in  1785,  he  frustrated 
the  design  of  the  emperor  to  acquire  Bavaria  in  exchange 
for  the  Low  Countries.  He  died,  without  issue,  at  his 
palace  of  Sans-Souci,  on  the  17th  of  August,  1786,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Frederick  William  II. 
He  left  many  and  various  works,  which  were  published 
in  23  vols.,  1790,  His  poem  "On  the  Art  of  War," 
"History  of  My  Time,"  and  "History  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War,"  are  reckoned  among  his  best  productions. 
Of  his  voluminous  "Memoirs"  Macaulay  remarks,  "The 
narrative  is  distinguished  by  clearness,  conciseness,  good 
seiise,  and  a  certain  air  of  truth  and  simplicity,  which  is 
singularly  graceful  in  a  man  who,  having  done  great 
things,  sits  down  to  relate  them." 

See  Lord  Dover,  "  Life  of  Frederick  II.,"  2  vols.,  1840; 
"  Frederick  the  Great  and  liis  Times,"  by  Thomas  Campbell,  4  vols., 
1843:  Carlvle,  "Life  of  P^rederick  the  Great,"  6  vols.,  1858-65; 
Brougham,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.,"  first  series; 
Macaulay,  "Essays;"  Mirabeau,  "  De  la  Monaichie  Prussienne 
sous  Frederic  le  Grand,"  1788;  Thiehault,  "Souvenirs;"  Jomini, 
"  Hisloire  critique  et  militaire  des  Guerres  de  Frederic  II;"  Paga- 
NKL,  "Histoire  de  Frederic  le  Grand;"  Preuss,  "Friedrich  der 
Grosse,"  g  vols.,  1S32-34;  J.  C.  Adelung,  "  Denkvi'iirdigkeiten 
Friedrich's  des  Grossen,"  9  vols.,  1757-66;  Fi.scher,  "Geschichte 
Friedrich's  II.,"  2  vols.,  1787;  J.  F.  Sevfart,  "  Lebens-  uiid  Re- 
gierungs-eescliichte  Friedricli's  des  Andern,"  9  vols.,  1759-70;  Buc- 
Quov,  "  Leben  und  Ende  Friedrich's  des  Einzigen,"  4  vols.,  1787-91 ; 
Charles  Joseph  de  Ligne.  "  Memoires  sur  le  Roi  de  Prusse,"  1788  ; 
Carlo  Denin  a,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  le  Regne  de  Frederic  II,"  1788 ; 
Calzada,  "  Vida  de  Federico  II. ,  Rey  de  Prusia,"  4  vols.,  17S8. 

F'or  further  bibliographical  information  respecting  Frederick  II. , 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Oettinger's  "  Bibliographic  biographique 
universelle,"  2  vols.,  1854. 

Frederick,  (of  A  r  agon,)  King  of  Naples,  son  of  Fer- 
dinand I.,  succeeded  his  nephew,  Ferdinand  II.,  who  died, 
without  issue,  in  September,  1496.  In  1501,  Louis  XII. 
of  France  and  Ferdinand  of  Spain  agreed  to  depose 
the  King  of  Naples  and  partition  his  kingdom  between 
them,  and  each  sent  an  army  to  take  possession  of  his 
share.  Frederick,  after  a  feeble  resistance,  surrendered 
himself  to  the  French,  received  from  Louis  the  duchy  of 
Anjou,  and  died  in  1504.  His  son  having  died  without 
issue  in  1550,  the  family  became  extinct. 

Frederick  I.,  (of  Aragon,)  King  of  Sicily,  was  the 
third  son  of  Peter  (Pedro)  of  Aragon  and  of  Constance  of 
Suabia.  He  is  called  Frederick  II.  by  some  writers.  He 
was  crowned  in  1296,  and  soon  found  himself  engaged  in 
war  against  Charles  II.  of  Naples  and  the  pope  ;  but, 
being  zealously  supported  by  his  subjects,  he  made  a  suc- 
cessful defence,  and  obtained  peace  in  1302.  He  renewed 
the  war  in  1312  against  Robert,  the  successor  of  Charles 
II.,  and  waged  it  for  many  years.  He  died  in  13^37,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,'Pietro  II.  Frederick  is  re- 
garded as  the  founder  of  Sicilian  nationality. 

See  BuRiGNV,  "Histoire  generale  de  Sicile,"  2  vols.,  1745;  Mu- 
ratori,  "Annali  d'ltalia." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FREDERICK 


964 


FREDERICK 


Frederick  II.  or  III.,  King  of  Sicily,  born  about  1340, 
was  a  son  of  Peter  (Pietro)  II.,  and  succeeded  his  elder 
brother  I.ouis  in  1355.  He  found  the  kingdom  in  dis- 
order, and  at  war  with  Joanna  I.  of  Naples,  who  captured 
Messina  and  Palermo.  In  1372  he  obtained  peace,  and 
recovered  those  towns,  by  j^aying  tribute.  He  died  in 
1377,  leaving  a  daughter,  Maria,  who  married  Martin  II. 
of  Aragon. 

See  ViLi,ANi,  "  Istoria  ;"  Burigny,  "  Histoire  generale  de  Sicile." 

Frederick,  [Sw.  Frederick,]  King  of  Sweden,  a  son 
of  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel,  was  born  at  Cassel 
in  1676.  He  married  Ulrica  Eleonora,  a  sister  of  Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden,  in  1715.  She  succeeded  to  the  throne 
at  the  death  of  Charles,  and  in  1720  the  Diet,  at  her 
request,  elected  Frederick  king.  He  made  peace  before 
the  end  of  1721  with  Russia  and  the  other  enemies  whom 
the  ambition  of  Charles  XII.  had  armed  against  Sweden, 
by  giving  up  Livonia,  Ingria,  etc.  His  reign  was  pacific, 
except  a  war  with  Russia  in  1741  and  1742,  in  which  the 
Swedes  were  defeated.  He  died  in  1751,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Adolph  Frederick  of  Holstein. 

See  Geykr,  "  Histoire  de  la  Suede  ;"  J.  Akkenholtz,  "  Leben 
Friedrich's  I.  Konigs  von  Schweden,"  1752. 

Frederick  I.,  Duke  of  Austria,  born  in  11 74,  was  a 

son  of  Leopold  I.  He  led  an  army  of  crusaders  to  Pales- 
tine in  1 197,  and  besieged  Toron  without  success.  Died 
in  1 198. 

See  Eksch  und  Gruber,  "  AUgemeine  Encyklopaedle." 

Frederick  III.,  Archduke  of  Austria,  born  in  1286, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  the  emperor  Albert  I.  After  the 
death  of  Albert  the  throne  was  claimed  by  Frederick 
and  by  Louis  of  Bavaria.  The  former  was  supported  by 
the  Giielphs,  and  his  rival  by  the  Ghibelines.  In  1322 
Frederick  was  defeated  in  battle  and  taken  prisoner  by 
Louis,  who  treated  him  generously.    Died  in  1330. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Frederick  V.,  Duke  of  Austria,  was  a  younger  son 
of  Leoj)old  of  Austria.  He  was  an  adherent  of  Pope 
John  XX HI.,  and  offended  the  emperor  Sigismund  in 
141 5  by  aiding  that  pontiff  to  abscond  from  Constance, 
where  the  Council  was  then  in  session.  Frederick  was 
placed  under  the  ban  of  the  empire,  and  saved  himself 
from  ruin  only  by  a  humble  submission.    Died  in  1436. 

See  Ersch  iind  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Frederick  I.,  Elector  Palatine,  [Ger.  Friedrich 

CURFURSTVON  DER  PfALZ,]  SUrnamed  THE  VICTORIOUS, 

born  in  1425,  was  a  son  of  Louis  HI.  He  became  re- 
gent at  the  death  of  his  elder  brother,  in  1449.  A  league 
was  formed  against  him  by  several  princes,  whom  he 
defeated  in  1460.    Died  in  1476. 

See  Tritheme,  "Res  gestae  Friderici  Palatini,"  1602;  Ersch 
und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Fi'ederick  II.,  Elector  Palatine,  surnamed  the 
Wise,  a  son  of  Philip,  was  born  in  1482.  He  succeeded 
his  brother  Louis  in  1544,  and  embraced  the  doctrines 
of  Luther  in  1545.  He  afterwards  joined  the  league  of 
Schmalkalden,  and  signed  the  formulary  called  the  "In- 
terim" in  1548.  He  died  in  1556,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  nephew,  Otho  Henry. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Frederick  III.,  Elector  Palatine,  surnamed  the 
Pious,  born  in  15 15,  was  a  son  of  John  II.,  Duke  of 
Simmern.  He  became  a  zealous  Protestant.  He  ob- 
tained the  dignity  of  Elector  in  1559,  and  sent  troop's  to 
aid  the  French  Huguenots  in  1568.  He  died  in  1576, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  VI. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Fredei'ick  IV.,  Elector  Palatine,  surnamed  the 
Just,  born  in  1574,  was  a  son  of  Louis  VI.  He  began 
to  reign  in  1592.  He  founded  Mannheim  about  1606. 
Died  in  1610. 

Frederick  V.,  Elector  Palatine,  and  King  of  Bohe- 
mia, born  in  1596,  was  a  son  of  Frederick  IV.,  and  father 
of  Prince  Rupert,  famous  in  English  history.  He  married 
in  1613  Elizabeth,  a  daughter  of  James  I.  of  England, 
and  became  the  chief  of  the  German  Protestant  Union. 
In  1619  he  was  elected  King  of  Bohemia  by  the  people 
of  that  country,  who  had  revolted  against  the  emperor. 
He  was  comj^letely  defeated  in  battle  at  Prague  in  1620, 
lost  his  hereditary  dominions,  and  was  obliged  to  go  into 


exile.  His  electoral  dignity  was  transferred  to  the  Duke 
of  Bavaria.    Died  in  1632. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber, "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Lipowski, 
"  Friedrich  V.,  Curfiirst  von  der  Pfalz  und  Konig  von  Bohmen." 

Frederick  III,  surnamed  the  Sage,  Elector  of 
Saxony,  born  about  1463,  was  a  son  of  Ernest,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  i486.  He  magnanimously  refused  the 
imperial  crown  in  15 19,  and  voted  for  Charles  V.  He 
promoted  the  Reformation,  and  was  a  faithful  patron  of 
Luther.  When  Luther  was  returning  from  the  Diet  of 
Worms,  where  he  had  been  proscribed,  in  1521,  he  was 
seized  by  order  of  Frederick,  and  secreted  in  the  castle 
of  Wartburg.  Frederick  died  in  1525,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother  John. 

See  Phii.ip  Melanchthon,  "Oratio  de  Fridericoduce  Saxoniae," 
1551  ;  H.  O.  Mencke,  "Dissertatio  de  Friderico  III.  Sapiente," 
1712;  P.  Ekerman,  "Dissertatio  de  Friderico  Sapiente,"  Upsal, 
1761. 

Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales,  the  eldest  son  of  George 
II.,  was  born  in  1707.  He  was  estranged  from  his  father 
and  became  the  leader  of  the  Opposition,  (i.e.  of  the 
party  called  Patriots,  who  opposed  Walpole.)  "The 
royal  family,"  says  Macaulay,  "  was  rather  strengthened 
than  weakened  by  the  disagreement  of  its  two  most 
distinguished  members."  In  1736  he  married  Augusta, 
Princess  of  Saxe-Gotha.  The  fall  of  Walpole,  in  1742, 
caused  the  dissension  between  the  king  and  the  prince 
to  abate  for  a  time  ;  but  the  latter  soon  resumed  his  oppo- 
sition. He  died  in  1751,  leaving  a  number  of  children; 
one  of  his  sons  became  King  George  III. 

Frederick,  Landgrave  of  Thuringia,  born  in  1256, 
was  a  son  and  rightful  heir  of  Albert  of  Thuringia.  His 
mother  was  a  daughter  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  He 
waged  war  against  his  father,  (who  wished  to  exclude 
him  from  the  succession,)  and  obtained  possession  of 
Thuringia  and  Misnia  about  1308.    Died  in  1324. 

Frederick,  Colonel,  a  Corsican  officer,  born  about 
1730,  was  supposed  to  be  the  son  of  Theodore,  who  was 
styled  King  of  Corsica.  He  entered  the  service  of  the 
Duke  of  Wiirtemberg,  who  sent  him  to  England  as  his 
agent.  He  wrote  a  "Description  of  Corsica,"  (1798.) 
He  committed  suicide  in  London  in  1 797. 

Frederick  Augustus  I.  and  II.,  Kings  of  Poland. 
See  Augustus. 

Frederick  Augustus  [Ger.  Friedrich  August, 
fReed'^riK  ow'goost]  I.,  King  of  Saxony,  born  at  Dres- 
den in  1750,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  Elector  PYed- 
erick  Christian,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1763.  He  is 
said  to  have  uniformly  consulted  the  happiness  of  his 
subjects.  He  abolished  torture,  (1770,)  and  made  other 
reforms  in  legislation.  In  1791  he  refused  the  crown 
of  Poland.  He  maintained  neutrality  in  the  war  between 
the  French  and  the  allied  powers  until  1806,  when  he 
united  his  army  with  that  of  Prussia.  In  December, 
1806,  he  assumed  the  title  of  king,  joined  the  Confedera- 
tion of  the  Rhine,  and  became  an  ally  of  Napoleon.  He 
was  deprived  by  the  allied  powers  of  a  large  part  of  his 
kingdom  about  181 5.  He  died  in  May,  1827,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Antony. 

See  Hermann,  "Friedrich  Augusts  Leben,"  1827;  Poelitz, 
"  Friedrich  Augusts  Leben,"  2  vols.,  1830. 

Frederick  Augustus  II.,  King  of  Saxony,  born  in 
May,  1797,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  and  a  son  of 
Prince  Maximilian.  He  married  the  archduchess  Caro- 
line of  Austria  in  1819.  In  July,  1830,  he  was  appointed 
general-in-chief  of  the  army.  He  began  to  reign  in 
June,  1836,  his  father  having  renounced  his  right  to  the 
throne.  He  was  so  interested  in  botany  that  he  made 
several  botanical  excursions  to  foreign  countries  after 
his  accession.  He  died  in  August,  1854,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  John. 

Frederick  Charles,  (or  Friedrich  Karl,)  Prince  of 
Prussia,  a  nephew  of  the  king,  W^ilhelm  I.,  and  a  son  of 
Friedrich  Karl  Alexander,  was  born  in  1828.  He  com- 
manded the  first  Prussian  army  which  defeated  the  Aus- 
trians  at  Sadowa,  (Koniggratz,)  July  3,  1866.  Another 
army,  under  the  crown-prince,  arrived  some  hours  after 
the  battle  began,  and  contributed  to  the  victory.  The 
Austrians,  commanded  by  Benedek,  lost  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty  pieces  of  cannon  and  14,000  un- 
wounded  prisoners.  About  200,000  men  were  engaged 
on  each  side. 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lotig ;     h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FREDERICK 


965 


FREDERICK 


Frederick  Henry  of  Orange.    See  Orange. 

Frederick  William,  [Ger.  Friedrich  Wilhelm, 
fReed'riK  <^ii'helm,]  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  surnamed 
THE  Great  Elector,  born  in  1620,  was  the  son  of 
the  Elector  George  William,  the  prince  to  whose  policy 
the  house  of  HohenzoUern  owes  its  greatness.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1640,  soon  after  which  he  obtained 
from  the  King  of  Poland  the  sovereignty  of  the  duchy  of 
Prussia.  By  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  (1648)  he  acquired 
Magdeburg,  Minden,  and  part  of  Pomerania.  In  1655 
he  joined  Charles  Gustavus  of  Sweden  in  a  successful 
invasion  of  Poland.  As  the  ally  of  Holland  and  the 
emperor,  he  took  the  field  against  Louis  XIV.  in  1672. 
The  Swedes,  having  invaded  his  dominions,  were  totally 
defeated  by  him  at  Fehrbellin  in  1675.  Ii"*  ^^79  '""^  niade 
peace  with  Sweden  and  France,  receiving  from  the  latter 
300,000  crowns.  His  first  wife  was  Louisa  Henrietta, 
Princess  of  Orange,  author  of  a  popular  hymn,  "  Jesus 
mein  Zuversicht."  He  possessed  great  political  abilities, 
and  his  reign  was  very  beneficial  to  Prussia.  He  died  in 
1688,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Frederick  I. 

See  Samuel  von  Pufendorf,  "De  Rebus  gestis  Friderici  Wil- 
helmi,"  1695  ;  Franz  Horn,  "  Leben  Friedrich  Wilhelms  des  Gros- 
ser!," 1814  ;  "V^on  Raumer,  "  Fried.  Wilhelm'sdesgrossen  Kurfiirsten 
Kinderjahre,"  1850  ;  S.  Hirsch,  "  Erinnerungen  an  dengiosseii  Kur- 
fiirsten Friedrich  Wilhelm,  und  an  seine  Gemahlin  Louise,"  1852. 

Frederick  William  (or  Friedrich  Wilhelm)  I., 

King  of  Prussia,  a  son  of  Frederick  I.,  was  born  in  1688. 
He  ascended  the  throne  in  February,  17 13,  having  mar- 
ried Sophia  Dorothea  of  Hanover.  He  was  very  parsi- 
monious, eccentric,  and  arbitrary.  "  His  eccentricities," 
says  Macaulay,  "were  such  as  had  never  been  seen  out 
of  a  mad-house.  .  .  .  His  taste  for  military  pomp  and 
order  became  a  mania,  like  that  of  a  Dutch  burgomaster 
for  tulips.  .  .  .  Every  country  was  ransacked  by  his  agents 
for  men  above  the  ordinary  stature,"  for  his  army.  Al- 
though he  formed  a  large  and  highly-disciplined  army, 
he  was  a  pacific  prince,  and  was  not  engaged  in  any  im- 
portant wars.  He  founded  a  medical  college  and  other 
useful  institutions  at  Berlin,  but  was  hostile  to  literature, 
art,  and  metaphysics.  He  died  in  1740,  leaving  the 
throne  to  his  son,  Frederick  the  Great. 

See  Morgenstern,  "  Ueber  Friedrich  Wilhelm  I.,"  1793:  Fors- 
TER,"  Geschichie  B'riedrich  Wilhelms  I.,"  1835  ;  Ersch  und  Gruber, 
"Allgemeiue  Encyklopaedie  ;"  E.  Mauvii.i.on,  "  Histoire  de  F"re- 
deric  Guillaume  I,"  1741,  (translated  into  English  by  W.  Phelps, 
1750;)  F.  Cramer,  "Zur  Geschichte  Friedrich  Wilhelm's  I.  und 
Friedrichs  II.,"  1829;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October, 
1835- 

Frederick  William  II.,  King  of  Prussia,  born  in 
September,  1744,  was  a  son  of  Augustus  William,  who 
was  a  brother  of  Frederick  the  Great.  He  was  declared 
crown-prince,  or  heir  to  the  throne,  in  1758,  and  began 
to  reign  in  August,  1786.  His  first  wife,  Elizabeth  Chris- 
tina Ulrica  of  Brunswick,  having  been  divorced  in  1769, 
he  married  the  princess  Louisa  of  Hesse-Darmstadt. 
In  August,  1791,  occurred  a  famous  interview  at  Pilnitz 
between  Frederick  William  and  the  PImperor  of  Austria, 
who  agreed  to  intervene  for  the  defence  of  Louis  XVI. 
of  France  against  his  subjects.  He  invaded  France  with 
a  large  army  in  July,  1792,  but  retreated  to  the  Rhine, 
without  important  results,  in  the  autumn  of  that  year. 
The  dilatory  movements  of  the  Prussians  in  this  and  the 
ensuing  campaign  are  ascribed  to  secret  negotiations  or 
intrigues.  (See  Dumourikz,  and  Brunswick,  Duke  of.) 
Frederick  William  united  with  Russia  in  the  second  par- 
tition of  Poland,  (1793,)  by  which  he  obtained  Dantzic 
and  Thorn,  with  about  1 100  German  square  miles  of  ter- 
ritory. He  made  a  separate  peace  with  the  French  re- 
public at  Bale  in  April,  1795.  Died  in  November,  1797, 
leaving  his  throne  to  his  son,  Frederick  William  HI. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeiue  Encyklopaedie;"  Mira- 
eeau,  "Histoire  secrete  de  la  Cour  de  Berlin."' 

Frederick  William  III.,  King  of  Prussia,  the  eldest 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  August,  1770.  His 
mother  was  Louisa  of  Hesse-Darmstadt.  He  married 
the  Princess  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  and  succeeded  his 
father  on  the  i6th  of  November,  1797.  For  the  neutrality 
which  he  observed  between  the  French  and  the  coalition 
he  was  rewarded  at  the  ]5eace  of  Luneville,  1801,  with  the 
bishoprics  of  Hildesheim  and  Paderborn,  besides  some 
other  territories.  The  population  of  Prussia  was  then 
about  ten  millions. 


He  refused  to  join  the  third  coalition  against  the 
French  in  1805  until  the  French  army  had  violated  the 
neutral  territory  of  Anspach.  In  November,  1805,  he 
formed  a  secret  alliance  with  Russia  and  the  other  powers; 
but  a  few  days  after  the  battle  of  Austerlitz  he  concluded 
with  Napoleon  a  treaty  of  peace,  by  which  Hanover  was 
annexed  to  Prussia  in  exchange  for  Anspach,  Cleves, 
and  Neufchatel.  This  transaction  provoked  England  to 
declare  war  against  Prussia.  His  alliance  with  France 
was  broken  by  the  aggressions  of  Napoleon,  or  by  the 
offer  of  the  latter  to  restore  Hanover  to  England.  He 
demanded  as  his  ultimatum  that  the  French  troops  should 
evacuate  Germany;  but  before  this  demand  reached  Paris 
Napoleon  had  advanced  far  on  his  way  to  the  seat  of 
war.  The  Prussians  were  routed  at  Jena  and  Auerstadt 
on  the  14th  of  October,  1806,  a  few  days  after  which 
Napoleon  entered  Berlin.  The  war  was  ended  in  July, 
1807,  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  which  deprived  Frederick 
William  of  about  half  of  his  kingdom, — viz.,  the  Polish 
provinces,  and  all  that  part  which  lies  west  of  the  Elbe. 

He  applied  himself  with  success  to  repair  the  desola- 
tions caused  by  the  war,  made  reforms  in  the  government, 
and  abolished  serfdom.  In  181 2  he  was  compelled  to 
furnish  a  large  force  to  aid  the  French  in  the  invasion  of 
Russia  ;  but  in  March,  1813,  he  summoned  his  subjects  to 
the  war  of  liberation,  for  which  they  evinced  the  utmost 
enthusiasm.  He  gave  proof  of  personal  courage  in 
several  battles  in  1813,  and  entered  Paris  in  triumph  in 
March,  1814.  At  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  1814-15,  he 
recovered  nearly  all  the  provinces  he  had  lost,  and  ac- 
quired half  of  Saxony.  He  failed  to  give  his  people  a 
free  constitution,  as  he  had  promised.  Frederick  William 
was  a  ruler  of  moderate  capacity.  He  died  in  June,  1840, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Frederick  William  IV. 

See  Leutsch,  "  Geschichte  des  Preussischen  Staats  unter  Wil- 
helm III.;"  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeiue  Encyklopaedie;" 
Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  Hense,  "  Friedrich 
Wilhelm  III.,"  1840  ;  F.  R.  Eylert,  "  Charakterziige und  historische 
Fragmente  aus  dem  Leben  Friedrich  Wilhelm's  III.,"  3  vols.,  1842- 
44,  (translated  into  English  by  J.  Birch,  London,  1844.) 

Frederick  William  IV.,  King  of  Prussia,  was  born 
on  the  15th  of  October,  1795.  He  married  in  1823 
Elizabeth  Louisa,  a  daughter  of  Maximilian,  King  of 
Bavaria.  In  consequence  of  the  marriage  of  his  sister 
to  Nicholas  of  Russia,  he  became  an  intimate  friend  of 
the  latter.  He  began  his  reign,  June  7,  1840,  with  mea- 
sures of  indulgence  and  moderation,  and  excited  hopes 
of  reforms  which  were  never  realized.  He  refused  to 
restrict  his  absolute  power  by  a  constitution,  saying,  "  I 
would  not  have  a  piece  of  parchment  interposed  between 
me  and  my  people."  Excited  by  the  triumph  of  the 
French  revolutionists,  the  citizens  of  Berlin  revolted  in 
March,  1848.  After  several  days  of  severe  fighting,  the 
king  withdrew  his  troops  from  the  city,  changed  his 
ministry,  and  made  concessions  to  the  Liberal  party. 
He  granted  in  December,  1848,  a  constitution  which  has 
since  been  modified  or  nullified,  and  professed  a  great 
zeal  for  German  unity,  until  the  National  Assembly  at 
Frankfort  elected  the  Archduke  John  of  Austria  as  lieu- 
tenant-general. He  was  censured  for  his  irresolution 
and  neutrality  in  the  Crimean  war.  He  was  rendered 
incompetent  to  reign  by  a  serious  malady  in  1858,  after 
which  his  brother  acted  as  regent.  He  died,  without 
issue,  in  January,  1861,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  bro- 
ther, styled  William  (Wilhelm)  I. 

Frederick  William  I.,  the  last  Elector  of  Hesse, 
born  in  1802,  was  the  son  of  William  II.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1847.  He  became  very  unpopular.  In  1866  he 
took  side  with  Austria  in  the  war  against  the  King  of 
Prussia,  who  deposed  him  and  annexed  Hesse  to  his 
own  kingdom. 

Frederick  William,  Prince  Royal  or  Crown-Prince 
of  Prussia,  born  on  the  i8th  of  October,  1831,  is  the 
eldest  son  of  the  regent  Frederick  William  Lewis,  after- 
wards William  (Wilhelm)  I.  He  commanded  the  second 
army  which  in  June,  1866,  entered  Bohemia  from  Silesia, 
and,  after  several  successful  actions  at  Nachod,  Trau- 
tenau,  etc.,  effected  a  junction  with  the  other  Prussian 
army  at  Sadowa,  July  3.  He  married  Victoria  Adelaide, 
a  daughter  of  the  Queen  of  England,  in  1858. 

Frederick  William,  Duke  of  Brunswick.  See 
Brunswick. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard-  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FREDERICK 


966 


FREIND 


Frederick  William  Charles,  King  of  Wiirteni- 
berg,  born  at  Treptow  in  1754,  received  from  nature 
superior  abilities.  In  1797  he  married  Charlotte  Au- 
gusta Matilda,  a  princess  of  England,  and  succeeded  his 
father,  Frederick  Eugene,  as  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg.  He 
obtained  the  dignity  of  Elector  in  1803.  Having  formed 
an  alliance  with  Napoleon,  (1805,)  he  gained  a  large 
accession  of  territory  and  the  title  of  king.  He  joined 
the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  in  1806.  His  army 
fought  for  Napoleon  in  1809,  1812,  and  1813,  but  joined 
the  allies  in  November,  1813.    Died  in  October,  1816. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  du  Consulat  at  de  I'Empire ;"  Ersch  uud 
Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Frederick  William  Charles,  Prince  of  the  Low 
Countries,  second  son  of  William  I.,  was  l)orn  in  1797. 
He  married  a  daughter  of  the  King  of  Prussia  in  1825, 
tiiok  a  prominent  part  in  the  war  of  the  Belgian  revo- 
lution in  1830,  and  commanded  in  battle  at  Brussels, 
fiom  which  he  was  compelled  to  retreat  in  Septeml^er 
of  that  year. 

Fredro,  fFia'dRo,  (Maximilian,)  Palatine  of  Podolia, 
a  popular  Polish  author,  noted  for  civil  and  military 
services.  He  published  several  able  works  on  political 
and  military  affairs,  which  acquired  a  high  reputation. 
One  of  these  is  entitled  "  Proverbs  and  Advice,  Moral, 
]*olitical,  and  Military."    He  died  in  1676. 

Free'ling,  (Sir  Francis,)  born  at  Bristol,  England, 
in  1764,  entered  the  General  Post-Office  in  1787.  For  a 
long  period  he  filled  the  office  of  secretary  of  that  de- 
partment with  eminent  ability  and  fidelity.  His  services 
were  rewarded  with  the  rank  of  baronet  in  1828.  Died 
in  1836. 

Free'man,  (Edward  A.,)  an  English  historian,  born 
at  Harborne,  vStaffordshire,  in  1823.  He  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  in 
1845.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "The  History 
and  Conquests  of  the  Saracens,"  (1856,)  "The  History 
of  Federal  Government,"  (ist  vol.,  1863,)  and  a  valuable 
"  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest  of  England,"  of  which 
the  first  volume  appeared  in  1867  and  the  third  in  1869. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1S69. 

Free'man,  (James,)  an  American  Unitarian  minister, 
born  in  Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  in  1759,  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1777.  He  became  about  1782  reader 
at  the  King's  Chapel,  Boston,  and  soon  after  separated 
from  the  Episcopal  Church.  He  was  the  first  minister 
in  the  United  States  that  openly  ]:)rofessed  to  be  a  Uni- 
tarian ;  and  he  continued  to  preach  in  Boston  for  fifty 
years.    Died  in  1835. 

Freeman,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Glou- 
cestershire about  1590,  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He 
wrote  numerous  epigrams. 

Freeman,  (William  Prere  Williams,)  an  English 
admiral,  born  in  1 742,  entered  the  navy  about  17^7,  and 
gained  distinction  in  the  American  war,  1776-82.  He 
was  made  an  admiral  about  1830.    Died  in  1832. 

Fregoso,  fRi-go'so,  or  Fregose,  fR^-go'si,  (in  the 
plural,  Fregosi,  fRa-go'see,)  a  Genoese  family,  which 
in  the  fourteenth  century  gained  distinction  among  the 
jjopular  party  and  by  their  rivalry  with  the  Adorni  oc- 
casioned frequent  civil  wars.  Fregoso,  (Domenico,) 
b-icame  Doge  of  Genoa  in  1370.  He  conquered  the  isle 
<>i  Cyprus,  and  was  deposed  in  1378.  Pietro  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  commanded  the  arma- 
ment which  conquered  Cyprus  in  1373,  and  in  1393  was 
elected  doge.  Thomas  was  elected  doge  in  1415.  I>eing 
attacked  by  Alfonso  of  Aragon  and  the  Duke  of  Milan, 
he  made  a  brave  resistance,  but  was  forced  to  retire  from 
Genoa  in  1421.  In  1436  he  was  again  elected,  and  held 
the  office  until  1443.  Janus,  a  nephew  of  Thomas,  was 
elected  doge  in  1447,  and  died  the  next  year.  Pietro, 
nephew  of  Thomas,  was  elected  in  14^0,  and  for  eight 
years  maintained  his  power  against  Alfonso  of  Aragon 
and  the  Adorni.  In  141^8  he  ceded  the  seigtu'ory  of 
Genoa  to  Charles  VH.  of  France.  He  was  killed  in  an 
attempt  to  expel  the  French  from  Genoa  in  1459-  Paul, 
brother  of  Pietro,  and  Archbishop  of  Genoa,  was  an  am- 
bitious and  unscrujiulous  priest.  In  1461  he  drove  Pros- 
per Adorno  out  of  the  city,  and  iilaced  his  own  cousin, 
Sninetta  Fregoso,  in  the  office  of  doge.  He  caused  him- 
self to  be  elected  in  1462,  but  was  expelled  from  office 


in  1464  by  Sforza,  Duke  of  Milan.  He  was  again  in 
power  from  1483  to  1488.  Died  in  1498.  Battista,  a 
son  of  Pietro,  was  born  at  Genoa  about  1440,  elected 
doge  in  1479,  and  deposed  by  a  conspiracy  in  1483.  He 
wrote  a  "  Life  of  Martin  V.,"  and  a  treatise  on  love, 
"  Anteros,  sive  De  An\ore."  Octavian  was  elected  doge 
in  15 13,  after  having  expelled  the  Frenth.  He  was 
compelled  in  15 15  to  cede  the  sovereignty  of  Genoa 
to  Francis  I.  of  France,  in  whose  name  he  governed  the 
same  until  1522.  In  1528  the  success  of  Andrea  Doria 
terminated  the  rivalry  between  the  Adorno  and  Fregoso 
families.  Fredrrico,  a  brother  of  Octavian,  was  born 
in  Genoa  about  1480.  He  was  versed  in  Hebrew  and 
other  languages,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"  Paraphrase  on  the  Paternoster,"  in  terza  rima,  and  a 
"Treatise  on  Prayer,"  (1542.)  He  became  a  cardinal  in 
1539.    Died  in  1541. 

See  E.  ViNCENS,  "  Histoire  de  Genes;"  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des 
Republiques  Italieniies." 

Fregoso,  (Antonio  Fileremo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
in  Genoa,  of  the  same  family  as  the  preceding,  lived  at 
the  court  of  Milan  about  1500,  and  enjoyed  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  poet.  His  jM-incipal  poems  are  "  The  Laughter 
of  Democritus  and  the  Weeping  of  Heraclitus,"  (1506, 
often  reprinted,)  "Contest  of  Plutus  and  Irus,"  ("  Con- 
tenzione  di  Pluto  ed  Iro,")  and  "La  Cerva  bianca," 
("The  White  Deer,"  1510.)    Died  about  1515. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  Tiraboschi, 
"Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Freher,  fra'er,  [  Lat.  Frehe'rus,  ]  (Marquard,)  a 
German  historian,  and  a  native  of  Augsburg,  published 
"Ancient  Bohemian  Historians,"  "  History  of  the  Ancient 
Franks,"  and  other  works,  which  enjoy  a  high  reputation. 
Died  in  1614. 

See  ISIelchior  Adam,  "Vitas  Juiisconsultoriim ;"  Niceron, 
"  IMeinoii  es." 

Freher,  (Paul,)  a  German  biographer,  born  at  Nu- 
renil)erg  in  1611.  He  practised  medicine  in  that  city, 
and  compiled  a  mediocre  work,  called  "  Theatre  of  Men 
eminent  for  Learning,"  ("Theatrum  Virorum  Eruditione 
clarorum,"  1688,)  containing  notices  of  about  2850  emi- 
nent authors  and  other  persons.    Died  in  1682. 

Freherus.    See  Freher. 

Freig,  fRlo,  or  Freige,  fRT'geh,  [Lat.  Frei'gius,] 
(JOHANN  Thomas,)  a  learned  German  writer,  born  at 
Friburg,  in  Brisgau,  in  1543.  He  became  rector  of  the 
college  of  Altorf  in  1575.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works 
in  Latin,  a  "Life  of  Peter  Ramus,"  (about  1580,)  and 
"  Rhetorica,  Poetica,  Logica,"  (1582,)  and  published 
Cicero's  Orations  with  notes,  (3  vols.,  1581,)  often  re- 
printed.   Died  in  1583. 

Freigius.    See  Freig. 

Freiligrath,  fRi'lic-rat',  (Ferdinand,)  a  celebrated 
German  lyric  and  patriotic  poet,  born  at  Detmold  in 
1810.  In  1833  he  published  some  poems  in  the  "Alma- 
nac of  the  Muses,"  which  were  so  successful  that  he 
renounced  his  previous  emjDloyment  in  a  banking-house 
at  Amsterdam,  and  devoted  himself  to  literature.  After 
the  revolution  of  1848  he  brought  out  his  spirited  poem 
entitled  "  The  Dead  to  the  Living,"  for  which  he  was 
tried  by  the  government,  but  was  acquitted.  Owing  to 
renewed  political  accusations,  he  left  Germany  in  1849, 
and  settled  in  London.  Among  his  best  productions 
are  his  "Political  and  Social  Poems,"  and  "Confession 
of  Faith,"  ("  Glaube\isbekenntniss,")  which  enjoy  the 
greatest  i)opularity  among  the  Liberal  party  in  Germany. 
Freiligrath's  poetry,  apart  from  the  fervent  patriotism  it 
displays,  possesses  merits  of  a  high  order ;  and  he  has 
made  several  excellent  translations  from  the  English 
and  French. 

See  LoNf.FEf.i.ow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1845. 

Freind,  frend,  or  Friend,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  an  English 
l^hysician,  born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1675,  was  an 
excellent  classical  scholar,  and  eminent  in  his  profession. 
He  served  as  army  physician  under  the  Earl  of  Peter- 
borough, in  Spain,  in  1705-07.  He  was  chosen  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1712,  and  member  of  Parliament 
in  1722.  In  1727  he  was  a])pointed  first  physician  to 
the  queen  of  George  II.  He  wrote  many  able  medical 
works,  of  which  the  most  important  is  his  "  History  of 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  k,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FREIND 


967 


FREMONT 


Physic  from  the  Time  of  Galen  to  the  Beginning  of  the 
Sixteenth  Century,"  (2  vols.,  1726-27.)    Died  in  1728. 
See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Freind,  (Robert,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1667.  He  resided  in  West- 
minster, wrote  verses  in  Latin  and  English,  edited 
"Cicero  de  Oratore,"  {1724,)  and  was  an  opponent  of 
Bentley  in  the  controversy  respecting  the  Epistles  of 
Phalaris.  He  was  head-master  of  Westminster  School. 
Died  in  1751. 

Freinsheim,  fRins'hm/,  fLat.  Freinshf/mius,]  (Jo- 
HANN,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Ulm  in  1608.  In  1642 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  eloquence  and  political 
economy  at  Upsal,  and  in  1647  was  created  by  Queen 
("hristina  her  librarian  and  historiographer.  He  was 
lijnorary  professor  at  Heidelberg  when  he  died  in  1660. 
He  published  several  editions  of  the  classics,  and  wrote 
a  valuable  supplement  to  Livy  and  to  Quintus  Curtius, 
with  a  view  of  restoring  the  lost  books  of  those  authors. 

See  A.  Freinsheim,  "Laudatio  posthuina  J.  Fielnshemii,"  1661. 

Freinshemius.    See  Freinsheim. 

Freire,  fRa'e-r^,  (Francisco  Joze,)  a  Portuguese 
philologist  and  historian,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1713.  As 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Arcades,  he  was  called 
"Candido  Lusitano."  He  wrote  "Maxims  on  the  Art 
of  Oratory,"  and  a  "Life  of  Prince  Henry  of  Portugal," 
(1758.)  Died  in  1773.  "He  contributed  much,"  says 
Ferdinand  Denis,  "  to  the  restoration  of  literature  by  the 
purity  of  his  style."  ("Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.") 

Freire  de  Andrada,  fka^-ra  di  ^n-dRcVdA,  (Ber- 
NARDrM,)  a  Portuguese  gene^l,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1764. 
He  had  risen  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  when  the 
war  against  Bonaparte  began.  In  1808  he  put  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  national  army  which  co-operated 
with  Wellington.  He  was  accused  of  treason  by  some 
factious  persons,  and  was  killed  by  his  own  soldiers  at 
Braga  in  1809. 

Freire  de  Andrada,  (Hyacinth.)  See  Andrada, 
(Jacinto.) 

Freire  de  Andrade,  (or  Andrada,)  fRa^-ri  d.\  Sn- 
dRi'di,  (or  Sn-dR^'dd,)  (Gomez,)  a  Portugu^e  general, 
and  an  able  administrator,  born  about  1685.  He  was 
governor  of  Rio  Janeiro  for  many  years,  beginning  in 
1733.  He  was  the  hero  of  the  poem  of  l^asileo  da  Gama 
entitled  "  O  Uruguay."  In  1 756  he  defeated  the  Spaniards 
in  the  war  of  the  Seven  Missions.    Died  in  1763. 

See  Southry's  "History  of  Brazil." 

Freire  de  Andrade,  (Gomez,)  a  Portuguese  general, 
was  born  in  Vienna  in  1752.  He  obtained  a  command  in 
the  French  army  under  Junot  in  r8o8,  served  in  Russia 
in  1812,  and  was  governor  of  Dresden  in  1 813.  Having 
returned  to  Lisbon,  he  was  executed,  on  a  charge  of 
conspiracy  against  Marshal  Beresford,  in  181 7.  His  inno- 
cence was  recognized  several  years  later. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "Histoire  de  Jean  VI, 
Roi  de  Portugal,"  etc.,  Paris,  1827. 

Freire  de  Carvalho,  fRa^-ri  di  kaR-v^Kyo,  (Fran- 
cisco,) a  Portuguese  critic,  who  became  professor  of 
eloquence  in  Lisbon  about  1846.  He  published  a  good 
edition  of  the  "Lusiad,"  (1843,)  "Essay  on  the 

Literary  History  of  Portugal,"  (1845.) 

Freitag.    See  Freytag. 

Frelinghuysen,  free'ling-hT'zen,  (Frederick,)  an 
American  statesman,  born  in  New  Jersey  in  1753.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  1770,  and  served  with  distinc- 
tion as  captain  at  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Monmouth. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress  of  1775, 
and  from  1793  to  1796  was  a  United  States  Senator. 
Died  in  1804. 

Frelinghuysen,  (Theodore,)  an  American  states- 
man, a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Somerset 
county.  New  Jersey,  in  1787.  He  graduated  at  Prince- 
ton College  in  1804,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1808.  In  1829  he  was  elected  to  the  Senate 
of  the  United  States,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  Whig 
party  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  debates  until 
1835.  He  became  chancellor  of  the  University  of  New 
York  in  1838.  In  1844  he  was  nominated  as  candidate 
for  the  Vice-Presidency  of  the  United  States  by  the 
Whig  party,  which  also  nominated  Henry  Clay  for  the 
Presidency  ;  but  they  were  not  elected.    He  -was  chosen 


president  of  Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick,  in  1850. 
Died  in  1862. 

SeeT.  W.  Chambers,  "Memoir  of  the  Life  of  T.  Frelinghuysen," 
1863,  with  portrait. 

Frellon,  fRa16N',  (Jean  and  Franqots,)  printers  of 
Lyons,  France,  who  acquired  distinction  by  the  perfec- 
tion of  their  editions  of  the  New  Testament  and  other 
books,  printed  between  1530  and  1570. 

Fre'mantle,  (Sir  Thomas  Francis,)  an  English 
politician,  born  in  1 798.  He  represented  Buckingham 
in  Parliament  from  1827  to  1846,  and  acted  with  the 
Conservatives.  He  was  secretary  of  war  in  1844-45, 
and  was  appointed  chairman  of  the  board  of  customs 
in  1846. 

Fremin,  fRa'miN',  (Ren^:,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris  in  1673.  In  1722  Philip  V.  of  Spain  employed 
him  to  embellish  with  statuary  his  gardens  and  palace 
of  the  Granja.    Died  in  1745. 

Freminet,  frk'me^ii',  (Martin,)  an  eminent  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1567,  studied  many  years  in 
Italy  with  such  success  that  Henry  IV.  of  France  chose 
him  in  1603  as  his  first  painter,  and  employed  him  in 
decorating  the  chapel  of  P'ontainebleau,  which  contains 
his  master-pieces.  He  imitated  the  style  of  Michael 
Angelo,  and  excelled  in  composition  and  perspective. 
Died  in  1619. 

See  A.  Felibien,  "  Entretiens  siir  les  Vies  des  plus  celebres 
Peiiitres." 

Fre'mont',  (John  Charles,)  the  "  Pathfinder"  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  an  American  explorer  and  general, 
born  at  Savannah,  Georgia,  January  21,  1813,  was  the 
son  of  a  Frenchman  and  a  Virginian  mother.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Charleston  College,  South  Carolina,  and  became 
a  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  navy  about  1835  ;  but 
he  soon  resigned  that  position.  In  1838  and  1839  he 
assisted  Nicollet  in  the  exjiloration  of  the  upper  portion 
of  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi.  He  was  appointed  a 
second  lieutenant  of  the  topographical  engineers  in  1838, 
and  was  ordered  in  1841  to  explore  and  survey  the  river 
Des  Moines.  In  October  of  that  year  he  married  Jessie, 
a  daughter  of  Senator  Benton,  of  Missouri.  Having 
formed  a  project  to  explore  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
to  open  an  overland  route  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  he 
began  the  arduous  enterjjrise,  under  the  authority  of 
the  government,  in  May,  1842.  He  examined  the  South 
Pass  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  ascended,  in  August, 
the  highest  peak  of  the  Wind  River  Mountains,  (13,570 
feet  above  the  sea,)  which  is  now  called  Fremont's  Peak. 
In  the  autimui  of  1842  he  returned  to  Washington,  and 
published  a  report  of  his  discoveries,  which  was  com- 
mended by  Humboldt  in  his  "As])ects  of  Nature." 

In  the  summer  of  1843  he  conducted  another  expedi- 
tion up  the  valley  of  the  Platte  and  through  the  South 
Pass,  explored  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  made  important 
discoveries  in  geography.  He  arrived  in  November  at 
Fort  Vancouver,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River, 
and  in  the  ensuing  winter  attempted  to  return  by  a  more 
southern  route  ;  but  his  progress  was  arrested  by  deep 
snows,  and  his  party  suffered  severely  from  hunger  and 
cold.  Having  changed  his  course,  he  reached  the  Sacra- 
mento River  in  March,  1844,  and,  returning  through  the 
Great  Basin  and  the  South  Pass,  arrived  at  Kansas  in 
July  of  that  year.  The  daring  and  fortitude  exhibited 
in  this  expedition  among  hostile  savages  and  inhospi- 
table deserts  have  hardly  been  surpassed  in  the  records 
of  human  adventure.  Soon  after  his  return  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  captain,  and  prepared  a  report  of 
his  second  expedition.  In  the  spring  of  1845  he  con- 
ducted a  third  ex])edition,  to  explore  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
California,  &c.  He  was  attacked  by  Mexicans  near 
Monterey  in  March,  1846,  defended  himself  with  success, 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  in  May,  and 
was  appointed  Governor  of  California  by  Commodore 
vStockton,  whose  authority  was  disputed  by  General 
Kearney.  Fremont,  however,  continued  to  recognize 
Commodore  Stockton  as  his  superior,  and  was  arrested 
by  General  Kearney,  who  ordered  him  to  report  to  the 
adjutant-general  at  Washington.  He  was  tried  by  a  court- 
martial,  and  found  guilty  of  mutiny  and  disobedience, 
for  which  he  was  pardoned  by  the  President ;  but  he 
declined  the  pardon,  and  resigned  his  commission. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  K,gtaitiral;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FREMONT 


968 


FRERET 


In  1848  Fremont  attempted,  at  his  own  expense, 
another  expedition  across  the  continent,  through  the 
northern  part  of  Mexico ;  but,  the  guide  having  lost  his 
way,  the  party,  after  undergoing  incredible  sufferings,  in 
which  about  one-third  of  their  number  perished,  were 
compelled  to  return  to  Santa  Fe,  whence  they  had 
started. 

In  1849  he  settled  in  California,  where  he  had  pur- 
chased a  large  auriferous  tract  called  the  Mariposa 
estate.  He  exerted  his  influence  to  make  California  a 
free  State,  and  was  one  of  the  Senators  chosen  to  repre- 
sent that  State  in  the  Federal  Senate  in  1850.  His  term 
in  the  Senate  expired  in  March,  185 1.  For  his  services 
as  an  explorer  he  received,  in  1850,  a  gold  medal  from 
the  King  of  Prussia,  and  another  from  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society  of  London.  In  1853  he  conducted,  at 
his  own  expense,  an  exploring  party  to  the  Pacific,  and 
succeeded  in  finding  a  new  route  about  latitude  38°  north. 
He  was  nominated  as  candidate  for  the  Presidency  by  the 
Republican  National  Convention  in  June,  1856,  as  the 
competitor  of  the  Democratic  candidate,  James  Buchanan. 
Colonel  Fremont  received  one  hundred  and  fourteen 
electoral  votes,  cast  by  eleven  States,  against  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy-four  votes  given  to  his  opponent. 

In  May,  1861,  he  was  appointed  a  major-general  of  the 
regular  army,  and  commander  of  the  department  of  Mis- 
souri, or  Western  district.  In  August  he  issued  an  order 
for  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  of  those  who  should 
take  arms  against  the  United  States  ;  but  this  act  was  dis- 
approved and  annulled  by  the  President,  who  considered 
it  premature.  Moving  his  army  from  the  Missouri 
River,  he  pursued  the  enemy,  who  retired  southwestward. 
He  had  just  overtaken  the  army  of  insurgents  at  Spring- 
field, when  he  was  removed  from  the  command,  Novem- 
ber 2,  1861.  In  March,  1862,  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  Mountain  department,  including  parts  of 
Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee.  About  the  ist  of 
June  he  began  to  pursue  General  Jackson,  (Stonewall,) 
who,  after  chasing  General  Banks  down  the  Shenandoah 
Valley  to  the  Potomac,  was  retiring  towards  Harrison- 
burg. General  Fremont  attacked  the  enemy  on  the  8th 
of  June,  1862,  at  Cross  Keys,  where  he  fought  an  inde- 
cisive battle.  He  was  then  recalled  from  the  pursuit  of 
General  Jackson,  and  he  resigned  his  command  about 
the  end  of  June,  because  he  was  not  willing  to  serve 
under  General  Pope,  his  junior  or  inferior  in  rank. 

See  John  Bigelow,  "Life  of  John  C.  Fremont,"  1856;  C.  W, 
Upham,  "Life  and  Explorations  of  J.  C.  Fremont,"  1856;  "Fre- 
mont's Explorations,"  2  vols.,  1859. 

Fremont  d'Ablancourt,  fRa^miw'  dt'blSN'kooR', 
(Nicolas,)  a  French  Protestant,  born  in  Paris  about 
1625,  was  a  nephew  of  Perrot  d'Ablancourt.  By  the 
influence  of  Turenne  he  was  appointed  ambassador  to 
Portugal  in  1663.  When  the  edict  of  Nantes  was  re- 
voked, in  1685,  he  was  obliged  to  leave  France,  and 
retired  to  Holland,  where  the  Prince  of  Orange  appointed 
him  historiographer.  Pie  wrote,  besides  a  few  other 
works,  "Memoirs  in  relation  to  the  History  of  Portugal," 
(from  1659  to  1668,  published  in  1701.)    13ied  in  1693. 

See  Haag,  "  La  France  protestante." 

Fremy,  fra'me',  (ARNOULD,)a  Yvench.  litterateur,'born 
in  1809,  has  written  some  works  of  fiction, 

Freniy,  (Edmond,)  a  French  chemist,  born  in  Paris 
in  18 14.  He  was  a  favourite  pupil  of  M.  Pelouze,  whom 
he  aided  as  assistant  professor  in  the  Polytechnic  School. 
He  afterwards  succeeded  M.  Pelouze  as  professor,  and 
succeeded  Gay-Lussac  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory. In  conjunction  with  Pelouze,  he  produced  successful 
works,  entitled  "  General  Treatise  on  Chemistry,"  (6  vols., 
1844-57,)  and  an  "Abridgment  (Abrege)  of  Chemistry." 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

French,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  born  in  1616, 
attended  professionally  the  parliamentary  army  under 
Fairfax.  He  wrote  the  "  Art  of  Distillation,"  and  the 
"  Yorkshire  Spaw."    Died  in  1657. 

French,  (Nicholas,)  an  Irish  Roman  Catholic  bishop, 
born  at  Wexford  in  1604.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Ferns  in  1643,  soon  after  which  date  he  went  as  an  exile 
to  the  continent.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Unkind  Deserter  of  Loyal  Men,"  (1676,)  directed 
against  Ormond.    Died  in  1678. 


French,  (Samukl  G.,)  an  American  officer  in  the 
Confederate  army,  born  in  New  Jersey,  was  made  a 
brigadier-general  in  1861. 

French,  (William  Henry,)  an  American  officer, 
born  in  Maryland  about  1818,  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  and  in  i86i  became  a  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers in  the  Union  army. 

Frend,  (William,)  an  English  writer  on  astronomj-, 
political  economy,  etc.,  born  at  Canterbury  in  1757.  He 
was  rector  of  Madingley,  but,  having  adopted  Socinian 
opinions,  he  resigned  that  living  in  1787.  Among  his 
works  is  "Evening  Amusements  on  the  Beauties  of  the 
Heavens,"  issued  annually,  (1804-22.)    Died  in  1841. 

Freneau,  fre'n5^  (Philh',)  an  American  poet  and 
journalist,  of  French  descent,  born  at  New  York  in 
1752.  He  wrote,  during  the  Revolution,  many  satirical 
and  burlesque  poems  against  the  Tories.  Some  of  these 
were  very  popular.  Pie  performed  many  voyages  as  a 
captain  of  a  merchant-vessel  between  1784  and  1789, 
and  again  after  1798.  About  1790  he  became  translating 
clerk  to  Jefferson,  (then  secretary  of  state,)  and  editor 
of  the  "  National  Gazette,"  published  at  Philadelphia  and 
notorious  for  virulent  articles  against  the  administra- 
tion of  Washington.  Died  near  Freehold,  New  Jersey, 
in  December,  1832. 

See  Gkiswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America;"  Duyckinck, 
"Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Frenicle,  fRa^nek'K,  (Nicolas,)  a  minor  French  poet, 
born  in  Paris  in  1600,  wrote  "Niobe,  a  Tragedy,"  and 
other  poems.    Died  in  1661. 

Frenicle  de  Bessy,  fRa'nek'K  deh  bi'se',  (Bernard,) 
a  skilful  French  mathematician,  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  excelled  in  solving  difficult  questions  without  the 
use  of  algebra,  so  that  Fermat,  Descartes,  and  others 
confessed  his  superiority.  His  modus  operandi  was  kept 
secret  until  his  death,  when  it  was  ascertained  by  his 
papers  to  be  the  "method  of  exclusion."  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1666.  Pie  wrote 
a  "Treatise  on  Right-Angled  Triangles  in  Numbers," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1675. 

See  Baillet,  "Vie  de  Descartes;"  Condorcet,  "£loge  de 
Frenicle  de  Bessy." 

Frenzel  or  Frentzel,  fR§nt'sel,  (Johann,)  a  German 
poet,  born  at  Annaberg  in  1609.  He  was  professor  of 
poetry  at  Leipsic.    Died  in  1674. 

Frere,  fRaiR,  (Georges,)  a  French  general  of  division, 
born  in  Languedoc  in  1764.  He  distinguished  himself 
in  the  Austrian  campaign  of  1809.    Died  in  1826. 

Frere,  freer,  (Right  Hon.  John  Hookham,)  of  Nor- 
folk, England,  was  born  in  1769,  and  entered  Parliament 
in  1796.  He  was  ambassador  to  Spain  in  1808,  and  per- 
formed other  diplomatic  services.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review,"  and  ac- 
quired distinction  as  a  poet  by  a  humorous  work,  entitled 
"Prospectus  and  Specimen  of  an  Intended  National 
Work  by  William  and  Robert  Whistlecraft,  etc.,  relating 
to  King  Arthur  and  his  Round  Table."  His  translation 
of  a  Saxon  poem  on  the  victory  of  Athelstan  at  Brunnen- 
burgh  was  much  admired.    Died  at  Malta  in  1846. 

See  LocKHART,  "Life  of  Scott;"  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  September,  1843 ;  "  Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  March  and  April, 
1846. 

Frere,  (Pierre  Edouard,)  a  French  painter,  a  pupil 
of  Paul  Delaroche,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1819.  His 
subjects  are  familiar  domestic  scenes. 

Freres,  fra-r^  t  (Theodore,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Enckhuysen  in  1643,  studied  at  Rome.  He  worked 
for  some  time  at  Amsterdam.    Died  at  sea  in  1693. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Freret,  fRa'r^,  (Nicolas,)  an  eminent  French  his- 
torical critic  and  savant,  born  in  Paris,  February  15, 
1688,  was  early  distinguished  for  his  devotion  to  learning 
and  his  extraordinary  attainments  in  ancient  history, 
philosophy,  and  chronology.  The  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions was  opened  to  him  in  17 14,  about  which  time  he 
wrote  a  "  Discourse  on  the  Origin  of  the  French,"  which 
was  much  admired.  The  novel  or  candid  opinions 
uttered  in  this  work  procured  him  a  short  confinement 
in  the  Bastille.  He  was  versed  in  many  ancient  and 
modern  languages.  He  appears  to  have  been  free  from 
selfish  ambition,  and  actuated  by  a  disinterested  zeal  for 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  ^,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


FRERICHS  969 


the  honour  of  the  Academy,  for  which  he  wrote  a  multi- 
tude of  profound  dissertations  on  ancient  history  and 
chronology,  in  one  of  which  he  explodes  the  fabulous 
antiquity  of  the  Chinese.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  a  "Treatise  on  the  Origin  of  the  Greeks,"  "Obser- 
vations on  the  Cyropaedia  of  Xenophon,"  and  "Historical 
Researches  respecting  the  Ancient  Peoples  of  Asia." 
He  was  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions and  Belles-Lettres.  Died  in  Paris  in  March,  1749. 
He  is  considered  the  greatest  of  French  historical  critics. 

See  Bougainville,  "  £loge  de  Freret;"  Champollion-Figeac, 
"  Vie  de  Freret,"  prefixed  to  a  new  edition  of  his  works.  The  first 
volume  ot  this  edition  was  published  in  1825.  See,  also,  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Frerichs,  fna'riKs,  (Friedrich  Theodor,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Aurich,  in  Hanover,  in  1819.  He 
became  professor  of  pathology  and  therapeutics  at  Bres- 
lau  about  1852.  He  wrote,  besides  other  able  works, 
a  "Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Liver,"  (1859.) 

Freron,  fRa'rdw',  (Elie  Catherine,)  a  distinguished 
French  critic  and  litteraiettr,  born  at  Quimper  in  17 19, 
assisted  Desfontaines  for  several  years  in  his  critical  re- 
views. From  1749  to  1754  he  issued  a  spirited  literary 
periodical,  styled  "  Letters  on  Certain  Contemporary 
Writings."  From  1754  until  his  death  he  edited  the 
"  Literary  Year,"  and  acquired  much  notoriety  by  his 
attacks  on  Voltaire  and  the  Encyclopedists,  who  retorted 
with  great  asperity.  His  ode  on  the  battle  of  Fontenoy 
(1745)  was  adinired.  He  wrote  many  other  works.  Died 
in  1776. 

See  Grimm,  "  Correspondance  litt^raire;"  C.  Nisard,  "Les 
Ennemis  de  Voltaire,"  1853. 

Freron,  (Louis  Stanislas,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1765.  He  was  a  violent  Jacobin, 
edited  a  paper  called  the  "Orator  of  the  People,"  voted 
for  the  death  of  the  king  in  the  Convention,  and  took  an 
official  and  prominent  part  in  the  massacres  at  Marseilles 
and  Toulon.  Pie  promoted  the  fall  of  Robespierre  in 
1794,  and  was  appointed  sub-prefect  in  Saint  Domingo, 
where  he  died,  soon  after  his  arrival,  in  1802. 

See  Lamartine's  "History of  the  Girondists." 

Frescobaldi,  fR^s-ko-bSKdee,  (Girolamo,  )  a  re- 
nowned Italian  organist  and  composer,  born  at  Ferrara, 
probably  about  1588.  He  became  organist  of  St.  Peter's 
in  Rome.  He  displayed  a  rich  imagination  as  a  com- 
poser of  canzoni,  toccatas,  etc.  He  is  regarded  as  the 
father  of  that  style  of  organ-music  which  the  English  call 
"voluntaries."    Died  about  1654. 

See  Hawkins,  "History  of  Music;"  Fetis,  "Biographic  Uni- 
verselle  dcs  Musicicns." 

Fresenius,  fRi-za'ne-us,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a 
German  theologian,  born  in  1717;  died  in  1783. 

SecF.  A.  Fresenius,  "  Lebenslauf,  etc.  J.  F.  Fresenii,"  1789. 

Fresia,  fRa'se-S,  or  {Rk'ze'f,  (Maurice  Ignace,)  Ba- 
ron, a  general  in  the  French  army,  was  born  at  Saluzzo, 
in  Piedmont,  in  1746.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of 
Venice,  and  commandant  of  the  lllyrian  provinces,  about 
iSio.    Died  in  Paris  in  1827. 

Fresnaye,  de  la,  deh  IS  fR^^ni',  (Jean  Vauquelin 
— vok'laN^,)  a  mediocre  French  poet,  father  of  Desyve- 
teaux,  born  in  Normandy  in  1536;  died  in  1606. 

Fresne.    See  Dufresne  and  Du  Cange. 

Fresne,  fRen,  (pRANgois  ^baudy  —  i'bS'de',)  a 
French  economist,  born  at  Langres  in  1743,  published  a 
"  Treatise  on  Agriculture,"  (3  vols.,  1788,)  and  proposed 
the  saving-fund  for  servants,  and  other  means  of  econ- 
omy which  have  since  been  adopted.    Died  in  181 5. 

Fresnel,  fri^n^K,  (Augustin  Jean,)  a  celebrated 
French  geometer  and  optician,  born  at  Broglie  (Eure)  on 
the  loth  of  May,  1788,  was  the  son  of  an  architect.  He 
studied  in  the  Ecole  Polytechnique,  and  passed  thence 
into  the  licole  des  Ponts  et  Chaussees,  which  he  quitted 
with  the  title  of  engineer.  He  began  to  experiment  on 
the  theory  of  light  about  1815,  and  received  a  prize  from 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  for  his  treatise  "On  the  Dif- 
fraction of  Light"  in  1819.  In  1823  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  wrote  several 
memoirs  on  polarization  and  double  refraction,  which 
were  inserted  in  the  "Annales  de  Physique  et  Chimie," 
(1816-25.)  He  performed  for  physical  optics  what  New- 
ton did  foi  astronomy.    His  experiments  tend  to  prove 


FREr 


the  truth  of  the  theory  that  light  consists  in  the  vibra- 
tions of  an  elastic  medium.  His  theory  of  double  refrac- 
tion and  polarization  is  called  one  of  the  finest  efforts 
of  genius.  He  made  the  first  successful  application  of 
lenses  to  the  lamps  of  light-houses,  and  invented  the 
illuminating  apparatus  which  is  used  throughout  the 
civilized  world.  He  was  chosen  in  1825  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London,  which  in  1827  awarded  to  him 
the  Rumford  medal.  When  on  his  death-bed,  this  medal 
was  presented  to  him  by  his  friend  Arago,  to  whom  he 
said,  "  I  thank  you  for  performing  this  mission,  which 
must  have  been  a  painful  duty ;  for  the  brightest  badge 
of  honour  appears  dim  and  insignificant  to  him  who  must 
lay  it  down  on  the  grave  of  a  friend."    Died  in  1827. 

See  Arago's  "  filoge  de  Fresnel,"  in  the  "  Qiuvves  completes" 
(of  Arago,)  tome  i.;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "  Biographic 
Universellc,"  (Supplement.) 

Fresnel,  (Fulgence,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born  at 
Mathieu  (Calvados)  in  1795  ;  died  at  Bagdad  in  1855. 
Fresnoy.    See  Dufresnoy,  (Charles  Alphonse.) 
Fresnoy,  (Lenglet  du.)    See  Lenglet. 
Fresny.    See  Dufresn|^ 

Fresse-Montval,  fRgs'm^N^tl',  (Henri  Franqois 
Alphonse,)  a  French  liiterateiir,  born  at  Perpignan  in 
1795,  wrote  a  "  Manual  of  Latin  Composition,"  and  made 
a  translation  of  Pindar's  works  into  French  verse,  which 
gained  a  prize  of  the  French  Academy  in  185 1. 

Fressinet,  fRiVse'ncV,  (Philihert,)  a  French  general, 
born  in  Burgundy  in  1769.  In  1813,  for  his  conduct  at 
the  battle  of  Lutzen,  he  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of 
division.    Died  in  1821. 

Freteau  de  Saint-Just,  fRi' to'  deh  siN'zhiist',  (Em- 
man  uel  Marie  Michel  Philippe,)  a  French  lawyer, 
born  in  1745.  He  was  elected  in  1789  to  the  States- 
General,  and  was  a  moderate  partisan  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. He  was  one  of  the  presidents  of  the  Constituent 
Assembly,  and  a  judge  of  one  of  the  courts  in  Paris. 
He  was  executed  by  the  terrorists  in  1794. 

Freudenberger,  fRoi'den-b^R^Ger,  (Sigismond,)  a 
Swiss  painter  and  engraver,  born  in  1745;  died  in  1801. 

Freudweiler,  fKoid'\X'i'ler,  (Daniel,)  a  Swiss  painter, 
born  in  1793  ;  died  in  1827. 

Freund,  fuoint,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  lexicographer, 
of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Kempen,  in  the  province 
of  Posen,  in  1806.  His  "Dictionary  of  the  Latin  Lan- 
guage" (4  vols.,  1834)  enjoys  a  high  reputation.  He 
also  published  a  Latin-German,  Latin-Greek  Dictionary 
for  Schools,  (1848.) 

Freundsberg.    See  Frondsberg. 

Freundweiler,  fRoinf'^I'ler,  or  Freudweiler,  froit'- 
wT'ler,  (Henri,)  a  skilful  Swiss  painter  of  history,  genre, 
and  portraits,  was  born  at  Zurich  in  1755  ;  died  in  1795. 

Freux,  de,  deh  fRuh,  [Lat.  Fru'sius,]  (Andr6,)  a 
French  Jesuit  and  writer,  born  at  Chartres  about  1500, 
became  secretary  to  Loyola  at  Rome.    Died  in  1556. 

Frey,  fri,  or  Freyr,  frlr,  [sometimes  written  in  Latin 
Fric'co  ;  etymology  the  same  as  that  of  Freyia,  which 
see,*]  the  son  of  Njord,  and  the  brother  of  Freyia.  He 
presides  over  rain  and  sunshine  and  the  fruits  of  the  earth. 
His  attributes  correspond  to  those  both  of  Frigga  and 
Freyia.  As  the  god  of  fertility,  he  resembles  the  former  ;t 
as  the  god  of  pleasure  and  love,  he  is  the  counterpart  of 
the  latter.  We  are  told  that  he  was  (like  Freyia)  beloved 
by  all,  both  gods  and  men.  He  had  two  remarkable 
gifts  presented  him  by  Loki, — the  ship  Skidbladnir,  which 
would  always  have  a  fair  wind  whenever  the  sails  were 
set,  and  was  so  capacious  that  it  could  contain  all  the 
gods,  with  their  weapons  and  armour,  and  yet  could  be 
folded  up  like  a  cloth  and  carried  in  one's  pocket ;  and 
the  boar  named  Gullinbursti,  ("golden  bristles,")  which 
he  could  drive  on  the  air  and  sea  and  which  could  travel 


*  Supposing  the  etymology  given  under  Freyia  to  be  the  true 
one,  Frey  is  simply  the  masculine  form  of  Freyia, — the  masculine  of 
pr'tya  being  prtyd,  or  (as  the  final  short  a  is  often  dropped)  simply 
prly', — and  signifies,  like  Freyia,  "beloved,"  "dear."  The  Latin 
name  Fricco  goes  to  establish  Frey's  relationship  with  Frigga,  and  to 
confirm  the  view  that  Freyia  and  Frigga  were  originally  one  name, 
since  nothing  is  more  common  than  for  g  and  y  to  interchange,  as 
siiown  in  such  examples  as  "Day,"  Anglo-Saxon  Dceg,  German 
Tag;  "Way,"  Anglo-Saxon  and  German  IVeg,  etc. 

t  As  Frigga  was  the  goddess  of  marriage,  so  Frey  was  the  god  of 
marriage  ;  for  on  such  occasions,  as  Adam  of  Bremen  tells  us,  the  old 
Danes  used  to  sacrifice  to  Frey. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s\  5  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,     guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FRET 


970 


FREYTAG 


far  more  swiftly  than  any  horse.  The  wife  of  Frey  was 
Gerda,  (gSr'cIa,)  or  Gercf,  (gerd,)  the  daughter  of  a  giant 
named  Gymir.  It  is  related  that  one  day  Frey  ascended 
Odin's  throne  Hlidskialf,  whence  he  could  view  all  the 
regions  of  the  world.  Towards  the  north  he  saw  a 
magnificent  palace,  out  of  which  came  a  woman  whose 
beauty  was  so  resplendent  that  it  illumined  the  whole 
world.  As  a  just  punishment  for  his  presumption  in 
ascending  the  seat  of  the  father  of  the  gods,  Frey  was  so 
deeply  smitten  with  love  that  he  could  neither  drink, 
speak,  nor  sleep.  Thereupon  Njord  sent  Skirmir,  Frey's 
attendant,  to  inquire  the  cause  of  his  distress.  When 
Skirmir  learned  it,  he  promised  that  if  his  master  would 
give  him  his  sword  he  would  obtain  for  him  the  beautiful 
maiden,  whose  name  was  Gerda.  In  this  undertaking  he 
encountered  great  difficulties,  but  was  at  last  successful. 
But  Frey  had  parted  with  his  good  sword,  which  will 
prove  a  very  serious  loss  at  Ragnarock,  when  the  great 
battle  will  be  fought  between  the  y^isir  and  their  ene- 
mies. 

See  Thorpe's  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Kevskr's  "Reli- 
gion of  the  Northmen;"  Mai.i.etJ^"  Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii., 
Fable  XIX.  ;  Petersen's  "  Nordisk  Mytholosi." 

Frey,  fio,  (Jean  C^:cile,)  a  Swiss  philologist  and 
physician,  born  at  Kaiserstiihl  about  1580,  taught  phi- 
losophy in  a  college  of  Paris.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works  in  Latin,  "The  Philosophy  of  the  Druids," 
(1625.)    Died  in  163 1. 

See  NiCERON,  "Menioires." 

Frey,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  Swiss  philologist  and  Oriental- 
ist, born  at  Bale  in  1682.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
history  and  theology  in  the  Acadeiny  of  Berne  in  1711. 
He  also  distinguished  himself  by  great  knowledge  and 
critical  sagacity  in  theology,  history,  and  philosophy,  and 
wrote  several  works.    Died  in  1759. 

See  J.  C.  Beck,  "De  Vita  et  Meritis  Philologi  J.  L.  Frey," 
1760. 

Frey,  (Johann  Jakoi?,)  an  excellent  Swiss  engraver, 
born  at  Lucerne  in  1681,  studied  under  Carlo  Maratta, 
and  worked  mostly  in  Rome.  He  engraved  a  large 
number  of  the  master-pieces  of  the  Italian  painters,  re- 
producing with  great  fidelity  the  characteristic  style 
of  each  master,  and  was  peVhaps  the  most  excellent 
engraver  of  his  time.'  Died  in  1752.  Among  his  works  are 
"Bacchus  and  Ariadne"  and  "The  Chariot  of  Aurora," 
after  Guido  ;  and  "The  Holy  Family,"  after  Raphael. 

See  Stkutt,  "  Dictionary  of  Engravers." 

Freya.    See  Freyia. 

Freyberg,  fRT'b^RG,  (Maximilian  Prokop,)  Baron, 
born  at  P^reising  in  1789,  was  ap])ointed  by  Louis  I.  of 
Bavaria  keeper  of  the  archives  at  Munich.  Besides  legal 
treatises,  he  published  several  works  relating  to  Bavarian 
history.    Died  in  1851. 

Freycinet,  de,  deh  fR^'se'ni',  (Louis  Claude  De- 
saulses — deh-soK,)  a  French  navigator,  born  at  Mon- 
telimart  in  1779.  He  sailed  with  Baudin  in  a  scientific 
expedition  to  Australia,  and  assisted  in  composing  an 
account  of  the  same.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  captain 
of  a  frigate  in  1811,  and  commanded  the  expedition  sent 
in  the  Uranie  in  181 7  to  ascertain  the  figure  of  the  earth 
and  the  elements  of  terrestrial  magnetism.  The  result 
of  this  enterprise  was  a  "Voyage  around  the  World," 
etc.,  (13  vols.,  1824-44,)  of  which  the  parts  on  navigation, 
hydrography,  and  magnetism  were  written  by  Freycinet. 
Died  in  1842. 

His  brother  Henri,  born  in  1777,  also  distinguished 
as  a  navigator,  was  associated  with  him  in  nearly  all  his 
expeditions.    Died  in  1840. 

See  RoQUETTE,  "  Notices  historiques  sur  MM.  Henri  et  Louis  de 
Freycinet,"  1S40;  F.  Grii.i.e,  "  L.  de  Freycinet,  sa  Vie  de  Savant  et 
de  Jilarin,"  etc.,  1853;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Freyia  or  Freyja,  fri'yS,  written  also  Freya,  [pro- 
bably allied  to  the  Sanscrit  priyd,  signifying  "dear," 
"  beloved,"  and,  as  a  substantive,  a  "  wife  :"  comjiare 
the  Swedish  fria  or  frija^  to  "  make  love,"  to  "  seek  in 
marriage,"]  the  goddess  of  love,  the  Venus  of  the  Norse 
mythology.  She  is  also  called  Van'adis,  or  the  "  Vanir 
goddess."  She  is  said  to  be  the  daughter  of  Njord, 
the  god  of  the  air.  (See  Vanir.)  She  was  married  to 
Oder,  (or  Odur,)  who  afterwards  left  her  and  wandered 
far  away.    During  his  absence  she  weeps  for  him,  shed- 


ding golden  tears.    Matthew  Arnold,  in  his  beautiful 
poem  entitled  "  Balder  Dead,"  speaks  thus  of  Freya: 
"And  Freya  next  came  nigh,  with  golden  tears, 

The  loveliest  goddess  she  in  heaven,  by  all 

Most  honoured  after  Frea,  Odin's  wife; 

Her  long  ago  the  wandering  Oder  took 

To  mate,  but  left  her  to  roam  in  distant  lands ; 

Since  then  she  seeks  him,  and  weeps  tears  of  gold: 

Names  hath  she  many ;  Vanadis  on  earth 

They  call  her;  Freya  is  her  name  in  heaven." 
One-half  of  the  heroes  who  fell  in  battle  belonged,  it 
is  said,  to  Freyia :  hence  she  was  sometimes  called  Val- 
freyia,  [i.e.  the  "Freyia  of  the  fallen,")  in  the  same  man- 
ner that  Odin  was  styled  Valfo'Sr,  (or  Valf;i'5ir,)  or  the 
"father  of  the  slain."  This  is  thus  explained  by  some 
writers  :  Many  warriors  are  impelled  chiefly  by  their 
own  fiery  courage  ;  these,  falling  in  battle,  belong  to 
Odin,  the  god  of  courage  :  others,  like  the  knights  of 
the  middle  ages,  seek  to  obtain  by  their  prowess  the 
adiniration  and  favour  of  the  other  sex;  these  aa'e  the 
votaries  of  Freyia,  the  goddess  of  love  and  gallantry, 
and,  when  they  fall  in  battle,  belong  especially  to  her. 

Most  etymologists  agree  that  Freyia  and  Frigga  were 
originally  the  same  name.  We  may  conjecture  that 
among  a  simple  and  comparatively  virtuous  people  the 
same  power  would  preside  over  love  and  marriage,  but 
that  in  a  later  and  more  corrupt  age  those  offices  which 
originally  belonged  to  one  became  divided,  as  among 
tiie  Greeks  and  Romans,  between  two  •distinct  and  inde- 
pendent deities.  (See  Frey.)  There  can  scarcely  be  a 
reasonable  question  but  that  Friday  signifies  "  Freyia's 
day;"  though  some  suppose  it  to  be  "  Frigga's  day:"  it 
was  called  in  the  Latin  of  the  middle  ages  Veneris  dies, 
("  Venus's  day,")  whence  the  French  Vendi'edi. 

See  Thorpe's  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  "Religion  of 
the  Northmen,"  by  Rudolph  Kevser,  translated  by  Barclay  Pen- 
Nocic;  Mallet's  "Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.,  Fable  XVIII. 

Freylinghausen,  fRi'iing-how'zen,  (Johann  Anas- 
tas  or  Anastasius,)  a  German  theologian  and  writer, 
born  at  Gandersheim  in  1670.  He  became  the  colleague 
of  the  philanthropist  A.  H.  Franckeat  Halle.  Died  in  1738. 

Freyre.    See  Freire. 

Freyre,  fna^-ri,  (Don  Manoel,)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  at  Osuna,  in  Andalusia,  in  1765.  He  commanded 
the  cavalry  at  Ocana,  where  the  Spaniards  were  de- 
feated by  the  French,  in  1809,  and  obtained  the  chief 
command  of  a  corps  in  Murcia  and  Granada  in  1810  or 
181 1.  In  1813  he  succeeded  Castanos  as  general  of  the 
Spanish  forces  under  Wellington.  He  was  selected  to 
command  the  royal  army  at  the  beginning  of  the  revo- 
lution of  1820.  After  the  king  had,  in  March,  1820, 
sworn  to  restore  the  constitution  of  1812,  Freyre  was 
deprived  of  the  command.    Died  in  1834. 

See  "  Defensa  del  General  Manoel  Freyre." 

Freytag,  fRi't&G,  (Friedrich  Gotthilf,)  a  Ger- 
man professor  and  classical  scholar,  born  in  1687;  died 
in  1761. 

Freytag,  (Friedrich  Gotthilf,)  a  German  bibli- 
ographer, son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Pforta  in 
1723.  He  was  a  lawyer  and  burgomaster  of  Naum- 
burg,  and  published  several  works,  among  which  is 
"Analecta  literaria  de  Libris  rarioribus,"  (1751.)  Died 
in  1776. 

See  Ersch  und  Grltber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Freytag,  (Georg  Wilhelm  Friedrich,)  a  distin- 
guished German  philologist,  born  at  Liineburg  in  1788, 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Arabic,  Persian,  and 
Turkish  languages  in  Paris.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  a  "Lexicon  Arabico-Latinum,"  (1830,)  and  "Ara- 
bum  Proverbia,"  ("  Proverbs  of  the  Arabs.")  He  became 
professor  of  Oriental  literature  at  Bonn  in  1819.  Died 
in  November,  186 1. 

Freytag,  (GusrAV,)  a  popular  German  dramatist  and 
novelist,  born  at  Kreuzburg,  in  Silesia,  in  1816.  He 
produced,  besides  other  dramas,  "Count  Waklemar," 
(1847,)  and  the  "Journalists,"  (1854,)  a  comedy,  which  is 
commended.  His  novel  entitled  "Soli  und  Haben"  (3 
vols.,  1855)  was  very  successful. 

Freytag,  (Johann,)  a  German  physician,  born  at 
Wesel  in  1581.  He  was  for  many  years  first  physician 
to  the  Prince-Bishop  of  Osnabriick,  and  became  pro- 
fessor at  Groningen  in  1631.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
medical  works,  "Noctes  Medicae,"  (1616.)  Died  in  1641. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  <i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/ior^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  felt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


FREZIER 


971 


FR  IRION 


Frezier,  fri'ze-i',  (  Am6d6e  FRANgois, )  a  French 
military  engineerTvvas  born  at  Chambery  in  1682.  He 
published,  in  1706,  a  "Treatise  on  Fire- Works,"  which 
was  much  esteemed.  Having  been  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Peru  and  Chili  in  1712,  he  wrote  a  "  Voyage  to  the  South 
Sea  and  the  Coasts  of  Chili  and  Peru,"  (1716,)  which 
was  often  reprinted.  He  was  chief  engineer  of  the  for- 
tifications constructed  in  Brittany  after  1740,  and  wrote 
several  other  works.    Died  in  1773. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Frezzi  daFoligno,fK§t'see  dafo-l^n'yo,  (FF.nERiGO,) 
an  Italian  poet,  born  in  Umbria,  became  Bishop  of 
Foligno  in  1403.  He  wrote,  in  imitation  of  Dante,  an 
allegorical  poem  called  "  II  Quadriregio,"  or  poem  of 
four  kingdoms,  which  had  great  temporary  success.  It 
was  first  printed  in  1481.    Died  in  1416. 

Frezzolini,  fRet-so-lee'nee,  (Euminia  Nencini — 
nen-chee'nee,)  a  popular  Italian  vocalist,  distinguished 
for  dramatic  power  and  a  soprano  voice  of  great  com- 
pass, was  born  at  Viterbo  in  1820.  After  she  had  per- 
formed in  London  and  Paris,  she  visited  the  United 
States  in  1857. 

Friant,  fRe'dN',  (Louis,)  a  French  general,  born  in 
Picardy  in  1758.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  in  1794. 
After  he  had  served  several  campaigns  on  the  Rhine  and 
in  Italy,  he  accompanied  Bonaparte  in  1798  to  Egypt, 
where  he  signalized  his  courage  and  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  a  general  of  division.  He  succeeded  Desaix 
when  the  latt'er  departed  from  Upper  Egypt.  He  was 
wounded  at  Austerlitz,  (1805,)  and  contributed  to  the 
victories  of  Jena  and  Wagram.  In  1812  he  made  the 
campaign  of  Russia  as  connnander  of  the  grenadiers  of 
the  Imperial  guard.  After  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba, 
Friant  was  made  a  peer,  and  was  severely  wounded  at 
Waterloo.    Died  in  1829. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  rEmplie;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Frias,  de,  da  fRee'ls,  (Damas?)  a  Spanish  poet,  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  about  1500,  left  a  ])oem  called  the 
*' Retreat  of  Silvia,"  and  a  few  songs.  Sj^anish  critics 
rank  him  as  one  of  the  most  agreeable  lyric  poets  of 
his  time. 

Fiiche.    See  Dufrische. 

Frick,  fiilk,  (Albrkcht,)  a  learned  German  professor, 
born  at  Ulm  in  1714;  died  in  1776. 

Friedemann,  fRee'deh-mSn',  (Friedrich  Trau- 
GOTT,)  a  German  teacher,  philologist,  and  writer  of  edu- 
cational works,  was  born  at  Stolpen,  in  Saxony,  in  1793  ; 
died  after  1852. 

Friederich,  fRee'deh-riK^,  or  Frederic,  fRi'di'r^k', 
(Andr^,)  a  skilful  French  sculptor,  born  at  Ribeau- 
ville  (Haut-Rhin)  in  1798.  He  studied  at  Dresden, 
Paris,  and  Rome,  and  settled  at  Strasbourg  about  1826. 
Among  his  works  are  a  granite  monument  to  Turenne 
at  Sulzbach,  (1828,)  and  a  bas-relief  of  the  baptism  of 
Clovis. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Friedland,  Duke  of.    See  Wallenstein. 

Friedland,  fueet'lant,  (Valentin,)  a  learned  German 
teacher,  born  in  1490,  was  surnamed  Trotzendorff, 
from  his  birthplace  in  Up])er  Lusatia.  Having  visited 
Wittenberg  in  15 18.  he  acquired  the  friendshi])  of  Luther 
and  Melanchthon.  In  1531  he  became  rector  of  the 
academy  at  Goldberg,  which,  under  his  care,  obtained 
the  highest  popularity  and  success.    Died  in  1556. 

Friedrich,  fueed'riK,  (Kaspar  David,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Greifswalde  in  1774;  died  in  1840. 

Friedrich  of  Germany.    See  Frederick. 

Fries,  fneess,  (I^ernhard,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Heidelberg  in  1820,  studied  in  Rome.  He  worked  at 
his  native  j^lace  after  1852,  and  i)ainted  landscapes  with 
success.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Rocks  of  Nemi," 
and  the  "Valley  of.  the  Neckar." 

Fries,  li;eess,  (Elias,)  an  eminent  Swedish  botanist 
and  orator,  born  in  Wexio  in  1794.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  practical  economy  at  Upsal  in  1834,  and  intro- 
duced the  natural  system  of  botany  into  Sweden.  He 
re])resented  the  University  of  Upsal  in  the  Diet  several 
years,  and  gained  distinction  as  an  orator.  In  1851  he 
was  chosen  professor  of  botany  at  Upsal.  Among  his 
numerous  and  able  works  are  a  "  Flora  of  Holland," 


(1817,)  "Systema  Mycologicum,"  (3  vols.,  1821-29,) 
"  Systema  Orbis  Vegetabilis,"  (a  System  of  Botany  ac- 
cording to  the  natural  method,  1825,)  and  "Flora  Sca- 
nica,"  (1835.)  He  is  one  of  the  eighteen  members  of 
the  Academy  of  Stockholm. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Fries,  (Ernst,)  a  German  landscape-painter,  born  at 
Heidelberg  in  1801,  was  appointed  in  183 1  court  painter 
at  Carlsruhe,  where  he  died  in  1833.  productions 
are  of  great  merit,  and  resemble  the  landscapes  of  Pous- 
sin.    He  was  a  brother  of  Bernhard,  noticed  above. 

See  Nagi.er,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Fries,  fRees,  [Lat.  Fri'sius,]  (Henry,)  a  Swiss  pro- 
fessor of  eloquence,  lived  at  Zurich.  He  wrote  "  On 
the  Seat  of  the  Rational  Soul,"  ("  De  Sede  Animae 
rationalis.")    Died  in  1718. 

Fries,  (Jakob  Friedrich,)  a  German  philosopher, 
born  at  Barby  in  1773.  He  became  in  1805  professor  of 
philosophy  and  elementary  mathematics  at  Heidelberg. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  System  of  Logic,"  (181 1,)  "  Sys- 
tem of  Philosophy  as  an  Evident  Science,"  (1804,)  and 
other  works,  in  w^hich  he  favours  the  doctrines  of  Kant. 
He  was  professor  of  physics  at  Jena  from  1816  to  1843. 
Died  in  1843. 

See  Klopfleisch,  "Rede  am  Grabe  des  Herrn  J.  F.  Fries," 
18^3;  "Nouvelle  Ijiographie  Generale." 

Fries,  [Lat.  Fki'sius,]  (Joiln,)  an  eminent  Swiss 
philologist,  born  at  Gryffensee  in  1505,  w^as  an  intimate 
friend  of  Conrad  Gesner.  He  was  chosen  professor  of 
languages  at  Zurich  about  1537,  and  gave  a  great  impulse 
to  the  study  of  Oriental  languages.  His  most  important 
work  is  a  "Latin-German  Dictionary,"  (1541.)  He  also 
produced  a  Latin  translation  of  Hesiod,  (1548,)  and 
several  original  works.    Died  in  1565. 

His  son  John  James,  born  at  Zurich  in  1547,  was 
professor  of  theology  in  that  city.  He  published  "  Chro- 
nological Library  of  the  Classic  Philosophers,"  ("Biblio- 
theca  Philosophorum  Classicorum  Chronologica,"  1592.) 
a  work  of  some  value.    Died  in  1611. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie,"  which 
contains  notices  of  botli  the  father  and  the  son. 

Friese,  fKee'zeh,  (Martin,)  a  Danish  theological 
writer,  born  at  Ripen  in  1688;  died  in  1750. 

Frig'ga  or  Frigg,  written  also  Friga,  Frea,  and  Friia, 
(probably  of  the  same  etymology  as  Fkkyia  and  Frey, 
which  see,)  the  daughter  of  Fjorgyn,  and  wife  of  Odin. 
She  is  called  "the  Mother  of  the  Gods,"  (y^isir,)  and 
the  chief  goddess,  in  the  Norse  mythology.  Like  Juno, 
she  was  the  goddess  of  marriage.  Her  hal)itation  is 
called  Fensalir,  (or  Fensaler;  pronounced  fen-s^''ler.) 
She  is  generally  regarded  as  a  personification  of  the 
earth  or  of  the  ])roductive  power  of  the  earth,  and  in 
this  respect  nearly  corresponding  to  the  Ceres  of  the 
Romans  and  the  Demeter  [i.e.  "Mother  Earth")  of  the 
Greeks. 

See  Mallet,  "Northern  Antiquities," vol.  ii.  chap.  vi. ;  Thorpe, 
"Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  Petersen,  "  Nordisk  Mytliologi." 

Frigimelica,  fRe-je-mSKe-kS,  (Francesco,)  a  distin- 
guished Italian  ])hysician,  born  at  Padua  in  1491.  He 
became  physician  to  Pope  Julius  HI.  in  1555.  Died  in 
1559. 

Friis,  fRees,  (Johan,)  a  Danish  statesman,  born  in 
1494,  became  a  disciple  of  Luther,  whom  he  met  at  Wit- 
tenberg. He  was  chancellor  under  Christian  HI.  Died 
in  1570, 

Frimoiit,  de,  deh  fRe^ii6N',  ( Johann  Philip?,) 
Count,  an  Austrian  general,  and  Prince  of  Antrodocco, 
was  born  in  Lorraine  or  Belgium  about  1756.  He 
commanded  a  corps  which  invaded  P'rance  in  1814. 
He  conducted  a  successful  campaign  in  Italy  in  181 5,  and 
forced  the  French  to  evacuate  Savoy.  Charged  with  the 
execution  of  the  decrees  of  the  Congress  of  Laybach  in 
1821,  he  marched  to  Naples  and  quelled  an  insurrection 
of  the  Libera]  party.  He  was  appointed  president  of  the 
council  of  war  at  Vienna  a  short  time  before  his  death, 
which  occurred  in  December,  1831. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biograjihic  Generale." 

Fririon,  fRe''re^(!)N',  (FRANq'ois  Nicolas,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1766.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  1809  at  Wagrani,  as  chief  of  the  stafi 
of  Massena's  corps.    Died  in  1840. 


C  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g as j;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


FRISCH 


972 


FROBISHER 


Frisch,  fRish,  (Jodocus  (or  Josse)  Leopold,)  a  natu- 
ralist and  theologian,  son  of  Johann  L.  Frisch,  noticed 
below,  was  born  in  Berlin  in  17 14.  He  published  several 
treatises  on  zoology,  etc.    Died  in  1787. 

See  Erscu  imd  Gkuber,  "  Allgemeine  Eiicyklopaedle." 

Frisch,  (Johann  Leonhard,)  a  German  philologist 
and  naturalist,  born  at  Sulzbach  in  1666.  He  settled  in 
Berlin  about  1700,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1706.  He  was  afterwards  rector  of  a 
gymnasium  in  Berlin,  and  displayed  great  erudition  in 
numerous  works.  His  "  German-Latin  Dictionary"  ( 1 741 ) 
was  the  most  complete  and  learned  that  had  appeared 
in  Germany.  He  wrote  a  good  "Description  of  all  the 
Insects  of  Germany,"  (13  parts,  1720-38,)  and  a  work  on 
German  Ornithology,  (1735-65.)    Died  in  1743. 

See  J.  J.  WippEL,  "Das  Leben,  etc.  Johann  Leonhard  Frisch," 
1744 ;  Eksch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Frisch,  (Johann  Leonhard,)  a  German  philosopher, 
born  in  Berlin  in  1737  ;  died  in  1795. 

Frische,  du,  dii  fResh,  (Jacques,)  a  learned  French 
Benedictine,  born  in  Normandy  in  1640.  He  published, 
with  Lenourry,  an  excellent  edition  of  Saint  Ambrose's 
works,  (1686-90.)    Died  in  1693. 

Frischliii,  fRlsh-leen',  (Nicodemus,)  a  Latin  poet 
and  satirist,  born  at  Balingen,  in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1547. 
Having  offended  the  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg,  he  was 
imprisoned  in  a  fortress,  and,  after  a  confinement  of 
several  months,  was  killed  in  attempting  to  escape,  in 
1590.  He  was  the  author  of  satires,  epigrams,  and 
elegies,  written  in  elegant  Latin,  and  paraphrases  on 
Virgirs  "Bucolics"  and  "Georgics."  For  his  comedy 
entitled  "  Rebecca"  he  was  created  by  Maximilian  H. 
poet-laureate  and  count  palatine. 

See  "Nicodemus  Frischliniis  redivivus,"  by  his  brother,  1599; 
Lange,  "  Frischliniis  Vita  fama  et  Scriptis  memorabilis,"  1727;  D. 
F.  Strauss,  "Leben  und  Schriften  des  N.  Frischlin,"  1856;  Mel- 
CHioR  Adam,  "  Vita;  Philosophorum." 

Frischmuth,  fRish'moot,  (Johann,)  a  German  Ori- 
entalist and  theologian,  born  in  Franconia  in  1619, 
became  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Greek  at  Jena  in 
1654.  He  wrote  many  philologico-theological  treatises, 
among  which  are  "On  Tithes,"  ("De  Decimis,")  and 
"On  Sacrifices."    Died  in  1687. 

See  JocHER,  "Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Frisi,  fRee'see,  (Paolo,)  a  celebrated  Italian  mathema- 
tician and  philosopher,  born  at  Milan  in  April,  1728.  He 
entered  at  the  age  of  fifteen  the  monastery  of  the  Barna- 
bites,  where,  with  little  or  no  aid  except  that  of  books, 
he  made  great  progress  in  geometry.  In  1750  he  wrote 
an  able  treatise  "  On  the  Figure  of  the  Earth,"  which 
established  his  reputation  and  procured  for  him  a  chair 
of  philosophy  at  Milan.  From  1756  to  1764  he  was  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Pisa.  During  this  period  he 
published  a  treatise  on  "Electricity,"  and  a  prize  essay 
"On  the  Diurnal  Motion  of  the  Earth."  About  1757  he 
was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and 
afterwards  amember  of  the  Academies  of  Saint  Petersburg, 
Paris,  and  Berlin.  In  1764  he  accepted  a  chair  of  mathe- 
matics in  Milan,  and  received  a  pension  of  one  hundred 
sequins  froin  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria.  He  published 
(in  Latin)  in  1774  his  greatest  work,  "Physical  and  Ma- 
thematical Cosmography,"  (2  vols.  4to.)  He  wrote  also 
on  "  Universal  Gravity,"  Mechanics,  Architecture,  Ana- 
lytic Geometry,  etc.  Died  in  1784.  His  brother  Philip 
was  Podesta  of  Ravenna,  and  author  of  an  able  work  on 
public  law. 

See  Count  Verri,  "  Memorie  appartenenti  alia  Vita,  etc.  del 
Paolo  Frisi,"  Milan,  1787;  F.  Jacquier,  "  Elogio  academico  del 
Signor  Abate  Frisi." 

Frisius.    See  Fries,  (John  and  Henry.) 

Frith  or  Friyth,  frith,  (John,)  an  English  Reformer, 
born  at  Sevenoaks,  in  Kent.  He  had  a  controversy  with 
Sir  Thomas  More,  and  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  for 
his  religion.  Having  refused  to  renounce  his  principles, 
he  was  burnt  at  Smithfield  in  1553.  He  left  several 
works  on  theology. 

See  Fox,  "Acts  and  Monuments." 

Frith,  (William  Powell,)  a  skilful  English  historical 
painter,  born  at  Harrogate,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1819  or  1820, 
was  a  student  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He  painted  scenes 
from  Shakspeare,  Scott,  Goldsmith,  and  Moliere  with 


success,  and  was  elected  Royal  Academician  in  1853. 
His  colour  is  brilliant,  and  his  style  adapted  to  the 
general  taste  of  the  people,  if  not  to  that  of  critics  and 
artists.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Village  Pastor," 
(1845,)  "Coming  of  Age,"  (1849,)  and  "  Life  at  the  Sea- 
Side,"  (1854.) 

Frit'i-gern,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  crossed  the  Dan- 
ube and  established  himself  in  Mcesia.  He  defeated 
the  emperor  Valens  at  Adrianople  in  378  A.D.  Died 
about  392. 

See  Gibbon,  "  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire." 

Fritz,  fRits,  (Samuel,)  a  Jesuit  missionary,  born  in 
Bohemia  in  1650.  He  lalDoured  about  forty  years  on  the 
Upper  Amazon,  where  he  is  said  to  have  converted  many 
thousand  natives.  He  was  skilful  in  several  useful  arts, 
and  made  a  valuable  chart  of  the  river  Amazon.  Died 
in  South  America  in  1730. 

Fritzsche,  fRit'sheh,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  born  at  Naundorf  in  1776.  He  became 
in  1830  professor  of  theology  at  Halle.  He  wrote  "  Lec- 
tures on  the  Communion,"  and  other  religious  treatises. 
Died  in  1850. 

Fritzsche,  (Franz  Volkmar — folk'maR,)  a  German 
scholar  and  critic,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Steinbach  in  1806.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  the  Mono- 
dies of  Euripides,"  ("  De  Monodiis  Euripideis,")  and 
jjublished  editions  of  Lucian's  "Alexander,"  "  Demonax," 
etc.,  and  "Questiones  Lucianae." 

Fritzsche,  (Karl  Friedrich  August,)  a  learned 
theologian  and  biblical  critic,  born  at  Steinbach  in  1801, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  published  a  number 
of  commentaries  on  the  New  Testament,  the  most  iin- 
portant  of  which  is  that  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 
Died  in  1846. 

His  brother,  Otto  Fridolin,  also  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  biblical  critic  and  philologist. 
Friuli,  Duke  of.    See  Duroc. 

Frizon,  fRe^zoN',  (Pierre,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born 
in  the  diocese  of  Rheims.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the 
French  cardinals  and  popes,  entitled  "  Gallia  Purpu- 
rata,"  (1629.)    Died  about  1650. 

Frizzi,  fRit'see,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  writer  and 
lawyer,  bo'rn  at  Ferrara  in  1736.  He  wrote  a  History 
of  Ferrara,  (5  vols.,  1 791-1809.)    Died  in  1800. 

Frobel  or  Froebel,  fRo'bel,  (Carl  Poppo,)  a  Ger- 
man linguist  and  printer,  born  at  Oberweissbach  in  1786. 
He  translated  Sallust  into  German,  (1821.)  Died  in  1824. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Frobel  or  Froebel,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  teacher, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  near  Rudolstadt 
in  1782.  He  published  in  1826  a  work  on  education, 
("  Die  Menschenerziehung,")  and  founded  in  1837,  at 
}31ankenburg,  a  school  called  "Kindergarten,"  in  which 
he  pursued  a  new  system  of  education.    Died  in  1852. 

See  KuEHNE,  "  Frobel's  Tod  und  der  Fortbestand  seiner  Lehre," 
1852. 

Frobel  or  Froebel,  (Julius,)  a  German  writer  and 
democrat,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Griesheim  in  1806.  He  was  professor  of  history  and 
natural  history  at  Zurich  from  1833  to  1844,  and  pub- 
lished a  "  System  of  Crystalology,"  (1843.)  H.^  becaine 
a  leader  of  the  democratic  party  in  Germany  about  1848, 
and  a  member  of  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort.  He  was 
uiiited  with  Blum  in  a  dej^utation  to  Vienna,  and  was 
arrested  there,  but  acquitted.  Among  his  works  is  "  Ex- 
j^eriences,  Travels,  Studies,  etc.  in  America,"  ("Aus 
Amerika  Erfahrungen,  Reisen  und  Studien,"  2  vols., 
1858.) 

Froben,  fRo'ben,  [Lat.  Frobe'nius,]  (Johann,)  a 
learned  German  printer,  born  in  Franconia  in  1460.  He 
opened  an  office  at  Bale  in  1491,  from  which  he  issued  a 
Latin  Bible  ;  and  he  was  one  of  the  first  who  introduced 
into  Germany  the  Roman  letters.  He  printed  all  the 
works  of  Erasmus,  who  resided  many  years  in  Bale  and 
was  his  warm  personal  friend.    Died  in  1527. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Frobenius.    See  Froben. 

Frob'ish-er,  [Lat.  Forbisse'rus,]  (Sir  Martin,)  an 
English  navigator,  born  at  Doncaster,  was  the  first  of  his 
countrymen  who  sought  to  discover  the  Northwest  pass- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FRQCHOT 


973 


FRONTINUS 


age.  In  June,  1576,  he  sailed  from  Deptford  with  three 
small  barks,  explored  the  coast  of  Greenland,  discovered 
the  strait  which  bears  his  name,  near  63°  north  latitude, 
and  brought  home  a  black  mineral  in  which  gold  was 
found.  He  renewed  his  explorations  in  1577  and  1578, 
without  any  great  results.  The  chief  object  of  his  second 
expedition  was  to  find  gold.  In  1588,  as  captain  of  the 
Triumph, — a  large  ship, — he  signalized  his  bravery  in 
the  contest  with  the  Spanish  Armada,  for  which  he  was 
knighted.  He  commanded  a  small  fleet  sent  to  aid  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  and  in  the  attack  of  a  fort  near  Brest  he 
received  a  wound  of  which  he  died  in  1594. 

See  Freigius,  "  Historia  Navigationis  Martini  Forbisseri."  1675; 
Caimpbell,  "Lives  of  British  Admirals;"  J.  Barrow,  "Memoirs 
of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen  EHzabeth's  Reign,"  1845 

Frochot,  fRo'sho',  (Nicolas  Th^rese  Benoit, ) 
Count,  a  French  administrator,  born  about  1760.  In 
1800  he  was  appointed,  by  the  First  Consul,  prefect  of  the 
department  of  the  Seine,  in  which  position  he  directed 
with  ability  the  municipal  affairs  of  Paris  until  181 2,  when 
he  was  dismissed  from  office  because  he  had  been  in 
some  measure  the  dupe  of  the  conspirator  Mallet.  (See 
Mallet.)    Died  in  1828. 

Froebel.    See  Frobel. 

Froeben.    See  Froben. 

Froehlich.    See  Frohlich. 

Froelich.    See  Frolich. 

Frohlich  or  Froehlich,  fRo'liK,  (Abraham  Em- 
manuel,) a  Swiss  poet,  born  at  Brugg  in  1796.  He 
became  pastor  at  Aarau  in  1835,  and  produced  epic 
poems,  elegies,  and  fables,  which  were  received  with 
favour. 

Froidmond,  Froidmont,  fRwa'm6N',  or  Fromont, 
fRo'm(!)N',  [Lat.  Fromun'dus,]  (Libert,)  an  eminent 
Catholic  divine  and  scholar,  born  at  Haccourt,  in  Bel- 
gium, in  1587.  He  was  the  friend  of  Jansen,  whom  he 
succeeded,  about  1635,  as  professor  of  divinity  in  the 
University  of  Louvain.  He  wrote  many  works  on  the- 
ology, of  which  his  "Commentary  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles" 
is  among  the  best.    Died  in  1653. 

Froila  (fRo'e-la  or  froi'la)  I.,  King  of  Spain,  was  the 
son  of  Alfonso  I.,  and  began  to  reign  in  a.d.  757.  His 
realm  included  Oviedo,  the  Asturias,  and  Leon,  the  Moors 
having  possession  of  the  rest  of  Spain.  About  760  he 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Omar,  a  Saracen  prince. 
He  was  dethroned  and  killed  by  his  brother  Aui-elio 
in  768. 

Froila  (written  also  Fruela)  II.  of  Spain,  born  about 
the  year  845  a.d.,  was  Count  of  Galicia,  and  son  of 
King  Veremond.  He  was  killed  in  875  by  Alfonso  III., 
from  whom  he  had  usurped  the  throne  of  Leon. 

Froila  III.,  King  of  Leon,  succeeded  his  brother 
Ordono  in  923  a.d.  His  cruelty  and  injustice  impelled 
his  subjects  to  drive  him  from  the  throne  and  to  change 
the  kingdom  into  a  republic.    He  died  in  924. 

Froissart,  frois'sSrt,  [Fr.  pron.  fRwa'sSR'',]  (Jean,)  a 
French  historian  and  poet,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1337. 
lie  was  educated  for  the  church  ;  but  his  love  of  festive 
pleasure  and  romantic  gallantry  directed  him  into  other 
pursuits.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  began  to  write  chroni- 
cles of  the  wars  of  his  time,  and  to  obtain  the  requisite 
information  he  travelled  much,  and  associated  with  the 
nobles  and  principal  actors  in  public  affairs.  In  the  year 
1361  he  visited  the  court  of  Edward  III.  of  England,  where 
he  remained  five  or  six  years  and  was  treated  with  great 
favour,  especially  by  the  queen  Philippa,  who  employed 
him  as  her  clerk  or  secretary.  He  attended  Lionel, 
Duke  of  Clarence,  when  he  went  to  Italy  to  marry  the 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Milan.  After  the  death  of 
Philippa,  in  1369,  he  officiated  a  short  time  as  curate  of 
Lestines,  in  F'rance.  About  the  year  1385,  Guy,  Count 
of  Blois,  employed  Froissart  as  clerk,  and  the  latter 
soon  afterwarcts,  in  quest  of  historical  materials,  visited 
Gaston,  Count  of  Foix.  His  active  curiosity,  even  in 
his  declining  years,  led  him  to  frequent  courts,  festivals, 
and  tournaments,  and  his  Chronicles  present  a  "faithful 
mirror"  of  the  age  of  chivalry,  with  its  beauties  and 
deformities.  He  is  esteemed  for  his  veracity,  and  ad- 
mired for  picturesque  description  and  a  charming 
simplicity  of  expression.  The  period  comprised  in  his 
history  extends  from  1326  to  1400 ;  he  probably  died 


soon  after  the  latter  date.  He  gives  a  brilliant  but 
superficial  picture  of  his  times,  and  seems  not  to 
recognize  the  existence  of  any  class  except  the  noblesse. 

See  Walter  Scott,  "Froissart,"  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review" 
for  January,  1805;  Villkmain,  "Coursde  Litterature  Francjaise  au 
Moyen-Age;"  Henri  Lucas,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages 
de  J.  Froissart,"  Berlin,  1849;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Frolich  or  Froelich,  fRo'liK,  (Erasmus,)  an  eminent 
German  numismatist,  born  at  Gratz,  in  Styria,  in  1700. 
He  became  professor  of  history  and  antiquities  at  Vienna, 
and  published  many  works  (in  Latin)  on  numismatics, 
among  which  are  "The  Utility  of  Numismatics,"  (1733,) 
and  "The  Annals  of  the  Kings  of  Syria  illustrated  by 
Medals,"  (1744.)    Died  in  1758. 

See  HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch;"  Oetter, 
"  Lebensgeschichte  des  beriihmten  E.  Froelich,"  1773. 

Fromage,  fRo'mSzh',  (Pierre,)  a  French  missionary, 
born  at  Laon  in  1678  ;  died  in  Syria  in  1740. 

Froniaget,  fRo'mt'zha',  a  French  dramatic  writei, 
published  "Kara  Mustapha,"  "  Mirima,"  "The  Maga- 
zine of  Lost  Things,"  etc.    Died  in  1759. 

Froment  or  Fromment,  fRo^mSN',  (Antoine,)  a 
Protestant  Reformer,  born  near  Grenoble,  France,  about 
15 10,  was  a  disciple  of  Farel.  He  began  to  preach 
against  popery  at  Geneva  in  1533,  and  settled  as  pastor 
in  that  city  in  1537.  He  was  deposed  from  the  ministry 
(for  some  misconduct  on  the  part  of  his  wife)  about  1552, 
and  died  about  1585,  leaving  a  "  History  of  the  Reforma- 
tion at  Geneva,"  which  was  published  in  1854. 

See  MM.  Haag,  "La  France  protestante ;"  Senebier,  "  His- 
toire  litteraire  de  Geneve." 

Froment,  (Francois  Marie,)  a  French  pamphleteer 
and  politician,  born  at  Nimes  in  1756.  He  emigrated 
about  1790,  after  which  he  engaged  in  many  intrigues 
for  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons.    Died  in  1825. 

Froment,  (Paul  Gustave,)  a  French  optician,  noted 
as  a  skilful  maker  of  instruments,  was  born  in  1815.  He 
produced  some  remarkable  electro-magnetic  apparatus. 

Fromond,  fRo-m6nd',  (Giovanni  Claudio,)  an  emi- 
nent natural  philosopher,  born  at  Cremona,  Italy,  in  1703. 
He  was  for  twenty  years  professor  of  logic  ancl  philoso- 
phy at  Pisa,  and  acquired  a  wide  reputation.  In  1758  he 
was  chosen  a  correspondent  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
of  Paris.  He  has  the  credit  of  determining  the  charac- 
ters of  mechanical  and  physical  forces.  Among  his  chief 
works  is  a"  General  Introduction  to  Philosophy,"  (1748.) 
Died  at  Pisa  in  1765. 

See  BiANCHi,  "Elogio  storico  del  G.  C.  Fromond,"  Cremona, 
1781  ;  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Fromundus.    See  Froidmond. 

Frondeville,  de,  deh  fR^Nd'v^K,  (Thomas  Louis 
Cesar,)  Marquis,  a  French  royalist,  born  at  Lisieux 
in  1756.  He  was  a  member  of  the  National  Assembly, 
1790-9L    Died  in  1816. 

Frondsberg,  fRonds'beRG,  Fronsperg,  fRons'p^RG, 
or  Frundsberg,  fRoonds'b^RG,  (Georg,)  a  German 
general,  born  at  Mindelheim  in  1475.  ^^e  distinguished 
himself  as  colonel  in  the  army  of  Charles  V.  in  several 
campaigns,  and  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Pavfa  in 
1525.  He  reinforced  with  about  12,000  Germans,  re- 
cruited by  himself,  the  army  with  which  Constable  Bour- 
bon took  Rome  in  1527.    Died  in  1528. 

Fronteau,  fRoN^to',  (Jean,)  a  learned  French  Jesuit 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Angers  in  1614.  He  became  a 
professor  of  philosophy,  and  in  1648  chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Paris.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Thomas  a  Kempis  vindicatus,"  (1641,)  an  essay  to 
prove  that  T.  a  Kempis  was  the  author  of  "  The  Imi- 
tation of  Christ,"  and  "A  Contrast  between  Augustine 
and  Calvin,"  ("Antitheses  Augustini  et  Calvini,"  1651.) 
Died  in  1662. 

See  Lallemant,  "Vie  de  Fronteau,"  1663. 

Frontenac,  fR6N''teh-ntk',  (Louis,)  Count,  a  French 
officer,  born  in  1621,  was  appointed  Governor-General 
of  Canada  in  1678.  He  built  Fort  Frontenac,  on  Lake 
Ontario,  and  was  recalled  to  France  in  1682.  Died 
in  1698. 

Frontin.    See  Frontinus. 

Fron-ti'nus,  [Fr.  Frontin,  friN^tiN',]  (Sextus 
Julius,)  a  Roman  general  and  author,  of  patrician  rank, 
became  praetor  in  70  a.d.,  and  was  several  times  consul. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FRONTO 


974 


FRUITIERS 


About  the  year  75  he  was  sent  to  Britain  as  proconsul, 
commanded  the  army  which  conquered  the  Silures,  and 
returned  to  Rome  in  78.  In  the  reign  of  Nerva  he  super- 
intended the  operations  which  supplied  Rome  with  water. 
He  is  the  author  of  two  well-written  extant  works, — 
viz.  :  "Military  Stratagems,"  ("  Stratagematica,")  and  a 
treatise  on  the  Aq^ueducts  of  Rome.    Died  in  106  A.D. 

See  Tacitus,  "  History,"  book  iv.  ;  Schoell,  "  Histoire  de  la 
Litteratiire  Romaine ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale;"  Nie- 
BUHR,  "  Roman  History." 

Fron'to,  [Fr.  Fronton,  friN^t^N',]  (Marcus  Cor- 
nelius,) an  eminent  Roman  orator,  was  a  native  of 
Cirta,  in  Africa.  He  was  preceptor  of  Lucius  Verus  and 
Marcus  Aurelius,  who  made  him  consul  in  143  A.D,  and 
treated  him  with  great  favour.  All  of  his  works  are  lost, 
except  small  fragments  and  letters.  In  1814  or  1815  a 
palimpsest  was  found  by  Angelo  Mai  in  the  Ambrosian 
Library  at  Milan,  containing  interesting  letters  from 
Fronto  to  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Lucius  Verus.  Their 
answers  were  also  discovered  by  Mai  at  Rome. 

See  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gendrale  ;"  Roth,  "  Bemerkungen 
iiber  den  Schriften  des  M.  C.  Fronton,"  etc.,  1817. 

Fronton.    See  Fronto. 
Fronton  du  Duo.    See  Due. 

Froriep,  fro'reep,  (Justus  Friedrich,)  a  German 
Orientalist,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1745  ;  died  in  1800. 

Froriep,  von,  fon  fRo'reep,  (Friedrich  Ludwig,) 
a  German  physician  and  writer,  born  at  Erfurt  about 
1780 ;  died  in  1847. 

Froriep,  von,  (Robert,)  a  physician,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Jena  in  1804.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Berlin  in  1833,  and  published 
several  anatomical  works  with  plates,  among  which  is 
"Atlas  Anatomicus,"  (1850.)    Died  in  1861. 

Frossard,  fRo'sSii',  (Benjamin  Sigismond,)  a  Swiss 
Protestant  divine,  born  at  Nyon  in  1754.  He  published 
"The  Slave-Tracie  tried  before  the  Tribunal  of  Reason, 
Policy,  and  Religion,"  (1789.)  From  1815  to  1830  he 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Montauban.    Died  in  1830. 

Frost,  (William  Edward,)  an  English  painter,  born 
at  Wandsworth,  Surrey,  in  1810,  studied  in  the  Royal 
Academy.  He  gained  a  gold  medal  for  his  "Prome- 
theus Bound,"  (1839.)  His  picture  of  "Una  and  the 
Wood-Nymphs"  (1847)  was  purchased  by  the  queen. 
Ainong  his  other  works  are  "  Nymphs  Dancing,"  "  Diana 
surprised  by  Actason,"  (1846,)  and  "The  Graces,"  (1856.) 
His  pictures  are  admired  for  correct  design  and  refined 
taste. 

Frotliingham,  froth'ing-am,(NATHANiEL  Langdon,) 
D.D.,  an  eminent  Unitarian  divine,  born  in  Boston  in 
1793.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  181 1,  and  the  next  year, 
when  only  nineteen  years  of  age,  was  ajipointed  instructor 
in  rhetoric  and  oratory  in  that  institution.  In  181 5  he 
was  ordained  pastor  of  the  First  Church  in  Boston. 
Besides  numerous  sermons  and  addresses,  he  wrote 
many  short  poems  and  hymns  of  great  beauty,  and  made 
various  translations  from  the  German.  A  collection  of 
these,  entitled  "Metrical  Pieces,  Original  and  Trans- 
lated," was  published  in  1855.    Died  in  1870. 

Frotliingham,  (Octavius  B.,)  a  Unitarian  divine  and 
rationalistic  theologian,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Boston  in  1822,  He  was  educated  at  Harvard,  where 
he  also  studied  divinity.  He  was  ordained  in  1847. 
About  1859  he  removed  to  New  York  ;  and  since  Febru- 
ary, i860,  he  has  been  pastor  of  the  Third  Unitarian 
Society  of  that  city.  Mr.  Frothingham  possesses  supe- 
rior intellectual  powers,  with  a  high  and  broad  literary 
culture.  He  is  remarkable  as  representing  the  most 
radical  phase  of  rationalistic  Unitarianism  as'it  exists  at 
the  present  time  in  the  United  States :  in  this  respect, 
indeed,  he  may  be  regarded  as  the  successor  of  Theo- 
dore Parker,  although  differing  widely  from  that  writer 
\n  his  mental  characteristics,  and  also  (it  would  seem) 
in  many  of  his  theological  or  philosophical  views. 

For  some  interesting  remarks  on  Mr.  Frothingham's  position  as 
a  philosopher  and  a  theologian,  see  an  article  contributed  by  one 
of  liis  congregation  to  the  New  York  "World,"  about  the  end  of 
June,  1868. 

Frothingham,  (Richard,)  Jr.,  an  American  journal- 
ist and  historical  writer,  born  in  Charlestown,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  i8i2,  became  associate  editor  of  the  "  Boston 
Post,"  the  leading  Democratic  paper  in  New  England. 


His  "History  of  the  Siege  of  Boston"  (1849)  has  been 
warmly  praised  by  Everett  and  Bancroft. 

Frotte,  de,  deh  fiio'tk',  (Louis,)  Count,  a  French 
royalist  chief,  born  in  Normandy  about  1755.  H^e  raised 
a  revolt  in  Normandy  in  1795,  but  was  defeated  and 
retired  to  England  in  1796.  In  1799  he  again  appeared 
in  Normandy  as  general-in-chief  of  the  royalist  army. 
He  resisted  all  efforts  for  pacification;  but,  having  lost 
several  battles,  he  surrendered,  and  was  executed,  in 
1800. 

Fronde,  frood,  (James  Anthony,)  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish historian,  born  at  Totness,  in  Devonshire,  about  1818. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  became  a  Fellow  of  Exeter 
College.  He  published  in  1847  "The  Shadows  of  the 
Clouds,"  a  novel,  and  in  1849  "The  Nemesis  of  Faith," 
both  of  which  have  decided  literary  merit.  The  latter  is 
charged  with  being  heterodoxical.  His  principal  work 
is  a  "  History  of  England  from  the  Fall  of  Wolsey  to 
the  Death  of  Elizabeth,"  (10  vols.  8vo,  1856-67.)  As  a 
historian,  Mr.  Fronde's  merits  are  of  a  high  order.  The 
work  just  named  embraces  a  period  equal,  if  not  su- 
perior, in  interest  and  importance  to  any  other  period  of 
the  same  length  in  English  history,  and  one  which  had 
not  been  adequately  treated  by  any  previous  historian. 

"  The  peculiar  merit  of  Mr.  Fronde's  work,"  says  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  September,  1866,  "is  its  wealth 
of  unpublished  manuscripts;  and  the  reign  of  Elizabeth 
is  remarkably  illustrated  by  the  correspondence  of  the 
Spanish  ambassadors  and  other  agents  of  the  court  of 
Spain,  which  have  been  preserved  in  the  Archives  at 
Simancas.  The  extraordinary  interest  of  such  illustra- 
tions is  apparent  in  every  page  of  these  volumes  :  they 
give  novelty  to  the  narrative  and  variety  to  the  well- 
known  incidents  of  the  time ;  and  they  bring  in  aid  of 
historical  evidence  the  contemporary  opinions  of  society 
upon  current  events." 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1858,  and  January,  1864; 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  i86;?;  "British  Quarterly" 
for  January  and  April,  1864  ;  "  North  British  Review"  for  November, 
1856;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1849,  July,  1856,  July  and 
September,  1858,  and  July,  i860. 

Froude,  (Richard  Hur'rell.)  an  English  clergy- 
man, a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1803.  He 
graduated  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became 
Fellow  in  1826  and  tutor  in  1827.  Several  volumes 
of  his  writings  (of  the  Oxford  Tract  School)  have  been 
published.    Died  in  1836. 

Froumenteau,  froo^mSN'to',  (Nicolas,)  the  assumed 
name  of  an  unknown  French  Protestant  author,  who 
published  in  1581  a  remarkable  work,  entitled  "The 
Secret  of  the  Finances  of  France  Discovered." 

Frowde,  frowd,  (Philip,)  an  English  dramatic  poet, 
born  about  1680,  was  intimate  with  Addison.  He  wrote 
some  Latin  verses  which  appeared  in  "  Musae  Anglicanse," 
and  two  tragedies.    Died  in  1738. 

Frugoni,  fRoo-go'nee,  (Carlo  Innocenzio,)  one  of 
the  most  popular  Italian  poets  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, born  in  Genoa  in  1692,  entered  a  monastery  in  1708. 
Having  gained  the  reputation  of  an  elegant  writer  in 
Latin  and  Italian,  he  became  professor  of  rhetoric  at 
Brescia  in  1716.  In  1725  he  found  an  asylum  at  the 
court  of  Parma,  where  he  passed  the  greater  part  of  his 
life  and  was  liberally  patronized  by  several  successive 
dukes.  In  1733  he  was  released  from  the  monastic  rules, 
which  had  become  intolerable  to  him.  His  ode  on  the 
occasion  of  the  capture  of  Oran  was  greatly  admired.  He 
wrote  a  multitude  of  sonnets,  odes,  eclogues,  epistles, 
and  other  verses,  which  display  a  graceful  style  and  a 
rich  imagination.  An  edition  of  his  works  appeared  in  9 
vols.,  1779.    Died  at  Parma  in  December,  1768. 

See  Cerati,  "  Elogio  dc  C.  I.  Frigoni,"  1782  ;  Fabroni,  "  Elogj 
d'illustri  Italiani,"  1786;  Tipai.do,  "  Biografia degli  Italiani  illustri;" 
"Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by  Rev.  Henry  Stebbing,  London, 
1831 ;  "  Biograplile  Universelle  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Fruitiers  or  Fruytiers,  fRii-e'te-i',  (Philip,)  a 
Flemish  portrait-painter,  born  in  Antwerp  about  1625. 
He  was  employed  by  Rubens  to  execute  a  portrait 
of  himself  and  family.  This  picture  is  highly  praised 
by  Weyermans.  As  a  miniature-painter  he  was  prob- 
ably inferior  to  no  artist  of  his  time.  He  was  living 
in  1650. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  j,  o,  ohsmre;  ilx,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FR  UMENCE 


975 


FUGGER 


Frumence.    See  Frumentius. 

Frumentius,  fru-men'she-us,  [Fr.  Frumence,  fRoo'- 
mfiNss',]  Saint,  born  at  l^yre,  is  usually  called  "the 
Apostle  of  Ethiopia."  He  was  employed  in  evangelizing 
Abyssinia.  Having  returned  to  Egypt,  he  was  appointed 
a  bishop  in  331  by  Athanasius,  who  sent  him  to  propagate 
the  faith  in  Ethiopia.    Died  about  360  A.D. 

Friindsberg.    See  Frondsberg. 

Frusius.    See  Freux. 

Fruy tiers.    See  Fruitiers. 

Fry,  (Caroline.)    See  Wilson,  (Mrs.  C.) 

Fry,  (Elizabeth,)  an  eminent  philanthropist,  daughter 
of  John  Gurney,  of  Earlham  Hall,  and  sister  of  Joseph 
John  Gurney,  was  born  in  Norwich,  England,  in  1780. 
Her  father  was  an  opulent  banker,  and  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  Friends.  About  the  age  of  eighteen  she  be- 
came a  serious  professor  of  religion,  and  renounced  the 
gay  amusements  in  which  she  had  before  participated. 
In  1800  she  was  married  to  Joseph  Fry,  of  Londop,  and 
some  years  later  she  appeared  as  minister  in  the  meet- 
ings of  the  Friends.  About  the  year  1813  she  began  to 
make  systematic  efforts  for  the  reformation  of  the  female 
prisoners  in  Newgate  and  other  prisons  of  London,  in 
which  she  laboured  for  many  years  with  great  zeal  and 
success,  manifesting  a  true  Christian  sympathy  for  those 
unfortunate  persons,  and  administering  both  to  their 
spiritual  and  their  physical  necessities.    Died  in  1845. 

See  a  Memoir  of  her  life,  containing  her  Journal  and  Letters, 
by  her  daughters,  2  vols.,  1847;  Rev.  T.  Timpson,  "Memoirs  of 
Elizabeth  Fry,"  1846;  Rev.  E.  Neai.e,  "Christianity  and  Infi- 
delity Contrasted;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December, 
1847. 

Fry,  (John,)  an  English  Socinian  writer,  published, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Clergy  in  their  Colours," 
(1650.)    Died  about  1650. 

Fry,  (Rev.  John,)  an  English  author,  a  brother  of 
Caroline  Fry,  was  rector  of  Desford.  He  published 
several  esteemed  religious  works,  among  which  are 
"Lectures  on  Romans,"  (1816,)  "The  Second  Ad- 
vent," (1822,)  and  "A  Short  History  of  the  Christian 
Church,"  (1825.) 

Fry,  (Speed  S.,)  an  American  officer  in  the  Union 
service,  became  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  1862. 

Fry,  (William  Henry,)  an  American  composer  and 
journalist,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  181 5.  He  composed 
operas,  symphonies,  etc.,  and  was  assistant  editor  of 
several  daily  journals.    Died  in  1864. 

Frye,  (Thomas,)  a  skilful  portrait-painter,  born  in 
Ireland  in  17 10,  lived  in  London.  He  is  reputed  to 
have  been  the  first  who  manufactured  English  porcelain. 
Died  in  1762. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  vol.  xxxiv. 

Fryxell,  fRuks'§l,  (Anders,)  a  Swedish  historian,  born 
in  Dalsland  in  1795.  He  pulDlished  in  1824  a  work  on 
education,  "Svensk  Spraklasra,"  which  was  often  re- 
printed. He  became  professor  in  Stockholm  about  1833. 
His  chief  work,  consisting  of  essays  on  the  history  of 
Sweden,  "  Berattelser  ur  Svenska  Historien,"  ("  Correc- 
tions of  Swedish  History,")  is  very  popular.  Of  this 
publication  about  twenty  volumes  have  already  appeared. 
The  first  volume  was  issued  in  1823. 

Fuad-Effendi,  (oo'M  ef-fgnMee,  (Mehemet,  )  a 
Turkish  minister  of  state,  distinguished  as  a  linguist 
and  diplomatist,  was  born  at  Constantinople  about  1815. 
He  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  several 
times  after  1852.  He  published  an  Ottoman  Gram- 
mar, (1852.) 

Fuca,  de,  di  foo'k3,  (Juan,)  a  Greek  navigator,  whose 
proper  name  was  Apostolus  Valerianos,  was  a  native 
of  Cejihalonia.  He  served  about  forty  years  as  Spanish 
pilot  in  the  East  Indies.  In  1596  he  offered  his  ser- 
vices to  the  English,  stating  that  he  had  discovered  on 
the  west  coast  of  America,  near  latitude  48^  north,  a 
strait  leading  to  the  Atlantic,  which  he  wished  to  ex- 
plore further.  He  died  about  1602.  His  name  has  been 
given  to  the  strait  which  connects  the  Pacific  with  the 
Gulf  of  Georgia. 

Fuchs.    See  Fux,  (Johann  Joseph.) 

Fuchs,  fooks,  (Gottlieb,)  a  German  poet,  born  in 
Upper  Saxony  in  1720,  became  a  minister  at  Tauben- 
heim.  Among  his  poems,  which  are  mostly  lyrical,  is 
"The  Contented  Peasant."    Died  about  1800. 


Fuchs,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German  naturalist, 
born  at  Gross-Germersleben  in  1726.  He  was  master 
of  pages  at  the  court  of  Frederick  the  Great  from  1754 
to  1766.    Died  in  1795. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  ^' Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Fuchs,  (KoNRAD  FIeinrich,)  a  German  physician, 
and  professor  of  medicine  at  Gottingen,  born  at  Bam- 
berg in  1803.  He  published,  among  other  treatises,  a 
"Manual  of  Special  Nosology  and  Therapeutics,"  (4 
vols.,  1845-48.)    Died  about  1855. 

Fuchs,  (Leonhard,)  a  distinguished  German  botanist 
and  physician,  born  at  Wemdingen,  (or  Wemding,)  in 
Bavaria,  in  1501.  He  was  professor  of  medicine  at 
Tubingen  from  1535  until  his  death,  and  contributed 
largely  to  the  restoration  of  that  school.  He  wrote 
many  able  medical  works,  among  which  is  "  Method  of 
Curing,"  ("Medendi  Methodus,"  1541,)  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation  by  his  botanical  work  "On  the  History 
of  Plants,"  ("  De  Historia  Stirpium  Commentarii  in- 
signes,"  1542,)  with  many  figures  well  designed.  This 
work  was  often  reprinted  and  translated.  The  Fuchsia 
was  named  in  his  honour.    Died  in  1565. 

See  Hizi.ER,  "Oratio  de  Vita,  etc.  L.  Fuchsii,"  Tubingen,  1566; 
NiCEKON,  "Memoires;"  M.  Adam,  "Vits  Eruditorum ;"  Carl 
LoRENZ,  "Dissevtatio  inauguralis  medica  de  L.  Fuchs,"  Berlin, 
1846;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Fuehrich.    See  Fuhrig,  (Joseph.) 
Fuente.    See  La  Fuente. 

Fuente,  la,  Id  fwgn'ti,  (Juan  Leandro,)  a  skilful 
Spanish  historical  painter,  born  at  Granada  in  1600,  ex- 
celled in  design  and  colouring,  and  in  clair-obsciir.  Died 
in  1654. 

Fuentes,  fwSn'tgs,  or  Fonte,  de,  di  fon'ti,  (Barto- 
lom^,)  a  Spanish  or  Portuguese  navigator,  whose  real 
or  pretended  voyages  have  been  the  subject  of  learned 
speculation.  He  is  reported  to  have  made  discoveries 
on  the  west  coast  of  North  America  about  1640. 

See  Foster,  "Northern  Voyages  and  Discoveries." 

Fuentes,  de,  dk  fwgn't^s,  (Pedro  Henriquez 
d'Azevedo — dd-thl-vi'Do,)  Count,  an  eminent  Span- 
ish general,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1560.  He  made  his 
first  campaign  in  Portugal,  under  the  Duke  of  Alva, 
about  1580.  He  performed  with  ability  several  im- 
portant diplomatic  missions.  In  1606  he  distinguished 
himself  at  the  siege  of  Ostend,  and  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  general.  He  commanded  the  infantry  in  the 
war  with  France  which  began  in  1635,  and  was  killed, 
in  1643,  battle  of  Rocroy,  where  he  was  defeated 

by  the  Prince  of  Conde. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Franfais." 

Fuerst.    See  Furst. 
Fuerstenberg.    See  Furstenberg. 
Fuessli.    See  FiissLi. 

Fuga,  foo'ga,  (Ferdinando,)  a  skilful  Italian  archi- 
tect, born  at  Florence  in  1699.  He  was  appointed  about 
1730  architect  of  the  pontifical  palaces  by  Clement  XII. 
Among  his  works  in  Rome  are  the  palace  of  the  Con- 
sulta,  a  very  fine  edifice,  and  the  palace  Corsini.  He 
was  afterwards  employed  by  the  King  of  Naples  in  the 
embellishment  of  his  capital,  and  was  architect  of  the 
Albergo  Reale  dei  Poveri,  ("  Royal  Hotel  for  the  Poor,") 
said  to  be  the  largest  hospital  of  Europe.  It  was  com- 
menced in  1751.    Died  about  1780. 

See  QuATREMfeRE  DE  QuiNCY,  "  Dictionnairc  d'Architecture ;" 
MiLiziA,  "Vita  degli  Architetti ;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario  ;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Fiiger,  fu'ger,  (Friedrich  Heinrich,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Heilbronn  in  1 751.  He  was  patronized 
by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa.    Died  in  181 8. 

Fugger,  fooG^ger,  the  name  of  a  German  family  in 
Suabia,  who  were  originally  linen-weavers  and  gradually 
amassed  immense  wealth  by  commerce.  The  brothers 
Ulric,  George,  and  Jacob  Fugger  were  ennobled  by  the 
emperor  Maximilian  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  Raimond  and  Antony,  the  founders  of  the  two 
princijjal  lines  of  the  house  of  Fugger,  were  raised  to  the 
rank  of  count,  in  1530,  by  Charles  V.,  to  whom  they  had 
lent  money,  and  who  also  gave  them  the  privilege  of 
striking  gold  and  silver  coin.  It  is  related  that  Charles 
V.  on  his  return  from  Algiers  was  entertained  by  Antony 
Fugger,  who  made  a  fire  of  cinnamon-wood  and  kindled 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FUHRIG 


976 


FULLERTON 


it  with  the  emperor's  bonds  due  to  the  Fuggers  for  the 
money  they  had  lent  him.  Several  members  of  this 
family  were  patrons  of  learning,  and  active  in  founding 
charitable  institutions,  of  which  we  may  name  the  Fug- 
gerei  at  Augsburg. 

See  Eksch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedle." 

Fiihrig  or  Fuehrig,  fU'ric,  Fiihrich  or  Fuehrich, 
fii'riK,  (JosKPH,)  a  German  historical  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  in  Bohemia  in  1800.  He  became  professor 
of  painting  in  the  Academy  of  Vienna.  He  painted  a 
number  of  subjects  of  sacred  history,  among  which  is 
"The  Triumph  of  Christ." 

Fuhrmann,  fooii'man,  (Matthias,)  a  German  his- 
torian, who  wrote  on  Austrian  history.  Died  at  Vienna 
in  1773. 

Ful'beck  or  Ful'becke,  (William,)  an  English 
jurist,  born  in  Lincoln  in  1560,  published  several  legal 
works,  which  were  esteemed,  viz.,  "Preparative  to  the 
Study  of  the  Law,"  (1600,)  "Pandects  of  the  Law  of 
Nations,"  etc. 

Fulbert,  fiiKbaiR',  a  French  prelate  and  writer,  was 
eminent  for  piety  and  learning,  and  was  considered  as  one 
of  the  greatest  ornaments  of  the  Galilean  Church  in  his 
time.  He  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Chartres  in  1007,  after 
he  had  been  the  master  of  a  celebrated  school  at  that 
place.  "The  writings  of  Fulbert,"  says  the  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale,"  "  are  almost  the  only  historical 
monuments  of  France  for  his  time."  His  sermons,  hymns, 
and  letters,  of  which  about  one  hundred  have  been  pre- 
served, are  esteemed  precious  for  the  light  they  throw 
upon  that  age.    Died  in  1028  or  1029. 

See  "Gallia  Christiana;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Fulcherius  Carnotensis.  See  Foulcher  de  Char- 
tres. 

Fulco.    See  Foulques. 

Fulcodi  Giiido.    See  Clement  IV. 

Fulcoius.    See  Foulcoie. 

Fulda,  fooKda,  (Friedrich  Karl,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Wimpfen,  Suabia,  in  1724,  was  noted 
for  his  mechanical  ingenuity.  He  became  minister  of 
the  Lutheran  church  at  Miihlhausen-on-the-Enz.  He 
gave  much  attention  to  the  general  theory  of  language, 
or  what  the  Germans  call  "  linguistik."  He  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  "  Collection  of  German  Idioms," 
(1788,)  and  a  "Natural  History  of  the  German  People," 
(1794.)    Died  at  Enzingen  in  1788. 

See  HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Fulgence.    See  Fulgentius. 

Fulgentius,  fiil-j^n'she-us,  [Fr.  Fulgence,  fuK- 
zhfiNss',]  (Fabius  Claudius  Gordianus,)  an  eminent 
African  bishop,  was  born  at  Leptis  about  478  A.D.  At 
an  early  age  he  resolved  to  renounce  the  world,  and, 
entering  a  monastery,  became  noted  for  ascetic  devotion. 
After  visiting  Rome  in  500  and  returning  home,  he  was 
chosen  Bishop  of  Ruspina,  or  Ruspa,  by  the  Catholics,  in 
508.  Soon  after  this  date  he  was  exiled  to  Sardinia  by 
Thrasimund,  King  of  the  Vandals,  who  was  an  Arian  and 
a  persecutor  of  the  orthodox.  He  was  restored  at  the 
death  of  that  king,  and  died  about  533.  He  wrote,  in 
Latin,  treatises  on  the  Trinity,  Predestination,  Faith, 
and  Arianism,  which  are  highly  esteemed.  His  opinions 
and  style  resemble  those  of  Augustine. 

See  Ferkandus,  "Vita  Fiilgentii." 

Fulgentius,  [Fr.  Fulgence,]  (Fabius  Planci'ades,) 
a  Latin  writer,  who  lived  probably  about  the  sixth 
century,  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  a  bishop 
of  Carthage.  He  wrote  a  work  on  Mythology,  and  a 
glossary  of  antiquated  words,  ("Expositio  Sermonum 
antiquorum,"  etc.,)  which  are  extant. 

Fulgosio,  fool-go'se-o,  (Raphael,)  an  Italian  jurist, 
born  at  Placentia  ;  died  in  1427. 

Fulke,  fooik,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English 
Puritan  divine,  born  in  London,  became  rector  of  Warley 
in  1571,  and  afterwards  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  at 
Cambridge.  He  published,  in  1580,  "The  Text  of  the 
New  Testament,  etc.,"  said  to  be  an  invaluable  as- 
sistant to  the  Protestant  divine,  treating  of  the  relative 
merits  of  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  versions.  Died 
in  1589. 

See  Fuller,  "Worthies;"  Brook,  "Lives  of  the  Puritans,"  1813. 


Fulla,  fooKia,  {i.e.  "full,")  in  the  Norse  mythology,  an 
attendant  of  Frigga,  whose  treasure-casket  and  slippers 
she  is  said  to  carry.  She  is  also  acquainted  with  the 
secret  counsels  of  the  mother  of  the  gods.  As  Frigga 
represents  the  earth's  fertility,  Fulla  would  seem  to  typify 
the  abundance  which  follows  it.    (See  Frigga.) 

Fiilleborn,  fuKleh-boRn',  (Georg  Gustav,)  a  Ger- 
man scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Glogau  in  1769;  died 
in  1803. 

Fuller,  fdoKler,  (Andrew,)  an  eminent  English  Bap- 
tist minister,  born  at  Wicken,  in  Cambridgeshire,  in  1754. 
His  education  was  defective  or  very  li  mited.  He  preached 
a  few  years  at  Soham,  and  removed  in  1782  to  Kettering, 
Northamptonshire,  where  he  remained  until  his  death. 
He  was  the  first  secretary  of  the  Baptist  Missionary 
Society,  formed  about  1792,  and  acquired  a  high  reputa- 
tion by  his  writings,  among  which  are  "The  Gospel  its 
own  Witness,"  (1800,)  "  Expository  Discourses  on  Gene- 
sis," (2  vols.,  1806,)  "Dialogues,  Letters,  and  Essays  on 
Various  Subjects,"  (1806,)  "Sermons,"  (i  vol.,  1814,) 
and  "The  Harmony  of  Scripture,  or  an  Attempt  to 
reconcile  various  Passages,"  (181 7.)  Diedini8i5.  Ful- 
ler has  been  styled  the  "Franklin  of  Theology."  His 
writings  are  characterized  by  vigour,  logical  acumen,  and 
deep  insight  into  human  nature.  "  He  was  a  man,"  says 
Robert  Hall,  "whose  sagacity  enabled  him  to  penetrate 
to  the  depths  of  every  subject  he  explored ;  whose  con- 
ceptions were  so  powerful  and  luminous  that  what  was 
recondite  and  original  appeared  familiar,  what  was  intri- 
cate, easy  and  perspicuous,  in  his  hands." 

See  Memoirs  of  his  Life,  by  J.  W.  Morris,  1815,  and  a  Memoir, 
prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  Works,  (5  vols.,  1832,)  by  his  son,  Andrew 
GuNTON  Fuller. 

Fuller,  (Isaac,)  an  English  painter  of  history  and 
portraits.  He  painted  for  a  church  of  Oxford  an  altar- 
piece  which  was  praised  by  Addison  in  a  Latin  poem, 
and  was  very  successful  in  portraits.    Died  in  1672. 

Fuller,  (Margaret.)    See  Ossoll 

Fuller,  (Nicholas,)  an  eminent  Oriental  scholar, 
born  at  Southampton,  England,  in  1557.  He  became 
rector  of  Bishop  Waltham,  and  published  "  Miscellanea 
Theologica,"  (1612.)    Died  in  1622. 

See  Fuller,  "Worthies." 

Fuller,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  lawyer  and  member 
of  Parliament,  who  distinguished  himself  in  the  early 
part  of  the  reign  of  James  I.  by  his  resolute  opposition 
to  the  oppressive  measures  of  the  court  of  high  com- 
mission.   Died  in  1620. 

See  Gardiner,  "  History  of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  vol.  L 
chap,  viii.,  pp.  443-446. 

FulFer,  (Richard,)  a  Baptist  minister  and  writer,  born 
in  Beaufort,  South  Carolina,  in  1808.  He  became  pastor 
of  a  Baptist  church  in  Baltimore  in  1847. 

Fuller,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  divine  and 
author,  born  at  Aldwinckle,  in  Northamptonshire,  in 
1608.  Having  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1628,  he  ob- 
tained the  prebend  of  Salisbury,  and  was  rector  of  Broad 
Windsor.  About  1641  he  removed  to  London  and  be- 
came minister  of  the  Savoy.  He  favoured  the  cause  of 
Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war,  and  served  as  chaplain  in  the 
royal  army,  1644-46.  He  was  rector  of  Waltham,  in 
Essex,  from  1648  to  1658,  and  at  the  restoration,  1660, 
was  appointed  chaplain-extraordinary  to  Charles  II. 
Died  in  1661.  His  writings  abound  with  quaint  humour 
and  conceits,  and  are  much  admired  for  originality,  wit, 
and  liberality.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Holy  War,"  (1639  ;)  "The  Holy  and  Profane 
State  :  a  Collection  of  Characters,  Moral  Essays,  and 
Lives,  Ancient,  Foreign,  and  Domestic,"  (1642  ;)  "Good 
Thoughts  in  Bad  Times,"  (1645  ;)  "Good  Thoughts  in 
Worse  Times,"  (1647  ;)  "The  Church  History  of  IBritain 
from  the  Birth  of  Christ  to  1648,"  (1655;)  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Worthies  of  England,"  (1662.)  "Fuller  was," 
says  S.  T.  Coleridge,  "incomparably  the  most  sensible, 
the  least  prejudiced,  great  man  of  an  age  that  boasted 
of  a  galaxy  of  great  men." 

See  Arthur  T.  Russell,  "Memorials  of  the  Life  and  Writings 
of  Tliomas  Fuller,"  1844;  Henry  Rogers,  "Essay  on  the  Life  and 
Writings  of  Thomas  Fuller,"  vol.  i. ;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol. 
iii.,  1821,  and  vol.  i.,  2d  series. 

Fullerton,  fdoKler-ton,  (Lady  Georgiana  Leveson 
Gower — commonly  pronounced  lew'son  gor,)  a  popular 


a,  e,  T,  o,  it,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  skorf;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


/ 


FULLONIUS 


977 


FURETIERE 


English  novelist,  a  daughter  of  Earl  Granville,  was  born 
about  1814.    She  wrote  "Ellen  Middleton,"  (3  vols., 
1844,)  and  "Grantley  Manor,"  (1847.)   She  was  married 
to  Captain  Alexander  Fullerton  in  1833. 
Fullonius.    See  Foulon. 

Fulton,  fooKton,  (Robkrt,)  a  celebrated  American 
engineer  and  inventor,  was  born  in  Little  Britain,  Lan- 
caster county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1765.  About  the  age  of 
seventeen  he  went  to'Philadelphia,  and  began  to  cultivate 
a  talent  for  drawing  and  portrait-painting,  which  he  prac- 
tised with  skill  and  profit  for  three  or  four  years.  In  1786 
he  visited  London,  where  he  devoted  several  years  to  the 
same  profession,  under  the  tuition  of  Benjamin  West, 
who  received  him  as  an  inmate  into  his  own  house.  He 
next  resided  for  two  years  in  Devonshire,  and  became 
acquainted  with  the  Duke  of  Bridgewater  and  Lord  Stan- 
hope, About  this  time  his  mechanical  genius  impelled 
him  to  abandon  painting  and  to  follow  the  profession  of 
civil  engineer.  In  1793  he  was  engaged  in  a  project  to 
improve  inland  navigation,  having  already  conceived  the 
idea  of  using  steam  as  a  motive  power.  He  invented  a 
machine  for  spinning  flax,  and  another  for  making  ropes, 
for  which  he  obtained  patents  in  England.  In  1796  he 
published  in  London  a  "  Treatise  on  Canal  Navigation." 
From  1797  to  1804  he  resided  in  Paris,  in  the  family  of  Joel 
Barlow,  where  he  displayed  his  characteristic  enterprise 
and  ingenuity  in  various  projects  and  inventions  and  in 
the  study  of  the  sciences  and  modern  languages.  He  was 
the  proprietor  of  the  first  panorama  exhibited  in  Paris. 
He  invented  a  submarine  or  plunging  boat,  called  a  tor- 
pedo, designed  to  be  used  in  naval  warfare,  and  induced 
Bonaparte  to  appoint  Volney,  La  Place,  and  Monge  as  a 
commission  to  examine  it.  In  1801  he  made  an  experi- 
ment in  the  harbour  of  Brest,  when  he  succeeded  in  re- 
maining under  water  for  an  hour  and  in  guiding  the  boat 
with  ease.  Other  trials  were  made,  with  partial  success, 
at  the  expense  of  the  French  government ;  but,  as  they 
at  last  declined  to  patronise  the  ])roject,  Fulton  accepted, 
in  1804,  an  invitation  from  the  English  ministry,  who  also 
appointed  a  commission  and  made  trials  of  his  torpedo. 
It  appears,  however,  that  the  English  did  not  give  him 
much  encouragement;  for  in  1806  he  returned  to  New 
York.  Here,  in  co-operation  with  Robert  Livingston, 
Esq.,  he  succeeded,  in  1807,  in  perfecting  the  great  dis- 
covery of  steam  navigation.  Though  others  had  previously 
conceived  the  idea  of  steam  navigation,  Fulton  is  admitted 
to  have  been  the  first  who  successfully  realized  it.  In 
1807  his  first  boat,  the  Clermont,  was  launched  at  New 
York,  and  the  trial  was  so  successful  that  it  excited  great 
admiration,  and  steamboats  were  rapidly  multi])lied  on 
the  American  rivers.  The  Clermont  made  regular  pas- 
sages between  New  York  and  Albany,  at  the  rate  of  five 
miles  an  hour ;  but  this  rate  was  soon  increased  by  im- 
proved machinery.  Several  other  larger  boats  were  built 
under  the  direction  of  Fulton,  who  expended  large  sums 
of  money  in  this  way,  though  he  received  nothing  for 
his  patent.  In  1806  he  married  Harriet,  daughter  of 
Walter  Livingston,  by  wholn  he  had  four  children.  He 
possessed  great  personal  dignity,  agreeable  manners, 
and  noble  qualities  of  heart.  In  the  midst  of  his  triumph, 
and  in  the  height  of  prosperity,  he  died  in  New  York,  in 
February,  18 15. 

See  Renwick,  "Life  of  Fulton,"  in  Sp^RKs's  "American  Bio- 
graphy," vol.  X.;  also  Coi.den,  "Life  of  Fulton,"  1817;  Mont- 
GEKV,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Travaux  de  R.  Fulton,"  1S25  ; 
"  Eiicyclopsedia  Americana:"  "Life  of  Robert  Fulton,"  by  J.  F. 
Rejgart,  1856;  "N.itional  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Ameri- 
cans," vol.  iii. 

FuPvi-a,  [Fr.  Fulvie,  fuKve',]  a  Roman  lady,  noted 
for  intrigue  and  ambition,  was  the  wife  of  Clodius  the 
demagogue,  who  was  killed  by  Milo.  She  afterwards 
became  the  wife  of  Mark  Antony,  the  famous  triumvir, 
and  showed  a  vindictive  spirit  in  tlie  proscription  of  those 
whom  she  disliked.  During  the  civil  war  that  followed 
the  death  of  Julius  Caesar  she  had  great  power  in  Rome, 
and  instigated  an  unsuccessful  revolt  against  Octavius, 
her  son-in-law.    Died  in  40  B.C. 

Fiilvie.    See  Fulvia. 

FuPvi-us,  (M.ARCUS  NoBiLTOR,)  a  Roman  general, 
was  prajtor  in  Spain  in  193  B.C.,  and  defeated  the  Tec- 
tones  and  Celtiberians  near  Toletum,  (Toledo.)  Having 
been  elected  consul  in  189  B.C.,  he  obtained  command  in 


Greece,  where  he  captured  Ambracia  and  dictated  terms 
of  peace  to  the  ^Etolians.  In  179  B.C.  he  was  chosen 
censor,  and,  from  patriotic  motives,  was  reconciled  to 
^milius  Lepidus,  his  enemy  and  colleague.  He  was  a 
patron  of  Ennius  the  poet. 

Fulvius  Flaccus.    See  Flaccus,  (M.  Fulvius.) 

Fulwell,  fobl'vvel,  (Ulpian,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  1556,  became  rector  of  Naunton.  He  wrote  the 
"Flower  of  Fame,"  a  historical  work,  (1575,)  and  the 
"Art  of  Flattery,"  {1579.) 

Fumagalli,  foo-ml-g^l'lee,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian  his- 
torian and  monk,  born  in  Milan  in  1728,  became  supe- 
rior of  the  monastery  of  Saint  Ambrose,  and  was  noted 
for  his  various  erudition  and  the  elegance  and  purity  of 
his  style.  He  wrote  a  work  called  "  Diplomatic  Insti- 
tutes," ("  Delle  Istituzioni  diplomatiche,"  1802,)  which 
was  highly  esteemed,  and  treatises  "  On  the  Antiqui- 
ties of  Milan,"  and  "  The  Origin  of  Idolatry."  He  was 
one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Italian  Institute.  Died 
in  1804. 

See  TiRABOSCHT,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Fumani,  foo-mi'nee,  (Adamo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Verona,  became  a  canon  in  the  cathedral  of  that  city. 
He  was  chosen  secretary  of  the  Council  of  Trent  about 
1546.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  "  Logices  Libri  quinque,"  a 
poetical  treatise  on  logic,  in  which  the  rules  of  that  art 
are  explained  with  admirable  clearness  and  elegance, 
besides  other  short  poems.    Died  in  1587. 

See  TiKABoscm,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Fumee,  fii'mi',  (Adam,)  born  in  Touraine,  in  France, 
about  1430,  was  physician  to  Charles  VII.,  and  afterwards 
to  Louis  XI.    Died  in  1494. 

Fumiani,  foo-me-^'nee,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Venice  in  1633;  died  in  1710. 

Fumicelli,  foo-me-cheKlee,  or  Fiumicelli,  fe-oo-me- 
cheKlee,  (Ludovico,)  a  painter  of  the  Venetian  school, 
born  at  Treviso,  flourished  in  1536. 

Funccius.    See  Funck. 

Funck,  foonk,  or  Funch,  foonK,  [Lat.  FuNc'cius,] 
(Johann,)  a  German  theologian,  born  near  Nuremberg 
in  1518,  was  a  son-in-law  of  Osiander,  whose  doctrines 
he  adopted.  He  became  chaplain  to  Duke  Albert  of 
Prussia,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  Chronology 
from  the  Creation  to  1560.  He  was  executed  at  Konigs- 
berg  in  1566,  on  a  charge  of  treason  or  sedition. 

Funck  or  Funk,  [Lat.  Func'cius,]  (Johann  Nico- 
las,) a  German  philologist,  born  at  Marburg  in  1693. 
He  became  professor  of  eloquence  and  history  at  Rin- 
teln  about  1730,  and  wrote,  in  Latin,  seven  able  treat- 
ises on  the  origin,  growth,  and  decadence  of  the  Latin 
language,  among  which  are  "On  the  Childhood  of 
the  Latin  Language,"  ("  De  Pueritia  Latinas  Linguae," 
1720,)  and  "On  the  Maturity  of  the  Latin  Language," 
("  De  Virili  ^tate  Latinae  Linguae,"  1727.)  Died  in 
1777. 

See  HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Funck,  (Karl  Wilhelm  Ferdinand,)  a  German 
writer  and  officer,  born  at  l>runsvvick  in  1761,  served 
against  the  French  on  the  Rhine,  and  in  1810  became 
lieutenant-general.  He  published  in  1820  "Pictures 
from  the  Age  of  the  Crusades."  He  was  also  a  con- 
tributor with  Schiller  and  Goethe  to  the  "  Horen."  Died 
in  1828. 

Funes,  foo'nSs,  (Gregorio,)  a  historian,  born  at  Cor- 
dova, in  South  America.  He  became  dean  of  the  church 
of  Cordova,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  Paraguay,  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  Tucuman,"  (3  vols.,  1816  et  seq.,)  which  is 
commended.    Died  about  1820. 

Funke,  foon'keh,  (Karl  Philipp,)  a  German  natu- 
ralist, born  in  1 752.  He  wrote  "Natural  History  and 
Technology,"  (3  vols.,  1791,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1807. 

Furetiere,  fiiR^te-aiR',  (Antoine,)  a  French  writer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1620^  became  Abbe  of  Chalivoy.  He 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1662. 
In  his  "Bourgeois  Romance"  ("Roman  bourgeois," 
1666)  he  satirized  the  manners  of  the  middle  or  inferior 
class  ;  he  also  wrote  "  The  Voyage  of  Mercury,"  a  satire 
in  verse,  (1673.)  Having  undertaken  to  compile  a  Dic- 
tionary of  the  French  language  while  that  of  the  Academy 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2[^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

62 


FURGAULT 


978 


FUSELI 


was  in  progress,  he  was  accused  of  plagiarism,  and  ex- 
pelled from  the  Academy,  in  1685.  He  died  in  1688. 
His  Dictionary  was  published  in  1690,  and  was  received 
with  favour. 

See  "  Fureteriaiia,"  1696;  Madame  de  Sevign^,  "  Lettres,"  and 
*'  Menagiana." 

Furgault,  fiiR''g5',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  professor,  born 
in  1706,  published  a  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Antiquities,"  (1768.)    Died  in  17^5. 

Furgole,  ruR''goK,(jEAN  BAPTiSTE,)an  eminent  French 
jurist,  born  at  Castelferrus  in  1690,  practised  at  Toulouse 
with  success.  He  published  "  Ordonnance  de  Louis  XV 
pour  fixer  la  Jurisprudence  sur  les  Donations,"  (1733,) 
and  a  "Treatise  on  Wills,  Codicils,  and  Donations,"  (4 
vols.,  1745,)  which  was  one  of  the  most  complete  works 
on  that  subject.    Died  in  1761. 

See  Bernadeau,  "  Vies,  Portraits  et  Parall^les  des  Jurlsconsultes 
Domat,  Furgole  et  Potliier,"  1798. 

Furies,  [Lat.  Furi^.]    See  Eumenides. 

Furietti,  foo-re-et'tee,  (Giuseppe  Alessandro,)  an 
Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Bergamo  in  1685.  After  making 
^reat  progress  in  the  study  of  law  and  theology,  he  re- 
moved to  Rome,  where  he  obtained  preferment,  and  at 
the  age  of  seventy-four  was  made  a  cardinal.  He  wrote 
an  able  treatise  on  the  "  History  of  the  Mosaic  Art," 
("  De  Pictoriae  Mosaicas  Artis  Origine,"  1752,)  and  a  few 
other  works.    Died  about  1762. 

Furini,  foo-ree'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Florence  in  1600.  His  works  are  highly  com- 
mended.   Died  in  1649. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Fu'ri-us,  [Sp.  pron.  foo're-ooss,]  (Federico,)  sur- 
named  Seriolanus,  a  moralist,  born  in  Valencia,  Spain, 
about  1510.  Charles  V.  appointed  him  historian  to  his 
son  Philip  II.,  by  whom  he  was  employed  in  the  public 
affairs  of  the  Low  Countries.  Furius  published  a  treatise 
on  Rhetoric,  ( 1 544  ;)  also  "  The  Counsel  and  Counsellor," 
("Del  Consejo  y  Consejero,"  1559.)  He  is  favourably 
noticed  by  De  Thou,  who  ranks  him  with  Montaigne. 
Died  in  1592. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis  ;"  N.  Antonio,  "  Blblio- 
iheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Fu'ri-us,  (Marcus,)  surnamed  Bibac'ulus,  a  Latin 
satirical  poet,  born  at  Cremona  about  102  B.C.  He  began 
a  poem  on  the  Gallic  War  by  a  line  which  represents 
Jupiter  as  spitting  snow  upon  the  Alps, — which  Horace 
parodied  in  his  fifth  satire  (book  ii.)  by  substituting  the 
uame  of  Furius  for  Jupiter  : 

"  Furius  hybernas  cana  nive  conspuet  Alpes."* 
Small  fragments  of  his  works  are  all  that  now  remain. 

Furlanetto,  fooR-li-net'to,  (Bonaventura,)  distin- 
guished as  a  composer  of  sacred  music,  was  born  at 
Venice  in  1738.  He  composed"  The  Vow  of  Jephthah," 
"The  Spouse  of  the  Canticles,"  and  other  oratorios. 
Died  in  1817. 

Fur'long,  (Thomas,)  an  Irish  poet  and  satirist,  born 
about  1792,  was  the  son  of  a  farmer.  In  his  early  youth 
he  was  employed  in  the  shop  of  a  merchant  of  Dublin. 
He  published  in  1819  or  1820  "The  Misanthrope,"  a 
poem.  Among  his  best  works  is  "  The  Plagues  of  Ire- 
land," (1824.)    Died  in  1827. 

Furneaux,  i\xx'\\o\  (Philip,)  an  English  dissenting 
minister,  born  at  Totness,  in  Devonshire,  in  1726,  He 
was  lecturer  at  Clapham,  in  Surrey,  for  twenty-three 
years,  (1753-76.)  He  wrote  "Letters  to  Judge  Black- 
stone  on  his  Exposition  of  the  Toleration  Act,"  (1793.) 
Died  in  1783. 

Fur'ness,  (William  Henry,)  D.D.,  a  Unitarian 
divine  and  author,  born  in  Boston  in  1802.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  in  1820,  and  afterwards  studied  for  the 
ministry  in  the  theological  school  of  that  institution. 
In  1825  he  became  pastor  of  the  First  Unitarian  Congre- 
gational Church  in  Philadelphia.  As  a  public  preacher, 
he  early  distinguished  himself  by  his  zealous  and  un- 
wavering opposition  to  the  iniquities  of  slavery.  Among 
his  religious  publications  the  most  important  are  his 
"Remarks  on  the  Four  Gospels,"  (1836,)  "Jesus  and 
his  Biographers,"  (1838,)  "History  of  Jesus,"  (1850,) 
and  "Thoughts  on  the  Life  and  Character  of  Jesus  of 
Nazareth,"  (1859.)    For  a  critique  on  Dr.  Furness's  pe- 

*  Furius  will  bespit  the  wintry  Alps  with  white  snow." 


culiar  views  respecting  the  character  of  Christ,  etc.,  see 
"North  American  Review"  for  October,  1850,  (vol.  Ixxi.) 

Dr.  Furness  is  distinguished  for  his  fine  taste  and 
high  literary  culture.  He  has  made  some  admirable 
translations  from  the  German,  among  which  that  of 
Schiller's  "Das  Lied  von  der  Glocke"  ("The  Song 
of  the  Bell")  deserves  particular  mention,  as  being  the 
best  English  version  that  has  ever  appeared  of  that 
exquisite  poem. 

His  son,  William  H.  Furness,  born  in  1827,  acquired 
a  high  reputation  as  a  portrait-painter.    Died  in  1867. 

See  TuCKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Furrer,  foor'rer,  (Jonas,)  a  Swiss  statesman,  born  at 
Winterthur  in  1805. 

Fiirst,  fuRst,  (Julius,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  of 
a  Jewish  family,  in  the  duchy  of  Posen,  in  1805,  studied 
theology  at  Halle.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  the  Jews  in  Asia,"  (1849,)  a  "  Hebrew- 
Chaldee  Dictionary,"  (1851.) 

Fiirst,  fURst,  (Walter,)  a  Swiss  patriot,  born  at 
Altorf,  lived  about  1300.  He  co-operated  with  William 
Tell  in  the  liberation  of  his  country. 

Fiirstemberg,  fiiRst'em-b^RG',  or  Fuerstenberg, 
fi.iRst'en-beRG^  (Ferdinand,)  a  German  prelate,  born 
at  Bilstein,  Westphalia,  in  1626,  was  distinguished  for 
liberality  and  other  virtues.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Paderborn  in  166 1,  and  Bishop  of  Miinster  in  1678.  He 
published  Latin  poems,  which  are  commended,  and 
"  Monuments  of  Paderborn,"  ("  Monumenta  Paderbor- 
nensia,"  1669.)   Died  in  1683. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Furstenau,  fooR'steh-now',  (Johann  Hermann,)  a 
German  physician,  born  at  Herford,  in  Westphalia,  in 
i688.  He  obtained  the  chair  of  medicine  at  Rinteln 
about  1720.  He  wrote  many  valuable  medical  works, 
among  which  is  "Desiderata  Medica,"  (1727.)  Died  in 
1756. 

See  JocHER,  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Fiirstenberg,  fiirst'en-beRG^,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm 
Franz,)  Baron,  a  German  statesman,  born  in  1729,  was 
minister  to  Maximilian  Frederick,  Elector  of  Cologne. 
He  founded  the  University  of  Miinster,  and  introduced 
important  reforms  into  the  government.    Died  in  1810. 

Furtado,  fooR-t3.Mo,  (Francisco,)  a  Portuguese  poet, 
born  in  1740;  died  in  Italy  after  1816. 

Fuscus.    See  Fosco. 

Fus'cus,  (Arel'lius,)  a  Latin  rhetorician,  flourished 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus. 

Fuscus,  (Aris'tius,)  a  Latin  poet,  lived  about  30 
B.C.  He  was  a  friend  of  Horace,  who  addressed  to  him 
an  epistle  and  an  ode. 

Fuseli,  fii'seh-le,  or  Fuessli,  (John  Henry,)  a  cele- 
brated historical  painter,  born  at  Zurich  about  1742,  was 
the  son  of  Johann  Caspar  Fiissli,  noticed  below.  His 
family  name  was  changed  to  Fusel i  by  the  subject  of  this 
article.  Having  gained  distinction  by  his  classic  acquire- 
ments and  by  his  poetical  genius,  he  visited  England  in 
1763.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  on  seeing  some  drawings  of 
Fuseli,  persuaded  him  to  prefer  the  profession  of  painter 
to  that  of  author.  Between  1770  and  1778  he  studied  art 
in  Italy,  choosing  Michael  Angelo  for  his  model,  and  in 
the  latter  year  returned  to  London,  where  he  speedily 
rose  to  the  first  rank  of  British  painters.  He  was  partial 
to  the  romantic  style,  and  found  congenial  subjects  in 
the  most  imaginative  dramas  of  Shakspeare.  In  1788 
he  married  Sophia  Rawlins,  and  was  chosen  an  associate 
of  the  Royal  Academy.  He  assisted  Cowper  in  trans- 
lating Homer.  He  was  chosen  professor  of  painting  in 
the  Royal  Academy  in  1799.  His  Lectures  on  Art  are 
much  admired,  and  have  been  published.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  eight  pictures  of  the  "Shaksjjeare  Gal- 
lery," and  illustrations  of  Dante  and  Milton.  His  imagi- 
nation was  lofty  and  rich,  but  rather  extravagant.  "Of 
all  the  painters  whom  this  country  has  encouraged," 
says  Allan  Cunningham,  "no  one  had  either  the  reach 
of  thought  or  the  poetic  feeling  of  Fuseli."  He  pub- 
lished "Aphorisms  on  Art,"  and  other  works,  which  are 
highly  prized.    Died  in  London  in  1825. 

See  "Life  and  Works  of  Fuseli,"  by  John  Knowles,  3  vols., 
1831 ;  Cunningham,  "Lives  of  Painters  and  Sculptors ;"  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  July,  1803,  and  September,  1831. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mli;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


FUSI 


979 


FTT 


Fusi,  fii^ze',  (Antoine,)  a  Frenchman,  born  in  Lor- 
raine about  1565.  He  became  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne, 
in  Paris.  Having  been  charged  with  sorcery  and  heresy, 
and  persecuted,  he  retired  to  Geneva  about  1618,  adopted 
the  Protestant  religion,  and  became  a  minister.  He  wrote 
a  book  against  the  Jesuits,  called  "  Le  franc  Archier  de 
la  vraie  figlise  contre  les  Abus  de  la  fausse,"  (1619.) 
Died  about  1635. 

See  NiCERON, "  Memoires." 

Fusina,  foo-see'ni,  (Andrea,)  an  excellent  Italian 
sculptor,  of  the  Milanese  school,  flourished  about  1490. 
He  adorned  the  cathedral  of  Milan  with  bas-reliefs. 

See  Ticozzi,  "Dizionario." 

Fuss,  von,  fon  fooss,  (Nikolaus,)  a  Swiss  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Bale  in  1755.  He  removed  to  Saint 
Petersburg  in  his  youth,  and  was  appointed  adjunct 
professor  in  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1776.  He  ob- 
tained the  dignity  of  councillor  of  state  in  1800.  He 
wrote  many  mathematical  treatises.    Died  in  1826. 

Fiissli  or  Fuessli,  fus'lee,  (Hans  Heinrich,)  a  Swiss 
writer  on  art,  born  at  Zurich  in  1745,  was  a  son  of  Johann 
Rudolph.  He  was  distinguished  for  learning  and  elo- 
quence. In  1802  he  was  chosen  senator.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  "The  Life  and  Works  of  Raphael 
Sanzio,"  (1815.)    Died  in  1832. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Fiissli  or  Fuessli,  (Johann  Caspar,)  a  Swiss  artist 
and  author,  born  at  Zurich  in  1707,  excelled  in  land- 
scapes and  portraits.  He  wrote  two  esteemed  works, 
viz.,  a  "  History  of  the  Best  Painters  of  Switzerland,"  (4 
vols.,  1769-79,) -and  a  "Descriptive  Catalogue  (or  Cata- 
logue Raisonne)  of  the  Best  Engravers  and  of  their 
Works,"  (1771.)  He  was  the  father  of  the  celebrated 
John  Henry  Fuseli.    Died  in  1781. 

Fiissli  or  Fuessli,  (Johann  Caspar,)  a  Swiss  natu- 
ralist, son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Zurich  in  1745.  He 
published  a  "Catalogue  of  Swiss  Insects,"  (1775,)  "Ar- 
chives of  the  History  of  Insects,"  (1781-86,)  and  several 
other  works.    Died  in  1786. 

Fiissli  or  Fuessli,  (Johann  Conrad,)  a  Swiss  author, 
born  at  Zurich  or  Wetzlar  about  1705,  spent  many  years 
in  teaching  school.  He  published  several  esteemed 
works,  among  which  are  "  Historical  Memoirs  of  the 
Reformation  in  ^Switzerland,"  (5  vols.,  1741-53,)  a 
"Description  of  Switzerland,"  (4  vols.,  1770,)  and  a 
"History  of  the  Mediaeval  Church,"  (3  vols.,  1770-74.) 
Died  in  1775. 

See  Meusel,  "  Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 

Fiissli  or  Fuessli,  (Johann  Rudolf,)  a  Swiss  artist, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1709,  finished  his  studies  in  Paris. 
His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his  "  General  Dic- 
tionary of  Artists,"  in  German,  (1763-77.)  This  vast 
and  excellent  work  was  continued  by  his  son,  Hans 
Heinrich,  and  formed  the  basis  of  Nagler's  "  Allgemeines 
Kiinstler-Lexikon."    Died  in  1793. 

Fiissli  or  Fuessli,  (Johann  Rudolf,)  a  painter  and 
engraver,  the  eldest  son  of  Johann  Caspar,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Zurich  in  1737.  He  wrote  an  ex- 
cellent work,  entitled  a  "Catalogue  (Raisonne)  of  En- 
gravings executed  after  the  Most  Famous  Artists  of  each 
School,"  (4  vols.,  1806;  unfinished.)    Died  in  1806. 

Fiissli  or  Fuessli,  (Matthias,)  a  skilful  Swiss 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Zurich  in  1598,  excelled 
in  the  representation  of  battles,  conflagrations,  and  other 
terrible  scenes.  He  also  executed  miniatures  and  frescos. 
Died  in  1664. 

Fiissli  or  Fuessli,  (Matthias,)  a  Swiss  portrait- 
painter,  born  in  167 1  ;  died  in  1739. 


Fust,  (Johann.)  See  Faust. 

Futteh-Aly-Shah.    See  Fateh-Alee-Shah. 

Fux  or  Fuchs,  fooks,  (Johann  Joseph,)  a  German 
composer,  born  in  Styria  in  1660.  He  was  successively 
chapel-master  to  the  emperors  Leopold  I.,  Joseph  I., 
and  Charles  VI.  He  composed  operas  and  sacred 
music,  and  a  treatise  on  music,  entitled  "Gradus  ad 
Parnassum,"  (1725,)  which  is  called  a  classic  work.  He 
was  living  in  1732. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Fuzelier,  fiiz'le-i',  (Louis,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
in  Paris  about  1672^  wrote  numerous  operas  and  plays 
of  little  merit.  His  "  Momus  fabuliste"  is  called  his 
best  piece.    Died  in  1752. 

Fyens,  fi'^ns,  (Thomas,)  a  Flemish  physician,  born 
in  Antwerp  in  1567.  He  became  professor  of  medicine 
in  Louvain  in  1593.  His  chief  work  is  a  critical  essay 
on  eminent  surgeons  and  their  discoveries,  "  De  Artis 
Chirurgicae  Controvcrsiis,"  (1649.)    Died  in  1631. 

Fyot  de  la  Marche,  fe'o'  deh  It  mtRsh,  (Claude,) 
a  French  priest,  born  at  Dijon  in  1630,  was  appointed 
in  165 1  almoner  of  Louis  XIV.  In  1661  he  became 
abbot  of  Saint-Etienne-de-Dijon,  of  which  he  wrote  a 
history,  (1696.)    Died  in  1721. 

Fyrouz.    See  Fyroz. 

Fyroz  or  Feroze,  fee'roz',  (written  also  Ferose,  Fi- 
roz,  Fyrouz,  Feyrouz,  and  Firuz,)  a  Persian  word, 
signifying  "victorious,"  and  forming  the  name  of  several 
kings  ruling  in  Persia  and  Hindostan. 

Fyroz  I.,  King  of  Persia,  son  of  Valas,  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  same  as  the  Pacorus  mentioned  by 
certain  Greek  and  Latin  authors.  He  succeeded  his 
father  in  83  A.D.  As  he  was  preparing  to  resist  a  Roman 
army  which  invaded  his  kingdom,  he  died,  about  107, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Chosroes  I. 

Fyroz  (Feroze,  Fyrouz,  or  Firuz)  II.,  King  of 
Persia,  of  the  Sassanide  dynasty,  was  the  son  of  Yez- 
dejerd  II.  He  began  to  reign  about  457,  having  put  to 
death  his  brother  Hormooz,  who  had  reigned  a  short 
time.  He  made  war  on  the  Huns,  by  whom  he  was 
defeated  and  killed  in  battle  about  488  A.D. 

See  Firdousee,  "Shah-Namah  ;"  Malcolm,  "  History  of  Persia." 

Fyroz  (Feroze  or  Firouz)  Shah  I.,  surnamed 
Rookn-ed-Deen  (or  Rokn-eddin  or  -eddyn,)  (the 
"  Support  of  the  Faith,")  a  Moslem  sovereign  of  India, 
began  to  reign  in  1236  at  Delhi.  He  abandoned  him- 
self to  indolent  pleasures,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
deposed,  and  succeeded  by  his  sister.  Fyroz  died  or 
was  killed  shortly  after  his  disgrace. 

Fyroz  (Feroze  or  Fyrouz)  Shah  II.,  Moham- 
medan King  of  Delhi,  usurped  the  throne  in  1289,  after 
assassinating  the  late  king,  Kai  Kobad.  His  cruelty 
provoked  a  conspiracy,  which  deprived  him  of  his  throne 
and  life  about  1295. 

Fyroz  Shah  III.,  Mohammedan  King  of  Delhi  or 
Hindostan,  succeeded  his  uncle,  Mohammed  III.,  in 
135 1.  He  adopted  a  pacific  policy,  built  the  city  of 
Fyroz-abad,  and  made  several  canals,  and  many  other 
internal  improvements,  including  mosques  and  schools. 
He  abdicated  in  tavour  of  his  son  in  1387,  and  died  the 
next  year,  aged  ninety. 

See  Briggs's  translation  of  Ferishta's  "History  of  India." 

Fyt  or  Feydt,  fit,  (Jan,)  a  Flemish  painter  of  still 
life,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1625.  He  excelled  in  the  repre- 
sentation of  animals,  flowers,  fruits,  etc.  His  design  is 
correct,  his  colouring  true,  and  his  touch  light.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  died  in  167 1. 

See  Descamps,  "Vie  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23,) 


GAJB  980  GJCE 


a 


Gaab,  gtp,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German  Protest- 
ant theologian,  born  at  Goppingen  in  1761.  He  became 
professor  at  Tubingen  in  1798,  aifd  afterwards  general 
superintendent,  or  bishop.  He  wrote  commentaries  on 
the  Scriptures.    Died  in  1832. 

See  EnscH  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Eiicyklopaedie." 

Gaal,  gSl,  (Barend,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  landscapes 
and  battle-pieces,  born  at  Haarlem,  was  a  pupil  of 
Wouwernian,    Died  about  1670. 

Gaal,  gal,  (Joseph,)  a  Hungarian  comic  poet  and 
novelist,  born  at  Nagy  Karoly  in  181 1.  He  represents 
with  fidelity  the  manners  and  language  of  the  peasants. 

Gabaret,  gt'bS'ra',  (  ,)  a  brave  French  naval 

officer,  who  served  many  years  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV.,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  commodore.  He 
commanded  the  rear-guard  at  La  Hogue,  (1692,)  and 
rejiulsed  the  English  force  which  attacked  Martinique 
in  1693.    Died  in  1693. 

Gabbema,  gib^beh-mS,  (Simon  Ai5Bas,)  a  Dutch 
philologist,  born  at  Leeuvvarden  about  1620,  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Friesland,"  (1703,)  and  edited  several  Latin 
classics.    Died  about  1700. 

Gabbiani,  gib-be-i'nee,  (Antonio  Domenico,)  an 
eminent  historical  painter  and  engraver,  born  in  Florence 
in  1652.  He  studied  in  Rome  and  Venice,  excelled  in 
design,  and  was  employed  to  decorate  the  churches  and 
palaces  of  Florence,  in  which  he  opened  a  school  and 
had  many  pupils.  Among  his  works,  which  are  much 
praised,  is  "The  Dance  of  the  Genii."    Died  in  1726. 

See  HuGFORD,  "Vita  di  Antonio  Domenico  Gabbiani,"  1762; 
Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Gabelchover,  gi'bel-Ko^er,  (Oswald,)  a  German 
physician  and  historical  writer,  born  at  TUbingen  in  1538 ; 
died  in  1616. 

Gabelentz,  von  der,  fon  der  g^'beh-lgnts',  (Hans 
CoNoN,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1807. 
He  published  "  Elements  de  la  Grammaire  Mandschoue," 
(1833,)  and  "Philological  Contributions,"  ("Beitrage  zur 
Sprachenkunde,"  1852.) 

Gabelsberger,  g§,'be1s-bgRger,  (Franz  Xaver,)  a 
German,  who  produced  an  improved  method  of  ste- 
nography, was  born  at  Munich  in  1789.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  an  "  Litroduction  to  Stenography," 
(1834.)    Died  in  1849. 

Ga-bin'i-us,  (Aulus,)  a  profligate  Roman  politician, 
was  elected  tribune  in  66  B.C.,  (685  A.U.C.)  \\t  was  the 
author  of  the  famous  Gabinian  law,  which  gave  Pompey 
the  conduct  of  the  war  against  the  pirates.  Having 
become  consul  in  58  B.C.,  he  promoted  the  banishment 
of  Cicero,  and,  at  the  end  of  his  consulship,  obtained 
command  in  Syria,  About  the  year  56  he  invaded 
Egypt,  against  the  will  of  the  senate,  and  restored 
Ptolemy  to  the  throne.  He  was  tried  for  treason,  and 
acquitted,  but  was  condemned  to  perpetual  banishment 
for  extortion,  [de  repetimdis,)  although  Cicero  made  an 
oration  in  his  defence.    He  died  in  48  or  47  B.C. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  books  xxxix.  and  xliii. ;  Dkumann,  "  Ge- 
schichte  Ronis." 

Gabio,  g^'be-o,  or  Gabia,  g^'be-S,  (Giovanni  Bat- 
TISTA,)  an  Italian  Hellenist,  born  at  Verona,  became 
professor  of  Greek  in  Rome.  He  translated  into  Latin 
the  works  of  Sophocles,  (1543,)  and  other  Greek  classics. 
Died  in  Rome  about  1590. 

Gabiot,  gS'be'o',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  at  Salins  in  1 759,  lived  chiefly  in  Paris,  and  wrote 
numerous  comedies.    I)ied  iri  181 1. 

Gabler,  gap'ler,  (Georg  Andreas,)  born  at  Altdorf 
in  1786,  succeeded  Hegel  as  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Berlin.  He  published  a  "System  of  Theoretical  Phi- 
losoi)hy,"  (1827,)  and  a  work  entitled  "The  Philosophy 
of  Hegel,"  (1843.) 

Gabler,  (Johann  Philipp,)  a  learned  German  theo- 
logian, f.itlier  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main  in  1753.  He  became  i^rofessor  of  philosophy 
at  Altdorf  in  1785,  and  first  professor  of  theology  at  Jena 


in  1 81 2.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  an  "Essay 
on  the  Hermeneutics  of  the  New  Testament,"  (1788,) 
and  an  "  Essay  on  the  Mosaic  History  of  the  Creation," 
(1795.)    Died  in  1826. 

See  ScHROETER,  "  Erinnerungen  an  Gabler,"  1827. 

Gabotto.    See  Cabot. 

Ga'bri-el,  a  Syrian  physician,  who  practised  at  Bag* 
dad.  He  became  chief  physician  to  the  Caliph  Haroun- 
al-Raschid,  with  whom  he  had  much  influence,  and  to 
his  successor,  Alameen,  (Alamin.)  He  wrote  several 
medical  treatises.    Died  in  829  a.d. 

Gabriel,  gt'bRe'^K,  (Jacques,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1667.  He  erected  the  H6tels-de-Ville 
of  Rennes  and  Dijon,  and  designed  the  great  sewer  of 
Paris.  He  became  architect  to  the  king,  chief  engineer 
of  bridges,  etc.    Died  in  1742. 

Gabriel,  (Jacques  Ange,)  an  eminent  French  archi- 
tect, son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  about  1710. 
He  was  employed  by  Louis  XV.  on  the  principal  public 
works  of  his  reign,  among  which  was  the  restoration  or 
completion  of  the  Louvre.  He  designed  the  two  colon- 
nades which  border  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  and  which 
were  finished  about  1772.  The  Military  School  of  Paris 
is  called  his  master-piece.    Died  in  1782. 

See  FoNTENAY,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Ga'bri-el  Sioni'ta  or  "the  Sionite,"  a  learned 
Maronite,  born  at  Edden,  on  Mount  Lebanon,  was 
educated  at  Rome.  In  1614  he  removed  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  chosen  professor  of  Arabic  in  the  College  of 
France.  He  published  an  Arabic  Grammar,  and  edited 
or  translated  into  Latin  the  Arabic  and  Syrian  texts  of 
the  Polyglot  Bible  of  Le  Jay.    Died  in  1648. 

See  Zenker,  "  Bibliotheca  Orientalis." 

Gabriel  de  Chinon,  gt'bRe'§K  deh  she'n^N',  a 
French  monk,  went  as  a  missionary,  about  1640,  to 
Ispahan.  He  died  at  Malabar  in  1670,  leaving  a  "Treat- 
ise on  the  Religion,  Customs,  etc.  of  the  Persians  and 
Armenians,"  (1671.) 

Gabrielli,  gS-bRe-el'lee,  (Cante,)  an  Italian  condof- 
tiej'e  and  chief  of  the  Guelph  party.  He  served  under 
Charles  de  Valois,  and  became  Podesta  of  Florence 
about  1300.    He  banished  Dante  and  others. 

Gabrielli,  (Catakina,)  a  famous  Italian  singer,  born 
in  Rome  in  1730.  In  1747  she  made  her  debut  as  prima 
donna  in  the  opera  with  complete  success.  She  also 
performed  with  great  applause  at  Naples,  Vienna,  and 
Saint  Petersburg,  and  made  a  fortune  rapidly.  Having 
accepted  an  invitation  from  Catherine  II.  of  Russia,  she 
asked  a  salary  of  ten  thousand  roubles  ;  but  the  empress 
objected  that  she  did  not  pay  her  field-marshals  so 
much.  "Very  well,"  replied  Gabrielli:  "your  majesty 
may  employ  the  field-marshals  to  sing."  She  had  a 
voice  of  prodigious  compass.    Died  in  1796. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Miisiciens." 

Gabrielli,  (Giacomo,)  a  son  of  Cante,  noticed  above, 
obtained  the  dictatorship  or  chief  power  at  Florence 
in  1336.  He  was  a  tyrannical  ruler.  In  1338  he  was 
appointed  a  senator  of  Rome  by  the  pope.  He  re- 
ceived the  title  of  captain  ( capitano)  in  1352,  and  became 
governor  of  Florence  in  1357.  His  son  Cante  was 
Podesta  or  Captain  of  Florence  about  1380. 

Gabrielli,  (Giulio,)  a  cardinal,  born  in  Rome  in 
1748.  In  1808  Pope  Pius  VII.  appointed  him  secretary 
of  state.  A  few  months  later,  he  was  arrested  by  the 
French  and  banished.    Died  in  1822. 

Gabriello,  gi-bRe-eKlo,  (Onofrio,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  high  reputation,  born  at  Messina  in  1616,  painted  por- 
traits and  easel-pictures  at  Venice  and  Messina.  Died 
in  1706. 

Gabrini  or  Gabrino,  (Niccolo.)    See  Rienzi. 

Gabrini,  ga-bRee'nee,  (Tommaso  Maria,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  born  at  Rome  in  1726;  died  in  1807. 

Gace,  de,  deh  gt'si',  (Charles  Augusts  de  Ma- 
tignon — deh  mt't^nViN',)  Count,  a  French  general, 
born  in  Paris  in  1646,  distinguished  himself  at  the  sieges 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  s//07'^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


GJCE 


I 


GAFFARELLl 


of  Mons  and  Namur,  and  was  made  lieutenant-general 
in  1693.  In  1708  he  obtained  the  rank  of  marshal  of 
France,  and  commanded  an  army  which  made  an  abor- 
tive attempt  to  aid  the  Pretender  in  obtaining  the  British 
crown.    Died  in  1729. 

Gace  Brulez,  gSss  bRii'la',  sometimes  called  Gaste 
Ble,  a  French  poet  of  superior  merit,  flourished  about 
1220-50. 

See  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Gachart  or  Gachard,  gt'shtr/,  (Louis  Prosper,) 
archivist  of  Belgium,  was  born  in  Paris  about  1800.  He 
was  naturalized  as  a  Belgian  citizen  in  1 831,  and  was 
appointed  keeper  of  the  Belgian  archives.  He  published 
the  "Correspondence  of  William  the  Silent,"  (4  vols., 
1847-51,)  and  other  documents  for  the  history  of  the 
Netherlands. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  ii.  bookiii. ;  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  January,  1868. 

Gaches,  gtsh,  (Jacques,)  a  French  advocate,  born  at 
Castres  in  1558.  He  wrote  Memoirs  of  events  which 
occurred  between  1555  and  1610.    Died  in  1612. 

Gaches,  (Raymond,)  a  French  Protestant  and  elo- 
quent preacher,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Castres  about  1615  ;  died  at  Paris  in  1668. 

Gacon,  gt'kAN',  (FuANgois,)  a  French  satirical  poet, 
born  at  Lyons  in  1667.  Pie  made  a  disgraceful  use  of  his 
talents,  and  attacked  the  most  eminent  authors, — among 
others,  Boileau  and  Bossuet.  He  produced  a  French 
version  of  Anacreon,  (2  vols.,  1712,)  besides  satires, 
odes,  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1725. 

Gacon-Dufour,  gt'k6N'  dii'fooR',  (Marie  Armande 
Jeanne,)  a  French  authoress,  born  in  Paris  in  1753, 
was  first  known  as  Madame  d'Humiere.  Dufour  was 
the  name  of  her  second  husband.    Died  in  1835. 

Gadd,  gSd,  (Peter  Anton,)  a  Swedish  chemist  and 
botanist,  lived  about  1760.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  one  "On  the  Diseases  of  Plants,"  ("De  Morbis 
Plantaruni,"  1748.) 

Gaddesden,  gadz'den,  (John  of,)  an  English  phy- 
sician of  the  fourteenth  century,  attended  Edward  II., 
and  was  the  first  native  physician  employed  at  the  Eng- 
lish court. 

Gaddi,  gid'dee,  (  Angelo  or  Agnolo,  )  a  famous 
painter,  born  at  Florence  about  1324,  was  a  son  and 
pupil  of  Taddeo,  noticed  below.  He  painted  in  fresco 
and  oil,  and  was  a  good  colorist,  but  not  equal  to  his 
father  in  expression.  His  chief  work  in  fresco  is  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  True  Cross,"  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce, 
Florence.  His  Madonna  in  the  church  of  Saint  Am- 
brose is  called  his  best  work.  He  removed  to  Venice, 
and  enriched  himself  by  commerce.    Died  in  1387. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Gaddi,  (Gaddo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  in  Florence 
about  1240,  was  a  pupil  of  Cimabue.  He  excelled  in 
design  and  in  mosaics.  He  was  employed  by  Pope 
Clement  V.  to  adorn  the  basilica  of  Saint  Peter's  and 
the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore.    Died  in  13 12. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Gaddi,  (Taddeo,)  a  Florentine  painter  and  architect, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1300.  He 
surpassed  his  father,  and  was  the  most  eminent  pupil 
of  Giotto.  His  first  works  were  frescos  painted  in  the 
church  of  Santa  Croce  of  Florence,  the  subjects  of  which 
were  taken  from  the  New  Testament.  He  excelled  in 
expression,  and  was  probably  the  best  painter  of  his 
time.  Among  his  chief  works  is  "  The  Virgin  surrounded 
by  Saints."  He  built  a  bridge  over  the  Arno,  called 
Ponte  Vecchio.    Died  about  1360. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy." 

Gade,  g§.Meh,  (Niels  Wilhelm,)  a  Danish  musician, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1817.  He  composed  sympho- 
nies, overtures,  sonatas,  etc.,  succeeded  Mendelssohn  as 
director  of  the  concerts  at  Leipsic,  and  was  appointed 
master  of  the  royal  chapel  at  Copenhagen  about  1850. 

Gadebusch,  gi'deh-bdosh',  (Friedrich  Konrad,) 
a  Gennan  writer,  born  in  the  island  of  Rugen  in  1719, 
published  several  valuable  works  on  the  history  anti 
literature  of  Livonia  and  the  adjacent  provinces.  He 
lived  many  years  at  Dorpat,  where  he  died  in  1788. 

See  Eksch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 


Ga-de'li-us,  [Sw.  pron.  gi-dn'le-ils,]  (Erik,)  a  Swe- 
dish physician,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1778,  was  chosen  in 
1823  president  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  gamed 
a  prize  offered  in  1802  for  a  treatise  on  medical  juris- 
prudence.   Died  in  1827. 

Gads'deii,  (Christopher,)  an  American  patriot, 
born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1724.  He  was  a 
resolute  and  early  advocate  of  the  popular  cause  before 
the  Revolution,  and  was  a  delegate  to  the  first  Conti- 
nental Congress,  which  met  in  1774.  He  served  as  an 
officer  in  the  army  in  1776,  resigned  his  commission  in 

1779,  and  was  taken  prisoner  at  Charleston  in  August, 

1780.  Died  in  1805. 

Gadsden,  (Christopher  Edwards,)  an  American 
bishop,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  in  1785.  He  became  a  bishop  of  the 
Episcopal  Church  in  1840.    Died  in  1852. 

Gadsden,  (James,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1788,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  served  under  General  Jackson  in  the  war 
against  the  Indians  of  Florida  about  1818.  He  was  sent 
on  a  mission  to  Mexico  in  1853,  and  negotiated  a  treaty 
or  convention  which  defined  the  boundary  between  the 
United  States  and  Mexico.  In  accordance  with  this 
treaty,  the  United  States  paid  Mexico  ten  million  dollars 
for  Arizona.    Died  in  1858. 

Gaede,  ga'deh,  (Hendrik  Moritz,)  a  Danish  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Kiel  in  1796.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Treatise  on  the  Anatomy  of  Insects,"  (181 5.) 
Died  in  1834. 

Gaelen,  van,  vtn  gS'len,  (Alexander,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  in  1670,  visited  many  courts  of  Germany, 
and  finally  settled  in  London.  He  distinguished  him- 
self by  pictures  of  battles  and  of  animals.  Died  in 
1728. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Descamps, 
"Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Gaertner.    See  Gartner. 

Gaeta,  Duke  of.    See  Gaudin. 

Gaetan,  g^-i-tSn',  or  Gaetano,  gl-i-ti'no,  (Giovan- 
ni,) an  Italian  pilot,  who  in  1542  made  a  voyage  in  the 
service  of  Spain  to  the  Moluccas,  and  wrote  a  narrative 
of  the  discoveries  made  in  that  region. 

Gaetano.    See  Cajetan,  (Cardinal.) 

Gaetano,  (Benedetto.)    See  Boniface  VIII. 

Gaetano,  gi-k-t^'no,  or  Gaetani,  gi-i-tS'nee,  (Ce- 
sare,)  Count  della  Torre,  an  Italian  poet  and  antiquary, 
born  at  Syracuse  in  1718,  was  professor  of  moral  phi- 
losophy in  that  city.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  "An- 
tiquities of  Syracuse,"  a  poem  called  "The  Duties  of 
Man,"  ("I  Doveri  dell'Uomo,"  1790,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1808. 

Gaetano,  [Lat.  Caieta'nus  ;  Fr.  Gaetan,  %^Wih^',\ 
Saint,  often  called  Gaetano  di  Tiene  —  ga-i-ti^no 
de  te-a'ni,  an  Italian  priest,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1480. 
His  father's  name  was  Thieni  or  Tiene.  With  a  view 
to  reform  the  priests,  he  undertook,  in  1524,  to  found  a 
new  order  of  monks,  and  obtained  the  sanction  of  Pope 
Clement  VII.  His  friend  Caraffa  was  chosen  superior 
ot  the  order,  which  took  the  name  of  Theatines  and 
became  numerous  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  the  Levant.  One 
of  the  rules  of  this  order  forbade  them  to  have  private 
property  or  receive  salaries,  or  to  resort  to  begging  for 
support.  He  died  in  1547,  and  was  canonized  by  the 
pope  in  1675. 

See  Castaldi,  "Vita  di  S.  Gaetano,"  1612  ;  B.  Destutt  de 
Tracy,  "Vie  de  S.  Gaetan  de  Thienne,"  1774;  S.  Pepe,  "Vita  del 
B.  Gaetano  Tiene,"  1656. 

Gaffarel,  gtTt'rIK,  (Jacques,)  a  French  Orientalist 
and  priest,  born  at  Mannes  in  1601.  He  became  libra- 
rian to  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  chaplain  to  the  king. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Curiosities  of  the 
Talismanic  Sculpture  of  the  Persians,"  (1630,)  and  a 
"History  of  the  Subterranean  World,  containing  a 
Description  of  Caves,  Grottoes,  Caverns,"  etc.,  (1666.) 
Died  in  1681. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Gaffarelli,  gif-fi-reriee,  or  Caffarelli,  kaf-fS-reKlee. 
(Gaetano,)  a  celebrated  Italian  singer,  born  at  Bari  in 
1703,  was  the  son  of  a  peasant  named  Majorano.  He 
began  his  career  in  a  Roman  theatre  as  soprano.  He 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R, 


trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2[^p"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


G J FOR 10 


982 


GJIL 


performed  with  success  in  the  other  cities  of  Italy  and  in 
London,  which  he  visited  in  1730,  Having  amassed  a 
large  fortune,  he  bought  the  dukedom  of  Santo  Dorato. 
He"  had  the  x-eputation  of  being  one  of  the  most  admira- 
ble vocalists  of  his  time.    Died  in  1 783. 

Gaforio,  g^-fo're-o,  Gafforio,  gSf-fo're-o,  or  Gafori, 
gd-fo^ee,  sometimes  written  Gafuri  or  Gafurio,  [Lat. 
Gafo'rius,]  (Franchino,)  an  eminent  writer  on  music, 
born  at  Lodi,  Italy,  in  145 1.  He  taught  music  at  Naples, 
and  was  appointed  chapel-master  of  Milan  Cathedral  in 
1484.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works  on  music,  "Prac- 
tice of  Music,"  etc.,  ("  Practica  Musicae,  sive  Musicae 
Acti(jnes,"  1496.)  His  writings  had  much  influence,  and 
were  cited  by  later  writers  as  a  high  authority.  Died 
about  1522. 

See  BuRNEV,  "  History  of  Music;"  Fetis,  "Biographic  Univer- 
seiie  des  Musiciens." 

Gaforius.    See  Gaforto. 

Gage,  (Thomas,)  a  missionary,  born  in  Ireland  or 
England.  He  studied  with  the  Jesuits,  became  a  monk, 
and  spent  many  years  as  a  missionary  in  Mexico  between 
1625  and  1637.*  After  many  adventures,  he  returned  to 
London,  abjured  Catholicism,  and  published  a  "New 
Survey  of  the  West  Indies,"  (1648,)  which  had  great 
success.  He  became  rector  of  Deal,  in  Kent.  Died  in 
Jamaica  in  1655. 

Gage,  (Thomas,)  a  British  general,  who  succeeded 
General  Amherst  in  1763  as  commander  of  the  British 
army  in  America.  In  1774  he  was  appointed  Governor 
of  Massachusetts  colony,  and  general-in-chief  for  the 
continent.  In  April,  1775,  ^^^^^  expedition  to 
Concord  to  seize  the  colony's  stores,  and  thus  provoked 
the  battle  of  Lexington,  the  first  explosion  of  the  Revo- 
lution. In  the  following  May  the  Provincial  Congress 
resolved  that  "no  obedience  was  in  future  due  to  Gage, 
and  that  he  ought  to  be  guarded  against  as  an  inveterate 
enemy."  According  to  Bancroft,  "Gage  was  neither  fit 
to  reconcile  nor  subdue.  By  his  mild  temper  and  love 
of  society  he  escaped  personal  enmities,  but  in  earnest 
business  he  inspired  neither  confidence  nor  fear."  He 
was  recalled  in  1775,  and  died  in  1787. 

Ganger,  (William,)  an  English  poet  and  civilian,  who 
entered  Oxford  University  in  1574,  was  reputed  the  best 
dramatist  of  his  time.  He  wrote  "Ulysses  Redux,"  and 
other  tragedies. 

Gagern,  von,  fon  g^'g^Rn,  (Friedrich  Balduin,)  a 
general,  born  at  Weilburg,  in  Nassau,  in  1794,  was  a  son 
of  the  following.  He  fought  against  the  French  in  1813 
-15,  and  became  a  general  in  the  Dutch  army.  Having 
taken  command  of  the  army  of  Baden  in  1848,  he  was 
killed  by  the  insurgents  in  April  of  that  year. 

See  "  Leben  des  General  Gagern,"  by  his  brother  Heinrich 
WiLHELM,  3  vols.,  1856. 

Gagern,  von,  (Hans  Chrispoph  Ernst,)  Baron,  a 
German  statesman,  born  near  Worms  in  1766,  was  em- 
ployed in  several  missions  by  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
who  appointed  him  prime  minister  in  1814.  He  repre- 
sented the  King  of  Holland  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in 
181 5.  He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  historical  and 
political  works.    Died  in  1852. 

Gagern.  von,  (Heinrich  Wilhrlm  August,)Baron, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Baireuth  in  1799.  He 
siudied  at  Jena,  and  afterwards  filled  several  offices 
under  the  Grand  Duke  of  Hesse-Darmstadt.  He  was 
elected  in  May,  1848,  president  of  the  Parliament  or 
National  Assembly  which  m.et  at  Frankfort.  He  was 
a  very  popular  leader  of  the  Liberal  or  constitutional 
party,  and  favoured  the  union  of  the  German  States 
on  the  basis  of  the  exclusion  of  Austria.  He  became 
president  of  the  council  of  ministers,  or  prime  minister 
of  the  empire,  in  December,  1848.  He  resigned  office 
in  March,  1849,  probably  because  his  project  to  effect 
tlie  unity  of  Germany  was  defeated  by  the  refusal  of  the 
King  of  Prussia  to  accept  the  imperial  crown.  He  has 
a  high  reputation  for  probity  and  patriotism. 

See  Max  Duncker,  "  H.  von  Gagern;  biographische  Skizze," 
1850. 

Gagern,  von,  (Maximilian,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Weilburg  in  1810,  was  in  his  youth  a 
councillor  of  the  Duke  of  Nassau.  In  1848  he  was  a 
Liberal  member  of  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort. 


Gages,  de,  deh  gSzh,  ?  (Jean  Bonaventure  Du- 
MONT,)  Count,  a  Spanish  general,  born  at  Mons,  in 
Hainault,  in  1682.  He  fought  for  Philip  V.  of  Spain 
in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  1 701-12.  Having 
obtained  command  of  the  Spanish  army  in  Italy  in  1742, 
he  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Campo-Santo  in  1743.  His 
skilful  manoeuvres  in  the  ensuing  campaigns  (1744-46) 
were  highly  applauded.  He  was  appointed  Viceroy  of 
Navarre  in  1748.  His  retreat  from  Campo-Freddo  in 
1746  was  called  by  Rousseau  the  most  brilliant  man- 
oeuvre of  that  century.    Died  in  1753. 

See  Lavallee,  "  Histoire  d'Espagne." 

Gagliardi,  gal-yaR'dee,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Citta-di-Castello  in  1609,  was  an  imi- 
tator of  Guido  and  the  Caracci.    Died  in  1660. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Gagliardo,  gll-yaR'do,  (Achille,)  an  Italian  Jesuit 
and  writer,  born  at  Padua  about  1537;  died  in  1607. 

Gagliuffi,  gll-yooffee,  (Marco  Faustino,)  an  im- 
provisator, born  at  Ragusa  in  1764;  died  in  1834. 

Gagnseus  or  Gagnee.    See  Gagnl 

Gagni,  gtn'ye',  or  Gagnee,  de,  deh  gin'yk',  [Lat. 
Gagn/E^us,]  (Jean,)  a  French  theologian,  born  in  or 
near  Paris.  He  became  rector  of  the  University  of  Paris 
in  1 53 1,  and  afterwards  chief  almoner  and  preacher  to 
Francis  I.,  who  employed  him  to  read  and  expound 
books  to  him  during  his  repasts.  Having  obtained  from 
the  king  an  order  which  opened  to  him  all  the  libraries 
of  France,  he  examined  and  published  many  manuscripts, 
and  by  this  means  promoted  the  revival  of  learning.  He 
wrote  several  learned  works  on  theology,  and  "Com- 
mentaries on  the  Four  Gospels,"  (1552.)    Died  in  1549. 

Gagnier,  ghVyc-k',  (Jean,)  a  French  priest  and  emi- 
nent Orientalist,  was  born  in  Paris  about  1670.  He 
emigrated  to  England  about  1700,  and,  having  renounced 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  became  professor  of  Hebrew 
and  Arabic  at  Oxford.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  Latin  version  of  Abulfeda's  "  Life  of  Mahomet," 
(1723,)  and  a  "Life  of  Mahomet,"  in  French,  (2  vols., 
1732.)    Died  in  1740. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Gaguin,  gt'g^N',  (Robert,)  a  French  historian,  orator, 
and  monk,  was  born  near  Bethune  about  1425.  He  was 
chosen  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  University  of  Paris  in 
1463,  and  was  employed  with  credit  in  diplomatic  mis- 
sions by  Louis  XL,  Charles  VIII.,  and  Louis  XII.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  in  Latin,  "  A  History  of 
the  French  (or  Franks)  from  Pharamond  to  the  Year 
1499,"  which  was  praised  by  Erasmus  for  fidelity  and 
other  merits.    Died  in  1501. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Ga-ha'gan,  ?  (Usher,)  an  Irish  scholar,  translated  into 
Latin  verse  Pope's  "Essay  on  Criticism"  and  "Temple 
of  Fame."  He  was  executed  at  Tyburn,  for  clipping 
coin,  in  1749. 

Gahn,  gjn,  (Joseph  Gottlieb,)  a  Swedish  mineralo- 
gist and  chemist,  born  in  1745,  was  a  pupil  of  Bergmann. 
He  discovered  that  phosphorus  is  a  component  of  bones, 
and  made  some  improvements  in  the  arts  of  mining  and 
metallurgy.  He  was  the  first  who  obtained  manganese 
in  the  metallic  state,  and  discovered  the  primitive  form 
of  calcareous  spar.    Died  in  1818. 

See  H.  Jaerta,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  J.  G.  Gahn,"  1832. 

Gaichies,  ga'she-i',  (Jean,)  a  French  priest,  born  at 
Condom  in  1647,  wrote  "  Maxims  for  the  Ministry  of  the 
Pulpit,"  (1710.)    Died  in  1731. 

Gail,  gtl  or  gt'ye,  (Edme  Sophie  Garre — gtR,)  the 
wife  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Melun  in  1776.  She 
was  an  admirable  musical  genius,  and  composed  several 
operas,  one  of  which,  called  "The  Jealous  Couple,"  was 
performed  in  Paris,  in  1813,  with  brilliant  success.  She 
also  produced  several  charming  ballads.  She  separated 
from  M.  Gail  soon  after  their  marriage,  (1794.)  Died  in 
1819. 

See  F^Tis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Gail,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  Hellenist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1755.  In  1791  he  obtained  the  chair  of  Greek 
literature  in  the  College  of  France,  where  he  taught  with 
success  about  twenty  years.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Institute  in  1809,  and  keeper  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  ^ch^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  f  Sll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GJIL 


983 


GALAUP 


manuscripts  in  the  Royal  Library  in  181 5.  He  published, 
besides  a  Latin  version  of  Thucydides,  (5  vols.,  1807,)  a 
great  number  of  editions  and  translations  of  the  Greek 
authors,  and  a  Greek  grammar,  (1798.)    Died  in  1829. 
See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gail,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  Hellenist,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1795.  He  was  a  sub- 
stitute of  his  father  as  professor  in  the  College  of  France. 
He  published  an  excellent  edition  of  Hudson's  "  Geo- 
graphi  Grasci  Minores,"  (3  vols.,  1826-31,)  and  other 
successful  works.    Died  in  1845. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Gail  Hamilton.    See  Dodge,  (Mary  Abigail.) 

Gailhabaiid,  ga'lt'bo',  (Jui.es,)  a  French  archaeolo- 
gist, born  at  Lille  in  1810.  He  published  a  valuable 
work  entitled  "  Ancient  and  Modern  Monuments," 
("  Monuments  anciens  et  modernes,"  4  vols.,  1840-49,) 
and  "Architecture  of  the  Period  from  the  Fifth  to 
the  Sixteenth  Century,"  (1857.) 

Gaillard,  gt^ySa',  (Gabriel  Henri,)  a  popular  French 
historian,  born  at  Ostel,  in  Picardy,  in  1726.  He  was 
admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1760,  and 
published  in  1766  a  "  History  of  Francis  L,"  (7  vols.) 
His  capital  work  is  a  "History  of  the  Rivalry  between 
France  and  England,"  ("  Histoire  de  la  Rivalite  de  la 
France  et  de  I'Angleterre,"  11  vols.,  1771-77,)  which 
opened  to  him  the  doors  of  the  French  Academy  in  1771. 
Among  his  numerous  other  works  are  a  "History  of 
the  Rivalry  between  France  and  Spain,"  (8  vols.,  1801  ;) 
a  "Historical  Dictionary,"  (6  vols.,  1789-1804,)  which 
forms  part  of  the  "  Encyclopedic  Methodique  ;"  and  a 
"  Life  of  Malesherbes,"  (1805,)  who  was  his  friend.  His 
principal  merits  as  a  writer  are  clearness,  elegance, 
facility,  and  truthfulness.  Died  near  Chantilly  in  1806. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biograpliie 
Generale." 

Gaillard,  gt'ytR',  ?  (John  Ernest,)  a  musical  com- 
poser, born  at  Zell  about  1686,  lived  in  London,  and 
composed  for  the  stage.    Died  in  1749. 

Gaillard,  de,  deh  gt'ytR',  (Honore  Reynaud,)  a 
French  Jesuit,  born  at  Aix  in  1641,  gained  distinction 
as  a  pulpit  orator.  He  became  rector^of  the  College  of 
Paris,  and  confessor  to  the  queen  of  Jarfts  H.  of  England. 
Died  in  1727. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historiqne." 

Gaillard  de  Lonjumeau,  gt'y^R'  deh  l^N'zhii'mo', 
a  French  ecclesiastic,  became  Bishop  of  Apt  in  1673. 
He  conceived  the  project  of  a  great  historical  dictionary, 
for  which  he  collected  copious  materials.  The  work  was 
edited  by  his  chaplain,  Moreri,  and  published  in  1674. 
Died  in  1695. 

Gaillardot,  gi'ytk'do',  (Claude  Antoine,  )  a 
French  naturalist  and  physician,  born  at  Luneville  in 
1774.  He  found  in  the  vicinity  of  that  town  fossils  of 
many  huge  reptiles.  He  wrote  a  "  Memoir  on  the 
Fossils  of  the  Mottled  Sandstone,"  (1806,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1833 

Gai'nas,  a  Goth,  who  became  a  Roman  general  and 
served  under  Stilicho  in  395  a.d.  Soon  after  that  date 
he  obtained  the  chief  command  of  an  army  which  Arca- 
dius  sent  against  Tribigild,  another  Gothic  chief;  but, 
instead  of  fighting  him,  he  formed  a  coalition  with  him- 
and  marched  against  Constantinople.  Arcadius  was 
alarmed,  and  negotiated  with  Gainas,  who  was  admitted 
into  the  capital  with  his  army  and  received  the  title  of 
"  master-general."  His  demand  of  liberty  of  worship 
for  the  Goths  (who  were  Arians)  provoked  the  Catholics, 
who  massacred  many  of  his  army.  Gainas  retreated  into 
Thrace,  and  was  killed  near  the  Danube  by  the  Huns  in 
400  A.D. 

See  Gibbon,  "  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire." 

Gaines,  ganz,  (Edmund  Pendleton,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  Culpepper  county,  Virginia,  in  1777. 
He  served  as  captain  at  Chrystler's  Field,  in  Novem- 
ber, 1813,  and,  having  become  brigadier-general,  de- 
fended Fort  Erie  with  success  in  1814.    Died  in  1849. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Gainsborough,  ganz'bur-eh,  (Thomas,)  an  excellent 
English  landscape-painter,  born  at  Sudbury  in  1727.  He 


became  a  student  of  art  in  London  about  the  age  of  fif- 
teen, and  painted  portraits  chiefly  in  the  early  part  of  his 
career.  Having  worked  some  years  at  Ipswich,  he  re- 
moved to  Bath  about  1760.  Among  his  works  are  several 
good  portraits  of  the  royal  family.  He  settled  in  Lon- 
don about  1775,  after  which  he  devoted  himself  to  land- 
scapes. He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  His  works  are  admired  for  simplicity  and 
fidelity  to  nature.  His  early  style  differed  from  his  later, 
and  exhibited  more  attention  to  minute  details.  He 
excels  in  richness  of  colour  and  in  the  distribution 
of  light  and  shade,  and  is  considered  superior  to  any 
English  landscape-painter  who  had  appeared  before  his 
time.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Woodman  in  the 
Storm,"  "The  Cottage  Door,"  and  "The  Shepherd 
Boy."  "Gainsborough's  hand,"  says  Ruskin,  "is  as 
light  as  the  sweep  of  a  cloud, — as  swift  as  the  flash 
of  a  sunbeam.  His  forms  are  grand,  simple,  and  ideal. 
.  .  .  The  greatest  colorist  since  Rubens,  and  the  last, 
I  think,  of  legitimate  colorists, — that  is  to  say,  of  those 
who  were  fully  acquainted  with  the  power  of  their  mate- 
rial,— pure  in  his  English  feeling,  profound  in  his  seri- 
ousness, graceful  in  his  gaiety,  there  are  nevertheless 
certain  deductions  to  be  made  from  his  worthiness,"  etc. 
("Modern  Painters.")    Died  in  London,  August,  1788. 

See  Thickness,  "Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Gainsborough ;"  Cun- 
ningham, "Lives  of  British  Painters." 

Gais'ford,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished  English 
scholar,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1780.  He  became  regius 
professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford  about  1811,  and  after- 
wards Dean  of  Christ  Church.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Poetae  Graeci  Minores,"  (3  vols.,  1814-16,) 
an  edition  of  Herodotus,  (1824,)  and  one  of  Suidas, 
(1834.)  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  critic.  Died  in  1855. 

Ga'ius  (or  Gajus)  or  Ca'ius,  a  Roman  jurist  of  high 
authority,  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  in  the  reign  of 
Antoninus  Pius,  138-161  a.d.  Little  or  nothing  is  posi- 
tively known  of  his  personal  history.  His  writings  were 
recognized  as  a  standard  by  the  Roman  jurists  until  the 
compilation  of  the  Code  of  Justinian,  which  was  based 
upon  the  "Institutes"  of  Gains.  In  1816  Niebuhr  dis- 
covered at  Verona,  on  a  palimpsest,  a  treatise  on  Roman 
law,  which  was  ascertained  to  be  the  Institutes  of  Gains 
and  was  published  in  1820-21.  This  discovery  was  re- 
garded as  an  important  contribution  to  the  history  of  law. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale;"  Van  Ysselmonde,  "Dissertatio  de 
Gaji  Legis  Actionibus,"  1840. 

Gaj,  gT,  (Lewis,)  a  Croatian  journalist,  born  at  Kra- 
jiina  in  1810.  He  founded,  in  1835,  the  "Croatian 
Gazette,"  which  became  afterwards  the  "  National  Illy- 
rian  Gazette."  This  journal  acquired  extensive  influence, 
and  is  said  to  have  effected  a  great  literary  and  political 
improvement  among  the  Slavonians. 

Galaccini,  gi-l^t-chee^nee,  or  Gallaccini,  gll-llt- 
chee'nee,  (Teofilo,)  an  Italian  geometer,  born  at  Sienna 
in  1564.  He  wrote  an  able  work  "On  the  Errors  of 
Architects,"  (1767.)    Died  in  1641. 

Galand.    See  Galland. 

Galanino,  gi-lS-nee'no,  an  Italian  painter,  whose 
proper  name  was  Baldassare  Aloisi,  was  born  at 
Bologna  in  1578.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  Caracci,  and 
worked  in  Rome  with  success,  especially  in  portraits. 
He  also  painted  history.    Died  in  1638. 

Galanti,  gi-ian'tee,  (Giuseppe  Maria,)  an  Italian 
publicist,  born  at  Campobasso  in  1743.  He  published  a 
"  Geographical  and  Political  Description  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,"  (4  vols.,  1786-93,)  and  other  works.  Died  at 
Naples  in  1806. 

Galateo.    See  Ferrari,  (Antonio.) 

Galatin.    See  Gallatin, 

Galatin,  (Peter,)  a  Franciscan  monk,  who  flourished 
about  1520.  He  wrote  "On  the  Mysteries  of  the  Catho- 
lic Truth,"  ("  De  Arcanis  catholicae  Veritatis,"  1518.) 

Galaup.    See  P^rouse,  La. 

Galaup  de  Chasteuil,  gt'lo'  deh  shi'tui'  or  shi^- 
tuh'ye,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born  at  Aix 
in  1588.  He  passed  his  latter  years  as  an  anchorite  on 
Mount  Lebanon,  where  he  died  in  1644. 

His  nephew,  Pierre  Galaup  de  Chasteuil,  born  in 
1643,  was  a  poet,  and  a  friend  of  Boileau.    His  ode  on 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GALEA 


984 


GALEOTTI 


the  capture  of  Maestricht  (1673)  is  admired.  Died  in 
1727. 

Gal'ba,  (Pub'lius  Sulpkj'ius,)  a  Roman  general, 
who  was  elected  consul  for  211  B.C.  He  commanded  in 
the  war  against  Philip  of  Macedon  from  211  to  204,  but 
performed  nothing  of  much  importance.  In  200  B.C.  he 
was  re-elected  consul,  and  renewed  the  war  in  Macedonia. 
He  defeated  Philip  near  Eordea  in  199,  and  returned  to 
Rome  the  next  year. 

Galba,  (Sergius  or  Servius  Sulpicius,)  a  Roman 
general  and  orator,  who  commanded  in  Spain  in  150  B.C. 
and  perfidiously  massacred  many  thousand  Lusitanians. 
Viriathus  was  one  of  those  who  escaped  from  this  mas- 
sacre. Galba  was  elected  consul  144  B.C.  His  eloquence 
is  highly  praised  by  Cicero. 

Galba,  (Servius  Sulpicius,)  a  Roman  emperor,  born 
in  3  or  4  B.C.,  of  a  noble  family.  He  was  consul  under 
Tiberius  in  33  A.D.,  and  in  the  reign  of  Caligula  com- 
manded the  army  in  Germany,  where  he  acquired  repu- 
tation for  military  skill.  Claudius,  having  succeeded  to 
the  throne,  appointed  Galba  Governor  of  Africa,  in  which 
post  he  obtained  successes.  He  commanded  an  army  in 
Spain  at  the  death  of  Nero,  68  a.D.  He  was  then  pro- 
claimed emperor  by  his  own  troops  and  the  Praetorian 
guards,  whose  choice  was  confirmed  by  the  senate.  But 
he  speedily  lost  the  popular  favour  by  his  severity, 
parsimony,  and  impolitic  measures.  The  army  declared 
for  Otho,  and  Galba  was  slain,  after  a  reign  of  seven 
months,  in  69  A.D.  According  to  Tacitus,  he  would  have 
been  universally  considered  worthy  to  reign  if  he  had 
never  been  emperor. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Galba;"  Suetonius,  "Galba;"  Taci- 
tus, "Annales;"  Niebuhr,  "History  of  Rome;"  Franz  Horn, 
"Historische  Gemalde:  Galba,  Otho  und  Vitellius,"  1812. 

Gale,  (John,)  an  eminent  Baptist  minister,  born  in 
London  in  1680.  He  studied  at  Leyden,  and  on  his 
return  became  one  of  the  ministers  of  Paul's  Alley,  near 
Barbican,  London.  His  principal  work  is  "  Reflections  on 
Wall's  Defence  (or  History)  of  Infant  Baptism,"  (1711,) 
which  is  called  one  of  the  best  works  on  that  subject. 
Died  in  1721. 

See  "  Life  of  John  Gale,"  prefixed  to  his  Works. 

Gale,  (Roger,)  son  of  Thomas  Gale,  of  Scruton,  born 
in  1672,  was  member  of  Parliament,  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  treasurer  of  the  Antiquarian  Society,  and 
wrote  several  antiquarian  treatises.    Died  in  1744. 

Gale,  (Samuel,)  an  English  antiquary,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  London  in  1682.  He  pub- 
lished a  "History  of  Winchester  Cathedral,"  (1715.) 
Died  in  1754. 

Gale,  (Theophilus,)  a  learned  English  nonconform- 
ist divine,  born  at  Kings-Teignton,  Devonshire,  in  1628. 
He  became  a  Fellowof  Magdalene  College,  and  a  popular 
preacher  at  Winchester,  from  which  he  was  ejected  for 
nonconformity  in  1661.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  a 
great  work,  called  "The  Court  of  the  Gentiles;  or,  A 
Discourse  touching  the  Original  of  Human  Literature 
from  the  Scriptures,"  (5  vols.,  1669-77,)  ""^  which  he 
argues  that  the  heathen  theology  and  philosophy  were 
derived  from  the  Scriptures  and  the  Jewish  Church.  He 
became  assistant  to  John  Rowe  at  Holborn,  and  suc- 
ceeded him  in  1677.    Died  in  1678. 

Gale,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  surgeon,  born 
in  1507.  He  served  in  the  army  of  Henry  VHI.  in 
France  in  1544,  and  in  that  of  Philip  H.  in  1557.  He 
afterwards  practised  in  London,  and  wrote  several  pro- 
fessional treatises,  (1563-86.) 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgenieine  Encyklopaedie." 

Gale,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  classical 
scholar  and  critic,  born  at  Scruton,  Yorkshire,  in  1636. 
He  became  professor  of  Greek  in  Cambridge  University 
in  1666,  and  was  master  of  Saint  Paul's  School,  London, 
from  1672  to  1697.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed 
Dean  of  York.  He  was  also  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Mytho- 
logical, Ethical,  and  Physical  Works  or  Treatises," 
("Opuscula  mythologica,  ethica,  et  physica,"  1671,)  an 
edition  of  Herodotus's  History,  (1679,)  and  an  edition 
of  Cicero's  Works,  (1681.)    Died  in  1702. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 


Galeano,  gi-li-i'no,  (Giuseppe,)  an  cuiinent  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Palermo  about  1605.  He  practised 
in  that  city,  where  he  also  taught  medicine  for  twenty- 
five  years  with  great  success.  He  had  a  high  reputation 
as  a  philosopher,  and  was  regarded  as  a  second  (ialen 
by  his  contemporaries.  Among  his  works  are  "  Hip- 
pocrates Revived,"  (1650,)  a  Treatise  on  the  Use  of 
Brandy,  (1667,)  and  several  poems.    Died  in  1675. 

Galeazzo.    See  Viscon  tl 

GaTen,  [  Lat.  Clau'dius  Gale'nus  ;  Gr.  KAavJiOf 
TaTirjvo^;  Fr.  Galien,  gt'le-^w';  It.  Galieno,  g^-le-a'no,] 
a  celebrated  Greek  medical  writer  and  pagan  philosopher, 
born  at  Pergamus,  (or  Pergamum,)  in  Mysia,  in  131  A.D. 
He  studied  the  Platonic  and  the  Peripatetic  philosophies, 
and  was  instructed  in  anatomy  by  Satyrus.  In  his  youth 
he  visited  several  foreign  countries,  to  perfect  his  edu- 
cation at  the  best  schools.  At  the  age  of  thirty-four  he 
removed  to  Rome,  where  he  acquired  great  celebrity  as 
a  practitioner  of  medicine  and  surgery.  He  obtained 
the  confidence  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  who  appointed  him 
physician  to  Commodus,  the  heir  of  the  empire.  He 
also  lectured  on  anatomy  in  Rome.  Towards  the  end 
of  his  life  he  returned  to  his  native  city.  His  death  is 
variously  dated  from  200  to  210  A.D.  He  rendered  im- 
portant services  to  the  science  of  medicine,  and  left  a  great 
number  of  works  in  Greek,  many  of  which  are  lost.  Of 
some  others,  only  Latin  versions  have  come  down  to  us. 

"Galen  had  not,"  says  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale,"  "the  noble  simplicity  of  Hippocrates.  .  .  . 
He  impairs  the  purity  of  his  principles  by  fanciful  ex- 
planations and  by  subtilities.  He  is,  nevertheless,  the 
only  one  among  all  the  ancients  who  has  given  us  a 
complete  system  (corps)  of  medicine." 

Galen  rejected  the  various  medical  systems  which 
were  in  vogue  in  his  time,  and  formed  a  new  eclectic 
system,  which  maintained  its  authority  for  thirteen  cen- 
turies. He  was  regarded  as  an  oracle  by  the  Arabs 
and  Europeans  until  the  fifteenth  century.  Among  his 
extant  works  (above  eighty  in  number)  are  a  treatise  on 
anatomy,  {Ilepi  uvaro^cKuv  kyx£i.pv<^£(^v,)  a  capital  work 
on  physiology,  called  "On  the  Uses  of  the  Parts  of 
the  Human  Body,"  'YyteLva,  "On  Preserving  Health," 
("De  Sanitate  menda,")  and  "De  Locis  affectis,"  a 
treatise  on  pathmogy,  which  Haller  regarded  as  one  of 
Galen's  best  productions.  He  wrote  many  able  works 
on  ethics,  logic,  and  philosophy,  in  one  of  which  he 
praises  the  temperance  and  self-denial  of  the  Christians. 

See  SuiDAS,  TaAiji/o?;  Aboolfaraj,  "  Historia  Dynastiaruin ;" 
F'abricius,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca ;"  Daniel  Le  Clerc,  "  Histoire 
de  la  Medecine;"  Sprengel,  "History  of  Medicine;"  Haller, 
"  Bibliotheca  Medicine  ;"  Daremberg,  "  Expos^  des  Connaissances 
de  Gaiien,"  1841 ;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;" 
A.  FuMANELLi,  "  De  Vita  et  Moribus  Galeni,"  1577;  A.  Werner, 
"Oratiode  Vita  Galeni,"  1570;  Smith,  "Greek  and  Roman  Biog- 
raphy and  Mythology;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Galen,  van,  vtn  gi'len,  (Jan,)  a  brave  naval  officer, 
born  at  Essen,  in  Westphalia,  about  1600.  He  entered 
the  Dutch  navy,  distinguished  himself  in  battles  against 
the  Spaniards,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  commodore.  In 
1653  he  defeated  the  English  fleet  near  Leghorn,  and  at 
the  same  time  received  a  mortal  wound. 

SeeOosTKAMP,  "  Leven,  Daden  en  Lotgevallen  vanden  Komman- 
deur  J.  van  Galen,"  1830. 

Galen,  von,  fon  g^'len,  (Chrtstoph  Bernhard,)  a 
warlike  German  prelate,  born  in  Westphalia  about  1605. 
He  was  elected  Prince-Bishop  of  Miinster  in  1650.  In 
1665  he  joined  Charles  II.  of  England  in  a  war  against 
the  Dutch,  from  whom  he  took  some  fortified  places. 
He  waged  other  aggressive  wars,  and  is  called  by  Sis- 
mondi  a  "mitred  brigand."    Died  in  1678. 

See  Le  Lorrain,  "Vie  de  C.  B.  de  Galen,  etc.,"  Rouen,  1679; 
JoHANN  VON  Alphen,  "  De  Vita  et  Rebus  gestis  C.  Bernardi  Epis- 
copi,  etc.,"  1694;  E.  WiENS,  "  Sammlung  fragmentarischer  Nach- 
richten  iiber  C.  B.  von  Galfen,"  1834. 

Galenus,  (Claudius.)    See  Galen. 

Galeotti,  gi-li-ot'tee,  (Alberto,)  an  eminent  Italian 
jurist,  born  at  Parma;  died  about  1285. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Galeotti,  (Marzio,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Narni 
about  1440.  He  was  professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Bo- 
logna, from  which  he  was  expelled  for  his  religious 
opinions.  He  afterwards  was  preceptor  of  the  son  of 
Matthias  Corvinus,  King  of  Hungary.  Among  his  works 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  /on^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GJLEOTTI 


985 


GALILEI 


is  one  entitled  "On  Man  and  his  Parts,"  ("De  Homine 
at  ejus  Partibus,"  1490.)    Died  about  1494. 

Galeotti,  (Sebastiano,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Florence  about  1676.  His  chief  works  are  his  frescos  in 
the  church  of  La  Madalena  in  Genoa.    Died  in  1746. 

Galere.    See  Galerius. 

Ga-le'ri-us,  [Fr.  Galere,  gt'laiR',]  (Cai'us  Vale'- 
Rius  Maximia'nus,)  a  Roman  emperor,  was  a  native 
of  Dacia,  and  of  humble  origin.  From  the  rank  of  pri- 
vate soldier  he  rose  to  the  highest  commands  in  the 
army.  In  the  year  292  A.u.  he  was  adopted  as  son  or 
heir,  with  the  title  of  Caesar,  by  Diocletian,  whose 
daughter  he  married  ;  and  a  few  years  later  he  com- 
manded the  army  which  defeated  the  Persian  king 
Narses.  The  violent  persecution  of  the  Christians  by 
Diocletian  is  ascribed  to  the  instigation  of  Galerius. 
When  Diocletian  and  Maximian  abdicated,  in  305,  Gale- 
rius and  Constantius  Chlorus  succeeded  as  colleagues 
in  the  empire,  and  the  former  took  for  his  share  Illyria, 
Thrace,  Macedonia,  Greece,  and  the  Eastern  provinces. 
His  colleague  having  died  in  306,  Galerius  wished  to 
choose  Severus  in  his  place;  but  Constantine  and  Max- 
entius  opposed  him,  and  Severus  was  slain.  After  he 
had  failed  in  an  attempt  to  capture  Rome,  he  retired 
to  one  of  his  provinces,  and  died  in  311  a.d. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Tille- 
MONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Gales,  galz,  (Joseph,)  a  distingnished  journalist,  born 
in  England  about  1760.  He  established  and  edited  "  The 
Sheffield  Register,"  which,  on  coming  to  the  United  States 
in  1793,  he  sold  to  Montgomery  the  poet,  who  had  been 
brought  up  in  his  family.  After  editing  for  some  time 
"The  Independent  Gazetteer,"  in  Philadelphia,  a  Re- 
publican journal,  in  which  he  introduced  short-hand 
reports  of  debates  in  Congress,  he  founded,  in  1799, 
"The  Raleigh  (N.C.)  Register."    Died  in  1841. 

Gales,  (Joseph,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
neai  Sheffield,  England,  in  1786.  lie  removed  to  Wash- 
ington m  1807,  and  became  in  1810  the  proprietor  and 
editor  of  the  "National  Intelligencer,"  which  after  1813 
was  issued  daily.  It  became  a  very  able  and  influential 
organ  of  the  Whig  ]iarty.    Died  in  i860. 

Galestruzzi,  gd-l^s-troot'see,  or  Gallestruzzi,  gil- 
ISs-tRoot'see,  (Giovanni  Batiista,)  an  Italian  engraver 
and  painter,  born  at  Florence  about  1618.  He  settled 
in  Rome,  and  was  received  into  the  Academy  of  Saint 
Luke  in  1652.    Died  in  Rome  about  1670. 

Galfrid  (or  Geoffroy)  de  Beaulieu,  gtlTre'  deh  b5'- 
le-uh',  a  French  monk,  confessor  to  Saint  Louis,  who  was 
attended  by  him  in  his  two  crusades.    Died  in  1274. 

Galfridus  de  Vinosalvo.    See  Geoffroi  de  Vin- 

SAUF. 

Galhegos,  de,  digil-ya'g(!)s,  (Manoel,  or  Manuel,)  a 
popular  Portuguese  poet,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1597,  was  a 
friend  of  Lope  de  Vega.  He  produced  a  poem  on  the 
"Wars  of  the  Giants  against  Jupiter,"  (1628,)  which  was 
admired  for  its  brilliant  imagery  and  elegant  style,  and  a 
poem  named  "The  Temple  of  Memory,"  (1635,)  which 
increased  his  celebrity.  He  also  wrote  several  dramas, 
which  were  performed  with  applause.    Died  in  1665. 

Galiaiii,  gi-le-^'nee,  (Ferdinando,)  Aijb6,  an  Italian 
political  economist,  born  at  Chieti,  in  the  Abruzzi,  in  1728. 
He  wrote  (1750)  an  able  treatise  "On  Currency,"  or 
Money,  ("Delia  Moneta,")  which  acquired  a  European 
reputation  and  influenced  the  legislation  of  his  own 
country,  then  disturbed  by  a  sur|)lus  of  precious  metals 
and  the  consequent  enormous  rise  in  the  price  of  com- 
modities. In  1759  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  le- 
gation at  Paris,  where  he  remained  many  years  and 
attracted  much  notice  by  his  wit  and  convivial  powers. 
While  in  Paris,  he  argued  against  the  free  exportation  of 
corn,  in  his  "  Dialogues  on  the  Corn  Trade,"  in  French, 
(1770,)  which  obtained  great  success,  and  of  which  Vol- 
taire said,  "  This  work  seems  like  the  joint  production 
of  Plato  and  Moliere."  "No  one,"  said  Turgot,  "could 
maintain  a  bad  cause  with  more  wit,  grace,  finesse,  and 
reasonableness  in  details."  Having  returned  to  Naples 
in  1769,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  ministers  of  the 
junta  of  royal  domains  in  1777,  and  first  assessor  or 
minister  of  the  council  of  finance  in  1782.  He  wrote 
an  able  treatise  "  On  the  Reciprocal  Duties  of  Neutrals 


and  Belligerents,"  (1782.)  Died  at  Naples  in  1787.  He 
left  in  manuscript  a  Life  of  Horace  and  a  Commen- 
tary on  that  poet,  which,  says  Ginguene,  are  learned  and 
original,  like  all  his  works.  His  "Letters  to  Madame 
d'Epinay"  were  published  in  1818. 

See  Marmontel,  "Memoires;"  Grimm,  "  Correspondance ;" 
Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi." 

Galiano,  gS-le-i'no,  (Antonio  Alcala,)  a  distin- 
guished Spanish  political  writer  and  orator,  was  born  at 
Cadiz  about  1790.  He  promoted  with  zeal  the  revolu- 
tion of  1820,  and  was  elected  in  1821  to  the  Cortes,  in 
which  he  highly  distinguished  himself  as  an  orator  and 
leader  of  the  Liberal  party.  Having  been  driven  into 
exile  in  1823,  he  went  to  England,  and  became  professor 
of  Spanish  in  the  London  University  about  1828.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century,"  which  was  published  in  the  "Athenseum" 
(1834)  and  is  highly  commended.  He  returned  to  Spain 
in  1834,  and  joined  the  Conservative  party  about  1836, 
after  which  he  was  again  exiled,  for  political  reasons. 

Galien,  the  French  for  Galen,  which  see. 

Galien,  gt'le-iN'',  (Joseph,)  a  French  natural  philoso- 
pher, born  near  Le  Puy  in  1699.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
one  of  the  first  who  conceived  the  practicability  of  ascend- 
ing by  means  of  an  apparatus  lighter  than  air.  He  pub- 
lished "The  Art  of  Aerial  Navigation,"  and  a  treatise 
"On  the  Formation  of  Hail."    Died  in  1782. 

Galieno,  the  Italian  for  Galen,  which  see. 

Galigai.    See  Ancre,  (Marshal  d'.) 

Galilaeus  or  Galilee.    See  Galilei. 

Galilei,  gS-le-la'ee,  ( Alessandro,)  an  Italian  archi- 
tect, born  at  Florence  in  169 1.  He  worked  at  Florence 
and  Rome,  where  he  was  employed  by  Pope  Clement 
XII.,  and  where  he  built  the  fa9ade  of  the  church  of 
Saint  John  of  the  Florentines,  and  the  chapel  Corsini, 
which  is  called  his  master-piece.    Died  in  1737. 

Galilei,  gi-le-la'ce,  [Fr.  Galilee,  gS'le'li';  Lat. 
Galil/e'us  or  Galile'us,]  (Galileo,)  commonly  called 
simply  Galileo,  gdl-e-lee'o,  [It.  pron.  g^-le-la'o,]  an  illus- 
trious Italian  mathematician  and  natural  philosopher, 
was  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Pisa,  the  15th  of  February, 
1564.  From  early  childhood  he  showed  a  rare  aptitude 
for  mechanical  invention.  After  having  studied,  at  Flor- 
ence, the  classics,  music,  and  painting,  he  went  to  Pisa 
in  1582  to  study  medicine.  But  the  impulse  of  his  genius 
and  destiny  caused  him  to  prefer  geometry  and  physical 
philosophy,  in  which  he  made  rapid  ])rogress.  He  dis- 
covered about  1584  the  isochronism  of  the  vibrations  of 
a  pendulum.  Like  his  contemporary,  Bacon,  he  asserted 
his  independence  against  the  authority  of  Aristotle, 
(whose  system  was  then  followed  with  blind  and  servile 
submission,)  and  appealed  to  the  impartial  evidence  and 
umpirage  of  experiment.  In  1589  he  was  chosen  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  the  University  of  Pisa,  where 
he  demonstrated  the  fallacy  of  the  received  theory  that 
bodies  of  unequal  weights  will  fall  with  proportionate 
velocities,  by  dropping  metallic  balls  of  different  sizes 
from  the  top  of  the  Leaning  Tower.  He  was  also  the 
first  who  discovered  the  law  by  which  the  velocity  ot 
falling  bodies  is  accelerated.  In  1592  the  senate  of 
Venice  appointed  him  professor  of  mathematics  in 
Padua  for  the  term  of  six  years,  which  term  was  re- 
newed in  1598.  During  this  period  he  invented  a  ther- 
mometer, and,  after  examining  the  rival  theories  of 
astronomy,  he  adopted  the  Copernican  system,  which 
was  then  regarded  as  heretical  by  the  schoolmen  and 
clergy  of  Italy.  In  1609  his  celebrity  was  greatly  in- 
creased by  the  construction  of  his  telesco])e  (the  honour 
of  inventing  which  is  generally  conceded  to  him)  and  by 
the  sublime  results  which  he  realized  in  its  application 
to  astronomy  and  the  "structure  of  the  universe."  He 
saw  with  rapt  and  devout  admiration  the  mountains  and 
valleys  of  the  moon,  and  the  phases  of  Venus  ;  he  dis- 
covered the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  and  resolved  into 
myriads  of  stars  or  flaming  orbs  the  luminous  nebulae 
of  the  Milky  Way.  He  hastened  to  impart  these  glo- 
rious revelations  in  his  "  Sidereal  Messenger,"  ("  Side- 
reus  Nuncius,")  published  in  1610.  About  the  year 
161 1  he  accepted  an  invitation  to  Florence,  where  he 
was  liberally  patronized  by  Cosimo  de'  Medici. 

While  Galileo  was  thus  employed  in  consolidating  the 


€  as     c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Vi^guttural;  Tsr,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GALILEI  986 


Copernican  system  by  sensible  evidence,  and  unfolding 
to  the  human  mind  the  grandeur  of  the  universe,  the 
Jesuits  and  other  enemies  denounced  him  to  the  Inquisi- 
tion as  a  heretic.  In  1616  he  was  summoned  to  Rome, 
and  had  an  interview  with  the  pope,  Paul  V.,  who  posi- 
tively forbade  him  to  teach  the  doctrine  of  the  motion  of 
the  earth,  and,  on  his  giving  a  promise  to  that  effect, 
permitted  him  to  return  to  Florence.  For  a  number  of 
years  he  enjoyed  a  truce  from  persecution,  and  even  re- 
ceived some  kindness  from  the  next  pope,  Urban  VIII. 
In  1632  he  published  his  great  work,  the  "Dialogues on 
the  Ptolemaic  and  Copernican  Systems,"  in  which,  with 
graceful  felicity  of  style,  he  employs  all  the  resources  of 
wit,  fancy,  reason,  and  eloquence  to  render  the  truth  at- 
tractive. The  dialogue  is  carried  on  by  Salviati,  Sagredo, 
and  Simplicius,  the  last  of  whom  (a  fictitious  person) 
maintains  the  theory  of  Ptolemy.  The  appearance  of 
this  work  occasioned  a  great  outcry  at  Rome.  The  pope 
was  persuaded  that  the  author  had  exposed  him  to 
ridicule,  in  the  character  of  Simplicius;  and  Galileo  was 
again  cited  before  the  Inquisition,  in  his  seventieth  year. 
After  a  confinement  of  several  months,  he  was  induced 
to  sign  a  document  abjuring  the  obnoxious  theory,  (that 
the  earth  had  a  diurnal  motion,  as  well  as  a  motion  round 
the  sun,)  and  promised  to  refrain  from  teaching  it;  but 
even  this  did  not  procure  his  liberation.  It  is  said  that,  as 
he  rose  from  the  kneeling  posture  in  which  he  signed  his 
name,  he  whispered  to  a  friend,  "  E  pur  se  muove,"  ("  It 
moves  nevertheless.")  His  confinement  was  continued  a 
few  years,  th6ugh  not  in  the  severest  form,  and  it  appears 
that  he  pursued  his  studies  and  observations  until  he 
became  blind.  He  was  visited  by  Milton  in  1638.  He 
died  at  or  near  Florence  in  January,  1642,  within  a  year 
of  the  birth  of  Newton.  He  was  never  married.  His 
temper  was  cheerful  and  sociable,  his  features  comely, 
and  his  person  of  medium  stature.  Among  his  principal 
disciples  were  Torricelli  and  Viviani.  In  regard  to  the 
invention  of  the  telescope,  to  which  allusion  has  been 
made  above,  we  may  here  remark  that  although  Jens  or 
Jansen,  a  Dutch  optician,  first  invented  a  small  spy-glass, 
intended  for  a  plaything,  yet  Galileo  was  the  first  who 
constructed  an  astronomical  telescope  and  applied  it  to 
its  noblest  use.  Galileo  himself  says  that  he  had  heard 
of  the  invention  in  Holland  of  an  instrument  which  en- 
larged the  size  of  distant  objects,  but  was  not  informed 
how  it  was  constructed,  and  that  the  one  he  used  was 
the  result  of  his  own  study  and  experiments.  The  most 
important  discovery  of  Galileo  was  that  of  Jupiter's  satel- 
lites, the  eclipses  of  which  afforded  the  first  good  method 
of  determining  longitudes.  His  "  Scienza  mechanica" 
was  written  in  1592,  but  not  printed  until  1634.  About 
1582  he  obtained  the  idea  of  the  pendulum  from  the 
oscillations  of  a  lamp  suspended  in  a  church  ;  and  Biot 
says  he  constructed  a  clock  in  1633  in  which  the  pen- 
dulum was  used.  Hume  ranks  Galileo  above  Lord  Bacon 
as  an  author  and  philosopher.  ("History  of  England," 
vol.  iv.)  A  good  edition  of  Galileo's  complete  works 
was  published  at  Florence  by  Alberi,  20  vols.,  1842-58. 

See  Viviani,  "Vita  del  Galilei;"  L.  Brenna,  "Vita  Galilei,"  in 
Fabroni's  "Vitje  Italorum;"  Drinkwater  Bethune,  "Life  of 
Galileo,"  in  the  "Library  of  Useful  Knowledge;"  Sir  David 
Brewster,  "  Martyrs  of  Science,"  1841  :  Neli.i,'"  Vita  di  Galilei," 
2  vols.,  1793:  Philar^ik  Chaslep;,  "  Galileo ;  sa  Vie,  son  Proces 
et  ses  Coiitemporains,"  1862;  G.  Libri,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des 
CEuvres  de  G.  Galilei,"  1841  ;  Campanella,  "  Apologia  pro  Galileo," 
1622;  Frisi,  "  Elogio  del  Galileo,"  1775;  A.  Cattanko,  "  Ceniii  su 
la  Vita  di  G.  Galilei,"  1843  ;  "  North  British  Review"  for  November, 
i860;  Biot,  article  on  Galileo  in  the  "Biographic  Universelle;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Galilei,  (Vincentio,)  the  father  of  the  great  astrono- 
mer, resided  in  Florence,  and  was  married  in  1562  to 
Julia  Venturi.  He  excelled  in  the  theory  and  practice  of 
music,  and  wrote  a  learned  treatise  entitled  a  "Dialogue 
on  Ancient  and  Modern  Music."    He  died  about  1600. 

Galileo,  (the  celebrated  philosopher.)  See  Galilei, 
(Galileo.) 

Galileo,  (Vincentio,)  a  son  of  the  great  astronomer, 
was  born  about  1600.  He  aided  his  father  in  experiments, 
cultivated  literature,  and  gave  special  attention  to  the 
application  of  the  pendulum  to  clocks.    Died  in  1649. 

Galileus.    See  Galilei. 

Galimard,  gif\t'm^?s.',  (Nicolas  Auguste,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1813,  was  a  pupil  of 


GALL^US 


Ingres.  Among  his  works  are  "Nausicaa  and  her  Com- 
panions," and  "The  Evangelists." 

Galin,  gS'l^N',  (Pierre,)  a  French  musician,  born  at 
Samatan  in  1786,  invented  a  new  method  of  teaching 
music,  named  the  "Method  of  the  Meloplaste."  Died 
in  1822. 

Galindes  de  Oaravajal,  gk-XhVdlsdk  ka-ri-va-Hai', 
(Lorenzo,)  a  Spanish  lawyer  and  historian,  born  at  Pla- 
cencia  in  1472.  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  chose  him  as 
president  of  his  council  of  state.  He  wrote  a  history 
of  John  II.  of  Castile,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1532. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  iii. 
part  ii. 

Galindo,  gS-l^n'do,  (Beatriz,)  a  Spanish  lady,  born 
at  Salamanca  in  1475,  excelled  in  the  use  of  the  Latin 
language,  and  was  regarded  as  a  prodigy  of  learning. 
She  became  a  lady  of  honour  to  Isabella  of  Castile. 
Died  in  1535. 

Galiot  (or  Galliot)  de  Genouillac,  gHe'o'  deh 
zheh'noo'ytk'.  Seigneur  d'Acier,  (dt'se-i',)  a  French 
officer,  born  in  Quercy  about  1466,  w^  made  grand 
master  of  artillery  in  15 12,  and  afterwards  grand  equerry 
to  Francis  I.  He  displayed  skill  at  the  battles  of  Ma- 
rignano  and  of  Pavia,  (1525.)    Died  in  1546. 

See  Brantome,  "  Vie  de  Galliot,"  vol.  ii. 

Galisoiiniere.    See  Gallissoni^:re. 

Galitzin  or  Galitsin.    See  Gallitsin. 

Gall,  gil,  (Ferdinand,)  Baron,  a  German  author, 
born  at  Battenberg,  in  Hesse,  in  1809.  He  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  "Travels  in  Sweden  in  the  Summer 
of  1836,"  (2  vols.,  1838,)  and  "Paris  and  its  Salons," 
(2  vols.,  1845,)  which  had  a  great  success.  In  1846  he 
became  intendant  of  the  royal  theatre  at  Stuttgart. 

C^all,  gaul,  [Ger.  pron.  g^l,]  (Franz  Joseph,)  a  Ger- 
man physician,  distinguished  as  the  founder  of  the  sys- 
tem of  phrenology,  was  born  at  Tiefenbrunn,  in  Baden, 
on  the  9th  of  March,  1758.  He  studied  natural  sciences 
at  Strasburg,  and  passed  thence  to  Vienna  about  1781. 
He  graduated  as  M.D.  at  Vienna  in  1785,  and  practised 
in  that  city  for  many  years.  In  1791  he  published  a 
medical  work  entitled  "  Medical  and  Philosophical  Re- 
searches on  Nature  and  Art,"  ("  Philosophisch-medici- 
nische  Untersuchungen  liber  Natur  und  Kunst,")  etc.  He 
devoted  much  time  to  the  study  of  the  brain  and  to  the 
external  signs  connected  with  the  different  functions  and 
faculties  of  the  human  mind,  and  began  in  1796  to  lec- 
ture on  these  subjects  in  Vienna.  Among  his  principal 
doctrines  are  the  following  :  that  the  brain  is  the  organ 
of  all  the  faculties,  projjensities,  and  sentiments  ;  that  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  brain  are  appropriated  to  particular 
mental  faculties  or  moral  affections  ;  and  that  the  capacity 
and  character  of  a  person  are  indicated  by  the  external 
form  of  his  skull.  About  1805  he  began,  with  his  pupil 
and  coadjutor.  Dr.  Spurzheim,  to  propagate  their  system 
by  lectures  in  Paris,  Berlin,  and  other  cities  of  Europe. 
Dr.  Gall  became  a  permanent  resident  of  Paris  in  1807. 
He  presented  to  the  Institute  in  1808  his  "Researches 
into  the  Nervous  System  in  General  and  the  Brain  in 
Particular,"  which  was  unfavourably  criticised  by  a  com- 
mittee of  the  Institute,  in  their  report.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  "  The  Anatomy  and  Physiologv  of  the 
Nervous  System  in  General,  and  of  the  Brain  in  Particu- 
lar," (4  vols.,  1 810-19,  in  French.)  He  was  assisted  in 
this  work  by  Dr.  Spurzheim.  (See  Spurzheim.)  Died 
in  Paris  in  1S28. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1815;  " Quarterly  Review" 
for  April,  1815  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Gail,  (Richard,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  1776,  was  a 
printer  of  Edinburgh.  He  acquired  distinction  as  the 
author  of  a  poem  called  "Arthur's  Seat,"  and  of  several 
popular  songs,  among  which  are  "The  Farewell  to 
Ayrshire,"  and  "The  Braes  o'  Drumlie."   Died  in  1801. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Gall,  gaul,  or  GaFlus,  Saint,  called  "the  Apostle 
of  the  Swiss,"  was  born  in  Ireland  about  550  A.D.  He 
was  a  disciple  of  Saint  Columban,  whom  he  accompanied 
to  Gaul  in  585.  He  founded  the  monastery  of  Saint  Gall, 
in  the  Swiss  canton  of  that  name.    Died  in  646  A.D. 

See  Karl  Greith,  "Der  heilige  Gallus  der  Apostel  Alleman- 
niens,"  1845. 

Gallaeus.    See  GmaA. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f3.r,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


GALLAGHER 


987 


GALLE 


Gal'la-gher,  (William  D.,)  an  American  poet  and 
journalist,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1808.  He  edited 
several  literary  journals  in  Ohio,  and  was  associate  editor 
of  the  "Cincinnati  Gazette,"  1840-50.  He  removed  to 
Louisville,  Kentucky,  about  1853.  Among  his  works 
are  three  volumes  of  poems  entitled  "Erato,"  (1835-37.) 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Gallais,  gS'la',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  historical 
and  political  writer,  born  at  Done  (Anjou)  in  1756.  In 
the  Revolution  he  was  a  zealous  royalist.  He  wrote 
many  mediocre  works,  among  which  is  a  "History  of 
France  from  the  Death  of  Louis  XVL  to  the  Peace  of 
1815,"  (2  vols.,  1820.)    Died  in  1820. 

Gallait,  gt  la',  (Louis,)  an  eminent  Belgian  historical 
painter,  born  at  Tournay  in  1810,  studied  in  Paris. 
Among  his  works  are  "Job  and  his  Friends,"  "The 
Abdication  of  Charles  V.,"  (1841,)  and  "The  Last  Mo- 
ments of  Egmont,"  (1853.) 

Galland,  gi!\hW ,  (Antoinf.,)  a  distinguished  French 
Orientalist  and  antiquary,  born  at  RoUot,  in  Picardy,  in 
1646.  He  made  several  journeys  to  the  Levant  to  collect 
medals  and  copy  inscriptions.  About  1680  he  had  a 
commission  from  Colbert  to  make  antiquarian  researches 
in  the  East.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions  in  1701,  and  became  professor  of  Arabic 
in  the  Royal  College  in  1709.  His  reputation  is  chiefly 
founded  on  his  French  version  of  the  Arabian  tales  called 
"The  Thousand  and  One  Nights,"  (12  vols.,  1704-17.) 
The  style  of  this  version  is  natural  and  simple.  He  trans- 
lated other  works  from  the  Arabic  and  Persian,  and 
wrote  treatises  on  medals  and  antiquities.  Died  in  171 5. 

See  Zenker,  "  Bibliotheca  Orientalis  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Galland,  (Auguste,)  a  French  historical  writer,  born 
about  1570.  He  was  a  member  of  Henry  the  Fourth's 
council  of  state,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Memoirs  to  illustrate  the  History  of  Navarre  and 
Flanders,"  (1648,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Reformation 
in  France."    Died  before  1645. 

Galland,  (Pierre,)  a  French  scholar,  born  at  Aire  in 
1 5 10.  He  became  professor  of  eloquence  in  the  Royal 
College  in  1545,  and  was  a  friend  of  Pude,  (Budaeus.) 
His  argument  "On  Behalf  of  the  Parisian  .School  against 
the  New  Academy  of  P.  Ramus"  ("  Pro  Schola  Parisiensi 
contra  novam  Academiam  Petri  Rami,"  1551)  was  the 
signal  for  the  persecutions  which  that  author  suffered. 
Died  in  1559. 

Gallas,  gil'lis,  (Matthias,)  an  Austrian  general, 
born  at  or  near  Trent  in  1589.  He  was  a  major-general 
of  the  army  which  took  Mantua  in  1629,  and  became  a 
general  of  cavalry,  or  field-marshal,  in  163 1.  He  com- 
manded a  corps  under  Wallenstein,  in  Bohemia,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  battles  against  the  Swedes  at 
Nuremberg  and  Lutzen  in  1632.  Gallas  appears  to  have 
been  the  chief  agent  in  the  intrigues  which  resulted  in 
the  ruin  of  Wallenstein,  whom  he  succeeded  as  general- 
in-chief  in  1634,  He  gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Nord- 
lingen  in  1634,  but  was  outgeneralled  and  defeated  near 
Magdeburg  by  Torstenson  in  1644.    Died  in  1647. 

See  ScHii.i.ER,  "  History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War;"  Ersch  unci 
Grubek,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

GalTa-tin,  [Fr.  pron.  gt'lt'tiN',]  (Albert,)  an  emi- 
nent statesman,  and  a  great  oracle  and  leader  of  the 
Republican  party  in  America,  was  born  at  Geneva  in 
January,  1761.  After  graduating  at  the  university  of  his 
native  place,  he  emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1780. 
He  acted  as  French  tutor  in  Harvard  University  in  1782, 
and  spent  the  two  or  three  ensuing  years  in  Virginia, 
where  he  purchased  a  large  tract  of  land.  In  1786  he 
fixed  his  home  in  Fayette  county,  Pennsylvania,  and  in 
1790  was  elected  a  member  of  the  legislature  of  that 
State,  in  which  he  served  several  years,  and  acquired 
great  influence  with  both  parties,  although  he  acted  with 
the  Republicans.  In  1793  the  legislature,  in  which  the 
Federal  party  had  a  majority,  paid  him  a  high  compli- 
ment by  electing  him  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States, 
in  which,  however,  he  served  only  two  months,  as  that 
body  decided,  by  a  party  vote,  that  he  was  not  eligible, 
because  he  had  not  been  naturalized  nine  years  before 
the  election.  From  1795  to  1801  he  represented  a  dis- 
trict of  Pennsylvania  in  the  Federal  Congress,  in  which  | 


he  became  one  of  the  ablest  debaters  and  was  recog- 
nized as  the  leader  of  the  Republicans,  at  least  after 
Madison  had  retired  from  that  arena  in  1797.  He  spoke 
often,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  cool  and  ready  dex- 
terity, as  well  as  his  knowledge  of  political  economy  and 
finance.  The  first  formation  of  the  committee  of  ways 
and  means  was  due  to  his  suggestion.  In  1801  President 
Jefferson  a])pointed  Gallatin  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
which  he  managed  with  eminent  ability  until  1813,  having 
been  continued  in  the  office  by  Madison  in  1809.  He 
succeeded  in  effecting  a  great  reduction  of  the  public 
debt,  and  opposed  the  second  war  with  England.  In 
1813  he  retired  from  the  cabinet,  to  take  an  active  part 
in  negotiating  a  peace  with  England  ;  and,  as  the  col- 
league of  Adams,  Clay,  and  others,  he  signed  the  treaty 
of  Ghent  in  1814.  On  this  occasion,  and  in  his  subse- 
quent career  of  diplomacy,  he  enjoyed  a  very  high  repu- 
tation as  a  negotiator,  for  which  he  was  so  well  fitted 
by  his  extensive  and  exact  information,  his  honourable 
character,  his  courteous  address,  and  his  logical  ability. 
He  was  resident  minister  of  the  United  States  at  Paris 
from  1816  to  1823,  and  in  1826  accepted  a  mission  to 
England,  where  he  settled  a  question  of  the  boundary 
between  the  United  States  and  British  America,  and 
regulated  the  subject  of  fisheries.  Returning  in  1827,  he 
withdrew  from  political  employment,  and  took  up  his 
residence  in  New  York  City.  He  subsequently  wrote 
two  able  pamphlets  on  Currency,  and  in  1840  an  essay 
on  the  Northeastern  Boundary.  In  1843  was  chosen 
president  of  the  New  York  Historical  Society.  John 
Randolph,  who  witnessed  his  career  in  Congress,  once 
remarked  that  Gallatin  was  unrivalled  for  readiness  and 
dexterity  in  debate  ;  and  Judge  Story  pronounced  him 
a  truly  great  statesman,  ranking  him  side  by  side  with 
Hamilton.    Died  in  1849. 

See  DuYCiciNCK,  "  Cyclopjedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Gallatin,  gt'lS'tL\',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  Swiss  physician, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1751,  was  physician  to  the  hospital 
founded  in  Paris  by  Madame  Necker.  He  wrote  a  treat- 
ise on  acute  fevers,  (1781.)    Died  in  1783. 

Gallau-det',  (Rev.  Thomas  H.,)  born  in  Philadel- 
phia in  1787,  rendered  himself  widely  and  favonrably 
known  by  his  successful  efforts  for  the  instruction  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb.  After  studying  for  the  ministry  at  An- 
dover,  he  took  charge  of  a  church  in  Portsmouth,  New 
Hampshire.  About  1815  he  formed  an  association  for 
the  relief  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  was  induced  to  un- 
dertake a  mission  to  Europe  to  qualify  himself  for  their 
tuition.  At  Paris  he  was  kindly  received  by  the  Abbe 
Sicard,  who  gave  him  full  facilities  for  learning  the  sys- 
tem followed  in  the  institution  under  his  charge.  Having 
returned  to  the  United  States,  he  was  chosen  principal 
of  the  Asylum  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  at  Hartford,  which 
was  opened  in  April,  1817,  and  which  was  the  first  insti- 
tution that  had  been  founded  for  that  purpose  in  America. 
He  continued  to  labour  here  with  zeal  and  success  until 
1830,  when  he  resigned  on  account  of  ill  health.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "The  Child's  Book  of 
the  Soul,"  (3d  edition,  1850.)    Died  in  1851. 

See  Henry  15aknard,  "Discourse  on  the  Life  and  Character 
ofT.  H.  Gallnudet,"  1852;  "Life  ofT.  H.  Gallaudet,"  by  H.  Hum- 
phrey; "  Nortl)  American  Review"  for  October,  1858. 

Galle,  gSl,  (Andr6,)  a  French  medallist  and  engraver, 
born  at  Saint-£tienne  in  1761,  settled  in  Paris.  He  en- 
graved many  ])ortraits  and  medals  in  commemoration  of 
the  events  of  Napoleon's  reign.    Died  in  1844. 

Galle,  gSKleh,  (Cornelis,)  an  excellent  Flemish  en- 
graver, born  at  Antwerp  in  1570,  was  a  son  and  pupil 
of  Philip  Galle,  (1537-1612.)  He  studied  in  Rome,  and 
returned  to  Antwerp,  where  he  engraved  history  after 
various  masters,  and  portraits  after  Van  Dyck.  Among 
his  works  are  a  "  Virgin  and  Child,"  after  Raphael ;  a 
"Virgin  crowned  with  Flowers,"  after  Rnbens ;  and 
some  original  designs.  Pie  was  the  most  famous  artist 
of  the  family. 

See  Gandellini,  "  Notizie  degli  Intagliatori." 

Galle,  (Cornelis,)  the  Younger,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Antwerp  in  1600,  was  an  engraver  and 
designer.  He  engraved  history  and  portraits,  the  latter 
of  which  are  his  best  productions. 

See  Bryan,  "Dictionary  of  Painters  and  Engravers." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,giitttiral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GALLE 


988 


GALLITSIN 


Galle,  gaKleh,  (Dr.  J.  G.,)  a  German  astronomer,  born 
in  Prussian  Saxony  about  1812,  became  director  of  the 
Observatory  at  Berlin,  and  was  the  first  who  observed 
with  a  telescope  the  planet  Neptune,  whose  existence 
Leverrier  had  previously  demonstrated.  (See  Lever- 
RIER.)  He  announced  this  fact  to  Leverrier  in  a  letter 
dated  September  25,  1846.  A  few  years  later  he  obtained 
the  chair  of  astronomy  at  Breslau. 

Galle,  (Philip,)  a  Flemish  engraver,  born  at  Haarlem 
in  1537,  was  a  correct  designer.  He  was  a  dealer  in 
prints  at  Antwerp,  and  produced  many  engravings  after 
his  own  designs  and  after  those  of  other  artists.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Portraits  of  the  Eminent  Men  of  the 
Fifteenth  and  Sixteenth  Centuries."    Died  in  1612. 

His  son  Theodore,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1560,  was  an 
engraver.  He  engraved  some  works  of  Rubens  and  other 
Flemish  masters,  besides  his  own  designs. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Galle,  gt'li',  [Lat.  Gall^'us,]  (Servais,)  a  Dutch 
writer,  born  at  Rotterdam  about  1628,  published  an  edi- 
tion of  Lactantius,  (1660,)  aaid  "Dissertations  on  the 
Sibyls  and  their  Oracles,"  (1688.)    Died  in  1709. 

Gallego,  g3.1-ya'go,  (Don  Juan  Nicasio,)  a  Spanish 
poet  and  priest,  born  at  Zamora  in  1777,  became  chap- 
lain to  the  king  in  1805,  and,  after  the  French  invasion, 
was  elected  to  the  Cortes  of  Cadiz.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  fine  poems,  an  "  Elegy  to  the  Second  of  May," 
("Al  Dos  de  Mayo,"  1808,)  and  an  "Ode  on  the  Influ- 
ence of  Public  Enthusiasm  on  the  Arts,"  (1832.) 

Gallegos,  gai-ya'g6s,  (Fernando,)  a  renowned  Span- 
ish painter,  born  at  Salamanca  in  146 1.  He  distinguished 
himself  by  accuracy  of  design  and  beauty  of  colouring. 
His  subjects  are  chiefly  Scriptural.  His  works  are  said 
to  have  been  often  mistaken  for  those  of  Albert  Durer. 
Died  in  1550. 

See  Bermudez,  "Diccionario  Historico." 

Gallegos,  (Manuel.)    See  Galhegos. 

Gallestruzzi.    See  Galestruzzi. 

G^Uetti.gal-let'tee,  (Filippo  Maria,)  a  fresco-painter, 
born  at  Florence  in  1636,  adorned  several  churches  of 
that  city  and  of  Parma.    Died  in  17 14. 

Galletti,  gil-let'tee,  (Johann  Georg  August,)  a 
German  historian,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1750,  became 
historiographer  to  the  Duke  of  Gotha  in  1816.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  educational  treatises  and  historical 
works,  among  which  is  a  "History  of  Germany,"  (10 
vols.,  1787-1819.)    Died  in  1828. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie. " 

Galletti,  (Pietro  Luigi,)  an  Italian  antiquary  and 
monk,  born  in  Rome  in  1724.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Mediaeval  Inscriptions  of  Venice,  Rome," 
etc.,  (7  vols.,  1757-66.)    Died  in  1790. 

Galli,  g^Klee,  (Francesco,)  surnamed  Birbiena,  a 
painter  and  architect,  born  at  Bologna  in  1656,  was  a 
brother  of  Ferdinando,  noticed  below.  He  was  gifted 
with  a  fine  imagination.  He  practised  the  art  of  deco- 
ration at  Naples,  Verona,  Vienna,  and  Rome,  and  became 
first  architect  to  Philip  V.  of  Spain.  Among  his  greatest 
works  was  the  theatre  of  Verona.    Died  in  1739. 

His  son  Giovanni,  or  Jean,  was  born  at  Nancy 
about  1710.  He  wrote,  in  French,  several  novels,  and 
a  comedy  entitled  "New  Italy,"  ("La  nouvelle  Italic," 
1762.)    Died  about  1779. 

See  Malvasia,  "Pittura,  Scoltura  ed  Architettura  di  Bologna." 

Galli,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  born  at  Bologna  in  1708, 
was  a  skilful  surgeon,  and  a  professor  of  midwifery, 
which  he  taught  by  an  improved  method.  Died  in  1784. 

Galli  da  Bibbiena,  g^Klee  da  b^b-be-a'ni,  (or 
Bibieua,  be-be-a'nA,)  (Ferdinando,)  an  able  Italian 
painter  and  architect,  born  at  Bologna  in  1657,  was  a 
pupil  of  C.  Cignani.  He  excelled  in  perspective  and 
theatrical  decorations.  He  became  first  painter  and 
architect  to  Charles  III.  at  Vienna.  He  published  a 
"Treatise  on  Architecture  and  Perspective,"  (2  vols., 
1711.)    Died  about  1745. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Galliani.    See  Galiani. 

Galliccioli,  gSl-l^t-cho'lee,  (Giovanni  Battista,) 
Abhe,  an  Italian  Orientalist,  born  in  Venice  in  1733, 


published,  besides  other  works,  one  on  "Ancient  Vene- 
tian Memoirs."    Died  in  1806. 

Gal-li-e^nus,  [Fr.  Gallien,  gt'le-^N',]  (Publius  Li- 
ciNius  Valerius,)  a  Roman  emperor,  born  about  233 
A.D.,  was  a  son  of  the  emperor  Valerian,  who  admitted 
him  to  a  share  in  the  empire  in  253.  Valerian  having 
been  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Persians  in  260 
A.D.,  Gallienus  succeeded  to  the  throne.  He  made  no 
effort  to  liberate  his  father  from  captivity,  and  disgraced 
himself  by  his  cruelty  and  profligacy.  His  frontiers  were 
invaded  by  barbarian  armies,  while  Ingenuus,  Aureolus, 
and  other  Roman  generals  revolted  in  different  parts 
of  the  empire.  After  he  had  defeated  Aureolus  in 
battle,  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against  Gallienus  by 
his  own  ofiicers.  During  the  siege  of  Milan,  268  A.D., 
"he  received  a  mortal  dart  from  an  uncertain  hand," 
says  Gibbon,  who  thus  describes  him:  "He  was  master 
of  several  curious  but  useless  sciences,  a  ready  orator, 
an  elegant  poet,  a  skilful  gardener,  an  excellent  cook, 
and  a  most  contemptible  prince."  He  was  succeeded 
by  Claudius  II. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  Tille- 
.MONT,  "Histoire  des  Enipereurs;"  Eckhel,  "Doctrina  Nummo- 
rum." 

Galligai.    See  Ancre. 

Gallinari,  gai-le-n^'ree,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Brescia  about  1629,  was  a  favourite  pupil  Of 
Guido.  He  was  an  artist  of  high  promise,  but  died 
prematurely  in  1664. 

GaPli-o,  (Junius,)  a  Roman  judicial  officer,  was  an 
adopted  son  of  the  rhetorician  Junius  Gallio,  and  a 
brother  of  Seneca  the  philosopher.  His  original  name 
was  M.  Ann^us  Novatus.  He  is  supposed  by  some 
persons  to  be  the  Gallio  who  was  deputy  or  proconsul 
of  Achaia,  before  whom  Saint  Paul  was  arraigned  by 
the  Jews.   (See  Acts  xviii.  12-17.)    E)ied  in  65  a.d. 

Galliot.    See  Galiot. 

Gallissoniere,  de  la,  deh  It  gS'le^so'ne^j.iR',  (Ro- 
land Michel  Barrin — bfriw',)  Marquls,  a  naval 
officer,  born  at  Rochefort,  in  France,  in  1693.  He  be- 
caine  a  captain  about  1738,  and  acted  as  Governor  of 
Canada  from  1745  to  1749.  In  1756  his  fleet  defeated 
the  English  under  Admiral  Byng,  near  Minorca.  Died 
in  1756. 

Gallitsin,  Gallitzin,  or  Galitzin,  g§.-lit'sin  or  gk- 
l^t's^n,  (Alexander  Mikhailovitch,)  a  Russian  gen- 
eral and  prince,  born  in  1 7 18,  was  a  son  of  Mikhail, 
(1674-1730.)  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  (1756-63,)  about  the  end  of  which  he  became 
general-in-chief  He  afterwards  obtained  great  favour 
with  Catherine  II.,  and  defeated  the  Turks  at  Choczim 
in  1769.    Died  in  1783. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Gallitsin,  Gallitzin,  or  Galitzin,  (Dmitri  I.,) 
Prince  of,  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  one  of  the  Rus- 
sian nobles  who,  after  the  death  of  Peter  II.,  placed 
Anne  on  the  throne,  on  the  condition  that  she  should 
sign  a  charter  as  a  guarantee  against  despotic  power. 
But,  when  she  thought  her  authority  established,  she 
tore  the  charter  in  pieces  and  imprisoned  its  authors. 
Died  in  1738. 

Gallitsin  or  Gallitzin,  (Dmitri  Alexievitch,) 
Prince,  a  Russian  author  and  diplomatist,  was  born 
ai)out  1738.  In  1763  he  was  appointed  ambassador  to 
F'rance,  where  he  remained  several  years,  and  corre- 
sponded with  Voltaire,  who  praised  his  good  qualities. 
In  1773  he  became  resident  minister  at  the  Hague.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Physical  Description  of 
the  Crimea,"  (1788,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Mineralogy," 
(1792.)    Died  in  1803. 

Gallitsin  or  Gallitzin,  written  also  Galyzin,  (Dmi- 
tri Augustine.)  a  Russian  missionary,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  the  Hague  in  1770.  He  became 
a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  and  went  to  the  United  States 
about  1792.  He  founded  Loretto,  in  Cambria  county, 
Pennsylvania,  where  he  died  in  1840. 

Gallitsin,  (Dmitri  Mikhailovitch,)  Prince,  was 
born  in  1721.  He  was  Russian  ambassador  at  the  court 
of  Vieima  from  1762  to  1792,  and  had  a  high  reputation 
as  a  negotiator.  He  founded  a  hospital  in  Moscow. 
Died  in  1793. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  tlr,  fill,  f^t;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GALLITSIN  989  G  ALIUS 


Gallitsin,  (Emanuel,)  Prince,  a  Russian  litterateur, 
born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  fought  with  distinction  at 
the  capture  of  Varna,  soon  after  which  he  retired  from 
the  army.  He  translated  several  works  from  Russian 
into  French,  and  wrote  "Travels  in  Finland,"  (1852.) 
Died  in  Paris  in  1853. 

Gallitsin,  (Mikhail,)  Prince,  a  Russian  admiral, 
born  about  16S5.  During  the  reign  of  Catherine  I.  or 
Peter  II.  he  became  a  senator  and  privy  councillor. 
After  the  death  of  the  empress  Anne  (1740)  he  obtained 
th*e  rank  of  admiral.  He  was  appointed  grand  admiral 
and  president  of  the  admiralty  in  1756.    Died  in  1764. 

Gallitsin,  (Mikhail  Mikhailovitch,)  Prince,  a 
Russian  nobleman,  born  in  1674.  He  entered  the  army 
as  a  private,  became  a  general  about  1708,  and  led  a 
division  at  Pultowa  (Poltava)  in  1709.  In  1711  he  com- 
manded an  army  against  the  Tartars  and  Poles.  He 
had  the  chief  command  in  Finland  from  1713  to  1721, 
defeated  the  Swedes  in  a  naval  fight  in  1720,  and  was 
made  field-marshal  in  1724.  In  1730  he  was  appointed 
a  senator,  and  president  of  the  College  of  War.  He 
was  reputed  to  be  the  best  general  that  Russia  had  then 
produced.    Died  in  1730. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gallitsin,  Galitzin,  Gallitzin,  Galyzin,  or  Gallit- 
zine,  (Vasili,  or  Basil,)  an  able  and  liberal  Russian 
statesman,  born  about  1633.  He  was  the  minister  or 
influential  adviser  of  Feodor,  (1676-82,)  and  promoted 
reform  and  civilization.  He  retained  power  or  favour 
during  the  minority  of  Ivan  and  Peter  and  the  regency 
of  Sophia.  In  16S6  he  concluded  with  Poland  a  treaty 
that  was  very  advantageous  to  Russia.  He  commanded 
an  expedition  against  the  Crimean  Tartars  in  1687.  For 
his  alleged  complicity  in  the  conspiracy  of  Sophia  against 
Peter  the  Great,  he  was  exiled  in  1689.    Died  in  17 13. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gallizin  or  Gallitzin.    See  Gallitsin. 

Gallo,  gaKlo,  (Agostino,)  born  at  Brescia,  in  Italy, 
in  1499,  wrote  a  useful  treatise  called  "Twenty  Days 
of  Agriculture,"  ("Vinti  Giornate  dell'  Agricoltura," 
1550,)  and  other  similar  works.  He  was  regarded  as  the 
restorer  of  agriculture  in  Italy.    Died  in  1570, 

Gallo,  (Andrea,)  a  Sicilian  antiquary,  born  at  Mes- 
sina in  1732.  He  wrote  an  account  of  the  earthquake 
which  nearly  ruined  Messina  in  1783.    Died  in  1814. 

Gallo,  (Thomas.)    See  Gallus,  (Thomas.) 

Gallo,  da,  da  giKlo,  (Marzio  Mastrizzi  —  mSs- 
tR^rt'see,)  Duke,  a  Neapolitan  minister  of  state  and 
able  negotiator,  was  born  at  Palermo  in  1753.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Vienna  in  1795,  and  ])erformed  a 
])rominent  part  in  the  treaty  of  Canipo  Formio,  (1797.) 
During  the  consulate  of  Bonaparte  he  was  ambassador 
to  Paris.  He  was  minister  of  foreign  aff"airs  at  Naples 
from  the  accession  of  Joseph  Bonaparte,  in  1806,  until 
1 815.  The  revolution  of  1820  restored  him  to  the  same 
office  for  a  brief  term.  He  retired  when  the  government 
again  became  absolute,  in  1821.    Died  in  1833. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Galloche,  gt'losh',  (Louis,)  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Paris  in  1670,  painted  subjects  from  Scripture  with 
success.  He  received  a  pension  from  the  king,  and  was 
rector  of  the  Academy  in  Paris  when  he  died,  in  1761. 
Lemoyne  was  one  of  his  pupils.  Among  his  best  works 
is  "The  Removal  of  the  Reliques  of  Saint  Augustine." 

Gallois,  gS'lwi',  (Charles  Andre  Gustave  Leo- 
nard,) a  French  political  and  historical  writer,  born  at 
Monaco  in  1789.  He  removed  to  Paris  in  181S,  be- 
came an  editor  of  the  "  Constitutionnel,"  and  advocated 
democracy  in  several  popular  pamphlets.  He  also 
wrote  a  "  Pictorial  History  of  the  French  Revolution," 
(4  vols.,  1830,)  and  a  "  His^torv  of  the  National  Conven- 
tion," (8  vols.,  1835.)    Died  in  185 1. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gallois,  (Jean,)  a  French  editor  and  critic  of  much 
merit,  born  in  Paris  in  1632,  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  "Journal  des  Savants,"  which  he  edited  with  ability 
from  1666  to  1674.  He  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy,  on  the  same  day  as  Racine  and  Flechier,  in 
1673.  He  was  a  favourite  protege  of  Colbert.  After 
the  death  of  Colbert  he  became  "keeper  of  the  Royal 


Library,  and  professor  of  Greek  in  the  College  Royal, 
Died  in  1707. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictlonnaire  Historique;"  Sabatier,  '%,es  trois 
Siecles  de  la  Litterature ;"  "Biographie  Universelle." 

Gallois,  (Jean  Antoine  Gauvain — g6\iN',)  a  poli- 
tician, born  in  Paris  in  1755.  In  1802  he  was  president 
of  the  Tribunate,  after  the  dissolution  of  which  he  passed 
into  the  legislative  body.  In  1 813  he  was  a  member 
of  the  commission  to  which  the  negotiations  with  the 
allied  powers  were  referred.  He  translated  from  the 
Italian  a  treatise  on  the  "  Science  of  Legislation,"  by 
Filangieri,  (i  786-91,)  and  wrote  some  fugitive  poems. 
Died  in  1828. 

Gallois,  (Julian  Jean  C6sar.)    See  Legallois. 

Gallois,  (LEONARD  Joseph  Urbain  Napoleon,)  a 
son  of  Charles  Andre  Gustave  Leonard,  was  born  at 
Foix  in  1815.  He  edited  several  political  journals,  and 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Ledru  Rollin,"  (1849.) 

Gallois,  (Pierre,)  a  French  bibliographer,  born  in 
Paris,  published  "Academic  Conversations,"  (2  vols., 
1674.) 

Galloni,  gSl-lo'nee,  or  Gallonio,  g^l-lo'ne-o,  (An- 
tonio,) a  learned  Italian  priest,  born  in  Rome,  published 
a  "  Treatise  on  Instruments  of  Torture  or  Martyrdom," 
("De  Martyrum  Cruciatibus,"  1594,)  and  a  "Life  of 
Saint  Philip  de  Neri,"  (1602.)    Died  in  1605. 

Galloway,  Earl  of.    See  Galway. 

GalTo-way,  (Joseph,)  an  American  lawyer,  born 
in  Maryland  about  1730,  practised  with  distinction  in 
Philadelphia.  He  became  in  1774  a  delegate  to  the 
Continental  Congress,  in  which  he  took  a  prominent 
part  and  opposed  the  independence  of  the  colonies.  He 
removed  to  England  in  1778.    Died  in  1803. 

Gallucci,  gdl-loot'chee,  (Giovanni  Paolo,)  an  Italian 
astronomer,  born  at  Salo,  near  Brescia,  about  1550.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Academy  founded 
at  Venice  in  1593.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Theatre  of  the  World  and  Time,"  ("Theatrum  Mundi 
et  Temporis,"  1589,)  which  treats  partly  of  astrology,  and 
"  Sj^eculum  Uranicum,"  (1593.) 

Gallucci,  (Tarquinio.)    See  Galluzzl 

Galluccio,  gil-loot'cho,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit, 
born  at  Macerata  in  1593,  was  professor  of  rhetoric  at 
Rome,  and  published  "  De  Bello  Belgico,"  a  History  of 
the  War  in  the  Low  Countries  from  1593  to  1609,  (2 
vols.,  1671.)    Died  in  1674. 

G^Tup,  (Joseph  Adam,)  an  American  physician  and 
author,  born  in  Stonington,  Connecticut,  in  1769.  In 
1827  he  established  at  Woodstock  a  clinical  school  of 
medicine,  which  in  1835  was  incorporated  as  the  Ver- 
mont Medical  College.  He  published  "Outlines  of  the 
Institutes  of  Medicine,"  (1839.)    Died  in  1849. 

Galluppi,  (Baldassare.)    See  Galuppl 

Galluppi,  gal-loop'pee,  or  Galuppi,  gd-loop'pee, 
(Pasquale,)  an  Italian  metaphysical  philosopher,  born 
at  Troj^ea,  Calabria,  in  1770,  was  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Naples,  and  an  adversary  of  skepticism.  His  "Ele- 
ments of  Philosophy"  (4  vols.,  1832)  passed  through 
many  editions.  He  also  wrote  "The  Philosophy  of  the 
Will,"  (4  vols.,  1835-42,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1846, 

See  Carlo  Maria  Curci,  "  Elogio  di  P.  Galluppi,"  1847. 

Gal'lus,  ( /Elius,)  an  eminent  Roman  jurist,  who  was 
a  contemporary  of  Cicero.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "  On 
the  Signification  of  Terms  which  pertain  to  the  Civil 
Law,"  an  extract  from  which  is  found  in  the  "Digest." 
According  to  Lachmann,  he  was  the  same  person  that 
was  prefect  of  Egypt  in  25  B.C. 

Gallus,  (^'Eijus,)  a  Roman  general,  who  was  prefect  of 
Egypt  in  25  and  24  B.C.,  aiid  was  the  first  who  penetrated 
Arabia  with  a  Roman  army,  (23  B.C.)  The  expedition 
failed,  in  consequence,  partly,  of  the  treachery  of  Syl- 
laeus,  an  Arabian  who  was  the  guide  of  the  Roman 
army.  Strabo  obtained  from  him  new  information  in 
geography,  and  wrote  an  account  of  the  expedition. 

Gallus,  (Caius  Aquilius,)  an  eminent  Roman  lawyer 
and  judge,  noted  for  learning  and  integrity,  became  praetor 
in  66  B.C.  He  was  a  friend  of  Cicero,  who  esteemed 
him  highly  and  paid  him  a  handsome  compliment  in  his 
oration  for  Cascina.  He  was  the  author  of  a  formula 
"  De  Dolo  Malo,"  and  effected  some  important  legal 
reforms.    His  works  have  not  come  down  to  us. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Vi,^ittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


G  ALIUS  990  GALVEZ 


Gallus,  (Caius  Asinius,)  a  Roman  politician,  was  a 
son  of  C.  Asinius  Pollio.  He  became  consul  in  8  B.C., 
and  m#-ried  Vipsania,  the  repudiated  wife  of  Tiberius, 
who  hated  him  for  that  reason  and  for  his  freedom  in 
expressing  his  mind.  He  was  committed  to  prison  by 
Tiberius  in  30  A.D.,  and  died  in  confinement  about  the 
year  33.  He  wrote  a  book  called  a  "  Comparison  between 
my  Father  and  Cicero,"  which  is  not  extant. 

See  J.  G.  Heineccius,  "Oratio  de  C.  A.  Gallo,"  (about  1730.) 

Gallus,  (Caius  Cornelius,)  an  eminent  Roman  poet 
and  courtier,  was  born  at  Forum  Julii  (Frejus)  about 
66  B.C.  He  served  in  the  army  under  Octavius,  who 
received  him  into  his  favour  and  confidence  and  gave 
him  a  high  command  in  the  war  against  Antony.  After 
the  death  of  Antony,  about  30  B.C.,  Augustus  appointed 
Gallus  Governor  of  Egypt,  which  he  ruled  at  first  with 
success.  But  afterwards,  being  accused  of  oppression 
and  peculation,  he  was  condemned  to  perpetual  banish- 
ment, and  killed  himself  in  25  or  26  B.C.  His  Elegies, 
which  were  much  admired,  are  all  lost.  Like  his  friend 
Maecenas,  he  patronized  literary  men,  especially  Virgil, 
who  was  his  intimate  friend,  and  who  has  gracefully 
commemorated  his  name  and  merit  in  his  sixth  and 
tenth  eclogues. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  books  1.,  liii. ;  Quintilian,  books  i.,  x.  ; 
Suetonius,  "De  illustribus  Grammaticis ;"  Volker,  "  Conimentatio 
de  C.  C.  Galli  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1840-44;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Gallus,  (Caius  Sulpicius,)  a  Roman  astronomer  and 
orator,  was  chosen  consul  for  166  B.C.  He  was  eminent 
as  an  orator  and  a  Greek  scholar,  and  appears  to  have 
been  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of  his  time.  He 
is  regarded  as  the  earliest  of  Roman  astronomers.  The 
occurrence  of  an  eclipse  of  the  moon,  at  the  hour  which 
he  predicted,  on  the  eve  of  the  battle  of  Pydna,  168 
B.C.,  excited  the  admiration  and  raised  the  spirits  of  the 
army  in  which  he  then  served  as  tribune.  He  is  highly 
eulogized  by  Cicero. 

See  LiVY,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xliii.,  xliv.,  andxlv. ;  Cicero, 
"Brutus,"  "  De  Republica,"  "De  Senectute,"  and  "  De  Officiis." 

Gallus,  (Caius  Vibius  Trebonianus,)  a  Roman  em- 
peror, born,  it  is  supposed,  in  the  isle  of  Gerba,  on  the 
coast  of  Africa,  about  205  a.d.  He  succeeded  Decius 
in  251,  with  Hostilian  as  his  colleague,  and  purchased  a 
disgraceful  peace  with  the  Goths  by  an  annual  tribute. 
The  empire  was  soon  invaded  by  other  hordes  of  bar- 
barians, who  were  defeated  by  ^^Imilian.  The  victor 
having  been  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  army,  Gallus 
marched  against  him  ;  but,  before  the  armies  met,  he 
was  killed  by  his  own  troops,  in  253  A.D.  He  was  gen- 
erally unpopular  and  despised. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Gallus,  (Cestius,)  a  Roman  general,  became  Gov- 
ernor of  Syria  in  64  a.d.  The  Jews  having  rebelled  in 
the  year  65,  he  besieged  Jerusalem,  but  failed  to  take  it. 

Gallus,  (Flavius  Claudius  Constantius,)  a  nephew 
of  Constantine  the  Great,  was  born  about  325  a.d.  In 
351  the  Roman  emperor  Constantius  gave  to  him  his 
sister  Constantina  in  marriage,  and  raised  him  to  the 
rank  of  Caesar,  with  the  command  of  the  Eastern  prov- 
inces. But  he  soon  disgraced  himself  by  his  cruelty  and 
tyranny,  for  which  he  was  recalled  and  executed  in  354 
A.D.    He  was  a  half-brother  of  the  emperor  Julian. 

Gallus,  (Servatius.)    See  Gall6. 

Gallus  or  Gallo,  (Thomas,)  a  flench  monk,  was  one 
of  the  most  eminent  theologians  of  his  time,  and  became 
abbe  of  Vercelli,  where  he  founded  a  famous  school. 
He  translated  from  the  Greek  a  work  on  mystic  theology 
ascribed  to  Dionysius  Areopagita.    Died  in  1246. 

Galluzzi,  g^l-loot'see,  or  Gallucci,  gal-loot'chee, 
(Tarquinio,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  poet,  born  in  1574, 
professed  rhetoric  and  morality  at  Rome,  and  was  emi- 
nent as  a  pulpit  orator.  He  published  a  volume  of 
poems,  "Carmina,"  (1611,)  another  of  Latin  orations, 
(1617,)  and  "Vindications  of  Virgil,"  ("  Virgilianas  Vin- 
dicationes,"  1621.)    Died  in  1649. 

GaFly,  (Henry,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Beck- 
enham,  in  Kent,  in  1696.  He  translated  from  the  Greek 
the  "Characters"  of  Theophrastus,  (1725,)  and  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  an  "Essay  on  Clandestine  Mar- 
riages," (1750.)  In  1735  he  became  chaplain-in-ordinary 
to  the  king.    Died  in  1769. 


Gait,  (John,)  a  Scottish  author,  born  at  Irvine  in  May, 
1779.  He  became  a  resident  of  London  about  1803, 
engaged  in  trade,  and  failed.  He  travelled  in  the  south 
ot  Europe  in  1809-11,  after  which  he  published  "Let- 
ters from  the  Levant,"  (1813,)  several  biographies,  and 
a  volume  of  tragedies,  which  were  not  successful.  In 
1820  his  "  Ayrshire  Legatees"  appeared  in  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine."  This  was  more  popular  than  his  previous 
efforts,  and  was  followed  by  "Annals  of  the  Parish," 
(1821,)  and  other  tales  illustrative  of  Scottish  life.  Be- 
tween 1826  and  1829  he  spent  two  or  three  years  in 
Canada,  as  agent  of  a  land-company  ;  but,  though  not  defi- 
cient in  energy  and  integrity,  he  did  not  succeed  in  pecu- 
niary affairs,  and  returned  to  England  insolvent.  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  a  "  Life  of  Lord  Byron,"  (1830,) 
"Lawrie  Todd,"  (1830,)  "The  Provost,"  (1822,)  and 
other  novels.  Many  of  his  tales  are  entertaining,  and 
characterized  by  rough  good  sense  and  a  quaintness  of 
expression.  He  also  wrote  his  Autobiography,  (2  vols., 
1833.)    He  died  at  Greenock  in  1839. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
W.  Jerdan,  "Men  I  liave  known,"  London,  1866. 

Galuppi,  g-a-loop'pee,  (Baldassare,)  a  famous  Ital- 
ian comjDoser,  was  born  in  1703,  in  Burano,  (whence  he 
was  called  Buranel'lo,)  an  island  near  Venice.  He 
composed  many  operas,  and  some  sacred  music,  and  has 
been  called  the  father  of  the  Italian  comic  opera.  Died 
at  Venice  in  1785. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Unlverselle  des  Musiciens." 

Galuppi,  (Pasquale.)    See  Galluppi. 

Galuzzi,  gj-loot'see,  (RiGUCCio,  re-goot'cho,)  an  Ital- 
ian historian  and  priest,  born  at  Volterra  in  1730,  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  Tuscany  under  the  Rule  of  the 
House  of  Medici,^'  from  1569  to  1737.    Died  in  1801. 

Galvam.  or  Galvao,  gSl-vovvN',  (Antonio,)  an  emi- 
nent Portuguese  captain,  son  of  Duarte,  noticed  below, 
was  born  about  1502.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  the 
Moluccas  in  1538.  He  subdued  several  chiefs  by  arms, 
and  governed  that  region  with  ability.  It  is  stated  that 
he  converted  many  natives  to  the  Catholic  faith,  and 
refused  the  offer  of  sovereignty  in  the  Moluccas.  He 
was  recalled  about  1545,  and  died  in  1557,  leaving  a  valu- 
able work  "On  the  Discoveries,  Ancient  and  Modern, 
in  India,"  (1563.)  His  exploits  are  highly  extolled  by 
the  Portuguese  historians. 

See  JoAO  Barros,  "Asia,  Decada  IV;"  Faria  y  Souza,  "Asia 
Portugueza;"  La  Cl^de,  "  Histoire  de  Portugal." 

Galvam  or  Galvao,  (Duarte,)  a  learned  Portuguese 
historian,  born  at  Evora  about  1435,  became  secretary 
to  John  II.,  and  ambassador  to  Rome,  France,  etc.  He 
edited,  revised,  or  continued  the  "Chronicles  of  Por- 
tugal" written  by  Lopez.    Died  in  15 1 7. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Galvani,  gSl-vi'nee,  (Aloisio,)  an  eminent  Italian, 
physician,  and  physiologist,  born  in  1737  at  Bologna, 
where  he  became  professor  of  anatomy  in  1762.  He 
composed  valuable  treatises  "On  the  Kidneys  and 
Ureters  of  Birds,"  ("De  Renibus  atque  Ureteribus 
Volatilium,")  and  "On  the  Organs  of  Hearing  in 
Birds,"  ("De  Aure  Volatilium.")  His  durable  repu- 
tation is  founded  on  the  accidental  discovery  of  the  phe- 
nomena since  called  from  his  name  Galvanism,  which 
he  announced  in  his  "Commentary  on  the  Power  (or 
Eff"ect)  of  Electricity  on  Muscular  Motion,"  ("De  Viribus 
Electricitatis  in  Motu  musculari  Commentarius,"  1791.) 
These  phenomena  were  first  observed  in  some  dead 
frogs,  which  had  been  procured  as  aliment  for  his  in- 
valid wife.  While  they  were  lying  on  the  table  near  the 
conductor  of  an  electrical  machine,  their  muscles  were 
convulsed  by  accidental  contact  with  a  scalpel.  Galvani 
explained  this  fact  by  the  theory  that  all  animals  have 
electricity  inherent  in  their  economy,  especially  in  the 
nerves  and  muscles.  (See  Volta.)  Having  refused  to 
take  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Cisalpine  republic,  1797, 
he  lost  his  chair  at  Bologna,  but  was  restored  a  short 
time  before  his  death,  which  occurred  in  December,  1798. 

See  Aubert,  "  Eloge  de  Galvani,"  Paris,  1806;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Galvez,gaKv§th,  (Don  Bernardo,)  Count,  a  nephew 
of  Jose,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Malaga  in  1756. 
About  1780  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Louisiana, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GALVEZ 


991 


GAMBACORTI 


made  a  successful  campaign  agahist  the  English  in 
Florida,  and  took  Pensacola  in  1781.  Soon  after  this 
he  became  Viceroy  of  Mexico,  which  he  governed  with 
credit  until  his  death,  in  1794. 

Galvez,  (Don  Jose,)  a  Spanish  statesman  and  lawyer, 
born  at  Velez-Malaga  in  1729.  After  gaining  some 
distinction  by  his  eloquence,  he  was  employed  as  con- 
fidential secretary  by  Grimaldi,  the  prime  minister.  In 
1764  Charles  III.  appointed  him  a  member  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  the  Indies,  and  in  1771  sent  him  to  Mexico  to 
settle  a  difficulty  between  the  viceroy  and  the  Audiencia 
or  supreme  tribunal.  Upon  his  return,  about  1775,  he 
obtained  the  place  of  mim'ster  of  the  Indies,  the  most 
important  office  in  the  kingdom,  next  to  that  of  prime 
minister.  He  directed  the  affairs  of  the  colonies  with 
ability,  and  received  the  title  of  Marquis  of  Sonora. 
Died  in  1786. 

See  CoxE,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Kings  of  Spain  of  the  House  of 
Bourbon,"  1S13. 

Galvez  de  Montalvo,  gil'v^th  di  mon-til'vo, 
(Luis,)  a  popular  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Guadalaxara  in 
1549,  was  a  friend  of  Cervantes.  In  1582  he  published 
a  pastoral  romance  called  the  "Pastor  de  Filida,"  in 
prose  and  verse,  which  was  admired  for  its  richness  of 
imagery  and  purity  of  style.  He  wrote  also  "  The  Tears 
of  Saint  Peter,"  (1587.)  He  is  praised  by  Lope  de  Vega 
in  his  "  Laurel  of  Apollo."  He  took  the  monastic  vows 
in  the  latter  part  of  his  life.    Died  at  Palermo  in  1610. 

See  TicKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  N.  Antonio, 
"  Bibliolheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Gil^way  or  GaPlo-way,  (Henry,)  Lord,  Marquis 
de  Ruvigny,  (rii'v^n'ye^)  was  born  in  France  in  1647. 
Proscribed  as  a  Protestant,  he  retired  to  England  about 
1685,  and  was  made  Earl  of  Galway  for  his  services  in 
Ireland  in  1691.  In  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession, 
he  commanded  the  English  and  allies,  who  captured 
Madrid  in  June,  1706.  Having  been  appointed  gene- 
ral-in-chief  in  place  of  Lord  Peterborough,  he  joined 
battle  with  the  French  at  Almanza,  (1707,)  where  he  was 
wounded  and  defeated  with  great  loss.  He  was  again 
defeated  at  Gudina  in  1709,  and  soon  after  recalled  from 
the  command  for  his  ill  success.  In  171 5  he  acted  as 
lord  justiciary  of  Ireland.    Died  in  1720. 

Gama,  ga^mJ,  (Antonio  de  Leon  y — di  la'on' e,) 
an  astronomer  and  geographer,  born  at  Mexico  about 
1735.  Without  the  aid  of  teachers,  he  made  great  pro- 
gress in  astronomy.  He  published  "Memoirs  on  the 
Satellites  of  Jupiter,"  "  On  the  Almanac  and  Chronology 
of  the  Ancient  Mexicans,"  and  on  the  "Climate  of  New 
Spain,"  which  are  commended  by  Humboldt  and  Pres- 
cott.    Died  about  1800. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  i. 
book  i. 

Gama,  (Joanna,)  a  Portuguese  poetess,  born  in  15 15, 
wrote  religious  poems,  sonnets,  etc.    Died  in  1586. 

Gama,  da,  di  gi'mS,  (Christovao,)  a  Portuguese 
captain,  was  the  son  of  Vasco,  the  admiral.  He  served 
under  his  brother  Estevao  in  the  East  Indies  in  1540, 
and  commanded  a  small  army  sent  to  aid  the  King  of 
Abyssinia,  where  he  was  taken  prisoner  and  killed  by 
the  Moors  in  1542. 

Gama,  da,  (Estevao,)  the  son  of  Vasco,  was  also 
noted  as  a  naval  commander.  In  1536  he  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Malacca,  and  in  1540  Viceroy  of  India,  which 
he  ruled  with  ability.  In  the  course  of  a  war  with  the 
Turks,  he  explored  the  Red  Sea,  of  which  one  of  his 
officers  wrote  a  description,  the  first  that  had  been  made 
by  a  European.    Gama  returned  to  Portugal  in  1542. 

Another  Estevao,  brother  of  Vasco,  commanded  a 
division  of  five  ships  in  the  expedition  of  1502. 

Gama,  da,  (Filippo  Joz6,)  a  Portuguese  poet  and 
scholar,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1713  ;  died  in  1742. 

Gama,  da,  (Joz6  Bastlio,)  a  Brazilian  poet,  born  in 
Minas  Geraes  in  1740.  He  became  a  resident  of  Lisbon, 
and  was  patronized  by  the  minister  Pombal.  His  prin- 
cipal poem,  entitled  "O  Uruguay,"  (1769,)  has  been  often 
reprinted.    Died  in  Lisbon  in  1795. 

Gama,  da,  (Vasco,)  (commonly,  but  less  correctly, 
called  Vasco  de  Gama — di  gi'mS,)  a  celebrated  Por- 
tuguese navigator,  born  at  Sines.  The  date  of  his  birth 
and  the  details  of  his  private  life  are  unknown.    He  ac- 


quired celebrity  as  commander  of  the  fleet  which  in  1497 
Emanuel  of  Portugal  sent  to  India,  being  the  first  that 
performed  the  voyage  from  Europe  to  that  remote  region 
by  doubling  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  He  sailed  from 
Lisbon  on  the  8th  of  July,  with  three  small  vessels  and 
one  hundred  and  sixty  men.  After  doubling  the  cape, 
he  sailed  along  the  eastern  coast,  landed  at  Mozambique 
and  Melinda,  at  the  latter  of  which  he  procured  a  skilful 
pilot,  and  arrived  at  Calicut  on  the  20th  of  May,  1498. 
He  went  on  shore  with  a  few  men,  had  an  interview  with 
the  native  prince,  but  failed  to  negotiate  a  treaty,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  jealousy  of  the  Moors,  and  returned  to 
Lisbon  in  September,  1499.  The  discovery  of  this  route 
was  an  important  era  in  commercial  history,  diverting 
into  a  new  channel  the  Indian  trade,  which  had  before 
passed  through  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Mediterranean. 
This  enterprise  of  Gama  forms  the  subject  of  Camoens's 
"  Lusiad."  In  1502,  Vasco  was  sent  out  to  India  with  a 
larger  fleet,  and,  having  cannonaded  Calicut  in  retalia- 
tion for  some  injuries,  established  a  factory  at  Cochin. 
Returning  home  in  December,  1503,  he  was  received 
with  great  honour,  and  rew^arded  w  ith  the  title  of  count. 
In  1524,  after  a  repose  of  twenty  years,  he  was  appointed 
Viceroy  of  India.    He  died  in  Cochin  in  1524. 

See  B.ARKOS,  "Decadas;"  Lafitau,  "  Histoire  des  Decouvertes 
des  Portugais,"  etc.;  F.ari.\  y  Souza,  "Asia  Portugueza ;"  Fer- 
NAO  Lopez  de  Castanheua,  "  Historia  do  Descobrimento  e  Con- 
quista  da  India,"  1551 ;  Ferdinand  Denis,  "Portugal." 

Gama,  de,  (Vasco.)    See  Gama,  da. 

Gamaches,  gt'mtsh',  (£tienne,)  an  agreeable  French 
writer,  born  at  Meulan  in  1672,  was  a  canon  regular. 
He  published,  under  the  name  of  Clarigny,  a  metaphys- 
ical work,  called  "  System  of  the  Pleart,"  ("  Systeme  du 
Coeur,"  1704,)  which  is  commended.  He  wrote  other 
works,  among  which  are  "  The  Elegancies  of  Language 
reduced  to  their  Principles,"  (1718,)  and  "Physical 
Astronomy,"  (1740.)    Died  in  1756. 

See  Sabatier,  "  Les  trois  Siecles  de  la  Litterature." 

Gamaches,  de,  deh  gt'mtsh',  (Joachim  Renault — 
roo'6',)  a  French  officer,  born  in  Poitou,  fought  against 
the  English  about  1450.  In  1461  Louis  XI.  made  him 
a  marshal  of  France.    Died  in  1478. 

Gamaches,  de,  (Philippe,)  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne, 
and  one  of  the  best  French  Catholic  theologians  of  his 
time,  was  born  in  1568.  He  became  professor  of  theology 
in  Paris  in  1598,  and  wrote  an  excellent  commentary  on 
Saint  Thomas,  called  "  Theologia  scholastica  speculativa 
practica,"  (1627.)    Died  in  1625. 

See  Bavi.e,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Ga-maTi-el,  [Heb.  Sx'S^DJ,]  a  Pharisee  and  eminent 
fewish  doctor,  lived  at  Jerusalem  in  the  first  century. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Sanhedrim,  the  preceptor 
of  Saint  Paul,  (see  Acts  xxii.  3,)  and,  according  to  the 
Talmud,  was  a  grandson  of  the  celebrated  Hillel.  His 
moderation  and  prudence  are  shown  by  a  brief  speech 
recorded  in  Acts  v.  34-39.    Died  about  88  a.d. 

Gamba,  gam'bd,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  biogra- 
pher, born  at  Bassano  in  1766.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Florence.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Narrazione  de'  Bassanesi  illustri,"  (1S07,) 
a  "  Gallery  of  the  Literati  and  Artists  of  the  Venetian 
Provinces  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (1824,)  and  a 
"Life  of  Dante,"  (1825,)  a  wprk  of  recognized  merit. 
Died  in  1841. 

See  Bartolo.mmeo  Gamba,  "  Narrazione  della  Vita  e  delle  Opere 
di  lui,"  1841  ;  Antonio  Nevmayr,  "  Memoria  di  B.  Gamba," 
Venice,  1846;  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Gamba,  gSN^bt',  (Jacques  FRANgois,)  a  French 
traveller,  born  at  Dunkirk  in  1763,  published  "Travels 
in  Southern  Russia,  Georgia,"  etc.,  (1824.)  Died  in  1833. 

Gamba,  (Pietro,)  Count,  brother  of  the  countess 
Guiccioli,  was  born  at  Ravenna,  in  Italy,  in  1801.  He 
accompanied  Lord  Byron  to  Greece,  and  fought  with 
distinction  for  the  liberty  of  the  Greeks.  He  published 
a  "  Narrative  of  Lord  Byron's  Last  Journey  to  Greece," 
(1825.)    Died  in  Greece  in  1826. 

Gambacorti,  gSm-bi-koR'tee,  the  name  of  an  Italian 
family  who  held  the  chief  power  in  Pisa  between  1348 
and  1406.  Andrea  became  chief  magistrate  in  1348, 
and  died  about  1354.  Francesco,  his  successor,  was 
beheaded  by  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  in  1355,  when  the 


€  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ( J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GAM  BAR  A 


992 


GANILH 


other  members  of  the  family  were  exiled.  Pietro,  the 
nephew  of  Francesco,  directed  the  rey)ublic  with  wisdom, 
moderation,  and  ability  from  1369  to  1392,  and  waged 
war  against  the  pope,  (1376.)  He  was  assassinated  in 
1392.  GiOVANNF,  a  nephew  of  Pietro,  and  the  last  of 
the  family,  surrendered  Pisa,  after  a  long  siege,  to  the 
Florentines  in  1406.  This  was  regarded  by  the  citizens 
of  Pisa  as  an  act  of  treachery. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Gambara,  gdm-b^'ra,  (Giovanni  Francesco,) 
Coux  r,  an  Italian  writer,  born  near  Piacenza  in  1771. 
He  served  in  the  French  armies  as  a  colonel  about 
1805-08.  He  wrote  "The  League  of  Cambray,"  a 
poem,  (1825,)  and  several  dramas.    Died  in  1848. 

Gambara,  (Lattanzio,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Brescia  in  1541,  adorned  the  churches  of  Cre- 
mona, Brescia,  and  Parma  with  frescos.  He  was  killed 
by  a  fitll  in  1574. 

Gambara,  (Lorenzo,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Brescia 
about  1500.  He  was  attached  to  Cardinal  Farnese,  in 
whose  house  he  lived  for  a  long  time  in  Rome.  Among 
his  i^rincipal  Latin  poems,  which  were  praised  by  Paul 
Manutius  and  Justus  Lipsius,  is  "Columbus,  or  the 
Discovery  of  the  New  World."  The  first  edition  of 
his  works  appeared  in  1555.    Died  in  1 596. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Gambara,  (Veronica,)  a  noble  Italian  lady,  born 
at  Pralboino,  near  Brescia,  in  1485,  was  the  daughter 
of  Count  Gambara,  and  was  eminent  for  her  poetical 
talents  and  her  attainments  in  Latin  and  philosophy. 
In  1508  she  was  married  to  Giberto,  Lord  of  Correggio. 
She  wrote  admired  sonnets  and  letters.    Died  in  1550. 

See  RizzARUi,  "Rime,  Lettere  e  Vita  di  F.  Gambara,"  176c): 
TiRABoscHi,  "  Storia  deila  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Zamboni,  "Vita 
di  V.  Gambara,"  1759. 

Gambart,  gSNH^tR',  (Jean  F^lix  Adolphe,)  a 
French  astronomer,  born  in  Cette  in  1800,  He  became 
director  of  the  Observatory  of  Marseilles  in  1822,  and 
discovered  many  comets.    Died  in  1836. 

See  F.  D.  Arago,  "  Notice  sur  M.  Gambart,"  1836. 

Gamberelli,  gim-bi-rel'lee,  (Bernardo,)  an  able 
Florentine  architect  and  sculptor,  born  about  1410.  He 
was  patronized  by  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  and  restored,  be- 
sides other  churches  of  Rome,  San  Pietro-in-Vincoli  and 
San  Giovanni  Laterano.    Died  in  1490. 

Gambey,  gSN'bi^  (Henri  Prudence,)  a  skilful 
French  mechanician,  who  excelled  in  the  fabrication  of 
astronomical  instruments,  was  born  at  Troyes  in  17S7. 
He  invented  a  heliostat.  In  1837  he  was  admitted  into 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.    Died  in  Paris  in  1847. 

See  Arago,  "Notice  de  Gambey,"  in  the  "Annuaire  dii  Bureau 
des  Longitudes,"  1850. 

Gambier,  gam'beer,  (James,)  Baron,  an  English  ad- 
miral, born  in  one  of  the  Bahama  Isles  in  1756,  entered 
the  navy  when  young,  and  served  in  the  American  war 
at  the  capture  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  and  other 
places.  In  1793  he  contributed  to  Lord  Howe's  victory 
over  the  French.  He  was  made  a  rear-admiral  in  1795, 
and  vice-adtniral  in  1799.  In  1802  he  was  appointed  Gov- 
ernor of  Newfoundland.  Having  been  raised  to  the  rank 
of  admiral,  he  commanded  the  fleet  which  bombarded 
Copenhagen  in  1807  and  captured  the  Danish  fleet.  For 
this  exploit  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  a  baron. 
In  1808  he  quitted  the  admiralty,  to  take  command  of 
the  Channel  fleet  against  the  French,  from  whom  he 
took  several  ships.  lie  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
who  negotiated  a  treaty  of  peace  between  England  and 
the  United  States,  at  Ghent,  in  1814.  He  obtained  the 
rank  of  admiral  of  the  fleet  in  1830.    Died  in  1833. 

See  Van  Tenac,  "  Histoire  generale  de  la  Marine." 

Gam'bold,  (John,)  a  learned  English  Moravian 
divine,  born  in  South  Wales  about  17 10.  He  was  for 
many  years  minister  of  the  Moravian  church  in  Lon- 
don, and  was  chosen  a  bishop  in  1754.  He  published 
an  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  (1742,)  "Hymns 
for  the  Use  of  the  Brethren,"  (1748,)  a  "  Short  Summary 
of  Christian  Doctrine,"  (1767,)  and  other  works.  He 
had  a  high  reputation  for  piety  and  talents.  Died  at 
Haverford  West  in  1 771. 

See  Nichols,  "  Literary  Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century." 


Gamelia,  a  surname  of  Juno,  which  see. 

Gamelin,  gSm'l^N',  (Jacques,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  at  Carcassonne  in  1739;  died  in  1803. 

Gamelius,  a  surname  of  Jupiter,  which  see. 

Gam'mel,  (William,)  an  American  writer,  born  at 
Medfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1812.  He  graduated  at 
Brown  University  in  1831,  and  was  appointed  professor 
of  rhetoric  in  that  institution  in  1836,  and  of  history 
and  political  economy  in  1850.  He  also  made  nume- 
rous contributions  to  reviews,  and  wrote  the  Life  of 
Roger  Williams,  and  that  of  Governor  Samuel  Ward,  in 
Sparks's  "American  liiography,"  and  other  works. 

Gamon,  gt'moN',  (Christophe,)  a  French  poet, born 
at  Annonay  about  1575,  wrote  "The  Week,  or  Creation 
of  the  World,"  (1609,)  a  poem,  in  which  he  explains  and 
maintains  the  Copernican  system.    Died  in  162 1. 

Gamon,  (Franqois  Joseph,)  a  French  poet,  born 
about  1763.  In  1792  he  was  a  Girondist  member  of  the 
Convention,    Died  in  1832. 

Gamperlin.    See  Graf. 

Gand,  (or  Ghent,)  Henry  of.    See  Goethals. 

Gand-har'va,  [Hindoo  pron.  giind-hur'va,]  some- 
times written  Gandharba.  In  the  Hindoo  rriythology, 
the  Gandharvas  are  celestial  musicians,  who  live  in 
Swerga,  (the  heaven  of  Indra,)  or  else  attend  on  the 
superior  gods,  as  Siva,  Krishna,  (Vishnu,)  etc. 

Gandini,  gin-dee'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Brescia  about  1550;  died  in  1630. 

Gandini,  (Giorgio,)  or  Giorgio  del  Grano,  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Parma,  was  a  pupil  of  Correggio. 
Died  about  1538. 

Gando,  gSNMo',  (Nicolas,)  a  skilful  type-founder, 
was  born  at  Geneva,  and  lived  in  Paris.  He  made  im- 
provements in  the  printing  of  music.    Died  about  1767. 

Gandolfi,  gSn-doKfee,  (Bartolommeo,)  born  at  Tor- 
ria,  in  Italy,  in  1753,  was  professor  of  natural  philosophy 
in  the  College  di  Sapienza  at  Rome  from  1792  to  1824. 
He  published,  besides  other  useful  works,  a  treatise  on 
Earthquakes,  (1787.)    Died  in  1824. 

Gandolfi,  (Gaetano,)  an  able  Italian  historical 
painter  and  engraver,  born  in  the  province  of  Bologna  in 
1 734,  was  professor  in  the  school  of  Bologna.  The  Italians 
regarded  him  as  one  of  the  first  artists  of  his  time.  His 
works  are  admired  for  correctness  of  design,  gracefulness 
of  expression,  and  harmony  of  dair-obsair.  Died  in  1802. 

See  Grii.i.i,  "  Elogio  di  Gandolfi;"  Malvasia,  "  Felsina  pit- 
trice;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Gandolfi,  (Mauro,)  a  skilful  engraver  and  painter,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  died  in  1834. 

Gandolfi,  (Uhaldo,)  a  painter,  brother  of  Gaetano, 
noticed  above,  was  born  in  1728;  died  in  1781. 

Gandolfo,  gJn-doKfo,  (Domenico  Antonio,)  an  Au- 
gustine monk,  born  at  Vintimiglia  about  1645,  wrote 
memoirs  of  eminent  writers  who  belonged  to  the  order 
of  Augustines,  (1704.)    Died  in  1707. 

Gan'don,  (James,)  an  English  architect,  born  about 
1742.  He  studied  under  Sir  William  Chambers,  and 
won  the  first  gold  medal  for  architecture  ever  awarded 
by  the  Royal  Academy.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation 
by  erecting  ])ublic  buildings  in  Dublin,  among  which  is 
the  Custom-House,  (finished  in  1791,)  one  of  the  finest 
structures  of  its  class  in  the  world.  He  edited  the  "Vi- 
truvius  Britannicus,"  (3  vols.,  1767-71.)    Died  in  1824. 

Gan'dy,  (James,)  an  English  portrait-])ainter,  born  in 
1619,  was  an  imitator  of  Van  Dyck.    Died  in  1689. 

Ganesa,  ga-na'sa,  written  also  Gandga  and  Gan§- 
sha,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  god  of  prudence  and 
policy,  is  said  to  be  the  eldest  son  of  Siva  and  Parvati. 
He  is  represented  with  an  elephant's  head  and  trunk,  a 
symbol  of  sagacity.  He  is  identified  by  some  writers 
with  the  Roman  Janus,  (which  see.)  He  is  sometimes 
called  Polle.^r. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Ganga.    See  ParvatT. 

Ganganelli.    See  Clement  XIV. 

Ganilh,  ^t'whV  or  gt'ne'ye,  (Charles,)  a  French 
writer  and  lawyer,  was  boiri^at  Allanche  (Cantal)  in 
1758.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
from  1815  to  1823.  He  wrote  "The  Theory  of  Political 
Economy  founded  on  Facts,"  (2  vols.,  1815-22,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1836. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


GANNJL 


993 


GAR CJO 


Gannal,  gt'ntK,  (Jean  Nicolas,)  a  French  chemist 
and  inventor,  born  at  Sarre-Louis  in  1791.  He  became 
about  1816  assistant  of  Thenard  in  his  lectures  in  Paris. 
He  invented  a  process  for  refining  borax,  an  elastic 
roller  for  printing-presses,  and  a  process  for  embalming 
dead  bodies  by  injection,  for  which  he  received  the 
Montyon  prize  of  the  Institute,  about  1835.  Died  in  1852. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gan'nett,  (Ezra  Stiles,)  an  American  Unitarian 
divine,  born  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1801.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1820,  was  ordained  in 
1824,  and  subsequently  became  the  colleague  of  Dr. 
Channing,  after  whose  death  he  succeeded  to  the  pastoral 
charge  of  the  Federal  Street  Church  in  Boston.  He 
was  for  some  years  associate  editor  of  the  "Christian 
Examiner."  Mr.  Gannett  holds  a  prominent  place 
among  the  conservative  Unitarians  of  New  England. 

Gans,  ginss,  (Eduard,)  an  eminent  German  jurist,  of 
Jewish  extraction,  born  in  Berlin  in  1798.  He  studied 
under  Hegel  and  Thibaut  at  Heidelberg,  and  became  an 
earnest  advocate  of  the  philosophical,  as  opposed  to  the 
historical,  school  of  jurisprudence.  In  1820  he  pub- 
lished his  "Scholia  on  Gains,"  ("Scholien  zum  Gajus,") 
in  which  his  views  are  ably  set  forth,  and  which  caused 
much  excitement  among  his  opponents.  He  brought 
out  in  1824  his  "Law  of  Succession  in  its  Historical  De- 
velopment," esteemed  one  of  the  most  admirable  works 
of  the  kind.  Soon  after  this  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  law  at  Berlin,  where  he  obtained  the  highest  reputa- 
tion and  success  as  a  lecturer.  His  "  Lectures  on  the 
History  of  Modern  Times"  were  afterwards  published, 
and  are  regarded  as  models  of  eloquence,  wit,  and  erudi- 
tion. Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  "  Retrospect 
on  Persons  and  Conditions,"  (1836,)  and  "The  Basis  of 
Possession,"  (1839.)    Died  in  Berlin  in  1839. 

See  Marheineke,  "Rede  am  Grabe  des  Professor  Dr.  Gans," 
1S39;  Saint-Marc  Girardin,  "  Jldouard  Gans,"  in  the  "Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes"  for  December  i,  1839;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Gansevoort,  gJnss'voort,  (Peter,)  an  American 
officer,  born  at  Albany,  New  York,  in  1749.  He  de- 
fended Fort  Stanwix  with  success  in  1777  during  a  siege 
of  twenty  days,  for  which  important  service  he  received 
the  thanks  of  Congress.  In  1809  he  became  a  brigadier- 
general  in  the  United  States  army.    Died  in  181 2. 

Gaiiteaume,  g6N't5m',  (Honors  Joseph,)  Count, 
a  French  naval  officer,  born  at  La  Ciotat  in  1755.  After 
serving  in  the  American  war  (1779)  and  in  the  East 
Indies,  he  obtained  the  rank  of  caj^tain  in  1794.  In  1798 
he  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Aboukir,  and  became  a 
rear-admiral,  with  the  command  of  the  fleet  employed 
on  the  coast  of  Egypt.  He  escorted  Bonaparte  from 
Egypt  to  France  with  two  frigates  in  1799,  and  was  ap- 
pointed a  councillor  of  state.  In  1804  he  was  raised  to 
the  grade  of  vice-admiral.  Louis  XVIII.  made  him  a 
peer  in  1815.    Died  in  i8i8. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Gan-y-me'des,  in  English  Gan'y-mede,  [Gr.Tavv- 
(iTjdri^  ;  Fr.  Ganymede,  gt'ne'mid',]  a  personage  of  clas- 
sic mythology,  represented  as  the  son  of  Tros  and  the 
cup-bearer  of  Jupiter,  who  selected  him  for  that  office 
on  account  of  his  extraordinary  beauty. 

Gaoutama,  the  French  of  Gautama,  which  see. 

Garamond,  gt'rt'm6N',  (Claude,)  a  celebrated  en- 
graver and  type-founder,  born  in  Paris.  He  surpassed 
all  his  predecessors  in  the  fabrication  of  types.  Francis 
I.  employed  him  to  engrave  for  editions  of  ancient  au- 
thors the  Greek  characters  since  known  by  the  name 
of  Garamond.    Died  in  1 561. 

Garampi,  gi-rSm^pee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  anti- 
quary and  writer,  born  at  Rimini  in  1725,  was  made  a 
cardinal  by  Pope  Pius  VI.    Died  in  1792. 

Garasse,  gt'rtss',  (Francois,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
popular  preacher,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1585,  noted  for 
his  scurrility  and  buffoonery,  wrote  many  violent  contro- 
versial works,  among  which  was  "  La  Doctrine  curieuse 
des  Beaux-Esprits  de  ce  Temps,"  (1623.)   Died  in  1631. 

Garat,  gt'rt',  (Dominique  Joseph,)  a  French  revo- 
lutionist and  popular  writer,  was  born  near  Bayonne 
in  1749.  He  gained  literary  distinction  by  his  eulogies 
on  Fontenelle  and  others,  and  took  four  prizes  of  elo- 


quence awarded  by  the  French  Academy  between  1779 
and  1784.  In  1790  he  became  a  member  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly,  of  which  he  reported  the  proceedings 
in  the  "Journal  de  Paris."  He  succeeded  Danton  in 
1792  as  minister  of  justice,  in  which  capacity  it  devolved 
on  him  to  notify  Louis  XVI.  that  the  Convention  had 
sentenced  him  to  death.  He  expressed  his  repugnance 
to  this  "frightful  commission."  He  was  minister  of  the 
interior  for  a  short  time  in  1793,  and  was  admitted  into 
the  Institute  in  1795.  Under  the  regime  of  Napoleon 
he  became  a  senator,  a  count,  and  president  of  the  In- 
stitute. Garat  was  excluded  from  office  and  from  the 
Academy  on  the  restoration  of  181 5.  Besides  many 
political  treatises,  he  wrote  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of 
M.  Suard,"  (1820.)    Died  in  1833. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  Armand 
Marrast,  "Notice  sur  D.  J.  Garat,"  1838;  Villenave,  "Notice 
sur  la  Vie  de  D.  J.  Garat;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Garat,  (Pierre  Jean,)  a  celebrated  vocalist,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Ustarits  in  1764.  ?Ie  was 
styled  "the  Modern  Orpheus,"  "the  Musical  Proteus," 
etc.    Died  in  1823. 

Garavaglia,  gi-rl-vai'yS,  (Gtovita,)  a  skilful  Italian 
engraver,  born  at  Pavia  in  1790.  He  engraved  "The 
Holy  Family,"  after  Raphael,  (1817,)  "Beatrice  Cenci," 
after  Guido  Reni,  "The  Infant  Jesus  with  John,"  after 
C.  Maratta,  and  other  works.  He  became  a  professor 
in  the  Academy  of  Florence  in  1833.    Died  in  1835. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Garay.    See  Lagaraye. 

Garay,  [Hun.  pron.  gor'oi,]  (JAnos,)  a  popular  Hun- 
garian poet,  born  at  Szekszard  in  1812.  He  wrote 
"Csatar,"  (1834,)  a  heroic  poem,  "Elizabeth  Bathory," 
a  drama,  (1840,)  a  volume  of  lyric  verses  called  "The 
Pearls  of  Balaton  Lake,"  (1843,)  which  were  received 
with  favour,  and  several  popular  ballads.    Died  in  1853. 

Garay,  de,  di  gi-ri',  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  general,  born 
at  Badajos  in  1541.  He  went  to  South  America  in  his 
youth,  fought  with  distinction  against  the  natives,  ex- 
plored a  vast  region  on  the  Parana,  and  was  appointed 
a  lieutenant-general  about  1576.  He  founded  Buenos 
Ayres  in  1580,  soon  after  which  he  was  killed  by  some 
savages  who  surprised  him  at  night. 

See  FuNES,  "  Ensayo  del  Historia  civil  del  Paraguay,"  etc., 
Buenos  Ayres,  1816. 

Garay,  de,  (Don  Martin,)  a  Spanish  financier,  born 
in  Aragon  in  1760,  was  called  the  Necker  of  Spain,  He 
became  minister  of  finance  about  1814,  and  proposed  a 
plan  of  financial  reform  which  gave  much  offence  to  the 
nobles  and  clergy.    Died  in  1822. 

Gar'bett,  (James,)  an  English  theologian,  born  about 
1773,  was  archdeacon  of  Chichester,  and  professor  of 
poetry  at  Oxford.  Among  his  works  are  "  Christ  as 
Prophet,  Priest,  and  King ;  Eight  Lectures  at  Bampton 
Lecture,"  (1842,)  and  "The  Beatitudes  of  the  Mount,  in 
Seventeen  Sermons,"  (1853.)    Died  in  1857. 

Garbieri,  gaR-be-a'ree,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1580,  was  a  pupil  of  L.  Caracci,of  whom 
he  is  called  one  of  the  best  imitators.  He  preferred 
for  his  subjects  scenes  of  carnage  or  sorrow.  Among 
his  works  is  "The  Plague  at  Milan."    Died  in  1654. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Paiilting  in  Italy;"  Malvasia,  "  Felsina 
pittrice." 

Garbo,  del,  d^l  gaR'bo,  (Dino,)  a  Florentine  physi- 
cian, was  professor  in  the  University  of  Bologna.  He 
was  physician  to  the  pope  John  XXII.,  and  wrote 
treatises  on  medicine.    Died  in  1327. 

Garbo,  del,  (Raffaelino,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Florence  in  1466.  Among  his  best  works  is  "The 
Resurrection  of  Christ."    Died  in  1524. 

Gargao  or  Garcam,  gaR-sowN',  (Pedro  Antonio 
Correa — kor-ra'i,)  a  Portuguese  lyric  poet,  called  "the 
Portuguese  Horace,"  was  born  in  Lisbon  in  1724,  or,  as 
some  say,  1735.  He  wrote  sonnets,  satires,  and  odes, 
which  are  admired  for  good  sense  and  elegant  taste,  and 
is  reputed  the  best  lyric  poet  that  Portugal  produced 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  He  also  wrote  "Theatro 
Novo,"  a  drama.  His  complete  works  were  published 
in  1778.  He  died  in  1772,  in  prison,  where  he  was  con- 
fined by  Pombal  for  a  reason  which  is  not  explained. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  h,     guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.   (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23,) 

63 


G ARC AO 


994 


GARDANE 


Gargao-Stockler,  gaR-sowN'  stok'ler,  ?  (Francisco 
DE  BORJA,)  a  Portuguese  mathematician,  a  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Lisbon  in  1759.  He 
published  an  "Account  of  the  True  Principles  of  the 
Method  of  Fluxions,"  ("  Memoria  soljre  os  verdadeiros 
Priucipios  do  Methodo  dos  Fluxoes,"  1797,)  "Histo- 
rical Essay  on  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Mathematics 
in  Portugal,"  (1819,)  and  other  able  works.  He  was 
chosen  Captain-General  of  the  Azores  in  1820.  Died 
in  1829. 

Garces,  gaR'th^s,  (Julian,)  a  Spanish  bishop  and 
pulpit  orator,  born  in  Aragon  about  1460,  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  Charles  V.  and  preacher  to  his  court.  In 
1527  he  was  ordained  Bishop  of  T[ascala,  in  Mexico. 
He  wrote  an  "Epistle  to  the  Pope  in  Favour  of  the 
Indians."    Died  about  1547. 

Garcia  or  Garzia,  gar-see'a  or  gaR-//zee'i,  I.,  Count 
of  Castile,  born  at  Burgos  in  938  A.D.,  succeeded  his 
father,  Fernando  Gonzales,  in  970.  He  defeated  the 
redoubtable  Almansor  at  Osma  in  984.  The  latter 
having  again  invaded  Castile  in  990,  Garcia  gave  him 
battle,  and  received  a  mortal  wound.  He  was  reputed 
a  wise  and  just  prince. 

Garcia  (or  Garzia)  II.,  Count  of  Castile,  grandson 
of  the  preceding,  succeeded  his  father,  Don  Sancho,  in 
1022,  at  the  age  of  fourteen.  His  virtues  and  -talents 
gave  promise  of  a  prosperous  reign  ;  but  he  was  as- 
sassinated by  the  Counts  of  Vela,  in  the  prime  of  life, 
about  1030. 

Garcia  or  Garzia,  gaR-///ee'a,  or  Garcias,  gaR- 
Mee'as,  King  of  Navarre,  born  at  Tudela  in  958  A.D., 
began  to  reign  in  994.  He  was  called  "the  Trembler," 
because  his  frame  was  agitated  just  before  battle,  and 
was  the  author  of  the  saying,  "  My  body  trembles  at 
the  dangers  to  which  my  courage  is  about  to  expose 
it."  In  998  Garcia  and  his  allies  defeated  Almansor  the 
Saracen  in  the  great  battle  of  Calacana9or  or  Caltanazor. 
Died  in  looi. 

Garcia,  (Jos^:  Hidalgo.)    See  Garzia. 

Garcia,  (or  Garzia,)  (Manuel,)  an  eminent  teacher 
of  music,  was  born  at  Madrid  in  1805.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  music  in  Paris  and  London,  and  wrote,  besides 
other  musica,!  treatises,  "  School  of  Garcia  :  Complete 
Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Singing,"  ("  Ecole  de  Garcia :  Traite 
complet  de  I'Art  du  Chant,"  1841.)  The  famous  actress 
and  singer  Pauline  Viardot  is  his  sister. 

Garcia,  (or  Garzia,)  (Manuel  de  Populo  Vicente 
— da  po'poo-lo  ve-th§n'ti,)  a  Spanish  composer  and 
singer,  born  at  Seville  in  1775,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding  and  of  Madame  Malibran.  He  lived  many 
years  in  Paris  and  London,  where  he  taught  music  and 
performed  with  great  success  on  the  stage.  He  com- 
posed several  successful  operas,  among  which  is  "  The 
Caliph  of  Bagdad,"  (1812.)  About  1825  he  visited  the 
United  States.    Died  in  Paris  in  1832. 

Garcia,  (Pauline.)    See  Viardot. 

Garcia  de  Mascarenhas,  gaR-see'S  d^  mls-kJ- 
rgn'ySs,  (Braz,  or  Blaise,)  a  Portuguese  poet,  born  at 
Avo  in  1596.  He  enlisted  in  the  army  in  1614,  went  to 
Brazil,  and  fought  against  the  Dutch.  He  returned  to 
Lisbon  in  1640,  and  was  appointed  Governor  of  Alfa- 
yates,  which  he  defended  against  the  Spaniards.  Having 
been  imprisoned  on  a  false  charge  of  conspiracy  or  trea- 
son, he  wrote  a  poetical  letter  to  John  IV.,  escaped  from 
prison,  and  obtained  an  interview  with  the  king,  who  was 
satisfied  of  his  innocence  and  restored  him  to  office. 
His  principal  work  is  "  Viriato,"  a  national  epic  poem, 
(1699,)  which,  says  the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  "en- 
titles him  to  rank  among  the  best  epic  poets  of  Portugal 
after  Camoens."    Died  in  1656. 

See  Barbosa  Macuauo,  "  Ribliotheca  Lusitana ;"  J.  M.  da 
Costa  e  Sylva,  "Ensaio  biografico-critico  sobre  os  melhores  Poetas 
Poituguezes,"  1854,  vol.  vii. 

Garcia  (or  Garzia)  de  Paredes,  gaR-//^ee'a  d^  pi- 
ra'D^s,  (Don  Diego,)  a  brave  Spanish  officer,  born  at 
Truxillo  in  1466,  served  in  the. war  against  the  Moors 
which  resulted  in  the  conquest  of  Granada,  and  after- 
wards, under  Gonsalvo  de  C6rdova,  against  the  French. 
Like  the  Chevalier  Bayard,  to  whom  "he  is  compared  in 
loyalty  and  honour,  he  never  held  very  high  positions, 
though  he  had  captured  eight  fortified  places,  besides 


taking  part  in  thirty-two  battles  and  sieges.  He  distin 
guished  himself  at  Pavia  in  1525.    Died  in  1530. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  R^publiques  Italiennes;"  Guic- 
ciardini,  "  Historia  Bellorum  Italije  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Geii^- 
rale;"  De  Vargas,  "  Vida  de  D.  Garzia  de  Paredes,"  1621. 

Garcias  Laso.    See  Garcilaso. 

Garcias  y  Matamoros,  gak-Z/zee'Ss  e  ma-tl-mo'r(5s, 

(Alphonso,)  a  learned  priest,  born  at  Cordova,  in  Spain, 
in  1490,  left  a  single  Latin  work,  "  On  the  Academies 
and  Learned  Men  of  Spain,"  (1553.)    Died  about  1550. 

Garcilaso  (or  Garcilasso)  de  la  Vega,  gaR-^'/?e- 
Wso  di  li  va'gi,  (or  Garcias  Laso,  gaR-//zee'Ss  lS.'so,) 
a  Spanish  poet  of  superior  merit,  born  at  Toledo  in  1503, 
His  name  is  sometimes  written  Garsias  Lasso.  He 
entered  in  early  youth  the  army  of  Charles  V.,  under 
whom  he  made  several  campaigns,  and  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Pavia,  (1525.)  He  commanded 
thirty  companies  of  the  Imperial  army  that  invaded 
France  in  1536,  and  was  mortally  wounded  in  the  retreat 
from  Marseilles.  Died  at  Nice  in  November  of  that 
year.  He  acquired  a  durable  and  wide  reputation  by 
his  pastoral  and  lyrical  poems,  and  his  successful  efforts, 
in  concert  with  his  friend  Boscan,  to  reform  Spanish 
poetry  by  the  introduction  of  the  Italian  measure,  which 
forms  an  epoch  in  the  literary  history  of  Spain.  Garcilaso 
excels  in  tenderness  and  pathos,  and  has  been  styled 
"  the  Spanish  Petrarch."  His  works,  which  are  com- 
prised in  one  small  volume,  (1553,)  consist  of  above 
thirty  sonnets,  three  eclogues,  and  a  number  of  odes 
and  elegies.  His  first  eclogue,  which  many  poets  have 
imitated  but  none  has  equalled,  would  alone  suffice  to 
immortalize  his  name  as  that  of  one  of  the  best  poets 
of  Spain. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Literature  of  the  South  of  Europe ;"  Ticknok, 
"History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  E.  F.  de  Navarrrte,  "Vida 
del  celebre  Poeta  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,"  1850  ;  Bouterwek,  "  His- 
toire de  la  Littdrature  Espaguole ;"  Nici^ron,  "  M^moires  ;"  "Lyric 
Poetry  of  Spain,"  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1824. 

Garcilaso.  de  la  Vega,  surnamed  the  Inca,  a 
Spanish  historian,  born  at  Cuzco,  in  Peru,  about  1530. 
He  derived  his  surname  from  his  mother,  who  was  a 
native  princess,  a  descendant  of  the  Incas.  After  col- 
lecting materials  for  the  history  of  Peru,  he  went  to 
Spain  in  1560,  and  obtained  a  pension  from  Philip  11. 
His  history  of  Peru,  entitled  "  Comentarios  reales  que 
tratan  del  On'gen  de  los  Incas,"  (1609,)  is  esteemed  for 
its  fidelity  and  accuracy.  He  also  wrote  an  account  of 
the  conquest  of  Florida  by  De  Soto,  (1605.)  His  death 
is  variously  dated  from  1568  to  1616. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature ;"  Prescott, 
"  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  i.  book.  ii. 

Garcilasso  (or  Garcias  Lasso)  de  la  Vega  y  Var- 
gas, gaR-///e-lds'so  di  13.  va'gi  e  vaR'gSs,  (Sehastian,) 
a  Spanish  officer,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He 
went  to  Mexico  with  Alvarado,  whom  he  aided  in  the 
conquest  of  Guatemala.  He  served  with  distinction  under 
Pizarro  in  Peru,  which  he  entered  in  1534,  and  fought 
against  Almagro  in  1542.  He  became  Governor  of  Cuzco 
in  1548.    Died  in  1559. 

Garcin  de  Tassy,  gtR^s^N'  deh  tt'se',  (Joseph  H^;- 
liodore,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born  at  Marseilles  in 
1794,  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  In- 
scriptions, in  place  of  Talleyrand,  in  1838.  He  became 
professor  of  Hindostanee  at  the  "  ficole  de  Langues 
orientales  vivantes,"  in  Paris.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  Hindostanee  Literature,"  (2 
vols,,  1837.) 

Garczynski,  gaR-chin'skee,  (  Stephen,  )  a  Polish 
statesman,  who  was  appointed  vaivode  of  Kalisch  and 
palatine  of  Posen.  He  wrote  the  "Anatomy  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Poland,"  (i75i-)    Died  in  1755. 

Gardane,  gtR^dtn',  (Antoine,)  a  French  general, 
born  in  Provence  about  1760,  became  general  of  division 
about  1798,  won  distinction  by  his  conduct  at  Marengo 
in  1800,  and  took  part  in  the  campaigns  against  Austria 
and  Prussia  in  1805  and  1806.    Died  in  1807. 

Gardane,  (Joseph  Jacques,)  a  French  physician  and 
medical  writer,  born  in  Provence,  practised  in  Paris 
about  1770.    He  wrote  several  treatises  on  syphilis. 

Gardane,  de,  deh  gtR'dtn',  (Mathieu  Claude,) 
Comte,  a  French  officer,  born  in  Marseilles  in  1766, 
acted  as  aide-de-camp  to  Napoleon  in  1804,  and  distin- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  ^  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  tlr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


GARDEN 


995 


GARELLI 


guished  himself  at  Austerlitz,  Jena,  and  Eylau.  In  1807 
he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Persia.    Died  in  1818. 

Gar'den,  (Alexander,)  F.R.S.,  a  British  botanist, 
born  in  Edinburgh  about  1730.  He  practised  medicine 
for  manv  years  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  and  cor- 
responded with  Linnaeus,  to  whom  he  furnished  informa- 
tion on  the  natural  history  of  Carolina.  He  contributed 
to  the  "Philosophical  Transactions"  of  London.  Died 
in  England  in  1791.  The  genus  Gardenia  was  named 
in  honour  of  him  by  Linnjeus. 

Gar'den,  (Alexander.)  an  American  officer,  who 
served  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution  as  aide-de-camp  to 
General  Greene.  He  wrote  "  Anecdotes  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary War  in  America,  with  Sketches  of  Character," 
etc.,  (1822.)    Died  about  1825. 

Garden,  (Francis,)  called  also  Lord  Gardenstone, 
a  Scottish  judge,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1721.  After 
he  had  practised  at  the  bar  with  credit,  he  was  chosen 
solicitor  of  the  king  in  1764,  and  judge  of  the  court  of 
sessions.  He  published  a  work  entitled  "Travelling 
Memoranda,"  (3  vols.,  1792-95,)  the  result  of  his  travels 
on  the  continent.    Died  in  1793. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionarj-  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Gardenstone,  Lord.    See  Garden,  (Francis.) 

Gardie,  de  la,  deh  la  gaR'de',  (Jakob,)  Count,  a  skilful 
Swedish  general,  son  of  Pontus,  noticed  below,  was  born 
in  1583.  He  commanded  the  Swedish  army  against  the 
Russians  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  subjected  a  large 
part  of  Muscovy,  and  advanced  with  his  victorious  army 
to  Moscow,  where  a  truce  was  negotiated.  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  having  ascended  the  throne,  renewed  the  war, 
and  made  his  first  campaign  under  the  tuition  of  Count 
de  la  Gardie.  After  the  peace  of  161 7  he  became  senator 
and  minister  of  war.    Died  in  1652. 

See  J.  ScHEFFER,  "  Oratio  in  obitum  J.  de  la  Gardie,"  1652. 

G^die,  de  la,  (Magnus  Gabriel,)  an  able  Swedish 
statesman,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1622.  In 
the  reign  of  Charles  X.  (whose  sister  La  Gardie  mar- 
ried) he  commanded  one  of  the  armies.  Under  Charles 
XI.  he  was  grand  chancellor,  and  for  about  twenty  years 
principal  minister  of  state.    Died  in  16S6. 

Gardie,  de  la,  deh  It  gtR'de',  (Pontus,  p6N'tiiss',) 
an  able  general,  born  at  La  Gardie,  in  France,  about 
1530.  He  entered  the  service  of  the  King  of  Sweden 
about  1565,  and  commanded  the  army  of  Duke  John  in 
the  war  which  resulted  in  the  dethronement  of  Eric  XIV., 
(1568.)  He  became  a  baron,  field-marshal,  and  senator. 
About  1583  he  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  Swedish 
arm)-,  and  gained  advantages  over  the  Russians  in  Li- 
vonia.   He  was  drowned  near  Nar\'a  in  1585. 

See  De  Thou,  "Histoire  universelle ;"  Bavle,  "Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary' ;"  C.  Oernhielm,  "  Vita  illustrissimi  Herois  P.  de 
la  Gartie,"  1690;  "Svensk  Plutarch,"  vol.  ii. ;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Gtn^rale." 

Gardin-Dumesnil,  gtRM3.N'  dii'mi'n^l',  (Jean  Bap- 
TISTE,)  an  eminent  French  professor  and  scholar,  born 
at  Saint-Cyr  in  1720.  In  1758  he  became  professor  of 
rhetoric  in  the  College  of  Harcourt,  Paris,  where  he  lec- 
tured many  years.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Latin 
Synonyms,'" '(1777.)    Died  in  1802. 

'Gardiner,  gardener,  (Allan,)  Lord,  an  English  ad- 
miral, born  at  Uttoxeter  in  1742,  entered  the  navy  in 
1755.  He  served  against  the  Americans  and  French, 
and  commanded  the  Duke  in  the  battle  of  April  12, 
1782.  Having  been  for  several  years  a  member  of  the 
admiralty,  he  obtained  the  rank  of  rear-adiniral  in  1793, 
with  coinmand  of  the  fleet  stationed  near  the  Leeward 
Islands.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  Channel  fleet, 
under  Lord  Howe,  in  the  battle  of  June  i,  1794.  In 
1800  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  admiral.  He  sat 
in  several  Parliaments,  and  was  raised  to  the  English 
peerage,  as  Baron  Uttoxeter.    Died  in  1809. 

Gardiner,  (Captain  Allen  F.,)  an  English  naval 
officer,  born  in  1794.  He  went  as  a  missionary  to  Pata- 
gonia, and  published  "Voice  from  South  America," 
(1847.)    Died  in  1851. 

Gardiner,  gardener,  (James,)  a  Scottish  officer,  emi- 
nent for  his  piety  and  courage,  was  born  at  Carriden  in 
1688.  He  was  wounded  at  Ramillies,  (1706,)  and  after- 
wards rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  commanded  a 
regiment  of  dragoons  against  the  Pretender  at  Preston- 


pans,  where  he  was  killed,  in  1745.  The  circumstances 
of  his  death  are  minutely  described  by  Scott  in  "  Wa- 
verley." 

See  "  Some  Remarkable  Passages  in  the  Life  of  Colonel  James 
Gardiner,"  by  Rev.  Philip  Doddridge,  1796;  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionarj-  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Gardiner,  gard'ner,  (John,)  an  American  lawyer, 
born  in  Boston  in  1731.  As  a  member  of  the  legislature 
of  Massachusetts,  he  procured  the  abolition  of  the  law 
of  primogeniture,  and  promoted  several  legal  reforms. 
Died  in  1793. 

Gardiner,  (John  Sylvester  John,)  an  Episcopal 
clergyman,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  South 
Wales  in  1775.  He  became  rector  of  Trinity  Church, 
Boston,  in  1805.  He  was  distinguished  as  a  scholar  and 
a  writer.    Died  in  1830. 

See  DuvcKi.NCK,  "Cyclopasdla  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Gardiner,  (Richard,)  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Hereford  in  1591.  He  became  a  canon  of  Christ  Church 
in  1629,  and  chaplain  to  Charles  I.  in  1630.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  " Model  of  Oratory,"  ("Specimen 
Oratorium,"  1653,)  '^'^^  ^  volume  of  sixteen  Sermons, 
(1659.)    Died  in  1670. 

Gardiner,  (Stephen,)  Bishop  of  Winchester,  an  Eng- 
lish prelate  and  statesman,  was  born  at  E!ury  Saint  Ed- 
mund's in  14S3.  At  Cambridge  he  made  hihiself  master 
of  Greek  and  Latin  and  of  civil  and  canon  law.  While 
employed  as  secretary  by  Cardinal  Wolsey,  he  attracted 
the  notice  and  favour  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  in  1527  chose 
him  as  a  commissioner  to  negotiate  with  the  pope  the 
divorce  of  Queen  Catherine.  Soon  after  his  return  he 
was  made  secretary  of  state,  and  in  1531  Bishop  of  Win- 
chester. He  strenuously  opposed  the  Protestant  Re- 
formers, and  urged  the  king  to  punish  them  with  severity. 
He  courted  the  favour  of  Henry  VIII.  by  aiding  him  to 
procure  divorces,  but  gave  offence  to  him  by  being  too 
officious  in  preparing  the  impeachment  of  Catherine 
Parr.  Gardiner  was  an  enemy  of  Cranmer,  whom  he 
attempted  to  convict  of  heresy,  but  without  success.  In 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower 
in  1548,  and  confined  about  five  years.  Queen  Mary, 
having  ascended  the  throne,  hastened  to  reward  him 
by  the  office  of  chancellor  of  England  and  the  principal 
direction  of  affairs  in  church  and  state.  The  sanguinary 
persecutions  of  that  reign  are  attributed  to  his  influence 
by  Hume,  who  says,  "The  severe  manners  of  Gardiner 
inclined  him  to  support  by  persecution  that  religion 
which  at  the  bottom  he  regarded  with  great  indifference." 
Died  in  1555.  "There  was,"  says  Froude,  "something 
in  Gardiner's  character  which  was  not  wholly  execrable. 
For  thirty  years  he  worked  unweariedly  in  the  service 
of  the  public;  his  judgment  as  member  of  the  council 
was  generally  excellent.  .  .  .  He  was  vindictive,  ruthless, 
treacherous  ;  but  his  courage  was  indomitable." 

See  Froude's  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  vi.  chap,  xxxiii.  ;  also 
Hume's  and  Lingard's  Histories  of  England  ;  Burnet's  "History 
of  the  Reformation." 

Gardiner,  (Sylvester,)  an  American  physician,  father 
of  John  Gardiner,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Kingston, 
Rhode  Island,  in  1717,  and  practised  in  Boston.  Died 
in  1786. 

Gardiner,  (Willl\m,)  a  skilful  engraver,  born  in 
Dublin  in  1766.  He  was  a  pupil  or  assistant  of  Bar- 
tolozzi.  Among  his  works  are  "Illustrations  of  Shak- 
speare"  and  of  other  English  authors.  He  committed 
suicide  in  1 8 14. 

Gardiner,  (William,)  an  English  writer  on  music, 
born  in  1770.  He  published  "Music of  Nature,"  "  Sights 
in  Ital}-,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1853. 

Gardner,  (George,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  botanist,  born 
at  Glasgow  about  1812.  He  explored  Brazil  and  other 
parts  of  South  America,  in  which  he  passed  several 
years,  1836-41.  Having  returned  to  England,  he  pub- 
lished "  Travels  in  the  Interior  of  Brazil,"  (1846.)  He 
died  in  Ceylon  in  1849. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary' of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Garelli,  gS-rel'lee,  (Pio  Niccolo,)  born  at  Bologna 
in  1670,  became  first  physician  to  the  Emperor  of 
Germany.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  "  Viviparous  Gene- 
ration."   Died  in  1739, 


€  as  k;  c  as     g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GJRENGEOT 


996 


GARNET 


Garengeot,  de,  deh  gt'rSN'zho',  (Ren 6  Jacques 
Croissant — kuwa'sSN',)  a  French  surgeon,  born  at  Vi- 
tre  in  1688.  He  began  to  lecture  on  anatomy  in  Paris 
in  1725,  and  was  chosen  P^ellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  London  in  1728.  He  became  surgeon-major  of  the 
king's  regiment  in  1742,  and  wrote  several  treatises, 
among  which  is  "Traite  des  Operations  de  Chirurgie," 
(2  vols.,  1720.)    Died  in  1759. 

Garet,  gt'ra',  (Jean,)  a  French  scholar  and  Benedic- 
tine, born  at  Havre  in  1627.  He  published  an  edition 
of  Cassiodorus,  (2  vols.,  1676.)    Died  in  1694. 

Gar'field,  (James  A.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Cuyahoga  county,  Ohio,  in  1831.  He  was  a  teacher  and 
a  lawyer  before  the  civil  war,  and  became  a  brigadier- 
general  early  in  1862.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  from  the  nineteenth  district  of  Ohio  in  Octo- 
ber, 1862,  served  as  chief  of  staff  of  General  Rosecrans 
in  1863,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general  for 
his  services  at  Chickamauga  in  September  of  that  year. 
He  was  elected  to  Congress  by  the  Republicans  in  1866 
and  1868.  He  was  appointed  in  1867  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  military  affairs. 

Garibaldi,  gir-e-biKde,  [It.  pron.  gS-re-blKdee,] 
(Giuseppe,)  a  celebrated  Italian  patriot  and  general,  born 
at  Nice,  July  4,  1807.  He  entered  the  navy  in  early  youth. 
Having  become  an  active  friend  of  liberty,  he  was  ban- 
ished in  1834.  About  1836  he  took  arms  for  the  re- 
public of  Uruguay,  and  fought  against  Brazil  for  several 
years.  Before  the  end  of  this  war  he  married  a  South 
American  lady,  named  Anita,  who  afterwards  shared 
with  him  in  Italy  the  dangers  of  his  military  career. 
In  1844  he  volunteered  to  defend  Montevideo  against 
Rosas,  and  led  his  Italian  legion  to  victory  at  San  An- 
tonio in  1846.  He  quitted  South  America  in  the  spring 
of  1848,  and  joined  the  Italian  patriots  in  the  war  against 
Austria.  He  offered  his  services  to  King  Charles  Albert, 
but  was  treated  by  him  with  coldness  and  distrust.  After 
the  flight  of  the  pope,  he  took  an  active  part  in  founding 
the  Roman  Republic  and  in  the  defence  of  Rome  against 
the  French  army  in  April  and  May,  1849.  Duiing  the 
siege  of  Rome  he  displayed  great  heroism,  and  gained 
several  victories  over  the  Neapolitans,  who  threatened 
that  city.  Whqn  the  French  captured  Rome  in  July, 
1849,  Garibaldi  escaped  with  several  hundred  men,  and, 
after  passing  through  many  desperate  adventures  and 
conflicts  with  the  Austrians,  was  again  driven  into  exile, 
and  became  in  1850  a  resident  of  New  York.  He  worked 
for  some  time  in  a  manufactory  of  candles  near  that  city, 
and  afterwards  made  several  voyages  in  the  Pacific. 

Early  in  1859  he  offered  his  services  to  the  King  of 
Sardinia,  and,  having  formed  a  detached  corps,  called 
*'  Hunters  of  the  Alps,"  he  gained  several  victories  over 
the  Austrians,  at  Varese,  Como,  etc.  Having  raised  a 
small  army  for  the  liberation  of  Southern  Italy  from  the 
domination  of  the  Bourbon  King  of  Naples,  he  landed 
at  Marsala,  in  Sicily,  in  May,  i860.  He  speedily  took 
Palermo  and  Messina,  and,  crossing  over  to  the  main- 
land in  August,  occupied  the  city  of  Naples  about  the 
8th  of  September.  His  army,  reinforced  by  many  Libe- 
rals of  Southern  Italy,  defeated  the  troops  of  King 
Francis  in  October,  i860,  and  expelled  him  from  the 
country,  which  was  soon  after  annexed  to  the  kingdom 
of  Italy.  Garibaldi  afterwards  retired  to  his  home  in  the 
island  of  Caprera.  In  April,  1862,  he  was  appointed 
general-in-chief  of  the  Italian  national  guard.  He  en- 
gaged in  the  summer  of  1862  in  an  enterprise  which 
was  disapproved  by  the  Italian  government,  and  came 
into  collision  with  the  royal  troops  at  Aspromonte,  where 
he  was  wounded  in  the  foot  and  taken  prisoner. 

In  1864  he  visited  England,  where  he  was  received 
with  great  enthusiasm.  He  fought  against  the  Austrians 
in  the  short  war  of  1866,  at  the  head  of  a  corps  of  volun- 
teers ;  but  the  hostilities  were  ended  by  a  truce  before  he 
came  to  any  decisive  action.  On  several  occasions  he 
inflamed  the  patriotism  of  his  countrymen  by  eloquent 
addresses.  Acting  without  the  authority  of  the  Italian 
government,  he  raised,  in  the  summer  of  1867,  an  army 
for  the  liberation  of  Rome,  which  he  wished  to  annex  to 
the  kingdom  of  Italy.  In  an  address  to  the  people  of 
Rome,  dated  September  16,  he  said,  "Break  the  rings 
of  your  chains  on  the  necks  of  your  oppressors,  and 


henceforth  you  will  share  your  glory  with  the  Italians." 
He  was  arrested,  by  the  order  of  the  king,  at  Sina- 
lunga,  September  23,  and  confined,  but  soon  escaped, 
and  invaded  the  Papal  States  with  a  body  of  troops,  who 
were  defeated  at  Mentana  by  the  papal  forces  and  their 
French  allies  in  November,  1867. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  edited  by  Alexandre  Dumas,  and 
translated  into  English  by  W.  Robson,  i860 ;  "Garibaldi  at  Caprera," 
by  Colonel  Vecchj,  with  a  Preface  by  Mrs.  Gaskell,  London, 
1862;  "Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1859. 

Garibay  y  Zamalloa,  gS-re-Bi'  e  tha-mai-yo'i,  (Es- 
TEBAN,)  a  Spanish  historian,  born  at  Mondragon  in  1525, 
He  was  appointed  in  1563  historiographer  by  Philip  II., 
and  published  a  "Compendium  of  the  Chronicles  and 
History  of  Spain,"  (4  vols.,  1571.)    Died  in  1593. 

Garidel,  gS^re'd^K,  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician  and 
botanist,  born  at  Manosque  in  1659;  died  in  1737. 

Gariel,  gt're-^K,  (Pierre,)  a  French  historian,  born 
at  Montpellier  about  1582,  wrote  a  "History  of  Mont- 
pellier,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1670. 

Garissoles,  gt're'soK,  (Antoine,)  a  French  poet  and 
Protestant  divine,  born  at  Montauban  in  1587.  He  be- 
came pastor  of  the  Calvinist  church  and  professor  of 
theology  in  his  native  town  in  1627.  He  wrote  Latin 
with  purity  and  remarkable  facility.  Besides  several 
approved  works  on  theology,  he  wrote  (1649)  a  Latin 
poem  on  the  exploits  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  entitled 
"Adolphis,"  and  a  few  other  poems.    Died  in  1651. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Gar''land,  (Hugh  A.,)  an  American  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  in  Virginia  in  1805.  He  was  chosen  clerk  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  by  the  Democrats  in  1838. 
He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  John  Randolph,"  (2  vols.,  1850.) 
Died  in  1854. 

Garland,  (Robert  R.,)  an  American  officer  in  the 
Confederate  army,  became  a  brigadier-general,  and  was 
killed  in  the  battle  of  South  Mountain  in  1862. 

Garlande,  de,  deh  gSn'lSNd',  }  (Jean,)  a  poet  of  the 
eleventh  century.  The  English  and  French  both  claim 
him  as  a  native  of  their  respective  countries.  Little  is 
known  of  his  history.  Among  the  numerous  works  that 
bear  his  name  are  Latin  poems  on  the  "  Mysteries  of  the 
Church,"  and  on  "Contempt  of  the  World,"  "  Facetus," 
a  poem  on  the  "  Duties  of  Man,"  and  "  Floretus,"  or 
"Liber  Floreti."    Died  after  1080. 

Garnaud,  gtR^nd',  (Antoine  Martin,)  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1796;  died  in  1861. 

Garneray,  gtRn'ra',  (Ambroise  Louis,)  a  French 
painter  of  marine  views,  born  in  Paris  in  1783.  He 
served  several  years  in  the  navy.  He  painted  naval 
battles  with  success,  and  designed  and  engraved  many 
views  of  French  ports.  He  was  employed  for  about 
ten  years  in  the  porcelain-manufactory  of  Sevres. 

Garneray,  (Auguste  Sim^;on,)  a  painter,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1785.  He  was  pa- 
tronized by  the  empress  Josephine  and  Queen  Hortense. 
Died  in  1823  or  1824. 

Garneray,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1755.  Among  his  works  are  a  portrait  of 
Charlotte  Corday,  and  a  picture  of  "Louis  XVI.  in  the 
Teinple."    Died  in  1837. 

Garnerin,  gtRn'riN',  (Andr6  Jacques,)  a  noted 
French  aeronaut,  born  in  Paris  in  1769,  was  the  first  who 
descended  from  a  balloon  by  a  parachute,  (1797.)  At 
the  coronation  of  Napoleon,  in  1804,  he  was  employed 
to  celebrate  the  event  by  sending  up  a  large  balloon, 
which,  it  is  said,  was  wafted  by  the  wind  to  Rome,  and, 
after  soaring  over  the  Vatican,  struck  against  the  monu- 
ment of  Nero,  the  next  day  after  its  ascent.  Died  in  1823. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Garnerin,  (Jean  Baptiste  Olivier,)  an  aeronaut, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1 766 ; 
died  in  1849. 

Gar'net,  (Henry,)  an  English  Jesuit,  born  at  Not- 
tingham about  1555.  Having  become  a  Roman  Catholic, 
he  visited  Rome  and  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus  in 
1575.  He  was  appointed  superior  of  the  English  Jesuits 
in  1586,  and  resided  in  or  near  London  at  the  time  of 
the  Gunpowder  Plot.    For  complicity  in  this  affair  he 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moun; 


GJRNETT 


997 


GAROFALO 


was  tried,  convicted,  and  hung  in  May,  1606.  (See 
Fawkes,  Guy.)  He  was  regarded  as  a  martyr  by  the 
Catholics,  who  admit  that  the  plot  had  been  revealed  to 
him  as  a  confessor,  but  assert  that  he  discouraged  it. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England,"  chap.  xlvi. ;  Gardiner, 
"History  of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  chap.  v. 

Gar'nett,  (James  Mercer,)  an  American  agriculturist, 
born  in  Essex  county,  Virginia,  in  1770.  He  was  one 
of  the  principal  founders,  and  the  first  president,  of  the 
United  States  Agricultural  Society,  and  wrote  many  able 
papers  on  agriculture  and  other  subjects.    Died  in  1843. 

Garnett,  (Rich.ard  B.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Virginia,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841.  He  com- 
manded a  brigade  of  General  Lee's  army,  and  was  killed 
at  Gettysburg,  July  3,  1863,  aged  about 'forty-four  years. 

Garnett,  (Robert  Selden,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Virginia  about  1821,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1841.  He  was  aide-de-camp  to  General  Taylor  in  the 
Mexican  war,  and  became  a  captain  in  185 1.  Having 
taken  arms  against  the  Union  in  1861,  he  obtained  a 
command  in  Western  Virginia,  ^^e  was  defeated  and 
killed  at  Carrick's  Ford  in  July,  1861. 

Garnett,  (Thomas,)  an  English  physician,  born  at 
Casterton  in  1766.  He  obtained  in  1796  the  chair  founded 
by  Anderson  at  Glasgow,  and  lectured  on  chemistry  at 
the  Royal  Institution  of  London  in  1 799-1 800.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "Observations  on  a  Tour 
through  the  Highlands,"  (2  vols.,  1800,)  and  "Lectures 
on  Chemistry,"  (1801.)    Died  in  1802. 

Garnier,  gtR'ne-a',  (Adolphe,)  a  French  philoso- 
phical writer,  was  fiorn  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  became  in 
1838,  at  the  Sorbonne,  assistant,  or  substitute,  of  M. 
Jouffroy,  to  whose  chair  he  afterwards  succeeded. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "Treatise  on  Social  Morals," 
("Traite  de  Morale  sociale,"  1850,)  and  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Faculties  of  the  Soul,"  ("Traite  des  Facultes 
de  I'Ame,"  3  vols.,  1852,)  which  was  crowned  by  the 
Academy  in  1853. 

Garnier,  (Charles  Georges  Thomas,)  a  French 
litterateur  zx\A  advocate,  born  at  Auxerre  in  1746,  pub- 
lished "Dramatic  Proverbs,"  (1784,)  "The  Cabinet  of 
the  Fairies,"  (41  vols.,  1785,)  and  other  fanciful  produc- 
tions. Died  in  1795.  He  was  a  brother  of  Germain 
Garnier,  noticed  below. 

Garnier,  (Clement  Joseph,)  a  French  political 
economist,  born  in  the  county  of  Nice  in  1813.  He  was 
professor  of  political  economy  in  the  ficole  des  Ponts  et 
Chaussees,  Paris,  from  1846  to  1856,  and  edited  the 
"Journal  des  Economistes"  about  ten  years,  ending  in 
1855.  Among  his  works  is  one  called  "  Elements  of 
Political  Economy,"  (1846.)  He  belongs  to  the  advanced 
Liberal  school, 

Garnier,  (£tienne  Barth^lemy,)  a  French  his- 
torical painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1759,  studied  in  Rome, 
where  he  painted  "  Diogenes  asking  Alms  of  a  Statue." 
He  returned  to  Paris  in  1793.  His  "Desolation  of  the 
Family  of  Priam"  (1800)  was  admired,"  says  the  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale,"  "as  one  of  the  grandest 
pages  of  French  painting."  Among  his  master-pieces 
is  "The  Miracle  performed  on  the  Deaf-Mute,"  (1831.) 
Died  in  1849. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Garnier,  (Francois  Xavier  Paul,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Brest  in  1793.  He  published  works  of  high 
authority,  among  which  is  "  Regime  des  Faux,"  or  a 
Treatise  on  the  Waters  of  the  Sea,  Rivers,  etc.,  (5 
vols.,  1839-51.) 

Garnier,  (Germain,)  a  French  economist,  born  at 
Auxerre  in  1754,  was  a  brother  of  Charles  Georges  Tho- 
mas, noticed  above.  He  emigrated  with  the  royalists  in 
1793,  and  returned  in  1795.  He  was  appointed  prefect 
of  the  department  of  Seine-et-Oise  in  1800,  a  senator  in 
1804,  and  president  of  the  senate  in  1809.  At  the  resto- 
ration of  1814  he  became  a  member  of  the  Chamber 
of  Peers.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  a  minister  of 
state  by  Louis  XVHL  He  made  a  translation  of  Adam 
Smith's  "Wealth  of  Nations,"  (5  vols.,  1805,)  which  is 
the  best  in  the  French  language,  and  published  several 
treatises  on  currency,  statistics,  and  political  economy. 
Died  in  1821. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


Garnier,  (Jean,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  at  Saintes 
in  1754,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention,  1792-94, 
and  passed  into  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1795. 
Having  been  exiled  in  181 5,  he  went  to  the  United 
States,  and  was  drowned  in  the  Ohio  in  1820. 

Garnier,  (Jean,)  a  learned  French  Jesuit  and  casuist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1612,  professed  rhetoric,  philosophy,  and 
theology  in  Paris  for  many  years.  He  wrote,  in  Latin, 
"Theses  of  Moral  Philosophy,"  (1651,)  "Journal  of  the 
Roman  Pontiffs,"  ("Liber  diurnus  Romanorum  Pontifi- 
cum  cum  Notis,"  1680,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1681. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Garnier,  (Jean  Guillaume,)  a  French  mathemati- 
cian, born  near  Guise,  Picardy,  in  1766,  was  professor  of 
astronomy  at  Ghent  from  181 7  to  1830.  He  published, 
besides  many  other  works,  "  Lessons  on  the  Integral 
Calculus,"  (3d  edition,  1812.)    Died  in  1840. 

See  QuETELET,  "Notice  sur  J.  G.  Garnier,"  1841. 

Garnier,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  historian,  born 
at  Gorron,  near  Mayenne,  in  1729.  He  went  to  Paris 
about  1747,  and  obtained  a  place  as  tutor  in  the  College 
of  Harcourt.  He  afterwards  became  professor  of  He- 
brew in  the  College  of  France,  to  which  he  rendered 
eminent  services  as  inspector.  In  1761  his  essay  "On 
the  Origin  of  the  French  Government"  gained  the  prize 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  opened  to  him  the 
doors  of  that  institution.  He  published  in  1764  the 
"Man  of  Letters,"  and  a  "Treatise  on  Civil  Educa- 
tion." He  succeeded  Villaret  as  historiographer,  and 
published  a  continuation  of  Velly  and  Villaret's  "  His- 
tory of  France,"  (1765-85.)  Died  in  1805.  "He  is 
cold,  prolix,  and  monotonous,"  says  Walckenaer. 

See  Dacier,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Garnier,"  1806;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Garnier,  (Robert,)  a  French  tragic  poet,  born  at  La 
Ferte-Bernard  (Maine)  in  1534,  published  in  1568  the 
tragedy  of  "  Porcie,"  which  was  very  successful,  and  was 
followed  by  "Cornelia,"  "Mark  Antony,"  "Antigone," 
"  Les  Juives,"  and  several  others.  They  were  highly 
esteemed  and  often  reprinted.  Henry  IV.  made  him 
councillor  of  state.    Died  in  1590. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Garnier  de  I'Aube,  gtR'ne-a'  deh  lob,  a  French 
revolutionist,  born  about  1760,  was  a  partisan  of  Danton 
in  the  Convention.    Died  about  1812. 

Garnier-Deschenes,  gtR'ne-a'  da'shen',  (Edme  Hi- 
laire,)  a  French  jurist  and  writer,  born  at  Montpellier 
in  1732,  lived  in  Paris.    Died  in  1812. 

Garnier-Pages,  glR^ne-a'  pt'zh^s',  (Stienne  Joseph 
Louis,)  a  French  political  orator,  born  at  Marseilles  in 
1801.  He  studied  law,  joined  the  Liberal  party  in  poli- 
tics, and  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1831. 
He  professed  the  republican  faith,  but  was  prudent  and 
practical,  and  acquired  distinction  as  a  speaker  on  finan- 
cial questions.  He  was  re-elected  in  1834  and  in  1837. 
Died  in  1841.  "This  orator,"  says  Lamartine,  "whose 
renown  increased  at  each  discourse,  was  with  respect  to 
the  tribune  what  Carrel  was  in  journalism, — a  movement 
towards  the  future."  ("History  of  the  Restoration.") 

See  L.  de  Lomenie,  "M.  Garnier-Pages,"  1840:  "  Histoire  popu- 
laire  de  Garnier-Pages,"  1841  ;  M.  de  Cormenin,  "Livre  des  Ora- 
teurs." 

Garnier-Pages,  (Louis  Antoine,)  a  republican 
financier,  half-brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Marseilles  in  1805.  He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  in  1842.  He  spoke  with  ability  on  financial 
affairs,  was  re-elected  in  1846,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
provisional  government  formed  by  the  revolutionists  of 
February,  1848.  Having  become  minister  of  finance  on 
the  5th  of  March,  he  provided  for  the  public  exigencies 
by  a  land-tax,  the  forced  circulation  of  bank  or  treasury 
notes,  (billets  de  banqiie,)  and  other  measures.  His 
management  of  the  finances  is  highly  praised  by  Lamar- 
tine. In  May,  1848,  Garnier-Pages  was  chosen  by  the 
Assembly  a  member  of  the  executive  committee  of  five. 
He  has  since  been  elected  to  the  Corps  Legislatif. 

See  L.  DE  Lomenie,  "Galerie  des  Contemporains ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

CS-arofalo,  gi-ro'fi-lo,  or  Garofano,  gS-ro'fS-no,  the 
surname  of  an  excellent  painter  of  the  Roman  school, 
who  was  born  at  Garofalo,  near  Ferrara,  in  1481.  His 


•e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  y., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GAROFALO 


998 


GARRISON 


proper  name  was  Benvenuto  Tisio.  He  went  to  Rome 
about  1500,  and  was  a  pupil  of  G.  Baldini.  He  after- 
wards studied  or  worked  with  Raphael,  of  whom  he  was 
an  enthusiastic  admirer  and  excellent  imitator.  After 
he  parted  from  Raphael  he  worked  mostly  in  Ferrara, 
where  he  painted  in  fresco  and  oil.  Among  his  works 
are  a  copy  of  the  "Transfiguration,"  (in  oil,)  *'  The  Mas- 
sacre of  the  Innocents,"  and  "The  Resurrection  of  Laza- 
rus."   He  was  an  admirable  colorist.    Died  in  1559. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy;"  Domenico  C.  Moka,  "  Vite  di  U.  Tisio  da  Garofalo  e 
di  G.  F.  Barbieri,"  1842. 

Garofalo,  [Lat.  Caryoph'ilus,]  (Biagio,)  a  learned 
priest  and  antiquary,  born  in  Naples  in  1677,  wrote  a 
"Dissertation  on  Ancient  Marbles,"  (1738.)  Died  in  1762. 

Garouda.    See  Gakuda. 

Garran  de  Coulon,  gt^6N'  deh  koo'l^N',  (Jean 
Fhilippe,)  a  French  lawyer,  born  in  1749.  He  was  a 
moderate  member  of  the  Convention  of  1792,  voting 
against  the  death  of  the  king.  He  became  a  senator,  a 
member  of  the  Institute,  and  a  count.    Died  in  1816. 

Garrard,  gar^rard',  written  also  Geerards  or  Gee- 
raerts,  (Mark,)  a  Flemish  painter,  was  born  at  Bruges 
about  1526.  He  worked  some  years  in  England,  where 
he  died  about  1588. 

His  son  Mark,  born  in  1561,  was  a  portrait-painter  in 
England.    He  had  a  high  reputation.    Died  in  1635. 

Gar'rett-son,  (  Freeborn,  )  a  popular  Methodist 
preacher,  born  in  Maryland  in  1752;  died  in  1827. 

Gar'rick,  (David,)  a  famous  English  actor,  born  at 
Hereford  in  1716.  His  father's  family  was  of  French 
descent.    In  1735  ^  pupil  of  Dr.  Johnson,  (at 

Lichfield,)  whom  in  the  next  year  he  accompanied  to 
London.  Here  Garrick  studied  law  in  Lincoln's  Inn 
for  a  short  period.  Having  for  several  years  cherished 
a  growing  inclination  for  the  stage,  he  made  his  debut 
at  Ipswich  in  1741,  with  coinplete  success,  and  in  the 
autumn  of  that  year  acted  in  the  theatre  of  Goodman's 
Fields,  in  London,  with  a  rapidly-growing  popularity. 
He  made  his  appearance  in  Drury  Lane  for  the  first 
time  in  May,  1742.  His  performance  of  "Richard  HI." 
was  thought  to  excel  all  the  efforts  of  former  actors,  and 
drew  from  Pope  the  prediction  that  Garrick  would  never 
have  a  rival.  In  1745  he  visited  Dublin  and  performed 
for  one  season  in  the  Royal  Theatre.  In  1747  he  pur- 
chased, in  partnership  with  Lacy,  Drury  Lane  Theatre, 
of  which  he  continued  to  be  manager  until  he  retired 
from  the  stage  in  1776.  In  1749  he  married  a  danseuse 
of  Vienna,  Eva  Maria  Violette,  who  is  said  to  have  been 
an  exceedingly  estimable  woman.  He  possessed  in  a  pre- 
eminent degree  the  art  of  imitating  the  physiognomy  of 
others  and  the  expression  of  various  emotions,  and  was 
equally  at  home  in  tragedy  and  comedy.  His  voice  was 
sonorous  and  melodious,  and  even  in  a  whisper  it  filled 
the  whole  house.  His  character,  accomplishments,  and 
matchless  colloquial  powers  rendered  him  welcome  in 
what  is  styled  the  best  society.  He  also  exercised  his 
talents  with  success  in  writing  numerous  comedies,  pro- 
logues, etc.,  among  which  are  "The  Lying  Valet,"  "  Higli 
Life  below-stairs,"  "The  Clandestine  Marriage,"  and 
"  Miss  in  her  Teens."  He  receives  credit  for  reforming 
the  English  theatre  by  rejecting  the  more  licentious 
dramas  and  expurgating  others,  so  that  Dr.  Johnson 
declared  he  had  augmented  the  stock  of  innocent  pleas- 
ures. He  was  intimate  with  Lord  Chatham,  the  Duke 
of  Devonshire,  Lord  Lyttleton,  and  Dr.  Johnson,  whose 
friendship  he  retained  to  the  end  of  his  life.  In  1777  he 
was  invited  by  the  king  and  queen  to  read  a  drama  to 
them  in  their  palace,  and  selected  for  this  occasion  his 
own  farce  of  "Lethe."  Though  he  was  rewarded  by  the 
expression  of  their  satisfaction,  he  described  its  effect 
as  like  a  "wet  blanket,"  compared  with  the  thunder  of 
applause  he  usually  received.  He  amassed,  it  is  said, 
a  fortune  of  ^^140,000.  He  died  in  February,  1779,  and 
was  buried  with  great  pomp,  beside  the  tomb  of  Shak- 
speare,  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

See  "Garrick's  Private  Correspondence  with  the  Most  Celebrated 
PersoiiS  of  his  Time,  with  a  Biographical  Memoir,"  2  vols.,  1S31-32; 
T.  Davies,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  D.  Garrick,"  2  vols.,  1780; 
C.  Blasis,  "Biografia  di  D.  Garrick,"  Milan,  1840;  P.  Fitzgerald, 
"Life  of  David  Garrick,"  2  vols.,  1868;  Arthur  Murphy,  "Life 
of  Garrick,"  2  vols.,  1801 ;  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1868. 


Gar'ri-son,  (William  Lloyd,)  an  American  philan- 
thropist, the  great  leader  of  the  advocates  of  immediate 
emancipation  in  the  United  States,  was  born  in  New- 
buryport,  Massachusetts,  December  12,  1804,  (not  in 
1805,  as  stated  in  some  publications.)  When  about 
fourteen,  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  cabinet-maker ;  but, 
being  strongly  averse  to  this  occupation,  he  prevailed 
upon  his  master  to  release  him.  Shortly  after,  he  was 
placed  with  Mr.  E.  W.  Allen,  editor  of  the  "Newbury- 
port  Herald,"  to  learn  the  art  of  printing.  He  soon 
became  expert  in  the  mechanical  part  of  the  business. 
About  this  time  he  began  to  write  (at  first  anonymously) 
for  the  "  Herald"  and  other  papers.  He  once  had  the 
satisfaction  of  receiving  from  Mr.  Allen,  through  the 
post-office,  a  letter  in  which  the  editor  expressed  his 
thanks  to  his  unknown  correspondent  for  his  communi- 
cations and  hoped  that  he  would  still  continue  to  write 
for  the  "  Herald."  Before  he  was  twenty  years  old,  he 
contributed  to  the  "Salem  Gazette"  a  series  of  ably- 
written  articles,  which  attracted  much  attention.  About 
this  time  the  struggle  of  the  Greeks  for  freedom  awa- 
kened the  interest  of  the  friends  of  liberty  in  every  part 
of  the  civilized  world  :  young  Garrison's  sympathy  was 
so  strongly  excited  for  the  cause,  that  he  seriously  con- 
tenijDlated,  it  is  said,  entering  the  Academy  at  West  Point, 
that  he  might  fit  himself  for  a  military  career.  On  the 
expiration  of  his  apprenticeship,  in  1S26,  he  became  the 
conductor  of  a  ])aper  of  his  own,  called  the  "  Free  Press," 
which  was  published  at  Newburyport.  It  proved,  how- 
ever, unsuccessful,  and  was  soon  discontinued.  In  1827 
he  became  the  editor  of  the  "National  Philanthropist," 
published  in  Boston,  and  the  first  paper  in  America 
devoted  to  the  advocacy  of  the  cause  of  "total  absti- 
nence." Towards  the  end  of  1829  he  accepted  an  invi- 
tation from  Benjannn  Lundy  to  assist  in  the  editorship  of 
the  "Genius  of  Universal  Emancipation,"  published  in 
Baltimore.  This  journal  had  previously  advocated  the 
gradual  abolition  of  slavery ;  but  in  the  very  first  number 
that  was  issued  after  Garrison  became  associated  with 
it,  he  distinctly  avowed  the  doctrine  that  immediate 
emancipation  was  the  right  of  the  slave  and  the  duty  of 
the  master.  Not  long  after,  he  denounced  with  great 
severity  certain  persons  engaged  in  the  domestic  slave- 
trade,  and  declared  his  purpose  to  "cover  with  thick 
infamy"  all  who  were  implicated  therein.  He  was  in 
consequence  tried  and  convicted  for  a  libel.  Being 
unable  to  pay  the  costs,  he  was  committed  to  prison, 
where  he  remained  nearly  two  months.  At  length  Mr. 
Arthur  Tappan,  a  merchant  of  New  York,  paid  his  fine 
and  released  him. 

On  the  1st  of  January,  1831,  he  began,  in  Boston,  the 
publication  of  "The  Liberator,"  a  weekly  journal,  de- 
voted to  the  advocacy  of  the  most  decided  and  uncom- 
promising anti-slavery  views.  He  took  for  his  motto  "  My 
country  is  the  world,  my  countrymen  are  all  mankind." 
His  unsparing  denunciation  of  slavery  and  of  all  those 
connected  with  it,  met  with  sympathy  in  some  portions 
of  the  country ;  but  it  excited  in  the  Southern  States,  as 
was  naturally  to  be  expected,  the  most  intense  exaspera- 
tion. Almost  every  mail  brought  letters  from  the  South 
filled  with  threats  of  violence  and  eveii  of  assassination. 
The  legislature  of  Georgia  went  so  far  as  to  offer  a  re- 
ward of  five  thousand  dollars  to  any  one  who  should 
arrest,  bring  to  trial,  and  prosecute  him  to  conviction 
under  the  laws  of  that  State.  So  great  was  the  excite- 
ment produced  by  the  "Liberator,"  in  even  many  parts 
of  the  North,  that  his  life  was  more  than  once  in  the 
utmost  peril  in  the  capital  of  Massachusetts  itself.  Many 
of  his  friends,  believing  him  to  be  in  danger  of  assassi- 
nation, entreated  him  to  go  armed  in  self-defence  ;  but 
his  non-resistent  principles  prevented  him  from  com- 
plying with  their  request.  In  1840  he  was  sent  as  a 
delegate  to  the  World's  Anti-Slavery  Convention  held 
in  London  ;  but  he  refused  to  take  his  seat,  because  the 
female  delegates  from  the  United  States  were  excluded. 
After  many  years  of  long  and  earnest  labour  in  the  cause 
of  emancipation,  Mr.  Garrison  lived  to  see  at  first  a  great 
though  gradual  change  in  the  public  sentiment  of  the 
North  in  regard  to  slavery,  and  at  last  the  fetters  of  the 
slave  broken,  according  to  a  view  which  he  had  enter- 
tained for  some  years, — that  slavery  could  be  abolished  only 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  mv>on  ; 


GARSAVLT 


999 


GARZONI 


by  a  dissolution  of  the  Unioti ;  but  not,  as  he  had  once 
hoped,  through  the  influence  of  moral  suasion  alone,  and 
without  fighting  or  bloodshed.  In  May,  1865,  he  resigned 
the  presidency  of  the  Anti-Slavery  Society, — an  office 
which  he  had  held  uninterruptedly  for  twenty-two  years, 
(having  been  first  elected  in  1843 ;)  and  in  Decem- 
ber of  the  same  year  the  "Liberator"  was  discontinued, 
the  great  object  for  which  it  had  been  established  having, 
in  his  view,  been  fully  accomplished. 

Not  long  afterwards  his  friends  set  on  foot  a  subscrip- 
tion designed  as  a  national  testimonial  for  his  long  and 
faithful  labours  in  the  anti-slavery  cause.  About  thirty 
thousand  dollars  were  raised,  and  presented  to  him  in 
March,  1868. 

See  Mrs.  Stowe,  "Men  of  our  Times,"  Hartford,  1868. 

Garsault,  de,  deh  gtR'so',  (FRANgois  Alexandre,) 
a  French  author,  born  about  1692,  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  captain  of  the  royal  stud.  He 
wrote  useful  treatises  on  the  treatment  of  the  horse  and 
on  certain  mechanic  arts,  among  which  are  "The  Perfect 
Farrier,"  (1741,)  and  "The  Horseman's  Guide,"  (1759.) 
Died  in  1778. 

Garth,  (Sir  Samuel,)  an  English  physician  and  poet, 
born  in  Yorkshire.  He  settled  in  London  about  1691, 
acquired  a  large  practice,  and  was  noted  for  his  wit  and 
colloquial  powers.  He  was  interested  in  the  subject 
of  Dispensaries,  which  originated  in  his  time  and  were 
opposed  by  the  apothecaries ;  and  for  the  purpose  of 
ridiculing  the  latter  he  wrote  the  "  Dispensary,"  a  mock- 
heroic  poem,  (1699,)  which  ran  through  many  editions, 
each  of  which  was  corrected  by  the  author  and,  as  Pope 
thought,  improved  by  the  change.  Garth  wrote  also 
several  prologues,  epigrams,  and  other  small  poems, 
and  translated  a  part  of  Ovid's  "Metamorphoses." 
About  1 7 14  he  was  knighted  by  George  L,  who  ap- 
pointed him  royal  physician  and  physician  to  the  army. 
He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Pope,  Addison,  and  other 
literary  men.    Died  in  1718. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  Spence,  "Anecdotes;" 
"  Biographia  Britannica;"  Gibber,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets." 

Gartner  or  Gaertner,  ggRf'ner,  (Bernhard  Au- 
gust,) a  German  jurist,  born  at  Cassel  in  1719;  died 
in  1793. 

Gartner  or  Gaertner,  (Johann  Andreas,)  a  Ger- 
man architect,  born  at  Dresden  about  1742,  was  the 
father  of  Friedrich  von  Gartner,  noticed  below.  He 
worked  in  Vienna,  Coblentz,  Wiirzburg,  and  Munich. 
In  the  last  city  he  was  employed  by  the  king  as  Hofbau- 
intendant.    Died  in  1826. 

Gartner,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  German  botanist,  born 
at  Calw,  in  WUrtemberg,  in  1732.  He  became  professor 
of  botany  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1768;  but,  because  the 
climate  did  not  suit  him,  he  returned  to  Germany  in 
1770.  He  devoted  many  years  to  the  study  of  fruits 
and  seeds  as  a  basis  of  classification,  and  published  the 
results  in  an  important  work  entitled  "Carpology;  or, 
Treatise  on  the  Fruits  and  Seeds  of  Plants,"  (Carpo- 
logia,  seu  De  Fructibus  et  Seminibus  Plantarum,"  2 
vols.,  1789-91,)  which  is  regarded  as  a  classic  work. 
Died  in  1 791. 

See  ERSCHund  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"Deleuze, 
"filoge  de  J.  Gartner,"  and  German  translation  of  the  same,  Stutt- 
gart, 1805;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Gartner,  (Karl  Christian,)  a  meritorious  German 
critic  and  writer,  born  at  Freiburg,  in  Saxony,  in  1712, 
was  a  friend  of  Gellert  and  Ramler.  He  was  professor 
of  eloquence  at  the  Carolinum  College  of  Brunswick 
from  1747  until  his  death.  He  rendered  useful  services 
to  German  literature  as  editor  of  a  journal  called  "  Bre- 
mische  Beitrage."  He  wrote  a  popular  comedy  called 
"Fidelity  Proved,"  ("Die  gepriifte  Treue,"  1768,)  and 
other  works,  in  prose  and  verse.    Died  in  1791. 

See  Meusel,  "  Lexikon  der  vom  Jahre  1750-1800  verstorbenen 
Deutschen  Schriftsteller." 

Gartner  or  Gaertner,  von,  fon  g^Rt'ner,  (Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  architect,  born  at  Coblentz  in  1792. 
He  studied  in  Paris  in  1812,  and  subsequently  spent 
several  years  in  Rome.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
architecture  at  Munich  in  1820,  and  was  soon  after  em- 
ployed by  the  prince,  afterwards  king,  Louis,  to  co-ope- 
rate in  the  improvements  he  had  projected.    Among  his 


principal  edifices  are  the  Ludwigskirche,  the  University, 
the  Befreiungshalle,  all  at  Munich,  and  an  arched  hall  m 
the  style  of  the  Loggia  di  Lanzi  at  Florence.  About 
1840  he  built  at  Athens  a  splendid  palace  for  King  Otho. 
Died  in  April,  1847. 

Gar'u-da,  [common  Hindoo  pron.  gur'do-da  or  giir'- 
dod ;  called  in  the  poj^ular  dialect  Giir'oor,]  in  the  Hin- 
doo mythology,  the  vahan*  or  vehicle  of  Vishnu,  a  crea- 
ture half  man  and  half  eagle,  whose  office  it  is  to  oear 
the  preserving  deity  in  all  his  journeys  through  the  air, 
which  is  the  appropriate  element  of  Vishnu.  Garuda  is 
conitnonly  said  to  be  the  son  of  Kasyapa  and  Vinata, 
(whence  he  is  sometimes  called  Vinateya,  vin-a-ta'ya ;) 
although  some  legends  make  him  the  offspring  of  Kasya- 
pa and  Diti.  As  the  eagle  of  Jupiter  is  often  represented 
as  holding  in  his  talons  the  thunderbolt,  so  Garuda  is 
sometimes  pictured  as  bearing  a  bow  and  arrows.  He 
is  usually  painted  with  green  or  blue  wings.  Garuda 
is  supposed  to  be  a  personification  of  the  sky,  which 
apparently  supports  the  sun,  one  of  the  symbols  of 
Vishnu.    (See  Vishnu.) 

See  Moor's  "  Hindu  Pantheon ;"  Coleman's  "Mythology  of  the 
Hindus." 

GarufS,  gS-roof  fee,  (Giuseppe  Malatesta,)  an  Ital- 
ian poet  and  antiquary,  born  at  Rimini  in  1655.  He 
wrote  "II  Rodrigo,"  a  musical  drama,  (1677,)  said  to  be 
the  first  example  in  Italy  of  a  drama  performed  by  a 
single  person.    Died  about  1710. 

Garve,  gaR^'eh,  (Christian,)  a  German  philosopher 
and  moralist,  born  at  Breslau  in  1742.  He  studied  at 
Leipsic,  and  in  1769  succeeded  Gellert  as  professor  of 
philosophy  in  that  city.  He  resigned  this  chair,  on  ac- 
count of  ill  health,  about  1772.  He  translated  Burke's 
"Essay  on  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful,"  and  Ferguson's 
"  Moral  Philosophy,"  and  wrote,  besides  several  essays 
on  moral  philosophy,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Connection 
of  Morals  with  Politics,"  (1788,)  and  "On  Society  and 
Solitude,"  (1792.)  He  was  called  by  Kant  a  philosopher 
in  the  best  sense  of  the  word.    Died  in  1798. 

See  Manso,  "Garve  nach  seinem  schriftstellerischen  Character," 
1799;  S.  G.  DiTTMAR,  "  Erinneiungen  aus  meineni  Unigange  mit 
Garve,"  etc.,  1801 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Geneiale." 

Garzi,  gaRd'zee,  (Luigi,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Pistoia  in  1638,  was  a  pupil  of  Andrea  Sacchi, 
and  was  successful  in  various  branches  of  his  art,  which 
he  practised  in  Naples  and  Rome.  His  style  resembles 
that  of  Carlo  Maratta.  His  drawing  was  true,  and  his 
touch  easy  and  mellow.  Pie  excelled  in  the  representa- 
tion of  Madonnas  and  infants.    Died  in  1721. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "Diz-io- 
nario  :"  Pascoli,  "Vite  de'  Pittori,"  etc. 

Garzia.    See  Garcia. 

Garzia  de  Miranda,  gaR-Mee'S  di  me-rSn'da,  sur- 
named  el  Manco  because  he  had  lost  his  right  hand, 
was  born  in  1677.  He  was  painter  to  Philip  V.,  and  an 
excellent  artist.    Died  in  Madrid  in  1749. 

Garzia  (or  Garcia)  Hidalgo,  gaR-/'//ee''a  e-daKgo, 
(Jos6,)  a  skilful  Spanish  painter  of  history,  born  at  Mur- 
cia  about  1656,  became  court  painter  to  Philip  V.  of 
Spain.    Died  in  1712, 

See  Quilliet,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Garzoni,  gaR-zo'nee,  (Giovanni,)  a  learned  Italian 
physician  and  litterateur,  born  at  Bologna  in  1419,  wrote 
a  Latin  "History  of  Saxony,"  (1518.)    Died  in  1506. 

Garzoni,  (Pietro,)  a  Venetian  historian  and  senator, 
wrote  a  continuation  of  Foscarini's  "  History  of  Venice," 
("Istoria  della  Republica  di  Venezia,"  3  vols.,  1705- 
16.)  The  last  part  relates  the  events  of  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession,  (1701-13.)  Died  probably  about 
1720. 

Garzoni,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  author  and  monk, 
born  at  Bagnacavallo  in  1549.  He  published  several 
works  remarkable  for  their  oddity  and  erudition,  among 
which  are  "  La  Piazza  universale  di  tutte  le  Profes- 
sioni  del  Mondo,"  (1585,)  "The  Hospital  of  Lunatics," 
(1586,)  and  "The  Synagogue  of  the  Ignorant,"  (1589.) 
The  first  of  these  was  once  a  popular  performance.  It 

*  Etymologically related  to  the  German  Wagen,  (a  "carriage"  or 
"  vehicle,")  to  which  it  corresponds  so  nearly  in  sound.  It  is  derived 
from  the  Sanscrit  verb  vdh,  {or  vek,)  to  "carry,"  which  is  cognate 
with  the  Latin  verb  veh-o,  having  the  same  signification. 


k;<^2i%s;%hard;gz.%j;  G,'a.,Y.,  guttural;  ]s, nasal;  ik,  trilled ;  s  as     thasin  this.     (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GJSCA 


lOOO 


GAS  PARING 


treats  at  great  length  of  all  the  professions,  pursuits, 
trades,  and  occupations  of  man.    Died  in  1589. 

See  Ghilini,  "  Teatro  d'Uomini  letterati ;"  Niceron,  "  Me- 
moires  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Gasca,  de  la,  di  la  gas'kS,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  bishop, 
born  at  or  near  Plasencia  in  1485,  was  eminent  for  his 
skill  in  negotiation,  and  was  employed  by  Charles  V.  in 
several  delicate  and  difficult  missions.  Having  been 
sent  to  England  with  secret  instructions  in  1542,  he 
was  successful  in  forming  a  coalition  with  Henry  VHI. 
against  Francis  I.  In  1546  he  was  made  president  of 
the  Royal  Audiencia  of  Lima,  and  sent  with  vice-regal 
power  ♦o  Peru,  where  he  adroitly  suppressed,  without 
much  fighting,  the  rebellion  of  Gonzales  Pizarro.  He 
returned  1.'  1549,  and  became  Bishop  of  Palencia.  Died 
in  1560. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  i. ; 
CiECA  DE  Leon,  "La  Cronica  del  Peru*"  1554;  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic Generale." 

Gascoigne,  gas-koin',  (George,)  an  English  poet, 
born  in  Essex  about  1535.  He  served  in  Holland  under 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  was  afterwards  a  courtier  and 
an  attendant  of  Queen  Elizabeth  on  one  of  her  stately 
journeys.  He  wrote,  besides  other  poems,  the  "  Steel 
Glass,"  a  satire,  (1576,)  "Jocasta,"  a  tragedy,  and  the 
"Comedy  of  Supposes."  Died  in  1577.  "His  minor 
poems,"  says  Hallam,  "especially  one  called  'The  Ar- 
raignment of  a  Lover,'  have  much  spirit  and  gaiety." 
"  He  has  much  exceeded  all  the  poets  of  his  age," 
says  Warton,  "in  smoothness  and  harmony  of  versifi- 
cation." 

See  Wood,  "Athense  Oxonienses." 

Ga.scoigne,  [Lat.  Gasco'nius,]  (Sir  William,)  an 
English  judge,  noted  for  his  moral  courage,  was  born  in 
Yorkshire  about  1350.  He  was  appointed  chief  justice 
of  the  king's  bench  by  Henry  IV.  in  1401.  During  the 
trial  of  a  riotous  person  who  was  a  companion  of  Prince 
Henry,  the  latter  struck  or  insulted  Gascoigne,  who  vin- 
dicated the  majesty  of  the  law  by  committing  the  prince 
to  prison.  (See  Shakspeare's  "Henry  IV.")  On  the 
accession  of  the  prince  as  Henry  V.,  (1413,)  Gascoigne, 
says  Hume,  "  met  with  praises,  instead  of  reproaches, 
for  his  past  conduct."    Died  about  1420. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices ;"  Foss,  "  The 
Judges  of  England." 

Gasconius,  the  Latin  of  Gascoigne,  which  see. 

Gascoygne  or  Gascoigne,  (William,)  an  English 
astronomer,  born  in  Yorkshire  about  1621.  He  invented 
the  micrometer  about  1641.  He  fought  for  Charles  I., 
and  was  killed  at  Marston  Moor,  July,  1644. 

Gas'kell,  (Mrs.  Elizabeth  C.,)  an  English  authoress, 
born  about  1822,  was  the  wife  of  a  Unitarian  clergy- 
man of  Manchester.  Her  maiden  name  was  Steven- 
son. She  produced,  in  1848,  a  popular  novel,  entitled 
"  Mary  Barton,  a  Tale  of  Manchester  Life,"  and  main- 
tained her  literary  reputation  by  other  works  of  fiction, 
among  which  are  "The  Moorland  Cottage,"  (1850,)  and 
"Ruth,"  (1853.)  She  was  a  friend  of  Charlotte  Bronte, 
of  whom  she  published  a  very  interesting  Life,  (2 
vols.,  1857.)  She  was  for  several  years  a  regular  con- 
tributor to  "  Household  Words."  Her  other  principal 
works  are  the  novels  of  "  North  and  South,"  "  Cran- 
ford,"  "  Sylvia's  Lovers,"  and  "  Wives  and  Daughters  :" 
she  left  the  last  unfinished  at  her  death,  in  1866.  "Mrs. 
Gaskell,"  says  George  Sand,  "has  done  what  neither 
I  nor  other  female  writers  in  France  can  accomplish  : 
she  has  written  novels  which  excite  the  deepest  interest 
in  men  of  the  world,  and  which  every  girl  will  be  the 
better  for  reading." 

For  an  interesting  and  admirable  article  on  Mrs.  Gas- 
kell's  writings,  see  the  "  British  Quarterly"  for  April, 
1867  ;  from  it  we  extract  the  following  :  "  It  is  hardly  pos- 
sible to  read  a  page  of  her  writing  without  getting  some 
good  from  it  The  style  is  clear  and  forcible,  the  tone 
pure,  the  matter  wholesome.  .  .  .  Other  novel-writers  of 
her  generation  [may]  have  more  poetry,  more  scholar- 
ship, more  grace,  eloquence,  and  passion  ;  but  in  the 
art  of  telling  a  story  she  has  no  superior,  perhaps  no 
equal."  Of  her  unfinished  "  Wives  and  Daughters"  the 
reviewer  says,  "We  do  not  hesitate  to  pronounce  it  the 
finest  of  Mrs.  Gaskell's  productions, — that  in  which  her 


true  womanly  nature  is  most  adequately  reflected,  that 
which  will  keep  her  name  longest  in  remembrance." 

See,  also,  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1849;  "Westminster 
Review"  for  April,  1849;  "North  British  Review"  for  May,  1853; 
"Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  February,  iS66. 

Gasnevides.    See  Gaznevides. 

Ga.sparin,  de,  deh  gIs'pt'riN',  (Adrien  Etienne 
Pierre,)  CoMrE,  a  distinguished  French  rural  economist 
and  minister  of  state,  born  at  Orange  (Vaucluse)  in  1783, 
was  a  son  of  T.  A.  Gasparin,  noticed  below.  He  gave 
special  attention  to  agriculture,  on  which  he  wrote  many 
able  treatises.  After  the  revolution  of  1830  he  was  suc- 
cessively prefect  of  La  Loire,  of  Isere,  and  of  the  Rhone. 
He  was  minister  of  the  interior  from  September,  1836, 
to  April,  1837,  during  which  period  he  made  a  reform  in 
the  treatment  of  convicts.  He  filled  the  same  office  in 
the  brief  ministry  formed  in  March,  1839,  and  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1840.  Among 
his  works  is  an  excellent  "Course  of  Agriculture,"  (5 
vols.,  1843-49.)    Died  in  September,  1862. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Gasparin,  de,  (Agi^nor  Etienne,)  Comte,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  a  Protestant  by  birth  and  conviction, 
and  an  eminent  publicist  and  friend  of  liberty  and 
order,  was  born  at  Orange  in  1810.  In  early  youth  he 
was  secretary  to  M.  Guizot,  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion. He  became  auditor  to  the  council  of  state,  and 
was  secretary  to  his  father  in  1836  and  1839.  In  1842 
he  was  elected  by  the  voters  of  Bastia  to  the  Charnber 
of  Deputies,  in  which  he  advocated  religious  liberty  for 
Protestants  and  the  liberation  of  slaves.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "  Slavery  and  the  Slave-Trade," 
(1838,)  "Christianity  and  Paganism,"  (2  vols.,  1850,) 
"The  Schools  of  Doubt  and  the  School  of  Faith:  an 
Essay  on  Authority  in  Religion,"  (1853.)  In  1846  he 
retired  from  political  life.  The  great  rebellion  in  the 
United  States  afforded  him  the  subject  of  two  remark- 
able and  successful  works,  called  "The  Uprising  of  a 
Great  Nation,"  ("Un  grand  Peuple  qui  se  releve,"  1861,) 
and  "America  in  the  Presence  of  Europe,"  ("L'Ame- 
rique  devant  I'Europe,"  1862.)    Died  in  1871, 

Gasparin,  de,  Madame,  the  wife  of  the  preceding, 
and  known  as  an  authoress  and  moralist  of  a  high  order, 
was  born  about  1815.  Among  her  works  are  "  Marriage 
from  the  Christian  Point  of  View,"  (3  vols.,  1843,)  which 
received  the  Montyon  prize  of  the  French  Academy, 
"Some  Defects  of  Christians  at 'the  Present  Day," 
"  Monastic  Corporations  in  the  Heart  of  Protestantism," 
(2  vols.,  1855,)  and  three  volumes  of  tales,  entitled 
"Near  Horizons,"  ("Les  Horizons  prochains,")  "Hea- 
venly Horizons,"  ("Les  Horizons  celestes,")  and  "Ves- 
per," (1862.) 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Gasparin,  de,  (Thomas  Augustin,)  a  French  revo- 
lutionist, born  of  a  Protestant  fainily  at  Orange  in  1740 
or  1750,  was  the  father  of  Count  Adrien,  noticed  above. 
He  was  elected  in  1792  to  the  Convention,  in  which  he 
acted  with  the  Jacobins.  He  was  on  a  mission  to  the 
army  of  the  north  when  the  defection  of  Dumouriez 
transpired,  and  confirmed  the  loyalty  of  the  troops.  In 
1793  he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  who  directed  the 
siege  of  Toulon.  It  is  stated  that  his  influence  induced 
the  general  to  adopt  in  this  siege  the  plan  of  Bonaparte, 
who  in  his  will  expressed  his  gratitude  by  a  legacy  of 
one  hundred  thousand  francs  to  the  heirs  of  M.  de 
Gasparin.    Died  in  November,  1793. 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Girondists;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Gasparini,  gas-p^-ree'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Lucca  about  1655,  was  a  professor  of 
music  in  Venice.  He  composed  many  operas  and  can 
tatas,  which  were  admired,  and  a  work  called  "  L'Ar- 
monico  prattieo  al  Cembalo,"  (1683.)    Died  in  1727. 

Gasparino,  gSs-p.\-ree'no,  surnamed  Barzizza  or 
Barzizzio,  (from  the  place  of  his  birth,)  an  Italian 
scholar,  born  near  Bergamo  about  1370,  was  professor 
of  belles-lettres  in  Padua  and  Milan  from  1407  to  143 1. 
He  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  restorers  of  sound  litera- 
ture and  pure  Latinity.  Among  his  works  is  a  treatise 
on  Composition.  By  the  diligent  study  of  Cicero,  he 
acquired  an  elegant  style,  and  was  reputed  the  best  writer 


a,  e,  1,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  pr olonged ;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fSU,  f^t;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


GASP  RE 


looi 


GASTJLDI 


of  that  generation.  Several  of  his  orations  are  extant, 
and  are  the  earliest  models  of  classical  declamation  in 
modern  times.  A  volume  of  his  epistles  was  the  tirst 
book  ever  printed  at  Paris,  (in  1471.)    Died  in  1431. 

See  FuRiETTi,  "Vita  Gasparini,"  prefixed  to  Gasparini's  Works, 
Rome.  1723;  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina  medise  et  infimse 
iEtatis." ' 

Gaspre,  Le.   See  Dughet. 

Gasse,  gSs'si,  (Stefano  and  Luigi,)  two  able  Italian 
architects,  born  at  Naples  in  1778,  were  twin  brothers, 
and  partners  in  their  profession.  They  studied  in  Rome, 
and  were  employed  in  the  construction  of  palaces  and 
public  buildings  in  Naples,  among  which  are  the  Ob- 
servatory, the  Dogana,  (custom-house,)  and  the  Palazzo 
Montemiletto.    Luigi  died  in  1833,  and  Stefano  in  1840. 

Gassendi,  gt'sSN'de',  (Jean  Jacques  Basilien,) 
born  at  Digne,  in  France,  in  1748.  He  obtained  the 
rank  of  a  general  of  brigade  in  1800.  The  First  Consul 
gave  him  command  of  the  artillery  just  before  the  battle 
of  Marengo,  in  which  he  took  part.  Gassendi  became 
a  general  of  division  in  1805,  a  councillor  of  state  in 
1806,  and  a  senator  in  1813.  He  published  a  volume 
of  poems.    Died  in  1828. 

See  QuKRARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Gassendi,  gas-sSn'dee,  [Fr.  pron.  gt'sSNMe';  Lat. 
Gassen^dus,]  written  also  Gassend,  (Pierre,)  born  at 
Champtercier,  near  Digne,  in  Provence,  January  22,  1592, 
was  one  of  the  most  eminent  philosophers  and  savants  of 
France,  and  one  who  added  lustre  to  almost  every  branch 
of  learmng,  being  at  the  same  time  historian,  naturalist, 
mathematician,  astronomer,  logician,  Hellenist,  metaphy- 
sician, and  critic ;  and  all  this  at  a  period  when  the  sci- 
ences had  scarcely  emerged  from  their  infancy.  lie  is 
regarded  as  the  most  universal  genius  of  that  age.  The 
first  disciple  of  Bacon  in  France,  he  was  also  the  cor- 
responflent  and  friend  of  Galileo  and  Kepler.  Destined 
for  the  church,  he  studied  at  Aix  and  Avignon,  and,  at 
the  age  of  twenty-one,  obtained  the  chairs  of  philosophy 
and  theology  in  the  University  of  Aix.  Though  required 
to  conform  in  his  lectures  to  the  doctrines  of  Aristotle, 
he  early  perceived  the  fallacy  of  that  system,  and  by  his 
studies  prepared  himself  to  become  one  of  the  leaders 
in  that  great  controversy  which  resulted  in  depriving 
the  philosopher  of  Stagira  of  the  ])restige  of  infallibility 
which  he  had  so  long  enjoyed.  Having  obtained  a  bene- 
fice in  the  cathedral  of  Digne,  and  the  office  of  provost, 
he  resigned  in  1623  the  place  of  professor,  and  next  year 
published  the  first  volume  of  his  '*  Paradoxical  Essays 
against  Aristotle,"  which  made  a  great  impression  on 
the  public  mind,  and  was  followed  a  few  years  later  by 
a  second  volume  with  the  same  title.  About  this  period 
he  devoted  most  of  his  leisure  to  the  study  of  the  clas- 
sics and  to  researches  in  anatomy  and  astronomy. 

In  1642  he  attacke'd  the  philosophy  and  bold  inno- 
vations of  his  friend  Descartes,  with  whom  he  became 
involved  in  controversy,  refuting,  with  modest  doubts, 
the  dogmatism  of  his  opponent.  He  was  appointed  in 
1645  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  College  Royal  of 
Ps'ris,  where  his  lectures  on  Astronomy  were  admired  and 
largely  attended  by  the  elite  of  the  capital.  In  1647  ap- 
peared one  of  his  best-known  works,  "  The  Life,  Opinions, 
and  Morals  of  Epicurus,"  ("De  Vita,  Moribus  et  Placitis 
Epicuri,")  whose  memory  he  defends  against  the  accusa- 
tions of  the  Stoics,  at  the  same  time  exposing  and  com- 
bating those  parts  of  his  system  which  are  at  variance 
with  Christianity.  His  admiration  for  Epicurus  furnished 
some  narrow-minded  or  envious  persons  with  a  pretext 
to  accuse  him  of  skepticism  ;  but  this  charge  is  refuted 
by  the  tenor  of  his  entire  life.  In  1654  he  published  the 
"Lives  of  Tycho  Brahe,  Copernicus,  and  other  Astrono- 
mers," with  a  preface,  in  which  he  reviewed,  in  a  lumi- 
nous manner,  the  history  of  astronomy.  Gassendi  was 
the  first  to  observe  the  transit  of  Mercury,  (in  163 1.) 
The  parhelia,  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's  satellites,  and  the 
magnetic  needle  afforded  him  subjects  for  careful  and 
profound  research. 

The  mind  of  Gassendi  was  penetrating  and  refined, 
his  style  elegant  and  clear,  his  manners  simple  and  full 
of  amenity.  In  his  efforts  to  subvert  the  inveterate 
prejudices  of  the  Schoolmen  with  respect  to  Aristotle 
and  Epicurus,  he  has  displayed  a  union  of  vast  erudition, 


sound  criticism,  and  mental  independence.  Marivat, 
having  freely  conversed  with  him  while  passing  from 
Grenoble  to  Paris,  without  knowing  his^name,  de- 
sired on  their  arrival  to  be  presented  to  the  celebrated 
Gassendi,  and  was  agreeably  surprised  to  recognize  his 
identity  with  the  modest  companion  of  his  journey.  Be- 
sides the  works  already  referred  to,  he  wrote,  in  Latin, 
treatises  on  the  laws  of  motion,  a  "  System  of  Epicurean 
Philosophy,"  (1649,)  and  "The  Philosophical  System 
of  Gassendi,"  ("Syntagma  Philosophicum,"  etc.,  1658.) 
The  last  is  rather  an  eclectic  than  an  original  system, 
a  selection  and  combination  of  the  doctrines  taught  in 
the  various  schools  of  antiquity.  It  may  be  observed 
that  in  that  age  nearly  all  the  philosophers  of  France 
were  ranged  under  the  two  parties  of  Cartesians  and 
Gassendists.    Died  in  1655. 

See  Bernier,  "Abrege  de  la  Philosophic  de  Gassendi,"  1674; 
BouGEREL,  "Vie  de  Gassendi,"  1737;  SoRBiifeRE,  "DeVita  et  Mori- 
bus  P.  Gassendi,"  1679;  Menc,  "  Eloge  de  Gassendi,"  1767;  Cam- 
BURAT,  "Abrege  de  la  Vie  et  du  Systeme  de  P.  Gassendi,"  1770;  A. 
Martin,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Ecrits  de  P.  Gassendi,"  Paris, 
1853;  Brucker,  "  History  of  Philosophy;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Gassendus.    See  Gassendi. 

Gasser,  gas'ser,  (Johann  Michael,)  a  learned  Ger- 
man writer,  born  at  Schweinfurt  in  1700;  died  in  1754. 

Gasser,  (Simon  Peter,)  a  German  jurist  and  econo- 
mist, born  at  Colberg  in  1676.  He  was  professor  of  law 
and  of  political  economy  at  Halle,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  German  who  conceived  the  idea  of  treating 
political  economy  as  a  science.  His  chief  work  is  an 
"  Introduction  to  Economical  and  Political  Sciences," 
(1729.)    Died  in  1745. 

See  F.  WiDEBURG,  "  Elogium  S.  P.  Gasseri,"  1746;  Adelung, 
Supplement  to  Jocher's  "Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Gassicourt,  de,  (Charles  Louis  Cadet.)  See 
Cadet. 

Gassies,  gt^se',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  painter 
of  history,  marine  views,  and  genre,  born  at  Bordeaux 
in  1786.  Amoaig  his  works  is  "  Virgil  reading  the  /Eneid 
to  Augustus,"  (1814.)    Died  in  1832. 

Gassies,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  naturalist,  born 
at  Agen  in  1816.  He  published  a  "Description  of  the 
Terrestrial  and  Fresh-Water  Mollusks  of  the  Agenais," 
(1849,)  and  other  works. 

Gassion,  de,  deh  gt'se'6N',  (Jean,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Pau  in  1609,  was  attached  to  the  Protestant  cause, 
and  served  with  distinction  under  Gustavus  Adolphus  as 
captain  in  1631  and  1632.  After  the  death  of  that  prince 
he  returned  to  the  French  army,  in  which  he  soon  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  marechal-de-camp.  In  1643  he  com- 
manded the  right  wing  at  the  battle  of  Rocroy,  under  the 
famous  Conde,  who  ascribed  to  him  the  honour  of  the 
day,  saying,  on  the  field  of  battle,  as  he  embraced  Gas- 
sion, "  It  is  to  you  I  am  indebted  for  the  victory."  For 
this  service  he  was  rewarded  with  a  marshal's  bSton. 
He  took  part  in  several  campaigns  against  the  Spaniards 
in  Flanders,  and  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Lens  in  1647. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  able  and  successful  generals  of 
his  time.  In  reply  to  an  officer  who  thought  a  certain 
enterprise  impracticable,  he  said,  "  I  have  in  my  head, 
and  at  my  side,  all  that  is  requisite  for  victory." 

Sec  Renaudot,  "La  Vie  du  Marechal  J.  de  Gassion,"  1647; 
Michel  ue  Pure,  "  Vie  de  J.  Gassion,"  4  vols.,  1673;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Gassner,  gis'ner,  (Johann  Joseph,)  a  German  exor- 
cist, or  thaumaturgus,  and  Catholic  priest,  born  at  Bratz 
in  1727.  He  practised  the  imposition  of  hands  for  the 
cure  of  diseases.    Died  in  1779. 

Gast,  (Rev.  John,)  the  son  of  a  French  Protestant 
exile,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  17 16,  and  became  Arch- 
deacon of  Glandclogh.  He  published  "  Rudiments  of 
Greek  History,"  (1754,)  which  is  commended  for  style  and 
other  merits,  and  a  "  History  of  Greece  from  Alexander 
of  Macedon  until  its  Subjection  by  the  Romans,"  (1782.) 
Died  in  1788. 

Gastaldi,  gis-tlKdee,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  prelate, 
born  at  Genoa.  He  was  made  Archbishop  of  Benevento, 
and  cardinal,  about  1658.    Died  in  1685. 

Gastaldi,  gSs'tSl'de',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Sisteron  in  1674.  He  practised 
for  many  years  at  Avignon.    Died  in  1747. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GJSTJUD 


I002 


GJTTERER 


Gastaud,  gts'to',  (FRAwgois,)  a  French  Jansenist  and 
controversialist,  born  at  Aix  about  1660 ;  died  in  1732. 

Gasteli^,  g^t'Ie-i',  (Ren6  Georges,)  a  French  phy- 
sician and  medical  writer,  born  at  Ferrieres  in  1741, 
practised  in  Paris  with  success.  As  a  member  of  the 
Legislative  Assembly,  he  gave  offence  to  the  Jacobins,  by 
whom  he  was  arrested  in  1793,  but  was  saved  from  death 
by  the  fall  of  Robespierre.    Died  in  1821. 

Gaston,  gts''t6N',  Viscount  of  Bearn,  was  one  of 
the  French  lords  who  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
first  crusade  in  company  with  Raimond  of  Toulouse. 
He  commanded  a  part  of  the  army  at  the  victory  near 
Antioch  in  1098,  and  was  present  at  the  capture  of  Jeru- 
salem, after  which  he  returned  home,  (iioi.)  He  was 
killed  in  fighting  against  the  infidels  in  Spain,  about  1 130. 

Gas'tpn,  (William,)  an  eminent  American  jurist, 
born  at  Newbern,  North  Carolina,  in  1778,  was  chosen 
in  18 13  a  member  of  the  national  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, in  which  he  sat  four  years  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  speaker.  He  was  an  influential 
leader  of  the  Federal  party.  In  1834  he  was  appointed 
a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  North  Carolina.  Died 
in  1844. 

See  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  ii. 

Gaston  de  Foix.    See  Foix,  (Gaston  de.) 

Gas'trell,  (Francis,)  an  English  theologian,  born  at 
Slapton  (Northampton)  in  1662.  He  became  canon  of 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1702,  and  Bishop  of  Chester 
in  1 7 14.  He  published  many  approved  religious  treatises, 
one  of  which,  entitled  "  The  Christian  Institutes ;  or, 
Sincere  Word  of  God,"  (1707,)  has  been  often  reprinted. 
He  also  wrote  "The  Certainty  of  the  Christian  Revela- 
tion," (1699.)    Died  in  1725. 

Gafa-ker,  (Charles,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
at  Rotherhithe  about  1614,  was  rector  of  Hoggeston  for 
about  thirty  years.  He  wrote  treatises  against  popery, 
and  other  religious  works,  among  which  is  "  The  Way 
of  Truth  and  Peace,"  (1669.)    Died  in  1680. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenas  Oxonienses." 

Gataker,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine  and  critic  of 
great  learning,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
London  in  1574.  He  became  rector  of  Rotherhithe, 
Surrey,  in  161 1,  and  published  in  1616  "Of  the  Nature 
and  Use  of  Lots  :  a  Treatise  historical  and  theological." 
He  subscribed  the  Covenant,  and  during  the  Common- 
wealth was  in  fellowship  with  the  Presbyterians.  Among 
his  works  are  excellent  commentaries  on  Isaiah  and 
Jeremiah,  published,  with  other  "Annotations  on  the 
Bible,"  by  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  W^estminster ; 
"Cinnus,  seu  Animadversiones  Variae,"  1651  ;  and  a 
commentary  on  Marcus  Aurelius's  "  Meditations,"  with 
a  Latin  version.    Died  in  1654. 

See  a  "Life  of  T.  Gataker,"  London,  1655;  "  Biographia  Britan- 
nica;"  "Memoir  of  T.  Gataker,"  prefixed  to  his  "Adversaria  mis- 
cellanea posthuma,"  published  by  his  son  Charles  in  1659;  Niceron, 
"  Memoires." 

Gates,  gats,  (Horatio,)  a  general,  born  in  England 
in  1728,  entered  the  British  army  at  an  early  age. 
He  served  as  captain  in  the  army  of  General  Braddock 
when  that  general  was  defeated  and  mortally  wounded, 
near  Pittsburg,  in  1755.  Retiring  then  from  service,  he 
bought  an  estate  in  Virginia,  where  he  resided  when  the 
war  of  the  Revolution  broke  out.  Having  espoused  the 
popular  cause,  his  military  talents  and  experience  pro- 
cured for  him  a  rapid  promotion.  In  1776  he  was  made 
major-general,  and  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
Northern  army,  which  had  recently  returned  from  the 
invasion  of  Canada  and  was  in  the  vicinity  of  Ticonde- 
roga.  General  Schuyler  was  then  in  command  of  that 
district.  In  order  to  prevent  a  collision,  Congress  de- 
clared that  in  appointing  Gates  they  had  no  intention 
to  supersede  the  former,  but  wished  these  two  officers 
to  act  in  concert.  The  English  general  Carleton,  with 
a  large  force  on  Lake  Champlain,  advanced  as  far  as 
Crown  Point,  which  he  captured  ;  but,  thinking  the  sea- 
son too  late  to  besiege  the  Americans,  he  retired  into 
winter  quarters.  At  the  return  of  spring,  Schuyler  had 
the  sole  command.  After  the  capture  of  Ticonderoga 
by  Burgoyne  in  July,  1777,  all  the  Northern  generals 
were  recalled  by  Congress,  in  a  fit  of  disgust  and  vexa- 


tion, and  the  choice  of  a  new  commander  fell  upon 
Gates,  who  assumed  about  the  22d  of  August  the  com- 
mand of  an  army  of  6000  men,  besides  detached  parties 
of  militia.  On  the  19th  of  September  was  fought  the 
battle  of  Benius  Heights,  which  was  terminated  by  the 
approach  of  night  without  decisive  results.  About  this 
time  a  party  of  militia  had  made  a  successful  attack  on 
the  British  posts  on  Lake  George,  cut  off  Burgoyne's 
communications,  and  rendered  his  position  very  critical. 
The  army  of  Gates  was  increased,  September  22,  by  the 
arrival  of  militia  under  General  Lincoln,  who  received 
command  of  the  right  wing.  On  the  7th  of  October, 
1777,  near  the  village  of  Stillwater,  commenced  another 
battle,  in  which  the  Americans  had  gained  decisive 
advantages  when  darkness  suspended  the  contest.  The 
British  lost  a  large  part  of  their  artillery  and  ammuni- 
tion, and  during  the  night  retired  to  higher  ground, 
where  in  the  morning  they  appeared  in  order  of  battle. 
After  slight  skirmishes  on  the  8th,  Burgoyne  abandoned 
his  position  on  the  9th,  and  retreated  six  miles  to  Sara- 
toga, whither  he  was  followed  by  General  Gates  and 
blockaded.  Being  reduced  to  great  distress,  he  opened 
a  treaty  of  capitulation,  and  surrendered,  with  the  condi- 
tions that  his  army  (amounting  then  to  5642  men)  should 
give  up  their  arms,  artillery,  and  baggage,  and  be  con- 
veyed to  England  under  a  pledge  not  to  serve  against 
the  United  States.  The  capture  of  this  army  produced 
great  exultation  among  the  Americans,  and  was  one  of 
the  most  important  events  of  the  war.  Burgoyne  and 
other  British  otficers  bore  testimony  to  the  humanity  of 
the  victor  in  that  campaign.  In  1777  Gates  was  made 
president  of  the  board  of  war.  In  1780  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  command  the  Southern  army,  consisting  of 
6000  men,  chiefly  militia.  On  August  6  he  was  totally 
defeated  at  Camden,  in  South  Carolina,  by  Cornwallis, 
with  a  loss  of  900  killed  and  of  many  prisoners.  On  ac- 
count of  this  disaster,  Congress,  on  October  5,  ordered 
inquiry  to  be  made  into  the  conduct  of  Gates,  who 
was  in  consequence  superseded  in  the  command,  and 
retired  to  his  estate  in  Virginia.  The  inquiry  resulted 
in  an  honourable  acquittal  ;  but  it  appears  he  took  no 
further  part  in  the  war.  In  1800  he  removed  to  New 
York.    Died  in  1806. 

See  Bancroft,  "History  of  the  United  States;"  Hii.dreth, 
"History  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  iii.,  chaps,  xxxiii.,  xxxvii., 
and  xl. 

GatTin,  (Richard  Casv^ell,)  born  in  North  Carolina 
about  1813,  served  in  Mexico  in  1845-46,  and  was  made 
a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  the  Confederate  army 
in  1 86 1. 

Gatta,  della,  deKligit'tS,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  architect,  born  about  1420,  worked  at  Arezzo 
and  Rome.    Died  about  1 500. 

Gatta-Melata,  gat'ti  ma-li'ti,  ("Stefano  Giovanni,) 
an  able  Italian  condottiere,  born  at  Narni.  As  a  general 
in  the  service  of  Venice,  he  defeated  the  Marquis  of 
Mantua  in  1438.    Died  in  1443. 

Gatteaux,  gt^to',  (Jacques  Edouard,)  a  French 
artist,  born  in  Paris  in  1788,  engraved  medals  of  Mon- 
taigne, Corneille,  Racine,  La  Fayette,  etc.  Among  his 
works  are  statues  of  Michael  Angelo  for  the  Louvre, 
and  "Minerva,"  (1836,)  which  was  purchased  by  the 
state. 

Gatteaux,  (Nicolas  Marie,)  a  French  engraver  of 
medals,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1 751. 
He  engraved  in  1798  the  prize  medal  for  the  ficole  de 
Medecine  of  Paris,  which  is  regarded  as  his  master-piece. 
He  illustrated  many  historical  events  by  medals,  and 
made  improvements  in  the  mechanism  of  the  art  of 
engraving.    Died  in  1832. 

Gattel,  gt't^K,  (Claude  Marie,)  a  lexicographer, 
born  in  Lvons,  France,  in  1743,  published  a  French- 
Spanish  Dictionary,  (3  vols.,  1790.)  and  a  Portable  French 
Dictionary,  (1797.)    Died  in  1812. 

Gatterer,  gSfter-er,  (Johann  Chrtstoph,)  a  German 
historian,  born  near  Nuremberg  in  1727.  He  became 
professor  of  history  at  Gottingen  in  1759,  and  wrote 
numerous  works  relating  to  history,  chronology,  and 
genealogy,  among  which  are  "The  Com]5lete  History 
of  the  World,"  (2  vols.,  1785-87,)  "Universal  Historical 
Library,"  (16  vols.,  1767,)  and  "Elements  of  the  Diplo- 


a,  e, T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GATTERER 


1003 


GAUDICHAUD 


matic  Art."  He  founded,  in  1764,  the  Historical  Insti- 
tute at  Gottingen.    Died  in  1799. 

See  Heyne,  "Elogium  J.  C.  Gattereri,"  Gottingen,  1800;  J.  G. 
EiCHHORN,  "J.  C.  Gatterer;  biographische  Skizze,"  1800. 

Gatterer,  (Magdalene  Philippine,)  daugliter  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Gottingen  or  at  Nuremberg  in  1756, 
published  a  volume  of  poems,  "  Neue  Gedichte,"  (1821,) 
which  were  favourably  received.    Died  in  1831. 

Gattey,  gt'ti',  (Francois,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1753,  published  "Elements  of  the 
New  Metrical  System,"  (1801,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1 819. 

Gatti,  git'tee,  (Bernardino,)  an  eminent  Italian 
painter,  surnamed  IL  Sogaro  or  Sogliaro,  (s6l-yi'ro,) 
was  born  about  1495.  Cremona,  Pavia,  and  Vercelli 
dispute  the  honour  of  having  given  him  birth.  He  was 
a  pupil  and  successful  imitator  of  Correggio,  and  worked 
in  Cremona  and  Parma.  Vasari  speaks  in  praise  of  his 
skill.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  frescos  of  "  The 
Miracle  of  the  Loaves,"  at  Cremona,  and  *'  The  Ascen- 
sion," near  Cremona.    Died  about  1575. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Bryan,  "Dictionary 
of  Painters." 

Gatti,  (Gervasio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Cre- 
mona about  1555,  was  a  nephew  and  pupil  of  the  pre- 
ceding.   His  last  works  are  dated  in  1631. 

Gatti,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  Dominican  friar,  born 
at  Messina  about  1420,  professed  theology  at  Florence 
and  Bologna,  and  in  1472  was  made  Bishop  of  Cefalu. 
He  possessed  an  extraordinary  memory,  and  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  attainments  in  languages,  philosophy, 
mathematics,  etc.    Died  in  1484. 

Gatti,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Bo- 
logna in  1662,  was  a  pupil  of  Franceschini,  of  many  of 
whose  works  he  made  good  copies.    Died  in  1726. 

Gatti,  (Oliviero,)  an  Italian  engraver,  born  at  Parma 
about  1570.    He  worked  at  Bologna  for  many  years. 

Gattinara.    See  Arborio. 

Gau,  gow  or  go,  (Franz  Christian,)  an  architect, 
born  at  Cologne  in  1790.  Having  made  a  journey  to 
Egypt  and  Nubia  and  designed  many  ruins,  he  published 
in  1823  "Antiquities  of  Nubia,"  with  text  by  Niebuhr 
and  Letronne.  He  added  two  volumes  to  the  work  on 
the  "Ruins  of  Pompeii"  which  Mazois  left  unfinished. 
He  was  naturalized  as  a  Frenchman  in  1825,  and  de- 
signed several  public  buildings  in  Paris,  by  which  he 
gained  a  high  reputation.  His  chief  work  is  the  church 
of  Saint  Clotilde,  commenced  in  1846,  the  style  of  which 
is  pointed,  or  ogivale.   Died  in  1853. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gaub,  gowp,  or  Gaube,  gow'beh,  [Lat.  Gau'bius,] 
(Hieronymus  David,)  a  German  physician,  born  at 
Heidelberg  in  1705,  was  a  favourite  pupil  of  Boerhaave, 
who  procured  him  the  succession  to  his  chair  of  chem- 
istry at  Leyden  about  173 1.  In  1733  he  obtained  in 
addition  the  chair  of  medicine,  which  he  filled  until  his 
death.  He  published  several  valuable  works,  among 
which  are  "On  the  Government  of  the  Mind  which  is 
within  the  Province  of  Medicine,"  ("De  Regimine  Mentis 
quod  medicorum  est,"  1747,)  and  "Institutes  of  Pathol- 
ogy," ("  Institutiones  Pathologias,"  1758.)    Died  in  1780. 

See  Ersch  unci  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  J.  Bleu- 
LAND,  "  Oratio  qvia  Memoria  H.  D.  Gaubii  commendatur,"  1792; 
"Biographie  Medicale." 

Gaubert,  gS'baiR',  (Paul  L^on  Marie,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Ernienonville  in  1805,  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Hygiene  of  Digestion,"  (1845,)  which 
was  very  successful. 

Gaubii,  go'hhV,  (Antoine,)  an  eminent  French  mis- 
sionary and  Jesuit,  who  did  much  to  promote  a  know- 
ledge of  the  literature  of  Eastern  Asia,  was  born  at  Gail- 
lac  in  1689.  He  went  to  China  in  1723,  and  attained 
such  proficiency  in  the  Chinese  language  and  learning 
that  the  native  doctors  confessed  his  superiority.  He 
was  also  well  versed  in  the  exact  sciences  and  astronomy. 
The  Chinese  emperor  employed  him  for  thirty  years  as 
interpreter  of  the  diplomatic  correspondence  with  Russia, 
and  in  other  important  offices.  Gaubil's  learning  was 
displayed  in  several  profound  works,  the  most  remark- 
able of  which  is  his  translation  of  the  "Shoo-King," 
(1771,)  a  canonical  treasury  of  Chinese  history  and 


tradition.  Pie  published  a  "  History  of  Jengis  Khan  ana 
the  Mongol  Dynasty,"  1739.    Died  in  Pekin  in  1759. 

See  A.  UE  Remusat,  "  Nouveaux  Melanges  Asiatiques ;"  G. 
Pauthier,  "La  Chine;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gaubius.    See  Gaub. 

Gaucher,  go'shi',  (Charles  Etienne,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1740.  He  wrote  "  Iconologie," 
a  treatise  on  Allegories  and  Emblems,  (4  vols.,  1796,) 
and  other  essays  on  art.    Died  in  1804. 

Gaucher  de  Chastilloii.    See  Chastillon. 

Gaucourt,  go'kooR^,  (Raoul,)  a  French  commander, 
who  fought  for  Charles  VII.  against  the  English.  He 
was  appointed  grand  master  of  France  in  1450,  and 
again  in  1456. 

Gau'den,  (John,)  an  English  bishop  and  author,  born 
at  Mayland,  Essex,  in  1605.  In  1640,  being  then  favour- 
able to  the  popular  party,  he  preached  a  sermon  before 
the  House  of  Commons,  in  consequence  of  which  he 
obtained  the  deanery  of  Bocking.  During  the  civil  war 
and  under  the  Commonwealth  he  kept  his  preferments, 
but  ultimately  joined  the  royalist  party  and  wrote  several 
tracts  in  its  support.  At  the  restoration  he  became,  in 
1660,  chaplain  to  Charles  II.,  and  Bishop  of  Exeter  ;  but, 
as  this  did  not  satisfy  him,  he  was,  in  1662,  transferred 
to  the  see  of  Worcester.  His  death,  which  occurred  in 
1662,  was  thought  to  have  been  hastened  by  the  refusal 
of  the  king  to  reward  him  with  the  rich  bishopric  of 
Winchester.  In  soliciting  preferment  and  royal  favour, 
he  claimed  to  be  the  real  author  of  the  famous  "  Eikon 
Basilike,"  or  "Portrait  of  his  Sacred  Majesty  in  his 
Solitude  and  Sufferings,"  which  was  published  a  few 
days  after  the  death  of  Charles  I.  and  was  generally 
supposed  to  have  been  written  by  that  king.  This 
book  ran  through  many  editions,  and  made  so  great  an 
impression  that  the  potent  voice  of  Milton  was  invoked 
to  counteract  it.  This  question  of  authorship  has  been 
discussed  at  much  length  ;  and  the  majority  of  critics 
seem  to  be  agreed  that  Gauden  was  the  author  of  the 
above-natned  work,  or  at  least  had  a  share  in  its  com- 
position. 

See  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses;"  Nichols,  "Literary  Anec- 
dotes;" "  Biographia  Britannica  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review'  for  June, 
1826,  (vol.  xliv.) 

Gaudentius.    See  Gaudenzio. 

Gaudentius,  gaw-den'she-us.  Saint,  was  chosen 
Bishop  of  Brescia  about  387  a.d.  He  wrote  the  life  of 
his  friend  Saint  Philaster,  and  several  discourses  and 
sermons,  which  are  still  extant.    Died  about  420. 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Gaudenzi,  gow-den'zee,  (Pellegrino,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Forli  in  1749,  removed  to  Padua  in  1775. 
Pie  wrote  in  1781  "The  Birth  of  Christ,"  ("La  Nascita 
di  Cristo,")  which  produced  a  vivid  sensation  and  was 
much  admired,  and  "La  Campagna."  He  was  endued 
with  fine  sensibility.    Died  in  1784. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degii  Italiani  illustri;"  Meneghelli, 
"Elogio  storico  di  P.  Gaudenzi,"  1811. 

Gaudenzio,  gow-dgn'ze-o,  [Lat.GAUDEN'Tius, J  (Pa- 
GANINI,)  an  eminent  savant  and  writer,  born  at  Poschiavo, 
in  Switzerland,  in  1596,  exchanged  in  youth  Calvinism 
for  the  Catholic  faith.  From  1628  to  1648  he  taught 
belles-lettres  in  the  University  of  Pisa,  then  the  most 
flourishing  in  Italy.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  many  ora- 
tions, and  dissertations  on  philosophy  and  antiquities, 
among  which  his  "  Rise  and  Progress  of  Philosophy 
among  the  Romans"  (1643)  is  esteemed  the  best.  Died 
in  1648. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vitse  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium ;"  Niceron, 
"  Memoires." 

Gaudichaud  -  Beaupre,      go'  de'  sh5'     bo'  pRi', 

(Charles,)  a  French  botanist,  born  at  Angouleme  in 
1780.  He  served  as  botanist  of  Freycinet's  scientific 
expedition  of  1816-20,  and  wrote  the  botanical  part  of 
the  work  which  was  the  result  of  that  voyage.  In  1836 
-37  he  made  a  voyage  around  the  world  in  the  Bonite. 
Among  his  works  are  "Researches  on  Organography, 
Physiology,  and  Organogeny,"  (1841,)  and  "The  Botany 
of  the  Voyage  around  the  World  in  the  Bonite."  Died 
in  Paris  in  1854. 

See  Louandre  et  Bourquelot,  "La  Litterature  Frangaise;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  E.  Pascallet,  "Notice  bio- 
graphique  sur  M.  Gaudichaud-Beaupre,"  1844. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GAUDIN 


1004 


GAUTAMA 


Gaudin,  go'diN',  (Jean,)  a  French  grammarian  and 
Jesuit,  born  in  Poitou  in  1617,  published  a  "  Latin  Gram- 
mar," and  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  French 
Languages,"  (1680.)    Died  about  1690. 

Gaudin,  gow-d^n',  (Luis  Pascal,)  a  Spanish  painter 
of  history,  born  at  Villa-Franca  in  1556  ;  died  in  1621. 

Gaudin,  (Marc  Antoine  Augustin,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  at  Saintes  in  1804.  He  invented  in  1827 
an  air-pump  which  compresses  air  or  reverses  that  pro- 
cess at  will,  and  discovered  a  method  to  convert  beef 
into  a  substance  like  milk.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"Practical  Treatise  on  Photography,"  (1845,)  and  one 
on  the  "Grouping  of  Atoms,"  etc.,  (1847.) 

Gaudin,  (Marfin  Michel  Charles,)  Duke  of  Gaeta, 
an  able  French  minister  of  finance,  born  at  Saint-Denis, 
near  Paris,  in  1756.  He  was  one  of  six  commissioners 
of  the  treasury  appointed  by  the  Assembly  in  1791,  and 
was  minister  of  finance  from  November  10,  1799,  until 
April,  1814.  This  protracted  official  career  was  almost 
without  example  among  French  financiers.  He  was 
created  Duke  of  Gaeta  in  1809.  The  restoration  of  the 
national  credit  is  ascribed  to  him.  He  was  governor  of 
the  Bank  of  France  from  1820  to  1834.  He  published 
several  treatises  on  finance.    Died  in  1844. 

See  his  "  Memoires,  Souvenirs,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1826;  A.  Portai.is, 
"  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  1' Administration  du  JDuc  de  Gaete,"  1842 ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gaudy,  gowMee,  (Franz  Bernhard  Heinrich  Wil- 
HELM,)  Baron  of,  a  German  poet  and  litteratejir,  of 
Scottish  extraction,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  in 
1800.  He  published  a  number  of  popular  lyrics  and 
tales,  and  made  translations  from  the  Polish  writers 
Mickiewicz  and  Niemcewicz.    Died  in  1840. 

Gauermann,  gow'er-min',  (Friedrich,)  a  German 
landscape-painter,  born  near  Guttenstein,  in  Austria,  in 
1807.  He  exhibited  in  1834,  at  Vienna,  "  The  Labourer," 
which  was  very  successful.  He  was  also  a  skilful  painter 
of  animals.    Died  in  1862. 

Gauermann,  (Jakob,)  a  German  landscape-painter 
and  engraver,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  near 
Stuttgart  in  1772.  His  best  works  represent  scenes  in 
the  Tyrol,  which  are  greatly  admired. 

Gauffier,  goTe-^',  (Louis,)  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Rochelle  in  1761.  He  gained  the  first  prize  at  Paris  in 
1784,  and  went  with  a  royal  pension  to  Rome,  where  he 
painted  "Achilles  recognized  by  Ulysses,"  and  "The 
Roman  Ladies  offering  their  Jewels  to  the  Senate."  Died 
at  Florence  in  1801, 

Gauli  or  GauUi.    See  Baciccio. 

Gaullyer,  goKya',  (Denis,)  born  at  Clery,  in  France, 
in  1688,  was  a  professor  in  the  University  of  Paris.  He 
published  "  Poetical  Rules  drawn  from  Aristotle  and 
others,"  (1728.)    Died  in  1736. 

Gaulmin,  gaKm^N',  (Gilbert,)  a  French  philologist 
and  linguist  of  great  learning,  was  born  at  Moulins  in 
1585.  He  became  a  councillor  of  state,  and  a  partisan 
of  Mazarin,  He  wrote  Latin  epigrams,  odes,  and  ele- 
gies, and  published  an  edition  of  the  romance  of  "  Is- 
mene  and  Ismenias,"  with  a  Latin  version,  (1618.)  He 
is  highly  praised  by  Baillet  and  Colomies.  Died  in  1665. 

See  Baillet,  "  Jugements  des  Savants,"  tomes  ii.  andiv. 

Gault,  g5,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  priest,  born  at 
Tours  in  1595.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Marseilles 
about  1640.    Died  in  1643. 

See  Senault,  "Vie  de  J.  B.  Gault,"  1647. 

Gaulthier,  go'te^',  [Lat.  Walte'rius,]  an  able 
French  theologian  aiicl  statesman,  born  at  Orleans,  was 
bishop  of  that  place  in  876.    Died  in  892  A.D. 

Gaultier,  go'te-i',  (Aloysius  Edouard  Camille,) 
Abb6,  born  of  French  parents  in  Italy  in  1744,  was  noted 
for  his  benevolence  and  his  zealous  efforts  to  improve 
the  method  of  education.  For  this  purpose  he  invented 
games  for  children  and  wrote  many  popular  school-books. 
During  the  Revolution  he  took  refuge  in  England, 
whence  he  returned  to  Paris  about  1802.    Died  in  1818. 

Gaultier,  (Charles,)  a  French  advocate,  noted  for 
his  eloquence  and  powerful  sarcasm,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1590;  died  in  1666.    Boileau,  in  his  Ninth  Satire,  says, 
"Dans  vos  di.scours  chagrins  plus  aigre  et  plus  mordant 
Qu'une  temme  en  turie  ou  Gaultier  en  plaidant." 

SeeTALSAND,  "  Vies  des  Jurisconsultes."  I 


Gaultier,  gowKteeR,  (Leonard,)  a  German  engraver, 
born  at  Mentz  in  1552.  His  master-piece  is  "The  Last 
Judgment,"  after  Michael  Angelo. 

Gaultier  or  Gaultier  de  Lille,  go'te-i'  deh  \h\ 
(Philippe,)  born  at  Lille,  in  Flanders.  He  wrote  a  Latin 
heroic  poem,  entitled  "Alexandreis,"  on  the  exploits  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  which  was  once  in  great  vogue.  Died 
about  1200.  One  of  his  verses  has  become  proverbial : 
"Instabile  est  regnum  quod  non  dementia  firmat."* 

Gaultier  (or  Gautier)  de  Coutances,  go'te-i'  deh 
koo'tdNss',  [Lat.  Gualte'rus  de  Constan'tTTs,]  an 
English  or  Norman  prelate  and  statesman,  acted  an 
important  part  in  the  affairs  of  his  time,  and  became 
Archbishop  of  Rouen  in  1184.  Under  Richard  I.  he  en- 
joyed great  credit  as  a  minister  of  state.    Died  in  1207. 

Gaupp,  gowp,  (Ernst  Theodor,)  a  German  jurist, 
and  professor  of  law  at  Breslau,  born  in  Lower  Silesia 
in  1796. 

Gaurico,  gow-ree'ko,  (Luca,)  [Fr.  Luc  Gauric,  luk 
go'r^k',]  an  Italian  astrologer,  born  at  Gifoni  in  1476. 
He  obtained  eminence  as  a  fortune-teller,  and  professed 
mathematics  at  Ferrara  in  1531.  In  1545  he  was  chosen 
Bishop  of  Civitata.  He  wrote  treatises  on  astronomy, 
astrology,  and  geometry.    Died  in  1558. 

Gaurico,  [Fr.  Gauric,  go'rek',]  (Pomponio,)  an  Ital- 
ian poet,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Gifoni. 
He  wrote  a  treatise  on  sculpture,  and  one  on  the  Poetic 
Art,  (1541  ;)  also  epigrams,  elegies,  songs,  and  other 
verses.  He  was  supposed  to  have  been  murdered  about 
1530,  as  he  disappeared  and  was  never  found. 

Gauss,  gowss,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  profound  Ger- 
man mathematician,  born  at  Brunswick  on  the  30th  of 
April,  1777,  was  educated  at  Gottingen.  He  published 
in  1801  a  remarkable  work  on  transcendental  arithmetic, 
entitled  "Arithmetical  Disquisitions,"  ("  Disquisitiones 
Arithmeticas,")  which  made  an  epoch  in  the  history  of 
the  science.  He  increased  his  reputation  by  his  calcu- 
lations of  the  elements  of  the  planets  Ceres  and  Pallas, 
for  which  the  French  Institute  awarded  him  a  medal  in 
1 8 10.  In  1807  he  was  appointed  professor  of  astronomy 
and  director  of  the  Observatory  at  Gottingen.  He  pub- 
lished in  1809  his  celebrated  work,  "Theory  of  the  Mo- 
tion of  the  Celestial  Bodies,"  ("Theoria  Motus  Corporum 
Coelestium,")  in  which  he  developed  an  improved  method 
for  calculating  the  orbits  of  planets  and  comets.  He 
invented  the  heliotrope,  which  he  used  in  a  triangulation 
between  Gottingen  and  Altona  about  1822.  About  1832 
he  associated  himself  with  Weber  in  researches  in  ter- 
restrial magnetism.  They  contributed  greatly  to  perfect 
this  science,  and  published  "  Results  of  the  Observations 
of  the  Magnetic  Society,  (  Verein,)  1837-40."  Gauss  was 
author  of  other  works.  He  had  a  remarkable  facility  in 
learning  languages.  Laplace  is  reported  to  have  called 
him  "  the  greatest  mathematician  of  Europe."  Died  at 
Gottingen  in  February,  1855. 

See  Waltershausen,  "  Memoir  of  Gauss,"  (in  German  ;)  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gaussen,  g5^s6N',  (£tienne,)  a  French  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Nimes,  became  professor  of  philoso- 
phy at  Saumur  in  1651,  and  of  theology  in  1655.  He 
wrote  several  Latin  works,  that  were  highly  esteemed, 
among  which  is  "  De  Ratione  Studii  theologici,"  (1670.) 
Died  at  Saumur  in  1675. 

Gaussin,  gS'siw',  (Jeanne  Catherine,)  a  celebrated 
French  actress,  born  about  1713,  made  her  debut  in  Paris 
in  1 73 1  with  unanimous  applause.  Voltaire  confided  to 
her  the  role  of  "Zaire"  in  his  tragedy  of  that  name,  the 
success  of  which  was  ascribed  to  her  by  the  public,  and 
even  by  the  author.  She  was  most  successful  in  parts 
characterized  by  fine  and  artless  sensibility.  She  retired 
from  the  stage  in  1763,  and  died  in  1767.  Her  father's 
name  was  Gaussem. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance  :"  Ars^ne  Houssave,  "Phi- 
losophers and  Actresses." 

Gau'ta-ma  [Hindoo  pron.  g6v\''ta-mal  or  Go'ta-ma, 
called  also  Gautama  Booddha  or  Buddha,!  (bood'da,) 
i.e.  "  Gautama  the  Sage,"  Sakya  Muni,  (sSk'ya  mdo'ni,) 
"  Sakya the  Sage,"  and  Sakya  Sinha, "  Sakya  the  Lion," 


*  "That  kingdom  which  clemency  does  not  establish  is  unstable." 
t  Booddha  (Gautama)  is  called  Fo  by  the  Chniese,  and  Hood.s.uo 
by  the  Japanese. — The  name,  in  French,  is  Gaoutama  Bouddha. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  skprt;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GAUTAMA  I005  GAUTAMA 


the  name  of  a  celebrated  Hindoo  reformer,  commonly  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  founder  of  Booddhism.  Respect- 
ing the  time  that  he  lived,  the  greatest  diversity  prevails 
among  the  different  Booddhistic  authorities,  several 
maintaining  that  he  was  born  more  than  a  thousand,  and 
some  not  less  than  two  thousand,  years  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.  Recent  European  writers,  however,  appear  to 
have  adopted  approximatively  the  date  given  by  the  Cey- 
lonese  Booddhists,  from  whom  we  have  the  fullest  and, 
on  the  whole,  the  most  satisfactory  account,  both  of  Gau- 
tama and  his  doctrines,  that  can  anywhere  be  found. 
According  to  the  Ceylonese  writers,  Gautama  was  born 
in  624  and  died  in  543  B.C.*  He  was  of  the  Kshatria 
or  warrior  caste,  of  the  Sakyat  family  or  tribe,  and  the 
son  of  Sudh6dana,t  King  of  Maghada,  of  which  the  chief 
city  was  Ka])ilavastu,  supposed  to  have  been  situated 
near  the  modern  Bahar.  In  early  life  he  was  commonly 
called  Siddharta,  {sid-haR'ta.§) 

The  Booddhistic  legends  surpass  in  extravagance  every- 
thing that  can  elsewhere  be  found  in  the  records  of 
human  invention.  Yet  not  only  is  some  knowledge  of 
these  legends  indispensable  to  a  just  appreciation  of  the 
spirit  and  genius  of  Booddhism,  but  it  is  through  them 
alone  that  we  can  reach  the  few  scattered  germs  of  his- 
toric truth  existing  in  the  various  accounts  of  Gautama 
which  have  come  down  to  us.|| 

According  to  the  legends  respecting  Gautama,  his  birth 
was  attended  with  great  wonders  :  the  earth  quaked,  the 
sun,  moon,  and  stars  stood  still,  the  blind  saw,  the  lame 
walked,  etc.  When  he  reached  the  age  of  sixteen,  his 
father,  fearing  lest  he  might  become  a  priest,  was  anxious 
to  have  him  married.  The  young  Siddharta  made  out  a 
long  list  of  qualities,  personal  and  moral,  which  he  con- 
sidered it  necessary  that  his  wife  should  possess.  With 
this  list  the  court  priest  went  from  house  to  house  through 
Kapilavastu,  and  at  length  found  a  maiden  fulfilling  all 
the  requisitions;  but  her  father  insisted  that  vSiddharta, 
before  marrying  her,  should  give  proof  that  he  was 
skilled  in  all  knightly  accomplishments,  as  well  as  in 
learning  and  wisdom.  At  a  public  trial  he  came  off 
victorious  over  all  competitors.  We  are  tolH  that  he 
was  examined  in  botany  and  zoology  as  well  as  in 
mathematics  and  philosophy.  According  to  another 
legend,  of  which  the  boundless  extravagance  suggests  a 
much  later  date,  Sudhodana  sent  to  certain  of  the  neigh- 
bouring kings  to  obtain  their  daughters  as  wives  for  his 
son ;  they  refused,  on  the  ground  that  the  young  prince 
was  inexperienced,  and  especially  that  he  was  unac- 
quainted with  the  arts  of  war,  and  could  not,  therefore, 
defend  himself  against  the  powerful  enemies  by  whom 
he  was  surrounded.  Piqued  at  this  answer,  Siddharta 
resolved  to  give  public  proof  of  his  strength  and  skill. 
A  day  having  been  fixed  for  that  purpose,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  a  vast  concourse  of  kings  and  warriors,  he 
carelessly  took  up  a  bow  requiring  the  strength  of  a 
thousand  men  to  bend  it.  By  merely  thrumming  the 
string  he  produced  a  sound  louder  than  the  loudest 
thunder,  filling  the  inhabitants  of  distant  provinces  with 
terror.  He  then  placed  four  plantain-leaves  at  each 
corner  of  a  square,  and  with  a  single  flight  of  his  arrow 
pierced  them  all.  Even  in  the  dark  he  could  send  an 
arrow  with  an  aim  so  unerring  as  to  divide  a  hair.  By 
his  ready  answers  to  the  most  difficult  and  abstruse 
questions,  he  showed  that  his  wisdom  was  not  inferior 

*  Koppen,  after  a  careful  and  thorough  examination  of  the  sub- 
ject, comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  death  of  Sakya  iNIuni  should 
be  placed,  in  round  numbers,  about  two  centuries  before  Asoka, 
(A^oka,)  and  that  he  (SSkya)  was  very  probably  the  contemporary 
of  Darius  Hystaspes,  or  Xerxes. 

t  Written  Sakja  and  (^akja  in  German. 

t  Written  also  Qudhodana  and  Qoudhodana. 

§  Siddharta  or  Siddhartha  (written  also  Sidhartta)  is  an  abbrevia- 
tion or  corruption  of  Sarvarthasiddha,  i.e.  the  "  fulfilment  of  every 
wish." 

II  The  intelligent  reader  need  scarcely  be  informed  that  nothing 
deserving  the  name  of  history,  as  this  word  is  understood  among  the 
nations  of  the  West,  is  to  be  found  in  the  literature  of  any  portion  of 
India,  excepting  only  the  little  kingdom  of  Cashmere.  The  Hindoo 
mind,  indeed,  though  gifted  with  extraordinary  intelligence  and  rare 
sagacity  in  some  departments  of  thought,  would  seem  to  be  wholly 
incapable  of  appreciating  the  value  of  historic  truth.  It  is  not  the 
probability  or  truth,  but  the  grandeur,  of  a  statement,  which  carries 
conviction  to  the  minds  of  the  people  of  India;  and  their  religious 
teachers  are  too  wise  or  too  sympathetic  not  to  meet  the  popular 
demand. 


to  his  strength  or  skill.  The  neighbouring  kings  were 
abundantly  satisfied ;  and  not  long  after,  no  fewer  than 
forty  thousand  princesses  were  sent  to  be  the  inmates 
of  Siddharta's  palace.*  Later  accounts  give  the  young 
prince  eighty-four  thousand  concubines,  besides  two  or 
three  lawful  wives.  For  a  time  the  son  of  Sudhodana 
lived  in  the  enjoyment  of  every  pleasure  that  youth  and 
power  could  bestow. 

At  length  a  feeling  of  the  utter  vanity  of  all  earthly 
things  took  possession  of  his  mind ;  a  divine  influence 
brought  to  him  some  dim  remembrance  of  the  innume- 
rable sacrifices  he  had  made  in  previous  transmigrations 
in  order  to  attain  the  Booddhaship  and  to  free  all  living 
beings  from  the  pains  of  existence.  (See  Booddha.) 
His  father,  warned  by  dreams  and  prophecies,  tried  to 
keep  Siddharta  confined  in  his  seraglio  and  in  total 
ignorance  of  the  world  around  him.  But  once,  as  the 
young  prince  happened  to  walk  out,  he  saw  an  old  man, 
-with  bent  body,  wrinkled  face,  bald  head,  and  trembling 
limbs.  Astonished  at  the  sight,  he  asked  his  attendant 
what  it  was.  The  latter  simply  answered,  "It  is  an  old 
man."  But  when,  on  further  inquiries,  Siddharta  learned 
that  decrepitude  and  misery  were  the  lot  of  all  in  advanced 
age,  he  returned  to  his  home  full  of  sorrow.  "What," 
thought  he,"  can  pleasure  or  power  avail  me  if  at  last  I  must 
come  to  this  ?"  On  another  occasion  he  saw  one  afflicted 
with  incurable  leprosy  and  covered  with  sores,  without 
a  guide  or  helper.  He  exclaimed,  "Alas!  for  youth 
which  is  destroyed  by  age,  and  for  health  which  is  under- 
mined by  every  form  of  disease  !"  At  length  he  met  a 
beggar,  who  was  a  religious  devotee,  and  whose  whole 
appearance  betokened  inward  composure  and  peace. 
Siddharta  at  last  decides  to  renounce  the  world  ;  he  now 
remembers  that  he  is  a  Bodhisattva,  or  Bodhisat,  (an 
aspirant  to  the  Booddhaship,)  and,  in  spite  of  the  most 
determined  opposition  from  his  father,  he  resolves  to 
devote  his  life  to  teaching  mortals  how  to  escape  from 
the  miseries  of  their  changeful  existence.  According  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  Booddhists,  Siddharta  did  not  owe 
his  wonderful  gifts  or  his  spirit  of  self-sacrifice  to  the 
mere  accident  of  his  having  been  born  with  a  happy 
intellectual  and  physical  constitution ;  but  the  merit 
which  he  had  acquired  in  innumerable  previous  exist- 
ences caused  him,  by  an  unerring,  inevitable  law,  to  be 
thus  wonderfully  endowed  in  his  last  and  most  perfect 
birth.  (See  Booddha.)  That  power  or  principle  which 
causes  any  being  to  be  born  in  a  condition  corresponding 
to  the  merit  or  demerit  acquired  in  previous  transmi- 
grations, is  termed  Karma,  (or  Kiirma,)  a  Sanscrit  term 
signifying  "work"  or  "action."  It  may  be  regarded  as 
the  combined  result  of  all  one's  previous  acts,  whether 
good  or  evil.  "  Destiny  ( Schicksal )  in  its  Booddhistic 
acceptation,"  says  Koppen,  "is  the  product  of  the  merit 
and  the  guilt  of  living  (beseelten)  creatures.  .  .  .  Every 
deed,  whether  good  or  evil,  operates  through  endless 
periods,  on  and  on,  and  bears,  even  after  a  hundred 
thousand  kalpas,t  its  inevitable  fruit,  until  its  effect  is 
destroyed  through  perfect  sinlessness."  (See  "  Religion 
des  Buddha,"  p.  285.) 

Siddharta  having,  by  his  perseverance  in  acts  of  be- 
nevolence and  self-sacrifice  performed  through  innume- 
rable previous  transmigrations,  accomplished  everything 
necessary  to  make  him  a  supreme  Booddha,  he  acquired, 
at  last,  unlimited  intelligence  and  power.  But,  after 
resigning  the  pleasures  and  splendours  of  royalty,  it 
was  necessary  for  him  to  pass  through  various  trials 
and  to  overcome  the  opposition  of  powerful  enemies — 
among  others,  that  of  Mara,  a  mighty  deva  (or  deity) — 
before  he  could  attain  to  complete  deification. 

We  are  told,  in  true  Oriental  style,  that,  in  his  great 
contest  with  Mara,  the  latter,  accompanied  by  all  the 
powers  of  evil,  came  to  the  conflict  riding  on  an  elephant 
one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  high.  Mountains  of  immeas- 
urable size  are  hurled  at  the  Bodhisattva;  but  the  mo- 
ment they  touch  him  they  are  changed  into  wreaths  and 

*  It  would  appear  that  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times  it  has 
been  customary  in  the  East  to  measure  the  sj^lendour  and  dignity  01 
a  sovereign  by  the  number  of  his  wi\  es.  Akbar,  the  greatest  of  the 
Mogul  emperors,  is  said  to  have  had  more  than  five  thousand,  each 
lady  having  a  separate  apartment  for  herself. 

t  Kalpa  (a  day  and  night  of  Brahma)  is  a  period  of  4320  millions 
of  our  years. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Viy  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as«;  th  as  in  this.    (2!:^^See  Explanations  p.  33.) 


GAUTAMA 


1006 


GAUTAMA 


festoons  of  flowers ;  at  the  same  time  the  poison,  which 
is  spit  upon  him  by  his  demoniac  foes,  becomes  a  halo  of 
glory  round  his  head.  Having  at  last  come  off  victorious 
over  all  his  enemies,  he  becomes  possessor  of  boundless 
wisdom  and  knowledge,  and  not  only  remembers  with 
perfect  distinctness  all  his  experiences  in  his  innume- 
rable previous  existences,  but  he  also  knows  the  exact 
circumstances  of  all  the  beings  who  have  ever  existed  in 
the  infinite  worlds,  and  receives  that  divine  vision  which 
enables  him  to  see  the  remotest  parts  of  the  universe  as 
distinctly  as  if  they  were  close  at  hand.  "Then  the  be- 
ings of  all  the  infinite  sakwalas  (or  worlds)  who  had  not 
before  enjoyed  that  privilege,  saw  a  supreme  Booddha, 
and  rejoiced  in  the  rays  of  many-coloured  light  which 
proceeded  from  his  person."  Among  the  characteris- 
tics of  beauty  belonging  to  Booddha  are  mentioned  curly 
locks  and  a  golden-coloured  complexion  :  accordingly, 
we  always  see  his  statues  represented  with  curly  hair; 
and  generally,  if  not  invariably,  they  are  of  a  yellow 
colour.*  The  person  of  Booddha,  it  is  said,  was  ordi- 
narily only  twelve  cubits  in  height ;  but,  when  he  willed 
to  do  so,  he  could  enlarge  himself  beyond  the  limits  of 
the  highest  heaven. 

The  followers  of  Gautama  believe  that  throughout 
myriads  of  ages  he  voluntarily  endured  the  severest 
privations,  and  often  the  most  dreadful  sufferings,  in 
order  that  he  might  at  last  save  the  inhabitants  of  the 
different  worlds  from  the  miseries  of  existence.  Millions 
of  centuries  ago  he  had  acquired  sufficient  merit  to  enter 
Nirvana  or  Nirvvana,  (the  supreme  beatitude  of  the  Bood- 
dhists ;)  but  he  preferred  to  suffer  through  countless 
ages,  that  he  might  become  the  benefactor  of  all  beings. 

The  Booddhists  believe  that  in  the  universe  the  worlds 
(sakwalas)  are  beyond  all  computation.  Each  sakwala 
includes  an  earth,  with  its  continents,  islands,  and  oceans, 
as  well  as  a  number  of  heavens  and  hells,  and  is  in- 
habited in  its  different  parts  by  various  beings,  such  as 
animals,  men,  demons,  devas,  and  brahmas.  The  devas 
(da'vas)  are  a  sort  of  inferior  deities.  The  brahmas  are 
an  order  of  godlike  beings,  who  hold  the  highest  rank 
among  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  universe,  a  Booddha 
alone  excepted.  Their  state  of  passionless  repose 
strongly  reminds  us  of  Lucretius's  description  of  the 
gods  of  Epicurus,  from  whom  they  differ,  however,  in 
not  possessing  absolute  immortality  : 

"  Omnis  enini  per  se  Divom  natura  necesse  est 
Immortali  jevo  summa  cum  pace  friiatur, 
Semota  ab  iiostris  rebus  sejunctaque  longe; 
Nam  privata  doloreomni,  privata  periclis. 
Ipsa  suis  pollens  opibus,  nihil  indiga  nostri, 
Nec  bene  promeritis  capitur,  nec  tangitur  irS.  "1 

De  Rertitn  Natura,  lib.  i. 
One  of  the  abodes  of  the  devas  is  termed  a  devaloka, 
and  an  abode  of  the  brahmas  is  called  a  brahmaloka. 
The  ages  of  the  different  inhabitants  of  the  universe  vary 
according  to  the  loka  which  they  occupy.  The  most 
short-lived  of  the  devas  live  nine  millions  of  our  years  ; 
while  those  who  enjoy  the  greatest  longevity  live  more 
than  nine  thousand  million  years.  The  life-term  of  the 
brahmas  also  varies  greatly ;  but  it  would  be  almost  im- 
possible to  express  in  figures  the  age  even  of  those  whose 
lives  are  the  briefest.  Some  of  the  Booddhistic  writers, 
however,  have  endeavoured  to  convey  an  idea  of  those 
immeasurable  periods  in  the  following  manner.  There  is 
fabricated  in  India  a  species  of  cotton  cloth  unequalled 
in  the  delicacy  of  its  texture ;  it  is  sometimes  called 
"  woven  wind,"  (in  Latin,  "  ventus  textilis.")  Now,  were 

*  See  Moor's  "Hindu  Pantheor.."  p.  229.  It  appears  that  be- 
fore Gautama's  appearance  as  supreme  Booddha,  the  putting  on  of 
a  yellow  garment  was  an  indication  that  the  wearer  had  renounced 
the  world  and  become  an  ascetic.  (See  Koppen,  pp.  83  and  85.) 
Whether  Booddha's  golden  complexion  may  have  been  given  to  him 
in  commemoration  of  his  former  character  as  an  ascetic,  we  are  un- 
able to  say;  but  it  is  still  a  prevailing,  if  not  universal,  custom,  among 
the  Booddhist  priesthood,  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  to  wear  a 
yellow  dress. 

t  The  following,  by  Dr.  Good,  though  very  imperfect,  is  perhaps 
the  best  poetical  translation  into  English  that  has  been  made  of  the 
above  passage : 

"  Far,  far  from  mortals  and  their  vain  concerns, 
In  peace  perpetual,  dwell  the  immortal  gods. 
Each  self-dependent  and  from  human  wants 
Estranged  forever.    There  nor  pain  pervades. 
Nor  danger  threatens;  every  passion  sleeps; 
Vice  no  revenge,  no  rapture  virtue  prompts." 


one  to  touch  with  this  material,  ever  so  lightly,  once  in  a 
hundred  years,  a  mountain  of  solid  rock  sixteen  miles 
high  and  as  many  broad,  the  mountain  would  at  length 
be  completely  worn  to  dust.  But  the  time  required  for 
this  would  not  amount  to  the  thousandth  part  of  the  life- 
term  of  the  greater  number  of  the  brahmas. 

There  is  also  an  endless  variety  of  beings  of  a  less  ex- 
alted order,  and  of  various  forms.  Some  of  these,  called 
Nagas,  appear  as  serpents,  but  are  in  fact  demi-gods. 
The  Garundas  are  like  immense  birds,  and  are  repre- 
sented as  the  mortal  enemies  of  the  Nagas.  The  Asuras, 
(or  Asurs,)  who  hold  so  prominent  a  place  in  the  Bruh- 
manical  mythology,  are  too  important  to  be  omitted  from 
a  system  of  exaggeration  designed  to  throw  all  the  fic- 
tions of  the  Brahmans  into  the  shade.  Accordingly,  we 
have  them  in  all  their  glory.  Rahu,  (ri'hdo,)  one  of  the 
Asur  chiefs,  is  expressly  stated  to  be  76,800  miles  high, 
and  19,200  miles  across  the  shoulders.  The  Pretas 
(pra'tas)  are  unhappy  beings,  of  immense  size,  but  so 
wasted  and  thin  as  to  resemble  a  dry  leaf 

Respecting  the  doctrines  taught  by  Gautama  him- 
self, we  cannot  safely  affirm  anything  positively.  There 
seems,  however,  to  be  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  primi- 
tive Booddhists  were  atheists.  Those  of  Ceylon,  (who 
have  confessedly  departed  the  least  from  the  primitive 
doctrines  of  Booddhism,)  as  well  as  the  most  ancient 
sect  of  Nepaul,  (the  Swabhavikas,)  are,  strictly  speaking, 
atheists,  since  they  do  not  recognize  any  infinite  self- 
existent  Spirit  who  is  the  original  source  of  all  forms  of 
being.  They  teach  that  an  infinite  multitude  of  separate 
finite  souls  have  always  existed.  Some  sects  maintain 
that  nothing  exists  in  the  universe  except  matter,  which 
is  endowed  with  certain  inherent,  inseparable  properties, 
causing  it  to  arrange  itself  in  forms  of  beauty  and  order, 
and,  consequently,  that  the  souls  of  living  beings  are 
material.  While  thus  teaching  that  existence  had  no 
beginning,  they  maintain  not  only  that  under  every  form 
it  is  an  evil,  but  that,  except  where  it  is  voluntarily  en- 
dured, as  in  the  case  of  the  aspirants  to  the  Booddhaship, 
it  is  invariably  associated  with  demerit.  If  any  being, 
whether  man,  deva,  or  brahma,  had  sufficient  merit,  he 
would  at  once  enter  Nirvana  and  cease  to  have  any 
separate  existence. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  Karma  (that  power  or 
destiny  that  determines  the  condition  in  which  any  being 
is  to  be  born)  as  the  combined  influence  or  result  of  all 
one's  previous  actions,  whether  good  or  evil.  In  assign- 
ing to  any  one  a  place  or  condition  according  to  the 
aggregate  of  the  actions  of  his  past  existence,  the  Karma 
is  held  to  be  absolutely  unerring,  and  irresistible  as  the 
decrees  of  fate.  (To  this,  however,  there  is  one  excep- 
tion :  a  candidate  for  the  Booddhaship  may  voluntarily 
relinquish  a  superior  condition  for  one  far  inferior,  in 
order  to  gain  more  merit.)  Nothing  except  severe  pen- 
ance and  blameless  conduct,  continued  through  immeas- 
urable periods,  can  suffice  to  change  an  evil  Karma  for 
a  good  one.  The  very  shortest  period  that  any  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Naraka  (or  hell)  remain  in  torment  is 
nine  millions  of  our  years.  The  great  object  for  which 
a  supreme  Booddha  is  manifested  is  not  only  to  en- 
courage the  various  beings  burdened  with  existence  to 
enter  the  paths  which  lead  to  Nirvana,  but  also  to  facili- 
tate their  progress  therein.  The  Booddhists  do  not  hold 
that  a  supreme  Booddha  is  able  to  deliver  any  being 
from  the  evils  of  existence  by  his  own  direct  power; 
but  in  various  ways  he  can  afford  them  opportunities  of 
acquiring  merit.  Through  his  divine  knowledge  he  can 
point  out  to  them  the  true  "paths,"  and  by  his  divine 
eloquence  he  can  often  prevail  upon  the  most  reluctant 
to  enter  the  way  leading  to  Nirvana.  The  preaching 
{bana,  or  "word")  of  Gautama  is  said  to  have  exerted  an 
astonishing  influence  upon  the  minds  of  his  hearers.  "  It 
was,"  to  adopt  the  language  of  his  enthusiastic  votaries, 
"as  a  divine  charm  to  cure  the  poison  of  evil  desire;  a 
sovereign  medicine  to  heal  the  disease  of  anger;  a  lamp 
in  the  midst  of  the  darkness  of  ignorance  ;  an  all-con- 
suming fire  to  destroy  the  evils  of  repeated  existence  ; 
a  meridian  sun  to  dry  up  the  mud  of  covetousness  ;  a 
great  rain  to  quench  the  flame  of  sensuality,"  etc.  etc. 

There  are  five  great  commandments,  called  "pun'cha 
seel,"  (or  pancha  stl,)  i.e.  the  "  five  duties  or  ordinances," 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  ftr,  fSll,  f^t;  mgt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


GAUTAMA 


1007 


GAUTAMA 


which  are  especially  binding  on  all  the  followers  of  Bood- 
dha,  laymen  as  well  as  priests,  viz. :  I.  Do  not  kill ;  2. 
Do  not  violate  the  law  of  chastity ;  3.  Do  not  steal ;  4. 
Do  not  lie ;  5.  Do  not  drink  intoxicating  liquors.  The 
transgressor  of  any  one  of  the  above  commands  is  liable 
— unless  there  be  important  extenuating  circumstances — 
to  suffer  in  Naraka  for  myriads  of  ages.  It  may  be  ob- 
served that  the  Booddhistic  idea  as  to  what  constitutes  a 
lie  differs  materially  from  that  entertained  by  European 
nations  :  according  to  the  former,  there  must  not  only  be 
an  intentional  misstatement  with  a  purpose  to  deceive, 
but  there  must  also  be  th^  discovery  by  the  person  deceived 
that  what  has  been  told  him  is  untrue.  (Hardy's  "  Manual 
of  Budhism,"  p.  469.) 

In  regard  to  all  classes  of  transgression,  the  degree  of 
sin  depends  greatly  upon  the  attending  circumstances, 
and  especially  upon  the  character  or  condition  of  the 
person  sinned  against.  Thus,  to  steal  from  a  skeptic  is 
a  comparatively  small  offence  ;  to  steal  from  a  priest  is 
a  grievous  sin  ;  but  to  steal  from  the  associated  priest- 
hood is  a  crime  of  the  blackest  dye. 

The  Booddhist  priesthood  are  required  to  observe  not 
merely  the  five  great  precepts  above  mentioned,  but 
a  multitude  of  other  ordinances,  of  the  most  stringent 
character,  among  which  are  the  following.  The  priest 
must  live  on  alms,  and,  if  in  good  health,  must  himself 
carry  the  alms-bowl  from  house  to  house.  He  must  not 
only  observe  the  strictest  celibacy,  but  he  must  (unless 
in  company  with  other  men)  avoid  as  far  as  possible  the 
presence  of  women  :  he  must  not  sit  on  the  same  seat 
with  one  in  any  private  place,  nor  may  he  accompany  a 
woman  on  a  journey  even  from  one  end  of  a  village  to 
the  other.  He  must  eat  his  food  "meditatively,"  not  for 
the  pleasure  it  gives  him,  but  merely  for  the  purpose  of 
warding  off  untimely  death.  He  must  in  no  case  eat 
food  after  mid-day.  A  priest  who  has  entered  one  of 
the  paths  leading  to  Nirvana  is  called  a  Rabat  (rah'hat) 
or  Ar'hat,  (written  also  Archat.)  The  common  term  for 
the  system  of  doctrines  and  precepts  of  Gautama  is 
Dharmma,  (or,  as  it  is  more  usually  written,  Dharma,) 
(pronounced  dur'ma,)  that  is,  the  "law,"  "virtue," 
"duty."  The  followers  of  Booddha  are  commonly  called, 
in  India,  Bauddhas,  (bowd'has.) 

The  Booddhists  believe  that  all  living  creatures  are 
homogeneous  in  their  essence,  the  only  difference  being 
accidental  and  caused  solely  by  a  difference  of  merit. 
Hence  a  worm  or  insect  may  be  as  truly  our  brother, 
according  to  the  profoundest  and  most  essential  laws 
of  relationship,  as  a  human  being.  Booddhism  cannot, 
therefore,  properly  be  said  to  teach  the  brotherhood  of 
mankind,  but  rather  the  brotherhood  of  all  creatures. 
It  teaches  that  not  merely  all  animals,  including  the 
vilest  insects,  have  souls,  but  that  the  seeds  of  plants 
have  souls  also.  And  this  may  furnish  the  reason  why 
a  priest  is  required  to  live  on  alms,  since  in  no  other 
way  could  he  escape  the  responsibility  of  taking  life.  If 
he  caused  grain  to  be  ground,  he  would  disembody  the 
souls  of  innumerable  beings ;  but  by  living  on  offal  he 
merely  uses  for  his  sustenance  that  which  would  other- 
wise be  thrown  aside  and  wasted.  In  regard  to  the  re- 
lationship subsisting  between  different  creatures,  "with 
the  exception,"  says  Hardy,  "of  those  beings  who  have 
entered  one  of  the  four  paths  leading  to  Nirvana,  there 
may  be  an  interchange  of  condition  between  the  highest 
and  the  lowest.  He  who  is  now  the  most  degraded  of 
demons  may  one  day  rule  the  highest  of  the  heavens  ; 
he  who  is  at  present  seated  upon  the  most  honourable 
of  the  celestial  thrones  may  one  day  writhe  amid  the 
agonies  of  a  place  of  torment ;  and  the  worm  which  we 
crush  under  our  feet  may  in  the  course  of  ages  become 
a  Supreme  Budha."  ("Manual  of  Budhism,"  p.  36.) 

The  highest  element  of  Booddhism  was  a  feeling  of 
benevolence  and  sympathy  for  other  men  or  other 
creatures, — unquestionably  the  highest  and  noblest  of 
human  impulses.  It  was  called  into  action  by  what  was 
probably  the  most  oppressive  and  fearful  tyranny  under 
which  any  great  people  ever  suffered.  It  was  not  the 
tyranny  of  one  or  of  a  few  tyrants,  from  which  there  might 
be  some  hope  of  escape  by  flight  or  concealment,  but 
the  tyranny  of  a  multitudinous  class, — of  a  class  generally 
believed  to  be  necessary  to  the  very  existence  not  merely 


of  the  state,  but  of  the  separate  individuals  composing 
the  nation,  (see  "Institutes  of  Manu,"  i,  loi  ;  see,  also, 
ix.  313-319,)  and  penetrating  with  its  terrible  and  ail-but 
omnipotent  arms  every  ramification  of  society.  As  the 
vapours  in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  exasperated  by  vol- 
canic fires,  will  sometimes  force  aside  or  burst  asunder 
the  superincumbent  mountains,  so  at  length  the  masses 
of  the  Hindoo  nation,  maddened  by  their  sufferings  and 
rendered  irresistible  by  their  very  despair,  shook  off  the 
frightful  incubus  which  pressed  upon  them.  In  this,  as 
in  all  other  cases  of  religious  tyranny,  the  deliverance 
came  through  skepticism  and  denial  of  the  prevailing 
dogmas.  And,  as  was  to  be  expected,  the  power  and 
extent  of  the  reaction  were  in  proportion  to  the  power 
of  the  tyranny  under  which  the  masses  of  the  ]5eople 
had  suffered.  The  revolution  which  accompanied  the  rise 
of  Booddhism  appears  to  have  closely  resembled,  in  its 
more  important  features,  the  French  Revolution  ;  but,  as 
it  was  a  reaction  against  a  more  terrible  oppression,  it 
was  followed  by  more  extensive  and  more  permanent  re- 
sults. As  the  oppression  had  been  chiefly  if  not  wholly 
religious  in  its  origin,  so  the  reaction,  we  have  every 
reason  to  suppose,  was  accompanied  and  followed  by  a 
deeper  spirit  of  denial  and  by  a  more  universal  unbelief. 
The  reformers  began  with  repudiating  the  authority  of 
the  Brahmans,  and  ended  with  not  merely  rejecting  the 
sacred  l)Ooksof  the  priesthood,  (the  Vedas,)  but  in  deny- 
ing the  very  existence  of  those  Higher  Powers  from  which 
the  Brahmans  claimed  to  derive  their  authority.  The 
reformation  took  a  humanitarian  direction,  and  at  the 
same  time  carried  the  levelling  principle  to  its  utmost 
possible  limits.  It  rejected  absolutely  all  prescriptive 
claims,  whether  human  or  divine.  It  assumed  that  all 
beings  in  the  universe  stood  exactly  on  the  same  ground, 
the  only  difference  being  made  by  the  difference  of  con- 
duct. But,  as  the  religious  sentiment  found  in  all  nations 
demanded  something  to  satisfy  it,  men,  deified  by  their 
merits,  were  made  use  of  to  supply  this  demand. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  (if,  as  there  seems  every  reason 
to  believe,  the  foregoing  views  are  correct)  that  Bood- 
dhism originated  in  almost  total  unbelief,  and  owed  its 
influence  principally,  if  not  wholly,  to  a  great  political 
revolution.  The  corner-stone  of  the  building  is  atheism, 
the  copestone  (Nirvana,  or  annihilation)  is  absolute  de- 
spair. But  between  these  terrible  extremes  there  is  a 
kindly  human  element,  which  is  the  only  redeeming  fea- 
ture of  the  system,  and  to  which  is  doubtless  due  what- 
ever of  vitality  it  possesses.  But  the  influence  of  this 
humanity  is  greatly  impaired  and,  indeed,  rendered  ail- 
but  nugatory  by  its  impracticable  and  extravagant  char- 
acter. By  teaching  that  we  must  not  only  spare  the 
lives  of  vermin,  (these  being  really  our  brethren,)  but 
the  lives  of  the  seeds  of  plants,  which  form  the  suste- 
nance of  so  large  a  portion  of  the  human  race,  there  is 
nothing  left  for  the  truly  devout  votary  of  Booddhism, 
as  we  have  already  seen,  but  thriftless  indolence  and 
helpless  beggary. 

As  it  is  impossible  for  any  people  wholly  to  change 
their  previous  habits  of  thought,  we  need  not  be  surprised 
to  discover  many  points  of  resemblance  between  Bood- 
dhism and  the  Brahmanical  system  which  it  for  a  time 
displaced.  First,  as  the  basis  of  both,  we  find  the  doc- 
trine of  Metempsychosis,  or  the  continued  existence  of 
the  same  being  under  various  outward  forms  ;  secondly, 
both  teach  alike  a  belief  in  accumulative  merit,  by  which 
the  meanest  creature  may,  by  a  course  of  penance  con- 
tinued through  successive  ages,  rise  to  the  possession 
of  godlike  intelligence  and  ])o\ver  ;  thirdly,  they  agree 
substantially  in  regarding  Nirvana,  or  the  cessation  of  a 
distinct  and  separate  existence,  as  the  greatest  blessing 
to  which  any  being  can  attain,* — not  to  mention  other 
points  of  less  importance.   (See  Brahmanism.) 

*  With  the  primitive  or  orthodox  Booddhists,  Nirvana  is  simply 
annihilation,  while  with  the  Brahmans  it  is  absorption  into  the  essence 
of  Brahma,  tlie  supreme,  self-existent  Spirit.  The  etymoIo,c;y  of  Nir- 
vana is  very  obscure.  It  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  derived  from  the 
Sanscrit  nir,  "without,"  "not,"  and  va7i,  to  "sound,"  to  "blow  as 
a  flute."  It  may  possibly  have  allusion  to  the  exceedingly  transitory 
character  of  every  form  of  being,  comparing  it  to  the  breath  or  sound 
of  a  musical  instrument,  which  passes  away  we  know  not  whither, 
Nirvana  would  then  imply  the  absence  or  cessation  of  that  fitful, 
changeful  existence  which,  with  us,  has  been  compared  to  a  passing 
vapour. 


e  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GAUTAMA 


1008 


GAUTHET 


They  differ,  on  the  other  hand,  with  respect  to  caste, 
which  the  Brahmans  make  the  corner-stone  of  their  sys- 
tem, but  which  Gautama  totally  rejected.*  Among  the 
votaries  of  Brahmanism  the  priests  could  be  chosen  from 
the  highest  caste  only,  and  it  is  regarded  as  a  serious 
offence  even  to  teach  the  Vedas  (sacred  books)  to  a 
Soodra  (a  person  of  the  lowest  of  the  pure  castes)  or  to 
a  woman.  Among  the  Booddhists,  on  the  contrary,  all 
classes,  including  women  and  even  the  lowest  outcasts, 
are  freely  admitted  to  the  priesthood  ;  none  are  rejected, 
except  the  deformed,  or  diseased,  or  those  who  are  ser- 
vants. It  is  considered  that  a  servant  cannot  give  him- 
self to  the  priesthood,  because  he  cannot  give  what  is 
the  property  of  another.  They  differ,  also,  totally  with 
respect  to  the  Vedas,  which  the  Booddhists  entirely  re- 
ject, while  the  Brahmans  regard  them  as  the  most  sacred 
and  excellent  of  all  writings. 

Again,  the  principal  deities  of  the  Brahmans  are  incar- 
nations from  Brahm,  the  supreme,  eternal,  self-existing 
Spirit.  The  principal  deity  of  the  Booddhists  (strictly 
so  called)  is  always  a  mortal,  and  may  have  begun  his 
career  as  the  most  pitiful  insect,  though  he  always  ends 
it  as  a  deified  man,  in  which  form,  however,  he  has  but 
a  brief  existence,  and  soon  dies,  leaving  the  universe 
without  even  the  semblance  of  a  ruler. 

The  remarkable  success  of  Gautama  as  a  reformer 
was  doubtless  owing  chiefly,  if  not  entirely,  to  the  demo- 
cratic character  of  his  doctrines  ;  and  we  should  probably 
not  err  in  considering  him  to  have  been  far  more  a 
political  than  a  religious  reformer.  His  doctrine  of  the 
impartial  equality  of  all  classes,  dignified  and  rendered 
sacred  by  his  twofold  character  of  saint  and  sage,  and 
promulgated  at  a  time  when  the  irksome  and  oppress- 
ive restrictions  of  caste,  joined  to  the  arrogance  of  the 
Brahmans,  had  become  intolerable  to  a  large  majority 
of  the  people,  was,  we  may  confidently  conjecture, 
eagerly,  passionately  welcomed  by  all,  the  dominant 
class  alone  excepted.  So  rapid  was  the  spread  of  the 
new  doctrines  that  only  about  two  centuries  after  the 
death  of  Gautama  we  find  Chandragupta,  (the  Sandra- 
cottus  of  the  Greek  historians,)  a  man  of  low  caste,  raised 
to  the  most  powerful  throne  in  Northern  India.  This 
event  is  the  more  remarkable  because  he  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  a  believer  in  or  a  supporter  of  Booddhism, 
showing  that  it  was  a  political  rather  than  a  religious 
revolution  which  placed  him  on  the  throne ;  although, 
as  already  intimated,  the  doctrines  of  the  new  religion 
may  have  powerfully  co-operated  with  the  new  political 
principles  in  bringing  about  that  result.  His  grandson, 
however,  Asoka,  (A96ka  or  Ashoka,)  became  a  devoted 
follower  of  Gautama,  and  succeeded,  it  would  appear,  in 
establishing  the  new  religion  in  every  part  of  his  widely- 
extended  dominions.  He  is  said — with  Oriental  hyper- 
bole, no  doubt — to  have  erected  eighty-four  thousand 
monasteries  (vihars)  in  honour  of  the  eighty-four  thou- 
sand discourses  of  Booddha.  (See  the  "  Bhilsa  Topes," 
by  Cunningham,  p.  99.)  His  son  Mahendra  (or  Ma- 
hindo)  introduced  Booddhism  into  Ceylon,  which  is  still 
one  of  its  principal  seats.  The  persecutions  to  which 
the  new  religion  was  subjected  in  India  in  the  early  cen- 
turies of  our  era  contributed  undoubtedly  to  its  diffusion 
among  the  neighbouring  nations,  but  resulted  at  last  in 
its  almost  total  extirpation  from  the  land  wherein  it  had 
its  origin. 

Booddhism  appears  to  have  been  first  introduced  into 
China  in  the  latter  part  of  the  third  century  before  Christ. 
From  Ceylon  it  extended  to  Farther  India  and  Cochin 
China.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  permanently  estab- 
lished in  Japan  in  the  sixth  century.  Nepaul  has  long 
been  one  of  its  principal  seats,  whence  it  extended  to 
Thibet  and  the  country  of  the  Mongols,  receiving  greater 
or  less  modifications  from  the  peculiar  genius  of  the 
various  nations  by  whom  it  was  adopted. 

It  would,  perhaps,  be  difficult  to  explain  satisfactorily 
how  Booddhism,  after  it  had  once  obtained  such  an 
ascendency  among  the  people  of  India,  could  be  so  soon 
and  so  completely  displaced  by  the  old  religion.  But, 
if  we  regard  the  movement  which  for  a  time  overthrew 

*  "There  is  caste,"  observes  Hardy,  "among  the  Budhists  of  Cey- 
lon ;  but  this  is  contrary  to  the  tenets  of  the  founder  of  their  religion." 
("Manual  of  Rudhisin,"  p.  78.) 


the  Brahmanical  domination  to  have  been  due  in  a  great 
measure  to  political  causes,  among  which  the  tyranny 
of  caste  was  probably  the  chief,  we  may  suppose  that 
when  the  pressure  of  those  causes  was  removed  the 
popular  mind  came  gradually  to  look  with  less  and  less 
aversion,  and  perhaps  at  last  with  affectionate  reverence, 
on  the  religion  of  their  ancestors,  a  change  of  feeling 
which  was  probably  much  accelerated  by  the  austere 
ordinances  and  comfortless,  despairing  doctrines  of  the 
new  faith, — a  faith  which  makes  annihilation  the  final 
and  highest  reward  for  ages  of  self-denial,  privation,  and 
suffering.  We  may  well  believe  that  these  doctrines 
never  had  any  place  in  the  popular  affections,  and  that 
they  were  only  accepted  at  all  because  they  were  accom- 
panied by  great  ameliorations  in  the  political  and  social 
condition  of  the  people.  We  may  conjecture  that  the 
Brahmans,  taught  by  past  experience,  were  very  careful, 
at  least  for  a  time,  not  to  repress,  by  any  undue  rigour 
or  offensive  assertions  of  superiority,  the  returning  affec- 
tions of  the  people. 

There  are  some  general  and  obvious  points  of  re- 
semblance between  Booddhism  and  Christianity  which 
can  scarcely  fail  to  strike  one  at  first  sight ;  such,  for 
example,  as  the  importance  which  each  attaches  to  the 
practice  of  self-denial,  and  that  regard  for  the  welfare 
of  others,  however  humble  their  condition,  which  forms 
so  essential  a  feature  in  the  ethical  system  of  both.  But, 
if  we  examine  them  more  closely,  and  consider  their 
deeper  relations,  we  shall  find  that  the  difference  between 
them  is  not  only  great,  but  absolutely  immeasurable.  It 
would,  we  feel  assured,  be  a  grave  error  to  suppose  (as 
some  recent  writers  appear  to  do)  that  this  difference  is  a 
mere  divergence,  though  a  very  wide  one,  from  a  common 
principle  or  starting-point ;  for  they  are  essentially  and 
wholly  different  in  their  very  origin.  We  need  only 
allude  to  the  remarkable  difference  Ijetween  the  accounts 
of  the  two  systems  that  have  come  down  to  us, — the 
one  filled  with  the  wildest  fables,  which,  from  their 
very  nature,  must  destroy,  in  every  truth-loving  mind,  all 
confidence  and  everything  deserving  the  name  of  belief; 
the  other  characterized  by  an  unpretending  and  touch- 
ing simplicity,  which  furnishes  the  strongest  internal 
evidence  of  the  entire  sincerity  and  truthfulness  of  the 
writers.*  But  we  refer  more  particularly  to  the  character 
of  the  systems  themselves, — the  one  owing  its  origin, 
as  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose,  to  an  utter  and 
almost  universal  unbelief,  and  being,  like  the  worship 
of  the  goddess  of  Reason  in  France,  a  mere  device  to 
appease  rather  than  satisfy  the  cravings  of  the  religious 
instinct  of  the  people  ;  the  other  having  for  its  foun- 
dation the  highest  and  fullest  belief  ever  presented  to 
the  world, — the  belief  in  a  Being,  infinite  in  power 
and  love,  whose  paternal  care  extends  to  the  very  hum- 
blest of  his  creatures.  The  one  system,  built  upon  athe- 
ism, has  for  its  final  scope  annihilation  :  in  other  words, 
it  is  the  religion  of  despair.  The  other,  based  upon  a 
belief  in  God's  infinite  perfections  and  his  boundless 
love  to  man,  (see  John  iii.  16,)  becomes  the  unfailing 
source  of  an  infinite  hope, — a  hope  not  only  of  endless 
happiness,  but  of  eternal  progress  towards  perfection. 

See  KOPPEN,  "Religion  des  Buddha,"  Berlin,  1857;  R.  Spence 
Hardy,  "Manual  of  Budhism,"  London,  1853;  B.  H.  Hodgson, 
"Literature  and  Religion  of  the  Buddhists,"  1S41 ;  J.  Barthelemv 
Saint-Hilaire,  "  Le  Bouddha  et  sa  Religion,"  Paris,  1862;  Gui- 
GNiAUT,  "  Religions  de  I'Antiquite,"  Paris,  1825;  Moor,  "Hindu 
Pantheon;"  Stanislas  Julien,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Hiouen- 
Thsang,"  etc.,  1853;  and  the  continuation  of  the  same,  under  the 
name  of  "  M^nioires  sur  les  Contrees  occidentales,"  1857-5S. 

Gautherot,  got'ro',  (Claude,)  an  eminent  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1769,  was  a  pupil  of  David. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  "  Marius  at  Minturnas,"  and 
"The  Funeral  of  Atala,"  (1800.)    Died  in  1825, 

Gauthey,  gS'ti',  (Emiland  Marie,)  an  eminent 
French  civil  engineer,born  at  Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1732, 
was  employed  from  1783  to  179 1  in  constructing  the  Canal 
du  Centre.  In  1791  he  was  appointed  inspector-general.. 
He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Construction  of  Bridges 
and  Navigable  Canals,"  (3  vols.,  1809.)    Died  in  1806. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale/*  

*  This  internal  evidence  alone  is  such  as  not  only  to  command  the 
assent  of  multitudes  of  intelligent  readers,  but  even  sometimes  to 
overcome  the  skepticism  of  the  most  gifted  and  critical  minds.  (See 
Niebuhr's  "Letters,"  vol.  i..  Letter  148.) 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged ;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GAUTHET 


1009 


Gauthey,  gb\y,  (Louis  FRANgois  Fr^d^ric,)  a 
Swiss  Protestant  teacher,  born  in  the  canton  de  V aud  in 
1795.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise  on 
education,  "De  I'fiducation,"  etc.,  (1854.) 

Gauthier,  go'te-i',  surnamed  Sans-Avoir,  {s6n- 
zt'vwiR^)  a  Norrnan  knight,  who  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  first  crusade.  He  was  killed  in  battle  by 
the  Turks  near  Nicea,  in  Asia,  in  1097. 

Gauthier,  (FRANgois,)  Abb6,  a  French  priest  and 
able  negotiator,  born  near  Falaise.  He  lived  many  years 
in  London,  and  was  employed  in  secret  negotiations,which 
resulted  in  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  1713.    Died  in  1720. 

Gauthier,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  theologian, 
born  at  Louviers  in  1685.  He  published  several  works 
against  the  Jesuits  and  infidels.    Died  in  1755. 

Gauthier,  (  Pierre,  )  a  French  architect,  born  at 
Troyes  in  1790.  Among  his  works  is  a  monument  to 
Fenelon  at  Cambrai.    Died  in  1855. 

Gautier.    See  Gaultier,  Gauthier,  and  Walter. 

Gautier,  go'te-i',  (Ambroise  Georges  Joseph,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Chevreuse  in  1776,  wrote  "  Studies 
on  Commercial  Jurisprudence,"  (1829.)    Died  in  1829. 

See  Andre  Marie  Jean  Jacques  Dupin,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de 
Gauthier,"  1829. 

Gautier,  (Arnaud  £loy,)  a  French  artist,  son  of  J. 
Gautier-Dagoty,  noticed  below.  He  began  to  issue  in 
1752  "Periodical  Observations  on  Natural  History  and 
the  Arts,  with  Coloured  Plates,"  which,  after  his  death, 
was  continued  by  Rozier,  (1771-85.) 

Gautier,  (Joseph,)  a  French  abbe  and  litteratettr,  born 
in  Lorraine  about  17 14.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  refutation  of  Rousseau's  Essay  on  the  question, "  Do 
Sciences  and  Arts  contribute  to  the  Promotion  of  Mo- 
rality.?" (175 1.)   Died  in  1776. 

Gautier,  (Th^ophile,)  a  French  litterateur  and  critic, 
born  at  Tarbes  about  1810.  He  produced  "  Albertus," 
and  other  poems, and  an  immoral  romance  called  "Mile. 
Maupin,"  (1835.)  About  1836  he  became  assistant 
editor  of  the  "Presse,"  for  which  he  wrote  criticisms  on 
the  drama  and  fine  arts  until  1854.  After  that  date  he 
had  charge  of  the  same  department  of  the  "Moniteur." 
Among  his  works  is  a  book  of  travels  in  Spain,  etc.,  en- 
titled "  Tras  los  Montes,"  (1843.)  He  has  been  extolled 
as  an  original  and  brilliant  writer. 

See  LouANDRE  et  Bourquelot,  "  La  France  Litt^raire ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  G^nerale;"  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  June,  1868. 

Gautier  -  Dagoty,  go'te-i'  dfgo'te',  (Edouard,)  a 
grandson  of  the  following,  was  an  engraver  of  Paris, 
where  he  published,  about  1780,  coloured  engravings  of 
twelve  paintings  in  the  Royal  Gallery.    Died  in  1784. 

Gautier-  (or  Gauthier-)  Dagoty,  (Jacques,)  a 
French  anatomist  and  engraver,  born  at  Marseilles,  was 
remarkable  for  mental  activity.  He  claimed  to  be  the 
inventor  of  the  art  of  producing  coloured  engravings,  in 
which  he  used  four  colours.  He  published  several  works 
on  anatomy,  with  coloured  plates,  and  "  Observations 
on  Physics,  Natural  History,  and  Painting,"  (6  vols., 
1752-55,)  which  was  the  origin  of  the  "Journal  de  Phy- 
sique," the  first  French  journal  of  physical  sciences. 
Died  in  1758. 

His  son,  Jean  Baptiste,  was  an  engraver  in  colours. 
He  published  the  "  Galerie  Fran9aise,"  a  series  of  twelve 
portraits,  (1770,  unfinished.)    Died  in  1786. 

Gautier  de  Metz,  go'te-i'  deh  m^s,  a  French  poet, 
who  lived  about  1230,  is  supposed  to  have  written  a 
didactic  poem  called  "The  Image  of  the  World," 
("L'Image  du  Monde.") 

Gautieri,  gow-te-a'ree,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician and  naturalist,  was  born  at  Novara  in  1769.  He 
was  appointed  in  1808  inspector-general  of  woods  and 
forests  under  the  then  kingdom  of  Italy.  He  retained 
this  position  twenty-two  years.  He  wrote  interesting 
works  on  forests  and  natural  history,  among  which  is 
a  "General  Treatise  on  the  Science  and  Administration 
of  Forests."    Died  in  1833. 

Gautruche  or  Gaultruche,  go'tRlish',  (Pierre,)  a 
French  priest,  born  at  Orleans  in  1602,  published  a 
"Poetic  History,"  ("Histoire  poetique,"  1658,)  and  a 
"Sacred  History,"  (1672.)    Died  in  1681. 

Gauzlin,  go  I^n',  a  French  prelate,  reputed  one  of 
the  most  learned  men  of  his  time,  was  the  natural  son 


of  Hugh  Capet.  He  was  made  Archbishop  of  Bourges 
in  1013.    Died  in  1029. 

Gavanti,  gl-vJn'tee,  (  Bartolommeo,  )  an  Italian 
friar,  born  at  Monza  about  1570,  was  general  of  the 
Barnabites.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Thesaurus 
Sacrorum  Rituum,"  a  commentary  on  the  rubrics  of  the 
missal  and  the  breviary  of  the  Roman  Churck.  Died  in 
1638. 

Gavard,  gi'vtR',  (Hyacinthe,)  an  eminent  French 
anatomist,  born  at  Montmelian  in  1753,  was  a  successful 
teacher  of  surgery  in  Paris.  He  published  several  treat- 
ises on  anatomy.  His  "  Splanchnologie"  (1800)  is  said 
to  be  superior  to  anything  before  printed  on  that  subject. 
Died  in  1802. 

See  "Biographie  Medicale." 

Gavarni,  gd-vir'nee,  the  pseudonym  of  Paul  Che- 
valier, a  very  popular  French  caricaturist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1801.  In  1835  began  to  issue  a  satirical 
journal  called  "  Les  Gens  du  Monde,"  in  which  he  pre- 
sented spirited  pictures  of  Parisian  society.  Many  of 
these  designs  were  reproduced  in  the  "Charivari,"  which 
owed  to  Gavarni  a  great  part  of  its  success.  His  works 
are  remarkable  for  variety  and  fidelity  to  nature. 

Gavarret,  gt^vt'ri',  (Louis  Denis  Jules,)  a  French 
physician,  born  in  1809.  He  graduated  in  1843,  and  in 
the  same  year  became  professor  of  medical  physics.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  an  excellent  "Treatise 
on  Electricity,"  (1857.) 

Gavazzi,  gi-vlf'see,  (Padre  Alessandro,)  an  Italian 
priest  and  political  agitator,  born  at  Bologna  in  1809. 
He  became  professor  of  rhetoric  in  Naples,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  eloquence  and  liberal  prin- 
ciples. He  was  chaplain  of  the  army  of  volunteers 
which  Pius  IX.  sent  against  the  Austrians  in  1848,  and 
excited  the  enthusiasm  of  the  people  by  his  harangues. 
He  continued  to  support  the  popular  cause  after  the 
pope  had  recalled  his  army  and  changed  his  policy.  In 
1849,  chaplain-general  of  the  republican  army,  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in  the  siege  of  Rome. 
After  Rome  had  been  captured  by  the  French,  (1849,) 
he  became  an  exile,  and  lectured  against  popery  in  Eng- 
land and  the  United  States. 

See  a  "Life  of  Father  Gavazzi,"  London,  1851. 

Gaveaux,  gt'vo',  (Pierre,)  a  French  composer  and 
singer,  born  at  Beziers  in  1761.  His  "Leonore"  (1798) 
furnished  to  Beethoven  the  subject  of  his  opera  "  Fidelio." 
Died  in  1825. 

Gav'es-ton,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  gt'vls^t6N',]  (Piers,  or 
Pierre,')  the  favourite  of  Edward  11.  of  England,  was 
descended  from  a  Gascon  family.  He  appears  to  have 
acquired  influence  over  the  young  prince  by  his  vices, 
wit,  and  personal  accomplishments.  In  1300  he  was 
banished  by  Edward  I.  Edward  II.,  having  come  to 
the  throne,  recalled  Gaveston,  and  made  him  Earl  of 
Cornwall,  and  chief  minister.  His  pride  and  insolence 
excited  a  conspiracy  of  the  nobles,  who  attacked  him  in 
his  castle  and  put  him  to  death  in  13 12. 

See  "Life  and  Death  of  Piers  Gaveston,"  1740;  Hume,  "His- 
tory of  England." 

Gavinies,  gt've'ne-§s',  (Pierre,)  a  French  musician, 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1726.  He  is  regarded  as  the  chief 
of  the  French  school  of  violinists.  He  composed 
"  Matinees"  for  the  violin,  (1794.)    Died  in  1800. 

See  Fayolle,"  Notices  sur  Corelli,  Tartini,  Gavinies,"  etc.,  1810. 

Gavirol,  gi-ve-roK,  (Soliman  Ben,)  a  noted  Rabbi, 
born  in  Malaga,  Spain,  excelled  in  grammar,  philosophy, 
and  other  sciences.  He  wrote,  in  Arabic,  two  admired 
works  on  morality.    Died  about  1070. 

Gay,  gi,  (Claude,)  a  French  botanist  and  traveller, 
born  at  Draguignan  in  1800.  He  spent  about  twelve 
years  in  the  exploration  of  the  botany  and  zoology  of 
Chili  between  1828  and  1841,  during  which  he  received 
aid  from  the  Chilian  government.  Having  returned  to 
Paris,  he  published,  in  Spanish,  his  excellent  "  Physical 
and  Political  History  of  Chili,"  ("  Historia  fisica  y  poli- 
tica  de  Chile,"  24  vols.,  1843-51.)  Eight  volumes  of  this 
treat  on  botany.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in 
1856.    Died  in  1864. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Gay,  (Delphine.)    See  Girardin. 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  h,  y.^ guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

64. 


lOIO 


GAZA 


Gay,  (Ebenezer,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born  in 
Dedhain,  Massachusetts,  in  1696,  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1714,  and  from  1718  till  his  death,  in  1787,  -wzs  pastor 
in  Hingham.  He  published  numerous  sermons,  one  of 
which,  delivered  on  his  eighty-fifth  birthday,  was  entitled 
'•The  Old  Man's  Calendar." 

Gay,  (John,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Barnstaple  in 
1688.  He  became  secretary  to  the  Duchess  of  Mon- 
mouth in  1712.  His  first  production,  called  "Rural 
Sports,"  (171 1,)  was  dedicated  to  Pope,  who  became  his 
constant  friend.  By  his  amiable  disposition,  his  wit 
and  poetic  talents,  he  made  many  friends  among  literary 
men  and  the  higher  classes.  He  wrote  comedies,  farces, 
fables,  ballads,  etc.,  which  were  received  with  favour. 
"The  Beggar's  Opera,"  (1728,)  and  the  farce  "  What 
d'ye  call  It.?"  were  especially  popular;  though  but  little 
can  be  said  in  favour  of  their  moral  tendency.  His  fables 
are  admired  for  ingenious  reflections  and  for  a  grace- 
ful sprightly  style.  In  "The  Shepherd's  Week,"  (i 714,) 
a  series  of  pastoral  poems,  he  successfully  describes  the 
manners  of  English  peasants.  He  wrote,  also,  "Trivia, 
or  the  Art  of  Walking  the  Streets  of  London,"  (171 5.) 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  the  Duke  of  Queensberry 
received  him  into  his  house,  and  treated  him  kindly.  He 
died  in  1732,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
Dr.  Johnson  remarks  that  "he  had  not  in  any  degree  the 
mefts  divinior,  the  dignity  of  genius."  Hazlitt  thought 
his  pastorals  pleasing  and  poetical,  and  that  his  fables 
possess  "great  merit,  both  as  to  the  quantity  of  in- 
vention implied,  and  the  elegance  and  facility  of  the 
execution." 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  Spence,  "Anecdotes;" 
"Biographia  Britannica;"  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British 
Poets." 

Gay,  (Joseph  Jean  Paul,)  born  at  Lyons,  in  France, 
in  1775,  obtained  the  title  of  architect  to  his  native  city. 
Died  in  1832. 

Gay,  (Marie  FRANgoiSE  Sophie  Nichault  de  La- 
valette — ne'sho'  deh  llVt'l^t',)  a  popular  French  novel- 
ist, born  in  Paris  in  1776,  was  the  mother  of  Delphine 
Gay  Girardin.  She  was  married  to  M.  Gay  about  1800, 
after  which  she  was  intimate  with  Pauline  Bonaparte. 
Among  her  numerous  works  are  "  Laure  d'Estell," 
(1802,)  "Leonie  de  Montbreuse,"  (1813,)  "Celebrated 
Saloons,"  ("Les  Salons  celebres,"  2  vols.,  1837,)  and 
"  Ellenore,"  (4  vols.,  1846.)  Her  style  is  commended  for 
its  elegance.    Died  in  1852. 

Gay,  (WiCKWORTH  Allan,)  an  American  landscape- 
painter,  noted  for  his  skill  in  mountain  and  coast  scenery, 
was  born  in  Hingham,  Massachusetts,  in  1821. 

See  Tuckerman's  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Gay  de  Vernon,  gi  deh  v^R^ndN',  (L^:onard,)  a 
French  revolutionist  and  priest,  born  in  Limousin  in 
1748.  He  was  chosen  constitutional  Bishop  of  Haute- 
Vienne  about  1790,  and  a  member  of  the  Convention  in 
1792.  He  acted  with  the  Jacobins,  and  was  one  of  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred,  1795-98.    Died  in  1822. 

Gay  de  Vernon,  (Simon  FRANgois,)  a  French  en- 
gineer, and  professor  in  the  Polytechnic  School,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1760.  He  wrote  an  "  Ele- 
mentary Treatise  on  the  Art  of  War  and  Fortification," 
(2  vols.,  1805,)  which  was  adopted  in  many  military 
schools  of  Europe.    Died  in  1822. 

Gay-Lussac,  ga'lii'stk',  (Joseph  Louis,)  an  eminent 
French  chemist  and  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Saint- 
Leonard  (Haute-Vienne)  on  the  6th  of  December,  1778, 
was  educated  in  the  school  afterwards  called  L'ficole 
Polytechnique.  He  was  a  pupil  and  protege  of  Berthol- 
let.  In  August,  1804,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Institute, 
MM.  Biot  and  Gay-Lussac  made  a  memorable  ascent 
in  a  balloon,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  intensity  of  the 
magnetic  force,  and  reached  a  height  of  thirteen  thou- 
sand feet.  This  was  the  first  ascent  ever  made  for 
scientific  objects.  Gay-Lussac  ascended  alone  in  the 
ensuing  month  to  the  height  of  7016  metres, — 23,040 
feet, — or  about  four  and  one-third  miles  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  there  made  observations  which  tend  to 
prove  that  the  magnetic  force  diminishes  very  little  with 
the  elevation.  He  ascertained  that  the  air  of  that  region 
is  identical  in  composition  with  that  found  near  the 
surface  of  the  earth.    The  temperature  at  the  height 


of  7016  metres  was  I4''.9  above  zero  of  Fahrenheit,  while 
that  of  the  surface  was  82°  of  Fahrenheit.  He  wrote  in 
1804  a  memoir  which  announced  that  in  the  composition 
of  water  one  hundred  volumes  of  oxygen  unite  with  two 
hundred  volumes  of  hydrogen.  He  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  about  1806,  soon  after 
which  he  discovered  the  law  by  which  air  and  gases  are 
expanded  uniformly  by  increase  of  temperature.  In  1808 
Gay-Lussac  and  Thenard  were  directed  to  make  experi- 
ments with  a  colossal  voltaic  pile  constructed  by  order 
of  Bonaparte.  The  important  results  of  their  labours 
were  published  in  the  "  Recherches  physico-chimiques," 
(2  vols.,  1811,)  and  in  several  memoirs  on  boracic  acid 
and  fluoric  acid  read  at  the  Institute,  1808-09.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  practical  chemistry  at  the  Poly- 
technic School  in  1809,  and  professor  of  physics  at  the 
Sorbonne.  Among  his  most  remarkable  discoveries  is 
that  of  cyanogen,  in  181 5.  He  made  important  contribu- 
tions to  nearly  every  branch  of  chemical  and  physical 
science.  He  wrote  many  valuable  memoirs,  which  ap- 
peared in  the  "  Memoires"  of  the  Society  of  Arcueil,  and 
in  the  "Annales  de  Chimie,"  of  which  he  was  an  editor. 
In  183 1  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  be- 
came professor  of  chemistry  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes 
in  1832,  and  was  made  a  peer  of  France  in  1839.  Died 
in  Paris  in  May,  1850. 

See  Arago,  "  loge  de  Gay-Lussac,"  in  his  "Notices  biogra- 
phiques,"  tome  iii. ;  Gardeur  Le  Brun,  "Notice  sur  M.  Gay- 
Lussac,"  1851;  Dr.  F.  Hoefer,  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gen^rale;"  L.  de  Lomenie,  "M.  Gay-Lussac,  par  un  Homme  de 
Rien,"  1841. 

Gayangos,  de,  di  gf-ing'g6s,  (Pascual,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  Orientalist,  born  at  Seville  in  1809,  studied  in 
Paris  under  Silvestre  de  Sacy.  He  resided  some  years 
in  England,  where  he  published  (in  English)  a  "  History 
of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  of  Spain,"  from  the 
Arabic  of  Al-Makkari,  with  notes,  (2  vols.,  1840-43.) 
He  wrote  articles  for  several  English  Reviews.  In  1843 
he  became  professor  of  Arabic  at  Madrid,  and  produced, 
with  Vedia,  a  Spanish  version  of  Ticknor's  "  History  of 
Spanish  Literature,"  (1851-56.)  He  gave  important  aid 
to  Prescott  in  the  collection  of  materials  for  his  "  History 
of  Philip  II." 

Gayarre,  g/i'rk',  (Charles  Arthur,)  an  American 
historian  and  lawyer,  born  in  Louisiana  in  1805.  He 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  Governor  Johnson, 
of  Louisiana,  and  filled  that  ofiice  about  seven  years. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Histoire  de  la 
Louisiane,"  (2  vols.,  1847,)  and  "Louisiana  :  its  History 
as  a  French  Colony,"  (2  vols.,  1851-52.) 

Gayot  de  Pitaval,  gS'yo'  deh  pe'tt'vtK,  (Franqois,) 
a  mediocre  French  compiler,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1673. 
He  worked  for  the  booksellers  of  Paris,  and  published 
"  Sallies  of  Wit  for  Conversation,"  (2  vols.,  1732,)  and 
"Celebrated  Trials,"  ("Causes  celebres,"  20  vols., 
1 734-43')    ^ied  in  1743. 

Gayrard,  ga'rtR',  (Raymond,)  a  French  sculptor 
and  engraver  of  medals,  born  at  Rodez  in  1777,  gained 
distinction  by  two  medallions  engraved  on  the  occasion 
of  the  marriage  of  Napoleon,  1810. 

Gay'ton,  fLat.  De  Speciosa  Villa,]  (Edmund,)  an 
English  humorous  writer,  born  in  1609.  According  to 
Anthony  Wood,  "he  lived  in  London,  and  wrote  trite 
things  merely  to  get  bread  to  sustain  him  and  his  wife." 
His  best-known  work  is  "  Festivious  Notes  on  Don 
Quixote,"  (1654.)    Died  in  1666. 

Gay'wood,  (Robert,)  an  eminent  English  engraver, 
who  lived  about  1650,  was  a  puj^il  and  imitator  of  Hollar. 

Gaza,  gi'z^,  written  also  Gazis,  (Theodore,)  an 
eminent  Greek  scholar,  born  at  Thessalonica  about  1400. 
He  emigrated  to  Italy  soon  after  the  capture  of  that  city 
by  the  Turks,  (1429,)  and  taught  Greek  for  some  time 
at  Ferrara.  About  1450  he  removed  to  Rome,  where 
he  was  patronized  by  Pope  Nicholas  V.  He  wrote  an 
excellent  Greek  Grammar,  (printed  in  1495,)  and  trans- 
lated into  Latin  many  Greek  works,  among  which  are 
Aristotle's  "  History  of  Animals,"  (1476,)  and  Theophras- 
tus's  "  History  of  Plants,"  (14S3.)  He  was  an  excellent 
Latin  scholar,  and  contributed  much  to  the  revival  of 
classical  learning.    Died  in  Italy  about  1478. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Gr£pca  ;"  Hody,  "De  Gracis  ilkis- 
tribus;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


a.  e  i  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  'ess  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure; fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon 


GAZ^.US 


lOI  I 


GEDDES 


Gazaeus.    See  Gazet. 

Grazan  de  la  Peyriere,  gt'z«3N'  deh  It  pi're-aiR', 
(Honors  Th6ophile  Maxime,)  Count,  a  French  gene- 
ral, born  at  Grasse,  in  Provence,  in  1765.  He  became 
a  general  of  division  in  1799,  after  which  he  gained  suc- 
cesses over  the  Austrians  at  Marcello,  and  other  places 
in  Italy.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Jena,  (1806,)  Sara- 
gossa,  (1809,)  and  Albuera,  (181 1.)    Died  in  1844. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gazan  Khan.    See  Ghazan  Khan. 

Gazee-  (or  Gazi-)  Hassan,  gi'zee  hSs'san,  grand  ad- 
miral and  prime  minister  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  raised 
himself  from  the  lowest  rank.  He  went  to  Constanti- 
nople in  1760,  and  entered  the  navy.  In  1769,  in  the  war 
between  Russia  and  the  Porte,  Hassan  was  a  vice-ad- 
miral. In  1 771  he  forced  the  Russians  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Lemnos,  and  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  capudan- 
pasha,  (grand  admiral.)  Sultan  Selim  in  1789  appointed 
him  grand  vizier ;  but,  as  he  failed  to  secure  either  peace 
or  victory,  he  was  deprived  of  office  and  of  life  in  1790. 

Gazet,  gt'zi',  [  Lat.  Gaz^'us,  ]  (  Guillaume,  )  a 
French  historian  and  priest,  born  at  Arras  in  1554.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  superficial  works,  an  "Ecclesiastical 
History  of  the  Low  Countries,"  (1614.)  He  is  considered 
an  injudicious  and  credulous  writer.    Died  in  161 1. 

Gazi,  gid'zee,  [Lat.  Ga'zius,]  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  about  1450.  His  treatise  on  hygiene, 
entitled  "Florida  Corona  Medicinae,"  (1491,)  was  often 
reprinted.    Died  in  1530. 

Gazis.    See  Gaza. 

Gazius.    See  Gazi. 

Gaznevides,  (or  Ghaznevides,)  gaz'ne-vidz,  (sing. 
Gaznevide,  gaz'ne-vid,)  written  also  Ghasnevides 
and  Gasnevides,  [Fr.  pron.  gtz^nVv^d';  Ger.  Ghasne- 
wiDEN,  gdz-neh-^ee'den  ;  Lat.  Gaznev'id^  and  Gaz- 
NEVi'r^,]  the  name  of  the  first  Mohammedan  dynasty 
which  ruled  in  India.  It  was  founded  by  Sebaktegeen 
about  980,  and  named  from  Gaza,  or  Ghiznee,  the  seat 
of  his  empire.  His  son  Mahmood,  by  far  the  most 
powerful  and  most  famous  of  all  the  Gaznevide  sultans, 
overran  a  large  part  of  Northern  India,  whence  he  re- 
turned with  untold  riches,  the  fruit  of  his  vast  con- 
quests, to  Gazna.  (vSee  Mahmood.)  Khosroo-Malek, 
(or  -Melek,)  the  last  sovereign  of  this  dynasty,  was  taken 
and  put  to  death  by  the  Ghaurian  conqueror  in  1186. 

Gazola,  gid'zo-li,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  at  Verona  in  1661.  In  1692  the  emperor  Leopold 
employed  him  as  one  of  his  medical  attendants.  In  1697  he 
returned  to  Verona,  where  he  practised  with  success  till 
his  death.  He  wrote  a  popular  work,  called  "  II  Mondo 
ingannato  da  falsi  Medici,"  ("The  World  deceived  by 
False  Physicians,"  1716.)    Died  in  1715. 

Gazon-Dourxigne,  gS'z6NMooR'z^n''yy,(S6BASTiEN 
Marie  Mathurin,)  a  French  littSrateur,  born  at  Quim- 
per-Corentin,  wrote  a  poem  entitled  "Antenor,  or  the 
Republic  of  Venice,"  (1748,)  a  Critique  on  Voltaire's 
Dramas,  (1767,)  "The  Gardens,"  a  poem,  (1772,)  and 
several  otlier  works.    Died  in  1784. 

Gazzaniga,  git-si-nee'gS,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 
composer  of  operas,  born  at  Verona  about  1745;  died 
about  181 5. 

Geary,  ga're,  commonly  called  gee're,  (John  W.,)  an 
American  general,  born  in  Westmoreland  county,  Penn- 
sylvania, about  1820.  He  commanded  a  regiment  in  the 
Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and  was  appointed  Governor  of 
Kansas  in  July,  1856,  which  position  he  resigned  about 
March,  1857.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  early  in 
1862,  fought  at  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  in  July,  1863,  and 
commanded  a  division  of  the  army  of  General  Sherman 
in  the  campaign  against  Atlanta  in  the  summer  of  1864. 
He  was  elected  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  by  the  Repub- 
licans in  October,  1866,  and  again  in  1869. 

Gebauer,  gi-bow'er,  (Georg  Christian,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Breslau  in  1690.  He  became  first  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Gottingen  in  1734,  wrote  many  valuable 
legal  works,  and  published  an  edition  of  the  "Corpus 
Juris."    Died  at  Gottingen  in  January,  1773. 

See  C.  G.  Heyne,"  Programmade  Vita  et  Mentis  G.  C.  Gebauer," 
1774;  GoEscHEN,  "VitaG.  C.  Gebaueri,"  1837. 

Gebelin.    See  Court  de  Gebelin. 


Geber,  geb'er  or  ga'ber,  sometimes  written  Giaber, 
a  distinguished  Arabian  chemist  and  alchemist,  lived  in 
Mesopotamia  in  the  eighth  century.  His  real  name  was 
Aboo-Moossah-Jaafar-al-Sofee.  Some  writers  have 
erroneously  attributed  to  him  the  invention  of  algebra. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  works  on  alchetny  and 
kindred  subjects.  He  was  classed  by  Cardan  among  the 
twelve  most  subtle  intellects  of  the  world.  According 
to  Dr.  F.  Hoefer,  "  he  deserves  to  be  placed  in  the  first 
rank  among  the  chemists  or  alchemists  anterior  to  Van 
Helmont.  Geber  is  for  the  history  of  chemistry  what 
Hippocrates  is  for  the  history  of  medicine."  (See  "  His- 
toire  de  la  Chimie.") 

See,  also,  Bor^l,  "  Bibliotheca  Chimica;"  Abulfeda,  ii. 

Gebhard  Truchsess,  ggp'hiRt  tRook's^ss,  Elector 
and  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  was  born  near  Waldburg 
in  1547.  Having  become  a  Protestant  and  married  the 
Countess  Agnes  of  Mansfeld  about  1582,  he  was  in- 
volved in  a  contest  with  the  Catholic  party,  which, 
resulted  in  his  being  compelled  to  surrender  his  elector- 
ate to  the  Archbishop  of  Bavaria.    Died  in  1601. 

See  J.  D.  KoELER,  "  Dissertatio  de  Actis  et  Fatis  Gebhardii  Truch- 
sessii,"  1745;  JocHER,  "  Supplementum  Historiae  Gebhardi  Truch- 
sessii. 

Gebhardi,  ggp-haR'dee,  (Johann  Ludwig  Levin,)  a 
German  historian,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1699.  He  was 
professor  of  theology,  logic,  and  mathematics  at  LUne- 
burg  for  many  years.  He  published  an  important 
"  Historical  and  Genealogical  Account  of  the  Royal  and 
Imperial  Houses  of  Europe,"  (1731,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1764. 

See  Meusel,  "  Lexikon  der  vom  Jahre  1750-1800  verstorbenen 
Deutschen  Schriftsteller." 

Gebhardt,  ggp'hSrt,  or  Geb-har'dus,  (Janus,)  a 
Dutch  scholar,  of  German  extraction.  He  wrote  notes 
on  Tibullus,  Catullus,  and  Propertius.    Died  in  1632. 

Gebler,  gibber,  (Tobias  Philipp,)  a  German  poet 
and  dramatist,  born  in  1726,  was  a  councillor  of  state  in 
the  reign  of  Maria  Theresa,  and  became  a  member  of 
the  privy  council  in  1782.    Died  in  1786. 

Gechter,  zhesh'taiR',  (Jean  Franqois  Th]£odore,) 
a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1796.  Among  his 
works  are  colossal  statues  of  the  Rhine  and  Rhone,  which 
adorn  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  Paris.    Died  in  1844. 

Ged,  g^d,  (William,)  a  Scottish  goldsmith  and  artist, 
born  probably  in  Edinburgh  about  1690.  He  invented, 
about  1725,  a  method  of  printing  by  a  plate  cast  in  a 
mould  of  plaster.  He  published  an  edition  of  Sallust 
thus  printed  in  1744.  The  term  "stereotype"  was  first 
applied  to  this  process  by  Firmin  Didot.    Died  in  1749. 

See  Nichols,  "Literary  Anecdotes;"  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Ged'des,  (Alexander,)  a  learned  Roman  Catholic 
biblical  critic  and  translator,  was  born  in  the  county  of 
Banff,  Scotland,  in  1737.  He  removed  to  London  about 
1780,  and  undertook  a  translation  of  the  Bible,  (for  the 
use  of  Roman  Catholics,)  of  which  he  published  two 
volumes,  (1792-97.)  These  contain  the  books  from 
Genesis  to  Chronicles  inclusive,  with  notes  and  critical 
remarks  which  gave  offence  to  Christians  generally. 
He  was  deposed  from  his  priestly  functions  by  the  apos- 
tolic vicar  for  his  attack  on  the  divine  authority  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  his  version  remained  unfinished.  He 
doubted  or  denied  the  miracles  ascribed  to  Moses,  Died 
in  1802. 

See  "  Life  of  A.  Geddes,"  by  John  Mason  Good,  1803. 

Geddes,  (Andrew,)  a  Scottish  painter,  born  in  Edin- 
burgh about  1789.  He  painted  portraits  of  Dr.  Chalmers 
and  David  Wilkie,  and  historical  pictures,  among  which 
was  "  Christ  and  the  Woman  of  Samaria."   Died  in  1844. 

Geddes,  (James,)  a  Scottish  advocate  and  writer, 
born  in  1710.  He  published  an  "Essay  on  the  Compo- 
sition and  Manner  of  Writing  of  the  Ancients,  particu- 
larly Plato,"  (1748.)    Died  in  1749. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Geddes,  (Michael,)  a  theologian,  born  in  Scotland 
about  1640.  He  was  chancellor  of  the  diocese  of  Sarum, 
and  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the 
Church  of  Ethiopia,"  (1696,)  "Miscellaneous  Tracts," 
(3  vols.,  1702-06,)  and  "Tracts  against  Popery,"  (1715.) 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  Yi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2^="  See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GEDIKE 


IOI2 


GEIJER 


His  works  were  admired  by  Southey.  Died  about 
1715- 

See  Chambers,"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;" 
Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Gedike,  ga'de-keb,  or  Gedicke,  (Friedrich,  )  a 
German  teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  in  the 
province  of  Brandenburg  in  1755.  He  became  in  1779 
director  of  the  Friedrichswerder  Gymnasium  at  Berlin, 
and  in  1795  of  the  Berlin  Gymnasium,  both  of  which 
institutions  he  raised  to  the  highest  prosperity  by  his 
excellent  system  of  instruction.    Died  in  1803. 

See  Franz  Horn,  "  F.  Gedicke's  Biographie,"  1808;  Daniel 
Jenisch,  "  Einige  Worte  zum  Andenken  des  F.  Gedicke,"  1803. 

Gedoyn,  zheh-dw^N',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  translator 
and  abbe,  born  at  Orleans  in  1677.  He  became  intimate 
with  Ninon  de  Lenclos,  who  was  his  relative.  In  1701 
he  obtained  acanonicate  in  Paris.  He  produced  in  1718 
an  elegant  but  rather  free  translation  of  Quintilian,  which 
opened  to  him  the  French  Academy.  His  other  chief 
work  is  a  version  of  Pausanias,  (1731.)    Died  in  1744. 

See  D'Alembert,  "£loge  de  Gedoyn;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Gee,  (Joshua,)  a  distinguished  London  merchant, 
published  in  1729  a  work  entitled  "The  Trade  and 
Navigation  of  Great  Britain  Considered,"  which  was 
once  popular. 

Geefs,  gafs  or  Hafs,  (Jan  Joseph,)  a  distinguished 
Belgian  sculptor,  born  at  Antwerp  in  181 1.  Among  his 
best  works  are  "Adonis  departing  to  the  Chase,"  and 
"IVTetabus,  King  of  the  Volsci."    Died  in  i860. 

Geefs,  (Willem,)  a  celebrated  Belgian  sculptor,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Antwerp  in  Sep- 
tember, 1806,  and  studied  under  Ramey  in  Paris.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  statues  of  Rubens  and  of  Malibran, 
the  monument  to  Count  Frederick  de  Merode,  the  "  Lion 
in  Love,"  a  group  in  marble,  and  "  Francesca  da  Rimini." 
He  obtained  the  title  of  first  sculptor  to  the  king.  His 
wife,  Fanny,  is  a  skilful  painter  of  genre  and  portraits. 

Geel,  Hal,  or  Gell,  gel,  (Jakob,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
classical  scholar,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1789.  He  be- 
came chief  librarian  at  the  University  of  Leyden  in  1833, 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "Bibliotheca  Critica 
Nova,"  commenced  in  1825.  Among  his  chief  works 
is  a  "  Critical  History  of  the  Greek  Sophists,"  in  Latin, 
(1823.)  He  edited  Theocritus,  (1820,)  the  "Phoenissae" 
of  Euripides,  and  other  Greek  works. 

Geel,  van,  vtn  Hal,  (Louis,)  a  Belgian  sculptor,  born 
at  Malines  in  1789.  He  executed  the  colossal  figure  of  a 
lion  erected  on  the  field  of  Waterloo.  Among  his  master- 
pieces is  a  shepherd  playing  on  a  flute.    Died  in  1852. 

Geer,  de,  deh  HaR  or  gaR,  (Lodewijck,)  a  Dutch  or 
Swedish  manufacturer,  born  in  1587.  He  was  employed 
by  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden  in  the  fabrication  of 
arms,  and  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Christina  distinguished 
himself  by  the  construction  of  a  fleet.  He  rendered 
other  important  services  to  Sweden.    Died  in  1652. 

See  BuREN,  "Areminne  ofver  L.  de  Geer,"  1790;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  '^Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie,"  1852 ;  Franzen,  "Aminnelse- 
Tal  ofver  L.  de  Geer." 

Geer,  von,  fon  yaR,  (Carl,)  Baron,  a  distinguished 
Swedish  naturalist,  born  in  1720,  was  the  owner  of  a 
large  fortune.  He  was  a  pupil  or  friend  of  Linnaeus,  and 
attained  the  dignity  of  marshal  of  the  court.  His  favour- 
ite study  was  entomology,  on  which  he  published  an 
excellent  work,  "  Memoirs  to  illustrate  the  History 
of  Insects,"  ("Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'Histoire  des 
Insectes,"  8  vols.,  1752-78,  with  good  figures.)  He  was 
author  of  other  scientific  works.    Died  in  1778. 

See  T.  Bergmann,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  C.  de  Geer,"  1779; 
Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  Gezelius, 
"  Biographiskt- Lexicon." 

Geeraerts.    See  Garrard,  (Mark.) 

Geerts,  HaRts,  (Charles  Henri,)  a  Belgian  sculptor, 
born  at  Antwerp  about  1808;  died  in  1855. 

Geffrard,  zhiTutR',  (Fabre,)  a  native  of  Saint  Do- 
mingo, born  in  1806,  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age, 
and  was  made  a  lieutenant-general  in  1845.  After  the 
deposition  of  Soulouque,  in  1859,  Geffrard  became  presi- 
dent of  the  republic  of  Hayti. 

Geiion,  ga'fe-on  or  gef  e-on,  or  Gefione,  [etymology 
unknown,]  in  the  Northern  mythology,  a  virgin  goddess. 


who  takes  into  her  service  all  those  who  die  virgins. 
For  a  fuller  account  of  Gefion  and  the  offices  she  is  sup- 
posed to  fulfil,  see  Petersen's  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Gehema,  von,  fon  gi-ha'mi,  (John  Abraham,)  a 
Polish  medical  writer,  born  about  i66o.  He  was  phy- 
sician to  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  and  to  the  King 
of  Poland. 

Gehlen,  ga'len,  (Adolph  Ferdinand,)  a  German 
chemist,  born  at  Biitow  in  1775,  became  a  professor  at 
Munich  about  1807.  He  was  editor  of  a  "Journal  of 
Chemistry,"  (5  vols.,  1803-05,)  and  published  several 
chemical  memoirs.  He  died  at  Munich,  a  victim  to  an 
experiment  with  arsenical  hydrogen  gas,  in  1815. 

Gehler,  ga'ler,  (Johann  Karl,)  a  German  physician 
and  writer,  born  at  Gorlitz  in  1732,  was  professor  of 
botany,  anatomy,  and  chemistry  at  Leipsic.  He  wrote 
able  treatises  on  obstetrics,  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1796. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  "Bio- 
graphie Medicale." 

Gehler,  (Johann  Samuel  Traugott,)  a  German 
jurist  and  savant,  born  at  Gorlitz  in  1751.  He  published 
in  1787  a  valuable  "Dictionary  of  Physical  Science,"  in 
5  vols.    Died  in  1795. 

Gehren,  ga'ren,  (  Karl  Christl\n,  )  a  German 
preacher  and  writer  on  theology,  born  at  Marburg  in 
1763  ;  died  in  1832. 

See  his  "  Selbstbiographie." 

Geibel.gl'bel,  (Emanuel,)  a  celebrated  German  poet, 
born  at  Lubeck  in  181 5.  Having  accompanied  the 
Russian  ambassador  Katakazi,  as  a  family  tutor,  to 
Athens  in  1838,  he  visited  the  most  interesting  parts  of 
Greece  and  perfected  himself  in  his  classical  studies. 
After  his  return  to  Germany  he  published,  in  1840,  a 
volume  of  poems,  which  were  very  well  received ;  and  in 
1852  he  became  professor  of  aesthetics  at  Munich.  He 
brought  out  in  1841  his  "Voices  of  the  Time,"  ("Zeit- 
stimmen,")  which  was  followed  by  "  King  Sigurd's 
Bridal  Excursion,"  and  the  "Twelve  Sonnets  for  Sles- 
wick-Holstein,"  (1846.)  His  poetry  is  characterized  by 
rich  fancy,  melodious  versification,  and  deep  religious 
feeling,  and  he  ranks  among  the  most  popular  German 
poets  of  the  age. 

Geier,  gi'er,  (Martin,)  a  German  Lutheran  divine, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1614,  was  professor  of  Hebrew.  He 
wrote  Commentaries  on  Scripture.    Died  in  i68r. 

Geiger,  gl'ger,  (Abraham,)  a  Jewish  rabbi  and  Ori- 
ental scholar,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1810. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  a  treatise  entitled  "  What 
has  Mohammed  borrowed  from  Judaism,^"  (1833,)  and 
"Studies  on  Moses  ben  Maimon,"  (1850.) 

Geiger,  ginger,  (Johann  Conrad,)  a  distinguished 
painter  on  glass,  born  in  Zurich  in  1597;  died  in  1674. 

Geijer  or  Geyer,  yT''er,  (Erik  Gustaf,)  an  eminent 
Swedish  historian  and  poet,  born  in  the  province  of 
Warmeland  on  the  12th  of  January,  1783.  He  studied 
at  Upsal,  where  he  became  professor  of  history  in  181 7, 
and  acquired  great  popularity  by  his  lectures.  In  i8u 
he  had  begun  the  publication  of  a  journal  entitled  "  The 
Iduna,"  in  which  his  finest  poems — "The  Viking,"  "The 
Last  Skald,"  etc. — appeared,  and  soon  established  his 
reputation.  He  represented  the  University  of  Upsal 
in  the  Diets  of  1828  and  1840,  and  was  twice  offered  a 
bishopric,  which  he  refused.  In  1822  he  was  appointed 
royal  historiographer,  and  subsequently  president  of  the 
Royal  Academy.  His  "History  of  the  Swedish  Nation," 
("Svenska  Folkets  Historia,"  3  vols.,)  esteemed  his 
most  important  work,  came  out  in  1832,  and  was  soon 
after  translated  into  English,  French,  and  German. 
Among  his  other  productions  may  be  named  his  "  Sketch 
of  the  Condition  of  Sweden  from  the  Death  of  Charles 
XII.  to  the  Reign  of  Gustavus  HI.,"  (1839,)  "Life  of 
Charles  XIV.,  Jean,"  (Bernadotte,)  (1844,)  and  "Remi- 
niscences," ("  Minnen,"  1834,)  left  unfinished,  containing 
an  account  of  his  early  life  and  of  his  visit  to  England 
and  Germany.  Geyer  was  a  member  of  numerous 
learned  institutions,  both  of  his  own  and  other  countries, 
and  was  in  1840  created  Commander  of  the  Polar  Star. 
He  was  from  his  youth  very  intimate  with  the  poet  Teg- 
ner,  and  numbered  among  his  friends  Frederika  Bremer 
and  other  celebrated  Swedish  writers.  He  also  possessed 


i,  e,  1, 6, u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,    short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  f3.r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


GEILER 


1013 


GELLIUS 


superior  musical  talent,  and  composed  several  pieces  for 
Jenny  Lind.    Died  April  13,  1847. 

See  HowiTT,  "Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe," 
.  1852;  X.  Marmier,  "Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Scandinave;" 
Geijer,  "Autobiographic  Souvenirs,"  ("Minnen,")  1834;  Sten- 
BERG,  "Minnestal  bfver  E.  G.  Geijer,"  1848:  A.  Cronholm,  "Min- 
nestal  ofver  E.  G.  Geijer,"  1847;  Carl  Ploug,  "  E.  G.  Geijer's 
Minnesteckning,"  1848;  "  Biographiskt- Lexicon  ofver  namnkunnige 
Svenska  Man;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1833,  and 
April,  1844. 

Geiler.    See  Geyler,  (John.) 

Geinitz,  gl^nits,  (Johann  Bruno,)  a  German  geolo- 
gist, born  at  Altenburg  in  1 8 14,  became  professor  of 
mineralogy  and  geology  at  Dresden  in  1850.  He  was 
author  of  many  works,  among  which  is  a  "Geological 
Description  of  Saxony,"  (1843.) 

Geinoz,  zhi''no',  (FRANgois,)  a  Swiss  scholar  and 
critic,  born  at  Bulle  in  1696.  He  became  a  resident 
of  Paris  in  1730,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  In- 
scriptions in  1735.  was  afterwards  chief  editor  of 
the  "Journal  des  Savants,"  and  was  distinguished  as 
a  Hellenist.  Among  his  works  are  '*  Observations  on 
the  Text  and  Version  of  the  First  Book  of  Herodotus." 
Died  in  Paris  in  1752. 

Geladas.    See  Ageladas. 

Gelase.    See  Gelasius. 

Gelasius,  je-la'she-us,  [Gr.  VeTMOLog;  Fr.  Gelase, 
zhi'lSz',]  became  Bishop  of  Caesarea  about  the  year  367. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  General  Council  of  Constanti- 
nople. He  wrote  several  works,  among  which  is  an 
"Ecclesiastical  History."    Died  about  395. 

Gelasius  of  Cyzicus  [Fr.  G6lase  de  Cyzique,  zha'- 
iSz'  deh  se'z^k'l  lived  during  the  time  of  the  emperors 
Basiliscus  and  Zeno,  about  475  A.D.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Council  of  Nice,"  and  some  other  works. 

See  DupiN,  "  Histoire  des  Auteurs  ecclesiastiques." 

Gelasius  I.,  Saint,  a  native  of  Africa,  was  elected 
pope  in  492.  He  died  in  496,  leaving  several  works, 
which  are  extant.  The  canonical  books  of  Scripture 
were  separated  from  the  apocryphal  in  his  pontificate. 

Gelasius  II.,  (originally  Giovanni  di  Gaeta,)  born 
at  Gaeta  about  1050,  was  elected  pope  in  January,  1118. 
He  was  maltreated  by  some  partisans  of  the  emperor 
Henry  V.,  who  was  his  enemy,  and  who  elected  an  anti- 
pope,  Gregory  VHI.  Gelasius  fled  from  Rome,  and  died 
at  Cluny  in  1119. 

See  Platina,  "Vitse  Pontificum." 

Geldenhauer,  gSKden-how^er  or  HgKden-how'er,  or 
Geldenhaur,  (Gerard,)  a  Dutch  writer  and  Latin  poet, 
born  at  Nymwegen  about  1480,  was  sometimes  called 
Gerard  of  Nymwegen.  He  was  in  early  life  a  friend 
of  Erasmus  and  reader  to  Charles  V.  His  talent  for 
Latin  poetry  procured  for  him  the  crown  of  poet-lau- 
reate in  1 517.  He  was  converted  to  the  Protestant  faith 
about  1526.  Among  his  works  are  "Satires,"  (15 15,)  and 
a  "History  of  Lower  Germany,"  ("Germanise  Inferioris 
Historia,"  1532.)    Died  at  Wittenberg  in  1542. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Gelder,  van,  vtn  gel'der  or  H^l'der,  (Arnold,)  a 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Dort  in  1645,  was  a  pupil  of  Rem- 
brandt. He  distinguished  himself  in  several  branches 
of  painting,  designed  correctly,  and  was  a  good  colorist. 
Among  his  best  works  are  "  Christ  before  Pilate,"  a 
portrait  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  "The  Toilet  of  the 
Jewish  Bride."    Died  at  Dort  in  1727. 

SeeSiRET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres." 

Gelee,  (Claude.)    See  Claude  Lorrain. 

Gelee,  zheh-li',  (FRANgois  Antoine,)  a  French  en- 
graver, born  in  Paris  in  1796,  gained  the  grand  prize  in 
1824,  and  a  first  medal  at  the  Salo7t  in  1842. 

Ge-le'ni-us,  [Ger.  pron.  gi-la'ne-us,]  or  Ghelen, 
ga^en,  (Sigismund,)  a  philologist  and  translator,  born  at 
Prague  in  1477.  He  was  a  friend  of  Erasmus,  who  pro- 
cured for  him  the  place  of  corrector  of  the  press  under 
Froben  at  Bale.  He  translated  into  Latin  the  works  of 
Josephus,  Appian,  Philo,  and  Justin  Martyr,  and  pub- 
lished a  dictionary  of  the  Greek,  Latin,  German,  and 
Slavonian  languages,  ("Lexicon  Symphonum  quatuor 
Linguarum,"  1537.)    Died  in  1554, 

Gelimer,g§Ke-mer  orjgl'e-mer,  written  also  Gil'imer, 
[Gr.  VeXLiiep,]  the  last  king  of  the  Vandals  in  Africa,  suc- 
ceeded Hilderic  in  530  a.d.   He  was  defeated  and  taken 


prisoner  by  Belisarius  in  534,  and  then  ceased  to  reign. 
The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Ernpire." 

Gelinek,  g^-lee'n§k,  (Joseph,)  a  Bohemian  com- 
poser, born  at  Selez  in  1757,  was  a  friend  or  associate 
of  Mozart.  He  acquired  a  wide  but  temporary  reputa- 
tion.   Died  at  Vienna  in  1825. 

Gell,  (Jakob.)    See  Geel. 

Qrell,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  scholar  and  anti- 
quary, born  in  1777,  was  a  son  of  Philip  Gell,  of  Hopton, 
Derbyshire.  Being  appointed  one  of  the  chamberlains 
to  the  Princess  of  Wales,  he  accompanied  her  to  Italy 
in  1814.  He  published,  among  other  works,  the  "  Itine- 
rary of  Greece,"  (1810,)  "Topography  of  Troy  and  its 
Vicinity,"  "  Pompeiana,"  being  a  description  of  Pom- 
peii, (1817,)  and  the  excellent  "  Topography  of  Rome," 
(3  vols.,  1834.)  He  resided  some  years  at  Rome  and 
Naples.    Died  at  Naples  in  1836. 

Gellert,  geKlert,  (Christian  Furchtegott,)  a  Ger- 
man poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Hainichen, 
in  Saxony,  on  the  4th  of  July,  1715.  Having  been  edu- 
cated in  the  University  of  Leipsic,  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  there  in  1751.  His  "Tales"  and 
"  Fables"  obtained  a  popularity  in  Germany  not  sur- 
passed perhaps  by  any  other  works  of  the  kind,  and,  by 
their  pure  morality,  exercised  the  most  salutary  influ- 
ence on  society.  His  "  Sacred  Songs"  are  also  highly 
esteemed,  and  his  romance  entitled  "The  Swedish 
Countess"  is  a  superior  production.  As  a  man,  Gellert 
was  eminently  virtuous  and  amiable.  He  was  loved  and 
reverenced  by  all  classes,  and  received  signal  marks  of 
favour  from  Frederick  II.  and  the  princes  royal.  "  Such," 
says  Guizot,  "are  the  literary  titles  of  a  man  who  will 
always  possess  the  merit  of  having  powerfully  contrib- 
uted to  form  the  language  and  improve  the  minds  of 
his  countrymen."  ("  Biographic  Universelle.")  Died  in 
December,  1769. 

See  Lessing's  Critique  on  Gellert;  Johann  August  Eknesti, 
"Elogium  C.  F.  Gellerti,"  1770;  Johann  Andreas  Cramer,  "C.  F. 
Gellert's  Leben  und  Briefe,"  2  vols.,  1774,  (translated  into  English  by 
Mrs.  Douglas,  1805;)  Heinrich  Doring,  "  Leben  C.  F.  Gellerts," 
2  vols.,  1833;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;" 
Bouterwek,  "  Geschichte  der  poetischen  National-Literatur  der 
Deutschen  ;"  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  G.  E. 
Leo,  "Das  fromnie  Leben  C.  F.  Gellerts,"  1845. 

Gelli,  jeKlee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  author  and  moralist,  born  at  Florence  in  1498, 
was  a  tailor  by  trade.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Florentine  Academy,  of  which  he  was  chosen 
president  in  1548.  He  published  in  1546  a  collection 
of  moral  dialogues,  entitled  "  I  Capricci  del  Bottajo," 
("The  Whims  of  the  Cooper,")  and  in  1549  a  fable,  or 
moral  fiction,  called  "La  Circe,"  which  Ginguene  com- 
mends as  original  and  piquant.  Among  his  works  are 
"The  Basket,"  ("La  Sporta,"  a  comedy,  1543,)  and 
lectures  on  the  "Divina  Commedia"  of  Dante,  (1551.) 
His  writings  are  recognized  as  authorities  in  language 
by  the  Academy  della  Crusca.    Died  in  1563. 

See  Negri,  "Scrittori  Fiorentini ;"  Niceron,  "  Memoires ;" 
Michele  Capri,  "Orazione  nella  Morte  di  G.  B.  Gelli,"  1563; 
Ginguene,  "Histoire  litteraire  d'ltalie." 

QrelTi-brand,  (Henry,)  an  English  mathematician, 
born  in  London  in  1597.  He  became  professor  of  astron- 
omy at  Gresham  College,  London,  in  1627,  and  wrote 
an  "  Epitome  of  Navigation,"  and  several  mathematical 
works.  He  completed  Briggs's  "  Trigonometria  Bri- 
tannica,"  (1633,)  at  the  request  of  the  dying  author. 
Died  in  1636. 

See  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses." 

gelTi-us,  (Au'lus,)  [Fr.  Aulu-Gelle,  o'lu'  zhB,]  a 
Roman  writer  and  grammarian,  born  at  Rome  in  the 
early  part  of  the  second  century.  He  became  a  resident 
of  Athens,  but  returned  to  Rome  and  obtained  the  office 
of  judge.  He  wrote  a  work  called  "Attic  Nights," 
("  Noctes  Atticae,")  which  consists  of  a  curious  collection 
of  anecdotes,  arguments,  and  observations  on  a  variety 
of  subjects.  It  contains  fragments  of  several  lost  works, 
and  is  highly  prized.  He  informs  the  reader  that  he 
wrote  the  "  Noctes  Atticae"  to  amuse  his  children.  It 
was  translated  into  English  by  Beloe,  (1795.)  He  died 
in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 

See  Bahr,  "Geschichte  der  Romische  Literatur." 


c  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  yl, guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GELLIUS  lo 


Gellius,  (Cneius,)  a  Roman  historian,  who  lived  about 
150  B.C.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Rome  from  the  Ear- 
liest Times,"  which  is  not  extant. 

Qre'lon  [Gr.  r^/lwv]  I.  succeeded  Hippocrates  as  King 
of  Syracuse  in  485  B.C.  He  had  distinguished  himself 
in  fighting  under  Hippocrates,  and  was  appointed  by 
him  general  of  the  cavalry.  About  480  B.C.  the  Car- 
thaginians, under  Hamilcar,  made  an  attempt  to  recover 
their  possessions  held  by  Gelon,  but  were  defeated  at 
Himera  with  immense  loss,  estimated  at  150,000  men. 
After  this  the  Carthaginians  sued  for  peace,  which  was 
granted  on  condition  of  their  abolishing  human  sacrifices 
and  on  the  payment  of  two  thousand  talents.  He  died 
in  478  B.C.,  deeply  regretted  by  all  his  subjects. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "  Roman  History  ;"  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Gelon  II.,  a  son  of  Hieron  II.,  King  of  Syracuse,  was 
born  about  266  B.C.  He  was  a  patron  of  Archimedes. 
It  is  said  that  he  was  about  to  abandon  the  alliance  of 
the  Romans,  defeated  at  Cannae,  when  he  died  in  216 
B.C.,  leaving  a  son  Hieronymus.  It  appears  that  Gelon 
was  associated  as  king  with  his  father,  who  survived  him. 

Gemberlein.    See  Graf. 

Gemeau,  zha^mo^  (Auguste  Pierre  Walbourg — 
vtKbooR',)  a  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1790, 
became  a  general  of  division  in  1845,  ^^'^^  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  of  occupation  at  Rome  in  1850. 

Gemelli,  ji-meKlee,  (Lodovico,)  an  Italian  educa- 
tional writer,  born  in  Calabria  in  1757  ;  died  in  1835. 

Gemelli-Carreri.    See  Carreri. 

Gemignano.    See  Gimignano. 

Gemignano,  di  San,  de  sin  ja-min-yi'no,  (Vin- 
CENZio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1490, 
was  a  pupil  of  Raphael,  He  was  employed  in  the  Vati- 
can, at  Rome.    Died  in  1530. 

Geminiani,  ji-me-ne-a'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  eminent 
composer  and  violinist,  born  at  Lucca  about  1680,  or,  as 
some  say,  about  1666.  He  studied  under  A.  Scarlatti, 
Lunati,  and  Corelli.  In  17 14  he  removed  to  London, 
where  he  performed  with  great  success.  He  composed 
beautiful  concertos  and  sonatas,  which  display  much 
skill  in  harmony,  and  published  a  "  Guide  to  Harmony," 
("  Guida  armonica,"  1742,)  which  was  received  with 
favour.  His  expensive  habits  kept  him  always  on  the 
verge  of  poverty.  He  lost  a  valuable  manuscript  treatise 
on  music,  through  the  treachery  of  a  servant,  about  176 1. 
Died  in  Dublin  in  1762. 

See  BuRNEV,  "  History  of  Music;"  F^tis,  "Biographic  Uni- 
verselle  des  Musiciens." 

Qre-mi'nus,  [Fe/zivof,]  a  Greek  astronomer,  who  lived 
in  the  first  century  B.C.  He  quotes  Hipparchus  in  his 
works,  some  of  which  are  lost.  It  is  supposed  he  was  a 
native  of  Rhodes.  He  wrote  an  elementary  work  on 
astronomy,  "  ^iaaycjyrj  sig  ru  ^aivofieva,"  which  is  extant. 
"This  work,"  says  Delambre,  "is  rather  superficial,  but 
simple  and  luminous,  and  the  best  of  those  which  have 
come  down  to  us  from  the  Greeks." 

See  Delambre,  "  Histoire  de  rAstronomie  ancienne." 

Qre-mis'tus,  (George,)  [Gr.  Tetjpyiog  6  Ve^iarog ;  Fr. 
G^MISTE,  zhi'm^st',]  surnamed  Pletho,  a  Platonic 
philosopher,  famous  for  his  learning,  was  born  at  Con- 
stantinople. He  was  a  deputy  from  the  Greek  Church 
to  the  Council  of  Florence  in  1438.  He  was  a  zealous 
partisan  of  the  philosophy  of  Plato,  and  an  opponent  of 
Aristotle.  The  prevalence  of  Platonism  in  Italy  in  the 
fifteenth  century  is  ascribed  to  his  efforts.  He  wrote 
many  works  on  philosophy,  history,  etc.,  among  which 
are  a  "  History  of  Greece  after  the  Battle  of  Mantinea," 
and  "  On  the  Difference  between  the  Philosophy  of  Plato 
and  that  of  Aristotle."  He  is  said  to  have  attained  the 
age  of  one  hundred  years. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotlieca  Grasca ;"  Appendix  to  Cave,  "  His- 
toria  Literaria  ;"  Wiluelm  Gass,  "  Gennadius  und  Pletho,"  Bres- 
lau,  1844;  C.  F.  Boekner,  "De  doctis  Hominibus  Graecis,"  Leipsic, 
1754;  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Qrem'ma,  [Dutch  pron.  H^m'mi,]  (Cornelis,)  a  son 
of  Reinier,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Louvain  in  1535. 
He  became  professor  of  medicine  there  about  1570.  He 
wrote  a  learned  work,  "De  Arte  Cyclognomica,"  (1569,) 
and  a  Latin  poem  entitled  "  Menti  rerum  architectrici," 
etc.    Died  in  1577. 

See  Castellan,  "  Vitae  illustrium  Medicorum." 


14  GEN  EST 


Gemma,  [  or  Gemma  Frisius,  i.e.  "  Gemma  the 
Frisian,"]  (Reinier,)  a  Dutch  physician  and  eminent 
astronomer,  born  at  Dokkum  in  1508.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  medicine  at  Louvain  in  1541,  and  modestly 
declined  the  offer  of  Charles  V.,  who  invited  him  to  his 
court.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  The  Princi- 
ples of  Astronomy  and  Cosmography,"  (1547.)  Died  at 
Louvain  in  1555. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis  ;"  Foppens,  "  Biblio- 
theca  Belgica;"  Vossius,  "De  Scientiis  Mathematicis." 

Gemmingen-Hornberg,  von,  fon  gSm'ming-en- 
hoRn'b^RG,  (Otto  Heinrich,)  Baron,  born  at  Heil- 
bronn  in  1753,  wrote  several  popular  dramas,  one  of 
which  was  entitled  "  Der  Deutsche  Hausvater,"  on  the 
model  of  Diderot's  "  Pere  de  Faniille."    Died  in  1836. 

Gemusaeus,  g^-moo-za'us,  or  Geschmauss,  gW- 
shmowss^  (Hieronymus,)  a  German  philologist,  born 
at  Miilhausen,  in  Alsace,  in  1505.  He  published  a  good 
edition  of  Paulus  ^gineta,  (1538,)  and  wrote,  in  Latin, 
a  Life  of  Galen.    Died  in  1543. 

Gence,  zhdNss,  (Jean  Baptiste  MoDESTE,)a  French 
writer,  born  at  Amiens  in  1755.  He  obtained  the  office 
of  archivist  at  the  Depot  des  Chartes  before  the  Revolu- 
tion. He  published  a  Latin  edition  of  the  "  Imitation 
of  Christ,"  (1826,)  and  wrote  several  treatises  to  prove 
that  Gerson  was  the  author  of  that  work.  This  subject 
was  his  hobby  during  nearly  all  his  life.    Died  in  1840. 

See  "Biographic  litteraire  de  J.  B.  M.  Gence,"  by  himself;  Vil- 
lenave,  "  Eloge  de  M.  Gence,"  1840. 

Gendebien,  zhdN'del/be^N'',  (Alexandre  Joseph 
S^bastien,)  a  Belgian  politician  and  eloquent  advocate, 
born  at  Mons  in  1789.  He  was  a  member  of  the  pro- 
visional government  in  1830,  and  opposed  the  election 
of  Leopold  in  1 83 1.  As  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  he  supported  liberal  principles  until  he  retired 
from  public  service  in  1839. 

Gendebien,  (Jean  Francois,)  a  Belgian  legislator, 
father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1753.  He  promoted 
the  liberation  of  Belgiuin  from  Austria  in  1789,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  French  legislative  body  from  1802  to 
1813.  In  1830  he  was  president  of  the  Congress  of 
Belgium.    Died  in  1838. 

Gendre.    See  Legendre. 

Gendrin,  zhdN'dR^N'',  (Auguste  Nicolas,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Chateaudun  in  1796.  He  received 
the  Montyon  prize  of  the  Institute  for  his  "Anatomical 
History  of  Inflammations,"  (1826.)  Among  his  other 
works  is  a  "Philosophical  Treatise  on  Practical  Medi- 
cine," (3  vols.,  1838-41.) 

Gendron,  zhSN'dRON',  (Claude  Deshais — da'za',) 
born  at  Beauce  about  1663,  was  physician  to  the  Duke 
of  Orleans,  Regent  of  France.    Died  in  1750. 

Genebrard,zha'na'bRtR^(GiLBERT,)a  learned  French 
prelate,  born  at  Riom  in  1537.  He  loecame  professor 
of  Hebrew  at  Paris  in  1563.  He  was  a  partisan  of  the 
League  against  Henry  IV.  In  1592  he  was  appointed 
Archbishop  of  Aix  by  the  pope.  He  published  an  edi- 
tion of  Origen's  works,  (1574,)  a  commentary  on  the 
Psalms  of  David,  (1577,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1597. 

See  Niceron,  "  Memoires ;"  Possevin,  "Apparatus  Sacer." 

Genelli,  gi-neKlee,  }  (Bonaventura,)  a  German  de- 
signer, born  at  Berlin  in  1803,  settled  at  Munich,  wher/s 
he  produced,  among  other  works,  "  Hercules  playing  on 
the  Lyre,"  and  "Jason  and  Medea." 

General!,  ji-ni-ri'lee,  (Pietro,)  an  able  Italian  com- 
poser, born  near  Vercelli  in  1783.  His  proper  name 
was  Mercandetti.  He  composed  many  operas,  among 
which  is  "I  Baccanali  di  Roma."    Died  in  1832. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Genes,  zheh^nSss',  (written  also  Genest, )  Saint, 
sometimes  called  Genes  of  Rome,  was  originally  a 
comedian.  It  is  said  that  as  he  was  playing,  in  the 
presence  of  the  emperor,  a  piece  in  derision  of  the  Chris- 
tians, he  was  miraculously  converted  to  the  new  faith, 
for  which  he  was  beheaded  by  order  of  Diocletian. 

Qre-ne'si-us,  (Joseph,)  a  Byzantine  historian,  flour- 
ished about  950  a.d.  He  wrote,  in  Greek,  a  history  of 
Leo  the  Armenian,  Michael  II.,  Theophilus,  and  Michael 
III.,  (or,  as  some  say,  Basil  I.) 

Genest.    See  Campan,  (Madame,)  and  Gen^s. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GEN  EST 


1015 


GENNARI 


Genest,  zheh-ni',  or  GenSt,  (Abbe  Charles 
Claude,)  a  French  poet  and  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1639.  He  gained  in  1673  the  prize  of  poetry  offered  by 
the  French  Academy,  into  which  he  was  admitted  in 
1698.  He  expounded  the  Cartesian  philosophy  in  a 
poem  called  "Principles  of  Philosophy,"  ("Principes  de 
Philosophie,"  1716,)  which,  says  Voltaire,  "demonstrated 
his  patience  rather  than  his  genius."  He  wrote  a  medi- 
ocre drama  entitled  "Penelope."    Died  in  17 19. 

See  Voltaire,  "Catalogue  des  ficrivains  du  Siecle  de  Louis 
XIV;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Genest  or  Gen§t,  (Edmond  Charles,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  at  Versailles  about  1765,  was  a  brother 
of  Madame  Campan.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
the  United  States  in  December,  1792,  and  on  his  arrival 
was  received  with  enthusiasm  by  the  people.  He  used 
his  influence  to  involve  the  United  States  in  war  against 
the  British,  and  denounced  Washington  for  his  neutral- 
ity. At  the  request  of  Washington,  he  was  superseded  ; 
but  he  remained  in  the  United  States.  Died  at  Schodac, 
New  York,  in  1834. 

Genet,  (Edmond  Charles.)    See  Genest. 

Genet,  zheh-ni',  (Franqois,)  a  French  theologian 
and  casuist,  born  at  Avignon  in  1640,  became  Bishop  of 
Vaison  in  1685.  He  wrote  "Moral  Theology;  or,  A  So- 
lution of  Cases  of  Conscience,"  (3d  edition,  7  vols.,  1682,) 
which  was  approved  by  many  bishops.    Died  in  1707. 

Geneva,  (Robert  de.)    See  Robert  of  Geneva. 

Genevieve,  jgn''eh-veev',  [Fr.  pron.  zhen-ve'av',] 
Patron  Saint  of  Paris,  was  born  at  Nanterre,  in  France, 
in  423  A.D.,  and  took  the  veil  when  she  was  fifteen.  It  is 
said  that  when  Attila,  King  of  the  Huns,  menaced  Paris, 
Genevieve  assured  the  inhabitants  of  their  safety,  upon 
which  they  scoffed  at  her  as  a  pretended  prophetess ; 
but,  as  the  prediction  was  verified,  they  ever  afterwards 
held  her  in  great  esteem.  When  Paris  was  besieged, 
she  afforded  the  city  great  relief  by  the  abundance  of 
provisions  which  she  procured.  It  has  also  been  stated 
that  she  performed  many  miracles,  and  was  the  means 
of  converting  King  Clovis.    Died  in  512. 

See  Baillet,  "Vies  des  Saints,"  etc.  ;  M^zeray,  "Histoire  de 
France;"  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Sacred  and  Legendary  Art;"  Le  Nain 
DE  TiLi.EMONT,  "Vie  de  S.  Genevieve,  Patronne  de  Paris,"  1823; 
J.  Barth^lemy,  "Vie  de  S.  Genevieve,"  1852. 

Genevieve  of  Brabant,  wife  of  the  palatine  Sieg- 
fried, is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  eighth  century. 
Being  falsely  accused  of  adultery,  she  was  condemned  to 
death;  but  the  penalty  was  commuted. to  exposure  in  a 
forest.  After  five  years,  she  was  recognized  by  her  hus- 
band when  hunting,  and  her  innocence  acknowledged. 

See  "Vie  admirable  de  Genevieve  de  Brabant,"  Paris,  1842; 
Gorres,  "Deutsche  Volks-Biicher." 

Genga,  j&n'gi,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Cesena  in  15 18,  was  a  son  of  Girolamo,  noticed 
below.  He  was  appointed  intendant  of  public  buildings 
by  the  Duke  of  Urbino.  Among  his  works  was  the 
church  of  San  Pietro  de  Mondovi.  Shortly  before  his 
death  he  went  to  Malta  to  put  that  island  in  a  state  of  de- 
fence. He  traced  the  plan  of  Valetta,  and  designed  several 
churches  there,  but  died  before  they  were  finished,  in  1558. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.;  Quatrem^re  de 
QuiNCY,  "  Dictionnaire  d' Architecture." 

Genga,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  anatomist,  born  in 
the  duchy  of  Urbino  about  1650.  He  wrote  "Surgical 
Anatomy,"  (1672,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1734. 

Genga,  (Girolamo,)  an  eminent  painter  and  archi- 
tect, born  at  Urbino  about  1476,  was  a  pupil  of  Perugino 
and  a  friend  of  Raphael.  He  worked  at  Sienna,  Rome, 
and  Urbino.  He  excelled  in  perspective,  and  in  the 
distribution  of  the  effects  of  light.  Among  his'  master- 
pieces is  an  oil-painting  of  the  "Resurrection  of  Christ" 
at  Sienna.  He  was  the  architect  of  a  ducal  palace  near 
Pesaro,  and  restored  the  archiepiscopal  palace  at  Mantua. 
He  wrote  several  treatises  on  the  fine  arts.  Died  in  1551. 
Pope  Leo  XII.  is  said  to  have  been  his  descendant. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,  Sculptors,"  etc.;  Quatre- 
MERE  UE  QuiNCY,  " Dictionnaire  d'Architecture  ;"  Lanzi,  "History 
of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Genga,  della,  (Annibal.)    See  Leo  XH. 
Genghis  Khan.    See  Jengis  Khan. 
Genin,  zhi^n^N',  (Francois,)  a  French  litterateur  ^.wd 
philologist,  born  at  Amiens  in  1803,    He  became  one  of 


the  editors  of  "The  National,"  a  daily  paper  of  Paris, 
about  1837,  and  wrote  for  it  spirited  articles  against  the 
Jesuits.  In  1845  the  French  Academy  awarded  a  prize 
to  his  "  Lexicon  of  the  Language  of  Moliere."  He 
made  successful  researches  in  the  origin  of  the  French 
language  and  literature.  Among  his  works  are  "The 
Variations  of  the  French  Language  since  the  Twelfth 
Century,"  (1845,)  ^"<i  "Letters  on  French  Philology," 
(1846.)    Died  in  1856. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Genissieux,  zha^ie'se-uh',  (J.  J.  V.,)  a  French  advo- 
cate and  revolutionist,  i)orn  in  Dauphine  about  1740. 
As  a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1792,  he  voted  for  the 
death  of  the  king.  He  was  minister  of  justice  for  the 
first  three  months  of  1796.    Died  in  1804. 

Genlis,  zhSN'l^ss',  (Stephanie  Felicity  Ducrest 
de  Saint-Aubin — dii'kRi'  deh  siNt'o'biN',)  Countess 
OF,  a  celebrated  French  writer,  born  near  Autun,  in 
Burgundy,  in  1746.  Her  talents,  beauty,  and  skill  in 
music  introduced  her  at  an  early  age  into  Parisian  so- 
ciety. In  her  sixteenth  year  she  was  married  to  the 
Count  de  Genlis,  who,  having  accidentally  seen  one  of 
her  letters,  was  so  charmed  with  its  style  that  he  sought 
her  acquaintance.  Being  appointed  soon  after  governess 
to  the  children  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  one  of  whom, 
Louis  Philippe,  was  afterwards  king,  she  wrote  a  series 
of  works  for  their  instruction,  the  principal  of  which  are 
"Les  Annales  de  laVertu,"  "Theatre  de  I'Education," 
"  Les  Veillees  du  Chateau,"  and  "Adele  et  Theodore." 
She  sympathized  with  the  principles  of  the  French 
Revolution,  but  was  compelled  in  1791 — probably  on 
account  of  her  intimacy  with  the  Duke  of  Orleans — to 
take  refuge  in  England.  She  afterwards  spent  some  time 
on  the  continent,  and  while  in  Belgium  brought  about 
a  marriage  between  her  adopted  daughter  Pamela  and 
Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald.  When  Bonaparte  became 
consul,  Madame  de  Genlis  returned  to  Paris,  where  she 
brought  out  many  works  in  rapid  succession.  In  her 
treatises  entitled  "  On  the  Influence  of  Women  on 
Literature,"  "Critical  Observations  towards  the  Literary 
History  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  and  "The  Dinners 
of  Baron  d'Holbach,"  she  attacked  a  number  of  the  most 
prominent  French  philosophers,  as  well  as  Madame  de 
Stael  and  Madame  Cottin.  Her  productions,  which 
amount  in  all  to  more  than  eighty  volumes,  are  written 
with  great  elegance,  and  display  considerable  talent ;  but 
their  morality  is  not  of  a  high  order.  When  past  eighty 
years  of  age,  she  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century  and  the  French  Revolution,"  which,  though 
containing  much  that  is  interesting,  are  disfigured  by 
petty  scandal  and  excessive  and  ludicrous  vanity.  In 
the  words  of  a  witty  French  writer,  Madame  de  Genlis 
has  in  this  work  confessed  everybody's  sins  but  her  own. 
Died  in  1830. 

See  Grimm,  "  Correspondance  litteraire  ;"  L.  de  Sevelinges, 
"Madame  de  Genlis  en  Miniature,"  etc.,  1826;  Bachaumont, 
"  Memoires  secrets;"  Cousin  d'Avallon,  "  Genlisiana,"  1820; 
Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  iii. 

Gennade.    See  Gennadius. 

^en-na'di-us  [Gr.  VevvadLog]  was  elected  Bishop  and 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  458.  He  wrote  some 
ecclesiastical  works.    Died  in  471  a.d. 

^en-na'di-us,  an  ecclesiastic,  whose  original  name 
was  George  Scholarius,  advocated  the  union  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  Churches  at  the  Council  of  Florence  in 
1438,  but  afterwards  strenuously  opposed  that  measure. 
He  was  chosen  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  1453, 
after  the  capture  of  that  city  by  the  Turks,  and  abdicated 
about  1458.    He  left  many  theological  works. 

Qren-na'di-us  [Fr.  Gennade,  zhi-ntd']  of  Mar- 
seilles, a  priest  or  presbyter,  who  lived  about  470-500 
A.D.  He  wrote  a  book  "On  Illustrious  Men,"  ("  De 
Viris  illustribus,")  which  is  regarded  as  a  continuation 
of  Saint  Jerome's  work  of  similar  title,  and  a  treatise 
on  "  Doctrines,"  ("  De  Dogmatibus,")  both  of  which  are 
extant.    He  has  been  charged  with  Semi-Pelagianism. 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria;"  Wilhelm  Gass,  "  Gennadius 
und  Pletho,  oder  Aristotelismits  und  Platonismus  in  der  Griechischen 
Kirche,"  1844. 

Gennari,  j^n-ni'ree,  (Benedetto,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Cento,  near  Bologna,  about  1550.  Among  his 
chief  works  are  "  Saint  Peter  and  Saint  Paul,"  and  "  The 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GENNARl 


1016 


GENTILIS 


Repast  of  the  Saviour  with  the  Disciples  at  Emmaus." 
"  Ilis  composition  is  simple  and  noble,"  says  E.  Breton, 
"  his  touch  is  easy,  and  his  colour  true."    {"  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale.")    Died  in  1610. 
See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Gennari,  (Benedetto,)  the  Younger,  a  grandson 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Cento  in  1633. 
a  pupil  and  nephew  of  Guercino,  whom  he  imitated  with 
success.  Having  visited  England,  he  received  the  title 
of  first  painter  to  Charles  TI.  and  James  11.  His  copies 
of  certain  works  of  Guercino  can  hardly  be  distinguished 
from  the  originals.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "Venus 
and  Adonis,"  and  "  Saint  Jerome."    Died  in  171 5. 

See  Lanzi,  "History of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Gennari,  (Cesare,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1641,  was  a  pupil  of  Guercino,  and  was  a  skilful  painter 
of  landscapes  and  history.  He  worked  at  Bologna,  where 
he  died  in  1688. 

Gennari,  (Ercole,)  a  son  of  Benedetto  the  elder, 
was  born  at  Cento  in  1597.  He  married  a  sister  of 
Guercino,  and  copied  many  works  of  that  master.  Died 
at  Bologna  in  1658. 

Gennari,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at 
Padua  in  1721  ;  died  in  1800. 

Gennaro,  j^n-na'ro,  (Giuseppe  Aurelio,)  an  Italian 
jurisconsult  and  ingenious  writer,  born  at  Naples  in  1701. 
He  published  in  1731  "Republic  of  Jurists,"  ("  Repub- 
lica  Jurisconsultorum,")  a  history  of  law  under  a  ficti- 
tious form,  which  was  much  admired  and  often  reprinted. 
In  1748  he  became  a  councillor  of  the  king.  Hef  wrote 
**  On  the  Vicious  Manner  of  Defending  Causes  in  Court," 
(1744.)    Died  in  1761. 

See  Spiriti,  "  Elogio  storico  di  G.  A.  Gennaro,"  1762  ;  Tipaldo, 
"Biografia  degli  Italiani  illiistri." 

Gennete,  zh^n'tk',  (Claude  L^:opold,)  a  French 
mechanician,  born  near  Nancy  in  1706.  He  wrote  a 
work  "On  the  Construction  of  Chimneys  warranted 
not  to  Smoke,"  (1760.)    Died  in  1782. 

Genod,  zheh-no',  (Michel  Philibert,)  a  French 
painter  of  history  and  genre,  born  at  Lyons  in  1795. 

Grenoels,  ga-nools',  [Dutch  pron.  Ha-nools',]  (Abra- 
ham,) an  eminent  Flemish  landscape-painter,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1640.  He  worked  in  Paris  and  Rome, 
/  whither  he  went  about  1674.  He  painted  the  back- 
grounds of  Lebrun's  "  Battles  of  Alexander,"  and  several 
views  in  the  vicinity  of  Rome.    Died  about  1722. 

See  Bryan's  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Genoude,  zheh-nood',  (Antoine  Eugene,)  a  noted 
French  journalist,  born  at  Montelimart  in  1792.  He 
became  editor  in  1821  of  the  "Gazette  de  France,"  a 
legitimist  journal  of  Paris,  in  which  post  he  displayed 
considerable  ability,  but,  owing  to  his  fondness  for 
polemics,  was  involved  in  numerous  difficulties.  He 
wrote  "  Considerations  on  the  Greeks  and  Turks," 
"The  Life  of  Jesus  Christ  and  the  Apostles,  drawn  from 
the  Gospels,"  (1836,)  a  "History  of  France,"  (16  vols., 
1844-47,)  ^i^d  other  works.  Abbe  Genoude  took  holy 
orders  in  1835,  after  the  death  of  his  wife.  Died  in  1849. 

See  Cretineau-Joi.y,  "  Histoire  de  M.  de  Genoude  et  de  la 
Gazette  de  France,"  1843;  "  Biographie  de  M.  de  Genoude," 
anonymous,  Paris,  1844;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Genoux,  zheh-noo',  (Claude,)  a  Savoyard  writer 
and  traveller,  born  in  1811,  made  the  tour  of  the  world 
twice,  and  published  "Memoirs  of  a  Savoyard  Boy," 
(1844.)  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Savoy,"  (1852,)  and 
other  works. 

Genovesi,  ji-no-va'see,  (Antonio,)  an  eminent  Ital- 
ian philosopher  and  political  economist,  born  near  Sa- 
lerno in  1 712.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1736,  and 
became  professor  of  metaphysics  at  Naples  in  1741.  He 
published  "  Elements  of  Metai^hysics,"  (in  Latin,  ist  vol., 
1743,)  and  a  treatise  on  logic,  "Elements  of  Logico- 
Criticnl  Art,"  ("Elementa  Artis  logico-criticse,"  1745.) 
In  these  two  works  he  combined  the  principles  of  Bacon, 
Descartes,  Leibnitz,  and  Locke.  He  was  the  first  occu- 
pant of  the  chair  of  political  economy  founded  in  1754 
at  Nnj^les.  His  lectures  on  that  subject  were  very  popu- 
lar, and  gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  study  of  the  same. 
They  were  published  by  him  under  the  title  of  "  Lectures 
on  Commerce  or  Civil  Economy,"  ("  Lezioni  di  Com- 
mercio  o  di  Economia  civile,"  2  vols.)    His  "Logic  for 


Youth"  ("  Logica  per  i  Giovannetti,"  1766)  is  highly 
commended.    Died  at  Naples  in  1769. 

See  "  Life  of  Genovesi,"  prefixed  to  his  Works;  G.  M.  Galanti, 
"Elogio  storico  del  Signer  Abate  A.  Genovesi,"  1772;  Tipaldo, 
"  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Qren'ser-ic,  [Gr.  Ti^epuwc;  Lat.  Genseri'cus  or 
GlZERi'cus,]  a  famous  king  of  the  Vandals,  born  at 
Seville  about  406  A.D.,  was  a  son  of  King  Godigisdus  or 
Modigisdus.  In  429  he  crossed  from  Spain  into  Africa 
with  a  large  army,  was  joined  by  many  Donatists,  and 
gained  victories  over  the  Roman  general  Bonifacius. 
His  army  committed  great  atrocities  and  devastation. 
He  captured  Carthage  in  439,  made  himself  master  of 
Northern  Africa,  and,  according  to  some  writers,  formed 
an  alliance  with  Attila  the  Hun.  He  had  a  powerful 
fleet,  which  was  a  great  scourge  to  the  Romans.  In  455 
he  was  invited  by  the  empress  Eudocia,  or  Eudoxia,  to 
fight  against  the  usurper  Maximus.  He  accordingly 
marched  against  Rome,  which  he  sacked,  and  carried 
Eudoxia  with  many  other  Romans  as  captives  to  Car- 
thage. His  fleet  defeated  that  of  the  emperor  Majorian 
in  457.  In  religion  Genseric  was  an  Arian.  Died  in 
477  A.D. 

See  Procopius,  "  Bellum  Vandalicum  ;"  Gibbon,  "Decline  and 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  dli  Bas-Empire." 

Gensonne,  zhSN'so'ni',  (Armand,)  a  French  lawyer, 
and  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Girondists,  born  at  Bor- 
deaux in  1758,  was  one  of  the  most  energetic  promoters 
of  the  Revolution.  He  was  elected  to  the  Legislative 
Assembly  in  1791,  and  to  the  Convention  in  1792.  He 
opposed  the  execution  of  the  king,  and  exerted  himself 
for  the  welfare  of  the  dauphin  and  his  sister.  In  the 
struggle  that  followed  between  the  Girondists  and  Jaco- 
bins, Gensonne  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  and  elo- 
quent champions  of  his  party.  One  day,  in  the  tribunal, 
as  he  was  picturing  the  horrible  excesses  that  had  been 
committed,  and  was  in  bold  terms  denouncing  the  per- 
petrators, some  one  cried,  "But  they  have  saved  the 
country."  "  Yes,"  answered  Gensonne;  "as  the  geese 
saved  the  Capitol."  When  the  Jacobins  had  obtained 
full  power,  he  was  arrested,  and  condemned  to  death, 
with  twenty-one  of  his  colleagues,  in  October,  1793. 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Girondists,"  book  xlvii. ; 
Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Gent,  j^nt,  ?  (Thomas,)  an  English  printer  and  anti- 
quary, born  in  York  in  1691.  He  wrote  several  works, 
among  which  is  "An  Ancient  and  Modern  History  of  the 
Famous  City  of  York."    Died  in  1778. 

See  the  "  Life  of  Thomas  Gent,"  by  himself. 

Gentil.    See  Legentil. 

Gentil,  zhb^'thV  or  zhfiN^te'ye,  (Andr^;  Antoine 
Pierre,)  a  French  writer  on  agriculture,  was  born  in 
Franche-Comte  about  1728.  He  produced  an  "Essay 
on  AgronoiTiy,"  ("  Essai  d'Agronoinie,"  1777.)  Bufifon 
expressed  a  high  opinion  of  his  talents  and  character. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1800. 

Gentil,  (Jean  Baptiste  Joseph,)  a  French  officer 
and  historical  writer,  born  at  Bagnols  in  1726.  He  went 
to  India  in  1752,  fought  several  campaigns  against  the 
British,  and  entered  the  service  of  Sujah  Dowlah.  He 
made  a  rich  collection  of  medals,  manuscripts,  etc.,  which 
he  presented  to  the  Royal  Library  and  Museum  of  Paris. 
He  returned  to  France  in  1778,  and  died  in  1799,  leaving 
in  manuscript  a  "  History  of  the  Mogul  Emj^ire,"  and 
other  works.  In  1822  M.  Didot  published  his  "Me- 
moires  d'lwdostan." 

See  "Precis  sur  J.  B.  J.  Gentil,"  etc.,  Paris,  1814;  Mill,  "His- 
tory of  P.ritish  India." 

Gentile,  jen-tee'li,  (Luigi  Primo,)  a  Flemish  por- 
trait-painter, born  at  Brussels  about  1606.  He  worked 
many  years  at  Rome,  and  painted  some  historical  pic- 
tures. He  is  called  an  excellent  colorist.  Died  about  1670. 

Gentile  da  Fabriano.    See  Fabrtano. 

Gentile  Gentili,  jen-tee'li  jen-tee'lee,  [Lat.  Genti'- 
Lis  de  Gentil'ibus,]  surnamed  Fulginas,  a  celebrated 
Italian  physician,  was  born  at  Foligno.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  medical  works.    Died  in  1348. 

See  G.  GiROLAMi,  "  Discorso  storico-critico  sopra  Gentile  da 
Folii;;no,"  1844. 

Gentileschi.    See  LoMi,  (Orazio.) 
Gentilis.    See  Gentile. 


a,  e,  T,  o.  u,  y,  /on^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,    y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


GENTILIS 


1017 


GEOFFROr 


Qren-triis,  (or  j^n-tee'l^ss,)  (Alberico,)  an  Italian 
jurist  of  high  reputation,  born  in  the  March  of  Ancona 
in  155 1.  Having  become  a  Protestant,  he  emigrated  to 
England,  found  a  patron  in  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  and 
obtained  in  1587  the  chair  of  civil  law  at  Oxford.  Among 
his  numerous  works  the  most  important  is  "  Three  Books 
on  the  Law  of  War,"  ("  De  Jure  Belli  Libri  tres,"  1589,) 
which  is  said  to  contain  sound  principles  on  the  law  of 
nations.    He  died  at  Oxford  in  161 1. 

See  Wood,  "Athense  Oxonienses;"  Taisand,  "Vies  des  Juris- 
consultes." 

Gentilis,  (Giovanni  Valentino,)  a  Socinian  theo- 
logian, born  at  Cosenza,  in  Italy,  about  1520.  He  fled, 
to  avoid  persecution,  to  Geneva,  and  thence  to  Poland. 
Having  been  banished  from  Poland,  he  was  tried  at 
Berne  for  heresy,  and  beheaded,  in  1566. 

See  Aretius,  "  Valentini  Gentilis  Historia." 

^en-ti'Us,  (Robert,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  in 
London  in  1590,  was  a  son  of  Alberico  Gentilis,  noticed 
above.  He  translated  "  The  History  of  the  Inquisition" 
from  the  Italian  of  Fra  Paolo,  and  made  other  transla- 
tions from  the  Italian  and  Spanish.    Died  about  1654. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Gentilis,  (Scipio,)  a  Protestant  and  jurist,  born  in 
the  March  of  Ancona  in  1563,  was  a  brother  of  Alberico, 
noticed  above.  He  became  eminent  as  professor  of  law 
at  Altorf,  and  wrote  several  legal  works.    Died  in  1616. 

See  G.  KoNiG,  "  Leichpredigt  auf  S.  Gentilis,"  1617:  G.  Monte- 
CHiARi,  "  Elogio  storico  di  S.  Gentili,"  1816. 

Gentillet,  zhdN^te^y^',  (Innocent,)  a  French  jurist 
and  Protestant,  born  at  Vienne.  He  wrote,  in  Latin, 
*' Anti-Machiavel,"  (1576,)  an  "Apology  for  the  French 
Christians  of  the  Reformed  Religion,"  (1578,)  and  other 
works.    Died  at  Geneva  about  1595. 

Gentilotti,  j§n-te-lot'tee,  (Giovanni  Benedetto,)  a 
learned  ecclesiastic,  born  in  the  Tyrol  in  1672,  was  keeper 
of  the  Imperial  Library  of  Vienna  from  1707  to  1723.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Trent  in  1725,  and  died  the  same  year. 

Gentius,  gen'te-us,  (Georg,)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  at  Dahme  in  1618.  He  published  a  Latin  version 
of  Saadi's  "Gulistan,"  (1651.)    Died  in  1687. 

See  A.  Beyer,  "  Historia  Vitas,  etc.  Georgii  Gentii,"  1733. 

Qren'tleman,  (Francis,)  a  dramatic  writer  and  actor, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1728.  He  wrote,  besides  dramas, 
"Royal  F'ables,"  in  verse,  (1766.)  His  best  work  is  the 
"Dramatic  Censor,"  (2  vols.,  1770,)  in  which  he  criti- 
cised the  dramas  and  actors  of  his  time.    Died  in  1784. 

See  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Gentz,  von,  fon  gSnts,  (Friedrich,)  a  distinguished 
German  publicist,  born  at  Breslau  in  1764,  became  in 
1802  imperial  councillor  in  the  state  chancery  at  Vienna. 
He  was  an  ardent  opponent  of  the  French  Revolution. 
As  head  secretary,  he  was  present  at  the  Congress  of 
Vienna,  and  at  the  conference  of  ministers  at  Paris  in 
1815.  He  was  the  principal  contributor  to  the  "  Historical 
Journal,"  (1799,)  and  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Political 
Condition  of  Europe  before  and  after  the  French  Revo- 
lution." He  also  translated  Burke's  "  Reflections  on  the 
French  Revolution."    Died  in  1832. 

See  Varnhagen,  "  Biographisclie  Skizze  iiber  Gentz ;"  Schlesier, 
"Schi  iften  von  F.  von  Gentz,"  1838;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1807,  and  January,  1863. 

Geoffrey,  j^fre,  (Gaimar,)  an  English  poet  of  the 
twelfth  century,  wrote  a  "  History  of  England"  in  Anglo- 
Norman  verse. 

Geoffrey  of  Mon'mouth,  surnamed  Artu'rus,  or 
Arthur,  an  English  historian,  was  Bishop  of  Saint 
Asaph.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Britons," 
which  is  generally  believed  to  contain  more  romance  and 
fable  than  true  history.  He  also  translated  Merlin's 
"Prophecies"  into  Latin  prose.    Died  in  1154. 

Geoffrin,  zho'fRiN',  (Marie  Th6rese  Rodet — 
ro'dcV,)  Madame,  a  French  lady,  distinguished  as  a 
patroness  of  learning  and  the  fine  arts,  born  in  Paris  in 
1699.  She  was  on  intimate  terms  with  many  celebrated 
characters,  among  whom  were  Montesquieu  and  Count 
Stanislas  Poniatowski.  The  latter,  on  ascending  the 
throne  of  Poland,  invited  her  to  visit  Warsaw,  where  she 
was  received  with  great  honours.  Died  in  Paris  in  1777. 

See  Marmontei.,  "  Memoires ;"  Grimm  and  Diderot,  "Cor- 
respondance  ;"  A.  Morellet,  "  Portrait  de  Madame  Geoffrin,"  1777. 


Geoffroi,  zhoTRw^',  surnamed  le  Bel,  Duke  of 
Anjou,  called  afterwards  Plantagenet,  ( because  he 
wore  the  plant  named  genet,  or  genista, — a  species  of 
broom, — on  his  helmet,)  was  born  in  11 13.  He  married 
Matilda,  a  daughter  of  Henry  I.  of  England,  in  1129. 
He  waged  war  against  Stephen  of  Blois  for  the  pos- 
session of  Normandy.  His  son  became  Henry  II.  of 
England.    Died  in  ii 50. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Geoffroi  II.,  Duke  of  Bretagne,  surnamed  the  Beau- 
tiful, the  third  son  of  Henry  II.  of  England,  was  born 
in  II 58.  He  married  Constance,  daughter  of  Conan  IV., 
and  thus  became  the  Duke  of  Brittany.  He  was  the 
father  of  the  unfortunate  Prince  Arthur  who  was  assas- 
sinated by  order  of  his  uncle,  John,  King  of  England. 
In  early  youth  he  distinguished  himself  in  the  wars  of 
Philippe  Auguste  against  the  dukes  of  Burgundy  and 
others.    Died  in  11 86. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Geoffroi,  [Lat.  Geoffri'dus,]  Abbe  de  Vendome,  a 
powerful  French  cardinal,  born  at  Angers  ;  died  in  1 132. 

Geoffroi  de  Beaulieu.  See  Galfrid  de  Beaulieu. 

Geoffroy,  zho'fRwS',  (Claude  Joseph,)  a  chemist 
and  pharmaceutist,  a  brother  of  fitienne  Fran9ois,  noticed 
below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1685.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "Observations  on  the  Essential  Oils," 
(1707.)    Died  in  1752. 

See  F.  HoEFER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimiej"  Querard,  "La 
France  Litteraire." 

Geoffroy,  (Etienne  Franqois,)  a  distinguished 
French  physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1672.  In  1709  he 
became  professor  of  medicine  and  pharmacy  in  the 
College  of  France.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  Paris.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise 
on  Materia  Medica,"  ("  Tractatus  de  Materia  Medica," 
1 741,)  which  was  translated  into  English,  French,  Ger- 
man, and  Italian,  and  had  a  European  reputation.  Died 
in  1 73 1. 

See  Fontenelle,  "  filoge  de  Geoffroy,"  prefixed  to  his  "Traits 
de  Mati^re  medicale ;"  F.  Hoefer,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Geoffroy,  (Etienne  Louis,)  a  French  physician  and 
entomologist,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1725.  Among  his  works  are  a  valuable  "Abridged 
History  of  the  Insects  which  are  found  near  Paris," 
(1762,)  "Dissertations  upon  the  Organ  of  Hearing  in 
Man,  in  Reptiles,  and  in  Fishes,"  (1778,)  and  "Hygiene 
sive  Ars  Sanitatem  conservandi ;  Poema,"  (1771.)  This 
poem  is  commended  by  several  French  critics  for  its 
elegance  and  other  merits.    He  died  in  1810. 

See  F.  Hoefer,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Geoffroy,  (Julien  Louis,)  Abb^:,  a  celebrated  French 
critic  and  editor,  born  at  Rennes  in  1743.  He  became, 
in  1776,  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  College  of  Navarre, 
Paris,  and  editor  of  the  "Annee  litteraire,"  founded  by 
Freron.  He  wrote  able  critical  articles  for  this  periodical 
during  fifteen  years.  In  1790-92  he  edited  a  royalist 
journal.  In  1800  he  became  an  assistant  editor  of  the 
"Journal  des  Debats,"  for  which  he  wrote  dramatical 
criticisms  with  great  success.  He  indulged  in  bitter  sar- 
casm and  virulence  against  Voltaire  and  other  authors. 
Died  in  1814.  His  critiques  in  the  "Journal  des  Debats" 
were  published  in  5  vols.,  (1819-20.) 

See  Passeron,  "Observations  sur  le  Caract^re  et  le  Talent  de 
feu  Geoffroy,"  1826;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Geoffroy  (or  Geoffroi)  d'Auxerre,  zhoTRw^'  do'- 
saiR',  a  French  abbot,  was  a  disciple  of  Abelard,  and 
afterwards  of  Saint  Bernard.  He  wrote  numerous 
ecclesiastical  works,  one  of  which  was  an  "Epistle  on 
Transubstantiation."    Died  about  1180. 

Geoffroy  (or  Geoffroi)  de  Vinsauf — v^n'soF, 
[Lat.  Galfri'dus  de  Vinosal'vo,]  a  Latin  poet  of  the 
twelfth  century,  was  a  native  of  England.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  the  Art  of  Poetry,  entitled  "  Nova  Poetria." 

Geoffroy-Chateau,  zhoTRwS'  shl''t6',  (Marc  An- 
toine,)  a  brother  of  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  was  born  at 
fitampes  in  1774.  He  served  with  distinction  in  Egypt 
as  an  officer,  and  in  the  campaign  against  Austria  in  1805. 
Died  in  1806. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  y^,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GEOFFROr 


1018 


GEORGE 


Geoffroy-Martel,  zho'fRw^'  mtR'tSK,  Count  of  Anjou 
and  Poitou,  was  born  in  1006.  For  the  great  energy  and 
bravery  that  he  displayed  in  the  feudal  wars,  and  for  his 
victories  over  the  Saracens,  he  received  the  surname  of 
Martel,  ("hammer,"  or  "mallet.")    Died  in  1061. 

Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  zho'fRwi'  s4n  teOaiR', 
(£tienne,)  a  distinguished  French  naturalist,  born  at 
Etampes  (Seine-et-Oise)  on  the  15th  of  April,  1772.  He 
was  educated  in  the  College  of  Navarre,  Paris,  and  be- 
came a  favourite  pupil  of  Haiiy.  In  1793  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  zoology  in  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History.  He  was  one  of  the  savants  who  accompanied 
Bonaparte's  expedition  to  Egypt  in  1 798,  and  returned 
about  the  end  of  1801  with  a  rich  collection  of  animals, 
of  which  he  wrote  descriptions.  He  propounded  his 
celebrated  theory  of  the  unity  of  organic  composition 
(which  may  be  said  to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  philo- 
sophical anatomy)  in  several  memoirs,  which  opened  to 
him  the  doors  of  the  Institute  in  1807.  In  1809  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  zoology  (or  anatomy)  at  the 
Faculty  of  Sciences.  He  published  an  important  work, 
entitled  "Anatomical  Philosophy,"  ("Philosophic  ana- 
tomique,"  2  vols.,  1818-22,)  which  excited  a  great  con- 
troversy between  the  author  and  Cuvier.  They  differed 
in  regard  to  the  doctrine  of  final  causes  and  the  immu- 
tability of  species,  both  of  which  were  maintained  by 
Cuvier.  "  We  have  a  powerful  ally  in  Geoffroy-Saint- 
Hilaire,"  said  Goethe,  (1830.)  "The  synthetic  method 
of  looking  at  nature,  initiated  by  him  in  France,  can  no 
more  retrograde."  Among  his  numerous  works  are  one 
"On  the  Principle  of  the  Unity  of  Organic  Composi- 
tion," (1828,)  a  "Natural  History  of  the  Fishes  of  the 
Nile  and  Reptiles  of  Egypt,"  published  in  the  great  work 
of  the  Egyptian  Commission,  (1808-29,)  and  a  "Natural 
History  of  Mammiferas,"  (with  F.  Cuvier,  4  vols.,  1820- 
42.)    Died  June  19,  1844. 

See  I.  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  "Vie,  Travaux,  etc.  d'fitienne 
Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,"  1847;  Flourens,  "  Memoire  de  Geoffroy- 
Saint-Hilaire,"  (and  English  translation  of  the  same,  in  the  Smith- 
sonian Report  for  1S61  ;)  Mersseman,  "Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  son 
Caractere,  ses  Decouvertes,"  1844;  "  Nouveile  Biographic  Gene- 
rale  ;"  "Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1854. 

Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  (Isidore,)  a  distinguished 
French  zoologist,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris, 
December  16,  1805.  He  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1833,  and  afterwards  became  successively 
inspector-general  of  the  University,  member  of  the  coun- 
cil of  public  instruction,  (1845,)  and  professor  of  zoology, 
(1850.)  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Essays  on 
General  Zoology,"  (1840,)  "Natural  History  of  Insects 
and  Molluscs,"  (1841,)  and  "General  Natural  History  of 
the  Organic  Kingdoms,"  (1852.)  Died  in  November,  1861. 

See  De  Quatrefages,  "Memoire  d'Isidore  Geoffroy-Saint- 
Hilaire,"  (and  English  version  of  the  same,  in  the  Smithsonian  Re- 
port for  1862.) 

George,  [Ger.  Georg,  ga'oRG,]  Duke  of  Saxony,  sur- 
named  the  Bearded,  was  born  in  1471.  He  began  to 
reign  in  1500,  and  opposed  the  Reformation  initiated  by 
Luther.    Died  in  1530. 

George,  a  learned  Eastern  physician  and  Nestorian 
of  the  eighth  century,  was  the  confidential  friend  and 
medical  adviser  of  Al-Mansoor,  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad. 
He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  Medicine,"  in  Syriac. 

George  (Lewis)  I.,  King  of  Great  Britain,  was  the 
son  of  Ernest  Augustus,  Elector  of  Hanover,  and  Sophia, 
the  youngest  daughter  of  Elizabeth  Stuart,  Queen  of 
Bohemia,  who  was  a  sister  of  Charles  I.  of  England. 
He  was  born  at  Osnaburg  in  May,  1660,  and  married  his 
cousin,  Sophia  Dorothea,  the  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Zell,  in  1682.  In  1698  he  succeeded  his  father  (origin- 
ally Duke  of  Brunswick  and  Liineburg)  as  Elector  of 
Hanover.  In  1701  the  English  Parliament  passed  the 
Act  of  Settlement,  excluding  the  son  of  James  II.  and 
her  Catholic  claimants,  and  entailing  the  crown  on  the 
Electress  Sophia  of  Hanover,  as  the  nearest  Protestant 
heir,  in  case  neither  the  reigning  king  nor  the  princess 
Anne  should  leave  issue.  Sophia  died  in  May,  17 14,  and 
on  the  death  of  Queen  Anne,  August  i  of  the  same  year, 
the  son  of  Sophia  was  proclaimed  as  George  I. 

He  selected  his  cabinet  almost  exclusively  from  the 
Whig  party,  giving  his  chief  confidence  to  Lord  Town- 
shend,  who  was  secretary  of  state.   The  Tories  were  re- 


garded by  him  with  strong  suspicion  and  dislike.  In 
1 71 5  the  partisans  of  the  Pretender,  headed  by  the  Earl 
of  Mar,  raised  a  rebellion  in  Scotland,  and  were  defeated 
at  Sheriffmuir.  Another  army  of  Jacobites  surrendered 
at  Preston,  and  the  rebellion  was  suppressed  early  in 
1 7 16.  In  1 71 7  Townshend  was  dismissed  from  power, 
and  Mr.  Stanhope  and  the  Earl  of  Sunderland  became 
the  principal  ministers.  War  was  declared  against  Spain 
in  1 7 18,  and,  after  a  few  battles,  was  ended  by  a  peace 
in  the  next  year.  In  1720  the  ministry  received  an  im- 
portant accession  in  Robert  Walpole,  who  ingratiated 
himself  with  the  Prince  of  Wales  and  effected  a  recon- 
ciliation between  him  and  the  king.  (See  next  article.) 
About  this  time  the  famous  South  Sea  scheme  exploded, 
and  thousands  of  families  were  reduced  to  beggary  in  a 
moment.  Stanhope  having  died  in:  721,  Walpole  became 
prime  minister,  with  Townshend  as  his  principal  col- 
league. In  1725  a  treaty  of  defensive  alliance  was  signed 
between  England,  France,  and  Prussia,  and  the  former 
was  involved  in  a  war  against  Spain ;  but  no  important 
battles  were  fought  by  these  powers.  George  I.  died  at 
Osnaburg  in  June,  1727,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
George  II.  George  I.  was  ignorant  of  the  English  lan- 
guage, and  was  deficient  in  popular  qualities.  He  was 
steady  in  his  friendships,  and  is  said  to  have  had  more 
virtues  than  accomplishments. 

See  E.  PuFENDORF,  "  Vita  et  Res  gestae  Georgii  I.  Regis  Magnae 
Britanniae,"  1728  ;  P.  H.  Limiers,  "  Memoires  du  Regne  de  George 
I,"  5  vols.,  1729-31  ;  LiNGARD,  "History  of  England." 

George  (Augustus)  II.,  King  of  Great  Britain,  was 
the  only  son  of  George  I.  and  Sophia  Dorothea,  and  was 
born  at  Hanover  in  1683.  In  1705  he  married  the  prin- 
cess Caroline  of  Brandenburg-Anspach.  He  displayed 
courage  at  the  battle  of  Oudenarde,  (1708,)  where  he 
fought  against  the  French.  On  his  father's  accession  to 
the  throne,  he  accompanied  him  to  England,  and  was 
created  Prince  of  Wales  in  September,  17 14.  The  king 
was  jealous  of  his  heir-apparent,  who  was  a  rather  un- 
dutiful  son.  In  1718  the  latter  assumed  the  attitude  of 
open  opposition,  and  kept  his  own  court.  They  were 
reconciled  in  1720,  by  the  mediation  of  Walpole. 

George  II.  ascended  the  throne  in  June,  1727.  By 
the  influence  of  Queen  Caroline,  Walpole  was  retained 
in  office  as  prime  minister,  and  but  little  change  was 
made  in  the  cabinet,  which  was  composed  of  Whigs  and 
supported  by  a  large  majority  in  Parliament.  A  treaty 
of  peace  was  concluded  with  Spain  in  November,  1729. 
The  ascendency  of  Walpole  was  confirmed  by  a  general 
peace,  which  lasted  ten  years,  and  by  the  growing  pros- 
perity of  the  country.  About  1736,  Frederick,  Prince  of 
Wales,  quarrelled  with  his  father,  and  became  the  chief 
of  the  opposition,  which  included  William  Pitt  and  other 
Whigs.  In  1739  public  opinion  or  popular  clamour 
compelled  Walpole  to  renew  the  war  against  Spain  on 
the  question  of  maritime  right.  The  question  of  the 
Austrian  succession  produced  in  1740  a  general  Euro- 
pean war,  in  which  the  English  ministry  became  an  ally 
of  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria  against  Prussia,  Spain,  etc. 
In  January,  1 742,  Walpole  was  forced  to  resign  by  an 
adverse  majority  in  the  House,  (though  he  still  retained 
the  favour  of  the  king,)  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord 
Wilmington  as  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  Lord  Carteret, 
however,  soon  became,  through  royal  favour  and  his 
own  merit,  the  most  influential  minister.  George  II. 
gained  a  victory  over  the  French  at  Dettingen,  (1743,) 
the  last  battle  in  which  a  king  of  England  appeared  at 
the  head  of  his  troops. 

About  the  end  of  1743,  Henry  Pelham  was  appointed 
first  lord  of  the  treasury,  or  premier.  In  the  summer 
of  1745  the  Pretender  Charles  Edward  Stuart  landed  in 
Scotland,  and  raised  a  formidable  rebellion.  His  army 
took  Edinburgh,  and  defeated  the  royal  troops  at  Pres- 
tonpans.  He  pursued  his  victorious  march  towards 
London  as  far  as  Derby,  whence  he  retreated  to  Scot- 
land, followed  by  the  royal  army.  In  April,  1746,  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the 
insurgents  at  Culloden,  after  which  they  were  unable  to 
renew  the  contest.  By  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in 
1748,  the  European  war  was  terminated,  or  rather  sus- 
pended. In  1755  the  English  and  French  were  again 
embroiled  by  the  question  of  the  American  Boundary, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f5r,  fUll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


GEORGE 


1019  \ 


GEORGE 


and  the  former  became  the  ally  of  Frederick  the  Great 
in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  1756-62.  Mr.  Pitt  (afterwards 
Lord  Chatham)  in  June,  1757,  became  the  master-spirit 
of  an  administration  perhaps  the  most  glorious  that  had 
presided  over  the  destinies  of  the  nation.  (See  Pitt, 
William.)  A  series  of  brilliant  victories  over  the 
French,  in  Canada,  India,  and  at  sea,  illustrated  the  last 
years  of  George  the  Second's  reign.  He  died  on  the 
25th  of  October,  1760,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grand- 
son, George  III.  "  He  had  scarcely  one  kingly  quality," 
says  Lord  Mahon,  "  except  personal  courage  and  justice. 
Of  acquired  knowledge  he  had  little,  professing  great 
contempt  for  literature." 

See  Lord  Mahon,  "History  of  England;"  Lord  Hervey, 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of  George  IL,"  1848;  Horace  Walpole, 
"Memoirs  of  the  La3t  Ten  Years  of  the  Reign  of  George  IL,"  4 
vols.,  1822;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1822  ;  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  April,  1868 ;  Thackeray's  "  Lectures  on  the 
Georges." 

George  (William  Frederick)  III,  King  of  Great 
Britain,  born  on  the  4th  of  June,  1738,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Frederick  Lewis,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  a  grand- 
son of  George  II.  His  mother  was  Augusta,  daughter 
of  Frederick,  Duke  of  Saxe-Gotha.  His  education  was 
directed  by  Lord  Harcourt  as  governor,  and  the  Bishop 
of  Norwich  as  preceptor,  until  1752.  He  was  brought 
up  in  strict  seclusion  by  his  mother.  In  175 1  he  was 
created  Prince  of  Wales.  Before  his  accession  his  groom 
of  the  stole,  Lord  Bute,  acquired  an  almost  unbounded 
influence  over  him,  and  instilled  Tory  principles  into  his 
mind.    He  ascended  the  throne  on  the  25th  of  October, 

1760,  being  the  first  sovereign  of  the  house  of  Hanover 
who  was  a  native  of  Great  Britain.  He  had  received  from 
nature  a  strong  will  and  mental  capacities  which  quali- 
fied him  to  become  a  good  man  of  business.  His  age, 
his  appearance,  and  his  moral  character  prepossessed 
the  nation  warmly  in  his  favour.  Lord  Bute,  who  still 
retained  his  ascendency  over  the  king,  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state,  and  several  of  his  partisans  were  in- 
troduced into  the  cabinet.  Pitt,  who  was  then  prime 
minister,  finding  himself  overruled,  resigned  in  October, 

1 761,  and  was  succeeded  by  Bute.  For  the  first  time 
since  the  accession  of  the  house  of  Hanover,  the  Tory 
party  came  into  power.  In  1761  George  III,  married 
the  princess  Charlotte,  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Meck- 
lenburg-Strelitz.  War  was  declared  against  Spain  in 
January,  1762.  The  treaty  of  Paris,  in  February,  1763, 
restored  the  peace  of  Europe  and  recognized  the  right 
of  England  to  Canada  and  Florida.  In  Ai)ril  of  the 
same  year  the  nation  was  amazed  by  the  sudden  resig- 
nation of  Bute,  and  George  Grenville  became  first  lord 
of  the  treasury.  "  We  are  inclined  to  think,"  says  Mac- 
aulay,  "that  the  worst  administration  which  has  governed 
England  since  the  Revolution  was  that  of  Grenville. 
His  public  acts  may  be  classed  under  two  heads, — out- 
rages on  the  liberty  of  the  people,  and  outrages  on  the 
dignity  of  the  crown."  He  offended  the  king  by  in- 
sisting that  no  secret  adviser  (alluding  to  Bute)  should 
have  access  to  the  royal  ear  ;  but  he  was  kept  in  office, 
because  the  king  had  no  choice  except  between  him  and 
the  Whigs.  In  1765  Grenville  projiosed  and  enacted  a 
bill  for  imposing  stamp-duties  on  the  North  American 
colonies, — "the  effects  of  which,"  says  Macaulay,  "will 
long  be  felt  by  the  whole  human  race."  The  ministers 
became  so  intolerable  to  George  III.  that  he  sent  for 
Pitt  and  solicited  him  to  form  a  ministry;  but  Pitt  was 
impracticable,  and  at  last  the  king  reluctantly  called  the 
Whigs  into  his  council.  The  Marquis  of  Rockingham 
became  prime  minister  in  July,  1765,  and  the  Stamp  Act 
was  repealed  in  the  next  session.  But  the  new  ministry 
was  not  cordially  supported  by  the  king,  and  was  assailed 
and  obstructed  by  the  king's  friends  at  every  turn.  The 
court  having  secured  the  services  of  Pitt  by  lavish  pro- 
mises and  caresses,  Rockingham  was  dismissed  in  1766, 
and  Pitt,  now  created  Earl  of  Chatham,  was  appointed 
prime  minister.  But  diseases  of  body  and  mind  soon 
rendered  him  unable  to  attend  to  business.  New  taxes 
imposed  on  the  Americans  in  1767  provoked  violent 
opposition.  Lord  Chatham  resigned  in  October,  1768. 
Lord  North  was  prime  minister  from  January,  1770, 
until  March,  1782,  during  which  period  the  revolted 
colonies  resisted  with  success  the  British  armies,  and 


were  finally  separated  from  the  empire.  (See  Washing- 
ton.) In  1778  England  was  involved  in  war  with  France, 
which  had  become  the  ally  of  the  United  States. 

The  resignation  of  Lord  North  was  followed  by  the 
brief  ministries  of  Rockingham,  Shelburne,  and  Port- 
land. Peace  was  concluded  between  England  on  one 
hand,  and  the  United  States,  France,  and  Spain  on  the 
other,  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  in  1783.  In  December, 
1783,  William  Pitt  commenced  his  long  and  eventful 
Tory  administration.  "  With  more  power  than  any 
minister  ever  possessed,"  says  Lord  Brougham, — "with 
a  friendly  court,  an  obsequious  Parliament,  a  confiding 
people, — he  held  the  supreme  place  in  the  public  coun- 
cils for  twenty  years,  and,  except  the  Union  with  Ireland, 
(1800,)  he  has  not  left  a  single  measure  behind  him  for 
which  the  community  whose  destinies  he  so  long  swayed 
has  any  reason  to  respect  his  memory."  (See  Pin", 
William.)  The  most  important  event  of  his  adminis- 
tration was  the  war  against  the  French  republic  and 
Bonaparte,  which  began  in  1793.  Naval  victories  were 
gained  by  Lord  Howe  in  1794,  and  by  Nelson,  at  the 
battle  of  the  Nile,  in  1798.  In  March,  1801,  Pitt  re- 
signed, and  Addington  became  premier.  The  war  was 
suspended  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  in  March,  1802, 
and  renewed  in  May,  1803.  Mr.  Pitt  was  restored  to 
power  in  1804,  and  died  in  January,  1806,  when  a  Whig 
ministry  was  formed  by  Fox  and  Lord  Grenville.  After 
the  death  of  Fox,  in  1807,  Mr.  Percival  and  Lord  Liver- 
pool were  successively  the  prime  ministers.  George  III. 
having  become  insane  in  1810,  his  son  George  was  ap- 
pointed regent.  Among  the  important  events  of  this 
reign  were  the  victory  of  Trafalgar,  1805,  the  American 
war,  1 81 2-14,  and  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  181 5.  The 
mental  malady  of  the  king  continued  until  his  death,  in 
January,  1820,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  George 
IV.  George  III.  was  the  father  of  nine  sons  and  six 
daughters.  His  reign  of  sixty  years'  duration  was  the 
longest  and  one  of  the  most  eventful  in  the  annals  of 
Britain.  "  Few  princes,"  says  Lord  Brougham,  "  have 
been  more  exemplary  in  their  domestic  habits  or  in  the 
offices  of  private  friendship.  But  the  instant  that  his 
prerogative  was  concerned,  or  his  bigotry  interfered 
with,  or  his  will  thwarted,  the  most  bitter  animosity, 
the  most  calculating  coldness  of  heart,  the  most  unfor- 
giving resentment,  took  possession  of  his  whole  breast, 
and  swayed  it  by  turns." 

See  Adoi-PHUS,  "  History  of  England  from  the  Accession  of  George 
IIL  to  1783  ;"  Macfarlane,  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  George  IlL," 
2  vols.,  1770-96;  "George  the  Third,  his  Court  and  Family,"  1820; 
Krown,  "Memoirs  of  George  IIL  ;"  John  Aikin,  "Annals  of  the 
Reign  of  King  George  IIL,"  2  vols.,  1820;  Lord  Brougham, 
"Historical  Sketch  of  the  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III. ;" 
Lingard,  "History  of  England;"  "  Georgiana,  or  Anecdotes  of 
George  IIL,"  1820;  "Correspondence  of  King  George  IIL  with 
Lord  North  from  1768  to  1783,"  London,  1867;  "Memoirs  of  the 
Life  and  Reign  of  George  IIL,"  by  J.  Heneage  Jesse,  London, 
1867. 

George  (Augustus  Frederick)  IV.,  King  of  Great 
Britain,  the  eldest  son  of  George  III.  and  Queen  Char- 
lotte, was  born  on  the  12th  of  August,  1762.  His 
education  was  confided  in  1771  to  Lord  Holderness  as 
governor,  and  Markham,  Bishop  of  Chester,  as  pre- 
ceptor, who  both  resigned  in  1776.  Their  places  were 
supplied  by  the  Duke  of  Montague  and  Dr.  Hurd.  His 
natural  abilities  were  above  mediocrity,  but  were  not 
diligently  or  wisely  improved.  In  his  youth  he  became 
an  object  of  his  father's  invincible  aversion,  and  by  a 
natural  consequence  attached  himself  to  the  Whig  party, 
who  were  also  treated  as  enemies  by  the  king.  lie  ex- 
hausted prematurely  the  resources  of  sensual  indulgence, 
and  was  deeply  involved  in  debt  by  gaming  and  extrava- 
gance. About  1 786  he  married  privately  Mrs.  Fitzherbert, 
a  Roman  Catholic  lady,  who  was  the  object  of  his  most 
lasting  attachment.  This  marriage  was  illegal,  and,  when 
the  subject  was  broached  in  Parliament,  was  publiclv  dis- 
owned by  the  Prince  of  Wales.  The  pressure  of  pecu- 
niary difficulties  rendered  a  regular  marriage  necessary, 
as  the  king  refused  to  supply  his  extravagant  wants  except 
on  condition  that  he  should  marry.  In  1795  he  married 
his  cousin,  Caroline  Amelia  Elizabeth,  a  daughter  of 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  who  becan-ie  the  mother  the 
princess  Charlotte  in  1796,  and  whom  he  treated  with 
studied  neglect,  if  not  contempt.    A  final  separation 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  Y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GEORGE 


I020 


GEORGE 


took  place  in  1 796,  and  scandalous  reports  against  her 
honour  were  circulated. 

The  king  having  become,  through  insanity,  incom- 
petent for  the  duties  of  royalty,  the  Prince  of  Wales  was 
appointed  regent  in  February,  181 1.  He  retained  in 
office  the  Tory  ministry  of  Mr.  Percival,  abandoning  his 
former  political  friends,  who  accused  him  of  ingratitude. 
The  foreign  policy  of  the  prince  regent  was  the  same  as 
that  of  George  III.  The  war  against  the  French  was 
prosecuted  with  vigour  and  success  in  the  Peninsula.  In 
June,  1812,  war  was  declared  against  the  United  States, 
with  which  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  in  December, 
1 814.  Lord  Liverpool  succeeded  Percival  as  prime  min- 
ister in  1812.  The  only  child  of  the  prince  regent,  the 
princess  Charlotte,  died  in  181 7.  On  the  death  of  his 
father,  George  IV.  ascended  the  throne,  on  the  29th  of 
January,  1820.  Great  excitement  was  produced  by  the 
process  instituted  by  the  ministry  in  1820  against  Queen 
Caroline,  for  alleged  infidelity  to  her  husband.  The  ma- 
jority for  the  ministers  on  this  question  in  the  House  was 
so  small  that  they  abandoned  the  case.  (See  Caroline 
Amelia  Elizabeth.)  The  prime  minister.  Lord  Liver- 
pool, having  been  prostrated  by  apoplexy,  was  succeeded 
by  Mr.  Canning  in  April,  1827.  On  the  death  of  Canning, 
in  August  of  the  same  year,  Viscount  Goderich  became 
premier.  In  January,  1828,  a  new  ministry  was  formed, 
under  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  A  bill  for  the  relief  of 
Roman  Catholics  from  political  disabilities  was  passed, 
after  a  long  contest,  in  April,  1829.  George  IV.  died  in 
June,  1830,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  the  Duke 
of  Clarence,  as  William  IV.  George  IV.  had  no  public 
virtues,  and  took  little  interest  in  the  affairs  of  govern- 
ment. 

See  Wallace,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Reign  of  George  IV.  ;" 
CoBBETT,  "History  of  George  IV.;"  Mackintosh,  "History  of 
England;"  Lloyd,  "  George  IV. :  Memoirs  of  his  Life,"  1830;  Rev. 
George  Crolv,  "Life  and  Times  of  George  IV." 

George  I.,  King  of  Georgia,  of  the  dynasty  of  Pagra- 
tides,  ascended  the  throne  in  1015.  He  reigned  over  a 
great  extent  of  territory  besides  that  included  in  Georgia, 
and  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  Christian  monarchs 
of  his  time.  He  revolted  against  Basil  IL,  Emperor 
of  Constantinople,  who  ravaged  Georgia  with  fire  and 
sword  and  compelled  George  to  sue  for  peace.  Died 
in  1027. 

See  Le  Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

George  II.,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  crowned 
King  of  Georgia  in  1072.  He  carried  on  an  unsuccessful 
and  disastrous  war  against  the  Sultan  of  Persia,  to  whom 
he  was  forced  to  become  a  tributary.    Died  in  1089. 

George  III.  usurped  the  throne  of  Georgia  in  11 56, 
when  the  true  heir  to  the  crown  was  his  nephew  Temna. 
George  waged  several  long  and  successful  wars  against 
the  Persian  and  Turkish  Moslems.    Died  in  11 80. 

George  IV.  ascended  the  Georgian  throne  in  1198, 
and  added  fresh  glory  to  the  arms  of  the  Georgians  by 
his  brilliant  victories  over  his  Mohammedan  neighbours. 
In  1220  the  Moguls  invaded  and  laid  waste  a  great  part 
of  Georgia.  George  attacked  them,  and  was  defeated ; 
but  one  of  his  generals  soon  after  succeeded  in  driving 
the  invaders  from  the  country.    Died  in  1223. 

George  VI.  succeeded  his  cousin  George  V.  For 
the  ability  that  he  exhibited  in  quelling  the  civil  disturb- 
ances in  Georgia,  and  the  successful  efforts  he  made  to 
repair  the  effects  of  long  and  fierce  wars,  he  received 
the  title  of  "Most  Illustrious."    Died  in  1346. 

George  VII.  ascended  the  throne  of  Georgia  in  1394. 
His  father,  Bagrat  V.,  had  been  compelled  to  submit  to 
Tamerlane  and  embrace  the  Moslem  faith ;  but  George 
determined  to  yield  neither  his  freedom  nor  his  religion 
to  the  conqueror.  Tamerlane  invaded  Georgia  twice 
for  the  purpose  of  subduing  the  Georgian  monarch  and 
spreading  the  Mohammedan  religion  ;  but  he  did  not 
succeed.  After  the  second  invasion,  George  collected 
all  his  forces,  recaptured  the  fortresses  that  had  fallen 
into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  and  compelled  all  Mussul- 
mans to  leave  Georgia.    Died  in  1407. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "  Histoire  de  I'Empire  Ottoman." 

George  I.,  Vladimirovitch,  written  also  Juri  or 
Jouri,  Grand  Duke  of  Russia,  ascended  the  throne  in 
1149.    He  was  the  son  of  Vladimir  Monomachos,  who 


married  Gyda,  daughter  of  Harold,  the  last  Saxon  king 
of  England.  On  account  of  his  ambitious  and  grasping 
character,  George  received  the  surname  of  DoLGOROOKi, 
(Long-Handed.)  He  founded  the  city  of  Moscow,  and 
in  various  ways  promoted  the  civilization  of  his  country. 
Died  in  I157,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Andrew. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

George  II.,  Usevolodovitch,  grandson  of  George 
I.,  became  Archduke  of  Russia  in  1212.  He  was  soon 
after  compelled  to  abdicate  by  his  brother  Constantine, 
who,  however,  on  his  death-bed,  1219,  named  George  as 
his  successor.  In  1224  Russia  was  invaded  by  the  troops 
of  Jengis  Khan,  who  defeated  an  army  of  one  hundred 
thousand  Russians,  and  ravaged  the  country  as  far  as 
the  Dnieper,  and  then  suddenly  retired.  In  1237  the 
Moguls  reappeared,  with  three  hundred  thousand  men, 
and  took  and  destroyed  Moscow,  and  the  capital  Vladimir. 
George  was  killed  in  1238,  while  bravely  resisting  the 
invaders. 

See  Karamzin,  "Histoire  de  I'Empire  de  Russie,"  translated  by 
Divoff;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

George,  Duke  of  Clarence,  a  younger  brother  of  Ed- 
ward IV.  of  England,  was  born  in  1449.  He  married 
Isabella,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  "  the  King- 
maker," and  aided  the  latter  to  dethrone  Edward  IV. 
about  1470.  Soon  after  that  date  he  deserted  Warwick 
and  joined  the  army  of  Edward ;  but,  having  again  of- 
fended his  royal  brother,  he  was  accused  of  treason, 
and  was  found  dead  in  the  Tower  in  1478.  (See  Shak- 
speare's  "  Henry  VI.,  Part  IIL") 

George  of  Cyprus,  a  learned  writer,  who  became 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  1283  and  abdicated  in 
1289.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  an  autobiography, 
"Vita  Georgii  Cypri,"  (Venice,  1763.)    Died  in  1290. 

See  Fabricius.  "  Bibliotheca  Grasca." 

George  of  Denmark,  Prince,  a  younger  son  of 
Frederick  IIL,  was  born  in  1653.  He  married  Anne, 
daughter  of  James  II.  of  England,  in  1683,  and  was  a 
privy  councillor  in  the  reign  of  his  father-in-law.  In 
November,  1688,  in  company  with  the  Duke  of  Ormond, 
he  deserted  James  IL  at  Andover,  and  joined  the  party 
of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  "The  impenetrable  stupidity 
of  Prince  George,"  says  Macaulay,  "served  his  turn  on 
this  occasion  better  than  cunning  would  have  done.  It 
was  his  habit,  when  any  news  was  told  him,  to  exclaim, 
in  French,  '  Est-il  possible  ?'  '  Is  it  possible  ?'  This  catch- 
word was  now  of  great  use  to  him.  'Est-il  possible.'" 
he  cried,  when  he  had  been  made  to  understand  that 
Churchill  and  Grafton  were  inissing."  He  was  created 
Duke  of  Cumberland  in  1689,  and,  on  the  accession  of 
his  wife  as  queen,  received  nominally  the  chief  command 
of  the  army.    Died  in  1708. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England;"  Burnet,  "  History  of 
his  Own  Time." 

George  Danielovitch,  Grand  Duke  of  Russia,  was 
a  rival  of  his  uncle  Michael,  against  whom  he  waged 
war.    He  was  assassinated  by  a  son  of  Michael  in  1328. 

George  of  Trebizonde,  [Gr,  VeCipyLog  TpaTrcfowrtof,] 
a  celebrated  scholar,  born  in  the  isle  of  Crete  in  1396. 
About  1430  he  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Venice,  and 
was  afterwards  appointed  secretary  to  Pope  Eugenius. 
He  wrote,  besides  many  other  works,  a  "  Commentary 
on  the  Philippics  and  other  Orations  of  Cicero,"  and  a 
"Comparison  between  Plato  and  Aristotle,"  (in  Latin.) 
He  also  translated  many  Greek  books  into  Latin,  among 
which  were  Aristotle's  "  Rhetoric  and  Problems."  Died 
in  i486. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grjeca ;"  Paolo  Giovio,  "Elo,£jia 
Virorum  illustrium;"  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  Cave,  "  Historia 
Literaria." 

George,  {TeupyLo^,]  Saint,  of  Cappadocia,  a  cele- 
brated ecclesiastic  of  the  fourth  century,  rose,  through 
the  influence  of  the  Arians,  whose  doctrines  he  professed, 
to  be  Archbishop  of  Alexandria  in  354.  Having,  by 
his  rapacity  and  his  persecutions  of  both  orthodox  and 
pagans,  incurred  the  hatred  of  the  people,  he  was  im- 
prisoned, and,  while  awaiting  his  trial,  taken  away  by 
force  and  murdered  by  the  mob.  He  was  canonized  by 
Pope  Gelasius  about  494.  During  the  first  crusade  he 
was  chosen  by  the  English  soldiers  as  their  patron,  and 
about  the  time  of  Edward  III.  was  generally  regarded 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GEORGE 


I02I 


GERARD 


as  the  guardian  saint  of  England.  He  was  designated 
among  the  Greeks  by  the  name  of  "  Tropaeophoros,"  (the 
"Trophy-bearer,"  or  the  "Victorious,")  and  was  famed 
for  having  destroyed  a  terrible  dragon,  (supposed  to 
be  that  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Revelation.)  Some 
writers  have  conjectured  that  there  was  another  person 
of  the  same  name  to  whom  this  achievement  should  be 
attributed. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Sacred  and  Legendary  Art;"  Gibbon, 
"Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  chap.  xxi.  ;  T.  Lowick, 
"History  of  the  Life  and  Martyrdom  of  Saint  George;"  Peter 
Hevlin,  "  Historie  of  that  famous  Saint  and  Soldier  of  Jesus  Christ, 
Saint  George,"  1631  ;  John  Milner,"  Historical  and  Critical  Inquiry 
into  the  Existence  and  Character  of  Saint  George,"  1795. 

George  Acropolita.    See  Acropolita. 

George  Chrysococces.    See  Chrysococces. 

George  Codinus.    See  Codinus. 

George  Czerni.    See  Czerni. 

George  David.    See  David,  (George.) 

George  Pachymeres.    See  Pachymeres. 

George  Pis'i-des,  [Gr.  VeupyLog  liicLdrjg,]  a  Greek 
writer,  lived  in  Constantinople  in  the  seventh  century. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  of  three  thousand  verses 
on  the  Creation,  and  several  works  of  a  historical  and 
ecclesiastical  character. 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

George  Sand.    See  Sand. 

George  Scholarius.    See  Gennadius. 

Georgel,  zhoR'zh^K,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  ec- 
clesiastic, born  in  Lorraine  in  1731.  He  was  secretary 
of  embassy  at  Vienna  in  1772,  and  soon  after  became 
grand  vicar  of  Cardinal  Prince  Rohan,  whose  defence  he 
managed  in  the  affair  of  the  diamond  necklace.  He  died 
in  1813,  leaving  historical  memoirs,  which  were  published 
in  1817,  (6  vols.) 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  September,  1818. 

George.s,  gi-oR'g§s,  (Karl  Ernst,)  a  German  lexi- 
cographer, born  at  Gotha  in  1806.  He  published,  in 
1834,  a  "German-Latin  Hand-Lexicon." 

Georges-Weymer,  zhoRzh  vi'maiR',  (Marguerite,) 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  French  actresses  of  recent 
times,  born  at  Bayeux  about  1787,  performed  in  Paris 
(1802)  and  other  cities  of  Europe  with  brilliant  success. 

Georgi.    See  Giorgi. 

Georgi,  gk-oR'gee,  (Christian  Sigismund,)  a  Ger- 
man biblical  critic,  born  at  Luckau  in  1702,  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Wittenberg  in  1743.  He  published 
many  dissertations  on  the  sacred  text.    Died  in  1771. 

Geppert,  ggp'pert,  (Karl  Eduard,)  a  meritorious 
German  philologist  and  critic,  born  at  Stettin  in  1811. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "De  Versu  Gly- 
coneo,"  ("  On  the  Glyconian  Verse,"  1833,)  a  "  Chronicle 
of  Berlin,"  (3  vols.,  1837-42,)  and  "On  the  Origin  of  the 
Homeric  Poems,"  (2  vols.,  1840.) 

Geraldini,  ja-r^l-dee^nee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian 
prelate,  born  in  1455,  entered  the  service  of  Isabella  of 
Spain,  was  appointed  preceptor  of  the  Infantas,  and  was 
afterwards  ambassador  to  several  European  courts.  He 
exerted  his  influence  to  promote  the  great  enterprise  of 
Columbus.  He  became  Bishop  of  San  Domingo  in  1520. 
Died  in  1525. 

See  B.  DE  LAS  Casas,  "Historia  general  de  las  Indias." 

Geramb,  zheh-r6N',  (Ferdinand,)  Baron,  a  noted 
adventurer,  of  Hungarian  extraction,  born  at  Lyons  in 
1770.  After  fighting  against  the  French  in  Austria  and 
in  Spain,  he  fell  into  the  power  of  Napoleon,  by  whom 
he  was  imprisoned  in  1812.  On  his  release,  in  1816,  he 
became  a  monk  of  La  Trappe,  and  rose  to  be  procureur- 
general  of  the  order.  In  1831  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to 
Palestine,  of  which  he  published  an  account,  written  in 
French,  (1844,  3  vols.)  It  has  been  translated  into  Ger- 
man, Italian,  and  Spanish.    Died  in  1848. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gendrale." 

Gerando,  de,  often  written  Degerando,  deh  zheh- 
fSnMo',  (Joseph  Marie,)  a  distinguished  French  meta- 
physical philosopher,  born  at  Lyons  in  1772.  He  en- 
tered the  army  about  1798,  and  in  1799  gained  the  prize 
of  the  Institute  for  an  essay  on  the  question,  "What 
is  the  Influence  of  Signs  on  the  Formation  of  Ideas?" 
He  published  this  essay,  with  additions,  with  the  title  of 
"Des  Signes  et  de  I'Art  de  Penser,"  (1803,)  and  an  im- 


portant work,  called  "A  Complete  History  of  Systems 
of  Philosophy  considered  in  Relation  to  the  Principles 
of  Human  Knowledge,"  (3  vols.,  1803,)  which  opened  to 
him  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  He  was  appointed 
secretary-general  of  the  ministry  of  the  interior  in  1804, 
master  of  requests  in  1808,  and  member  of  the  council 
of  state  in  1811.  Under  the  restoration  he  retained  the 
last-named  office.  He  gained  a  high  reputation  for 
philanthropy  by  his  labours  and  writings,  one  of  which 
is  entitled  "On  Public  Beneficence,"  ("De  la  Bienfai- 
sance  publique,"  4  vols.,  1839.)  He  was  called  to  the 
Chamber  of  Peers  in  1837.    Died  in  Paris  in  1842. 

See  E.  F.  Jomard,  "Discours  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Travaux  du 
Baron  Degerando,"  1843;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale  ;"  Oc- 
TAViE  Morel,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  M.  Baron  Degerando," 
1846;  "North  American  Review,"  April,  1861. 

Gerard.    See  Girard. 

Qre-rard',  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  author  and  divine, 
born  in  the  county  of  Aberdeen  in  1728.  In  1760  he 
became  professor  of  theology  in  Marischal  College,  and 
in  1771  was  appointed  to  fill  the  same  chair  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  King's  College.  Among  his  various  works 
we  may  cite  an  "Essay  on  Taste,"  (1759,)  for  which  a 
gold  medal  was  awarded  him  by  the  Philosophical  So- 
ciety of  Edinburgh,  and  "  Dissertations  on  the  Genius 
and  Evidences  of  Christianity,"  (1766.)  Died  at  Aber- 
deen in  1795. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Gerard,  (Captain  Alexander,)  son  of  Gilbert  Gerard, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Aberdeen  about  1795.  He 
spent  many  years  in  scientific  explorations  among  the 
Himalayas.  He  died  in  1840,  leaving  an  "  Account 
of  Koonawur  in  the  Himalaya,"  which  was  published 
in  1841. 

Gerard,  zha'rtR',  (Balthasar,)  a  Catholic  fanatic, 
and  a  native  of  Franche-Comte,  in  France,  is  notorious 
as  the  assassin  of  William  of  Nassau,  Prince  of  Orange. 
He  was  executed  in  July,  1584,  a  short  time  after  he 
committed  the  deed ;  and  Philip  II.  of  Spain  ennobled 
his  family. 

Gerard,  (Franqois,)  an  eminent  painter  of  the  French 
school,  was  born  at  Rome  in  1770.  He  studied  in  Paris 
under  David,  and  about  1795  produced  his  picture  of 
"  Belisarius."  His  "Battle  of  Austerlitz,"  painted  at 
the  request  of  Napoleon,  is  of  immense  size,  (thirty  feet 
wide  by  sixteen  high,)  and  an  admirable  work  of  its  kind. 
Among  his  other  productions  are  "The  Entrance  of 
Henry  IV.  into  Paris,"  "  Saint  Theresa,"  "  Corinna  at 
the  Cape  of  Miseno,"  and  "  Thetis  with  the  Armour  of 
Achilles."  Gerard  was  created  by  Napoleon  an  officer 
of  the  legion  of  honour,  chevalier  of  Saint  Michael,  and 
a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  was  afterwards  made 
a  baron  by  Louis  XVIII.  Besides  the  works  above 
mentioned,  he  painted  a  great  number  of  portraits,  in- 
cluding those  of  the  Bonaparte  family  and  other  distin- 
guished persons.  As  a  painter  of  history  and  portraits, 
he  ranks  among  the  greatest  European  artists  of  recent 
times.    Died  in  Paris  in  1836. 

See  Charles  Lenormant,  "  F.  Gerard,  Peintre  d'Histoire; 
Essai  de  Biographic  et  de  Critique,"  1846 ;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Gerard,  (Francois  Antoine,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Nancy  in  1786,  served  with  distinction  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1814,  and  rendered  important  services  to  the 
Greek  cause  in  1829.  In  1848  he  became  general  of 
division.    Died  in  1856. 

Gerard,  (Gilbert,)  a  distinguished  scholar  and  theo- 
logian, son  of  Dr.  Alexander  Gerard,  was  born  at  Aber- 
deen. He  was  the  author  of  "  Institutes  of  Biblical 
Criticism."    Died  in  1815. 

Gerard,  (James,)  a  surgeon  and  traveller,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Aberdeen  in  1795.  He  explored 
Hindostan,  Thibet,  and  the  Himalayas,  in  company  with 
his  brother  Alexander,  between  181 8  and  1835.  He  died 
in  Bengal  in  1835. 

Gerard,  (Jean  Ignace  Isidore,)  an  eminent  French 
artist  and  caricaturist,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Grand- 
ville,  was  born  at  Nancy  in  1803.  He  brought  out  in 
1828  the  first  of  a  series  of  humorous  sketches,  en- 
titled "  Metamorphoses  of  the  Day,"  which  were  exceed- 
ingly admired  and  at  once  established  his  reputation. 
After  the  passage  of  the  law  prohibiting  political  carica- 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  H,  Yi,guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2®==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GERARD 


I022 


GERDIL 


tures,  he  made  illustrations  for  La  Fontaine's  and  Florian's 
Fables,  Beranger's  Poems,  "Gulliver's  Travels,"  and 
other  popular  works.  His  '*  Speaking  Animals,"  ("Ani- 
maux  parlants,")  in  which  he  has  represented  animals 
with  human  physiognomies,  is  unsurpassed  in  its  comic 
power  and  keen  and  delicate  satire.  His  works  are  very 
numerous,  and  rank  among  the  most  perfect  of  their 
kind,  both  in  conception  and  execution.  He  died  in  1847, 
of  grief  caused  by  the  sudden  death  of  a  favourite  child. 
See  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Conversation." 

Gerard  or  Gerarde,  (John,)  an  English  surgeon 
and  botanist,  born  at  Nantwich  in  1545.  He  had  a 
large  botanical  garden  in  London,  and  was  one  of  the 
first  who  introduced  exotics.  He  wrote  a  general  "His- 
tory of  Plants,"  (1597,)  which  was  highly  esteemed.  Died 
about  1607. 

Gerard,  (Jules,)  a  French  officer,  surnamed  "the 
Lion-Killer,"  born  at  Pignans  in  1817.  Having  entered 
the  army,  he  went  to  Africa  in  1842,  and  became  distin- 
guished as  a  hunter.  It  is  stated  that  he  killed  his  twenty- 
fifth  lion  in  1855.  He  published  an  account  of  his  exploits, 
"The  Lion-Hunt,"  ("La  Chasse  au  Lion,"  1855.)  Died 
in  1864. 

Gerard,  (Louis,)  a  French  botanist,  born  at  Cotignac 
in  1733.  He  published  in  1761  his  "  Flora  Gallo-Provin- 
cialis,"  said  to  be  the  first  work  in  which  plants  are 
arranged  according  to  a  natural  system.    Died  in  1819. 

Gerard,  (Maurice  Etienne,)  Count,  marshal  and 
peer  of  France,  born  at  Danvilliers  in  1773.  For  his 
bravery  at  Austerlitz  he  was  made  a  commander  of  the 
legion  of  honour  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  was  after- 
wards intrusted  by  Bernadotte  with  the  command  of  the 
Saxon  cavalry  at  Wagram.  In  the  Russian  campaign 
of  1812  he  displayed  signal  courage  at  the  taking  of 
Smolensk  and  the  passage  of  the  Berezina.  He  had  a 
principal  share  in  the  victory  of  Bautzen  in  1813.  Being 
severely  wounded  at  Leipsic,  he  was  obliged  for  a  time 
to  quit  the  army.  On  the  return  of  Bonaparte  from 
Elba,  Gerard  obtained  the  command  of  the  army  of  the 
Moselle.  When  the  battle  of  Waterloo  was  taking  place, 
on  the  i8th  of  June,  he  urged  Marshal  Grouchy  to  ad- 
vance towards  the  scene  of  action.  After  the  accession 
of  Louis  Philippe,  he  was  created  marshal  and  peer  of 
France,  and  minister  of  war,  but,  owing  to  infirm  health, 
soon  resigned  this  post  to  Marshal  Soult.  In  1835  he  was 
made  grand  chancellor  of  the  legion  of  honour.  lie 
died,  according  to  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale," 
in  1855. 

See  "Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Frangais,"  etc.;  J.  Nollet- 
Fabert,  "Notice  sur  le  Marechal  Gerard,"  1852;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale;"  L.  de  Lom^nie,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains." 

Gerard,  (Philippe  Louis,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  in  Paris  in  1737,  wrote  a  moral  fiction  called  "The 
Count  of  Valmont,  or  the  Wanderings  of  the  Reason," 
(1774,)  and  "  Study  of  the  French  Language,  Rhetoric, 
and  Philosophy."    Died  in  1813. 

Gerard  de  Nerval.    See  Nerval. 

Gerard  de  Nimeguen.    See  Geldenhaur. 

Gerard  de  Rayneval.    See  Rayneval. 

Gerard  Groot.    See  Groot. 

Gerard  of  Cre-mo'na,  [Lat.  Gherar'dus  Cremo- 
nen'sis;  It.  Gherardo  Cremonese,  gi-raR'do  kRS,- 
mo-na'si;  Fr.  Gerard  de  Cr^mone,  zhi'riR'  deh 
kR^'mon',]  an  Italian  translator,  was  born  at  Cremona, 
in  Lombardy,  about  11 14.  He  translated,  it  is  said, 
seventy-six  different  works  from  the  Arabic  into  Latin, 
chiefly  relating  to  mathematics  and  medicine.  Of  these 
we  may  mention  "  Theory  of  the  Planets,"  and  the 
"Ars  Parva"  of  Galen.    Died  in  1187. 

See  BoNCOMPAGNi,  "  Delia  Vita,  etc.  di  Gherardo  Cremonese,"  etc. 

Gerard  Thom,  zhi'rtR'  t^N,  or  Tenque,  t6Nk,  the 
founder  and  first  grand  master  of  the  knights  of  the  order 
of  Saint  John  of  Jerusalem,  was  born  about  1040,  on  an 
island  near  the  coast  of  Provence.  He  went  to  Jeru- 
salem when  quite  young,  and  was  appointed  superior  of 
a  hospital  built  for  the  benefit  of  pilgrims.  Here  he  was 
held  in  great  esteem,  even  by  the  Saracens,  before  the 
crusades  began.  The  Moslems,  suspecting  Gerard  of 
aiding  the  crusaders,  put  him  in  prison  ;  but  he  was  libe- 
rated by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.    In  uoo  he  founded  that 


order  of  warrior  monks  which  afterwards  became  so  cele- 
brated.   Died  in  1121. 

See  MiCHAUD,  "  Histoire  des  Croisades ;"  Bosio,  "  HIstoire  de 
rOrdre  de  Saint- Jean-de-Jerusalem ;"  D.  Arbaud,  "Dissertation 
historiqiie  sur  le  B.  Gerard  Tenque,"  1851. 

Gerardi.    See  Gherardl 

Gerbais,  zh^R^bi',  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastical 
writer,  born  near  Rheims  in  1629  ;  died  in  1699. 

Gerbel,  g§R'bel,  [Lat.  Gerhe'lius,]  (Nikolaus,)  a 
German  jurist,  professor  at  Strasburg,  born  at  Pforz- 
heim, wrote  "  The  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Anabaptists," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1 560. 

Gerber,  g^R'ber,  (Ernst  Ludwig,)  a  German  or- 
ganist and  writer  on  music,  born  at  Sondershau.sen  in 
1746.  He  published  a  valuable  "Historical  and  Bio- 
graphical Lexicon  of  Musicians,"  (2  vols.,  1790-92,  and 
a  more  complete  work,  entitled  "  Neues  historisch-bio- 
graphisches  Lexikon  der  Tonkunstler,"  (4  vols.,  1810-14.) 
Died  in  1819. 

See  F^Tis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Gerberon,  zhlRb''r6N',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  Bene- 
dictine monk,  born  at  Saint-Calais  (Maine)  in  1628.  He 
became  a  zealous  Jansenist,  and  was  imprisoned  for  his 
opinions  at  Vincennes  from  1706  to  1 7 10.  He  wrote, 
besides  many  other  works,  a  "History  of  Jansenism,"  (3 
vols.,  1700.)    Died  in  1711. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Gerbert.    See  Sylvester  II. 

Gerbert,  g^R'bSRt,  (Martin,)  Baron  von  Hornau, 
(hor'now,)  a  learned  German  priest  and  writer  on  music, 
who  became  Prince-Abbot  of  Saint-Blaise,  was  born  at 
Horb,  in  Wurtemberg,  in  1720.  His  principal  works  are 
a  history  of  church  music,  entitled  "  De  Cantu  et  Musica 
sacra,"  (1774,)  and  "Ecclesiastical  Writers  on  Sacred 
Music,"  ("  Scriptores  ecclesiastici  de  Musica  sacra,"  etc., 
3  vols.,  1784,)  which  are  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1793. 

See  J.  B.  Weiss,  "Trauerrede  auf  den  Fiirst-Abbt  M.  Gerbert," 
1793;  F^Tis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Gerbet,  zh^R'b^',  (Olympe  Philippe,)  a  French  ec- 
clesiastic, born  in  1798.  He  wrote,  among  other  works, 
a  "Sketch  of  Christian  Rome,"  ("Esquisse  de  Rome 
chretienne,"  1844-50.)  In  1853  he  became  Bishop  of 
Perpignan. 

Gerbier,  zh^R^be-i',  (Pierre  Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
French  lawyer  and  orator,  born  at  Rennes  in  1725,  was 
advocate  to  the  Parliament  of  Paris.    Died  in  1788. 

Gerbier  d'Ouvilly,  zh^R^be-i'  doo'v^'ye',  (Sir  Bal- 
thasar,)  a  Flemish  architect  and  painter,  born  at  Ant- 
werp about  1592,  visited  England  at  an  early  age,  and 
was  successively  patronized  by  James  I.,  Charles  I.,  and 
Charles  II.  He  was  employed  by  James  to  negotiate 
the  marriage  of  Prince  Charles  with  the  Spanish  In- 
fanta. Among  his  best  works  is  a  portrait  of  the  Duke 
of  Buckingham  on  horseback.  Gerbier  designed  the 
triumphal  arches  for  the  reception  of  Charles  II.  Died 
in  1667. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gerbillon,  zh^R'be''y6N',  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  in  1634.  In  1686  he  went  as  a  missionary 
to  China,  where,  on  account  of  his  medical  skill,  he  was 
received  with  great  favour  by  the  emperor.  He  wrote 
a  "  Relation"  of  eight  journeys  into  Grand  Tartary,  the 
"  Elements  of  Geometry,"  and  "  Geometry,  Practical  and 
Speculative."  The  last  two  were  written  in  Chinese. 
Died  at  Pekin  in  1707. 

See  Michault,  "Melanges  historiques  et  philologiques." 

Gerbo,  zh^R^bo',  (Louis,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at 
Bruges  in  1761,  worked  some  years  in  Paris,  where  he 
died  in  1818. 

Gerd,  Gerda,  or  Gerde.    See  Frey. 

Gerdes,  g^R^dSs,  (Daniel,)  a  meritorious  German 
Protestant  minister,  born  at  Bremen  in  1698.  He  became 
professor  of  theology  at  Groningen  (one  account  says  at 
Utrecht)  in  1735.  His  chief  work  is  a  "History  of  the 
Reformation,"  (in  Latin,  4  vols.,  1744-52.)  Died  in  1767. 

See  HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Gerdil,  j§R-d^K  or  j^R-d^^  (Giacinto  Sigismondo,) 
a  learned  Italian  cardinal,  born  in  Savoy  in  1718.  He 
became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Turin,  (1749,)  and 
preceptor  to  the  Prince  of  Piedmont,  afterwards  Charles 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


GERDT 


1023 


GERMAIN 


Emanuel  IV.  He  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1777,  and, 
soon  after,  prefect  of  the  Propaganda.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works  in  Latin,  French,  and  Italian,  "The  Imma- 
teriality of  the  Soul  demonstrated  against  Locke,"  etc., 
(1747,)  and  "Anti-£mile,  or  Reflections  on  the  Theory 
and  Practice  of  Education,  against  the  Principles  of  J.  J. 
Rousseau,"  (1763.)    Died  in  1802. 

See  FoNTANA,  "  Elogio  letterario  del  C.  G.  S.  Gerdil,"  1802 ; 
TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Gerdy,  zh^R^e',  (Pierre  Nicolas,)  a  French  phy- 
sician and  surgeon,  born  at  Loches  (Aube)  in  1797. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Physiology  of  the  Sensations 
and  Intellig'^nce,"  (1846,)  and  "Practical  Surgery,"  (3 
vols.,  1850-55.)    Died  in  1856. 

Geree,  ge-ree', }  (John,)  an  English  Puritan  minister, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1600.  He  preached  at  Saint  Alban's 
and  in  London.    Died  in  1649. 

Gerhard,  giR^hiRt,  (Eduard,)  a  German  archaeolo- 
gist, born  at  Posen  in  1795.  In  1822  he  visited  Rome, 
where  he  resided  many  years,  and  had  a  share  in  Plat- 
ner's  "  Description  of  Rome,"  which  was  conducted  by 
Baron  Bunsen.  In  conjunction  with  the  latter  and  other 
savants,  he  founded  at  Rome  the  Institute  for  Archaeo- 
logical Correspondence.  After  his  return,  about  1837, 
he  was  appointed  professor  in  the  University  of  Berlin, 
and  archaeologist  at  the  Royal  Museum.  Among  his 
numerous  treatises  on  ancient  works  of  art,  we  may 
name  "Greek  and  Etruscan  Drinking-Cups,"  (1843,) 
"  Vases  of  Apulia,"  and  "  Antique  Sculpture,"  (1827-44.) 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Gerhard,  (Ephraim,)  a  German  philosopher,  born 
in  Silesia  in  1682.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  "  Delineation  of 
Rational  Philosophy."    Died  in  17 18. 

Gerhard,  (Johann,)  a  learned  Lutheran  theologian, 
born  at  Quedlinburg  in  1 582,  became  professor  of  di- 
vinity at  Jena  in  1616,  and  was  employed  in  missions 
by  several  princes.  His  "  Meditationes  Sacrae"  (1627) 
were  often  reprinted,  and  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages. He  wrote  other  works,  and  was  chief  editor  of 
the  Bible  of  Weimar.    Died  at  Jena  in  1637. 

See  E.  R.  Fischer,  "  Vita  J.  Gerhardi,"  1723 ;  Arnold,"  Kirchen- 
iind  Ketzer-Historie." 

Gerhard,  (Johann  Ernst,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Jena  in  162 1,  was  an  Orientalist,  and  professor 
of  liistory  in  his  native  city.  He  wrote  "  Harmony  of 
Oriental  Languages,"  and  other  treatises.   Died  in  1688. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Gerhard,  (Karl  Abraham,)  a  German  mineralogist, 
born  in  1738,  wrote  an  "Essay  of  a  History  of  the  Min- 
eral Kingdom,"  (Berlin,  2  vols.,  1 781.)    Died  in  1821. 

Gerhard  Groot.    See  Groot. 

Gerhardt,  zhk'rtR'  or  ggR^iiRt,  (Charles  Fr6d6- 
Ric,)  a  French  chemist,  born  at  Strasbourg  in  1816.  He 
was  professor  of  chemistry  from  1844-48  at  Montpellier, 
and  removed  thence  to  Paris,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
experiments  on  homologous  series,  the  theory  of  types, 
and  anhydrous  acids.  He  proposed  an  improved  classi- 
fication of  organic  chemistry,  and  published  an  important 
"Treatise  on  Organic  Chemistry,"  (4  vols.,  1854-56.) 
In  1855  he  became  professor  of  chemistry  at  Strasbourg. 
Died  in  August,  1856. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Gerhardt  or  Gerhard,  (Paul,)  a  German  Protestant 
divine  and  poet,  born  in  Saxony  about  1606.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  collection  of  hymns,  which  are  greatly 
esteemed.  He  preached  in  Berlin  and  at  Liibben.  Died 
at  Liibben  in  1675. 

See  Ersch  uud  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  Ernst 
G.  Roth,  "P.  Gerhard  nach  seinem  Leben  und  Wirken,"  1829; 
Langbecker,  "P.  Gerhard's  Leben  und  Lieder,"  Berlin,  1841; 
Wildenhahn,  "P.  Gerhard;  kirchengeschichtliches  Lebensbild," 
etc.,  2  vols.,  1845,  (translated  into  English  by  Mrs.  Stanley  Carr, 
London,  1846.) 

Gericault,  zhi'reOco',  (Jean  Louis  Theodore  An- 
Dr6,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Rouen  in  1790,  studied 
under  Vernet  and  Guerin,  and  about  1819  produced 
his  master-piece,  "The  Shipwreck  of  the  Medusa."  His 
pictures  of  horses  are  greatly  admired.    Died  in  1824. 

See  ISmile  Coquatrix,  "  Gericault,  Prose  et  Vers,"  1846;  C. 
Blanc,  "Gericault,"  Paris. 

Gericke,  ga'r!k-keh,  (Peter,)  a  German  physician 
aiad  writer,  born  at  Stendal  in  1683  ;  died  in  1750. 


Gering,  ga'ring,  (Ulric,)  a  Swiss  printer,  who,  with 
his  associates,  Crantz  and  Friburger,  introduced  the  art 
of  printing  into  France  in  1469.  The  first  work  which 
they  printed  was  the  "  Epistles  of  Gasparini  Barzizza," 
Paris,  (1470.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1 5 10. 

See  Greswell,  "  Parisian  Typography ;"  Lacaille,  "  Histoire 
de  rimprimerie,"  etc. ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale,"  (by  A.  F. 
Didot.) 

Gerini,  ji-ree'nee,  (Gerino,  ji-ree'no,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Pistoia,  lived  about  1530.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Perugino,  whose  manner  he  adopted.  Among 
his  works  is  "  The  Miracle  of  the  Loaves." 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Gerlach,  ggR'lSK,  (Benjamin  Gottlieb,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Liegnitz  in  1698,  wrote  an  essay 
"On  the  Portable  Chinese  Temple,"  ("  De  Temple 
Sinensi  portatili,"  1739.)    Died  in  1756. 

Gerlach,  (Franz  Dorotheus,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  in  Gotha  in  1 793,  published  editions  of  Sallust,  and 
of  the  "  Germania"  of  Tacitus,  and  wrote  several  his- 
torical treatises.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  the 
University  of  Bale  in  1820. 

Gerlach,  (Stephen,)  a  German  Protestant  divine, 
born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1546,  was  chaplain  to  the  impe- 
rial embassy  at  Constantinople  for  five  years,  (1573-78.) 
He  left  a  "Journal  of  the  Embassy,"  (published  in  1674,) 
and  several  theological  works.    Died  in  1612. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Gerlache,  de,  deh  zhgR^ltsh',  (£tienne  Constan- 
TIN,)  Baron,  a  Belgian  historian  and  statesman,  born 
in  Luxembourg  in  1785.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Belgian  Congress  in  1830,  president  of  the  Chamber  of 
Representatives  in  1831,  and  president  of  the  court  of 
cassation  in  1832  or  1833.  He  wrote  several  historical 
works,  the  most  popular  of  which  is  a  "  History  of  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  from  i8i4to  1830,"  (2  vols., 
1839.)    He  belonged  to  the  Catholic  conservative  party. 

Gerle,  zh^Rl,  (Dom  Christophe  Antoine,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  Auvergne  in  1740,  became  an  ad- 
herent of  the  fanatic  Catherine  Theot.    Died  about  1805. 

Germain.    See  German  us. 

Germain,  zh^R'miN',  (Charles  Antoine,)  a  French 
political  orator,  born  at  Narbonne  about  1770.  He  was 
an  ultra-republican  in  the  Revolution,  and  became  a 
strenuous  opponent  of  the  Directory,  by  whom  he  was 
banished  in  1797.    Died  in  1835. 

Germain,  (Michel,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at 
Peronne  in  1645  ;  died  in  1694. 

Germain,  (Pierre,)  a  distinguished  carver  on  metals, 
born  in  Paris  in  1647,  was  patronized  by  Louis  XIV. 
Died  in  1682. 

Germain,  [Lat.  Germa'nus,]  Saint,  of  Auxerre, 
was  born  at  Auxerre,  France,  about  380  a.d.  He  was  of 
illustrious  birth,  and  was  created  duke  of  several  French 
provinces  by  the  emperor  Honorius.  He  afterwards 
embraced  an  ecclesiastical  life,  and,  on  the  death  of 
Saint  Amator,  became  Bishop  of  Auxerre.  In  428, 
Germain  was  sent  to  Britain,  where,  meeting  with  great 
success  in  suppressing  Pelagianism  and  promoting  edu- 
cation, he  remained  nearly  eighteen  years.  Died  at 
Ravenna  in  448. 

See  Baillet,  "Vies  des  Saints." 

Germain,  (Sophie,)  a  French  lady,  distinguished  for 
her  knowledge  of  mathematics,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1776.  In  1 81 5  she  obtained  the  prize  offered  by  the 
Institute  for  the  best  essay  on  the  vibration  of  elastic 
plates.  She  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Researches 
on  the  Theory  of  Elastic  Surfaces,"  (1821.)  Died  in  1831. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Germain,  (Thomas,)  an  architect  and  sculptor,  a 
son  of  Pierre,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1673. 
He  studied  under  the  painter  Boullongne,  and  sub- 
sequently at  Rome,  where  he  was  principally  employed 
in  executing  ornamental  work  in  gold  for  different  Euro- 
pean monarchs.    Died  in  1748. 

Germain  de  Paris,  zh^R^m^N'  deh  pt^re'.  Saint, 
born  in  Paris,  of  which  city  he  became  bishop  in  554. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  great  zeal  for  religion,  and 
wrote  some  ecclesiastical  works.    Died  in  576  a.d. 

See  DuPLEssv,  "Histoire  de  Saint-Germain,"  1841;  Gaillet, 
"  Vies  des  Saints." 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GERMJNICUS 


1024 


GERSON 


^■er-man'i-cus,  (C^sar,)  a  celebrated  Roman  gene- 
ral, born  in  14  B.C.,  was  the  oldest  son  of  Drusus  Nero 
Germanicus,  and  brother  of  Claudius,  who  afterwards 
became  emperor.  At  the  request  of  Augustus  Caesar, 
Germanicus  was  adopted  by  his  uncle  Tiberius.  When 
he  was  twenty  years  of  age,  he  fought  in  Dalmatia  and 
Pannonia  with  such  distinction  that  he  obtained  a  tri- 
umph on  his  return  to  Rome.  In  12  a.d.  he  became 
consul,  and  soon  after  received  from  Augustus  the  com- 
mand of  the  legions  on  the  Rhine.  The  news  of  the 
death  of  this  emperor  caused  several  of  the  legions  of 
the  Lower  Rhine  to  break  out  in  a  dangerous  mutiny 
while  Germanicus  was  absent.  On  his  return  the  soldiers 
desired  to  raise  him  to  the  imperial  power ;  but  he  refused 
to  accede  to  their  wishes,  and  succeeded  in  restoring 
discipline.  He  immediately  marched  against  the  Ger- 
mans, whom  he  defeated  in  several  battles,  repulsed  the 
great  German  leader  Arminius,  and  jjenetrated  to  the 
place  where  the  legions  of  Varus  had  been  destroyed. 
The  next  year  he  was  victorious  in  two  important  battles 
fought  against  Arminius.  Germanicus  wished  to  remain 
in  Germany  another  year,  in  order  to  complete  its  subju- 
gation ;  but  Tiberius,  who  was  very  jealous  of  the  popu- 
larity of  the  conqueror,  ordered  him  to  return  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  honoured  with  a  brilliant  triumph  in  17 
A.D.  He  was  again  chosen  consul  for  the  year  18,  with 
Tiberius  as  his  colleague,  and  was  sent  to  quell  some 
serious  disturbances  which  had  broken  out  in  the  East. 
Having  brought  this  expedition  to  a  successful  issue, 
he  died  at  Antioch  in  the  year  19,  it  is  supposed  from 
the  effects  of  poison  administered  to  him  by  the  orders 
of  the  emperor  and  of  Cneius  Piso,  Governor  of  Syria. 
Germanicus  was  greatly  beloved  by  the  Romans ;  and 
even  the  nations  whom  he  vanquished  regarded  him  as 
a  noble  and  generous  foe.  He  left,  by  his  wife  Agrip- 
pina,  granddaughter  of  Augustus,  several  children,  one 
of  whom  was  the  notorious  Caligula.  His  daughter 
Agrippina  became  the  mother  of  Nero. 

See  Tacitus,  "  Annales;"  Louis  de  Beaufort,  "  Histoire  de  C. 
Germanicus,"  1741;  Lagerloef,  "  Vita  C.  Germanic!,"  Upsal,  1698; 
J.  HiLLEBKAND,  "  Germanicus, "  2  vols.,  Frankfort,  1817. 

Germanus.    See  Germain. 

Qrer-ma'nus  [Fr.  Germain,  zh^R^miN']  I.,  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  was  an  enemy  of  the  Iconoclasts,  and 
had  a  contest  respecting  the  worship  of  images  with  the 
emperor  Leo,  by  whom  he  was  deposed  in  730  a.d.  Died 
about  740. 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Germanus  II.  was  elected  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople about  1224.  He  left  numerous  writings.  Died 
about  1250. 

Germanus  III.  became  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
about  1265.    He  resigned  in  1266  or  1267. 

German  y  Llorente,  nlK-mW  e  lo-xhVik,  (Ber- 
nardo,) a  distinguished  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Seville 
in  1685.  His  chief  work  was  a  picture  of  the  Virgin 
represented  as  a  shepherdess.  After  this  work,  Muriilo 
gave  him  the  surname  of  "the  Painter  of  Shepherdesses." 
Died  in  1757. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "  Dictionnaire des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Germar,  ggR'm^R,  (Ernst  Friedrich,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  at  Glauchau,  in  Saxony,  in  1786,  was 
appointed  chief  councillor  of  mines  at  Halle  in  1844. 
He  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  the  Petrifactions  of  the  Coal 
Formation  of  Wettin,"  etc. 

Germon,  zhgR''m6N',  (Barth^;lemi,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  at  Orleans  in  1663,  distinguished  himself  in  a  con- 
troversy with  Mabillon,  and  other  Benedictines,  in  regard 
to  ecclesiastical  diplomatics.  He  wrote  several  works 
on  this  subject.    Died  in  171 8. 

See  MoKERi,  "Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Germonio,  jgR-mo'ne-o,  (Anastasio,)  an  Italian 
canonist,  born  near  Parma  in  1551.  In  1608  he  was 
appointed  Archbishop  of  Tarantaise.  He  was  the  author 
of  numeroHs  ecclesiastical  works.    Died  in  1627. 

See  Taisand,  "  Vies  des  Jurisconsultes  anciens  et  modernes." 

Germyn,  HSr-mln',  (Simon,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Dort  about  1650 ;  died  in  1719. 

Gerner,  g^R^ier,  (Hendrik,)  a  Danish  author,  born 
at  Copenhagen  in  1629,  became  Bishop  of  Viborg  in 


1693.  published  a  "Translation  from  Hesiod  into 

Danish  Verse,"  and  an  "  Epitome  of  Danish  Philology.'* 
Died' in  1700. 

Gerner,  (Hendrik,)  a  naval  architect,  born  at  Copen- 
hagen in  1742,  wrote  "Songs  for  the  Amusement  of 
Danish  Sailors."    Died  about  1800. 

Gerniug,  gCR'ning,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1746;  died  in  1802. 

Gerome,  zhi'rom',  (Jean  L6on,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Vesoul  (Haute-Saone)  in  1824,  was  a  pupil  of 
Delaroche.  He  received  a  medal  of  the  second  class  at 
the  Paris  Exposition  of  1855.  Among  his  works  are 
"The  Augustan  Age,"  (1855,)  "La  Soitit  du  Bal  mas- 
que," and  "The  Gladiators." 

Gerrard,  giR'raRt  or  Hgr'r^Rt,  of  Haarlem,  a 
Dutch  oil-painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1460;  died  in 
1488. 

Gerrards,  van,  vtn  ggR'rlRts,(G.  P.,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1607.  He  imitated  Van  Dyck, 
who  was  his  friend.    Died  in  1667. 

Gerritsz,  gSu'rits,  (Dirck  or  Dirk,)  a  famous  Dutch 
navigator,  born  at  Enkhuisen  about  1555.  He  made  a 
voyage  to  China,  the  coasts  of  which  he  is  said  to  have 
explored.  He  commanded  one  of  the  five  vessels  which 
in  1598  sailed  to  the  South  Sea  and  discovered  land 
about  64°  south  latitude.    Died  about  1602. 

■Ger'ry,  (Elb ridge,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  Marblehead,  Massachusetts,  in  1744,  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1762.  He  was  elected  to  the  legislature  of 
Massachusetts  in  1772,  and  soon  became  a  prominent 
political  leader.  Having  been  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress  in  1776,  he  signed  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  and  was  placed  on  several  important 
committees.  He  became  chairman  of  the  treasury  board 
in  1780,  and  was  a  member  of  the  convention  which,  in 
1787,  formed  the  Federal  Constitution.  About  1790  he 
was  again  elected  to  Congress,  from  which  he  retired  in 
1795,  and  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  France  in  1797  with 
General  Pinckney  and  Mr.  Marshall.  He  was  invited  to 
remain  when  his  colleagues  were  ordered'by  the  French 
Directors  to  leave  France ;  and  he  did  remain.  He 
joined  the  Democratic  party,  by  which  he  was  elected 
Governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1810.  He  was  elected 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States  in  1 81 2,  when 
Madison  was  chosen  President.  Died  in  November, 
1 8 14. 

See  J.  T.  Austin,  "Life  of  Elbridge  Gerry;"  Goodrich,  "Lives 
of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Independence." 

Gersdorf,  gSRs'doRf,  (Johann,)  a  German  physician 
and  surgeon,  practised  at  Strasburg  about  1520-40.  He 
published  a  "Manual  of  Surgery,"  (15 17.) 

Gersdorf,  (Karl  Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
general,  born  at  Lobau  in  1765.  After  the  alliance  of 
Saxony  with  France,  he  fought  for  Napoleon  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  1809,  1 810,  and  181 2.    Died  in  1829. 

Gerson,  de,  deh  zh^R'soN',  (Jean  Charlier — shtii'- 
le-a',)  surnamed  the  Most  Christian  Doctor,  was 
born  at  the  village  of  Gerson,  near  Rheims,  in  1363. 
Soon  after  completing  his  studies  he  became  chancellor 
of  the  University  of  Paris  and  canon  of  Notre-Dame. 
Having  boldly  denounced  the  assassins  of  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  he  was  persecuted  by  the  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
his  house  was  pillaged  by  a  mob,  and  he  saved  his  life 
only  by  concealing  himself.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
energetic  members  of  the  Council  of  Pisa,  which  de- 
posed the  rival  popes  Benedict  XIII.  and  Gregory 
XII.  and  elected  Alexander  V.  He  afterwards  exerted 
a  great  influence  at  the  Council  of  Constance,  which  de- 
posed Pope  John  XXIII.  Gerson  sat  in  this  council  as 
the  ambassador  of  the  French  king  and  the  representa- 
tive of  the  Church  of  France  and  of  the  University. 
While  at  this  place,  he  had  a  fierce  disputation  with  John 
Huss.  Gerson  always  maintained  that  the  Church  had 
the  right  to  make  any  reforms,  even  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  pope.  Owing  to  the  enmity  of  the  party  of  the 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  he  went  from  Constance  to  Bavaria 
disguised  as  a  pilgrim.  After  remaining  in  Germany  sev- 
eral years,  he  returned  to  France,  and  entered  a  convent 
at  Lyons,  where  he  died  in  1429.  He  wrote  a  treatise 
"On  the  Consolation  of  Theology,"  ("De  Consolatione 
Theologiae,")  and  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


GER ST ACKER 


1025 


GESNER 


the  author  of  the  *'  Imitation  of  Jesus  Christ,"  which  has 
generally  been  attributed  to  Thomas  a  Kempis. 

See  Lecuy,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  Gerson,"  1832;  Von  der 
Hardt,  "Gersoniana;"  Thomassy,  "Jean  Gerson,"  1843;  C. 
Schmidt,  "Essai  sur  Gerson,"  1839;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^- 
rale." 

Gerstackeror  Gerstaecker,  g^R'stSk'ker,  (Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  traveller  and  writer,  born  at  Hamburg 
in  1816.  In  1837  he  visited  the  United  States,  where  he 
spent  six  years,  and  after  his  return  published  "  Streif- 
und  Jagdziigen  durch  die  Vereinigten  Staaten  Nord- 
amerikas,"  ("Wanderings  and  Hunting  Excursions 
through  the  United  States  of  North  America,")  "The 
River-Pirates  of  the  Mississippi,"  and  several  other 
fictitious  works. 

Gersten,  gCR'sten,  or  Gerstein,  g^R'stln,  (Chris- 
tian LuDWiG,)  a  German  mathematician,  born  in  1701 
at  Giessen,  where  he  became  professor  of  mathematics 
in  1733.  He  was  imprisoned  twelve  years  (1748-60)  for 
writing  an  offensive  letter  to  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt.    Died  in  1762. 

Gerstenberg,  g§R'sten-b§RG',(HEiNRiCH  Wilhelm,) 
a  German  litterateur,  born  at  Tondern  in  1737.  He 
wrote  a  successful  tragedy,  entitled  "  Ugolino,"  and  a 
number  of  poems.    Died  in  1823. 

Gerstner,  von,  fon  ggRsf'ner,  (Franz  Anton,)  a 
German  engineer,  born  at  Prague  in  1795,  was  appointed 
in  1818  professor  of  geometry  in  Vienna.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  examining  the  railroads,  he  several  times  visited 
England,  and  in  1834  laid  the  foundation  of  the  railway 
from  Saint  Petersburg  to  Tsarkoe-Stlo,  the  first  made 
in  Russia.  During  a  visit  to  the  United  States,  he  died, 
in  1840. 

Gerstner,  von,  (Franz  Joseph,)  an  eminent  German 
astronomer  and  mechanician,  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Bohemia  in  1756.  He  was  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Prague,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Hand-Book  of  Mechanics,"  (3  vols.,  1838-41.) 
Died  in  1832. 

See  Bolzano,  "  Leben  des  F.  J.  Ritter  von  Gerstner,"  1837. 

Gertrude,  jer'trood.  Saint,  Abbess  of  Nivelle,  was 
born  in  Brabant  about  626  A.D.;  died  in  659. 

Gerusez  or  Geruzez,  zhi'rii'zy,  (Eugene,)  a  French 
litterate2ir,  born  at  Rheims  in  1799.  He  was  the  substi- 
tute (suppleant)  of  Villemain  in  the  chair  of  literature 
at  Paris  from  1833  ^'^  ^^52-  He  published  a  "Course 
of  Philosophy,"  (1833,)  which  is  commended,  and  "Es- 
says on  Literary  History,"  (2  vols.,  1853.) 

Gervaise.    See  Gervase. 

Gervaise,  zh^R'viz',  (Franqois  Armand,)  a  French 
writer,  and  abbot  of  the  order  of  La  Trappe,  born  in  Paris 
about  1660.  Among  his  works  are  the  "Lives  of  many 
of  the  Christian  Fathers,"  a  "  Life  of  Abelard  and  He- 
loise,"  (2  vols.,  1720,)  and  a  "Life  of  Saint  Paul,"  (3 
vols.,  1734.)    Died  in  1751. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "M^moires;"  Marsollier,  "Vie  de  TAbW 
de  Ranee." 

Gervaise,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  about  1662.  "When 
quite  young,  he  went  as  a  missionary  to  Siam,  where  he 
remained  four  years.  In  1724  the  pope  appointed  him 
Bishop  of  Horren,  and  soon  after  sent  him  to  America, 
where  in  1729  he  and  all  his  companions  were  massa- 
cred by  the  Caribs.  Gervaise  wrote  a  "Natural  and 
Political  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Siam,"  (1688.) 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Gervase,  jer'vas  or  jer-vaz',  [Lat.  Gerva'sius,]  of 
Canterbury,  an  English  monk  and  historian  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  wrote  a  "Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of 
England,"  and  a  "  History  of  the  Archbishops  of  Can- 
terbury," 

Gervase  [Fr.  Gervais,  zh^R'vi' ;  Ger.  Gerva'sius] 
OF  Tilbury,  a  historian  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
marshal  of  the  kingdom  of  Aries,  in  France,  was  born  at 
Tilbury,  in  Essex.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  nephew 
of  King  Henry  II.  of  England.  Among  his  works  are 
a  "  History  of  Britain,"  and  a  history  of  the  kings  of 
England  and  France,  entitled  "  Otia  Imperialia." 

See  T.  Wright,  "  Biographia  Britannica  Literaria." 

Gerville,  de,  deh  zhgR'v^K,  (Charles  Alexis 
Adrien  du  Herissier — dii  hi're'se-i',)  a  French  anti- 


quary, born  at  Gerville,  near  Coutances,  in  1769.  He 
wrote  treatises  on  French  antiquities.    Died  in  1853. 

Gervinus,  g^R-vee'nus,  (  Georg  Gottfried,)  an 
eminent  German  historian  and  critic,  born  at  Darmstadt 
in  May,  1805.  He  became  professor  of  history  and 
literature  at  Gottingen  in  1836,  but  was  removed  in  1837 
because  he  signed  a  protest  against  the  abolition  of  the 
constitution  of  Hanover.  He  published  an  important 
work,  called  "  History  of  the  National  Poetic  Literature 
of  the  Germans,"  (3  vols.,  1835-38,)  and,  as  a  continua- 
tion or  complement  of  the  same,  "Neuere  Geschichte 
der  poetischen  National- Literatur  der  Deutschen,"  (2 
vols.,  1840-42.)  He  was  chosen  professor  at  Heidelberg 
in  1844.  Among  his  works  is  an  excellent  critical  essay 
on  "Goethe's  Correspondence,"  (1836,)  a  "Study  of 
Shakspeare,"  (4  vols.,  1850,)  and  a  "History  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century,"  (3  vols.,  1858.)  He  was  a  leader 
of  the  Liberal  party  and  member  of  the  National  As- 
sembly at  Frankfort  in  1848.  He  afterwards  advocated 
republican  principles. 

See  Saint-Rene  Taili.andier,  in  the  "Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,"  1856;  and  his  "Etudes  sur  I'Allemagne ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Qre'ry-on  or  ^e-ry'o-nes,  [Gr.  r??pi»6vr/f,]  a  monster 
of  classic  mythology,  represented  as  having  three  heads, 
or  the  bodies  of  three  men  united.  One  of  the  labours 
imposed  on  Hercules  was  to  bring  the  oxen  of  Geryon 
from  an  island  on  which  they  were  kept.  Hercules 
accomplished  the  task,  and  slew  Geryon. 

Geselschap,  Ha'sel-sKip',  (Eduard,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  history  and  genre,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1814.  Among 
his  earlier  productions  are  "  The  Adoration  of  the  Magi," 
and  "Gustavus  Adolphus  at  Liitzen."  His  later  works 
represent  scenes  of  German  life,  and  display  much  ima- 
gination, 

Gesenius,  ge-see'ne-us  or  gi-za'ne-Os,  (Friedrich 
Heinrich  Wilhelm,)  an  eminent  German  Orientalist 
and  biblical  critic,  was  born  at  Nordhausen  on  the 
3d  of  February,  1785.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Halle  in  1811.  He 
published  a  "  Hebrew  Grammar,"  "  Hebrew  and  Chaldee 
Hand-Lexicon  for  the  Old  Testament,"  (1810-12,)  which 
has  been  translated  into  English  and  Latin,  "  On  the 
Origin,  Nature,  and  Authority  of  the  Samaritan  Penta- 
teuch," ("  De  Pentateuchi  Samaritani  Origine,  Indole," 
etc.,  1815,)  "Critical  History  of  the  Hebrew  Language 
and  Writing,"  (181 5,)  and  a  translation  of  the  prophet 
Isaiah,  with  a  historical,  critical,  and  philological  com- 
mentary. He  was  also  a  contributor  to  Ersch  and 
Gruber's  "  Encyklopaedie."  As  a  theologian,  Gese- 
nius belonged  to  the  philosophical  and  critical  school. 
Died  at  Halle  in  October,  1842. 

See  "  Gesenius,  eine  Erinnerung  an  seine  Freunde,"  1843 ;  "  Nou- 
velle Biographic  Generale." 

Gesenius,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  in  the  duchy  of  Brunswick  in  1760.  He  practised 
at  Nordhausen.    Died  in  1801. 

G«s'ner,  (Abraham,)  M.D.,  a  geologist  of  the  present 
age,  born  at  Cornwallis,  Nova  Scotia.  He  published 
a  treatise  "On  the  Mineralogy  and  Geology  of  Nova 
Scotia,"  (1847.)  He  is  said  to  have  discovered  kero- 
seal  gas. 

Gesner,  gSs'ner,  (Andreas  Samuel,)  a  German 
teacher,  born  at  Roth  (Anspach)  in  1690,  was  a  brother 
of  Johann  Matthias,  whom  he  aided  in  the  "  Thesaurus 
Linguae  Latinae,"  ("Treasury  of  the  Latin  Tongue.") 
Died  in  1778. 

Gesner,  (Conrad,)  a  celebrated  Swiss  naturalist  and 
scholar,  whom  Cuvier  calls  a  "prodigy  of  application, 
learning,  and  sagacity,"  was  born  at  Zurich  on  the  26th 
of  March,  15 16.  He  studied  languages  and  sciences  at 
Zurich,  Bourges,  Bale,  etc.,  and,  after  teaching  Greek 
three  years  at  Lausanne,  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
medicine  at  Bale  about  1540.  He  practised  medicine 
at  Zurich.  In  1545  he  published  the  first  volume  of  his 
famous  "  Bibliotheca  Universalis,"  the  first  great  work 
on  bibliography  which  the  moderns  have  produced.  The 
second  volume,  called  "  Pandectes,"  appeared  in  1548. 

From  his  youth  he  had  conceived  the  plan  of  an  ex- 
tensive work  on  natural  history,  in  prosecution  of  which 
he  travelled  in  Germany  and  other  countries.   His  "  Ilis- 


<  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as z;  th  as  in  this.    ({[[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

65 


GESNER 


1026  GEZELIUS 


tory  of  Animals"  ("  Historiae  Animalium")  is  perhaps 
the  work  by  which  he  has  gained  the  most  durable 
reputation.  The  first  part  of  it  was  published  in  1551. 
"This  work,"  says  Cuvier,  "may  be  considered  as  the 
basis  of  all  modern  zoology;  copied  almost  literally  by 
Aldrovandus,  abridged  by  Johnston,  it  has  become  the 
foundation  of  much  more  recent  works ;  and  more  than 
one  famous  author  has  borrowed  from  it  nearly  all  of 
his  learning.  He  deserved  their  confidence  by  his  accu- 
racy, his  clearness,  his  good  faith,  and  sometimes  by  the 
sagacity  of  his  views." 

Gesner  also  acquired  celebrity  as  a  botanist.  He 
formed  a  botanic  garden  at  Zurich,  and  designed  or 
painted  with  his  own  hand  more  than  fifteen  hundred 
plants  for  a  History  of  Plants  which  he  projected  and 
left  unfinished.  His  engravings  were  used  in  the  "Epi- 
tome Mathioli  de  Plantis,"  published  by  Camerarius  in 
1586.  His  botanical  manuscripts  were  published  by 
Schmiedel  in  1754.  "He  has  the  credit,"  says  Hallam, 
"of  having  discovered  the  true  system  of  classifying 
plants  according  to  the  organs  of  fructification,  which, 
however,  he  does  not  seem  to  have  made  known,  nor 
were  his  botanical  writings  published  till  the  last  cen- 
tury. Gesner  was  the  first  who  mentions  the  Indian 
sugar-cane  and  the  tobacco."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Lite- 
rature of  Europe.")  In  1556  he  published  a  valuable 
translation  of  the  works  of  yElian  into  Latin.  His 
"Mithridates  sive  de  Differentiis  Linguarum"  ("On  the 
Differences  of  Languages")  is  an  effort  on  a  great  scale 
to  arrange  the  various  languages  of  mankind  by  their 
origin  and  analogies.  He  died  at  Zurich  in  December, 
1565,  leaving  a  good  reputation  for  piety  and  virtue. 

See  SiMLER,  "V.ia  C.  Gesneri,"  1566;  Life  by  Schmiedel,  pre- 
fixed to  Gesner's  botanical  works  ;  H  aller,  "  Bibliotheca  Botanica ;" 
Nic^RON,  "  Memoires ;"  J.  Hanhart,  "C.  Gesner,  Beitrag  zur 
Geschichte  des  wissenschaftlichen  Strebens,"  etc.,  1824. 

Gesner,  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  botanist,  born  at  Zurich  in 
1709.  At  the  University  of  Leyden  he  formed  a  life- 
long friendship  with  the  great  Haller.  He  taught  mathe- 
matics and  physics  about  forty  years  in  the  Academy  of 
Zorich.  Haller's  "Description  of  Swiss  Plants,"  says 
the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  was  in  great  part  the 
work  of  Gesner,  who,  through  modesty,  declined  to 
attach  his  name  to  the  work.  He  wrote  another  botanical 
work,  the  "Tabulae  Phytographiae,"  which  was  p.ublished 
after  his  death,  and  is  highly  commended.  Died  in  1790. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale  ;"  H.  C.  Hirzel,  "  Denkrede  auf  J. 
Gesner,"  1790;  Rudolph  Wolf,  "J.  Gesner,  Freund  von  Haller," 
etc.,  1846. 

Gesner,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  Swiss  antiquary,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Zurich  in  1707.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  at  Zurich  from  1740  until  his  death. 
His  favourite  study  was  numismatology.  He  wrote  a 
work  entitled  "All  Ancient  Coins  of  Nations  and 
Cities,"  ("Numismata  antiqua  Populorum  et  Urbium 
omnia,")  in  which  he  attempted  to  present  all  Greek  and 
Roman  medals.   It  contains  many  errors.    Died  in  1787. 

Gesner,  (Johann  Matthias,)  an  eminent  German 
scholar,  born  near  Nuremberg  in  1691,  became  professor 
of  eloquence  at  Gottingen,  (1734.)  He  published  excel- 
lent editions  of  Horace,  Quintilian,  Claudian,  and  the 
"  Scriptores  de  Re  Rustica,"  ("  Writers  on  Agricul- 
ture,") also  a  compilation  entitled  "New  Treasure  of 
the  Roman  Language,"  etc.,  ("  Novus  Lingua;  et  Erudi- 
tionis  Romanae  Thesaurus,"  4  vols.,  1749.)  Died  in  1761. 

See  J.  D.  MiCHAELis,  "  Memoria  J.  M.  Gesneri,"  1761 ;  Johann 
August  Ernesti,  "  Narratio  de  J.  M.  Gesnero,"  1762. 

Gessi,  jSs'see,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  Italian 
painter,  called  the  "  Second  Guido,"  ("  Guido  Secondo,") 
was  born  at  Bologna  in  1588.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Guido, 
whose  manner  he  imitated  with  success.  He  is  said  to 
have  equalled  that  master  in  freedom  and  firmness  of 
touch  and  in  mellowness  of  colour.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "Virgin  and  Child,"  and  a  "  Repose  in  Egypt." 
He  died  in  1625,  or,  according  to  some  writers,  in  1649. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

G^ssner,  s'ner,  or  Gesner,  (Salomon,)  a  Swiss 
poet  and  artist,  born  at  Zurich  in  1730.  In  1754  he 
brought  out  his  poem  of  "  Daphnis,"  which  was  followed 
by  "  Inkle  and  Yarico,"  and  a  volume  of  "  Idyls,"  all  of 
which  were  very  favourably  received,  both  in  Germany 


and  France.  His  "Death  of  Abel,"  a  kind  of  prose 
poem,  appeared  in  1758.  As  a  landscape-painter,  Gess- 
ner  holds  a  high  rank,  and  his  engravings  after  his  own 
pictures  are  of  superior  merit.  His  poetry,  though  dis- 
tinguished for  elegance  of  language  and  fine  versification, 
gives  unreal  delineations  of  life,  and  no  longer  enjoys  its 
former  popularity.    He  died  at  Zurich  in  1787. 

See  HoTTiNGER,  "S.  Gessner,"  Zurich,  1796;  Longfellow, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  Filippo  Mordani,  "  Elogio  storico 
di  S.  Gessner,"  1840;  Meyer,  "  Denkinal  S.  Gesner's  in  Zurich," 
1790;  Bertola,  "  Elogio  di  S.  Gesner,"  1789. 

Gestrin,  ySs-treen',  (John,)  a  Swedish  mathematician, 
who  lived  under  the  reign  of  Gustavus  Adolphus. 

Gesualdo,  ji-soo-iKdo,  (Carlo,)  Prince  of  Venosa, 
an  Italian  amateur  musician,  lived  about  1580.  He  com- 
posed madrigals,  which  were  published  in  1595.  He  ex- 
celled in  pathos. 

Qre'ta,  (Septimus  Antoninus,)  Emperor  of  Rome, 
colleague  and  younger  brother  of  Caracalla,  and  son  of 
Septimus  Severus>  was  born  in  Milan  about  190  a.d. 
His  disposition  appears  to  have  been  as  open  and  gene- 
rous as  that  of  his  brother  was  treacherous  and  cruel. 
Caracalla,  envious  of  the  great  popularity  ot  his  brother, 
and  also  being  determined  to  reign  alone,  made  several 
attempts  to  assassinate  him.  He  accomplished  this  in 
212,  by  concealing  some  centurions  in  the  apartments  of 
Julia,  the  mother  of  the  emperors.  Geta  was  holding  a 
conference  with  his  mother  when  the  assassins  killed  him 
and  wounded  her  while  she  endeavoured  to  shield  him. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  Tille- 
MONT,  "  Histoire  dl&  Empereurs  Romains ;"  Wm.  Musgrave, 
"Geta  Britannicus,  avec  des  Notes  par  Isaac  Casaubon,  Janus 
Gruter  et  Claude  Saumaise,"  London,  1716. 

■Geth'in,  (Lady  Grace,)  born  in  Somerset,  England, 
in  1676,  wrote  a  book  entitled  "  Reliquiae  Gethinianae," 
containing  essays  on  love,  friendship,  death,  courage, 
and  several  other  subjects.  Congreve  has  highly  eulo- 
gized this  work  in  one  of  his  poems.  She  died  in  1697. 
A  beautiful  monument  was  erected  to  her  memory  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

See  Ballard,  "  Memoirs  of  Several  Ladies  of  Great  Britain." 

Geulincx,  Huh'links  or  zhuh'liNks',  (Arnold,)  a 
learned  Flemish  Protestant  theologian  and  Cartesian 
philosopher  at  Louvain,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1625. 
He  wrote  several  philosophical  and  metaphysical  works, 
one  of  which  is  called  "Metaphysica  vera,"  (1691.) 
Died  in  1669. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Geuns,  van,  vtn  Huns,  (Stephen  Jan,)  a  Flemish 
physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Groningen  in  1767.  He 
wrote  several  botanical  and  medical  works,  and  enriched 
Gorter's  "Flora  of  Holland"  with  two  hundred  species 
of  plants.    Died  in  1795. 

Geusau,  von,  fon  goi'zow,  (Levin,)  a  Prussian  gene- 
ral, born  near  Eisenach  in  1734,  served  with  distinction 
in  the  Seven  Years'  war.    Died  in  1808. 

Gevaerts.    See  Gevartius. 

Ge-var'ti-us  or  Gevaerts,  gi-vaRts',  (Jan  Kaspar,) 
a  celebrated  Belgian  philologist,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1593.  In  1611  he  was  created  councillor  of  state,  and 
historiographer,  by  the  emperor  Ferdinand  HI.  of  Ger- 
many. He  wrote  Latin  poems,  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1666. 

Geyer.    See  Geijer,  (Eric  Gustaf.) 

Geyer,  gl'er,  (Henry  Sheffie,)  an  American  jurist, 
born  at  Fredericktovvn,  Maryland,  in  1790,  settled  at 
Saint  Louis,  Missouri,  about  1812.  He  was  elected  to 
the  legislature  of  Missouri  several  times,  and  took  an 
important  part  in  revising  the  statutes  of  that  State  in 
1825.  In  185 1  he  was  chosen  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States.    Died  in  1859. 

Geyger.    See  Gkiger. 

Geyler  or  Geiler,  gi'ler,  (Johann,)  a  Swiss  preacher, 
born  at  Schafifliausen  in  1445  ;  died  at  Strasburg  in  15 10. 

Ge3'-ser,  gT'zer,  (Christl^n  Theophilus,)^  a  skilful 
German  engraver,  born  at  Gorlitz  in  1742.  Among  his 
most  admired  {productions  are  landscapes  after  Wouwer- 
man  and  Pynaker,  and  the  vignettes  of  Heyne's  edition 
of  Virgil.    Died  about  1806. 

■Ge-ze'li-us,  [Sw.  pron.  yi-zTlOe-us,]  (Georg,)  a 
learned  Swedish  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1736.    He  pub* 


a,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GEZELIUS 


1027 


GHIKA 


lished  a  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  the  Illustrious 
Men  of  Sweden,"  (3  or  4  vols.,  1776-78.)  Died  in  1789. 

See  " Biographiskt-Lexicon  ofver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Gezelius,  (Johan,)  a  prelate  of  Finland,  born  in 
161 5.  He  became  professor  of  theology  and  Greek  at 
Dorpat,  in  Livonia,  and  in  1664  was  ordained  Bishop 
of  Abo.  He  wrote  a  valuable  "Commentary  on  the 
Bible"  in  the  Swedish  language,  and  several  works  in 
Latin.    Died  in  1690. 

See  AcHRELius,  "Oratio  Jn  exequias  J.  Gezelii,"  1690;  J.  J. 
Tengstroem,  "Biskopen  i  Abo  Stift  J.  Gezelii  den  aldres  Minne," 
1875. 

Gezelius,  (Johan,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1647.  He  became  Bishop  of  Abo  in  1690,  and  finished 
his  father's  commentary  or  translation  of  the  Bible.  He 
also  wrote  "Nomenclator  Adami."    Died  in  1718, 

Gfrorer,  gfRo'rer,  (August  Friedrich,)  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Calw,  in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1803,  became 
in  1846  professor  at  the  Catholic  University  of  Freiburg. 
He  published,  among  other  works,  a  "Universal  Church 
History,"  and  "Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden  and  his 
Times,"  (1835.) 

Ghasnevides.    See  Gaznevides. 

Ghasnewiden.    See  Gaznevides. 

Ghazaii,  gi'zan',  (written  also  Kaz^n,)  Khan,  a 
Mongol  sovereign  of  Persia,  born  about  1270,  was  a  son 
of  Argoon  (Argoun)  Khan.  He  began  to  reign  while 
still  very  young,  but  met  at  first  with  much  opposition. 
In  1294  he  renounced  Booddhism,  after  which  many  of 
tiie  Mohammedan  chiefs,  who  had  previously  opposed 
him,  joined  his  cause.  He  extended  his  empire  by  con- 
quest from  the  river  Jihon  to  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the 
south  and  Syria  on  the  west.  He  died  in  1304.  He  was 
a  man  of  great  talents  and  rare  acquirements.  Few,  if 
any,  among  his  numerous  subjects,  were  more  thoroughly 
acquainted  than  he  with  the  history  of  the  ancient  Mon- 
gols. His  government,  though  severe,  appears  to  have 
been,  on  the  whole,  just  and  enlightened.  For  a  partic- 
ular account  of  his  reign,  see  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Ghaznevidea.    See  Gaznevides. 

Ghazzaiee,  (or  Ghazzali,)  Al.  See  Aboo-Hamid- 
Mohammed. 

Ghedini,  gi-dee'nee,  (Ferdinando  Antonio,)  an 
Italian  naturalist  and  poet,  born  at  Bologna  in  1684 ; 
died  in  1767. 

Ghelen.    See  Gelenius. 

Gherardesca,  gi-rSR-d^s^kSL,  a  celebrated  noble  fam- 
ily of  Tuscany,  of  the  thirteenth  century.  They  were 
opposed  to  the  other  families  of  nobles,  and  placed  them- 
selves at  the  head  of  the  popular  party. 

Gherardesca,  (Fazio  or  Bonifacio,)  appointed  chief 
of  the  republic  of  Pisa  in  1329,  threw  off  the  yoke  of  the 
emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria,  and  concluded  an  honourable 
peace  with  the  Guelphs.    Died  in  1340. 

Gherardesca,  (Filippo,)  a  distinguished  Italian  com- 
poser, born  at  Pistoia  in  1730;  died  in  1808. 

Gherardesca,  (Ugolino,)  Count  of,  an  Italian  sol- 
dier, who  endeavoured  to  usurp  the  government  of  Pisa, 
but  failed  and  was  banished  from  that  city.  He  then 
joined  the  army  of  Florence,  which  enabled  him  to  suc- 
ceed in  his  projects  in  1284.  He  afterwards  governed  so 
despotically  that  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against  him, 
with  Ubaldini,  the  Archbishop  of  Pisa,  at  its  head. 
Ugolino  was  attacked  in  his  palace,  where,  after  a  brave 
defence,  he  was  captured,  with  three  sons  and  one 
grandson.  By  the  archbishop's  orders,  they  were  all 
imprisoned  in  the  tower,  where  they  were  starved  to 
death,  (1288.)  This  is  the  Gherardesca  of  Dante's 
"  Inferno." 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  R^publiques  Italiennes;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gherardi,  gi-r^RMee,  (Antonio,)  a  painter  of  the 
Roman  school,  born  in  Umbria  in  1644;  died  in  1702. 

Gherardi,  (Christofano,)  called  Doceno,  (do-cha'- 
no,)  a  painter  of  the  Florentine  school,  born  at  Borgo 
San  Sepolcro  in  1500.  He  assisted  Vasari  in  his  works. 
Died  in  1556. 

Gherardi,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Lucca 
in  1643,  was  a  pupil  of  Pietro  da  Cortona.  Among  his 
works  is  the  "Battle  of  Lepanto."    Died  in  1704. 


Gherardi  del  Testa,  gi-r^RMee  dh\  t^s'tS,  (Tom- 
MASO,)  Count,  an  Italian  dramatist,  born  near  Pisa  in 
1818.  He  produced  in  1845  ^  successful  comedy,  called 
"Mad  Ambition,"  ("Una  folle  Ambizione.")  He  com- 
posed about  forty  dramas,  and  a  popular  poem,  entitled 
"  The  Creator  and  his  World,"  ("  11  Creatore  ed  il  suo 
Mondo,")  with  other  poetical  works. 

Gherardini,  gi-raR-dee'nee,(  Alessandro,)  a  painter, 
born  at  Florence  in  1655.  A  picture  of  the  "Crucifixion" 
is  called  his  master-piece.    Died  in  1723. 

Gherardo  da  Sabbionetta,  gi-r^R'do  di  sSb-be-o- 
net'tS,  a  celebrated  Italian  physician  and  astrologer,  born 
near  Cremona  between  1200  and  1250.  He  translated 
into  Latin  the  works  of  Avicenna  and  Almansor. 

See  BoNCOMPAGNi,  "Delia  Vita  e  delle  Opere  di  Gherardo  da 
Sabbionetta;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ghesquiere,  de,  deh  ggs'ke^aiR',  (Joseph,)  a  Jesuit 
and  antiquarian  writer,  born  at  Courtrai,  in  Belgium,  in 
1736  ;  died  in  1802. 

Gheyn,  de,  deh  gm  or  Hln,  (Jacob,)  the  Elder,  a 
noted  Flemish  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp 
in  1565  ;  died  in  1615. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Gheyn,  de,  (Jacob,)  the  Younger,  an  engraver, 
born  at  Antwerp  about  1610;  died  about  1660. 

Ghezzi,  ggt'see,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
in  1634.  He  adorned  several  churches  of  Rome.  Died 
in  1721. 

Ghezzi,  (Pietro  Leone,)  a  painter  and  engraver, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rome  jn  1674,  and  ex- 
celled in  enamel -work  and  engraving  on  stones.  He  was 
employed  by  Pope  Clement  XI.  His  prophet  Micah, 
in  thft  church  of  San 'Giovanni  Laterano,  is  commended. 
Died  in  1755. 

See  LANZt,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Ghezzi,  (Sebastiano,)  an  Italian  painter  and  archi- 
tect, the  father  of  Giuseppe,  noticed  above,  was  born 
near  Ascoli  about  1600  ;  died  about  1650. 

Ghiberti,  ge-b^R'tee,  (Lorenzo,)  the  greatest  sculptor 
of  his  time,  born  at  Florence  in  1378,  was  also  a  painter. 
He  received  lessons  in  design  from  Bartoluccio,  a  gold- 
smith, and  opened  a  new  era  in  the  art  of  sculpture  by 
a  restoration  of  the  antique  style.  In  1400  he  produced 
a  design  for  a  bronze  gate  of  the  baptistery  of  Saint  John 
at  Florence,  which  was  preferred  to  those  of  his  competi- 
tors, among  whom  was  Brunelleschi.  He  spent  twenty 
years  on  this  bronze  gate,  which  represents  scenes  from 
the  New  Testament.  He  afterwards  executed  for  the 
same  building  another  gate,  superior  to  the  first.  Michael 
Angelo  extolled  one  or  both  of  these  works  as  worthy  to 
adorn  the  entrance  to  Paradise.  Among  his  master-pieces 
were  a  statue  of  Saint  Matthew,  and  the  bas-reliefs  of 
the  shrine  of  San  Zenobi.  "These  works,"  says  the 
"  Biographie  Universelle,"  referring  to  the  second  gate 
of  the  baptistery  and  the  shrine  of  San  Zenobi,  "are 
remarkable  for  the  propriety  of  the  composition,  the 
truth  of  the  attitudes,  the  accuracy  and  firmness  of  the 
outlines,  and  the  vivacity  and  dignity  of  the  expression." 
He  was  chosen  a  colleague  of  Brunelleschi  in  the  erec- 
tion of  the  Duomo  of  Florence.    Died  about  1455. 

See  August  Hagen,  "Chronik  seiner  Vaterstadt  von  Lorenz 
Ghiberti,"  1833;  Cicognara,  "Storia  della  Scultura ;"  Lanzi, 
"History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters 
and  Sculptors;"  Gonelli,  "Elogio  di  L.  Ghiberti,"  etc.,  8vo,  1822. 

Ghica  or  Ghicca.    See  Ghika. 

Ghika,  gee'ki,  Ghica,  or  Ghicca,  (Gregory,)  be- 
came Hospodar  of  Moldavia  in  1662.  He  was  deposed 
by  the  grand  vizier  Kuprili  in  1673,        ^^^^  about  1680. 

Ghika  or  Ghica,  (Gregory,)  a  dragoman  at  the  Ot- 
toman Porte.  Having  been  taken  prisoner  by  the  Rus- 
sians, he  was  sent  to  Saint  Petersburg.  Through  the 
influence  of  the  empress  Catherine  II.,  he  was  appointed 
in  1774  Prince  of  Moldavia.  He  was  assassinated  in 
1777,  by  order  of  the  Sultan. 

Ghika,  (Gregory,)  was  Hospodar  of  Moldavia  anc' 
ruler  of  Wallachia  for  many  years  in  the  first  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

Ghika,  (Gregory,)  Hospodar  of  Moldavia,  born  in 
Moldavia  in  1807.  He  became  hospodar  in  1849,  and 
adopted  several  liberal  measures.  He  was  removed  by 
the  Turkish  Sultan  in  1856.    Died  in  1857. 


e  as     9  as g  hard;  g  as  j;  c,  H,  K, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2l^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


I 


GHILINI 


1028 


GIBAVLT 


Ghilini,  ge-lee'nee,  (Girolamo,)  a  learned  Italian 
priest,  born  at  Monza  in  1589,  published  a  work  entitled 
"Theatre  of  Literary  Men,"  ("Teatro  d'Uomini  lette- 
rati,"  (1633.)    Died  about  1670. 

Ghingi,  g^n'jee,  (Francesco,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
gem-engraver,  born  at  Florence  in  1689.  He  executed 
a  "  Veiius  de  Medici"  carved  from  a  piece  of  amethyst 
weighing  eighteen  pounds.  This  master-piece  afterwards 
came  into  the  possession  of  Augustus  III,  of  Poland. 
His  works  are  by  some  esteemed  equal  to  the  finest 
antiques.    Died  in  1766. 

Ghini,  gee'nee,  (Luca,)  an  Italian  botanist,  born  near 
Imola  in  1500.  He  taught  botany  at  Pisa,  where  he 
planted  a  botanic  garden.    Died  in  1556. 

Ghirlandaio,  geer-ldn-dl'o  or  g^R-lin-d^'yo,  a  cele- 
brated painter,  whose  proper  name  was  Domenico  Cor- 
RAur  or  CuRRADO,  was  born  at  Florence  about  1450. 
He  excelled  in  invention,  and  was  the  first  Florentine 
who  attained  skill  in  aerial  perspective.  He  painted 
many  scenes  from  the  life  of  the  Virgin  Mary  and  John 
the  Baptist.  Among  his  chief  works  are  "  The  Massacre 
of  the  Innocents,"  "The  Death  of  Saint  Francis,"  and 
"The  Calling  of  Saint  Peter  and  Andrew,"  which  is  still 
preserved  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  Rome.  Michael  Angelo 
was  one  of  his  pupils.  Died  in  1495.  brothers 
Benedetto  and  David  were  painters  of  inferior  ability. 

See  Vasaki,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Memoirs  of  Early  Italian 
Painters." 

Ghirlandaio,  (Ridolfo,)  a  skilful  painter,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born'at  Florence  in  1482.  He  was  the  master 
of  a  numerous  school.  "  The  Coronation  of  the  Virgin" 
is  one  of  his  most  admired  works.  His  genius  is  said 
to  have  resembled  that  of  Raphael,  whose  friendship  he 
enjoyed.  He  had  a  talent  for  the  imitation  of  nature, 
with  the  addition  of  ideal  charms.    Died  in  1560. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Ghisi,  (Adamo.)    See  Mantuano. 

Ghisi,  (Diana.)    See  Mantuana. 

Ghisi,  gee'see,  (Teodoro,)  an  Italian  painter  of  the 
Mantuan  school,  was  a  brother  of  Giorgio  Ghisi,  sur- 
named  Mantuano,  and  lived  about  1530-80.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  Giulio  Romano,  some  of  whose  works  he 
finished. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 
Ghisleri.    See  Pius  V. 

Ghisolii,  ge-soKfee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Milan  in  1624.  He  worked  with  success  at 
Rome,  Genoa,  Milan,  and  Naples.    Died  in  1683. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Giaber.    See  Gei^er. 

Giacobbi,  kob'bee,  or  Giacobi,  jS-ko'bee,  (Giro- 
lamo,) an  Italian  composer,  born  at  Bologna  in  1575. 
He  excelled  in  sacred  music,  and  composed  several 
operas,  said  to  have  been  the  first  performed  in  Europe. 
Died  in  1650. 

Giacomelli,  ja-ko-mel'lee,  (Michelangelo,)  an 
Italian  translator,  born  at  Pistoia  in  1695,  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Chalcedon  in  1761.  He  translated  into  Italian 
the  "Electra"  of  Sophocles,  (1754,)  and  other  Greek 
works.  His  versions  were  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1774. 

See  A.  M.  Matani,  "  Eiogio  storico  di  M.  A.  Giacomelli,"  1775. 

Giacuinto  or  Giacquinto,  ji-kw^n'to,  (Corrado, 
kor-ri'do,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Molfetta  about 
1695.  He  went  to  Madrid,  and  became  first  painter  to 
the  king  about  1752.    Died  in  1765. 

Giafar.    See  Jaafar. 

Giambelli.    See  Gianibelll 

Giamberti.    See  San  Gallo. 

GiambuUari,  jSm-bool-ia'ree,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Florence  about  1450. 

Giambullari,  (Pietro  Francesco,)  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Florence  about  1495.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "  Rules  for  Writing  and  Speaking 
the  Tuscan  Language,"  (1549.)    Died  in  1564. 

Giampaolo,  jdm-pow'lo  or  jim-pi'o-lo,  (Paolo  Nic- 
col6,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
in  1757.  He  became  a  member  of  Joseph  Bonaparte's 
council  of  state  in  1807.  His  chief  work  is  "Dialogues 
on  Religion,"  (4  vols.,  1815-28.)    Died  in  1832. 


Gianibelll,  jS-ne-beKlee,  or  Giambelli,  jam-bel'lee, 

(Federigo,)  an  Italian  mechanician  and  pyrotechnist, 
who  lived  about  1570-90.  He  was  the  projector  of  the 
"infernal  machines"  which  did  such  fearful  execution 
against  the  troops  of  Parma,  near  Antwerp,  April,  1585. 
See  Motley,  "United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  p.  189. 

Giannettasio,  jin-n^t-tS'se-o,  (NiccoL6Partenio— 

paR-ta'ne-o,)  a  Latin  poet  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Naples  in 
1648.  He  published  in  1685  a  didactic  poem  on  naviga- 
tion, entitled  "  Piscatoria  et  Nautica."  The  nobleness, 
facility,  and  harmony  of  his  poetry  are  praised  by  Gin- 
guene.    He  wrote  other  poems.    Died  in  1715. 

Giannetti,  jSn-net'tee,  (Filippo,)  an  able  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Messina.  He  worked  at  Naples,  where 
he  died  in  1702. 

Gianni,  jSn'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
improvisator,  born  at  Rome  in  1759.  He  went  to  Paris 
about  1800,  and  obtained  a  pension  from  Bonaparte, 
whose  victories  he  had  celebrated.   Died  in  Paris  in  1822. 

Giannini,  jan-iiee'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  physi- 
cian, born  near  Milan  in  1773,  published  several  valuable 
medical  works.    He  practised  at  Milan.    Died  in  181 8. 

Giannone,  jin-no'na,  (Pietro,)  an  eminent  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Ischitella,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  in 
1676.  He  studied  law,  and  practised  as  an  advocate  at 
Naples.  He  devoted  many  years  to  the  composition  of 
a  "  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,"  ("  Storia  civile 
del  Regno  di  Napoli,"  4  vols.,  1723,)  in  which  he  at- 
tacked the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  and  censured 
the  abuses  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  He  was 
excommunicated  by  the  Archbishop  of  Naples,  and,  to 
escape  the  violence  of  the  clerical  party,  he  retired  to 
Vienna  about  1723.  He  received  from  the  emperor 
Charles  VI.  an  annual  pension  of  one  thousand  fiorins. 
Having  in  a  subsequent  work  avowed  opinions  which 
were  considered  heterodox,  he  was  deprived  of  his  pen- 
sion about  1734,  and  removed  to  Geneva  in  1735.  He 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "  II  Triregno,  ossia  del  Regno  del 
Cielo,  della  Terra  e  del  Papa,"  ("The  Triple  Kingdom, 
or  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven,  of  the  Earth,  and  of  the 
Pope,")  which  was  never  printed.  In  this  work  he 
opposed  the  Catholic  dogmas  of  purgatory,  the  eucharist, 
etc.  Having  been  enticed  into  Savoy  by  Joseph  Guas- 
taldi  in  1736,  he  was  arrested  by  the  order  of  the  King 
of  Sardinia,  and  confined  in  prison  until  his  death.  He 
died  at  Turin  in  March,  1748. 

See  F.  Panzini,  "Vita  di  P.  Giannone,"  1765;  A.  Fabroni, 
"  Vitae  Italoriim  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  Corniani,  "  Secoli  della 
Letteratura  Italiana;"  Tipaluo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Giannotti,  j^n-not'tee,  (Donato,)  an  Italian  histo- 
rian, born  at  Florence  in  1494,  was  elected  secretary  of 
the  republic.  His  chief  work  is  a  history  of  Venice, 
called  "  Republica  di  Venezia,"  (1540,)  which  is  com- 
mended for  accuiacy  and  elegance.    Died  in  1563. 

Giannotti,  (Silvestro  Domenico,)  an  Italian  sculp- 
tor in  wood,  born  at  Lucca  in  1680;  died  in  1750. 

See  Crespi,  "Vita  di  S.  Giannotti,"  1770. 

Giants.    See  Gigantes  and  Jotuns. 

Giardini,  jaR-dee'nee,  (Felice,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
violinist  and  composer,  born  at  Turin  in  1716.  Having 
performed  with  brilliant  success  in  Germany,  he  visited 
London,  where  he  was  received  with  equal  favour.  He 
subsequently  became  one  of  the  managers  of  the  King's 
Theatre,  which  post  he  was  forced  to  resign,  after  suffer- 
ing a  heavy  pecuniary  loss.  He  died,  in  great  poverty, 
at  Saint  Petersburg,  Russia,  in  1796.  He  was  esteemed 
one  of  the  best  musicians  of  his  time,  and  his  composi- 
tions for  the  violin  are  also  of  great  merit 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Miisiciens." 

Giattini,  jSt-tee'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Ital- 
ian Jesuit  and  Latin  writer,  born  at  Palermo  about  1600; 
died  in  1672. 

•Gib,  (Adam,)  a  Scottish  theologian,  born  in  Perth- 
shire in  1 7 13,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Secession 
Church  in  vScotland.  On  the  division  of  this  church 
(1746)  he  became  the  leader  of  the  Anti-burghers.  He 
wrote  "Sacred  Contemplations,"  (1786.)    Died  in  1788. 

See  Chamrers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Gibault,  zhe''b5',  (HieromeBonavknture,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Poitiers;  died  about  1832. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  mo5n; 


I 


GIBBES 


1029 


GIBBONS 


Qibbes,  gibz,  (James  Alban,)  a  physician  and  medi- 
cal writer,  born  of  English  parents  at  Rouen  about  1616. 
He  practised  in  Rome.    Died  in  1677. 

Gibbes,  gibz,  (Robert  Wilson,)  an  American  phy- 
sician, born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1809.  He 
wrote,  besides  several  medical  and  scientific  treatises,  a 
"Documentary  History  of  the  American  Revolution," 
etc.,  (3  vols.,  1853  et  seq.) 

•Gib'bon,  (Edward,)  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of 
English  historians,  was  born  at  Putney  in  1737.  At  the 
age  of  twelve  he  was  sent  to  Westminster  School,  where 
his  feeble  health  prevented  his  making  much  progress 
in  classical  studies.  V  )-n  nearly  fifteen,  however,  he 
became  more  robust,  and  entered  Magdalene  College  ; 
but  the  picture  he  has  drawn  of  the  Oxford  professors 
and  their  discipline  gives  us  anything  but  a  favourable 
impression,  and  he  speaks  of  the  fourteen  months  he 
spent  there  as  "the  most  idle  and  unprofitable  of  his 
whole  life."  About  this  time  he  was  converted  to  the 
Catholic  faith,  in  consequence  of  which  his  father  sent 
him  to  Lausanne,  in  Switzerland,  to  reside  with  M. 
Pavillard,  a  Calvinistic  divine,  under  whose  teachings 
he  was  brought  back  to  Protestantism.  Here  he  lived 
five  years  in  retirement,  preparing  himself  by  study  and 
reflection  for  future  eminence.  ?Ie  regarded  his  "  banish- 
ment" as  a  fortunate  circumstance,  but  for  which  "  those 
important  years  so  liberally  imj^roved  in  the  studies  and 
conversation  of  Lausanne  would  have  been  steeped  in 
port  and  prejudice  among  the  monks  of  Oxford."  In 
1758  he  returned  to  England,  and  in  1761  published  his 
first  work,  entitled  "  Essay  on  the  Study  of  Literature," 
written  in  French,  with  which  at  that  time  he  was  better 
acquainted,  as  he  himself  states  in  his  Autobiography, 
than  with  his  native  tongue.  Soon  after  this  he  became 
a  captain  in  the  Hampshire  militia,  and  engaged  with 
much  ardour  in  the  study  of  military  tactics;  but, 
becoming  weary  of  this  pursuit,  he  gave  it  up,  and  in 
1763  went  to  Paris.  Leaving  Paris,  he  repaired  to  Lau- 
sanne, and  in  a  short  time  set  out  for  Rome,  where,  he 
tells  us,  "as  he  sat  musing  amidst  the  ruins  of  the 
Capitol,  while  the  bare-footed  friars  were  singing  vespers 
in  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  the  idea  of  writing  the  decline 
and  fall  of  the  city  first  started  to  his  mind."  Ife  did 
not,  however,  begin  it  until  several  years  later.  On  his 
return  to  England  ha  wrote  a  history  of  the  Swiss  Revo- 
lution ;  but  this  work  was  never  published.  In  1767  he 
began  to  publish,  conjointly  with  his  Swiss  friend  Dey- 
verdun,  a  work  called  "  Literary  Memoirs  of  Great 
Britain."  In  1770  appeared  his  first  work  written  in 
English,  "  Critical  Observations  on  the  Sixth  Book  of 
the  yEneid."  In  1774  he  obtained  a  seat  in  Parliament, 
where  he  supported  Lord  North's  administration,  in 
return  for  which  he  was  made  a  commissioner  of  trade, 
with  a  salary  of  ;^8oo  a  year.  On  Lord  North's  resig- 
nation. Gibbon  gave  up  his  place  in  Parliament  and  his 
"convenient  salary."  In  1776  the  first  volume  of  the 
"  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire"  appeared,  and 
proved  a  brilliant  success.  "The  first  impression  was 
exhausted  in  a  few  days  ;  a  second  and  third  edition  were 
scarcely  adequate  to  the  demand."  He  was  especially 
gratified  by  the  praise  of  Hume  and  Robertson,  and  he 
says,  in  his  Autobiography,  "a  letter  from  Mr.  Hume 
overpaid  the  labour  often  years."  The  hostility  of  this 
work  to  the  Christian  religion,  however,  gave  great 
offence  to  many,  and  it  was  severely  attacked  by  several 
English  divines,  to  only  one  of  whom — Mr.  Davis — he 
replied,  "because  he  assailed  not  the  faith,  but  the 
fidelity,  of  the  historian."  This  charge,  however,  is  gen- 
erally thought  to  have  been  fully  fefuted.  The  second 
and  third  volumes  were  published  in  1781  ;  and  in  1783 
he  again  retired  to  Lausanne,  where  he  gave  himself  up 
to  literary  pursuits  and  rejjose.  Here  he  finished  the 
three  remaining  volumes  of  his  history,  which  appeared 
in  1788.  He  returned  to  England  in  1793,  and  died  in 
London,  January,  1794.  His  great  work  has  by  common 
consent  been  placed  in  the  very  highest  rank  of  the 
English  classics.  As  a  historian  and  man  of  learning, 
he  merits,  perhaps,  all  the  praises  he  has  received.  As 
a  man,  though  possessing  many  amiable  traits,  he  had 
too  little  moral  elevation  and  religious  sentiment  to 
appreciate  the  sublime  courage  of  Christian  martyrs  ; 


and  his  political  course  shows  far  more  regard  for  his 
personal  interest  than  devotion  to  j^rinciple. 

Mr.  Prescott,  after  some  excellent  remarks  on  the 
qualifications  demanded  for  a  perfect  historian,  speaks 
of  Gibbon  as  one  of  the  most  accomplished  writers  in 
this  department  of  literature.  He  observes,  however, 
that  the  author  of  the  "Decline  and  Fall"  is  wanting  in 
good  faith  :  "his  most  elaborate  efforts  exhibit  too  often 
the  perversion  of  learning  and  ingenuity  to  the  vindica- 
tion of  preconceived  hypotheses.  He  cannot,  indeed, 
be  convicted  of  ignorance  or  literal  inaccuracy  ;  but  his 
disingenuous  mode  of  conducting  the  argument  leads 
precisely  to  the  same  unfair  result.  Thus,  in  his  cele- 
brated chapters  on  the  '  Progress  of  Christianity'  .  .  . 
he  has  often  slurred  over  in  the  text  such  particulars  as 
might  reflect  most  credit  on  the  character  of  the  religion, 
or  shuflSed  them  into  a  note  at  the  bottom  of  the  page, 
while  all  that  admits  of  a  doubtful  complexion  in  its  early 
propagation  is  ostentatiously  blazoned  and  set  in  con- 
trast to  the  most  amiable  features  of  paganism.  At  the 
same  time,  by  a  style  of  innuendo  that  conveys  'more 
than  meets  the  ear,'  he  has  contrived,  with  lago-like 
duplicity,  to  breathe  a  taint  of  suspicion  on  the  ])urity 
which  he  dares  not  openly  assail."  (See  "  Biographical 
and  Critical  Miscellanies.")  Porson,  alluding  to  the  "  De- 
cline and  Fall,"  observes,  "  An  impartial  judge  must,  I 
think,  allow  that  Mr.  Gibbon's  history  is  one  of  the  ablest 
performances  of  the  kind  that  has  ever  appeared.  His 
industry  is  indefatigable  ;  his  accuracy  scrupulous  ;  his 
reading,  which  indeed  is  sometimes  ostentatiously  dis- 
played, immense  ;  .  .  .  his  style  emphatic  and  express- 
ive ;  his  periods  harmonious."  The  same  able  and 
impartial  critic  admits  that  Gibbon's  bitter  hostility  to 
Christianity  is  a  great  blemish  on  his  character  as  a  histo- 
rian, and  adds,  "  He  often  makes,  when  he  cannot  readily 
find,  an  occasion  to  insult  our  religion,  which  he  hates  so 
cordially  that  he  might  seem  to  revenge  some  personal 
injury."  Porson  also  justly  stigmatizes  "that  rage  for 
indecency  which  pervades  the  whole  work,  but  especially 
the  last  volumes."  (Preface  to  his  "Letters  to  Travis.") 
"  The  *  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall,'  "  says  Professor 
Smyth,  "must  always  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most 
extraordinary  monuments  that  have  appeared  of  the 
literary  powers  of  a  single  mind  ;  and  its  fame  can  perish 
only  with  the  civilization  of  the  world."  ("  Lectures 
on  Modern  History.")  Alison,  the  historian,  calls  the 
"Decline  and  Fall"  "the  greatest  historical  work  in 
existence."  For  a  fuller  presentation  of  various  critical 
ouinions  respecting  Gibbon,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Allibone's  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

See  Gibbon's  autobiographic  "  Memoirs  of  hi?  Life  and  Writings," 
lyqg:  Henry  Hart  Milman,  "  Life  of  E.  Gibbon,"  1839;  GuizoT, 
"  Notice  sur  Gibbon  ;"  Saintr-Beuve,  "  Caiiseriesdu  Liindi,"  tome 
viii.  ;  T.  B.  Christophe.  "  fitiide  sur  THislorien  Gibbon,"  1S52; 
Vii.LEMAiN,  "Tableau  de  la  Litt^rature  au  dix-buitieme  Siecle;" 
"Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1815,  (vol.  xii.,)  and  January, 
1834,  (vol.  1.) 

■Gib'bpn,  (Torn,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Pennsylvania  about  1826,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1847.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1859.  He 
commanded  a  brigade  at  Antietam,  Sei)tember,  1862,  and 
at  Gettysburg,  July,  1863,  Having  been  appointed  a 
major-generai,  he  took  part  in  the  battles  of  the  Wil- 
derness, Spottsylvania  Court-House,  and  Cold  Harbour. 
May-June,  1864. 

•Gib'bons,  (Christopher,)  a  son  of  Orlando,  noticed 
below,  was  a  skilful  musician  and  composer.  He  was 
organist  of  Westminster  Abbey.    Died  about  1675. 

Gibbons,  (Grtni.ing,)  a  distinguished  sculjitor,  of 
Dutch  extraction,  born  in  London  (or,  as  some  writers 
state,  in  Rotterdam)  about  1650.  He  was  appointed  by 
Charles  II.  one  of  the  directors  of  public  works,  and 
commissioned  by  hin\  to  ornament  Windsor  Castle  with 
sculpture  in  wood  and  marble.  Among  the  most  ex- 
quisite specimens  of  his  skill  in  wood-carving  are  the 
decorations  of  a  room  at  Petworth.  "There  is  no 
instance,  "says  Horace  W^alpole,  "of  a  man  before  Gib- 
bons who  gave  to  wood  the  loose  and  airy  lightness  of 
flowers."  He  is  said  to  have  carved  feathers  which 
could  not  be  distinguished  from  real  ones.  Died  in  1721. 

See  Chat-Mrr?;,  "Biographical  Dictionary;"  Walpole,  "Anec- 
dotes of  Painting." 


€  as  i;  cas  j;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  g,  h,  y^, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JI^T'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GIBBONS 


1030 


GIBSON 


Gibbons,  (Orlando,)  an  eminent  English  composer 
and  musician,  born  at  Cambridge  in  1583.  His  anthems 
are  regarded  as  master-pieces  of"  the  kind  ;  and  he  also 
composed  madrigals  of  great  beauty.  He  was  created- 
Doctor  in  Music  in  1622.    Died  in  1625. 

See  BuRNEY,  "  History  of  Music." 

Gibbons,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Calvinistic  divine, 
born  near  Newmarket  in  1720.  He  published  a  work 
entitled  "Female  Worthies;  or,  The  Lives  of  Pious 
Women."    Died  in  1785. 

■Gibbs,  (George,)  an  American  mineralogist,  born  in 
Rhod*  Island  about  1780.  He  collected  the  valuable 
cabinet  of  minerals  now  owned  by  Yale  College  and  pur- 
chased of  him  by  that  institution  in  1825.    Died  in  1833. 

•Gibbs,  (James,)  a  Scottish  architect,  born  at  Aber- 
deen about  1680.  He  studied  in  Holland  and  in  Italy, 
and  after  his  return  built  Saint  Martin's  Church  and 
Saint  Bartholomew's  Hospital  in  London,  and  the  Rad- 
cliffe  Library  at  Oxford.    Died  in  1754. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Gibbs,  (JosiAH  WiLLARD,)  LL.D.,  an  American  phi- 
lologist, born  in  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  1790.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  College,  where  he  became  in  1824 
professor  of  sacred  literature.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  Manual  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon," 
abridged  from  Gesenius,  (1828,)  and  "Philological 
Studies,"  (1857.)  Diedini86i. 

■Gibbs,  (Sir  Vicary,)  an  English  judge,  born  at  Exe- 
ter in  1752.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  trials  of 
Hardy,  Horne  Tooke,  and  others,  for  treason,  in  1794. 
He  became  solicitor-general  in  1805,  and  attorney-gene- 
ral in  1807.  He  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  court 
of  common  pleas  in  1813.    Died  in  1820. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Gibelin,  zh^b'l^N',  (Esprit  (Is'pRe')  Antoine,)  a 
French  painter  of  history,  born  at  Aix  in  1739.  He 
worked  in  Paris,  chiefly  in  fresco,  and  wrote  several 
antiquarian  treatises.    Died  in  1814. 

Gibelin,  (Jacques,)  a  physician  and  naturalist,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Aix  in  1744 ;  died  in  1828. 

Gibert,  zhe'baiR',  (Balthasar,)  a  French  critic,  of 
high  reputation,  born  at  Aix  in  1662.  He  was  professor 
of  rhetoric  at  the  College  Mazarin,  Paris,  for  more  than 
fifty  years,  during  which  he  instructed  many  who  became 
eminent.  His  principal  work  is  "  The  Judgment  of 
Savants  on  the  Authors  who  have  treated  on  Rhetoric," 
(3  vols.,  1713-19,)  which  is  remarkable  for  power  of 
analysis  and  judicious  reflections.    Died  in  1741. 

See  MoRERi,  "  DIctionnaire  Historique." 

Gibert,  (Camille  Melchior,)  a  French  physician, 
born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  Manual  of  Diseases  pertaining  to  the  Skin,"  ("  Manuel 
des  Maladies  speciales  de  la  Peau,"  1834.) 

Gibert,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  writer  on  canon  law,  born 
at  Aix,  Provence,  in  1660,  was  a  cousin  of  Balthasar, 
noticed  above.  His  "Institutions  ecclesiastiques  et 
beneficiales"  ( 1 720)  is  called  his  best  work.  Died  in  1 730. 

See  GoujET,  "  ^\oge  de  J.  P.  Gibert,"  1736. 

Gibert,  (Joseph  Balthasar,)  a  historical  writer 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Aix  in  1711,  was  a  nephew  of 
Balthasar,  In  1746  he  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions.  Diedini77i. 

Gibert  de  Montreuil,  zhe^DaiR'  deh  m^N'tRuI'  or 
m6N'tRuh'ye,  a  French  trouvere  of  the  twelfth  century, 
was  the  author  of  a  romance  in  verse,  entitled  "La  Vio- 
lette,"  which  ranks  among  the  best  productions  of  the 
kind  in  the  middle  ages.  It  is  supposed  to  have  furnished 
to  Boccaccio  the  subject  of  one  of  his  novels,  "  Novella 
IX.,  Giornata  seconda,"  from  which  Shakspeare  has  taken 
the  plot  of  "  Cymbeline."  "  La  Violette"  was  first  printed 
in  the  original  text  at  Paris  in  1834. 

Giberti,  je-b^R'tee,  (Giammatteo,)  a  Sicilian  bishop, 
eminent  for  learning  and  piety,  born  at  Palermo  in  1495. 
He  was  appointed  to  the  see  of  Verona  in  1524.  He 
was  a  generous  patron  of  literature;  and  several  ex- 
cellent editions  of  the  Greek  Fathers  were  published  at 
his  charge.    Died  in  1543. 

See  P.  F.  ZiNi,  "  Boni  Pastoris  Exemplum." 

Gibieuf,  zhe'be-uf,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  doctor 
of  the  Sorbonne,  born  at  Bourges,  was  appointed  vicar-  I 


general  of  the  order  of  the  Carmelites.  He  wrote  a  work 
entitled  "  De  Libertate  Dei  et  Creaturae."  Died  in  1650. 

■Gib'spn,  (Edmund,)  an  English  prelate,  distinguished 
for  his  attainments  in  the  Northern  tongues,  was  born 
in  Westmoreland  in  1669.  Among  his  principal  publica- 
tions may  be  named  an  edition  of  the  "Chronicon  Saxo- 
nicum,"  a  translation  of  Camden's  "Britannia,"  and  his 
"  Body  of  English  Ecclesiastical  Law,"  ("Codex  Juris 
Ecclesiastic!  Anglicani.")  As  chaplain  to  Tennison, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  he  maintained  the  rights  of 
the  clergy  during  the  .  contest  between  the  two  Houses 
concerning  the  extent  of  their  respective  powers.  He 
was  appointed  Bishop  of  Lincoln  in  1715,  and  in  1723 
removed  to  the  see  of  London.  He  was  a  zealous  de- 
fender of  the  claims  of  the  Church,  and  opposed  the 
efforts  of  Protestant  dissenters  to  remove  the  disability 
under  which  they  suffered.  He  is  said  to  have  incurred 
the  displeasure  of  the  king  by  his  denunciation  of  mas- 
querades and  other  court  amusements.    Died  in  1748. 

See  CoxE,  "  Life  of  Walpoie  ;"  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Gibson,  (John,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  sculptors 
of  recent  times,  born  at  Conway,  Wales,  in  1791,  re- 
moved at  an  early  age  to  Liverpool.  His  talents  soon 
attracted  the  notice  of  Roscoe,  through  whose  influence 
he  was  enabled  in  181 7  to  visit  Rome.  He  studied  under 
Canova,  and  afterwards  under  Thorwaldsen.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  the  groups  of  "  Mars  and  Cupid" 
and  "  Psyche  borne  liy  Zephyrs,"  a  "  Narcissus,"  a 
"  Wounded  Amazon,"  and  other  productions  of  a  poetical 
character,  which  are  regarded  as  models  of  classic  ele- 
gance. His  statues  of  Queen  Victoria,  Huskisson,  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  and  others,  are  less  admired,  owing  in  part 
to  their  being  represented  in  antique  costume.  Gibson 
also  favoured  the  practice  of  painting  statues,  which  was 
opposed  by  his  brother  artists.    Died  in  1866. 

See  "Life  of  John  Gibson,"  edited  by  Lady  Eastlake,  1869; 
"Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  March,  1866. 

■Gib'son,  (John  Bannister,)  an  eminent  American 
jurist,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1780.  His  father,  Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel Gibson,  was  killed  in  Saint  Clair's  expe- 
dition against  the  Indians  in  1791.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1803.  He  was  repeatedly  re-elected  to  the 
State  legislature  by  the  then  Republican  party,  and  was 
appointed  presiding  judge  of  one  of  the  judicial  districts 
in  1813.  He  became  in  1816  asllociate  justice  of  the 
supreme  court  of  Pennsylvania,  and  succeeded  Judge 
Tilghman  as  chief  justice  in  1827.  In  consequence  of  a 
change  in  the  constitution  of  the  State,  making  the  offices 
of  judges  elective,  he  was  deprived  of  his  seat  in  185 1, 
but  was  elected  an  associate  justice  the  same  year.  He 
died  in  Philadelphia  in  1853,  having  occupied  a  promi- 
nent position  as  a  judge  for  about  forty  years. 

For  some  excellent  and  discriminating,  though  eulogistic,  remarks 
on  his  character,  by  Chief-Justice  Black,  see  Harris's  "Penn- 
sylvania State  Reports,"  vol.  vii.  pp.  10-14;  see,  also,  a  biographical 
sketch  of  Chief-Justice  Gibson,  by  W.  A.  Porter,  Esq.,  1855. 

Gibson,  (Richard,)  an  English  painter  and  dwarf, 
born  in  1615,  excelled  particularly  in  water-colours.  He 
was  three  feet  ten  inches  high  ;  and  his  wife  was  of 
exactly  the  same  stature.  Of  five  children  who  grew  to 
maturity,  all  were  of  usual  size.  Gibson  was  appointed 
preceptor  to  the  princesses  Mary  and  Anne,  daughters 
of  James  II.    Died  in  1690. 

Gibson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  naturalist  and  Prot- 
estant divine,  was  distinguished  for  his  learning.  He 
wrote  works  on  various  subjects.    Died  in  1562. 

Gibson,  (Thomas  Milner,)  a  Liberal  English  legis- 
lator, born  at  Trinida.d  in  1807.  He  entered  Parliament 
in  1837  as  member  for  Ipswich,  and  became  an  effective 
orator  of  the  Anti-Corn-Law  League.  In  1841  he  was 
returned  to  Parliament  for  Manchester.  He  was  ap- 
pointed a  privy  councillor  and  vice-president  of  the  board 
of  trade  in  1846,  but  resigned  in  1848.  His  opposition 
to  the  Russian  war  rendered  him  so  unpopular  that  he 
was  defeated  at  the  general  election  of  1857.  About  the 
end  of  that  year  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament 
by  the  voters  of  Ashton-under-Lyne.  He  was  appointed 
president  of  the  board  of  trade  (with  a  seat  in  the  cabi- 
net) by  Palmerston  in  1859.  He  is  identified  with  the 
"Manchester  school"  in  politics.  In  June,  1866,  he  re- 
tired from  office. 


i,  c,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n5t;  good;  moon  ; 


GIBSON  103 1 


GIGGEI 


Gibson,  (William,)  a  self-taught  English  mathe- 
matician, born  near  Appleby  in  1720.  He  became  a 
school-teacher  and  land-surveyor.    Died  in  1 791. 

Gibson,  (William,)  an  eminent  American  surgeon, 
born  in  Baltimore,  Maryland,  in  1788,  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  in  1809,  and  succeeded  Dr. 
Physick  as  professor  of  surgery  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1819.  He  resigned  this  position  in  1855. 
Died  at  Savannah,  in  Georgia,  in  1868.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  American  surgeons  who  performed  the  Caesarian 
operation  with  complete  success.  (See  "  American  Jour- 
nal of  Medical  Sciences"  for  May,  1838.) 

See  Dr.  Carson's  "  History  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,"  1869. 

Gichtel,  giK'tel,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  mystic, 
born  at  Ratisbon  in  1638,  professed  doctrines  similar  to 
those  of  Jacob  Boehme.  His  disciples  obtained  the 
name  of  Gichtelians,  or  Angelic  Brothers.  He  published 
a  work  entitled  "Practical  Theosophy."    Died  in  1710. 

See  Reinbeck,  "  Sur  la  Vie  et  les  Doctrines  de  Gichtel,"  Berlin, 
1732. 

■Gid'dings,  (Joshua  Reed,)  a  distinguished  leader  in 
the  anti-slavery  movement  in  the  United  States,  was  born 
in  Athens,  Pennsylvania,  in  1795.  I"  ^^^S  his  parents 
were  among  the  first  settlers  in  Ashtabula  county,  Ohio, 
(Western  Reserve.)  He  commenced  the  practice  of  law 
In  1820,  and  in  1838  was  elected  a  representative  to  Con- 
gress, which  position  he  held  by  subsequent  re-elections 
for  twenty-one  years.  He  united  with  Mr.  Adams  in  his 
memorable  struggle  for  the  overthrow  of  the  obnoxious 
*' gag-law,"  enacted  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the 
agitation  of  the  slavery  question.  In  1842  Mr.  Giddings 
was  censured  by  a  Congressional  vote  of  125  to  69  for 
his  agitation  of  slavery.  He  instantly  resigned  his  seat, 
but  was  soon  after  re-elected  by  a  large  majority.  He 
acted  for  the  most  part  with  the  Whig  party,  voting  for 
Harrison  in  1840  and  for  Clay  in  1844,  ^^'^^  he  supported 
Van  Buren  in  1848.  While  in  Congress  he  took  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  all  the  debates  on  tlie  slavery  question, 
including  the  fugitive-slave  law  of  1850,  the  repeal  of 
the  Missouri  Compromise  in  1854,  etc.  In  March,  1861, 
he  was  appointed  consul-general  for  the  British  North 
American  j^rovinces.  Died  at  Montreal,  May  27,  1864. 
He  published  two  volumes  of  essays  and  speeches,  a 
work  entitled  "The  Exiles  (^f  Florida,"  (1858,)  and  "The 
Rebellion,  its  Authors  and  Causes,"  (New  York,  1864.) 

Giddings,  (Salmon,)  a  pioneer  missionary  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  was  born  at  Hartford,  Coimecticut, 
in  1782.  He  organized  eleven  churches  in  Missouri  and 
Illinois,  and  visited  many  of  the  Indian  tribes  in  what 
are  now  Kansas  and  Nebraska.    Died  in  1828. 

■Gid'e-pn,  [Heb.  p>nj ;  Fr.  G6d6on,  zhiW6N',]  an 
Israelite  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  and  son  of  Joash, 
became  judge  of  Israel.  His  nation  had  been  suffering 
seven  years  under  the  tyranny  of  the  Midianites,  when 
a  heavenly  messenger  was  sent  to  Gideon,  commanding 
him  to  take  arms  in  defence  of  his  country.  With  three 
hundred  men  he  totally  defeated  the  Midianites.  Gideon 
was  judge  of  Israel  forty  years.    Died  about  1236  B.C. 

See  Judges  vi.,  vii.,  and  viii. 

Gie,  de,  deh  zhe'V,  (Pierre  de  Rohan — deh  ro'6N',) 
a  French  marshal,  born  in  Brittany  about  1450.  He  en- 
joyed the  favour  and  confidence  of  Louis  XI.  and  his 
successor  Charles  VI H.,  whom  he  accompanied  in  his 
Italian  expedition.  He  was  appointed  by  Louis  XII. 
preceptor .  to  the  young  prince,  afterwards  Francis  I. 
He  was  subsequently  deprived  of  his  dignities,  on  a 
charge  of  having  abused  his  authority.    Died  in  1513. 

See  Brantome,  "  Histoire  des  grands  Capitaines." 

Giedroyc,  ge-VdRoits,  (R.  Thaddp:us,)  Prince,  a 
Polish  ger.eral,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1750.  He  served 
with  distinction  against  the  Russians  in  the  campaigns 
of  1792  and  1794,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.    Died  in  1824. 

Gierig,  gee'rio,  (Gottlier  Erdmann,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Wehrau,  Lusatia,  in  1753.  He  pub- 
lished go<)d  editions  of  Ovid  (1784)  and  of  Pliny  the 
Yoimger,  and  several  original  treatises.    Died  in  1814. 

Giesecke.    See  Gisi'Kk. 

Gieseler,  gee'zeh-ler,  (Johann  Karl  Ludwtg,)  a 
German  Protestant  theologian,  distinguished  as  an  eccle- 


siastical historian,  was  born  at  Petershagen,  near  Minden, 
about  1792.  He  published  in  1818  an  able  "Historical 
and  Critical  Essay  on  the  Origin  of  the  Gospels,"  and 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Bonn  in  1819. 
He  obtained  the  chair  of  theology  at  Gottingen  in  183 1. 
His  principal  work  is  his  "  Manual  of  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory," which  was  not  completed  until  after  his  death. 
Died  in  1854. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Giffen.van,  vtn  giffen,  [Lat.  Gipha'nius,]  (Hukert,) 
a  Flemish  philologist  and  eminent  jurist,  born  in  1534. 
The  em])eror  Rudolph  II.  made  him  councillor  and  re- 
ferendary of  the  empire.  His  treatises  on  law  and  phi- 
lology are  greatly  esteemed.    Died  in  1604. 

Gif ford,  (Andrew,)  an  English  Baptist  minister  and 
noted  antiquary,  born  in  1700.  He  preached  in  London, 
and  became  assistant  librarian  of  the  British  Museum 
in  1 757.  He  published  a  new  edition  of  Folkes's  "  Tables 
of  English  Coins,"  (1763.)    Died  in  1784. 

Gifford,  (John,)  the  assumed  name  of  John  Richard 
Greene,  an  English  journalist,  born  in  1758.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  "British  Critic"  and  "The 
Anti-Jacobin  Review,"  and  wrote,  among  other  works, 
a  "Life  of  the  Right  Hon.  William  Pitt."  Died  in  1818. 

Gifford,  (Richard,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  1725, 
became  rector  of  North  Okendon  in  1772.  He  wroie 
"Contemplation,"  a  poem,  and  "Answer  to  Dr.  Priest- 
ley's Disquisition  on  Matter  and  Spirit."    Died  in  1807. 

Gifford,  jif  ford,  (Rohert,)  Baron  Saint  Leonard's,  an 
able  English  lawyer,  born  at  Exeter  in  1779.  He  was 
appointed  solicitor-general  in  181 7,  and  attorney-general 
in  1819.  In  this  capacity  he  conducted  the  prosecution 
of  Queen  Caroline  in  1820,  after  which  he  received  the 
title  of  baron.  He  became  master  of  the  rolls  and  chief 
justice  of  the  common  pleas  in  1824.    Died  in  1826. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  ix. 

■Gifford,  (Sanford  R.,)  a  distinguished  Americati 
landscape-painter,  born  in  vSaratoga  county.  New  York. 
He  resided  in  early  life  at  Hudson,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Catskill  Mountains.  Among  his  works,  which  are  highly 
praised  by  Tuckerman,  are  the  "  Coming  Storm," 
"  Waves  Breaking  on  the  Beach  at  Early  Dawn,"  and 
"Morning  in  the  Mountains." 

See  Tuckrrman's  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Gifford,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  critic  and 
author,  and  principal  founder  of  the  "  Quarterly  Review," 
was  born  at  Ashburton,  Devonshire,  in  April,  1757. 
He  was  a  shoemaker's  apprentice  for  about  five  years, 
and  afterwards  studied  at  Oxford.  He  began  his  literary 
career  by  "The  Baviad,"  a  poetical  satire,  (1794,)  which 
was  highly  successful.  His  satire  "  The  Maeviad"  ( 1 795) 
was  also  much  admired.  In  1797  Gifford  was  editor  of 
"The  Anti-Jacobin."  In  1802  he  produced  a  poetical 
version  of  Juvenal,  which  is  highly  commended.  He 
was  editor  of  the  "Quarterly  Review"  from  1809  until 
1824,  during  which  period  he  showed  himself  a  bitter 
partisan  of  Toryism  and  a  severe  critic  of  authors,  whom 
"he  regarded,"  says  Southey,  "as  a  fishmonger  regards 
eels,  or  as  Izaak  Walton  did  worms,  slugs,  and  frogs." 
He  was  a  powerful  master  of  sarcasm,  and  unsparing  in 
the  use  of  it.    Died  in  December,  1826. 

"  William  Gifford,"  says  Mr.  Whipple,  "seems  to  have 
united  in  himself  all  the  bad  qualities  of  the  criticism 
of  his  time.  He  was  fierce,  dogmatic,  bigoted,  libellous, 
and  unsympathizing.  Whatever  may  have  been  his 
talents,  they  were  exquisitely  unfitted  for  his  position, — 
his  literary  judgments  being  contemptible,  where  any 
sense  of  beauty  was  required."  ("North  American 
Review"  for  October,  1845,  vol.  Ixi.) 

See  "Autobiography"  prefixed  to  his  translation  of  Juvenal,  and 
"Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  vii. 

9-i-gan'tes,  [Gr.  ViyavTe^ ;  Fr.  Geants,  zha'Sx',] 
gigantic  beings  of  classic  mythology,  supposed  to  be  the 
sons  of  Terra  or  Tartarus,  and  to  have  waged  war  against 
the  gods.  Some  ancient  poets  confounded  them  with 
the  Titans.  They  were  conquered  by  the  gods,  but  not 
until  the  latter  obtained  the  aid  of  Hercules, 

See  Smith's  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and 
Mythology." 

Giggei,  jM-ja'ee,  or  Giggeo,  j^d-ja'o,  [Lat.  Gigc.e'- 
lus,]  (Ant(^nio,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastic  and  Orientalist, 


€  as     9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     ((J:^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GIGLl 


1032 


GILBERT 


was  patronized  by  Pope  Urban  VIII.  He  published  a 
"Thesaurus  Linguae  Arabics,"  which  had  a  high  repu- 
tation at  that  time.  Giggei  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Cardinal  Federigo  Borromeo.    Died  in  1632. 

Gigli,  j^l'yee,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  dramatist  and 
satirist,  born  at  Sienna  in  1660.  His  original  name  was 
Nenci,  (nSn'chee.)  He  wrote  successful  comedies  and 
tragedies,  among  which  were  a  translation  of  Moliere's 
"Tartuffe."  entitled  "Don  Pilone,"  (171 1,)  and  "The 
Sister  of  Don  Pilone,"  (172 1,)  in  which  he  burlesqued 
himself  and  his  wife.  He  attacked  the  Academy  della 
Crusca  in  his  "  Vocabulary  of  the  Works  of  Saint  Cathe- 
rine," ("  Vocabolario  delle  Opere  di  Santa  Caterina," 
171 7.)  He  is  called  an  original  genius  byGinguene.  Died 
at  Rome  in  1722. 

See  F.  CoRSETTi,  "Vita  di  G.  Gigli,"i746;  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia 
degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Gignoux,  zh^n'yoo',  (Francisque  Regis — ri'zh^ss',) 
a  French  landscape-painter,  born  in  Lyons  about  1816. 
He  emigrated  to  New  York  about  1840,  and  produced 
pictures  of  American  scenery,  among  which  is  "Niagara 
Falls  by  Moonlight." 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Gigot,  zhe'go',  (Philippe  FRA.xgois  Mathieu,)  a 
Belgian  writer,  born  at  Brussels  in  1793.  He  wrote  an 
"Abridged  History  of  Holland,"  (1820.)    Died  in  1819. 

Gigot  d'Elbee.    See  Elh^;e. 

Gigoux,  zhe'goo',  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Besan^on  in  1806,  obtained  a  medal  of  the  first 
class  at  Paris  in  1848.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Mag- 
dalene," "The  Death  of  Cleopatra,"  "The  Baptism  of 
Clovis,"  and  a  portrait  of  Lamartine. 

Gil,  Heel  or  h^I,  a  Spanish  friar,  distinguished  as  a 
preacher,  born  in  Andalusia  about  1745  ;  died  in  1815. 

•Gil'bart,  (James  William,)  an  English  writer  on 
banking,  born  in  London  about  1794,  was  manager  of 
the  London  and  Westminster  Bank.  He  published  a 
"Practical  Treatise  on  Banking,"  (1827;  6th  edition, 
1855,)  and  other  esteemed  works.    Died  in  1863, 

•Gilbert,  called  the  Universal,  an  English  prelate, 
who  received  his  surname  on  account  of  his  great  learn- 
ing. He  was  created  Bishop  of  London  in  1128.  Died 
in  1 134. 

See  B.  Haureau,  "De  la  Philosophie  scolastique." 

Gilbert,  zhM'baiR',  (Antoine  Pierre  Marte,)  a 
French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1785.  He  published 
historical  descriptions  of  the  cathedrals  of  Rouen,  Char- 
tres,  and  Amiens.    Died  in  1858. 

Gilbert,  (Charles  C.,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
Ohio  in  1827,  became  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in 
the  United  States  army  in  1862. 

Gilbert,  (Davies,)  a  distinguished  English  savant, 
whose  original  name  was  Giddy,  born  in  Cornwall  in 
1767.  He  was  president  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  was 
noted  for  his  generous  patronage  of  literary  and  scientific 
men.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  recognize  the  genius 
of  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  whom  he  materially  assisted  in 
early  life  and  introduced  to  the  notice  of  the  man- 
agers of  the  Royal  Institution.  He  published  "A  Plain 
Statement  of  the  Bullion  Question,"  and  other  learned 
treatises.  In  1827  he  succeeded  Sir  Humphry  Davy  as 
president  of  the  Royal  Society ;  he  resigned  this  posi- 
tion in  1830.    Died  in  1839. 

Gilbert,  (Gahriel,)  a  French  dramatic  poet,  born 
about  1610.  His  works  are  numerous,  but  have  little 
merit.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  some  of  the  best 
French  writers — Racine,  for  exami^le — have  sometimes 
borrowed  from  him.  He  was  ])atronized  by  Christina, 
Queen  of  Sweden,  who  invited  him,  after  her  abdication, 
to  her  court  in  France,  and  made  him  her  secretary. 
Died  about  1680. 

See  MM.  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Gilbert,  (Sir  Geoffrey  or  Jeffrey,)  an  English  jurist, 
born  in  1674,  became  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer  in 
Ireland,  (17 16,)  and  in  England,  (1725.)  He  wrote  the 
"Forum  Romanum,"  (1756,)  "  History  and  Practice  of 
Chancery,"  (1758,)  and  other  legal  works.   Died  in  1726. 

Gilbert,  (Sir  Humphrey,)  a  celebrated  English  navi- 
'gator,  born  of  an  ancient  family  in  Devonshire  in  1539. 
By  the  marriage  of  his  mother,  after  becoming  a  widow, 


with  Mr.  Raleigh,  he  was  half-brother  to  the  famous  Sit 
Walter  Raleigh.  After  leaving  Oxford,  he  distinguished 
himself  in  several  military  enterjirises.  As  commander- 
in-chief  in  the  province  of  Munster,  he  assisted  in 
quelling  the  insurrection  in  Ireland.  He  published  in 
1576  a  "  Discourse  to  Prove  a  Passage  by  the  Northwest 
to  Cathaia,"  etc.  He  obtained  letters-patent  from  the 
queen  in  1578,  with  permission  to  make  discoveries  in 
North  America  and  take  possession  of  any  ])art  yet 
unoccupied.  His  first  expedition  to  Newfoundland  was 
unsuccessful ;  but  in  1583  he  again  set  sail.  "The  com- 
mander," says  Bancroft,  "on  the  eve  of  his  departure 
received  from  Elizabeth  a  golden  anchor  guided  by  a 
lady,  a  token  of  the  queen's  regard."  When  he  arrived 
in  the  Bay  of  Saint  John,  he  took  possession  in  the 
queen's  name  of  the  surrounding  country,  and  granted 
leases  to  those  of  his  company  who  desired  them.  It 
having  been  represented  to  him  that  there  were  silver- 
mines  in  Newfoundland,  he  sailed,  with  his  little  fleet 
of  three  vessels,  along  that  coast.  They  had  not  gone 
far,  however,  when,  owing  to  the  negligence  of  the  crew, 
their  largest  ship  was  wrecked  and  nearly  all  on  board 
perished.  Gilbert  now  set  sail  for  England  in  the  Squirrel, 
a  vessel  of  only  ten  tons.  He  was  requested  to  go  on 
board  the  larger  vessel,  called  the  Hind;  but  he  refused 
to  leave  the  little  company  who  had  shared  with  him  so 
many  dangers.  They  encountered  very  rough  seas,  and 
the  little  bark  was  in  the  greatest  danger.  "The  general, 
sitting  abaft,  with  a  book  in  his  hand,  cried  out  to  those 
in  the  Hind,  '  We  are  as  near  to  heaven  by  sea  as  by 
land.'  That  same  night,  about  twelve  o'clock,  the  lights 
of  the  Squirrel  suddenly  disappeared,  and  neither  the 
vessel  nor  any  of  its  crew  was  ever  again  seen." 

See  Bancroft,  "History  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  i.  chap.  iii. ; 
Prince,  "  Worthies  of  Devon  ;"  F.  Denis,  "Genie  dela  Navigation  ;" 
Hii.DKETH,  "History  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  i.  chap,  iii.;  J. 
Barrow,  "Memoirs  of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen  Elizabeth's 
Reign,"  1845. 

Gilbert,  (John,)  an  English  historical  painter,  born 
in  Kent  in  1817.  Among  his  works  are  "  The  Murder 
of  Thomas  a  Becket,"  and  "  Don  Quixote  giving  Advice 
to  Sancho  Panza." 

Gilbert,  (John  Graham,)  a  painter  of  history  and 
portraits,  was  born  at  Glasgow  in  1794. 

Gilbert,  (L.  T.,)  a  French  dramatist  and  novelist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1780;  died  in  1827. 

Gilbert,  giKb^Rt,  (Ludwig  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
physician,  born  in  Berlin  in  1769.  He  founded  in  1799 
"The  Annals  of  Physics  and  Chemistry,"  ("Annalen 
der  Physik  undChymie,"  150  vols.)    Died  in  1824, 

See  L.  Choulant,  "  L.  W.  Gilberts  Leben  und  Wirkeii,"  1825. 

Gilbert,  (Nicolas  Joseph  Laurent,)  an  excellent 
French  satiric  and  lyric  poet,  born  near  Remiremont, 
in  Lorraine,  in  1751.  He  became  a  resident  of  Paris  in 
1774,  with  no  resources  but  his  talents.  In  1775  he  pro- 
duced a  satire  against  the  skeptical  philosophers,  called 
"  The  Eighteenth  Century."  His  odes  "  On  the  Jubilee," 
(1776,)  "On  the  Present  War,"  (1778,)  and  his  poem 
entitled  "At  the  Banquet  of  Life"  ("  Au  Banquet  de  la 
Vie")  contain  passages  of  great  beauty.  According  to 
the  "Biographie  Universelle,"  he  became  insane,  swal- 
lowed a  key,  and  died  in  November,  1780.  His  death 
is  attributed  to  a  fall  from  a  horse  by  the  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generate,"  which  calls  him  "the  most  emi- 
nent satirist  of  the  eighteenth  century." 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  Pinard,  "Gilbert,  ou  le 
Poete  malheureux,"  1840;  "Memoires  de  la  Marquise  de  Craquy." 

Gilbert,  (Nicolas  Pikrre,)  a  French  physician  and 
medical  writer,  born  at  Brest  in  1751.  He  became  pro- 
fessor at  Val-de-Grace,  Paris,  in  1796,  and  physician-in- 
chief  to  the  grand  army  in  1806.    Died  in  1814. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Gilbert,  (Pierre  Julien,)  a  French  painter  of  ma- 
rine views,  born  at  Brest  in  1783. 

Gilbert,  Saint,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  accompanied 
the  second  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land.    Died  in  11 52. 

Gilbert,  (Thomas,)  an  English  nonconformist  minis- 
ter, born  about  1612  ;  died  in  1694. 

Gilbert  or  Gilberd,  (William,)  an  eminent  English 
physiciaii  and  scientific  writer,  born  at  Colchester  in 
1540,    Having  taken  his  degree  in  a  foreign  university, 


a,e,  1,  o,  u,  y,^;/^;i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \x,y,  short;  ^,^,\,(},odscure;  f^r,  fill,  f4t;  mht;  ndt;  p  iod;  moon; 


GILBERT 


1033 


GILJ 


he  was,  after  his  return  to  England,  chosen  a  Fellow  of 
the  College  of  Physicians,  in  London.  He  acquired  a 
high  reputation  in  his  profession,  and  became  physician- 
in-ordinary  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  His  great  work  entitled 
"On  the  Magnet,  the  Magnetic  Bodies,"  etc.  ("  De  Mag- 
nete,  Magneticisque  Corporibus,"  etc.)  came  out  in  1600. 
His  reputation  was  at  once  established  by  this  produc- 
tion, which  presents  many  original  and  striking  views. 
"It  contains,"  says  Whewell,  "all  the  fundamental  facts 
of  the  science,  so  fully  examined,  indeed,  that  even  at 
this  day  we  have  little  to  add  to  them."  It  was  eulogized 
by  Erasmus,  Galileo,  and  other  eminent  men  of  the  time. 
Died  in  1603. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses;"  Humboldt,  "Cosmos." 

Gilbert  [Lat.  Gilber'tus]  of  Sempringham,  Saint, 
an  English  ecclesiastic,  born  m  Lincolnshire  in  1083,  was 
the  founder  of  the  order  of  Gilbertines.  He  established 
thirteen  monasteries  and  a  number  of  hospitals.  Died 
in  1 1 89. 

Gilbert  de  la  Porr6,  zh^rbaiR'  deh  It  po'ri',  [Lat. 
Gisleber'tus  Porreta'nus,]  a  French  theologian  and 
scholastic  philosopher,  born  at  Poitiers  about  1070.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Poitiers,  and  wrote  a  celebrated  work 
called  "  Book  of  Six  Principles,"  ("Liber  sex  Principio- 
rum.")    He  was  a  realist  in  philosophy.    Died  in  1154. 

See  B.  Haur^au,  "  De  la  Philosophic  scolastique." 

Gilbert  de  Voisins,  zh^l'baiR'  deh  vwa^ziN',( Pierre 
Paul  Alexandre,)  Comte,  a  French  judge,  born  near 
Paris  in  1779.  He  was  appointed  first  president  of  the 
imperial  court  under  Napoleon,  and  in  1830  became  a 
member  of  the  court  of  cassation.    Died  in  1843. 

■Gil'christ,  (Alexander,)  a  British  writer  on  art, 
born  about  1827.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  William  Etty," 
(2  vols.,  1855.)    Died  in  1861. 

Gilchrist,  (Ebenezer,)  a  Scottish  physician,  born  at 
Dumfries  in  1707.  He  practised  at  his  native  place  with 
success,  and  wrote  "On  the  Use  of  Sea- Voyages  in 
Medicine,"  (1756.)    Died  in  1774. 

<Jil'christ,  (John  Borthwick,)  an  English  Oriental- 
ist, born  in  1759.  He  published  several  valuable  works 
on  the  Hindostanee  language.    Died  in  1841. 

Gilchrist,  (Octavius,)  an  English  dramatic  critic, 
born  at  Twickenham  in  1779.  He  wrote  a  "Letter  to 
W.  Gifford  on  a  Late  Edition  of  Ford's  Plays,"  (1811,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1823. 

Gil'das,  Saint,  surnamed  Sapiens,  (the  "Wise,")  an 
eminent  ecclesiastic,  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of 
Wales,  was  born  about  511  A.D.  Having  spent  several 
years  in  France  in  his  studies,  he  founded  after  his  re- 
turn a  church  and  school  in  Pembrokeshire,  On  the 
invitation  of  Saint  Bridget,  he  visited  Ireland,  where  he 
effected  a  great  reformation  in  the  Church.  He  after- 
wards founded  the  monastery  of  Saint  Gildas  de  Ruys 
in  Brittany.  The  work  entitled  "  De  Excidio  Britannias" 
has  been  ascribed  to  this  writer. 

See  LoBiNEAU,  "Vies  des  Saints  de  Bretagne." 

^il'do  or  Qril'don,  a  Mauritanian  chief,  son  of  Nabal, 
was  raised  by  the  emperor  Theodosius  to  the  chief  com- 
mand in  Africa.  In  the  quarrel  between  Arcadius  and 
Honorius  he  sided  with  the  former,  for  which  he  was 
declared  a  public  enemy  by  the  Romans.  His  army  was 
soon  after  defeated  by  the  Roman  forces  under  Mascezel, 
and  Gildo,  being  imprisoned,  destroyed  himself,  (398  A.D.) 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Gil'don,  (Charles,)  an  English  writer  and  actor, 
born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1665.  He  published  "The  Deist's 
Manual,"  (1705,)  "The  Complete  Art  of  Poetry,"  and 
several  dramas.  "His  memory  is  still  preserved,"  says 
Macaiilay,  "not  by  his  own  voluminous  works,  but  by 
two  or  three  lines  in  which  his  stupidity  and  venality 
have  been  contemptuously  mentioned  by  Pope."  Die^ 
in  1723. 

See  Leland,  "Deistical  Writers;"  Gibber,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 
Giles.    See  ^^Lgidius. 

Giles,  jTls,  (Henry,)  a  Unitarian  minister  and  writer, 
born  in  Wexford  county,  Ireland,  in  1809,  emigrated  to 
the  United  States  about  1840.  Among  his  works  are 
"Lectures  and  Essays,"  (2  vols.,  1845,)  and  "Christian 
Thouglits  on  Life,"  (1850.)  He  has  lectured  extensively 
in  the  United  States. 


Giles,  jTlz,  (Rev.  John  A.,)  an  English  editor  and 
historian,  born  about  1802.  He  published  a  number  of 
valuable  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Greek-and-English 
Lexicon,"  (1846,)  a  "History  of  the  Ancient  Britons," 
(2  vols.,  1847,)  and  "The  Life  and  Times  of  Alfred  the 
Great,"  (2d  edition,  1854.)  He  edited  the  "Entire 
Works  of  the  Venerable  Bede,"  (12  vols.,  1843-44.) 

Giles,  (William  Branch,)  an  American  statesman 
and  orator,  born  in  Amelia  county,  Virginia,  in  1762. 
He  was  educated  at  Hampden-Sidney  College  and  at 
Princeton.  In  1790  he  was  elected  a  representative  to 
Congress  by  the  Federal  party,  but  soon  became  a  Demo- 
crat. He  made  in  1793  a  violent  attack  on  Hamilton, 
then  secretary  of  the  treasury,  and  offered  resolutions 
censuring  him  for  an  undue  assumption  of  power  ;  but 
these  were  not  adopted  by  the  House.  He  vigorously 
opposed  Jay's  treaty  with  England  in  1796.  Having 
retired  from  Congress  in  1798  to  accept  a  seat  in  the 
Virginia  legislature,  he  co-operated  with  Madison  in 
procuring  the  passage  of  the  celebrated  resolutions  of 
1798  against  the  alien  and  sedition  laws.  He  was  again 
a  representative  in  Congress  in  1 801-2,  and  in  1804  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate.  In  this  body  he 
continued  to  be  one  of  the  ablest  supporters  of  the  ad- 
ministrations of  Jefferson  and  Madison  until  1811  or  1812, 
when  he  took  sides  with  the  opposition.  He  retired 
from  the  Senate  in  1815.  In  1825  he  was  again  a  can- 
didate for  re-election,  but  was  defeated  by  John  Randolph. 
He  was  chosen  Governor  of  Virginia  in  1827,  In  1829 
the  famous  Constitutional  Convention  met ;  and,  though 
Governor  of  the  State,  he  served  as  a  delegate,  and  took 
a  conspicuous  part  in  its  deliberations.    Died  in  1830. 

"Mr.  Giles,"  says  Senator  Benton,  "was  considered  by 
Mr.  Randolph  to  be  in  our  House  of  Representatives 
what  Charles  Fox  was  admitted  to  be  in  the  British 
House  of  Commons, — the  most  accomplished  debater 
that  his  country  had  ever  seen.  But  their  acquired 
advantages  were  very  different :  Fox  was  a  ripe  scholar, 
Giles  neither  read  nor  studied;  Fox  perfected  himself 
in  the  House,  speaking  on  every  subject,  Giles  out  of 
the  House,  talking  to  everybody." 

See  Benton's  "Thirty  Years'  View."  etc. 

Giles  de  Corbeil.    See  ^gidius  Corboliensis. 

Giles  of  Viterbo.    See  ^gidius  of  Viterbo. 

•Gll-fil'lan,  (Rev.  George,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  in 
Perthshire  in  1813.  He  published  in  1845  his  "Gallery 
of  Literary  Portraits,"  which  was  favourably  received, 
and  was  followed  by  a  second  and  a  third  series  in  1849 
and  1855.  Among  his  other  works  are  "The  Book  of 
British  Poesy,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  "The  Martyrs, 
Heroes,  and  Bards  of  the  Scottish  Covenant,"  and 
"The  Bards  of  the  Bible."  "Gilfillan  is  sometimes 
happy  in  his  metaphors  and  apt  in  his  allusions,  but  is 
more  likely  to  be  extravagant  in  the  one  and  grotesque 
in  the  other."    (Allibone's  "Dictionary  of  Authors.") 

Gilfillan,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at  Dunferm- 
line about  1798.  He  wrote  songs  and  other  poems,  (4th 
edition,  185 1.)    Died  in  1850. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  the  Author,"  prefixed  to  the  edition  of  his 
poems,  1851;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen." 

Gilianez,zhe-le-^''n§z,  or  Gilles-Anes,  a  Portuguese 
navigator,  who  made  discoveries  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa  about  1435. 

Gilibert,  zhe'le^DaiR',  (Jean  Immanuel,)  a  French 
physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1741.  He 
planted  a  botanic  garden  at  Grodno  about  1775, 
returned  to  Lyons  in  1783.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Medical  Anarchy,"  ("  L'Anarchie  medicinale," 
3  vols.,  1772,)  which  was  commended  by  Haller,  "  P"lora 
Lithuanica,"  (1781,)  a  "History  of  the  Plants  of  Europe, 
or  Elements  of  Practical  Botany,"  (2  vols,,  1798,)  and  an 
"  Abridgment  of  the  Natural  System  of  Linnaeus,"  (1802.) 
Died  in  1814. 

See  J.  M0LI.ET,  "]£!oge  historique  de  J.  E.  Gilibert,"  1 816 ; 
QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Gilimer.    See  Gelimer. 

Gilj  or  Gilii,  jee'le-ee  or  j^Kyee,  (Filippo  Luigi,)  an 
Italian  astronomer  and  botanist,  born  at  Cornetoin  1756, 
was  director  of  the  observatory  founded  by  Gregory  XIII. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1821. 


«  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  I  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Si^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GILKENS 


1034 


OILMAN 


Gilkens,  Hil'kens,  (Peter,)  a  jurist  and  legal  writer, 
born  at  Ruremond,  Netherlands,  about  1558. 

■Gill,  (Rev.  Alexander,)  an  English  scholar  and 
theologian,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1564.  He  was  the 
author  of  "  Sacred  Philosophy  of  the  Holy  Scriptures," 
and  of  several  educational  works.    Died  in  1635. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Gill,  (Alexander,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  London  in  1597.  He  became  usher,  and  afterwards 
head-master,  of  Saint  Paul's  School.  Among  his  pupils 
was  the  poet  Milton,  who  in  some  of  his  letters  has 
expressed  much  esteem  for  him.    Died  in  1642. 

Gill,  (John,)  an  English  Baptist  divine,  of  great  learn- 
ing, born  at  Kettering,  Northamptonshire,  in  1 697.  He 
was  well  versed  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin.  In  17 19 
he  settled  in  London,  as  pastor  of  a  congregation  at 
Horsleydown,  where  he  preached  for  fifty  years.  He 
published  an  "Exposition  of  the  New  Testament,"  (3 
vols.,  1746-48,)  and  an  "Exposition  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment," (6  vols.,  1748-63,)  which  are  highly  esteemed  by 
the  Baptists.  Among  his  numerous  other  works  is  "A 
Body  of  Doctrinal  and  Practical  Divinity,"  (3  vols.,  1769 
-70.)    Died  in  1771. 

See  '*  Life  of  Gill,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Exposition  of  the  Bible,"  1809. 

Gille.  zh^l,  (Charles  Eugene,)  a  French  lyric  poet 
and  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1820,  published  "The 
Barber  of  Pezenas,"  a  comedy,  and  a  number  of  popular 
songs.    He  committed  suicide  in  1856. 

Gilles,  zh^l,  (Jean,)  a  French  musical  composer,  born 
at  Tarascon  in  1669;  died  in  1705. 

Gilles,  (Nicole,)  a  French  historian,  who  was  secr^- 
taire-controletir  of  the  treasury  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
VIH.  He  wrote  "Annals  of  France,"  a  work  of  some 
merit,  often  reprinted.    Died  in  1503. 

Gilles,  (Pierre,)  a  flench  naturalist,  born  at  Albi  in 
1490.  He  travelled  in  the  Levant  for  scientific  purposes. 
"He  was  one  of  the  first  in  France,"  says  Weiss,  "who 
cultivated  natural  history  with  success."  ("Biographic 
Universelle.")  He  published,  in  Latin,  a  work  "  On  the 
Nature  of  Animals,"  (1533,)  consisting  chiefly  of  trans- 
lations from  yElian,  a  "Treatise  on  the  Antiquities  of 
Constantinople,"  (1561,)  and  other  works.  Died  at  Rome 
in  1555. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  Mdmoires  ;"  Mor^ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Gilles,  zh^l,  (Pierre,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  minister, 
born  about  1570,  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Church  of 
the  Vaudois,"  (1644.) 

Gilles  de  Colonne.    See  Colonna,  (Egidio.) 

Gilles  de  Delft.    See  Delphus. 

■Gil-les'pie,  (George,)  a  Scottish  Presbyterian  theo- 
logian, who  was  one  of  the  commissioners  sent  to  the 
Assemblyof  Westminster  in  1643.  He  published  "  Treat- 
ises of  Miscellaneous  Questions,"  (1649,)  "The  Ark  of 
the  Testament  Opened,"  (2  vols.,  1661-77,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1648. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Gillespie,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, born  near  Edinburgh  about  1708.  He  founded,  about 
1750,  a  sect  called  the  "Synod  of  Relief."  Died  in  1774. 

■Gil-les'pie,  (William  Mitchell,)  LL.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can engineer  and  writer,  born  in  New  York  in  1816, 
He  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1834,  and  became 
professor  of  civil  engineering  in  Union  College  at  Sche- 
nectady in  1845.  His  principal  work  is  "Roads  and 
Railroads:  a  Manual  for  Road-Making,"  (1845,)  ^^'^^ 
to  be  one  of  the  best  treatises  on  the  subject  in  the 
English  language,  (7th  edition,  1854.)    Died  in  1868. 

Gillet,  zhe'iy,  (Nicolas  Franqois,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor, born  in  1709.  He  worked  in  Saint  Petersburg, 
returned  to  France  about  1778,  and  died  in  1791. 

Gilli,  j^Klee,  or  Gilj,  (Filippo  Salvator,)  an  Italian 
Jesuit  and  missionary,  born  near  Spoleto  in  1 721.  He 
spent  twenty-five  years  in  South  America,  and  published 
after  his  return  "The  Natural,  Civil,  and  Sacred  History 
of  the  Spanish  Provinces  in  South  America,"  which  was 
esteemed  one  of  the  best  works  that  had  been  written 
on  those  countries  until  Humboldt's  Travels  appeared. 
Died  in  1789. 

■Gil'lies,  (John,)  a  Scottish  historian,  born  at  Brechin, 
in  Forfarshire,  in  January,  1747.    He  published  in  1778 


his  translation  of  the  Orations  of  Lysias  and  Isocrates. 
The  first  part  of  his  principal  work,  "The  History  of 
Ancient  Greece  and  its  Colonies,"  (2  vols.  4to,)  came 
out  in  1786,  and  in  1793  he  succeeded  Dr.  Robertson  as 
royal  historiographer  of  Scotland.  He  afterwards  pub- 
lished his  "  History  of  the  World  from  the  Reign  of 
Alexander  to  that  of  Augustus,"  (2  vols.,  1807-10,)  which 
is  a  continuation  of  his  History  of  Greece.  He  died  at 
Clapham,  near  London,  in  1836. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement;)  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Gillies,  (Robert  Pierce,)  a  Scottish  writer,  favour- 
ably known  by  his  translations  from  the  German.  He 
lived  near  Edinburgh,  and  was  a  friend  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott  and  of  Wordsworth  the  poet.  He  was  the  first 
editor  of  the  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review,"  and  author 
of  various  works,  among  which  are  "  Childe  Alarique," 
a  poem,  and  autobiographic  "  Memoirs  of  a  Literary 
Veteran,"  (3  vols.,  1851.) 

See  Prescott's  "  Miscellanies,"  p.  180. 

Gill'more,  (Quincy  Adams,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Lorain  county,  Ohio,  about  1825,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1849.    He  gained  the  rank  of  captain  in 

1861,  and  that  of  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  early  in 

1862.  He  displayed  skill  as  an  engineer  by  the  capture 
of  Fort  Pulaski  in  April,  1862,  and  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  department  of  the  South  in  June,  1863. 
He  made  a  successful  attack  on  the  enemy's  fortified  po- 
sition on  Morris  Island  in  July,  began  to  bombard  Fort 
Sumter  and  Charleston  in  August,  and  took  Fort  Wag- 
ner in  September,  1863.  Fort  Sumter  was  reduced  to  a 
ruinous  condition  ;  but  its  garrison  continued  to  hold  it 
until  February  17,  1865.  He  also  damaged  Charleston 
by  batteries  about  four  and  a  half  miles  distant  from  that 
city.  He  commanded  the  tenth  corps  in  the  operations 
against  Petersburg  and  Richmond  in  the  summer  of  1864. 
He  was  appointed  a  brevet  major-general  of  the  regular 
army  in  March,  1865. 

See  Reid,  "Ohio  in  the  War,"  1868;  Greeley,  "American 
Conflict." 

Gillot,  zhe'yo',  (Claude,)  a  French  designer  and 
engraver,  born  at  Langres  in  1673,  was  the  master  of 
Watteau.  He  was  most  successful  in  etching.  His  com- 
positions are  chiefly  burlesque.  Died  in  Paris  in  1722. 

See  Basan,  " Dictioimaire  des  Graveurs." 

Gillot,  (Jacques,)  a  French  scholar,  born  at  Langres 
about  1550.  He  was  a  friend  of  Scaliger  and  Casaubon, 
and  one  of  the  authors  of  the  celebrated  "Satire  Menip- 
pee,"  which  contributed  greatly  to  the  success  of  Henry 
IV.  against  the  League.  He  wrote  "  Letters  to  Joseph 
Scaliger,"  which  were  printed.    Died  in  1619. 

See  Maimbourg,  "  Histoire  de  la  Ligue,"  vol.  iii. 

•Gill'ray,  (James,)  a  celebrated  English  caricaturist, 
born  about  1750,  excelled  both  in  drawing  and  engraving. 
The  satire  of  his  caricatures  was  directed  against  social 
and  political  abuses;  but  he  was  frequently  extravagant, 
and  indulged  in  too  great  personalities.    Died  in  1815. 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  i.,  second  series,  1853. 

Gilly,  zhe'ye',  (Jacques  Laurent,)  a  French  general 
of  division,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1769  ;  died  in  1829. 

GiFly,  (William  Stephen,)  an  English  writer,  born 
about  1790,  was  canon  of  Durham  and  vicar  of  Norham. 
He  published  "The  Spirit  of  the  Gospel,"  (1818,)  "Ex- 
cursion to  the  Mountains  of  Piedmont  and  Researches 
among  the  Vaudois,"  (1824,)  "Second  Visit,  or  Walden- 
sian  Researches,"  (1831,)  and  other  works.  i)ied  in  1855. 

GiFman,  (Caroline,)  an  American  authoress,  wife 
of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Gilnian,  was  born  in  Boston  in  1794. 
Among  her  most  popular  works  are  "  Recollections  of  a 
New  England  Housekeeper,"  and  "Recollections  of  a 
Southern  Matron."  She  has  also  published  "  Oracles 
for  Youth,"  (1854,)  "Sibyl,  or  New  Oracles  from  the 
Poets,"  (1854,)  and  "Jairus's  Daughter." 

See  Griswold's  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

Gilman,  (John  Taylor,)  an  American  Governor, 
born  at  Exeter,  New  Hampshire,  in  1759.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Continental  Congress  in  1782  and  1783, 
and  became  treasurer  of  his  State  in  the  latter  year. 
In  1797  he  was  elected  Governor  of  New  Hampshire 
by  the  Federalists.    He  was  re-elected  annually  until 


i,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,    i,  9,  obscure;  flr,  fill,  f^t;  met;  n6t ;  good;  moon; 


OILMAN 


GIOBERT 


1807,  was  a  very  popular  Governor,  and  filled  the  same 
office  in  1813,  1814,  and.1815.    Died  in  1828. 

Gilman,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine  and 
author,  born  in  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  in  1791, 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  181 1.  He  was  pastor  of  a 
Unitarian  church  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  from 
1819  until  his  death.  Among  his  works  are  "Memoirs 
of  a  New  England  Village  Choir,"  (1829,)  and  a  poem 
called  "  The  History  of  a  Ray  of  Light."    Died  in  1858. 

•Gil'mfr,  (Thomas  W.,)  a  Virginian  politician  and 
member  of  Congress.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of 
the  navy  by  President  Tyler,  and  was  killed  by  the 
explosion  of  a  large  gun  on  the  steamer  Princeton  in 
February,  1844. 

■GiPpin,  (Bernard,)  an  excellent  English  divine,  born 
in  Westmoreland  in  15 17.  He  was  appointed  one  of  the 
first  professors  of  Christ  Church  College  soon  after  it 
was  founded  by  Henry  VHI.  He  was  educated  in  the 
Catholic  faith ;  but  he  was  subsequently  converted  to 
Protestantism,  and,  soon  after  the  accession  of  Queen 
Mary,  visited  France  and  Holland.  Returning  to  Eng- 
land in  1556,  he  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Durham 
and  rector  of  Houghton-le-Spring,  in  the  county  of 
Durham,  during  the  reign  of  Mary.  The  reformation  he 
effected  among  the  lawless  borderers  of  this  region,  and 
his  bold  denunciations  of  the  wickedness  of  the  times, 
obtained  for  him  the  name  of  "  the  Apostle  of  the  North." 
He  refused  the  bishopric  of  Carlisle,  offered  him  by  Queen 
Elizabeth,  preferring  to  remain  at  Houghton,  where  he 
thought  his  labours  were  most  needed.    Died  in  1583. 

See  Wm,  Gilpin,  "Life  of  Bernard  Gilpin,"  1753;  G.  Carle- 
ton,  "  Vita  Bern.  Gilpini,"  1628. 

■GiPpin,  (Henry  D.,)  an  American  lawyer  and  classical 
scholar,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1 801.  He  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1819,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1822,  and  soon  became  distinguished  as  an 
able  lawyer.  In  1840  he  was  made  attorney-general  of 
the  United  States.  He  edited  the  papers  of  James 
Madison,  (3  vols.  8vo,  1840.)    Died  in  i860. 

See  "Memorial  of  Henry  D.  Gilpin,"  i860;  Allibone,  "Dic- 
tionary of  Authors." 

Gilpin,  (Richard,)  an  English  nonconformist  minis- 
ter, born  in  Cumberland  about  1625.  He  published  a 
"Treatise  of  Satan's  Temptations,"  (1677.)  Diedin  1699. 

Gilpin,  (Sawrey,)  an  English  painter,  brother  of 
William  Gilpin,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Carlisle  in 
1733.  His  favourite  subjects  were  horses  and  other 
animals,  which  he  painted  with  extraordinary  fidelity. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  "  Group  of  Tigers,"  and 
the  "Horses  of  Diomede."    Died  in  1807. 

See  Bryan,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Gilpin,  (Rev.  William,)  a  distinguished  English 
author,  born  at  Carlisle  in  1724.  He  taught  a  school  at 
Cheam,  in  Surrey,  until  one  of  his  pupils — Colonel  Mit- 
ford,  the  historian — procured  for  him  the  living  of  Boldre, 
in  Hampshire.  He  was  the  author  of  many  valuable  and 
well-written  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Life  of  Bernard 
Gilpin,"  (1753,)  a  "Life  of  Wickliff,"  (1765,)  a  "Life  of 
Cranmer,"  (1784,)  and  "  Essays  on  Picturesque  Beauty," 
etc.  He  described  and  illustrated  the  picturesque  scenery 
of  England  in  a  series  of  works,  with  plates  finely  en- 
graved by  himself.    Died  in  1804. 

Gil  Vicente,  zheel  or  zh^l  ve-s§n'ti,  an  eminent  Por- 
tuguese dramatist,  born  at  Barcellos  in  1485.  He  was 
patronized  by  King  John  HI.,  who,  it  is  said,  often  per- 
formed parts  in  his  comedies.  He  was  himself  an  actor, 
and  his  daughter  Paula  was  esteemed  the  first  Portuguese 
actress  of  her  time.  Gil  Vicente's  works  enjoyed  a  Eu- 
ropean reputation,  and  Erasmus  is  said  to  have  learned 
Portuguese  for  the  sole  purpose  of  reading  his  comedies. 
He  wrote  nearly  a  century  before  Lope  de  Vega  and  Shak- 
speare,  and  probably  did  more  than  any  other  to  build  up 
the  modern  drama.  His  compositions  include  tragedies, 
comedies,  and  farces  ;  also  autos,  or  religious  pieces  for 
Christmas  festivals.  Among  his  best  comedies  are  "  The 
Judge  of  Beyra,"  and  the  "  Portuguese  Fidalgo."  Died 
in  1557- 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Barbosa 
Machado,  "  Bibliotheca  Lusitana;"  Bouterwek,  "Litt^rature  Es- 
pagnole  et  Portugaise;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale,"  (under 
Vicente.) 


Gil  y  Zarate,  h61  e  thi-rS't^i,  (Don  Antonio,)  a 
Spanish  dramatist,  born  in  1793  at  the  Escurial,  where 
his  parents  resided  as  court  actors.  He  brought  out  in 
1835  tragedy  of  "Dona  Blanca  de  Borbon,"  which 
was  favourably  received,  and  was  soon  followed  by 
another,  entitled  "Carlos  II.  el  Hechizado,"  which  es- 
tablished his  reputation.  Among  his  other  dramas  we 
may  name  "  Rosamunda,"  and  "Guzman  el  Bueno:" 
the  latter  is  esteemed  his  best  piece.  Zarate  filled  sev- 
eral offices  under  the  government,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  history  at  Madrid,  and  a  member  of  the 
Spanish  Academy. 

Gimignano,  je-m^n-yS'no,  or  Geminiani,  ji-me-ne- 
S'nee,  (Giacinto,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Pistoia  in 
1611,  studied  under  Pietro  da  Cortona.  His  principal 
works  are  frescos  in  the  Lateran  at  Rome  and  the 
Niccolini  palace  at  Florence.  Died  in  1681.  His  son 
LoDovico  (1644-97)  was  a  painter  of  some  merit. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Gimma,  j^m'mS,  (Giacinto,)  an  Italian  writer,  born 
at  Bari  in  1668;  died  in  1735. 

Ginani,  je-nS'nee,  or  Zinani,  dze-n^'nee,  (Gabriel,) 
an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Reggio  about  1560.  Among  his 
works  is  "Amerigo,"  (1590,)  which  Tiraboschi  ranked 
with  the  best  Italian  tragedies  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Died  about  1635. 

Ginani,  (Giuseppe,)  Count,  an  Italian  naturalist, 
born  at  Ravenna  in  1692.  He  made  a  valuable  collection 
of  plants,  shells,  and  other  objects  of  natural  history,  on 
which  he  wrote  several  treatises.    Died  in  1753. 

Gines  or  Ginez.    See  Sepulveda. 

Ginguene,  zh^N^geh-ny,  (Pierre  Louis,)  an  eminent 
French  critic  and  litterateur,  born  at  Rennes  in  1748. 
He  became  a  resident  of  Paris  in  1772.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Revolution  he  favoured  the  republican  cause, 
but  always  showed  himself  a  friend  to  moderation.  He 
was  appointed  in  1795  director-general  of  the  commission 
of  public  instruction,  and  in  1798  was  ambassador  to  the 
King  of  Sardinia.  On  his  return  he  obtained,  in  1799 
or  1800,  a  seat  in  the  Tribunat,  from  which,  however, 
he  was  soon  dismissed,  on  account  of  his  opposition  to 
the  acts  of  Bonaparte.  He  now  abandoned  politics,  and 
became  a  contributor  to  the  "  Literary  History  of  France," 
which  had  been  begun  by  the  Benedictines.  His  greatest 
work,  the  "  Literary  History  of  Italy,"  (9  vols.,  1810-24,) 
was  left  by  him  incomplete,  and  was  continued  by  Salfi. 
Ginguene  was  the  author  of  a  poem  of  great  merit, 
entitled  "The  Confession  of  Zulme,"  and  contributed 
numerous  notices  of  Italian  writers  to  the  "Biographic 
Universelle."    Died  in  Paris  in  November,  1816. 

See  "Notice  sur  Ginguene,"  by  Sai.fi,  appended  to  tlie  "  His- 
toire  litteraire  d'ltalie,"  tome  x.  ;  Dacier,  "  filoge  de  Ginguene;" 
D.  J.  Garat,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  P.  L.  Gin- 
guene." 1817;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "London  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  April,  1814. 

■Gin'kel  or  Ginkell,  van,  (Godard  or  Godart,) 
sometimes  written  Ginkle,  Earl  of  Athlone,  a  Dutch 
general  of  great  ability,  born  at  Utrecht,  or  in  Gelder- 
land,  about  1630.  He  had  attained  the  rank  of  general 
when  he  accompanied  the  Prince  of  Orange  to  England, 
(1688.)  He  served  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  (1690,)  and 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in  Ireland  in  169L 
He  took  Athlone,  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the 
Irish  at  Aghrim  in  July,  1691,  and  completed  the  sub- 
jection of  the  island  before  the  end  of  that  year.  He 
was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  the  Earl  of  Athlone  in 
1692.  He  commanded  the  Dutch  cavalry  in  Flanders 
in  1695  and  1696.  "Ginkel  was  one  of  the  bravest  and 
ablest  officers  of  the  Dutch  army,"  says  Macaulay.  In 
1702  he  obtained  command  of  the  Dutch  troops  under 
Marlborough.  He  died  at  Utrecht  in  1703,  leaving  tv/o 
sons. 

See  Macaulay's  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv. 

Giobert,  jo-b^Rt',  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
chemist,  born  near  Asti  in  1761.  He  was  the  first  in 
Italy  to  propagate  the  doctrines  of  Lavoisier,  and  he 
made  some  reforms  or  innovations  in  agriculture.  In 
1800  he  became  professor  of  rural  economy  at  Turin. 
He  published  "Annals  of  Rural  Economy,"  (3  vols... 
1793,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1834. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,     guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (g^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


G 10  BERT  I 


1036 


GIORGIONE 


Gioberti,  jo-bSa'tee,  (Vincenzo,)  an  eminent  Italian 
philosopher  and  patriotic  statesman,  born  at  Turin  in 
April,  1801.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Turin, 
where  in  1825  he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology. 
In  1 83 1  he  became  chaplain  to  the  king,  Charles  Albert ; 
but,  being  soon  after  accused  of  favouring  the  liberal 
party,  he  was  first  imprisoned,  and  subsequently  exiled. 
He  resided  more  than  ten  years  in  Brussels,  where  he 
wrote  his  "  Theory  of  the  Supernatural,"  ("  Teoria  del 
Sopranaturale,"  1838,)  and  "Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  Philosophy,"  ("  Introduzione  alio  Studio  della  Filo- 
sofia,"  1839.)  In  1843  he  published  his  "Civil  and 
Moral  Supremacy  of  the  Italians,"  ("  II  Primato  civile 
e  morale  degli  Italiani,")  in  which  he  advocates  the 
restoration  of  the  greatness  of  Italy,  through  a  reformed 
papacy,  a  constitutional  monarchy,  and  moderate  free- 
dom of  the  press.  This  work  was  received  with  enthu- 
siasm by  his  countrymen,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Jesuits,  several  of  whom  replied  to  it.  His  "Modern 
Jesuit,"  ("  Gesuita  moderno,")  which  appeared  in  1847, 
caused  a  great  sensation,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits 
from  Italy  was  soon  after  decreed  by  the  pope.  Gio- 
berti's  return  to  Turin  in  1848  was  celebrated  by  the 
Italians  with  the  liveliest  demonstrations  of  joy,  and 
he  was  chosen  soon  after  president  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  The  same  year  he  was  appointed  minister 
of  public  instruction,  and  afterwards  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  ministry  as  president  of  the  council.  Owing  to 
disagreement  with  his  colleagues,  he  resigned  this  post 
in  February,  1849.  He  died  in  Paris  in  October,  185 1 
or  1852,  having  previously  published  a  treatise  "On 
the  Civil  Renovation  of  Italy,"  {1851,)  which  was  very 
favourably  received.  He  was  an  eloquent  and  powerful 
writer  and  orator. 

See  Cruger,  "  Esquisses  Italieimes ;"  G.  Massari,  "  Vita  di  V. 
Gioberti,"  1848,  (translated  into  French,  Brussels,  1853;)  Cerise, 
"V.  Gioberti,"  Paris,  1853;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Genlrale." 

Giocondo,  jo-kon'do,  [Lat.  Jocun'dus,]  (Era  Gio- 
vanni,) a  celebrated  architect  and  antiquary,  born  at 
Verona  about  1435.  He  became  in  1494  professor  of 
the  ancient  languages  in  his  native  city,  and  numbered 
among  his  pupils  J.  C.  Scaliger.  Being  invited  to  Paris 
by  Louis  XII.  in  1499,  he  hxxWt  the  bridge  of  Notre- 
Dame,  which  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  finest  of  that 
time.  He  was  afterwards  employed  by  the  Venetians  to 
superintend  the  turning  off  the  waters  of  the  Brenta  from 
the  lagunes  of  Venice.  He  was  subsequently  commis- 
sioned by  Pope  Leo  X.  to  assist  Raphael  and  San  Gallo 
in  the  building  of  Saint  Peter's  Church.  Giocondo  had 
made  a  very  large  and  valuable  collection  of  ancient 
inscriptions,  which  he  presented  to  Lorenzo  the  Mag- 
nificent.   Died  about  1537. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.;  QuATREMfeRE  de 
QuiNCY,  "  Dictionnaire  d' Architecture." 

Gioeni,  jo-a'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  naturalist, 
barn  at  Catana  in  1747.  He  published  in  1790  a  "Treat- 
ise on  the  Lithology  of  Vesuvius,"  ("  Saggio  di  Litologia 
Vesuviana.")    Died  in  1822. 

Gioffredo,  jof-fRa'do,  (Mario  Gaetano,)  an  able 
architect,  born  at  Naples  in  1718.  He  was  einployed  by 
the  government  at  Naples,  and  received  the  title  of  chief 
architect.  Among  his  works  are  the  church  of  Spirito 
Santo,  and  the  Palazzo  Campolieto.  He  published  a 
"Treatise  on  Architecture,"  (1768.)    Died  in  1785. 

See  N.  A.  Carlini,  "Elogiuiti  M.  G.  Gioflfredi,"  1785. 

Gioffredo,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at 
Nice  in  1629.  He  wrote  "  A  History  of  Nice,"  in  Latin, 
(1658,)  and  a  "Description  of  the  Maritime  Alps." 
Died  in  1692. 

Gioja,  jo'ya,  (Flavio,)  an  Italian  navigator,  born 
near  Amalfi  about  1300.  The  invention  of  the  mariner's 
compass  has  been  erroneously  ascribed  to  him. 

See  Klaproth,  "Lettre  sur  1' Invention  de  la  Boussole,"  Paris, 
1834. 

Gioja,  (Melchiorre,)  an  eminent  Italian  political 
economist,  born  at  Piacenza  in  1767.  He  advocated  the 
republican  form  of  government  in  an  essay  which  ob- 
tained a  prize  in  1796,  and  was  appointed  director  of  the 
bureau  of  statistics  at  Milan  about  1803.  He  expressed 
his  preference  of  the  French  rtfgime  in  his  work  entitled 
"The  French,  Germans,  and  Russians  in  Lombardy," 


("I  Francesci,  i  Tedeschi,  i  Russi  in  Lombardia,"  1805.) 
He  published  an  important  work  on  political  economy, 
called  "  New  View  of  the  Economic  Sciences,"  ("  Nuovo 
Prospetto  delle  Scienze  economiche,"  6  vols.,  181 5-19.) 
Among  his  other  remarkable  works  are  a  "Treatise  on 
Merit  and  Rewards,"  (i 819,)  and  "The  Philosophy  of 
Statistics,"  (2  vols.,  1826.)  "M.  Gioja,"  says  Silvio 
Pellico,  "was  the  most  eminent  thinker  that  the  eco- 
nomical sciences  have  had  in  Italy  in  modern  times." 
Died  at  Milan  in  1829. 

See  Tipaldo,  "  Bio^rafia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  Giuseppe  Sac- 
CHi,  "Memoria  sulla  Vita  di  M.  Gioja,"  1829;  V.  Bettini,  ''Cenni 
intorno  alia  Vita  ed  alle  Opera  di  M.  Gioja,"  1843. 

Giolfino,  jol-fee'no,  or  Golfino,  gol-fee'no,(NiccoL6,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Verona,  lived  about  1475. 

Giolito  de'  Ferrari,  jo-lee'to  di  f^r-ri'ree,  (Gabri- 
ELE,)  a  distinguished  Venetian  printer,  whose  works  are 
remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  their  typography.  He  was 
ennobled  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.    Died  in  1581. 

Giordani,  joR-dd'nee,  (Vitale,)  a  Neapolitan  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Bitonto  in  1633.  He  became  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  College  di  Sapienza,  at  Rome. 
Died  in  1711. 

Giordano,  joR-di'no,  (Luca,)  surnamed  Fa  Presto, 
an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  at  Naples  in  1632,  was 
a  pupil  of  Ribera,  (Spagnoletto.)  He  afterwards  studied 
under  Pietro  da  Cortona  at  Rome,  and  was  distinguished 
for  the  skill  and  rapidity  with  which  he  copied  the  works 
of  the  great  masters.  His  father,  who  was  very  covetous, 
was  constantly  urging  him  to  haste,  from  which  he  ob- 
tained the  sobriquet  of  Fa  Presto,  ("  Make  Haste.")  An 
anecdote  is  often  told  of  him,  that,  when  painting  a  pic- 
ture of  the  Saviour  and  the  Apostles,  his  father  called 
him  to  dinner:  "Luke,  come  down  instantly:  the  soup 
is  getting  cold."  "I  am  at  your  service,"  he  replied: 
"  I  have  only  to  make  the  twelve  Apostles."  He  has 
been  called  "  the  Proteus  of  Painting,"  from  his  admirable 
imitations  of  the  works  of  other  artists.  Being  invited 
to  Spain  in  1679  by  Charles  II.,  he  adorned  the  Escurial 
with  frescos,  which  rank  among  his  master-pieces.  His 
other  principal  works  are  the  grand  altar-piece  in  the 
church  of  the  Ascension  at  Naples,  and  a  number  of 
frescos  at  Rome  and  Florence.  Critics,  while  admitting 
the  wonderful  versatility  of  his  genius,  deny  to  him  the 
highest  rank  in  his  art,  since  he  never  reaches  the 
sublime.    Died  in  1705. 

See  Stirling,  "Annals  of  the  Artists  of  Spain  ;"  Lanzi,  "His- 
tory of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Bellori,  "  Vite  de'  Pittori ;"  Nagi.er, 
"  Neiies  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Giordano,  (Sofia,)  an  Italian  portrait-painter,  born 
at  Turin  in  1779;  died  in  1829. 

Giorgi,  joR'jee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
Latin  poet,  born  at  Venice  in  1747;  died  in  1779. 

Giorgi,  (Antonio  Agostino,)  an  Italian  monk  and 
linguist,  b'orn  near  Rimini  in  1711.  He  wrote  a  work 
on  the  grammar,  religion,  and  history  of  Tiiibet,  entitled 
"Alphabetum  Thibetanum,"  (1762.)  "His  erudition," 
says  the  "Biographie  Universelle,"  "is  confused,  vain, 
and  mendacious."    Died  in  1 797. 

See  FoNTANi,  "  Elogio  del  P.  Giorgi,"  1798. 

Giorgi,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  antiquary  and  bibli- 
ographer, born  in  1690,  lived  in  Rome.    Died  in  1747. 

Giorgini,  joR-jee'nee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  chemist, 
born  at  Carpi  in  1821.  He  wrote  several  able  chemical 
works. 

Giorgione,  joR-jo'ni,  (Giorgio  Barbarelli— bar-bi- 
rel'lee,)  called  II  Giorgione  di  Castelfranco,  a  cele- 
brated painter,  was  born  at  Castelfranco,  near  Treviso, 
in  1477.  He  is  considered  the  founder  of  the  Vene- 
tian school.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Giovanni  Bellini,  and  a 
fellow-student  of  Titian,  who  became  his  rival.  Before 
him  no  one  had  possessed  so  free  and  firm  a  touch,  so 
true  and  rich  a  colouring.  He  continued  to  ennoble  his 
manner,  and  to  present  more  am]>le  outlines,  more  ani- 
mated figures,  and  bolder  foreshortenings.  He  was  an 
excellent  portrait-painter.  His  pictures  are  rare,  many 
of  his  frescos  having  been  injured  by  the  air  of  Venice. 
.A.mong  his  oil-paintings  are  "  The  Concert,"  at  Florence, 
"Christ  Allaying  the  Storm,"  at  Venice,  and  "Moses 
Saved  from  the  Water,"  at  Milan.  He  died  at  Venice 
in  1511,  aged  thirty-four.    As  a  colorist  he  was  equalled 


a,  c,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  ai,    i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


GIOSEFFO  1037  GIRJRD 


only  by  Titian  and  perhaps  a  few  artists  of  a  later  period. 
"There  have  been  only  seven  supreme  colorists,"  says 
Ruskin,  "among  the  true  painters  whose  works  exist, 
— namely,  Giorgione,  Titian,  Veronese,  Tintoret,  Cor- 
reggio,  Reynolds,  and  Turner;  but  the  names  of  great 
designers  are  multitudinous." 

See  Vasari,  "Lives of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Memoirs  of  Early  Italian 
Painters;"  Carlo  Ridolfi,  "  Vite  degli  illustri  Pittori  Veneti,"  etc., 
2  vols.,  1648;  Ruskin,  "Modern  Painters." 

Gioseffo,  the  Italian  of  Josephus,  which  see. 
Giottino,  jot-tee'no,  (Tommaso  di  Stefano  —  de 

5jtgf'a-no,)  or  Tommaso  di  Lappo,  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Florence  in  1324.  He  was  surnamed  Giottino 
because  he  imitated  the  manner  of  Giotto.  He  painted 
frescos  and  oil-pictures,  some  of  which  are  extant.  Died 
in  1356. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Giotto  Angiolotto,  jot'to  Sn-jo-lot'to,  or  Ambro- 
giotto,  Sm-bRo-jot'to,  [Lat.  Jocrus,]  (Bondone,)  an 
eminent  Florentine  painter,  born  in  1276.  He  studied 
under  Cimabue,  whom  he  far  surpassed  in  the  grace  of 
his  figures,  harmony  of  colouring,  and  the  easy  flow  of 
his  draperies.  He  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  principal 
reformers  of  painting  in  Italy,  and  his  portraits  are  char- 
acterized by  a  spirit  and  fidelity  hitherto  unknown  since 
the  revival  of  arts.  He  was  also  an  architect  and  sculp- 
tor, and  excelled  in  mosaics,  one  of  which,  called  the 
Navicella,  in  the  church  of  Saint  Peter,  is  esteemed  his 
master-piece.  He  numbered  among  his  friends  the  illus- 
trious Dante,  and  adorned  with  paintings  the  church  of 
Saint  Francis,  where  the  great  Italian  poet  was  buried. 
He  executed  a  number  of  historical  pictures  in  fresco, 
nearly  all  of  which  have  been  lost.  His  portraits  of 
Dante  and  Brunetto  Latini  are  among  his  best  works 
in  that  department.    Died  in  1336. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Lanzi,  "  Historj' of  Painting 
in  Italy;"  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters." 

Giovanelli,  jo-vS-nel'lee,  (Ruggiero,)  an  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Velletri  about  1560.  He  succeeded 
Palestrina  as  chapel-master  at  Saint  Peter's,  Rome,  in 
1594.  He  composed  masses,  motets,  etc.  He  was  living 
in  1615. 

Giovanetti,  jo-vi-net'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  at  Bologna;  died  in  1586. 

Giovanetti,  (Giacomo,)  an  eminent  Italian  jurist 
and  economist,  born  at  Orta  (province  of  Novara)  in 
1787.  He  wrote  "  On  the  Civil  State,"  ("  Sullo  Stato 
civile,"  1809,)  "On  the  Statutes  of  Novara,"  ("Degli 
Statuti  Novaresi,"  1830,)  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1849. 

Giovanni,  jo-v5n'nee,  (or  John,)  an  Italian  painter, 
was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Olho  HI.,  whose  palace 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle  he  ornamented  with  paintings  about 
1000  a.d. 

Giovanni,  jo-v5n'nee,  (or  John,)  of  Udine,  (oo'de- 
n^,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  in  1494,  was  a  student  of 
Raphael.  He  was  particularly  known  for  his  pictures 
of  animals  and  flowers.    Died  in  1564. 

Giovanni  da  Fiesole.    See  Fiesole. 

Giovanni  da  San  Giovanni.    See  Manozzi. 

Giovanni  Pisano,  jo-vSn'nee  pe-sS'no,  an  Italian 
sculptor  and  architect,  erected  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa 
and  the  Castello  del  Novo  at  Naples.  He  also  designed 
and  executed  the  monuments  of  three  of  the  popes,  and 
various  other  works.    Died  in  1320. 

Giovannini,  jo-v5n-nee'nee,  (Giacomo  Maria,)  an 
able  engraver,  born  at  Bologna  in  1667.  He  engraved 
several  works  of  Correggio.    Died  in  1 71 7. 

Giove,  the  Italian  of  Jupiter,  which  see. 

Giovenazzi,  jo-vi-nSt'see,  (Vito  Maria,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  in  Apulia  in  1727  ;  died  in  Rome  in  1805. 

Giovene,  jo'vi-ni,  (Giuseppe  Maria,)  an  Italian 
naturalist,  born  at  Molfetta  in  1753  5  ^^^^  ^^37- 

Giovini,  jo-vee'nee,  (Angelo  Aurelio  Bianchi,) 
an  able  Italian  historian  and  journalist,  born  at  Como 
in  1799.  He  published  a  "History  of  the  Hebrews," 
(1844,)  a  "  History  of  the  Longobards,"  (1848,)  and  other 
works.  He  became  editor  of  "  L'Opinione,"  a  Liberal 
journal  of  Turin,  in  1848,  and  of  the  "  Unione"  in  1853. 
In  1852  he  began  the  publication  of  a  "History  of  the 


Popes,"  of  which  ten  or  more  volumes  have  appeared. 
He  was  hostile  to  the  papal  supremacy.    Died  in  1862. 
See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Giovio,  jo've-o,  (Benedetto,)  a  historian  and  Latin 
poet,  brother  of  Paolo,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Como 
in  1471  ;  died  in  1544. 

Giovio,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  Count,  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Como  in  1748;  died  in  1814. 

Giovio,  [Lat.  Jo'vius;  Fr.  Jove,  zhov,]  (Paolo,)  a 
celebrated  Italian  historian,  of  an  ancient  family,  born 
at  Como  in  1483.  He  was  patronized  by  Leo  X.  and  his 
successor,  Clement  VII.,  who  made  Giovio  Bishop  of 
Nocera  and  conferred  upon  him  other  distinctions.  He 
was  also  distinguished  by  the  favour  of  Francis  I.  and 
Charles  V.,  and,  having  amassed  a  large  fortune,  built 
an  elegant  villa  on  Lake  Como.  His  principal  works 
are  his  "Lives  of  Illustrious  Men,"  ("Eiogia  Virorum 
illustrium,"  (1546,)  and  "  History  of  his  Own  Times," 
(1550,)  both  written  in  Latin  and  remarkable  for  grace 
and  purity  of  style.  As  a  historian,  he  cannot  be  relied 
on,  since  he  himself  admits  in  his  letters  that  he  wrote 
to  please  his  patrons,  and  he  was  accustomed  to  say  he 
had  two  pens, — one  of  gold,  the  other  of  iron.  Died  at 
Florence  in  1552. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Arte  historica;"  Bayle,  "Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary,"  under  Jove;  De  Thou,  "  Histoire  univer- 
selle;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Giovio,  (Paolo,)  [Fr.  Paul  Jove,  pol  zhov,]  the 
Younger,  a  Latin  poet  and  bishop,  born  at  Como  about 
1530,  was  a  grandson  of  Benedetto,  noticed  above.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Nocera  in  1560,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  Council  of  Trent.  He  wrote  short  Latin  poems 
of  superior  merit.    Died  about  1585. 

Giraldi, je-rSKdee,  (Cinzio  Giambattista,)  an  Italian 
dramatist  and  litterateur,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1504,  was  for 
many  years  professor  of  medicine  and  philosophy  in  his 
native  city.  He  wrote  numerous  tragedies,  one  of  which, 
entitled  "  Orbecche,"  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best  dramas 
of  that  time.  He  also  published  "  Gli  Hecatomiti,"  or 
"The  Hundred  Novels,"  which  acquired  a  wide  popu- 
larity.   Died  in  1573. 

See  TiRABoscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Giraldi,[Lat.  Girai/dus,](LilioGregorio,)  alearned 
Italian  poet  and  antiquary,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1479.  He 
lived  some  years  in  Rome,  and  was  appointed  apostolic 
prothonotary.  His  chief  works  are  a  "  History  of  the 
Heathen  Gods,"  ("  De  Diis  Gentium,")  a  "History  of 
Greek  and  Latin  Poets,"  ( 1545,)  and  critical  "Dialogues 
on  the  Poets  of  our  Times,"  (1551.)    Died  in  1552. 

See  Tirakoschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana ;"  F'rizzoli> 
"  De  Vita  et  Operibus  I,.  G.  Giraldi,"  Venice,  1553:  De  1'hou, 

Histoire  universelie  ;"  Niceron,  "  Honimes  illustres." 

Giraldiis.    See  Giraldi. 

Gi-raPdus  Cam-bren'sis,  sometimes  called  Giral- 
dus  de  Barry,  and  Sylvester  Giraldiis,  a  learned 
ecclesiastic  and  historian,  born  in  Pembrokeshire,  Wales, 
about  1 146.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Paris,  where 
he  became  a  proficient  in  rhetoric  and  civil  and  canon 
law.  After  his  return  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  chap- 
lains to  Henry  II.,  and  preceptor  to  Prince  John.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  two  on  the  geography  of  Ire- 
land and  of  Wales,  viz. :  "Topographia  Hiberniae"  and 
"  Descriptio  Cambriae."  As  a  historian,  he  shows  great 
learning  and  research,  mingled,  however,  with  super- 
stition.   Died  about  1220. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1806. 

Girard,  je-rard'  or  He-raRt',  (  Albert,  )  a  Dutch 
mathematician,  wrote  a  "New  Invention  in  Algebra," 
(1629,)  which  Montucla  called  a  remarkable  work.  Died 
in  1634. 

Girard,  zhe'rSR',  (Alexis  Francois,)  a  French  en- 
graver, born  at  Vincennes  in  1 789.  Among  his  best  works 
is  "  The  Three  Marys  at  the  Tomb,"  after  Ary  Scheffer. 

Girard,  (Balthasar.)    See  Gerard. 

Girard,  Baron,  a  French  general,  born  at  Geneva  in 
1750,  served  with  distinction  under  Moreau  on  the  Rhine 
in  1796.  For  his  services  at  Essling  and  W^agram,  in 
1809,  he  received  the  title  of  baron.    Died  in  1811. 

Girard,  je-rarcK,  [Fr.  pron.  zhe'rtk',]  (Charles,)  a 
naturalist,  born  at  Miilhausen,  France,  about  1822,  was  a 
pupil  and  assistant  of  Agassiz.    He  became  about  1850 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  O,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.   (2^=="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


\ 


GIRARD  1038  GIRARDIN 


a  resident  of  Washington,  United  States,  and  wrote  nu- 
merous treatises  on  fishes,  reptiles,  etc.  He  described 
the  reptiles  collected  by  the  United  States  Exploring 
Expedition. 

Girard,  (Gabriel,)  opc  of  the  most  distinguished 
of  French  grammarians,  born  at  Clermont-en-Auvergne 
about  1677.  He  was  appointed  royal  interpreter  for  the 
Russian  and  Sclavonic  languages.  His  work  entitled 
"French  Synonyms"  (1736)  was  received  with  great 
favour,  and  has  taken  its  place  among  the  French  classics. 
Voltaire  said,  "  It  will  subsist  as  long  as  the  language, 
and  will  even  serve  to  make  it  subsist."  Girard  was 
elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1744.    Died  in  1748. 

See  D'Alembert,  "  ^^loges  des  Acad^miciens." 

Girard,  (Gr^goire,)  called  P^re  Girard,  a  Swiss 
teacher,  born  at  Freyburg  in  1765.  He  wrote  several 
treatises  on  education,  one  of  which,  called  "Educational 
Course  of  the  Mother-Tongue,"  ("Cours  educatif  de  la 
Langue  maternelle,"  1840,)  obtained  the  Montyon  prize 
of  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1850. 

See  E.  Navii.i.e,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  le  P6re  Girard," 
1850;  Sevekus,  "G.  Girard;  ein  Character-  uiid  Lebeusbild,"  1853. 

Girard,  (Jean,)  a  French  jurist  and  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Dijon  in  15 18;  died  in  1586. 

Girard,  (Jean,)  a  French  veterinary  physician,  born 
near  Clermont-en-Auvergne  in  1770.  He  wrote  the 
"Anatomy  of  Dotnestic  Animals,"  (2  vols.,  1807,)  and 
other  valuable  works.    Died  in  1852. 

Girard,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  popu- 
lar preacher,  born  at  Dole  about  1680.  His  name  ob- 
tained a  scandalous  publicity  by  a  charge  of  sorcery 
and  other  crimes,  for  which  he  was  tried  and  acquitted 
in  1 73 1.    Died  in  1733. 

See  "Details  historlques  sur  le  P^re  Girard,"  etc.,  Paris,  1845. 

Girard,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  general,  born  at 
Aulps  (Var)  in  1775,  distinguished  himself  at  Austerlitz 
in  1805,  became  general  of  division  in  1809,  and  was 
killed  at  Ligny  in  1815.  "He  was  one  of  the  most 
intrepid  soldiers  of  the  army,"  said  Napoleon  :  "  he  had 
evidently  the  sacred  fire." 

Girard,  (Jean  de  Villethierri— deh  v^KteTre',)  a 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  in  Paris  in  1641,  wrote  many 
excellent  treatises  on  morals  and  religion.  Died  in  1709. 

See  DupiN,  *' Bibliotheque  des  Auteurs  ecclesiastiques." 

Girard,  (Pierre  Simon,)  an  eminent  French  engineer, 
born  at  Caen  in  1765.  He  was  attached  to  the  expe- 
dition to  Egypt  in  1798,  and  there  obtained  data  for  his 
valuable  treatise  "On  the  Agriculture,  Commerce,  and 
Industry  of  Egypt."  He  was  appointed  director  of 
waters  at  Paris  by  Napoleon,  and  admitted  into  the 
Institute  in  1813.  He  wrote  many  treatises  on  navi- 
gable canals.    Died  in  1836. 

See  Charles  Dupin,  "  DIscours  aux  Funerailles  de  Girard ;" 
BoissARD,  "  Les  Hommes  illustres  de  Calvados;"  Qu^rard,  "La 
France  Litteraire." 

Qri-rard',  (Stephen,)  a  famous  merchant  and  banker, 
born  near  Bordeaux,  in  France,  May  24,  1750,  was  not 
liberally  educated.  He  became  a  cabin-boy,  a  mate, 
and  afterwards  master,  of  a  coasting-vessel.  About  1776 
he  settled  in  Philadelphia  as  a  trader.  He  eventually 
owned  a  fleet  of  merchant-vessels.  When  the  yellow 
fever  raged  in  that  city  in  1793,  he  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  humane  attentions  to  the  sick,  whom  he 
nursed  in  the  hospitals.  Having  purchased  the  building 
of  the  United  States  Bank,  he  established  in  1812  a 
private  bank,  with  a  capital  of  $1,200,000,  which  was 
increased  to  $4,000,000.  His  bank  prospered,  and  his 
notes  were  at  par  when  all  other  paper  money  was 
depreciated.  "It  was  the  war  of  18 12,"  says  Parton, 
"which  suspended  commerce,  that  made  this  merchant 
so  enormously  rich.  .  .  .  He  was  the  very  sheet-anchor 
of  the  government  credit  during  the  whole  of  that  dis- 
astrous war."  Although  he  could  sometimes  act  the 
part  of  a  benefactor  to  the  community,  it  is  said  that  he 
never  had  a  friend.  He  died,  without  issue,  in  183 1, 
leaving  property  valued  at  about  $9,000,000,  and  directed 
that  two  millions  should  be  applied  to  found  a  college 
for  orphan  boys,  which  was  commenced  in  1833  and 
opened  in  1848.  The  main  building  of  this  college  is 
considered  the  most  admirable  specimen  of  Grecian 


architecture  in  America.  It  is  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
nine  feet  long,  by  one  hundred  and  eleven  feet  wide,  and 
is  surrounded  by  a  portico  of  thirty-four  columns,  each 
fifty-five  feet  high  and  six  feet  in  diameter. 

See  Parton,  "Famous  Americans  of  Recent  Times,"  1867, 
"North  American  Review"  for  January,  1865;  Freeman  Hunt, 
"Lives  of  American  Merchants."  vol.  i. 

Girard,  de,  deh  zhe'riR',  (Philippe  Henri,)  a  French 
engineer  and  inventor,  born  in  Vaucluse  in  1775.  He 
made  some  improvements  in  the  steam-engine,  and,  ac- 
cording to  a  French  biographer,  produced  rotary  motion 
without  a  working-beam,  (1806.)  In  1810  he  invented  a 
useful  machine  for  spinning  flax,  for  which  the  jury  of 
the  Exposition  of  National  Industry  awarded  him  a  gold 
medal  in  1844.  His  friends  claim  for  him  the  invention 
of  the  steam-gun,  which  is  also  ascribed  to  Perkins. 
He  invented  other  machines,  and  owned  or  directed 
extensive  manufactories  of  flax  in  France,  Austria,  and 
Poland.    Died  in  Paris  in  1845. 

See  fiiwiLE  Deschamps,  "Notice  biographique  sur  P.  de  Girard 
Inventeur,  etc.,"  1853;  Chapsal,  "P.  de  Girard,"  1853;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Girardet,  zhe^rtR^di',  (Abraham,)  a  Swiss  engraver, 
born  at  Locle  in  1764.  He  engraved  the  "Transfigura- 
tion," after  Raphael,  and  the  "Rape  of  the  Sabine 
Women,"  after  Poussin.    Died  in  Paris  in  1823. 

Girardet,  (Charles,)  a  Swiss  painter,  of  high  repu- 
tation, born  at  Locle  about  1808.  He  called  himself 
Karl  to  distinguish  himself  from  his  father,  Charles, 
who  was  an  engraver.  He  produced  a  capital  picture 
of  "Protestants  surprised  at  Meeting,"  (1842,)  and 
some  Swiss  and  Italian  landscapes. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Girardet,  (;EDOUARD,)a  Swiss  painter  of  genre,  and 
engraver,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Neuf- 
chatel  in  1819.  He  travelled  in  Egypt  with  his  brother 
Karl,  and  worked  in  Paris.  He  represents  Swiss  scenery, 
manners,  and  costumes  with  success. 

His  brother  Paul,  an  engraver,  was  born  in  1821.  His 
master-piece  is  "  Washington  Crossing  the  Delaware," 
after  Leutze. 

Girardet,  zhe'rtRMV,  (Jean,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  at  Luneville  in  1709,  received  the  title 
of  first  painter  to  Stanislas,  ex-King  of  Poland.  Died 
in  1778. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  AUgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Girardi,  je-raR'dee,  (Michele,)  an  Italian  anatomist, 
born  at  Limone,  on  Lake  Garda,  in  1731.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  Padua  and  Parma.  He  edited  a 
magnificent  edition  of  the  "  Plates  of  Santorini,"  (1775.) 
Died  in  1797. 

Girardiii.    See  Saint-Marc  Girardin. 

Girardin,  zhe'rSRMiN',  (Jean  Pierre  Louis,)  an  emi- 
nent French  chemist,  born  in  Paris  in  1803,  was  a  pupil 
of  Thenard.  He  became  in  1828  professor  of  chemistry 
applied  to  the  arts,  at  Rouen.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Lectures  on  Elementary  Chemistry," 
(1835,)  which  obtained  two  medals  at  Paris,  "Memoirs 
of  Applied  Chemistry,"  and  a  "Treatise  on  Agricul- 
ture," (2  vols.,  1852.)  About  1858  he  accepted  a  chair 
at  Lille. 

Girardin,  de,  deh  zhe'rtRM4N',(ALEXANDRE,)CoMTE, 
a  son  of  Rene  Louis,  noticed  below,  born  in  1776,  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  Austerlitz,  in  Spain,  Russia,  etc., 
and  became  a  general  of  division  in  1814.  Died  in  1855. 

Girardin,  de,  (Delphine  Gay,)  a  popular  authoress, 
born  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  January,  1804,  was  a  daughter 
of  Sophie  Gay,  noticed  in  this  work.  Her  verses  en- 
titled "The  Sisters  of  Saint  Camille"  (1822)  gained  a 
prize  of  the  French  Academy.  She  produced  in  1824  a 
volume  of  "  Essais  poetiques."  Her  beauty  and  esprit 
rendered  her  a  popular  favourite.  She  was  married  to 
fimile  de  Girardin  in  183 1,  after  which  she  wrote  "The 
Quiz,"  ("  Le  Lorgnon,"  1832,)  and  other  romances, 
among  which  is  "The  Cane  of  M.  de  Balzac,"  ("La 
Canne  de  M.  de  Balzac,"  1836.)  Her  reputation  was 
increased  by  the  sparkling  and  charming  prattle  of  her 
"  Lettres  Parisiennes,"  which  appeared  in  "  La  Presse" 
from  1836  to  1848.    Died  in  Paris  in  1855. 

See  Sainte-Beijve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  February,  1851 ;  La- 
MARTiNE.  "  Cours  fauiilier  de  Litterature ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  January,  1844. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  <S,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  filr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon. 


GIRJRDIN  1039 


Girardin,  de,  (£mile,)  an  enterprising  French  jour- 
nalist, a  natural  son  of  Count  Alexandre  de  Girardin, 
was  born  in  Paris  about  1804.  He  founded  in  1831  the 
"Journal  des  Connaissances  utiles,"  and  made  some 
efforts  for  the  diffusion  of  cheap  literature  among  the 
masses.  In  1836  he  founded  "  La  Presse,"  a  daily  paper, 
(at  forty  francs  per  annum,  about  half  the  usual  price,) 
which  he  conducted  with  great  ability  and  success  until 
1856.  He  killed  Armand  Carrel  in  a  duel  in  1836.  He 
was  elected  a  deputy  several  times,  and  supported  nearly 
all  parties  in  turn.  The  abdication  of  Louis  Philippe  is 
ascribed  to  the  influence  of  Girardin,  who  attempted  to 
secure  the  succession  for  the  Comte  de  Paris.  He  op- 
posed Napoleon  HI.  after  his  usurpation  of  imperial 
power,  December,  185 1.  He  afterwards  became  editor 
of  the  paper  "  La  Liberte." 

See  Larcher,  "Emile  de  Girardin,  son  Enfance,"  etc.,  1849;  P. 
Forest,  "Biographie  d'fi.  de  Girardin,"  1842  ;  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Generale." 

Girardin,  de,  (Ernest  Stanislas,)  a  son  of  the  fol- 
lowing, was  born  in  Paris  in  1803.  He  became  in  1848  a 
moderate  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly.  In 
1852  he  was  made  a  senator. 

Girardin,  de,  (Louis  Stanislas  C^cile  Xavier,) 
Com  I  E,  a  French  otificer,  born  at  Luneville  in  1762,  was 
a  son  of  Rene  Louis,  noticed  below.  He  was  educated 
partly  by  J.  J.  Rousseau.  As  a  deputy  to  the  Legislative 
Assembly,  1791-92,  he  acted  with  the  Constitutional 
party.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Tribunat  in  1800, 
and  a  general  of  brigade  in  the  army  of  Joseph  Bona- 
parte in  Spain  about  1808.  After  the  restoration  he 
was  a  Liberal  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  He 
left,  besides  political  tracts,  "Journal  and  Souvenirs, 
Speeches  and  Opinions,"  (2  vols.,  1828.)    Died  in  1827. 

See  Vatout,  "  Hommage  k  la  Memoire  de  S.  Girardin,"  1827; 
'Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Girardin,  de,  (Ren6  Louis,)  Marquis,  born  in  Paris 
in  1 735,  was  a  friend  of  the  celebrated  Rousseau,  to  whom 
he  gave  a  retreat  on  his  beautiful  domain  of  Ermenon- 
ville.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Composition  of  Landscapes,"  (1777,)  which  was  trans- 
lated into  several  languages.    Died  in  1808. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Girardon,  zhe'rtR'd<!)N',  ( FRANgois, )  an  eminent 
French  sculptor,  born  at  Troyes  in  1630.  He  studied 
at  Rome,  and  after  his  return  was  distinguished  by  the 
favour  of  Louis  XIV.,  being  successively  appointed  pro- 
fessor, rector,  and  chancellor  of  the  Academy  of  Painting 
and  Sculpture.  Among  his  master-pieces  may  be  named 
the  sculptures  of  the  "  Fountain  of  Pyramids"  and  the 
four  principal  figures  of  the  "Bath  of  Apollo"  at  Ver- 
sailles, the  "Mausoleum  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,"  and  the 
"  Rape  of  Proserpine."  He  enjoyed  the  friendship  and 
patronage  of  the  great  painter  Le  Brun.    Died  in  171 5. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Giraud,  zhe'ro',  (Charles  Joseph  Barth^lemy,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Pernes  in  1802.  He  was  minister 
of  public  instruction  in  1851,  soon  after  which  he  became 
professor  of  Roman  law  in  the  Faculty  of  Paris. 

Giraud,  (Giovanni,)  Count,  a  celebrated  Italian 
dramatist,  of  French  extraction,  born  at  Rome  in  1776. 
He  produced  a  number  of  successful  comedies,  (4  vols., 
1808.)  The  most  popular  of  these  is  entitled  "  The  Tutor 
in  a  Quandary,"  ("  L'Ajo  nell'  Imbarazzo,"  1807.)  He 
excels  in  comic  power  and  vivacity.    Died  in  1834. 

See  TiPAi.DO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri;"  "Nouvelle  Bio-' 
graphic  Generale." 

Giraud,  (Pierre,)  a  French  cardinal,  born  at  Mont- 
ferrand  in  1791.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Cambrai 
in  1841,  and  a  cardinal  in  1847.    Died  in  1850. 

See  J.  P.  Faber,  "Biographie  du  Cardinal  Giraud,"  1850. 

Giraud,  (Pierre  Francois,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
at  Luc,  in  Provence,  in  1783,  gained  the  grand  prize  in 
1806  for  his  "  Wounded  Philoctetus."    Died  in  1836. 

Giraud,  (  Pierre  Francois  Eugene,  )  a  French 
painter  and  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1806;  died,  1871. 

Girault  de  Saint-Fargeau,  zhe'r5'  deh  s^NTSR^zho', 
(EusfeRE,)  a  French  litterateur^  born  in  Yonne  in  1799. 
He  published  a  "Geographical  and  Historical  Dictionary 
of  all  the  Communes  of  France,"  (3  vols.,  1846-47,)  and 
other  works. 


GISBORNE 


Girault-Duvivier,  zhe'ro'  dii've've-i',  (Charles 
Pierre,)  a  French  grammarian,  born  inTl'aris  in  1765. 
He  published  an  "Analysis  of  the  Best  Treatises  on 
French  Grammar,"  (2  vols.,  1811,)  which  was  approved 
by  the  French  Academy  in  1814.    Died  in  1832. 

Girey-Dupr6,  zhe'ri'  dii^pRi',  (Joseph  Marie,)  a 
French  Girondist,  born  in  Paris  in  1769,  assisted  Brissot 
in  the  "  Patriote  Franjais."  He  was  executed  in  Novem- 
ber, 1793. 

Girod-Chantrans,  zhe'ro'  shSN'tR^N',  (Justin,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1750;  died  in 
1841.    He  wrote  several  scientific  works. 

Girod  de  I'Ain,  zhe'ro'  d?h  liN,  (Am^;d^e,)  Baron, 
an  able  F'rench  advocate  and  legislator,  born  at  Gex 
(Ain)  in  1781.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  in  183 1,  and  was  president  of  the 
council  of  state  from  1832  until  1847.    Died  in  1847. 

Girodet-Trioson,  zhe'ro'di'  tReVzdw',  (Anns 
Louis,)  a  celebrated  French  painter,  born  at  Montargis 
in  1767.  He  studied  for  a  time  under  David,  and  sub- 
sequently at  Rome,  where  he  produced  his  "  Dream 
of  Endymion,"  and  several  other  pictures.  Among  his 
master-pieces  we  may  name  "  Pygmalion  and  Galatea," 
a  "  Scene  from  the  Deluge,"  and  "  The  Revolt  of  Cairo." 
His  works  are  characterized  by  great  excellence  of  de- 
sign, but  they  are  frequently  disfigured  by  extravagance 
and  are  deficient  in  animation,  Girodet  was  an  officer 
of  the  legion  of  honour,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Painting.    Died  in  1824. 

See  P.  A.  CoupiN,  "  Notice  necrologique  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Giro- 
det," 1825;  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  "  filoge  de  Girodet,"  1825; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Giron.    See  Osuna. 

Giron  de  Loaysa,  He-r6n'  di  lo-T'si,  (Garcias,)  a 
learned  Spanish  prelate,  born  at  Talavera  in  1542.  He 
became  almoner  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain  in  1585,  and 
Archbishop  of  Toledo  in  1598.    Died  in  1599. 

Gironi,  je-ro'nee,  (Robustiano,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  near  Milan  in  1769;  died  in  1838. 

Girou  de  Buzareingues,  zhe'roo'  deh  bu'zt'riNg', 
(Louis  Francois  Charles,)  a  French  physiologist  and 
writer  on  agriculture,  born  in  1773  ;  died  in  1856. 

Giroust,  zhe^roo',  (Jacques,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
pulpit  orator,  born  at  Beaufort,  in  Anjou,  in  1624;  died 
in  1689. 

Girs,  yd€rs  ?(Giles,  or  ^gidius,)  a  Swedish  chronicler, 
born  in  Sodermannland  about  1580,  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"Chronicles  of  Gustavus  I.  and  Eric  XIV.," (" Gustaf  I. 
och  Eric  XIV.  Chronicor,"  1670.)    Died  in  1639. 

Girtanner,  ge^R'tSn'ner,  (Christoph,)  a  Swiss  phy- 
sician, born  at  Saint  Gall  in  1760.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"Treatise  on  Venereal  Diseases,"  (1794.)  Died  in  1800. 

Gir'tin,  (Thomas,)  an  English  artist,  born  in  1773. 
Among  his  works  are  a  collection  of  "Views  in  Paris." 
Died  in  1802. 

Giry,  zhe're',  (Fran(;ois,)  a  learned  French  eccle- 
siastic and  philanthropist,  son  of  Louis,  noticed  below, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1635.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
number  of  religious  works.    Died  in  1688. 

See  Raffron,  "  Vie  du  P.  Giry,"  1691. 

Giry,  (Louis,)  a  French  translator,  born  in  Paris  in 
1595.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
Among  his  versions,  which  were  received  with  favour, 
were  those  of  Plato's  "  Crito,"  Plato's  "  Apology  for 
Socrates,"  and  ten  books  of  Saint  Augustine's  "  Civitas 
Dei."    Died  in  1665. 

See  Pellisson,  "Histoire  del'Acad^mie  Frangaise." 

Gisbert,  zhis'baiR',  (Blaise,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
pulpit  orator,  born  at  Cahors  in  1657.  He  was  the 
author  of  "  Christian  Eloquence  in  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice," and  other  works.    Died  in  173 1. 

Gisbert,  (Jean,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Cahors  in 
1639,  became  professor  of  theology  and  princij^al  of  the 
Jesuits'  College  at  Toulouse.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "  Antiprobabilismus,"  etc.,  which  is  eulo- 
gized by  Dupin.    Died  in  1711. 

See  Dupin,  "  Biblioth^que  des  Auteurs  ecclesiastiques,"  etc. 

■Gis'borne,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine  and  poet, 
born  at  Derby  in  1758.  He  became  perpetual  curate 
of  Barton-under-Needwood,  Staffordshire,  in  1783,  and 
prebendary  of  Durham  in  1826.    His  principal  works  are 


€  as  /t;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  k,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CISCO 


1040 


CIUSTINIJNI 


**  Principles  of  Moral  Philosophy,"  (1789,)  "Walks  ir»  a 
Forest,  or  Poems,"  (1794,)  "  Duties  of  the  Female  Sex," 
(14th  edition,  1847,)  and  sermons,  which  were  com- 
mended by  Robert  Hall.    Died  in  1846. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  June,  1846. 

Ois'co,  [Gr.  TiaKuv  or  TeoKcjv;  Fr.  GiscON,  zhis'k6N',] 
a  Carthaginian  general,  who  commanded  in  Sicily  in 
338  B.C. 

Gisco,  a  Carthaginian  general,  who  at  the  end  of  the 
first  Punic  war,  241  B.C.,  took  command  of  the  army  in 
Sicily.  On  their  arrival  in  Africa  his  troops  mutinied 
and  commenced  the  civil  war  called  "the  Inexpiable." 
Gisco,  having  been  sent  to  negotiate  with  the  rebels,  was 
seized  by  them  and  put  to  death  about  339  B.C. 

Giseke,  gee'zeh-keh,  or  Giesecke,  (Nikolaus 
Dietrich,)  a  German  poet,  born  in  Hungary  in  1724. 
He  became  court  preacher  at  Quedlinburg,  and  super- 
intendent at  Sondershausen.  He  wrote  religious  and 
lyric  poems,  which  were  favourably  received.  Died  in 
1765- 

Giseke,  (Paul  Dietrich,)  a  German  botanist  and 
physician,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1745  ;  died  in  1796. 

Gismondi,  j6s-mon'dee,  (Carlo  Giuseppe,)  an  Ital- 
ian mineralogist,  born  at  Mentone  in  1762;  died  in 
1824. 

Gisors,  zhe'zoR',  (Alphonse  Henri,)  born  in  Paris 
in  1796,  was  appointed  architect  of  the  Palais  du  Luxem- 
bourg in  1834.  Among  his  works  are  the  Normal  School, 
Paris,  (1842,)  and  the  chamber  of  the  senate.  He  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Institute. 

Qri-ti'a-das,  [Gr,  TiTLu6ac,]  a  Lacedaemonian  architect, 
statuary,  and  poet,  flourished  about  520  B.C.  He  com- 
pleted the  temple  of  Athena  Poliouchos  at  Sparta,  and 
adorned  it  with  a  bronze  statue  of  the  goddess. 

Giudici,  joo'de-chee,  (Carlo  Maria,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  sculptor,  born  in  the  province  of  Milan  in 
1723,  was  the  master  of  Andrea  Appiani.  Among  his 
works  is  a  bas-relief  of  "Adam  and  Eve  expelled  from 
Eden."    Died  in  1804. 

Giulay.    See  Gyulal 

Giuliano,  (Majano  di.)    See  Majano. 

Giulini,  joo-lee'nee,  (Giorgio,)  an  Italian  historical 
writer,  born  at  Milan  in  17 14.  He  displayed  great  eru- 
dition and  good  judgment  in  a  work  on  the  mediaeval 
history  of  Milan  and  the  Milanese,  "  Memorie  spettanti 
alia  Storia,  al  Governo  ed  alia  Descrizione  della  Citta  e 
della  Campagna  di  Milano  ne'  Secoli  bassi,"  (9  vols., 
1760-75.)    Died  in  1780. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitaj  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Giulio  Romano,  joo'le-o  ro-mi'no,  sometimes  also 
written  Julio  Romano,  [Fr.  Jules  Romain,  zhiil 
ro'miN',]  or  Giulio  Pipi,  joo'le-o  pee'pee,  a  celebrated 
Italian  painter  and  architect,  born  in  Rome  in  1492.  He 
was  a  student  and  intimate  friend  of  Raphael,  of  whom 
he  became  the  principal  heir.  After  the  death  of  his 
preceptor  he  completed  several  works  which  that  great 
artist  had  left  unfinished.  He  was  also  employed  by 
Pope  Clement  VII.  as  architect  of  a  palace.  He  was 
liberally  patronized  by  the  Duke  of  Mantua,  in  whose 
saloon  he  painted  his  greatest  work,  a  representation 
of  the  Giants  struck  by  the  Thunderbolts  of  Jupiter. 
The  designs  of  Giulio  display  great  powers  of  invention 
and  uncommon  sublimity  of  thought;  but  his  colouring 
is  dry  and  defective.  As  an  architect,  he  stood  so  high 
that  upon  the  death  of  San  Gallo  he  was  appointed 
to  superintend  the  construction  of  Saint  Peter's  at" 
Rome;  but  he  died  in  1546,  before  reaching  that  city. 
About  two  hundred  and  fifty  of  Giulio's  best  designs 
have  been  engraved,  one  of  which  is  the  "  Triumph  of 
Titus  and  Vespasian." 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  Lanzt,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  G^n^rale,"  under  Pippi. 

Giunone.    See  Juno. 

Giunta,  joon'td,  sometimes  called  Zonta,  dzon'tS, 
(FiLiPPO,)  an  Italian  printer,  born  in  Florence  in  1450. 
In  company  with  his  son  Bernardo,  he  established  presses 
in  Florence,  Geneva,  and  Venice.  Their  editions  of 
the  Greek  authors  were  highly  valued,  Filippo  died 
in  1 5 19,  Bernardo  in  1551. 

Giunta  da  Pisa,  joon'ti  di  pee'sS,  a  painter  of  the 
Florentine  school,  flourished  between  1210  and  1240. 


He  painted  frescos  at  Pisa  and  Assisi.  He  was  perhaps 
the  best  artist  of  his  epoch. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Giuntino,  joon-tee'no,  or  Giuntini,  joon-tee'nee, 
(Francesco,)  an  Italian  astronomer,  born  at  Florence 
in  1523.  He  became  a  Protestant,  and  settled  at  Lyons, 
where  he  died  in  1590. 

Giusti,  joos'tee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter  of  the 
Florentine  school,  born  in  1624.  He  painted  landscapes 
and  animals  with  success.    Died  in  1705. 

Giusti,  (Giuseppe,)  an  eminent  Italian  satiric  poet, 
born  near  Pescia  in  1809.  He  published  in  1835  ^  poem 
'*  On  the  Death  of  Francis  I.,"  which  caused  a  great 
sensation.  This  was  succeeded  by  the  "  Dies  Irae," 
"  Health-Drinking  to  the  Weathercock,"  ("  II  Brindisi 
di  Girella,")  "The  Humanitarians,"  ("Gli  Umanitari,") 
and  other  caustic  satires  on  the  political  and  social  vices 
of  the  day.  An  adherent  of  moderate  liberalism,  he  was 
equally  severe  on  the  oppressors  of  his  country  and 
on  the  so-called  party  of  Young  Italy.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Tuscan  Chamber  of  f)eputies  in  1848. 
Giusti  numbered  among  his  friends  Capponi,  Manzoni, 
and  D'Azeglio.    Died  in  1850. 

See  "Giuseppe  Giusti  and  his  Times,"  1864,  by  Susan  Horner; 
"North  British  Review"  for  November,  1864. 

Giustiniani,  joos-te-ne-l'nee,written  also  Justiniani, 

(Agostino,)  a  learned  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Genoa  in 
1470.  He  was  profoundly  versed  in  biblical  literature 
and  the  Oriental  tongues,  and  published  an  edition  of 
the  Psalter  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  Arabic,  and  Chaldee,  with 
three  Latin  interpretations  and  glosses,  being  the  first 
polyglot  edition  of  the  Scriptures.  He  was  invited  to 
Paris  by  Francis  I.,  who  conferred  on  him  a  pension  and 
appointed  him  professor  of  Oriental  languages  in  the 
university  of  that  city.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Nebbio, 
in  Corsica,  in  1514.  He  was  lost  at  sea  in  1536,  while 
going  from  Genoa  to  Corsica. 

See  TiRABoscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana ;"  Bavle» 
"  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  P.  Giovio,  "  Elogia  Viroruin 
illustriuin." 

Giustiniani  or  Justiniani,  (Bernardo,)  a  Venetian 
statesman  and  historian,  of  a  noble  family,  born  in  1408. 
He  was  employed  on  several  important  embassies,  and 
rose  through  various  preferments  to  be  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  Ten,  and  procurator  of  Saint  Mark,  the  highest 
office  in  the  republic  next  to  that  of  doge.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Venice,"  (in  Latin,)  which  is  highly  valued 
for  its  accuracy.    It  was  left  unfinished.    Died  in  1489. 

See  Stella,  "Vita  di  Bernardo  Giustiniani,"  1553. 

Giustiniani  or  Justiniani,  (Fabian,)  Bishop  of 
Ajaccio,  born  in  Genoa  about  1578;  died  in  1627.  He 
wrote  a  Biblical  concordance. 

Giustiniani  or  Justiniani,  (Geronimo,)  a  poet,  bom 
at  Genoa  about  1560.  He  wrote  "Jephthah,"  a  tragedy, 
(1583,)  and  translated  the  "Ajax  Furiosus"  of  Sophocles 
into  Italian,  (1603.) 

Giustiniani  or  Justiniani,  (Lorenzo,)  [Lat.  Lau- 
ren'tius  Justinia'nus  ;  Fr.  Laurent  Justinien,  16'- 
rdN'zhiis'te'ne'lN',]  Saint,  first  Patriarch  of  Venice, 
was  born  at  Venice  in  1380.  He  became  patriarch  in 
145 1,  and  died  in  1465,  leaving  many  sermons  and  letters. 

See  Bernardo  Giustiniani,  "  Sancti  L.  Justiniani  Vita,"  1475; 
JoHANN  Peter  Silbert,  "  Leben  des  heiligen  L.  Justiniani,"  1836. 

Giustiniani,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  bibliographer, 
born  in  1 761.  He  became  keeper  of  the  Royal  Library  of 
Naples  in  1815.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Geographical 
Dictionary  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,"  (13  vols.,  1797 
-1816,)  and  "  Historical  and  Critical  Memoirs  of  the 
Royal  Library  (Borbo7iica)  of  Naples,"  (1818.)  Died 
in  1824. 

Giustiniani  or  Justiniani,  (Marcantonio,)  was 
Doge  of  Venice  from  1684  until  1688,  during  which  time 
the  Venetians  conquered  the  Morea  from  the  Turks. 
Died  in  1688. 

Giustiniani  or  Justiniani,  (Michele,)  born  at  Genoa 
in  1612,  wrote  "Memorable  Letters,"  ("Lettere  memo- 
rabili,"  3  vols.,  1675.)    Died  about  1680. 

Giustiniani  or  Justiniani,  (Orsatto,)  a  Venetian 
poet  and  nobleman,  born  in  1538.  He  produced,  besides 
other  poems,  a  poetical  version  of  the  "  (Edipus  Tyran- 
nus"  of  Sophocles,  (1585.)    Died  in  1603. 


5,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y.  lons^;    k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  9,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  mSon; 


GIUSTINUNI 


GLJNDORP 


Giustiniani  or  Justiniani,  (Pietro,)  a  Venetian 
senator  and  historian.    He  published,  in  1576,  a  Latin 
History  of  Venice." 

Giustiniani  or  Justiniani,  (Pompeio,)  an  Italian 
general,  born  in  Corsica  in  1569,  was  appointed  governor 
or  commandant  of  Candia  by  the  Venetians.  He  was 
killed  in  1616. 

Givry,  de,  deh  zh^v're',  (Anne  d'Anglure — dSN^- 
gliiR',)  a  celebrated  French  captain,  born  about  1560,  was 
a  faithful  adherent  of  Henry  IV.,  for  whom  he  fought 
against  the  League.  He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Laon 
in  1594. 

Gjallar-horn.    See  Heimdall. 

Gjoranson,  jo'rSn-son,  (Johan,)  a  Swedish  divine 
and  antiquary,  born  about  1712;  died  in  1769. 

Gjorwell,  joR^^ell,  (Karl  Kristoker,)  a  Swedish 
editor,  born  at  Landscrona  in  1731.  He  founded  the 
"Swedish  Mercury,"  (1755,)  and  was  the  first  who  edited 
literary  and  critical  journals  in  Sweden.    Died  in  181 1. 

See  "  Biographiskt-Lexicon  bfver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Glaber,  gld'ber,  (Rodulphe,)  a  French  chronicler  of 
the  eleventh  century.  He  wrote  a  chronicle  of  events 
from  900  a.d.  to  1046,  which  is  of  some  value. 

Glabrio.    See  Acilius. 

Gladbach,  giat'bSK,  (Georg  Jakob,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1 736,  wrote 
a  "Treatise  on  Butterflies,"  (1777.)    Died  in  1796. 

Glad'den,  (A.  H.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
South  Carolina.  He  served  as  an  officer  in  the  Mexican 
war,  (1846-47.)  Having  taken  arms  against  the  Union, 
he  was  killed  at  Shiloh  in  April,  1862. 

Gladstone,  glad'ston,  (Sir  John,)  a  British  merchant, 
born  in  Scotland  about  1764.  He  became  an  eminent 
citizen  and  successful  merchant  of  Liverpool,  which  he 
represented  in  Parliament.    Died  in  1852. 

Gladstone,  (The  Right  Hon.  William  Ew'art,)  an 
en\inent  English  statesman,  financier,  orator,  and  author, 
a  younger  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Liverpool, 
December  29,  1809.  In  183 1  he  graduated  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  as  a  double  first-class, — that  is,  with 
the  highest  excellence  in  classics  and  mathematics.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  by  the  Conservatives  of 
Newark  in  1832,  and  appointed  a  lord  of  the  treasury 
by  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  December,  1834.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  the  Whigs,  in  April,  1835,  he  retired  from  office. 
In  1838  he  published  "The  State  in  its  Relations  with 
the  Church,"  an  argument  in  favour  of  the  union  of 
church  and  state,  which,  says  Macaulay,  "though  not  a 
good  book,  shows  more  talent  than  many  good  books. 
It  contains  some  eloquent  and  ingenious  passages.  It 
bears  the  signs  of  much  patient  thought."  ("Edinburgh 
Review"  for  April,  1839.)  He  married  a  daughter  of 
Sir  Stephen  R.  Glynne  in  1839. 

On  the  formation  of  a  new  ministry  by  Sir  Robert 
Peel  in  1841,  Mr.  Gladstone  became  vice-president  of 
the  board  of  trade,  and  master  of  the  mint.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  this  position  by  his  financial  skill  and 
knowledge  of  commercial  affairs,  and  was  made  president 
of  the  board  of  trade  in  May,  1843.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  for  the  colonies  in  1845,  and  supported  Sir 
Robert  Peel  in  the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws  in  1846. 

In  1847  he  was  elected  as  representative  of  Oxford 
University  in  Parliament.  Having  diftered  from  his  party 
on  several  important  questions,  and  having  become  iden- 
tified with  the  Conservative  Liberals,  or  Peelites,  he 
entered  the  coalition  ministry  of  Lord  Aberdeen,  as  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer,  in  December,  1852.  A  short 
time  after  the  accession  of  Palmerston  as  premier,  in 
February,  1855,  Mr.  Gladstone  resigned,  with  several 
other  Peelites.  He  co-operated  with  Cobden  and  others 
in  1855  their  efforts  to  terminate  the  Crimean  war; 
and  he  strenuously  opposed  the  Chinese  war  in  1857. 
He  declined  to  take  office  in  the  ministry  of  Lord  Derby 
in  1858,  but  accepted  an  embassy  as  commissioner  to 
the  Ionian  Isles  in  that  year.  In  June,  1859,  he  was 
appointed  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  the  cabinet  of 
Palmerston.  His  humane  aversion  to  war  and  his  par- 
tiality for  free  trade  and  frugality  inclined  him  to  act 
with  the  Liberal  party  and  the  Manchester  school.  He 
is  considered  the  greatest  of  British  financiers,  and  as 
an  orator  has  probably  no  equal  in  the  House  of  Com- 


mons except  John  Bright.  His  speech  of  four  h  )urs  on 
the  Budget  of  i860  was  a  wonderful  union  of  reason- 
ing and  declamation.  Commenting  on  this  speech,  the 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  i860,  declares, 
"  We  find  ourselves  in  the  enchanted  region  of  pure 
Gladstonism, — that  terrible  combination  of  relentless 
logic  and  dauntless  imagination.  We  soar  into  the 
empyrean  of  finance.  Everything  is  on  a  colossal  scale 
of  grandeur,— all-embracing  free-trade,  abysses  of  deficit, 
and  mountains  of  income-tax." 

He  continued  to  represent  Oxford  University  until 

1865,  when  he  was  defeated  by  the  Tory  candidate.  After 
the  death  of  Lord  Palmerston  he  became  the  leader  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  retained  the  office  of  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer  under  Earl  Russell.  Russell  and  Glad- 
stone introduced  a  bill  for  electoral  reform,  on  which 
the  latter  made  a  great  speech,  April  28,  1866.  This 
bill  having  been  defeated,  the  ministers  resigned  in  June, 

1866.  He  advocated  the  disestablishment  and  disen- 
dowment  of  the  Episcopal  Church  of  Ireland,  which  was 
opposed  by  Disraeli  and  the  Tories.  After  a  long  debate 
on  this  measure,  Gladstone's  resolution  was  passed,  by 
a  majority  of  sixty-five,  on  the  ist  of  May,  1868;  but 
Disraeli,  though  defeated,  would  not  resign,  and  the 
question  became  the  chief  issue  in  the  next  election. 
The  Liberal  party  having  gained  a  large  majority  in  the 
general  election  of  November,  Mr.  Gladstone  became 
prime  minister,  December  4,  1868.  He  appointed  Sir 
William  Page  Wood  lord  chancellor ;  Robert  Lowe, 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  ;  Lord  Clarendon,  secretary 
for  foreign  affairs  ;  and  John  Bright,  president  of  the 
board  of  trade.  He  brought  in  a  bill  to  disestablish  the 
Irish  Church,  which  passed  the  House  of  Commons  by 
a  majority  of  one  hundred  and  fourteen  about  May  31, 
but  was  mutilated  in  the  House  of  Lords  by  important 
amendments,  which  the  Commons  rejected  after  Mr. 
Gladstone  had  made  a  great  speech  on  the  subject.  This 
resistance  of  the  peers  to  the  will  of  the  majority  of  the 
nation  caused  great  excitement,  and  a  dangerous  crisis 
seemed  to  be  imminent ;  but  in  July,  1869,  a  compro- 
mise was  effected,  and  the  bill  of  Mr.  Gladstone,  slightly 
modified,  was  adopted  by  the  House  of  Lords.  This 
compromise  did  not  affect  the  principle  of  the  bill,  which 
the  London  "Times"  calls  "the  greatest  and  boldest  act 
of  legislation  of  modern  times." 

Among  his  important  publications  is  "  Studies  on 
Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age,"  (3  vols.,  1858.)  "A  more 
attractive  composition,  on  the  one  hand,  so  far  as  taste 
and  feeling  are  concerned, — one  more  unsatisfactory,  on 
the  other,  as  a  critical  essay,  the  product  of  accurate 
learning, — it  is  scarcely  possible  to  imagine.  Under  the 
first  point  of  view,  the  volumes  well  deserve  the  great 
admiration,  not  to  say  enthusiasm,  which  they  have 
excited,  especially  among  younger  and  fresher  readers." 
("Edinburgh  Review,"  October,  1858.)  In  1869  appeared 
his  "  Juventus  Mundi  :  the  Gods  and  Men  of  the  lleroic 
Age."  As  prime  minister,  Mr.  Gladstone  may  be  said 
to  be  one  of  the  most  popular  and  influential  that  ever 
ruled  England. 

See  "The  Pour  Reform  Orators,"  in  the  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1867;  J.  McGilchrist,  "Life  of  W.  E.  Glad- 
stone," 1869;  Samuel  Smiles,  "Brief  Biographies;"  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1839;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
October,  1858;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1858  ;  "British 
Quarterly"  for  July,  1869. 

Glafey,  gli'fl,  (Adam  Friedrich,)  a  German  publi- 
cist, born  at  Reichenbach  in  1692,  became  archivist  at  the 
court  of  Dresden  in  1726.  Among  his  works  are  "The 
Kernel  (Kern )  of  the  History  of  Saxony,"  (1722,)  and  a 
"History  of  the  Law  of  Nature,"  (1739.)   Died  in  1753. 

See  HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Glaire,  g]5R,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  theologian 
and  Orientalist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1798.  He  became 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1841,  and  in 
1845  councillor  of  the  University.  He  published  a  "  He- 
brew and  Chaldee  Hand-Lexicon,"  (1830,)  an  "Arabic 
Concordance  of  the  Koran,"  and  other  valuable  works. 

Glaize,  gliz,  (Auguste  Barth6lemy,)  a  French 
painter,  born  at  Montpellier  about  1812.  He  worked  in 
Paris,  and  gained  a  first  medal  in  1854. 

Glandorp,  glJn'doRp,  (Johann,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist,  born  at  Miinster,  learned  languages  under  Melanch- 


-e  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  tkis.    (2i^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

66 


GLANVIL 


1042 


GLEIG 


thon.    He  became  professor  of  history  at  Marburg  in 
1560,  and  published  "  Onomasticon  Historiae  Romanae," 
{1589,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1564. 
See  Reineccius,  "Vita  Glandorpii." 

Glanvil,  (Bartholomew.)  See  Bartholom^us  de 
Glanvillf:. 

Glan'vil,  (Sir  John,)  an  able  English  lawyer,  born 
about  1590,  was  speaker  of  Parliament  in  1640.  Having 
become  a  partisan  of  Charles  I.,  he  was  imprisoned  by 
the  dominant  party  from  1645  to  1648.  He  died  in  1661, 
and  left  "  Reports  of  Cases  of  Controverted  Elections." 

See  Prince's  "  Worthies  of  Devon." 

Glanvil,  (John,)  an  English  poet,  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1664.  He  made  the  first  English 
translation  of  Fontenelle's  "Plurality  of  Worlds,"  and 
published  a  number  of  poems.    Died  in  1735. 

Glan'vil  or  Glan'vill,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  English 
divine,  born  at  Plymouth  in  1636.  Having  taken  his  de- 
gree at  Oxford  University,  he  published  in  1661  a  work 
entitled  "The  Vanity  of  Dogmatizing,"  in  which  he  assails 
the  system  of  Aristotle.  In  1665  he  published  his  "  Scep- 
sis Scientifica,"  etc.,  a  remodelling  of  the  former  treatise, 
which  is  commended  by  Hallam.  About  the  same  time 
he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  was 
a  believer  in  witchcraft,  and  published,  among  other 
works,  "  Philosophic  Considerations  touching  the  Being 
of  Witches,"  etc.    Died  at  Bath  in  1680. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses;"  "Retrospective  Review," 
vol.  i.,  1853;  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Glan'ville,  de,  (Ranulphus  or  Ralph,)  an  eminent 
English  lawyer,  became  chief  justiciary  of  the  kingdom 
under  Henry  H.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  author 
of  one  of  the  earliest  legal  treatises  that  appeared  in 
England.  Having  accompanied  Richard  I.  to  Palestine, 
he  lost  his  life  at  the  siege  of  Acre  in  1190. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  i. 

Glaph'y-ra,  [Gr.  FAa^f'pa,]  daughter  of  Archelaus, 
King  of  Cappadocia,  was  successively  married  to  Alex- 
ander, son  of  Herod  and  Mariamne,  Juba,  King  of  Libya, 
and  Archelaus,  son  of  He*)d.    Died  7  a.d. 

Glap'thorne  or  Glap'thorii,  (Henry,)  an  English 
dramatic  poet  of  the  time  of  Charles  I.  He  was  the 
author  of  "Albertus  Wallenstein,"  a  tragedy,  "The  FIol- 
lander,"  a  comedy,  and  other  plays,  which  were  popular 
in  their  time. 

See  Baker,  "Biographia  Dramatica ;"  "Retrospective  Review," 
vol.  X.,  1824. 

Glareanus,  gl^-re-^'nus,  (Henricus  Loritus,)  a 
Swiss  poet,  musician,  and  scholar,  born  at  Glarus  in 
1488,  was  a  friend  of  Erasmus.  In  1512  he  was  crowned 
as  poet-laureate  by  the  emperor  Maximilian.  He  founded 
a  school  for  belles-lettres  at  Friburg,  in  Brisgau,  and 
acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his  vast  erudition.  Among 
his  chief  works  are  "  Annotationes  in  Titum  Livium," 
(1540,)  and  a  valuable  treatise  on  music,  entitled  "Dode- 
cachordon,"  (1547.)    Died  at  Friburg  in  1563. 

See  H.  ScHREiBER,  "  H.  L.  Glareanus,  gel<ronter  Dichter,"  etc., 
1837:  Erasmus,  "  Epistolae  XVIII.;"  M.  Adam,  "Vita;  Philoso- 
pliorum  Germanorum ;"  G.  Vossius,  "De  Scientiis  Malheniaticis." 

Glaser,  gli'zer,  (Christoph,)  a  Swiss  chemist,  born 
at  Bale,  was  apothecary  to  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  He 
published  a  "Treatise  on  Chemistry,"  (1663,)  which  was 
often  reprinted. 

See  F.  HoEFER,  "Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Glaser,  gli'zer,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German  phy- 
sician and  chemist,  born  in  1707;  died  in  1789. 

Glass  or  Glas,  (John,)  a  Scottish  clergyman,  born  in 
Fifeshire  in  1695,  is  noted  as  the  founder  of  a  sect  called 
Glassites.  For  his  opposition  to  some  of  the  j^rinciples 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  he  was  deprived  of  his  bene- 
fice in  1728.  His  sect  were  afterwards  called  Sande- 
manians.  Died  in  1773.  He  left  works  published  in  4 
vols.,  1762. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Glass,  (John,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Dundee 
in  1725.  He  became  captain  of  a  merchant-ship,  and 
on  a  voyage  from  J^razil  to  London  was  murdered  by 
his  crew,  in  1765.    He  left  a  "Description  of  Teneriffe." 

Glass,  glds,  [Lat.  Glas'sius,]  (Solomon,)  a  German 
Lutheran  divine,  eminent  as  a  biblical  critic,  was  born  at 


Sondershausen  in  1 593.  He  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Jena,  and  superintendent  of  the  churches  and  schools 
of  Saxe-Gotha.  His  principal  work  is  "  Sacred  Phi- 
lology, in  which  the  Style,  Literature,  and  Signification 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures  are  unfolded,"  ("  Philologia  Sacra 
qua  S.  Scripturae  Stylus  Litteratura  et  Sensus  expan- 
ditur,"  1623,)  which  was  highly  esteemed  and  often 
reprinted.    Died  in  1656. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdnerale." 

Glassbrenner,  gias'bRgn-ner,  (Adolf,)  a  German 
satirist,  born  at  Berlin  in  1810.  He  wrote,  among  other 
humorous  works,  "Berlin  as  it  Eats  and  Drinks,"  (1832,) 
and  "Pictures  and  Dreams  from  Vienna,"  (1836.) 

Glassius.    See  Glass,  (Solomon.) 

Glauber,  glow'ber,  (Johann,)  a  distinguished  land- 
scape-painter, sometimes  called  Polydore,  was  born  at 
Utrecht  in  1646.  His  pictures  are  chiefly  representations 
of  Italian  and  Alpine  scenery.    Died  in  1726. 

Glauber,  (Johann  Gottlieb,)  a  landscape-painter, 
surnamed  Myrtill,  born  in  1656,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.    Died  in  Breslau  in  1703. 

Glauber,  glau'ber  or  glow'ber,  (Johann  Rudolph,) 
a  German  chemist,  born  at  Karlstadt  about  1604,  was  a 
professor  of  alchemy.  He  lived  at  Frankfort,  Cologne, 
and  Amsterdam.  He  made  several  useful  discoveries, 
among  which  was  the  salt  that  bears  his  name,  and  made 
iinprovements  in  chemical  apparatus.  Between  1646 
and  1668  he  published  numerous  Latin  and  German 
works,  among  which  is  "Miraculum  Mundi,"  (1653.) 
Died  in  Amsterdam  in  1668. 

See  F.  HoEFER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Glaucia,  glau'she-a,  (Caius  Servii/ius,)  a  Roman 
demagogue,  contemporary  with  L.  Apuleius  Saturninus, 
whose  fate  he  shared  about  99  B.C.    (See  Saturninus.) 

Glau'gi-as,  [PAau/cmf,]  a  Greek  sculptor  of  Egina, 
flourished  about  480  B.C. 

Glaucias,  a  king  of  the  Illyrians  in  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great. 

Glau^'con,  [FAa^/cwv,]  a  Greek  philosopher,  a  brother 
of  Plato,  lived  about  400  B.C.  He  was  one  of  the  in- 
terlocutors in  the  "Republic"  of  Plato,  and  in  the 
"  Parmenides." 

Glaucus,  [Gr.  Y'kavKo<;,\  a  prophetic  marine  deity  of 
Greek  mythology.  According  to  one  tradition,  he  was 
originally  a  fisherman,  who  obtained  immortality  by 
eating  a  certain  herb.  He  built  the  ship  Argo,  ana 
accompanied  the  Argonautae  to  Colchis. 

See  Keightley's  "Mythology." 

Glaucus,  a  Greek  statuary,  born  at  Chios,  (Scio,) 
lived  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  in- 
vented the  art  of  soldering  metals. 

See  Meyer,  "  Kunstgeschichte." 

Glaucus,  a  son  of  Minos,  while  a  child  fell  into  a 
vessel  of  honey  and  was  smothered.  The  poets  feigned 
that  he  was  restored  to  life  by  Polyidus,  a  soothsayer. 

Gleditsch,  glaMitsh,  (Johann  Gottlieb,)  an  emi- 
nent German  botanist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1714.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  anatomy,  and  director  of  the 
botanic  garden  at  Berlin,  in  1740.  Plis  chief  merit  was 
that  he  applied  botany  to  rural  economy.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  System  of  Plants  founded  on  the 
Position  of  the  Stamens,"  (in  Latin,  1764,)  "Essays  on 
Physics,  Botany,  and  Economy,"  (3  vols.,  1767,)  and  an 
"Introduction  to  Forest  Science,"  (1774.)  Died  in  1786. 

See  Wii.LDENOW  and  Usteri,  "  Biograpliie  des  Hofrath  und 
Professor  Gleditsch,"  1790;  "Biographie  Medicale ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale. " 

Gleichen,  von,  fon  gli'Ken,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,) 
a  German  naturalist,  called  RusswoRM,  was  born  at 
Baireuth  in  171 7.  He  gave  special  attention  to  infusoria 
and  spermatic  animalcula,  and  was  a  skilful  microscopic 
observer.  Among  his  works  is  "  Microscopic  Discoveries 
in  Plants,  Insects,"  etc.,  (1777.)    Died  in  1783. 

See  Weikard,  "  Biographie  des  Herren  von  Gleichen,"  1783. 

Gleig,  gleg,  (George,)  a  Scottish  theologian,  born  in 
1753.  He  became  Bishop  of  Brechin  about  1810,  and 
published  several  works  on  theology.    Died  in  1839. 

Gleig,  (Rev.  George  Robert,)  a  Scottish  divine  and 
voluminous  writer,  born  in  1795.  Having  served  in  the 
Peninsular  war  and  in  America,  he  was  subsequently 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  ii,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \x,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mfet;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


GLEIM 


GLOUCESTER 


appointed  chaplain-general  to  the  forces,  (1846.)  Among 
his  principal  works  are  the  romances  of  *'The  Hussar," 
"Chelsea  Pensioners,"  and  "The  Subaltern,"  (1825,) 
"The  Campaign  of  New  Orleans,"  "The  Story  of  the 
Peninsular  War,"  "  Life  of  Lord  Clive,"  and  "  Memoirs 
of  Warren  Hastings,"  which  Lord  Macaulay  has  charac- 
terized as  "  three  big,  bad  volumes,  full  of  undigested 
correspondence  and  undiscerning  panegyric."  "Mr. 
Gleig's  Life  of  Hastings,"  says  Mr.  Allibone,  "forms  a 
proper  companion  to  Abbott's  'Life  of  Napoleon.'  We 
can  say  nothing  more  condemnatory  of  both." 

Gleim,  glIm^(JoHANN  Wilhelm  Ludwig,)  a  popular 
German  poet,  sometimes  called  "Father  Gleim,"  born 
near  Ermsleben  in  1 7 19.  He  was  the  author  of  fables, 
romances,  anacreontic  poems,  a  didactic  poem  entitled 
"  Halladat,"  etc.;  but  he  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  his 
"War-Songs,"  ("  Kriegslieder.")    Died  in  1803. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Wilhelm 
KoRTE,  "J.  W.  L.  Gleim's  Leben,"  1811 ;  Meusel,  "Gelehrtes 
Deutschlarid." 

Gleizes,  gliz,  (Jean  Antoine,)  a  French  vegetarian 
and  philosophical  writer,  born  at  Dourgne  in  1773;  died 
in  1843. 

Glemona,  da,  di  glk-mo'ni,  (Basile,)  a  missionary 
and  Chinese  scholar.  He  resided  many  years  in  China, 
and  produced  a  Chinese  lexicon. 

Glen,  de,  deh  glgn,  (John,)  a  Flemish  engraver  on 
wood,  born  at  Liege.  lie  published  in  1601  a  curious 
work,  called  "On  Uress,  Manners,  Ceremonies,"  etc., 
("  Des  Habits,  Moeurs,  Ceremonies  et  Fa9ons  de  faire.") 

Glenbervie.    See  Douglas,  (Syi.vesier.) 

Glen''d6w-er  or  Glendwr,  (Owen,)  a  celebrated 
Welsh  chieftain,  born  in  Merionethshire  about  1350, 
(vas  descended  from  Llewelyn,  Prince  of  Wales.  He 
ivas  early  patronized  by  King  Richard  H.,  to  whom  he 
faithfully  adhered  until  the  deposition  of  that  monarch. 
Being  roused  to  resistance  by  the  oppression  exercised 
against  his  countrymen  by  Henry  IV.,  he  laid  claim, 
about  1400,  to  the  crown  of  Wales.  The  king  soon  after 
marched  with  an  army  against  Glendower,  who,  without 
coming  to  an  engagement,  led  them  through  the  moun- 
tainous tracts  until,  worn  with  fatigue  and  famine,  they 
were  forced  to  retreat.  A  second  expedition  undertaken 
by  King  Henry  was  likewise  unsuccessful  ;  and  in  1402 
Glendower  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  English  near 
Knighton.  Having  assembled  a  large  army,  the  king 
marched  for  the  third  time  into  Wales ;  and  Glendower, 
unwilling  to  risk  an  encounter  with  so  superior  a  force, 
retired  to  the  mountains.  With  Mortimer  and  Henry 
Percy,  surnamed  Flotspur,  he  formed  a  conspiracy  against 
the  English  king,  who  defeated  their  army  near  Shrews- 
bury in  1403.  Having  made  a  treaty  with  Charles  VL 
of  France,  Glendower  again  invaded  the  enemy's  coun- 
try, capturing  a  number  of  fortresses  ;  but  in  1405  he  was 
defeated  by  Henry,  the  young  Prince  of  Wales.  After 
several  unsuccessful  attempts  at  negotiation,  Glendower 
died  in  1415. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England ;"  Shakspeare,  "  Henry  IV.  ;" 
"Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  xiii.,  1826. 

Gleiielg,  Lord.    See  Grant,  (Charles.) 

Glen'ie  or  Glen'uie,  (James,)  F.R.S.,  a  Scottish 
mathematician  and  artillery  officer,  born  in  1750.  He 
published  some  mathematical  works,  and  a  "  History  of 
Gunnery,"  (1776.)    Died  in  1817. 

SeeCwAMBERS,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Glent'worth,  (George,)  an  American  physician,  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1735,  was  appointed  senior  surgeon  in 
the  army  during  the  Revolution.    Died  in  1 792. 

Gley,  gli,  (Gerard,)  a  French  linguist  and  writer, 
born  ill  Lorraine  in  1761.  Among  his  numerous  works 
is  a  "  French-German  Dictionary,"  (1795.)  Died  in  1830. 

Gleyre,  gljR,  (Charles,)  a  Swiss  painter  of  high 
reputation,  born  in  the  canton  de  Vaud  in  1807.  His 
picture  of  "  Evening,"  or  "Illusions  perdues,"  (1843,)  is 
called  one  of  the  most  poetical  compositions  of  the 
modern  school.  He  produced  a  picture  of  the  "  Separa- 
tion of  the  Apostles,"  which  is  much  admired. 

Glichezare  or  Glichesaere.  See  Heinrich  der 
Glichezare. 

Glid'don,  (George  R.,)  was  born  in  Devonshire,  Eng- 
land, about  1808.    He  went  to  Egypt,  where  he  passed 


many  years.  He  published  "Ancient  Egypt,"  etc.,  (1850,) 
and,  with  Dr.  J.  C.  Nott,  of  Mobile,  the  "Types  of  Man- 
kind," etc.,  (1854.)    Died  at  Panama  in  1857. 

Gliemann,  glee'mJn,  (Johann  Gf.org  Theodor,)  a 
geogranhei,  born  at  Oldenburg  in  1793  ;  died  in  1828. 

Glinka,  glink'k^,  (Feodor  Nikolaevitch,)  a  Russian 
officer  and  poet,  born  in  the  government  of  Smolensk  in 
1788,  served  in  the  campaigns  of  1805  and  1815.  Among 
his  military  writings,  which  are  highly  esteemed,  aie 
"  Letters  of  a  Russian  Officer  on  the  Campaigns  of  1805," 
etc.  His  war-lyrics  also  enjoy  a  wide  popularity  ;  and 
he  has  made  poetical  versions  of  the  Psalms  and  other 
sacred  books. 

Glinka,  (Gregor  Andreevitch,)  a  Russian  writer, 
born  in  the  government  of  Smolensk  in  1774,  became  in 
1802  professor  of  Russian  literature  at  Dorpat.  He  was 
afterwards  appointed  tutor  to  the  grand  duke  Nicholas, 
whom  he  accompanied  on  his  travels.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  is  a  treatise  "On  the  Ancient  Religion  of 
the  Slavonians."    Died  about  1818. 

Glinka,  (Michael,)  a  Russian  composer,  produced 
in  1837  an  opera  entitled  "Tsarskaya  Zheezn,"  (or  "Zar- 
kaja  Shisn,")  which  was  very  successful,  and  is  regarded 
as  the  first  national  work  of  the  kind. 

Glinka,  (Sergei  Nikolaevitch,)  a  Russian  littera- 
tetir,  born  in  the  gove*-nment  of  Smolensk  in  1774.  He 
has  published  poems,  dramas,  operas,  and  historical 
works  :  among  these  we  may  name  a  "  History  of  the 
Migration  of  the  Armenians  of  Azerbaijan  from  Turkey 
to  Russia,"  and  "  Russian  History  for  Youth."  He  also 
translated  Young's  "Night  Thoughts"  into  Russian. 

Glinski,  glhis'kee,  (Michael,)  a  Polish  nobleman, 
who,  having  lost  the  favour  of  King  Sigismund,  offered 
his  services  to  the  Czar  of  Russia,  then  at  war  with  his 
country.  He  captured  Smolensk  in  1 5 14;  but  the  Czar 
soon  after,  suspecting  him  of  treachery,  caused  him  to  be 
put  in  prison,  where  he  died  !n  1534. 

Gliscenti,  gle-sh^n'tee,  (Fabkj,)  an  Italian  physician 
and  moralist,  born  near  Brescia  about  1550,  wrote  "The 
Market,"  ("  II  Mercato,"  1620,)  a  moral  fable.  Died 
about  1620. 

Glis'son,  (Francis,)  a  celebrated  English  physician 
and  anatomist,  born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1597.  Having 
taken  his  degree  at  Cambridge,  he  became  professor 
of  ph^'sic  in  that  university,  and  in  1634  was  chosen  a 
Fellow  of  the  College  of  Physicians,  London.  He  wrote 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Rickets,"  (1650,)  and  "Anatomy  of 
the  Liver."  The  latter  work  is  highly  esteemed  ;  and  a 
])art  of  the  liver  which  he  has  minutely  described  has 
been  called  the  "Capsule  of  Glisson."  He  was  the  first 
who  attributed  to  simple  fibre  the  innate  principle  of 
irritability,  which  he  distinguishes  from  sensibility.  Dr. 
Glisson  was  eulogized  by  Harvey;  and  the  celebrated 
Boerhaave  pronounced  him  "the  most  accurate  of  all 
anatomists  that  ever  lived."    Died  in  1677. 

See  Birch,  "History  of  the  Royal  Society;"  Aikin,  "Biogra- 
phical Memoirs  of  Medicine." 

Glitner.    See  Forsetl 

Glocker,  glok'ker,  (Ernst  Friedrich,)  professor  of 
mineralogy  at  Breslau,  was  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1793. 
He  wrote  a  "Manual  of  Mineralogy,"  (1829,)  and  other 
works  on  that  science. 

Gloucester,  Duke  of,  was  a  title  of  Richard  III.  of 
England,  before  his  accession  to  the  throne. 

Gloucester,  glos'ter,  (Humphrf:y,)  Duke  of,  was  a 
brother  of  Henry  V.  of  England,  by  whose  last  will  he  was 
appointed  Regent  of  England  in  1422.  He  was  invested 
by  Parliament  with  the  office  of  "protector"  during  the 
absence  of  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Bedford.  The  affairs 
of  the  nation  were  thrown  into  confusion  by  a  long  con- 
test for  supremacy  between  Gloucester  and  Cardinal 
Beaufort.  Having  been  arrested  on  a  charge  of  treason,  . 
he  was  murdered  in  prison,  by  the  order,  it  is  supposed, 
of  Cardinal  Beaufort,  in  1447. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England;"  Shakspeare,  "  Henry  VI., 
Part  II."  \- 

Gloucester,  (Robert  of,)  an  early  English  writer, 
who  flourished  in  the  thirteenth  century,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  monk  of  Gloucester  Abbey.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  History  of  England  from  the  earliest  times 
down  to  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  written  in  verse,  and 


*  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  v., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (gi^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GLOUCESTER 


V 

1044  GNEISENJU 


furnishing  a  valuable  monument  of  the  language  of  that 
time. 

Gloucester,  (William  Frederick,)  Duke  of,  born 
at'Kome  in  1776,  was  a  nephew  of  George  III.  of  Eng- 
land, and  a  son  of  Prince  William  Henry.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  general  in  1808,  and  was  afterwards  a  field- 
marshal.  He  married  Princess  Mary,  a  daughter  of 
George  HI.    Died  in  1834. 

Glover,  gluv'er,  Mrs.,  an  Irish  actress,  born  in  1781. 
She  performed  a  great  variety  of  characters  with  suc- 
cess.   Died  in  1850. 

Glover,  gliiv'er,  (Richard,)  an  English  poet  and 
scholar,  born  in  London  in  17 12,  was  a  merchant  in  his 
youth.  He  published  in  1737  "Leonidas,  an  Epic  Poem 
on  the  Persian  War,"  which  had  great  temporary  suc- 
cess and  was  extravagantly  praised  by  Lord  Lyttleton, 
Fieldip'^,  and  other  prominent  members  of  the  Whig 
party.  It  has  not  retained  its  popularity,  which  was 
owing  more  to  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  times 
than  its  own  intrinsic  merit.  His  ballad  of  "  Hosier's 
Ghost"  (1739)  caused  a  great  sensation,  and  is  still  a 
popular  national  song.  He  was  also  the  author  of  two 
tragedies,  entitled  "Medea"  and  "  Boadicea."  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  Parliament  for  Weymouth  in  1761, 
and  was  several  times  re-elected.  Glover  is  styled  by 
Warton  one  of  the  best  Greek  scholars  of  his  time. 
Died  in  1785. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  a  Distinguished  Literary  and  Political  Charac- 
ter," 1813;  Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets ;"  "Retro- 
spective Review,"  vol.  ii.,  1820. 

Glover,  (Robert,)  an  English  heraldic  writer,  born 
at  Ashforcl  in  1543.  He  wrote  "On  Political  or  Civil 
Nobility,"  ("  De  Nobilitate  politica  vel  civili,"  1608.) 
Died  in  1588. 

See  Fuller's  "Worthies." 

Gliick,  gluk,  (Christian  Friedrich,  )  a  learned 
German  jurist,  born  at  Halle,  on  the  Saale,  in  1755.  He 
became  professor  of  law  at  Erlangen  in  1784.  His 
"Complete  Explanation  of  the  Pandects"  (1796)  was 
esteemed  a  standard  work.    Died  in  1831. 

Gluck,  von,  fon  glook,  (Johann  Christoph,)  an 
eminent  German  composer,  born  near  Neumarkt  in  1714. 
He  visited  Italy  in  1738,  and  studied  composition  under 
Martini.  His  first  operas,  "Artaxerxes"  and  "Deme- 
trius," and  a  third,  entitled  "The  Fall  of  the  Giants," 
brought  out  in  London,  met  with  no  decided  success. 
Having  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  Florentine  poet 
Calzabigi,  they  resolved  to  effect  a  reform  in  the  Italian 
Opera,  which  resulted  in  the  production  of  "  Alceste," 
"Orfeo,"  and  "Helena  and  Paris,"  (1762-69.)  These 
operas  were  received  with  general  applause  both  in 
Germany  and  Italy.  In  1774  he  brought  out  at  Paris 
his  "  Iphigenia  in  Aulis,"  which,  in  spite  of  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  French  composers,  met  with  an  enthusi- 
astic reception.  In  the  musical  contest  which  was  now 
carried  on  with  great  violence  between  the  partisans 
of  Gluck  and  those  of  Piccini,  who  had  been  invited  to 
Paris,  the  queen,  Marie  Antoinette,  actively  supported 
the  former,  who  had  been  her  teacher  in  music.  His 
"Iphigenia  in  Tauris,"  which  came  out  in  1779,  is  ranked 
among  his  master-pieces.  Died  in  Vienna  in  November, 
1787. 

See  BuRNEV,  "General  History  of  Music ;"  A.  Schmid,  "Chris- 
toph, Ritter  von  Gluck  dessen  Leiaen,"  etc.,  1854:  Fetis,  "  Biogra- 
phic Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  Miel,  "  Notice  sur  Gluck,"  1840. 

Gly'cas,  (Michael,)  [Gr.  MLxar/X  6  FAv/cdf,]  a  learned 
Byzantine  historian,  supposed  to  have  lived  about  11 50- 
80.  He  was  the  author  of  "Annales,"  being  a  history 
of  the  world  from  the  creation  to  the  birth  of  Christ, 
and  that  of  the  Byzantine  emperors  down  to  the  death 
of  Alexius  I.  Comnenus. 

See  Cave,  "Historia  Literaria." 

Gly'con,  [VM'kuv,]  a  Greek  sculptor  of  uncertain 
period  and  of  high  reputation.  He  is  only  known  as 
the  sculptor  of  a  famous  colossal  statue  called  the  "  Far- 
nese  Hercules,"  which  is  in  the  Royal  Museum  at  Naples. 
No  ancient  writer  mentions  Glycon ;  but  FATKflN 
AeHNAlOS  EnOIEI  ("Glycon  the  Athenian  made  it") 
is  engrave!  on  the  rock  which  supported  the  statue, 

Glynn,  (Robert,)  M.D,,  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Cambridge,  was  a  Fellow  of  Queen's  College.    He  wrote 


"The  Day  of  Judgment,"  a  poetical  essay,  which  ob- 
tained the  Seatonian  prize  in  1757.  Died  in  1800. 

Gmelin,  gma'lin,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  skilful 
German  engraver,  born  at  Badenweiler  in  1745.  He 
worked  many  years  at  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1821. 

Gmelin,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German  naturalist, 
born  at  Tiibingen  in  1748,  was  a  son  of  Philipp  Friedrich, 
noticed  below.  He  was  professor  of  medical  sciences  in 
the  University  of  Gottingen  for  about  thirty  years,  ending 
in  1804,  and  acquired  an  extensive  reputation  by  his  lec- 
tures and  his  numerous  and  voluminous  works  on  botany, 
chemistry,  and  other  natural  sciences.  Among  these  are 
a  "Dictionary  of  Botany,"  (9  vols.,)  and  a  "  History  of 
Natural  Sciences,"  (1799.)  He  also  edited  the  thirteenth 
edition  of  Linnaeus's  "  Systema  Naturae,"  (1788-93,)  in 
which  work  he  has  shown  himself  defective  in  critical 
judgment.    Died  in  1804. 

See  "Biographic  medicale  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Gmelin,  (Johann  Georg,)  an  eminent  German  bot- 
anist and  naturalist,  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Tiibingen  in  June,  1709.  Having  taken  his  degree  in 
medicine,  he  went  to  Saint  Petersburg,  and  obtained, 
about  1731,  the  chair  of  chemistry  and  natural  history. 
In  1733  he  was  sent  by  the  empress,  in  company  with 
G.  F.  Miiller  and  others,  on  an  exploring  expedition  to 
Siberia,  In  this  arduous  enterprise  he  spent  about  ten 
years,  and,  having  returned  to  Saint  Petersburg  in  1743, 
published  his  "Flora  of  Siberia,"  ("Flora  Sibirica," 
1747,)  which  is  praised  by  Haller.  He  became  professor 
of  botany  and  chemistry  at  Tubingen  in  1749,  and  pub- 
lished (in  German)  "Travels  in  Siberia,"  (1752,)  a  work 
of  considerable  merit.    Died  at  Tubingen  in  1755. 

See  HiRscHiNG,  "  Historisch-Hterarisches  Handbuch ;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographic  Generale." 

Gmelin,  (Leopold,)  a  chemist,  son  of  Johann  Fried- 
rich, noticed  above,  was  born  in  1788,  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  at  Heidelberg  in  181 7,  His  principal 
works  are  a  "  Manual  of  Theoretical  Chemistry,"  (5  vols., 
1841,)  and  a  "Text-Book  of  Chemistry,"  (1844.)  He  re- 
tired from  the  chair  at  Heidelberg  in  1851.   Died  in  1853. 

Gmelin,  (Philipp  Friedrich,)  a  German  physician 
and  botanist,  a  brother  of  Johann  Georg,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  Tubingen  in  172 1.  He  wrote  treatises  on 
inedicine,  botany,  etc.    Died  in  1768, 

Gmelin,  (Samuel  Gottlieb,)  M,D,,  an  eminent 
botanist  and  traveller,  born  at  Tubingen  in  1744,  was  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  obtained  a  chair  of  botany 
in  Saint  Petersburg  about  1 766,  and  published  a  "  Treatise 
on  Sea-Weeds,"  ("Historia  Fucorum,"  1768.)  In  1768, 
Gmelin  and  his  friend  Pallas  were  associated  in  a  scien- 
tific exploration  of  Russia  in  the  service  of  the  empress 
Catherine.  The  former  directed  his  researches  to  the 
regions  of  the  Don  and  the  Volga,  and  explored  the 
western  and  eastern  coasts  of  the  Caspian.  He  was 
seized  on  his  homeward  route  by  the  Kaitaks,  was  im- 
prisoned in  Caucasus,  and  died,  in  consequence  of  ill 
treatment,  in  1774.  Soon  after  that  date  his  "Travels 
through  Russia,  with  a  View  to  Investigate  the  Three 
Kingdoms  of  Nature,"  (in  German,)  was  published. 

See  Hhjsching,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Gnaditsch,  gna'ditch,  written  also  Gnieditsch,  (Ni- 
kolai IVANOvrrcH,)  a  Russian  poet,  born  at  Poltava  in 
1784.  He  is  chiefly  known  from  his  excellent  transla- 
tion of  the  "  Iliad"  into  Russian  hexameter  verse.  He 
also  made  translations  from  Byron  and  several  French 
poets,  and  published,  among  other  original  poems,  "The 
Fishers,"  and  "  Popular  Songs  of  the  Modern  Greeks," 
Died  in  1833, 

Gneisenau,  gnl'zeh-now^  (August  Neidhardt — 
nTt'haRt,)  Count,  a  celebrated  Prussian  field-marshal, 
born  at  Schilda,  in  Saxony,  in  1760.  He  served  with 
great  distinction  in  the  principal  campaigns  from  1807 
to  1809,  when  he  was  sent  on  embassies  to  London  and 
Saint  Petersburg.  In  1813  he  was  appointed  quarter- 
master-general of  Bliicher's  army ;  and  to  his  counsel 
and  strategic  skill  are  chiefly  to  be  attributed  the  advan- 
tages gained  by  the  Prussian  army  at  that  time.  He  was 
made  a  general  in  1814,  and  received  the  title  of  count. 
After  the  defeat  at  Ligny  he  made  a  skilful  retreat,  and 
collected  the  remains  of  the  army  that  by  its  timely 
arrival  at  Waterloo  decided  the  event  of  that  day.  He 


a,  e,  i,  5,  u,  y,  /oftg-;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAorf;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


GNIEDITSCH 


1045 


GODEFROI 


was  appointed  governor  of  Berlin  and  councillor  of  state 
in  1818,  and  in  1825  field-marshal.    Died  in  1831. 

See  C-  G.  Lischke,  "  A.  Gneisenau's  Urne,"  8vo,  1832;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Gnieditsch.    See  Gnaditsch. 

Giii'pho,  (Marcus  Antonius,)  a  Roman  rhetorician, 
born  in  Gaul  in  114  B.C.  He  taught  rhetoric,  at  Rome, 
to  Cicero  and  other  eminent  men,  and  wrote  several 
works,  which  are  not  extant.    Died  63  B.C. 

Goad,  (John,)  a  classical  teacher,  born  in  London  in 
161 5,  was  head-master  of  the  Merchant  Taylors'  School 
for  about  twenty  years.  Among  his  works  is  "  Astro- 
Meteorologia,"  (1686.)    Died  in  1689. 

See  Wilson,  '*  History  of  Merchant  Taylors'  School." 

Goad'by,  (Robert,)  an  English  printer  and  writer, 
of  Sherborne,  in  Dorsetshire,  wrote  "Illustration  of  the 
Scriptures  by  Notes,''  (3  vols.,  1759-64.)    Died  in  1778. 

Goar,  go'^R',  (Jacques,)  a  French  Dominican  monk, 
born  in  Paris  about  1606.  He  published  a  work  on  the 
ritual  of  the  Greek  Church,  "  Eukologion  sive  Rituale 
Graecorum,"  (1647.)    Died  in  1653. 

Goar,  van.    See  Graf. 

Gobbo,  gob'bo,  (Andrea,)  a  painter,  distinguished  as 
a  colorist,  born  at  Milan  about  1470  ;  died  in  1527. 

Gobbo  da  Cortona,  gob'bo  da  koR-to'nd,  an  Italian 
painter,  whose  proper  name  was  Paolo  Bonzi,  was  born 
at  Cortona  about  1580.  He  excelled  in  painting  fruits. 
Died  about  1640. 

Gobel,  go'b^K,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  revolu- 
tionist, born  in  Alsace  in  1727,  was  a  deputy  of  the 
clergy  to  the  States-General  in  1789.  When  the  oath 
to  the  civil  constitution  was  offered  to  the  clergy,  he  at- 
tached to  it  some  restrictions  ;  but  he  subsequently  with- 
drew them.  As  a  reward  for  his  compliance,  he  obtained 
the  bishoprics  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  the  Upper  Maine, 
and  of  Paris.  He  renounced  his  ecclesiastical  functions 
about  the  end  of  1793.  Having  incurred  the  displeasure 
of  the  Jacobins,  he  was  guillotined  in  1794. 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Girondists;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale;"  "Biographic  Universelle." 

Gobel  or  Goebel,  go'bel,  (Johann  Heinrich  Ert- 
MANN,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Lauban  in  1732  ;  died 
in  1795. 

Gobel  or  Goebel,  (Traugott  Friedemann,)  a  Ger- 
man chemist  and  traveller,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1794, 
became  professor  of  chemistry  at  Dorpat  in  1828.  He 
published  "Travels  in  Southern  Russia,"  (1838,)  "  Ele- 
ments of  Pharmacy,"  ("  Grundlehren  der  Pharmacie,"  4 
vols.,  1843-47,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1851. 

Gobel  or  Goebel,  von,  fon  go'bel,  (Johann  Wil- 
HEI.M,)  a  German  jurist  and  publicist,  born  in  Westphalia 
in  1683.  His  works  on  public  law  were  much  esteemed. 
Died  in  1745. 

Gobelin,  gob'liN',  (Gilles  and  Jean,)  brothers,  and 
celebrated  French  dyers,  who  about  1450  established  dye- 
houses  on  the  Bievre,  (Faubourg  Saint-Marcel,  Paris.) 
A  manufactory  of  tapestry  was  afterwards  founded,  and, 
under  the  supervision  of  the  celebrated  Le  Brun,  were 
produced  those  superb  pieces  of  tapestry  which  have 
excited  the  admiration  of  the  world. 

See  Lacordaire,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Manufacture  des 
Gobelins." 

Gobet, go'bi',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  savant,  born  about 
1735,  wrote  "The  Ancient  Mineralogists  of  France,"  (2 
vols.,  1779,)  and  other  works.    Died  about  1781. 

Gobien.    See  Legobien. 

Gobinet,  go''be'ni',  (Charles,)  a  French  religious 
writer,  born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1613  ;  died  in  1690. 

Gobler  or  Goebler,  gobbler,  (Justin,)  a  German 
historian,  born  in  Hesse.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Emperor  Maximilian  I.,"  (1566.)    Died  in  1567. 

Goblet,  go'bli',  (Albert  Joseph,)  Count  of  Alviella, 
a  Belgian  officer,  born  at  Tournay  in  1790.    In  1835 
obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general. 

Go'bry-as,  one  of  the  seven  Persian  noblemen  who 
conspired  against  Smerdis,  521  B.C.  He  married  a  sister 
of  King  Darius,  and  was  the  father  of  Mardonius. 

Gockel,  gok'kel,  (Eberhard,)  born  at  Ulm  in  1646, 
was  physician  to  the  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg,  His  writings 
were  highly  esteemed. 


Gockingk  or  Goeckingk,  gok'kink,  (Leopold 
Friedrich  Gunther — gobn'ier,)  a  German  poet,  born 
near  Halberstadt  in  1748,  was  appointed  to  several  high 
offices  in  the  Prussian  government.  He  wrote  epigrams, 
satiric  fables,  and  "  The  Songs  of  Two  Lovers,"  ("  Lieder 
zweier  Liebenden,"  1777.)  The  last-named  are  especially 
admired.    Died  in  1828. 

Gocleuius,  go-kla'ne-us,  (Conrad,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  in  W'estphalia  in  1455.  He  was  a  friend 
and  correspondent  of  Erasmus.  He  wrote  "Scholia  in 
TuUii  Officia,"  and  edited  Lucian.    Died  about  1535. 

Goclenius, (Rudolph,)  a  German  philosopher,  born 
at  Corbach  in  1547,  was  professor  of  logic  at  Marburg. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Miscellanea  philoso- 
phico-theologica,"  (3  vols.,  1607-09.)    Died  in  1628. 

Goclenius,  (Rudolph,)  a  physician,  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  was  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1572.  He  became 
professor  of  physics  at  Marburg,  and  wrote  various  works. 
Died  in  1621. 

Godard,  go^dtR',  (Jean,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Paris 
in  1564,  wrote  odes,  dramas,  etc.,  which  were  once  popu- 
lar.   Died  about  1630. 

Godart,  go'diR',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  natural- 
ist, born  in  Picardy  in  1775.  He  published  four  volumes 
of  a  "  History  of  the  Lepidoptera  of  France,"  (1822-25,) 
which,  after  his  death,  was  finished  by  Duponchel.  It 
is  a  work  of  much  merit.    Died  in  1823. 

God'dard,  (Arabella,)  a  popular  pianist,  born  of 
English  parents  in  Brittany,  France,  in  1836,  was  a  pu))il 
of  Thalberg.  She  made  her  first  appearance  in  public 
in  London  in  1850,  since  which  time  she  has  been  con- 
stantly increasing  in  popular  favour.  In  i860  she  was 
married  to  Mr.  Davison,  but  still  retains  her  maiden  name. 

See  "Men  of  the  Time,"  1868. 

Goddard,  (Jonathan,)  a  distinguished  English  phy- 
sician and  chemist,  born  at  Greenwich  in  161 7.  Being 
appointed  head-physician  in  the  army  in  1649,  he  accom- 
panied Cromwell  to  Ireland  and  Scotland,  and  in  1653 
became  a  member  of  the  council  of  state.  On  the  for- 
mation of  the  Royal  Society,  in  1663,  Dr.  Goddard  was 
chosen  one  of  its  council.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  a  "Discourse  concerning  Physic,  and  the  many 
Abuses  thereof  by  Apothecaries,"  (1668.)  He  was  also 
noted  for  his  scientific  attainments,  and  made  great 
improvements  in  optical  instruments.    Died  in  1674, 

See  "Biographic  medicale;"  Chalmers,  "Biographical  Dic- 
tionary." 

Goddard,  (William  Stanley,)  an  English  clergy- 
man, born  in  1757,  was  master  of  Winchester  School, 
and  rector  of  Repton,  Derby.  He  gave  large  sums  of 
money  for  charity.    Died  in  1845. 

Godde,  god,  (£tienne  Hippolyte,)  a  French  ar- 
chitect, born  at  Breteuil  in  1 78 1,  was  api:)ointed  chief 
architect  of  the  city  of  Paris  in  1813.  His  chief  work 
is  the  addition  to  the  Hotel  de  Ville. 

Godeau,  goMo',  (Antoine,)  a  French  writer,  born 
at  Dreux  in  1605,  was  one  of  the  founders  and  first  mem- 
bers of  the  French  Academy.  He  was  distinguished  for 
his  wit  and  social  accomplishments,  and  was  one  of  the 
coterie  of  the  Hotel  de  Rambouillet.  He  was  created 
Bishop  of  Grasse  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  in  1636,  and  was 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Vence.  He  wrote  a  "History  of 
the  Church  from  the  Creation  to  the  End  of  the  Eighth 
Century,"  (5  vols.,  1653-78,)  "  Christian  Morals,"  and 
various  other  works.    i3ied  in  1672. 

See  DuPiN,  "  Bibliothequedes  Auteursecclesiastiques ;"  Niceron, 
"  Memoires  ;"  Speroni  uegli  Alvarotti,  "  Vita  di  A.  Godeau  Ves- 
covo  di  Vence,"  1761. 

God'e-bert,  [Lat.  Godeber'tus,]  written  also  Gun- 
depei't,  King  of  the  Lombards,  succeeded  his  father  in 
661  a.d.    He  was  killed  by  Grimoald  in  662. 

Godefroi.    See  Godfrey. 

Godefroi,  god'fRwl',  [Lat.  Gothofre'du.s,]  (Denis,) 
THK  Elder,  an  eminent  French  jurist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1549.  He  studied  successively  at  Louvain,  Heidelberg, 
and  Cologne,  and,  after  his  return,  was  made  a  councillor 
in  the  Parliament  of  Paris.  He  became  professor  of  law 
at  Geneva  in  1580.  On  the  invitation  ot  Frederick,  the 
Elector-palatine,  he  repaired  to  Heidelberg,  where,  owing 
to  the  troubles  of  war,  he  did  not  remain  -long.  He  died 
at  Strasburg  in  1622.    He  published  a  "  Body  of  Civil 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


CODE  FRO  I 


1046 


GOD  MAN 


Law,"  ("Corpus  Juris  civilis,"  1583,)  and  other  valuable 
legal  works,  and  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  one  of  the 
first  jurists  of  his  time. 
See  NiCEKON,  "  Menioires." 

Godefroi,  (Denis,)  the  Younger,  a  French  historian, 
born  in  Paris  in  1615,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  made  historiographer  of  France  in  1640,  and 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Constables,  Chancellors,  etc. 
of  France,"  (1658.)    Died  in  1681. 

Godefroi,  (Jacques,)  son  of  Denis  the  Elder,  born 
at  Geneva  in  1587,  became  professor  of  law  in  his  iiative 
town.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  secretary  of  state 
and  syndic  of  the  republic,  fiis  edition  of  the  "Codex 
Theodosianus"  (1665)  is  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1652. 

Godefroi,  (Jean,)  Sieur  d'Aumont,  son  of  Denis  the 
Younger,  born  in  Paris  in  1656.  He  filled  several  im- 
portant offices  under  the  government,  and  published 
editions  of  the  "  Memoires  de  Comines,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1732. 

Godefroi,  (Theodore,)  a  French  jurist  and  historical 
writer,  born  at  Geneva  in  1580,  was  a  son  of  Denis  the 
Elder,  noticed  above.  He  was  appointed  historiogra- 
pher of  the  kingdom  in  1632.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  "  Le  Ceremonial  de  France,"  (1619,)  and 
one  "  On  the  True  Origin  of  the  House  of  Austria," 
(1624.)    Died  in  1649. 

Godefroid  (or  Godefroi)  de  Bouillon.  See  God- 
frey OF  Bouillon. 

Godefroidus  Boloniensis,  (or  BuUoniensis.)  See 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon. 

Godeke  or  Goedeke,  go'deh-keh,  (Karl,)  a  German 
litterateur,  born  at  Celle  in  1814.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Poets  of  Germany  from  1813  to  1843," 
(1844,)  and  "The  Middle  Ages  and  their  Literature," 
(1852-54.) 

Godericli.    See  Ripon,  Earl  of. 

Godescalch  or  Godeschalcus.    See  Gottschalk. 

Godescard,  go'des'ktR',  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French 
ecclesiastical  writer,  born  near  Rouen  in  1728,  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Lives  of  the  Fathers,  Martyrs," 
etc.,  (12  vols.  8vo.)    Died  in  i8oo. 

God'frey,  (Sir  Edmundbury,)  an  English  magistrate, 
who  took  the  evidence  of  Oates  in  relation  to  a  suspected 
popish  plot.  His  dead  body  was  found,  after  he  had  been 
missing  some  days,  at  Primrose  Hill,  in  October,  1678. 
A  great  excitement  was  caused  by  his  murder. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Death  of  Sir  E.  Godfrey,"  Lon- 
don, 1682. 

God'frey,  (Thomas,)  an  American  mechanician  and 
inventor,  born  in  Philadelphia.  About  1730  he  made  an 
improvement  in  the  quadrant,  which  was  communicated 
to  the  Royal  Society.  A  similar  improvement  was  made 
nearly  at  the  same  time  by  Mr.  Hadley  in  England  ;  and 
a  reward  was  given  to  both  by  the  society.  Died  in  1749. 

God'frey  of  Bouillon,  (boo'ydN^,)  [Fr.  Godefroid 
(or  Godefroi)  de  Bouillon,  go'deh-fRwi'  deh  boo'- 
ydw';  Ger.  Gottfried  von  Bouillon,  got'fReet  fon 
boo^ydN';  It.  Goffredo  di  Buglione,  gof-fRa'do  de 
bool-yo'ni;  Lat.  Godefroi'dus  (or  Gothofre'dus) 
Bolonien'sis,]  the  illustrious  leader  of  the  first  crusade, 
son  of  Eustace  II.,  Count  of  Boulogne,  was  born  near 
Nivelle,  in  France,  about  1058.  He  early  distinguished 
himself  while  fighting  for  Henry  IV.  of  Germany,  by 
whom  he  was  created  Duke  of  Bouillon.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  to  engage  in  the  crusade  for  the  recovery  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,  and  to  him  was  intrusted  the  command 
of  the  principal  army.  In  1096  he  set  out  for  Constan- 
tinople, accompanied  by  the  most  distinguished  of  the 
nobility.  Being  informed  that  Hugh,  Count  of  Ver- 
mandois,  brother  of  the  King  of  France,  was  detained 
there  as  a  prisoner,  Godfrey  demanded  his  release  of 
the  emi)eror  Alexius,  and  on  his  refusal  threatened  to 
besiege  the  capital,  in  consequence  of  which  the  captive 
was  liberated.  After  much  difficulty,  a  treaty  was  con- 
cluded between  Alexius  and  the  crusaders,  by  which  the 
latter  agreed  to  do  homage  to  the  emperor  on  condition 
of  his  assistance.  The  army  next  advanced  to  Nice, 
which  surrendered  after  a  protracted  siege.  In  June, 
1098,  Antioch  was  taken,  after  great  suffering  had  been 
endured  from  fiimine  and  disease.  With  the  remnant  of 
his  army  Godfrey  now  marched  to  Jerusalem,  the  siege 


of  which  was  begun  in  June,  1099,  and  ended  the  July 
following  by  the  capture  of  the  city.  By  the  unanimous 
wish  of  the  crusaders,  he  was  chosen  King  of  Jerusalem  ; 
but  he  refused  the  title  of  royalty,  saying  "  he  would 
never  accept  a  crown  of  gold  in  a  city  where  his  Saviour 
had  worn  a  crown  of  thorns."  Soon  after  this  he  ob- 
tained another  victory  over  the  Saracens,  at  Ascalon. 
Godfrey  gave  to  the  city  a  set  of  laws,  called  the  "  Assize 
of  Jerusalem,"  resembling  the  feudal  system  of  Europe. 
He  survived  but  a  year  after  the  taking  of  Jerusalem, 
dying  in  July,  iioo.  Godfrey  is  the  hero  of  Tasso's 
"Jerusalem  Delivered  ;"  and  the  poet  appears  not  to 
have  exaggerated  the  merits  of  a  character  whii:h  was  a 
rare  combination  ot  wisdom  and  heroism  with  Christian 
virtues  of  a  high  order. 

See  MiCHAUD,  H  sti.ir.- -1 -s  CroisrtdiiS  ;"  C.  de  Pi.ancv.  "  Gode- 
froid de  15f);iilion,"  iS^;  VVii.kkm,  "  Geschichte  der  Kreii/zii'^e," 
1830;  R.  Pico,  "  V  ta  di  G.  Duci  di  Bug  ione,"  1626;  H.  Prevau(.T 
"  Histoire  de  G.  de  P.ouilloii,"  2  vols.,  1^3:5;  J.  I',,  d" Exauvim.ez, 
"  Histoire  de  G.  de  Bouillon,"  1842;  Gibbon,  ""  Decline  and  Fall," 
etc. ;  H.  VON  Svbel,  "Geschichte  des  ersten  Kreuzzugs,"  1841. 

Godfrey  of  Viterbo,  a  historian  of  the  twelfth 
century.  He  was  employed  as  secretary  and  chaplain  by 
the  emperors  Conrad  HI.,  Frederick  I.,  and  Henry  IV. 
of  Germany.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "Pantheon," 
being  a  history  of  the  world  from  the  creation  to  the 
year  1186.  It  is  written  in  Latin,  and  displays  great 
learning;  but  the  style  is  somewhat  barbarous. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Latinis." 

Godin,  go'diN^  (Louis,)  an  eminent  French  mathe- 
matician and  astronomer,  bxjrn  in  Paris  in  1704.  In  1725 
he  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  When,  in 
1735,  '^he  Academy  sent  some  of  its  members  to  measure 
a  degree  of  the  meridian,  Godin  was  appointed  to  con- 
duct the  enterprise.  He  was  for  a  time  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Lima,  and  after  his  return  to  Europe 
became  director  of  the  Naval  Academy  at  Cadiz.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  from  1680  to  1699,"  (11  vols.)  Died  in  1760. 

See  Gkand-Jean  de  Fouchv,  "  £loge  de  Godin." 

Godinot,  goMe'no',  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and 
philanthropist,  born  at  Rheims  in  1661.  He  devoted 
his  large  fortune  to  benevolent  purposes,  founded  free 
schools,  and  conferred  numerous  other  benefits  upon  his 
native  city.    Died  in  1749. 

Go-diVa,  [Fr.  Godive,  go'd^v',]  a  celebrated  Eng- 
lish lady,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor 
and  was  the  wife  of  Leofric,  Earl  of  Leicester.  According 
to  tradition,  she  procured  the  exemption  of  Coventry 
from  a  tax  by  riding  naked  through  that  city  on  horse- 
back.   Tennyson  has  written  a  poem  on  this  subject. 

Godive.    See  Godiva. 

God'ley,  (John  Robert,)  an  English  politician  and 
writer.  He  published  "  Letters  from  Canada  and  the 
United  States,"  (2  vols.,  1844.)    Died  in  1862. 

God'man,  (John  D.,)  an  eminent  American  natu- 
ralist and  physician,  born  at  Annapolis,  Maryland,  in 
December,  1794.  He  enlisted  in  the  navy  in  1814,  and 
served  at  the  defence  of  Fort  McHenry,  but  left  the 
service  in  1815.  He  then  began  to  study  medicine,  and 
graduated  in  the  University  of  Maryland  in  181 8.  In 
1 82 1  he  was  chosen  professor  of  surgery  in  the  Medical 
College  of  Ohio  at  Cincinnati ;  but  he  removed  to  Phila- 
delphia in  1822,  after  which  he  lectured  on  anatomy  to  a 
private  class.  He  became  in  1824  one  of  the  editors  of 
the  "  Philadelphia  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,"  and 
was  ai)pointed  professor  of  anatomy  in  Rutgers  College, 
New  York,,  in  1826.  About  the  end  of  1827  he  resigned 
his  chair,  on  account  of  ill  health.  He  died  at  German- 
town,  near  Philadelphia,  in  April,  1830.  As  a  lecturer  on 
anatomv  and  as  a  naturalist,  Professor  Godman  had  few, 
if  any,  superiors  aniong  his  contemporaries  in  the  United 
States.  He  was  also  well  versed  in  the  Latin,  Fiench, 
and  German  languages.  His  work  on  "American  Natural 
History"  (3  vols.  8vo,  1823-28)  the  "  North  American 
Review"  pronounces  "  undoubtedly  superior  to  any 
previous  publication  on  the  same  subject,"  and  adds, 
"  We  consider  Dr.  Godman  in  some  respects  among  the 
most  extraordinary  men  that  have  adorned  the  medical 
profession  in  our  country."  Among  his  other  publica- 
tions may  be  mentioned  his  "Anatomical  Investigations," 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fdll,  fat;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


GODOI 


1047 


GODWIN 


"Rambles  of  a  Naturalist,"  and  an  edition  of  Bell's 
"Anatomy,"  with  notes.  Dr.  Godman  had  adopted  the 
materialistic  views  of  the  French  naturalists ;  but,  on 
being  called,  in  1827,  to  witness  the  death  of  a  medical 
student,  who  died  a  Christian,  he  was  led  to  embrace 
Christianity,  and  was  ever  after  a  devoutly  religious 
man.  A  "  Memoir  of  his  Life,"  by  Dr.  Sewall,  has  been 
pub  ished  by  the  Tract  Society. 

See,  also,  Gross,  "American  Medical  Biography ;"  "  North 
American  Review"  for  January,  1835. 

Godoi.    See  Godoy. 

Go-doFphin,  (John,)  an  eminent  civilian,  born  at 
Godolphin,  in  the  island  of  Scilly,  in  161 7.  He  was 
appointed  a  judge  of  the  admiralty  in  1653,  and  king's 
advocate  after  the  restoration  of  1660.  He  published 
"The  Holy  Harbour,  a  Body  of  Divinity,"  (1651,)  and 
"Admiralty  Jurisdiction,"  (1661.)    Died  in  1678. 

See  Wood,  "Atheiiae  Oxonienses." 

Godolphin,  (Sidney  Godolphin,)  Earl  of,  an 
eminent  English  statesman,  of  a  distinguished  family 
in  Cornwall.  The  jj^ar  of  his  birth  is  not  known  ;  but 
he  entered  early  into  the  service  of  Charles  H.,  and  on 
the  restoration  was  appointed  by  that  prince  one  of  the 
grooms  of  the  bed-chamber.  In  1678  he  was  intrusted 
with  the  management  of  a  confidential  correspondence 
between  the  Prince  of  Orange  and  the  Duke  of  York, 
and  the  following  year  he  became  one  of  the  lords  of  the 
treasury.  When  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  and  Lord  vSalis- 
bury  were  dismissed,  in  1679,  he  shared  with  Viscount 
Hyde  and  the  Earl  of  Sunderland  the  chief  management 
of  affairs.  In  1683  he  was  one  of  those  ministers  em- 
ployed in  secret  negotiations  with  Louis  XIV.  to  renew 
the  dependency  of  Charles  on  the  French  king.  He  was 
made  first  commissioner  of  the  treasury  in  1684,  and 
was  created  Baron  Godolphin  of  Rialton.  Although  he 
had  voted  to  exclude  James  II.  from  the  crown,  he  was 
retained  in  office  when  that  sovereign  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  (1685,)  but  in  a  subordinate  place  at  the  treasury 
board.  On  the  arrival  of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  Godol- 
phin was  one  of  the  noblemen  employed  to  negotiate 
with  him  on  the  part  of  the  king.  On  the  accession  of 
the  Prince  of  Orange  he  retained  his  office  as  one  of  the 
lords  of  the  treasury,  and  in  1690  was  made  first  lord  in 
that  department.  He  was  dismissed  from  office  in  1697. 
When  Queen  Anne  succeeded  to  the  throne,  (1702,)  he 
became  lord  high  treasurer.  This  office  he  had  re- 
fused until  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  declared  he  could 
not  command  the  armies  on  the  continent  unless  the 
treasury  was  in  Godolphin's  hands.  In  1704  he  was 
made  knight  of  the  Garter,  and  in  1706  Earl  of  Go- 
dolphin. He  was  removed  from  his  post  of  lord  high 
treasurer  in  1710,  when  the  Duke  and  Duchess  of  Marl- 
borough, with  whom  he  had  been  connected,  had  lost 
the  favour  of  the  queen.  Bishop  Burnet  says  of  Godol- 
phin, "  He  was  the  silentest  and  modestest  man  who  was 
perhaps  ever  bred  in  a  court.  He  had  true  principles 
of  religion  and  virtue,  and  never  heaped  up  wealth." 
During  the  greater  part  of  his  political  course  he  acted 
with  the  Tories  ;  but  about  1705  he  attached  himself  to 
the  Whig  party.    Died  in  1712. 

See  Macaulav,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  ;  Burnet,  "His- 
tory of  his  Own  Times." 

Godolphin,  (Sydney,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Corn- 
wall in  1610.  He  fought  for  Charles  I.,  and  was  killed 
at  Chagford  in  1643.  translated  "  The  Loves  of  Dido 
and  ^neas"  from  Virgil,  and  wrote  several  original 
poems.  His  judgment  and  fancy  are  praised  by  Hobbes, 
who  was  his  friend. 

Godoonof,  Godounof,  or  Godunow,  go'doo-nof, 
sometimes  written  Gudenow,  (Boris,)  Czar  of  Moscow, 
born  in  1552,  was  of  Tartar  origin,  and  was  made  a  member 
of  the  supreme  council  of  state  by  Ivan  tlie  Terrible  in 
1582.  When  the  imbecile  Feodor  succeeded  Ivan,  Godoo- 
nof became  his  chief  favourite,  and  obtained  from  him  the 
highest  honours.  In  1 591  Demetrius,  the  half-brother  of 
Feodor,  was  said  to  have  been  murdered  by  the  orders 
of  Godoonof  In  1598  Feodor  died,  leaving  the  throne 
to  his  widow  Irene,  the  sister  of  Godoonof,  and,  on  her 
refusal  to  accept  the  crown,  the  latter  was  proclaimed 
Czar  l)y  the  unanimous  wish  of  the  peo|)le.  About  this 
time  he  defeated  the  Khan  of  the  Crimea,  and  brought 


Siberia  to  subjection.  He  displayed  great  ability  and 
energy  in  his  administration,  and  his  policy  was  generally 
marked  by  clemency.  He  manifested  great  zeal  in  the 
cause  of  education,  and  invited  to  his  country  distin- 
guished foreigners  whom  he  thought  likely  to  promote 
its  civilization.  During  the  terrible  famine  of  1601  he 
showed  himself  a  benefactor  to  his  peo])]e  by  his  exer- 
tions in  their  behalf  In  1604  a  report  was  raised  that 
Prince  Demetrius,  who  was  supposed  to  have  been  mur- 
dered, was  still  alive  and  was  preparing  to  enter  Russia. 
As  he  was  approaching  Moscow,  Godoonof  died  sud- 
denly, in  April,  1605  ;  and  it  is  supposed  he  took  poison. 

See  P.  Merimee,  "  Un  lipisode  de  I'Histoire  de  Russie ;  les 
faux  Demetrius;"  Margaret,  "  L'Estat  de  la  Russie,"  etc.,  1607. 

Godounof  or  Godunow.    See  Godoonof. 
Go-doy^  de,  [Sp.  pron.  da  go-no'ee,]  (Don  Manuel,) 
(Alvarp:z  de  Faria  Rios  Sanchez  y  Zarsoa — dk 

fi-ree'3.  ree'is  sS.n'ch§th  e  thaR-so''S,)  Duke  of  Alcudia, 
a  Spanish  courtier,  surnamed  the  Prince  of  Peace, 
was  born  at  Badajoz  in  1767.  He  became  the  chief 
favourite  of  Charles  IV.  and  of  his  queen,  and  was  ap- 
pointed prime  minister  in  1792.  He  received  the  title  of 
"  Prince  of  Peace"  because  he  made  peace  with  France 
in  1795.  His  influence  over  the  feeble  king  and  the 
queen  was  unbounded;  but  he  became  very  unpopular. 
Ferdinand,  the  heir  of  the  throne,  was  among  his  enemies. 
CJodoy's  administration  was  very  corrupt.  His  palace 
was  attacked  in  March,  1808,  by  a  mob,  who  were  ap- 
peased by  the  abdication  of  Charles  IV.  and  the  disgrace 
of  the  favourite.  He  took  refuge  in  France,  and  died  in 
Paris  in  185 1. 

See  OviLO  v  Otero,  "Vida  poh'tica  y  militar  de  Don  Manuel 
Godoy,"  etc.,  1844;  Toreno, " Guerra,  Revolucion,  etc.  de  Espaiia;" 
"Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1836;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Godron,  goMR^N',  (Dominique  Alexandre,)  a 
French  naturalist  of  the  present  age.  He  was  professor 
of  natural  history  at  Nancy,  and  published  a  "  Flora  of 
France,"  (6  vols.,  1848-56.) 

God'win,  Earl,  a  celebrated  Saxon  baron,  was  the 
son  of  Ulnoth,  or  Wolfnoth,  Earl  of  Sussex.  In  1017  he 
accompanied  Canute  in  an  exj^edition  against  Sweden, 
and  so  distinguished  himself  by  his  bravery  that  the  king 
bestowed  upon  him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  On  the 
death  of  Canute,  Godwin  espoused  the  cause  of  Har- 
dicanute  in  opposition  to  Harold  Harefoot,  but,  soon 
changing  his  comse,  supported  the  claims  of  Harold, 
and,  in  concert  with  him,  planned  the  murder  of  the 
young  princes  Alfred  and  Edward,  sons  of  Ethelred  and 
Emma.  When  Hardicanute  came  to  the  throne.  Prince 
Edward  accused  Godwin  of  the  murder  of  his  brother; 
but  a  magnificent  present  from  the  guilty  earl  induced 
the  king  to  pardon  him.  In  1041,  on  the  death  of  Hardi- 
canute, Godwin  was  reconciled  to  Edward,  and  promoted 
his  succession  on  condition  of  his  marrying  his  daughter 
Editha.  About  this  time  the  counties  of  Kent  and 
Sussex  were  added  to  his  domain.  Having  openly  dis- 
obeyed the  king,  the  latter  summoned  a  council  of  his 
nobles  at  London,  and  passed  judgment  on  the  rebellion. 
Ciodwin,  with  three  of  his  sons,  took  refuge  in  Flanders. 
Their  estates  were  confiscated.  Having  gained  adherents 
in  Flanders,  Godwin  equipped  a  fleet,  and,  with  his  son 
Harold,  entered  the  Thames  and  appeared  before  Lon- 
don. The  king  now  entered  into  negotiations  with  him, 
and  Godwin,  with  his  sons,  after  giving  hostages  to  pre- 
serve the  peace,  were  reinstated  in  their  possessions. 
Died  in  1053. 

See  LiNGARu's  "History  of  England." 

Godwin,  (Francis,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1561,  was  ap])ointed  Bisliop  of 
Llandafif.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Catalogue  of  the 
l)ishops  of  England,"  etc.,  also  a  work  entitled  "The 
Man  in  the  Moon,  by  Domingo  Gonsales."  He  became 
Bishop  of  Hereford  in  161 7.    Died  in  1633. 

Godwin,  (George,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  architect, 
born  in  Middlesex  in  181 5.  He  wrote  a  descriptive 
work  called  "The  Churches  of  London,"  (1838,)  a  col- 
-  lection  of  tales  entitled  "Facts  and  Fancies,"  (1844,) 
"  History  in  Ruins,"  and  other  works.  He  became  editor 
of  the  "  Builder"  in  1844,  since  which  he  has  contributed 
I  many  articles  to  that  valuable  weekly  journal.    He  was 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  yl,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GOD  If" IN 


1048 


GOETHE 


afterwards  employed  on  the  restoration  of  the  church  of 
Saint  Mary  Redcliff. 

Godwin,  (Mary.)    See  Wollstonecraft. 

Godwin,  (Parke,)  an  American  author  and  editor, 
born  at  Paterson,  New  Jersey,  in  February,  1816,  grad- 
uated at  Princeton  College  in  1834.  He  married  a 
daughter  of  William  C.  Bryant,  the  poet,  whom  he  as- 
sisted as  associate  editor  of  the  New  York  *'  Evening 
Post"  from  1837  to  1853.  He  published  a  periodical, 
called  "The  Pathfinder,"  for  several  months  in  1843, 
contributed  to  the  "  Democratic  Review"  many  political, 
literary,  and  biographical  articles,  and  was  editor  of 
"  Putnam's  Magazine."  He  translated  into  English 
Goethe's  "Autobiography,"  Lamotte-Fouque's  "Un- 
dine" and  "  Sintram  and  his  Companions,"  and  has 
been  engaged,  it  is  said,  for  several  years  in  writing  a 
"  History  of  France,"  (i860.)  He  is  a  member  of  the 
Republican  party. 

Godwin,  (Thomas,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Berkshire  in  15 17.  He  became  a  Protestant  at  an  early 
age,  and  was  appointed  Dean  of  Christ  Church  in  1565. 
He  was  made  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  1584.  Died 
in  1590. 

See  Wood,  "Athenas  Oxonienses." 

Godwin,  (Thomas,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
in  Somersetshire  in  1587,  was  master  of  Royse's  free 
school,  in  Abingdon,  for  the  use  of  which  he  wrote  his 
"Anthology  of  Roman  History."  In  1616  he  published 
a  "Synopsis  of  Hebrew  Antiquities."    Died  in  1643. 

Godwin,  (William,)  a  celebrated  English  novelist, 
was  born  in  Cambridgeshire  in  1756.  He  studied  at 
the  Independent  Theological  College  at  Hoxton.  After 
having  filled  the  clerical  ofiice  for  five  years,  he  visited 
London,  where  he  began  his  career  as  an  author.  His 
first  work,  entitled  "  Political  Justice,"  ajDpeared  in  1793. 
It  made  a  great  sensation,  and  brought  much  opprobrium 
on  the  author,  who  was  thought  to  symjjathize  with  the 
princi])les  of  the  French  Revolution.  The  next  year  he 
published  "Caleb  Williams,"  a  novel,  which  was  very 
successful.  In  1794,  when  several  of  Godwin's  friends 
were  tried  for  high  treason,  he  wrote  "  Cursory  Stric- 
tures" on  the  charge  delivered  by  Judge  Eyre  to  the 
jury,  and  in  this  way  rendered  essential  service  to  the 
accused.  In  1796  he  married  Mary  Wollstonecraft,  and 
after  her  death,  in  1797,  he  edited  her  posthumous  works 
and  published  a  memoir  of  her.  He  produced  "  Saint 
Leon,"  a  novel,  in  1799,  and  engaged  in  business  as  a 
bookseller  about  1804.  In  1808  he  wrote  an  "Essay  on 
Sepulchres  ;  or,  Proposal  for  Erecting  some  Memorial  of 
the  Illustrious  Dead  on  the  Spot  where  their  Remains 
have  been  interred."  In  1816  his  novel  "Mandeville" 
appeared.  He  next  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Population," 
and  in  1828  published  his  "  History  of  the  Common- 
wealth of  England."  His  last  novel,  "  Cloudesley,"  was 
brought  out  in  1830,  when  the  author  was  seventy-four 
years  of  age.  His  last  work,  entitled  "Lives  of  the 
Necromancers,"  appeared  in  1834.  When  Lord  Grey 
came  into  power,  he  bestowed  on  Godwin  the  office  of 
yeoman  usher  of  the  exchequer.  Though  distinguished 
as  a  political  writer,  he  has  displayed  his  greatest  talent 
in  his  novels,  of  which  "Caleb  Williams"  and  "  Mande- 
ville" are  considered  the  best.    Died  in  1836. 

See  the  critique  on  Godwin  in  Hazlitt's  Miscellaneous  Works, 
vol.  v.;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1830;  De  Quincey,  "  Lite- 
rary Reminiscences,"  vol.  i. 

Goebel.    See  Gobel. 
Goeckingk.    See  Gockingk. 
Goedeke.    See  Godkke. 
Goelike.    See  Go  like. 
Goenner.    See  Conner. 
Goeppert.    See  Gopferi". 

Goeree,  iioo^ia,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter,  son  of  Wil- 
lem,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Middelburg  in  1670.  He 
adorned  with  his  pictures  the  Burghers'  Hall  at  Amster- 
dam.    Died  in  1731. 

Goeree,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch  writer  and  bookseller 
of  extensive  learning,  born  at  Middelburg  in  1635.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  the  Jewish  Church,"  etc.,  and 
other  works  on  varicnis  subjects.    Died  in  171 1. 

Goerenz.    See  (}ouenz. 

Goergei  or  Goergey.    See  Gorgey. 


Goerres.    See  Gorres. 

Goertz.    See  Gourz,  (Johann  Eustach.) 

Goeitz  or  Goi'tz,  gouts,  (Georg  Henrik,)  Baron, 
a  Swedish  statesman,  who  became  minister  of  finance 
under  Charles  XII.  Soon  after  the  death  of  that  sove- 
reign he  was  arrested  and  executed  at  Stockholm  (1719) 
on  a  charge  of  having  prolonged  the  war  and  brought 
pecuniary  distress  upon  the  nation. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Histoire  de  Charles  XIL" 

Goertze.    See  Gortze. 

Goes  or  Goez,  de,  di  go'ez,  (Damiao,)  a  Portuguese 
historian  and  statesman,  born  near  Lisbon  in  1501.  He 
was  sent  on  important  missions  to  Poland,  Denmark, 
and  Sweden,  and  afterwards  appointed  historiographer 
of  the  kingdom  and  keeper  of  the  archives.  He  wrote 
a  "History  of  the  Prince  Don  Juan,"  a  "Chronicle  of 
Don  Emanuel,"  (1567,)  and  other  valuable  works.  He 
was  also  an  accomplished  musician.    Died  in  1560, 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "  J3ibliotheca  Lusitana ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  Generale." 

Goes,  de,  (Pero,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  one 
of  the  first  colonists  of  Brazil,  wlftre  he  settled  about 
1535  and  introduced  the  culture  of  the  sugar-cane. 

Goes,  van  der,  vSn  der  hoos,  (Hugo,)  a  celebrated 
Flemish  painter,  born  at  Bruges  about  1420,  studied 
under  Van  Eyck.  He  is  especially  admired  for  the  ele- 
gance of  his  female  heads.  Among  his  best  works  we 
may  mention  "  David  and  Abigail,"  and  the  "  Crucifixion 
between  the  Two  Thieves."  During  the  general  destruc- 
tion of  pictures  and  images  in  1566,  the  latter  piece  was 
preserved  by  being  coated  with  black  and  inscribed  with 
the  ten  commandments.    It  was  afterwards  restored. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Goes,  van  der,  vSn  der  hoos,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch 
jurist  and  philologist,  born  at  Leyden  in  1611,  was 
councillor  of  the  supreme  court  of  justice  at  the  Hague. 
His  principal  work  is  called  "Pilatus  Judex,"  wherein 
he  attempts  to  throw  light  upon  circumstances  attending 
the  Passion  of  our  Saviour.    Died  in  1686. 

Goescliel.    See  Goschel. 

Goeschen.    See  Goschen. 

Goethals,  Hoo'tals,  (Felix  Victor,)  a  Belgian  lit- 
terateur,  born  at  Ghent  in  1799,  became  librarian  of  the 
public  library  at  Brussels  in  1830.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  History  of  Letters  and  Arts  in  Belgium  and  Ad- 
joining Countries,"  (4  vols.,  1840-44.) 

Goethals,  (Hen DR IK,)  called  also  Gredals  or  Cro- 
dals,  a  Flemish  diplomatist,  born  at  Ghent  in  1359. 
He  was  successively  ambassador  to  Constantinople, 
Paris,  London,  and  Rome,  and  filled,  among  other  offices, 
that  of  private  secretary  to  Philip  the  Bold.  Died  in 
1433- 

Goethals,  van,  vtn  Hoo'tils,  [Lat.  Muda'nus,] 
(Hendrik,)  a  noted  F)utch  theologian,  born  at  Muda, 
near  Ghent,  (Gand,)  about  12 18,  became  Archdeacon  of 
Tournay.  He  was  author  of  several  popular  works  on 
theology,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "Summa  Theologiae." 
Died  in  1293. 

Goethe  or  Gothe,  von,  fon  go'teh,  (Johann  Wolf- 
gang,) the  most  illustrious  name  in  German  literature, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  poets  of  any  age  or  country,  was 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  August  28,  1749.  His 
father,  Johann  Caspar  Goethe,  imperial  councillor,  was 
of  a  stern,  obstinate,  and  somewhat  pedantic  character, 
though  on  the  whole  an  upright  and  worthy  mr>n.  His 
maternal  grandfather,  Johann  Wolfgang  Textor,  was  a 
person  of  note  and  the  chief  magistrate  ( Schultheiss)  of 
the  city  of  Frankfort.  His  mother  was  genial,  warm- 
hearted, and  of  a  singularly  bright  and  happy  dispo- 
sition. She  says  of  herself,  "I  always  seek  out  the 
good  that  is  in  peojile,  and  leave  what  is  bad  to  Him  who 
made  mankind  and  knows  how  to  round  off  the  corners." 
Goethe  says  in  one  of  his  poems  that  from  his  father  he 
derives  his  earnestness  of  j^u'-pose,  and  from  his  mother 
his  happy  disposition  and  his  love  of  story-telling.  The 
circumstances  with  which  the  poet  was  surrounded  in 
early  life  were  eminently  fiivourable  to  the  development 
of  his  great  and  varied  |)owers,  and  undoubtedly  con- 
tributed in  no  small  degree  to  ciltivate  that  "many- 
sidedness"  for  which  he  was  afterw-ards  so  distinguished. 
In  his  autobiography,  entitled  "  Poetry  and  Truth  from 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  tlr,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GOETHE 


GOETHE 


my  own  Life,"  ("Aus  meinem  Leben  Dichtung  und 
"Wahrheit,"  published  in  i8i  I,)  he  describes,  with  graceful 
naivete,  the  influence  exerted  on  his  mind  by  the  various 
events  and  experiences  of  childhood.  The  young  Goethe 
exhibited  a  wonderful  precocity  of  intellect.  Early  in  his 
seventh  year  (November  i,  1755)  the  great  earthquake 
which  destroyed  a  large  part  of  Lisbon  occurred,  and 
filled  his  mind  with  perplexity  and  doubt.  He  found  it 
impossible  to  reconcile  that  terrible  phenomenon  with 
what  he  had  been  taught  respecting  the  goodness  of 
Providence.  "  It  was  in  vain,"  he  says,  "that  my  young 
mind  strove  to  recover  itself  from  these  impressions  ;  the 
more  so  as  the  wise  and  learned  in  Scripture  themselves 
could  not  agree  upon  the  view  which  should  be  taken  of 
the  event."  His  religious  perplexities,  however,  seem 
gradually  to  have  passed  away.  Li  his  eighth  year  we 
find  him,  wholly  self-prompted,  erecting  to  the  Deity 
an  altar  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid,  on  the  sides  of  which 
were  arranged  a  variety  of  substances  representing  the 
natural  productions  of  the  earth.  At  the  apex  was 
placed  the  incense,  which  he  kindled  by  means  of  a 
burning-glass  just  as  the  sun  was  rising  above  the 
neighbouring  house-tops.  Before  he  was  nine  years  of 
age  he  could  write  several  different  languages,  including 
French,  Latin,  and  Greek. 

He  had  scarcely  reached  his  tenth  year  when  the 
French  troops  occupied  the  city  of  Frankfort:  this  oc- 
curred during  the  Seven  Years'  war.  The  Comte  de 
Thorane,  the  king's  lieutenant,  was  quartered  in  the 
house  of  the  poet's  father.  Young  Goethe  was  thus 
brought  into  contact  with  new  characters  :  he  also  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  French  theatre.  He  had 
several  years  before  amused  himself  and  his  mother 
with  inventing  romantic  stories  ;  he  now  began  to  write 
French  plays.  A  French  boy,  near  his  own  age,  with 
whom  he  had  become  acquainted,  took  him  to  the 
theatre  and  introduced  him  behind  the  scenes.  This 
same  lad  sought  to  instruct  him  in  the  pro])er  mode  of 
writing  plays,  and  criticised  the  dramatic  efforts  of  our 
poet  somewhat  unmercifully.  This  led  him  to  inform 
himself  more  particularly  respecting  the  ])rinciples  of 
criticism.  The  result  was  that  he  rejected  with  contempt 
the  canons  of  the  French  school  ;  and  it  is  not  impro- 
bable that  the  occurrences  just  related  may  have  exerted 
an  important  influence  upon  the  productions  of  his  ma- 
turer  years.  Li  1 761  the  French  troops  quitted  Frank- 
fort, and  his  regular  studies  were  resumed.  About  this 
time  he  learned  to  read  English,  and  commenced  the 
study  of  Heljrew,  which  led  him  to  a  more  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  Bible.  He  composed  a  poem  on 
the  subject  of  Joseph  and  his  brethren.  The  education 
of  Goethe,  until  he  was  sixteen,  was  carried  on  at  home, 
under  the  superintendence  of  his  father.  It  was  his  rare 
happiness  to  find  in  his  only  sister,  Cornelia,  not  merely 
an  object  of  his  tenderest  affection,  but  one  who  shared 
his  tastes  and  cordially  sympathized  with  his  poetic 
aspirations.  In  October,  1765,  he  commenced  his  col- 
legiate studies  at  Leipsic.  It  was  a  practice  which  he 
adopted  in  early  life,  that  he  always  sought,  whenever 
any  subject  interested  him  deeply,  to  give  his  thoughts 
and  feelings  expression  in  writing.  He  himself  says 
that  all  his  works  are  but  fragments  of  the  grand  con- 
fession of  his  life.  While  at  Leipsic,  he  composed  the 
first  of  his  poems  which  have  l3een  preserved,  "The 
Humours  of  a  Lover,"  ("Die  Laune  des  Verliebten  ;") 
"The  Fellow-Sinners"  ("Die  Mitschuldigen")  followed 
soon  after.  He  left  Leipsic  for  Frankfort  in  1768.  After 
having  been  some  time  detained  at  home  by  ill  health, 
he  repaired  to  Strasbnrg  University,  in  1770,  for  the 
purpose  of  completing  his  law  studies.  At  Strasburg  he 
became  acquainted  with  Herder,  who  was  already  dis- 
tinguished among  the  great  men  of  Germany.  The  friend- 
ship thus  formed  was  not  without  important  influence 
upon  the  mind  of  Goethe.  By  Herder  his  attention  was 
directed  to  the  Hebrew  poets,  to  Ossian,  and  to  Shak- 
speare.  During  his  stay  at  Strasburg  he  also  became 
acquainted  with  Frederica,  with  whom  he  fell  passion- 
ately in  love.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Herr  Brion, 
pastor  of  Sesenheim.  This  little  place  could  be  seen 
from  the  lofty  gallery  of  Strasburg  Cathedral,  whence 
the  young  lover  and  poet  sometimes  pointed  out  to  his 


friends  the  home  of  his  beloved.  Goethe  pleased  him- 
self with  likening  Herr  Brion  to  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield, 
Frederica  to  Sophia,  and  the  elder  sister  to  Olivia. 

On  his  return  to  Strasburg  it  was  understood  that  he 
was  the  accepted  lover  of  Frederica;  although  it  is  prob- 
able that  they  were  not  formally  betrothed.  He  after- 
wards left  her,  because,  as  his  friends  suggest,  his- love 
was  not  strong  enough  to  justify  marriage.  Alluding  to 
some  of  his  earlier  love-passages,  he  says,  "(iretchen 
had  been  taken  from  me,  Annchen  had  left  me  ;  but  now 
[in  the  case  of  Frederica]  for  the  first  time  I  was  guilty: 
I  had  wounded  to  its  very  depths  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful and  tender  of  hearts.  And  that  period  of  gloomy 
repentance,  deprived  of  the  love  which  had  so  strength- 
ened me,  was  agonizing,  insupportable." 

Goethe  took  the  degree  of  Doctor  in  1771.  But 
although,  in  accordance  with  his  father's  wishes,  he  had 
studied  law,  his  inclinations  led  him  to  other  pursuits ; 
he  seems  indeed,  even  in  youth,  never  to  have  lost  sight 
of  that  universal  self-culture  which  was  one  of  the  great 
aims  of  his  life.  Not  only  poetry,  but  art,  science,  the 
languages,  philosophy,  and  criticism, — all  were  studied 
by  him  with  an  impartiality  and  success  of  which  the 
history  of  the  human  mind  probably  furnishes  no  other 
example. 

In  1 77 1  he  composed  one  of  his  most  celebrated  works, 
"  Gotz  von  Berlichingen."  He  had  been  deeply  inter- 
ested in  the  life  of  Gottfried  (or  Gotz)  von  Berlichingen, 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  written  by  Gotz  himself.  Goethe 
undertook  to  dramatize  it.  "I  had,"  he  says,  "talked 
the  matter  over  with  my  sister,  who  was  interested  heart 
and  soul  in  such  subjects  ;  and  I  so  often  renewed  this 
conversation,  without  taking  any  step  towards  beginning 
the  work,  that  at  last  she  impatiently  and  urgently  en- 
treated me  not  to  be  always  talking,  but  at  once  to  set 
down  on  paper  what  was  so  distinctly  present  to  my 
mind.  I  wrote  the  first  scenes,  and  in  the  evening  read 
them  aloud  to  Cornelia.  She  warmly  applauded  them, 
but  doubted  whether  I  should  go  on  so  ;  she  even  ex- 
pressed a  decided  disbelief  in  my  perseverance.  This 
only  excited  me  the  more.  I  wrote  on  the  next  day,  and 
also  the  third.  Thus  I  kept  on,  without  interruption, 
looking  neither  backwards  nor  forwards,  neither  to  the 
right  nor  the  left ;  and  in  about  six  weeks  I  had  the 
pleasure  of  seeing  the  manuscript  finished."  "Gotz 
von  Berlichingen,"  as  first  written  by  Goethe,  was  a 
dramatized  history;  but  in  this  form  it  was  not  pub- 
lished until  many  years  later.  Having  been  revised  and 
adapted  to  the  stage,  it  appeared  in  1773  as  a  drama, 
( Schcntspiel,)  the  form  by  which  it  is  popularly  known. 
It  produced  a  great  sensation  in  the  literary  circles  of 
Germany.  "It  is  a  piece,"  says  one  of  the  critics  of 
'hat  day,  "in  which  the  three  unities  are  shamefully 
violated,  and  which  is  neither  a  tragedy  nor  a  comedy, 
and  is,  notwithstanding,  the  most  beautiful,  the  most 
captivating,  monstrosity."  In  1774  appeared  another 
work,  "Sorrows  of  Young  Werther,"  ("Leiden  des 
jungen  Werther,")  which  excited  a  still  greater  and 
more  universal  admiration  than  "  Gotz"  had  done.  It 
seemed  to  fascinate  alike  men  of  every  class  and  every 
nation,  and  through  it  Goethe  first  acquired  a  European 
renown.  During  his  Egyptian  campaigns.  Napoleon  is 
said  to  have  read  it  through  several  times  ;  and  its  fame, 
it  is  asserted,  extended  even  to  China.  "Werther," 
says  Carlyle,  "  is  but  the  cry  of  that  dim-rooted  pain 
under  which  all  thoughtful  men  of  a  certain  age  were 
languishing :  it  paints  the  misery,  it  passionately  utters 
the  complaint;  and  heart  and  voice,  all  over  Europe, 
loudly  and  at  once  respond  to  it.  True,  it  prescribes 
no  remedy;  for  that  was  a  far  different,  far  harder  en- 
terprise, to  which  other  years  and  a  higher  culture 
were  required;  but  even  this  utterance  of  pain,  even 
this  little,  for  the  present,  is  grasped  at,  and  with  eager 
sympathy  appropriated  in  every  bosom." 

In  1775,  attracted  by  the  fame  of  Goethe,  Charles 
Augustus,  (Karl  August,)  Grand  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar, 
invited  him  to  spend  some  time  at  his  court.  The 
acquaintance  thus  begun  ripened  afterwards  into  a 
life-long  friendship.  Weimar  was  at  that  time  the 
residence  of  several  distinguished  persons,  among  whonk 
were  Wieland,  Herder,  Musaeus,  Knebel,  and  Secken- 


€  as    9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ((JJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GOETHE 


1050 


GOETHE 


dorf.  Wieland,  who  repeatedly  calls  Goethe  a  "godlike 
creature,"  was  captivated  by  him  at  first  sight.  In  a 
letter  written  soon  after  their  first  interview,  he  says, 
"How  I  loved  the  magnificent  youth  as  I  sat  beside 
him  at  table  !  All  I  can  say  is  this  :  since  that  morning 
my  soul  is  as  full  of  Goethe  as  a  dew-drop  of  the  morn- 
ing sun."  Knebel  says,  "  He  rose  like  a  star  in  the 
heavens :  everybody  worshipped  him,  especially  the 
women."  For  several  months  after  his  arrival  at  Wei- 
mar, he  appears  to  have  abandoned  himself  wholly  to 
the  excitements  of  his  new  life.  The  duke  and  the  poet 
were  constant  companions,  and  plunged  together  for  a 
time  into  the  most  insane  frolics  and  wildest  dissipation. 
"Goethe  will  never,"  says  Wieland,  "leave  this  place 
again  ;  Karl  August  can  no  longer  either  swim  or  wade 
without  him."  It  is  almost  needless  to  say  that  such  a 
life  could  not  long  satisfy  such  a  mind.  "The  want  to 
be  once  more  among  simple  people  and  lovely  scenes 
drove  him  away  from  Weimar  to  Waldeck.  Amid  the 
crowded  tumult  of  life  he  ever  kept  his  soul  sequestered  ; 
and  from  the  hot  air  of  society  he  broke  impatiently 
away  to  the  serenity  of  solitude."  (Lewes's  "  Life  of 
Goethe,"  vol.  i.  p.  355.)  He  was  called  back  to  Weimar 
by  the  grand  duke,  and  in  June,  1776,  created  Gcheimer- 
Legationsrath,  ("  Privy  Councillor  of  Legation,")  with  a 
salary  of  twelve  hundred  thalers.  The  duke,  writing  to 
Goethe's  father,  said  that  the  appointment  was  a  mere 
formality;  adding,  "Goethe  can  have  but  one  position, 
— that  of  my  friend  :  all  others  are  beneath  him." 

The  first  great  production  of  our  poet,  after  he  had 
seriously  resumed  his  studies,  was  "  Iphigenia  auf  Tauris," 
("  Iphigeni'a  at  Tauris.")  This  piece  was  first  writfen 
in  prose  ;  Goethe  afterwards  turned  it  into  verse,  pro- 
ducing what  many  critics  have  declared  to  be  the  finest 
modern  specimen  of  the  Greek  tragedy.  In  1786  Goethe 
visited  Italy.  In  order  that  he  might  pursue  his  studies 
undisturbed,  he  travelled  incognito.  He  spent  some 
time  in  Venice,  with  which  city  he  seems  to  have  been 
enchanted.  He  passed  through  Ferrara,  Bologna,  and 
Florence,  on  his  way  to  Rome,  where  he  arrived  about 
the  end  of  October.  He  remained  there  four  months. 
"All  the  dreams  of  my  youth,"  he  says,  "  I  now  see  living 
before  me.  Everywhere  I  go  I  find  an  old  familiar  face. 
Everything  is  just  what  I  thought  it,  and  yet  everything 
is  new."  He  subsequently  visited  Naples,  Pompeii,  and 
the  ruins  of  Paestum,  carrying  with  him  everywhere  a 
soul  intensely  susceptible  to  the  beauties  both  of  nature 
and  of  art.  An  account  of  what  he  saw  and  felt  while 
in  Italy  is  given  in  his  "  Italiiinische  Reise,"  {"  Italian 
Journey.")  He  returned  to  Weimar  in  June,  1788.  In 
the  autumn  of  that  year  he  first  became  acquainted  with 
Christiane  Vulpius,  a  young  woman  in  humble  life,  whom 
he  afterwards  married.  She  had  presented  him  a  peti- 
tion entreating  him  to  procure  some  position  for  her 
brother,  a  young  author,  then  living  at  Jena.  Goethe 
was  greatly  smitten  with  her  beauty,  naivete,  and  spright- 
liness.  His  liaison  with  her  gave  rise  to  much  scandal, 
on  account  of  the  disparity  of  station  ;  and  the  scandal 
was  not  lessened  when,  manyyeai3  later,  (1806,)  he  per- 
formed an  act  of  tardy  justice  in  marrying  her.  She 
had,  in  1789,  borne  him  a  son,  August  von  Goethe,  to 
whom  the  Duke  of  Saxe- Weimar  stood  godfather.  After 
this  event  Goethe  took  Christiane,  with  her  mother  and 
sister,  to  live  with  him  in  his  own  house  ;  and  he  appears 
always  to  have  regarded  the  connection  as  a  marriage. 
His  conduct  in  relation  to  this  affair  was,  however,  a 
source  of  mortification  and  deep  regret  to  many  of  his 
admirers.  "The  nation,"  says  Schafer,  "has  never  for- 
given its  greatest  poet  for  this  rupture  with  law  and  cus- 
tom ;  nothing  has  stood  so  much  in  the  way  of  a  right 
appreciation  of  his  moral  character,  nothing  has  created 
more  false  judgments  on  the  tendency  of  his  writings, 
than  this  half-marriage."  His  friends  urge  two  consider- 
ations in  extenuation  of  his  conduct,  which  certainly 
ought  not  to  be  lost  sight  of :  first,  the  general  laxity 
of  morals  then  prevailing  among  the  upper  classes  in 
Germany  ;  secondly,  the  disparity  of  position  between 
the  humble  Christiane  and  the  illustrious  Goethe,  the 
world-renowned  poet,  and  the  councillor  and  intimate 
friend  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Weimar.  It  is  said  that  she 
rejected  his  offers  of  marriage  on  this  very  ground,  and 


that  she  herself  had  declared  that  it  was  her  own  fault 
that  the  marriage  ceremony  had  been  so  long  delayed. 

In  1792,  with  the  duke,  Charles  Augustus,  Goethe  ac- 
com])anied  the  Prussian  army  in  the  invasion  of  I^  ranee. 
In  that  camjDaign  he  showed  that  he  was  not  wanting 
in  courage  of  the  most  reckless  kind;  but  he  returned 
to  Weimar  thoroughly  disgusted  with  the  war  and  with 
military  life.  He  })ublished  soon  after  a  scientific  work, 
entitled  "Theory  or  Doctrine  of  Colours,"  ("  Farben- 
lehre,")  in  which  he  called  in  question  the  correctness 
of  the  Newtonian  theory.  It  is  projjer  to  state  that  his 
views  have  not  been  adopted  by  the  scientific  world. 

The  poet  Schiller  had  in  1789,  partly  through  Goethe's 
influence,  been  appointed  to  the  chair  of  history  in  the 
University  of  Jena.  In  1794  these  two  illustrious  men 
— "twin  sons  of  Jove,"  ( Dioscu'ri,)  as  the  Germans  de- 
lighted to  call  them — were  brought  frequently  together; 
and,  although  their  characters  were  so  different  that  they 
seemed  to  have  scarcely  anything  in  common  excepting 
literary  taste  and  transcendent  genius,  their  acquaintance 
gradually  ripened  into  a  noble  and  enduring  friendship, 
which  exerted  an  important  and  most  beneficial  influence 
on  the  minds  of  both.  The  correspondence  of  Schiller 
and  Goethe  is  of  rare  interest  and  value  to  all  the  lovers 
of  literature. 

To  return  to  Goethe's  works.  "Egmont,"  a  tragedy, 
which  had  been  completed  in  Italy,  was  published  in 
1788,  soon  after  his  return  to  Weimar.  His  "  Tasso" 
appeared  in  1790.  In  1795,  "  Wilhelm  Meister's  Lehr- 
jahre"  {"A]Dprenticeship")  was  given  to  the  world;  this 
was  long  after  (1821)  followed  by  his  "  Wanderjahre," 
("Travelling  Years.")  In  1806  appeared  the  first  part 
of  "Faust,"  the  great  work  of  (Joethe's  life.  He  had 
revolved  the  subject  in  his  mind  for  more  than  thirty 
years.  This  long  delay  was  not  without  its  fruits.  The 
great  poet  has,  indeed,  embodied  in  this  work  the  re- 
sults of  his  mature  and  infinitely  varied  experience,  with 
his  ripest,  richest,  and  profoundest  thoughts  ;  the  whole 
being  wrought  out  with  admirable  skill,  and  everywhere 
illumined,  so  to  speak,  with  passages  of  the  most  exqui- 
site poetry,  touching  in  turn  every  chord  of  the  human 
heart.  Without  indorsing  the  enthusiastic  praise  of  some 
of  Goethe's  admirers,  who  have  pronounced  "  Faust"  to 
be  unqualifiedly  "  the  greatest  poem  of  modern  times,"  we 
may  safely  say  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  pro- 
ductions of  genius  to  be  found  in  the  whole  compass 
of  literature.  The  tale,  or  novel,  entitled  "  Wahlver- 
wandtschaften,"  ("  Elective  Affinities,")  appeared  in  1809. 
Considered  simply  as  a  piece  of  creative  art,  this  is  one 
of  the  most  admirable  of  all  of  Goethe's  productions.  In 
none  of  his  other  works  are  the  characters  drawn  with 
more  vividness  and  power.  The  illusion  produced  by 
the  poet-artist  is  perfect ;  so  that  each  of  the  persons 
represented  is  to  the  reader  an  absolute  and  living 
reality.  The  moral  tendency,  however,  of  the  story  is 
more  than  questionable.  The  aim  of  the  author,  it  would 
seem,  is  to  teach  that  the  attachments  between  the  sexes 
are  governed,  like  chemical  affinities,  by  fixed,  inevitable 
laws,  which  it  is  as  impossible  to  oppose  successfully  as 
to  resist  the  decrees  of  fate. 

Besides  those  already  noticed,  we  may  mention  among 
Goethe's  works  "Clavigo,"  (published  in  1774,)  "Her- 
mann und  Dorothea,"  (1796-97,)  "Eugenie,"  (1804,) 
and  "  West -Oestliche  Divan,"  (1819,)  in  which  Oriental 
images  and  scenes  are  described  with  Western  feelings 
and  colouring ;  hence  the  epithet  "  West-Oestliche" 
("  West-Eastern")  which  the  author  has  applied  to  this 
work.  The  second  part  of  "  Faust"  w.as  not  finished 
until  1830.  It  has  enjoyed  far  less  popularity  than  the 
first  part,  and  by  the  great  majority  of  critics  is  con- 
sidered to  be  decidedly  inferior  to  it.  Goethe's  mind  was 
active  to  the  last.  He  continued  to  study  and  to  write 
till  within  a  few  days  of  his  death,  which  took  place  at 
Weimar  on  the  22d  of  March,  1832. 

In  person  Goethe  was  eminently  handsome, — tall, 
graceful,  and  well  proportioned.  "That  accordance  of 
personal  appearance  with  genius,"  says  Heine,  "  which 
we  ever  desire  to  see  in  distinguished  men,  was  found 
in  perfection  in  Goethe.  His  outward  appearance  was 
just  as  imposing  as  the  word  that  lives  in  his  writings. 
Even  his  form  was  symmetrical,  expressive  of  joy,  nobly 


•i,  e,  T,  o,  u,y,  long;  \  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, !,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  met;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


GOETHE 


10 


51 


GOGOL 


proportioned  ;  and  one  might  study  the  Grecian  art  upon 
it  as  well  as  upon  an  antique."  The  same  writer  con- 
tinues, in  a  more  extravagant  strain,  "  His  eyes  were  calm 
as  those  of  a  god.  It  is  the  peculiar  characteristic  of 
the  gods  that  their  gaze  is  ever  steady,  and  their  eyes 
roll  not  to  and  fro  in  uncertainty.  .  .  .  The  eye  of 
Goethe  remained  in  his  latest  age  just  as  divine  as  in 
his  youth."  (Heine's  "Letters,"  translated  by  G.  W. 
Haven,  Boston,  1836.) 

Never,  perhaps,  was  there  a  human  character  about 
which  more  varying  and  contradictory  opinions  have 
been  entertained  than  about  that  of  Goethe.  This  is  to 
be  chiefly  attributed, — first,  to  the  wonderful  depth  and 
originality  of  his  mind,  and,  secondly,  to  its  many-,  or 
rather  myriad-,  sidedness.  It  has  been  said  that,  in  spite 
of  the  beautiful  sentiments  and  admirable  characters 
with  which  his  works  abound,  he  himself  was  cold,  cal- 
culating, and  thoroughly  selfish.  But  this  charge  is 
contradicted  by  his  whole  life.  He  appears,  indeed,  to 
have  always  felt  for  every  form  of  actual  suffering  a  true 
and  ready  sympathy,  which  he  manifested  rather  by  acts 
than  by  words.*  Another  charge,  more  frequently  urged, 
and  perhaps  better  founded,  than  the  preceding,  is  that 
he  was  utterly  destitute  of  any  real  sympathy  with  the 
rights  and  interests  of  the  common  people.  It  was  one 
of  his  marked  peculiarities  that  he  entertained  a  distrust 
and  dislike  of  all  abstractions,  and  he  had  little  or  no 
sympathy  with  mere  ideas  or  ideal  systems.  He  felt  no 
interest  in  democracy,  because  to  him  democracy  was 
an  abstraction.  He  did  not  sympathize  with  his  country- 
men in  their  struggle  for  German  independence,  because 
they  aimed,  as  he  thought,  at  what  was  impracticable. 
However  mistaken  this  opinion  proved  to  be,  it  was 
beyond  all  doubt  perfectly  sincere.  He  disliked  politics, 
for  which,  indeed,  he  appears  to  have  felt  he  had  no 
vocation.    His  genius  lay  in  a  totally  different  direction. 

His  aversion  to  abstractions  and  his  love  of  the  con- 
crete may  be  said  to  have  given  form  to  all  his  views, 
religious,  moral,  and  social.  He  refused  to  recognize  a 
Deity  that  was  above  and  distinct  from  the  world  ;  for 
he  considered  every  part  of  nature — the  entire  universe, 
in  short — to  be  divine.  He  did  not  hold,  with  the  Pla- 
tonists  or  Christians,  that  mankind  have  fidlen  from  an 
ideal  or  divine  perfection,  after  which  they  must  con- 
tinually strive  if  they  would  be  restored. 

He  was  a  worshi]:)per  of  Nature  ;  and  his  moral  creed, 
if  not  distinctly  avowed,  may  be  readily  gathered  from 
many  expressions  in  his  works  or  his  recorded  conver- 
sations :  it  may  be  thus  briefly  summed  up,  "  Everything 
that  is  natural  is  right ;"  in  other  words,  "  Nothing  is 
really  wrong  except  what  is  unnatural."  We  accord- 
ingly find  him  quoting  with  apparent  approbation  the 
saying  of  Thraseas,  "  He  who  hates  faults  or  vices  hates 
men,"  ("Qui  vitia  odit  homines  odit,'')  which,  says  Mr. 
Lewes,  "was  just  the  sort  of  passage  to  captivate  him." 
It  may  readily  be  conceded  that,  whatever  evils  might 
result  from  the  general  ado])tion  of  so  loose  a  system 
of  morals,  these  evils  would  be  much  mitigated  in  one 
whose  percei^tion  of  moral  as  well  as  aesthetic  beauty 
was  so  vivid  and  intense.  But  it  was  not  without  an  in- 
jurious influence  even  upon  him.  It  was  the  great  defect 
of  Goethe's  character  that  his  virtues,  like  his  faults, 
were  toe  often  the  offspring  of  mere  feeling  or  impulse 
uncontrolled  by  any  fixed  principles  of  duty  or  right.  It 
is  thus,  indeed,  we  are  to  explain  the  fact  that  so  many 
of  his  writings  are  destitute  of  anything  like  a  moral 
purpose.  This  charge  has  been  made  particularly  against 
his  "  Wilhelm  Meister."  It  is  not  enough  to  reply  that 
the  author  did  not  set  himself  u|)  as  a  preacher  of  mo- 
rality. His  admirers  will  not  deny  that  he  aimed  to  give 
a  picture  of  human  life,  or  a  narrative  of  human  events  : 
in  either  case  there  should  have  been  at  least  so  much 
of  moral  teaching  as  we  find  everywhere  interwoven  with 
the  tissue  of  human  affairs.  If  Goethe  had  possessed  a 
just  and  true  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  moral 
principles,  such  a  conviction  could  not  fail  to  make 
itself  felt  in  his  works.  The  moral  need  not,  to  use  the 
language  of  Miss  Edgeworth,  be  "sewed  on  in  purple 


*  For  a  remarkable  instance  of  this,  see  Lewes's  "  Life  of  Goethe," 
book  iv.  chapter  viii. 


patches,"  but  be  "interwoven  with  the  very  texture  cf 
the  stuff."  In  the  dramas  of  Shakspeare  we  perceive  a 
moral  element  constantly  pervading  the  st-ory,  yet  with- 
out being  in  the  least  obtruded  upon  the  reader.  So  in 
history  we  behold  a  "divinity  that  shapes  our  ends,  rough 
hew  them  how  we  will."*  Many  of  Goethe's  sincerest 
admirers  have  felt  and  acknowledged  the  faults  in  his 
character  to  which  we  have  adverted.  While  giving  him 
credit  for  a  rare  sincerity  and  for  many  generous  and 
noble  qualities,  they  cannot  help  regretting  the  absence 
of  a  fixed  and  lofty  moral  purpose  which  might  serve  as 
a  keystone  to  his  other  attributes.  (Respecting  Gc^ethe's 
character  and  moral  influence,  see  an  excellent  article 
in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1857,  vol.  cvi.) 
With  regard  to  Goethe's  rank  as  a  man  of  genius,  if  we 
cannot  concede  all  that  Carlyle  and  some  of  his  other 
devoted  admirers  claim  for  him,  still  less  can  we  agree 
with  De  Quincey,  that,  owing  to  a  rare  combination  of 
external  circumstances,  it  has  been  his  fortune  to  take  a 
far  higher  rank  in  European  literature  than  his  actual 
merits  would  justify.  But  these  are  questions  which  the 
reader  must  examine  and  settle  for  himself. 

See  Lewes,  "  Life  of  Goethe,"  2  vols.,  1855;  Goethe,  Auto- 
biography, "  Aus  nieinem  Leben  DiclUung  und  Wahrheit,"  5  vols., 
1811-12,  (translated  into  English  by  Parke  Godwin,  2  vols.,  1847;) 
ViEHOFF,  "Gotlie's  Leben,"  4  vols.,  1847;  Eckerm.ann,  "  Ccnversa- 
tions  with  Gothe,"  ("  Gesprache  mit  Gbthe  :")  "Characteristics  of 
Gotbe,"  byS.AKAH  Austin,  3  vols.,  London,  1833;  Carlyle,  "  Es- 
says;" De  Quincey,  "Biographical  Essays,"  article  "  Goethe  ;" 
Emerson,  "  Representative  Men ;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and 
Poetry  of  Europe,"  1855;  Heinrich  Doring,  "Goethe"s  Leben," 
1828;  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  "  Goethe  in  den  Zeugnissen  der  Mit- 
lebenden,"  1823;  Rosenkranz,  "Goethe  und  seine  Werke,"^i856 ; 
Carl  Morgenstern,  "J.  W.  Goethe,"  1833;  ^LARM1ER,  "  iStiidea 
sur  Goethe,"  1835;  F.  Pfeiffer,  '■Goethe  und  Klopstock,"  1840; 
J.  W.  ScHAEFER,  "J.  W.  Goethe's  Leben,"  1851  ;  F.  Riemer, 
"  Mittlieilungen  iiber  (ioethe,"  2  vols.,  1841  ;  A.  Nicolovius,  "  Ueber 
Goethe,"  etc.,  1828;  Duntzer.  "Gbthe  als  Dramatiker,"  1837. 

Goettling.    See  Gottling. 
Goetz.    See  Gorz. 
Goetze.    See  Gotze. 
Goetzinger.    See  Gotzinger. 
Goez.    See  Goz. 

Goflfe  or  Gough,  gof,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine 
and  dramatist,  born  in  Essex  about  1592.  He  was  the 
author  of  tragedies  entitled  "The  Raging  Turk,"  and 
"Orestes;"  also  of  several  comedies.    Died  in  1629. 

Goffe,  gof,  (William,)  an  English  Puritan  and  regi- 
cide, was  one  of  the  judges  of  Charles  I.,  and  a  general 
in  Cromwell's  army.  In  company  with  Whalley,  another 
outlaw,  he  retired  to  New  England  in  1660,  and  lived 
in  concealment.  During  an  attack  of  the  savages  on 
Hadley,  (1675,)  Goffe,  it  is  said,  suddenly  appeared, 
rallied  the  whites,  and  repulsed  the  enemy. 

See  Neal's  "History  of  New  England." 

Goffredo  di  Buglione.  See  Godfrey  of  Bouillon. 

Gogol,  go'gol,  (Nikolai  Vassilievitch,)  a  celebrated 
Russian  writer,  born  about  1810.  Having  visited  Saint 
Petersburg  about  1830,  he  published  soon  after  a  series 
of  tales  entitled  "Evenings  at  a  Farm-House,"  contain- 
ing admirable  delineations  of  rural  life  in  Russia.  They 
immediately  obtained  great  popularity,  and  were  trans- 
lated into  French  by  M.  Viardot.  His  next  publication 
was  the  comedy  of  the  "Revisor,"  which  also  met  with 
brilliant  success,  and  is  perhaps  the  most  popular  work 
of  the  kind  in  the  language.  "The  Dead  Souls,"  (1842,) 
a  comic  satire  on  ignorance  and  prejudice,  was  received 
v^'ith  equal  enthusiasm.  Gogol,  who  had  previously  been 
appointed  professor  of  history  in  the  University  ot  Saint 
Petersburg,  soon  after  visited  Rome,  where  he  wrote  a 
series  of  letters  (published  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1847) 
which  gave  great  offence  to  his  liberal  friends  in  Russia. 
In  these  he  appears  as  the  defender  of  tyranny,  both  in 
church  and  state,  instead  of  the  advocate  of  serf-emanci- 
pation and  popular  progress,  as  he  had  shown  himself  in 


*  One  of  the  ablest  and  most  thorough  historians  of  the  present 
age,  and  one  who  will  scarcely  be  accused  of  a  disposition  to  accept 
popular  theories  without  examination,  tells  us  that,  amid  all  the  half 
truths  and  uncertainties  of  history,  one  lesson  is  distinctly  taught, — 
that  "the  moral  law  is  written  on  the  tablet.-,  of  eternity. 
For  every  false  word  or  unrighteous  deed,  for  cruelty  and  o])pres- 
sion,  for  lust  or  vanity,  the  price  has  to  be  paid  a'  last."  (Lecture 
on  "Science  of  History,"  in  P'roude's  "Short  Studies  on  Great 
Subjects.") 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  H,  Y^^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  tr 


rilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GOGUET 


1052 


GOLDSMITH 


his  novel  of  "The  Dead  Souls."  He  returned  to  Russia 
in  1848,  and  died  at  Moscow  in  February,  1852.  An 
excellent  French  translation  of  the  "  Kevisor"  has  been 
made  by  M.  Merimee,  and  an  imperfect  English  version 
of  '*  The  Dead  Souls"  came  out  in  1854,  entitled  '*  Home- 
Life  in  Russia." 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biograpliie  G^n^rale ;"  "  British  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  April,  1868. 

Goguet,  go'gk',  (Antoine  Yves,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  in  Paris  in  17 16.  He  wrote  an  important  work 
"  On  the  Origin  of  Laws,  Arts,  and  Sciences,  and  their 
Progress  among  the  Ancients,"  (3  vols.,  1758,)  "the 
success  of  which,"  says  M.  Weiss,  "was  brilliant  and 
merited."    ("  Biographic  Universelle.")    Died  in  1758. 

Gohier,  go'e-a',  (Louis  Jerome,)  a  director  of  the 
French  republic,  was  born  at  Semblan9ay  in  1746.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1791,  and 
succeeded  Garat  as  minister  of  justice  in  March,  1793. 
Having  been  removed  in  April,  1794,  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Directory  in  June,  1799.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Directory  when  Bonaparte  returned  from 
Egypt,  and,  in  concert  with  Moulins,  opposed  the  coup 
d''etat  of  the  18th  Brumaire,  even  after  their  colleagues 
had  resigned.  "  He  was  an  honest  citizen,"  says  Thiers, 
"and  devoted  to  the  republic."  ("History  of  the  French 
Revolution.")    Died  in  Paris  in  1830. 

See  Louis  Jerome  Gohier,  "Menioires,"  2  vols.,  1824;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Gohl.    See  GoLtus. 

Gohory  or  Gohorry,  go'o're',  (Jacques,)  a  French 
htterateiir,  born  in  Paris,  translated  into  French  Machia- 
vel's  "Prince,"  and  other  works,  and  wrote  a  treatise 
"On  the  Knowledge  of  the  Virtues  of  the  Herb  called 
Petum,  [Tobacco,]"  (1572.)    Died  in  1576. 

Gois,  gwS,  (Edme  Etienne  FiiANgois,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1765,  executed  statues  of  Char- 
lemagne, Joan  of  Arc,  and  Bonaparte.    Died  in  1836. 

Golbery,  de,  deh  goKba're',  (Marie  Philippe  Aim^;,) 
a  French  lawyer  and  antiquary,  born  at  Colmar  in  1786, 
wrote  many  antiquarian  treatises,  and  translated  into 
French  Niebuhr's  "  History  of  Rome."    Died  in  1854. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Golbery,  de,  (Sylvain  Meinrad  Xavier,)  a  French 
ofificer,  born  at  Colmar  in  1742,  explored  the  western 
coast  of  Africa  in  1785-87,  and  wrote  a  "  Fragment  of  a 
Journey  in  Africa,"  (2  vols.,  1802.)    Died  in  1822. 

Goldast  von  Heimingsfeld,  goKdast  fon  hi'mings- 
{h\i\  (Melchior,)  a  learned  historian  and  jurist,  born 
near  Bischofszell,  in  Switzerland,  in  1576.  Among  his 
most  important  works  we  may  cite  "Scriptores  Rerum 
Suevicarum,"  (1605,)  and  "  CoUectio  Constitutionum 
Imperialium,"  (1607.)    Died  in  1635, 

See  Froriep,  "  Beitrage  zu  der  Lebensgeschichte  des  Publicisten 
Goldast,"  1789;  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  Nice- 
RON,  "  Menioires." 

Goldfuss,  golt'fooss,  (Georg  August,)  a  German 
naturalist,  and  professor  of  zoology  and  mineralogy  at 
Bonn,  was  born  near  Baireuth  in  1782.  He  published 
**  Representations  and  Descriptions  of  the  Petrifactions 
of  Germany,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1848. 

Goldhagen,  golt'ha'gen,  (Hermann,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Mentz  in  17 18,  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Greek-Latin  Lexicon,"(i753.)    Died  in  1794. 

Goldhagen,  (Johann  Eustace,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Nordhausen  in  1 701,  was  rector  of  the 
gymnasium  of  Magdeburg.  He  translated  Herodotus, 
Xenophon,  and  Pausanias  into  German.    Died  in  1772. 

Gold'ing,  (Arthur,)  an  English  writer  and  able 
translator,  born  in  London,  lived  about  1560-90.  He 
finished  the  translation  of  Philippe  de  Mornay's  treatise 
"  Sur  la  Verite  du  Christianisme,"  commenced  by  Sir 
Philip  Sidney,  and  published  versions  of  the  theological 
works  of  Calvin  and  Grosteste,  also  of  Caesar,  Seneca, 
and  other  Latin  classics.  He  also  translated  Ovid's 
"Metamorphoses"  into  English  verse. 

See  Wakton,  "History  of  English  Poetry." 

Goldniann.    See  Chrysander. 

Goldmayer,  golt'mi'er,  (Andreas,)  a  German  as- 
tronomer and  astrologer,  born  at  GUnzenhausen  in  1603  ; 
died  in  1664. 


Goldoni,  go]-d5'nee,  (Carlo,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
comic  author,  born  in  Venice  in  1707.  He  manifested  a 
passion  for  theatrical  performances  in  early  childhood, 
and  wrote  a  comedy  at  the  age  of  eight.  He  was  libe- 
rally educated,  studied  law,  and  graduated  at  Padua  in 
1 73 1,  after  which  he  practised  as  an  advocate  in  Venice 
for  a  short  time.  In  1734  he  produced  a  drama  called 
"Belisario."  He  married  a  Genoese  lady  in  1736.  Having 
renounced  the  profession  of  advocate,  he  composed  in 
rapid  succession  nutiierous  comedies,  which  were  per- 
formed with  applause,  and  effected  an  important  reform 
of  the  Italian  theatre.  He  became  a  resident  of  Paris  in 
1 761,  and  received  a  pension  from  the  king,  who  also 
appointed  him  Italian  teacher  to  the  princesses.  He 
wrote  several  comedies  in  French,  one  of  which,  "  Le 
Bourru  bienfaisant,"  (1771,)  met  with  brilliant  success. 
Among  his  other  comedies  are  "  The  Flatterer,"("  L'Adu- 
latore,")  "  La  Donna  di  Garbo,"  "  II  Bugiardo,"  and  "  II 
Vecchio  bizarro."  Goldoni  was  one  of  the  best  comic 
writers  that  Italy  has  produced.  He  died  in  Paris  in 
1793,  leaving  Memoirs  of  his  Life,  (3  vols.,  1787,  in 
French,)  which  are  said  to  be  very  interesting,  and 
were  pronounced  by  Gibbon  "more  comic  than  the  best 
comedies  of  their  author." 

See,  also,  G.  Giovanni,  "  Vita  di  Carlo  Goldoni,"  1821  ;  Mene- 
GHEzzi,  "  Memoriedelia  Vita  di  Carlo  Goldoni,"  1827  ;  Luigi  Cakrer, 
"  Saggio  su  la  Vitae  su  le  Opere  di  C.  Goldoni,"  3  vols.,  1824;  Long- 
fellow, "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Goldsborough,  golz'biir-reh,  (Lew^is  M.,)  an  Ame- 
rican rear-admiral,  born  in  Washington,  District  of  Co- 
lumbia, in  1805.  He  became  a  lieutenant  in  1825,  married 
a  daughter  of  William  Wirt,  and  gained  the  rank  of 
commander  in  1841.  In  1855  he  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  captain,  and  in  September,  1861,  took  command  of  the 
North  Atlantic  lilockading  Squadron.  He  commanded 
the  fleet  which  co-operated  with  General  Burnside  in  the 
capture  of  Roanoke  Island  in  February,  1862. 

Goldschmidt,  golt'shmit,  (Hermann,)  a  German 
painter  and  astronomer,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main 
in  1802.  He  settled  in  Paris  about  1836.  Among  the 
works  which  have  procured  him  a  high  reputation  are 
the  "Cumaean  Sibyl,"  (1845,)  "  ^^^^  Offering  to  Venus," 
(1846,)  and  "Cleopatra."  He  has  acquired  celebrity  by 
astronomical  observations  which  have  resulted  in  the 
discovery  of  the  following  asteroids:  Lutetia,  (1852,)  Po- 
mona, (1854,)  Atalanta,  (1855,)  Harmonia  and  Daphne, 
(1856,)  Nysa,  (1857,)  etc. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Goldschmidt,  Madame.    See  Lind,  (Jenny.) 

Goldschmidt,  golf'shmit,  (Meyer  Aaron,)  a  Danish 
novelist,  born  in  Jutland  in  1819.  Among  his  works  is 
"The  Homeless  Man,"  (5  vols.,  1853-57.) 

Gold'smith,  (Oliver,)  an  eminent  poet  and  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  was  born  in  Ireland,  at  Pallas,  in  the 
county  of  Longford,  in  1728.  Having  early  manifested 
a  talent  for  making  rhymes,  his  uncle,  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Contarine,  offered  to  send  him  at  his  own  expense  to  the 
University  of  Dublin.  He  entered  Trinity  College  as  a 
sizar  in  1745.  Here  he  was  more  remarkable  for  idle- 
ness and  love  of  dissipation  than  for  his  devotion  to  his 
studies.  He  took  his  degree  of  B.A.  in  1749,  two  years 
after  the  regular  tiine.  Yielding  to  the  wishes  of  his 
uncle,  he  now  prepared  to  enter  the  church  ;  but  he  was 
rejected  by  the  bishop  when  he  applied  for  orders.  His 
uncle  next  sent  him  to  London  to  study  law  ;  but  on 
his  way  he  spent  in  gambling  the  money  furnished  for 
his  travelling  expenses,  and  returned  home  with  empty 
pockets.  His  generous  relative,  however,  forgave  all 
his  offences,  and  soon  after  sent  him  to  study  medicine 
at  Edinburgh,  where  he  spent  two  years  ;  after  which 
he  visited  Leyden,  where  he  remained  about  a  year,  and 
then  set  out,  "  with  only  one  clean  shirt,  and  no  money  in 
his  pocket,"  to  make  the  tour  of  Europe  on  foot.  The 
following  passage  in  the  "Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  which 
probably  has  reference  to  himself,  may  explain  to  us  how 
he  supported  himself  while  travelling.  "  I  had  some 
knowledge  of  music,  and  now  turned  what  was  once  my 
amusement  into  a  present  means  of  subsistence.  When- 
ever I  approached  a  peasant's  house  towards  nightfall,  I 
played  one  of  my  most  merry  tunes  ;  and  that  procured 
me  not  only  a  lodging,  but  subsistence  for  the  next  day." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  ^,  e;,  j,  g,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GOLIATH 


GOLTZIUS 


He  sojourned  six  months  at  Padua,  in  Italy,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  taken  his  medical  degree  either  at  that 
place  or  Louvain.  Having  heard,  while  in  Italy,  of  the 
death  of  his  uncle,  he  immediately  set  out  for  England, 
where  he  landed  in  1756. 

On  his  arrival  in  London  he  was  first  employed  as  an 
usher  in  a  school  at  Peckham,  and  afterwards  became 
an  apothecary's  assistant.  In  1758  he  was  appointed 
physician  to  one  of  the  factories  in  India,  but  he  declined 
the  offer,  and  turned  his  attention  to  the  study  of  letters. 
In  1759  he  published  his  "Present  State  of  Literature 
in  Europe."  In  the  same  year  he  wrote  several  essays 
for  a  periodical  called  "  The  Bee,"  of  which  only  eight 
numbers  appeared.  He  next  published  some  contribu- 
tions to  Smollett's  "  British  Magazine,"  and  the  "Chi- 
nese Letter."  In  1762  he  wrote  "The  Vicar  of  Wake- 
field," while  under  arrest  for  debt,  from  which  he  was 
released  by  Dr.  Johnson,  who  obtained  from  a  bookseller 
£60  for  the  work.  It  was  not  published,  however,  till 
1766.  "The  Traveller,"  a  part  of  which  had  been  writ- 
ten in  Switzerland,  came  out  in  1764.  It  was  received 
with  great  favour,  and  at  once  established  the  repu- 
tation of  its  author.  About  this  time  he  wrote  "  Letters 
from  a  Nobleman  to  his  Son,"  "Life  of  Beau  Nash," 
and  several  compilations.  In  the  early  part  of  1768 
the  comedy  of  "  The  Good-natured  Man"  was  brought 
out  at  Covent-Garden  Theatre,  but  was  not  very  well 
received.  "The  Deserted  Village"  appeared  in  1770. 
Soon  after  this  he  began  his  Histories  of  Rome,  Greece, 
and  England,  and  also  engaged,  with  several  of  his  lite- 
rary friends,  in  a  periodical  called  "The  Gentleman's 
Journal,"  which,  however,  had  a  very  brief  existence, 
dying,  as  Goldsmith  said,  "of  too  many  doctors."  His 
next  comedy,  "She  Stoops  to  Conquer,"  came  out  in 
1773,  and  met  with  complete  success.  Dr.  Johnson  said 
that  "he  knew  of  no  comedy  for  many  years  that  had 
answered  so  much  the  great  end  of  comedy, — making  an 
audience  merry."  His  "  History  of  the  Earth  and  Ani- 
mated Nature"  was  published  in  1774.  Shortly  after  the 
appearance  of  this  work.  Goldsmith  was  attacked  by  a 
fever,  which,  being  aggravated  by  improper  treatment, 
and  also  by  pecuniary  troubles,  caused  his  death,  on 
the  4th  of  April,  1774.  Though  Goldsmith's  fame  rests 
chiefly  on  his  poems,  he  merits  little  less  admiration  as 
a  prose-writer.  The  rich  yet  delicate  humour  of  some 
of  his  essays  has  perhaps  never  been  excelled.  He 
possessed  great  benevolence  and  warmth  of  feeling,  but 
he  wanted  steadiness  of  principle,  and  was  at  all  times 
the  creature  of  impulse.  He  also  manifested  on  many 
occasions  a  considerable  degree  of  vanity  and  feelings 
of  petty  jealousy. 

"Of  all  romances  in  miniature,"  says  Schlegel,  "the 
*  Vicar  of  Wakefield'  is  the  most  exquisite  ;"  and  this 
may  be  said  to  be  the  judgment  of  nearly  all  competent 
critics.  Perhaps  no  English  prose  work  of  fiction  is  so 
generally  admired  in  Germany  as  that  above  named. 

See  John  Forster,  "Life  and  Adventures  of  O.  Goldsmith," 
1848;  \V.  Ikving,  "Goldsmith;  a  Biography,"  1850;  James  Prior, 
"Life  of  O.  Goldsmith,"  2  vols.,  1837;  Johnson's  and  Chalmers's 
"Lives  of  the  English  Poets;"  Percy,  "  Life  of  Goldsmith,"  1801  ; 
John  Mitford,  "Life  of  O.  Goldsmith;"  Sir  W.  Scott's  Mis- 
cellaneous Prose  Works;  "London  QiiarieTly  Keview,"  vol.  Ivii. ; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1837  •  Macaulay's  notice  of  Gold- 
smith in  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

Go-li'ath,  [Heb.  fl'^J,]  a  giant  leader  of  the  Philis- 
tines, is  supposed  to  have  flourished  in  the  eleventh 
century  B.C.  Having  challenged  the  Israelites  to  single 
combat,  no  one  was  found  willing  to  meet  him  except 
David,  who  slew  him  with  a  stone  from  his  sling.  (See 
ist  Book  of  Samuel.) 

GoTi-us,  (Jakob,)  an  eminent  Dutch  Orientalist, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1596.  He  distinguished  himself 
at  the  Uriiversity  of  Leyden  by  his  attainments  in  the 
classics,  mathematics,  and  philosophy,  and  subsequently 
studied  Arabic  under  Erpenius.  In  1622  he  accompanied 
the  Dutch  embassy  to  Morocco  as  interpreter,  and  pre- 
sented a  memorial  in  Arabic  to  the  emperor.  Erpenius 
having  died  in  1624,  Golius  succeeded  him  as  professor 
of  Arabic  at  Leyden.  He  soon  after  obtained  permission 
to  visit  the  East,  and,  having  spent  four  years  in  Asia 
Minor  and  Arabia,  returned  in  1629,  bringing  with  him 
a  very  large  and  choice  collection  of  manuscripts.  He 


had  been  appointed  during  his  absence  professor  of  ma- 
thematics. His  principal  work  is  his  "Lexicon  Arabico- 
Latinum,"  (1653,)  which  is  still  highly  esteemed  ;  he  also 
finished  the  translation  of  Elmacin's  "History  of  the 
Saracens,"  which  was  begun  by  Erpenius,  and  published 
other  learned  works.    Died  in  1667, 

See  J.  F.  Gronovius,  "  Laudatio  funebris  J.  Golii,"  1668  ;  Bayle, 
"Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ne- 
rale." 

Golius,  (PiETER,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Leyden,  was  also  distinguished  as  an  Oriental  scholar. 
He  became  professor  of  Arabic  in  the  Carmelite  Semi- 
nary at  Rome,  and  was  afterwards  a  missionary  to  Asia, 
where  he  founded  a  monastery  of  his  order  on  Mount 
Lebanon.  He  translated  into  Arabic  the  "Imitation  of 
Jesus  Christ,"  and  published  other  works.  Died  in  1673. 

GoUut,  goHii',  (Louis,)  a  French  historian,  born  in 
Burgundy,  wrote  "Historical  Memoirs  of  the  Republic 
and  the  Princes  of  Burgundy."    Died  in  1595. 

Golovin,  go-lo-veen',  (Feodor  Alexievitch,)  a  dis- 
tinguished Russian,  who  became  high-chancellor  under 
Peter  the  Great.  In  1689  he  was  commissioned  to  sign 
a  treaty  of  perpetual  peace  between  Russia  and  China. 
Died  in  1706.  His  son  Nicholas,  born  in  1694,  was 
sent  as  Russian  minister  to  the  court  of  Sweden,  and 
became  afterwards  president  of  the  College  of  the  Ad- 
miralty.   Died  in  1745. 

See  Bantich-Kamenski,  "Histoire  des  Hommes  illustres  du 
Regne  de  Pierre  le  Grand." 

Golovin  or  Golowin,  (Ivan,)  a  Russian  senator  and 
admiral,  distinguished  for  integrity,  lived  in  the  reign  of 
Peter  the  Great,  who  ordered  a  medal  to  be  struck  in 
his  honour.    He  was  made  a  vice-admiral  in  1725. 

See  Berch,  "Histoire  d'lvan  Golovin." 

Golovin,  Golovine,  or  Golowin,  (Ivan,)  a  Russian 
litteraieitr^horn  about  1816,  travelled  in  England,  France, 
and  Germany,  and  in  1855  visited  the  United  States.  He 
published  "Russian  Types  and  Characters,"  (1847,) 
"Russia  under  Nicholas  I.,"  (in  French,)  and  "Stars 
and  Stripes;  or,  American  Impressions." 

Golovin,  Golovine,  or  Golowin,  (Semen  Vassi- 
LIEVITCH,)  a  Russian  general  and  statesman,  born  in 
1560.  Having  supported  the  claims  of  Michael  Feo- 
dorovitch  to  the  throne,  he  was  rewarded  with  a  title 
of  nobility,  and  appointed  Governor-General  of  Kazan. 
Died  in  1634. 

Golovine.    See  Golovin. 

Golovkin,  go-lov-k6n',  (Gabriel,)  Count,  a  Russian 
statesman,  born  in  1660,  was  a  favourite  of  Peter  the 
Great,  whom  he  accompanied  in  several  of  his  cam- 
paigns. He  was  created  chancellor  of  the  empire  in 
1709.  He  was  also  patronized  by  Catherine  I.  and 
Peter  II.    Died  in  1734. 

Golovnin,  Golovnine,  or  Golownin,  go-lov-neen', 
(Vasilii,)  a  Russian  navigator,  who  sailed  in  1809  to 
make  a  survey  of  the  coasts  of  the  Russian  empire. 
After  an  absence  of  two  years,  during  which  he  was 
imprisoned  for  a  time  in  Japan,  he  returned  to  Russia, 
where  he  published  in  1816  an  account  of  his  voyage 
and  captivity,  which  was  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages.   Died  in  1832. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  November,  1820. 

Golowin.    See  Golovin. 
Golowkin.    See  Golovkin 
Golownin.    See  Golovnin. 

Goltz,  golts,  (August  Friedrich  Ferdinand,) 
Count,  a  Prussian  statesman,  born  at  Dresden  in  1765. 
In  conjunction  with  Kalckreuth,  he  concluded  the  peace 
of  Tilsit,  and  in  1812  he  negotiated  the  treaty  between 
France  and  Prussia.  He  was  subsequently  appointed 
grand  marshal  of  the  court.    Died  in  1832. 

Goltz,  von,  fon  golts,  (Georg  Conrad,)  Baron,  an 
able  Prussian  general,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1704.  Pie 
was  appointed  adjutant-general  by  Frederick  the  Great 
in  1740.    Died  in  1747. 

Goltzius,  golt'se-us,  (Heinrich,)  a  celebrated  Dutch 
engraver  and  painter,  born  near  Venloo  in  1558.  He 
studied  under  Leonhard  at  Haarlem,  and  afterwards  at 
Rome.  He  executed  a  number  of  good  pictures ;  but 
his  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his  engravings,  which  are 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Ky guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  ({[(^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GOLTZIUS 


1054 


GONDI 


of  great  excellence  and  very  numerous.  Among  these 
we  may  name  the  "  Annunciation,"  after  Raphael,  the 
**  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,"  after  Bassano,  an,d  an 
"Adoration  of  the  Kings."    Died  at  Haarlem  in  161 7. 

See  Descamps,  "  Les  Peinties  Flainands;"  Nagi.er,  "  Neues 
Allgemeiiies  Kiinstler-Lexikon. " 

Goltzius,  (HuHERT,)  a  Dutch  antiquary,  artist,  and 
numismatist,  born  at  Venloo  in  1526.  He  was  appointed 
royal  historiographer  and  painter  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
to  whom  he  dedicated  one  of  his  works.  He  published 
"Roman  Fasti  from  Antique  Coins,"  etc.,  ("Fasti 
Magistratum  et  Triumphorum  Romanorum,"  etc.,)  and 
other  similar  treatises.    Died  at  liruges  in  1583. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires ;"  Foppens,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica:" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  Felix  van  Hulst,  "  H. 
Goltzius." 

Goniar,  go'mar,  (Francis,)  a  celebrated  Protestant 
theologian  and  controversialist,  born  at  Bruges  in  1563. 
He  completed  his  studies  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  in 
England,  and  in  1594  was  appointed  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Leyden.  He  filled  the  same  chair  at  Saumur 
in  1614,  and  subsequently  became  professor  of  Hebrew 
and  divinity  at  Groningen,  (1618.)  He  is  chiefly  known 
from  his  controversy  with  Arminius  ;  and  the  Calvinistic 
party  in  Holland  received  from  him  the  name  of  Go- 
marists.    Died  at  Groningen  in  1641. 

See  R.  Simon,  "  Histoire  critique  des  principaux  Commentateurs 
du  Nouveau  Testament,"  chap.  xl.  ;  Bavi.e,  "  Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gomara,  de,  d^  go-mS.'rd,  (Francisco  Lopez,)  a 
Spanish  historian,  born  at  Seville  in  15 10,  was  the  au- 
thor of  a  "  Cronica  de  la  Nueva  Espana,"  published  in 
1553.  It  is  written  in  a  concise  and  elegant  style,  and 
was  translated  into  several  languages.   Died  about  1560. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  ii. 
book  V. 

Gombauld,  de,  deh  g6N'b6',(jEAN  Ogier — o'zhe-4',) 
a  French  poet  and  epigrammatist,  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  French  Academy,  was  born  at  Saintonge  in  1567. 
He  was  celebrated  for  his  wit,  and  was  one  of  the  circle 
who  frequented  the  Hotel  de  Rambouillet.  His  works 
include  romances,  dramas,  and  sonnets,  and  epigrams 
which  were  particularly  admired.  It  is  related  of  him 
that  he  once  read  one  of  his  poems  to  Cardinal  Riche- 
lieu, who  remarked,  *'  Here  are  some  things  I  do  not 
understand."  "That  is  not  my  fault,"  replied  Gom- 
bauld. Among  his  principal  works  may  be  named 
"  Endymion,"  a  prose  romance,  and  "  Amaranthe,"  a 
pastoral.    Died  in  1666. 

See  Pellisson,  "  Histoire  de  I'Academie  Frangaise  ;"  Bavi.e, 
"Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Moreki,  " Dictionnaire 
Historique;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Gomberville,  Le  Roi  de,  leh  rwS  deh  g^N^b^R^^K, 
(Marin,)  a  French  litterafetir,  born  in  Paris  in  1600, 
wrote  many  poems  and  romances,  and  was  one  of  the 
first  members  of  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1674. 

See  Pellisson,  "  Histoire  de  I'Academie  Frangaise." 

Gomera,  de.    See  Gomara. 

Go'nier-sall,  (Roi3Ert,)  an  English  divine  and  poet, 
born  in  London  in  1600.  He  published  a  tragedy 
entitled  "  Ludovic  Sforza,"  "The  Levite's  Revenge,"  a 
poem,  and  a  number  of  sermons.    Died  in  1646. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenje  Oxonienses." 

Gomes  or  Gomez,  go'mez,  (Francisco  Dias,)  a 
Portuguese  poet  and  critic,  born  at  Lisbon.  He  wrote 
"  The  Seasons,"  and  other  poems,  also  a  critical  essay 
on  the  styles  of  Sa  de  Miranda,  Ferreira,  and  Camoens, 
(1790.)    Died  in  1795. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Gome.s  or  Gomez,  (Joao  Battista,)  a  distinguished 
Portuguese  dramatist,  wrote  a  very  popular  tragedy 
entitled  "Inez  de  Castro,"  (published  about  1806.)  It 
has  been  translated  into  French  and  German.  Died 
about  181 2. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Gomez,  go'mgth,  (Fernando,)  a  Spanish  soldier, 
born  at  Toledo  in  1138,  distinguished  himself  by  his 
skill  and  bravery  in  the  wars  against  the  Moors.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  original  founder  of  the  order  of 
Alcantara.    Died  in  1182. 

Gomez,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  about  1550, 
became  court  painter  to  Philip  II.    Died  in  1597.  I 


Gomez,  (Serastiano,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  painter, 
called  "the  Mulatto  of  Murillo,"  born  at  Seville  about 
1616.  He  was  originally  a  slave  of  Murillo,  but,  on  ac- 
count of  the  genius  he  displayed,  was  liberated  by  his 
master  and  received  among  his  pupils.  Among  his  mas- 
ter-pieces is  a  "  Virgin  and  Child."    Died  about  1690. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Gomez,  de,  deh  go'mgz',  (Madelene  Angelique 
Poissoii— pwi's^N',)  Madame,  a  French  novelist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1684.  Among  her  best  works  are  "Les 
Cent  Nouvelles"  and  her  "  Persian  Anecdotes."  Died 
in  1770. 

Gomez  de  Becerra,  de,  d^i  go'm^th  di  bi-thgr'rS, 
(Alvaro,)  a  Spanish  jurist  and  statesman,  born  in  Es- 
tremadura  in  1771,  became  a  senator  and  president  of 
the  chamber  of  the  Cortes. 

Gomez  de  Castro,  (Alvarez.)    See  Castro. 

Gomez  de  Ciudad  Real,  go'mgth  di  the-oo-DiD' 
ri-aK,  (Alvarez,)  a  Spanish  Latin  poet,  born  at  Gtiada- 
laxara  in  1488.  He  wrote  several  Latin  poems,  among 
which  is  "  Thaliachristia,"  (1522.)    Died  in  1538. 

Gomez  de  Ciudad  Real,  (Ferdinando,)  born  at 
Ciudad  Real  in  1388,  became  physician  to  John  II., 
King  of  Castile.    Died  in  1457. 

Gomez  (or  Gomes)  de  Oliviera,  go^n^z  dk  o-le- 
ve-a'ra,  (Ani'ONIO,)  a  Portuguese  poet,  who  lived  about 
1620.  He  wrote  "Idyls  of  the  Sea,"  ("  Idylios  mari- 
timos,")  and  numerous  sonnets. 

Gomez  de  Silva.    See  Silva. 

Gomez  de  Vasconcelle,  de,  deh  go'mlz'  deh  vts'- 
koN'seK,  (L(JUISE  Genevieve,)  a  literary  lady,  of  Por- 
tuguese extraction,  published  an  abridged  translation 
of  the  "  Orlando  Furioso"  into  French  ;  also  several 
romances.    Died  in  17 18. 

Gomez-Ferreira,  go'm^z  fer-ra^-ra,(Luis,)  a  learned 
Portuguese  physician,  born  in  168^  He  wrote  a  valua- 
ble work,  entitled  "Mineral  Treasury."    Died  in  1741. 

Gomm,  (Sir  William  May'nard,)  a  British  general, 
born  in  1784.  He  served  in  the  Peninsula,  1808-14,  and 
at  Waterloo.  He  became  commander-in-chief  in  India 
in  1850  or  1851,  and  was  relieved  in  1855. 

Gongalo  de  Cordova.    See  Gonsalvo. 

Gongalves,  gon-siKv§z,  (Joaquim  Affonso,)  a 
learned  Portuguese  missionary  and  Chinese  scholar, 
born  in  1780.  In  1812  he  visited  Brazil,  the  Philippine 
Islands,  and  Macao.  He  published  a  Portuguese-Chinese 
Grammar,  entitled  "Arte  China,"  (1829,)  and  a  "  Dic- 
cionario  Portuguez-China,"  which  are  highly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1841. 

Gondebaud,  g^N'deh-bo',  or  Gun'do-baid,  second 
son  of  Gondioc,  King  of  Burgundy.  Having  slain  his 
brother  Chilperic,  and  defeated  his  army,  he  ascended 
the  throne  in  491  a.d.  In  499  he  made  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  reconcile  the  Catholics  and  Arians.  He  was 
defeated  near  Dijon,  in  500  a.d.,  by  Clovis,  King  of  the 
Franks,  to  whom  he  became  tributary.  He  drew  up  a  sys- 
tem of  laws  for  his  subjects,  since  called  the  "  Burgun- 
dian  Code."   In  religion  he  was  an  Arian.    Died  in  516. 

See  Slsmondi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Gondebaud  or  Gon'do-vaid,  King  of  Aquitaine, 
surj^amed  Ballomer,  was  a  natural  son  of  Clotaire  I. 
On  the  death  of  Chilperic,  King  of  Austrasia,  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne,  (584.)  He  was  afterwards  betrayed 
into  the  hands  of  Gontran,  King  of  Burgundy,  and  put 
to  death,  585. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Fran^ais." 

Gondebaud-Ballomer.    See  preceding  article. 

GondegLsile,  g5N'deh-zhe'z^K,  [Lat.GoNDEGisi'LUS,] 
a  younger  son  of  Gondioc,  King  of  Burgundy,  was  born 
about  470  A.D.  He  ruled  over  the  territory  between  the 
Rhone  and  the  Doubs,  and  was  an  ally  of  Clovis.  He 
was  killed  by  his  brother  Gondebaud  in  501. 

Gon'de-mar  or  God'o-mar,  King  of  Burgundy,  was 
a  son  of  Gondebaud.  He  reigned  from  523  to  534  a.d., 
and  defeated  Clodomir,  King  of  Orleans,  in  battle. 

Gon'de-mar,  (Flavius,)  was  elected  king  of  the 
Visigoths  in  Spain  in  610  A.D.    Died  in  6x2. 

Gonderic.    See  Gondioc. 

Gondi.    See  Retz,  Cardinal  de.- 

Gondi,  de,  deh  gAwMe',  (Philippe  Emanuel,)  a 
French  naval  officer,  born  at  Limoges  in  1584.    In  1622 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  i1,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GONDICJIRE 


1055 


GONZAGA 


he  assisted  the  Duke  of  Guise  in  the  blockade  of  La 
Rochelle.  He  was  a  patron  of  the  celebrated  Vincent 
de  Paul.    Died  in  1662. 

Gondicaire,  g6N'de'kaR',  [Lat.  Gundica'rius,]  or 
Gundahaire,  first  King  of  Burgundy,  born  about  385 
A.D.  Having  invaded  Germany  about  413,  he  established 
himself  with  his  subjects  on  the  Rhine,  whence  the 
Romans  vainly  endeavoured  to  expel  them.  His  army 
was  defeated  by  the  Huns  under  Attila  in  436,  and  he 
himself  slain. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Fran<;ais." 

Gon'di-oc  or  Gon'der-ic,  [Lat.  Gunderi'cus,]  son 
of  Gondicaire,  noticed  above,  was  the  second  King  of 
Burgundy,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  436  A.D.  He 
greatly  extended,  both  by  conquest  and  by  treaties,  the 
territory  left  him  by  his  father.    Died  about  473. 

See  Aug.  Thierry,  "  Lettres  sur  I'Histoire  de  France." 

Gondola,  gon'do-lS,  (Giovanni  di  Francesco,)  a 
distinguished  poet,  born  at  Ragusa,  in  Illyria,  in  1588. 
He  wrote  an  epic  poem  entitled  the  "  Osmanide,"  in 
which  he  celebrates  the  deeds  and  misfortunes  of  Osman 
L  He  also  translated  into  Illyrian  Tasso's  "Gerusa- 
lemme  Liberata,"  and  wrote  other  works.  Died  in  1638. 

His  son  SiGiSMUND  was  an  accomplished  poet,  and 
became  rector  of  the  republic  of  Ragusa. 

See  F.  M.  Appendini,  "Memoria  sulla  Vita  e  su  g!i  Scritti  di  G. 
F.  Gondola,"  1837. 

Gondouin,  g6NMoo4N',  (Jacques,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, l)orn  at  Saint-Ouen-sur-Seine  in  1737.  He  designed 
the  Ecole  de  Chirurgie,  since  called  Ecole  de  Medecine, 
in  Paris,  which,  says  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  "is  the 
most  classic  work  of  the  eighteenth  century."  Died 
in  1818. 

See  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  "  Vies  des  plus  celebres  Archi- 
tectes." 

Gondrin,  de,  deh  gAN^dR^N',  (Louis  Antoine  de 
Pardaillan— deh  ptR'dS'ySN',)  Due  d'Antin,  (d5N'- 
tS.\',)  a  French  courtier,  born  in  1665,  was  a  son  of 
Madame  de  Montespan.  He  won  the  favour  of  Louis 
XIV.,  and  of  his  son,  the  dauphin.    Died  in  1736. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Gondrin,  de,  (Louis  Henri  de  Pardaillan,)  a 

French  Jansenist,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Audi  in  1620. 
Pie  was  made  Archbisho])  of  Sens  in  1646.  Died  in  1674. 

Gon'dulf  or  Gun'diilf,  a  French  prelate,  born  in 
the  diocese  of  Rouen  in  1023,  became  Abbot  of  Saint 
Stephen's  at  Caen,  and  in  1076  was  made  Bishop  of 
Rochester,  in  England.    Died  in  1108. 

Gonelli,  go-nel'lee,  or  Gonnelli,  gon-nel'lee,  (Gio- 
vanni,) an  Italian  scul]3tor,  surnamed  "the  Blind  Man 
of  Cambassi,"  born  in  Tuscany  in  1610.  He  became 
blind  at  the  age  of  twenty,  but  continued  the  practice 
of  his  art,  and,  it  is  said,  modelled  portraits  in  clay  by 
the  touch  alone.    Died  in  1664. 

Genet,  go'ni',  (Jean  Baftiste,)  a  learned  French 
Dominican,  born  at  Beziers  in  1616,  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Bordeaux.  He  published  a  work  entitled 
"Shield  of  the  Theology  of  the  Thomists,"  ("Clypeus 
Theologiae  Thomisticas,"  18  vols.  i2mo,)  of  which  Bayle 
remarks,  "The  vSpaniards  call  it  a  very  pretty  com- 
pendium of  divinity."    Died  in  1681.  ^ 

Gongora  y  Argote,  gon-go'rS  e  aR-go'ti,  (Luis,)  a 
Spanish  poet,  born  at  Cordova  in  1561.  He  took  holy 
orders  at  the  age  of  forty-five,  before  which  he  had  com- 
posed elegant  sonnets,  satires,  and  ballads.  He  became 
chaplain  to  Philip  III.  about  1616.  In  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  he  adopted  a  fantastic,  affected,  and  obscure 
style,  which  he  called  estilo  ailto,  and  which  was  imi- 
tated by  many  of  his  contemporaries  and  is  sometimes 
called  Gongorism.    Died  in  1627. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  N.  Antgnmo,  "  Bibliotheca  His- 
pana  Nova." 

Gonnelieu,  de,  deh  gon'le-uh',  (Jerome,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  pulpit  orator,  and  theologian,  born  at  Soissons 
in  1640  ;  died  in  1715. 

Gonner  or  Goenner,  gon'ner,  (Nikolaus  Thad- 
DAUS,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Bamberg  in  1764.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  a  treatise  "On  German 
Public  Law,"  (1804,)  and  a  "Manual  of  Common  Pro- 


cess," ("  Handbuch  des  gemeinen  Processes,"  4  vols., 
1805.)    Died  in  1827. 

See  H.  J.  Jack,  "  N.  T.  von  Gonner's  Biographie,"  1813. 

Gonsalo,  gon-s§.'lo,  (Fernando,)  Count  of  Castile, 
a  Spanish  military  commander,  who  gained  a  victory 
over  Sancho,  King  of  Navarre,  in  924,  and  afterwards 
defeated  the  Moors  in  several  engagements. 

Gonsalvcgon-sSKvo,  GonzaJo,  gon-tha'lo,  or  Gon- 
galo  de  Cordova,  (Hernandez  or  Fernandez,)  [Fr. 
Gonsalve  de  Cordoue,  gdN^stlv'  deh  kou'doo',]  a 
celebrated  Spanish  commander,  surnamed  THE  Great 
Captain,  was  born  at  Montilla,  near  Cordova,  in  1443, 
(or,  according  to  some  writers,  in  1453.)  He  was  a  bro- 
ther of  Don  Alonzo  de  Aguilar.  He  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  long  war  of  Granada  which  ended  in  1492.  In 
1495  he  was  selected  by  Queen  Isabella  to  command  the 
army  sent  to  aid  the  King  of  Naples  against  Charles  VIII. 
of  France.  He  expelled  the  French  by  a  rapid  succession 
of  victories,  succoured  the  pope  by  capturing  Ostia  from 
a  piratical  horde,  and  returned  to  Spain  in  1498.  A  secret 
treaty  for  the  partition  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples  having 
been  made  by  Ferdinand  of  Spain  and  Louis  XII.  of 
France  in  1500,  Gonsalvo  was  appointed  lieutenant-gen- 
eral of  Calabria  and  Apulia.  The  French  and  Spaniards 
were  involved  in  a  war  with  each  other  in  1502.  "The 
Great  Captain"  gained  decisive  victories  at  Cerignola 
and  Garigliano  in  1503,  and  drove  the  French  out  of  the 
kingdom  of  Naples.  In  1506  he  was  recalled  to  Spain 
by  Ferdinand,  who  was  jealous  of  his  glory  or  suspicious 
of  his  loyally.  He  was  received  with  enthusiasm  by  the 
people,  but  was  treated  with  coldness  at  court.  Died 
at  Granada  in  1515.  "  His  splendid  military  successes," 
says  Prescott,  "have  made  the  name  of  Gonsalvo  as 
familiar  to  his  countrymen  as  that  of  the  Cid,  which, 
floating  down  the  stream  of  popular  melody,  has  been 
treasured  up  as  a  part  of  the  national  history.  .  .  .  His 
characteristics  were  prudence,  coolness,  steadiness  of 
purpose,  and  intimate  knowledge  of  man.  He  betrayed 
none  of  the  cruelty  and  licentiousness  which  disgrace 
the  age  of  chivalry."  (See  Prescott's  "Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,"  vol.  ii.  Part  II.,  chap.  ii. ;  and  vol.  iii.  chaps, 
xii.,  xiv.,  and  xxiv.) 

See  Paolo  Giovio,  "De  Vita  et  Rebus  gestis  G.  F.  Cordubse;" 
Br.\nt6me,  "  Vies  des  grands  Capitaines  ;"  M.  J.  Quintana,  "  Vida 
de  G.  F.  de  Cordova,"  1S27  ;  Fernandez  de  Pulgar,  "  Coronica  del 
gran  Capitan  G.  F.  de  Cordova,"  1580. 

Gonthier,  gon'teeR,  one  of  the  best  poets  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  was  born  in  Germany.  His  chief  work 
is  entitled  "Ligurinus  sive  de  Rebus  a  Friderico  I. 
gestis,"  ("  On  the  Achievements  of  Frederick  I.") 

Gonthier,  [Fr.  pron.  g6N^te-a.',]  (Johann,)  a  German 
physician  and  Hellenist,  was  born  at  Andernacli  in  1487. 
He  became  jihysician  to  Francis  1.  of  France  in  1535,  and 
lectured  on  anatomy  at  Paris,  where  Vesalius  was  among 
his  pupils.  Having  been  persecuted  as  a  Protestant, 
he  retired  to  Strasburg,  where  he  was  chosen  professor 
of  Greek.  Among  his  works,  which  were  highly  es- 
teemed, are  "  Anatomical  Institutes  according  to  the 
Views  of  Galen,"  ("  Anatomicae  Institutiones  secun- 
dum Galeni  Sententiam,"  1536,)  and  "On  Ancient  and 
Modern  Medicine."  ("  De  Medicina  veteri  et  nova," 
1571.)    Died  in  1574. 

See  Herissant,  "  filoee  de  Gonthier  d'Andernach,"  1765  ;  NiCE- 
RON,  "Homines  illustres ;"  I^loy,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Medecine;" 
M.  Adam,  "  Vitae  Medicorum." 

Gontran,  g^N'tR^N',  a  son  of  Clotaire  I.,  inherited 
the  kingdom  of  Burgundy  in  561  A.D.    Died  in  593. 

Gonzaga,  gon-zi'gS,  (Thomas  Antonio,)  a  popular 
Portuguese  lyric  poet,  born  at  Oporto  in  1747,  was  sur- 
named DiRCEO.  He  was  banished  for  a  political  offence 
to  Mozambique  in  1793,  and  died  there  in  the  same  year. 

See  F.  Denis,  "  Resume  de  rHistoire  litteraire  du  Bresil ;"  "  Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Gonzaga,  de,*  deh  gon-zS'g§,  [Fr.  Gonzague,  gix'- 
ztg',]  (Anne,)  Princess-Palatine,  born  about  1616,  was  a 
daughter  of  Charles,  Duke  of  Mantua  and  Nevers.  She 
was  married  in  1645  to  Edward,  a  son  of  Frederick  V., 
Prince-Palatine  and  King  of  Bohemia.   She  passed  much 


*  Some  authorities  give  these  names  without  the  particles,  {de,  or 
di'^  in  inserting  them  we  have  followed  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GONZAGA 


1056 


GOOD 


time  at  the  French  court,  and  was  distinguished  for  her 
political  talents  and  influence  in  the  war  of  the  Fronde. 
Died  in  1684.    Bossuet  pronounced  her  funeral  oration. 

See  Cakuinal  de  Retz,  "Menioires;"  Senac  de  Meilhan, 
"Memoires  d'Anne  de  Goiizague,"  1786. 

Gonzaga,  de,*  di  gon-zS'ga,  (Maria  Louisa,)  Queen 
of  Poland,  born  about  1612,  was  a  sister  of  Anne  Gon- 
zaga, noticed  above,  and  was  eminent  for  beauty.  Her 
mother  was  Catherine  of  Lorraine.  She  was  married 
in  1645  to  Sigisniond  Ladislas,  King  of  Poland,  who 
died  in  1648.  Soon  after  that  event  she  became  the 
wife  of  his  brother  and  successor,  John  Casimir.  Died 
in  1667. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale;"  Bassompierre,  "M^- 
moires." 

Gonzaga,  di,*(CARLO,)  Duke  of  Mantua,  Montferrato, 
and  Nevers,  was  a  grandson  of  Federico,  noticed  below, 
and  heir  of  his  cousin  Vincenzo,  who  died  in  1627.  His 
claim  was  disputed  by  the  emperor  Ferdinand  H.,  whose 
army  took  and  pillaged  Mantua  in  1630.  Gonzaga  re- 
covered Mantua  about  a  year  later.    Died  in  1637. 

Gonzaga,  di*  or  de,  (Curtius,)  an  Italian  poet,  who 
lived  about  1580.  He  wrote  an  epic  poem  called  "  Fido 
Amante,"  (1582.) 

Gonzaga,  di,*  (Ercole,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  son  of 
Francis  II.,  Duke  of  Mantua,  born  in  1505.  He  became 
successively  Bishop  of  Mantua,  Cardinal,  and  Archbishop 
of  Tarragona.  He  was  intimate  with  Cardinal  Bembo 
and  other  eminent  scholars  of  the  time.    Died  in  1563. 

See  Ughelli,  "Italia  Sacra." 

Gonzaga,  di,*  (Federico,)  Duke  of  Mantua,  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Giovanni  Francesco,  in  1519.  He 
became  an  ally  of  Charles  V.  in  1521,  and  fought  with 
distinction  against  the  French.  He  was  created  Duke 
of  Mantua  by  the  emperor,  and  obtained  the  marquisate 
of  Montferrato  in  1536.    Died  in  1540. 

Gonzaga,  di,*[Fr.  Gonzague,  gdN'zSg',](FERDiNAND 
or  Ferrante,)  Duke  of  Molfetta  and  Guastalla,  born  in 
1506,  was  a  younger  son  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua.  He 
acquired  a  high  reputation  ks  a  general  in  the  service 
of  Charles  V.,  who  appointed  him  Viceroy  of  Sicily  in 
1536,  and  Governor  of  the  Milanese  in  1546.  Died  at 
Brussels  in  1557. 

See  Alfonso  dk  Ulloa,  "Vita  del  gran  Capitano  F.  Gonzaga," 
1563;  GosELLiNi,  "Vita  del  Principe  F.  Gonzaga,"  1574. 

Gonzaga,  di,*  (Ferdinando  Carlo,)  last  Duke  of 
Milan,  succeeded  his  father  in  1665.  He  was  extremely 
dissolute.  In  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession  he  was 
the  ally  of  France.  The  Austrians  took  Mantua  in  1707 
and  annexed  it  to  the  Milanese.    He  died  in  1708. 

Gonzaga,  di,*  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  first  Marquis 
of  Mantua,  began  to  reign  in  1407.  He  waged  war 
against  Visconti,  Duke  of  Milan,  and  became  general- 
in-chief  of  the  Venetian  army  in  1432.  He  entered  the 
service  of  the  Duke  of  Milan  in  1438,  after  which  he 
defeated  the  Venetians  and  their  allies  under  F.  Sforza, 
one  of  the  ablest  generals  of  that  time.  He  died  in  1444, 
aged  about  fifty,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Luigi, 
who  was  distinguished  as  a  general  and  patron  of  poets 
and  artists. 

See  MoRERi,  "  DIctionnaire  Historique  ;"  Possevin,  "  Historia 
Gonzagarum,"  etc. 

Gonzaga,  di,*  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  a  grandson 
of  Luigi,  became  Marquis  of  Mantua  in  1466.  He  com- 
manded the  army  which  the  Italian  allies  raised  in  1495 
to  resist  Charles  VIII.  of  France.  He  was  general  of 
the  League  of  Cambrai  in  1509.    Died  in  15 19. 

Gonzaga,  di,*(LucREZiA,)  a  learned  Italian  lady,  was 
married  to  Gian  Paolo  Manfroni,  afterwards  imprisoned 
for  conspiracy  against  the  life  of  the  Duke  of  Ferrara. 
Her  letters  were  greatly  admired  by  her  contemporaries. 
Died  in  1576. 

Gonzaga,  di,*  [Fr.  Gonzague,]  (Luigi,)  Lord  of 
Mantua,  was  the  founder  of  a  sovereign  house  which 
reigned  at  Mantua  from  1328  to  1707.  They  belonged 
to  the  Ghibeline  party.    He  died  in  1361. 

Gonzaga,  di,*  (Scifione,)  an  Italian  writer  and  car- 
dinal, born  in  1542,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Tasso.  He 


See  note  on  preceding  page. 


wrote  verses  and  Latin  Memoirs  of  his  own  Life,  (1791.) 
Died  in  1593. 

See  Possevin,  "  Historia  Gonzagarum,"  etc. 

Gonzaga,  di,*  (Vkspasiano,)  Duke  of  Sabbionetta, 
an  Italian  military  commander,  born  in  1531,  served  with 
distinction  in  the  wars  of  Charles  V.  and  Philip  H.  of 
Spain.  He  was  also  a  generous  patron  of  learning  and 
the  arts.    Died  in  1591. 

Gonzague,  the  French  of  Gonzaga,  wlnich  see. 

Gonzales,  gon-thS'l&s,  (  Bartolome,  )  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1564.  He  was  patronized 
by  Philip  III.,  who  employed  him  to  restore  the  Escu- 
rial  and  other  palaces.    Died  in  1627. 

Gonzales,  giN'zi'I^s',  (Louis  Jean  Emmanuel,)  a 
¥ XGwoh  litterateur,  horn  at  Saintes  in  1815,  became  as- 
sistant editor  of  the  "Siecle."  He  wrote  a  successful 
novel,  entitled  "  The  Pearl -Diver,"  or  "  Les  Freres  de  la 
Cote,"  ("  Filibusters,"  or  *'  Buccaneers.") 

Gonzales-Velasquez,  gon-th^'l^s  vi-ias'k§th,  (Ale- 
jandro,) a  Spanish  painter  and  architect,  born  at  Madrid 
in  1 7 19.  He  adorned  with  paintings  the  royal  palace 
of  San  Ildefonso.    Died  in  1772. 

Gonzales-Velasquez,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Madrid  in  1729.  He 
excelled  in  frescos,  and  became  court  painter  in  1757. 
Died  in  1793.  His  brother  Luis,  born  in  1715,  was  also 
a  painter.    Died  in  1764. 

Gonzalez,  gon-thcVl^th,  or  Gonzales,  (Diego,)  a 
Spanish  poet,  born  at  Ciudad  Rodrigo  in  1733; 
in  1794. 

Gonzalez,  (Tirso,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  who  was  chosen 
general  of  his  order  about  1685.  He  wrote  a  work 
against  the  doctrine  of  probability,  entitled  "  Fundamen- 
tum  Theologiae  Moralis,"  etc.,  (1689.)    Died  in  1705. 

See  DupiN,  "  Bibliotheque  des  Auteurs  eccleslastiques  du  dix- 
septieme  Siecle." 

Gonzalez-Cabrera-Bueno,  gon-thi'lgth  ki-bRa'ri 
bwa'no,  (Don  Jozi^,)  a  distinguished  admiral,  born  in 
the  island  of  Teneriffe  about  1670,  was  sent  in  1701,  by 
Pedro  II.,  King  of  Portugal,  as  commander  of  a  fleet, 
to  the  Philippines.  He  published  a  valuable  treatise 
on  navigation. 

Gonzalez  de  Andrada.    See  Andrada,  (Paolo.) 

Gonzalez  de  Berceo,  gon-thS^gth  da  bgR-tha'o, 
(Juan,)  the  earliest  Spanish  poet  of  whom  anything  is 
known,  was  born  in  Castile  in  1196.  He  was  a  Bene- 
dictine monk,  and  wrote  in  verse  the  lives  of  San  Do- 
mingo de  Silos  and  San  Millan.    Died  in  1266. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Sismondi, 
"  Litteratures  du  Midi  de  I'Europe;"  Longfellow,  "Poets  and 
Poetry  of  Europe." 

Gonzalez-Velasquez.   See  Gonzales-Velasquez. 
Gonzalo  or  Gonzalvo.    See  Gonsalvo. 
Gonzalvo.    See  Gonsalvo. 

Gooch,  (Robert,)  an  English  physician,  born  at 
Yarmouth  in  1784.  He  practised  in  London,  whither 
he  removed  in  1811.  He  published  an  excellent  work 
on  "  Diseases  Peculiar  to  Women,"  (1829.)  Died  in  1830. 

Good,  (John  Mason,)  an  eminent  English  physician 
and  author,  born  at  Ejjping  in  May,  1764.  He  was  ap- 
prenticed to  a  surgeon  at  Gosport  in  1779,  and,  having 
studied  at  Guy's  Hospital  for  a  short  time,  began  to 
practise  at  Sudbury  in  1784.  In  1793  removed  to 
London,  where  he  devoted  much  attention  to  literature 
and  contributed  to  several  review.s.  He  was  versed  in 
many  ancient  and  modern  languages,  which  he  learned 
with  uncommon  facility.  In  1805  he  produced  a  trans- 
lation in  verse  of  Lucretius  "De  Rerum  Natura." 
Among  his  chief  medical  works  are  a  "Physiological 
System  of  Nosology,"  (1817,)  and  "The  Study  of  Medi- 
cine," (4  vols.,  1822;  2d  edition,  with  notes  by  Dr. 
Samuel  Cooper,  5  vols.,  1828,)  one  of  the  most  complete 
and  learned  works  on  that  subject  that  ever  appeared 
in  the  language.  He  also  published  "The  Book  of 
Nature,"  (3  vols.,  1826,)  a  "Translation  of  the  Book 
of  Psalms,"  and  several  original  poems.  In  1820  he 
took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen. 
Died  in  January,  1827. 

Commenting  on  his  translation  of  Lucretius,  Lord 
Jeffrey  says,  "Upon  the  whole,  this  book  is  very  dull, 
and  as  a  translation  very  flat  and  unpoetical ;  yet  it  is 


i,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,    short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fJll,  fit;  mhi;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


GOOD  ALL 


1057 


GOODTEAR 


evidently  the  work  of  a  man  of  no  ordinary  vigour  or 
intelligence  :  it  contains  a  very  correct  edition  of  Lucre- 
tius, with  more  information  on  the  subject  of  his  poem 
than  could  be  gathered  from  all  hrs  other  commentators 
put  together."  ("Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1807.) 

See  Olinthus  Grkgorv,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  J.  M.  Good," 
1828;  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  March,  1827. 

Goodall,  good'al,  (Edward,)  an  English  artist, 
chiefly  known  as  an  engraver,  born  at  Leeds  in  1795. 
His  vignette  landscapes,  after  Turner,  are  esteemed 
master-pieces.  Among  his  works  are  the  illustrations 
of  Kogers's  "Italy"  and  other  poems,  and  the  plates  in 
Turner's  "  South  Coast."  He  reproduces  the  manner 
of  Tinner  with  exquisite  tact. 

Goodall,  (Frederick,)  an  eminent  painter  of  history 
and  genre,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  London 
in  1822.  He  obtained  a  silver  medal  from  the  Society 
of  Arts  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  His  early  works  represent 
the  life  of  the  peasants  of  Normandy  and  Brittany.  He 
produced  "The  Departure  of  the  Emigrant-Ship,"  and 
other  scenes  of  Irish  life,  and  afterwards  devoted  him- 
self chiefly  to  English  subjects.  Among  his  later  works 
are  "The  Village  Festival,"  (1847,)  "Raising  the  May- 
Pole,"  (185 1,)  and  "Cranmer  at  the  Traitors'  Gate," 
(1856.)  He  was  chosen  an  associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1852. 

Good'all  or  Good'al,  (Walter,)  a  Scottish  anti- 
quary, born  in  Banff'shire  in  1706.  He  published  an 
"  Examination  of  the  Letters  said  to  be  written  by 
Mary  to  James,  Earl  of  Bothwell ;"  also  an  edition  of 
the  "  Scoti-Chronicon"  of  Fordun.    Died  in  1766. 

Goode,  good,  (Francis,)  an  English  divine,  born  about 
1797.  He  wrote  "  The  Better  Covenant,"  (5th  edition, 
1848,)  which  is  highly  commended.    Died  in  1842. 

Goode,  (William,)  an  English  theologian,  born  about 
1800.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Divine  Rule  of  Faith 
and  Practice,"  (2  vols.,  1842,)  and  treatises  against  the 
doctrines  of  the  Puseyites.  He  became  Dean  of  Ripon 
in  1 860. 

Good'man,  (Christopher,)  an  English  Puritan,  born 
at  Chester  about  1520.  He  retired  to  the  continent  in 
the  reign  of  Mary,  and  became  pastor  of  an  English 
church  at  Geneva.  About  1560  he  was  appointed  min- 
ister at  Saint  Andrew's,  Scotland.  He  wrote  a  "Com- 
mentary on  Amos."    Died  in  1602. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Goodman,  (Godfrey,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
Denbighshire  in  1583.  He  became  Bishop  of  Gloucester 
in  1625,  and  joined  the  Church  of  Rome  about  1640. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  his  Own 
Times,"  which  was  published  in  1839.    Died  in  1655. 

See  Fuller,  "  Church  History." 

Good'rich,  (Charles  A.,)  of  Hartford,  Connecticut, 
a  historian  and  clergyman,  born  in  1790.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "History  of  the  United  States 
of  America."    Died  in  1862. 

Goodrich,  (Chauncey,)  an  American  Senator,  born 
at  Durham,  Connecticut,  in  1759,  was  a  son  of  Elizur, 
noticed  below.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from 
1795  to  1801,  and  represented  Connecticut  in  the  Senate 
of  the  United  States  from  1807  to  1813.    Died  in  1815. 

Goodrich,  (Chauncey  Allen,)  an  American  scholar 
and  divine,  born  at  New  Haven  in  October,  1790,  was  a 
son  of  Elizur,  noticed  below,  (1761-1849.)  He  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1810,  and  afterwards  studied  theology. 
He  was  professor  of  rhetoric  and  oratory  in  Yale  Col- 
lege from  1 81 7  to  1839,  and  in  the  latter  year  obtained 
the  chair  of  theology  in  that  institution.  In  1847  he 
produced  an  enlarged  edition  of  Webster's  Dictionary. 
He  also  edited  Webster's  Unabridged  Dictionary,  with 
an  Appendix  and  Vocabulary  of  Proper  Names,  (1859,) 
and  published  "  Select  British  Eloquence,"  (1852.)  Died 
in  i860. 

See  Allibone's  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Goodrich,  (Elizur,)  an  American  divine  and  scho- 
lar, born  in  Wethersfield,  Connecticut,  in  1734;  died 
in  1797. 

Goodrich,  (Elizur,)  an  American  lawyer,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Durham,  Connecticut,  in  1761. 
lie  was  professor  of  law  in  Yale  College  from  1801  to 


1810,  and  was  a  judge  of  probate  for  many  years.  Died 
in  1849. 

Goodrich,  (Frank  B.,)  an  American  writer,  son  of 
Samuel  G.  Goodrich,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Boston 
in  1826.  He  published,  besides  several  other  works, 
"The  Court  of  Napoleon,  or  Society  under  the  First 
Empire,  with  Portraits  of  its  Beauties,"  etc.,  (1857.) 

Goodrich,  (Samuel  Griswold,)  an  American  writer, 
known  under  the  assumed  name  of  Peter  Parley,  was 
born  at  Ridgefield,  Connecticut,  in  1793.  He  was  a 
nephew  of  Chauncey  A.  Goodrich.  He  became  pro- 
prietor of  a  publisJiing-house  in  Boston  about  1825,  soon 
after  which  he  began  to  write  a  series  of  juvenile  books 
under  the  name  of  "  Peter  Parley."  These  works,  the 
subjects  of  which  were  history,  geography,  travels,  etc., 
enjoyed  an  extensive  popularity.  Some  of  them  were 
translated  into  French.  He  edited  a  periodical  called 
"Parley's  Magazine,"  (1841-54.)  He  was  consul  of 
the  United  States  in  Paris  for  several  years,  (1848-52.) 
Among  his  numerous  works  are  "Recollections  of  a 
Lifetime,"  (2  vols.,  1857,)  "  Illustrated  Natural  History 
of  the  Animal  Kingdom,"  (2  vols.,  1859,)  and  "  Peter 
Parley's  Own  Story,"  etc.,  (1864.)    Died  in  1863. 

For  a  particular  account  of  his  various  publications,  see  Alli- 
bone's "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Goodrich,  (Thomas,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Lincolnshire  about  1480.  He  rose  through  various  pre- 
ferments to  be  Bishop  of  Ely  in  1534.  He  was  also  a 
metnber  of  the  privy  council  under  Henry  VIII.  and 
Edward  VI.,  and  in  1551  was  made  lord  chancellor. 
He  assisted  in  the  compilation  of  the  Bishops'  Book  and 
the  I^ook  of  Common  Prayer  of  1548.    Died  in  1554. 

Good'win,  (Francis,)  an  English  architect,  among 
whose  principal  works  are  the  Manchester  Town  Hall 
and  Lissadell  Court.    Died  in  1835. 

Goodwin,  (John,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  born 
in  1593,  resided  many  years  in  London,  where  he  was 
distinguished  for  his  pulpit  eloquence.  He  was  a  zealous 
republican,  and  defended  the  execution  of  the  king.  By 
his  writings  and  in  his  pulpit  he  maintained  the  Arminian 
doctrines.  He  was  the  author  of  "  The  Divine  Authority 
of  Scripture  Asserted,"  "Right  and  Might  Well  Met," 
"Redemption  Redeemed,"  etc.  The  first-named  is  con- 
sidered a  master-piece  of  polemic  theology.  Died  in 
1665. 

See  "  Life  of  John  Goodwin,"  by  Thomas  Jackson. 

Goodwin,  (Thomas,)  an  English  nonconformist  di- 
vine and  writer,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1600.  He  took  his 
degree  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1632  became  vicar  of  Trinity 
Church,  in  that  town.  This  post  he  soon  after  resigned, 
on  account  of  a  change  in  his  religious  opinions.  After 
a  short  residence  in  Holland,  he  was,  on  his  return  to 
England,  elected  to  the  Westminster  Assembly,  and  was 
distinguished  as  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  active  leaders 
of  the  Independent  party.  His  zeal  in  this  cause  pro- 
cured for  him  the  favour  of  Cromwell,  who  in  1649 
appointed  him  president  of  Magdalene  College,  Oxford. 
He  wrote  numerous  theological  and  controversial  works, 
which  enjoy  a  high  reputation.    Died  in  1679. 

See  Neal,  "History  of  the  Puritans;"  Wood,  "Athenas  Oxo- 
nienses." 

Good'year,  (Charles,)  an  eminent  American  in- 
ventor, born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1800.  His 
early  education  was  very  defective.  He  removed  in  1826 
to  Philadelphia,  where  he  opened  a  small  store.  About 
1834  he  became  deeply  interested  in  the  manufacture  of 
India-rubber.  The  cloth,  shoes,  and  other  articles  made 
from  this  substance  had  proved  failures  on  account  of 
the  effect  produced  upon  it  by  heat  and  cold.  After  five 
years  spent  in  constant  experiments,  during  which  time 
he  and  his  family  lived  in  extreme  destitution,  Mr.  Good- 
year succeeded  in  producing,  by  means  of  sulphur,  the 
vulcanized  India-rubber  now  so  extensively  used  in  manu- 
factures. In  1 85 1  he  visited  London,  and  exhibited  at 
the  Crystal  Palace  a  great  variety  of  useful  and  orna- 
mental articles  of  the  new  material.  He  obtained  on  this 
occasion  the  Grand  Council  medal.  He  also  attended 
the  Paris  Exposition  of  1855,  and  received  from  the 
French  emperor  the  grand  medal  of  honour  and  the 
cross  of  the  legion  of  honour.  He  returned  to  Ame- 
rica in  1858,  and  devoted  himself  with  untiring  energy 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

67 


GOOGE 


1058 


GORDON 


to  the  perfection  of  his  discoveries,  although  suffering 
froni  chronic  disease.  Died  in  July,  i860.  "  He  lived," 
says  Parton,  "  to  see  his  material  applied  to  nearly  five 
hundred  uses,  and  to  give  employment,  in  England, 
France,  Germany,  and  the  United  States,  to  sixty  thou- 
sand persons.  But  we  should  greatly  undervalue  the 
labours  of  Charles  Goodyear  if  we  regarded  them  only 
as  opening  a  new  source  of  wealth.  .  .  .  Art,  science, 
and  humanity  are  indebted  to  him  for  a  material  which 
serves  the  purposes  of  them  all,  and  serves  them  as  no 
other  known  material  could." 

See  Rev.  Bradford  K.  Peirce,  "Trials  of  an  Inventor,"  New 
York,  i866;  Pakton,  "  Famous  Americans  of  Recent  Times,"  1867. 

Googe,  gooj,  (Barnaby,)  an  English  translator  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  published  versions  of  the  "Zodiake  of 
Life,"  by  Paiingenius  Stellatus,  the  "Spanish  Proverbs" 
of  Lope  de  Mendoza,  and  Aristotle's  "Categories  ;"  he 
was  also  the  author  of  a  collection  of  sonnets  and  other 
poems. 

See  Warton,  '*  History  of  English  Poetry." 

Gook'in,  (Daniel,)  a  writer,  born  in  Kent,  England, 
about  1612,  removed  to  Massachusetts  in  1644.  He 
became  a  major-general  in  1681.  He  wrote  "  Historical 
Collections  of  the  Indians  of  Massachusetts,"  (published 
in  1792.)    Died  in  1687. 

Gool,  van,  vSn  gol  or  h61,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1685,  painted  admired  landscapes, 
and  wrote  a  mediocre  "  Biography  of  Flemish  and  Dutch 
Painters,"  (1751.)    Died  in  1757. 

Gopaia,  one  of  the  names  of  Krishna,  which  see. 

Goppert  or  Goeppert,  gop^'plrt,  (Heinrich  Ro- 
bert,) professor  of  medicine  and  botany  at  Breslau,  was 
born  in  Silesia  in  1800.  He  published  a  treatise  "  On 
the  Anatomical  Structure  of  the  Coniferae,"  "On  the 
Fossil  Ferns,"  and  other  similar  works. 

Gor'di-an,  [Fr.  Gordien,  goRMe-iN';  Lat.  Gordia'- 
NUS,  (Mar'cus  Anto'nius  Africa'nus,)]  a  Roman  em- 
peror, born  about  160  A.D.,  of  an  illustrious  family.  He 
was  appointed  proconsul  of  Africa  in  237,  and  was  declared 
emperor  by  the  insurgents  who  rebelled  against  Maximi- 
nus.  His  son  Gordian  was  associated  with  him  in  the 
empire,  and  their  election  was  confirmed  by  the  Roman 
senate.  Soon  after  this,  Capellianus,  Governor  of  Mau- 
ritania, assembled  an  army  in  favour  of  Maximinus,  and 
attacked  Carthage.  In  the  combat  that  ensued,  the 
younger  Gordian  was  slain  ;  and  his  aged  father,  on 
hearing  of  his  fate,  strangled  himself,  in  238  A.D.  Gor- 
dian was  distinguished  for  his  love  of  letters,  and  was 
the  author  of  several  poems.  He  spent  a  great  part  of 
his  immense  wealth  in  procuring  games  and  amusements 
for  the  people.    His  reign  lasted  but  six  weeks. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Gordian,  [Lat.  Gordianus,  (Marcus  Antonius 
Pius,)]  grandson  of  the  elder  Gordian,  was  born  about 
225,  and  was  proclaimed  Caesar  by  the  Roman  people 
when  news  arrived  of  the  death  of  the  two  Gordians  in 
Africa.  He  was  made  colleague  of  the  new  emperors 
Maximus  and  Balbinus,  and  after  their  death  became 
emperor,  in  July,  238  a.d.  Gordian,  accompanied  by 
his  father-in-law,  Misitheus,  repelled  an  invasion  of 
Sapor,  King  of  Persia,  in  242,  He  afterwards  attacked 
the  Persians,  and  defeated  their  army  on  the  banks  of 
the  Chaboras.  Meanwhile,  Philippus,  an  officer  in  the 
Roman  army,  availing  himself  of  his  popularity,  caused 
himself  to  be  proclaimed  a  colleague  of  the  emperor, 
and  soon  after  had  Gordian  put  to  death,  in  244  a.d. 

See  Tii.LEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs;"  Montesquieu, 
"Grandeur  et  Decadence  des  Remains ;"  Gisbert  Ci'per,  "  His- 
toria  triiim  Gordianorum,"  1697;  Capitolinus,  "Gordiani  tres." 

Gordianus,  the  Latin  of  Gordian,  which  see. 

Gordien,  the  French  of  Gordian,  which  see. 

Gor'di-us,  a  Phrygian  peasant  who  was  raised  to  the 
throne,  was  the  father  of  Midas.  His  name  is  associated 
with  the  famous  "  Gordian  Knot,"  which  Alexander  the 
Great,  unable  to  untie,  cut  with  his  sword. 

Gor'don,  (Alexander,)  of  Achintoul,  a  relative  of 
Patrick,  noticed  below,  visited  Russia  in  1693.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  Czar,  to  whom  he  rendered  important 
services  in  his  wars  against  Sweden  and  Poland.  He 
wrote  a  valuable  "History  of  Peter  the  Great,"  (1755.) 
Died  in  1752. 


Gordon,  (Alexander,)  a  distinguished  Scottish  an- 
tiquary, wrote  "  Itinerarium  Septentrionale,"  or  travels 
in  Scotland  and  the  North  of  England,  (1726,)  and  a 
"Complete  History  of  Ancient  Amphitheatres,"  (1730.) 
Died  in  1750. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Gordon,  (Andrew,)  a  distinguished  scholar,  born 
near  Aberdeen  in  1712,  became  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Erfurt,  in  Germany.  He  published  a  work  entitled 
"Phenomena  of  Electricity  Exposed,"  (1744.)  He  made 
important  discoveries  in  that  science ;  and  he  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  who  used  a  cylinder  instead  of  a  globe 
in  electrical  apparatus.    Died  in  1 75 1. 

See  Priestley,  "  History  of  Electricity." 

Gordon,  goiiM^N',  [Lat.  Gordo'nus,]  (Bernard,)  a 
French  physician,  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Mont- 
pellier  in  1285.  He  wrote  "  Lilium  Medicinae,"  and  other 
professional  works,  which  were  highly  esteemed.  Died 
about  1320. 

Gordon,  (George,)  Earl  of  Huntley,  an  ainbitious 
and  powerful  Scottish  nobleman,  was  a  Roman  Catholic. 
He  became  lord  chancellor  of  Scotland  about  1546. 
Having  taken  arms  against  Queen  Mary  and  Regent 
Murray,  he  was  defeated  and  killed  in  1562.  His  son 
George,  the  fifth  Earl,  was  accessory  to  the  death  of 
Lord  Darnley,  after  which  he  was  an  adherent  of  Queen 
Mary. 

Gordon,  (George,)  sixth  Earl  of  Huntley,  a  son  of 
the  fifth  Earl,  was  a  turbulent  and  powerful  nobleman. 
He  engaged  in  treasonable  intrigues  with  the  King  of 
Spain  in  order  to  restore  the  Romish  Church  in  Scot- 
land. He  rebelled  openly  in  1594,  was  defeated,  and 
fled  to  the  continent,  but  soon  returned.    Died  in  1635. 

Gordon,  (George,)  the  son  of  Cosmo  George,  Duke 
of  Gordon,  was  born  in  London  in  1750.  On  taking  his 
seat  in  Parliament,  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  violent 
opposition  to  the  Act  of  Toleration,  passed  in  1778  in 
favour  of  the  Catholics.  In  1780,  at  the  head  of  a  mob 
estimated  at  one  hundred  thousand  persons,  Gordon 
presented  a  petition  to  Parliament  for  the  repeal  of  the 
Bill  of  Toleration  ;  and,  on  the  refusal  of  that  body  to 
take  it  into  immediate  consideration,  his  followers  spread 
themselves  over  the  city  and  plundered  and  burned 
several  Roman  Catholic  chapels.  These  outrages  being 
feebly  repressed,  the  mob  broke  out  a  few  days  after  with 
greater  violence.  A  great  number  of  private  houses  as 
well  as  churches  were  destroyed,  and  the  prisons  forced 
open.  At  length  the  king  commanded  the  military  to 
disperse  the  mob,  and  order  was  restored.  Gordon  was 
tried  for  high  treason,  but  was  acquitted,  because  it 
could  not  be  proved  that  he  had  assembled  the  populace 
with  bad  intentions.  He  afterwards  was  condemned  to 
five  years'  imprisonment  for  contempt  of  court.  He 
died  in  prison  in  1793. 

See  Robert  Watson,  "Life  of  Lord  George  Gordon,"  1795; 
Lingard,  "History  of  England;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dic- 
tionary of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Gor'don,  (George  H.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  about  1826.  He  was  a 
lawyer  before  the  civil  war.  He  commanded  a  brigade 
of  the  army  of  General  Banks  in  May,  1862,  and  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September  17  of  that  year. 

Gordon,  (George  Hamilton.)  See  Aberdeen, 
Earl  of. 

Gordon,  (James  Huntley,)  a  learned  Jesuit,  of  a 
noble  Scottish  family,  born  in  Paris  in  1543.  He  became 
successively  professor  of  theology  and  of  the  learned 
languages  at  Rome,  Paris,  and  Bordeaux,  and  was  also 
employed  on  several  apostolic  missions.    Died  in  1620. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmer. 

Gordon,  (Sir  John  Watson,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
portrait-painter,  born  in  Edinburgh  about  1790.  He 
painted  portraits  of  nearly  all  the  eminent  Scotsmen  of 
his  time,  including  Sir  Walter  Scott,  the  Duke  of  Ar- 
gyle.  Dr.  Chalmers,  (1837,)  and  Professor  Wilson,  (1851.) 
He  was  chosen  president  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy 
in  1850,  and  received  the  title  of  painter-limner  to  the 
queen.    Died  in  1864. 

Gordon,  (Lady  Lucy  Duff,)  daughter  of  the  cele- 
brated Mrs.  Austin,  and  wife  of  Sir  Alexander  Duff 
Gordon,  published  a  number  of  excellent  translations 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i^.,  h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  raSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


GORDON 


GORIONIDES 


from  the  German  and  French.  AnKjng  these  are  Von 
Feuerbach's  "  Remarkable  Crimes  and  Trials,"  Mein- 
hold's  "Amber  Witch,"  and  the  "Celebrated  Crimes" 
of  Dumas.  She  wrote  "Letters  from  Egypt,"  (1865.) 
Died  in  Egypt  in  1869. 

Gordon,  (Patrick,)  a  Scottish  officer,  born  in  1635, 
entered  the  service  of  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  whose 
favour  he  won,  and  who  made  him  commander-in-chief 
of  his  army.    Died  in  1699. 

See  Beckmann,  "Peter  der  Grosse  als  Mensch  und  Regent," 
1830;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1852;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1856;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1861. 

Gordon,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  geographer,  born  in 
Aberdeenshire  about  1580,  was  appointed  by  Charles  I. 
to  complete  the  "Theatrum  Scotias,"  which  forms  a  part 
of  the  geographical  work  projected  by  Blaeu  of  Amster- 
dam.   Died  about  1660. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Gordon,  (Sir  Robert,)  a  brother  of  the  Earl  of 
Aberdeen,  born  in  1791,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Constantinople  in  1829,  and  was  minister  at  Vienna  from 
1841  to  1846.    He  died  at  Balmoral  in  1847. 

Gordon,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  at  Kirk- 
cudbright about  1685.  He  was  the  author,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  his  friend  Trenchard,  of  "  Cato's  Letters,"  and 
"The  Independent  Whig,"  (2  vols.,  1732.)  His  transla- 
tion of  Tacitus  is  esteemed  the  best  in  the  English 
language.    Died  in  1750. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Gordon,  (Thomas  F.,)  an  American  historian,  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  Pennsylvania,"  (1823,)  a  "Digest 
of  the  Laws  of  the  United  States,"  (1827,)  a  "History 
of  New  Jersey,"  (1831,)  a  "Gazetteer  of  New  Jersey," 
(1834,)  and  other  works. 

Gordon,  (William,)  an  English  historian,  born  at 
Hitchin  in  1729,  became  pastor  of  an  Independent 
church  at  Ipswich.  He  removed  to  America  in  1770, 
preached  for  some  years  at  Roxbury,  Massachusetts, 
favoured  the  popular  party  in  the  Revolution,  and  re- 
turned to  England  in  1786.  He  published  a  "History 
of  the  Rise,  Progress,  and  Establishment  of  the  Inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States  of  America,"  (4  vols., 
1788.)  He  states  that  General  Washington  furnished 
material  for  this  work.    Died  in  1807. 

Gordon,  (William,)  an  English  physician  and  philan- 
thropist, born  near  Ripon  in  1801,  practised  in  Hull.  He 
wrote  a  "  Critical  Inquiry  concerning  a  New  Membrane 
of  the  Eye,"  (1832,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1849. 

See  Newman  Hall,  "The  Christian  Philosopher  Triumphing 
over  Death,"  etc. 

Gordonus.    See  Gordon,  (Bernard.) 

Gore,  (Catherine  Grace,)  originally  named  Fran- 
cis, a  distinguished  English  authoress,  born  in  Notting- 
hamshire in  1799.  Among  her  most  popular  novels, 
which  are  principally  delineations  of  fashionable  life, 
are  "Cecil  ;  or,  The  Adventures  of  a  Coxcomb,"  (1841,) 
"Peers  and  Parvenus,"  "The  Hamiltons,"  and  "The 
Ambassador's  Wife."  She  also  published  a  comedy 
entitled  "  The  School  for  Coquettes,"  and  other  dramatic 
works.  Mrs.  Gore's  productions  display  superior  talent, 
and  a  number  of  her  novels  have  been  translated  into 
German.    Died  in  1861. 

See  R.  H.  Horne,  "New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1844;  "Edinburgh 
RC'iew"  for  July,  1830. 

Gore,  (Chri-Stopher,)  an  American  Governor,  born 
in  Boston  in  1758.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts in  1809,  and  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in 
1814.  Died  in  1827.  He  left  nearly  $100,000  to  Harvard 
College. 

Gore,  (Sir  John,)  a  British  naval  officer,  who  became 
a  vice-admiral  in  1825.    Died  in  1836. 

Gore,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Wiltshire 
in  1 63 1,  was  the  author  of  several  genealogical  works. 
Died  in  1684. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Gorenz  or  Goerenz,  go'rints,  (Johann  August,)  a 
German  philologist  and  Latin  scholar,  born  in  Saxony 
in  1765.  He  published  a  good  edition  of  Cicero's  philo- 
sophical works,  viz.,  "  De  Legibus,"  "  De  Finibus,"  and 
"Academica,"  (3  vols.,  1809-12.)    Died  in  1836. 


Gorgei.    See  Gorgey. 

Gor'ges,  (Sir  Ferdinando,)  an  Englishman,  born  in 
Somersetshire.  He  planted  a  colony  in  Maine,  and 
spent  a  large  sum  of  money  in  attempts  to  explore  and 
settle  that  province.  About  1637  he  obtained  a  large 
grant  of  land,  and  was  appointed  lord  proprietary  of 
Maine.    His  colony  did  not  prosper.    Died  in  1647. 

Gorgey  or  Goergey,  goR'gi,  (Arthur,)  a  famous 
Hungarian  general,  born  at  Toporcz  in  1818.  He  entered 
the  army  in  1837,  but  retired  from  it  in  1845  ^"^1  became 
a  student  in  the  University  of  Prague.  In  the  spring  of 
1848  he  joined  the  army  which  took  the  field  against 
Austria,  and  received  a  captain's  commission.  Having 
given  proofs  of  superior  military  talents,  he  was  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief  by  Kossuth  on  the  1st  of 
November,  1848.  He  issued  in  January,  1849,  a  procla- 
mation against  the  separation  of  Hungary  from  Austria, 
and  in  the  next  month  was  superseded  by  Dembinski, 
whom  he  refused  to  obey.  He  was  soon  restored  to  the 
command,  and  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Nagy  Sarlo  in 
April,  after  which  he  became  minister  of  war.  Having 
been  defeated  near  Komorn  in  Julv,  he  made  a  skilful 
retreat  to  Arad.  On  the  nth  of  August,  1849,  he  was 
appointed  dictator,  and  a  few  days  later  he  capitulated 
without  conditions  to  the  Russian  general.  He  was 
pardoned  by  the  emperor,  and  incurred  the  suspicion  of 
treason  to  the  cause  of  Hungary.  In  1852  he  published 
"My  Life  and  Acts  in  Hungary  in  1848  and  1849." 

Gor'gi-as  [Gr.  Topyiag]  of  Leontini,  a  celebrated 
orator  and  sophist,  was  born  at  Leontini,  (or  Leontium,) 
in  Sicily,  and  was  a  contemporary  of  Socrates.  He  was 
sent  by  his  fellow-citizens  to  Athens  on  a  political  mis- 
sion about  426  B.C.,  soon  after  which  he  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Athens.  He  taught  rhetoric  with  great  eclat,  and 
wrote  a  philosophical  work  entitled  "  Of  the  Non-Being, 
or  of  Nature,"  in  which  he  argued  that  nothing  has  ex- 
.istence  or  reality.  Some  extracts  from  this  are  extant. 
His  mind  was  eminently  ?;ubtle  and  brilliant.  He  appears 
to  have  promoted  the  advancement  of  philosophy  by  de- 
monstrating the  distinction  between  the  conception  and 
its  object.  But  he  was  more  remarkable  tor  the  graces 
of  language  than  for  earnestness  of  feeling.  "  Like  a 
great  man  of  modern  times,"  says  Fournier,  "he  propa- 
gated doubt  with  finesse,  and  suggested  or  generated 
ideas  with  an  art  of  which  Socrates  alone  furnished  a 
model."  Plato  gave  the  name  of  Gorgias  to  one  of  his 
dialogues  which  is  extant.  Gorgias  survived  Socrates, 
and  reached  the  age  of  one  hundred  years. 

See  Philostratus,  "  Vitae  Sophistarum ;"  H.  E.  Foss,  "Com- 
mentatio  de  Gorgia  Leontino,"  1828;  Luigi  Garofalo,  "Discorsi 
intorno  Gorgia  Leontino,"  1831 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale  ;" 
Aristotle,  "De  Xenophane,  Gorgia,"  etc.;  Shxtu.s  Empiricus, 
"Adversus  Mathematicos ;"  Grote,  "History  of  Greece,"  vol.  viii. 
chap.  Ixvii. 

Gor'gon,  [Lat.  Gor'gon  ;  Gr.  Topyu,  (plural  Pop- 
yoveg ;)  Fr.  GoRGONE,  goR^gon'.]  The  Gorgons  of  the 
classic  mythology  were  three  sisters,  named  Stheno, 
(or  Stheino,)  Eury'ale,  and  Medusa.  By  the  later  poets 
they  were  represented  as  having  on  their  heads  serpents 
instead  of  hair,  or  serpents  entwined  among  their  hair. 
According  to  the  popular  legend,  all  persons  who  looked 
at  them  were  changed  into  stone. 

See  Keightley,  "  Mythology  ;"  "  Biographic  Universelle," 
(Partie  mythologique.) 

Gorgonia,  a  surname  of  Minerva,  which  see. 

Gori,  go'ree,  (Antonio  Francesco,)  an  Italian  anti- 
quary, born  in  1691  at  Florence,  where  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  history.  Among  his  numerous  and  valuable 
works  we  may  name  "  Inscriptiones  antiquae  Grsecae  et 
Romanaj,"  etc.,  an  account  of  ancient  inscri]3tions  found 
in  Tuscany,  and  a  superb  work  entitled  "  Museum  Flo- 
rentinum,"  (6  vols,  fol.,  1731-43.)  In  1735  he  founded 
the  Academia  Columbaria.    Died  in  1757. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  Goethe,  "  Winckelrnann 
und  sein  Jahrhundert." 

Gorini,  da,  di.  go-ree'nee,  (Giuseppe  Corio,)  Mar- 
quis, an  Italian  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Milan.  He  com- 
posed many  tragedies  and  comedies,  some  of  which  were 
very  successful.  His  tragedy  of  "Jezebel"  is  called  his 
master-piece.    He  died  after  1761. 

Go-ri-on'i-des,  or  Joseph  Ben  Gorion,  a  Jewish 
compiler,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  France  in 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  kard;  g  as J;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,   (JJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GORL^US 


1 060 


GOSCHEL 


the  ninth  century.  He  was  the  reputed  author  of  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Jews." 

Gorleeus,  gor-la'us,  (Abraham,)  a  distinguished  an- 
tiquary and  numismatist,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1549.  He 
collected  a  valuable  cabinet  of  medals,  which  was  sold 
after  his  death  to  James  I.  of  England.  His  principal 
works  are  his  "  Dactyliotheca,  etc.,"  and  "Thesaurus 
Numismatum,"  ("Treasury  of  Coins,"  1608.)  Died  in 
1609. 

Gorm  or  Gor'mon,  surnamed  the  Old,  a  king  of 
Denmark,  who  united  the  whole  of  that  country  into  one 
kingd  )m.  He  was  hostile  to  Christianity,  and  resisted 
all  the  efforts  of  the  missionaries  to  convert  his  people. 
Died  in  935. 

Gor'man,  (Willis  A.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  i<^entucky  about  1814.  He  represented  a  district  of 
Indiana  in  Congress  from  1849  to  1853,  and  was  Gov- 
ernor of  Minnesota  Territory  from  1853  to  1857.  He 
commanded  a  brigade  of  the  Union  army  at  the  battles 
of  Fair  Oaks,  June  i,  and  Antietam,  September  17,  1862. 

Gornicius.    See  Gornickl 

Gornicki,  goR-netsn<ee,  [Lat.  Gorni'cius,]  (Luke,)  a 
Polish  historian,  born  in  1530,  became  secretary  to  Sigis- 
mund  Augustus,  King  of  Poland.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Poland."    Died  in  1600. 

Gor'on-wy,  (Owen,)  a  Welsh  poet,  born  in  1722, 
wrote  poems  in  his  own  language  and  in  Latin. 

Goropius  or  Gorophius.    See  Began,  (John.) 

Gorostiza,  go-ros-tee'sS,  (Don  Manuel  Eduardo,) 
a  distinguished  diplomatist  and  dramatic  writer,  born 
at  Vera  Cruz,  in  Mexico,  in  1790.  He  was  employed  by 
his  countrymen  in  several  important  missions  to  London 
and  Paris,  and  was  on  his  return  appointed  councillor  of 
state.  His  comedies  entitled  "Bread  and  Onion  with 
Thee!"  ("Contigo  Pan  y  CeboUa,")  and  "Indulgence 
towards  All,"  ("  Indulgencia  para  Todos,")  enjoy  great 
poj^ularity. 

Gorraeus.    See  Gorris. 

Gorran,  de,  deh  go'rSN',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  theo- 
logian, born  in  Maine  about  1230.  He  wrote  commen- 
taries on  Scripture.    Died  in  1295. 

Gorres  or  Goerres,  gor'res,  (Jakob  Joseph,)  an 
able  German  writer  and  publicist,  was  born  at  Coblentz 
in  1776.  He  edited  in  1814  the  "  Rheinisches  Mercur," 
an  organ  of  the  Liberal  party  in  Germany,  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  history  at  Munich  in  1827.  He  wrote 
on  a  great  variety  of  subjects.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  "Aphorisms  on  Art,"  (1802,)  "Faith  and 
Science,"  ("  Glauben  und  Wissen,"  1805,)  "Mythologi- 
cal History  of  the  Asiatic  World,"  (1810,)  "Christian 
Mystic,"  ("Christliche  Mystik,"  4  vols.,  1836-42,)  and 
a  number  of  contributions  to  the  "  Historico-Political 
Journal."    Died  at  Munich  in  1848. 

See  Sepp,  "J.  von  Gorres;  eine  Skizze  seines  Leben,"  1848;  S. 
Brunner,  "  Einige  Stiinden  bei  Goerres,"  1848;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale,"  (where  he  is  called  Jean  Joseph  de  Goerres.) 

Gorresio,  gor-ra'se-o,  (  Gaspard,)  an  Italian  Ori- 
entalist, born  in  Piedmont  in  1808,  became  professor  of 
Sanscrit  at  Turin.  He  produced  a  good  Italian  ver- 
sion of  the  Sanscrit  poem  "  Ramayana,"  (Paris,  9  vols., 
1843-56.) 

Gorris,  de,  deh  go'r^ss',  [Lat.  GoRRi^:'us,]  (Jkan,)  a 
French  physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1505  ;  died  in  1577. 

Gorsas,  goR^sd',  (Antoine  Joseph,)  a  French  poli- 
tician and  revolutionist,  born  at  Limoges  in  1752.  As 
editor  of  the  "Courrier  de  Versailles,"  he  contributed 
greatly  to  excite  the  populace  to  the  outrages  of  the  20th 
of  June  and  the  roth  of  August.  He  was  a  deputy  to 
the  National  Convention  in  1792.  In  1793  he  was  ar- 
rested by  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  and  executed. 

See  I-AMAKTiNE,  "  History  of  the  Girondists." 

Gorski,  goRs'skee,  or  Gors'ki-us,  (James,)  a  Polish 
writer,  born  in  Masovia  about  1525.  He  wrote  on  rhet- 
oric, theology,  etc.    Died  about  1584. 

Gortchakof  or  Gortschakow,  goR'chS-kof, written 
also  Gortchakov  or  Gortchakoff,  (Alexander,)  a 
Russian  general,  born  in  1764.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  general  about  1798,  served  in  several  campaigns 
against  the  French,  and  defeated  Marshal  Lannes  at 
Heilsberg  in  1807.  He  acted  as  minister  of  war  in  1812. 
Died  in  1825. 


Gortchakof  qr  Gortschakow,  (Alexander,) 
Prince,  a  Russian  statesman,  born  about  1800.  He  was 
appointed  secretary  of  legation  to  London  in  1824,  and 
in  1832  councillor  of  the  embassy  in  Vienna.  In  1841 
he  negotiated  the  marriage  of  the  grand  duchess  Olga 
with  the  crown-prince  of  Wurternberg.  He  represented 
Russia  at  the  court  of  Vienna  in  1854  and  1855,  and  be- 
came minister  of  foreign  affairs  about  1857. 

Gortchakof  or  Gortschakow,  (Dmitri,)  a  Rus- 
sian poet,  born  in  1756.  He  wrote  odes,  satires,  etc.,  and 
was  considered  one  of  the  best  Russian  poets  of  his 
time.    Died  in  1824. 

Gortchakof  or  Gortschakow,  (Michael,)  Prince, 
an  able  general,  brother  of  Prince  Alexander,  was  born 
in  1795.  He  served  in  the  Polish  campaign  of  1 831, 
and  distinguished  himself  at  Ostrolenka  and  Warsaw. 
He  was  made  general  of  artillery  in  1843,  ^'^  ^^4^ 
military  governor  of  Warsaw.  He  commanded  the  army 
which  entered  the  Danubian  principalities  in  1853, 
succeeded  Prince  Mentchikof  as  commander  of  the  army 
in  the  Crimea  in  March,  1855.  The  skill  with  which  he 
defended  Sevastopol  and  conducted  the  retreat  of  his 
army  is  highly  extolled.  He  was  Governor  of  Poland 
when  he  died,  about  June,  1861. 

See  "  Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  July,  1861. 

Gortchakof  or  Gortschakow,  (Peter,)  Prince, 
eldest  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  about  1 790,  served 
against  the  French  in  1813-14,  and  subsequently  in  the 
Caucasus  under  Yermolof.  In  1839  he  became  Governor- 
General  of  Western  Siberia,  and  in  1843  general  of 
infantry.  According  to  Va])ereau,  he  commanded  a  wing 
of  the  army  at  Alma  and  the  Inkerman,  (1854.) 

Gortchakov  or  Gortschakow.  See  Gortchakof. 

Gorter,  van,  vtn  goR'ter,  (David,)  a  Dutch  physi- 
cian and  botanist,  son  of  Jan,  noticed  below.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  physician  to  the  Empress  of  Russia, 
and  published  "  Flora  Ingrica,"  and  other  botanical 
works.    Died  in  1 783. 

Gorter,  van,  (Jan,)  a  celebrated  Dutch  physician, 
born  in  West  Friesland  in  1689.  He  studied  at  Leyden 
under  Boerhaave,  and  in  1754  was  invited  to  Russia  by 
the  empress  Elizabeth,  who  made  him  her  first  physi- 
cian. Among  his  principal  works  are  a  "  Compendium  of 
Medicine,"  and  a  treatise  "On  Insensible  Perspiration," 
(in  Latin.)    Died  in  Holland  in  1762. 

Gor'tpn,  (John,)  an  English  editor,  of  whom  we  have 
little  information.  He  pulDlished  a  valuable  "General 
Biographical  Dictionary,"  (2  vols.,  1828-30.)  A  new 
edition,  with  a  supplement,  appeared,  in  4  vols.,  in  1851. 

Gorton,  (Samuel,)  a  religionist  or  enthusiast,  born  in 
England  about  1600,  emigrated  to  Boston  in  1636.  He 
was  whipped  for  a  contemptuous  speech  against  the 
magistrates,  and  about  1642  was  accused  of  heresy  and 
found  guilty.  For  this  offence  he  was  imprisoned  until 
1644.    Died  in  1677. 

See  "Life  of  S.  Gorton,"  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography." 

Gortz,  (Georg  Henrik.)    See  Goertz. 

Gortz  or  Goertz,  goRts,  (Johann  Eustach,)  Count 
of  Schlitz,  a  Prussian  statesman,  born  in  the  grand  duchy 
of  Hesse  in  1737.  He  was  created  by  Frederick  II. 
minister  of  state  and  grand  master  of  the  wardrobe.  He 
died  in  1821,  leaving,  among  other  works,  "Authentic 
Memoirs  relative  to  the  Negotiations  which  preceded 
the  Partition  of  Poland,"  (1810.) 

See  "  Historische  und  politische  Denkwiirdigkeiten  des  Grafen 
von  Goertz,"  2  vols.,  1827;  "Nouvelie  Biographie  Generale." 

Goschel  or  Goeschel,  go'shel,  (Karl  Friedrich,) 
a  German  jurist  and  philosopher,  born  at  Langensalza 
in  1784-  He  graduated  at  Bonn  in  1835,  and  was  ap- 
pointed in  1845  president  of  the  Consistory  for  the 
province  of  Saxony.  He  published  in  1828  "Cascilius 
and  Octavius,  or  a  Conversation  on  the  Principal  Ob- 
jections to  Christian  Truth,"  and  in  1829  "Aphorisms 
on  Ignorance  and  Absolute  Knowledge  in  Relation  to 
the  Christian  Confession  of  Faith,"  in  which  he  advo- 
cates Hegel's  philosophy  and  seeks  to  prove  its  harmony 
with  the  Christian  faith.  He  also  wrote  an  answer  to 
Strauss's  "  Life  of  Jesus." 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  Brockhaus,  " Conversa- 
tions-Lexikon." 


a,  e,  f,  6,  u,  y,  long;  4,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fJr,  fill,  f^t;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GOSCHEN  1061  GOTTSCHALK 


Goschen,  go'shen  or  gosh'en,  (George  Joachim,) 
an  English  financier,  of  German  extraction,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  183 1,  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  wrote,  besides 
several  treatises  on  financial  subjects,  "  The  Theory  of 
Foreign  Exchanges."  Since  1863  he  has  represented 
the  city  of  London  in  Parliament.  As  chancellor  of 
the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  he  was  a  member  of  the  Liberal 
ministry  from  January  to  June,  1866.  He  became  a 
member  of  Mr.  Gladstone's  cabinet,  as  president  of  the 
poor-law  board,  in  December,  1868. 

Goschen  or  Goeschen,  go'shen,  (Johann  Fried- 
rich  LuDWiG,)  an  able  German  jurist,  born  at  Konigs- 
berg  in  1778.  He  studied  Roman  law  at  Berlin  under 
Savigny  and  Niebuhr,  and  in  1813  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor at  the  Berlin  University.  He  published  an  edition 
of  the  "  Institutes  of  Gaius,"  and  "  Lectures  on  Common 
Civil  Law."    Died  in  1837. 

Goselini,  go-sa-lee'nee,  (Giuliano,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  historical  writer,  born  at  Rome  in  1525.  He  became 
secretary  to  Ferdinand  Gonzaga,  Viceroy  of  Sicily,  of 
whom  he  wrote  a  biography.  He  also  published  a  work 
entitled  "Tre  Congiure,"  etc.,  and  a  number  of  poems. 
Died  in  1587. 

See  TiRABoscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Goslicki,  gos-l^t'skee,  (Laurentius  Grimalius,)  a 
Polish  prelate  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1535,  was  secre- 
tary to  Sigismund  III.  He  was  successively  Bishop  of 
Kaniieniec  and  Posen.  His  chief  work  is  entitled  "The 
Accomplished  Senator,"  ("De  Optimo  Senatore.") 

Go.sse,  goss,  (Etienne,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at 
Bordeaux  in  1773.  He  wrote  many  comedies,  and  "Dra- 
matic Proverbs,"  (2  vols.,  1819.)    Died  in  1834. 

Gosse,  goss,  (Henri  A.lbertet — sKb§R''t^',)  a  Swiss 
chemist  and  apothecary,  born  at  Geneva  in  1753,  made 
improvements  in  the  fabrication  of  potters'  ware  and  of 
leather,  and  in  other  arts.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
inventor  of  artificial  mineral  waters.    Died  in  1816. 

Gosse,  (Louis  Francois  Nicolas,)  a  French  his- 
torical painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1787.  Among  his  works 
are  "The  Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  (1828,)  "The  Crea- 
tion," and  a  "  Visit  of  Napoleon  III.  to  the  Louvre," 
which  was  ordered  for  the  Salle  du  Trone  in  the  Senate- 
house. 

Gosse,  goss,  (Philip  Henry,)  an  English  naturalist, 
born  at  Worcester  in  1810.  He  made  a  scientific  tour 
through  Canada,  the  United  States,  and  Jamaica,  and 
published,  after  his  return,  "The  Canadian  Naturalist," 
(1840,)  "The  Birds  of  Jamaica,"  (1845,)  ^"<i  Natu- 
ralist's Sojourn  in  Jamaica."  His  "  Rambles  of  a  Natu- 
ralist on  the  Devonshire  Coast"  appeared  in  1853, 
his  "Aquarium"  in  1854.  These  works  were  received 
with  general  favour,  and  have  contributed  greatly  to 
excite  an  interest  in  those  departments  of  natural  his- 
tory which  he  has  so  well  illustrated.  In  1850  Mr. 
Gosse  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He 
produced  in  i860  a  "  History  of  British  Sea-Anemones 
and  Corals." 

See  "Westminster  Review"  for  July,  1847. 

Gossec,  go's^k',  (Franqois  Joseph,)  an  eminent 
musical  composer,  born  in  Hainault  in  1733.  He  studied 
in  Paris  under  Rameau,  and  subsequently  became  pro- 
fessor in  the  Conservatory  of  Music.  His  compositions 
are  various  ;  among  his  master-pieces  are  "The  Mass 
for  the  Dead,"  "The  Nativity,"  an  oratorio,  the  opera 
of  "  Sabinus,"  the  music  for  the  funeral  of  Mirabeau,  and 
the  apotheosis  of  Voltaire,    Died  in  1829. 

See  P.  Hedouin,  "  Gossec,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Ouvrages,"  1852;  Cho- 
RON  et  Favolle,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Musiciens;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
giaphie  Generale." 

Gosselin,  goss'l^N',  (Antoine,)  a  French  ecclesi- 
astic, born  near  Amiens  about  1580^  became  professor 
of  rhetoric  at  Caen.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  History 
of  the  Old  Gauls,"  (in  Latin.)    Died  in  1645. 

Gosselin,  (Jean,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Vire,  in 
Normandy.  He  was  patronized  l^y  Margaret  of  Navarre, 
and  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  Royal  Library  in  Paris. 
He  published  "  Signification  of  the  Ancient  Game  of 
Pythagorean  Cards,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1604. 

Gosselin  or  Gossellin,  (Pierre  Francois  Joseph,) 
a  celebrated  French  geographer,  born  at  Lille  in  1 751. 
He  was  a  deputy  to  the  National  Assembly  in  1789,  and 


in  1 791  became  a  member  of  the  central  administration 
of  commerce.  He  was  elected  to  the  French  Institute 
soon  after  its  formation,  and  in  1799  succeeded  Barthe- 
lemy  as  keeper  of  the  medals  in  the  National  Library, 
His  geographical  works  are  numerous  and  valuable ; 
among  the  most  important  may  be  named  his  "Geo- 
graphy of  the  Greeks  Analyzed,"  (4to,  with  ten  maps, 
1790,)  and  "Inquiries  into  the  Positive  and  Systematic 
Geography  of  the  Ancients,"  (4  vols.  4to,  fifty-four  maps, 
1798.)  Gosselin  was  employed  by  Napoleon  to  assist 
in  the  translation  of  Strabo.  Died  in  1830. 
See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Gossin,  go'siN',  (Pierre  Franqois,)  a  French  revo- 
lutionist, born  near  Verdun  in  1744.  He  was  elected 
to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  was  chairman  of 
the  committee  which  divided  France  into  departments. 
He  was  guillotined  in  July,  1794. 

Gos'son,  (Stephen,)  an  English  divine  and  drama- 
tist, born  in  Kent  in  1554,  was  the  author  of  a  tragedy 
entitled  "  Catiline's  Conspiracies,"  and  "  Captain  Mario," 
a  comedy.  He  afterwards  wrote  with  great  severity 
against  the  stage.    Died  in  1623. 

Goszozynski,  gosh-chln'skee,  (Severin,)  a  Polish 
poet,  born  in  the  Ukraine  in  1806.  His  principal  works 
are  "The  Castle  of  Kaniow,"  an  epic  poem,  and  a 
number  of  lyrics. 

Got,  de,  (Bertrand.)    See  Clement  V. 

Gotama.    See  Gautama. 

Go'ter  or  Go'ther,  (John,)  an  English  Catholic 
theologian,  born  in  Hampshire  about  1640,  wrote  many 
theological  and  controversial  works.    Died  in  1704. 

Gotescalc.    See  Gottschalk. 

Goth.    See  Clement  V. 

Gothe.    See  Goethe. 

Gothofredus.    See  Godefroi,  (Denis.) 

Gothofredus  Boloniensis.  See  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon. 

Gotter,  got'ter,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Gotha  in  1746,  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  "  Musen-Almanach"  in  that  city. 
Besides  a  number  of  tragedies,  comedies,  and  farces,  he 
wrote  admired  songs,  elegies,  etc.    Died  in  1797. 

Gottfried  von  Nifen,  got'fReet  fon  nee'fen,  a  Ger- 
man minnesinger,  flourished  about  1230. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Gottfried  (or  Godefroi)  von  Strasburg,  got'fReet 
fon  stkis'booRG,  a  celebrated  German  poet,  who  lived 
about  1200,  was  the  author  of  an  epic  poem  entitled 
"  Tristan  and  Isolde,"  which  ranks  among  the  finest 
productions  of  the  kind  in  the  middle  ages.  Editions 
of  it  have  been  published  by  Massmann  and  others. 

Gotti,  got'tee,  (Vincenzo  Luigi,)  a  learned  Italian 
cardinal,  born  at  Bologna  in  1664,  became  professor  of 
philosophy  in  his  native  city  in  1688.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  treatise  "  On  the  True  Church  of  Christ,"  (in  Ital- 
ian,) and  other  religious  works,  in  Latin.    Died  in  1742. 

Gottigniez,  go't^n'ye-i',  (  Gilles  Francois,  )  a 
mathematician,  was  born^Brussels  in  1630.  He  taught 
mathematics  at  Rome,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Elements  of  Geometry,"  (Rome,  1669.)    Died  in  1689. 

Gottleber,  got'li'ber,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  Ger- 
man philologist,  born  at  Chemnitz  in  1733.  Among  his 
works  are  "Observations  on  Plato's  Phaedon  and  Alci- 
biades,"  ("  Animadversiones  ad  Platonis  Phaedonem  et 
Alcibiadem,"  1771.)    Died  in  1785. 

Gottling  or  Goettling,  got''ling,( Johann  Friedrich 
August,)  a  German  chemist,  born  at  Bernburg  in  1755. 
He  taught  chemistry  and  philosophy  at  Jena,  and  wrote 
many  useful  works,  among  which  is  a  "Chemical  and 
Philosophical  Encyclopaedia,"  (3  vols.,  1805-07.)  Died 
in  1809. 

See  HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Gottling  or  Goettling,  (Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Jena  in  1793,  was  j^rofessor  of  ancient 
literature  in  that  city,  and  in  1826  librarian  of  the 
university.  He  published  a  treatise  "On  the  Historical 
Part  of  the  Nibelungenlied,"  and  several  other  critical 
and  antiquarian  works.  'k 

Gottschalk  or  Gotschalk,  got'sh^lk,  written  also 
Gotescalc,  [Lat.  Godeschal'cus  or  Gotheschal'- 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    { J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23,) 


GOTTSCHALL 


1062 


GOUGE 


CUS,j  a  German  monk,  born  about  808  a.d.  His  expo- 
sition of  Saint  Augustine's  doctrine  of  predestination 
subjected  h\\n  to  the  charge  of  heresy.  By  the  influence 
of  Hiiicmar,  he  was  condemned  as  a  heretic  in  849 
A.D.,  and  punished  with  imprisonment  for  life.  Died 
about  860. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Geiierale." 

Gottschall,  got'shai,  (Rudolph,)  a  Prussian  poet, 
born  at  Jireslau  in  1823,  He  displayed  a  rich  imagi- 
nation in  his  poems,  among  whicli  are  "  Songs  of  the 
Present  Time."  ("  Lieder  der  Gegenwart,"  2d  edition, 
1842,)  "Madonna  and  Magdalene,''  (1843,)  "The  God- 
dess," ("  Die  Gottinn,"  1852,)  and  a  drama  called  "  Lam- 
bertine  de  Mericourt,"  (185 1.) 

Gottsched,  got'shet,  [Lat.  Gottschf/dius,]  (Jo- 
HANN  Chris roFii,)  a  German  critic  and  litterateicr,  born 
near  Konigsberg  in  1700.  He  published  "The  German 
Theatre  according  to  the  Rules  and  Examples  of  the 
Ancients,"  "Essay  on  a  Critical  Art  of  Poetry,"  (1730,) 
and  Poems,  (1736.)  His  writings  contributed  much  to 
refine  the  German  language  and  to  introduce  a  purer 
taste  into  its  literature.  He  was  for  many  years  professor 
of  philosophy,  etc.  at  Leipsic,  and  edited  several  jour- 
nals, among  which  was  "Die  verniinftige  Tadlerinnen." 
Died  in  1766. 

See  JoHANN  August  Ernesti,  "Memoria  J.  C.  Gottschedii," 
1767;  T.  W.  Danzel,  "Gottsclied  und  seine  Zeit,"  1848;  Gekvinus, 
"  Geschichte  der  Natioiial-Literatur  der  Deutscheii ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  Geiierale." 

Gottsched,  (Luise  Adelgunde  Victorie,)  origin- 
ally CULMUS,  a  learned  authoress,  born  at  Dantzic  in 
I7i3*wasthe  wife  of  the  preceding.  She  translated  Addi- 
son's "Cato"  and  "Spectator"  into  German,  and  wrote 
"Letters,"  (1771,)  which  are  much  admired.  "She  sur- 
passed her  husband,"  says  Bernhard,  "in  taste,  wit,  and 
purity  of  style."    Died  in  1762. 

See  J.  H.  S.  FoRMEY,  "  filoge  de  Madame  Gottsched,"  1767. 

Gottschedius.    See  Gottsched,  (Johann  Chris- 

TOIMl.) 

Gottwald,  got'^^ait,  (Christoph,)  a  German  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Dantzic  in  1636.  He  made  a  rich  col- 
lection of  specimens,  which  was  purchased  by  Peter  the 
Great,  and  wrote  a  few  treatises.    Died  in  1700. 

Gotz.    See  Berlichingen. 

G6t3,  gots,  (Johann  Nikolaus,)  a  German  poet, 
born  at  Worms  in  1721,  wrote  lyrics,  epigrams,  etc.,  and 
made  translations  from  Anacreon  and  Sappho.  Died 
in  1781. 

Gotze  or  Goetze,  got'seh,  (Georg  Heinrtch,)  a 
learned  Lutheran  divine,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1667.  He 
was  chosen  superintendent  of  the  churches  of  Lubeck  in 
1702.  His  works  are  numerous  and  curious,  but  mostly 
short  or  unimportant.  Two  of  them  are  entitled  "  On 
the  Relics  of  Luther,"  (1703,)  and  "On  Learned  Mer- 
chants," (1708.)    Died  in  1728. 

See  Seelen,  "Memoria  G.  H.  Goetzii,"  1728;  Niceron,  "  Me- 
moires." 

Gotze  or  Goetze,  (Johann  August  Ephratm,)  a 
distinguished  German  naturalist,  born  at  Halberstadt  in 
1731.  He  was  minister  at  Quediinburg  from  1756  to 
1787.  He  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  first  entomolo- 
gists of  his  time.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  En- 
tomological Memoirs,"  (4  vols.,  1777-81,)  a  "Natural 
History  of  Intestinal  Worms,"  (1782,)  and  "Nature, 
Human  Life,  and  Providence,"  (6  vols.,  1789-92.)  Died 
in  1793. 

See  Cramer,  "Zura  Andenken  des  Pastors  Goetze,"  1793 ;  "  Bio- 
graphie  Universelle." 

Gotze  or  Goetze,  (Johann  Melchior,)  a  German 
theologian  and  scholar,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Halberstadt  in  1717,  was  pastor  of  Saint  Catherine's 
Church  at  Hamburg.  His  passion  for  controversy  in- 
volved him  in  disputes  with  Goethe,  Lessing,  and  other 
eminent  men  of  the  time  ;  and  his  intolerance  obtained 
for  him  the  name  of  "The  Inquisitor  of  Hamburg." 
He  died  in  1786,  leaving  a  number  of  learned  treatises. 

See  Lessing,  "Mendelssohn,  Risbeck  und  Gotze,"  1787;  J.  L. 
SCHLOSSKR,  "Nachriclit  an  das  Publiknm  J.  Goeize  betreffend," 
1770:  C.  F.  Bah.kdt,  "Standrede  am  Grabe  J.  M.  Goelzens,"  17S6. 

Gotzinger  or  Goetzinger,  got'sing-er,  (Max  Wh.- 
HELM,)  a  German  grammarian  and  litterateur^  born  near 


Stolpen  in  1799,  published  "Elements  of  German  Gram- 
mar," (1825,)  "Commentaries  on  the  German  Poets," 
(1831,)  and  other  works. 

Gouan,  goo-6N',  (  Antoine,)  a  French  botanist,  born 
'•1  1 733  Montpellier,  where  he  became  professor  of 
botany  in  1767.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Botanic  Garden  of  MfMitpellier,"  ("  Hortus  Mons- 
peliensis,"  1762,)  and  "Flora  Monspeliaca,"  (1765.)  He 
corresponded  with  Linnseus  and  Haller.    Died  in  1821. 

See  Pierre  Joseph  Amoreux,  "  Notice historique  sur  A.  Gouan," 
1822;  Haller,  "  Bibiiotheca  Botauica;"  "NouvelJe  Biographic  Ge- 
iierale." 

Gouaz,  le,  leh  goo'tz',  (Yves,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  lirest  in  1742.  He  executed,  from  designs  by 
Ozanne,  more  than  sixty  views  of  French  sea-ports  and 
scenes  in  the  Antilles.    Died  in  i8i6. 

Gouchtasp.    See  Gushi'asp. 

Gouda,  van,  vtn  gowMi  or  How'dl,  (Cornelis,)  a 
skilful  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Gouda,  lived  about  1550. 

Goudar,  gooMti<',  (Ange,)  a  French  writer,  born 
at  Montpellier  about  1720.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  "The  Chinese  Spy;  or,  Secret  Envoy  from  the 
Court  of  Pekin,"  (6  vols.,  1768.)    Died  in  1791. 

Goudchaux,  goo'sho',  (Michel,)  a  French  financier, 
of  a  Jewish  family,  was  born  at  Nancy  in  1801.  He 
was  chosen  minister  of  finance  in  February,  1848,  under 
the  new  regime,  but  resigned  about  the  6th  of  March. 
He  had  the  portfolio  of  finance  in  the  administration  of 
Cavaignac  from  June  to  October,  1848. 

Goudelin.    See  Goudouli. 

Goudelin,  now'deh-lin,  [Fr.  pron.  good'l^N';  Lat. 
Gudeli'nus,]  (Pieter,)  a  learned  jurist,  born  in  Hai- 
nault  in  1550,  was  professor  of  law  at  Louvain,  and 
published,  among  other  works,  a  treatise  "On  the  Law 
of  Peace,"  (in  Latin.)    Died  in  1619. 

Goudimel,  goo'de'mgl',  (Claudk,)  a  French  musical 
composer  and  Protestant,  born  at  Besan9on  about  1510. 
He  set  to  music  the  Psalms  of  Beza  and  Marot.  He 
was  condemned  and  put  to  death  by  the  Catholics  soon 
after  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  (1572.) 

See  BuRNEV,  "History  of  Music;"  Fetis,  "Biographic  Univer- 
selle des  Musiciens." 

Goudin,  goo'diN',  (Mathieu  Bernard,)  a  French 
geometer,  born  in  Paris  in  1734;  died  in  1817. 

Goudouli,  goo'doo'le',  or  Goudelin,  good'liN', 
(Pierre,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1579. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "Chant  royal,"  composed  on  the 
death  of  Henry  IV.    Died  in  1649. 

Goudt,  gowt  or  Howt,  (Hendkik,)  Count,  a  distin- 
guished Dutch  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Utrecht  in 
1585.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  the  engravings  of 
"Tobias  and  the  Angels,"  "The  Flight  into  Egypt," 
and  "Philemon  and  Baucis."    Died  about  1630. 

Gouffe,  goo'fa',  (.A.rmand,)  a  French  song-writer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1775.  Among  his  most  remarkable 
songs  are  "The  Praise  of  Water,"  and  "Saint  Denis." 
He  also  wrote  many  vaudevilles.    Died  in  1 845. 

Goufiier.    See  Choiseul-Gouffier. 

Gouffier,  (Guillaume.)    See  Bonnivet. 

Gouge,  gooj,  ?  (Thomas,)  an  English  nonconformist 
divine,  a  son  of  William,  noticed  below,  was  born  near 
Stratford  in  1605.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1638 
obtained  the  living  of  SaiiU  Sepulchre,  London,  where  he 
resided  more  than  twenty  years.  He  resigned  this  post 
when  the  Act  of  Uniformity  was  passed.  Having  formed 
a  plan  for  the  moral  and  religious  improvement  of  Wales, 
he  visited  that  country  about  1671,  founded  between  three 
and  four  hundred  schools,  and  ])rinted  eight  thousand 
Bibles  in  the  Welsh  language.  He  died  in  1681,  and  his 
funeral  sermon  was  preached  by  Dr.  Tillotson.  He  was 
the  author  of  "  Principles  of  Religion  Explained,"  and 
other  similar  works. 

Gouge,  (William,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  dis- 
tinguished for  his  learning  and  piety,  born  at  Stratford- 
le-Bow,  in  Middlesex,  in  r575.  He  became  rector  of 
Saint  Anne's,  Blackfriars,  London,  in  1608,  and  was  after- 
wards nominated  one  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines.  He 
ojiposed  in  1648  the  execution  of  the  king.  He  jiub- 
lished  a  "Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1653. 

See  MiDULETON,  "Evangelical  Biography." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fix,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon ; 


GOUGES 


1063 


GOULD 


Gouges,  de,  deh  goozh,  (Marie  Olympe,)  a  French 
dramatic  writer,  born  at  Montauban  in  1755.  She  was 
at  first  a  zealous  partisan  of  the  Revolution,  but,  alarmed 
by  its  excesses,  changed  her  views,  and  opposed  the 
execution  of  the  king.  She  was  condemned  to  death, 
and  executed  in  November,  1792. 

See  MiCHELET,  "  Les  Femmes  de  la  Revolution,"  etc. 

Gough,  gof,  (Hugh,)  Viscount,  a  distinguished 
British  general,  born  at  Woodstown,  Ireland,  in  Novem- 
ber, 1779.  He  served  as  colonel  in  the  Peninsular  war, 
1808-14,  and  became  a  major-general  in  1830.  He  com- 
manded a  corps  of  the  army  operating  against  the  Chi- 
nese in  1841,  and  took  Canton.  Having  obtained  the 
chief  command  in  India,  he  defeated  the  Mahrattas  at 
Maharajpore  in  December,  1843.  For  his  victories  over 
the  Sikhs  in  1845  and  1846  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage, 
as  viscount.  He  also  commanded  the  army  which  fought 
against  the  Sikhs  in  1849  and  gained  a  decisive  victory 
at  Goojerat,  (Guzerat.)  He  became  a  field-marshal  about 
1862.    Died  in  March,  1869. 

Gough,  gof,  (John  B.,)  a  celebrated  lecturer  on  tem- 
perance, born  in  Kent,  England,  in  181 7.  He  came  to 
America  in  1829,  and,  while  learning  the  bookbinding 
business  in  New  York,  fell  into  habits  of  intemperance, 
and  finally  sunk  to  the  lowest  depths  of  poverty  and 
wretchedness.  Having  been  induced  about  1840  to  sign 
the  total-abstinence  pledge,  he  became  deeply  interested 
in  the  temperance  reform,  and  soon  distinguished  himself 
as  one  of  the  most  eloquent  and  most  successful  advo- 
cates of  the  cause.  Since  1843  he  has  devoted  himself 
almost  without  interruption  to  lecturing  on  temperance 
in  the  United  States,  Canada,  and  the  British  Islands. 
He  has  spoken,  it  is  said,  nearly  one  hundred  times 
on  the  subject  of  temperance  in  Exeter  Hall,  London. 
Mr.  Gough  combines  in  an  eminent  degree  the  quali- 
ties of  an  actor  with  those  of  a  great  orator.  His  auto- 
biography was  published  in  1846,  and  a  volume  of  his 
orations  in  1854. 

Gough,  (Richard,)  a  celebrated  English  antiquary, 
born  in  London  in  1735.  studied  at  Cambridge,  was 
elected  to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  in  1767,  and  in 
1775  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  His  princijjal  works 
are  his  "Anecdotes  of  t5ritish  Topography,"  (1768,)  and 
"  Sepulchral  Monuments  of  Great  liritain,"  (3  vols., 
1799.)  He  also  edited  Camden's  "Britannia,"  (3  vols, 
fol.,  1789,)  Martin's  "History  of  Thetford,"  and  other 
antiquarian  works.    Died  in  1809. 

See  Nichols,  "Literary  Anecdotes." 

Goujet,  goo'zhi',  (Claude  Pierre,)  a  French  writer 
and  Jansenist,  born  in  Paris  in  1697.  He  published 
a  "Life  of  Nicole,"  and  a  number  of  biographical  and 
historical  works,  and  wrote  a  supplement  to  Moreri's 
"Historical  Dictionary."    Died  in  1767. 

See  Barral,  "Memoires  historiqiies,  etc.  de  I'Abbe  Goujet," 
1767. 

Goujon  or  Gougeon,  goo'zh^N',  (Jean,)  an  eminent 
sculptor  and  architect,  regarded  as  the  restorer  of  sculp- 
ture in  France,  was  born  in  Paris  about  15 15.  He  was 
patronized  by  Henry  II.,  who  employed  him  in  the  deco- 
ration of  the  Louvre.  Among  his  best  works  are  the 
bas-reliefs  of  the  Naiads  of  the  Fountain  of  the  Inno- 
cents, and  the  colossal  Caryatides  which  adorn  the  Salle 
des  Cent-Suisses  in  the  Louvre.  He  excelled  in  bas- 
relief.  He  was  sometimes  called  "the  Correggio  of 
sculpture."  He  was  a  Protestant,  and  was  killed  at 
Paris  during  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  in  1572. 

See  F.  Mii.iziA,  "Memoiie  degli  Architetti  antichi  e  iiioderni," 
1781  ;  AunoT  et  Pottikr,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  de  Goujon,"  prefixed 
to  Reveil's  engravin,?s  of  Goujon's  works,  1827-44;  M.  P'elihihn, 
"  Recueil  historique  de  la  Viedes  plus  celebres  Arcliitectes ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Goujon,  (Jean  Jacques  Emii.e,)  an  astronomer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1823.  He  entered  the  Observatory  of  Paris, 
as  a  student  or  assistant,  in  1841,  and  made  many  thou- 
sand observations.  He  and  Mauvais  were  selected  to 
observe  the  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  at  Dantzic  in  1851. 
He  was  appointed  adjunct  astronomer  to  the  Observa- 
tory in  1854.    Died  in  1856. 

Goujon,  (Jean  Marik  Claude,)  a  French  revolu- 
tionist, born  at  Bourg-en-Bresse  in  1766.  He  obtained 
a  seat  in  the  Convention  in  April,  1794,  and  acted  with 


the  party  of  the  Mountain.  Having  been  sentenced  to 
death  for  alleged  complicity  in  the  bloody  sedition  of 
May  20,  1795,  he  killed  himself. 

Goulard,  goo^lard^  [Fr.  pron.  goo'ltk',]  (Thomas,) 
a  French  surgeon,  who  has  given  his  name  to  the  prepa- 
rations known  as  "Goulard's  Cerate,"  "Goulard's  Lo- 
tion," etc.    Died  about  1790. 

Goulart,  goo'ltR',  (Simon,)  a  learned  French  Prot- 
estant divine  and  compiler,  born  at  Senlis  in  1543.  He 
became  pastor  of  a  church  at  Geneva  about  1570,  and 
was  elected  in  1607  to  succeed  Beza  as  president  of  the 
company  of  pastors.  He  published  a  great  number  of 
works,  some  of  which  were  translations,  and  was  regarded 
as  one  of  the  best  prose-writers  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Among  his  original  works  are  "Discourses  touching 
the  State  of  the  World  and  the  Church,"  (1591,)  and 
"Treasury  of  Admirable  and  Memorable  Histories  of 
our  Time,"  (2  vols.,  1600.)    Died  at  Geneva  in  1628. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Senebier, 
"Histoire  litteraire  de  Geneve;"  Nic6ron,  "Memoires;"  Haag, 
"  La  France  protestante." 

Goulart,  (Simon,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Geneva  about  1575,  was  pastor  of  the  French  Protestant 
church  at  Wesel,  and  subsequently  of  the  Walloon  church 
at  Amsterdam.  Having  refused  to  subscribe  to  the 
Synod  of  Dort,  he  was  banished,  and  died  in  Sleswick 
in  1628. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nicekon, 
"Memoires." 

Goulburn,  gooKburn,  (Henry,)  an  English  politician, 
born  in  London  in  1784.  He  was  appointed  chief  secre- 
tary for  Ireland  about  1822,  was  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer in  the  ministry  of  Wellington  from  1828  to  1830, 
and  was  chosen  to  represent  the  University  of  Cambridge 
in  Parliament  in  1831.  He  was  a  Conservative,  and 
opposed  the  Reform  Bill.  In  the  cabinet  of  Sir  Robert 
Peel  he  was  home-secretary  from  December,  1834,  to 
April,  1835,  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  from  Sep- 
tember, 1 841,  to  June,  1846.    Died  in  1856. 

Gould,  goold,  (Augustus  Addison,)  M.D.,  an  Ame- 
rican physician  and  eminent  naturalist,  born  at  New 
Ipswich,  New  Hampshire,  in  1805.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1825,  and  was  afterwards  for  some  time 
instructor  in  botany  and  zoology  in  that  institution. 
Having  taken  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1830,  he  began  to 
])ractise  in  Boston.  In  the  department  of  conchology 
Dr.  Gould  has  few  superiors.  His  chief  works  are  a 
"System  of  Natural  History,"  (1833,)  "The  Mollusca 
and  Shells  of  the  United  States  Exploring  Expedition 
under  Wilkes,  with  an  Atlas  of  Plates,"  (1852,)  and  "The 
Mollusca  of  the  North  Pacific  Expedition  under  Ringgold 
and  Rodgers,"  (i860.)  In  connection  with  Professor 
Agassiz,  he  published  in  1848  a  work  entitled  "Prin- 
ciples of  Zoology."  Dr.  Gould  made  many  valuable 
contributions  to  scientific  journals,  etc.    Died  in  1866. 

Gould,  (Hannah  Flagg,)  an  American  poetess,  born 
in  Lancaster,  Massachusetts.  She  published  in  1832  a 
volume  of  poems,  which  were  favourably  received  ;  also 
two  other  volumes  of  poems  in  1836  and  1841,  and 
"  Hymns  and  Poems  for  Children,"  (1854.)  Died  in 
1865. 

See  Gri.swoi.u,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America,"  and  "  Female 
Poets  of  America  ;"  Cleveland,  "Compendium  of  American  Litera- 
ture;" "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1835. 

Gould,  (James,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in  Con- 
necticut about  1770.  He  was  a  justice  of  the  supreme 
court  of  that  State,  and  published  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Principles  of  Pleading  in  Civil  Actions."    Died  in  1838. 

Gould,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  nrturalist,  born 
in  Dorsetshire  in  1804.  He  published  in  1831  an  ad- 
mirable work,  entitled  "A  Century  of  Birds  from  the 
Himalaya  Mountains,"  in  folio,  with  coloured  plates,  and 
in  1837  "The  Birds  of  Europe."  He  visited  Australia 
in  1838,  and  spent  two  years  in  collecting  materials 
for  his  "Birds  of  Australia,"  which  came  out  in  1848,  in 
7  vols,  folio,  and  contains  six  hundred  species.  The 
figures  in  this  superb  work,  as  well  as  in  the  preceding, 
were  exquisitely  coloured  by  his  wife.  He  also  publisiied 
monographs  of  the  "  Trochilidse,"  the  "  Rhamphastidae," 
and  the  "  Trogonidae." 

See  "  Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1841. 


t  as     c  as  s;  g  ^ard;  g  as  j;  o,  H,  K,  giittttral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GOULD 


1064 


GounoN 


Gould,  (Robert,)  a  British  poet,  published  in  1689 
"Poems,  chiefly  consisting  of  Satires."    Died  in  1708. 

Goulin,  goo'liw',  (Jkan,)  a  learned  French  physician, 
born  at  Rheims  in  1728,  was  professor  of  the  history  of 
medicine  in  the  Medical  School  of  Paris.    Died  in  1 799. 

GouPston  or  GouPson,  written  also  Gulsoii, 
(Theodore,)  a  learned  English  piiysician,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  about  1576,  was  the  founder  of  the 
Goiilstonian  Lectureship  of  Pathology.  He  translated 
several  works  from  the  Greek  into  Latin.   Died  in  1632. 

Goulu,  gooOii',  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  in 
Paris  in  1576,  wrote  a  "Life  of  Saint  Francis  de  Sales," 
and  made  several  translations  from  the  Latin  and  Greek. 
He  is  chiefly  known  through  his  violent  controversy  with 
Balzac.  (See  Balzac,  Jean  Louis  Guez.)  Died  in  1629. 

Gounod,  goo''no',  (Charles  or  Ftux  Charles,)  a 
popular  French  composer  and  musician,  born  in  Paris 
in  1818.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  for  composition  in 
1839,  after  which  he  pursued  his  studies  in  Rome.  Li 
185 1  he  produced  the  opera  of  "Sappho."  He  was 
appointed  director  of  the  Orpheon  of  Paris  in  1852. 
His  opera  of  "Faust"  (about  1859)  was  performed  with 
brilliant  success.  Among  his  other  works  are  sympho- 
nies, and  operas  entitled  "La  Nonne  sanglante"  and 
"  La  Colombe." 

Goupil  or  Goupyl,  goo'pe',  (Jacques,)  a  French 
physician,  born  in  Poitou,  became  professor  of  medicine 
at  Paris  in  1555.  He  edited  Aretaeus  and  other  Greek 
medical  works,  and  translated  Dioscorides  "De  Materia 
Medica"  into  Latin.    Died  in  1564. 

Gourdan,  gooR'dSN',  (Simon,)  a  French  mojik,  born 
in  Paris  in  1646.  He  composed  hymns  which  were  sung 
in  churches,  and  "The  Sacrifice  of  Faith  and  Love  at 
the  Holy  Sacrament,"  (1714,)  which  was  often  reprinted. 
Died  in  1729. 

Gourgaud,  gooR'gS',  (Gaspard,)  Baron,  a  French 
general  and  military  writer,  born  at  Versailles  in  1783. 
Having  entered  the  army  in  1803,  he  served  in  the  prin- 
cipal campaigns  from  1805  to  1814,  and  was  made  a 
general  by  Napoleon  after  the  battle  of  Fleurus,  (1815.) 
He  accompanied  the  emperor  to  Saint  Helena,  where, 
owing  to  a  disagreement  with  Montht)lon,  he  did  not 
remain  long.  After  the  revolution  of  July,  1830,  Gour- 
gaud was  created  a  lieutenant-general,  and  a  peer  of 
France  in  1841.  He  published,  conjointly  with  Mon- 
tholon,  "Memoirs  to  illustrate  the  History  of  France 
under  Napoleon,"  etc.,  (8  vols.,  1822,)  "Refutation  of 
the  Life  of  Napoleon  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,"  and  several 
other  works.    Died  in  1852. 

See  Sarkut  and  Saint-Edme,  "  Bioj;rapliie  des  Homines  du 
Jour;"  QuERAKD,  "  La  France  Litteiaire ;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographie 
Generale. " 

Gourgues,  de,  deh  gooRg,  (Dominique,)  a  celebrated 
French  seaman,  born  at  Mont-de-Marsan  about  1530. 
Having  heard  of  the  atrocious  massacre  by  the  ^Spaniards 
of  the  French  colonists  in  Florida,  he  with  some  assist- 
ance equijDped  a  small  fleet,  and  with  upwards  of  two 
hundred  followers  sailed,  in  1567,  for  that  country,  lu 
conjunction  with  his  Indian  allies,  he  totally  defeated  the 
Spaniards,  and  took  a  number  of  prisoners,  whom  he 
hanged.  The  head  of  Gourgues  was  demanded  by  the 
Spanish  king,  and,  having  lived  for  some  time  concealed 
in  France,  he  was  invited  by  Queen  Elizabeth  to  take 
command  of  an  English  fleet.  He  died  on  the  journey 
to  London,  in  1593. 

See  Hazanier,  "Voyage  dii  Capitaine  de  Gourgues  dans  la  Flo- 
ride;"  HiLDRETH,  "  Hisloiy  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  i.  chap.  iii. 

Gouriet,  goo're-i',  (Jean  Baptis  te,)  a  French  littera- 
teur, born  in  Paris  in  1774.  He  published  tales,  verses, 
etc.    Died  in  1855. 

Gourlier,  gooR^le-i',  (Charles  Pierre,)  an  archi- 
tect, born  in  Paris  in  1786.  He  published  a  useful  work 
on  the  public  buildings  erected  in  France  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  "  Choix  d'fidifices  publics,"  etc.,  (3  vols., 
1825-50.)    Died  in  1857. 

Gourmelen,  gooRm'iSN',  (Ei'Ienne,)  an  eminent 
French  surgeon,  born  in  Finistere,  became  ])rofessor  of 
surgery  in  the  College  of  France  in  1578.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "Synopsis  Chirurgire,"  (1566,) 
which  was  for  a  long  time  the  basis  of  surgical  instruc- 
tion in  the  Faculty  of  Paris.    Died  at  Melun  in  1593. 


Gournay,  de,  deh  gooR'ni',  (Marie  le  Jars— leh 
zhtR,)  a  literary  French  lady,  born  in  Paris  in  1566,  was 
an  intimate  friend  and  adnnrer  of  Montaigne,  who  called 
her  his  daughter,  (jille  d'alliance.)  She  published  two 
editions  of  his  "Essays,"  (1595  and  1635.)  She  gained 
a  high  reputation  by  her  writings,  among  which  were  a 
treatise  "On  the  Equality  of  Men  and  Women,"  several 
moral  essays,  and  verses,  some  of  which  Grotius  trans- 
lated.   Died  in  1645. 

See  Mlle.  de  Gournay,  "  Sa  Vie,  par  elle-meme  ;"  L.  Feughre, 
"Mile,  de  Gournay,"  8vo,  1853;  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary;"  Nic^ron,  "M^moires." 

Gourne,  de,  deh  gooR'ni',  (Pierre  Mathias,)  Arb6, 
a  French  geographer,  born  at  Dieppe  in  1702.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  his  "Methodical  Geography," 
etc.,  (1741,)  and  "Geographical  Description  of  the  King- 
doms of  Spain  and  Portugal,"  (1743.)    Died  ab  out  1770. 

Gourville,  de,  deh  gooR'viK,  (Jean  Herault— 
hJi'roM  Sieur,  a  celebrated  French  financier,  born  at 
La  Rochefoucauld  in  1625.  He  was  patronized  by  the 
Prince  of  Conde,  to  whom  he  rendered  many  impor- 
tant services,  and  was  afterwards  employed  by  Cardinal 
Mazarin  in  various  negotiations.  He  was  subsecpiently 
ambassador  from  Louis  XIV.  to  the  court  of  I'runswick. 
He  died  in  1703,  leaving  memoirs  of  his  life,  etc.,  which 
are  highly  commended  by  Madame  de  Sevigne. 

See  "  Menioire  de  Gourville ;"  "  Lettres  de  Madame  de  Sevign^.' ' 

Gousset,  goo^si',  |Lat.  Gusse'tius,]  (Jacques,)  a 
learned  French  Protestant  divine,  born  at  Blois  in  1635. 
His  principal  work  is  his  "  Commentaries  on  the  Hebrew 
Language,"  ("  Commentarii  Linguae  Ebraicae,"  etc.)  He 
was  for  many  years  professor  of  Greek  and  theology  at 
Groningen.    Died  in  1704. 

Gousset,  (Thomas  Marie  Joseph,)  a  French  prelate, 
born  in  Haute-Saone  in  1792.  He  became  Archbishop 
of  Rheims  in  1840,  and  a  cardinal  in  1850  or  1851.  Among 
his  works  is  a  treatise  on  "Moral  Theology,"  (1836,) 
which  is  highly  esteemed. 

Goustasp.    See  Gush  tasp. 

Gouthieres  or  Goutieres,  goo'te-aiR',  written  also 
Guthier,  [Lat.  Guthe'rius,]  (JacquesT)  a  French  jurist 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Chaumont  in  1568,  published, 
among  other  works,  a  treatise  "On  the  Old  Pontifical 
Law  of  Rome."    Died  in  1638. 

Gouttes,  goot,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  at  Tulle  in  1740,  was  a  deputy  to  the  States-General 
in  1789.  \\\  1791  he  succeeded  Talleyrand  as  Bishop  of 
Autun.  He  was  arrested  by  the  committee  of  public 
safety,  and  executed,  in  1794. 

Gouvea,  go-va'S,  or  Govea,  de,  di  go-va'S,  [Lat. 
Govea'nus,]  (Antonio,)  an  eminent  Portuguese  jurist 
and  writer,  born  at  Beja  in  1505.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  privy  council  of  Emanuel  Philibert,  Duke  of 
Savoy,  having  previously  filled  the  chair  of  jurispru- 
dence at  Cahors  and  Valence,  in  France.  He  wrote 
a  number  of  legal  works  in  Latin,  also  Latin  poems  of 
great  elegance.  He  died  at  Turin  in  1565,  leaving  the 
reputation  of  one  of  the  first  jurists  of  his  time. 

Gouvea,  de,  (Antonio,)  a  Portuguese  historian  and 
monk,  born  at  l^eja  about  1570.  He  was  sent  as  an  am- 
bassador to  Persia  in  1602,  and  wrote  an  account  of  the 
war  between  Shah  Abbas  of  Persia  and  the  Turks,  (i6i  I.) 
Died  in  1628. 

Gouvest.    See  Maubert. 

Gouvion  Saint-Cyr,  goo've-6N'  stN's^R',  (Lau- 
rent,) a  French  marshal,  was  born  at  Toul  in  1764.. 
He  served  in  the  army  of  the  Rhine  in  1796,  and  in 
1797  succeeded  Massena  as  commander  of  the  army 
of  Rome.  He  took  a  prominent  i)art  in  the  Austrian 
and  Prussian  campaigns  of  1805-06,  and  in  1812  ob- 
tained a  signal  victory  over  the  Russian  prince  Witt- 
genstein at  Polotsk,  for  which  he  received  a  marshal's 
baton.  After  the  accession  of  Louis  XVHL  he  was 
created  successively  a  peer  and  a  marquis,  and  in  181 7 
became  minister  of  war.  He  died  in  1830,  leaving 
"Memoirs  towards  a  Military  History  under  the  Direc- 
tory, the  Consulate,  and  the  Empire,"  (1831,)  which  is 
regarded  as  a  standard  work  and  has  been  translated 
into  several  languages. 

See  Gay  de  Vernon,  "Vie  de  Gouvion  Saint-Cyr;"  Nollkt- 
Fabert,  "  Le  Mar^chal  Gouvion  Saint-Cyr,"  1853. 


8,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  J?,  short;  ^,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GOUTE 


1065 


GOZZOLI 


Gouye,  goo-e',  (Thomas,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  ma- 
theniatician,  born  at  Diep])e  in  1650,  wrote  "  Physical 
and  Mathematical  Observations,"  etc.    Died  in  1725. 

Gouye  de  Longuemarie,  goo-e'  deh  IdNg^nia', 
(N.,)  a  French  advocate  and  historical  writer,  born  at 
Dieppe  in  1715.  He  published  several  dissertations 
relative  to  the  early  history  of  France.    Died  in  1763. 

Gouz  or  Goux,  goo,  (Francois  de  la  BouUaye  le 
— deh  It  boo'li'  leh,)  a  French  traveller  and  diplomatist, 
boni  in  Anjou  about  1610,  was  sent  in  1688  on  an  em- 
bassy to  the  Great  Mogul.    He  died  in  Persia  in  1689. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  i.,  (new  series,)  1853. 

Govea.    See  Gouvea. 

Goviuda,  a  name  of  Krishna,  (which  see.) 

Go-vin'da  Singh,  (sing,)  a  famous  chief  of  the  Sikhs, 
born  at  Patna  in  1661,  was  the  last  Guru  (or  Goo'roo) 
or  religious  head  of  that  sect.  He  was  a  son  of  the  ninth 
Gooroo,  who  was  put  to  death  by  Aurung-Zeb,  He 
reformed  or  reorganized  the  Sikhs,  whom  he  converted 
into  a  tribe  of  formidable  warriors  and  taught  that  it  was 
meritorious  to  exterminate  the  Mongols,  over  whom  he 
gained  several  victories.  Having  been  abandoned  by 
nearly  all  his  partisans,  he  escaped  in  disguise  to  the 
desert.    Died  in  1708. 

See  J.  Malcolm,  "Sketch  of  the  Sikhs,"  in  the  "Asiatic  Re- 
searches," vol.  xi. 

Govona,  go-vo'ni,  (Rosa,)  was  born  at  Mondovi,  in 
Italy,  in  17 16.  Left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age,  she  not 
only  supported  herself  by  her  industry,  but  formed  an 
association  of  destitute  young  girls,  whom  she  instructed 
in  various  kinds  of  labour.  In  1755,  assisted  by  several 
of  the  nobility,  she  founded  at  Turin  an  industrial  insti- 
tution, which  was  patronized  by  King  Charles  Emanuel 
in.  Similar  establishments  were  formed  in  other  Italian 
towns,  and  called  Rosines  in  honour  of  their  foundress. 
Died  in  1776. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Gow'er,  (John,)  one  of  the  earliest  English  poets, 
born  about  1320,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of 
Yorkshire.  He  studied  law  in  London,  where  he  formed 
an  intimate  friendship  with  Chaucer,  who  is  said  to  have 
been  his  fellow-student.  His  principal  works  are  his 
"  Speculum  Meditantis,"  ("  Mirror  of  Meditation,")  "  Vox 
Clamantis,"  ("Voice  of  One  Crying,")  and  "  Confessio 
Amantis,"  ("  Lover's  Confession.")  The  last-named  only 
has  been  printed,  and  was  one  of  the  first  works  issued 
from  Caxton's  press,  (1483.)  Gower  was  in  opulent  cir- 
cumstances, and  contributed  largely  to  the  rebuilding  of 
the  conventual  church  of  Saint  Mary  Overy,  now  Saint 
Saviour's  Church.  His  learning  was  profound  and  varied, 
but  his  merits  as  a  j^oet  are  not  of  a  high  order.  His 
sonnets,  in  French,  are  pronounced  by  Warton  superior 
to  his  other  compositions.  He  died  in  1402,  and  was 
interred  in  Saint  Saviour's  Church. 

See  Warton,  "  History  of  English  Poetry  ;"  Disraeli,  "  Ameni- 
ties of  Literature  ;"  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  2d  series;  H. 
J.  ToDP,  "  Illustrations  of  liie  Lives,  etc.  of  Gower  and  Chaucer." 

Gower,  (Levkson.)  See  Granville,  Lord,  and 
Eger'ion,  (Francis.) 

GowMe,  (John  Ruthven,)  Earl  of,  born  about 
1578,  was  a  son  of  William  Ruthven,  noticed  below.  He 
and  his  brother  Alexander  were  the  chief  actors  in  the 
mysterious  affair  called  the  Govvrie  conspiracy.  In  1600 
King  James  was  induced  to  visit  the  earl  in  his  castle  at 
Perth,  and  an  attempt  was  made  against  his  liberty  or 
life  by  the  Ruthvens,  who  were  both  killed  by  the  king's 
attendants. 

See  Robertson,  "History  of  Scotland;"  Hume,  "History  of 
England  ;"  Jamks  Scott,  "  History  of  the  Life  and  Death  of  John, 
Earl  of  Cowrie,"  1818. 

Gowrie,  (William  Ruthven,)  Earl  of,  was  a  son 
of  the  Lord  Ruthven  who  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
murder  of  David  Rizzio.  He  was  the  leader  of  the 
conspirators  who  seized  James  VI.  at  Ruthven  Castle  in 
1582  and  detained  him  as  a  captive  about  ten  months. 
This  seizure  of  the  king  was  called  the  "  Raid  of  Ruth- 
ven." He  was  convicted  of  treason,  and  executed  in  1584. 

Goya  y  Lucientes,  go'y&  e  loo-the-§n't§s,  (Fran- 
cisco,) a  skilful  S])anish  painter,  born  in  Aragon  in  1746. 
He  received  the  title  of  painter  to  Charles  IV.  in  1799. 
He  painted  religious  subjects,  portraits,  caricatures,  etc. 


with  success.  He  also  engraved  a  series  of  caricatures 
and  moral  scenes  called  "  Caprichos."  Died  at  Bordeaux 
in  1828. 

See  ViARDOT,  "  Notices  sur  les  Peintres  d'Espagne." 

Goyen,  van,  vtn  goi'en,?  (Jan,)  a  celebrated  Dutch 
painter  of  landscapes  and  marine  views,  born  at  Leyden 
in  1596.  His  pictures  are  admirably  executed;  but  the 
colours,  not  being  well  chosen,  are  injured  by  time.  Died 
in  1656. 

Goz  or  Goez,  gots,  (Joseph  Franz,)  Baron,  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Hermannstadt  in  1754.  He  published 
about  1784  a  series  of  plates  entitled  "Exercises  of  Ima- 
gination on  Different  Human  Characters  and  Forms," 
which  are  regarded  as  little  inferior  to  the  designs  of 
Hogarth.  Among  his  best  pictures- are  the  portrait 
of  Kosciusko,  and  The  Madness  of  King  Lear."  Died 
in  1815. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Gozlan,goz'16N',(L6oN,)  a  witty  French  dramatist  and 
novelist,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1806.  He  displayed  great 
talent  for  observation  in  his  works,  among  which  are 
"The  Notary  of  Chantilly,"  (1836,)  "  Celeste,"  (1839,) 
"  The  Chateaus  of  France,"  (4  vols.,  1844,)  "  Le  Gateau 
des  Reines,"  (1855,)  ^'"'d  "  II  faut  que  Jeunesse  se  paye," 
(1858.)    Died  in  1866. 

Gozon,  de,  deh  go'ziN',  (Deodatus  or  Dieudonn6,) 
a  celebrated  French  chevalier,  who,  according  to  tradi- 
tion, delivered  the  island  of  Rhodes  from  a  monstrous 
serpent  which  infested  it.  This  achievement  has  been 
immortalized  by  Schiller  in  his  poem  entitled  "The 
Combat  with  the  Dragon,"  ("  Der  Kampf  mit  dem  Dra- 
chen.")  Gozon  was  afterwards  elected  grand  master  of 
the  order  of  Saint  John  of  Jerusalem.    Died  in  1353. 

See  Vertot,  "  Histoire  des  Chevaliers  de  Malte." 

Gozzi,  got'see,  (Carlo,)  Count,  a  celebrated  Italian 
dramatist,  was  born  at  Venice  about  1720.  He  pub- 
lished in  1 761  his  drama  entitled  "The  Loves  of  the 
Three  Oranges,"  ("Amore  delle  tre  Melarance,")  which 
met  with  brilliant  success.  It  was  followed  by  "  Mrs. 
Serpent,"  ("Donna  Serpente,")  "  King  Stag,"  ("II  Re 
Cervo,")  "Turandot,"  and  other  fairy-pieces,  ( Fiabe,)  of 
a  similar  nature,  which  are  characterized  by  wonderful 
and  striking  incidents,  drawn  from  Oriental  fables.  They 
were  received  with  general  admiration,  more  especially 
in  Germany,  where  they  have  been  imitated  by  seve- 
ral eminent  writers.  Gozzi's  "Turandot,  Princess  of 
China,"  has  been  translated  and  re-wrought  by  Schiller. 
Died  in  1806. 

See  Fu.  Horn,  "Ueber  K.  Gozzi's  dramatische  Poesie;"  Tipal- 
DO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  Longfellow,  "Poets  and 
Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  also  Gozzi's  Autobiography,  entitled  "  Memorie 
inutili  di  Carlo  Gozzi,"  3  vols.,  1788,  and  the  French  version  of 
the  same,  by  Paul  de  Musset,  1848;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Ge- 
neral e." 

Gozzi,  (Gasparo,)  Count,  a  distinguished  Italian 
writer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Venice  in 
1713.  He  was  the  author  of  the  "Venetian  Observer," 
("  Osservatore  Veneto,"  12  vols.,  1768,)  on  the  model 
of  Addison's  "Spectator,"  which  it  resembles  in  its 
graceful  style  and  delicate  satire  ;  and  of  "  Epistles,"  in 
verse,  ("  Sermoni,")  which  are  greatly  admired  for  their 
elegance.  He  also  made  several  excellent  translations 
from  the  Latin,  French,  and  English,  and  published  a 
"  Defence  of  Dante,"  which  is  esteemed  a  standard  work. 
Died  at  Padua  in  1786. 

See  Gherardini,  "Vita  di  G.  Gozzi,"  1821  ;  Pindemonth, 
"  Elogio  del  Conte  G.  Gozzi,"  1787;  "Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gend- 
rale  ;"  F.  Fanzago,  "Delle  Lodi  del  Conte  G.  Gozzi,"  1788. 

Gozzoli,  got'so-lee,  (Benozzo,)  a  distinguished  Ital- 
ian painter,  born  at  Florence  about  1405,  was  a  pupil  of 
Fra  Angelico.  He  worked  at  Florence,  Rome,  Orvieto, 
and  Pisa.  Among  his  best  works  are  his  frescos,  which 
cover  an  entire  side  of  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa.  The 
subjects  of  these  are  taken  from  the  Bible.  "These 
marvellous  frescos,"  says  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale,"  "display  in  the  highest  degree  the  genius 
for  invention  and  the  talent  for  execution."  Some  of 
his  frescos  at  Pisa  and  Florence  are  still  well  preserved. 
Died  about  1485. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters  ;"  Va« 
sari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in 
Italy;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


€  as  ^;  g  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  y.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Jil^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GRAAF 


Graaf  or  Graef,  de,  deh  gidf,  (Reinhart,)  a  Dutch 
physician  and  anatomist,  born  at  Schoonhoven  in  1641. 
He  studied  at  Leyden,  and  afterwards  settled  at  Delft, 
where  he  died  in  1673.  published,  among  other 

works,  in  Latin,  a  treatise  "On  the  Nature  and  Use  of 
the  Pancreatic  Juice." 

See  Ntc^RON,  "Memoires." 

Graaso.    See  Grauw,  (Hendrik.) 

Graat,  gRit,  (Bernard  or  Barent,)  a  skilful  Dutch 
painter  of  landscapes  and  animals,  born  at  Amsterdam 
in  1628.  His  colouring  is  vigorous  and  harmonious,  and 
his  design  correct  He  excelled  in  animated  landscapes, 
and  painted  some  historical  pieces  with  success.  Among 
his  best  works  is  a  "  David  and  Bathsheba."  He  worked 
mostly  at  Amsterdam,  where  he  died  in  1709. 

Grabbe,  gRib'beh,  (Christian  Dietrich,)  a  Ger- 
man dramatic  poet,  born  at  Detmold  in  1801.  Among 
his  best  productions  are  the  tragedies  of  "  The  Duke 
of  Gothland,"  "Hannibal,"  "The  Battle  of  Hermann," 
(1838,)  and  a  comedy  entitled  "Jest,  Satire,  Irony,"  etc., 
("  Scherz,  Satire,  Ironie,"  etc.,)  which  is  esteemed  a 
master-piece  of  wit  and  humour.    Died  in  1836. 

See  £.  Duu-BR,  "C.  Grabbe's  Leben,"  1838;  Longfellow, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  Karl  Ziegler,  "  Biographie  C. 
Grabbe's,"  1848. 

Grabe,  gRi'beh,  (Johann  Ernst,)  a  German  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Konigsberg  in  1666.  About  1705  he  settled 
in  England,  where  he  obtained  the  degree  of  D.D.  He 
published  several  religious  works,  the  principal  of  which 
was  an  edition  of  the  Septuagint,  (8  vols.  8vo,  1707-20.) 
Died  in  1711. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Grabener,  gRi'beh-ner,  (Gottlieb,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist and  writer,  born  in  1685  ;  died  in  1750. 

See  "Vita  Grabeneri,"  by  his  son,  C.  G.  Grabener,  1751. 

Graberg  (gRo'bgRg)  vonHemso,  (Jakob,)  a  learned 
Swedish  geographer,  born  in  the  island  of  Gottland  in 
1776,  was  appointed  by  his  government,  in  1823,  consul 
in  Tripoli.  Among  his  most  important  works,  which 
are  composed  in  several  languages,  are  a  "  Historical 
Essay  on  the  Skalds,"  (i8ii,)  a  " Geographico-Statistical 
Essay  on  the  Regency  of  Algiers,"  (1830,)  and  a  good 
work  on  the  "Geography  of  Morocco,"  (1834,  in  Italian.) 
He  possessed  a  choice  collection  of  antique  coins  and 
Oriental  manuscripts.    Died  at  Florence  in  1847. 

See  his  "  Autobiography      "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Grabowski,  giii-bov'skee,  (Ambrosius,)  a  Polish 
archaeologist,  born  near  Cracow  in  1782,  published  "The 
Historic  Antiquities  of  Poland,"  (1840.) 

Grac'-ehus,  (Caius  Sempronius,)  a  celebrated 
Roman  statesman  and  orator,  born  in  159  (or,  as  some 
say,  154)  B.C.,  was  a  brother  of  Tiberius.  He  was  care- 
fully educated  by  his  mother,  the  wise  and  virtuous 
Cornelia.  He  was  elected  quaestor  in  126  B.C.,  and  in 
that  capacity  served  in  Sardinia,  where  he  acquired  much 
popularity,  and,  according  to  Plutarch,  exhibited  "a 
noble  specimen  of  every  virtue."  As  he  was  endowed 
with  great  talents  and  excelled  in  eloquence,  the  aris- 
tocratic party  always  regarded  him  with  a  jealous  eye. 
He  was  elected  tribune  of  the  people  in  123  B.C.,  and 
was  the  author  of  several  laws  tending  to  improve  the 
condition  of  the  poor  and  to  moderate  the  power  of 
the  senate.  By  one  of  his  laws  the  judiciary  power  was 
transferred  from  the  senate  to  the  equestrian  order.  He 
promoted  commerce  by  opening  good  public  roads. 
"  They  who  hated  and  feared  him,"  says  Plutarch,  "  were 
struck  with  his  amazing  industry  and  the  celerity  of  his 
operations."  He  was  re-elected  tribune  for  the  year  122. 
During  his  second  term  he  proposed  to  give  the  Roman 
franchise,  or  right  of  citizenship,  to  all  the  Latins.  To 
counteract  his  influence,  the  senate  resorted  to  a  trick 
or  stratagem.  They  induced  the  tribune  M.  Livius 
Drusus  to  act  the  part  of  a  demagogue,  and  to  propose 
measures  more  radical  or  democratic  than  those  of  Grac- 
chus, who  was  thus  supplanted  in  the  popular  favour. 
Caius  condi*cted  a  colony  to  Carthage,  and  after  an  ab- 
sence of  seventy  days  returned  to  Rome.  Opimius,  an 
enemy  of  Gracchus,  was  cliosen  consul  for  the  year  121, 
and  the  adherents  of  the  senate  began  to  repeal  the  laws 
of  the  latter,  who  was  now  a  private  citizen.  Fulvius 
Flaccus,  a  rash  partisan  of  Gracchus,  and  many  others, 


GRADENIGO 


took  arms  in  his  defence ;  but  Gracchus  himself  was 
averse  to  violent  resistance.  He  perished  in  a  general 
massacre,  ordered  by  Opimius,  in  121  B.C. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Caius  Gracchus ;"  Livy,  "Epitome;' 
Dion  Cassius,  "  Fragmenta ;"  F.  D.  Geklach,  "Tiberius  und 
Caius  Gracchus;  historischer  Vortrag,"  1843. 

Gracchus,  (Tiberius  Sempronius,)  a  Roman  gene- 
ral of  the  second  Punic  war.  He  was  elected  consul  for 
215  B.C.,  and  defeated  Hanno  near  Beneventum  in  214. 
In  the  next  year  he  was  the  colleague  of  Fabius  Maximus 
in  the  consulship.  He  was  killed  in  an  ambuscade  in 
212  B.C. 

Gracchus,  (Tiberius  Sempronius,)  a  Roman  gene- 
ral, who  married  Cornelia,  a  daughter  of  Scipio  Afri- 
canus,  and  was  the  father  of  the  famous  Gracchi.  He 
became  consul  in  178  B.C.,  (or  576  a.u.c.,)  and  again  in 
163  B.C.  He  gained  a  victory  over  the  Sardinians.  His 
character  is  extolled  by  Cicero.    Died  about  158  B.C. 

Gracchus,  (Tiberius  Sempronius,)  a  popular  and 
eminent  Roman  statesman,  born  about  168  B.C.  His 
mother  was  the  celebrated  Cornelia,  a  daughter  of  the 
greatest  Scipio.  He  served  at  the  capture  and  destruc- 
tion of  Carthage  under  Scipio  Africanus  the  Younger, 
who  had  married  a  sister  of  Gracchus.  In  137  B.C.  he 
was  elected  quaestor,  and  was  employed  in  the  Numan- 
tian  war,  in  which  he  greatly  distinguished  himself  by 
his  courage  and  capacity.  About  134  B.C.  he  was  elected 
tribune  of  the  people,  and  proposed  an  important  reform 
in  the  disposition  of  the  public  lands.  His  first  effort 
was  to  restore  or  enforce  (with  some  modifications)  the 
Licinian  law,  which  prohibited  any  man  from  occupying 
more  than  five  hundred  acres  of  public  land,  and  which 
had  never  been  formally  repealed,  but  was  generally  neg- 
lected and  violated.  "There  never  was,"  says  Plutarch, 
"  a  milder  law  made  against  so  much  injustice  and  oppres- 
sion. For  they  who  deserved  to  have  been  punished 
for  their  infringement  on  the  rights  of  the  community 
were  to  have  a  consideration  for  giving  up  their  ground- 
less claims.  ...  In  this  just  and  glorious  cause  Tiberius 
exerted  an  eloquence  which  might  have  adorned  a  worse 
subject,  and  which  nothing  could  resist."  He  was  vio- 
lently opposed  by  the  aristocracy  and  the  tribune  M. 
Octavius,  whose  veto  retarded  the  passage  of  the  bilL 
At  length  Octavius  was  deposed,  and  the  agrarian  law 
was  adopted.  Gracchus  again  offered  himself  as  a  can- 
didate for  the  office  of  tribune.  During  the  election, 
which  occurred  in  June,  when  many  of  his  friends  were 
engaged  in  harvesting,  the  partisans  of  the  aristocracy, 
led  by  Scipio  Nasica,  appealed  to  force,  and  killed 
Gracchus,  with  about  three  hundred  of  his  supporters, 
in  133  B.C. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Tiberius  Gracchus;"  Livy,  "History  of 
Rome;"  Crell,  "  Elogium  et  Character  T.  et  C.  Gracchorum," 
1727  ;  NiEBUHR,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  Heeren,  "Tiberius  und  Caius 
Gracchus;"  F.  D.  Gerlach,  "Tiberius  und  Caius  Gracchus;  histo- 
rischer Vortrag,"  1843. 

Gracian,  gK^-the-hV,  (Baltasar,)  a  Spanish  eccle- 
siastic, born  at  Calatayud  in  1584,  was  rector  of  the 
Jesuits'  College  at  Tarragona.  He  wrote  "  Reflections 
on  the  Political  Conduct  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic," 
a  work  entitled  "The  Hero,"  (1637,)  which  was  trans- 
lated into  several  languages,  and  "  Criticon,"  an  allegory, 
(1650-53.)    Died  in  1658. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Bouterwek. 
"Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Espagnole." 

Gradenigo,  gRi-di-nee'go,  (Giovanni  Agostino,) 
an  Italian  antiquary  and  writer,  born  at  Venice  about 
1722.  He  became  Bishop  of  Chioggia  and  Ceneda. 
Died  in  1774. 

See  L.  DoGr.iONi,  "  Elogio  storico  di  G.  A.  Gradenigo,"  1774. 

Gradenigo,  (Giovanni  Giroi.amo,)  an  Italian  prel- 
ate, born  at  Venice  in  1708,  became  Archbishop  of  Udine 
in  1766.    Died  in  1786. 

Gradenigo,  (Pieiro,)  born  in  1249,  was  Doge  of 
Venice  from  1289  to  1311.  He  originated  the  revolution 
that  deprived  the  people  of  their  privileges  and  made 
the  aristocracy  hereditary.  During  the  war  with  Genoa 
in  1297,  he  passed  the  decree  called  tite  Closing  of  the 
Grand  Council,  which  took  from  the  people  the  right 
of  electing  the  members  of  that  council.    Died  in  13 1 1. 

See  Marino  Sanuto,  "  Vitedei  Duchidi  Venezia,  P.  Gradenigo; 
Daru,  "Histoire  de  Venise." 


1066 


ft,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    6,  6,  same,  leSs  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  3?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GRADI 


1067 


GRAHAM 


Gradi,  gRt'de',  f  Lat.  De  Grad'ibus,]  (Jean,)  a  French 
jurist  and  legal  writer,  who  lived  about  1490-1520. 

Gradivus,  a  surname  of  Mars,  which  see. 

Graecinus,  gre-sT'nus,  (Julius,)  a  Roman  senator, 
who  refused  to  appear  as  the  accuser  of  Marcus  Silanus, 
and  was  in  consequence  put  to  death  by  order  of  Ca- 
ligula. "He  was,"  says  Seneca,  "too  good  a  man  to 
be  permitted  to  live  under  a  tyrant." 

Graefe.    See  Grafe,  and  Gravius,  (Johann  G.) 

Graeffe.    See  Graffe. 

Graeme,  gram,  (John,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at  Carn- 
wath,  Lanarkshire,  in  1748.  His  elegies  and  other  poems 
were  published  in  1773.    Died  in  1772. 

Graesse.    See  Grasse. 

Graeter.    See  Grater. 

Graevel.    See  Gravel. 

Grsevius.    See  Gravius. 

Graf,  gRif,  (called  also  Urs,  Ours,  Ursus,  Gam- 
perlin,  Gemberlein,  and  Van  Goar,)  a  noted  Swiss 
engraver,  born  at  Bale  about  1485. 

Grafe.    See  Gravius. 

Grafe,  gRa'feh,  (Heinrich,)  born  at  Buttstadt,  in  Ger- 
many, in  1802,  wrote  "  Universal  Science  of  Education," 
("  Allgeineine  Padagogik,"  1845.) 

Grafe  or  Graefe,  von,  fon  gRa''feh,  (Karl  Ferdi- 
nand,) a  celebrated  surgeon  and  oculist,  born  at  Warsaw 
in  1787.  He  became,  about  181 1,  professor  of  surgery  and 
director  of  the  ophthalmo-surgical  clinic  at  Berlin,  and 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  one  on  the  rhinoplastic  art, 
which  he  greatly  improved.    Died  in  1840. 

Albrecht  von  Grafe,  a  son  oC  the  preceding,  born 
at  Berlin  in  1828,  became  professor  of  ophthalmic  sur- 
gery in  his  native  city  in  1857.  lie  was  regarded  as  the 
greatest  oculist  in  Europe.    Died  in  1870. 

Graff,  gRif,  (Antoine,)  an  eminent  Swiss  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Winterthur  in  1736.  He  was  appointed 
in  1766  court  painter  at  Dresden.  His  works  are  nu- 
merous and  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1813. 

Graff,  guif,  (Ehekhard  Gottlieb,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Elbing  in  1780,  was  profoundly  versed 
in  the  old  German  language  and  literature.  His  princi- 
pal work  is  the  "Treasure  of  the  Old  German  Language," 
which,  after  his  death,  was  completed  by  Massmann. 
Died  in  Berlin  in  1841. 

Graffe  or  Graeffe,  gR^ffeh,  (Johann  Friedrich 
Christoph,)  a  German  philosopher  and  writer,  born 
in  1754  at  Gottingen,  where  he  became  professor  of  phi- 
losophy.   Died  in  1816. 

Grafigni,  gRi-f^n'yee,  (Agostino,)  a  Genoese  mer- 
chant, residing  at  Antwerp  and  London  about  1590,  was 
a  principal  agent  in  the  secret  negotiations  between 
Queen  Elizabeth  and  Alexander  of  Parma. 

See  Motley's  "History  of  the  Uniied  Netherlands,"  chap.  viii. 

Grafigny  or  Graffigny,  gRt'f^n'ye',  (  Franqoise 
d'Issembourg  d'Happoncourt — de's6N'booR'  dS'- 
p6N'kooR',)  a  French  writer,  boin  at  Nancy  in  1695. 
Her  principal  works  are  the  comedy  of  "Cenia,"  and 
"Lettres  d'une  Peruvienne,"  a  romance.    Died  in  1758. 

See  VoL-r.MRE,  "  Correspondance  gen^rale." 

Grafstroem  or  Grafstrom,  gRdf'stRom,  (Anders 
Abraham,)  a  Swedish  poet  and  clergyman,  born  at 
Sundsvall  in  1790.  He  married  a  daughter  of  the  poet 
Franzen.  Among  his  works  are  "  Sanger  fran  Norr- 
land,"  (1841.) 

Grafton,  (Augustus  Henry  Fitzroy,)  Duke  of, 
a  British  minister  of  state,  was  born  in  1736.  He 
became  one  of  the  two  secretaries  of  state  in  the  Whig 
cabinet  in  1765,  and  was  a])pointed  first  lord  of  the 
treasury  in  a  ministry  which  Lord  Chatham  formed  of 
very  discordant  materials  in  1766.  In  consequence  of 
Lord  Chatham's  ill  health,  the  functions  of  prime  min- 
ister devolved  on  the  Duke  of  Grafton,  whose  character 
and  measures  were  assailed  with  violent  invective  by 
Junius.  Lord  Chatham  resigned  about  October,  1768, 
and  the  duke  resigned  in  1770.  He  was  lord  privy  seal 
from  1 77 1  to  1775,  after  which  he  opposed  the  American 
war  and  the  measures  of  Lord  North.    Died  in  1811. 

See  Lord  Mahon's  "History  of  England." 

Grafton,  (Richard,)  an  English  printer  and  histori- 
cal writer,  published  in  1569  "Chronicles  at  Large  and 
Meere  History  of  the  Affayres  of  England." 


Grafunder,  gR^'foon-der,  (David,)  a  German  Ori- 
entalist, published  a  "Chaldaic  Grammar,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1680. 

Graham,  (Catherine.)    See  Macaulay. 

Graham,  gra'am,  (George,)  F.R.S.,  a  distinguished 
English  mechanician  and  astronomer,  born  in  Cumber- 
land in  1675.  He  was  commissioned  to  furnish  instru- 
ments for  the  French  Academicians  who  were  sent  to 
the  North  to  ascertain  the  figure  of  the  earth,  (1735.) 
He  also  constructed  the  mural  arch  in  the  Observatory 
at  Greenwich,  and  the  sector  by  which  Dr.  Bradley  made 
discoveries  relating  to  the  fixed  stars.  He  was  esteemed 
one  of  the  best  watchmakers  of  his  time.    Died  in  1751. 

See  Thiout,  "Traite  d'Horlogerie." 

Graham,  gra'am,  (Isabella,)  a  Scottish  philanthro- 
pist, born  at  Lanark  in  1742.  She  emigrated  to  New 
York  City  in  1789,  after  she  had  been  married  to  Dr. 
John  Graham,  (1765.)  She  took  a  prominent  part  in 
founding  several  benevolent  institutions  in  New  York, 
and  abounded  in  works  of  charity.    Died  in  1814. 

See  Dr.  Mason,  "Memoirs  of  Mrs.  Graham." 

Graham,  (Sir  James  Robert  George,)  a  British 
statesman,  born  at  Netherby  in  1792.  He  was  elected 
to  Parliament  for  Hull  as  a  Liberal  in  1818.  In  1830 
he  became  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  under  Earl  Grey, 
and  managed  that  department  with  rigid  economy.  He 
promoted  the  passage  of  the  Reform  Bill  in  1831,  and 
resigned  office  in  1834.  On  the  accession  of  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  in  1841,  he  entered  the  cabinet  as  home-secretary. 
He  rendered  efficient  aid  to  Peel  in  the  repeal  of  the 
corn-laws,  and  retired  fr(  m  office  with  the  same  chief 
in  1846.  He  gave  a  general  support  to  the  Whig  admin- 
istration which  followed,  and  about  the  end  of  1852  was 
appointed  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  the  ministry  of 
Lord  Aberdeen.  His  opposition  to  the  Russian  war 
appears  to  have  been  the  cause  which  induced  him  to 
resign,  about  February,  1855.  The  ill  success  of  the 
Baltic  fleet  in  the  Russian  war  was  attributed,  by  Sir 
C.  Napier  and  others,  to  his  parsimony  and  misman- 
agement. He  represented  Carlisle  in  Parliament  for 
many  years.    Died  in  October,  1861. 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1863;  "Westminster 
Review"  for  June,  1844. 

Graham,  (John,)  Viscount  Dundee,  called  Claver- 
house — klav'er-iis,  a  Scottish  officer,  distinguished  for 
his  military  talents  and  for  his  merciless  severity  towards 
the  Covenanters,  was  born  about  1650.  He  served  in  the 
Dutch  army  under  the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  returned 
to  Scotland  in  1677.  Soon  after  this  date  he  became  a 
captain  in  a  troop  of  dragoons  which  was  ordered  to 
enforce  the  penal  laws  against  the  Scottish  Covenanters. 
Though  defeated  by  them  at  Drumclog  in  1679,  he  was 
afterwards  more  successful,  and  rendered  his  name  for- 
ever odious  by  his  atrocities.  In  1689  he  raised  a  body 
of  Highlanders  to  fight  for  James  II.  He  was  killed  in 
June,  1689,  at  Killiecrankie,  where  his  army  was  victo- 
rious. "During  the  last  three  months  of  his  life,"  says 
Macaulay,  "  he  had  proved  himself  a  great  warrior  and 
politician;  and  his  name  is  therefore  mentioned  with 
respect  by  that  large  class  of  persons  who  think  that 
there  is  no  excess  of  wickedness  for  which  courage  and 
ability  do  not  atone." 

See  Macaulay,  "History of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap,  iv.,  and  vol. 
ill.  chap.  xiii.  ;  Chambers,  "  Biograpliical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen;"  J.  Paget,  "New  Exanien,"  1861  ;  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  July,  1863:  "North  British  Review"  for  May,  1850;  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  "Old  Mortality." 

Graham,  gra'am,  (John  Andrew,)  born  in  Connecti- 
cut in  1764,  wrote  a  "Descriptive  Sketch  of  the  Present 
State  of  Vermont,"  (1797,)  and  "  Memoirs  of  John  Home 
Tooke,"  (1828.)    Died  in  1841. 

Graham,  (Joseph,)  an  officer  of  the  American  Revo- 
lution, was  born  in  Chester,  Pennsylvania,  in  1759.  He 
emigrated  to  North  Carolina.  He  served  with  distinc- 
tion under  General  Lincoln,  and  was  afterwards  made 
a  brigadier-general.    Died  in  1836. 

Graham,  (Maria.)    See  Callcott,  (Lady.) 

Graham,  (Mary  Jane,)  a  literary  Englishwoman, 
born  in  Londcm  in  1803,  was  acquainted  with  Greek  and 
other  languages.  She  published  "The  Test  of  Truth," 
(7th  edition,  1852.)    Died  in  1830. 


«  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as J;  G,  H,  K,  ^ttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GRAHAM 


1068 


GRANADA 


Graham,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  botanist, 
born  at  Stirling  in  1786,  became  professor  of  botany  at 
Glasgow  about  1818.  He  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Bo- 
tanical Magazine"  and  other  scientific  journals.  In  1820 
he  obtained  a  chair  of  botany  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh.   Died  in  1845. 

Graham,  (Sylvester,)  a  noted  American  reformer 
and  writer  on  dietetics,  was  born  in  Suiifield,  Connecti- 
cut, in  1794.  He  studied  at  Amherst  College,  officiated 
for  a  time  as  a  Presbyterian  minister,  and  about  1830 
was  employed  by  the  Pennsylvania  Temperance  Society 
as  a  lecturer.  His  experience  in  this  vocation  led  him 
to  the  conviction  that  the  prevention  and  cure  of  in- 
temperance were  chiefly  to  be  found  in  the  adoption 
of  a  purely  vegetable  diet,  which  he  supposed  would 
take  away  the  desire  for  stimulants.  He  subsequently 
applied  this  theory  to  all  cases  of  disease.  He  published 
in  1839  "Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Human  Life,"  (in 
2  vols.)    Died  in  1851. 

Graham,  (Thomas,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  British  chem- 
ist, born  at  Glasgow  in  1805.  He  became  professor  of 
chemistry  in  the  Andersonian  University  in  1830,  and  in 
the  London  University  in  1837.  He  published  in  1842 
a  valuable  work,  entitled  "  Elements  of  Chemistry." 
Among  his  important  discoveries  is  the  law  of  the  diffu- 
sion of  gases.  He  was  the  first  president  of  the  Chemical 
Society  of  London.  He  succeeded  Sir  John  Herschel 
as  Master  of  the  Mint  in  1855.    Died  in  1869. 

Graham,  (Sir  Thomas.)    See  Lynedoch. 

Graham,  (William  A.,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  North  Carolina  in  1800.  He  represented  North  Caro- 
lina in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  in  1841-43,  was 
elected  Governor  of  that  State  by  the  Whigs  in  1844, 
and  re-elected  in  1846.  He  became  secretary  of  the 
navy  in  July,  1850,  and  retired  from  that  office  in  1852. 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  the  candidate  of  the  Whig 
party  for  the  Vice-Presidency. 

G^ahame,gra'am,  (James,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  divine, 
born  at  Glasgow  in  1765.  He  studied  in  the  univer- 
sity of  his  native  city,  and  subsequently  practised  law 
for  a  time.  He  entered  holy  orders  in  1809,  and  was 
appointed  curate  of  Shipton,  in  Gloucestershire.  His 
principal  poem,  "The  Sabbath,"  is  esteemed  one  of 
the  finest  compositions  of  the  kind.  He  also  published 
*' British  Georgics,"  "The  Birds  of  Scotland,"  etc.  Died 
in  1811. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1810;  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  May,  1810. 

Grahame,  (James,)  a  British  historian,  published  a 
"History  of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  United  States 
of  North  America  till  the  British  Revolution  of  1688." 
It  is  styled  by  Prescott  "  the  most  thorough  work,  and 
incomparably  the  best  on  the  subject,  previous  to  Mr. 
Bancroft's."    Died  in  1842. 

Grain.    See  Le  Grain. 

Graindorge,  gR^N'doRzh',  (Andr^,)  a  French  physi- 
cian and  naturalist,  born  at  Caen  in  1616,  wrote  a  treatise 
"On  the  Nature  of  Fire,  Light,  and  Colours,"  and  other 
works,  in  Latin.    Died  in  1676. 

Graindorge,  (Andr6,)  a  French  weaver,  born  at 
Caen,  lived  about  1600.  He  was  the  first  artisan  who 
wove  diaper  in  flowers  and  squares.  His  son  Richard 
perfected  the  art  by  representing  animals  and  other 
figures. 

Grain'ger,  (James,)  a  Scottish  pliysician  and  poet, 
born  at  Dunse  in  1723.  He  was  the  author  of  a  mediocre 
poem  entitled  "Sugar-Cane,"  (1764,)  and  an  "Ode  on 
Solitude,"  which  Dr.  Johnson  admired.  He  also  trans- 
lated the  "  Elegies"  of  Tibullus.    Died  in  1767. 

See  Johnson  and  Chai.mkrs,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets;" 
Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Grain'ger,  (Richard,)  an  English  architect,  born  at 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne  in  1798.  He  acquired  wealth  by 
his  enterjirise,  and  made  extensive  improvements  in 
Newcastle,  among  which  were  new  streets,  an  exchange, 
market-house,  and  other  public  buildings.   Died  in  1861. 

Grainville, gRiN'v^K,  (Jean  BAPrisTKCuRiSTOPHE,) 
a  French  litteratetir^  born  at  Lisieux  in  1760,  made  sev- 
eral translations  from  the  Spanish  and  the  Italian,  and 
published  a  number  of  original  poems.    Died  in  1805. 


Grainville,  de,  deh  gR^N'v^K,  (Jean  Baptiste  Fran- 
gois  Xavier  Cousin— kbo'ziN',)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  distinguished  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Havre  in  1746. 
He  published  a  poem  entitled  "The  Last  Man,"  "The 
Judgment  of  Paris,"  (a  drama,)  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1805. 

Gram,  gkam,  (Johan  or  Hans,)  a  Danish  philologist, 
born  in  Jutland  in  1685,  became  successively  professor 
of  Greek  at  Copenhagen,  (1714,)  historiographer,  royal 
librarian,  and  archivist,  (1731.)  In  1745  he  was  made  a 
councillor  of  state.  He  published,  in  Latin,  a  "  History 
of  the  Gods,  from  Xenophon,"  and  other  critical  and 
historical  works,  which  enjoy  a  high  reputation.  He 
was  the  founder  of  the  Scientific  Society  of  Copenhagen- 
Died  in  1748. 

See  Jens  Moeller,  "  H.  Grams  Levnet,"  1810;  Kraft  eg 
Nyerup,  "Litteraturlexicon." 

Gramaye,  gRS'mi',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Flemish  an- 
tiquary and  historical  writer,  born  at  Antwerp  about 
1580.  He  became  professor  of  law  and  rhetoric  at  Lou- 
vain,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  historiographer  to 
the  Netherlands.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Brabant," 
"  Antiquities  of  Flanders,"  and  other  works,  in  Latin. 
Died  in  1635. 

Grammatica,  gRim-ma'te-ka,  (Antiveduto,  ^n-te- 
vi-doo'to,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  near  Rome  in  1571. 
He  was  a  skilful  imitator  and  counterfeiter  of  the  works 
of  great  masters.    Died  in  1626. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Grammatico,  gRSm-ma'te-ko,  (Nicaiso,)  an  Italian 
Jesuit,  born  at  Trent;  died  in  1736. 

Gramond  or  Grammont,  gRt'miN',  [Lat.  Gra- 
mun'dus,]  (Gabriel  Barth^lemy,)  a  Frenrii  writer, 
born  at  Toulouse  about  1590,  published  a  "History  of 
the  Reign  of  Louis  XIII.,"  etc.,  (in  Latin.)  Died  in  1654. 

Gramont  or  Grammont,  de,  deh  gRS'mcJN',  (An- 
toine,)  Due,  born  in  1604,  became  lieutenant-general  in 
1641,  and  soon  after  a  marshal  of  France.   Died  in  1678. 

Gramont,  de,  (Antoine,)  Due,  a  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1672,  and  was  first  called  CoMTE 
DE  Guiche.  He  served  in  many  battles  in  Flanders, 
and  was  made  lieutenant-general  in  1704,  and  marshal 
in  1724.    Died  in  1725. 

Gramont,  de,  (Antoine  Louis  Marie,)  Due,  a 
French  general,  born  in  1755.  He  emigrated  in  1789. 
Died  in  1836. 

Gramont,  de,  (Armand.)    See  Guiche. 

Gramont,  de,  (Gabriel,)  a  French  prelate,  became 
Archl  ishop  of  Bordeaux  in  1529,  and  in  1530  was  made 
a  cardinal.    Died  in  1534. 

Gramont  or  Grammont,  de,  (Philirert,)  Comte, 
a  French  courtier,  celebrated  for  his  wit,  frivolity,  and 
gallantry,  was  born  in  1621.  He  distinguished  himself 
in  several  campaigns  under  Conde  and  Turenne,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  general.  He  passed  some  time  at 
the  court  of  Charles  11.  of  England.  Died  in  1707. 
His  brother-in-law,  Anthony  Hamilton,  published  "Me- 
moirs of  Grammont,"  which  is  much  adnnred.  (See 
Hamilton,  Anthony.) 

Gramont,  de,  (Scipion,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Pro- 
vence, was  secretary  to  Louis  XIII.    Died  about  1638. 

Granacci,  gu^-nit'chee,  (Francesco,)  a  Florentine 
painter,  b;)rn  about  1475,  W'^^  ^  pupil  of  Ghirlandaio,  and 
afterwards  of  Michael  Angelo,  whose  style  he  adopted. 
Among  his  master-pieces  we  may  name  "The  Virgin 
giving  her  Girdle  to  Saint  Thomas."    Died  in  1544. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Granada,  de,  d^  gR^-ni'Da,  (Fray  Luis,)  [Fr.  Louis 
DE  Grenade,  loo'e'deh  gReh'nSd',]  a  celebrated  Sj^anish 
ecclesiastic,  and  one  of  the  first  pulpit  orators  of  his  time, 
born  at  Granada  in  1504,  was  educated  in  the  family  of 
the  Count  of  Tendilla.  He  refused  the  archbishopric 
of  Braga,  which  was  offered  him,  and  devoted  himself  at 
Lisbon  to  preaching  and  religious  compositions.  Free 
from  the  persecuting  spirit  of  his  time,  he  won  the  hearts 
of  his  hearers  by  his  mild  persuasive  eloquence  and  the 
shining  example  of  his  own  life.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  "The  Sinner's  Guide,"  a  "Memorial  of  the 
Christian  Life,"  (1566,)  "Symbol  of  the  Faith,"  and 
"Rhetorica  Ecclesiastica."    His  "Guide  to  Sinners," 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  \x,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon. 


GRAN BERG 


1069 


GRJNIER 


says  Ticknor,  "was  translated  into  nearly  all  the  lan- 
guages of  Europe,  including  Greek  and  Polish."  Died 
in  1588. 

See  Ticknor,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Luis  Munoz, 
"La  Vida  de  Luis  de  Granada,"  1639. 

Granberg,  gRan'b^Rg,  (Pehr  Adolf,)  a  Swedish 
historian,  born  at  Gottenburg  in  1770,  published  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Union  of  Calmar,"  (3  vols.,  1807-11,)  and  a 
"History  of  the  Wars  in  Scandinavia  from  the  Rupture 
of  the  Union  of  Calmar  to  the  Death  of  Charles  XH.," 
(1821.)    Died  in  1841. 

See  "  Biographiskt- Lexicon  ofver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Gran'by,  (John  Manners,)  Marquis  of,  an  Eng- 
lish general,  born  in  1721,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  Duke 
of  Rutland.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general 
about  1758,  and  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Minden, 
(1759.)  In  the  ensuing  campaigns  of  the  Seven  Years' 
war  he  commanded  the  British  troops  at  Warburg  and 
Homburg,  (1762.)  He  was  appointed  master-general  of 
the  ordnance  in  1763,  and  commander-in-chief  of  the 
British  armies  in  1766.  He  died  in  1770,  leaving  several 
sons,  one  of  whom,  Charles,  became  Duke  of  Rutland, 
"  Granby,  honest,  generous,  and  brave  as  a  lion,  had 
neither  science  nor  genius."  (Macaulay's  "Essays.") 

Grancolas,  gRSN^ko'lS',  (Jean,)  a  French  theologian 
and  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  born  near  Chateaudun 
about  1660.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Liturgies,"  and 
other  works,  on  the  traditions,  rites,  and  usages  of  the 
Church.    Died  in  1732. 

Grand.    See  Legrand. 

Grandami,  gR6N'dS'nie',  (Jacques,)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  astronomer,  born  at  Nantes  in  1588,  published  a 
treatise  on  eclipses,  and  another  on  chronology,  (1668.) 
Died  in  1672. 

Graudet,  gRfiN'di',  (Joseph,)  a  French  priest  and 
biographer,  hoxn  at  Angers  in  1646.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "Life  of  an  unknown  Recluse,  supposed  to  be  the 
Count  of  Moret,"  (1699.)    Died  in  1724. 

Graiidi,  gR^nMee,  (Ercole,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
in  Ferrara  in  1491.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Conver- 
sion of  Saint  Paul,"  now  in  London.    Died  in  1531. 

Grandi,  [Lat.  Gran'dius,]  (Guido,)  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Cremona  in  167 1,  became  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Pisa  in  1700.  He  published  a  treat- 
ise "On  Series  and  Infinitesimals,"  and  another  "On 
Sound,"  which  caused  his  election  to  the  Royal  Society 
of  London.  His  works  are  numerous,  and  chiefly  writ- 
ten in  Latin.  He  was  a  friend  of  Newton,  Leibnitz,  and 
other  eminent  philosophers  of  the  time.    Died  in  1742. 

See  G.  M.  Ortes,  "  Vita  del  Padre  G.  Grandi,"  1744  ;  Fabroni, 
"  Vits  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  Tipaldo,  "  Hiografia  degli 
Italiani  illustri A.  M.  Banuini,  "  G.  Grandi  Elogium,"  1745. 

Grandi,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian  physician  and  naturalist, 
born  in  the  duchy  of  Modena  in  1646;  died  in  1691. 

Grandidier,  gR6N'de'de-a,',  (Philippe  Andr6,)  a 
French  historian,  was  born^t  Strasburg  in  1752.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Bishopric  and  Bishops  of  Stras- 
burg," (2  vols.,  1778.)    Died  in  1787. 

See  Louis  Spach,  "!^loge  de  Grandidier,"  1851. 

Grandier,  gr6N'de-i',  (Urbain,)  a  French  ecclesi- 
astic, and  canon  of  Loudun,  born  near  Sable.  Having 
been  accused  of  sorcery  by  some  monks  who  were  his 
enemies,  he  was  condemned  to  death,  and  burnt  at  the 
stake  in  1634. 

See  I'.AZiN,  "Histoire  de  Louis  XIII,"  vol.  iii. ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio 
graphic  Generale." 

Grandin,  gRfiN'diN',  (Martin,)  a  French  theologian 
and  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  born  at  Saint-Quentin  in 
1604.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  and 
divinity  in  Le  Moine  College,  and  was  the  author  of 
"Theological  Institutes,"  (in  Latin.)    Died  in  1691. 

Grandjean  de  Fouchy,    See  Fouchy. 

Grandmesnil  or  Grandmenil,  de,  deh  gRSN'ma'- 
ukV,  (Jean  Baptiste  Fauchard— fo'shtR^,)  a  popular 
French  actor  and  dramatic  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1737  ; 
died  in  1816. 

Grandpre,  gRfiN^pRi',  (Louis  Marte  Joseph  Ohier 
— o'e-i',)  a  French  voyager,  born  at  Saint-Malo  in  1761. 
He  pul)lished  a  "Voyage  to  India  and  Bengal,  made  in 
1789-90,"  (1801,)  a  "Universal  Dictionary  of  Maritime 


Geography,"  (3  vols.,  1803,)  and  other  works.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1846. 

Grandval,  de,  deh  gRSN'vtK,  (FRANgois  Charles 
Racot — rS'ko',)  a  French  actor  and  litterateur,  born  in 
Paris  in  1710,  published  a  number  of  poems  and  dramas. 
Died  in  1784. 

Grandville.    See  G^;rard,  (Jean  Ignace  Isidore.) 

Granelli,  gRd-neKlee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  Jesuit 
and  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Genoa  in  1703,  was  also  cele- 
brated as  a  pulpit  orator.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
popular  tragedies  and  other  works.    Died  in  1770. 

Granet,  gkt'na',  (Francois,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Brignoles  in  1692,  contributed  to  the  "Biblio- 
theque  Fran9aise,"  and  to  the  "  Nouvelliste  du  Parnasse" 
of  Desfontaines,  and  wrote  other  works.    Died  in  1741. 

Granet,  (Francois  Marius,)  an  eminent  French 
painter  of  history  and  genre,  born  at  Aix  in  1775,  was 
a  friend  of  Conite  de  Forbin.  He  studied  and  worked 
for  many  years  in  Rome.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
"Stella  in  the  Prison  of  the  Capitol,"  (1810,)  and  "The 
Choir  of  the  Capuchins,"  which  he  repeated  several 
times.  He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  represented  the 
effects  of  light  with  great  success.    Died  in  1849. 

See  Raoul  Rochette,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Granet,"  1851 ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Grange,  (Joseph  de  Chancel  de  la.)  See  La 
Grange. 

Grangeneuve,  gRSNzh'nuv',  (Jacques  Antoine,)  a 
French  Girondist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1750.  As  a 
member  of  the  National  Convention,  he  vi'as  conspicuous 
for  his  severity  towards  the  royal  family,  the  clergy,  and 
the  emigrants ;  though  he  did  not  vote  for  the  death  of 
the  king.    He  was  executed  at  Bordeaux  in  1793. 

Gran^ger,  (Francis,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Hartford  county,  Connecticut,  in  1787.  He  removed  to 
the  State  of  New  York,  and  was  elected  to  Congress  as 
a  Whig  in  1834.  He  was  re-elected  in  1838,  and  was 
postmaster-general  from  March  to  September,  1841. 
Died  in  August,  1868. 

Granger,  (Gideon,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  in" 
Sufifield,  Connecticut,  in  1767,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  appointed  postmaster-general  by 
President  Jefferson  in  1801,  and  was  re-appointed  by 
President  Madison  in  1809.  He  retired  from  that  office 
in  1814,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Senate  of 
New  York  in  181 9.    Died  in  1822. 

Granger,  (Gordon,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
New  York  about  1825,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1845. 
He  became  a  ca])tain  in  the  regular  army  in  1861,  and 
commanded  a  brigade  of  cavalry  in  Mississippi  in  the 
summer  of  1862.  Having  been  appointed  a  major-gene- 
ral, he  served  at  Chickamauga  in  September,  1863.  He 
commanded  the  army  which,  aided  by  Admiral  Farra- 
gut,  took  Fort  Morgan  in  August,  1864.  In  1866  he 
became  a  colonel  in  the  regular  army. 

Gran'ger,  (James,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Berk- 
shire about  1 7 15.  Having  studied  at  Oxford  and  taken 
orders,  he  became  vicar  of  Shiplake,  in  Oxfordshire. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "Biographical  History  of  Eng- 
land from  Egbert  the  Great  to  the  Revolution,"  (2 
vols.,  1769,  with  portraits.)    Died  in  1776. 

Granger,  gRdN'zhy,  (Jean  Perrin,)  a  French  his- 
torical painter,  born  in  1779,  was  a  pupil  of  David.  He 
gained  the  first  prize  in  Paris  in  180L    Died  in  1840. 

Granger  -  Tournechot,  gRSN'zh^  tooRn'sho',  a 
French  traveller,  born  at  Dijon  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, visited  Asia  and  the  northern  part  of  Africa,  and 
died  at  Bassora  in  1734.  His  travels  were  published 
after  his  death. 

Grangier,  gr6N'zhe-i',  (Balthasar,)  a  French  trans- 
lator, almoner  to  Henry  IV.,  produced  in  1596  the  first 
French  translation  of  Dante,  (in  verse.)  He  aimed  to 
render  verse  for  verse,  and  by  this  extreme  fidelity  be- 
came often  obscure. 

Granier  de  Ca.ssagnac,  gRt'ne-a'  deh  kt'stn^ytk', 
(Bernard  Adolphe,)  a  French  jouTnalist  and  historian, 
born  in  the  department  of  Gers  about  1805.  He  became 
in  1850  chief  editor  of  "  Le  Pouvoir,"  and  a  partisan  of 
Louis  Napoleon.  In  1852  he  was  elected  to  the  legis- 
lative body.  Since  that  date  he  has  been  an  editor  or 
frequent  contributor  to  the  "  Constitutionnel."  Among 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  k,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GRJNT 


1070 


GRJNT 


his  works  are  a  '*  Voyage  to  the  Antilles  and  United 
States,"  (1842-44,)  a  "History  of  the  Causes  of  the 
French  Revolution  of  1789,"  (4  vols.,  1850,)  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Fall  of  Louis  Philippe  and  the  Revolution 
of  1848,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1855-57.)  He  was  a  zealous 
advocate  of  slavery. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Grant  (IVIrs.  Anne)  of  Laggan,  an  accomplished 
Scottish  writer,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1755,  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  Duncan  McVicar,  an  officer  who  went  with  his 
regiment  to  America  about  1758.  Having  resided  nearly 
ten  years  in  that  country,  the  family  returned  to  Scot- 
land, and  in  1779  Miss  McVicar  was  married  to  the  Rev. 
James  Grant,  subsequently  minister  of  Laggan,  in  In- 
\erness-shire.  Having  lost  her  husband  in  1801,  Mrs. 
Grant  applied  herself  to  authorship  for  the  maintenance 
of  her  family.  "The  Highlanders,  and  other  Poems," 
came  out  in  1803,  and  was  well  received;  it  was  followed 
by  her  "Letters  from  the  Mountains,"  (1806,)  which 
established  her  reputation  and  immediately  obtained  a 
wide  popularity.  She  afterwards  published  "  Memoirs 
of  an  American  Lady,"  (1808,)  and  "Essays  on  the 
Superstitions  of  the  Highlands,"  (181 1,)  both  of  which 
are  highly  esteemed.  "She  has,"  says  Lord  Jeffrey, 
"great  powers  of  description  both  of  character  and 
scenery,  much  force  of  conception,  acuteness,  and  reach 
of  mind  in  reasoning,  great  occasional  brightness  and 
perpetual  activity  of  fancy,  and  a  fine  enthusiasm  for 
virtue,  simplicity,  and  the  Highlands."    Died  in  1838. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement ;)  "Memoirs  of  tlie  Literary  Ladies  of  England,"  etc., 
by  Mks.  Ei-Wood;  De  Quincey,  "Literary  Reminiscences,"  vol.  i.  ; 
*'  Edinburgh  Review"  for  August,  181 1. 

Grant,  (Charles,)  an  East  India  proprietor,  born  in 
Scotland  in  1746.  At  an  early  age  he  went  to  India, 
where  in  1772  he  became  secretary  to  the  board  of  trade, 
and  on  his  return  to  England  in  1790  was  appointed  one 
of  the  East  India  directors.  In  i8c?  he  was  elected  to 
the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  vice-president  of  the 
Bible  Society,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  extension 
of  Christianity  in  India.  He  published  a  treatise  en- 
titled "Observations  on  the  State  of  Society  among  the 
Asiatic  Subjects  of  Great  Britain."    Died  in  1823. 

Grant,  (Charles,)  Lord  Glenelg,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Bengal  about  1782.  He  became 
president  of  the  board  of  trade  in  1828,  and  president 
of  the  board  of  control  in  1830.  He  retired  from  office 
with  his  party  (the  Whigs)  in  1834,  and  was  created 
Baron  Glenelg.  He  was  colonial  secretary  from  1834 
to  1839. 

Grant,  (Edward.)    See  Graunt. 

Grant,  (Francis,)  Lord  Cullen,  a  celebrated  Scot- 
tish lawyer,  born  about  1660.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
treatise  entitled  "Law,  Religion,  and  Education  Con- 
sidered," (17 1 5,)  and  other  legal  works.    Died  in  1726. 

Grant,  (Francis,)  a  distinguished  Scottish  artist,  born 
in  Perthshire  about  1804.  He  enjoyed  a  high  reputation 
as  a  portrait-painter,  and  was  extensively  patronized  by 
the  nobility.  Among  his  portraits  may  be  named  those 
of  Disraeli,  Macaulay,  and  Lady  Howard.  He  also  pro- 
duced several  hunting-scenes.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1 85 1,  and  became  president  of  the 
same  in  1866. 

Grant,  (James,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  Scottish 
lawyers  of  his  time,  born  about  1742.  He  published 
"  Essays  on  the  Origin  of  Society,  I>anguages,"  etc., 
and  "  Thoughts  on  the  Oi '.  ^in  and  Descent  of  the  Gael," 
(1813.)    Died  in  1835. 

Grant,  (James,)  editor  of  the  "London  Morning 
Advertiser,"  born  in  Scotland  about  1806.  He  wrote 
"  l<.andom  Recollections  of  the  House  of  Lords,"  (1830,) 
"The  Great  Metropolis,"  (1836,)  and  other  popular 
works. 

Gi'ant,  (James,)  a  popular  writer,  born  at  Edinburgh 
in  1822.  Among  his  principal  works  are  the  "Ad- 
ventures of  an  Aide-de-Camp,"  (1848,)  "Memoirs  of 
Kirkaldy  of  Grange,"  (1849,)  "Memorials  of  Edinburgh 
Castle,"  and  "  Walter  Fenton,"  (1850.) 

Grant,  (Sir  James  Hope,)  a  British  general,  a  brother 
of  Francis  Grant  the  artist,  was  born  in  1808.  Te 
served  in  India  during  the  mutiny  of  1857,  and  com- 


manded the  British  army  which,  aided  by  the  French, 
defeated  the  Chinese  in  September,  i860, 'and  captured 
Pekin. 

Grant,  (Patrick,)  Lord  Preston-Grange,  a  Scottish 
judge,  born  in  1698  ;  died  in  1762. 

Grant,  (Robert,)  born  at  Grantoun,  in  Scotland,  in 
1814,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Physical  Astronomy,"  (1852,) 
which  has  a  high  reputation. 

Grant,  (Robert  Edmund,)  a  British  physician,  dis- 
ti^nguished  as  a  comparative  anatomist,  was  born  in 
Edinburgh  in  1793.  He  graduated  in  1814,  and  began 
to  practise  in  his  native  city  about  1820.  He  wrote 
several  able  treatises  on  "The  Structure  and  Functions 
of  the  Sponge,"  and  made  other  contributions  to  com- 
parative anatomy.  In  1828  he  was  chosen  professor 
of  comparative  anatomy  and  zoology  in  the  London 
University,  where  he  lectured  about  thirty  years.  He 
published  in  1835  the  first  volume  of  an  important  work, 
entitled  "Outlines  of  Comparative  Anatomy." 

Grant,  (Ulysses  Simpson,)  a  distinguished  Ameri- 
can general,  and  the  eighteenth  President  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  at  Point  Pleasant,  Clermont  county, 
Ohio,  April  27,  1822.  He  is  the  eldest  son  of  Jesse  R. 
and  Hannah  Simpson  Grant,  both  natives  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. Having  acquired  the  rudiments  of  education 
at  a  common  school,  he  entered  the  Military  Academy 
at  West  Point  in  1839.  He  was  a  diligent  student,  but 
.graduated  without  special  distinction  in  1843,  standing 
twenty-first  in  a  class  of  thirty-nine.  He  left  West  Point 
as  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  the  Fourth  Infantry, 
with  which  he  went  to  Mexico,  and  served  with  dis- 
tinction at  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma  in  May, 
1846.  For  meritorious  conduct  at  Molino  del  Rey  and 
Chapul tepee,  September,  1847,  he  was  made  first  lieuten- 
ant. In  1848  he  married  Miss  Julia  T.  Dent,  of  Saint 
Louis.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  captain  in  1853, 
but  resigned  his  commission  in  July,  1854.  In  1859  or 
i860  he  entered  into  business  with  his  father,  as  a  dealer 
in  leather  and  saddlery,  at  Galena,  Illinois. 

Immediately  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  rebellion  in 
1861,  he  raised  a  company  and  marched  with  it  to  Spring- 
field. Having  been  appointed  colonel  of  the  twenty-first 
regiment  of  volunteers  in  June,  he  was  first  employed  in 
Missouri,  and  became  a  brigadier-general  in  August,  i86r. 
About  this  time  he  was  ordered  to  Cairo,  and  took  com- 
mand of  the  important  district  of  Cairo,  or  "Southeast 
Missouri,"  including  both  sides  of  the  Mississippi  River. 
He  occupied  Paducah  on  the  6th  of  September.  His  first 
battle  was  fought  at  Belmont,  Missouri,  nearly  opposite 
Columbus,  which  latter  place  was  occupied  by  a  large 
force  of  the  enemy.  On  the  7th  of  November  he  cap- 
tured the  camp  of  the  insurgents  at  Belmont,  and  in  the 
act  of  retiring  was  attacked  by  troops  which  had  crossed 
the  river  from  Columbus.  Both  parties  claimed  the 
victory  in  this  affair.  In  December,  1861,  the  district 
commanded  by  Grant  was  enlarged  so  as  to  include 
Southeastern  Missouri  and  all  that  part  of  Kentucky 
which  lies  west  of  the  Cumberland  River. 

The  famous  Prince  Eugene  observed  that  the  greatest 
generals  have  commonly  been  those  who  have  been  at 
once  raised  to  the  command  of  an  army,  without  spend- 
ing much  time  in  the  petty  calculations  and  manoeuvres 
of  an  inferior  officer.  It  may  at  least  be  said  that  Grant 
was  no  exception  to  this  rule.  In  January,  1862,  he 
opened  the  campaign  by  a  flank  movement  against  a 
large  rebel  force  which  was  strongly  fortified  at  Colum- 
bus, on  the  Mississippi  River.  Ascending  the  Tennessee 
River  with  the  aid  of  iron-clad  gun-boats,  he  took  Fort 
Henry  on  the  6th  of  February,  thus  breaking  the  chain 
of  defences  which  extended  from  Columbus  eastward. 
The  navigation  of  the  Cumberland  was  obstructed  by 
Fort  Donelson,  a  very  important  position,  which  was 
held  by  a  garrison  of  20,000  men.  Grant  attacked  this 
fort  on  the  14th  of  February,  and  fought  a  severe  battle 
on  the  15th  with  the  garrison,  which  made  a  sortie  from 
their  works.  On  the  i6th,  General  Buckner  made  over- 
tures, in  reply  to  which  Grant  wrote,  "  No  terms  other 
than  unconditional  and  immediate  surrender  can  be 
accepted.  I  propose  to  move  immediately  upon  your 
works."  The  fort  was  accordingly  surrendered  to  him, 
with  about  13,500  prisoners.    Among  the  results  of  this 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  /on^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  les  ^  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obsaire;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


GRANT 


1071 


GRANT 


victory  was  the  speedy  evacuation  of  Columbus  and 
Nashville  by  the  insurgents.  Grant  was  appointed  a 
major-general  in  February,  1862. 

The  rebel  general  A.  S.  Johnston,  forced  to  retire  from 
Tennessee,  had  occupied  a  strong  position  at  Corinth,  in 
Mississippi,  with  a  large  army.  To  operate  against  this 
force,  General  Grant  advanced  to  Pittsburg  Landing, 
on  the  Tennessee  River,  where  he  awaited  the  arrival 
of  General  Buell,  who  was  ordered  to  join  him  with  the 
army  of  the  Ohio.  General  Johnston  attacked  the  Union 
army  at  Shiloh  on  the  morning  of  the  6th  of  April,  and 
took  several  thousand  prisoners.  The  battle  was  renewed 
on  the  7th,  when  Grant,  having  been  reinforced  by  the 
army  of  Buell,  attacked  and  defeated  the  enemy.  The 
Union  army  lost  here  about  1600  killed  and  7200  wounded, 
and  the  enemy  lost  as  many  or  more.  In  July,  Grant 
became  commander  of  a  newly-formed  department, 
comprising  Northern  Mississippi,  West  Tennessee,  and 
Western  Kentucky.  His  great  object  was  to  open  the 
Mississippi  River  by  the  capture  of  Vicksburg, — a  very 
difficult  enterprise.  A  part  of  his  army,  under  Rose- 
crans,  gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Corinth  on  the  4th 
and  5th  of  October.  Generals  Grant  and  Sherman  made 
several  unsuccessful  attempts  to  take  Vicksburg  in  the 
winter  of  1862-63.  Having  adopted  a  new  plan  of  ap- 
proach, he  moved  his  army  by  land  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  river  to  a  point  below  Vicksburg.  Co-operating  with 
him,  the  gun-boats  under  Captain  Porter,  and  transports 
loaded  with  supi^lies,  passed  the  batteries  of  Vicksburg 
safely  on  the  night  of  April  16.  Grant's  army  crossed 
the  river  about  the  30th  of  April,  defeated  the  enemy  at 
Raymond,  at  Jackson,  May  14,  at  Champion's  Hill,  (or 
Baker's  Creek,)  May  16,  and  at  the  Big  Black.  Having 
prevented  General  J.  E.  Johnston  from  effecting  a  junc- 
tion with  Pemberton,  who  commanded  at  Vicksburg,  he 
commenced  the  siege  of  that  important  place  about  the 
1 8th  of  May.  The  capture  of  Vicksburg,  which,  with 
about  30,000  prisoners,  was  surrendered  on  the  4th  of 
July,  1863,  caused  great  exultation  among  the  friends 
of  the  Union.  General  Grant  was  rewarded  for  this 
serj^.e  by  promotion  to  the  rank  of  major-general  in 
the  regular  army. 

In  October,  1863,  he  obtained  command  of  the  Military 
Division  of  the  Mississippi,  comprising  the  departments 
of  the  Ohio,  of  the  Cumberland,  and  of  the  Tennessee. 
Among  General  Grant's  important  characteristics  as  a 
great  commander  is  the  rare  sagacity  which  he  uniformly 
displayed  in  the  choice  of  his  subordinate  officers.  On  this 
occasion  he  selected  Generals  Sherman  and  Thomas  as 
his  principal  lieutenants,  and  concentrated  his  armies  for 
the  defence  of  Chattanooga,  which  was  partly  invested  by 
General  Bragg.  His  design  was  promoted  by  the  impru- 
dence of  Bragg,  who  sent  Longstreet  with  about  20,000 
men  to  besiege  Knoxville.  The  army  of  Bragg,  holding 
strong  positions  on  the  Missionary  Ridge  and  Lookout 
Mountain,  was  attacked  on  the  24th  and  retreated  on  the 
25th  of  November.  A  part  of  this  great  battle,  it  is  said, 
was  f(night  above  the  clouds.  It  is  stated  that  from  the 
beginning  of  the  war  to  December  7,  1863,  the  armies 
under  Grant's  command  had  captured  472  pieces  of 
cannon  and  90,000  prisoners.  In  the  mean  time,  the 
Federal  armies  in  the  East  had  failed  disastrously  in 
successive  campaigns  against  Richmond  ;  and  the  eyes 
of  the  nation  turned  to  Grant  as  the  general  most  com- 
petent to  direct  all  the  armies  of  the  Union.  The  grade 
of  lieutenant-general  was  revived  for  him  by  Congress, 
and  he  was  appointed  commander  of  all  the  armies  by 
the  President  on  the  12th  of  March,  1864, — the  most  im- 
portant appointment  ever  made  by  an  American  Presi- 
dent. He  was  thus  summoned  to  a  new  scene  of  action 
and  a  position  of  immense  responsibility.  The  forces 
of  the  enemy  were  mostly  concentrated  in  two  large 
armies, — one  in  Virginia,  commanded  by  Robert  E.  Lee, 
and  the  other  in  Northern  Georgia,  led  by  J.  E.  John- 
ston. General  Grant  selected  General  Sherman  to  op- 
pose the  latter,  and  himself  directed  in  person  the  army 
of  the  Potomac,  which  opened  the  campaign  by  crossing 
the  Rapidan  on  the  4th  of  May  and  moving  towards 
Richmond  by  a  route  which  was  naturally  strong  for 
purposes  of  defence  and  was  well  fortified  at  various 
points.    Before  he  began  this  movement,  he  appointed 


General  Sheridan  commander  of  all  the  cavalry  of  his 
army.  Hancock,  Warren,  Sedgwick,  and  Burnside,  sub- 
ject to  the  orders  of  General  Meade,  commanded  the 
several  corps  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  which  probably 
amounted  to  150,000  men. 

On  the  5th  of  May,  Grant's  army  met  the  enemy  near 
Mine  Run  ;  and  then  began  the  great  and  indecisive 
battle  of  the  Wilderness,  so  named  because  it  was  fought 
in  an  extensive  forest.  The  battle  was  renewed  about 
five  A.M.  on  the  6th,  and  continued  with  unabated  fury 
until  darkness  interposed.  In  the  ensuing  night  Lee's 
army  retired  behind  their  intrenched  lines.  Grant  then 
moved  his  army  by  the  enemy's  right  flank,  intending 
to  put  his  whole  force  between  Lee  and  Richmond  ;  but 
Lee,  moving  on  a  shorter  line,  again  checked  his  pro- 
gress at  vSpottsylvania  Court- House,  where  the  9th,  loth, 
and  nth  were  spent  in  fighting  and  manoeuvring  with- 
out decisive  results.  A  dispatch  of  Grant,  dated  May 
II,  concludes  with  this  famous  sentence:  "I  propose  to 
fight  it  out  on  this  line,  if  it  takes  all  summer."  On  the 
1 2th  Hancock's  corps  attacked  the  enemy  and  captured 
nearly  4000  prisoners.  In  the  mean  time,  another  army, 
directed  by  General  Butler  and  operating  against  Rich- 
mond from  the  east,  took  City  Point  and  Bermuda  Hun- 
dred on  the  5th  of  May.  In  consequence  of  another 
flank  movement  made  by  Grant  about  May  21,  Lee 
marched  southward  across  the  North  Anna  River,  and 
again  confronted  the  Federal  army.  Finding  Lee's  po- 
sition on  the  North  Anna  very  strong.  Grant  again  turned 
it  by  moving  round  the  enemy's  right,  and  crossed  the 
Pamunkey  River  on  the  28th,  at  a  point  about  fifteen 
miles  from  Richmond. 

On  the  3d  of  June,  Grant  attacked  the  enemy's  works 
at  Cold  Harbour,  but  was  repulsed  with  heavy  loss.  The 
anny  of  the  Potomac  crossed  the  James  River,  June  14 
and  15,  formed  a  junction  with  the  army  of  Butler,  and 
commenced  the  siege  of  Petersburg.  Having  made  a 
breach  in  the  works  by  exploding  a  mine,  the  Union 
army  assaulted  Petersburg  on  the  30th  of  July,  but  failed 
to  take  it.  In  September  and  October,  General  vSheridan 
gained  several  decisive  victories  in  the  Shenandoah  Val- 
ley. (See  Sheridan,  Philip  H.)  The  army  of  Grant 
remained  nearly  inactive  before  Petersburg  during  the 
winter  of  1864-65;  but  Sherman  continued  to  operate 
in  Georgia  and  Carolina  with  signal  success,  and  moved 
rapidly  towards  Virginia.  Savannah,  Charleston,  and 
Wilmington  were  taken  in  quick  succession  by  General 
Sherman. 

The  armies  operating  against  Richmond  and  Peters- 
burg commenced  a  movement  on  the  31st  of  March 
to  cut  the -Danville  and  Southside  Railroads,  by  which 
Lee's  army  was  supplied.  On  the  ist  of  April,  Sheridan 
and  Warren  assaulted  the  works  at  Five  Forks,  and 
took  about  5000  prisoners.  On  the  morning  of  the  2d 
a  combined  assault  was  made  on  the  lines  of  Petersburg, 
with  great  success.  Having  been  driven  from  their  main 
line  of  defence,  and  having  lost  several  thousand  pris- 
oners in  this  attack.  Lee's  army  evacuated  Petersburg 
and  Richmond  in  the  night  of  April  2,  and  retreated 
towards  Danville,  closely  pursued.  The  Federals  at- 
tacked a  part  of  Lee's  force  near  Sailor's  Creek  on  the 
6th,  and  captured  about  6000  prisoners.  On  the  7th, 
General  Grant  opened  a  correspondence  with  General 
Lee,  who  surrendered  his  army  at  Appomattox  Court- 
House  on  the  9th  of  April,  1865,  after  which  the  insur- 
gents everywhere  gave  up  the  contest. 

To  reward  the  services  of  Grant,  Congress  passed  in 
July,  1866,  a  bill  to  "revive  the  grade  of  General  of  the 
Army  of  the  United  States,"  and  he  was  appointed  to 
that  position.  He  became  secretary  of  war  ad  ititerim 
about  the  ist  of  August,  1867.  When  President  Johnson 
ordered  the  removal  of  General  Sheridan,  General  Grant, 
departing  from  his  habitual  reticence,  defended  the  latter 
with  spirit,  and  objected  to  his  removal  in  a  letter  which 
convinced  the  public  that  the  writer  was  not  an  admirer 
of  Johnson's  policy.  He  ceased  to  be  secretary  ad  intC' 
rim  on  the  14th  of  January,  1868,  when  he  gave  up  the 
war  department  to  Mr.  Stanton  against  the  will  of  the 
President,  who  vainly  tempted  General  Grant  to  violate 
the  law  of  Congress.  In  a  letter  of  General  Grant,  dated 
February  3,  1868,  and  addressed  to  President  Johnson, 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Vi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GRANT 


1072 


GRJSSE-TILLr 


he  writes,  "  I  cannot  but  regard  tliis  whole  matter  as  an 
attempt  to  involve  me  in  the  resistance  of  law  for  which 
you  hesitated  to  assume  the  responsibility,  in  order  thus 
to  destroy  my  character  before  the  country."  At  the 
National  Republican  Convention,  May  21,  1868,  he  was 
unanimously  nominated  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency 
of  the  United  States  on  the  first  ballot,  receiving  the 
votes  of  six  hundred  and  fifty  delegates. 

His  Democratic  competitor  was  Horatio  Seymour,  of 
New  York,  General  Grant  accepted  the  nomination  by 
a  letter  ending  with  this  sentence,  *'  Let  us  have  peace  !" 
which  became  the  watchword  of  the  campaign.  After 
a  very  exciting  canvass.  Grant  and  Colfax  were  elected 
by  a  large  majority,  receiving  two  hundred  and  fourteen 
electoral  votes,  cast  by  twenty-six  States, — viz.,  the  six 
States  of  New  England,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  North  Caro- 
lina, South  Carolina,  West  Virginia,  Florida,  Alabama, 
Tennessee,  Arkansas,  Missouri,  and  all  the  Western 
States  except  Oregon.  Mr.  Seymour  received  eighty 
electoral  votes.  This  result  proved  that  the  name  of 
General  Grant  was  a  tower  of  strength  to  the  Republican 
party,  whose  ascendency  had  been  seriously  menaced  by 
the  reaction  of  1867.  During  the  first  half-year  of  his 
administration  the  public  del)t  was  reduced  over  fifty 
million  dollars,  and  order  and  prosperity  were  rapidly 
restored,  especially  in  the  Southern  States.  After  his 
election  to  the  Presidency,  he  declared  himself  in  favour 
of  the  fifteenth  Amenchnent  to  the  Constitution,  which 
ordains  that  no  person  shall  be  disfranchised  on  account 
of  colour,  race,  etc.  Having  resigned  his  supreme  rank 
in  the  army,  he  conferred  the  same  on  his  friend  and 
companion-in-arms.  General  W.  T.  Sherman, 

See  A.  Badeau,  "Military  History  of  U.  S.  Grant,"  2  vols.; 
C.  A.  Phelps,  "  Life  of  U.  S.  Grant,"  1868  ;  J.  T.  Headley,  "  Life 
of  U.  S.  Grant;"  A.  D.  Richardson,  "Personal  History  of  U.  S. 
Grant,"  1S68  ;  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  "Men  of  our  Times," 
Hartford,  1868;  H.  Coppee,  "Grant  and  his  Campaigns,"  1866;  E. 
Howland,  "Grant  as  a  Soldier  and  Statesman,"  London,  1868; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  i86g. 

Grant,  (Sir  William,)  an  eminent  orator  and  judge, 
born  in  the  county  of  Moray,  Scotland,  in  1754.  He 
entered  Parliament  about  1790,  and  supported  Pitt.  He 
became  solicitor-general  in  1799,  and  was  master  of  the 
rolls  from  1801  to  181 7,  Died  in  1832.  His  forensic 
eloquence  is  highly  praised. 

See  Lord  Brougham,  "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  IIL;" 
Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  viii. 

Granticci,  gRi-noot'chee,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Lucca  about  1534,  published  lives  of  Tamerlane 
and  Scanderbeg,  and  a  number  of  tales  and  novels. 

Grauvelle,  de,  gran'vgl,  [Fr.  pron,  deh  grSN'v^K,] 
(Antoine  de  Perrenot — deh  pi'reh-no'  or  p^R^no',) 
Cardinal,  an  eminent  French  statesman,  was  born  at 
Besan9on  in  1517.  He  was  early  distinguished  by  the 
favour  of  Charles  V.  of  Germany,  who  employed  him  in 
several  important  embassies,  and,  at  the  time  of  his  ab- 
dication, recommended  him  to  his  son,  Philip  II.  He 
was  successively  created  Bishop  of  Arras,  Archbishop 
of  Mechlin,  councillor  of  state  and  kee])er  of  the  seals, 
(1550,)  and  a  cardinal,  {1561,)  His  business  talent  was 
extraordinary  ;  and  he  is  said  to  have  dictated  to  five 
Secretaries  at  once  in  different  languages.  When  Mar- 
garet of  Austria  became  the  ruler  of  the  Netherlands, 
Granvelle  was  made  her  chief  counsellor.  In  this  post 
the  severity  of  his  measures  against  the  Protestants 
roused  the  people  to  such  resistance  that  Philip  was 
compelled  to  remove  him  in  1563.  He  was  subsequently 
created  Archbishop  of  Besan9on,  and  Viceroy  of  Naples 
about  1571.  Died  at  Madrid  in  1586.  Nine  volumes  or 
more  of  his  letters,  state  papers,  etc.  have  been  published 
since  1841. 

See  Motley,  "Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  vol.  i.  p.  248,  and 
vol.  iii.  p.  492;  Prescott,  "History  of  Philip  II.,"  vols.  i.  and  ii.  ; 
CouRCHETET,  "  Histoire  du  Cardinal  de  Granvelle,"  1761 ;  E.  C.  de 
Gerlache,  "Philippe  II  et  Granvelle,"  1842. 

Granvelle,  de,  (Nicol.as  Perrenot,)  a  distinguished 
French  diplomatist,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Ornans  in  i486.  Having  filled  several  high  offices  in 
France,  he  entered  the  service  of  Charles  V.  of  Germany, 
who  honoured  him  with  his  confidence,  and  made  him  a 
chancellor  in  1530.  He  was  also  employed  in  various 
important  negotiations.    Died  in  1550. 


Gran'ville,  Greenville,  or  Gren'ville,  (George,) 
Viscount  Lansdowne,  an  English  statesman  and  poet, 
born  in  1667,  He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
and  in  1696  published  his  tragedy  of  "  Heroic  Love," 
It  was  followed  by  "The  British  Enchanters,"  (1706,)  a 
drama,  which  was  very  successful.  Soon  after  the  ac- 
cession of  Queen  Anne,  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for 
Fowey,  and  acted  with  the  Tory  party.  On  the  change 
of  the  ministry  in  1710,  he  succeeded  Walpole  as  secre- 
tary of  war.  He  was  made  a  peer  of  Great  Britain, 
with  the  title  of  Lord  Lansdowne,  in  1711,  and  in  1712 
was  appointed  one  of  the  privy  council,  and  treasurer 
of  the  household.  On  the  accession  of  George  I.  he 
was  deprived  of  his  place,  and,  being  suspected  of  pro- 
moting the  cause  of  the  Pretender,  was  imprisoned  for 
a  time  in  the  Tower.  In  1722  he  visited  Paris,  where 
he  resided  ten  years,  Granville  was  a  generous  patron 
of  literary  men,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to  encourage 
the  rising  genius  of  Pope,  who  dedicated  to  him  his 
"Windsor  Forest,"    Died  in  1735, 

See  "  Biographia  Dramatica  ;"  Johnson  and  Chalmers,  "  Lives 
of  the  English  Poets;"  Walpole,  "Royal  and  Noble  Authors." 

Granville,  (Granville  George  Leveson  Gower,) 
Earl,  an  English  statesman,  son  of  Earl  Granville,  no- 
ticed below,  was  born  in  181 5.  He  was  twice  elected 
member  of  Parliament  for  Morpeth,  and  represented 
Lichfield  from  1841  to  1846,  when  he  succeeded  his 
father  in  the  House  of  I^ords.  During  the  Universal 
Exhibition  of  1851  at  the  Crystal  Palace  in  London, 
Lord  Granville  was  chairman  of  the  executive  committee. 
In  December,  1851,  he  succeeded  Lord  Palmerston  as 
minister  of  foreign  afifairs  in  Lord  Russell's  cabinet,  and 
in  1855  was  appointed  president  of  the  council.  He  re- 
signed in  1858.  He  was  again  president  of  the  council 
in  the  cabinet  of  Palmerston,  and  leader  of  the  House 
of  Lords,  from  1859  to  June,  1866,  In  December,  1868, 
he  became  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies  in  the  new 
cabinet  formed  by  Mr,  Gladstone.  He  is  distinguished 
as  a  skilful  debater,  and  is  called  the  leader  of  the  House 
of  Lords. 

Granville,  (Granville  Leveson  Gov^er,)  Earl,  an 
English  statesman,  a  son  of  the  Marquis  of  Stafford,  was 
born  in  1773.  He  was  appointed  lord  of  the  treasury 
under  Pitt  in  1800,  and  was  afterwards  employed  on  im- 
portant missions  to  Russia,  the  Netherlands,  and  France. 
He  was  created  Baron  Leveson  and  Earl  Granville  in 
1833,  having  previously  obtained  the  grand  cross  of  the 
order  of  the  Bath.    Died  in  1846. 

Granville,  Lord.    See  Carteret,  (John.) 

Granville,  (Mary.)    See  Delany,  (Mary.) 

Grapaldi,gRa-pai'dee,  (Francesco  Mario,)  a  learned 
Italian  writer,  born  at  Parma  about  1465  ;  died  in  1515. 

Grapius,  gRi'pe-iis,  or  Grappius,  (Zacharias,)  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Rostock  in  1671,  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  "Literary  History  of  the  Talmud," 
(1696.)    Died  in  1713. 

Grappin,  gRt'piN',  (Pierre  Philippe,)  a  French 
Benedictine  and  historical  writer,  born  in  Franche- 
Comte  in  1738  ;  died  in  1833. 

See  Charles  Weiss,  "  Notice  sur  Dom  Grappin." 

Graser,  gRi'zer,  (Johann  Baptist,)  a  German  divine 
and  educational  writer,  born  in  Lower  Franconia  in  1766, 
He  published  "  Divinity,  or  the  Principle  of  True  Edu- 
cation," (1810,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1841. 

Graslin,  gRSOAw',  (Jean  Joseph  Louis,)  a  French 
political  economist,  born  at  Tours  in  1727  ;  died  in  1790. 

Grasse  or  Graesse,  gR§s'seh,  (Johann  Georg  Theo- 
DOR,)  a  German  bibliographer  and  antiquary,  born  at 
Grimma  in  1814.  He  wrote  a  "Manual  of  the  General 
History  of  Literature,"  (1837,)  a  "Manual  of  Ancient 
Numismatics,"  and  other  works. 

Grasse,  de,  Comte.    See  Grasse-Tilly. 

Grasser,  guSs'ser,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Swiss  theolo- 
gian and  historical  writer,  born  at  Bale  in  1579,  wrote  a 
history  of  the  Waldenses,  ("Chronicon  der  Walden- 
ser.")    Died  in  1627, 

Grasse-Tilly,  de,  deh  gRts'te'ye',  (Francois  Joseph 
Paul,)  Comte,  commonly  known  as  Count  de  Grasse, 
a  French  naval  ofiicer,  born  at  Valette  in  1723.  He 
served  in  the  American  war,  and  in  1781  assisted  Wash- 
ington, La  Fayette,  and  Rochambeau  in  the  capture  of 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  /on^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  s^ort;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GRJSSI 


1073 


GRAUNT 


Connvallis.  He  vvas  afterwards  sent  to  the  West  Indies, 
where  he  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Eng- 
lish admiral  Rodney  in  April,  1782.    Died  in  1788. 

See  Gekakd,  "Vies  des  plus  illustres  Marins  Fran^ais." 

Grassi,  guSs'see,  (Giuseppe,)  one  of  the  best  Italian 
portrait-painters  of  his  time,  born  in  Friuli  in  1756.  He 
became  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Dresden  in 
1799.    Died  in  1838. 

Grassi,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Turin 
in  1779.  Among  his  works  is  an  "Essay  on  the  Syno- 
nyms of  the  Italian  Language,"  (1821  ;  3d  edition,  1824.) 
Died  in  1831. 

Grassi,  (Orazio,)  an  Italian  astronomer  and  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Savona  in  1582.  He  was  chiefly  noted 
for  his  controversy  with  Galileo  about  the  nature  of 
comets.  Grassi  affirmed  that  comets  revolve  around 
the  sun  in  definite  orbits.    Died  in  1654. 

Grassis,  de,  di  grds's^ss,  (Paris,)  an  Italian  his- 
torical writer,  born  at  Bologna.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Pesaro  in  1 5 13.    Died  in  1 528. 

Graswinkel,gR^s'<Vin''kel,  (Theodorus,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  jurist,  born  at  Delft  in  1600.  He  was  appointed 
to  several  important  offices  under  the  government,  and 
was  made  a  knight  of  Saint  Mark  by  the  Venetians  for 
having  defended  their  republic  in  a  dispute  with  the 
Duke  of  Savoy.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "  On 
the  Sovereignty  of  the  States  of  Holland,"  (in  Dutch,) 
and  "Vindication  of  the  Freedom  of  the  Sea,"  ("Maris 
Liberi  Vindicias,"  1652,)  and  other  works  in  Latin.  He 
was  a  relative  of  the  celebrated  Grotius.    Died  in  1666. 

See  Bayi.e,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Foppens, 
"  Biblioilieca  Belgica." 

Grataroli,  gR^-tS-ro'lee,  (Guglielmo,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician and  medical  writer,  born  at  Bergamo  in  1 5 16. 
To  avoid  persecution  for  religion,  he  removed  to  Bale, 
where  he  died  in  1568. 

See  NiCERON,  "Menioires." 

Gratella,  gRi-teKId,  or  Gratello,  gRS-teKlo,  the  sur- 
name of  P^iLiPPO  Sebastiano  Bas'i  ianino,  an  eminent 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Ferrara  about  1530,  was  a  pupil 
and  one  of  the  most  successful  ii%itators  of  Michael  An- 
gelo.  He  excelled  in  the  science  of  design  and  in  energy 
of  composition.  His  fresco  of  "  The  Last  Judgment," 
in  tl.e  cathedral  of  Ferrara,  is  esteemed  his  master-piece. 
Died  in  1602. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizio- 
naiio." 

Grater  or  Graeter,  gRa'ter,  (Friedrich  David,) 
a  German  antiquary,  born  in  1768.  His  "Nordische 
Blumen"  (1789)  had  great  success.    Died  in  1830. 

Gratiae,  the  Latin  name  of  the  Graces.  See 

C ha  RITES. 

Gratian,gra'she-an,  [Lat.  Gratia'nus  ;  Fr.  Gratien, 
gut'se^N'',]  a  Roman  emperor,  who  in  375  a.d.  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Valentinian  I.,  and  becanie  joint  ruler 
of  the  Western  Empire  with  his  brother,  Valentinian  II. 
His  uncle,  Valens,  who  ruled  the  Eastern  Empire,  having 
fallen  in  battle  in  378,  Gratian  appointed  Theodosius  in 
his  place.  In  383  a  revolt  broke  out  in  Britain,  and 
a  certain  Maximus  proclaimed  himself  emperor  and 
invaded  Gaul.  Gratian  advanced  to  meet  him,  but, 
being  forsaken  by  the  greater  part  of  his  army,  was 
seized  and  put  to  death  at  Lyons.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  justice  and  clemency,  and  his  zeal  in  promoting 
Christianity. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  books 
xxvii.,  xxviii.,  xxix.,and  xxx.  ;  Ammianus  M  arcei.linus  ;  Socrates, 
'"Historia  Ecclesiastica ;"  Tillemont,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Gratian  or  Gratia'nus,  [Fr.  Gratien,]  an  Italian 
Benedictine  monk,  a  native  of  Tuscany,  lived  about 
1125-50,  and  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Decre- 
tum,"  being  a  collection  of  the  canons  of  the  Church. 
It  was  received  with  great  favour  by  the  pope,  and  has 
been  generally  adopted  by  the  Catholic  colleges. 

Gratiani.    See  Graziani. 

Gratien,  the  French  for  Gratian,  which  see. 

Gratien,  gRt'seJ.N',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  theo- 
logian and  writer,  born  in  1747,  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  the  Lower  Seine  in  1792.    Died  in  1799. 

Gratiolet,  gRt'te'o'iy,  (Louis  Pierre,)  a  French 
naturalist  and  anatomist,  born  at  Sainte-Foy  (Gironde) 


in  181 5.  He  wrote  treatises  on  anatomy,  and  became  in 
1854  an  assistant  naturalist  in  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  Paris.    Died  in  1865. 

Gra'tius,(gra'she-us,)  a  Latin  poet,  and  friend  of  Ovid, 
surnamed  Falis'cus  from  the  place  of  his  birth.  His 
only  extant  poem  is  entitled  "  Cynegeticon." 

Gratius,  gnat'se-us,  or  Graes,  gR^s,  (Ortwin,)  a 
German  Roman  Catholic  theologian,  born  in  the  diocese 
of  Miinster,  became  professor  at  Cologne  in  1509.  He 
was  ridiculed  by  Hutten  and  Reuchlin  in  the  "  Letters 
of  Obscure  Men,"  ("  Epistolae  Obscurorum  Virorum,") 
which  were  addressed  to  Gratius.    Died  in  1541. 

Grat'tan,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  Irish  statesman  and 
orator,  born  at  Dublin  in  1750.  He  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  and  subsequently  studied  law  in  Lon- 
don. In  1775  ^vas  chosen  to  represent  the  borough 
of  Charlemont  in  the  Irish  Parliament,  where  he  acted 
with  the  opposition  or  Whig  party  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  zeal  and  eloquence,  and  acquired  great 
popularity.  In  1780  he  procured  the  passage  of  the 
resolution  "that  the  king's  most  excellent  Majesty,  and 
the  Lords  and  Commons  of  Ireland,  are  the  only  power 
competent  to  make  laws  to  bind  Ireland."  About  this 
time  he  received  from  the  Irish  Parliament  the  sum  of 
fifty  thousand  pounds,  "as  a  testimonial  of  the  national 
gratitude  for  his  great  national  services."  In  1785  he 
opposed  the  propositions  relating  to  the  trade  between 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  known  as  Orde's  Propositions, 
and,  in  consequence  chiefly  of  his  efforts,  they  were 
abandoned.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament  in  1790  for 
Dublin,  and  advocated  the  cause  of  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion. On  the  recall  of  Lord  Fitzwilliam  from  Ireland, 
Grattan  retired  temporarily  from  the  public  service. 
When  the  union  with  Great  Britain  was  proposed,  he 
took  his  seat  again,  in  order  to  oppose  it,  and  after  the 
measure  was  carried,  in  1805,  entered  the  Imperial  Par- 
liament, first  as  member  for  Malton,  and  the  following 
year  for  Dublin.  In  1806  he  was  offered  by  Mr.  Fox 
the  office  of  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  which  he 
declined.  Having  been  requested  by  the  Catholics  of 
Ireland  to  present  a  petition  to  the  British  Parliament, 
he  complied,  although  in  declining  health.  He  grew 
worse  after  his  arrival  in  London,  and  died  there  in  May, 
1820.  Sir  James  Mackintosh,  in  his  eulogium  on  Grat- 
tan, says,  "The  purity  of  his  life  was  the  brightness  of 
his  glory.  Among  all  the  men  of  genius  I  have  known, 
I  have  never  found  so  much  native  grandeur  of  soul 
accompanying  all  the  wisdom  of  age  and  all  the  sim- 
plicity of  genius." 

See  H.  Grattan,  Jr.,  "Life  and  Times  of  Henry  Grattan," 
1839;  T.  Davis,  "Life  of  J.  P.  Curran  and  H.  Grattan,"  1846; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  February,  1823;  "Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  September  and  October,  1839. 

Grattan,  (Thomas  Colley,)  a  popular  Irish  novel- 
ist, born  in  Dublin  in  1796,  passed  some  years  on  the 
continent  of  Europe.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"Philibert,  a  Poetical  Romance,"  (Bordeaux,  1819,) 
"High- Ways  and  By- Ways,"  (2  vols.,  1823,)  "The 
Heiress  of  Bruges,"  (4  vols.,  1830,)  "Men  and  Cities; 
or.  Tales  of  Travel,"  (3  vols.,)  and  "  Agnes  de  Mansfelt," 
(1847.)  ^^'^s  British  consul  at  Boston  from  1839  to 

1853.    Died  in  1864. 

Graumann,  gRow'mIn,  (Johann  Philip?,)  a  Ger- 
man financier,  who  is  called  the  reformer  of  the  mone- 
tary system  in  Germany,  published  several  works  on 
currency  and  exchange.  He  became  director  of  the 
mint  at  Berlin  about  1750.    Died  in  1762. 

Graun,  gRown,  (Karl  Heinrich,)  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man composer,  born  in  Saxony  in  1 701.  The  fame  of 
his  early  performances  having  reached  the  crown-prince, 
afterwards  Frederick  the  Great,  he  was  taken  into  his 
service,  and  in  1740  appointed  his  chapel-master.  His 
oratorio  of  "The  Death  of  Jesus"  and  his  "Te  Deum" 
are  esteemed  master-pieces ;  his  operas  had  but  a  tran- 
sient reputation.    Died  in  Berlin  in  1759. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Graunt  or  Grant,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  English 
scholar  and  teacher,  born  about  1550,  was  for  tvsenty  years 
head-master  of  Westminster  School.  In  1 598  he  was  ap- 
pointed rector  of  Toppersfield,  in  Essex.  He  published 
elegant  Latin  poems,  and  a  "  Spicilegium  of  the  Greek 


€  as    9  as  j;  I  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

68 


GRAUNT 


1074 


GRAT 


Language,"  ("Graecae  Linguae  Spicilegium,"  1575.)  He 
was  a  friend  of  Camden  and  of  Roger  Ascham,  whose 
works  he  ecHted,  with  a  eulogy,  (1577.)    Died  i'^  1601. 

Graunt,  (John,)  an  English  merchant,  burn  in  Lon- 
don in  1620,  wrote  "Observations  on  the  Bills  of  Mor- 
tality." He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
in  1662,    Died  in  1674. 

Grauw,  gRow  or  hrow,  or  Graaso,  gRi'so,  (IIen- 
DRIK,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Horn  or  Hoorn  in  1627, 
was  a  pupil  of  Van  Kampen.  He  studied  in  Rome, 
and  settled  at  Alkmaar,  where  he  died  in  1681.  "His 
manner  of  composition,"  says  Descamps,  "is  noble, 
his  draperies  are  flowing,  and  his  colour  good," 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  dei?  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Gravander,gRS-v^n'der,  (Lars  Frederic,)  a  Swedish 
poet  and  physician,  born  in  1778,  was  active  in  his  efforts 
to  introduce  vaccination  into  his  country.  Died  in  1815. 

Grave,  de,  deh  gR^'veh,  (Charles  Joseph,)  a  Flem- 
ish jurist,  born  at  Ursel  in  1736.  He  wrote  a  curious 
work,  entitled  "The  Republic  of  the  Elysian  Fields,  or 
the  Ancient  World,"  (3  vols.,  1806.)    Died  in  1805. 

Gravel  or  Graevell,  gRa'vel,  (Maximilian  Karl 
Friedrich  WiLHELM,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Bel- 
gard  in  1781,  published,  among  other  treatises,  "The 
Anti-Platonic  vState,"  (1808,)  and  "General  Theory  of 
Compacts  according  to  Prussian  Law." 

Gravelot,  gRtv'lo',  (Hubert  FRANgois  Bourgui- 
gnon — booR-g^n'y6N'',)  a  celebrated  French  designer 
and  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1699,  was  a  brother  of  the 
great  geographer  D'Anville.  He  studied  under  Restout, 
and  subsequently  resided  many  years  in  London,  where 
he  acquired  great  skill  in  design  and  composition  and 
was  patronized  by  booksellers  and  publishers.  Among 
his  best  works  are  the  etchings  for  Theobald's  "Shake- 
sj^ere,"  and  illustrations  for  the  works  of  Racine  and 
Voltaire.    Died  in  1773. 

See  Basan,  "Supplement  au  DIctionnaire  des  Graveiirs." 

Gravenberg,  von,  fon  gR^'ven-b^Rc',  (Wirnt,)  a 
German  poet,  who  flourished  about  12 10.  His  chief 
work  is  entitled  "Wigalois." 

Graverol,  gRtv'roK,  (Franqois,)  a  French  Protest- 
ant, born  at  Nimes  in  1635,  w^as  eminent  as  a  jurist 
and  scholar.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Sorberiana,  etc.," 
"  Observations  on  the  Decisions  of  the  Parliainent  of 
Toulouse,"  and  numerous  antiquarian  treatises,  chiefly 
in  French.  He  was  well  versed  in  ancient  and  modern 
languages  and  numismatics,  and  was  perpetual  secretary 
of  the  Academy  of  Nimes.    Died  in  1694. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique ;"  MM.  Haag,  "La 
France  protestante." 

Graverol,  (Jean,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Nimes  in  1636,  (or  according  to  some,  in  1647,)  became 
successively  minister  of  the  Calvinistic  churches  at  Lyons, 
Amsterdam,  and  London,  and  wrote  several  esteemed 
theological  works.    Died  about  1720. 

Graves,  (Richard,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Glou- 
cestershire in  1 7 15,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the  poet 
Shenstone.  He  studied  at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford, 
and  became  rector  of  Claverton,  near  Bath,  in  1750. 
His  principal  work  is  a  satirical  novel,  entitled  "The 
S|)iritual  Quixote."  He  also  wrote  "  Recollections,  etc. 
of  the  Life  of  William  Shenstone."    Died  in  1804. 

Graves,  (Richard,)  a  divine,  born  in  the  county  of 
Limerick,  Ireland,  in  1763.  He  becaine  Dean  of  Ardagh 
in  1 813,  and  professor  of  divinity  in  the  University  of 
Dublin.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Lectures 
on  the  Four  I^ast  Books  of  the  Pentateuch,"  (2  vols., 
1807,)  which  are  highly  esteemed.  Home  pronounces 
them  "indispensably  necessary  to  the  biblical  student." 
("  Biblical  Bibliography.")    Died  in  1829. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Richard  Graves,"  by  his  son,  R.  H.  Graves,  1840. 

Graves,  (Robert  J.,)  an  Irish  physician,  son  of  the 
.preceding,  born  in  Dublin  about  1797.  He  was  professor 
of  medicine  in  the  school  of  physic.  Trinity  College, 
Dublin.  His  "  Clinical  Lectures  on  the  Practice  of  Medi- 
cine" {1843)  have  been  reprinted  in  the  United  States. 
Died  in  1853. 

Gravesande,  's,  ('s  Gravesande,)  van,  vtn  sgRcVveh- 
sSn'deh,  (  Willem  Jacob,)  an  eminent  Dutch  philosopher 
and  mathematician,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc  in  1688,  He 
studied  at  Leyden,  and  began  to  practise  law  at  the 


Hague  about  1707.  In  171 5  he  accompanied  as  secre- 
tary the  embassy  sent  to  England  by  the  States-General 
to  congratulate  George  I.  on  his  accession  to  the  throne. 
While  in  London,  he  became  intimate  with  Sir  Isaac 
Newton,  and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Having  been  appointed,  on  his  return  in  1717,  professor 
of  mathematics  and  astronomy  at  the  University  of  Ley- 
den, he  introduced  the  Newtonian  philosophy  into  that 
institution.  He  published,  among  other  scientific  works, 
"  Institutes  of  the  Newtonian  Philosophy."  Died  in  1742. 

See  C.  Mallet,  "  M^moire  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de 's  Gravesande," 
1858;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gravina,  gR^-vee'ni,  (Giovanni  Vincenzo,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  jurist  and  writer,  born  at  Roggiano,  in  Cala- 
bria, in  1664.  He  studied  at  Naples,  and  in  1689  repaired  , 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  appointed  in  1699  professor  of 
civil  law  in  the  college  di  Sapienza,  and,  in  1703,  of 
canon  law  in  the  same  institution.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Academy  of  the  Arcadi,  and  was  the 
author  of  a  treatise  entitled  "  Origin  of  Civil  Law," 
("  Origines  Juris  civilis,"  1713,)  which  obtained  great 
celebrity,  "Canonical  Institutes,"  (in  Latin,)  and  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Art  (or  Principles)  of  Poetry,"  ("Delia 
Ragione  poetica,")  also  a  number  of  poems  and  ora- 
tions. Gravina  was  the  preceptor  of  the  celebrated  poet 
Metastasio,  whom  he  adopted  as  his  son  and  to  whom 
he  bequeathed  his  property.    Died  in  Rome  in  1718. 

See  Fabkoni,  "Vitas  Italorum  ;"  Andrea  Serrao,  "  De  Vita  e 
Scriptis  Gravinse  Commentarius,"  1758;  F.  Valdrigi,  "  Elogio 
storico  di  G.  V.  Gravina,"  1816 ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdnerale." 

Gravina,  (Pietro,)  a  Sicilian  poet  and  ecclesiastic, 
born  at  Palermo  in  1453.  He  was  patronized. by  Gon- 
salvo  de  Cordova,  who  appointed  him  in  1500  a  canon 
of  Naples.  His  poems  in  Latin  and  Italian  were  highly 
esteemed  at  the  time.    Died  in  1527. 

See  RoscoE,  "  Life  of  Leo  X. ;"  Paolo  Giovio,  "  Elogia  Virorum 
illustrium ;"  "Vita  Gravinse,"  in  an  edition  of  his  poems. 

Gravina,  da,  dl  gR^-vee^nS,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian 
historian,  born  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  History  of  Naples  from  1332  to  1350," 
(in  Latin.)    Died  about  1350. 

Gravina,  de,  di  gt^l-vee'nS,  (Federico,)  Duke,  an 
admiral  in  the  Spanish  service,  was  born  at  Naples  about 
1750.  For  his  services  against  the  French  he  obtained 
the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1794.  Having  been  raised  to 
the  highest  rank — capitan-general — in  1 805,  he  combined 
his  fleet  with  that  of  the  French  admiral  Villeneuve. 
They  were  defeated  by  Nelson  at  Trafalgar,  (October  21, 
1805,)  where  Gravina  was  wounded.  He  died  of  the 
wound,  at  Cadiz,  in  February,  1806. 

See  Van  Tenac,  "  Histoire  generale  de  la  Marine;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Gravius.    See  Greaves,  (John.) 

Gravius  or  Graevius,  gRa've-iis,  (Johann  Georg,) 
an  eminent  German  scholar  and  critic,  whose  original 
name  was  Grafe,  (or  Graefe,)  was  born  at  Naumburg 
in  January,  1632.  He  became  professor  of  history  at 
Utrecht,  (1661.)  He  received  distinguished  marks  of 
favour  from  Louis  XIV.  of  France  and  other  sove- 
reigns of  Europe,  and  was  created  by  William  HI.  of 
England  his  historiograj^her.  Among  his  numerous  and 
excellent  editions  of  the  classics  we  may  name  those 
of  Hesiod,  Suetonius,  Cicero,  Propertius,  Catullus,  and 
Caesar.  He  also  wrote  "  Treasury  of  Roman  Antiqui- 
ties," ("Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Romanarum,"  12  vols., 
1694,)  and  "Treasury  of  Italian  Antiquities  and  His- 
tories," ("Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  et  Historiarum 
Italiae.")  The  latter  was  continued  by  Peter  Burmann. 
Died  at  Utrecht  in  1703. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Meinoires;"  C.  Burmann,  "Trajectum  erudi- 
turn;"  P.  Burmann,  "Oraiio  funebris  in  Graevii  Obituni,"  1703; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gray.    See  Grey. 

Gray,  (Asa,)  an  eminent  American  l^otanist,  born  at 
Paris,  Oneida  county,  New  York,  in  November,  1810. 
He  graduated  as  M.D.  at  Fairfield  College  in  183 1,  but 
preferred  the  study  of  botany  to  the  i^ractice  of  medi- 
cine. In  1842  he  was  appointed  Fisher  professor  of 
natural  history  at  Harvard  College.  He  published  ex- 
cellent works  entitled  "Elements  of  Botany,"  (1836,) 
"  Botanical  Text-Book,"  (1842,)  "Genera  of  Plants  of  the 
United  States,"  (1849,)  "Lessons  in  Botany,"  "Manual 


a,  e, o,  ii,  y,  long;  \k  h  -ame,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GRAT 


1075 


GREJTRAKES 


of  the  Botany  of  the  Northern  United  States,"  (1848,) 
"Structural  and  Systematic  Botany,"  (1858,)  and  "  How 
Plants  Grow,"  (1858.)  Professor  Gray  and  Dr.  Torrey 
were  joint  authors  of  a  "  Flora  of  North  America,"  (ist 
vol.,  1838.)  "As  an  accurate  analyst,"  says  the  "North 
American  Review"  for  October,  1858,  "  Professor  Gray 
has  received  a  just  meed  of  praise  from  all  foreign  bota- 
nists. Standing  as  he  does  at  the  head  of  the  science 
in  our  own  country,  and  scarcely  inferior  to  any  botanist 
of  the  Old  World,  we  consider  it  a  subject  of  congratu- 
lation that  he  has  found  time,  amidst  his  multifarious 
avocations  of  a  high  order,  to  write  two  books  expressly 
for  the  young."  His  "  Botanical  Text-Book"  was  used 
for  several  years  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 

See  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1843. 

Gray,  (David,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  not  far  from 
Glasgow  in  1838;  died  in  1861.  A  volume  of  his  poems, 
with  an  introductory  notice  by  R.  Monckton  Milnes, 
and  memoirs  of  his  life,  was  published  in  1865. 

Gray,  (Francis  Galley,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
scholar,  born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  1790.  He  was 
private  secretary  to  John  Quincy  Adams  during  his  mis- 
sion to  Russia.  He  contributed  many  articles  to  the 
"North  American  Review,"  and  published  other  works, 
in  prose  and  verse.    Died  in  1856. 

Gray,  (George  Robert,)  an  eminent  English  natu- 
ralist, and  senior  assistant  in  the  zoological  department 
of  the  British  Museum,  was  born  at  Chelsea  in  1808. 
He  published  "The  Genera  of  Birds,"  illustrated  by  D. 
\V.  Mitchell,  (3  vols.  4to,  with  371  plates,  1837-49,) 
a  splendid  and  valuable  work.  H-e  also  wrote  many 
memoirs  on  birds  and  insects  for  scientific  journals,  etc. 

Gray,  (Henry  Peters,)  an  American  painter,  born 
in  New  York  in  1819.  He  studied  in  Europe,  and 
on  his  return,  in  1846,  established  himself  in  his  native 
city.  Among  his  numerous  vvorks  we  may  mention 
"Cupid  Begging  his  Arrows,"  "The  Wages  of  War," 
"Apjjle  of  Discord,"  "Blessed  are  the  Pure  in  Heart," 
and  "  Hagar  and  the  Angel." 

Gray,  (John  Edward,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English 
naturalist,  brother  of  George  Robert,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Walsall  in  1800.  He  was  for  many  years  the 
head  of  the  department  of  natural  history  in  the  British 
Museum,  the  completeness  and  excellent  order  of  which 
are  to  be  ascribed,  it  is  said,  chiefly  to  his  efforts.  He 
prepared  several  catalogues  of  that  museum,  and  be- 
tween 1825  and  i860  wrote  several  hundred  memoirs  on 
zoology,  which  have  been  published  in  various  journals. 

Gray,  (Rohert,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  London 
in  1762,  becanie,  in  1827,  Bishop  of  Bristol.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "Key  to  the  Old  Testament  and  Apocry- 
pha," (1790,)  "Connexion  between  the  Sacred  Writings 
and  the  Literature  of  Jewish  and  Heathen  Authors," 
(1819,)  and  other  valuable  religious  works.  Died  in  1834. 

Gray,  (Stephen,)  an  English  experimental  philoso- 
pher, made  several  valuable  discoveries  with  regard  to 
electricity,  and  was  the  inventor  of  an  electric  planeta- 
rium.   Died  in  1736. 

See  Priestley's  "  History  of  Electricity." 

Gray,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  poet,  born  in 
London  in  1716.  He  was  sent  at  an  early  age  to  Eton, 
where  he  formed  an  intimacy  with  Horace  Walpole  and 
Richard  West,  son  of  the  Chancellor  of  Ireland.  He 
studied  at  Peter-House  College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1739 
visited  France  and  Italy  in  company  with  Horace  Wal- 
pole. After  they  had  spent  some  time  together  at  Rome 
and  Florence,  the  difference  in  their  tastes  caused  a  dis- 
agreement between  them,  and  they  separated.  "Gray," 
says  Walpole,  "was  too  serious  a  companion.  He  was 
for  antiquities,  etc.,  whilst  I  was  for  perpetual  balls  and 
plays  :  the  fault  was  mine."  Gray  returned  to  England 
in  1 741,  and  in  1742  took  his  degree  of  bachelor  of  civil 
law  at  Cambridge,  where  he  continued  to  reside,  on  ac- 
count of  the  facilities  for  study  which  the  place  afforded. 
About  this  time  he  wrote  his  "  Ode  to  Spring,"  "Hymn 
to  Adversity,"  and  "  Ode  on  a  Distant  Prospect  of  Eton 
College,"  which  were  published  some  years  after.  Plis 
"Elegy  written  in  a  Country  Church-Yard"  (1749)  was 
received  with  the  greatest  favour,  and  soon  ran  through 
eleven  editions.  No  poem,  perhaps,  was  ever  more  uni- 
versally admired  :  it  has  been  translated  into  the  prin- 


cipal modern  languages  of  Europe,  a  dozen  different 
versions  having,  it  is  said,  appeared  in  French.  In  1743 
Gray  lost  his  most  intimate  friend.  West,  whom  he  has 
lamented  in  an  English  sonnet  and  in  the  apostrophe  to 
his  unfinished  poem  "  De  Principiis  Cogitandi."  This 
bereavement  was  followed  in  1753  by  the  death  of  the 
poet's  mother,  a  woman  of  great  excellence,  to  whom  he 
had  been  devotedly  attached.  He  published  in  1757 
his  "Ode  on  the  Progress  of  Poesy,"  and  "The  liard," 
which,  being  less  adapted  to  the  popular  taste,  were  less 
generally  appreciated.  On  the  death  of  Cibber,  in  the 
same  year,  the  vacant  laureateship  was  offered  to  Gray; 
but  it  was  declined.  He  was  appointed  in  1769  profes- 
sor of  modern  history  at  Cambridge.  In  1770  his  health, 
which  had  been  some  time  declining,  became  much  worse, 
and  he  died  in  July,  1771,  of  an  attack  of  gout  in  the 
stomach.  Gray  occupies  a  very  high  rank  in  English 
literature,  not  only  as  a  poet,  but  as  an  elegant  prose- 
writer  and  an  accomplished  scholar.  He  delighted  in 
knowledge  for  its  own  sake,  and  his  profound  and  varied 
learning  embraced,  in  addition  to  classical  and  scientific 
studies,  those  of  antiquities  and  the  fine  arts. 

See  Mason,  "Life  of  T.  Gray,"  1778;  Mitford,  "Life  of  T. 
Gray,"  prefixed  to  his  Works,  1816  ;  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  English 
Poets  f  Hazlitt,  "  Lectures  on  the  English  Poets;"  HenkyRked, 
"Memoir  of  T.  Gray,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  poems,  1850; 
Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Gray'dpn,  (Alexander,)  a  writer,  born  at  Bristol, 
Pennsylvania,  in  1752,  was  a  soldier  in  the  American 
Revolution.  He  published  "  Memoirs  of  a  Life  chiefly 
passed  in  Pennsylvania,"  etc.,  (181 1.)    Died  in  1818. 

See  DuYCKiNCK,  "Cyclopajdia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Gray'son,  (William  J.,)  an  American  politician  and 
poet,  horn  in  Beaufort,  South  Carolina,  in  1 788.  He  repre- 
sented a  district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from  1833 
to  1837.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Hireling  and  the 
Slave,"  a  poem,  (1854,)  and  "Chicora,"  an  Indian  tale. 

Graziani,  gRit-se-i'nee,  an  Italian  sculptor,  whose 
proper  name  was  Battista  Ballanti,  was  born  at 
Faenza  in  1762  ;  died  in  1835. 

Graziani,  (Antonio  Maria,)  an  Italian  prelate  and 
historical  writer,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1537.  He  became 
secretary  to  Pope  Sixtus  V.  in  1584,  and  in  1592  was 
created  Bishop  of  Amelia  by  Clement  VIII.,  in  whose 
election  he  had  a  prominent  part.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  War  of  Cyprus,"  (in  Latin,)  and  a  work 
"On  the  Fortunes  of  Illustrious  Men,"("De  Casibus 
Virorum  illustrium,"  1680,)  also  a  life  (in  Latin)  of  his 
friend  and  patron  Cardinal  Commendone.  Died  in  1611. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Grazi- 
ani, "De  Scriptis  invita  Minerva,"  1725,  which  contains  his  auto- 
biography. 

Graziani,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at 
Bergamo  about  1670,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Venice  from 
1615  to  1700,"  (2  vols.,  1728.)    Died  about  1730. 

Graziani  or  Gratiani,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  ]-)oet, 
once  popular,  was  born  at  Pergola  in  1604.  His  chief 
works  are  "Cleopatra,"  (1626,)  "The  Conquest  of 
Granada,"  (1650,)  and  "Cromwell,"  ("II  Cromvello," 
a  tragedy,  1671.)    Died  in  1675. 

Grazzlni,  (Antonio  Francesco.)    See  Lasca. 

Grazzini,  grlt-see'nee,  (Giovanni  Paolo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  of  the  school  of  Ferrara.  He  began  to  paint 
when  he  was  about  fifty  years  old.    Died  in  1632. 

Greathead.    See  Grosseteste. 

Great'heed,  (Bertie,)  an  English  litterateur,  born 
in  Warwickshire  in  1759.  He  wrote  a  tragedy  entitled 
"The  Regent."    Died  in  1826. 

See  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Great'o-rex,  (Thomas,)  an  English  musician  and 
savant,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1758.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  music  in  London  in  1788,  and  in  1819  organ- 
ist of  Westminster  Abbey.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  contributed  to  the  "Philosophical 
Transactions"  a  treatise  on  measuring  mountains  by 
the  barometer.    Died  in  1831. 

Great'rakes,  (Valentine,)  a  celebrated  empiric, 
born  in  the  county  of  Waterford,  Ireland,  in  1628,  ]5ro- 
fessed  to  be  able  to  heal  diseases  by  his  touch.  Having 
visited  England,  he  was  invited  to  Whitehall,  and  was 
patronized  by  Dr.  Henry  More  and  other  learned  men. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Vi,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GREAVES 


1076 


GREEN 


He  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  for  integrity  and  benevo- 
lence, and  several  eminent  physicians  bore  witness  to 
the  efficacy  of  his  cures.    Died  about  1700. 

See  J.  Gi. ANVIL,  "Scepsis  Scieiitifica ;"  Deleuze,  "  Histoire 
critique  du  Magnetisme  animal." 

Greaves,  greevz,  (.Sir  Edward,)  an  English  physician, 
was  born  in  Surrey  about  1615.  In  1643  he  became  first 
professor  of  medicine  at  Merton  College,  and  was  ap- 
pointed, after  the  restoration,  physician-in-ordinary  to 
Charles  II.    Died  in  1680. 

Greaves,  [Lat.  Gra'vius,]  (John,)  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish mathematician  and  antiquary,  was  born  in  Hamp- 
shire in  1602.  He  became  professor  of  geometry  at 
Gresham  College,  London,  in  1630,  and  in  1637  visited 
Egypt  and  the  Levant.  He  took  a  survey  of  the  Pyra- 
mids, of  which  he  published  the  first  accurate  descrip- 
tion. After  his  return  he  was  apjiointed,  in  1643, 
Savilian  professor  of  astronomy,  which  post  he  was 
comj^elled  to  resign  in  1648  because  he  was  a  royalist. 
He  published,  among  other  works,  a  "Discourse  on  the 
Roman  Foot  and  Denarius,"  etc.    Died  in  1652. 

See  "Life  of  Greaves,"  by  Birch,  prefixed  to  his  Miscellaneous 
Woi  ks ;  VVakd,  "Lives  of  the  Gresham  Professors;"  Nicekon, 
"Memoires;"  Thomas  Smith,  "Vita  J.  Gravii,"  1699. 

Greaves,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Orientalist  of  high 
reputation,  born  about  1610,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  a  friend  of  Selden.  He  rose  through  several 
preferments  to  be  a  prebendary  of  Peterborough.  He 
wrote  some  valuable  philological  treatises.  Died  in  1676. 

See  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses." 

Grechetto.    See  Castiglione,  (Giovanni  Bene- 

DKtTo.) 

Grecourt,  de,  deh  gRa^iooR',  (  Jean  Baptiste 
Joseph  Willart — ve'isR^)  a  French  poet,  of  Scottish 
extraction,  born  at  Tours  in  1684.  He  was  the  author 
of  songs,  epigrams,  and  fables  of  a  licentious  character. 
Died  in  1743. 

See  Voltaire,  "Age  of  Louis  XIV." 

GreeTey,  (Horace,)  an  American  journalist,  distin- 
guished as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  born  at  Amherst, 
New  Hampshire,  in  February,  1811,  was  the  son  of  a 
poor  farmer,  who  removed  to  Vermont  in  1821.  He 
learned  the  art  of  printing  at  East  Poultney,  Vermont, 
where  he  worked  about  four  years,  (1826-30,)  and  be- 
came at  an  early  age  well  versed  in  party  politics.  He 
adopted  the  Universalist  creed  before  he  was  of  age,  and 
supported  the  Anti-Masonic  party.  After  he  had  worked 
a  few  months  in  a  printing-office  in  Erie,  Pennsylvania, 
besought  employment  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  August, 
1831,  having  only  ten  dollars  in  his  pocket.  As  he  had 
no  friends  or  acquaintances  in  New  York,  and  his  dress 
was  very  odd  and  shabby,  he  met  with  many  repulses; 
but  at  last  he  obtained  work.  He  was  employed  as  a 
journeyman  printer  for  fourteen  months,  and  in  January, 
1833,  became  a  partner  of  Francis  Story,  and  began  to 
print  the  "Morning  Post,"  the  first  daily  penny  paper 
ever  published.  It  was  discontinued  in  a  few  weeks. 
The  firm  of  Greeley  &  Co.  founded  in  March,  1834,  "  The 
New-Yorker,"  a  weekly  literary  journal,  (neutral  in  poli- 
tics,) of  which  Mr.  Greeley  wrote  the  editorial  articles. 
The  "New-Yorker"  was  issued  for  seven  years,  and  be- 
caine  an  influential  paper,  but  was  not  profitable  to  the 
publishers.  He  married  Miss  Cheney,  of  North  Caro- 
lina, in  1836.  From  March,  1838,  to  March,  1839,  he 
edited  "The  Jeffersonian,"  a  weekly  Whig  paper,  pub- 
lished under  the  direction  of  the  Whig  Central  Com- 
mittee of  the  State  of  New  York.  About  May,  1840, 
he  began  to  publish  "The  Log  Cabin,"  a  weekly  paper, 
which  supported  General  Harrison  for  President,  and 
had  a  large  circulation,  (over  80,000.)  "  The  Log  Cabin," 
says  Parton,  "gave  him  an  immense  reputation  in  all  parts 
of  the  country  as  an  able  writer  and  a  zealous  politician." 

In  April,  1841,  he*  founded  "The  Daily  Tribune," 
price  one  cent,  of  which  Henry  J.  Raymond  (afterwards 
editor  of  the  New  York  "Times")  was  assistant  editor. 
Since  that  date  the  size  and  the  price  of  the  "Tribune" 
have  been  much  increased.  Mr.  Greeley  advocated  the 
election  of  Henry  Clay  to  the  Presidency  in  1844,  and, 
after  his  defeat,  assumed  an  attitude  of  more  decided 
hostility  to  slavery.  In  1848  he  was  elected  member  of 
Congress  to  fill  a  vacancy  for  a  term  which  expired  in 


March,  1849.  He  published  in  1850  "  Hints  towards 
Reforms,"  comjjosed  partly  of  lectures  which  he  had 
delivered  at  various  places  on  temperance,  popular  edu- 
cation, the  organization  of  labour,  etc.  "  His  subject," 
says  Parton,  "is  ever  the  same  ;  the  object  of  his  public 
life  is  single.  It  is  the  '  Emancipation  of  Labor  ;'  its 
emancipation  from  ignorance,  vice,  servitude,  poverty." 
Having  visited  Europe  in  1851,  he  published  "Glances 
at  Europe."  He  supported,  in  successive  Presidential 
elections.  General  Scott  in  1852,  J.  C.  Fremont  in  1856, 
and  Abraham  Lincoln  in  i860,  having  exerted  his  influ- 
ence against  the  nomination  of  W.  H.  Seward  at  the 
Chicago  Convention  of  that  year.  In  1864  he  published 
the  first  volume  of  "The  American  Conflict,"  (2  vols.) 
He  favoured  the  plan  of  universal  amnesty  and  universal 
suffrage  at  the  end  of  the  civil  war,  and  offered  himself 
as  bail  for  Jefferson  Davis  in  May,  1867,  for  which  he 
was  censured  by  many  of  his  own  party. 

See  Parton,  "  Life  of  Horace  Greeley,"  1855  :  D.  W.  Bartlett, 
"Modern  Agitators;"  Bungay,  "Off-Hand  Takings,"  1854 ;  H. 
Greeley.  "  Recollections  of  a  Busy  Life."  1868. 

Green,  (Ashbel,)  an  American  theologian,  born  in 
Hanover,  New  Jersey,  in  1762,  graduated  at  Princeton 
in  1782.  Ho  became  pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Philadelphia  in  1787,  and  officiated  as  chap- 
lain to  Congress  from  1792  till  1800.  He  was  a  principal 
founder  of  the  Philadelphia  Bible  Society,  formed  in 
1809.  In  1 81 2  he  was  appointed  president  of  Princeton 
College.  He  resigned  that  position  in  1822,  and  re- 
turned to  Philadelphia,  where  he  edited  the  "Christian 
Advocate."  He  published  Sermons,  Discourses,  etc. 
Died  in  1848. 

See  Joseph  H.  Jones,  "  Life  of  Ashbel  Green,  begun  to  be  written 
by  himself,"  etc.,  1849. 

Green,  (Edward  Burnaby,)  an  English  scholar,  a 
brother  of  Admiral  Burnaby,  made  translations  from 
Anacreon,  Pindar,  and  Apollonius  Rhodius.  Died  in  1788. 

Green,  (Horace,)  an  American  physician,  born  in 
Chittenden,  Vermont,  in  1802,  graduated  at  Middlebury 
College  in  1824.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  founding 
the  New  York  Medical  College  in  1850,  and  has  since 
been  president  of  its  faculty,  and  emeritus  professor 
of  the  theory  and  practice  of  medicine.  Dr.  Green  is 
distinguished  for  his  novel  treatment  of  diseases  of  the 
air-tubes  which  had  very  generally  been  deemed  in- 
curable. In  1846  he  published  a  "Treatise  on  Diseases 
of  the  Air-Passages."  Among  his  other  works  are  his 
"  Pathology  and  Treatment  of  the  Croup,"  (1849,) 
"Surgical  Treatment  of  the  Polypi  of  the  Larynx  and 
the  CEdeina  of  the  Glottis,"  (1852.) 

Green,  (Jacob,)  M.D.,  professor  of  chemistry  in  Jef- 
ferson Medical  College,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1790. 
Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned  his  "Chemical 
Philosophy,"  "  Astronomical  Recreations,"  "Botany  of 
the  United  States,"  "Trilobites  of  North  America,"  and 
"Travels  in  Europe,"  (1828.)    Died  in  1841. 

Green,  (James  S.,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Fauquier  county,  Virginia,  in  181 7.  He  settled  in  Mis- 
souri, and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1846. 
He  represented  Missomi  in  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  from  1857  to  1861.  He  was  a  disunionist  Demo- 
crat.   Died  in  1870. 

Green,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  Yorkshire 
about  1706.  He  studied  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  became  regius  professor  of  theology  in 
1748,  and  vice-chancellor  about  1750.  In  1756  he  was 
created  Bishop  of  vSalisbury.    Died  in  1 779. 

Green,  (John  Richard.)    See  Gifford,  (John.) 

Green,  (Joseph  Henry,)  an  English  surgeon,  born  in 
1 791.  He  became  professor  of  surgery  in  King's  College, 
London,  about  1830.  He  published  "Vital  l3ynamics  " 
and  "  Mental  Dynamics."    Died  in  1863. 

Green,  (Mary  Anne  Everett,)  an  English  authoress, 
a  daughter  of  Rev.  Robert  Wood,  was  born  at  Sheffield 
about  1818.  She  married  a  Mr.  Green  in  1845.  ^^^^ 
published  "Letters  of  Royal  and  Illustrious  Ladies 
of  Great  Britain,"  (3  vols.,  1846,)  "Lives  of  the  Prin- 
cesses of  England,"  (6  vols.,  1849-55,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed,  and  the  "Letters  of  Henrietta  Maria,  Queen- 
Consort  of  Charles  I.,"  (1857,)  with  other  important 
works. 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t ;  good;  moon; 


GREEN 


1077 


GREENHAM 


Green,  (Ma'ITHEw,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  London 
in  1696,  wrote  a  poem,  *'  The  Spleen,"  which  was  com- 
mended by  Pope  and  other  critics.    Died  in  1737. 

See  Johnson  and  Chalmers,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets;" 
Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Green,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  born  at  Ipswich 
in  1769.  He  published  a  work  on  the  "Theory  of 
Morals,"  and  "  Extracts  from  the  Diary  of  a  Lover  of 
Literature,"  (1810.)    Died  in  1825, 

Green,  (Thomas,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Vir- 
ginia aoout  1816.  He  took  arms  against  the  Union  in 
1861,  became  a  commander  of  cavalry,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  several  actions  in  Louisiana  in  1863.  He  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  was  killed  on 
Red  River  in  April,  1864. 

Green,  (Valentine,)  a  celebrated  English  engraver, 
born  in  Warwickshire  in  1739,  settled  in  London,  where 
he  acquired  great  skill  in  mezzotint  engraving.  In  1774 
he  became  associate  engraver  of  the  Royal  Academy. 
Among  his  niastcr  pieces  are  his  prints  after  West's 
picture  of  the  "Return  of  Regulus  to  Carthage,"  and 
portraits  after  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.    Died  in  1813. 

See  Bryan's  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Greene,  (Charles  Gordon,)  an  American  journalist, 
born  in  Boscawen,  New  Hampshire,  in  1804.  He  became 
proprietor  of  the  "Boston  Statesman,"  and  in  1831  es- 
tablished in  Boston  the  "Morning  Post,"  a  Democratic 
paper,  which  was  successful. 

Greene,  (Christopher,)  Colonel,  an  American 
officer,  born  in  Warwick,  Rhode  Island,  in  1737.  He 
conuiianded  Fort  Mercer,  at  Red  Bank,  on  the  l)elaware 
River,  in  1777,  and  repulsed  a  body  of  Hessians  who 
attacked  that  fort.  He  was  killed  near  the  Croton  River 
in  May,  1781. 

Greene,  (George  S.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Rhode  Island  about  i8or,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1823.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  in  1862,  and  served 
at  the  battle  of  Antietam  in  September  of  that  year,  at 
Gettysburg,  July  2  and  3,  1863,  and  in  other  actions. 

Greene,  (George  Washington,)  an  American  au- 
thor, a  grandson  of  General  Nathaniel  (jreene,  was  born 
at  East  Greenwich,  Kent  county,  Rhode  Island,  in  181 1. 
He  was  consul  of  the  United  States  at  Rome  from  1837 
101845.  contributed  a  "  Life  of  General  Nathaniel 

Greene"  to  Sparks's  "  American  Biography,"  edited  Ad- 
dison's Complete  Works,  (1854,)  and  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "Historical  Studies,  chiefly  on  Italian  Hist<jry 
and  Literature,"  (1850,)  and  a  "  Life  of  General  Nathaniel 
Greene,"  (of  which  the  first  volume  appeared  in  1867.) 

Greene,  (Maurice,)  an  eminent  English  composer 
of  church  music,  born  in  London  about  1696.  He  was 
appointed  in  1726  organist  and  composer  to  the  chapels 
royal,  and  became  professor  of  music  in  the  University 
of  Cambridge.  His  "Forty  Anthems"  (2  vols,  fol.)  are 
esteemed  his  master-pieces  ;  he  also  composed  songs  and 
cantatas  of  great  beauty.    Died  in  1 755. 

See  Hawkins,  "  History  of  Music." 

Greene,  (Nathaniel,)  a  distinguished  American 
general,  born  in  Warwick,  Rhode  Island,  on  the  27th  of 
May,  1742.  His  father  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  and  owner  of  an  iron-forge,  in  which  Nathaniel 
worked  for  many  years.  In  1770  he  was  elected  to  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  colony.  Anticipating  the  im- 
pending appeal  to  arms,  he  began  to  study  the  art  of  war. 
He  married  Miss  Littlefield  in  July,  1774.  In  May,  1775, 
he  was  chosen  a  brigadier-general  of  the  militia  of  Rhode 
Island,  and  joined  the  army  near  Boston.  He  soon 
gained  the  confidence  of  General  Washington,  who  se- 
lected him  to  command  the  army  sent  to  defend  Long 
Island  ;  but  a  violent  attack  of  fever  prevented  him  from 
taking  part  in  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  August.  1776. 
He  commanded  the  division  with  which  Washington 
marched  in  person  at  the  battle  of  Trenton,  Decemi)er, 
1776.  In  September,  1777,  he  distinguished  himself  at 
the  battle  of  the  Brandywine,  and  in  October  commanded 
the  left  wing  at  the  'battle  of  Germantown.  At  the 
request  of  General  V^'ashington,  he  accepted  in  March, 
1778,  the  position  01  quartermaster-general,  the  duties 
of  which  he  performed  with  great  ability  until  August, 
1780.  He  commanded  the  right  wing  at  Monmouth, 
June,  1778,  and  defeated  Sir  Hei^ry  Clinton  at  Springfield, 


New  Jersey,  on  the  23d  of  June,  1780.  In  the  October 
ensuing  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  South- 
ern army,  then  greatly  disorganized  and  nearly  destitute 
of  supplies.  A  part  of  his  army  gained  a  victory  at  Cow- 
pens  in  January,  1 781,  soon  after  whicli  he  moved  his 
army  to  the  Catawba  River.  Pursued  by  a  superior 
f(>rce  under  Lord  Cornwallis,  he  retreated  in  good  order 
through  North  Carolina  to  the  Dan  River  in  February. 
On  this  occasion  General  Washington  wrote  to  him, 
"Your  retreat  before  Cornwallis  is  highly  applauded 
by  all  ranks."  Having  been  reinforced,  he  marched  to 
Guilford  Court-House,  where  he  encountered  the  enemy 
on  the  15th  of  March,  1781.  Here  was  fought  an  inde- 
cisive battle,  and  the  British  remained  masters  of  the 
field  ;  but  their  loss  had  been  so  severe  that  Cornwallis 
inmiediately  retreated  towards  the  sea.  In  April,  1781, 
General  Greene  adopted  the  bold  resolution  to  march 
into  South  Carolina,  and  was  defeated  at  Hobkirk's 
Hill,  near  Camden,  The  British,  however,  were  unable 
to  follow  up  this  victory,  and  in  May  General  Greene 
marched  to  the  siege  of  Ninety-Six,  a  fortified  post 
near  the  Saluda  River.  The  siege  was  raised  about 
the  end  of  June  by  the  approach  of  Lord  Rawdon  ;  but 
the  place  was  soon  after  evacuated  by  the  British, 
who,  retiring  southeastward,  were  pursued  to  Orange- 
burg by  General  Greene.  The  next  important  event  of 
the  campaign  was  the  severe  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs, 
(September,  178 1,)  where  Greene  lost  555  killed  and 
woimded,  but  remained  master  of  the  field.  So  great 
was  his  energy  and  skill  that  before  the  end  of  the  year 
the  enemy  were  driven  from  all  parts  of  South  Caro- 
lina, except  the  vicinity  of  Charleston.  A  medal  was 
presented  to  him  by  Congress  for  his  victory  at  Eutaw 
Springs.  In  1782  his  operations  were  greatly  retarded 
by  the  want  of  ammunition,  inoney,  and  other  resources. 
He  proposed  to  enlist  several  regiments  of  negro  sol- 
diers ;  but  this  proposal  was  rejected  by  the  civil  authori- 
ties of  the  State.  After  the  end  of  the  war  he  resolved 
to  settle  with  his  family  in  Georgia,  and  in  1785  he 
removed  to  an  estate  which  had  been  presented  to 
him  by  the  State  of  Georgia,  and  which  was  situated 
near  Savannah.  He  died  of  a  sunstroke,  June  19,  1786. 
He  is  generally  considered  to  have  been  superior  in 
military  skill  and  in  force  of  character  to  all  the  gene- 
rals of  the  Revolution,  Washington  only  excepted. 

See  a  "Life  of  General  Greene,"  by  his  grandson,  George  W. 
Greene,  j,  \o\s.,  i^b-j  ct  seg.;  Sparks's  "American  Biography," 
vol.  XX.,  (or  X.  of  second  series;)  Bancroft,  "  History  of  the  United 
States;"  William  Johnson,  "Life  and  Correspondence  of  Na- 
tlianie!  Greene,"  2  vols.,  1822;  "National  Portrait- Gallery  of 
Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  i. 

Greene,  (Nathaniel,)  a  journalist,  a  brother  of 
Charles  Gordon,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Boscawen, 
New  Hampshire,  in  1797.  He  founded  in  1821  the  "  Bos- 
ton Statesman,"  a  Democratic  paper.  In  1829  he  was 
appointed  postmaster  of  Boston.  He  translated  "Tales 
from  the  German,"  (2  vols.,  1837,)  and  other  works. 

Greene,  (Robert,)  one  of  the  principal  English 
dramatists  who  preceded  Shakspeare,  was  born  at  Ips- 
wich about  1560.  He  began  to  write  for  the  stage  about 
1584,  and  from  that  time  gave  himself  up  to  a  course 
of  dissipation,  varied  by  occasional  fits  of  remorse. 
Among  the  works  known  to  be  his  are  the  "History 
of  Orlando  Furioso,"  and  the  "Comical  History  of  Al- 
phonsus,  King  of  Aragon,"  also  a  prose  treatise  entitled 
"  Greene's  Groatsworlh  of  Wit  bought  with  a  Million  of 
Repentance."  His  novel  of  "  Pandosto"  is  said  to  have 
been  the  original  of  Shakspeare's  "  Winter's  Tale."  He 
died  in  great  poverty  in  1592. 

See  Collier,  "History  of  English  Dramatic  Poetry;"  Drake, 
"  Shakespeare  and  his  Times  ;"  Disraeli,  "  Calamities  of  Authors." 

Greene,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Nor- 
wich in  1658.  On  the  accession  of  George  I.  he  was 
appointed  one  of  his  chaplains,  and  in  172 1  became 
Bishop  of  Norwich.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Principles 
of  Religion  Explained,"  and  other  works.   Died  in  1738. 

Green'field,  (William,)  an  English  Orientalist  and 
profound  scholar,  published  a  "  Comprehensive  Bible," 
(1827,)  "  Novum  Testamentum,"  (1829,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1832. 

Greenham,  green'am,  (Richard,)  an  English  Puritan 
divine,  born  about  1630,  was  rector  of  Dry- Drayton  for 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  z;  th  as  in  tkis.    (21^^ See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GREENHILL 


78 


GREGORIUS 


many  years.  He  left  Sermons  and  other  religious  works. 
*'  He  excelled  in  experimental  divinity,"  says  Bishop  Hall. 
Died  in  1591. 

Green'hill,  (John,)  an  English  painter,  born  in  1649, 
was  a  pupil  of  Sir  Peter  Lely.  He  copied  some  works 
of  Van  Uyck.    Died  in  1676. 

Greenliill,  (William,)  an  English  divine  and  com- 
mentator, became  rector  of  Stepney  about  1656.  He 
was  ejected  in  1662  for  nonconformity.  He  wrote  "  Ex- 
positi(jns  of  Ezekiel,"  (5  vols.,  1645-62.)  Died  about  1675. 

Green'how,  (Rohert,)  M.D.,  an  American  writer, 
born  in  Richmond,  Virginia,  in  1800,  graduated  at  the 
College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  in  New  York  in 
1821.  Pie  published  a  "  History  of  Oregon  and  Cali- 
fornia," (1846.)    Died  at  San  Francisco  in  1854. 

Green'leaf,  (Simon,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in 
Nevvburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1783,  became  Royall 
professor  of  law  at  Harvard  in  1833,  and  Dane  professor 
in  1846.  His  chief  work  is  a  "Treatise  on  the  Law  of 
Evidence,"  (3  vols.,  1842-53.)    Died  in  1853. 

Greeiiough,  green'o,  (George  Bellas,)  an  English 
geologist,  born  about  1777;  died  in  1854. 

Greenough,  green'6,  (Horatio,)  an  eminent  Ameri- 
can sculptor,  born  in  ]]oston  in  1805.  He  was  educated 
at  Harvard,  where  he  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Allston, 
Before  graduating,  he  went  to  Rome,  to  prosecute  his 
artistic  studies  ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  a  brief  visit  to 
liis  native  city  in  1826,  he  resided  in  Italy,  chiefly  at  Flor- 
ence, until  1851,  when  he  returned  to  the  United  States. 
Died  near  Boston  in  December,  1852.  Of  his  numerous 
works  we  may  mention  his  "  Chaunting  Cherubs,"  the 
first  group  in  marble  ever  executed  by  an  American 
sculptor,  (ordered  by  his  devoted  friend  and  patron,  J. 
Fenimore  Cooper,)  "The  Angel  and  Child,"  "Venus 
contending  for  the  Golden  Apple,"  (greatly  admired  in 
Florence,)  a  colossal  statue  of  Washington  in  front  of 
the  national  Capitol,  for  which  Congress  paid  twenty 
thousand  dollars,  and  a  group  entitled  "The  Rescue," 
(185 1,)  representing  a  scene  in  the  early  settlement  of 
the  American  colonies,  executed  by  order  of  Congress. 
A  volume  of  Greenough's  Essays,  with  a  Memoir  of  his 
Life  by  H.  T.  Tuckerman,  was  published  in  1853. 

See,  also,  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Greenville.    See  Granville. 

Greensville,  (Sir  Bevil,)  an  English  officer,  born  in 
1596,  was  a  grandson  of  Sir  Richard,  noticed  below.  He 
represented  the  county  of  Cornwall  in  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment in  1640,  and  supported  the  royalist  party.  He  had 
a  prominent  share  in  the  victory  gained  by  the  royal 
army  at  Stratton  in  1643  5  was  mortally  wounded 

at  the  battle  of  Lansdowne  the  same  year.  Lord  Clar- 
endon says  of  Sir  Bevil,  "A  brighter  courage  and  gentler 
disposition  were  never  married  together." 

See  Clarendon,  "  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Greenville,  (Denis,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
about  1630.  He  was  created  Dean  of  Durham  in  1684; 
but  he  was  deprived  of  his  office  in  1690  for  refusing  to 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  William  HI.  He  died  in 
Paris  in  1703. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Greenville,  (Richard.)    See  Temple,  Earl. 

Greenville,  (Sir  Richard,)  a  brave  English  officer, 
born  in  the  West  of  England  about  1540,  was  a  relative 
of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament 
f  )r  Cornwall  in  157 1.  As  vice-admiral  of  a  squadron, 
he  sailed  in  1591  to  intercept  some  Spanish  merchant- 
vess''ls.  These  being  strongly  escorted,  an  obstinate 
struggle  took  place,  which  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the 
English.  Sir  Richard,  though  severely  wounded,  refused 
to  surrender  until  his  men  accepted  the  offers  of  quarter. 
He  was  taken  on  board  a  Spanish  ship,  but,  though 
kindly  treated,  soon  after  died  of  his  wounds,  (1588.) 

See  Haki.uyt,  "Voya$;es,"  vol.  iii.  :  "  Biogiaphia  Britaiinica  :" 
Campbell,  "  Lives  of  British  Admira.s." 

Green'wood,  (Francis  William  Pitt,)  an  Ameri- 
can Unitarian  minister,  born  in  Boston  in  1797,  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  in  1814.  He  became  pastor  of  King's 
Chapel,  in  Boston,  in  1824.  He  contributed  to  the 
"North  American  Review,"  and  published  sermons, 
essays,  etc.    Died  in  1843. 

a,  e,  \y  6,  u»  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ia» 


Greenwood,  (Gr.\ce.)  See  Lippincott,  (Sarah  J.) 

Greg'an,  (John  Edgar,)  a  noted  Scottish  architect, 
born  in  1813.  His  principal  works  are  in  Manchester 
and  its  vicinity,  and  include  the  bank  of  Sir  Benjamin 
Heywood,  a  number  of  churches,  warehouses,  and  pri- 
vate dwellings.  Gregan  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Institute 
of  British  Architects.    Died  in  1855. 

Gregg,  (David  M.,)  an  American  general  of  cavalry, 
born  in  Pennsylvania,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1855. 
He  commanded  a  division  of  cavalry  under  General 
Sheridan  in  a  raid  around  Lee's  army  in  May,  1864,  and 
at  the  battles  of  Meadow  Bridge  and  Trevilian  Station, 
in  June  of  that  year.  He  directed  the  cavalry  of  the 
army  of  the  Potomac  from  August,  1864,  to  P'ebruary, 
1865. 

Gregg,  (John,)  an  American  general,  born  about  1828. 
He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  the  Confederate  army, 
and  was  killed  at  Petersburg,  Virginia,  in  October,  1864. 

Gregg,  (Max'cy,)  an  American  general,  born  in  South 
Carolina  about  1814,  was  a  lawyer  before  the  civil  war. 
He  was  killed  at  Fredericksburg,  fighting  against  the 
Union,  in  December,  1862. 

Gregoire,  the  French  of  Gregory,  which  see. 

Gregoire,  gRi'gw^R',  (Henri,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  eminent  writer,  born  near  Luneville  in  1750.  He 
was  elected  by  the  clergy  to  the  States-General  in  1789. 
In  1792  he  was  chosen  Bishop  of  l^lois  under  the  civil 
constitution,  and  a  member  of  the  Convention,  in  which 
he  took  a  jjrominent  part  in  the  abolition  of  royalty  and 
negro  slavery,  (1794.)  The  Jacobins  accused  him  of  a 
design  to  "Christianize  the  Revolution."  He  was  chosen 
one  of  the  legislative  body  about  the  end  of  1799,  and  a 
senator  in  1801.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  ancl  mem- 
bers of  the  Institute,  and  corresponded  with  niany  savants 
among  foreign  nations.  His  election  as  deputy  in  1819 
caused  great  excitement,  and  was  nullified  by  the  royal- 
ist majority.  Among  his  principal  works  is  a  "  History 
of  Religious  Sects,"  (1810.)    Died  in  1831. 

See  Carnot,  "Notice  hlstoriqiie,"  prefixed  to  the  "Memoires 
ecciesiastiqiies,  politiqiies,"  etc.  ot  Gregoire,  2  vols.,  1837;  J.  La- 
vaud,  "Notice  sur  H.  Gregoire,"  1819;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  G.  Krueger,  "  H.  Gregoire,  Bischof  von  Blois,"  1838; 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1822. 

Gregoire,  (Pierre,)  [Lat.  Grego'rius  Tolosa'nus,] 
a  French  jurist,  born  at  Toulouse  about  1540,  became 
professor  of  civil  law  at  Pont-a-Mousson.  He  published 
several  legal  works  in  Latin.    Died  about  1597. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Gregoire  de  Nazianze.  See  GRt:GORY  Nazianzen. 

Gregoire  de  Nysse.    See  Gregory  of  Nyssa. 

Gregoire  le  Grand.    See  Gregory  (Pope)  I. 

Gregor,  the  German  for  Gregory,  which  see. 

Greg'o-ras  Ni-ceph'o-rns,  [Gr.  NiKijcpopog  6  Vprjyo- 
paf,]  a  Byzantine  historian  and  mathematician,  born  about 
1295,  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  Constantinople 
from  1204  to  1359."  The  principal  part  of  it  was  pub- 
lished, with  a  Latin  translation,  in  1562.  He  wrote  many 
other  works.  He  proposed  a  method  for  reforming  the 
calendar,  which  was  ado])ted  about  three  hundred  years 
later  by  Gregory  XHI.    Died  about  1360. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  Boivin,  "Vita  Nicephori 
Gregorae,"  in  an  edition  of  his  History,  Paris,  2  vols.,  1702. 

Gregorio,  gN^-go're-o,  sometimes  written  Gregori, 
(Carlo,)  an  Italian  engraver,  born  at  Florence  in  1719; 
died  in  1759. 

His  son  Ferdinando  (i 740-1800)  was  a  skilful  en- 
graver, and  worked  at  Florence. 

Gregorio,  (Maurisio,)  a  Sicilian  theologian  and 
writer,  born  at  Camerata  in  1575  ;  died  in  1651. 

Gregorio,  (Rosario,)  an  Italian  antiquary  and  his- 
torian, born  in  1753,  became  canon  of  a  church  at  Pa- 
lermo, and  professor  of  law.  Among  his  works  are  an 
"  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Public  Law  of  Sicily," 
(1794,)  and  "  Discourses  on  the  History  of  Sicily."  Died 
in  1809. 

Gregorio  il  Grande.    See  Gregory  (Pope)  I. 

Gregorius,  the  Latin  of  Gregory,  which  see. 

Gre-go'ri-us,  (PuBLius,)  an  Italian  scholar,  surnamed 
Tiphkr'nus,  born  in  Umbria,  translated  into  Latin  the 
last  seven  books  of  Strabo.    Died  in  1469. 

Gregorius  Aiiminensis.  See  Gregory  of  Rimini. 

Gregorius  Florentius.    See  Gregory  of  Tours. 

%5hort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GREGORIUS 


1079 


GREGORT 


Gregorius  Magnus.    See  Gregory  (Pope)  I. 

GregoriusNazianzenus.  See  Gregory  Nazianzen. 

Gregorius  Nyssenus.    See  Gregory  of  Nyssa. 

Gre-go'ri-us  Par'dus,  called  also  Gregory  of  Cor- 
inth, an  Archbishop  of  Corinth  in  the  twelfth  century, 
was  the  author  of  a  work  on  Dialects. 

See  "  Biographic  Universelle." 

Gregorius  Tolosanus.    See  Gr^gotre,  (Pierre.) 

Gregorj  or  Gregorii,  gRi-go're-ee,  (Giovanni  Gas- 
Paro,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  in  1769,  became  president 
of  the  imperial  court  in  Rome  in  1811.    Died  in  1846. 

Greg'o-ry  I.,  Pope,  surnamed  the  Great,  [Lat.  Gre- 
go'rius  Mag'nus;  Fr.  Gr^goire  le  Grand,  gRi'gwiR' 
leh  gR6N;  It.  Gregorio  il  Grande,  gRi-go're-o  ^1 
giii/di,]  was  born  about  550,  of  an  illustrious  Roman 
family.  He  became  prefect  of  Rome  in  573.  On  the  death 
of  Pelagius,  in  590,  he  was  elected  pope,  and  in  this  station 
showed  great  zeal  in  reforming  the  Church  and  propa- 
gating Christianity.  Previous  to  his  becoming  pope,  he 
had  induced  Pelagius  II.  to  send  missionaries  to  Eng- 
land. His  character  was  distinguished  by  many  eminent 
virtues,  much  alloyed,  however,  by  superstitious  weak- 
ness. Among  other  inconsistencies,  he  is  charged  with 
having  flattered  infamous  rulers  to  secure  their  protec- 
tion to  the  Church.  His  principal  works  are  a  treatise 
"On  the  Sacerdotal  Office,"  ("De  Cura  sacerdotali,") 
•'Books  of  Morals,"  ("Moralium  Libri,")  and  "  Letters 
and  Dialogues."    Died  in  604. 

See  Maimbourg,  "  Histoire  du  Pontificat  de  Gregoire  le  Grand," 
1686;  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Georg  Pfah- 
LER,  "Gregor  der  Grosse  und  seine  Zeit,"  2  vols.,  1853;  Fleukv, 
"  Histoire  ecclesiastique  ;"  G.  Gkadenigo,  "  S.  Gregorius  Magnus, 
etc.  vindicatus,"  1753;  Denis  de  Sainte-Marthe,  "Histoire  de 
S.  Gregoire  le  Grand,"  1697. 

Gregory  II.,  Pope,  was  born  in  Rome,  and  succeeded 
Constantine  in  715  A.D.  When  in  726  the  emperor  Leo 
forbade  the  worship  of  images,  Gregory  attempted  to 
dissuade  him  from  it.  He  convoked  a  council  against 
the  Iconoclasts,  and  one  to  forbid  marriage  to  monks. 
It  was  during  his  rule  that  Boniface  preached  Chris- 
tianity in  Germany.    Died  in  731. 

See  Ughei.li,  "  Italia  Sacra." 

Gregory  III.,  a  native  of  Syria,  was  the  successor  of 
Gregory  II.  In  732  he  passed  a  decree  establishing  the 
worship  of  images.  In  740  he  was  involved  in  a  dispute 
with  Luitprand,  King  of  the  Loml)ards.    Died  in  741. 

See  Ali.etz,  "  Histoire  des  Papes,"  1776. 

Gregory  IV.,  born  at  Rome,  became  pope  on  the 
death  of  Valentinus,  in  827.  Being  called  upon  to  adjust 
the  quarrel  between  Louis  le  Debonnaire  and  his  sons, 
he  offended  both  parties  and  also  the  French  bishops. 
He  built  a  new  town  near  Ostia  as  a  defence  against  the 
Saracens,  which  he  named  Gregoriopolis.    Died  in  844. 

See  Aktaud  de  Montor,  "Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Gregory  V.  was  a  native  of  Germany  and  a  relative 
of  Otho  HI.  Through  tiie  influence  of  that  emperor  he 
became  pope  in  997.  Soon  after  this,  Crescentius,  a 
man  of  wealth,  assumed  the  title  of  consul,  and  drove 
the  new  pope  from  the  city.  He  raised  John,  Bishop 
of  Piacenza,  to  the  tiara  ;  but  the  next  year  Otho  and 
Gregory  returned  with  an  army,  imprisoned  John,  and 
executed  Crescentius.    Died  in  999. 

See  Pi.ATiNA,  "Vitas  Summoruni  Pontificum." 

Gregory  VI,  was  a  native  of  Rome,  and  succeeded 
Benedict  IX.  in  1044.  In  1046  the  emperor  Henry  III., 
in  a  council  at  Sutri,  deposed  the  three  popes  Benedict, 
Sylvester  IH.,  and  Gregory,  and  elected  Clement  II., 
uj^on  which  Gregory  retired  to  a  monastery,  where  he 
died  in  1047. 

Gregory  VII.  (or  HiPde-brand)  was  born  near 
Soana,  in  Tuscany,  about  1015.  On  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander II.,  in  1073,  he  was  elected  his  successor.  He  now- 
set  about  reforming  the  Church,  especially  with  regard  to 
simony,  w  hich  was  very  prevalent.  He  resolved  to  take 
away  from  secular  princes  the  right  of  disposing  of  sees 
within  their  dominions.  With  this  view,  he  sent  legates 
to  Henry  IV.  of  Germany,  one  of  the  most  guilty  in 
this  respect.  His  admonitions  having  no  effect,  he  next 
assembled  a  council  at  Rome  in  1074,  in  which  persons 
guilty  of,simony  were  anathematized,  and  it  was  decreed 
that  no  one  should  be  admitted  to  holy  orders  unless 


he  had  taken  a  vow  of  celibacy.  He  summoned  another 
council  in  1075,  in  which  kings  were  forbidden,  under 
pain  of  excommunication,  to  give  the  investiture  of 
sees  and  abbeys.  Henry  IV.,  without  regarding  Greg- 
ory's decrees,  and  indignant  at  his  assumptions,  assem- 
bled a  diet  at  Worms  and  deposed  him ;  whereupon 
Gregory  solemnly  excommunicated  the  emperor  in  a 
council  at  the  Lateran  palace,  and  declared  his  subjects 
released  from  their  allegiance.  This  act  of  Gregory  was 
the  boldest  assumption  of  power  hitherto  exercised  by 
any  pontiff.  After  Henry  had  endured  a  most  hu- 
miliating penance,  a  reconciliation  was  effected  between 
them,  which,  however,  was  not  lasting.  Gregory  at  length 
retired  to  Salerno,  where  he  died  in  1085.  He  appears 
to  have  been  sincere  in  his  efforts  to  reform  the  Church, 
but  to  have  allowed  his  ambition  to  get  the  mastery  of 
him,  and  aimed  to  make  all  powers  subordinate  to  the 
papal  see. 

See  Spittler,  "Geschichte  der  Hierarchic  von  Gregor  VII. 
Grieslev,  "Life  and  Pontificate  of  Gregory  VII.,"  1829;  Ranke, 
"  History  of  the  Popes ;"  Pi.atina,  "  Vitae  Summoruni  Pontificum  ;" 
J.  VoiGT,  "  Hildebrand  als  Papst  Gregor  VII.,"  2  vols.,  1813  ;  French 
version  of  the  same,  Pai'is,  1837;  John  W.  Bowden,  "Life  and 
Pontificate  of  Gregory  VII.,"  2  vols.,  1840;  G.  Ca.ssander,  "Das 
Zeitalter  Hildebrands  fiir  und  gegen  ihn,"  1842;  "  Fraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  November,  1866. 

Gregory  VIII.,  (Alberto  di  Mora,)  born  at  Bene- 
vento,  succeeded  Urban  HI.  in  11 87.  He  survived  but 
two  months,  and  was  followed  by  Clement  HI.  He 
must  be  distinguished  from  the  anti-pope  of  the  name 
of  Bourdin,  who  also  assumed  the  name  of  Gregory  VIII. 

Gregory  IX.  (Cardinal  Ugolino)  was  Bishop  of 
Ostia,  and  a  native  of  Anagni.  He  succeeded  Honorius 
III.  in  1227.  Soon  after  his  election,  he  insisted  on 
Frederick  II.  of  Germany  engaging  in  a  crusade,  and,  on 
his  delay,  immediately  excommunicated  him.  The  whole 
of  this  pontiff^s  rule  was  signalized  by  a  struggle  for  su- 
premacy between  Frederick  and  the  Ghibelines  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  Guelphs,  with  the  pope,  on  the  other. 
Died  in  1241. 

See  G.  Vossius,  "  Gregorii  Papae  Noni  Gesta,"  1686. 

Gregory  X.,  (Tebaldo  Visconti,)  born  at  Piacenza, 
succeeded  Clement  IV.  in  1271.  In  1274  he  convoked 
a  general  council  at  Lyons,  and  effected  a  transient 
reconciliation  between  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches. 
Among  other  reforms,  the  mode  of  electing  popes  by 
conclave  was  adopted.    Died  in  1276. 

See  P.  M.  Campi,  "Vita  Gregorii  X.,"  Rome,  1665;  Bonucci, 
"Isioria  del  Pontefice  B.  Gregorio  X.,"  171 1. 

Gregory  XL,  (Pierre  Roger  de  Moiitroux — deh 

miw'tRoo',)  a  native  of  France,  and  son  of  the  Count 
of  Beaufort,  was  born  about  1330.  He  succeeded  Urban 
V.  in  1370.  In  1377  he  transferred  the  papal  see  from 
Avignon,  where  it  had  been  for  nearly  seventy  years, 
back  to  Rome.  Gregory  was  the  first  pope  who  con- 
demned the  doctrines  of  Wicliff.  He  was  a  man  of 
great  learning,  and  highly  esteemed  for  his  unblemished 
character.    Died  in  1378. 

See  Alletz,  "  Histoire  des  Papes,"  1776. 

Gregory  XII.,  (Angelo  Cornaro,)  a  native  of  Ve- 
nice, born  about  1325,  was  chosen  successor  to  Innocent 
VII.  in  1406.  Owing  to  the  schism  which  had  divided 
the  Western  Church  since  1379,  he  had  a  rival  in  the 
anti-pope  Benedict  XIII.  In  a  council  at  Pisa  in  1409, 
the  sovereigns  of  Europe  deposed  both  Gregory  and 
Benedict,  and  elected  Peter  Philargi,  a  Greek.  The 
other  two,  however,  persisted  in  their  claims,  and  the 
Western  Church  had  three  popes  instead  of  one.  The 
great  Council  of  Constance  again  deposed  them  in  1415, 
and  Gregory  was  appointed  legate  to  the  Marches  of 
Ancona.    Died  in  1417. 

See  Ai.i.ETZ,  "  Histoire  des  Papes,"  1776. 

Gregory  XIII.,  (Ugo  Euonccmpagni,)  a  native  of 
Bologna,  born  in  1502,  succeeded  Pius  V.  in  1572.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  civil  and  canon 
law,  and  his  zeal  in  the  cause  of  education.  He  endowed 
several  colleges  at  Rome,  one  of  which  was  called  the 
Gregorian  College.  He  reformed  the  Jul.ian  Calendar; 
and  the  "  New  Style,"  (as  it  is  called,)  which  he  intro- 
duced, has  been  generally  adopted.    Died  in  1585. 

See  Ranke,  "History  of  the  Popes;"  G.  P.  Maffei,  "Annali 
di  Gresrorio  XIII.,"  2  vols.,  1742;  A.  de  Vidaillan,  "Viede  Gre- 
goire XI 1 1,"  1840. 


€  as>^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy';  G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  K,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GREGORT 


1080 


GREGORT 


Gregory  XIV.,  (Niccoi.6  Sfondrato,)  a  native  of 
Cremona,  succeeded  Urban  VIl.  in  1590.  He  did  much 
to  promote  the  French  league  against  Henry  IV.  of 
France,  whom  he  excommunicated.    Died  in  1591. 

Gregory  XV.,  (Alessandko  Ltidovisio,)  a  native 
of  Bologna,  born  in  1554,  succeeded  Paul  V.  in  1621. 
He  was  of  a  mild  and  humane  character,  and  exerted 
himself  to  put  an  end  to  the  persecution  of  the  Prot- 
estants in  Valtellina.  He  founded  the  college  l)e  Propa- 
ganda Fide.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Letter  to  Shah 
Abbas,  King  of  the  Persians."    Died  in  1623. 

See  Ranke,  "  History  of  the  Popes  ;"  Alletz,  "  Histoire  des 
Pa  pes." 

Gregory  XVI.,  (Maitro  Capellari,)  born  at  Kel- 
luno  in  1765.  He  was  made  a  cardinal  by  Deo  XH.  in 
1825,  and  soon  after  became  prefect  of  the  college 
De  Propaganda  Fide.  He  conducted  the  negotiation 
with  the  kingdom  of  Prussia  under  Pius  VHL,  and  was 
elected  pope  in  1831.  Died  in  1846.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Pius  IX. 

See  A.  Manavit,  "Notice  historique  sur  Gregoire  XVI,"  1846  ; 
B.  Wagnek,  "  Papst  Gregor  XVI.,  seiii  Leben  und  sein  Ponlificat," 
1S46  ;  Fakini,  "  Lo  Stato  Romano,"  translated  int(^  English  by  tlie 
Hon.  W.  E.  Gladstone;  Wiseman,  "  Recollections  of  the  Last 
Four  Popes." 

Gregory  of  Agrigentum,  a  Greek  theologian,  born 
about  524.  Pie  visited  Antioch,  Constantinople,  and 
Rome,  and  was  appointed  by  the  pope  Bishop  of  Agri- 
gentum, in  Sicily.    Died  about  565. 

Gregory  of  Antioch,  a  Greek  ecclesiastic,  who 
became  Patriarch  of  Antioch  about  570  a.d.  Died 
about  594. 

Gregory  of  Corinth.    See  Grkgorius  Pardus. 

Gregory  of  Nyssa,  [Lat.  Gkkgo'rius  Nysse'nus; 
Fr.  Gregoire  de  Nysse,  gRa'^wSR'  deh  ness,]  Bishop 
of  Nyssa,  an  eminent  Greek  Father,  was  born  at  Caesa- 
rea,  in  Cappadocia,  about  332  A.D.,  and  was  a  brother 
of  Basil  the  Great.  He  became  bishop  about  372,  o])- 
posed  Arianism,  and  was  banished  at  the  instigation  of 
the  Arians  by  Valens  in  375  a.d.  On  the  death  of  Valens 
(378  A.D.)  he  was  restored  to  his  see.  He  had  a  high 
reputation  for  learning  and  eloquence.  He  died  about 
398  A.D.,  and  left  many  sermons,  doctrinal  treatises,  ora- 
tions, letters,  etc.,  which  have  often  been  printed. 

See  DupiN,  "Histoire  des  Antenrs  ecclesiastiqnes ;"  J.  Rupp, 
"  Gregor's  des  Bischofs  von  Nyssa  Leben,"  etc.,  1834:  Vii-LEMain, 
"Tableau  de  I'fiioquence  chretienne  an  qnatrieme  Siecle  ;"  Fahj^i- 
Cius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca  ;"  S.  P.  Heyns,  "Disputatio  historico- 
theologica  de  Gregorio  Nysseno,"  1835. 

Gregory  of  Rimint,  [Lat.  Grego'rtus  Artminen'- 
SIS,]  an  Italian  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Rimini,  became 
general  of  the  order  of  Augustines  at  Montpellier.  He 
wrote  several  theological  works.    Died  in  1358. 

Gregory,  [Lat.  Grego'rius,]  Saint,  first  Patriarch 
of  Armenia,  born  in  257  A.D.,  was  of  the  royal  Persian 
family  of  the  Arsacidas,  and  was  siirnamed  the  Illu- 
minator, from  his  having  converted  Armenia  to  Chris- 
tianity. 

See  Gravina,  "Vita  e  MiracoH  di  San  Gregorio." 

Gregory  of  Saint  Vincent.    See  Saint  Vincent. 

Gregory  the  Thaumaturgist,  [Lat.  Grego'rius 
Thaumatur'gus  ;  Gr.  Vp7]y6piog  b  Qavfiarovpyo^ ;  Fr. 
Gregoire  Thaumaturge,  gRa'gvviR'  to'mftiiRzl/,]  one 
of  the  early  Christian  theologians,  born  in  Cappadocia 
in  the  third  century,  was  a  disciple  of  Origen.  1  le  owed 
his  surname  to  his  reputation  for  working  miracles.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Neo-Caesarea  in  240  a.d.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  Eulogy  on  Origen,"  "  Symbol  of  the  Faith," 
and  other  works.    Died  about  270. 

See  Pai.i.avicini,  "Vita  Gregorii  Tliauinatiirgi,"  Rome,  1644; 
Fi-EUKV,  "Histoire  ecclesiastiqiie ;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Gregory  of  Tours,  [Lat.  Gf.or'gtus  Floren'tius 
Grego'riu.S,]  one  of  the  earliest  French  historians,  born 
at  Auvergne  in  544  a.d.,  was  appointed  Bishr)p  of  Tours. 
His  principal  work,  entitled  "  Historia  Francorum,"  is  a 
history  of  France  from  the  establishment  of  Christianity 
till  595  a.d.  Being  persecuted  for  denouncing  the  crimes 
of  the  French  sovereigns  Chilperic  and  Fredegonde, 
he  retired  to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  595. 

See  DuPiN,  "  Bibliotheque  des  Anteurs  ecc'esiastiqnes ;"  J.  W 
Loepki.i,,  "Gregor  von  Tonrs  up.d  seine  Zeit,"  1839;  "Gallia 
Christiana,"  tome  xiv. ;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale. "  ' 


Greg'o-ry,  (David,)  a  Scottish  philosopher,  bom 
about  1627,  was  the  brother  of  James,  who  invented  the 
reflecting  telescope,  and  was  the  ancestor  of  several  great 
mathematicians.  I  le  was  himself  remarkable  for  his  skill 
ill  medicine,  philosophy,  etc.  His  three  sons,  David, 
James,  and  Charles,  were  at  the  same  time  mathematical 
professors  in  three  universities. 

Gregory,  (David,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Aberdeen  in  1661,  was  a  skilful  mathematician,  and  one 
of  the  most  eminent  members  of  this  remarkable  family. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-three  he  succeeded  his  uncle 
James  as  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  He  has  the  credit  of  being  one  of  the  first 
who  taught  the  Newtonian  philosophy  in  his  jiublic  lec- 
tures. He  published,  from  1684  to  1703,  several  woiks 
on  astronomy  aiid  gecnnetry.  In  1691  he  obtained  the 
Savilian  professorship  of  astronomy  at  Oxford.  He 
afterwards  wrote  "  I^^lements  of  Spherical  Dioptrics  and 
Catoptrics,"  and  "  Elements  of  Physical  and  Geometrical 
Astronomy,"  (1702,)  the  latter  of  which  is  his  niost  im- 
portant work.  Professor  Hutton  says,  "  It  was  esteemed 
by  Newton  himself  as  a  most  excellent  explanation  and 
defence  of  his  philosophy."  Died  in  1708.  His  brother 
James  was  chosen  professor  of  mathematics  in  Edin- 
bingh  in  179 1.  Another  brother,  Charles,  occupied  the 
chair  of  mathematics  at  Saint  Andrew's  from  1707  to 
1739,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  David. 

See  HuTTON,  "  Mai'neniatical  Dictionary;"  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Gregory,  (Duncan  Farquhar.son,)  a  British  mathe- 
matician, born  in  1814,  was  the  son  of  James  Gregory, 
M.D.,  (1753-1821,)  and  a  descendant  of  the  first  James, 
noticed  below.  He  was  a  Fellow  and  sub-lecturer  of 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  principal  contributor 
to  the  Cambridge  "Mathematical  Journal."  In  1841  he 
published  an  excellent  work  on  the  "Differential  and 
Integral  Calculus."    Died  in  1844. 

Gregory,  (Edmund,)  an  English  writer,  published  a 
"  Historical  Anatomy  of  Christian  Melancholy,"  (1646.) 
Died  in  1650. 

Gregory,  (George,)  D.D.,  an  English  author,  born 
in  1754,  was  curate  of  Saint  Giles,  London,  from  1782  to 
1804.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church," 
(2  vols.,  1794,)  a  "Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences,"  and 
other  works  on  various  subjects.    Died  in  1808. 

Gregory,  (James,)  a  celebrated  Scottish  geometer, 
born  at  Aberdeen  in  1638,  was  the  most  eminent  indi- 
vidual in  a  family  which  during  several  successive  genera- 
tions has  been  distinguished  for  profound  attainments  in 
the  exact  sciences.  After  leaving  the  university  he  de- 
voted his  talents  to  optics,  and,  at  the  age  of  twenty-four, 
invented  the  reflecting  telescope  which  bears  his  name, 
and  which  he  described  in  a  treatise  entitled  "Optica 
Promota."  About  1665  he  visited  Italy,  where  he  passed 
several  years  and  published  a  work  on  the  "Quadrature 
of  the  Circle  and  Hyperbola,"  (1667.)  These  works  pro- 
cured for  him  the  friendship  of  Newton,  Huyghens,  and 
other  eminent  philosophers.  On  his  return  to  England, 
in  1668,  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
and  professor  of  mathematics  at  Saint  Andrew's.  In 
1674  he  obtained  the  same  chair  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  where  he  died  suddenly  in  October,  1675, 
at  the  age  of  thirty-six.  Charles  Hutton  exi)ressed  the 
opinion  that  "his  mathematical  genius  as  an  inventor 
was  of  the  first  order."  The  list  of  his  inventions  com- 
prises, besides  the  Gregorian  telescoi)e,  burning  mir- 
rors, the  solution  of  the  Keplerian  problem,  a  method 
for  the  transformation  of  curves,  a  converging  series  for 
making  logarithms,  etc.  He  wrote,  besides  the  works 
above  named,  a  "Part  of  Universal  Geometry,"  and 
"Geometrical  Essays."  He  left  one  son,  James,  born 
in  1674,  who  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Aberdeen 
and  was  the  father  of  John  Gregory,  M.D.,  noticed 
below.  It  is  said  that  sixteen  members  of  this  family 
have  held  professorships  in  British  colleges  and  schools. 

See  MoNTiTi.A,  "Histoire  des  Mathematiqnes :"  "  i^ioeraiihia 
Britannica  :"  Hutton,  "Mathematical  Dictionary;"  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Gregory,  (James,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  ]Dhysician,  born  at 
Aberdeen  in  1753,  was  the  son  of  John  Gregory,  M.D., 
noticed  below,  lie  attained  eminence  as  a  professor  of 
medicine  in  Edinburgh,  and  published  a  "General  View 


i,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  /ou^'-;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort:  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GREGORT 


1081 


^GRENFILLE 


of  Theoretical  Medicine,"  {"  Conspectus  Medicine  Theo- 
reticas,")  and  other  professional  works.    Died  in  1821. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Gregory,  (John,)  an  English  minister  and  liistorical 
writer,  born  in  Buckinghamshire  in  1607.  His  various 
works  were  published  under  the  title  of  "  Gregorii  Post- 
huma,"  with  a  Life  of  the  author  by  John  Gurgany, 
(ist  part,  1649.)    Died  in  1646. 

Gregory,  (John,)  M.D,,  a  grandson  of  James  Gregory 
the  eminent  getjmeter,  was  born  at  Aberdeen  in  1724, 
He  became  successively  professor  of  philosophy  and 
medicine  at  Aberdeen,  and  in  1766  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  the  practice  of  physic  in  Edinburgh.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  "  Elements  of  the  Practice  of  Physic," 
"A  Comparative  View  of  the  State  and  Faculties  of 
Man  with  those  of  the  Animal  World,"  and  "A  Father's 
Legacy  to  his  Daughters."    Died  in  1773. 

See  Chambers,  *'  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Gregory,  (Olinthus  Gilbert,)  LL.D.,  a  distin- 
guished mathematician  and  ])hilosopher,  born  in  Hun- 
tingdonshire, P^ngland,  in  1774.  His  "Treatise  on  the 
Use  of  the  Sliding  Rule"  procured  for  him  the  notice  of 
Dr.  Hutton,  to  whom  in  1800  he  dedicated  his  "  Treatise 
on  Astronomy."  Soon  after  this  he  became  editor  of 
the  "Gentleman's  Diary"  and  the  "  Pantalogia."  He 
was  appointed  a  mathematical  master  in  the  Royal  Mili- 
tary Academy,  Woolwich,  in  1802,  and,  on  the  resigna- 
tion of  Dr.  Hutton,  succeeded  him  as  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  that  institution.  Among  his  other  writings 
are  "A  Treatise  on  Mechanics,"  "Plane  and  Spherical 
Trigonometry,"  "  Lessons  Astronomical  and  Philoso- 
phical," a  "  Memoir  of  John  Mason  Good,"  a  "Disser- 
tation on  Weights  and  Measures,"  and  "  Evidences  of 
Christianity,"  (1815.)  Dr.  Gregory  was  one  of  the  twelve 
founders  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society.  As  a  man, 
he  was  greatly  beloved  and  esteemed  for  his  goodness 
of  heart  and  eminent  Christian  virtues.    Died  in  1841. 

Gregory,  (William,)  a  Scottish  chemist  and  phy- 
sician of  high  reputation,  born  in  Edinburgh  about  1803, 
was  the  author  of  "Outlines  of  Chemistry,"  (1848,)  ancl 
"Letters  to  a  Candid  Enquirer  on  Animal  Magnetism," 
(1853.)  He  also  translated  Von  Reichenbach's  "  Re- 
searches on  Magnetism,"  and  edited  several  of  Liebig's 
works.  He  became  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh  about  1844.    Died  in  1858. 

Gregory  the  Great.    See  Gregory  (Pope)  L 

Greg'o-ry  Naz-i-an'zen,  |  Lat.  Grego'rius  Nazian- 
Ze'nus;  Gr.  Tpijyofuog  NaQavCr/vog ;  Fr.  Gr^ooire  DE 
Nazianzk,  gka'gvvaR'  deh  nt'ze'fiNz';  Ger.  Gregor  (or 
Grkgorius,  gRk-go're-iis)  von  Nazl^nz,  gR^-goR'  fon 
nat-se-ints',]  a  celebrated  Greek  Father,  surnamed  the 
Theologian,  was  born  near  Nazianzus  about  328  a.d. 
He  studied  successively  at  Caesarea,  Alexandria,  and 
Athens,  where  he  formed  an  intimacy  with  Saint  Basil. 
He  was  afterwards  associated  with  his  father  in  the 
bishopric  of  Nazianzus,  where  he  was  distinguished  for 
bis  pulpit  eloquence  and  by  the  poetical  graces  and  the 
mild  conciliatory  spirit  of  his  composition.s.  During  the 
Arian  persecution  under  Valens,  he  repaired  to  Constan- 
tinople, where  he  took  charge  of  a  private  chapel  ;  but, 
having  incurred  the  enmity  of  zealots  and  courtiers  by 
his  mildness  and  his  simple  style  of  living,  he  resigned 
his  office.  His  farewell  sermon  on  this  occasion  is  an 
admirable  specimen  of  pul])it  eloquence,  full  of  dignity 
and  pathos.  Having  previously  visited  Caesarea  and 
deli'-'ered  the  funeral  oration  of  his  friend  Basil,  he  re- 
tired to  his  native  place,  where  he  devoted  himself  for 
the  remainder  of  his  life  to  his  religious  duties  and  the 
comp(jsition  of  his  poems.  A  collection  of  these  was 
published  at  Venice  in  1504.  He  also  wrote  numerous 
orations  and  epistles,  which  have  gone  through  several 
editions,  "Gregorius,"  says  Dupin,  "deserves  to  be 
classed  with  the  most  perfect  orators  of  Greece,"  excel- 
ling his  contemi>oraries  "  in  the  nobleness  of  his  expres- 
sions, the  beauty  of  his  reasonings,  and  the  sublimity  of 
his  thoughts,"    Died  in  389  A.D. 

See  ViLi.EMAiN,  "Tableau  de  I'filoquence  chr^tienne  au  quatri- 
6me  Siecle  ;"  Ullmann,  "  Gregorius  von  Nazianz,"  1825  ;  Godefkov 
H-4RMANT,  "Vie  de  S.  Gregoire  de  Nazianze,"  1675;  Fabricius, 
"  Bibliotheca  Graeca  :"  Socrates,  "  Historia  Ecclesiastica  ;"  Cave, 
".Scriptorum  Ecc'iesiasticorum  Historia  Literaria ;"  "Westminster 
Review"  for  October,  1851. 


Greif.    See  Gryphius. 

Greiff,  gRlf,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  chemist,  born  at 
Tubingen  in  1601  ;  died  in  1668. 

Greig,  gr^g,  (Samuel  Carlovitch,)  a  Scottish  ad- 
miral, who  entered  the  Russian  service  in  1764  and 
accompanied  Count  Orlof  in  his  expedition  against  the 
Turks.  He  was  made  commandant  of  Cronstaclt  in  1775, 
and  admiral  in  1782.  Died  in  1788.  A  monument  was 
erected  to  him  at  Revel  by  the  empress  Catherine. 

See  Count  Segur,  "  Memoires ;"  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Grel-let',  (Stephen,)  a  minister  of  the  Society  of 
Friends  or  Quakers,  born  in  France  in  1773,  origi- 
nally a  Roman  Catholic.  He  entered  the  body-guard 
of  Louis  XVL  about  1790,  and  emigrated  to  New  York 
1795-  He  was  converted  to  the  principles  of  the 
Friends  about  1796,  and  became  a  preacher,  in  which 
capacity  he  travelled  extensively.  He  resided  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  at  Burlington,  New  Jersey,  where 
he  died  in  1855. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Stephen  Grellet,"  edited  by  B.  See- 

BOHM,  2  vols.,  i860. 

Gren,  gR^n,  (Friedrich  Albrecht  Karl,)  a  Ger- 
man chemist  and  writer,  born  at  Bernburg  in  1760;  died 
at  Halle  in  1798. 

Grenade,  de,  (Louis.)    See  Granada. 

Grenan,  gReh-n6N',  (B^nigne,)  a  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Noyers,  in  Burgundy,  about  1680,  was  professor  of 
rhetoric  at  Paris.  His  style  is  said  to  be  pure  and  ani- 
mated. He  translated  Boileau's  tenth  and  eleventh 
Satires  into  Latin.    Died  in  1723. 

See  MoR^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Gren'fell,  (Pas'coe,)  M.P.,  an  English  opponent  of 
the  slave-trade,  born  in  1762.  He  was  a  coadjutor  of 
WilberfordS,  and  spoke  in  the  House  of  Commons 
against  the  slave-trade.    Died  in  1838. 

Greiiier,  gReh-ne-i',  (Jacques  Raymond,)  a  French 
hydrographer  and  naval  officer,  born  in  1736,  sailed  in 
1767  to  explore  the  seas  bordering  on  the  coast  of  Coro- 
mandel  and  the  adjacent  islands.  He  published,  after 
his  return,  a  number  of  valuable  charts,  and  "The  Art 
of  Naval  Warfare,"  etc.,  (1787.)    Died  in  1803. 

See  "Archives  de  la  Marine,"  etc. 

Grenier,  (Jean,)  Baron,  a  French  jurist,  born  in 
Auvergne  in  1753,  published  a  "Treatise  on  Donations 
and  Wills,"  (1807,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1841. 

Grenier,  (Paul,)  Count,  a  French  general  of  divi- 
sion, born  at  Sarre-Louis  in  1768;  died  in  1827. 

Gren'ville,  (Hon.  George,)  a  distinguished  English 
statesman,  born  in  1 712,  was  a  younger  brother  of  Rich- 
ard, Earl  Temple,  and  brother-in-law  of  William  Pitt  the 
elder.  He  became  ministerial  leader  of  the  Commons 
in  1762,  having  been  treasurer  of  the  navy  for  some  years 
previous.  He  had  mostly  acted  with  the  Whigs.  While 
advocating  a  tax  on  cider,  he  called  on  his  0])ponents  td 
say  where  they  would  have  a  tax  laid  :  "  Let  them  tell  me 
where  ;  I  repeat  it,  sir,  tell  me  where."  Pitt,  who  waS 
then  in  the  Opposition,  raised  a  general  laugh  against 
him  by  murmuring  the  line  of  a  well-known  song, 

"Gentle  shepherd,  tell  me  where." 
In  1763  the  prime  minister.  Lord  Bute,  resigned,  and 
Grenville  succeeded  him  as  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  "  We  are  inclined  to  think," 
says  Macaulay,  "  that  the  worst  administration  which 
has  governed  England  since  the  Revolution  was  that  of 
George  Grenville,  His  public  acts  may  be  classed  under 
two  heads, — outrages  on  the  liberty  of  the  people,  and 
outrages  on  the  dignity  of  the  crown."  Among  the  for- 
mer was  the  famous  Stamp  Act  of  1765.  The  king  hated 
Grenville,  and  at  last  got  rid  of  him  in  July,  1765,  when 
the  Marquis  of  Rockingham  became  premier.  He  died 
in  1770,  leaving  three  sons,  one  of  whom  was  Thomas, 
Lord  Grenville. 

See  Smith,  "Grenville  Papers;"  Lord  Mahon,  "History  of 
England;"  Macaulay,  article  on  the  "Earl  of  Chatham,"  in  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1844. 

Grenville,  (George  Nugent.)    See  Nugent. 
Grenville,  (Richard.)    See  Temple,  (?:arl.) 
Grenville,  (Thomas,)  born  in  1755,  was  a  son  of 
George  Grenville,  noticed  above.    He  was  employed  in 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Vi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GRENFILLE* 


1082 


GREVILLE 


Important  missions  to  the  United  States,  France,  and 
Prussia,  and  after  the  death  of  Fox  became  first  lord  of 
the  admiralty.  This  post  he  resigned  in  1807,  because 
the  new  ministry  was  hostile  to  Catholic  emancipation. 
He  died  in  1846,  having  bequeathed  to  the  British  Mu- 
seum his  magnificent  library,  consisting  of  more  than 
20,000  v(;lumes. 

Grenville,  (William  Wyndham  Grenville,)Lord, 
an  able  English  statesman  and  orator,  born  in  1759,  was 
the  third  son  of  George  Grenville,  noticed  above.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1782,  was  appointed  pay- 
master-general of  the  army  in  1783,  and  was  chosen 
Speaker  of  the  Commons  about  1789.  In  1790  he  was 
created  Baron  Grenville,  and  in  1791  became  secretary 
for  foreign  affairs  in  the  ministry  of  Pitt.  He  retired 
from  office  with  Pitt  in  1801.  In  the  Whig  ministry 
formed  by  himself  and  Fox  about  February,  1806,  he  was 
first  lord  of  the  treasury  (premier)  for  about  one  year. 
During  several  years  after  1808,  Lords  Grenville  and 
Grey  were  the  leaders  of  the  opposition  ;  but  the  former 
did  not  support  the  Reform  bills  of  Lord  Grey.  He  wrote 
Latin  poems,  entitled  "  Nugae  Metricae,"  ("  Metrical  Tri- 
fles," 1824.)  For  many  years  he  was  chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Oxford.  His  wife  was  Anne  Pitt,  daughter 
of  Lord  Camel  ford.    He  died,  without  issue,  in  1834. 

See  J.  Smith,  "Grenville  Papers,"  1852:  "Edinburgh  Review" 
for  January,  1820;  Alison,  "  History  of  Europe." 

Grreppi,  gRep'pee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  dramatist, 
born  at  Bologna  in  175 1.  His  works  are  numerous,  and 
were  popular  at  the  time.    Died  in  1811. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri,"  vol.  viii, 

Gresh'am,  (Sir  Thomas,)  a  wealthy  English  mer- 
chant, born  in  London  in  1519.  He  was  employed  by 
Queen  Elizabeth  as  her  agent  at  Antwerp,  and  was  also 
sent  on  several  diplomatic  missions.  About  1566  he 
built  at  his  own  expense  the  Royal  Exchange,  London, 
the  first  edifice  of  the  kind  in  England.  He  founded  in 
London,  in  1575,  the  college  called  by  his  name.  Died 
in  1579. 

See  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Gresham,"  London,  1845;  Ward, 
"Lives  of  the  Gresham  Professors." 

Gresley,  gR&'le',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  L'Isle-sur-le-Doubs  about  1710.  He  excelled  espe- 
cially in  domestic  scenes.    Died  in  1756. 

Gres'ley,  (William,)  a  popular  English  writer,  born 
about  1800.  Among  his  works  (published  1835-51)  are 
"Bernard  Leslie,"  a  novel,  "Coniston  Hall,"  "Forest 
of  Arden,"  and  "Help  to  Prayer." 

Greslon,  gRi'16N',  (Adrien,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born 
at  Perigueux  in  1618.  He  visited  China  in  1657,  and 
published,  after  his  return,  a  "History  of  China  under 
the  Rule  of  the  Tartars,"  (1661.)    Died  in  1697. 

Gresset,  gRi'si',  (Jean  liAPTisiE  Louis,)  a  cele- 
brated French  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Amiens  in 
J 709.  He  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits,  and,  at  the  age 
of  twenty-four,  produced  a  comic  poem  called  "  Vert- 
Vert,"  which  had  great  success,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
witty  and  ingenious  specimens  of  persiflage  in  the  lan- 
guage. It  has  been  translated  into  English  by  T.  G. 
Cooper.  About  1735  he  ceased  to  be  a  Jesuit,  and 
removed  to  Paris.  His  "  Epistle  to  my  Sister  on  my 
Convalescence"  is  greatly  admired.  He  wrote  a  very 
successful  comedy,  called  "  Le  Mechant,"  (1747,)  and 
Several  tragedies.  In  1748  he  was  admitted  into  the 
French  Academy.  Died  in  1777.  "After  the  lapse  of 
a  century,"  says  De  Pongerville,  "Gresset  has  lost 
nothing  of  his  high  renown.  He  is  considered  one  of 
the  ornaments  of  our  poetical  firmament."  ("Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale.") 

See  Baili.v,  "  ]£loge  de  Grefiset."  1785;  Sainte-Beuve,  in  the 
"Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  SeiJtember,  1X45  ;  I,ongfeli,ow,  "  Poets 
and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  De  Cavrol,  "  Essai  historique  sur  la  Vie 
de  Gresset,"  2  vols.,  1845. 

Gressly,  gRgss'lee,  (Armand,)  a  Swiss  geologist, 
born  near  Laufen  about  1813.  He  gained  distinction  by 
his  researches  in  the  geology  of  the  Jura  Mountains. 
Died  near  Berne  in  1865. 

Gres'well,  (Edward,)  a  learned  English  theologian, 
born  at  Manchester  in  1797.  He  became  a  P^ellow  of 
Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  "  Harmonia  Evangelica,"  (1830,)  and 


"An  Exposition  of  the  Parables  and  other  Parts  of  the 
Gospels,"  (5  vols.,  1834-35.) 

Gretch  or  Gretsch,  gRetch,  (Nikolai  Ivanovitch,) 
a  Russian  litterateuj-  and  critic,  born  at  Saint  Petersburg 
in  1787.  He  was  for  a  time  editor  of  a  political  and 
patriotic  journal,  entitled  "The  Son  of  the  Fatherland," 
and  was  afterwards  associated  with  Boolgarin  (Bulgarin) 
in  editing  "The  Northern  Bee."  His  principal  work  is 
a  "  History  of  Russian  Literature,"  (1819-22.)  He  also 
published  a  valuable  Russian  Grammar,  and  a  "  Military 
Lexicon,"  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  his  friend  Baron 
von  Seddeler. 

See  KoNiG,  "  N.  Gretch  und  die  Russische  Literatur,"  1846. 

Gretry,  gRi'tRe',  (Andr^;  Ernest  Modeste,)  a  cele- 
brated opera-composer,  born  at  Liege  in  1741.  He  visited 
Rome  in  1759,  having  previously  given  proof  of  his  ge- 
nius by  the  composition  of  six  symphonies  and  a  mass. 
He  became  a  pupil  of  the  famous  Martini.  He  after- 
wards repaired  to  Paris,  where  he  brought  out  his  comic 
opera  of  "Huron,"  (1769,)  which  met  with  brilliant 
success ;  it  was  followed  in  rapid  succession  by  "  The 
Speaking  Picture,"  ("Le  Tableau  parlant,")  "Sylvain," 
"Zemoire  et  Azor,"  "The  Rose-Tree  of  Salency,"  ("La 
Rosiere  de  Salency,")  "  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,"  and 
other  comic  operas,  which  raised  his  reputation  to  the 
highest  point.  Gretry  was  a  member  of  the  French  In- 
stitute, and  of  the  Academy  of  Music  at  Stockholm,  and 
obtained  various  other  distinctions.  He  died  in  1813, 
and  a  monument,  by  Geefs,  was  erected  to  him  at  Liege. 

See  Le  Breton,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Gretry," 
1S14;  "Gretry  en  Famille,"  etc.,  by  A.  J.  Gretry,  his  nephew, 
1815  ;  E.  C.  DE  Gerlache,  "  Essai  sur  Gretry,"  1844 ;  Fetis,  "  Bio- 
graphie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  F.  van  Hulst,  "Gretiy,"  1842. 

Gretser,  gR^t'ser,  (Jakob,)  a  distinguished  German 
Jesuit  and  philologist,  born  at  Markdorf,  in  Suabia,  in 
1 561.  He  wrote  numerous  works,  among  which  is  a 
treatise  "On  the  Holy  Cross,"  ("De  Sancta  Cruce," 
1600.)    Died  at  Ingolstadt  in  1625. 

See  his  Life  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  Works,  17  vols.  fol..  1734 
-41;  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron, 
"  Memoires." 

Greuze,  gRUz,  (Jean  Baptiste, )  a  distinguished 
French  painter,  born  in  Burgundy  in  1726.  He  excelled 
in  delineating  domestic  scenes  of  a  touching  and  im- 
pressive character.  Among  his  master-pieces  may  be 
named  a  "Father  explaining  the  Bible  to  his  Children," 
"  Saint  Mary  in  Egypt,"  ("  Sainte-Marie  ligyptienne,") 
"The  Good  Mother,"  a  "Young  Girl  holding  a  Dove," 
and  "The  Paternal  Blessing."    Died  in  1805. 

See  Mekimee,  "De  la  Peinture  4  I'Huile;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Generale." 

Greve  or  Greeve,  gRa'veh  or  HRa'veh,  (Egbert 
Jan,)  a  Dutch  theologian  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Dev- 
enter  in  1754,  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Last  Chapters 
of  the  Book  of  Job,"  (in  Latin.)    Died  in  1811. 

Greve,  van,  vtn  gRa'veh,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  Arminian 
theologian,  born  about  1580.  He  wrote  "Tribunal  Re- 
formatum." 

Greve,  van,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  at  Deven- 
ter  in  1641  ;  died  in  1677. 

Grev'ille  or  GreVile,  (Sir  Fulke,)  Lord  Brooke, 
an  English  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  War- 
wickshire in  1554,  was  distinguished  by  the  favour  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  who  made  him  a  knight.  He  was  ap- 
pointed by  King  James  I.  under-treasurer  and  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer  in  161 5,  and  obtained  from  that  monarch 
the  castle  of  Warwick,  (then  in  a  ruinous  condition,) 
which  he  repaired  at  vast  expense.  He  was  created  a 
peer,  with  the  title  of  Baron  Brooke,  in  1620.  He  was 
mortally  wounded,  in  a  quarrel  with  an  old  servant,  in 
1628.  Lord  Brooke  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Sir  Philip 
Sidney,  of  whom  he  i)ublished  a  biography.  He  also 
wrote  a  number  of  poems  and  tragedies. 

See  Horace  Walpole,  "Royal  and  Noble  Authors;"  "Biogra- 
phia  Britannica." 

Greville,  (Robert,)  born  in  1608,  was  a  cousin  of 
the  preceding,  whose  title  he  inherited.  He  fought  in 
the  Parliamentary  army,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Lichfield  in  1643.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a 
"  Discourse  opening  the  Nature  of  the  Episcopacy  exer- 
cised in  England,"  (1641,)  and  "The  Nature  of  Truth." 

See  Lodge's  "Portraits." 


e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fSll,  i%X\  mhX\  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


GREVILLE 


1083 


GREY 


Greville,  (Robert  Kaye,)  a  British  botanist,  born 
in  the  county  of  Durham  about  1794.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Flora  Edinensis  :  Plants  of  Edin- 
burgh," (1824,)  and  "The  Scottish  Cryptogamic  Flora," 
(6  vols.,  1822-28,)  which  was  called  by  Loudon  "  a  truly 
admirable  work."    Died  in  1866. 

Grevin,  gi<yviN',  (Jacques,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Cleimont-en-Beauvoisis  about  1540,  was  a  Calvinist. 
He  wrote  dramas  which  had  great  success,  and  became 
physician  to  the  Duchess  of  Savoy.    Died  in  1570. 

See  La  Harpe,  "  Cours  de  Litterature." 

Grew,  (Nehemiah,)  an  English  naturalist,  son  of 
Obadiah,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Coventry  about 
1628.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of 
the  College  of  Physicians,  and  published,  among  other 
works,  "The  Anatomy  of  Vegetables,"  (1682,)  and  "  Idea 
of  a  Philosophical  History  of  Plants."  The  former  treat- 
ise was  translated  into  French.    Died  in  171 1. 

See  Rees,  "  Cyclop.edia ;"  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Grew,  (Obadiah,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  born 
in  Warwickshire  in  1607.  He  joined  the  party  of  the 
Parliament  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war,  but  he 
opposed  the  execution  of  the  king.    Died  in  1698. 

Grey,  gra,  (Charles,)  second  Earl,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish statesman  and  champion  of  Parliamentary  reform, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  the  first  Earl  Grey.  He  was 
born  at  Fallowden,  near  Alnwick,  in  March,  1764,  and 
educated  at  Cambridge.  Entering  Parliament  in  1786, 
as  member  for  Northumberland,  he  became  a  constant 
supporter  of  the  Whig  party  and  a  warm  personal 
friend  of  Fox.  He  had  won  a  prominent  position  by 
his  splendid,  talents  and  eloquence,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  House  a  member  of  the  committee 
to  manage  the  impeachment  of  Warren  blastings,  in 
1788.  "At  twenty-three,"  says  Macaulay,  "he  had 
been  thought  worthy  to  be  ranked  with  the  veteran 
statesmen  who  appeared  as  the  delegates  of  the  British 
Commons  at  the  bar  of  the  British  nobility." 

When  the  Whig  party  was  disorganized  by  hostility  to 
the  French  Revolution,  Fox  and  Grey  remained  constant 
to  their  principles,  and  were  the  leaders  of  the  opposi- 
tion. Mr.  Grey  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "  Society 
of  the  Friends  of  the  People,"  a  political  association 
formed  in  1792  to  promote  reform  in  Parliament.  In 
the  stormy  and  critical  times  which  followed,  when  the 
more  timid  Whigs  deserted  to  the  dominant  party,  when 
liberal  principles  were  stigmatized  as  Jacobinical,  when 
the  coercive  policy  of  Pitt  was  supported  by  large  ma- 
jorities, Mr.  Grey  did  not  falter  in  his  devotion  to  the 
popular  cause.  In  1793  he  presented  a  petition  for  a 
change  in  the  system  of  representation,  and  advocated 
it  in  an  impressive  speech.  In  1797  he  again  made  an 
unsuccessful  effort  for  reform  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
On  the  formation  of  the  Whig  ministry  of  Fox  and 
Grenville,  in  1806,  Mr.  Grey,  who  had  recently  received 
the  title  of  Lord  Howick,  was  appointed  first  lord  of 
the  admiralty.  At  the  death  of  Fox,  September,  1806, 
Lord  Howick  succeeded  him  as  secretary  of  foreign 
affairs  and  leader  in  the  House  of  Commons.  The 
most  memorable  act  of  this  brief  ministry  was  the 
abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  which  he  cordially  sup- 
ported. The  Whig  cabinet  was  dissolved  in  March, 
1807.  In  the  same  year,  Lord  Howick,  at  the  death  of 
his  father,  became  Earl  Grey,  and  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Lords.  In  1812  the  prince-regent  solicited 
Lords  Grey  and  Grenville  to  accept  places  in  his  Tory 
cabinet ;  but  they  declined  thus  to  sacrifice  their  Con- 
sistency and  principles,  and  continued  to  be  the  oppo- 
sition leaders  in  the  House  of  Lords.  In  1829  Lord 
Grey  concurred  in  the  passage  of  the  Catholic  Emanci- 
pation Bill,  which  had  long  been  a  fundamental  point  in 
his  political  creed. 

The  cause  of  Reform  in  1830  received  a  new  impulse 
by  the  accesrion  of  William  IV.,  and  the  second  French 
revolution.  Wellington  was  compelled  to  resign,  and  Earl 
Grey  became  premier,  adopting  for  his  policy  peace,  re- 
trenchment, and  reform.  The  first  Reform  bill  having 
been  defeated  in  1831,  the  ministers  dissolved  Parlia- 
ment and  appealed  to  the  peoj^le,  who  returned  to  the 
new  House  a  large  majority  of  Liberals.  A  second  bill 
passed  the  House  of  Commons,  but  was  lost  in  the 


Upper  House.  The  measure  finally  triumjjhed  in  June, 
1832.  The  Reformed  Parliament,  which  met  in  1833, 
abolished  colonial  slavery  and  the  monopoly  of  the  East 
India  Company.  In  consequence  of  dissensions  in  the 
cabinet,  Lord  Grey  resigned  in  July,  1833.  He  died  in 
1845.  had  married  in  1784  Mary  E.  Ponsonby,  and 

left  eight  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom  is  the  third  Earl  Cirey. 

See  Roebuck,  "History  of  the  Whig  Party  of  1830;"  Hakkikt 
Maktineau,  "History  of  'I'hirty  Years'  Peace." 

Grey,  (Sir  George,)  born  in  Ireland,  travelled  in 
Australia  in  1837,  and  published,  after  his  return  to 
England,  "  Journals  of  Two  Expeditions  in  Northwest 
and  Western  Australia."  He  was  successively  appointed 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  Southern  Australia,  Governor 
of  New  Zealand,  (1846,)  and  Governor  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  (1854.)  He  wrote  a  treatise  "On  Poly- 
nesian Mythology,  and  the  Traditional  History  of  the 
New  Zealand  Race,"  (1855.) 

Grey,  (Right  Hon.  Sir  George,)  G.C.B.,  a  British 
statesman,  born  at  Gibraltar  in  1799,  was  a  nephew  of 
the  second  Earl  Grey.  He  graduated  with  honour  as  a 
classical  scholar  at  Oxford,  and  was  called  to  the  bar 
about  1826.  In  1832  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  by 
the  Whigs  of  Devonport.  He  was  appointed  judge- 
advocate  general  in  1839,  and  entered  the  cabinet  cjf 
Lord  John  Russell  as  home  secretary  in  1846.  Having 
retired  with  his  party  in  1852,  he  was  appointed  to  the 
same  office  by  Palmerston  in  1855,  and  resigned  in  1858 
when  Lord  Derby  became  premier.  In  July,  1861,  he 
again  obtained  the  office  of  home  secretary,  which  he 
resigned  in  June,  1866. 

Grey,  (Henry  George,)  third  Earl,  the  eldest  son 
of  Charles,  the  second  Earl  Grey,  was  born  in  Decem- 
ber, 1802.  He  was  ajipointed  under-secretary  of  state 
for  the  colonies  in  1830,  and  resigned  in  1833.  From 
May,  1835,  to  August,  1841,  he  was  secretary  at  war 
under  Lord  Melbourne.  He  became  an  able  parlia- 
mentary debater.  He  succeeded  to  the  earldom  in 
1845,  before  which  he  was  styled  Lord  Howick.  In 
1846  he  was  appointed  colonial  secretary  by  Lord  John 
Russell.  He  retired  from  office  on  the  defeat  of  the 
Whig  ministry  in  1852. 

Grey,  (Lady  Jane,)  daughter  of  Henry  Grey,  Mar- 
quis of  Dorset,  and  Frances  Brandon,  granddauglr er 
of  Henry  VII.,  was  born  in  1537.  She  early  manifested 
extraordinary  talents  and  a  passionate  love  of  learning, 
and,  according  to  her  tutor,  Roger  Ascham,  spoke  and 
wrote  Latin,  Greek,  French,  and  Italian  with  the  greatest 
ease.  At  the  early  age  of  sixteen  she  wrote  excellent 
Latin;  "but  the  matter  of  her  letters,"  says  Froude, 
"is  more  striking  than  the  language,  and  speaks  more 
for  her  than  the  most  elaborate  panegyrics  of  admiring 
courtiers."  (See  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  vi.  chap. 
xxx.)  She  was  married  in  1553  to  Lord  Guilford  Dud- 
ley, son  of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland.  The  latter, 
in  concert  with  Lady  Jane's  father,  then  Duke  of  Suffolk, 
prevailed  upon  Edward  VI.  to  settle  the  crown  upon 
Lady  Jane  Grey,  to  the  exclusion  of  his  sisters  Mary 
and  Elizabeth.  The  crown  being  offered  to  her  after 
the  death  of  Edward,  she  at  first  refused,  but  at  length 
yielded  to  the  authority  of  her  father  and  the  solicita- 
tions of  her  husband.  Ten  days  later,  the  people  having 
declared  for  Mary,  Lady  Jane  and  her  husband  were 
sent  to  the  Tower,  and,  after  an  imprisonment  of  several 
months,  were  executed  in  February,  1554. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  Englard  :"  Sik  N.  H.  Nicolas,  "Me- 
moirs and  Literary  Remains  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,"  1825;  D.  W. 
l^AKTLETT,  "Life  of  Ladv  Jane  Grey,"  1853;  George  Howard, 
"  Ladv  Jane  Grey  and  her  Times." 

Grey  or  Gray,  (Nicholas,)  born  in  London  in  1590, 
became  head-master  of  Eton  in  1631.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  Latin-and-English  Dictionary.    Died  in  1660. 

Grey,  (Richard,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Newcastle  in  1694,  became  rector  of  Kincote  and  \>\t\>- 
endary  of  Saint  Paul's.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Art  of  Memory,"  ("Memoria  Technica," 
1730.)    Died  in  1771. 

Grey,  (Zachary,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  York- 
shire in  1687,  became  vicar  of  vSaint  Peter's,  Cambridge. 
He  edited  Butler's  "  1  ludibras,"  ( 1 744,)  and  published 
several  theological  and  controversial  works.  Died  in 
1766. 


e  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  c,  H,  y.,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GRET 


1084 


GRIFFITH 


Grey,  de.    See  Dk  Grey  and  Ripon. 

Gribaldi,  gRe-bJlMee,  (Matteo,)  a  learned  Italian 
jurist  and  legal  writer,  born  in  Piedmont,  was  succes- 
sively professor  of  law  at  Pisa,  Toulouse,  and  Padua. 
About  1550  he  became  a  Protestant.    Died  in  1564. 

See  Bayi.k,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Tiraboschi, 
'*  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Gribeauval,  gRe'bo'vtl',  (Jean  Baptiste  Vaquette 
— va'k^t',)  a  distinguished  French  general  and  military 
engineer,  was  born  at  Amiens  in  1715.  He  entered  the 
Austrian  army  in  1757,  and  rendered  very  important 
services  to  Maria  Theresa  during  the  Seven  Years'  war. 
Among  these  the  defence  of  Schweidnitz,  in  1762,  against 
Frederick  the  Great,  deserves  especial  mention.  He  was 
made  lieutenant-general  in  1765.    Died  in  1789. 

See  Gaucher  de  Passac,  "Precis  sur  M.  de  Gribeauval."  1816. 

Griboyedof,  Griboyedov,  or  Gribojedow,  gre- 

bo-yaMof,  (Alexander  Sergievitch,)  a  celebrated  Rus- 
sian poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Moscow  about  1795. 
Having  served  for  a  time  in  the  army,  he  was  sent  as 
minister  plenipotentiary  to  Persia  in  1828.  In  February, 
1829,  the  populace  of  Teheran,  incensed  against  the  Rus- 
sian embassy,  attacked  their  house  and  assassinated  the 
minister,  together  with  the  Russians  who  were  his  com- 
panions. His  principal  work,  entitled  "  The  Misfortunes 
of  Genius,"  ("  Gore  ot  Uma,")  is  the  most  popular 
comedy  in  the  language,  and  is  so  universally  admired 
that  many  of  its  sentences  have  become  proverbs. 

See  E.  Mestcherski,  "  Les  Poetes  Russes." 

Grid'ley,  (Jeremiah,)  an  eminent  American  lawyer, 
born  about  1705,  became  attorney-general  of  Massachu- 
setts. He  defended  in  1761  the  writs  of  assistance,  which 
were  obnoxious  to  the  popular  party.    Died  in  1767. 

Gridley,  (Philo,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in  Paris, 
Oneida  county,  New  York,  in  1796,  was  elected  a  judge 
of  the  supreme  court  of  New  York  in  1846.  Died  in  1864. 

Gridley,  (Richard,)  General,  a  brother  of  Jere- 
miah, noticed  above,  was  born  in  Boston  in  171 1.  He 
served  as  engineer  in  the  war  against  the  French,  and 
became  chief  engineer  of  the  American  army  in  1775. 
He  was  wounded  at  Bunker  Hill  in  June  of  that  year. 
Died  in  1796. 

Griebner,  gReep'ner,  or  Gribner,  gRip'ner,(MiCHAEL 
Heinrich,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1682,  was 
professor  of  law  at  Wittenberg.    Died  in  1734. 

Griepenhielm.    See  FuiRKLius. 

Griepenkerl,  gRee'pen-keRK,  (Robert,)  a  Swiss  lit- 
ta-ateiir,  born  at  Hofwyl  in  i8ro,  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  two  tragedies,  "  The  Girondists,"  and  "  Maxi- 
milian Robespierre." 

Grier,  greer,  (Robert  Coop'er,)  a  distinguished 
American  jurist,  born  in  Cumberland  county,  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  1794.  He  graduated  at  Dickinson  College,  in 
which  institution  he  is  said  to  have  acted  as  principal 
before  he  had  reached  the  age  of  twenty-one.  He  after- 
wards studied  law,  and  rose  to  be  a  justice  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States,  (1846.)  He  resigned  in 
February,  1870,  and  died  in  September  of  the  same  year. 

See  Livingston's  "  Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans." 

Grier'son,  (Constantia,)  an  Irish  lady,  eminent  for 
her  talents  and  learning,  born  in  the  county  of  Kilkenny 
in  1 706.  She  was  an  accomplished  classical  scholar,  and 
was  also  well  versed  in  philosophy  and  the  exact  sciences. 
She  published  valuable  editions  of  Tacitus  and  Terence, 
and  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  poems.  Died  in  1733. 

See  Gibber's  "Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Gries,  gReess,  (Johann  Dietrich,)  a  German  poet  and 
litterateur,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1775.  His  "Phaeton," 
a  poem,  published  about  1798,  led  to  his  acquaintance 
with  Schiller,  who  inserted  it  in  the  "  Musenalmanach." 
He  translated  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered,"  and  the 
"Orlando  Furioso"  of  Ariosto,  from  the  Italian,  and 
Calderon's  dramas  from  the  Spanish.    Died  in  1842. 

Griesbach,  gReess'b^K,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  German 
theologian  and  celebrated  biblical  critic,  born  at  Butz- 
bach,  Hesse-Dar  nstadt,  in  1745.  Having  studied  at 
Tiibingen,  Halle,  and  Leipsic,  he  devoted  himself  chiefly 
to  the  revision  of  the  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Halle  in  1773.  In 
1775  he  published  his  excellent  edition  of  the  Greek 


New  Testament.  The  text  established  by  him  has  been 
generally  adopted.  He  was  chosen  j^rofessor  of  divinity 
in  Jena  in  1776.  He  published,  in  Latin,  many  critical 
works,  among  which  is  "Symbolas  Criticae,"  etc.,  (1785- 
93  ;)  and  in  German,  an  "  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
the  Popular  Christian  Dogmas,"  Fopuldre  Dogmatik,^ ) 
(1779,)  which  is  his  most  celebrated  work.   Died  in  1812. 

See  J.  C.  W.  AUGUSTi,  "  Ueber  J.  J.  Griesbach's  Verdienste," 
i8i2  ;  ¥.  A.  KoTHE,  "  Gedachtnissrede  auf  J.  J.  Griesbach  nebsteiner 
Skizze  seines  Lebens,"  1812;  "  Nouveile  Biographic  Generaie." 

Griesheim,  von,  fon  gReess'him,  (Karl  Gustav 
Julius,)  a  Prussian  general,  born  at  Berlin  in  1798.  He 
published  several  military  works. 

Grif'fen-feld  or  Griffenfeldt,  (Peter  Schuhma- 
cher,)  Count  of,  a  Danish  statesman,  born  at  Co- 
penhagen in  1635,  rose,  through  various  offices,  to  be 
president  of  the  sui)reme  tribunal  and  chancellor  ol 
the  University  of  Copenhagen.  His  haughtiness  and 
abuse  of  power  having  made  him  many  enemies,  he 
was  charged  in  1676  with  treasonable  negotiations  with 
foreign  courts,  and  was  imprisoned  twenty-seven  years. 
Died  in  1699. 

See  C.  P.  RoTHE,  "  Griffenfelds  Liv  og  Levnet,"  1745;  GiES- 
siNG,  "Griffenfeld;  en  historisk  Fremstilling,"  1846. 

GrifFet,  gReTi',  (Henri,)  a  learned  French  Jesuit, 
born  at  Moulins  in  1698,  wrote  numerous  theological 
and  historical  works.    Died  in  1771. 

Griffet  de  la  Beaume,  gRe'fi'  deh  It  boin,  (Antotne 
Gilbert,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Moulins 
in  1756,  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  comedy  entitled 
"Galatea."    Died  in  1805. 

Griffier,  griffeer,  (John,)  the  Elder,  an  eminent 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1656.  He  resided 
for  a  time  in  London,  where  he  died  in  1718.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  several  views  on  the  Rhine,  and 
a  "View  of  the  Seven  Castles,"  in  Germany.  His  land- 
scapes rival  in  beauty  those  of  Teniers  and  Ruysdael. 

Griffier,  (Robert,)  the  Younger,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  England  in  1688.  He  was  distin- 
guished, like  his  father,  for  his  exquisite  landscapes  and 
river-views.    Died  about  1750. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Griffin  or  Griffon.    See  Gryphon. 

Griffin,  (Charles,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Ohio  about  1826,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1847.  He 
became  a  captain  in  the  regular  army  early  in  1861,  and 
a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  about  April,  1862.  He 
commanded  a  division  at  the  battles  of  Gaines'  Mill  and 
Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862,  and  served  under  General 
Grant  in  his  operations  against  Richmond  in  the  summer 
of  1864.  He  commanded  a  corps  at  Five  Forks,  April  i, 
1865.    Died  at  Galveston  in  September,  1867. 

Griffin,  (Rev.  Edmund  Dorr,)  an  American  Episco- 
palian divine,  born  at  Wyoming,  Pennsylvania,  in  i8o4« 
He  died  in  1830,  leaving  "  Literary  Remains,"  which 
were  published  in  2  vols.,  with  a  Memoir  by  the  Rev. 
John  McVickar,  (1831.) 

See  "North  American  Review"  for  January,  1832. 

Griffin,  (Edward  Dorr,)  D.D.,  an  American  Pres- 
byterian divine  and  eminent  i>ulpit  orator,  born  in  East 
Haddam,  Connecticut,  in  1770,  graduated  at  Yale  in  1 790. 
He  was  for  some  time  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  in  the 
Theological  Seminary  at  Andover,  and  in  1811  became 
pastor  of  the  Park  Street  Church,  Boston.  It  was  here 
that  he  delivered  his  well-known  "  Park  Street  Lectures" 
on  the  doctrines  of  Calvinism.  In  1815  he  accepted  the 
presidency  of  Williams  College.    Died  in  1837. 

See  Sprague,  "Life  of  E.  D.  Griffin,"  1839. 

Griffin,  (Gerald,)  an  Irish  novelist,  born  at  Lim- 
erick in  1803.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Holland  Tide,  or 
Munster  Popular  Tales,"  (1827,)  "The  Collegians,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1840. 

Griffith,  (Eliza heih,)  a  writer  of  fiction,  born  in 
Wales  in  1750,  published  conjointly  with  her  husband, 
Richard  Griffith,  a  popular  work,  entitled  "  Letters  of 
Henry  and  Francis,"  (1756.)  Mrs.  Griffith  also  wrote  a 
number  of  novels  and  comedies,  and  "The  Morality  of 
Shakespeare's  Dramas  Illustrated."    Died  in  1793. 

Griffith,  (Sir  Richard  John,)  a  geologist,  born  in 
Dublin  in  1784.    He  was  a  civil  engineer  in  early  life, 


5,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  ^,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


GRIFFITH 


1085 


GRIMBALD 


and  became  professor  of  geology  in  Dublin.  About  1850 
he  was  appointed  chairman  of  the  board  of  public  works 
of  Ireland.    He  published  a  Geological  Map  of  Ireland. 

Griffith,  (William,)  M.D.,  an  English  naturalist, 
borr  in  1810.  He  went  to  India  as  a  surgeon  about 
1832,  and  spent  much  time  in  exploring  the  botany  of 
that  region.  He  wrote  several  treatises  for  scientific 
jou.nals,  and  made  large  collections  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals.   Died  in  Malacca  in  1845. 

Griffiths,  (Ralph,)  an  English  journalist,  born  in 
Shropshire  about  1720,  founded  in  1749  the  "Monthly 
Review"  in  London.    Died  in  1803. 

Griffon.    See  Gryphon. 

Grignan,  de,  deh  gk^n'ySN',  (FRANgoiSE  Margue- 
rite de  Sevigne — deh  s^'v^n'yy,)  Comtesse,  a  French 
lady,  distinguished  for  talents  and  beauty,  born  in  1648. 
She  was  a  daughter  of  the  celebrated  Madame  de  Sevigne, 
who  addressed  to  her  the  "  Letters"  so  widely  known 
and  so  generally  admired.  Madame  de  Grignan  was 
the  author  of  a  *'  Summary  of  the  System  of  Fenelon 
on  the  Love  of  God."    Died  in  1705. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memcires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Grigoletti,  gRe-go-let'tee,  (Michelangelo,)  an  Ital- 
ian painter,  born  at  Pordenone  in  1801,  became  professor 
in  the  Academy  of  Venice  in  1839.  Among  his  works 
is  a  celebrated  picture  of  "The  Last  Interview  between 
the  Foscari,"  (1838.) 

Grijalva,  de,  di  gRe-HlKvS,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  navi- 
gator, and  the  discoverer  of  Mexico,  born  at  Cuellar. 
He  sailed  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  in  1 5 18,  and  arrived 
first  at  the  island  of  Cozumel,  (called  by  him  Santa  Cruz,) 
in  the  liay  of  Yucatan.  He  gave  to  Mexico  the  name 
of  New  Spain. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico;"  A.  de 
SoLis,  "Historia  de  la  Conquisla  de  Mexico." 

Grill,  gRil,  (Claudius,)  a  learned  Swede,  born  at 
Stockholm  in  1705,  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  his  native  city.    Died  in  1767. 

Grillet,  gRe'yi',  (Jean,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  about 
1630,  was  one  of  the  first  missionaries  to  Guiana.  He 
published,  after  his  return,  an  account  of  Guiana,  which 
is  still  esteemed.    Died  about  1675. 

Grillet,  gRe'yi',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  historical  writer, 
born  in  Savoy  in  1756.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  College  of  Carouge,  near  Geneva,  which  admitted 
Catholics,  Protestants,  and  Jews  without  distinction. 
Died  in  181 2. 

Grille,  gR^Klo,  (Don  Angelo,)  a  learned  Genoese 
nobleman,  born  about  1550,  was  a  friend  of  the  poet 
Tasso,  and  was  patronized  by  the  popes  Urban  VIII. 
and  Alexander  VII.    Died  in  1629. 

Grillparzer,  gRil'piRt-ser,  (Franz,)  a  German  dram- 
atist, born  in  1 790  at  Vienna,  where  he  appears  to  have 
since  resided.  Among  his  best  productions  are  "The 
Waves  of  the  Sea  and  of  Love,"  a  tragedy  founded  on 
the  story  of  Hero  and  Leander,  and  another,  called 
"Sappho,"  which  was  translated  into  Italian. 

See  "Fraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1S52. 

Grimaldi,  gRe-mSKdee,  (Antonio,)  a  Genoese  ad- 
miral, of  a  noble  family,  captured  several  vessels  from 
the  Catalonians  in  1332,  but  was  defeated  in  1353  by  the 
Spanish  and  Venetian  fleet  under  Niccolo  Pisani. 

Grimaldi,  (Carlo,)  surnamed  the  Great,  Prince 
of  Monaco,  was  commander  of  the  Genoese  fleet  against 
the  F'lemings  in  1338.  He  was  mortally  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Crecy,  in  1346. 

Grimaldi,  (Constantino,)  a  Neapolitan  jurist  and 
philosopher,  born' in  1667.  He  is  chiefly  known  from 
his  controversy  with  Benedictis  on  the  doctrine  of  Aris- 
totle, and  published  an  able  defence  of  the  Cartesian 
philosoi>hy.    Died  in  1750. 

Grimaldi,  (Domenico,)  a  Genoese  prelate,  who,  being 
appointed  by  the  pope  commissary-general  of  the  galleys 
of  the  Church,  took  an  active  part  in  the  battle  of  Le- 
panto  in  1 57 1.  He  afterwards  became  Archbishop  and 
Vice-Legate  of  Avignon.    Died  in  1592. 

Grimaldi,  (Domenico,)  Marquis,  an  Italian  writer 
on  rural  and  political  economy,  born  at  Seminara  in 
1735  ;  died  in  1805. 


Grimaldi,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  architect,  born  in 
the  kingdom  of  Naples  about  1550.  Among  his  best 
works  are  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli,  and 
the  chapel  of  San  Januario,  at  Naples. 

Grimaldi,  (Francesco,)  a  Neapolitan  Jesuit  and 
Latin  poet,  born  about  1 678;  died  in  1738. 

Grimaldi,  (Francesco  Antonio,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  historian,  born  in  Calabria  in  1740,  wrote  "Annals 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples."    Died  in  1784. 

Grimaldi,  (Francesco  Maria,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Bologna  in  1618  or  1619. 
He  wrote  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Physico-Mathesis  de 
Lumine,  Coloribus,"  etc.,  (1665,)  being  an  account  of  his 
experiments  and  discoveries  relating  to  the  interference 
of  rays  of  light.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  discoverer 
of  the  diffraction  of  light.    Died  in  1663. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vits  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium ;"  MoN- 
TUCLA,  "Histoire  des  Mathematiques." 

Grimaldi,  (Giovanni,)  Prince  of  Monaco,  a  Genoese 
admiral,  who  signally  defeated  the  Venetians  in  143 1. 
Died  in  1454. 

Grimaldi,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  a  celebrated  Ital- 
ian painter  of  landscapes  and  architectural  pieces,  sur- 
named IL  Bolognese,  born  at  Bologna  in  1606,  was  a 
pupil  of  the  Caracci.  He  was  employed  by  Louis  XIV. 
and  Cardinal  Mazarin  to  paint  in  the  Louvre,  and  was 
patronized  by  Pope  Innocent  X.    Died  in  1680. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Grimaldi,  gre-miKdee,  (Joseph,)  a  celebrated  comic 
actor,  born  in  England  in  1779.  He  performed  the  part 
of  a  clown  with  success  in  London.    Died  in  1837. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Joseph  Grimaldi,"  edited  by  Boz. 

Grimaldi,  (Onorio,)  Prince  of  Monaco,  born  in  1597, 
was  created  l)uke  of  Valentinois  by  Louis  XIII.  of 
France,  and  obtained  many  other  distinctions.  He  wrote 
"Genealogica  et  historica  Grimaldiee  Gentis  Arbor," 
being  a  history  of  the  Grimaldi  family.    Died  in  1662. 

Grimaldi,  (Ranieri,)  Prince  of  Monaco,  a  leader 
of  the  Guelph  faction,  entered  the  service  of  Philippe 
le  Bel  in  1302,  and  rose  to  be  admiral  of  France.  He 
gained  a  victory  over  the  Flemish  fleet  in  1304,  and  took 
prisoner  Guy  de  Namur,  son  of  the  Count  of  Flanders. 

Grimaldo,  de,  di  gRe-mlKno,  (Don  Jos6  Gutie- 
rez  de  Solorzano — goo-te-a'r^th  dk  so-loR-th^'no,) 
Marquis,  a  Spanish  minister  of  state,  born  in  Biscay  in 
1664.  He  was  secretary  of  the  marine  and  of  war,  and 
afterwards  chief  minister,  of  Philip  V.    Died  in  1733. 

Grimani,  gRe-mS'nee,  (Antonio,)  a  Venetian  noble- 
man,  born  in  1436.  He  was  appointed  in  1499  jjrocu- 
rator  of  Saint  Mark,  and  captain-general  of  the  fleet  sent 
against  the  Sultan  Bayazeed,  (Bajazet.)  He  was  elected 
Doge  of  Venice  in  1521.    He  died  in  1523. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Grimani,  gRe-ml'nee,  (Hubert,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
sometimes  called  Jacobs,  was  born  at  Delft  in  1599.  He 
studied  in  Venice,  and  was  a  good  colorist.  Died  in  1629. 

Grimani,  (Marino,)  became  Doge  of  Venice  in  1595. 
Under  his  rule  an  expedition  was  fitted  out  against  the 
pirates  of  the  Adriatic  Sea.    Died  in  1605. 

Grimani,  (Pietro,)  succeeded  Ludovico  Pisani  as 
Doge  of  Venice  in  1741.  He  died  in  1752,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Francesco  Loredano. 

Grimarest,  de,  deh  gRe^mfri',  (Jean  L^onor  le 
Gallois — l^h  gS^lwi',)  Sieur,  a  French  litteratettr,  born 
in  Paris,  was  noted  for  witticisms  and  anecdotes.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Life  of  Moliere,"  (1705.) 
Died  in  1720. 

Grimaud,  de,  deh  gRe'mo',  (Jean  Charles  Margue- 
rite Guillaume,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Nantes 
in  1750,  became  professor  in  the  Medical  University 
of  Montpellier.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  Irritability," 
and  other  valuable  works.    Died  in  1789. 

Grimauld.    See  Urban  V. 

Grim'baid,  written  also  Grimbold  and  Grimoald, 

(Nicholas,)  an  English  poet,  was  one  of  the  first  among 
his  countrymen  who  wrote  in  blank  verse.  "As  a  writer 
of  verses  in  rhyme,"  says  Warton,  "he  yields  to  none 
of  his  contemporaries  for  a  masterly  choice  of  chaste 
expression  and  the  concise  elegancies  of  didactic  versi- 
fication."   He  was  also  the  author  of  a  Latin  tragedy, 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  h,  Y^yguttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^I^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GRIMKE 


1086 


GRIN  NELL 


entitled  "John  the  Baptist,"  and  made  several  transla- 
tions from  the  Greek  and  Latin.    Died  about  1 563. 
See  Warton,  "History  of  English  Poetry." 

Grimke,  grim'ke,  (Frederick,)  an  American  judge, 
of  Huguenot  descent,  born  in  Charleston,  South  Caro- 
lina, in  1 79 1,  removed  to  Ohio.  He  wrote  "The  Nature 
and  Tendency  of  Free  Institutions,"  (1848.) 

Grimke,  (Thomas  Smith,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist 
and  philanthropist,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1786.  He  graduated 
at  Yale  in  1807.  He  was  widely  known  for  his  efforts 
in  behalf  of  peace,  religion,  and  education.  A  volume 
of  his  Addresses  on  these  and  other  subjects  was  pub- 
lished at  New  Haven  in  183 1.    Died  in  1834. 

Grimm,  gRim,  (Friedkich  Melchior,)  Baron,  a 
witty  German  writer,  born  at  Ratisbon  on  the  25th  of 
December,  1723.  Having  accompanied  Count  Schon- 
berg  to  Paris,  he  became  acquainted  with  Rousseau, 
Baron  Holbach,  and  other  celebrated  persons,  and  at- 
tracted general  admiration  by  his  elegant  accomplish- 
ments and  conversational  talent.  When  the  war  broke 
out  in  the  musical  world  between  the  partisans  of  the 
French  composer  Rameau  and  the  Italian  musicians. 
Grimm  espoused  the  cause  of  the  latter.  He  was  the 
head  of  the  queen's  party,  called  "Coin  de  la  Reine" 
from  their  assembling  in  the  pit  under  the  queen's  box, 
while  the  "Coin  du  Roi,"  the  French  party,  took  their 
station  under  the  box  of  the  king.  About  this  time  he 
published  a  spirited  and  witty  satire,  entitled  "  Le  petit 
Prophete  de  Boemischbroda,"  (1753,)  and  soon  after  his 
"  Lettres  sur  la  Musique  Frangaise,"  in  which  he  gained 
a  complete  victory  over  his  antagonists.  After  becoming 
secretary  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  he  wrote,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Diderot  and  the  Abbe  Raynal,  his  literary 
bulletins,  containing  acute  criticisms  on  French  litera- 
ture. Catherine  of  Russia  appointed  him  her  minister  at 
Hamburg  in  1795.  He  died  at  Gotha  in  December, 
1807,  leaving  "  Correspondance  litteraire,  philosophique 
et  critique,"  which  was  published  by  J.  Taschereau,  (15 
vols.,  1829-31.) 

See  Taschereau,  "  Notice  sur  Grimm,"  prefixed  to  this  edition; 
Madame  d'Epinay,  "  Memoires ;"  Rousseau,  "Confessions;" 
Sainte- Beuve,  "Causeriesdu  Limdi ;"  Sainte-Beuve  et  L[Mav- 
RAC,  "  Gazette  litteraire  de  Grimm  :  Histoire,  Litterature,  Philosophie, 
1753-90.  fitudes  sur  Grimm,"  Paris,  8vo,  1854;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra 
phie  Gen^rale  ;"  "  l-ondon  Quarterly  Review"  for  March  and  October, 

1813,  and  July,  1814;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1813. 

Grimm,  (Jakob  Ludwig,)  an  eminent  German  jurist 
and  philologist,  born  at  Hanau  on  the  4th  of  January, 
1785.  He  studied  law  at  Marburg,  under  Savigny.  He 
was  secretary  of  legation  to  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in 

1814,  and  shortly  after  was  sent  to  Paris  to  reclaim  the 
manuscripts  which  had  been  taken  away  from  Prussia 
by  the  French  under  Napoleon,  In  1830  he  obtained 
a  professorship  at  Gottingen,  and  was  also  made  libra- 
rian. He  was  deprived  of  that  chair  in  1837  for  his 
liberal  political  principles.  In  1841  he  was  invited  to 
Berlin,  where  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences. He  wrote  "  Legal  Antiquities  of  Germany,"  (1828,) 
••History  of  the  German  Language,"  (1848,)  and  "Ger- 
man Mythology,"  all  of  which  are  esteemed  standard 
works.  He  also  published  a  German  Grammar,  and 
editions  of  "Reinhart  Fuchs"  and  other  fables  of  the 
middle  ages.  The  "Kinder-  und  Hausmahrchen,"  writ- 
ten conjointly  with  his  brother  Wilhelm  Karl,  enjoy 
great  popularity,  and  have  been  frequently  translated. 
Died  in  Berlin  in  September,  1863. 

See  J.  Schmidt,  "Geschichte  der  Deutschen  National-literatur 
im  neunzehnten  Jalirhimdert ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;" 
"Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1832,  and  July,  1838; 
"Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  1840. 

Grimm,  (Ludwig  Emil,)  a  German  painter  and  en- 
graver, younger  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Hanau  in  1790.  He  became,  in  1832,  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Painting  at  Cassel.    Died  in  1863. 

Grimm,  (Wilhelm  Karl,)  an  eminent  linguist,  a  bro- 
ther of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Hanau  in  1786.  He 
was  associated  in  the  literary  labours  of  his  brother  Jakob 
Ludwig,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Gottingen  in  1830, 
and  subsequently  to  Berlin,  where  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  published  editions 
of  the  "  Hildebrandslied,"  "Grave  Ruodolf,"  "Rolands- 


lied,"  and  other  German  poems  of  the  middle  ages ;  also 
a  translation  of  "Old  Danish  Hero-Ballads,"  a  treatise 
"On  German  Runic  Inscriptions,"  and  one  "On  German 
Tradition.s."  He  was  engaged  with  his  brother  Jakob 
Ludwig  on  a  large  and  very  complete  German  Dic- 
tionary, of  which  two  volumes  appeared  in  1859.  Died 
in  1859. 

Grimmelshausen,  von,  fon  gRim'mels-how'zen, 
(Chrlsioffel,)  a  German  writer,  born  in  Hesse-Cassel 
about  1625,  produced  a  romance  entitled  "  Simplicissi- 
mus,"  (1669,)  a  work  of  superior  merit.    Died  in  1676. 

Grimmer,  gRin/mer,  or  Grimaar,  gRee'm§R,  (Ja- 
cob,) a  Flemish  landscape-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1510  ;  died  in  1546. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Grim'o-ald,  son  of  Pepin  the  Elder,  mayor  of  the 
Austrasian  palace,  succeeded  his  father  in  that  office  in 
642  A.D.  King  Sigebert  died  in  656,  leaving  a  son,  Dago- 
bert,  whom  Grimoald  sent  to  a  monastery,  and  attempteji 
to  make  his  own  son  king.  He  was  soon  after  arrested 
and  put  to  death  by  order  of  Clovis. 

Grimoald  III.,  Duke  of  Benevento,  succeeded  his 
father  on  the  throne  of  Lombardy  in  787  A.D.  He  was  at 
first  tributary  to  Charlemagne;  but  he  soon  renounced 
his  allegiance,  and  carried  on  a  vigorous  and  successful 
warfare  against  that  monarch  and  his  successor  Pepin. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Grimoard,  de,  deh  gRe^iio'tR',  (Philippe  Henrt,) 
Com  rE,  a  French  general  and  historical  writer,  born  at 
Verdun  about  1750.  He  published  a  "Theoretic  Essay 
on  Battles,"  (1775,)  "Life  and  Reign  of  Frederick  the 
Great,"  (1788.)  and  other  works.    Died  in  181 5. 

Grimod  de  la  Reyniere,  gRe'mo'  deh  It  ri'ne^iR', 
(Alexandre  Balthasar  Laurent,)  a  witty  and  eccen- 
tric French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1758.  His  "  Alma- 
nach  des  Gourmands"  (8  vols.,  1803-12)  made  a  great 
sensation  throughout  Europe.  His  zeal  to  i^romote  what 
Montaigne  styled  "  the  science  of  the  palate"  induced  him 
to  establish  a  jury,  who  held  monthly  sessions,  to  decide 
on  the  merits  of  particular  dishes.    Died  in  1838. 

Grimoud,  Grimou,  or  Grimoux,  gRe'moo'',  (Alex- 
is,) a  Swiss  painter,  born  in  the  canton  of  Fribourg 
about  1688.  His  works  are  chiefly  portraits  and  domestic 
scenes,  and  are  highly  esteemed.    Died  about  1740. 

See  FuESSLi,  "  Geschichte  der  besten  Kiinstler  in  der  Schweiz." 

Grim'shawe,  (Rev.  Thomas  Shuttleworth,)  an 
English  clergyman,  born  at  Preston  in  1777.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  Life  of  the  Rev,  Legh  Richmond,"  and  "  Life 
and  Works  of  Cowper,"  (1836.)    Died  in  1850. 

Grim'stone  or  Grim'stpn,  (Sir  Harbottle,)  a 
noted  Eiiglish  lawyer,  born  in  Essex  about  1596.  He 
favoured  the  cause  of  the  Parliament,  but  opposed  the 
execution  of  the  king.  He  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners who  waited  upon  Charles  II.  at  Breda;  and  he 
was  afterwards  appointed  master  of  the  rolls.  Died 
in  1683. 

See  Clarendon,  "History  of  the  Rebellion;"  Burnet,  "His- 
tory of  his  Own  Time." 

Grin'dal,  (Edmund,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Cumberland  in  15 19,  rose  to  be  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury in  1575.  He  was  distinguished  for  learning  and 
piety,  and  was  a  contributor  to  Fox's  "Acts  and  Monu- 
ments," ("  l>ook  of  Martyrs.")    Died  in  1583. 

See  Strvpe's  "  Life  of  Grindal." 

Grin'field,  (Edward  W.,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
biblical  critic,  born  about  1784.  He  published,  under 
the  title  of  "  Novum  Testamentum  Graecum,"  (4  vols., 
1843-48,)  a  work  designed  to  show  the  close  connection 
of  the  Greek  Testament  with  the  Septuagint ;  also  other 
works  on  theology.    Died  in  1864. 

Gringore,  gRaN''goR',  or  Gringoire,  gR3.N'gwiR', 
(Pierre,)  one  of  the  early  French  dramatists,  born  in 
Lorraine  about  1475,  produced  a  play  entitled  "The 
Prince  of  Fools  and  the  Foolish  Mother,"  said  to  have 
been  written,  at  the  instigation  of  Louis  XII.,  to  ridicule 
Pope  Julius  II.    Died  about  1544. 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  i.,  1853, 

Grin-nell',  (Joseph,)  an  American  merchant,  born  al 
New  Bedford,  Massachusetts,  in  1788.  He  acquired  a 
large  fortune  by  trade  in  New  York  city,  and  became  a 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  /on^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  s/tort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GR  INN  ELL 


lo: 


87 


GROLMAN 


resident  of  New  Bedford  abou'  1830.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  about  1843,  and  re-elected  several 
times. 

Grinnell,  (Moses,)  an  American  merchant,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  New  Bedford  in  1803.  He 
became  the  head  of  the  firm  of  Grinnell,  Minturn  &  Co., 
New  York.  He  represented  a  district  of  New  York  in 
Congress  for  one  term,  (1839-1841.)  He  was  one  of 
the  most  liberal  contributors  to  Dr.  Kane's  Arctic  ex- 
pedition, (1853-55.)  In  1869  he  was  appointed  collector 
of  the  port  of  New  York. 

Gripenhielm.    See  Figrelius. 

Gi'is-aunt',  (William,)  a  learned  English  astronomer 
and  physician,  lived  about  1350.  Being  accused  of  magic, 
he  took  refuge  in  France,  where  he  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation in  his  profession.  He  wrote  "Speculum  Astrolo- 
giee,"  and  other  scientific  works. 

Gris'com,  (John,)  LL.D.,  an  American  educationist, 
a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  was  born  in  Salem 
county,  New  Jersey,  in  1774.  He  was  for  more  than  a 
quarter  of  a  century  an  eminent  teacher  in  New  York, 
whither  he  removed  in  1807.  Among  other  things,  he 
was  chiefly  instrumental  in  organizing  the  Society  for 
the  Prevention  of  Pauperism  and  Crime,  which  was  the 
parent  of  many  important  reform  movements.  He  was 
one  of  the  first  to  introduce  lectures  on  philosophy, 
chemistry,  geology,  etc.,  and,  with  Dr.  Mott,  Dr.  Francis, 
and  others,  organized  Rutgers  Medical  College,  (New 
York,)  in  which  he  was  made  professor  of  chemistry  and 
natural  philosophy.  "For  thirty  years,"  says  Dr.  Francis, 
*'  Dr.  Griscom  was  the  acknowledged  head  of  all  other 
teachers  of  chemistry  among  us."  Died  in  1852.  He 
was  author  of  "  A  Year  in  Europe,"  (2  vols.,  1823.) 

See  a  "Memoir  of  John  Griscom,"  by  his  son,  John  H.  Griscom. 

Griscom,  (John  Hos'kins,)  a  physician,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  New  York  in  1809.  He  became 
professor  of  chemistry  in  the  New  York  College  of  Phar- 
macy in  1836.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "The 
Sanitary  Condition  of  the  Labouring  Classes  of  New 
Yoik,"  and  "The  U^es  and  Abuses  of  Air," etc.,  (1850.) 

Grisebach,  gRee'zeh-baK,  (August  Heinrich  Ru- 
dolph,) a  German  botanist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1814, 
became  professor  at  Gottingen  about  1847.  Among  his 
works  are  a  "Journey  through  Roumelia,"  (1841,)  and 
"Outlines  ( Grimdriss)  of  Systematic  Botany,"  (1854.) 

Griselda,  gRe-z§lMa,  6-riseldis,  gRe-zeKdis,  or 
Gris'la,  the  heroine  of  a  popular  romance  of  the  middle 
ages,  was,  according  to  Italian  tradition,  the  wife  of 
Walter,  Marquis  of  Saluzzo,  who,  in  order  to  test  her 
virtues,  treated  her  for  a  time  with  great  unkindness. 
Her  patience  and  constancy  triumphed  over  all ;  and  her 
story  has  formed  the  subject  of  several  works  by  cele- 
brated writers,  including  Chaucer,  who  introduced  it  into 
his  "  Canterbury  Tales,"  and  Boccaccio,  who  has  remod- 
elled it  in  his  "  Decameron."  It  was  also  translated 
into  Latin  by  Petrarch,  and  dramatized  by  Hans  Sachs. 

Grisi,  gRee'see,  (Giulia,)  (Madame  Mklcy,)  a  cele- 
brated Italian  vocalist,  born  at  Milan  in  1810,  performed 
with  distinguished  success  in  the  principal  cities  of 
Europe,  and  visited  the  United  States  in  1854.  She 
had  been  married  in  1836  to  M.  Girard  de  Melcy.  Died 
at  Berlin  in  1869. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Grisoni,  gRe-so'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  a  Florentine  painter 
of  history,  landscapes,  and  portraits.    Died  in  1769. 

Gris'wold,  (Alexander  Viets,)  D.D.,  was  born  in 
Simsbury,  Connecticut,  in  1766.  He  was  ordained  as 
a  pastor  in  the  Episcopal  Church  in  1795.  Upon  the 
formation  of  the  new  diocese  comprising  the  States  of 
Massachusetts,  Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  and  Rhode 
Island,  in  1810,  Dr.  Griswold  was  elected  the  first  bishop. 
He  succeeded  Bishop  White  as  presiding  bishop  in  1836. 
Died  in  1843. 

See  J.  S.  Stone,  "  Life  of  Bishop  Griswold." 

Griswold,  (Roger,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Lyme,  Connecticut,  in  1762,  graduated  at  Yale  College 
in  1780.  Elected  to  Coi.gress  in  1794,  he  was  for  many 
years  a  leader  of  the  Federalists.  In  1807  he  became 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Connecticut,  and  in  1811 
was  elected  Governor  of  the  State.    Died  in  1812. 


Griswold,  (Rufus  Wilmot,)  an  American  critic  and 
editor,  born  at  Benson,  Rutland  county,  Vermont,  in 
February,  181 5.  He  became  in  early  life  a  Baptist  min- 
ister, and  successively  associate  editor  of  "The  New 
Yorker,"  "Brother  Jonathan,"  and  "The  New  World." 
He  published  a  volume  of  Poems  in  1841.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  history  of  American  literature  several 
valuable  works,  entitled  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America," 
(1842;  i6th  edition,  1855,)  "The  Prose  Writers  of 
America,"  (1846,)  and  "The  Female  Poets  of  America," 
(1848.)  These  contain  short  biographies  and  critical 
remarks.  "His  'Prose  Writers  of  America,'"  says  W. 
H.  Prescott,  "will  be  an  important  contribution  to  our 
national  literature.  The  range  of  authors  is  very  wide  ; 
the  biographical  notices  full  and  interesting.  .  .  .  The 
selections  appear  to  me  to  be  made  with  discrimination, 
and  the  criticism  shows  a  sound  taste,  and  a  correct 
appreciation  of  the  qualities  of  the  writers,  as  well  as  I 
can  judge."  "  In  these  sketches,"  says  the  "  North  Ameri- 
can Review"  for  January,  1856,  "we  find  reason  to  ad- 
mire the  author's  impartiality  and  kindness.  We  have 
been  unable  to  find  a  single  instance  in  which  he  has 
suffered  any  of  the  usual  grounds  of  prejudice  to  warp 
his  judgment  or  to  scant  his  eulogy."  Among  his  other 
works  is  "The  Republican  Court;  or,  American  Society 
in  the  Days  of  Washington,"  v^'ith  twenty-one  portraits 
of  distinguished  women,  (1854.)  He  edited  "The  Inter- 
national Magazine,"  (New  York,  1850-52.)  Died  in  the 
city  of  New  York  in  August,  1857. 

See  Horace  Binnev  Wallace,  "  Literary  Criticisms  and  Literary 
Portraits." 

Gritti,  gR^t'tee,  (Andrea,)  born  at  Venice  in  1454, 
acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  general  in  the  war  carriecl 
on  by  the  Venetians  against  the  League  of  Cambrai,  and 
reconquered  the  towns  of  Brescia  and  Bergamo  from 
the  French  in  1512.  Being  afterwards  made  i^isoner, 
he  signed  a  treaty  of  alliance  between  Louis  XII.  and 
the  Venetian  republic.  He  was  elected  Doge  in  1523. 
Died  in  1538. 

SeeN.  Barbarigo,  "A.  Gritti  Principis  Venetiarum  Vita,"  1793; 
Daru,  "Histoire  de  Venise." 

Gro'cyn,  (William,)  an  English  philologist,  born  at 
Bristol  in  1442.  About  1489  he  visited  Rome,  where  he 
studied  the  Greek  language,  at  that  time  little  cultivated 
in  England.  He  was  ajipointed  after  his  return  professor 
of  Greek  at  Oxford.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Eras- 
mus, by  whom  he  was  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1519. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses  ;"  Knight,  "  Life  of  Erasmus.'* 

Groddeck,  gRod'dgk,  (Ernst  Gottfried,)  a  Ger- 
man philologist,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1762,  became  a  pro- 
fessor at  Wilna  about  1804.  He  published  "Elements 
of  the  Literary  History  of  the  Greeks,"  (in  Latin,  1811,) 
and  other  similar  works.    Died  in  1824. 

See  Malinowski,  "Biographie  de  Groddeck,"  1825. 

Groddeck,  (Gabriel,)  a  German  philologist,  born 
at  Dantzic  in  1672  ;  died  in  1709. 

Groen  van  Prinsterer,  groon  vtn  pRin'steh-rer, 
a  Belgian  writer  of  the  present  age,  published  the  "  Ar- 
chives of  the  House  of  Orange-Nassau,"  ("Archives  de 
la  Maison  d'Orange-Nassau.") 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  Philip  IL,"  vol.  ii.  book  iii. 

Groening.    See  Growing. 

Grohmaiin,  gRo^m^n,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  Ger- 
man comi^iler,  born  in  Upper  Lusatia  in  1763.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Dictionary  of  the  Fine  Arts,"  (2  vols.,  1795,) 
a  "Biographical  Dictionary,"  (7  vols.,  1796-99,)  and  other 
works,  which  were  favourably  received.    Died  in  1805. 

Grolier  or  GroUier  de  Servier,  gRo'le-i'  deh  s§k'- 
ve-i',  (Jean,)  Vicomte  d'Aguisy,  a  FrencliTchoiar  and 
patron  of  literature,  born  at  Lyons  in  1479,  numbered 
among  his  friends  Erasmus  and  Budasus.    Died  in  1565. 

See  Dibdin's  "  Bibliomania." 

Grolman,  von,  fon  gRoKmSn,  (Heinrich  Dietrich,) 
an  eminent  Prussian  jurist,  born  at  Bochum  in  1740, 
filled  several  important  posts  under  Frederick  the  Great, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  state  council  in  181 7.  He 
died  in  1840,  at  the  age  of  nearly  a  hundred  years. 

Grolman,  von,  (Karl  Ludwig  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man statesman  and  jurist,  born  at  Giessen  in  1775.  He 
was  created  chancellor  of  the  university  in  181 5,  minister 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  v.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R, 


trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GROLMJN 


1088 


GROSSMJNN 


of  state  about  1819,  and  in  1821  president  of  the  united 
ministry,  (  Vereinten  Ministerien.)  He  jjublished  '*  Prin- 
ciples of  Criminal  Jurisprudence,"  (1798,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1829. 

See  "  NouveUe  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Grolman,  von,  (Karl  Wilhelm  Georg,}  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Berlin  in  1777.  He  served 
as  a  general  in  the  principal  campaigns  against  the  French 
from  1806  till  1815.    Died  in  1843. 

Gioning  or  Groening,  gRo^iing,  (Johann,)  an  able 
German  ])ublicist  and  jurist,  born  at  Wismar  in  1669. 
He  wrote  valuable  treatises  on  the  law  of  nature  and  of 
nations.    Died  after  1700. 

Gronov.    See  Gronovius. 

Gro-iio'vi-us,  or  Gro'iiov,  (Abraham,)  son  of  Jakob 
Gronovius,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Leyden  in  1694. 
He  was  librarian  of  the  university  in  that  city,  and  pub- 
lished editions  of  Pomponius  Mela,  Justin,  and  Tacitus. 
Died  in  1775. 

Gronovius,  or  Gronov,  (Jakob,)  an  eminent  philolo- 
gist, son  of  Johann  Friedrich,  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Deventer  in  October,  1645.  He  was  appointed  in  1679 
professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Leyden.  He  published  in 
1697  his  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  Antiquities,"  ("Thesau- 
rus Antiquitatum  Graecarum,"  13  vols.,)  which  ranks  very 
high  among  works  of  the  kind.  He  also  edited  Polybius, 
Aulus  Gellius,  Macrobius,  and  other  classics.  Died  at 
Leyden  in  17 16. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  Creuzer,  "Ziir  Geschichte  der 
dassischeii  Phiiologie;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gronovius,  or  Gronov,  (Johann  P^riedrich,)  a  cele- 
brated German  scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Hamburg 
in  161 1.  In  1658  he  became  professor  of  history  and 
eloquence  in  the  University  of  Leyden.  He  published 
valuable  editions  of  Statins,  Tacitus,  Livy,  Seneca,  and 
other  Latin  classics.  He  albo  wrote  a  work  entitled  "De 
Sestertiis,"  (1643,)  respecting  ancient  Greek  and  Roman 
coins,  which  is  much  esteemed.  Died  at  Leyden  in  1671. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  critical  sagacity,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  profound  Latin  scholars  of  modern 
times. 

See  "  Daventria  illustrata,"  Leyden,  1651 ;  Wii.kens,  "Leben 
des  beriihmten  J.  F.  Gronovii,"  1723;  Foppens,  "  Bibliotheca  Bel- 
gica ;"  Creuzer,  "Zur  Geschichte  der  classischen  Phiiologie;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gronovius,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  an  eminent  natu- 
ralist, a  son  of  Jakob,  noticed  above,  was  born  about 
1690.  He  studied  law,  and  became  a  magistrate  of 
Leyden.  He  published  *'  Flora  Virginica,"  (1743,)  Rau- 
wolfs  "  Flora  Orientalis,"  (1755,)  and  other  works.  He 
was  a  friend  of  Linnaeus.    Died  in  1760. 

Gronovius,  (Laurentius  Theodorus,)  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  a  naturalist  and  a  lawyer  of  Leyden.  He 
published  "  Library  of  the  Animal  and  Mineral  King- 
doms," ("Bibliotheca  Regni  Animalis  et  Lapidei,"  1740,) 
and  Clayton's  "Flora  Virginica."    Died  in  1777. 

Gronovius,  (Laurentius  Theodorus,)  a  Dutch 
antiquary  and  jurist,  brother  of  Jakob,  was  born  about 
1660.  He  wrote  "  Emendationes  Pandectarum,"  ("  Emen- 
dations of  the  Pandects,"  1688,)  and  notes  on  Vibius 
Sequester. 

Gro'now,  (Rees  Howell,)  Captain,  a  British  writer 
and  officer,  born  in  1794.  He  served  in  the  Peninsular 
war,  (1808-14,)  ^"cl  wrote  "Recollections  and  Reminis- 
cences," (2  vols.,  1863.)    Died  in  1865. 

Groot,  gRot,  (Gerard,)  or  Gerard  the  Great,  a 
celebrated  theologian,  reformer,  and  founder  of  religious 
orders,  was  born  at  Deventer,  Holland,  in  1340.  He  was  a 
popular  preacher,  and  formed  associations  of  friars,  whom 
he  employed  in  transcribing  the  Scriptures.  They  were 
called  "Brethren  of  the  Common  Life."    Died  in  1384. 

See  Hodgson's  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Groot,  (Hugo.)    See  Grotius. 

Gropper,  gRop'per,  (Johann,)  a  Roman  Catholic 
theologian,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1501.  He  wrote  a 
"Manual  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  (1546,)  and  several 
works  against  the  Protestants,    Died  at  Rome  in  1558. 

Gros,  gRo,  (Antoine  Jean,)  an  eminent  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  March,  1771,  was  a  pupil  of 
David.  He  worked  several  years  in  Italy,  and  returned 
home  about  1802,  after  which  he  produced  "The  Plague 


of  Jaffa,"  "The  Battle  of  Aboukir,"  (1806,)  "The  Battle 
of  Eylau,"  (1808,)  "The  Capture  of  Madrid  by  Napo- 
leon," (1810,)  "The  Battle  of  Wagram,"  and  numerous 
good  portraits.  About  1824  he  completed  a  large  oil- 
painting  in  the  cupola  of  Sainte-Genevieve.  '1  his  is 
considered  by  some  critics  his  master-piece.  He  was 
found  dead  in  the  Seine,  near  Meudon,  in  June,  1835. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  J.  B.  Delestrk,  "Gros 
et  ses  Ouvrages,  ou  Memoires  historiques,"  etc.,  1845. 

Gros,  (Stienne,)  a  French  philologist,  born  at  Car- 
cassonne in  1797.  He  translated  the  works  of  Ovid,  (5 
vols.,  1836,)  part  of  Dion  Cassius,  (4  vols.,  1845-55,) 
and  other  classics.    Died  in  1856. 

Gros  de  Boze.    See  Boze,  de,  (Claude  Gros.) 

Gros,  Le.    See  Legros,  (Nicolas  and  Pierre.) 

Grose,  (Francis,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Middlesex  in  1731.  He  was  the  author  of  "Views  of 
Antiquities  in  England  and  Wales,"  (8  vols.,  1787,) 
"Military  Antiquities,"  (2  vols.,  1788,)  a  "Treatise  on 
Ancient  Armour,"  etc.,  (1789,)  "Antiquities  of  Scot- 
land," (2  vols.,  1790,)  "Antiquities  of  Ireland,"  (2  vols., 
1794,)  and  other  works  finely  illustrated  with  his  own 
designs.  Captain  Grose  was  noted  for  his  wit,  good 
humour,  and  conviviality,  and  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
the  poet  Burns,  who  has  mentioned  him  in  his  poems. 
Died  in  1791. 

Grosier,  gRo'ze-i',  (Jean  Baptiste  Gabriel  Alex- 
andre,) Abh6,  a  French  critic,  born  at  Saint-Omer 
in  1743.  He  was  assistant  editor  of  Freron's  "  Annee 
litteraire."  He  published,  with  Le  Roux  des  Haute- 
rayes,  a  "General  History  of  China,"  (12  vols.,  1777- 
84.)    Died  in  1823. 

Grosley,  gRo'li',  (Pierre  Jean,)  a  French  lawyer 
and  facetious  writer,  born  at  Troyes  in  1718.  Among 
his  works  is  a  "Life  of  Pithou."    Died  in  1785. 

See  "Vie  de  Giosley,"  partly  by  himself,  1787;  E.  T.  SiMOif, 
"Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Grosley,"  1786. 

Gross,  gRos,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German  publi- 
cist, born  in  Baireuth  in  1703,  was  for  twenty-eight  years 
editor  of  the  able  "Gazette"  of  Erlangen,  (1741-68.) 
Died  in  1768. 

Gross,  (Samuel  D.,)  M.D.,  an  American  surgeon, 
born  near  Easton,  Pennsylvania,  in  1805.  In  1856  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  surgery  in  the  Jefferson  Medi- 
cal College  in  Philadelphia.  Among  his  publications  we 
may  specify  his  "Elements  of  Pathological  Anatomy," 
(2  vols.,  1839;  3d  edition,  1857,)  and  his  "System  of 
Surgery,"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1859.)  He  edited  "American 
Medical  Biography,"  (1861.) 

Gro.sser,  gRos'ser,  (Samuel,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  in  Silesia  in  1664.  He  wrote  a  work  on  logic, 
entitled  "  Light- House  of  the  Intellect,"  ("  Pharus  Intel- 
lectus,"  1697,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1736. 

Gro.sseteste,  gros'test,  or  Grost'head,  [Lat.  Cap'- 
ITO,]  (Robert,)  an  eminent  English  prelate,  was  the 
author  of  "  Compendium  Spheras  Mundi,"  and  several 
other  scientific  treatises.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Lin- 
coln in  1235. 

See  S.  Pkgge,  "Life  of  Robert  Grosseteste,"  1793;  Milner, 
"  Church  History." 

Grossi,  gRos'see,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Bellano  (province  of  Como)  in  1791.  Among  his 
works  are  "  Ildegonda,"  (1820,)  "G.  Maria  Visconti,"  a 
tragedy,  "The  Lombards  in  the  First  Crusade,"  (1826,) 
and  "Marco  Visconti,"  a  historical  romance,  which  has 
been  translated  into  English.  "  He  is  full  of  grace  and 
elegance,"  says  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;" 
"and  these  qualities  do  not  exclude  force,  passion,  and 
elevation."    Died  at  Milan  in  1853. 

See  Cherubini,  "I  Poeti  vemacoli." 

Grossniann,gR5ss'man,  (Christian  Gottlob  Leb- 
RECHr,)  a  learned  German  theologian,  born  at  Priessnitz 
in  1783,  became  professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic.  He 
founded  in  that  city  the  Evangelical  Union,  called  the 
Gustavus  Adoljihus  Institution.  He  published  a  treatise 
"On  the  Reformation  of  the  Constitution  of  the  Prot- 
estant Church,"  etc.,  and  other  works. 

Grossmann,  (Gustav  Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man dramatist  and  actor,  born  at  Berlin  in  1744.  He 
wrote,  among  other  popular  comedies,  "  Wilhehnine  von 
Blondheim,"  and  "  Only  Six  Plates."    Died  in  1796. 

See  Grasse,  "Gesch  elite  der  Deutschen  Literatim" 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ia,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


GROSTETE 


1089 


GROUCHT 


Grostete  or  Grosteste.gRo^tet',  (Claude,)  a  French 
Protestant  theologian  and  writer,  born  at  Orleans  in  1647  ; 
died  in  London  in  1713. 

Grosvenor,  gro'ven-or  or  grov'en-or,  or  Grovenor, 
(Benjamin,)  born  in  London  in  1675,  was  a  popular 
preacher  among  the  Independents.  He  was  one  of  the 
lecturers  at  Salters'  Hall,  London.    Died  in  1758. 

Grote,  (George,)  an  eminent  English  historian,  of 
German  extraction,  born  near  Beckenham,  in  Kent,  in 
1794.  He  was  educated  for  the  employment  of  a  banker 
by  his  father,  one  of  the  firm  of  Prescott,  Grote  &  Co.  in 
London.  His  earliest  literary  productions  were  contri- 
butions to  the  Westminster  and  Edinburgh  Reviews, 
and  a  treatise  "On  the  Essentials  of  Parliamentary 
Reform."  In  1832  he  represented  London  in  Parlia- 
ment, where  he  distinguished  himself  by  the  liberality 
of  his  views.  He  was  twice  re-elected,  but  in  1841  re- 
tired from  public  life.  In  1846  he  published  the  first 
two  volumes  of  his  "  History  of  Greece."  The  remaining 
volumes,  amounting  in  all  to  twelve,  and  ending  at  the 
death  of  Alexander,  appeared  successively  between  1847 
and  1856.  Mr.  Grote,  in  the  words  of  a  critic  in  the 
"London  Quarterly,"  "unites  the  practical  knowledge 
of  the  British  statesman  with  the  erudition  of  a  German 
professor  ;"  and  the  same  writer  pronounces'his  "  History 
of  Greece"  "the  most  important  contribution  to  his- 
torical literature  in  modern  times  "  He  also  published 
"Plato  and  the  other  Companions  of  Socrates,"  (3  vols., 
1865,)  and  a  review  of  Stuart  Mill's  "Examinption  of 
Sir  William  Hamilton's  Philosophy,"  (1868.)  Died  in 
1871.  His  wife  (originally  Mrs.  Harriet  Lewin)  has 
written  a  Life  of  Ary  Scheffer,  and  other  works. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  "  for  June,  1846,  April,  1850,  July,  1856, 
and  January,  1866;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1846,  Jan- 
uary, 1850,  July,  1851,  July  and  October,  1853,  and  April,  1866  ; 
Mekimee,  "Melanges  historiques  et  litteraires." 

Grotefend,  gRo'teh-fgnt',  (Friedrich  August,)  a 
German  philologist,  nephew  of  Georg  Friedrich,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Ilfeld  in  1798;  died  in  1836. 

Grotefend,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  a  German  scholar 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Miinden  in  1775.  He  was  director 
of  the  lyceum  or  gymnasium  of  Hanover  for  twenty-eight 
years,  (1821-49.)  He  published  several  valuable  treat- 
ises on  the  cuneiform  writings  of  Persepolis  and  Babylon, 
and  made  contributions  to  Ersch  and  Gruber's  "  Ency- 
clopaedia." He  also  wrote  a  work  "  On  the  Geography 
and  History  of  Ancient  Italy,"  (1840-42.)  He  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  who  deciphered  the  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions.   Died  in  December,  1853. 

Grothusen,  von,  fon  gRot'hoo'zen,  (Christian  Al- 
P.RECHT,)  Baron,  a  general,  born  probably  in  Germany. 
He  entered  the  service  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  of 
whom  he  became  a  favoured  companion,  and  treasurer. 
He  accompanied  that  king  in  his  retreat  into  Turkey 
in  1709.  He  was  killed  in  battle  in  the  island  of  Riigen 
in  1714. 

Grotius,  gro'sh^s,  orDe  Groot,  deh  gRot,  (Hugo,) 
an  eminent  Dutch  jurist  and  theologian,  and  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  scholars  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Delft, 
April  ID,  1583.  As  a  child  he  was  remarkable  for  pre- 
cocity of  intellect,  and  is  said  to  have  written  Latin  verses 
when  but  eight  years  of  age.  He  studied  at  Leyden 
under  Joseph  Scaliger  and  the  theologian  Junius,  and 
devoted  himself  to  divinity,  law,  and  mathematics.  In 
1598  he  accompanied  a  Dutch  embassy  to  Paris,  on 
which  occasion  Henry  IV.  presented  him  with  a  golden 
chain.  Soon  after  his  return,  in  1599,  he  published  edi- 
tions of  several  classics,  and  wrote  a  Latin  poem  entitled 
"  Prosopopoeia,"  which  was  greatly  admired  and  trans- 
lated into  French  and  Greek.  In  1613  he  obtained 
the  important  post  of  pensionary  of  Rotterdam,  which 
gave  him  a  seat  in  the  Assembly  of  the  States  of  Hol- 
land and  in  that  of  the  States-General.  Being  sent  to 
England  in  161 5  on  some  public  business,  he  formed 
the  acquaintance  of  Isaac  Casaubon.  In  1618  he  was 
involved  in  the  defeat  and  misfortune  of  the  Liberal  or 
Arminian  party,  of  which  his  friend  Barneveldt  was  the 
leader.  He  was  tried  for  treason,  and  unjustly  con- 
demned to  perpetual  imprisonment,  and  his  property 
was  confiscated.  In  June,  1619,  he  was  sent  to  the  fort- 
ress of  Loevestein.    He  here  devoted  himself  to  study, 


and  wrote,  during  his  captivity,  several  works,  among 
which  was  his  celebrated  treatise  "  On  the  Truth  of  the 
Christian  Religion,"  ("De  Veritate  Religionis  Chris- 
tianae,"  1627.)  At  the  end  of  eighteen  months,  Grotius 
escaped  from  his  prison  by  means  of  a  stratagem  devised 
by  his  wife,  who  had  been  permitted  to  share  his  con- 
finement. He  went  immediately  to  France,  where  he 
was  well  received  by  Louis  XIII.,  who  granted  him  a 
pension  of  three  thousand  livres.  On  the  death  of  the 
stadtholder  Maurice,  Grotius  was  persuaded  by  his 
friends  to  return  to  Holland  in  163 1,  but  was  again  com- 
pelled to  leave  it.  In  1634  he  was  appointed  councillor 
to  the  Queen  of  Sweden  by  Chancellor  Oxenstiern,  and 
her  ambassador  to  the  court  of  France.  In  1645  he 
repaired  to  Stockholm,  where  he  was  received  with  the 
greatest  favour  by  Queen  Christina;  but,  soon  becoming 
weary  of  court  life,  he  embarked  for  Lubeck  in  August. 
After  a  stormy  passage,  he  arrived  at  Rostock,  very  ill 
from  exposure  and  fatigue,  and  died  on  the  28th  of 
August,  1645.  Grotius  left  numerous  works  on  juris- 
prudence, divinity,  history,  and  poetry.  Referring  to 
his  theological  works,  Leibnitz  said  that  he  preferred 
Grotius  to  all  other  commentators.  His  treatise  on 
International  Law,  ("De  Jure  Belli  et  Pacis,")  a  work 
of  the  greatest  merit,  has  been  translated  into  the  prin- 
cipal European  languages.  Among  his  historical  pro- 
ductions we  may  mention  "The  History  of  the  Goths, 
Vandals,  and  Lombards,"  "Belgian  History  and  An- 
nals," and  "On  the  Origin  of  the  American  Tribes." 
These  were  all  written  in  excellent  Latin.  His  Latin 
poems  comprise  three  tragedies  and  numerous  lyrical 
and  elegiac  compositions.  Grotius  was  distinguished 
for  sincere  piety,  and  his  character  combined  mildness 
with  remarkable  energy. 

See  Butler,  "Life  of  H.  Grotius;"  Luden,  "H.  Grotius  nach 
seinen  Schicksalen  und  Schriften  dargestellt,"  1806;  Levesque  db 
BuRiGNY,  "Vie  de  H.  Grotius,"  1750,  (and  English  version  of  the 
same,  London,  1754;)  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;" 
Caspar  Brandt,  "  Historie  van  het  Leven  des  Heeren  H.  de  Groot," 
2  vols.,  1727;  G.  F.  Creuzer,  "Luther  und  Grotius,  oder  Glaube 
und  Wissenschaft,"  1846;  Nic^RON,  "M^moires;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale ;"  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  i860. 

Grotius,  (PiETER,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1610.  He  was  appointed  in  1660  pensionary  at  Am- 
sterdam, and  was  afterwards  ambassador  to  Denmark, 
Sweden,  and  France.    Died  in  1680, 

Grotius,  (WiLLEM,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  at  Delft  in 
1597,  was  a  brother  of  the  celebrated  Hugo  Grotius.  He 
was  appointed  advocate  of  the  India  Company  in  1639. 
Pie  published  several  legal  w^orks  in  Latin.  Died  in  1662. 

Gro'to  or  Grot'to,  (Ludovico,)  an  Italian  poet, 
called  "IlCiecod'Adria,"  ("The  Blind  Man  of  Adria,") 
was  born  at  Adria  in  1541.  He  wrote  numerous  plays 
and  poems,  which  had  a  temporary  popularity.  Died 
in  1585- 

See  Ginguen^,  "  Histoire  Litt^raire  d'ltalie." 

Grouchy,  gRoo'she',  or  Grouche,  gRoo'shi',  [Lat. 
Gru'chius,]  (Nicolas,)  a  French  scholar  and  Protestant, 
born  about  1520.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  De  Comitiis  Romanorum  Libri  tres,"  (1555,)  and 
"The  Logic  of  Aristotle,"  (1558.)  Died  at  La  Rochelle 
in  1572. 

Grouchy,  (Sophia.)    See  Condorcet. 

Grouchy,  de,  deh  gRoo'she',  (Emmanuel,)  Marquis, 
a  celebrated  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1766.  He 
entered  the  republican  army  about  1 790,  and  as  major- 
general  commanded  the  cavalry  in  the  campaign  against 
Savoy,  (1792.)  He  was  soon  after  sent  against  the  Ven- 
deans,  whom  he  defeated  in  several  engagements.  He 
served  under  Moreau  in  the  campaign  of  Piedmont, 
(1798,)  and  was  severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Novi 
and  made  prisoner  by  the  Austrians.  He  was  released 
after  a  year's  captivity,  and,  having  joined  the  army  of 
Moreau,  assisted  in  gaining  the  victory  of  Hohenlinden. 
He  was  conspicuous  for  his  skill  and  courage  in  the 
battles  of  Jena  and  Eylau,  and  at  Friedland,  where  he 
commanded  the  cavalry.  His  services  on  this  occasion 
were  mentioned  by  Napoleon  with  high  commendation. 
He  was  appointed  governor  of  Madrid  in  1808.  In  the 
campaign  of  1812,  Napoleon  gave  a  signal  proof  of  his 
confidence  in  Grouchy  by  placing  him  at  the  head  of 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

69 


GROUFELLE 


1090 


GR  UN E  IS  EN 


his  "  Sacred  Battalion."  His  conduct  in  the  engagements 
of  Brienne,  La  Rothiere,  and  Vauchamps  won  for  him 
the  applause  of  the  nation,  and  he  was  soon  after  made 
a  marshal,  (1814.)  On  the  i8th  of  June,  181 5,  while  the 
battle  of  Waterloo  was  in  progress.  General  Grouchy, 
who  was  stationed  near  Wavre,  was  urged  by  his  officers 
to  march  in  that  direction  ;  but  he  refused  to  disobey  the 
orders  he  had  received  from  the  emperor.  He  became 
an  exile  in  1815,  and  was  restored  to  the  ranlc  of  mar- 
shal in  1830.    Died  in  1847. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire;"  Jomini, 
"Precis  politique  et  militaire  de  la  Campagne  de  1815;"  "Opinions 
et  Jugements  de  Napoleon;"  Norvins,  "  Histoire  de  Napoleon  ;" 
"  Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale."  ffi^"  Respecting  the  question  of 
Grouchy's  responsibility  tor  the  defeat  of  Waterloo,  see  Lieut.-Col. 
J.  B.  A.  Charras,  "Histoire  de  la  Campagne  de  1815 — Waterloo," 
Brussels,  2  vols.  8vo,  1858,  5th  edition,  1863,  (which  ably  and  unan- 
swerably refutes  the  falsehoods  of  Napoleon  and  his  admirers  against 
Grouchy  and  Ney  ;)  E.  Quiret,  "  Histoire  de  la  Campagne  de  1815," 
1862;  LiEUT.-CoL.  Charles  C.  Chesney,  "Waterloo  Lectures," 
1868;  Pierart,  "Le  Drame  de  Waterloo,"  1868. 

Grouvelle,  gRooVIK,  (Philippe  Antoine,)  a  French 
revolutionist  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1758.  As  sec- 
retary of  the  provisionary  executive  council  in  1 792,  he 
read  to  Louis  XVL  the  decree  of  the  Convention  which 
condemned  him  to  death.  He  was  sent  as  minister  to 
Denmark  in  1793,  and  in  1800  was  elected  to  the  legis- 
lative body.  He  published  a  "  Historical  Memoir  of  the 
Templars,"  etc.,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1806. 

Grove,  (Henry,)  an  English  dissenting  divine,  born 
in  Somersetshire  in  1683,  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  the  Im- 
mortality of  the  Soul,"  (1718,)  and  other  religious  works, 
which  are  highly  commended  by  Doddridge.  He  was 
director  of  an  academy  at  Taunton.    Died  in  1 738. 

Grove,  (Joseph,)  an  English  writer,  was  an  attorney 
of  Richmond.  He  was  the  author  of  the  Life  and 
Times  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,"  (4  vols.,  1742-44,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1764. 

Grove,  (William  Robert,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish electrician  and  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Swansea 
in  July,  1811.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1835,  studied 
law,  and  became  a  successful  barrister.  He  devoted 
much  attention  to  physical  science,  in  which  he  has  made 
important  discoveries.  He  invented,  about  1839,  the 
nitric-acid  battery  which  bears  his  name,  and  effected 
the  recomposition  of  water  by  the  battery.  In  a  lecture 
delivered  in  1842  he  maintained  or  suggested  the  doctrine 
that  heat,  light,  and  electricity  are  mutually  convertible, 
and  that  heat  is  a  mode  of  motion.  This  theory  was 
more  fully  developed  in  his  "  Correlation  of  Physical 
Forces,"  (4th  edition,  1862.)  He  received  the  medal  of 
the  Royal  Society  in  1847,  and  was  chosen  vice-president 
of  that  institution.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Philosophical 
Transactions"  numerous  treatises  on  electricity,  etc. 

See  Dr.  F.  Hoefer,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Grovenor.    See  Grosvenor. 

Gro'ver,  (Cuvier,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Bethel,  Maine,  about  1830,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1850.  He  commanded  a  division  of  General  Banks's 
army  at  the  capture  of  Port  Hudson,  July,  1863,  and  a 
division  under  General  Sheridan  at  the  battle  of  Cedar 
Creek,  October  19,  1864. 

Grow,  (Galusha  A.,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Windham  county,  Connecticut,  in  1823.  He  studied 
law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1847,  and  settled  in  Sus- 
quehanna county,  Pennsylvania.  He  represented  the 
fourteenth  district  of  Pennsylvania  in  Congress  from  De- 
cember, 1859,  to  March,  1863,  and  was  chosen  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  by  the  Republicans  in 
December,  1861. 

Grozelier,  gRoz'le-4',  (Nicolas,)  born  at  Beaune,  in 
France,  in  1692,  publlslied,  besides  other  works,  a  "Col- 
lection of  Fables  in  Verse."    Died  in  1778. 

Grubenmann,  gRoo'ben-m^n',  or  Grubemann, 
gRoo'b^h-mSn',  (Johann  Ulrich,)  a  Swiss  architect 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  born  at  Teufen.  He  built  a 
noble  bridge  over  the  Rhine  at  Schaffhausen,  and  an- 
other at  Reichenau.  These  were  burned  by  the  French 
in  1799. 

Gruber,  gRoo'ber,  (Gregor  Maximilian,)  a  German 
antiquary,  born  at  Horn,  in  Austria,  in  1 739,  was  professor 
of  history  at  Vienna.    He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 


"System  of  Diplomatics  for  Austria  and  Germany," 
(1783.)    Died  in  1799. 

Gruber,  (Johann  Daniel,)  a  German  jurist  and  his- 
torian, born  in  Franconia,  wrote  a  work  on  the  early 
history  of  Livonia,  ("  Origines  Livoniae,"  1740.)  Die^ 
in  1748. 

Gruber,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man scholar  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Naum- 
burg  in  1774.  His  essays  "On  the  Literature  of  Ro- 
mance," and  his  "Comparison  of  the  Philosophy  of 
many  Nations,"  won  for  him  the  regard  of  Wieland, 
who  chose  him  for  his  biographer.  In  1815  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  Halle.  He  soon 
after  became  engaged  with  Ersch  in  the  publication  of 
the  "  Universal  Encyclopaedia  of  Sciences  and  Arts," 
("Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie,"  etc.,)  extending  to  more 
than  one  hundred  volumes  4to.  In  1818  he  published 
a  complete  edition  of  Wieland's  works,  accompanied  by 
a  biography.  He  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "  Con- 
versations-Lexikon"  and  to  the  "Universal  Literary 
Gazette."    Died  in  1851. 

Gruohius.    See  Grouchy,  (Nicolas.) 

Grudius.    See  Everard. 

Grueneisen.    See  Gruneisen. 

Gruenewald.    See  Grunewald. 

Gruithuisen,  groit'hoi'zen  or  HRoit'hoi'zen,  (Franz 
von  Paula,)  an  astronomer,  surgeon,  and  scientific 
writer,  born  in  1774.  He  was  the  inventor  of  a  sur- 
gical instrument  for  performing  lithotrity,  for  which 
he  received  from  the  French  Academy  a  prize  of  one 
thousand  francs.    Died  in  1852. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Grumbaoh,  von,  fon  gRoom'baK',  (Wilhelm,)  a 
German  adventurer,  born  in  1503,  was  the  leader  of  an 
insurrection  against  the  government,  commonly  called 
"  Grumbach's  Rebellion."  Having  captured  and  plun- 
dered the  city  of  Wiirzburg  in  1563,  he  was  put  under  the 
ban  of  the  empire,  and  in  1566  was  taken  and  executed. 

Griin,  (Anastasius.)    See  Auersperg. 

Grunseus.    See  Gryn^us. 

Grund,  gRoont,  (Johann  Jakob  Norbert,)  a  Ger- 
man misiature-painter,  born  at  Giinzenhausen  in  1755, 
became  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Florence.  He  wrote 
"Painting  among  the  Greeks,  or  the  Rise,  Progress,  and 
Decadence  of  Painting,"  (2  vols.,  1811.)    Died  in  1815. 

Grundtvig,  gRoont'vig,  (Nicolai  Frederik  Seve- 
RIN,)  a  distinguished  Danish  theologian,  poet,  and  his- 
torian, was  born  at  Udby,  in  Seeland,  in  September, 
1783.  He  published  in  1808  "  Mythology  of  the  North," 
("Nordens  Mythologie,"  revised  edition,  1832,)  which 
treats  the  subject  in  a  poetical  and  philosophical  spirit. 
He  preached  for  some  time  at  Copenhagen,  and  acquired 
great  influence  as  a  theologian.  In  1820  he  was  ap- 
pointed pastor  of  Prastoe.  He  produced  several  poetical 
and  historical  works,  which,  according  to  P.  L.  MoUer, 
are  characterized  by  sublime  inspirations  and  mystical 
tendencies.  He  became  minister  of  a  church  of  Copen- 
hagen in  1839.  Since  1848  he  has  been  an  active  member 
of  the  Diet  and  a  leader  of  the  Anti-German  party. 

See  Howitt's  "  Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Grundtvig,  (Sven  Hersleb,)  a  Danish  writer,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Christianshavn  in  1824. 
His  favourite  subjects  are  the  songs  and  popular  tradi- 
tions of  his  country.  Among  his  publications  is  "The 
Ancient  Popular  Songs  of  Denmark,"  (2  vols.,  1853-56.) 

See  Erslew,  "Almindeligt  Forfatter- Lexicon." 

Griin'dy,  (Felix,)  an  American  lawyer  and  Senator, 
born  in  Berkeley  county,  Virginia,  in  1777.  He  removed 
to  Nashville,  Tennessee,  about  1808,  and  in  1811  was 
elected  a  member  of  Congress,  in  which  he  supported 
Mr.  Madison's  administration.  He  was  chosen  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States  in  1829,  as  a  political  friend  of 
General  Jackson,  and  was  re-elected  in  1833.  Tn  1838 
he  was  appointed  attorney-general  of  the  United  States. 
Having  resigned  in  1840,  he  was  again  elected  a  Senator. 
Died  in  December,  1840. 

See  "N-ational  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distlngin'shed  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

Griineisen  or  Grueneisen,  gRiin'T'zen,  (Karl,)  a 
German  writer  and  divine,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1802. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


GRUNER 


1091 


GUADET 


He  published  a  collection  of  popular  songs,  ("  Lieder," 
1823,)  and  other  works. 

Gruner,  gRoo'ner,  (Christian  Gottfried,)  a  Ger- 
man physician,  born  at  Sagan,  in  Silesia,  in  1744,  became 
professor  of  botany  at  Jena.  He  published  '*  Library 
of  Ancient  Physicians,"  (2  vols.,  1782,)  and  other  medical 
works.    Died  in  1815. 

See  Meusel,  "  Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 

Gruner,  groo'ner,  (Gottlieb  Siegmund,)  a  Swiss 
naturalist,  born  at  Berne  in  171 7.  He  published  a 
"  Description  of  the  Swiss  Glaciers,"  (3  vols.,  1762,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1778. 

Gruner,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Coburg  in  1723.  He  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Halle,  and  wrote  some  theological  works.  He  pub- 
lished good  editions  of  Eutropius,  ( 1 752,)  Aurelius  Victor, 
(1757,)  and  Velleius  Paterculus,  (1762.)    Died  in  1778. 

See  Harlesius,  "Vitse  Philologorum ;"  Hirsching,  "  Histo- 
risch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Gruner,  (Johann  Gerhard,)  a  German  historical 
writer,  born  at  Coburg  in  1734;  died  in  1790. 

Gruner,  (Wilhelm  Heinrich  Ludwig,)  an  eminent 
German  engraver,  born  at  Dresden  in  1801.  He  pub- 
lished two  splendid  works,  entitled  "Fresco  Decorations 
and  Studies,"  (1844,)  and  "The  Decorations  of  the  Gar- 
den Pavilion  in  the  Grounds  of  Buckingham  Palace," 
with  text  by  Mrs.  Jameson,  (1846.)  In  185 1  he  was 
employed  in  the  decorations  of  the  Crystal  Palace  in 
London.  Among  his  finest  prints  are  "Christ  on  the 
Mount  of  Olives,"  and  several  Madonnas,  after  Raphael. 

Gruner,  von,  fon  gRoo'ner,  (Karl  Justus,)  a  Ger- 
man diplomatist,  born  at  Osnabriick  in  1777,  entered  the 
Prussian  civil  service.  About  1814  he  was  one  of  the 
important  agents  of  the  allies.    Died  in  1820. 

Grunert,  gRoo'nert,  (Johann  August,)  an  able  Ger- 
man mathematician,  born  at  Halle  in  1797.  He  published 
"  Si^heroidal  Trigonometry,"  (1833,)  and  "Contributions 
to  Meteorological  Optics  and  its  Auxiliary  Sciences," 
(1850.) 

Griinewald  or  Gruenewald,  gRu'neh-<^ait',  (Mat- 
THAUS,)  a  German  painter,  supposed  to  have  been  a 
native  of  Aschaffenburg.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Cruci- 
fixion," which  displays  great  power.  He  was  contempo- 
rary with  Albert  Diirer,  whom,  in  the  opinion  of  many 
critics,  he  nearly  equalled. 

Gru-peFlo,  de,  (Gabriel,)  a  Belgian  sculptor,  born 
at  Grammont  in  1644;  died  in  1730. 

Grupen,  gRoo'pen,  (Christian  Ulrich,)  a  German 
antiquary  and  jurist,  born  at  Harburg  in  1692,  wrote 
treatises  on  mediaeval  antiquities,  etc.    Died  in  1767. 

Gruppe,  gRoop'peh,  (Otto  Friedrich,)  a  German 
philosophical  and  critical  writer,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1804, 
became  professor-extraordinary  of  philosophy  in  Berlin 
in  1844.  In  his  works  entitled  "Antaeus"  and  "The 
Crisis  of  Philosojjhy  in  the  Nineteenth  Century"  (1834) 
he  has  assailed  the  system  of  Hegel.  He  wrote  "Al- 
boin,"  an  epic,  (1830,)  and  other  poems. 

Gruter,  gRii'ter  or  HRii'ter,  or  Gruytere,  gRii-e'taiR', 
[Lat.  Grute'rus,]  (Jan,)  an  eminent  scholar,  was  born 
at  Antwerp  in  1560.  He  studied  at  Cambridge  and  Ley- 
den,  and  subsequently  filled  various  professorships  in 
Germany,  at  Wittenberg  and  Heidelberg.  His  greatest 
work  is  entitled  "Ancient  Inscriptions  of  the  Whole 
World  known  to  the  Romans,"  ("  Inscriptiones  antiquas 
totius  Orbis  Romanorum,"  about  1602.)  He  also  pub- 
lished numerous  editions  of  the  classics,  and  "  Lampas, 
sive  Fax  Artium  liberalium,"  being  a  collection  of  the 
best  critical  and  antiquarian  treatises  of  the  sixteenth 
century.    Died  at  Heidelberg  in  1627. 

See  F.  H.  Flayder,  "Vita  Gniteri,"  1628;  Bavle,  "Historical 
and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron,  "Menioires;"  F^lix  van 
HuLST,  "Jean  Gruytere,"  1847;  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale.'' 

Gruter,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  physician  and  writer,  born 
about  1555.  He  published  many  Latin  epistles,  "Epis- 
tolarum  Centuria,"  (1609.)  Died  at  Amsterdam  in  1634. 

GryFlus,  [Gr.  Vpvllog,]  a  son  of  Xenophon,  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Mantinea,  362  B.C.  According  to  tra- 
dition, he  killed  Epaminondas  at  this  battle. 

Grynaeus,  gRe-na'us,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  theologian, 
born  at  Bale  in  1540,  was  a  grand-nephew  of  Simon, 
noticed  below.    He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Bale, 


and  wrote  commentaries  on  Scripture,  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1618. 

See  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  J.  J.  Brunn,  "  Vir  sanctus  et  in- 
comparabilis,  hoc  est  Vita  J.  J.  Grynsei,"  1618. 

Grynseus,  (Samuel,)  a  Swiss  jurist,  son  of  the  fol- 
lowing, was  born  at  Bale  in  1539  ;  died  in  1599. 

Grynaeus,  (Simon,)  a  distinguished  Protestant  theo- 
logian, born  at  Veringen,  in  Suabia,  in  1493,  was  a 
friend  of  Melanchthon  and  Erasmus.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  at  Pleidelberg  in  1523,  removed  to  Bale 
in  1536,  and  attended  the  conference  at  Worms  in  1540. 
He  discovered  the  last  five  books  of  Livy,  published  the 
"Almagest"  of  Ptolemy  in  Greek,  (1538,)  wrote  several 
works,  and  translated  Plato  into  Latin.  He  published 
in  1532  a  curious  work,  entitled  "The  New  World  of 
Regions  and  Islands  unknown  to  the  Ancients,"  which 
contains  the  narratives  of  Marco  Polo  and  many  other 
travellers.    Died  at  Bale  in  1541. 

See  Melchior  Adam,  "  Vitae  Theologorum ;"  Brucker,  "His- 
tory of  Philosophy." 

Gryph.    See  Gryphius. 

Gryphius,  gRee'fe-us  or  grife-iis,  or  Gryph,  gRif, 
originally  Greif,  gRlf,  (Andreas,)  a  celebrated  German 
poet  and  dramatist,  born  in  Silesia  in  1616.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  the  tragedies  of  "Leo  Armenius," 
"Cardenio  and  Celinda,"  and  "  Carolus  Stuartus,"  and  a 
very  popular  comedy,  entitled  "  Peter  Squenz."  He  is 
regarded  as  the  greatest  dramatic  poet  of  the  seventeenth 
century  in  Germany.  His  epigrams,  lyrics,  and  spiritual 
odes  also  possess  great  merit.  He  was  an  accomplished 
linguist,  and  was  well  versed  in  mathematics  and  physical 
science.    Died  in  1664. 

See  J.  Hermann,  "Ueber  A.  Gryphius;  literar-historischer  Ver- 
such,"  1851;  Caspar  Knorr,  "Gedachtniss  A.  Gryphii,"  1665. 

Gryphius,  (Christian,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Fraustadt  in  1649.  His  "History  of  the  Orders 
of  Knighthood"  (1697)  is  his  best  work.    Died  in  1706. 

Gryphius,  (Sebastian,)  a  learned  and  celebrated 
printer,  born  in  Suabia  in  1493,  settled  at  Lyons.  Among 
his  publications  was  a  Latin  Bible,  (1550.)  Died  at  Lyons 
in  1556. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Gryph'on  or  Grif'fpn,  [Lat.  Gry'phus  or  Gryps, 
(plural  Gry'phes  ;)  Gr.  Vpv-ip;  Fr.  Griffon,  gReT^N',] 
a  monster  of  the  classic  mythology,  having  the  body 
of  a  lion  with  the  head  and  wings  of  an  eagle.  (See 
Seemoorgh.) 

Guadagni,  goo-S-din'yee,  (Leopoldo  Andrea,)  an 
Italian  jurist,  born  at  Florence  in  1705  ;  died  in  1785. 

Guadagnini,  goo-S,-dJn-yee'nee,  (Giambattista,)  an 
Italian  ecclesiastic  and  controversial  writer,  born  at  Pia- 
cenza  about  1720;  died  in  1806. 

Guadagnoli,  goo-l-dSn-yo'lee,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian 
Orientalist,  born  at  Magliano  about  1596.  He  became 
professor  of  Arabic  in  the  college  di  Sapienza  at  Rome. 
He  published  "  Institutiones  Linguae  Arabicae,"  and  an 
"Apology  for  Christianity,"  etc.,  (in  Latin,)  which  is 
esteemed  a  standard  work.    Died  in  1656. 

See  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Gua  de  Malves,  de,  deh  gt  deh  mtlv,  (Jean  Paul,) 
a  French  mathematician,  born  at  Carcassonne  in  17 13, 
became  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  College  of  France. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  pub- 
lished several  scientific  treatises.    Died  in  1788. 

See  Desessarts,  "Siecles  litteraires  de  la  France." 

Guadet,  gt'da',  (Marguerite  Elie,)  a  French  states- 
man, and  one  of  the  principal  leaders  of  the  Giron- 
dist party,  was  born  near  Bordeaux  in  1 758.  He  was  a 
deputy  in  1791  to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  where,  says 
Lamartine,  "  he  formed  with  Vergniaud  and  Gensonne 
a  triumvirate  of  talent,  opinion,  and  eloquence."  One 
of  his  first  acts  was  to  accuse  the  French  emigrants  of 
conspiracy  against  the  government ;  and  in  1792  he  sup- 
ported the  decree  of  accusation  against  the  brothers  of 
the  king,  which  was  passed.  He  was  soon  after  a  deputy 
from  Bordeaux  to  the  National  Convention,  where  he 
was  conspicuous  for  his  bold  and  vehement  eloquence. 
In  common  with  his  colleagues,  he  at  last  yielded  to  the 
rage  of  the  populace,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  the 
king,  after  having  appealed  in  vain  to  the  people  to  sus- 
tain them  in  their  efforts  to  preserve  his  life.    On  the 


e  as>^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  7tasal ;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GUJGNINO 


1092 


GUDENOF 


downfall  of  his  party,  Guadet  took  refuge  with  his  friends, 
near  Bordeaux,  where  he  was  discovered,  and  was  exe- 
cuted in  that  city  in  July,  1794. 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Girondists;"  Thiers,  "His- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Guagnino,  goo-ln-yee'no,  (  Alessandro,)  a  historian, 
was  born  at  Verona  in  1548.  He  served  in  the  Polish 
army  against  the  Russians,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  Po- 
land," ("  Rerum  Polonicarum  Libri  tres,"  1574,)  which 
is  praised  for  accuracy  and  elegance.    Died  in  1614. 

See  Adelung,  "Uebersicht  der  Reisenden  in  Russlandbis  1700." 

Gualandi,goo-a-ian'dee,  (Michelangelo,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Bologna  in  1793.  He  published  a 
valuable  work  on  the  fine  arts,  entitled  "Memorie  origi- 
nali  Italiani  risguardanti  le  belle  Arti,"  (3  vols.,  1840-45.) 

Gualdim-Paes,  gwSl-deeN'  pJ-§s',  a  Portuguese 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Braga,  founded,  about  1 160,  the 
magnificent  monastery  of  Thomar.    Died  in  1195. 

Gualdo-Priorato,  goo-SKdo  pRe-o-ra'to,(GALEAZZO,) 
Count  of  Comazzo,  an  Italian  soldier,  diplomatist,  and 
historian,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1606.  He  served  succes- 
sively under  Maurice,  Prince  of  Orange,  Count  Mans- 
feld,  and  Wallenstein,  and  was  afterwards  sent  on  various 
important  missions.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Wars 
of  Ferdinand  II.  and  Ferdinand  III.,"  a  "History  of 
Wallenstein,"  (1643,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1678. 

See  j\L  A.  Zorzi,  "Vita  di  Giialdo-Priorato,"  in  the  "Opuscoli 
scientifici,"  Venice,  1728;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Gualterus,  gwil-ta'rus,  sometimes  written  Gualther, 
(Rudolf,)  a  Swiss  divine,  born  at  Zurich  in  1518,  was 
a  son-in-law  of  Zwingle.  He  became  first  minister  of 
Zurich,  and  wrote  several  popular  works.    Died  in  1586. 

Gualtieri,  (Giovannl)    See  Cimabue. 

Gualtieri,  goo-Sl-te-a'ree,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician and  naturalist,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1688,  was  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Pisa.    Died  in  1744. 

Guarco,  goo-ak'ko,  (  Antoniotto,)  a  son  of  Niccolo, 
noticed  below,  became  Doge  of  Genoa  in  1394.  He  was 
assassinated  at  Pavia  about  1404. 

Guarco,  (Niccol6,)  was  elected  Doge  of  Genoa  in 
1378.  Under  his  rule  a  war  was  carried  on  between  the 
Genoese  and  the  Venetians.    Died  in  1383. 

Guardi,  goo-aR'dee,  (Francesco,)  a  painter,  born  at 
Venice  in  1 712,  was  a  pupil  and  successful  imitator  of 
Canaletto.  He  painted  Venetian  scenery  and  architecture. 
Died  in  1793. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Guarienti,  goo-i-re-^n'tee,  Guariento,  goo-i-re-gn'- 
to,  or  Guariero,  goo-S-re-a'ro,  written  also  Guarente, 
an  Italian  painter,  who  lived  about  1360-90.  He  painted 
the  hall  of  the  Grand  Council  at  Venice,  which  in  1508 
was  renewed  by  Tintoretto. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Guarin,  gt'riN',  (Pierre,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and 
distinguished  Orientalist,  born  in  Normandy  in  1678. 
He  published  "  Grammatica  Hebraica  et  Chaldaica," 
and  other  valuable  works.    Died  in  Paris  in  1729. 

Guarini,  goo-i-ree'nee,  (Camillo  Guarino — goo-i- 
ree'no,)  an  Italian  architect,  born  at  Modena  in  1624. 
Among  his  works  are  the  Chapel  Royal  at  Turin,  and 
the  Convent  of  the  Theatines  at  Modena.  Died  in  1683. 

See  Quatkemere  de  Quincy,  "Vies  des  plus  celebres  Archi- 
tectes." 

Guarini,  (Giambattista,)  son  of  Guarini  da  Verona, 
noticed  below,  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Ferrara, 
and  numbered  among  his  pupils  Aldus  Manutius  and 
Giraldus.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Sect  of  Epi- 
curus," ("De  Secta  Epicuri,")  and  other  works  in  Latin, 
and  made  translations  from  Demosthenes,  Dion  Chrys- 
ostom,  and  Saint  Gregory  Nazianzen.    Died  in  1513. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Guarini,  (Giambattista,)  a  celebrated  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Ferrara  December  10,  1537.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  in  his  native  city  about  1560.  and  was 
afterwards  patronized  by  Alfonso,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  who 
made  him  a  chevalier  and  employed  him  in  various 
diplomatic  missions.  For  these  services  he  received 
little  except  empty  honours.  He  published  in  1590  his 
"  Pastor  Fido,"  a  pastoral  tragi-comedy,  in  verse,  which 
met  with  brilliant  success  and  was  translated  into  the 


principal  languages  of  Europe.  Guarini  was  the  authoi 
of  other  dramas,  and  of  a  number  of  sonnets  and  mad- 
rigals. He  was  a  friend  of  the  poet  Tasso.  Died  in 
Venice  in  161 2. 

See  TiRA  BoscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Ginguen^, 
"  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie ;"  Apostolo  Zeno,  "  Vita  del  Guarini,' 
in  the  "Galleria  di  Minerva;"  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe  ;"  Nici^ron,  "  Memoires;"  "  Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets," 
by  Rev.  Henry  Stebbing,  London,  1831. 

Guarini  da  Verona,  goo-i-ree'nee  dl  v^-ro'nS, 
[Lat.  Vari'nus,]  one  of  the  restorers  of  classical  litera- 
ture in  Italy,  born  at  Verona  in  1370.  He  studied  Greek 
at  Constantinople  under  Chrysoloras,  and  brought  with 
him  on  his  return  a  valuable  collection  of  manuscripts. 
He  afterwards  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Florence 
or  Verona,  being,  it  is  said,  the  first  Italian  who  publicly 
taught  that  language.  He  made  a  Latin  translation  of 
the  first  ten  books  of  Strabo,  and  of  portions  of  Plutarch 
Died  in  1460. 

See  RosMiNi,  "Vita  e  Disciplina  di  Guarini  Veronese,"  etc.,  3 
vols.,  1805;  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Niceron, 
"Memoires;"  Paolo  Giovio,  "  Elogia  Virorum  illustrium." 

Guarino.    See  Favorinus. 

Guarnacci,  goo-aR-nit'chee,  (Mario,)  an  Italian  prel- 
ate and  antiquary,  born  at  Volterra  in  1 701,  published, 
among  other  works,  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Twelve 
Tables."    Died  in  1785. 

Guarnieri-Ottoni,  goo-aR-ne-a'ree  ot-to'nee,  (Aure- 
Lio,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Osimo  in  1748,  wrote 
a  work  on  the  Claudian  Way,  etc.    Died  in  1788. 

Guasco,  da,  d^  goo-is'ko,  (Ottaviano,)  a  writer, 
born  at  Pinerolo,  in  Piedmont,  in  1712,  published  a 
work  entitled  "Satires  of  Prince  Cantemir,"  etc.,  also 
an  "Essay  on  the  State  of  Sciences  in  France  under 
Charles  VI.,"  etc.  Guasco  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Montesquieu.    Died  in  1781. 

Guaspre,  Le.    See  Dughet. 

Guatemozin,  gw3.-te-mo'zin,  or  Quah-te-mot'zin, 

son-in-law  and  successor  of  Montezuma,  Emperor  of 
Mexico,  was  the  last  prince  of  the  Aztec  dynasty.  After  a 
brave  defence  of  his  capital  against  the  Spaniards,  he  was 
forced  to  capitulate,  and  was  taken  prisoner.  He  was  then 
cruelly  tortured,  by  order  of  Cortez,  to  compel  him  to 
reveal  where  the  treasures  of  the  empire  were  concealed. 
Being  afterwards  unjustly  accused  of  exciting  his  sub- 
jects to  rebellion,  he  was  put  to  death  without  any  form 
of  trial,  in  1522.  "Among  all  the  names  of  barbarian 
princes,  there  are  few  entitled  to  a  higher  place  on  the 
roll  of  fame  than  Guatemozin.  He  was  called  to  the 
throne  in  the  convulsed  and  expiring  hours  of  the  mon- 
archy, when  the  banded  nations  of  Anahuac  and  the 
fierce  European  were  thundering  at  the  gates  of  the 
capital.  No  one  can  refuse  his  admiration  to  the  intrepid 
spirit  which  could  prolong  a  defence  of  his  city  while  one 
stone  was  left  upon  another;  and  our  symparthies  for  the 
time  are  inevitably  thrown  more  into  the  scale  of  the  rude 
chieftain  thus  battling  for  his  country's  freedom,  than 
into  that  of  his  civilized  and  successful  antagonist." 
(Prescott's  "Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vols.  ii.  and  iii.) 

Guay,  g^,  (Jacques,)  a  French  gem-engraver,  born  at 
Marseilles  in  1715;  died  in  1787. 

Guay-Trouin.    See  Duguay-Trouin. 

Guazzesi,  goo-lt-sa'see,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  litte- 
ratetir,  born  at  Arezzo  in  1708.  He  published  several 
historical  works.    Died  in  1764. 

Guazzo,  goo-it'so,  (Marco,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
litterateur,  born  at  Padua  about  1496;  died  in  1556. 

Guazzo,  (Stefano,)  an  Italian  poet  and  essayist, 
born  at  Casali  in  1530;  died  in  1593. 

Gubbio,  da,  di  goob'be-o,  (Oderigi,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Gubbio,  near  Perugia,  was  a  friend  of 
Dante,  who  mentions  him  with  honour  in  his  great  poem. 
He  worked  at  Bologna,  and  was  distinguished  as  a 
painter  of  missals  and  miniatures.    Died  about  1300. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Gubitz,  goo'bits,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
engraver  and  litterateur,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1786.  He 
wrote  several  dramas,  and  other  works. 

Gude.    See  Gudius. 

Gudelinus.    See  Goudelin. 

Gudenof.    See  Godoonof. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f4t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  mCtbn; 


GUDIN  1093  GUERCINO 


Gudin,  gii'd^N',  (Jean  Antoine  Theodore,)  a  cele- 
brated marine  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1802,  was  a  pupil 
of  Girodet.  Among  his  best  works  are  "The  Storm  in 
the  Bay  of  Algiers,"  a  "  View  of  Constantinople,"  "  The 
Shipwreck,"  and  a  *'  View  of  Gibraltar." 

Gudin  de  la  Brenellerie,  gii'd^N'  deh  It  bReh-n&Kre', 
(Paul  Philippe,)  a  French  dramatic  poet,  born  in  Paris 
in  1738.  He  published  a  number  of  tragedies,  and  a 
mock-heroic  poem  entitled  "The  Conquest  of  Naples 
by  Charles  VIII."    Died  in  1812. 

See  "  Notice  sur  Gudin  de  la  Brenellerie,"  Paris,  1812. 

Gudin  de  la  Sablonniere,  gii'diN'  deh  IS  st'blo'- 
ne-ain',  (C^sar  Charles  Etienne,)  Count,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Montargis  in  1768.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  Eylau,  (1807,)  Eckmiihl,  and  Wagram,  (1809,) 
and  was  killed  at  Volutina-Gora,  in  Russia,  in  1812. 

Gudius,  gooMe-us,  or  Gude,  goo'deh,  (Gottlob 
Friedrich,)  a  German  minister  and  writer,  born  at 
Lauban  in  1701 ;  died  in  1756. 

See  Meissner,  "  Gedachtnissrede  auf  Gude,"  1756. 

Gudius  or  Gude,  (Marquard,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist and  antiquary,  born  at  Rensburg  in  1635,  became 
councillor  to  the  King  of  Denmark.  He  collected  many 
manuscripts  and  Greek  and  Latin  inscriptions,  which 
were  published  in  1 731.    Died  in  1689. 

Gudmundsson,  good'moond^son,  (Thorgeir,)  a  dis- 
tinguished scholar  and  antiquary  of  Iceland,  born  in 
1794,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society  of  Northern 
Antiquaries  at  Copenhagen  in  1845. 

Gudmundus,  good-mdon'dus,  (Andreas,)  a  learned 
Icelander,  wrote  several  antiquarian  works,  and  a  "Lexi- 
con Islandico-Latinum."    Died  in  1654, 

Guebriant,  de,  deh  gi'bRe'dN^,  (Jean  Baptiste 
Budes — biid,)  Comte,  a  French  marshal,  born  in  Brit- 
tany in  1602.  He  served  with  great  distinction  in  Ger- 
many during  several  campaigns  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
war,  and  in  1641  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Imperial 
troops  at  Wolfenbiittel.  He  was  made  a  marshal  in  1642. 
He  was  mortally  wounded  at  Rothvveil  in  1643. 

See  Le  Laboureur,  "  Histoire  du  Mareclial  de  Guebriant,"  1657. 

Guebriant,  de,  (Ren6e  du  Bec-Crispin — dii  b^k'- 
kR^s^piN^,)  wife  of  the  preceding,  was  appointed  in 
1643  ambassadress-extraordinary  to  the  King  of  Poland, 
being,  it  is  said,  the  first  woman  who  ever  acted  in  that 
capacity  independently  of  her  husband.    Died  in  1659. 

See  "  Leltres  de  Madame  de  Guebriant  i  la  Princesse-Palatine 
Anne  de  Gonzague." 

Guedier  de  Saint- Aubin,  gi^de-i'  deh  siN^to^b^N', 
(Henri  Michel,)  a  French  theologian,  born  at  Gournay- 
en-Bray  in  1695.  He  wrote  "The  Sacred  History  of 
the  Two  Covenants,"  (7  vols.,  1741.)    Died  in  1742. 

Gueel  y  Rente,  Hal  e  r^n'ti,  (Don  Jos^;,)  a  Spanish 
writer  and  statesman,  born  at  Havana  about  1820.  He 
studied  in  Spain,  became  a  deputy  to  the  Cortes  about 
1854,  and  was  re-elected  in  1857.  He  had  married  in 
1848  the  Infanta  Josefa,  sister  of  the  King  of  Spain.  He 
has  published  poems  entitled  "Tears  of  the  Heart" 
("  Lagrimas  del  Corazon")  and  "Sorrows  of  the  Heart," 
("Amarguras  del  Corazon,")  and  "Thoughts  Moral  and 
Political." 

Guelf,  Guelph,  gw^lf,  or  Welf,  <^g]f,  the  name  of  a 
noble  family  in  Germany,  the  founder  of  which  lived  in 
the  time  of  Charlemagne. 

Guelfo,  gw^Kfo,  Welfo,  or  Guelf  II.  flourished  in 
the  eleventh  century.  He  was  engaged  in  a  contest 
with  the  emperor  Conrad  II.,  which  was  the  beginning 
of  the  long  strife  between  the  Dukes  of  Bavaria  and  the 
German  emperors. 

Guelfo  III.  was  created  Duke  of  Carinthia  by  the 
emperor  Henry  III.  as  a  reward  for  his  services  in  the 
war  with  the  Hungarians.    Died  about  1055. 

Guelfo  IV.,  called  the  Great,  was  made  Duke  of 
Bavaria  by  Henry  IV.,  but  subsequently  took  up  arms 
against  him.  After  alternate  victories  and  defeats,  a 
peace  was  concluded  in  1097.    Died  about  1120. 

Guelfo  V.  succeeded  his  father,  Guelfo  IV.,  as  Duke 
of  Bavaria.  He  married  Matilda,  the  heiress  of  Tuscany, 
and  widow  of  Godfrey,  Duke  of  Lorraine.  After  she 
had  made  a  donation  of  her  domains  to  the  Church  of 
Rome,  Guelfo  returned  to  Germany,  where  he  took  part 


with  Henry  V.  in  his  quarrel  with  his  father,  Henry  IV. 
Died  about  11 20. 

Guelfo  VI.,  nephew  of  Guelfo  V.,  and  son  of  Henry 
the  Black,  was  born  in  1 11 5.  Having  embraced  the  cause 
of  his  nephew,  Henry  the  Lion,  in  his  contest  with  the 
emperor  Conrad  III.,  he  was  defeated  by  that  sovereign 
at  Weinsberg  in  1 140.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  the 
war-cry  of  Guelphs  (or  Welfs)  and  Ghibelines  was  first 
used,  the  latter  name  being  derived  from  Waiblingen, 
the  seat  of  the  Hohenstaufen  family  at  WUrtemberg. 
Died  in  1191.  The  popes  having  taken  sides  with  the 
Guelphs,  the  names  of  Guelph  and  Ghibeline  were  used 
to  designate  the  parties  of  the  emperor  and  the  pope. 

See  EiCHHORN,"  Urgeschichte  des  Hausesder  Welfen ;"  Sismondi, 
"Histoire  des  Repuljliques  Italiennes." 

Guenard,  gi'ntR',  (Elisabeth,)  Baronne  de  Mere,  a 
romance-writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1751  ;  died  in  1829. 

Gueneau  de  Montbeliard,  gi'no'deh  m6N'bi'le-^R', 
(Philibert,)  an  eminent  French  naturalist,  born  at 
Semur-en-Auxois  in  1720.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Buffon,  and  prepared  the  ornithological  department 
for  his  great  work ;  he  was  also  a  contributor  to  the 
"Encyclopedic,"  and  wrote  an  "Abridgment  of  the  His- 
tory and  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,"  (4 
vols.,  1770.)    Died  in  1785. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Guenee,  ga^na',  (Antoine,)  an  eminent  French  eccle- 
siastic and  controversial  writer,  born  at  fitampes  in  17 17, 
was  for  many  years  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  college  Du 
Plessis  in  Paris.  In  1785  he  obtained  the  abbey  of  Loroy,' 
in  the  diocese  of  Bourges.  He  wrote  a  very  able  work, 
entitled  "  Letters  of  some  Portuguese,  German,  and 
Polish  Jews  to  Voltaire,"  etc.,  in  which  he  defends  the 
Old  Testament  against  Voltaire,  clearly  convicting  him 
of  contradictions  and  of  ignorance.    Died  in  1803. 

See  QuERAKD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Guenzi,  goo-gn'zee,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  Ital- 
ian ])oet  and  translator,  born  in  1713  ;  died  in  1753. 

Guepin,  ga'piN',  (Auguste,)  a  French  writer  and 
physician,  born  at  Pontivy  about  1805.  His  chief  work 
is  "The  Philosophy  of  Socialism,"  (1850.) 

Guerard,  gi'rtR',  (Benjamin  Edme  Charles,)  a 
French  antiquary,  born  at  Montbard  in  1797.  He  was 
an  assistant  librarian  in  the  Royal  Library  of  Paris,  and 
published  treatises  on  the  social  state  of  France  in  the 
middle  ages.    Died  in  1854. 

Guerard,  (Robert,)  a  French  Benedictine  monk, 
born  at  Rouen  about  1641.  He  published  an  "Abridg- 
ment of  the  Bible,"  (1707.)    Died  in  1715. 

Guerazzi,  goo-^-rSt'see  or  goo-§r-it'see,  or  Guer- 
razzi,  (Francesco  Domenico,)  an  Italian  writer  and 
Liberal  statesman,  born  at  Leghorn  in  1805.  In  1848 
he  was  appointed  president  of  the  cabinet  and  minister 
of  the  interior  by  the  grand  duke  Leopold  II.  He  was 
the  author  of  the  "Siege  of  Florence,"  ("Assedio  di 
Firenze,")  and  other  historical  romances,  and  an  "  Apol- 
ogy for  the  Political  Life  of  F.  D.  Guerazzi,"  (1851.) 

See  "  Memorie  di  F.  D.  Guerrazzi,"  1848,  written  by  himself. 

Guerchin.    See  Guercino. 

Guerchois,  le,  leh  geR^shwi',  (Madeline,)  a  French 
lady,  eminent  for  her  talents  and  piety,  born  in  Paris  in 
1679,  was  a  sister  of  Chancellor  D'Aguesseau.  She  wrote 
"Christian  Reflections  on  the  Historical  Books  of  the 
Old  Testament."    Died  in  1740. 

Guerchy,  de,  deh  ggR^she',  (Claude  Franqois 
Louis  R^gnier,)  Comte,  a  French  general,  born  in 
1 7 15,  served  in  Flanders  under  Marshal  Saxe,  and  par- 
ticularly distinguished  himself  at  Fontenoy  and  Hasten- 
beck,  (1757.)  He  was  afterwards  ambassador  to  London. 
Died  in  1767. 

See  "  Lettres  et  Memoires  du  Mar^chal  de  Saxe." 

Guercino,  gw^R-chee'no  or  goo-^R-chee'no,  [Fr. 
Guerchin,  ggR^shiN',]  (Giovanni  Francesco  Bar- 
bieri — baR-be-a'ree,)  called  Guercino  da  Cento,  a 
celebrated  Italian  painter,  born  at  Cento,  near  Bologna, 
in  1590.  He  at  first  painted  in  the  style  of  the  Caracci, 
but  he  afterwards  adopted  that  of  Caravaggio.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  "The  Death  of  Dido,"  "Santa 
Petronilla,"  in  the  Capitol  at  Rome,  "  Aurora,"  a  fresco 
in  the  Villa  Ludovisi,  a  "Saint  William,"  and  "Angels 


€  as  >t;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  VL,  guttural;  n,  nasal;     trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2(^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GUERET 


1094 


GUESS 


weeping  over  the  Dead  Body  of  Christ."  Guercino  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Guido  Reni.  He  worked  many 
years  at  Cento,  from  which  he  removed  to  Bologna  in 
1642.  His  works  are  mostly  oil-paintings,  and  include 
about  a  hundred  altar-pieces.    Died  at  Bologna  in  1666. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Calvi,  "  Notizie 
della  Vita  e  delle  Opere  di  G.  F.  Barbieri,"  1808;  Domenico  C. 
Mora,  "Vite  di  Benveniito  Tisio  e  di  G.  F.  Barbieri,"  1842; 
Chaklks  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres;"  Bryan,  "Dictionary 
of  Painters." 

Gueret,  geh-rJ^',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  lawyer  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1641.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  his  "  Conversations  on  the  Eloquence 
of  the  Pulpit  and  the  Bar,"  "  Parnassus  Reformed,"  and 
"  War  of  the  Authors."    Died  in  1688. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Guericke,  g^r'rik-keh,  (Heinrich  Ernst  Ferdi- 
nand,) a  German  theologian,  born  at  Wettin,  in  Prus- 
sian Saxony,  in  1803,  published  a  "Manual  of  Church 
History,"  (1833,)  and  other  works. 

Guericke,  von,  fon  gdr'ik-keh  or  ga'rik-keh,  (Otto,) 
a  celebrated  German  savant  and  experimental  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Magdeburg  in  1602.  Having  studied  ma- 
thematics and  mechanics  at  Leyden,  he  visited  France 
and  England.  After  his  return,  he  was  made  in  1646 
burgomaster  of  Magdeburg.  In  1650  he  invented  the 
air-pump,  of  which  he  made  the  first  public  experiment 
before  the  Diet  at  Ratisbon  in  165 1.  Having  fitted 
together  two  large  hollow  hemispheres  made  of  copper 
and  brass,  with  strong  rings  attached  to  them,  to  which 
horses  were  harnessed,  he  exhausted  the  air  from  the 
globe  ;  and  it  was  only  after  the  number  of  horses  was 
increased  to  upwards  of  thirty  that  the  parts  were  sepa- 
rated. He  was  also  the  inventor  of  the  instrument 
called  Guericke's  Weather  Mannikin,  which  was  used, 
before  the  invention  of  the  barometer,  to  denote  the 
changes  of  the  weather.  He  published  in  1672  a  work 
entitled  "New  Magdeburgian  Exj^eriments,  as  they  are 
called,  relating  to  a  Vacuum,"  ("  Experimenta  Nova,  ut 
vocant,  Magdeburgica,  de  vacuo  Spatio.")   Died  in  1686. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  £ loges  historiques  des  Academiciens ;" 
JocHER,  "  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Guerin,  g^'riN',  (Adolphe  Claude,)  Colonel,  a 
French  officer,  born  at  Mortagne  in  1805,  served  in  seve- 
ral campaigns  in  Algeria  as  chief  of  engineers.  He  sub- 
sequently distinguished  himself  in  the  Crimean  war, 
and  was  killed  in  June,  1855,  at  the  siege  of  Sebastopol, 
where  he  had  rendered  important  services  as  chief  of  the 
staff  of  engineers. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Guerin,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  scholar,  born  in  Tou- 
raine  in  1681,  translated  Livy  and  Tacitus  into  French. 
Died  in  1751. 

Guerin,  (Gilles,)  an  able  French  sculptor,  born  in 
Paris  in  1606.  He  was  employed  in  the  decoration  of 
the  Louvre.  Among  his  chief  works  is  a  statue  of  Louis 
XIV.    Died  in  1678. 

Guerin,  (Jean  Baptiste  Paulin,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Toulon  in  1783,  worked  at  Paris.  Among  his 
])roductions  are  "  Adam  and  Eve  driven  from  Eden," 
(1827,)  and  a  "  Holy  Family,"  (1829.)    Died  in  1855. 

Guerin,  (Joseph  Xavier,)  a  French  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Avignon  in  1775.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  Panorama  of  Avignon  and  Vaucluse,"  (1829,)  and 
"  Meteorologic  Observations,"  (1839.)    Died  in  1850. 

Guerin,  (Jules,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Boussu 
(Belgium)  in  1801.  He  studied  and  afterwards  resided 
at  T^aris.  He  gave  special  attention  to  malformations 
of  the  feet,  and  wrote  an  able  treatise  on  Orthopedy,  (16 
vols.,  1837,)  which  gained  the  prize  of  the  Academy  of 
Paris. 

Guerin,  (Nicolas  Francois,)  a  French  scholar  and 
writer,  born  at  Nancy  in  1711  ;  died  in  1782. 

Guerin,  (Pierre  Narcksse,  )  Baron,  an  eminent 
French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1774,  was  a  pupil  of 
Regnault.  He  produced  about  1800  "Marcus  Sextus" 
and  "Phedre  et  Hippolyte,"  which  had  great  popularity. 
His  subjects  are  mostly  antique,  and  his  style  is  classic. 
His  chief  merits  are  purity  of  contour,  good  taste  in 
details,  and  harmony  of  colour.  He  was  director  of  the 
French  Academy  at  Rome  from  1822  to  1828.  Among 


his  works  are  "Aurora  and  Cephalus,"  (1810,)  "Dido 
listening  to  /Eneas,"  (1817,)  and  a  "  Clyteuinestra."  He 
died  at  Rome  in  1833. 

See  QuATREMfeRE  DE  QuiNCY,  "  Noticc  sur  la  Vie  de  P.  Guerin," 
1833;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gdn^rale." 

Guerin,  de,  deh  gi'r^N',  (Eugenie,)  a  French  writer, 
born  at  the  chateau  Du  Cayla,  in  Languedoc,  in  1805. 
She  was  endowed  with  rare  intelligence,  and  was  an 
example  of  deep  and  fervent  piety.  Her  life  may  be 
said  to  have  been  absorbed  in  her  brother  Maurice,  to 
whom  she  was  intensely  devoted.  She  died  in  May, 
1848,  leaving  a  Journal  and  Letters,  which  were  pub- 
lished in  1863.  "Her  Journal,"  says  the  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1864,  "is  the  outpouring  of  one  of  the 
purest  and  most  saintly  minds  that  ever  existed  upon 
earth.  The  style  is  exquisitely  beautiful,  and  it  lingers 
in  the  memory  like  the  dying  tones  of  an  yEolian  harp, 
full  of  ineffable  sweetness.  Amidst  the  impurity  which 
has  so  long  flooded  French  literature,  it  is  delightful  to 
come  upon  the  streams  of  thought  that  flowed  in  limpid 
clearness  from  the  fountain  of  her  mind,  and  to  find  in 
a  young  French  girl  a  combination  of  piety  and  genius 
with  so  much  felicity  and  force  of  expression  that  her 
countrymen  have  not  scrupled  to  compare  her  style  to 
that  of  Pascal  himself." 

Guerin,  de,(MAURiCE  du  Cayla — dii  WW,)  a  French 
poet,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  near  Albi,  in 
Languedoc,  in  1810.  He  died  prematurely  in  1839,  leaving 
several  poetical  fragments,  among  which  is  "Le  Cen- 
taure."  "This  revealed,"  says  Sainte-Beuve,  "a  nature 
of  talent  so  new,  so  powerful,  so  vast,  that  the  word  ge- 
nius seems  appropriate  to  it."  His  Letters,  Poems,  etc. 
were  published  in  i860,  under  the  title  of  "Maurice  de 
Guerin  :  Reliquiae,"  (2  vols.,)  preceded  by  a  biographical 
notice  of  the  author  by  Sainte-Beuve. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic Generale;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1863. 

Guerin  du  Rocher,  g\'ri^'  dii  ro'shi',  (Pierre,)  a 
learned  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Falaise  in  1 731,  wrote 
"  The  True  History  of  Fabulous  Times,"  (3  vols.,  1 776.) 
He  was  massacred  in  vSeptember,  1792. 

Guerin-Meneville,  g^'riw'  min'v^K,  (FiiLix  £dou- 
ARD,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Toulon  in  1799,  pub- 
lished a  "  Magazine  of  Zoology,  Comparative  Anatomy, 
and  Palaeontology,"  (33  vols.,  1831-44,)  and  other  works. 

Guerle.    See  Deguerle. 

Guernier.    See  Duguernier. 

Gueronniere.    See  La  GuERONNifeRE. 

Gueroult,  gi'roo',  (Adolphe,)  a  French  journalist, 
born  at  Radepont  (Eure)  in  i8io.  He  became  chief 
editor  of  the  "Presse,"  a  daily  paper  of  Paris,  in  1857. 

Gueroult,  geh-roo',  (Pierre  Claude  Bernard,)  a 
French  classical  scholar,  born  at  Rouen  in  1744.  He 
was  director  of  the  Nonnal  School  at  Paris  under  the 
empire.  He  translated  Pliny's  "  Natural  History,"  (3 
vols.,  1803,)  and  some  works  of  Cicero.    Died  in  1821. 

Guerra,  goo-^r'raor  gwgr'rS,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
architect  and  painter,  born  at  Modena  in  1544.  He  was 
employed  by  Sixtus  V.  to  adorn  the  Vatican  and  Quirinal 
palace.    Died  in  1618. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Guerre,  de  la,  deh  1^  gaiR,  (Elisabeth  Claude 
Jacquet — zht'ky,)  a  French  lady,  celebrated  for  her 
musical  talents,  was  born  in  Paris  about  1659.  Among 
her  compositions  are  a  Te  Deum  and  a  number  of  can- 
tatas.   Died  in  1729. 

Guerre-Dumolard,  gain  du'mo'ltR',(jEAN,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Allevard.  (Dauphine)  in  1761  ;  died  in  1845. 

Guerrero, ger-ra'ro,  (ViNCENTE,)  a  Mexican  partisan 
leader,  who  became  President  of  Mexico  in  April,  1829. 
He  was  supplanted  or  overpowered  about  the  end  of 
that  year  by  Bustamente.  Having  afterwards  appealed 
to  arms,  he  was  defeated,  taken  prisoner,  and  executed 
in  February,  1831. 

Guerrini,g\ver-ree'nee,  (GiACOMO,)an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Cremona  in  1718;  died  in  1793. 

Guesclin.    See  Du  Guesclin. 

Gue.ss,  gess,  or  Se-quoy'ah,  (George,)  a  half-breed 
Cherokee  Indian,  born  about  1770,  was  noted  as  the 
inventor  of  the  Cherokee  syllabic  alphabet,  consisting 
of  eighty-five  characters,  representing  the  syllables  in 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  ^,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u»  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


GVETTARD  1095  GUIBERT 


use  among  the  Cherokees.  It  has  proved  a  great  suc- 
cess, having  been  employed  both  in  writing  and  printing. 
He  lived  in  Georgia,  from  which  he  removed  with  his 
tribe  beyond  the  Mississippi.    Died  in  1843. 

Guettard,  gi'tSR',  (Jean  Etienne,)  a  celebrated 
French  naturalist  and  physician,  born  at  fitampes  in 
1 715.  He  studied  natural  science  under  Reaumur  in 
Paris,  and  in  1743  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  by  the  Duke 
of  Orleans  keeper  of  his  cabinet  of  natural  history.  He 
first  ascertained  the  volcanic  nature  of  the  mountains  of 
Auvergne,  and  determined  the  true  character  of  organic 
remains  which  had  been  only  partially  recognized  before. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Memoirs  on  some  Mountains  of 
France  formerly  Volcanoes,"  (1752,)  a  treatise  "On  the 
Granites  of  France  compared  with  those  of  Egypt,"  { 1 755,) 
and  other  valuable  works.    Died  in  Paris  in  1786. 

See  CoNDOKCET,  "  i!loge  de  Guettard ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Gueulette,  guh'lgt',  (Thomas  Simon,)  a  popular 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1683,  published  numerous  tales 
in  the  Oriental  style,  and  several  comedies.  Died  in  1766. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  LiUeraire." 

Guevara,  gi-vi'ri,  (Don  Felipe  Ladron  y — Id- 

dRon'  e,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  about  15 10,  was  a  pupil 
or  friend  of  Titian.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege 
of  Tunis  under  Charles  V.  in  1535.    Died  in  1563. 

Guevara,  (Luis  Velez  de  las  Duenas  y — va'lgth 
di  las  doo-^n'yis  e,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  dramatist,  born 
in  Andalusia  in  1574.  His  works  are  principally  come- 
dies, which  were  highly  popular  at  the  time,  and  were 
commended  by  Lope  de  Vega.  He  also  published  a 
witty  satirical  romance,  entitled  "El  Diablo  cojuelo," 
("The  Lame  Devil,")  said  to  have  been  the  original  of 
Le  Sage's  "  Diable  boiteux."    Died  in  1646. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Guevara,  (Sebastian  Velez — va'l^th,)  a  Spanish 
poet,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1558,  published  a  continua- 
tion of  the  "Romancero,"  or  collection  of  Spanish 
romances,  (1594.)    Died  in  1610. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Guevara,  de,  di  gi-v^'rS,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish  prel- 
ate and  historian,  born  in  the  province  of  Alava  about 
1490,  was  preacher  and  historiographer  to  Charles  V.  of 
Germany.  He  was  afterwards  created  Bishop  of  Mon- 
donedo.  His  "  History  of  Marcus  Aurelius,"  published 
in  1529,  is  said  to  contain  less  truth  than  fiction.  He 
also  began  a  "History  of  Charles  V.,"  which  was  never 
published.  His  "Golden  Epistles"  were  translated  into 
French  and  English.    Died  in  1544. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Guevara,  de,  (Antonio,)  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
was  appointed  almoner  to  Philip  H.  of  Spain.  He  wrote 
several  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures. 

Guevara,  de,  (Juan  N.,)  a  Spanish  painter  and  bril- 
liant colorist,  born  at  Malaga  in  163 1,  was  a  pupil  of 
Alonzo  Cano.    Died  in  1698. 

Guez  de  Balzac.    See  Balzac. 

Guffroy,  guTRwi',  (Armand  BenoIt  Joseph,)  a 
French  journalist  and  politician  of  the  Jacobin  faction, 
born  at  Arras  in  1740.  He  was  elected  to  the  National 
Convention  in  1792,  and  in  1793  became  a  member  of 
the  committee  of  public  safety.  He  voted  for  the  death 
of  the  king.    Died  in  1800. 

Guglielmi,  gool-ySKmee,  (Pietro,)  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  Italian  composers  of  his  time,  born  at  Massa- 
Carrara  in  1727.  He  studied  at  Naples  under  Durante, 
and  subsequently  visited  Venice,  Dresden,  and  London. 
He  was  appointed  chapel-master  at  the  Vatican  in  1793. 
Among  his  operas,  which  amount  to  more  than  two 
hundred,  we  may  name  "Iphigenia  in  Aulide,"  "  Cle- 
menza  di  Tito,"  "Didone,"  "Tamerlano,"  and  "Don 
Ambrogio."    Died  in  1804. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Guglielmini,  gool-ygl-mee'nee,  (Domknico,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  physician,  astronomer,  and  natural  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Bologna  in  1655,  l^ecame  professor  of 
mathematics  in  his  native  city  in  1686,  and  of  theoretic 
medicine  at  Padua  in  1702.  He  published  a  "Disserta- 
tion on  the  Nature  and  Origin  of  Comets,"  "The  Meas- 
ure of  Running  Waters,"  "  Hydrostatic  Epistles,"  "Phy- 


sico-Mathematical  Treatise  on  the  Nature  of  Rivers," 
(1697,)  and  other  valuable  works.  He  had  been  appointed 
in  1686  intendant  of  water-works,  and  gained  distinction 
as  a  hydraulic  engineer.    Died  in  1710. 

See  MoKGAGNi,  "Vita  di  Guglielmini,"  prefixed  to  his  Works, 
1719;  FoNTENELLE,  " ]£loge  dc  Guglielmini,"  1710;  Nic^RON,  "M6- 
nioires." 

Guglielmo  d' Apulia,  gool-y§Kmo  di-poo'le-S,  [Fr. 
GuiLLAUME  DE  PouiLLE,  ge'yom'  deh  pool  or  poo'ye,] 
an  Italian  writer  of  the  eleventh  century,  was  the  author 
of  a  historical  poem,  in  Latin,  "  On  the  Deeds  of  the 
Normans  in  Sicily,"  etc.,  first  published  in  1582. 

Guhr,  gooR,  (Karl  WiLHELM  Ferdinand,)  a  German 
composer,  born  in  Silesia  in  1787.  Among  his  operas  is 
"Aladdin,  or  the  Wonderful  Lamp."    Died  in  1848. 

Guhrauer,  goo'row'er,  (Gottschalk  (got'shilk) 
Eduard,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  in  Posen  in  1809, 
published  a  "Biography  of  Leibnitz,"  (2  vols.,  1842,) 
which  is  commended,  "Goethe's  Correspondence  with 
Knebel,"  (2  vols.,  1852,)  and  other  works.   Died  in  1854. 

Guhyaka  or  Guhyaca,  gooh'ya-ka.  In  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  Guhyakas,  the  servants  of  Kuvera,  (the 
deformed  god  of  riches,)  are  a  kind  of  demons  into  which 
transmigrate  the  souls  of  men  particularly  addicted  to 
covetousness  and  selfishness. 

Gui  d'Arezzo.    See  Guido  d'Arezzo. 

Gui  da  Ravenna,  goo-ee'  di  ra-vgn'nS,  an  Italian 
historian  of  the  ninth  century,  wrote  a  "History  of  the 
Roman  Pontiffs,"  and  a  "  History  of  the  Gothic  War," 
(in  Latin,)  neither  of  which  is  extant. 

Gui  de  Crema.    See  Paschal  III. 

Gui  de  Doucie,  ge  deh  doo'se-i',  a  French  poet  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  of  whose  writings  only  fragments 
are  extant.  He  translated  into  French  the  "Consola- 
tion of  Philosophy"  by  Boethius. 

Gui  de  Lusi|nan.    See  Guy  de  Lusignan. 

Guibal,  ge'baK,  (Barth^lemy,)  a  French  sculptor 
and  architect,  born  at  Nimes  in  1699;  died  in  1757. 

Guibal,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  painter,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Luneville  in  1725  ;  died  in  1784. 

Guibaud,  ge'bo',  (Eustache,)  a  French  Jansenist, 
born  at  Hieres  in  1711.  He  wrote  "Groans  of  a  Peni- 
tent Soul,"  and  other  devotional  works.    Died  in  1794. 

Guibert,  ge'baiR',  Archbishop  of  Ravenna,  was  a 
native  of  Parma.  He  was  made  anti-pope  by  Henry  IV. 
of  Germany,  with  the  name  of  Clement  HI.,  and  in  oppo- 
sition to  Hildebrand,  (Gregory  VII.)  Guibert,  having 
crowned  Henry  emperor,  was  enabled  by  his  protec- 
tion to  resist  successively  three  legitimate  popes.  Died 
in  1 100. 

Guibert,  Madame,  a  French  writer,  born  at  Ver- 
sailles in  1725,  published  a  number  of  poems  and  dramas, 
which  were  popular  at  the  time.    Died  in  1788. 

Guibert,  de,  deh  ge-baiR',  (Charles  BENofr, ) 
Comte,  a  French  general,  born  at  Montauban  in  171 5, 
served  with  distinction  in  Italy  and  Flanders,  and  sub- 
sequently against  the  Prussians  in  the  Seven  Years'  war. 
Died  in  1786. 

Guibert,  de,  (Jacques  Antoine  HipI-olyte,)  Comte, 
a  popular  and  witty  French  author,  born  at  Montauban 
in  1743,  was  the  son  of  the  preceding.  He  accompa- 
nied his  father  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  (1756-62,)  and 
studied  military  tactics  with  great  success.  In  1773  he 
published  a  "General  Essay  on  Tactics,"  which  obtained 
a  European  celebrity  and  was  read  with  avidity  even 
by  the  ladies.  Voltaire  complimented  the  author  in  a 
short  poem  entitled  "La  Tactique."  His  tragedy  the 
"  Constable  Bourbon"  excited  in  the  salons  of  Paris  a 
temporary  admiration  scarcely  equalled  by  that  accorded 
to  the  productions  of  the  greatest  tragic  poets;  but  this 
is  not  justified  by  the  intrinsic  merit  of  the  work.  In 
1786  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
Pie  died  in  1790.  Madame  de  Stael  in  the  same  year 
composed  a  eulogy  on  him.  He  was  the  object  of  an 
unhappy  passion  on  the  part  of  Mademoiselle  L'Espi- 
nasse,  whose  letters  to  him  were  much  admired. 

See  Madame  de  Stael,  "  filoge  de  Guibert;"  Toulongeon 
"Notice  historiqiie  sur  Guibert,"  1802;  Foresti^,  "Biographie  du 
Comte  de  Guibert,"  1855;  E.  A.  Eardin,  "Notice  sur  J.  A.  H. 
Guibert,"  1836. 

Guibert  de  Nogent,  ge'baiR'  deh  no'zhSN',  a  learned 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  near  Clermont-en-Beauvoisis 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  ^ttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as 2;  th  as  in  this,    (5:^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GUICCURDINI 


1096 


GUI  DO 


in  1053,  wrote  a  history  of  the  first  crusade,  entitled 
*' Gesta  Dei  per  Francos,"  published  in  Paris  in  1651. 
Died  in  11 24. 

Guicciardini,  gwe-char-dee'nee  or  goo-it-ch^R-dee'- 
nee,  [Lat.  Guicciardi'nus  ;  Fr.  Guichardin,  ge'shSR^- 
diN'jJ  (Francesco,)  an  eminent  Italian  historian  and 
diplomatist,  born  at  Florence  in  1482.  At  the  early  age 
of  twenty-three  he  became  professor  of  jurisprudence  in 
his  native  city.  He  was  appointed  by  Pope  Leo  X.  Gov- 
ernor of  Modena  and  Reggio  in  15 18,  and  he  also  enjoyed 
the  favour  of  Adrian  VI.  and  Clement  VII.  The  latter, 
having  become  the  ally  of  France,  intrusted  Guicciar- 
dini with  the  command  of  the  pontifical  troops,  with  the 
title  of  lieutenant-general  of  the  Holy  See.  On  the  sur- 
render of  Florence  to  the  Imperial  army  in  1530,  he  be- 
came the  agent  of  the  Medici  in  that  city,  and  one  of  the 
commission  of  twelve  called  '*  the  reformers  of  the  state." 
Having  greatly  contributed  to  establish  the  tyranny  of 
the  Medici  at  Florence,  he  retired  from  public  life  about 
1536,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  composition  of  his  "  His- 
tory of  Italy  from  1494  to  1532,"  (1564.)  It  is  esteemed 
a  standard  work,  though  somewhat  prolix:  it  has  been 
translated  into  Latin  and  French.    Died  in  1540. 

His  *'  History  of  Italy"  "is  well  known,"  says  Hallam, 
"for  the  solidity  of  the  reflections,  the  gravity  and  im- 
partiality with  whrch  it  is  written,  and  the  prolixity  of 
the  narrative.  .  .  .  Guicciardini  has  generally  held  the 
first  place  among  Italian  historians,  though  he  is  by  no 
means  equal  in  literary  merit  to  Machiavel."  ("Intro- 
duction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  R.  FiGKENTiNi,  "Vita  di  F.  Guicciardini,"  1560;  F.  Sanso- 
viNO,  "  Vita  di  Guicciardini,"  1665;  G.  Rosini,  "  Saggio  sulle  Azioni 
e  sulle  Opere  di  F.  Guicciardini,"  1822;  Niceron,  "Memoires;" 
GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  litteraire  d'ltalie;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale  ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  Jul}',  1869. 

Guicciardini,  (Luigi,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Florence  in  1523.  He  resided  many  years 
in  Antwerp,  where  he  published  a  "Description  of  the 
Low  Cpuntries,"  and  several  other  works.  Died  in 
1589. 

Guicciardi^ius.    See  Guicciardini. 

Guiccioli,  gwit'cho-lee,  (Teresa  Gamba,)  Count- 
ess, a  beautiful  Italian  lady,  born  in  Romagna  in  1801. 
She  was  married  about  181 7  to  Count  Guiccioli,  a  wealthy 
nobleman  of  Ravenna.  She  owes  her  celebrity  to  her 
iiaison  with  Lord  Byron,,  who  a])pears  to  have  loved  her 
with  as  true  and  tender  an  affection  as  it  was  possible 
for  a  man  of  his  character  to  do.  In  1851  she  was  mar- 
ried to  the  Marquis  de  Boissy,  a  French  senator  and 
peer,  (who  was  born  at  Paris  in  1798;  died  in  1866.) 
Left  a  second  time  a  widow,  she  has  recently  given  to 
the  world  a  book  which  has  attracted  much  attention, — 
"My  Recollections  of  Lord  Byron  and  those  of  Eye- 
witnesses of  his  life,"  (London  and  Philadelphia, 
1869;) — for,  although  she  does  not  put  her  own  name 
to  the  work,  there  appears  to  be  no  doubt  as  to  its 
authorship. 

See  Moore,  "Life  of  Byron,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Vapereau,  "Diction- 
naire  des  Contem^rains,"  under  tlie  head  of  Boissy,  (Hilaire- 
JItiknne-Octave  Rouille,  Marquis  de.) 

Guichard,  ge'shtR',  (Claude,)  a  French  antiquary 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  born  at  Saint-Rambert-en- 
Bugey,  was  historiographer  to  Charles  Emanuel,  Duke 
of  Savoy.  He  published  a  work  entitled  "The  Funerals 
and  Various  Methods  of  Burial  among  the  Romans, 
Greeks,"  etc.,  (1581.)    Died  in  1607. 

Guichard,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  poet  and 
dramatist,  born  near  Melun  in  1731  ;  died  in  1811. 

Guichard,  (Louis  Anastase — t'nt'sttz',)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Socinianisra,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1737. 

Guichardin.    See  Guicciardini, 

Guiche,  (Philibert  de  la.)    See  La  Guiche. 

Guiche,  de,  deh  g^sh,  (Armand  de  Gramont,) 
CoMTE,  a  distinguished  French  general,  born  in  1638. 
He  served  against  the  English  in  the  campaign  of  1666, 
and  subsequently  in  Holland  under  Conde.  He  died 
in  1674,  leaving  "Memoirs  concerning  the  United  Prov- 
inces," etc 

See  "Memoires  du  Marechal  de  Gramont." 

Guichen,  ge^shdN',  (Luc  Urraln  du  Bouexic — dii 

boo'eks'^k',)  a  French  naval  officer,  born  at  Fougeresin 


1712.  He  was  made  a  lieutenant-general  in  1779,  and 
commander  of  the  marine  of  Brest,  In  1780  he  gained 
a  victory  over  the  English  fleet  under  Admiral  Rodney 
at  Dominique,  and  sunk  one  of  their  ships.  In  1781  De 
Guichen  was  in  turn  defeated  by  Admiral  Kempenfeld, 
who  took  fifteen  of  his  vessels.    Died  in  1790. 

See  Gerard,  "  Vies  des  plus  celebres  Marins  Fran^ais." 

Guichenon,  g6sh'n6N',  (Samuel,)  a  French  historian, 
born  at  Macon  ni  1607,  was  appointed  historiographer 
of  France  and  Savoy  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  created  a 
count-palatine  by  Ferdinand  III.,  Emperor  of  Germany. 
He  published  a  "Genealogical  History  of  the  House  of 
Savoy,"  and  other  similar  works.    Died  in  1664. 

See  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Guidal,  ge'dtl',  (Maximilien  Joseph,)  a  French 
oflicer,  born  at  Grasse  about  1760.  Having  joined  the 
conspiracy  of  Mallet  in  1812,  he  was  executed  by  order 
of  Napoleon. 

Guidalotti,  goo-e-di-lot'tee,  (Diomede,)  an  Italian 
scholar  and  poet,  born  at  Bologna  about  1482 ;  died 
in  1526. 

Guide,  Le.    See  Guido  Renl 

Guidi,  goo-ee'dee,  or  Guido,  goo-ee'do,  (Carlo 
Alessandro,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Pavia  in  1650. 
Having  visited  Rome  in  1683,  he  obtained  the  patron- 
age of  Christina,  Queen  of  Sweden,  who  made  him  a 
member  of  her  Academy.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Amala- 
sunta  in  Italia,"  "Endimione,"  a  pastoral,  and  a  number 
of  sonnets  and  lyric  poems  of  superior  merit.  He  is 
ranked  among  the  principal  reformers  of  Italian  poetry. 
Died  in  1 7 12. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitae  Italorum,"  etc.,  vol.  xi. ;  Crescimbeni,  "  Vita 
di  Guidi,"  prefixed  to  his  poems;  "Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by 
Rev.  Henry  Stebbing;  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  G.  Turroni, 
"  Elogio  storico  di  C.  A.  Guidi,"  1827. 

Guidi,  (ToMMASO.)    See  Masaccio. 

Guidi  da  San  Giovanni.    See  Masaccio. 

Guidiccioni, .  goo-e-d^t-cho'nee,  (Cristoforo,)  an 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Lucca  about  1530,  became  Bishop 
of  Ajaccio.  He  translated  from  the  Greek  the  "  Electra" 
of  Sophocles  and  the  "  Bacchantes,"  the  "  Andromache," 
and  the  "Trojans"  of  Euripides."    Died  in  1582. 

Guidiccioni,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Lucca  about  1500.  In  1534  he  was  appointed  Governor 
of  Rome  by  Pope  Paul  III.,  and  the  same  year  made 
Bishop  of  Fossombrone.  He  was  soon  after  sent  as 
nuncio  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  whom  he  accom- 
panied to  Tunis.  He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of 
poems,  letters,  and  orations.    Died  in  1 541. 

See  Longfellow's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Guido,  gwee'do  or  goo-ee'do,  [Fr.  Le  Guide,  leh 
g^d,]  or,  more  properly,  Guido  Reui,  (goo-ee'do  ra'- 
nee,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  at  or  near  Bologna 
about  1575.  He  first  studied  under  Denis  Calvart,  at 
Bologna,  and  was  afterwards  a  pupil  of  the  Caracci. 
Having  resided  many  years  at  Rome,  where  he  was 
liberally  patronized  by  Pope  Paul  V,,  he  returned  to 
his  native  city  and  devoted  himself  to  painting  and  to 
the  instruction  of  young  artists.  His  pictures  are  very 
numerous,  both  in  oil  and  fresco.  His  first  works  are 
painted  in  the  style  of  the  Caracci;  but  he  subsequently 
adopted  in  some  degree  that  of  Caravaggio.  His 
pictures  are  models  of  grace,  delicacy,  and  beauty  of 
expression.  He  succeeded  especially  in  pathetic  and 
devotional  subjects.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The 
Martyrdom  of  Saint  Peter,"  (in  the  Vatican,)  "Aurora," 
a  fresco  in  Rome,  "The  Assumption,"  a  picture  of  Saint 
Peter  and  Saint  Paul,  "  Fortune,"  and  "  The  Massacre 
of  the  Innocents."    Died  at  Bologna  in  1642. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  tlie  Painters,"  etc.;  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  Malvasia,  "  Felsina  pittrice ;"  Crispi,  "Vite 
de'  Pittori  Bolognesi,"  1769;  Bryan,  "Dictionary  of  Painters," 
under  Reni  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Guido,  (Alessandro.)    See  Guidl 

Guido,  goo-ee'do,  (Guerra,)  an  Italian  soldier,  was 
one  of  the  principal  leaders  of  the  Guelph  faction  in 
Florence.  He  commanded  the  Florentine  forces  in  the 
victorious  campaign  of  1254,  and  upon  the  arrival  of 
Charles  of  Anjou  in  Naples  joined  him  with  four  hun- 
dred men,  and  had  a  prominent  part  in  gaining  the 
victory  of  Grandella,  (1266.)    Dante  has  assigned  to 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y, lon^-;  i,  ^    sanie^  less  po-olonged;  a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y, short; a,  e,i,  q^obscure; fir,  f^ll,  ikv,  mhX\  ndt;  good;  moon; 


GUIDO 


1097 


GUILLAUME 


Guido  a  jjlace  in  his  "  Inferno,"  at  the  same  time  highly 
commending  his  abilities. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Repiibliques  Italiennes,"  vol.  iii. 

Guido,  (NovELLO,)  a  Florentine  general  of  the  Ghibel- 
ine  faction.  He  assisted  in  gaining  the  victory  of  Arbia, 
in  1260. 

Guido,  (Ubaldo,)  Marquis,  an  Italian  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Urbino  about  1540,  wrote  the  "Theory  of 
Universal  Planispheres,"  (in  Latin,)  and  other  works, 
which  are  commended  by  Montucla.    Died  about  1600. 

See  Montucla,  "Histoire  des  Mathematiques." 

Guido  (or  Gui,  goo-ee')  d'Arezzo,  goo-ee'do  di- 
r^t'so,  an  eminent  Italian  musician  and  ecclesiastic,  born 
about  990.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the  modern  system 
of  notation  in  music,  and  founded  a  school  at  Pomposa, 
in  which  he  taught  the  new  method  with  great  success. 

See  IkjRNEV,  "General  History  of  Music;"  Fetis,  "Biographic 
Universelle  des  Miisiciens." 

Guido  Canlassi,  goo-ee'do  kSn-lis'see,  called  also 
Cagnacci,  (kin-yat'chee,)  an  Italian  historical  painter, 
born  near  Rimini  in  1601,  was  a  pupil  of  Guido  Reni. 
He  worked  many  years  for  the  emperor  Leopold  I. 
Died  in  Vienna  in  1681. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Guido  da  Siena,  goo-ee'do  di  se-a'nS,  or  Guidone 
da  Ghezzo,  goo-e-do'ni  dS.  get'so,  an  Italian  painter  of 
the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century.  His  "  Madonna 
and  Child,"  in  the  church  of  the  Dominicans  at  Sienna, 
is  esteemed  one  of  the  finest  works  of  the  time. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Guido  delle  Colonne,  goo-ee'do  deKli  ko-lon'ni, 
[Lat.  De  Colum'nis,]  a  Sicilian  historian  and  poet  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Trojan 
War,"  ("Historia  Trojana,")  which  enjoyed  a  great 
reputation  in  its  time  and  has  been  translated  into  nearly 
all  the  languages  of  Europe.  It  is  said  to  have  been  the 
original  of  Boccaccio's  "  Filostrato,"  and,  consequently, 
of  Shakspeare's  "Troilus  and  Cressida." 

See  TiRABOScni,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Guidobono,  goo-e-do-bo'no,  (Bartolommeo,)  an 
Italian  painter,  called  "the  Priest  of  Savona,"  born  at 
that  town  in  1654  ;  died  in  1709. 

Guidonis,  ge'do'n^ss',  (Bernard,)  a  French  Domin- 
ican monk,  born  near  Limoges  about  1260.  He  was 
created  Bishop  of  Lodeve  in  1324.  He  wrote  "Annals 
of  the  Pontiffs,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  133 1. 

Guidotti-Borghese,  goo-e-dot'tee  boR-ga'si,  (Pao- 
lo,) an  Italian  painter,  sculptor,  and  architect,  born  at 
Lucca  about  1565,  was  patronized  by  Pope  Sixtus  V., 
who  employed  him  to  paint  the  Vatican.  He  was  after- 
wards appointed  by  PauJ  V.  conservator  of  the  Museum 
of  the  Capitol.    Died  in  1629. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Guienne,(ELEONoRE  de.)  See  Eleanor  of  Guienne. 

Guiemie,  de,  deh  ge'en',  (N.,)  a  French  lawyer  of 
the  Parliament  of  Paris,  born  at  Orleans  ;  died  in  1767. 

Guignard,  ghWytv.',  (Jean,)  a  French  Jesuit,  sur- 
named  Briquakel,  (bRe'ki'rgK,)  was  executed  for  high 
treason  in  1595  for  having  openly  justified  the  attempted 
assassination  of  Henry  IV.  by  Chatel. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais,"  vol.  xxi. 

Guignes,  de,  deh  g^n,  (Chretien  Louis  Joseph,)  a 
French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1759,  was  a  son  of 
Joseph,  noticed  below.  He  was  appointed  French  resi- 
dent in  China  in  1784.  and  returned  to  France  about 
1800.  He  published  "Voyages  to  Peking  and  Manilla," 
(3  vols.,  1808,)  and  a  "  Chinese-French-Latin  Dictionary," 
(1813.)    Died  in  1845. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  November,  1809. 

Guignes,  de,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  French  Oriental- 
ist, born  at  Pontoise  in  1721.  He  became  professor  of 
Syriac  in  the  College  Royale  in  1757,  having  previously 
been  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  London, 
and  a  member  of  the  x^cademy  of  Inscriptions  in  Paris. 
He  was  afterwards  appointed  royal  censor,  and  keeper 
of  the  antiques  of  the  Louvre.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  "General  History  of  the  Huns,  Turks,  Mongols,  and 
other  Western  Tartars,"  etc.,  (1756,)  "Historical  Me- 
moir on  the  Origin  of  the  Huns  and  Turks,"  "  History 


of  China,"  and  other  works,  which  enjoy  a  high  reputa- 
tion for  learning  and  accuracy.    Died  in  Paris  in  i8oo. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April, 11815. 

Guigniaut,  g^n'ye-o',  (Joseph  Daniel,)  an  eminent 
French  scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Paray-le-Monial 
in  May,  1794.  He  became  a  director  of  the  Normal 
School,  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1837,  and  professor 
of  history  in  the  College  de  France  in  1854.  His  chief 
work  is  "The  Religions  of  Antiquity,  considered  princi- 
pally in  their  Symbolical  and  Mythological  Forms,"  (3 
tomes,  in  10  vols.,  1825-51,)  which  is  a  translation  of 
Creuzer's  "  Symbolik,"  with  additions. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Guignon,  g6n'y6N',  (Jean,)  a  distinguished  violin- 
ist, born  at  Turin  in  1702,  was  appointed  musician  to 
the  royal  chapel  in  Paris.  Pie  composed  a  number  of 
sonatas  and  concertos.    Died  in  1774. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Guijon,  ge'zhoN',  (Jean,)  a  French  scholar  and  natu- 
ralist, born  in  1544,  became  professor  of  rhetoric  and 
languages  in  the  College  of  Navarre.  He  published 
several  scientific  works,  and  a  number  of  Latin  poems. 
Died  in  1605. 

Guilandinus,  gwe-lin-dee'nus,  or  Guilandini,  gwe- 

ISn-dee'nee,  (Melchior,)  a  German  naturalist,  whose 
proper  name  was  Wieland,  was  born  at  Konigsberg. 
He  became  professor  of  botany  at  Padua  on  the  death 
of  Fallopius,  and  wrote,  in  Latin,  "Papyrus;  or,  A 
Commentary  on  the  Three  Chapters  of  Pliny  the  Elder 
concerning  Papyrus,"  (1572.)    Died  in  1589. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Histoire  ;"  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Guilbert,  g^rbaiR',  (Pierre,)  a  French  writer.,  born 
in  Paris  in  1697,  was  the  author  of  "Chronological  and 
Historical  Memoirs  of  Port-Royal."    Died  in  1759. 

Guilbert  de  Pixerecpurt,  g^l'baiR'  deh  p^k'si'rk'- 
kooR',  (Ren6  Charles,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at 
Nancy  in  1773.  He  wrote  many  vaudevilles  and  melo- 
dramas.    Died  in  1844. 

Guild,  gild,  (William,)  a  Scottish  divine,  born  at 
Aberdeen  in  1586.  He  became  one  of  the  ministers 
of  Aberdeen  in  1631,  and  principal  of  King's  College  in 
1640.  For  devotion  to  the  royal  cause  he  was  deposed 
in  165 1.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "The  Har- 
mony of  all  the  Prophets  concerning  Christ's  Coming," 
(1619,)  and  "Moses  Unveiled,"  (1620.)    Died  in  1657. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Guildford,  Earl  of.    See  North. 

Guilhelmus  Pictavensis.  See  Guillaume  de 
Poitiers. 

Guilhem  de  Castro.    See  Castro. 

Guilhem  de  Clermont-Lodeve.  See  Sainte- 
Croix,  (Guillaume  Emanuel  Joseph.) 

Guillain,  ge'yiN',  (Simon,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris  in  1581.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  statues 
in  the  church  of  the  Sorbonne,  and  those  of  the  Virgin 
and  Saint  Francis  de  Paulo  in  the  convent  of  Minims. 
Guillain  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of 
Painting  and  Sculpture,  and  one  of  its  first  rectors. 
Died  in  1658. 

See  Lenoir,  "Musee  des  Monuments  Frangais,"  vol.  v. 

Guillard,  g^l'ytR'  or  ge'ytR',  (Nicolas  Franqois,) 
a  French  dramatist  and  lyric  poet,  born  at  Chartres  in 
1752.  He  brought  out  "Iphigenia  in  Tauris,"  a  lyric 
tragedy,  (1779,)  and  "Gidipus  at  Colona,"  which  were 
greatly  admired.    Died  in  1814. 

Guillaume,  ge^yom',  sometimes  called  Frere  Guil- 
laume, a  French  artist,  skilled  in  painting  on  glass,  was 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1475.  was  patronized  by  Pope 
Julius  II.,  who  employed  him  in  various  works  at  Rome. 
"His  paintings  on  the  windows  of  the  Vatican  and  in  the 
church  of  the  Madonna  del  Popolo  are  ranked  airong 
the  finest  productions  of  the  kind.  He  also  excelled 
as  an  architect  and  painter  in  fresco.    Died  in  1537. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Guillaume,  sur named  Longue-Ep^ie,  (16Ng'^'pi',) 
(Long-Sword,)  son  of  Rollo,  Duke  of  Normandy,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  about  927.  He  became  one  of  the  most 
powerful  vassals  of  the  crown  of  France.  He  was  treach- 
erously killed  by  Arnould,  Count  of  Flanders,  in  943. 

■f- 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  o,  h,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GUILLAUME 


1098 


GUIRAUD 


Guillaume,  Saint,  surnamed  the  Great,  a  French 
ecclesiastic  and  military  commander,  served  under  Char- 
lemagne against  the  Saracens,  and  received  from  him  the 
title  ot  Duke  of  Aquitaine.  In  808  he  founded  in  the 
valley  of  Gellone  a  monastery,  since  called  that  of  Saint 
Guillaume  in  the  Desert.  His  deeds  were  celebrated  in 
a  metrical  romance  of  the  ninth  century.    Died  in  812. 

See  Baillet,  "Vies  des  Saints." 

Guillaume,  Saint,  a  French  theologian,  became 
Archbishop  of  Bourges.  He  died  in  1209,  and  was  can- 
onized by  Pope  Honorius  III.  in  1218. 

Guillaume  d' Auvergne,  ge'yom'  do'vinn',  or  Guil- 
laume de  Paris,  a  celebrated  French  theologian  and 
philosopher,  born  at  Aurillac,  was  created  Bishop  of 
Paris  in  1228.  He  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of 
his  time,  and  wrote  several  Latin  works  distinguished 
for  the  purity  and  elegance  of  the  style.   Died  in  1249. 

See  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  la  France." 

Guillaume  de  Chartres,  ge'y5m'  deh  shtRtR,  a 
French  ecclesiastic  and  historian,  born  at  Chartres  about 
1225.  He  was  chaplain  to  Louis  IX.,  whom  he  accom- 
panied on  his  expeditions  to  Palestine,  and  was  present 
at  his  death  in  1270.  He  wrote  a  supplement  to  the 
"  Vita  Sancti  Ludovici"  ("  Life  of  Saint  Louis")  begun 
by  Geoffroy  (or  Galfrid)  de  Beaulieu.    Died  about  1280. 

See  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  la  France,"  vol.  ix. ;  Bollandus, 
"Acta  Sanctorum." 

Guillaume  de  Jumieges,  ge'yom'  deh  zhii^me-^zh', 
a  French  historian  and  ecclesiastic,  who  lived  about 
1070,  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Normans,"  {"  Historiae 
Normannorum  Libri  VII.,")  which  he  dedicated  to  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror.  It  has  been  published  in  Camden's 
"Angliae  Scriptores"  and  Duchesne's  "  Normannorum 
Antiqui  Scriptores,"  (1619.) 

Guillaume  de  Poitiers,  ge'yom'  deh  pwi'te-i', 
[Lat.  Guilhel'mus  Pictaven'sis,]  a  French  or  Norman 
chronicler,  born  in  Normandy  in  1020,  was  chaplain  to 
the  Duke  William  afterwards  King  of  England.  His 
principal  work  is  a  "  History  of  William  the  Conqueror," 
(in  Latin,)  which  is  not  all  extant. 

Guillaume  de  Pouille.  See  Guglielmo  d'Apulia. 

Guillaume  le  Breton,  ge'y5m'  leh  bReh-t6N',  or 
Bri'to-Ar-mo'ri-cus,  a  French  chronicler  and  poet, 
born  in  Brittany  about  I165,  was  chaplain  to  Philip 
Augustus,  He  was  the  author  of  "Historia  de  Vita  et 
Gestis  Philippi  Augusti,"  ("Life  and  Deeds  of  Philip 
Augustus,")  and  a  poem  entitled  the  "  Philippide." 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Guillaumet,  ge'y5'mi',  (Tanneguy  (ttn'ge')  or  Th6- 
VENIN,  tav'nclN',)  born  at  Nimes  about  1560,  became 
surgeon  to  Henry  IV.,  and  published  several  medical 
works.    Died  in  1630. 

Guillaumot,  ge'y5'mo',  (Charles  Axel,)  a  Swedish 
architect,  of  French  extraction,  born  at  Stockholm  in 
1730.  Having  visited  Paris  in  1754,  he  was  appointed, 
on  the  death  of  Saufiot,  intendant-general  of  the  royal 
buildings,  gardens,  etc.    Died  in  1807. 

Guillem  or  Guilhem  de  Castro.    See  Castro. 

Guillemain,  ge'ye-mclN'  or  germS,N',  (  Charles 
Jacob,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1750.  His 
comedies  are  very  numerous,  and  enjoyed  a  temporary 
popularity.    Died  in  1799. 

Guillemeau,  ge'ye-mo'  or  gM'mo',  (Jacques,)  an  emi- 
nent French  surgeon,  born  at  Orleans  about  1530,  was 
a  pupil  of  Ambrose  Pare.  He  became  successively  sur- 
geon-in-ordinary to  Charles  IX.,  Henry  III.,  and  Henry 
IV.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On 
Diseases  of  the  Eye."    Died  in  1613. 

Guillemeau,  (Jean  Louis  Marie,)  a  French  natu- 
ralist and  physician,  born  at  Niort  in  1766,  wrote  many 
works  on  botany,  ornithology,  etc.    Died  about  1850. 

Guillemin,  ge^ye-miN'  or  g^rmiN',  (Jean  Antoine,) 
a  French  botanist,  born  at  Pouilly-sur-Saone  in  1796. 
He  made  a  scientific  voyage  to  Brazil  in  1838.  Died  at 
Montpellier  in  1842. 

Guilleminot,  de,  deh  g^'ye-me^'no'  or  g^rme^no', 
(Armand  Charles,)  Comte,  "a  French  general  and 
diplomatist,  born  at  Dunkirk  in  1774.  He  served  under 
General  Moreau  in  Italy  and  on  the  Rhine,  made  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1812,  and  became  general  of  divi- 


sion in  1813.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Constanti- 
nople in  1824.    Died  in  1840. 

Guilleragues,  ge'ye-rSg'  or  gkYxtg',  (Gabriel  Jo- 
seph,) Comte  de  Lavergne,  a  French  litterateur  z.x\d  diplo- 
matist, born  at  Bordeaux.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  the  Ottoman  court  in  1679,  and  died  at  Constanti- 
nople in  1684.  His  work  entitled  "Embassies  of  Count 
de  Guilleragues  and  M.  de  Girardin  to  the  Grand  Sei- 
gneur" was  published  in  1687.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Boileau,  who  dedicated  to  him  his  fifth  Epistle. 

See  "Lettres  de  Madame  de  Sevigne ;"  Saint-Simon,  "Md- 
moires." 

Guillet  de  Saint-Georges,  g^'yk'  deh  s^N'zhoRzh', 
(Georges,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Auvergne  about 
1625.  He  was  a  member,  and  the  first  historiographer, 
of  the  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture.  He  was  the 
author  of  "  Athens,  Ancient  and  Modern,  and  the  Present 
State  of  the  Turkish  Empire,"  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1705. 

Guillim,  gwiKliin, }  (John,)  an  English  writer  on 
heraldry,  was  born  in  Herefordshire  about  1565.  He 
wrote  "  The  Display  of  Heraldry,"  (1610.)  Died  in  1621. 

Guillon,  ge'y6N',  (L.  Gabriel,)  a  French  surgeon, 
born  near  Tours  in  1798.  He  invented  several  instru- 
ments and  methods  of  surgery. 

Guillon,  (Marie  Nicolas  Silvestre, )  Abb6,  a 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  in  Paris  in  1760.  He  was 
professor  of  rhetoric  and  theology  in  Paris,  and  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Morocco  in  1833.  Among  his 
numerous  works  is  a  "  History  of  Ancient  and  Modern 
Philosophy,"  (1835.)    Died  in  1847. 

See  QuEKARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Guillon  de  Montleon,  ge'y6N'  deh  m6N'la'6N', 
(AiME,)  a  French  historical  and  theological  writer,  born 
at  Lyons  in  1758.  He  became  keeper  of  the  Mazarin 
Library,  Paris,  in  1816.  Among  his  works  is  "  Historical 
Memoirs  of  Lyons,"  (3  vols.,  1824.)    Died  in  1842. 

Guillotine,  gil-lo-teen',  [Fr.  pron.  ge^yo't^n',]  (Jo- 
seph Ignace,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Saintes  in 
1738.  He  was  a  deputy  in  1789  to  the  States-General, 
where  he  proposed,  as  a  humane  measure,  to  substitute 
decapitation  for  other  modes  of  punishment.  He  was 
not,  however,  the  inventor  of  the  machine  called  by  his 
name.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of 
Medicine  in  Paris.    Died  in  1814. 

See  "]£loge  funebre  de  Guillotine,"  1814;  Croker,  "The  Guil- 
lotine: an  Historical  Essay." 

Guillou,  ge'yoo',  (Jean  Ren^,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  at  Chateaudun  in  1730,  was  the  author  of  a  "Fune- 
ral Oration  for  the  Dauphin,"  which  was  greatly  admired. 
Died  in  1776. 

Guimet,  ge'mk',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  chemist, 
born  at  Voiron  in  1795,  discovered  the  art  of  making 
artificial  ultramarine  in  1826. 

Guinand,  ge'nSN',  a  Swiss  optician,  born  about  1745. 
He  discovered  the  art  of  fabricating  large  flint-glass 
discs  for  telescopes,  and  became  a  partner  or  assistant 
of  Fraunhofer.    Died  in  1824  or  1825. 

Guinet,  ge'na',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  jurist  and  legal 
writer,  born  at  Nancy  in  1604;  died  in  1681. 

Guinicelli,  goo-e-ne-chel'lee,  (Guido,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Bologna,  is  eulogized  by  Dante  in  his 
"  Purgatorio,"  canto  xxvi.    Died  in  1276. 

Guiniforte,  goo-e-ne-foR'ti,  an  Italian  scholar  and 
orator,  born  at  Pavi'a  in  1406,  was  surnamed  Barzizza 
or  Barzizzio.    Died  about  1460, 

Guinigi,  goo-e-nee'jee,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  nobleman 
of  the  Guelph  faction,  who  in  1400  made  himself  master 
of  the  city  of  Lucca.  After  a  rule  of  thirty  years,  he  was 
dispossessed  of  his  power  by  the  Duke  of  Milan,  and 
died,  after  two  years'  imprisonment,  in  1431. 

Guiot,  ge'o',  (Joseph  Andre,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Rouen  in  1739;  died  in  1807. 

Guiran,  ge'rfiN',  (Gaillard,  gt'ySR',)  a  French  jurist 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Nimes  in  1600  ;  died  in  1680. 

Guiraud,  ge'ro',  (Pierre  Marie  Th^rese  Alex- 
andre,) Baron,  a  French  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at 
Limoux  in  1788.  He  wrote  two  successful  tragedies, 
in  verse,  entitled  "  Les  Machabees,"  (1822,)  and  "Count 
Julien,"  (1822,)  and  other  works.  He  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1826.    Died  in  1847. 


S,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fSll,  f^t;  m6t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


GUIRJUDET 


1099 


GUISE 


Guiraudet,  ge'r6'di',(CHARLES  Philippe  Toussaint 
— too'sdN',)  a  French  statesman  and  writer,  born  at  Alais 
in  1754,  became  secretary -general  of  the  ministry  of 
foreign  affairs  under  the  Directory.    Died  in  1804. 

Guiscard,  g^s'ktR',  [Lat.  Guiscar'dus,]  (Robert,)  a 
celebrated  military  commander,  born  in  Normandy,  was 
one  of  the  sons  of  Tancred  de  Hauteville.  He  assisted 
his  brother  Humphrey  in  the  conquest  of  Calabria,  and 
on  his  death  (1057)  proclaimed  himself  Count  of  Apulia. 
Pope  Nicholas  II.,  who  had  previously  excommunicated 
him,  now  created  him  Duke  of  Apulia,  Calabria,  and 
Sicily.  In  1081  he  marched  against  the  Greek  emperor 
Alexius,  whom  he  defeated  at  Durazzo  in  1084.  He 
soon  after  liberated  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  who  had  been 
imprisoned  at  Saint  Angelo.    Died  in  1085. 

See  Mala-Terra,  "DeGestis  Roberti  Guiscardi,"  1578  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Gen^rale," 

Guiscardus.    See  Guiscard,  (Robert.) 

Guischard,  ge'shtR',  (Karl  Gottlieb,)  a  Prussian 
officer,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1724,  was  a  favourite  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  who  gave  him  the  name  of  Quintus 
Icilius.  He  served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  rose 
to  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  wrote,  in  French,  an  inter- 
esting work  entitled  "  Military  Memoirs  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,"  in  which  he  has  exposed  the  errors  of 
Folard.    Died  in  1775. 

Guise,  giz,  ?  (William,)  an  English  divine  and  Ori- 
entalist, born  near  Gloucester  in  1653  ;  died  in  1683. 

Guise,  de,  deh  gweez,  (or  gii-^z',)  (Antoinette  de 
Bourbon — deh  boor^b^N',)  Duchesse,  a  French  lady, 
eminent  for  her  piety  and  benevolence,  born  in  1493, 
was  the  daughter  of  Francis  de  Bourbon,  Count  of  Ven- 
dome,  and  the  wife  of  Claude  de  Lorraine,  Duke  of 
Guise.    Died  in  1583. 

See  HiLARioN  de  Coste,  "Vies  des  Dames  illustres." 

Guise,  de,  (Catherine  de  Cleves — deh  kliv,) 
Duchesse,  born  in  1547,  was  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Nevers,  and  was  married  to  Henry,  first  Duke  of  Guise, 
in  1570.  She  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  procuring  the 
submission  of  the  Guises  to  Henry  IV.    Died  in  1633. 

See  Varillas.  "Histoire  de  Henri  III." 

Guise,  de,  (Charles,)  Cardinal  de  Lorraine,  born  at 
Joinville  in  1525,  was  a  son  of  Claude,  first  Duke  of  Guise. 
He  became  Archbishop  of  Rheims  in  1538,  and  cardinal 
in  1547,  and  was  subsequently  minister  of  finance  under 
Francis  II.  and  Charles  IX.  In  1569  he  negotiated  the 
marriage  of  the  latter  with  Elizabeth  of  Austria.  He 
was  conspicuous,  even  in  that  age  of  persecution,  for  his 
intolerance  and  bitter  hostility  to  the  Protestants,  and 
was  one  of  the  chief  promoters  of  the  civil  wars  of  the 
time.  He  made  several  attempts  to  introduce  the  In- 
quisition into  France,  and  he  is  believed  to  have  approved 
of  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  although  absent 
at  the  time.  Cardinal  Lorraine  is  represented  by  Bran- 
tome  and  other  contemporary  writers  as  possessed  of 
eminent  abilities,  but  false,  cruel,  and  ambitious.  They 
admit,  however,  that  he  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning, 
and  that  he  did  a  great  deal  to  check  the  usurpations  of 
the  Papal  See.    Died  in  1574. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  BrantSme, 
"Vies  des  grands  Capitaines  ;"  "  Memoires  de  Conde,"  1743. 

Guise,  de,  (Charles  de  Lorraine,)  Due,  eldest  son 
of  Henry  of  Guise  and  Catherine  of  Cleves,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  1 571.  On  the  assassination  of  his  father, 
in  1588,  he  was  imprisoned  at  Tours.  Having  made  his 
escape  in  I59i,.he  entered  the  service  of  Henry  IV.,  and 
in  1596  besieged  and  recaptured  the  city  of  Marseilles. 
In  163 1  he  was  obliged  by  Richelieu  to  leave  the  king- 
dom.   Died  in  1640. 

Guise,  de,  deh  gweez,  [Fr.  pron.  gii-^z',]  (Claude  de 
Lorraine,)  first  Duke,  born  in  1496,  was  the  younger  son 
of  Rene  II.,  Duke  of  Lorraine.  He  became  a  citizen  of 
France,  and  married  Antoinette  de  Bourbon,  about  15 14. 
He  served  in  the  army  with  distinction  at  Marignano  and 
other  places,  and  was  created  Duke  of  Guise  by  Francis 
I.  He  died  about  1550,  leaving  many  children,  among 
whom  were  Francis,  Duke  of  Guise,  Charles,  (the  Car- 
dinal de  Lorraine,)  and  a  daughter,  Mary,  who  became 
queen  of  James  V.  of  Scotland. 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 


Guise,  de,  (Francois  de  Lorraine,)  Duke,  a  promi- 
nent leader  of  the  Catholic  party  in  France,  and  one  of 
the  greatest  commanders  of  his  time,  was  born  in  15 19. 
He  was  a  son  of  Claude,  first  Duke  of  Guise,  and  An- 
toinette de  Bourbon,  and  a  brother  of  the  cardinal,  noticed 
above.  Having  previously  gained  important  victories  at 
Landrecies  and  other  places,  he  raised  his  reputation  to 
the  highest  point  by  his  defence  of  Metz  in  1553  against 
Charles  V.,  who  was  forced  to  retire  with  the  loss  of 
30,000  men.  Soon  after  the  battle  of  Saint-Quentin,  in 
1557,  he  was  appointed  by  Henry  11.  lieutenant-general 
of  the  kingdom  and  invested  with  almost  absolute  power. 
The  capture  of  Calais  from  the  English  in  1558,  and  the 
subsequent  victories  at  Guines  and  Thionville,  justified 
the  confidence  reposed  in  him,  and  made  him  more  than 
ever  the  idol  of  the  nation.  In  conjunction  with  his 
brother  the  cardinal,  he  defeated  the  conspiracy  of  Am- 
boise,  formed  by  the  Prince  of  Conde  and  other  Prot- 
estant leaders.  He  had  a  prominent  share  in  the  victory 
at  Dreux,  where  he  took  the  Prince  of  Conde  prisoner. 
At  the  siege  of  Orleans,  soon  after,  he  was  assassinated 
by  a  Calvinist,  named  Poltrot  de  Merey,  in  1563.  He 
was  the  author  of  "Memoires,"  which  are  valuable  and 
interesting  records  of  his  time. 

See  Davila,  "History  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  France ;"  Brant6me, 
"Vies  des  grands  Capitaines;"  DuTrousset  de  Valincoi;rt,  "Vie 
de  Franfois  de  Lorraine,"  1668;  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary;"  L'Estoile,  "Journal  de  Henri  III;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  G^nerale." 

Guise,  de,  (FRANgois  Joseph  de  Lorraine,)  seventh 
and  last  Duke,  was  born  in  1670;  died  in  1675.  The 
family  of  Guise  became  extinct  in  1688. 

Guise,  de,  (Henry  I.  of  Lorraine,)  Duke,  eldest 
son  of  Francis,  Duke  of  Guise,  born  in  1550,  was  a  cousin 
of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots.  He  inherited  in  a  great  degree 
the  talents  and  accomplishments  of  his  father,  and  even 
surpassed  him  in  his  bitter  opposition  to  the  Protestants. 
When  less  than  nineteen  years  of  age,  he  defended  Poi- 
tiers against  Coligny,  and  soon  after  had  a  share  in  the 
victory  of  Moncontour,  (i  569.)  At  the  battle  of  Dormans 
he  received  a  wound  on  the  cheek,  from  which  he  was 
surnamed  Balafr^,  or  the  "  Scarred."  He  was  one  of 
the  instigators  of  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew 
in  1572,  and  was  concerned  in  the  murder  of  Coligny. 
In  1576,  Henry  of  Guise,  with  his  brother,  the  Cardinal 
de  Guise,  headed  the  faction  called  the  League,  osten- 
sibly formed  for  the  defence  of  the  Catholic  religion 
and  the  king,  but  really  designed  to  assist  the  family  of 
Guise  in  usurping  the  royal  power.  On  the  accession 
of  Henry  III.  the  Duke  of  Guise  prevailed  upon  him 
to  adopt  more  severe  measures  against  the  Protestants. 
The  king,  however,  becoming  weary  of  the  arrogance  of 
the  Guises,  forbade  the  duke  to  appear  at  court,  where- 
upon he  openly  revolted,  and  in  May,  1588,  on  the  "day 
of  the  Barricades,"  entered  Paris  with  his  troops,  dis- 
armed the  Swiss  guard,  and  obliged  the  king  to  abandon 
his  capital.  Henry  III.  soon  after  summoned  the  States- 
General  at  Blois,  where  the  Duke  of  Guise  demanded 
to  be  appointed  constable  and  lieutenant-general  of  the 
kingdom.  The  king  now,  in  conjunction  with  several 
of  his  courtiers,  resolved  to  take  the  life  of  the  duke; 
and,  as  the  latter  entered  the  king's  apartment,  he 
was  dispatched  by  the  daggers  of  the  assassins,  in  De- 
cember, 1588. 

See  L'Estoile,  "Journal  de  Henri  III;"  Brant6me,  "Viede 
I'Admiral  de  Chastillon  ;"  Enrico  Catering  Davila,  "  La  Sera  di  S. 
Bartolommeo  e  la  Morte  del  Duca  di  Guisa,"  1828 ;  I)avila,  "  His- 
tory of  the  Civil  Wars  in  France  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Guise,  de,  (Henry  II.  of  Lorraine,)  Duke,  and 
Prince  de  Joinville,  born  at  Blois  in  1614,  was  the  son  of 
Charles  IV.,  Duke  of  Guise.  He  joined  the  conspiracy 
of  the  Count  of  Soissons  against  the  French  government 
in  1 641,  and  was  condemned  to  death,  but  escaped.  In 
1647  he  went  to  the  assistance  of  the  Neapolitans,  who 
had  revolted  against  Spain.  Being  made  generalissimo 
of  their  army,  he  took  Naples,  which,  however,  was  soon 
recovered  by  the  Spaniards,  and  the  Duke  of  Guise  taken 
prisoner.  After  his  release  he  was  appointed,  in  1655, 
high  chamberlain  of  France.  He  died  in  1664,  leaving 
"Memoirs,"  which  were  published  in  1668. 

See  Tallemant  de  Reaux,  "  Historiettes ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2[^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GUISE 


I  loo 


GULDENSTADT 


Guise,  de,  (Jean  de  Lorraine,)  Cardinal,  brother 
of  Claude,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1498.  He  was 
sent  on  an  embassy  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  1536. 
He  obtained  the  archbishoprics  of  Lyons,  Rheims,  and 
Narbonne,  and  various  other  preferments,  and  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  munificence  and  extensive  charities. 
Died  in  1550. 

See  De  Thou,  "Histoire  universelle,"  vol.  1.,  1734;  Sismondi, 
"  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Guise,  de,  (Louis  L  de  Lorraine,)  Cardinal, 
brother  of  Francis  and  of  the  cardinal  Charles  de  Lor- 
raine, was  born  in  1527.  He  was  successively  appointed 
Bishop  of  Troyes  and  of  Alby,  and  Archbishop  of  Sens, 
being  made  a  cardinal  in  1553.    Died  in  1578. 

Guise,  de,  (Louis  H.  de  Lorraine,)  Cardinal,  son 
of  Francis,  Duke  of  Guise,  born  at  Dampierre  in  1555. 
He  succeeded  his  uncle  as  Archbishop  of  Rheims,  and  in 
1578  was  made  a  cardinal.  Having  been  associated  with 
his  brother  Henry  L,  Duke  of  Guise,  as  one  of  the 
chiefs  of  the  League,  he  was,  on  the  death  of  the  latter, 
imprisoned,  and  a  few  days  after  assassinated,  (1588.) 

See  L'EsTOiLE,  "Journal  de  Henri  III." 

Guise,  de,  (Louis  HL  de  Lorraine,)  Cardinal, 
son  of  Henry  L  de  Lorraine,  was  born  about  1580.  He 
obtained  numerous  benefices  in  the  Church,  and  was 
created  a  cardinal  by  Paul  V.  in  1615.    Died  in  1621. 

Guiton,  ge't6N',  (Jean,)  a  French  Huguenot,  who  was 
admiral  and  mayor  of  Rochelle  in  1627,  when  that  city 
was  besieged  by  the  royalists.  He  surrendered  in  1628. 
Died  in  1654,  aged  about  seventy  years. 

Guittone  d'Arezzo,  goo-6t-to'ni  dd-rgt'so,  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Arezzo  about  1230,  was  one  of  the  chief 
reformers  of  Italian  literature  in  that  age.  Died  in  1294. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Guizot,  gii-e'zo'  or  ge'zo',  (Elisabeth  Charlotte 
Pauline  de  Meulan — deh  muh'lSN',)  a  P^ench  au- 
thoress, born  in  Paris  in  1773,  was  left  by  the  death  of  her 
father  with  no  resources  but  her  talents.  She  produced 
in  1800  an  ingenious  and  sprightly  work  of  fiction,  en- 
titled "  The  Contradictions,"  and,  by  her  contributions  to 
Suard's  literary  journal  "Le  Publiciste,"  gained  distinc- 
tion as  a  critic  and  a  moralist.  She  was  married  to  M. 
Guizot  in  1812.  Among  her  works  are  "  Domestic  Edu- 
cation," (2  vols.,  1826,)  and  "A  Family,"  ("  Une  Famille," 
1828.)    Died  in  1827. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  of  Celebrated  Women;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Gdnerale." 

Guizot,  gwe'zo'  or  gil-e'zo',*  (Francois  Pierre  Guil- 
Laume,)  a  distinguished  French  statesman  and  historian, 
born  at  Nimes  on  the  4th  of  October,  1787,  was  a  son  of 
an  able  advocate  who  fell  a  victim  to  the  reign  of  terror  in 
1794.  Having  been  educated  as  a  Protestant  at  Geneva, 
he  went  to  Paris  in  1805,  and  published  an  edition  of 
Gibbon's  History,  in  French,  about  1810.  He  married 
Pauline  de  Meulan,  noticed  above,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  modern  history  at  the  Sorbonne  by  Fon- 
tanes,  in  1812.  He  defended  constitutional  principles  in 
a  pamphlet  "On  Representative  Government  and  the 
Present  State  of  France,"  (1816,)  became  a  leader  of 
the  party  called  Doctrinaires,  and  councillor  of  state  in 
181 7.  In  1822  he  was  suspended  from  his  functions  as 
professor,  because  his  principles  were  offensive  to  the 
ministry.  In  1828  he  founded  the  "  Revue  Frangaise," 
and  was  reinstated  in  the  chair  of  history.  He  acquired 
much  celebrity  as  a  lecturer,  and  formed  with  Cousin 
and  Villemain  a  triumvirate  of  professors.  His  lectures 
were  published  with  the  title  of  a  "  History  of  Civiliza- 
tion," (5th  edition,  5  vols.,  1845.) 

He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from 
Lisieux  in  January,  1830,  and  promoted  the  accession 
of  Louis  Philippe,  who  appointed  him  minister  of  the 
interior  on  the  ist  of  August.    His  ministry  (the  policy 

_  *  So  pronounced  by  M.  Guizot  himself,  as  stated  in  a  letter  from 
him,  now  before  us.  He  says,  "Dans  mon  pays  natal,  la  ville  de 
Nimes,  on  prononce  mon  nom  ghi-zo.  A  Paris  on  dit  en  general 
gwi-zo  ;  et  je  crois  cette  prononciation  plus  correcte."  A  near  rela- 
tive, however,  of  the  great  French  historian  and  statesman  takes  a 
different  view  of  the  question.  He  says  the  name  of  his  family  is 
always  pronounced  ghi-zo  in  the  south  of  France,  where  the  name 
originated ;  and  he  maintains,  with  great  appearance  of  reason,  that 
the  invariable  usage  of  the  people  of  Nimes  ought  to  be  decisive  as 
to  the  pronunciation  of  un  nom  Nivtois. 


of  which  was  styled  juste  milieu)  was  dissolved  in 
November,  1830.  In  October,  1832,  Guizot  became 
minister  of  public  instruction  in  the  cabinet  of  Marshal 
Soult.  While  in  this  office,  he  rendered  an  important 
service  to  the  public  by  organizing  a  system  of  primary 
schools.  He  was  compelled  to  resign  in  February,  1830, 
when  his  rival  Thiers  obtained  power  for  a  brief  term* 
He  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1836.  In 
1838  Guizot  and  Thiers  (who  had  been  superseded  by 
Count  Mole)  formed  a  coalition,  which  was  regarded  by 
many  as  discreditable  to  the  former.  He  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  London  in  February,  1840.  On  the  29th 
of  October,  1840,  he  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
and  really  prime  minister,  in  a  cabinet  of  which  Soult  was 
nominally  president.  He  maintained  himself  in  power 
until  the  revolution  of  February,  1848,  which  was  pro- 
voked partly  by  his  inflexible  resistance  to  electoral 
reform. 

He  escaped  in  disguise  to  England,  wrote  a  pamphlet 
on  "  Democracy  in  France,"  and  returned  to  his  native 
country  in  1849 ;  after  which,  it  is  said,  he  favoured  a 
fusion  between  the  two  parties  of  Legitimists  and  Or- 
leanists.  Among  his  principal  works  are  an  excellent 
"  History  of  the  Revolution  in  England,  from  the  Acces- 
sion of  Charles  L  to  that  of  Charles  II.,"  (•*  Histoire 
de  la  Revolution  d'Angleterre,"  etc.,  6  vols.,  1827-56,) 
and  "Memoirs  to  illustrate  the  History  of  my  Time," 
("Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'Histoire  de  mon  Temps,") 
of  which  four  or  more  volumes  have  appeared.  These 
have  been  translated  into  English.  He  is  generally 
considered  to  be  more  successful  as  a  historian  than  he 
was  as  a  statesman.  He  has  also  shown  himself  to  be 
an  effective  and  imposing  parliamentary  orator. 

"Among  this  band  of  great  and  honourable  men,"  says 
the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1858,  "we  think 
that  M.  Guizot  will  retain  in  history,  as  he  has  occupied 
in  life,  the  first  and  highest  place.  Other  writers,  gifted 
with  livelier  powers  of  imagination  and  appealing  more 
directly  to  the  sentiment  of  their  contemporaries,  may, 
like  Chateaubriand,  have  exercised  for  a  time  a  more 
powerful  influence  on  the  literature  of  France.  .  .  .Other 
statesmen  have  enjoyed  far  more  of  popular  sympathy 
in  their  day.  But  in  the  depth  and  variety  of  his  literary 
labours,  which  have  enlarged  the  philosophy  of  history, 
in  the  force  and  precision  of  his  oratory,  which  at  one 
swoop  could  bend  an  assembly  or  crush  a  foe,  and  in  the 
systematic  consistency  of  his  whole  political  life,  .  .  . 
M.  Guizot  has  had  no  equal,  either  in  his  own  country 
or,  as  far  as  we  know,  in  any  other."  Comparing  him 
with  Burke  and  Pitt,  the  same  critic  adds,  "In  M. 
Guizot  the  speculative  genius  of  the  one  was  united  to 
the  practical  authority  of  the  other;  and,  though  each 
of  these  great  Englishmen  may  have  possessed  his  own 
peculiar  qualification  in  a  still  higher  degree,  Guizot 
stands  before  them  both  in  the  rare  union  of  the  con- 
templative and  active  faculties." 

See  Louis  de  Lomi^nie,  "M.  Guizot,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1844;  Thomas  Descherf.s,  "Biographie  de  M.  Guizot,"  1843; 
Victor  Vernruil,  "  M.  Guizot,  par  un  Homme  du  Peuple,"  1846; 
Gatnet,  "  fitudes  critiques  sur  les  Travaux  historiques  de  M. 
Guizot,"  1851  :  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale  ;"  "  London  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  December.  1848,  January,  1854,  July,  1856,  and 
January,  1868;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1849:  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  December,  18^57;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
April,  1845;  "Fraser's  Magazine"  for  December,  1844. 

Guldberg,  go61rt"b§RG,  (Frfdertk  Hoegh,)  son  of 
the  following,  was  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1 771.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  lyric  and  elegiac  poems,  and  made 
good  metrical  translations  of  Plautus,  Tibulliis,  and 
Terence.    He  lived  many  years  at  Kiel.    Died  in  1852. 

See  Er«;i.ew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Guldberg,  (Ove  Hoegh,  o'veh  ho'5g,)  an  eminent 
Danish  historian,  statesman,  and  theologian,  born  at 
Horsen  in  1 73 1.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of 
the  World,"  (1768,)  "Determination  of  the  Dates  of  the 
Books  of  the  New  Testament,"  (1785,)  and  "Translation 
of  the  New  Testament,  with  Notes."  He  was  minister 
of  state  from  1775  to  1784.    Died  in  1808. 

See  H.  P.  GiEssiNG.  "Struensee  og  Guldberg,  etc.;  historisk 
Skildring,"  1848;  Kraft  og  Nyekup,  "  Litteraturlexicon." 

Giildeiistadt  or  Gueldenstaedt,  gUlMen-st^t',  (An- 
ton JoHANN,)  a  Russian  physician  and  naturalist,  of 


e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  ^,    j,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fSll,  fit;  m^t;  n't;  good;  moon; 


GULDIN 


I  lOI 


GU ROW  SKI 


German  extraction,  was  born  at  Riga  in  1745.  He  ac- 
companied in  1768  a  scientific  expedition  sent  out  by 
Catherine  II.  to  explore  the  different  parts  of  Russia 
and  the  Caucasus.  He  died  in  1781,  and  his  "Travels 
in  Russia  and  the  Mountains  of  the  Caucasus"  was 
published  in  1 791,  (2  vols,,  in  German.) 
See  Bernoulli,  "Reisen." 

Guldin,  go61-deen',[Lat.  Guldi'nus,]  (Paul,)  a  Swiss 
mathematician,  born  at  Saint  Gall  in  1577.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Centre  of  Gravity,"  in  which  he  is  thought 
to  have  borrowed  from  Pappus.  He  opposed  the  method 
of  indivisibles  invented  by  Cavalieri.    Died  in  1643. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "Histoire  des  Mathematiques." 

Guldinus.    See  Guldin. 

GiiFlj^,  (James  Manby,)  an  English  physician,  born 
at  Kingston,  Jamaica,  in  1808.  He  removed  about  1842 
to  Malvern,  in  England,  where  he  practised  hydropathy. 
He  published  several  medical  works. 

Gum'mer-e,  (John,)  a  mathematician,  born  at  Wil- 
low Grove,  Pennsylvania,  in  1 784,  published  a  valuable 
treatise  on  Surveying,  (1814,)  and  became  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Haverford  College  in  1833.  Died  in  1845. 

See  "Memorials  of  J.  Gummere,"  by  William  J.  Allinson, 
Burlington,  1845. 

Gundegisilus.    See  Gond^gisile. 
Gundericus.    See  Gondioc. 

Giinderode  or  Guenderode,  von,  fon  giin'deh-ro'- 
deh,  (Caroline,)  a  German  poetess,  born  at  Carlsruhe 
in  1780.  Her  works  are  distinguished  for  great  powers 
of  fancy,  but  are  frequently  tinctured  with  melancholy. 
A  disappointment  in  love  caused  her  to  commit  suicide 
in  1806.  Her  friend  Bettina  Brentano  published,  in  1840, 
"  The  Giinderode  Letters,"  consisting  of  the  correspond- 
ence which  passed  between  herself  and  Mademoiselle 
Giinderode. 

Gundicarius.    See  Gondtcatre. 

Gundling,  goont'ling,  (Nikolaus  Hteronymus,)  a 
German  jurist  and  litterateur,  born  near  Nuremberg  in 
1671.  He  became  professor  of  the  law  of  nature  and  of 
nations  at  Halle,  and  was  afterwards  made  privy  coun- 
cillor. Among  his  works  are  "  The  Way  to  Truth," 
("  Via  ad  V eritatem,"  3  vols.,  1713,)  a  collection  of  essays, 
entitled  "Gundlingiana,"  (1715-32,)  and  a  "  History  of 
Erudition,"  (5  vols.,  1734-36.)    Died  in  1729. 

See  WiDEBURG,  "Memoria  Giindlingii,"  1729;  C.  F.  Hempel, 
"  N.  H.  Gundling's  urastandliches  Leben  und  Schriften,"  1736;  Ni- 
CERON,  "Memoires;"  Rambach,  "  Leichenpredigt  auf  N.  H.  Gund- 
ling," 1729. 

Gundling,  von,  fon  gdont'ling,  (Jacob  Paul,)  Baron, 
a  German  historian  and  court  fool,  born  near  Nuremberg 
in  1673.  He  received  from  the  King  of  Prussia  the  titles 
of  baron,  privy  councillor,  councillor  of  war,  etc.  He 
amused  the  court  at  Berlin  by  his  oddities  and  vanity. 
He  wrote  a  '*  History  of  the  Emperors  Frederick  I., 
Henry  VII.,  and  Conrad  IV.,"  (4  vols.,  1715-19,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1731. 

See  A.  B.  Koenig.  "Leben  J.  P.  von  Gundlings,"  etc.,  1795. 

Gundobald.    See  Gondebaud. 

Gun'dulf,  a  Norman  ecclesiastic,  who  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Rochester  by  William  the  Conqueror.  He 
was  the  architect  of  Rochester  Castle,  and  is  said  to 
have  built  the  Tower  of  London.    Died  about  1108. 

Gundulitsch.goon'doo-litch',  (Ivan,)  a  distinguished 
poet,  born  at  Ragusa,  in  Servia,  in  1588.  He  wrote  an 
epic  poem,  entitled  "The  Osmanide,"  celebrating  the 
war  between  Osman  II.  and  the  Poles  ;  also  several 
admired  dramas.  He  was  the  earliest  dramatic  poet 
among  the  Slavonians.    Died  in  1638. 

Gunds.    See  GANfcsA. 

Guunerus,  goon-na'rus,  (John  Ernest,)  a  Norwegian 
prelate  and  naturalist,  born  at  Christiania  in  1718,  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Scientific  Society  of  Norway.  He 
was  the  author  of  a"  Flora  Norvegica,"  and  other  works, 
and  was  a  friend  of  Linnaeus,  who  gave  the  name  of  Gun- 
nera  to  a  South  American  plant.  He  was  created  Bishop 
of  Drontheim  in  1758.    Died  in  1773. 

Gun'ning,  (Peter,)  an  English  pulpit  orator,  born  in 
Kent  in  1613,  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Ely  under  Charles  II. 
He  published  several  controversial  works.  Died  in  1684. 

Gunst,  van,  vtn  giinst  or  Hunst,  (Pieter,)  a  skilful 
Dutch  engraver  of  portraits,  born  at  Amsterdam  about 


1566.  Among  his  works  are  engravings  of  portraits  after 
Van  Dyck,  dated  about  17 15  or  later. 

Gun'ter,  (Edmund,)  an  eminent  English  mathema- 
tician, born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1581.  About  1606  he 
invented  the  sector,  of  which  he  wrote  a  description  in 
Latin ;  and  in  1619  he  became  professor  of  astronomy 
at  Gresham  College.  He  also  invented  the  Logarithmic 
Rule  for  the  use  of  draughtsmen,  called  "  Gunter's 
Scale,"  the  cross-staff,  and  other  instruments,  and  the 
"  Canon  Triangulorum,"  ("  Law  of  Triangles.")  Gunter 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  discover  the  variation 
of  the  compass.    Died  in  1626. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "Histoire  des  Mathematiques." 

Giinther,  gun'ter,  (Anton,)  a  German  Catholic  theo- 
logian, born  at  Lindenau  in  1785.  He  published  "  Pre- 
paratory School  of  Speculative  Theology,"  "  The  Juste- 
Milieu  in  the  German  Philosophy  of  the  Present,"  and 
other  treatises  in  opposition  to  Hegel's  philosophy. 

Giinther,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German  poet,  born 
in  Lower  Silesia  in  1695,  wrote  poetical  epistles,  satires, 
songs,  and  odes,  which  display  uncommon  power  and 
were  eulogized  by  Goethe.  He  fell  into  dissipated  habits, 
and  died  in  extreme  poverty  in  1723. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "Lebens-  und  Reisebeschreibung,"  etc., 
1732;  M.  W.  DoRiNG,  "J.  C.  Giinther;  Beitrag  zur  Deutschen  Li- 
teratiir-Geschichte,"  1831  ;  Hoffmann  von  Fallersleben,  "J.  C. 
Giinther;  literar-historischer  Versuch,"  1832. 

Giinther  von  Schwarzburg,  gun'ter  fon  shwSRts'- 
booRG,  a  warlike  German  prince,  born  in  1304.  He  was 
elected  King  of  the  Germans  in  1343,  and  Emperor  of 
Germany  in  January,  1349.  His  title  to  the  imperial 
throne  was  disputed  by  Charles  IV.  Gunther  died  in 
June,  1349. 

See  F.  L.  Hoffmann,  "Gunther  von  Schwarzburg,"  1819;  We- 
ber, "  Kurzgefasstes  Memoire  vom  Leben  Giinther!  Bellicosi,"  1720. 

Gurlitt,  gdoR'lit,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German 
archaeologist,  born  at  Halle  in  1754,  wrote  "On  the  Sci- 
ence of  Gems,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1827. 

Gtlr'nall,  (William,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  1617. 
He  became  rector  of  Lavenham  in  1644,  and  remained 
there  thirty-five  years.  He  published  "The  Christian 
in  Complete  Armour,"  (3  vols.,  1656-62.)  Died  in  1679. 

Giir'ney,  (Hudson,)  M.P,,  an  English  antiquary  and 
poet,  born  about  1774.  He  produced  a  good  translation 
of  the  "Golden  Ass"  of  Apuleius,  entitled  "Cupid  and 
Psyche,"  (1799.)    Died  in  1864. 

Gurney,  (Rev.  John  Hampden,)  an  English  divine 
of  the  present  age.  He  published  several  volumes  of 
sermons,  (1845-57,)  and  "Historical  Sketches,  1400- 
1546,"  (1852,  second  series,  1855,  and  third  series,  1858.) 
He  died  in  1862,  aged  about  sixty  years. 

Gurney,  (Joseph  John,)  an  English  philanthropist 
and  minister  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  born  near  Nor- 
wich in  1788.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  where  he  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  attainments  in  mathematics  and  the 
ancient  languages.  In  1841,  in  company  with  his  sister, 
the  celebrated  Mrs,  Fry,  he  set  out  on  a  tour  on  the  con- 
tinent, with  the  view  of  introducing  improvements  into 
prison-discipline  and  of  inducing  the  French  govern- 
ment to  abolish  slavery  in  their  colonies.  He  was  the 
author  of  "  Notes  and  Dissertations  on  the  Bible,"  "  Ob- 
servations on  the  Distinguishing  Views,  etc.  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Friends,"  "  Hints  on  the  Portable  Evidence  of 
Christianity,"  and  other  valuable  works.  He  possessed 
great  wealth,  of  which  he  made  a  most  liberal  use,  both 
in  public  and  private  charities.  In  1837-39  he  visited 
the  United  States  and  the  West  Indies,  and  wrote  "A 
Winter  in  the  West  Indies,"  giving  an  interesting  account 
of  the  results  of  emancipation  in  those  islands.  Died 
in  1847. 

See  Bernard  Barton,  "  Memorial  of  J.  J.  Gurney,"  1847  ;  "  The 
British  Friend"  for  ist  month,  1847;  "Memoirs  of  J.J.  Gurney, 
with  Selections  from  his  Journal,"  etc. 

Gurowski,  goo-rov'skee,  (Adam,)  Count,  a  Polish 
writer  and  patriot,  born  in  the  government  of  Kalisz 
about  1810.  After  the  revolution  of  1830  he  repaired 
to  Paris,  where  he  employed  himself  for  a  time  as  a 
journalist,  and  in  1849  visited  America.  He  published, 
in  French,  "Thoughts  on  the  Future  of  Poland,"  (1841,) 
"Russia  and  Civilization,"  (1841,)  (in  German,)  and 
various  other  works.    Died  in  1866. 

See  "  Atlantic  Monthly"  for  November,  1866. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GURTLER 


I  I02 


GUST Jr  US 


Gurtler,  gooiu'ler,  (Nicholas,)  a  Swiss  Protestant 
divine,  born  at  Bale  in  1654;  died  in  1711. 
See  Nic^KON,  "Memoires." 

Gur'wood,  (John,)  a  brave  English  officer,  born  in 
1791,  served  in  the  Peninsular  war,  and  was  leader  of 
the  forlorn  hope  at  the  storming  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  in 
1812.  He  became  private  secretary  to  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington, and  in  1841  was  made  a  colonel.  He  published 
in  1838  "The  Despatches  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
during  his  Various  Campaigns,"  etc.,  (13  vols.  8vo,)  a 
very  popular  and  valuable  work.    Died  in  1845. 

Gushtasp,  gdosh-tisp',  or  Gust^sp,  goos-tSsp',  writ- 
ten also  Goshtasp,  Histasp,  and  Kishtasp,  a  famous 
Persian  hero  and  king,  who  has  been  by  some  writers 
identified  with  Darius  I.,  (surnamed  Hystaspis,)  by 
others  with  Hystaspes,  the  father  of  Darius.  There  is 
so  much  that  is  fabulous  in  the  Persian  accounts  that 
have  come  down  to  us,  that  it  seems  impossible,  in  most 
cases,  to  settle  in  any  satisfactory  manner  the  question 
of  identity  between  the  kings  of  the  Persian  writers  and 
those  of  the  Greek  historians.  Firdousee,  (Firdausi,) 
who  is  generally  believed  to  have  taken  the  facts  of  Per- 
sian history  for  the  basis  of  his  great  poem,  (the  '*  Shah 
Namah,")  represents  Gushtasp  as  having  ruled  over  Per- 
sia many  years  as  an  absolute  sovereign,  and  as  having 
under  his  command  '*  a  thousand  thousand  warriors  armed 
with  shining  steel," — which  could  not  very  well  refer  to 
Hystaspes,  who  was  but  a  satrap  or  inferior  prince  under 
Cambyses,  but  would  answer  exactly  to  the  circumstances 
of  Darius  Hystaspis.  As  "  Darius"  (in  Persian,  "  Dara" 
or  "  Darab)  was  not  originally  a  proper  name,  but  a  title, 
signifying  "lord,"  "  prince,"  or  "king,"  it  seems  prob- 
able that  he  should  have  been  generally  known  among 
the  Persians  by  his  patronymic  Hystaspes,  (in  Persian, 
Gushtasp.)  Darius  Hystaspis  would  then  signify,  accord- 
ing to  the  Greek  mode  of  speaking,  the  "  Prince  [son] 
of  Hystaspes."  According  to  Firdousee,  Gushtasp  was 
the  first  Persian  king  who  openly  professed  the  religion 
of  Zoroaster,  who  (if  we  may  trust  the  poet-historian) 
was  the  contemporary  of  Gushtasp  and  his  most  influen- 
tial counsellor.    (See  Darius  I.,  and  Hystaspes.) 

See  J.  Atkinson,  "  Abridgment  of  the  Shah  Nameh  of  Fir- 
dausi," London,  1832;  Smith,  "Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and 
Mythology." 

Gusman,  (Bartholomeu  LouRENgo.)  See  Guzman. 

Gussetius.    See  Gousset. 

Gustaf,  the  Swedish  of  Gustavus,  which  see. 

Gustafskold  or  Gustafskoeld,  goos'tifs-chold', 
originally  named  Abraham  Hellichius,  a  Swedish 
general,  born  in  1 723.  Having  rendered  a  very  important 
service  to  the  king,  Gustavus  HI.,  he  was  made  a  general 
by  him,  and  received  a  title  of  nobility,  with  the  sur- 
name of  Gustafskoeld,  ("Shield  of  Gustavus,")  Died 
in  1792. 

Gustav  or  G-ustave.    See  Gustavus. 

Gustavus,  giis-ti'vus  or  gus-ta'vus,  [Lat.  Gusta'vus  ; 
Sw.  Gustaf,  goos'tif ;  Ger.  Gustav,  goos'tSf ;  Fr.  Gus- 
tave,  gUs'ttv' ;  It.  Gustavo,  goos-t^'vo,]  I.,  commonly 
called  Gustavus  Vasa,  (or  Wasa,  vi'sa,)  King  of 
Sweden,  was  born  near  Stockholm  in  1496.  Christiern 
II.  of  Denmark,  having  usurped  the  crown  of  Sweden  in 
1519,  caused  Gustavus  to  be  imprisoned.  Within  three 
days  after  his  coronation,  Christiern  violated  his  solemn 
promise  of  protection  to  the  Swedish  nation,  and  ordered 
the  execution  of  the  heads  of  the  first  Swedish  families. 
Among  the  eighty-four  persons  who  perished  was  Eric 
Vasa,  the  father  of  Gustavus.  The  latter,  having  escaped 
from  prison,  fled  to  the  mountains  of  Dalecarlia.  After 
enduring  great  hardships,  he  at  length  succeeded  in 
attaching  to  himself  a  powerful  party,  with  which  he 
marched  towards  Stockholm.  In  1521,  atthe  head  of 
fifteen  thousand  men,  he  took  the  town  and  fortress 
of  Westerns,  and  finally  obtained  possession  of  Stock- 
holm, after  an  obstinate  defence.  The  crown  was  now 
oflered  to  Gustavus,  which  he  refused,  and  chose  rather 
to  govern  under  the  title  of  stadtholder.  But,  as  the 
nation  was  still  molested  by  the  King  of  Denmark  and 
his  allies  the  Catholic  party,  they  again  solicited  Gus- 
tavus to  become  their  sovereign  ;  and  in  June,  1527,  he 
was  crowned  King  of  Sweden.  He  died  in  1559,  after  a 
reign  of  thirty-three  years,  during  which  he  had  gained 


the  love  of  his  people  by  his  wise  and  beneficent  admin« 
istration.    He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Eric  XIV. 

See  HoT.BKRG,  "  Histoiredu  Danemarck  ;"  Geyer,  "  Histoire  de 
la  Suede ;"  Vertot,  "  Histoire  des  Revolutions  de  la  Suede ;"  Olaf 
Celsius,  "  Konung  Gustafs  I.  Historia,"  2  vols.,  1746-53;  J,  W. 
Archenhoi.z,  "Geschichte  Gustav  Wasa's  Konigs  von  Schweden," 
2  vols.,  1801,  (and  French  version  of  the  same,  Paris,  1803.) 

Gustavus  II.    See  Gustavus  Adolphus. 

Gustavus  III.,  King  of  Sweden,  eldest  son  of  Adol- 
phus Frederick,  born  in  1746,  succeeded  to  the  throne 
in  1 77 1.  Soon  after  his  accession  he  formed  the  project 
of  diminishing  the  power  of  the  nobles,  at  this  time  so 
great  as  to  be  dangerous  to  the  crown,  while  their  oppres- 
sions made  them  hated  by  the  people.  Having  by  his 
favours  secured  the  co-operation  of  the  army,  he  offered 
his  plan  for  a  new  constitution  to  all  the  military  officers 
of  the  capital,  who  received  it  with  applause.  After 
exacting  an  oath  of  obedience  from  the  soldiers,  he  next 
arrested  the  chief  members  of  the  States-General,  and 
made  a  public  declaration  of  his  project.  The  following 
day,  the  house  in  which  the  States-General  were  as- 
sembled was  surrounded  by  soldiers  and  cannon,  and 
the  king,  with  his  military  staff,  entered,  and  proposed  to 
them  the  new  constitution.  It  was  accepted,  and  con- 
firmed by  signatures.  Those  who  had  been  arrested 
were  released,  and  the  revolution  was  effected  without 
bloodshed.  In  1788,  however,  the  nobles  showed  their 
hostility  to  the  king  by  refusing  to  grant  him  supplies 
during  his  wars  with  Denmark  and  Russia.  In  1789 
Gustavus  caused  a  law  to  be  passed  which  greatly  in- 
creased the  royal  prerogatives,  and  at  the  same  time  he 
arrested  the  leaders  of  the  opposition  in  the  Diet.  About 
1792  several  Swedish  noblemen  conspired  against  the 
king's  life  ;  and  at  a  masked  ball  given  at  Stockholm 
he  was  assassinated  by  one  of  their  number,  named 
Ankarstrom,  in  March,  1792.  In  addition  to  his  talents 
as  a  statesman,  Gustavus  was  distinguished  as  a  poet 
and  a  dramatist. 

See  Geisler,  "  Leben  des  Konigs  von  Schweden,  Gustavs  III. 
Geyer,  "  Histoire  de  la  Suede  ;"  E.  L.  Posselt,  "Geschichte  Gus- 
tav's  III.  Konigs  der  Schweden,"  1792;  F.  Beccatini,  "  Storia  del 
Regno  e  della  Vita  di  Gustavo  III.,"  4  vols.,  1792. 

Gustavus  IV.,  born  in  1778,  succeeded  his  father, 
Gustavus  III.,  in  1792.  From  his  childhood  he  had 
manifested  a  singular  obstinacy  of  disposition,  which  in 
after-life  resembled  monomania.  A  zealous  advocate  of 
the  divine  right  of  kings,  he  made  it  the  principal  object 
of  his  life  to  restore  the  Bourbon  family  to  the  throne 
of  France.  He  travelled  through  Germany  in  1803  in 
order  to  unite  the  princes  of  the  Empire  against  Napo- 
leon I.  He  would  have  no  intercourse  with  the  nations 
of  Europe  who  were  in  the  least  degree  friendly  to  the 
French  emperor.  By  these  follies  he  alienated  the  affec- 
tions of  his  people  and  brought  them  into  innumerable 
difficulties.  The  Swedes,  in  order  to  rescue  their  coun- 
try from  the  ruin  which  his  conduct  was  likely  to  bring 
upon  it,  formed  a  plan  for  deposing  him.  Gustavus, 
suspecting  their  designs,  attempted  to  obtain  possession 
of  the  money  in  the  Bank  of  Sweden,  but  was  prevented 
by  force,  and  soon  after  imprisoned  as  a  traitor,  (1809.) 
The  king  and  his  direct  descendants  were  declared  by 
the  Diet  to  have  forfeited  their  right  to  the  crown,  and 
his  uncle,  Duke  Charles,  was  proclaimed  king,  under  the 
title  of  Charles  XII [.  The  deposed  king,  after  travel- 
ling over  Europe,  fixed  his  residence  in  the  town  of 
Saint  Gall,  in  Switzerland,  where  he  assumed  the  name 
of  Colonel  Gustavson,  and  supported  himself  by  his 
writings,  together  with  a  small  pension.  His  son  Gus- 
tavus obtained  the  title  of  Prince  of  Wasa.  Died  in  1837. 

See  Le  Bas,  "Suede  et  Norvege;"  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  December,  1812. 

Gus-ta'vus  A-dol'phus,  [Fr.  Gustave  Adolphe, 
giis'ttv' t^dolf  ;  Ger.  Gustaf  Adolf,  goos'taf  S'dolf; 
It.  Gustavo  Adolfo,  goos-t^'vo  ^-doKfo,]  or  Gusta- 
vus II.,  King  of  Sweden,  the  most  illustrious  hero  of  his 
time,  born  at  Stockholm  on  the  9th  of  December,  1594, 
was  the  son  of  Charles  IX.,  and  grandson  of  Gustavus 
Vasa.  He  ascended  the  throne  in  his  seventeenth  year, 
and  soon  gave  proof  of  his  extraordinary  abilities.  Sweden 
having  been  invaded  by  Sigismund,  King  of  Poland,  and 
his  ally  the  Czar  of  Russia,  Gustavus  defeated  them,  and 
in  1629  concluded  a  peace  by  which  he  gained  a  great  part 
of  Livonia  and  the  town  of  Riga.  Soon  after  this  he  was 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged:  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short:  ?i,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fJr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


GUSTJrUS 


1 103 


GUTZKOfF 


invited  by  the  Protestants  of  Germany,  suffering  under 
the  persecutions  of  Ferdinand  II.,  to  be  the  champion 
of  their  cause.  Their  solicitations,  combined  with  the 
interest  which  he  as  a  zealous  Protestant  felt  in  the  suc- 
cess of  their  arms,  induced  him  to  comply.  Before  setting 
out,  he  published  a  declaration  to  the  effect  that  he  did 
not  take  this  step  from  the  love  of  conquest,  but  for  the 
defence  of  his  religion  and  to  avenge  the  injuries  he  had 
received  from  the  Emperor  of  Austria.  In  June,  1630, 
Gustavus  landed  in  Pomerania,  at  the  head  of  8000  men. 
His  army  was  soon  after  reinforced  by  six  Scottish  regi- 
ments under  the  Duke  of  Hamilton,  and  took  the  fortress 
of  Wolgast,  w^hich  supplied  them  with  arms  and  ammu- 
nition. Having  advanced  into  Mecklenburg,  Gustavus 
received  proposals  of  peace  from  the  emperor,  offering 
him,  among  other  things,  the  possession  of  Pomerania. 
These  proposals  were  rejected,  and  Gustavus,  with  his 
army  increased  by  large  numbers  of  German  Protestants, 
continued  his  march  through  Pomerania  and  Mecklen- 
burg, taking  one  town  and  fortress  after  another  in  rapid 
succession.  He  was  soon  after  opposed  by  Field-Marshal 
Tilly,  whom,  after  several  indecisive  engagements,  he  sig- 
nally defeated  at  Leipsic  in  September,  163 1.  In  a  second 
encounter  with  Tilly,  on  the  banks  of  the  Lech,  in  April, 
1632,  that  general  lost  his  life.  Ferdinand,  now  becoming 
alarmed  at  the  victories  of  Gustavus,  summoned  Wallen- 
stein,  whom  he  had  shortly  before  dismissed,  to  oppose 
him.  On  the  i6th  of  November,  1632,  these  commanders, 
the  most  eminent  of  their  time,  and  both  hitherto  uncon- 
quered,  met  on  the  plain  of  Liitzen.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  action  Gustavus  was  mortally  wounded  ;  and  the 
Swedes,  exasperated  in  the  highest  degree  by  the  loss  of 
their  king,  whom  they  idolized,  fought  with  irresistible 
fury,  and  compelled  the  enemy  to  retreat.  The  Duke  of 
Saxe-Lauenburg,  a  cousin  of  Gustavus,  who  was  near  him 
when  he  fell,  and  who  soon  afterwards  entered  the  service 
of  Austria,  was  strongly  suspected  of  having  assassinated 
him.  The  military  talents  of  Gustavus  were  of  the  high- 
est order  ;  but  they  were  surpassed  by  his  admiraljle 
qualities  as  a  man  and  his  virtues  as  a  ruler.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  daughter  and  only  child,  Christina. 
"Gustavus  was,"  says  Schiller,  "  incontestably  the  first 
commander  of  his  century,  and  the  bravest  soldier  in  the 
army  which  he  had  created.  His  eye  watched  over  the 
morals  of  his  soldiers  as  strictly  as  over  their  bravery. 
In  everything  their  law-giver  was  also  their  example. 
In  the  intoxication  of  his  fortune  he  was  still  a  man  and 
a  Christian,  and  in  his  devotion  still  a  hero  and  a  king." 

See  ScHTLLER,  "History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War;"  R.  de 
Prade,  "  Histoire  de  Gustave  Adolphe  dit  le  Grand,"  16S6  ;  Geyer, 
*'  Histoire  de  la  Suede  ;"  Walter  Harte,  "  History  of  the  Life  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus,"  2  vols.,  1759  ;  N.  Vogt,  "  Gustav  Adolpli  Kbnig 
von  Schweden,"  2  vols.,  1790;  Jonas  Hai,i.enberg,  "  Svea  Rikes 
Historia  under  Konung  Gustaf  Adolfs  Regering,"  5  vols.,  1790-96; 
Axel  Oxenstierna,  "  Histoire  de  ia  Jeunesse  de  Gustave  Adolph  ;" 
Anders  Frvxell,  "Gustaf  II.  Adolph,"  1833;  J.  F.  Hollings, 
"  Life  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,"  1838  ;  Gfrorer,  "  Geschichte  Gustav 
Adolph's,"  2  vols.,  1837  ;  "Gustav  Adolf,"  von  C.  Drovsen,  1869. 

Gustavus  Eriksson.    See  Gustavus  I. 

Gustavus  Vasa,  (or  Wasa.)    See  Gustavus  I. 

Gutberleth,  goot'ber-lgt',  (Heinrich,)  a  German 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Deventer,  born  at  Hirschfeld 
in  1592,  wrote  a  treatise  (in  Latin)  "  On  Human  Affections 
Physically  and  Morally  considered."    Died  in  1635. 

Gutberleth,  gCit'ber-lgt',  (Tobias,)  a  Dutch  antiquary, 
born  in  Friesland  about  1674,  was  the  author  of  a  treat- 
ise "  On  the  Mysteries  of  the  Cabiri  Gods,"  (in  Latin,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1703. 

Gutch,  (John,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  1745, 
was  registrar  of  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  published 
"The  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford, from  the  Manuscripts  of  Anthony  Wood,  with  a 
Continuation,"  (1786.)    Died  in  1831. 

Gutch,  (John  Matthew,)  an  English  antiquary,  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  about  1777,  wrote  "A  Lytell 
Geste  of  Robin  Hode,"  (2  vols.,  1847.)    Died  in  1858. 

Gutenberg,  goo'ten-bgRo',  (Johann  or  Henne,)  the 
niventor  of  printing,  was  born  at  Mentz,  in  Germany, 
about  1400.  His  original  name  was  Gansfleisch,  (g^nss''- 
flish  ;)  but  he  afterwards  assumed  his  mother's  family 
name  of  Gutenberg.  In  1450  he  entered  into  partner- 
ship with  John  Faust,  a  citizen  of  Mentz,  in  conjunction 
with  whom  he  printed  a  vocabulary,  called  a  "  Catholi- 


con,"  by  means  of  letters  cut  on  blocks  of  wood.  Types 
of  copper  or  tin  were  soon  after  substituted  for  wood ; 
and  with  these  a  Latin  Bible  was  printed,  with  great 
difficulty  and  expense.  In  1455,  owing  to  some  dis- 
agreement in  pecuniary  matters,  Gutenberg  and  Faust 
separated,  after  having  had  a  law-suit.  The  former, 
being  unable  to  pay  the  sum  awarded  to  Faust  by 
the  judge,  was  obliged  to  give  up  to  him  his  printing- 
materials  and  his  invention.  Gutenberg  subsequently 
practised  his  art  at  Mentz.  He  was  appointed  by  the 
archbishop  elector  of  that  city  and  one  of  the  nobles  of 
his  court,  and  obtained  other  preferments.  A  bronze 
monument,  by  Thorwaldsen,  was  erected  to  his  memory 
at  Mentz  in  1837.    Died  in  1468. 

See  DuPONT,  "Histoire  de  I'lmprimerie ;"  Falkenstein,  "Ge- 
schichte der  Buchdruckerkunst,"  1840;  Ottley,  "Inquiry  into  the 
Origin,  etc.  of  Engraving  on  Copper  and  Wood,"  1816  ;  Meermann, 
"  Origines  Typographicae,"  1765;  Sothebv,  "The  Typography  of 
the  Fifteenth  Century,"  1845  :  Alphonse  de  Lamartine,  "  Guten- 
berg, Inventeur  de  I'lmprimerie,"  1853;  Charles  Schmidt,  "  Nou- 
veaux  Details  sur  la  Vie  de  Gutenberg,"  1841 ;  Domenico  Taccio, 
"  Notizie  storico-critico-tipografico-bibHografiche  di  Gutenberg,"  etc.. 
1844;  "Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Characters,"  by  Lamartine,  1856. 

Gutenberg  or  Guttemberg,  goot'tem-b^RC',  (Karl 
Gottlieb,)  a  German  engraver,  born  near  Nuremberg 
about  1742.  He  worked  in  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1792. 
Among  his  works  were  engravings  after  Rembrandt  and 
Mieris. 

Gutherius.    See  GouTHiiiRES. 
Guthier.    See  GouTHifeRES. 

Guth'rie,  (George  James,)  an  English  surgeon,  born 
in  London  in  1785.  He  lectured  on  surgery  in  London 
for  many  years,  and  wrote  several  professional  works. 
Died  in  1856. 

Guth'rie,  (James,)  an  American  statesman  and  jurist, 
born  in  Nelson  county,  Kentucky,  in  1793.  He  began 
to  practise  law  at  Louisville  about  1820,  and  was  for 
several  years  a  member  of  the  State  legislature  for  thai 
city.  In  1850  he  was  president  of  the  convention  which 
framed  the  new  constitution  of  Kentucky.  He  was 
appointed  by  President  Pierce  secretary  of  the  United 
States  treasury  in  1853,  and  was  elected  to  the  Senate 
of  the  United  States  in  1865.    Died  in  1869. 

See  Livingston's  "Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans." 

Glith'rie,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  divine,  born  at 
Brechin  about  1800.  He  became  an  eloquent  preacher, 
and  minister  of  Free  Saint  John's,  Edinburgh,  in  1840. 
As  an  associate  of  Dr.  Chalmers,  he  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  institution  of  the  Free  Church  in  1843.  He 
published  "The  Gospel  in  Ezekiel."  He  was  the  chief 
founder  of  the  original  Ragged  or  Industrial  School  of 
Edinburgh. 

Guthrie,  (William,)  a  Scottish  litterateur,  born  in 
the  county  of  Angus  about  1708.  He  published  a 
"General  History  of  England  from  the  Invasion  of  the 
Romans  under  Julius  Caesar  to  the  Revolution  of  1688," 
a  "  History  of  the  English  Peerage,"  a  "  History  of  Scot- 
land," and  other  compilations.    Died  in  1770. 

See  Disraeli,  "Calamities  of  Authors;"  Chambers,  "Biogra- 
phical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Guth'ry  or  Guthrie,  (Henry,)  a  Scottish  divine, 
was  one  of  the  adherents  of  Charles  I.  in  his  contest 
with  the  Parliament.  He  became  Bishop  of  Dunkeld  in 
1665.  He  died  in  1676,  leaving  a  "  History  of  his  Own 
Time,"  published  in  1748. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Gutierrez,  goo-te-gr'r^th,  or  Gutierres,  goo-te-gr'- 
r^s,  (Antonio  Garcia — gaR-//zee'S,)  a  popular  Spanish 
dramatist,  born  near  |^diz  about  1814.  He  produced 
about  1834  "El  Trovacfor,"  a  drama.  Among  his  works 
are  "El  Page,"  and  "Magdalena." 

Gutsmuths,  goots'moots,  (Johann  Christoph 
Friedrich,)  a  German  teacher  and  educational  writer, 
born  at  Quedlinburg  in  1759.  He  published  "Plays 
for  the  Exercise  and  Recreation  of  Body  and  Mind," 
(1796,)  and  other  similar  treatises.    Died  in  1839. 

Gutzkow,  goots'ko,  (Karl  Ferdinand,)  a  popular 
German  novelist  and  dramatist,  born  in  Berlin  in  1811. 
He  became  about  1830  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  school 
called  "Young  Germany."  He  published,  besides  many 
other  works,  successful  tragedies  entitled  "  Patkul" 
(1841)  and  "Uriel  Acosta,"  (1847,)  a  comedy  called 
"  Das  Urbild  des  Tartuffe,"  a  collection  of  critical  essays 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  gdiS j;  G,  H,  v., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


GUTZLAFF 


1 104 


GUrSE 


entitled  "Gods,  Heroes,  and  Don  Quixote,"  (1838,)  and 
"Die  Rittei"  vom  Geist,"  a  political  and  social  romance, 
(1850-52,)  which  was  very  popular.  He  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Dresden  in  1847. 

See  Heinrich  Hoff,  "  G.  Gutzkow  und  die  Giitzkowgraphie," 
1839;  "Noiivelle  Biographic  Geiierale." 

Giitzlaff,  giits'laf  or  guts'lSf,  (Karl,)  a  celebrated 
German  missionary  and  Chinese  scholar,  born  at  Pyritz, 
in  Pomerania,  in  1803.  He  repaired  to  Siam  in  1828, 
and,  in  conjunction  with  Tomlin,  translated  the  New 
Testament  into  Siamese.  With  a  view  of  introducing 
the  gospel  into  China,  he  settled  at  Macao,  where  he 
formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  Dr.  Morrison,  after 
whose  death  Giitzlaff  became,  in  1835,  first  interpreter 
for  the  superintendence  of  British  commerce.  He  visited 
England  in  1849,  died  at  Hong-Kong,  shortly  after 
his  return,  in  1851.  Among  his  various  works  (which 
are  mostly  written  in  English)  we  may  name  his  "China 
Opened,"  (1838,)  and  "History  of  the  Chinese  Empire." 
He  also  had  a  share  in  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible 
into  Chinese. 

Guy.    See  Gui  and  Guido. 

Guy,  gi,  (Thomas,)  the  founder  of  Guy's  Hospital, 
London,  was  born  in  that  city  in  1643.  Having  acquired 
a  large  fortune,  principally  by  the  sale  of  South  Sea 
stock,  he  built  additions  to  Saint  Thomas's  Hospital  in 
South wark  in  1707,  and  subsequently  founded  the  hos- 
pital near  Saint  Thomas's  which  bears  his  name.  He 
is  said  to  have  made  more  munificent  donations  for 
charitable  purposes  than  any  other  private  man  in  the 
kingdom.    Died  in  1724. 

Guy,  gl  or  ge,  (or  Guido,  gwee'do)  de  Lusignan, 
(deh  lli'sen'ySN',)  King  of  Jerusalem,  was  of  French 
origin.  He  married  Sibylla,  daughter  of  Amaury,  King 
of  Jerusalem.  In  1186,  Baldwin  V.,  the  son  of  Sibylla  by 
a  former  husband,  the  Marquis  of  Montferrat,  became 
heir  to  the  throne,  but  died  in  the  same  year.  Guy  de 
Lusignan  then  obtained  the  title  of  king.  His  capital 
was  taken  by  Saladin  in  1 187,  and  his  title  was  disputed 
by  Isabella,  a  sister  of  Sibylla.  Guy  applied  for  aid  to 
Richard  I.  of  England,  who  gave  him  the  kingdom  of 
Cyprus  (1 192)  on  condition  that  he  would  renounce  his 
claim  to  Jerusalem.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
Amaury  about  1194. 

See  MiCHAUD,  "  History  of  the  Crusades." 

Guyard,  ge'tR',  (Bernard,)  a  French  friar,  born  at 
Craon  in  1601,  had  the  title  of  preacher  ( predicateur )  to 
the  king,  and  wrote  several  works.    Died  in  1674. 

Guyard,  (Laurent,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  at  Chau- 
mont-en-Bassigni  in  1723,  was  a  pupil  of  Bouchardon 
the  Younger.    Died  in  1788. 

See  J.  B.  Varnev,  "  Notice  sur  L.  Guyard,"  1806. 

Guyard  de  Berville,  ge'tR'  deh  hlv/vhY,  a  French 
biographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1697.  He  wrote  a  "  Life 
of  Chevalier  Bayard,"  (1760,)  and  a  "Life  of  Bertrand 
Du  Guesclin,"  (1767.)    Died  in  a  hospital  in  1770. 

Guyet,  ge^a',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  scholar,  born  at 
Angers  in  1575.  He  wrote  annotations  on  various  Greek 
and  Latin  classics,  and  some  Latin  poems.  He  was  a 
friend  of  De  Thou,  Menage,  and  Balzac.   Died  in  1655. 

Guyetand,  ge'i'tSN',  (Claude  Marie,)  a  French 
poet  and  satirist,  born  in  1748,  wrote  "Genius  Avenged," 
and  other  poems.    Died  in  181 1. 

Guyon,  ge'oN',  (Claude  Marie,)  a  French  historian, 
born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1699.  He  published  a  con- 
tinuation of  Echard's  "Roman  History,"  (10  vols.,  1736,) 
a  "  History  of  the  Amazons,  Jjlicient  and  Modern," 
(1740,)  a  "History  of  the  Indies,"  (3  vols.,  ^44,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1771. 

See  Desessarts,  "  Les  Si^cles  litteraires  de  la  France." 

Guyon,  gT'on,  [Fr.  pron.  ge'(')N^]  (Jeanne  Bouvier 
de  la  Motte — boo've-a'  deh  It  mot,)  Madame,  a  French 
lady,  celebrated  for  heTtalents  and  piety,  born  at  Mon- 
targis  in  1648.  In  her  sixteenth  year,  in  compliance  with 
her  parents'  wishes,  she  married  M.  Guyon,  whom  she 
had  never  seen  till  a  few  days  previous.  On  becoming 
a  widow,  in  1676,  she  devoted  herself  to  the  service  of 
the  Church,  and  a  few  years  later  retired  to  a  religious 
establishment  at  Gex.  She  soon  after  wrote  "The  Song 
of  Songs  of  Solomon,  interpreted  according  to  the  Mystic 


Sense,"  and  a  "  Short  and  Easy  Method  of  Prayer,"  two 
very  popular  works,  which,  however,  gave  offence  to  some 
of  the  clergy.  In  consequence  of  their  persecutions, 
she  was  imprisoned  nearly  eight  months.  On  her  re- 
lease she  became  intimately  acquainted  with  Fenelon, 
who  had  considerable  sympathy  with  her  peculiar  reli- 
gious views  and  continued  to  be  one  of  her  truest  friends. 
About  this  time  she  ])ut  her  writings  into  the  hands  of 
Bossuet,  Bishop  of  Meaux,  who  expurgated  them  from 
what  he  regarded  as  the  heresy  of  Quietism.  Notwith- 
standing the  submission  of  Madame  Guyon  to  the  cen- 
sure of  Bossuet,  she  was  involved  in  the  persecutions  of 
Fenelon,  and  about  1695  ^^'^^  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille. 
On  her  release,  in  1700,  she  devoted  herself  to  writing; 
and  her  works,  it  is  said,  form  39  octavo  volumes.  Her 
Autobiography  has  been  translated  by  Cowper,  who  had 
a  great  esteem  for  her  character  and  her  writings. 

See  Upham,  "Life  of  Madame  Guyon,"  1851  ;  De  Bausset, 
"Histoire  de  Fenelon;"  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;" 
Phelipeaux,  "  Lettres  sur  I'Histoire  du  Quietisine;"  Hodgson, 
"  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Guyon,  gi'on,  (Richard  Debaufre,)  a  distinguished 
general,  born  near  Bath,  in  England,  in  1813.  He  entered 
the  Austrian  service  in  1832,  and  rose  in  a  few  years  to 
be  aide-de-camp  of  the  Hungarian  field-marshal  Si)lenyi, 
whose  daughter  he  married.  He  fought  with  great  dis- 
tinction against  the  Austrians  in  the  principal  battles  of 
the  revolution  of  1848,  and  was  created  a  general.  Aftt.' 
Gorgey's  surrender,  (August,  1849,)  Guyon  escaped  with 
Kossuth  to  Turkey,  where  he  obtained  a  high  command 
in  the  Sultan's  army.  He  organized  the  army  which  de- 
fended Kars,  (1854.)    Died  at  Constantinople  in  1856. 

See  A.  Kinglake,  "Gen.  Guyon  on  the  Battle-Fields  of  Hungary." 

Guyot.    See  Desfontaines,  Abb^:. 

Guyot,  geV,  (Arnold  Henry,)  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  a 

meritorious  writer  on  physical  geography,  was  born  near 
Neufchatel,  in  Switzerland,  in  1807.  He  was  a  fellow- 
student  and  friend  of  Agassiz,  graduated  at  Berlin  in  1835, 
and  spent  several  years  in  the  study  of  glaciers,  in  which 
he  made  important  discoveries.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1848,  and  in  the  ensuing  winter  delivered  in  Bos- 
ton a  course  of  lectures  on  physical  geography,  which  were 
published  under  the  title  of  "  The  Earth  and  Man,"  (1849.) 
He  is  author  of  a  series  of  text-books  on  geography.  He 
has  been  for  some  years  professor  of  geology  and  physical 
geography  at  Princeton  College,  New  Jersey. 

Guyot,  geV,  (Claude  Etienne,)  a  French  general, 
born  near  Lons-le-Saulnier  in  1768,  served  as  general  of 
division  in  Russia  in  1812.    Died  in  1837. 

Guyot,  (GeRxMAin  Antoine,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1694;  died  in  1750. 

Guyot,  (Joseph  Nicolas,)  a  French  jurist,  born  in 
Lorraine  in  1728,  published,  besides  other  works,  a  useful 
compilation  called  a  "Universal  and  Descriptive  Cra/- 
somte)  Repertory  of  Civil,  Criminal,  and  Canonical  Juris- 
prudence," (64  vols.,  1775-86.)    Died  in  1816. 

Guyot  de  Fere,  ge'o''  deh  faiR,  (Franqois  Fortune,) 
a  French  journalist  and  litt:ratetir,  born  in  Paris  in  1791. 
In  1826  he  founded  the  "Journal  of  Arts  and  Trades," 
("Journal  des  Arts  et  Metiers.")  He  published,  among 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  Prince  Eugene  Beauharnais," 
(1821.) 

Guyot  de  Folleville.    See  Folleville. 

Guyot  des  Herbiers,  ge'o'  di  z^R'be-i',  (Claude 
Antoine,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Joinvilleln  1745  ;  died 
in  1828. 

Guys,  ge,  (Pierre  Alphonse,)  a  French  litterateur, 
son  of  Pierre  Augustin,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Mar- 
seilles in  1755.  He  was  the  author  of  a  comedy  entitled 
"The  House  of  Moliere,"  a  "Eulogy  on  Antoninus 
Pius,"  and  several  other  works.    Died  in  1812. 

Guys,  (Pierre  Augustin,)  a  French  merchant  and 
traveller,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1721,  visited  Asia  and 
Greece,  and  published  in  1776  a  "  Literary  Journey  in 
Greece,"  which  was  eulogized  by  Voltaire  in  some  verses. 
Died  in  1799. 

Guyse.    See  Guise. 

Guyse,  glz,  ?  (John,)  an  eminent  English  Calvinist 
and  Independent  minister,  born  at  Hertford  in  1680.  He 
preached  for  some  years  in  London.  His  principal  work, 
"  An  Exposition  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  Form 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mlv,  not;  good;  moon; 


GUTTON 


1 105 


GTLLEMBOURG 


of  a  Paraphrase,"  (3  vols.,  1739-42,)  has  been  often  re- 
printed.   Died  in  1761. 

Guyton  de  Morveau,  ge'toN'  deh  moR'vo',  (Louis 
Bernard,)  an  eminent  French  chemist,  born  at  Dijon 
in  January,  1737,  was  educated  for  the  law,  and  in  1755 
became  advocate-general  in  Parliament.  Without  relin- 
quishing the  law,  he  pursued  the  study  of  chemistry  with 
success,  and  in  1772  published  a  work  on  the  subject, 
entitled  "Academic  Digressions."  In  1773  he  made  the 
important  discovery  of  the  power  of  certain  fumigations 
against  infectious  effluvia,  and  checked  a  fatal  disease  at 
Dijon  by  chlorine  gas.  In  1782  he  proposed  a  methodi- 
cal nomenclature  for  chemistry,  and  afterwards  united 
with  Lavoisier  in  forming  that  system  of  nomenclature 
which  has  since  been  generally  adopted  with  such  exten- 
sive utility.  He  displayed  great  erudition  and  judgment 
in  his  "Chemical  Dictionary"  for  the  " Encyclopedie 
Methodique,"  (1786.)  As  a  member  of  the  Convention 
in  1792,  he  participated  in  the  excesses  of  the  popular 
party.  About  1795  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
establishment  of  the  Polytechnic  School,  in  which  he 
occupied  a  chair  for  eleven  years.  He  contributed  manv 
articles  to  the  Institute,  of  which  he  was  a  member,  and 
to  the  "Annales  de  Chimie,"  of  which  he  was  editor. 
He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  During 
the  empire  of  Napoleon  he  received  the  title  of  baron, 
and  was  an  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour.    Died  in  1816. 

See  Berthollet,  "filoge  historique  de  Guyton  de  Morveau;" 
HoEFER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie;"  "  Encyclopsdia  Biitannica;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Guzman,  gooth-min',  (Alejandro,)  a  Spanish  poli- 
tician, born  in  Granada  in  1752,  entered  the  republican 
army  soon  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution, and  became  one  of  the  most  violent  members  of 
the  Jacobin  faction.    He  was  guillotined  in  Paris  in  1 794. 

Guzman,  de,  da  gooth-min',  (Alfonso  Perez,)  sur- 
named  the  Good,  a  celebrated  Spanish  commander, 
born  at  Valladolid  in  1258.  Having  been  appointed  by 
King  Sancho  IV.  governor  of  Tarifa,  he  defended  that 
fortress  against  the  Infant  Don  Juan,  brother  of  the 
king.  Don  Juan,  having  failed  in  his  efforts  to  take  the 
place,  threatened  to  put  to  death  a  son  of  Guzman  who 
had  fallen  into  his  hands,  if  the  fortress  was  not  instantly 
surrendered.  To  this  menace  Guzman  re])lied  "  that, 
sooner  than  be  guilty  of  such  infamous  treachery,  he 
would  lend  him  a  poniard  to  kill  his  son,"  at  the  same 
time  throwing  his  dagger  from  the  ramparts.  The  atro- 
cious threat  was  executed  ;  and  the  wife  of  Guzman  died 
soon  after,  of  grief.  This  incident  has  been  celebrated 
in  one  of  Lope  de  Vega's  dramas.  Guzman  afterwards 
distinguished  himself  in  several  engagements  with  the 
Moors,  and  fell  in  battle  in  1309.  He  was  the  ancestor 
of  the  Dukes  of  Medina-Sidonia. 

See  QuiNTANA,  "  Lives  of  Celebrated  Spaniards." 

Guzman  or  Guzmao,  de,  di  goos-mowN',  (Bar- 
tholomeu  LouRENgo,)  a  Portuguese  mechanician  and 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Santos  about  1680,  is  called  the 
original  inventor  of  the  balloon.  He  made  the  first 
experiment  with  his  machine  near  Lisbon  in  1709;  but 
he  was  deterred  from  prosecuting  his  labours  by  the  fear 
of  the  Inquisition.    Died  about  1725. 

See  "Encyclopaedia  Americana,"  edited  by  Francis  Lieber  ; 
"Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

Guzman,  de,  (Enrique,)  Duke  of  Medina-Sidonia,  a 
Spanish  grandee,  acted  a  prominent  part  in  the  conquest 
of  Granada.    Died  in  1492. 

Guzman,  de,  (Don  Fernando  Perez,)  a  Spanish 
poet  and  chronicler,  born  in  1405,  left  a  "Chronicle  of 
John  II.  of  Castile."    Died  in  1470. 

Guzman,  de,  (Donna  Luisa,)  a  daughter  of  Juan 
Perez,  Duke  of  Medina-Sidonia,  became  the  queen  of 
John  of  Braganza,  King  of  Portugal.  On  his  death,  in 
1656,  she  was  appointed  regent,  and  distinguished  her- 
self by  the  wisdom  and  firmness  of  her  administration. 
Having  concluded  a  treaty  with  Charles  I.  of  England, 
she  gave  her  daughter  in  marriage  to  his  son,  afterwards 
Charles  II.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  her  son,  Al- 
fonso VI.,  she  retired  to  a  convent,  where  she  died  in 
i660.  Under  her  rule  the  independence  of  Portugal 
was  secured. 

Guzman,  de,  (Olivarez.)    See  Olivarez. 


Guzman,  de,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  painter,  surnamed 
EL  Coxo,  ("the  Lame,")  born  about  1557,  was  patronized 
by  Philip  III.,  who  made  him  his  painter  in  1601. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Gwilt,  (George,)  an  English  architect  and  antiquary, 
was  born  in  London  in  1775.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  the  warehouses  of  the  West  India  Docks. 
Being  employed  in  repairing  Bow  Church  in  1820,  he 
identified  the  Norman  remains  of  the  original  building, 
which  he  described  in  a  treatise  entitled  "Observations 
on  the  Church  of  Saint  Mary-le-Bow,"  etc.  He  also 
restored  the  church  of  Saint  Mary  Overy,  and  other 
edifices  in  London.    Died  in  1856. 

Gwilt,  (Joseph,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1784,  was  distinguished  as  a  writer  on  architecture. 
He  designed  Markree  Castle,  near  Sligo.  Among  his 
works  are  "  Rudiments  of  Architecture,  Practical  and 
Theoretical,"  (1826,)  and  an  "Encyclopaedia  of  Archi- 
tecture, Historical,  Theoretical,  and  Practical,"  (1842,) 
which  is  commended  as  a  standard  work. 

Gwilym,  gwiKim,  (David  ap,)  a  Welsh  bard,  born  in 
Cardiganshire  in  1340 ;  died  about  1400.  His  poems,  in 
W^elsh,  were  published  in  1792. 

Gwiu,  (William  M.,)  a  Democratic  politician,  born 
in  Sumner  county,  Tennessee,  in  1805.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  for  California  in  1850, 
and  was  re-elected  in  1857.  He  acted  with  the  pro-slavery 
party. 

Gwinn,  (William,)  an  American  naval  officer,  born 
at  Columbus,  Indiana,  in  1831.  He  became  a  lieutenant 
in  1856,  and  commanded  a  gunboat  at  the  battles  of 
Fort  Donelson  and  Shiloh,  February  and  April,  1S62. 
He  was  killed  in  the  attack  on  Haines'  Bluff,  near  Vicks- 
burg,  in  January,  1863. 

Gwinne,  gw!n,  (Matthew,)  an  English  physician, 
born  in  London  about  1554,  was  appointed  in  1582  regent 
of  Saint  John's  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1596  first  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  in  Gresham  College.  He  was  also 
a  Fellow  of  the  College  of  Physicians.    Died  in  1627. 

See  Ward's  "Lives  of  the  Gresham  Professors." 

Gwin-nett',  (Button,)  born  in  England  about  1732, 
emigrated  to  Georgia  about  1772.  In  1776  he  was 
elected  to  Congress,  in  which  he  signed  the  Declaration 
of  Independence.  He  became  president  of  the  provin- 
cial council  of  Georgia  in  1777,  and  was  killed  in  a  duel 
by  General  Mcintosh  in  May  of  that  year. 

See  Goodrich's  "Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of 
Independence." 

Gwynn  or  Gwynne,  gwin,  (Eleanor,)  an  English 
actress  and  celebrated  beauty,  was  born  in  London 
about  1650.  After  she  had  achieved  success  as  an  actress, 
she  became  a  mistress  of  Charles  II.    Died  about  1690. 

See  P.  Cunningham,  "The  Story  of  Nell  Gwynn,"  1852;  W.  H. 
D.  Adams,  "Famous  Beauties  and  Historic  Women,"  vol.  i.,  Lon- 
don, 1865. 

Qry'ges,  [Gr.  VvyrjQ,]  first  Lydian  king  of  the  dynasty 
of  the  Mermnadae,  was  minister  of  King  Candaules, 
whose  throne  he  usurped  after  having  put  him  to  death. 
He  is  said  to  have  possessed  a  magic  ring  which  made 
the  wearer  invisible.  He  reigned  about  thirty-eight 
years.    Died  about  680  B.C. 

Gylippe.    See  Gylippus. 

Qry-lip'pus,  [Gr.  TvlLTr-no^ ;  Fr.  Gylippe,  zhe'l^p',] 
a  skilful  Spartan  general  in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  In 
414  B.C.  he  was  sent  to  command  the  army  at  Syracuse, 
which  was  then  besieged  by  the  Athenians.  He  defeated 
the  enemy  in  several  actions,  and  captured  their  whole 
army,  commanded  by  Nicias  and  Demosthenes,  in  413. 
After  the  capture  of  Athens  by  Lysander,  Gylippus  was 
commissioned  to  convey  to  Sparta  the  treasure  there 
obtained.  He  was  convicted  of  stealing  a  large  part  of 
it,  and  was  condemned  to  death,  but  escaped,  and  died 
in  exile. 

See  Thucvdides,  books  vi.,  vii.,  viii. ;  Plutarch,  "Nicias"  and 
"Lysander;"  Muli.er,  "The  Dorians." 

Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard,  guKlem-bdoRc'  a'ren- 
sv^Rd',  (Thomasine  Christine  Buntzen,)  Madame,  a 
celebrated  Danish  novelist,  born  in  1773,  was  married 
in  1790  to  the  dramatist  Peter  Andreas  Heiberg.  She 
was  subsequently  divorced,  and  in  1801  became  the  wife 
of  Count  Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard.    Her  "  Novels,  Old 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.   (fi^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

70 


GTLLENBORG 


1 1 06 


HABERT 


•  and  New,  by  the  Author  of  a  Story  of  Every  Day," 
("  Gamle  og  Nye  Noveller  af  Forfatteren  til  en  Hver- 
dags  Ilistorie,")  appeared  in  1834.  They  acquired  a 
wide  popularity,  and  were  translated  into  French  and 
German.    Died  in  1856. 

See  Ekslew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Gyllenborg,  yuKlen-boRg',  (Charles,)  Count,  a 
Swedish  nobleman  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Upsal  in 
1679.  He  was  employed  by  Charles  XII,  as  resident 
minister  in  London  from  1703  to  17 17,  and  subsequently 
rose  to  be  a  councillor  of  state  and  chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Upsal.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Disputatio 
de  Regno  Ostro-Gothorum  in  Italia,"  ("Dissertation  on 
the  Ostro-Gothic  Kingdom  in  Italy.")    Died  in  1746. 

See  JoHAN  Ihre,  "  Oratio  in  Memoriam  C.  Gyllenborg,"  1747. 

Gyllenborg,  (Gustavus  Frederic,)  Count,  a  cousin 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  1731,  was  one  of  the  first  mem- 
bers of  the  Academy  of  Stockholm.  He  published  a 
number  of  odes,  satires,  fables,  and  poems  of  various 
kinds,  among  which  maybe  named  "The  Passage  of  the 
Belts."    Died  in  1809. 

Gyllenhaal,  yul'len-hll,  (Leonhard,)  a  Swedish 
entomologist,  born  in  West  Gothland  in  1752,  was  a 
pupil  of  Linnaeus.  He  wrote  an  able  work  on  the 
insects  of  Sweden,  ("Insecta  Suecica,"  4  vols.,  1808-27.) 
Died  in  1840. 

Gylleiihielm,  yuKlen-hyglm',  (Carl  Carlsson,) 
Baron,  a  natural  son  of  Charles  IX.  of  Sweden,  was 
born  in  1574.  He  served  with  distinction  in  France  in 
the  army  of  Henry  IV.,  and  afterwards  was  made  a 
senator,  high  admiral  of  Sweden,  and  one  of  the  pre- 
ceptors of  the  princess  Christina.    Died  in  1650. 

Gyongyosy,  dyon'dyo-se,  (Stephen,)  one  of  the 
earliest  Hungarian  poets,  born  in  1620.    His  works  are 


still  popular  among  his  countrymen,  and  have  passed 
through  numerous  editions.    Died  in  1704. 

Gyrowetz,  gir'o-^^^ts',  (Adalbert,)  a  distinguished 
musical  composer,  born  at  Budweis,  in  Bohemia,  in  1763. 
After  visiting  Paris  and  London,  where  he  was  received 
with  great  favour,  he  settled  at  Vienna,  and  became 
chapel-master  at  the  Imperial  Theatre.  Among  his 
best  operas  are  "  The  Oculist,"  and  "  Felix  and  Adele." 
He  also  composed  masses,  sonatas,  and  symphonies : 
the  last-named  are  particularly  admired.    Died  in  1850. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Biographic  von  ihm  selbst  geschrieben," 
1848;  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Gyulai  or  Gyulay,  dyoo'lT,  almost  joo'lT,  (Franz,) 
Count,  a  Hungarian  general  in  the  Austrian  service, 
was  born  at  Pesth  in  1799.  He  became  colonel  about  . 
1830,  and  lieutenant-field-marshal  in  1846.  He  was  min- 
ister of  war  a  short  time  in  1850,  after  which  he  was 
commandant  at  Milan.  In  1857  he  succeeded  Radetzky 
as  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Italy.  He  had 
the  chief  command  in  the  war  which  began  in  May,  1859, 
and  was  defeated  by  the  Franco-Sardinian  army  at  the 
great  battle  of  Magenta  in  June.  Before  the  end  of  this 
month  he  was  deprived  of  the  command.   Died  in  1862. 

Gyulai  or  Gyulay,  (Ignatius,)  Count,  an  Austrian 
commander,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Her- 
mannstadt  in  1763,  served  against  the  Turks  and  in 
the  principal  campaigns  against  the  French.  In  1805  he 
concluded  the  peace  of  Presburg,  in  conjunction  with 
Prince  Liechtenstein,  and  was  soon  after  made  Ban  of 
Croatia,  Dalmatia,  and  Slavonia.  He  was  appointed 
field-marshal-general  in  1813,  and  in  1830  president  of 
the  aulic  council.    Died  in  1831. 

Gyzen,  gi'z?n  or  H^zen, (Peter,)  a  Flemish  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1 636.  His  works  are  rare, 
and  are  prized  for  their  high  finish.    Died  about  1700. 


H. 


Haag,/^tg,  (Eugene  and  £mile,)  brothers,  and  French 
Protestants,  born  at  Montbeliard  in  1808  and  18 10.  They 
published  "Protestant  France,  or  the  Lives  of  French 
Protestants  who  have  made  for  themselves  a  Name  in 
History,"  ("  La  France  protestante,"  etc.,  9  vols.  8vo, 
1847-59.) 

Haak,  hak,  (Theodor,)  a  German  divine,  born  near 
Worms  in  1605.  He  translated  the  Dutch  annotations 
on  the  Bible  into  English,  and  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He  passed  many  years 
in  England.    Died  in  1690. 

Haansbergeii,  van,  vtn  hlns'b§R'gen,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1642,  was  one  of  the  best 
pupils  of  Poelemburg,  whom  he  imitated.  He  settled 
at  the  Plague  in  1669,  and  painted  portraits,  nymphs, 
etc.    Died  in  1705. 

Haaren,  van,  (Willem.)    See  Haren. 

Haas,  hiss,  (Guillaume,)  a  Swiss  engraver  and  type- 
founder, born  at  Bale  in  1741 ;  died  in  1800. 

See  Ersch  und  Grubee,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Haas,  hiss,  or  Hasius,  hl'ze-iis,  (Johann  Mat- 
thias,) a  German  historian  and  geographer  of  great 
merit,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1684.  He  taught  mathematics 
at  Wittenberg,  and  wrote  "Phosphorus  Historiarum," 
etc..  (1743.)    Died  in  1742. 

Haas,  de,  deh  has,  (F.  H.,)  a  skilful  marine  painter, 
born  at  Rotterdam  about  1830.  He  opened,  a  few  years 
since,  a  studio  in  New  York,  where  he  now  resides. 

See  TucKEKMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Haas,  de,  deh  has,  (John  Philip,)  born  in  Holland 
about  1735,  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  of  the  Revo- 
lution, and  was  made  a  brigadier-general  by  Congress  in 
1777.    Died  in  Philadelphia  about  1795. 

Haase,  ha'zeh,  (Heinrich  Gottlob  Friedrich 
Christian,)  an  eminent  German  philologist,  born  at 
Magdeburg  in  1808.  He  became  titular  professor  of 
philology  at  Breslau  in  1846.  He  published  good  editions 
of  Thucydides,  (1842,)  of  Seneca,  (1852,)  and  other  clas- 
sics ;  also  "The  Past  and  Future  of  Philology,"  (1835.) 

Hab'ak-kuk,  (or  ha-bak'kuk,)  [Heb.  plp^H;  Fr. 


Habacuc,  ht'bt'kiik',]  one  of  the  minor  Hebrew  pro- 
phets, and  author  of  a  canonical  book  of  the  Bible.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  prophesied  about  600  B.C.  His 
language  is  highly  poetical  and  imaginative.  A  passage 
of  his  book  is  quoted  by  Saint  Paul,  Acts  xiii.  41. 

Habeneck,  /ztl/n^k',  (Antoine  FRANgois,)  a  French 
musician,  born  at  Mezieres  in  1781  ;  died  in  1849. 

Haberlin  or  Haeberlin,  ha'ber-leen',  (Franz  Domi- 
Nicus,)  an  eminent  German  historian,  born  near  Ulm,  on 
the  Danube,  in  1720.  He  became  professor  of  history  at 
Helmstedt  in  1746,  and  professor  of  public  law  there  in 
1 751.  Soon  after  that  date  he  was  privy  councillor  of 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick.  He  published  a  "  Universal 
History,"  ("Allgemeine  Weltgeschichte,"  12  vols.,  1767 
-73,)  a  "  Modern  History  of  the  German  Empire  since 
the  Beginning  of  the  War  of  Schmalkalden,"  (20  vols., 
1774-86,)  which  is  praised  as  a  classic  work,  and  other 
histories.  His  chief  merits  are  exactitude  and  thorough 
research.    Died  in  1787. 

See  Meusel,  "Lexikon  der  vom  Jahre  1750-1800  verstorbenen 
Deutschen  Schriftsteller." 

Haberlin,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  publicist, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1756  at  Helmstedt,  where 
he  became  professor  of  public  law  about  1786.  He 
published  a  "  Repertory  of  German  Public  Law  and 
Feudal  Law,"  (1781-95,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1808. 

Haberlin,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  a  novelist,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Erlangen  in  1784.  He  published 
many  historical  novels,  among  which  are  "The  Exile," 
("Der  Heitnathlose,")  and  "The  Prime  Minister,"  (4 
vols.,  1835.) 

Habermann,    See  Avenarius. 

Hab'er-sham,  (Joseph,)  born  at  Savannah,  Georgia, 
in  1750.  He  took  part  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  In  17S5  he 
was  chosen  a  member  of  Congress.  From  1795  to  1800 
he  was  postmaster-general.    Died  in  181 5. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans." 

Habert,  /it'baiR',  (Franqois,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Issoudun  about  1520.    He  produced,  besides  many 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m€t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HABERT 


1107 


HACQUET 


original  poems,  a  version  of  Ovid's  '*  Metamorphoses," 
which  was  often  reprinted.    Died  about  1568. 

Habert,  (Isaac,)  a  French  poet,  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Paris  about  1560,  wrote  a  poem  "  On 
Meteors,"  ("Des  Meteores,"  1585.) 

Habert,  (Isaac,)  a  French  theologian  and  writer,  son 
of  Germain,  (de  Cerisy,)  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
Paris.  He  became  preacher  to  the  king,  and  in  1645 
Bishop  of  Vabres.    Died  in  1668. 

Habert,  (Louis,)  a  French  theological  writer,  born 
near  Blois  in  1636;  died  in  1718. 

Habert,  (Philippe,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Paris 
about  1605,  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  author  of  a  poem  called  the  "Temple  of 
Death."    He  was  killed  at  a  siege  in  Flanders  in  1637. 

Habert,  (Pierre  Joseph,)  Baron,  a  French  general, 
born  at  Avallon  in  1773.  He  distinguished  himself  at 
Heliopolis,  (1798,)  Jena,  (1806,)  and  Eylau,  (1807,)  and 
subsequently  in  the  Spanish  campaign  of  1814.  In  181 5 
he  obtained  command  of  a  division,  and  was  severely 
wounded  at  Waterloo.    Died  in  1825. 

Habert  de  Cerisy,  //fbaiR'*  deh  si're'se',  (Ger- 
main,) a  brother  of  Philippe  Habert,  noticed  above,  was 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy,  and  wrote  poems 
which  were  once  admired.    Died  in  1655. 

Habicht,  hi'biKt,  (Christian  Maximilian,)  a  Ger- 
man Orientalist,  born  at  Breslau  in  1775.  He  published 
an  edition  of  "The  Arabian  Nights,"  ("Tausend  und 
eine  Nachte,"  8  vols.,  1825-39,)  and,  with  the  aid  of 
Schall  and  Von  der  Hagen,  made  a  German  version  of 
the  same,  (15  vols.,  1825.)    Died  in  1839. 

Habicot,//t'be'ko',*  (Nicolas,)  a  French  anatomist, 
born  at  Bonny  about  1550,  studied  in  Paris,  and  became 
surgeon  to  the  Hotel-Dieu  and  to  the  army.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  skilful  anatomists  of  his  time,  and  wrote 
several  professional  treatises.    Died  in  1624. 

Hab'ing-ton,  (William,)  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Hendlip  in  1605.  His  father,  Thomas,  was  implicated 
in  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  but  was  pardoned.  William 
wrote  "The  Queen  of  Aragon,"  a  tragi-comedy,  and 
a  collection  of  small  poems,  entitled  "Castara,"  (1635.) 
Died  in  1645. 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets ;"  Sir  S.  E.  Brydges, 
"  Censura  Literaria;"  Hallam,  "Introduction  to  thje  Literature  of 
Europe;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  xi.,  1825. 

Habsburg  or  Hapsburg,  haps'biirg,  [Ger.  pron. 
hIps'bdoRG,]  House  of,  an  ancient  sovereign  family 
of  Austria,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  castle  of 
Habsburg,  or  Hapsburg,  in  Switzerland.  The  first 
member  of  the  family  who  acquired  great  celebrity  was 
Rudolf  of  Habsburg,  born  in  1218  and  elected  Emperor 
of  Germany  in  1273.  obtained  Austria  and  other 

provinces  by  conquest,  and  founded  the  dynasty  which 
now  reigns  over  the  Austrian  empire,  and  which  since 
1736  has  been  styled  the  house  of  Habsburg-Lorraine. 
(See  Rudolf  of  Habsburg.) 

See,  also,  E.  M.  von  Lichkowsky,  "  Geschichte  des  Hauses 
Habsburg,"  2  vols..  1836-37. 

Hachette, /zt''shgt',*  the  surname  of  Jeanne  Four- 
QUET,  (fooR^ki',)  a  French  heroine,  born  at  Beauvais 
in  1454.  She  acted  a  prominent  part  in  the  defence  of 
lieauvais  against  Charles  the  Bold  in  1472.  She  used 
a  small  axe  (hachette)  as  a  weaj^on  :  hence  her  surname. 

Hachette,  (Jean  Nicolas  Pierre,)  an  able  French 
matheinatician,  born  at  Mezieres  in  1769,  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Rheims.  By  the  influence  of  Monge, 
he  was  appointed  assistant  professor  in  the  Polytechnic 
School  in  1794,  and  in  1797  he  obtained  the  chair  of 
descriptive  geometry,  which  he  retained  until  1816.  In 
1830  he  became  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  published 
a  "  Supplement  to  the  Descriptive  Geometry  of  Monge," 
(1811,)  "Elements  of  Geometry  of  Solids,"  (i8"i7,) 
"Applications  of  Descriptive  Geometry,"  (1821,)  a 
"  Treatise  on  Machines,"  etc.  He  rendered  a  great 
service  by  applying  geometry  to  the  construction  of  ma- 
chinery.   Among  his  pupils  was  Arago.    Died  in  1834. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Hachette,  (Louis  Christophe  Franqois,)  born  at 
Rethel,  in  France,  in  1800,  was  the  proprietor  of  a  great 
publishing-house  in  Paris.    Died  in  1864. 

*  On  the  pronunciation  of  the  initial  French  h,  see  p.  1215,  7iote. 


Hackaert.    See  Hakkert. 

Hackelmann,  hik'kel-man',  (Leopold,)  a  German 
jurist  and  legal  writer,  born  near  Bremen  in  1563  ;  died 
in  1619. 

Hackert    See  Hakkert. 

Hackert,  hak'k§Rt,  (Georg,)  an  engraver,  a  brother 
of  Philipp,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Prussia  in  1755. 
He  engraved  the  "  View  of  Rome"  and  other  works  of 
his  brother  Philipp.  Died  at  Florence  in  1805.  His 
brother  Johann,  born  in  1744,  was  a  landscape-painter. 
Died  at  Bath,  in  England,  in  1773.  Another  brother, 
Wilhelm,  born  in  1748,  was  a  painter  of  history  and 
portraits.  He  was  professor  of  design  in  the  Academy 
of  Saint  Petersburg  when  he  died,  about  1786. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Hackert,  (Philipp,)  an  excellent  German  landscape- 
painter,  was  born  at  Prenzlau,  in  Prussia,  in  1737.  He 
visited  Rome  about  1768,  and  passed  the  rest  of  his  life 
mostly  in  Italy.  He  painted  for  the  empress  Catherine 
of  Russia  six  pictures  of  the  naval  victory  over  the  Turks 
at  Tchesme  in  1770.  He  painted  a  "View  of  Rome," 
"  Views  in  the  Vicinity  of  the  Villa  Horace,"  and  many 
Italian  sea-ports.  About  1786  he  was  appointed  first 
painter  to  the  King  of  Naples.  He  left  Naples  in  1799, 
and  settled  at  Florence,  where  he  died  in  1807.  His 
merit  consisted  in  a  close  imitation  of  nature.  Goethe 
wrote  a  memoir  of  his  life,  ("P.  Hackert;  biographische 
Skizze,"  1811.) 

See,  also,  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hack'et,  (John,)  born  in  London  in  1592,  was  edu- 
cated at  Cami)ridge,  and  made  Bishop  of  Lichfield  and 
Coventry  in  1661.  He  published  a  volume  of  sermons, 
and  a  "  Life  of  Archbishop  Williams."    Died  in  1670. 

See  Thomas  Plume,  "Life  of  Bishop  Hacket,"  1675. 

Hack'ett,  (Horatio  Balch,)  an  American  biblical 
scholar,  born  in  Salisbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1808.  He 
graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1830,  studied  theology 
at  Andover,  and  afterwards  at  Halle,  in  Germany.  He 
obtained  the  chair  of  Hebrew  and  biblical  interpreta- 
tion in  the  Newton  (Baptist)  Theological  Seminary  of 
Massachusetts  about  1840.  Among  his  works  are  a 
Chaldee  Grammar,  translated,  with  additions,  from  the 
German  of  Winer,  and  a  "Commentary  on  the  Original 
Text  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,"  (1853;  same  edition, 
greatly  enlarged,  1858.) 

Hackett,  (James  Henry,)  an  American  actor,  born 
in  New  York  in  1800.  He  performed  comedy  in  the 
United  States  and  in  England.   Died  in  1871. 

Hacklander,  hSkH^n^der,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a 
popular  German  novelist,  born  near  Aix-la-Chapelle 
about  181 6.  He  served  in  the  Prussian  army  for  several 
of  his  earl}'  years.  In  1841  he  published  "Scenes  of 
Military  Life  during  Peace,"  which  had  a  great  success. 
He  became  secretary  to  the  prince-royal  of  Wiirtemberg 
in  1843.  He  wrote  numerous  popular  works,  among 
which  are  "Military  Life  in  Time  of  War,"  (1849,) 
"Scenes  from  Life,"  ("Bilder  aus  dem  Leben,"  1850,) 
"Nameless  Histories,"  ("Namenlose  Geschichten,"  3 
vols.,  1851,)  and  "Eugene  Stillfried,"  (1852.)  He  has 
been  called  "the  Charles  Dickens  of  Germany," 

HackTey,  (Charles  W.,)  a  mathematician  and  Epis- 
co])al  clergyman,  born  at  Herkimer,  New  York,  in  1808, 
became  professor  of  mathematics  in  Columbia  College, 
New  York,  in  1843.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Treatise  on  Algebra,"  (1846.)    Died  in  1861. 

Hackluyt.    See  Hakluyt. 

Hackspann  or  Hackspan,  hik'spin,  (Theodor 
or  Theodoric.)  a  learned  German  theologian  and  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Weimar  in  1607.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Calixtus,  whose  liberal  opinions  he  adopted,  was  well 
versed  in  Oriental  languages,  and  became  professor  of 
Hebrew  at  Altorf  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
in  Latin,  "Philological  Disputations,"  (1643,)  "The 
Faith  and  Laws  of  Mohammed,"  (1646,)  and  "Miscel- 
lanea Sacra,"  (1660.)    Died  in  1659. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hacquet,  /^S'ki',  (Balthasar,)  a  naturalist,  born  at 
Conquet,  in  Bretagne,  in  1740,  was  chosen  professor  of 
natural  history  in  Lemberg,  Austria,  in  1788.  He  pub- 
lished, in  German,  several  accounts  of  his  travels  among 
the  Alps  and  Carpathian  Mountains,  which  furnish  valu- 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HADDIK 


I  io8 


HAERING 


able  information  on  geography  and  other  sciences.  One 
of  his  works  is  "  Physico-Political  Journeys  among  the 
Alps,"  (4  vols.,  1785-87.)    Died  in  Vienna  in  1815. 
See  Eksch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Haddik,  hdd'dik,  (Andreas,)  Count  of,  an  able 
Austrian  general,  born  at  Futak,  in  Hungary,  in  1710, 
gained  distinction  in  the  war  against  the  Turks.  In  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  as  lieutenant-field-rnarshal,  he  fought 
against  the  Prussians  near  Gorlitz,  and  took  Berlin  by 
surprise  in  1757.  In  1765  he  was  chosen  Governor  of 
Galicia,  and  in  1774  he  became  president  of  the  war 
department,  or  council  of  war,  with  the  title  of  field-mar- 
shal.   Died  in  1790. 

Had'dock,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  admiral,  born 
in  Essex  about  1630.  He  was  wounded  at  Solebay  in 
1667.    Died  in  1715. 

Had'don,  (Walter,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
Buckinghamshire  in  15 16,  contributed  to  the  revival  of 
classical  learning.  In  1550  he  became  professor  of  civil 
law  in  Cambridge,  and  in  1552  president  of  Magdalene 
College,  Oxford.  He  enjoyed  favour  at  the  court  of 
Elizabeth,  who  praised  his  skill  in  Latin  composition 
by  saying,  "  Haddonum  nemini  postpono,"  ("I  rank 
Haddon  behind  none.")    Died  in  1572. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Hadee-Moosa,  Hady-Moussa,  or  Hadi-Mussa, 

Al,  3.1  hi'dee  moo'sa,  a  caliph  of  the  family  of  Abbassides, 
born  about  760  A.D.,  succeeded  his  father  Al-Mahdee 
(or  -Mahdi)  on  the  throne  of  Bagdad  in  7S5.  He  was 
a  brother  of  Haroun-al-Raschid.  After  a  reign  of  fifteen 
months,  he  died,  in  786. 
See  Aboolfeda,  "  Annales." 

Ha'des,  [Gr.  "Ktdrjg  or  "Ac5??f,]  a  name  applied  by  the 
Greeks  to  Pluto  and  to  his  dominions.    (See  Pluto.) 

Hadji-Khalfa.    See  Haji-Khalfa. 

Had'ley,  (James,)  an  American  scholar,  was  born 
in  Fairfield,  Herkimer  county.  New  York,  the  30th  of 
March,  1821.  He  is  the  son  of  Dr.  James  Hadley,  who 
was  for  many  years  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Medical 
College  at  Fairfield  and  afterwards  held  the  same  chair 
in  the  Medical  College  at  Geneva,  New  York.  He 
entered  in  September,  1840,  the  junior  class  of  Yale  Col- 
lege, and  graduated  in  1842.  In  1848  he  became  assistant 
professor  of  Greek  at  Yale,  and  in  185 1  professor  in  full, 
in  place  of  President  Woolsey,  who  had  retained  until 
then  his  charge  of  that  department.  In  August,  1851,  he 
married  a  daughter  of  Stephen  Twining,  Esq.,  of  New 
Haven.  In  i860  he  published  an  excellent  "Greek 
Grammar  for  Schools  and  Colleges,"  founded  on  a 
simiTar  work  by  Professor  Georg  Curtius  in  Germany. 
An  abridgment  appeared  in  1869,  under  the  name  "Ele- 
ments of  the  Greek  Language."  He  has  contributed 
articles  to  various  scientific  and  literary  periodicals, 
especially  the  "  New-Englander,"  and  has  been  an  active 
member  of  the  American  Oriental  Society. 

Had'ley,  (John,)  an  English  astronomer,  became  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  171 7,  of  which  he  was 
afterwards  vice-president.  In  1731  he  presented  to  that 
society  a  sextant,  of  which  he  claimed  to  be  the  inventor, 
and  which  has  since  been  generally  used  in  nautical 
astronomy.  It  is  commonly  known  as  "  Hadley's  Sex- 
tant." Many,  however,  give  Sir  Isaac  Newton  credit  for 
this  invention.    Died  in  1744. 

Hadlub,  hSt'loop,  or  Hadloub,  (Johann,)  a  Ger- 
man poet  or  minnesinger,  lived  at  Zurich  about  1300. 
His  poems  present  agreeable  pictures  of  rustic  life  and 
interesting  details  about  the  manners  of  the  peasantry 
of  that  age. 

See  Ettmuller,  "J.  Hadlouber,  Gedichte,"  1840;  Longfel- 
low, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Hadorph,  hSMoRf,  (Johan,)  a  Swedish  antiquary, 
born  near  Linkoping  in  1630 ;  died  in  1693. 

Ha^dri-an  or  AMii-an,  [Lat.  Hadria'nus  ;  Fr. 
Adrien,  t'dRe-dN' ;  It.  Adriano,  i-dRe-i'no,]  or,  more 
fully,  Hadria'nus  PubTius  ^Tius,  a  Roman  emperor, 
born  at  Rome  in  January,  76  A. D.,  was  a  son  of  ^lius  Ha- 
drianus  Afer,  and  a  cousin  of  Trajan.  His  favourite  study 
was  the  Greek  language  and  literature.  He  won  the 
favour  of  Trajan,  and  accompanied  him  in  his  campaign 
against  the  Dacians.  He  was  chosen  tribune  of  the  people 
in  105  A.D.,  and  praetor  in  107.    When  Trajan  was  forced 


by  illness  to  retire  from  the  army  which  he  had  conducted 
against  the  Parthians,  he  gave  the  chief  command  to  Ha- 
drian. On  the  death  of  Trajan,  Hadrian  was  proclaimed 
emperor  (at  Antioch)  by  the  army  in  August,  117  a.d.  ; 
and  their  choice  was  confirmed  by  the  senate.  The 
question  whether  Trajan  had  adopted  Hadrian  as  his  heir 
appears  to  remain  undetermined.  The  new  emperor 
hastened  to  make  peace  with  the  Parthians  by  abandoning 
all  the  provinces  which  Trajan  had  conquered  beyond 
the  Euphrates,  and  rendered  himself  popular  by  the  re- 
mission of  taxes  and  other  acts  of  liberality.  The  greater 
portion  of  his  reign  was  spent  in  journeys  through  the 
provinces  of  his  vast  empire,  in  which  he  displayed  dura- 
ble evidences  of  his  liberality,  political  wisdom,  and  love 
of  the  fine  arts.  He  commenced  these  journeys  in  119 
A.D.  He  built  a  famous  wall  across  the  island  of  Britain 
from  Solway  Frith  to  the  German  Ocean,  to  protect  the 
Roman  province  from  the  incursions  of  the  Picts  and 
Scots.  He  founded  cities  in  other  provinces,  completed 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius  at  Athens,  and  erected 
many  great  architectural  works,  among  which  were  a 
magnificent  villa  at  Tibur,  and  his  mausoleum  at  Rome, 
now  called  the  Castle  of  Saint  Angelo.  In  131  a.d.  he 
promulgated  the  "  Edictum  Perpetuum,"  a  fixed  code  of 
laws  drawn  up  by  Salvius  Julianus.  This  event  forms 
an  important  epoch  in  the  history  of  Roman  law.  His 
reign  was  peaceful,  and  tended  to  consolidate  the  empire 
as  well  as  to  civilize  the  people.  He  patronized  literary 
men,  artists,  and  philosophers,  and  composed  a  number 
of  works,  in  prose  and  verse,  which  are  not  extant.  He 
aspired  to  distinction  as  an  architect  and  painter,  and 
indulged  a  petty  vanity  and  jealousy  towards  artists, 
which  sometimes  prompted  him  to  acts  of  cruelty.  A 
short  time  before  his  death,  he  adopted  as  his  successor 
Arrius  Antoninus,  surnamed  "the  Pious,"  and  composed 
the  following  verses  addressed  to  his  own  soul : 

"  Animula,  vagula,  blandula, 
Hospes  comesque  corporis, 
Qiise  nunc  abibis  in  loca, 
Pallidula,  rigida,  nudula, 
Nec,  ut  soles,  dabis  jocos?"* 

Died  in  July,  138  A.D.  Many  statues  and  medals  of 
Hadrian  are  extant. 

See  Spartianus,  "Vita  Hadriani  ;"  Niebuhr,  "Lectures  on 
Roman  History ;"  Tillemont,  "  HIstoire  des  Empereurs ;"  Gibbon, 
"  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Hadschi-Chalfa,  (or  -Khalfa.)    See  Haji-Khalfa. 
Hady-Moussa.    See  Hadee-Moosa. 
Haeberlin.    See  Haberlin. 

Haedo,  de,  da  I-a'oo,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  monk  and 
historian,  lived  about  1600.  He  wrote  an  account  of 
Algiers,  ("Topographia  e  Historia  de  Argel,"  1612.) 

Haeffner.    See  Haffner. 

Haehnel.    See  Hahnel. 

Haellstroem.    See  Hallstrom. 

Haelwig.    See  Halvig. 

Haen  or  Haan,  van,  vtn  hSn,  (Antoon,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  physician,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1704,  was  a  pupil 
of  Boerhaave.  He  practised  twenty  years  in  his  native 
place,  and  was  chosen  first  professor  of  medicine  in 
Vienna  in  1754.  He  succeeded  Van  Swieten  as  chief 
physician  to  the  empress  Maria  Theresa.  He  published 
many  medical  works,  of  which  the  most  important  is 
the  "Method  of  Treatment  (or  Curing)  in  Hospitals," 
("Ratio  Medendi  in  Nosocomio  practico,"  1757-74,) 
often  reprinted.  Died  in  Vienna  in  1776.  Desgenettes 
calls  him  "one  of  the  most  illustrious  practitioners  of 
the  eighteenth  century." 

See  F.  G.  Boisseau,  "Biographia  Medicale  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Generale." 

Haendel.    See  Handel. 
Haenel.    See  Hanel. 
Haeiike.    See  Hanke. 
Haering.    See  Haring,  (Wilhelm.) 


*  "Ah,  fleeting  spirit !  wandering  fire, 

That  long  hast  warmed  my  tender  breast. 
Must  thou  no  more  tliis  frame  inspire. 

No  more  a  pleasing,  cheerful  guest? 
Whither,  ah,  whither  art  thou  flying? 

To  what  dark,  undiscovered  shore? 
Thou  seem'st  all  trembling,  shivering,  dying, 

And  wit  and  humour  are  no  more." — Pope. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HAERLEM 


1 109 


HAGUENOT 


Haerlem  or  Haarlem,  van,  vtn  hSR'lem,  (Dirck,) 
a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Haarlem  about  1410 ;  died  in 
1470. 

Haeser.    See  Haser. 
Haeusser.    See  Hausser. 

Haffner,  haf ner,  (Anton,)  a  painter  of  perspective, 
of  Swiss  extraction,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1654.  He 
lived  many  years  at  Genoa,  where  he  painted  admi- 
rable frescos  in  the  church  of  Saint  Luke  and  other 
churches.  He  was  also  employed  by  the  grand  duke  at 
Florence.  Died  in  1732.  His  brother  Henry,  born  in 
1640,  painted  decorations  in  several  palaces  at  Rome 
and  in  churches  of  Bologna.    Died  in  1702. 

Haffner  or  Haeffner,  h^Fner,  (Johann  Christian 
Friedrich,)  a  German  composer,  born  in  Thuringia  in 
1759  ;  died  at  Upsal  in  1833. 

Hafis,  the  German  spelling  of  Hafiz,  which  see. 

Hafiz,  hi'fiz,  written  also  Hafitz  and  Hafis,  (Mo- 
hammed Shems-ed-Deen,  mo-hin/med  shSms  ed- 
deen',)  a  celebrated  Persian  poet,  born  at  Shiraz  about 
1300.  Love  and  wine  are  the  favourite  subjects  of  his 
poems,  which  are  condemned  as  licentious  by  strict  Mus- 
sulmans. He  is  regarded  as  the  greatest  lyric  poet  of 
Persia.  His  poems,  which  collectively  are  entitled  the 
"  Divan,"  are  praised  for  purity  of  style,  harmony  of 
versification,  and  brilliant  imagination.  Among  the  re- 
corded events  of  his  life  is  an  interview  with  Tamerlane 
in  1387.  Died  about  1390.  His  poems  were  published 
in  Persian  at  Calcutta  in  1 791.  Some  portions  of  them 
have  been  translated  into  English  by  J.  Richardson, 
(1774,)  J.  H.  Hindley,  (1800,)  and  other  Oriental  scholars. 

See  Sir  W.  Gore  Ouseley,  "  Biographical  Notices  of  Persian 
Poets,"  London,  1846;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  January.  1846,  and  September,  1854. 

Ha'gar  or  A'gar,  [Heb.  IJIH,]  an  Egyptian  woman, 
was  the  second  wife  of  the  patriarch  Abraham,  and  the 
mother  of  Ishmael.    (See  Genesis  xvi.  and  xxi.) 

Hageau,  //t'zho',  (Amable,)  a  French  engineer,  born 
in  1756,  was  appointed  divisionary  inspector  of  bridges 
and  roads  beyond  the  Alps.    Died  in  1836. 

Hagedorn,  h^'geh-doRn',  (Christian  Ludwig,)  an 
eminent  critic  of  art,  a  brother  of  Friedrich,  the  poet, 
was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1 7 13.  He  served  the  Elector 
of  Saxony  many  years  as  secretary  of  legation  to  various 
courts.  In  1764  he  was  appointed  director-general  of 
the  Academies  of  Fine  Arts  at  Dresden  and  Leipsic.  He 
produced  in  1762,  in  German,  "  Reflections  on  Painting,'' 
(2  vols.,)  which  is  considered  a  classic  work  by  artists. 
Died  at  Dresden  in  1780. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hagedorn,  von,  fon  hS'geh-doRn',  (Friedrich,)  an 
elegant  German  poet,  born  at  Hamburg  in  April,  1708. 
In  1733  he  became  secretary  to  a  company  of  merchants, 
called  "  The  English  Court,"  at  Hamburg.  He  published 
in  1738  a  volume  of  fables  and  tales  in  verse,  and  after- 
wards a  volume  of  "Moral  Poems."  Among  his  master- 
pieces are  "The  Savant,"  a  satire,  (1740,)  "The  Sage," 
(1741,)  and  "Ode  on  Happiness,"  (1743.)  The  merit 
of  restoring  good  taste  in  German  poetry  is  ascribed  to 
Hagedorn  and  Haller.  Wieland  called  him  "the  German 
Horace."    Died  in  1754. 

See  EscHENBURG,  "  F.  von  Hagedorn's  Werke,"  5  vols.,  1800, 
the  4th  vol.  of  which  contains  a  memoir  of  Hagedorn  ;  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  C.  H.  Schwid,  "  Biographie  der 
§  Dichter;"  Gervinus,  "Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Dichtung." 

Hagemann,  hl^geh-mSn^  (Theodor,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Stiege,  Brunswick,  in  1761,  became  aulic 
councillor  and  judge  of  the  court  of  appeal  at  Zelle. 
He  published  a  valuable  work,  entitled  "  Practical  P2x- 
planations  of  All  Sorts  of  Juridical  Subjects,"  (6  vols., 
1798-1818.)    Died  in  1827. 

Hagen,  hi'gen,  (Ernst  August,)  an  ingenious  Ger- 
man novelist  and  writer  on  art,  was  born  at  Konigsberg 
in  1797.  He  became  professor  of  aesthetics  in  Konigs- 
berg about  1830.  Among  his  works  are  "Olfrid  and 
Lisena,"  a  poem,  (1820,)  and  "Leonardo  da  Vinci  at 
Milan,"  (1840.) 

Hagen,  (Karl  Gottfried,)  a  German  chemist  and 
writer,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1749;  died  in  1829. 

Hagen,  van,  vtn  hS'gen  or  h^'nen,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch 
landscape-painter,  who  lived  about  1650. 


Hagen,  van  der,  vtn  der  hcVgen  or  h^'nen,  (Steven,) 
a  Dutch  admiral,  born  about  1560,  commanded  an  ex- 
pedition which  explored  the  Chinese  Sea  and  the  Sunda 
Isles  in  1600.  In  1604  he  defeated  the  Portuguese  in 
several  actions,  and  expelled  them  from  the  Moluccas. 
Died  about  1610. 

Hagen,  von,  fon  hS'gen,  (Johann  Georg  Fried- 
rich,) a  German  antiquary,  born  at  Baireuth  in  1723. 
He  formed  a  rich  cabinet  of  medals,  pictures,  etc.,  and 
was  a  liberal  patron  of  artists.  He  wrote  a  "Descrip- 
tion of  the  Silver  Coins  of  Nuremberg,"  (1766,)  and 
other  valuable  works.    Died  in  1783. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hagen,  von  der,  fon  d^R  hi'gen,  (Friedrich  Hein- 
RICH,)  an  eminent  German  critic  and  philologist,  born  at 
Schmiedeberg,  in  Prussia,  in  February,  1780.  He  became 
professor  of  German  literature  at  Berlin  in  1810,  and 
devoted  his  attention  to  the  mediaeval  German  literature. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Heroic  Romances 
of  the  North,"  (5  vols.,  1814-28,)  "Monuments  of  the 
Middle  Ages,"  (1824,)  and  "The  Minnesinger,"  (5  vols., 
1838-56,)  a  poetical  collection,  which  is  called  his  chief 
work.    Died  in  Berlin  in  1856. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Hagenbach,  ha'gen-bSK^,  (Karl  Rudolf,)  a  Swiss 
Protestant  theologian,  was  born  at  Bale  in  1801.  He 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Bale  about  1828,  and 
was  author  of  lectures  on  the  "Essence  and  History 
of  the  Reformation,"  (6  vols.,  1834-43,)  "Ecclesiastic 
History  of  the  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Centuries," 
(2  vols. ;  3d  edition,  1856,)  and  other  esteemed  works, 
(in  German.) 

Hagenbuch,  ha'gen-bdoK^   (Johann   Caspar,)  a 
Swiss  antiquary,  born  at  Zurich  in  1700.    Among  his  N 
writings  is  a  curious  treatise  on  certain  Greek  and 
Latin  inscriptions,  entitled  "Epistolae  Epigraphicae," 
etc.,  (1747.)    Died  in  1763. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hager,  h§.'ger,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  geogra- 
pher, born  in  the  district  of  Baireuth  in  1709.  He  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  Homer's  "Iliad,"  (1745-67,)  and  a 
"  System  of  Geography,"  ("  Ausfiihrliche  Geographic," 
3  vols.,  1746-51,)  which  had  great  success.  Died  in  1777. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hager,  (Joseph,)  an  Orientalist,  of  German  extrac- 
tion, born  at  Milan  in  1757.  He  published  a  treatise  on 
Chinese  worship,  called  "Pantheon  Chinois,"  (1802,) 
and  "  Elements  of  the  Chinese  Language,"  (London, 
1806.)  In  1809  he  became  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Pavia.    Died  in  1819. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hag'ga-i,  [Heb.  'Jn  ;  Fr.  Agg^;e,  tg'zhi',]  one  of  the 
twelve  minor  Hebrew  prophets,  lived  about  520  B.C., 
during  the  erection  of  the  second  temple,  the  glory  of 
which  he  predicted  should  transcend  that  of  the  first. 
(Haggai  ii.  9.)  His  mission  was  chiefly  to  urge  the  Jews 
to  greater  diligence  in  the  erection  of  the  temple.  His 
language  is  quoted  in  Hebrews  xii.  26. 

Haghe,  htg,  (Louis,)  a  skilful  painter  and  lithogra- 
pher, born  in  Belgium  in  1802.  He  removed  in  his  youth 
to  London,  where  he  has  since  resided.  He  published 
many  fine  lithographs  of  Flemish  monuments  designed 
by  himself,  and  painted  in  water-colours  the  interiors 
of  Flemish  town-halls  and  churches.  Among  his  most 
admired  works  are  paintings  of  the  Palais  de  Courtray 
and  the  Audience-Chamber  of  Bruges. 

Hagstrora  or  Hagstroem,  hig'stRom,  (Johan 
Otto,)  a  Swedish  naturalist  and  writer,  born  at  Froson 
in  1716  ;  died  in  1792. 

Hague,  hag,  (Charles,)  an  English  composer,  born 
in  Tadcaster  in  1769.  He  became  professor  of  music 
at  Cambridge  about  1796.    Died  in  1821. 

Hague,  hag,  (William,)  an  American  Baptist  min- 
ister, born  in  New  York  about  1805,  graduated  at 
Hamilton  College  in  1826.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Christianity  and  Statesmanship,"  (1855.) 

Haguenot,  /^tg  no',  (Henri,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1687.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
Small-Pox,"  (1734.)    Died  in  1775. 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HJHN 


I  no 


HAKLVTT 


Hahu,  htn,  (August,)  a  German  theologian,  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  orthodox  Protestant  party,  was  born 
near  Querfurt,  in  Prussia,  in  1792.  He  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Leipsic  in  1826,  and  general  superintend- 
ent of  Silesia  in  1844.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Text-Book  of  the  Christian  Faith,"  (1828,)  and 
"  On  the  Present  State  of  Christianity,  and  the  Relations 
which  exist  between  Theology  and  Science,"  (1832.) 

Hahii,  (Carl  August,)  a  German  philologist,  born 
at  Heidelberg  in  1807  ;  died  in  1857. 

Hahn,  (Johann  David,)  a  German  natural  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Heidelberg  in  1729,  published  a  treatise 
"  On  the  Mutual  Subservience  of  Mathematics  and  Chem- 
istry," and  other  works.    Died  in  1784. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hahn,  (Ludwig  Philipp,)  a  German  dramatic  poet, 
born  at  Trippstadt  in  1746.  He  wrote  tragedies  entitled 
"The  Rebellion  of  Pisa,"  (1776,)  and  "Robert  von  Hohe- 
necken,"  (1778,)  which  are  admired  for  energy  of  style 
and  elevation  of  thought.    Died  in  1787. 

Hahn,  (Philipp  Matthaus,)  a  German,  noted  for 
inventive  mechanical  genius,  was  born  near  Stuttgart  in 
1739.  He  settled  as  pastor  at  Onsmettingen  in  1764, 
before  which  he  had  made  astronomical  and  optical  in- 
struments. He  invented  a  machine  which  represented 
the  motions  of  the  celestial  bodies,  and  another  which 
performed  operations  in  arithmetic.  He  published  seve- 
ral treatises  on  theology,  sermons,  etc.    Died  in  1790. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  "Annals 
of  Industry  and  Genius,"  by  C.  L.  Brightwell,  London,  186^. 

Hahn,  (Simon  Friedrich,)  a  German  historian  and 
publicist,  born  at  Klosterbergen,  in  Prussia,  in  1692. 
He  is  said  to  have  understood  Greek,  Latin,  and  French 
at  the  age  of  ten.  At  the  age  of  twenty-four  he  became 
professor  of  history  and  public  law  at  Helmstedt.  He 
published  an  excellent  "  History  of  the  Constitution  of 
the  Empire  and  German  Emperors,"  ("Teutsche  Staats- 
Reichs-  und  Keyser  Historic,"  (4  vols.,  1721-24,)  and 
other  historical  works.    Died  at  Hanover  in  1729. 

See  J.  F.  C.  Hahn,  "  Schediasma  de  Vita  Hahnii,"  1729;  Ersch 
und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hahnel  or  Haehnel,  ha'nel,  (Ernst  Julius,)  a 
German  contemporary  sculptor,  studied  under  Reitschel 
and  Schwanthaler.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  the  statue 
of  Beethoven  at  Bonn,  completed  in  1845. 

Hahnemann,  h^'neh-man,  (  Samuel  Christian 
Friedrich,)  a  celebrated  German  physician,  born  in 
Meissen,  in  Saxony,  in  1755,  was  the  founder  of  the  sys- 
tem of  medicine  known  as  homoeopathy.  He  graduated 
at  Erlangen  in  1779,  and  practised  for  some  years  at 
Dresden.  About  1796  he  announced  his  new  system, 
founded  on  the  principle  that  in  order  to  cure  any 
diseased  affection  we  should  employ  a  medicine  having 
power  to  produce  a  similar  affection  in  the  body  of  a 
healthy  person  :  an  artificial  affection  (caused  by  the 
medicine)  displaces  the  original  disease,  and  on  the  dis- 
continuance of  the  medicine  this  secondary  disease  ceases 
of  itself.  Hence  the  motto  adopted  by  the  homoeopa- 
thists,  "Similia  similibus  curantur,"  ("  Like  cures  like.") 
Hahnemann  afterwards  settled  in  Leipsic.  He  developed 
his  system  in  a  work  called  "  Organon  of  Rational  Medi- 
cine," (Dresden,  1810.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1843. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Hahn-Hahn,  von,  fon  hln-hln,  (Ida  Marie  Luise 
Sophie,)  Countess,  a  poetess  and  novelist,  called  "the 
German  George  Sand,"  was  born  at  Tressow,  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin,  in  1805.  About  1826  she  was  married  to 
Count  von  Hahn-Hahn,  from  whom  she  was  divorced 
in  1829,  after  which  she  visited  France,  Italy,  Spain,  and 
the  Levant.  She  produced  in  1835  "  Poems,"  ("  Ge- 
dichte,")  and  in  1836  "Venetian  Nights,"  which  had 
great  success.  Among  her  most  popular  novels  is  "  Faus- 
tine,"  (1841.)  She  has  published  several  narratives  of 
travel,  and  "Oriental  Letters,"  (1845.)  About  1850  she 
avowed  her  conversion  to  Roman  Catholicism. 

See  LisCH,  "Geschichte  und  Urkunden  des  Geschlechtes  Hahn," 
1844;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1S44;  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  January,  1843;  "  North  British  Review"  for  August,  1847. 

Haid,  hit  or  hid,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German 
engraver,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1 710,  worked  in  England. 


Died  in  1770.  His  brother,  Johann  Lorenz,  born  in 
1702,  was  an  engraver  in  mezzotint.    Died  in  1750. 

Haid,  (Johann  Jakoi?,)  a  German  engraver  of  por- 
traits, boni  near  Ulm  in  1704;  died  in  1767.  His  son, 
Johann  Elias,  (1739- 1809,)  was  also  an  engraver. 

Haider  All.    See  Hvder  All 

Haidinger,  hl'ding'er,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  geolo- 
gist, born  in  Vienna  in  1795.  He  was  appointed  coun- 
cillor of  mines  at  Vienna  in  1840,  and  director-in-chief 
of  the  Geological  Institute  of  Austria  in  1849.  He 
published  a  "  lYeatise  on  Mineralogy,"  ("  Handbuch 
der  bestinmiendea  Mineralogie,"  (1845,)  a  "Geognostic 
Chart  of  the  Austrian  Empire,"  (1847,)  ^'""J  other  works. 

His  father,  Karl,  born  in  Vienna  in  1756,  was  a  mine- 
ralogist of  merit.  He  was  author  of  an  "Essay  towards 
a  Systematic  Division  of  the  Different  Kinds  of  Rocks," 
(1786.)    Died  in  1797. 

Hailes,  Lord.    See  Dalrymple,  (Sir  David.) 

Haillan,  du,  dii  //S'y6N',  (Bernard  de  Girard — 
deh  zhe'rtR',)  Seigneur,  a  French  historian,  born  at 
Bordeaux  in  1535.  He  wrote  a  history  of  France,  ("De 
r£tat  et  Succes  des  Affaires  de  France,"  1570,)  which 
passed  through  many  editions  and  was  approved  by 
Charles  IX.,  who  rewarded  him  with  the  title  of  histo- 
riographer.   Died  in  1610. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Haimavata,  hi'ma-va-ta,  or  Haimavat,  hi^rjia-vat, 
\i.e.  "  snowy"  or  "  snow-clad,"  from  the  Sanscrit  hhnd 
ox  kaimd,  "cold,"  "frost,"  "snow,"]  called  the  "king  of 
mountains,"  was,  according  to  the  Hindoo  mythology, 
the  father  of  Ganga,  (Ganges,)  or  ParvatI,  which  see, 

Haimo.    See  Haymo. 

Haizinger,  hlts'ing'er,  (Amalie,)  a  popular  German 
actress,  born  at  Carlsruhe  in  1800. 

Haji-  (or  Hadji-)  Khalfa,  hij'ee  K^Kfi*,  written 
also  Hadschi-Chalfa,  (or  -Khalfah,)  a  celebrated 
Turkish  historian  and  bibliographer,  born  in  Constan- 
tinople. His  proper  name  was  Mustafa-Ben-Abdal- 
lah.  He  was  minister  of  finances  under  Amurath  IV. 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Constantinople,"  and  an  excel- 
lent work  on  bibliography,  which  contains  notices  of 
18,550  Arabic,  Persian,  and  Turkish  books,  with  memoirs 
of  the  authors.  It  served  as  the  basis  of  Herbelot's 
"  Bibliotheque  Orientale."    Died  in  1658. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Histoire  de  I'Empire  Ottoi>«in." 

Hakem.    See  Alhakem. 

Hakem-Biamrillah,  h^^kem  be-am-riKlah,  (Aboo- 
Alee-Mansoor,  or  Abu-Ali-Mansur,  i'boo  i'lee 
min-sooR^)  third  Fatimite  caliph  of  Egypt,  succeeded 
his  father,  Azeez-Billah,  in  996  A. D.  A  capricious  despot, 
he  was  noted  for  his  cruelty  and  extravagance.  After 
subjecting  the  Christians  to  numerous  vexations,  he 
banished  them  from  Egypt,  and  thus  furnished  one 
of  the  chief  motives  of  the  crusades.  He  died,  or  was 
killed,  in  1021. 

Hakewill,  hak'wil,  (George,)  D.D.,  born  at  Exeter, 
in  England,  in  1579,  becattie  Archdeacon  of  Surrey  in 
1 61 6.  He  published  several  sermons,  and  "An  Apology 
or  Declaration  of  the  Power  and  Providence  of  God  in 
the  Government  of  the  World,"  (1627,)  which  is  com- 
mended for  piety  and  learning.  It  is  designed  to  refute 
the  doctrine  of  modern  degeneracy,  and  to  prove  that 
the  powers  of  nature  are  not  doomed  to  a  progressive 
decline.    Died  in  1649. 

See  Prince,  "  Worthies  of  Devon." 

Hakewill,  (James,)  an  English  writer  and  architect, 
published  a  "History  of  Windsor,"  (1813,)  and  a  "Pic- 
turesque Tour  of  Italy,"  (181 7.)    Died  in  1843. 

Hakkert,  hik'keRt,  or  Hackaert,  hak'kdRt,  (Jan,) 
a  skilful  Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Amsterdam 
about  1540.  He  painted  chiefly  wild  and  mountainous 
scenery,  and  was  intimate  with  Adrian  van  der  Velde, 
who  furnished  the  figures  of  many  of  Hakkert's  land* 
scapes.    Died  about  1635. 

Hakluyt,  hak^oot,  (Richard,)  prebendary  of  West- 
minster, an  English  historian,  born  at  Yatton  in  1553. 
He  became  greatly  interested  in  geography  and  naviga- 
tion, and  was  appointed  professor  of  these  branches  at 
Oxford.  In  1589  he  published  his  celebrated  work  on 
the  voyages  and  discoveries  of  the  English,  dedicated 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HAL 


1 1 1 1 


HJLE 


to  Walsingham,  his  patron,  which  was  afterwards  en- 
larged and  published  in  1600,  with  the  following  title  : 
"  Principal  Navigations,  Voyages,  Traffics,  and  Discover- 
ies of  the  English  Nation,  by  Sea  or  Overland,  to  the 
Most  Remote  and  Distant  Quarters  of  the  Earth,  at  any 
Time  within  the  Compass  of  1500  Years."  This  work 
contains  official  documents  relative  to  each  voyage,  as 
patents,  letters  of  ministers,  charters,  etc.,  and  has  pre- 
served from  oblivion  many  precious  monuments  of 
Anglo-Saxon  enterprise.    He  died  in  1616. 

See  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses;"  "Retrospective  Review," 
vcl.  xi.,  1825. 

Hal,  van,  vtn  hil,  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Ant- 
M-srp  in  1668.    His  early  historical  pieces  are  admired. 

Halb  Suter,  hilp  soo'ter,  a  Swiss  poet,  born  at  Lu- 
cerne about  1370,  was  the  author  of  a  popular  song 
entitled  "  The  Battle  of  Sempach." 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poe%  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Halcyone.    See  Alcyone. 

Haldane,  h^Kdan,  (James  Alexander,)  a  Scottish 
Independent  clergyman,  born  at  Dundee  in  1768,  was  the 
brother  of  Robert  Haldane,  noticed  below.  In  1785  he 
entered  the  naval  service  of  the  East  India  Company, 
and  in  1793  was  appointed  captain  of  the  Melville  Castle. 
The  next  year  he  retired  from  the  sea,  in  order  to  devote 
himself  to  the  ministry  of  the  gospel.  He  became  pas- 
tor of  the  Tabernacle,  Edinburgh,  in  1799,  and  continued 
to  preach  in  that  city  until  his  death,  in  1851.  He  pub- 
lished several  religious  works. 

See  Alexander  Haldane,  "  Memoirs  of  Robert  and  James  A. 
Haldane,"  1852;  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen,"  (Supplement.) 

Haldane,  (Robert,)  was  born  of  Scottish  parents  in 
London  in  1 764,  and  was  educated  at  Edinburgh.  He 
served  in  the  navy  from  1780  to  1783,  and  afterwards 
became  an  Independent  minister,  noted  for  his  zeal 
and  liberality  in  the  diffusion  of  religious  instruction.  It 
is  stated  that  he  expended  ;i^30,ooo  in  the  erection  of 
churches.  In  1816  he  published  his  "Evidence  and 
Authority  of  Divine  Revelation."  In  1817  and  1818  he 
was  successful  at  Geneva  and  Montauban  in  promoting 
a  revival  of  religion  and  in  forming  the  evangelical  school, 
which  has  done  so  much  to  propagate  Protestantism  in 
France.  His  "  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans" 
(1835)  is  esteemed  an  excellent  standard  work,  especially 
by  Calvinists.    Di?d  in  1842. 

See  Alexander  Haldane,  "  Memoirs  of  Robert  and  James  A. 
Haldane  ;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men," (Supplement;)  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1856. 

Haldat  du  Lys,  /^tKdS'  dii  le,  (Charles  Nicolas 
Alexandre,)  M.D.,  a  French  physicist,  born  at  Bour- 
mont,  in  Lorraine,  in  1770.  He  wrote  several  treatises 
on  magnetism,  biographies,  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1832  or  1852. 

Halde,  Du.    See  Duhalde. 

H^Fde-man,  (S.  S.,)  an  American  naturalist  and  phi- 
lologist, born  in  Lancaster  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1812. 
He  was  appointed  an  assistant  in  the  geological  survey 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1837,  He  published  "  Freshwater 
Univalve  Mollusca  of  the  United  States,"  (1840-44,) 
"  Zoological  Contributions,"  (1843,)  "Analytic  Orthog- 
raphy," (the  Trevelyan  Prize  Essay,)  and  other  works. 
In  185 1  he  became  professor  of  natural  history  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  about  1855  he  obtained 
a  similar  office  in  Delaware  College,  at  Newark. 

Haldenwang,  hSKden-'^ing',  (Christian,)  an  emi- 
nent German  engraver,  was  born  at  Durlach  in  1770. 
Pie  engraved  many  landscapes  after  Poussin,  Claude 
Lorrain,  and  Elsheimer,  and  executed  some  prints  for 
the  "  Musee  Napoleon,"    Died  in  1831. 

Haldorsen,  hiKdoR^sen,  (Bjorn,)  an  Icelandic  lexi- 
cographer, born  in  1724.  He  published  a  "Lexicon  Is- 
landico-Latino-Danicum,"  (2  vols.,  1814.)   Died  in  1794. 

See  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "  Litteraturlexicon." 

Hale,  (Rev.  Benjamin,)  an  American  educator,  born 
at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1797,  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  College  in  1818.  He  became  professor  of 
chemistry  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1827,  and  president 
of  Geneva  College  (now  Hobart  Free  College)  in  1836. 
Died  in  1863. 

Hale,  (David,)  an  American  journalist,  born  in  Lis- 
bon, Connecticut,  in  1 791.    In  1827  he  established,  in 


connection  with  Gerard  Hallock,  the  New  York  "Jour- 
nal of  Commerce."  He  was  a  distinguished  advocate  of 
the  sub-treasury,  free  trade,  and  other  leading  measures 
of  the  Democratic  party.    Died  in  1849. 

Hale,  (Horatio,)  an  American  lawyer  and  philolo- 
gist, a  son  of  Mrs.  Sarah  J.  Hale,  was  born  in  New 
Hampshire  about  181 7.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1837.  He  produced  a  work  entitled  "Ethnology  and 
Philology,"  which,  says  Dr.  Latham,  "contains  the 
greatest  mass  of  philological  data  ever  accumulated  by 
a  single  inquirer."  The  "North  American  Review," 
in  a  notice  of  the  volume  in  July,  1846,  says,  "Mr.  Hale 
has  succeeded  in  giving  a  certain  classical  completeness 
to  his  work  which  makes  it  a  model  for  future  labourers 
in  the  same  or  similar  fields  of  research." 

Hale,  (John  P.,)  an  American  statesman,  born  at  Ro- 
chester, Strafford  county,  New  Hampshire,  in  March, 
1806.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1827,  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1830.  He  was  ap- 
pointed district  attorney  for  New  Hampshire  by  Presi- 
dent Jackson  in  1834,  and  reappointed  by  Van  Buren. 
In  1843  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  by  the 
Democrats  of  a  district  in  New  Hampshire.  He  became 
in  Congress  a  decided  opponent  of  slavery,  for  which 
reason  his  party  opposed  his  election  in  1845.  About 
this  date  he  resided  at  Dover,  New  Hampshire.  He 
was  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  of  his 
native  State  in  1846.  By  a  combination  of  anti-slavery 
Democrats  and  Whigs,  he  was  elected  Senator  of  the 
United  States  for  New  Hampshire  in  1847.  For  sev- 
eral years  he  stood  almost  alone  in  the  Senate  on  the 
question  of  slavery,  and  maintained  a  position  inde- 
pendent of  party.  He  was  an  easy  and  ready  speaker, 
and  by  his  wit  or  humour  was  often  successful  in  turning 
aside  the  attacks  of  the  pro-slavery  Senators  or  in  miti- 
gating the  bitterness  of  party  animosity.  He  was  nomi- 
nated as  candidate  for  the  Presidency  by  the  Liberty 
party  in  1852,  and  received  about  155,800  votes.  On 
the  expiration  of  his  senatorial  term  in  1853,  a  Democrat 
was  chosen  to  fill  his  place.  Mr.  Hale  was  again  elected 
a  member  of  the  national  Senate  in  1855,  to  fill  a  vacancy. 
Having  joined  the  Republican  party,  he  was  re-elected 
a  Senator  by  the  legislature  of  New  Hampshire  for  a 
term  of  six  years,  1859-65.  He  was  appointed  minister 
to  Spain  in  1865,  and  recalled  in  1869. 

Hale,  (Sir  Matthew,)  an  eminent  English  judge, 
born  at  Alderley  on  the  ist  of  November,  1609,  was 
educated  at  Oxford.  About  the  age  of  twenty  he  entered 
Lincoln's  Inn,  where  he  pursued  the  study  of  law  with 
great  assiduity,  and  reformed  his  habits  of  dissipation. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  a  few  years  before  the  com- 
mencement of  the  civil  war,  during  which  he  maintained 
a  neutral  position,  and  acted  as  counsel  for  royalists  in 
several  important  trials,  among  which  were  the  cases 
of  Strafford  and  Archbishop  Laud.  After  the  execution 
of  Charles  L,  he  recognized  the  Commonwealth,  and 
accepted  from  Cromwell,  in  1653,  the  post  of  judge  of 
the  common  bench,  the  duties  of  which  he  performed 
with  great  fidelity,  ability,  and  honour.  He  was  twice 
elected  to  Parliament, — in  1658  and  in  1660.  Charles 
II.  appointed  him  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer  in  1660, 
and  lord  chief  justice  of  England  in  1671.  He  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  greatest,  wisest,  and  best  judges  that  ever 
attained  this  dignity.  His  "History  of  the  Common 
Law"  and  "  Pleas  of  the  Crown"  are  esteemed  as  very 
high  authority.  He  wrote  also  several  religious  and 
moral  treatises,  among  which  we  may  notice  his  "Con- 
templations" and  "  Primitive  Origination  of  Mankind." 
He  was  twice  married,  and  had  a  numerous  offspring. 
Died  in  December,  1676. 

See  Gilbert  Burnet,  "Life  of  Sir  Matthew  Hale,"  16S2 ;  Dr. 
Williams,  "  Life  of  Sir  Matthew  Hale,"  1835  ;  Roscoe,  "  Life  of  Sir 
Matthew  Hale;"  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices;" 
Foss,  "  The  Judges  of  England." 

Hale,  (Nathan,)  Captain,  an  American  patriot,  born 
at  Coventry,  Connecticut,  in  1755,  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1773,  and  entered  the  army  in  1775.  In  1776 
he  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Long  Island.  He  was  sent 
by  General  Washington  to  penetrate  the  enemy's  lines 
and  procure  intelligence  in  September,  1776.  Having 
been  seized  as  a  spy,  he  was  executed  the  next  day. 

See  Stuart,  "  Life  of  Nathan  Hale,"  1856. 


€  as  k;  g  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Yi^^ttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HALE 


1  I  I  2 


HALIFAX 


Hale,  (Nathan,)  a  journalist  and  lawyer,  a  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Westhampton,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1784.  He  became  in  1814  owner  and  editor 
of  the  "  Boston  Daily  Advertiser,"  the  first  daily  paper 
issued  in  New  England,  which  he  conducted  for  many 
years  with  ability.  It  was  an  influential  organ  succes- 
sively of  the  Federalist,  Whig,  and  Republican  parties. 
In  1 816  he  married  a  sister  of  Edward  Everett.  He 
rendered  important  services  in  both  branches  of  the 
legislature  of  Massachusetts,  and  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  "North  American  Review."  He  published  a 
good  map  of  New  England  in  1825.    Died  in  1863. 

Hale,  (Sarah  Josepha,)  an  American  authoress, 
daughter  of  Mr.  Buell,  of  Sayl^rook,  Connecticut,  born 
ir.  1795  at  Newport,  New  Hampshire,  was  married  in 
1814  to  Mr.  David  Hale.  She  published  in  1823  "The 
Genius  of  Oblivion,  and  other  Poems,"  followed  by 
"Northwood,"  a  novel,  (1827.)  In  1828  she  became 
editor  of  the  "Ladies'  Magazine,"  Boston,  which  in 
1837  she  merged  into  the  "Lady's  Book"  of  Philadel- 
phia. Among  her  poetic  productions  may  be  mentioned 
"Ormond  Grosvenor,"  a  tragedy,  "Three  Hours,  or, 
The  Vigil  of  Love  ;  and  other  Poems,"  issued  in  1848, 
and  "Harry  Guy,  a  Story  of  the  Sea." 

See  Gkiswold's  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

Halem,  hi'lem,  (Bernhard  Jakob  Friedrich,)  a 
German  litterateur,  born  at  Oldenburg  in  1768.  He 
translated  from  the  English  Haliam's  "  Middle  Ages," 
and  several  of  the  romances  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  Died 
in  1823. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Halem,  von,  fon  hi'lem,  (Gerhard  Anton,)  a  Ger- 
man historian,  born  at  Oldenburg  in  1752.  Among  his 
works  are  a  "  History  of  the  Duchy  of  Oldenburg,"  (3 
vols.,  1796,)  and  a  "Life  of  Peter  the  Great,"  (1805.) 
Died  in  1819. 

See  his  "  Selbstbiographie,"  1840;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allge- 
meine Encyklopaedie." 

Halen,  van,  vin  IfMw,  ?  (Don  Juan,)  Count  of  Pera- 
campos,  a  Spanish  general,  of  Belgian  extraction,  was 
born  in  the  isle  of  Leon  in  1790.  He  fought  as  officer 
for  the  Constitutional  party  in  1821,  and  went  into  exile 
about  1823.  In  1830  he  obtained  command  of  the  Bel- 
gian insurgents,  and  drove  the  Dutch  army  from  Brus- 
sels. He  returned  to  Spain  in  1836,  and,  as  general  of 
division,  defeated  the  Carlists  in  Navarre.  Pie  was  presi- 
dent of  the  council  of  war  sometime  between  1852  and 
1856.    Died  in  November,  1864. 

See  Juan  van  Halen,  "Relacion  de  su  Cautividad  en  los  Cala- 
bozos  de  la  Inquisicion,"  2  vols.,  1827,  and  English  translation,  Lon- 
don, 1827. 

Hales  or  Hayles,  halz,  (John,)  an  English  scholar 
and  writer,  born  in  Kent ;  died  in  1572. 

Hales,  (John,)  the  Ever-Memorable,  a  noted  Eng- 
lish scholar  and  Arminian  divine,  born  at  Bath  in  1584, 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  was  a  Fellow  of  Merton 
College.  In  1618  he  took  part  in  the  Synod  of  Dort, 
and  in  1639  he  became  canon  of  Windsor.  He  wrote 
sermons,  letters,  and  treatises  on  theology,  which  were 
highly  commended  for  learning,  subtlety,  and  wit  Clar- 
endon called  him  one  of  the  greatest  scholars  in  Europe  ; 
and  many  writers  agree  in  praising  both  his  character 
and  acquirements.    Died  in  1656. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica  ;"  "  Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings 
of  John  Hales,"  1719. 

Hales,  (Stephen,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Beckesbourn  in  1677,  resided  for  the  greater 
part  of  his  life  at  Teddington,  of  which  he  was  curate. 
He  made  important  discoveries  in  vegetable  physiology, 
of  which  he  published  an  account  in  a  work  entitled 
"Vegetable  Statics,"  (1727.)  In  1717  he  was  elected  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  wrote  treatises  on 
anatomy,  temperance,  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and 
other  subjects,  and  invented  an  improved  plan  for  venti- 
lating prisons.    Died  in  176L 

See  FoucHY,  "  filoge  de  Hales." 

Hales,  (Thomas.)    See  Hele,  d'. 

Hales,  (William,)  an  Irish  clergyman  and  scientific 
author,  wrote,  besides  works  on  mathematics  and  the- 
ology, a  "New  Analysis  of  Chronology,"  (3  vols.,  1809- 


14,)  which  is  highly  commended  by  Home  and  Orme. 
Died  at  Kildare  in  1821. 

Hales,  de,  (Alexander.)  See  Alexander  de  Hales. 

Halevy,  //t'la've',  (Jacques  Franqois  Fromental 
£lie,)  an  excellent  French  composer,  born  in  Paris,  of 
Jewish  parents,  in  1799,  was  a  favourite  pupil  of  Cheru- 
bini.  He  produced  in  1829  "Claria,"  an  opera,  which 
was  successful.  His  reputation  was  greatly  increased 
by  "  The  Jewess,"  ("  La  Juive,"  1835,)  which  is  called  his 
capital  work.  The  text  of  this  was  written  by  E.  Scribe. 
He  was  chosen  professor  in  the  Conservatory  in  1833. 
Among  his  later  works  are  the  operas  of  "  The  Queen 
of  Cyprus,"  (1841,)  "La  Fee  aux  Roses,"  (1849,) 
"Valentine  d'Aubigne,"  (1856,)  which  display  beauties 
of  the  first  order.    Died  in  March,  1862. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Riographie  G^nerale  ;"  Ebers,  "  Spohr  und  Halevy  und  die  neueste 
Kirchen-  und  Opern-Musik,"  1837.  • 

Halevy,  (Leon,)  a  French  poet,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Paris  in  1802.  He  produced  about 
1830  an  excellent  version  of  the  Odes  of  Horace,  and 
afterwards  imitations  of  many  great  foreign  poets,  en- 
titled "  Poesies  Eiu  oijeennes."  His  original  drama  of 
"  Luther"  is  commended.  Among  his  other  works  are 
a  "History  of  the  Jews,"  (1828,)  versions  of  several 
tragedies  of  /Eschylus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides,  and  a 
version  of  "Macbeth,"  (1853.)  He  was  a  clerk  in  the 
ministry  of  public  instruction  many  years. 

HaPford,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  eminent  English  physician, 
born  on  the  2d  of  October,  1766,  was  the  son  of  Dj".  James 
Vaughan,  of  Leicester.  After  graduating  at  Oxford,  he 
practised  in  London  with  success,  and,  having  given 
proof  of  his  consummate  skill,  was  chosen  as  medical 
attendant  by  George  HI.,  by  whom  he  was  knighted  in 
1809.  Having  inherited  a  large  fortune  from  a  relative 
named  Halford,  he  adopted  the  name  of  his  benefactor 
in  1815.  Sir  Henry  continued  to  be  royal  physician 
during  the  reigns  of  George  IV.,  William  IV.,  and 
Victoria.  He  was  for  many  years  president  of  the 
College  of  Physicians,  before  which  he  delivered  several 
elegant  Latin  orations  ;  and  he  wrote  numerous  essays 
on  professional  subjects,  some  of  which  are  interesting 
and  attractive  even  to  the  general  reader.  His  pro- 
fessional income  at  one  period  amounted  to  10,000  a 
year.    Died  in  1844. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  May,  1844. 

Halgan,  //tKgSN',  (Emmanuel,)  a  French  admiral, 
born  in  Bretagne  in  1771.  He  became  captain  of  a 
ship  about  1805,  and  by  his  skilful  seamanship  escaped 
in  the  di.-<astrous  affair  of  the  fire-ships  at  the  isle  of 
Aix  in  1809.  He  was  made  a  vice-admiral  in  1829,  and 
Governor  of  Martinique  in  1834.    Died  in  1852. 

HaPhed,  (Nathaniel  Brassey,)  M.P.,  an  English 
author,  born  in  1751,  published  a  "Grammar  of  the 
Bengal  Language,"  and  a  "  Code  of  Gentoo  Laws," 
translated  from  the  Persian.    Died  in  1830. 

HaPi-bur-ton,  (Thomas  Chandler,)  a  humorous 
and  popular  English  author,  was  born  in  Nova  Scotia 
about  1802.  In  early  life  he  practised  law.  About  1837 
he  obtained  celebrity  by  his  "  Clockmaker,  or  the  Sayings 
and  Doings  of  Sam  Slick  of  Slickville,"  an  amusing 
personation  of  Yankee  character.  A  second  series  of 
these  Sayings  and  Doings  appeared  in  1838,  and  a  third 
in  1840.  He  was  appointed  a  judge  about  1841,  and 
removed  to  England  in  1850.  He  also  wrote  "Sam 
Slick  in  England,"  (1843,)  ^^^^  "Nature  and  Human 
Nature,"  (1855.)    Died  in  1865. 

Halifax.    See  Hallifax,  (Samuel.) 

HaPi-fax,  (Charles  Montagu,)  Earl  of,  an  Eng- 
lish statesman,  born  at  Horton  in  April,  1661,  was  the 
younger  son  of  George  Montagu,  and  a  grandson  of  the 
Earl  of  Manchester.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
where  he  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 
He  acquired  distinction  by  his  verses  on  the  death  of 
Charles  II.  in  1685,  for  which  he  was  patronized  by  the 
Earl  of  Dorset.  Being  the  youngest  son  of  a  younger 
brother,  and  consequently  without  fortune,  he  chose  the 
profession  of  a  politician,  and  obtained  in  1690  a  seat  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  where  he  speedily  distinguished 
himself  by  his  talents  for  debate  and  for  other  duties  of 
a  statesman.    His  efforts  on  the  question  of  trials  for 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  m$t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HALIFAX 


1113 


HALL 


treason  in  1692  raised  him  to  the  first  rank  of  parlia- 
mentary orators,  and  in  the  same  year  he  became  one 
of  the  lords  of  the  treasury.  About  this  time  Montagu 
and  Somers  were  the  leaders  of  the  Whig  party  in  the 
House  of  Commons  ;  and  when  Somers  retired  from 
that  arena  the  former  remained  without  an  equal.  In 
1695  he  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  and 
projected  the  general  fund.  He  became  first  lord  of  the 
treasury  in  1697,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron 
Halifax,  in  1700. 

In  1 701  he  was  impeached  by  the  House  of  Commons, 
in  which  the  Tories  had  gained  the  ascendency,  but  was 
acquitted  by  the  House  of  Lords.  At  the  death  of 
Queen  Anne,  in  17 14,  he  acted  as  one  of  the  regents  until 
the  arrival  of  George  I.,  who  created  him  Earl  of  Hali- 
fax and  appointed  him  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  I^e 
died  in  1715,  and,  leaving  no  issue,  his  earldom  became 
extinct ;  but  his  nephew  and  heir,  George  Montagu,  was 
soon  after  made  Earl  of  Halifax.  He  receives  credit  for 
consistency  as  a  statesman,  but  is  censured  for  inordi- 
nate vanity.  He  ceased  to  be  a  versifier  soon  after  he 
entered  Parliament,  but  was  noted  as  a  patron  of  lite- 
rary men,  among  whom  were  Addison  and  Steele.  By 
these  and  other  writers  he  was,  as  Pope  remarked,  "fed 
with  dedications."  His  chief  production  as  a  poet  is 
his  "  Epistle  to  the  Earl  of  Dorset  on  the  Battle  of  the 
Boyne."  The  Earl  of  Halifax  originated  the  project  for 
the  formation  of  a  public  library  and  the  purchase  of 
the  Cotton  manuscripts,  which  were  the  commencement 
of  the  British  Museum.  He  is  called  the  author  or  origi- 
nator of  the  national  debt  and  of  the  Bank  of  England. 

See  Macaulay's  "Essay  on  Addison,"  and  his  "History  of 
England;"  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Halifax,  (George  Savile  or  Saville,)  Marquis  of, 
an  English  statesman,  born  in  1630,  was  the  son  of  Sir 
\Villiam  Savile,  of  Yorkshire,  and  grandfather  of  Lord 
Chesterfield,  In  1668  his  loyalty  to  the  Stuart  family 
was  rewarded  by  a  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Viscount 
Halifax.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  he  was  the  rival 
of  Shaftesbury.  He  was  a  man  of  eminent  abilities  and 
accomplishments,  and  acquired  great  influence  in  Par- 
liament by  his  readiness  in  debate,  his  copious  elo- 
quence, and  his  extensive  knowledge.  In  1679  he  was 
appointed  member  of  the  Council  of  Thirty,  and  in  1682 
was  made  a  marquis.  He  opposed  the  bill  for  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  Duke  of  York  from  the  throne,  and  was 
Speaker  of  the  Lords  in  the  Convention  or  Parliament 
which  settled  the  succession  in  the  revolution  of  1688. 
At  the  accession  of  William  III.,  Halifax  was  appointed 
lord  privy  seal,  but  resigned  that  office  in  1690,  and 
joined  the  opposition.  He  was  called  "  the  trimmer 
of  trimmers"  in  politics,  and  censured  for  inconstancy. 
Macaulay,  however,  represents  him  as  "  the  most  ac- 
complished, the  most  enlightened,  and,  in  spite  of 
great  faults,  the  most  estimable"  of  the  statesmen  who 
were  formed  in  the  corrupt  court  of  Charles  II.  He 
wrote  two  political  tracts, — "The  Character  of  a  Trim- 
mer," and  "Anatomy  of  an  Equivalent," — which  entitle 
him  to  a  place  among  English  classical  authors.  He 
left  an  only  son,  at  whose  death,  about  1700,  the  title 
became  extinct.    Died  in  1695. 

See  Macaulay's  "History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chaps,  ii.  and 
iv.  ;  vol.  ii.  chaps,  vi.,  vii.,  ix.,  and  x.  ;  vol.  iii.  chaps,  xi.,  xiv.,  and  xv. ; 
vol.  iv.  chap.  xxi. 

Halirsch,  ha'ld^Rsh,  (Friedrich  Ludwig,)  a  German 
poet,  born  in  Vienna  in  1802  ;  died  at  Milan  in  1832. 

HaPket,  (Lady  Anne,)  originally  named  Murray,  a 
learned  lady,  born  in  London  in  1632.  She  left  in 
manuscript  many  volumes,  a  portion  of  which  was  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  "Meditations,"  (1702.)  Died 
in  1699. 

HaPkett,  (Sir  Peter,)  a  British  naval  officer,  born  in 
1766,  became  vice-admiral  in  1821,  and  admiral  in  1837. 
Died  in  1840. 

Hall,  (Anna  Maria.)    See  Hall,  (Mrs.  S.  C.) 

Hail,  (Rev.  Anthony,)  born  in  Cumberland  in  1679, 
edited  Leland  "  De  Scriptoribus,"  (1709,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1723. 

Hall,  (Captain  Ba.sil,)  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1788, 
entered  the  royal  navy  about  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  be- 
came a  post-captain  in  181 7.    About  1816  he  accompa- 


nied Lord  Amherst  on  the  embassy  to  China,  and  after 
his  return  published  "A  Voyage  of  Discovery  to  Corea 
and  Great  Loo-Choo  Island,"  which  was  well  received. 
He  published  in  1823  "Extracts  from  a  Journal  written 
on  the  Coasts  of  Chili,  Peru,  and  Mexico;"  and  in  1829 
appeared  his  "Travels  in  North  America,"  which  was 
followed  by  "A  Winter  in  Lower  Styria,"  "Travels  in 
South  America,"  etc.  Captain  Hall  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  to  the  "  Transactions"  of  which  he  con- 
tributed several  scientific  treatises.  His  books  of  travel 
obtained  a  liberal  share  of  popularity.  "Blackwood's 
Magazine,"  reviewing  his  "  Travels  in  North  America," 
gives  him  credit  for  "striking  talent  and  many  just  and 
profound  observations."  He  died  in  an  asylum  for  the 
insane,  in  1844. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen, 
(Supplement.) 

Hall,  (Rt.  Hon.  Sir  Benjamin,)  a  liberal  British  legis- 
lator, born  probably  in  Wales  in  1802.  He  was  elected 
to  Parliament  in  1831,  after  which  he  represented  Mary- 
lebone  for  many  years.  He  favoured  the  extension  of 
the  right  of  suffrage,  and  other  reforms,  and  acted  a 
prominent  part  in  the  often-repeated  effort  to  abolish 
church  rates.  In  1854  he  became  president  of  the  board 
of  health,  and  privy  councillor.  He  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  with  the  title  of  Baron  Llanover,  about  1859. 

Hall,  h3.1,  (Carl  Christian,)  a  Danish  orator  of  the 
Liberal  party,  born  at  Copenhagen  about  1812.  In  1854 
he  was  appointed  minister  of  worship  and  public  instruc- 
tion, and  president  of  the  council  in  1856. 

Hail,  (DoMiNiCK  Augustine,)  an  American  magis- 
trate, born  in  South  Carolina  in  1765,  became  United 
States  judge  for  Louisiana  in  1812.  He  is  chiefly  known 
from  his  controversy  with  General  Jackson  at  New  Or- 
leans in  181 5.   (See  Jackson,  Andrew.)  Died  in  1820. 

Hall  or  Halle,  (Edward,)  an  English  historian,  born 
in  London.  In  1540  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the 
sheriffs  court.  He  wrote  a  chronicle,  entitled  "  The 
Union  of  the  Two  Noble  and  Illustrate  Families  of 
Lancaster  and  York,"  (1542.)    Died  in  1547. 

Hall,  (George,)  a  son  of  the  Bishop  of  Norwich,  was 
born  at  Waltham  Holy  Cross  in  1612.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Chester  in  1662,  and  published  some  sermons, 
(1655-66.)    Died  in  1668. 

Hall,  (Gordon,)  the  first  American  missionary  to 
Bombay,  was  born  in  West  Granville,  (now  Tolland,) 
Massachusetts,  in  1782.  He  graduated  at  Williams 
College  in  1808,  was  ordained  in  February,  1812,  and 
the  same  month  sailed  for  the  East  under  the  auspices 
of  the  American  Board  for  Foreign  Missions.  After  his 
arrival  at  Bombay  he  continued  to  labour  with  great 
zeal  and  success  till  his  death,  (of  cholera,)  in  1826,  just 
after  completing  the  publication  of  the  New  Testament 
in  the  Mahratta  language. 

Hall,  (Sir  James,)  Baronet  of  Dunglass,  a  Scottish 
gentleman,  born  in  1761,  was  the  father  of  Captain  Basil 
Hall.  He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  the  Origin,  Principles, 
and  History  of  Gothic  Architecture,"  said  to  be  the 
most  popular  and  valuable  work  on  the  subject.  He 
was  president  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.  By 
experiments  on  the  fusion  of  mineral  substances  he 
contributed  greatly  to  the  progress  of  geological  science. 
Died  in  1832. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Hall,  (James,)  an  eminent  American  author  and  judge, 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  1793.  He  joined  the  army  and 
served  with  distinction  against  the  British  in  the  war  of 
1812-15.  In  1820  he  removed  to  Shawneetown,  Illinois, 
where  he  practised  law  and  held  several  civil  offices,  in- 
cluding that  of  judge.  After  1833  he  resided  in  Cincinnati. 
He  established  at  Vandalia  about  1830  "The  Illinoia 
Monthly  Magazine,"  which  he  conducted  for  several 
years  with  much  ability.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Legends  of  the  West,"  (1832,)  "Sketches  of 
the  West,"  (1835,)  "Tales  of  the  Border,"  (1835,) 
"  Notes  on  the  Western  States,"  (1838,)  and  "The  Wil- 
derness and  the  War-Path,"  (1845.)  J^i<^'ge  Hall  and 
T.  L.  McKenney  were  joint  authors  of  a  splendidly- 
illustrated  work,  "The  History  of  the  Indian  Tribes  of 
North  America,"  (3  vols.,  1838-44.)    A  new  edition  of 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  {J^^'StQ  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HJLL 


1114 


HJLL 


his  Works,  revised  by  himself,  was  published  about  1856, 
in  4  vols.    Died  in  July,  1868. 

See  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America;"  Duyckinck,  "Cy- 
clopedia of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ;  Allibone,  "Dictionary 
of  Authors." 

Hall,  (James,)  an  American  geologist,  born  at  Hing- 
hani,  Massachusetts,  in  181 1.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Rensselaer  School,  Troy,  where  he  was  a  pupil  of  Amos 
Eaton.  About  1837  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  geolo- 
gists of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  commenced  the 
survey  of  the  western  part  ofxthat  State.  His  "Report 
on  the  Geology  of  New  York,  Fourth  District,"  was 
published  by  the  government  in  1843.  acquired 
distinction  by  his  researches  in  the  fossils  of  the  lower 
and  middle  Silurian  rocks,  which  he  described  in  his 
excellent  work  on  "The  Palaeontology  of  New  York," 
(3  vols.,  1847-59.)  He  was  appointed  geologist  of  the 
State  of  Iowa  in  1855. 

Hall,  (John,)  an  English, author,  born  at  Durham  in 
1627,  was  educated  for  the  law.  He  wrote  a  volume  of 
poems,  treatises  on  Emblems  and  on  Paradoxes,  and  a 
translation  of  Longinus  "  On  the  Sublime."  Died  in  1656. 

Hall,  (John,)  an  English  engraver,  born  near  Col- 
chester in  1739.  He  was  historical  engraver  to  George 
HI.    Died  in  1797. 

Hall,  (John  E.,)  an  American  lawyer  and  editor,  a 
brother  of  Judge  James  Hall,  noticed  above,  was  born 
in  1783.  He  began  to  practise  law  in  Baltimore  about 
1805,  and  there  edited  the  "American  Law  Journal,"  (6 
vols.,  1808-16.)  In  1816  he  became  editor  of  the  "  Port- 
Folio,"  (published  in  Philadelphia,)  to  which  he  con- 
tributed "Memoirs  of  Anacreon."    Died  in  1829. 

Hall,  (Joseph,)  an  English  bishop  and  author,  born 
at  Ashby-de-la-Zouch,  July  i,  1574.  After  graduating  at 
Cambridge,  he  was  ordained,  and  became  chaplain  to 
James  I.  and  Dean  of  Worcester  in  161 7.  He  was  a 
deputy  to  the  Synod  of  Dort  in  1618.  In  1627  he  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Exeter,  from  which  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  see  of  Norwich  in  1641.  His  earnest  piety 
subjected  him  to  the  charge  of  Puritanism.  Having 
united  with  other  bishops  in  protesting  against  the  va- 
lidity of  acts  of  Parliament  passed  in  their  compulsory 
absence,  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower  in  1641,  and 
confined  a  few  months.  The  revenues  of  his  bishopric 
having  been  sequestered  about  1642,  he  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  poverty,  at  Higham.  Died  in 
1656.  Bishop  Hall  was  a  man  of  excellent  character, 
and  author  of  many  learned  and  eloquent  productions 
in  prose  and  verse,  among  which  may  be  noticed 
"  Virgidemiarum,"  (Poetical  Satires,  1598,)  "Epistles," 
"Christian  Meditations,"  (1640,)  "  Enochismus ;  or, 
Treatise  on  the  Mode  of  Walking  with  God,"  and 
"Contemplations  upon  the  Principal  Historical  Passages 
of  the  Nevy  Testament,"  (1612-15.)  The  last,  in  the 
opinion  of  Doddridge,  is  "incomparably  valuable  for 
language,  criticism,  and  devotion."  "Both  Taylor  and 
Hall,"  says  Hallam,  "were  full  of  learning  and  fertile 
of  illustration  ;  both  may  be  said  to  have  had  strong 
imagination  and  poetical  genius,  though  Taylor  let  his 
predominate  a  little  more." 

See  Rev.  John  Jones,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of 
Joseph  Hall;"  "Autobiography,"  in  his  "Specialities;"  Pratt, 
"Life  of  Joseph  Hall;"  Warton,  "History  o^"  English  Poetry;" 
"Biographia  Britannica." 

Hall,  (Louisa  Jane,)  an  American  poetess,  born  at 
Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1802.  She  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  dramatic  poem,  entitled  "  Miriam,"  (1837,) 
and  a  "  Life  of  Elizabeth  Carter." 

See  Griswold's  "Female  Poets  of  America." 

Hall,  (Lyman,)  a  physician,  born  in  Connecticut, 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1747,  and  settled  at  Sud- 
bury, Georgia.  Having  joined  the  popular  cause,  he 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Congress  of  1775, 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  retired 
from  Congress  in  1780,  and  was  elected  Governor  of 
Georgia  in  1783.    Died  in  1791. 

See  Goodrich,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence." 

Hall,  (Marshall,)  an  English  medical  writer,  born 
near  Nottingham  in  1790.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Principles  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Medi- 


cine," (1837;)  reprinted  by  Drs.  J.  Bigelow  and  O.  W 
Holmes,  (Boston,  1839.)    Died  in  1857. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Marshall  Hall,"  by  his  widow,  London,  1861. 

Hall,  (Newman,)  an  English  dissenting  minister,  bom 
in  1816.  He  graduated  at  the  London  University,  and 
preached  to  the  Congregational  church  of  Hull  from 
1842  to  1854.  In  the  latter  year  he  became  minister  of 
Surrey  Chapel,  London.  He  wrote  a  work  called  "Come 
to  Jesus,"  which  had  a  large  circulation.  Among  his 
other  works  is  "  Italy,  the  Land  of  the  Forum  and  the 
Vatican,"  (1853.)  He  distinguished  himself  as  an  advo- 
cate of  American  liberty  during  the  civil  war  of  1861-65. 
He  visited  the  United  States  in  1867. 

Hall,  (Peter,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in  1803, 
became  rector  of  Milston,  Wiltshire.  He  edited  the 
works  of  his  ancestor.  Bishop  Joseph  Hall,  and  wrote 
"Reliquiae  Liturgiae,"  (5  vols.,  1847,)  and  "Fragmenta 
Liturgica,"  (7  vols.,  1848.)    Died  in  1849. 

Hall,  hil,  (Peter  Adolf,)  an  eminent  Swedish  minia- 
ture-painter, born  at  Boras  in  1739,  worked  in  Paris. 
Died  at  Liege  in  1794. 

Hall,  (Richard,)  an  English  Catholic  theologian,  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Douay,  in  France,  wrote  a  "Life  of 
Fisher,  Bishop  of  Rochester,"  (1653,)  which  goes  under 
the  name  of  its  editor,  Bailey.    Died  in  1604. 

Hall,  (Robert,)  an  eloquent  English  Baptist  minister, 
born  at  Arnsby,  in  Leicestershire,  on  the  2d  of  May, 
1764.  He  was  a  remarkable  instance  of  early  mental 
development.  It  is  said  that  before  the  age  of  nine  years 
he  perused  with  interest  Jonathan  Edwards's  treatises 
on  the  "Affections"  and  the  "  Will."  After  graduating 
at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  where  he  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  Sir  James  Mackintosh,  he  became,  in  1783, 
assistant  pastor  in  the  church  of  Broadmead,  near  Bristol, 
to  which  a  crowded  audience  was  attracted  by  his  won- 
derful eloquence.  From  1791  to  1804  he  was  minister  of 
a  Baptist  congregation  in  Cambridge.  In  consequence 
of  excessive  application  to  study  and  habitual  privation 
of  social  recreation,  he  suffered  an  attack  of  insanity  in 
November,  1804,  from  which  he  was  restored  in  about 
two  years.  But  it  was  thought  expedient  for  him  to 
resign  his  ministerial  charge,  and  to  abstain  from  mental 
exertion  for  a  year  or  two.  In  1807  or  1808,  having  im- 
proved in  health,  he  accepted  a  call  from  the  church  of 
Harvey  Lane,  Leicester,  where  he  was  married  in  1808. 
Here  he  continued  to  labour  for  a  period  of  twenty 
years,  and  maintained  his  high  reputation  as  a  pulpit 
orator.  In  1826  he  left  Leicester  and  returned  to  the 
scene  of  his  early  labours  at  Bristol,  where  he  died  in 
1831.  His  published  sermons  are  ranked  among  the 
most  perfect  specimens  of  pulpit  eloquence.  "  In  his 
highest  flights,  what  he  said  of  Burke  might,  with  the 
slightest  deduction,  be  applied  to  himself, — 'that  his  im- 
perial fancy  laid  all  nature  under  tribute,'  and  collected 
riches  from  every  scene  of  the  creation  and  every  walk 
of  art."  (Dr.  Gregory.)  In  the  excitement  occasioned 
by  the  French  Revolution,  he  published  an  "Apology  for 
the  Freedom  of  the  Press,"  and  other  political  treatises. 

See  Olinthus  Grrgory,  "  Brief  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  Robert 
Hall ;"  J.  W.  Morris,  "  Life  of  Robert  Hall,"  1846 ;  John  Greene, 
"  Reminiscences  of  Robert  Hall ;"  "  Quarterly  Review,"  vol.  xlviii., 
1832;  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

Hall,  (Robert  Pleasants,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
poet,  born  in  Chester  district.  South  Carolina,  in  1825. 
He  removed  with  his  parents  to  Georgia  during  his 
minority.  He  published  a  volume  of  poems  about  1848. 
Died  in  1854. 

Hall,  (Samuel  Carter,)  an  English  editor  and  critic, 
was  born  at  Topsham,  Devon,  in  1800.  He  was  suc- 
cessively editor  of  the  "  New  Monthly  Magazine,"  "  The 
Book  of  Gems,"  "The  Baronial  Halls  of  England,"  and 
other  illustrated  annuals.  In  co-operation  with  his  wife, 
(see  next  article,)  he  ])ul)lished  a  successful  work  entitled 
"Ireland:  its  Scenery,  Character,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1841- 
43.)  He  has  been  for  about  twenty  years  editor  of  the 
London  "Art  Journal,"  an  illustrated  monthly  periodical 
of  high  character.  It  was  founded  chiefly  by  him,  and 
has  contributed  greatly  to  the  advancement  of  the  arts 
in  Great  Britain. 

Hall,  (Mrs.  S.  C.,)  (Anna  Maria  Fielding,)  a 
popular  Irish  authoress,  born  at  Dublin  about  1804.  At 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  |,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6tj  good;  moon; 


HALL 


15 


HALLE  CK 


fifteen  she  removed  to  London,  and  was  married  to  S. 
C.  Hall,  noticed  above,  in  1824.  She  produced  in  1829 
"Sketches  of  Irish  Character,"  which  was  favourably 
received,  and  in  1834  "  Tales  of  Woman's  Trials."  Her 
reputation  was  maintained  by  "  Lights  and  Shadows  of 
Irish  Life,"  (1838,  3  vols.,)  "Tales  of  the  Irish  Peas- 
antry," (1840,)  and  other  graphic  descriptions  of  the 
same  people.  She  also  wrote  two  successful  dramas, 
entitled  "The  French  Refugee,"  (1837,)  and  "The  Groves 
of  Blarney."  Her  talents  have  been  enlisted  in  the  tem- 
perance cause  and  other  benevolent  enterprises. 

See  "  Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xvii. 

Hall,  (Samuel  Read,)  an  American  teacher,  born  at 
Croydon,  New  Hampshire,  in  1795.  He  opened  a  school 
for  the  training  of  teachers  at  Concord,  Vermont,  about 
1823,  and  published  "The  Instructor's  Manual." 

Hal'lam,  (Arthur  Henry,)  a  critic  and  essayist, 
born  in  London  on  the  ist  of  February,  181 1,  was  a 
son  of  Henry  Hallam  the  historian.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
graduated  in  1832.  He  gained  a  prize  at  Cambridge 
for  an  English  essay  on  the  Philosophical  Writings  of 
Cicero.  After  he  left  college,  he  visited  the  continent 
in  company  with  his  father.  He  died  in  Vienna  in  Sep- 
tember, 1833,  leaving  a  number  of  short  poems  and 
essays,  since  published  under  the  title  of  "  Remains  in 
Prose  and  Verse,"  to  which  a  Memoir  by  his  father  is 
prefixed.  His  intimate  friend  Tennyson  has  raised  an  im- 
mortal monument  to  his  name  in  his  "In  Memoriam." 
One  of  his  fellow-students,  in  a  letter  to  Henry  Hallam, 
writes,  "  I  have  met  with  no  man  his  superior  in  meta- 
physical subtlety ;  no  man  his  equal  as  a  philosophical 
critic  on  works  of  taste."  See  an  article  on  "  Precocity" 
in  the  "Saturday  Review"  of  April  4,  1863,  from  which 
we  quote  the  following  :  "  No  matter  how  often  his  prose 
Remains  are  read  and  pondered,  our  admiration  con- 
tinues as  fresh  as  ever.  We  say  prose  Remains,  because 
his  poems  .  .  .  are  wanting  in  those  astounding  evi- 
dences of  matured  thought  which  meet  us  in  every  page 
of  his  three  great  prose  essays." 

See  the  "North  British  Review"  for  February,  1851 ;  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  for  December,  i860. 

Hallam,  (Henry,)  an  English  historian  and  critic  of 
great  merit,  born  at  Windsor  in  1777,  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  Oxford.  Soon  after  he  left  college  he  became 
a  resident  of  London,  where  he  passed  the  greater  part 
of  his  life,  engaged  in  literary  studies  and  in  the  labours 
of  authorship.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Sir  Abraham 
Elton.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  contributors  to  the 
"Edinburgh  Review."  His  political  affinities  associ- 
ated him  with  the  Whigs ;  but  he  was  remarkably  free 
from  a  partisan  spirit.  He  was  a  prominent  coadjutor 
of  Wilberforce  in  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade.  He 
published  in  1818  an  important  and  valuable  work,  a 
"View  of  the  State  of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages," 
which  has  run  through  eleven  editions.  "  It  is  written 
throughout,"  says  the  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  (vol.  xxx., 
June,  1818,)  "with  a  spirit  of  freedom  and  liberality  that 
do  credit  to  the  author.  A  firm  but  temperate  love  of 
liberty,  an  enlightened  but  cautious  philosophy,  form  its 
distinguished  excellence." 

His  next  great  work  was  "The  Constitutional  History 
of  England  from  the  Accession  of  Henry  VII.  to  the 
Death  of  George  II.,"  (1827.)  "Mr.  Hallam,"  says 
Macaulay,  "is,  on  the  whole,  far  better  qualified  than 
any  other  writer  of  our  time  for  the  office  which  he  has 
undertaken.  He  has  great  industry  and  great  acuteness. 
His  knowledge  is  extensive,  various,  and  profound.  His 
mind  is  equally  distinguished  by  the  amplitude  of  its 
grasp  and  the  delicacy  of  its  tact.  .  .  .  His  work  is  emi- 
nently judicial.  He  sums  up  with  a  calm,  steady  im- 
partiality. On  a  general  survey,  we  do  not  scruple  to 
pronounce  the  'Constitutional  History'  the  most  im- 
partial book  that  we  ever  read."  In  1830  he  received 
one  of  the  two  gold  medals  instituted  by  George  IV.  for 
excellence  in  historical  composition.  He  published  in 
1837-39  an  "Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe 
in  the  Fifteenth,  Sixteenth,  and  Seventeenth  Centuries," 
(4  vols.,)  a  work  of  immense  research,  which  was  received 
■with  great  favour  and  which  placed  the  author  in  the 
highest  rank  as  a  critic.    A  writer  in  the  "  Edinburgh 


Review"  for  October,  1840,  pronounced  it  "the  most 
important  contribution  to  literary  history  which  English 
libraries  have  received  for  many  years."  Hallam  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  a  corresponding  mem- 
ber of  the  French  Institute.    He  died  in  January,  1859. 

See  a  Sketch  of  his  Life  in  the  "  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society," 
vol.  X.  No.  40;  Macaulay,  "Essay  on  Hallam's  Constitutional 
History  of  England;"  Wm.  Jerdan,  "Men  I  have  known,"  Lon- 
don, 1866:  "Biographical  Sketches,'"  by  Harriet  Martineau, 
London,  1S69 ;  critique  on  "  Hallam's  Constitutional  History,"  in  the 
"Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1828,  (by  Southey,)  also  the  same 
Review  for  February,  1837,  ^nd  March,  1840;  and  articles  in  the 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1818,  and  October,  1840  :  and  "  Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  May,  1837;  Allibone,  "Diet,  of  Authors." 

Hallam,  (Henry  Fitzmaurice,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  August,  1824.  He  studied  at  Eton, 
became  a  good  classical  scholar,  and  entered  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  in  1842.  Having  gained  the  first 
prize  for  English  declamation  in  1845,  quitted  Cam- 
bridge in  1846,  and  commenced  the  study  of  law.  He 
had  been  called  to  the  bar  a  few  months,  when  he  died, 
at  Sienna,  Italy,  in  October,  1850.  An  American  student 
who  knew  him  at  Cambridge  says,  "  He  was  the  neatest 
extempore  speaker  I  ever  heard."  (See  Memoir  pre- 
fixed to  "Arthur  Henry  Hallam's  Remains.") 

Hallberg-Broich,  von,  fon  haKbeRc'  bRo'iK,  (Theo- 
DOR  Hubert,)  Baron,  an  eccentric  German  traveller, 
born  near  Dusseldorf  about  1775.  He  published  a 
"Tour  in  Scandinavia,"  (1818,)  "Travels  in  Italy," 
(1829,)  and  a  "Journey  to  the  East,"  ("  Reise  nach  deni 
Orient,"  1839.) 

Halle,  (Antoine.)    See  Halley,  (Antoine.) 

Halle,  ht'W,  (Claude  Gui,)  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Paris  in  1652.  He  gained  many  prizes  at  the  Acad- 
emy, and  was  employed  to  decorate  the  royal  residences 
and  several  churches  of  Paris.    Died  in  1736. 

Halle,  (Jean  Noel,)  an  eminent  French  physician, 
son  of  Noel  Halle  the  painter,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1754. 
After  he  had  acquired  skill  in  the  art  of  design  at  Rome, 
he  returned  to  Paris  to  study  medicine.  In  1794  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  hygiene  and  medicine  in  the 
Ecole  de  Sante,  where  his  lectures  were  very  popular. 
Halle  was  admitted  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  the 
first  formation  of  the  Institute,  (1796.)  In  1804  he  ob- 
tained the  chair  of  medicine  in  the  College  of  France  ; 
and  about  the  same  period  Napoleon  chose  him  as  his 
first  physician.  After  the  restoration  he  was  employed 
professionally  by  the  king's  brother,  (afterwards  Charles 
X.)  His  vast  erudition  was  displayed  by  his  professional 
works  and  by  various  scientific  treatises,  which  form 
part  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Institute  and  of  the  "  Ency- 
clopedic Methodique."  In  his  character  were  united 
many  estimable  qualities.    Died  in  1822. 

See  Cuvier,  "  filoge  de  Halle  ;"  Desgenettes,  "£loge  de  Halle," 
1823;  F.  Dubois  d'Amiens,  "  filoge  de  J.  N.  Halle,"  1852. 

Halle,  (Noel,)  the  son  of  Claude  Gui,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  171 1,  and  gained  distinction  as  a 
historical  painter.  Having  obtained  several  prizes,  he 
was  sent  to  Rome  at  the  public  expense.  In  1771  he 
was  made  superintendent  of  the  tapestries  of  the  crown, 
and  afterwards  director  of  the  Academy  of  France  which 
the  king  instituted  at  Rome.    Died  in  1781. 

Halle,  (Pierre,)  a  French  poet  and  orator,  born  at 
Bayeux  in  161 1.   He  wrote  on  canon  law.    Died  in  1689. 

HalTeck,  (Fitz-Greene,)  a  distinguished  American 
poet,  born  in  Guilford,  Connecticut,  July  8,  1790.  He 
was  descended  on  his  mother's  side  from  John  Eliot,  the 
"  Apostle  of  the  Indians."  He  appears  to  have  enjoyed 
but  few  advantages  for  education.  About  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  became,  in  the  city  of  New  York,  a  clerk  in 
the  banking-house  of  Jacob  Barker,  in  whose  employ  he 
continued  for  a  number  of  years.  Mr.  Halleck's  mind 
was  not  remarkable  for  precocity,  and  his  earliest  pro 
ductions  show  but  slight  traces  of  that  genius  which 
charmed  and  dazzled  in  his  maturer  years.  The  first  of 
his  poems  that  attracted  much  attention  appeared  (1818- 
19)  in  the  New  York  "Evening  Post,"  under  the  sig- 
nature of  "Croaker  &  Co.,"  a  literary  partnership  con- 
sisting of  himself  and  his  gifted  friend  Joseph  Rodman 
Drake.  The  early  death  of  the  latter  (in  1820)  was  com- 
memorated by  his  brother  poet  in  some  beautiful  and 
touching  lines.    About  the  beginning  of  1820  he  pub- 


€  as  k;  9  as    g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R, 


trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!:^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HALLECK 


1116 


HALLER 


lished  "  Fanny,"  his  longest  poem, — a  satire  upon  the 
fashionable  and  poHtical  follies  of  the  day, — which  had 
a  great  success  and  passed  through  numerous  editions. 
In  1822  he  visited  Europe,  and  after  his  return  published 
in  the  *'  New  York  Review"  his  "  Marco  Bozzaris,"  one 
of  the  finest  martial  lyrics  in  the  language,  and  in  the 
"United  States  Review"  his  beautiful  poem  to  the  mem- 
ory of  Burns,  concerning  which  Mr.  Bryant  remarks, 
"  I  am  not  sure  that  the  verses  are  not  the  finest  in  which 
one  poet  ever  celebrated  another."  A  volume  of  his 
poems,  including  the  two  last  named,  appeared  in  1827. 
Among  his  other  productions  we  may  particularly  name 
"Alnwick  Castle,"  "  Connecticut,"  and  "  Red  Jacket." 
Although  Mr.  Halleck's  most  ardent  admirers  would 
hardly  claim  for  him  the  name  of  a  "great"  poet,  all 
competent  critics  must,  we  think,  admit  that  there  are  in 
the  productions  of  his  happier  moments  a  facility,  sweet- 
ness, and  grace  scarcely  surpassed  by  any  of  the  most 
gifted  poets  of  the  present  age.  In  none  of  his  poems, 
perhaps,  are  these  qualities  exhibited  to  better  advan- 
tage than  in  his  charming  lines  on  "  Woman,"  written 
in  the  album  of  an  unknown  lady. 

For  many  years  Mr.  Halleck  was  employed  as  a  clerk 
by  John  Jacob  Astor,  the  celebrated  millionnaire.  Some 
time  after  he  had  given  up  this  position,  he  received  from 
J.  J.  Astor  a  small  legacy,  to  which  a  liberal  addition 
was  made  by  Mr.  W.  B.  Astor.  During  the  latter  years 
of  his  life  he  resided  chiefly  in  Connecticut,  in  his  native 
town.  He  died  November  19,  1867.  A  complete  edition 
of  Halleck's  poems  appeared  in  1858.  The  "Croaker 
Papers,"  including  portraits  of  Halleck  and  Drake,  were 
published  by  the  Bradford  Club  in  a  handsome  octavo 
volume,  (New  York,  i860,)  the  typography  of  which  has 
probably  never  been  surpassed  by  that  of  any  other 
work  issued  in  this  country.  It  is  said  to  be  the  first 
complete  edition  of  the  "Croaker  Papers"  that  has 
appeared. 

See  James  Grant  Wilson,  "Life  and  Letters  of  Fitz-Greene 
Halleck,"  1869  ;  W.  C.  Bryant,  "Address  on  Fitz-Gieene  Halleck," 
delivered  before  the  New  York  Historical  Society,  February  2,  i86g  ; 
DuYCKiNCK,  "  Cyclopjedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Gris- 
WOLD,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America  ;"  Cleveland,  "  Compendium 
*f  American  Literature." 

Halleck,  (Henry  Wager,)  an  American  general, 
born  near  Utica,  in  New  York,  in  1814.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1839.  He  published  "Elements  of 
Military  Art  and  Science,"  (1846.)  As  first  lieutenant, 
he  served  in  the  Mexican  war  in  1846-47,  after  which  he 
filled  several  civil  offices  in  California.  He  became  a 
captain  of  engineers,  but  resigned  his  commission  in 
1854,  and  practised  law  at  San  Francisco  from  that  time 
until  1861.  In  August,  1861,  he  was  appointed  a  major- 
general  of  the  United  States  army.  He  obtained  the 
command  of  the  department  of  Missouri  in  November, 

1861,  and  of  the  department  of  the  Mississippi  in  March, 

1862.  He  commanded  in  person  at  the  siege  of  Corinth, 
which  the  enemy  evacuated  about  the  end  of  May,  1862. 
He  was  general-in-chief  of  the  armies  of  the  United  States 
from  July  1 1,  1862,  till  March,  1864,  during  which  period 
he  remained  at  Washington,  directing  the  movements 
of  the  generals  in  the  field.  He  was  superseded  March 
12,  1864,  by  General  Grant,  and  was  appointed  chief  of 
staff  of  the  United  States  army.  He  took  command  of 
the  military  division  of  the  Pacific  in  August,  1865.  Died 
in  1872. 

Hallenberg,  hSrien-beKg''.(JoNAS,)  a  learned  Swedish 
historian  and  antiquary,  b  un  in  Snialand  in  1748.  He 
was  aopointed  in  1784  historian  of  the  kingdom,  and 
ordered  to  write  the  history  of  the  reign  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  which  was  published,  in  1790,  in  5  vols.  In 
1818  he  received  a  title  of  nobility.    Died  in  1834. 

See  J.  H.  ScHROEDER,  "Minne  af  J.  Hallenberg,"  1838;  "  Bio- 
graphiskt- Lexicon  ofver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Haller,  hiKler,  (Berthold,)  a  Swiss  Reformer,  born 
in  Suabia  in  1492,  was  a  coadjutor  of  Zwingle.  He  was 
the  principal  agent  in  the  conversion  of  the  people  of 
Berne  to  the  Protestant  religion.    Died  in  1 536. 

Haller,  (Johann,)  a  German  sculptor,  born  at  Inn- 
spruck  in  1792.  He  worked  in  Munich,  was  patronized 
by  King  Ludvvig,  and  adorned  the  Glyptothek  with  statues 
of  ancient  heroes.  Among  his  works  are  many  busts  of 
eminent  moderns.    Died  in  1826. 


Haller,  von,  fon  hiKler,  (Albert,)  a  distinguished 

Swiss  physiologist,  botanist,  and  poet,  was  born  at  BernC 
on  the  i6th  of  October,  1708.  His  intellectual  powers 
developed  themselves  very  early.  At  the  age  of  nine  or 
ten,  it  is  said,  he  wrote  a  composition  in  Greek,  and 
compiled  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  grammars.  In  1725  he 
studied  medicine  and  anatomy  under  Boerhaave  and 
Albinus  at  Leyden,  where  he  graduated  in  1727.  At 
Paris  he  pursued  his  studies  under  Winslow  and  Ledran, 
and,  after  taking  lessons  in  mathematics  from  Bernoulli 
at  Bale,  he  returned  to  practise  medicine  at  Berne.  Here 
he  cultivated  botany  and  poetry  with  ardour,  and  had 
charge  of  the  public  library.  In  1736  he  accepted  the 
chair  of  medicine,  anatomy,  and  botany  in  the  University 
of  Gottingen,  in  which  during  seventeen  years  he  offi- 
ciated with  great  zeal  and  distinction.  Amidst  his  multi- 
farious official  duties  he  found  time  for  careful  researches 
and  important  discoveries  in  science,  and  for  the  collec- 
tion of  materials  for  his  projected  publications. 

At  Gottingen  he  published  his  "Anatomical  Plates," 
the  first  volume  of  his  "  Swiss  Flora,"  his  "  Experiments 
on  Sensibility  and  Irritability,"  and  his  "  First  Outlines 
of  Physiology,"  besides  a  great  multitude  of  memoirs 
contributed  to  learned  societies  and  recorded  in  their 
"Transactions."  When  the  Royal  Society  of  Gottingen 
was  founded,  in  175 1,  Haller  was  chosen  perpetual  presi- 
dent. Some  years  previously  he  was  elected  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  was  named  physician 
to  the  King  of  England.  His  renown  was  such  that  the 
Universities  of  Oxford  and  Leyden  were  eager  to  engage 
his  services  as  professor,  and  Frederick  the  Great  invited 
him  to  his  court. 

The  delicate  state  of  his  health  rendering  repose 
needful,  he  resigned  his  professorship  at  Gottingen  in 
1753,  and  returned  to  Berne,  the  citizens  of  which  in  his 
absence  had  chosen  him  a  member  of  the  Supreme 
Council,  and  now  added  other  dignities.  Still  he  main- 
tained his  prodigious  mental  activity  as  an  author  and  a 
student  of  nature,  which,  aided  by  a  powerful  memory, 
rendered  him  profoundly  versed  not  only  in  natural 
sciences,  but  also  in  languages,  history,  geography,  and 
antiquities.  Among  his  numerous  and  voluminous  writ- 
ings may  be  specially  mentioned  "  Icones  Anatomicae," 
("Anatomical  Plates,"  1743-56,)  esteemed  one  of  his  best 
works,  and  "  Elementa  Physiologiae  Corporis  Humani," 
("Elements  of  the  Physiology  of  the  Human  Body,"  8 
vols.,  1757-66.)  This  work  opened  a  new  era  in  physi- 
ology, and  is  highly  praised  for  its  admirable  arrangement 
and  the  elegance  of  its  style,  as  well  as  for  the  multitude 
of  its  scientific  facts  and  its  thorough  discussion  of  the 
theories  of  others.  The  principal  idea  developed  in  it 
is  the  irritability  of  the  muscular  fibre  considered  as  a 
motive  power,  and  distinguished  from  sensibility  else- 
where diffused.  He  published,  also,  "Opera  Minora," 
a  collection  of  forty  treatises  on  "Anatomy  and  Physi- 
ology," (3  vols.  4to,  1762-68,)  and  a  "Flora  of  Switzer- 
land," (1768.)  In  botany  Haller  may  be  called  a  rival 
of  his  contemporary  Linnaeus,  whose  artificial  system  he 
laboured  to  supplant  by  the  system  founded  on  natural 
affinities,  now  generally  adopted. 

His  poetical  works  were  written  in  German,  and  were 
published  when  he  was  about  twenty  years  of  age.  The 
most  extensive  among  them  is  a  poem  on  the  Alps, 
which  ran  through  twenty-two  editions.  His  elegiac 
odes,  his  verses  on  "  Eternity,"  and  his  didactic  poems 
on  "  Reason"  and  "  Superstition,"  are  admired  for  their 
sensibility  and  elevated  thought.  Haller  was  thrice 
married,  and  had  a  large  family  of  children.  His  re- 
ligious views  were  evangelical,  as  was  shown  by  his  de- 
fence of  revelation  in  answer  to  Voltaire.    Died  in  1777. 

See  "Life  of  Haller,"  (in  German,)  by  J.  G.  Zimmermann,  1755; 
Thomas  Henry,  "  Memoirs  of  Albert  de  Haller,"  1783  ;  Condorcet, 
"filoge  de  Haller;"  Senebiek,  "  Eloge  historique  de  Albert  von 
Haller,"  1778;  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Cu- 
viER,  "Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles ;"  Eksch  und  Gruber, 
"Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  L'^idore  Bourdon,  "  Illustres  Mede- 
cins  et  Naturalistes  des  Temps  modernes,"  1844;  "Biographic  de 
Albert  de  Haller,"  2d  edition,  1S46. 

Haller,  von,  (Albert,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Berne  in  1758,  was  an  e.xcellent  botanist,  and  left 
several  works  m  manuscript.  He  performed  several 
diplomatic  missions  with  honour.  Died  at  Berne  in 
1823. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  ^,  ?,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  tit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HALLER 


1117 


HALMA 


Haller,  von,  (Charles  Louis,)  a  Swiss  publicist, 
born  at  Berne  in  1768,  was  a  grandson  of  the  great 
Haller.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Grand  Coun- 
cil in  1814.  He  asserted  the  divine  right  of  kings  in  his 
*'  Restoration  of  Political  Science,"  (in  German,  6  vols., 
1816-22.)  About  1820  he  avowed  his  conversion  to 
Roman  Catholicism,  and  obtained  an  office  in  the  min- 
istry of  foreign  affairs  in  Paris.  He  returned  to  Switzer- 
land in  1830.    Died  in  1854. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Haller,  von,  (Gottlieb  Immanuel,)  a  Swiss  anti- 
quary and  bibliographer,  the  eldest  son  of  the  celebrated 
physiologist,  was  born  at  Berne  in  1735.  He  studied 
jurisprudence,  and  served  the  state  in  several  offices, 
among  which  was  that  of  magistrate  (bailli)  of  Noyon. 
He  published  a  "Cabinet  of  Swiss  Coins  and  Medals," 
{1780,)  and  a  bibliography  of  Swiss  historians,  "Biblio- 
thek  der  Schweizer-Geschichte  systematisch-chronolo- 
gisch  geordnet,"  (6  vols.,  1785-87,)  which  is  called  an 
excellent  work.    13ied  in  1786. 

See  Meusel,  "  Lexikon  der  vom  Jahre  1750-1800  verstorbenen 
Deutsche!!  Schriftsteller." 

Hallerstein.    See  Allerstein. 

Hal'let,  (Joseph,)  an  English  dissenting  minister, 
born  at  Exeter  in  1692.  He  wrote  "A  Free  and  Im- 
partial Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  Recommended," 
(1729-36.)    Died  in  1744. 

Hallette,  hi!\hx.',  (A.,)  a  French  engineer,  born  in 
1788.  He  invented  a  hydraulic  press  for  the  production 
of  olive  oil,  and  applied  atmospheric  pressure  as  a  motive 
power  on  railways.    Died  at  Arras  in  1846. 

Halley,  /^t'la',  or  Halle,  hHW ,  (Antoine,)  a  French 
writer  of  Latin  poetry,  born  in  1595  ;  died  in  1675. 

HaPley,  (Edmund,)  an  eminent  English  astronomer 
and  mathematician,  was  born  in  a  suburb  of  London  on 
the  26th  of  October,  1656,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  He 
began  to  cultivate  astronomy  with  ardour,  and  before 
the  age  of  twenty  he  had  made  observations  of  the 
planets  and  had  written  a  memoir  on  the  problem  of 
Kepler.  Perceiving  that  the  advancement  of  astronomy 
depended  on  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  position  of 
the  stars,  and  that  the  catalogues  of  Ptolemy  and  Tycho 
were  no  longer  adequate  to  the  requirements  of  the 
science,  he  resolved,  while  Flamsteed  and  Hevelius  were 
engaged  in  a  survey  of  the  Northern  latitudes,  to  apply 
his  own  energies  and  observations  on  a  catalogue  of  the 
Southern  hemisphere.  Having  received  aid  and  patron- 
age from  the  king,  he  embarked  in  1676  for  Saint  Helena, 
where  he  remained  about  two  years,  and  prepared  his 
"Catalogue  of  Southern  Stars,"  ("Catalogus  Stellarum 
Australium,")  published  in  1679,  which  contains  three 
hundred  and  fifty  stars.  He  also  discovered  a  method 
of  obtaining  the  sun's  parallax  by  means  of  the  transits 
of  Mercury  or  Venus. 

In  1678  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Two  years  later  he  made  observations  on  a  remarkable 
comet,  since  designated  "Halley's  comet,"  and  in  1683 
published  his  theory  of  the  variation  of  the  magnet. 
Having  become  intimate  with  Newton,  he  persuaded 
him  to  publish  his  "  Principia,"  in  1686.  In  1698,  under 
the  auspices  of  William  III.,  Halley  commanded  a  suc- 
cessful scientific  expedition  to  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean, 
one  object  of  which  was  to  observe  the  variation  of  the 
magnet.  At  his  return,  in  1700,  he  published -his  "  Chart 
of  the  Variations  of  the  Magnetic  Needle."  After  per- 
forming other  public  services  of  a  scientific  character,  he 
obtained  in  1703  the  Savilian  chair  of  geometry  at  Ox- 
ford. Still  pursuing  the  study  of  astronomy  with  un- 
abated activity,  he  was  the  first  who  successfully  predicted 
the  return  of  a  comet,  having  ascertained  that  the  comet 
of  1680  revolved  in  a  period  of  about  seventy-six  years. 
The  Royal  Society  elected  him  their  secretary  in  1713. 

In  1720  he  was  appointed  astronomer  royal,  in  place 
of  Flamsteed,  deceased,  and  then  undertook  a  task 
wliich  would  require  nineteen  years  to  perform,  namely, 
to  observe  the  moon  throughout  an  entire  revolution 
of  her  nodes.  He  lived  to  finish  this  task,  in  which  he 
arrived  at  an  important  discovery  in  the  theory  of  the 
moon, — the  acceleration  of  her  mean  motion, — and  also 
made  some  corrections  in  the  lunar  tables.  Having 
turned  his  attention  to  the  distance  and  parallax  of  the 


fixed  stars,  he  advanced  the  opinion  that  their  parallax 
and  diameter  were  insensible,  or  at  least  too  small  to  be 
measured  by  any  means  which  astronomers  then  pos- 
sessed. He  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  first  who 
conceived  or  discovered  the  sublime  doctrine  of  the  pro- 
per motion  of  the  fixed  stars  in  universal  space.  Besides 
the  works  already  named,  he  published  a  translation  of 
Apollonius's  "Conic  Sections-,"  treatises  on  the  Trade 
Winds,  on  Logarithms,  on  the  Use  of  the  Barometer, 
etc.  Of  his  success  in  poetry  we  have  an  instance  in  the 
well-known  Latin  verses  prefixed  to  Newton's  "  Prin- 
cipia." He  had  married  in  1682  a  daughter  of  Mr. 
Tooke,  auditor  of  the  exchequer.  Died  in  January,  1742. 

See  Macaulav,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  i. ;  "  Biographia 
Britannica;"  Thompson,  "History  of  the  Royal  Society." 

HaPli-day,  (Sir  Andrew,)  an  eminent  British  phy- 
sician and  historical  writer.  He  served  as  physician  in 
the  army  in  the  Peninsular  war,  and  at  Waterloo,  (181 5,) 
after  which  he  attended  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  then 
travelling  for  his  health.  He  wrote,  among  other  works, 
a  "Memoir  of  the  Campaign  of  1815,"  "Annals  of  the 
House  of  Brunswick,"  (2  vols.,  1826,)  and  "Annals  of 
the  House  of  Hanover,"  (2  vols.,  1826.)    Died  in  1840. 

Hallier,  //t^le-a',  (Francois,)  a  doctor  of  the  Sor- 
bonne,  was  born  at  Chartres,  in  France,  in  1595.  He 
officiated  as  promotetir  of  the  assembly  of  the  clergy  in 
1645.  In  1652  he  went  to  Rome  and  obtained  against 
the  Jansenists  the  bull  awi  asceiisione.  In  1656  he  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Cavaillon.  He  wrote  "  On  Elec- 
tions and  Ordinations,"  (1636,)  and  other  works,  in  Latin. 
Died  in  1658. 

HaPli-fax,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  English  schol- 
ar,  born  at  Mansfield  in  1733,  was  appointed  professoi 
of  Arabic  in  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  1768.  He 
became  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  George  III.  in  1774, 
Bishop  of  Gloucester  in  1781,  and  Bishop  of  Saint 
Asaph  in  1787.  He  published  an  "Analysis  of  the 
Roman  Civil  Law  compared  with  the  Laws  of  England," 
(1774.)    Died  in  1790. 

HaPli-well,  (James  Orchard,)  a  learned  British 
archaeologist,  born  at  Chelsea  in  1821.  He  has  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  researches  into  the  literary  history 
of  Great  Britain,  and  by  his  services  as  a  Shakspearian 
critic.  He  edited  numerous  old  writings,  and  published 
several  original  works,  among  which  are  a  "  History 
of  Free-Masonry  in  England,"  (2d  edition,  1844,)  s'^" 
a  "Life  of  William  Shakespeare,"  (1848.)  For  many 
years  he  was  engaged  on  a  costly  illustrated  edition  of 
Shakspeare's  Works,  (16  vols.,  1855-65.) 

Hallman,  hiKman,  (Carl  Israel,)  a  Swedish  dra- 
matic writer,  born  in  1732.  He  obtained  an  obscure 
position  in  the  College  of  Mines,  and  produced  successful 
comedies  and  parodies,  among  which  are  "  Skeppar 
Rolf,"  (1778,)  and  "  Petis  och  Telee,"  (1779.)  Died  in 
1800. 

See  "  Biographiskt-Lexicon  bfver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Hallman,  (Johan  Gustaf,)  a  Swedish  writer  of 
prose  and  verse,  born  in  Sodermannland,  was  the  father 
of  the  preceding.    Died  about  1758. 

Hal'lpck,  (Gerard,)  a  journalist,  a  son  of  Moses, 
noticed  below,  born  at  Plainfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1800, 
became  in  1828  one  of  the  two  owners  of  the  New  York 
"Journal  of  Commerce,"  which  he  and  David  Hale  con- 
ducted for  over  twenty  years.    Died  in  1866. 

Hallock,  (Jeremiah,)  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Brookhaven,  Long  Island,  in  1758.  He  preached  for 
many  years  at  West  Simsbury,  Connecticut,  where  he 
settled  in  1785.    Died  in  1826. 

Hallock,  (Moses,)  a  clergyman,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Long  Island  in  1760.  He  became 
pastor  at  Plainfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1792,  and  educated 
many  young  men  for  the  ministry.    Died  in  1837. 

Halloran.    See  O'Halloran. 

Hallstrom  or  Haellstroem,  h^KstRom,  (Carl  Pe- 
ter,) a  Swedish  geographer  and  engineer,  was  born  at 
Ilmola  in  1774.  He  rendered  important  services  to  the 
geography  of  Sweden  by  surveys,  triangulations,  etc., 
and  published  many  geographical  works.    Died  in  1836. 

Halm,  (Friedrich.)    See  Munch-Bellinghausen. 

Halma,  /^tKmt',  (Nicolas,)  Abb^;,  a  French  mathe- 
matician and  linguist,  born  at  Sedan  in  1755,  removed 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Y.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^[^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HALOJNDER 


1118 


HAM  ELM  ANN 


to  Paris  in  1797.    He  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
French  translation  of  the  "Almagest"  of  Ptolemy,  {2 
vols.,  1813-16.)    Died  in  1828. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Haloander,  ha''lo-an'der,  (Gregor,)  a  German  jurist 
and  Hellenist,  born  at  Zwickau,  published  "Digestorum 
sen  Pandectarum  Libri  L.,"  (1529,)  and  translated  Jus- 
tinian's "  Novellae"  into  Latin,  (1530.)    Died  in  1532. 

Hals,  hais,  (Frans,)  an  excellent  Flemish  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Mechlin  in  1584.  He  was  reputed  to  be 
second  only  to  Van  Dyck  among  the  portrait-painters  of 
his  time.  He  worked  in  Delft,  Haarlem,  and  other  places. 
Died  in  1666  or  1656. 

His  brother  DiRCK,  born  in  1589,  painted  interiors  of 
buildings,  and  animals,  with  success.    Died  in  1656. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Halthaus,  hilt'howss,  or  Haltaus,  hSKtowss,  (Chris- 
tian GoTTLOB,)  a  German  antiquary  and  philologist, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1702,  excelled  in  the  study  of  mediaeval 
history.  He  was  successively  con-rector,  and  rector,  of 
a  school  in  Leipsic.  He  published  a  "  Calendarium 
Medii  ^vi,"  (1729,)  and  an  important  work,  in  Latin, 
called  a  "  Glossary  of  Mediaeval  German  Words,"  (1758.) 
Died  in  1758. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Halvig  or  Haelwig,  h^Kvig,  (  Albrecht,)  of  Copen- 
hagen, a  Danish  engraver,  flourished  about  1650. 

Haly-Abbas.    See  Alee-Ibnool-Abbas. 

Haly-Rodoan.    See  Alee-Ibn-Rodhw^an. 

HaPy-bur'ton,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  divine,  born  at 
Duplin,  near  Perth,  in  1674.  He  became  professor  of 
divinity  at  Saint  Andrew's  about  1710.  He  wrote  "Nat- 
ural Religion  insufficient  and  Revealed  necessary  to 
Happiness,"  (1714,)  "The  Great  Concern  of  Salvation," 
(1722,)  and  other  works,  which  were  highly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1712. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Thomas  Halyburton,"  by  himself. 

Ham,  [Heb.  DH ;  Gr.  Xa// ;  Fr.  Cham,  ktm,]  the 
second  son  of  Noah,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about 
2400  B.C. 

See  Genesis  vi.,  vii.,  and  ix. 

Hamadanee  or  Hamadani,  hi-ma-di'nee,  the  sur- 
name of  Abool-Fadhl-Ibn-Hosein,  (i'bool  fS,d'l  ib'n 
ho'sTn,)  an  Arabian  writer  and  improvisatore,  born  at 
Hamadan  about  968  A.D.  ;  died  in  1007. 

See  Haji-Khalfa,  "  Lexicon  Bibliographicum  ;"  Aboolfeda, 
"Annales  Moslemici." 

Hamaker,  hi'm^'ker,  (Hendrik  Arens,)  an  emi- 
nent Dutch  Orientalist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1789.  He 
became  in  1815  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Fra- 
neker.  In  1817  he  was  invited  to  Leyden  to  teach  those 
languages  in  the  university,  first  as  assistant,  and  in  1822 
as  titular  professor.  In  1820  he  published  a  catalogue 
of  the  Oriental  manuscripts  in  the  library  of  the  uni- 
versity, accompanied  with  Arabic  texts,  biographies,  and 
notes,  which  form  one  of  the  best  modern  compendiums 
of  Oriental  literature.  His  oral  lectures  and  conversa- 
tions gave  a  better  idea  of  his  immense  attainments  in 
the  language,  history,  and  geography  of  the  Orientals, 
than  many  of  his  works,  which  bear  marks  of  haste 
and  negligence.  He  had  a  prodigious  memory,  and 
he  is  said  (with  some  hyperbole,  no  doubt)  to  have 
known  nearly  all  the  languages  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
His  health  failed  under  his  excessive  application,  and  he 
died  at  Leyden  in  1835. 

See  Bergman,  "  Leveiisschets  van  H.  A.  Hamaker,"  1836  ;  Juyn- 
BOLL,  "  Oratio  de  H.  A.  Hamaker,"  1837 ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Hamal,  ht'mtK,  (Jean  Noel,)  a  distinguished  musical 
composer,  born  at  Liege  in  1709,  studied  music  at  Rome 
in  1728.  In  1738  he  became  maitre  de  chapelle  in  the 
cathedral  of  Liege.  His  oratorios  of  "Jonathan"  and 
"Judith,"  and  his  opera  of  "The  Journey  of  Chaufon- 
taine,"  were  much  admired.  His  "  In  Exitu  Israel"  is 
accounted  by  some  his  master-piece.    Died  in  1778. 

See  F^Tis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Hamann,  hd'mc^n,  (Johann  Georg,)  (styled  by  him- 
self "the  Magus  of  the  North,")  a  German  thinker  and 
writer  of  a  very  peculiar  stamp,  born  at  Konigsberg 
in  1730.    He  studied  theology  in  the  university  of  his 


native  city;  but  an  impediment  in  his  speech,  and  a 
decided  taste  for  general  literature,  caused  him  to  turn 
his  attention  to  other  pursuits.  He  supported  himself 
for  a  time  as  a  private  tutor.  As  a  student,  he  devoted 
himself  especially  to  ancient  literature  and  the  Oriental 
languages.  In  1764,  in  order  to  recruit  his  health,  he 
niade  a  journey  through  Germany  and  Switzerland. 
Some  years  later  he  received  an  appointment  connected 
with  the  customs-department  at  Konigsberg.  He  died 
in  1788.  "Hamann,"  says  Dr.  Pledge,  "is  indebted  for 
his  reputation  to  the  testimony  of  a  few  names  of  the 
highest  mark,  such  as  Herder,  Jacobi,  Goethe,  and  Jean 
Paul,  rather  than  to  any  great  popularity  which  his 
works  have  had  with  the  German  public.  He  belonged 
to  that  class  of  writers  who  repel,  by  the  uncouth  shapes 
in  which  their  thoughts  are  disguised,  more  readers  than 
they  attract  by  the  rarity  of  the  thoughts  themselves. 
He  is  a  humourist,  but  of  a  sombre  complexion,  with  a 
strong  dash  of  cynicism.  At  the  same  time,  a  deep  re- 
ligious sentiment  pervades  his  writings."  "The  great 
Hamann,"  observes  Jean  Paul,  "is  a  deep  sky  full  of 
telescopic  stars,  with  many  a  nebula  which  no  eye  can 
resolve."  His  best-known  works  are  perhaps  "Sibyl- 
line Leaves,  by  the  Magus  of  the  North,"  and  the  "  Me- 
morabilia of  Socrates."  A  collection  of  all  his  writings 
was  published  at  Berlin,  in  8  vols.,  1821-43. 
See  F.  H.  Hedge,  "Prose  Writers  of  Germany." 

Hamarskiold.    See  Hammarskold. 

Hamazaiii.    See  Hamadanee. 

Hamberger,  ham'bgR'ger,  (Georg  Albrecht,)  a 
German  mathematician  and  writer,  born  in  Franconia  in 
1662,  was  professor  of  physics  at  Jena.    Died  in  1716. 

Hamberger,  (Georg  Christoph,)  a  German  biblio- 
grapher, born  at  Feuchtwang,  in  Anspach,  in  1726.  He 
became  professor  of  philosophy  and  literary  history  at 
Gottingen  in  1755.  wrote  "Literary  Germany," 

("  Gelehrtes  Deutschland,")  a  dictionary  of  living  German 
authors,  (5  vols.,  1768.)    Died  in  1773. 

Hamberger,  (Georg  Erhard,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Jena  in  1697.  He  was  professor  of  physics  and 
medicine  at  Jena  for  many  years,  and  was  the  first  Ger- 
man professor  who  in  his  lectures  applied  mathematics 
to  the  physical  sciences  and  medicine.  He  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  "Elements  of  Physics,"  etc.,  ("Ele- 
menta  Physices  Methodo  mathematica,"  1727,)  which 
was  regarded  as  a  standard  work.    Died  in  1755. 

See  J.  C.  Blasch,  "Das  Leben  G.  E.  Hambergers,"  1758;  Ersch 
mid  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hambraeus,  him-bRa'us,  (Jonas,)  a  Swedish  Orien- 
talist, born  in  Helsingland  in  1588,  became  professor 
of  Flebrew  in  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1671. 

See  Ekerm  an,  "  Dissertatio  de  Meritis  ac  Fatis  J.  Hambraei,"  1749. 

Hamel,  hi'mel,  (Joseph,)  a  natural  philosopher,  born 
at  Sarepta,  on  the  Volga,  about  1788.  He  invented  an 
electrical  machine  in  1807,  ascended  Mont  Blanc  in  1820, 
and  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Steam-Engine."  Died  in 
London  in  1862. 

Hamel,  du.    See  Duhamel. 

Hamel,  du,  dli  /^t'mgK,  (Victor  Auguste,)  Vicomte, 
a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1810,  published  a  "Con- 
stitutional History  of  the  Spanish  Monarchy  from  411  to 
1833,"  (2  vols.,  1845.) 

Hamel  du  Monceau.  See  Duhamel  du  Monceau. 

Hamelin,  /^ttm^l^N'',  (Ferdinand  Alphonse,)  a 
French  admiral,  born  at  Pont-FEveque  (Calvados)  in 
1796.  He  became  captain  of  a  frigate  in  1828,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  nautical  skill  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
In  1842  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  He 
commanded  the  naval  station  of  Oceanica  from  1843  to 
1846,  and  became  a  vice-admiral  in  1848.  He  commanded 
the  fleet  which  in  1854  co-operated  with  the  English  fleet 
in  the  bombardment  of  Odessa,  and  he  directed  with 
ability  the  debarkation  of  troops  in  the  Crimea.  He 
became  a  full  admiral  and  senator  in  1854,  and  minister 
of  the  marine  in  April,  1855.  Died  in  1864.  His  uncle, 
Jacques  F6lix  Emanuel  Hamelin,  was  also  an  ad- 
miral.   Died  in  1839. 

See  Edmond  Texier,  "  Les  Hommes  de  la  Guerre  d'Orient:  la 
Vice-Amiral  Baron  Hamelin,"  1854. 

Hamelmann,  hi'mel-min^  (Hermann,)  a  German 
Protestant  historian,  born  at  Osnabriick  in  1525.  He 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  \  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^U,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HAMELSFELD 


1 1 19 


HAMILTON 


had  a  high  reputation  as  an  eloquent  preacher,  and 
became  intendant-general  of  the  churches  of  Oldenburg. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  besides  theological  works,  a  "  Chroni- 
cle of  Oldenburg,"  (3  vols.,  1599,)  and  a  "History  of 
Westphalia  in  the  Sixteenth  Century."  Died  in  1595. 
See  Leuckfeld,  "Historia  Hamelmanni,"  etc.,  1720. 

Hamelsveld,  van,  vin  hi'mels-vglt',  (Ysbrand,)  a 
Dutch  divine,  born  in  1743  at  Utrecht,  where  he  became 
professor  of  theology.  He  produced  a  good  Dutch  ver- 
sion of  the  Bible,  (1802,)  a  "General  History  of  the 
Christian  Church,"  {22  vols.,  1800-12,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1812. 

Hamerani,  hl-mi-ri'nee,  (Alberto,)  a  German  en- 
graver of  medals,  worked  at  Rome.  He  engraved  fine 
medals  of  several  popes,  among  whom  were  Clement 
IX.  and  Clement  X. 

Hamerani,  (Ermengild,)  a  medallist,  son  of  Gio- 
vanni, noticed  below,  was  born  at  Rome  in  1683;  died 
in  1744. 

Hamerani,  (Giovanni,)  a  son  of  Alberto,  noticed 
above,  was  medallist  to  Pope  Innocent  XL  and  his  suc- 
cessors.   Died  in  1705. 

Hamerken,  (Thomas.)    See  Kempis. 

Ha-mil'car,  [Gr.  'A/j.l'AKag  or  'Afi'iAxap,]  a  Carthaginian 
general,  who  commanded  a  large  army  sent  against  Sicily 
in  480  B.C.  He  was  defeated  at  Himera,  and  killed  by 
the  army  of  Gelon,  in  that  year. 

Hamilcar,  son  of  Gisco,  a  Carthaginian  general,  was 
commander  of  a  large  fleet  which  was  sent  against  Sicily 
in  311  B.C.  He  defeated  Agathocles  and  reduced  a  large 
part  of  the  island.  Having  attacked  Syracuse,  he  was 
made  prisoner,  and  put  to  death,  in  309  B.C. 

Hamilcar,  a  Carthaginian  general,  who  was  distin- 
guished in  the  first  Punic  war.  He  obtained  command 
of  the  army  in  Sicily  in  262  B.C.,  and  defeated  the  Romans 
near  Therma.  He  was  associated  with  Hanno  in  the 
command  of  the  fleet  in  256.  They  were  defeated  with 
great  loss  in  the  same  year  by  Regulus,  near  the  coast 
of  Sicily. 

Hamilcar,  [Gr.  'kuHna^  or' kiiUx^P,]  surnamed  Barca 
or  Barcas,  a  famous  Carthaginian  general,  was  the  father 
of  Hannibal,  and  the  leader  of  the  popular  party  at  Car- 
thage. The  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown.  During  the 
first  Punic  war,  in  247  B.C.,  he  obtained  command  of  the 
army  in  Sicily,  where  for  five  years  he  defended  himself 
against  the  Romans,  with  whom  he  fought  many  inde- 
cisive battles.  In  241  a  treaty  of  peace  was  made,  and 
Hamilcar  led  the  army  back  to  Africa.  Soon  after  this 
he  was  successfully  employed  against  a  formidable  revolt 
of  the  mercenary  troops  of  Carthage.  In  the  year  238 
he  led  an  army  into  Spain,  where  he  passed  nine  years 
in  war  with  the  natives,  and  had  made  extensive  con- 
quests, when  he  was  killed  in  battle  in  229  B.C.  It  is 
said  he  caused  Hannibal  in  his  childhood  to  swear  eter- 
nal hostility  to  Rome.  His  sons  Hasdrubal  and  Mago 
were  distinguished  in  the  second  Punic  w^ar.  Hamilcar 
was  perhaps  nearly  equal  to  Hannibal  in  military  talents. 

Hamilcar,  son  of  Bomilcar,  a  Carthaginian  general, 
was  defeated  by  the  two  Scipios  in  Spain  at  the  siege 
of  Illiturgi,  in  215  B.C. 

Ham'il-tpn,  (Alexander,)  an  English  Orientalist, 
born  about  1765.  He  resided  many  years  in  India,  and 
learned  the  Sanscrit.  After  his  return  to  England,  he 
was  chosen  professor  of  Sanscrit  at  Haileybury  College. 
He  published  a  "Catalogue  of  the  Sanscrit  Manuscripts 
of  the  Imperial  Library,  Paris,  with  Notes,"  (1809,)  a 
"Sanscrit  Grammar,"  (1815,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1824. 

Ham'il-ton,  (Alexander,)  an  illustrious  American 
statesman,  orator,  and  general,  born  in  the  West  Indian 
island  of  Nevis  on  the  nth  of  January,  1757,  He  was 
the  son  of  James  Hamilton,  a  Scottish  merchant,  and 
a  grandson  of  Alexander  Hamilton,  of  Grange,  in  Ayr- 
shire. His  mother,  whose  name  was  Faucette,  was  a 
daughter  of  a  French  Huguenot.  He  entered  in  1769 
the  counting-house  of  a  merchant  in  Saint  Croix,  where 
he  acquired  habits  of  order  and  methodical  industry. 
The  literary  talents  displayed  in  his  early  essays  induced 
his  friends  to  give  him  a  liberal  education.  He  was 
sent  to  New  York  in  1772,  and  entered  King's  College 
in  1773.  In  July,  1774,  he  addressed  the  citizens  of  New 


York  in  a  public  speech,  which  was  inspired  by  the 
spirit  of  freedom,  and  was  highly  applauded.  He  also 
promoted  the  popular  cause  by  pamphlets  so  remarkable 
for  sagacity  and  logical  ability  that  the  public  were 
greatly  surprised  to  learn  that  they  were  written  by  a 
youth  only  about  eighteen  years  of  age. 

He  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  military  tactics, 
and  was  appointed  captain  of  a  company  of  artillery  in 
March,  1776.  He  served  with  distinction  at  the  battles 
of  Long  Island,  White  Plains,  Trenton,  and  Princeton, 
and  was  appointed  aide-de-camp  to  General  Washington, 
with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  in  March,  1777.  He 
gained  the  special  favour  and  confidence  of  Washington, 
who  employed  him  as  secretary.  "Hamilton  became," 
says  Renwick,  "the  depositary  of  the  most  secret 
thoughts  of  his  chief,  and  the  organ  of  their  promulga- 
tion." He  also  assisted  in  planning  campaigns  and  in 
devising  means  to  support  the  army.  In  November, 
1777,  he  was  sent  to  Albany  to  urge  General  Gates  to 
send  reinforcements  to  the  army  of  Washington.*  Re- 
ferring to  this  mission,  his  son  and  biographer  says, 
"This  deportment  of  a  lad  of  twenty,  negotiating  with 
an  officer  buoyed  up  with  his  recent  successes,  already 
placed  before  the  popular  eye  as  the  rival  of  Washing- 
ton, sustained  by  a  majority  of  Congress,  and  hoping 
soon  to  supplant  him,  will  be  regarded  as  not  the  least 
remarkable  nor  the  least  interesting  incident  of  his  life  : 
by  Washington  it  was  never  forgotten."  Hamilton  took 
an  active  part  in  the  battle  of  Monmouth,  June,  1778, 
and  was  highly  commended  for  his  conduct  in  that  affair. 
In  1 780  he  married  Eliza,  a  daughter  of  General  Schuyler, 
of  Albany,  and  in  February,  1781,  he  retired  from  the 
staff  and  military  family  of  Washington. 

Before  this  date  he  had  turned  with  "eager  aptitude" 
to  the  financial  affairs  of  the  country,  and  had  written 
on  that  subject  several  letters  admirable  for  maturity  of 
judgment  and  perspicuity  of  style.  In  the  spring  of 
1780  he  wrote  to  James  Duane  a  celebrated  letter  on 
the  state  of  the  nation,  in  which  he  urged  the  necessity 
of  a  new  constitution,  and  expressed  the  opinion  that 
"  Congress  should  have  complete  sovereignty  in  all  that 
relates  to  war,  peace,  trade,  finance,  and  to  the  manage- 
ment of  foreign  affairs,"  etc.  He  also  recommended  a 
national  bank.  In  July,  1781,  he  obtained  command 
of  a  battalion  of  the  army  of  Washington.  He  led  this 
body  at  the  siege  of  Yorktown,  and  took  a  redoubt  by 
assault  on  the  14th  of  October,  1781.  On  the  capture 
of  the  British  army  at  Yorktown,  which  virtually  ended 
the  war,  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  law,  retain- 
ing his  rank  in  the  army,  but  declining  to  receive  any 
pay.  In  1782  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Conti- 
nental Congress  by  the  legislature  of  New  York.  He 
was  often  the  chairman  of  the  committees  which  had 
charge  of  the  subjects  of  the  greatest  importance.  Ac- 
cording to  one  of  his  biographers,  "his  modes  of  think- 
ing imparted  to  the  proceedings  of  this  body  a  new 
tone  and  character,  and  his  winning  eloquence  was  the 
delight  and  wonder  of  friend  and  foe."  Washington 
expressed  the  opinion  that  "no  one  exceeded  him  in 
probity  and  sterling  virtue." 

About  August,  1783,  he  resigned  his  seat  in  Congress, 
and  commenced  the  practice  of  law  in  the  city  of  New 
York.  Although  the  course  of  his  legal  studies  had 
been  brief,  having  a  mind  peculiarly  adapted  to  the 
analysis  of  first  principles,  he  soon  rose  to  the  first  rank 
in  his  profession.  He  exerted  his  talents  and  influence 
to  protect  the  Tories  from  persecution  at  a  time  when 
the  popular  sentiment  of  New  York  was  too  vindictive 
towards  that  party.  His  qualifications  for  the  bar  are 
thus  described  by  Chancellor  Kent:  "Hamilton,  by 
means  of  his  fine  melodious  voice  and  dignified  deport- 
ment, his  reasoning  powers  and  persuasive  address, 
soared  above  all  competition;  his  pre-eminence  was  at 
once  universally  conceded." 

He  was  an  active  member  of  an  anti-slavery  society 
formed  in  New  York,  and  offered,  about  1784,  a  resolu- 
tion that  every  member  of  that  society  should  liberate 
his  own  slaves.    In  1786  he  was  elected  to  the  legisla- 


*  Gates  had  previously  been  ordered  to  send  troops  to  Washing- 
ton, but  preferred  to  keep  them,  although  he  had  no  especial  need  of 
them  after  the  capture  of  Burgoyne. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  h,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HAMILTON 


20 


HAMILTON 


ture  of  New  York,  which  met  in  January,  1787.  Ham- 
ilton and  two  other  citizens  of  New  York  were  chosen 
as  delegates  to  the  convention  which  met  in  Philadel- 
phia in  May,  1787,  to  form  a  Federal  Constitution  for 
the  country,  which  for  several  years  had  suffered  greatly 
from  the  want  of  an  efficient  government  and  from  the 
prostration  of  trade  and  the  loss  of  public  credit.*  It 
appears  that  Hamilton  was  the  principal  author  of  this 
movement  towards  a  firm  and  durable  union  of  the 
States.  "  He  was  lauded  by  some,"  says  Renwick,  **  and 
decried  by  others,  according  to  their  feelings  on  the  ques- 
tion, as  the  founder  of  the  Union  which  superseded  the 
Confederacy."  ("  Life  of  Hamilton.")  His  two  colleagues 
from  New  York  were  partisans  of  Clinton,  and  adverse 
to  the  proposed  Union  or  Constitution,  "The  policy 
of  Clintcm,"  says  J.  C.  Hamilton,  "had  placed  him  there 
to  become  a  cipher  and  a  sacrifice." 

On  the  i8th  of  June,  Hamilton  addressed  the  Con- 
vention in  a  long  speech,  of  which  no  report  has  been 
preserved,  but  which  was  pronounced  by  Gouverneur 
Morris  to  be  "  the  most  able  and  impressive  he  had 
ever  heard."  In  the  course  of  this  speech,  he  read  his 
plan  of  government,  an  outline  of  which  is  given  in  J. 
C.  Hamilton's  "  History  of  the  Republic  of  the  United 
States,"  vol.  iii.  pp.  286-301.  Although  the  plan  adopted 
differed  from  that  of  Hamilton,  he  signed  the  new  Con- 
stitution in  September,  1787,  and  warmly  urged  the 
people  of  New  York  to  ratify  it.  With  the  co-operation 
of  Madison  and  Jay,  he  advocated  the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution  in  a  series  of  essays  which  first  appeared, 
under  the  signature  of  "  Publius,"  in  the  "  New  York  Ga- 
zette," and  were  afterwards  published  in  several  volumes, 
entitled  "  The  Federalist."  Hamilton  wrote  more  than 
half  of  these  profound  and  luminous  political  treatises, 
which  are  recognized  by  all  parties  as  the  best  commentary 
on  the  Constitution.  This  instrument  was  strenuously 
opposed  by  a  powerful  party,  misled  by  the  ignis-fatims 
of  State  sovereignty.  "  Hamilton  must  be  classed,"  says 
Guizot,  "  among  the  men  who  have  best  known  the  vital 
principles  and  fundamental  conditions  of  government. 
.  .  .  There  is  not  in  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
an  element  of  order,  strength,  or  durability  which  he  did 
not  powerfully  contribute  to  introduce  into  it."  ("  Char- 
acter and  Influence  of  Washington.")  He  proposed  to 
give  the  right  of  suffrage  to  all  freemen,  without  distinc- 
tion of  colour. 

Hamilton  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury  in 
September,  1789,  a  few  days  after  Congress  had  enacted 
a  bill  to  organize  a  treasury  department,  and  at  a  time 
when  the  nation  was  burdened  with  a  heavy  debt  and 
almost  destitute  of  credit.  In  January,  1790,  he  pre- 
sented to  Congress  a  report  on  public  credit,  and  a  plan 
for  the  support  of  the  same,  which  became  the  basis  of 
the  financial  system  of  the  nation.  Among  the  measures 
which  he  proposed  were  the  funding  system  and  a 
national  bank.  A  bill  to  establish  a  national  bank  was 
passed  by  Congress  in  February,  1791,  and,  though  de- 
nounced as  unconstitutional  by  Jefferson,  was  ap])roved 
by  the  President.  The  results  of  Hamilton's  financial 
policy  were  the  restoration  of  public  credit  and  a  rapid 
revival  of  trade  and  industry.  He  advocated  the  encour- 
agement of  domestic  manufactures  by  a  protective  tariff. 

Hamilton  and  Jefferson,  who  became  the  respective 
leaders  of  the  Federal  and  Republican  parties,  differed 
widely  on  financial  questions  and  in  regard  to  their  for- 
eign policy.  The  former  advised  the  President  to  main- 
tain neutrality  in  the  war  between  the  French  and  British. 
Having  failed  in  his  efforts  to  defeat  Hamilton  and  eject 
him  from  the  cabinet,  Jefferson  resigned,  about  January 
I,  1794.  Hamilton,  whose  salary  was  scarcely  sufficient 
for  the  support  of  his  family,  and  who  was  unwilling  to 
neglect  longer  his  private  interests,  resigned  his  office, 
January  31,  1795.  He  declined  the  position  of  chief 
justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States.  In 
a  series  of  able  essays,  signed  "Camillus,"  he  defended 
ay's  treaty  with  Great  Ihitain.  Washington  testified 
is  great  esteem  for  Hamilton  by  consulting  him  in  the 


*  The  impotence  of  Congress  is  shown  by  the  following  incident: 
In  June,  1783,  Congress  had  been  driven  from  Philadelphia  by  the 
insults  and  menaces  of  a  small  body  of  mutinous  soldiers,  and  had 
adjourned  to  Princeton. 


pre])aration  of  his  "  Farewell  Address,"  which,  says 
Renwick,  "would  have  been  less  perfect  as  a  composi- 
tion had  it  not  passed  through  the  hands  of  Hamilton." 

In  the  Presidential  election  of  1796  he  supported  Adams 
and  Pinckney;  but  it  appears  that  he  wished  the  latter 
to  obtain  the  office  of  President.  He  had  offended  Mr. 
Adams  in  a  previous  election  by  his  efforts  to  secure  a 
larger  vote  for  Washington  than  for  Adams.  The  French 
Directory  having  provoked  the  American  people  by  acts 
of  hostility,  the  army  was  reorganized  in  the  summer  of 
1798.  Washington  then  accepted  the  chief  command 
of  the  army,  on  condition  that  Hamilton  should  be  the 
second  in  command.  He  was  accordingly  made  inspector- 
general,  with  the  rank  of  major-general,  after  the  general- 
in-chief  had  overcome  the  repugnance  of  the  President 
to  Hamilton's  appointment  by  a  menace  of  resignation. 
On  the  death  of  General  Washington,  December,  1799, 
he  succeeded  him  as  commander-in-chief;  but  the  army 
was  soon  disbanded,  and  he  resumed  the  practice  of  law. 

Hamilton  and  many  other  leading  Federalists  censured 
President  Adams  for  appointing  an  embassy  to  France, 
about  September,  1799.  This  affair  caused  a  breach  in 
the  Federal  party,  which  was  defeated  in  the  Presidential 
election  of  1800.  When  the  duty  devolved  on  the  House 
of  Representatives  to  decide  whether  Jefferson  or  Burr 
should  be  President,  Hamilton  advised  his  friends  to 
prefer  the  former.  In  1804  Aaron  Burr  presented  him- 
self as  a  candidate  for  the  office  of  Governor  of  New 
York,  and  hoped  to  receive  the  votes  of  many  Federal- 
ists ;  but  Hamilton  opposed  the  election  of  Burr,  ex- 
pressing his  opinion  that  he  was  a  dangerous  man  and 
unfit  to  be  trusted  with  power.  The  election  of  General 
Lewis  blasted  the  ambitious  projects  of  Burr,  who  inso- 
lently demanded  an  explanation  of  Hamilton,  and  finally 
challenged  him.  Hamilton  accepted  the  challenge,  was 
mortally  wounded  at  Weehawken,  and  died  July  12,  1804. 
His  death  was  profoundly  and  generally  lamented.  His 
eldest  son  had  been  killed  in  a  duel  by  a  political  ad- 
versary about  1802, 

In  person,  Hamilton  was  not  above  the  middle  size. 
He  had  blue  eyes  and  a  fair  complexion.  "  Virtue  so 
rare,  so  pure,  so  bold,"  says  Fisher  Ames,  "by  its  very 
purity  and  excellence  inspired  suspicion  as  a  prodigy. 
His  enemies  judged  of  him  by  themselves :  so  splendid 
and  arduous  were  his  services,  they  could  not  find  it 
in  their  hearts  to  believe  that  they  were  disinterested." 
Talleyrand  once  said  to  Mr.  George  Ticknor,  of  Boston, 
"he  had  known  nearly  all  the  marked  men  of  his  time, 
but  had  never  known  one,  on  the  whole,  equal  to  Ham- 
ilton." Hamilton's  Works  were  edited  by  his  son,  John 
C.  Hamilton,  (7  vols.  8vo,  1851.) 

See  James  Renwick,"  Life  of  A.  Hamilton,"  1841 ;  "Life  of  A, 
Hamilton,"  by  his  son,  John  C.  Hamilton,  2  vols.,  1834-40;  John 
C.  Hamilton,  "  History  of  the  Republic  of  the  United  States  as 
traced  in  the  Writings  of  Alexander  Hamilton  and  of  his  Contem- 
poraries," 6  vols.,  1858-60;  "Reminiscences  of  James  A.  Hamil- 
ton," etc.,  New  York,  1869;  Rev.  J.  M.  Mason,  "  Eulogy  on  Ham- 
ilton;" William  Coleman,  "Collection  of  the  Facts  and  Docu- 
ments relative  to  the  Death  of  Major-General  A.  Hamilton,"  New 
York,  1S04;  R.  W.  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America  ;"  Duvc- 
KiNCK,  "  Cyclopsedia  of  American  Literature;"  "North  American 
Review"  for  April,  1858. 

Hamilton,  (Andrew  J.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  in  Madison  county,  Alabama,  in  1815,  became  a 
lawyer.  He  removed  to  Texas  about  1846,  and  was 
elected  a  member  of  Congress  from  that  State  in  1858 
or  1859.  He  was  loyal  to  the  Union  in  the  crisis  of  1861, 
and  was  appointed  military  Governor  of  Texas  in  1862, 
and  provisional  Governor  in  June,  1865.  He  retired 
from  that  office  in  1866. 

Ham'il-ton,  (Anthony,)  Count,  born  in  Ireland 
about  1646,  was  of  Scottish  descent.  His  mother  was 
a  sister  of  the  Duke  of  Ormond.  His  wit  and  elegant 
accomplishments  rendered  him  a  favourite  at  the  courts 
of  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  He  was  brother-in-law  of 
the  famous  Count  de  Grammont,  and  had  the  principal 
share  in  producing  the  "Memoirs  of  Grammont,"  (1713,) 
which  is  greatly  admired  as  a  highly-finished  picture  of 
the  voluptuous  court  of  Charles  II.  La  Harpe  said, 
"Of  all  frivolous  books,  it  is  the  most  agreeable  and 
most  ingenious."  He  wrote,  also,  several  fairy-tales. 
Died  at  Saint-Germain  in  1720. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y. 


'\  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m&t;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


HAMILTON 


I  121 


HAMILTON 


Hamilton,  (Captain  Charles,)  an  officer  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  East  India  Company,  was  born  at  Belfast  in 
1753.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Rohilla  Afghans," 
(1787,)  and  translated  the  "  Hedaya,"  (or  "Guide,")  a 
commentary  on  Mussulman  law,  (1791.)  Died  in  1792. 
He  was  a  brother  of  Elizabeth  Hamilton,  the  authoress, 
noticed  below. 

Hamilton,  (Charles  S.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  New  York  about  ^824,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1843.  He  lived  in  Wisconsin  when  the  civil  war  began. 
He  served  as  brigadier-general  in  the  army  of  the  Po- 
tomac, 1862,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Corinth,  October  3  and  4  of  that  year.  He  was  com- 
mended by  General  Grant  for  his  conduct  at  luka,  Sep- 
tember, 1862,  and  was  promoted  to  be  a  major-general 
in  March,  1863.    He  resigned  in  the  ensuing  month. 

Hamilton,  (Lord  Claude,)  was  a  son  of  James, 
second  Earl  of  Arran.  He  commanded  the  forces  of 
Queen  Mary  at  Langside  about  1568;  but  it  appears 
that  he  conspired  secretly  against  her  life.  The  assas- 
sination of  Regent  Lenox  was  instigated  by  him.  His 
brother.  Lord  John,  was  an  accom|)lice  in  the  plot 
against  Queen  Mary.  Having  l>een  banished  in  1577, 
Lord  John  returned  in  1585  at  the  head  of  an  army,  and 
seized  the  king,  who  created  him  Marquis  of  Hamilton 
in  1599.  He  was  grandfather  of  the  first  Duke  of  Ham- 
ilton.   Died  in  1604. 

Hamilton,  (David,)  a  Scottish  architect,  born  in 
Glasgow  in  1768.  He  gained  distinction  by  the  erection 
of  the  Glasgow  Exchange,  about  1840,  and  of  several 
banks  and  castles  in  Scotland.  He  was  one  of  the  suc- 
cessful competitors  who  obtained  premiums  of  ;[{^5oo  for 
their  designs  for  the  New  Plouses  of  Parliament.  Died 
in  1843. 

Hamilton,  (Elizabetii,)  a  meritorious  writer,  born 
at  Belfast,  Ireland,  in  1758.  She  resided  some  time  in 
Scotland,  as  governess  of  the  daughters  of  a  nobleman. 
She  pubhshed  "Memoirs  of  Modern  Philosophers,"  (3 
vols.,  1800,)  "Letters  on  the  Elementary  Principles  of 
Education,"  (2  vols.,  1801,)  and  a  tale  called  "The  Cot- 
tagers of  Glenburnie,"  (1808.)  The  last  work  is  called 
by  Sir  Walter  Scott  "a  picture  of  the  rural  habits  of 
Scotland  of  striking  and  impressive  fidelity."  Died  in 
1816,  at  Harrowgate. 

See  Miss  Bengek,  "Memoirs  of  Elizabeth  Hamilton;"  Mrs. 
Elwood,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England,"  etc.,  vol.  ii., 
1843  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1808. 

Hamilton,  (Lady  Emma,)  a  fascinating  and  profligate 
woman,  whose  name  was  originally  Lyon  born  at  Pres- 
ton, or  in  Cheshire,  about  1764.  She  was  married  in 
1791  to  Sir  William  Hamilton,  and  accompanied  him  to 
Naples.  She  acquired  great  influence  over  the  Queen 
of  Naples,  and  captivated  Lord  Nelson.  She  died  in 
poverty  at  Calais  in  181 5. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Lady  Hamilton,"  1816;  "Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  April,  i860. 

Hamilton,  (Gavin,)  a  Scottish  historical  painter,  born 
at  Lanark  about  1730,  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life 
at  Rome.  He  displayed  skill  and  good  taste  rather  than 
inventive  genius.  His  illustrations  of  Homer's  "  Iliad" 
are  among  his  best  productions.  He  rendered  service 
to  art  by  his  discoveries  of  statues,  bas-reliefs,  and  other 
buried  monuments,  many  of  which  adorn  the  Museo 
Clementino,  and  published  "The  Italian  School  of  Paint- 
ing," illustrated  with  splendid  plates,  (1773.)  Died  at 
Rome  in  1797. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Hamilton,  (George,)  Earl  of  Orkney,  a  Scottish  gene- 
ral, and  a  younger  son  of  William  Douglas,  Earl  of  Sel- 
kirk, was  born  in  1666.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  the  Boyne  in  1690,  and  in  1696  was  made  Earl 
of  Orkney.  In  1704,  as  lieutenant-general,  he  took  part 
in  the  battle  of  Blenheim.  In  1707  he  became  a  member 
of  the  British  House  of  Peers.    Died  in  1737. 

See  Macaulav,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  v. 

Hamilton,  (Hugh,)  an  Irish  bishop  and  mathema- 
tician, born  in  the  county  of  Dublin  in  1729,  became 
Bishop  of  Ossory  in  1799.  He  published  theological 
and  mathematical  works,  among  which  was  a  "Treatise 
on  Conic  Sections."    Died  in  1805. 


Hamilton,  (James,)  second  Earl  of  Arran,  was  a  son 
of  James  Hamilton,  Earl  of  Arran,  who  died  in  1529.  At 
the  death  of  James  V.,  in  1542,  he  was  appointed  Regent 
of  Scotland.  He  obtained  in  1549,  from  Henry  II.  of 
France,  the  duchy  of  Chatellerault.  The  queen-mother 
extorted  from  Regent  Arran  (who  was  a  man  of  feeble 
character)  a  resignation  of  his  office  about  1554.  After 
Mary  Stuart  became  a  cajitive  in  England,  he  was  the 
chief  of  a  party  which  adhered  to  her  cause  and  took 
arms  against  Regent  Lennox.    Died  in  1575. 

See  Burton,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chaps,  xxxiv.-xxxvi. ; 
Robertson,  "  History  ot  Scotland." 

Hamilton,  (James,)  of  Bothwellhaugh,  a  notorious 
desperado,  who  lived  about  1570.  He  was  the  murderer 
of  the  regent  Murray,  and  afterwards  offered  his  ser- 
vices to  the  agents  of  Philip  II.  for  the  purpose  of  assas- 
sinating the  Prince  of  Orange. 

See  Froude,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  ix. 

Hamilton,  (James,)  first  Duke  of,  a  Scottish  noble- 
man, born  in  i6o6,  was  the  son  of  the  Marquis  of  Ham- 
ilton. In  the  civil  war  he  was  an  adherent  of  Charles 
I.,  who  gave  him  the  title  of  duke.  By  the  influence  of 
his  rival  Montrose,  he  was  imprisoned  in  1645.  In  1648 
he  raised  an  army  of  about  20,000  men  in  Scotland,  with 
which  he  marched  south  to  Preston,  where  he  was  de- 
feated by  Cromwell  and  taken  prisoner.  He  was  tried 
for  treason,  condemned,  and  executed,  in  1649. 

See  Neeuham,  "  Life  of  the  Duke  of  Hamilton,"  1649 ;  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Hamilton,  (Jamks,)  fourth  Duke  of,  (previously  Earl 
of  Arran,)  son  of  William  Douglas,  Earl  of  Selkirk,  born 
in  1657,  succeeded  to  the  title  in  1694.  He  was  a  Ja« 
cobite,  and  in  171 1  he  was  made  a  peer,  with  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Brandon  ;  but  the  House  of  Lords  refused  to 
admit  him.  Queen  Anne  appointed  him  ambassador  to 
France  ;  but  before  his  departure  he  was  killed  (1712)  in  a 
duel  with  Lord  .Mohiin,  who  also  was  mortally  wounded. 

See  "  M -inoirs  of  James,  Duke  of  Hamilton,"  London,  1742; 
Chamber.,  "  Bi  ■graplucii  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Hamilton,  (James,)  born  in  London  about  1775,  is 
known  as  the  auth'jr  of  the  Hamiltonian  system  of  teach- 
ing languages  by  the  use  of  a  literal  interlinear  translation 
before  learning  the  rules  of  grammar.    Died  in  1829. 

Hamilton,  (James,)  a  politician  and  lawyer,  born  at 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1786.  In  1830  he  became 
Governor  of  South  Carolina,  ancl  was  a  zealous  promoter 
of  nullification.  He  represented  Texas  as  minister  to 
England  in  1841.    He  was  drowned  at  sea  in  1857. 

Hamilton,  (James,)  D.D.,  a  popular  British  author 
and  Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Paisley  in  1814.  He 
becaiTie  about  1840  minister  of  the  National  Scottish 
Church,  Regent  Square,  London.  He  was  an  eloquent 
preacher,  and  author  of  numerous  works.  Among  these 
are  "  Life  in  Earnest,"  (which  has  had  a  very  extensive 
circulation,)  "The  Mount  of  Olives,"  and  "The  Happy 
Home,"  (new  edition,  1855.)    Died  in  November,  1867. 

Hamilton,  (James,)  a  distinguished  painter  of  marine 
views,  born  in  Ireland  about  1820,  came  to  the  United 
States  in  infancy.  He  practised  his  art  in  Philadelphia, 
and  acquired  much  distinction  by  his  illustrations  of  Dr. 
Kane's  "Arctic  Explorations,"  (1856.)  His  "Capture 
of  the  Serapis"  and  "  Old  Ironsides"  have  been  greatly 
admired.  Hamilton  is  particularly  successful  in  the  repre- 
sentation of  all  water-scene-s,  whether  he  attempts  to 
bring  before  us  the  rush  and  tumult  of  Niagara  or  the 
infinitely  diversified  appearances  of  the  mighty  ocean. 

See  Tuckerman's  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Hamilton,  (John,)  Archbishop  of  Saint  Andrew's, 
an  ambitious  Scottish  prelate,  was  a  brother  of  the  Earl 
of  Arran,  the  regent.  He  was  a  persecutor  of  the  Prot- 
estants, and  took  an  active  part  in  the  political  contests 
of  the  reign  of  Mary  Stuart.  He  was  tried  for  treason, 
convicted,  and  hung,  in  1571. 

See  CiiAMBERS,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Hamilton,  (John,)  a  Scottish  priest,  born  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  Theology" 
about  1 581. 

See  Lord  Hailes,  "  Life  of  John  Hamilton." 

Hamilton,  (Sir  John,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
1755.    He  served  in  several  campaigns  in  India,  and 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  I  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

71 


HAMILTON 


I  I  22 


HAMILTON 


became  a  Ijrigadier-general  in  1805.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Peninsular  war.     Died  in  1835. 

Hamilton,  (John  C.,)  an  American  writer,  a  son  of 
Alexander  Hamilton,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1792, 
He  served  in  the  army  in  the  war  against  Great  Britain, 
1812-14.  He  published  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Alex- 
ander Hamilton,"  (2  vols.,  1834-40,)  and  a  "History 
of  the  Republic  of  the  United  States  as  traced  in  the 
Writings  of  Alexander  Hamilton  and  his  Contempo- 
raries," (6  vols.,  1858.) 

Hamilton,  (Patrick,)  commonly  regarded  as  the 
first  Scottish  Reformer,  was  born  in  1503.  He  adopted 
the  principles  of  Luther,  whom  he  had  heard  preach 
in  Germany,  and  on  his  return  to  Scotland  he  openly 
attacked  the  errors  of  the  Roman  Church.  He  was 
condemned  as  a  heretic,  and  suffered  martyrdom  with 
constancy  at  the  age  of  twenty-three. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men ;"  J.  G.  LoRiMEK,  "  Patrick  Hamihon :  a  Historical  Biography," 
1857;  Rev.  Robert  Steel,  "Burning  and  Shining  Lights,"  Lon- 
don, 1864. 

Hamilton,  (Richard  Winter,)  an  English  preacher, 
born  in  London  in  1794.  He  became  pastor  of  an  Inde- 
pendent church,  Albion  Chapel,  Leeds,  in  1815.  He 
was  eminent  as  a  platform  orator,  and  wrote  a  series  of 
essays  entitled  "  Nugae  Literarioe,"  ("  Literary  Trifles," 
1841.)  Several  volumes  of  his  sermons  have  been  pub- 
lished.   Died  in  1848. 

See  W.  H.  Stowell,  "  Memoir  of  R.  W.  Hamilton,"  1850. 

Hamilton,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  physician,  born  at 
Edinburgh  in  1721  ;  died  at  Lynn  in  1793. 

Hamilton,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  political  economist, 
born  in  Edinburgh  about  1742.  He  was  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  and  mathematics  in  Marischal  Col- 
lege, Aberdeen,  from  1782  to  1829.  His  chief  work  is 
an  "Inquiry  concerning  the  Rise  and  Progress,  the  Re- 
dernption  and  the  Present  State,  and  the  Management, 
of  the^'National  Debt  of  Great  Britain,"  (1813.)  "This 
important  work,"  says  McCulloch,  "opened  the  eyes  of 
the  public  to  the  delusive  nature  of  the  sinking  fund." 
Among  his  other  works  is  "  The  Progress  of  Society," 
(1830.)    Died  in  1829. 

Hamilton,  (Schuyler,)  an  American  general,  a  son 
of  [ohn  C.  Hamilton,  and  a  grandson  of  Hamilton  the 
great  statesman,  was  born  in  New  York  in  1822.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841,  served  as  aide-de-camp 
to  General  Scott  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and 
resigned  his  commission  in  1855.  In  1861  he  became 
a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He  rendered  important 
services  in  Missouri,  and  suggested  the  canal  which  was 
cut  near  New  Madrid  in  March  and  April,  1862.  He 
was  made  a  major-general  in  September,  1862,  and  re- 
signed, on  account  of  ill  health,  in  February,  1863. 

Hamilton,  (Thomas,)  a  captain  of  the  British  army, 
born  in  1789.  He  served  in  the  Peninsular  war,  and  in 
the  second  war  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain.  He  contributed  many  articles  to  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine,"  and  published  several  able  works,  namely, 
"Annals  of  the  Peninsular  Campaign,"  "The  Youth  and 
Manhood  of  Cyril  Thornton,"  a  novel,  (1827,)  and  "  Men 
and  Manners  in  America,"  (1833.)  These  books  were 
favourably  noticed  by  British  critics.    Died  in  1842. 

Hamilton,  (Walter,)  a  British  geographer,  pub- 
lished "The  East  India  Gazetteer,"  (London,  1814,)  and 
a  "Geographical,  Statistical,  and  Historical  Description 
of  Hindostan,"  (2  vols.,  1820,)  which  the  "London  Quar- 
terly Review"  pronounced  "an  inestimable  work,  con- 
taining a  more  full,  detailed,  and  faithful  picture  of  India 
than  any  former  work  on  the  subject." 

Hamilton,  (William,)  second  Duke  of,  born  in 
1616,  was  brother  of  James,  the  first  Duke  of  Hamilton, 
whose  title  he  inherited.  He  officiated  as  secretary  of 
state  in  Scotland,  and,  after  serving  in  the  army  of  Charles 
II.,  died  in  165 1,  of  wounds  received  at  the  battle  of 
Worcester.  The  duchy  devolved  on  his  niece,  Anne 
Hamilton,  who  was  married  to  William  Douglas. 

Hamilton,  (William,)  of  Bangour,  a  Scottish  poet, 
born  in  Ayrshire  in  1704,  joined  the  party  of  the  Pre- 
tender in  1745.  He  wrote  a  volume  of  poems,  among 
which  is  "The  Braes  of  Yarrow."    Died  in  1754. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 


Hamilton,  (Sir  William,)  a  diplomatist,  antiquary, 
and  connoisseur,  born  in  Scotland  in  1730.  He  was 
appointed  ambassador  to  Naples  in  1764,  and  retained 
that  post  until  i8oo.  In  1766  he  was  admitted  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  in  1772  was  made  Knight  of 
the  Bath.  During  his  residence  at  Naples  he  contributed 
rnuch  to  the  advancement  of  art  and  science  by  collecting 
Etruscan  and  Greek  vases  and  other  antiquities  (now 
in  the  Britiiih  Museum)  and  by  observing  the  volcanic 
phenomena  of  Vesuvius.  He  published,  in  1772,  "Ob- 
servations on  Mount  Vesuvius,  Mount  Etna,"  etc.,  and 
in  1776  another  work  on  the  same  subject,  entitled 
"Campi  Phlegraei."  In  1766  appeared  an  elegant  work, 
in  French  and  English,  named  "  Etruscan,  Greek,  and 
Roman  Antiquities,  drawn  from  the  Cabinet  of  Mr. 
Hamilton,"  by  D'Hancarville.  Died  in  1803.  His 
second  wife,  Emma,  gained  notoriety  by  her  disgraceful 
connection  with  Lord  Nelson. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Hamilton,  (Sir  William,)  one  of  the  greatest  meta- 
physicians of  modern  times,  was  born  at  Glasgow  on  the 
8th  of  March,  1788.  He  was  descended  from  the  ancient 
Scottish  family  of  the  Ilamiltons  of  Preston,  and  was 
educated  at  Baliiol  College,  Oxford,  where  he  obtained 
first-class  honours.  In  1821  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  universal  history  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
where  he  had  much  leisure  for  the  pursuit  of  his  favoiu-ite 
metaphysical  studies.  He  commenced  in  1829  to  write 
for  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  on  mental  philosophy,  logic, 
and  other  subjects.  Among  the  titles  of  these  es'says  or 
reviews  are  the  "  Philosophy  of  the  Absolute  :  Cousin- 
Schelling,"  (1829,)  "  Philosophy  of  Perception  :  Reid  and 
Brown,"  (1830,)  and  "Logic:  the  Recent  English  Treat- 
ises on  that  Science,"  (1833.)  tie  combated  the  system 
of  Schelling  and  Hegel  in  the  essay  first  named.  From 
1836  until  his  death  he  was  professor  of  logic  and  meta- 
physics in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  Before  the 
former  date  he  had  acquired  a  European  reputation  by 
his  vast  erudition  and  extraordinary  acuteness  of  intel- 
lect. His  influence  and  success  as  a  professor  were  aug- 
mented by  a  noble  person,  a  sonorous  voice,  and  perfect 
dignity  of  manner.  He  published  in  1846  an  edition 
of  Reid's  Works,  with  notes  and  supplementary  disser- 
tations;  and  in  1852,  "  Discussions  on  Philosophy  and 
Literature,  Education  and  University  Reform,  chiefly 
from  the  'Edinburgh  Review,' enlarged,  with  Notes  and 
other  Additions,"  (i  vol.  8vo.)  In  1845  he  was  partially 
disabled  by  paralysis,  which,  however,  did  not  impair  his 
mental  activity.  His  last  publication  was  an  edition 
of  the  Works  of  Dugald  Stewart,  (9  vols.,  1854-56.)  He 
died  in  Edinburgh  on  the  6th  of  May,  1856.  He  com- 
bined the  power  of  analysis  and  generalization  in  a  degree 
perhaps  unequalled  since  the  time  of  Aristotle.  In  a 
thorough  acquaintance  with  the  history  of  philosophy 
he  has  never  been  surpassed  by  any  writer. 

"  Sir  William  Hamilton,"  says  the  "  Edinburgh  Re- 
view," "  has  attained  to  the  very  highest  distinction  as 
a  philosopher,  and  in  some  respects  he  is  decidedly 
superior  to  any  of  his  illustrious  predecessors, — Reid, 
Stewart,  or  Brown.  With  a  remarkable  power  of  analysis 
and  discrimination,  he  combines  great  decision  and  ele- 
gance of  style,  and  a  degree  of  erudition  that  is  almost 
without  a  parallel."  "  Hamilton  never  deviates,"  says 
M.  Cousin,  "from  the  gratide  roiite  oi  common  sense; 
and  at  the  same  time  he  has  much  esprit  and  sagacity. 
I  assure  you  (as  I  know  by  experience)  that  his  dialectic 
is  very  inconvenient  to  an  adversary.  .  .  .  His  inde- 
pendence is  equal  to  his  knov^'ledge  ;  and  he  is  especially 
great  in  logic.  I  now  address  you  professionally,  (ejt 
hoifune  de  metier.)  Know  then,  that  M.  Hamilton, 
among  all  your  compatriots,  understands  Aristotle  the 
best  ;•  and  if  there  is  a  chair  of  logic  vacant  in  the  three 
kingdoms,  give  it  to  him,  by  all  means,  without  delay." 
(Letter  to  Mr.  Pillans,  of  Edinburgh,  1836.) 

See  John  Veitch,  "Memoir  of  Sir  William  Hamilton,  Bart.," 
(with  portrait,)  1869;  E.  P.  Whipple,  "Essays  and  Reviews," 
1851;  "North  American  Review"  for  January,  1853,  vol.  Ixxvi.  ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biograplve  Generale ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
October,  1859;  "North  British  Review"  for  May,  1859,  September, 
1S65,  and  July,  1868.  See,  also,  J.  S.  Mill's  "Examination  of  Sir 
William  Hamilton's  Philosophy,"  1865,  and  the  Introduction  to  Dr. 
James  McCosh's  "  Examination  of  Mr.  J.  S.  Mill's  Philosophy," 
1866. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fl,ll,  f^t;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


HAMILTON 


1 123 


HAMMOND 


Hamilton,  (William,)  R.A.,  a  British  painter,  born 
about  1750,  was  a  pupil  of  Zucchi,  in  Rome.  He  was 
successful  as  a  painter  of  ornaments,  and  was  elected 
a  Royal  Academician  in  1789.  He  worked  mostly  in 
England,  and  was  one  of  the  artists  employed  on  the 
"Shakspeare  Gallery."    Died  in  1801. 

Hamilton,  (William  Douglas,)  Earl  of  Selkirk,  was 
created  Duke  of  Hamilton  in  1660.  He  married  Anne, 
Duchess  of  Hamilton,  with  the  condition  that  their  chil- 
dren should  take  her  family  name.  William  HI.  appointed 
him  lord  high  commissioner  of  Scotland  in  1689,  and 
again  in  1693.    Died  in  1694. 

See  Macaulay,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  vi.  ;  also 
vol.  lii.  chaps,  xiii.  and  xvi. 

Hamilton,  (William  Gerard,)  often  called  "  Single- 
Speech  Hamilton,"  was  born  in  London  in  1729.  Having 
been  educated  at  Oxford,  he  obtained  a  seat  in  Parlia- 
ment in  1754,  and  made  his  first  speech  in  November, 
1755,  which  was  received  with  great  apj^lause.  It  is  said 
that  no  maiden  speech  in  that  House  ever  made  such  a 
sensation.  In  1756  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  lords 
of  trade.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  "  Parliamentary  Logic," 
and  was  conjectured,  without  evidence  or  probability,  to 
be  the  author  of  "Junius."  From  1765  to  1784  he  was 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  Ireland,  and  made  several 
eloquent  speeches  in  the  Irish  Parliament.  He  was  one 
of  Dr.  Johnson's  most  valued  friends.    Died  in  1796. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  vol.  xv. 

Hamilton,  (William  Richard,)  an  English  anti- 
quary and  diplomatist,  born  in  London  in  1777.  He  was 
private  secretary  of  Lord  Elgin  in  the  embassy  to  Con- 
stantinople, and  aided  in  the  removal  of  the  Elgin  Mar- 
bles from  Athens.  After  a  visit  to  Egypt,  he  published 
a  work  on  the  antiquities  of  that  country,  called  "  ^igyp- 
tiaca,"  (1810.)  He  procured  for  the  British  Museum  the 
famous  Rosetta  Stone.  He  was  under-secretary  of  state 
fur  f(Meign  affairs  between  1810  and  1822.  Died  in  1859. 

Hamilton,  (Sir  William  Rowax,)  an  eminent  Irish 
asti  onomer  and  geometer,  born  in  Dublin  in  1805.  He 
learned,  or  at  least  studied,  thirteen  languages  before  he 
had  completed  his  thirteenth  year,  and  about  the  age 
of  fifteen  became  versed  in  the  higher  mathematics.  In 
1823  he  l  egan  to  apply  algebraic  geometry  to  optics,  and 
enteiid  ihe  University  of  Dublin,  where  he  "uniformly 
(ib;;iii  ed  the  chief  honour  in  both  science  and  classics." 
Hl-  was  appointed  .Ai'drews  professor  of  astronomy  and 
astronomer  royal  for  Ireland  at  the  age  of  twenty-one, 
aid  [)roduced  in  1828  his  important  "Theory  of  Systems 
(if  Ivays,"  in  which  he  developed  the  application  of  alge- 
bra to  optics,  and  announced  two  new  laws  of  light, — the 
internal  and  exter7ial  conical  refraction  of  biaxal  crystals. 
He  received  a  gold  medal  from  the  Royal  Society  of 
London  for  this  discovery,  in  reference  to  which  Professor 
Piiicker,  of  Bonn,  declared,  "No  experiment  in  i^hysics 
has  made  such  an  impression  on  my  mind."  He  was 
chosen  president  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  in  1837. 
Among  his  chief  works  is  "Elements  of  Quaternions," 
(1866.)  Died  in  1865.  "There  can  be  but  one  opinion," 
says  the  "North  British  Review"  for  September,  1866, 
"of  the  extraordinary  genius  and  untiring  energy  of  hi'm 
who,  unaided,  composed  in  so  short  a  time  two  such 
enormous  treatises  as  the  'Lectures,'  (1853,)  and  the 
'Elements  of  Quaternions,'  (1866.)  As  a  repertory  of 
mathematical  facts  and  a  triumph  of  analytical  and  geo- 
metrical power,  they  can  be  compared  only  with  such 
imjiei  ishable  works  as  the  '  Principia'  and  the  '  Me- 
canique  Analytique.' " 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  1866. 

Ham'ley,  (Lieutenant -Colonel  Edward  Bruce,) 
R.A.,  a  contemporary  British  writer  of  fiction,  published 
"Lady  Lee's  Widowhood,"  (2  vols.,  1854,)  and  "The 
Story  of  a  Campaign:  a  Narrative  of  the  *War  in 
Southern  Russia,  written  in  the  Crimea,"  (1855.)  These 
works  first  appeared  in  "  Blackwood's  Magazine." 

HamTiu,  (Hannibal,)  an  American  Senator,  born  at 
Paris,  Oxford  county,  Maine,  in  August,  1809.  He  prac- 
tised law  from  1833  1848.  He  was  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  of  Maine  in  1837,  1839,  and 
1840,  and  represented  a  district  of  that  State  in  Congress 
from  1843  to  1847.  In  May,  1848,  he  was  elected  a 
Senator  of  the  United  States  for  four  years,  to  fill  a 


vacancy.  He  was  re-elected  a  Senator  for  six  years  by 
the  legislature  of  Maine  in  185 1.  He  was  originally  a 
Democrat,  but  differed  from  his  party  on  the  question 
of  slavery,  and  joined  the  Republicans  about  1855.  In 
1857  he  was  Governor  of  Maine  for  a  short  time,  but, 
having  been  again  elected  to  the  Federal  Senate,  he 
resigned  the  office  of  Governor.  He  was  elected  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States  by  the  Republicans  in 
i860.  In  January,  1869,  he  was  again  elected  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States. 

Hammarskold  or  Hammarskoeld,  hin/mars- 
chold',  (Lars,)  an  able  Swedish  critic  and  author,  born 
at  Tuna,  in  Calmar,  in  1785.  He  published  a  volume 
of  poems,  "  Poetiska  Studier,"  (1813,)  "  Hellvin  och  El- 
vina,"  a  tale,  (1817,)  "Swedish  Literature,"  ("  Svenska 
Vitterheten,"  1818,)  which  is  highly  commended,  and 
an  excellent  work  entitled  "  Historical  Remarks  on  the 
Progress  and  Development  of  Philosophic  Studies  in 
Sweden,"  (1821.)    Died  in  1827. 

See  "Minnen  af  L.  Hammarskoeld,"  1827. 

Hammer,  him'mer,  (Julius,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Dresden  in  1810,  published  "  Life  and  Dreaming," 
("  Leben  und  Traum,"  1839,)  and  other  novels.  A  volume 
of  his  poems,  entitled  "Look  around  thee  and  Look 
within  thee,"  ("  Schau'  um  Dich  und  schau'  in  Dich," 
185 1,)  was  often  reprinted. 

Hammerer,  him'meh-rer,  (Johann,)  an  Alsatian 
architect  and  sculj^tor,  superintended  the  erection  of  the 
Strasburg  Cathedral  from  1510  to  1520. 

Hammericli,  him'meh-riK,  (  Frederik  Peder 
Adolf,)  a  Danish  author  and  divine,  born  at  Co]>en- 
hagen  in  1809.  He  produced  popular  national  songs  in 
a  work  entitled  "  Skandinaviske  Reiseminder,"  (1840,) 
"Heroic  Songs,"  ("  Heltesange,"  1841,)  "The  Awaken- 
ing of  Denmark,"  (1848,)  and  other  admired  poems.  In 
1845  he  became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Copenhagen.  He 
published  several  well-written  works  on  Danish  history, 
among  which  is  "  Denmark  under  the  Union  of  Calmar," 
("  Denmark  under  de  Nordiske  Rigers  Forening  1375- 
1523,"  1849.) 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Hammerlein,  hSm^mer-ln/,  [Lat.  Malle'olus,  ] 
(Felix,)  a  Swiss  theologian,  born  in  Zurich  in  1389.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  the  Council  of  Bale  by  his  zeal 
for  the  maintenance  of  discipline.  He  wrote  many 
religious  treatises,  which  exposed  him  to  persecution, 
and  was  condemned  to  perpetual  detention  in  a  convent, 
where  he  died  about  1460. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hammer-Purgstall,  von,  fon  hSm'mer  pooRo'stir, 
(Joseph,)  Baron,  an  eminent  German  Orientalist  and 
historian,  was  born  at  Gratz,  in  Styria,  in  1774.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Goethe,  Herder,  and  Wieland  in  his  youth. 
In  1802  he  went  to  Constantinople  as  secretary  of  lega- 
tion, and  in  1807  he  returned  to  Vienna,  where  he  chiefly 
resided.  He  was  appointed  interpreter  to  the  imperial 
court  about  181 5,  and  aulic  councillor  in  181 7.  He  spoke 
and  wrote  ten  foreign  languages,  among  which  were  the 
Persian,  Arabic,  Greek,  and  Turkish.  His  literar\  career 
was  long  and  prosperous.  He  was  elected  president  of 
the  Academy  of  Vienna  in  1847,  and  was  an  associate 
of  the  French  Institute.  Probably  no  other  European 
has  been  so  successful  in  the  illustration  of  the  manners, 
history,  and  literature  of  the  Mussulmans.  His  histories 
are  the  most  complete  that  we  have  on  the  subjects  of 
which  he  treats.  One  of  his  chief  works  is  a  "  History  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire,"  ("  Geschichte  des  Osmanischeu 
Reichs,"  10  vols.,  1827-35.)  ^^'^^  author  of  numerous 
other  works,  among  which  are  a  "History  of  Ottoman 
Poetry,"  (4  vols.,  1836-38,)  and  a  "  History  of  Arabic 
Literature,"  ("  Literaturgeschichte  der  Araber,"  7  vols. 
4to,  1850-56.)  He  also  translated  poems  from  the  Per- 
sian, Arabic,  etc.  His  original  name  was  Joseph  Ham- 
mer ;  but,  having  in  1837  inherited  certain  estates  of  the 
Counts  of  Purgstall,  he  added  their  name  to  his  own, 
and  was  created  a  baron.    Died  in  1856. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Denkwiirdigkeiten  aus  meinem  Leben  ;" 
K.  ScHLOTTMANN,  "  Joseph  voD  Hammer-Purgstall ;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly"  for  November,  1827;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.' 

Ham'mpnd,  (Anthony,)  M.P.,  born  at  Somershans 
Place,  England,  in  1668,  gained  distinction  in  literature 


■e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal ;  r,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (S:^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HAMMOND 


1124 


HAMPDEN 


aiul  parliamentary  eloquence.  In  1720  he  edited  a  "  New 
Miscellany  of  Original  Poems,"  some  of  which  were  his 
own  productions.    Died  in  1738. 

Hammond,  (Hknry,)  an  English  divine  and  author, 
born  at  Chertsey  in  1605,  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of 
Chichester  in  1643,  and  canon  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
in  1645.  Being  a  zealous  royalist,  he  attended  Charles 
I.  as  chaplain  while  he  was  a  prisoner  in  1646-47.  He 
was  an  excellent  orator,  and  an  author  of  superior  merit. 
Among  his  works  are  "A  Practical  Catechism,"  (1644,) 
"Paraphrase  and  Annotations  on  the  New  Testament," 
(1653,)  "Paraphrase  and  Annotations  on  the  Book  of 
Psalms,"  (1659,)  and  "A  Pacific  Discourse  on  God's 
Grace  and  Decrees,"  (1660.)  "I  would  recommend," 
says  Dr.  Johnson,  "  Lowth  and  Patrick  on  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, and  Hammond  on  the  New."    Died  in  1660. 

See  Bishop  Fell,  "  Life  of  H.  Hammond,"  1661 ;  R.  Fulman, 
"Life  of  H.  Hammond,"  16S4. 

Hammond,  (Jabez  D.,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
writer.  He  rej^resented  a  district  of  New  York  in  Con- 
gress in  1815-17,  and  was  elected  regent  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  New  York  in  1845.  He  wrote  a  "Political 
History  of  New  York,"  (2  vols.,  1843,)  and  a  "Life  of 
Silas  Wright."    Died  at  Cherry  Valley  in  1855. 

Ham'mond,  (James,)  M.P.,  an  English  poet,  son  of 
Anthony,  noticed  above,  was  born  about  17 10.  He  was 
equerry  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  sat  in  Parliament  in 
1741.  He  wrote  "Love  Elegies,"  (partly  translated  or 
imitated  from  Tibullus.)    Died  in  1742. 

Hammond,  (James  Hamilton,)  a  politician,  born  in 
Newberry  district,  South  Carolina,  in  1807.  He  was  a 
nullifier  about  1832,  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1835, 
and  was  chosen  Governor  of  South  Carolina  in  1842.  In 
1857  he  became  a  United  States  Senator.    Died  in  1861. 

Hammond,  (Le  Roy,)  Colonel,  an  American  officer, 
born  in  Richmond  county,  Virginia,  about  1740.  He 
removed  to  Soutli  Carolina,  where  he  fought  against  the 
British  in  1776-82  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  leader 
in  guerilla  warfare.    Died  about  1800. 

Hammond,  (Marcus  C.  M.,)  a  military  writer,  a 
brother  of  James  H.  Hammond,  noticed  above,  was  born 
in  Newberry  district,  South  Carolina,  in  1 814,  and  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1836.  He  wrote  for  the  "  South- 
ern Quarterly"  a  series  of  essays  on  the  Mexican  war. 

Hammond,  (Samuel,)  an  able  American  officer,  born 
in  Richmond  county,  Virginia,  in  1757.  He  served  with 
distinction  at  King's  Mountain,  Cowpens,  Eutaw,  and 
other  battles  in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  He  was 
a])pointed  civil  and  military  commandant  of  Upper 
Louisiana  about  1805.  In  1831  he  became  secretary  of 
state  of  South  Carolina.    Died  in  1842. 

Hammond,  (William  A.,)  an  American  surgeon 
and  distinguished  medical  writer,  born  in  Annapolis, 
Maryland,  August  28,  1828,  graduated  as  M.D.  at  the 
University  of  New  York  in  1848,  and  entered  the  army  as 
assistant  surgeon.  In  October,  i860,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  the  University 
of  Maryland.  In  1861  he  re  entered  the  army,  was 
ajipointed  surgeon-general  in  April,  1862,  and  was  dis- 
missed in  August.  1864.  He  has  published,  besides  other 
valuable  works,  "  Military  Hygiene,"  (1863,)  and  "Sleep 
and  its  Derangements,"  (1869.) 

Hamon,  /^S'm6N',  (Jean,)  a  distinguished  Jansenist 
writer,  was  born  at  Cherbourg  in  i6i8.  He  entered  the 
monastery  of  Port-Royal  about  1650,  before  which  he 
had  acquired  distinction  by  his  talents.  He  was  ex- 
tremely abstemious  or  ascetic  in  his  way  of  life.  He 
wrote  treatises  on  prayer  and  on  solitude,  and  other  de- 
votional works,  the  morality  and  unction  of  which  entitle 
him  to  rank  with  the  best  writers  of  Port-Royal.  He 
practised  medicine  before  and  after  his  retirement  from 
the  world.    Died  in  1687. 

"Tout  brillant  de  savoir,  d'esprit  et  d'eloquence, 

11  counit  an  desert  chercher  I'obscurite." — Boileau. 
See  Thomas  Dufosse,  "  Histoire  de  Port-Royal;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Geii^rale." 

Hamon,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  painter  of  genre, 
born  at  Plouha  (C6tes-du-Nord)  in  1821,  His  works 
are  admired  for  grace,  finesse,  and  subtlety  of  idea  and 
execution.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  My  Sister 
is  not  here,"  (1853,)  "Cupid  and  his  Flock,"  (1855,) 


and  "The  Butterfly  Chained,"  ("Le  Papillon  enchaine," 
(1857.) 

Hamp'd^n,  (John,)  an  illustrious  English  patriot 
and  statesman,  born  in  London  in  1594,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  William  Hampden  of  Hampden  and  Elizabeth 
Cromwell,  who  was  aunt  of  the  Protector,  Oliver  Crom- 
well. He  inherited  at  an  early  age  the  ample  estate  of 
his  ancestors,  in  the  county  of  Bucks.  Having  been  edu- 
cated at  Oxford,  he  became  in  1613  a  student  in  the  Inner 
Temple,  and  attained  proficiency  both  in  literature  and 
law.  While  a  student,  he  was  chosen  to  write  an  epitha- 
lamium  on  the  marriage  of  the  princess  Elizabeth,  sister 
of  Charles  I.  In  1619  he  married  Elizabeth  Symeon, 
and  in  the  next  year  was  returned  to  Parliament  by  the 
borough  of  Grampound.  Of  his  private  life  not  many 
particulars  have  been  recorded.  It  appears  that  party 
spirit  and  detraction  failed  to  find  any  vice  in  his  morals 
or  any  vulnerable  point  in  his  character.  Clarendon  men- 
tions a  change  which  occurred  in  his  habits,  probably, 
about  the  age  of  twenty-five.  "  On  a  sudden,"  he  says, 
"from  a  life  of  great  pleasure  and  license,  he  retired  to 
extraordinary  sobriety  and  strictness."  But  even  after 
this  change  "he  preserved  his  natural  cheerfulness  and 
vivacity,  and,  above  all,  a  flowing  courtesy  to  all  men." 
Hampden  represented  Wendover  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons in  1625,  and  also  in  the  next  Parliament,  which  met 
in  1626  and  denied  the  right  of  the  king  to  levy  tonnage 
and  poundage  without  their  consent.  When  the  king 
resorted  to  a  forced  loan,  Hampden,  with  many  others, 
refused  to  pay  his  portion,  and  was  imprisoned.  Having 
been  restored  to  liberty,  he  entered  Parliament  in  1628, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  industry  and  capacity 
for  business.  The  king  having  resolved  to  dispense  with 
Parliaments,  Hampden  retired  to  his  estate  in  1629,  and 
passed  many  years  in  rural  occupations.  In  1636  he 
obtained  great  credit  and  popularity  by  his  firm  resistance 
to  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the  court  in  reference  to 
ship-money.  The  sum  required  of  him  was  only  a  few 
shillings;  but,  as  he  considered  the  demand  despotic  in 
princii)le  and  tendency,  he  thought  it  his  duty  to  abide 
by  the  constitution,  and  refused  to  pay  a  farthing.  To- 
wards the  end  of  1636  this  great  cause  was  tried  in 
the  Exchequer  Chamber  before  all  the  (twelve)  judges 
of  England.  The  arguments  of  the  counsel  occupied 
about  twelve  days.  Four  of  the  judges  decided  in  Hamp- 
den's favour,  and  seven  or  eight  against  him. 

Many  Puritans  now  sought  a  refuge  from  persecution 
and  oppression  by  emigration  to  America  under  the 
auspices  of  Lord  Say  and  Lord  Brooke.  Hampden, 
perceiving  that  neither  his  person  nor  his  property  was 
safe,  determined  to  follow  their  example.  In  1638,  in  com- 
pany with  his  cousin,  Oliver  Cromwell,  he  took  passage 
in  a  ship  on  the  point  of  sailing  to  America,  when  the 
voyage  was  arrested  by  an  order  of  Council,  and  the  two 
friends  remained,  to  teach  despotic  power  an  ever-memo« 
rable  lesson.  In  1640  the  king  called  the  famous  Long 
Parliament,  in  which  Hampden  sat  as  a  member  for 
Bucks,  being  regarded  as  the  leader  of  the  opposition 
and  the  most  popular  man  in  England.  "  He  was,"  says 
Macaulay,  "a  greater  master  of  parliamentary  tactics 
than  any  man  of  his  time.  .  .  .  His  speaking  was  ready, 
weighty,  perspicuous,  condensed.  He  seldom  rose  till 
late  in  a  debate."  In  1641  the  court  proposed  to  form 
a  po])ular  administration,  under  the  direction  of  the  Earl 
of  Bedford,  and  to  select  Hampden  as  tutor  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales  ;  but  the  death  of  the  earl  prevented  this  de- 
sirable consummation.  During  the  stormy  debate  which 
attended  the  passage  of  the  Grand  Remonstrance,  when 
the  excited  disputants  were  near  coming  to  blows,  they 
were  pacified,  as  an  eye-witness  states,  "by  the  sagacity 
and  great  calmness  of  Mr.  Hampden." 

On  the  3d  of  January,  1642,  the  king  sent  the  attor- 
ney-general to  impeach  Hampden,  Pym,  Ilollis,  and  two 
other  members  of  the  House,  on  a  charge  of  high  treason. 
As  the  Commons  refused  to  surrender  these  members, 
Charles  went  in  person,  with  his  guards,  to  arrest  them 
in  their  seats  ;  but  the  five  members  had  retired  a  few 
minutes  before,  and  escaped  from  his  grasp.  This  des- 
perate attempt  against  the  privilege  of  Parliament  excited 
the  greatest  indignation.  The  city  of  London  rose  in 
arms.    In  a  few  days  the  Commons  openly  defied  the 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon* 


HAMPDEN 


1125 


HANCOCK 


court,  and  the  citizens  escorted  the  accused  members 
in  triumph  back  to  their  seats  in  Westminster.  When 
the  news  reached  Buckinghamshire,  four  thousand  free- 
holders rode  to  London  to  defend  their  representative. 

When  all  attempts  to  negotiate  had  failed  between  the 
two  parties,  Hampden  received  a  commission  as  colonel, 
and  raised  a  regiment  in  his  own  county.  They  wore 
the  device  "Vestigia  nulla  retrorsum,"  a  fitting  motto 
for  one  whose  character  was  so  straightforward  and 
determined.  As  a  member  of  the  committee  of  public 
safety,  he  was  incessantly  employed  in  a  variety  of 
labours.  Had  he  lived  a  few  years  longer,  it  is  probable 
he  would  have  been  commander-in-chief.  He  took  part 
in  the  battle  of  Edgehill,  and  in  several  skirmishes,  ex- 
posing his  person  with  a  bravery  bordering  on  rashness. 
In  June,  1643,  Prince  Rupert,  returning  from  a  maraud- 
ing expedition,  encountered  Hampden,  with  a  small 
troop,  on  Chalgrove  field.  In  the  first  charge  Hamp- 
den received  a  fatal  shot  in  the  shoulder  ;  and  a  few  days 
after  the  great  Commoner  expired. 

He  left  three  sons  and  six  daughters,  whose  mother 
died  in  1634.  Clarendon,  though  a  political  opponent, 
renders  the  following  tribute  to  his  memory:  "lie  was 
indeed  a  very  wise  man,  and  possessed  with  the  most 
absolute  spirit  of  popularity,  and  the  most  absolute 
faculties  to  govern  the  people,  of  any  man  I  ever  knew. 
.  .  .  His  reputation  of  honesty  was  universal.  .  .  .  The 
eyes  of  all  men  were  fixed  upon  him  as  their  patriae 
pater,  and  the  pilot  that  must  steer  the  vessel  through 
the  tempests  that  threatened  it." 

See  Lord  Nugent,  "  Memorials  of  Hampden,"  1832 ;  Mac- 
AULAv's  review  of  the  same,  in  his  "Essays;"  Clakendon, 
"History  of  the  Rebellion;"  John  Forster,  "Lives  of  Eminent 
British  Statesmen;"  Hume,  "History  of  England,"  chap.  Ivi.  ; 
GuiZOT,  "Histoiie  de  la  Revolution  d'Anglelei re ;"  Hali.am, 
"Constitutional  History  of  England;"  Isaac  Disraeli,  "Eliot, 
Hampden,  and  Pym,"  1832. 

Hampden,  (Rev.  Renn  Dickson,)  an  English  divine 
and  scholar,  born  in  Barbadoes  about  1794.  He  became 
a  Fellow  of  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  where  he  was  also 
a  tutor.  He  published,  among  other  works,  "Philo- 
sophical Evidence  of  Christianity,"  (1827,)  and  "The 
Scholastic  Philosophy  in  its  Relation  to  Christian  The- 
ology," (1832.)  In  1836  he  was  appointed  by  the  Whig 
ministry  regius  professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford.  This 
appointment  gave  rise  to  a  fierce  controversy.  It 
was  condemned  by  the  high-church  party,  who  charged 
Hampden  with  unsoundness  of  doctrine  ;  and  it  was 
stigmatized  by  Southey  as  "an  insult  to  the  University." 
He  became  Bishoj)  of  Hereford  in  1847.  He  contributed 
able  articles  on  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle  to  the 
"Encyclopaedia  Britannica."   Died  in  1868. 

Hampden,  (Richard,)  a  son  of  the  great  John  Hamp- 
den, was  a  Whig  member  of  the  House  of  Commons 
in  1689,  also  a  commissioner  of  the  treasury,  and  member 
of  the  privy  council.  In  1690  he  was  made  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer, —  "probably  to  reward  him  for  the 
moderation  of  his  conduct,"  says  Macaulay. 

See  Macaui-av's  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  x.  ;  vol.  iii. 
chaps,  xi.  and  xv. 

Ham'per,  (W^illiam,)  an  English  biographer  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Birmingham  in  1776.  He  served  as 
magistrate  in  Warwickshire.  Among  his  works  were 
several  antiquarian  treatises  in  the  "Gentleman's  Ma- 
gaziiie,"  and  "The  Life,  Diary,  and  Correspondence  of 
Sir  William  Dugdale,"  (1837,)  which  contains  valuable 
historical  information.    Died  in  1831. 

Hamp'ton,  (Rev.  James,)  an  English  translator,  who 
published  a  version  of  the  "  General  History"  of  Polybius, 
(2  vols.  4to,  1756-72,)  with  a  preface  by  Dr.  Johnson. 
"The  English  translator,"  says  Gibbon,  "has  preserved 
the  admirable  sense  and  improved  the  coarse  original." 
Died  in  1778. 

Hamp'tpn,  (Wade,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
South  Carolina  in  1755.  He  served  in  the  Revolutionary 
war,  and  gained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  1809. 
He  commanded  an  army  which  made  an  unsuccessful 
invasion  of  Canada  in  October,  1813.    Died  in  1835. 

Hampton,  (Wade.)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Columbia  or  Charleston,  St)uth  Carolina,  about 
1828,  or,  as  others  say,  in  1818.  He  took  arms  against 
the  Union  in  1861,  served  as  a  brigadier-general  at  the 


battle  of  Antietam,  September,  1862,  and  was  wounded 
at  Gettysburg,  July,  1863.  Having  been  raised  to  the 
rank  of  major-general,  he  commanded  all  the  cavalry  of 
Lee's  army  in  Virginia  in  the  summer  of  1864.  He  served 
in  South  Carolina  in  February,  1865,  and,  according  to 
the  report  of  General  Sherman,  "  ordered  that  all  cotton, 
public  and  private,  should  be  moved  into  the  streets  [of 
Columbia]  and  fired."  Generals  Hampton  and  Sherman 
mutually  accused  each  other  of  burning  Columbia. 

See  "Southern  Generals,"  anonymous,  1865;  Greeley,  "Ameri- 
can Conflict,"  vol.  ii.  pj).  699-701. 

Hamsfort,  hams'foRt,  (Cornelius,)  a  Danish  his- 
torian, who  published  in  1585  a  succession  of  Kings  of 
Denmark  from  Dan  to  Frederick  II.  He  also  wrote  a 
"Chronology  of  Danish  History."    Died  in  1627. 

Haniza, hdm'zi,  surnamed  Al-Hadee,  (or  Al-Hadi,) 
i.e.  "  the  Director,"  called  by  some  authorities  the  founder 
of  the  sect  of  the  Druses,  flourished  in  Cairo  about  the 
year  1000.  He  wrote  the  "  Book  of  Testimonies  to  the 
Mysteries  of  the  Unity,"  thought  by  some  to  rival  the 
Koran. 

Hamza,  or  Hamzah,  was  also  the  name  of  one  of 
Mohammed's  foster-brothers.    He  fell  at  Bedr,  622  A.D. 
Hanbal.    See  Ikn-Hankal. 

Hancarville,  d',  d6N'ktR^'^l',  the  title  of  an  ingenious 
French  antiquary,  whose  proper  name  was  Pierre  Fran- 
gois  Hugues,  (/ziig,)  born  at  Nancy  in  1710.  He  lived 
many  years  in  Italy,  and  attained  some  skill  in  design. 
He  published  a  sjilendid  work  entitled  "  Etruscan,  Greek, 
and  Roinan  Antiquities,  drawn  from  the  Cabinet  of  Sir 
William  Hamilton,"  (4  vols.,  Naples,  1766,)  and  "Re- 
searches into  the  Origin,  Spirit,  and  Progress  of  the  Arts 
in  Greece,"  (1785.)    Died  in  Padua  in  1805. 

Hanckius,  hank'e-us,  or  Hanke,  hdnk'eh,  (Martin,) 
a  German  philologist,  born  near  Breslau  in  1633.  He 
became  prufessor  of  history  in  Breslau  in  1661,  and  after- 
wards inspector  of  the  Lutheran  schools.  He  wrote  a 
useful  work  on  Roman  historians,  entitled  "  De  Roma- 
narum  Rerum  Scriptoribus,"  (1669-75,)  ^^^^  several  inter- 
esting works  on  the  civil  and  literary  history  of  Silesia, 
among  which  is  a  work  on  learned  Silesians,  "  De  Sile- 
siis  Indigenis  eruditis  ab  Anno  1 165  ad  Annum  1550," 
(1707.)    Died  in  1709. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Caspar 
Naumann,  "  Martinalia  Christiana,  seu  Concio  funebris  in  Obitum 
M.  Hanckii,"  1710. 

Han'cock,  (John,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Quincy,  Massachusetts,  January  12,  1737,  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1754.  He  became  a  merchant  of  Boston, 
and  heir  to  a  large  fortune.  His  wife  was  a  daughter  of 
Edmund  Quincy.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  of  Massachusetts  in  1766, 
became  a  bold  assertor  of  liberty,  and  was  president  of 
the  Provincial  Congress  in  1774.  In  June,  1775,  Gov- 
ernor Gage  offered  a  pardon  to  all  the  rebels  except 
Samuel  Adams  and  John  Hancock.  He  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Continental  Congress  in  1775,  and 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence  in  1776.  Having 
resigned  his  seat  in  Congress,  on  account  of  ill  health, 
in  October,  1777,  he  was  elected  Governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts in  1780.  He  was  a  very  popular  Governor,  and 
was  annually  re-elected,  except  for  the  years  1785  and 
1786,  until  his  death.  His  eloquence,  his  affable  dispo- 
sition, and  his  polished  manners  rendered  him  a  general 
favourite.  As  a  presiding  ofiicer,  he  was  dignified  and 
very  successful.  He  made  a  generous  use  of  his  fortune, 
and  was  a  liberal  benefactor  to  Harvard  College.  Died 
in  October,  1793. 

See  Goodrich,  "Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence;" Bancroft,  "History  of  the  United  Stales." 

Hancock,  (WinfieldScott,)  a  distinguished  Ameri- 
can general,  born  in  Montgomery  county,  Pennsylvania,  in 
1824.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1844,  and  served 
as  lieutenant  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  after  which 
he  was  employed  for  several  years  in  Missouri.  In  1855 
he  obtained  the  rank  of  captain.  He  was  appointed  a 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  1861,  and  served  with 
distinction  in  the  army  of  the  Potomac  in  the  sj^ring  of 
1862.  He  took  i>art  in  the  battle  of  Antietam,  Septem- 
ber, 1862,  and  when  General  Richardson  was  killed 
there,  succeeded  him  as  commander  of  a  division,  which 


€  as     9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HAND 


1126 


HANNA 


he  directed  at  Fredericksburg  in  December  of  that  year. 
He  commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  July 
1-3,  1863,  where  he  was  wounded.  In  the  spring  of 
1864  he  obtained  command  of  the  second  corps  of  the 
army  of  General  Grant.  His  corps  captured  nearly  4000 
prisoners,  and  twenty  pieces  of  cannon,  in  the  battle 
fought  near  Spottsyl vania  Court-House  on  the  12th  of 
May,  1864.  He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general  of  the  regular  army  in  August  of  that  year.  In 
August,  1867,  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the  fifth 
military  district,  comprising  Louisiana  and  Texas.  He 
resigned  that  position  in  March,  1868.  He  received  at 
the  National  Democratic  Convention  of  July,  1868,  one 
hundred  and  forty  four  and  a  half  votes  as  a  candidate 
for  the  Presidency. 

Hand,  hint,  (Ferdinand  Gotthelf,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Plauen,  in  Saxony,  in  1786.  He  was 
professor  of  Greek  literature  in  the  University  of  Jena 
from  1817  until  1851.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
a  "Treatise  on  Latin  Style,"  ("  Lehrbuch  des  Latei- 
nischen  Stil,"  1833,)  and  "  ^Esthetics  of  the  Musical 
Art,"  (2  vols.,  1837-41.)    Died  in  1851. 

See  GusTAV  Queck,  "  F.  G.  Hand  iiach  seinem  Lebeii  iind  Wirken 
dargestellt,"  1852. 

Han'del,  [Ger.  Handel  or  Haendel,  hen'del,] 
(George  Frederick,)  one  of  the  most  excellent,  pro- 
found, and  original  of  musical  composers,  was  born  at 
Halle,  in  Prussian  Saxony,  on  the  24th  of  February, 
1684.  He  manifested  in  childhood  a  ruling  passion  for 
music,  which  he  studied  first  under  Zachau  of  Halle, 
and  composed  sonatas  at  the  age  of  ten.  In  1703  he 
became  connected  with  the  Opera  of  Hamburg,  where 
in  the  next  year  he  produced  his  "  Almeria"  with  great 
success.  He  visited  Italy  in  1708,  and  composed  his 
first  Italian  opera,  "Rodrigo,"  which  was  perforined  at 
Florence.  Having  produced  other  operas,  etc.  at  Venice 
and  Rome,  he  went  to  England  in  17 10,  and  composed 
the  music  for  the  opera  "  Rinaldo,"  which  was  greatly 
admired.  In  1712  he  settled  in  England,  and  in  1714 
became  chapel-master  of  George  I. 

About  1720  he  was  engaged  as  manager  of  the  new 
Academy  of  Music  founded  by  the  English  nobility,  and 
composed  the  opera  "  Radamista,"  which  was  received 
with  great  enthusiasm.  After  he  had  produced  many 
other  operas,  he  retired  from  the  direction  of  the  Acad- 
emy in  1728.  He  lost  nearly  all  his  fortune,  10,000,  in 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  support  another  opera-house 
between  1728  and  1740.  Thenceforth  devoting  himself 
to  sacred  music,  which  is  the  chief  foundation  of  his 
celebrity,  he  composed  the  oratorio  of  "Saul,"  (1740,) 
and  in  1741  his  sublime  master-piece,  the  "Messiah," 
which  was  received  with  immense  applause.  Among  his 
other  oratorios  (the  words  of  all  of  which  are  English) 
are  "Samson,"  "Moses  in  Egypt,"  "Joshua,"  (1747,) 
and  "Jephthah,"  (1751.) 

He  became  blind  in  1751,  but  continued  for  several 
years  to  conduct  his  oratorios  in  public  concerts.  He 
died  in  April,  1759,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  Handel  is  regarded  by  some  critics  as  the 
greatest  composer  that  ever  lived.  He  was  chiefly  pre- 
eminent in  majesty  and  sublimity  of  conception.  The 
centennial  anniversary  of  his  birth  was  celebrated  in 
London,  in  1784,  with  great  eclat. 

See  "  Life  of  Handel"  in  Hurney's  "  History  of  Music  ;"  Eschrn- 
BUKG,  "Life  of  Handel,"  (in  German,)  1785;  Matheson,  "Lite 
of  Handel,"  (in  German,)  1761  ;  Fetis,  "  Biograpliie  Universelle  des 
Musiciens ;"  J.  M.  VVeissbeck,  "  Der  grosse  Miisikus  G.  F.  Han- 
del ini  Universalrnhme,"  1S05;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July, 
1S57  ;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  September,  1857;  "  British  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  January,  1862. 

Handjeri.    See  Hanjeri. 

Handmann,  hint^mSn,  (E-HIANUEI,,)  a  Swiss  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Bale  in  1718;  died  in 
1781. 

Haneefahor  Hanifa,  hi-nee'fl,  Aboo-al-Noman- 
Ibn-Tabet,  (Abu-al-Noman-Ibn-  lor  Ebii-)  Tha- 

bet — i'boodl  no-mSn' Tb'n  ti'bet,)  the  founder  of  the  sect 
of  Haneefites,  the  first  of  the  four  orthodox  sects  among 
Mohammedans,  was  born  at  Cufa  about  700  a.d.  This 
sect  prevails  chiefly  among  the  Turks  and  Tartars.  They 
are  called  by  an  Arabian  writer  followers  of  reason,  while 
the  other  three  sects  are  called  followers  of  tradition,  as 


being  more  tenacious  of  the  traditions  of  the  prophet, 
Haneefa  died  in  prison  at  Bagdad  in  767.  He  was  im- 
prisoned because  he  refused  to  act  as  kadi,  or  judge, 
alleging  that  he  was  unfit  for  the  office.  It  is  said  that 
while  in  prison  he  read  the  Koran  through  seven  thou- 
sand times. 

See  Sale's  "  Koran,"  Prel  minary  Discourse. 

Hanel  or  Haenel,  ha'nel,  (Ernst  Julius,)  a  German 
sculptor,  born  at  Dresden  about  1810,  executed  a  statue 
of  Beethoven,  which  was  erected  at  Bonn  in  1845. 

Hanel  or  Haenel,  (Gustav  Friedrich,)  an  eminent 
German  jurist,  born  in  1792  at  Leipsic,  where  he  became 
professor  of  law  about  1838.  He  edited  "  Ulpianus  de 
Edendo,"  (1838,)  "  Codex  Theodosianus,"  (1839-42,)  and 
other  works. 

Hanel,  Haenel,  or  Handl.  hSndl,  (Jakob,)  surnamed 
Gallus,  a  German  composer,  born  in  Carniola  about 
1550,  was  imperial  chapel-master  at  Vienna.  His  "  Media 
in  Vita"  is  esteemed  a  master-])iece.    Died  in  1590. 

Hanfstangel  or  Hanfstaengel,  hSnf  stgng'el, 
(Franz,)  a  German  lithographer,  born  in  Upper  Bavaria 
in  1804.  His  chief  work  is  "The  Principal  Pictures  in 
the  Royal  Gallery  of  Dresden,"  (1836-52  ) 

HanV?!",  (Colonel  George,)  a  whimsical  English 
writer,  born  in  1760,  was  a  younger  son  of  Lord  Cole- 
raine.  Among  his  works  is  his  "Life,  Adventures,  and 
Opinions,"  (1801.)     Died  in  1824. 

Hangest,  de,deh  //6N''zhest'',(J^:R6ME,)  a  French  theo- 
logian, born  at  Compiegne,  wrote  against  Luther.  Died 
in  I  S3 8. 

Hanifa.    See  Haneefah. 

Hanjeri  or  Handjeri,  han^jeh-ree,  (Alexander,) 
Prlnce,  a  noted  linguist,  born  at  Constantinople  in  1760, 
was  ap])ointed  Hospodar  of  Moldavia  by  the  Sultan  in 
1807.  He  removed  to  Moscow  about  1821.  He  com- 
piled a  "Dictionary  of  the  French,  Arabic,  Persian,  and 
Turkish  Languages,"  (3  vols.,  1844.)  Died  at  Moscow 
in  1854. 

Hanka,  hSnk'!,  (Wenceslaus,)  a  distinguished  Bo- 
hemian antiquary  and  critic,  born  at  Horenowes  in  1791. 
He  was  liberally  educated  at  Prague,  and  about  1820 
became  librarian  of  the  Bohemian  Museum  of  that  city. 
He  discovered  in  181 7,  at  Kralodvor,  a  precious  manu- 
script of  old  Bohemian  poems,  which  are  greatly  ad- 
mired, and  of  which  he  published  an  edition,  called 
"  Kralodvorsky  Rukopis,"  (1817.)  He  published  a  "  Col- 
lection of  Bohemian  Poeins  of  the  Thirteenth  and  Four- 
teenth Coituries,"  (5  vols.,  1817-25,)  and  other  works. 

Hanke.    See  Hanckius,  (Mari'in.) 

Hanke,  hink^eh,  (Henriette  Wilhelmine,)  a  suc- 
cessful German  novelist,  originally  named  Arndt,  was 
born  at  Jauer,  in  Silesia,  in  17S5.  She  produced  about 
one  hundred  volumes  of  novels,  among  which  we  may 
name  "  Claudia,"  (1825,)  "  The  Pearls,"''(i836;)  and  "  My 
Winter  Garden,"  (1854.) 

Hanke  or  Haenke,  h^nk'eh,  (Thaddeus,)  a  Bohe- 
mian naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Kreibitz  in  1 761, 
visited  Mexico  and  the  islands  of  the  South  Sea.  Died 
in  Peru  in  181 7.  A  descri|;tion  of  the  plants  which  he 
collected  was  published  in  1825, 

See  Ersch  und  Gkuber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Han'mer,  (J(jnathan,)  an  I'^nglish  nonconformist 
minister,  born  at  Barnstaple  ;  died  in  1687. 

Hanmer,  (Meredith,)  an  English  scholar  and  divine, 
born  in  1543.  He  j^roduced  a  translation  of  the  "Eccle- 
siastic Histories  of  Eusebius,  Socrates,  and  Evagrius," 
(1577.)    Died  in  1604. 

Hanmer,  (Sir  Th(,;mas,)  an  English  legislator,  born 
about  1676,  was  for  thirty  years  a  member  of  the  llouse 
of  Commons,  of  which  he  was  chosen.  Speaker  in  1713. 
He  published  an  edition  of  Shakspeare  on  which  much 
time  and  labour  were  expended,  (1744.)    Died  in  1746. 

See  Sir  H.  Bunbuky,  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Hanmer,"  1838. 

Hann,  (James,)  an  English  mathematician,  born  about 
1799;  died  in  London  in  1856. 

Han'na,  (Rev.  William,)  LL.D.,  a  British  clergyman, 
a  son-in  law  of  the  eminent  Dr.  Chalmers,  was  born  at 
Belfast  in  1808.  He  became  editor  of  the  "  North  British 
Review"  about  1846,  and  afterwards  eilited  the  "Me- 
moirs of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Dr.  Chalmers,"  (4  vols., 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  satire,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  f^r,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


HANNAH 


1127 


HANNIBAL 


1S49-52,)  In  1850  he  became  colleague  of  Dr.  Guthrie 
in  Saint  John's  Church,  Edinburgh.  He  published  about 
1868  a  "Life  of  Christ,"  (6  vols.) 

Han'nah,  [Heb.  Hjn,]  a  Hebrew  matron,  was  the 
wife  of  Elkanah,  and  the  mother  of  the  prophet  Samuel. 

See  I.  Samuel  i.  and  ii. 

Han'nay,  (James,)  a  successful  British  writer  of 
fiction,  was  born  at  Dumfries  in  1827.  He  served  about 
five  years  in  the  royal  navy,  from  which  he  retired  in 
1845.  contributed  to  several  periodicals  and  jour- 

nals, and  gained  distinction  by  his  novel  "Singleton 
Fontenoy,"  (3  vols.,  1850.)  Among  his  other  works  are 
"Satire  and  Satirists,"  (1853,)  and  "Eustace  Conyers," 
(1855-) 

Hanneken  or  Hannecken,  han'neh-ken,  (Mem- 
NON,)  a  German  Lutheran  minister,  born  at  Blaxen,  in 
Oldenburg,  in  1595  ;  died  in  1671. 

His  son,  Philipp  Ludwig,  born  at  Marburg  in  1637, 
was  a  writer  on  theology.    Died  in  1706. 

Hanneman,  hin^neh-man^  (Adrian,)  a  Dutch  por- 
trait-painter, born  at  the  Hague  about  1610.  He  worked 
in  his  native  place  with  a  high  reputation,  and  was 
patronized  by  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Nassau.  He 
also  painted  allegorical  subjects.    Died  after  1666. 

Hannetaire,  /^tn'tSR',  (Jean  Nicolas  Servan- 
doni — s§R'v6N'do'ne', )  a  French  comedian,  born  at 
Grenoble  in  1718,  excelled  in  the  personation  of  Mo- 
liere's  characters.  He  wrote  "Observations  on  the  Art 
of  a  Comedian,"  (1764,)  which  was  often  reprinted. 
"This  work,"  says  Marmontel,  "is  one  of  the  few  whose 
fault  is  too  great  brevity."    Died  in  1780. 

Han'ni-bal,  a  grandson  of  that  Hamilcar  who  was 
killed  in  480  B.C.  He  invaded  Sicily  with  a  large  army 
in  409  B.C.,  and  defeated  the  Syracusans  at  Himera.  He 
died  at  Agrigentum  in  406. 

Hannibal,  a  son  of  Gisco,  a  general  of  the  first 
Punic  war.  He  ravaged  the  coast  of  Italy  with  a  large 
fleet  in  261  B.C.,  and  was  defeated  in  a  great  naval  battle 
by  Duilius  in  260.  He  was  killed  by  his  mutinous  troops 
about  258  B.C. 

Han'ni-bal  or  An'ni-bal,  [Gr.  'AvvtSag ;  Fr.  Anni- 
BAL,  t'ne'I)!!'';  It.  Annibale,  ku-ne-h^]^.,  or  Annibal, 
in-ne-bSl',]  one  of  the  greatest  generals  that  ever  lived, 
was  born  about  247  B.C.  He  was  the  son  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian commander  Hamilcar  Barca,  who  was  killed  in 
battle  in  229  B.C.  When  he  was  but  nine  years  old,  he 
was  taken  to  Spain  by  his  father,  who  then  caused  him 
solemnly  to  swear  on  the  altar  of  the  gods  an  eternal 
hostility  to  the  Romans, — an  oath  which  he  appears  never 
to  have  forg(nten.  This  anecdote  was  related  by  Han- 
nibal himself,  many  years  later,  to  Antiochus  the  Great, 
King  of  Syria.  Hannibal  was  present  at  the  battle  in 
which  his  father  fell,  and  had  already  given  proof  of 
superior  military  genius  in  several  campaigns  in  Spain. 
On  the  death  of  Hasdrubal,  Hamilcar's  son-in-law,  (221 
B.C.,)  Hannibal  became  commander-in-chief  of  the  army, 
then  engaged  in  the  subjugation  of  some  Sj^anish  tribes, 
which  he  completed  in  two  campaigns,  221  and  220  B.C. 

Early  in  the  year  219  he  attacked  Saguntum,  which 
was  situated  on  the  Iberus  (Ebro)  and  was  an  ally  of 
the  Romans.  The  Saguntines  defended  their  city  with 
desperate  courage,  but  it  was  taken  after  a  siege  of  eight 
months.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  second  Punic 
war,  which  Hannibal  did  not  wish  to  avert  or  postpone. 
Having  resolved  upon  the  invasion  of  Italy,  he  crossed 
the  Ebro  in  the  spring  of  218  B.C.  with  about  100,000 
men  ;  but  his  army  was  greatly  reduced  in  number  before 
he  reached  the  Rhone.  In  his  march  across  the  Alps, 
which  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  military  achieve- 
ments of  antiquity,  he  was  oj^posed  by  the  Gaulish 
mountaineers,  and  lost  about  30,000  men.  Great  di- 
versity of  opinion  has  prevailed  among  the  learned  in 
respect  to  the  route  by  which  he  crossed  the  Alps.  Ac- 
cording to  some  ancient  authors,  he  removed  the  rocks 
which  obstructed  his  passage  by  means  of  vinegar : 

"  Diducit  scopulos  et  montem  rumpit  aceto."* 

Juvenal,  Satire  X.  ; 


*  Literally,  "  Hesei->arates  the  rocks  and  breaks  the  mountain  with 
vinegar." — Respecting  this  nii  ch-vexed  question,  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  the  works  named  at  the  close  of  this  article. 


When  he  entered  the  plains  of  Piedmont,  he  had 
about  26,000  men,  of  whom  6000  were  cavalry  and  all 
were  veterans.  He  met  a  Roman  army,  commanded  by 
Publius  Scipio,  near  the  Ticinus,  (now  Ticino,.)  and  gained 
a  victory  in  a  battle  between  the  cavalry  of  the  two  armies. 
Scipio  retreated  to  Placentia,  and  was  joined  by  another 
army,  under  the  consul  T.  Senipronius,  who,  confiding 
in  the  superior  numbers  of  the  Romans,  eagerly  offered 
battle  on  the  banks  of  the  Trebia.  Hannibal  gained 
here  a  complete  victory  about  the  end  of  218,  and  in  the 
ensuing  winter  increased  his  army  by  numerous  recruits 
obtained  among  the  friendly  tribes  of  Gauls.  In  the 
spring  of  217  he  entered  Etruria,  and  encountered  a 
Roman  army  under  the  consul  Flaminius,  whom  he 
defeated  in  a  great  battle  at  Lake  Thrasymene.  Han- 
nibal took  in  this  action  about  15,000  prisoners,  many 
of  whom  were  Italian  allies  of  the  Romans.  The  victo- 
rious general  liberated  without  ransom  these  Italians,  in 
the  hope  that  by  this  course  he  might  detach  some  states 
of  Italy  from  the  alliance  with  Rome.  He  next  marched 
into  Apulia,  where  he  passed  a  great  part  of  the  summer, 
during  which  the  dictator  Fabius  took  command  of  the 
Roman  army  and  adopted  a  defensive  policy.  Hannibal 
entered  and  devastated  the  fertile  plains  of  Campania, 
but  could  not  induce  Fabius  to  risk  a  general  battle. 
The  Cartliaginian  army  remained  in  winter-quarters  at 
Geronium  until  late  in  the  spring  of  216  B.C. 

The  Romans  raised  an  army  of  about  90,000  men, 
commanded  by  the  consuls  L.  ^milius  Paul  us  and  C. 
Terentius  Varro,  who  gave  battle  to  Hannibal  on  the 
banks  of  the  Aufidus,  near  Cannae,  in  Apulia,  in  the 
summer  of  216  B.C.  The  army  of  Hannibal  was  proba- 
bly much  inferior  in  number  to  that  of  the  Romans.  The 
battle  of  Cannae,  which  was  one  of  the  most  memorable 
and  decisive  in  universal  history,  resulted  in  the  rout 
and  almost  total  destruction  of  the  Roman  army.  It  is 
estimated  by  Livy  and  others  that  more  than  40,000 
Romans,  including  eighty  senators,  fell  on  this  day;  and 
many  thousands  were  taken  prisoners.  Hannibal  lost 
at  Cannae  about  4500  men. 

According  to  some  military  critics,  Hannibal  failed  to 
improve  and  follow  up  this  victory  with  due  vigour  and 
celerity  by  an  advance  against  the  Roman  capital.  The 
Apnlians,  Lucanians,  and  l^ruttians  declared  in  favour 
of  Carthage  soon  after  the  victory  at  Cannae  ;  but  the 
Romans  maintained  the  contest  with  a  resolute  and 
unfaltering  spirit,  and  resorted  to  the  extreme  measure 
of  arming  their  slaves. 

Hannibal  took  about  the  end  of  216  the  large  and 
opulent  city  of  Capua,  the  second  city  of  Italy,  and  there 
])assed  the  ensuing  winter,  which  is  considered  as  the 
turning-point  in  the  fortune  of  the  war.  According 
to  ancient  rhetoricians,  his  soldiers  were  enervated  by 
their  luxurious  life  in  Capua;  but  Hannibal  continued  to 
gain  victories  wherever  he  commanded  in  person.  The 
Romans,  however,  ciianged  their  plan  of  operations,  and 
adhered  to  a  defensive  and  Fabian  policy,  instead  of  op- 
posing a  large  army  to  the  enemy.  No  decisive  battles 
were  fought  in  the  campaigns  of  215  and  214  B.C.  Han- 
nibal formed  an  alliance  with  Philip  of  Macedon  in  215, 
and  made  himself  master  of  Tareiitum  in  213.  In  the 
year  212  Hasdi  ubal  gained  a  victory  over  the  two  Sci])ios 
in  Spain,  and  Hannibal  defeated  Cneius  Fulvius  at  Her- 
donea  ;  but  he  lost  Capua,  which  was  taken  in  211.  His 
principal  adversaries  at  this  period  were  Fabius  Cunc- 
tator  and  M.  Marcellus,  who  had  recently  returned  from 
the  conquest  of  Syracuse.  The  latter  was  led  into  an 
ambush  by  Hannibal  and  was  killed  in  208  B.C.  Planni- 
bal  expected  to  be  reinforced  by  his  brother  Hasdrubal, 
who  crossed  the  Alps  with  an  army  and  entered  Cis- 
alpine Gaul  ;  but  before  he  ccjuld  effect  a  junction  with 
Hannibal  he  was  defeated  and  killed  by  the  Romans,  on 
the  Metaurus,  in  207  B.C.  This  was  an  irreparable  dis- 
aster to  tht  Carthaginians,  who  after  that  defeat  ceased 
to  act  on  the  offensive.  Having  concentrated  his  forces 
in  the  peninsula  of  Bruttium,  Hannibal  defended  himself 
against  superior  numbers  for  nearly  four  years,  during 
which  he  displayed  great  fertility  of'resources  and  mas- 
tery of  defensive  tactics.  He  erected  near  Crotona  a 
column,  on  which  he  inscribed  the  principal  events  of 
his  great  expedition. 


€  as     ?  as  s;  g  kard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  k,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HJNNO 


1128 


HANSTEEN 


In  the  mean  time,  Scipio  Africanus  had  passed  with  a 
victorious  army  from  Spain  into  Africa,  and  had  gained 
several  victories  over  the  Carthaginians,  who  urged 
Hannibal  to  return  to  the  defence  of  his  native  country. 
About  the  end  of  203  he  evacuated  Italy  and  moved  his 
army  by  sea  to  Leptis,  in  Africa.  The  statement  that  an 
interview  occurred  between  Hannibal  and  Scipio  is  dis- 
credited by  some  historians.  In  202  u.c.  they  fought  the 
decisive  battle  of  Zama,  in  which  Hannibal  was  defeated 
and  about  20,000  Cartiiaginians  were  slain.  The  Car- 
thaginians sued  for  peace,  and  in  201  B.C.  concluded  a 
treaty  of  which  the  Romans  dictated  the  terms.  Thus 
ended  the  second  Punic  war,  in  which  Hannibal  had 
l  eceived  little  aid  from  the  government  of  Carthage,  and 
had  won  a  long  series  of  victories  by  his  own  personal 
influence,  resources,  and  military  genius. 

He  next  turned  his  attention  to  political  affairs,  effected 
some  reforms  in  the  administration,  and  was  chosen  chief 
magistrate  of  the  republic.  He  also  made  constitutional 
changes  which  reduced  the  power  of  the  judges  and  the 
aristocracy.  By  these  reforms  he  incurred  the  enmity 
of  a  powerful  faction,  which  excited  the  susi)icion  of  the 
Roman  senate  by  a  charge  that  Hannibal  was  instigating 
Antiochus  of  Syria  to  wage  war  against  Rome.  The 
Romans  having  demanded  the  expulsion  of  Hannibal, 
he  retired  to  the  court  of  Antiochus  about  194  H.c, 
and  was  received  with  great  honour.  The  King  of  Syria 
soon  after  commenced  hostilities  against  the  Romans, 
and  employed  Hannibal  as  a  commander,  but  would 
not  fellow  his  advice  in  the  conduct  of  the  war.  When 
peace  was  restored  between  Antiochus  and  the  Romans, 
in  190  B.C.,  Hannibal  took  refuge  at  the  court  of  Prusias, 
King  of  Bithynia.  The  Romans  sent  an  embassy  to 
demand  the  surrender  of  the  fugitive,  which  Prusias  did 
not  refuse  ;  but  Hannibal  killed  himself  by  poison,  and 
thus  escaped  the  power  of  his  enemies,  in  183  B.C. 

IMutarch  mentions  a  report  that  Hannibal  and  Scipio 
once  met  at  Ephesus  after  the  battle  of  Zama,  and  fell 
into  conversation  about  great  generals.  Hannibal  as- 
serted that  Alexander  was  the  greatest  general  the  world 
had  ever  seen,  that  Pyrrhus  was  the  second,  and  himself 
the  third.  Scipio  smiled  at  this,  and  said,  "But  what 
rank  would  you  have  placed  yourself  in  if  I  had  not  con- 
quered you.''"'  "O  Scipio,"  said  he,  "then  I  would  not 
have  placed  myself  the  third,  but  the  first."  ("Life  of 
T.  Q.  Flaminius.")  His  temperance  and  fortitude  are 
extolled  by  several  ancient  writers.  Polybius  expresses 
his  admiration  of  the  wonderful  management  by  which 
for  a  series  of  years  he  maintained  his  authority  over  an 
army  com])osed  of  many  different  nations. 

See  Polybius,  "History;"  Cornelius  Nepos,  "Life  of  Hanni- 
bal ;"  I'.KKNEwrrz,  "  Leben  Haiiiiibals,"  1S02  ;  Plutakch,  "  Life  of 
Fabius  Maxiiiuis  Arnold,  "  History  of  Rome,"  vol.  iii.  ;  Niebuiir, 
"  Lectures  on  Roman  History,"  vol.  i.;  V  audoncoukt,  "  Histoircdes 
Cam]  agnes  d'Annibal  en  Italia,"  3  vols.,  1812;  Hkcker,  History 
of  the  Second  Punic  War,"  (in  German;)  Roi.i.iN,  "Ancient  His- 
tory;" A.  Gerard,  "  Resinne  des  Camjiagnes  d'Annibal,"  1844; 
H.  L.  Long,  "March  of  Hannibal  from  the  Rhone  to  the  Alps," 
1831 ;  John  Whitaker,  "Course  of  Hannibal  over  the  Alps  ascer- 
tained," 2  vols.,  1794. 

Han'no,  [Gr.  "Awwv,]  a  famous  Carthaginian  navi- 
gator, supposed  to  have  lived  about  500  B.C.  He  com- 
manded an  expedition  sent  to  exjjlore  the  coast  of  Africa 
beyond  the  pillars  of  Hercules.  A  Greek  version  of  the 
account  of  hia  voyage  [linp'fn'Xovt;)  has  come  down  to  us. 
Geographers  and  critics  have  discussed  at  great  length 
the  questions  of  the  date  and  extent  of  his  voyage,  which 
remain  u  n  d  e  t  e  r  m  i  n  eel . 

Hanno,  a  Carthaginian  general,  who  commanded  in 
the  war  against  Agathocles,  King  of  .Sicily.  He  was 
killed  in  a  battle  near  Carthage  about  309  B.C. 

Hanno,  a  Carthaginian  general,  who  commanded  in 
Sicily  in  the  first  Punic  war.  He  was  defeated  by  the 
Romans  in  a  great  battle  near  Agrigentum  in  262  B.C. 
and  recalled  to  Carthage.  Hanno  and  Hamilcar  com- 
manded jointly  at  the  naval  l)attle  of  Eciiomus,  where 
the  Romans  gained  the  victory  in  256  B.C. 

Hanno,  a  Carthaginian  admiral,  commanded  in  a 
great  naval  battle  near  Sicily  in  the  year  241  B.C.,  in  which 
he  was  defeated  by  the  Roman  consul  Lutatiiis  Catiilus. 
This  action  terminated  the  first  Punic  war,  and  secured 
to  Rome  the  empire  of  the  sea.  He  was  punished  with 
death  for  this  disaster  by  the  .seiiate  of  Carthage. 


Hanno,  a  son  of  Bomilcar,  a  Carthaginian  gener.al 
who,  in  the  second  Punic  war,  f(jllovved  Hannibal  in  his 
invasion  of  Italy.  He  commanded  the  right  wing  at  the 
battle  of  Cannae,  216  B.C.,  after  which,  at  the  head  of  a 
separate  force,  he  took  Crotona.  He  was  defeated  near 
Beneventum  by  Tiberius  Gracchus  in  214,  but  he  routed 
the  army  of  L.  Pomponius  in  the  next  year.  Having 
returned  to  Carthage  after  Scipio  had  invaded  Africa, 
he  commanded  the  army  for  a  short  time  until  the  arrival 
of  Hannibal,  in  202  B.C. 

.See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxi.,  xxiii.,  xxv.,  and  xxvii. ; 
Appian,  "Punica." 

Hanno,  surnamed  the  Great,  (a  title  which  his  ac- 
tions apparently  did  not  justify,)  was  the  leader  of  the 
aristocratic  party  of  Carthage,  and  a  political  rival  of 
Hamilcar  Barca.  Having  acquired  distinction  in  Africa 
during  the  first  Pimic  war,  he  was  appointed  in  240  B.C. 
to  command  the  army  against  the  revolted  mercenaries. 
After  the  enemy  had  surjjrised  his  camp,  his  incompe- 
tence became  so  apparent  that  the  senate  gave  the  com- 
mand to  Hamilcar  Barca,  or  perhaps  divided  it  between 
him  and  Hanno.  He  maintained  in  the  councils  of  Car 
thage  a  persistent  hostility  to  the  influence  and  policy 
of  Hamilcar  and  his  son  Hannibal,  and  opposed  the 
prosecution  of  the  second  Punic  war,  (217-201  B.C.) 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxi.,  xxiii.,  and  xxx. 

Hanouman  or  Hanooman.    See  Hanuman. 
Hanriot.    See  Hen  riot. 

Han'sai'd,  (Luke,)  an  English  printer,  born  at  Nor- 
wich in  1752.  He  l)ecan»e  printer  to  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  published  "Hansard's  Parliamentary 
Debates."    Died  in  1828. 

Hansemann,  hdn'.seh-mSn',  (David  Justus  Lud- 
wk;,)  an  eminent  Prussian  financier  and  statesman,  born 
near  Hamburg  in  1790.  In  early  life  he  was  a  successful 
merchant  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  About  1830  he  began  to 
advocate  the  adoption  of  the  constitutional  system  of 
government  in  Prussia,  and  published  a  treatise  "  On 
the  Constitutions  of  Prussia  and  Germany."  He  was 
afterwards  one  of  the  chief  rei)resentatives  of  the  Liberal 
])arly.  In  March,  1848,  he  became  minister  of  finance, 
and  in  the  ensuing  June  succeeded  Camphausen  as  the 
head  of  a  new  cabinet.  He  lost  his  popularity,  and  re- 
signed office  in  September  of  the  same  year.  His  policy 
accorded  neither  with  that  of  the  conservatives  nor  that 
of  the  advanced  democrats. 

See  Bkockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Hansen,  htn'sen,  (Christian  Fredrik,)  a  Danish 
architect,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1756,  designed  the 
Raad-hus  (Council-house)  of  Copenhagen.  Died  in  1645. 

Hansen,  hJn'.^en,  (Moritz  Christofeek,)  a  popular 
Norwegian  novelist  and  poet,  born  at  Modum  in  1794, 
published  novels  entitled  "  Morgat>a,"  (1820,)  "The 
Join  nal  of  Theodore,"  (1820,)  and  "Tone,"  (1843  ;)  also, 
a  "(iarland  of  Norwegian  Idyls,"  ("Norsk  Idylkrands," 
183 1.)    Died  in  1842. 

See  M.  NissEN,  "Norsk  P>og  Fortegnelse." 

Hansen,  hin'sen,  (Pkter  Andreas,)  a  German  as- 
tronomer, born  at  Tondern,  in  the  duchy  of  Sleswick,  in 
1795.  He  was  chosen  in  1825  director  of  the  Observatory 
of  Seeberg,  near  Ciotha.  He  wrote  "Researches  on  the 
Mutual  Perturbations  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,"  (1831,)  a 
Latin  treatise  on  "The  Moon's  Orbit,"  (1838,)  and  able 
memoirs  on  the  higher  mathematics. 

Hans-Sachs,  hSns  sSks,  written  also  Hans-Sachse, 
a  popular  German  poet,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1494. 
He  was  a  shoemaker,  and  became,  afterwards  meister- 
sdnger  and  a  schoolmaster  in  his  native  city.  He  versified 
the  Psalms  and  Proverbs  of  Scripture,  and  composed  a 
great  number  of  sacred  and  other  comedies  and  trage- 
dies, by  which  he  acquired  much  celebrity.  In  theology 
he  was  a  zealous  disciple  of  Luther.    Died  in  1576. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  x.,  1824. 

Hansteen,  hSn'stan,  (Christoffer,)  a  Norwegian 
astronomer,  born  at  Christiania  in  1784.  He  obtained  a 
chair  of  mathematics  in  that  town  in  18 14,  and  published 
in  1819  "  Researches  on  Terrestrial  Magnetism,"  which 
attracted  much  attention.  In  1828,  1829,  and  1830  he 
performed  an  excursion  to  .Siberia  to  promote  the  sci- 
ence of  magnetism.  About  1837  he  was  chosen  to  direct 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged ;  a,  e,  I,  <q,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HANSTEIN 


HJRDENBERG 


the  triangulation  of  Norway.  He  wrote  a  "Manual  of 
Geometry,"  (1835,)  and  other  works,  and  became  director 
of  the  Observatory  of  Christiania. 

See  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "  Litteraturiexicon." 

Hanstein,  hSn'stln,  (Gottfried  August  Ludwig,) 
a  German  Protestant  theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born 
at  Magdeburg  in  1761  ;  died  about  1820. 

Hauumd.n,  ban  oo-mln',  common  Hindoo  pron.  hun- 
oo-niSn',  [i.e.  "having  large  jaws  or  cheeks,"  from  the 
Sanscrit  hdnu,  a  "jaw"  or  "cheek,"]  the  name  of  the 
King  of  the  Monkeys,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology.  He  is 
sometimes  called  the  son  of  Pavana,  the  regent  or  god 
of  the  winds,  perhaps  in  allusion  to  his  extraordinary 
fleetness.  He  was  the  friend  and  prime  minister  of  the 
god  Rama,  (which  see.)  He  is  represented  as  having 
been  of  such  strength  as  to  fly  through  the  air  a  thousand 
miles,  carrying  a  huge  mountain  in  his  arms.  Pie  is  al- 
ways represented  in  pictures  with  a  tail,  and  sometimes 
with  two  and  sometimes  with  ten  arms. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Hanusch,  h^'noosh,  (Ignaz  Johann,)  a  Bohemian 
philosopher,  born  at  Prague  in  1812.  He  published  a 
"  Piistory  of  Philoso])hy  from  its  Origin  to  the  Suspen- 
sion of  the  Philosophic  Schools  by  Justinian,"  (1849,) 
and  other  works  of  merit.  In  1849  he  became  professor 
of  i^hilosoj^hy  at  Prague. 

Hanvill.    See  Hauteville. 

Han'way,  (Jonas,)  a  benevolent  English  merchant, 
born  at  Portsmouth  in  17 12,  lived  some  years  in  Saint 
Petersburg.  Having  travelled  on  business  in  Persia,  he 
published  in  1753  an  interesting  "Journal  of  Travels 
through  Russia  into  Persia,"  etc.,  and  a  "  Historical 
Account  of  the  British  Trade  over  the  Caspian  Sea." 
He  wrote  many  other  works,  and  was  chiefly  instru- 
mental in  the  formation  of  the  Marine  Society  and  the 
Magdalen  Charity.    Died  in  1786. 

See  John  Pugh,  "Remarkable  Occurrences  in  the  Life  of  Jonas 
Haiiway." 

Han-Yu,  hSn  yoo,  called  also  Han-Wan-Kung, 

{i.e.  "  duke  or  prince  of  literature,")  a  famous  Chinese 
scholar  and  philosopher,  who  lived  in  the  eighth  centiuy 
of  <nn- era.  He  wrote  an  "Examination  into  the  Nature 
of  Man,"  in  which  he  criticises  the  doctrine  of  Mencius, 
who  held  that  man's  nature  is  good,  and  that  of  Seun, 
who  maintained  that  it  is  evil.  (See  Seun-King.)  Han- 
Yu  taught  that  in  the  nature  of  man  there  are  three 
grades,  of  which  the  highest  is  ])urely  good;  the  middle 
is  not  so  good,  but  is  capable  of  being  led  ;  the  lowest 
grade  is  piuely  evil:  it  may  be  restrained,  but  not  changed. 
Besides  the  essay  referred  to  above,  Han-Yu  has  left 
some  other  critical  writings. 

See  Legge,  "Cliinese  Classics,"  vol.  ii. ;  also  "Review  of  Tlie 
Phillies  of  tlte  Cliinese,"  by  the  Rev.  Griffith  John,  read  before  tiie 
North  Ciiiua  Brancli  of  llie  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  November,  1859. 

Haoucal.    See  Haukal. 

Hapsburg.    See  Habsburg. 

Haquin,  hi'kwin,  I.,  King  of  Norway,  born  in  915 
A.D.,  was  the  fifth  son  of  Harold  Harfager.  He  was 
educated  as  a  Christian  at  the  court  of  Athelstan  of 
England,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  935.  On  account 
of  his  mildness  and  justice,  he  was  surnamed  the  Good. 
His  attempt  to  introduce  Christianity  into  Norway  was 
met  by  violent  resistance.  In  repelling  an  invasion  by 
the  sons  of  Eric,  he  was  killed  in  961. 

See  Saxo  Grammaticus,  "  Historia  Danica." 

Hara,  a  name  of  Siva,  which  see. 

E'arambure,d',d^''r6N'buR',(Louis  Francois  Alex- 
andre,) Baron,  a  French  general,  born  at  Preuilly,  in 
Touraine,  in  1742.  As  a  member  of  the  National  Assem- 
bly, in  1789,  he  favoured  the  Revolution.  He  became 
general  of  division  in  March,  1792,  and  after  the  removal 
of  Luckner  was  general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine 
for  a  short  time.    Died  in  1828. 

Harbaugh,  har'baw,  (Henry,)  an  American  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Franklin  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1817. 
He  became  pastor  of  a  German  Reformed  church  at 
Lai  caster  in  1850.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Hea- 
vei  ly  Home,  or  the  P^lmployments  and  Enjoyments  of 
the  Saints  in  Heaven,"  (1853,)  and  "The  Fathers  of  the 
Geiman  Reformed  Church  in  Europe  and  America,"  (3 
vols.,  1857-58.)    Died  in  1867. 


Har'by,  (Isaac,)  an  American  writer,  born  in  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  in  1788.  He  produced,  besides 
other  works,  dramas  entitled  "The  Gordian  Knot;  or, 
Causes  and  Effects,"  (1807,)  and  "  Alberti,"  (1819.)  Died 
in  1828. 

Hardcourt,  (Harriet  Eusebia,)  a  learned  English 
lady,  born  near  Richmond  in  1705.  She  collected  a 
company  of  cultivated  women,  who  lived  in  a  sort  of 
monastic  seclusion  on  her  estate.    Died  in  1745. 

Harcourt,  (William,)  Earl  oe,  an  English  officer, 
born  in  1743,  entered  the  army  in  1759.  In  the  American 
Revolution  he  distinguished  liimself  by  the  capture  of 
General  Lee  in  1777.  On  his  return  to  England  he  was 
appointed  aide-de-camp  to  the  king,  and  commanded  the 
queen's  regiment  of  dragoons.  In  1809  he  inherited  his 
father's  title  and  estate.    Died  in  1830. 

Harcourt,  d',  dtR'koou',  (Francois  Eugene  Ga- 
briel,) Due,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  1786. 

Harcourt,  d',  (Francois  Henri,)  Due,  born  in  1726, 
was  appointed  governor  of  the  dauphin  about  1787,  and 
elected  to  the  P'rench  Academy  in  1789.  He  died  in 
England  about  1802. 

Harcourt,  d',  (Henri,)  Due,  a  French  general  and 
diplomatist,  born  in  1654,  was  a  son  of  Fran9ois,  Mar- 
quis de  Beuvron  et  de  Thury- Harcourt.  He  was  a  fine 
specimen  of  the  old  French  nobility.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  the  sieges  of  Cambrai  and  Fribourg,  in  1677, 
and  for  a  victory  over  the  Germans  at  Courteville  was 
made  a  lieutenant-general  in  1692.  He  was  ambassador 
to  Madrid  from  1697  to  1700,  and  managed  the  negotia- 
tions relating  to  the  Spanish  succession  with  skill  and 
success.  He  received  the  title  of  duke  in  1700,  and 
became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1703.    Died  in  1718. 

His  son  Francois,  second  Duke  of  Harcourt,  born 
in  1689,  was  a  general.  He  was  severely  wounded  at 
Dettingen,  (1743,)  and  obtained  a  marshal's  baton  in 
1746.  Died  in  1750.  Another  son,  Anne  Pierre, 
(1701-83,)  the  father  of  Fran9ois  Henri,  noticed  above, 
became  a  marshal  of  France. 

See  Laroquf.,  "Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Harcourt,"  4  vols.; 
"  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Harcourt,  d',  (Henri  de  Lorraine,)  Comte,  an 
able  French  general,  born  in  i6or,  was  a  younger  son  of 
Charles  de  Lorraine,  Due  d'Elbceuf.  He  commanded  in 
Piedmont  in  i639,  defeated  the  S])aniards  at  Quiers,  and 
captured  Turin.  In  1643  he  was  sent  to  mediate  between 
Charles  I.  t)f  England  and  his  Parliament.  He  defeated 
the  Sjianiards  at  Valenciennes  and  Conde  in  1649.  In  the 
war  of  the  Fronde,  about  1650,  he  fought  on  both  sides. 
Died  in  1666. 

See  Laroque,  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Harcourt." 

Hardcourt,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  //tR^kooR',]  (Godefroi  or 
Geoffrey,)  was  a  Norman  knight,  who  rebelled  against 
Phili])  VI.  of  Prance  in  1345,  and  commanded  the  army 
of  Edward  HI.  of  England  in  the  war  against  the  French. 
After  the  battle  of  Crecy,  he  asked  and  received  pardon 
of  Philip,  but  again  revolted,  and  was  killed  in  battle  in 

Hardeby,  hard'be,  (Geoffrey,)  an  English  monk 
and  writer,  confessor  to  King  Henry  II.,  wrote  a  "  His- 
torv  of  the  Order  of  Saint  Augustine."    Died  in  1360. 

Har'dee,  (William  J.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Savannali,  Georgia,  about  1818,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1838.  He  became  a  captain  in  1844,  and  ]Dub- 
lished  a  work  on  Tactics,  (1855.)  He  served  as  major- 
general  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April,  1862.  About 
October,  1862,  he  was  appointed  a  lieutenant-general  in 
the  Confederate  army.  He  commanded  a  corps  at  the 
battle  of  Stone  River,  December  31,  1862-January  2, 
1863,  and  in  several  battles  fought  between  Dal  ton  and 
Atlanta,  May-September,  1864.  He  commanded  an 
army  which  defended  Savannah  without  success  against 
General  Sherman  in  December,  1864. 

See  "Southern  Generals,"  anonymous,  1S65. 

Hardenberg,  haR^den-bcRG^  (Albert,)  a  Dutch 
Protestant  divine,  born  in  Overyssel  in  15 10.  He 
preached  at  Bremen  from  1547  to  1561,  and  became 
pastor  primarius  at  Emden  in  1567.    Died  in  1574. 

Hardenberg,  (FRiEDRieii  Ludwig.)    See  Novalis. 

Hardenberg,  von,  fon  haRMen-b^KG',  (Karl  Au- 
gust,) Pringe,  an  able  Prussian  statesman,  born  at 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  sas  z;  th  as  in  this.    (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HARDER 


1 130 


HARDION 


Essenroda,  in  Hanover,  in  May,  1750.  He  obtained  in 
1778  an  office  in  the  administration  of  Hanover,  with 
the  title  of  count.  About  1785  he  entered  the  service 
of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  in  whose  hands  the  will  of 
Frederick  H.  of  Prussia  was  deposited.  Hardenberg 
was  chosen  in  1786  to  transmit  that  important  document 
to  the  heir,  Frederick  William,  who  in  1791  appointed 
him  a  minister  of  state.  He  was  the  negotiator  on  tbe 
part  of  Prussia  at  the  Conference  of  Bale,  where  he 
concluded  a  peace  with  France  in  1795.  In  August, 
1804,  he  was  appointed  prime  minister,  and  in  1805 
formed  an  alliance  with  Russia  against  Napoleon.  Soon 
after  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  (1805,)  he  was  driven  from 
power  by  his  rival  Haugwitz. 

Plardenberg  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  for  a  few 
months  in  1806-07,  after  which  he  passed  several  years 
in  exile.  Having  become  chancellor  of  state  in  1810,  he 
equalized  taxation,  and  made  reforms  which  contributed 
materially  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  peasants.  In 
1 8 14  he  signed,  on  the  part  of  Prussia,  the  peace  of  Paris, 
and  was  created  a  prince.  He  was  the  Prussian  pleni- 
potentiary at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1815,  and  be- 
came in  181 7  president  of  the  council,  or  prime  minister. 
His  administration  was  favourable  to  education,  trade, 
and  other  important  interests.  He  died  at  Genoa  in 
1822,  leaving  Memoirs  in  manuscript. 

See  W.  Hknnings,  "  Biographie  des  Fiirsten  und  Staats-Kanzlers 
Von  Hardenberg,"  1824;  Wolf,  "  Geschichte  des  Geschlechts  Von 
Hardenberg,"  1824;  Karl  Ludwig  Klijse,  "  Leben  C.  A.  Fiirsten 
Von  Hardenberg,"  Halle,  1851 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Geiierale." 

Harder,  haii'der  or  htii'daiR',  (Johann  Jakoh,)  a 
Swiss  physician  and  scientific  writer,  born  at  Bale  in 
1656.  He  practised  with  success  in  his  native  town,  and 
obtained  the  chairs  of  philosophy,  anatomy,  botany,  etc. 
The  emperor  Leopold  made  him  a  count-palatine.  Died 
in  171 1. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hardi,  (Alexandre.^    See  Hardy. 

Har^di-ca-nute',  written  also  Harthacauute  and 
Hardy-Canute,  King  of  England  and  Denmark,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Canute  the  Great  and  Emma,  daughter 
of  Richard  I.,  Duke  of  Normandy.  At  the  death  of 
Canute,  in  1035,  Hardicanute  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
Denmark  ;  but  his  claim  to  England  was  contested  by  his 
half-brother  Harold,  who  was  in  actual  possession.  An 
agreement  was  made  by  these  two  that  Harold  should 
retain  the  country  north  of  the  Thames  and  his  rival 
should  possess  the  remainder.  At  the  death  of  Harold, 
in  1040,  Hardicanute  became  King  of  all  England.  He 
died,  without  issue,  in  1042,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
half-I)rother,  Edward  the  Confessor. 

Hardime,  htRM^m',  (Pierre,  or  Peter,)  a  Flemish 
painter  of  lowers  and  fruit,  born  at  Antwerp  or  the 
Hague  about  1675.  His  master-piece  is  "The  Four 
Seasons."    Died  in  1748. 

Hardime,  (Simon,)  a  Flemish  painter,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1672  ;  died  in  1737. 

Hard'iiig,  (Chester,)  an  American  portrait-painter, 
born  in  Conway,  Massachusetts,  in  1792.  He  became 
successively  a  soldier,  a  cabinet-maker,  and  a  house- 
painter.  Having  resolved  to  be  an  artist,  he  visited 
England  in  1823,  and  returned  about  1826.  Among  his 
works  are  portraits  of  Henry  Clay,  Daniel  Webster,  J. 
Q.  Adams,  and  James  Monrcje. 

See  DuNLAP,  "Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  Amer- 
ica;" "Atlantic  Montlily"  for  April,  1867. 

Hard'ing,  (James  Duffield,)  an  eminent  English 
landscaj^e-painter  and  popular  writer  on  art,  was  born 
at  Deptford  in  1798.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  employ 
lithography  with  success  in  teaching  the  art  of  design, 
and  excelled  in  the  representation  of  trees  and  foliage. 
In  1836  he  published  "Sketches  at  Home  and  Abroad," 
60  tinted  drawings  of  scenes  in  Italy,  Germany,  Fiance, 
etc.  He  painted  a  great  niniiber  of  landscaj^es  in  oil 
and  in  water-colours.  His  works  are  remarkable  for 
variety,  fidelity  to  nature,  and  facility  of  execution.  "J. 
D.  Harding  is,  I  think,"  says  Ruskin,  "  nearly  unequalled 
in  the  drawing  of  rimning  water.  ...  His  foregrounds 
and  the  rocks  of  his  middle  distances  are  also  thoroughly 
admirable.  His  work  in  near  passages  of  fresh-br(jken, 
sharp-edged  rock  is  absolute  perfection.    Let  us  refresh 


ourselves  by  looking  at  the  truth.  We  need  not  go  to 
Turner  ;  we  will  go  to  the  man  who  next  to  him  is  un- 
questionably the  greatest  master  of  foliage  in  Europe, — 
J.  D.  Harding."  He  wrote  several  valuable  works  for 
the  use  of  students,  among  which  is  "The  Principles 
and  Practice  of  Art,"  (1850.)    Died  in  1863. 

Harding  or  Hardyng,  (John,)  an  English  chronicler, 
born  in  1378,  was  a  meml^er  of  the  household  of  Sir 
Henry  Percy,  (Hotspur,)  whom  he  attended  in  several 
battles.  After  the  death  of  Percy  he  served  under  Sir 
Robert  Umfraville.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  V.  he  was 
sent  to  Scotland  to  search  for  deeds  of  homage,  or  docu- 
ments to  prove  that  the  Scottish  kings  owed  fealty  to 
the  English.  He  wrote  a  "Metrical  Chronicle  of  Eng- 
land" from  the  earliest  times  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VI. 
Died  about  1465. 

Harding,  haii'ding,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  a  German 
astronomer,  born  at  Lauenburg  in  1765.  He  becaine  in 
1796  assistant  of  Schroter  in  the  Observatory  of  Lilien- 
thal,  and  in  1803  gained  distinction  by  the  discovery  of 
the  telescopic  planet  Juno.  He  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  of  the  French  In- 
stitute. In  1805  he  obtained  a  chair  of  astronomy  at 
Gottingen.  He  published  a  "Celestial  Atlas,"  (1822.) 
Died  in  1834. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Harding,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
Devonshire  in  15 12.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Oxford  in  1542,  and  tutor  of  Lady  Jane  Grey.  On 
the  accession  of  Queen  Mary  he  turned  Roman  Catholic, 
and  was  appointed  prebendary  of  Winchester  in  1554. 
He  wrote  some  polemical  works  in  answer  to  Bishop 
Jewel.    Died  in  1572. 

Hardinge,  hard''ing,  (George,)  an  English  lawyer, 
born  in  1744,  became  attorney-general  to  the  queen  in 
1789.  He  wrote  "The  Essence  of  Malone,"  (1800,) 
"  Letters  to  Burke  on  the  Impeachment  of  Hastings," 
and  other  works,  in  prose  and  verse.    Died  in  1816. 

Hardinge,  (Henry,)  Viscount,  an  English  general, 
born  at  Wrotham,  Kent,  in  March,  1785,  was  the  third 
son  of  the  Rev.  Henry  Hardinge.  Having  entered  the 
army  in  1798,  he  became  captain  in  1804.  In  the  Pen- 
insular war  he  served  with  credit,  under  Wellington,  as 
staff-officer  and  quartermaster-general,  and  was  wounded 
at  Vimiera  and  Vitoria.  In  181 5,  being  then  brigadier- 
general,  he  received  a  wound  two  days  before  the  battle 
of  Waterloo,  which  disabled  him  for  a  short  time,  so 
that  he  could  hot  be  present  at  that  action.  Soon  after 
this  event  he  was  knighted,  and  in  1820  he  was  elected 
to  Parliament.  Hardinge  was  appointed  secretary  of 
war,  and  member  of  the  privy  council  in  the  ministry 
of  Wellington,  in  1828.  He  officiated  as  secretary  for 
Ireland  during  the  brief  ministry  of  Sir  Robert  Peel 
in  1834-35.  I"  1841  ^''^  accepted  the  office  of  secretary 
at  war  in  the  cabinet  of  Sir  Robert  Peel.  In  1844  he 
succeeded  Lord  Ellenborough  as  Governor-General  of 
India,  which  he  governed  with  ability.  About  the  end 
of  1845  t'''^  British  territory  was  invaded  by  the  Sikhs, 
whom  he  defeated  at  Moodkee  and  Aliwal  and  com- 
pelled to  sue  for  peace.  For  these  services  he  received  a 
pension  of  three  thousand  pounds,  and  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  as  Viscount  Hardinge  of  Lahore.  In  1848  he 
was  superseded  by  Lord  Dalhousie  as  Governor-General. 
On  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  in  1852,  he 
succeeded  him  as  commander-in-chief,  and  in  1855  was 
made  a  field-marshal.  He  died  in  1856,  and  left  his  title 
to  his  son,  Charles  Stewart  Hardinge. 

See  "Nouvelle  I^iographie  Generale. " 

Hardinge,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  1700,  was  the  father  of  George,  noticed  above.  He 
was  a  good  classical  scholar,  and  wrote  short  poems  in 
Latin,  Greek,  and  English.  He  was  clerk  of  the  House 
of  Commons  from  1731  to  1752.    Died  in  1758. 

Hardion,  //$R'de''6N',  (Jacques,)  a  French  historian 
and  scholar,  born  at  Tours  in  1686,  resided  in  Pans.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles- 
Lettres  in  1715,  and  to  the  French  Academy  in  1730.  In 
1748  he  was  chosen  to  give  lessons  in  history  to  the 
princesses  of  the  royal  family.  He  published  "  Essays 
on  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Eloquence  in  Greece," 
and  a  "Universal  History,"  (20  vols.,  1754-69,)  which 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  j,  q,  obscure;  flr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HARDOUIN 


HARE 


had  much  success  and  was  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages.   Died  in  1766. 

Hardouin, /zta'doo-^N',  (Henri,)  a  French  musician 
and  composer  of  sacred  music,  born  about  1724;  died 
in  1808. 

Hardouin,  (Jean,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Quimper 
in  1646,  was  deeply  versed  in  history,  languages,  and 
numismatology,  but  addicted  to  fancies  and  to  paradox. 
He  maintained  that  ancient  history  and  many  other  classic 
writings  were  forged  by  the  monks  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury,— that  the  works  of  Cicero,  Horace,  Pliny,  and  Vir- 
gil's "  Georgics"  were  the  only  genuine  classics  extant. 
For  this  odd  conceit  he  was  reprimanded  by  his  supe- 
riors, and  in  1708  he  retracted  publicly.  He  produced 
several  treatises  on  coins  and  medals,  and  for  the  use 
of  the  dauphin  an  excellent  edition  of  Pliny's  "Natural 
Histoiy,"  (5  vols.,  1685.)    Died  in  1729. 

See  MoREKi,  "  Dictiounaire  Historique." 

Hardt,  von  der,  fon  d^r  haRt,  (Hermann,)  an  emi- 
nent German  philologist,  born  at  Melle,  in  Prussia,  in 
1660.  He  was  chosen  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
at  Helmstedt  in  1690,  and  was  more  noted  for  learning 
than  judgment.  Among  his  numerous  works  (in  Latin) 
are  "P^^lements  of  Universal  Exegesis,"  (1691,)  a  "Lite- 
rary History  of  the  Reformation,"  (5  vols.,  171 7,)  and 
"/Enigmata  Prisci  Orbis,"  ("  Enigmas  of  the  Primeval 
"World,"  1723.)    Died  in  1746. 

See  Ersch  und  Gkuber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Harduin,/iSR'dli-iN',( Alexandre  XAViER,)a  French 
author,  born  at  Arras  in  1718.  He  wrote  agreeable  verses, 
among  which  were  an  "Ode  to  Health,"  and  "Pan  et 
Glycere,"  a  lyric  pastoral ;  also  several  treatises  on 
grammar.    Died  in  1785. 

Hard'wick,  (Charles,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
about  1820,  became  a  Fellow  of  Saint  Catherine's  Hall, 
Cambridge.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles,"  (1851,)  and  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Christian  Church  from  the  Seventh  Century 
to  the  Reformation,"  (1853,)  which  is  highly  commended 
by  British  reviewers.  He  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of 
Ely  a  short  time  before  his  death,  in  1859. 

iEIardwick,  (Philip,)  an  English  architect,  born  in 
London  in  1792.  He  erected  the  hall  of  the  Goldsmiths' 
Company  about  1832,  and  afterwards  many  public  build- 
ings in  London,  among  which  was  the  hall  and  library 
of  Lincoln's  Inn.  He  was  elected  Royal  Academician 
about  1841.  Died  in  1871.  His  son,  Philip  Charles, 
also  an  architect,  worked  in  conjunction  with  his  father 
in  several  edifices,  and  was  chief  architect  of  the  Great 
Western  Hotel  in  London. 

Hard'wicke,  (Charles  Philip  Yorke,)  fourth 
Earl  of,  a  son  of  Admiral  J.  S.  Yorke,  and  a  nephew 
of  the  third  Earl,  born  about  1800,  was  elected  to  the 
House  of  Commons  in  183 1,  and  inherited  the  title  of 
earl  in  1834.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral 
on  the  reserve  list  in  1854,  and  was  lord  privy  seal  in 
the  cabinet  of  Lord  Derby  in  1858  and  1859. 

Hardwicke,  (Philip  Yorke,)  first  Earl  of,  an 
eminent  English  jurist,  born  at  Dover  in  1690,  was  the 
son  of  an  attorney.  He  never  attended  any  school  ex- 
cept a  private  one  at  l^ethnal  Green.  He  was  entered 
as  a  student  in  the  Middle  Temple  in  1708,  and  soon 
after  was  introduced  to  Lord  Macclesfield,  who  recog- 
nized his  merit  and  employed  him  as  the  tutor  of  his 
sons.  In  1712  he  wrote  a  letter,  signed  Philip  Home- 
t)red,  which  was  inserted  in  the  "  Sjjectator,"  No.  364. 
Admitted  to  the  bar  in  17 15,  he  rapidly  acquired  an  ex- 
tensive practice.  In  17 19,  by  the  favour  of  Macclesfield, 
then  lord  chancellor,  Mr.  Yorke  obtained  a  seat  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  He  was  appointed  solicitor-gene- 
ral in  1720,  and  attorney-general  in  1724.  In  1733  he 
became  lord  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench,  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Hardwicke.  In  1737  he 
was  promoted  to  the  dignity  of  lord  chancellor,  which  he 
retained  nearly  twenty  years,  discharging  the  functions 
of  that  office  with  such  wisdom  and  justice  as  to  obtain 
universal  aj^probation.  None  of  his  decrees  was  ever 
reversed.  lie  was  made  Earl  of  Hardwicke  and  Vis- 
count Royston  in  1754.  In  1756  he  resigned  the  great 
seal  and  retired  to  private  life.  "  He  is  deservedly  con- 
sidered," says  Lord  Campbell,  "the  most  consummate 


judge  who  ever  sat  in  the  court  of  chancery."  As  a 
statesman  he  was  consistent  and  upright,  and  a  supporter 
of  Sir  Robert  Walpole.  Died  in  1764.  His  second  son, 
Charles,  became  lord  chancellor  of  England. 

See  George  Harris,  "Life  of  Lord  Chancellor  Hardwicke," 
1847;  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;"  Foss, 
■'  The  Judges  of  England "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1848. 

Hardwicke,  (Philip  Yorke,)  second  Earl  of,  eld- 
est son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1720.  He  made 
a  respectable  figure  in  literature  and  politics,  and  was 
attached  to  the  Whig  party.  He  was  returned  to  Par- 
liament in  1 741,  in  1747,  and  again  in  1754.  In  1765  he 
was  a  member  of  council  during  the  short  administration 
of  Lord  Rockingham.  He  also  officiated  as  high-steward 
of  the  University  of  Cambridge.  He  published  "  Miscel- 
laneous State  Papers,"  and  was  one  of  the  authors  of 
the  celebrated  "Athenian  Letters,"  (1741.)  (See  Yorke, 
Charles.)    Died  in  1796. 

Hardwicke,  (Philip  Yorke,)  third  Earl  of,  born 
in  1757,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  Yorke,  lord  chan- 
cellor of  England.  He  succeeded  to  the  earldom  at  the 
death  of  his  uncle,  in  1796.  From  1801  to  1805  he  gov- 
erned Ireland  with  wisdom  and  justice  as  lord  lieutenant. 
He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  died,  without 
male  issue,  in  1834,  and  the  title  passed  to  his  nephew. 

Hardy,  //SkMe',  (Alexandre,)  a  French  dramatic 
author  and  actor,  born  in  Paris,  lived  in  the  reigns  of 
Henry  IV.  and  Louis  XIII.  He  was  reputed  the  first 
French  tragic  writer  of  his  time;  but  his  works  are  not 
highly  appreciated  at  present.  "'Mariamne'  is  the  most 
tolerable  of  his  tragedies,"  says  Hallam.  Died  about 
1630.  He  left  about  six  hundred  dramas,  some  of  which 
are  comedies. 

Hardy,  (Antoine  FRANgois,)  a  P'rench  revolutionist, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1756.  In  the  National  Convention  he 
acted  with  the  Girondists  in  1793.    Died  in  1823. 

Hardy,  (Claude,)  a  French  linguist  and  geometer, 
born  at  Mans  about  1600,  published  a  Greek  edition  of 
the  "Data"  of  Euclid,  (1625,)  with  a  Latin  version.  He 
was  a  friend  of  Descartes,  who  esteemed  him  highly. 
Died  in  1678. 

Har'dy,  (Gathorne,)  an  English  Conservative  poli- 
tician, born  in  Yorkshire  in  1814.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  cabinet,  as  president  of  the  poor-law  board,  in 
July,  1866,  and  resigned  with  his  colleagues  in  Decem- 
ber, 1868.  He  represents  (1869)  Oxford  University  in 
Parliament. 

Hardy,  (J.,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Pont-a-Mous- 
son,  Lorraine,  in  1763;  died  in  1802. 

Hardy,  (Peter,)  an  English  mathematician  and  ac- 
tuary, born  in  Jamaica  about  1812.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  the  practical  ai>plication  of  mathematics  and 
in  the  compilation  of  tables  for  life-assurance  companies. 

Hardy,  (Thomas  Duffus,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  Jamaica  in  1804,  edited  several  ancient  manuscripts 
in  the  Rolls  collection,  and  published  a  "Life  of  Lord 
Langdale,"  (2  vols.,  1852.) 

Hardy,  (Sir  Thomas  Masterman,)  an  English  naval 
officer,  boi  n  near  Dorchester  in  1769.  P'or  his  brave  con- 
duct at  the  battle  of  Saint  Vincent  he  was  made  conr- 
mander  in  1797.  In  1803  he  became  flag-captain  to  Admi- 
ral Nelson  ;  and  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  in  1805,  Captain 
Hardy  was  one  of  the  officers  of  Nelson's  flag-ship,  the 
Victory.  When  Nelson  was  dying,  he  sent  for  Hardy,  to 
whom  he  was  warmly  attached,  and  said,  "Don't  throw 
me  overboard:  kiss  me,  Hardy."  From  1820  to  1824 
he  commanded  the  South  American  squadron.  In  1830 
he  was  appointed  a  lord  of  the  admiralty,  and  in  1834 
governor  of  Greenwich  Hospital.    Died  in  1839. 

Hardy-Canute.    See  Hardicanute. 

Hardyng.    See  Harding,  (John.) 

Hare,  (Augustus  William,)  an  English  divine,  born 
at  Rome  in  1792.  He  became  rector  of  Alton-Barnes  in 
1829,  after  he  had  produced,  in  conjunction  with  his 
brother,  Julius  Charles,  "Guesses  at  Truth."  He  com- 
posed two  volumes  of  Sermons,  (1837,)  which  have  been 
often  reprinted,  and  which,  says  the  "London  Quarterly 
Review,"  vol.  lix.,  "are  ccjmpositions  of  very  rare  merit 
in  their  kind."    Died  in  Rome  in  1834. 

Hare,  (Francis,)  an  English  bishop,  born  in  London. 
He  obtained  the  deanery  of  Worcester  in  1708,  and  that 


€  as  /t;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as J;  G,  h,  k, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HARE  1 132  MARGRAVES 


of  Saint  Paul's  in  1726.  In  1731  he  became  Bishop  of 
Chichester.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  Ditificulties 
and  Discouragements  that  attend  the  Study  of  Scrip- 
ture," and  otlier  learned  works.  His  essay  just  named 
was  censured  by  the  convocation  of  divines  as  tending 
to  slvcpticism.    Died  in  1740. 

Hare,  (Henry,)  Lord  Coleraine,  an  Engh'sh  antiquary 
and  linguist,  born  in  Surrey  in  1693  5  ^'^^  1749- 

Hare,  (John  Innks  Clark,)  son  of  Robert  Hare,  the 
distinguished  cliemist,  was  liorn  in  Philadelphia  in  181 7. 
He  studied  law,  and,  in  conjunction  with  the  late  Horace 
Binney  Wallace,  published  about  1852  "American  Lead- 
ing Cases  in  Law,"  (2  vols.,)  Smith's  "  Leading  Cases," 
(fourth  American  from  third  London  edition,  2  vols.,) 
and  White  and  Tudor's  "Leading  Cases  in  Equity," 
(3  vols.)  The  American  notes  to  these  works  are 
thorough  and  exhaustive,  and  are  highly  esteemed  by 
legal  critics.  In  185 1  Mr.  Hare  was  elected  associate 
judge  of  the  district  court  of  Philadelphia,  and  became 
afterwards  presiding  judge  in  the  same  court. 

Hare,  (Julius  Charles,)  an  eminent  English  divine, 
born  in  1796,  was  grandson  of  Bishop  Francis  Hare. 
Having  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1 8 19,  he  took  holy 
orders.  In  1827  he  acquired  distinction  by  the  publi- 
cation of  "  Guesses  at  Truth,"  in  which  he  was  assisted 
by  his  brother,  Rev.  Augustus  William  Hare.  He  be- 
came rector  of  Hurstmonceaux  in  1852,  Archdeacon  of 
Lewes  in  1840,  canon  of  Cliichester  in  1851,  and  chap- 
lain to  the  queen  in  1853.  His  character  and  literary 
talents  rendered  his  influence  extensive.  In  the  church 
he  was  considered  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  "  broad 
party"  with  liberal  and  moderate  principles.  He  pub- 
lished numerous  sermons  and  controversial  -works.  In 
conjunction  with  C.  Thirlwall,  he  translated  Niebuhr's 
"History  of  Rome."    Died  in  1855. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  April,  1855. 

Hare,  (Robert,)  a  distinguished  American  chemist, 
born  in  Philadeljjhia  January  17,  1781.  He  discovered, 
about  the  age  of  twenty-one,  a  mode  of  producing  the 
most  intense  heat  by  the  combustion  of  hydrogen  with 
oxygen,  and  invented  the  compound  blow-pipe,  for  which 
the  Rumford  medal  was  awarded  him  by  the  American 
Academy  at  Boston.  In  1818  he  was  ajjpointed  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  the  medical  department  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  occu|)ied  this  chair 
nearly  thirty  years,  during  which  he  made  several  useful 
discoveries  in  chemistry.  In  1816  he  invented  a  gal- 
vanic apparatus  which  he  called  a  Calorimotor,  capal)le 
of  producing  intense  heat.  With  an  improved  form  of 
this  apparatus,  named  a  Deflagrator,  Professor  Silliman 
succeeded  in  not  merely  fusing  but  in  volatilizing  carbon. 
Dr.  Hare  contributed  many  treatises  to  the  "American 
Journal  of  Science,"  and  other  periodicals.  Among 
his  other  works  is  "Chemical  Apparatus  and  Manipula- 
tions," (1836.)    Died  in  1858. 

See  "Lives  of  Eminent  Philadelphians,"  1859. 

Ha-ree'ree  or  Hariri,  (Al  Kasem,  il  kS'sem,)  a 
popular  Arabian  author,  born  at  Bassorah  about  1055  A.D. 
He  received  a  liberal  education,  and  at  an  early  age  was 
employed  in  political  affairs.  His  principal  work  is  his 
"Macamat,"  (or  "Assemblies,")  composed  of  alternate 
portions  of  verse  and  prose.  The  author  has  availed 
himself  of  this  plan  to  display  by  turns  the  most  elegant 
expressions  of  the  Arabic  language,  and  the  most  fami- 
liar proverbial  phrases.  The  Arabs  use  the  "Macamat" 
as  a  dictionary  of  synonyms,  and  regard  it  as  the  best 
subject  of  study  in  order  to  penetrate  the  genius  of  their 
language.  The  character  of  the  "  Macamat"  is  chiefly 
imaginative  and  dramatic.  It  has  exercised  an  immense 
influence  oyer  the  nations  of  Islam,  from  Bengal  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  The  durable  popularity  of  this  work 
may  be  attributed  partly  to  the  knowledge  of  iumian 
nature  which  it  exhibits.  Hareeree  also  composed  two 
treatises  on  philology,  which  have  come  down  to  us,  and 
are  entitled  "  Molhat-al-Irab"  and  "  Dorrat-al-Gauas," 
or  the  "Pearl  of  the  Diver."  He  was  accustomed  to 
read  his  productions  aloud  in  the  portico  of  the  grand 
mosque  of  Bassorah,  and  thus  expose  them  to  the  ordeal 
of  public  opinion.  He  died  in  1122.  A  complete  edition 
of  the  "Macamat"  was  published  in  Calcutta,  (3  vols., 
1809-14.)    Silvestre  de  Sacy  wrote  a  coinmentary  on  the 


"Macamat,"  (1821.)  The  same  work  was  translated 
into  Latin  by  Peiper  in  1832,  and  into  German  by  F. 
Riickert,  1826.  In  1850,  Theodore  Preston  published 
in  London  "Macamat,  or  Rhetorical  Anecdotes  of  Al- 
Hariri  of  liasra,  translated  from  the  Original  Arabic." 
An  excellent  translation  of  the  Macaniat,  by  T.  Chenery, 
M.A.,  appeared  in  London  in  1867. 

See  Louis  Dei.atue,  "Hariri,  sa  Vie  et  ses  ficrits,"  in  the 
•'Revue  Orientale,"  1857. 

Harel,  h^xlV,  (F.  A.,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Rouen  in  1790,  was  a  nephew  of  Luce  de  Lancival.  His 
"Eulogy  on  Voltaire"  obtained  the  prize  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1844.    Died  in  1846. 

Harembure.    See  Haramhure. 

Haren,  van,  vtn  h^'ren,  (Onno  Zwfer,)  a  Dutch 
poet  and  statesman  of  merit,  born  at  Leeuwarden  in 
1 713,  was  a  brother  of  Willeni,  noticed  below.  He  was 
employed  as  a  diplomatist  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  jjopular  patriotic  poem,  entitled  "The 
Beggars,"  ("  Les  Gueux,"  1769.)  This  derisive  appella- 
tion was  given  by  their  enemies  to  those  who  liberated 
Holland  from  the  power  of  Spain  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury ;  and  that  liberation  is  the  subject  of  the  poem.  He 
also  wrote  many  odes,  among  which  are  an  "  Ode  to 
Liberty,"  and  an  "Ode  to  Commerce."  His  tragedy 
of  "Agon,  Sultan  of  Bantam,"  is  highly  praised  by  the 
"Biographic  Universelle."    Died  in  1779. 

Haren,  van,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch  diplomatist,  born  at 
Leeuwarden  in  1626.  In  1665  Van  Haren  and  De  Witt 
were  associated  in  the  direction  of  a  fleet  sent  against 
England.  He  displayed  ability  as  a  negotiator  at  the 
treaty  of  Nymwegen  in  1678,  and  at  the  peace  of  Rys- 
wick  in  1697.    Died  in  1708. 

Haren,  van,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch  poet,  grandson  of 
the  ])receding,  born  at  Leeuwarden  in  1 7 13.  He  was  of 
a  noble  family,  and  filled  several  public  offices  with  dis- 
tinction. His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his  poem 
entitled  "The  Adventures  of  Friso,"  (1741,)  of  which 
De  Vries  remarks  that  "it  is  perhaps  the  only  true  epic 
poem  which  we  possess  in  our  language."  It  is  com- 
mended for  beautiful  descrijjtions,  harmony,  and  jjure 
morality.  Van  Haren  also  succeeded  in  lyric  poetry. 
Voltaire  complimented  him  in  verses  which  begin  thus: 

"Dimosthene  au  conseil  et  Pindare  au  Parnasse, 
L'auguste  liberie  marche  devant  tes  pas." 
Died  in  1768. 

See  De  Vries,  "  Histoire  de  la  Poesie  Hollandaise." 

Harenberg,  h^'ren-b^Rc/,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a 
German  historian  and  Protestant  theologian  of  great 
learning,  was  born  at  Langenholtzen  in  1696.  He  became 
professor  of  ecclesiastic  history  in  the  Carolinuin  of 
Brunswick.  Among  his  works  (in  Latin)  are  "Laws  of 
the  Jews  in  Palestine,"  (1724,)  a  "  History  of  the  Church 
of  Gandersheim,"  (1734,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Order 
of  Jesuits,"  (in  German,  1760.)    Died  in  1774. 

See;  Hikschinc;,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Har'ford,  (John  S.,)  an  English  biographer  and  con- 
noisseur in  art,  was  born  near  Bristol  about  1785.  He 
wrote  a  "  Life  of  Thomas  Burgess,  Bishop  of  Salisbury," 
and  a  "Life  of  Michael  Angelo." 

Har'grave,  (Francis,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer, 
born  in  174*1,  published  an  "Argument  in  Defence  of 
Literary  Prcjperty,"  and  a  "Collection  of  State  Trials." 
In  1772  he  was  counsel  in  the  case  of  Somerset,  a  fugitive 
slave,  and  procured  a  decision  that  every  slave  became 
free  as  soon  as  he  touched  the  soil  of  liritain.  He 
was  afterwards  recorder  of  Liverpool.  His  legal  at- 
tainments and  ability  were  highly  commended  by  Lord 
Lyndhurst.    Died  in  1821. 

Har'graves,  (Edmund  Hammond,)  an  Englishman, 
noted  as  the  discoverer  of  gold  in  Australia,  was  born 
at  Gosport  about  1816.  He  settled  in  Australia  in  his 
youth,  and  in  1849  went  to  California,  where  he  acquired 
some  practical  skill  in  digging  gold.  Having  observed 
that  the  gold-region  of  California  resembled  a  part  of 
New  South  Wales,  he  began  to  explore  the  latter  in 
February,  1851,  and  soon  discovered  rich  deposits  of 
gold  near  the  Maccjuarie  River.  For  this  service  the 
colonial  government  voted  him  a  reward  of  ;^io,ooo. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1854,  and  published  "Aus- 
tralia and  its  Gold-Fields." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fdt;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


\ 


HARG REAVES 


1133 


HARM  AND 


Hargreaves,  haKgreevz,  (James,)  an  English  opera- 
tive, who  invented  the  spinning-jenny  about  1768. 

See  Henry  Howe,  "Lives  of  Eminent  American  and  European 
Mechanics." 

Har'i  or  Her'i,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  hiir'ee,]  a  San- 
scrit word  signifying  "green,"  and  forming  one  of  the 
many  names  of  VisHNU,  which  see. 

Haring,  hS'ring,  (David,)  a  Dutch  portrait-painter, 
born  in  1636,  worked  at  the  Hague  with  great  success, 
and  was  director  of  the  Academy  there.    Died  in  1706. 

Haring  or  Haering,  having,  (Wilhelm,)  a  popular 
German  novelist,  born  at  Breslau  in  1798,  is  widely 
known  under  the  assumed  name  of  Wilibald  Alexis. 
He  produced  in  1823  "  Walladmor,"  a  novel,  which  he 
announced  as  a  translation  from  Sir  Walter  vScott,  and 
which  had  great  success.  He  published  a  book  of 
travels,  called  "Excursions  in  the  South,"  (1828,)  and 
numerous  historical  novels.  His  novel  "Cabanis"  (6 
vols.,  1832)  is  called  his  best  work.  Among  his  later 
productions  are  "Roland  of  Berlin,"  (1840,)  and  "  Doro- 
thee,"  (1855.) 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Harington.    See  Harrington. 
Hariot.    See  Harriot,  (Thomas.) 
Hariri.    See  Hareeree. 

Harispe,  >^S'r^sp',  (Jean  Isidore,)  Count,  a  French 
general,  born  in  Basse-Pyrenees  in  1768.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  many  actions  in  the  Peninsula,  and 
was  made  a  general  of  division  in  1810.  During  the 
Hundred  Days  he  took  the  field  fo^  Napoleon.  He 
became  a  peer  of  France  in  1835,  and  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  marshal  in  1851.    Died  in  1855. 

Har'ker,  (Charles  G.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  New  Jersey  about  1836.  He  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1858.  He  served  as  colonel  at  Stone  River,  December 
31,  1862-January  2,  1863,  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  Chickamauga,  September  19-20,  1863,  and  was 
killed  at  Kenesaw  in  June,  1864. 

Har'lan,  (Richard,)  an  American  naturalist,  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1796,  graduated  as  M.D.  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  in  181 7.  Among  his  principal 
works  is  "Fauna  Americana,"  (1825.)  Died  at  New 
Orleans  in  1843. 

See  "  Encyclopaedia  Americana,"  (Supplement.) 

Harlay,  de,  deh  h'i^'W,  (Achille,)  a  French  judge, 
noted  for  his  learning,  integrity,  and  loyalty,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1536,  and  was  son-in-law  of  De  Thou.  He  be- 
came first  president  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris  in  1582, 
and  firmly  opposed  the  factious  designs  of  the  League 
a  few  years  later.  After  the  death  of  Henry  HI.,  in  1589, 
he  promoted  the  cause  of  Henry  IV.,  and  opposed  ul- 
tramontane doctrines.  He  is  called  one  of  the  greatest 
men  who  have  illustrated  the  French  magistracy.  Died 
in  1616. 

See  De  la  Vall^e,  "  filoge  de  M.  de  Harlay,"  1624;  De  Thou, 
"  Histoire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Harlay,  de,  (Achille,)  a  French  judge,  noted  for  his 
learning  and  caustic  wit,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1639,  and 
was  chosen  first  president  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris  in 
1689.    Died  in  1712. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires." 

Harlay  de  Chanvalon,  h'i.K'W  deh  sh6N'vt'l6N', 
(FKANgois,)  a  P'rench  courtier  and  prelate,  born  in  Paris 
in  1625,  became  Archbishop  of  Paris  in  1670.  He  ob- 
tained the  favour  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  hostile  to  the  Jan- 
senists,  and  persecuted  the  Protestants.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1695. 

See  Legenure,  "Vie  de  Harlay,"  1720;  Saint-Simon,  "Me- 
moires." 

Harleman.    See  Horleman. 

Harless  or  Harles,  haii'l^ss,  (Christian  Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  physician,  son  of  Gottlieb  C.  Harless, 
was  born  at  Erlangen  in  1773.  He  was  professor  of 
medicine  at  Bonn  from  1818  until  1853.  He  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  "History  of  Cephalology  and  Neu- 
rology in  Antiquity,"  (1801,)    Died  in  1853. 

Harless  or  Harles,  (Gottlieb  Christoph,  )  a 
learned  German  philologist,  born  at  Culmbach  in  1740. 
He  became  professor  of  eloquence  at  Erlangen  in  1770, 
and  wrote  numerous  Latin  works,  the  most  important  of 


which  are  "The  Lives  of  Philologists  of  the  Present 
Age,"  (4  vols.,  1764-72,)  an  "Introduction  to  the  His- 
tory of  the  Greek  Language,"  (1778,)  and  a  new  edition 
of  the  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca"  of  Fabricius,"  (12  vols., 
1790-1810.)    Died  in  1815. 

See  C.  F.  Harles,  "Vita  Viri  amplissiini  T.  C.  Harles,"  Erlan- 
gen, 1818. 

Harless,  (Gottlieb  Christoph  Adolf,)  an  influen- 
tial German  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Nuremberg 
in  1806.  He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Erlangen  from 
1836  to  1845,  acquired  eminence  as  a  pulpit  orator 
and  an  author.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Commentary 
on  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,"  (1834,)  a  volume  of 
sermons  entitled  "  Christi  Reich  und  Christi  Kraft," 
(1840,)  and  "Christian  Ethics,"  (1842,)  which  has  been 
often  reprinted.  In  1852  he  became  president  of  the 
Consistory  of  Munich.    Died  in  1862. 

Harleville,  (Collin  d'.)  See  Collin-Harleville. 

Hartley,  (Robert,)  Earl  of  Oxford,  born  in  London 
in  1 66 1,  was  the  son  and  heir  of  Sir  Edward  Harley, 
a  Puritan  officer,  who  fought  against  Charles  I.  in  the 
civil  war.  At  the  Revolution  Sir  Edward  and  his  son 
raised  a  troop  of  horse  for  the  Prince  of  Orange.  In 
1689  Robert  obtained  a  seat  in  Parliament,  where  at 
first  he  acted  with  the  Whigs.  However,  he  often  voted 
with  the  opposition,  and  by  degrees  became  identified 
with  the  Tories.  He  acquired  great  influence  in  the 
House  by  his  industry,  gravity,  and  ])olitical  artifice,  and 
after  a  few  years  was  recognized  as  one  of  the  leaders 
of  his  party.  He  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1 701,  and  again  in  1702. 

In  1704  this  wily  politician  became  secretary  of  state, 
probably  through  the  influence  of  his  cousin,  Mrs.  Ma. 
sham,  who  was  the  favourite  of  Queen  Anne.  Harley, 
with  his  ally  Bolingbroke,  resigned  in  1708,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  enmitv  of  Marlborough  and  Godolphin, 
whom  he  attempted  to  supplant  and  who  insisted  on  his 
dismissal.  In  1 7 10,  a  change  of  the  ministry  having 
occurred,  Harley  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer. In  1711  a  French  emissary  named  Guiscard, 
while  being  examined  before  the  privy  council,  stabbed 
Harley  with  a  ]:)en-knife  and  wounded  him  slightly.  This 
affair  rendered  him  more  popular  ;  and  soon  after  he  was 
made  Earl  of  Oxford  and  of  Mortimer  and  lord  high 
treasurer.  The  most  important  event  of  his  administra- 
tion is  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713.  The  rivalry  which 
had  existed  between  the  premier  and  his  colleague  Bo- 
lingbroke resulted  in  the  dismissal  of  the  former  in  July, 
1714;  and  the  death  of  Queen  Anne,  a  few  days  after, 
ruined  his  political  prospects.  In  171 5  he  was  impeached 
by  the  Commons,  and  sent  to  the  Tower,  in  which  he 
was  confined  nearly  two  years.  While  in  prison  he 
maintained  a  treasonable  correspondence  with  the  Stuart 
family.  In  1 71 7  he  was  acquitted  and  released.  Died 
in  1724.  "His  influence  in  Parliament,"  says  Macaulay, 
"  was  altogether  out  of  proportion  to  his  abilities.  His 
intellect  was  both  small  and  slow."  He  was  the  patron 
of  Pope  and  Swift.  His  valuable  collection  of  manu- 
scripts was  purchased  by  Parliament,  and  now  forms 
part  of  the  British  Museum,  with  the  name  of  the  Har- 
leian  Collection.  His  private  character  is  said  to  have 
been  strictly  moral  ;  but  he  was  justly  distrusted  by  both 
parties  for  his  duplicity.  Po])e  said,  "Oxford  was  not  a 
very  capable  minister,  and  had  a  good  deal  of  negligence 
into  the  bargain." 

See  Macaulay,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  ;  Lord  Mahon 
"History  of  England;"  Duchess  of  Marlborough,  "Account  of 
her  own  Life." 

HarTow,  (George  Henry,)  an  English  historical 
and  portrait  painter,  born  in  I.ondon  in  1787,  studied 
with  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence.  He  acquired  great  executive 
facility,  and  was  very  successful  in  portraits.  In  1818 
he  visited  Rome,  where  in  the  short  space  of  eighteen 
days  he  produced  a  copy  of  Raphael's  "  Transfiguration." 
Among  his  chief  works  is  "The  Trial  of  Queen  Cathe- 
rine," the  prominent  characters  of  which  are  portraits  of 
the  Kemble  family.    He  died  in  1819. 

Harmand,  >^tR'm6N',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  PVench 
revolutionist,  of  the  moderate  party,  a  member  of  the 
Convention,  1792-94,  born  at  Souilly  (Meuse)  in  1751; 
died  in  1816. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!:^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HARMANSEN 


1^34 


HAROUN 


Harniansen,  haR'mSn-sen,  (Wolphart,)  born  about 
1550,  commanded  a  Dutch  commercial  expedition  sent 
to  the  l^ast  Indies  in  1601.    Died  about  1610. 

Har'niar,  (John,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born  in 
1594,  was  chosen  professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford  in  1650. 
He  pubhshed  "Lexicon  Etymologicon  Grsecum,"  (1637,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1670. 

Harmenopule.    See  Harmenopulus. 

Har-men-o-pu'lus,  [Fr,  Harmknopule,  htR''meh- 
no'piil',]  (CoNSi'AN TIN,)  a  noted  Greek  jurist,  born  in 
Constantinople  about  1320,  He  held  the  high  offices  of 
councillor,  curopalate,  and  grand  chancellor  under  the 
emperor  John  Palaeologus.  He  wrote  a  "  Manual  of 
Laws,"  {Ilpox^ipov  tC)v  v6/j.uv,)  a  work  of  high  authority 
among  the  Greeks,  and  a  treatise  on  canon  law.  Died 
in  1383. 

Har'mer,  (Thomas,)  a  learned  English  dissenting  min- 
ister, born  at  Norwich  in  1 71 5.  He  had  charge  of  the 
Independent  church  in  Wattesfield,  in  Suffolk,  from  1735 
to  1788.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Obser- 
vations on  Various  Passages  of  Scripture,  placing  them 
in  a  New  Light,  compiled  from  Relations  incidentally 
mentioned  in  Books  of  Travels  in  the  East,"  (1764,) 
which  is  esteemed  an  able  and  useful  work.  An  enlarged 
edition  of  it  was  published  in  4  vols.  (1816)  by  Dr.  Adam 
Clarke.    Died  in  1788. 

Har-mo''di-us,  [Gr.  'ApfioiVoc]  a  young  Athenian, 
who,  with  his  friend  Aristogi'ton,  acquired  celebrity  by 
a  conspiracy  against  the  Pisistratidae,  Hippias  and  Hip- 
parchus,  who  held  the  chief  power  in  Athens  about  525 
B.C.  Harmodius  having  received  a  personal  affront  from 
Hipparchus,  the  two  friends  conspired  to  revenge  this 
by  the  death  of  both  the  brothers,  and  chose'the  occasion 
of  a  public  festival  for  the  execution  of  their  design. 
They  first  attacked  and  killed  Hipparchus,  whose  guards 
then  slew  Harmodius  and  arrested  Aristogiton,  who  was 
afterwards  put  to  death  by  the  order  of  Hippias.  The 
latter,  having  become  tyrannical  and  unpopular,  was  ex- 
pelled from  the  state  about  three  years  after  that  event, 
511  B.C.  Statues  were  erected  at  the  public  expense  to 
the  memory  of  the  conspirators,  who  were  regarded  as 
heroes  and  martyrs  of  liberty.  It  is  said  that  when  the 
tyrant  Dionysius  asked  Antipho  which  was  the  finest 
kind  of  brass,  he  replied,  "That  of  which  the  statues  of 
Harmodius  and  Aristogiton  are  formed." 

Har-mo^ni-a,  [Gr.  'Ap/uov'ia;  Fr.  Harmonie,  Ir'- 
mo'ne',]  in  classic  mythology,  a  personification  of  the 
order  or  harmony  of  the  universe,  said  to  be  a  daughter 
of  Mars  and  Venus,  (or,  according  to  some  authorities, 
of  Jupiter  and  Electra,)  and  a  wife  of  Cadmus.  She 
received  on  her  wedding-day,  from  some  of  the  gods,  a 
rich  necklace,  which  proved  fatal  to  every  person  who 
successively  ])ossessed  it. 

See  Smith,  "Greek  and  Roman  Riography  and  Mythology." 

Harmonie.    See  Harmonia, 

Harms,  hdrmz,  (Claude,)  a  Danish  theologian,  born 
at  Fahrstedt  (Holstein)  in  1778.  He  was  an  adversary  of 
rationalism,  and  became  principal  pastor  of  Kiel  in  1835. 
Among  his  most  important  works  are  "Pastoral  The- 
olngv,"  (3  vols.,  1834,)  and  "The  Augsburg'Confession," 
(1847.)    Died  in  1855. 

Har'ness,  (William,)  an  English  theologian  and 
dramatist,  born  in  Hampshire  in  1790. 

Har'nett,  (Cornelius,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  England  in  1723.  He  became  a  citizen  of  North 
Carolina  before  the  Revolution,  in  which  he  took  a 
prominent  part  against  the  British  government.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Congress  at  Halifax  in  1776,  after 
which  he  was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress. 
Died  in  1781. 

Har'ney,  (Wh.tjam  Selby,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Tennessee  in  1800.  He  became  a  captain  in  1825, 
served  in  the  Florida  war,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  colo- 
nel in  1846.  He  took  part  in  several  battles  in  Mexico, 
(1846-47,)  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general 
in  1858.  As  military  commandant  of  Oregon,  in  1859,  he 
occupied  the  island  of  San  Juan,  (on  the  west  coast  of 
North  America,)  which  was  claimed  by  the  British.  He 
was  soon  after  removed  from  his  command. 

Harnisch,  haR'nish,  (Wilhelm,)  a  meritorious  Ger- 
man teacher  and  educational  reformer,  born  at  Wilsnach, 


near  Potsdam,  in  1787.  He  was  preceptor  to  the  prin- 
cess Charlotte,  afterwards  Empress  of  Russia.  Among 
his  chief  works  are  a  "  Manual  of  Popular  Instruction," 
(1820,)  and  "Cosmology,"  ("  Die  Weltkunde,"  4th  edi- 
tion, 1827,  3  vols.) 

Haro,  de,  dk  §.'ro,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  historical  painter, 
born  in  Castile.    He  was  living  at  Madrid  in  1604. 

Haro,  de,  (Don  Luis,)  a  S])anish  minister  of  state, 
born  at  Valladolid  in  1598.  He  was  the  son  of  the 
Marquis  of  Carpio,  and  a  nephew  of  the  famous  Duke 
of  Olivares,  whom  in  1644  he  succeeded  as  prime  min- 
ister and  favourite  of  Philip  IV.  He  carried  on  a  dis- 
astrous war  against  France,  Portugal,  and  the  Dutch  for 
many  years,  and  in  1659  signed,  with  the  French  minister 
Mazarin,  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees.  The  king  rewarded 
him  for  his  services  by  erecting  the  marquisate  of  Carpio 
into  a  dukedom.  He  is  represented  to  have  directed 
the  arduous  affairs  of  state  with  prudence  and  ability. 
Died  in  1661. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Har'old  I.,  surnamed  Harefoot,  King  of  England, 
was  the  second  son  of  Canute  the  Great  by  Algiva, 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Northampton.  At  the  death  of 
Canute,  in  1035,  Harold  and  Hardicanute  (son  of  Queen 
Emma)  were  the  chief  competitors  for  the  throne  of 
England,  which  their  father,  on  his  marriage  with  Emma, 
had  agreed  to  leave  to  her  issue.  But  Harold  had  the 
advantage  of  possession,  and  was  recognized  by  the 
Danes  and  people  of  Mercia.  (See  Hardicanute.)  In 
1037,  Alfred,  the  younger  son  of  Emma,  having  invaded 
the  country  and  been  defeated  and  killed,  Harold  be- 
came King  of  all  England.  He  died  in  1040,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Hardicanute. 

Harold  IL,  King  of  England,  was  a  son  of  Godwin, 
Earl  of  Kent,  a  powerful  Saxon  nobleman.  On  the  death 
of  Godwin,  in  1053,  he  inherited  with  his  father's  talents 
the  earldom  of  Kent.  Having  been  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  army  of  the  king,  Edward  the  Confessor, 
he  gained  victories  over  the  Welsh  about  1062.  He  was 
thrown  by  a  storm  on  the  coast  of  France  about  1065, 
and  became  the  prisoner  of  William,  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, who,  as  a  condition  of  his  liberation,  required 
Harold  to  swear  that  on  the  death  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor he  would  aid  William  to  obtain  the  throne  of 
England.  Edward  died  in  January,  1066,  and  Harold 
was  proclaimed  king  by  the  assembly  of  thanes  and  the 
citizens  of  London,  without  opposition  from  any  native 
competitor  except  his  own  brother,  Tostig.  The  Norman 
duke  demanded  that  Harold  should  surrender  to  him 
the  crown  ;  but  he  refused  to  be  bound  by  an  oath  which 
was  extorted  from  him  by  force.  In  September,  1066, 
Harold  gained  a  complete  victory  over  Tostig  and  the 
King  of  Norway,  who  had  invaded  England.  Three 
days  after  this  battle,  the  Duke  of  Normandy  landed  in 
Sussex  with  an  army  of  about  60,000  men,  which  Harold 
encountered  at  Senlac,  (now  Battle,)  near  Hastings,  on 
the  14th  of  October,  1066.  After  a  long  and  obstinate 
combat,  in  which  Harold  and  his  two  brothers  were 
killed,  William  gained  a  decisive  victory,  which  rendered 
him  master  of  England. 

See  Frrrman,  "History  of  the  Norman  Conquest  of  England;" 
Hume,  "  Historv  of  England  :"  Augustin  Thierry,  "  Histoire  de 
la  Conquete  de  I'AngleteVre  ;"  William  of  Malmesbury,  "  History 
of  the  Kings  of  England." 

Har'old  (or  Harald)  Harfager,  (har'fl'ger,  almost 
har''f^'her,)  a  king  of  Norway,  whose  reign  is  considered 
to  mark  the  commencement  of  authentic  Norwegian  his- 
tory. About  895  he  subdued  the  jarls,  or  petty  chief- 
tains, and  united  the  various  sections  of  Norway  into 
one  kingdom.  He  reigned  above  thirty  years,  and  left 
his  crown  to  his  son,  Haco  (or  Haquin)  the  Good,  who 
first  introduced  Christianity  into  Norway. 

Haroiin-al-Raschid,*  'h^-roon'  il  rdsh'id,  or,  more 
correctly,  Haroon-ar-Rasheed,  (or  Harun-ar-Ra- 
sliid,)  hi-rooi/  ar-ra-sheed',  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
Eastern  caliphs,  and  the  most  powerful  sovereign  of  the 
dynasty  of  the  Abbassides,  was  born  about  766  a.d.  He 
was  a  son  of  the  caliph  Mahdee,  (Mahdi,)  and  succeeded 

*  In  this  instance  we  liave  departed  from  our  general  rule  of  spell- 
ing according  to  the  sound  of  Oriental  names.  The  spelling  Haroun 
seems  to  have  become,  indeed,  a  part  of  the  English  language. 


a.  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n5t;  good;  moon* 


HJRPAGUS 


1135 


HARRINGTON 


his  elder  brother  Hadee  (Hadi)  in  786.  In  the  early 
pai  L  of  his  reign  the  Barmecides  Yahia  and  Jaafar  were 
his  favourite  ministers.  About  804  a.d.  he  waged  a  suc- 
cessful war  against  the  Byzantine  emperor  Nicephorus, 
whom  he  compelled  to  pay  tribute.  Haroun  was  a  lib- 
eral patron  of  poets  and  scholars  ;  but  he  scarcely  merited 
the  surname  of  Ar-Rasheed,  ("  the  Just.")  (See  Jaafar.) 
He  is  chiefly  renowned  as  the  principal  hero  of  the  **  Ara- 
bian Nights'  Entertainments."    Died  in  809  A.D. 

See  Aboolfeda,  "  Annales  Moslemici ;"  Aboolfaraj,  (Abul- 
PHARAGius,)  "  Historia  Dynastiariim ;"  Weil,  "  Geschichte  der 
(Jlialifen  ;"  Elmacin,  "  Historia  Saracenica." 

Har'pa-gus,  [Gr.  "kpiTayog,]  a  noble  Mede,  said  to 
have  saved  the  life  of  Cyrus  the  Great.  Afterwards, 
under  Cyrus,  he  reduced  several  Greek  cities  of  Ionia, 

Har'pa-lus,  [Gr.  "kp-aaT^g,]  a  Macedonian  whom  Alex- 
ander the  Great  made  satrap  of  Babylon  and  intrusted 
with  the  care  of  his  accumulated  treasures  on  his  de- 
parture for  India.  Harpalus  abused  his  trust,  and,  when 
he  heard  that  his  master  was  returning,  fled  to  Athens 
with  a  large  sum  of  money.  The  Athenians  being  unable 
or  unwilling  to  protect  him  against  Antipater,  Alexan- 
der's lieutenant,  who  demanded  that  he  should  be  given 
up,  he  retired  to  Crete,  where  he  was  killed  in  324  B.C. 
Demosthenes,  having  advocated  his  cause,  was  tried  on 
a  charge  of  bribery  and  fined. 

See  Thiri.wall,  "History  of  Greece." 

Har-pal'y-ge,  [Gr. 'ApTra/li'/c;?,]  daughter  of  HarpaKy- 
cus,  King  of  Thrace,  was  distinguished  for  her  courageous 
defence  of  her  father's  kingdom  against  Neoptolemus, 
the  son  of  Achilles. 

Harpe,  La.    See  La  Harpe. 

Har'per,  (James,)  an  American  publisher,  born  at 
Newton,  Long  Island,  in  1795.  He  and  several  of  his 
brothers  founded  in  New  York  the  great  publishing 
house  of  Har])er  &  Brothers  about  1825.  He  was 
elected  mayor  of  New  York  in  1844.    Died  in  1869. 

Harper,  (Rohert  Goodloe,)  an  eminent  lawyer  and 
Senator  of  the  United  States,  born  near  Fredericksburg, 
Virginia,  in  1 765.  After  graduating  at  Princeton,  New 
Jersey,  in  1785,  he  studied  law  in  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  and  settled  in  the  interior  of  that  State.  From 
1795  to  iSoo  he  represented  one  of  the  districts  of  South 
Carolina  in  the  National  Congress,  of  which  he  was  one 
of  the  most  prominent  members  and  one  of  the  ablest 
debaters.  In  the  latter  part  of  this  period  he  was  the 
principal  leader  of  the  Federal  party  in  the  House  of 
Representatives.  In  1801  he  retired  from  office,  married 
the  daughter  of  Charles  Carroll,  and  settled  in  Baltimore, 
where  he  resumed  the  practice  of  law.  He  was  employed 
as  counsel  for  the  defence  in  the  impeachment  of  Judge 
Chase,  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States,  who 
was  acquitted.  In  1815  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  by  the  legislature  of  Maryland.  A  volume 
of  his  speeches,  arguments,  and  letters  was  published 
in  1814.  John  Neal,  in  "Blackwood's  Magazine,"  says, 
"  His  writings  are  energetic,  manly,  profound.  We  hold 
him  to  be  one  of  the  ablest  men  that  North  America  has 
produced."    Died  in  1825. 

Harper,  (Wieliam,)  an  American  lawyer  and  politi- 
cian, born  in  the  island  of  Antigua  in  1790.  He  settled 
in  Missouri  in  1818,  removed  to  South  Carolina  in  1823, 
and  became  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1826.  He 
was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  court  of  appeals  in  1831, 
and  elected  chancellor  in  1834.    Died  in  1847. 

Harphius,  haR^fe-us,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  Flemish 
mystic  theologian,  born  at  Erp  or  Herp,  was  superior 
of  a  Franciscan  abbey  at  Malines,  where  he  died  in  1478. 
He  wrote  the  "Eden  of  the  Contemplative,"  "The  Mir- 
ror of  Perfection,"  and  other  religious  works. 

Har'pies,  [Gr.  "ApTrvat;  Lat.  Har'pyi^.  ;  Fr.  Har- 
PYES,  Si<'pe',]  winged  monsters  of  classic  mythology, 
regarded  as  the  daughters  of  Neptune,  and  supposed  by 
Sf)me  to  be  personified  storm-winds.  They  polluted  all 
that  they  touched. 

See  Virgil's  "^neid,"book  iii.  212-262. 

Har-poc'ra-tes  or  Har'po-krat,  a  divinity  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  sometimes  identified  with  Horus,  and 
called  the  god  of  silence  or  secrecy.  He  was  repre- 
sented as  holding  a  finger  on  his  mouth. 


Har-po-cra'ti-on,  [Gr.  'ApTro/rpan'wv,]  (Valerius,)  a 

Greek  rhetorician  of  Alexandria,  of  whose  life  scarcely 
anything  is  known.  He  appears  to  have  lived  in  or 
after  the  second  century.  He  wrote  a  very  important 
work,  called  "  Lexicon  for  the  Ten  Orators,"  {Ac^lkov  tuv 
dsKa  prjTopov,)  which  is  extant.  He  explains  in  this  the 
political  and  other  terms  used  by  the  Athenian  orators, 
and  affords  much  valuable  information  on  the  public  and 
civil  law  and  history  of  Athens. 

Harps^'field  or  Harps'feld,  (Nicholas,)  an  English 
Catholic,  born  in  London,  was  chosen  professor  of  Greek 
in  Oxford  in  1546,  and  Archdeacon  of  Canterbury  in  1554. 
He  wrote  an  "  English  Ecclesiastical  History."  He  was 
imprisoned  about  twenty  years  during  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth.   Died  about  1582. 

Harpyes.    See  Harpies. 

Harpyiae.    See  Harpies. 

Harring,  htr^  ing,  (Harro  Paul,)  a  writer,  born  near 
Husum,  Denmark,  in  1798.  He  travelled  in  many  coun- 
tries, and  was  several  times  arrested  as  a  conspirator 
and  revolutionist.  He  wrote  several  dramas  and  other 
works  of  fiction,  and  "  Memoirs  of  Poland  under  Russian 
Domination,"  (in  French,  1831.)    Died  in  1870. 

Har^ng-ton,  (Charles  Stanhope,)  Earl  of,  born 
in  England  in  1753,  was  previously  styled  Lord  Peters- 
ham. He  entered  the  army  in  1769,  and  was  returned 
to  Parliament  in  1776.  At  the  death  of  his  father,  about 
1778,  he  became  a  member  of  the  House  of  Lords.  He 
served  in  several  campaigns  in  America  and  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  was  aide-de-camp  to  General  Burgoyne  at 
the  capitulation  of  .Saratoga.  After  his  return  he  became 
aide-de-camp  to  the  king,  George  III.,  in  1792  a  colonel 
of  the  life-guards,  and  in  1798  lieutenant-general.  About 
1802  he  was  envoy-extraordinary  to  Berlin.  From  1807 
to  1812  he  commanded  the  army  in  Ireland.  Died  in  1829. 

Harrington,  (Henry,)  an  English  physician  and  poet, 
born  at  Kelston  in  1729,  resided  at  Bath.  He  published 
"An  Ode  to  Harmony,"  "An  Ode  to  Discord,"  and  a 
few  other  works.    Died  in  1816. 

Harrington,  (James,)  an  English  author,  born  at 
Upton  in  1611,  was  educated  at  Oxford  under  Dr.  Chil- 
lingworth.  In  youth  he  made  the  tour  of  the  continent. 
In  1646  he  officiated  as  groom  of  the  bed-chamber  to 
Charles  I.,  then  a  prisoner,  whom  he  attended  at  his 
execution.  In  1656  he  published  his  principal  work, 
entitled  "Oceana,"  which  attracted  much  attention  and 
was  greatly  admired.  It  is  a  political  allegory,  exhibiting, 
in  imitation  of  Plato's  "Atlantis,"  the  plan  or  model  of 
an  ideal  republic,  named  Oce'ana,  which  is  supposed  to 
represent  P2ngland.  His  project  was  generally  considered 
visionary,  impracticable,  and  Utopian.  Hume  said,  "  It 
is  justly  admired  as  a  work  of  genius  and  invention  ;" 
while  Hallam  thinks  that  the  author  "is  in  general 
prolix,  dull,  pedantic,  yet  seldom  profound."  He  was 
arrested  in  1661  on  a  charge  of  treason,  and  (though  the 
case  was  never  brought  to  trial)  closely  confined  until  he 
became  deranged.  The  cause  of  his  arrest  was  probably 
his  avowed  republican  principles.     Died  in  1677. 

See  ToLAND,  "  Lite  of  James  Harrington,"  prefixed  to  his  Works, 
1700;  "Biographia  Biitannica;"  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonieiises." 

Harrington,  (James,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
1664,  contributed  some  Latin  verses  to  the  "  Musae  An- 
glicanae,"  and  wrote  the  preface  to  the  first  volume  ot 
Wood's  "Athenae."    Died  in  1693. 

Harrington  or  Harington,  (John,)  of  Stepney,  an 
English  poet,  born  in  1534.  He  wrote  elegant  "Verses 
on  Isabella  Markham,"  dated  about  1564.  "If  these 
are  genuine,"  says  Hallam,  "  they  are  as  polished  as 
any  written  at  the  close  of  the  queen's  reign."  Died 
in  1582. 

Harrington,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  poet  and  cour- 
tier, a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  or  near  Bath  in 
1561.  He  became  a  favourite  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  He 
was  the  author  of  an  admired  English  version  of  Ariosto's 
"Orlando  Furi-oso,"  (1591.)  He  wrote  numerous  epi- 
grams, which  were  published  in  1615,  a  "Brief  View  of 
the  State  of  the  Church,"  and  other  works.  About  1600 
he  served  under  the  Earl  of  Essex  as  commander  of  the 
horse.    Died  in  1612. 

See  "  Life  of  Sir  J.  Harrington,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Nugas  Antiquae," 
2  vols.,  1804. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  ^ard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  Yi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2!^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23. 


HARRIOTT 


1136 


HARRIS 


Har'ri-ptt  or  Harriot,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish matlieinatician,  born  at  Oxford  in  1560.  He  visited 
Virginia  in  the  service  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  (who  had 
been  his  pupil)  in  1584,  and  published  an  Account  of 
that  province  in  1588.  He  was  liberally  patronized  by 
the  Earl  of  Northumberland,  in  whose  house  he  spent 
the  latter  part  of  his  life.  Harriott  was  noted  for  skill  in 
algebra,  his  treatise  on  which,  entitled  "  Artis  Analyticas 
Praxis,"  was  published  in  163 1.  It  is  said  that  he  ob- 
served the  satellites  of  Jupiter  in  1610,  a  few  days  after 
Galileo  first  discovered  them,  and  that  he  was  the  first 
who  detected  the  spots  on  the  sun,  December  8,  1610. 
**  Harriott  was  destined,"  says  Hallam,  "  to  make  the 
last  great  discovery  in  the  pure  science  of  algebra.  He 
arrived  at  a  complete  theory  of  the  genesis  of  equations, 
which  Cardan  and  Vieta  had  but  partially  conceived." 
("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  Died  in 
1621. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques  ;"  "  Bio<xraphia 
Britaniiica ;"  Eksch  und  Gruber,  "  Aligeiiieine  Eiicyklopaedie." 

Hariris,  (George,)  a  son  of  the  Bishop  of  Llandaff, 
published  an  English  version  of  Justinian's  "Institu- 
tiones,"  (1756.)    IJied  in  1796. 

Harris,  (George,)  Lord,  an  English  general,  born  at 
Brasted  in  1746,  entered  the  army  in  1759.  As  captain, 
he  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  in  1775,  where 
he  was  severely  wounded,  and  in  that  of  Long  Island, 
(1776.)  In  1790-91  he  served  in  India  against  Tippoo 
Sultan,  and  in  1794  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
major-general.  About  four  years  later  he  was  appointed 
Governor  of  the  Madras  Presidency,  and  commanded 
the  army  which  was  sent  against  Tippoo  and  which 
captured  Seringapatam.  For  his  services  he  was  re- 
warded by  a  peerage,  as  Lord  Harris  of  Seringapatam 
and  Mysore.    Died  in  1829. 

See  S.  R.  Lushington,  "  Life  of  General  Lord  Harris." 

Harris,  (James,)  an  English  author,  born  at  Salisbury 
in  1709,  was  the  son  of  James  Harris  and  of  Lady  Cooper, 
who  was  sister  of  Lord  Shaftesl)ury.  He  was  an  excel- 
lent classical  scholar.  In  1 761  he  obtained  a  seat  in  Par- 
liament, in  1763  became  a  lord  of  the  treasury,  and  in 
1774  secretary  and  controller  to  the  queen.  In  1751 
he  published  his  "Hermes;  or,  A  Philosophical  Inquiry 
concerning  Language  and  Universal  Grammar,"  which, 
according  to  Coleridge,  is  "written  with  the  precision 
of  Aristotle  and  the  elegance  of  Quintilian."  He  wrote 
three  treatises,  viz.,  on  "  Art,"  on  "  Music,  Painting,  and 
Poetry,"  and  on  "  Happiness."    Died  in  1780. 

See  "  Life  of  James  Harris,"  by  Lord  M  almesbury,  i8oi. 

Harris,  (James,)  first  Earl  of  Malmesbury,  an  able 
diplomatist,  born  at  Salisbury  in  1746,  was  the  only  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford  and  Ley- 
den,  and  in  1767  was  appointed  secretary  of  embassy 
at  Madrid.  A  few  years  after,  being  left  as  charge- 
d'affaires  in  the  same  court,  he  acquitted  himself  so  well 
in  an  important  affair  that  he  received  in  1772  the  mis- 
sion to  Prussia,  and  in  1777  that  to  Saint  Petersburg, 
from  which  he  returned  home  in  1784.  Although  he  was 
a  political  friend  of  Fox,  he  received  from  Pitt,  then  pre- 
mier, the  appointment  of  minister  to  the  Hague,  where 
he  negotiated,  in  1788,  a  treaty  with  Holland  and  Prus- 
sia. The  same  year  he  was  created  Baron  Malmesbury. 
In  1793  he  joined  the  Tory  or  Conservative  party.  He 
was  subsequently  employed  on  missions  to  Berlin  and 
the  French  republic,  in  which  he  maintained  his  repu- 
tation as  a  skilful  diplomatist.  In  1800  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  Earl  of  Malmesbury  and  Viscount  Fitzharris. 
He  died  in  1820,  leaving  one  son  and  several  daughters. 
The  present  earl  is  his  grandson.  Since  his  death  his 
"  Diaries  and  Correspondence"  has  been  published. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1844,  and  March, 
1845- 

Harris,  (James  Howard.)  See  Malmesbury,  Earl 

OF. 

Harris,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  born  about 
1667,  became  prebendary  of  Rochester.  He  was  secre- 
tary and  vice-president  of  the  Royal  Society.  Besides  a 
variety  of  scientific  works,  he  published  a  valuable  "  Col- 
lection of  Voyages  and  Travels."  His  "  Dictionary  of 
Arts  and  Sciences,"  (1704,)  explaining  both  the  terms 
of  art  and  the  arts  themselves,  was  the  prototype,  it  is 


said,  of  all  the  cyclopaedias  which  have  since  appeared. 
Died  in  17 19. 

Harris,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  English  dissenting  minister, 
born  at  Ugborough  in  1804.  After  preaching  for  the 
Independent  Chinch  at  Epsom,  he  became  in  1837  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  Cheshimt  College.  About  1850  he 
was  appointed  principal  of  New  College,  the  chief  theo- 
logical seminary  of  the  Independents.  Dr.  Harris  was 
a  popular  preacher,  and  acquired  a  wide  reputation  as 
an  author.  Among  his  chief  works  are  "The  Great 
Teacher,"  (1835,)  " Covetousness  the  Sin  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,"  of  which  ninety  thousand  copies  had  been 
sold  in  1856,  "The  Great  Commission,"  (1842,)  "The 
Pre-Adamite  Earth,"  (1847,)  an^J  "Man  Primeval."  Died 
in  1856. 

Harris,  (Joseph,)  an  astronomer,  and  assay-master 
of  the  English  mint,  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  Money  and 
Coins,"  (1757,)  a  "  Treatise  on  Optics,"  etc.  Died  in  1764. 

Harris,  (Moses,)  an  English  naturalist  and  artist, 
published  in  1766  "The  Aurelian  ;  or.  Natural  History 
of  English  Moths  and  Butterflies,"  and  an  "Exposition 
of  English  Insects,"  (1776.) 

Harris,  (Robert,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  Puritan 
divine,  born  in  Gloucestershire  in  1578.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  from  1648  to  1658.  He 
was  a  popular  preacher,  and  a  man  of  excellent  gifts  and 
graces.  He  published  a  volume  of  Sermons,  Letters, 
etc.    Died  in  1658. 

See  Durham,  "Life  of  Robert  Harris,"  1660. 

Har'ris,  (Thaddeus  Mason,)  born  at  Charlestown, 
Massachusetts,  in  1768,  was  pastor  of  a  Congrega- 
tional church  in  Dorchester  from  1793  until  his  death 
in  1842.  He  published,  besides  many  sermons  and  other 
works,  a  "  Natural  History  of  the  Bible." 

Harris,  (Thaddeus  William,)  M.D.,  an  eminent 
entomologist,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1795. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1815,  and  was  libra- 
rian at  that  institution  from  1831  until  his  death.  In 
1837  he  was  employed  in  the  Zoological  and  Botanical 
Survey  of  Massachusetts.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
an  official  "  Report  on  the  Insects  of  Massachusetts 
Injurious  to  Vegetation,"  (184L)    Died  in  1856. 

Harris,  (Thomas  L.,)  a  spiritualistic  poet  and 
preacher,  born  in  England,  emigrated  in  early  life  to  the 
United  States.  Among  his  works  is  an  "Epic  of  the 
Starry  Heavens,"  (1854.) 

Harris  or  Harries,  (Walter,)  an  English  physician, 
born  at  Gloucester  in  1647,  began  to  practise  in  London 
in  1676,  and  was  chosen  physician  to  William  III.  about 
1689.  He  wrote  several  professional  treatises.  Died  in 
1725. 

Harris,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  born  in 
1675,  was  minister  of  a  dissenting  church  in  London. 
He  published  "  Practical  Discourses  on  the  Principal 
Representatives  of  the  Messiah,"  (1724,)  and  assisted  in 
the  continuation  of  Matthew  Henry's  "  Commentary  on 
the  Bible."  "  He  was  reckoned,"  says  Doddridge,  "the 
greatest  master  of  the  English  tongue  among  the  dis- 
senters."   Died  in  1740. 

Harris,  (V/illiam,)  D.D.,  an  English  dissenting  min- 
ister and  biographer,  born  at  Salisbury  in  1720.  He  was 
successively  pastor  at  Wells  and  Honiton.  He  published 
valuable  biographies  of  Hugh  Peters,  (1751,)  of  James 
(^753')  Charles  I.,  (1758,)  of  Oliver  Cromwell, 
(1762,)  and  of  Charles  II.,  (1766.)  His  positions  and 
statements  are  confirmed  by  copious  notes  and  original 
documents.  He  is  commended  for  his  fidelity  to  the 
truth  by  several  critics.    Died  in  1770. 

Harris,  (Sir  William  Cornwallis,)  a  British  officer 
and  writer  of  travels.  He  published,  in  1839,  "Wild 
Sports  in  Southern  Africa,"  and  afterwards  "The  High- 
lands of  Ethiopia,"  (3  vols.,  2d  edition,  1844.) 

Harris,  (William  Snow,)  an  English  surgeon,  dis- 
tinguished by  his  researches  in  physical  sciences  and  by 
his  inventions,  was  born  at  Plymouth  about  1792.  He 
gave  special  attention  to  electricity,  magnetism,  and 
meteorology.  In  183 1  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  which  awarded  hin\  the  Copley  medal  in 
1835.  He  invented  a  new  steering-compass,  and  made 
important  improvements  in  the  construction  of  con- 
ductors of  the  electric  fluid.     By  a  system  of  metallic 


S,  e,  1, 6, 11,  y,  lon^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mh;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


HJRRISON 


1137 


HJRT 


conductors  applied  to  the  masts  and  hulls  of  ships,  he 
greatly  diminished  the  ruinous  effects  of  lightning  in 
the  navy.  He  published  "The  Nature  of  Thunder- 
storms,'' (1843,)  "  Rudiments  of  Electricity,"  (1849.) 
Died  in  January,  1S67. 

Har'ri-son.' (Benjamin,)  born  at  Berkeley,  on  the 
James  River,  Virginia,  about  1740,  was  the  father  of 
President  William  H.  Harrison.  In  1764  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Virginia  legislature,  and  in  1774  was 
elected  to  the  national  Congress,  in  which  he  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  patriotic  services  and  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  From  1782  to  1784  he 
was  Governor  of  Virginia.  He  was  also  a  member  of 
the  convention  which  framed  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  in  1788.    Died  in  1791. 

See  C.  A.  Goodrich,  "Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of 
Indei-endeiice." 

Har'ri-son,  (John,)  an  English  republican  general, 
served  in  the  parliamentary  army  in  the  civil  war,  and 
was  one  of  the  judges  of  the  court  in  which  Charles  I. 
was  tried  in  1649.  He  had  obtained  the  rank  of  major- 
general,  when  he  became  a  member  of  the  council  of 
state,  in  1653.  Cromwell,  when  Protector,  endeavoured 
to  gain  his  support  by  the  offer  of  an  exalted  position ; 
but  he  refused  to  co-operate  with  the  "  usurper,"  as  he 
called  him.  In  1657  he  was  deprived  of  his  commission 
and  confined.  In  1660  he  was  executed  for  his  share  in 
the  death  of  Charles  I.  Before  the  judges  who  tried  him, 
he  spoke  with  courage  and  complacency  of  the  act  for 
which  he  was  about  to  suffer. 

Har'ri-son,  (John,)  an  English  mechanician,  born 
at  Fauiby,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1693,  learned  the  trade  of  a 
carpenter.  He  became  interested  in  the  mechanism  of 
clocks,  in  which  he  made  several  improvements,  the 
greatest  of  which  was  the  compound  pendulum.  Large 
rewards  having  been  offered  to  any  one  who  would  ascer- 
tain the  longitude  wiihin  sixty  mi.es,  Harrison,  in  1735, 
exhibited  his  cnronomeier  to  the  Royal  Society,  and  a 
man-of-war  was  put  at  his  disposal,  in  which  he  made  a 
voyage  to  Lisbon  and  corrected  the  reckoning  a  degree 
and  a  half.  After  repeated  trials,  he  perfected  in  1761 
a  chronometer  which  determined  the  longitude  within 
eighteen  miles,  by  which  he  became  entitled  to  the  re- 
ward of  _;^20,ooo  offered  by  government.  After  it  had 
been  tested  in  several  voyages,  and  it  was  found  that 
other  persons  could  con^t^uct  the  instrument,  the  abi^ve 
premium  was  paid  to  Harrison  in  1765-67.  Died  in  1776. 

Harrison,  (Thomas,)  (given  erroneously  in  almost 
all  biographical  dictionaries  as  John  Harrison,)  an 
English  republican  general,  served  in  the  parliamentary 
army  in  the  civil  war,  and  was  one  of  the  judges  of  the 
court  in  which  Charles  I.  was  tried  in  1649.  He  had 
obtained  the  rank  of  major-general,  when  he  became  a 
member  of  the  council  of  state,  in  1653.  Cromwell, 
when  Protector,  endeavoured  to  gain  his  support  by 
the  offer  of  an  exalted  position  ;  but  he  refused  to  co- 
operate with  the  *•  usurper,"  as  he  called  him.  In 
1657  he  was  deprived  of  his  commission  and  confined. 
In  1660  he  was  executed  for  his  share  in  the  death  of 
Charles  I.  Before  the  judges  who  tried  him,  he  spoke 
with  courage  and  complacency  of  the  act  for  which  he 
was  about  to  suffer. 

Harrison,  (William,)  an  English  scholar  and  poet, 
was  a  Fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford.  He  was  a  favour- 
ite of  Swift,  who  described  him  as  a  "pretty  fellow,  with 
a  great  deal  of  wit,  good  sense,  and  good  nature."  Swift 
procured  for  him  the  office  of  secretary  of  embassy  to  the 
I  lague.  Harrison  edited  the  fifth  volume  of  the  "  Tatler." 
Die'd  in  1713. 

Harrison,  (William  Henry,)  the  ninth  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  in  Charles  City  county,  Vir- 
ginia, on  the  9th  of  February,  1773.  ^^'^^  ^  son  of 
Benjamin  Harrison,  noticed  above,  and  was  educated  at 
Hampden-Sidney  College.  He  entered  the  army  in  1791, 
served  as  aide-de-camp  to  General  Wayne  in  the  Indian 
war,  and  became  a  captain  in  1794.  In'1797  he  resigned 
his  commission,  and  in  1799  he  was  chosen  a  delegate 
to  Congress  for  the  Northwest  Territory.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Governor  of  the  Territory  of  Indiana  in  r8oi, 
and,  having  been  reappointed  by  several  successive  Presi- 
dents, held  that  office  until  1813,  and  made  many  treaties 


with  the  Indians.  On  the  7th  of  November,  1811,  he 
defeated  the  Indians  at  Tippecanoe.  He  was  appointed 
a  brigadier-general  in  1812,  and  a  major-general  in  the 
regular  army  in  1813.  In  October  of  that  year  he  gained 
a  complete  victory  over  the  British  at  the  battle  of  the 
Thames.  He  represented  Cincinnati  in  Congress  in  1817 
and  1818,  and  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  in  1824.  President  Adams  sent  him  in  1828  as 
minister  to  the  republic  of  Colombia;  but  he  was  re- 
called by  General  Jackson  in  the  spring  of  1829.  He 
passed  many  subsequent  years  on  his  farm  at  North 
Bend,  on  the  Ohio  River.  In  1836  he  was  the  Whig 
candidate  for  the  Presidency  of  the  United  States,  and 
received  seventy-three  electoral  votes,  but  was  defeated 
by  Mr.  Van  Buren.  Having  been  again  nominated  by 
the  Whigs,  he  was  elected  in  1840  by  a  large  majority 
over  Van  Buren,  who  received  only  sixty  electoral  votes 
out  of  two  hundred  and  ninety-four,  which  was  the  whole 
number.  This  political  campaign  was  remarkable  for  its 
immense  mass-meetings,  processions,  and  novel  modes 
of  exciting  the  people.  He  entered  upon  the  office 
March  4,  and  died  April  4,  1841. 

See  M.  Dawson,  "Life  of  General  W.  H.  Harrison,"  1824; 
James  Hall,  "  Memoir  of  the  Public  Services  of  W.  H.  Harrison," 
1S36;  S.  J.  Burr,  "Life  and  Times  of  W.  H.  Harrison,"  1840; 
"  Life  of  William  Henry  Harrison,"  by  Isaac  R.  Jacicson  ;  "Na- 
tional Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iii. 

Har'row-by,  (Dudley  Ryder,)  Earl  of,  an  Eng- 
lish peer  and  philanthropist,  born  about  1798.  He 
inherited  the  earldom  at  the  death  of  his  father  in  1847, 
and  was  lord  privy  seal  in  1856  and  1857. 

Har'ry,  Blind,  or  Henry  the  Minstrel,  a  Scot- 
tish bard  of  the  fifteenth  century,  who  was  blind  from 
his  birth,  and  wrote  a  heroic  poem  on  the  "Adventures 
of  Sir  William  Wallace."  But  little  is  known  of  the 
events  of  his  life.  It  appears  that  he  made  a  poetical 
version  of  the  popular  traditions  in  relation  to  his  hero, 
in  which  he  followed  in  a  humble  degree  the  example 
of  Homer.  Some  of  his  statements  are  confirmed  by 
recent  researches  into  the  monuments  and  records  of 
history.  "The  work,  therefore,"  says  Tytler,  "cannot 
be  treated  as  an  entire  romance." 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Harsdorfer  or  Harsdoerfer,  haRsMoRTer,  (Georg 
Philipp,)  a  German  poet,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1607, 
wrote  in  German  and  Latin.  Among  his  works,  which 
are  nearly  forgotten,  are  "The  Poetical  Filter,"  ("  Poe- 
tischer  Trichter,"  3  vols.,  1653,)  and  "  Gesprachspiele." 
Died  in  1658. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  A.  G 
WiDMANN,  "  Vitae  Curriculum  G.  P.  Harsdorferi,"  1707. 

Hars'net,  (Samuel,)  born  at  Colchester,  England, 
in  1561,  became  Bishop  of  Chichester  in  1609,  and 
Archbishop  of  York  in  1628.  He  published  a  volume 
of  Sermons,  and  a  "Declaration  of  Popish  Impostures," 
etc.    Died  in  1631. 

Hart,  (George  Vaughan,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
1752  ;  died  in  1832. 

Hart,  (James  M.,)  a  landscape-painter,  born  at  Kil- 
marnock, in  Scotland,  in  1828.  He  studied  at  Dussel- 
dorf,  and  afterwards  settled  in  New  York.  His  "Woods 
in  Autumn,"  and  "  Moonrise  in  the  Adirondacks,"  are 
among  his  master-pieces.  His  brother  William,  also 
a  landscape-painter,  born  at  Paisley  about  1820,  removed 
to  the  United  States  in  183 1.  Among  his  best  works  are 
"Peace  and  Plenty,"  a  harvest  scene,  and  "October's 
Golden  Hours." 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Hart,  (Joel  T.,)  an  American  sculptor,  born  in  Clark 
county,  Kentucky,  in  1810.  He  was  a  mason  or  stone- 
cutter in  his  youth.  In  1849  visited  Italy,  where  he 
executed  a  marble  statue  of  Henry  Clay.  Among  his 
other  works  is  "Angelina." 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Hart,  (John,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  the  son  of  Edward  Hart,  of  Hope- 
well, New  Jersey.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1774 
by  the  people  of  New  Jersey.    Died  in  1780. 

Hart,  (Solomon,)  an  eminent  English  historical 
painter,  born  at  Plymouth  in  1806.  He  produced  in 
1830  "The  Elevation  of  the  Law,"  (in  the  Jewish  wor- 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  v., guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

72 


HARTE 


HARTSHORNE 


ship,)  and  was  elected  Royal  Academician  in  1840.  He 
afterwards  exhibited  several  pictures  annually  at  the 
Academy,  and  treated  a  great  variety  of  subjects  with 
success.  Among  his  works  are  "Richard  and  Saladin," 
(1835,)  "The  Interior  of  a  Synagogue,"  "Milton  visit- 
ing Galileo  in  Prison,"  (1847,)  ^^^'^  "The  Student  pre- 
paring for  Honours,"  (at  Oxford,)  (1852.) 

Harte,  hart,  (Walter,)  an  English  poet  and  priest, 
born  about  1700,  was  educated  at  Oxford,  took  orders, 
and  became  canon  of  Windsor  in  1751.  He  wrote  a 
poem  named  an  "  Essay  on  Reason,"  in  imitation  of  Pope, 
who  assisted  him  in  its  composition.  He  wrote  also  an 
"Essay  on  Painting,"  (in  verse,)  and  "The  History  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus,"  (1759.)  Dr.  Johnson  commended 
him  as  a  scholar  and  a  man  of  the  most  companionable 
talents,  and  said,  "The  defects  of  his  History  [i.e.  in  re- 
spect to  the  style]  proceeded  not  from  imbecility,  but 
from  foppery."  (Boswell.)  His  poems  were  once  much 
admired.  His  History  of  Gustavus  is  prized  in  respect 
to  the  matter.    Died  in  1774. 

See  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Hartenkeil,  haR'ten-kiK,  (Johann  Jakor,)  a  German 
medical  writer,  born  at  Mentz  in  1761,  settled  at  Salz- 
burg. He  published  "The  Medico-Surgical  Gazette," 
(72  vols.,  1 790-1808.)    Died  in  1808. 

Hartenstein,  haR'ten-stln',  (Gustav,  )  a  German 
philosopher,  born  at  Plauen,  Saxony,  in  1808.  He  wrote 
"The  Problems  and  Principles  of  General  Metaphysics," 
(1836,)  and  other  treatises,  and  published  an  edition  of 
the  "Complete  Works  of  Kant,"  (10  vols.,  1839.) 

Harthacanute.    See  Hardicanute. 

Hartig,  haR^tic,  (Franz  Anton,)  Count,  a  littera- 
teiir,  born  at  Prague  in  1758,  wrote,  in  French,  "Letters 
on  France,  England,  and  Italy,"  (1785,)  and  "Melanges 
of  Verse  and  Prose,"  (1788.)  '  Died  in  1797. 

Hartig,  haR'tio,  (Georg  Ludwig,)  a  German  writer 
on  the  culture  of  forests,  born  near  Marburg  in  1764. 
He  was  appointed  grand  master  of  the  forests  of  Prussia 
in  181 1,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "The 
Science  or  Economy  of  Forests  in  all  its  Extent,"  ("Die 
Forstwissenschaft  nach  ihrem  ganzen  Umfange,"  1831,) 
and  a  "  Manual  or  Text-Book  for  Foresters,"  ("  Lehrbuch 
fiir  Forster,"  (3  vols.,  9th  edition,  1851.)  Died  in  1836. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Hartig,  (Theodor,)  a  German  botanist  and  writer  on 
the  culture  of  forests,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
published  a  "Treatise  on  Botany  and  its  Application  to 
the  Science  of  Forests,"  (1840-51,)  and  other  works. 

Har'ting-ton,(  Spencer  Compton  Cavendish,)Mar- 
QUIS  OF,  an  English  minister  of  state,  and  the  eldest  son 
of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  was  born  in  1833.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1854,  was  elected 
to  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  in  1857,  and  became  under- 
secretary of  war  in  April,  1863.  He  was  secretary  of 
war  from  February  to  July,  1866,  and  was  appointed 
postmaster-general  by  Mr.  Gladstone  in  December,  1868. 

Hartleben,  haRt'Ia-ben,  (Franz  Joseph,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1740  ;  died  in  1808. 

Hartleben,  (Theodor  Konrad,)  a  German  jurist,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1770.  From  1816  to 
1827  he  published  a  valuable  legal  review,  "Deutsche 
Justiz-  und  Polizeifama."  Among  his  works  is  a  "Me- 
thod or  System  of  German  Public  Law,"  (1800.)  Died 
in  1827. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hart'ley,  (David,)  an  eminent  English  physician  and 
philosopher,  born  at  Armley,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1705,  was 
educated  at  Cambridge  University.  He  practised  medi- 
cine at  Newark,  London,  and  Bath.  His  reputation  as 
an  author  is  founded  on  an  excellent  metaphysical  work, 
entitled  "  Observations  on  Man  :  his  Frame,  his  Duty, 
and  his  Expectations,"  (1748.)  The  design  of  this  work 
is  to  investigate  the  principles  of  association  in  applica- 
tion to  the  phenomena  of  mind.  "  Hartley,"  says  Dr. 
Parr,  "has  explained  the  principle  of  association  more 
accurately  and  applied  it  more  usefully  than  even  his 
great  predecessor  Locke."  Dr.  Priestley  said  "he  had 
learned  more  from  Hartley  than  from  any  book  he  had 
ever  read,  except  the  Bible,"    Died  in  1757. 

See  "  Life  of  D.  Hartley,"  by  his  son. 


Hartley,  (David,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
England  about  1730,  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  repre- 
sented Hull  in  Parliament  for  many  years,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  opposition  to  the  American  war 
and  to  the  slave-trade.  About  1782  he  was  appointed 
plenipotentiary  to  negotiate  with  Dr.  Franklin,  at  Paris, 
a  treaty  of  peace  between  England  and  the  United  States. 
He  wrote  "  Letters  on  the  American  War."  Died  in  1813. 

Hartlib,  haRt'lip,  (Samuel,)  a  native  of  Poland,  came 
to  England  about  1640.  He  was  interested  in  the  prac- 
tical application  of  science,  was  noted  for  public  spirit, 
and  published  a  treatise  on  agriculture,  for  which  Crom- 
well granted  him  a  pension.  Xbout  the  year  1646  Milton 
addressed  a  "Treatise  on  Education"  to  Hartlib,  who 
had  recently  founded  an  academy  on  a  new  system. 

See  Chalmers's  "Biographical  Dictionary," 

Hartman,  haRt'mdn,  (Georg,)  a  German  mathema- 
tician of  Nuremberg,  born  in  1489,  invented  the  bom- 
barding staff.    Died  in  1564. 

Hartmann,  haRt^m^n,  (Anton  Theodor,)  a  German 
Orientalist,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1774.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  theology  at  Rostock  in  1811.  He 
was  author  of  several  works  on  the  antiquities  and  lite- 
rature of  the  Hebrews,  among  which  is  "  Historical  and 
Critical  Researches  on  the  Formation,  Epoch,  and  Plan 
of  the  Five  Books  of  Moses,"  (1831.)    Died  in  1838, 

Hartmann,  haRt'm^n,  (Carl  Johan,)  a  Swedish 
naturalist  and  physician,  born  at  Gefle  in  1790.  He 
published  a  "  Description  of  the  Plants  of  Sweden  and 
Norway,"  ("  Handbok  i  Skandinaviens  Flora,"  1830  ;  6th 
edition,  1854.)    Died  in  1849. 

Hartmann,  (Ferdinand,)  a  German  historical 
painter,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1770. 

Hartmann,  (Johann,)  a  German  chemist,  born  at 
Amberg,  in  Bavaria,  in  1568.  His  chief  work  is  "  Praxis 
Chymiatrica,"  ("  Chemico-Medical  Practice,"  1633,)  often 
reprinted.    Died  at  Cassel  in  1631. 

Hartmann,  (Johann  Adolf,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Miinster  in  1680,  published  a  Latin  "History  of 
Hesse,"  (3  vols.,  1741-46.)    Died  in  1744. 

Hartmann,  (Johann  Melchior,)  a  German  Orien- 
talist, born  at  Nordlingen  in  1764.  He  published  a  good 
"Geographical  and  Historical  Description  of  Egypt," 
(1799,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1827. 

Hartmann,  haRt'min,  (Johann  Peter  Emil,)  a 
Danish  composer,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1805,  fur- 
nished the  music  for  two  of  Andersen's  operas  and  for 
several  of  Oehlenschlager's  dramas. 

Hartmann,  (Moritz,)  a  popular  German  poet,  born 
at  Duschnik,  in  Bohemia,  in  1821.  He  produced  in 
1845  ^  volume  of  lyrical  poems,  called  the  "Cup  and 
Sword,"  ("  Kelch  und  Schwert,")  which  had  great  suc- 
cess. Having  been  prosecuted  for  his  liberal  political 
opinions,  he  took  refuge  in  Paris  in  1846.  In  1847  he 
published  "New  Poems,"  ("Neuere  Gedichte,")  and  in 
1848  was  a  prominent  democratic  member  of  the  Par- 
liament at  Frankfort.  He  fought  for  the  insurgents 
under  Bem,  in  or  near  Vienna,  in  1849,  after  which  he 
was  driven  into  exile  and  passed  some  years  in  Paris, 
Among  his  other  works  are  "The  Rhyming  Chronicle 
of  the  Clerk  Mauritius,"  a  witty  political  satire,  (1849,) 
"The  War  about  the  Forest,"  ("Der  Krieg  urn  den 
Wald,"  1850,)  and  "Shadows,"  ("Schatten,"  1851.) 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations  Lexikon." 

Hartmann,  (Philipp  Jakob,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Stralsund  in  1648,  published  able  treatises  on 
amber,  anatomy,  and  physiology.    Died  in  1707. 

Hartmann  von  Aue,  haRt'mJn  fon  ow'eh,  a  cele- 
brated German  minnesinger,  born  about  1170.  Editions 
of  his  principal  works  have  been  published  by  Miiller, 
Lachmann,  and  others. 

See  Gervinus,  "Deutsche  National-Literatur." 

Harts'horne,  (Rev.  Charles  Henry,)  an  English 
antiquary,  born  about  1802,  became  rector  of  Holdenby, 
in  Northamptonshire.  He  published  "The  Book  Rari- 
ties in  the  University  of  Cambridge,"  (1829,)  "Salopia 
Antiqua,"  (1841,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1865. 

Harts'horne,  (Joseph,)  M.D.,  an  eminent  physician 
of  Philadelphia,  was  born  at  Alexandria,  Virginia,  De- 
cember 12,  1779.   His  father  was  a  native  of  New  Jersey, 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  n,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon y 


HJRTSOEKER 


1139 


HARVEY 


his  mother  of  Philadelphia.  When  only  five  years  old, 
he  was,  while  under  the  influence  of  calomel,  exposed 
to  cold,  which  resulted  in  incurable  lameness.  His 
inability  to  engage  in  the  sports  of  boyhood  led  him  at 
ark  early  age  to  seek  the  companionship  of  books,  and 
to  cultivate  his  mind,  which  was  endowed  with  powers 
of  no  common  order.  While  attending  lectures  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  he  performed  the  duties  of 
apothecary  and  resident  surgeon  in  the  Pennsylvania 
Hospital,  where  he  enjoyed  the  rare  advantage  of  the 
practical  instructions  of  Rush,  Wistar,  and  Physick, 
who  were  at  the  same  time  physicians  and  surgeons 
at  the  hospital  and  lecturers  in  the  university.  A  little 
before  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  five  years  at  the 
hospital,  he  accepted  the  position  of  surgeon  and  super- 
cargo on  an  East  India  merchantman.  In  the  two  trips 
to  India  which  he  made  in  this  capacity,  he  acquired 
a  practical  acquaintance  with  many  of  the  diseases  of 
tropical  climates.  On  his  return  from  the  East  he  de- 
voted himself  assiduously  and  faithfully  to  the  duties  of 
his  profession,  in  which  he  gradually  rose  to  the  very 
highest  rank.  Among  the  many  distinguished  physicians 
and  surgeons  that  Philadelphia  has  produced,  in  sagacity 
and  sound  judgment,  as  well  as  in  a  thorough  acquaint- 
ance with  all  the  resources  of  his  art,  he  has  had  few 
equals,  and  probably  no  superior.  During  the  latter 
period  of  his  life  he  was  very  extensively  employed  as  a 
consulting  physician.  He  died  the  20th  of  August,  1850. 
Dr.  Hartshorne  was  a  firm  and  devout  believer  in  the 
great  truths  of  Christianity,  and  his  moral  and  religious 
convictions  went  hand  in  hand.  One  who  knew  hitn  well 
said  of  him,  "He  was  the  most  scrupulously  truthful 
man  I  ever  knew.  On  whatever  subject  he  spoke,  it 
never  occurred  to  his  auditor  that  an  idea  or  word  could 
be  at  variance  with  his  real  opinion  or  inconsistent  with 
the  fact  as  he  understood  it."— Of  his  sons,  Dr.  Edward 
Hartshorne  has  attained  a  high  and  just  reputation 
both  as  physician  and  surgeon,  and  has  written  ably 
on  medical  jurisprudence,  surgery,  and  other  subjects. 
Henry,  another  son,  formerly  a  successful  practitioner 
and  medical  writer,  is  now  professor  of  hygiene  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  of  organic  science  and 
philosophy  at  Haverford  College. 

See  SI).  Gross,  "  American  Medical  Biography  ;"  "  Biographical 
Notice  of  IJr.  Joseph  Hartshorne,"  by  Dr.  Chakles  Evans,  1851  ; 
'  l.i.'esot  Eminent  Philadelphians,"  1859. 

Hartsoeker,  haRt'soo''ker,  (Niklaas,)  a  Dutch  natu- 
ral philosopher  and  optician,  born  at  Gouda  in  March, 
1656.  In  his  childhood  he  was  interested  in  astronomy, 
which  he  studied  furtively  at  night  in  his  own  apartment. 
Having  observed  the  spherical  form  produced  accident- 
ally by  fusing  a  glass  filament  in  a  flame,  he  obtained  in 
this  way  a  powerful  microscope,  and  discovered  animal- 
cules in  animal  fluids.  While  a  student  at  Leyden,  about 
1676,  he  was  encouraged  in  his  favourite  inquiries  by 
Huyghens,  who  introduced  him  to  Cassini  in  Paris. 
There  he  constructed  a  telescope  equal  or  superior  to 
any  then  in  use.  In  1694  he  published  in  Paris  his 
"Essay  on  Dioptrics,"  ("Essai  de  Dioptrique,")  which 
contains,  besides  the  principles  of  that  science,  novel 
and  ingenious  theories  on  the  properties  of  bodies. 
He  developed  his  system  more  fully  in  "  Principles  of 
Physics,"  ("  Principes  de  Physique,"  1696.)  He  lived 
in  Holland  from  1696  to  1 704.  About  1700  he  taught 
mathematics  to  Peter  the  Great,  who  invited  him  to 
Russia;  but  he  did  not  accept  the  invitation.  In  1704 
he  was  chosen  professor  of  mathematics  and  philosophy 
in  Dusseldorf.  Prompted  by  a  love  of  controversy,  he 
published  in  1722  an  attack  on  the  system  of  Newton 
and  another  on  the  theories  of  Leibnitz.    Died  in  1725. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  £loge  de  Hartsoeker;"  Niceron,  "  Me- 
moires." 

Hart'stene,  (Henry  J.,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  South  Carolina,  was  sent  by  the  United  States 
government  in  1855  to  the  Arctic  regions  in  search  of 
Dr.  E.  K.  Kane  and  his  party,  whom  he  rescued.  (See 
Kane.)    Died  in  1868. 

Hart'suff,  (George  L.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  the  State  of  New  York  about  1830,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1852.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in 
the  spring  of  1862,  and  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of 


Antietam,  September  17  of  that  year.  This  wound  dis- 
abled him  for  active  service. 

Hartzenbusch,  haRts'en-boosh'',  (Juan  Eugenic,) 
a  Spanish  dramatic  poet,  of  German  extraction,  born  in 
Madrid  in  1806.  In  1836  he  produced  "The  Lovers  of 
Teruel,"  a  successful  drama.  Among  his  works,  which 
are  admired  for  a  vivid  imagination  and  an  energetic 
style,  are  "  The  Visionary,"  a  comedy,  (1840,)  "  Honoria," 
(1842,)  and  "  Primero  Yo,"  a  drama,  (1842.) 

Hartzheim,  haRts'him,  (Joseph,)  a  learned  German 
Jesuit  and  historian,  born  at  Cologne  in  1694,  was  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  and  theology  in  his  native  city.  He 
wrote  a  valuable  collection  entitled  "  Ribliotheca  Colo- 
niensis,"  (1747,)  containing  notices  of  the  lives  and 
writings  of  authors  who  lived  in  the  diocese  of  Cologne, 
and  edited  five  volumes  of  the  "Councils  of  Geimany," 
("  Concilia  Germanias,"  1759-63.)    Died  in  1763. 

See  Meusel,  "  Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 

Hartzoeker,  haRt'soo'ker,  (Thf.odorus,)  a  skilful 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1696  ;  died  in  1740. 
Harun-al-Raschid,  (or  -ar-Rashid.)  See  Haroun- 

al-Raschid. 

Har'vard,  (John,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
born  in  1608,  graduated  at  Cambridge  University  in  1631. 
After  having  been  ordained,  he  emigrated  to  Massachu- 
setts, and  officiated  a  short  time  at  Charlestovvn.  At 
his  death  he  left  a  legacy  of  ;^779  to  endow  a  school  at 
Cambridge,  and  thus  became  memorable  as  the  founder 
of  the  university  which  bears  his  name.  Died  in  1638. 
One  hundred  and  ninety  years  after  his  death,  a  granite 
monument  was  erected  over  his  grave  in  Charlestown. 

Har'vey,  (Sir  Eliab,)  an  English  admiral,  a  descend- 
ant of  the  celebrated  Dr.  William  Harvey,  born  in  1759, 
entered  the  navy  in  1771.  During  the  French  Revo- 
lution he  served  as  ca])tain  in  the  West  Indies  and  in 
the  Channel  fleet.  In  1805  he  distinguished  himself  at 
Trafalgar,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral 
the  same  year.  He  became  vice-admiral  in  1810,  and 
full  admiral  in  1819.  In  1825  he  was  made  a  G.C.B. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1780,  and  again  in  1806. 
Died  in  1830,  aged  about  seventy. 

Harvey,  (Gabriel,)  LL.D.,  an  English  lawyer  and 
poet,  born  about  1545,  was  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  and  practised  law  in  London.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  the  poet  Spenser,  and  author  of  an 
admired  poem  entitled  "  Hobbinol,"  prefixed  to  the 
"Fairy  Queen."  He  published  several  letters  and  ora- 
tions in  English  and  Latin.    Died  about  1630. 

Har'vey,  (George,)  a  popular  Scottish  painter,  born 
near  Stirling  in  1806.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Scottish  Academy  about  1828,  and  devoted  his  talents 
to  the  illustration  of  the  national  character,  scenery, 
and  history  of  Scotland.  Among  his  works  are  "Cove- 
nanters Preaching,"  (1830,)  "The  Battle  of  Drumclog," 
(1836,)  "A  Highland  Funeral,"  (1844,)  "Glen  Enter- 
kin,"  (1846,)  "The  Past  and  Present,"  (1848,)  and  "The 
Bowlers,"  (1850.)  He  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
original  and  earnest  masters  of  the  Scottish  school. 

Harvey,  (Gideon,)  an  English  physician  and  writer, 
born  in  Surrey,  was  the  medical  attendant  of  Charles  II. 
in  his  exile,  and  was  subsequently  physician  to  William 
III.,  and  to  the  Tower  of  London.    Died  in  1700. 

Harvey,  (William,)  an  English  anatomist,  celebrated 
for  his  discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  was 
born  at  Folkestone,  Kent,  in  April,  1578.  He  entered 
Caius  College,  Cambridge,  in  1593,  and  graduated  in 
1597,  after  which  he  studied  medicine  and  anatomy 
under  Fabricius  ab  Acquapendente  at  Padua.  He  re- 
turned home  about  1602,  married  a  lady  named  Browne, 
and  commenced  the  practice  of  medicine  in  London. 
In  1609  he  was  appointed  physician  to  Saint  Bartholo- 
mew's Hospital.  He  was  chosen  by  the  College  of 
Physicians  in  1615  to  deliver  lectures  on  anatomy  and 
surgery,  and  soon  after  that  date  made  the  important 
discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  which  he 
taught  in  London  in  1619,  but  which  was  not  published 
until  1628.  In  this  year  he  produced  "Essays  on  the 
Motion  of  the  Heart  and  the  Blood,"  ("Exercitationes 
de  Motu  Cordis  et  Sanguinis.")  His  new  theory  was 
generally  rejected  by  the  physicians  of  his  time,  and  was 
so  unpopular  that  he  complained  that  his  practice  de- 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Si^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HARVEY 


40 


HASENCLEVER 


clined  after  the  publication  of  the  treatise  above  men- 
tioned, Parisanus,  Kiolanus,  and  others  wrote  against 
Dr.  Harvey  on  this  subject ;  hwi,  after  the  truth  of  his 
doctrine  was  generally  recognized,  attempts  were  made 
to  deprive  him  of  the  honour  of  the  discovery.  He  be- 
came physician  to  Charles  I.  about  1630,  and  attended 
him  during  the  civil  war  which  began  about  1642.  This 
service  caused  him  to  neglect  his  duties  at  Saint  Bar- 
tholomew's Hospital,  In  the  latter  part  of  the  civil  war 
a  ])arty  of  soldiers  plundered  his  house  and  burned 
some  valuable  manuscripts.  He  gave  much  attention 
to  the  subject  of  generation,  and  published  a  work  "  De 
Generatione  Animalium,"  (1651,)  in  which  he  maintained 
that  every  animal  is  produced  from  an  egg.  He  was 
elected  president  of  the  College  of  Physicians  in  1654; 
but  he  declined,  on  account  of  his  advanced  age.  He 
died  in  June,  1657.  An  edition  of  his  Works  was  pub- 
lished by  the  College  of  Physicians,  in  2  vols.,  1666. 

"Harvey  is  entitled,"  says  Hume,  "to  the  glory  of 
having  made,  by  reasoning  alone,  without  any  mixture 
of  accident,  a  capital  discovery  in  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant branches  of  science.  He  had  also  the  happiness 
of  establishing  at  once  this  theory  on  the  most  solid  and 
convincing  proofs."  ("History  of  England,"  chap.  Ixii.) 
"  It  is  manifest,"  says  Hallam,  "  that  several  anato- 
mists of  the  sixteenth  century  were  on  the  verge  of  com- 
pletely detecting  the  law  by  which  the  motion  of  the 
blood  is  governed.  ...  It  may,  indeed,  be  thought  won- 
derful that  Servetus,  Columbus,  or  Caesalpin  should  not 
have  more  distinctly  apprehended  the  consequences  of 
what  they  maintained;  .  .  .  but  the  defectiveness  of 
their  views  is  not  to  be  alleged  as  a  counter-balance  to 
the  more  steady  sagacity  of  Harvey."  ("Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  Europe,"  vol.  ii.) 

See  Dr.  Lawkence,  "Life  of  William  Harvey,"  prefixed  to  the 
edition  of  his  Works  above  mentioned,  1666;  "Lives  of  British 
Physicians,"  London,  1857. 

Harvey,  (William,)  an  English  artist,  born  at  New- 
castle-on-Tyne  about  1796,  was  a  pupil  of  the  famous 
engraver  Bewick,  He  settled  in  London  at  an  early  age, 
and  became  distinguished  as  a  designer  for  engravings 
on  wood.  His  skill  was  displayed  in  the  illustration  of 
various  works,  among  which  are  "The  Zoological  Gar- 
dens," "The  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  and  "The  Arabian 
Nights'  Entertainments," 

ikarvey,  (William  Henry,)  professor  of  botany 
in  the  University  of  Dublin,  was  born  at  Limerick  in 
181  L  He  published  a  "  History  of  British  Sea-Weeds," 
(3  vols,,  1846-51,)  a  work  of  high  character,  "Nereis 
Australis  ;  or.  Illustrations  of  the  Algae  of  the  Southern 
Ocean,"  (1848,)  "The  Sea-Side  Book,"  (3d  edition, 
1854,)  and  "Flora  Capensis,"  (3  vols,,  1865.)  He  ex- 
plored the  coasts  of  Australia  and  the  South  Sea 
islands  in  1853-55,  and  obtained  the  chair  of  botany  in 
Dublin  in  1856,    Died  in  May,  1866. 

See  Asa  Gray,  "Notice  of  W.  H.  Harvey,"  in  "Silliman's  Jour- 
nal," republished  in  the  "Report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution" 
for  1867. 

Har'wood,  (SirBusic,)  an  English  anatomist,  born 
at  Newmarket  about  1745,  He  became  professor  of 
anatomy  at  Cambridge  in  1785,  and  published  lectures 
on  that  science.    Died  in  1814, 

Harwood,  (Edward,)  an  English  Unitarian  minister, 
born  in  Lancashire  in  1729,  He  had  charge  of  a  con- 
gregation in  Bristol  from  1765  to  1770,  after  which  he 
lived  in  London.  He  excelled  as  a  classical  and  biblical 
scholar,  and  published  numerous  able  works,  of  which 
the  most  important  are  "  An  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  the  New  Testament,"  (1767,)  a  "View  of  the  Various 
Editions  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  Classics,"  (1775,)  "An 
Edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  with  English  Notes," 
(1776,)  and  "  Biographia  Classica,"  (new  edition,  2  vols., 
1778.)    Died  in  1794. 

Has'dru-bal  or  As'dru-bal,  [Gr.  'kadpovSaq,]  a  dis- 
tinguished Carthaginian  general  and  a  popular  leader 
of  the  democratic  party,  was  a  son-in-law  of  Hamilcar 
Barca,  with  whom  he  went  to  Spain  in  238  B.C.  After 
the  death  of  Hamilcar  Barca,  229  B.C.,  he  obtained  the 
chief  command  in  Spain.  He  founded  the  city  of  New 
Carthage,  (Carthagena,)  which  became  one  of  the  rich- 
est in  the  world,  and  greatly  extended  the  power  of 


Carthage  in  Spain,  partly  by  his  victories  in  battle  and 
partly  by  his  political  talents.  He  made  a  treaty  with  the 
Romans,  stipulating  that  the  river  Ebro  should  be  the 
boundary  between  the  two  nations.  He  was  assassin- 
ated by  a  slave  in  Spain  in  221  B.C. 

Hasdrubal  or  Asdrubal,  a  son  of  Gisco,  was  a  gen- 
eral of  the  second  Punic  war.  He  entered  Spain  with  an 
army  in  214  B.C.,  and  shared  with  Mago  the  chief  com- 
mand in  that  country  after  the  other  Hasdrubal  marched 
to  Italy,  207  B.C.  They  were  defeated  in  a  decisive  battle 
at  Silpia  or  Elinga,  by  Scipio,  in  206.  In  204  he  was 
general-in-chief  of  a  large  army  raised  to  oppose  Scipio, 
who  had  invaded  Africa.  His  camp  near  Utica  was 
fired  by  the  Romans,  and  nearly  all  his  army,  it  is  said, 
perished  in  the  flames  or  by  the  sword. 

Hasdrubal  or  Asdrubal,  an  able  Carthaginian  gen- 
eral, and  brother  of  the  great  Hannibal,  commanded  in 
Spain  in  the  second  Punic  war,  in  218  B.C.,  while  Hanni- 
bal crossed  the  Alps  and  invaded  Italy,  He  maintained 
the  war  against  the  Romans  under  Publius  and  Cneius 
Scipio  with  various  success  until  212,  when  he  gained  a 
complete  victory,  in  which  both  the  Scipios  were  killed. 
Five  years  later,  he  marched  across  the  Alps  to  rein- 
force his  brother  in  Italy  ;  but  before  he  could  effect 
this  design  he  was  attacked  by  the  Romans  at  the  river 
Metaurus,  defeated,  and  killed,  in  207  B.c,  His  head  was 
cut  off  and  thrown  into  the  camp  of  Hannibal,  The 
Roman  writers  represent  him  as  a  very  able  commander. 

Hasdrubal  or  Asdrubal,  a  Carthaginian  officer,  who 
served  under  Hannibal  in  Italy.  He  contributed  greatly 
to  the  victory  of  Cannae,  (216  B.C.,)  where  he  commanded 
the  left  wing  and  completed  the  rout  of  the  enemy  by  a 
cavalry  charge  on  their  rear, 

Hasdrubal  or  Asdrubal,  an  able  Carthaginian  gen- 
eral, who  had  the  chief  command  in  the  third  Punic  war. 
He  defeated  the  consul  Manilius  at  Nepheris  about  148 
B,c,,  and  obstinately  defended  Carthage  against  the  be- 
sieging army  of  Scipio  Africanus  in  146  B,C.,  and  assumed 
despotic  power  in  that  city.  He  finally  surrendered  to 
Scipio,  who  spared  his  life,  the  remainder  of  which  he 
passed  in  captivity. 

Hase,  hi'zeh,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  antiquary,  born 
at  Altenburg  in  1789,  published  a  "Treatise  on  Greek 
Antiquities,"  (1828,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1842. 

Hase,  (Karl  August,)  an  eminent  German  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Steinbach,  Saxony,  in  1800,  He  became 
professor  of  theology  at  Jena  about  1830,  He  endea- 
voured to  reconcile  the  Lutheran  faith  with  the  progress 
of  modern  science,  in  his  "Evangelical  Dogmatics," 
(1823,)  and  his  work  called  "  (inosis,"  (3  vols.,  1828,) 
He  wrote  other  able  works,  among  which  is  a  "  History 
of  the  Church,"  (Kirchengeschichte,"  1834;  6th  edi- 
tion, 1848,)  which,  by  avoiding  all  sectarian  partiality, 
has  obtained  general  favour, 

Hase,  (Karl  Benedict,)  an  eminent  Hellenist,  born 
near  Naumburg,  in  Prussian  Saxony,  in  1780.  He  be- 
came professor  of  Greek  palaeography  and  modern  Greek 
in  Paris  in  1 816.  He  was  admitted  i)ito  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions  about  1824,  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  an  edition  of  Leo  Diaconus,  (1819.) 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Hase,  von,  fon  hi'zeh,  (Theodor,)  a  German  Lu- 
theran divine,  born  at  Bremen  in  1682.  He  wrote 
"Critical  Dissertations,"    Died  in  1731. 

Hasenclever,  hS^zen-kl^'ver,  (Johann  Peter,)  an 
excellent  German  painter  of  genre,  born  at  Remscheid, 
Prussia,  in  1810,  was  a  pupil  of  Schadow,  of  Dusseldorf. 
He  worked  at  the  latter  city,  and  gained  much  popu- 
larity by  his  humorous  productions,  among  which  are 
"The  Return  of  Job  from  College,"  and  other  pictures, 
the  subjects  of  which  are  derived  from  the  "  Jobsiad,"  a 
comic  poem.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts,  Berlin,    Died  in  1853, 

Hasenclever,  (Peter,)  a  German  merchant  and 
manufacturer,  distinguished  by  the  magnitude  of  his 
operations  and  his  influence  on  the  commerce  and  in- 
dustry of  two  continents,  was  born  at  Remscheid,  Prus- 
sia, in  1 716,  He  made  improvements  in  the  fabrication 
of  iron  and  of  woollen  stuits.  About  1763  he  formed  in 
London  a  company,  and  became  director  of  a  great  in- 
dustrial enterprise  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  where 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  bi,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, 


sAori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HASENMULLER 


1141 


HASTINGS 


they  worked  mines  of  iron  and  prepared  that  metal  for 
use.  He  settled  at  Land-shut,  in  Silesia,  in  1775,  where 
he  carried  on  an  extensive  linen-trade.    Died  in  1793. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hasenmiiller  or  Haseiimueller,  h3.'zen-muKler, 
(Daniel,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Eutin  (Hol- 
stein)  in  1651,  was  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Kiel,  and  published  a  Hebrew  Grammar  and  Dictionary, 
(1691.)    Died  in  1691. 

Haser  or  Haeser,  ha'zer,  (Heinrich,)  a  German 
physician  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Rome  in  181 1. 

Hasius.    See  Haas,  (Johann.) 

Has'lam,  (John,)  a  British  physician,  born  in  1764, 
published  in  1798  *'  Observations  on  Insanity."  He  after- 
wards practised  in  London,    Died  in  1844. 

Haslewood,  ha'z'l-wdod,  (Joseph,)  an  English  bibli- 
ographer, born  in  London  in  1769;  died  in  1833. 

Has'sall,  (Ar  i'Hur  Hill,)  a  British  physician,  micro- 
scopist,  and  naturalist,  a  nephew  of  Sir  James  Murray, 
was  born  in  Middlesex  in  1817.  He  wrote,  among  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  British  Fresh-Water  Algas,"  (1845,) 
and  "Food  and  its  Adulterations,"  (London,  1855.) 
The  latter,  digested  from  the  reports  of  a  sanitary  com- 
mission, produced  considerable  sensation, 

Hassan,  hSs'san,  a  caliph,  bom  in  625  a.d.,  was  a  son 
of  Alee,  and  grandson  of  Mohammed.  He  succeeded  his 
father  in  660  ;  but  a  few  months  later  he  resigned  the 
throne  to  his  rival  Moaweeyah.  He  had  a  high  reputation 
for  piety.    Died  in  669  A.D, 

See  Elmacin,  "  Historia  Saracenica;"  Weil,  "  Geschichte  der 
Chalifen." 

Hassan-Pasha,  (or  -Pacha.)    See  Gazee-Hassan. 

Hasse,  hSs'seh,  (F'rikdrich  Christian  August,) 
a  German  historical  writer,  born  at  Rehfeld,  near  Herz- 
berg,  in  1773,  He  became  professor  in  the  Cadettenhaus 
of  Dresden  in  1798,  and  obtained  a  chair  of  history  at 
Leipsic  in  1828.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Lombardy," 
(4  vols.,  1828,)  and  other  works,  and  was  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  "  Conversations-Lexikon"  published  by 
Brockhaus.    Died  in  1848. 

Hasse,  (Johann  Adolf,)  a  celebrated  German  com- 
poser, born  at  Bergedorf,  near  Hamburg,  in  March,  1699. 
He  was  called  by  the  Italians  IL  Sas.sone,  ("the  Saxon.") 
He  went  to  Italy  about  1724,  and  became  a  pupil  of  A. 
Scarlatti  at  Naples,  There  he  produced  in  1726  the 
opera  "  II  Sesostrate,"  by  which  he  gained  a  high  repu- 
tation. His  "  Miserere"  (1727)  is  called  a  master-piece 
of  sacred  music.  He  afterwards  lived  in  Venice,  Dresden, 
IvOndon,  and  Vienna,  and  composed  the  operas  of  "Ar- 
taserse,"  "  Arminio,"  (1745,)  etc.  Died  in  1783.  The 
words  of  his  operas  were  composed  by  Metastasio. 

See  BuRNEY,  "  History  of  Music;"  Kandlhr,  "Cenni  storico- 
critici  intonio  alia  Vita  ed  alle  Opere  di  G.  A.  Hasse,"  Venice,  1820; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Hasse,  (Karl  Ewald,)  a  physician,  and  a  son  of 
Friedrich  Christian  August,  noticed  above,  was  born  at 
Dresden  in  1810.  He  published  "A  Description  of  the 
Diseases  of  the  Organs  of  Circulation  and  Respiration," 
(1841,)  which  he  announced  as  the  first  volume  of  a  large 
work  on  pathological  anatomy.  He  was  chosen  pro- 
fessor of  pathology  at  Heidelberg  in  1852,  and  professor 
of  the  same  at  Gottingen  in  1856. 

Hassel,  his'sel,  (Johann  Gecjrg  Heinrich,)  a  Ger- 
man statistician,  born  at  Wolfenbiittel  in  1770,  He 
became  director  of  the  bureau  of  statistics  of  Westphalia 
in  1809,  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Text- 
Book  ( Lehrbuch )  of  the  Statistics  of  the  European 
States,"  (1812,)  a  "Complete  Manual  of  Modern  Geog- 
raphy and  Statistics,"  (1816-20,)  and  a  "General  Geo- 
gra])hical  Dictionary,"  (2  vols.,  1818.)  He  lived  mostly 
at  Weimar  after  1814,  and  was  one  of  the  editors  of 
Ersch  and  Gruber's  "Encyclopaedia,"    Died  in  1829. 

See  Brockhaus,  " Conversations- Lexikon." 

Hasselquist,  hSs'sel-kwist^  (Fredrik,)  a  Swedish 
naturalist,  born  at  Tornvalla  in  1722,  was  one  of  the 
most  eminent  pupils  of  Linnaeus,  under  whom  he  studied 
at  Upsal.  In  1747  he  wrote  an  able  thesis  on  the  "Vir- 
tues of  Plants,"  Having  heard  Linnaeus  express  a  wish 
that  some  naturalist  would  exjilore  Palestine,  in  order 
to  develop  its  natural  history,  then  but  little  known,  he 
prepared  himself  for  the  journey,  and  embarked  in  1749, 


He  explored  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Palestine,  and  was 
about  to  return,  with  a  rich  collection  of  plants,  minerals, 
fishes,  insects,  etc.,  when  he  died  at  Smyrna  in  1752. 
His  valuable  journal,  observations,  and  descriptions  were 
published  by  Linnasus  in  Swedish,  with  the  title  of  "  Iter 
Palaestinum  ;  or,  A  Tour  through  Palestine,  with  Memoirs 
and  Remarks  on  Objects  of  Natural  History,"  (2  vols,, 
1757,)  which  is  an  excellent  scientific  work. 

See  "  Biographiskt- Lexicon  ofver  namnUuniiige  Svenska  Man," 
23  vols.;  HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisclies  Handbuch,"  1797; 
A.  Baeck,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  F.  Hasselquist,"  1758. 

Hassencamp,  h^s'sen-kimp',  (Johann  Matthaus,) 
a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Marburg  in  1743,  pub- 
lished a  "Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,"  (1765,)  and 
"Annals  of  Theological  Literature,"  (1789-96,)  Died 
in  1797, 

Hassenfratz,  //S'sSN'fRits',  (Jean  Henri,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  in  Paris  in  1755.  He  was  director  or 
foreman  of  Lavoisier's  laboratory  about  1785,  and  was 
an  active  Jacobin  in  the  Revolution.  In  1797  he  became 
tutor  of  physics  in  the  ficole  Polytechnique.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Cours  de  Physique  celeste," 
(1803,)  and  "The  Art  of  Smelting  Iron-Ore,"  (4  vols,, 
1812.)    Died  in  1827. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Hassenpflug,  has'sen-pflooo^  (Hans  Daniel  Lud- 
WIG  Friedrich,)  a  German  politician,  born  at  Hanau 
in  1793,  Having  shown  •  himself  a  partisan  of  abso- 
lutism, he  was  appointed  minister  of  justice  and  the  in- 
terior at  the  court  of  Hesse-Cassel  in  1832,  He  became 
very  unpopular,  and  in  1837  went  into  exile.  In  1841 
he  obtained  a  seat  in  the  superior  court  ( Obertribimal) 
of  Berlin.  He  was  recalled  to  Cassel  in  1850  as  prime 
minister,  and  renewed  his  arbitrary  acts,  which  provoked 
a  popular  revolt  in  1855.  The  Elector  was  forced  to  fly 
from  his  capital,  and  his  minister  resigned.  Died  in 
October,  1862. 

See  Brockhaus.  " Conversations- Lexikon." 

Hassenstein,  his'sen-stln',  (Bogislaus,)  Baron  von 
Lobkowitz,  (lop-ko'^its'j)  a  Bohemian  poet  and  noble- 
man, was  a  liberal  patron  of  letters.  He  wrote  a  volume 
of  Latin  poems,  called  "Farrago  Poematum,"  (1570,) 
He  was  secretary  of  state  of  Hungary.    Died  in  15 10. 

See  Ignaz  Cornova,  "Der  grosse  Bohme  B,  von  Lobkowitz 
nach  seinen  eigenen  Schriften  geschildert,"  1808;  J.  C.  Coler, 
"Dissertatio  de  Vita  B.  Hassensteinii,"  1719. 

Hassler,  hSss'Ier,  (Ferdinand  R.,)  a  Swiss  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Geneva  in  1769,  He  was  ajjpointed 
superintendent  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  in 
1815  or  1816,  The  oj^eration  was  discontinued  about 
1818,  but  he  was  again  employed  in  that  service  from 
1832  until  his  death  in  1843, 

Has'ted,  (Edward,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at 
Hawley,  Kent,  in  1732,  He  published  a  valuable  "His- 
tory and  Tojjographical  Survey  of  the  County  of  Kent," 
(4  vols.,  1788-99.)    Died  in  1812. 

Has'ting  or  Has'tings,  a  daring  and  successful 
adventurer  or  sea-king,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Dane 
or  Norman  by  birth.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Bald 
he  ravaged  the  western  coast  of  France  with  his  pi- 
ratical crew.  He  ascended  the  Loire  in  867,  attacked 
Anjou  and  Poitou,  and  captured  Angers,  In  894,  with 
a  large  fleet  and  an  army  of  Northmen,  he  invaded  Eng- 
land, and,  after  many  fierce  conflicts,  he  was  defeated  by 
Alfred,  and  driven  out  of  the  island,  in  896  a,d. 

See  Dkpping,  "  Histoire  des  Expeditions  niaritimes  des  Nor- 
mands." 

Has'tings,  (Lady  Elizabeth,)  born  in  England  in 
1682,  was  the  daughter  of  Theophilus  Hastings,  Earl  of 
Huntingdon,  and  sister-in-law  of  the  well-known  Lady 
Huntingdon,  She  built  churches,  established  schools,  and 
was  eminent  for  pietv  and  benevolence.    Died  in  1 739. 

See  Thomas  Bernard,  "Life  of  Lady  E.  Hastings." 

Hastings,  (Lady  Flora,)  daughter  of  the  Marquis 
of  Hastings,  was  born  in  1806,  and  became  lady  of  the 
bed-chaml)er  to  the  Duchess  of  Kent.  She  was  an 
excellent  scholar,  and  author  of  a  number  of  graceful 
poetical  effusions,  among  which  are  "  The  Rainbow"  and 
"The  Cross  of  Constantine."    Died  in  1839, 

Hastings,  (Francis  Rawdon,)  Marquis  of  Hastings, 
the  eldest  son  of  the  Earl  of  Moira,  was  born  in  1754, 
He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  in  1775,  ^"^^ 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as o,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HASTINGS 


1 142 


HAUCH 


became  adjutant-general  in  1778.  In  1781  he  defeated 
the  Americans  at  Camden,  South  Carolina.  In  1783  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Ravvdon,  and  in  1793 
succeeded  his  fatlier  as  Earl  of  Moira.  He  fought  as 
major-general  against  the  French  in  Flanders  in  1794. 
On  the  formation  of  a  Whig  ministry  in  1806,  he  was 
named  master-general  of  the  ordnance.  From  1 81 3  to 
1823  he  held  the  office  of  Governor-General  of  India, 
and  maintained  war  against  the  Mahrattas  and  Goorkas. 
His  administration,  on  the  whole,  was  accounted  pros- 
perous, and  his  policy  liberal.  In  1816  he  was  created 
Viscount  Loudoun,  Earl  of  Rawdon,  and  Marquis  of 
Hastings.  In  1824  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Malta. 
Died  in  1826. 

Hastings,  (Hans  Francis.)  See  Huntingdon, 
Earl. 

Hastings,  (Selina.)    See  Huntingdon,  Countess 

OF. 

Hastings,  (Warren,)  the  first  Governor-General  of 
British  India,  was  born  in  Worcestershire  in  1732.  His 
fattier,  Pynaston,  was  the  son  of  the  rector  of  Daylesford, 
who  belonged  to  a  noble  and  once  wealthy  family.  War- 
ren was  educated  at  Westminster,  where  he  formed  an 
intimacy  with  the  poet  Covvper,  his  fellow-student.  In 
1750  he  obtained  a  clerkship  at  Calcutta  in  the  service 
of  the  East  India  ComjDany.  A  few  years  afterwards, 
he  was  selected  to  negotiate  with  the  native  princes,  be- 
cause, in  addition  to  his  other  qualifications,  he  was 
master  of  the  Persian  and  Hindostanee  languages,  which 
few  Englishmen  at  that  time  could  speak.  He  served  as 
a  member  of  the  Council  of  Bengal  from  1761  to  1764, 
after  which  he  returned  to  England,  having  realized  a 
moderate  fortune,  which  was  soon  dissipated  by  his 
liberality  or  imprudence. 

After  a  repose  of  four  years,  he  again  offered  his  ser- 
vices to  the  directors,  who  appointed  him  a  member  of 
the  Council  at  Madras,  where  he  managed  affairs  with 
such  ability  and  success  tliat  in  1772  he  was  made  presi- 
dent of  the  Council  of  Bengal.  In  1773,  by  an  act  of 
Parliament,  the  control  of  all  British  India  was  given  to 
the  Council  of  Bengal,  consisting  of  four  members  besides 
the  president,  who  now  obtained  the  title  of  governor- 
general  and  a  large  accession  of  power,  except  in  the 
contingency  that  a  majority  of  the  council  should  op- 
pose his  measures, — which  presently  occurred.  Sir  Philip 
Francis,  combining  with  two  other  members,  obtained  for 
about  two  years  the  chief  control,  and  thwarted  the  policy 
of  the  governor.  When  the  account  of  Hastings's  cruelty 
and  ambition  in  respect  to  the  Rohilla  war,  etc.  reached 
England,  the  directors  condemned  his  conduct ;  and,  as 
his  agent  in  London  had  presented  to  them  a  conditional 
resignation  received  from  Hastings,  they  gladly  accepted 
it,  and  appointed  Mr.  Wheler  to  succeed  him.  But  in 
the  mean  time  one  of  his  opponents  in  the  council  had 
died,  and  the  governor,  having  the  casting  vote,  was 
again  absolute.  He  asserted  that  he  had  not  resigned  ; 
and,  with  the  sanction  of  the  supreme  court,  (who  pro- 
nounced his  resignation  invalid,)  and  with  the  popular 
feeling  in  his  favour,  he  was  able  to  keep  the  office. 

In  1780,  Hastings  having  said  in  the  council  that  the 
conduct  of  Francis  was  void  of  truth  and  honour,  the 
latter  challenged  him,  and  in  the  exchange  of  shots  was 
severely  wounded.  Soon  after  this,  the  governor  had 
to  contend  against  Hyder  Ah,  the  King  of  Mysore,  who 
invaded  the  Carnatic  with  90,000  men,  (led  by  French 
officers,)  defeated  several  detachments  of  English,  cap- 
tured their  forts,  and  threatened  to  subvert  their  em])ire. 
By  the  prompt,  energetic,  and  politic  measures  of  Has- 
tings the  government  passed  safely  through  this  crisis, 
and  the  ambitious  designs  of  Hyder  AU  were  blasted  by 
the  British  victory  at  Porto  Novo. 

To  supply  the  deficit  in  the  treasury  occasioned  by 
this  war,  he  resorted  to  those  violent  and  unscrupulous 
measures  which  provoked  his  impeachment  and  have  left 
a  stain  on  his  character  that  even  his  great  talents  and 
services  cannot  efface.  He  resolved  to  plunder  Cheyte 
Sing,  the  rich  Rajah  of  Benares.  By  repeated  extortions 
he  provoked  him  to  resist,  and  then  j^unished  that  re- 
sistance by  expelling  him  from  his  dominions  and  con- 
fiscating his  revenue.  The  spoliation  of  the  Begums  of 
Oude,  under  circumstances  of  peculiar  atrocity,  was  an- 


other crime  laid  to  his  charge.  In  1785  he  resigned  his 
office  and  returned  to  England.  After  two  sessions  had 
been  spent  in  preparation  for  his  impeachment,  the  case 
was  formally  opened  in  1788,  by  Burke,  Fox,  and  others, 
and  terminated  in  his  acquittal  in  1795.  For  a  full  ac- 
count of  his  trial,  see  Macaulay's  "  Essay  on  Warren 
Hastings."  The  company  rewarded  Hastings  with  an 
annuity  of  ^4000,  and  lent  him  50,000  without  interest 
for  eighteen  years.  He  purchased  the  manor  of  Dayles- 
ford, the  h(Miie  of  his  ancestors,  and  retired  from  public 
life.  A  few  years  before  his  death  he  was  admitted  into 
the  privy  council,  and  stood  high  in  the  royal  favour. 
Died  in  1818. 

See  Macaulav,  "Essays;"  Gleig,  "  Life  of  Warren  Hastings," 
3  vols.,  1841  ;  James  Mill,  "  History  of  British  India;"  Wilhelm 
Haeking,  "  W.  Hastings;  Vortrag,"  etc.,  Berlin,  1844. 

Haszkarl,  hSs^kaKl,  (Justus  Karl,)  a  German  bota- 
nist, born  at  Cassel  in  1811,  made  in  1836  a  voyage  to 
Java,  which  he  explored  for  six  years.  He  published  a 
treatise  "On  the  Utility  of  the  Plants  of  Java,"  (1844,) 
and  (in  Latin)  "The  Rare  Plants  of  Java,"  (1847.) 

Hatch,  (John  P.,)  an  American  general,  born  in  the 
State  of  New  York,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1845. 
He  commanded  a  division  at  South  Mountain,  where  he 
was  severely  wounded,  September,  1862,  and  was  em- 
ployed in  South  Carolina  in  1864  as  commander  of 
several  districts. 

Ha-tee'fee  or  Hatifi,  (Moolana  Abdalla,  moo- 
Wn^  ib-dal'li,)  a  Persian  poet,  was  a  nephew  of  Jamee. 
Died  in  520. 

See  Haji-Khalfah,  "Lexicon  Bibliographicum ;"  Sir  W.  G. 
OusELEY,  "  Biographical  Notices  of  Persian  Poets." 

Hat'field,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  became 
Bishop  of  Durham  in  1345.  He  founded  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Oxford.    Died  in  1381. 

Hatherley,  Lord.    See  Wood,  (William  Page.) 

Hatifi.    See  Hateefee. 

Hat'sell,  (John,)  an  Englishman,  born  at  Cambridge 
in  1742.  lie  was  clerk  of  the  House  of  Commons  many 
years,  ending  about  1796.  He  published  an  important 
work  called  "Precedents  of  Proceedings  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  with  Observations,"  (1781  ;  4th  edition,  4 
V0I.S.,  1818.)    Died  in  1820, 

Hat'ton,  (Sir  Christopher,)  an  Engli.sh  statesman 
and  favourite  couitier  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  born  in  1540 
at  Holdenby.  He  was  appointed  lord  chancellor  in  1587, 
and,  though  not  a  lawyer  by  profession,  he  performed 
the  duties  of  that  office  with  credit.  His  character  and 
capacity  are  represented  to  have  been  excellent.  The 
public  were  much  astonished  when  it  was  announced 
that  the  queen  had  selected  for  this  dignity  one  whom 
Lord  Campbell  describes  as  "a  gay  young  cavalier, 
never  called  to  the  bar,  and  chiefly  famed  for  his  hand- 
some person,  his  taste  in  dress,  and  his  skill  in  dancing." 
Some  persons  ascribe  to  Hatton  the  fourth  act  of  "Tan- 
cred  and  Gismund,"  and  several  legal  treatises.  Died 
in  1591. 

See  Sir  N.  Harris  Nicolas,  "  Life  and  Times  of  Sir  Christopher 
Hatton,"  1847;  LoKD  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;" 
Foss,  "The  judges  of  England." 

Hatzfeldt,  von,  fon  hits'fglt',  (Franz  Ludwig,) 
Prince,  a  Prussian  general,  born  in  1756.  He  was 
governor  of  Berlin  when  that  city  was  taken  by  the  French 
m  1806.    Died  in  1827. 

Hauber,  how^ber,  (Eherhard  David,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1695.  He  wrote  a 
work  against  magic,  entitled  "  Bibliotheca  Acta  et  Scripta 
Magica  continens,"  (3  vols.,  1741.)    Died  in  1765. 

Haubold,  how'bolt,  (Christian  Gottliei;,)  an  emi- 
nent German  jurist  and  writer,  born  at  Dresden  in  1766. 
He  began  to  give,  as  privat-docent,  a  course  of  lectures 
on  the  history  of  Roman  law  at  the  University  of  Leipsic 
in  1786.  In  1796  he  obtained  there  a  chair  of  Saxon  law. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  History  of  Roman  Law," 
("  Historia  Juris  Romani,"  1790,)  and  "  Institutiones 
Juris  Romani  Literariae,"  (1809.)    Died  in  1824. 

.See  Otto,  "  Necrolog  Hanbolds,"  1824;  Ersch  und  Gruber, 
"Ailgemeine  Encvklopaedie  ;"  Friederici,  "  Lebensbeschreibung 
des  Dr.  Hanbold,"'  1826. 

Haucal.    See  Haukal. 

Hauch,  von,  fon  howK,  (Johannes  Carsten,)  a 
popular  Danish  poet,  born  at  Frederikshald  in  1791. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  vi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HAUDEBOURT 


1143 


HAUSMJNN 


He  became  professor  of  natural  science  at  Soroe.  About 
1828  he  published  two  volumes  of  dramas,  including 
*'  Tiberius,"  "  Bajazet,"  and  "  Hamadryaden,"  a  dramatic 
epic.  His  "Lyric  Poems"  ("  Lyriske  Digte,"  1842)  had 
great  success.  He  also  wrote  several  romances,  among 
which  are  "The  Alchemist,"  and  "Robert  Fulton," 
(1853.)  In  1850  he  was  chosen  professor  of  belles-lettres 
at  Copenhagen. 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon  ;"  P.  L.  Moller,  article  in  the 
"Dansk  Pantheon;"  "North  British  Review"  for  September,  1867. 

Haudebourt,  kbd'hoov/,  (Antoinette  C^cile  Hor- 
TENSE  Lescot — iSs'ko',)  a  skilful  French  painter  of 
genre,  born  in  Paris  in  1784;  died  in  1845. 

Hauenschild,  von,  fon  how'en-shilt',  (Richard 
Georg  Spiller,)  a  German  poet,  whose  nofn  de plume 
is  Max  Waldau,  was  born  at  Breslau  in  1822.  He  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  lyric  poems,  called  "Leaves  in  the 
Wind,"  ("Blatter  im  Winde,"  1848,)  a  novel,  entitled 
"After  Nature,"  ("Nach  der  Natur,"  3  vols.,  1850,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1855. 

Hauff,  howf,  (WiLHELM,)  a  German  novelist,  born  at 
Stuttgart  in  1802.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Tubingen,  and  produced  in  1826  "  Lichtenstein,"  a 
historical  novel,  which  is  greatly  admired.  He  after- 
wards published  "The  Man  in  the  Moon,"  a  satire,  a 
number  of  popular  tales,  among  which  is  "The  Portrait 
of  the  Emperor,"  ("  Das  Bild  des  Kaisers,")  and  a  hu- 
morous, fantastic  work,  called  "Phantasien  im  Bremer 
Rathskeller,"  (1827.)  He  died  prematurely,  and  mucli 
regretted,  in  November,  1827.  Hauff  belonged  to  the 
school  of  Hoffmann,  but  was  inferior  to  him,  perhaps,  in 
richness  of  imagination. 

See  ''HaufFs  Leben,"  by  G.  Schwab,  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his 
Works,  36  vols.,  1830,  and  10  vols.,  1837. 

Haug,  howG,  (Johann  Christian  Friedrich,)  a 
German  poet,  born  in  WUrtemberg  in  1761 ;  died  in 
1829. 

Haug,  (Johann  Christoph  Friedrich,)  a  celebrated 
German  epigrammatist,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Wiirtem- 
berg  in  1761.  His  works  are  distinguished  for  elegant 
versification,  and  brilliant  wit  without  causticity.  Li  con- 
junction with  Weisser,  he  published  in  1807  an  "Epi- 
grammatic Anthology,"  in  10  vols.    Died  in  1829. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Haughton,  haw'ton,  (Sir  Graves  Champney,)  an 
English  author,  born  in  1787.  He  was  professor  at 
the  East  India  College,  Haileybury,  from  181 7  to  1827. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Bengali,  San- 
scrit, and  English  Dictionary,"  and  "  An  Inquiry  into 
the  First  Principles  of  Reasoning,"  (1839.)  Died  near 
Paris  in  1849. 

Haughton,  (William,)  an  English  dramatist  in  the 
reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  wrote  a  comedy  called  "  Eng- 
lishmen for  my  Money,"  (16 16,)  and  was  one  of  the 
authors  of  the  comedy  of  "  Patient  Grissill,"  printed  in 
1603. 

Haugwitz,  von,  fon  howo'^its,  (Christian  Hein- 
RiCH  Kaki.,)  Count,  a  Prussian  statesman,  born  near 
Oels,  in  Silesia,  in  1752.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
the  court  of  Vienna  in  1790,  and  became  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  in  1792.  He  favoured  an  alliance  with 
France,  and  was  superseded  by  Hardenberg  in  1804. 
After  the  success  of  Napoleon  at  Uhn,  Haugwitz  was 
recalled  and  sent  to  Vienna  to  treat  with  the  victor,  in 
November,  1805.  In  the  ensuing  December  he  signed 
a  treaty  of  alliance  with  France,  by  which  Hanover  was 
ceded  to  Prussia.  He  was  prime  minister  in  1806  until 
the  battle  of  Jena,  before  which  he  had  made  efforts  to 
preserve  peace  with  France.  His  administration  was 
unpopular.  After  the  disastrous  campaign  of  1806  he  was 
excluded  from  all  political  employment.    Died  in  1832. 

See  MiNUTOLi,  "Der  Graf  von  Haugwitz  und  Job  von  Witzleben," 
1844. 

Haukai,  (Haucal  or  Haoucai,)  Ibn,  Tb'n  how-kll', 
(Abool-  (or  Abul-)  Kasem -Mohammed,  a'bool  W- 
sem  mo-him'nied,)  called  also  simjMy  Hauk^l,  a  dis- 
tinguished Arabian  traveller  and  geographer,  was  born 
probably  at  Bagdad.  Departing  from  that  city  in  943 
A.D.,  he  traversed  for  many  years  the  countries  which  lie 
between  the  Indtis  and  the  Atlantic.  He  wrote  about 
975  A.D.  an  important  work,  entitled  "A  Book  of  Roads 


and  Kingdoms,"  which  is  furnished  with  maps  and  is 
considered  reliable. 

See  UijLENBROEK,  "Dissertatio  de  Ibn-Haukalo  Geographo," 
1822;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Hauks'bee  or  Hawks'bee,  (Francis,)  an  English 
philosopher,  who  was  made  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety in  1705,  and  was  one  of  the  earliest  experimenters 
and  discoverers  in  electricity,  which  he  perceived  was 
excited  by  the  friction  of  glass.  In  1709  he  published 
his  "Experiments  on  Various  Subjects,  touching  Light 
and  Electricity,  "  which  was  translated  into  Italian  and 
French. 

Haupt,  howpt,  (Herman,)  an  American  engineer, 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  1817,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1835.  He  published  a  "General  Theory  of  Bridge- 
Construction,"  (1853,)  and  before  the  war  of  1861-65  was 
distinguished  as  a  civil  engineer.  He  was  appointed 
a  brigadier-general  about  August,  1862. 

Haupt,  howpt,  (MoRiTZ,)  an  eminent  German  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Zittau,  in  Saxony,  in  1808.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  German  literature  at  Leipsic  in 
1843,  but  was  removed  in  1850  because  he  had  taken 
part  in  the  political  movements  of  1849.  He  edited 
several  ol.d  German  poets,  and  published  a  number 
of  works  on  classical  philology,  among  which  is  "  Ob- 
servationes  criticae,"  (1841.)  A  "Review  of  German 
Antiquities,"  founded  and  edited  by  him,  (1841-60,)  is 
called  an  excellent  work. 

Hauptmann,  howpf'mln,  (Moritz,)  a  German  com- 
poser, born  at  Dresden  in  1792.  He  was  eniployed  in 
the  chapel  of  the  Elector  of  Hesse-Cassel  from  1822  to 
1842.  He  composed  masses,  sonatas  for  the  piano  and 
violin,  an  opera  named  "Matilda,"  and  other  works, 
which  are  admired  for  purity  of  style.  He  also  wrote  a 
treatise  on  music,  "  Harmonik  und  Metrik,"  (1855.) 

Haureau,  ho'x\i!b' ,  (  Barthelemy,  )  an  eminent 
French  author,  born  in  Paris  in  1812.  He  was  keeper 
of  the  manuscripts  of  the  National  Library  from  1848  to 
1852.  Among  his  works,  which  have  a  high  reputation, 
are  a  "Literary  History  of  Maine,"  (4  vols.,  1843-47,) 
an  "Essay  on  the  Scholastic  Philosophy,"  (2  vols.,  1850, 
crowned  by  the  Institute,)  and  "Francis  I.  and  his 
Court,"  (1853.)  He  wrote  articles  for  Didot's  "Biogra- 
phic Generale,"  which  see. 

Hauser,  hovv'zer,  (Kaspar,)  the  celebrated  Nurem- 
berg foimdling,  whose  mysterious  history  excited  intense 
interest  throughout  Europe,  was  first  observed  on  the 
26th  of  May,  1828,  at  Nuremberg,  by  a  citizen  of  that 
place.  He  was  ajDparently  about  sixteen  years  of  age, 
walked  with  difficulty,  and  manifested  childish  ignorance 
on  the  most  common  affairs  of  life.  When  interrogated, 
he  replied  in  a  few  broken  sentences,  and  presented  a 
letter  j)urporting  to  be  from  a  Bavarian  peasant,  who 
stated  that  the  boy  had  been  left  it  his  door  and  had 
been  secretly  maintained  by  him.  Having  been  received 
into  the  house  of  the  burgomaster  Binder,  it  was  gradu- 
ally ascertained  that  Kaspar  Hauser,  as  he  called  him- 
self, had  been  kept  from  infancy  in  a  dark,  subterranean 
prison,  provided  with  bread  and  water,  and  otherwise 
cared  for,  during  his  sleep,  by  an  unknown  keeper.  A 
short  time  previous  to  his  escape,  however,  a  man  had 
appeared  who,  after  teaching  him  to  write  and  to  walk, 
had  put  him  on  the  road  to  Nuremberg.  He  was  next 
taken  into  the  family  of  Professor  Daumer,  of  Nurem- 
berg, where  he  showed  an  eager  desire  for  knowledge, 
and  a  surprising  memory.  While  near  his  patron's 
house,  he  was  wcnmded  one  day  by  a  person  who  sud- 
denly disappeared  and  evaded  all  search.  He  was  soon 
after  this  taken  under  the  protection  of  Lord  Stanhope, 
who  sent  him  to  Anspach  to  be  educated.  In  December, 
1833,  he  was  invited  to  a  rendezvous  with  a  person  who 
promised  him  information  of  his  origin,  but  who,  while 
Hauser  was  reading  a  paper  presented  to  him,  inflicted 
upon  him  a  wound  of  which  he  died  in  three  days. 

See  Merker,  "  Kaspar  Hauser,"  1830 ;  Daumer,  "Mittheilun- 
f;en  iiber  Kaspar  Hauser,"  1832;  Singer,  "  Lebeu  Kaspar  Hau- 
ser's,"  1834  ;  Lord  St.'VNHOPe,  "Materialien  zur  Geschichte  Kaspar 
Hauser's,"  1835;  A.  von  Feuerb.a.ch,  "Account  of  an  Individual 
kept  in  a  Dungeon." 

Hau.smann,  howss'mSn,  (Johann  Friedrich  Lud- 
wic,)  a  German  geologist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1782. 
He  obtained  in  181 1  the  chair  of  geology  and  mineralogy 


€  as  ^;  c  as  5;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Jli^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HAUSSER 


1 144 


HAUr 


at  Gottiiigen.  He  published  a  "  Manual  of  Mineralogy," 
(3  vols.,  1813,)  which  is  highly  esteemed,  a  "Journey 
through  Scandinavia,"  (5  vols.,  1818,)  and  a  work  "On 
the  Formation  of  the  Hartz  Mountains,"  (1842.) 

Hausser  or  Haeussei',  hois'ser,  (Ludwig,)  a  German 
historian,  born  in  Alsace  in  1818.  Among  his  works, 
which  are  highly  esteemed,  is  a  "  History  of  Germany 
from  the  Death  of  Frederick  the  Great  to  the  Formation 
of  the  Germanic  Confederation,"  (4  vols.,  1855.) 

Haussez,  d',  do^sa',  (  Charles  Lemeicher  de 
Longpre — leh-mCR'sha'deh  Idw'pRi',)  Baron,  a  French 
minister  of  state,  born  in  Normandy  in  1778.  He  was 
minister  of  marine  from  August,  1829,  to  July;  1830. 
Died  in  1854. 

Haussmann,/^oss'm6N',(GEORGES  Eugene,)  Baron, 
a  French  administrator,  a  grandson  of  Nicolas,  noticed 
below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1809.  He  obtained  in  1853 
the  important  office  of  prefect  of  La  Seine,  (at  Paris.) 
By  a  lavish  expenditure  of  the  public  treasure  he  adorned 
Paris  with  new  boulevards  and  other  costly  public  works. 
He  was  made  a  senator  in  1857. 

Haus.smann,  (Jean  Michel,)  a  French  chemist  and 
manufacturer,  born  at  Colmar  in  1749,  made  improve- 
ments in  the  art  of  dyeing  or  printing  calico.  Died  in  1824. 

Hau.ssmann,  (Nicolas,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1 761,  was  an  active  member  of  the  Convention, 
(1792-95.)    Died  in  1846. 

Haussonville,  d',  do's6N'veK,  (Joseph  Othenin 
Bernard  de  Cleron — deh  kla'roN',)  Comte,  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  1809,  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  1842  and  in  1846.  He  published  a  "  History 
of  the  P'oreign  Policy  of  the  French  Government  from 
1830  to  1848,"  (2  vols.,  1850,)  and  ot;lier  works. 

Hautefeuille,  //ot'ful'  or  //ot'fuh'ye,  (Laurent  Ba- 
SILE,)  a  French  jurist,  distinguished  as  a  writer  on  mari- 
time law,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1805.  His  principal  works 
are  "Legislation  criminelle  maritime,"  (1839,)  "Code  of 
Maritime  Fishery,"  (1844,)  and  "The  Rights  and  Duties 
of  Neutral  Nations  in  Time  of  Maritime  War,"  (4  vols., 
1848-49.)  His  works  have  a  high  reputation  on  both 
sides  of  the  Channel. 

Hautefeuille,  de,  deh  Aot'fuF  or  //otTuh'ye,  (Jean,)  a 
French  ecclesiastic  and  mechanician,  born  at  Orleans  in 
1647.  The  Duchess  of  Bouillon  patronized  him  and  gave 
hira  a  pension.  Among  his  inventions  was  the  spiral 
spring  which  moderates  the  movements  of  the  balance 
of  a  watch,  (1674.)  This  invention  was  also  claimed  by 
Huyghens.  He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  the  Cause  of  the 
Echo,"  (1718,)  and  many  treatises  on  mechanics,  etc. 
Died  in  1724. 

Hautefort,  d',  doffoR',  (Marie,)  Duchesse  de 
Schomberg,  a  favourite  of  Louis  XHI.  of  France,  was 
born  in  1616.  She  gained  the  favour  of  the  king  about 
1630,  and  became  a  iiiaid  of  honour  to  the  queen,  Anne 
of  Austria,  with  whom  she  maintained  confidential  rela- 
tions. Richelieu  induced  the  king  to  dismiss  her  from 
court  in  1640.    Died  in  1691. 

See  "  Vie  de  Madame  d'Hautefort,"  anonymous;  Victor  Cousin, 
"Madame  d'Hautefort." 

Hautemer,  d',  dof'.maiR',  (Guillaumf.,)  Comte  de 
Grancey  and  Seigneur  de  Fervaques,  (fgR^vtk',)  a  French 
general,  born  in  1538.  He  fought  with  distinction  against 
the  Spaniards  at  Saint-Quentin  and  Gravelines,  (1558,) 
and  entered  the  service  of  Henry  IV.,  who  made  him  a 
marshal  of  France  in  1595.    Died  in  1613. 

Hauterive,  d',  dot'rev',  (Alexandre  Maurice 
Blanc  de  Lanautte — bl6N  deh  Ifnot',)  Comte,  an 
able  French  diplomatist,  born  at  Aspres  (Hautes-Alpes) 
in  1754.  Having  been  ordered  by  Bonaparte  to  com- 
pose a  manifesto  to  foreign  powers,  he  produced  in  1800 
"On  the  State  of  France  at  tiie  End  of  the  Year  VIII." 
He  became  the  confidential  secretary  of  the  First  Consul, 
and  in  1803  was  made  a  councillor  of  state.  In  1807  he 
was  appointed  keeper  of  the  archives  of  France.  He 
was  often  consulted  by  the  emperor  on  foreign  affairs, 
and  acted  as  minister  ad  interim  while  Champagny  and 
Caulain-court  followed  the  army.    Died  in  1830. 

See  Aktaud  de  Montor,  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Travaux 
politiques  du  Comte  d'Hauterive,"  1839;  "  Nouvelle  Biogiaphie 
Generale." 

Hauteroche.    See  Allier,  (Louis.) 


Hauteroche,  d',  dot'rosh',  (Noel  le  Brp:ton,) 
Si  EUR,  a  French  dramatist  and  actor,  born  in  Paris  about 
161 7.  He  produced  several  popular  comedies,  among 
which  is  "Crispin  Medecin,"  (1670.)    Died  in  1707. 

Haute-Serre,  d',  dot'saiR',  (Antoine  Dadin— 
dS'd^N',)  a  French  jurisconsult,  born  in  the  diocese  of 
Cahors,  became  in  1644  professor  of  law  in  Toulouse. 
He  published  learned  works  on  the  law  and  on  the  early 
history  of  France.    Died  in  1682. 

Hautesrayes.    See  Deshautesrayes. 

Hauteville,  /^5t'v^K,  or  Hanvill,  de,  deh  hhW\hVy 
(Jean,)  a  French  poet,  who  lived  about  1150-90.  He 
left  a  Latin  poem,  called  "Archithrenius,"  which  was 
once  popular, 

Hautpoul,  d',  do'pooK,  (Alphonse  Henri,)  Mar- 
QULS,  a  French  general,  born  at  Versailles  in  1789. 
He  became  marechal-de-camp  in  1823,  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  1841.  In  1849  he  was  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Rome,  and 
showed  himself  hostile  to  the  republican  regime.  He 
was  minister  of  war  for  several  months  in  1849  and  1850, 
and  was  made  a  senator  in  1852. 

Hautpoul,  d',  (Anne  Marie  de  Montgeroult — deh 
m6N'zheh'roo',)  Comtesse,  a  French  authoress,  born  in 
Paris  in  1763,  published  "Sappho  to  Pliaon,"  a  poem, 
(17QO,)  and  several  novels.    Died  in  1837. 

Hautpoul-Salette,  d',  do'pooK  st'let',  (Jean  Jo- 
seph,) a  French  general,  born  in  1754  of  a  noble  family 
in  Languedoc.  He  became  general  of  division  under 
Moreau,  and  in  1805  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Austerlitz,  soon  after  which  he  was  made  a  senator. 
He  contributed  to  the  victory  at  Jena  in  1806,  and  was 
killed  at  Eylau  in  February,  1807. 

Haiiy,  /^t'we'  or  ^t'ii-e',  (Ren6  Just,)  Abh6,  a  dis- 
tinguished French  mineralogist,  born  at  Saint-Just, 
Picardy,  on  the  28th  of  February,  1743.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  College  of  Navarre,  Paris,  in  which  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Latin  in  1764.  His  interest  in 
mineralogy  was  first  excited  by  hearing  a  lecture  from 
Daubenton,  after  which  he  became  a  diligent  student 
under  that  professor.  By  a  hajjpy  accident,  he  made  an 
im]:)ortant  discovery  in  crystallograpiiy  in  1781.  As  he 
was  examining  a  prism  of  calcareous  si)ar  in  the  cabinet 
of  a  friend,  it  fell  and  was  broken  into  fragments,  which 
presented  crystalline  faces  different  from  those  of  the 
l)rism,  and  revealed  to  him  the  germ  of  a  new  science. 
Continuing  his  observations,  he  demonstrated  that  the 
structure  of  crystals  is  conformed  to  invariable  laws,  that 
the  same  mineral  contains  uniformly  the  same  primary 
form  as  the  basis  of  its  crysitallization,  and  that  they  may 
be  cloven  in  such  directions  as  to  lay  bare  their  peculiar 
primitive  forms  which  lie  concealed  within  them.  These 
discoveries  opened  a  new  era  in  mineralogy,  and,  when 
modestly  announced  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  made 
a  profound  sensation.  In  1783  Haiiy  was  chosen  a 
member  of  that  Academy.  In  1792  he  was  im])risoned 
a  short  time  by  the  revolutionists  for  refusing  to  take  the 
required  oath.  In  1794  the  Convention  intrusted  to  him 
the  charge  of  the  cabinet  of  the  School  of  Mines,  and 
in  1802  he  became  professor  of  mineralogy  in  the  Museum 
of  Natural  History.  Napoleon  granted  him  a  pension, 
and  named  him  canon  of  Notre-Dame  and  a  member  of 
the  legion  of  honour.  At  the  formation  of  the  University 
he  obtained  the  chair  of  the  faculty  of  sciences.  Amidst 
the  homage  of  the  great  world  he  preserved  the  modest 
simplicity  of  his  manners  which  had  distinguished  his 
early  life.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  Mineralogy," 
(1801,)  a  standard  work  of  great  merit;  an  "Elementary 
Treatise  on  Physics,"  (1803;)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Crys- 
tallography," (1822.)  He  refused  an  offer  of  600,000 
francs  for  his  collection  of  minerals.  Cuvier  has  observed 
that  the  discoveries  of  Haiiy,  like  those  of  Newton,  far 
from  losing  in  generality  vvitii  the  lajise  of  time,  will 
continually  gain  in  that  respect.    Died  in  1822. 

"  From  the  moment  that  the  genius  of  Haiiy  discov- 
ered the  general  fact  that  they  could  be  cloven  or  split 
in  such  directions  as  to  lay  bare  their  peculiar  primitive 
or  fundamental  forms,  (which  lay  concealed  within  them 
as  the  statue  might  be  conceived'  encrusted  in  its  marble 
envelope,)  from  that  moment  mineralogy  ceased  to  bean 
unmeaning  list  of  names,  a  mere  laborious  cataloguing 


a,  e,  1, 5,  \x,%JoM^;  h.,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \j,  y.  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  tar,  f^ll,  fit;  met;  ndt;  g56d;  moon; 


HAUr  1 1 45  HAWKESWORTH 


of  stones  and  rubbish."  (Sir  John  Herschel,  "  Prelimi- 
nary Discourse  on  the  Study  of  Natural  Philosophy,") 

See  Cuvier's  "Memoir  on  R.  J.  Haiiy,"  and  translation  of  the 
same  in*  "  Smithsonian  Report"  tor  iS6o;  LuiGi  Configi.iachi, 
*'  Memorie  intorno  alia  Vita  ed  alle  Opere  dei  due  Naturalisti  Werner 
e  Haiiy,"  1827  ;  Quekard,  "  La  France  Litteraire ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graplne  Generale." 

Haiiy,  (Valentin,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Saint-Just,  in  France,  in  1745.  He  was  noted 
for  his  zeal  and  success  in  the  education  of  the  blind,  a 
branch  of  instruction  which  had  been  entirely  neglected 
before  he,  with  the  aid  of  the  Philanthropic  Society, 
opened  a  school  in  Paris  in  1784.  His  success  having 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  public,  Haiiy  received  the 
title  of  interpreter  and  secretary  to  the  king,  who  took 
his  school  under  the  protection  of  the  state.  He  pub- 
lished an  "Essay  on  the  Education  of  the  I^lind,"  (1786.) 
About  1800  he  ceased  to  be  director  of  the  institution, 
and  his  services 'were  acknowledged  by  the  grant  of  a 
pension  of  two  thousand  francs.  A  few  years  later,  he 
founded  an  institution  for  the  blind  in  Saint  Petersburg. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1822. 

HaVe-lock,  (Sir  Henry,)  a  distinguished  British 
general,  born  at  Bishop's  Wearmouth,  Durham,  on  the 
5th  of  April,  1795.  He  entered  the  army  in  1815,  as 
lieutenant,  and  was  ordered  to  India  in  1823.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  attention  to  the  religious  in- 
struction of  the  men  under  his  conmiand,  and  was  a 
strict  disciplinarian.  About  1828  he  married  Hannah,  a 
daughter  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Marshman,  a  missionary.  In 
consequence  of  his  earnest  and  zealous  religious  char- 
acter he  was  stigmatized  as  a  fanatic  by  many  of  his 
fellow-officers.  His  promotion  was  slow.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  captain  in  1838,  and  served  on  the  staff  of 
Sir  W.  Cotton  in  the  Afghan  war.  He  came  to  England 
on  sick-leave  in  1849,  and  remained  there  about  two 
years.  In  the  spring  of  1854  he  was  apjiointed  quarter- 
master-general. He  became  adjutant-general  in  the 
ensuing  winter,  and  commanded  a  division  in  the  war 
against  Persia  which  began  in  1856.  He  returned  to 
India  about  the  beginning  of  the  great  Sepoy  mutiny 
which  broke  out  in  February,  1857.  In  July  he  de- 
feated the  Sepoys  at  Futtehpore,  Arny,  and  Cawnpore. 
Having  driven  Nana  Sahib  out  of  Cawnpore,  he  ad- 
vanced with  about  1500  men  to  the  relief  of  Lucknow, 
in  which  a  small  garrison  was  besieged  by  a  large  army 
of  Sepoys  ;  but  his  army  was  so  reduced  by  disease  and 
•the  casualties  of  battle  that  he  was  comjielled  to  fall 
back  and  await  reinforcements.  In  the  mean  time  Gene- 
ral Outram,  superior  in  rank  to  Havelock,  arrived  ;  but 
he  geiierously  waived  his  rank,  and  offered  to  serve  as  a 
volunteer,  declaring  that  Havelock  was  entitled  to  the 
honour  of  relieving  Lucknow.  He  entered  that  place 
about  the  25th  of  September,  and  defended  it  until  the 
arrival  of  Sir  Colin  Campbell.  He  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  major-general  in  September,  1857,  and  died 
in  India  in  November  of  the  same  year. 

See  J.  T.  Headley.  "Life  of  General  H.  Havelock,"  1859:  John 
Marshman,  "Life  of  Sir  H.  Have.ock,"  i860;  "British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  i860. 

Havemann,  h^'veh-m^.n',  (Wilhelm,)  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Liiiieburg  in  1800,  became  professor 
of  history  at  Gottingen  in  1838.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"History  of  Brunswick  and  Liinebuig,"  (2  vols.,  1838.) 

Ka'ven,  (Alice,)  originally  Emily  Bradley,  an 
authoress,  born  at  Hudson,  New  York,  about  1825.  Her 
first  husband  was  Joseph  C.  Neal,  of  Philadeljihia,  editor 
of  Neal's  "  Saturday  Gazette."  She  produced  juvenile 
stories,  among  which  are  "Helen  Morton,"  and  "No 
such  Word  as  Fail." 

Haven,  (PIrastus  Otis,)  D.D.,  an  American  Meth- 
odist divine,  born  in  Boston  in  1820.  He  graduated  at  the 
Wesleyan  University,  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in  1842, 
and  subsequently  became  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  in 
the  University  of  Michigan.  In  1856  he  was  appointed 
editor  of  "Zion's  Herald  and  Wesleyan  Journal,"  pub- 
lished in  Boston. 

Haven,  (Nathaniel  Appleton,)  an  American  jour- 
nalist, born  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  in  1790. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1807,  and  from  1821  to 
1825  was  editor  of  the  "Portsmouth  Journal."  Died  in 
1826.    A  volume  of  his  writings,  consisting  chiefly  of 


poems  and  orations,  with  a  memoir  of  the  author's  life, 
by  George  Ticknor,  was  published  in  1827. 

See  "  North  American  Review"  for  July,  1828. 

Havercamp,  hlv'er-kamp^  (Sigehert,)  a  celebrated 
Dutch  critic  and  author,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1683.  He 
succeeded  Gronovius  in  172 1  as  professor  of  Greek  at 
Leyden,  where  he  afterwards  obtained  the  chair  of  his- 
tory and  eloquence.  Among  his  most  important  works 
are  "  Dissertations  on  the  Coins  of  Alexander  the  Great," 
(1722,)  "Universal  History  explained  by  Medals,"  (in 
Dutch,  1736,)  "Introduction  to  Roman  Antiquities,"  (in 
Latin,  1740,)  several  treatises  on  Medals,  and  good 
editions  of  Lucretius,  (1725,)  Josephus,  (1726,)  and  Sal- 
lust,  (1742.)    Died  at  Leyden  in  1742. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Moreri, 
"  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Haverman,  hi'ver-min',  (Margaret,)  a  skilful 
painter  of  flowers  and  fruits,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1720. 
She  worked  in  Paris.    Died  about  1795. 

Havernick  or  Haevernick,  ha'ver-nik',  (  Hein- 
rich,)  a  German  theologian  and  critic,  was  professor  at 
Rostock  and  at  Konigsberg.  He  published  an  "Intro- 
duction to  the  Old  Testament,"  (1836-44,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  the  prime  of  life  in  1846. 

Hav'ers,  (Clopton,  )  an  English  anatomist,  who 
lived  about  1690,  wrote  "Osteologia  Nova,"  (1691.) 

Havet, //t'vi',  (Armand  Ernest  Maurice,)  a  French 
physician  and  botanist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1795;  died  in 
Madagascar  in  1820. 

Hav'i-land,  (John,)  an  architect,  born  near  Taunton, 
in  England,  in  1792,  emigrated  to  the  United  States  in 
his  youth.  He  designed  the  United  States  Mint,  Phila- 
delphia, the  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  at  Harrisburg, 
Pennsylvania,  the  Eastern  State  Penitentiary,  at  Phila- 
deli)hia,  and  other  public  edifices.    Died  in  1852. 

Haweis,  hau'wis, (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  at  Truro  in  1734,  was  chaplain  to  the  Countess  of 
Huntingdon.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "The 
Communicant's  Spiritual  Companion,"  (1763,)  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Church  of  Christ,"  (3  vols.,  1800.)  Died 
in  1820. 

Hawes,  hauz,  (Joel,)  an  American  writer  and  Con- 
gregational minister,  born  in  Medway,  Massachusetts, 
in  1789.  He  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1813, 
and  preached  many  years  at  Hartford,  Connecticut. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Lectures  to  Young  Men,"  (1828,) 
and  "The  Religion  of  the  East,"  (1845.)    Died  in  1867. 

Hawes,  hauz,  (Stephen,)  an  English  poet,  who  lived 
about  1500,  was  a  native  of  Suffolk,  and  became  groom 
of  the  \)X\\y  chamber  to  Henry  VII.  He  published  in 
i5i7"The  Pastime  of  Pleasure,"  an  allegorical  poem, 
which  displays  much  learning  and  reflection.  Warton 
says,  "  If  the  poems  of  Rowley  are  not  genuine,  the  '  Pas- 
time of  Pleasure'  is  almost  the  only  effort  of  imagination 
and  invention  which  had  appeared  in  our  poetry  since 
Chaucer." 

Hawes,  (William,)  an  English  physician,  born  at 
Islington  in  1736,  practised  in  London  the  most  of  his 
life.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  zealous  efforts  in 
behalf  of  the  Humane  Society,  instituted  in  1774.  He 
published  several  medical  works,  and  an  "Account  of 
Dr.  Goldsmith's  Last  Illness."    Died  in  1808. 

Hawke,  hauk,  (Edward,)  Lord,  an  English  ad- 
miral, born  in  1715,  became  a  captain  in  1734,  rear- 
admiral  in  1747,  and  vice-admiral  of  the  blue  in  1748. 
He  commanded  the  fleet  which  in  1759  defeated  the 
French  near  Belleisle.  In  1765  he  was  named  first  lord 
of  the  admiralty,  and  in  1776  was  raised  to  the  peerage. 
Died  in  1781. 

See  Campbell,  "Lives  of  British  Admirals." 

Haw'ker,  (Rokert,)  an  English  Calvinistic  divine, 
born  at  Exeter  in  1753.  He  was  for  fifty  years  vicar  of 
a  church  in  Plymouth.  He  published  a  valuable  "Com- 
mentary on  the  Old  and  New  Testament,"  (9  vols.,  1816,) 
and  other  religious  works.    Died  in  1827. 

Hawkesworth,  hauks'worth,  (John,)  an  English 
essayist,  born  in  London  between  1715  and  1719.  He 
began  his  literary  career  as  a  contributor  to  the  "Gen- 
tleman's Magazine"  about  1740.  In  1752,  1753,  and 
1754  he  gained  distinction  as  the  editor  of  the  "Adven- 
turer," a  series  of  essays,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HAWKINS 


HAWTHORNE 


Dr.  Johnson  and  others.  About  half  of  these  were  his 
own  composition.  In  1761  he  published  an  edition  of 
Swift's  Works,  with  a  life  of  that  author,  which  is  highly 
commended.  He  received  from  government  ;^6ooo  for 
writing  an  account  of  Captain  Cook's  First  Voyage, 
^1773.)  Hawkesworth  is  accounted  one  of  the  most 
elegant  essayists  of  his  time.  Dr.  Johnson,  in  his  "  Life 
•of  Swift,"  represents  him  as  one  "capable  of  dignifying 
his  narrations  with  elegance  of  language  and  force  of 
sentiment."    Died  in  1773. 

See  Drake,  "  Essays;"  W.  H.  Prescott,  "Miscellanies." 

HaWkins,  (Benjamin  Waterhouse,)  an  English 
naturalist,  artist,  and  geologist,  born  in  London  in  1807. 
He  published  several  educational  works,  among  which 
is  "Elements  of  Form,"  (1842.)  He  lectured  in  New 
York  in  1868.  He  is  eminently  skilful  in  delineating  the 
forms  of  animals  and  in  restoring  fossil  remains. 

Hawkins,  (Sir  John,)  M.  P.,  (called  by  the  Italian  and 
Spanish  writers  of  that  day  Achines  or  Aquines,)  an 
able  English  naval  officer,  born  at  Plymouth  about  1520. 
After  following  the  slave-trade  several  years,  he  was  de- 
feated by  the  Spanish  in  1567  near  San  Juan  de  Ulloa. 
As  rear-admiral,  in  1588,  he  served  with  distinction 
against  the  Spanish  Armada,  and  was  rewarded  with 
the  honour  of  knighthood.  In  1595  Hawkins  and  Drake 
commanded  a  large  fleet  sent  against  the  Spanish  colo- 
nies in  the  West  Indies;  but  they  were  unsuccessful. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  Englishman  who  was 
engaged  in  the  slave-trade.    Died  in  1595. 

See  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  British  Admirals;"  Froude,  "History 
of  England,"  vol.  vii.  ;  J.  Barrow,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Naval  Worthies 
of  Queen  Elizabeth's  Reign,"  1845. 

Hawkins,  (Sir  John,)  a  descendant  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  London  in  1 7 19,  was  educated  for  the  law.  In 
1749  he  was  admitted  a  member  of  Johnson's  literary 
■club  that  met  in  Ivy  Lane.  In  the  early  part  of  his  life 
he  contributed  to  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine."  Having 
married  in  1753  a  wealthy  lady  named  Storer,  he  retired 
from  the  practice  of  law.  In  1763  he  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  celebrated  literary  club  to  which  Burke,  John- 
son, and  Goldsmith  belonged,  and  in  1772  he  was  knighted 
for  his  active  services  in  the  magistracy.  His  principal 
productions  are  a  "History  of  Music,"  (in  5  vols.,  1776,) 
(which  was  coldly  received,  but  is  now  more  esteemed,) 
and  a  "  Life  of  Dr.  Johnson,"  (1787.)  He  was  an  inti- 
mate friend  of  Johnson,  who  chose  him  as  one  of  his 
executors.  He  died  in  1789,  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

Hawkins,  (John  Sidney,)  eldest  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  about  1757.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Da 
Vinci,"  and  essays  on  various  subjects.  Died  in  1842. 

Hawkins,  (L.-etitia  Matilda,)  a  sister  of  the  pre- 
ceding, wrote  "The  Countess  and  Gertrude,"  a  novel, 
(4  vols.,  181 1,)  "Memoirs,  Biographical  Sketches,  and 
Anecdotes,"  (2  vols.,  1824,)  and  other  works. 

Hawkins,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  mariner,  son  of 
the  rear-admiral,  noticed  above,  was  born  about  1555. 
He  commanded  one  of  the  ships  which  encountered  the 
"Invincible  Armada"  m  1588.  In  1593  he  led  an  ex- 
pedition of  three  ships  to  the  South  Sea,  and  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Spaniards  near  Peru.  After  his  release  he 
published  "Observations"  on  the  voyage.  Died  in  1622. 

See  J.  Barrow,  "Memoirs  of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Reign,"  1845. 

Hawkins,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  translator,  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  He  produced  a  version  of  the 
Odes  of  Horace,  (163L) 

Hawks,  hauks,  (Francis  Lister,)  D.D.,  an  American 
clergyman  and  author,  boni  at  Newbern,  North  Carolinaj 
in  1798.  He  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  ; 
but  his  religious  convictions  induced  hin^  in  1821  to  enter 
the  ministry  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  In  1829  he  became 
pastor  of  a  church  in  Philadelphia.  In  1830  he  assumed 
the  pastoral  charge  of  Saint  Stephen's  Church  in  New 
York,  and  afterwards  of  Saint  Thomas's.  In  1837  he 
and  Dr.  C.  S.  Henry  commenced  the  "New  York  Re- 
view," which  they  continued  to  publish  until  1841.  He 
preached  in  New  Orleans  for  five  years,  (1844-49,)  ^'''<^^ 
becaine  rector  of  Calvary  Church,  New  York,  about 
1850.  Among  his  various  works  are  "  Egypt  and  its 
Monuments,"  (1849,)  and  a  "  History  of  North  Carolina," 


(1857  et  seq.)  He  edited  the  "  Romance  of  Biography," 
and  other  juvenile  works.    Died  at  New  York  in  1866. 

Hawks'moor,(NiCHOLAS,)  an  eminent  English  archi- 
tect, born  in  1666,  was  a  pupil  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 
He  was  employed  on  several  churches  of  London,  and 
made  additions  to  All-Souls  College,  Oxford.  It  is  said 
that  he  was  associated  with  Vanbrugh  on  the  palace  of 
Blenheim  and  Castle  Howard.  One  of  his  most  admired 
and  original  works  is  Saint  George's  Church,  Blooms- 
bury,  which  Walpole  criticised  as  "a  master-stroke  of 
absurdity."    Died  in  1736. 

Hawk'wood,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  military  adven- 
turer, was  the  leader  of  a  band  of  outlaws  who  entereti 
Italy  about  1360.  He  rendered  himself  famous  by  h|s 
skill,  audacity,  and  success,  and  was  hired  to  fight  by 
the  Florentines  and  the  Visconti  of  Milan.  He  died  at 
Florence  in  1394. 

Haw'ley,  (Gideon,)  a  missional^,  who  laboured 
among  the  American  Indians,  was  born  in  Connecticut 
in  1727.  He  became  pastor  at  Marshpee,  Massachusetts, 
in  1758,  and  remained  there  until  his  death  in  1807. 

Hawley,  (Joseph,)  an  American  patriot,  born  at 
Northampton,  Massachusetts,  in  1724,  graduated  at  Yale 
in  1742.  He  practised  law  in  his  native  place,  and 
attained  eminence  in  his  profession.  In  the  contest  be- 
tween the  colonies  and  the  mother-country  he  gained 
distinction  by  his  political  wisdotn,  eloquence,  and  pa- 
triotism. He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Massachu- 
setts legislature  in  1764.  In  1776  ill  health  induced  him 
to  retire  from  public  life.    Died  in  1788. 

H^'worth,  (Adrian,)  an  English  naturalist  of  Cot- 
tenham,  Yorkshire.  He  wrote,  among  other  treatises, 
"Lepidoptera  Britannica,"  (4  parts,  1803-28,)  which  is 
called  a  work  of  great  value.    Died  in  1833. 

Haw'thorne,(NATHANiEL,)  adistinguished  American 
author,  was  born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  on  the  4th 
of  July,  1804.  His  father,  a  ship-captain,  died  at  Plavana 
about  1810.  Nathaniel  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College 
in  1825,  Longfellow  the  poet  being  one  of  his  classmates. 
He  was  endowed  by  nature  with  an  acute  and  subtle 
intellect,  and  with  imaginative  powers  of  no  common 
order ;  but  these  were  associated  with  an  extreme  and 
almost  morbid  sensibility.  While  at  college,  his  health 
was  delicate,  and  he  is  said  to  have  suffered  from  ex- 
cessive diffidence  and  from  occasional  fits  of  gloom  and 
deep  dejection.  Under  these  circumstances  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Franklin  Pierce,  (afterwards  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,)  who  did  much  to  cheer  and 
encourage  him  in  his  moments  of  despondency.  The 
friendshi])  thus  begun  lasted  through  life.  After  leaving 
college,  Hawthorne  spent  several  years  mostly  in  seclu- 
sion and  study,  writing  occasional  tales  for  the  papers 
and  periodicals.  In  1837  he  issued  a  volume  entitled 
"Twice-told  Tales,"  so  named  because  they  had  pre- 
viously been  published  in  another  form.  This  book  at- 
tracted the  notice  of  Mr.  Longfellow,  who  spoke  of  it  in 
terms  of  high  praise  in  the  "North  American  Review." 
In  1843  Hawthorne  removed  to  Concord,  and  re- 
sided for  some  time  in  an  old  manse,  from  the  win- 
dows of  which,  it  is  said,  the  minister  of  the  parish  looked 
out  upon  the  battle  fought  between  his  fellow-townsmen 
and  the  British  troops  on  the  memorable  19th  of  April, 
1775.  In  1846  api^eared  a  volume  entitled  "Mosses 
from  an  Old  Manse,"  a  collection  of  sketches  and  tales 
written  by  him  while  occupying  the  manse  at  Concord. 
In  1846,  under  Mr.  Polk's  administration,  he  was  ap- 
pointed surveyor  of  the  port  of  Salem,  a  position  which 
he  held  for  three  years.  He  published  in  1850  his  cele- 
brated "  Scarlet  Letter,"  a  romance  of  extraordinary 
power,  which  raised  its  author  at  once  to  the  first  rank 
among  American  prose  writers  of  fiction.  In  185 1  ap- 
peared his  "  House  of  the  Seven  Gables,"  in  18^2  his 
"  Blithedale  Romance,"  and  in  i860  his  "  Marble  Faun," 
regarded  by  some  as  the  best  of  all  his  works.  He  had 
published  in  1852  a  life  of  his  friend  Franklin  Pierce, 
(the  Democratic  candidate  for  the  Presidency,)  who, 
after  his  inauguration,  appointed  his  biographer  United 
States  consul  for  Liverpool,  perhaps  the  most  lucrative 
position  within  the  gift  of  a  President.  He  held  this 
office  for  four  years,  after  which  he  sjient  some  time  in 
travelling  on  the  continent  of  Europe.    Soon  after  his 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  %  short;  ai,    i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fSll,  f^t;  mli;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


H AWT  RET 


HATES 


return  to  the  United  States,  Mr.  Hawthorne  published 
"Our  Old  Home,"  containing  sketches  of  English  life 
and  character.  He  died  in  1864.  Since  his  death  a  very 
attractive  work,  entitled  "  Hawthorne's  Notes,"  has  been 
published,  (2  vols.,  1869,)  consisting  of  his  observations 
on  a  great  variety  of  subjects. 

Mr.  Hawthorne's  merits  as  an  author  are  of  a  peculiar 
and  very  high  order.  As  a  novelist,  all  critics  acknow- 
ledge his  power  to  awaken  a  deep,  intense,  and  sustained 
interest;  but  some  of  the  reviewers  object  that  the  tone 
of  his  works  is  not  healthful.  "The  Scarlet  Letter," 
says  "Blackwood"  for  May,  1855,  "glows  with  the  fire 
of  a  suppressed,  secret,  feverish  excitement :  it  is  not  the 
glow  of  natural  life,  but  the  hectic  of  disease,  which 
burns  upon  the  cheek  of  its  actors."  "  The  House  of  the 
Seven  Gables  is  not  less  remarkable  nor  less  unwhole- 
some than  its  predecessor."  But,  whatever  may  be 
thought  of  the  tone  of  his  works,  all  must  concede  to 
him  not  only  great  originality,  but  a  rare  power  of  subtle 
analysi-,  a  delicate  and  exqui  ite  humour,  and  a  marvel- 
lous felicity  in  the  use  of  language.  His  style,  indeed, 
may  be  said  to  combine  almost  every  excellence, — ele- 
gance, simplicity,  grace,  clearness,  and  f<jrce. 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America  ;"  Duvckinck,  "Cy- 
clopjedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  November,  1863  ;  "  North  American  Review"  for  July,  1837,  July. 
1850,  and  January,  1853;  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  May,  i860,  (by 
E.  P.  Whipple,)  and  September,  1868. 

Haw'trey,  (Edward  Craven,)  D.D.,  an  English 
scholar,  born  in  1789,  became  head-master  of  Eton  about 
1834,  and  afterwards  provost  of  the  same.   Died  in  1862. 

Haxo, /ztk'so',  (pRANgois  Nicolas  BENofr,)  an  able 
military  engineer,  born  at  Luneville  in  1774.  He  directed 
the  operations  at  the  siege  of  Saragossa,  (1809.)  In  181 2 
he  held  a  high  command  in  the  Russian  campaign,  and 
was  made  general  of  division.  He  commanded  the  corps 
of  engineers  during  the  Hundred  Days,  and  was  at  Water- 
loo. In  1832  he  conducted  the  siege  of  Antwerp  as 
commander-in-chief  of  the  engineers.    Died  in  1838. 

See  Mengin,  "Notice  sur  Geueral  Baron  Haxo,"  1838. 

Haxo,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  general,  uncle  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Luneville  about  1750.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  battle  of  ChoUet,  and  gained 
a  victory  at  Noirmoutiers.    He  was  killed  in  1794. 

Hay,  (David  Ramsay,)  a  British  artist  and  eminent 
writer  on  the  principles  of  form  and  colour,  was  born  in 
Edinburgh  in  1798.  He  learned  the  trade  of  house- 
painter,  and  was  employed  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  the 
decoration  of  Abbotsford.  In  1828  he  published  "The 
l^aws  of  Harmonious  Colouring,"  (6th  edition,  1847.) 
He  wrote,  among  other  works,  "Proportion,  or  the  Geo- 
metric Principle  of  Beauty  Analyzed,"  (1843,)  "Science 
of  Proportions  of  the  Human  Head  and  Countenance," 
(1849,)  and  "The  Science  of  Beauty  as  Developed  in 
Nature  and  Applied  in  Art,"  (1856.) 

Hay,  (James,)  a  Scottish  diplomatist,  employed  by 
James  I.  He  was  raised  to  the  English  peerage  as  Earl 
of  Carlisle.    Died  in  1636. 

Hay,  (William,)  born  in  Sussex,  England,  about  1700, 
represented  Seaford  in  Parliament  from  1734  to  1755. 
He  published  an  "  Essay  on  Civil  Government,"  (1728,) 
and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1755. 

Haydn,  ha'd'n,  [Ger.  pron.  hld'n,]  (Joseph,)  a  cele- 
brated and  original  composer,  was  born  at  Rohrau,  on 
the  frontier  of  Austria  and  Hungary,  March  31,  1732. 
His  father  was  a  poor  mechanic.  When  he  was  about 
eight  years  old,  his  voice  attracted  the  notice  of  Renter, 
chajiel-master  of  the  cathedral  in  Vienna,  under  whom 
he  passed  eight  years  as  chorister.  Afterwards,  being 
left  to  his  own  resources,  he  endured  extreme  poverty 
for  several  years,  during  which  he  became  acquainted 
with  the  poet  Metastasio,  from  whom  he  learned  Italian. 
He  received  some  lessons  in  composition  from  Porpora, 
and  between  the  ages  of  nineteen  and  twenty-six  com- 
posed many  sonatas,  concertos,  and  symphonies,  which 
were  admired.  In  1760  he  was  appointed  chapel-master 
to  Prince  Esterhazy  at  Eisenstadt.  With  this  patron 
and  his  heir  he  passed  about  thirty  years,  and  enjoyed 
prosperity,  excepting  the  troubles  of  an  ill-assorted 
marriage,  from  which  he  was  relieved  by  a  divorce. 
Having  composed  a  great  number  of  works  and  acquired 


a  wide  reputation,  he  produced  in  London  in  1 791  six 
grand  symphonies,  which  were  received  with  great  en- 
thusiasm. His  noble  master-piece  the  oratorio  of  "The 
Creation"  was  performed  in  Vienna  in  1798,  and  pro- 
cured his  admission  into  the  French  Institute.  He  sur- 
passed his  predecessors  in  symphonies,  and  displayed 
extraordinary  fertility  of  invention.  Among  his  last  works 
is  a  piece  of  church  music  called  "The  Seasons,"  (1801.) 
Died  at  Vienna,  May  31,  1809.  Haydn  appears  to  have 
been  exempt  from  the  spirit  of  rivalry  and  envy.  On 
one  occasion  he  designated  Mozart  as  the  first  composer 
of  the  world.  His  happy  and  genial  temperament  is 
reflected  in  his  compositions. 

See  C.  A.  Griesengek,  "  Biographische  Notizen  iiber  Joseph 
Haydn,"  1810;  "Letters  on  the  Lite  and  Works  of  Haydn,"  in 
Italian,  by  Carpani,  ("  Le  Haydine,"  etc.,)  1812 ;  P'kamkry,  "  Notice 
sur  Joseph  Haydn,"  iSio;  Le  Breton,  "Vie  de  Joseph  Haydn," 
1810;  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  A.  C.  iDiES, 
"J.  Haydn's  Biographie,"  1810;  L.  A.  C.  de  Beyle,  (under  the 
pseudonym  of  Bombet,)  "Vie  de  Haydn,  Mozart  et  Metastase," 
Paris,  1817;  English  version  of  the  same,  1817,  and  Boston,  1839; 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1817. 

Haydn,  ha'd'n,  (Joseph,)  an  English  author,  who 
published  a  "  Dictionary  of  Dates  and  Universal  Refer- 
ence," which  is  highly  commended  ;  also  a  "  Hand-Book 
of  Dignities."    Died  in  London  in  1856. 

Haydn,  (Michael,)  a  brother  of  Joseph  Haydn  the 
musician,  was  born  at  Rohrau  in  1737.  He  was  an  ex- 
cellent organist  and  composer,  and  became  chapel-master 
in  the  cathedral  of  Salzburg.  He  composed  numerous 
oratorios,  masses,  Te  Deums,  and  other  works.  His 
brother  Joseph  considered  him  the  greatest  composer  of 
sacred  nmsic  of  his  time  except  Mozart.    Died  in  1808. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Hay'don,  (Benjamin  Robert,)  an  eminent  English 
painter,  born  at  Plymouth  in  1786.  He  went  to  London 
in  1804,  and  was  admitted  as  a  student  at  the  Royal 
Academy.  In  1807  he  exhibited  a  painting  of  the  Holy 
Family  resting  during  their  flight  to  Egypt.  In  1809 
his  "  Dentatus"  gained  the  first  prize  in  the  exhibition 
of  the  British  Institution.  His  "Judgment  of  Solo- 
mon" was  purchased  for  seven  hundred  guineas.  In 
the  early  part  of  his  career  he  quarrelled  with  the  Acad- 
emy, and  when  he  applied  for  admission  as  an  associate 
he  was  refused.  In  1815  he  o])ened  a  school  of  painting, 
in  which  several  eminent  artists  were  formed  ;  but  in 
l^ecuniary  matters  he  was  not  successful.  While  con- 
fined in  prison  for  debt  in  1827,  he  painted  the  "Mock 
Election,"  for  which  George  IV.  ])aid  him  five  hundred 
guineas.  "Napoleon  Musing  at  Saint  Plelena"  was  one 
of  his  most  admired  productions.  In  1837-38-39  he 
gave  lectures  on  Painting,  which  were  very  popular,  and 
were  jiublished  in  1844.  The  last  years  of  his  life  were 
rendered  unhappy  by  pecuniary  difficulties,  and  his  mind 
became  so  disordered  that  he  committed  suicide  in  June, 
1846.  His  merit  as  a  painter  is  variously  estimated. 
The  Landseers  were  his  pupils. 

See  his  Life,  by  Thomas  Taylor,  1853,  3  vols. ;  "London  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  October,  1853  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October, 
1853  :  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1853. 

Haye,  La.    See  Cormenin  and  Delahaye. 

Hayer,  /zt'ya',  (Jean  Nicolas  Hubert,)  a  French 
monk,  born  at  Sarre-Louis  about  1708.  He  defended 
revealed  religion  against  infidels  in  several  works.  Died 
in  1780. 

Hayer  du  Perron,  le,  leh  h\'^\'  6x\  pi^r^N',  (Pierre,) 
a  French  poet,  born  at  Alen9on  in  1603  ;  died  after  1678. 

Hayes,  haz,  (Augustus  Allen,)  an  American  chem- 
ist, born  at  Windsor,  Vermont,  in  1806.  He  made  seve- 
ral important  discoveries,  and  contributed  to  Silliman's 
"Journal  of  Science,"  and  other  scientific  publications. 

Hayes,  haz,  (Catherine,)  a  popular  vocalist,  born 
at  Limerick,  Ireland,  about  1820.  She  performed  vvith 
success  in  the  theatres  of  Italy,  Vienna,  and  London. 
In  1851  she  visited  the  United  States,  and  sang  in  the 
principal  cities.    Died  in  1861. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  September,  1861. 

Hayes,  (Charles,)  an  English  mathematician,  born 
in  1678,  wrote  learned  and  ingenious  works,  among 
which  are  treatises  on  "  Fluxions  and  Conic  Sections," 
on  "  Longitude,"  and  "  Chronology  of  the  Septuagint," 
Died  in  1760. 


€  as  k;  9  as  .r;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^[^^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HATES 


HATTER 


Hayes,  (Isaac  I.,)  an  American  explorer,  born  in  Ches- 
ter county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1832,  graduated  as  M.D,  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1853.  The  same  year 
he  accompanied  Dr.  Kane  on  an  exploring  expedition 
to  the  North  Pole.  After  passing  two  winters  in  the 
northern  regions,  blocked  u|}  in  the  ice,  and  suffering 
incredible  hardships,  they  returned  in  the  autumn  of 
1855.  (See  Kane,  Elisha  K.)  Dr.  Hayes  published 
an  interesting  account  of  his  share  in  this  expedition, 
entitled  "An  Arctic  Boat  Journey,"  (Boston,  i860.)  In 
i860  he  conducted  a  second  expedition  to  the  Arctic 
regions,  and  returned  in  the  autumn  of  1861.  He  has 
since  written  a  tale,  entitled  "Cast  away  in  the  Cold," 
first  published  in  the  pages  of  "Our  Young  Folks." 

Hayes,  (William,)  an  English  musical  composer, 
born  in  1 708;  died  in  1777. 

Hayez,  S'yi',  ?  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  historical 
painter  and  excellent  colorist,  born  at  Venice  in  1792. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Laocoon,"  and  "The  Two  Fos- 
cari." 

See  "Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1841. 

HayTey,  (William,)  an  English  author,  born  at 
Chichester  in  1745,  resided  at  Eartham,  and  enjoyed  an 
easy  fortune  in  literary  pursuits.  In  1792  he  became 
acquainted  with  the  poet  Cowper,  whose  life  he  after- 
wards wrote,  (1804.)  He  published  a  variety  of  works 
in  prose  and  verse,  which  once  were  very  popular,  but 
are  not  now  ranked  above  mediocrity.  His  chief  poems 
are  "An  Essay  on  History,"  (1780,)  "Triumphs  of  Tem- 
per," (1781,)  "An  Essay  on  Painting,"  and  "An  Essay 
on  Epic  Poetry,"  (1782.)  He  was  not  without  taste, 
and  possessed  some  skill  in  versification  ;  but  his  poetry 
is  feeble  and  infected  with  mawkish  sentiment.  Southey 
once  remarked,  "Every  thing  about  that  man  is  good 
except  his  poetry."    Died  in  1820. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  W.  Hayley,"  by  himself,  1823;  Carey,  "Lives 
of  English  Poets  from  Johnson  to  Kirke  White  ;"  "  London  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  December,  1824. 

Haym,  hTm,  (Niccol6  Francesco,)  a  musician  and 
bibliograi)her,  born  in  Rome  about  1680.  He  composed 
several  admired  sonatas,  and  published  a  valuable  work 
on  Italian  bibliography,  called  "  Notices  of  Rare  Books 
in  the  Italian  Language,"  (1726.)    Died  in  London  in 

Hay'man,  (Francis,)  an  English  historical  painter, 
born  at  Exeter  in  1708,  lived  chiefly  in  London.  He 
was  one  of  the  earliest  members  of  the  Royal  Academy. 
Among  his  principal  productions  are  his  illustrations  of 
Shakspeare  and  Milton.    Died  in  1776. 

Haymo  or  Haimo,  hT'mo,  or  Aimo,  T'mo,  a  Ger- 
man ecclesiastic,  whose  writings  had  a  high  reputation, 
became  Bishop  of  Halberstadt  in  841  A.n.  He  wrote 
"Commentaries  on  the  Scriptures."    Died  in  853. 

Haynau,  von,  fon  hi'now,  (Julius  Jakor,.)  Baron, 
an  Austrian  general,  born  at  Cassel  in  1786,  was  a  natu- 
ral son  of  the  Elector  of  Hesse-Cassel.  He  entered  the 
Austrian  service  in  1801,  became  colonel  in  1830,  and 
field-marshal-lieutenant  in  1844.  In  the  suppression  of 
a  revolt  in  Italy  in  1848  and  1849,  he  displayed  some 
military  skill  and  became  notorious  for  his  cruelty.  He 
obtained  in  May,  1849,  the  chief  command  of  the  Aus- 
trian army  in  Hungary,  and  defeated  the  Hungarians  in 
several  actions.  The  execution  of  the  vanquished  chiefs 
and  patriots  by  his  orders  excited  general  indignation. 
He  was  deprived  of  his  command  in  1850.  During  a 
visit  to  London  in  1850,  he  was  assaulted  and  roughly 
treated  by  the  draymen  of  Barclay  &  Perkins's  brewery. 
Died  in  1853. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Hayne,  (Arthur  P.,)  a  brother  of  Robert  Y.  Hayne, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
in  1790.  He  entered  the  army  in  1807,  served  during 
the  war  of  1812,  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
New  Orleans,  January,  181 5,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
adjutant-general.  He  resigned  his  commission  in  1820, 
and  became  a  lawyer.  In  1858  he  was  chosen  a  United 
States  Senator. 

Hayne,  hi'neh,  (Frif.drich  Gottlob,)  a  German 
botanist,  born  in  1763,  became  professor  of  botany  at 
Berlin.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  an  excellent 
"Description  and  Representation  of  Plants  used  in  Medi- 


cine," (II  vols.,  1802-31,  with  600  plates  designed  by 
himself.)    Died  in  1832. 

See  Cai.lisen,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 

Hayne,  (Isaac,)  an  officer,  born  in  South  Carolina  in 
1745,  became  a  wealthy  planter.  He  served  against  the 
British  at  the  siege  of  Charleston  in  1780,  was  taken 
prisoner  and  paroled.  The  British  by  threats  induced 
him  to  subscribe  a  declaration  of  allegiance,  and  after- 
wards required  him  to  take  arms  for  the  king.  To  avoid 
this  necessity,  he  joined  the  American  army,  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  hung  in  August,  1781. 

Hayne,  (Julia  Dean,)  a  popular  American  actress, 
born  at  Pleasant  Valley,  New  York,  in  1830,  has  per- 
formed with  success  in  the  United  States  and  England. 

Hayne,  (Paul  H.,)  a  poet,  and  nephew  of  Robert  Y. 
Hayne,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  183 1.  He  published  a  volume  of  Poems  in 
1854. 

Hayne,  (Robert  Young,)  a  distinguished  American 
orator,  born  in  the  parish  of  Saint  Paul,  South  Caroling, 
in  1 791,  was  a  grand-nephew  of  Isaac  Hayne,  who  was 
executed  by  the  British  in  1781.  He  studied  law  with 
Langdon  Cheves,  and  became  eminent  in  his  profession. 
In  1818  he  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  legislature  of 
South  Carolina,  which  he  represented  in  the  national 
Senate  from  1823  to  1832.  In  January,  1830,  he  made 
an  eloquent  speech  in  the  Senate,  to  which  Webster 
replied  in  one  of  his  most  successful  and  memorable 
efforts.  He  was  Governor  of  his  native  State  from  1832 
to  1834,  and  advocated  nullification.    Died  in  1840. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  ii. 

Hayne,  (Rev.  Thomas,)  an  English  critic  and  teacher, 
born  in  Leicestershire  in  1581,  was  a  graduate  of  Ox- 
ford, and  an  excellent  linguist.  He  published  a  "Latin 
Grammar,"  a  "Life  of  Luther,"  a  "General  View  of  the 
Holy  Scripture,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1645. 

Haynes,  hanz,  (Hofion,)  born  in  1672,  was  assay- 
master  of  the  English  mint,  and  a  friend  of  Sir  Isaac 
Newton.  He  wrote  zealously  in  defence  of  Unitarian 
doctrines.    Died  in  1749. 

Haynes,  (John,)  an  Anglo-American  governor,  was 
born  in  Essex,  England,  and  removed  to  Boston  in  1633. 
In  1635  he  was  chosen  Governor  of  Massachusetts.  In 
1636  be  became  one  of  the  chief  founders  of  Connecticut, 
of  which  he  was  chosen  the  first  Governor  in  1639,  and 
was  afterwards  several  times  re-elected.    Died  in  1654. 

Haynes,  hanz,  (Lemuel,)  an  eminent  coloured  min- 
ister, born  in  West  Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  1753.  He 
early  displayed  a  remarkable  thirst  for  knowledge,  and, 
by  devoting  all  his  leisure  to  study,  became  in  a  few 
years  a  good  Latin  and  Greek  scholar.  In  1775  he 
joined  the  American  army,  and  the  next  year  served  in 
the  expedition  to  Ticonderoga.  Licensed  to  preach  in 
1780,  he  was  thirty  years  pastor  in  West  Rutland,  Ver- 
mont. From  1822  until  his  death,  in  1833,  he  preached 
to  a  congregation  in  Granville,  New  York.  His  famous 
sermon  against  Universalism.  in  reply  to  Hosea  Ballou, 
has  been  widely  read.  A  memoir  of  his  life  was  pub- 
lished by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Cooley. 

Hays,  haz,  (Alexander,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  about  1824,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1844.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers  in  September,  1862,  commanded  a  division  at 
Gettysburg,  July,  1863,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
the  Wilderness  in  May,  1864. 

Hays,  (William  Jacob,)  a  painter  of  animals,  was 
born  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1830.  He  produced 
many  pictures  of  dogs  and  game. 

Hay'ter,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  painter  of  history 
and  portraits,  was  born  in  London  about  1792.  He 
studied  for  several  years  in  Italy,  and  after  his  return 
obtained  the  title  of  first  painter  to  the  queen,  by  whom 
he  was  knighted  in  1842.  Among  his  finest  productions 
are  "Victoria  taking  the  Oath  at  the  Coronation,"  and 
"The  Trial  of  Lord  Russell."   Died  in  1871. 

Hayter,  (Rev.  John,)  an  Englishman,  who  was  em- 
ployed to  sujjerintend  the  process  of  unrolling  the  Greek 
manuscripts  found  at  Herculaneum.  He  published  a 
"Report  on  the  Herculaneum  Manuscripts,"  (181 1.) 
Died  in  1818. 


a,  e, 1, 6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  j,  6,  u,  y,  s/wrt;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ohscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit: m6t:  nfit;  good;  moon; 


HATWARD 


1149 


HEARNE 


Hay'ward,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  historian,  who 
published  in  1599  "The  First  Part  of  the  Reign  of  Henry 
IV."  He  was  knighted  in  1619.  He  also  wrote  the 
lives  of  William  I.,  William  II.,  and  Henry  I.  Died 
in  1627. 

Haywood,  (Eliza.)    See  Heywood. 

Hay'wood,  (Elizabeth,)  an  English  authoress, 
born  in  London  in  1693,  wrote  "The  Female  Spectator," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1756, 

Haz'ard,  (Ebenezer,)  born  in  Philadelphia  about 
1744,  was  postmaster-general  of  the  United  States  from 
1782  to  1789.  He  published  "Historical  Collection  of 
State  Papers,"  etc.,  (1792.)    Died  in  181 7. 

Hazard,  (Samuel,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1784.  He  published  in  1828-36  the 
"Register  of  Pennsylvania,"  containing  historical  docu- 
ments, etc.  He  also  wrote  the  "  Annals  of  Pennsylvania 
from  1609  to  1682." 

Ha'zen,  (William  B.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Vermont  in  1830,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1855.  He 
served  as  colonel  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April  7,  1862, 
and  as  brigadier-general  at  the  battles  of  Stone  River, 
which  ended  in  January,  1863,  and  Chickamauga,  Sep- 
tember 19  and  20  of  the  same  year.  He  commanded  a 
division  of  the  army  of  General  Sherman  in  the  campaign 
against  Atlanta,  and  in  the  march  from  that  place  to  the 
sea,  in  1864;  and  he  was  made  a  major-general  of  vol- 
unteers in  December  of  that  year. 

Ha'zle-rig,  written  also  Heselrige,  (Sir  Arthur,)  an 
English  Puritan,  who  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  oppo- 
sition to  Charles  I.,  was  born  about  1612.  He  represented 
Leicestershire  in  the  Long  Parliament,  and  was  one  of 
the  five  members  whom  the  king  attempted  to  arrest 
in  1642  on  a  charge  of  treason.  During  the  civil  war 
he  served  in  the  army  of  Parliament  as  colonel.  In 
1649  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  council  of  state, 
and  in  1658  was  created  a  peer  by  Cromwell,  but  pre- 
ferred to  retain  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
Died  in  1660. 

HazTitt,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  critic  and 
miscellaneous  author,  born  at  Maidstone,  April  10,  1778, 
was  the  son  of  a  Unitarian  minister.  After  making 
creditable  essays  in  the  art  of  painting,  he  adopted  lite- 
rature as  a  profession,  and  in  1803  obtained  employment 
as  a  reporter  for  the  London  newspapers.  In  1805  he 
published  his  first  work,  "An  Essay  on  the  Principles 
of  Human  Action,"  followed  by  "The  Eloquence  of  the 
British  Senate,"  (1808,)  with  critical  notes.  In  1808  he 
married  Miss  Stoddart.  Between  1813  and  1818  he  de- 
livered lectures  on  philosophy  and  English  poetry,  some 
of  which  were  published  and  favourably  received.  Of 
his  very  numerous  and  various  works  the  following  are 
perhaps  the  principal:  "Characters  of  Shakspeare's 
Plays,"  (1817,)  "  Original  Essays,"  (1821,)  "The  Spirit 
of  the  Age,"  (1824,)  "The  Plain  Speaker,"  "Political 
Essays,"  "Table-Talk,"  (1824,)  and  "The  Life  of  Na- 
poleon," (4  vols.,  1828.)  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he 
contributed  to  the  "Edinburgh  Review."  He  enjoyed 
a  high  reputation  as  a  critic;  but  allowance  must  be 
made  for  his  prejudice  against  living  authors.  Sir  Ar- 
chibald Alison  expressed  the  opinion  that  "in  critical 
disquisitions  on  the  leading  characters  and  works  of 
the  drama,  he  is  not  surpassed  in  the  whole  range  of 
English  literature."    Died  in  1830. 

See  "  Literary  Remains  of  W.  Hazlitt,  with  a  Notice  of  his  Life, 
by  his  Son,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1836.  For  a  full  account  of  Hazlitt's  Works, 
see  "  List  of  the  Writings  of  William  Hazlitt  and  Leigh  Hunt,  chro- 
nologically arranged,"  etc.,  by  Alexander  Ireland,  London,  1868; 
WiLLtAM  Carew  Hazlitt,  "Memoirs  of  William  Hazlitt,"  Lon- 
don, 1867  ;  see  also  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  August,  1817,  and 
January,  1837  ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  1826. 

Hazlitt,  (William,)  Jr.,  a  lawyer,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  about  1810.  He  has  distinguished 
himself  as  the  translator  of  various  works,  among  which 
are  a  "Life  of  Luther,"  (1846,)  Guizot's  "History  of  the 
English  Revolution,"  (1846,)  and  Thierry's  "History  of 
the  Conquest  of  England  by  the  Normans,"  (1847.) 
He  has  edited  the  Works  of  De  Foe,  (1840,)  and  those 
of  his  father. 

His  son,  William  Carew  H.,  born  in  1834,  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  the  Republic  of  Venice,"  (4  vols., 
i860.) 


Head,  hed,  (Sir  Edmund  Walker,)  an  English  colo- 
nial governor,  born  near  Maidstone,  Kent,  in  1805.  He 
was  appointed  Lieutenant-Governor  of  New  Brunswick 
in  1847,  and  succeeded  Lord  Elgin  as  Governor-General 
of  Canada  in  1854.  He  wrote  a  "Hand-Book  of  the 
History  of  the  Spanish  and  French  Schools  of  Painting," 
(1848,)  a  work  of  merit.    Died  in  January,  1868. 

Head,  (Sir  Francis  Bond,)  a  popular  English  writer, 
born  near  Rochester,  Kent,  in  1793.  He  was  a  captain 
in  the  army  when,  in  1825,  he  went  to  South  America 
as  agent  of  a  mining  association,  and  in  1826  published 
"  Rough  Notes  of  a  Journey  across  the  Pampas,"  etc., 
which  was  received  with  much  favour.  In  1833  he  pro- 
duced a  successful  humorous  book,  called  "  Bubbles  from 
the  Brunnen  of  Nassau."  He  became  in  1836  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Upper  Canada,  in  which  an  insurrection 
broke  out  in  1837.  After  the  suppression  of  this  he 
resigned,  and  returned  to  England  in  1838.  He  wrote 
"The  Emigrant,"  (6th  edition,  1852,)  and  other  works. 

See  "Sir  F.  Head;  a  Narrative;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
April,  1847;  "London  Magazine"  for  October,  1826. 

Head,  (Sir  George,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  near  Rochester  in  1782.  He  served  in  the  army  in 
the  Peninsula  from  1809  to  1814,  when  he  was  ordered 
to  Canada  and  Nova  Scotia.  After  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  published  "Forest  Scenes  and  Incidents  in  the 
Wilds  of  North  America,"  (1829,)  and  several  other 
books  of  travel.  In  1849  appeared  his  "  Rome  :  a  Tour 
of  Many  Days,"  said  to  be  a  standard  work.  He  was 
made  a  knight  in  1831.    Died  in  1855. 

Head,  (Richard,)  an  Irish  dramatist,  wrote  comedies. 
He  was  drowned  at  sea  in  1678. 

Headley,  h^d^le,  (Henry,)  an  English  author,  born 
at  Norwich  in  1766,  was  educated  at  Oxford.  In  1786  he 
published  a  volume  of  poems,  and  wrote  several  articles 
for  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  and  No.  16  in  "Olla 
Podrida."  In  1787  he  published  "Select  Beauties  of 
Ancient  English  Poets,  with  Remarks."  His  biographer, 
Rev.  H.  Kett,  says,  "  His  principles  of  criticism  are 
sound,  and  his  remarks  pertinent.  .  .  .  His  biographical 
sketches  of  the  old  English  poets  may  be  considered  as 
a  rich  cabinet  of  exquisite  portraits."    Died  in  1788. 

See  H.  Kett,  "Sketch  of  H.  Headley,"  prefixed  to  his  "Select 
Beauties  of  Ancient  English  Poets,"  1810. 

Headley,  hgd'le,  (Joel  Tyler,)  an  American  writer, 
born  in  Delaware  county,  New  York,  in  1814,  graduated 
at  Union  College  in  1839.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  "Napoleon  and  his  Marshals,"  (2  vols.,  1846,)  a 
"  Life  of  Oliver  Cromwell,"  (1848,)  and  a  "  History  of  the 
Second  War  between  England  and  the  United  States," 
(2  vols.,  1853.)  In  1855  he  was  elected  secretary  of  state 
for  New  York. 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America." 

HeaTy,  (George  Peter  Alexander,)  an  American 
portrait-painter,  born  in  Boston  in  1808.  He  worked 
for  some  years  in  Paris,  and  obtained  a  medal  of  the 
second  class  there  in  1855.  Among  his  works  are  "  Web- 
ster's Reply  to  Hayne,"  and  "Dr.  Franklin  before  Louis 
XVI.  of  France." 

See  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists,"  1867. 

Hea'py,  written  also  Heaphy,  (Thomas,)  an  English 
portrait-painter,  born  about  1775  ;  died  in  1835. 

Hearne,  hern,  (Samuel,)  an  linglish  traveller,  born 
in  London  in  1745,  was  for  several  years  a  midshipman 
in  the  royal  navy.  Having  entered  the  service  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company,  he  was  sent  in  1769  on  an  ex- 
pedition to  discover  a  Northwest  passage,  and  was  the 
first  European  who  penetrated  to  the  ocean  north  of 
America,  Of  this  journey  an  account  was  published  in 
1795.    Died  in  1792. 

Hearne,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  antiquary  and 
collater  of  manuscripts,  was  born  at  White  Waltham, 
Berkshire,  in  1678.  He  became  assistant  librarian  of 
the  Bodleian  Library,  Oxford,  in  1712  ;  but,  being  a 
zealous  Jacobite,  he  refused  to  take  the  oath  to  George 
I.,  and  lost  his  office.  He  published  accurate  editions, 
with  annotations,  of  many  old  works,  among  which  are 
Livy's  "  History,"  (1708,)  Spelman's  "  Life  of  Alfred  the 
Great,"  (1710,)  Leland's  "Itinerary,"  (9  vols., .1710,)  and 
Camden's  "Annals,"  (3  vols.,  171 7.)    He  is  introduced 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HEJRNE 


1150 


HEBERDEN 


in  Pope's  "  Dunciad"  under  the  name  of  "  Wormius." 
Died  in  1735. 

See  HuDDESFORD,  "Life  of  Tliomas  Hearne,"  1772. 

Hearne,  (Thomas,)  an  English  artist,  born  at  Marsh- 
field  in  1744,  was  a  landscape-painter  in  water-colours, 
and  a  topographical  designer.    Died  in  181 7. 

Heath,  (Ben'Jamin,)  an  English  lawyer  and  scholar, 
who  published  in  1740  an  "Essay  on  the  Divine  Exist- 
ence, Unity,  and  Attributes,"  and  in  1765  a  "  Revisal  of 
Shakspeare's  Text."    Died  in  1766. 

Heath,  (Charles,)  an  English  editor  and  engraver, 
born  in  1784,  gained  distinction  by  the  publication  of 
the  "  Shakspeare  Gallery,"  "  Waverley  Gallery,"  "  Book 
of  Beauty,"  and  other  annuals.    Died  in  1848. 

Heath,  (James,)  a  historical  writer,  born  in  London 
in  1629.  He  wrote  a  "Chronicle  of  the  Late  Intestine 
War  in  the  Three  Kingdoms,"  (1661,)  "The  Glories 
of  Charles  II.'s  Restoration,"  (1662,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1664. 

Heath,  (James,)  an  eminent  English  engraver,  born 
about  1760.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "The  Death 
of  Lord  Nelson,"  after  West,  and  a  portrait  of  Washing- 
ton, after  StuarL  He  was  the  father  of  Charles  Heath, 
noticed  above.    Died  in  1834. 

Heath,  (Nicholas,)  born  in  London  about  1500,  be- 
came Archbishop  of  York  and  lord  chancellor  in  1556, 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary.  Having  refused  to  take 
the  oath  of  supremacy,  he  was  deprived  of  his  office  by 
Queen  Elizabeth  in  1558,  and  confined  in  the  Tower. 
Died  in  1579. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Heath,  (William,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Roxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1737,  was  a  farmer  when  the 
Revolution  began.  Li  1775  he  was  appointed  a  briga- 
dier-general, and  in  August,  1776,  a  major-general.  He 
commanded  near  King's  Bridge,  New  York,  in  1776,  and 
in  the  next  year  was"  transferred  to  the  Eastern  army, 
stationed  near  Boston,  where  he  had  temporary  charge 
of  the  troops  of  Burgoyne  who  had  surrendered  at  Sara- 
toga. He  returned  to"  the  main  army  in  1779,  and  was 
employed  in  the  Highlands  of  the  Hudson  until  the  end 
of  the  war.  In  1798  he  published  a  volume  of  military 
"  Memoirs."    Died  in  1814. 

Heath'coat,  (John,)  an  English  mechanical  genius, 
born  in  Leicestershire  in  1784.  He  settled  at  Notting- 
ham as  a  "setter-up"  of  hosiery  and  warp  frames,  and 
invented  a  machine  for  making  lace.    Died  in  1861. 

Heath'cote,  (Ralph,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
author,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  172L  He  became  vicar 
of  Barkby  in  174*8,  and  prebendary  of  Southwell  in  1768. 
He  wrote  a  "History  of  Astronomy,"  and  a  "Sketch  of 
Lord  Bolingbroke's  Philosophy,"  besides  other  works 
on  various  subjects.    Died  in  1795- 

Heathfield,  Lord.  See  Elliot,  (George  Augus- 
tus.) 

Hebbel,  h^b'bel,  (Friedrich,)  a  lyric  poet  and  dra- 
matist, born  in  Ditmarsch,  in  Holstein,  in  1813,  lived 
many  years  in  Vienna.  He  wrote  tragedies  entitled 
"  Genoveva"  and  "Maria  Magdalena,"  and  poems  which 
were  well  received. 

See  Emil  Kiih,  "  F.  Hebbel ;  eine  Characteristik,"  1854. 

He'be,  [Gr.  "mri ;  Fr.  Wtwt,  a  goddess  of  the 

Greek  mythology,  and  the  personification  of  youth,  was 
represented  as  a  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Juno,  (Hera.) 
According  to  Homer,  she  was  a  minister  of  the  gods, 
and  it  was  one  of  the  duties  of  her  office  to  fill  their 
cups  with  nectar.  She  became  the  wife  of  Hercules 
after  his  apotheosis. 

Hebel,  ha'bel,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man poet,  born  at  Bale  in  1760,  became  in  1808  rector  of 
the  Academy  of  Carlsruhe,  and  in  1819  provost  of  the  ec- 
clesiastic chapter,  ( Kirchen-Commissioji. )  His  poems  in 
the  Suabian  dialect  ("Allemannische  Gedichte,"  1803) 
rendered  his  name  popular  throughout  Germany.  He 
describes  nature  in  a  simple  and  effective  style.  He 
published  "  Bible  Histories  for  Youth,"  and  several  other 
works.    Died  in  1826. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  J.  G.  Schult- 
HEiss,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  von  J.  P.  Hebel,"  1831 ;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "  Allgeineine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Gkrvinus,  "  Geschichte  der 
Deiitschen  Dichtung  ;"  and  the  article  entitled  "  The  German  Burns" 
in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  April,  1862,  (by  Bayard  Taylor.) 


Hebenstreit,  ha'ben-stRlt'',  (Johann  Christian,)  a 
German  theologian,  born  in  1686;  died  in  1756. 

Hebenstreit,  (Johann  Ernsf,)  a  German  naturalist 
and  physician,  born  at  Neustadt  on  the  Orla,  Saxony,  in 
1703,  was  professor  of  medicine  at  Leipsic.  He  wrote 
an  admired  Latin  poem  on  Man,  "  De  Homine  Sano  et 
^groto,"  (1758,)  "  Palasologia  Therapis,"  (1779,)  and 
an  interesting  account  of  a  "Journey  to  Algiers,  Tunis, 
etc.,"  which  he  made  in  1732.    Died  in  1757. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  Johann 
August  Ernesti,  "Memoria  J.  E.  Hebenstreitii,"  1759. 

He'b?r,  (Reginald.)  an  excellent  English  poet  and 
prelate,  l>orn  at  Malpas,  in  Cheshire,  on  the  21st  of 
April,  1783.  He  was  the  second  son  of  Reginald  Heber, 
rector  of  Hodnet.  \w  1800  he  entered  Brazennose  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  where  he  produced  in  1803  his  beautiful 
prize  poem  "  Palestine."  He  made  a  tour  on  the  con- 
tinent in  1805  and  1806,  obtained  the  living  of  Hodnet 
in  1807,  and  married  Amelia  Shipley  in  1809.  \w  1812 
he  published  a  volume  of  poems,  containing  translations 
from  Pindar,  and  a  poem  entitled  "Europe:  Lines  on 
the  Present  War."  He  afterwards  composed  more  than 
fifty  "  Hymns  adapted  to  the  Weekly  Church  Service." 
"These  hymns,"  says  D.  M.  Moir,  "have  been  by  far 
the  most  poj^ular  of  his  productions,  and  deservedly  so  ; 
for  in  purity  and  elevation  of  sentiment,  in  simple  pathos 
and  eloquent  earnestness,  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  any- 
thing superior  to  them  in  the  range  of  lyric  poetry."  He 
was  elected  preacher  to  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1822,  and  ap- 
pointed Bishop  of  Calcutta  in  January,  1823.  After 
visiting  many  remote  parts  of  his  very  extensive  diocese, 
he  died  of  apoplexy,  at  Trichinopoli,  on  the  3d  of  April, 
1826,  leaving  a  high  reputation  for  genius,  piety,  and 
liberality.  His  journal  of  a  "  Journey  through  India  from 
Calcutta  to  Bombay,  with  Notes  on  Ceylon,"  (2  vols., 
1828,)  is  called  by  the  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
"one  of  the  most  delightful  books  in  the  language." 
"  Independently  of  its  moral  attraction,"  says  Lord  Jef- 
frey, "we  are  induced  to  think  it  the  most  instructive 
and  important  publication  that  has  ever  been  given  to 
the  world  on  tlie  actual  state  and  conchtion  of  our  In- 
dian empire."  The  same  critic  pays  this  high  tribute  to 
his  character  :  "  Learned,  polished,  and  dignified  he  was 
undoubtedly ;  yet  far  more  conspicuously  kind,  humble, 
tolerant,  and  laborious  ; — zealous  for  his  church,  too,  and 
not  forgetful  of  his  station  ;  but  remembering  it  more  for 
the  duties  than  for  the  honours  that  were  attached  to  it, 
and  infinitely  more  zealous  for  the  religious  improve- 
ment and  for  the  happiness  of  his  fellow-creatures  of 
every  tongue,  faith,  and  complexion  ;  indulgent  to  all 
errors  and  infirmities  ;  liberal  in  the  best  and  truest 
sense  of  the  word  ;  humbly  and  conscientiously  diffident 
of  his  own  excellent  judgment  and  never-failing  charity." 

See  "  Life  of  Reginald  Heber,"  by  his  widow,  4  vols.,  1830  ;  Rev. 
George  Bonner,  "  Memoir  of  R.  Heber  ;"  Krohn,  "  Hebers  Le- 
ben,"  Berlin,  2  vols.,  1831 ;  Thomas  Taylor,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life 
and  Writings  of  the  Rev.  Reginald  Heber;"  "Edinburgh  Review" 
for  December,  1828. 

Heber,  (Richard,)  a  bibliomaniac  and  an  excellent 
classical  scholar,  a  half-brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Westminster  in  1773.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford. In  1804  he  inherited  his  father's  estate  at  Hodnet, 
and  represented  the  University  of  Oxford  in  Parliament 
from  1 82 1  to  1826.  He  indulged  an  extravagant  passion 
for  collecting  books,  on  which  he  is  said  to  have  spent 
about  ;((^ 1 80,000.  He  owned  large  libraries  in  London, 
Oxford,  Paris,  Antwerp,  Ghent,  Hodnet,  and  other 
places.  He  edited  Silius  Italicus  and  Claudian  in  1792. 
Died  in  1833.  Walter  Scott  dedicated  to  him  the 
sixth  canto  of  "Marmion." 

Heb'er-den,  (William,)  an  eminent  physician,  born 
in  London  in  17 10,  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  In 
1748  he  began  the  practice  of  medicine  in  London,  in 
which  he  acquired  a  high  reputation.  In  1750  he  became 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  to  whose  "Transactions" 
he  contributed.  He  was  reputed  one  of  the  best  classical 
scholars  of  his  time.  His  greatest  work,  "  Medical  Com- 
mentaries," (1802,)  was  written  in  elegant  Latin.  His 
moral  character  was  excellent.  Died  in  1801.  His  son, 
William  Hererden,  M.D.,  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Increase  and  Decrease  of  Different  Diseases,"  (1801.) 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m&t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


HEBERER 


HEDGE 


Heberer,  ha'beh-rer,  (Michael,)  a  German  traveller, 
born  in  Baden  about  1550.  He  passed  about  three 
years  as  a  captive  and  slave  in  Egypt  and  Turkey,  and 
published  a  Narrative  of  his  adventures.    Died  in  1610. 

Hebert,  /ti'baiit',  (Antoine  Auguste  Ernest,)  a 
French  historical  painter,  born  at  Grenoble  in  181 7,  was 
a  pupil  of  David  of  Angers.  He  gained  the  first  grand 
prize  in  1839  for  his  picture  of  "The  Cup  found  in  the 
Sack  of  Benjamin."  Among  his  works,  which  are  ad- 
mired for  vigour  of  expression,  are  "  Tasso  in  Prison," 
"  The  Malarta,"  (1850,)  and  "  Les  Filles  d'Alvito,"  {1855.) 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Hebert,  (Jacques  Ren^,)  a  French  demagogue,  born 
at  Alenfon  in  1755,  came  to  Paris  when  quite  young, 
and  was  a  desperate  adventurer  when  the  Revolution 
began.  He  gained  notoriety  by  editing  a  scurrilous 
Jacobin  paper  named  "  Pere  Duchene."  Hebert  and 
Chauniette  were  the  authors  of  the  atheistic  festivals  of 
Reason.  Having  been  proscribed  by  Robespierre  and 
Danton  and  charged  with  a  consj^iracy  to  massacre  the 
Convention,  he  was  executed  in  March,  1794. 

Hebert,  (Michel  Pierre  Alexis,)  a  French  advo- 
cate, born  at  Granville  (Manche)  in  1799. 

Hebert,  (Paul  O.,)  an  American  general  in  the  Con- 
federate service,  born  in  Louisiana.  He  served  in  Mexico 
in  1847,  became  Governor  of  Louisiana  in  1854,  and  was 
made  a  brigadier-general  in  1861. 

Hebrail,  /ibi'h\<iV  or  /zi'bkt'ye,  (Jacques,)  a  French 
bibliographer,  born  at  Castelnaudary  in  1716.  He  pub- 
lished "La  France  litteraire,"  (2  vols.,  1769,)  which  is 
praised  for  accuracy.    Died  about  1800. 

Hecart,  hWk^i<\  (Gauriel  Antoine  Joseph,)  a 
French  litth-atetii',  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1755  ;  died 
in  1838. 

Hecatasus,  hik-a-tee'us,  [Gr.  'E«-a-a?of;  Fr.  H6- 
CAiEE,  hi'kt'ti',]  OF  Arde'ra,  a  Greek  historian,  who 
lived  about  330  B.C.  He  wrote  a  worl<  on  the  flyper- 
boreans,  and  another  on  Egypt.  Fragments  of  these  are 
extant. 

Hecataeus  of  Mi-lf/tus,  son  of  Hegesander,  lived 
about  500  K.c.  He  was  an  eminent  geographer,  and  one 
of  the  earliest  Greek  historians.  Like  Herodotus,  he 
travelled  in  Egypt  and  other  countries  to  obtain  mate- 
rials for  history.  His  works  were  highly  esteemed  by 
the  ancients. 

See  Klausen,  "  De  Vita  et  Scriptis  Hecatsi ;"  C.  Muller,  "  De 
Vita  et  Scriptis  Hecataei." 

Hecate,  h§k'a-te  or  h^k'at,  ['E/car??,]  in  Greek  my- 
thology, was  the  daughter  of  Perses  and  Asteria.  She 
is  first  mentioned  by  Hesiod,  and  appears  to  have  been 
unknown  in  the  age  of  Homer.  Her  attrilnites  were 
various  and  apparently  contradictory :  she  was  said  to 
dispense  blessings  and  avert  misfortunes,  and  was  also 
described  as  a  cruel  infernal  deity,  presiding  over  magic 
and  nocturnal  incantations.  She  was  represented  with 
a  hideous  aspect,  having  her  head  surrounded  with  ser- 
pents, and  infernal  dogs  howling  around  her. 

Hec'a-ton,  [Gr.  'E/curwv,]  a  Greek  Stoic  philosopher, 
born  at  Rhodes,  lived  in  the  first  century  after  Christ. 

Hecht,  h^Kt,  (Christian,)  a  German  philologist  and 
Lutheran  divine,  born  at  Halle  in  1696;  died  in  1748. 

Heck,  van,  vtn  hdk,  (Jan,)  an  excellent  Flemish 
painter  of  landscapes,  flowers,  and  fruit,  born  near 
Oudenarde  about  1625.  He  worked  in  Rome  and  Ant- 
wer;:).    Died  after  1660. 

Heck,  van  der,  vSn  der  h?k,  (Niklaas,)  a  Dutch 
painter  of  Alkmaar,  was  born  about  1580.  He  excelled 
in  landscape  and  history,  was  a  good  colorist,  and  skil- 
ful in  chiaroscuro.    Died  in  1638. 

Heck,  von.    See  Hegius. 

Heckel,  h^k'el,  (Johann  Friedrtch,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Gera  about  1640;  died  in  1715. 

Hecker,  h^k'ker,  (August  Friedrich,)  a  German 
physician  and  medical  writer,  born  near  Halle  in  1763  ; 
died  in  1811. 

Hecker,  (Frtedrtch  Karl  Franz,)  a  German  radi- 
cal politician  and  lawyer,  born  in  Baden  in  181 1.  After 
the  revolution  of  1848-49  he  emigrated  to  the  United 
Stajes,  and  settled  at  Belleville,  Illinois. 

Heck'^r,  (Isaac  Thomas,)  an  American  theologian, 
born  in  New  York  in  1819.    He  became  a  Roman 


Catholic  priest  about  1848.  He  published  "Questions 
of  the  Soul,"  (1855,)  and  other  works. 

Hecker,  (Justus  Friedrich  Karl,)  son  of  August 
Friedrich,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Erfurt  in  1795. 
He  published  "The  l^lack  Death  in  the  F'ourteenth 
Century,"  and  other  valuable  medical  treatises.  Died 
in  1850. 

Heckewelder,  h^k'eh-wgKder,  (Rev.  John,)  a  Mora- 
vian missionary,  born  in  Bedford,  England,  in  1743,  was 
employed  inany  years  among  the  Delaware  Indians.  He 
wrote  an  interesting,  but  rather  flattering,  account  of  the 
"  History,  Manners,  and  Customs  of  the  Indian  Nations," 
(1819.)  "  His  account,"  according  to  General  Cass,  "is 
pure  unmixed  panegyric."  His  death  is  variously  dated 
1 810,  1823,  and  1826. 

See  E.  RoNDTHALER,  "Life  of  J.  Heckewelder,"  Philadelphia, 
1847. 

Heckscher,  h^k'sher,  (Johann  Gustav  Moritz,)  a 
German  politician,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1797.  As  a 
member  of  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort,  he  voted  for 
the  Archduke  John  as  vicar  of  the  empire,  and  was  ap- 
pointed by  him  minister  of  justice  and  of  foreign  afl"airs 
in  1848.    He  was  removed  from  office  before  1849. 

Hecquet, /za'ki',  (Philippe,)  an  eminent  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Abbeville  in  1661.  In  1688  he  began  to 
practise  at  Port-Royal,  where  he  adopted  habits  of  rigid 
abstinence  and  other  austerities,  to  which  he  adhered  to 
the  end  of  his  life.  In  1697  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Faculty  of  Paris,  who  employed  him  as  professor  of  ma- 
teria medica.  He  advocated  the  free  use  of  the  lancet, 
and  wrote  numerous  professional  treatises,  one  of  which 
is  called  "  Novus  Medicinae  Conspectus,"  (1722.)  It  is 
said  that  Hecquet  was  the  prototype  of  "  Doctor  San- 
grado"  in  "Gil  Bias."  He  was  sometimes  called  "the 
French  Hipjiocrates."    Died  in  1737. 

See  Saint-Marc,  "ViedeP.  Hecquet ;""  Biographie  Medicale." 

Hec^'tor,  [Gr.  "E/crwp;  It.  Ettore,  ^t-to'ri,]  a  famous 
Trojan  hero,  the  eldest  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  was 
the  most  valiant  defender  of  Troy  when  that  city  was 
besieged  by  the  Greeks.  His  character  is  one  of  the 
most  admirable  conceptions  of  Homer's  genius.  After 
performing  prodigies  of  valour,  fighting  single  combats 
with  Ajax  and  Diomed,  and  slaying  Patroclus,  he  was 
killed  by  Achilles. 

See  Homer's  "  Iliad," /^jj/w. 

Hec'u-ba  or  Hek'a-be,  [Gr.  'E/ca/???,-  Fr,  H^cube, 
^^kiib',]  was  the  second  wife  of  Priam,  King  of  Troy. 
She  was  the  mother  of  nineteen  children,  among  the  most 
celebrated  of  whom  were  Hector,  Paris,  Cassandra,  and 
Helenus.  Having,  after  the  fall  of  Troy,  been  enslaved 
by  the  Greeks,  she  threw  herself  into  the  sea.  Other 
accounts  state  that  she  was  stoned  by  the  Greeks  and 
was  metamorphosed  into  a  dog. 

Hecube.    See  Hecuba. 

Hed'ding,  (Elijah,)  an  American  Methodist  bishop, 
born  in  the  State  of  New  York  in  1780.  He  was  elected 
a  bishop  about  1824.    Died  at  Poughkeepsie  in  1852. 

Hedelin.    See  Aubignac,  d'. 

Hedenborg,  ha'den-boRg',  (Johan,)  a  Swedish  phy- 
sician and  traveller,  born  at  Ileda  in  1787,  visited  the 
Levant  in  1825.  He  published  "The  Manners  and  Cus- 
toms of  the  Turks,"  (1839-42,)  and  "Travels  in  Egypt 
and  the  Interior  of  Africa,"  (1843.) 

Hederich,  haMeh-riK',  or  Hed'er-ic,  (Benjamin,) 
an  eminent  German  lexicographer,  was  born  atGeithain, 
in  Saxony,  in  1675.  He  was  rector  of  the  Co.'lege  of 
Grossenhain  for  forty-two  years,  and  published  many 
useful  school-books,  among  which  are  a  "  Lexicon  Manu- 
ale  Grascum,"  (1722,)  and  a  "Dictionary  of  Mythology," 
(1724.)  The  former  was  extensively  used  in  Germany 
and  England.  An  improved  edition  was  published  by 
Ernesti  in  1766.    Died  in  1748. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Hedge,  (Frederick  Henry,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished 
scholar  and  Unitarian  divine,  born  at  Cambridge,  Mas- 
sachusetts, December  12,  1805.  He  studied  in  Germany; 
after  his  return  he  graduated,  in  1825,  at  Harvard,  where 
also  he  was  a  student  in  divinity.  He  officiated  for  some 
years  in  West  Cambridge;  and  in  1835  he  removed  to 
Bangor,  Maine.  In  1847  he  visited  Europe  a  second 
time,  and  on  his  return  was  settled  for  a  few  years  in 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  v.^  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  asz;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HEDGE 


HEEREN 


Providence,  Rhode  Island.  He  was  invited  in  1856  to 
take  the  pastoral  charge  of  the  Unitarian  church  at 
Brookline,  Massachusetts,  where  he  still  resides.  In 
1857  he  was  chosen  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at 
the  divinity  school  of  Harvard.  The  same  year  he  be- 
came editor  of  the  "Christian  Examiner,"  to  which  he 
has  made  many  valuable  contributions.  Of  his  numerous 
publications  the  most  important  are  "The  Prose  Writers 
of  Germany,"  (1848,)  "Reason  in  Religion,"  (1865,)  and 
"The  Primeval  World  of  Hebrew  Tradition,"  {1870.) 
Dr.  Hedge  is  distinguished  for  his  varied  learning  and 
high  literary  culture,  as  well  as  for  strength,  originality, 
and  acuteness  of  intellect ;  and  his  writings  are  destined, 
we  doubt  not,  to  take  a  permanent  piace  in  his  country's 
literature. 

See  "  North  American  Review"  for  ,  1848. 

Hedge,  (Levi,)  the  father  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Warwick,  Massachusetts,  in  1767,  was  for  many  years 
professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  at  Harvard.  His 
"System  of  Logic"  (1818)  had  a  great  success,  and  was 
translated  into  German.    Died  in  1843. 

Hedg'es,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  English  politician,  gradu- 
ated at  Oxford  in  1675.  "7*^°  was  appointed  one 
of  the  chief  secretaries  of  state.  About  the  same  time 
he  was  returned  to  Parliament,  in  which  he  sat  many 
years.  The  Whigs  dismissed  him  from  the  office  of 
secretary  in  1706.    Died  in  17 14. 

Hedin,  ha-deen',  (Sven  Anders,)  a  Swedish  medical 
writer,  born  in  Smaland  in  1750,  was  a  pupil  of  Linnaeus. 
He  became  first  physician  to  the  King  of  Sweden  in 
1798.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "Eulogy  on 
Linnaeus,"  (1808.)    Died  in  1821. 

Hedio,  ha'de-o,  (Kaspar,)  a  German  Protestant 
divine,  born  at  Ettlingen,  in  Baden,  in  1494.  He  be- 
came about  1520  court  preacher  at  Mentz,  whence  he 
removed  to  Strasburg  in  1523.  He  preached  in  the 
cathedral  of  this  city,  and  made  many  converts.  He 
wrote  a  work  on  the  history  of  his  times,  called  "Chron- 
icon  Germanicum,"  (1530,)  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1552. 

See  Melchior  Adam,  "  Vits  Germancrum  Philosophorum ;'' 
MM.  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Hedlinger,  hgt'ling-er,  (Johann  Karl,)  an  eminent 
Swiss  engraver  of  medals,  born  at  Schwitz  in  1691, 
learned  his  art  with  Saint-Urbain,  of  Nancy.  He  went 
to  Paris  in  171 7,  after  which  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden 
appointed  him  director  of  the  mint.  In  1735  he  accepted 
an  invitation  from  the  Russian  court,  which  rewarded 
him  with  large  presents.  He  also  engraved  for  other 
European  courts.  He  is  thought  to  approach  the  per- 
fection of  the  ancients  more  closely  than  any  other 
modern  artist.    Died  in  1 77 1. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  AUgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Hedouin,  //k'doo-4N',  (Charles  FRANgois,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1761  ;  died  in  1826. 

Hedouin,  (Edmond,)  a  French  painter  of  landscapes 
ard  genre,  born  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer  in  1819. 

Hedouin,  (Pierre,)  a  French  litterateur  TiW^  musician, 
born  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer  in  1789. 

Hedouin  de  Pons-Ludon,  //i'doo-iN'  deh  p6N  lii'- 
d6N',  (Joseph  Antoine,)  a  French  poet  and  litterateur, 
born  at  Rheims  in  1739;  died  in  181 7. 

Hedouville,  /^iMoo^v^K,  (Gabriel  Theodore  Jo- 
seph,) Count,  a  French  general,  born  at  Laon  in  1755. 
He  succeeded  Hoche  in  1797  as  general-in-chief  of  the 
army  of  the  West,  where  the  royalists  were  in  arms.  He 
served  as  chief  of  the  staff  of  Jerome  Bonaparte  in  the 
campaign  of  1806.    Died  in  1825. 

Hed'wig,  written  also  Hedwige  and  Jadwiga, 
Queen  of  Poland,  born  in  1371,  was  a  daughter  of  Louis 
of  Hungary,  and  was  chosen  by  the  Polish  nobles  to 
succeed  him  on  the  throne  in  1384.  She  was  married 
to  Jagellon,  Duke  of  Lithuania.  Historians  represent 
her  as  beautiful  and  wise.    Died  in  1399. 

Hedwig,  hgd'<Vig,  (Johann,)  a  celebrated  German 
botanist,  born  at  Cronstadt,  in  Transylvania,  in  1730. 
He  made  several  important  discoveries  with  the  micro- 
scope, which  he  used  with  great  skill.  He  published  in 
1795  his  "Analytic  Description  and  Designs  of  New 
and  Doubtful  Cryptogamous  Plants,"  (4  vols,  fol.,)  which 
is  esteemed  a  standard  work ;  also,  "  Observations  on 


the  True  Parts  of  Generation  in  Mosses,"  which  he  was 
the  first  to  discover.    Died  in  1799. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  "  Edin- 
burt^h  Encyclopaedia." 

Heede,  van,  vin  ha'deh,  (Vigor,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Furnes  in  1659.  He  worked  in  France  and  Italy, 
and  his  native  place.    Died  in  1718. 

Heede,  van,  (Willem,)  a  skilful  painter,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1660.  He  worked  at  Rome, 
Venice,  and  Vienna,  where  he  was  patronized  by  the 
emperor.  His  colouring,  design,  and  composition  are 
praised.    Died  in  1728. 

Heem,  van,  vin  ham,  (Jan  David,)  an  excellent 
Dutch  painter  of  fruit,  flowers,  and  still  life,  born  at 
Utrecht  in  1600.  He  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest 
painters  in  his  department  of  art.  His  works  have  an 
exquisite  finish  without  the  appearance  of  effort,  and 
were  sold  for  very  high  prices.    Died  in  1674. 

His  son,  Cornelis,  was  a  painter  of  similar  subjects. 

See  Descamps.  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Heemskerk,  van,  vtn  hams'k^Rk,  written  also 
Hemskerk,  (Jacob,)  a  brave  and  skilful  naval  officer, 
born  at  Amsterdam.  He  commanded  an  expedition  sent 
in  1595  to  explore  a  northeast  passage  to  China,  but 
w^as  not  successful,  his  progress  being  obstructed  by  ice. 
Having  obtained  the  rank  of  admiral,  and  the  command 
of  a  fleet  of  twenty-six  vessels,  he  signally  defeated  the 
Spaniards  near  Gibraltar  in  1607.  Heemskerk  and  the 
Spanish  admiral  were  both  killed  in  this  action. 

See  Engelberts  Gerrits,  "  Leven  en  Daden  der  Zeehelden  J. 
van  Heemskerk  en  P.  P.  Hein,"  1825;  Motley,  "United  Nether- 
lands," vol.  iv.  chaps,  xl.-xlvii. 

Heemskerk,  van,  (Martin,)  an  eminent  Dutch  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Heemskerk  in  1498.  His  family 
name  was  Van  Veen.  He  studied  with  J.  Schoorel, 
and  produced  at  Haarlem  a  fine  picture  of  "Saint  Luke 
Painting  the  Virgin  Mary."  About  1532  he  visited 
Rome,  where  he  consulted  and  imitated  Michael  Angelo. 
He  afterwards  returned  to  Haarlem.  His  design  is  cor- 
rect rather  than  elegant.  Among  his  works  is  "Mars 
and  Venus  surprised  by  Vulcan."    Died  in  1574. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Heerbrand,  haR'bRint,  (Jakob,)  a  German  Lutheran 
divine,  born  at  Giengen,  in  Suabia,  about  1520,  studied 
under  Luther  at  Wittenberg.  He  was  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Tiibingen  for  about  forty  years,  and  wrote 
"Compendium  Theologiaj,"  (1573.)    Died  in  1600. 

Heere,  de,  deh  ha'reh,  (Lucas,)  a  skilful  Flemish 
painter  and  poet,  born  at  Ghent  in  1534,  was  the  son 
of  John  de  Heere,  a  noted  sculptor.  He  was  patronized 
by  the  court  of  France,  and  worked  some  years  in  Eng- 
land, where  he  painted  portraits  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and 
of  some  of  the  nobility.  Among  his  works  are  "The 
Pentecost,"  and  a  "  Resurrection."  He  wrote,  in  Flemish, 
"The  Garden  of  Poetry,"  (a  poem.)    Died  in  1584. 

See  Houbkaken,  "Vies  des  Peintres;"  Descamps,  "Vies  des 
Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.;  P.  Blommaert,  "  Levensschets  van  L. 
de  Heere,"  1853. 

Heeren,  ha'ren,  (Arnold  Hermann  Ludwig,)  an 
eminent  German  historian,  born  near  Bremen  in  October, 
1760,  Having  studied  philology  at  Gottingen  under 
Heyne,  he  visited  Italy,  Paris,  and  the  Netherlands. 
He  published  in  1801  an  edition  of  the  "Eclogae 
Physicae  et  Ethicae"  of  Stobaeus,  and  about  the  same 
time  became  professor  of  history  at  Gottingen,  having 
previously  married  a  daughter  of  Heyne.  His  "  Ancient 
History"  ("Geschichte  der  Staaten  des  Alterthums") 
appeared  in  1799,  and  his  "History  of  the  Political  Sys- 
tems and  Colonies  of  Europe"  in  1809.  His  greatest 
work,  "Ideas  on  the  Politics,  Commerce,  and  Trade  of 
the  Principal  Nations  of  Antiquity,"  ("Ideen  iiber  die 
Politik,  den  Verkehr  und  den  Handel  der  vornehmsten 
Volker,"  etc.,  in  5  vols.,)  was  completed  in  1824,  and  is 
generally  allowed  to  possess  merits  of  the  highest  order. 
Heeren  was  editor  for  a  time  of  the  "Gelehrten  An- 
zeigen"  at  Gottingen,  and  also  had  a  share  in  the  publi- 
cation of  the  "Library  of  Ancient  Literature  and  Art." 
He  was  a  member  of  the  principal  learned  societies  of 
Europe.    Died  at  Gottingen  in  1842. 

See  C.  HoECK,  "A.  H.  L.  Heeren;  Gedachtnissrede,"  1843; 
Jacob  Geei.,  "Levensschets  van  A.  H.  L.  Heeren,"  Delft,  1822; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
January,  1838;  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1829. 


5,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fUll,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


HE  ER  KENS 


HE  IB  ERG 


Heerkens,  haR'kens,  (Gerard  Niklaas,)  a  Dutch 
physician,  and  writer  of  Latin  verse,  born  at  Groningen 
in  1728.  He  owed  his  re])utation  chiefly  to  his  discovery 
of  the  country-house  of  Horace  in  Italy.  He  composed, 
besides  other  Latin  poems,  "  Iter  Venetum,"  ("A  Vene- 
tian Tour,"  1760,)  and  gave  an  interesting  account  of 
his  travels  in  Italy  in  a  book  called  "  Notabilia,"  {1765.) 
Died  in  iSoi. 

Heermann,  haR'mSn,  (Johannes,)  a  German  divine 
and  poet,  born  in  Silesia  in  1585.  His  sacred  songs, 
entitled  "Music  of  the  House  (or  Home)  and  Heart," 
(1644,)  are  highly  esteemed,  and  many  of  them  are  still 
used  in  the  churches.    Died  in  1647. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Heers,  van,  vtn  haRs,  (Hendrik,)  of  Liege,  a  Flem- 
ish medical  writer,  born  about  1570 ;  died  about  1636. 

Heffter,  h^f  ter,  (August  Wilhelm,)  a  German  jurist 
and  legal  writer,  born  at  Schweidnitz  in  1796. 

Heffter,  (Moritz  Wilhelm,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  the  author  of  a  treatise  '*  On  the  Religion  of 
the  Greeks,  Romans,  Ancient  Egyptijms,  and  Indians," 
(2d  edition,  1848,)  and  other  works. 

Hegel,  ha'gei,  (Georg  Wilhelm  Friedrich,)  one  of 
^the  most  eminent  philosophers  of  the  German  school  of 
metaphysics,  was  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1770.  At  the  age 
of  eighteen  he  entered  the  University  of  Tubingen  as 
student  of  theology.  Here  he  formed  an  intimate  ac- 
quaintance and  friendship  with  Schelling,  although  the 
two  friends  became  subsequently  rival  candidates  for  the 
leadership  of  German  philosophy.  On  leaving  the  uni- 
versity he  engaged  as  a  private  teacher,  first  at  Berne  and 
afterwards  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  He  became  in 
1 801  a  lecturer  in  the  University  of  Jena.  In  the  same 
year  appeared  his  first  important  work,  "On  the  Differ- 
ence between  the  Philosophical  Systems  of  Fichte  and 
Schelling."  In  1806  he  became  professor-extraordinary 
of  philosophy  at  Jena ;  but,  that  town  having  soon  after 
been  taken  by  the  French,  he  was  thrown  out  of  employ- 
ment. For  some  time  he  edited  a  political  paper  at  Bam- 
berg. Here  was  published  (1807)  his  "  Phaenomenology," 
the  first  part  of  his  "System  of  Knowledge."  In  1808 
he  was  appointed  rector  of  the  gymnasium  at  Nurem- 
berg, where  he  finished  his  "  Science  of  Logic,"  ("  Wis- 
senschaft  der  Logik,"  in  3  vols.,  1812-16.)  In  1811  he 
married  Marie  von  Tucher,  a  lady  of  strong  religious 
convictions  and  rare  moral  virtues.  He  was  devotedly 
attached  to  her,  and  their  union  was  eminently  a  happy 
one.  He  was  called  in  1816  to  the  chair  of  philosophy 
at  Heidelberg,  and  while  here  published  his  "Encyclo- 
paedia of  the  Philosophical  Sciences,"  in  which  his  whole 
scheme  of  philosophy  is  comprised.  In  1818  he  suc- 
ceeded at  Berlin  to  the  professorship  of  philosophy  left 
vacant  by  the  death  of  Fichte.  He  died  of  cholera  in 
183 1.  Soon  after  his  death  his  works  were  collected 
and  published  at  Berlin,  in  18  vols.,  (1832-41.) 

The  philosophy  of  Hegel  is  regarded  by  his  followers 
as  by  far  the  most  logical,  complete,  and  coni])rehensive 
of  all  the  pantheistic  systems.  With  our  narrow  limits 
it  would  be  impossible  to  give  even  a  satisfactory  out- 
line of  his  scheme.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  it  is  generally 
regarded  as  the  completion  of  the  great  philosophic 
edifice  of  which  Kant  had  laid  the  foundations,  and  to 
which  Fichte  and  Schelling  had  contributed  important 
materials.  One  of  the  most  striking  peculiarities  of 
Hegel's  philosophic  system  is  the  complete  identification 
of  logic  with  metaphysics.  The  Hegelians  have  been 
divided  into  three  classes,  (according  to  the  nomenclature 
of  the  French  legislative  assemblies,)  namely,  the  right, 
the  centre,  and  the  left.  The  right  maintain  that  the 
Hegelian  philosophy  is  perfectly  harmonious  with  ortho- 
dox Christianity:  in  other  words,  it  is  Christianity  viewed 
in  its  philosophic  aspects.  The  left,  represented  by  such 
writers  as  Strauss,  Michelet,  Ruge,  etc.,  for  the  most  part 
deny  the  personality  of  God,  as  well  as  the  truths  of 
Christian  revelation,  though  they  differ  as  to  whether  the 
universe  is  purely  material  or  spiritual  in  its  essence. 
The  centre  (it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say)  occupy  mid- 
dle ground  :  here  belong  Rosenkrantz,  Vatke,  Gans,  etc. 

"Hegel's  system,  [of  philosophy,]"  says  Dr.  Hedge, 
"has  produced  a  profound  impression  upon  the  German 
mind.    The  theological  and  philosophical  controversies 


of  the  day  rage  around  it.  It  is  reputed  to  be  the  most 
comprehensive  and  analytic  of  pantheistic  schemes.  Its 
author  and  some  of  his  disciples  have  asserted  that  it  is 
the  same  system,  in  the  form  of  philosophy,  which  Chris- 
tianity gives  us  in  the  form  of  faith.  But  its  present 
position  is  that  of  hostility  to  Christianity."  ("Prose 
Writers  of  Germany.") 

For  a  full  account  of  Hegel's  system,  see  J.  M.  Sterling,  "  Secret 
of  Hegel,"  2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1865;  F.  Adolf  Trendelenburg, 
"  Logische  Untersuchungen,"  2  vols.,  2d  edition,  1862;  J.  Willm, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Philosophic  Allemande  depuis  Kant  jusqu'i  Hegel," 
(Paris,  4  vols..  1846,)  vol.  iii.  See,  also,  K.  F.  Goeschel,  "  Hegel 
und  seine  Zeit,"  Berlin,  1832;  Rosenkrantz,  "  G.  W.  F.  Hegel's 
Leben,"  1844;  Pkevost,  "Hegel,  Exposition  de  sa  Doctrine,"  1844; 
C.  DE  Remusat,  "  De  la  Philosophie  Allemande,"  1845;  Havm, 
"Hegel  und  seine  Zeit,"  1857;  Cousin,  "Souvenirs  d'un  Voyage 
en  Allemagne,"  1857. 

He-ge'mon  ['Ky^/xuv]  of  Thasos,  an  Athenian  comic 
poet,  flourished  about  450  B.C.  Aristotle  attributes  the 
invention  of  parody  to  him. 

Hegemon,  an  Athenian  orator,  who  favoured  the 
Macedonian  party.    Died  in  317  B.C. 

Hegendorf,  ha'gen-doRf,  (Christoph,)  a  German 
philologist,  and  friend  of  Luther,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1500  ;  died  in  1540. 

He-ge'si-as,  ['Hyrjciac,]  a  Greek  orator  and  historian, 
was  born  at  Magnesia,  and  lived  about  300  or  250  B.C. 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Alexander  the  Great,"  which 
appears  to  have  had  little  merit.  Several  ancient  critics 
censure  the  inflated  style  of  his  oratory,  which  was  one 
of  the  first  examples  of  the  "  Asiatic"  style. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Grscis." 

Hegesias,  a  Cyrenaic  philosopher,  who  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  about  300  B.C.,  was  a  disciple  of  Aristippus. 
He  founded  a  new  sect,  called  Hegesiacs,  maintained 
that  happiness  is  impossible,  and  that  death  is  prefera- 
ble to  life.  His  doctrines  induced  so  many  to  commit 
suicide  that  Ptolemy  closed  his  school. 

Hegesias  the  sculptor.    See  Hegias. 

Hegesippe.    See  Hegesippus. 

Heg-e-sip'pus,  [Gr.  'Byi/anTnog ;  Fr.  H6g^;sippe,  kf- 
zhi'z^p',]  an  Athenian  orator,  who  lived  about  340  B.C. 
He  advocated  a  declaration  of  war  against  Philip  of 
Macedon,  and  was  a  colleague  of  Demosthenes  in  an 
embassy  to  the  Peloponnesians. 

Hegesippus,  an  ecclesiastical  historian,  was  a  Jew  by 
birth,  and  li'ved  at  Rome  in  his  later  years.  Having  been 
converted  to  Christianity,  he  wrote  a  "History  of  the 
Church,"  which  was  the  first  essay  ever  made  in  that 
department.  A  few  fragments  of  his  work  have  been 
preserved  by  Eusebius.    Died  about  180  a.d. 

See  Allemand-Lavigerie,  "De  Hegesippo  Disquisitio  his- 
torica,"  1850. 

Hegetschweiler,  ha'get-sh^T'ler,  (Johann,)  a  Swiss 
botanist,  born  at  Richerschweil  in  1789,  produced  a 
"  flora"  of  Switzerland.    Died  in  1839. 

Hegewisch,  ha'g^h-^^ish'',  (Dietrich  Hermann,)  a 
German  historian,  born  near  Osnabriick  in  1740.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Charlemagne,"  (1772,)  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.,"  (1792.)  Died  in  1812. 

He'gi-as,  ['H/ia^,]  a  famous  Greek  sculptor,  who  lived 
about  450  B.C.  ancl  was  a  contemporary  of  Phidias. 
Among  his  works  was  a  statue  of  Minerva  mentioned  by 
Pliny.  By  some  writers  he  is  regarded  as  identical  with 
Hegesias,  an  eminent  sculptor  of  the  same  period. 

Hegira,  (Hejra.)    See  Mohammed. 

Hegius,  ha'ge-iis,  or  von  Heck,  fon  hSk,  (Alex- 
ander,) a  German  scholar,  born  at  Heck,  in  Westphalia, 
about  1440,  was  a  pupil  of  Thomas  a  Kempis.  He  taught 
the  classics  for  thirty  years  in  the  College  of  Deventer, 
where. Erasmus  and  other  eminent  men  were  his  pupils, 
and  xMas  the  first  who  introduced  the  study  of  Greek  into 
Holland.  He  wrote  Latin  verses,  and  dialogues  "  De  Sci- 
entia,"  etc.,  and  "  De  Rhetorica."  Erasmus  classes  He- 
gius among  the  restorers  of  classic  learning.  Died  in  1498. 

See  Sax,  "  Onomasticon  Literarium." 

Heiberg,  hi'bgRG,  (Johan  Ludwig,)  a  popular 
Danish  dramatist  and  poet,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1791. 
He  produced  in  1811  a  drama  called  "Tycho  Brahe's 
Prediction,"  and  passed  several  years  in  France,  from 
which  he  introduced  the  vaudeville  into  Denmark. 
Among  his  successful  dramas  of  that  kind  are  Solomon 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  /tare/;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

73 


HE  IB  ERG 


1154 


HEIMDALL 


and  the  Hatter,"  (1826,)  and  "The  Danes  in  Paris," 
(1833.)  He  received  in  1829  the  title  of  royal  dramatic 
poet  and  translator.  He  published  several  metaphysical 
works,  among  which  is  "The  Significance  of  the  Phi- 
losophy of  the  Present  Day,"  ("  Ueber  die  Bedeutung 
der  Philosophic  der  Gegenwart,"  1833.)  His  poetical 
works  were  published  in  9  vols.,  (1833-41.)  Died  in  Paris 
in  i860. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon ;"  Howitt,  "  Litera- 
ture and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe,"  vol.  ii. 

Heiberg,  (Johanne  Louise,)  whose  maiden  name 
was  Johanne  Louise  Patges,  born  at  Copenhagen  in 
1812,  was  the  wife  of  the  preceding,  and  was  the  favourite 
actress  of  that  capital.  She  was  successful  in  comedy, 
tragedy,  and  the  opera. 

Heiberg,  (Peder  Andreas,)  a  distinguished  Danish 
dramatic  poet,  born  at  Vordingborg  in  1758,  was  the 
father  of  Johan  Ludwig  Heiberg.  Having  been  banished, 
on  a  charge  of  seditious  writing,  in  1799,  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  employed  until  1814  by  Napoleon  and 
Talleyrand  as  translator  in  the  department  of  foreign 
affairs.  He  wrote,  in  Danish,  "  Heckingborn,"  a  comedy, 
"The  Voyager  to  China,"  and  other  dramas;  also  a 
"  Plistorical  and  Critical  Summary  of  the  Danish  Mon- 
archy," (1820,)  and  various  other  works.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1841.  His  wife,  Thomasina  Christina  Buntsen, 
an  authoress,  is  noticed  in  this  work  under  Gyllem- 
BOURG,  which  see. 

See  Memoirs  of  Heiberg's  Life  in  France,  by  himself,  entitled 
"Erindringer  af  min  politiske  og  literaire  Vandel  i  Frankrige," 
1830;  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Peder  An- 
dreas Heiberg,  "  Tre  Aar  i  Bergen  ;  autobiografisk  Episode,"  1829. 

Heidanus,  hl-da'nus,  (Abraham,)  a  theologian  and 
Cartesian  philosopher,  born  in  the  Palatinate  in  1597, 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Leyden  about  1647. 
Died  in  1678. 

Heideck,    See  Heidegger,  (Karl  Wilhelm.) 

Heidegger,  hlMSk'er,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  Swiss 
author  and  Protestant  divine,  born  in  the  canton  of  Zurich 
in  1633.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Heidelberg 
in  1656,  and  of  theology  at  Zurich  in  1666.  He  wrote, 
in  Latin,  a  "Biblical  Manual,"  (1680,)  a  "History  of  the 
Papacy,"  (1684,)  "Anatome  Concilii  Tridentini,"  (1672,) 
and  other  works  on  theology.    Died  in  1698. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Historia  Vitae  J.  H.  Heideggeri,"  1698. 

Heidegger,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Swiss  adventurer, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1659  or  1660,  was  called  "the  Swiss 
Count."  He  was  patronized  by  George  IL  of  England 
as  master  of  revels,  manager  of  operas,  etc.  Died  in  1749. 

Heidegger,  von,  fon  hi'dek'er,  or  Heideck,  hiMek, 
(Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  German  general  and  artist,  born  at 
Saaralben,  Lorraine,  in  1788,  was  Baron  von  Heideck. 
He  fought  as  an  officer  for  the  liberation  of  Greece  about 
1826.  In  1830  he  settled  at  Munich  as  an  artist,  and 
produced  many  remarkable  pictures,  the  subjects  of 
which  are  taken  from  Grecian  history  or  scenery.  He 
painted  in  the  Glyptothek  a  fresco  of  the  "  Four-Horse 
Chariot  of  the  Sun."  About  1832  he  went  to  Greece 
with  King  Otho,  whom  he  served  as  chamberlain.  He 
afterwards  obtained  the  rank  of  general  in  the  Bavarian 
army.    Died  in  February,  1861. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Heideloff,  hi'deh-lof,  (Karl  Alexander,)  a  German 
architect,  son  of  Victor  Peter,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Stuttgart  in  1788.  He  built  the  castles  of  Landsberg 
and  Altenstein,  restored  the  cathedral  of  Bamberg,  and 
designed  many  fine  structures  at  Nuremberg.  Among 
his  writings  is  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Orders  of  Architec- 
ture," (1827,) 

Heideloff,  (Victor  Peter,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Stuttgart  in  1757  ;  died  in  1818. 

Heidenstein,  hl'den-stln^  (Reinhold,)  a  German 
historian,  born  in  1555,  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "History  of 
Poland,"  (1672.)    Died  in  1620. 

Heil,  van,  vtn  hll,  (Daniel,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Brussels  in  1604,  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  painter 
of  landscapes  and  conflagrations.  Among  his  master- 
pieces is  "  The  Burning  of  Troy." 

Heil,  van,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  good  painter  of  history 
and  portraits,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Brus- 
sels in  1609.  He  died  after  1661.  His  brother  Leo 
painted  insects  and  flowers  with  success. 


Heilbronner,  hiKbRon'ner,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a 
German  mathematician,  born  at  Ulm  about  1700,  pub- 
lished "Historia  Matheseos  universae,"  (1742.)  Died 
about  1747. 

Heilmann,  hlKmSn,  [Lat  Heilman'nus,]  (Johann 
David,)  an  eminent  German  Hellenist,  born  at  Osna- 
briick  in  1727,  obtained  the  chair  of  theology  at  Gottin- 
gen  in  1758.  Among  his  works  are  a  good  German 
translation  of  Thucydides,  (1760,)  and,  in  Latin,  a  "  Com- 
pendium of  Dogmatic  Theology,"  (1761,)  which  is  re- 
markable for  elegance  of  style.    Died  in  1764. 

See  G.  G.  Heyne,  "Heilmanni  Memoria,"  1764. 

Heilmann,  hlKmln,  (Johann  Kaspar,)  a  historical 
painter,  born  at  Miilhausen,  (Mulhouse,)  in  Alsace,  in 
1718.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  removed  in  1742  to 
Paris,  where  his  portraits  were  in  great  request  He 
also  employed  his  talent  with  success  on  paintings  for 
churches  and  on  landscapes.    Died  in  1760. 

See  Nagler,  "Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Heilmannus.    See  Heilmann. 

Heim,  him,  (Ernst  Ludwig,)  a  German  physician 
and  medical  writer,  born  in  1747,  practised  in  Berlin. 
Died  in  1834. 

Heim,  /5iN,  (Franqois  Joseph,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  at  Belfort  (Haut-Rhin)  in  1787.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1807,  went  to  Rome,  with  a  pension, 
afterwards  worked  in  Paris,  and  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  Institute  in  1829.  Among  his  works  are  "The 
Clemency  of  Titus,"  (1819,)  "The  Defeat  of  the  Cimbri 
by  Marius,"  (1853,)  and  portraits  of  many  eminent  men. 

See  T.  Gautier,  "  Les  Beaux-Arts  en  Europe." 

Heim,  (Georg  Christoph,)  a  naturalist,  brother  of 
Ernst  Ludwig,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Solz  in  1743. 
He  published  a  "German  Flora,"  ("Deutsche  Flora," 
2  vols.,  1 799-1 800.)    Died  in  1807. 

Heim,  (  Johann  Ludwig,  )  a  German  geologist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Solz  in  1 741.  He 
wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the  Geology  of  the  Mountains  of 
Thuringia,"  (6  vols.,  1796-1812.)    Died  in  1819. 

Heimbach,  hlm^biK,  (Carl  Wilhelm  Ernst,)  a 
German  jurist,  born  at  Merseburg  in  1803. 

Heimburg,  hlm'booRG,  [Lat.  Heimbur'gtus,]  (Gre- 
GOR,)  an  eminent  German  jurist,  was  born  at  Wlirzburg. 
At  the  Council  of  Bale  he  opposed  the  pretensions  of 
the  pope,  and  in  143 1  settled  at  Nuremberg.  He  died 
in  1472,  and  left  several  legal  works,  which  exhibit  an 
acute  intellect  and  a  noble  spirit  of  freedom. 

See  J.  A.  Ballenstadius,  "Vita  Heimburgii,"  1737. 

Heimbm-gius.  See  Heimburg. 

Heimdall,  him'dal,  or  Heimdallr,  [etymology  un- 
certain,] a  god  in  the  Northern  mythology,  regarded  as 
the  watchman  of  the  ^^Isir,  and  the  warder  of  heaven,  is 
called  a  son  of  Odin,  but  on  the  maternal  side  is  de- 
scended from  the  Jotun  race.  He  drinks  mead  in  his 
bright  hall,  called  Himinbjorg,  ("  Heaven's  Castle,")  at 
the  bridge-head  where  the  rainbow  (Bifrost*)  reaches 
heaven.  He  sleeps  less  than  a  bird,  and  sees  by  night, 
as  well  as  by  day,  more  than  a  hundred  leagues  around 
him.  His  hearing  is  so  acute  that  he  can  hear  the  grass 
grow  in  the  meadows  of  the  earth,  and  the  wool  on  the 
back  of  the  sheep.  When  he  blows  upon  his  trumpet, 
called  Gjallar-horn,  (or  Gjaller-horn,)  it  is  heard  through 
all  the  worlds.  His  teeth  are  said  to  be  of  gold,  and  he 
has  a  horse  with  a  golden  mane.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  the  name  of  this  god  may  be  some  change  or  cor- 
ruption of  Heimdellingr,  ("home  of  dawn,")  as  the  dawn 
seems  to  keep  still  watch  in  heaven  for  the  approach  of 
day,  and  may  well  be  said  to  ride  on  a  horse  with  a 
golden  mane.  The  original  fable  of  Heimdall,  if  it  ever 
had  any  distinct  allegorical  significance,  would  seem  to 
have  been  not  a  little  confused  by  incongruous  additions, 
made  probably  at  a  later  period. 

See  Mallet,  "  Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.  Fable  XV. ; 
Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  p.  200  et  seq. ;  Kevser, 
"  Religion  of  the  Northmen  ;"  Petersen,  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

*  The  name  Bifrost,  from  bifa,  to  "tremble,"  and  rost,  a  "road" 
or  "way,"  signifying  the  "  trembling  or  swinging  way,"  was  applied 
to  the  rainbow,  perhaps  on  account  of  its  apparent  want  of  stability, 
or  its  inconstancy.  Its  curved  form  may  have  suggested  the  idea  of 
Heimdall's  great  horn,  (the  Gjallar-horn,  i.e.  the  "yelling  or  loud- 
sounding  horn,")  which  he  blowson  the  approach  of  any  extraordinary 
danger.  It  was  actually  believed  that  at  the  "end  of  the  rainbow"  a 
golden  treasure  was  hidden,  and  that  golden  money  fell  from  the  bow. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


HEIN 


55 


HE  IN  ROTH 


Hein  or  Heyn,  hln,  (Pieter,)  a  brave  Dutch  admiral, 
born  at  Delftshaven  in  1570,  was  the  son  of  a  common 
sailor.  In  1628  he  captured  in  the  Bay  of  Matanzas  a 
Spanish  fleet,  with  a  rich  cargo  of  silver.  For  this  ex- 
ploit he  was  made  a  vice-admiral.  In  1629  he  defeated 
the  French  near  Dunkirk,  and  lost  his  life  in  the  action. 

See  Engelberts  Gerrits,  "  Leven  en  Dadeii  der  Zeehelden  J. 
van  Heemskerk  en  P.  P.  Hein,"  1825;  Southev,  "History  of  Bra- 
zil;" "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Heine,  (Christian  Gottlob.)    See  Heyne. 

Heme,  hl'neh,  (Heinrich,)  a  celebrated  German 
poet  and  author,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Dussel- 
dorf  in  1800.  He  studied  law  at  Bonn,  Berlin,  and  Got- 
tingen,  and  took  his  degree  at  the  Gottingen  university. 
His  first  poems  appeared  in  1822,  and  were  followed  by 
the  tragedies  of  "Almansor"  and  "Radcliff,"  (1823.)  •  In 
1825  he  renounced  the  Jewish  faith,  and  professed  Chris- 
tianity ;  but  he  subsequently  became  an  avowed  unbe- 
liever. His  "  Pictures  of  Travel"  ("  Reisebilder,"  4  vols., 
183 1 )  were  received  with  great  favour,  and  were  after- 
wards translated  by  him  into  French,  under  the  title  of 
"Tableaux  de  Voyages."  His  other  principal  works 
are  the  "Book  of  Songs,"  ("Buch  der  Lieder,"  1827,) 
"  Contributions  to  the  History  of  Recent  Belles-Lettres 
in  Germany,"  ("  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  der  neuern 
schonen  Literatur  in  Deutschland,"  2  vols.,  1833,)  "Der 
Salon,"  (4  vols.,  1835,)  "The  Romantic  School,"  ("Die 
Romantische  Schule,"  1836,)  and  the  poem  of  "Atta 
Troll,  a  Summer  Night's  Dream,"  (1847.)  Heine  had 
removed  in  183 1  to  Paris,  where  he  married  a  French 
lady,  and  where  he  resided  till  his  death.  About  1848 
his  health  became  very  much  impaired,  and  he  lost  his 
sight ;  but  he  still  employed  himself  in  literary  composi- 
tion, with  the  assistance  of  an  amanuensis.  Among  the 
works  he  produced  at  this  period  are  the  "  Romanzero," 
(1851,)  "  Doctor  Faust,"  (1851,)  "Das  Buch  des  Laza- 
rus," (1854,)  and  the  "New  Spring,"  ("  Neuer  Friih- 
ling,"  1855.)  After  an  illness  of  eight  years,  a  great  part 
of  which  time  had  been  passed  in  extreme  suffering,  he 
died  in  February,  1856.  Several  years  before  his  death 
he  had  renounced  infidelity.  The  spirit  of  satire  seems 
to  have  been  innate  in  Heine  ;  but  it  is  not  in  satire 
alone  that  he  excels.  For  a  cei^ain  simplicity  and 
grace  of  style,  as  well  as  for  an  exquisite  vein  of  humour, 
which  is  occasionally  lighted  up  with  flashes  of  the  most 
brilliant  wit,  Heine  has  no  superior  among  the  poets  or 
prose  writers  of  Germany.  His  prose  is  remarkable  for 
its  transparent  beauty,  and  is  perhaps  unequalled  by  that 
of  any  other  German  author  except  Goethe. 

"  Heine,"  says  a  critic  in  the  "  Westminster  Review" 
for  January,  1856,  "adds  to  Teutonic  imagination,  sensi- 
bility, and  humour,  an  amount  o{  esprit  that  would  make 
him  brilliant  among  the  most  brilliant  Frenchmen.  He 
is  a  surpassing  lyric  poet,  who  has  uttered  our  feelings 
for  us  in  delicious  songs;  an  artist  in  prose  literature, 
who  has  shown  even  more  completely  than  Gothe  the 
possibilities  of  German  prose." 

See  "Heinrich  Heine,"  in  Matthew  Arnold's  "Essays;" 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1835 ;  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1856;  "North  British  Review"  for  May,  i860; 
"Eraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  iS66. 

Heine,  (Salomon,)  an  opulent  German  banker  and 
philanthropist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1766,  was  a  Jew,  and 
uncle  of  Heine  the  poet.  He  lived  at  Hamburg,  and 
gave  large  sums  of  money  for  charitable  institutions. 
Died  in  1844. 

See  J.  Mendelssohn,  "S.  Heine,  Blatter  der  Wiirdigung  und 
Erinnerung,"  1845. 

Heineccius,  hi-nlk'se-us,  or  Heinecke,  hl^ngk-keh. 
(JoHANN  Gottlieb,)  an  eminent  Geniian  jurist,  born  at 
Eisenberg  in  Septetnber,  1681.  He  became  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Halle  in  1713,  obtained  a  chair  of  law 
there  in  1720,  and  removed  to  Franeker  in  1723.  He 
afterwards  lectured  a  few  years  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
was  appointed  professor  of  law  at  Halle  in  1733,  and 
published  numerous  works,  which  were  esteemed  as  high 
authority.  He  invented  a  new  method  of  teaching  juris- 
prudence, called  "the  axiomatic."  Among  his  principal 
works  are  "Elements  of  Civil  Law  according  to  the 
Order  of  the  Institutes,"  ("Elementa  Juris  civilis  secun- 
dum Ordinem  Institutionum,"  1725,)  "Elements  of  Civil 
Law  according  to  the  Order  of  the  Pandects,"  ("  Ele- 


menta Juris  civilis  secundum  Ordinem  Pandectarum," 
1728,)  "Elements  of  the  Law  of  Nature  and  Nations," 
("Elementa  Juris  Naturae  et  Gentium,"  1730,)  and  a 
"  History  of  Roman  and  German  Law,"  (in  Latin,  1733.) 
Died  in  1741. 

See  "  Commentarius  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  J.  G.  Heineccii,"  by  his 
son,  JoHANN  Christl^n  Gottlieb,  1765;  IIirsching,  "Historisch- 
literarisches  Handbuch,"  17  vols.,  1794-1815;  Ersch  und  Gkuber, 
"  Allgemeine  Eucyklopaedie." 

Heineccius  or  Heinecke,  (Johann  Michael,)  a 
writer  and  eloquent  preacher,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Eisenberg  in  1674.  He  became  pastor  at 
Halle  about  17 10.  He  published  several  antiquarian 
works.    Died  in  1722. 

Heinecke.    See  Heineccius. 

Heinecken,  hl^n^k-ken,  (Christian  Heinrich,) 
known  as  "  the  Boy  of  Lubeck,"  born  in  that  city  in 
1 72 1,  was  a  brother  of  Karl  Heinrich  von  Heinecken, 
noticed  below.  He  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in- 
stances of  mental  precocity  on  record.  At  the  age  of 
two  years  he  was  well  versed  in  the  history  of  the  Bible, 
in  his  third  year  learned  French  and  Latin,  and  in  his 
fourth  studied  ecclesiastical  history.    He  died  in  1 725. 

See  C.  VON  Schoneich,  "  Leben,  Thaten,  etc.  des  Knaben  von 
Lubeck,"  Lubeck,  1726. 

Heinecken,  von,  fon  hi'nSk-ken,  or  Heinecke, 

(Karl  Hejnrich,)  a  German  writer  on  art,  born  at 
Lubeck  in  1706.  He  published  in  1755  a  splendid  work 
entitled  "Collection  of  Prints  from  the  Most  Celebrated 
Pictures  of  the  Royal  Gallery  at  Dresden,"  and  "  Diction- 
naire  des  Artistes,  etc.  dont  nous  avons  des  Estampes," 
(4  vols.,  1778-90,  unfinished.)    Died  in  1791. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Heinicke,  hl'nik-keh,  (Samuel,)  born  at  Weissenfels 
in  1729,  was  the  founder  of  a  system  of  instruction  for 
deaf-mutes.  About  1778  he  established  at  Leipsic  the 
first  institution  for  the  education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb 
in  Germany,  of  which  he  continued  director  till  his  death, 
in  1790.  He  published  a  treatise  "On  the  Dispositions 
of  Deaf-Mutes,"  and  other  works. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Heinlein,  hn/lin',  (Heinrich,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man  landscape-painter,  born  at  Nassau-Weilburg  in 
1803,  worked  for  many  years  in  Munich.  Among  his 
favourite  subjects  are  sombre  forests  and  Alpine  glaciers. 

Heinrich,  (Emperors  or  Princes  of  Germany.)  See 
Henry. 

Heinrich,  hin'riK,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  learned 
German  critic,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Gotha  in  1774. 
He  was  successively  professor  of  Greek  and  of  eloquence 
at  the  Universities  of  Kiel  and  Bonn.  He  edited  the 
works  of  Juvenal  and  Persius,  and  Cicero's  "De  Re 
Publica,"  and  was  the  author  of"  Epimenides  aus  Creta," 
an  essay  on  Epimenides  and  his  works,  which  is  highly 
esteemed.    Died  in  1838. 

Heinrich  der  Glichezare,  hln'riK  d^R  gliK'et-si'reh, 
a  German  poet,  supposed  to  have  been  the  author  of 
"  Reineke  (or  Reinhart)  Fuchs,"  lived  about  1150-90. 

See  J.  Grimm,  "Reinhart  Fuchs;"  Gekvinus,  "Geschichte  der 
Deutschen  Literatur." 

Heinrich  der  Grosse.  See  Henry  IV.,  (of  France.) 

Heinrich  der  Lowe.    See  Henry  the  Lion. 

Heinrich  der  Stolze.    See  Henry  the  Proud. 

Heinrich  von  Anhalt,  hin'riK  fon  §,n'hilt,  a  Ger- 
man poet,  of  noble  birth,  lived  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Heinrich  von  Breslau,  hln'riK  fon  bR^s'low,  a  Ger- 
man poet,  and  Duke  of  Breslau,  lived  about  1280. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Heinrich  von  Morung,  hin'riK  fon  mo'roong,  a 
German  minnesinger  of  the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth 
century. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Heinrich  von  Rispach,  hIn'riK  fon  ris'piK,  a  Ger- 
man minnesinger,  surnamedTHE  Virtuous  Clerk,  lived 
about  1170-90. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Heinroth,  hln'rot,  (Johann  Christian  Friedrich 
August,)  a  German  physiologist,  was  born  at  Leipsic 
in  1773.    He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Leipsic 


e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R, 


trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HEINSE 


HEL 


in  1812,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise 

on  Nosology,"  (1810,)  a  "Manual  of  Anthropology," 
(1822,)  and  a  work  on  psychology,  (1827.)  Died  in  1843. 

Heinse,  hln'seh,  (Johann  Jakob  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man litterateu?;  born  in  Thuringia  about  1748.  He  visited 
Italy  in  1780-83,  and  became  secretary  to  the  Elector 
of  Mentz  in  1787.  He  published  translations  of  Tasso's 
"Jerusalem  Delivered,"  (1781,)  and  of  Ariosto's  "Or- 
lando," and  several  immoral  fictitious  works,  the  style  of 
which  is  admired.  His  romance  "  Ardinghello"  (1787) 
contains  eloquent  criticisms  on  painting.    Died  in  1803. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Heinsius,  hin'se-iis,  (Antoon,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
statesman,  born  in  1641,  was  elected  in  1689  grand  pen- 
sionary of  Holland,  and  re-elected  at  the  end  of  each 
successive  term  of  five  years  until  his  death.  He  per- 
formed an  important  part  in  the  political  affairs  of  his 
time,  especially  in  the  coalition  against  Louis  XIV.  of 
France.  Heinsius,  Prince  Eugene,  and  Marlborough 
formed  a  triumvirate  which  directed  the  affairs  of  the 
allied  powers.  He  enjoyed  in  a  high  degree  the  con- 
fidence of  William  III.  of  England,  to  whom  he  ren- 
dered great  services.  Among  the  allies  he  was  the  last 
to  assent  to  the  peace  with  Louis  XIV.  He  was  an 
accomplished  negotiator,  reserved  but  polite  in  manner, 
simple  and  moderate  in  his  way  of  life.    Died  in  1720. 

See  Van  der  Heim,  "  Dissertatio  historico-politica  de  A.  Hein- 
sio,"  1834;  Voltaire,  "Siecle  de  Louis  XIV  ;"  Rapin,  "History 
of  England  ;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais ;"  Saint-Simon, 
"Memoires;"  Macaulay,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  xi. 

Heinsius,  (Daniel,)  a  distinguished  Dutch  scholar 
and  linguist,  born  at  Ghent  in  1580,  studied  at  the 
Hague  and  at  Leyden,  where  he  became  the  pupil  and 
friend  of  Scaliger.  About  1600  he  was  appointed  Latin 
and  Greek  tutor,  and  in  1606  professor  of  history  and 
politics,  in  the  University  of  Leyden.  His  reputation 
for  learning  was  such  that  several  sovereigns  invited  him 
to  their  courts  ;  but  he  declined  to  leave  his  native  land. 
Gustavus  Adolphus  conferred  on  him  the  dignity  of 
privy  councillor,  and  the  States  of  Holland  ajDpointed 
him  their  historiographer.  In  1618  he  officiated  as  sec- 
retary of  the  Synod  of  Dort.  His  Latin  poems,  published 
in  1602,  were  admired  by  his  contemporaries;  but  his 
reputation  now  rests  chiefly  on  his  editions  of  Aristotle, 
Horace,  Livy,  Ovid,  and  other  Greek  and  Latin  classics. 
He  wrote  also  Latin  orations,  Dutch  verses,  and  Greek 
verses.  "Grotius,"  says  Hallam,  "had  the  reputation 
of  writing  with  spirit  and  elegance  ;  but  he  is  excelled 
by  Heinsius,  whose  elegies  may  be  ranked  high  in 
modern  Latin."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.")    Died  in  1655. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  Fop- 
pens,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica ;"  T.  Creuzer,  "Zur  Geschichte  der 
classischen  Philologie." 

Heinsius,  (Niklaas,)  an  eminent  philologist,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Leyden  in  July,  1620. 
After  he  had  visited  the  principal  seats  of  learning  in 
Europe,  and  had  become  distinguished  as  a  scholar  and 
critic,  he  accepted  in  1649  an  invitation  from  Christina, 
Queen  of  Sweden,  and  remained  in  her  service  about 
five  years.  In  1654  he  was  appointed  minister  of  the 
United  Provinces  at  the  court  of  Sweden.  His  leisure 
hours  were  passed  in  the  cultivation  of  poetry  and  in 
classic  studies.  In  1667  he  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to 
the  court  of  Russia,  from  which  he  returned  in  1671. 
He  published  editions  of  Claudian,  (1650,)  Ovid,  (1652,) 
Virgil,  (1664,)  and  Valerius  Flaccus,  (1680.)  He  also 
wrote  several  Latin  poems,  (1666,)  which  are  com- 
mended for  purity  and  elegance.    Died  in  1681. 

See  Bukmann,  "  N.  Heinsii  Vita,"  prefixed  to  the  "Adversaria" 
of  Heinsius,  1742;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopae- 
die ;"  FoppKNS,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Heinsius,  hn/se-iis,  (Otto  Friedrtch  Theodor,) 
a  German  philologist,  born  in  Berlin  in  1770.  He  be- 
came director  of  the  College  of  Graue-Kloster.  Among 
his  works,  which  are  much  esteemed,  are  a  "History  of 
German  Literature,"  (1810 ;  6th  edition,  1843,)  ^ 
"Popular  German  Dictionary,"  (4  vols.,  1818-32.)  Died 
in  1849. 

Heintzelman,  hint'sel-man^  (Samuel  P.,)  an  Ameri- 
can general,  born  in  Pennsylvania  about  1807,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1826.    He  served  as  colonel  at  Bull 


Run,  July,  i86i,soon  after  which  he  became  a  brigadier- 
general.  He  commanded  a  corps  in  the  battles  near 
Richmond  in  June,  1862,  and  took  part  in  the  second 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  August,  1862. 

Heinz  or  Heintz,  hints,  (Joseph,)  a  distinguished 
Swiss  painter,  born  at  Berne  about  1555.  He  was  em- 
ployed by  the  emperor  Rudolph  at  Prague,  and  after- 
wards in  Italy,  where  he  copied  the  works  of  the  best 
masters.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Rape  of  Proser- 
pine."   He  died  at  Prague  about  1600. 

Heinz,  (Joseph,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  a  painter 
of  high  reputation.  He  adorned  the  churches  and  pal- 
aces of  Venice.    Died  in  1660. 

Heinze,  hlnt'seh,  (Valentin  August,)  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Liineburg  in  1758.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  "  History  of  Humanity,"  (5  vols., 
1780-85.)    Died  in  1801. 

Heinzman,  hmts'min,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  an  emi- 
nent German  landscape-painter,  born  at  Stuttgart  in 
1795.    He  worked  at  Munich. 

Heiss,  von,  fon  hiss,  (Johann,)  a  historian,  born  in 
Germany,  wrote,  in  French,  a  "  History  of  the  Empire, 
containing  its  Origin,  Progress,  etc.,"  (3  vols.,  1685.) 
Died  in  Paris  in  1688. 

Heister,  his'ter,  (Lorenz,)  an  eminent  German  sur- 
geon, born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1683,  was  pro- 
fessor of  surgery  at  Helmstedt  from  1719  to  1758.  He 
published  a  treatise  "On  Surgery,"  (1719,)  and  an 
"Anatomico-Surgical  Lexicon,"  (1753.)  The  former  is 
a  standard  work  of  its  kind,  and  has  been  translated  into 
the  principal  European  languages.    Died  in  1758. 

See  Ersch  und  Gkuber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  Hir- 
SCHING,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch,"  17  vols. ;  Meelbaum. 
"  Leichenpredigt  auf  Dr.  L.  Heister,"  1738. 

Hejra  or  Hejrah.    See  Mohammed. 
Hekabe.    See  Hecuba. 

Hel  or  He'la,  [Icelandic  pron.  ha'la;  from  Man,  to 
"conceal,"]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  goddess  of 
death,  and  the  queen  of  the  world  of  shades.  She  is 
represented  as  the  offspring  of  Loki  and  the  giantess 
Angurboda.  Soon  after  her  birth,  the  /Esir,  fearing  her 
growing  power,  cast  her  down  into  Niflheim,*  (the 
"home  or  habitation  of  fogs  or  mist,")  and  gave  her  the 
rule  over  nine  realms  or  worlds,  to  the  nine  entrances 
of  which  Gray  makes  allusion  in  the  following  lines : 

"  Down  the  yawning  steep  he  rode 
That  leads  to  Hela's  drear  abode, 
Till  full  before  his  fearless  eyes 
The  portals  nine  of  Hell  arise." 

Her  hall  is  called  Eliudnir,  said  to  signify  the  "wide 
place  of  clouds  or  storms ;"  her  dish  is  Hunger,  and  her 
knife  Starvation,  (Suit.)  Under  one  of  the  three  roots 
of  the  great  life-tree  Yggdrasil,  in  Niflheim,  is  the  foun- 
tain Hvergelmir,  from  which  flow  the  streams  of  Hell. 
In  this  fountain  dwells  the  malignant  serpent  or  monster 
Nidhogg,  who  constantly  gnaws  at  the  root  of  the  tree 
of  life.  (See  Nidhogg.)  As,  on  the  one  hand,  all  those 
men  who  fell  bravely  in  battle  belonged  either  to  Odin 
or  Freyia  and  were  brought  by  the  Valkyries  to  Val- 
halla, so,  on  the  other,  all  those  who  died  of  sickness  or 
old  age  belonged  to  Hela,  and  were  inexorably  doomed 
to  dwell  in  some  one  of  her  gloomy  realms. 

The  following  lines  descriptive  of  "  Hela's  dreat 
abode"  are  from  Matthew  Arnold's  poem  entitled 
"Balder  Dead:" 

"And  he  beheld  spread  round  him  Hela's  realm, 
The  plains  of  Niflheim,  where  dwell  the  dead, 
And  heard  the  thunder  of  the  streams  of  Hell. 
For  near  the  wall  the  river  of  Roaring  flows, 
Outmost ;  the  others  near  the  centre  run, — 
The  Storm,  the  Abyss,  the  Howling,  and  the  Pain ; 

*#*##* 
And  from  the  dark  flocked  up  the  shadowy  tribes, 
Women,  and  infants,  and  young  men  who  died 
I'oo  soon  for  fame,  with  white  ungraven  shields; 
And  old  men  known  to  glory,  but  their  star 
Betrayed  them,  and  of  wasting  age  they  died, 
Not  wounds ;  yet  dying  they  their  armour  wore, 
And  now  have  chief  regard  in«Mela's  realm." 

The  aspect  of  Hela  herself  is^sually  represented  as 
peculiarly  grim  and  horrid,  the  upper  part  of  her  body 
being  livid,  as  from  congealed  blood.  In  one  of  the  fables 


*  Nifl  is  related  etymologically  to  the  Greek  vet^e'Aij,  Latin  nebula, 
(German  Nebel,)  a  "cloud"  or  "mist." 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fSt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


HELD 


"57 


HELLOT 


of  the  Edda,  however,  she  makes  her  appearance  as  a 
toothless  old  woman.    (See  Thor.) 

See  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Keyser,  "  Religion 
of  the  Northmen;"  Mallet,  "Northern  Antiquities,"  vol,  ii. 
Fables  XVI.,  XXV.,  and  XXVI.;  Petersen,  "Nordisk  My- 
thologi." 

Held,  hSIt,  (WiLLiBALD,)  a  German  writer  on  law, 
born  at  Erolzheim  in_i726  ;  died  in  1789. 

Hele,  hal,  or  Hales,  sometimes  written  D'Hele, 
(Thomas,)  an  English  dramatic  writer,  born  in  Glouces- 
tershire in  1740.  He  settled  in  Paris  about  1770,  and 
learned  to  write  in  French  with  ease  and  elegance.  He 
produced,  in  French,  several  successful  comedies,  among 
which  are  "The  Judgment  of  Midas,"  (1778,)  and  "The 
Jealous  Lover."    Died  about  1780. 

Hel'en,  [Gr.  'YMvr];  Lat.  Hel'ena  ;  Fr.  H^lene, 
k'\^\V;  It.  Elena,  i-la'nl,]  a  Grecian  princess,  cele- 
brated for  her  transcendent  beauty,  was  the  daughter 
of  Leda  and  the  Spartan  king  Tyndarus,  or,  according 
to  other  authorities,  of  Leda  and  Jupiter.  At  an  early 
age  her  hand  was  sought  by  some  of  the  most  renowned 
princes  of  Greece,  among  whom  were  Ulysses,  Ajax, 
Diomedes,  and  Menelaus.  At  the  suggestion  of  Ulysses, 
Tyndarus  bound  the  suitors  by  an  oath  to  submit  to 
the  choice  which  Helen  should  make,  and  to  unite  in 
her  defence  if  any  attempt  should  be  made  to  carry  her 
away  from  her  husband.  She  selected  Menelaus,  from 
whom,  after  a  short  union,  she  was  abducted  by  Paris, 
son  of  Priam,  upon  which  the  Greek  kings  declared  war 
against  Troy.  After  the  death  of  Paris,  Helen  married 
his  brother  Deiphobus,  whom,  after  she  became  recon- 
ciled to  Menelaus,  she  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  the 
latter.  The  accounts  of  her  death  are  various  :  the  most 
probable  is  that  she  was  put  to  death  by  Polyxo,  Queen 
of  Rhodes,  whose  husband  had  been  killed  at  Troy. 

Helena,  the  Latin  of  Helen,  which  see. 

Hel'e-na,  Saint,  [Fr.  SAiNTE-H^LiNE,  s^NWlin'; 
It.  Sant'  Elena,  sdnt-i-la'nS,]  mother  of  the  emperor 
Constantine,  was  born  of  a  humble  family  at  Drepa- 
num,  in  Bithynia,  about  250  A.D.  She  became  the  wife 
of  Constantius  Chlorus,  who,  having  been  raised  to 
the  rank  of  Caesar  in  292  a.d.,  divorced  her  in  order  to 
marry  Theodora.  The  accession  of  Constantine  to  the 
throne  restored  her  to  prosperity  and  honour.  About 
325  she  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine,  where  she 
built  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  and  that  of  the 
Nativity.    Died  in  327. 

Helena,  daughter  of  Constantine  the  Great,  was  mar- 
ried at  Milan  in  355  a.d.  to  her  first-cousin  Julian,  who 
had  just  become  a  Caesar  and  was  afterwards  Emperor 
of  Rome.    She  died  at  Vienne,  in  Gaul,  in  359. 

Hel'e-nus,  [Gr.  "Ylevo^ ;  Fr.  H6l6nus,  iOa^nus',] 
a  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  was  celebrated  as  a  sooth- 
sayer. Having  been  captured  by  the  Greeks,  he  declared 
that  Troy  could  not  be  taken  unless  Philoctetes  would 
repair  to  the  siege.  After  the  fall  of  Troy  he  fell  to  the 
share  of  Pyrrhus,  who  gave  him  Andromache  in  mar- 
riage and  left  him  at  his  death  a  portion  of  his  kingdom. 

Heli,  a  Sanscrit  name  of  the  sun.    See  Surya. 

Heli,  the  French  for  Eli,  which  see. 

Heliade,  h^Ke-ld,  (John,)  a  celebrated  poet,  born 
at  Turgowiste,  (Tergovist,)  in  Rumania,  about  1800.  He 
founded  in  1831  a  journal  called  "The  Wallachian 
Courier."  Among  his  poems  are  "  Mircea,"  a  drama, 
(1844,)       a  national  poem,  "  Michael  the  Brave,"  (1846.) 

Hel-i-co-nra-des,  a  name  given  to  the  Muses,  be- 
cause they  lived  on  Mount  Helicon.    (See  MuS/E.) 

Helie,  hbi'\t',  (Faustin,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Nantes  about  1798,  published  "Traite  de  ITnstruction 
criminelle,"  (8  vols.,  1845-58.)  He  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Institute  in  1855. 

Helinand,  /zk'le'nSN',  (Dan,)  a  French  poet,  who  had 
a  high  reputation  in  his  time.    Died  about  1225. 

Heliodore.    See  Heltodorus. 

He-li-o-do'rus,  [Gr.  'Uhodopog ;  Fr.  Heliodore, 
i'le'oMoR',]  a  Greek  statuary  of  an  uncertain  epoch,  is 
favourably  mentioned  by  Pliny.  His  master-piece  was  a 
marble  group  called  "Symplegma,"  which  was  at  Rome 
in  the  time  of  Pliny. 

Heliodorus,  a  Greek  surgeon,  lived  at  Rome,  and 
was  a  contemporary  of  Juvenal,  who  mentions  him  in 
his  Tenth  Satire. 


Heliodorus,  born  at  Emessa,  in  Syria,  in  the  fourth 
century,  became  Bishop  of  Tricca,  in  Thessaly.  He 
wrote  in  his  youth  a  celebrated  Greek  romance  entitled 
"  yEthiopica,"  which  narrates  the  adventures  of  two 
lovers,  named  Theagenes  and  Chariclea.  It  was  first 
printed  in  1534,  and  has  been  translated  into  many  lan- 
guages. The  style  is  pure  and  polished,  the  incidents 
are  novel  and  natural,  and  the  characters  are  admirably 
sustained. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  Bavle,  "Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary;"  Dunlop,  "History  of  Fiction  ;"  Eksch  und 
Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Villemain,  "Notice  sur 
les  Romans  Grecs." 

Heliodorus  of  Larissa,  a  Greek  mathematician  of 
an  uncertain  epoch,  wrote  a  short  treatise  on  Optics, 
which  is  extant. 

Heliogabale  and  Heliogabalus.  See  Elagabalus. 

HeTi-os,  [Gr.  "Bliog ;  Lat.  He'lius,]  the  god  of  the 
sun  in  the  Greek  mythology,  represented  as  the  son  of 
Hyperion.  He  was  partially  identified  with  Apollo  by 
the  Romans ;  but,  in  the  poems  of  Homer,  Helios  and 
Apollo  were  distinct  persons.    (See  Apollo.) 

Hell,  hgl,  (Maximilian,)  an  able  Hungarian  astrono- 
mer, born  at  Schemnitz  in  1720,  became  a  Jesuit  about 
1738.  From  1756  to  1792  he  held  the  official  position 
of  astronomer  and  director  of  the  Observatory  at  Vienna. 
He  distinguished  himself  by  a  successful  observation 
of  the  transit  of  Venus  which  he  made  in  Lapland  in 
June,  1769,  and  of  which  he  published  an  account,  "De 
Transitu  Veneris,"  etc.,  (1770.)  He  published  annually 
from  1757  to  1786  "  Ephemerides,"  which  were  esteemed. 
Among  his  works  (in  Latin)  are  a  "Treatise  on  the  Par- 
allax of  the  Sun,"  (1773,)  and  "Methodus  Astronomica 
sine  Usu  Quadrantis  vel  Sectoris,"  (1774.)  Died  in  1792. 

See  Meusel,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 

Hell,  (Theodor.)  See  Winkler,  (Karl  Gottfried.) 

Hel-la'di-us,  a  Greek  grammarian,  born  in  Egypt, 
lived  about  325  a.d.  He  composed,  in  Iambic  verse,  a 
"  Chrestomathie,"  of  which  some  fragments  are  preserved. 

Helladius,  a  Greek  grammarian,  born  at  Alexandria, 
lived  in  the  fifth  century  after  Christ. 

Helladius,  (Alexander,)  a  Greek  of  Thessaly,  who 
lived  about  1 700.  He  wrote  a  curious  Latin  work,  entitled 
"The  Present  State  of  the  Greek  Church,"  published  in 
1 7 14  at  Altorf,  Germany,  where  he  then  resided. 

Hel-la-ni'cus  [KKXavLnog]  of  Mitylene,  an  early 
Greek  prose  writer  and  historian,  was  born  probably 
about  495  B.C.  He  was  the  best  or  most  distinguished 
writer  of  the  class  called  logographers.  Among  his 
works  were  a  "  History  of  Argos,"  a  "  History  of  Attica,'* 
and  a  "  History  of  Persia."  Only  small  fragments  of 
his  writings  are  extant.    He  died  about  410  B.C. 

See  Preli.er,  "  Dissertatio  de  Hellanico  Lesbio  Historico,"  1840; 
C.  Muller,  "De  Hellanico." 

HePle,  [Gr.  "EZA??,]  a  daughter  of  Athamas  and  Ne- 
phele.  The  poets  relate  that  she  was  persecuted  by  her 
step-mother  Ino,  and  was  rescued  by  a  golden-fleeced 
ram,  on  the  back  of  which  she  rode  through  the  air ;  but 
she  fell  into  the  sea,  (since  called  Hellespont,  or  "sea 
of  Helle,")  and  was  drowned. 

HePlen,  [Gr.  "Y,'klr]v ,]  the  mythical  ancestor  of  the 
Helle'nes,  or  Greeks,  was  supposed  to  be  a  son  of  Deu- 
calion and  Pyrrha,  and  the  father  of  ^Eolus,  Dorus,  and 
Xuthus.  The  name  Hellenes  was  afterwards  applied  to 
the  whole  Greek  nation. 

Heller,  heKler,  (Joseph,)  a  German  writer  on  art, 
born  at  Bamberg  in  1798.  He  published  a  "  Manual  for 
Amateurs  of  Engravings,"  (3  vols.,  1823-36,)  "  Docu- 
ments (Beitrag)  for  the  History  of  Art,"  (1828,)  "The 
Life  and  Works  of  Albert  Diirer,"  (1827-31,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1849. 

Heller,  heKler,  (Stephen,)  a  Hungarian  composer, 
born  at  Pesth  in  1813,  became  a  resident  of  Paris.  His 
compositions  for  the  piano  are  much  admired  in  Ger- 
many, and  are  regarded  by  some  critics  as  equal  to  those 
of  Mendelssohn. 

Hellichius,  (Abraham.)    See  Gustafskold. 

Hellot,  h^\o',  (Jean,)  a  French  chemist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1685.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  London  and  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris. 
He  edited  the  "Gazette  de  France"  from  1718  to  1732, 


€  as     S  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;     trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^^ See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HELLVIG  1 1 58  HEIST 


and  wrote  a  valuable  treatise  On  the  Art  of  Dyeing 
Woollen  Stuffs."    Died  in  1766. 

Hellvig  or  Helwig,  von,  fon  h^Kvic,  (Amalie,) 
a  (ierman  poetess,  born  at  Weimar  in  1776;  died  in 
1831. 

Helm,  (Benjamin  Hardin,)  an  American  general, 
son  of  Governor  John  L.  Helm,  was  born  in  Kentucky 
in  183 1.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1851,  took 
arms  against  the  Union  in  1861,  and  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Chickamauga,  September  20,  1863. 

Helman,  /^^l'm6N^  (Isidore  Stanislas,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  at  Lille  in  1743  ;  died  about  1806. 

Helmbreeker,  h§lm''bRa''ker,  (Diederik,)  a  skilful 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1624,  worked  mostly 
in  Rome,  and  painted  history  and  landscapes.  Among 
his  works  are  a  "Mater  Dolorosa"  and  a  "Nativity." 
Died  in  1694. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Helmers,  hIKmers,  (Jan  Frederik,)  a  popular  Dutch 
epic  and  lyric  poet,  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1767.  He 
produced  an  ode  entitled  "Night,"  (1787,)  a  poem  on 
Socrates,  (1790,)  and  an  epic  poem,  called  "The  Dutch 
Nation,"  ("De  Hollandsche  Natie,"  1812,)  the  style  and 
versification  of  which  are  admired.  He  published  his 
minor  poems  in  2  vols.,  1810.    Died  in  1813. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  H.  H. 
Klijn,  "J.  F.  Helmers,  geschetst  in  eene  Redevoering,"  1815. 

Helmerseii,  von,  fon  h^Kmer-s^n^,  (Gregor,  )  a 
Russian  geologist  and  traveller,  born  near  Dorpat  in 
1803.  Having  explored  Russia,  Sweden,  etc.,  he  pub- 
lished, in  1 83 1,  "Observations  on  the  Geology  of  the 
Southern  Ural." 

Helmfeldt,  h^lm'fglt,  (Simon  Grundel,)  Baron  of, 
a  Swedish  field-marshal,  born  at  Stockholm  in  161 7, 
distinguished  himself  in  the  campaigns  of  Poland  under 
Charles  X.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Landscrona, 
in  1677. 

Helmholtz.  helm'holts,  (Hermann  Ludwig  Ferdi- 
nand,) an  eminent  German  physiologist,  mathematician, 
and  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Potsdam  in  1821.  He 
became  professor  of  physiology  at  Heidelberg  in  1858, 
and  wrote  some  able  treatises  on  the  relations  of  physical 
forces.  One  of  these  has  been  translated  into  English  by 
Professor  John  Tyndall,  under  the  title  of  "  Essay  on  the 
Interaction  of  Natural  Forces."  Helmholtz  stands  in 
the  foremost  rank  among  the  living  physiologists  and 
natural  philosophers  of  Europe.  He  is  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Societies  of  London  and  Edinburgh,  and  of 
the  learned  societies  of  the  other  principal  capitals  of 
Europe. 

Helmich,  h^KmiK,  (Werner,)  a  Dutch  Protestant 
minister,  born  at  Utrecht  about  1550,  preached  at  Utrecht 
and  Amsterdam,  and  promoted  the  Reformation  in  Hol- 
land.   Died  in  1608. 

Helmold,  heKmolt,  [Lat.  Helmol'dus,]  a  German 
historian  and  ecclesiastic,  born  near  Lubeck,  travelled 
as  a  missionary  among  the  Slavonians.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  Chronicon  Slavorum,"  which,  though  rude 
in  style,  is  valuable  for  its  accuracy.    Died  about  ii 77. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Latinis  ;"  J.  Moller,  "  Diatriba 
de  Helmoldo,"  1782. 

Helmoldus.    See  Helmold. 

Helmont,van,  vtn  heKmont,  (Francis  Mercurius,) 
a  physician,  son  of  the  following,  born  in  Belgium  in 
1618,  inherited  his  father's  taste  for  the  occult  sciences, 
on  which  he  wrote  several  treatises.  He  professed  to 
believe  in  a  universal  remedy  and  the  philosopher's 
stone,  and  pretended  that  he  had  discovered  the  original 
language.    Died  in  1699. 

Helmont,  van,  (Jan  Baptista,)  a  famous  chemist, 
physiologist,  and  visionary,  was  born  at  Brussels  in  1577. 
He  studied  medicine,  which  he  practised  gratis,  and  had 
numerous  disciples,  though  he  was  hostile  to  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Galenists.  He  seems  to  have  been  an 
honest  enthusiast,  infected  with  the  delusions  of  alchemy, 
and  to  have  spent  much  time  and  money  in  chemical 
experiments,  by  which  he  made  important  discoveries, 
"  Van  Helmont,"  says  Dr.  Hoefer,  "  is  much  superior  to 
Paracelsus,  whom  he  took  in  some  measure  as  his  model. 
He  had  the  durable  glory  of  revealing  scientifically  the 
existence  of  invisible,  impalpable  substances, — namely, 


gases."  He  was  the  first  who  used  the  word  gas  as  the 
name  of  all  elastic  fluids  except  common  air.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  progress  of  physiology  by  an  experiment 
on  a  willow-tree,  which  he  found  to  gain  one  hundred 
and  sixty-four  pounds,  while  the  soil  in  which  it  grew  lost 
only  a  few  ounces.  Among  his  works  are  one  on  the 
magnetic  cure  of  wounds,  ("De  magnetica  Vulnerum 
naturali  Curatione,"  1621,)  and  one  on  "The  Origin  of 
Medicine,"  etc.,  ("  Ortus  Medicinae,  id  est  Initia  Physicae 
inaudita,"  1648.)    He  diefl  near  Vilvorde  in  1644. 

See  Loos,  "  Biographic  des  J.  B.  van  Helmont,"  1807;  Caillau, 
"Memoire  sur  Van  Helmont,"  1819;  Fraenkei.,  "  Dissertatio,  Vita 
et  Opiniones  Helmontii,"  1837;  Cuvier,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences 
naturelles;"  Hoefek.  "Histoire  de  laChimie;"  Rixner  und  Siber, 
"J.  B.  Helmont,"  1826. 

Helmont,  van,  (Lucas  Gassel,)  an  able  Flemish 
landscape-painter,  who  lived  about  1595. 

Helmont,  van,  (Matthew,)  a  Flemish  painter  of 
Antwerp,  born  in  1653,  painted  markets,  shops,  etc. 
with  success.    Died  in  1726. 

Helmont,  van,  (Segres  Jacob,)  an  eminent  Flem- 
ish painter  of  history,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1683,  was  a 
pupil  of  his  father,  Matthew.  He  worked  at  Brussels, 
and  derived  his  subjects  mostly  from  sacred  history. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  "  The  Sacrifice  of  Elijah," 
"Joseph  Recognized  by  his  Brethren,"  and  "The  Tri- 
umph of  David."  His  manner  is  noble,  his  colour  good, 
and  his  design  correct.  He  was  ranked  among  the 
greatest  Flemish  painters  of  his  time.    Died  in  1726. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Helmsdorf,  hllms'doRf,  (Friedrich,)  an  able  Ger- 
man landscape-painter,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1784. 

Heloise,  i'lo'ez^  Eloise,  or  Louise,  a  beautiful  and 
renowned  Frenchwoman,  born  at  Paris  about  iioo,  was 
a  niece  of  Fulbert,  canon  of  Notre-Dame.  She  was  dis- 
tinguished for  her  attainments  in  languages  and  philoso- 
phy, and  became  successively  the  pupil,  mistress,  and 
wife  of  Abelard.  Soon  after  their  marriage  she  entered 
the  convent  of  Argenteuil,  of  which  she  became  prioress. 
She  afterwards  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  piety  and 
devotion.  Her  letters,  written  in  elegant  Latin,  and 
printed  with  those  of  Abelard,  are  the  expressions  of  a 
noble  and  fervent  spirit.  Died  in  1164.    (See  Abelard.) 

See  Lamartine,  "Celebrated  Characters." 

Helps,  (Arthur,)  a  popular  English  essayist  and 
historian,  born  about  1818.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge 
in  1835,  and  produced  in  1843  "Catherine  Douglas,  a 
Tragedy,"  in  verse,  which  was  received  with  favour.  In 
1847  he  published,  anonymously,  a  volume  of  dialogues 
on  moral  questions,  entitled  "Friends  in  Council:  a 
Series  of  Readings  and  Discourses  thereon,"  which  was 
generally  admired  for  graceful  style  and  original  insight. 
His  next  work  was  "  Companions  of  my  Solitude,"  (1851,) 
which  a  critic  in  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  considers 
"far  the  most  interesting  of  all  Mr.  Helps's  essays." 
Among  his  later  works  are  "The  Conquerors  of  the 
New  World,  and  their  Bondsmen,"  (2  vols.,  1848-52,)  a 
"History  of  the  Spanish  Conquest  of  America,  and  its 
Relations  to  the  History  of  Slavery,"  (3  vols.,  1855-57,) 
"  Realmah,  a  Tale,"  and  a  "Life  of  Columbus,"  (1869.) 
"A  true  thinker,  who  has  practical  purpose  in  his  think- 
ing," says  Ruskin,  "and  is  sincere,  as  Plato,  or  Carlyle, 
or  Helps,  becomes  in  some  sort  a  seer,  and  must  be 
always  of  infinite  use  to  his  generation."  He  held  for 
many  years  an  office  in  the  civil  service,  and  became 
clerk  or  secretary  of  the  privy  council  about  i860. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1859  ;  "  Blackwood's  Ma- 
gazine" for  October,  1851 ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  September, 
1857. 

Hel'sliam,  (Richard,)  professor  of  physic  and  natural 
philosophy  in  the  University  of  Dublin.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Dean  Swift.  Died  in  1738.  His  lec- 
tures on  philosophy  were  published  in  1739,  and  have 
been  often  reprinted. 

Heist,  van  der,  vtn  der  heist,  (Bartholomew,)  an 
excellent  Dutch  portrait-painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in 
1613.  He  painted  landscapes  in  his  youth,  but  he  after- 
wards confined  himself  mostly  to  portraits,  and  settled  in 
Amsterdam.  Among  his  works  is  a  picture  of  the  militia 
or  trained  bands,  which  is  in  the  Stadt-House  of  Am- 
sterdam, and  which  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  is  said  to  have 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e»  T,  6»  u»  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


HELFETIUS 


1 1 59 


HEMSKERCK 


pronounced  "the  best  picture  of  portraits  in  the  world." 
Died  about  1670. 

See  Bryan,  "Dictionary  of  Painters;"  Descamps,  "  Vies  des 
Peinties  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Helvetius,  hel-vee'she-us,  [Fr.  pron.  irvi''se'us',] 
(Claude  Adrien,)  a  celebrated  French  author  and 
philosopher,  born  in  Paris  in  1715,  was  the  son  of  Jean 
Claude  Adrien,  noticed  below,  who  destined  him  for 
financial  pursuits.  At  the  age  of  twenty-three  he  ob- 
tained, through  the  influence'of  the  queen,  a  place  as 
farmer-general,  which  was  worth  one  hundred  thousand 
crowns  per  annum.  In  1751  he  resigned  this  office,  and 
married  an  accomplished  lady  named  De  Ligniville  or 
Ligneville.  He  published  in  1758  an  ingenious  meta- 
physical work,  entitled  "On  the  Mind,"  ("De  I'Esprit,") 
which  was  condemned  by  the  court,  the  Jesuits,  and  the 
bishops  as  the  summary  of  the  creed  of  the  Encyclopae- 
dists, and  was  burned  hy  order  of  Parliament,  thus  ac- 
quiring additional  celebrity  and  a  wider  circulation.  The 
author  publicly  apologized,  and  disclaimed  any  pur- 
pose to  assail  the  Christian  doctrines.  He  is  admitted  to 
have  been  generous,  and  his  life  and  character  appear  to 
have  been  better  than  his  writings,  which,  deriving  all 
virtue  from  self-interest,  and  condemning  as  folly  all 
actions  proceeding  from  any  higher  motive,  are  in  the 
highest  degree  demoralizing.  He  wrote  a  poem  "  On 
Happiness,"  and  a  treatise  on  "Man,  his  Faculties  and 
his  Education,"  (1772.)  In  1765  he  was  an  invited  and 
honoured  guest  in  the  palace  of  Frederick  the  Great. 
Died  in  1771. 

See  Saint-Lambert,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  d'Helve- 
tius;"  Lemontev,  "Notice  sur  C.  A.  Helvetius,"  1823;  William 
MuDFORD,  "Life  of  Helvetius,"  London,  1807;  Voltaire,  "  Cor- 
respondance ;"  Marmontel,  "Memoires;"  Damiron,  "Memoire 
sur  Helvetius,"  1853. 

Anne  Catherine  de  Ligniville,  (l^n'yeV^K,)  Ma- 
dame Helvetius,  the  wife  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Lorraine  in  17 19.  After  the  death  of  her  husband  her 
house  at  Auteuil  was  the  rendezvous  of  celebrated  men, . 
among  whom  were  Dr.  Franklin,  Turgot,  and  Thomas 
Jefferson.    Died  in  1800. 

See  Dr.  Roussel,  "  Notice  sur  Madame  Helvetius." 

Helvetius,  h§l-vee'she-us,  (Jan,)  a  classical  scholar 
^  and  Latin  poet  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  born  in 
Amsterdam.  He  described  in  elegant  verses  his  travels 
in  England,  **  Iter  Britannicum,"  and  wrote  other  works. 

Helvetius,  (Jean  Adrien,)  a  Dutch  physician,  born 
about  1660.  He  was  present  in  Paris  on  a  visit  during 
the  prevalence  of  dysentery,  which  he  treated  with  such 
success  that  Louis  XIV.  urged  him  to  divulge  the 
remedy.  He  said  it  was  ipecacuanha,  and  received  from 
the  king  a  present  of  one  thousand  louisd'ors.  He  settled 
in  Paris,  and  became  physician  to  the  regent  of  the  king- 
dom, the  Duke  of  Orleans.  He  wrote  several  treatises 
on  medicine.    Died  in  1727. 

See  "  Biographie  Me^cale ;"  Mor^ri,"  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Helvetius,  (Jean  Claude  Adrien,)  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Paris  in  1685,  graduated  as  physician  in 
1708.  Having  given  proof  of  his  professional  skill,  he 
was  in  17 19  called  to  attend  Louis  XV.,  then  an  infant, 
whom  he  cured  of  a  dangerous  illness.  After  this  he 
enjoyed  the  confidence  of  the  royal  family,  and  was  made 
councillor  of  state,  and  first  physician  to  the  queen, 
Marie  Leczinski.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academies 
of  Sciences  of  Paris,  Berlin,  and  London,  and  wrote 
several  professional  treatises,  among  which  is  a  "Method 
of  Curing  the  Principal  Diseases,"  (1737.)  Died  in  1765. 

See  "  Biographie  M^dicale  ;"  Qui^rard,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Helvicus,  hll-vee'kiis,  or  Helwig,  heK\^ig,  (Chris- 
TOPH,)  an  eminent  German  philologist,  born  near  Frank- 
fort in  1581.  He  could  speak  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew 
at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and  became  professor  of  Greek  at 
Giessen  in  1605.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  System  of 
Chronology,"  ("  Theatrum  Chronologicum,"  1609,)  and 
a  "General  Grammar."    Died  in  1617. 

Helwig,  heK\^ig,  or  Helwing,  \\lV<k'mg,  (Georg 
Andreas,)  a  Prussian  naturalist,  born  at  Angerburg  in 
1666,  became  minister  of  the  church  at  that  town  in 
1705.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Flora  Quasimo- 
dogenita,"  (1712,)  a  description  of  the  indigenous  plants 
of  Prussia.    Died  in  1748. 


Helwig,  (JoHANN  Otto,)  a  German  physician  and 
alchemist,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1654.  He  became  first 
physician  to  the  Elector-palatine,  who  appointed  him  pro- 
fessor at  Heidelberg.  He  wrote  a  curious  work,  entitled 
"Introitus  in  veram  et  inauditam  Physicam,"  (1678,)  and 
several  treatises  on  alchemy.    Died  in  1698. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Helyot,  hW\e-o',  (Pierre,)  called  also  Pere  Hip- 
polyte,  a  French  monk,  born  in  Paris  in  1660.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Military  and  Religious  Monastic 
Orders,"  said  to  be  the  most  complete  work  on  that 
subject.    Died  in  17 16. 

Hem'ans,  (Felicia  Dorothea,)  an  amiable  and  ex- 
cellent English  poetess,  born  in  Liverpool  on  the  25th 
of  September,  1794,  Was  the  daughter  of  a  merchant 
named  Browne.  About  the  year  1800  he  removed  with 
his  family  to  Grwych,  in  North  Wales.  Her  first  volume 
of  poems  was  published  in  1808.  In  1812  she  was  mar- 
ried to  Captain  Hemans,  of  the  British  army ;  but  the 
union  was  not  a  happy  one,  and  after  the  lapse  of  six 
years  they  finally  separated,  their  five  children  remain- 
ing with  the  mother.  In  1825  she  removed  to  Rhyllon, 
in  Wales,  and  in  1828  resided  at  Wavertree,  near  Liver- 
pool. She  cherished  a  passionate  love  of  poetry  and 
of  natural  scenery,  and  became  the  most  popular  of 
English  poetesses.  Lord  Jeffrey  pronounced  her  poetry 
"infinitely  sweet,  elegant,  and  tender,  touching,  perhaps, 
and  contemplative,  rather  than  vehement  or  overpower- 
ing. .  .  .  We  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  she  is  the  most 
touching  and  accomplished  writer  of  occasional  verses 
that  our  literature  has  yet  to  boast  of"  "  In  her  poetry," 
says  Moir,  "  religious  truth,  moral  purity,  and  intellectual 
beauty  ever  meet  together."  The  following  are  the  titles 
of  some  of  her  poems:  "Domestic  Affections,"  (1812,) 
"  Modern  Greece,"  (181 7,)  "  Vespers  of  Palermo,"  (1823,) 
"The  Forest  Sanctuary,"  (1826,)  "  Records  of  Woman," 
(1828,)  "National  Lyrics,"  (1834,)  and  "Scenes  and 
Hymns  of  Life."  Her  character  maybe  said  to  be  truly 
portrayed  in  her  writings.  She  resided  in  Dublin  from 
183 1  until  her  death,  which  occurred  in  1835. 

See  H.  F.  Chorlev,  "Memoirs  of  Mrs.  Hemans,"  1837; 
"Memoir  of  Mrs.  Hemans,"  by  her  sister,  1839;  Sainte-Beuve, 
"Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  iii. ;  Mrs.  Elwood,  "Memoirs  of  the 
Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commencement  of  the  Last 
Century;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  182Q. 

Hemelar,  ha'meh-lSR^,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  medallist  and 
poet,  born  at  the  Hague,  wrote  a  commentary  on  Roman 
medals.    Died  in  1640. 

Hemert,  van,  vin  ha'mirt,  (Paul,)  a  Dutch  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Amsterdam  in  1756.  He  published  "Ele- 
ments of  the  Philosophy  of  Kant,"  (4  vols.,  1795,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1825. 

He-mi'na,  ?  (L.  Cassius,)  a  Roman  historian,  who 
flourished  between  200  and  150  B.C.  He  wrote  a  history 
or  annals  of  Rome  from  the  origin  of  the  city  to  his  own 
time,  which  has  not  come  down  to  us.  This  work  is 
often  cited  by  Pliny,  Nonius,  and  Aulus  Gellius. 

Hemingford,  de,  deh  hem'ing-ford,  (Walter,)  was 
a  canon  of  Gisborough  Abbey,  and  wrote  a  "History  of 
England  from  1066  to  1308."  Died  in  1347. 

Hemling.    See  Memling,  (Hans.) 

Hemmerlein.    See  Hammerlein. 

Hemminga,  hSm-ming'ga  or  hem-ming'Hl,  (Sixtus,) 
a  Dutch  mathematician,  born  in  1533  ;  died  in  1570. 

Hem'pel,  (Charles  Julius,)  a  medical  writer,  born 
at  Solingen,  Prussia,  in  181 1,  emigrated  to  the  United 
States  about  1835.  He  produced,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  System  of  Homceopathic  Materia  Medica  and  Thera- 
peutics," (1859.) 

Hemprich,  hSn/pRiK,  (  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  )  a 
German  naturalist,  was  born  at  Glatz  in  1796.  He 
accompanied  Ehrenberg  in  the  exploration  of  Egypt 
and  Arabia,  and  died  at  Massowah  in  1825.  "^^^^ 
"  Rudiments  ( Gmndriss)  of  Natural  History,"  (1820.) 

Hemskerck,  hems'klRk'',  (Egbert,)  called  the  Old, 
an  able  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Haarlem  about  1610,  was 
an  attentive  student  of  nature.  His  favourite  subjects 
were  fairs,  feast.s,.  and  familiar  scenes  among  the  lower 
classes.    Died  alx)ut  1680. 

Hemskerek,  (Egbert,)  the  Young,  born  at  Haar- 
lem in  1645,  was  probably  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  K,  ^s^ittiiral ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  %,^z:  th  as  in  this,    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HEMSKERK  1160  HENGSTENBERG 


painted  rural  sports  and  wild,  fanciful,  or  humorous 
scenes.    Died  in  London  in  1704. 

Hemskerk.    See  Hp:emskerk,  van. 

Hemsterhuys,  hem'ster-hois',  [Lat.  Hemsterhu'- 
SIUS,]  (B'rans,)  a  meritorious  philosopher,  writer,  and 
moralist,  born  at  Groningen  in  1720,  was  a  son  of  Tibe- 
rius, noticed  below.  He  passed  the  greater  part  of  his 
mature  life  at  the  Hague,  where  he  was  assistant  secre- 
tary or  first  clerk  of  the  council  of  state.  Among  his 
characteristic  traits  were  simplicity,  modesty,  and  libe- 
rality of  spirit.  Like  Plato,  of  whom  he  was  an  admirer, 
he  directed  towards  the  ideal  the  intellectual  and  moral 
activity  of  man.  His  favourite  topics  were  the  theory 
of  beauty  in  the  arts,  and  questions  of  practical  philoso- 
phy. He  wrote,  in  French,  a  "  Letter  on  Sculpture," 
(1769,)  a  "Letter  on  the  Desires,"  (1770,)  a  "Letter  on 
Man  and  his  Relations,"  (1772,)  and  two  dialogues,  en- 
titled "  Sophyle,  or  on  Philosophy,"  and  "  Aristee,  or  on 
the  Divinity,"  ("Aristee,  ou  de  la  Divinite,"  1779.)  Died 
in  1790. 

See  Meyboom,  "  Comment,  de  Hemsterhiisii  Meritis,"  1840;  Van 
DE  Weyer,  "Notice  sur  Hemsterhuys,"  1827;  Tijdeman,  "  Proeve 
eener  Lofrede  op  F.  Hemsterhuys,"  1834;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Hemsterhuys,  (Tiberius,)  a  Dutch  philologist,  and 
one  of  the  most  learned  Hellenists  of  his  time,  was 
born  at  Groningen  in  1685.  He  became  professor  of 
philosophy  and  mathematics  at  Amsterdam  in  1704,  and 
continued  the  study  of  Greek  until  he  had  read  all  the 
authors  in  that  language.  He  was  chosen  professor  of 
Greek  at  Franeker  in  1720,  and  obtained  the  same  chair 
at  Leyden  in  1740.  In  consequence  of  his  efforts,  the 
study  of  Greek,  which  had  been  neglected,  again  became 
popular  in  Holland.  He  published  Lucian's  "  Dialogues," 
(1708.)  the  "Plutus"  of  Aristophanes,  (1744,)  "  Notes 
on  Xenophon  of  Ephesus,"  "  Latin  Orations,"  (1784,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1766. 

See  RiNCK,  "T.  Hemsterhuys  und  David  Ruhnken,"  1801  ; 
David  RuHNKEN,  "  Elogium  T.  Hemsterhusii,"  1768;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Ge- 
nerale." 

Henao,  i-nS'o,  (Gabriel,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  born  at 
Valladolid  in  161 1,  was  for  fifty  years  professor  of  posi- 
tive theology  at  the  University  of  Salamanca,  of  which 
he  was  also  rector.  He  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a 
casuist,  and  wrote  numerous  theological  works.  Died 
in  1704. 

Henault,  khfx\b\  (Charles  Jean  Franqois,)  a 
French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1685.  In  youth  he 
cultivated  literature  and  obtained  a  prize  in  the  French 
Academy,  of  which  he  became  a  member  in  1723.  His 
wit,  amenity,  and  politeness  rendered  him  a  favourite  in 
fashionable  society,  for  which  he  composed  ingenious 
verses  and  songs.  He  became  president  of  the  first 
Chambre  aux  Enquetes  in  1 7 10,  and,  a  few  years  later, 
superintendent  of  the  queen's  household.  He  gained 
a  conspicuous  position  among  French  authors  by  his 
"Compendium  of  the  History  of  France,"  ("Abrege 
chronologique  de  I'Histoire  de  France,"  2  vols.,  1744,)  a 
work  of  great  merit,  which  was  often  reprinted.  Henault 
wrote,  besides  other  dramas,  "  Marius,"  a  tragedy,  (1715,) 
and  the  "Awaking  of  Epimenides,"  a  comedy,  (i757,) 
both  of  which  were  performed  with  success.  Died  in  1 770. 

See  "  Memoires  du  President  Henault,  ^crites  par  lui-meme," 
1854  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  xii. 

Henault,  (Jean.)    See  Hesnault. 
Henckel.    See  Henkel. 

HenMer-son,  (Alexander,)  an  able  Scottish  divine, 
born  in  Fife  in  1583,  was  a  leader  among  the  Covenanters, 
He  was  repeatedly  appointed  a  commissioner  to  treat 
with  Charles  I.,  and  was  an  adherent  of  Parliament  in 
the  civil  war.  He  contributed  much  to  effect  a  union 
between  the  Covenanters  and  the  English  Parliament. 
Died  in  1646. 

See  AiTON,  "Life  and  Times  of  A.  Henderson;"  Chambers, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Hen'der-son,  (Ehenezer,)  an  eminent  British  biblical 
critic,  born  at  Dunfermline  in  1784.  He  was  emjiloyed 
by  the  Bible  Society  to  supply  the  people  of  Iceland 
with  a  version  of  the  Scriptures  in  1814.  He  published 
a  "Journal  of  a  Residence  in  Iceland,"  (2  vols.,  1818,) 
and  "  Biblical  Researches  and  Travels  in  Russia,"  (1826.) 


His  commentary  on  Isaiah  (of  which  he  made  a  new 
version,  1840)  is  highly  commended.  He  was  professor 
of  theology  and  minister  of  the  Independents  at  High- 
bury, near  London.    Died  in  May,  1858. 

See  Erslew,  "  Almindeligt  Forfatter- Lexicon." 

Henderson,  (John,)  a  celebrated  English  actor,  born 
in  London  in  1746.  In  1772  he  performed  at  Bath,  under 
the  name  of  Courtney,  and  in  1777  came  to  London, 
where  he  attracted  crowded  houses  in  Drury  Lane  and 
Covent  Garden.  He  performed  with  great  applause 
the  parts  of  "  Falstaff,"  "Shylock,"  "Richard  III.,"  etc. 
Died  in  1785. 

Henderson,  (John,)  born  in  Ireland  in  1757,  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  genius  and  eccentricity.  After  teaching 
Latin  at  the  age  of  eight,  and  Greek  four  years  later,  he 
was  sent  to  Oxford  University,  where  he  was  regarded 
as  a  prodigy  in  learning  and  mental  capacity.  A  fellow- 
student,  being  vanquished  by  him  in  an  argument,  threw 
a  glass  of  wine  into  the  face  of  Henderson,  who  calmly 
remarked,  "  This  is  only  a  digression,  sir :  let  us  now 
examine  your  argument."  He  wrote  a  few  small  poems 
and  essays.    Died  in  1788. 

Henderson,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  astronomer,  born 
at  Dundee  in  1798,  pursued  for  some  years  the  profession 
of  an  attorney.  About  1830  he  was  employed  as  secre- 
tary by  Lord  Jeffrey.  Having  devoted  his  leisure  time 
to  astronomy,  he  was  appointed  in  1832  director  of  the 
observatory  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  He  obtained 
in  1834  the  charge  of  the  Edinburgh  Observatory,  as 
first  astronomer-royal  for  Scotland,  and  performed  the 
duties  of  this  post  with  credit  until  his  death,  in  1844. 
Many  of  his  astronomical  treatises  and  observations 
have  been  published,  and  are  highly  esteemed.  About 
1840  he  ascertained  that  the  star  a  Centauri  has  a  paral- 
lax of  nearly  one  second,  and  is,  consequently,  about 
18,918,000,000,000  miles  from  the  sun.  This  was  the 
first  fixed  star  of  which  the  parallax  has  been  measured. 
..  See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement ;)  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Hen'dricks,  (Thomas  A.,)  an  American  Senator, 
born  in  Muskingum  county,  Ohio,  in  1819.  He  studied 
law,  and  settled  in  Indiana,  He  represented  a  district 
of  Indiana  in  Congress  from  185 1  to  1855,  was  commis- 
sioner of  the  general  land  office  from  1855  to  1859,  and 
was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  for  six  years, 
1863-69.  In  1868  he  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for 
Governor  of  Indiana,  and  was  defeated. 

Henel  von  Hennefeld,  ha'nel  fon  hgn'neh-fglt', 
(Nikolaus,)  a  German  jurist  and  historian,  born  in 
Silesia  in  1582.  He  was  author  of  several  legal  and 
historical  works.    Died  in  1656. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hen'frey,  (Arthur,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English 
botanist,  born  at  Aberdeen  on  the  ist  of  November, 
1819.  He  translated  several  botanical  works  from  the 
German,  and  wrote  "  Outlines  of  Structural  and  Physio- 
logical Botany,"  (1847,)  "The  Vegetation  of  Europe," 
(1852,)  and  an  "  Elementary  Course  of  Botany,  Structu- 
ral, Physiological,  and  Systematic,"  (1857.)  The  last  is 
a  work  of  high  character.  He  co-operated  with  Dr. 
Griffith  in  a  "  Micrographic  Dictionary,"  (1857,)  which  is 
highly  prized.  In  1854  he  was  chosen  professor  of  botany 
in  King's  College,  London,    Died  in  1859. 

Hengist,  h^ng'gist,  a  Saxon  chief,  who  founded  the 
kingdom  of  Kent,  in  England.  AlDout  450  A.D.  the 
Britons  solicited  the  aid  of  the  Saxons  to  defend  them 
against  the  Picts  and  Scots.  Hengist  and  his  brother 
Horsa,  at  the  head  of  a  small  army,  came  over,  and, 
after  defeating  the  Picts  and  Scots,  turned  their  arms 
against  their  British  allies.  After  many  battles,  in  one 
of  which  Horsa  was  slain,  Hengist,  aided  by  reinforce- 
ments from  Saxony,  obtained  possession  of  Kent,  where 
he  reigned  thirty  years.    Died  in  488. 

See  Turner,  "  History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons." 

Hengstenberg,  h^ng'sten-bgRG',  (Ernst  Wilhelm,) 
an  eminent  German  orthodox  theologian,  born  at  Fron- 
de n  berg,  in  Prussia,  in  1802,  He  became  professor 
of  theology  in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1829,  and 
chief  editor  of  an  influential  religious  journal,  "Evan- 
gelische  Kirchenzeitung."    He  published  several  com- 


a,  e,  1,  0,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f3.r,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


HEN  IS  CH  1 1 6 1  HENNIKER 


mentaries  on  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  "  Christologie 
des  Alten  Testaments,"  ("  Christology  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment," 3  vols.,  1829-35,)  which  has  been  translated  into 
English.  He  was  one  of  the  principal  leaders  of  the 
orthodox  or  Lutherans  of  Germany.  Died  in  June,  1869. 

Henisch,  ha'nish,  (Georg,)  a  philologist,  born  in 
Hungary  in  1549,  published  "Thesaurus  Linguae  et  Sa- 
pientiae  Germanicas,"  (1616,)  said  to  be  the  first  good 
dictionary  of  the  German  language,  (though  not  ex- 
tending beyond  the  letter  H.)    Died  in  1618. 

Henkart,  h^nk'irt,  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  Belgian  poet 
and  judge,  born  at  Liege  in  1761  ;  died  in  1815. 

Henke,  henk'eh,  (Adolf  Christian  Heinrich,)  a 
German  physician,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1775,  became 
professor  at  Erlangen  in  1805.  He  published  a  valuable 
"Treatise  on  Legal  Medicine,"  (1812 ;  12th  edition,  1851.) 
Died  in  1843. 

Henke,  (Heinrich  Philipp  Konrad,)  an  able  Ger- 
man theologian,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Brunswick  in  1752, 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Helmstedt  in  1780,  and 
subsequently  vice-president  of  the  Consistory  at  Bruns- 
wick. He  published,  besides  other  works,  an  "  Eccle- 
siastical History,"  (6  vols.,  1788-1804,)  a  work  displaying 
great  learning  and  research,  and  "Lineamenta  Insti- 
tutionum  Fidei  Christianas,"  (1783.)    Died  in  1809. 

See  F.  A.  Ludewig,  "Abriss  einer  Lebensgescliichte  Menkes ;" 
Boi.LMANN  iind  Wolff,  "  H.  P.  C.  Henke,  Denkwiirdigkeiten  aus 
seineni  Leben,"  1816;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklo- 
paedie." 

Henke,  (Hermann  Wilhelm  Eduard,)  a  jurist, 
brother  of  Adolf  Christian  Heinrich,  noticed  above,  was 
born  in  1783. 

Henkel  or  Henckel,  hgnk'el,  (Joachim  Friedrich,) 
a  skilful  Prussian  surgeon,  born  in  1712.  He  practised 
and  lectured  in  Berlin,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Medical  and  Surgical  Observations,"  (1744.) 
Died  in  1779. 

Henkel,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  an  able  chemist  and 
mineralogist,  born  at  Freiberg,  in  Saxony,  in  1679.  He 
was  appointed  counsellor  of  mines  by  King  Augustus 
H.,  and  improved  the  porcelain  fabrics  of  Meissen.  He 
wrote  "Flora  Saturnizans,"  (1722,)  "Principles  of  Mine- 
ralogy," (1747,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1744. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Henkle,  h^nk'el,  (Moses  Montgomery,)  D.D.,  an 
American  Methodist  divine,  born  in  Pendleton  county, 
Virginia,  in  1798.  In  i860  he  removed  to  Philadelphia. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Primary  Platform  of 
Methodism,"  (1851.) 

Henle,  h^n'leh,  (Friedrich  Gustav  Jakob,)  a  Ger- 
man physician,  born  in  Franconia  in  1809,  became  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  and  director  of  the  Anatomical  Insti- 
tute at  Gottingen  in  1852.  He  published  a  "Manual  of 
Rational  Pathology,"  (1846-52,)  and  other  medical  works. 

HenTey,  (Anthony,)  an  English  scholar  and  writer, 
born  in  Hampshire,  was  educated  at  Oxford.  In  1698 
he  was  elected  to  Parliament,  where  he  acquired  much 
influence.  He  was  a  person  of  distinguished  wit,  refine- 
ment, and  accomplishments,  possessed  a  large  fortune, 
and  was  a  liberal  patron  of  literary  men.  He  contributed 
to  the  "  Tatler"  and  the  "  Medley,"  and  wrote  lyric  verses. 
Died  in  1711. 

His  son  Robert  became  lord  chancellor 

Henley,  (John,)  often  called  Orator  Henley,  was 
born  at  Melton-Mowbray  in  1692,  and  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge. Before  he  had  left  the  university,  he  wrote  a 
letter  inserted  in  the  396th  number  of  the  "  Spectator." 
In  I7i9he  published  a  "Universal  Grammar."  Having 
taken  holy  orders,  he  came  to  London  and  opened  a 
chapel,  where  large  crowds  were  attracted  by  his  elocu- 
tion and  by  his  questionable  modes  of  courting  popu- 
larity. Pope  commemorates  him  in  the  "Dunciad"as 
"the  Zany  of  his  age."  On  Sundays  he  lectured  on 
theology,  and  on  Wednesdays  on  politics,  fashions,  and 
affairs  in  general.  He  edited  a  paper  called  the  "Hyp 
Doctor," — a  farrago  of  nonsense, — by  which,  it  is  said, 
he  made  one  hundred  pounds  a  year.    Died  in  1756. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  xiv.,  1826  ;  Disraelf,  "  Calami- 
ties of  Authors." 

Henley,  (Joseph  Warner,)  a  British  conservative 
legislator,  born  about  1794.    He  was  elected  to  the 


House  of  Commons  for  Oxfordshire  in  1841.  He  was 
appointed  president  of  the  board  of  trade  by  Lord  Derby 
in  1852,  and  again  in  1858.  On  account  of  his  hostility 
to  the  Reform  Bill,  he  resigned  in  1859. 

Henley,  (Robert,)  Lord  Northington,  son  of  An- 
thony Henley,  was  born  in  1708,  and  educated  at  Oxford. 
He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1732,  and  began  to  practise 
in  the  Western  Circuit,  of  which  he  afterwards  became 
the  leader.  In  1747  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for 
Bath,  and  became  an  active  debater.  In  1756  he  ob- 
tained the  place  of  attorney-general.  According  to  Lord 
Campbell,  "Henley  had  not  the  most  distant  notion  of 
the  great  seal  being  offered  to  him ;  but  his  mediocrity 
was  the  real  cause  of  his  elevation;"  and  in  1757  he 
was  named  lord  keeper  by  Pitt,  then  one  of  the  chiefs 
of  the  ministry.  After  the  accession  of  George  III.,  he 
received  in  1761  the  title  of  lord  chancellor,  and  was 
created  Earl  of  Northington.  In  1766,  after  overturning 
the  Rockingham  ministry,  with  which  as  a  Tory  he  could 
not  agree,  he  resigned  his  office,  and  accepted  that  of 
president  of  the  council.  He  acquitted  himself  respect- 
ably as  a  judge.    Died  in  1772. 

See  R.  Henley,  "Memoir  of  Robert  Henley,  Earl  of  Northing- 
ton;" Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;"  Foss, 
"The  Judges  of  England." 

Hen'ne-pin,  [Fr.  pron.  //^n^piN'  or  //§n'neh-paN',] 
(Louis,)  a  missionary,  was  born  in  Flanders  about  1640. 
Having  a  passion  for  exploring  remote  regions,  he 
embarked  for  Canada,  arriving  at  Quebec  in  1675, 
joined  the  party  of  La  Salle  in  1678.  When  they  had 
reached  the  Illinois  River,  La  Salle  being  forced  to  re- 
turn, Hennepin  proceeded  without  him,  in  1680,  and 
explored  the  Upper  Mississippi  as  far  as  the  falls,  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  of  Saint  Anthony,  and  which 
had  not  before  been  visited  by  any  European.  He  re- 
turned to  Quebec  in  1680,  and  sailed  to  France,  where 
he  published  in  1683-84  an  account  of  his  travels,  under 
the  title  of  a  "Description  of  Louisiana."  Thirteen 
years  later,  he  published  his  "  New  Discovery  of  a  Vast 
Country  situated  in  America,"  etc.,  which  contained  the 
same  matter  as  the  former,  with  the  addition  of  an  ac- 
count of  his  voyage  down  the  Lower  Mississippi,  which, 
according  to  Professor  Sparks,  is  a  fabrication,  copied 
from  Le  Clercq's  narrative.  (Sparks's  "  Life  of  La 
Salle.")  Hennepin  receives  credit  for  courage  and  reso- 
lution, and  for  general  accuracy  in  his  descriptions  of 
Indian  life,  etc. 

See  Felix  van  Hulst,  "Notice  sur  le  Pere  Hennepin  d'Ath," 
1845;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Hennequin,  //§n'kiN',  (Am6d^;e,)  an  advocate  and 
writer,  a  son  of  the  following,  born  in  Paris  in  181 7, 
wrote  "The  Conquest  of  Algeria,"  (1857,)  and  other 
works. 

Hennequin,  (Antoine  Louis  Marie,)  a  distin- 
guished French  lawyer,  born  at  Monceaux,  near  Paris, 
in  1786.  He  had  a  high  rank  as  an  eloquent  pleader, 
and  acted  as  counsel  in  many  political  trials.  He  de- 
fended Peyronnet,  ex-minister,  in  1830,  and  was  elected 
to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1834.  In  politics  he  was 
a  legitimist.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  Treatise  on  Legis- 
lation and  Jurisprudence,"  (2  vols.,  1838.)   Died  in  1840. 

Hennequin,  (Pierre  Auguste,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  at  Lyons  in  1763,  was  a  pupil  of  David. 
He  studied  in  Rome,  and  was  a  zealous  partisan  of  the 
Revolution,  after  which  he  worked  in  Paris.  Among 
his  capital  works  is  "  Orestes  pursued  by  the  Furies." 
Died  in  1833. 

Hennet,  /^i'ni',  (Albin  Joseph  Ulpien,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Maubeuge  in  1758.  Among  his  works  is 
a  "  History  of  the  French  Academy,"  (6  vols.,  in  manu- 
script.)   Died  in  1828. 

Henniges,  von,  fon  hh\'v\e-gls\  (Heinrich,)  a  Prus- 
sian publicist,  born  at  Weissenburg  in  1645.  He  repre- 
sented Prussia  at  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  in  1709,  and  at 
that  of  Frankfort  in  1711.  Among  his  works  are  "Ob- 
servations on  Grotius,"  (1673,)  ^"d  "Reflections  on  the 
Treaty  of  Mlinster,"  (1706.)    Died  in  1711. 

Hen'ni-ker,  (Sir  Frederick,)  an  English  traveller, 
born  in  London  in  1793.  He  published  in  1824  an 
amusing  narrative,  entitled  "  Notes  during  a  Visit  to 
Egypt,  Nubia,"  etc.    Died  in  1825. 


€  as  k;  9  as  .r;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   ((J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HENNIN 


1 162 


HENR  r 


Hennin,  /^.VniN',  (Pierre  Michel,)  a  French  lin- 
guist, who  corresponded  with  Voltaire,  and  left  "Diplo- 
matic Correspondence,"  (1796.)    Died  in  1807. 

Hen''ning,  (John,)  a  Scottish  sculptor,  born  at  Paisley 
in  1771,  worked  some  years  in  Edinburgh,  whence  he 
removed  to  London  in  1811.  He  executed  reduced 
copies  of  the  Panathenaic  frieze.    Died  in  185 1. 

Henninges,  hen^ning-Ss,  or  Henniges,  (Hierony- 
MUS,)  a  German  genealogist,  of  great  learning,  born  at 
Liinebiug  about  1550,  published  "Theatrum  Genealogi- 
cum,"  etc.,  (5  vols.,  1598.)    Died  in  1597. 

Hennings,  hen^nings,  (August  Adolf  Friedrich,) 
born  in  Holstein  in  1746,  wrote  "Philosophic  Essays," 
(2  vols.,  17S0,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1826. 

Henirayer,  le,lehhen''nu-e'ya',  (Jean,)  born  at  Saint- 
Quentin,  in  France,  in  1497,  became  Bishop  of  Lisieux 
in  1560.  He  held  the  office  of  first  almoner  to  Henry 
n.,  Francis  11.,  Charles  IX.,  and  Henry  HI.  Died  in 
1578. 

Henri,  (Kings  of  France.)    See  Henry. 

Henri  de  Bourgogne,  hhn'xt'  deh  booR^on',  sur- 
named  the  Great,  was  the  first  proprietary  Duke  of 
Burgundy.  In  987  his  brother,  Hugh  Capet,  having 
become  King  of  France,  gave  him  the  duchy  of  that 
province  as  his  proper  heritage.    Died  in  1002. 

Henri  de  Bourgogue,  ancestor  of  the  first  branch 
of  the  kings  of  Portugal,  was  born  about  1035.  He  was 
nephew  of  Henry  I.,  King  of  France.  About  1060  he 
went  to  Spain,  and  fought  against  the  Moors  under 
Alphonso  VI.  of  Castile,  who  made  him  count  soiiveraift 
of  the  country  between  the  Douro  and  the  Minho.  In 
1 103  he  took  part  in  the  crusade  in  Palestine.  He  died 
about  1 112.  His  son  Alfonso  was  the  first  King  of 
Portugal. 

Henri  de  Lausanne,  hhii'xt'  deh  I5'ztn',  an  eloquent 
monk  and  zealous  reformer.  He  preached  in  various 
parts  of  France,  attacked  boldly  the  vices  of  the  clergy, 
and  made  many  converts.  He  was  opposed  by  Saint 
Bernard,  and  was  cast  into  a  prison,  where  he  died  in 
114a 

See  Hodgson,  "Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Henri  de  Saint-Ignace,  h&N^re'  deh  siN^t^n'ytss', 
a  Flemish  theologian,  born  at  Ath  ;  died  about  1720. 

Henri  de  Valois.    See  Henry  HI.,  (of  France.) 

Henri  le  Grand.    See  Henry  IV. 

Henri  le  Lion.    See  Henry  the  Lion. 

Henri  le  Superbe.    See  Henry  the  Proud. 

Henrici,  hgn-rit'see,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man poet,  whose  assumed  name  was  Picander,  born  at 
Stolpe,  Saxony,  in  1700  ;  died  in  1764. 

Henriet,  /^6N're-a^(IsRAEL,)  an  able  French  engraver, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1608.  He  imitated  the  designs  and 
engravings  of  his  friend  Callot  with  success,  and  was 
selected  as  master  of  design  to  Louis  XIV.  Died  at 
Paris  in  1661. 

Henricns,  the  Latin  for  Henry,  which  see. 

Henricus  Auceps.    See  Henry  the  Fowler. 

Henricus  Leo.    See  Henry  the  Lion. 

Henricus  Magnus.    See  Henry  IV.,  (of  France.) 

Henricus  Superbus.    See  Henry  the  Proud. 

Henricus  Valesius.    See  Henry  HI.,  (of  France.) 

Hen-ri-et'ta  Anne,  a  daughter  of  Charles  I.  of  Eng- 
land and  of  Henrietta  Maria,  was  born  at  Exeter  in  1644, 
and  was  married  in  1661  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  brother 
of  Louis  XIV.,  of  whose  court  she  was  regarded  as  one 
of  the  brightest  ornaments.  At  her  funeral,  in  1670,  Bos- 
suet  pronounced  one  of  his  most  eloquent  discourses. 

See  W.  H.  D.  Adams,  "  Famous  Beauties  and  Historic  Women," 
London,  1865. 

Hen-ri-et'ta  Ma-ri'a,  [Fr.  Henriette  Marie,] 
Queen  of  England,  borii  in  1609,  was  a  daughter  of 
Henry  [V.  of  France  and  Mary  de  Medici.  She  was 
married  in  1625  to  Prince  Charles,  afterwards  Charles  I. 
of  England,  and  it  was  stipulated  that  she  should  enjoy 
liberty  to  use  the  Catholic  forms  of  worship.  "By  her 
sense  and  spirit,  as  well  as  beauty,  she  justified  the  fond- 
ness of  her  husband."  In  1645  she  was  compelled  to 
retire  to  France.    She  died  near  Paris  in  1669. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England;"  Voltaire,  "Siecle  de  Louis 
XIV;"  Agnes  Strickland,  "Queens  of  England." 

Henriette  Marie.    See  Henrietta  Maria. 


Henriou,  //6N're'6N',  (Denis,)  a  French  mathemati- 
cian, who  translated  Euclid  into  French,  (1632,)  was  the 
first  Frenchman  who  published  a  table  of  logarithms. 
Died  about  1640. 

Henrion,  (Mathieu  Richard  Auguste,)  a  French 
Catholic  writer,  born  at  Metz  in  1805,  published  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Papacy,"  (3  vols.,  1832,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1862, 

Henrion,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  numismatist,  born  at 
Troyes  in  1663  ;  died  in  1720. 

Henrion  de  Pansey,  /z6N're'6N'  deh  pSn'sV, 
(Pierre  Paul  Nicolas,)  a  learned  French  judge  and 
jurist,  born  near  Ligny,  in  Lorraine,  in  1742.  He  gained 
distinction  by  pleading  the  cause  of  a  negro  claimed  as 
a  slave,  who  obtained  his  liberty.  About  1770  he  opened 
an  office  for  consultation,  and  in  1779  pul)lished  an  ex- 
cellent "Dissertation  on  Feudal  Law."  In  1810 Napoleon 
appointed  him  a  member  of  the  council  of  state,  saying, 
"You  should  have  been  in  the  council  these  last  ten 
years  :  I  have  scolded  Cambaceres  for  not  speaking  of 
you  sooner."  He  became  first  president  of  the  court  of 
cassation  in  1828.  He  wrote  several  able  works  on  civil 
and  public  law.    Died  in  1829. 

See  Louis  Rozht,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vieet  les  Ouvrages  de  Henrion 
de  Pansey,"  1829;  L.  D.  Bernard,  "Notice  historique  sur  Henrion 
de  Pansey,"  1829;  Taillandier,  "  Notice  sur  Henrion  de  Pansey," 
1829  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Henriot  or  Hanriot,  /zSN're'o',  (FRANgois,)  born  at 
Nanterre  in  1761,  was  one  of  the  miscreants  who  gained 
a  bad  eminence  in  the  reign  of  terror  by  their  atrocities. 
He  was  chosen  by  the  Commune  leader  of  the  armed 
populace  which  in  May,  1793,  surrounded  the  Conven- 
tion and  extorted  from  that  body  by  violence  and  terror 
the  proscription  of  the  Girondists.  At  the  time  of  Robes- 
pierre's downfall,  in  1794,  Henriot  made  desperate  efforts 
to  rescue  him,  but  failed,  and  was  executed  with  him. 

Henrique.    See  Henry  the  Navigator. 

Henriquet  -  Dupont,  hh^'xe'W  dii'p6N',  (Louis 
Pierre,)  an  eminent  French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in 
1797,  engraved  portraits  (after  French  artists)  of  Andrew 
Chenier,  Mirabeau,  and  Montaigne  ;  also,  "  The  Virgin 
and  Child,"  after  Raphael. 

Henriquez,  gn-ree'kgth,  (Crisostomo,)  a  Spanish 
author,  born  at  Madrid  in  1594,  wrote  biographies  of 
saints,  etc.,  and  some  historical  works.    Died  in  1632. 

Henry  (Heinrich)  I.,  surnamed  the  Fowler,  [Lat. 
Henri^cus  Au'ceps  ;  Fr.  Henri  l'Oiseleur,  hdN^re' 
1w3.zOur',]  Emperor  of  Germany,  born  in  876  A.D.,  was 
the  son  of  Otho,  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  the  first  German 
emperor  of  the  Saxon  house.  Though  he  had  previously 
been  engaged  in  a  war  with  the  emperor  Conrad  I.,  he  was 
recommended  by  that  sovereign  on  his  death-bed  for  his 
successor,  and  he  was  elected  in  919.  After  waging  war 
for  some  time  against  the  Hungarians  without  success, 
he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  them  near  Merseburg 
in  933.  Henry  was  the  first  German  emperor  who 
granted  municipal  privileges.  He  died  in  936,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Otho  I. 

See  N.  H.  Gundling,  "  Liber  de  Henrico  Aucupe,"  1711 ;  J.  P. 
LuDEWiG,  "Henricus  Auceps,  Historia  anceps,"  1713;  E.  BuRCK- 
HAKDT,  "  Dissertatio  de  Henrico  L  Gernianorum  Rege,"  1S31 ; 
Adelbold,  "Vita  Henrici  Aucupis,"  in  the  "  Scriptores  Rerum 
Bninswicensium"  of  Leibnitz. 

'  Henry  (Heinrich)  H,  called  the  Saint,  was  the 
son  of  Henry,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  and  great-grandson  of 
Henry  the  Fowler.  He  was  born  in  972.  Having  ac- 
companied the  emperor  Otho  III.  to  Rome,  where  he 
died,  Henry  took  possession  of  the  crown  jewels,  and 
in  1002  caused  himself  to  be  crowned  emperor  at  Mentz. 
He  was  engaged  in  numerous  broils  with  his  brother 
Bruno,  Henry,  (the  Marquis  of  Schweinfurt,)  and  Har- 
duin  of  Ivrea.  He  died  in  1024,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Conrad  II. 

See  A.  Crammer,  "  Admiranda  Vita  S.  Henrici,"  1770 ;  J.  RiON, 
"Das  heilige  Kaiserpaar,  oder  Leben  und  Thaten  des  heiligen  Hein- 
richs,"  etc.,  1832. 

Henry  (Heinrich)  IH.,  born  in  1017,  was  the  sonoi 
Conrad  II.,  and  was  chosen  emperor  in  1039.  He  curbed 
the  power  of  his  principal  nobles,  carried  on  successful 
w\ars  in  Bohemia,  Hungary,  and  Northern  Italy,  and  in 
1046  deposed  successively  the  popes  Benedict  IX.,  Syl- 
vester HI.,  and  Gregory  IV.,  and  raised  Clement  II.  to 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  g,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


HENRT  1163  HENRY 


the  pontificate.  He  died  in  1056,  having  previously 
caused  his  son  Henry  to  be  elected  emperor.  Henry  HI. 
was  endowed  with  commanding  talents  and  great  energy 
of  character,  and  ranks  among  the  ablest  of  German 
rulers. 

See  Neu,  "Themata  quasdam  selectiora  de  Henrico  III.,"  1718. 

Henry  (Heinrich)  IV.,  son  of  Henry  IH.,  born  in 
1050,  was  five  years  of  age  at  his  father's  death.  In  1065, 
in  an  assembly  at  Worms,  he  was  declared  of  age,  through 
the  influence  of  his  preceptor,  Adalbert,  Archbishop  of 
Bremen,  who  assumed  the  chief  power.  About  1073 
Henry  became  engaged  in  a  contest  with  Magnus,  Duke 
of  Saxony,  in  the  course  of  which  he  appealed  to  Pope 
Gregory  VH.  The  latter,  having  in  vain  remonstrated 
with  the  emperor  for  selling  sees  and  benefices  in  his 
dominions,  now  summoned  him  to  Rome  to  answer  the 
charges  preferred  against  him.  Upon  this,  Henry,  in  a 
Diet  at  Worms  in  1076,  deposed  the  pope,  and  was  soon 
after  excommunicated  by  him.  The  emperor,  finding 
his  subjects  inclined  to  revolt,  and  fearing  the  loss  of  his 
crown,  set  out  for  Italy  with  his  wife  and  child  in  the 
midst  of  winter,  and,  meeting  the  pope  at  the  castle  of 
Canossa,  was  required  to  stand  barefoot  for  three  days 
in  an  open  court-yard  before  the  ban  was  removed.  A 
civil  war  now  ensued,  attended  by  new  excommunica- 
tions on  the  part  of  the  pope  and  another  deposition  on 
that  of  the  emperor,  till  at  length  the  latter,  whose  son 
Henry  had  rebelled  against  him,  took  refuge  at  Liege, 
where  he  died  in  1106.    (See  Gregory  VII.) 

See  J.  Mascov,  "  Commentarii  de  Rebus  Imperii  Romano  Ger- 
manici  sub  Henrico  IV.  et  Henrico  V.,"  1748 ;  J.  Aventinus,  "Vita 
Henrici  IV.,"  1518;  J.  Stumpf,  "Historic  Kayser  Heinrichs  IV.," 
1556. 

Henry  V.,  born  in  1081,  was  the  son  of  Henry 
IV.,  and  the  last  emperor  of  the  Salic  line.  During 
his  father's  lifetime  he  had,  at  the  instigation  of  Pope 
Paschal  II.,  been  acknowledged  as  emperor  in  1106. 
Though  at  first  inclined  to  favour  the  pope,  he  soon 
showed  his  determination  to  maintain  his  right  of  inves- 
titure, and  Paschal  at  length  consented  to  crown  him  in 
nil,  at  which  time  he  married  Matilda,  daughter  of 
Henry  I,  of  England.  After  a  contest  with  the  papal 
party,  he  succeeded  in  deposing  the  pope,  and  set  up 
Gregory  VIII.  in  his  stead.  This  measure  was  opposed 
by  the  cardinals,  who  chose  Gelasius  II.,  on  whose  death 
Calixtus  II.  succeeded  to  the  tiara.  With  the  latter 
Henry  concluded  a  treaty  in  1 122,  by  which  he  gave 
up  the  right  of  investiture.  He  died  in  1 125,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Lothaire  of  Saxony. 

See  J.  Mascov,  "Commentarii  de  Rebus  Imperii  Romano-Ger- 
manici,"  1748;  E.  Gervais,  "Geschichte  Deutschlands  unter  der 
Regierung  Kaiser  Heinrichs  V.,"  1842. 

Henry  VI„  born  in  1165,  was  the  son  of  Frederick 
Barbarossa,  whom  he  succeeded  as  Emperor  of  Germany 
I  in  1 190.  With  the  view  of  subduing  Sicily,  which  he 
claimed  by  right  of  his  wife  Constance,  he  invaded  that 
country,  but,  being  unsuccessful,  was  obliged  to  return 
to  Germany.  Here,  with  the  ransom-money  which  he 
received  for  his  prisoner  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  he 
fitted  out  another  expedition.  After  taking  Naples  and 
bringing  Sicily  into  subjection,  he  caused  himself  to  be 
crowned  at  Palermo.  His  conduct  towards  the  Sicilians 
was  marked  by  great  tyranny  and  cruelty,  and  his  death, 
which  took  place  in  1 197,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
caused  by  poison.  Henry  VI.  was  the  third  emperor  of 
the  Hohenstaufen  line.  He  was  succeeded  by  Philip  of 
Suabia  and  Otho  IV.,  between  whom  the  crown  was 
contested  for  several  years.    (See  Otho  IV.) 

See  W.  Jager,  "Geschichte  Kaiser  Heinrichs  VI.,"  1790. 

Henry  VII.,  born  in  1262,  was  the  son  of  Henry, 
Count  of  Luxemburg,  and  was  chosen  emperor  in  1308. 
Soon  after  his  accession  he  marched  into  Italy  and 
sought  to  restore  peace  in  that  country,  then  distracted 
by  the  war  of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibelines.  He  was  on 
the  point  of  attacking  Naples,  when  he  died  suddenly  in 
13 13, — as  is  generally  believed,  by  poison. 

See  F.  H.  Barthold.  "Der  Rbmerzug  Kbnig  Heinrichs  von 
Lutzelburg,"  1830;  Jakob  Paul  von  Gundling,  "Geschichte  Kay- 
ser Heinrichs  VII.,"  1719. 

Henry  I.,  King  of  England,  surnamed  Beauclerc, 
born  at  Selby,  Yorkshire,  in  1068,  was  the  fourth  son 


of  William  the  Conqueror  by  Matilda  of  Flanders.  As 
his  surname  indicates,  he  received  a  better  scholastic 
education  than  was  then  usual  even  among  princes.  His 
father  at  his  death  left  him  a  legacy  of  five  thousand 
pounds.  Henry  was  hunting  with  his  brother  William 
Rufus  in  the  New  Forest  in  August,  iioo,  when  the  latter 
was  killed.  The  eldest  brother,  Robert,  being  absent  in 
foreign  travel,  Henry  usurped  the  throne.  The  people 
were  the  more  disposed  to  acquiesce  as  he  presently 
issued  a  charter  in  which  their  rights  and  liberties  were 
reaffirmed.  He  married  Maud,  or  Matilda,  a  Scottish 
princess,  the  niece  of  Edgar  Atheling.  In  iioi  Robert 
entered  England  with  an  army ;  but  the  contest  was 
settled  without  a  battle,  and  Henry  remained  in  quiet 
possession  of  the  throne.  A  few  years  after,  Henry 
required  Robert  to  cede  to  him  the  duchy  of  Normandy 
for  a  sum  of  money,  and,  on  his  refusal,  invaded  Nor- 
mandy in  1 106,  defeated  Robert  at  Tenchebrai,  and 
deprived  him  of  his  dominions  and  liberty.  In  11 13 
Louis  VI.  of  France  attempted  with  an  army  to  assert 
the  right  of  Robert's  son,  but  without  success.  Henry's 
only  son  William  perished  at  sea  in  1 120,  after  which  the 
father  was  never  seen  to  smile.  His  daughter  Matilda 
was  declared  his  heir  in  1126,  and  next  year  was  married 
to  Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  Earl  of  Anjou.  The  issue  of 
this  marriage  became  Henry  II.  Though  the  character 
of  Henry  was  far  from  amiable,  he  possessed  a  large 
share  of  kingly  qualities,  including  judgment,  eloquence, 
and  bravery.  He  died  in  1135,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  nephew,  Stephen  of  Blois. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England,"  chap.  vi. ;  John  Hayward, 
"  Lives  of  Three  Norman  Kings  of  England,"  1613. 

Henry  II.,  King  of  England,  founder  of  the  Planta- 
genet dynasty,  was  born  at  Le  Mans,  France,  in  1133. 
His  father  was  Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  (so  named  from 
the  broom-plant — in  'Lztm, planta genista — which  he  wore 
in  his  cap,)  and  his  mother  was  Matilda,  daughter  of 
Henry  I.  In  the  contest  which  followed  the  death  of 
Henry  I.,  Stephen  obtained  England,  and  the  infant 
Henry  was  recognized  as  heir  of  Normandy,  to  which 
at  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1 151,  Anjou,  Touraine, 
and  Maine  were  added.  The  next  year  he  married 
Eleanor,  Duchess  of  Guienne,  (whom  Louis,  King  of 
France,  had  divorced,)  whose  dowry  was  Poitou  and 
Guienne  ;  and  he  thus  became  master  of,  nearly  half  of 
France.  In  1 153  he  invaded  England  ;  biit,  before  much 
blood  was  spilled,  a  treaty  was  made,  by  which  Stephen 
retained  the  crown  during  his  lifetime,  and  Henry  was 
recognized  as  his  successor.     Stephen  died  in  1 1 54. 

Henry  began  his  reign  by  discharging  the  foreign 
troops,  razing  to  the  ground  the  castles  of  the  rebellious 
barons,  and  by  other  energetic  and  politic  measures. 
He  was  several  times  involved  in  war  with  the  King  of 
France,  without  important  results.  His  reign  was  greatly 
disturbed  by  the  usurpations  of  the  pope  and  clergy,  and 
by  a  contest  with  the  haughty  Thomas  a  Becket,  whom 
he  had  made  prime  minister  and  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury. In  1 164  a  council  of  nobles  and  prelates  adopted 
the  famous  Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  which  recognized 
the  supremacy  of  the  crown  over  the  church.  Becket  was 
murdered  in  1 1 70  by  an  over-officious  servant  of  the  king, 
who  in  1 174  performed  severe  penance  at  his  tomb,  and 
soon  after  the  Constitutions  above  named  were  repealed. 
The  conquest  of  Ireland  was  effected  by  Henry's  arms 
between  1169  and  1175.  His  last  years  were  rendered 
unhappy  by  the  rebellion  of  his  sons,  who  were  instigated 
by  Queen  Eleanor  and  supported  by  Louis  of  France. 
"Henry  was,"  says  Hjme,  "the  greatest  prince  of  his 
time  for  wisdom,  virtue,  and  abilities.  His  character 
in  private  as  well  as  public  life  is  almost  without  a 
blemish."  But  Michelet  charges  him  with  sensuality 
and  other  vices.  He  died  at  Chinon,  in  France,  in  1189, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Richard  I. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England,"  chaps,  viii.  and  ix.  ;  Miche- 
let, "History  of  France:"  E.  Bolton,  "  Life  of  Henry  II.  ;"  Lord 
Lyttei.ton,  "History  of  Henry  II.,"  1764-67;  Berington,  "Life 
of  Henry  II.,"  1790. 

Henry  III.,  King  of  England,  surnamed  of  W^in- 
CHESTER,  from  the  place  of  his  birth,  was  born  in  1206, 
and  was  the  eldest  son  of  King  John  by  his  queen, 
Isabella  of  Angouleme.    He  was  acknowledged  king  in 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  Y.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (gl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HENRT 


HENRT 


1216,  atid  the  Earl  of  Pembroke  was  appointed  regent 
during  the  minority.  In  1222  Henry  was  declared  of 
age  to  exercise  some  of  the  functions  of  royalty.  In 
1230  he  invaded  France,  with  which  he  had  been  at  war 
for  several  years,  but  returned  without  any  important 
achievement.  He  married  Eleanor,  daughter  of  Ray- 
mond, Count  of  Provence,  in  1236,  and  a  few  years  after- 
wards renewed  hostilities  against  Louis  IX.  of  France, 
by  whom  he  was  defeated.  His  feeble  character,  mis- 
government,  and  ill  success  rendered  him  an  object  of 
contempt  among  his  people  and  provoked  many  con- 
tests with  his  Parliaments.  He  confirmed  the  Magna 
Charta,  but  repeatedly  violated  it.  In  1258  the  barons, 
headed  by  the  ambitious  and  popular  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort,  Earl  of  Leicester,  revolted  against  the  king,  who 
was  forced  to  yield  his  power  to  a  committee  of  twenty- 
four.  For  several  years  a  civil  war  was  waged  between 
the  king  and  the  barons,  \v\t\\  various  success,  until  the 
latter,  in  1264,  obtained  a  decisive  victory  at  Lewes, 
where  the  king  and  his  son  Edward  were  taken  prison- 
ers. The  Earl  of  Leicester  then  became  dictator  of  the 
country.  In  1265  Prince  Edward  escaped,  raised  an  army, 
and  defeated  the  barons  at  Evesham,  where  De  Montfort 
was  slain,  and  the  royal  authority  was  restored.  After  a 
reign  of  fifty-six  years, — the  longest  in  the  English  annals, 
— Henry  died  in  1272,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Edward  I.  This  reign  presents  the  first  example  of  a 
Parliament  constituted,  as  at  present,  of  representatives 
from  the  counties,  cities,  and  boroughs. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England,"  chap.  xii.  ;  R.  Cotton,  "Life 
of  Henry  III.,"  1627;  W.  Prynne,  "  Life  of  Henry  IIL,"  1670. 

Henry  IV.,  King  of  England,  surnamed  Boling- 
BROKE,  was  the  eldest  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of 
Lancaster,  who  was  the  fourth  son  of  King  Edward  the 
Third.  His  mother  was  Blanche,  daughter  of  Henry 
Plantagenet,  a  descendant  of  Henry  II.  He  was  born 
at  Bolingbroke  in  1366.  In  1397  he  married  Mary  de 
Bohun,  daughter  of  the  last  Earl  of  Hereford,  and  was 
created  Duke  of  Hereford.  The  next  year  he  was  ban- 
ished for  ten  years  by  Richard  II.  By  the  death  of  his 
father,  in  1399,  he  became  Duke  of  Lancaster;  but  the 
king  refused  to  give  him  possession  of  his  estate.  With 
the  avowed  purpose  of  vindicating  his  right,  Henry  re- 
turned to  England,  where  he  was  joined  by  other  nobles, 
and  soon  assembled  an  army  of  60,000  men.  The  king, 
unable  to  resist,  and  deserted  by  his  disaffected  subjects, 
was  deposed  by  Parliament  in  1399,  and  Henry  succeeded 
him,  with  the  general  consent  of  the  nation,  although  the 
Earl  of  March  was  the  more  legitimate  heir.  In  1402  a 
Scottish  army,  which  invaded  England  with  the  pretext 
of  restoring  Richard,  was  defeated  at  Homildon  Hill. 
Soon  afterwards  his  throne  was  menaced  by  the  rebel- 
lion of  the  famous  Henry  Percy,  surnamed  Hotspur,  in 
concert  with  the  Welsh  chieftain  Owen  Glendower  and 
others.  At  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury,  where  the  king 
fought  with  desperate  courage,  the  rebels  were  com- 
pletely defeated,  and  Percy,  their  leader,  was  slain. 
Glendower  maintained  for  several  years  an  irregular  war- 
fare in  the  mountains  of  Wales  ;  and  the  Percy  family 
again  revolted  in  1408,  but  were  finally  defeated  at  Bran- 
ham,  where  the  Earl  of  Northumberland  was  killed.  The 
popularity  which  Henry  enjoyed  at  his  accession  was  not 
retained  in  the  latter  part  of  his  reign.  Hume  says, 
"His  prudence,  vigilance,  and  foresight  in  maintaining 
his  power  were  admirable ;  and  he  possessed  many 
qualities  which  fitted  him  for  his  high  station,  and  which 
rendered  his  usurpation  of  it,  though  pernicious  in  after- 
times,  rather  salutary  during  his  own  reign  to  the  P2ng- 
lish  nation."  He  died  in  1413,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Henry  V.  Henry  IV.  gives  the  name  to  one 
of  Shakspeare's  most  popular  dramas,  in  two  parts. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England,"  chap,  xviii.  ;  Sir  J.  Hav- 
WARD,  "Life  and  Reign  of  Henry  IV.,"  1509;  G.  P.  R.  James, 
"Life  of  Henry  IV." 

Henry  V.,  King  of  England,  born  at  Monmouth  in 
1388,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Henry  IV.  and  of  Mary  de 
Bohun.  In  his  father's  reign  he  displayed  courage  at  the 
battle  of  Shrewsbury,  and  gave  proof  of  great  military 
talents  in  the  war  with  the  Welsh.  In  1413  Henry  was 
proclaimed  king,  with  abundant  expression  of  the  popular 
favour,  and  began  his  reign  with  several  acts  of  gene- 


rosity. He  released  the  Earl  of  March  (the  lawful  heir 
of  the  crown)  from  prison,  and  restored  the  heir  of  Percy 
to  his  title  and  estate.  Having  resolved  to  assert  his 
claim  to  the  throne  of  France,  which  was  then  a  prey  to 
civil  dissensions,  he  embarked  in  1415  with  an  army  of 
30,000  men.  After  taking  Harfleur,  and  losing  a  large 
part  of  his  army  by  disease,  he  was  marching  home- 
ward, when  his  progress  was  opposed  by  D'Albret,  Con- 
stable of  France,  with  an  army  about  four  times  more 
numerous  than  his  own.  On  the  25th  of  October,  1415, 
was  fought  the  memorable  battle  of  Agincourt,  in  which 
the  French  were  defeated,  with  a  loss  of  about  24,000 
men,  including  prisoners.  The  victor  returned  to  Eng- 
land without  delay. 

In  141 7,  profiting  by  the  imbecility  of  the  French  king 
and  the  feuds  among  the  nobles,  he  renewed  hostilities, 
captured  Rouen,  and  threatened  Paris.  In  1420  a  treaty 
of  peace  was  made  at  Troyes,  with  the  conditions  that 
Henry  should  marry  Catherine,  the  daughter  of  King 
Charles  VI.,  and  should  inherit  the  crown  at  the  death 
of  the  latter.  One  of  the  French  factions,  however,  headed 
by  the  dauphin,  did  not  consent  to  this  disgraceful  trans- 
action, and  made  a  brave  stand  for  the  national  cause. 
Henry's  brother,  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  was  defeated 
and  slain  at  Bauge ;  but  at  other  places  the  English 
were  successful,  and  Henry  seemed  on  the  point  of  real- 
izing his  ambitious  projects,  when  he  died  prematurely 
in  1422,  (a  few  weeks  before  Charles  VI.,)  leaving  an 
infant  son,  who  afterwards  reigned  as  Henry  VI.  After 
his  death,  his  widow  Catherine  married  Owen  Tudor,  a 
Welshman,  whose  posterity  became  the  royal  family  of 
England.  The  frankness  and  energy  of  his  character 
and  the  glory  of  his  victories  rendered  Henry  the  idol 
of  the  English  people  ;  but  his  glory  is  obscured  or 
stained  by  the  injustice  of  the  enterprise  in  which  his  life 
was  chiefly  spent.  Henry  V.  gives  the  name  to  one  of 
Shakspeare's  historical  dramas,  and  constitutes  a  promi- 
nent and  interesting  character  in  both  parts  of  the  two- 
fold drama  entitled  "  Henry  IV." 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England,"  chap.  xix. ;  Elham,  "Vita 
at  Gesta  Henrici  V;"  Goodwin,  "Life  of  Henry  V.,"  1604;  P.  F. 
Tytler,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Character  of  Henry  V.,"  1830; 
"  Henry  of  Monmouth;  or.  Memoirs  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Henry  V. 
of  England,"  by  J.  Endell  Tyler. 

Henry  VI.,  King  of  England,  surnamed  of  Wind- 
sor, from  the  place  of  his  birth,  was  the  only  son  of 
Henry  V.  and  Catherine  of  France.  He  was  born  in 
1421,  and  was  only  nine  months  old  when  he  became 
king.  His  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  was  appointed 
Regent  or  Protector  of  England.  At  the  death  of  Charles 
VI.  of  France,  in  142-2,  Henry  was  proclaimed  king  at 
Paris  ;  but  a  large  party  of  the  French  openly  sided  with 
the  dauphin,  who  was  styled  Charles  VII.  Henry's 
uncle,  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  acted  as  regent  and  repre- 
sentative of  the  English  power  in  France.  In  1424  the 
English  gained  a  victory  at  Verneuil,  after  which  their 
power  gradually  declined.  The  city  of  Orleans  in  1429 
was  delivered  from  siege  by  the  enthusiasm  with  which 
the  heroic  Joan  of  Arc  inspired  her  countrymen.  In  1436 
the  English  garrison  of  Paris  was  forced  to  surrender. 
In  1445  Henry  married  a  French  lady,  Margaret  of 
Anjou,  daughter  of  Rene,  titular  King  of  Sicily.  She 
was  superior  in  ability  and  energy  to  her  husband,  over 
whom  she  easily  acquired  a  permanent  ascendant. 

Victory  continued  to  attend  the  French  arms,  and 
before  the  close  of  145 1  not  a  single  province  of  France 
remained  in  the  power  of  the  English.  And  now  Eng- 
land in  her  turn  was  destined  to  experience  the  evils  of 
an  imbecile  ruler,  a  disputed  title,  and  an  intestine  war 
between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster.  The  Duke 
of  York,  who  claimed  the  crown  as  a  descendant  of 
Edward  the  Third's  second  son,  was  supported  by  many 
powerful  nobles,  among  whom  was  the  Earl  of  Warwick, 
"  the  King-maker."  The  battle  of  Saint  Alban's,  (1455,) 
in  which  the  partisans  of  York  were  victorious  and 
Henry  was  taken  prisoner,  was  the  beginning  of  a  war 
which  lasted,  with  interruptions,  for  thirty  years,  and 
in  which  the  English  nobility  were  nearly  annihilated. 
As  a  consequence  of  the  victory  of  Saint  Alban's,  the 
Duke  of  York  became  Protector.  After  vain  attempts 
to  reconcile  the  contestants,  in  1460  another  battle  was 
fought,  at  Northampton,  where  the  royalists  were  de- 


S,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y, 


short;  ^,    j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HENRT 


1 165  HENRT 


feated,  and  Henry  was  again  made  prisoner  by  the  Earl 
of  March,  the  son  of  the  Duke  of  York.  His  queen,  Mar- 
garet, escaped  to  Scotland,  and  continued  the  war  several 
years  with  vigour  and  partial  success.  At  the  battle  of 
Wakefield  the  Duke  of  York  was  defeated  and  killed  ;  but 
his  son  was  proclaimed  king  in  146 1,  with  the  title  of 
Edward  IV.  Henry,  after  being  several  times  liberated 
and  recaptured,  died  in  prison,  or,  as  some  suppose,  was 
murdered,  in  1471.  He  was  remarkably  gentle  and  in- 
oflfensive,  and  seemed  to  feel  little  interest  in  the  quarrel 
maintained  on  his  account.  Henry  VI.  furnishes  the 
name  to  one  of  Shakspeare's  historical  dramas,  in  three 
parts,  in  which  are  represented  the  principal  events  of 
his  reign. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England,"  chaps,  xx.  and  xxi. 

Henry  VII.,  King  of  England,  the  founder  of  the 
royal  line  of  Tudor,  was  born  at  Pembroke  Castle  in 
1456.  By  his  father,  Edmond  Tudor,  Earl  of  Richmond, 
he  was  descended  from  the  royal  family  of  France ;  by 
his  mother,  Margaret  Beaufort,  he  derived  a  claim  to 
the  English  crown,  as  one  of  her  ancestors  was  John  of 
Gaunt,  the  head  of  the  house  of  Lancaster.  His  father 
dying  in  1456,  Henry  became  Earl  of  Richmond.  He 
was  confined  as  a  prisoner  by  Edward  IV.  for  several 
years,  and  when  the  Lancastrians  were  finally  defeated, 
in  1471,  he  escaped  with  his  uncle,  the  Earl  of  Pembroke, 
to  Brittany,  where  he  remained  until  the  accession  of 
Richard  HI.,  in  1483.  As  Henry  was  now  recognized 
as  the  head  of  the  Lancastrian  party,  many  people  looked 
to  him  as  the  most  eligible  person  to  deliver  them  from 
Richard,  who  was  generally  detested.  The  leaders  of 
both  the  rival  houses,  therefore,  invited  Henry  to  assume 
the  royal  power.  The  first  attempt  to  dethrone  Richard, 
made  in  1483,  was  a  failure.  Renewing  his  enterprise 
in  1485,  he  landed  in  Wales  with  about  2000  men,  and, 
after  receiving  large  accessions,  encountered  Richard 
at  Bosworth,  where  the  latter  was  defeated  and  slain, 
August  22,  1485. 

In  accordance  with  a  plan  previously  formed  to  recon- 
cile the  rival  parties  of  York  and  Lancaster,  Henry,  in 
i486,  married  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV., — an 
event  which  gave  great  satisfaction  to  the  people.  For 
several  years  his  reign  was  disturbed  by  the  seditious 
attempts  of  the  impostors  Lambert  Simnel  and  Perkin 
Warbeck,  the  latter  of  whom  pretended  to  be  Richard, 
the  younger  brother  of  Edward  V.,  and  was  supported 
by  the  court  of  France  and  by  many  English  nobles.  He 
was  executed  in  1499,  after  which  the  kingdom  enjoyed 
internal  tranquillity.  Henry  lost  somewhat  of  the  popu- 
lar favour  by  his  partiality  for  the  Lancastrians  and  his 
severity  towards  the  other  party,  as  well  as  by  his  rapa- 
city in  raising  money.  Empson  and  Dudley  became 
notorious  as  the  agents  of  his  exactions.  In  1501  the 
king's  eldest  son,  Arthur,  was  married  to  Catherine,  a 
Spanish  princess  ;  and,  though  he  died  about  six  months 
after,  the  remote  consequences  of  the  match  were  very 
momentous.  (See  Henry  VITI.)  In  1503  a  treaty  of  peace 
with  James  IV.  of  Scotland  was  confirmed  by  the  mar- 
riage of  James  with  Margaret,  daughter  of  Henry  VII., 
which  was  one  of  the  first  steps  towards  a  permanent 
union  of  the  two  kingdoms.  The  ministers  and  council- 
lors who  possessed  the  greatest  favour  and  influence  in 
this  reign  were  Morton,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and 
Fox,  Bishop  of  Winchester.  Henry  possessed  prudence, 
vigour,  and  an  excellent  cajjacity,  but  seems  to  have  been 
deficient  in  the  better  qualities  of  the  heart.  Avarice 
was  his  ruling  passion.  His  reign,  though  rather  arbi- 
trary, was  accounted  fortunate  for  the  nation,  and  forms 
an  important  era  in  history,  in  which  the  discovery  of 
America  and  the  invention  of  printing  gave  a  wonderful 
impetus  to  the  human  mind.  He  died  in  1509,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Henry  VIII. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England,"  chaps,  xxiv.,  xxv.,  and  xxvi.  ; 
Francis  Bacon,  "  Historia  Regni  Henrici  VIT.,"  1642;  Aleyn, 
"  History  of  Henry  VII.,"  in  verse,  1638  ;  M  arsollier,  "  Histoire 
de  Henri  VII,"  1697. 

Henry  VIII.,  King  of  England,  the  second  son  of 
Henry  VII.  and  of  Elizabeth  of  York,  was  born  at 
Greenwich  in  1491.  By  the  death  of  his  brother  Arthur, 
in  1502,  he  became  heir-apparent  of  the  crown,  and  as- 
sumed the  title  of  Prince  of  Wales.  The  next  year  he 
was,  against  his  will,  obliged  by  his  father  to  afiiance 


himself  to  his  brother's  widow,  Catherine  of  Aragon. 
His  accession  at  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1509,  was  the 
occasion  of  great  rejoicing  among  the  people,  who  were 
prepossessed  in  his  favour  by  his  personal  advantages 
and  other  popular  qualities.  He  appears  to  have  been 
in  early  life  one  of  the  most  exemplary  and  most  accom- 
plished princes  in  Europe.  (See  Froude's  "  History  of 
England,"  vol.  i.  chap,  ii.)  His  marriage  with  Catherine, 
who  was  his  senior  by  six  years,  was  solemnized  a  few 
months  after  his  accession.  In  1512  he  was  induced  to 
join  the  pope,  the  King  of  Spain,  and  the  emperor  in 
a  league  against  the  King  of  France,  and  sent  10,000  men 
to  invade  Guienne  ;  but  the  expedition  was  a  total  failure. 
The  next  year  he  invaded  France  in  person,  and  defeated 
the  French  at  Guinegaste.  In  15 14  a  treaty  of  peace 
was  made,  the  chief  condition  of  which  was  that  Louis 
XII.  should  marry  Henry's  sister  Mary.  In  15 13,  James 
IV.  of  Scotland,  the  ally  of  France,  having  marched 
across  the  border,  was  defeated  and  slain,  at  the  great 
battle  of  Flodden,  by  the  English  under  the  Earl  of 
Surrey. 

In  the  beginning  of  this  reign  the  chief  competitors 
for  favour  and  influence  at  court  were  Thomas  Howard, 
Earl  of  Surrey,  who  was  treasurer,  and  Fox,  Bishop  of 
Winchester,  who  held  the  office  of  secretary.  The  latter 
introduced  to  the  king  Thomas  Wolsey,  who  soon  sup- 
planted them  both  by  his  insinuating  arts  and  became 
the  prime  favourite  and  sole  minister.  For  about  fifteen 
years  he  directed  the  affairs  of  state  with  almost  absolute 
authority.  In  1515  he  was  made  Archbishop  of  York, 
and  soon  after  a  cardinal.  In  the  long  contest  for  su- 
premacy between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.,  Henry, 
whose  friendship  was  courted  by  both,  might  have  de- 
rived great  advantage  from  his  position ;  but,  guided 
rather  by  impulse  than  policy,  his  actual  influence  was 
inconsiderable.  Charles  having  secured  Wolsey's  in- 
fluence by  promising  to  concur  in  his  election  to  the 
papacy,  Henry  in  1522  declared  war  against  France, 
which  was  invaded  by  an  English  army  the  next  year. 
But  the  cardinal  had  become  estranged  from  Charles 
after  the  election  of  Pope  Adrian,  and  in  1525  he  con- 
cluded a  treaty  of  peace  with  Francis.  In  1526  Henry 
was  declared  protector  of  the  "Holy  League"  formed 
by  the  pope  against  Charles  V. ;  but  after  this  period 
the  foreign  transactions  of  his  reign  are  unimportant  and 
overshadowed  by  the  domestic  events. 

The  impression  made  on  the  king  by  the  beauty  of 
Anne  Boleyn,  and  the  scruples  which  he  felt  or  feigned 
respecting  the  lawfulness  of  his  former  marriage,  induced 
him  in  1527  to  apply  to  the  pope  for  a  divorce.  This 
question  of  divorce  was  rendered  more  exciting  and 
momentous  by  its  bearing  on  the  Reformation,  which 
about  that  time  began  to  agitate  the  Church, — Anne  Bo- 
leyn favouring  the  Protestants,  and  Catherine  being  a 
zealous  Catholic.  The  pope  gave  him  specious  promises, 
but  interposed  the  delay  of  a  legal  process  for  several 
years.  In  1529  Wolsey  was  disgraced,  and  Cranmer,  a 
Protestant,  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Henry, 
whose  passions  and  interest  inclined  him  to  favour  the 
Reformers,  as  his  quarrel  with  the  pope  increased  both 
his  power  and  revenue,  was  declared  in  1531  supreme 
head  of  the  Church.  After  the  Convocations  of  York 
and  Canterbury  had  pronounced  the  marriage  with  Cath- 
erine invalid,  Henry,  without  the  pope's  permission, 
married  Anne  Boleyn,  in  1533.  Queen  Catherine  died 
in  1536.  By  acts  of  Parliament,  the  English  church  and 
people  were  declared  independent  of  the  court  of  Rome, 
and  many  innovations  were  made  in  religion.  The  mon- 
asteries, six  hundred  and  forty-five  in  number,  were 
gradually  abolished,  under  the  direction  of  Thomas 
Cromwell,  secretary  of  state  and  vicar-general,  and  a 
new  translation  of  the  Bible  was  made  by  royal  authority. 

In  1536,  Queen  Anne,  having  lost  the  favour  of  the 
king,  became  the  victim  of  his  jealousy,  which  has  gene- 
rally been  supposed  to  have  had  no  other  ground  on  her 
part  than  slight  indiscretions  and  levity  of  manner.  But 
Froude  takes  a  different  view,  which  he  supports  by 
many  forcible  arguments.  (See  "  History  of  England," 
chap,  xi.)  But,  whatever  opinion  we  may  form  of  the 
guilt  or  innocence  of  the  queen,  it  is  impossible  to  justify 
the  conduct  of  Henry,  who  married  his  new  favourite, 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


66 


HENRT 


the  beautiful  Jane  Seymour,  the  next  day  after  the  exe- 
cution of  Anne.  Queen  Jane  died  in  1537,  on  giving 
birth  to  a  son,  afterwards  Edward  VI.  In  1540  Henry 
married  a  Flemish  princess,  Anne  of  Cleves,  who  was 
divorced  about  six  months  afterwards.  The  same  year 
he  married,  as  his  fifth  wife,  Catherine  Howard.  In  1538 
the  pope  published  a  bull  against  Henry,  and  formally 
delivered  his  soul  to  the  devil.  The  king,  however, 
maintained  several  of  the  Catholic  dogmas,  (among  which 
was  that  of  the  real  presence,)  and  many  Protestants, 
refusing  to  conform,  fell  victims  to  his  arbitrary  power. 
In  1542  Queen  Catherine  was  beheaded,  on  a  charge  of 
infidelity  to  her  marriage-vow,  and  the  next  year  her 
place  was  supplied  by  Catherine  Parr.  Notwithstanding 
his  cruelty  and  excesses,  Henry  seems  to  have  retained 
the  afi"ection  of  his  subjects  in  general  to  the  close  of 
his  life.  "He  possessed,"  says  Hume,  "great  vigour 
of  mind,  courage,  vigilance,  and  inflexibility."  But  the 
catalogue  of  his  vices,  it  must  be  confessed,  includes 
some  of  the  worst  qualities  of  human  nature.  He,  how- 
ever, who  would  form  a  just  estimate  of  Henry's  char- 
acter, should  read  the  first  four  volumes  of  Froude's 
"  History  of  England,"  which  contain  by  far  the  most 
complete  account  of  his  reign  that  has  yet  been  written. 
He  died  in  1547,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Edward 
VI.  Henry  VIII.  furnishes  the  title  to  one  of  Shak- 
speare's  historic  dramas. 

See,  besides  Froude,  Godwin,  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Henry 
VIII.,"  1616;  Lord  Herbert  of  Clierburv,  "Life  and  Reign  of 
Henry  VIII.,"  1649:  P.  F.  Tytler.  "Lite  of  Henry  VIII.;" 
Hume's  and  Lingard's  "Histories  of  England;"  Strickland, 
"Queens  of  England." 

Henry  I.,  King  of  Castile,  born  in  1204,  was  the  son 
of  Alfonso  III.  of  Castile.  After  a  reign  of  three  years, 
he  died  in  1217. 

Henry  II.,  King  of  Castile,  often  called  Henry  of 
Transtamare,  born  at  Seville  in  1333,  was  the  natural 
son  of  Alfonso  XT.  He  received  the  title  of  Count  of 
Transtamare  from  his  brother.  King  Pedro  the  Cruel. 
After  striving  to  supplant  Pedro  by  intrigue,  he  joined 
the  King  of  Aragon  in  a  war  against  Castile,  was  de- 
feated, and  fled  to  France.  There  he  raised  an  army, 
and  again  invaded  Castile  in  1366,  but  was  beaten  by 
Pedro's  ally,  the  English  Black  Prince.  In  a  third  at- 
tempt, with  a  French  army  led  by  Du  Guesclin,  he  was 
more  successful.  Pedro  was  defeated  and  killed  in  1368, 
after  which  Henry  reigned  in  such  a  manner  as  to  secure 
the  favour  of  his  subjects.  He  died  in  1379,  and  left  the 
throne  to  his  son,  John  I. 

See  Fekreras,  "  Histoire  gen^rale  d'Espagne,"  16  vols.,  1700; 
PuFFENDORF,  "  Histoire  universelle,"  10  vols.,  1722;  P.  Lopkz  de 
AvAi.A,  "Cronicas  de  los  Reyes  de  Castilla,"  1495,  and  4  vols.,  1779. 

Henry  III.,  King  of  Castile,  born  in  1379,  succeeded 
his  father  John  in  1390,  and  married  Catherine  of  Lan- 
caster. The  early  part  of  his  reign  was  disturbed  by 
the  rebellion  of  the  Duke  of  Benavente  and  the  Count 
of  Gijon,  whom  he  defeated.  Having  exercised  his  au- 
thority in  certain  points  of  church  government.  Pope 
Boniface  declared  him  a  schismatic,  and  absolved  his 
subjects  from  allegiance  to  him.  After  this  Henry  re- 
cognized the  rival  pope,  Benedict  XIII.,  in  1403.  He 
resisted  successfully  the  aggressions  of  the  Portuguese, 
and  was  engaged  in  a  war  against  the  Moors  of  Granada 
when  he  died  in  1406,  leaving  the  reputation  of  a  wise 
and  good  king.    He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  John  II. 

See  C.  RoMEY,  "  Histoire  d'Espagne,"  12  vols. ;  Gonzales  Da- 
viLA,  "Historia  de  la  Vida  y  Hechos  del  Rev  Henrique  III.  de 
Castilla,"  1638. 

Henry  IV.,  King  of  Castile,  the  son  of  John  II.,  was 
born  at  Valladolid  in  1423,  and  was  surnamed  the  Im- 
potent. Having  wasted  his  youth  in  vice  and  dissi- 
pation, he  succeeded  his  father  in  1454.  He  married 
Joanna  of  Portugal,  whose  character  was  so  depraved 
or  doubtful  that  the  Cortes  would  not  acknowledge  her 
child  Joanna  to  be  the  legitimate  heir.  In  1465  several 
grandees,  encouraged  by  the  prevalent  disaffection  of 
the  people,  revolted,  and  proclaimed  Henry's  brother, 
Alfonso,  king.  Henry  raised  an  army,  and  a  civil  war 
followed  until  1468,  when  Alfonso  died.  A  peace  was 
then  made,  Henry  consenting  to  disinherit  Joanna  and 
adopt  as  heiress  his  sister,  the  well-known  Isabella  of 
Castile,  who  was  married  to  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  in 


1469.  For  many  years  Henry  waged  war  against  the 
Moors  of  Granada  without  any  important  advantage. 
He  died  in  1474.  His  reign  was  remarkable  for  anarchy, 
oppression,  and  misery. 

See  Prescott,  "Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  chaps,  iii.  and 
IV.;  Enriquez  de  Castillo,  "  Cronica  del  Rey  D.  Henrique  el 
Quarto,"  1787;  Zurita,  "Histoire  d'Aragon,"  7  vols. 

Henry  [Fr.  Henrf,  hh^'xt']  I.,  King  of  France,  a  son 
of  Robert,  and  grandson  of  Hugh  Capet,  born  about 
1005,  ascended  the  throne  in  103 1.  He  was  soon  in- 
volved in  a  civil  war  with  his  younger  brother  Robert, 
who  was  favoured  by  their  mother,  Constance.  Aided 
by  the  Duke  of  Normandy,  Henry  maintained  his  throne, 
and  ceded  to  Robert  the  duchy  K)f  Burgundy.  At  thirty- 
nine  he  married  Anna,  daughter  of  Yaroslaf,  Duke  of 
Russia.  He  was  almost  continually  at  war  with  his  vas- 
sals or  neighbours,  among  others  with  William,  Duke 
of  Normandy,  who  conquered  England.  He  died  in 
1060,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Philip  I. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Henry  II.,  King  of  France,  second  son  of  Francis  I. 
and  of  Queen  Claude,  was  born  at  Saint-Germain-en- 
Laye  in  15 18,  and  came  to  the  throne  in  1547.  He  mar- 
ried Catherine  de'  Medici,  (or  de  Medicis.)  In  1550  he 
concluded  a  peace  with  England",  by  which  Boulogne  was 
restored  to  the  French.  In  1552  he  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany  against  Charles 
v.,  and  took  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun.  The  Germans 
having  made  a  separate  peace,  Henry  alone  sustained  the 
war  against  the  Spaniards.  A  truce  of  five  years  was 
signed  in  1556  between  Henry  and  Charles  ;  but  the  war 
was  renewed  the  next  year  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  whose 
army  gained  a  great  victory  at  Saint-Quentin.  In  1558 
Calais  was  taken  by  the  French,  after  having  been  held 
by  the  English  more  than  two  hundred  years.  A  treaty 
of  peace  was  signed  at  Cateau-Cambresis  in  1559,  by 
which  France  retained  Calais,  Metz,  and  Verdun,  and 
gave  up  Savoy.  Among  the  results  of  this  treaty  was 
a  marriage  between  Henry's  daughter  Elizabeth  and 
Philip  II.  of  Spain.  At  a  tournament  given  on  this 
occasion,  Henry  by  accident  received  a  mortal  wound, 
in  1559,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Francis  II. 

See  A.  Varillas,  "Histoire  de  Henri  II,"  1692;  C.  F.  Lam- 
bert, "  Histoire  et  R^gne  de  Henri  II,"  1752;  Michelet,  "His- 
toire de  France." 

Henry  III,,  [often  called  in  French  Henri  de  Valois, 
/^6N^re'  deh  vtl'wi',  in  Latin  Henri'cus  Vale'sius, 
i.e.  "  Henry  of  Valois,"]  King  of  France,  third  son  of 
Henry  II.  and  of  Catherine  de  Medicis,  was  born  at  Fon- 
tainebleau  in  155 1,  and  succeeded  his  brother,  Charles 
IX.,  in  1574.  Previously  to  this  he  was  styled  Due 
d'Anjou,  had  defeated  the  Calvinists  at  Jarnac  and 
Moncontour,  and  in  1573  was  elected  King  of  Poland, 
the  people  of  which  country  made  unavailing  efforts  to 
retain  him.  He  found  his  French  kingdom  a  prey  to  a 
civil  or  religious  war  between  two  factions,  the  Catholics 
under  Henry  of  Guise,  and  the  Huguenots  under  Henry 
of  Navarre,  the  founder  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty.  In 
1575  he  married  a  French  lady,  Louise,  daughter  of  the 
Count  of  Vaudesmont.  Henry  having  issued  an  edict 
of  pacification  favourable  to  the  Protestants  in  1576,  the 
Catholics  formed  a  general  league,  sworn  to  defend  the 
interest  of  their  Church  even  with  the  sacrifice  of  their 
loyalty  to  the  king,  who  seems  to  have  been  justly  dis- 
trusted by  both  parties,  but  thought  it  his  policy  to 
declare- himself  the  head  of  the  League.  His  court  was 
disgraced  by  favouritism,  intrigues,  bigotry,  and  licen- 
tiousness ;  and  his  personal  character  was  not  such  as 
to  command  the  popular  respect.  Henry's  brother,  the 
Duke  of  Alen9on,  died  in  1584,  and,  as  the  king  had  no 
children,  the  question  of  the  succession  assumed  great 
importance  ;  and  it  is  thought  that  the  Duke  of  Guise 
aspired  to  the  throne.  In  1587  Henri  of  Navarre  gained 
the  battle  of  Coutras  ;  and  soon  after  the  Duke  of  Guise 
and  his  ligumrs  took  arms  at  Paris  against  the  king,  who 
was  compelled  to  flee  to  Rouen.  In  1588  the  Duke  of 
Guise  was  assassinated,  probably  by  the  order  of  Henry, 
who  for  this  crime  was  excommunicated  by  the  pope 
The  king  then  applied  to  Henry  of  Navarre  for  aid 
against  the  League,  which  was  generously  granted,  and 
they  were  pressing  the  siege  of  Paris,  when  Henry  III. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,T,  6,  u,  y,  s/ior^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


HENRT 


1167 


HENRT 


was  assassinated  by  a  monk  named  Jacques  Clement, 
in  1589.    He  was  the  last  king  of  the  house  of  Valois. 

See  G.  Sossius,  "De  Vita  Henrici  III.  Libri  IX.,"  1628;  Va- 
RiLLAS,  "  Histoire  de  Henri  III,"  1694;  Adrien  de  Valois,  "De 
Vita  Henrici  Valesii,"  1677;  Sauvigny,  "Histoire  de  Henri  III," 
1788;  L'EsTOiLE,  "Journal  des  Glioses  memorables  advenues  du- 
rant  le  Regne  de  Henri  III,"  1621. 

Henry  IV.,  [often  called  in  French  Henri  le  Grand, 
/^SN're'  leh  gr6N  ;  Lat.  Henri'cus  Mag'nus,  i.e.  "  Henry 
the  Great,"]  King  of  France  and  of  Navarre,  and  founder 
of  the  royal  house  of  Bourbon,  was  born  at  Pau,  De- 
cember 14,  1553.  His  father  was  Antoine  de  Bourbon, 
Due  de  Vendome,  a  lineal  descendant  of  Louis  IX., 
and  his  mother  was  Jeanne  d'Albret,  only  child  and 
heiress  of  Henri  d'Albret,  King  of  Navarre.  She  was  a 
woman  of  superior  merit,  ardently  devoted  to  the  Prot- 
estant faith,  in  which  she  educated  her  son.  In  1569,  the 
civil  war  being  renewed,  Henry,  then  styled  Prince  of 
Bearn,  joined  the  Protestant  army,  led  by  his  uncle,  the 
Prince  of  Conde,  (who  recognized  him  as  the  chief  of 
the  party,)  and  was  present  at  the  battles  of  Jarnac  and 
Moncontour.  The  Protestants  having  gained  a  victory 
at  Arnay-le-Duc,  a  treacherous  peace  was  offered  by  the 
court  and  accepted  in  1570.  To  inspire  the  Huguenots 
with  greater  confidence,  a  marriage  was  negotiated  be- 
tween Henry  and  the  king's  sister  Margaret.  While 
the  Queen  of  Navarre  was  making  preparation  at  Paris 
for  the  marriage  of  her  son,  she  died  suddenly,  in  1572, 
and  he  became  King  of  Navarre.  A  few  days  after  the 
marriage  was  celebrated  occurred  the  Massacre  of  Saint 
Bartiiolomew.  (See  Charles  IX.)  Henry's  life  was 
spared  on  condition  that  he  would  adopt  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion  ;  but  he  was  confined  and  strictly 
watched  for  several  years.  In  1576  he  escaped  to  Ro- 
chelle,  and  assumed  the  command  of  his  friends,  then 
menaced  by  the  Catholic  League.  He  displayed  great 
skill  and  bravery  in  several  campaigns,  the  operations 
of  which  were,  however,  for  the  most  part  on  a  small 
scale.  In  1587  the  Huguenots  gained  a  decisive  victory 
at  Coutras.  The  King  of  France  died  in  1589,  and 
named  for  his  successor  the  subject  of  this  article,  who, 
since  the  death  of  the  king's  brother,  was  presumptive 
heir  of  the  crown.  His  claim  was  disputed  by  a  large 
army  under  the  Due  de  Mayenne,  and  by  the  fanatical 
populace  of  Paris,  who  kindled  bonfires  to  show  their 
joy  at  the  death  of  Henry  HI.,  and  whose  resistance 
was  stimulated  by  Spanish  gold.  Baffled  in  his  attem])t 
to  obtain  possession  of  his  capital,  he  marched  towards 
Dieppe,  where  his  army  was  increased  by  5000  English 
sent  by  his  ally  Elizabeth.  In  1590  he  gained  a  decisive 
victory  at  Ivry  over  the  Duke  of  Mayenne,  after  electrify- 
ing his  army  with  this  brief  harangue  :  "  Fellow-soldiers, 
you  are  Frenchmen;  behold  the  enemy!  If  you  lose 
sight  of  your  ensigns,  rally  around  my  plume  :  you  will 
always  find  it  on  the  high  road  to  honour  !"  In  1592  he 
defeated  a  Spanish  anny  under  Farnese,  the  celebrated 
Prince  of  Parma,  near  Yvetot. 

His  devotion  to  the  interest  of  France  (we  may  chari- 
tably suppose)  now  induced  him  to  conciliate  his  ene- 
mies by  a  profession  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  in 
1593, — the  Protestants  at  the  same  time  being  assured 
of  the  continuance  of  his  favour  and  protection.  In 
1594  he  entered  Paris  without  resistance,  and  granted  a 
general  pardon.  After  numerous  battles  and  sieges,  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  made  at  Vervins  with  Philip  II.  of 
Spain  in  1598,  and  Henry  was  acknowledged  by  the 
whole  kingdom.  The  same  year  he  gave  liberty  of  con- 
science to  his  subjects  by  the  edict  of  Nantes.  Directing 
his  attention  to  the  finances,  agriculture,  and  industrial 
arts,  in  which  he  was  seconded  by  his  minister  Sully, 
he  proved  himself  a  wise  and  able  statesman,  and  ren- 
dered himself  very  popular  by  his  sympathy  with  the 
lower  classes  and  his  generosity  to  all.  His  popularity 
was  increased  by  the  spirited  and  eloquent  public  ad- 
dresses which  he  made  on  various  occasions,  and  by  the 
frank  simplicity  of  his  manners.  In  1600  he  married 
an  Italian  princess,  Marie  de'  Medici,  having  obtained  a 
divorce  from  his  first  wife.  The  last  half  of  his  reign 
was  peaceful  and  prosperous.  He  founded  a  hospital, 
a  college,  and  a  public  library  in  Paris,  and  encouraged 
learned  men,  among  whom  were  Casaubon  and  Grotius. 
His  memory  is  more  cherished  by  the  French  than 


that  of  any  other  of  their  kings,  and  his  character  is 
regarded  by  them  as  the  beau-ideal  of  a  Frenchman, 
a  w^arrior,  a  monarch,  and  a  statesman.  On  the  14th 
of  May,  1610,  while  riding  in  his  carriage,  he  was  as- 
sassinated by  a  fanatic  named  Ravaillac.  He  left  the 
crown  to  his  son,  Louis  XIII. 

See  Motley,  "United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  chap.  ii.  p.  45  et  seq., 
and  vol.  ii.  chap.  xvii.  p.  340;  P.  Hooft,  "  Het  Leven  van  Konig 
Hendrik  IV.,"  1626;  J.  Peleus,  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Henri  le 
Grand,"  1613-16;  G.  Sossius,  "De  Vita  Henrici  Magni  Libri  IV.," 
1622  ;  Hardouin  de  Per^fixe,  "  Histoire  du  Roi  Henri  le  Grand," 
1661 ;  De  Bury,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Henri  IV,"  1765;  Musset- 
Pathay,  "Vie  militaire  et  privee  de  Henri  IV,"  1803;  Poirson, 
"Histoire  du  Regne  de  Henri  IV,"  3  vols.,  1857  ;  G.  P.  R.  Ja.mes, 
"Life  of  Henry  IV.,"  3  vols.,  1847;  Daubigne,  "  Histoire  uni- 
verselle;"  Michelet,  "Histoire  de  France;"  L'Estoile,  "Jour- 
nal du  Regne  de  Henri  IV;"  Davila,  "History  of  the  Civil  Wars 
in  France;"  F.  A.  Mignet,  "Histoire  de  la  Ligue  et  du  Regne  de 
Henri  IV,"  5  vols.,  1829;  also  a  review  of  the  "Letters  of  Henry 
IV.,"  in  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1842. 

Henry,  Prince  of  Wales,  the  eldest  son  of  James  I. 
of  England,  was  born  at  Stirling  in  1594.  He  is  repre- 
sented to  have  been  unlike  his  father,  brave,  generous, 
and  constant,  was  fond  of  maritime  adventure,  and  earn- 
estly opposed  to  popery.  He  befriended  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  and  used  to  say  that  no  king  but  his  father 
would  keep  such  a  bird  in  a  cage.    Died  in  1612. 

See  T.  Birch,  "Life  of  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales,"  1760;  Gar- 
diner, "  History  of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  chaps,  viii.  and  x.  ; 
Harney,  "History  of  England,"  chap,  xlvii.;  Cornwallis,  "Life 
of  Prince  Henry,"  in  the  "  Soniers  Tracts." 

Henry,  (Heinrich,)  or  Friedrich  Heinrich  Lud- 
wig,  a  Prussian  prince,  distinguished  for  his  skill  in 
strategy,  born  in  Berlin  in  1726,  was  a  brother  of  Frede- 
rick the  Great.  He  commanded  the  right  wing  at  the 
battle  of  Prague,  1757,  and  decided  the  fortune  of  the 
day.  He  outgeneral  led  the  enemy  in  the  campaign  of 
1758,  and  obtained  some  advantages  in  1759.  In  1760, 
with  35,000  men,  he  held  in  check  a  superior  force  of 
Russians  by  skilful  marches,  and  prevented  their  junc- 
tion with  the  Austrians.  He  gained  a  signal  victory  at 
Freyburg  in  October,  1762,  which  was  the  last  important 
action  of  the  Seven  Years'  war.  He  was  less  enter- 
prising as  a  general  than  his  brother,  who  in  1763 
saluted  him  "as  the  only  general  that  in  this  war  has 
not  committed  a  single  fault."    Died  in  1802. 

See  "  Schilderung  des  Privatlebens  des  Prinzen  Heinrich  von 
Preussen,"  1784;  "Anecdoten  und  Characterziige  aus  deni  Leben  des 
Prinzen  Heinrich  von  Preussen,"  1804;  Guyton,  "Vie  privee  d'un 
Homme  celebre,  ou  Details  des  Loisirsdu  Prince  Henri  de  Prusse," 
1784;  BouiLLE  DU  Charol,  "  Vie  du  Prince  Henri  de  Prusse,"  1809. 

Henry  of  Alkmaar.    See  Alkmar. 

Henry  of  Champagne,  (shfiN^pin',)  born  in  1180, 
was  the  nephew  of  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion.  In  the  third 
crusade  he  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Saint- 
Jean-d'Acre.  By  his  marriage  with  Isabella,  widow  of 
Conrad  of  Tyre,  and  with  the  consent  of  the  chiefs,  he 
became  King  of  Jerusalem.  He  died  during  the  fourth 
crusade. 

Henry  of  Hainault,  [Fr.  Henri  de  Hainault, 
h^n^xt'  deh  hW\\b',\  born  at  Valenciennes  in  11 74,  was 
a  brother  of  Baldwin  of  Flanders.  In  1202  he  took  part 
in  the  crusade  against  the  Turks,  and  in  1206  succeeded 
his  brother  Baldwin  as  Emperor  of  Constantinople.  He 
is  represented  as  a  brave  and  prudent  prince.  Died, 
without  issue,  in  1216. 

Henry  of  Huntingdon,  an  English  historian,  who 
lived  about  11 50,  became  Archdeacon  of  Huntingdon. 
He  wrote  a  general  history  of  England  from  the  earliest 
accounts  to  the  death  of  Stephen,  (1154,)  which  was 
published  by  Sir  Henry  Savile  in  1596.  He  also  wrote 
Latin  poetry,  which  is  not  without  merit. 

Henry  (or  Henrique)  of  Portugal.  See  Henry 
OF  Burgundy. 

Henry  [Port.  Henrique,  en-ree'ki]  of  Portugal, 
[Fr.  Henri  de  Portugal,  /zfiN're'  deh  poR'tli'gtl'',]  a 
celebrated  patron  of  science,  sometimes  called  Henry 
the  Navigator,  was  born  at  Oporto  in  1394.  He  was 
a  younger  son  of  John  I.  of  Portugal,  and  a  nephew  of 
Henry  IV.  of  England.  He  was  distinguished  for  his 
attainments  in  mathematics,  geography,  and  navigation. 
About  1419  he  founded  an  observatory  and  nautical 
school  in  Algarve,  and  enlisted  the  most  skilful  mariners 
in  enterprises  of  maritime  discovery.  Under  his  auspices 
the  west  coast  of  Africa  was  explored  as  far  as  Sierra 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HENRT 


68 


HENR  r 


Leone,  and  Madeira  and  the  Azores  were  discovered. 
Died  in  1463. 

See  Francisco  Joz^  Freire,  "  Vida  do  Infante  D.  Henrique  por 
Candido  I^iisitano,"  1758;  Abb^  de  Cournand,  "Vie  de  Henri  de 
Portugal,"  Paris,  2  vols.,  1761 ;  R.  H.  Major,  "  Life  of  Prince  Henry 
the  Navigator,"  London,  1868. 

Henry  (or  Henrique)  of  Portugal,  third  son  of 
Emanuel,  King  of  Portugal,  was  born  in  Lisbon  in  1512. 
He  was  educated  for  the  church,  and  became  Archbishop 
of  Ev^ora  in  1540.  He  consented  to  the  establishment 
of  the  Inquisition  in  his  diocese.  At  the  death  of  his 
nephew.  King  Sebastian,  in  1578,  he  succeeded  to  the 
throne.  He  was  urged  to  designate  which  of  the  claim- 
ants should  succeed  him,  but  delayed,  and  died,  without  a 
decision,  in  1580.   Philip  H.  of  Spain  was  his  successor. 

Henry  of  Transtamare.  See  Henry  H.  of  Cas- 
tile. 

Hen'ry,  (Caleb  Sprague,)  an  American  author, 
born  in  Rutland,  Massachusetts,  in  1804,  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College  in  1825.  He  took  orders  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  about  1835,  and  became 
professor  of  philosophy  and  history  in  the  New  York 
University  in  1839.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Cousin's  Psychology,"  (1834,)  and  a  "Compendium  of 
Christian  Antiquities,"  (1837.) 

Hen'ry,  (David,)  born  at  Aberdeen  in  1710,  removed 
to  London  at  an  early  age,  and  was  employed  by  Cave, 
(the  publisher  of  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine,")  whose 
sister  he  married  in  1736.  He  was  a  frequent  contributor 
to  the  above  inagazine,  and  at  the  death  of  E.  Cave,  in 
1754,  he  became  a  partner  in  its  management  He  was 
the  author  of  the  "Complete  English  Farmer,"  and  of  a 
few  other  works.    Died  in  1792. 

Henry,  /^SN're',  (Etienne  Ossian,)  a  French  chemist, 
born  in  Paris  about  1798.  He  distinguished  himself  by 
researches  into  the  action  and  composition  of  mineral 
waters,  and  gained  the  Montyon  prize  for  a  method  of  pro- 
ducing sulphate  of  quinia.  He  published,  besides  other 
chemical  works,  a  "  Manual  of  the  Chemical  Analysis  of 
Mineral  Waters,"  (1825,)  in  which  his  father  assisted. 

Henry,  (Joseph,)  an  American  savant  and  natural  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Albany,  New  York,  in  1797.  He  began 
a  series  of  experiments  in  electricity  about  1827,  and  is 
said  to  have  invented  the  first  machine  moved  by  the 
agency  of  electro-magnetism.  He  wrote  on  electricity 
and  magnetism  several  papers  inserted  in  "  Silliman's 
Journal."  In  1832  he  was  appointed  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  in  the  College  of  New  Jersey  at  Princeton. 
He  published  "  Contributions  to  Electricity  and  Mag- 
netism," (1839,)  and  became  secretary  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institute  in  1846.  He  has  contributed  numerous 
valuable  papers  to  the  various  scientific  periodicals  in 
the  United  States. 

Henry,  (Marie  Joseph,)  a  French  historian,  born 
in  Basses- Alpes  in  1778,  published  a  History  of  Egypt, 
("L'Egypte  Pharaonique,"  2  vols.,  1846,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1850. 

Hen'ry,  (Matthew,)  an  eminent  English  divine,  born 
in  Iscoyd  township,  Flintshire,  in  October,  1662.  After 
receiving  a  liberal  education,  he  accepted  in  1687  the 
charge  of  a  dissenting  church  in  Chester.  In  1712  he 
removed  to  Hackney,  where  he  preached  until  his  death, 
in  1 714.  He  published  many  sermons  and  theological 
works,  of  which  the  most  important  is  his  "  Commentary 
on  the  Old  and  New  Testament,"  (1710.)  This  is  thought 
by  some  to  be  the  best  work  of  that  kind  ever  published. 
It  was  highly  commended  by  Robert  Hall,  Dr.  Dod- 
dridge, and  Adam  Clarke.  The  latter,  speaking  of 
certain  abridgments  of  the  above  work,  says,  "Every 
one  of  them,  while  professing  to  lop  off  his  redundancies 
and  supply  his  deficiencies,  falls,  by  a  semi-diameter  of 
the  immense  orb  of  literature  and  religion,  short  of  the 
author  himself." 

See  ToNG,  "Life  of  Matthew  Henry,"  1716  ;  Williams,  "Me- 
moirs of  the  Life,  Character,  and  Writings  of  M.  Henry,"  1828. 

Henry,  (Noel  £tienne,)  a  French  chemist,  father 
of  Etienne  Ossian,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Beau- 
vais  (Oise)  in  1769.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Phar- 
macy, Practical  and  Theoretical,"  (1828.)  Died  at  Paris 
in  1832. 

See  "  Notice  biographique  sur  Noel  fitienn^  Henry,"  by  Baron 

SiLVESTRE. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /otig;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y 


Henry,  (Patrick,)  a  celebrated  American  orator  and 
patriot,  born  at  Studley,  Hanover  county,  Virginia,  May 
29,  1736.  His  father,  John  Henry,  was  a  native  of 
Scotland,  and  a  nephew  of  the  eminent  historian  Robert- 
son. His  mother's  maiden  name  was  Sarah  Winston. 
Under  his  father's  tuition  he  learned  the  common  Eng- 
lish branches  and  acquired  a  smattering  of  Latin  ;  but 
he  had  little  inclination  to  book-learning.  In  his  youth 
he  was  passionately  addicted  to  dancing,  hunting,  and 
fishing.  Finding  him  indisposed  for  literary  and  pro- 
fessional pursuits,  his  father  set  him  up  in  mercantile 
business  about  1753.  His  success  in  trade  was  hindered 
by  his  negligent  and  indolent  habits.  About  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  married  a  Miss  Shelton.  Having  become 
insolvent,  he  abandoned  mercantile  pursuits  and  began 
to  cultivate  a  small  farm  ;  but  afier  an  experiment  of  two 
years  he  sold  his  land  and  returned  to  fnerchandise. 
He  failed  again  in  trad€  about  1760,  and  then  resolved  to 
try  the  profession  of  the  law.  After  he  was  admitted  to 
the  bar,  he  passed  several  years  in  poverty  and  obscurity; 
but  he  gained  sudden  distinction  in  1763  by  his  speech 
against  the  clergy,  who  undertook  to  enforce  the  payment 
of  their  salaries  in  tobacco.*  This  cause,  called  "the 
Parsons'  Cause,"  which  had  produced  much  excitement 
in  the  country,  was  tried  before  a  court  over  which  Patrick 
Henry's  father  presided  as  judge.  "  On  this  occasion 
he  rose  very  awkwardly,"  says  Wirt,  "  and  faltered  much 
in  his  exordium."  .  .  .  But,  "as  his  mind  rolled  ah^ng 
and  began  to  glow  from  its  own  action,  all  the  exuviae 
of  the  clown  seemed  to  shed  themselves  spontaneously." 
The  result  of  this  plea,  the  first  he  ever  made  in  court, 
was  a  verdict  for  the  people. 

In  1765  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  House  of 
Burgesses,  and  offered  in  that  body  a  series  of  resolutions 
against  the  famous  Stamp  Act.  He  advocated  these 
resolutions  by  a  powerful  speech,  in  which  he  exclaimed, 
"Caesar  had  his  Brutus,  Charles  the  First  his  Cromwell, 
and  George  the  Third" — here  he  was  interrupted  by  loud 
cries  of  "Treason  !"  from  all  parts  of  the  House — "may 
profit  by  their  example.  If  this  be  treason,  make  the 
most  of  it"  His  resolutions  passed  i:he  Plouse  by  a 
small  majority  in  May,  1765.  "During  the  period  be- 
tween this  date  and  the  Revolution,  Mr.  Henry,"  says 
Alexander  H.  Everett,  "was  constantly  in  advance  of 
the  most  ardent  patriots.  He  suggested  and  carried  into 
effect,  by  his  immediate  personal  influence,  measures  that 
were  opposed  as  premature  and  violent  by  all  the  other 
eminent  supporters  of  the  cause  of  liberty."  In  1774 
he  was  chosen  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress. 
Among  the  greatest  triumphs  of  his  unrivalled  eloquence 
was  a  speech  in  the  Virginia  Convention  (March,  1775) 
for  the  passage  of  a  resolution  "  that  the  colony  be  im- 
mediatejy  put  in  a  state  of  defence."  He  insisted  on 
the  necessity  of  fighting  for  independence,  and  closed 
with  the  words  "  Give  me  liberty,  or  give  me  death  !" 

He  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia  in  1776,  and,  by 
successive  re-elections,  held  that  ofiice  until  1779.  In 
this  capacity  he  rendered  important  services  to  the  popu- 
lar cause.  In  1784  and  1785  he  was  again  chosen  Gov- 
ernor. As  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Convention  of  1788, 
he  opposed  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution, 
against  which  he  made  several  speeches  of  extraordinary 
eloquence.  He  said  the  Constitution  had  "  an  awful 
squinting  towards  monarchy."  He  died  June  6,  1799, 
leaving  the  reputation  of  the  greatest  of  American  orators. 
He  was  a  devout  believer  in  Christianity,  but  was  not  a 
member  of  any  religious  denomination. 

See  William  Wirt,  "  Life  and  Character  of  Patrick  Henn,'," 
1817;  A.  H.  Everett,  "Life  of  Patrick  Henry,"  in  Sparks's 
"American  Biography,"  vol.  xi.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;" 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1840. 

Henry,  (Philip,)  an  English  dissenting  minister,  born 
in  London  in  1631,  was  father  of  Matthew  Henry  the 
commentator.  He  was  ejected  from  his  living  for  non- 
conformity at  the  restoration.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  he  resided  at  Broad  Oak,  where  his  labours  in  the 
ministry  were  highly  approved.    Died  in  1696. 

See  "Life  of  Philip  Henry,"  by  his  son  Matthew,  1696;  Wil- 
liam Bates,  "Life  of  Philip  Henry,"  1699. 


*  By  virtue  of  an  old  statute,  each  clergyman  was  entitled  to 
16,000  pounds  of  tobacco  per  annum. 

\  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


HENRT  1 169  HEPHESriON 


Henry,  (Pierre  FRANgois,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Nancy  in  1759,  translated  from  the  English  Marshall's 
"  Life  of  Washington,"  and  many  other  works.  He  also 
wrote  the  article  on  Washington  in  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle."    Died  in  1833. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Henry,  (Rev.  Robert,)  a  Scottish  historian,  born  at 
Muirtown  in  1718.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1746, 
and  officiated  at  Carlisle  from  1748  to  1760.  In  1768  he 
removed  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  became  minister  of 
the  New  Grey- Friars'  Church.  From  1776  to  1 790  he 
was  colleague-minister  of  the  Old  Church.  His  reputa- 
tion as  an  author  is  founded  on  his  "  History  of  Great 
Britain,"  (6  vols.,  1771-93.)  It  embraces  the  period 
from  the  first  invasion  of  the  Romans  to  the  death  of 
Henry  VIII.,  and  is  composed  on  an  original  plan,  since 
adopted  in  the  more  popular  history  of  Charles  Knight. 
The  plan  is  to  treat  the  history  of  politics,  of  religion,  of 
learning,  of  manners  and  customs,  etc.  in  separate  divi- 
sions. Henry's  work  is  executed  with  great  erudition 
and  fidelity;  but  the  style  is  not  attractive.  It  was  acri- 
moniously criticised  by  Gilbert  Stuart  when  it  first  ap- 
peared, but  was  commended  by  Hume.    Died  in  1790. 

See  a  "  Life  of  R.  Henry,"  in  the  sixth  vohime  of  his  "  History  ;" 
Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Henry,  (Rev.  Robert,)  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1792,  graduated  at  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh in  1 814.  He  was  chosen  president  of  the  College 
of  South  Carolina  in  1842,  resigned  in  1845,  and  then 
became  professor  of  Greek  in  that  institution.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  "Southern  Review."    Died  in  1856. 

Henry,  (William,)  an  English  chemist,  born  at  Man- 
chester in  1775.  He  graduated  as  M.D.  at  Edinburgh 
in  1807,  and  practised  with  success  at  Manchester.  He 
had  previously  made  valuable  researches  in  chemistry, 
on  which  he  contributed  numerous  memoirs  to  the 
"  Philosophical  Transactions"  of  the  Royal  Society.  In 
1803  he  ascertained  the  law  of  the  absorption  of  gases 
by  water  of  different  temperatures.  In  1808  he  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  which  the  next 
year  awarded  to  him  Sir  G.  Copley's  donation,  as  a  tes- 
timonial of  his  scientific  merit.  He  is  the  author  of  well- 
written  sketches  of  Davy,  Priestley,  and  Wollaston  ;  also 
of  an  excellent  work,  entitled  "Elements  of  Experimental 
Chemistry,"  (1800,)  which  passed  through  many  editions. 
His  moral  character  is  represented  as  excellent.  Died 
in  1836. 

See  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

Henry  the  Lion,  [Ger.  Heinrtch  der  Lowe,  h7n'- 
riK  d§R  lo'-C^eh,]  born  in  1129,  was  the  son  of  Henry  the 
Proud,  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  grandson  of  the  emperor 
Lothaire.  On  his  succeeding  his  father,  in  114^,  he 
demanded  the  restoration  of  Bavaria,  which  had  been 
wrested  from  his  family,  and  which  in  11 54  was  conceded 
to  him.  While  on  a  crusade  in  Palestine,  his  dominions 
were  invaded  by  his  enemies,  whereby  he  was  involved 
in  numerous  contests  after  his  return.  He  died  in  1195, 
leaving  the  reputation  of  a  wise  ruler  and  a  patron  of 
learning  and  commerce.  He  married  as  his  second  wife 
Matilda,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  England. 

See  Karl  Wilhelm  BOttiger,  "  Heinrich  der  Lowe,"  1819; 
Raumer,  "  Geschichte  der  Hohenstaufen." 

Henry  the  Minstrel.    See  Harry,  (Blind.) 

Henry  the  Proud,  [Fr,  Henri  le  Superbe,  hSN^re' 
leh  su'piRb';  Ger.  Heinrich  der  Stolze,  hln'riK  d^R 
stolt'seh ;  Lat.  Henri'cus  Super'bus,]  Duke  of  Bavaria 
and  Saxony,  born  in  1 102,  was  an  able  and  warlike  prince. 
Died  in  1139.    He  was  the  father  of  Henry  the  Lion. 

See  Albekicus,  "De  Vita  Henrici  Superbi." 

Henrys,  /^6N're^  (Claude,)  a  French  jurisconsult 
and  legal  writer,  born  at  Montbrison  in  1615.  He  co- 
operated with  Chancellor  Seguier  in  his  effejrt  to  estab- 
lish a  uniform  system  of  jurisprudence.    Died  in  1662. 

Hen'ry-son,  (Robert,)  a  schoolmaster  of  Dunferm- 
line, lived  about  1460-90,  and  was  one  of  the  best  Scot- 
tish poets  of  his  time.  He  wrote  "  Orpheus  Kyng," 
"The  Testament  of  Cressid,"  and  "  Robene  and  Ma- 
kyne,"  thought  to  be  the  earliest  of  Scottish  pastoral 
poems. 

See  "Memoir  of  Robert  Henryson,"  by  D.  Laing,  1866;  Cham- 
bers, "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 


Hens,  van,  vtn  h^ns,  (Abraham,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  plants  and  insects,  born  at  Utrecht  about  1645  ;  died 
after  1705. 

Hensel,  hSn'sel,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  painter,  born 
in  the  province  of  Brandenburg  in  1794.  Among  his 
best  pictures  are  "Christ  before  Pilate,"  and  excellent 
portraits  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  and  of  the  cele- 
brated composer  Mendelssohn.  His  wife,  Fanny  Hen- 
sel, sister  of  Felix  Mendelssohn,  was  distinguished  for 
her  skill  and  taste  in  music,  and  produced  several  ad- 
mired compositions.    Died  in  1847. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neiies  Allgenieines  Kiiiistler-Lexikon." 

Hen'shaw,  (John  Prentice  Kewley,)  D.D.,  Bishop 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Middle- 
town,  Connecticut,  in  1792.  After  graduating  at  Mid- 
dlebury  College,  Vermont,  in  1808,  he  embraced  the 
tenets  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  Through  his  zealous 
labours,  several  new  churches  were  organized  in  Ver- 
mont. In  181 7  he  became  pastor  of  Saint  Peter's  Church 
in  Baltimore.  He  was  elected  Bishop  of  Rhode  Island 
in  1843.    Died  in  1852. 

Henshaw,  (J.  Sidney,)  changed  from  J.  Henshaw 
Belcher,  an  American  lawyer  and  writer,  born  in  Boston 
in  1 8 14.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Philos- 
ophy of  Human  Progress,"  (1835,)  and  "Round  the 
World,"  (2  vols.,  1840.)    Died  in  1859. 

Hensler,  hgns'ler,  (Philip  Gabriel,)  a  Danish  phy- 
sician, born  at  Oldensworth  in  1733,  became  physician 
to  the  King  of  Denmark  in  1775.    Died  in  1805. 

HensTow,  (Rev.  John  Stevens,)  a  distinguished 
English  botanist,  born  in  1796.  He  took  the  degree  of 
B.A.  at  Cambridge  in  1818,  and  was  appointed  professor 
of  botany  in  that  university  about  1825.  In  1837  he 
became  rector  of  Hitcham,  in  Suffolk,  where  he  con- 
tinued to  reside  until  his  death.  Pie  was  a  popular  lec- 
turer, and  contributed  memoirs  on  botany  and  other 
parts  of  natural  history  to  the  Transactions  of  several 
societies.  His  principal  productions  are  "  Principles  of 
Descriptive  and  Physiological  Botany,"  (1835,)  a  work 
of  great  merit,  which  has  been  extensively  used  as  a 
text-book,  and  a  "Catalogue  of  British  Plants."  Died 
in  1861. 

See  Jenvns,  "Life  of  J.  Henslow,"  1862;  "Gentleman's  Maga- 
zine" for  July,  iS6i. 

Hentz,  h^nts,  (Caroline  Lee,)  born  at  Lancaster, 
Massachusetts,  about  1804,  was  the  daughter  of  General 
John  Whiting.  In  1825  she  was  married  to  Professor 
N.  M.  Hentz.  Her  tragedy  "  De  Lara,  or  the  Moorish 
Bride,"  gained  a  prize  of  five  hundred  dollars;  and  sev- 
eral of  her  tales  and  novelettes  had  a  wide  circulation. 
She  wrote,  among  other  tales,  "The  Planter's  Northern 
Bride,"  "Linda,"  and  "  Ernest  Linwood."  Died  in  1856. 

Hentzner,  hents'ner,  (Paul,)  born  in  Silesia  in  1558, 
was  the  author  of  a  "Journey  through  Germany,  France, 
Italy,  etc.,"  written  in  elegant  Latin.  Part  of  it  was 
translated  into  English.    Died  in  1623. 

See  L.  Brightwell,  "  By- Paths  of  Biography;"  Motley, 
"  History  of  the  United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  chap.  vi. 

Hepburn,  (James.)    See  Bothwell. 

Hep'burn,  (James  Bonaventura,)  a  Scottish  phi- 
lologist, born  in  1573.  After  travelling  in  Europe  and 
Asia,  he  entered  a  convent  near  Avignon.  It  is  said  that 
he  knew  seventy-two  languages.  He  produced  a  Hebrew 
and  Chaldean  Dictionary,  and  an  Arabic  Grammar.  Pope 
Paul  V.  appointed  him  keeper  of  the  Oriental  books  and 
manuscripts  of  the  Vatican.    Died  in  1621. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Hephaestus,  he-fgs'tus,[Gr.  "UcpaiGTog;  Fr.  H^pheste, 
k'{^st\  or  Hapheste,  ITest',]  the  Greek  name  of  the 
god  Vulcan,  which  see. 

Hephestion  or  Hepheestion,  he-f^s'ti-on,  [Gr. 
''H(l)aiaT'io)v,]  a  Macedonian  courtier,  the  son  of  Amyn- 
tor  of  Pella,  became  a  favourite  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
whom  he  followed  in  the  invasion  of  Persia  and  India. 
In  the  return  of  this  expedition,  Hephestion  and  Craterus 
commanded  a  separate  part  of  the  army.  When  Alex- 
ander married  Roxana,  daughter  of  Darius,  he  gave  her 
sister,  Drypetis,  to  Hephestion.  He  died  soon  after 
that  event,  in  325  B.C.  The  grief  of  Alexander  for  his 
loss  was  so  profound  that  he  tasted  no  food  for  three  days. 

See  Arrian,  "Anabasis;"  Thirlwall,  "History  of  Greece." 


eask;    as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Y.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

74 


HEPHESTION 


1 170 


HERAUD 


Hephestion,  a  grammarian  of  Alexandria,  lived  about 
150  A.D.,  and  wrote  a  treatise  entitled  **  Enchiridion  de 
Metris." 

He'ra,  [Gr.  "Upa  or  "B-prj,]  a  goddess  of  the  Greek 
mythology,  was  the  daughter  of  Cronos,  (Saturn,)  and  the 
wife  of  Jupiter,  and  was  identical  with  the  Juno  of  the 
Romans.  The  chief  seats  of  her  worship  were  Argos 
and  Samos.    (See  Juno.) 

Heracleidee.    See  Heraclid^. 

Heracleides.    See  Heraclides. 

Heracleitus.    See  Heraclitus. 

He-rac'le-on,  [Gr.  'Hpa/c/lewv,]  a  Gnostic  or  heretic 
of  the  second  century.  He  adopted  the  doctrines  of 
Valentine,  with  modifications. 

He-rac-le-o'nas,  the  son  of  the  emperor  Heraclius, 
was  born  in  626  a.d.  At  the  death  of  his  father,  in  641, 
he  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  partnership  with  his  half- 
brother  Constantine.  A  few  months  later  the  latter  was 
poisoned  by  Martina,  the  mother  of  Heracleonas.  In 
consequence  of  this  and  other  crimes,  the  guards  of  the 
palace  revolted  and  seized  Martina  and  her  son,  who 
were  banished  by  the  senate.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  nephew,  Constans  H. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Her'a-cles,  [Gr.  'Hpa/cXf/f,]  the  Greek  form  of  the 
name  of  Hercules,  which  see. 

Heraclidae  or  Heracleidae,  h?r-a-kll'dee,  [Gr.  'Hpa- 
KMSat;  Fr.  Heraclides,  k'rt'klW;  Ger.  Herakliden, 
hi  rl-klee'den,]  a  name  applied  to  a  noble  and  powerful 
Grecian  race,  who  were,  or  claimed  to  be,  descendants 
of  Hercules,  (Heracles.)  The  sons  of  Hercules  took 
refuge  in  Attica  from  the  persecution  of  Eurystheus.  In 
alliance  with  the  Dorians,  the  Heraclidae  invaded  Pelo- 
ponnesus, parts  of  which  they  claimed  as  their  heritage. 
This  expedition  was  called  the  return  of  the  Heraclidae. 
After  several  failures,  they  conquered  the  Peloponnesus. 

Heraclide.    See  Heraclides. 

Her-a-cli'des  or  Her-a-clei'des,  [Gr.  'HpmMSTjg  ; 
Fr.  HEraclide,  i'rt'kl^d',]  a  Syracusan  general,  who 
aided  Dion  to  dethrone  Dionysius  the  Younger.  Having 
become  an  enemy  of  Dion,  he  was  put  to  death,  by  his 
order,  in  354  B.C. 

Heraclides,  a  Greek  historian,  born  probably  in 
Egypt,  lived  about  170  B.C. 

Her-a-cli'dei  of  Pon'tus,  [  Fr.  HEraclide  du 
Pont,  £'rt'klfed'  dii  p6N,]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born 
at  Heraclea,  lived  in  the  fourth  century  before  Christ. 
He  studied  under  Speusippus  and  Aristotle,  and  is 
classed  among  the  Peripatetics  by  Diogenes  Laertius. 
He  wrote,  on  history,  philosophy,  politics,  and  other 
subjects,  many  works,  which  are  lost,  except  fragments 
of  his  treatise  on  the  constitutions  of  various  states, 
Repl  TToTiLTELuv  V7r6fiv7jiu.a. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius;  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Grascis ;" 
RouLEZ,  "  Commentatio  de  Vitaet  Scriptis  Heraclidae  Pontici,"  1828. 

Heraclides  of  Tarentum,  a  Greek  physician,  lived 
in  the  second  or  third  century  before  Christ.  He  is 
quoted  and  praised  by  Galen. 

Heraclite.    See  Heraclitus. 

Heraclitus  or  Heracleitus,  hgr-a-klT'tus,  [Gr.  'Hpa- 
KleiTog ;  Fr.  Heraclite,  i'rt'kl^t' ;  it.  Eraclito,  i-ri- 
klee'to,]  surnamedTHE  Naturalist,  a  celebrated  Greek 
philosopher,  and  the  founder  of  a  sect,  was  a  native  of 
Ephesus,  and  lived  about  500  B.C.  According  to  several 
accounts,  he  studied  the  Pythagorean  philosophy  under 
Hippasus  and  Xenophanes  ;  but  he  professed  to  be  self- 
taught.  His  father  was  one  of  the  principal  citizens  of 
Ephesus,  the  chief  magistracy  of  which  was  offered  to 
Heraclitus,  but  was  refused.  The  current  notion  that 
he  was  addicted  to  habitual  weeping  on  account  of  the 
vices  and  follies  of  men,  appears  to  be  unfounded  ;  but 
his  gloomy  and  unsociable  temper,  or  his  love  of  study, 
caused  him  to  decline  intercourse  with  the  world  and 
to  retire  to  the  solitude  of  a  mountain.  When  Darius 
of  Persia  invited  him  to  his  court,  he  rather  rudely  re- 
fused the  intended  honour.  He  founded  a  new  school 
of  philosophy,  which  did  not,  however,  survive  as  a  dis- 
tinct school  long  after  his  own  time.*  His  principal  work 

*  Nevertheless,  Heraclitus  may  be  said  to  have  anticipated  some 
of  the  most  "advanced"  ideas  of  the  most  distinguished  physicists  of 
the  present  age.    After  observing  that  the  "world  (Kosmos  or  Uni- 


was  a  "Treatise  on  Nature,"  of  which  fragments  only 
are  extaiit.  Socrates,  after  reading  it,  said  that  so 
much  of  it  as  he  could  understand  was  good,  but  that 
he  found  it  for  the  most  part  unintelligible.  He  affected 
an  obscure  and  concise  style,  comparing  himself  to  the 
Sibyl,  who  utters  in  mysterious  language  the  austere 
oracles  of  inspiration,  and  received  the  epithet  aKoreivoq, 
the  "obscure."  He  taught  that  fire  is  the  principle  of 
all  things  ;  that  death  is  only  a  change  of  form  ;  that  natu- 
ral phenomena  are  produced  by  the  antagonism  of  two 
opposite  forces,  namely,  attraction  and  repulsion  ;  that 
motion  is  essential  to  matter,  and,  as  a  result  of  this  in- 
cessant change,  "  no  man  has  ever  floated  twice  on  the 
same  stream."  He  attached  little  value  to  worldly  wis- 
dom or  human  lore,  saying  that  the  science  of  men  is 
only  ignorance ;  their  grandeur,  meanness  ;  and  their 
pleasure,  pain.  He  represented  contentment  as  the  chief 
good.    He  died  about  the  age  of  sixty. 

See  RiTTER,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  G.  H.  Lewes,  "Bio- 
graphical History  of  Philosophy  ;"  Lassalle,  "Die  Philosophie  des 
Heracleitos,"  Berlin,  2  vols.,  1858;  F.  Schleiermacher,  "Hera- 
clitus of  Ephesus,"  (in  German,)  iSoS;  F.  Menz,  "  Programma 
de  Heraclito  Ephesio,"  1736;  Diogenes  Laertius. 

Heraclitus,  an  elegiac  poet,  born  at  Halicarnassus, 
lived  about  250  B.C.,  and  was  a  friend  of  Callimachus. 

Her-a-cli'us  [Gr.  'flpa/cAaof]  I.,  a  Roman  Emperor 
of  the  East,  son  of  Heraclius,  Governor  of  Africa,  born 
about  575  A.D.,  was  a  native  of  Cappadocia.  By  the 
violent  death  of  the  tyrant  Phocas,  in  610,  Heraclius, 
who  had  served  in  the  army  with  credit,  obtained  the 
imperial  power ;  and  soon  after  he  married  Eudoxia.  In 
the  early  part  of  his  reign  the  empire  was  ravaged  by 
pestilence  and  the  barbarian  armies  of  Chosroes,  (Khos- 
roo,)  King  of  Persia.  In  622  he  led  an  army  against 
Persia,  defeated  Chosroes  at  Tauris,  and  fought  several 
successful  campaigns,  in  which  he  displayed  great  mili- 
tary talents  and  personal  courage.  Having  made  peace 
with  Persia,  he  returned  to  Constantinople  in  628,  and 
abandoned  himself  to  inglorious  ease,  sensual  vices,  and 
the  subtleties  of  Monothelism,  of  which  he  became  the 
supporter,  while  the  victorious  progress  of  the  Mussul- 
man arms  threatened  to  subvert  his  empire.  He  died 
in  641.  His  character  is  a  puzzle,  and  presents  sur- 
prising contradictions. 

See  Gibbon,  "  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire  ;"  Le  Beaij,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Heraclius  II.  See  Constantine  HI.,  Emperor  of 
the  East. 
Herakleides.    See  Heraclides. 
Herakleitus  or  Herakleitos.  See  Heraclitus. 
Herakliden.    See  Heraclid.^. 
Heraldus.    See  H^rauld. 

Her'a-path,  (John,)  an  English  mathematician  and 
writer  on  physics,  born  at  Bristol  in  1793.  He  was 
the  editor  of  "Herapath's  Railway  Journal."  Besides 
several  treatises  on  physics,  he  wrote  two  volumes 
on  "Mathematical  Physics,"  (1847.)    I^'^d  in  1868. 

Herapath,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  chemist, 
born  at  Bristol  in  1796,  was  the  son  of  a  brewer,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  his  business.  He  made  important  dis- 
coveries in  toxicology,  and  was  consulted  as  a  chemist 
in  the  trials  of  persons  suspected  of  causing  death  by 
poison.  For  many  years  he  held  the  place  of  first  teacher 
of  chemistry  in  the  Bristol  Medical  School.  He  wrote 
several  chemical  memoirs.  He  was  a  prominent  Liberal 
in  politics.    Died  in  1868. 

His  son,  William  Bird  Herapath,  is  a  physician, 
and  author  of  several  medical  treatises. 

Heraud,  h^'ro',  ?  (John  A.,)  an  English  poet  and 
dramatic  writer,  born  in  London  about  1800.    He  pro- 


verse)  was  made  neither  by  any  of  the  gods,  nor  by  any  man,  it  was 
and  is  and  ever  shall  be  an  ever-living  fire,  in  due  measure  self-kin- 
dled, and  in  due  measure  self-extinguished,"  he  goes  on  to  say,  "All 
IS  convertible  into  fire,  and  fire  into  all,  just  as  gold  is  con- 
vertible into  wares,  and  wares  into  gold."  If  we  take  the  word  fire 
to  include  heat,  light,  and  electricity,  (lightning,)  a  sense  in  which  it 
was  not  unfrequently  used  by  the  ancients,  we  shall  perceive  a  strik- 
ing analogy  between  the  thought  of  the  preceding  passage  and  that 
of  the  following  from  Herbert  Spencer:  "Those  modes  of  the  Un- 
knowable which  we  call  motion,  heat,  light,  chemical  affinity,  etc.  are 
alike  transformable  into  each  other,  and  into  those  modes  of  the 
Unknowable  which  we  distinguish  as  sensation,  emotion,  thought: 
these  in  their  turns  being  directly  or  indirectly  re-transformable  into 
the  original  shapes."  ("  First  Principles,"  chap.  ix.  p.  2S0.) 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short:  a.  e,  i,  o.  ohsrure;  fJr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  moon ; 


HERAULD 


HERBERT 


duced  "The  Judgment  of  the  Flood,"  a  poem,  (1834,) 
"  Videna,"  a  tragedy,  (1854,)  and  other  works. 

Herauld,  kWrc>\  [Lat.  Heral'dus,]  (Didier,)  a 
French  Protestant  lawyer  and  critic,  born  about  1579. 
In  youth  he  obtained  the  chair  of  Greek  at  Sedan,  and 
afterwards  practised  law  with  success  at  Paris.  He 
gained  distinction  as  a  critical  scholar,  and  was  highly 
eulogized  by  Grotius.  He  published  notes  on  Martial, 
Minutius  Felix,  and  Tertullian,  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1649. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  MM.  Haag, 
"La  France  protestante." 

Herault  de  Sechelles,  hhfxb'  deh  si'shgl',  (Marie 
Jean,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born  of  an  aristocratic 
family  in  Paris  in  1760.  He  gained  distinction  as  a  law- 
yer and  orator  before  the  Revolution.  Elected  to  ihe 
Legislative  Assembly  in  1791,  he  became  a  leader  of  the 
Jacobins,  and  was  president  of  the  Convention  in  June, 
1 793,  when  the  Girondists  were  proscribed.  He  was  the 
author  or  redacteur  oi  the  document  called  the  "Con- 
stitution of  1793,"  and  was  president  and  chief  speaker 
at  the  national  festival  of  August  10,  1793.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  a  member  of  the  sanguinary  committee  of 
public  safety.  Proscribed  by  Robespierre  and  accused 
of  complicity  in  a  conspiracy,  he  was  executed  with 
Danton  in  April,  1794.  "He  died,"  says  Lamartine, 
"with  the  serenity  of  a  just  man  who  glories  in  being  a 
martyr  of  liberty."  He  is  described  by  Lord  Brougham 
(in  a  sketch  of  Danton)  as  a  man  of  unsullied  charac- 
ter. He  left  a  work  entitled  "Theory  of  Ambition," 
(1802.) 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Girondists;"  Thiers,  "His- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Herbart,  h^R'bSRt,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  an  emi- 
nent German  philosopher,  born  at  Oldenburg  in  May, 
1776.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Fichte  in  the  University  of 
Jena.  In  1805  he  published  a  treatise  on  Platonic  phi- 
losophy, "De  Platonici  Systematis  Fundamento,"  and 
became  adjunct  professor  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen. 
He  produced  in  1808  a  "General  Practical  Philosophv," 
and  "The  Chief  Points  of  Metaphysics,"  ("  Haupt- 
punkte  der  Metaphysik.")  He  was  professor  at  Konigs- 
berg  from  180910  1833,  during  which  period  he  published, 
besides  other  works,  an  "Introduction  to  Philosophy," 
(1814,)  and  "  Psychology  as  a  Science  newly  based  on  Ex- 
perience, Metaphysics,  and  Mathematics,"  ("  Psychologic 
als  Wissenschaft  neu  gegriindet  auf  Erfahrung,  Meta- 
physik und  Mathematik,"  2  vols.,  1825.)  In  1833  he 
obtained  the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen.  He 
originated  a  peculiar  system  of  philosophy.  Died  at 
Gottingen  in  August,  1 841. 

See  Hartenstein,  "  Herbart's  Leben,"  1843  :  Schilling,  "  Lehr- 
buch  der  Psychologic,"  1851 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale. 

Herbel,  /^§R'blK,  (Charles,)  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Nancy;  died  in  1703. 

Herbelin,  /^iRb'liN',  (Jeanne  Mathilde,)  an  emi- 
nent French  painter  of  miniatures,  a  daughter  of  Baron 
Habert,  born  at  Brunoy  about  1818.  She  won  first-class 
medals  at  Paris  in  1847  1855. 

Herbelot,  d',  d^R'blo',  (Barth^lemy,)  an  eminent 
French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1625.  Having 
learned  Arabic,  Hebrew,  Persian,  etc.,  he  was  employed 
as  Oriental  secretary  and  interpreter  by  the  king,  who 
granted  him  a  pension :  he  was  also  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Syriac  in  the  College  Royal.  He  published 
a  "Bibliotheque  Orientale,"  or  "  Universal  Dictionary, 
containing  generally  all  that  regards  the  Knowledge 
of  the  Eastern  Nations,"  a  work  of  great  labour  and 
erudition,  which  was  not  quite  finished  at  his  death  in 
1695.    It  was  published  in  1697. 

See  Perrault,  "Hommes  illustres;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Herberay,  d',  dlRb'r^',  (Nicolas,)  Seigneur  des 
Essarts,  a  French  officer,  who,  by  order  of  Francis  I., 
translated  the  first  eight  books  of  "  Amadis  de  Gaule" 
into  French,  (1548.)    Died  about  1550. 

Herberstein,  von,  fon  hlR'ber-stin',  (Sigismund,) 
Baron,  a  German  historian,  born  in  Carniola  or  Styria 
in  i486.  He  was  employed  in  several  important  mis- 
sions, and  rose  to  be  president  of  the  college  of  finance. 
His  "  Commentaries  on  Russian  History"  (Rerum  Mos- 


coviticarum  Commentarii,"  1549)  is  esteemed  the  most 
valuable  historical  work  on  the  early  Russians. 

Sec  F.  Adelung,  "  Siegmund  Freiherr  von  Herberstein,"  etc., 
1818. 

Hfr'bfrt,  (Hon.  Algernon,)  an  English  author  and 
lawyer,  born  in  1792,  was  the  youngest  son  of  Henry, 
Earl  of  Carnarvon.  He  wrote  several  learned  works, 
among  which  are  "  Nimrod  :  a  Discourse  on  Certain 
Passages  of  History  and  Fable,"  and  "  Britannia  after 
the  Romans."   Died  in  1855. 

Herbert,  (Edward,)  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury,  an 
English  author  and  courtier,  was  born  at  Montgomery, 
Wales,  in  1581,  and  was  a  descendant  of  the  Earl  of 
Pembroke.  About  1610  he  served  in  the  English  army 
in  the  Netherlands,  and  received  the  title  of  knight  from 
James  I.  In  1618  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  France, 
where  he  published  in  i6?4  his  first  and  principal  work, 
a  Latin  treatise  "  On  Truth  as  it  is  distinguished  from 
Revelation,  from  Probability,  from  Possibility,  and  from 
Falsehood,"  which  Hallam  represents  as  a  "monument 
of  an  original,  independent  thinker,"  although  "justly 
deemed  inimical  to  every  positive  religion."  In  163 1  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage.  He  was  also  the  author  of 
a  "History  of  the  Life  and  Reign  of  Henry  VIII.," 
(1649,)  which  Horace  Walpole  calls  a  "master-piece  of 
historic  biography,"  and  "The  Life  of  Lord  Herbert, 
written  by  himself,"  (1764.)  He  was  reputed  one  of  the 
most  eminent  English  statesmen  and  philosophers  of 
the  age  in  which  he  lived.    Died  in  1648, 

See  Hallam,  "  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe  ;"  Hor- 
ace Walpole,  Preface  to  Herbert's  Autobiography;  Ch.  de  Remu- 
SAT,  "  Notice  of  Herbert,"  in  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  1854; 
"  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  vii.,  1823. 

Herbert,  (George,)  an  English  poet,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Montgomery,  Wales,  in  1593. 
In  1619  he  was  chosen  public  orator  of  Cambridge 
University,  of  which  he  was  a  graduate.  Having  taken 
orders,  he  was  made,  in  1626,  prebendary  of  Layton 
Ecclesia,  and  in  1630  was  presented  by  the  king  to  the 
•living  of  Bemerton.  His  poetical  writings  were  once 
very  popular,  and  have  been  admired  by  such  men  as 
Cowper  and  Coleridge  ;  but  they  are  censured  by  modern 
critics  for  quaint  and  ludicrous  conceits.  His  principal 
prose  work  is  "The  Country  Parson."  Coleridge  re- 
marks that  "the  quaintness  of  some  of  his  thoughts — 
not  of  his  diction,  than  which  nothing  can  be  more  pure, 
manly,  and  unaffected — has  blinded  modern  readers  to 
the  great  general  merits  of  his  poems,  which  are  for  the 
most  part  exquisite  in  their  kind."    Died  in  1632. 

See  IzAAK  Walton,  "Life  of  Herbert;"  Willmott,  "Lives 
of  the  English  Sacred  Poets;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  iii., 
1821  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1867. 

Herbert,  (Henry  W^illiam,)  born  in  London  in  1807, 
was  the  son  of  the  Rev.  William  Herbert,  noticed  below, 
and  a  lineal  descendant  of  the  Earls  of  Pembroke.  He 
emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1831.  He  displayed 
remarkable  versatility  of  talents  in  his  voluminous  works, 
consisting  of  novels,  fugitive  poems,  historical  sketches, 
etc.  Under  the  name  of  Frank  Forester,  he  wrote 
"The  Field  Sports  of  the  United  States,"  (1849,) 
"The  Deer-Stalkers,"  (1849.)  ^"^1  other  sporting  works. 
Professor  Felton  represents  him  as  "  a  poet  of  vivid 
imagination,  a  successful  novelist,  and  an  able  and  ac- 
complished critic."    He  committed  suicide  in  1858. 

See  "  North  American  Review,"  vol.  Ixix. 

Herbert,  (John  Rogers,)  an  eminent  English  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  was  born  at  Maiden,  Essex,  in 
1810.  He  studied  in  the  Royal  Academy,  and  for  some 
years  painted  portraits  with  success.  Having  become  a 
Roman  Catholic,  he  changed  his  style,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  religious  subjects.  He  produced  "The  First  In- 
troduction of  Christianity  into  Britain,"  (1842,)  and  "John 
the  Baptist  reproving  Herod,"  (1848.)  He  was  elected 
a  Royal  Academician  in  1848,  and  painted  frescos  illus- 
trating "  King  Lear"  in  the  new  palace  of  Westminster, 
about  1849. 

Herbert,  (Mary,)  nSe  Sidney.    See  Sidney. 

Herbert,  (Sidney,)  of  Lea,  Baron,  an  English  states- 
man of  eminent  merit,  born  in  1810,  was  the  second  son 
of  the  Earl  of  Pembroke.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in 
1831,  and  entered  Parliament  as  a  Conservative  in  1832. 
In  1841  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  admiralty,  and 


f  as>^;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HERBERT 


1172 


HERCULES 


in  1845  became  secretary  at  war  in  the  cabinet  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel.  Having  gradually  adopted  liberal  princi- 
ples, he  favoured  the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws  in  1846,  and 
retired  from  office  with  his  political  chief  in  the  summer 
of  that  year.  On  the  formation  of  the  Aberdeen  minis- 
try, in  December,  1852,  he  was  again  appointed  secretary 
at  war.  He  resigned,  in  company  with  other  Peelites, 
about  February,  1855.  From  June,  1859,  until  July,  1861, 
(when  he  resigned  on  account  of  ill  health,)  he  filled  the 
same  office  in  the  cabinet  of  Palmerston,  with  eminent 
ability.  As  a  war  minister  he  appears  to  have  been 
universally  popular.  In  January,  1861,  he  was  raised 
to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Herbert  of  Lea.  He  married 
about  1846  a  daughter  of  General  A'Court.  He  erected 
on  his  estate  at  Wilton  a  church  which  is  an  admirable 
model  of  the  Italian  or  Romanesque  style.  "  He  com- 
bines," says  the  "Spectator,"  "with  the  administrative 
ability  which  is  the  claim  of  the  Peelites  to  power,  great 
personal  tact,  and  enough  of  oratorical  ability  to  hold  his 
own  in  the  House  of  Commons."    Died  August  2,  1861. 

Herbert,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  born  at 
York  about  1608,  was  related  to  the  Earl  of  Pembroke, 
who  procured  him  an  office  under  the  ambassador  to 
Persia  in  1626.  In  1634  he  published  a  "  Relation  of 
Travels  in  Africa  and  Asia,"  which  contains  a  better 
account  of  Persia  than  any  which  had  previously  ap- 
peared. During  the  civil  war  he  was  chosen  by  Parlia- 
ment one  of  the  commissioners  to  treat  with  the  king, 
rnd  in  1647  was  selected  by  Charles  I.  to  wait  on  his 
person  in  his  confinement.  He  wrote  an  account  of  the 
last  two  years  of  Charles  I.,  under  the.  title  of"  Threnodia 
Carolina,"  (1678.)    Died  in  1682. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica;"  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses;" 
"Memoires  de  Sir  Thomas  Herbert,  Valet-de-Chambre  de  Charles 
I."  Paris,  1823. 

Herbert,  (William,)  Earl  of  Pembroke,  born  at 
Wilton,  England,  in  1580,  was  lord-steward  of  the  king's 
household  aljout  1626.  He  wrote  indiff"erent  verses,  and 
is  supposed  to  be  the  person  to  whom  Shakspeare's 
Sonnets  were  addressed.  Pembroke  College  was  named 
in  honour  of  him.    Died  in  1630. 

Herbert,  (William,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
1 718.  After  spending  some  years  in  London  as  a  mer- 
chant, he  went  to  the  East  Indies  as  purser's  clerk.  He 
is  chiefly  known  as  the  editor  of  "  Ames's  Typographical 
Antiquities,"  published  in  1785.    Died  in  1795. 

Herbert,  (Rev.  William,)  an  English  author,  born 
at  Highclere  Castle,  Bucks,  in  1778,  was  the  third  son 
of  the  Earl  of  Carnarvon.  After  distinguishing  himself 
in  the  House  of  Commons,  he  took  holy  orders,  became 
rector  of  Spofforth  in  1814,  and  Dean  of  Manchester  in 
1840.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  and 
published  a  great  variety  of  works  in  prose  and  verse, 
.among  which  is  an  epic  poem,  called  "  Attila,  King  of 
the  Huns;  or.  The  Triumph  of  Christianity,"  (1838,) 
"  a  production,"  says  Hallam,  "  displaying  a  union  of 
acuteness  and  erudition  with  great  poetical  talents." 
Died  in  1847. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1815,  and  January,  1838;  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  critique  on  Herbert's  Poems,  in  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1806,  vol.  ix. 

Herbigny.    See  Favart  d'Herbigny. 

Herbigny,  d',  dgR'b^n'ye',(  Pierre  Franqois  Xavier 
Bourguignon  —  booR'g^n^y^N', )  a  French  political 
writer,  born  at  Laon  in  1772,  was  a  partisan  of  the 
Bourbons.    Died  in  1846. 

Herbin,  hlK'hkn',  (Auguste  Francois  Julien,)  a 
French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1783.  He  excelled 
in  the  Oriental  languages  at  a  very  early  age.  He  pub- 
lished an  Arabic  Grammar,  an  Arabic-French  Diction- 
ary, a  "  History  of  Persian  Poets,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1806. 

Herbinius,  hir-bee'ne-us,  (Johann,)  a  learned  Lu- 
theran minister,  born  in  Silesia  in  1633.  He  preached 
at  Stockholm,  Wilna,  etc.,  and  published,  besides  other 
books,  a  curious  work  on  cataracts  and  other  aqueous 
phenomena,  "  De  admirandis  Mundi  Cataractis,  supra  et 
subterraneis,"  etc.,  (1670.)    Died  in  1676. 

See  Ersch  und  Gri;ber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Herbst,  h^Rpst,  (Johann  Andreas,)  a  German  mu- 
sician and  writer  on  music,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1588; 
died  in  1660. 


Herbst,  (Johann  Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
pulpit  orator  and  entomologist,  born  at  Petershagen,  in 
Prussia,  in  1743,  was  pastor  of  several  churches  of  Berlin. 
Among  his  works  are  an  "  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Insects,"  (3  vols.,  1784-87,)  and  a  "Natural  System  of 
Butterflies,"  (7  vols.,  1783-95.)    Died  in  1807. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Herculano  de  Carvalho,  gR-koo-lS'no  di  kaR-vSK- 
yo,  (Alexandre,)  a  Portuguese  poet  and  historian, 
born  at  Guimaraens  about  1809,  was  educated  in  Paris. 
He  published  in  1826  "A  Voz  de  Propheta,"  ("The 
Voice  of  a  Prophet,")  a  poem.  His  "  History  of  Por- 
tugal" (6  vols.,  1848-52)  is  commended. 

Hercule.    See  Hercules. 

Hfr'cu-les,  [Gr. 'Hpa/c^,  (Herakles;)  Lat.  Her'cu- 
leS  ;  Fr.  Hercule,  gii'ldiK;  It.  Ercole,  gR^ko-lk,]  called 
also  Al-gi'des,  [Gr.  'klKudriq^  the  most  celebrated  hero 
of  antiquity,  was,  according  to  Homer,  the  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Alcmena,  the  wife  of  Amphitryon.  Thebes  was  gene- 
rally supposed  to  have  been  his  birthplace.  His  birth 
is  said  to  have  been  delayed  by  Juno  because  it  had 
been  ordained  that  of  the  two,  Hercules  and  Eurys- 
theus,  the  younger  should  serve  the  other.  While  he 
was  an  infant  in  the  cradle,  he  strangled  two  serpents 
which  Juno  sent  to  destroy  him.  According  to  a  popular 
story,  when  he  had  arrived  at  the  age  of  a  young  man, 
Virtue  and  Pleasure  appeared  to  him,  each  offering  to 
be  his  guide.  He  preferred  the  former,  and  soon  became 
renowned  for  his  heroic  exploits,  the  first  of  which  was 
his  victory  over  the  lion  of  Cithaeron.  He  afterwards 
delivered  Thebes  from  the  annual  tribute  of  a  hundred 
oxen  which  that  city  was  required  to  pay  to  Erginus. 
As  a  reward  for  this  service,  Creon,  King  of  Thebes, 
gave  him  his  daughter  Megara  in  marriage. 

Having  consulted  the  oracle  of  Apollo,  he  was  directed 
to  serve  Eurystheus  for  twelve  years,  after  which  he 
should  become  immortal.  Eurystheus,  who  regarded 
him  with  jealousy  and  enmity,  imposed  on  him  a  number 
of  arduous  enterprises,  called  the  Twelve  Labours  of 
Hercules.  The  result  of  his  first  labour  was  the  death 
of  the  Nemean  lion,  which  he  choked  in  his  den.  He 
afterwards  wore  the  skin  of  this  animal.  His  next  task 
was  to  kill  the  Lernean  hydra,  which  infested  the  vicinity 
of  Argos,  and  had  seven  (or,  according  to  some  writers, 
nine)  heads,  the  middle  one  of  which  was  immortal.  He 
cut  off  several  of  its  heads,  but  two  new  heads  grew  in 
place  of  each  one  amputated,  until  he  seared  the  wounded 
part  by  burning.  He  buried  the  immortal  head  under  a 
rock,  and  dipped  his  arrows  in  the  gall  of  the  hydra,  so 
that  the  wounds  which  they  inflicted  were  incurable. 
The  third  labt)ur  was  to  bring  to  Eurystheus  a  certain 
stag  which  had  golden  horns  and  was  exceedingly  swift 
of  foot.  He  pursued  it  for  a  whole  year,  and  at  length 
caught  it,  after  he  had  wounded  it  with  his  arrow.  He 
was  next  ordered  to  bring  alive  to  Mycenae  a  wild  boar 
that  ravaged  the  vicinity  of  Erymanthus.  He  chased 
this  animal  into  a  snow-drift,  bound  him  with  fetters, 
and  carried  him  to  Eurystheus.  In  this  expedition  he 
encountered  and  vanquished  the  Centaurs.  (See  Cen- 
TAURi.)  The  fifth  labour  was  to  cleanse  in  one  day  the 
stables  of  King  Augeas,  who  kept  many  cattle,  the  dung 
from  which  had  accumulated  for  years.  He  performed 
this  task  by  turning  the  rivers  Alpheus  and  Peneus  into 
the  Augean  stables.  Eurystheus  objected  to  count  this 
among  the  twelve  labours,  because  Hercules  had  worked 
for  hire.  (See  Augeas.)  His  sixth  labour  was  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Stymphalian  birds,  which  had  brazen  claws 
and  beaks,  discharged  their  feathers  as  arrows,  and  in- 
fested Lake  Stymphalus  in  vast  numbers.  His  seventh 
exploit  was  the  capture  of  a  mad  bull  which  ravaged  the 
island  of  Crete.  He  carried  the  bull  alive  to  the  con- 
tinent and  let  it  loose.  It  afterwards  did  much  mischief 
at  Marathon.  Eurystheus  next  ordered  him  to  bring 
from  Diomedes  of  Thrace  his  horses,  which  fed  on  human 
flesh.  The  hero  killed  Diomedes  and  performed  the 
appointed  task.  The  subject  of  the  ninth  labour  was  the 
girdle  of  Hippolyte,  Queen  of  the  Amazons,  which  he 
was  required  to  bring.  He  was  accompanied  in  this 
expedition  by  Theseus  and  other  heroes,  and  obtained 
the  girdle  after  he  had  defeated  the  Amazons  in  fight. 
He  was  next  commanded  to  bring  the  oxen  of  the 


a.  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  5?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  ^ood;  moon; 


HERDER 


"73 


HERE  WARD 


monster  Geryon  from  the  fabulous  island  of  Erythea, 
situated  in  the  far-distant  west.  In  the  course  of  this 
expedition  he  erected  on  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  two 
pillars,  called  the  pillars  of  Hercules,  and  performed 
several  exploits  besides  the  killing  of  Geryon.  His 
eleventh  labour  was  to  bring  some  golden  apples  which 
were  guarded  by  a  dragon  in  the  garden  of  the  Hesperi- 
des.  He  did  not  know  where  this  garden  was ;  but  he 
obtained  information  from  Nereus.  As  he  was  passing 
through  Egypt  in  his  route,  he  killed  Busiris,  the  king 
and  tyrant  of  that  country.  By  the  advice  of  Prometheus, 
whom  he  delivered  from  penal  suffering,  he  sent  Atlas 
for  the  apples,  and  supported  the  heavens  in  his  place 
until  Atlas  returned  with  the  fruit.* 

The  last  and  most  dangerous  service  was  his  descent 
to  Hades  to  bring  up  the  dog  Cerberus.  He  obtained 
the  consent  of  Pluto  to  take  the  monster,  provided  he 
would  not  use  any  weapon.  He  accordingly  seized 
Cerberus,  carried  him  alive  to  Eurystheus,  and  then 
returned  him  to  Pluto. 

Having  been  affected  with  insanity,  he  consulted  an 
oracle,  which  advised  him  to  sell  himself  as  a  slave  for 
three  years.  He  became  a  slave  to  Omphale,  Queen  of 
Lydia,  in  whose  service  he  wore  the  dress  of  a  woman 
and  was  employed  in  spinning.  He  afterwards  con- 
ducted a  successful  expedition  against  Troy  to  punish 
Laomedon  for  a  breach  of  his  promise. 

He  married  Dejanira,  (daughter  of  the  King  of  Caly- 
don,)  to  whom  the  centaur  Nessus  once  offered  violence. 
Hercules,  with  a  poisoned  arrow,  killed  Nessus,  who,  as 
he  was  about  to  die,  persuaded  Dejanira  to  preserve  his 
blood  as  a  love-charm.  She  became  jealous,  and  applied 
this  blood  to  a  tunic,  which  he  put  on.  He  was  poisoned 
by  this  garment,  which  produced  violent  pain,  and  stuck 
to  his  flesh  when  he  tried  to  pull  it  off.  He  was  about 
to  seek  relief  by  voluntary  death  on  Mount  CEta,  when 
he  was  conveyed  by  a  cloud  to  Olympus  and  rewarded 
with  immortality.  He  was  afterwards  worshipped  as  a 
divinity  by  all  the  Greeks.  In  the  character  of  Hercu- 
les it  is  difficult  or  impossible  to  distinguish  the  purely 
mythical  or  allegorical  from  what  may  be  considered  as 
mere  exaggerations  built  upon  a  historic  basis. 

See  GuiGNiAUT,  "Religions  de  I'Antiquite,"  Pans,  1825-29,  vol. 
li.  book  iv.  chaps,  v.  and  vi. 

Herder,  von,  fon  h^R'der,  (Johann  GorrFRiED,) 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  gifted  writers  that  Ger- 
many has  produced,  was  born  at  Mohrungen,  in  East 
Prussia,  irt  1744.    He  commenced  the  study  of  surgery 

*  Several  of  the  most  remarkable  exploits  of  Hercules  are  vividly 
described  by  Darwin : 

"  So  mighty  Hercules  o'er  many  a  clime 
Waved  his  vast  mace  in  Virtue's  cause  sublime ; 
Unmeasured  strength,  vi'ith  early  art  combined. 
Awed,  served,  protected,  and  amazed  mankind. 
First,  two  dread  snakes,  at  Juno's  vengeful  nod, 
Climbed  round  the  cradle  of  the  sleeping  god ; 
Waked  by  the  shrilling  hiss,  and  rustling  sound, 
And  shrieks  of  fair  attendants  trembling  round. 
Their  gasping  throats  with  clenching  hands  he  holds, 
And  Death  untwists  their  convoluted  folds. 
Next  in  red  torrents  from  her  sevenfold  heads 
Fell  Hydra's  blood  on  Lerna's  lake  he  sheds  ; 
Grasps  Achelous  with  resistless  force, 
And  drags  the  roaring  river  to  his  course ; 
Binds,  with  loud  bellowing  and  with  hideous  yell, 
The  monster  Bull,  and  threefold  Dog  of  hell. 
Then,  where  Nemea's  howling  forests  wave, 
He  drives  the  Lion  to  his  dusky  cave. 
Seized  by  the  throat,  the  growling  fiend  disarms, 
And  tears  his  gaping  jaws  with  sinewy  arms ; 
Lifts  proud  Antzeus  from  his  mother-plains, 
And  with  strong  grasp  the  struggling  giant  strains; 
Back  falls  his  fainting  head,  and  clammy  hair. 
Writhe  his  weak  limits,  and  flits  his  life  in  air; — 
By  steps  reverted,  o'er  the  blood-dropp'd  fen 
He  tracks  huge  Cacus  to  his  murderous  den, 
Where,  breathing  flames  through  brazen  lips,  he  fled. 
And  shakes  the  rock-roofed  cavern  o'er  his  head. 
Last,  with  wide  arms  the  solid  earth  he  tears. 
Piles  rock  on  rock,  on  mountain  mountain  rears; 
Heaves  up  huge  Abyla  on  Afric's  sand. 
Crowns  with  high  Calpe  Europe's  salient  strand, 
Crests  with  opposing  towers  the  splendid  scene, 
And  pours  from  urns  immense  the  sea  between. 
Loud  o'er  her  whirling  floods  Charybdis  roars, 
Affrighted  Scylla  bellows  roimd  his  shores, 
Vesuvio  groans  through  all  his  echoing  caves, 
And  Etna  thunders  o'er  the  insurgent  waves" 

Botanic  Garden,  Canto  I. 


in  Konigsberg,  (1762;)  but,  having  fainted  at  the  first 
operation  which  he  witnessed,  he  turned  his  attention 
theology.  His  thirst  for  knowledge  was  boundless,  and 
his  acquisitions  embraced  an  immense  variety  of  subjects. 
While  in  Konigsberg,  he  became  acquainted  with  Kant, 
who  permitted  him  to  attend  his  lectures  without  any 
charge.  Towards  the  close  of  1764  he  was  appointed 
teacher,  and  afterwards  preacher,  at  the  cathedral  school 
in  Riga.  While  here,  he  awakened  in  his  pupils  an 
enthusiastic  attachment  and  devotion.  In  1770  he  was 
invited  to  Biickeburg,  where  he  became  court  preacher, 
and  soon  acquired  great  distinction  as  a  divine,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  he  received  a  call  to  the  professorship 
of  theology  at  Gottingen.  While  he  was  still  hesitating 
whether  or  not  to  accept  the  invitation,  he  was  oft'ered 
the  position  of  court  preacher,  general  superintendent, 
and  counsellor  -of  the  Upi^er  Consistory  at  Weimar, 
whither  he  removed  in  October,  1776.  As  an  eloquent 
preacher,  a  zealous  frrend  of  education,  and  an  encour- 
ager  of  rising  talent,  he  won  the  esteem  and  love  of  both 
prince  and  people.  The  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent 
in  Weimar.  In  1793  he  was  made  vice-president,  and 
in  1801  president,  of  the  Upper  Consistory.  Died  in  1803. 

Among  his  multifarious  writings  there  is,  perhaps, not 
one  complete  work  :  yet  he  is  admitted  to  have  exercised 
a  most  important  influence  upon  German  literature, 
criticism,  and  philosophy.  His  greatest  work  (unfinished) 
is  entitled  "Ideas  on  the  Philosophy  of  the  History  of 
Mankind,"  ("  Ideen  zur  Philosophic  der  Geschichte  der 
Menschheit.")  Among  his  other  publications  we  may 
name  his  "Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,"  ("  Geist  der  He- 
braischen  Poesie,")  and  his  "  Volkslieder,"  a  collection 
of  the  popular  songs  of  different  nations.  Alluding  to 
the  difficulty  of  understanding  or  describing  Herder's 
many-sided  intellect,  Richter  observes,  "The  starry 
heaven  no  star-map  paints,  although  painting  may  rep- 
resent a  landscape."  In  another  place  he  says,  "It  was 
Herder's  fault  that  he  was  not  a  star  of  the  first  mag- 
nitude or  any  other  magnitude,  but  a  clump  of  stars 
out  of  which  each  one  spells  a  constellation  to  please 
himself."  A  complete  edition  of  Herder's  works  was 
issued  at  Stuttgart,  in  45  vols.,  (1806-20,)  and  a  pocket 
edition  afterwards  appeared,  in  60  vols. 

See  Karl  L.  Ring,  "  Herder's  Leben,"  1822 ;  H.  Doring,  "  Her- 
der's Leben,"  1824;  Emil  G.  von  Herder,  "J.  G.  von  Herder's 
Lebensbild,"  etc.,  3  vols.,  1847;  Heinsius,  "Herder  nach  seinem 
Leben  und  Wirken,"  1847  ;  L.  G.  Kopp,  "  Etudes  sur  Herder,"  etc., 
1852;  F.  H.  Hedge,  "  Prose  Writers  of  Germany;"  E.  P.  Whip- 
ple, "Characteristics  ot  Men  of  Genius,"  vol.  i. ;  "Foreign  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  July,  1846. 

Herder,  von,  (Sigmund  August  Wolfgang,)  a  min- 
eralogist, born  in  1766,  was  a  son  of  the  great  Herder. 
Died  in  1838.  His  brother,  Wilhelm  Gottfried, 
born  in  1774,  was  a  physician.    Died  in  1806. 

See  Ersch  undGRUBER,  "  AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

H^reau,  hWxb' ,  (Edme  Joachim,)  a  French  littera- 
teur, born  in  Paris  in  1 791.    He  killed  himself  in. 1836. 

Heredia,  4-ra-dee'a,  (Jos6  Maria,)  a  popular  poet, 
born  at  Santiago  de  Cuba  in  1803.  He  was  appointed 
?ninistro  de  la  aiidiencia  by  the  President  of  Mexico  in 
1826.  Among  his  most  admired  poems  are  "The  Teo- 
callis  of  Choluca,"  "  Ode  to  the  Ocean,"  "  To  the  Greeks 
in  1821,"  ("A  los  Griegos  en  1821,")  and  verses  on  Ni- 
agara, ("Al  Niagara.")  The  most  complete  edition  of 
his  poems  is  that  published  recently  in  New  York.  Died 
at  Toluca  in  1839. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale  ;"  Fornaris  v  Leon,  "Cuba  poetica ;"  J. 
Kennedy,  "Modern  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Spain,"  1852. 

Heredia,  de,  di  i-ri-Dee'i,  (Pedro  Miguel,)  born 
at  Valladolid  in  1 590,  was  first  physician  to  Philip  IV. 
Died  in  1659. 

Hereford,  Bishop  of.  See  Hampden,  (Renn  Dick- 
son.) 

Heresbach,  ha'res-biK'',  (Conrad,)  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Heresbach,  in  Cleves,  about  1502.  He  wrote 
an  esteemed  work  on  agriculture,  "Rei  Rusticae  Libri 
quatuor,"  (1570.)    Died  in  1576. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  A.  G. 
Schweitzer,  "  Dissertatiode  C.  Heresbachii  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1849; 
NiCERON,  "  Memoires," 

Her'e-ward,  an  English  captain,  distinguished  in  the 
war  of  the  Norman  conquest.    Died  in  1072. 


£  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  v., guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (iJ^^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HER  I 


74 


HERMANT 


Heri.    See  Hari  and  H6ry. 

Hericart  de  Thury,  //i're'ktR'  deh  tii're',  (Louis 
EriKNNE  FRANgois,)  VicoMFE,  a  French  engineer  and 
agriculturist,  born  in  Paris  in  1776.  As  engineer-in-chief, 
he  directed  the  immense  works  of  the  catacombs  of  Paris 
for  about  twenty  years,  (1810-30.)  He  wrote  a  work  on 
"Artesian  Wells,"  (1823,)  and  many  treatises  on  mines, 
ores,  etc.    Died  in  1854. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Hericourt,  de,  deh  //i're^kooR',  (Louis,)  a  learned 
French  lawyer  and  canonist,  born  at  Soissons  in  1687. 
From  1 714  to  1736  he  contributed  to  the  "Journal  des 
Savants,"  the  earliest  of  modern  reviews.  His  principal 
work  is  "The  Ecclesiastical  Laws  of  France,  placed  in 
their  Natural  Order,"  (1719.)  Tabaraud  designates  him 
"the  most  celebrated  French  canonist."    Died  in  1752. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Her'i-ot,  (George,)  a  Scottish  goldsmith,  born  about 
1563,  founded  a  hospital  in  Edinburgh,  which  bears  his 
name,  and  in  which  many  boys  are  educated  gratuitously. 
It  was  finished  in  1659.    Died  in  1624. 

See  "Memoirs  of  George  Heriot ;"  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "  Fortunes 
of  Nigel." 

Heriot,  (John,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  at  Haddington 
in  1760.  During  the  French  Revolution  he  edited  papers 
in  London,  called  "The  World"  and  "The  True  Briton," 
in  support  of  the  English  ministry.    Died  in  1833. 

Heriri,    See  Hareeree. 

Herissant,  /;k're's6N',  (Franqois  David,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Rouen  in  1714  ;  died  in  1773. 

Herissant,  (Louis  Antoine  Prosper,)  a  French 
writer  and  physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1745,  wrote  "Ty- 
pography," a  poem,  and  articles  on  natural  history  for 
the  "Bibliotheque  historique  de  France."  Died  in  1769. 

See  Jean  Goulin,  "  £loge  de  L.  A.  P.  Herissant,"  1769. 

Herissant,  (Louis  Theodore,)  a  French  litterateur, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1743.  He 
published  "My  Little  Portfolio,"  (2  vols.  i2mo,  1774,) 
and  various  other  works,  and  compiled  the  last  volume 
of  the  "  Bibliotheque  de  Societe,"  (begun  by  Chamfort, 
4  vols.,  1771.)    Died  in  1811. 

Heritier.    See  L'H^:ritier, 

Heritier  de  Villandon.    See  L'H6ritier  de  Vil- 

LANDON. 

Her'ki-mer,  a  general  of  the  New  York  militia.  In 
1777  he  commanded  the  militia  of  Tryon  county,  who 
inarched  to  relieve  the  garrison  of  Fort  Stanwix,  on  the 
Mohawk,  then  besieged  by  the  British.  In  an  engage- 
ment a  few  miles  from  the  fort,  he  was  mortally  wounded. 

Herlicius,  hgR-lit'se-iis,  (David,)  a  German  astrolo- 
ger, born  at  Zeitz  in  1558  ;  died  in  1636. 

Herloszsohn,  h^R'los-son^  (Georg  Karl,)  a  Ger- 
man romancer,  born  at  Prague  in  1802,  published  "The 
Hungarian,"  ("  Der  Ungar,"  1832,)  "The  Venetian," 
(2d  edition,  1837,)  and  "Forest  Flowers,"  ("  Waldblu- 
men,"  1847.)    Died  in  1849. 

Her-mag'o-ras  ['Ep/^ayopaf]  of  Temnos,  a  Greek 
rhetorician,  lived  about  50  B.C. 

Herrmann  or  Her'man,  (or  h§R'min,)  [Lat.  Armin'- 
lus  ;  Dutch,  Armijn,  aR-'min';  Ger.  Armin,  aR-meen',] 
a  celebrated  German  hero,  born  16  B.C.,  was  the  son  of 
Sigimer,  chief  of  the  Cherusci.  He  is  called  Armenios 
by  the  Greek  writers,  and  Arminius  by  the  Romans. 
He  entered  the  Roman  army  at  an  early  age,  and  ob- 
tained the  privileges  of  knighthood  and  of  citizenship  at 
Rome.  Indignant  at  the  oppression  which  his  country 
was  suffering  under  Quintilius  Varus,  then  governor, 
he  formed  on  his  return  a  plan  for  its  deliverance.  By 
false  pretences  he  induced  the  Roman  commander  to  ad- 
vance with  his  army  beyond  the  Rhine,  where,  entangled 
in  the  forest  and  marshes  near  the  Lippe,  they  suffered  a 
signal  defeat  in  9  a.d.  In  16  A.D.,  Germanicus,  with  a 
large  army,  invaded  Germany,  and  completely  defeated 
Hermann  near  Hameln,  on  the  Weser.  Nevertheless, 
Hermann  not  long  after  overthrew  Maroboduus,  (Mar- 
bod,)  chief  of  the  Suevi ;  but,  being  suspected  of  aiming 
at  supreme  dominion,  he  was  assassinated  by  his  own 
relatives,  in  the  thirty-seventh  year  of  his  age.  "Unlike 
Vther  kings  and  commanders,"  says  Tacitus,  "  he  had 
the  boldness  to  attack  the  Roman  people,  not  in  the 


beginning,  but  in  the  fulness,  of  their  power;  in  battle 
not  always  victorious,  but  unconquered  in  war." 

See  Tacitus,  "Annales;"  Florus,  "History;"  Roth,  "Her- 
mann und  Maibod,"  1817;  Von  Ledebur,  "Das  Land  und  Volk 
der  Bructerer,"  1X27;  Massmann,  "Arminius  Cheruscorum  Dux  et 
Decus,"  1839:  KoNiG,  "Armin  der  Cherusker;  zum  Denkmal  im 
Teutoburger  Wald,"  1840. 

Hermann,  hSR'mSn,  (Jakob,)  a  Swiss  mathematician, 
born  at  Bale  in  1678.  By  the  favour  of  Leibnitz,  he  ob- 
tained the  chair  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
Padua.  In  1724  he  accepted  an  invitation  from  Peter 
the  Great  to  teach  the  grand  duke.  His  principal  work 
is  a  Latin  "  Treatise  on  the  Forces  and  Movements  of 
Solid  and  Fluid  Bodies,"  (1715.)    Died  in  1733. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hermann,  /z^R'niSw',  (Jean,)  an  able  French  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Barr,  near  Strasburg,  in  1738.  He  ob- 
tained at  Strasburg  the  chair  of  philosophy  in  1778,  and 
that  of  pathology  in  1782.  In  1784  he  became  professor 
of  botany  and  chemistry.  He  wrote  many  short  treatises 
on  natural  history,  furnished  materials  for  the  large  work 
of  Buffon,  and  published  a  treatise  on  the  atifinities  of 
animals,  entitled  "Tabula  Affinitatum  Animalium," 
(1783.)    Died  in  1800. 

His  son,  Jean  Frederic,  (1768-93,)  wrote  a  thesis 
on  Osteology,  and  a  "Memoir  on  Wingless  Insects," 
which  Cuvier  says  "  were  excellent  for  the  time." 

See  T.  Lauth,  "Vie  de  Jean  Hermann,"  1801 ;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Hermann,  (Johann  Gottfried  Jakob,)  an  eminent 
German  philologist  and  critic,  born  at  Leipsic  on  the 
28th  of  November,  1772.  He  became  in  1809  professor 
of  eloquence  and  poetry  at  Leipsic,  where  his  lectures 
on  archaeology  and  the  Greek  classics  attracted  great 
numbers  of  students.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"  Elements  of  Metrical  Doctrine,"  ("  Elementa  Doctrinae 
Metricae,"  1816,)  "On  the  Metres  of  Pindar,"  ("  De  Me- 
tris  Pindari,"  181.7,)  and  "  Opuscula,"  (7  vols.,  1827-30,) 
consisting  of  essays  and  odes  written  in  elegant  Latin. 
He  also  prepared  editions  of  several  Greek  writers,  of 
which  those  of  Bion  and  Moschus  were  published  in 
1849.    Died  in  December,  1848. 

See  Jahn,  "J.  G.  Hermann:  eine  Gedachtnissrede,"  Leipsic, 
1849;  Carl  F.  Ameis,  "G.  Hermann's  padagogischer  Einfluss," 
1850;  Ersch  imd  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie,"  under 
"Philologie ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Hermann,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  antiquary, 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1804,  became  in  1842 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Gottingen.  He  published  a 
"  Manual  of  Greek  Antiquities,"  (1841,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1855. 

Hermann,  (Karl  Heinrich,)  a  German  historical 
painter,  born  at  Dresden  in  1802,  was  a  pupil  of  Cor- 
nelius at  Dusseld(Mf.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  the 
frescos  in  the  Konigsbau  and  the  Arcade  of  the  Hof- 
garten  at  Munich. 

Hermann,  (Martial  Joseph  Armand,)  a  French 
revolutionist  and  lawyer,  born  at  Saint-Pol  in  1750.  In 
1793,  as  a  ])artisan  of  Robespierre,  he  became  president 
of  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal.  He  was  executed  in  1795. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Hermann,  (Paul,)  an  eminent  German  botanist,  born 
at  Halle  in  1646.  He  practised  medicine  about  eight 
years  in  the  East  Indies,  and  became  professor  of  botany 
at  Leyden  in  1679.  Among  his  works,  which  are  illus- 
trated with  fine  engravings,  are  a  "  Catalogue  of  the 
Botanic  Garden  of  Leyden,"  (1687,)  and  "  Batavian 
Garden,"  ("  Paradisus  Batavus,"  1698.)    Died  in  1695. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  "Bio- 
graphie Medicale." 

Hermann,  (Philipp,)  an  excellent  painter  on  glass, 
adorned  the  cathedral  of  Metz,  where  he  died  in  1392. 

Her'mann  Con-trac'tus,  one  of  the  early  German 
historians,  born  in  1013,  was  a  monk  in  the  cloister 
of  Reichenau.  He  wrote  a  "Chronicon,"  which  comes 
down  to  1054  and  bears  some  resemblance  to  that  of 
the  Venerable  Bede.    Died  in  1054. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hermant,  /^^R'mftN',  (Godefroi,)  a  French  b'og- 
rapher  and  Jansenist  theologian,  born  at  Beauvais  in 
161 7,  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "Life  of  Saint  John 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \y    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,u,  y, 


short;  a,?,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HER  M  ANT 


1175 


HERMOCRATES 


Chrysostom,"  (1664,)  a  "Life  of  Athanasius,"  (1671,) 
and  a  "Life  of  Saint  Ambrose,"  (1678.)    Died  in  1690. 

See  A.  Baili.et,  "Vie  de  M.  G.  Hermant,"  1717  ;  Moreki, 
"Dictioniiaire  Historique." 

Hermant,  (Jean,)  a  French  priest,  born  at  Caen  in 
1650  ;  died  in  1725.    He  wrote  a  liistory  of  heresies. 

Hermaphrodite.    See  Hermaphkoditus. 

Her-maph-ro-di'tus,  [Gr,  'Ei)/j.a(j)p66tTog :  Fr.  Her- 
maphrodite, ^R'mt'fRo'd^t^]  in  classic  mythology,  the 
offspring  of  Mercury  (Hermes)  and  Venus,  (Aphrodite,) 
was  said  to  combine  both  sexes. 

See  Ovid,  "Metamorphoses." 

Her-mar'-ehus,  ['^Epfiapxog,]  a  Greek  philosopher, 
born  in  Mitylene,  was  a  disciple  of  Epicurus,  who  be- 
queathed to  him  his  garden.  He  succeeded  Epicurus 
as  the  head  of  the  school  about  270  B.C.  His  works  are 
lost. 

Her'mas,  a  Christian  writer  of  the  first  century,  is 
supposed  by  some  to  be  the  person  mentioned  by  Saint 
Paul  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  chapter  xvi.  He 
lived  in  Italy,  and  wrote,  in  Greek,  a  book  entitled  "  The 
Pastor,  or  Shepherd,"  composed  of  visions,  precepts,  and 
similitudes.  It  was  frequently  quoted  and  highly  es- 
teemed by  the  ancient  Fathers  of  the  Church.  Origen, 
Irenaeus,  and  Clement  of  Alexandria  regarded  it  as 
divinely  inspired.  It  is  prized  as  a  relic  of  the  primi- 
tive Church,  and  as  a  medium  of  interesting  traditions. 
The  original  is  nearly  all  lost;  but  a  Latin  version  is 
extant. 

See  Neanuer,  "  History  of  the  Church;"  Cave,  "  Historia  Lite- 
raria  ;"  Fabricius.  "Bibliotheca  Grasca." 

Hermbstadt,  h^Rmp'stgt,  (Sigismund  Friedrich,) 
a  German  chemist,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1760 ;  died  in  1833. 

Hermelin,  h^r^me-leen',  (Samuel  Gustavus,)  a 
learned  Swedish  baron  and  mineralogist,  born  at  Stock- 
holm in  1744.  He  was  a  member  of  the  council  of 
mines,  and  spent  many  years  in  travel  in  order  to  ex- 
plore and  develop  the  mineral  resources  of  Sweden.  In 
1782  he  visited  the  United  States,  with  credentials  as  an 
agent  of  the  king,  to  obtain  information  on  mineralogy 
and  metallurgy.  On  these  subjects  he  published  several 
useful  works,  also  on  statistics  and  geography.  A  new 
and  correct  atlas  of  Sweden  was  the  result  of  his  labours. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  C.  p.  Haellstroem,  "  Biographi  ofver  Bergs-Radet  S.  G. 
Hermelin,"  1821 ;  " Biographiskt- Lexicon  ofvernamnkunnige  Sven- 
ska  Man." 

Hermengarde.    See  Ermengarde. 
Hermenric.    See  Ermeric. 

Her'mes,  [Gr.  'Ep//^f;  Fr.  Hermes,  iR'm^s',]  the 
name  which  the  Greeks  gave  to  the  herald  of  the  gods, 
corresponding  nearly  with  the  Mercurius  of  the  Roman 
mythology.  (See  Mercury.)  Hermes  was  identified 
with  the  Egyptian  Thoth  or  Thot,  the  inventor  of  arts 
and  sciences. 

Hermes,  h^R'mes,  (Georg,)  a  celebrated  Catholic 
theologian,  born  in  Westphalia,  in  Germany,  in  1775, 
was  the  founder  of  a  philosophical  school  of  Christian 
doctrine.  In  1807,  when  appointed  professor  of  the- 
ology in  Miinster,  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposi- 
tion to  the  system  of  Kant  and  Fichte.  He  became  in 
1820  professor  at  the  University  of  Bonn,  where  he  was 
highly  esteemed  for  his  abilities  as  a  lecturer  and  his 
amiable  character.  He  had  published  in  1819  his 
"Introduction  to  Christian  Catholic  Theology,"  which,* 
though  not  assailing  any  dogmas  of  the  Church,  was 
made  the  occasion  of  a  charge  of  heresy.  In  1835  a 
brief  was  issued  by  the  pope,  condemning  the  work,  and 
a  warm  controversy  was  long  carried  on  between  the 
papal  and  the  Hermesian  party.    Died  in  1831. 

See  W.  EssER,  " Denkschiift  auf  G.  Hermes,"  1832;  Elvenich, 
"  Der  Hermesianismus  und  Johannes  Perrone,"  1844. 

Hermes,  (Johann  August,)  a  German  Protestant 
writer  on  theology,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1736.  His 
"  Manual  of  Religion"  was  translated  into  French,  Swe- 
dish, and  Dutch.    Died  in  1822. 

See  J.  H.  Fritsch,  "J.  A.  Hermes,"  1827 ;  Ersch  undGRUBER, 
"  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hermes,  (Johann  Timotheus,)  a  German  novelist, 
born  in  Pomerania  in  1738,  was  the  originator  of  the 
romances  called  psychological.    His  principal  work  is 


"The  Journey  of  Sophia  from  Memel  to  Saxony,"  (6 
vols.,  1770-78.)    Died  in  1821. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hermes,  (Karl  Heinrich,)  a  German  historical 
writer,  born  at  Kalisz,  in  Poland,  in  1800,  published  a 
"  History  of  the  Last  Twenty-Five  Years,"  (1842 ;  6th 
edition,  3  vols.,  1853.) 

Her'mes  Tris-me-gis'tus,  [Gr.  'Ep/j-^g  Tpia/iiytaTog , 
Fr.  Hermes  Trismegiste,  ^R^m^s'  tR^s''ma'zh^st',] 
called  by  Milton  the  "thrice  great  Hermes,"  the  reputed 
author  of  many  Greek  works  which  were  probably  written 
in  Egypt  in  the  first  three  centuries  of  the  Christian  era. 
Some  of  them  are  still  extant.  According  to  one  opinion, 
Hermes  was  an  Egyptian  priest.  The  principal  work 
which  has  come  down  to  us  under  his  name  is  "Poe- 
mander,"  which  treats  of  "  the  nature  of  all  things  and 
of  the  creation  of  the  world." 

See  J.  H.  Ursinus,  "  Exercitatio  de  Mercurio  Trismegisto," 
i66i;  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grasca ;"  Baumgarten-Crusius, 
"DeLibrorum  Hermeticoruni  Origine  et  Indole,"  1827. 

Her-mi'as,  (or  her-mi'as,)  [Gr.  'Epftetac  or  'Epfiiag,]  a 
friend  and  patron  of  Aristotle,  was  a  slave  in  his  youth. 
He  became  tyrant  or  ruler  of  Assos  and  Atarneus,  in 
Mysia,  and  entertained  Aristotle  with  honour  at  his 
court  about  three  years,  348-345  B.C.  Hermias  was  put 
to  death  by  the  King  of  Persia  about  345  B.C.  Aristotle 
afterwards  married  Pythias,  the  adopted  daughter  of 
Hermias,  and  celebrated  his  memory  in  a  beautiful  poem 
entitled  a  "  Hymn  to  Virtue,"  which  is  extant. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius:  Diodorus. 

Hermias,  a  Christian  philosopher,  who  lived  in  the 
second  century  a.D.  He  ridiculed  the  pagan  philosophy 
in  a  small  Greek  book  entitled  ^iacvpfibg  tCov  e^to  (piXo- 
G6(b(j)v,  a  work  of  merit,  which  is  still  extant. 

Hermida,  §R-mee'Dl,  (Benito  y  Porras-Ber- 
mudez-Maldonado — e  por'rSs  b§R-moo'Dlth  mil-do- 
nS'Do,)  a  Spanish  minister  of  state,  born  at  Santiago  in 
1736.  He  took  a  prominent  part  at  the  siege  of  Sara- 
gossa  and  in  resistance  to  the  French  invasion.  He  was 
chosen  by  the  central  junta  minister  of  grace  and  justice 
in  1808.  He  translated  "Paradise  Lost"  into  Spanish 
verse,  (1814.)    Died  in  1814. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Hermilly,  d',  d^R'me'ye',  (N,  Vaquette,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  about  17 10.  He  translated  from 
the  Spanish  Ferreras's  "  History  of  Spain,"  (1742,)  and 
Camoens's  "Lusiad,"  (1776.)    Died  in  1778. 

Her-min'i-us,  a  Roman  warrior,  was  one  of  the  three 
who  defended  the  Sublician  bridge  against  Porsena. 

Her-mro-ne,  ['Ep/ziov??,]  in  classic  mythology,  was 
a  daughter  of  Menelaus  and  Helen.  She  was  promised 
to  Orestes,  her  cousin,  but  was  married  to  Pyrrhus,  ac- 
cording to  some  authors.  After  the  death  of  Pyrrhus 
she  became  the  wife  of  Orestes. 

Her-mip'pus,  ["Ep//OT7rof,]  an  Athenian  poet  of  the 
old  comedy,  was  a  brother  of  the  poet  Myrtilus,  and 
lived  about  450  B.C.  He  inserted  satires  against  Pericles 
in  his  plays.  Plutarch  says  he  prosecuted  Aspasia  for 
impiety. 

Hermippus  of  Smyrna,  an  eminent  Greek  philoso- 
pher, of  whom  little  is  known,  was  surnamed  the  Cal- 
limacheian.  Hence  it  is  inferred  that  he  was  a  dis- 
ciple of  Callimachus,  and  flourished  about  250  or  225  B.C. 
He  wrote  the  lives  of  Pythagoras  and  other  philosophers, 
and  was  often  quoted  by  ancient  writers.  None  of  his 
works  have  come  down  to  us. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Graecis." 

Hermite.    See  Ermite. 

Hermite,  hw'mhx.',  (Charles,)  a  French  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Dieuze  (Meurthe)  in  1822,  was  admitted 
into  the  Institute  in  1856. 

Hermocrate.    See  Hermocrates. 

Her-moc'ra-tes,  [Gr.  'EpfioKpimK;  Fr.  Hermocrate, 
§R'mo^kRtt',]  an  eminent  Syracusan  general  and  states- 
man. He  was  one  of  the  three  generals  to  whom  the 
people  confided  the  defence  of  Syracuse  against  the 
Athenians  in  414  B.C.  Having  been  defeated  in  the  first 
actions  of  the  war,  he  and  his  colleagues  were  deprived 
of  command.  He  held  a  high  command  at  the  naval 
battle  of  Cynossema,  and  was  banished  in  409  B.C.  In 


€asi;yasj;g>^ar^^;gas^;  Gyli^Ky  guttural;  H,msal;  R,  trillid ;  s&s  z:  th  as  in /Aw.     (2i^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HERMOD 


HEROD 


an  attempt  to  reinstate  himself,  or  make  himself  master 
of  Syracuse,  he  was  killed  there  about  406  B.C.  He  left 
a  high  character  for  patriotism,  energy,  and  incorrupti- 
bility, though  his  later  acts  in  inaugurating  a  civil  war 
cannot  be  justified. 

See  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece,"  vol.  x.  chap.  Ixxxi. 

Her'mod  or  Herraodr,  written  also  Hermode, 
[etymology  uncertain,]  the  son  and  messenger  of  Odin, 
corresponding  in  several  respects  to  the  Hermes  or 
Mercury  of  classic  mythology. 

See  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Mallet,  "  North- 
ern Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.  Fable  XXIX. 

Hermodore.    See  Hermodorus. 

Her-mo-do'rus  [Gr.  'Ep//6(5(jpof;  Fr.  Hermodore, 
^R'mo'doR']  OF  Efhesus,  a  Greek  philosopher,  who 
lived  about  450  B.C.  According  to  Pomponius,  he  aided 
the  Roman  decemviri  in  compiling  the  Twelve  Tables. 

See  Gratama,  "De  Hermodoro  Ephesio  vero  XII.  Tabularum 
Auctore,"  1818. 

Hermodorus  of  Salamis,  a  Greek  architect,  lived 
about  150  B.C.,  and  built  a  temple  of  Mars  in  Rome. 

Hermogene.    See  Hermogenes. 

Her-mog'e-nes,  [Gr.  'Ep/uoyivi^g ;  Fr.  HERMOcfeNE, 
SR''mo^zhin',]  an  Athenian  philosopher,  a  son  of  Hip- 
ponicus,  lived  about  450  B.C.  He  is  an  interlocutor  in 
the  "  Cratylus"  of  Plato. 

Hermogenes  surnamed  Xyster,  ['Bvottjp,]  a  cele- 
brated Greek  rhetorician,  born  at  Tarsus,  in  Cilicia, 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  (161-180  A.D.) 
He  was  a  remarkable  instance  of  precocious  genius.  At 
the  age  of  fifteen  he  was  a  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Rome, 
and  had  acquired  fame  by  his  eloquent  discourses.  About 
two  years  later  he  wrote  a  work  on  Khetoric,  (Texvi] 
brjTopLKTi,)  which  was  for  a  long  time  used  as  a  text-book 
in  the  schools.  He  was  author  of  other  works  on 
rhetoric.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five  he  lost  his  memory 
and  all  capacity  for  usefulness,  which  he  never  recovered, 
though  he  survived  many  years.    His  works  are  extant. 

See  Philostratus,  "  Vitje  Sophistarum  ;"  Fabricius,  "Biblio- 
theca  Graeca." 

Hermogenes,  a  Greek  architect,  was  a  native  of 
Alabanda,  in  Caria.  It  is  not  known  when  he  lived. 
Vitruvius  mentions  him  among  the  most  eminent  archi- 
tects of  antiquity,  and  as  having  contributed  to  the  pro- 
gress of  the  art  by  his  improvements  and  discoveries. 
He  invented  the  pseudo-dipterus,  and  built  a  temple  to 
Diana  in  the  city  of  Magnesia. 

Hermogenes,  a  painter,  lived  about  170-200  a.d., 
and  was  accused  of  heresy  by  Tertullian,  who  wrote 
a  book  against  him, — "Adversus  Hermogenem."  He 
was  originally  a  pagan. 

Her-mo-ge-ni-a'nus  or  Her-mog'e-nes,  a  Roman 
jurist,  lived  under  Honorius,  in  the  fourth  century. 

Her-mo-la'us,  [Gr.  'Epfiolao^,]  a  page  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  who  formed  a  conspiracy  against  his  sovereign, 
and  was  put  to  death  about  327  B.C. 

Hermolaus  Barbarus.    See  Barbaro. 

Hermotime.    See  Hermotimus. 

Her-mo-ti'mus  [Gr.  'Ep//6r///of ;  Fr.  Hermotime, 
^R^mo^t^m']  OF  Clazomen^,  a  Greek  philosopher,  lived 
about  500  B.C.  According  to  Aristotle,  he  first  advanced 
the  doctrine  that  the  vov^  (mind,  or  spirit)  is  the  cause 
of  all  things. 

See  Aristotle,  "Metaphysics;"  Diogenes  Laertius;  Den- 
ZINGRR,  "  De  Hermotime  Clazomen.  Commentatio,"  1825. 

Hernandes,  iR-nln'deth,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish 
physician  and  naturalist,  who  was  born  at  Toledo,  and 
received  from  Philip  H.  a  commission  to  visit  North 
America  and  to  describe  the  plants,  animals,  and  min- 
erals found  therein.  The  result  of  his  labours  was  a 
valuable  work  (in  Spanish)  entitled  a  "Natural  History 
of  Trees,  Plants,  and  Animals  of  New  Spain,"  etc., 
(1615.)  He  was  the  first  European  naturalist  who  ex- 
plored this  region  for  the  benefit  of  science,  and  appears 
to  have  performed  the  task  with  creditable  fidelity. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova ;"  "  Biographie 
Medicale." 

Hernandez-Velasco,  eR-ndu'dgth  vi-lls'ko,  (Gre- 
GORio,)  a  Spanish  priest  and  poet,  born  at  Toledo  about 
1550,  translated  the 'VEneid"  of  Virgil  into  Spanish  verse, 


(1585.)    Though  the  style  is  rather  inflated,  the  version 
is  correct,  and  presents  some  elegant  passages. 
See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Hernando  de  Soto.   See  De  Soto. 

Hern'don,  (William  Lewis,)  an  American  naval 
officer  and  writer,  born  in  Fredericksburg,  Virginia,  in 
1813.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1828,  and  served  in  the 
war  with  Mexico.  In  185 1  he  commenced,  under  the 
direction  of  the  United  States  government,  his  explora- 
tions of  the  Amazon  River.  Ascending  the  Andes  from 
Lima,  he  struck  the  head-waters  of  the  Huallaga,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Amazon,  and,  after  nearly  seven  hundred 
miles  of  canoe-navigation,  he  entered  the  main  channel 
of  the  great  river.  Forty  thousand  copies  of  his  "  Ex- 
ploration of  the  Valley  of  the  Amazon,"  with  maps  and 
plates,  were  published  by  Congress  in  1853.  In  1857, 
Lieutenant  Herndon  sailed  from  Havana  for  New  York, 
in  command  of  the  steamer  Central  America,  with  475 
passengers  and  about  $2,000,000  in  gold.  While  off  the 
coast  of  Georgia,  the  steamer,  in  a  violent  gale,  sprung 
a  leak,  and  he  was  drowned,  along  with  the  greater  num- 
ber of  the  passengers. 

Herne,  hern,  (Thomas,)  a  native  of  Suffolk,  England, 
a  Fellow  of  Merton  College,  Oxford.  He  wrote  several 
controversial  works  on  theology.    Died  young  in  1722. 

Hernquist,  h^Rn'kwist,  (Pehr,)  a  Swedish  naturalist, 
born  in  the  parish  of  Skara  in  1726,  studied  under  Lin- 
n£eus  at  Upsal.  He  founded  a  veterinary  school  at 
Skara,  and  wrote  "Anatomia  Hippiatrica,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1808. 

See  J.  Wallin,  "  Minna  af  P.  Hernquist,"  1818;  L.  Tiden,  "Are- 
minne  ofver  P.  Hernquist,"  1818. 

Hero.    See  Heron. 

He'ro,  [Gr.  'Hpw,]  a  priestess  of  Venus  at  Sestos  in 
Thrace,  was  loved  by  Leander,  a  youth  of  Abydos,  who, 
it  is  said,  swam  across  the  Hellespont  every  night  to 
visit  her.  He  was  at  length  drowned  in  a  storm,  and 
Hero,  in  despair,  threw  herself  into  the  sea.  This  story 
has  formed  the  subject  of  poems  by  Musaeus,  Schiller, 
and  others. 

Heroard,  hWro'tK',  (Jean,)  a  French  physician,  born 
at  Montpellier,  graduated  in  1575.  He  was  patronized 
by  Charles  IX.,  and  was  afterwards  first  physician  to 
Louis  XIII.    Died  in  1627. 

Her'od,  [Gr.  'Hp(j(5?/f  ;  Lat.  Hero'des  ;  Fr.  Herode, 
a'rod' ;  It.  Erode,  i-ro'da,]  surnamed  the  Great, 
King  of  Judea,  born  at  Ascalon  in  72  B.C.,  was  the  son 
of  Antipater  the  Idumaean,  who  made  him  Governor  of 
Galilee  about  the  year  47.  After  the  death  of  Julius 
Caesar,  he  at  first  sided  with  Brutus  and  Cassius, 
but  on  their  defeat  made  peace  with  Antony,  by  whose 
influence  he  was  appointed  King  of  Judea,  40  B.C.  He 
married  Mariamne,  a  granddaughter  of  the  high-priest 
Hyrcanus.  In  the  civil  war  between  Octavius  and  An- 
tony, Herod  joined  the  latter,  and  fought  for  him  against 
the  Arabians,  but  was  pardoned  by  the  victorious  Oc- 
tavius. Among  other  acts  of  cruelty  by  which  his  reign 
was  disgraced,  was  the  execution  of  Hyrcanus  and  the 
brother  of  Mariamne,  who  herself  at  length  became  the 
victim  of  his  jealousy.  It  is  said  he  Suffered  great  re- 
morse for  this  act ;  but  it  did  not  restrain  him  from  taking 
the  life  of  her  two  sons,  on  which  occasion  Augustus  re- 
marked that  he  would  rather  be  Herod's  swine  than  his 
son.  He  erected  several  grand  edifices  in  his  capital, 
and  rebuilt  the  Jewish  temple  on  a  magnificent  scale. 
The  birth  of  the  Messiah,  which  occurred  in  his  reign, 
became  the  signal  for  the  indiscriminate  massacre  of  in- 
fants recorded  in  Matthew,  chap.  ii.  Herod  died  within 
a  year  after  that  event,  and  left  the  throne  to  his  son 
Archelaus.  His  name  has  become  proverbial  for  mur- 
derous violence  and  remorseless  cruelty. 

See  Josephus,  "History  of  the  Jews:"  Dion  Cassius,  "His- 
tory ;"  ScHLiPAL,  "  Dissertatio  de  Herode  Magno,"  171 1 ;  Schlosser, 
"Geschichte  der  Familie  des  Herodes,"  1818 ;  Milman,  "History 
of  the  Jews." 

Her'od  A-grip'pa  [Gr.  'Iip6)8ric  'kypi-mrag]  I.,  born 
about  I  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Aristobu'lus  by  Berenice, 
the  daughter  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  received  a  part  of 
his  education  at  Rome.  At  the  accession  of  Caligula, 
in  37  A.D.,  he  was  released  from  prison,  in  which  he  had 
been  confined  by  Tiberius,  and  was  made  ruler  of  several 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lmtg;k,  'L>  6^  same.,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsmre;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


HEROD 


1177 


HEROET 


tetrarchies,  viz.,  Abilene,  Auranitis,  and  Trachonitis,  to 
which  in  39  Galilee  was  added.  Under  the  emperor 
Claudius  his  power  was  increased,  and  he  became  King 
of  Judea  and  Samaria.  To  promote  his  popularity  with 
the  Jews,  he  persecuted  the  Christians,  as  is  related  in 
the  twelfth  chapter  of  the  Acts.  He  died  suddenly  in 
44  A.D.,  when,  in  the  language  of  Scripture,  "he  was 
smitten  by  an  angel,  because  he  gave  not  God  the  glory." 

Herod  Agrippa  II.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  about  27  a.d.  Judea  having  been  reduced  to  a  Ro- 
man province,  the  emperor  Claudius  gave  him  in  48  the 
kingdom  of  Chalcis,  which  was  afterwards  exchanged 
for  Gaulonitis,  Trachonitis,  Batanaea,  and  other  districts. 
His  dominions  were  subsequently  extended  by  Nero. 
The  subject  of  this  article  is  the  Agrippa  of  Scripture, 
before  whom  the  Apostle  Paul,  in  the  year  60,  made  that 
sublime  and  noble  argument  which  almost  persuaded 
a  king  to  be  a  Christian.  (Acts  xxvi.)  When  the  Jews 
revolted  against  Vespasian,  Herod  Agrippa  adhered  to 
the  Romans ;  and  after  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  he 
retired  to  Rome,  where  he  died  about  100  a.d. 

See  JosEPHUs,  "  History  of  the  Jews." 

Her^od  An-ti'pas,  [Gr.  'HpwcJ;?^  'AvnTraf,]  son  of 
Herod  the  Great  and  Malthace,  after  his  father's  death 
obtained  the  office  of  Tetrarch  of  Galilee,  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  emperor  Augustus.  Having  married  the 
daughter  of  an  Arabian  prince,  (Aretas,)  he  divorced  her 
in  33  A.D.,  and  took  in  her  place  Herodias,  the  wife  of 
his  brother  Philip,  who  was  then  living.  For  this  sinful 
act  John  the  Baptist  reproved  him,  and  was  put  to  death. 
(Mark  vi.  17-28.)  His  interview  with  the  Saviour,  who 
was  sent  to  him  by  Pilate  and  treated  with  indignity,  is 
related  in  the  twenty-third  chapter  of  Luke.  Herod  was 
banished  in  39  a.d.  by  Caligula,  and  died  in  obscurity. 

Herode,  the  French  for  Herod,  which  see. 

Herodes,  the  Latin  for  Herod,  which  see. 

He-ro'des,  (Tiberius  Claudius  Atticus,)  [Fr.  He- 
rode Atticus,  hfroiV  t'te'kiis^]  an  Athenian  orator  and 
statesman,  born  at  Marathon  about  no  a.d.,  was  the  son 
of  Julius  Atticus,  from  whom  he  inherited  a  large  fortune. 
Having  gained  distinction  as  a  rhetorician,  he  gave  jDub- 
lic  lectures  on  eloquence  at  Athens,  which  were  attended 
and  admired  by  the  elite  of  that  city,  and  was  em])loyed 
by  the  emperor  Antoninus  Pius  as  tutor  of  his  adopted 
sons,  M.  Aurelius  and  Lucius  Verus.  He  became  a 
Roman  consul  in  143,  married  a  Roman  lady  named  Annia 
Regilla,  and  a  few  years  after  returned  to  Greece.  He 
built  a  theatre  or  Odeon  at  Athens,  and  other  costly  edi- 
fices in  different  places  of  Greece  and  Asia.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  the  greatest  orator  of  his  time.  His  speeches 
and  writings  are  all  lost,  except  one  harangue  printed  in 
Gruter's  collection  in  1609.    He  died  about  185  A.D. 

See  Phu.ostratus,  "  Vitae  Sophistarum  ;"  Burigny,  "  Surla  Vie 
d'Herode  Atticus,"  in  the  "Memoires  de  rAcademie  des  Inscrip- 
tions." 

He-ro'des  Phil-ip'pus,  a  son  of  Herod  the  Great 
and  Mariamne,  was  the  first  husband  of  Herodias,  the 
persecutor  of  John  the  Baptist.  He  is  called  simply 
Philip  by  the  Evangelists.  (See  Matthew  xiv.  3,  Mark 
vi.  17,  and  Luke  iii.  19.) 

He-ro'di-an,  [Gr.  'YipcjdLavoq ;  Lat.  Herodia'nus  ; 
Fr.  Herodien,  Wio'dt'^s' ,]  a  historian  of  the  third 
century,  is  thought  to  have  lived  at  Rome,  and  to  have 
performed  a  respectable  part  in  political  affairs  ;  but  the 
time  and  place  of  his  birth  are  not  known.  He  wrote,  in 
Greek,  a  history  of  the  Roman  emperors  whose  reigns  he 
had  witnessed,  comprising  the  period  from  180  a.d.  to  238, 
in  which  no  less  than  seventeen  emperors  assumed  the 
purple.  His  work,  which  is  extant,  is  commended  for 
veracity,  moderation,  and  elegance  of  diction,  and  is  the 
more  prized  as  it  is  almost  the  only  contemporary  ac- 
count of  that  eventful  period. 

See  Vosstus,  "De  Historicis  Graecis :"  Woi.F,  "  Narratio  de 
Herodiano,"  prefixed  to  his  edition  of  Herodian's  "History,"  Halle, 
1792:  Leisner,  "  Prolusio  de  Herodiano  Historico,"  1761. 

Herodian,  (the  Grammarian.)    See  Herodianus 

yELIU.S. 

Herodianus.    See  Herodian. 

He-ro-di-a'nus  (or  Herodia'nos)  .^TI-us,  (ee'le- 
us,)  [Gr.  AlALoq'Ufju&Lavog;  Fr.  H^;rodien,  ^'ro'de'^N',]  a 
celebrated  grammarian  of  the  second  century  after 
Christ,  was  a  son  of  Apollonius  Dyscolus,  and  was  born 


at  Alexandria.  He  became  a  resident  of  Rome,  and 
enjoyed  the  favour  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  He  wrote  many 
works  on  grammar,  which  are  not  extant.  Fragments 
of  some  of  them  have  been  preserved.  His  work  on 
prosody  {M.eyulrj  Upooudia)  was  highly  prized. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grjeca;"  August  Wettin,  "Com- 
mentatio  de  Herodiano  Grammatico,"  1842;  Smith,  "Dictionary 
of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography." 

He-rod'i-cus,  ['Hpodt/cof,]  a  Greek  physician,  born 
at  Selymbria,  in  Thrace,  lived  in  the  fifth  century  B.C., 
and  was  one  of  the  masters  of  Hippocrates. 

Herodien.    See  Herodian. 

Herodot  or  Herodote.    See  Herodotus. 

He-rod'o-tus,  [Gr.  'UpoSoTog ;  Fr.  Herodote,  i^ro'- 
dot'' ;  Ger.  Herodot,  h^ro-dot ;  It.  Erodoto,  k-rod'- 
o-to,]  a  celebrated  Greek  historian,  born  at  Halicar- 
nassus,  a  Dorian  colony  in  Caria,  about  484  B.C.  He 
was  the  son  of  Lyxus  and  Dryo,  and  the  nephew  of  the 
poet  Panyasis.  He  is  the  earliest  of  the  Greek  histo- 
rians whose  works  have  been  preserved  entire,  and  is 
frequently  styled  "the  Father  of  History."  Cicero  men- 
tions him  as  "  the  first  who  adorned  this  species  of  com- 
position." Little  is  known  of  his  life,  except  what  may 
be  collected  from  his  writings.  Before  he  attained  the 
age  of  thirty  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  expulsion 
of  Lygdamus,  the  tyraht  of  Halicarnassus.  But,  having 
failed  to  gain  the  popular  favour,  he  soon  left  his  native 
country,  spent  a  few  years  in  Athens,  and  settled  in  the 
Athenian  colony  of  Thurium,  in  Italy,  in  443,  where  he 
is  said  to  have  died.  Before  he  wrote  his  great  national 
work  (one  of  the  most  precious  memorials  of  antiquity) 
he  prepared  himself  by  travelling  over  the  principal 
countries  of  the  civilized  world,  viz.,  Egypt,  Tyre,  Baby- 
lon, Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  Italy,  and  by  studying 
their  manners,  customs,  and  institutions.  Throughout 
his  narrative,  however,  he  maintains  a  modest  reserve 
respecting  the  extent  of  his  travels  ;  and  it  is  a  doubtful 
question  in  what  period  of  his  life  they  were  performed. 
The  principal  subject  of  his  history  is  the  war  between 
the  Greeks  and  Persians,  comprised  in  a  period  of  sixty- 
eight  years,  from  the  time  of  Cyrus  the  Great  to  the  tri- 
umph of  the  Greeks  in  478  B.C.  By  way  of  episode,  he 
inserts  sketches  of  the  different  nations  which  he  had 
visited  in  person.  His  account  of  Egypt  is  the  most 
abundant  and  reliable  source  from  which  we  derive  our 
knowledge  of  the  ancient  history  of  that  country.  He 
is  more  highly  appreciated  by  the  moderns  than  he  was 
by  his  contemporaries.  Some  of  his  marvellous  stories 
which  once  excited  ridicule  and  incredulity  have  been 
confirmed  by  modern  discoveries.  His  work  is  pervaded 
by  a  deep  religious  sentiment,  and  by  a  liberal  spirit 
towards  foreigners.  He  unites  in  a  high  degree  accu- 
racy of  observation,  rectitude  of  intention,  and  the  faculty 
of  graphic  description.  His  style  is  easy,  natural,  and 
sometimes  poetical.  Plutarch  and  Eusebius  state  that 
Herodotus  recited  his  history  at  a  public  festival  of  the 
Athenians,  who  rewarded  him  with  a  present  of  ten  talents. 
"  Of  the  romantic  historians,"  says  Macaulay,  "  He- 
rodotus is  the  earliest  and  the  best.  His  animation, 
his  simple-hearted  tenderness,  his  wonderful  talent  for 
description  and  dialogue,  and  the  pure,  sweet  flow  of 
his  language,  place  him  at  the  head  of  narrators.  He 
reminds  us  of  a  delightful  child.  .  .  .  But  he  has  not 
written  a  good  history.  .  .  .  The  faults  of  Herodotus 
are  the  faults  of  a  simple  and  imaginative  mind.  .  .  . 
He  wrote  as  it  was  natural  that  he  should  write.  He 
wrote  for  a  nation  susceptible,  curious,  lively,  insatiably 
desirous  of  novelty  and  excitement ;  for  a  nation  in 
which  the  fine  arts  had  attained  their  highest  excellence, 
but  in  which  philosophy  was  still  in  its  infancy."  (See 
"Essay  on  History,"  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  1828.) 

See  Creuzer,  "Herodot  und  Thucydides,"  1798;  Dahlmann, 
"  Herodot  aus  seinem  Buche  sein  Leben,"  1823  ;  Heysk,  "  De  Hero- 
doti  Vita  et  Itineribus,"  1826;  Blum,  "Herodot  und  Ktesias  d'e 
friihesten  Geschichtsforscher  des  Orients,"  1836;  Smith,  "Diction- 
ary of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography;"  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allge- 
meine  Encyklopaedie ;"  De  Qui'ncey,  "Historical  and  Critical 
Essays,"  vol.  i. 

Herodotus,  a  Greqk  physician,  who  practised  at  Rome 
probably  about  100  a.d.,  left  works  which  are  often  cited 
by  Galen. 

Heroet,  h\'xo'¥,  (Antoine,)  a  French  poet,  born  in 
Paris,  became  Bishop  of  Digne  in  1552.    Died  in  1568. 


€  a?,  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (2!^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HER  OLD 


1178 


HERRGOTT 


Herold,  ha'rolt,  (Johann  Basil,)  a  German  writer 
and  Protestant  minister,  born  at  Hochstadt,  on  the 
Danube,  in  151 1,  edited  a  good  edition  of  the  Latin 
works  of  Petrarch,  (1581,)  and  several  original  treatises. 
Died  about  1570. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Herold,  /i\'roW,  (Louis  Joseph  Ferdinand,)  an  emi- 
nent French  composer,  born  in  Paris  in  1791.  He  pro- 
duced, in  1826,  "  Marie,"  an  opera,  which  was  completely 
successful.  His  capital  works  are  "Zampa,"  (1831,)  and 
"Le  Pre  aux  Clercs,"  (1832.)  He  is  called  one  of  the 
first  among  modern  French  composers.    Died  in  1833. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

He'ron  or  He'ro,  [Gr.  "Hpwv,]  an  eminent  mathemati- 
cian and  writer,  lived  in  Alexandria  about  100  B.C.  He 
obtained  a  high  reputation  by  his  skill  in  geometry,  me- 
chanics, pneumatics,  etc.,  on  which  he  wrote  several 
treatises.  One  of  these  mentions  a  machine  of  whicli 
steam  is  the  motive  power.  His  name  is  rendered  fa- 
miliar by  connection  with  the  experiment  in  pneumatics 
called  "  Hero's  fountain."  Another  philosopher  of  this 
name,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, was  noted  as  a  writer  on  warlike  machines,  on 
geometry,  and  on  military  tactics. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grseca;"  R.  C.  Wagner,  "  Disser- 
tatio  de  Heronis  Alexandrini  Vita,  Scriptis  et  Inventis,"  1714;  MoN- 
TUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques." 

Hereon,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  at  New 
Galloway  in  1764,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Scotland,"  a 
"  Universal  Geography,"  etc.  He  also  translated  several 
works,  and  contributed  to  periodicals.    Died  in  1807. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Heron  de  Villefosse,  hiixbH'  deh  v^Kfoss',  (An- 
toine  Marie,)  a  French  engineer,  born  in  Paris  in  1774, 
became  inspector-general  of  mines  in  1807,  and  published 
a  useful  work,  entitled  "On  Mineral  Riches,"  ("De  la 
Richesse  minerale,"  3  vols.,  1810-19.)    Died  in  1852. 

Herophile.    See  Herophilus. 

He-roph-T-lus,  [Gr.  'Rp6(pikog :  Fr.  Herophile,  a'ro'- 
ihV,}  a  celebrated  physician  of  Chalcedon,  in  Bithynia, 
was  born  about  344  B.C.,  and  lived  in  Alexandria  in  the 
reign  of  Ptolemy  Lagus.  He  was  contemporary  with 
Erasistratus,  and  is  accounted  the  greatest  anatomist  of 
antiquity,  as  well  as  the  first  who  dissected  human  sub- 
jects. He  enriched  the  science  with  many  discoveries 
in  the  nervous  system,  the  arterial  pulsations,  the  lacteal 
vessels,  and  the  structure  of  the  eye.  The  term  retina 
originated  with  him.  His  writings  are  all  lost,  except 
extracts  made  from  them  by  Galen  and  Ccelius  Aurelia- 
nus. 

See  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca  Anatomica ;"  Sprengel,  "  Geschichte 
der  Medicin  ;"  Karl  F.  H.  Marx,  "  Commentatiode  Herophili  Vita, 
Scriptis,"  etc.,  1840. 

Herostrate.    See  Herostratus. 

He-ros'tra-tus  or  E-ros'tra-tus,  [Gr.  '^pbarparoq; 
Fr.  Herostrate,  k^ros'tRtt',]  an  incendiary,  who,  to 
immortalize  his  name,  set  fire  to  the  temple  of  Diana  at 
Ephesus,  in  356  B.C.  The  authorities  of  Ephesus  vainly 
attempted  to  frustrate  his  design  by  ordering  that  his 
name  should  never  be  mentioned. 

Herpin,  /^gR''piN'',  (Jean  Charles,)  a  French  writer 
on  rural  economy,  born  at  Metz  in  1798. 

Herregouts,  h^R'goo',  (Henri,)  a  Flemish  historical 
painter,  born  at  Malines  in  1666,  worked  mostly  at 
Antwerp.  Lacaze  praises  his  design,  colour,  and  the 
expression  of  his  figures.  Among  his  works  are  "  The 
Last  Judgment,"  and  a  penitent  Magdalene.  He  had  a 
son,  called  Herregouts  le  Jeune,  ("the  Younger,") 
who  was  a  skilful  painter. 

SeeDESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Herrenschwand,  hgr'ren-sh^^inf,  (Jean  Fr6d6- 
RIC,)  born  at  Morat,  in  Switzerland,  in  1 71 5,  became 
physician  to  Stanislas,  King  of  Poland.    Died  in  1796. 

Herrera,  gr-ra'ri,  (Alonzo,)  a  Spanish  painter  of  re- 
ligious subjects,  born  at  Segovia  in  1559. 

Herrera,  de,  di  gr-ra'rd,  (Fernando,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  poet,  surnamed  the  DiyiNE,  born  at  Seville 
about  1534.  Very  little  is  known  of  his  history.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  popular  lyric  poets  of  his  time, — 
which  is  accounted  the  golden  age  of  Spanish  poetry. 
He  made  bold  innovations  in  poetical  language.  "  Her- , 


rera  was  a  poet,"  says  Bouterwek,  "of  powerful  talent. 
But  amid  traits  of  real  beauty  his  poetry  everywhere 
presents  marks  of  affectation."  According  to  Hallam, 
"  his  odes  appear  to  possess  a  lyric  elevation  and  rich- 
ness of  phrase  derived  in  some  measure  from  the  study 
of  Pindar.  Those  on  the  battle  of  Lepanto  are  the  most 
celebrated  ;  they  pour  forth  a  torrent  of  resounding  song 
in  those  rich  tones  which  the  Castilian  language  so  abun- 
dantly supplies."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.")  His  poems  were  published  collectively  in 
1582.    He  died  about  1595,  or,  as  others  say,  in  1589. 

vSee  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Ticknor, 
"History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  N.  Antonio,  "Bibliotheca  His- 
pana  Nova." 

Herrera,  de,  (Francisco,)  surnamed  el  Viejo, 
("the  Elder,")  a  skilful  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Seville 
in  1576.  He  studied  under  Luis  Fernandez,  and  re- 
formed the  style  of  the  Seville  school.  He  excelled  in 
design,  colouring,  and  rapidity  of  execution.  He  founded 
a  new  school,  in  which  the  famous  Diego  Velasquez  was 
his  pupil.  Among  his  works  is  the  "  Last  Judgment,"  in 
the  church  of  San  Bernardo,  Seville.    Died  in  1656. 

See  Cean  Bermudez,  "Diccionario  historico;"  Quilliet,  "DIc- 
tionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Herrera,  de,  (  Francisco,  )  surnamed  el  Mozo, 
("the  Younger,")  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Seville 
in  1622,  was  a  painter  and  architect.  After  studying  at 
Rome,  he  worked  at  Seville,  where  he  painted  for  the 
churches.  Li  1660  he  was  chosen  vice-president  of  the 
Academy,  of  which  Murillo  was  president.  Impatient  of 
the  presence  of  a  superior,  he  removed  to  Madrid,  where 
he  gained  a  high  reputation  in  oil-painting  and  fresco. 
He  was  appointed  principal  painter  to  Philip  IV.  "The 
Ascension  of  the  Virgin,"  a  fresco  at  Madrid,  is  one  of 
his  most  admired  works.    Died  in  1685. 

See  Raphael  Mengs,  "Las  Obras ;"  Quilliet,  "  Dictionnaire 
des  Peintres  Espagnols,"  1826. 

Herrera,  de,  da  gr-ra'ri,  (Jos^:  Joaquin,)  a  Mexican, 
born  in  the  eighteenth  century,  became  President  of 
Mexico  about  the  end  of  1844,  was  deposed  in  December, 
1845,  and  re-elected  in  June,  1848.    Died  in  1851. 

Herrera,  de,  (Juan,)  an  eminent  Spanish  architect, 
who  was  employed  on  the  Escurial  after  1567.  He 
built  the  royal  pleasure-house  at  Aranjuez.  According 
to  Prescott,  he  was  the  pupil  of  Toledo,  and  completed 
the  Escurial,  begun  by  that  architect.    Died  in  1597. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  Philip  IL,"  vol.  iii. 

Herrera-Barnuevo,  Sr-ra'ra  baR-nwa'vo,  (Sebas- 
TIANO,)  a  Spanish  painter  and  sculptor,  born  at  Madrid 
in  1619,  worked  for  the  king  in  the  Escurial.  He  ex- 
celled in  design  and  colour.    Died  in  1671. 

Herrera  y  Tordesillas,  gr-ra'ri  e  toR-di-s^KySs, 
(Antonio,)  an  eminent  Spanish  historian,  born  at  Cuellar 
in  1549,  was  the  son  of  a  man  named  Tordesillas ;  Herrera 
was  the  name  of  his  mother.  Philip  II.  gave  him  the  title 
of  first  historiographer  of  the  Indies  and  of  Castile.  He 
published  in  1601  his  "General  History  of  the  Acts  of 
the  Castilians  on  the  Islands  and  Terra  Firma  of  the 
Ocean  from  1492  to  1554,"  (4  vols.)  His  work  is  praised 
by  Dr.  Robertson  for  its  accuracy  and  candour,  and  has 
served  as  the  guide  of  later  historians  who  have  treated 
of  that  period.  He  wrote  several  other  historical  works. 
Died  in  1625. 

See  Prescott,  "Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  ii.  book  iii.,  and 
"History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  ii.  part  ii. ;  Ticknor, 
"  History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  His- 
pana  Nova." 

Herreros,  gr-ra'r6s,  (Manuel  Breton  de  los — 

bRi-t6n'  di  16s,)  a  popular  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Quel, 
in  Logroiio,  about  1798.  He  produced  in  1824  a  suc- 
cessful comedy,  "A  la  Vejez  Viruelas,"  and  in  1834  was 
chosen  keeper  of  the  National  Library  in  Madrid.  He 
composed  and  translated  many  dramas,  remarkable  for 
grace  and  energy  of  diction,  for  comic  power,  and  for 
true  portraiture  of  character.  He  also  wrote  successful 
satires,  among  which  is  "The  Carnival,"  (1833.) 

See  James  Kennedy,  "Modern  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Spain," 
1852. 

Herrgott,  hgR'got,  (Marquard,)  a  monk  and  anti- 
quary, born  at  Friburg,  in  Brisgau,  in  1694.  He  ac 
quired  a  great  reputation  by  his  writings,  among  which 
ai'e  a  history  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg,  ("  Genealogia 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


HERRICH 


1179 


HERSCHEL 


diplomatica  Gentis  Habsburgicae,"  2  vols.,  1738,)  and 
"Monuments  of  the  Imperial  House  of  Austria,"  (3 
vols.,  1750-60,)  with  plates.    Died  in  1762. 

See  Ersch  und  Gkuber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Herrich  Schaffer  or  Schaeffer,  h^r'riK  sh^ffer, 
(Gottlieb  August,)  a  German  entomologist,  born  at 
Ratisbon  in  1799,  has  published,  among  other  works,  a 
continuation  of  Panzer's  "  Fauna  Insectorum  Germanise," 
and  "  Nomenclator  Entomologicus,"  (unfinished.)' 

HSr'rick,  (Robert,)  an  English  poet  and  clergyman, 
born  in  London  in  1591.  For  about  twenty  years  he  was 
vicar  of  Dean  Prior,  in  Devonshire,  from  which  he  was 
ejected  by  Cromwell.  In  1648  he  published  a  volume 
of  poems,  entitled  "  Hesperides  ;  or,  Poems  Human  and 
Divine."  Of  these,  the  "human"  excel  the  divine  in 
literary  merit.  The  tenor  of  them  is  amorous,  and  in 
some  parts  licentious.  "  Herrick  has,"  says  Hallam, 
*'  as  much  variety  as  the  poetry  of  kisses  can  well  have. 
He  has  much  of  the  lively  grace  that  distinguishes 
Anacreon  and  Catullus."  ("Introduction  to  the  Lite- 
rature of  Europe.")  He  was  restored  to  his  living  in 
1660.    Died  about  1674. 

See  Drake,  "  Literary  Hours,"  and  the  "  Retrospective  Review," 
vol.  v.,  1822;  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Herries,  hhx'xhz,  (John  Charles,)  a  British  financier, 
born  about  1780.  He  became  secretary  of  the  treasury 
in  1823,  and  in  1827  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  the 
ministry  of  Goderich,  which  was  dissolved  in  1828.  He 
was  secretary  of  war  in  a  Tory  cabinet  for  a  few  months 
in  1834  and  1835,  and  was  afterwards  a  prominent  mem- 
ber of  the  protectionist  party.  In  1852  he  was  appointed 
president  of  the  India  Board.    Died  in  1855. 

Her'ring,  (John  Frederick,)  an  English  painter  of 
animals,  was  born  in  Surrey  in  1795.  He  was  a  coach- 
driver  in  his  youth.  He  excelled  in  the  representation 
of  horses,  hounds,  and  other  animals.  For  many  years 
he  painted  the  winners  at  the  Doncaster  races.  Among 
his  works  are  "The  Country  Bait,"  "The  Roadside," 
"  The  Members  of  the  Temperance  Society,"  and  "  The 
Baron's  Charger."    Died  in  1865. 

Herring,  (Thomas,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  Nor- 
folk in  1691.  He  became  Bishop  of  Bangor  in  1737, 
Bishop  of  York  in  1743,  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
in  1747.  His  sermons  and  letters  were  published,  1763- 
77.    Died  in  1757. 

Herrliberger,  h^R'le-bgRG'er,  (David,)  an  able  Swiss 
engraver,  born  at  Zurich  in  1697.  He  published  a  "  New 
Topographical  Description  of  Switzerland,"  with  plates. 
Died  in  1777. 

Her'ron,  (Francis  J.,)  an  American  general.  He 
served  at  the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862,  and  was 
appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  the  same  year.  He 
commanded  at  the  battle  of  Prairie  Grove,  Arkansas,  in 
December,  1862. 

Hersan,  /^^r^sSn',  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French  pro- 
fessor and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Compiegne  in  1652.  His 
Latin  verses  were  published  under  the  title  of  "  Selecta 
Carmina."    Died  in  1724. 

Herschel,  her'shel,  (Caroline  Lucretia,)  born  in 
Hanover  in  1750,  was  sister  of  Sir  William  Herschel, 
whom  she  assisted  in  his  astronomical  observations  and 
computations.  She  lived  with  him  near  Windsor,  Eng- 
land, from  1772  until  his  death,  sharing  his  daily  labours 
and  nightly  vigils,  and  inscribed  her  name  with  indelible 
and  luminous  characters  in  the  records  of  astronomy. 
She  has  the  credit  of  discovering  five  new  comets  be- 
tween 1786  and  1797.  In  1798  she  published  a  valu- 
able "  Catalogue  of  Five  Hundred  and  Sixty-One  Stars 
observed  by  Flamsteed."  In  1828  the  Astronomical 
Society  awarded  her  a  gold  medal  for  her  Catalogue  of 
Nebulae  and  Clusters  of  Stars.    Died  in  1848. 

Herschel,  (Sir  John  Frederick  William,)  an  emi- 
nent astronomer  and  philosopher,  the  only  son  of  Sir 
William  Herschel,  was  born  at  Slough,  near  Windsor, 
in  1790.  He  was  ediicated  in  Saint  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  displayed  superior  talents  for 
mathematics.  Between  1825  and  1833  he  spent  eight 
years  in  reviewing  the  nebulae  discovered  by  his  father, 
of  which  he  published  a  "Catalogue  arranged  in  the 
Order  of  Right  Ascension,"  (1833.)  He  produced  in 
1830  an  excellent  "Preliminary  Discourse  on  the  Study 


of  Natural  Philosophy,"  which  acquired  a  great  popu- 
larity and  is  a  standard  work.  "This  discourse,"  says 
the  "London  Monthly  Review,"  "as  a  collection  of  im- 
portant facts  interesting  to  every  human  being,  is  without 
a  rival." 

In  1834  he  established,  at  his  own  expense,  an  obser- 
vatory at  Cape  Town,  Africa,  where  he  passed  four  years 
in  the  survey  of  the  heavens  with  a  reflecting  telescope 
of  twenty  feet  focus  and  eighteen  and  one-quarter  inches 
clear  aperture.  The  Royal  Society  awarded  him  a  gold 
medal  in  1836.  He  published  in  1847  "Results  of  As- 
tronomical Observations  made  during  1834-38  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  being  the  Completion  of  a  Tele- 
scopic Survey  of  the  Whole  Surface  of  the  Visible 
Heavens,"  one  of  the  most  important  astronomical 
works  of  the  nineteenth  century.  His  "Outlines  of 
Astronomy"  (1849)  was  received  with  favour,  and  has 
passed  through  five  or  more  editions.  He  edited  an 
important  collection  of  treatises,  entitled  "Manual  of 
Scientific  Inquiry,"  (1849,)  published  by  the  govern- 
ment. Sir  John  was  appointed  master  of  the  mint  in 
1850,  but  resigned  his  office  in  1855.  The  same  year 
he  was  chosen  a  foreign  associate  of  the  Institute  of 
France.  Among  his  recent  works  are  "Essays  from  the 
Edinburgh  and  Quarterly  Reviews,"  (1857,)  the  articles 
"Meteorology"  and  "Physical  Geography"  in  the  "En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica,"  (1857-59,)  and  "Familiar  Lec- 
tures on  Scientific  Subjects,"  (1866.)   Died  in  1871. 

"Sir  John  Herschel,"  says  the  "London  Journal  of 
Science"  for  April,  1868,  "combines  in  his  own  person 
the  assiduous  astronomical  observer,  the  acute  mathe- 
matician, the  deep-thinking  philosopher,  and  the  graceful 
poet.  It  is  not  to  many  men  that  intellectual  powers  of 
so  high  order  have  been  given  ;  it  is  not  in  many  men 
that  we  find  such  perfect  balancing  of  those  varied 
powers  ;  it  is  in  few  men  that  we  discover  such  profound 
humility  and  such  a  deep  sense  of  reverence  for  the 
Creator  of  those  works  the  study  of  which  has  been  a 
life-labour  of  love.  .  .  .  Sir  John  Herschel  has  ever 
maintained  the  serene  dignity  of  a  true  philosopher,  and 
his  utterances  of  truths  which  have  inspired  him  with 
their  divinity  have  ever  been  received  with  delight  by 
those  who  have  listened  to  his  subdued  but  impressive 
eloquence." 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1833;  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1849;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April, 
1831 ;  "North  British  Review"  for  February,  1848. 

Herschel,  (Sir  William,)  one  of  the  greatest  astrono- 
mers that  any  age  or  nation  has  produced,  was  born  at 
Hanover  on  the  15th  of  Noveinber,  1738.  His  father 
was  Jacob  Herschel,  a  skilful  musician,  who,  having 
six  sons,  was  not  able  to  give  them  a  very  complete 
education.  They  all,  however,  became  excellent  musical 
performers,  and  William  adopted  the  profession  of  mu- 
sician. Before  he  left  the  paternal  roof  he  took  lessons 
in  French  and  cultivated  a  taste  for  metaphysics.  In 
1759,  in  company  with  his  brother  Jacob,  he  went  to 
England  in  search  of  employment ;  but  for  two  or  three 
years  he  received  no  encouragement,  and  suffered  great 
privation.  About  1761  he  was  employed  to  instruct  a 
military  band  at  Durham,  or  in  that  vicinity,  and  in  1765 
obtained  the  situation  of  organist  at  Halifax.  Here,  by 
intense  study,  he  learned  Latin  and  Italian  and  acquired 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  mathematics.  The  last  science 
he  studied  as  preliminary  to  the  theory  of  music.  In 
1766  he  became  organist  of  the  Octagon  Chapel,  Bath, 
where  his  skill  was  in  great  request  at  oratorios,  public 
concerts,  and  reunions  of  fashion.  It  appears  that  he 
was  about  thirty  years  of  age  before  he  directed  his 
attention  to  astronomy  and  optics,  in  which  his  talents 
found  their  most  congenial  arena  and  the  basis  of  his 
permanent  renown.  A  casual  view  of  the  starry  heavens 
through  a  small  telescope  sufficed  to  rouse  his  enthu- 
smsm  and  to  kindle  the  latent  ardour  of  genius.  He 
must  be  an  astronomer  ;  he  must  have  a  telescope  of 
greater  power  ;  and,  as  the  price  demanded  by  opticians 
exceeded  his  resources,  he  resolved  to  construct  one  with 
his  own  hands.  After  a  multitude  of  trials  and  several 
years  of  persistent  application,  he  completed  in  1774  a  re- 
flecting telescope  of  five  feet  focal  length,  and,  stimulated 
by  this  success,  did  not  relax  his  efforts  until  he  obtained 


e  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  o,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


4 


HERSENT  1180  HERVEY 


one  of  dimensions  four  times  greater,  with  which  in  1779 
he  began  a  systematic  survey  of  the  sidereal  universe. 

His  arduous  vigils  and  well-directed  labours  were 
rewarded  in  March,  1781,  by  the  discovery  of  a  new  pri- 
mary planet,  which  was  named  by  him  Georgium  Sidus, 
in  honour  of  King  George,  and  is  since  called  Uranus. 
Besides  the  eclat  thrown  around  his  name  by  this  signal 
success,  he  received  from  George  III.  a  pension  of  ;i^400, 
with  the  title  of  private  astronomer  to  the  king.  He  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  who  awarded  to 
him  their  annual  gold  medal.  Herschel  now  fixed  his 
residence  at  a  village  near  Windsor,  named  Slough, — 
"  a  name,"  says  Arago,  "  which  the  sciences  will  trans- 
mit to  the  remotest  posterity;  for  there  exists  no  spot  on 
the  earth  which  has  been  rendered  memorable  by  more 
numerous  and  surprising  discoveries."  Continuing  his 
observations  with  unremitting  assiduity,  he  discovered 
two  new  satellites  of  Saturn  and  six  satellites  of  Uranus. 
He  measured  the  rotation  of  Saturn,  and  observed  the 
volcanic  structure  of  the  lunar  mountains  and  the  sur- 
prising phenomena  of  Saturn's  ring.  After  he  had  made 
several  telescopes  of  twenty  feet  focal  length,  he  com- 
pleted, in  1789,  with  pecuniary  aid  from  the  king,  his 
gigantic  instrument  of  forty  feet  in  length,  which  was 
far  superior  to  any  that  had  previously  been  made. 

He  was  now  enabled  to  penetrate  farther  into  space 
than  his  predecessors,  and  by  his  sublime  speculations 
on  the  constitution  of  the  nebulae  he  made  some  approach 
to  a  conception  of  the  illimitable  extent  and  variety  of 
the  celestial  phenomena.  In  1803  he  ascertained  the 
motion  of  the  double  stars  around  each  other, — the  grand- 
est fact  in  sidereal  astronomy, — attesting  the  universal 
influence  of  that  attractive  force  which  binds  the  mem- 
bers of  the  solar  system.  He  soon  after  announced  that 
the  whole  solar  system  is  progressing  in  the  direction  of 
the  constellation  Hercules.  Between  1780  and  1820  he 
contributed  seventy-one  memoirs  to  the  "  Philosophical 
Transactions."  His  discoveries  were  so  far  in  advance 
of  his  time,  they  had  so  little  relation  or  resemblance  to 
those  of  his  predecessors,  that  he  may  be  said  to  have 
initiated  a  new  era  in  astronomy,  and  almost  to  have 
founded  a  new  science,  by  revealing  the  immensity  of 
the  scale  on  which  the  universe  is  constructed.  He  was 
married  in  1788,  and  left  one  son.  Sir  John,  noticed 
above.    Died  in  August,  1822. 

See  Arago,  "  Memoir  of  Herschel,"  (translated  into  English,) 
Boston,  1859;  "Edinburgh  Review,"  vol.  i.  ;  "  Edinburgji  Philo- 
sophical Journal"  for  April,  1823;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine 
Encyklopaedie  ;"  Dr.  Hoefer,  Notice  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
3enerale  ;"  Zach,  "  Monatliche  Correspondenz,"  vol.  v. 

Hersent,  /^^r^sSn',  (Charles,)  a  French  priest  and 
pulpit  orator,  born  in  Paris  about  1595,  was  made  chan- 
cellor of  the  church  of  Metz  in  1625.  He  published  in 
1640,  as  a  warning  against  Cardinal  Richelieu's  alleged 
design  to  make  a  schism  in  the  church,  a  book  called 
**  Optatus  Gallus,"  which  was  burned  by  order  of  Par- 
liament. He  wrote  other  theological  treatises.  Died 
after  1660. 

Hersent,  (Lours,)  an  eminent  French  painter  of  his- 
tory, born  in  Paris  in  1777,  was  admitted  into  the  Insti- 
tute in  1822.  His  design  is  correct  and  elegant.  Among 
his  works  is  "Daphnis  and  Chloe." 

Her-sil'i-a,  a  Sabine  woman,  the  wife  of  Romulus, 
One  account  makes  her  the  wife  of  Hostus  and  mother 
of  Hostus  Hostilius. 

Hersleb,  h^Rs'l^b,  (Peter,)  a  Norwegian  divine  and 
writer,  born  at  Stod  in  1689,  became  Bishop  of  Copen- 
hagen in  1737.    Died  in  1757. 

Hert,  h^Rt,  or  Hertius,  h^Rt'se-iis,  (Johann  Niko- 
LAUS,)  a  German  jurist,  born  near  Giessen,  in  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  in  165 1,  became  professor  of  public  law  in 
Giessen  about  1690.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  several  valu- 
able works,  among  which  is  "  Elementa  Prudentize  civi- 
lis,"  (1689.)    Died  in  17 10. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Her'tha,  Her'thus,  or  Ner'thus,  [allied  etymologi- 
cally  to  the  English  Earth,  Anglo-Saxon  EorSe,  Ger- 
man Erde,  Scandinavian  Jord,  Alemannic  Ertha, 
Moeso-Gothic  Airtha.]  Hertha  was  the  goddess  Earth 
among  the  ancient  Germans,  regarded  by  some  as  the 
wife  of  Thor,  by  others  as  the  wife  of  Odin,  and  hence 


synonymous  with  Frigga.  She  may  be  considered  as 
the  personification  of  fertility.  Herthus,  or  Nerthus, 
was  a  male  deity,  with  the  same  or  similar  attributes. 

See  Grimm,  "Deutsche  Mythologie ;"  Rabus,  "Dissertatio  de 
Dea  Hertlia,"  Augsburg,  1842. 

Hertz.    See  Herz. 

Hertz,  h^Rts,  (Heiman  Adolph,)  a  Danish  poet,  son 
of  Johan  Michael,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1796.  He 
wrote%  historical  poem  called  "  Gustavus  Vasa,"  (1856.) 

Hertz,  (Hendrik,)  an  eminent  Danish  poet  and  dram- 
atist, born  at  Copenhagen  in  1798.  He  produced  many 
comedies,  among  which  are  "The  Moving- Day,"  ("  Flyt- 
tedagen,"  1828,)  "Cupid's  Master-Strokes,"  ("Amors 
Geniestreger,"  1830,)  and  "The  Plumage  of  the  Swan," 
("  Svanehammen,"  1841.)  A  lyrical  drama,  entitled 
"  King  Rene's  Daughter,"  (1845,)  is  considered  his  mas- 
ter-piece. He  traces  characters  with  much  ability.  He 
is  author  of  a  didactic  poem  "  On  Nature  and  Art," 
(1832,)  a  poem  called  "Tyrfing,"  (1840,)  and  a  fiction 
of  great  merit,  entitled  "  Svend  Dyring's  House,"  (1837.) 

See  P.  L.  MoLLER,  "  Notice  of  Hertz"  in  the  "  Dansk  Pantheon," 
1844;  Erslew,  "Ahnindeligt  Forfatter- Lexicon ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Hertz,  (Johan  Michael,)  a  Danish  poet,  and  Bishop 
of  Ribe,  born  near  Vordingborg  in  1766.  His  principal 
work  is  "The  Deliverance  of  Israel,"  ("Det  befriede 
Israel,"  1804,)  a  poem.    Died  in  1825. 

Hertzberg.    See  Herzijerg. 

Hertzen  or  Herzen,  h^Rt'sen,  (Alexander,)  a  Rus- 
sian socialist,  and  an  able  republican  writer,  born  in 
Moscow  in  1812.  He  published  "Dilettantism  in  Sci- 
ence," (1842,)  "Letters  on  the  Study  of  Nature,"  (1845,) 
and  a  romance  called  "  Whose  Fault  is  it  ?"  ("  Kto  Vino- 
vat,"  1847.)  I"  1847  quitted  Russia,  to  the  govern- 
ment of  which  he  vowed  implacable  hostility.  He  after- 
wards resided  in  England,  where  he  founded  a  "Russian 
Free  Press"  and  issued  several  works  in  Russian. 
Among  his  publications  are  "  Letters  from  France  and 
Italy,"  (1850,)  and  memoirs  of  his  life,  entitled  "My 
Exile,"  (2  vols.,  1855.)  Died  in  Paiis  in  1870. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G(fn^rale." 

Hervas,  Sr'vSs,  (Jos6  Martinez,)  Marquis  of  Alma- 
nara,  a  Spanish  diplomatist,  born  at  Uxyar  in  1760.  In 
1806  he  was  sent  as  minister  to  Constantinople.  Return- 
ing to  Spain  in  1809,  he  became  minister  of  the  interior 
under  Joseph  Bonaparte.    Died  in  1830. 

Hervas  y  Paiiduro,  ^r'vIsc  pin-doo'ro,  (Lorenzo,) 
a  Spanish  Jesuit  and  philologist,  born  at  Horcajo  in  1735. 
He  made  extensive  researches  into  the  origin  and  affinity 
of  languages,  and  published  a  "  Catalogue  of  the  Known 
Languages,  with  Remarks  on  their  Affinity  and  Diver- 
sity," (1784,)  "Polyglot  Vocabulary  of  more  than  One 
Hundred  and  Fifty  Tongues,  with  Introductory  Observa- 
tions," and  a  "Collection  of  the  Versions  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer  in  more  than  Three  Hundred  Tongues,"  (1787.) 
Dieci  in  1809. 

See  Adelung,  "  Mithridates  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Herve,  §R'vi',  born  in  Champagne,  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Rheims  in  900  A.D.,  and  grand  chancellor  of 
France  in  911.    Died  in  922. 

Herve-Fierabras,  l.^'\bS  fe'eh-rfbR^',  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Rouen,  lived  about  1550.  He  pub- 
lished an  able  treatise  on  Surgery,  (1550.) 

Hervet,  //§R'va',  (Gentian,)  a  learned  French  theo- 
logian, born  near  Orleans  in  1499,  distinguished  himself 
at  the  Council  of  Trent,  (1545,)  and  wrote  against  Cal- 
vinism. He  translated  some  works  of  the  Greek  Fathers 
into  Latin.    Died  in  1584. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  DeThou,  "  filoges,"  with  addition* 
of  Teissier. 

Her'vey,  (Augustus  John,)  third  Earl  of  Bristol, 
son  of  Lord  John,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1724.  He 
became  a  post-captain  in  1747,  and  displayed  courage  in 
several  battles  in  the  Mediterranean  and  in  the  West 
Indies.  In  1771  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  lords  of 
the  admiralty,  and  in  1775,  by  the  death  of  an  elder 
brother,  became  Earl  of  Bristol,  Soon  after  this  he  was 
created  an  admiral.  He  died  in  1779,  and  his  title  was 
inherited  by  his  brother  Frederick,  Bishop  of  Derry. 

Hervey,  (Eleonora  Louisa,)  an  authoress,  whose 
maiden  name  was  Montague,  born  at  Liverpool  in  181 1. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  j,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  felt;  mlX\  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HERVET 


1181 


HESIOD 


She  began  to  write  graceful  verses  for  the  periodicals  at 
an  early  age,  and  published  in  1839  "The  Landgrave," 
a  dramatic  poem.  In  1843  she  was  married  to  Thomas 
K.  Hervey,  noticed  below.  Among  her  works  are  tales 
in  prose,  entitled  "Margaret  Russell,"  (1849,)  and  "The 
Pathway  of  the  Fawn,"  (1851.) 

Hervey,  (Frederick,)  fourth  Earl  of  Bristol,  born  in 
1730,  was  a  brother  of  Augustus  John,  noticed  above. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Derry  in  1768,  and  succeeded  to 
the  earldom  on  the  death  of  his  brother,  in  1779.  He 
was  eccentric  in  habits,  and  was  a  liberal  patron  of  the 
fine  arts.    Died  at  Albano,  Italy,  in  1803. 

Hervey,  (James,)  an  English  divine  and  author,  born 
at  Hardingstone,  near  Northampton,  in  1 714,  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford  University,  and  was  a  good  classical 
scholar.  Having  taken  orders,  he  became  curate  of 
Dummer  in  1736,  and  of  Bideford  in  1738.  From  1743 
until  1750  he  was  curate  of  Weston  Favell,  of  which  his 
father  was  rector,  and  at  the  death  of  the  latter,  in  1752, 
the  son  obtained  that  living.  He  was  noted  for  piety  and 
benevolence.  His  "Meditations  and  Contemplations," 
published  in  1746,  were  extensively  popular,  notwith- 
standing his  faulty  style,  which  is  too  flowery  and  subli- 
mated to  please  the  most  correct  taste.  These  very 
faults  probably  rendered  him  a  greater  favourite  with 
the  common  people,  as  Southey  represents  the  book  as 
equally  "  laudable  in  purport  and  vicious  in  style,  and 
therefore  one  of  the  most  popular  that  ever  was  written." 
It  is  or  was  generally  found  on  the  shelves  of  English 
cottages  by  the  side  of  the  Bible  and  "  Pilgrim's  Pro- 
gress." Hervey  also  wrote  "Theron  and  Aspasia,  a 
Series  of  Dialogues  and  Letters,"  and  a  few  minor  works. 
Died  in  1758. 

See  Cole,  "  Herveiana ;  or,  Graphic  and  Literary  Sketches  of 
James  Hervey,"  1822-26;  John  Brown,  "Life  and  Character  of 
J.  Hervey,"  1822. 

Hervey,  (Lord  John,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
1696,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  first  Earl  of  Bristol.  He 
obtained  a  seat  in  Parliament  soon  after  the  accession 
of  George  I.,  and  in  1730  became  a  privy  councillor.  In 
1733  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Hervey  of 
Ickworth,  and  in  1740  was  appointed  lord  privy  seal  in 
the  cabinet  of  Walpole.  He  wrote  able  political  pam- 
phlets, verses,  and  an  "Epistle  from  a  Nobleman  to  a 
Doctor  of  Divinity,"  the  last  of  which  was  an  answer  to 
Pope,  who  satirized  him,  in  the  character  of  Sporus,  as 
"the  mere  white  curd  of  asses'  milk."  He  also  wrote 
interesting  "  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  George  II."  Died 
in  1743. 

See  Horace  Walpole,  "Royal  and  Noble  Authors;"  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  October,  1848. 

Hervey,  (Thomas  Kibble,)  an  English  poet  and 
editor,  born  in  Manchester  in  1804.  He  studiecl  at  Cam- 
bridge and  Oxford.  In  1824  he  published  "Australia, 
and  other  Poems,"  which  was  received  with  favour.  His 
"  Poetical  Sketch-Book"  appeared  in  1829.  He  after- 
wards produced  "Illustrations  of  Modern  Sculpture," 
(1832,)  a  work  of  merit,  and  "The  Book  of  Christmas," 
(1836.)  From  1846  to  1854  he  was  chief  editor  of  the 
"Athenaeum."    Died  in  February,  1859. 

Herwarth  von  Bittenfeld,  h^R^^^aRt  fon  bit'ten- 
felt',  a  Prussian  general,  commanded  a  corps  of  the  army 
which  entered  Bohemia  under  the  crown-prince  and 
contributed  to  the  victory  of  Sadowa,  July  3,  1866. 

Herwart  von  Hohenburg,  hgR^vaRt  fon  ho'en- 
booRG^  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at 
Augsburg  in  1554 ;  died  in  1622. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Herwegh,hgR'wgG,  (Georg,)  a  popular  German  lyric 
poet,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  181 7.  He  published  at  Zurich, 
in  1841,  a  volume  of  republican  or  liberal  poems,  enti- 
tled "  Gedichte  eines  Lebendigen,"  ("Poems  of  a  Living 
Man,")  which  had  great  success.  He  became  a  citizen 
of  Bale,  and  about  1845  joined  the  radicals  of  Paris.  In 
the  spring  of  1848  he  raised  a  legion  and  invaded  Baden 
with  a  design  to  revolutionize  it ;  but  he  failed,  and  took 
refuge  in  Switzerland. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Po.ets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  F.  Lipp,  "G. 
Herwegh's  viertagige  Irr-  und  Wanderfahrt  mit  der  Pariser  Deutsch- 
demokratischen  Legion,"  etc.,  1850;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review" 
for  April,  1843. 


Hery,  de,  deh  hWr^',  (Thierry,)  a  skilful  French 
surgeon,  born  in  Paris  about  1505.  Having  piactised 
with  success  in  Paris,  he  was  employed  by  Francis  I.  in 
the  army  of  Italy,  and  acquired  a  great  reputation  by 
the  cure  of  syphilis,  on  which  he  wrote  an  original  and 
able  treatise, — the  first  ever  written  in  French  on  that 
subject.    Died  in  1599. 

See  £loi,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  M^decine." 

Herz,  h^Rts,  (Heinrich,)  a  celebrated  pianist  and 
composer,  born  at  Vienna  in  1806.  He  met  with  bril- 
liant success  in  London,  Edinburgh,  and  Paris,  and 
afterwards  resided  several  years  in  America.  As  a 
performer  he  is  scarcely  surpassed,  and  his  pieces  for 
the  piano  are  general  favourites. 

Herz,  (Henrietta,)  a  German  lady,  distinguished 
for  her  wit  and  beauty,  born  in  Berlin  in  1764.  She 
married  M.  Herz  about  1780.  Her  house  in  Berlin  was 
frequented  by  many  eminent  men.    Died  in  1847. 

Herz,  (Marcus,)  a  German  physician,  born  at  Berlin 
in  1747 ;  died  in  1803. 

Herzberg  or  Hertzberg,  von,  fon  h^Rts'b^RG, 
(EWALD  Friedrich,)  a  celebrated  Prussian  statesman, 
iDorn  near  Neustettin  in  1725.  He  filled  several  impor- 
tant posts  under  Frederick  the  Great,  and,  after  nego- 
tiating a  treaty  of  peace  with  Russia  and  Sweden  in  1762, 
was  appointed  second  minister  of  state.  He  was  made 
a  count  by  Frederick's  successor,  and  also  curator  of  the 
Academy  at  Berlin.  Died  in  1795.  He  was  a  zealous 
patron  of  learning,  particularly  of  German  literature. 

See  PossELT,  "  Ewald  Friedrich  Graf  von  Hertzberg,"  1798 ; 
Weddigen,  "  Fragmente  aus  dam  Leben  des  Grafen  von  Hertzberg," 
1796;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Heselrige.    See  Hazlerig. 

Hesham,  (Hescham,)  h^sh-Sm',  or  Hisham,  hish- 
Sm',  (or,  more  fully,  Hesham-Ibn-Abd-el-Malek, 

hesh-lm'  ib'n  ibd-el  mtKek,  i.e.  "  Hesham  the  son  of 
Abd-el-Malek,")  the  tenth  caliph  of  the  house  of  Omey- 
yah,  succeeded  his  cousin,  Oinar  II.,  in  724  A.D.  During 
the  reign  of  Hesham,  Abd-er-Rahman,  one  of  his  gen- 
erals, invaded  France,  where  he  was  defeated  and  slain 
by  Charles  Martel,  October  25,  732.  Hesham  died  in 
743,  leaving  the  reputation  of  an  eminently  just  and 
virtuous  sovereign. 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xiv. 

Hesham  (or  Hisham)  I.,  (or,  more  fully,  Hesham- 
Abool  (-Aboul  or  -Abul)  -Waleed,  (-Walid,) 
a'bool  wa-leed',)  second  Emir  or  King  of  Cordova  of  the 
Omeyyah  dynasty,  succeeded  his  father,  Abd-er-Rahman, 
in  788  A.D.  He  waged  a  successful  war  against  the 
Christians  of  Galicia,  Astorga,  etc.,  founded  schools, 
and  promoted  the  arts.    Died  in  796. 

Hesham  (or  Hisham)  II.,  (El-  (or  A1-,  ai)  Muyyed- 
Billah,  el  moo'e-yed  biKlah,)  sometimes  corrupted  into 
Issam  or  Issem  by  the  Spanish  historians,  was  born  in 
965,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Hakem  II.,  on  the  throne 
of  Cordova,  in  976  A.D.  In  his  minority  the  kingdom 
enjoyed  prosperity  under  the  ministry  of  the  famous  Al- 
Mansoor,  who  gained  victories  over  the  Kings  of  Leon 
and  Navarre.  After  the  death  of  Al-Mansoor  the  reign 
was  disturbed  by  rebellions  and  anarchy,  and  the  feeble 
king  became  a  prisoner  of  Soleiman,  and  died,  or  was 
killed,  about  1012. 

See  Al-Makkari,  "  History  of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  in 
Spain." 

Hesham  (or  Hisham)  III.,  (El-Mo'tad-BiPlah, 
or  Al-Mutadd-  (SI  moo'tSd)  Billah,)  became  King 
of  Cordova  in  1026,  and  was  the  last  of  the  Omeyyah 
dynasty.  Several  nobles  having  refused  allegiance  to 
him,  he  attempted,  without  success,  to  subdue  them  by 
arms.  In  1031  a  sedition  in  the  capital  forced  him  to 
abdicate.    Died  in  1036, 

Heshusius,  hgs-hoo'ze-us,  (Tillemannus,)  a  Ger- 
man Lutheran  divine,  born  at  Wesel  in  1526,  was  an 
opponent  of  Calvinism.    Died  in  1588. 

Hesiod,  hee'she-od,  [Gr.  'Ha<o(5of;  Lat.  He'siodus  ; 
Fr.  HtsioDE,  a'ze'od';  Ger.  Hesiod,  ha'ze-ot ;  It.  Esi- 
ODO,  ^-see'o-do,]  an  eminent  Greek  poet,  born  at  Ascra, 
in  Boeotia,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Helicon,  lived  probably 
about  800  B.C.  According  to  most  modern  critics,  his 
period  was  posterior  to  that  of  Homer,  with  whom  some 
writers  have  conjectured  that  he  was  contemporary. 


€  as   •  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^^:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HESIONE 


1182 


HESSELINK 


From  his  own  writings  the  fact  is  derived  that  he  was  a 
competitor  in  a  poetical  contest  at  Chalcis  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  funeral  of  Amphidamas,  and  that  he  gained 
the  prize.  It  appears  that  he  was  employed  in  pastoral 
and  rural  pursuits,  his  knowledge  of  which  is  evinced 
by  his  most  famous  poem,  entitled  'Epya  Kai  'H/xepat, 
("  Works  and  Days.")  This  work  contains  reflections 
and  precepts  on  farming  and  rural  economy,  interspersed 
with  maxims  of  morality  and  mythical  fables.  Aristotle, 
Plato,  and  Cicero  eulogize  this  poem,  and  Virgil  derived 
from  it  the  idea  of  his  '*  Georgics,"  in  which  he  has 
surpassed  his  model.  According  to  Pausanias,  the  Boeo- 
tians regarded  this  as  the  only  genuine  work  of  Hesiod. 
The  other  poems  commonly  ascribed  to  the  Ascrasan 
bard  are  entitled  "Theogony"  and  "The  Shield  of 
Hercules."  The  former  purports  to  be  an  account  of 
the  origin  of  the  world  and  the  birth  of  the  gods,  and  is 
the  most  ancient  composition  we  have  on  the  subject  of 
Greek  mythology.  It  is  characterized  by  a  rude  sim- 
plicity which  sometimes  rises  into  sublimity,  and  by  that 
speculative  tendency  which  was  afterwards  so  largely 
developed  in  the  Hellenic  philosophy.  "  The  Shield 
of  Hercules"  is  a  fragment  or  collection  of  fragments, 
supposed  to  be  written  by  different  authors.  Quintilian 
says,  apparently  in  reference  to  the  "  Works  and  Days," 
*'  He  is  distinguished  by  useful  sentences  of  morality  and 
a  sweetness  of  expression,  and  he  deserves  the  palm  in 
the  middle  style  of  writing."  According  to  Plutarch, 
Hesiod  was  murdered  at  Locris,  in  revenge  for  a  crime 
of  which  he  was  erroneously  suspected. 

See  Pausanias,  ix.  and  x.  ;  Lucian,  "Dialogue  on  Hesiod;" 
Creuzer  und  Hermann,  "  Briefe  iiber  Homer  und  Hesiod,"  1817; 
Heyne,  "De  Theogonia  ab  Hesiodo  Condita,"  1779;  Hermann, 
.  "De  Hesiodi  Theogoiiis  Forma  antiquissima,"  1844;  Ersch  und 
'  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Giovanni  Lami,  "  Saggio 
delle  delizie  dei  dotti  e  degli  eruditi,  risguardante  le  Vite  e  gli  Scritti 
dei  due  primi  grandi  Uomini  dell'  Antichita,  Esiodo  ed  "Omero," 
1775  ;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1832. 

He-si' o-ne,  [Gr.  'Uotovr],]  a  daughter  of  Laomedon, 
King  of  Troy.  The  poets  feigned  that  Hercules  deliv- 
ered her  from  a  sea-monster  after  her  father  had  promised 
to  give  him  the  horses  he  had  received  from  Jupiter ; 
but  Laomedon  failed  to  keep  his  word.  She  became 
the  wife  of  Telamon  and  mother  of  Teucer. 

Hesnault  or  H^nault,  /ik'nd\  (Jean,)  a  French  poet, 
born  in  Paris,  was  educated  by  Gassendi.  He  appears 
to  have  been  an  Epicurean  or  materialist.  In  1670  he 
published  a  volume  of  sonnets,  letters,  etc.  He  trans- 
lated a  large  part  of  Lucretius.    Died  in  1682. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Hesperiden.    See  Hesperides. 

Hes-per'i-des,  [Gr.  'Eonepuhg;  Fr.  Hesperides,  gs'- 
pkfvhd^;  Ger.  Hesperiden,  h§s-pa-ree'den,]  the  "chil- 
dren of  Hesperus,"  (or  "of  the  evening,")  the  name  of 
three  or  four  celebrated  nymphs  of  classic  mythology, 
who  guarded  the  golden  apples  growing  in  an  enchanted 
garden  in  the  western  part  of  the  world.  According  to 
some  authors,  they  were  the  daughters  of  Atlas,  and 
hence  were  called  Atlan'tides.  A  large  dragon  as- 
sisted them  to  guard  the  golden  apples  which  were  the 
subject  of  one  of  the  twelve  labours  of  Hercules. 

Hes-pe'ri-us,  a  Roman  civil  officer,  was  a  son  of  the 
poet  Ausonius.  He  was  proconsul  of  Africa  about  376 
A.D.,  and  afterwards  praetorian  prefect  of  Rome. 

Hes'pe-rus,  [Gr.  'Eanepo^ :  Fr.  Hesper,  Is'paiR',  or 
Hesp^:ros,  §s''pa'ros',]  a  personage  of  classic  mythology, 
said  to  be  a  son  or  brother  of  Atlas.  According  to  one 
tradition,  he  ascended  Mount  Atlas  to  observe  the  stars, 
and  disappeared.  He  received  divine  honours,  and  was 
identifiedwith  the  evening  star.  One  account  says  he  came 
to  Italy,  which  received  from  him  the  name  of  Hesperia. 

Hess,  (Johann  Jakob,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  of 
the  Swiss  Protestant  theologians,  was  born  in  Zurich  in 
1741.  He  wrote,  in  German,  "The  Three  Last  Years  of 
the  Life  of  Jesus,"  (6  vols.,  1768-73  ;  8th  edition,  1828,) 
"On  the  Kingdom  of  God,"  (1774,)  a  "History  of  the 
Israelites  before  Jesus,"  (12  vols.,  1776-88,)  and  other 
works.  He  became  first  minister  of  Zurich  in  1795. 
Died  in  1828. 

See  Georg  Gessner,  "  J.  J.  Hess,  voorgesteld  in  eenege  Om- 
trekken  van  zijn  Leven  en  Werkzamheid,"  1830;  Ersch  and  Grubek, 
"AUgenieine  Encyklopaedie;"  H.  Escher,  "J.  J.  Hess,  Skizze 
seines  Lebens,"  etc.,  1837. 


Hess,  (Karl  Adolf  Heinrich,)  a  German  artist, 
born  at  Dresden  in  1769,  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  a  painter  of  horses.  Among  his  master-pieces  we 
may  cite  "  The  March  of  the  Cossacks  through  Bohemia 
in  1799."    Died  in  1849. 

Hess,  (Karl  Ernst  Christoph,)  a  German  en- 
graver, born  at  Darmstadt  in  1755.  He  was  appointed 
in  1782  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Dusseldorf, 
where  he  was  afterwards  employed  to  engrave  the  pic- 
tures of  the  gallery.  Among  his  best  works  are  "  The 
Ascension  of  Mary,"  after  Guido,  and  a  "  Holy  Family," 
after  Raphael.  About  1806  he  settled  at  Munich,  where 
he  died  in  1828. 

See  FuEssLi.  "Schweizer  Kiinstler." 

Hess,  (LuDWiG,)  an  excellent  Swiss  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1760.  He  painted  many  pictures  of 
Alpine  scenery.  "  His  works,"  says  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle,"  "surpass  all  that  we  know  in  their  kind 
for  correctness  of  design,  for  the  taste  displayed  in  the 
composition,  for  truth  of  colouring,  and  for  the  trans- 
parency of  the  water."  He  engraved  some  of  his  own 
designs.    Died  in  1800. 

Hess,  (Peter,)  a  brother  of  the  painter  Heinrich  von 
Hess,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1792. 
In  1839  he  was  invited  to  Russia,  where  he  painted  eight 
large  pictures  representing  the  battles  of  1812.  He  is 
regarded  as  one  of  the  first  battle-painters  of  recent 
times. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Hess,  von,  fon  hess,  (Heinrich,)  Baron,  an  Austrian 
general,  born  in  Vienna  in  1788.  He  fought  at  Wagram, 
(1809,)  and  became  colonel  in  1829.  In  1842  he  was 
made  a  lieutenant  field-marshal.  As  quartermaster- 
general,  he  rendered  important  services  in  Italy  in  1848. 
The  chief  merit  of  this  campaign  is  ascribed  to  him.  He 
was  appointed  chief  of  the  staff  of  the  Austrian  army, 
( Chef  des  Getteralstabs,)  and  master  of  the  ordsianc'e, 
( Feldzeugmeister,)  in  1849.  He  succeeded  Gyulai  soon 
after  the  battle  of  Magenta,  formed  the  plan  of  the  battle 
of  Solferino,  July,  1859,  and,  after  the  emperor  left  the 
army,  was  the  commander-in-chief. 

Hess,  von,  (Heinrich,)  a  distinguished  historical  " 
painter,  a  son  of  the  engraver  Karl  Ernst  Hess,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1798.  He  became  pro- 
fessor in  the  Academy  of  Munich  in  1826.  The  frescos 
in  the  Basilica  of  Saint  Boniface  and  in  the  church  of 
All  Saints  in  Munich  are  among  his  master-pieces. 

Hesse,  /;^ss,  (Jean  Bapitste  Alexandre,)  a  French 
painter,  a  nephew  of  the  following,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1806.  Among  his  best  works  is  "  The  Funeral  Honours 
rendered  to  Titian,"  (1833.) 

Hesse,  (Nicolas  Auguste,)  a  French  painter  of  his- 
tory, born  in  Paris  in  1795,  won  a  medal  of  the  first 
class  in  1838. 

Hesse,  hSs'seh,  (Philipp,)  Landgrave  of,  surnamed 
the  Magnanimous,  was  born  in  1504.  He  avowed 
himself  a  convert  to  the  Reformed  religion  in  1526, 
signed  the  creed  called  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  in 
1530,  and  entered  into  a  league  with  the  Protestant 
princes  by  the  treaty  of  Schmalkalden  in  1531.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  war  which  the  German  Prot- 
estants waged  against  Charles  V.  in  1546,  but  was  taken 
captive  and  imprisoned  four  years.    He  died  in  1567. 

SeeHARTMANN,  "  Historia  Hessiaca,"  1741 ;  Turkheim,  "His- 
toire  de  la  Maison  souveraine  de  Hesse,"  2  vols.,  1819-20. 

Hesse,  (Wilhelm  IV.,)  Landgrave  of,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  surnamed  the  Wise,  was  born  at  Cassel 
about  1545.  He  reigned  in  peace,  and  was  distinguished 
as  a  patron  of  sciences,  especially  astronomy,  which  he 
cultivated  himself  with  diligence.  He  founded  an  obser- 
vatory at  Cassel  in  1561,  and  made  observations  for  many 
years.  The  results  of  these  labours  were  published  by 
W.  Snellius,  (1628.)    Died  in  1597. 

Hesse-Philippsthal,  von,  fon  hSs'seh  fee'lips-tSK, 
(LuDWiG,)  a  German  general,  born  in  1766,  was  a  son 
of  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse.    Died  in  1816. 

Hesselbach,  hgs'sel-bdK'',  (Franz  Kaspar,)  a  Ger- 
man anatomist,  born  near  Fulda  in  1759  ;  died  in  1816. 

Hesselink,  h§s'seh-link,  sometimes  written  Hesse- 
ling,  (Gerard,)  a  Dutch  writer  and  Anabaptist  preacher, 
born  at  Groningen  in  1755.    He  published  a  "  Herme- 


a.  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  sAor/:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  tit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HESSELIUS 


HEVELWS 


ncutical  Dictionary  of  the  New  Testament,"  and  several 
other  works.    Died  in  i8ii. 

See  KooPMANS,  "  Hulde  aan  G.  Hesselink,"  1812. 

Hes-se'li-us,  [Sw.  pron.  h^s-sll'le-us,]  (Anders,)  a 
poet  of  Swedish  extraction,  born  in  North  An:ierica, 
became  a  teacher  of  English  at  Upsal.  He  wrote 
"Eric  IX.,"  (1739,)  "The  Twelve  Charleses,"  (of  Swe- 
den,) ("De  Tolf  Caroler,"  1748,)  and  other  works.  He 
was  living  in  1755. 

Hesselius,  hls-sa'Ie-us,  (Frans,)  a  Dutch  philologist, 
born  at  Rotterdam  in  1680  ;  died  in  1746. 

Hesselius,  (Johan,)  a  Swedish  savant,  born  at  Fah- 
lun  in  1687 ;  died  in  1752. 

Hessels,  h^s'sels,  or  Hesselius,  (Jean,)  born  at 
Louvain  in  1522,  was  noted  as  a  theologian.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  author  of  many 
theological  works,  among  which  are  a  "Catechism,"  and 
"Commentaries  on  Scripture."    Died  in  1566. 

Hessus.    See  Eoban. 

He'sus,  a  deity  of  the  ancient  Gauls,  corresponding 
to  the  Mars  of  the  Romans.    See  Mars. 

He-sy-eh^'i-us,  [Gr.  ''Ravxioq,\  the  author  of  a  valuable 
Greek  Lexicon,  (first  printed  by  Aldus  in  15 14,)  which 
explains  technical  terms,  unusual  words  found  in  the 
works  of  poets,  orators,  and  physicians,  terms  used  in 
sacrifices,  divinations,  and  such  as  depart  from  ordinary 
usage.  It  is  supposed  that  the  existing  text  is  an  abridg- 
ment or  imperfect  copy  of  the  original.  The  time  in 
which  Hesychius  lived  is  not  known  ;  but  it  was  proba- 
bly since  the  Christian  era,  as  numerous  scriptural 
glosses  or  phrases  are  found  in  his  work. 

See  Pearson,  "Adversaria  Hesychiana,"  2  vols.,  1844;  Ersch 
und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hesychius  of  Miletus,  [Lat.  Hesych'ius  Mile'- 
sius,]  surnamed  the  Illustrious,  lived  in  the  sixth 
century.  He  wrote  (in  Greek)  a  universal  history  from 
Belus  to  his  own  times,  (about  520  a.d.,)  of  which  some 
fragments  only  are  now  extant.  He  left  also  an  abridg- 
ment of  the  "Lives  of  the  Philosophers,"  derived  chiefly 
from  Diogenes  Laertius.  This  was  published  by  J.  C. 
Orelli,  Leipsic,  1820. 

See  Thorschmid,  "De  Hesychio  Milesio  illustri  Christiano 
Commentatio,"  in  Orelli's  edition  just  mentioned. 

Heth,  (Henry,)  born  in  Virginia,  became  a  brigadier- 
general  in  the  Confederate  service  in  1862. 

Hetherington,  heth'e-r!ng-ton,  (William  M.,)  a 
Scottish  theologian  and  historian  of  the  present  century, 
wrote  a  "History  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,"  (1841,) 
and  other  works. 

Hetsch,  h^tsh,  (Gustav  Friedrich,  )  a  German 
architect,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1788,  lived  in  Copenhagen. 

Hetsch,  von,  fon  h^tsh,  (Philipp  Friedrich,)  a 
painter,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Stuttgart 
in  1758.  Among  his  works  are  "Paris  and  Helen,"  and 
"Marius  among  the  Ruins  of  Carthage."   Died  in  1838, 

Hettner,  h^t'ner,  (Hermann  Julius  Theodor,)  a 
German  archaeologist,  born  in  Silesia  in  1821,  wrote 
"The  Plastic  Arts  among  the  Ancients,"  (1848.) 

Hetzel  or  Hezel,  h(!t'sel,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a 
German  Orientalist,  born  at  Konigsberg,  in  Franconia, 
in  1754,  published  grammars  of  the  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and 
Syriac  languages,  and  "  The  Old  and  New  Testament, 
with  Notes,"  (10  vols.,  1780-91.)    Died  in  1829. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hetzel, /z^t's^K,  (Pierre  Jules,)  a  French  litta-ateur, 
whose  pseudonym  is  P.  J.  Stahl,  born  at  Chartres  in 
1814.  He  has  published  "  Scenes  from  Animal  Life," 
"The  Devil  in  Paris,"  "History  of  a  Man  with  a  Cold," 
"  Peasts  and  People,"  and  other  attractive  works. 
George  Sand  has  compared  him  to  Sterne. 

Heugh,  hu,  (Hugh,)  a-  Scottish  divine,  born  in  1782. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "The  State  of  Re- 
ligion in  Geneva  and  Belgium,"  (1844.)    Died  in  1846. 

See  his  "Life  and  Select  Works,"  by  H.  MacGill,  1850;  Cham- 
bers, "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  "North 
British  Review"  for  November,  1850. 

Heumann,  hoi'mSn,  (Christoph  August,)  a  Ger- 
man writer  on  various  subjects,  born  in  Saxe-Wehnar  in 
1681.  He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Gottingen 
in  1734.  Among  his  works  are  "Acts  of  the  Philoso- 
phers," ("Acta  Philosophorum,"  3  vols.,  1715-27,)  and 


an  "Exposition  of  the  New  Testament,"  (1750-63.) 
Died  in  1764. 

See  Heyne,  "  Memoria  Heumanni,"  1764 ;  Cassius,  "Lebens- 
beschreibung  Heumanns,"  1768 ;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine 
Encyklopaedie." 

Heumann  von  Teutschenbrunn,  hoi'm^n  fon 
toitsh'en-bRoon',  (Johann,)  a  German  jurist  and  writer, 
born  in  Bavaria  in  1711  ;  died  in  1760. 

Heun,  hoin,  (Karl  Gottlob  Samuel,)  a  German 
novelist,  born  in  Lusatia  in  1771.  He  wrote  under  the 
pseudonym  of  H.  Clauren.    Died  in  1854. 

Heures.    See  Uokm. 

Heurn.van.    See  Heurnius. 

Heurnius,  huR'ne-us,  [in  Dutch,  Van  Heurn,  vtn 
huRn,]  (Jan,)  an  eminent  physician,  born  at  Utrecht  in 
1543,  was  appointed  in  1 581  professor  of  medicine  at 
Leyden,  and  physician  to  Maurice  of  Nassau.  He  wrote 
a  good  commentary  on  Hippocrates,  (1609,)  and  other 
medical  works.    Died  in  1601. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Heurteloup,  /^URt'loo^  (Charles  Louis,)  a  French 
surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1793,  made  improvements 
in  lithotrity,  which  were  generally  adopted,  and  wrote 
several  treatises  on  that  subject. 

Heurteloup,  (Nicolas,)  an  eminent  French  surgeon, 
father  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Tours  in  1750.  About 
1800  he  was  appointed  first  surgeon  of  the  French  armies, 
and  received  the  title  of  baron.    Died  in  1812. 

Heus,  hus  or  hos,  or  Heusch,  van,  vtn  hush,  (Wil- 
LEM,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Utrecht  about 
1630,  was  a  pupil  of  John  Both.  His  pictures  of  scenery 
on  the  Rhine  are  commended.  Died  at  Utrecht  about 
1700.  His  nephew  and  pupil,  Jacob,  born  at  Utrecht 
in  1657,  was  a  good  landscape-painter.  "  His  land- 
scapes," says  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale,"  "are 
full  of  nature,  his  touch  easy,  and  his  colour  true."  Died 
in  1701. 

See  Descamps,  "  Viesdes  Pelntres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Heusch,  van,  vtn  husK  or  hosK,  (Abraham,)  a  Dutch 
painter  of  plants,  insects,  etc.,  was  born  at  Utrecht  in 
1650  ;  died  in  1712. 

Heuschling,  husK'ling  or  hush^^N',  (Stienne,)  a 
Belgian  philologist,  born  at  Luxemburg  in  1762,  was 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Louvain.    Died  in  1847. 

Heuschling,  (Philippe  FRANgois  Xavier,)  a  Bel- 
gian economist,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Luxemburg  in  1802,  published  an  "Essay  on  Universal 
Ethnographic  Statistics,"  (1847-49.) 

Heusde,  husMeh,  [Lat.  Heus'dius,]  (Philippus 
Willem,)  an  eminent  Dutch  writer,  born  at  Rotterdam 
in  1778,  became  professor  of  eloquence  and  history  at 
Utrecht,  where  he  lectured  with  great  success.  He 
published  several  works  on  philosophy,  history,  and 
education,  among  which  is  "The  Socratic  School,"  ("De 
Socratische  School,"  4  vols.,  1834-39.)   Died  in  1839. 

See  KiST,  "Memoria  Heusdii,"  1839;  Stockfeld,  "Andenken 
an  den  grossen  Professor  P.  W.  van  Heusde,"  1840 ;  Rovers,  "  Me- 
moria Heusdii,"  1841 ;  Roulez,  "Notice  biographique  sur  P.  G. 
van  Heusde,"  1841. 

Heusdius.    See  Heusde. 

Heusinger,  hoi'zing'er,  (Jakob  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man philologist  and  scholar,  born  at  Useborn  in  1719, 
was  rector  of  the  College  of  Wolfenbuttel.  His  edition 
of  Cicero's  "  De  Ofiiciis"  (1783)  is  called  a  master-piece 
in  respect  to  criticism.    Died  in  1778. 

Heusinger,  (Johann  Michael,)  an  uncle  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  near  Gotha  in  1690,  and  was  an  able 
philologist.  He  taught  at  Gotha  and  Eisenach,  and 
published  editions  of  Julian's  "Emperors"  and  iEsop's 
"Fables,"  (1741.)    Died  in  1751. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  F.  A. 
ToEPFER,  "Vita  J.  M.  Heusingeri,"  1751. 

Heusinger,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  physician,  born 
near  Eisenach  in  1792,  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Outlines  of  an  Encyclopaedia  and  Methodology  of  Natu- 
ral and  Medical  Sciences,"  (3  vols.,  1844-53.) 

Heuzet,  /^uh'z^',  (Jean,)  a  French  classical  scholar, 
born  at  Saint-Quentin  about  1660  ;  died  in  1728. 

Hevel.    See  Hevelius, 

He-veTi-us,  [Ger.  pron.  hi-va'le-us,]  (Joannes  or 
John  Hevel — ha'vel,  written  also  Hovel  and  He- 


*^  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jll^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HEVIN 


HETNIUS 


welcke,)  an  eminent  astronomer,  born  at  Dantzic  in 
l6ii,  was  a  pui)il  of  Kruger,  His  parents  were  noble 
and  wealthy.  After  studying  at  Leyden  and  making  the 
tour  of  Europe,  he  devoted  his  uninterrupted  attention 
to  astronomy  for  nearly  fifty  years.  In  1641  he  built  an 
observatory  at  his  own  residence,  which  he  furnished  with 
telescopes  and  other  instruments  made  by  his  own  hands. 
Ini647  he  published  "  Selenographia,"  a  description  of 
the  moon,  with  plates,  followed  by  letters  on  the  "  Libra- 
tion  of  the  Moon,"  and  on  Eclipses,  (1654.)  His  treatise 
on  the  phases  of  Saturn  aj^peared  in  1656,  and  his  **  Ob- 
servations on  the  Transit  of  Mercury"  in  1661.  He  wrote, 
also,  "  Cometographia,"  a  general  description  of  comets, 
(1668.)  Hevelius  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London  in  1664.  He  was  repeatedly  elected 
consul  and  judge  by  his  fellow-citizens,  by  whom  he  was 
highly  esteemed.  In  1673  he  published  the  first  part 
of  his  "Machina  Coelestis,"  a  description  of  his  obser- 
vatory, instruments,  and  modus  operandi,  the  second 
part  of  which  appeared  in  1679.  In  the  latter  year  a 
fire  consumed  his  observatory,  library,  and  nearly  all 
the  copies  of  the  book  just  named.  After  his  death  his 
widow  published  "Harbinger  of  Astronomy,"  ("  Pro- 
dromus  Astronomise,")  and  "  Firmamentum  Sobieska- 
num,"  dedicated  to  John  Sobieski,  King  of  Poland. 
In  skill,  accuracy,  and  diligence  in  observation,  he  was 
an  astronomer  of  a  very  high,  if  not  of  the  first, -order. 
Died  in  1687. 

See  H.  Westphal,  "Leben,  Studien  und  Schriften  des  J.  Heve- 
lius," 1820 ;  HuTTON,  "  Mathematical  and  Philosophical  Dictionary," 
article  "Hevelius;"  Montucla,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques ;" 
Ersch  und  Gkubek,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hevin,  //a'viN',  (Pierre,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Rennes  in  1621  ;  died  in  1692. 

Hevin,  (Prudent,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  in  Paris 
in  1 71 5.  Having  distinguished  himself  as  royal  professor 
of  therapeutics,  he  was  employed  by  Louis  XV.  to  attend 
the  dauphiness.  Some  years  later  he  became  first  sur- 
geon to  the  dauphin.  In  1780  he  published  a  "Course 
of  Pathology  and  Therapeutics."   Died  in  1789. 

Hewelcke.    See  Hevelius. 

Hewes,  huz,  (Joseph,)  an  American  patriot,  born  in 
New  Jersey  in  1730,  settled  at  Edenton,  North  Carolina, 
about  1760.  In  1774  he  represented  a  district  of  North 
Carolina  in  Congress,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  in  1776.  Having  been  re-elected  to  Con- 
gress, he  died  at  his  post,  in  Philadelphia,  in  1779. 

See  Goodrich,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence." 

Hew'itt,  (Mary  Elizabeth,)  originally  Miss  Moore, 
an  American  poetess,  born  in  Maiden,  Massachusetts. 
In  1829  she  removed  to  New  York.  Her  principal  works 
are  "  Songs  of  Our  Lai>d,  and  other  Poems,"  (1845,) 
the  "Heroines  of  History,"  (in  prose,  1856.) 

See  Griswold,  "Female  Poets  of  America." 

Hew'spn,  (William,)  an  English  surgeon,  born  at 
Hexham  in  1739.  In  1759  he  attended  the  lectures  of 
John  and  William  Hunter  in  London,  with  whom  he  was 
afterwards  associated  as  a  lecturer  on  anatomy.  In  1771 
he  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  which 
awarded  him  the  Copley  medal  for  his  researches  in  the 
lymphatic  system  of  birds  and  fishes.  In  1772  he  pub- 
lished "  Experimental  Inquiries  into  the  Properties  of 
the  Blood."  He  was  an  eminent  anatomist,  and  made 
valuable  discoveries  in  the  nature  of  blood.  Died  in  1774. 

Hexham,  (Richard  of.)  See  Richard  of  Hexham. 

Hey,  ha,  (John,)  a  learned  divine  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  born  in  England  in  1734.  From  1780  to  1795 
he  was  first  Norrisian  professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge. 
He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  Redemption,"  (a  prize  poein,) 
"  Lectures  on  Divinity,"  and  other  esteemed  works. 
Died  in  1815. 

Hey,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  surgeon  of  Leeds, 
born  in  1736;  died  in  1819. 
See  his  I,ife,  by  John  Pkarson. 

Heyden,  van  der,  vtn  der  hl'den,  or  Heyde,  hiMeh, 
an  eminent  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Gorcum  about  1637. 
He  exercised  his  talents  with  great  success  on  architec- 
tural subjects  and  landscaj^es.  He  excelled  in  chiaro- 
scuro. His  pictures  of  cities,  temples,  palaces,  and  ruins 
are  admired  for  their  general  effect,  mellow  tints,  and 


exquisite  finish.  The  figures  in  some  of  his  works  are 
painted  by  A.  van  der  Velde.  Died  at  Amsterdam  in  17 12. 

See  J.  C.  Weverman,  "De  Schilderkonst  der  Nederlanders ;" 
Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Heyden,  von,  fon  hlMen,  Count,  born  in  1772,  en- 
tered the  Russian  service,  and  became  a  rear-admiral  in 
181 7.  He  commanded  the  Russian  fleet  at  the  battle  of 
Navarino,  in  1827.    Died  in  1850. 

Heyden,  von,  fon  hi'den,  (Friedrich  August,)  a 
German  poet,  born  near  Heilsberg,  in  East  Prussia,  in 
1789.  He  was  one  of  the  governors  of  the  prince-royal 
of  Prussia,  and  in  1826  became  royal  councillor  at  Breslau. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  "  Conradin,"  and  other  suc- 
cessful dramas;  "Reginald,"  a  poem,  (1831,)  which  is 
admired;  and  "The  Shepherd  of  Ispahan,"  ("Der 
Schafer  von  Ispahan,"  1850,)  an  excellent  romantic 
poem.    Died  in  1851. 

See  T.  MuNDT,  "Das  Leben  Heydens,"  1852. 

Heydenreich,  hl'den-rlK^,  (Karl  Heinrich,)  an  in- 
genious philosophic  writer,  born  at  Stolpen,  in  Saxony, 
in  1764,  was  a  disciple  of  Kant.  He  became  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Leipsic  in  1789.  He  wrote  verses  on 
"  Solitude,"  and  other  short  poems,  of  some  merit,  which 
were  published  in  2  vols.,  1792.  Among  his  prose  works 
are  "Letters  on  Atheisna,"  (1796,)  "Psychological  De- 
velopment of  Superstition,"  (1797,)  and  "Philosophy 
considered  with  Respect  to  the  Sufferings  of  Humanity," 
(2  vols.,  1798.)    Died  in  1801. 

See  ScHELLE,  "  Characteristik  C.  H.  Heydenreich's,"  1802; 
WoHLFAHRT,  "Die  letzten  Lebensjahre  C.  H.  Heidenreich's,"  1802  ; 
EiCHHORN,  "  Geschichte  der  Literatur,"  vol.  iv. 

Heydt,  von  der,  fon  d^R  hit,  (August,)  a  Prussian 
statesman,  born  in  Elberfeld  in  1801.  He  was  appointed 
minister  of  commerce,  industry,  and  public  works  in 
December,  1848. 

Heyking.von,  fon  hT'king,(HEiNRiCH  Karl,)  Baron, 
born  in  Koorland  (Courland)  in  1751,  was  appointed 
a  senator  by  Paul  I.  of  Russia.    Died  in  1809. 

Heylin,  ha'lln,  (Peter,)  an  English  writer,  born  at 
Burford  in  1600.  In  1621  he  wrote  his  "  Microcosmos." 
In  1629  he  became  chaplain  to  Charles  I.,  and  obtained 
several  benefices,  from  which  in  the  civil  war  he  was 
ejected  as  a  partisan  of  Laud  and  the  High  Church. 
He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Bishop  Laud,"  a  "  Defence  of  the 
Church  of  England,"  (1658,)  and  other  theological  works. 
Died  in  1662. 

See  George  Vernon,  "Life  of  P.  Heylin,"  1681 ;  Dr.  Barnard, 
"Life  of  P.  Heylin,"  1682. 

Heym.    See  Heim. 

Heyn,  (Pieter.)    See  Hein. 

Heyne,  hl'neh,  [Lat.  Hey^'nius,]  (Christian  Gott- 
LOB,)  an  illustrious  German  scholar  and  critic,  was  born 
at  Chemnitz,  in  Saxony,  in  1729.  Owing  to  the  poverty 
of  his  family,  he  enjoyed  few  advantages  of  education  ; 
but,  having  by  nature  an  irrepressible  desire  for  know- 
ledge, he  improved  to  the  utmost  the  opportunities  which 
he  possessed,  so  that  in  1763  he  succeeded  Gesner  as 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Gottingen.  He  was  soon 
after  made  chief  librarian  of  the  university.  His  lectures, 
illustrating  the  history  and  mythology  of  the  ancients  in 
the  most  attractive  manner,  gained  him  a  high  reputa- 
tion, which  was  increased  by  his  numerous  and  excellent 
writings.  Among  the  most  important  of  these  are  editions 
of  Tibullus,  (1755,)  Virgil,  Epictetus,  (1756,)  Pindar,  etc., 
with  commentaries,  and  "Opuscula  Academica,"  (6  vols., 
1 785-1812.)    Died  at  Gottingen  in  July,  1812. 

"  Nothing,**  says  Sir  William  Hamilton,  "  has  contrib- 
uted so  decisively  to  maintain  and  promote  the  study 
of  classical  literature,  as  the  combination  which  Heyne 
has  effected  of  philosophy  with  erudition,  both  in  his 
commentaries  on  the  ancient  authors  and  in  those  w^orks 
in  which  he  has  illustrated  various  points  of  antiquity," 
("  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.") 

See  Heeken,  "C.  G.  Heyne,  biographisch  dargestellt,"  1812; 
Dacier,  "  iSloge  de  Heyne;"  Van  Assen,  "  Hulde  aan  C.  G. 
Hevne,"  Amsterdam,  1816;  Becher,  "  Programma  ad  Memoriam 
C.  G.  Heynii,"  1812;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  July,  1803. 

Heyne,  (Christian  Lebrecht,)  a  German  littera- 
teur, whose  pseudonym  was  Anton  Wall,  was  born 
near  Meissen  in  1751  ;  died  in  1821. 

Heynius.    See  Heyne,  (Christian  Gottlob.) 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


HE  TRICK 


HICKS 


Heyrick,  ha'rlk,  (Elizabeth,)  an  English  philan- 
thropist, born  about  1770,  was  originally  named  CoLT- 
MAN.  She  became  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
and  was  eminent  for  her  active  benevolence.  She 
published  in  1824  a  treatise  entitled  "Immediate,  not 
Gradual,  Emancipation,"  which  principle  she  was  the 
first  to  advocate.    Died  in  183 1. 

Heyse,  hi'zeh,  (Johann  Christian  August.)  a  Ger- 
man grammarian  and  writer,  born  at  Xordhausen  in 
1764  ;  died  in  1S29. 

Heyse,  (Karl  Wilhelm  Ludwig.)  an  able  German 
pliilologist,  born  at  Oldenburg  in  1797,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  chosen  professor  at  Berlin  in  1829. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  an  excellent  "Dic- 
tionary of  the  German  Language,"  (3  vols.,  1S33-49.) 
Died  in  1855. 

Hey^ard,  ha'ward,  (Thomas,)  born  at  Saint  Luke's, 
South  Carolina,  in  1746,  studied  in  London,  returned 
home  and  became  a  lawyer.  In  1775  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress,  and  next  year  signed  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence.  In  1778  he  was  appointed  a  judge. 
He  was  taken  prisoner  at  Charleston  by  the  British  in 
1780.  He  retired  from  the  bench  in  1798.  Died  in  1809. 

See  Goodrich,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence." 

Heywood,  ha'wood,  (Eliza,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  in  London  about  1695.  Her  maiden  name  was 
Fowler.  She  resorted  to  authorship  to  gain  a  sub- 
sistence for  herself  and  her  children,  and  wrote  several 
novels,  which  procured  her  a  place  in  Pope's  "Dun- 
ciad."  She  offended  less  against  decorum  in  her  subse- 
quent works,  viz.,  "The  Female  Spectator,"  "  Husband 
and  Wife,"  etc.    Died  in  1756. 

Heywood,  (Jasper,)  an  English  poet  and  Jesuit, 
born  in  London  in  1535,  wrote  "The  Paradise  of  Dainty 
Devices,"  (1573.)    Died  in  1598. 

Heywood,  (John,)  one  of  the  earliest  English  drama- 
tists, lived  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIIL,  at  whose  court 
he  was  received  with  favour  as  a  jester.  He  was  intimate 
with  Sir  Thomas  More.  He  wrote  numerous  epigrams 
and  indifferent  plays  or  interludes.    Died  about  1565. 

See  Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Heywood,  (Oliver,)  an  English  nonconformist  di- 
vine, born  in  Lancashire  in  1629.  His  works,  in  5  vols., 
were  published  in  1827.    Died  in  1702. 

See  his  Life,  by  Fawcett,  1798,  and  by  Joseph  Hunter,  1842. 

Heywood,  (Thomas,)  an  English  actor  and  dramatic 
author,  who  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth,  James  I., 
and  Charles  I.  He  produced  numerous  dramas,  in  verse 
and  prose,  which  were  once  popular  and  are  still  ad- 
mired. "Hej-wood,"  says  Charles  Lamb,  "is  a  sort  of 
prose  Shakspeare.  His  scenes  are  to  the  full  as  natural 
and  affecting."  Among  his  best  dramas  are  "The  Eng- 
lish Traveller,"  "A  Woman  Killed  with  Kindness,"  and 
"  A  Challenge  for  Beauty."  The  second  of  these  is  com- 
mended by  Hallam.  He  also  wrote  a  "  General  History 
of  Women,"  etc.  The  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are 
not  known. 

See  his  Life,  by  J.  P.  Collier,  1850  ;  "Retrospective  Ra^new," 
vol.  xi.,  1825. 

Hez-e-ki'ah,  [Heb.  in^pTH  or  n*p;n  ;  Fr.  Ezechias, 
k'zi'ke'is^]  King  of  Judah,  a  son  of  Ahaz,  was  born  about 
750  B.C.,  and  began  to  reign  in  726.  He  took  prompt 
measures  to  restore  the  true  religion,  which  had  been 
forsaken  by  his  father.  He  broke  the  images  or  statues, 
and  the  brazen  serpent  of  Moses,  to  which  the  people 
had  burnt  incense.  He  rebelled  against  the  King  of 
Assyria,  to  whom  his  father  had  paid  tribute.  In  the 
fourteenth  year  of  his  reign,  Sennacherib,  King  of  As- 
syria, invaded  Judah  and  besieged  the  capital.  In  this 
crisis  the  divine  favour  was  invoked  by  the  king  and 
Isaiah,  the  latter  of  whom  prophesied  the  safety  of  Zion 
and  the  defeat  of  her  proud  invader.  (Isaiah,  chap. 
xxxNni.)  The  angel  of  the  Lord  smote  the  Assyrians,  so 
that  185,000  died  in  one  night.  Hezekiah  died  after  a 
reign  of  twenty-nine  years. 

See  II.  Kings,  chaps,  xwvi.,  xix.,  xx. 

Hezel.    See  Hetzel. 

Hi-a-coo'mes,  an  American  Indian,  who  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  Indian  convert  to  Christianity  in 


New  England,  became  pastor  of  an  Indian  church  at 
Martha's  Vineyard  in  1670.    Died  about  1690. 
Hiaerne.    See  Hjarne. 

Hib'bard,  (Freehorn  Garretson,)  an  American 
divine  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  born  at  New 
Rochelle,  New  York,  in  1811.  He  published  several 
works  on  theology. 

Hi9'e-tas  [Gr.  'iKhag  or  'UerT^f]  of  Syracuse,  an 
ancient  Pythagorean  philosopher,  is  noticed  by  Diogenes 
Laertius  and  Cicero.  The  latter  informs  us  that  he  taught 
that  the  earth  revolves  on  its  axis,  and  that  the  heavenly 
bodies  were  stationary. 

Hickes,  hiks,  (George,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English 
divine  and  philologist,  born  at  Newsham  in  1642.  He 
took  orders  in  1666,  and  became  Dean  of  Worcester  in 
1683.  For  refusing  to  take  the  oath  to  William  III.  he 
was  deprived  of  his  deanery  in  1689,  and  in  1694  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Thettord  by  the  nonjuring  San- 
croft.  He  was  a  profound  scholar,  and  author  of  many 
polemical  and  other  works,  among  which  the  following 
are  now  most  prized,  viz.,  "  Treasure  of  Ancient  North- 
ern Languages,"  and  "Institutes  of  Anglo-Saxon  and 
Mceso-Gothic  Grammar,"  (16S9.)  "Of  all  the  English- 
men of  his  time,"  says  Macaulay,  "  he  was  the  most 
versed  in  the  old  Teutonic  languages."  ("History  of 
England,"  vol.  iii.  chap,  xiv.)    Died  in  1715. 

See,  also,  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Hick'ey,  (Rev.  William,)  an  Irish  clergyman  and 
rural  economist,  born  in  the  county  of  Cork  in  1790.  He 
published,  under  the  assumed  name  of  Martin  Doyle, 
a  valuable  work  called  "  Hints  to  Small  Farmers,"  and 
other  works  on  farming. 

Hick'man,  (Henry,)  an  English  nonconformist  di- 
vine, born  in  Worcestershire  ;  died  at  Leyden  in  1692. 

Hick'ok,  (Laurens  Perseus,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine  and  metaphysician,  born  in  Danbury,  Connecticut, 
in  1798.  He  graduated  in  1S20  at  Union  College,  in 
which  he  accepted  (1852)  the  professorship  of  mental 
and  moral  science.  His  principal  works  are  "Rational 
Psycholog}',"  (1848,)  "Empirical  Psychology',"  (1854,) 
and  "Rational  Cosmolog}-,"  (1858,) 

Hicks,  (Elias,)  a  noted  preacher  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  or  Quakers,  was  born  in  Hempstead,  Queen's 
county,  Long  Island,  in  1748.  He  began  to  speak  in 
public  as  a  minister  of  the  gospel  in  1775.  He  was 
early  convinced  of  the  iniquity  of  slavery,  and  felt  it  to 
be  his  duty  to  abstain,  as  far  as  practicable,  from  all  partici- 
pation in  the  products  of  slave  labour, — a  duty  which  he 
appears  to  have  scrupulously  observed  throughout  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  For  many  years  he  was  a  zealous 
and  approved  minister  in  the  Society  of  which  he  was  a 
member ;  but  early  in  the  present  century  he  began  to 
promulgate  religious  views  widely  different  from  those 
held  by  a  large  majority  of  the  Quakers.  He  advocated 
the  most  radical  Unitarian  doctrines,  and  asserted  that 
Christ  came  as  a  Saviour  to  the  Israelites  only,  his  spe- 
cial mission  being  limited  to  that  nation.  He  even  went 
so  far  as  to  express  the  opinion  that  the  Scriptures  had 
been  "the  cause  of  fourfold  more  harm  than  good  to 
Christendom  since  the  apostles'  days."  In  consequence 
of  the  expression  of  these  and  similar  views,  he  was  se- 
verely censured  and  denounced  by  many  of  those  who 
were  anxious  to  maintain  unchanged  the  doctrines  of  the 
early  Quakers.  The  result  was  a  schism  in  the  Society. 
The  elders  of  the  Philadelphia  Yearly  Meeting  had  taken 
a  leading  part  in  the  opposition  to  Elias  Hicks  ;  and  it 
was  in  that  Yearly  Meeting  (in  April,  1827)  that  the  first 
separation  took  place,  whicti  was  followed,  in  1828,  by 
divisions  in  the  Yearly  Meetings  of  New  York,  Baltimore, 
Ohio,  and  Indiana.  The  two  parties  were  respectively 
known  as  the  "Orthodox"  and  the  "Hicksites."  In  the 
Philadelphia  and  Ohio  Yearly  Meetings  the  two  sections 
were  nearly  equal ;  but  those  called  "  Hicksites"  were 
greatly  in  the  majority  in  the  Yearly  Meetings  of  New 
York  and  Baltimore,  while  in  Indiana  the  "Orthodox" 
were  numerically  much  superior  to  the  other  party. 

It  is  proper  to  observe  that  among  those  who  most 
admired  the  bold  and  stirring  eloquence  of  Hicks  there 
were  probably  but  few,  comparatively  speaking,  wno 
fully  endorsed  his  extreme  views  ;  yet,  regarding  him  as 
the  representative  of  liberal  and  progressive  ideas,  they 


■€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (^^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

75 


HICKS 


1186 


HIGDEN 


warmly  espoused  his  cause.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
who  strongly  disapproved — and  under  other  circum- 
stances would  perhaps  have  severely  condemned — his 
innovating  doctrines,  yet  believing  that  he  had  been  un- 
fairly and  harshly  dealt  with  by  the  "  Orthodox"  elders, 
made  common  cause  with  what  they  considered  the 
persecuted  party,  and  contributed  greatly  to  swell  the 
number  of  his  adherents.  It  may  be  proper  to  add  that 
the  anti-orthodox  division  of  the  Society  do  not  acknow- 
ledge the  name  of  "  Hicksites,"  alleging,  not  without 
reason,  that  as  a  large  majority  of  their  members  had 
espoused  the  cause  of  Hicks  in  the  interest  of  religious 
liberty,  and  not  because  they  approved  of  his  peculiar 
views,  it  is  unjust  to  apply  to  them  as  a  religious  society 
a  name  which  would  naturally  give  the  impression  that 
they  were,  strictly  speaking,  his  followers,  and  that  they 
accepted,  if  not  all,  at  least  the  greater  part,  of  his  re- 
ligions teachings.  They  claim,  on  the  "contrary,  to  be 
the  followers  of  no  man ;  and  although  they  accept  the 
doctrine  of  the  inward  light,  and  many  other  of  the 
views  of  the  early  Friends,  it  is  not  because  of  the 
atithority  of  Fox,  Penn,  or  Barclay,  but  simply  because 
those  views  commend  themselves  to  that  divinely  given 
or  intuitive  perception  of  right  which,  as  they  maintain, 
has  been  bestowed  in  a  measure  upon  every  human 
being.  Elias  Hicks  died  on  the  27th  of  February,  1830, 
having  maintained  through  life  a  blameless  and  exem- 
plary moral  character. 

See  "  Elias  Hicks's  Journal  of  his  Life  and  Labours,"  Philadel- 
phia, 1828;  Janney,  "History  of  the  Society  of  Friends,"  vol.  iv, 
chap,  v.,  also  the  second  part  of  the  same  volume,  entitled  "The 
Separation  ;"  "  Life  of  Stephen  Grellet." 

Hicks,  (Francis,)  a  Greek  scholar,  born  in  Worces- 
tershire, England,  in  1566.  He  produced  a  translation 
of  Lucian,  (1634.)    Died  in  1630. 

Hicks,  (Thomas,)  an  American  painter,  born  at 
Newtown,  Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1823.  He 
went  to  Europe  in  1845,  and  passed  several  years  at 
Rome,  where  he  copied  the  works  of  old  masters,  and 
painted  portraits.  He  has  resided  for  many  years  in  the 
city  of  New  York. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists,"  p.  465. 

Hicks  or  Hickes,  (William,)  was  an  English  cap- 
tain in  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  and  author  of  the  first 
Jest- Book  in  the  English  language,  published  at  Oxford, 
(1669.) 

Hidalgo,  (Jos6  Garcia.)    See  Garzia. 

Hidalgo  y  Costilla,  e-Dll'go  e  kos-t^KyJ,  (Don 
Miguel,)  a  Spanish  priest,  who  was  curate  of  Dolores, 
in  Mexico.  He  acquired  great  influence  among  the 
natives,  of  whom  he  became  the  leader  in  the  revolution 
of  1 8 10.  After  losing  several  battles,  he  was  taken  by 
the  Spaniards  and  executed  in  1811. 

Hi-emp'sal,  a  Numidian  prince,  a  son  of  Micipsa, 
was  murdered  by  Jugurtha,  according  to  Sallust. 

Hien-Fung,  he-§n' fung.  Emperor  of  China,  born 
about  1830,  was  a  younger  son  of  Taoo-Kooang.  He 
ascended  the  throne  in  1850,  and  appointed  ministers 
who  wished  to  maintain  an  exclusive  policy  towards 
foreigners.  In  the  same  year  began  a  great  insurrection, 
raised  and  directed  by  Tien-Te  or  Tai-Ping-Wang.  The 
insurgents  were  generally  victorious,  and  captured  Nan- 
kin in  1853.  (See  Tai-Ping-Wang.)  A  war  broke  out 
between  the  Chinese  and  the  British,  who  entered  Pekin 
in  triumph  in  i860.    Died  in  1861. 

Hiero.    See  Hieron. 

Hi-er'o-cles,  [Gr.  'lepo/c/l^f,]  an  eminent  Platonic  phi- 
losopher, who  was  the  head  of  a  flourishing  school  in 
Alexandria  in  the  fifth  century.  He  is  the  author  of 
a  "Commentary  on  the  Golden  Verses  of  Pythagoras," 
which  has  been  preserved  entire,  and  of  a  "Treatise  on 
Providence  (or  Foreknowledge)  and  Fate,"  of  which 
some  fragments  remain.  The  former  is  written  in  Greek, 
and  is  admired  for  the  beauty  of  the  thoughts  and  of 
the  style. 

See  Andr^  Dacier,  "Vie  de  Hierocl^s,"  1706. 

Hierocles,  the  author  of  a  work  on  veterinary  medi- 
cine, addressed  to  Cassianus  Bassus,  lived  in  the  third 
or' fourth  century  of  our  era. 

Hierocles,  a  grammarian,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
lived  in  the  sixth  century,  wrote,  in  Greek,  a  "Hand- 


Book  forTravellers,"(2i;vf«:(57y/jof,)  which  contains  descrip- 
tions of  the  towns  and  provinces  of  the  Eastern  empire. 

There  was  also  a  Stoic  philosopher  named  Hierocles, 
of  whom  we  have  little  information.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  the  second  century.  Another  Hierocles 
compiled  or  wrote  a  collection  of  anecdotes  and  ridicu- 
lous sayings  of  pedants,  students,  etc.,  with  the  Latin 
title  of  "Facetiae  Hieroclis." 

Hierocles  of  Alabanda,  a  Greek  rhetorician,  lived 
about  100  B.C.  He  composed  orations  in  the  style  which 
Cicero  calls  the  "Asiatic." 

Hierocles  of  Bithynia  was  the  principal  author  of 
the  persecution  of  the  Christians  in  the  reign  of  Diocle- 
tian, (about  300  A.D.)  He  wrote  two  books  against 
Christianity,  entitled  "  Sincere  Discourses  to  the  Chris- 
tians," {kbyoi  <^CKa\r}dtLq,)  in  which  he  maintains  that 
the  Scripture  is  full  of  contradictions.  He  was  prefect 
of  Bithynia  and  of  Alexandria. 

Hi'e-ron  or  Hi'^-ro  [Gr.  'lepwv]  I.,  King  of  Syra- 
cuse, succeeded  his  brother  Gelon  in  478  B.C.  The  first 
part  of  his  reign  was  tyrannical.  He  expelled  the  citi- 
zens of  Naxos  and  Catana,  and  colonized  those  towns 
with  his  own  subjects.  He  is  applauded  for  his  pa- 
tronage of  literature  and  his  appreciation  of  genius.  His 
court  was  the  resort  of  the  most  eminent  poets  and  sages 
of  his  time,  among  whom  were  Pindar,  ^Eschylus,  Si- 
monides,  and  Epicharmus.  Pindar  wrote  several  odes 
on  the  occasion  of  Hieron's  victories  at  the  Olympic 
games,  and  Simonides  enjoyed  his  friendship  and  bounty. 
Died  in  467  B.C. 

See  Xenophon,  "Hieron." 

Hieron  (or  Hiero)  II.,  King  of  Syracuse,  was  the  son 
of  Hierocles,  a  private  citizen.  Having  served  in  the 
army  of  Pyrrhus,  who  left  Sicily  in  a  state  of  anarchy, 
Hieron  was  chosen  general  by  the  soldiers  in  275  B.C., 
and  recognised  as  king  about  270.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  first  Punic  war  he  took  side  with  the  Carthaginians, 
and  was  defeated  by  the  Romans  about  264  B.C.  He  then 
made  peace  with  the  victors  by  the  payment  of  tribute, 
and  was  ever  after  a  faithful  ally  of  Rome.  Under  his 
wise  rule  the  kingdom  for  many  years  enjoyed  peace 
and  prosperity.  I)ied  in  216  B.C.  Archimedes  lived  in 
Syracuse  in  this  reign,  and  exercised  his  mechanical 
genius  in  constructing  machines  and  ships  of  great  size. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxi.-xxiv.  ;  Diodorus 
SicuLUS,  books  xxii.-xxvi. ;  Droysen,  "  Hellenismus,"  vol.  ii. 

Hi'e-ron,  (Samuel,)  an  English  Puritan,  born  at 
Epping  in  1572,  was  rector  of  Modbury,  and  published 
sermons  and  other  works  on  theology.    Died  in  161 7. 

Hieronyme.    See  Hieronymus. 

Hi-e-ron'y-mus,  [Gr.  'Ispuvvnog;  Fr.  Hi^:ronyme, 
e'a^ro'nem',]  King  of  Syracuse,  was  the  grandson  of 
Hieron  II.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  216  B.C.,  at  the  age 
of  fifteen.  He  broke  the  alliance  with  the  Romans,  who 
had  recently  been  defeated  at  Cannae,  and  formed  a 
league  with  the  Carthaginians.  He  was  on  the  point  of 
taking  an  active  part  in  the  war,  whqn  he  was  killed  by 
his  own  subjects  about  a  year  after  his  accession.  He 
left  no  issue ;  and  the  Syracusans  thenceforth  dispensed 
with  royalty. 

Hieronymus  was  the  Latin  name  of  Saint  Jerome, 
one  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church. 

Hieronymus  of  Cardia,  [Fr.  Hieronyme,  e'i^ro'- 
n^m',  (or  Jerome,  zha'rotn',)  de  Cardie,  deh  ktii'de',] 
a  Greek  historian,  who  flourished  about  300  B.C.  He 
entered  the  service  of  Eumenes,  who  employed  him  on 
a  mission  to  Antipater  in  320.  He  was  afterwards  an 
adherent  of  Demetrius,  who  appointed  him  Governor  of 
Boeotia  in  292  B.C.  He  wrote  historical  memoirs  of  the 
successors  of  Alexander  the  Great, — a  work  which  is  often 
cited  by  the  ancients,  but  has  not  come  down  to  us. 

SeeVossius,  "  De  Historicis  Grjecis ;"  Sevin,  "Recherches  sur 
la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Jerome  de  Cardie." 

Hieronymus  of  Rhodes,  a  Greek  philosopher,  and 
disciple  of  Aristotle,  lived  about  300  B.C. 

Hif'fer-nan,  (Paul,)  born  in  the  county  of  Dublin, 
Ireland,  in  1 7 19,  lived  many  years  in  London  as  a  lite- 
rary hack,  and  wrote  several  mediocre  dramas,  etc.  His 
habits  were  eccentric.    Died  in  1777. 

Hig'den,  (Ranulph  or  Ralph,)  an  English  monk, 
connected  with  a  Benedictine  monastery  at  Chester, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lon^;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


HIGGINS 


HILDESLET 


wrote  "  Polychronicon,"  a  Latin  chronicle.  He  died,  at 
a  great  age,  about  1370. 

Hig^'gins,  (Godfrey,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1771,  wrote  '*  The  Celtic  Druids,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1833. 

Higgins  or  Higins,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  born 
about  1544,  was  a  clergyman  and  school-teacher.  He 
published  the  "  Flosculi"  of  Terence,  a  popular  school- 
book,  and  contributed  to  the  "  Mirror  for  Magistrates," 
of  which  he  published  a  new  edition. 

Higgins,  (Matthew  James,)  an  English  journalist, 
born  about  1815,  wrote  under  the  assumed  name  of 
Jacob  Omnium.  He  contributed  many  articles  to  the 
London  "  Times,"  the  "  Pall  Mall  Gazette,"  and  other 
journals.  His  writings  were  mostly  devoted  to  the  ex- 
posure of  abuses  in  the  social  and  military  systems  of 
England.    Died  in  1868. 

Hig''gin-spn,  (Francis,)  a  distinguished  divine,  born 
in  England  in  1588.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge 
University,  and  appointed  rector  of  a  church  in  Leices- 
ter, in  which  position  he  laboured  with  great  zeal  and 
success  until  removed  for  nonconformity.  He  came  to 
Massachusetts  in  1629,  and  the  next  month  was  ordained 
with  Mr.  Sketon,  the  first  minister  of  Salem.  Died  in 
1630.  He  was  the  author  of  "  New  England's  Planta- 
tion," (1630.) 

Higginson,  (John,)  born  in  England  in  1616,  ac- 
companied his  father  Francis  to  Massachusetts  in  1629. 
He  was  minister  of  the  church  at  Salem  from  1660  until 
his  death  in  1708,  and  published  sermons  and  other 
theological  works.  He  was  regarded  as  the  most  able 
and  eloquent  American  author  of  his  time.  Among 
his  works  is  his  "  Attestation  to  Cotton  Mather's  Mag- 
nalia." 

Hig'gons,  (Sir  Thomas,)  was  born  in  Shropshire, 
England,  in  1624.  He  married  the  notorious  Countess 
of  Essex,  (see  Carr,  Robert,)  at  whose  funeral  in  1656 
he  pronounced  an  oration,  which  was  printed.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Vienna  in  1673.  Died  in  1691. 
His  son,  Bevil,  born  in  1670,  wrote,  besides  several 
poems,  a  "Short  View  of  English  History,"  (1723.)  He 
was  a  zealous  Jacobite,  and  went  . into  exile  with  James 
IL    Died  in  France  in  1735. 

High'more,  (Joseph,)  an  English  portrait-painter, 
born  in  London  in  1692,  was  a  pupil  of  Kneller.  He 
executed  portraits  of  the  Knights  of  the  Bath,  and  was 
employed  by  George  L  to  paint  some  members  of  the 
royal  family.  In  1742  he  painted  the  portraits  of  the 
Prince  and  Princess  of  Wales.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on 
Perspective.    Died  in  1780. 

Highmore,  (Nathaniel,)  an  eminent  English  phy- 
sician, born  at  Fordingbridge  in  1613,  practised  with 
success  at  Sherborne.  He  wrote  able  treatises  on  anat- 
omy.   Died  in  1684. 

Hilaire.   See  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire. 

Hilaire.    See  Hilary. 

Hi-la'ri-on,  Saint,  a  noted  ascetic  or  hermit  of  Pales- 
tine, and  pioneer  of  monastic  life,  was  born  at  Tabatha, 
near  Gaza,  about  292  a.d.  At  an  early  age  he  went  to 
Alexandria  as  a  student,  and  was  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity. Returning  to  Palestine,  he  retired  from  the 
world,  passed  many  years  in  the  desert,  and  gained  a 
wide  reputation  by  his  austerities.  Many  monasteries 
were  founded  by  him  or  by  the  influence  of  his  example. 
Died  about  372. 

See  Saint  Jerome,  "Vita  Hilarioni;"  Baillet,  "Vies  des 
Saints." 

Hilarius.   See  Hilary. 

Hi-la'ri-us,  surnamed  Diac'onus,  a  native  of  Sar- 
dinia, lived  about  350  a.d.,  and  became  a  deacon  of  the 
church  in  Rome.    He  was  an  adversary  of  Arianism. 

Hil'a-ry,  [Lat.  Hila'rius;  Fr.  Hilaire,  c'ISr',]  a 
native  of  Sardinia,  was  chosen  Bishop  or  Pope  of  Rome  in 
461  A.D.,  as  successor  to  Leo  I.  In  449  he  had  officiated 
as  legate  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  where  he  zealously 
opposed  the  Eutychians.  The  events  of  his  pontificate 
were  unimportant.  It  appears  that  he  claimed  the  pre- 
eminence of  the  see  of  Rome.  He  died  in  467,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Simplicius. 

Hilary  or  Hilarius,  [Fr.  Hilaire,  e'lSR',]  Saint, 
an  orthodox  theologian,  was  born  at  Poitiers,  (Pictavi,) 


in  Gaul,  of  which  place  he  became  bishop  about  350  a.d. 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  defence  of  Athanasius 
against  the  Arians,  for  which  he  was  banished  to  Phrygia 
in  356.  In  359,  at  the  Council  of  Seleucia,  he  defended 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  afterwards  published  a 
violent  invective  against  the  Arian  emperor  Constantius, 
whom  he  denounced  as  Antichrist.  Having  returned 
to  Italy  and  Gaul,  he  laboured  zealously  to  purge  the 
churches  of  heresy.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Synods," 
a  "  Commentary  on  Saint  Matthew,"  and  a  few  other 
works.    Died  in  367  a.d. 

See  Cave,  '*  Scriptores  Ecclesiastici ;"  Tillemont,  "  M^moires." 

Hilary  or  Hilarius,  Saint,  was  born  about  400 
A.D.,  probably  in  Gaul  or  Belgium.  He  became  Bishop 
of  Aries  in  429,  and  was  highly  esteemed  for  piety  and 
learning.  His  contest  with  Leo,  Bishop  of  Rome,  forms 
an  important  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  Gallic  Church. 
Celidonius,  a  bishop,  having  been  deposed  by  a  council 
at  which  Hilarius  presided,  appealed  to  Leo,  who  rein- 
stated him,  and,  supported  by  an  edict  of  the  emperor 
Valentinian  III.,  deprived  Hilarius  of  his  bishopric 
because  the  latter  refused  to  own  the  supremacy  of 
Rome.  This  was  one  of  the  first  efforts  made  to  build 
up  the  papal  power.  Died  in  449.  His  "Eulogy  on 
Honoratus"  is  much  admired. 

See  Bellarmin,  "  De  Scriptoribus  Ecclesiasticis  ;"  Tillemont, 
"Memoires;"  "Gallia  Christiana." 

Hil'da,  Saint,  a  grand-niece  of  Edwin,  King  of  North- 
umbria,  was  converted  to  Christianity  in  her  childhood, 
became  abbess  of  the  convent  of  Heorthen  (afterwards 
Whitby)  about  660,  and  died  in  680  A.D. 

Hil'de-baid,  [Lat.  Hildebal'dus,]  King  of  the 
Ostrogoths  in  Lombardy.  After  Belisarius  had  con- 
quered the  Ostrogoths,  they  proclaimed  Hildebald  their 
king  at  Pavia  in  540  A.D.  The  next  year  he  gained  a 
victory  over  the  Romans,  soon  after  which  he  was  assas- 
sinated by  one  of  his  guards. 

See  JoRNANDES,  "De  Regnorum  Siiccessione ;"  Gibbon,  "His- 
tory of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Hil'de-bert,  [Lat.  Hildeber'tus,]  a  French  prelate 
and  poet,  born  at  Lavardin  in  1057,  became  Archbishop 
of  Tours  in  1125.  He  was  eminent  for  his  piety  and 
learning,  and  was  one  of  the  best  writers  of  his  time. 
His  works  are  written  in  Latin,  and  consist  of  epistles, 
sermons,  and  poems.    Died  in  1134. 

See  "  Gallia  Christiana ;"  "  Vita  Hildeberti,"  prefixed  to  his  Works, 
published  by  Beaugendre  in  1708. 

Hildebertus.    See  Hildebert. 

Hildebrand.    See  Gregory  VII. 

Hildebrandt,  hll'deh-bRint',  (Ferdinand  Theo- 
DOR,)  a  German  historical  painter,  and  one  of  the  most 
eminent  masters  of  the  Dusseldorf  school,  was  born  at 
Stettin  in  1804.  He  studied  under  W.  Schadow  at  Ber- 
lin, and  settled  at  Dusseldorf.  Among  his  works  are 
"King  Lear  and  Cordelia,"  (1826,)  "Tancred  and  CIo- 
rinda,"  (1828,)  and  "Othello  relating  his  Adventures 
to  Desdemona,"  (1848.) 

Hildebrandt,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  a  German  phy- 
sician and  naturalist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1764,  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Manual  of  Human  Anatomy," 
(4  vols.,  1789-92.)    Died  in  1816. 

Hil'de-gard'  or  Hildegarde,  Saint,  a  German  nun, 
born  in  1098,  became  abbess  of  Saint  Rupert's  Mount, 
near  Bingen,  on  the  Rhine.    Died  in  1180. 

See  J.  C.  Dahl,  "Die  heilige  Hildegardis;  historische  Abhand- 
lung,"  1832. 

Hildenbrand,  von,  fon  h!lMen-bRlnt',  (Valentin 
Johann,)  a  German  medical  writer,  born  in  Vienna  in 
1763  :  died  in  1818. 

Hil'ders-ham,  (Arthur,)  an  English  Puritan  divine, 
born  in  Cambridgeshire  in  1563.  He  held  the  living  of 
Ashby-de-la-Zouch  from  1593  until  his  death.  He  was 
a  grand-nephew  of  Cardinal  Pole,  and  was  related  to 
the  royal  family.  He  wrote  various  theological  works, 
and  was  esteemed  a  shining  light  among  the  Puritans. 
Died  in  1631. 

Hil'des-ley,  (Mark,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
Kent  in  1698.  He  became  Bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man 
in  1755,  and  caused  the  Bible  to  be  translated  into  the 
Manx  language.    Died  in  1772. 

See  Weedon  Butler,  "Memoirs  of  M.  Hildesley,"  1799. 


t;  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    Oi^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HILDRETH 


1188 


HILL 


Hil'di'fth,  (Richard,)  an  American  journalist  and 
historian,  was  born  in  Deerfield,  Massachusetts,  June 
28,  1807.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1826,  and,  while 
studying  law,  contributed  numerous  articles  to  magazines. 
Admitted  to  the  bar  in  Boston  in  1830,  he  abandoned 
the  legal  profession  at  the  expiration  of  two  years,  to 
accept  the  position  of  associate  editor  of  the  "Boston 
Atlas,"  which  soon  became  one  of  the  ablest  Whig  jour- 
nals in  New  England.  His  health  having  failed,  he  spent 
the  year  1835  in  Florida,  and  while  there  wrote  "  Archy 
Moore,"  an  anti-slavery  novel.  It  was  republished  and 
favourably  reviewed  in  England,  and  an  enlarged  edition, 
under  the  title  of  "The  White  Slave,"  was  issued  in  the 
United  States  in  1852.  In  1837  he  furnished  to  the 
columns  of  the  "Atlas"  a  series  of  articles  which  con- 
tributed powerfully  towards  defeating  schemes  then  on 
foot  for  the  annexation  of  Texas.  He  took  a  conspicuous 
part  in  the  Presidential  canvass  which  resulted  in  the 
nomination  and  election  of  General  Harrison,  He  also 
gave  to  the  public  during  this  period  his  "  Despotism 
in  America,"  an  able  review  of  the  social,  political,  and 
economical  aspects  of  slavery  in  the  United  States,  to 
which  he  added  in  1854  a  chapter  on  the  "  Legal  Basis  of 
Slavery."  His  health  having  again  failed,  he  embarked 
in  1840  for  British  Guiana,  and,  during  a  residence  of 
three  years  at  Georgetown,  the  capital,  wrote  his  "  Theory 
of  Morals,"  published  in  1844,  and  "Theory  of  Politics, 
or  an  Inquiry  into  the  Foundation  of  Governments  and 
the  Causes  and  Progress  of  Political  Revolutions,"  issued 
in  1853.  Mr,  Hildreth  is  best  known,  however,  by  his 
"  History  of  the  United  States  of  America,"  from  the 
discovery  of  the  continent  to  the  close  of  the  Sixteenth 
Congress  in  1820,  (6  vols,  8vo,  1849-52.)  It  was  pro- 
jected while  the  author  was  a  student  at  Harvard.  The 
work  has  been  variously  criticised  ;  but  all  agree  in 
classing  it  among  the  standard  histories  of  our  country. 
Died  at  Florence  in  July,  1865. 

See  DuYCKiNCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ; 
Cleveland,  "Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Hildreth,  (Samuel  Prescott,)  M.D.,  an  American 
physician,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1783,  He  settled 
in  Ohio  in  1806.  His  principal  works  are  a  "  Pioneer 
History  of  the  Ohio  Valley,"  (1848,)  and  "Biographical 
and  Historical  Memoirs  of  the  Early  Settlers  of  Ohio," 
(1852.)    Died  at  Marietta,  Ohio,  in  1863. 

Hill,  (Aaron,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  London  in 
1685.  About  the  age  of  sixteen  he  went  to  Constanti- 
nople, and  by  the  aid  of  his  kinsman,  Lord  Paget,  visited 
several  countries  of  the  East.  In  1709  he  published  a 
"  History  of  the  Ottoman  Empire."  Soon  after  he  became 
manager  of  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  and  wrote  "Elfrida," 
a  tragedy,  which  was  followed  by  several  other  dramas. 
The  most  successful  of  these  are  "Alzira"  and  "Zara," 
adapted  from  Voltaire.  He  wrote  a  satire  on  Pope,  who 
had  noticed  him  in  the  "Dunciad"  in  terms  which  some 
think  rather  complimentary.    Died  in  1 750. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica." 

Hill,  (Abraham,)  an  English  gentleman  and  scholar, 
born  in  1632.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
A  volume  of  his  "Letters"  was  published  in  1767.  Died 
in  1721, 

Hill,  (Ambrose  Powell,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Culpepper  county,  Virginia,  about  1825,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1847,  lie  fought  against  the  Union  at 
Bull  Run,  July,  1861,  and  became  a  major-general  about 
June,  1862.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battles  of 
Mechanicsville  and  Gaines's  Mill  in  June,  and  at  the 
second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  August  29,  1862.  In  the 
next  month  he  served  at  Harper's  Ferry  and  Antietam. 
He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Fredericks- 
burg, December,  1862,  and  at  Chancellorsville,  May, 
1863,  For  his  services  in  the  latter  action  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  directed  a 
corps  at  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863,  and  in 
the  several  battles  fought  by  Generals  Grant  and  Lee 
in  1864,  at  the  Wilderness,  Spottsylvania  Court-House, 
Cold  Harbour,  etc.  He  was  killed  in  a  battle  near 
Petersburg  on  the  2d  of  April,  1865. 

See  "Southern  Generals,"  New  York,  1865;  Tenney,  "Military 
and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Hill,  (Daniel  H.,)  an  American  general,  born  in  South 
Carolina  about  1824,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842. 


He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battles  of  Mechanics- 
ville and  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862,  and  South  Moun- 
tain, September,  1862.  He  attempted  to  take  Newbern, 
North  Carolina,  in  March,  1863,  but  failed,  and  served 
under  General  Bragg  at  Chickamauga  the  same  year. 
He  commanded  at  Augusta,  Georgia,  in  February,  1865. 

Hill,  (David  Octavius,)  a  Scottish  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Perth  in  1802.  He  has  been  for  many  years 
secretary  to  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy.  His  subjects 
are  chiefly  Scottish  scenes.  He  produced  an  illustrated 
work  entitled  "The  Land  of  Burns." 

Hill,  (Frederick,)  a  brother  of  Sir  Rowland  Hill, 
noted  for  his  efforts  to  reform  prison-discipline  and  to 
prevent  crime,  was  appointed  about  1835  inspector  of 
prisons  in  Scotland.  He  published  an  able  work,  entitled 
"  National  Education  :  its  Present  State  and  Prospects," 
and  "  Crime  :  its  Amount,  Causes,  and  Remedies,"  (1853,) 

Hill,  (George,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  divine,  born  at  Saint 
Andrew's  in  1750.  He  was  principal  of  Saint  Mary's 
College,  in  his  native  town,  and  succeeded  Dr.  Robert- 
son as  leader  of  the  General  Assembly.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "Lectures  on  Divinity,"  which  are 
commended  by  Dr.  Chalmers,  who  said,  "  I  am  not  sure  if 
I  can  recommend  a  more  complete  manual  of  divinity." 
Died  in  1819, 

See  George  Cook,  "Life  of  George  Hill." 

Hill,  (George,)  an  American  contemporary  poet, 
born  at  Guilford,  near  New  Haven.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal poems  are  "The  Ruins  of  Athens,"  and  "Titania." 

See  Griswold's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Hill,  (Isaac,)  a  journalist,  born  in  Ashburnham,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1788.  He  was  for  many  years  editor  of 
the  "  New  Hampshire  Patriot,"  a  Democratic  journal, 
was  elected  a  United  States  Senator  for  New  Hampshire 
in  1830,  and  Governor  of  that  State  in  1836.  Died  in  1851. 

Hill,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  writer  and  literary  quack, 
born  at  Spalding  in  1716.  He  obtained  skill  as  a  botanist, 
made  and  sold  quack  medicines,  and  edited  "The  In- 
spector," a  journal  which  owed  its  success  to  the  scandal 
it  contained.  He  was  refused  admission  to  the  Royal 
Society  on  account  of  his  doubtful  character,  and  sought 
revenge  by  writing  a  review  of  their  works.  His  "  Vege- 
table System,"  in  26  vols,,  with  splendid  plates,  sold 
at  one  hundred  and  sixty  guineas  per  copy.  He  was 
knighted  by  the  King  of  Sweden,  to  whom  he  had  pre- 
sented a  copy  of  the  last-named  work.    Died  in  1775. 

Garrick  has  defined  his  merits  in  the  following  epigram: 
"  For  physic  and  farces,  his  rival  there  scarce  is; 
His  farces  are  physic,  his  physic  a  farce  is." 

See  Disraeli,  "  Quarrels  of  Authors." 

Hill,  (Joseph,)  an  English  scholar,  born  near  Leeds 
in  1625,  became  minister  of  an  English  church  at  Mid- 
delburg,  Holland,  He  published  an  improved  edition 
of  Schrevelius's  "Greek  Lexicon,"  (1676.)  Died  in  1707. 

Hill,  (Matthew  Davenport,)  a  brother  of  Frederick, 
noticed  above,  born  in  Birmingham  about  1792,  became 
a  barrister.  He  was  one  of  the  active  members  of  the 
Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,  and 
laboured  with  zeal  and  success  to  procure  amendments 
of  the  laws.  He  was  one  of  the  chief  promoters  of 
"juvenile  reformatories." 

Hill,  (Sir  Richard,)  born  in  1733,  a  brother  of  Row- 
land, was  member  of  Parliament  for  Salop,  and  some- 
times preached  in  the  Calvinistic  Methodist  chapels.  He 
wrote  a  few  religious  works.    Died  in  1808. 

Hill,  (Robert,)  a  self-taught  English  linguist,  born  at 
Miswell  in  1699,  was  a  tailor  by  trade.  He  was  master 
of  several  ancient  languages,  and  wrote  "  Criticisms  on 
Job,"  and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1777. 

See  "  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  DifiSculties,"  vol.  i.,  1839. 

Hill,  (Rev.  Rowland,)  a  popular  preacher  and  dis- 
ciple of  Whitefield,  was  born  at  Hawkstone,  England, 
in  1744.  He  was  the  son  of  vSir  Rowland  Hill,  and  uncle 
of  General  Lord  Hill.  After  leaving  college  he  was 
ordained  a  deacon  of  the  Anglican  Church,  but  soon 
became  a  zealous  and  eloquent  preacher  among  the  Cal- 
vinistic Methodists.  Addressing  the  people  in  the  streets, 
the  open  air,  or  wherever  he  could  gain  audience,  he 
made  many  converts  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom. 
In  1783  he  built  Surrey  Chapel,  London,  in  which  he 
preached  about  fifty  winters.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Vil- 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;    hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iori;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m&t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


HILL 


HILTON 


lage  Dialogues,"  and  other  works.  Southey,  in  refer- 
ence to  a  particular  occasion,  says,  "His  manner  was 
animated  and  striking,  sometimes  dignified  and  impress- 
ive. The  purport  of  his  sermon  was  good, — nothing 
fanatical,  nothing  enthusiastic."    Died  in  1833. 

See  J.  Sherman,  "  Memorial  of  the  late  Rev.  R.  Hill,  chiefly 
consisting  of  Anecdotes,"  etc.,  London,  1851 ;  E.  Sidney,  "  Life  of 
the  Rev.' Rowland  Hill."  1834;  William  Jones,  "Memoirs  of  the 
Life  of  Rev.  Rowland  Hill." 

Hill,  (Rowland,)  Viscount,  an  English  general,  born 
at  Frees,  Shropshire,  in  1772,  was  the  second  son  of  Sir 
John  Hill,  and  nephew  of  the  Rev,  Rowland  Hill.  He 
entered  the  army  as  ensign  in  1790,  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  colonel  in  1800.  In  1806  he  was  made  a  major- 
general  and  appointed  on  the  staff.  In  1808  he  served 
in  Portugal,  under  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  and  Sir  John 
Moore,  until  the  battle  of  Corunna.  Promoted  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  1809,  he  was  employed 
several  years  in  the  Peninsular  war,  and  gained  a  high 
reputation  in  his  profession.  In  1814  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage,  as  Baron  of  Almarez  and  Hawkstone.  He 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Waterloo  in  181 5,  and  after- 
wards was  second  in  command  of  the  army  of  occupation 
in  France.  Lord  Hill  was  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  from  1828  until  1842,  when  he  resigned  and  was 
created  a  viscount.  He  died  in  1842,  and  left  the  title  to 
his  nephew.  Sir  Rowland  Hill. 

See  E.  Sidney,  "Life  of  Viscount  Hill,"  1850;  Napier,  "His- 
tory of  the  Peninsular  War." 

Hill,  (Sir  Rowland,)  an  Englishman,  known  as  the 
author  of  the  cheap  postage  system,  was  born  at  Kid- 
derminster in  1795.  In  1837  he  wrote  a  pamphlet  on 
•'Post-Office  Reform,  its  Importance  and  Practicability." 
Through  his  persistent  efforts,  a  bill  was  passed  in  the 
session  of  1839-40  to  reduce  the  rate  of  postage  and 
render  it  uniform.  The  postage  has  since  been  further 
reduced,  and  letters  are  now  carried  for  one  penny  each 
to  any  part  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  people  ex- 
pressed their  gratitude  for  this  benefit  by  a  present  of 
;^i3,ooo  raised  by  subscription.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  to  the  postmaster-general  in  1846,  and  sole 
secretary  to  the  post-office  in  1854. 

Hill,  (S.  W.,)  a  recent  American  painter,  of  the  Pre- 
Raphaelite  school,  has  particularly  distinguished  himself 
by  his  landscapes  and  fruit-pieces. 

Hill,  (Thomas,)  a  mathematician  and  Unitarian  min- 
ister, born  at  New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey,  in  181 8, 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1843.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Geometry  and  Faith,"  and  contributed 
many  articles  to  the  "North  American  Review"  and  the 
"Atlantic  Monthly."  In  1859  he  succeeded  Horace 
Mann  as  president  of  Antioch  College,  Ohio.  He  in- 
vestigated the  properties  of  curves  with  success. 

Hill,  (Thomas  Ford,)  an  English  antiquary  and  philol- 
ogist, published  "Ancient  Erse  Poems."    Died  in  1795. 

Hill,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born  in 
Cumberland  county,  Virginia,  in  1769.  He  graduated 
at  Hampden-Sidney  College  in  1788.  From  1800  to 
1834  he  was  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church  in  Win- 
chester, where  he  died  in  1852. 

Hil'lard,  (Gkorge  Stillman,)  an  eminent  American 
writer,  lawyer,  and  orator,  born  in  Machias,  Maine,'  m 
1808.  While  pursuing  his  collegiate  course  at  Harvard, 
(where  he  graduated  in  1828,)  he  is  said  to  have  been 
especially  distinguished  in  declamation  and  English 
composition.  He  was  afterwards  for  some  time  asso- 
ciated with  George  Bancroft  in  his  Round  Hill  Seminary 
at  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  and  in  1833  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  Boston.  Besides  attending  to 
an  extensive  professional  business,  he  has  since  twice 
visited  Europe,  and  has  been  a  member  of  both  branches 
of  the  Massachusetts  legislature.  He  is  author  of  a  great 
number  of  orations,  lectures  before  the  Lowell  Institute, 
and  contributions  to  the  "  Christian  Examiner,"  "North 
American  Review,"  etc.  In  1852  he  was  selected  by  the 
authorities  of  Boston  to  deliver  the  eulogy  on  the  char- 
acter of  Daniel  Webster.  The  next  year  appeared  his 
"Six  Months  in  Italy,"  (in  2  vols.  i2mo,)  which  had 
reached  the  fifth  edition  in  1855.  "  Mr.  Hillard's  work," 
says  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1858, 
"is  that  of  a  scholar  and  a  gentleman,  a  man  of  sense 
as  well  as  of  taste  and  feeling.    His  style  is  pointed  and 


full  of  happy  expressions  and  striking  images."  Among 
other  literary  labours,  Mr.  Hiliard  has  edited  the 
Poetical  Works  of  Spenser,  (in  5  vols.  8vo.)  He  was 
for  some  time  associate  editor  of  the  "Jurist,"  and  was 
for  several  years  one  of  the  principal  editors  of  the 
"Boston  Courier."  He  contributed  several  important 
articles  to  the  "  New  American  Cyclopaedia,"  including 
those  on  Alexander  and  Edward  Everett  and  Rufus 
Choate. 

Hillebrand,  hiKleh-bRint^  (Joseph,)  a  German  phi- 
losophical writer,  born  near  Hildesheim  in  1788.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  "  The  Philosophy  of  the 
Spirit,"  (2  vols.,  1835,)  and  "The  German  National 
Literature  since  the  Beginning  of  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury," (2  vols.,  1845.) 

HilTel,  a  famous  Jewish  rabbi,  born  at  Babylon  about 
no  B.C.,  was  descended  from  King  David.  He  went 
to  Jerusalem  at  the  age  of  forty,  acquired  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  law,  and  was  chosen  president  of  the 
Sanhedrim  about  30  B.C.  The  origin  of  the  Talmud  or 
Mishna  is  ascribed  to  Hillel,  who  was  the  leader  of  a 
numerous  school  or  party.  He  died  at  the  age  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty  years. 

Hillel,  a  noted  rabbi,  supposed  to  have  lived  about 
300  A.D.,  was  a  descendant  of  the  preceding.  He  re- 
formed the  Jewish  calendar  by  means  of  a  cycle  of  nine- 
teen years. 

Hiller,  hiKler,  (Ferdinand,)  a  celebrated  German 
composer,  born  of  Jewish  parents  at  Frankfort,  October 
24,  181 1.  His  oratorio  of  the  "Destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem" (1840)  was  received  with  great  applause.  In  1851 
he  was  made  director  of  the  Italian  Opera  at  Paris. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Hiller,  (Matthaus,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at 
Stuttgart  in  1646,  was  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
and  theology  at  Tubingen.  He  wrote  a  "Latin-Hebrew 
Lexicon,"  (1685.)    Died  in  1725. 

Hiller,  von,  fon  hiKler,  (Johann,)  Baron,  an  Aus- 
trian general,  born  at  Neustadt,  near  Vienna,  in  1754. 
In  1809  he  obtained  command  of  the  sixth  corps  of  the 
army  of  the  archduke  Charles.  Although  he  was  de- 
feated by  Napoleon  at  Landshut  in  April,  he  contributed 
greatly  to  the  success  of  the  Austrians  at  Aspern  in  the 
next  month.    Died  in  1819. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hillerup,  hiKleh-rup',  (Frederik  Christian,)  a 
Danish  poet,  born  at  Vedelsborg  in  1793,  published  a 
work  called  "  Italica,"  (1829,)  and  "  New  Poems,"  '("  Nye 
Digte,")  in  1854. 

HilPhouse,  (James,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  in 
Connecticut  in  1754.  He  was  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  from  1794  to  1810.    Died  in  1832. 

Hillhouse,  (James  A.,)  an  Ainerican  poet,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  New  Haven  in  1789.  He  removed 
to  New  York  City,  and  married  Cornelia  Lawrence  in 
1824.  His  first  poem,  "The  Judgment,  a  Vision,"  ap- 
peared in  1812.  He  also  wrote  the  following  admired 
dramas  :  "  Percy's  Masque,"  "  Hadad,"  and  "  Demetria." 
Died  in  1841. 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America;"  Duyckinck, 
"  Cyclopzedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Cleveland,  "Com- 
pendium of  American  Literature  ;"  "  North  American  Revievr"  for 
January,  1840. 

Hilliard,  hlKyard,  (Henry  W.,)  a  lawyer  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  Cumberland  county.  North  Carolina,  in 
1808.  He  was  a  Whig,  and  represented  a  district  of 
Alabama  in  Congress  from  1845  to  1851.  In  1857  he 
joined  the  Democratic  party. 

Hilliard,  hlKyard,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  painter, 
born  at  Exeter  in  1547,  learned  the  trade  of  a  jeweller, 
and  afterwards  became  eminent  as  a  miniature-painter. 
He  executed  an  admired  portrait  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots, 
and  was  patronized  by  Queen  Elizabeth  and  James  I. 
Died  in  1619. 

HiPton,  (John,)  an  English  composer  and  musician, 
was  admitted  to  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  music  at 
Cambridge  in  1626.  He  composed  anthems,  songs, 
catches,  etc.    Died  about  1656. 

Hilton,  (Walter,)  an  English  monk  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  lived  at  Sheen,  and  wrote  "The  Ladder  of  Per- 
fection." 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HILTON 


HIPPJRCHUS 


Hilton,  (William,)  a  successful  English  historical 
painter,  born  at  Lincoln  in  1786.  About  1800  he  became 
a  student  in  the  Royal  Academy,  and  in  1804  exhibited 
his  "Hector  reinspired  by  Apollo."  In  1819  or  1820 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy,  and  in  1825 
succeeded  Fuseli  as  keeper  of  that  institution.  He  at- 
tained a  high  rank  among  the  English  artists  of  his  time. 
Among  his  best  works  are  "  Nature  blowing  Bubbles," 
and  "The  Graces  teaching  Cupid  to  play  on  the  Lyre." 
Died  in  1839. 

See  Pilkington's  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Hi-me'ri-us,  ['I//eptof,]  an  eminent  Greek  sophist  of 
Prusa,  Bithynia.  He  became  master  of  a  celebrated  school 
in  Athens,  and  afterwards  secretary  of  the  emperor  Julian 
at  Antioch  about  362  a.d.  He  composed  many  orations, 
of  which  about  twenty  are  extant.  His  style  is  rather 
bombastic.  Among  his  pupils  were  Gregory  Nazianzen 
and  Saint  Basil.  He  was  always  a  pagan,  but  moderate 
or  friendly  to  the  Christians. 

Hi-miFco  or  Hi-mil'cpn,  a  Carthaginian  navigator, 
the  date  of  whose  adventures  is  unknown.  Pliny  states 
that  he  sailed  northward  from  Gades  on  a  voyage  of  dis- 
covery about  the  time  that  Hanno explored  the  western 
coast  of  Africa.  R.  Festus  Avienus  quotes  him  as  his 
authority  for  an  account  of  the  islands  of  the  Hiberni 
and  Albioni. 

Himilco  or  Himilcon,  an  able  Carthaginian  general, 
who  was  joined  with  Hannibal  in  the  command  of  a  large 
army  in  the  war  against  Dionysius,  tyrant  of  Syracuse. 
He  took  Agrigentum  after  a  long  siege,  during  which 
the  death  of  Hannibal  left  him  sole  commander,  (406 
B.C.)  He  defeated  Dionysius  about  405,  soon  after  which 
peace  was  concluded.  The  war  having  been  renewed  in 
397  B.C.,  Himilco  raised  an  army  of  100,000  men,  with 
which  he  marched  victoriously  to  the  gates  of  Syra- 
cuse. While  he  was  besieging  this  city,  his  army  was 
wasted  by  pestilence  and  defeated  by  the  Syracusans. 
He  escaped  to  Carthage  and  killed  himself. 

See  DiODORUS  Siculus,  books  xiii.,  xiv.,  and  xx. 

Himilco  or  Himilcon  was  commander  of  the  fleet 
of  Carthage,  on  the  coast  of  Sicily,  in  214  B.C.,  while 
Marcellus  commanded  the  Romans  in  that  island.  He 
landed  an  army  in  213,  gained  some  advantages,  and, 
having  failed  in  an  attempt  to  relieve  Syracuse,  died  of 
pestilence  in  212  B.C. 

Himly,  him'lee,  (Karl  Gustav,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Brunswick  in  1772,  was  professor  of  medicine  at 
Gottingen.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  skilful  treat- 
ment of  diseases  of  the  eyes,  on  which  he  published  a 
valuable  work.    Died  in  1837. 

Himmel,  him'mel,  (Friedrich  Heinrich,)  a  Ger- 
man composer,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Brandenburg  in 
1765,  was  appointed  chapel-master  at  Berlin  about  1796. 
Among  his  best  works  are  the  operas  of  *'  Fanchon"  and 
"The  Sylphs."    Died  in  1814. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Hinch'cliffe,  (John,)  an  English  divine  and  orator, 
born  at  Westminster  in  1731.  He  became  head-master 
of  Westminster  School  in  1764,  and  Bishop  of  Peter- 
borough in  1769.    Died  in  1794. 

Hinckeldey,  hink'kel-dl,  (Karl  Ludwig  Fried- 
rich,)  a  Prussian  administrator,  born  near  Meiningen 
in  1803.  He  became  minister  or  prefect  of  police  in 
Berlin  in  1848.    He  was  killed  in  a  duel  in  1856. 

Hinckelmann,  hink'kel-min',  (Abraham,)  a  Ger- 
man Orientalist,  born  at  Dobeln  in  1652,  published  an 
edition  of  the  Koran,  (1694,)  said  to  be  the  first  ever 
printed  in  Arabic.    Died  in  1695. 

Hinck'ley,  (John,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
161 7,  was  rector  of  Drayton.    Died  in  1695. 

Hincmar,  hink'mir,  a  learned  French  ])relate,  born 
in  806  A.D.,  entered  the  Abbey  of  Saint-Denis  in  child- 
hood. He  acquired  much  influence,  and  became  a  fa- 
vourite at  the  court  of  Charles  the  Bald.  In  845  he  was 
elected  Archbishop  of  Rheims.  He  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  firmness  in  defending  the  Church  against  the 
encroachments  of  the  papal  and  royal  power.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  two  treatises  on  Predestination,  in 
one  of  which  he  attempts  to  refute  the  famous  Erigena. 
He  is  censured  for  his  severity  to  Godeschalcus,  who 


was  confined  in  a  dungeon  for  his  heretical  opinions  oa 
the  question  of  predestination.    Died  in  882  A.D. 

See  "Gallia  Christiana;"  W.  F.  Gess,  " Merkwiirdigkeiten  au3 
dem  Leben  und  den  Schriften  Hincmar's,"  1806;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Hincks,  (Rev.  Edward,)  distinguished  for  his  know- 
ledge of  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  inscriptions,  was  born  in 
Cork,  Ireland,  about  1791.    Died  about  1866. 

Hind,  (John  Russell,)  an  eminent  English  astron- 
omer, born  at  Nottingham  in  1823.  He  obtained  in 
1840  a  situation  in  the  Royal  Observatory  at  Greenwich. 
In  1845  he  removed  to  another  observatory  in  Regent's 
Park,  London,  where  he  has  had  remarkable  success  as 
an  observer.  He  discovered,  besides  several  comets,  ten 
telescopic  planets,  namely.  Iris,  (1847,)  Flora,  (1847,) 
Victoria,  (1850,)  Irene,  (1851,)  Melpomene,  Fortuna, 
Calliope,  and  Thalia,  (all  in  1852,)  Euterpe,  (1853,)  and 
Urania,  (1854.)  He  wrote  several  works,  among  which 
is  "  The  Solar  System  :  a  Descriptive  Treatise  on  the 
Sun,  Moon,  and  Planets,"  (1852.) 

Hind'man,  (Thomas  C.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Tennessee  about  1 818.  He  lived  in  Arkansas  before 
the  civil  war,  and  was  a  member  of  Congress.  He  com- 
manded the  rebel  forces  at  Prairie  Grove,  Arkansas,  in 
December,  1862,  and  served  as  major-general  at  the 
battle  of  Chickamauga,  September  19  and  20,  1863. 

Hinojosa  y  Carbajal,  e-no-Ho's^  e  kaR-Bi-H^K, 
(Alvaro  de,)  a  Spanish  poet,  who  lived  about  1620. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Hinrichs,  hin'riKs,  (  Hermann  Friedrich  Wil- 
HELM,)  a  German  philosopher,  born  in  Oldenburg  in 
1794,  published  "The  Genesis  of  Science,"  ("Genesis 
des  Wissens,"  1835,)  and  other  works. 

Hin'tpn,  (John  Howard,)  an  English  writer  on  his- 
tory and  theology,  was  born  probably  about  1800.  He 
became  minister  of  a  Baptist  congregation  in  Devon- 
shire Square,  London.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  The  History  and  Topography  of  the  United 
States  of  North  America,"  (2  vols.,  1832.) 

Hiob,  the  German  of  Job,  which  see. 

Hiooen-  or  Hiouen-Tlisang  or  Youen-Thsang, 
yoo'Sn-tsang,  a  celebrated  Chinese  traveller  and  priest 
of  Booddha,  was  born  about  602  a.d.  He  travelled 
in  Hindostan  and  other  countries,  of  which  he  wrote  de- 
scriptions. He  translated  into  the  Chinese  many  Hindoo 
works  on  the  religion  of  Booddha.    Died  in  664  A.D. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Hip-par'-ehus,  [  Gr.  "iTVTzapxog ;  Fr.  Hipparque, 
e^ptRk',]  son  of  Pisistratus,  an  Athenian,  who,  in  part- 
nership with  his  brother  Hippias,  obtained  the  chief 
power  in  the  state  in  527  B.C.  He  was  assassinated  by 
Harmodius  and  Aristogiton  in  514.  Hippias  survived; 
but,  having  rendered  himself  unpopular  by  cruelty  and 
suspicious  habits,  (although  it  is  said  he  was  previously 
mild  and  affable,)  he  was  expelled  from  Athens  in  511. 
He  afterwards  passed  many  years  at  the  court  of  the 
Persian  king  Darius,  served  as  guide  to  the  Persian 
army  which  invaded  Greece,  and  was  at  the  battle  of 
Marathon,  where,  according  to  some  writers,  he  was 
killed,  490  B.C. 

■f'See  Hekodotus,  books  ii.,  v.,  vi.,  and  vii.  ;  Thirlwall,  "His- 
tory of  Greece." 

Hipparchus,  [Gr.  'l7X7Tapxo(; ;  Fr.  Hipparque;  It. 
Ipparco,  ^p-paR'ko,]  the  founder  of  the  science  of  as- 
tronomy, and  the  greatest  astronomer  of  antiquity,  was  a 
native  of  Nicaea,  in  liithynia.  He  was  of  Greek  extrac- 
tion, and  flourished  about  150  B.C.  Many  of  his  obser- 
vations were  made  at  Rhodes.  His  writings  are  all  lost, 
except  a  "  Commentary  on  Aratus,"  which  is  the  least 
important ;  but  the  knowledge  of  his  discoveries  has  been 
preserved  by  Ptolemy  in  his  "  Syntaxis."  The  first  who 
made  systematic  observations,  he  was  also  the  first  who 
discovered  that  fundamental  fact  in  astronomy, — the 
precession  of  the  equinoxes.  A  discovery  so  important 
would  have  sufficed  to  immortalize  him  ;  but  he  also 
greatly  enriched  the  science  of  mathematics,  and  was 
the  first  who  understood  trigonometry,  both  plane  and 
spherical.  He  invented  the  planisphere  and  the  stereo- 
graphic  projection,  and  gave  rules  for  the  calculation  of 
eclipses,  by  means  of  which  he  determined  the  longitude. 
According  to  Pliny,  who  calls  him  the  confidant  and 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  hy  6,  sapie,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  ^,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HIPPARCHUS  II 


iiuerpreter  of  nature,  Hipparchiis,  having  perceived  a 
new  star  that  suddenly  appeared  in  his  time,  was  stimu- 
lated by  it  to  form  his  Catalogue  of  one  thousand  and 
eiy,hty  stars,  which  is  preserved  in  the  "Almagest"  of 
Ptolemy.  In  this  operation  he  used  the  astrolabe,  which 
was  probably  invented  by  him.  He  originated  a  more 
complete  system  of  geography,  and  the  mode  of  de- 
termining the  position  of  towns  by  circles  drawn  on 
the  earth  corresponding  to  those  of  the  celestial  sphere. 
Among  his  lost  works  were  "On  the  Magnitudes  and 
Distances  of  the  Sun  and  Moon,"  "The  Movement  of 
the  Moon  in  Latitude,"  and  "On  the  Retrogradation  of 
the  Equinoctial  and  Solstitial  Points." 

See  Pliny,  "Natural  History;"  Montucla,  "Histoire  des 
Mathematiques ;"  Delambre,  "  Histoire  de  I'Astronomie  ancieniie ;" 
Dr.  Hoefer's  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  J. 
A.  Schmidt,  "Dissertatio  de  Hipparcho,"  etc.,  1689. 

Hipparchus,  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  who  lived 
probably  about  300  B.C. 
Hipparque.    See  Hipparchus. 

Hip'pa-sus,  [Gr.  'iTTTraaof,]  a  Pythagorean  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Metapontum,  held,  it  is  said,  the  doctrine 
that  fire  was  the  origin  of  all  things. 

Hippeau,  e^po',  (C^lestin,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Niort  in  1803,  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
"History  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Philosophy,"  (1833.) 

Hippel,  von,  fon  hip'pel,  (Theodor  Gottlieb,)  a 
German  humorist  and  original  thinker,  born  at  Gerdauen, 
in  Prussia,  in  1741.  He  studied  law,  and  became  in  1780 
burgomaster  of  Konigsberg.  He  claimed  for  women 
admission  to  civil  offices  and  a  greater  social  equality. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  Treatise  on  Marriage,"  ("  Ueber 
die  Ehe,"  1774,)  "Designs  after  Nature,"  (1790,)  an  Au- 
tobiography, (1800,)  and  "The  Education  of  Women," 
(1801.)    His  character  was  eccentric.    Died  in  1796. 

See  Gervinus,  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Dichtiing,"  fourth  edi- 
tion, vol.  V. ;  W.  G.  Keber,  "  Nachrichten  uiid  Benierkungen  den 
geheimen  Kriegsrath  von  Hippel  betreffend,"  1802;  "Biographie  T. 
G.  von  Hippel's  zum  Theil  von  ihm  selbst  verfasst,"  1800. 

Hippias.    See  Hipparchus  and  Harmodius. 

Hip'pi-as,  ['iTTTTiCf,]  a  Greek  sophist,  born  at  Elis, 
was  a  contemporary  of  Socrates.  His  character  is  ex- 
hibited by  Plato  in  his  dialogue  called  "  Hippias  Major." 

Hip'pis-ley  or  Hippesley,  (Sir  John  Coxe,)  an 
Englishman,  born  in  Somersetshire  in  1765,  was  returned 
to  Parliament  about  1790.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
Prison  Discipline,"  (1823.)    Died  in  1825. 

Hip'po  or  Hip'pon,  ["Ittttcjv,]  a  Greek  philosopher, 
who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  fifth  century  B.C., 
and  to  have  been  a  native  of  Samos,  or  of  Rhegium.  He 
held  that  moisture,  or  water,  is  the  principle  of  all  things, 
and  derived  much  of  his  system  from  Thales. 

See  Brucker,  "  History  of  Philosophy." 

Hippocrate.    See  Hippocrates. 

Hip-poc'ra-tes,  [Gr.  'IrrnoKpuTr/g  ;  Fr.  Hippocrate, 
e'po'kKtt' ;  It.  Ippocrate,  ^p-pok'Ra-t^,]  the  most  emi- 
nent physician  of  antiquity,  justly  styled  the  "  Father  of 
Medicine,"  was  born  in  the  island  of  Cos  in  460  B.C., 
and  was  contemporary  with  Socrates  and  Plato.  He  was 
the  son  of  Heraclides,  a  descendant  of  Esculapius,  from 
whom  he  derived  his  first  lessons  in  medicine.  His 
family,  the  Asclepiadae,  for  many  generations  had  prac- 
tised the  same  art.  The  materials  for  writing  his  per- 
sonal history  are  deficient.  He  is  said  to  have  studied 
medicine  at  Athens  under  Herodicus,  and  to  have  learned 
philosophy  of  Gorgias  of  Leontini,  after  which  he  prac- 
tised and  taught  in  Cos,  also  in  Thessaly,  and  at  the  court 
of  Perdiccas,  King  of  Macedonia,  etc.  Soranus  relates 
that  he  acquired  fame  by  checking  the  ravages  of  the 
plague  in  Athens,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  freedom 
of  that  city,  and  with  other  honours.  The  story  that 
he  refused  the  invitation  and  magnificent  offers  of  Ar- 
taxerxes,  is  by  some  discredited. 

His  superior  talents,  his  rare  sagacity,  his  signal  suc- 
cess, and  his  devoted  humanity,  inspired  universal  con- 
fidence and  respect.  He  had  a  great  number  of  pupils, 
from  whom  he  exacted  an  oath  that  they  would  never 
abuse  their  trust  by  criminal  practice,  nor  divulge  pro- 
fessional secrets.  He  held  that  the  body  is  composed 
of  four  primary  elements,  fire,  air,  earth,  and  water, 
whicli  i^roduce  the  four  cardinal  humours,  blood,  phlegm, 
bile,  and  black  bile.    He  knew  but  little  of  anatomy. 


91  HIP  PON  AX 


He  carried  forward  the  reform  begun  by  his  ancestors, 
in  substituting  experiment  and  observation  for  specula- 
tive theories.  He  paid  more  attention  than  his  prede- 
cessors to  diet  and  changes  of  weather.  Among  the 
most  remarkable  of  his  discoveries  is  that  of  critical  days 
in  fevers.  Of  the  numerous  (Greek)  works  ascribed  to 
him,  it  is  probable  that  some  were  composed  by  other 
writers,  as  there  were  several  noted  physicians  of  the 
same  name.  He  died  at  Larissa,  at  an  age  which  is 
variously  stated  between  eighty-five  and  one  hundred 
and  nine  years.  As  an  inventor  he  is  unrivalled  by 
any  physician  of  ancient  or  modern  times.  Among  his 
chief  works  are  "  Prognostics,"  "  Epidemics,"  "  Apho- 
risms," and  "  On  Air,  Water,  and  Locality." 

See  Soranus,  "Vita  Hippocratis,"  in  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca 
Graeca  ;"  Boerhaave,  "  De  Studio  Hippocratis,"  1721 ;  A.  de  Hal- 
LER,  "Bibliotheca  Medico-practica,"  1776;  G-  Cramer,  "Disser- 
tation sur  Hippocrate,"  1748;  Houcluros,  "  Essai  historique  et 
critique  sur  la  Vie  et  ies  ficrils  d'Hippocrate,"  1840;  G.  Sprengel, 
"Apologiedes  Hippocrates  und  seiner  Grundsatze,"  2  vols.,  17S9- 
92;  C.  P.  Gesner,  "  De  Divino  Hippocrate,"  1739;  Karl  F.  IVIar- 
cus,  "Dissertatio  de  Vita  Hippocratis,"  1838;  A.  Oettinger, 
"  Hippocratis  Vita,"  1836. 

Hippocrates,  a  Syracusan,  shared  with  his  brother 
Epicydes  the  command  of  the  army  which  defended 
Syracuse  against  Marcellus,  213  B.C.    Died  in.  212  B.C. 

Hippocrates  of  Chios,  a  noted  Greek  geometer, 
who  lived  in  the  fifth  century  before  Christ.  He  studied 
at  Athens,  where  he  opened  a  celebrated  school.  He 
first  discovered  the  quadrature  of  the  lune. 

Hip-po-da-mi'a  [Gr.  'l7r7ro(5a//em]  or  Hip-pod'a-me, 
a  daughter  of  QEnomaus,  which  see. 

Hip-pod'a-mus  ['l7r7r6(5a//of]  of  Miletus,  an  emi- 
nent Greek  architect,  lived  about  440  B.C.  He  built 
the  Piraeus  of  Athens,  under  the  order  of  Pericles,  and 
planned  the  city  of  Rhodes,  about  408  B.C. 

Hippolyte.    See  Hippolytus. 

Hip-poPy-te,  [l-mroTivrr],']  the  Queen  of  the  Amazons, 
was  called  a  daughter  of  Mars.  The  poets  feigned  that 
she  had  a  girdle  coveted  by  Eurystheus,  who  ordered 
Hercules  to  bring  it  to  him.  She  was  killed  by  Hercules. 

Hip-poPy-tus,  [Fr.  Hippolyte,  e'po'l^t';  It.  Ippo- 
LiTO,  ^p-poKe-to,  ]  Saint,  a  Christian  martyr  and 
ecclesiastical  writer,  who  has  recently  attracted  great 
attention  on  the  part  of  scholars  and  theologians.  He 
was  Bishop  of  Portus  Romanus,  the  harbour  of  Rome, 
and  the  author  of  numerous  learned  works,  highly  ex- 
tolled by  Eusebius,  Jerome,  and  other  Christian  Fathers. 
After  occupying  tTie  see  of  Portus  Romanus  eighteen 
years  or  more,  he  suffered  martyrdom  about  238  A.D. 

In  1842  M.  Minas  found  at  Mount  Athos  a  Greek 
manuscript  on  "  Heresies,"  which,  at  first  ascribed  to 
Origen,  was  proved  by  Bunsen  to  be  the  lost  work  of 
Hippolytus,  entitled  a  "  Refutation  of  all  the  Heresies." 
This  is  a  work  of  great  interest  and  importance  as  a 
monument  of  the  social  state,  intellectual  improvement, 
and  doctrinal  belief  of  the  Christians  of  the  third  cen- 
tury. Bunsen  published  in  1852,  in  English,  "Hippoly- 
tus and  his  Age ;  or,  The  Doctrine  and  Practice  of  the 
Church  of  Rome  under  Commodus  and  A.  Severus,  and 
Ancient  and  Modern  Christianity  Compared,"  (in  4  vols.) 

See  Eusebius,  "  Historia  Ecclesiastica ;"  Saint  Jerome,  "De 
Viribusillustribus;"  Baronius,  "Annales;"  Cave,  "Historia  Lite- 
raria;"  C.  Wordsworth,  "Saint  Hippolytus  and  the  Church  of 
Rome,"  etc.,  1S53;  Dollinger,  "  Hippolytus  und  Kallistus,"  1853; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  lor  January,  1853. 

Hippolytus,  ['iTTTTo/luTOf,]  a  son  of  Theseus  and  Hip- 
polyte, or  Antiope.  The  poets  relate  that  his  step- 
mother Phsedra  made  to  him  amorous  overtures  which 
he  rejected,  that  she  then  by  calumny  induced  Theseus 
to  curse  him,  and  that,  at  the  request  of  Theses,  Nep- 
tune caused  the  horses  of  Hippolytus  to  become  unruly, 
and  to  drag  him  until  he  was  dead. 

Hip-pom'e-don,  ['iTrTro/zedwv,]  a  Spartan  warrior, 
was  a  son  of  Agesilaus,  and  a  cousin  of  King  Agis  IV. 
He  supported  Agis  in  his  efforts  to  reform  the  Spartan 
institutions.    He  was  living  in  220  B.C. 

Hip-po'na,  the  name  of  a  goddess  who  presided  over 
horses.    Her  statues  were  placed  in  stables. 

Hip'po-nax,  ['iTnruva^,]  a  Greek  poet,  who  lived 
about  540  B.C.,  was  a  native  of  Ephesus.  Having  been 
expelled  from  that  city  by  its  tyrants,  he  removed  to 
Clazomene.    He  wrote  satires,  of  which  only  a  few  frag- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  yl,  guttttral ;  N,  nasal;  R, 


trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HIRAM 


92 


HJ^RNE 


ments  now  remain.  He  was  the  first  who  employed  the 
modification  of  the  Iambic  metre  termed  Choliambic. 

Hrram,  King  of  Tyre,  began  to  reign  about  1025  B.C. 
He  was"  contemporary  with  David  and  Solomon,  with 
whom  he  formed  an  alliance  and  always  maintained 
friendly  relations.    He  was  a  wise  and  successful  ruler. 

See  I.  Kings  v.,  and  I.  Chronicles  xiv. 

Hiranyakasipu.    See  Narasingha. 
Hire,  de  la.    See  La  Hire. 

Hirnheim,  h^Rn'hlm,  or  Hernhayni,  hlRn'him, 
(Hieronymus,)  a  German  monk  and  writer,  born  at 
Troppau  in  1635;  died  in  1679. 

Hirsch,  h^Rsh,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German 
economist  and  numismatist,  born  in  1698;  died  in  1780. 

Hirscher,  hdeRsh'er,  (Johann  Baptist,)  a  Swiss 
Catholic  theologian,  born  near  Altorf  in  1788.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  "Christian  Morality,"  ("  Christliche  Mo- 
ral," 3  vols.,  5th  edition,  1851.) 

Hirsching,  heeRsh'ing,  (Friedrich  Karl  Gottlob,) 
a  German  antiquary,  born  at  Uffenheim  in  1762,  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Erlangen  in  1792.  He  pub- 
lished several  useful  works,  among  which  are  a  "De- 
scription of  the  Best  Libraries  of  Germany,"  (4  vols., 
1790,)  and  a  "Historical  and  Literary  Manual  of  Emi- 
nent Persons  who  died  in  the  Eighteenth  Century," 
("  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch  beriihmter  Perso- 
nen,"  etc.,  1 794-1815,  17  vols.)  The  last  12  volumes  of 
this  were  edited  by  J.  H.  M.  Ernesti.    Died  in  1800. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hirschvogel,  hecRsh'fo'gel,  (Augustin,)  a  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1506;  died 
in  1560. 

Hirst,  (Henry  B.,)  an  American  poet,  born  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1813.  He  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1843.  ^^'^  ^''^^  poems  appeared  in  "Graham's 
Magazine,"  and  were  favourably  received.  He  after- 
wards published  "The  Coming  of  the  Mammoth,  the 
Funeral  of  Time,  and  other  Poems,"  (1845,)  and  "  Endy- 
mion,  a  Tale  of  Greece,  in  four  cantos,"  (1848.) 

Hirt,  heeRt,  (Aloys,)  a  German  antiquary  and  critic, 
born  in  Baden  in  1759.  He  published  "Architecture 
according  to  the  Principles  of  the  Ancients,"  (1809,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1836. 

Hirt  orHirth,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German  Orien- 
talist and  writer,  born  at  Apolda  in  17 19,  was  professor 
of  theology  at  Jena.    Died  in  1784. 

Hirtius.hir's he-US,  (AuLUS,)  a  Roman  consul  and  gen- 
eral, was  a  patrician  by  birth.  Cicero,  who  was  his  inti- 
mate friend,  speaks  highly  of  his  talents.  He  served 
under  Caesar  in  the  Gallic  war,  and  supported  his  party 
in  the  civil  war.  After  the  death  of  Caesar,  Hirtius 
joined  Brutus  against  Antony,  and  was  elected  consul 
with  C.  Vibius  Pansa.  In  43  B.C.  these  consuls  gained 
a  victory  over  Antony  at  Mutina,  (Modena ;)  but  Hirtius 
was  killed  in  the  action.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the 
author  of  the  continuation  of  "  Caesar's  Commentaries" 
which  forms  the  eighth  book  of  the  "  Gallic  War,"  and 
also  of  two  other  treatises  on  the  campaigns  of  Caesar, 
viz.,  the  Alexandrian  and  the  African. 

See  Cicero,  "  Philippics;"  Dion  Cassius,  books  xliv.,  xlv.,  xlvi. ; 
Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Latinis ;"  Niebuhr,  "Lectures  on  Roman 
History." 

Hirzel,  hdgRt'sel,  (Bernhard,)  a  Swiss  Orientalist, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1807,  translated  the  "Sakuntala"  of 
Kalidasa  from  the  Sanscrit  into  German.    Died  in  1847. 

Hirzel,  (Hans  Caspar,)  a  Swiss  physician  and  sen- 
ator, born  at  Zurich  in  1725,  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Rural 
Economy,"  and  "  The  Rustic  Socrates,"  (1761-74.)  Died 
in  1803. 

Hisely,  h^z'le',  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  Swiss  historian, 
born  in  1800,  wrote,  in  French,  "  Researches  on  William 
Tell,"  (1843,)  ^i"**^  other  works  on  Swiss  history. 

Hisham.    See  Hesham. 

Hisinger,  hee'sing-er,  or  Hising,  hee'sing,  (Wil- 
Helm,)  a  Swedish  mineralogist,  born  in  1766,  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Lethea  Suecica,  seu  petrificata 
Suecia?,"  (1837-40.)    Died  in  1852. 

Hi.sticeus,  his-te-ee'us,  [Gr.  'laTLoLog ;  Fr.  Histi^e, 
^s'te'i',]  an  able  and  crafty  ruler  of  Miletus,  to  whom 
Darius  intrusted  the  duty  of  guarding  a  bridge  over  the 
Danube  during  his  invasion  of  Scythia,  about  512  B.C. 


He  refosed  to  desert  Darius  at  the  instigation  cf  Mil- 
tiades ;  but  he  afterwards  revolted,  and  was  put  to  death 
by  the  Persians  about  494  B.C. 
Histiee.    See  Histi^us. 

Hita,  de,  di  ee'ta,  (Gines  Perez,)  a  Spanish  chroni- 
cler, born  in  Murcia,  lived  between  1550  and  1600.  He 
wrote  an  interesting  work,  entitled  "The  Civil  Wars  of 
Granada." 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Hitch'cock,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  American  geol- 
ogist, born  at  Deer  field,  Massachusetts,  May  24,  1793. 
He  became  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  in  Con- 
way, Massachusetts,  in  1821,  and  professor  of  chemistry 
and  natural  history  in  Amherst  College  in  1825.  In  1840 
he  published  his  "Elementary  Geology,"  a  valuable 
work,  which  passed  through  twenty-five  or  more  edi- 
tions. From  1845  to  1854  he  was  president  of  Amherst 
College,  the  prosperity  of  which  increased  greatly  under 
his  direction.  He  became  about  1845  pi'ofessor  of  natu- 
ral theology  and  geology  in  that  institution.  Having 
been  appointed  State  geologist  for  Massachusetts,  he 
made  a  geological  survey  of  that  State,  and  wrote 
"Reports  on  the  Geology  of  Massachusetts,"  (1833-41.) 
Among  his  numerous  works  are  "The  Geology  of  the 
Connecticut  Valley,"  (1823,)  "The  Religion  of  Geology 
and  its  Connected  Sciences,"  (1851,)  and  "Illustrations 
of  Surface-Geology,"  (1857.)  By  his  exposition  of  the 
fossil  footprints  of  the  Connecticut  valley  he  originated 
a  new  branch  of  science,  called  Ichnology.  He  published 
in  1848  "Fossil  Footprints  in  the  United  States."  He 
was  the  chief  founder  and  first  president  of  the  American 
Geological  Association.    Died  in  1864. 

See  "  Silliinan's  Journal,"  vol.  xli. ;  "  North  British  Review"  for 
February,  i860. 

Hitchcock,  (Ethan  Allen,)  an  American  writer  and 
military  officer,  a  grandson  of  Ethan  Allen,  was  born  in 
Vergennes,  Vermont,  in  1798.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1817,  and  served  in  the  Seminole  war  in  Florida. 
In  the  war  with  Mexico  he  was  attached  to  the  staff  of 
General  Scott,  and  in  1847  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general.  He  was  subsequently  sent  to  Cali- 
fornia, as  commandant  of  the  Pacific  division,  but  he 
returned  in  1854,  and  the  next  year  resigned  his  com- 
mission. He  wrote  "Swedenborg  a  Hermetic  Philo- 
sopher," (1858.)    Died  in  1870. 

Hitchcock,  (Peter,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in 
Cheshire,  Connecticut,  in  1780,  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1801.  He  represented  a  district  of  Ohio  in  Congress 
from  18 1 7  to  1 819,  and  was  subsequently  judge  of  the 
supreme  court  of  the  State  for  twenty-eight  years,  for 
six  years  of  which  period  he  was  chief  justice.  Died 
in  1853. 

Hittorf,  hit'toRf  or^e'toRf',  (Jacques  Ignace,)  an  emi- 
nent architect  and  antiquary,  born  at  Cologne  in  1793, 
was  a  pupil  of  Belanger.  He  was  appointed  architect  to 
the  King  of  France  in  1818,  after  which  he  visited  Italy. 
He  commenced  about  1834  the  church  of  Saint  Vincent 
de  Paul,  (in  the  Italian  style,)  and  designed  the  remark- 
able works  of  the  Place  de  Concorde.  Among  his  capital 
works  are  the  Grand  Circus,  (1840,)  the  Panorama,  the 
roof  of  which  is  supported  by  twelve  iron  cables,  and 
the  Cirque-Napoleon,  (1851.)  M.  Hittorf  acquired  a 
European  reputation  by  these  structures,  and  by  his 
writings  on  classical  art,  namely,  "  Polychromic  Archi- 
tecture of  the  Greeks,"  (1830,)  "Modern  Architecture 
of  Sicily,"  (1837,)  and  "Ancient  Architecture  of  Sicily." 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute.    Died  in  1867. 

See  "  Nouveile  Biographie  Generale." 

Hitzig,  hit'sio,  (Ferdinand,)  a  German  biblical  critic, 
born  in  Baden  in  1807.  He  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Zurich  in  1833.  ^^is  principal  works  are  a  "Transla- 
tion and  Exposition  of  Isaiah,"  (1833,)  and  commentaries 
on  the  other  greater  prophets,  (1841-50.) 

Hjserne  or  Hicerne,  he-CR'neh,  (Urban,)  a  Swedish 
])hysician  and  naturalist,  born  in  1641,  became  first  phy- 
sician to  the  king  Carl  XL,  and  vice-president  of  the 
Council  of  Mines.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Acta  etTentaniinachimica,"  ("  Chemical  Experiments," 
1712,)  and  "  Oryctographia  Suecana,"  (1716.)  Died  in 
1724. 

See  "  Biographiskt- Lexicon  bfver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y, long;    6, 6,  same, less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  sho7-t;  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good:  moon; 


HJELM  1 193  HOBBES 


Hjelm,  he-§lm',  (Peter  Jacob,)  a  Swedish  mineralo- 
gist, born  at  Wexio  in  1746,  was  president  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.    Died  in  18 13. 

Hjort,  he-oRt'  or  hyoRt,  (Peder,)  a  Danish  gram- 
marian, born  near  Copenhagen  in  1793.  After  an  ex- 
tensive tour  in  France  and  Italy,  he  became  professor 
of  German  at  Soroe.  He  wrote  several  successful  works 
on  grammar,  among  which  are  "Tydsk  Grammatik  for 
Dansktalende,"  ("German  Grammar  for  the  Use  of 
Danes,"  5th  edition,  185 1,)  "Tydsk  Lasebog  for  Dansk- 
talende," ("German  Reader  for  the  Use  of  Danes,"  3d 
edition,  1843,)  and  "Den  Danske  Borneven,"  ("The 
Danish  Child's  Friend,"  6th  edition,  1852.) 

Hlin,  hleen,  Hlina,  hlee'na,  or  Lyna,  lee'na,  [sup- 
posed to  be  derived  from  hlyna,  to  "  warm"  or  "  become 
warm,"]  in  the  Northern  mythology,  a  goddess,  whose 
office  it  is  to  watch  over  those  whom  Frigga  wishes  to 
guard  from  peril.  As  Frigga  represents  the  earth's 
fertilit}',  so  Hlin  typifies  the  mild  warmth  which  protects 
the  tender  plants  from  the  breath  of  the  Frost-giants. 

Hlodyn,  hloMin,  [in  all  probability  the  same  as  Hlu- 
DANA,  the  Latin  name  of  a  deity  of  the  ancient  Germans,] 
in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  mother  of  Thor,  and  prob- 
ably another  name  for  Fiorgyn  or  Fiorgvin,  (also  called 
the  mother  of  Thor,)  the  goddess  of  the  earth.  Thorpe 
derives  it  from  hla^a,  (allied  to  the  English  "lade"  and 
"  load,")  to  "  heap  up,"  to  "  load."  Fiorgynn  (as  a  mas- 
culine noun)  was  said  to  be  the  father  of  Frigga. 

See  Thorpe's  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  pp.  21  and  170. 

Hlubek,  hloo'bfik,  (Franz  Xaver  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man writer  on  rural  economy,  born  in  Silesia  in  1802.  His 
principal  works  are  "  The  Nutrition  of  Plants  and  Statics 
of  Agriculture,"  (1841,)  and  a  "Complete  Treatise  on 
Rural  Economy,"  (2  vols.,  1846.) 

HoadTey  or  Hoadly,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  divine, 
born  at  Westerham  in  1676,  took  orders  about  1700. 
His  zeal  for  religious  liberty  and  opposition  to  the  High- 
Church  principles  caused  his  promotion  in  171 5  to  the  see 
of  Bangor.  In  1717  he  preached  a  sermon  before  the  king, 
from  which  arose  the  great  Bangorian  controversy.  This 
was  maintained  by  Snape,  Law,  and  other  partisans  of 
the  High  Church  on  one  hand,  and  Hoadley  on  the  other. 
He  was  made  Bishop  of  Hereford  in  1721,  and  of  Win- 
chester in  1734.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Samuel 
Clarke,"  and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1761. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Hoadley,  (Be.njamin,)  M.D.,  eldest  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  London  in  1705,  and  graduated  in 
1729.  In  1742  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  king's 
household,  and  in  1746  to  that  of  the  Prince  of  Wales. 
He  wrote  "The  Susi)icious  Husband,"  a  comedy,  which 
was  successful,  and  assisted  Hogarth  in  the  "Analysis 
of  Beauty."    Died  in  1757. 

Hoadley,  (Rev.  John,)  LL.D.,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  171 1.  He  took  orders  in  1735, 
and  obtained  the  livings  of  Wrington,  Alresford,  etc. 
He  wrote  several  short  poems  and  dramas.  Died  in 
I776._ 

Hoar,  (Ebenkzer  Rockwood,)  an  able  lawyer,  the 
son  of  Samuel  Hoar,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Con- 
cord, Massachusetts,  in  1816.  His  mother  was  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  celebrated  Roger  Sherman.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1835,  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
about  1840,  and  practised  in  Boston.  In  1859  he  was 
appointed  a  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  attorney-general  of  the  United  States  in 
March,  1869. 

Hoar,  (Samuel,)  a  lawyer,  born  at  Lincoln,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1778,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  sent  by  the  Governor  of  Massachusetts  to  South 
Carolina  in  1844,  to  protect  the  rights  of  certain  free 
negro  sailors  who  had  been  imprisoned  in  Charleston ; 
but  he  was  driven  from  that  city  by  a  mob  before  he 
could  perform  his  mission.    Died  in  1856. 

Hoare,  (Prince,)  an  English  artist  and  dramatist, 
born  at  Bath  in  1754,  was  the  son  of  William  Hoare, 
noticed  below.  He  studied  painting  at  Rome,  and  in 
1799  was  chosen  foreign  secretary  of  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy. He  is  chiefly  known  as  the  author  of  dramas,  as 
"No  Song,  No  Supper,"  "Lock  and  Key,"  etc.  Died 
in  1834. 


Hoare,  (Sir  Richard  Colt,)  a  noted  English  anti- 
quary, born  in  1758,  married  in  1783  the  daughter  of 
Lord  Lyttleton,  and  inherited  the  title  of  baronet  in  1787. 
He  gained  distinction  as  a  topographer  and  antiquarian 
by  his  "  Ancient  and  Modern  History  of  Wiltshire,"  and 
wrote  several  other  works.    Died  in  1838, 

Hoare,  (William,)  R.A.,  an  English  historical  and 
portrait  painter,  born  at  Bath  about  1706.  He  was  one 
of  the  original  members  of  the  Royal  Academy,  After 
studying  many  years  at  Rome,  he  returned  to  Bath,  and 
worked  with  great  success,  especially  in  portraits.  Died 
in  1792, 

Ho'bart,  (Sir  Henry,)  was  lord  chief  justice  of  the 
court  of  common  pleas  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  "  Ho- 
bart's  Reports"  (1641)  have  been  often  reprinted. 

Ho'bart,  (John  Henry,)  D.D.,  born  in  Philadelphia 
in  i775,"was  ordained  in  1798.  He  was  successively 
pastor  at  New  Brunswick,  Hempstead,  and  Trinity 
Church,  New  York,  and  was  chosen  Bishop  of  New 
York  in  1816,  He  published  numerous  theological 
works.    Died  in  1830, 

See  DuYCKiNCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Hobbema  or  Hobbima,  hob'be-mi,  (Minderhout  ; 
Ger.  Meindert;  Fr.  Minard,)  an  excellent  Flemish 
landscape-painter,  was  born  probably  at  Coevorden  about 
1610.  Little  is  known  of  his  personal  history.  His 
favourite  subjects  were  simple  rural  and  sylvan  scenes 
diversified  by  a  winding  stream,  a  ruined  tower,  or  a  dis- 
tant village.  He  excelled  in  perspective  and  colouring. 
His  works  are  rare,  and  command  very  high  prices. 
About  fifteen  thousand  dollars  has  been  offered  for  one. 

See  Pilkington's  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Hobbes,  h6bz,  (Thomas,)  a  famous  English  philos- 
opher, born  at  Malmesbury  in  1588.  As  tutor  in  the 
family  of  the  Earl  of  Devonshire,  he  travelled  several 
times  on  the  continent  with  his  pupils,  and  became  ac- 
quainted with  Gassendi,  Descartes,  etc.  In  1628  he  pub- 
lished a  Latin  translation  of  Thucydides,  and  in  1642 
a  treatise  on  government, — "Elementa  Philosophica  de 
Cive."  He  was  a  royalist  in  the  civil  war,  and  an  ad- 
vocate of  unconditional  obedience  to  the  king.  In  1647 
he  was  mathematical  tutor  to  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
(Charles  II.,)  then  in  Paris,  His  treatise  on  "Human 
Nature"  (1650)  was  followed  by  the  "  Leviathan,"  (a 
complete  system  of  his  philosophy,  including  his  politi- 
cal, moral,  and  theological  views,)  which  made  a  great 
sensation,  and  gave  offence  to  theologians,  and — though 
it  was  hostile  to  liberal  principles — even  to  the  royalists. 
In  1666  this  work  and  his  "De  Cive"  were  censured  by 
Parliament,  Soon  after  the  restoration,  he  received  a 
pension  of  one  hundred  pounds.  His  paradoxical  opin- 
ions were  warmly  controverted  by  Cudworth,  Clarendon, 
and  others.  In  1675  he  published  a  translation  in  verse 
of  the  "Iliad"  and  the  "Odyssey,"  which  drew  from 
Pope  the  assertion  that  "his  poetry  is  too  mean  for 
criticism."  In  his  old  age,  which  was  passed  at  the 
seat  of  his  patron,  the  Earl  of  Devonshire,  he  published 
a  "History  of  the  Civil  War  from  1640  to  1660,"  and 
other  works,  "  A  permanent  foundation  of  his  fame," 
says  Mackintosh,  "consists  in  his  admirable  style,  which 
seems  to  be  the  very  perfection  of  didactic  language. 
Short,  clear,  precise,  pithy,  his  language  never  has  more 
than  one  meaning,  which  never  requires  a  second 
thought  to  find,  .  .  .  His  little  tract  on  'Human  Na- 
ture' has  scarcely  an  ambiguous  or  a  needless  word.  .  .  . 
Perhaps  no  writer  of  any  age  or  nation,  on  subjects  so 
abstruse,  has  manifested  an  equal  power  of  engraving 
his  thoughts  on  the  mind  of  his  readers,  .  .  .  His  style  so 
stimulates  attention  that  it  never  tires,  and,  to  those  who 
are  acquainted  with  the  subject,  appears  to  have  as  much 
spirit  as  can  be  safely  blended  with  reason,"  In  another 
place  he  says,  "  Hobbes  having  thus  struck  affections  out 
of  his  map  of  human  nature,  and  having  totally  misunder- 
stood (as  will  appear  in  a  succeeding  part  of  this  disserta- 
tion) the  nature  even  of  the  appetites,  it  is  no  wonder  that 
we  should  find  in  it  not  a  trace  of  the  moral  sentiments," 
"Hobbes,"  says  Macaulay,  "had,  in  language  more  pre- 
cise and  luminous  than  has  ever  been  employed  by  any 
other  metaphysical  writer,  maintained  that  the  will  of 
the  prince  was  the  standard  of  right  and  wrong,  .  .  . 
Thousands  eagerly  welcomed  a  theory  which,  while  it 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  sas  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HOB  HOUSE 


1 194 


HODT 


exalted  the  kingly  office,  relaxed  the  obligations  of  mo- 
rality, and  degraded  religion  into  a  mere  affair  of  state." 
("History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap,  ii.) 

"  Hobbes's  politics,"  says  Hume,  in  his  "  History  of 
England,"  *'  are  fitted  only  to  promote  tyranny,  and  his 
ethics  to  encourage  licentiousness.  Though  an  enemy 
to  religion,  he  partakes  nothing  of  the  spirit  of  skepticism, 
but  is  as  positive  and  dogmatical  as  if  human  reason 
could  attain  a  thorough  conviction  in  these  subjects." 
He  lived,  however,  in  formal  communion  with  the  An- 
glican Church.    Died  in  1679. 

See  "Vita  Thomae  Hobbes,"  in  Latin  verse,  by  himself,  1679; 
"  Life  of  Hobbes,"  by  Richard  Blackburne,  1681 ;  "  Biographia 
Britannica  ;"  Life  prefixed  to  Wood's"  Annals;"  Brucker,  "His- 
tory of  Philosophy;"  Mackintosh,  "View  of  the  Progress  of  Ethi- 
cal Philosophy;"  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Hob'house,  (Sir  Benjamin,)  M.P.,  an  English  states- 
man, born  in  1757,  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  House 
of  Commons  from  1797  to  1818,  held  several  civil  offices, 
and  was  attached  to  the  party  of  Fox.    Ke  wrote  a 

Treatise  on  Heresy,"  and  "  Remarks  on  France  and 
Italy."    Died  in  1831. 

Hobhouse,  (John  Cam,)  L<ord  Broughton,  an  Eng- 
lish statesman  and  writer,  born  in  1786,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  became  intimate  at  college  with  Lord 
Byron,  in  company  with  whom  he  visited  Spain,  Greece, 
and  Turkey  in  1809.  He  published  in  1812  "  A  Journey 
through  Albania,  and  other  Provinces  of  Turkey,  with 
Lord  Byron,"  which  is  the  best  account  of  that  country, 
and,  in  1816,  Letters  on  the  Hundred  Days,  or  Last 
Reign  of  Napoleon,"  (in  2  vols.)  He  was  elected  to  Par- 
liament by  the  Radicals  or  Liberals  of  Westminster  in 
1819,  and  obtained  some  success  as  a  speaker.  In  1831 
he  became  secretary  of  war  in  the  Whig  ministry.  He 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state  for  Ireland  in  1833,  and 
was  president  of  the  board  of  control  from  1846  to  1851. 
Died  in  June,  1869. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1813. 

Hoc'cleve  or  Oc'cleve,  (Thomas,)  an  early  English 
poet  and  lawyer,  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  about 
1370.  He  wrote  "  The  Story  of  Jonathan,"  and  other 
poems.  '*  His  poetry,"  says  Hallam,  "  abounds  with 
pedantry,  and  is  destitute  of  all  grace  and  spirit." 

Hoche,  A6sh  or  /iosh,  (Lazare,)  a  French  general,  who 
rose  from  a  very  humble  rank  in  society,  was  born  at 
Montreuil,  near  Paris,  in  1768,  and  entered  the  French 
guards  at  the  age  of  sixteen.  He  favoured  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1789,  and  was  made  a  lieutenant  in  1792.  Hav- 
ing studied  tactics,  and  served  with  credit  at  Thionville, 
Dunkirk,  etc.,  he  became  in  a  short  time  successively 
general  of  brigade  and  general  of  division,  and  at  the 
age  of  twenty-four  commanded  the  army  of  the  Moselle. 
In  1793  he  defeated  Wurmser  and  drove  him  out  of  Al- 
sace, soon  after  which  he  was  arrested  by  the  Jacobin 
leader  Saint-Just  and  imprisoned  at  Paris.  The  fall  of 
Robespierre  in  1794  restored  him  to  liberty  and  com- 
mand. Employed  to  subdue  the  royalists  of  La  Vendee, 
he  effected  much  by  his  address  and  moderation,  and  in 
1795  defeated  the  enemy  at  Quiberon.  In  1797,  com- 
manding the  army  of  the  Sambre  and  Meuse,  he  opened 
the  campaign  against  the  Austrians  by  a  daring  passage 
of  the  Rhine  in  their  presence,  and  defeated  them  in 
several  actions.  In  the  contest  between  the  Directory 
and  the  Legislative  Councils,  Hoche  favoured  the  former, 
who  invoked  the  aid  of  his  army,  but  soon  issued  counter- 
orders  and  employed  another  in  the  service.  He  died, 
of  poison,  (as  was  suspected,)  in  1797.  He  was  one  of 
the  noblest  spirits  and  ablest  generals  that  the  Revo- 
lution produced,  and,  if  he  had  lived,  might  have  been  a 
formidable  rival  of  Bonaparte. 

SeeDAUNou,  "  filoge  du  General  Hoche,"  1798 ;  Privat,  "Notes 
historiques  sur  la  Vie  dii  General  Hoche,"  1798;  Rousselin,  "Vie 
de  Lazare  Hoche,"  1798;  "Vie  et  Pensees  du  General  Hoche," 
Berne;  Champrobert,  "Notice  historique  siir  Lazare  Hoche," 
1840;  DouRiLi.E,  "  Histoire  de  Lazare  Hoche,"  1844;  J.  J.  Abel, 
"Geschichte  der  Krankheit  und  des  Todes  des  Obergenerals  L. 
Hoche,"  1798. 

Hochstetter,  hoK'st^t'ter,  (Andreas  Adam,)  a  Ger- 
man Protestant  divine,  born  at  Tiibingen  in  1688;  died 
in  1717. 

Hocquincourt,  d',  do'k^N^kooR',  (Charles  de 
MoNCHY,)  born  in  Picardy  in  1599,  became  marshal  of  | 


France  in  1651,  and  commanded  the  royal  army  which 
was  defeated  by  the  Prince  of  Conde  in  1652.  He  de- 
serted to  the  Spaniards,  and  was  killed  at  Dunkirk  in  1658. 

Holder,  Ho'dur,  (HoSr.)  or  Hod,  written  also 
Hoder,  the  blind  god  in  the  Norse  mythology.  Through 
the  cunning  malice  of  Loki,  he  became  the  slayer  of  his 
brother  Balder,  whose  death  Vali  avenged  by  killing 
Hoder.    (See  Balder,  and  Vall) 

Hodge,  (Charles,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  American 
theologian,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1797.  He  graduated 
at  Princeton  in  1815,  and  studied  divinity  at  the  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary,  in  which  he  became  professor  of 
Oriental  and  Biblical  literature  in  1822.  In  1840  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  chair  of  didactic  and  exegetical  theology, 
and  in  1852  added  to  it  the  professorship  of  polemic 
theology.  In  1825  Dr.  Hodge  established,  and,  with  but 
one  brief  interruption,  has  since  edited,  the  "  Biblical 
Repertory  and  Princeton  Review."  It  is  now  the  oldest 
theological  quarterly  in  America.  It  was  the  chief  organ 
of  the  Old-School  division  of  the  Presbyterian  Church. 
Two  volumes  of  his  contributions  to  this' "  Review,"  en- 
titled "  Princeton  Theological  Essays,"  were  published 
in  1846-47,  and  a  third  volume,  "  Reviews  and  Essays," 
in  1857. 

Hodges,  hSj'ez,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  physician, 
who  practised  in  London,  and  gained  distinction  by  his 
faithful  services  during  the  great  plague  of  1665,  when  the 
most  of  the  doctors  fled  from  the  danger.  He  wrote,  in 
Latin,  an  account  of  this  calamity,  (1672,)  He  died  in 
prison  for  debt  in  1684. 

Hodges,  (William,)  R.A.,  an  English  painter,  born 
in  London  about  1744.  He  painted  landscapes  with 
moderate  success,  and  was  employed  as  draughtsman 
in  Captain  Cook's  second  voyage,  (1772.)  He  after- 
wards visited  India  and  painted  some  Indian  views.  He 
published  "Select  Views  in  India,"  (2  vols.,  1788,)  and 
"Travels  in  India  in  1780-83,"  (1793.)    Died  in  1797. 

H6dg''km-son,  (Eaton,)  born  at  Anderton,  Cheshire, 
in  1789,  is  distinguished  for  his  researches  respecting  the 
strength  of  iron  pillars,  rails,  etc.  He  discovered  that 
an  iron  rail  in  the  form  of  an  inverted  letter  T  will  sup- 
port a  greater  pressure  than  any  other.  From  numerous 
experiments  he  derived  formulae  for  solid  and  hollow 
iron  pillars,  which  are  generally  adopted.  He  co- 
operated with  Mr.  Stephenson  in  the  construction  of  the 
tubular  Britannia  bridge  about  1845.  He  wrote  several 
valuable  treatises  on  the  strength  of  iron  and  other  ma- 
terials used  in  building.  Died  in  1861. 

Hodg'son,  (Francis,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  1781, 
was  a  friend  of  Lord  Byron,  and  provost  of  Eton  College. 
He  produced  a  version  of  Juvenal,  (1808,)  "Sacred 
Lyrics,"  (1842,)  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1852. 

Hodgson,  (Rev.  John,)  an  English  antiquary,  pub- 
lished a  "History  of  Northumberland,"  (vol.  i.,  1827; 
vol.  iii.,  1841.)    Died  in  1845. 

Hodgson,  (Robert,)  an  English  divine,  was  a  nephew 
of  Bishop  Porteus.  He  became  Dean  of  Carlisle  in  1820. 
He  published,  besides  numerous  sermons,  a  "  Ljfe  of 
Bishop  Porteus,"  ( 1 811,)  and  edited  the  works  of  Porteus, 
(6  vols.,  1816.)    Died  in  1844. 

Hodierna,  o-de-^R'ni,  or  Adierna,  a-de-^R'nl,  (Gi- 
amhattista,)  a  Sicilian  astronomer  and  priest,  born  at 
Ragusa  in  1597,  verified  the  positions  of  the  fixed  stars, 
and  discovered  the  motions  of  Jupiter's  satellites.  His 
"  Medicaeorum  Ephemerides"  (1656)  is  the  first  book, 
says  Lalande,  "in  which  we  find  observations  on  the 
eclipses  of  Jupiter's  satellites."  He  wrote  a  treatise  on 
the  System  of  Saturn,  (1657,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1660. 

Hodius.    See  Hody. 

Ho'dy,  [Lat.  Ho'dius,]  (Humphry,)  D.D.,  an  Eng 
lish  divine  and  eminent  scholar,  born  at  Oldconibe  in 
1659.  About  1694  he  became  chaplain  to  Archbishop 
Tillotson,  He  was  chosen  professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford 
in  1698,  and  Archdeacon  of  Oxford  in  1704.  He  pub- 
lished an  excellent  work  "  On  the  Original  Texts  of  the 
Bible,  and  the  Greek  and  Latin  Versions,"  ("  De  Bibli- 
orum  Textis  Originalibus,"  etc.,  1705,)  also,  "On  the 
Illustrious  Greek  Restorers  of  the  Greek  Language," 
(1742,)  which  is  commended  by  Hallam.    Died  in  1706. 

See  Dr.  Jebb,  "Notitia  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  H.  Hodii." 


a,  e,  1, 6,  II,  y,  loitg;  \    b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,    short;  a,    i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HOE 


HOFFMANN 


Hoe,- (Richard  March,)  born  in  New  York  City  in 
1812,  is  known  as  the  inventor  of  Hoe's  type-revolving 
printing-press,  which  makes  the  impression  on  both  sides 
of  the  sheet  at  the  same  time.  It  is  capable  of  striking 
off,  it  is  said,  fifteen  thousand  copies  per  hour,  and  is 
especially  useful  in  large  newspaper  establishments. 

Hoe,  or  Hoe  von  Hoenegg,  ho''eh  fon  ho'eh-n&k'', 
(Matthias,)  a  German  theologian  and  controversialist, 
born  in  1580;  died  in  1645. 

See  Taubner,  "Memoria  M.  Hoe  ab  Hoenegg,"  Dresden,  1792. 

Hoeck.    See  ^pinus  and  Hoek. 

Hoefer,  ho'fer,  [Fr.  pron.  ho'fair',]  (Johann  Chris- 
tian Ferdinand,  a  German  writer,  distinguished  for 
his  learning  and  versatility,  was  born  at  Doeschnitz,  in 
Thuringia,  in  181 1.  He  became  in  1834  secretary  to 
Victor  Cousin,  whom  he  assisted  in  the  translation  of 
the  works  of  Plato.  He  left  Cousin  in  1836,  after  which 
he  studied  medicine,  and  practised  several  years  in  Paris. 
In  1843  he  was  sent  to  Germany  by  M.  Cousin  to 
examine  the  German  methods  of  medical  instruction 
and  practice.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
*'  History  of  Chemistry  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the 
Present,"  (2  vols.,  1842.)  In  185 1  he  was  selected  by 
MM.  Didot  to  direct  their  great  biographical  dictionary, 
♦'Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale,"  for  which  he  wrote 
able  articles  on  Aristotle,  Caesar,  Columbus,  Descartes, 
Erasmus,  and  others. 

Hoefken.    See  Hofken. 

Hoefnaeghel,  hoof  nS'gel  or  hoof  nl'nel,  (George,) 
a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1545,  was  painter 
to  the  Elector  of  Bavaria.  He  excelled  in  water-colour 
painting.    Died  at  Vienna  in  1600. 

Hoek  or  Hoeck,  van,  vtn  hook,  also  written  Houk, 
(Jan,)  a  Flemish  painter  of  history,  born  at  Antwerp 
about  1600,  was  one  of  the  most  skilful  piipils  of  Rubens. 
He  worked  for  a  long  time  in  Germany,  and  was  patron- 
ized by  the  emperor  Ferdinand  II.  He  passed  his  latter 
years  in  Antwerp.  His  design  and  colouring  are  highly 
praised  He  was  very  successful  in  portraits.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  "  Samson  and  Delilah,"  and  "  Christ 
on  the  Cross,"  (at  Bruges.)    Died  in  1650. 

See  J.  C.  Weverman,  "De  Schllderkonst  der  Nederlanders." 

Hoek,  (Robert,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
In  1609,  was  a  skilful  painter.  He  painted  miniatures 
which  were  admired  for  extreme  fineness  of  touch  and 
beauty  of  colour.  His  principal  works  are  "The  Twelve 
Apostles,"  an  army,  and  a  camp.    Died  in  1668. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Hoelderlin.    See  Holuerlin. 

Hoelty.    See  Holty. 

Hoeltzlinus.    See  Holtzlinus. 

Hoenir  or  Honir,  ho'nir,  [etymology  unknown,]  in 
the  Norse  mythology,  a  god  who,  with  Lodur,  assisted 
Odin  in  creating  mankind.  He  is  supposed  to  have  con- 
tributed as  his  portion  sense  or  percej^tion,  while  Odin 
gave  breath  and  vitality,  and  Lodur  animal  warmth  and 
the  flowing  (or  circulating)  blood.  (See  Odin.) 

Hoepfner.    See  Hopfner. 

Hoepken.    See  Hopken. 

Hoerberg.    See  Horberg. 

Hoeschel.    See  Hoschel. 

Hoest.    See  Host. 

Hoet,  hoot,  (Gerard,)  an  eminent  Dutch  historical 
painter,  born  at  Bommel  in  1648.  He  worked  mostly  at 
Utrecht  and  the  Hague.  Among  his  chief  works  are 
the  "  Rape  of  the  Sabines,"  and  the  *'  Sacrifice  of  Dido." 
"The  talent  of  Hoet,"  says  Descamps,  "is  known 
throughout  Europe.  He  composed  with  much  genius, 
and  his  works  display  vast  erudition."    Died  in  1733. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Hoeven,  van  der,  vtn  der  hoo'ven,  (Jan,)  an  able 
Dutch  naturalist,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1801,  became 
professor  of  zoology  at  Leyden  in  1835.  His  principal 
work  is  an  excellent  "Manual  of  Zoology,"  ("Hand- 
boek  der  Dierkunde,"  2  vols.,  1827-33,)  which  has  been 
translated  into  English,  (London,  1854.)  His  brother 
Abraham  (1798-1855)  was  professor  of  theology  at 
Amsterdam  and  Utrecht,  and  was  considered  one  of 
the  most  eloquent  orators  of  Holland. 

Hoeyer.    See  Hoyer. 


Hofacker,  hofik^er,  (Carl  Christoph,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1749 ;  died  in  1793. 
Hofer.    See  Hoefer. 

Hofer,  hoTer,  (Andreas,)  a  celebrated  Tyrolese  pa- 
triot, born  in  the  valley  of  the  Passeyr  in  1767.  On 
the  breaking  out  of  the  insurrection  against  the  French 
and  the  Bavarian  government,  to  which  the  Tyrol  had 
been  lately  transferred,  he  entered  into  secret  negotiations 
with  the  archduke  John  for  the  deliverance  of  the  coun- 
try. In  April,  1809,  with  the  assistance  of  an  Austrian 
army,  Hoefer,  at  the  head  of  the  Tyrolese  peasantry, 
defeated  the  French  and  Bavarian  troops  at  the  Ster- 
zinger  Moose.  In  the  May  following,  the  Austrians, 
under  General  Chasteler,  suffered  a  defeat  from  the 
superior  numbers  of  the  enemy  near  Worgl.  Soon  after 
this  the  Tyrolese  were  again  victorious  in  an  engagement 
near  Mount  Isel ;  but,  the  Austrian  army  being  with- 
drawn after  the  battle  of  Wagram,  the  country  was  once 
more  invaded  by  Marshal  Lefebvre.  On  the  13th  of 
August,  1809,  Hofer,  with  his  army  of  Tyrolese  peasants, 
signally  defeated  the  French  commander  near  Mount 
Isel,  after  a  long  and  obstinate  conflict ;  but,  overpowered 
at  last  by  the  reinforcements  sent  from  France,  he  took 
refuge  in  the  mountains.  Being  soon  after  betrayed  by 
a  former  friend,  he  was  tried  at  Mantua,  and  was  shot 
in  February,  18 10. 

See  "Andreas  Hofer  und  die  Tyroler  Insurrection,"  Munich, 
1811;  HoKMAYR,  "Geschichte  Andreas  Hofer's  Sandwirths,"  etc., 
1809;  Becker,  "Andreas  Hofer  und  der  Freiheitskampf  in  T\to1," 
3  vols.,  1842;  "Memoirs  of  Andrew  Hofer,"  translated  frorn  the 
German  by  C.  H.  Hall;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1817. 

Hoff,  von,  fon  hoff,  (Karl  Ernst  Adolf,)  a  German 
geologist,  born  at  Gotha  in  1771,  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Natural  Changes  of  the  Surface  of  the  Globe,"  (5 
vols.,  1822-41,)  and  edited,  from  1801  to  1816,  "The 
Almanac  of  Gotha,"  a  statistical  publication  of  very 
high  character.    Died  in  1837. 

HofFbauer,  hof  bowser,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  Ger- 
man writer,  born  at  Bielefeld  in  1766,  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Researches  into  the  Diseases  of  the  Soul," 
(3  vols.,  1802-07.)    Died  in  1827. 

HSff'man,  (Charles  Fenno,)  a  popular  American 
poet  and  novelist,  born  in  New  York  in  1806,  graduated 
at  Columbia  College.  He  studied  law,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  about  1828.  In  1835  he  produced  a  successful 
descriptive  work  entitled  "  Winter  in  the  West."  He 
edited  successively  "The  American  Monthly  Magazine" 
and  "The  New  York  Mirror."  Among  his  works  are 
"The  Vigil  of  Faith,  and  other  Poems,"  and  a  number 
of  songs.  "No  American,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "is 
comparable  to  him  as  a  song-writer."  He  published  in 
1840  "  Greyslaer,"  a  novel.  Since  about  1850  he  has 
been  afflicted  with  a  mental  derangement. 

See  Gkiswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America,"  and  "Prose 
Writers  of  America;"  Duyckinck,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Lite- 
rature," vol.  ii. 

Hoifman,  (David,)  an  eminent  American  lawyer, 
born  in  Baltimore  in  1784,  was  professor  of  law  in  the 
University  of  Maryland  from  1817  to  1836.  He  after- 
wards resided  in  Philadelphia.  He  published  a  "Course 
of  Legal  Study,"  which  has  been  highly  commended. 
According  to  Judge  Story,  "it  contains  by  far  the  most 
perfect  system  for  the  study  of  the  law  that  has  ever 
been  offered  to  the  public."  He  also  wrote  or  compiled 
"  Chronicles  selected  from  the  Originals  of  Cartaphilus 
the  Wandering  Jew,"  (2  vols.,  1855.)    Died  in  1854. 

See  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1830. 

Hoffman,  /;ofm6N',  (Franqois  BENofT,)  an  able 
French  critic  and  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Nancy  in  1760. 
He  produced  many  successful  operas  and  dramas,  among 
which  are  "  Phaedra,"  (1786,)  "Adrien,"  (1792,)  and 
"  Stratonice,"  a  comedy,  (1792.)  He  wrote  literary  cri- 
tiques for  the  "Journal  de  I'Empire"  and  the  "Journal 
des  Debats"  for  many  years.  "  He  had,"  says  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "  many  qualities  of  a  true  critic, — conscience  and 
independence.  ...  He  was  learned  with  variety  and 
without  pedantry."    Died  in  1828. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi"  for  February  25,  1850; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Hoffmann,  hoPmin,  (Andreas  Gottlieb,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  in  the  county  of  Mansfeld  in  1796,  be- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  H,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HOFFMANN 


HOFLAh 


came  professor  of  theology  at  Jena  in  1822.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Treatise  on  Hebrew  Antiquities,"  (1832,)  and 
wrote  many  articles  for  the  "  Encyclopaedia"  of  Ersch 
and  Gruber. 

Hoffmann,  (August  Heinrich,)  an  eminent  lyric 
poet  and  philologist,  called  also  HoflFmann  von  Fal- 
lersleben,  (fSKlers-li'ben,)  was  born  at  Fallersleben,  in 
Hanover,  in  1798.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Bonn, 
and  became  in  1835  professor  of  the  German  language 
and  literature  at  Breslau.  He  published  "  German  Social 
Songs  of  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries," 
and  "  Mines  for  the  History  of  the  German  Language 
and  Literature ;"  also  ballads,  songs  for  children,  war 
lyrics,  and  other  poems,  which  are  greatly  admired  for 
their  simplicity,  fervour,  and  pathos. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  "  Levens- 
schets  van  A.  H.  Hoffmann  von  Fallersleben." 

Hoffmann,  (Caspar,)  a  German  physician,  born  at 
Gotha  in  1572,  published  numerous  works  on  medicine. 
Died  at  Altdorf  in  1648. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hoffmann,  hofmin,  (Charles  Alexander,)  a 
Polish  writer,  born  in  Masovia  in  1798,  produced  in  1827 
a  Polish  translation  of  the  works  of  Dr.  Franklin. 
Having  been  identified  with  the  insurrection  of  1830,  he 
was  driven  into  exile  in  1832.  He  was  the  husband  of 
Clementina  Hoffmanowa,  noticed  below. 

Hoffmann,  (Christian  Gottfried,)  a  German  juris- 
consult, born  at  Lauban,  in  Lusatia,  in  1692,  became 
professor  of  law  at  Leipsic  in  1718,  and  afterwards  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation 
by  his  writings,  (in  Latin,)  among  which  are  a  "  History 
of  the  Roman  Law  of  Justinian,"  (1720-24,)  and  "Li- 
brary of  German  Public  Law,"  ("  Bibliotheca  Juris  pub- 
lici  Germanici,"  etc.,  1734.)    Died  in  1735. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  Hir- 
SCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Hoffmann,  (Christoph  Ludwig,)  an  eminent  medi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Rheda,  in  Westphalia,  in  1721,  was 
physician  to  the  Electors  of  Cologne  and  Mentz.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  treatises  "On  the  wSmall-Pox," 
(2  vols.,  1778,)  and  "On  the  Sensibility  and  Irritability 
of  the  Diseased  Parts,"  (1779.)    Died  in  1807. 

Hoffmann  or  Hoffmanowa,  hof-mi-no'vi,  (Cle- 
mentina,) a  popular  Polish  authoress,  whose  maiden 
name  was  TansKa,  was  born  at  Warsaw  in  1798,  and 
liberally  educated.  She  produced  about  1820,  in  Polish, 
her  "  Memorial  of  a  Good  Mother,"  which  had  a  great 
popularity.  She  was  married  to  Charles  A.  Hoffmann, 
with  whom  she  removed  to  Paris  about  1832.  Among 
her  works,  which  w^re  published  collectively  in  1833,  (in 
10  vols.,)  are  letters,  historical  tales,  essays,  and  biog- 
raphies of  eminent  Poles.    Died  in  1845. 

Hoffmann,  (Daniel,)  a  German  Lutheran  divine, 
born  at  Halle  about  1538,  was  professor  of  theology  at 
Helmstedt.  He  was  censured  for  teaching  that  the 
truths  of  philosophy  conflict  with  the  truths  of  religion. 
Died  in  161  \. 

Hoffmann,  (Ernst  Theodor  Wolfgang;  after- 
wards called  Ernst  Theodor  Amadeus,)  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  and  original  of  German  story-tellers, 
( Erzdhler,)  was  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1776.  He  studied 
law,  and  subsequently  received  several  minor  appoint- 
ments under  the  government.  In  1816  he  became  coun- 
sellor of  the  royal  court  of  judicature  at  Berlin.  Died 
in  1822,  his  health  having  been  previously  undermined 
by  dissipation.  His  gifted  and  versatile  mind  led  him 
to  the  cultivation  of  music,  poetry,  and  art.  But  he  "is 
celebrated  chiefly,"  says  Dr.  Hedge,  "  for  his  successful 
use  of  the  magic  and  demoniac  element  in  fiction.  He 
does  not  seek  to  make  the  flesh  creep  and  the  hair  bris- 
tle, but  aims  rather  at  the  diaphragm.  He  views  all 
these  infernalia  on  the  humorous  side ;  and  if  any  one 
trait  is  particularly  prominent  in  his  writings,  it  is  irony." 
Menzel,  after  alluding  to  the  strange  combination  which 
his  mind  exhibited  of  manliness,  humour,  poetry,  and 
morbid  sensibility,  remarks,  "  From  the  devil  down  to  a 
wry-faced  child's  doll,  from  the  dissonance  of  life  which 
rends  the  soul  down  to  a  dissonance  in  music  which  only 
rends  the  ear,  the  immeasurable  kingdom  of  the  ugly, 
the  repulsive,  the  annoying,  was  gathered  around  him. 


and  his  descriptions  paint  alternately  these  tormenting 
objects,  and  the  torments  which  they  prepare  for  a  beau- 
tiful soul,  with  inimitable  vividness  and  truth."  Again, 
he  says,  "  Hoffmann's  innermost  being  was  music ;  and 
the  prayer  of  Saint  Anthony  is  never  wanting  to  his 
hellish  caricatures,  nor  the  Christmas  bell  to  the  witches' 
sabbath."  Among  his  principal  works  are  "  Phantasie- 
stiicke  in  Callot's  Manier,"  (4  vols.,  1814,)  and  "Sera- 
pions  Briider,"  (4  vols.,  1819-21.)  His  various  other 
tales,  etc.  would  fill  several  volumes. 

See  FuNCK,  "Aus  dem  Leben  zweier  Dichter  E.  T.  W.  Hoff- 
mann und  F.  G.  Wetzel,"  1836;  J.  E.  Hitzig,  "Aus  E.  T.  W. 
Hoffmanns  Leben,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1823;  Gervinus,  " Geschichte  der 
Deutschen  Dichtung,"  1853;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine 
Encyklopaedie  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale  ;"  "  Foreign  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  July,  1827. 

Hoffmann,  [Lat.  Hoffman'nus,]  (Friedrich,)  an 
illustrious  German  physician,  was  born  at  Halle  in  1660. 
He  studied  at  Jena,  and,  after  travelling  in  England  and 
Holland,  settled  as  a  physician  at  Halberstadt  in  1688. 
On  the  establishment  of  the  university  at  Halle  he  was 
appointed  in  1693  first  professor  of  medicine  by 
the  Elector  Frederick  HI.  of  Brandenburg.  On  the 
invitation  of  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia,  he  removed  in 
1708  to  Berlin,  where  he  was  made  royal  physician,  but 
still  retained  his  professorship.  He  returned  in  1712 
to  Halle,  where  he  died  in  1742.  Hoffmann  rendered 
most  important  services  to  practical  medicine  by  his  ex- 
periments with  various  remedies  :  his  "  Elixirium  Vis- 
cerale"  and  "  Liquor  Anodynus  Mineralis,"  commonly 
called  "  Hoffmann's  Anodyne,"  are  still  popular,  and  he 
was  one  of  the  first  to  bring  mineral  waters  into  more 
general  use.  He  wrote,  in  Latin  and  German,  numerous 
medical  works,  among  which  is  "  Medicina  Rationalis 
systematica,"  (9  vols.,  1718-40.)  His  complete  works 
were  published  in  6  vols,  quarto,  (1740.) 

See  Schulze,  "VitaF.  Hoffmanni,"  prefixed  to  his  Works,  1730; 
Baldinger,  "Programma  de  F.  Hoffmanni  et  H.  Boerhavii  Meritis 
in  Medicinam  practicam,"  1772;  Loven,  "Dissertatio  de  F.  Hoff- 
manno  ejusque  Medicina  Rationali  systematica,"  1846;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Gendrale." 

Hoffmann,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German  writer 
on  political  economy,  born  at  Breslau  in  1765.  He  be- 
came councillor  of  state  in  Berlin  in  1808,  and  attended 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1814.  Among  his  works  is 
"  The  Science  of  Money,"  ("  Die  Lehre  vom  Gelde,'' 
1838.)    Died  in  1847. 

Hoffmann,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Swiss  scholar,  born 
at  Bale  in  1635,  obtained  in  1667  the  chair  of  Greek  in 
his  native  city.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  Universal 
Lexicon,  Historical,  Geographical,  Political,"  etc.,  (in 
Latin,  1667.)    Died  in  1706. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hoffmann,  (Moritz,)  a  German  physician  and  bota- 
nist, born  at  Fiirstenwalde  in  1622,  became  professor  of 
surgery  at  Altdorf,  and  published  several  medical  and 
botanical  works.    Died  in  1698. 

His  son,  Johann  Moritz,  born  at  Altdorf  in  1653, 
was  a  physician  and  botanist.  He  practised  at  Anspach 
with  success,  and  wrote  on  anatomy,  etc.    Died  in  1727. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hoffmann,  hofmin,  (Tycho,)  a  Danish  writer,  was 
keeper  of  the  seals  of  Denmark.  He  wrote  "  Historical 
Portraits  of  Eminent  Danes."    Died  in  1754. 

Hoffmannsegg,  von,  fon  hofm§,n-s^g^  (Johann 
Centurius,)  Count,  a  German  botanist,  born  at  Dres- 
den in  1766.  Having  explored  the  botanical  riches  of 
Portugal  for  several  years,  he  returned  to  Germany  in 
1804,  and  published  with  M.  Link  his  magnificent  "Por- 
tuguese Flora,"  (in  French,  22  parts,  1809-33.)  ^'^^^  in 
1849. 

Hoffmannus.    See  Hoffmann. 

Hofken  or  Hoefken,  hof  ken,  (Gustav,)  a  German 
writer  on  national  economy,  born  at  Hattingen,  in  Prus- 
sia, in  1811.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "The 
Condition,  Policy,  and  Development  of  the  Power  of 
England,"  (2  vols.,  1846.) 

Holland,  (Barbara,)  a  popular  English  writer,  born 
at  Sheffield  in  1770,  was  the  daughter  of  Robert  Wreaks. 
She  became  the  wife  of  Thomas  Hofland,  the  painter,  ni 
1808.  She  wrote  numerous  novels  and  moral  tales,  which 
had  a  wide  circulation.    The  "Son  of  a  Genius"  (1813) 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HOFLAND 


IS  probably  her  most  successful  work.  She  was  patron- 
ized by  Queen  Charlotte.  The  name  of  her  first  husband 
was  Hoole.  It  is  said  that  three  hundred  thousand 
copies  of  her  books  were  sold  in  Great  Britain.  Among 
the  titles  of  them  are  "Decision,"  "Fortitude,"  "Bea- 
trice," and  "  Self-Denial."  Died  in  1844. 
See  T.  Ramsay,  "Life  of  Barbara  Hofland,"  1849. 

Hoflaud,  (Thomas  Christopher,)  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish landscape-painter,  born  at  Worksop,  in  Nottingham- 
shire, in  1777.  He  married  Mrs,  Hoole,  who,  under  the 
name  of  Hofland,  became  well  known  as  a  novelist,  and 
resided  mostly  in  or  near  London.  His  subjects  were 
chosen  from  the  river  and  lake  scenery  of  the  British 
Islands.  He  published  a  richly  illustrated  volume  called 
"The  British  Angler's  Manual,"  (1839.)    Died  in  1843. 

Hofmann,  hoFmSn,  (August  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
chemist,  born  at  Giessen  in  April,  1818.  He  has  made 
discoveries  in  organic  chemistry,  on  which  he  has  con- 
tributed several  memoirs  to  the  "  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions," and  has  attained  eminence  as  a  lecturer  on 
chemistry  at  the  Royal  Institution.  In  1855  he  was 
appointed  chemist  to  the  mint.  He  edited  Fownes's 
"Chemistry,"  (1858.) 

Hofmann,  (Johann  Christian  Konrad,)  a  Prot- 
estant German  theologian,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1810. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  "  Prophecy  and  Fulfil- 
ment," (2  vols.,  1841-44.) 

Hofmannswaldau,  von,  fon  hoFm&ns-^IKdow, 
sometimes  written  Hofmandswaldau,  (Christian 
Hofmann,)  a  German  poet,  born  at  Breslau  in  1618. 
He  published  in  1673  a  collection  of  poems,  entitled 
"  Sinnreiche  Heldenbriefe."    Died  in  1679. 

See  Gervinus,  "Geschichte  derDeutschen  Nationalliteratur." 

Ho'gan,  (John,)  an  Irish  sculptor,  born  at  Tallow, 
Waterford  county,  in  1800.  He  studied  in  Rome,  1823 
-29,  and  settled  in  Dublin.  Among  his  chief  works  is 
"The  Drunken  Faun,"  for  which  he  received  a  medal 
at  the  Exposition  of  Paris  in  1851.    Died  about  1858. 

Ho'garth,  (George,)  a  Scottish  writer  on  music,  born 
about  1796,  is  the  father-in-law  of  Charles  Dickens,  the 
novelist.  He  published  "Musical  History,  Biography, 
and  Criticism,"  (2  vols.,  1836,)  which  is  highly  com- 
mended, and  "Memoirs  of  the  Musical  Drama,"  (2  vols., 
1838.)  He  became  musical  and  dramatic  critic  for  the 
London  "Daily  News"  in  1846.   Died  in  1870. 

Hogarth,  (William,)  a  celebrated  satirical  painter, 
born  in  London  in  1697,  was  apprenticed  to  a  silversmith, 
whom  he  left  in  17 18.  He  then  earned  a  subsistence 
for  some  time  by  engraving,  and  studied  drawing  in  the 
academy  of  Sir  James  Thornhill,  whose  daughter  he 
married  in  1730.  He  acquired  skill  in  portraits,  but 
soon  exchanged  that  branch  of  art  for  one  more  suited 
to  his  original  genius, — the  dramatic  or  satirical  species, 
in  which  he  is  unrivalled.  In  1733  he  published  a 
series  of  engravings  called  the  "  Harlot's  Progress," 
which  had  a  large  sale,  and  was  followed  by  the  "  Rake's 
Progress,"  "Marriage  a  la  Mode,"  "Industry  and  Idle- 
ness," "  Beer  Lane,"  and  "  The  Enraged  Musician."  His 
pictures  aboimd  in  comic  humour,  and  display  great  skill 
in  caricature,  as  well  as  great  originality  and  fertility  of 
invention.  Ilis  works  have  also  the  merit  of  conveying 
useful  lessons  of  morality.  In  1753  he  published  his 
"Analysis  of  Beauty,"  in  which  he  maintains  that  a 
waving  line  or  curve  is  the  essential  element  of  beauty. 
In  1757  he  became  painter  to  the  king.    Died  in  1764. 

See  Charlks  Lamb,  "  On  the  Genius  of  Hogarth  ;"  "Anecdotes 
of  Hogarth,  by  himself,  with  an  Essay  on  his  Life"  by  Nichols, 
1833;  "  Encyclopjedia  Britannica ;"  John  Ireland,  "Hogarth 
Illustrated,"  3  vols.,  1791-98;  "Historical  Sketches  of  the  Reign 
of  George  II.,"  in  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1869; 
"Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1836. 

Hogendorp,  van,  vtn  ho'gen-doRp',  (Dyrk,)  Count, 
a  Dutch  general,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1761,  was  minister 
of  war  under  King  Louis  in  1806.  In  181 1  he  became 
general  of  division  and  aide-de-camp  to  Napoleon,  whom 
he  followed  in  the  Russian  campaign.  After  the  battle 
of  Waterloo  he  went  to  Brazil,  where  he  died  in  1830. 

Hogendorp,  van,  (GijsbertKarel,)  Count,  a  Dutch 
statesman,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Rotterdam 
in  1762.  He  united  with  several  others  to  form  a  pro- 
visional government  in  1813,  and  was  president  of  the 
commission  which  framed  a  new  constitution.    He  was 


minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  vice-president  (jf  the 
council,  until  he  resigned  in  1816.  He  wrote  "  Consider- 
ations on  the  Political  Economy  of  the  Low  Counlri*^s," 
(10  vols.,  1818-23.)    Died  in  1834. 

See  Vreede,  "Jets  bij  de  Dood  van  G.  K.  van  Hogendorp,"  i,""34. 

H6gg,(jAMES,)"  the  Ettrick  Shepherd,"  born  in  Ettrick 
Forest,  in  Scotland,  in  1772,  was  the  son  of  a  shepherd, 
and  followed  his  father's  employment  until  he  was  thirty 
years  of  age.  In  1803  a  collection  of  his  poems  was  pub- 
lished, under  the  title  of  "The  Mountain  Bard,"  the 
proceeds  of  which  (about  £'^00)  enabled  him  to  take  a 
farm.  He  failed,  however,  in  this  enterprise.  After  many 
struggles  with  adversity,  he  went  to  Edinburgh,  to  try 
his  fortune  in  authorship,  about  1810.  Having  issued  a 
literary  periodical  called  "The  Spy,"  without  success,  he 
was  encouraged  by  his  friends  to  devote  himself  to  poetry, 
and  in  1813  gave  to  the  public  the  "Queen's  Wake," 
which  procured  him  a  high  reputation  as  a  poet.  It  is 
generally  considered  as  his  best  work.  His  success  stimu- 
lated him  to  the  rapid  production  of  many  other  poems, 
among  which  are  "The  Pilgrims  of  the  Sun,"  (181 5,) 
"Poetic  Mirror,"  "Sacred  Melodies,"  and  "The  Border 
Garland,"  (1819.)  He  wrote,  in  prose,  "The  Brownie 
of  Bodsbeck,  and  other  Tales,"  (1818,)  "Winter  Even- 
ing Tales,"  (1820,)  "The  Three  Perils  of  Man,"  etc., 
and  contributed  to  "Blackwood's  Magazine."  In  1820 
he  married  Margaret  Phillips,  and  resided  afterwards 
on  a  farm  at  Altrive.  Hogg  is  one  of  the  principal 
actors  and  interlocutors  in  Christopher  North's  famous 
"  Noctes  Ambrosianee."  Died  in  1835.  "The  Queen's 
Wake,"  says  Professor  Wilson,  "  is  a  garland  of  fair 
forest-flowers,  bound  with  a  band  of  rushes  from  the 
moor.  Some  of  the  ballads  are  very  beautiful ;  one  or 
two  even  splendid.  'Kilmeny'  alone  places  our  (ay, 
our)  shepherd  among  the  undying  ones." 

See  Wilson,  "Memoir  of  James  Hogg,"  prefixed  to  an  edition 
of  Hogg's  Works,  Edinburgh,  5  vols.,  1850;  R.  S.  Mackenzie, 
"  Life  of  James  Hogg,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  "Noctes  Ambro- 
sianas,"  New  York,  1855;  Lord  Jeffrey's  article  in  the  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  November,  1814,  (vol.  xxlv. ;)  Chambers,  "  Bio- 
grayihical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  William  Jerdan, 
"  Alen  I  have  known,"  London,  1866;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
November,  1819;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1832. 

Hohenhausen,  von,  fon  ho'en-how'zen,  (Elizabeth 
Philippine  Amalie,)  Baroness,  a  German  poetess, 
born  near  Cassel  in  1789,  wrote  lyric  poems  entitled 
"  Spring  Flowers,"  (181 7,)  and  translated  Byron's  "Cor- 
sair," and  some  of  the  works  of  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen,  ho'en-lo'eh  ing'el-fing'en, 
(Friedrich  LuDWiG,)  Prince,  a  Prussian  general,  born 
in  1746.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  campaigns  of 
1792  and  1793,  and  obtained  command  of  an  army  in  1795. 
He  commanded  the  Prussian  forces  which  were  defeated 
by  Napoleon  at  Jena  on  the  14th  of  October,  1806.  On 
the  1 6th  the  king  gave  him  command  of  all  the  troops 
that  had  escaped  from  Jena  and  Auerstadt.  He  was 
compelled  to  abandon  Berlin  to  the  enemy,  and  soon  after 
was  taken  prisoner,  with  about  15,000  men,  at  Prentzlow. 
He  retired  to  private  life,  and  died  in  181 7  or  1818. 

Hohenlohe  -  Waldenburg  -  Schillingsfiirst,  ho'- 
en-lo'eh  ^^SI'den-bdoRG''  shiKlings-fuRst'',  (Alexander 
Leopold  Franz  Emmerich,)  Prince  of,  a  Hungarian 
prelate,  born  at  Kupferzelle  in  1794.  He  pretended  to 
cure  disease  by  prayer.    Died  in  1849. 

Hohenstaufen,  ho'en-stowTen,  [from  hoch,  "high," 
and  Stmifen,  "hill"  or  "eminence,"]  in  the  singular, 
Hohenstaufe,  ho'en-stowTeh,  a  celebrated  family  of 
German  princes,  who  reigned  from  1138  to  1254.  The 
first  of  the  line,  Friedrich  von  Buren,  received  the 
name  on  account  of  having  removed  his  dwelling  from 
a  valley  auf  den  Statifen,  ("up  the  hill"  or  "mountain.") 
His  son,  Friedrich  von  Staufen,  was  rewarded  by 
the  emperor  Henry  IV.  for  his  eminent  services  by  the 
duchy  of  Suabia  and  the  hand  of  his  daughter  Agnes. 
Henry  also  made  him  Regent  of  Germany  while  he  fought 
against  the  pope  in  Italy.  Friedrich  died  in  1105,  leaving 
two  sons,  Friedrich  and  Conrad,  the  latter  of  whom  was 
crowned  King  of  Germany,  with  the  title  of  Conrad 
HI.  His  nephew,  Friedrich  Barbarossa,  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  line,  was  chosen  emperor  in  1152.  (See 
Frederick  I.  of  Germany,  and  Kyffhauser.)  The 
Hohenstaufen  line  ended  with  Conradin  in  1268. 


€  as  i^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  ^  as  j;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HOHENZOLLERN  1198 


HOLDEN 


Hohenzollern,  ho'en-tsoKl^Rn,  the  name  of  an  an- 
cient princely  German  family,  from  which  the  Kings  of 
Prussia  are  descended.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
castle  of  Zollern,  in  Suabia,  which  is  said  to  have  been 
built  by  Tassillon  or  Thasilio  about  800  A.D. 

Hoijer,  ho'e-yer,  (Benjamin  Carl  Henrik,)  an  emi- 
nent Swedish  philosopher,  born  in  Dalecarlia  in  1767. 
His  promotion  was  hindered  by  the  liberal  political 
principles  of  his  youth.  He  produced  a  treatise  "On 
the  Progress  of  Critical  Philosophy,"  an  "  Outline  of 
the  History  of  the  Fine  Arts,"  and  other  works.  In  1808 
he  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Upsal,  where  he 
gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  lecturer.    Died  in  1812. 

Ho'kan-son,  (Olof,)  a  Swedish  orator,  originally  a 
peasant,  born  in  the  province  of  Bleking  in  1695, 
elected  in  1726  to  the  Diet,  in  which  he  acquired  great 
influence  by  his  prudence  and  eloquence.    Died  in  1769. 

Holanda,  de,  di  o-liu'dS,  (Francisco,)  a  Portuguese 
painter,  born  in  1 5 18,  studied  in  Rome,  and  appears  to 
have  returned  to  Portugal.  He  painted  portraits  for 
Charles  V.  of  Germany,  and  was  skilful  in  miniature. 
Under  the  patronage  of  John  HI.  he  painted  oil  pictures 
for  the  palaces  and  churches  of  Lisbon.    Died  in  1584. 

Holbach,  d',  doKbSK  or  dol'btk',  (Paul  Thierry  or 
Thyry,  also  given  as  Paul  Heinrich  Dietrich  and 
Paul  Friedrich,)  Baron,  a  skeptical  philosopher, 
born  at  Heidelsheim  (Palatinate)  in  1723.  He  inherited 
a  fortune,  and  passed  all  his  life,  exxept  childhood,  in 
Paris,  where  he  was  the  patron  and  associate  of  the 
Encyclopaedists.  Diderot,  Helvetius,  Grimm,  Rousseau, 
and  other  authors  often  met  at  his  table.  He  translated 
from  the  German  several  works  on  chemistry  and  mine- 
ralogy. His  atheistic  opinions  were  developed  in  his 
"  System  of  Nature,"  ("  Le  Systeme  de  la  Nature,"  1770,) 
under  the  pseudonym  of  Mirabaud,  the  morality  of 
which  book  Voltaire  stigmatized  as  execrable.  It  was 
also  refuted  by  Frederick  the  Great.  Holbach  was  the 
reputed  author  of  other  works,  among  which  were  "  The 
Social  System,"  (1773,)  and  "La  Morale  universelle," 
(1776.)    Died  in  1789. 

See  Diderot,  "  Memoires,"/^^^"'^."  Rousseau,  "  Confessions;" 
Damiron,  "  Memoire  sur  Thierry  d'Holbach,"  1851. 

Holbein,  hoKbln,  (Franz,)  a  popular  German  drama- 
tist and  actor,  born  near  Vienna  in  1779. 

Holbein,  (Hans,)  the  Elder,  a  German  painter  of 
Augsburg,  born  about  1450.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  the  scenes  from  the  life  of  Saint  Paul  in  the  church  of 
Saint  Paul  at  Augsburg.  He  died  in  1526,  leaving  three 
sons,  Ambrose,  Bruno,  and  Hans,  who  were  artists ; 
the  last-named  rose  to  great  eminence. 

Holbein,  (Hans,)  the  Younger,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  German  painters,  born  at  Griinstadt  in  1497. 
At  an  early  age  he  removed  to  Bale,  where,  after  prac- 
tising his  art  for  a  time,  he  was  recommended  by  Erasmus 
to  the  English  chancellor,  Sir  Thomas  More.  After 
residing  in  his  family  about  three  years,  Holbein  was 
introduced  to  King  Henry  VIII.,  who  gave  him  abundant 
employment  and  bestowed  upon  him  a  large  pension. 
He  devoted  himself,  while  in  England,  chiefly  to  portrait- 
painting;  and  his  numerous  productions  in  this  depart- 
ment are  esteemed  master-pieces.  His  drawings,  upwards 
of  eighty  in  number,  representing  the  principal  person- 
ages of  Henry's  court,  are  characterized  by  Walpole  as 
*'  exceedingly  fine,  and  possessing  a  strength  and  vivacity 
equal  to  the  most  perfect  portraits."  Holbein  died  in 
London,  of  the  plague,  in  1554,  or,  according  to  R.  N. 
Wornum  and  others,  in  1543.  Among  his  greatest  his- 
torical pictures  are  the  celebrated  "  Dance  of  Death," 
the  "  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds  and  Kings,"  and  a 
"  Last  Supper."  His  portraits  of  Sir  Thomas  More  and 
of  Erasmus  also  deserve  especial  mention.  "  His  works," 
observes  Cunningham,  "  have  sometimes  an  air  of  stiff- 
ness, but  they  have  always  the  look  of  truth  and  life. 
He  painted  with  great  rapidity  and  ease,  wrought  with 
his  left  hand,  and  dashed  off  a  portrait  at  a  few  sittings." 
Holbein  was  also  a  skilful  architect  and  wood-engraver. 

See  Hegnek,  "  Leben  Hans  Holbein's,"  Berlin,  1827 ;  Des- 
CAMPS,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Allemands,"  etc.  ;  R.  N.  Wor- 
num, "Life  of  Holbein;"  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexi- 
kon;"  Cunningham,  "Lives  of  Painters,  Sculptors,"  etc.  ;  Karl 
Frip;urich  von  Rumohr,  "H.  Holbein  der  Jiingere  in  seinem  Ver 
hiiltniss  ziun  Deutschen  Formschnittwesen,"  1830;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  April,  1867. 


Holbein,  (Sigismund,)  a  German  painter  and  en. 
graver,  is  supposed  to  have  been  an  uncle  of  the  pre- 
ceding.   Died  after  1540. 

Holberg,  yon,  fon  hoKb^RG,  (Ludwig,)  Baron,  an 
eminent  Danish  author  and  comic  poet,  born  of  poor 
parents,  at  Bergen,  Norway,  in  1684.  In  youth  he  was 
employed  as  a  private  tutor,  and  learned  French,  Italian, 
and  English.  He  studied  philosophy  at  Oxford,  England, 
for  about  two  years.  Impelled  by  a  love  of  travelling, 
he  visited  many  countries  of  Europe,  and  was  afterwards 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Copenhagen.  About  1720  he 
published  his  heroic-comic  poem  "  Peder  Paars,"  which 
was  immensely  popular.  His  celebrity  was  increased 
by  numerous  comedies  which  appeared  between  1723 
and  1 746.  One  of  his  best  comedies  is  "  The  Busy  Idler ; 
or.  The  Man  who  never  has  Time."  His  fertile  mind 
enriched  nearly  every  department  of  literature,  and  raised 
him  to  affluence.  His  talent  for  satire  is  displayed  in 
"Niels  Klim's  Subterranean  Journey,"  in  Latin,  (1741,) 
the  plan  of  which  resembles  "Gulliver's  Travels."  He 
also  wrote  a  "History  of  Denmark,"  (1735,)  and  a 
^'  Universal  History."  Frederick  V.  created  him  a  baron 
in  1747.  He  is  the  founder  of  the  Danish  theatre,  and 
the  first  Danish  author  who  excelled  in  humorous  and 
satirical  composition.    Died  in  1754. 

See  his  Autobiography,  in  Latin,  1727-44,  (English  translation, 
London,  1827;)  and  his  Life,  in  German,  by  Robert  Prutz,  1857; 
K.  L.  Rahbek,  "Om  L.  Holberg  som  Lystspildigier,"  etc.,  2  vols., 
1815-16;  P.  T.  Wandal,  "  Levensbeschrijving  van  L.  Holberg," 
1765  ;  Werlauff,"  Hi,storiske  Antegnelser  til  L.  Holbergs  Lystspil," 
1838;  HowiTT,  "Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe," 
chap.  xxi. ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  C.  L.  Brightweli^ 
"Annals  of  Industry  and  Genius,"  London,  1863;  "North  British 
Review"  for  July,  1869. 

Hol'bpurne,  (Sir  Robert,)  M.D.,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish lawyer,  was  a  member  of  Charles  I.'s  privy  council 
during  the  civil  war.  He  published  several  legal  treat- 
ises.   Died  in  1647. 

HoFbrook,  (John  Edwards,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished 
American  naturalist,  born  in  Beaufort,  South  Carolina, 
in  1795.  He  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1815; 
and,  having  taken  his  medical  diploma  at  Philadelphia, 
he  prosecuted  his  professional  studies  for  four  years  in 
Europe.  He  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1822,  and 
in  1824  succeeded  to  the  chair  of  anatomy  in  the  Medical 
College  of  South  Carolina.  In  1842  appeared  his  "Amer- 
ican Herpetology,  or  a  Description  of  the  Reptiles  in- 
habiting the  United  States,"  (5  vols.  4to,)  which  is  said 
to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  that  branch  of  science  in 
this  country. 

HoFcroft,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist  and  trans- 
lator, born  in  London  in  1744.  He  was  successively  a 
groom,  shoemaker,  school-master,  and  actor.  He  wrote 
nutnerous  dramas  and  several  novels.  His  comedies 
"Duplicity,"  (1781,)  and  "The  Road  to  Ruin,"  (1792,) 
were  very  successful.  He  made  good  translations  of 
numerous  French  and  German  works,  among  which  are 
Lavater's  "  Essays  on  Physiognomy,"  "  The  Posthumous 
Works  of  Frederick  the  Great,"  (1789,)  and  "Tales  of 
the  Castle."  He  was  indicted  for  treason  with  Hardy 
and  Horne  Tooke  in  1794,  but  was  discharged  without  a 
trial.    Died  in  1809. 

See  "Memoirs  of  his  Life,"  by  himself,  3  vols.,  i8'5 ;  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  April,  1804,  and  October,  1806. 

Holda,  hAlMI  or  hoFdi,  written  also  HoUe,  [probably 
frotn  the  German  hold,  "kind,"  "propitious,"  "lovely,"? 
an  ancient  German  goddess,  corresponding  in  some  re- 
spects to  the  Frigga  of  the  Northmen.  She  presides  over 
aerial  phenomena,  and  imparts  fertility  to  the  earth. 

See  Thorpe'.s  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  p.  277. 

HoFden,  (George,)  an  eminent  English  Hebraist, 
born  near  Lancaster  in  1793,  became  perpetual  curate 
of  Mayhull,  at  Liverpool.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  "An  Attempt  towards  an  Improved  Translation  of 
the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,"  (1819,)  and  "The  Scripture 
Testimonies  to  the  Divinity  of  our  Lord,"  (1820.) 

See  Allibone's  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Holden,  (Henry,)  a  learned  Roman  Catholic  priest, 
born  in  Lancashire,  England,  in  1596,  lived  for  many 
years  in  Paris.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  an  "Analysis  of 
Divine  Faith,"  (1652,)  which  was  commended  by  Dupin, 
and  other  works  on  theology.    Died  in  1662. 


a,  e, ),  6,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


HOLDER 


1 199 


HOLLAR 


HoFder,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  writer,  born 
in  Nottinghamshire  in  1614,  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Elements  of  Speech,"  (1669,)  and  "Treatise  on 
the  Natural  Grounds  and  Principles  of  Harmony,"  (1694,) 
which,  says  M.  Fetis,  "is  one  of  the  best  works  on  that 
subject."  It  is  said  that  he  taught  a  deaf-mute  to  speak. 
Died  in  1697. 

Holderlin  or  Hoelderlin,  hol'der-leen^  (Johann 
Christian  Friedrich,)  a  German  poet,  born  at  Lauffen 
in  or  about  1770.  He  wrote  "Hyperion,  or  the  Hermit 
in  Greece,"  (2  vols.,  1799,)  a  romance,  which  has  some 
beautiful  passages,  and  "Lyric  Poems,"  (1826,)  which 
are  admired  for  fervour  of  fancy  and  depth  of  thought. 
Died  in  1843. 

See  Waiblinger,  "Notice  sur  Holderlin;"  A.Jung,  "  F.  Hoel- 
derlin und  seine  Werke,"  1848;  F.  Hallensleben,  "Beitrage  zur 
Characteristik  Hoelderlin's,"  1849. 

Hol'dich,  (Joseph,)  a  Methodist  minister  and  writer, 
born  in  England  about  1800,  emigrated  to  the  United 
States  in  his  youth.  He  became  secretary  to  the 
American  Bible  Society  about  1850. 

Holds'worth,  (Edward,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
1688,  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  wrote  a  Latin  poem, 
called  "Muscipula,"  ("  Mouse -trap.")    Died  in  1747. 

Holdsworth,  written  also  Holsworth,  Oldsworth, 
and  Oldisworth,  (Richard,)  an  English  divine,  born 
at  Newcastle-on-Tyne  in  1590.  He  became  professor 
of  divinity  at  Gresham  College  in  1629,  and  master  of 
Emanuel  College  in  1637.  He  left,  besides  other  works, 
"Valley  of  Vision,"  in  twenty-one  sermons,  (1651.) 
Died_in  1649. 

Hole,  (Matthew,)  an  English  religious  writer,  born 
about  1640,  was  vicar  of  Stoke  Courcy,  in  Somersetshire. 
He  wrote  "  Discourses  on  the  Liturgy  of  the  Church  of 
England,"  (6  vols.,  1 7 14-16,)  and  other  works.  Died 
about  1730. 

Hole,  (Richard,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Exeter. 
He  produced  a  poetical  version  of  Homer's  "  Hymn  to 
Ceres,"  (1781,)  "Arthur,"  a  poetical  romance,  (1789,) 
and  a  few  other  works.  He  became  rector  of  Farring- 
don  in  1792.    Died  in  1803. 

Hole,  (William,)  an  English  engraver  of  little  merit, 
flourished  about  1613. 

HoFins-hed  or  Hol'ings-hed,  (Raphael,)  an  Eng- 
lish annalist,  the  date  and  place  of  whose  birth  are 
unknown.  He  published  valuable  chronicles  of  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland,  (1577.)  Modern  historians  have 
borrowed  largely  from  him.    Died  about  1580. 

Hol'kar,  "(Jeswunt  Rao,  j^s'wunt  ri'o,)  a  son  of 
Tuckagee,  noticed  below,  was  an  able  warrior,  and  a 
formidable  enemy  of  the  British.  He  defeated  Scindia 
in  1802,  and  raised  a  large  army.  In  the  spring  of  1804 
war  broke  out  between  him  and  the  British.  Holkar 
defeated  Colonel  Monson's  division  of  12,000  men  in 
uly,  near  the  Chumbul  and  Bannas  Rivers.  In  Novem- 
er  of  1804  he  was  surprised  and  routed  by  Lord  Lake 
at  Furruckabad.  He  made  a  treaty  of  peace  in  January, 
1806.    Died  in  181 1. 

See  Mill,  "History  of  British  India;"  Grant  Duff,  "  History 
of  the  Mahrattas,"  nrvols.,  1826. 

Holkar,  (Mul'liar  Ra'o  or  Row,)  a  Mahratta  chief, 
born  at  Hoi,  in  the  Deccan,  in  1693.  Having  distinguished 
himself  in  war,  he  became  ruler  of  a  large  part  of  Malwa. 
He  died  in  1766. 

A  daughter-in-law  of  the  preceding,  named  Ahalya 
Baee,  (a-hl'le-i  bi'ee,)  or  Alya  Bhye,  (then  a  widow,) 
succeeded  to  the  government  on  the  death  of  Mulhar 
Rao  Holkar,  and  during  an  administration  of  more  than 
thirty  years  displayed  extraordinary  virtues  both  as  a 
woman  and  a  ruler.  She  was  equally  distinguished  for 
her  wisdom,  her  humanity  and  benevolence,  and  her 
moderation  and  sense  of  justice. 

For  a  very  interesting  account  of  her  character  and  administration, 
see  Sir  John  Malcolm's  "History of  Centrallndia." 

Holkar,  (Tuckagee,)  supposed  to  be  a  nephew  of 
Mulhar  Rao  Holkar,  obtained  possession  of  his  do- 
minions in  1767.  He  was  the  ally  of  Scindia  against 
the  Rajpoots.    Died  in  1797. 

See  Grant  Duff,  "  History  of  the  Mahrattas,"  3  vols,  1826. 

HoU,  hoi,  (Elias,)  an  eminent  German  architect,  born 
at  Augsburg  in  1573,  studied  his  art  in  Venice.  K's 


capital  work  is  the  Rathhaus,  or  Town  Hall,  of  Augs- 
burg, (1618,)  one  of  the  finest  structures  for  that  purpose 
in  Germany.  He  built  also  the  arsenal,  the  church 
called  "  Mariahilf,"  and  other  public  edifices  of  Augs- 
burg.   Died  in  1636. 

Holl,  (Franz  Xaver,)  a  German  Jesuit,  born  in  the 
Upper  Palatinate  in  1720 ;  died  in  1784. 

Holland,  (Edwin  Clifford,)  an  American  poet  and 
journalist,  born  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  about 
1794.  He  edited  for  some  time  the  "Charleston  Times,' 
and  became  noted  as  a  satirist  and  controversialist.  In 
1 814  he  published  a  volume  of  "Odes,  Naval  Songs, 
and  other  Poems,"  originally  contributed  to  Dennie's 
"Port-Folio."    Died  in  1824. 

Hol'land,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  English  architect, 
born  about  1746.  He  was  patronized  by  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  (afterwards  George  IV.,)  for  whom  he  designed 
the  Pavilion  at  Brighton,  and  Carlton  House,  the  portico 
of  which  was  much  admired.  He  was  architect  of  the 
old  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  begun  about  1790,  and  after- 
wards burned.    Died  in  1806. 

Holland,  (Sir  Henry,)  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  an  eminent 
English  physician,  born  at  Knutsford,  in  Cheshire,  in 
October,  1788.  Having  graduated  at  Edinburgh  in  181 1, 
he  made  the  tour  of  Europe,  and  published,  on  his  re- 
turn, "Travels  in  the  Ionian  Isles,  Albania,  and  Greece," 
(181 5.)  He  settled  in  London,  and  gradually  rose  to 
great  distinction  in  his  profession.  He  became  phy- 
sician-in-ordinary to  Prince  Albert  in  1840,  and  to  Queen 
Victoria  in  1852.  In  1853  he  was  created  a  baronet. 
His  principal  work  is  "Medical  Notes  and  Reflections," 
(1836.)  He  married  in  1834  Saba,  eldest  daughter  of 
the  Rev.  Sydney  Smith.  She  wrote  a  "Memoir  of  the 
Rev.  Sydney  Smith,"  (2  vols.,  1855.)    She  died  in  1867. 

Holland,  (Henry  Richard  Vassall  Fox,)  Lord, 
an  English  peer,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1773,  the  only 
son  of  Stephen  Fox,  second  Lord  Holland,  and  Mary 
Fitzpatrick.  By  the  death  of  his  father  he  succeeded  to 
the  peerage  in  1774,  at  the  age  of  one  year.  He  inher- 
ited a  large  share  of  the  talents  and  noble  dispositions 
of  the  family  of  Fox.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and 
married  Lady  Webster  in  1797.  In  the  House  of  Lords 
he  spoke  frequently  against  the  administration,  and  sup- 
ported the  measures  of  his  uncle,  the  famous  orator 
Charles  James  Fox.  His  powers  as  a  speaker  were  of 
a  very  high  order.  In  1802  he  visited  Paris,  in  company 
with  his  uncle  and  Lady  Holland.  He  held  the  office 
of  privy  seal  a  few  months  in  1806.  Throughout  his 
career  he  was  constant  to  the  Whig  party ;  and  when 
they  came  into  power  in  1830  he  was  appointed  chan- 
cellor of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster.  He  published  an 
excellent  "Life  of  Lope  de  Vega,"  (1817,)  and  "Three 
Comedies  from  the  Spanish,"  which  are  rendered  with 
great  poetical  felicity.  His  "  Foreign  Reminiscences" 
appeared  after  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1840.  In 
his  time  Holland  House  was  the  favourite  resort,  as 
Macaulay  says,  "of  wits  and  beauties,  of  painters  and 
poets,  of  scholars,  philosophers,  and  statesmen." 

See  Macaulay,  "Essays;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
July,  1852,  and  April,  1854;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1851 ; 
"  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1851. 

Holland,  (Josiah  Gilbert,)  M.D.,  a  popular  Amer- 
ican author,  born  at  Belchertown,  Massachusetts,  in  1819, 
has  written  under  the  assumed  name  of  Timothy  Tit- 
comb.  Among  his  works  are  "  Letters  to  the  Young," 
(1858,)  "Bitter  Sweet,"  a  poem,  (1858,)  and  a  "Life  of 
Abraham  Lincoln,"  (1865.)  He  also  published  a  "His- 
tory of  Western  Massachusetts,"  (2  vols.,  1855.) 

Holland,  Lord.    See  Fox,  (Henry.) 

Holland,  (Nathaniel.)  See  Dance. 
'  Holland,  (Philemon,)  a  physician  and  teacher,  born 
at  Chelmsford,  England,  in  1551,  rendered  valuable 
services  to  his  country  by  translating  Livy,  Pliny,  Plu- 
tarch's "Morals,"  Xenophon,  etc.,  and  received  the 
title  of  translator-general.    Died  in  1636. 

HoUanda.    See  Holanda. 

Hollar,  hoKiaR,  (Wenzel  or  Wenceslaus,)  a  cele- 
brated Bohemian  engraver  and  designer,  born  at  Prague 
in  1607.  Having  met  with  the  Earl  of  Arundel  in  Co- 
logne, he  accompanied  him  on  his  return  to  London, 
.and  was  employed  to  engrave  some  of  the  pictures  of  his 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (2i^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HOLLERIUS 


1 200 


HOLMES 


allery.  In  1639  he  brought  out  his  *'  Ornatus  Mulie- 
ris  Anglicanus,"  an  admirable  work,  illustrating  the 
dress  of  Englishwomen  of  all  classes  at  that  time. 
Owing  to  the  troubled  state  of  the  country,  he  was,  not- 
withstanding his  genius  and  industry,  soon  reduced  to 
great  poverty.  Many  of  his  works  are  etchings.  Died 
in  London  in  1677. 

See  Bkyan,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters  and  Engravers ;"  Nagler, 
"  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Hollerius.    See  Houllier. 
Holies.    See  Hollis. 

Hol'ley,  (Horace,)  D.D.,  born  at  Salisbury,  Con- 
necticut, in  1781,  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1803. 
He  became  minister  of  the  Hollis  Street  Unitarian 
Church,  Boston,  in  1809,  and  president  of  Transylvania 
University,  Kentucky,  in  1818.  He  published  a  volume 
of  sermons.    Died  in  1827. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  Dr.  Holley,"  by  his  widow. 

HoFlins,  (George  N.,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  Baltimore  about  1800.  He  became  a  commander 
in  1841,  and  bombarded  Greytown,  in  Nicaragua,  in  1852. 
He  took  arms  against  the  Union  in  1861,  and  commanded 
the  naval  forces  which  were  defeated  by  Captain  Farragut 
below  New  Orleans  in  April,  1862. 

HoFlins,  (John,)  an  English  painter  of  genre  and 
portraits,  born  at  Birmingham  in  1798;  died  in  1855. 

HoFlis  or  HoFles,  (Denzil,)  Lord,  an  English  poli- 
tician, second  son  of  the  Earl  of  Clare,  and  brother-in- 
law  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford,  was  born  at  Haughton  in 
1597.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  he  was  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  opposition  in  Parliament,  and  in  1629  was 
condemned  to  imprisonment  during  the  king's  pleasure. 
He  was  one  of  the  five  members  whom  the  king  rashly 
attempted  to  arrest  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  a 
charge  of  treason,  (1642,)  After  the  division  between 
the  Presbyterians  and  Independents  occurred,  Hollis 
was  the  leader  of  the  former.  He  was  expelled  from  Par- 
liament at  the  time  of  Pride's  Purge,  and  fled  to  PVance. 
He  favoured  the  restoration,  was  created  a  peer  by 
Charles  II.  in  1660,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
France  in  1663.    Died  in  1680. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Denzil  Holies,"  1699;  Humk,  "History  of 
England;"  "  Biographia  Britannica;"  Guizot,  "Monk's  Contem- 
poraries," London,  1865. 

Hollis,  (Thomas,)  a  munificent  benefactor  of  Har- 
vard College,  born  in  England  in  1659.  He  was  for 
many  years  a  successful  merchant  in  London,  where  he 
died  in  1731.  He  founded  two  professorships  in  Harvard, 
— the  Hollis  divinity  professorship  and  the  professorship 
of  mathematics.  Besides  books  and  philosophical  ap- 
paratus, his  bequests  to  the  college  in  money  amounted 
to  about  ;i^5ooo, — probably  equal  to  more  than  five  times 
as  much  as  these  figures  would  represent  at  the  present 
time. 

Hollis,  (Thomas,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  gentleman  and 
republican,  born  in  London  in  1720,  was  an  arcfent  friend 
of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  and  noted  for  his  public 
spirit.  He  possessed  a  large  fortune,  which  he  used 
liberally  for  charitable  purposes  and  in  the  publication 
of  books.  He  published  good  editions  of  Toland's  "  Life 
of  Milton,"  (1761,)  and  Algernon  Sidney's  Works.  Died 
in  1774. 

See  HoLLis's  "Memoirs,"  compiled  by  Rev.  Francis  Black- 
burn, privately  printed  in  17S0,  2  vols.,  witn  many  fine  portraits. 

Hollis,  (Thomas  Brand,)  an  English  gentleman,  was 
a  friend  and  the  heir  of  Thomas  Hollis,  noticed  above, 
(1720-74.)  He  contributed  to  Harvard  College.  Died 
in  1804. 

See  J.  Disney,  "Memoirs  of  Thomas  B.  Hollis,"  1808. 

Hollis,  (Thomas  Pelham.)  See  Newcastle, 
Duke  of. 

Hollmann,  hol'm^n,  (Samuel  Christian,)  a  Ger- 
man philosopher,  born  at  Stettin  about  1696,  was  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Gottingen  for  about  fifty  years. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  several  works  on  philosophy,  meta- 
physics, and  logic.    Died  in  1787. 

HoPlo-way,  (Thomas,)  a  skilful  English  engraver, 
born  in  London  in  1748.  He  engraved  the  plates  for 
Lavater's  "  Physiognomy,"  and  the  Cartoons  of  Raphael 
at  Windsor.  He  spent  several  years  on  the  latter,  and  had 
the  title  of  engraver  of  history  to  the  king.   Died  in  1827. 


HoFman,  (James,)  an  Englishman,  distinguished  as 
"  the  Blind  Traveller,"  was  born  about  1788.  He  served 
for  some  years  in  the  royal  navy,  until  he  became  blind, 
(about  1812.)  He  performed  a  journey  through  several 
countries  of  Europe,  (181 9-21,)  of  which  he  published 
a  narrative  in  1822.  After  that  date  he  visited  the  other 
continents,  and  published  "Travels  through  Russia, 
Siberia,"  etc.,  (1825,)  and  a  "  Voyage  round  the  World," 
(4  vols.,  1840.)  He  was  arrested  as  a  spy  by  the  Rus- 
sians.   Died  in  1857. 

Holman,  (Joseph  George,)  an  actor  and  dramatist, 
born  in  London.  After  performing  in  London  and  Dub- 
lin, he  emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1800,  and  was 
manager  of  the  Charleston  Theatre.  He  wrote  a  few 
comic  operas.    Died  in  181 7. 

Holmes,  homz,  (Abiel,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine, 
born  at  Woodstock,  Connecticut,  in  1763,  graduated  at 
Yale  in  1783.  He  was  pastor  of  the  First  Congrega- 
tional Church,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  from  1792  to 
1832.  In  1805  he  published  "American  Annals,"  the 
result  of  great  industry  and  research.  "  We  consider 
it,"  says  Professor  Sparks,  "among  the  most  valuable 
productions  of  the  American  press."  He  was  the  father 
of  Dr.  O.  W.  Holmes,  noticed  below.    Died  in  1837. 

See  "Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1809,  (by  Southey.) 

Holmes,  homz,  (George,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  Yorkshire  in  1662,  was  clerk  to  the  keepers  of  the 
records  in  the  Tower,    Died  in  1749. 

Holmes,  (Isaac  Edward,)  a  political  leader  in  South 
Carolina,  born  in  Charleston  in  1796,  rose  to  eminence 
at  the  bar  of  Charleston,  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
nullification  movement  of  South  Carolina  in  1832-33,  and 
from  1839  to  1 85 1  was  a  representative  in  Congress. 

Holmes,  (Nathaniel.)    See  Homes. 

Holmes,  (Oliver  Wendell,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished 
American  author,  wit,  and  poet,  was  born  in  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts,  August  29,  1809.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1829,  and  commenced  the  study  of  law,  but  soon 
abandoned  it  for  medicine.  Early  in  1833  he  visited 
Europe,  where  for  nearly  three  years  he  pursued  his 
medical  studies,  attending  the  hospitals  of  Paris  and 
other  large  cities.  He  returned  to  his  native  country 
in  1835,  and  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine  at 
Harvard  in  1836.  In  1838  he  was  elected  professor  of 
anatomy  and  physiology  in  Dartmouth  College.  About 
two  years  afterwards  he  resigned  this  position,  and  in 
1847  was  chosen  to  fill  the  same  chair  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, as  successor  to  Dr.  Warren.  Holmes  had  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  a  poet  even  before  he  left  college. 
In  1836  he  read  before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  Society,  at 
Cambridge,  "  Poetry,  a  Metrical  Essay,"  which  was  soon 
after  published  in  a  small  volume,  with  a  number  of  his 
other  poems.  In  1857-8  he  contributed  to  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  a  series  of  papers  entitled  "The  Autocrat  of 
the  Breakfast-Table,"  which  were  followed  in  1859  by 
another  series,  called  "The  Professor  at  the  Breakfast- 
Table."  These  contributions  abound  in  humour  and  wit, 
and  exhibit  at  the  same  time  a  shrewd  insight  into  human 
character.  Dr.  Holmes  has  more  recently  given  to  the 
world  two  prose  works  of  fiction,  which  have  proved 
a  decided  success, — "Elsie  Venner,"  (1861,)  and  "The 
Guardian  Angel,"  (1868.)  Both  of  these  works  were 
first  published  in  the  columns  of  the  "Atlantic  Monthly." 
He  has  also  written  ably  on  various  subjects  connected 
with  the  medical  profession. 

As  a  poet.  Dr.  Holmes  is  especially  distinguished  for 
wit  and  humour  joined  with  a  remarkable  felicity  of  ex- 
pression. As  a  song-writer  he  has  few,  if  any,  superiors 
in  America ;  but  he  more  particularly  excels  in  the  play- 
ful vein.  Among  his  effusions  of  this  class  we  could  not, 
perhaps,  select  an  example  which  better  exhibits  his 
playful  fancy  or  his  wonderful  facility  and  fertility  of  re- 
sources as  a  versifier,  than  his  lines  addressed  to  Agassiz 
when  setting  out  on  his  scientific  tour  in  South  America. 

See  Duyckinck,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
Griswold,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America  :"  Cleveland,  "  Com- 
pendium of  American  Literature  ;"  "  North  American  Review"  for 
January,  1847  ;  also  an  article  on  "  American  Humour"  in  the  "  North 
British  Review"  for  November,  i860;  " Littell's  Living  Age"  for 
March,  1849,  (by  Whittier.) 

Holmes,  (Robert,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  born  in 
Hampshire  in  1749.    In  1790  he  was  chosen  professor 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure; i^x,  f^ll,  fit;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


HOLMES 


1 20 1 


HOLZER 


of  poetry  at  Oxford,  and  in  1804  Dean  of  Winchester. 
He  wrote  odes,  tracts,  and  sermons,  and  commenced  an 
edition  of  the  Septuagint,  which  was  finished  by  Parsons. 
Died  in  1805. 

Holmes,  (Theophilus  H.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  North  Carolina,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1829.  He  became  a  general  in  the  Confederate  army 
in  1 86 1,  and  commanded  in  Arkansas  in  1862-63.  Died 
in  August,  1863. 

Holmskiold,  holm'ske-old^,  (Theodor,)  a  Danish 
physician  and  naturalist,  born  in  1732.  He  published  a 
fine  work  on  the  Fungi  in  1790.    Died  in  1793. 

Holmstroin  or  Holnistroem,  hohn'stRom,  (Israel,) 
a  popular  Swedish  poet,  born  at  Stockholm,  followed 
Charles  XH.  in  his  campaigns,  with  the  title  of  councillor 
of  war.    Died  in  1708. 

Hol-o-fer'nes,  an  Assyrian  general,  who  lived  at  an 
uncertain  epoch,  and  was  killed  by  Judith,  a  patriotic 
Jewess. 

See  the  Apocryphal  Book  of  Judith. 

HoFroyd,  (John  Baker,)  Earl  of  Sheffield,  an  English 
political  writer  and  military  ofiicer,  born  in  Yorkshire  in 
1 741.  He  edited  some  posthumous  works  of  Gibbon. 
Died  in  1821. 

Hoist,  hoist,  (Hans  Peter,)  a  Danish  poet,  born  at 
Copenhagen  in  181 1.  He  published  "National  Ro- 
mances," (1832,)  "Poems,"  ("  Digte,"  1840,)  and  other 
works,  written  in  an  elegant  style.  His  poem  called 
"Adieu"  ("Farvel,"  1840)  has  been  translated  into 
many  languages. 

See  P.  L.  MoLLER,  notice  in  the  "  Dansk  Pantheon." 

Holste.    See  Holstenius. 

Holstein,  hol'stin,  (Johan  Ludwig,)  a  worthy  Dan- 
ish statesman,  born  at  Liibtz  in  1694,  became  prime 
minister  in  1735,  and  president  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1742.    Died  in  1763. 

See  KoFOD  Ancher,  "  Cursus  Vitse  Holsteinianae." 

Hol-ste'ni-us,  [Ger.  pron.  hol-sta'ne-ds,]  (Lucas,) 
the  Latin  form  of  the  name  of  Lucas  Holste,  (hoKsteh,) 
an  eminent  German  scholar,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1596. 
He  studied  at  Leyden,  and  went  to  Paris,  where  he  joined 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  1626.  His  friend  Peiresc 
recommended  him  to  Cardinal  Barberini,  whom  he  ac- 
companied to  Rome  in  1627.  He  became  librarian  to 
Barberini  in  1636,  and  librarian  of  tlie  Vatican  in  the 
pontificate  of  Innocent  X.  He  projected  great  literary 
works,  some  of  which  he  left  unfinished.  In  1630  he 
published  a  Greek  and  Latin  edition  of  Porphyry's  "  Life 
of  Pythagoras,"  to  which  he  added  an  excellent  notice 
of  Porphyry.  Among  his  other  published  works  is 
"  Demophili,  Democratis  et  Secundi  Sententiae  Morales 
Graece  et  Latine,"  ("The  Moral  Maxims  of  Demophilus, 
Democrates,  and  Secundus,  in  Greek  and  Latin,"  with 
notes,  1638.)    Died  in  1661. 

See  WiLKENS,  "  Leben  des  gelehrten  Lucae  Holstenii,"  1723; 
NicERON,  "  M^moires,"  vol.  xxxi. ;  Moller,  "Cimbria  Literata;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Holt,  (Francis  Ludlow,)  an  English  barrister,  was 
queen's  counsel  and  vice-chancellor  of  Lancashire  from 
1826  to  1844.  For  many  years  he  was  editor  of  Bell's 
"Weekly  Messenger."    Died  in  1844. 

Holt,  (Sir  John,)  an  eminent  English  judge,  born  at 
Thame  in  December,  1642,  was  entered  at  Gray's  Inn  in 
1658,  and  called  to  the  bar  in  1663.  Having  become 
eminent  in  his  profession,  he  was  chosen  recorder  of 
London  ;  but  for  his  firm  opposition  to  the  despotic 
measures  of  James  II.  he  was  removed.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Convention  Parliament  of  1688, 
and  at  the  accession  of  William  HI.  was  appointed  lord 
chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  in  1689.  I"  t^JOO  he 
declined  the  office  of  lord  chancellor.  He  performed 
the  duties  of  chief  justice  with  wisdom,  honour,  and 
courage,  until  the  end  of  his  life.  "  His  name,"  says 
Mackintosh,  "  never  can  be  pronounced  without  venera- 
tion as  long  as  wisdom  and  integrity  are  revered  among 
men."    Died  in  1709. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices ;"  "Life 
of  Sir  John  Holt,"  (anonymous,)  1764;  Foss,  "The  Judges  of 
England." 

Holt,  (John,)  an  English  writer  and  teacher,  born  in 
Cheshire  in  1742.    He  wrote,  besides  a  few  other  works, 


"Characters  of  the  Kings  and  Queens  of  England,"  (3 
vols.,  1786-88.)    Died  in  1801. 

Holt,  (Joseph,)  an  American  minister  of  state,  born 
in  Breckinridge  county,  Kentucky,  about  1807.  He 
practised  law  at  Louisville.  In  March,  1859,  he  was 
appointed  postmaster-general.  He  succeeded  John  B. 
Floyd  as  secretary  of  war  in  December,  i860,  and  by  his 
energy  and  zeal  for  the  Union  rendered  important 
services  in  the  critical  times  which  ensued.  About  Sep- 
tember, 1862,  he  became  judge-advocate-general  of  the 
army.  , 

Holte,  holt,  (John,)  an  English  school-master,  born 
in  Sussex  about  1470,  wrote  the  first  Latin  grammar 
ever  printed  in  England,  which  was  dated  about  1497. 

Holtei,  von,  fon  hoKtl",  (Karl,)  a  German  poet  and 
dramatist,  born  at  Breslau  in  1797.  He  produced  many 
comedies  and  dramas,  among  which  are  "  The  Old 
General,"  and  "  Glory  and  Poverty,"  a  volume  of  poems, 
("Gedichte,"  1826,)  "German  Songs,"  (1834,)  and  me- 
moirs of  his  life,  entitled  "  Forty  Years,"(8  vols,,  1843-50.) 

Holty  or  Hoelty,  hoKtee,  (  Ludwig  Heinrich 
Christoph,)  an  excellent  German  lyric  poet,  born  at 
Mariensee,  near  Hanover,  in  1748.  He  studied  at  Got- 
tingen,  where  he  formed  friendships  with  Voss,  Stoll- 
berg,  and  others.  He  supported  himself  for  a  time  by 
translating  from  the  English,  and  giving  lessons,  until  his 
health  failed.  His  elegies,  idyls,  and  odes  are  admired 
for  tenderness  of  feeling,  artless  grace,  and  naivete.  He 
died  prematurely  in  1776.  The  first  edition  of  his  poems 
appeared  in  1783. 

See  J.  M.  Miller,  "Etwas  iiber  Holty's  Character,"  1776;  Bou- 
terwek,  "Geschichte  der  Poesie,"  etc.;  Longfellow,  "Poets 
and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  notice  of  Holty  in  an  edition  of  his  works 
published  by  Voss  in  1804. 

Holtzlinus,  holts-lee'niis,  (Jeremias,  )  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Nuremberg;  died  at  Leyden  in  1641. 

Holtzmann,  holts'min,  (Adolf,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Carlsruhe  in  1810,  wrote,  among  other 
works,  "  Indian  Legends,"  ("Indische  Sagen,"  3  vols,, 
1845-47-) 

Hol'well,  (John  Zephaniah,)  born  in  Dublin  in  1711. 
Having  studied  surgery,  he  went  to  India  in  1732,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  council  at  Calcutta  about  1755. 
He  was  one  of  those  who  survived  the  confinement  in 
the  "Black  Hole,"  of  which  he  published  a  narrative, 
(1757.)  He  succeeded  Colonel  Clive  as  Governor  of 
Bengal  in  1759.  Holwell  also  published  "Interesting 
Historical  Events  relative  to  Bengal  and  Hindostan,  with 
the  Mythology  of  the  Gentoos,"  (3  vols.,  1764-71.)  Died 
in  1798. 

HoFy-day,  (Barten,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  born 
at  Oxford  in  1593,  was  chaplain  to  Charles  I.  He  wrote 
"  Survey  of  the  World,"  a  poem,  and  translated  Juve- 
nal and  Persius.    Died  in  1661. 

Holyoak,  h51'yok,  (Francis,)  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  Warwickshire  about  1567,  published  a  "Dic- 
tionary of  Latin  Words,"  (1606,)  which  was  enlarged 
by  his  son  Thomas.    Died  in  1653. 

Holyoke,  hoKySk,  (Edward  Augustus,)  M.D.,  an 
American  physician,  was  born  in  Marblehead,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1728,  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1746, 
and  for  seventy-nine  years  followed  his  profession  with 
eminent  success  in  Salem,  where  he  died,  March  31,  1829. 
At  the  age  of  ninety-two  he  performed  the  operation  of 
paracentesis,  and  on  his  hundredth  anniversary  partook 
of  a  public  dinner  given  him  by  the  physicians  of  Salem 
and  Boston. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Edward  A.  Holyoke,"  Boston,  1829. 

Hol'y-wood,  Hal'i-fax,  or  Sac'ro  Bos'co,  (John,) 
a  noted  mathematician  of  the  thirteenth  century,  was 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of  Paris. 
The  time  and  place  of  his  birth  are  unknown.  He  wrote 
a  work  entitled  "  De  Sphaera  Mundi." 

Holzbauer,  holts'bow'er,  (Ignaz,)  a  German  com- 
poser, born  in  Vienna  in  17 11,  produced  operas,  sym- 
phonies, etc.  "  He  has  a  good  style,"  says  Mozart,  "  and 
composes  very  fine  fugues."    Died  in  1783, 

Holzer,  holt'ser,  (Johann,)  an  eminent  German 
fresco-painter  and  engraver,  was  born  near  Marienburg, 
in  the  Tyrol,  in  1709.  He  painted  numerous  frescos  in 
Augsburg  of  religious  subjects,  among  which  is  "The 


€  as^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  Vi,guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^J^^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

76 


HOLZHAUSER 


1 202 


HOMER 


Martyrdom  of  Saint  Sebastian."  He  produced  spirited 
etchings  of  "The  Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  after  Berg- 
tniiller^  of  the  "Ecce  Homo,"  after  his  own  design,  and 
of  other  paintings.    Died  in  1740. 

See  Zapf,  "  Holzers  Leben,"  1781,  in  Meusel's  "  Miscellanien 
Artistischen  Inhalts." 

Holzhauser,  holts'how'zer,  (Bartholomaus,)  a  Ger- 
man devotee,  born  at  Langenau  in  1613,  founded  a  com- 
munity called  "  Bartholomaer."    Died  in  1658. 

Homann,  ho'mSn,  (Johann  Baptist,)  a  German 
geographer  and  engraver  of  maps,  born  at  Kamlach,  in 
Suabia,  in  1664.  He  settled  in  Nuremberg,  and  published 
many  maps,  which  were  more  than  ordinarily  accurate. 
He  formed  a  large  collection  of  the  same,  under  the  title 
of  "Atlas,"  (1716.)  His  establishment,  called  "Officina 
Homanniana,"  was  well  known  throughout  Europe. 
Died  in  1724. 

Homberg,  hom'b§RG,  (Wilhelm,)  M.D.,  an  excel- 
lent chemist,  born  of  German  parents  at  Batavia,  in  Java, 
in  1652,  came  to  Europe  at  an  early  age.  He  studied 
chemistry  and  other  natural  sciences  with  Otto  Guericke 
and  Boyle,  and  visited  the  principal  capitals  of  Europe 
in  pursuit  of  knowledge.  About  1685  he  practised  medi- 
cine at  Rome  with  success,  and  in  169 1  removed  to 
Paris,  where  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  to  which  he  contributed  many  memoirs. 
He  was  patronized  by  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  who  chose 
him  as  his  first  physician.  He  discovered  boracic  acid 
and  Homberg's  pyrophorus.    Died  in  Paris  in  171 5. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  filogc  de  Homberg;;"  Nic^ron,  "M^- 
moires  ;"  F.  Hoefer,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie,"  tome  ii. ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Home,  (David.)    See  Hume. 

Home,  (David,)  a  Scottish  Protestant  minister,  who 
lived  in  France  during  the  reign  of  James  I.  of  Eng- 
land.   He  wrote  "Apologia  Basilica,"  (1626.) 

Home,  (Sir  Everard,)  an  eminent  Scottish  surgeon, 
born  in  the  county  of  Berwick  in  1756,  studied  medicine 
with  his  brother-in-law,  the  celebrated  John  Hunter. 
He  practised  in  London  with  distinction,  and  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.  He  published 
"Lectures  on  Comparative  Anatomy,"  and  other  pro- 
fessional works.    Died  in  1832. 

Home,  (Henry,)  Lord  Kames,  a  Scottish  judge,  born 
at  Kames  in  1696,  was  called  to  the  Edinburgh  bar  in 
1724.  After  publishing  several  legal  treatises,  which 
were  well  received,  he  was  appointed  in  1752  a  judge  of 
the  court  of  sessions,  and  took  the  title  of  Lord  Kames. 
In  1758  he  wrote  a  valuable  work,  entitled  "  Historical 
Law  Tracts."  His  greatest  work,  "Elements  of  Criti- 
cism," (1762,)  was  regarded  by  some  as  an  admirable  per- 
formance, and  is  highly  commended  by  Dugald  Stewart. 
Dr.  Johnson  said,  "The  Scotchman  has  taken  the  right 
method  in  his  'Elements  of  Criticism.'"  He  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  lordsof  justiciary  in  1763.  Diedini782. 

See  Lord  Woodhouselee,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Henry 
Home,"  1807-10,  2  vols.;  Wim.iam  Smellie,  "Life  of  Lord 
Kames,"  1800;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen." 

Home  or  Hume,  (John,)  a  popular  Scottish  drama- 
tist, born  at  Ancrum  in  1724.  He  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1747,  and  settled  at  Athelstaneford.  In  1756  he 
became  at  once  distinguished  by  the  publication  of  his 
"  Tragedy  of  Douglas,"  which  was  performed  first  at  Edin- 
burgh with  unbounded  applause,  and  is  still  very  popular 
on  the  stage.  "  I  think  nobody  can  bestow  too  much  praise 
on  Douglas,"  says  Professor  Wilson.  "  There  has  been 
no  English  tragedy  worthy  of  the  name  since  it  ap- 
peared." It  rendered  the  author  so  obnoxious  to  the 
elders  of  the  Kirk  that  he  retired  from  the  ministry. 
He  was  patronized  by  the  Earl  «f  Bute,  who  procured 
him  a  pension  of  ^300.  Home  wrote  several  other 
dramas,  much  inferior  to  "Douglas,"  and  a  "History  of 
the  Rebellion  in  1745."  Mrs.  Siddons  once  said  "she 
never  found  any  study  [which,  in  the  technical  language 
of  the  stage,  means  the  getting  verses  by  heart]  so  easy 
as  that  of  Douglas."    Died  in  1808. 

See  Sir  Walter  Scott's  critique  on  the  "Life  and  Writings  of 
John  Home,"  in  the  "Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1827;  Henry 
Mackenzie,  "Life  of  John  Home,"  prefixed  to  a  collection  of  his 
•works,  3  vols.  8vo,  1822;  "  Noctes  Ambrosians"  for  April,  1822; 
Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 


Ho'mer,  [Gr.  "O/j.rjpo^  ;  Lat.  Home'rus  ;  Fr.  Hom^re, 
o'maiR';  Ger.  Homer,  ho-maR';*  It.  Omero,  o-ma'ro,] 
the  reputed  author  of  the  two  great  epics  the  "  Iliad"  and 
the  "Odyssey,"  and  the  most  celebrated  poet  that  ever 
lived,  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  born  at  Smyrna, 
or  Chios,t  (Scio,)  and  to  have  flourished  about  one  thou- 
sand years  before  the  Christian  era;  but  both  the  place 
and  the  century  of  his  birth  are  involved  in  the  greatest 
uncertainty.  The  best  ancient  authorities,  including 
Aristotle  and  Aristarchus,  represent  him  as  contemporary 
with  the  Ionian  migration  which  occurred  about  one 
hundred  and  forty  years  after  the  Trojan  war.  Of  the 
two  great  poems  above  named,  the  "  Iliad"  has  been 
aptly  called  "  the  beginning  of  all  literature."  In  the 
opinion,  indeed,  of  the  greatest  critics  of  antiquity,  it  was 
not  only  the  beginning,  but  the  end  ;  it  was  not  merely 
the  first  attempt  at  the  production  of  a  great  poem,  but 
the  faultless  model  which  excited  alike  the  admiration  and 
despair  of  all  succeeding  poets.  In  the  words  of  Aris- 
totle, "Ofj.rjpo(;  .  .  .  ?i£^et  Kat  diavoLa  rcavTog  v7:epf3e(3A7'/Ke,l 
"  Hie  omnes  sine  dubio,"  says  Quintilian,  "  in  omni  genere 
eloquentiae  procul  a  se  reliquit."§  Some  other  ancient 
writers  speak  in  even  stronger  terms  of  praise. 

Among  the  ancients,  none  appears  ever  to  have  doubted 
that  Homer  was  a  real  personage,  and  that  he  was  the 
author  of  the  most  wonderful  poem  of  antiquity,  (the 
"  Iliad.")  But  before  or  about  the  time  of  the  Christian 
era  there  was  a  class  of  critics  who  denied  that  the 
"  Iliad"  and  "  Odyssey"  were  the  productions  of  the  same 
author.  They  were  called  Xupi^nvTeg,  or  "Separators." 
It  cannot  be  denied  that  there  is  a  remarkable  difference 
between  those  works,  not  in  one  or  two  points  only,  but 
in  several  important  respects.  Perhaps  the  most  striking 
difference  is  that  which  exists  in  respect  to  the  character 
of  the  gods  in  the  two  poems.  The  gods  of  the  "  Iliad" 
are  completely  human  in  their  character, — unless  it  be 
that  they  have  more  than  human  foibles  or  vices.  They 
are  capricious  and  selfish,  and  seldom,  if  ever,  showf 
much  regard  for  justice.  The  deities  of  the  "  Odyssey" 
appear  as  the  rewarders  of  merit  and  the  avengers  of 
sin  or  crime.  There  is,  moreover,  a  marked  difference 
in  the  spirit  or  tone  of  the  two  poems.  To  explain  this 
difference,  Longinus  tells  us  that  the  "  Iliad"  was  com- 
posed by  Homer  when  he  was  in  the  vigour  of  life,  while 
the  "  Odyssey"  was  the  production  of  hrs  old  age. 

Modern  critics  had  seemed  disposed  to  leave  the  ques- 
tion of  Homer's  age  and  the  authorship  of  the  Homeric 
poems  very  much  where  they  had  been  left  by  the  writers 
of  antiquity,  until  a  little  before  the  close  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, when  F.  A.  Wolf  startled  the  world  by  announcing 
a  new  theory  respecting  the  Homeric  poems,  (1795.)  He 
maintained  that,  as  writing  was  not  in  use  among  the 
Greeks  until  long  after  the  time  in  which  those  poems 
must  have  been  composed,  it  would  have  been  wholly 
impossible  for  any  poet,  however  great  his  genius,  to 
compose  and  retain  in  memory  even  one  such  work  as 
the  "Iliad"  or  "Odyssey."  For  this  and  other  reasons, 
he  concludes  that  the  two  great  epics  which  go  under  the 
name  of  Homer  were  really  produced  by  a  number  of 
different  authors,  and  that  these  separate  productions 
were,  after  the  introduction  of  the  art  of  writing,  thrown 

*  See  principles  of  German  pronunciation,  in  the  Introduction. 

t  If  tlie  v^'eight  of  authorities  is  in  favour  of  Smyrna,  the  greater 
number  would  seem  to  be  on  the  side  of  Chios.  (See  Smith's  "  Clas- 
sical Dictionary.")  Byron  appears  to  give  the  preference  to  the  lat- 
ter ;  for  he  calls  Homer 

"  The  blind  old  man  of  Scio's  rocky  I'sle." 

Bride  of  Abydos,  canto  ii. 

It  has  been  suggested  (and  it  seems  highly  probable)  that  Homer, 
though  born  at  Smyrna,  may  have  afterwards  removed  to  Chios, 
where  his  family,  or  a  branch  of  it,  (the  Homerid>-B,)  are  said  to  have 
lived  for  several  generations.  Seven  different  cities  are  said  to  have 
disputed  for  the  lionour  of  having  given  birth  to  Homer,  as  expressed 
in  the  following  couplet  by  Antipater  of  Sidon : 

'En-Ta  TToAei?  \La.pvavTO  (To^y\v  6ia  pi^ov  'OiuLijpov, 
Sjuvp^a,  Xi'o?,  KoAo^ajv,  Ida/o/,  UvAo?,  'Apyo?,  'A^^vat. 
Literally,  "  Seven  cities  (or  states)  contended  for  the  wise  race  of 
Homer,  \,i.e.  the  race  or  origin  of  the  wise  Homer,]  Smyrna,  Chios, 
Colophon,  Ithaca,  Pylos,  Argos,  and  Athens."   Some  writers  substi- 
tute Salamis  for  Itiiaca. 

+  "  Homer  has  surpassed  all  [other  writers]  in  diction  (or  expres- 
sion) and  in  thought." 

§  "  In  every  kind  of  eloquence  he  undoubtedly  has  left  all  [others 
far  behind  him." 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  4, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


HOMER 


1 203 


HONDEKOETER 


together  as  they  happened  to  fit,  so  as  to  form  a  continu- 
ous whole.  The  inconclusiveness,  not  to  say  absurdity, 
of  such  a  train  of  reasoning  must,  we  think,  be  obvious 
to  every  unbiassed  mind.  We  meet,  even  now,  with 
persons  who  by  two  or  three  perusals  can  commit  to 
memory  the  whole  of  such  a  poem  as  the  "  Lady  of  the 
Lake."  "  Who  can  determine,"  says  Miiller,  *'  how 
many  thousand  verses  one  thoroughly  filled  with  his  sub- 
ject .  .  .  might  produce  in  a  year  and  confide  to  the 
faithful  memory  of  disciples  devoted  to  their  master  and 
his  art .?"  When  we  take  into  consideration  the  fact 
that  the  mental  activity  of  the  ancients,  instead  of  being 
divided  and  diluted  among  an  endless  variety  of  studies 
or  pursuits,  was  concentrated  and  constantly  exercised 
on  a  comparatively  few,  the  retaining  of  even  two  such 
works  as  the  "  Iliad"  and  "  Odyssey"  will  not,  perhaps, 
seem  more  incredible  than  many  feats  of  memory  which 
are  known  to  have  been  performed  in  modern  times. 
Nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that  the  poetry  of  Homer,  unlike 
that  of  many  of  our  great  modern  poets,  is,  generally 
speaking,  remarkable  for  the  simplicity  and  directness  of 
its  language  ;  and  these  qualities,  added  to  the  marvellous 
facility  and  animation  of  the  narrative,  render  the  verse 
extremely  easy  to  be  learned  and  retained  in  memory. 

The  consummate  art  with  which  the  various  parts  of 
the  "  Iliad"  (though  sometimes  seemingly  disconnected) 
are  arranged  and  adapted  so  as  to  delay  the  denouement 
and  yet  to  heighten  the  interest  till  near  the  very  end, 
proves  the  poem  to  have  been,  beyond  all  reasonable 
doubt,  the  work  of  one  master-mind.  But  this  master- 
mind may  very  probably  have  used  materials  prepared 
for  him  by  preceding  poets,  just  as  the  consummate 
architect,  when  erecting  an  edifice  designed  to  be  the 
admiration  of  all  coming  time,  may  avail  himself  of  the 
materials,  and,  for  subordinate  parts  of  the  building,  even 
of  the  designs,  furnished  by  inferior  workmen.  There 
seem,  indeed,  to  be  strong  reasons  for  believing  that 
before  the  time  of  Homer  there  existed  many  poems 
treating  of  the  events  of  the  Trojan  war,  and  that  he,  in 
selecting  and  combining  the  facts  necessary  to  the  plot 
of  his  great  work,  occasionally  adopted  some  of  the  finest 
lines  of  his  predecessors,  at  the  same  time  changing  or 
adapting  others  to  suit  his  purpose,  so  as  to  give  the 
whole  poem  the  impress  of  his  matchless  skill  and  tran- 
scendent genius.  This  supposition  will  perhaps  best 
explain  the  introduction  into  the  poem  of  such  a  great 
variety  of  words  or  phrases  differing  in  different  parts  of 
the  work,  as  well  as  the  marked  diversity  of  dialects.  It 
is  well  known  that  Shakspeare  used  freely,  in  some  of 
his  historic  dramas,  not  only  the  ideas,  but,  in  repeated 
instances,  the  very  lines,  of  some  of  the  poets  that  had 
gone  before  him.  At  other  times  he  appears  to  have 
adopted  some  of  the  leading  ideas,  and  perhaps  many 
of  the  expressions,  of  previous  dramatists,  and  yet  to 
have  so  cast  them  into  the  mould  of  his  own  mind,  and  so 
coloured  them  with  the  hues  of  his  wonderful  imagina- 
tion, that  he  may  be  said  to  have  surpassed  the  fabled 
achievements  of  the  alchemists,  and  transmuted  his  crude 
materials  into  something  far  more  precious  than  gold. 

But,  while  we  claim  it  as  a  point  established,  that  the 
"  Iliad"  is  virtually  and  essentially  the  production  of  a 
single  poet,  we  must  admit  that  the  question  is  still  un- 
decided whether  the  same  Homer  was  also  the  author 
of  the  "Odyssey."  "If,"  says  the  learned  and  accom- 
plished critic  already  quoted,  "the  completion  of  the 
'  Iliad'  and  '  Odyssey'  seems  too  vast  a  work  for  one 
man,  we  may  perhaps  have  recourse  to  the  supposition 
that  Homer,  after  having  sung  the  '  Iliad'  in  the  vigour  of 
his  youthful  years,  in  his  old  age  communicated  to  some 
devoted  disciple  the  plan  of  the  '  Odyssey,'  which  had  long 
been  working  in  his  mind,  and  left  it  to  him  for  comple- 
tion,"   (K.  O.  Miiller's  "  History  of  Greek  Literature,") 

The  prevailing  belief  that  Homer  was  blind  appears  to 
have  taken  its  origin  from  one  of  the  so-called  Homeric 
hymns  addressed  to  the  Delian  Apollo,  the  author  of 
which  calls  himself  the  blind  poet  who  lived  in  rocky 
Chios,  The  hymn  in  question  was  considered  by  some 
of  the  most  judicious  of  the  ancient  writers  to  be  the 
production  of  Homer  himself;  but  this  view  is  not  ac- 
cepted by  the  best  modern  critics.  The  wonderful  accu- 
racy of  many  of  the  descriptions  in  the  "  Iliad"  utterly 


precludes  the  idea  of  their  having  been  written  by  a 
poet  who  had  not  himself  been  an  eye-witness  of  the 
scenes  which  he  paints  so  admirably.  But  he  might,  per- 
haps, have  described  in  his  blind  old  age  scenes  which 
had  been  indelibly  stamped  upon  his  memory  in  youth 
or  early  manhood.  (See,  on  the  various  questions  con- 
nected with  the  Homeric  poems,  Colonel  W.  Mure's 
"Critical  History  of  the  Literature,  etc.  of  Ancient 
Greece,"  (1850,)  and  the  able  article  on  "  Homerus,"  in 
Smith's  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography.") 
See,  in  addition  to  the  works  referred  to  in  the  article,  Olof 
Celsius,  "Dissertatio  de  Homeri  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1714  ;  Ludolph 
KuESTER,  "  Historia  critica  Homeri,"  1696;  Thomas  Blackwell, 
"Enquiry  into  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Homer,"  1735 ;  Koppen, 
"  Ueber  Homer's  Leben  und  Gesange,"  1788  ;  Carl  Ernst  Schu- 
BARTH,  "  Ideen  iiber  Homer  und  sein  Zeitalter,"  1821  ;  Matthias 
Asp,  "  Disputationes  de  Homero,"  1714;  J.  E.  Turk,  "Homerus 
en  zijn  Schriften,"  1810;  Alphonse  de  Lamartine,  "Homere," 
1852;  Fortia  d'Urban,  "  Homere  et  ses  ficrits,"  1832;  Bernard 
Thiersch,  "  Das  Zeitalter  des  Homer,"  1824;  J.  Paschius,  "Dis- 
sertatio de  Poetarum  Principe  Homero,"  1687;  ^douard  Juste, 
"  Dissertation  sur  I'Origine  des  Poemes  attribues  a  Homere,"  1849; 
"Homer  and  his  Successors  in  Epic  Poetry,"  in  the  "London  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  January,  1857;  Matthew  Arnold's  admirable 
observations  "On  'translating  Homer,"  in  his  "Essays,"  1865. 

Ho'mer,  (Rev.  Henry,)  an  English  scholar,  born  at 
Birdingbury  in  1752,  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  He 
edited  several  Latin  authors,  and,  in  partnership  with 
Dr,  Combe,  published  a  complete  edition  of  Horace. 
Died  in  1791. 

Homere.    See  Homer. 

Homeridae,  ho-mgr'e-dee,  (singular,  Ho-mer'i-dei,) 
or  Ho'mer-ids,  the  name  applied  to  the  family  of  the 
poet  Homer.  (See  Homer,  note  f.) 

Homerus.    See  Homer. 

Homes  or  Holmes,  homz,  (Nathaniel,)  D.D.,  an 
English  theologian,  ejected  for  nonconformity  in  1662,  was 
a  believer  in  the  fifth  monarchy.  He  wrote  the  "  Resur- 
rection Revealed,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1678. 

Ho-mil'i-us,  [Ger.  pron.  ho-mee'le-us,]  (Gottfried 
August,)  an  eminent  German  organist  and  composer  of 
church  music,  born  at  Rosenthal,  in  Bohemia,  in  1 714. 
Among  his  best  works  are  a  cantata  for  Christmas,  and 
a  number  of  motets.  He  was  organist  and  director  of 
music  at  Dresden.    Died  in  1785. 

Hommaire  de  Hell,  /zo'miR'  deh  hl\,  (Ignace 
Xavier  Morand,)  a  French  geologist,  born  at  Altkirch 
in  1812,  explored  the  regions  which  border  on  the  Black 
and  Caspian  Seas,  and  left  an  account  of  his  travels,  in 
3  vols.    Died  at  Ispahan  in  1848. 

Hommel,  hom'mel,  [Lat.  Homme'lius,]  (Karl  Fer- 
dinand,) a  learned  jurist  and  ingenious  writer,  born  at 
Leipsic  in  1722.  He  became  professor  of  feudal  law  at 
Leipsic  in  1752,  and  of  civil  institutes  in  1756.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Literatura  Juris,"  (1761,)  a  very  piquant 
treatise  on  legal  literature,  "  Rhapsodia  Quaestionum  in 
Foro  quotidie  obvenientum,"  ("  Questions  occurring  daily 
in  the  Forum,"  5  vols.,  1765-79;  4th  edition,  7  vols., 
1787,)  and  "Sceleton  Juris  civilis,"  ("Skeleton  of  Civil 
Law,"  4th  edition,  1767.)    Died  in  1781. 

See  Ernesti,  "Hommelii  Memoria,"  1783,  and  RossiG,  "Vita 
Hommelii,"  1782,  both  of  which  may  be  found  in  the  7th  vol.  of 
Hommel's  "Rhapsodia,"  1787;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Hommelius.   See  Hommel. 

Hompesch,  von,  fon  hom'plsh,  (Ferdinand,)  the 
last  grand  master  of  the  Knights  of  Malta,  was  born  at 
Dusseldorf  in  1744;  died  in  1803. 

Honain,  (or  Honein,)  ho-nin',  (Aboo-Yezeed  or 
Abu-  (Abou-)  Yezid,  ^'boo  yeh-zeed',)  otherwise 
called  Honain-Ben-Ishak,  (bgn  i's'htk',)  an  Arabian 
physician,  born  at  Heerah,  (Hirah,)  in  Mesopotamia,  lived 
mostly  at  Bagdad.  Died  about  875  a.d.  He  translated 
into  Arabic  the  works  of  Hippocrates,  Galen,  Euclid,  etc. 

See  Ibn-Khallikan,  "  Biographical  Dictionary ;"  Haji-Khalfa, 
"Lexicon  Bibliographicum." 

Hondekoeter,  hon'deh-koo'ter,  (Giles,)  a  noted 
Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1583,  was 
the  son  of  the  Marquis  of  Westerloo.  He  often  added 
to  his  landscapes  highly-finished  figures  of  birds. 

Hondekoeter,  (Gysbrecht,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
and  a  painter  of  poultry,  was  born  in  1613  ;  died  in  1653. 

Hondekoeter,  (Melchior,)  an  excellent  painter, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Utrecht  in  1636.  He 
studied  with  his  father  and  his  uncle,  John  B.  Weenix. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  Y.,gtttticral;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (jJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HONDIUS 


1204 


HOOD 


He  painted  poultry,  pea-fowls,  and  other  birds,  with  a 
skill  that  has  never  been  surpassed.  The  backgrounds 
of  his  pictures  are  adorned  with  beautiful  landscapes. 
Among  his  works  is  "The  Entrance  of  the  Animals  into 
the  Ark,"    Died  in  1695. 

See  Jakob  Campo  Weyekman,  "De  Schilderkonst  der  Neder- 
landers." 

Hondius,  hon'de-us,  or  Hondt,  hint,  (Abraham,)  a 
Dutch  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1638. 
He  painted  hunting-scenes,  animals,  and  landscapes 
with  success.  "  He  often  equals  the  best  masters,"  says 
Descamps.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Burning  of 
Troy,"  and  "  The  Animals  entering  the  Ark."  He  worked 
some  years  in  England,  where  he  died  about  1692. 

Hondius,  (Hendrik,)  an  engraver  of  maps  and  por- 
traits, born  at  Ghent  in  1573.  His  principal  work  is  a 
series  of  portraits  of  one  hundred  and  forty-four  artists, 
mostly  Flemings.  He  also  engraved  some  pictures  by 
Albert  Diirer  and  Holbein.    Died  at  the  Hague  in  1610. 

See  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs  ;"  Strutt,  "Dictionary 
of  Engravers." 

Hondius  or  De  Hondt,  deh  h6nt,  (Henry,)  called 
THE  Younger,  born  in  London  in  1580,  was  accounted 
the  best  engraver  of  the  family.  He  engraved  portraits, 
landscapes,  and  history  after  several  P'lemish  painters. 
Among  his  works  are  portraits  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and 
James  I.    Died  at  Amsterdam  about  1650. 

See  Basan,  "Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Hondius  orDe  Hondt,  (JossEor  Jodo'cus,)  a  skilful 
Flemish  engraver  and  geographer,  born  at  Wacken  about 
1550,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  had  a  high 
reputation  as  an  engraver  on  copper.  He  worked  in 
London,  and  afterwards  settled  in  Amsterdam,  where  he 
engraved  maps  of  superior  quality,  and  published  new 
editions  of  the  "  Grand  Atlas"  of  Mercator.  Died  in  161 1. 

Hondt,  hont,  (Willem,)  a  Flemish  engraver,  a  bro- 
ther of  Henry  the  Younger,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1601. 

Hone,  ho'neh,  (Georg  Paul,)  a  German  lawyer,  born 
at  Nuremberg  in  1662,  wrote  "  Iter  Juridicum,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1747. 

Hone,  (Nathaniel,)  a  portrait-painter, born  in  Dub- 
lin about  1730;  died  in  1784. 

Hone,  (William,)  an  English  writer,  born  at  Bath  in 
1779,  resided  in  London,  and  failed  several  times  as  a 
bookseller.  He  wrote  "The  Political  House  that  Jack 
Built,"  a  satire,  which  was  illustrated  by  Cruikshank 
and  ran  through  fifty  editions.  He  was  prosecuted  for 
his  Parody  on  the  Liturgy  in  i8i8,  and,  having  ably 
defended  himself,  was  acquitted.  In  1826  he  began  to 
issue  in  weekly  numbers  his  "  Every-Day  Book,"  which 
had  a  large  sale,  and  was  commended  by  Professor 
Wilson,  Scott,  Lamb,  and  Southey.  It  was  followed  by 
the  "  Table-Book"  and  the  "  Year-Book,"  which  were 
well  received,  but  did  not  save  the  author  from  insol- 
vency. He  was  in  prison  for  debt  about  three  years. 
Died  in  1842. 

See  "The  Early  Life  and  Conversion  of  William  Hone,"  written 
by  liimself. 

Honestis,  (Petrus  de.)    See  Damianl 
Honeywood,  hiin'ne-wood,  (Saint  John,)  an  Amer- 
ican poet,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1765  ;  died  in  1798. 
See  Griswold,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Honore  de  Sainte-Marie,  o'noW  deh  siNt^mfre', 
[Lat.  HoNORius  DE  Sancta  Maria,]  called,  after  he 
entered  the  cloister,  Blaise  Vauxelle,  (vo-s§K,)  a 
learned  monk,  born  at  Limoges  in  1651  ;  died  in  1729. 

Ho-no'ri-us  I.,  a  native  of  Campania,  was  elected 
Pope  or  Bishop  of  Rome  in  626  A.D.  He  is  charged 
with  assenting  to  the  heresy  of  Monothelism.  The  Council 
of  Constantinople,  held  in  680,  condemned  his  doctrine 
on  this  point.    Died  in  638. 

Honorius  11.,  Pope,  previously  known  as  Cardinal 
Lamberto  and  Bishop  of  Ostia,  succeeded  Calixtus  II. 
in  1 124.  Tebaldus  was  chosen  pope  at  the  same  time 
by  a  number  of  bishops,  but  forbore  to  contest  his 
claim.    Honorius  died  in  1 130. 

Honorius  HI.,  elected  Pope  in  12 16,  was  a  Roman 
by  birth.  His  proper  name  was  Cencio  Savelll  He 
crowned  Frederick  II.  Emperor  of  Germany  in  1220,  in 
the  hope  that  he  would  lead  a  crusade  against  the  Turks. 
He  was  more  successful  in  instigating  the  Kiijg  of  France 


to  a  crusade  against  the  Albigenses.    He  died  in  1227, 

and  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  IX. 

Honorius  IV.,  Pope,  (Cardinal  Giacomo  Savelli,) 
a  native  of  Rome,  was  elected  in  1285  as  successor  to 
Martin  IV.    Died  in  1287. 

Ho-no'ri-us,  (Flavius,)  a  Roman  emperor,  the  sec- 
ond son  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  was  born  at  Constan- 
tinople in  384  A.D.  At  the  death  of  his  father,  in  395,  he 
inherited  the  Western  Empire,  (his  elder  brother  Arca- 
dius  having  obtained  the  Eastern,)  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  Stilicho,  a  famous  general,  whose  daughter  he 
married.  His  court  was  held  at  Milan,  and  afterwards 
at  Ravenna,  About  402  Alaric  the  Goth  invaded  Italy, 
and  was  defeated  by  Stilicho  at  Pollentia.  In  408  Stili- 
cho was  put  to  death  by  order  of  Honorius,  who  was  a 
man  of  weak  and  vicious  character.  From  this  event 
may  be  dated  the  fall  of  the  Roman  power.  Rome 
was  taken  and  pillaged  by  Alaric  in  410,  and  the  empire 
went  rapidly  to  ruin.  He  died,  without  issue,  in  423, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Valentinian  III. 

See  Gibbon,  "  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire;"  Sozomen,  "  Historia  Ecclesiastica;"  Jornandes,  "De 
Rebus  Geticis;"  Tillemont,  "Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Honorius  de  Sancta  Maria.    See  Honor6  de 

Sainte-Marie. 

Hontheim,  von,  fon  hont'hlm,  (Johann  Nikolaus,) 
a  German  jurist  and  Catholic  priest,  bom  at  Treves  in 
1701.  He  became  Bishop  ( in  partihis)  of  Myriophis  in 
1748,  and  suffragan  of  the  see  of  Treves.  He  published 
under  the  pseudonym  of  JusTiNius  Febronius  a  famous 
book  against  the  usurpations  of  the  popes,  entitled  "  De 
Statu  Ecclesiae  et  legitima  Potestate  Romani  Pontificis," 
(5  vols.,  1763,)  which  was  often  reprinted.    Died  in  1790. 

Honthorst,  h6nt'horst,  or  Hundhorst,  hunt'hoRst, 
(Gerard,)  a  Flemish  painter,  called  also  by  the  Italians 
Gerardo  della  Notte,  ("Gerard  of  the  Night,")  be- 
cause he  excelled  in  nocturnal  scenes.  Pie  was  born  at 
Utrecht  in  1592,  and  was  a  pupil  of  A.  Bloemaert.  He 
worked  in  Rame  and  in  England,  where  he  painted 
portraits  of  the  royal  family  and  gained  a  high  repu- 
tation. Among  his  works  is  "The  Prodigal  Son."  He 
w^as  a  good  colorist,  and  excelled  in  design.  Died  at 
the  Hague  in  1660.  His  brother  Willem  was  a  suc- 
cessful portrait-painter.  Died  at  Berlin  in  1683,  aged 
about  eighty. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters;"  Descamps,  "Vies 
des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Hood,  hood,  (Alexander,)  Viscount  Bridport,  an 
English  naval  officer,  was  a  younger  brother  of  Lord 
Samuel  Hood,  noticed  below.  After  having  gained  dis- 
tinction in  subordinate  stations,  he  was  made  rear- 
admiral  in  1780.  In  1784  he  was  second  in  command 
under  Lord  Howe,  in  the  Channel  fleet.  The  next  year 
he  took  three  French  ships,  and  in  1796  succeeded 
Lord  Howe  as  commander  of  the  fleet.  In  1801  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Viscount  Bridport.  Died 
in  1814. 

Hood,  (Edwin  Paxton,)  an  English  dissenting  min- 
ister, born  at  Weston  about  1820.  He  wrote  numerous 
works,  among  which  are  "  Self-Formation,"  and  "  Wil- 
liam Wordsworth,"  a  biography,  (1856.) 

Hood,  hood,  (John  B.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Bath  county,  Kentucky,  in  1831,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1853.  commanded  a  division  of  Lee's  army 
at  Antietam,  September,  1862,  and  at  Gettysburg,  July 
1-3,  1863.  He  lost  a  leg  at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga, 
September  20,  1863,  soon  after  which  he  was  promoted 
to  be  a  lieutenant-general.  In  the  spring  of  1864  he 
commanded  a  corps  of  the  army  opposed  to  General 
Sherman  in  Northern  Georgia.  He  succeeded  General 
Johnston  in  July  as  commander-in-chief  of  that  army, 
which  was  then  near  Atlanta.  General  Johnston  was 
removed  because  he  had  adhered  to  a  cautious  and  de- 
fensive policy.  Hood  assumed  the  offensive,  and  attacked 
General  Sherman  on  the  22d  of  July,  and  again  on  the 
28th,  but  was  repulsed  with  heavy  loss.  He  was  com- 
pelled to  abandon  Atlanta  on  the  1st  of  September,  1864. 
(See  Sherman,  W.  T.)  After  he  had  damaged  the  rail- 
road by  which  Sherman's  army  was  supplied.  General 
Hood  invaded  Middle  Tennessee,  attacked  General 
Schofield  at  Franklin,  November  30,  and  besieged  Nash- 


a.  e.  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


HOOD 


1 205 


HOOK 


ville.  He  was  defeated  on  the  i6th  of  December,  1864, 
by  General  Thomas,  at  the  decisive  battle  of  Nashville, 
where  he  lost  fifty  pieces  of  cannon,  and  was  relieved  of 
the  command  in  January,  1865. 

See  "  Southern  Generals,"  New  York,  1865. 

Hood,  (Robin,)  a  famous  English  outlaw,  who  is  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  in  the  reign  of  Richard  I.  Sherwood 
Forest  was  his  head-quarters.  His  exploits  are  the  sub- 
ject of  many  popular  ballads,  which  applaud  his  gal- 
lantry to  the  ladies  and  his  generosity  in  sharing  among 
the  poor  the  spoils  of  the  rich.  He  was  the  chief  of  a 
numerous  band,  who  seem  to  have  lived  chiefly  on  the 
products  of  the  chase. 

See  W.  W.  Campbell,  "Historical  Sketch  of  Robin  Hood  and 
Captain  Kidd,"  New  York,  1853;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July, 
1847  ;  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1857. 

Hood,  (Samuel,)  Viscount,  an  English  admiral, 
born  at  Butley  in  1724,  entered  the  navy  in  1740,  and 
became  captain  in  1754.  In  1780  he  was  made  a  rear- 
admiral,  and  was  second  in  command  in  the  West  Indies. 
The  next  year  he  succeeded  Rodney  in  command  of  the 
fleet,  with  which  he  fought  De  Grasse  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Chesapeake,  but  failed  to  relieve  the  British  army  at 
Yorktown.  He  took  part  in  the  victory  over  De  Grasse 
in  April,  1782,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  Baron 
Hood  of  Catherington.  In  1784,  after  a  close  contest 
with  Fox,  he  was  elected  to  Parliament,  and  in  1788  ap- 
pointed a  lord  of  the  admiralty.  In  1793  he  commanded 
against  the  French  in  the  Mediterranean  and  at  the  siege 
of  Toulon.  He  was  made,  in  1796,  Viscount  Hood  of 
Whitley,  and  afterwards  an  admiral.    Died  in  1816. 

See  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  British  Admirals." 

Hood,  (Sir  Samuel,)  cousin  of  the  preceding,  was  a 
vice-admiral  in  the  British  navy,  and  a  brave  and  skilful 
officer.  He  took  part  in  the  victory  of  Rodney  over  De 
Grasse  in  1782,  aiid  in  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  (1798.)  In 
1806  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Westminster, 
and  captured  three  French  ships  near  Rochefort.  He 
was  afterwards  appointed  to  command  in  the  East  Indies, 
where  he  died  in  1814. 

Hood,  (Thomas,)  a  famous  English  humourist  and 
popular  author,  born  in  London  in  1798,  was  the  son  of 
a  bookseller.  He  served  an  apprenticeship  to  an  en- 
graver, but  soon  exchanged  that  employment  for  literary 
pursuits.  In  1821  he  became  sub-editor  of  tlie  "  London 
Magazine,"  by  which  he  gained  access  to  the  society  of 
many  authors  who  have  since  risen  to  eminence.  His 
"Whims  and  Oddities"  (1826)  displayed  an  abundant 
vein  of  inimitable  wit  and  comic  power.  He  issued  the 
"  Comic  Annual"  from  1830  to  1842,  which  was  followed 
by  his  "  Comic  Album,"  "  Whimsicalities,"  and  "  Hood's 
Own."  His  tales  and  novels  were  less  successful  than 
his  humorous  works.  Among  his  most  popular  poems 
are  the  "  Song  of  the  Shirt,"  (which  first  appeared  in 
"  Punch,")  the  "  Bridge  of  Sighs,"  and  the  "  Dream  of 
Eugene  Aram."  He  was  editor  of  "  The  Gem"  for  one 
year,  and,  in  the  latter  years  of  his  life,  editor  of  the 
"  New  Monthly  Magazine."  Like  poor  Yorick,  he  was 
"a  fellow  of  infinite  jest,  of  most  excellent  fancy."  As 
a  punster  he  is  unrivalled.  Some  of  his  serious  poems 
are  exquisitely  tender  and  pathetic.  In  1844  he  began  to 
issue  "  Hood's  Magazine,"  for  which  he  wrote  until  his 
last  illness.  A  pension  of  ;^ioo  which  had  been  granted 
to  him  was  transferred  to  his  widow.    Died  in  1845. 

See  "Life  of  Hood,"  by  his  children,  i860;  E.  P.  Whipple, 
"Essays  and  Reviews;"  R.  H.  Horne,  "New  Spirit  of  the  Age," 
1844;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1846;  "Quarterly  Review" 
for  October,  1863;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  January,  1827; 
"  London  Magazine"  for  December,  1826 ;  "  British  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  October,  1867. 

Hooft,  hoft,  (NiKLAAS,)  a  Dutch  historical  painter, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1664;  died  in  1748. 

Hooft  or  Hoofft,  (Pieter  Cornelis,)  an  excellent 
Dutch  poet  and  historian,  born  in  Amsterdam  in  March, 
1 581.  After  leaving  college  he  travelled  in  France  and 
Italy,  and  filled  several  civil  offices.  He  published  about 
1602  "Granida,"  a  tragi-comedv,  which  is  a  master-piece. 
He  wrote  other  dramas,  and  erotic  poems  of  great 
merit,  and  translated  Tacitus  into  Dutch.  His  chief 
prose  works  are  a  "  Life  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,"  (1626,) 
and  a  "  History  of  the  Netherlands, "("  De  Nederlandsche 
Historien,"  2  vols.,  1642-54,)  which  is  esteemed  a  model 


of  grace,  purity,  and  vigour,  both  in  thought  and  style. 
He  has  the  honour  of  rendering  his  vernacular  language 
more  polished  and  classical  than  it  was  before  his  time. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Grotius.  "  Though  deeply  religious," 
says  the  "Biographic  Universelle,"  "he  never  ranged 
himself  under  the  banner  of  any  outward  communion." 
Died  in  1647. 

See  Eksch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  and  Van 
Kampen's  article  on  "  Hollandische  Sprache  und  Literatur,"  in  the 
same  work  ;also,"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  Jan  van  Kkuvff, 
"  Lofreden  of  P.  C.  Hooft,"  1810;  Jacob  Koning,  "  Geschiedenis 
van  het  Slot  te  Muiden,  en  Hoofts  Leven  op  het  zelve,"  1827  ;  Van 
Heusde,  "  Commentatio  literaria  de  Hooftio  cum  Tacito  comparato," 
1838;  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  March,  1854. 

Hooge,  de,  deh  ho'ceh  or  ho'Heh,  written  alsoHoogh, 
(Pieter,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  genre,  born  about  1644. 
Little  is  known  of  his  history.  His  colour  is  good,  his 
design  correct,  and  his  manner  natural.  He  represents 
the  effects  of  light  with  great  skill.  Among  his  works 
(which  command  high  prices)  are  a  "  Supper,"  an  "  In- 
terior," and  a  "Guard-Room."    Died  in  1708. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Hooge  or  Hooghe,  de,  (Romeyn,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
designer  and  engraver,  was  born  at  the  Hague  about  1640, 
or,  as  others  say,  about  1650.  He  worked  for  a  long  time 
in  Paris,  and  passed  his  latter  years  at  the  Hague.  He 
had  a  rich  imagination  and  great  facility,  but  was  deficient 
in  correctness.  Among  his  works  are  "  The  Entrance  of 
Louis  XIV.  into  Dunkirk,"  and  "The  Assassination  of 
De  Witt."    Died  in  1725. 

See  J.  C.  Weverman,  "De  Schilderkonst  der  Nederlanders." 

Hoogeveen,  ho'geh-van'  or  ho'Heh-van^  sometimes 
written  Hoogeven,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  Hellenist,  born 
at  Leyden  in  1 712,  was  successively  rector  of  the  gym- 
nasiums of  Breda,  Dort,  and  Delft,  and  was  an  excellent 
grammarian.  He  is  the  author  of  a  valuable  treatise 
on  "  Greek  Particles,"  ("  Doctrina  Particularum  Linguas 
Grascas,"  2  vols.,  1769,)  and  "  Dictionarium  Analogicura 
Linguas  Graecae,"  (Cambridge,  1800.)    Died  in  1791. 

See  Erscu  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  Harless, 
"  Vitae  Philologorum." 

Hoogstaad,  van,  vtn  hoo'stlt',  (Gerart,)  a  Flemish 
painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Brussels,  was 
living  in  1661. 

Hoogstraateii,  van,  vtn  hoc/stRl'ten,  (David,)  a 
Dutch  scholar,  a  nephew  of  the  following,  was  born  at 
Rotterdam  in  1658,  and  became  a  classical  professor  at 
Amsterdam.  He  compiled  a  Latin-Dutch  Dictionary, 
(1704,)  and  wrote  several  elegant  Latin  poems,  "  Poe- 
mata,"  (1710.)    Died  in  1724. 

Hoogstraaten,  van,  (Samuel,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Dort  in  1627,  was  a  pupil  of  Rembrandt,  and 
the  master  of  Houbraken.  He  painted  portraits,  land- 
scapes, etc.  with  success,  and  wrote  a  good  work  on  the 
theory  of  painting.    Died  in  1678. 

His  father,  Dirck,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1596,  was  also 
a  skilful  landscape-painter.    Died  in  1640. 

See  Pilkington's  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Hoogvliet,  hSo'vleet  or  hoH'vleet,  (Arnold,)  a  popu- 
lar Dutch  poet,  born  at  Vlaardingen  in  1687,  was  edu- 
cated for  a  merchant,  and  held  the  position  of  cashier  in 
his  native  place.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  an  epic 
poem,  called  "Abraham  the  Patriarch,"  (1727,)  which 
was  received  with  extraordinary  and  durable  favour. 
"No  book  in  Dutch  literature,"  says  Marron,  "has 
been  honoured  with  a  more  decided  national  adoption." 
("  Biographic  Universelle.")  He  afterwards  published  a 
collection  of  poems  on  various  subjects,  which  are  not 
unworthy  of  his  name.    Died  in  1763. 

See  Jan  van  Kruvff,  "Leven  van  A.  Hoogvliet,"  1782;  WiL- 
lem  Terpstra,  "Oratio  de  A.  Hoogvlietio  Poeta,"  1816. 

Hoogzaat,  hoc'zat,  (Jan,)  an  able  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1664.  He  decorated  the  chateau 
of  Loo  for  William  III.  of  England.    Died  in  1712. 

Hook,  hook,  (James,)  an  English  composer  and  mu- 
sician, born  at  Norwich  in  1746.  He  was  employed  as 
organist  at  Vauxhall  Garden,  London,  for  many  years, 
and  composed  numerous  popular  ballads,  songs,  con- 
certos, etc.    Died  in  1827. 

Hook,  (James,)  LL.D.,  an  English  writer,  brother  of 
Theodore  E.  Hook,  was  born  in  London  about  1 771.  He 
was  educated  for  the  church,  and  in  1825  was  appointed 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;'  th  as  in  this.    (gl^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23 . ) 


HOOK 


1 206 


HOOKER 


Dean  of  Worcester.  His  principal  works  are  two 
novels,  called  "  Pen  Owen"  and  "  Percy  Mallory."  Died 
in  1828. 

Hook,  (James  Clarke,)  an  English  historical  painter, 
born  about  1820.  In  the  early  part  of  his  career  he 
painted  subjects  from  Italian  history,  among  which  are 
"  Bianca  Capello,"  and  a  "  Dream  of  Venice."  He  after- 
wards produced  "The  Defeat  of  Shylock,"  (1851,)  and 
other  scenes  from  Shakspeare.  He  became  a  Royal 
Academician  in  1859. 

Hook,  (Theodore  Edward,)  born  in  London  in 
1788,  was  the  son  of  James,  the  musical  composer,  noticed 
above.  He  was  an  excellent  vocalist,  an  expert  mimic, 
and  a  prodigy  of  colloquial  power.  In  1805  he  wrote 
"The  Soldier's  Return,"  an  operatic  farce,  which  was 
very  successful.  He  was  addicted  to  punning,  to  extrava- 
gant dissipation,  and  to  audacious  practical  jokes.  His 
brilliant  wit  and  marvellous  faculty  of  improvisation 
rendered  him  an  idol  of  the  gay  world,  and  commended 
him  to  the  favour  of  the  prince-regent,  who  procured  his 
appointment  in  i8i2as  treasurer  to  the  colony  of  Mauri- 
tius, with  a  salary  of  about  ^2000.  In  1818,  a  large  de- 
ficit being  found  in  his  treasure-chest,  he  was  sent  home 
charged  with  peculation.  The  legal  inquiry,  however, 
proved  nothing  against  him  except  a  culpable  negligence 
of  his  official  duties.  In  1820  he  became  editor  of  the 
"John  Bull"  newspaper,  which  was  very  successful  in  a 
pecuniary  respect  and  obtained  great  notoriety.  Among 
his  most  popular  works  are  "  Sayings  and  Doings,"  (of 
which  he  issued  three  series,)  "  Maxwell,"  a  novel,  and 
"  Gilbert  Gurney,"  a  novel,  which  contains  an  autobiog- 
raphy of  himself.  In  1836  he  was  editor  of  the  "New 
Monthly  Magazine."    Died  in  1841. 

See  R.  H.  Bakham,  "  Life  and  Writings  of  Theodore  Hook," 
1848;  "Life  of  T.  Hook,"  from  the  "  Quarterly  Review,"  London, 
1852;  R.  H.  HoRNE,  "New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1844;  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  May,  1843,  (vol.  Ixxii.  ;)  "  Ncjctes  Anibrosianze  ;"  Moir, 
"  Poetical  Literature  of  the  Past  Half-Century  ;"  Samuel  Smiles, 
"Brief  Biographies;"  "Memories  of  Authors,"  in  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  for  April,  1865. 

Hook,  (Walter  Farquhar,)  an  English  theologian, 
a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  London  in 
1798.  He  became  vicar  of  Leeds  in  1837,  and  Dean 
of  Chichester  in  1859.  Among  his  works  are  "  Plear 
the  Church,"  (28th  edition,  1838,)  "Ecclesiastical  Biog- 
raphy," (8  vols.,  1845-52,)  "Church  Dictionary,"  (7th 
edition,  1854,)  and  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Can- 
terbury," (of  which  the  first  volume  was  published  in 
i860,  and  the  seventh  appeared  in  1868, — not  yet  finished, 
1869.)  He  is  noted  for  his  zeal  and  success  in  the  cause 
of  church  extension. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1862. 

Hooke,  hook,  (Nathaniel,)  a  Roman  Catholic  his- 
torian, born  about  1690,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Pope  the 
poet.  His  principal  work  is  "  The  Roman  History  from 
the  Building  of  Rome  to  the  End  of  the  Commonwealth," 
(4  vols.  4to,  1733-71,)  which  was  often  reprinted,  and  is 
commended  as  a  faithful  compilation.  He  was  employed 
by  Sarah,  Duchess  of  Marlborough,  as  editor  of  her 
Memoirs,  (1742.)    Died  in  1764. 

Hooke,  (Robert,)  M.D.,  an  English  philosopher, 
born  at  Freshwater,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  1635,  and 
noted  for  his  inventive  faculty,  mechanical  genius,  and 
scientific  acquirements.  In  1662  he  was  chosen  curator 
of  experiments  to  the  Royal  Society,  of  which  he  was 
a  Fellow,  and  afterwards  secretary.  About  1666  he 
became  professor  of  geometry  in  Gresham  College,  and 
city  surveyor  of  London.  Among  his  multifarious 
accomplishments  was  skill  in  architecture,  which  he 
exercised  in  drawing  the  plan  of  Bedlam  and  other 
public  buildings  in  London.  He  wrote  many  metnoirs 
on  various  branches  of  natural  science.  He  had  a 
dispute  with  Hevelius  on  the  subject  of  the  telescope, 
and  attacked  Newton's  theory  of  light  and  colours. 
He  claimed  the  invention  of  the  barometer,  quadrant, 
balance-spring  for  watches,  etc.    Died  in  1702. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica ;"  Waller,  "Life  of  R.  Hooke;" 
Wood,  "Gresham  Professors." 

Hook'er,  (Herman,)  an  American  Episcopalian  di- 
vine, born  at  Poultney,  Rutland  county,  Vermont.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  "The  Portion  of  the 
Soul,"  etc.,  (1835,)  "The  Philosophy  of  Unbelief  in 


Morals  and  Religion,"  and  "Uses  of  Adversity,"  (1846.) 
Died  in  1857. 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Hook'er,  (hook'er,)  otherwise  called  Vow'ell, 
(John,)  M.P.,  an  English  historian,  born  at  Exeter 
about  1524,  was  uncle  of  Richard  Hooker,  noticed 
below.  He  represented  Exeter  in  Parliament  in  1571. 
He  compiled  a  large  part  of  Holinshed's  "Chronicles," 
(1586,)  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  order  and  usage  of 
Parliaments,  and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1601. 

Hook''er,  (Joseph,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Pladley,  Massachusetts,  in  1819,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1837.  He  served  as  captain  in  the  Mexican 
war,  (1846-47,)  and  gained  the  brevet  of  lieutenant- 
colonel  at  Chapultepec.  Having  resigned  his  commis- 
sion about  1853,  he  lived  several  years  in  California.  He 
was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  about 
May,  1861,  served  at  the  battle  of  Williamsburg,  and  in 
the  "seven  days'  battles"  near  Richmond,  June  26-July 
I,  1862.  He  became  a  major-general  in  July,  and  com- 
manded a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September 
17,  1862,  a  few  days  after  which  he  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army.  He 
commanded  a  grand  division  under  General  Burnside 
at  Fredericksburg  in  December,  1862,  and  succeeded 
Burnside  as  commander  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  in 
January,  1863.  This  army,  which  probably  amounted 
to  100,000  men  or  more,  engaged  the  enemy  at  Chan- 
cellorsville.  May  2  and  3,  and  was  defeated,  but  was  not 
pursued.  During  this  battle  he  was  stunned  by  a 
cannon-ball.  He  was  relieved  of  the  command  on  the 
28th  of  June,  1863,  and  was  sent  to  Tennessee  with  two 
corps  in  September  of  that  year.  He  contributed  to  the 
victory  gained  by  General  Grant  at  Lookout  Mountain, 
November  24  and  25,  1863,  and  commanded  a  corps  of 
the  army  which  General  Sherman  moved  from  Dalton 
to  Atlanta,  May-August,  1864.  He  had  command  of 
the  Northern  department  from  September,  1864,  to 
July,  1865. 

Hooker,  (Joseph  Dalton,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent 
botanist  and  traveller,  a  son  of  Sir  William  Jackson 
Hooker,  was  born  in  181 7.  He  studied  medicine,  and 
in  1839  sailed  as  surgeon  with  the  expedition  of  Sir 
James  Ross  to  the  Antarctic  Ocean.  On  his  return  he 
published  "Flora  Antarctica,"  (2  vols.,  1844-47,)  the 
descriptions  and  illustrations  of  which  are  highly  com- 
mended. Between  1848  and  1852  he  explored  the  bo- 
tanical productions  of  the  Himalayas.  The  results  of 
this  arduous  enterprise  appeared  in  a  very  interesting 
work  called  "  Himalayan  Journals,"  (2  vols.,  1854,)  and 
in  his  "  Flora  Indica."  Among  his  other  works  are 
"The  Rhododendrons  of  Sikkim  Himalaya,"  (1851,)  a 
"  Flora  of  New  Zealand,"  (1852-54,)  and  "  On  the  Vege- 
tation of  the  Carboniferous  Period." 

Hooker,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  English  divine  and 
author,  born  at  Heavytree,  near  Exeter,  in  1553.  After 
graduating  at  Oxford,  he  took  orders  in  1581,  and  in  an 
unguarded  hour  married  a  scolding  wife.  By  the  favour 
of  Sandys,  Bishop  of  London,  he  became  Master  of  the 
Temple  in  1585.  Here  he  was  involved  in  a  controversy 
with  Mr.  Travers,  a  Calvinist,  who  was  also  a  lecturer 
in  the  Temple.  One  of  the  consequences  of  this  dispute 
was  the  production  of  his  great  argument  for  the  consti- 
tution and  discipline  of  the  Anglican  Church,  entitled 
"The  Laws  of  Ecclesiastical  Polity."  After  he  began 
this  work,  desiring  a  more  retired  station  than  the 
Temple,  he  obtained  in  1591  the  rectory  of  Boscombe, 
to  which  the  prebend  of  Salisbury  was  added.  From 
1595  until  his  death  he  was  rector  of  Bishopsbourne. 
His  work  above-named  was  published  from  1594  to 
1597.  It  is  regarded  as  a  great  bulwark  of  the  Church, 
a  monument  of  sound  learning,  and  a  noble  model  of 
literary  excellence.  According  to  Hallam,  "the  finest 
as  well  as  the  most  philosophical  writer  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan period  is  Plooker.  The  first  book  of  his  'Eccle- 
siastical Polity'  is  at  this  day  one  of  the  master-pieces 
of  English  eloquence.  ...  So  stately  and  graceful  is  the 
march  of  his  periods,  so  various  the  fall  of  his  musical 
cadences  upon  the  ear,  so  rich  in  images,  so  condensed 
in  sentences,  so  grave  and  noble  his  diction,  that  I 
know  not  whether  any  later  writer  has  more  admirably 


2,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


HOOKER 


1 207 


HOPE 


displayed  the  capacities  of  our  language,  or  produced 
passages  more  worthy  of  comparison  with  the  splendid 
monuments  of  antiquity."  ("Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  Europe.")    Died  in  1600. 

See  IzAAK  Walton,  "Life  of  Richard  Hooker,"  1666;  "  Bio- 
graphia  Britannica;"  "Life  of  Hooker,"  in  Gaudeii's  edition  of  his 
works,  1662,  and  in  Keble's  edition,  Oxford,  4  vols.,  1836;  "North 
British  Review"  for  February,  1857. 

Hooker,  (Rev.  Thomas,)  one  of  the  founders  of  Con- 
necticut, was  born  at  Marfield,  England,  in  1586.  After 
preaching  in  Holland,  he  emigrated  in  1633  to  Boston, 
Massachusetts,  and  was  the  first  pastor  of  Cambridge. 
In  1636,  in  company  with  Samuel  Stone,  he  founded  the 
city  of  Hartford,  where  he  was  minister  until  his  death. 
He  was  a  very  influential  man  in  the  churches,  and  wrote 
many  treatises,  among  which  is  the  "Application  of 
Redemption."    Died  in  1647. 

See  E.  W.  Hooker,  "Life  of  Thomas  Hooker,"  1849. 

Hooker,  (William  Jackson,)  F.R.S.,  a  distinguished 
English  botanist,  born  at  Norwich  in  1785.  He  pub- 
lished in  1811  "A  Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Iceland  in  1809," 
and  described,  with  Dr.  Taylor,  British  mosses  in 
"Muscologia  Britannica,"  (1818.)  His  "Flora  Scotica" 
appeared  in  1821.  He  produced  an  excellent  "Flora 
Exotica,"  (3  vols.,  1823-27.)  For  many  years  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  botany  in  the  University  of  Glasgow.  Among 
his  greatest  works  are  "Icones  Filicum,"  or  "Figures 
and  Descriptions  of  Ferns,"  (with  Dr.  Greville,  2  vols., 
1829-31,)  "Flora  Boreali-Americana,"  (2  vols.,  1829-40,) 
and  a  "British  Flora,"  (1830;  6th  edition,  1850,)  which 
gives  a  complete  description  of  British  plants,  arranged 
after  the  natural  method.  He  was  appointed  about  1840 
director  of  the  royal  gardens  at  Kew,  which  have  been 
greatly  improved  under  his  superintendence,  and  are 
said  to  surpass  all  other  gardens  in  the  world  in  the 
number  and  variety  of  the  plants.  He  was  the  father 
of  Dr.  J.  D.  Hooker,  noticed  above.    Died  in  1865. 

Hooiakoo,  Houlakou,  Hul^ku,  hoo'la-koo',  or 
Hoolagoo,  hoo-lS-goo',  sometimes  very  improperly 
written  Hulakoo,  a  grandson  of  Jengis  Khan,  born  in 
12 1 7,  was  the  first  of  the  Eel-Khans,  (Ilkhans  or  Ilchans,) 
or  Mongol  kings  of  Persia.  He  was  commanded  by 
his  elder  brother  Mangoo  (the  father  of  Kooblai  Khan) 
to  complete  the  conquest  of  Persia,  which  he  accom- 
plished about  the  year  1255.  He  exterminated  the  Is- 
maeelians,  or  Assassins,  and  afterwards  directed  his  forces 
against  Bagdad,  which  he  took  in  February,  1258,  and 
delivered  up  to  pillage  and  massacre.  If  we  may  believe 
the  statements  of  the  Moslem  historians,  nearly  800,000 
persons,  including  Motassem  (the  last  of  the  Abbasside 
caliphs)  and  his  eldest  son,  perished  on  that  occasion. 
As  a  warrior,  Hoolakoo  was  distinguished  for  his  san- 
guinary cruelty  :  he  was  nevertheless  a  patron  of  science, 
and  the  celebrated  Eel-Khanee  (or  -Khannee)  astro- 
nomical tables  were  prepared  under  his  auspices,  and 
derive  their  name  from  his  title  of  Eel-Khan,  signifying 
the  prince  or  chief  of  the  tribe.  He  died  in  1265,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Abaka  Khan. 

See  Malcolm,  "History  of  Persia,"  vol.  i.  chap.  x.  ;  Von 
Hammer,  "  Geschichte  der  Ilchane;"  ID'Ohsson,  "  Histoire  des 
Mongols." 

Hoole,  hdol,  (Rev.  Charles,)  born  at  Wakefield, 
England,  in  1610,  taught  school  with  credit  in  London, 
etc.,  and  was  afterwards  rector  of  Stock.  He  wrote  a 
"  Latin  Grammar,"  and  other  school-books.  Died  in  1666. 

Hoole,  (Elijah,)  an  English  Orientalist  and  Wesleyan 
minister,  born  at  Manchester  about  1798.  He  served  as 
a  missionary  in  India,  and  published  "  Madras,  Mysore, 
and  the  South  of  India." 

Hoole,  (John,)  an  English  dramatist  and  translator, 
born  in  London  in  1727,  was  educated  in  Grub  Street. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson,  and  was  a  clerk  in  the 
East  India  House  about  forty  years.  He  wrote  several 
tragedies,  and  translated  into  bad  or  insipid  verse  the 
great  poems  of  Tasso  and  Ariosto.  In  reference  to  his 
version  of  Tasso,  (published  in  1763,)  Sir  Walter  Scott 
called  Hoole  a  "noble  transmuter  of  gold  into  lead." 
His  "Orlando  Furioso"  appeared  in  5  vols.,  1773-83. 
Died  in  1803. 

See  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Hoole,  Mrs.  See  Hofland,  (Barbara.) 


Hoom&yoon  or  Hum&yun,  hdo'mS'yoon',  Emperor 
of  Hindostan,  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Great  Moguls,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Baber.  He  was  born  atCabool  in  1508, 
and  ascended  the  throne  in  1530.  Agra  was  his  capital. 
He  was  defeated  by  the  Afghans  in  1540.  His  brothers 
having  rebelled  against  him,  he  was  driven  out  of  his 
kingdom,  and  took  refuge  at  the  court  of  Persia.  In 
1545  he  returned  with  an  army  and  recovered  his  throne. 
He  gained  decisive  victories  over  the  Afghans,  under 
Sekunder  Shah,  on  the  Sutlej,  in  1554,  and  at  Sirhind  in 
1555.  He  died  in  1556,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
the  celebrated  Akbar.  He  was  versed  in  astronomy,  and 
wrote  several  poems. 

See  "Private  Memoirs  of  Houmaioon,"  translated  from  the  Per- 
sian by  Major  C.  Stewart;  Ferishta,  "History  of  the  Rise  of 
the  Mahomedan  Power  in  India,"  translated  by  General  Briggs: 
W.  Erskine,  "  History  of  India  under  Baber  andHumayun,"  2  vols., 
1854;  Abool-Fadhl,  "  Akbar-Nameh." 

Hoop'er,  (George,)  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  born 
at  Grimley  in  1640,  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  was 
an  excellent  classical  and  Oriental  scholar.  In  1677  he 
was  almoner  to  Mary,  Princess  of  Orange,  and  in  1691 
became  chaplain  to  William  and  Mary,  and  Dean  of  Can- 
terbury. He  obtained  the  bishopric  of  Saint  Asaph  in 
1703,  from  which  he  was  afterwards  transferred  to  that 
of  Bath  and  Wells.  He  published  numerous  religious 
works.    Died  in  1727. 

See  Todd,  "Lives  of  the  Deans  of  Canterbury." 

Hooper  or  Hoper,  (John,)  an  English  reformer  and 
martyr,  born  in  Somersetshire  about  1495.  While  a  stu- 
dent at  Oxford,  he  was  converted  to  the  Protestant  faith. 
In  1539,  to  escape  the  Bloody  Statutes  of  Henry  VIII.,  he 
retired  from  England  and  passed  several  years  at  Zurich. 
At  the  death  of  Henry  he  settled  in  London,  where  he 
became  an  eminent  and  eloquent  preacher.  In  1550  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  Gloucester,  and  in  1552  received 
the  bishopric  of  Worcester  in  comme7ida7n.  Soon  after 
the  accession  of  Mary  he  was  condemned  as  a  heretic, 
and,  refusing  to  recant,  was  burned  at  the  stake  in  1553. 
He  wrote  numerous  theological  works. 

See  Fox,  "  Book  of  Martyrs ;"  Burnet,  "  History  of  the  Reforma- 
tion." 

Hoop'er,  (Lucy,)  an  American  writer,  born  at  New- 
buryport,  Massachusetts,  in  1816,  wrote  sketches  entitled 
"Scenes  from  Real  Life,"  (1840,)  "  The  Poetry  of  Flow- 
ers," and  other  works.  She  died  in  1841,  and  her  "  Literary 
Remains"  were  published  in  1842,  with  a  Memoir. 

See  Griswold,  "Female  Poets  of  America ;"  "  Democratic  Re- 
view" for  July,  1842. 

Hooper,  (Robert,)  a  British  medical  writer,  borii  in 
the  eighteenth  century.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Medi- 
cal Dictionary,"  (1798;  8th  edition,  by  Dr.  Grant,  in 
1839,)  and  "Surgeon's  Vade-Mecum,"  (3d  edition,  en- 
larged by  Dr.  Dunglison,  1824.) 

Hooper,  (William,)  an  American  patriot,  was  born 
in  Boston  in  1742.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1760, 
studied  law  with  James  Otis,  and  rose  to  eminence  in 
his  profession  in  Wilmington,  North  Carolina.  In  1774 
he  was  chosen  one  of  the  delegates  to  the  first  Conti- 
nental Congress.  Soon  after  signing  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  in  1776,  he  resigned  his  seat.  Died  in  1790. 

HoornvanVlooswyck,  hoRnvtn  vl6s'wIk,(PiETER 
NiKLAAS,)  Baron,  a  Dutch  nobleman,  born  at  Amster- 
dam in  1742,  possessed  an  immense  fortune.  Having  a 
taste  for  art,  he  formed  a  splendid  collection  of  gems, 
cameos,  mosaics,  etc.    Died  in  1809. 

Hoornbeek-  or  Hoornbeck,  hSRn'bak,  (Jan,)  a 
Dutch  writer  on  theology,  born  at  Haarlem  about  1616, 
was  professor  at  Utrecht.    Died  in  1666. 

Hoorne,  Count.    See  Horn. 

Hooriie,  van,  vtn  hoR'neh,  or  Horne,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch 
anatomist,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1621.  He  became 
professor  of  surgery  at  Leyden  about  1650,  and  gained  a 
high  reputation.  He  published,  besides  other  works  on 
anatomy,  a  "  Brief  Introduction  to  the  History  of  the 
Human  Body,"  ("  Brevis  Manuductio  ad  Historiam 
Corporis  humani,"  1660,)  a  work  of  much  merit.  Died 
in  1670. 

See  ERSCHundGRUBER,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Charles 
Drelincourt,  "Oratio  de  J.  van  Horne,"  1670. 

Hope,  (Alexander  James  Beresford,)  M.P.,  an 
author  and  connoisseur,  son  of  Thomas  Hope,  noticed 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;gdt.s j;  G,  H,  Y., giitUiral ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HOPE 


208 


HOPKINS 


below,  was  born  in  London  in  1820.  Among  his  works 
are  an  essay  on  "  Newspapers  and  their  Writers,"  {1858,) 
and  "The  English  Cathedral  of  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury," (1861.) 

Hope,  (Rev.  Frederick  William,)  F.R.S.,  an  Eng- 
lish entomologist,  born  about  1800,  wrote  "The  Coleop- 
terist's  Manual."   Died  in  1862. 

Hope,  (Sir  Henry,)  a  British  admiral,  born  in  1787; 
died  in  1863. 

Hope,  (James,)  a  British  physician  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, was  physician  to  Saint  George's  Hospital,  London, 
and  published  "Principles  and  Illustrations  of  Morbid 
Anatomy,"  (1834,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the 
Heart  and  Great  Vessels,"  (1839.)    Died  about  1840. 

Hope,  (John,)  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  a  Scottish  botanist,  born 
in  1725,  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  and  Paris,  and 
l^ractised  in  the  former  city.  In  1761  he  was  appointed 
king's  botanist  in  Scotland,  and  superintendent  of  the 
royal  garden,  and  in  1786  regius  professor  of  botany  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.  He  commenced  a  work 
on  botany,  which  he  did  not  live  to  finish.  Died  in  1786. 

See  Andrew  Duncan,  "Life  of  John  Hope,"  1786. 

Hope,  (John,)  Earl  of  Hopetoun,  a  British  general, 
born  near  Linlithgow  in  1766,  was  a  younger  son  of  the 
second  Earl  of  Hopetoun.  After  passing  through  the 
inferior  grades,  he  was  made  a  colonel  in  1796,  and  re- 
turned to  Parliament.  In  1800  he  served  as  adjutant- 
general  under  General  Abercrombie  in  Egypt,  and  in 
1802  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general.  Having  been 
made  lieutenant-general  in  1808,  he  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Corunna,  in  1809,  and  at  the  death  of  Sir  John 
Moore  succeeded  him  in  the  command.  He  was  com- 
mander-in-chief in  Ireland  about  1812.  In  1814  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  of  Niddry,  and  at  the 
death  of  his  elder  brother,  in  1816,  inherited  his  title. 
Died  in  1823. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Hope,  (Sir  Thomas,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born  in  Edin- 
burgh. He  was  knighted  and  appointed  king's  advocate 
in  1627,  after  gaining  distinction  at  the  bar.  He  wrote 
valuable  legal  treatises.  His  father,  Henry  Hope,  was 
related  to  the  wealthy  family  of  Hope  in  Amsterdam. 
Died  in  1646. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Hope,  (Thomas,)  an  English  novelist  and  miscellane- 
ous writer  of  rare  merit,  born  about  1770,  was  a  member 
of  the  wealthy  family  of  Hope  of  Amsterdam.  After 
traversing  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  to  gratify  his  pas- 
sion for  architecture,  and  retiring  from  business  with  an 
immense  fortune,  he  settled  in  London,  and  distinguished 
himself  as  a  patron  of  the  fine  arts.  He  formed  galleries 
of  paintings  and  statues,  and  magnificent  collections  of 
rare  works  of  art.  In  1807  he  published  a  work  on 
"  Household  Furniture,"  which  produced  quite  a  revolu- 
tion in  upholstery  and  an  improvement  in  the  public 
taste.  Soon  after  appeared  "  The  Costume  of  the  An- 
cients," and  "Modern  Costumes,"  which  evince  great 
antiquarian  lore.  In  1819  he  published,  anonymously, 
"Anastasius;  or.  Memoirs  of  a  Modern  Greek,"  which 
was  attributed  to  Byron,  and  made  a  vivid  sensation 
by  its  surprising  combination  of  Oriental  romance  and 
classic  learning.  "Mr.  Hope  will  excuse  us,"  says  Syd- 
ney Smith,  "but  we  could  not  help  exclaiming,  in  read- 
ing it,  '  Is  this  Mr.  Thomas  Hope  ? — is  this  the  man  of 
chairs  and  tables  — the  CEdipus  of  coal-boxes  i* — he  who 
meditated  on  muffineers  and  planned  pokers.^  Where 
has  he  hidden  all  this  eloquence  and  poetry  up  to  this 
hour  V  The  work  before  us  places  him  in  the  highest 
list  of  eloquent  writers  and  of  superior  men."  Byron 
said  he  would  have  given  his  two  most  approved  poems 
to  have  been  the  author  of  "  Anastasius."  Hope  also 
wrote  an  "Essay  on  the  Origin  and  Prospects  of  Man," 
and  a  "  Historical  Essay  on  Architecture,"  (1835,)  which 
was  received  with  favour.  He  married  in  1807  Louisa 
Beresford,  a  daughter  of  W.  Beresford,  Archbishop  of 
Tuam.    Died  in  1831. 

See  Sydney  Smith's  article  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
March,  1821,  (vol.  xxxv.,)  also  for  July,  1807;  "Quarterly  Review," 
vol.  xxiv. 

Hope,  (Thomas  Charles,)  an  eminent  teacher  of 
chemistry,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1766,  was  a  son  of  John 


Hope,  the  botanist,  noticed  above.  He  became  professor 
of  chemistry  at  Glasgow  in  1787,  and  discovered  a  new 
earth,  which  he  named  "  Strontites,"  about  1792.  In 
1798  he  succeeded  Dr.  Black  in  the  chair  of  chemistry 
in  Edinburgh,  where  he  lectured  until  1843.  He  was 
reputed  the  most  popular  teacher  of  chemistry  in  Great 
Britain.  He  wrote  several  short  treatises,  one  of  which 
is  "On  the  Point  of  Greatest  Density  of  Water,"  (1805.) 
Died  in  1844. 

Hope,  (Sir  William  Johnstone,)  M.P.,  a  British 
naval  officer,  born  at  Finchley  in  1766.  As  post-captain, 
he  served  with  distinction  under  Lord  Howe  against  the 
French  in  1794.  In  1819  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
vice-admiral,  and  the  next  year  became  a  lord  of  the  admi- 
ralty. He  was  knighted  in  1825.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  House  of  Commons  for  thirty  years.    Died  in  1 83 1. 

Hoper.    See  Hooper,  (John.) 

Hopfner  or  Hoepfner,  hopfner,  (Johann  Georg 
Christian,)  a  German  archaeologist,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1765.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Manual 
of  Greek  Mythology,"  (1795.)    Died  in  1827. 

Hopital.    See  L'Hopital. 

Hopken  or  Hoepken,  hop'ken,  (Anders  Johan,) 
a  Swedish  statesman  and  writer  of  great  merit,  born 
in  1 7 12,  became  a  member  of  the  senate  in  1746.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  who  formed  the  Swedish  language 
on  the  models  of  Greece  and  Rome.  His  Eulogies  on 
Count  Tessin  and  Ekeblad  are  greatly  admired.  Died 
in  1789. 

See  E.  M.  Fant.J' Aminnelse-Talofver  A.  J.  von  Hopken,"  1789; 
Gyldenstolpe,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  A.  J.  von  Hopken,"  1789. 

Hop'kins,  (Charles,)  born  at  Exeter  in  1664,  was 
the  son  of  Bishop  Ezekiel  Hopkins.  He  was  intimate 
with  Dryden  and  Congreve,  wrote  several  tragedies, 
and  translated  Ovid's  "Art  of  Love."    Died  in  1699. 

His  brother  John,  born  in  1675,  was  the  author  of  a 
collection  of  poems  entitled  "Amasia,"  (3  vols.,  1700,) 
and  other  poems,  among  which  is  "  The  Triumphs  of 
Peace,  or  the  Glories  of  Nassau,"  (1698.)  Died  after 
1 700. 

Hop'kins,  (Edw^ard,)  Governor  of  Connecticut,  born 
in  London  in  1600,  emigrated  to  Boston,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1637.  He  was  chosen  Governor  of  Connecticut 
in  1640,  and  was  re-elected  every  other  year  until  1654. 
Soon  after  this  he  returned  to  P^ngland,  where  he  was 
appointed  warden  of  the  fleet  and  commissioner  of  the 
admiralty,  and  was  elected  to  Parliament.  Died  in  1657. 

Hopkins,  (Esek,)  an  American  naval  officer,  born 
in  Scituate,  Rhode  Island,  in  1718.  He  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  navy  in  1775.  He  captured 
a  British  fort  at  New  Providence,  and  several  vessels  of 
war,  in  1775  or  1776.    Died  in  1802. 

Hopkins,  (Ezekiel,)  an  English  Calvinistic  divine, 
born  at  Sandford,  Devonshire,  in  1633,  was  a  popular 
preacher,  and  one  of  the  standard  theologians  of  Eng- 
land. He  became  Bishop  of  Raphoe  in  1 67 1,  and  Bishop 
of  Londonderry  in  1681.  He  was  driven  from  this  place 
by  the  Catholic  insurgents  in  1688.  Among  his  works 
(which  are  admired  even  by  many  who  are  not  Calvinists) 
are  a  "Treatise  on  the  Vanity  of  the  World,"  (1663,) 
"  Sermons,"  (4  vols.,  1691-96,)  the  "Doctrine  of  the  Two 
Covenants,"  and  "  Exposition  on  the  Lord's  Prayer," 
(1692.)  His  style  is  remarkable  for  sententious  brevity. 
Died  in  1690. 

Hopkins,  (John,)  an  English  teacher,  who  graduated 
at  Oxford  in  1544,  is  chiefly  noted  for  his  share  in  the 
poetical  version  of  David's  Psalms  by  Sternhold  and 
Hopkins.    He  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  clergyman. 

Hopkins,  (John  Henry,)  an  Episcopal  theologian, 
born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1792,  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1800.  He  became  rector  of  a  church  at  Pitts- 
burg in  1824,  and  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Vermont  in 
1832.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "The  Primitive 
Creed  Examined  and  Explained,"  (1834,)  a  "Scriptural, 
Ecclesiastical,  and  Historical  View  of  Slavery,"  (1864,)  in 
which  work  he  advocates  the  Southern  view  of  slavery, 
and  "The  Law  of  Ritualism,"  (1866.)    Died  in  1868. 

Hopkins,  (Lemuel,)  M.D.,  born  at  Waterbury,  Con- 
necticut, in  1750.  He  practised  medicine  at  Litchfield 
from  1776  to  1784,  and  at  Hartford  until  1801.  He  wrote 
"The  Hypocrite's  Hope,"  and  other  poems.    He  was 


a.  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  hng;  A,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  ^,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  dr,  f^ll,  f^t;  mht;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


HOPKINS  nog  HORACE 


associated  with  Barlow  and  Trumbull  in  writing  "The 
Anarchiad,"  a  poem.    Died  in  1801. 

See  DuvcKiNCK,  "Cyclopjedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Hopkins,  (Mark,)  a  Presbyterian  minister  and 
writer,  born  in  Stockbridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1802, 
graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1824.  He  became 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  that  college  in  1830, 
and  president  of  the  same  in  1836.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  "  Miscellaneous  Essays  and  Dis- 
courses," (1847.) 

Hopkins,  (Samuel,)  an  American  divine,  born  at 
Waterbury,  Connecticut,  in  1721,  is  called  the  founder 
of  the  Hopkinsian  school.  He  studied  theology  under 
Jonathan  Edwards,  was  ordained  a  minister  in  1743,  and 
began  in  that  year  to  preach  at  Housatonnoc,  now 
Great  Barrington.  In  1769  he  removed  from  that  place 
to  Newport,  Rhode  Island.  "  Dr.  Hopkins,"  says  Allen, 
"  was  a  very  humble,  pious,  and  benevolent  man.  .  .  .  His 
life  was  spent  chiefly  in  meditation  ;  his  preaching  had 
but  little  effect."  He  published  a  "System  of  Doctrines 
contained  in  Divine  Revelation  Explained  and  Defended," 
(2  vols.,  1793.)  He  also  wrote  a  "Dialogue  against 
Slavery,"  (1776,)  and  other  works.  He  forms  a  promi- 
nent character  in  Mrs.  Stowe's  "  Minister's  Wooing." 
Died  in  1803. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Dr.  Hopkins,"  prefixed  to  his  Works,  3  vols.,  1853. 

Hopkins,  (Stephen,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
at  Scituate,  Rhode  Island,  in  1707,  was  a  farmer  in  his 
youth,  and  afterwards  a  merchant.  He  was  chief  justice 
of  the  superior  court  from  1751  to  1754,  and  subsequently 
Governor  of  Rhode  Island.  In  1774  he  was  elected  to 
Congress,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
in  1776.  The  unsteadiness  of  his  hand  indicated  by  his 
signature  was  occasioned  not  by  fear,  but  by  a  nervous 
affection.  He  continued  in  Congress  until  1779.  Died 
in  1785. 

See  Goodrich,  "Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence." 

Hopkins,  (Rev.  William,)  a  learned  antiquary,  born 
at  Evesiiam,  England,  in  1647,  was  made  prebendary  of 
Worcester  in  1675,  and  vicar  of  Lindridge  in  1686.  Died 
in  1700. 

See  Dr.  Hicks,  "Life  of  W.  Hopkins." 

Hopkins,  (William,)  an  English  Arian  writer,  born 
at  Monmouth  in  1706,  became  vicar  of  Bolney  in  1 731. 
He  wrote  a  treatise  in  favour  of  Arianism,  and  translated 
the  book  of  Exodus,  (1784.)    Died  in  1786. 

Hop'kin-son,  (Francis,)  an  eininent  author,  wit,  and 
patriot,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1737.  He  graduated  at 
the  college  of  his  native  city,  and  chose  the  profession 
of  the  law.  Having  visited  England  in  1765,  and  passed 
two  years  there,  he  returned  home,  settled  at  Borden- 
town,  and  married  Miss  Ann  Borden.  From  1774  to 
1777  he  published  "  The  Pretty  Story,"  "The  Prophecy," 
and  the  "  Political  Catechism,"  three  humorous  and 
popular  essays,  which  contributed  to  foment  the  spirit 
of  freedom  and  to  prepare  the  people  for  national  inde- 
pendence. He  represented  New  Jersey  in  the  Conti- 
nental Congress  of  1776,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  He  was  appointed  judge  of  the  admi- 
ralty of  Pennsylvania  in  1779,  and  in  1790  judge  of  the 
district  court  of  the  United  States.  Besides  the  above 
essays,  he  wrote  the  "  Battle  of  the  Kegs,"  a  ballad,  and 
other  works,  in  prose  and  verse.    Died  in  1791. 

See  Sanderson,  "Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence;"  "National  Portrait -Gallery  of  Distinguished 
Americans,"  vol.  iii. 

Hopkinson,  (Joseph,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist, 
author  of  "Hail  Columbia,"  and  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1770.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  studied  law,  and  rose  to 
eminence  in  his  profession  in  his  native  city.  He  was 
the  leading  counsel  for  Dr.  Rush  in  his  famous  libel 
suit  against  Will  iam  Cobbett  in  i799>  was  also  em- 
ployed in  the  trials  under  the  alien  and  sedition  laws 
before  Judge  Chase  in  1800,  and  in  the  impeachment  of 
the  latter  for  alleged  misdemeanour  in  office  during  these 
trials,  before  the  United  States  Senate,  in  1805.  From 
181 5  to  1819  he  was  a  representative  in  Congress,  in 
which  he  distinguished  himself  as  a  speaker,  particu- 
larly in  opposition  to  the  United  States  Bank,  and  on 


the  Seminole  war.  In  1828  he  was  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Adams  judge  of  the  United  States  court  for  the 
eastern  district  of  Pennsylvania,  which  position  he  held 
till  his  death,  in  1842. 

See  "Lives  of  Eminent  Philadelphians,"  1859. 

Hop'per,  (Isaac  Tatem,)  a  distinguished  philanthro- 
pist, a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  born  near  Wood- 
bury, New  Jersey,  in  1771.  He  resided  many  years  in 
Philadelphia,  but  passed  the  latter  part  of  his  life  in  New 
York.  He  was  a  man  of  great  energy,  courage,  and  intel- 
lectual acuteness,  and  distinguished  for  his  life-long  efforts 
to  promote  benevolent  and  humane  objects, — especially 
negro  emancipation.  In  the  controversy  which  resulted 
in  the  separation  of  the  Society  of  Friends  in  1827,  he 
was  one  of  the  most  zealous  adherents  of  the  anti- 
orthodox  party.    Died  in  1852. 

See  LvDiA  M.  Child,  "Life  of  I.  T.  Hopper,"  1853;  "  Lives  of 
Eminent  Philadelphians,"  1859. 

Hop'pfr,  (Thomas,)  an  English  architect,  born  at 
Rochester  about  1775.  After  being  employed  by  the 
prince-regent  on  Carleton  House,  he  erected  many  castles 
and  mansions  for  the  nobility,  among  which  Penrhyii 
Castle  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best.  He  possessed 
superior  conversational  powers,  and  associated  freely 
with  people  of  distinction.    Died  in  1856. 

Hoppers,  hop'pers,  or  Hopper,  hop'per,  (Joachim,) 
[Lat.  Hoppe'rus,]  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  in  Friesland  in 
1523.  In  1566  he  became  privy  councillor  at  Madrid, 
and  chancellor  for  the  affairs  of  the  Netherlands.  He 
was  more  moderate  than  the  other  ministers  of  Philip 
II.  Among  his  works  is  one  "  On  the  Legal  Art,"  ("  De 
Juris  Arte  Libri  tres,"  1553.)    Died  in  1576. 

See  Motley,  "Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  part  ii.  chap,  v., 
and  part  iv.  chap.  iv. 

Hop'pin,  (Augustus,)  an  American  artist,  born  in 
Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1828.  He  pursued  a  col- 
legiate course  at  Brown  University,  and  entered  upon 
the  profession  of  law,  but  subsequently  devoted  himself 
to  drawing  on  wood.  He  has  illustrated  "  The  Autocrat 
of  the  Breakfast-Table,"  the  poem  of  "  Nothing  to  Wear," 
and  numerous  other  subjects. 

Hoppin,  (Thomas  F.,)  an  American  painter  and  de- 
signer, brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Providence, 
Rhode  Island,  in  1816.  Among  the  most  important  of 
his  designs  are  the  figures  on  the  great  window  of  Trinity 
Church,  New  York. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Hopp'ner,  (John,)  R.A.,  an  excellent  English,  por- 
trait-painter, born  in  London  in  1759.  He  studied  in 
the  Royal  Academy,  and  was  patronized  by  the  Prince 
of  Wales.  For  many  years  he  was  the  most  fashionable 
portrait-painter  of  London,  except  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence. 
Hoppner  was  very  successful  in  portraits  of  women.  His 
colouring  is  natural  and  powerful,  and  his  tones  are 
mellow  and  deep.  His  works  have  a  charming  air  of 
facility  and  negligence.    Died  in  1810. 

See  Cunningham,  "Lives  of  Painters,"  etc. 

Hop'ton,  (Arthur,)  a  learned  English  mathema- 
tician, born  in  Somersetshire  in  1588,  was  intimate  with 
Selden.  He  wrote  "Speculum  Topographicum,"  (1611,) 
and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1614. 

Hopton,  (Sir  Ralph,)  an  English  royalist  officer,  who 
fought  for  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war.  He  obtained  some 
success  in  Cornwall  in  1643.  I"  i(>At(>  he  commanded 
about  8000  men  at  the  battle  of  Torrington,  where  he 
was  defeated  by  Fairfax.    Died  about  1652. 

Hopton,  (Susanna,)  an  English  authoress,  born  in 
1627,  wrote  "Hexameron,  or  Meditations  on  the  Six 
Days  of  Creation."    Died  in  1709. 

Horace,  hSr'ass,  [Lat.  Hora'tius;  Fr.  Horace, 
o'rtss';  Ger.  HoRAZ,  ho-rlts';  It.  Orazio,  o-rit'se-o,]  or, 
more  fully,  Quin'tus  Hora'tius  Flac'cus,  an  excellent 
and  popular  Latin  poet,  born  at  Venusia,  (now  Venosa,) 
in  Italy,  in  December,  65  B.C.  His  father  was  a  freed- 
man,  who  gained  a  competence  as  a  coacior,  (collector  of 
indirect  taxes  or  of  the  proceeds  of  auctions,)  and  pur- 
chased a  farm  near  Venusia,  on  the  bank  of  the  Aufidus, 
(Ofanto.)  At  an  early  age  he  was  sent  to  Rome,  and 
became  a  pupil  of  the  noted  teacher  Orbilius  Pupillus, 
with  whom  he  learned  grammar  and  the  Greek  language. 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  ^-uttural;  N,  nasal ;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^:^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HOR^ 


I  2IO 


HORN 


About  his  eighteenth  year,  he  went  to  prosecute  his 
studies  in  the  groves  of  the  Academy  at  Athens, — then 
the  principal  seat  of  learning  and  philosophy, — where  he 
remained  until  the  death  of  Julius  Caesar  (in  44  B.C.) 
involved  the  empire  in  a  civil  war.  As  Brutus  passed 
through  Athens,  Horace,  with  patriotic  ardour,  joined 
his  army,  was  made  a  military  tribune,  took  command 
of  a  legion,  and  witnessed  the  fatal  defeat  of  the  cause  at 
Philipi)i,  where  he  threw  away  his  shield.  (Carmina,  ii. 
7. )  His  estate  having  been  confiscated,  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  supported  himself  a  short  time  by  acting  as  clerk 
in  the  treasury.  His  early  poems  having  excited  the 
interest  of  Virgil  and  Varius,  they  recommended  him  to 
Maecenas,  in  whom  he  found  a  liberal  patron  and  intimate 
friend.  Thenceforth  his  life  was  eminently  prosperous, 
and  serenely  passed  in  congenial  studies  and  patrician 
society.  Preferring  independence  to  the  tempting  prizes 
of  ambition,  he  refused  the  office  of  private  secretary 
to  Augustus,  who  treated  him  with  particular  favour. 
He  had  a  true  relish  for  rural  pleasures  and  the  charms 
of  nature,  which  he  often  enjoyed  at  his  Sabine  farm  or 
his  villa  in  Tibur.  Died  in  November,  8  B.C.  He  was 
never  married.  He  was  of  short  stature,  and  had  dark 
eyes  and  hair.  His  character,  as  deduced  from  his  writings, 
is  well  balanced,  and  unites  in  a  high  degree  good  sense, 
good  nature,  urbanity,  and  elegant  taste.  His  poems, 
consisting  of  odes,  satires,  and  epistles,  may  all  be  con- 
tained in  one  small  volume.  His  chief  merits  are  a  calm 
philosophy,  a  graceful  diction,  an  admirable  sense  of 
propriety,  and  a  keen  insight  into  human  nature,  which 
have  attracted  an  admiration  growing  from  age  to  age, 
and  have  rendered  him,  next  to  Virgil,  the  most  illus- 
trious poet  of  ancient  Rome.  "  It  is  mainly,"  says  "  Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  April,  1868,  "to  this  large  and 
many-sided  nature  of  the  man  himself  that  Horace  owes 
his  unrivalled  popularity, — a  popularity  which  has  indeed 
both  widened  and  deepened  in  its  degree  in  proportion 
to  the  increase  of  modern  civilization."  His  "  Epistles" 
are  among  the.  few  poems  which  represent  the  most  per- 
fect and  original  form  of  Latin  verse.  There  is  no  very 
good  English  translation  of  Horace's  entire  works  :  that 
of  Francis  (4  vols.,  1747)  is  perhaps  the  best.  Lord  Lyt- 
ton's  translation  of  the  Odes  (1869)  is  highly  praised. 

See  Suetonius,  "Vita  Horatii ;"  Masson,  "Vita  Horatii,"  1708  ; 
Henry  H.  Milman,  "Life  of  Q.  Hnratius  Flaccus,"  1854;  Van 
Ommekn,  "  Horaz  als  Mensch  und  Burger  von  Rom,"  1802;  C. 
Francke,  "  Fasti  Horatiani,"  1839;  Waixkenaer,  "  Histoire  de  la 
Vie  et  des  Poesies  d'Horace,"  2  vols.,  1840;  J.  Murray,  "Ori- 
ginal Views  of  the  Passages  in  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Horace," 
1851  ;  J.  (or  F.)  Jacob,  "  Horaz  und  seine  Freunde,"  1852;  Ersch 
undGRUBER,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  see,  also,  the  excellent 
article  on  Horatius  in  Smith's  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biography,"  by  the  late  Dean  H.  H.  Milman,  (author  of  the  "  Life 
of  Q.  Horatius  Flaccus;")  "Horace  and  his  Translators,"  in  the 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1858:  "Horace  and 
Tasso,"  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1850. 

Horae,  ho'ree,  [Gr.  ''Qpat ;  Fr,  Heures,  ur,  or  Hores, 
OR,j  the  Hours  or  Seasons,  which  the  ancients  imagined  to 
have  charge  of  the  gates  of  heaven  or  doors  of  Olympus. 
They  appear  to  have  been  originally  personifications 
of  the  order  of  nature  and  of  the  seasons.  They  were 
also  regarded  as  goddesses  of  justice,  peace,  and  order. 
Milton  associates  them  with  the  Graces : 
"while  universal  Pan, 

Knit  with  the  Graces  and  the  Hours  in  dance. 

Led  on  the  eternal  Spring." 

Paradise  Lost,  book  iv. 
Ho-ra-pol'lo  or  Ho'rus  A-pol'lo,  [Gr.  ''^IpairoTiluv  ; 
Fr.  HoRAPOLLON,  o'rt'po'l6N',]  the  celebrated  author 
of  a  Greek  treatise  on  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics.  His 
name  and  the  epoch  in  which  he  lived  have  been  the 
subject  of  much  discussion.  Recent  critics  favour  the 
opinion  that  he  lived  at  Alexandria  about  the  fifth  century. 

See  Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  ;"  A.  S. 
Corey,  "The  Hieroglyphics  of  HorapoUo,"  1840;  Goulaniof, 
"Essai  sur  les  Hieroglyphes  d'HorapoUon,"  1827. 

Horapollon.    See  Horapollo. 
Horatius.    See  Horace. 

Horatius,  ho-ra'she-us,  (in  the  plural,  Horatii,  ho- 

ra'she-T,)  a  hero  of  the  early  Roman  legends,  who  with 
his  two  brothers  fought  against  the  three  Curiatii  for 
the  supremacy  of  Rome  over  Alba.  His  brothers  fell  in 
the  first  onset.  By  a  feigned  flight  he  separated  his 
antagonists,  and  slew  them  one  after  the  other. 


Horatius  Codes.    See  Cocles. 

Horberg  or  Hoerberg,  hoR'bgRG,  (Pehr,)  an  emi- 
nent Swedish  painter,  born  in  Smaland  in  1746.  He 
practised  his  art  with  success  at  Olstorp,  chiefly  on  reli- 
gious subjects,  and  received  the  title  of  historical  painter 
to  the  king.    Died  in  1816. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  (in  Swedish,)  published  in  1817,  and 
translated  into  German  by  Schildener,  1819;  C.  Molbech,  "  Leben 
und  Kunst  des  Malers  P.  Hoerberg,"  1819;  "  Biographiskt- Lexicon 
bfver  naninkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Hor'be-ry,  (Matthew,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine, 
born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1707,  was  educated  at  Oxford. 
He  became  canon  of  Lichfield,  vicar  of  Hanbury,  and 
rector  of  Standlake.  His  sermons  were  published  in 
several  volumes,  (1745-74,)  and  were  pronounced  excel- 
lent by  Dr.  Johnson.    Died  in  1773. 

Horebout,  ho'reh-bowt'',  (Gerard  or  Gu^rard,)  a 
Flemish  painter  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Ghent. 
He  removed  to  England,  and  became  first  painter  to 
Henry  VHL 

Hores.    See  Hor^. 

Horfelin,  de,  di  oR-fi-leen',  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish 
painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Saragossa  in 
1597  ;  died  in  1660. 

Horleman  or  Harleman,  hoR'leh-min',  (Carl,) 

Baron,  a  Swedish  architect,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1700, 
designed  the  cathedral  of  Calmar,  and  completed  the 
royal  palace  at  Stockholm.  He  was  ranked  among  the 
greatest  architects  of  Sweden.    Died  in  1753. 

Hor'man,  (William,)  of  Eton  College,  an  English 
botanist,  born  at  Salisbury.  He  published  "  Herbarum 
Synonyma."    Died  in  1535. 

Hormayr,  von,  fon  hoR'mlR,  (Joseph,)  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Innspruck  in  1781.  He  fomented  a 
revolt  in  the  Tyrol  against  the  French  in  1809,  and  was 
appointed  historiographer  of  Austria  in  1815.  He  be- 
came councillor  for  the  foreign  department  of  Bavaria 
in  1828,  and  minister  from  Bavaria  to  Hanover  in  1832. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  History  of  Tyrol,"  ( 1 808,)  "  The 
Austrian  Plutarch,  or  Lives  of  all  the  Austrian  Princes," 
(20 vols.,  1807-20,)  "General  History  of  Modern  Times, 
1787  to  1815,"  (1817-19,  3  vols.,)  and  "Vienna,  its  History 
and  Curiosities,"  (9  vols.,  1823-25.)    Died  in  1848. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  January,  1845. 

Hor-mis'das  [Persian,  Hormooz]  I.,  King  of  Persia, 
son  of  Shahpoor  (or  Sapor)  I.,  began  to  reign  in  271 
A.D.  After  an  uneventful  reign  of  fourteen  months,  he 
died  in  272,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Bahram  I. 

See  Firdousee,  "Shah  Namah ;"  Mirkhond,  "Histoire  des 
Sassanides." 

Hormisdas  II.,  King  of  Persia,  of  the  Sassanide 
dynasty,  was  the  son  of  Narses,  whom  he  succeeded 
in  303  A.D.  He  died  in  311,  leaving  the  throne  to  his 
infant  son,  Shahpoor  IL 

Hormisdas  III.,  a  son  of  Yezdejerd  III.,  became 
King  of  Persia  in  457  A.D.  He  was  defeated  and  deposed 
by  his  brother  Fyrooz  about  460. 

Hormisdas  IV.,  King  of  Persia,  a  son  of  Chosroes 
(Khosroo)  I.,  began  to  reign  in  579  A.D.  He  waged  war 
against  Tiberius,  Emperor  of  the  East,  by  whose  army 
he  was  defeated  in  several  battles.  Provoked  by  his 
tyranny,  his  subjects  revolted  against  him,  and  he  was 
deposed  and  put  to  death  in  591  A.D. 

See  Aboolfaraj,  "  Historia  Dynastiarum ;"  Mirkhond,  "His- 
toire des  Sassanides,"  1793 ;  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire." 

Hor-mis'das,  a  native  of  Frusino,  Italy,  was  elected 
pope  in  514  A.D.,  as  successor  to  Symmachus.  He  used 
his  influence  against  the  Eutychians  and  against  Acacius. 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople.    He  died  in  523. 

Hormuzd.    See  Ormuzd. 

Horn,  hoRn,  (Arvid  Bernard,)  Count,  a  Swedish 
statesman,  born  in  1664.  His  influence  secured  the 
elevation  of  Frederick  of  Hesse-Cassel  to  the  throne  in 
1720.  He  became  the  head  of  the  party  of  "Bonnets," 
which  was  in  power  until  1738.    Died  in  1742. 

See  GusTAV  Horn,  "A.  B.  Horn,"  1852;  Thomaeus.  "Svensk 
Plutarch." 

Horn  or  Horne,  (Charles  Edward,)  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1786,  was  noted  as  a  composer  of  music.  He  was 
the  author  of  "The  Deep,  Deep  Sea,"  and  other  popular 
songs.    He  died  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  1850. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ia,  j?,  short;  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HORN 


121  I 


HORNER 


Horn,  hoRn,  (Franz  Christoph,)  a  German  critic, 
born  at  Brunswick  in  1781.  He  published  several  novels, 
a  "  Critical  History  of  German  Poetry  and  Eloquence," 
(4  vols.,  1822-29,)  and  "The  Dramatic  Works  of  Shak- 
speare,"  ("  Shakespeare's  Schauspiele,"  5  vols.,  1823- 
31.)    Died  in  1837. 

See  "Franz  Horn  :  biographisches  Denkmal,"  Leipsic,  1839. 

Horn,  hoRn,  (Fredrick,)  Count  of  Aminne,  a  Swedish 
general  in  the  French  service,  born  at  Husby  in  1725. 
As  aide-de-camp  of  Marshal  D'Estrees,  he  had  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  victory  of  Hastenbeck,  (1757.)  He 
obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  the  Swedish 
army  in  1778.    Died  in  1796. 

His  son,  Count  Horn,  was  an  accomplice  in  the  as- 
sassination of  Gustavus  HI.  in  1792,  for  which  he  was 
banished  for  life.    Died  in  1823. 

Horn,  [Lat.  Hor'nius,]  (Georg,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Greussen  in  1620.  He  became  professor  of  his- 
tory at  Leyden  about  1648,  and  wrote,  in  Latin,  works 
on  history  and  geography,  among  which  are  an  "  Eccle- 
siastical and  Political  History,"  (1665,)  and  "Noah's 
Ark,  or  a  History  of  the  World,"  (1666.)    Died  in  1670. 

See  JoHANN  Adam  Flessa,  "Dissertatio  de  Vita  G.  Homii," 
1738. 

Horn,  (GusTAF,)  Count  of,  an  able  Swedish  general, 
born  in  Upland  in  1592.  Having  served  with  credit  in 
Poland  and  Livonia,  he  was  appointed  a  senator  about 
1624.  At  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  in  163 1,  he  commanded 
the  left  wing,  and  contributed  to  the  victory.  After 
Gustavus  Adolphus  was  killed  at  Liitzen,  Horn  gained 
some  advantages  over  the  enemy,  but  was  taken  prisoner 
at  Nordlingen  in  1634.  Restored  to  liberty  in  1642,  he 
was  made  commander-in-chief  of  the  Swedish  army  in 
the  war  against  Denmark,  in  which  he  was  successful. 
The  queen  rewarded  him  (about  1652)  with  the  ofifice  of 
Constable  of  Sweden  and  the  title  of  count.  Died  in  1657. 

See  Emporagius,  "Likpredikan  btver  G.  C.  Horn,"i56o;  Flo- 
RANDER,  "Encomium  Militiae  Hornian^,"  1648 ;  J.  F.  af  Lund- 
BLAD,  "  Svensk  Plutarch, "1823  ;  "  Biographiskt- Lexicon  bfvernamn- 
kunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Horn,  (Uffo  Daniel,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  at 
Tratenau,  in  Bohemia,  in  181 7. 

Horn  or  Hoorn,  de,  deh  hoRn,  also  written  Hoorne 
and  Homes,  (Philippe  de  Montmorency-Nivelle,) 
Count,  a  Flemish  noble,  born  in  1522,  was  the  son  of 
Joseph  de  Nivelle  and  Anne  of  Egmont.  After  the  death 
of  his  father,  his  mother  married  Count  de  Horn,  whose 
name  and  vast  fortune  he  inherited.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battles  of  Saint-Quentin'and  Gravelines, 
and  served  Philip  H.  of  Spain  many  years  as  admiral 
of  the  Low  Countries,  president  of  the  council  of  state, 
governor  of  Gueldres,  etc.  Arrested  by  the  Duke  of 
Alva,  with  Count  Egmont,  on  a  charge  of  treason,  he 
was  unjustly  condemned  and  executed  in  1568. 

See  Motley,  "Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic;"  Prescott,  "His- 
tory of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  ii. 

Horn^blow-er,  (Joseph  C.,)  an  American  jurist, 
born  at  Belleville,  New  Jersey,  in  1777.  He  was  chief 
justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  New  Jersey  from  1832 
to  1846.  He  decided  in  1856  that  Congress  had  no 
right  to  pass  a  law  for  the  rendition  of  fugitive  slaves. 
Died  at  Newark  in  June,  1864. 

Horne,  horn,  (George,)  D.D.,  an  English  bishop  and 
author,  born  at  Otham,  in  Kent,  in  1730,  was  a  good  He- 
brew scholar.  He  was  chosen  vice-chancellor  of  Oxford 
in  1776,  Dean  of  Canterbury  in  1781,  and  Bishop  of 
Norwich  in  1790.  He  wrote  against  the  philosophy  of 
Newton,  and  published  treatises  in  favour  of  John  Hut- 
chinson, and  other  works  on  theology.  His  "  Commentary 
on  the  Book  of  Psalms"  (2  vols.,  1771)  is  esteemed  an 
excellent  performance,  and  has  often  been  reprinted. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson.    Died  in  1792. 

See  William  Jones,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  the 
Rev.  G.  Horne,"  1795. 

Home,  (Richard  Henry,)  an  English  poet  and 
dramatist,  born  in  London  about  1802.  He  produced, 
besides  other  dramas,  a  tragedy  entitled  "  Gregory  the 
Seventh,"  (1840.)  His  reputation  is  founded  on  "Orion, 
an  Epic  Poem,"  {1843,)  which  was  announced  at  the 
price  of  one  farthing,  as  a  sarcasm  upon  the  low  esti- 
mation into  which  epic  poetry  had  fallen.  After  three 
editions  had  been  sold,  the  price  was  raised  to  one 


shilling,  and  finally  to  five  shillings.  This  poem  found 
many  admirers.  Among  his  other  works  are  "The 
New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  (2  vols.,  1844,)  and  "  Ballads  and 
Romances,"  (1846.)    In  1852  he  removed  to  Australia. 

Horne,  (Thomas  Hartwell,)  D.D.,  an  eminent 
English  author,  born  in  1780,  was  educated  in  London. 
He  passed  eight  years  in  the  labour  of  a  barrister's 
clerk,  and  acquired  some  knowledge  of  law,  while  his 
leisure  was  diligently  improved  in  literary  studies.  In 
1818  he  published  his  principal  work,  the  "Introduction 
to  the  Critical  Study  and  Knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures," (3  vols.,  1818 ;  loth  edition,  enlarged,  1856,)  which 
is  considered  the  most  complete  and  valuable  work  on 
that  subject,  and  was  soon  adopted  as  a  clas»-book  in  all 
the  universities  and  colleges  of  England  and  in  some  of 
those  in  the  United  States.  Having  no  sectarian  tend- 
ency, it  is  appreciated  by  Christians  generally,  and  has 
conduced  greatly  to  the  diffusion  of  sound  biblical  litera- 
ture. In  1819  Horne  was  ordained  by  the  Bishop  of 
London,  and  obtained  a  prebend  in  Saint  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral, besides  other  livings.  Among  his  other  numerous 
publications  are  "  Deism  Refuted,"  (1819,)  and  a  "Manual 
of  Biblical  Bibliography,"  (1839.)  Died  in  January,  1862. 

See  "  Reminiscences  of  Thomas  H.  Horne,"  London,  1862 

Horne  Tooke.    See  Tooke. 

Horne,  van,  (Jan.)    See  Hoorne. 

Horneck,  hoR'nik,  (Anthony,)  D.D.,  was  born  at 
Bacharach,  in  Germany,  in  1641,  removed  to  England 
about  1660,  and  became  prebendary  of  Exeter,  West- 
minster, and  Wells.  He  wrote  many  devout  religious 
works,  among  which  are  "The  Great  Law  of  Consider- 
ation," (1677;  nth  edition,  1729,)  and  "The  Happy 
Ascetic,"  (1681.)  His  writings  were  commended  by 
Doddridge  as  "exceedingly  pathetic  and  elegant."  Died 
in  1696. 

See  his  Life,  by  Bishop  Kidder. 

Horneck,  von,  fon  hoR'n§k,  (Ottokar,)  called  also 
Ottokar  von  Steiermark,  (sti'er-maRk^)  one  of  the 
earliest  who  wrote  in  the  German  language,  was  the 
author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Great  Empires  of  the  World 
to  the  Death  of  Frederick  II.,"  (1280,)  and  a  chronicle 
in  rhyme.  It  has  been  published  in  Petz's  "Austrian 
Historians,"  and  is  valued  for  its  interesting  account  of 
the  manners  and  customs  of  that  age. 

See  T.  Jacobi,  "Dissertatio  de  Ottocari  Chronico  Austriaco," 
1839. 

Horneman,  hoR'neh-min',  (Jens  Wilken,)  a  Dan- 
ish botanist,  born  at  Marstal  in  1770,  became  professor 
of  botany  at  Copenhagen  in  1808.  He  continued  the 
"  Flora  Danica,"  a  magnificent  work,  which  other  natu- 
ralists commenced,  and  which  appeared  in  14  vols, 
folio,  (1806-40.)  He  wrote  "Economical  Botany  for 
Denmark,"  (1798,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1841. 

See  his  Autobiography  ;  Erslew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Hornemann,  hoR'neh-min',  (Friedrich  Conrad,) 
a  German  traveller,  born  at  Hildesheim  in  1772,  at- 
tempted in  1797  to  explore  Northern  and  Central  Africa. 
He  left  Moorzook  with  a  caravan  bound  for  Bornoo  in 
A])ril,  1800,  after  which  date  he  was  never  heard  from. 

Hor'ner,  (Francis,)  an  eminent  British  statesman 
and  lawyer,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1778,  was  educated  in 
the  university  of  that  city,  and  studied  law  with  his  friend 
Henry  Brougham.  Having  removed  to  London  in  1803, 
he  was  welcomed  by  the  leading  Whigs,  such  as  Fox, 
Mackintosh,  and  Romilly,  who  hastened  to  enlist  his 
eminent  abilities  in  the  public  service.  In  1806  he  was 
returned  to  Parliament  for  Saint  Ives.  The  death  of 
Fox  having  produced  a  change  of  ministry  and  a  disso- 
lution of  the  House,  Horner  was  returned  for  Wendover 
in  1807.  He  acquired  great  influence  in  Parliament  by 
his  integrity,  wisdom,  liberality,  and  knowledge  of  politi- 
cal economy.  In  1810  he  was  a  member  of  the  Bullion 
committee  and  author  of  a  part  of  the  "Bullion  Report," 
and  made  an  able  speech  on  that  question.  In  1813-14 
he  was  recognized  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  his  party,  and 
in  1816  he  made  a  speech  on  Catholic  claims,  which  was 
his  last  speech  in  the  House.  Compelled  by  ill  health 
to  retire  from  business,  he  set  out  on  a  journey  to  the 
south  of  Europe,  and  died,  greatly  lamented,  at  Pisa,  in 
181 7.    He  was  one  of  the  originators  of  the  "  Edinburgh 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  i^^  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2l^=='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HORNER 


121  2 


HORSTIUS 


Review,"  for  which  he  wrote  numerous  articles.  "  He 
died  at  the  age  of  thirty-eight,"  says  Lord  Cockburn, 
*' possessed  of  greater  pubhc  influence  than  any  other 
'private  man."  "No  eminent  speaker  of  Parliament," 
says  Sir  J.  Mackintosh,  "  owed  so  much  of  his  success 
to  his  moral  character.  His  high  place  was  therefore 
honourable  to  his  audience  and  to  his  country." 

See  "Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of  F.  Horner,"  published  by 
his  brother,  Lkonakd  Horner,  in  1843;  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  Octo- 
ber, 1843;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1843. 

Horner,  (Leonard,)  F.R.S.,  a  British  geologist,  and 
younger  brother  of  the  preceding,  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  organization  of  the  London  University,  of  which 
he  was  appointed  warden  in  1827.  About  1833  he  be- 
came inspector  of  factories,  in  which  capacity  he  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  moral  and  physical  improvement 
of  the  operatives.  He  wrote  articles  on  the  "  Mineral 
Kingdom"  for  the  "  Penny  Magazine,"  "On  the  Employ- 
ment of  Children  in  Factories,"  (1840,)  and  other  short 
works.    Died  in  1864. 

Hor'iier,  (William  E.,)  an  American  anatomist, 
born  in  Virginia  about  1790,  became  in  181 6  demon- 
strator of  anatomy  to  Dr.  Wistar,  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  in  183 1  succeeded  Dr.  Physick  as 
professor  of  anatomy  in  that  institution.  Died  in  1853. 
(See  Wistar,  Caspar.) 

See  Gross,  "American  Medical  Biography,"  1861 ;  Carson, 
"  History  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania," 1869. 

Hornius.   See  Horn,  (Georg.) 

Horrebow  or  Horreboe,  hoR'reh-bo,  (Christof- 
FER,)  a  Danish  astronomer,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  171 8. 
He  succeeded  his  father  as  professor  of  astronomy 
about  1750,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  a  Latin 
treatise  "  On  the  Annual  Parallax  of  the  Fixed  Stars," 
(1747.)    Died  in  1776. 

See  Kraft  og  Nverup,  "  Litteraturlexicon." 

Horrebow,  (Nikolaus,)  a  Danish  author,  born  at 
Copenhagen  in  1 7 12,  became  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court.  In  1750  he  was  sent  by  government  to  explore 
Iceland,  of  which  he  wrote  a  description,  said  to  be  very 
correct.    Died  in  1750. 

See  Kraft  og  Nverup,  "  Litteraturlexicon." 

Horrebow  or  Horreboe,  (Peder,)  an  eminent  Dan- 
ish astronomer,  the  father  of  Christoffer,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  Jutland  in  1679.  He  became  professor 
of  astronomy  at  Copenhagen  in  17 10.  He  determined 
the  parallax  of  the  sun  more  exactly  in  his  "Clavis  As- 
tronomiae,"  a  treatise  on  physical  astronomy,  in  which 
he  favours  the  theory  of  Descartes.  He  wrote  other 
works,  among  which  is  "  Copernicus  Triumphans,  sive 
de  Parallaxi  Orbis  Annul,"  (1727.)    Died  in  1764. 

See  Kraft  og  Nverup,  "Litteraturlexicon;"  Nyerup,  "  Uni- 
versitaets  Annalen." 

Horrebow,  (Peder,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1728,  observed  the  transit  of  Venus  in  1761,  and  wrote 
an  account  of  it.    Died  in  1812. 

Hor'rpcks  or  Hor'rpx,  (Jeremiah,)  a  distinguished 
English  astronomer,  born  at  Toxteth,  near  Liverpool,  in 
1619,  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  took  orders,  and  be- 
came curate  of  Hoole.  He  was  the  author  of  the  true 
theory  of  lunar  motion,  and  was  the  first  who  observed 
the  transit  of  Venus,  (in  1639,)  which  he  had  successfully 
foretold,  and  of  which  he  wrote  an  account,  entitled 
"Venus  sub  Sole  visa."  His  other  works  on  astronomy 
were  published  by  Dr.  Wallis  in  1672.  "His  investiga- 
tions," says  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1843, 
•*  are  all  stamped  with  the  clear  indications  of  a  genius 
of  the  first  order;  and  he  doubtless  would  have  achieved 
far  greater  discoveries  had  not  his  privations  and  suc- 
cesses, his  toils  and  triumphs,  been  together  cut  short  by 
his  premature  death,  in  1641." 

See  A.  B.  Whatton,  "  Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Labours  of  J. 
Horrox,"  1859. 

Horsburgh,  hors'biir-eh,  or  Horsbury,  hors'ber-e, 
(James,)  F.R.S.,  a  Scottish  hydrographer,  born  at  Elie 
in  1762,  was  for  some  years  captain  of  a  merchant-ship 
navigating  the  East  Indian  seas.  In  1809  he  was  ap- 
pointed hydrographer  of  the  East  India  Company.  He 
was  author  of  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Directions  for 


Sailing  to  and  from  the  East  Indies,  China,"  etc.,  (1809.) 
Died  in  1836. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement;)  "  Nouveile  Biographic  G6nerale." 

Horse'field,  (Rev.  Thomas  W.,)  an  English  anti- 
quary,  published  the  "  History  and  Antiquities  of  Sus- 
sex."   Died  in  1837. 

Hors'field  or  Horsefield,  (Thomas,)  M.D.,  F.R.S., 

an  eminent  naturalist  and  traveller,  born  in  Pennsylvania 
in  1773.  He  explored  the  natural  history  of  Java  for 
many  years,  and  returned  to  England  about  1820.  He 
published  "Zoological  Researches  in  Java,"  etc.,  (1821- 
24.)  The  plants  which  he  collected  were  described  in 
an  excellent  work  entitled  "Plantae  Javanicae  Rariores," 
(1838-52,  with  fifty  coloured  engravings,)  in  which  he 
was  aided  by  Robert  Brown  and  J.  J.  Bennett.  He  also 
wrote  several  smaller  works.    Died  in  London  in  1859. 

Hors'ley,  (Charles,)  an  English  composer,  born  at 
Kensington  in  1821.  He  composed  oratorios  entitled 
"David"  and  "Joseph,"  (1852.) 

Horsley,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  British  anti- 
quary, born  in  Mid- Lothian  in  1685,  became  pastor  of  a 
dissenting  church  at  Morpeth.  He  wrote  an  excellent 
work  entitled  "The  Roman  Antiquities  of  Britain," 
("  Britannia  Romana,"  1732.)    Died  in  1731. 

See  Rev.  J.  Hodgson,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  John  Hors- 
ley," London,  1831  ;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Emi- 
nent Scotsmen;"  Nichols,  "  Literary  Anecdotes." 

Horsley,  (John  Callcott,)  an  English  historical 
painter,  born  in  London  in  1817.  His  cartoon  of  "  Saint 
Augustine  Preaching"  (1843)  received  one  of  the  prizes 
of  ^200  from  the  Commission  of  Fine  Arts.  He  was 
one  of  the  artists  commissioned  to  adorn  the  House 
of  Lords,  in  which  he  painted  a  fresco  of  the  "  Spirit  of 
Religion,"  (1845.)  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  L'Alle- 
gro  and  II  Penseroso,"  (1851,)  "Lady  Jane  Grey  and 
Roger  Ascham,"  (1853,)  and  a  "Scene  from  Don  Quix- 
ote," (1855.) 

Horsley,( Samuel,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  English  bishop 
and  writer,  born  in  London  in  1733,  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge. In  1759  he  obtained  the  rectory  of  Newington 
Butts,  and,  after  receiving  other  preferments,  became 
Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in  1788,  of  Rochester  in  1793, 
and  of  Saint  Asaph  in  1802.  To  superior  talents  he 
joined  profound  learning,  both  classical  and  scientific. 
He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1767, 
and  secretary  of  the  same  in  1773.  In  1783  he  gained 
distinction  by  a  controversy  with  l3r.  Priestley  on  Unita- 
rianism,  in  whi^h  it  is  usually  conceded  that  Horsley 
had  the  advantage.  He  published  in  1796  an  excellent 
treatise  "  On  the  Prosodies  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Lan- 
guages," and  "Critical  Disquisitions  on  the  Eighteenth 
Chapter  of  Isaiah."  Among  his  numerous  publications 
are  sermons,  treatises  on  mathematics,  and  several  ad- 
mired performances  in  biblical  criticism.    Died  in  1806. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  February,  181 1 ;  "London  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  May,  1810,  (vol.  xvii.) 

Hors'man,  (Edward,)  a  British  lawyer  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  1807.  He  represented  Stroud  in  Parlia- 
ment from  1853  to  1868.  He  is  one  of  those  who  were 
called  "  AduUamites,"  who  voted  against  the  Reform 
bill  in  1866,  although  elected  as  Liberals. 

Horst,  hoRst,  [Lat.  Hor'stius,]  (Gregor,)  a  German 
physician,  was  born  at  Torgau,  in  Saxony,  in  1578.  He 
became  professor  at  Ulm  in  1622,  and  was  surnatned 
the  German  ^sculapius.  Ainong  his  chief  w^orks 
are  "  On  Diseases  and  their  Causes,"  ("  De  Morbis 
eorumque  Causis,"  1612,)  and  "  Anatomy  of  the  Human 
Body,"  (1617.)    Died  in  1636. 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Freher,  "Theatrum  Eru- 
ditorum." 

Horst,  van  der,  vtn  der  hoRst,  (Nikolaas,)  a  Flem- 
ish painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Antwerp, 
was  a  pupil  of  Rubens.  His  works  are  highly  prized. 
Died  in  1646. 

Horstius.    See  Horst. 

Horstius,  hoR'ste-us,  (Jacobus,)  a  Dutch  religious 
writer,  originally  named  ]\Ierler,  was  born  at  Horst 
about  1597.  He  wrote,  in  elegant  Latin,  "Paradise  of 
the  Christian  Soul,"  ("  Paradisus  Animae  Christianae," 
1630.)    Died  in  1644. 


i,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;    h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f Sr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HORSTIUS 


HOSIUS 


Horstius,  hoR'ste-iSs,  (Jakob,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Torgau  in  1537  ;  died  in  1600. 

Hort  or  Horte,  (Josiah,)  an  English  theologian, 

educated  at  a  dissenting  academy  with  Dr.  Watts,  who 
expressed  a  high  opinion  of  him.  He  became  Bishop 
of  Kihnore  and  Ardagh  in  1727,  and  Archbishop  of 
TuaiTi  in  1742.  A  collection  of  his  sermons  was  pub- 
lished.   He  died  at  an  advanced  age  in  1 751. 

Hortemels,  //oR'teh-mels' or  hoK\fn\hV,  (Fr^d^ric,) 
a  French  engraver,  born  at  Paris  about  1688. 

Hortemels,  (Marie  Madeleine,)  an  able  engraver, 
born  in  Paris  about  1688,  was  the  wife  of  the  celebrated 
engraver  Nicolas  Cochin.    Died  in  1777. 

Hortense  Eugenie  de  Beauharnais,  oR'tfiNss' 
ijWzhk'nt'  deh  bo'tR^na',  Queen  of  Holland,  and  mother 
of  the  emperor  Napoleon  HI.,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1783.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Alexandre,  Vicomte  de 
Beauharnais,  and  Josephine  Tascher,  afterwards  Empress 
of  France.  Her  personal  charms  and  amiable  character 
rendered  her  a  favourite  with  Napoleon  and  the  ornament 
of  his  court.  Against  her  own  inclination,  and  through 
the  influence  of  her  mother,  she  became  in  1802  the  wife 
of  Louis  Bonaparte,  with  whom  she  did  not  live  happily. 
It  is  said  that  she  wept  abundantly  at  the  performance 
of  the  ceremony.  In  1806  her  consort  Louis  was  made 
King  of  Holland.  On  this  occasion  Hortense  said  she 
would  have  preferred  the  throne  of  Naples.  "  I  would 
have  rekindled,"  said  she,  "the  flame  of  the  fine  arts 
in  Italy."  She  disliked  the  Dutch  fogs,  and  deemed 
sunshine  and  Parisian  society  indispensable  blessings. 

Hortense  was  the  mother  of  three  sons,  whom  by  the 
edicts  of  1804  and  1805  the  emperor  had  preferred  as 
successors  to  his  crown  :  I.  Napoleon  Louis  Charles, 
who  died  in  1807 ;  2.  Napoleon  Louis,  who  died  at 
Pesaro  in  183 1  ;  3.  Charles  Louis  Napoleon,  the 
present  Emperor  of  France.  In  1810  Louis  abdicated 
his  throne,  and  was  separated  from  his  wife,  who,  with 
her  sons,  returned  to  Paris.  At  the  restoration  of  1814 
she  was  created  Duchess  of  Saint-Leu,  through  the  favour 
of  some  of  the  allied  powers.  Louis  XVIII.,  after  an 
interview  with  her,  declared  he  had  never  seen  a  woman 
who  united  so  much  grace  and  dignity.  After  sharing  the 
brief  and  brilliant  triumphs  of  the  Hundred  Days,  she 
was  compelled  to  fly  from  France.  The  authorities  of 
Geneva  refused  her  an  asylum ;  but  she  received  a 
hospitable  ofi'er  from  the  canton  of  Thurgau,  where  she 
purchased  the  castle  of  Arenenberg  in  1817.  For  many 
years  she  passed  the  summer  at  this  place  and  the  winter 
at  Rome.  When  Louis  Napoleon  was  exiled  to  the 
United  States,  in  1836,  she  wished  to  go  with  him,  but 
had  not  sufficient  strength  to. bear  the  voyage;  and  she 
died  in  1837,  in  the  arms  of  her  son,  who,  learning  her 
illness,  had  returned  home.  We  should  not  omit  to 
mention  that  she  excelled  in  music,  and  composed  the 
popular  air  of  "  Partant  pour  la  Syrie,"  one  of  the 
favourite  national  songs  of  France. 

See  Lasceli.es  Wraxall,  "  Memoirs  of  Queen  Hortense ;" 
CoMTE  DE  Lagarde,  "  Esquisse  biographiqiie  sur  la  Reine  Hor- 
tense," 1853  ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1838. 

Hortensius.    See  Desjardins. 

Hor-ten'si-us,  (Lambert,)  a  Dutch  philologist,  born 
at  Montfort  about  1500.  He  wrote  "  On  the  German 
War,"  ("  De  Bello  Germanico,"  1560,)  and  annotations 
on  Virgil's  "/Eneid,"  (1567.)    Died  about  1575. 

Hortensius,  hor-ten'she-us,  (Quintus,)  an  eminent 
Roman  orator,  born  of  an  equestrian  family  in  114  B.C. 
At  an  early  age  he  acquired  celebrity  in  the  Forum, 
where,  a  few  years  afterwards,  he  maintained  a  spirited 
and  generous  rivalry  with  Cicero,  who  applauds  his  elo- 
quence and  calls  him  his  friend.  After  serving  in  the 
army  of  Sulla  in  Asia,  he  became  successively  quaestor, 
aedile,  praetor,  and,  in  69  B.C.,  consul.  In  the  previous 
year  he  was  counsel  for  Verres,  when  Cicero  made  his 
memorable  speech  for  the  prosecution.  His  orations 
and  other  works  are  all  lost.  His  eloquence  is  said  to 
have  been  ornate,  flowery.  Oriental  in  exuberance,  and 
enlivened  with  sententious  an.d  brilliant  passages.  He 
had  a  retentive  memory,  a  sonorous  voice,  and  a  grace- 
ful gesture.    Died  in  50  B.C. 

See  Onomasticon  Tullianum  ;  Pliny,  "Natural  History," 
books  ix.,  X,,  xxxiv.  ;  Quintilian,  books  iv.,  x.,  xi.,  xii. ;  Lins^n, 
*' Dissertatio  de  Hortensio  Oratore,"  Abo,  1822. 


Horto,  ab,  Sb  oR'to,  or  de  la  Huerta,  di  IS  w^R'ti, 
(Garcia,)  called  also  Garcia  da  Orta,  a  Portuguese 
botanist,  went  to  India  as  physician  to  the  viceroy,  and 
wrote  "On  the  Plants  and  Drugs  of  India,"  (1563.) 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "Bibliotheca  Lusitana." 

Hor'tpn,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  born  in  London  about 
1600,  was  professor  of  divinity  in  Gresham  College,  and 
published  a  number  of  sermons.    Died  in  1673. 

Ho'rus,  [Gr.  'flpof,  probably  related  etymologically 
to  the  Sanscrit  Siirya,  Lat.  Sol,  and  Sp.  Siir,\  the  Egyp- 
tian god  of  the  Sun,  was  regarded  as  the  son  of  Isis  and 
Osiris.  (See  Osiris  and  Harpocrates.)  For  the  ety- 
mology of  Horns,  see  Surya. 

Horus  Apollo.    See  Horapollo. 

Horush.    See  Barbarossa. 

Horvath,  hoR'vSt,  (Michael,)  a  Hungarian  histo- 
rian, born  at  Szentes  in  1809.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Csanad  in  1848,  and  minister  of  public  instruction  in 
1849.  After  the  defeat  of  the  patriotic  cause  he  went 
into  exile  in  1849.  He  wrote  a  valuable  "  History  of 
the  Magyars,"  (4  vols.,  1842-46.) 

Hos'ack,  (David,)  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  Ameri- 
can physician,  born  in  New  York  City  in  1769.  After 
graduating  in  Philadelphia  in  1791,  and  prosecuting  his 
studies  in  Edinburgh  and  London,  he  returned  to  New 
York,  and  became  professor  of  botany  and  materia 
medica  in  Columbia  College  in  1795.  He  taught  clinical 
medicine  and  obstetrics  in  the  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons  nearly  twenty  years,  between  1807  and  1826. 
For  many  years  he  was  one  of  the  most  successful  prac- 
titioners and  most  influential  citizens  of  New  York. 
From  1820  to  1828  he  was  president  of  the  New  York 
Historical  Society.  His  first  wife  was  the  sister  of 
Thomas  Eddy,  and  his  second  the  widow  of  Henry  A. 
Costar.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  Vision,  published  by  the 
Royal  Society  of  London,  (1794,)  "Memoirs  of  De  Witt 
Clinton,"  (1829,)  a  "System  of  Practical  Nosology," 
(1829,)  "  Lectures  on  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Physic," 
(1838,)  several  volumes  of  medical  essays,  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1835. 

See  J.  W.  Francls,  "  Memoir  of  Dr.  Hosack;"  Gross,  "Ameri- 
can Medical  Biography,"  1861;  "National  Portrait- Gallery  of  Dis- 
tinguished Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Hoschel  or  Hoeschel,  ho'shel,  [Lat.  Hoesche'- 

Lius,]  (David,)  a  distinguished  German  Hellenist,  born 
at  Augsburg  in  1556.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  and 
keeper  of  the  public  library  at  Augsburg.  He  edited 
numerous  Greek  works,  among  which  are  the  Homilies 
of  Saint  Basil  and  Saint  Chrysostom,  and  the  book  of 
"Origen  against  Celsus,"  (1605.)  His  "Catalogue  of 
the  Greek  Manuscripts  in  the  Augsburg  Library"  (1595) 
is  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  161 7. 

See  Brucker,  "  De  Meritis  in  Rem  literariam  D.  Hoeschelii," 
1738;  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron, 
"M^moires;"  J.  A.  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Gra£ca." 

Ho-se'a  or  O-se'a,  [Heb.;'iyin;  Fr.  Os6e,  o'zi',]  one 
of  the  twelve  minor  Hebrew  prophets,  of  whom  little  is 
known,  except  that  he  lived  in  the  "days  of  Uzziah, 
Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  Kings  of  Judah."  It  is 
inferred  that  his  prophetic  career  extended  from  about 
785  to  725  B.C.  His  language  is  remarkably  obscure. 
"  He  is  the  most  difficult  and  perplexed  of  all  the  pro- 
phets," says  Lowth.  He  is  quoted  in  Matthew  ii.  15, 
ix.  13,  Romans  ix.  25,  (where  his  name  is  written  Osee^) 
and  Revelation  vi.  16. 

Ho-she'a  or  Ho-se'a,  JHeb.  ^'i^in,]  the  last  King 
of  Israel,  began  to  reign  about  730  B.C.,  after  he  had 
assassinated  King  Pekah.  (See  II.  Kings  xv.  30  and 
xvii.  I  to  7.)  After  a  reign  of  nine  years,  his  capital, 
Samaria,  was  taken  by  Shalmaneser,  King  of  Assyria, 
who  carried  Hoshea  with  his  subjects  as  captives  to 
Halah,  Habor,  and  the  cities  of  the  Medes.  Since 
this  event  the  fate  of  the  ten  tribes  has  been  involved 
in  mystery. 

Ho'si-us,  (Stanislas,)  an  eminent  cardinal,  born  at 
Cracow,  in  Poland,  in  1504.  After  holding  responsible 
civil  offices,  he  entered  the  Church,  and  was  made  suc- 
cessively Bishop  of  Culm  and  of  Warmia.  He  was  a 
violent  opponent  of  heretics  and  Protestants.  In  1561 
he  received  a  cardinal's  hat  from  Pius  IV.,  who  sent  him 
as  legate  to  the  Council  of  Trent.   He  wrote  the  "Con- 


e  as  ^;  §  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HOSKING 


1 214 


HOTTING  ER 


fcssion  of  the  Catholic  Faith,"  (1551,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1579. 

See  Rescius,  "Vita  Hosii,"  Rome,  1587;  Bayle,  "Historical 
and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Eiicy- 
klopaedie." 

Hos'king,  (William,)  an  English  architect  and 
writer  on  architecture,  born  in  Devonshire  in  1800.  He 
became  a  resident  of  London  in  his  youth,  and  acquired 
distinction  by  a  "  Treatise  on  Architecture  and  Building," 
republished  from  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  (1839.) 
About  1840  he  was  chosen  professor  of  civil  engineering 
and  architecture  at  King's  College,  London,  fie  wrote 
"  Guide  to  the  Regulation  of  Buildings  as  a  Means  of 
Securing  the  Health  of  Towns,"  {1848.) 

Hos^kins  or  Hos'kyns,  (John,)  Sr.,  an  English 
writer  and  lawyer,  born  in  Herefordshire  in  1566.  He 
was  noted  for  skill  in  Latin  and  English  poetry,  and 
wrote  epigrams,  law  treatises,  etc.  According  to  Wood, 
it  was  Hoskins  who  "  polished  Ben  Jonson  the  poet,"  and 
revised  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  History  before  it  went  to 
press.    Died  in  1638. 

Hoskins,  (John,)  an  English  portrait-painter,  patron- 
ized by  Charles  I.    Died  in  1664. 

Hos'mer,  (Harriet,)  an  American  sculptor,  born  in 
Watertown,  Massachusetts,  in  183 1,  studied  in  Rome, 
where  she  fixed  her  residence.  Among  her  works  are 
"Medusa,"  "Beatrice  Cenci,"  and  an  admired  statue  of 
"Zenobiain  Chains,"  ("  Zenobia  Captiva.") 

See  TucKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Hosmer,  (William,)  an  American  divine  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  born  in  Brimfield,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1810.  He  was  editor  of  the  "  Northern 
Christian  Advocate,"  published  at  Auburn,  New  York, 
and  of  the  "  Northern  Independent,"  a  religious  anti- 
slavery  journal.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Chris- 
tian Beneficence,"  etc.,  (1855.) 

Hosmer,  (William  Henry  Cuyler,)  an  American 
poet,  born  at  Avon,  in  the  Genesee  valley.  New  York, 
in  1814,  studied  in  Geneva  College,  and  practised  law 
in  his  native  town.  He  spent  much  time  among  the 
Indians.  In  1854  he  took  up  his  residence  in  New  York. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Indian  Traditions  and 
Legends  of  the  Senecas,"  etc.,  (1850.)  A  complete 
edition  of  his  Poetical  Works,  in  2  vols.,  was  pub- 
lished in  1854. 

See  Griswold,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Hos-pin'i-an,  [Ger.  pron.  hos-pe-ne-^n';  Fr.  Hospi- 
NiEN,  hos^pe^ne-^N';  Lat.  Hospinia'nus,]  (Rudolf,)  an 
eminent  Swiss  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Altorf  in 
1547.  He  became  the  minister  of  a  church  near  Zurich, 
and  wrote  a  number  of  learned  works,  in  Latin,  among 
which  are  "  On  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Ceremonies, 
Rites,  and  Holydays  ( Festis)  among  Christians,"  (1585,) 
"  History  of  Sacraments,"  ("  Historia  Sacramentaria," 
1598,)  and  a  "  Historyofthe  Jesuits,"  (1619.)  Diedin  1626. 

See  John  H.  Heidegger,  "  Historia  Vita  Rodolphi  Hospiniani," 
1681 ;  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Hospinianus.    See  Hospinian. 
Hospinien.    See  Hospinien. 
Hospital.    See  L'Hopital. 
Hossch.    See  Hosschius. 

Hosschius,  hos'ke-us,  or  Hossch,  hosK,  (Sidonius,) 
a  Flemish  Jesuit,  born  at  Merckhem  in  1596,  published 
in  1635  a  collection  of  Latin  elegies,  which  were  much 
admired.    Died  in  1653. 

Host  or  Hoest,  host,  (Georg,)  a  Danish  traveller, 
born  in  Jutland  in  1734,  laecame  secretary  for  foreign 
affairs,  etc.  He  wrote  an  "  Account  of  the  Kingdoms 
of  Morocco  and  Fez,"  (1779.) 

Host  or  Hoest,  (Jens  Kragh,)  a  Danish  historian, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Saint  Thomas,  in  the 
Antilles,  in  1772.  He  was  the  author  of  "Politics  and 
History,"  (5  vols.,  1816,)  "Johann  Friedrich  Struensee 
and  his  Ministry,"  (3  vols.,  1824,)  and  other  works. 
Died  near  Copenhagen  in  1844. 

See  J.  K.  Hoest,  "  Erindringer ;"  Erslew,  "Almindeligt  For- 
fatter-Lexikon." 

Host,  host,  (NiKOLAUS  Thomas,)  an  Austrian,  born 
in  1763,  was  first  physician  to  the  Emperor  of  Austria, 
and  published  "  Flora  Austriaca,"  (2  vols.,  1827.)  Died 
in  1834. 


Hoste,  //6t,  (Jean,)  a  French  geometer,  born  at 
Nancy,  became  professor  of  mathematics  at  Pont-a- 
Mousson.  He  published  several  treatises  on  geometry. 
Died  in  163 1. 

Hoste,  L',  lot,  (Paul,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Pont- 
de-Vesle  in  1652,  was  professor  of  mathematics  in  Tou- 
lon. He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  "  Construction  of  Ships 
and  Naval  Tactics,"  (1697.)    Died  in  1700. 

Hos-tiPi-an,  [Fr,  Hostilien,  os'te'le-^N',]  or,  more 
fully,  Cai'us  Va^ens  Mes'sius  Quin'tius  Hostilia'- 
nus,  second  son  of  the  Roman  emperor  Decius.  At  the 
death  of  his  father,  251  A.D.,  he  was  acknowledged  by 
some  as  a  partner  in  the  empire  with  Gallus ;  but  he 
died  a  few  months  after,  in  252. 

Hostilien.    See  Hostilian. 

Hos-tiPi-us,(TuLLUS,)  the  third  King  of  Rome,  and 
the  successor  of  Numa,  reigned  about  650  B.C.  Among 
the  principal  events  of  his  reign,  which  is  semi-fabulous, 
was  the  war  against  Alba,  terminated  in  favour  of  Rome 
by  the  victory  of  Horatius  over  the  Curiatii. 

Hostrup,  hos'tRiip,  (Christoffer,)  a  Danish  drama- 
tist, born  in  1819,  produced  many  successful  comedies, 
among  which  are  "  The  Neighbours,"  ("  Gjenboerne,") 
and  "The  Intrigues." 

Hostus,  hos'tiis,  (Matthaus,)  a  German  antiquary, 
born  in  1509;  died  in  1587. 

Ho'tham,  (Henry,)  an  English  vice-admiral,  born  in 
1776.  In  181 5  he  commanded  the  Channel  fleet,  was 
charged  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo  to  blockade  the 
west  coast  of  France,  and  received  Napoleon  as  a  pris- 
oner on  board  his  flag-ship,  the  Bellerophon.  He  was 
appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  of  the  admiralty  in 
1818.    Died  in  1833. 

Hotho,  ho'to,  (Heinrich  Gustav,)  a  German  writer 
on  art,  born  in  Berlin  in  1802,  He  became  professor  of 
philosophy  at  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1829,  and  was 
considered  one  of  the  chief  representatives  of  the  school 
of  Hegel.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Painting  in  Germany 
and  the  Low  Countries,"  (2  vols.,  1840-43.) 

Hotman,  //ot'mfiN',  (  Antoine,  )  a  French  jurist, 
a  brother  of  Fran9ois,  noticed  below,  was  born  about 
1525  ;  died  in  1596. 

Hotman  or  Hottomann,  [  Lat.  Hotoman'nus 
and  Hottoman'nus.J  (FRANgois,)  an  eminent  French 
jurist  and  Protestant,  born  in  Paris  in  1524,  was  a  friend 
of  Calvin.  He  was  deeply  versed  in  jurisprudence, 
literature,  and  antiquities.  He  became  professor  of  law 
at  Strasburg  about  1550,  and  at  Valence  in  1561.  By 
concealment  he  escaped  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bar- 
tholomew, (1572,)  after  which  he  retired  to  Geneva  and 
Bale.  He  was  appointed  councillor  of  state  by  Henry 
IV.  about  1580.  He  performed  an  important  part  in  the 
scientific  revolution  which  was  produced  in  jurisprudence 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  His  famous  work  on  public 
French  law,  entitled  "Treatise  on  the  Government  of 
the  Kings  of  Gaul,"  ("  Franco-Gallia,  sive  Tractatus  de 
Regimine  Regum  Galliae,"  1573,)  had  an  immense  influ- 
ence. He  wrote,  in  elegant  Latin,  many  other  works, 
amgjig  which  are  a  "  Commentary  on  Legal  Words," 
("  Commentarius  de  Verbis  Juris,"  1558,)  and  "Cele- 
brated Questions,"  ("  Quaestiones  illustres,"  1573.)  Died 
at  Bale  in  1590.  His  son  Jean  (1552-1636)  was  a  diplo- 
matist and  writer. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Haag,  "La 
France  protestante  ;"  Nevelet,  "Vita  Hottomanni,"  prefixed  to 
Hotnian's  Works,  about  1600;  Dareste,  "Essai  sur  F.  Hotman," 
1850;  "  Nouveile  Biopraphie  Generale." 

Hotmann  or  Hottomann.    See  Hotman. 

Hotmanniis  or  Hottomannus.    See  Hotman. 

Hottinger,  hot'ting-er,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  an 
eminent  Swiss  Orientalist  and  Protestant  divine,  born  at 
Zurich  in  1620.  After  studying  in  his  native  city,  at  Ge- 
neva, and  Leyden,  and  becoming  one  of  the  best  Oriental 
scholars  of  his  time,  he  was  chosen  in  1648  professor  of 
theology  and  Oriental  languages  at  Zurich,  In  1655  he 
accepted  the  chair  of  Oriental  languages  at  Heidelberg, 
where  he  remained  until  1661,  when  he  was  elected  rector 
of  the  University  of  Zurich.  The  University  of  Leyden 
persuaded  him  to  accept  their  chair  of  theology  ;  but  be- 
fore he  arrived  at  that  scene  of  labour  he  was  accidentally 
drowned,  in  1667.  Among  the  numerous  monuments  of 
his  vast  erudition,  the  following  are,  perhaps,  the  prin- 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  g,  obscure;  fSr,  fUll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


HOTTINGER  121 5  HOUSSATE 


cipal :  "  Oriental  History,"  ("  Historia  Orientalis,"  165 1,) 
"Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  New  Testament,"  (9  vols., 
1651-67,)  and  "  Etymologicum  Orientale,"  a  lexicon  of 
seven  languages,  (1661.) 

See  J.  H.  Heidegger,  "Historia  Vitae  J.  H.  Hottingerl,"  1667; 
Bavi.e,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  G.  H.  Hahn,  "Un- 
tersuchung  ob  des  gelehrten  Hottinger's  wirkliche  Lebensgefahr," 
etc.,  1742:  NiCERON,  "  Memoires." 

Hottinger,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Swiss  theologian,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Zurich  in  1652.  From 
1698  until  his  death  he  was  professor  of  theology  in  his 
native  city.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  an  "  Eccle- 
siastical History  of  Switzerland,"  in  German,  (4  vols., 
1708-29.)    Died  in  1735. 

Hottiuger,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Swiss  professor  and 
philologist,  born  at  Zurich  in  1750.  He  taught  Greek 
and  Latin  in  his  native  city,  and  published  several 
good  editions  and  translations  of  classic  authors.  Died 
in  1819. 

Hottinger,  (  Johann  Jakob,  )  a  Swiss  writer,  born 
in  1783  at  Zurich,  where  lie  became  professor  of  his- 
tory, and  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of 
the  Schism  in  the  Swiss  Church,"  in  German,  (2  vols., 
1827.) 

Hotze,  von,  fon  hot'seh,  (David,)  an  Austrian  gene- 
ral, born  near  Zurich  about  1740.  He  commanded  the 
army  which  was  opposed  to  Massena  in  Switzerland  in 
1799.  He  was  killed  in  a  battle  near  Zurich,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1799. 

Houard,  oo'iR',*  (David,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Dieppe  in  1725  ;  died  in  1802. 

Houbigant,  hoo'ht'gh^'*  (Charles  Francois,)  a 
French  priest,  born  in  Paris  in  1686,  was  a  member  of 
the  Oratory,  and  an  excellent  biblical  scholar.  After 
teaching  rhetoric  at  Marseilles  and  philosophy  at  Sois- 
sons,  he  became  deaf  about  1722,  and  thenceforth  de- 
voted himself  to  study  and  writing.  He  gave  especial 
attention  to  Hebrew,  \vith  a  view  to  correct  the  text 
of  the  Bible,  The  principal  fruit  of  his  labours  is  an 
edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  with  Critical  Notes  and 
a  Latin  Version,  (4  vols.,  1753,)  which  is  highly  com- 
mended.   Died  in  Paris  in  1783. 

See  J.  F.  Adrv,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  C.  F.  Houbigant,"  1806; 
"Noiivelle  Biographic  Generaie." 

Houbraken,  how^bR^'ken,  (Arnold,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  engraver,  and  critic,  born  at  Dort  in  1660,  He 
painted  history  and  portraits  with  success  at  Amsterdam, 
and  wrote  (in  Dutch)  "  The  Lives  of  Dutch  and  Flemish 
Painters,"  with  portraits,  (3  vols.,  1718,)  a  work  of  much 
merit.    Died  in  17 19. 

See  Jakob  Campo  Weverman,  "  De  Schilderkonst  der  Neder- 
landers." 

Houbraken,  (Jacob,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Dort  in  1698.  He  w-orked  many  years  at  Amsterdam, 
was  almost  unrivalled  as  an  engraver,  and  executed 
several  hundred  portraits,  among  which  are  a  collection 
of  "  Illustrious  Persons  of  Great  Britain,"  (London, 
1748.)  He  also  engraved  the  "Sacrifice  of  Manoah," 
after  Rembrandt,  and  the  portraits  in  his  father's  "  Lives 
of  the  Dutch  and  Flemish  Painters."    Died  in  1780. 

See  Basan,  " Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Houchard,  oo'shtR',*  (Jean  Nicolas,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Forbach  in  1740.  He  served  in  the 
army  before  the  Revolution,  in  which  he  espoused  the 
popular  party.  In  1792  he  succeeded  Custine  in  the 
command  of  the  armies  of  the  Moselle  and  of  the  North. 
In  August,  1793,  he  gained  a  victory  at  Hondschoote, 
and  forced  the  British  to  raise  the  siege  of  Dunkirk  ; 
but  he  was  arrested  by  the  dominant  faction,  and  exe- 
cuted, in  1793,  on  the  charge  that  he  had  permitted  the 
enemy  to  escape  after  the  battle  just  mentioned. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Houdard.    See  Motte,  La. 

Houdart  de  la  Motte.    See  Motte,  La. 

Houdetot,  oo'deh-to',*  (Elisabeth  FRANgoiSE 
Sophie  de  la  Live  de  Bellf.garde,)  Countess,  a 
French  lady,  born  about  1730,  was  the  wife  of  General 

*  There  is  perhaps  no  question  in  French  pronunciation  attended 
with  more  difficulty  than  that  respecting  the  aspiration  of  the  letter  h. 
The  best  French  authorities  differ  in  regard  to  the  initial  h  of  many 
names.    Some  respectable  authorities  assert  that  the  h  should  never 


Houdetot,  the  sister-in-law  of  Madame  fipinay,  and  a 
favourite  of  Rousseau,  to  whose  passion  and  indiscretion 
she  chiefly  owes  the  publicity  of  her  name.  Her  liaison 
with  M.  Saint-Lambert  was  well  known.    Died  in  1813. 

Houdon,  oo'doN',*  (Jean  Antoine,)  an  eminent 
French  sculptor,  born  at  Versailles  in  1 741.  About  1760 
he  won  the  grand  prize  for  sculpture  at  the  Academy, 
and  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension.  After  remaining 
there  ten  years,  during  which  he  executed  an  admired 
statue  of  Saint  Bruno,  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  was 
admitted  into  the  Royal  Academy  in  1775,  About  1785 
he  received  from  Dr.  Franklin  a  commission  to  execute 
the  marble  statue  of  W ashington  which  adorns  the  State- 
House  at  Richmond,  Virginia.  He  came  to  Philadelphia 
to  obtain  the  model  of  this  work.  His  reputation  was 
increased  by  his  statues  of  Voltaire  and  Cicero,  and  his 
busts  of  Rousseau,  Buffon,  Franklin,  D'Alembert,  Napo- 
leon, Ney,  etc.  His  heads  of  young  girls  are  highly 
successful  in  the  expression  of  modesty  and  innocence. 
Houdon  was  a  member  of  the  Institute.  His  personal 
character  was  amiable  and  estimable.    Died  in  1828. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generaie." 

Houdry,  ooMrc',*  (Vincent,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born 
at  Tours  in  1 631,  was  employed  as  preacher  in  the  chief 
cities  of  France.  He  published  sermons,  and  a  compila- 
tion entitled  "  Bibliotheque  des  Predicateurs,"  (2jjrols., 
IT  12  et  seq.)    Died  in  1729.  ^ 

Houel,  //oo'eK,*  (Jean  Pierre  Louis  Laurent,)  a 
French  landscape-painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Rouen 
in  1735.  In  a  journey  through  Italy,  Sicily,  etc.,  he  col- 
lected materials  for  an  interesting  work,  entitled  "  A 
Picturesque  Tour  through  Sicily,  Malta,  and  the  Lipari 
Islands,"  (4  vols.,  1782-87,  with  264  engravings.)  Died 
in  1813. 

Hough,  hiif,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  English  scholar,  born 
in  Middlesex  in  165 1,  was  elected  president  of  Magda- 
lene College,  Oxford,  in  1687,  in  opposition  to  the  illegal 
dictation  of  James  II.  The  king  then  sent  a  mandate 
to  the  Fellows  to  elect  Parker,  a  Catholic.  In  this 
contest  Hough  firmly  maintained  his  rights  and  those  of 
the  college,  and  the  king's  agents  broke  open  the  door 
in  order'to  place  Parker  in  the  president's  chair.  In 
1688  Hough  was  reinstated,  and  in  1690  was  made 
Bishop  of  Oxford,  Translated  to  the  see  of  Lichfield 
and  Coventry  in  1699,  he  refused  the  Archbishopric  of 
Canterbury  in  171 5,  and  became  Bishop  of  Worcester 
in  1717.  He  was  eminent  for  piety  and  learning.  Died 
in  1743. 

See  John  Wilmot,  "Life  of  Rev.  John  Hough,"  1812;  Mac- 
aulav,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  viii. 

Houghton,  ho'ton,  (Douglas,)  M.D.,  a  naturalist, 
born  at  Troy,  in  New  York,  about  1810.  He  was  apy- 
pointed  State  geologist  for  Michigan  in  1837,  and  was 
drowned  in  Eagle  River  in  1845, 

Houghton,  Lord.  See  Milnes,  (Richard  Monk- 
ton.) 

Houghton,  ho'ton.  Major,  an  English  traveller,  who 
was  sent  by  the  African  Company  to  explore  the  source 
of  the  Niger,  He  started  in  1790,  ascended  the  Gambia 
many  hundred  miles,  and  afterwards  proceeded  by  land. 
It  is  supposed  that  he  died  near  Jarra,  in  1791 ;  but  his 
papers  were  never  recovered. 

Houlakou  or  Houlagou,    See  Hoolakoo. 

Houlieres,  des.    See  DESHouLiiRES, 

Houllier,  //ool'e-i',  [Lat,  Holle'rius,]  (Jacques,) 
an  eminent  French  physician,  born  at  Etampes,  obtamecj 
a  large  practice  in  Paris,  and  was  chosen  Dean  of  the 
Faculty  in  1546,  He  wrote  able  commentaries  on  Hip- 
pocrates, (1579,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1562. 

Houmayoun  or  Houmaioon.    See  Hoomayoon. 

Houseman,  (C.)    See  Huysman. 

Houssaye.    See  Amelot  de  la  Houssaye. 

Houssaye,  //oo^si',  (Ars^ne,)  a  successful  French 
litteratetir  and  poet,  born  near  Laon  in  181 5.  He  pro- 
duced "La  Couronne  des  Bluets,"  (1836,)  and  many 
other  novels.  His  "  History  of  Flemish  and  Dutch 
Painting"  (1846)  was  received  with  favour.    In  1844  he 

be  sounded  in  any  case ;  others  maintain  that  in  certain  words  and 
names  it  should  be  slightly  sounded,  while  in  others  it  is  entirely  mute. 
Respecting  this  subject,  see  the  remarks  on  French  pronunciation  in 
the  Introduction, 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  v.^  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jf^^See  Explanations,  p,  23.) 


HOUSTON 


1 216 


HOWARD 


published  a  "  Gallery  of  Portraits  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,"  (ist  series,  2  vols.,)  which  was  completed  in 
5  vols,  about  1850.  From  1849  to  1856  he  was  director 
of  the  Theatre  Fran9ais.  He  also  wrote  able  critiques 
on  art,  and  published  a  volume  of  poems,  '*  Poesies 
completes,"  (1849,)  and  "  Le  Roi  Voltaire,"  (1858.)  Pie 
was  chosen  inspector-general  of  the  works  of  art  and 
Miisees  in  1856. 

See  BouRQUELOT,  "La  Litterature  Fran^aise  contemporaine ;" 
Charles  Robin,  "  Biographic  d'  A.  Houssaye,"  1848  ;  Clement 
DE  Ris,  "  Portraits  ^  la  Plume  :"  Alfred  ue  Musset,  "A.  Hous- 
saye," etc.,  1853;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  June,  1851. 

Houston,  hu'ston,  ?  (George  Smith,)  an  American 
Democratic  politician,  born  in  Tennessee  in  181 1.  He 
studied  law,  which  he  practised  at  Huntsville,  Alabama, 
and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1841.  He 
was  chairman  of  the  committee  of  ways  and  means  in 
the  House  of  Representatives  during  two  terms,  1851-55. 

Houston,  hu'ston,  (Sam,*)  an  American  general, 
born  near  Lexington,  Virginia,  in  1793,  was  taken  to 
Tennessee  in  his  childhood.  He  studied  law,  which  he 
practised  at  Nashville,  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress 
in  1823,  and  Governor  of  Tennessee  in  1827.  In  1829 
he  resigned  his  office,  and,  renouncing  civilized  society, 
passed  several  years  with  the  Cherokee  Indians,  who 
lived  west  of  Arkansas.  About  the  end  of  1832  he 
emigrated  to  Texas,  where  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
ensuing  revolt  against  the  Mexican  government.  Having 
been  chosen  commander-in-chief  of  the  Texan  army,  he 
defeated  and  captured  Santa  Anna  at  San  Jacinto,  April 
21,  1836.  He  was  elected  President  of  Texas  in  July, 
1836,  and  re-elected  for  a  term  of  three  years  in  1841. 
After  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  Union,  (1845,)  he 
was  chosen  a  United  States  Senator,  and  at  the  end  of 
his  term  in  1853  was  elected  for  a  second  term.  He 
made  an  able  speech  against  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill 
in  March,  1854,  about  which  time  he  joined  the  Ameri- 
can (Know-Nothing)  party.  He  was  chosen  Governor 
of  Texas  in  1859.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war 
he  favoured  the  Union,  but  was  overborne  by  a  large 
majority  of  the  people.    Died  in  1862. 

See  "  Sam  Houston  and  his  Republic,"  by  Charles  E.  Lester, 
1855. 

Hous'ton,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  surgeon 
and  naturalist,  born  about  1695,  studied  under  Boerhaave, 
at  Leyden,  in  1728-29,  and  made  there,  with  Van  Swieten, 
experiments  respecting  the  respiration  of  animals.  About 
1732  he  made  a  voyage  for  scientific  purposes  to  the 
West  Indies,  where  he  died  in  1733,  ^f'^^''  collecting  and 
describing  many  rare  plants.  The  results  of  his  botanical 
labours  were  published  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Houteville  or  Houtteville,  hoot'vkV,  (Claude 
FRAN50IS,)  a  French  priest  of  the  Oratory,  born  in  Paris 
in  1686.  He  published,  in  1722,  "The  Truth  of  the 
Christian  Religion  proved  by  Facts,"  which  attracted 
much  attention  and  hostile  criticism.  In  1723  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  He  was 
elected  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  in  1742,  and 
died  in  the  same  year. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Houtnian,  howt'min,  (Cornelts,)  a  Dutch  navigator, 
born  at  Gouda,  was  the  pioneer  or  founder  of  the  com- 
merce between  Holland  and  the  East  Indies.  As  agent 
of  a  company,  he  made  the  first  voyage  in  1595,  and  re- 
turned home  in  1 597.  In  1598  he  renewed  the  enterprise 
with  two  ships,  and  landed  at  Acheen,  in  Sumatra,  where 
he  was  arrested  with  some  of  his  men,  and  kept  a  prisoner 
several  years,  until  his  death.    Died  about  1605. 

See  Raynal,  "  Histoire  philosophique  des  deux  Indes;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Houtman,  (Frederik,)  a  navigator,  born  about  1570, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  accompanied 
in  his  voyage  to  the  East  Indies  in  1598.  He  was  after- 
wards Governor  of  Amboyna,  and  published  a  "Malay 
Dictionary,"  (1603.)    Died  about  1613. 

Houtteville.    See  Houteville. 

Hove,  van,  vtn  ho'veh,  (Antoon,)  a  Dutch  historian 
and  Latin  poet,  born  about  1505  ;  died  in  1568. 

*  So  called  by  himself. 


Hoveden,  huv'den  or  hov'den,  de,  (Roger,)  an 
English  historian,  born  at  York,  lived  about  1170-1200. 
He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Oxford,  and  filled  re- 
sponsible offices  at  the  court  of  Henry  II.  He  wrote,  in 
Latin,  a  "History  of  England  from  731  to  1202,"  which 
is  commended  by  Leland,  Selden,  and  others  for  its 
fidelity. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis." 

Hovel.    See  Hf:velius. 

Hovey,  huv'e,  (Alvah,)  an  American  divine  and 
author,  born  in  Chenango  county.  New  York,  about  1820. 
He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  1843,  and  about  1850  be- 
came a  professor  in  the  Bajitist  Theological  Seminary  at 
Newton.  His  principal  work  is  the  "Life  and  Times  of 
Backus,"  (1857.) 

Hovey,  (Alvan  P.,)  an  American  officer,  who  en- 
tered the  service  as  major  of  an  Indiana  regiment  in 
1861,  and  became  a  brigadier-general  about  April,  1862. 
He  commanded  a  division  and  contributed  to  the  victory 
at  Champion's  Hill,  May  16,  1863. 

Hovey,  (Charles  Edward,)  an  American  officer, 
born  at  Hartford,  Vermont,  in  1827,  removed  to  Illinois, 
and  was  made  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  1862. 

How,  (William,)  M.D.,  born  in  London  in  1619, 
became  a  captain  in  the  royal  army  in  the  civil  war,  and 
afterwards  practised  medicine  in  his  native  city.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  author  of  the  first  English  Flora, 
("Phytologia  Britannica,"  1650,)  which  contains  twelve 
hundred  and  twenty  plants.    Died  in  1656. 

HSvsr'ard,  the  name  of  an  ancient  and  noble  family 
of  England,  the  head  of  which  is  the  Duke  of  Norfolk 
and  the  premier  peer  of  Great  Britain.  The  Earls  of 
Carlisle  and  Suffolk  also  belong  to  the  Howard  family. 

Howard,  (Anne,)  daughter  of  Charles,  Earl  of  Car- 
lisle, was  married  to  Richard,  Viscount  Irwin.  She  wrote 
a  "Poetical  Essay  on  Pope's  Characters  of  Women," 
and  other  poems.    Died  in  1760. 

Howard,  (Charles,)  Lord  Effingham,  or  Lord 
Howard  of  Effingham,  an  English  admiral,  born  in  1536, 
was  the  son  of  William,  Lord  Effingham,  and  grandson 
of  Thomas  Howard,  second  Duke  of  Norfolk.  After 
important  civil  and  military  services,  he  was  appointed 
in  1585  lord  high  admiral  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  suc- 
cessfully opposed  the  Invincible  Armada  in  1588.  In 
1596  he  was  associated  with  the  Earl  of  Essex  in  the 
victorious  expedition  against  Cadiz,  and  was  rewarded 
with  the  title  of  Earl  of  Nottingham.  About  three  years 
later,  when  another  Spanish  invasion  was  expected,  the 
sole  command  of  the  army  and  navy  for  a  short  time  was 
committed  to  him,  with  the  title  of  lieutenant-general  of 
England.  He  retained  his  honours  and  offices  under 
James  I.    Died  in  1624. 

See  Campbell,  "Lives  of  British  Admirals  ;"  J.  Barrow,  "Me- 
moirs of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  Reign,"  1845. 

Howard,  (Charles,)  Earl  of  Carlisle,  born  about 
1630,  was  employed  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  in  diplo- 
matic missions  to  Muscovy,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  of 
which  an  account  was  published  in  1669.    Died  in  1686. 

Howard,  (Charles,)  tenth  Duke  of  Norfolk,  (pre- 
viously Hon.  Charles  Howard,  of  Greystock  Castle, 
Cumberland,)  succeeded  to  the  dukedom  in  1777.  He 
published  "Thoughts,  Essays,  and  Maxims,  chiefly  Re- 
ligious and  Political,"  (1768,)  and  "Historical  Anecdotes 
of  some  of  the  Howard  Family."    Died  in  1786. 

Howard,  (Charles,)  eleventh  Duke  of  Norfolk,  an 
English  nobleman,  born  in  1746,  was  the  son  of  the  tenth 
Duke.  In  1780,  being  then  styled  the  Earl  of  Surrey, 
he  exchanged  the  Catholic  faith  for  that  of  the  Anglican 
Church.  Representing  Carlisle  in  Parliament,  he  acted 
with  the  opposition  during  the  ministries  of  Lord  North 
and  Lord  Shelburne.  At  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1786, 
he  became  Duke  of  Norfolk.  As  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Lords,  he  opposed  the  measures  of  Pitt.  Died 
in  1815. 

Howard,  (Hon.  Edward,)  an  English  writer,  a  son 
of  Thomas,  Earl  of  Berkshire,  lived  about  1650.  He 
wrote  several  unsuccessful  dramas,  and  "The  British 
Princes  ;  a  Heroic  Poem,"  in  which  occur  these  lines, 
often  quoted  in  ridicule  : 

"  A  painted  vest  Prince  Vortigern  had  on, 
Which  from  a  naked  Pict  his  grandsire  won." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


HOWARD 


1217 


HOWARD 


Pope,  in  the  "Dunciad,"  alludes  to  him  in  these  terms  : 

"And  high-born  Howard,  more  majestic  sire, 
With  fool  of  quality  completes  the  choir." 

Howard,  (Edward,)  a  popular  English  novelist,  was 
a  lieutenant  in  the  royal  navy.  He  published  "  The 
Old  Commodore,"  {1837,)  "Ratlin  the  Reefer,"  (1838,) 
"  Outward-Bound,"  etc.    Died  in  1842. 

Howard,  (Frank,)  an  able  English  designer  and 
writer  on  art,  a  son  of  Henry  Howard  the  painter.  He 
published  "The  Spirit  of  the  Plays  of  Shakspeare,  ex- 
hibited in  Outline  Plates,"  (5  vols.,  1827-33,)  and  the 
"Science  of  Drawing,"  (1840.)    Died  in  1866. 

Howard,  (Frederick,)  fifth  Earl  of  Carlisle,  an 
English  poet  and  statesman,  born  in  1748,  was  the  son 
of  Henry,  and  grandson  of  the  third  Earl,  noticed  above. 
He  succeeded  to  the  family  title  in  1758.  In  1778  he 
was  one  of  the  commissioners  sent  to  persuade  the 
people  of  the  United  States  to  submit  to  •  the  British 
rule.  He  acted  with  the  Whig  party  until  the  French 
Revolution,  after  which  he  supported  the  ministry.  He 
published  a  volume  of  Poems,  and  several  tragedies, 
one  of  which,  called  "  The  Father's  Revenge,"  was  com- 
mended by  Dr.  Johnson.  His  mother,  Isabella  Byron, 
daughter  to  the  fifth  Lord  Byron,  was  first-cousin  to  the 
father  of  the  poet  Byron.    Died  in  1825. 

Howard,  (George  Edmund,)  a  British  poet  and 
architect,  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He 
published  in  1782  several  volumes  of  miscellaneous 
works,  the  most  important  of  which  treat  on  the  ex- 
chequer, revenue,  and  trade  of  Ireland.    Died  in  1786. 

Howard,  (George  William  Frederick,)  Earl  of 
Carlisle  and  Viscount  Morpeth,  a  statesman  and  author, 
born  in  1802,  was  a  grandson  of  Frederick,  fifth  Earl 
of  Carlisle.  He  was  styled  Lord  Morpeth  before  the 
death  of  his  father,  which  occurred  about  1848.  Under 
the  Whig  ministry  which  was  dissolved  in  1841  he  was 
secretary  for  Ireland.  He  visited  the  United  States 
between  1842  and  1846,  and,  after  his  return,  imparted 
to  the  public  some  observations  on  that  country  in  a 
lecture.  In  1854  he  published  a  "  Diary  in  Turkish  and 
Greek  Waters,"  which  is  a  work  of  merit.  He  was  lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland  about  three  years,  (1855-58,)  and 
was  reappointed  to  that  office  by  Palmerston  in  June, 
1859.  He  had  the  reputation  of  a  liberal  statesman  and 
benevolent  man.    Died  in  1864. 

Howard,  (Henry,)  Earl  of  Surrey,  a  celebrated 
English  poet,  born  about  15 16,  was  the  son  of  Thomas, 
third  Duke  of  Norfolk,  and  of  Elizabeth  Stafford.  He 
excelled  in  the  accomplishments  of  a  scholar,  courtier, 
and  soldier,  and  cultivated  as  well  as  patronized  the 
fine  arts.  About  1535  he  married  Lady  Frances  Vere. 
In  1544  he  accompanied  Henry  VIII.  in  his  invasion  of 
France,  was  made  a  field-marshal,  and  was  appointed 
governor  of  Boulogne  after  it  was  captured  by  the 
English.  Soon  after  this  he  became  the  object  of  the 
king's  suspicion.  He  was  recalled  in  1546,  arrested 
with  his  father,  condemned,  and  executed  in  1547.  He 
left  two  sons  and  three  daughters.  (With  respect  to 
Surrey's  guilt  or  innocence,  see  Froude's  "  History  of 
England,"  vol.  iv.  chap,  xxiii.) 

Surrey  is  the  first  who  used  blank  verse  in  our  lan- 
guage, and  is  considered  the  first  English  classical 
poet.  He  did  much  to  improve  the  style  of  versification. 
One  of  his  principal  productions  is  a  translation  into 
blank  verse  of  the  second  book  of  the  "yEneid,"  which 
is  admired  for  its  fidelity  and  poetic  diction.  He  also 
wrote  numerous  sonnets  and  songs.  There  is  some 
doubt  of  the  reality  of  his  romantic  passion  for  Geral- 
dine,  who  is  the  subject  of  his  most  admired  effusions. 
She  was  a  child  of  thirteen,  named  Lady  Elizabeth  Fitz- 
gerald, who  afterwards  became  the  wife  of  the  Earl  of 
Lincoln. 

See  Hallam,  "Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe;" 
Warton,  "  History  of  English  Poetry  ;"  Johnson  and  Chalmers, 
"Lives  of  the  English  Poets;"  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  vol.  xlii. 

Howard,  (Henry,)  Earl  of  Northampton,  second 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Norfolk  about  1539. 
He  was  a  person  of  much  learning,  but  of  bad  principles. 
He  became  a  privy  councillor  at  the  accession  of  James 
I.,  who  made  him  Earl  of  Northampton.  In  1608  he 
was  appointed  lord  privy  seal.    He  was  suspected  of 


complicity  in  the  murder  of  Sir  Thomas  Overbury,  and 
in  the  disgraceful  conduct  of  his  relative,  the  Countess 
of  Essex.    Died  in  1614. 

See  Gardiner's  "  History  of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  vol. 
i.  chap.  ii.  pp.  63  and  64 ;  also,  chaps,  x.  and  xii. 

Howard,  (Henry,)  born  in  1757,  was  the  son  of 
Philip  Howard  of  Corby  Castle,  England,  and  a  de- 
scendant of  the  noble  Earl  of  Surrey.  He  published 
"Indication  of  Memorials,  etc.  of  the  Howard  Family," 
(1834,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1842. 

Howard,  (Henry,)  an  English  painter,  born  in  1769, 
entered  the  Royal  Academy  as  a  student  in  1788.  In 
1790  he  won  two  of  the  highest  premiums, — a  gold 
medal  for  the  best  historical  painting,  and  a  silver  medal 
for  the  best  drawing  from  life.  After  a  visit  to  Rome 
he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1808, 
and  secretary  of  that  body  in  181 1.  His  favourite  sub- 
jects are  classical  and  poetical,  and  are  treated  with 
elegant  taste.  Among  his  best  works  are  "The  Birth 
of  Venus,"  "The  Solar  System,"  "The  Circling  Hours," 
and  "The  Story  of  Pandora."    Died  in  1847. 

Howard,  (Sir  John,)  was  a  son  of  Sir  Robert  Howard 
and  Margaret,  a  daughter  of  Thomas  Mowbray,  Duke 
of  Norfolk.  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  house  of  York 
during  the  wars  of  the  Roses.  He  was  created  Duke 
of  Norfolk  in  1483,  and  was  killed  with  Richard  III.  at 
Bosworth  in  1485. 

Howard,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  a  celebrated  English  philan- 
thropist, born  at  Hackney,  near  London,  in  1726.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  London  tradesman,  who  died  in  his 
minority  and  left  him  an  independent  fortune.  Having 
made  a  tour  on  the  continent,  he  returned  home  and 
took  lodgings  with  a  widow  named  Loidore,  by  whom  he 
was  kindly  nursed  when  his  health  required  such  atten- 
tion, and  whom  he  married  out  of  mere  gratitude  in  1752, 
although  she  was  more  than  twenty  years  his  senior. 
After  their  marriage  she  lived  only  three  or  four  years. 
In  1756  he  embarked  for  Lisbon,  in  the  desire  to  relieve 
the  miseries  caused  by  the  great  earthquake  of  1755,  but 
during  the  passage  was  taken  by  a  French  privateer,  and 
detained  in  prison  long  enough  to  excite  his  lasting  sym- 
pathy with  prisoners  and  to  impress  him  with  the  neces- 
sity of  a  reform  in  their  treatment.  After  he  was  re- 
leased he  returned  home,  and  married  in  1758  Henrietta 
Leeds,  with  whom  he  lived  happily  at  Cardington  until 
her  death  in  1765,  He  had  by  this  marriage  one  son, 
whose  vicious  habits  produced  first  disease  and  then 
incurable  insanity.  Plaving  been  appointed  sheriff  of 
the  county  of  Bedford  in  1773,  he  witnessed  with  pain 
the  abuses  and  cruelties  to  which  prisoners  were  usually 
subjected.  After  visiting  most  of  the  county  jails  of  Eng- 
land, and  collecting  much  information  respecting  them, 
he  induced  the  House  of  Commons  in  1774  to  begin  a 
reform  in  prison  discipline,  to  which  his  life  thenceforth 
was  constantly,  heroically,  and  successfully  devoted.  In 
1777  he  published  a  valuable  volume  on  "The  State  of 
the  Prisons  in  England,"  etc.  From  1778  until  his  death 
he  was  almost  continually  employed  in  traversing  all 
parts  of  Europe,  visiting  prisons  and  hospitals,  relieving 
the  sick,  and,  as  Burke  expresses  it,  "  taking  the  gauge 
and  dimensions  of  misery,  depression,  and  contempt." 
He  died  of  fever  in  1790,  at  Cherson,  on  the  Black  Sea. 
His  habits  were  simple,  temperate,  and  self-denying. 
Having  been  educated  among  Protestant  dissenters,  he 
continued  in  their  fellowship  through  life. 

See  "Life  of  Howard,"  by  W.  Hepworth  Dixon,  1849;  another 
Life,  by  John  Field,  1850;  Aikin,  "Life  of  John  Howard,"  1792; 
J.  B.  Brown,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  John  Howard,"  1818 ;  "  En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  January,  1850. 

HSw'ard,  (John  Eager,)  an  officer,  born  in  Balti- 
more county,  Maryland,  in  1752.  He  commanded  a  regi- 
ment which  distinguished  itself  by  its  brilliant  bayonet- 
charge  at  Cowpens,  January,  1781,  and  its  gallantry  at 
Guilford  Court-House,  March,  1781,  and  Eutaw  Springs, 
in  September  of  that  year.  Lie  was  chosen  Governor  of 
Maryland  in  1788,  and  was  a  United  States  Senator  from 
1796  to  1803.    Died  in  1827. 

See  "National  Portrait- Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans. 

Howard^  (Luke,)  an  English  meteorologist,  born 
about  1770,  published  an  "  Essay  on  Clouds,"  (1802,)  and 
other  works  on  meteorology.    Died  in  1864. 


€  as     g  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[J^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

77 


I 


HOWARD 


1218 


HOWE 


Howard,  (Oliver  Otis,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Leects,  Kennebec  county,  Maine,  in  November,  1830. 
He  was  educated  at  Bowdoin  College  and  at  the  Military 
Academy  of  West  Point,  where  he  graduated  in  1854.  He 
became  first  lieutenant  of  ordnance  in  1857,  and  colonel 
of  the  Third  Maine  Volunteers  in  May,  1861.  He  com- 
manded a  brigade  at  Bull  Run,  July  21,  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general  in  September,  1861.  At  the 
battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  May  31,  1862,  he  lost  his  right  arm. 
He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Antietam, 
September  17,  and  at  Fredericksburg,  December,  1862. 
In  November,  1862,  he  was  appointed  a  major-general 
of  volunteers,  and  in  April,  1863,  obtained  command  of 
the  eleventh  army  corps,  which  he  led  at  Chancellors- 
ville,  and  at  Gettysburg,  July  2  and  3,  1863.  He  served 
with  distinction  at  the  battle  of  Missionary  Ridge  and 
Chattanooga,  November  25,  1863.  In  his  report  of  this 
campaign  General  Sherman  commends  him  as  "exhibit- 
ing the  highest  and  most  chivalrous  traits  of  the  soldier." 
General  Howard  commanded  the  fourth  corps  of  the 
army  which,  under  General  Sherman,  fought  its  way 
from  Chattanooga  to  Atlanta,  May-September,  1864. 
He  was  appointed,  July  27,  commander  of  the  army  of 
the  Tennessee  in  place  of  McPherson,  who  was  killed 
near  Atlanta.  In  the  memorable  march  of  Sherman's 
army  from  Atlanta  to  the  sea,  Howard  led  the  right 
wing,  and  was  the  second  or  third  in  command.  (See 
Sherman,  William  T.)  In  May,  1865,  he  was  ap- 
pointed chief  of  the  Freedmen's  Bureau.  He  has  the 
reputation  of  being  a  model  Christian  soldier.  He  is 
a  brigadier-general  of  the  regular  army  by  a  commission 
dated  December,  1864. 

Howard,  (Philip,)  of  Corby  Castle,  England,  was  a 
descendant  of  the  eminent  poet  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  and 
father  of  Henry,  noticed  above,  (i 757-1 842.)  He  wrote 
the  *'  Scriptural  History  of  the  Earth  and  of  Mankind," 
(1797.)    Died  in  1810. 

Howard,  (Sir  Robert,)  M.P.,  an  English  poet,  born 
in  1626,  was  a  brother  of  the  Hon.  Edward  Howard, 
noticed  above.  He  was  a  royalist  in  the  civil  war,  and, 
after  the  restoration,  was  appointed  auditor  of  the  ex- 
chequer. His  most  successful  dramas  were  "The  Com- 
mittee" and  "The  Indian  Queen."  He  was  the  original 
hero  of  "The  Rehearsal,"  in  which  he  is  called  Bilboa. 
"The  poetry  of  the  Berkshire  Howards,"  says  Macaulay, 
"was  the  jest  of  three  generations  of  satirists."  The 
poet  Dryden  married  Howard's  sister.    Died  in  1698. 

See  Macaulay,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  xiv.  ;  Cib- 
3ER,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Howard,  (Samuel,)  an  English  musical  composer, 
ivho  flourished  about  1750,  produced  several  popular 
ballads.    Died  in  1783. 

Howard,  (Thomas,)  second  Duke  of  Norfolk,  and 
Earl  of  Surrey,  was  a  son  of  John,  first  Duke.  He  fought 
for  Richard  HI.  at  Bosworth,  where  his  father  was  killed, 
in  1485.  He  commanded  the  English  army  which  gained 
a  great  victory  over  the  Scotch  at  Flodden  in  15 13,  and 
received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Norfolk  for  this  service, 
before  which  he  was  styled  Earl  of  Surrey.  He  died  in 
1524,  aged  about  seventy,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Thomas. 

Howard,  (Thomas,)  third  Duke  of  Norfolk,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  and  an  eminent  English  statesman  and  gen- 
eral, was  born  about  1473.  In  15 13  he  was  chosen  high 
admiral  of  England,  and,  in  co-operation  with  his  father, 
•defeated  the  Scotch  at  the  battle  of  Flodden.  For  this 
-service  he  was  made  Earl  of  Surrey,  while  his  father 
was  made  Duke  of  Norfolk.  In  1523  he  became  lord 
high  treasurer,  and  in  1524,  at  the  death  of  his  father, 
inherited  his  title.  His  devotion  to  the  Church  of  Rome 
made  him  hostile  to  Anne  Boleyn,  though  she  was  his 
own  niece.  After  Henry  VIII.  had  married  Catherine 
Howard,  the  duke,  who  was  her  uncle,  had  much  influ- 
ence in  the  royal  councils,  and  used  it  for  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Protestants.  In  1547  he  was  arrested  on  a 
charge  of  treason,  and  ordered  for  execution  ;  but  before 
the  fatal  day  came  the  king  died.  Norfolk  was  released 
from  prison  in  1553,  and  died  the  next  year.  His  son, 
the  Earl  of  Surrey,  was  executed  in  1547. 

See  Froude,  "History  of  the  Reign  of  Henry  VIII.,"  particu- 
larly vols,  iii.  and  iv.  ;  Hume's  and  Lingakd's  Histories  of  England. 


Howard,  (Thomas,)  fourth  Duke  of  Norfolk,  was  a 
grandson  of  the  preceding.  He  was  the  only  peer  who 
at  that  time  possessed  the  highest  title  of  nobility  ;  and, 
as  there  were  no  princes  of  the  blood,  his  rank,  together 
with  his  great  wealth  and  abilities,  rendered  him  the  first 
subject  in  England.  He  is  represented  as  generous, 
prudent,  and  moderate,  and  sincerely  attached  to  the 
Protestant  religion.  In  1559  Elizabeth  appointed  him 
her  lieutenant  in  the  northern  counties.  By  aspiring  to 
become  the  husband  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  he  gave 
offence  to  Elizabeth,  and  was  committed  to  the  Tower 
in  1569.  Having  been  released,  he  renewed  his  suit, 
received  a  promise  of  marriage  from  the  captive  queen, 
and  joined  a  conspiracy  for  her  liberation.  For  this  he 
was  condemned  and  executed  in  1572. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England ;"  Froude,  "  History  of  Eng- 
land," vols.  ix.  and  x. 

Howard,  (Thomas,)  Earl  of  Arundel,  a  branch  of 
the  ancient  and  noble  family  of  Howard,  was  employed 
in  foreign  embassies  by  Charles  I.  In  1639  he  was 
appointed  commander  of  an  army  raised  to  subdue 
the  Scotch ;  but  peace  was  made  before  any  important 
action  occurred.  He  formed  an  extensive  collection  of 
Grecian  antiquities  and  productions  of  ancient  artists, 
parts  of  which  were  presented  by  one  of  his  heirs  to  the 
University  of  Oxford,  under  the  name  of  the  Arundelian 
marbles.  His  grandson  Henry  became  sixth  Duke  of 
Norfolk.  The  earl  wrote  several  relations  of  his  em- 
bassies and  voyages.    Died  in  1646. 

How'den,  (John  Francis  Caradoc,)  Baron,  a 
British  general,  born  in  1762,  was  the  son  of  John  Cra- 
dock.  Archbishop  of  Dublin.  He  entered  the  army  in 
1777.  In  1801  he  was  one  of  Abercrombie's  staff,  and 
was  engaged  in  several  battles  in  Egypt.  He  afterwards 
commanded  the  British  army  in  India,  and  in  Portugal 
in  1808.  In  1 83 1  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron 
Howden.    Died  in  1839. 

Howden,  (John  Horart  Caradoc,)  Baron,  an  Eng- 
lish diplomatist,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1799. 
He  served  in  the  army,  and  gained  the  rank  of  major- 
general.    He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Madrid  in  1850. 

HQwe,  (Albion  P.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Maine  about  181 8,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841. 
He  became  a  brigadier-general  in  April,  1862,  served  at 
Antietam,  September  17,  and  commanded  a  division  at 
the  battles  of  Fredericksburg,  December  13,  1862,  and 
Gettysburg,  July  2  and  3,  1863. 

H6we,  (Charles,)  born  in  Gloucestershire,  England, 
in  1661,  was  employed  as  a  diplomatist  by  James  II. 
He  wrote  "  Devout  Meditations,"  of  which  the  poet 
Young  says,  "  A  greater  demonstration  of  a  sound  head 
and  a  sincere  heart  I  never  saw."    Died  in  1745. 

Howe,  (Elias,)  an  eminent  American  inventor,  born 
at  Spencer,  Massachusetts,  about  1819.  While  employed 
as  a  machinist  he  made  many  experiments  for  the  inven- 
tion of  a  sewing-machine,  and  about  1844  entered  into  a 
partnership  with  Mr.  George  Fisher,  of  Cambridge,  who 
agreed  to  give  him  pecuniary  assistance  on  condition  of 
becoming  proprietor  of  half  the  patent.  In  April,  1845, 
he  finished  a  machine,  which  in  essential  points  is  es- 
teemed by  competent  judges  equal  to  any  that  have  suc- 
ceeded it.  He  obtained  a  patent  in  1846.  His  invention 
not  ineeting  in  the  United  States  with  the  success  which 
he  had  anticipated,  he  resolved  to  visit  England.  He 
resided  several  years  in  London  in  great  destitution,  and 
returned  in  1849,  without  having  succeeded  in  making 
known  the  merits  of  his  invention.  Meanwhile  the  sew- 
ing-machine had  been  brought  into  general  notice  and 
favour,  various  improvements  having  been  added  by  Mr. 
Singer,  with  whotn,  as  an  infringer  of  his  patent,  Mr. 
Howe  had  a  law-suit,  which  was  decided  in  his  favour 
in  1854.  Soon  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  rebellion  in 
1861,  Mr.  Howe  raised  and  equipped  at  his  own  expense 
a  regiment,  in  which  he  served  as  a  private  until  ill  health 
obliged  him  to  resign. 

See  the  "History  of  the  Sewing-Machine,"  in  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  for  May,  1867,  by  James  Parton. 

Howe,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  dissenting  min- 
ister  and  author,  born  at  Loughborough,  May  17,  1630, 
was  educated  at  Cambridge.  Soon  after  he  was  ordained 
he  was  appointed  domestic  chaplain  to  Cromwell,  then 


; a,  e, T,  6,  %^ylong;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


HOWE 


1219 


HOW  ITT 


Protector,  at  whose  death  he  was  retained  in  the  same 
office  by  Richard  Cromwell.  After  the  latter  was  de- 
posed, Howe  preached  at  Great  Torrington,  until  he 
was  ejected  for  nonconformity,  in  1662.  In  1675  he  be- 
came minister  of  a  Puritan  congregation  in  London, 
where  he  continued  to  labour  (except  during  a  few 
years  of  absence)  until  his  death.  He  was  eminent  for 
piety,  for  wisdom,  for  profound  learning,  and  for  classical 
scholarship.  As  an  author  he  is  highly  applauded  for 
his  originality,  sublimity,  and  evangelical  spirit.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  "The  Living  Temple,"  (1674- 
1702,)  "The  Blessedness  of  the  Righteous,"  "The  Re- 
deemer's Tears,"  (1684,)  and  "  The  Vanity  of  this  Mortal 
Life."  Robert  Hall  said,  "I  have  learned  more  from 
John  Howe  than  from  any  other  author  I  ever  read." 
"Nothing  in  the  language,"  says  William  Jay,  "can 
equal,  as  a  whole,  Howe's  'Living  Temple.'"  He  is 
accounted  the  most  philosophical  thinker  among  the 
Puritan  divines.  Died  in  1705.  His  complete  works 
were  published  in  8  vols.,  1810-22. 

See  Edmund  Calamv,  "Life  of  John  Howe,"  1724;  H.  Rogers, 
"Life  of  John  Howe,"  1836;  Thomas  Taylor,  "Memoir  of  John 
Howe,"  1835;  Samuel  Dunn,  "Life  of  John  Howe,"  1836;  "  Bio- 
graphia  Britannica;"  Macaulav,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  ii. 
chaps,  vii.  and  viii.  ;  R.  Southey,  article  on  Howe,  in  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  1813,  (vol.  x. ;)  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

Howe,  (John,)  M.P.,  a  noted  English  politician  and 
versifier,  was  returned  to  the  Convention  Parliament  for 
Cirencester  in  1689,  and  was  several  times  re-elected. 
He  was  conspicuous  in  the  House  for  his  volubility, 
asperity,  and  audacity  of  speech.  Having  turned  Tory, 
he  became  in  the  reign  of  Anne  a  member  of  the  privy 
council,  and  paymaster  of  the  army.  He  wrote  a  "  Pane- 
gyric on  William  HL,"  and  several  short  poems.  Died 
in  1721. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.  chaps,  xi.  and  xiv. 

Howe,  (JosiAH,)  an  English  poet  and  clergyman, 
became  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  in  1637, 
and  preached  before  Charles  L  at  Oxford  in  1644.  He 
wrote  some  epigrammatic  verses  prefixed  to  the  works 
of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher.    Died  in  1701. 

Howe,  (Julia  Ward,)  an  American  poetess,  daughter 
of  Samuel  Ward,  a  banker  in  New  York,  was  born  in 
1819.  She  was  educated  with  great  care,  and  in  1843 
was  married  to  Dr.  Samuel  G.  Howe,  of  Boston,  with 
whom  she  has  twice  visited  Europe,  making  on  each  occa- 
sion an  extensive  tour.  Some  of  her  poems  possess 
merit  of  a  very  high  order.  Among  the  principal  are 
"  Passion-Flowers,"  published  in  1854,  and  "Words  for 
the  Hour."  She  is  the  author  of  the  deservedly  popular 
song  entitled  "  Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic." 

See  Griswold,  "Female  Poets  of  America." 

Howe,  (Richard,)  Earl,  a  distinguished  English 
admiral,  born  in  1725,  was  the  second  son  of  Lord 
Emanuel  Scrope  Howe.  He  entered  the  navy  about  the 
age  of  fourteen,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  about 
1747.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  Seven  Years'  war 
against  the  French.  At  the  death  of  his  elder  brother, 
in  1758,  he  inherited  the  title  of  viscount.  In  1763  and 
1764  he  occupied  a  seat  at  the  board  of  admiralty,  and 
in  1770  he  became  a  rear-admiral  of  the  blue,  and  com- 
manded the  Mediterranean  fleet.  From.  1776  to  1778  he 
commanded  on  the  coast  of  the  United  States,  where  he 
maintained  his  credit  by  skilful  operations  against  the 
French  fleet  under  D'Estaing.  He  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  admiral  of  the  blue  in  1782,  and  in  the  next 
year  acted  as  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  In  1788  he  was 
created  Earl  Howe.  On  June  i,  1794,  he  gained  a  de- 
cisive victory  over  the  French  fleet,  of  which  he  captured 
seven  ships  of  the  line.  Died  in  1799.  He  was  regarded 
as  the  first  sea-officer  of  his  time. 

See  Campbell,  "Lives  of  British  Admirals;"  George  Mason, 
'Life  of  Richard,  Earl  Howe;"  John  Barrow,  "Life  of  Lord 
Richard  Howe,"  1838. 

Howe,  (Dr.  Samuel  GRiDLEY,)an  eminent  American 
philanthropist,  born  in  Boston  in  1801.  He  graduated 
at  Brown  University  in  1821,  and  entered  upon  the 
study  of  medicine  in  his  native  city.  In  1824  he  went  to 
Greece,  and  fought  valiantly  in  the  war  of  independence. 
When  famine  threatened  that  country  in  1827,  he  came 
to  the  United  States  and  procured  large  contributions 
of  provisions,  clothing,  and  money,  which  he  distributed 


among  the  Greek  patriots.  On  his  return  to  his  native 
city,  in  183 1,  he  entered  with  ardour  into  a  plan  for 
establishing  in  that  city  a  school  for  the  blind;  and  he 
visited  Europe,  to  procure  information,  teachers,  etc. 
The  next  year  (1832)  he  opened  the  institution,  (Perkins 
Institution  for  the  Blind,)  of  which  he  became  the  prin- 
cipal. His  success  in  the  case  of  Laura  Bridgeman,  a 
deaf  blind  mute,  whom  he  taught  to  read  from  raised 
letters  and  instructed  in  religion,  morality,  etc.,  attracted 
great  attention.  (See  Bridgeman,  Laura.)  Dr.  Howe 
has  also  devoted  much  attention  to  the  education  of 
idiots,  for  whom  a  school  has  been  established  in  South 
Boston.  Besides  his  other  labours,  he  distinguished  him- 
self by  the  active  part  he  took  in  the  anti-slavery  cause. 
He  is  the  author  of  a  "  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Greek 
Revolution,"  (1828,)  a  "Reader  for  the  Blind,"  and  of 
various  essays  and  reports  on  the  education  of  the 
blind  and  the  idiotic,  and  other  subjects. 

Howe,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  general,  was  a 
younger  brother  of  Admiral  Richard  Howe,  noticed 
above.  In  1774  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Not- 
tingham, professing  to  disapprove  the  policy  of  the  min- 
isters in  relation  to  the  Americans.  In  1775  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  sent  to  sub- 
due the  colonies,  though  deficient  in  nearly  all  the  quali- 
ties which  constitute  a  great  general.  His  constituents 
censured  him  for  accepting  the  command.  His  first 
exploit  after  this  promotion  was  the  battle  of  Bunker 
Hill,  (1775,)  in  which  he  lost  one-third  of  his  men 
present  in  the  action.  In  August,  1776,  he  gained  the 
battle  of  Long  Island  and  took  New  York  City.  He 
obtained  an  advantage  over  the  Americans  at  Brandy- 
wine  in  September,  1777,  in  consequence  of  which 
Philadelphia  was  occupied  by  his  army.  At  his  own 
request,  he  was  recalled  in  1778,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Sir  Henry  Clinton.    Died  in  1814. 

See  Bancroft,  "  History  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  ix.  chaps, 
v.,  vi.,  x.,  xiv.,  xxiii.,  xxv. 

How'el  THE  Good,  or  Hy'wel  Dda,  a  Cambrian 
prince  of  the  tenth  century,  noted  as  a  legislator,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Cadell  as  King  of  Wales.  After  visit- 
ing Rome  about  926,  he  framed  a  code  of  laws,  which 
continued  in  force  a  long  time. 

HSw'el  or  HSw'ell,  (Laurence,)  a  learned  English 
nonjuring  divine,  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1688.  He 
wrote  a  "  Synopsis  of  the  Canons  of  the  Latin  Church," 
and  other  works  on  theology.  For  his  pamphlet  on  the 
"  Schism  in  the  Church  of  England"  he  was  convicted 
of  sedition  in  1716,  and  confined  in  Newgate  until  his 
death,  in  1720. 

HSw'ell,  (James,)  a  British  author,  born  in  Carmar- 
thenshire about  1595.  Soon  after  leaving  college  he  went 
to  London,  and,  as  agent  of  a  glass-manufactory,  made  a 
tour  on  the  continent,where  he  learned  several  languages. 
He  was  returned  to  Parliament  in  1627,  and  exercised 
his  versatile  talents  in  several  civil  offices  until  1643,  when 
he  was  imprisoned,  for  reasons  not  positively  known. 
He  was  released  about  1649,  and  at  the  restoration  be- 
came historiographer-royal,  being  the  first  who  had  that 
honour.  He  wrote  "  Dodona's  Grove,  or  the  Vocal 
Forest,"  a  poem,  (1640,)  and  various  prose  works.  His 
"Familiar  Letters"  (1645)  are  very  entertaining,  and 
passed  through  ten  editions  before  i  750.    Died  in  1666. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Howell,  (William,)  an  English  writer,  of  whose  life 
little  is  known.  He  was  at  one  time  chancellor  of  the 
diocese  of  Lincoln.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  World 
from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Ruin  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire," a  work  of  some  merit.    Died  in  1683. 

H5w'ells,  (William,)  a  popular  English  preacher, 
born  in  1778.  He  was  minister  of  Long  Acre  Episcopal 
Chapel,  and  belonged  to  the  Evangelical  school.  Seve- 
ral volumes  of  his  sermons  were  published.  Died  in  1832. 

See  Charles  Bowdler,  "  Memoir  of  William  Howells,"  prefixed 
to  his  Sermons,  2  vols.,  1835. 

Howick,  Lord.    See  Grey,  Earl  of. 

How'itt,  (Anna  Mary,)  an  artist  and  writer,  a 
daughter  of  William  and  Mary  Howitt,  was  born  about 
1830.  She  has  produced  a  work  of  merit  called  "The 
Art-Student  in  Munich,"  (2  vols.,  1853,)  and  "The 
School  of  Life,"  (Boston,  1855,)  which  is  highly  corn- 


eas^; 9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  *h  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HOW  ITT 


120.0 


HUBE 


mended.  She  was  recently  married  to  a  son  of  the  poet 
Alaric  Watts. 

Howitt,  (Mary,)  a  popular  English  authoress  and 
moralist,  born  at  Uttoxeter  about  1804.  Her  maiden 
name  was  Boiham.  She  was  educated  as  a  member 
of  the  Society  of  P'riends,  and  was  married  to  William 
Howitt  in  1823.  They  published  jointly  "  The  Forest 
Minstrel,  and  other  Poems,"  {1823,)  "The  Desolation  of 
P^yam,  and  other  Poems,"  (1827,)  "The  Book  of  the 
Seasons,"  (1831,)  and  "The  Literature  and  Romance  of 
Northern  Europe,"  (1852,)  the  most  complete  work  on 
that  subject  in  English.  Mary  Howitt  is  sole  author 
of  numerous  instructive  books,  among  which  are  "  Hope 
on,  Hope  ever,"  (3d  edition,  1844,)  "  Hymns  and  Fire- 
side Verses,"  (1839,)  "Sowing  and  Reaping,"  (1840,) 
and  "Sketches  of  Natural  History,"  (8th  edition,  1853.) 
She  has  translated  many  works  of  Frederika  Bremer, 
and  several  stories  of  Hans  Christian  Andersen.  "Her 
language,"  says  Professor  Wilson,  "is  chaste  and  sim- 
ple, her  feelings  tender  and  pure,  and  her  observation 
of  nature  accurate  and  intense."  ("Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine," vol.  xxiv.) 

Howitt,  (Richard,)  a  poet  and  physician,  a  brother 
of  William  Piowitt.  He  published  in  1830  "Antediluvian 
Sketches,  and  other  Poems,"  which  was  noticed  favour- 
ably by  the  reviewers.  "  Richard  too,"  says  Professor 
Wilson,  "has  a  true  poetical  feeling  and  no  small  poeti- 
cal power."  He  settled  in  Melbourne,  Australia,  and 
wrote  "Impressions  of  Australia  Felix,"  (1845.) 

Howitt,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  author,  born 
at  Heanor,  in  Derbyshire,  in  1795,  was  educated  as  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  His  first  published 
work  was  "  The  Forest  Minstrel,  and  other  Poems," 
(1823,)  partly  written  by  his  wife.  Their  other  joint 
productions  have  been  noticed  in  the  article  on  Mary 
Howitt,  He  wrote  a  "History  of  Priestcraft,"  (1834,) 
which  was  very  successful,  and  often  reprinted,  "  Rural 
Life  of  England,"  (1837,)  and  "Colonization  and  Chris- 
tianity," (1839.)  In  1840  William  and  Mary  Howitt 
removed  to  Heidelberg,  where  they  passed  several  years. 
His  "Rural  and  Domestic  Life  in  Germany"  (1842) 
was  received  with  favour  both  by  the  English  and  Ger- 
mans. He  published  "  Homes  and  Haunts  of  the  Most 
Eminent  British  Poets  Illustrated,"  (2  vols.,  1847,)  be- 
sides various  other  original  works,  and  translations  from 
the  German,  and  edited  "  Howitt's  Journal"  (weekly) 
for  about  three  years,  (1847-49.)  He  described  his 
adventures  and  labours  in  Australia  (where  he  passed 
about  two  years)  in  his  "Land,  Labour,  and  Gold,"  (2 
vols.,  1855.)  Among  his  important  works  are  "  Visits 
to  Remarkable  Places,  Old  Halls,  Battle-Fields,"  etc., 
(2  vols.,  1839-41,)  and  a  "History  of  England,"  (6 
vols.,  1861.) 

See  Professor  Wilson,  "  Noctes  Ambrosianje,"  in  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  April,  1,831;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;" 
"Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1847;  "North  American  Re- 
view" for  April,  1843,  (by  W.  B.  O.  Peabody.) 

How'ley,  (William,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at 
Ropley,  in  Hampshire,  in  1765.  He  became  Bishop  of 
London  in  1813,  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1828. 
He  published  several  sermons.    Died  in  1848. 

How'son,  (John,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
London  in  1556.  After  having  occupied  the  see  of  Ox- 
ford, he  became  Bishop  of  Durham  in  1628.  He  wrote 
and  preached  numerous  discourses  against  the  Roman 
Catholics,  which  were  printed.    Died  in  1631. 

Howson,  (John  Saul,)  an  English  divine,  born 
about  1 81 5.  He  published,  with  W.  J.  Conybeare, 
"The  Life  and  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,"  (2  vols.,  1850-52.) 

Hoyer,  ho'yer,  (Andreas,)  a  Danish  historian  and 
jurist,  born  at  Karlum,  published  a  "Life  of  Frederick 
IV.,"  (1732,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1739. 

Hoyer,  ho''yer,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German 
military  officer  and  writer,  born  at  Dresden  in  1767, 
published  a  "Dictionary  of  Artillery."    Died  in  1848. 

Hoy'er,  [Fr.  pron.  hw^'yi',]  (Michel,)  a  Flemish 
priest  and  Latin  poet,  born  in  1593  ;  died  in  1650. 

Hoyle,  hoil,  (Edmund,)  an  Englishman,  born  in  1672, 
wrote  popular  treatises  on  Whist  and  other  games. 
Died  in  1769. 

Hoyt,  (Epaphras,)  a  historical  and  military  writer, 
born  in  Deerfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1765.  He  published 


"Cavalry  Discipline,"  (1797,)  and  "Antiquarian  Re^ 
searches,"  (1824.)  He  was  a  major-general  of  militia. 
Died  in  1850. 

Hoyt,  (Ralph,)  an  American  Episcopal  clergyman 
and  poet,  born  in  New  York  in  1810.  He  published 
"The  Chaunt  of  Life,  and  other  Poems,"  (1844.) 

Hoz,  de  la,  dk  li  6th,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  dramatic 
poet,  born  at  Madrid  about  1620,  wrote  an  admired 
comedy,  "  El  Castigo  de  la  Miseria."    Died  after  1689. 

Hozier,  d'.    See  D'Hozier. 

Hrimfaxi.    See  Norvi. 

Hrotsvitha,  h  Rots' vee'tS,  also  written  Hrosuitha, 
Hroswitha,  and  Roswitha,  a  celebrated  German 
poetess  of  the  tenth  century,  born  in  Lower  Saxony,  was 
educated  in  the  convent  of  Gandersheim.  She  wrote  Latin 
poems,  which  are  valuable  monuments  of  the  literature 
of  that  time,  and  six  dramas,  (in  Latin,)  that  rank  among 
the  best  productions  of  the  kind  in  the  middle  ages. 
Among  her  poems  was  one  in  hexameters,  containing 
the  history  of  Otto  I.,  only  half  of  which  is  extant. 

See  GusTAV  Freytag,  "  Dissertatio  de  Hrosuitha,"  1839;  Dau- 
ber, "Die  Npnne  von  Gandersheim,"  1858;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Hrungnir,  hrung'nir,  in  the  Norse  mythology,  a  giant, 
who,  on  his  horse  Gullfaxi,  ("  Goldmane,")  visited  As- 
gard,  and,  having  become  intoxicated,  defied  the  gods, 
and  threatened  to  carry  Valhalla  to  Jotunheim,  (the 
"  habitation  of  the  giants.")  He  was  slain  by  Thor,  who 
gave  Gullfaxi  to  his  own  son  Jarnsaxa.  Some  explain 
the  foregoing  myth  by  supposing  Hrungnir  (whose  name 
they  derive  from  hritga,  to  "heap  up")  to  be  a  lofty 
mountain  piled  up  to  the  sky,  thus  appearing  to  menace 
heaven  itself.  Its  summit  being  smitten  and  rent  by  the 
lightning,  is  compared  by  the  Norse  poets  to  the  head 
of  a  giant  whose  skull  Thor  ("thunder")  broke  with  his 
terrible  hammer. 

See  Thorpe's  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  pp.  69-71,  174. 

Hrym,  hreem,  sometimes  written  Rymer,  in  the 
Northern  mythology,  the  leader  of  the  Frost-giants  (Hrim- 
thursar)  in  the  great  battle  against  the  gods  at  Ragna- 
rock.  The  name  is  clearly  another  form  of  Hrim,  "frost," 
and  cognate  with  the  Latin  rinia  ("  hoarfrost")  and  the 
Sanscrit  hinia,  (Gr.  ;\:ei|Ua,)  "frost,"  or  "winter." 

Hua,  /m'S',  (Eustache  Antoine,)  a  French  lawyer, 
born  at  Mantes  in  1759,  was  a  moderate  member  of  the 
Legislative  Assembly  in  1791.  He  became  in  1818  attor 
ney-general  in  the  court  of  cassation.    Died  in  1836. 

Huabalde.    See  Hubald. 

Huarte,  00-aR'ti,  (Juan  de  Dios,)  a  Spanish  phy 
sician  and  philosopher,  born  in  Navarre  about  1535. 
He  published  about  1580  a  remarkable  book,  entitled 
"  Examen  de  Ingenios  para  las  Scienzias,"  which  was 
often  reprinted  and  translated.  The  English  version 
was  called  "  Trial  of  Wits."  It  contains  some  new  truths, 
with  many  bold  paradoxes.    Died  about  1600. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Ticknor, 
"  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Huascar,  hwis'kar,  an  Inca  of  Peru,  a  son  of  Huayna 
Capac,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1525,  was  defeated  in  battle 
and  dethroned  by  his  brother  Atahualpa  in  1532.  (See 
Atahualpa.) 

Huayna  Capac,  hwl^ni  ki-pSk',  Inca  of  Peru,  as- 
cended the  throne  in  1493.  He  extended  his  dominions 
by  conquest,  and  enriched  them  by  the  arts  of  peace. 
Died  in  1525. 

Hu''baid,  written  also  Huabalde,  Hucbald,  and 
Hugbald,  [Lat.  Hubal'dus.J  a  Flemish  monk  of  Saint- 
Amand,  born  about  840  A. D.,  wrote  a  treatise  on  music, 
and  Latin  verses  in  praise  of  baldness,  in  which  every 
word  begins  with  C  ;  for  example, 

"Carmina  Clarisonae  Calvis  Cantata  Camoenas." 
Died  in  930. 

Hub^'bard,  (William,)  a  historian,  born  in  England 
in  1621,  was  ordained  minister  at  Ipswich,  Massachusetts, 
about  1656.  He  died  in  1704,  leaving  in  manuscript  a 
"  History  of  New  England,"  which  was  published  by  the 
Massachusetts  Historical  Society  in  181 5. 

Hube,  hoo'bih,  (R.,)  a  Polish  jurist,  born  at  Warsaw 
in  1803,  published  "Principles  of  Penal  Law,"  (1830,) 
and  other  works.  He  was  appointed  councillor  of  state 
at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1843,  after  which  he  was  employed 
in  the  compilation  of  a  new  penal  and  civil  code. 


a,  e,  ,1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/zori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  mgt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


HUBER 


\zi\ 


HUDDE 


Huber,  hoo'ber,  (Francis,)  a  Swiss  naturalist,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1 750.  The  taste  for  nature  and  the  habit  of 
observation  which  he  derived  from  his  father  were  con- 
firmed by  the  lectures  of  Saussure.  At  the  age  of  fifteen 
his  sight  began  to  fail,  and  was  before  long  quite  lost. 
Soon  after  the  occurrence  of  this  privation  he  married 
Mdlle.  Lullin,  and  was  blessed  with  domestic  happiness. 
Pursuing  his  researches  into  the  economy  and  habits  of 
bees,  by  the  aid  of  his  servant,  he  made  many  interesting 
discoveries,  and  in  1792  published  "  New  Observations  on 
Bees,"  which  excited  a  great  sensation.  He  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris,  and  of 
other  similar  institutions.  He  also  wrote  a  "  Memoir  on 
the  Origin  of  Wax,"  and  a  few  other  treatises.  Died  in 
1830  or  183 1, 

See  AuGUSTiN  Pyrame  Decandolle,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les 
ficrits  de  F.  Huber,"  1832;  "Monthly  Review,"  in  the  Appendix 
of  vol.  Ixxxii.,  1 81 7. 

Huber,  (Johann,)  an  artist,  born  in  Geneva  in  1722, 
was  intimate  with  Voltaire,  of  whose  domestic  life  he 
drew  several  pictures.  He  was  noted  for  skill  in  cutting 
profiles  in  paper  or  parchment,  and  wrote  "  Observations 
on  the  Flight  of  Birds  of  Prey,"  (1784.)   Died  in  1790. 

Huber,  (Johann  Jakob,)  an  eminent  Swiss  anato- 
mist, born  at  Bale  in  1707,  was  a  pupil  of  Haller,  whom 
he  assisted  in  his  "Swiss  Flora."  He  was  chosen  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  Gottingen  about  1737,  and  became 
professor  and  court  physician  at  Cassel  in  1742.  He 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin.  His 
principal  work  is  a  "Treatise  on  the  Spinal  Marrow," 
(1739.)    Died  in  1778. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Huber,  (Johann  Rudolf,)  an  eminent  Swiss  painter, 
born  at  Bale  in  1668,  studied  several  years  in  Italy.  He 
worked  mostly  in  his  native  place.  He  painted  portraits 
and  history  with  rapidity  and  success.  On  account 
of  his  brilliant  colouring,  he  was  surnamed  the  Swiss 
TiNTORET.    Died  in  1748. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kifnstler-Lexikon." 

Huber,  //ii'baiR'  or  hoo'ber,  (Louis  Ferdinand,)  a 
distinguished  litterateur,  son  of  Michael,  noticed  below, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1764.  Li  1794  he  married  Theresa, 
the  widow  of  John  George  Forster  and  daughter  of  the 
eminent  philologist  Heyne.  He  became  in  1798  editor 
of  the  "Allgemeine  Zeitung"  at  Stuttgart.  He  wrote 
several  dramas,  and  a  collection  of  popular  tales.  Died 
in  1804. 

Huber,  (Marie,)  a  Swiss  authoress  and  Protestant 
theologian,  remarkable  for  her  peculiar  religious  views, 
which  appear  to  have  been  a  mixture  of  rationalism  and 
mysticism,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1695.  She  wrote,  be- 
sides other  religious  and  moral  works,  "  Letters  on  the 
Religion  essential  to  Man,  as  distinguished  from  that 
which  is  Conventional,"  (accessoire,)  (1738,)  in  which  she 
uses  a  very  subtle  dialectic,  and  "  The  Insane  (or  Foolish) 
World  preferred  to  the  Wise,"  ("  Le  Monde  fol  pre- 
fere  au  Monde  sage,"  2  vols.,  1731-44.)  Died  at  Lyons 
in  1753- 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Huber,  (Michael,)  a  German  translator,  born  at 
Frontenhausen,  in  Bavaria,  in  1727.  He  lived  many 
years  in  Paris,  and  became  professor  of  French  at  Leip- 
sic  in  1766.  He  made  good  French  translations  of  many 
German  works,  among  which  were  Gessner's  poems 
and  Winckelmann's  "  History  of  Ancient  Art,"  (3  vols., 
1 781.)    Died  in  1804. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Huber,  (Peter,  or  Pierre,)  son  of  Francis,  noticed 
above,  published  a  "  History  of  the  Habits  of  Indigenous 
Ants,"  "  Observations  on  Drones,"  and  other  zoological 
treatises.    Died  in  1841. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1812,  and  October,  1815. 

Huber,  (Therese,)  a  German  novelist,  born  at  Got- 
tingen in  1764,  was  a  daughter  of  C.  G.  Heyne,  the 
philologist.  She  was  married  to  John  George  Forster, 
an  eminent  author,  in  1784,  and  to  Ludwig  F.  Huber 
(noticed  above)  in  1794.    Died  at  Augsburg  in  1829. 

Huber,  (Victor  Aim^:,)  a  historian  and  critic,  son  of 
Louis  Ferdinand,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Stuttgart 
in  1800.  He  popularized  Spanish  literature  in  Germany 


by  his  "History  of  the  Cid"  (1829)  and  his  "Slcetches 
of  Spain,"  (4  vols.,  1828-35.)  Foi*  many  years  he  was 
professor  of  languages  and  history  at  Marburg  and  Berlin. 

Huber,  hii'ber,  [Lat.  Hube'rus,]  (Ulrich,)  a  Dutch 
jurist,  born  at  Dokkum  in  1636.  In  1665  he  was  chosen 
professor  of  law  at  Franeker.  He  published  many  able 
treatises  on  civil  law,  among  which  are  "  De  Jure  Civi- 
tatis,"  (1672,)  and  "  Praelectiones  ad  Pandectas,"  (1686.) 
From  the  former  Rousseau  derived  many  of  the  ideas 
or  principles  of  his  "Contrat  Social."    Died  in  1694. 

See  ViTRiNGA,  "Oratio  in  Excessum  U.  Huberi,"  1694;  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  G^nerale;"  Jocher,  "Allgemeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon." 

Hubert,  hyX'hdav/,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Abbeville  in  1744;  died  in  1809. 

Hubert,  (Mathieu,)  an  eloquent  French  preacher, 
born  near  Mayenne  in  1640.  He  taught  belles-lettres  in 
various  colleges,  preached  in  Paris  and  the  provinces, 
and  died  in  1 71 7.  His  Sermons  were  published  in  5 
vols.,  (1725.) 

Huberus.    See  Huber,  (Ulrich.) 

Hiibner  or  Huebner,  hup'ner,  (Johann,)  a  German 
geographer  and  teacher,  born  at  or  near  Zittau  in  1668. 
His  "Questions  on  Ancient  and  Modern  Geography" 
(1693)  was  often  reprinted.    Died  in  173 1. 

Hiibner  or  Huebner,  (Rudolf  Julius  Benno,)  a 
skilful  German  historical  painter,  born  at  Oels,  in  Silesia, 
in  1806,  was  a  pupil  of  Schadow.  He  settled  at  Dresden 
in  1839,  and  became  a  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts 
in  that  city  in  1841.  His  works  are  admired  for  grace 
of  expression  and  beauty  of  colour.  Among  his  master- 
pieces are  "Boaz  and  Ruth,"  "Christ  and  the  Evan- 
gelists," "The  Golden  Age,"  and  "Felicity  and  Sleep." 

Hiibner,  von,  fon  hup'ner,  (Joseph  Alexander,) 
an  Austrian  diplomatist,  born  in  Vienna  in  1811,  was 
ambassador  to  the  French  court,  and  signed  the  treaty 
of  peace  at  the  Congress  of  Paris  in  1856. 

Hiibsch  or  Huebsch,  hupsh,  (Heinrich,)  a  German 
architect,  born  at  Weinheim,  Baden,  in  1795. 

Hue,  //ilk,  (Abbe  £variste  Regis,)  a  French  Catho- 
lic missionary  and  traveller,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1813. 
He  went  to  China  in  1839,  learned  the  Chinese  lan- 
guage, and  laboured  as  a  missionary.  About  the  end 
of  1845  he  visited  Lassa,  the  capital  of  Thibet,  where  he 
was  permitted  to  remain  only  a  few  weeks.  Having 
returned  to  France  in  1852,  he  published  his  very  curious 
and  amusing  "Travels  in  Tartary,  Thibet,  and  China," 
("  Souvenirs  d'un  Voyage  dans  la  Tartaric,"  etc.,  2  vols., 
1852,)  which  obtained  a  wide  popularity,  and  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  W.  Hazlitt,  Jr.  He  afterwards 
published  "The  Chinese  Empire,"  (2  vols.,  1854,)  and 
"  Christianity  in  China,  Tartary,  and  Thibet,"  (3  vols., 
1857.)    Died  in  i860. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  July,  1857  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1855. 

Hucbald.    See  Hubald. 
Huch.    See  .^pinus. 

Huchtenburgh,  van,  vtn  huK'ten-biiRc',  written 
also  Hugtenburg,  (Jakob,)  a  skilful  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1639,  was  a  pupil  of  Berg- 
hem.  He  went  in  his  youth  to  Rome,  where  he  worked 
with  success  until  his  death,  in  1669. 

Hu-chtenburgh,  Hugtenburg,  or  Huchtenburg, 
van,  (Jan,)  an  excellent  Dutch  painter,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Haarlem  in  1646.  He  studied  in 
Italy  and  Paris  with  Van  der  Meitlen,  acquired  a  high 
reputation  for  battle-pieces,  and  was  employed  by  Prince 
Eugene  to  paint  those  actions  in  which  he  and  Marl- 
borough commanded.  He  was  also  a  skilful  engraver. 
Died  in  1733. 

See  Descamps,  "Vie  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Hud'dart,  (Joseph,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  navigator 
and  hydrographer,  born  at  Allonby  in  1741,  was  for  many 
years  a  captain  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany. He  was  a  skilful  nautical  surveyor,  and  published 
some  valuable  charts.    Died  in  1816. 

Hudde,  hud'deh,  (Jan,)  born  at  Amsterdam  about 
1636,  was  councillor,  treasurer,  and  burgomaster  of  his 
native  city.  He  was  well  versed  in  mathematics,  on 
which  he  wrote  some  able  treatises.    Died  in  1704. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "Histoire  des  Mathematiques." 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HUDDESFORD 


I  222 


HUGFORD 


Hud'd?s-ford,  (George,)  a  humorous  English  poet, 
who  lived  about  1800.  He  wrote  several  burlesque 
poems,  which  had  some  success,  viz.,  "  Topsy-Turvy," 
(1790,)  "Salmagundi,"  (1793,)  and  "Imperial  Mush- 
rooms," (1805.) 

Huddesford  or  Hud'ders-ford,  (William,)  D.D., 
an  English  antiquary,  was  principal  of  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  and  wrote  the  Lives  of  Leland,  Hearne,  and 
Anthony  Wood.    Died  in  1772. 

Huddleston,  hucKdels-ton,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  an- 
tiquary, born  in  1776,  published  a  new  edition  of  Toland's 
"History  of  the  Druids,"  (1814.)    Died  in  1826. 

Hud'son,  (Henry  or  Hendrik,)  an  eminent  English 
navigator,  of  whose  early  life  nothing  is  known.  In  1607 
he  commanded  a  vessel  sent  by  some  London  merchants 
to  discover  a  direct  route  to  India  by  way  of  the  North 
pole  or  Northern  Ocean.  Having  advanced  beyond  80° 
north  latitude,  he  was  prevented  by  the  ice  from  making 
farther  progress,  and  returned.  He  made  several  other 
unsuccessful  attempts  in  that  direction.  In  the  service  of 
the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  he  discovered  in  1609 
the  river  of  New  York  which  bears  his  name.  He  re- 
newed the  enterprise  in  April,  1610,  and  discovered  and 
explored  Hudson  Bay,  in  which  he  passed  the  winter 
and  suffered  much  for  want  of  provisions.  As  he  was 
returning  in  1611,  his  crew  mutinied,  and,  forcing  the 
captain  with  eight  men  into  a  small  boat,  abandoned 
them  to  their  fate.  They  were  never  heard  of  afterwards. 
A  few  of  the  mutineers  returned  to  Ireland. 

See  Prevost,  "Histoire  g^nerale  des  Voyages;"  Purchas's 
"Collection;"  "Life  of  Henry  Hudson,"  in  Sparks's  "American 
Biography,"  vol.  x.,  (by  H.  R.  Cleveland;)  "  Noiivelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  J.  M.  Read,  "Historical  Inquiries  concerning  Henry 
Hudson,"  1866. 

Hud'spn,  (Henry  Norman,)  an  Episcopal  clergy- 
man, born  in  Cornwall,  Vermont,  in  1814,  published 
"Lectures  on  Shakspeare,"  (2  vols.,  1848,)  and  edited 
the  Works  of  Shakspeare,  (11  vols.,  1850-57.) 

Hudson,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  learned  English  critic,  born 
in  Cumberland  in  1662,  was  for  many  years  a  tutor  in 
Oxford  University,  and  from  1 701  until  his  death  libra- 
rian of  the  Bodleian  Library.  He  published  excellent 
editions  of  Thucydides,  Longinus,  Josephus,  "^sop's 
Fables,"  etc.    Died  in  17 19. 

Hudson,  (Thqmas,)  an  English  portrait-painter,  born 
in  Devonshire  in  1701.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Richardson, 
after  whose  death  he  was  the  most  fashionable  or  suc- 
cessful artist  in  that  line  in  London  until  he  was  sur- 
passed by  his  own  pupil,  Joshua  Reynolds,  about  1754. 
Among  his  works  is  a  portrait  of  Handel.   Died  in  1779. 

Hudson,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English  bot- 
anist, born  in  Westmoreland  in  1730,  resided  in  London 
as  an  apothecary.  He  was  one  of  the  first  in  England 
that  adopted  the  Linnaean  system,  and  in  1762  published 
an  "English  Flora,"  ("Flora  Anglica,")  which  procured 
him  admission  into  the  Royal  Society.    Died  in  1793. 

Hue,  hu,  (FRANgoTS,)  born  at  Fontainebleau,  France, 
in  1757,  became  a  valet  to  the  dauphin.  In  the  reign  of 
terror  he  served  the  royal  family  at  the  risk  of  his  life, 
and  was  imprisoned.  He  wrote  "  The  Last  Years  of  the 
Reign  and  Life  of  Louis  XVI.,"  (1806.)    Died  in  1819. 

Huebner.    See  Hubner. 

Huebsch.    See  Hubsch. 

Huegel.    See  Hugel. 

Huel,  hn'hV,  (Joseph. Nicolas,)  a  French  philosopher, 
born  at  Mattaincourt  in  1690  ;  died  in  1769. 
Huellmann.    See  Hullmann. 
Huerta.    See  Horto. 

Huerta,  de  la,  di  la  w^R'ti,  (Vincente  Garcia,)  a 
popular  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Zafra  in  1729,  was  the  leader 
of  the  national  school  of  poetry,  in  opposition  to  the  par- 
tisans of  the  French  models.  He  produced  in  1778  the 
tragedy  of  "  Rachel,"  ("  Raquel,")  which  was  performed 
with  great  applause  in  Madrid  and  in  Italy.  He  wrote 
other  poems,  ("  Obras  poeticas,"  2  vols.,  1778,)  and  was 
the  editor  of  the  "  Spanish  Theatre,"  ("  Teatro  Espafiol,") 
k  selection  from  the  best  Spanish  dramatists,  with  notes, 
(17  vols.,  1788.)    Died  in  1797. 

See  BouTERWEK,  "  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Espagnole." 

Huet,//u''et',  (Paul,)  a  French  landscape-painter,  born 
in  Paris  in  1804,  gained  medals  of  the  first  class  in  1848 
and  1855. 


Huet,  (Pierre Daniel,)  an  eminent  French  critic  and 
scholar,  born  at  Caen  in  February,  1630,  was  educated 
at  Paris.  In  1652,  in  company  with  Bochart,  he  visited 
the  court  of  Christina  of  Sweden,  which  then  offered 
rare  attractions  to  the  learned  ;  but  he  soon  returned  to 
Caen,  and  passed  many  years  in  various  studies.  He  was 
appointed  in  1670  sub-preceptor  of  the  dauphin,  and  was 
the  principal  editor  of  the  well-known  series  of  the  Latin 
classics  "ad  usum  Delphini,"  ("for  the  use  of  the  dau- 
phin.") In  1674  he  became  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  in  1685  Bishop  of  Avranches.  He  wrote 
numerous  able  critical  and  religious  works,  (in  Latin  and 
French,)  among  which  the  best-known  is  his  "  Demon- 
stratio  Evangelica,"  (1679.)  This  was  for  a  long  time  a 
standard  work  on  the  Evidences  of  Christianity.  Died 
in  1 721. 

See  D'Alembert,  "  filoge  de  Huet;"  Saint-Maurice,  "  ^^loge 
de  D.  Huet,"  1850;  Huet's  Autobiographic  Memoirs,  entitled 
"  Comnientarius  de  Rebus  ad  eum  pertinentibus,"  1718,  (translated 
into  English  by  John  Aikin,  2  vols.,  1810;)  "  Huetiana,"  Paris, 
1722  ;  Brucker,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  Abbe  Flottes,  "  ^tude 
sur  Daniel  Huet,"  1857  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "  London 
Quarterly  Review"  lor  August,  1810. 

Huet  de  Froberville,  Z/ii'i'  deh  iKo'hlR'whV, 
(Claude  Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Romorantin  in  1752;  died  in  1838. 

Huette,  /m'et',  (Louis,)  a  French  optician,  born  at 
Rennes  in  1756;  died  in  1805. 

Hufeland,  hoo'feh-iant',  (Christoph  Wilhelm,)  an 
excellent  German  physician  and  medical  writer,  was 
born  at  Langensalza  (Prussian  Saxony)  in  1762,  He 
became  professor  at  Jena  in  1793,  and  afterwards  phy- 
sician to  the  King  of  Prussia.  In  1809  he  obtained  the 
chair  of  special  pathology  and  therapeutics  at  Berlin. 
He  produced  in  1796  a  celebrated  work  on  the  "Art 
of  Prolonging  Life,"  ("  Makrobiotik,  oder  die  Kunst 
das  menschliche  Leben  zu  verlangern,")  often  reprinted 
and  translated.  Among  his  other  works  are  a  "System 
of  Practical  Medicine,"  (2  vols.,  1800-05,)  and  "Enchiri- 
dion Medicum,"  (1836;  9th  edition,  1851.)  Died  in  1836. 

See  F.  L.  Augustin,  "  Hufelands  Leben  und  Wirken  fiir  Wis- 
senschaft,  Staat  und  Menschheit,"  1837;  Stourdja,  "Huteland, 
Esquisse  de  sa  Vie  et  de  sa  Mort,"  1837. 

Hufeland,  (Gottlieb,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Dant- 
zic  in  1760,  was  professor  of  law  at  Halle,  where  he  died 
in  181 7.    He  wrote  a  "Manual  of  the  Law  of  Nature." 

Hiifnagel.    See  Hofnaegel. 

Hug,  hdoG,  (Johann  Leonhard,)  a  German  Catholic 
theologian,  born  at  Constance  in  1763.  His  "Intro- 
duction t-o  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament"  is  highly 
esteemed,  and  has  been  translated  into  French  and  Eng- 
lish.   Died  in  1846. 

Hugbald.    See  Hubald. 

Hiigel  or  Huegel,  von,  fon  hii'gel,  (Karl  Alex- 
ander Anselm,)  Baron,  a  German  traveller  and  natu- 
ralist, was  born  at  Ratisbon  in  1796.  He  performed  a 
scientific  exploration  of  Greece,  Egypt,  India,  and  other 
parts  of  Asia,  about  1831-36,  and  brought  home  large 
collections  of  objects  of  natural  history,  coins,  etc.  He 
published  "Cashmere  and  the  Dominion  of  the  Sikhs," 
(4  vols.,  1842,)  "The  Basin  of  Cabool,"  ("Das  Becken 
von  Kabul,"  2  vols.,  1852,)  and  other  works.  Died,  1870. 

Hugenius.    See  Huygens. 

Huger,  li'jee',  (Benjamin,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  about  1806,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1825.  He  led  a  division  of  the  army  that 
fought  against  the  Union  at  Fair  Oaks,  May  31,  and  at 
Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862. 

Huger,  (Francis  Kinlock,)  an  officer,  born  in  South 
Carolina  in  1764.  He  joined  Dr.  Eric  Bollman  in  an 
attempt  to  release  La  Fayette  from  the  dungeon  of 
Olmutz  ;  but  they  failed,  and  were  imprisoned.  He  served 
as  a  colonel  in  the  war  of  1812.    Died  in  1855. 

Huger,  (Isaac,)  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
about  1725.  He  served  as  a  brigadier-general  in  the 
Revolution,  and  rendered  distinguished  service  at  the 
sieges  of  Savannah  and  Charleston.  In  the  battle  of 
Guilford  Court-House  he  commanded  the  right  wing  of 
the  American  army.    Died  in  1782. 

Hug'ford,  (  Ignazio,  )  an  artist,  born  of  English 
parents  at  Florence  in  1703,  was  a  noted  connoisseur 
and  a  skilful  painter.    Died  in  1778. 


a»  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ilXy  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MUGGINS 


1223 


HUGO 


Hiig'gins,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  astronomer 
of  the  present  age,  especially  distinguished  for  his  obser- 
vations and  discoveries  made  with  the  spectroscope  on 
the  sun  and  stars.  He  is  secretary  of  the  Royal  Astro- 
nomical Society. 

Hugh,  hu,  [Fr.  Hugues,  Aug,]  a  French  prelate,  emi- 
nent for  talents  and  piety,  was  chosen  Archbishop  of 
Besan9on  in  103 1.    Died  in  1066. 

Hugh  (Hugues)  I.,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  was  the  son 
of  Henry,  and  grandson  of  Duke  Robert,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1075.  In  1078  he  retired  into  a  convent,  resign- 
ing his  dukedom  to  his  brother  Eudes.    Died  in  1093. 

Hugh  (Hugues)  II.,  Duke  of  ]^urgundy,  nephew  of 
the  preceding,  succeeded  in  1102  his  father  Eudes,  who 
went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land.    Died  in  1142. 

Hugh  (Hugues)  III.,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  succeeded 
his  father,  Eudes  H.,  in  1162.  About  1190  he  followed 
Philip  Augustus  of  France  in  a  crusade,  and  when  that 
king  turned  back,  Hugues  took  command  of  the  French. 
He  died  at  Tyre  in  1192,  and  left  his  dukedom  to  his  son, 
Eudes  HI. 

Hugh  (Hugues)  IV.,  son  of  Eudes  HI.,  born  in  1212, 
inherited  the  dukedom  in  1218.  He  died  in  1272,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Robert. 

Hugh  (Hugues)  V.,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  son  of  Robert 
XL,  inherited  the  title  in  1308,  and  died  prematurely  in 
13 1 5,  leaving  the  dukedom  to  his  brother,  Eudes  IV. 

Hugh  (Hugues)  de  Cluny,  (deh  klii'ne',)  a  French 
monk,  born  at  Semur  about  1024,  became  Abbot  of  Cluny 
in  1048.  He  was  consulted  on  important  questions  by 
several  kings  and  popes.    Died  in  1109. 

Hugh  (Hugues)  d'Amiens,  (dt'm^N',)  a  French 
prelate  and  writer,  reputed  one  of  the  most  learned 
theologians  of  his  time,  was  chosen  Archbishop  of  Rouen 
in  1130.    Died  in  1164. 

See  "Gallia  Christiana,"  tome  ii. 

Hugh  (Hugues)  de  Flavigny,  (deh  M\h\Vye',)  a 
French  monk,  born  in  1065,  was  chosen  Abbot  of  Fla- 
vigny in  1097.  He  wrote  the  "  Chronicle  of  Verdun," 
which  contains  valuable  historical  data. 

Hugh  (Hugues)  de  Fleury  (deh  fluh^re')  or  de 
Sainte-Marie,  (deh  siNt^mt're',)  a  French  monk,  who 
was  eminent  for  his  knowledge.  He  asserted  the  divine 
right  of  kings  in  an  able  treatise  *'  On  Royal  Power  and 
Sacerdotal  l3ignity,"  and  wrote  a  general  History.  Died 
about  1125. 

Hugh  OF  Provence,  King  of  Italy,  was  a  son  of 
Theobald,  (or  Thibault,)  Count  of  Provence.  Favoured 
by  the  pope,  John  X.,  and  by  many  Lombard  chiefs, 
he  obtained  the  crown  of  Italy  in  926  A.D.,  but  was 
expelled  by  Berenger  in  947,  and  died  the  same  year. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgenieine  Encyklopaedie." 

Hugh  (Hugues)  de  Saint-Cher,  (deh  siN^shaiR',) 
a  learned  French  monk  and  cardinal,  was  born  near 
Vienne.  His  most  important  work  was  a  concordance 
of  the  Bible,  said  to  be  the  first  ever  compiled.  He 
used  the  Latin  in  this  work.    Died  in  1263. 

Hugh  (Hugues)  de  Saint-Victor,  (deh  siN'v^k'- 
toR',)  a  monk,  born  near  Ypres,  entered  the  monastery 
of  Saint-Victor,  in  Paris,  in  1118.  He  wrote  theological 
works  which  had  a  high  reputation.    Died  in  1140. 

Hugh  Capet.    See  Capet. 

Hugh  the  Great,  [Fr.  Hugues  le  Grand,  hiig  leh 
gR6N,]  Duke  of  France  and  Count  of  Paris,  a  powerful 
noble,  was  the  son  of  Robert,  Count  of  Paris,  and  the 
father  of  Hugh  Capet.  He  married  a  sister  of  Otho, 
King  of  Germany,  and  waged  war  against  Louis  d'Outre- 
Mer.   Died  in  956. 

Hugh  the  Great,  Count  of  Vermandois,  third  son 
of  Henry  L,  King  of  France,  born  in  1057,  was  noted  for 
chivalrous  courage.  He  departed  in  1096  on  a  crusade, 
and  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Antioch.  He 
was  killed  in  battle  in  1102. 

See  MicHAUD,  "History  of  the  Crusades." 

Hughes,  huz,  (Rev.  Griffith,)  an  English  minister 
of  Saint  Lacy's  parish,  Barbadoes,  published  in  1750  a 
"  Natural  History  of  Barbadoes." 

Hughes,  (Jabez,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  1685, 
was  a  brother  of  John  Hughes,  the  poet,  noticed  below. 
He  published  translations  from  Claudian,  Lucan,  Sueto- 
nius, and  Cervantes.    Died  in  1731. 


Hughes,  (John,)  an  English  poet  and  essayist,  born 
at  Marlborough  in  1677,  was  educated  in  London,  where 
he  mostly  resided.  He  filled,  besides  other  civil  posts, 
that  of  secretary  to  the  commissioners  of  the  peace. 
His  character  and  talents  secured  him  the  friendship  of 
Addison,  Pope,  and  Congreve.  He  contributed  nume- 
rous well-written  essays  to  the  "  Spectator,"  "  Tatler," 
and  "  Guardian,"  and  once  had  a  fair  reputation  as  a 
poet.  His  best  poem  is  "The  Siege  of  Damascus,"  a 
tragedy,  which  was  first  performed  on  the  last  night 
of  the  author's  life,  and  was  very  successful.  He  made 
good  translations  from  Fontenelle  and  Vertot.  Swift 
having  classed  him  in  the  ranks  of  mediocrity,  Pope 
answered,  "What  he  wanted  in  genius  he  made  up  as 
an  honest  man."  Addison  had  so  good  an  opinion  of 
his  ability  that  he  requested  him  to  write  the  fifth  act  of 
"  Cato,"  which,  however,  he  declined.    Died  in  1720. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets;"  "  Biographia  Bii- 
tannica." 

Hughes,  huz,  (John,)  an  eminent  Roman  Catholic 
prelate,  born  in  Ireland  in  1798.  He  came  to  America 
in  1 81 7,  and  preached  several  years  in  Philadelphia.  He 
became  Bishop  of  New  York  about  1840,  and  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  archbishop  in  1850.  He  published  seve- 
ral sermons  and  lectures.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
ability,  and  was  particularly  distinguished  for  his  skill 
in  dialectics.    Died  in  1864. 

See  John  R.  G.  Hassard,  "Life  of  John  Hughes,"  1866. 

Hughe.s,  (John,)  an  English  writer  and  artist,  was 
the  father  of  Thomas  Hughes,  M.P.  He  published  in 
1822  an  "Itinerary  of  Provence  and  the  Rhone,"  (with 
good  etchings  by  himself,)  which  was  praised  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott.    He  also  wrote  some  poetical  pieces. 

Hughes,  (Thomas,)  an  English  author,  social  econo- 
mist, and  barrister,  born  in  Berkshire  in  October,  1823. 
His  father  was  John  Hughes,  noticed  above,  whom 
Christopher  North  calls  "  Bullar  of  Brazennose."  He 
acquired  celebrity  by  a  work  of  fiction  entitled  "  Tom 
Brown's  School-Days,"  (1857,)  which  quickly  passed 
through  several  editions.  This  story  is  continued  in 
his  "  Tom  Brown  at  Oxford."  He  is  a  warm  friend  of 
the  working-classes,  and  represented  Lambeth  in  Par- 
liament, to  which  he  was  elected  in  1865  by  the  Liberals. 
In  1868  he  was  returned  as  a  member  for  Frome. 

Hughes,  (Thomas  Smart,)  an  English  historian, 
graduated  at  Cambridge  as  M.A.  in  1811.  He  became 
prebendary  of  Peterborough  in  1827,  and  rector  of  Hard- 
wick  in  1832.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  His- 
tory of  England  from  the  Accession  of  George  III.  to 
the  Accession  of  Victoria,  1760-1837,"  (7  vols.,  1836,)  a 
continuation  of  Hume  and  Smollett.    Died  in  1847. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  T.  S.  Hughes,"  prefixed  to  his  "Essay  on 
the  Political  System  of  Europe,"  1855. 

Hugi,  hoo'gee,  (Franz  Joseph,)  a  Swiss  naturalist, 
born  at  Grenchen  in  1795.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"Treatise  on  Glaciers,"  (1842.) 

Hugo,  >^U'go',  (Charles  Louis,)  a  French  monk, 
born  at  Saint-Mihiel  in  1667,  became  Abbe  of  Estival. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Life  of  Saint  Nor- 
bert,"  (1707,)  and  a  "History  of  Moses,"  (1709.)  Died 
in  1739. 

Hugo,  (Francois  Victor,)  a  son  of  Victor  Marie, 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1828.  He  produced 
a  version  of  Shakspeare's  Sonnets,  (1857.) 

Hugo,  hoo'go,  (GuSTAV,)  a  German  jurist,  distin- 
guished for  his  profound  knowledge  of  Roman  law,  was 
born  at  Lorrach,  in  Baden,  in  1764.  He  studied  at 
Gottingen»  and  became  professor  of  law  in  that  city  in 
1792.  His  principal  work,  a  "Manual  of  a  Course  of 
Civil  Law,"  consisting  of  seven  volumes,  with  different 
titles,  ranks  among  the  standard  productions  of  modern 
jurisprudence.    Died  at  Gottingen  in  1844. 

See  H.  Eyssenhardt,  "Zur  Erinnerung  an  G.  Hugo,"  1845. 

Hu'go,  (Herman,)  a  learned  Jesuit,  born  at  Brussels 
in  1588,  became  chaplain  to  General  Spinola.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  treatise  on  the  invention  of  letters,  "  De 
prima  Scribendi  Origine,"  (1617,)  and  a  few  otherworks. 
Died  in  1629. 

Hugo,  (J.  Abel,)  a  French  litterateur,  brother  of 
Victor  Hugo,  was  born  about  1798.  Among  his  works 
are  "Picturesque  France,"  (3  vols.,  1833,)  and  "Military 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  c,  h,  y., guttural;  n,  7iasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (S^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HUGO 


1224. 


HULLS 


France,"  a  history  of  the  French  armies  from  1792  to 
1833,  (5  vols.,  1834.)    Died  in  1855. 

Hugo,  (Joseph  Leopold  Sigisbert,)  a  French  gen- 
eral and  count,  born  at  Nancy  in  1774.  After  serving 
Joseph  Bonaparte  as  marshal  of  the  palace  at  Naples, 
he  fought  for  him  in  Spain  as  general  of  brigade  from 
1809  to  1813,  gained  several  victories,  and  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  general  of  division.  In  1823  he  published 
''Memoirs  of  General  Hugo."    Died  in  1828. 

See  Jui.es  Nollet-Fabert,  "  Le  General  J.  L.  S.  Hugo,"  8vo, 
1853  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Hugo,  hii'go',  (Victor  Marie,)  Vicomte,  a  celebrated 
French  lyric  poet  and  novelist,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Besan9on  in  1802.  His  mother,  Sophie 
Trebuchet,  was  a  Vendean  royalist,  with  whose  polit- 
ical sentiments  he  sympathized  in  his  youth.  His  first 
poem,  "On  the  Advantages  of  Study,"  (1817,)  obtained 
an  honourable  mention  from  the  Academic  Fran9aise. 
He  received  prizes  for  several  royalist  odes  in  181 8,  and 
married  Mdlle.  Foucher  in  1822.  In  the  same  year  he 
published  the  first  volume  of  his  "Odes  and  Ballads," 
which  quickly  raised  him  to  the  first  rank  among  the 
French  poets  of  his  time.  He  produced  "  Cromwell," 
a  drama,  (1827,)  and  a  volume  of  odes,  entitled  "  Les 
Orientales,"  (1828,)  remarkable  for  richness  of  imagina- 
tion. The  literati  of  France  having  ranged  themselves 
in  two  hostile  schools,  styled  the  Classic  and  the  Ro- 
mantic, Victor  Hugo  became  the  recognized  chief  of  the 
latter,  formed  mostly  of  young  men.  Of  his  dramas, 
"  Hernani"  (first  acted  in  1830)  and  "Marion  Delorme" 
(1831)  proved  brilliant  successes.  Among  his  most  suc- 
cessful and  popular  works  are  "  Notre  Dame  de  Paris," 
a  romance,  (1831,)  "  Le  Roi  s'amuse,"  a  drama,  (1832,) 
"Les  Miserables,"  a  novel,  (1862,)  "The  Toilers  of  the 
Sea,"  (1865,)  and  poems  entitled  "The  Leaves  of  Au- 
tumn," ("  Les  Feuilles  d'Automne,")  which,  says  a 
French  critic  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale," 
"contain  beauties  of  the  first  order."  He  was  admitted 
into  the  French  Academy  in  i84i,and  raised  to  the  rank 
of  a  peer  in  1845.  gdiVt  his  cordial  adhesion  to  the 

republic  of  1848,  and  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly by  the  voters  of  Paris.  He  opposed  Cavaignac, 
and  in  1849  joined  the  party  of  advanced  democrats,  of 
whom  he  became  a  leader  and  distinguished  orator.  For 
his  opposition  to  the  coup  d'etat  of  December  2,  185 1,  he 
was  banished.  He  retired  to  the  island  of  Guernsey,  where 
he  has  since  resided.  During  his  exile  he  published  sev- 
eral works,  including  a  historical  work  entitled  "Napo- 
leon le  Petit,"  ("  Napoleon  the  Little,"  1852,)  and  poetical 
"Contemplations,"  (2  vols.,  1856,)  which  are  much  ad- 
mired. Of  his  more  recent  pul)lications,  "L'Homme 
qui  rit"  (1869)  is  perhaps  the  most  important. 

See  De  Lomenie.  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains  illustres  ;"  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "Portraits  contempovains,"  1846;  Chari.es  Robin,  "  Bio- 
grayihie  d*  V.  Hugo,"  1848;  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of 
Europe  ;"  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1843.  and  October,  1862  ; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1863;  also  "Eraser's  Magazine" 
for  March,  1863,  and  June,  1866;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
July,  1831  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  i860,  and  January, 
1863;  "Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1855,  and  October  and 
January,  1863  ;  "  North  American  Review"  for  July,  1836,  (by  Mrs. 
F.  A.  Kemble.) 

Hu-go-li'nus,  (or  hoo-gu-le'nus,)  an  Italian  jurist  and 
legal  writer,  born  at  Bologna;  died  about  1233. 
Hugtenburg.    See  Huchienburg. 
Hugues  Capet.    See  Capet. 
Huijgens.    See  Huygens. 

Huillard-BrehoUes,  u-e'ltR'  bR^'oK,  (J.  L.  Al- 
PHONsp:,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  181 7, 
published,  with  M.  E.  Ruelle,  a  "  History  of  the  Middle 
Ages,"  (2  vols.,  1843.) 

Hulaku  or  Hulakoo.    See  Hoolakoo. 

Huldericus.    See  Huldrich. 

Huldrich,  hoolt'riK,  [Lat.  Hulderi'cus,]  (Johann 
Jacob,)  a  Swiss  divine,  born  at  Zurich  in  1683,  was  a 
professor  of  law  in  the  university  of  that  town.  He 
published  a  few  religious  works,  and  "  Miscellanea  Tigu- 
rina,"  (3  vols.,  1722.)    Died  in-  1731. 

See  ZiMMERMANN,  "  Vita  Hulderici,"  1732. 

Hulin  or  Hullin,  //ii'l^N',  (Pierre  Augustin,)  a 
French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1758.  He  became 
general  of  brigade  in  1804,  commandant  at  Vienna  in 
1805,  and  in  1807  general  of  division.    He  had  the  chief 


command  at  Paris  when  the  conspirator  Malet  made  his 
daring  attempt  in  181 2,  and  was  shot  in  the  face  by 
Malet.    He  was  banished  in  181 5.    Died  in  1841. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Hull,( Edward,)  an  English  geologist,  born  about  1810, 
published  several  works  on  the  geology  of  Great  Britain. 

Hull,  (Isaac,)  an  American  commodore,  born  in 
Derby,  Connecticut,  in  1775.  He  distinguished  himself 
in  the  war  with  Tripoli,  (1804-5,)  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  captain  in  1806,  and  at  the  commencement  of  the 
war  of  1812  was  in  command  of  the  frigate  Constitution. 
In  July  of  the  same  year,  while  cruising  off  New  York, 
he  fell  in  with  a  British  squadron,  which  pursued  him  in 
hot  chase  for  three  days  and  nights,  but  which,  by  his 
skill  in  seamanship,  he  managed  to  escape.  On  August 
19  following,  he  captured,  after  a  close  action  of  thirty 
minutes,  the  British  frigate  Guerriere,  Captain  Dacres, 
with  the  loss  of  only  fourteen  in  killed  and  wounded, 
while  that  of  the  Guerriere  was  seventy-nine.  This  was 
the  first  naval  action  after  the  declaration  of  war;  and 
in  acknowledgment  of  Captain  Hull's  distinguished  ser- 
vices Congress  presented  him  with  a  gold  medal.  He 
subsequently  commanded  the  United  States  squadron 
in  the  Pacific  and  in  the  Mediterranean.  Died  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1843. 

Hull,  (Thomas,)  an  English  actor  and  poet,  born  in 
London  in  1728,  composed  and  altered  numerous  plays. 
Plis  most  popular  poem  is  "  Richard  Plantagenet,"  a 
legendary  tale,  (1774.)    Died  in  1808. 

Hull,  (William,)  an  officer  in  the  American  Revolu- 
tion, born  in  Derby,  Connecticut,  in  1753.  joined 
the  Revolutionary  army  at  Cambridge  at  the  head  of  a 
company  of  volunteers  in  1775.  He  took  part  in  many 
of  the  battles  of  the  war,  and  for  his  gallant  services  in 
conducting  the  expedition  against  Morrisiana  he  was 
honoured  with  a  vote  of  thanks  by  Congress.  After  the 
war  he  became  a  major-general  in  the  Massachusetts 
militia,  and  in  1805  was  appointed  by  Jefferson  Governor 
of  the  Territory  of  Michigan.  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  second  war  with  Great  Britain,  in  1812,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  Northwestern  army ;  and 
in  August  of  the  same  year  he  surrendered  with  2000 
troops  to  the  British  under  General  Brock,  at  Detroit. 
For  this  act  he  was  tried  by  court-martial,  in  1814,  and 
sentenced  to  be  shot.  President  Madison  approved  the 
sentence,  but  remitted  its  execution  in  consideration  of 
General  Hull's  age  and  services  in  the  Revolution.  He 
published  a  defence  of  himself  before  the  court-martial, 
(1814.)    Died  in  1825. 

See,  also,  "  Life  and  Services  of  General  W.  Hull,"  by  his  daugh- 
ter, Maria  Campbell,  1848. 

HuFlah,  (John  Pyke,)  an  English  composer  and 
popular  teacher  of  music,  was  born  in  1812.  He  com- 
posed the  music  of  Dickens's  comic  opera  "  The  Vil- 
lage Coquettes,"  (1836.)  About  1840  he  introduced  a 
new  system  of  instruction  in  vocal  music,  which  was 
very  successful.  He  became  professor  of  vocal  music  in 
King's  College,  London,  in  1844. 

Hullin.    See  Hulin. 

HuU'man'del,  (Charles  Joseph,)  an  excellent  lith- 
ographer, born  in  London  in  1789.  He  made  several 
improvements  in  the  art  of  lithography,  and  invented 
the  process  of  lithotint.  He  published,  in  1824,  "The 
Art  of  Drawing  on  Stone."    Died  in  1850. 

Hiillmann  or  Huellmanu,  hul'mdn,  (Karl  Die- 
trich,) a  German  historian  and  antiquary,  born  at  Erde- 
born  in  1765,  became  a  professor  at  Bonn.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Origin  of  Ranks 
or  Orders  (Stdnde)  in  Germany,"  (3  vols.,  1808,)  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Commerce  of  the  Greeks,"  (1839.) 
Died  in  1846. 

HuFIock,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in  the 
county  of  Durham  about  1764,  practised  in  London  with 
success,  and  was  made  one  of  the  barons  in  the  ex- 
chequer court  in  1823.    Died  in  1829. 

Hulls,  (Jonathan,)  an  English  mechanician  and  in- 
ventor, obtained  in  1736  a  patent  for  a  "machine  for 
carrying  ships  out  of,  or  into,  any  harbour  against  wind 
and  tide."  This  machine  was  to  be  moved  by  steam- 
power,  but  failed  because  he  did  not  use  the  proper 
means  to  transfer  the  motion  from  the  piston  to  the  axle. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  lojig;  \  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^U,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HULOT 


1225 


HUMBOLDT 


Hulot,  //ii'lo',  (Henrt,)  a  French  lawyer,  born  in 
Paris  in  1732,  translated  into  French  fifty  books  of  Jus- 
tinian's Pandects,  (7  vols.,  1803.)    Died  in  1775. 

Hulse,  hulss,  (Rev.  John,)  born  at  Middlewich,  Eng- 
land, in  1708,  founded  the  Hulsean  Lecture  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge,  in  which  he  had  graduated.  Died 
in  1790. 

Hulsemann,  hool'seh-mJn',(JoHANN,)  a  learned  Ger- 
man Lutheran  divine,  born  at  Essen  in  1602,  was  professor 
of  divinity  at  Leipsic.    Died  in  1661. 

Hulsius,  hiiKse-us,  (Antoon,)  a  Protestant  scholar 
and  theologian,  born  in  16 15,  became  professor  of  divinity 
and  Oriental  languages  at  Leyden.    Died  in  1685. 

Hulsius,  (Hendrik,)  a  theological  writer,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Breda  in  1654;  died  in  1723. 

Hulst,  van  der,  vtn  der  hiilst,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Dort  in  1652,  was  successful  in  painting 
flowers,  fruits,  etc.  He  studied  or  worked  in  Rome. 
Died  in  1708. 

Hulthem,  van,  vtn  huKtem,  (Charles  Joseph 
Emanuel,)  a  Belgian  bibliomaniac,  born  at  Ghent  in 
1764.  He  made  a  vast  collection  of  books,  manuscripts, 
etc.,  which  were  purchased  by  the  Belgian  government 
for  279,400  francs.  Died  in  1832.  A  catalogue  of  his 
library  was  published  in  6  vols.,  1836. 

Hultz,  hdolts,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  architect,  of  whom 
little  is  known.  The  completion  of  the  great  tower  of 
the  cathedral  of  Cologne  is  ascribed  to  him.  It  was 
.finished  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

Humann,  h\x'mhV,  (Jean  Georges,)  a  French  finan- 
cier, born  at  Strasburg  in  1780,  became  minister  of 
finance  in  1832  ;  died  in  1842. 

Humayun.    See  Hoomayoon. 

Humbert,  /AiN''baiR',  a  French  Dominican  monk  and 
writer,  born  at  Romans  about  1200  ;  died  in  1277. 

Hum'bert,  Cardinal,  an  eminent  French  Benedic- 
tine monk,  born  in  Burgundy  ;  died  about  1063. 

Humbert,  /niN'baiR',  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  Orientalist, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1792,  published,  besides  other  works, 
an  "Arabian  Anthology,"  with  French  versions,  (1819.) 
Died  in  1851. 

Humbert,  (Joseph  Amablf.,)  a  French  general,  born 
of  humble  parents  at  Rouvray,  in  Lorraine,  about  1760. 
Having  a  fine  figure,  a  pleasing  address,  and  great  au- 
dacity, he  was  rapidly  promoted,  and  in  1795,  as  general 
of  brigade,  served  under  Hoche  against  the  Vendean 
royalists.  In  1798,  as  general  of  division,  he  commanded 
the  army  of  about  1500  men  which  invaded  Ireland, 
where,  after  gaining  a  victory  over  General  Lake,  he  was 
forced  to  surrender  to  Lord  Cornwallis.  In  1802  he  was 
employed  in  the  expedition  to  Hayti  under  Leclerc,  at 
whose  death  he  returned  to  France  in  company  with 
Pauline,  the  widow  of  Leclerc,  and  sister  of  Bonaparte. 
By  aspiring  to  her  hand  he  offended  the  First  Consul. 
He  consulted  his  safety  by  emigrating  to  the  United 
States,  where  he  lived  in  obscurity.  Died  at  New  Or- 
leans in  1823, 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  Generale." 

Humboldt,  hiim'bolt,  von,  [Ger.  pron.  fon  hoom'- 
bolt,]  (Friedrich  Heinrich  Alexander,)  Baron,  an 
illustrious  German  savant  and  traveller,  born  in  Berlin 
on  the  14th  of  September,  1769.  He  was  a  son  of  Major 
von  Humboldt,  who  served  as  adjutant  or  aide-de-camp 
to  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  In 
1786  he  entered  the  University  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
where  he  studied  natural  science  and  political  economy. 
He  became  a  pupil  of  Heyne,  Blumenbach,  and  Eich- 
horn,  at  Gottingen,  in  1788.  In  1790  he  travelled  in 
France,  Holland,  and  England,  and  published  a  treatise 
"On  the  Basalts  of  the  Rhine."  He  studied  mineralogy 
under  Werner  at  Freiberg  in  1 791,  and  was  appointed 
director-general  of  the  mines  of  Anspach  and  Baireuth 
in  1792.  He  published  in  1792  a  work  on  subterranean 
plants,  "  Specimen  Floras  subterraneas  Fribergensis."  At 
an  early  age  he  cherished  a  passion  to  visit  far-distant  and 
unexplored  regions  of  the  globe.  With  this  view  he  re- 
signed his  office  about  1796,  and  passed  some  time  at  Jena, 
where  he  formed  friendships  with  Goethe  and  Schiller. 
His  reputation  was  extended  by  a  treatise  "  On  the  Irri- 
tability of  Muscles  and  Nervous  Fibres,"  (1797.)  Several 


of  his  projects  for  undertaking  a  voyage  of  discovery 
were  frustrated  by  the  wars  that  followed  the  French 
Revolution.  At  length,  in  June,  1799,  he  joined  Aime 
Bonpland  in  a  voyage  to  South  America.  They  spent 
about  four  years  in  the  exploration  of  the  northern 
part  of  South  America,  especially  those  portions  which 
are  drained  by  the  Oronoco  and  the  Rio  Negro.  They 
ascended  the  Magdalena  as  far  as  they  could  by  water, 
and  penetrated  by  land  to  Quito.  In  June,  1802,  they 
ascended  Chimborazo  to  a  point  nineteen  thousand  feet 
or  more  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  highest  point  of 
the  Andes  ever  reached  by  man.  They  passed  nearly  a 
year  in  the  exploration  of  Mexico,  visited  the  United 
States,  and  returned  to  Europe  in  July,  1804,  with  rich 
collections  of  plants,  animals,  and  minerals.  Humboldt 
became  a  resident  of  Paris,  where  he  remained  about 
twenty  years,  the  greater  part  of  which  he  spent  in  digest- 
ing and  publishing  the  results  of  his  observations.  In 
this  task  he  was  assisted  by  Bonpland,  Cuvier,  Oltmanns, 
Arago,  Kunth,  and  others.  Between  1807  and  1817  they 
published,  in  French,  a  "Journey  to  the  Equinoctial 
Regions  of  the  New  Continent,"  (3  vols.,)  "Astronomical 
Observations  and  Measurements  by  the  Barometer,"  (2 
vols.,  1808-10,)  a  "View  of  the  Cordilleras,  and  Monu- 
ments of  the  Indigenous  Peoples  of  America,"  (1810,)  a 
"  Collection  of  Observations  on  Zoology  and  Compara- 
tive Anatomy,"  (2  vols.,)  a  "  Political  Essay  on  the 
Kingdom  of  New  Spain,"  (2  vols.,  181 1,)  and  "General 
Physics  and  Geology."  He  made  an  important  con- 
tribution to  botanical  geography  by  his  Latin  work  "  On 
the  Geographical  Distribution  of  Plants  according  to 
the  Temperature  and  Altitude,"  (181 7.)  His  botanical 
collections  were  classed  and  described  by  S.  Kunth  in  a 
work  entitled  "Nova  Genera  et  Species  Plantarum  quas 
in  Peregrinatione  ad  Plagam  aequinoctialem  Orbis  novi 
collegerunt  A.  Bonpland  et  A.  de  Humboldt,"'  (7  vols., 
1815-25.)  An  English  translation  of  his  "  Personal  Nar- 
rative of  Travels"  was  made  by  Helen  Maria  Williams, 
(5  vols.,  1814-21.)  In  1810  he  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  French  Institute  in  place  of  Cavendish.  He  removed 
to  Berlin  in  1826,  and  received,  with  the  title  of  coun- 
cillor, many  marks  of  royal  favour.  At  the  request  of 
Nicholas,  Emperor  of  Russia,  and  at  his  expense,  Hum- 
boldt, Ehrenberg,  and  Rose  made  in  1829  a  scientific 
exploration  of  Asiatic  Russia.  Among  the  results  of  this 
extensive  expedition  was  an  excellent  work  by  Hum- 
boldt, entitled  "  Central  Asia  :  Researches  on  the  Chains 
of  Mountains  and  the  Comparative  Climatology,"  (3 
vols.,  1843.)  He  was  sent  to  Paris  on  several  political 
missions  by  the  King  of  Prussia  between  1830  and  1848. 
He  published  a  "  Critical  Examination  of  the  Geography 
of  the  New  Continent,"  (5  vols.,  1835-38.)  When  he 
was  more  than  seventy-four  years  old,  he  composed  his 
celebrated  work  entitled  "  Kosmos  ;  Entwurf  einer  phy- 
sischen  Weltbeschreibung,"  ("  Cosmos  ;  Essay  of  a  Phys- 
ical Description  of  the  Universe,")  the  first  volume  of 
which  appeared  in  1845,  ^""^  t^"*^  fourth  in  1858.  "The 
first  volume,"  says  the  author,  "contains  a  general  view 
of  nature,  from  the  remotest  nebulae  and  revolving 
double  stars  to  the  terrestrial  phenomena  of  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  plants,  of  animals,  and  of  races 
of  men, — preceded  by  some  preliminary  considerations 
on  the  different  degrees  of  enjoyment  offered  by  the 
study  of  nature  and  the  knowledge  of  her  laws,  and  on 
the  limits  and  method  of  a  scientific  exposition  of  the 
physical  description  of  the  universe."  "The  author  of 
the  remarkable  book  before  us,"  says  the  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  January,  1848,  "is  assuredly  the  person  in 
all  Europe  best  fitted  to  undertake  and  accomplish  such 
a  work.  Science  has  produced  no  man  of  more  rich  and 
varied  attainments,  more  versatile  in  genius,  more  inde- 
fatigable in  application  to  all  kinds  of  learning,  more 
energetic  in  action,  or  more  ardent  in  inquiry,  and,  we 
may  add,  more  entirely  devoted  to  her  cause  in  every 
period  of  a  long  life.  At  every  epoch  of  that  life,  from 
a  comparatively  early  age,  he  has  been  constantly  before 
the  public,  realizing  the  ideal  conception  of  a  perfect 
traveller  ;  a  character  which  calls  for  almost  as  great  a 
variety  of  excellences  as  those  which  go  to  realize  Cicero's 
idea  of  a  perfect  orator.  .  .  .  Above  all  things  is  neces- 
sary a  genial  and  kindly  temperament,  which  excites  no 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HUMBOLDT 


1 226 


HUME 


enmities,  but,  on  the  contrary,  finds  or  makes  friends 
everywhere.  No  man  in  the  ranks  of  science  is  more 
distinguished  for  this  last  characteristic  than  Baron  von 
Humboldt.  We  believe  that  he  has  not  an  enemy." 
The  "  Kosmos"  has  been  translated  into  French  by  H. 
Faye  and  Ch,  Galusky,  (1848-57,)  and  into  English  by 
Mrs.  Sabine.  He  received  from  the  French  government 
the  title  of  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour,  and 
was  a  member  of  all  the  principal  Academies  of  the 
world.  Among  his  other  works  is  "Aspects  of  Nature," 
('*  Ansichten  der  Natur,"  1808;  3d  edition,  2  vols.,  1849.) 
He  died  in  Berlin,  May  6,  1859,  in  his  ninetieth  year. 

See  Juliette  Bauer,  "  Lives  of  the  Brothers  Humboldt,"  Lon- 
don, 1852;  H.  Klencke  or  Kletke,  "A.  von  Humboldt;  ein  bio- 
graphisches  Denkmal,"  1852 ;  Review  of  the  "  Kosmos"  in  the  "  Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review,"  vol.  Ixxvii. ;  R.  H.  Stoddard,  "  Life  of 
Alexander  von  Humboldt,"  New  York,  1S59  ;  Agassiz,  "  Eulogy  on 
Humboldt"  in  the  "Living  Age"  for  October  2,  1869;  Pruvs  van 
DER  HoEVEN,  "A.  vou  Humboldt,  Interpres  Naturae,"  1845;  "Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review"  for  January  and  July,  1816,  October,  1817, 
April,  1S19,  July,  1821,  December,  1845,  and  January,  1854:  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  June,  1815;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February, 
1848. 

Humboldt,  von,  (Karl  Wilhelm,)  Baron,  a  cele- 
brated German  philologist  and  statesman,  born  at  Pots- 
dam on  the  22d  of  June,  1767,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  His  early  education  was  directed  by  Joachim 
Campe,  a  distinguished  philanthropist.  About  1788  he 
entered  the  University  of  Gottingen,  where  he  studied 
philology  under  G.  Heyne.  Among  the  intimate  friends 
of  his  youth  was  George  Forster,  the  traveller.  In  July, 
1789,  he  visited  Paris,  and  hailed  with  enthusiasm  the 
advent  of  the  new  regime.  He  afterwards  studied  at 
Jena,  and  there  formed  an  intimate  and  lasting  friendship 
with  the  poet  Schiller,  who  encouraged  and  directed  him 
in  his  literary  pursuits.  Humboldt  became  also  the  friend 
and  literary  counsellor  of  Goethe.  About  1791  he  mar- 
ried Caroline  von  Dachenroden.  Among  his  early  works 
was  an  excellent  "  Essay  on  the  Greeks,"  (1792.)  In  1799 
he  produced  an  admirable  critical  essay  on  Goethe's 
"Hermann  and  Dorothea,"  which  established  his  repu- 
tation as  a  critic.  He  was  appointed  minister  to  Rome 
by  the  King  of  Prussia  about  1802,  and  soon  after  that 
date  produced  a  poem  entitled  "  Rome,"  ("  Rom.")  He 
returned  to  Prussia  in  1808,  and  was  appointed  minister 
of  public  instruction  about  the  end  of  that  year.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  foundation  of  the  University 
of  Berlin.  About  1810  he  resigned  his  office,  and  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Vienna.  While  thus  employed  in  the 
public  service,  he  devoted  his  leisure  time  to  the  study  of 
languages,  in  many  of  which  he  was  profoundly  versed. 
He  acquired  distinction  as  a  diplomatist,  and  induced 
Austria  to  join  the  coalition  against  Napoleon  in  August, 
1813.  He  represented  Prussia  at  the  Conference  of 
Chatillon  and  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  1814.  Talley- 
rand's opinion  of  him  is  said  to  have  been  expressed  in 
these  words  :  *'  Europe  does  not  possess  three  statesmen 
of  such  power,"  ("  L'Europe  n'a  pas  trois  hommes  d'etat 
de  cette  force.")  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  London 
about  1816,  and  was  appointed  minister  and  privy  coun- 
cillor at  Berlin  in  1819.  He  advocated  a  liberal  constitu- 
tion, and,  when  he  found  that  the  king  was  determined  to 
adopt  a  reactionary  policy,  he  resigned  his  office  about 
the  end  of  1819,  after  which  he  took  no  part  in  political 
affairs.  He  composed  numerous  poems,  the  most  of 
which  remained  in  manuscript  until  his  death,  and  many 
treatises  on  language,  philology,  etc.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  are  an  "Essay  on  the  New  French  Consti- 
tution," (1792,)  a  metrical  translation  of  the  "Agamem- 
non" of  ^schylus,  (1816,)  which  is  highly  commended, 
"Researches  on  the  Aborigines  of  Spain  by  Means  of 
the  Basque  Language,"  (1821,)  and  a  "  Memoir  on  Com- 
parative Linguistic."  He  was  one  of  the  greatest  philoso- 
phers and  critics  of  his  time,  and  has  been  called  the 
creator  of  comparative  philology.  The  interesting  corre- 
spondence between  Schiller  and  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt 
was  published  in  1830.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he 
devoted  his  attention  to  the  study  of  the  languages  of 
barbarous  tribes  of  America  and  Asia.  He  died  at 
Tegel,  near  Berlin,  April  8,  1835,  leaving  unfinished  an 
extensive  and  excellent  work,  entitled  "On  the  Kawi 
Language  in  the  Island  of  Java,"  ("  Ueber  die  Kawi 
Sprache  auf  der  Insel  Java,")  which  was  published  in 


1836.  His  works  were  collected  and  edited  by  his 
brother  Alexander,  under  the  title  of  "  Wilhelm  von 
Humboldts  Gesammelte  Werke,"  (4  vols.,  1841-52.) 

See  Gustav  Schlrsier,  "Wilhelm  von  Humboldts  Leben ;" 
Klencke,  "W.  von  Humboldts  Leben,"  (translated  into  English 
by  Juliette  Bauer  in  1852;)  Schlesier,  "  Erinnerungen  an  Wil- 
helm von  Humboldt,"  2  vols.,  1843-45;  Robert  Havm,  "Wilhelm 
von  Humboldt  Lebensbild  und  Charakteristik,"  1856;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1842;  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  April,  1868. 

Hume,  (Rev.  Abraham,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
about  1 81 5.  He  became  incumbent  of  a  parish  in  Liver- 
pool about  1846,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  promoter 
of  education.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "The 
Learned  Societies  and  Printing-Clubs  of  the  United 
Kingdom,"  (1847.) 

Hume,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  minister, 
born  about  1560,  preached  at  Logic.  He  published  a 
volume  of  "  Hymns  or  Sacred  Songs,"  which  were  ad- 
mired, especially  the  "  Day  Estival."    Died  in  1609. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Hume  or  Home,  (David,)  of  Godscroft,  a  Scottish 
minister  and  writer,  supposed  to  have  been  born  about 
1560.  He  preached  some  years  in  France.  He  wrote 
some  Latin  poems,  "Apologia  Basilica,"  ("Apology  or 
Defence  of  the  King,"  1626,)  and  "The  History  of  the 
House  and  Race  of  Douglas  and  Angus,"  (1644.) 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen.' 

Hume,  (David,)  an  eminent  English  historian  and 
philosopher,  born  in  Edinburgh  on  the  26th  of  April, 
1 7 II.  He  was  a  younger  son  of  Joseph  Hume  or  Home, 
who,  though  related  to  the  Earl  of  Home,  was  not 
wealthy.  In  his  Autobiography  he  says,  "  My  studious 
disposition,  my  sobriety,  and  my  industry  gave  my  family 
a  notion  that  the  law  was  a  proper  profession  for  me  ; 
but  I  found  an  insurmountable  aversion  to  everything 
but  the  pursuits  of  philosophy  and  general  learning  ; 
and,  while  they  fancied  I  was  poring  upon  Voet  and 
Vinnius,  Cicero  and  Virgil  were  the  authors  which  I 
was  secretly  devouring."  For  the  sake  of  economy,  he 
went  to  France  in  1734  or  1 735,  and  spent  about  two  years 
at  Rheims  and  La  Fleche,  where  he  wrote  his  "Treatise 
on  Human  Nature."  This  was  published  in  London  in 
1738,  but  was  treated  with  discouraging  neglect.  He 
says  himself,  "  It  fell  from  the  press  without  reaching 
such  distinction  as  even  to  excite  a  murmur  among  the 
zealots,"  Mackintosh  calls  this  work  "  the  first  systematic 
attack  on  all  the  principles  of  knowledge  and  belief,  and 
the  most  formidable,  if  universal  skepticism  could  ever 
be  more  than  a  mere  exercise  of  ingenuity."  He  passed 
several  ensuing  years  in  Scotland  in  his  favourite  studies, 
and  issued  in  1742  the  first  part  of  his  "Essays,  Moral, 
Political,  and  Literary,"  which  was  moderately  successful. 
These  contain  new,  ingenious,  and  suggestive  ideas  on 
commerce,  political  economy,  and  other  subjects. 

In  1746  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  General  Saint 
Clair,  with  whom  he  passed  two  years  on  the  continent. 
Returning  to  his  brother's  residence  in  Scotland,  he 
composed  an  "  Enquiry  concerning  the  Principles  of 
Morals,"  and  the  second  part  of  his  Essays,  which  ap- 
peared in  1752,  with  the  title  of  "  Political  Discourses," 
The  latter  of  these  was  received  with  favour  abroad  and 
at  home,  while  the  other  was  scarcely  noticed.  About 
this  time  he  commenced  his  most  celebrated  work,  the 
"  History  of  England,"  the  first  volume  of  which  (com- 
prising the  reigns  of  James  I,  and  Charles  I.)  was  pub- 
lished in  1754.  He  describes  its  reception  in  these 
terms  :  "  I  was  assailed  by  one  cry  of  reproach,  disap- 
probation, and  even  detestation  :  English,  Scotch,  and 
Irish,  Whig  and  Tory,  churchman  and  sectary,  free- 
thinker and  religionist,  patriot  and  courtier,  united  their 
rage  against  the  man  who  had  presumed  to  shed  a  gene- 
rous tear  for  the  fate  of  Charles  1.  and  the  Earl  of  Straf- 
ford ;  and  after  the  first  ebullitions  of  their  fury  were 
over,  what  was  still  more  mortifying,  the  book  seemed 
to  sink  into  oblivion,  Mr.  Millar  told  me  that  in  a 
twelvemonth  he  sold  only  forty-five  copies  of  it."  The 
subsequent  volumes,  however,  were  better  appreciated, 
and  the  whole  work  became  very  popular  and  raised 
the  author  to  affluence.  The  last  volume  was  published 
in  1 761.  His  style  is  generally  admired,  as  graceful, 
natural,  and  perspicuous.    But  the  value  of  his  history 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, !,  6,  u,  ^,  short;  a,    i,  9,  obscure;  dx,  flll,  f^t;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon, 


HUME 


1227 


HUMPHREY 


IS  materially  lessened  by  his  partiality  and  inaccuracy. 
He  was,  as  a  skeptic,  prejudiced  against  religion,  and 
in  civil  government  was  inclined  to  favour  prerogative. 
He  is  not  profoundly  versed  in  the  philosophy  of  history, 
or  in  the  progressive  development  of  the  British  con- 
stitution. "  He  was  far  too  indolent,"  says  Alison,  "  to 
acquire  the  vast  stores  of  facts  indispensable  for  correct 
generalization  on  the  varied  theatre  of  human  affairs." 
Macaulay  compares  him  to  "  an  accomplished  advocate, 
whose  insidious  candour  only  increases  the  effect  of  his 
vast  mass  of  sophistry." 

Respecting  his  merits  as  a  political  economist.  Lord 
Brougham  says,  "  Of  the  '  Political  Discourses'  it  would 
be  difficult  to  speak  in  terms  of  too  great  commendation. 
They  combine  almost  every  excellence  which  can  belong 
to  such  a  performance.  The  great  merit,  however,  of 
these  discourses  is  their  originality."  In  1763  Hume 
accepted  the  office  of  secretary  to  the  Earl  of  Hertford, 
ambassador  to  Paris,  and  having  returned  in  1766,  much 
delighted  by  the  caresses  of  the  Parisians,  he  was  em- 
ployed two  years  as  under-secretary  of  state.  In  1769  he 
retired  from  office,  and,  with  an  income  of  ;^ioooa  year, 
took  up  his  residence  in  Edinburgh,  where  he  died  in  Au- 
gust, 1776.  Besides  the  works  above  named,  he  wrote  the 
"Natural  History  of  Religion,"  (1755,)  and  "Dialogues 
concerning  Natural  Religion,"  (1783.)  He  was  never 
married.  His  personal  character  appears  to  have  been 
amiable  and  respectable  on  the  score  of  morality.  "  The 
Life  of  Mr.  Hume,"  says  Mackintosh,  "  written  by  himself, 
is  remarkable  above  most,  if  not  all,  writings  of  that  sort 
for  hitting  the  degree  of  interest  between  coldness  and 
egotism  which  becomes  a  modest  man  in  speaking  of 
his  private  history.  Few  writers,  whose  opinions  were 
so  obnoxious,  have  more  perfectly  escaped  every  per- 
sonal imputation." 

See  Hume's  "Autobiography,"  1777;  David  Dalrvmple,  "Life 
of  D.  Hume,"  1787;  John  Hill  Burton,  "Life  and  Correspond- 
ence of  D.  Hume,"  2  vols.,  1846;  T.  E.  Ritchie,  "Account  of  the 
Life  and  Writings  of  D.  Hume,"  1807;  Mackintosh,  "  Progress  of 
Ethical  Philosophy,"  i  vol.  8vo ;  Brenner,  "Das  Genie  des  Herrn 
Hume,"  etc.,  1774;  Brougham,  "  Lives  of  Men  of  Letters  of  the 
Time  of  George  IIL;"  R.  Pratt,  "Apology  for  the  Life  of  D. 
Hume,"  1777;  Macaulay,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chap, 
xix.  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1847;  "Quarterly  Review" 
for  March,  1844,  and  June,  1S46;  "  Historical  Sketches  of  the  Times 
of  George  IL,"  in  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  June,  1869  ;  "West- 
minster Review"  for  September,  1846;  also,  an  elaborate  article  on 
Hume  in  Allibone's  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Hume,  (David,)  an  able  Scottish  lawyer,  born  in 
1756,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  was  professor 
of  Scottish  law  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  a 
baron  of  the  court  of  exchequer.  He  wrote  a  valuable 
legal  text-book,  entitled  "Commentaries  on  the  Law  of 
Scotland  respecting  the  Description  and  Punishment  of 
Crimes,"  (1797.)    Died  in  1838. 

Hume,  (Grizel,)  a  Scottish  heroine,  born  in  1665, 
was  a  daughter  of  Sir  Patrick,  noticed  below.  She 
endured  much  hardship  in  efforts  to  conceal  her  father 
from  his  pursuers,  and  attended  him  in  exile.  In  1690 
she  was  married  to  Mr.  Bail  lie.  She  wrote  poetry  which 
is  admired.    Died  in  1746. 

See  a  Memoir  of  her  life,  by  her  daughter.  Lady  Murray. 

Hume,  (Hugh  Campbell,)  third  Earl  of  Marchmont, 
born  in  1708,  was  a  grandson  of  Patrick,  the  first  Earl. 
He  acted  a  prominent  part  in  Parliament  as  an  opponent 
of  Walpole,  and  was  keeper  of  the  great  seal  of  Scot- 
land from  1764  to  1794.  Died  in  1794,  without  male 
issue. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Hume,  (Tames  Deacon,)  an  English  financier,  born 
at  Newington  in  1774,  obtained  in  1790  a  clerkship  in  the 
London  custom-house.  Having  given  proof  of  ability 
and  energy  in  responsible  positions,  he  was  employed 
in  1823  in  the  arduous  task  of  simplifying  and  reducing 
to  order  the  multitude  of  discordant  statutes  by  which 
the  transactions  of  the  custom-house  were  complicated 
and  perplexed.  For  this  important  service  he  received 
from  government  a  present  of  five  thousand  pounds,  and 
in  1829  he  was  appointed  assistant  secretary  of  the  board 
of  trade.    He  resigned  in  1840,  and  died  in  1842. 

See  Badham,  "Life  of  J.  D.  Hume." 

Hume,  (Joseph,)  M.P.,  a  British  statesman  of  the 
Radical  party,  was  born  at  Montrose,  Scotland,  in  1777. 


Having  studied  surgery,  he  entered  as  suigeon  the  ser- 
vice of  the  East  India  Company  in  1797.  He  learned 
the  native  languages  of  India,  and,  by  combining  the 
functions  of  interpreter  and  paymaster  with  those  of 
army-surgeon,  he  acquired  a  handsome  competence,  and 
returned  home  in  1808.  By  a  careful  study  of  the  na- 
tional resources  and  the  condition  of  the  people,  he  pre- 
pared himself  for  the  task  of  a  legislator  and  reformer, 
and  entered  Parliament  in  1812.  From  i8i8  to  1830  he 
represented  Montrose  in  Parliament,  where  he  gained 
great  distinction  by  his  industry  and  independence  and 
by  his  important  services  to  the  working-classes.  He 
was  for  many  years  pre-eminent  in  the  House  as  a  finan- 
cial reformer  and  a  sturdy  opponent  of  monopolies  and 
high  taxes.  He  declined  political  preferment  on  several 
occasions,  and  continued  to  serve  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons until  his  death,  in  1855. 

See  Harriet  Martineau,  "History  of  Thirty  Years'  Peace;" 
"Biographical  Sketches,"  by  the  same,  London,  1869. 

Hume,  (Sir  Patrick,)  Earl  of  Marchmont,  a  Scottish 
patriot,  was  born  in  1641.  He  was  persecuted  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.,  and  escaped  to  Holland  in  1684. 
Having  returned  in  1688,  he  was  made  lord  chancellor 
in  1696,  and  Earl  of  Marchmont.    Died  in  1724. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England  ;"  Chambers,  "Biographi- 
cal Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Hume,  (Patrick,)  a  Scottish  critic,  who  taught  school 
in  London.  He  published  in  1695  "  Annotations  on  Mil- 
ton's Paradise  Lost,"  which  was  the  first  attempt  to 
illustrate  that  author,  and  was  commended  by  Bishop 
Newton.  His  critical  labours  have  been  appropriated 
by  later  commentators.  According  to  "Blackwood's 
Magazine,"  Hume  is  "the  father  of  that  style  of  com- 
parative criticism  which  has  been  so  much  employed 
during  these  later  days  in  illustrating  the  works  of  our 
great  poet." 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Humieres,  d',  dii^iie-aiR',  (Louis  de  Crevant — 
deh  kReh-v6N',)  Due,  a  French  general  and  courtier  of 
Louis  XIV.,  was  created  marshal  in  1668,  and  com- 
manded the  right  wing  at  the  victory  of  Cassel,  in  1677. 
He  commanded  the  army  in  Flanders  which  was  de- 
feated by  Waldeck  in  1689.    Died  in  1694. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Sismondi,  "Histoire 
des  Frangais." 

Hummel,  hdom'mel,  (Johann  Erdmann,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Cassel  about  1770.  He  worked  in  Ber- 
lin, and  became  in  1809  professor  of  perspective,  etc.  in 
the  Royal  Academy  of  that  city.    Died  in  1827. 

Hummel,  hdom'mel,  (Johann  Nepomuk,)  an  excel- 
lent composer  and  pianist,  born  at  Presburg,  Hungary, 
in  1778.  About  the  age  of  eight  he  becaine  a  pupil  of 
Mozart  in  Vienna,  and  at  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  ac- 
counted one  of  the  most  skilful  performers  in  Germany. 
He  entered  the  service  of  Prince  Esterhazy  in  1803,  and 
became  chapel-master  to  the  King  of  WUrtemberg  in 
1816.  He  was  chapel-master  to  the  Duke  of  Weimar 
from  1 81 8  until  his  death,  during  which  period  he 
performed  with  applause  in  London,  Paris,  and  Saint 
Petersburg.  Among  his  best  works  are  concertos  and 
sonatas  for  the  piano.    Died  in  1837. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Hummelius,  h^m-ma'le-iis,  or  Hummel,  (Johann,) 
a  Gennan  mathematician,  born  at  Memmingen  in  15 18, 
was  professor  at  Leipsic.    Died  in  1562. 

Humphrey,  hum''fre,*  (Heman,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  born  in  Simsbury,  Connecticut,  in  1779.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1805.  He  was  six  years  minister 
in  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts.  He  became  president  of 
Amherst  College  in  1823,  and  was  succeeded  in  that 
office  by  Dr.  Edward  Hitchcock  in  1845,  when  he  re- 
moved to  Pittsfield.  He  wrote  several  valuable  works, 
among  which  are  a  "Tour  in  France,  Great  Britain,  and 
Belgium,"  (2  vols.,  1838,)  "  Domestic  Education,"  (1840,) 
and  "  Letters  to  a  Son  in  the  Ministry,"  (1845.)  Died 
in  1859. 


*  This  name  is  pronounced  differently  in  different  parts  of  the 
United  States:  some  families  writing  their  names  Humphrey  or 
Humphreys  always  omit  the  initial  h  in  pronunciation. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Y.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HUMPHRET 


1228 


HUNT 


Humphrey,  hum'fre,  (Lawrence,)  an  English  Cal- 
vinistic  divine,  born  at  Newport- Pagnel  about  1527. 
In  1555  he  retired  to  Zurich  to  escape  persecution,  and 
returned  after  the  death  of  Queen  Mary.  He  became 
professor  of  divinity  in  Oxford  in  1560,  and  Dean  of 
Winchester  in  1580.  He  published  several  able  theo- 
logical works.    Died  about  1590. 

Humphrey  or  Humphry,  (Ozias,)  R.A.,  an  English 
portrait-painter,  born  at  Honiton  in  1743,  settled  in  Lon- 
don in  1763.  He  painted  a  miniature  for  the  queen,  was 
received  into  the  Royal  Academy,  and  rose  to  eminence 
in  his  branch  of  art.    Died  in  i8ro. 

Humphreys,  hiim'fr^z,*  (Andrew  A.,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  Pennsylvania  about  181 2.  He  became 
a  brigadier-general  about  April,  1862,  and  commanded 
a  division  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863.  He  commanded 
a  corps  in  the  battles  near  Petersburg,  February-April, 
1865. 

Humphreys,  (David,)  an  American  poet,  born  in 
Derby,  Connecticut,  in  1753.  He  entered  the  army 
about  1776,  and  became  in  1780  a  colonel  and  aide-de- 
camp to  General  Washington.  In  1784  he  went  to 
Europe  with  Jefferson,  as  secretary  of  legation.  He 
aided  Barlow  and  other  poets  in  "The  Anarchiad,"  and 
wrote  other  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Poem  on  the 
Happiness  of  America,"  and  an  "  Address  to  the  Armies 
of  the  United  States,"  (1772.)  He  was  sent  as  minister 
to  Portugal  in  1790,  and  to  Spain  in  1797.  Died  in  1818. 

See  Griswold,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America ;"  Duyckinck, 
"  Cyclopjedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. ;  "National  Portrait- 
Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Humphreys,  hum'fr^z,  (Henry  Noel,)  a  British 
antiquary  and  numismatist,  born  at  Birmingham  in  1810. 
He  published  "The  Coins  of  England,"  (1847,)  "Ten 
Centuries  of  Art,"  (1851,)  and  other  works. 

Humphreys,  (James,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
Montgomeryshire,  published  a  valuable  work  on  "Eng- 
lish Laws  of  Real  Property,"  (1820.)    Died  in  1830. 

Humphreys  or  Humphrey,  (Pelham,)  an  English 
composer  and  musician,  born  in  1647.  He  composed 
anthems  and  songs.    Died  in  1674. 

Humphry,  Old.    See  Mogridge, 

Hu'nald,  [Lat.  Hunal'dus,]  Duke  of  Aquitaine, 
succeeded  his  father  Eudes  in  735  a.d.,  and  defended 
his  domain  against  Charles  Martel  and  his  sons.  He 
was  defeated  by  Charlemagne  about  769,  and  was  killed 
in  774,  at  the  siege  of  Pavia,  being  the  last  prince  of  the 
Merovingian  race. 

Hunauld,  k\i\\o^,  (FRANgois  Joseph,)  a  learned 
French  physician,  born  at  Chateaubriant  in  1 701,  resided 
in  Paris.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  In  1730 
he  became  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes. 
He  wrote  dissertations  on  osteology,  etc.    Died  in  1742. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Hund,  hoont,  (Wigul^us,)  a  German  genealogist, 
born  in  1 5 14,  became  aulic  councillor  at  Munich  in  1540. 
Died  in  1588. 

See  J.  T.  KoHLER,  "  Leben  und  Schriften  Hunds,"  1750. 

Hundeshagen,  hoon'des-hi'gen,  (Johann  Chris- 
tian,) a  German  writer  on  forests,  was  born  at  Hanau 
in  1783.  Among  his  works  is  an  "  Encyclopaedia  of  the 
Science  of  Forests,"  (2  vols.,  1821.)    Died  in  1834. 

Hundeshagen,  (Karl  Bernhard,)  a  theologian,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Hesse-Cassel  in  1810.  He 
became  professor  at  Heidelberg  in  1847,  and  published 
"German  Protestantism:  its  Past  and  Present,"  (1846.) 

Hundhorst.    See  Honthorst. 

Hundt,  hoont,  (Magnus,)  a  German  naturalist  and 
writer,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1449.  He  taught  physics 
in  the  University  of  Leipsic.    Died  in  1 5 19. 

Hun'e-ric  or  Hun'ne-ric,  [Gr.  'Ovupixo^,]  second 
King  of  the  Vandals  of  Africa,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Genseric,  whom  he  succeeded  in  447  a.d.  ;  but  he  did 
not  inherit  his  father's  abilities.  He  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  emperor  Valentinian  HI.  His  reign  was 
extremely  cruel  and  tyrannical.  As  an  Arian,  he  perse- 
cuted the  Catholics  in  particular.  He  died  in  484,  and 
left  three  sons,  of  whom  Hilderic  was  the  eldest ;  but 

*  See  note  on  page  1227. 


Gondamond,  a  nephew  of  Huneric,  was  proclaimed  his 
successor. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.' 

Hu-ni'a-des  or  Hun'ya-des,  [Hun.  Hunyady, 
hoon'yody;  Fr.  Huniade,  hli'ne-td',]  (Joan'nes  Cor- 
Vi'nus,)  a  brave  Hungarian  general,  who  about  1440 
was  chosen  Vaivode  of  Transylvania.  Soon  after  Ladis- 
laus.  King  of  Poland,  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Varna 
by  the  Turks,  (1444,)  Huniades  was  made  captain-gen- 
eral of  his  army  and  Governor  of  Hungary.  His  chief 
exploit  was  the  successful  defence  of  Belgrade  against 
Mahomet  II.,  in  1456.  He  died  of  wounds  received  in 
this  action.  His  son,  Matthias  Corvinus,  was  elected 
King  of  Hungary. 

See  MajlAth,  "History  of  the  Magyars;"  Pray,  "Annales 
Regum  Hungarije;"  G.  Bessenvei,  "  Hunyadi  Janos,"  etc.,  1788; 
G.  Fejer,  "Genus,  Incunabula  et  Virtus  J.  Corvini  de  Hunyad," 
etc.,  Buda,  1844. 

Hun'nis,  (William,)  chapel-master  to  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, wrote  several  volumes  of  psalms  and  hymns,  (pub- 
lished from  1550  to  1588.) 

Hunnius,  hoon'ne-us,  (^gidius,)  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian, noted  for  intolerance,  was  born  at  Winnenden,  in 
Wtirtemberg,  in  1550.  He  was  professor  at  Wittenberg, 
and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Calvinus  Judaizans," 
(1593-)    l^ied  in  1603. 

See  HuTTER,  "  Threnologia  de  Vita  Hunnii,"  1603;  Johann 
Georg  Neumann,  "  Programma  de  Vita  Hunnii,"  1704  ;  S.  Gesner, 
"  Leichenpredigt  auf  A.  Hunnius  nebst  dessen  Lebenslauf,"  1603. 

Hunnius,  (Nikolaus,)  an  able  Lutheran  theologian, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Marburg  in  1585.  He 
was  superintendent  of  all  the  churches  of  Lubeck  from 
1623  to  1643.  He  wrote  against  Popery,  Calvinism,  and 
Socinianism.    Died  in  1643. 

See  L.  Heller,  "  N.  Hunnius,  sein  Leben  und  Wirken,"  1843. 

Hunold,  hoo'nolt,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man litterateur,  who  wrote  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Menantes,  born  near  Arnstadt  in  1680.  His  works 
include  romances,  tales,  and  poems.    Died  in  1721. 

Hiint,  (Edward  B.,)  an  American  military  engineer, 
born  in  Livingston  county.  New  York,  in  1822.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1845,  was  employed  as 
engineer  on  several  forts  and  light-houses,  invented  a 
submarine  battery,  and  gained  the  rank  of  captain  in 
1859.    Died  in  1863. 

Hunt,  (Frederick  Knight,)  an  English  editor,  born 
in  Buckinghamshire  in  1814.  After  writing  for  the  "  Il- 
lustrated London  News,"  etc.,  he  was  chief  editor  of  the 
London  "  Daily  News"  from  1851  until  his  death.  He 
wrote  "  The  Book  of  Art,"  and  "  The  Fourth  Estate  ;  or, 
Contributions  to  the  History  of  Newspapers,"  etc.,  (1850.) 
Died  in  1854. 

Hunt,  (Freeman,)  an  editor,  born  in  Quincy,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1804.  He  became  in  1839  the  editor  and 
owner  of  the  "  Merchants'  Magaaine,"  issued  monthly  in 
New  York.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Lives 
of  American  Merchants,"  (2  vols.,  1856.)    Died  in  1858. 

Hunt,  (George  Ward,)  an  English  politician,  born 
in  1825.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  for 
the  county  of  Northampton  in  1857,  as  a  Conservative. 
He  was  re-elected,  and  gained  distinction  by  a  bill  to 
counteract  the  cattle-plague  of  1866.  He  became  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer  about  March  i,  1868,  and  re- 
signed in  December  of  that  year. 

Hunt,  (Henry,)  M.P.,  an  English  Radical,  born  in 
Wiltshire  in  1773,  acquired  popularity  with  his  party  by 
his  intrepid  audacity  and  by  his  inflammatory  harangues. 
He  often  presided  at  the  meetings  against  the  corn-laws. 
In  1820  he  was  arrested  at  Manchester,  while  addressing 
a  political  meeting,  and  punished  with  a  fine  and  several 
years'  imprisonment.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament 
for  Preston  in  1831,  defeating  the  Earl  of  Derby,  his  op- 
ponent, and  witnessed  the  triumph  of  the  Reform  bill, 
for  which  he  had  toiled  and  suffered.   Died  in  1835. 

Hunt,  (Isaac,)  a  native  of  the  West  Indies,  was  edu- 
cated in  Philadelphia.  He  took  the  royalist  side  in  the 
Revolution,  removed  to  England,  and  became  a  preacher 
at  Paddington  about  1780.  He  published  "The  Rights 
of  Englishmen."    He  was  the  father  of  Leigh  Hunt. 

Hunt,  (James  Henry  Leigh,)  a  popular  English 
poet  and  litterateur,  born  at  Southgate,  near  London,  in 
1784,  was  the  son  of  Isaac  Hunt,  noticed  above,  and 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fUr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


/ 


HUNT 


1 229 


HUNTER 


Mary  Shewell,  of  Philadelphia.  He  left  school  at  the  age 
of  fifteen,  and  acted  as  clerk  in  the  War  Office  until  1808, 
when  he  formed  a  partnership  with  his  brother  John 
to  issue  "The  Examiner,"  a  journal  of  liberal  politics, 
which  attained  under  his  editorship  a  high  reputation  for 
literary  merit.  In  1812  the  brothers  were  condemned 
to  pay  each  a  fine  of  five  hundred  pounds,  and  to  be 
imprisoned  two  years,  for  a  satirical  article  in  which  the 
prince-regent  was  styled  an  "  Adonis  of  fifty."  While 
in  prison,  he  wTote  "Rimini,"  (1816,)  one  of  his  most 
admired  poems,  "  The  Descent  of  Liberty,"  and  "  The 
Feast  of  the  Poets."  At  this  period  he  was  intimate  with 
Byron,  Moore,  Shelley,  and  Keats.  From  181 8  to  1822  he 
edited  "  The  Indicator,"  a  series  of  periodical  essays,  ad- 
mired for  genial  humour,  easy  style,  and  brilliant  fancy. 
In  1822  he  was  associated  with  Byron  and  Shelley  as  an 
editor  of  "The  Liberal,"  a  political  and  literary  journal  ; 
and  for  this  object  he  resided  with  Byron  in  Pisa  and 
Genoa.  But  Shelley  was  drowned,  Ijyron  and  Hunt 
became  estranged,  and  after  the  issue  of  four  numbers 
"The  Liberal"  was  discontinued.  Hunt  returned  to 
England  about  1824,  and  published  "Recollections  of 
Byron,"  (1828,)  which  gave  great  offence  to  Byron's 
friends.  He  was  editor  of  "The  Companion"  and  the 
"London  Journal,"  and  wrote  for  several  periodicals. 
Among  the  multifarious  productions  of  his  versatile 
genius  are  a  popular  poem  entitled  "Captain  Sword 
and  Captain  Pen,"  {1835,)  "Stories  from  the  Italian 
Poets,"  "Men,  Women,  and  Books,"  (1847,)  "  Imagina- 
tion and  Fancy,"  and  his  "Autobiography,"  (3  vols., 
1850.)  A  pension  of  two  hundred  pounds  was  granted 
him  in  1847.  Died  August  28,  1859.  Professor  Wilson, 
of  Edinburgh,  speaks  of  Hunt  as  "  the  most  vivid  of  poets 
and  most  cordial  of  critics."  ("  Recreations  of  Christo- 
pher North.") 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  1850;  Hazlitt,  "Spirit  of  the  Age," 
and  his  "  Table-Taik ;"  Lord  Jeffrey,  •critique  in  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  June,  1816,  (vol.  xxvi.  ;)  E.  P.  Whipple,  "  Essays  and 
Reviews;"  W.  Gifford,  critique  in  the  "Quarterly  Review"  for 
January,  1816,  (vol.  xiv.  ;)  "  Brief  Biographies,"  by  Samuel  Smiles. 
For  a  full  account  of  the  writings  of  Leigh  Hunt,  see  a  "  List  of 
the  Writings  of  William  Ha/.litt  and  Leigh  Hunt,"  by  Alexander 
Ireland,  London,  1868;  "  North  British  Review"  tor  November, 
1S50,  and  November,  i860;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  Janu- 
ary, 18 16. 

Hunt,  (Jeremlah,)  an  English  dissenting  minister, 
born  in  London  in  1678,  preached  for  many  years  at 
Pinners'  Hall.    Died  in  1744. 

Hunt,  (Leigh.)   See  Hunt,  (James  Henry  Leigh.) 

Hunt,  (Richard  Morris,)  a  distinguished  American 
architect,  born  in  Brattleborough,  Vermont,  October  31, 
1829.  He  was  several  years  in  the  Boston  High  School. 
In  1842  he  went  to  Europe,  and  studied  architecture 
in  Paris  and  Geneva.  He  subsequently  visited  various 
parts  of  Europe,  and  also  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt,  for  the 
purpose  of  becoming  better  acquainted  with  the  archi- 
tecture of  different  countries.  After  his  return  to  Paris, 
he  was  appointed  inspector  at  the  Louvre  ;  in  1867  he 
was  a  member  of  the  jury  on  architecture  at  the  Expo- 
sition Universelle.    He  has  since  resided  in  New  York. 

Hunt,  (Robert,)  an  English  author  and  philosopher, 
born  at  Devonport  in  1807.  His  youth  was  passed  in 
poverty,  from  which  he  was  relieved  by  William  Allen, 
the  chemist,  who  procured  him  a  situation  in  London. 
In  1832  he  opened  a  druggist's  shop  in  Penzance,  having 
previously  been  a  diligent  student  of  chemistry  and  other 
sciences.  He  published  his  discoveries  of  the  chemical 
action  of  the  solar  rays  in  an  interesting  work  entitled 
"Researches  on  Light,"  (1844,)  and  in  1849  he  gave  to 
the  world  "The  Poetry  of  Science."  His  "Panthea;  or. 
The  Spirit  of  Nature,"  (1849,)  is  designated  by  a  writer 
in  the  "North  British  Review"  as  "a  work  of  a  very 
peculiar  character,  in  which  philosophy  and  poetry  are 
finely  blended,  and  where  great  truths  and  noble  senti- 
ments are  expressed  in  language  full  of  beauty  and  elo- 
quence." Among  his  later  productions  are  "Elementary 
Physics,"  (185 1,)  and  "Memoirs  of  the  Geological  Sur- 
vey of  Great  Britain,"  (1855.)  He  has  a  high  reputation 
as  a  lecturer  on  science. 

See  "North  British  Review"  for  May,  1850;  "Eraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  April,  1849. 

Hunt,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
1696,  became  in  1747  professor  of  Hebrew  in  Oxford 


University.  He  wrote  "Observations  on  the  Book  of 
Proverbs."    Died  in  1774. 

Hunt,  (Thomas  Sterry,)  a  distinguished  American 
cheinist  and  geologist,  born  in  Norwich,  Connecticut,  in 
1826.  He  studied  medicine  for  some  time  in  his  native 
town,  and  afterwards  became  assistant  chemist  to  Pro- 
fessor Silliman  at  Yale  College.  About  1847  he  became 
connected  with  the  geological  survey  of  Canada,  and 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Quebec.  Besides  his  contribu- 
tions to  the  London  "  Philosophical  Magazine"  and  the 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society,  French  Academy  of 
Sciences,  etc.,  he  has  published  above  seventy  papers 
in  the  "American  Journal  of  Science."  While  acting  as 
a  juror  to  the  International  Exhibition  at  Paris  in  1855, 
Mr.  Hunt  had  conferred  on  him  the  cross  of  the  legion 
of  honour  by  Napoleon  III. ;  and  in  1859  he  was  elected 
an  honorary  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London. 

Hunt,  (Thornton,)  an  English  journalist,  the  eldest 
son  of  Leigh  Hunt,  was  born  in  1810.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Foster-Brother,"  a  romance,  (1845.) 

Hunt,  (William  Henry,)  an  English  painter  in  water- 
colours,  born  in  London  in  1 790.  His  subjects  are  simple 
and  homely,  such  as  a  "  Peasant  Boy"  in  various  moods 
and  phases,  a  "  Farm-House  Beauty,"  flowers,  fruits, 
and  other  objects  of  still  life.  His  works  are  admirable 
for  colouring  and  perfection  of  finish.  "  I  have  seen," 
says  Ruskin,  "  frequent  instances  of  very  grand  ideality 
in  treatment  of  the  most  commonplace  still  life  by  our 
own  HunL"  ("Modern  Painters.")    Died  in  1864. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  October,  1865. 

Hunt,  (William  Holman,)  an  eminent  historical 
painter,  one  of  the  chief  founders  of  the  pre-Raphaelite 
school  of  England,  was  born  in  London  about  1827.  He 
began  to  exhibit  at  the  Royal  Academy  in  1846.  About 
1850  he  and  several  other  artists  assumed  the  name  of 
"  Pre-Raphaelite  Brethren,"  proposing  to  restore  the  art 
of  painting  from  the  degenerate  style  of  Raphael  and  his 
coevals.  His  works  are  very  minutely  finished,  and  are 
close  imitations  of  nature.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
"Our  English  Coasts,"  (1853,)  "The  Awakening  Con- 
science," (1854,)  and  "The  Light  of  the  World,"  (1854,)  a 
symbolic  figure  of  the  Saviour.  "  Hunt's  '  Light  of  the 
World,'"  says  Ruskin,  "is,  I  believe,  the  most  perfect 
instance  of  expressional  purpose  with  technical  power 
which  the  world  has  yet  produced."  ("  Modern  Painters.") 

Hunt,  (William  Morris,)  an  American  artist,  born 
at  Brattleborough,  Vermont,  about  1825,  studied  at  Dus- 
seldorf  and  in  Paris.  His  works  are  chiefly  portraits 
and  genre  pictures. 

See  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Hunt'er,  (Alexander,)  F.R.S.,  a  Scottish  physician, 
born  in  Edinburgh  in  1729,  practised  at  Beverley  and 
York.  He  was  the  principal  founder  of  a  lunatic-asylum 
at  York.  He  wrote,  besides  professional  treatises, 
"Georgical  Essays,"  (a  work  on  rural  economy,)  and 
edited  Evelyn's  "Sylva."    Died  in  1809. 

Hunter,  (Anne,)  wife  of  the  great  surgeon  John 
Hunter,  and  sister  of  Sir  Everard  Home,  was  born  in 
Scotland  in  1742.  She  wrote  "My  Mother  bids  me 
braid  my  Hair,"  and  other  songs,  set  to  music  by  Haydn. 
Her  poems,  published  in  1802,  were  praised  by  "  Black- 
wood's Magazine."    Died  in  1821. 

Hunter,  (Christopher,)  an  English  physician  and 
antiquary,  born  in  Durham  in  1675  ;  died  in  1757. 

Hunt'er,  (David,)  an  American  general,  iDorn  in 
Washington,  IDistrict  of  Columbia,  in  1802,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1822.  He  became  a  colonel  in  May,  1861, 
served  in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21,  was  appointed 
a  major-general  of  volunteers  about  August,  and  took 
command  of  the  army  and  department  of  Missouri  in 
November,  1861.  About  the  ist  of  April,  1862,  he  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  army  at  Port  Royal,  or 
Plilton  Head.  In  May  ensuing  he  issued  an  order  that 
the  "persons  heretofore  held  as  slaves  in  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  and  Florida  are  declared  forever  free."  This 
order  was  annulled  by  the  President  as  premature.  He 
defeated  General  W.  E.  Jones  at  Piedmont,  Virginia, 
June  5,  1864,  after  which  he  attacked  Lynchburg  (June 
18)  without  success.  He  retreated  westward  by  way 
of  the  Kanawha  River,  and  was  superseded  by  General 
Sheridan  in  August,  1864. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ( J^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HUNTER 


1230 


HUNTINGTON 


Hunter,  (Henry,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  divine  and  author, 
born  at  Culross  in  1 741,  was  a  man  of  superior  talents. 
From  1 771  until  his  death  he  was  pastor  of  a  Scottish 
church  in  London.  He  was  the  author  of  a  popular  work 
styled  "Sacred  Biography,"  (1783-1802,)  and  translated 
Lavater's  "Essays  on  Physiognomy,"  Saint-Pierre's 
"Studies  of  Nature,"  and  other  French  works.  His 
translation  of  Lavater,  finely  illustrated,  sold  for  forty 
guineas  a  copy.    Died  in  1802. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Hunter,  (Humphrey,)  a  patriot  of  the  American 
Revolution,  born  in  Ireland  in  1755.  About  1760  his 
widowed  mother  emigrated  with  her  family  to  Mecklen- 
burg, North  Carolina.  He  entered  the  Revolutionary 
army  in  1776,  and  rendered  distinguished  service  at 
the  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs.  He  was  ordained  in  1789, 
and  from  1805  till  his  death,  in  1827,  was  pastor  of  the 
Presbyterian  church  at  Steele  Creek,  North  Carolina. 

Hunter,  (John,)  an  eminent  British  anatomist  and 
surgeon,  born  at  Long  Calderwood,  near  Glasgow,  in 
1728,  was  the  youngest  of  ten  children.  After  receiving 
a  very  defective  education,  he  worked  a  few  years  with  a 
cabinet-maker  in  Glasgow.  In  1748  he  went  to  London, 
where  he  was  employed  by  his  brother  William  as  an 
assistant  in  the  dissection-room.  Having  pursued  the 
study  of  anatomy  with  ardour  and  remarkable  success, 
he  was  received  in  1754  as  a  partner  in  his  brother's 
school,  and  lectured  regularly  for  about  five  years.  In 
1760,  for  the  sake  of  his  health,  he  exchanged  this  em- 
ployment for  that  of  army-surgeon,  and  at  the  peace 
of  1763  returned  to  London.  In  1767  he  was  elected  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  soon  after  surgeon  of 
Saint  George's  Hospital.  He  was  eminent  for  surgical 
skill,  and  acquired  greater  celebrity  by  his  researches 
in  comparative  anatomy,  physiology,  and  natural  history, 
on  which  he  wrote  several  treatises.  His  museum  is  said 
to  have  cost  ^70,000.  Died  in  1793.  He  is  admitted 
to  be  the  greatest  British  anatomist  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  was  noted  for  originality,  independence, 
and  estimable  moral  qualities.  Among  his  best  works 
are  a  "Treatise  on  the  Blood,  Inflammation,  and  Gun- 
Shot  Wounds,"  and  another  on  "Certain  Parts  of  the 
Animal  Economy." 

See  EvERARD  Home,  "Life  of  John  Hunter;"  Jesse  Foote, 
"Life  of  J.  Hunter,"  1794:  Joseph  Adams,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life 
and  Doctrines  of  J.  Hunter,"  1816;  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Hunter,  (John,)  a  British  naval  officer,  born  at  Leith 
in  1738,  obtained  the  rank  of  vice-admiral.  Died  in  1821. 

Hunter,  (John,)  a  Scottish  critic,  born  at  Closeburn 
in  1747,  was  for  many  years  professor  of  humanity  in 
Saint  Andrew's,  and  published  good  editions  of  Horace, 
(1797,)  Virgil,  (1800,)  and  Juvenal,  (1806.)    Died  in  1837. 

Hunter,  (Rev.  Joseph,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
at  Sheffield  in  1783.  Pie  was  for  many  years  minister 
of  a  congregation  of  dissenters  at  Bath.  He  published 
several  valuable  works,  among  which  are  a  "  History 
and  Topography  of  the  Deanery  of  Doncaster,"  (2  vols., 
1828,)  and  "Illustrations  of  the  Life  and  Studies  of 
Shakspeare,"  (2  vols.,  1845.)  He  was  assistant  keeper 
of  the  public  records.    Died  in  1861. 

Hunter,  (Robert,)  an  English  officer  and  writer,  was 
appointed  Governor  of  New  York  in  17 10,  and  acted  as 
Governor  of  Jamaica  from  1728  until  his  death.  He 
wrote  a  "  Letter  on  Enthusiasm,"  ascribed  to  Swift  and 
Shaftesbury.    Died  in  1734. 

Hunter,  (Robert  Mercer  Taliaferro,)  an  Ameri- 
can statesman,  born  in  Essex  county,  Virginia,  April  21, 
1809.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Virginia, 
studied  law,  and  commenced  its  practice  in  his  native 
town  in  1830.  He  voted  for  Jackson  in  1832,  and  was 
elected  to  the  legislature  of  Virginia  in  1833.  He  was 
chosen  a  representative  to  Congress  in  1837.  His  first 
speech  in  this  body  was  in  favour  of  the  independent 
treasury  and  against  a  national  bank.  He  also  took 
strong  grounds  in  opposition  to  the  protective  policy  of 
Mr.  Clay,  and  in  all  his  subsequent  career  was  an  able 
advocate  of  free  trade.  In  1839  he  was  chosen  Speaker  of 
the  House,  and  for  his  dignified  and  impartial  discharge 
of  its  duties  received,  at  the  close  of  the  term,  in  1841, 
a  unanimous  vote  of  thanks.    He  favoured  the  election 


of  James  K.  Polk,  and  supported  his  policy  with  regard 
to  Texas  and  the  tariff.  The  warehousing  system,  which 
was  first  incorporated  in  the  tariff  bill,  was  originated 
and  drawn  up  by  Mr.  Hunter.  He  was  elected  in  1847 
to  the  United  States  Senate,  in  which  he  served  through 
two  full  terms,  and  was  elected  for  a  third  term  ending 
in  1865.  He  supported  the  Douglas  Kansas-Nebraska 
bill  in  1854,  and  the  admission  of  Kansas  under  the 
Lecompton  Constitution  in  1858.  He  was  secretary  of 
state  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  from  July,  1861,  to 
February,  1862,  and  was  one  of  the  two  Senators  who 
represented  Virginia  in  the  Senate  at  Richmond  from 
February,  1862,  to  1865. 

Hunter,  (William,)  a  distinguished  anatomist  and 
physician,  born  at  Long  Calderwood,  near  Glasgow,  in 
1 7 18,  was  a  brother  of  John  Hunter,  noticed  above.  He 
received  a  liberal  education  in  the  University  of  Glasgow, 
and  formed  a  professional  connection  with  Dr.  Cullen, 
who  afterwards  became  so  eminent  as  a  medical  writer. 
In  1 741  he  removed  to  London,  where  he  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  lecturer  on  anatomy  and  a  medical 
practitioner.  He  formed  a  partnership  with  his  brother 
John  in  1748.  Having  obtained  a  large  and  lucrative 
practice,  he  was  appointed  in  1764  physician-extraordi- 
nary to  the  queen.  In  1767  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society,  to  whose  "  Transactions"  he  contrib- 
uted. About  1770  he  founded  in  London  an  anatomical 
museum,  to  which  were  attached  a  classical  library,  and 
a  cabinet  of  rare  medals,  which  cost  ^20,000.  The 
most  important  of  his  publications  is  the  "Anatomy  of 
the  Gravid  Uterus,"  (1774.)    He  died  in  1783. 

See  S.  F.  Simmons,  "  Life  and  Writings  of  William  Hunter,'* 
1783;  "Lives  of  British  Physicians,"  London,  1857;  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Hunter,  (William,)  a  British  surgeon,  born  at  Mont- 
rose, was  employed  in  the  service  of  the  East  India 
Company  in  Bengal.  He  published  an  "  Account  of 
Pegu,"  (1785,)  "  Caverns  near  Bombay,"  a  "  Hindostanee 
Dictionary,"  and  several  medical  treatises.  He  was 
eminent  as  an  Orientalist,  and  from  1794  to  1808  was 
secretary  of  the  Asiatic  Society.    Died  in  1815. 

Hunt'ing-don,  (Selina,)  Countess  of,  an  English 
lady,  eminent  for  her  piety  and  munificence,  was  the 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Ferrers.  Her  maiden  name  was 
Shirley.  She  was  born  in  1707,  and  in  1728  was  married 
to  Theophilus  Hastings,  Earl  of  Huntingdon.  After  her 
husband's  death,  about  1746,  she  lived  in  fellowship 
with  the  Calvinistic  Methodists,  chose  Whitefield  for  her 
chaplain,  and  was  noted  for  her  zeal  and  devotion. 
She  founded  at  Trevecca  a  seminary  for  preachers,  built 
chapels,  and  spent  large  sums  for  religious  purposes. 
Her  sect  was  known  as  the  "Countess  of  Huntingdon's 
Connection."    Died  in  1791. 

See  "Life  and  Times  of  Selina,  Countess  of  Huntingdon,"  1839; 
"The  Women  of  Methodism,"  by  Abel  Stevens. 

Hunt'ing-ford,  (George  Isaac,)  D.D.,  an  English 
theologian,  born  at  Winchester  in  1748.  He  was  made 
Bishop  of  Gloucester  in  1802,  and  of  Hereford  in  1815. 
He  published  several  Greek  and  Latin  school-books, 
"  Thoughts  on  the  Trinity,"  and  sermons.    Died  in  1832. 

Hunt'ing-ton,  (Daniel,)  a  distinguished  American 
painter,  born  in  New  York  in  1816.  He  became  about 
1835  a  pupil  of  Professor  Morse  at  New  York,  and  in 
1839  visited  Florence  and  Rome,  where  he  painted  his 
"  Sibyl"  and  "  Shepherd  Boy  of  the  Campagna."  Having 
returned  to  New  York,  he  painted  numerous  portraits 
and  historical  subjects.  He  was  elected  president  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Design  in  1862.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Lady  Jane  Grey  and  Feckenham  in  the  Tower," 
and  "Henry  VIII.  and  Catherine  Parr." 

See  TucKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Huntington,  (Frederick  D.,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine  and  author,  born  in  Hadley,  Massachusetts,  in 
1819.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  in  1839,  studied  divinity 
at  Cambridge,  and  from  1842  to  1855  was  minister  of  the 
South  Congregational  Church  in  Boston.  He  became 
preacher  and  professor  of  Christian  morals  in  Harvard 
University.  Although  formerly  a  Unitarian,  he  has  re- 
cently embraced  the  faith  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Central  New  York  in  April,  1869.  He 
published  "  Sermons  for  the  People,"  (6th  edition,  i860.) 


S,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon 


HUNTINGTON 


1231 


HUSKISSON 


Huntington,  (Jedediah  Vinxent,)  an  author,  a 
brother  of  Daniel,  noticed  above,  was  bom  in  New  York 
in  181 5.  He  became  an  Episcopalian  priest  about  1840, 
and  afterwards  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  volume  of  Poems,  (1843,) 
and  "Lady  Alice,  or  the  New  Una,"  a  novel,  (1849.) 

Huntington,  (Robert,)  D.D.,  an  English  Orientalist, 
born  at  Deerhurst  in  1636.  From  1670  to  1680  he  was 
chaplain  to  a  factory  at  Aleppo,  and  collected  many  valu- 
able manuscripts  in  the  Levant.  He  was  chosen  Bishop 
of  Raphoe  in  1 701,  and  died  in  the  same  year.  He  wrote 
a  "Letter  on  the  Porphyry  Pillars  in  Egypt,"  (published 
in  tlie  "Philosophical  Transactions,"  No.  161.) 

Huntington,  (Samuel,)  president  of  the  American 
Congress,  was  born  in  Windham,  Connecticut,  in  1732. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  the  Colonial  Council  of 
1775  by  his  opposition  to  the  aggressive  policy  of  Great 
Britain,  and  in  1776  took  his  seat  in  Congress  and  signed 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  \n  1779  he  succeeded 
John  Jay  as  president  of  the  Congress  of  the  Confedera- 
tion, and  was  again  chosen  to  the  same  office  in  1780. 
He  again  served  in  Congress  in  1783,  and  was  shortly 
after  appointed  chief  justice  of  Connecticut.  In  1786  he 
was  elected  Governor  of  the  State,  as  the  successor  of 
Roger  Griswold,  and  was  annually  re-elected  to  the  same 
office  till  his  death,  in  1796. 

See  Goodrich,  "Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence." 

Huntington,  (  William,  )  an  English  Methodist 
preacher,  born  in  Kent  in  1744,  was  originally  a  poor 
labourer.  He  became  a  popular  preacher  among  the 
Calvinistic  Methodists  in  London,  and  published  many 
tracts  and  controversial  works.    Died  in  1813. 

See  notice  in  the  "Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1821,  (by 

SOUTHEV.) 

Hun'ton,  (Philip,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
born  in  Hampshire,  was  appointed  provost  of  Durham 
College  in  1657.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Monarchy," 
(1644,)  which  gave  great  offence  to  the  High-Church 
party.    Died  about  1682. 

Hunts'man,  (Ben'Jamin,)  an  English  artisan,  born  in 
Lincolnshire  in  1704,  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor 
of  cast  steel.    He  lived  in  Sheffield.    Died  in  1776. 

See  Smiles,  "Industrial  Biography." 

Hunyades.  See  Humades. 
Hunyady.    See  Huniades. 

Huot,  /^iiV,  (Jean  Jacques  Nicolas,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1790,  published  a  "Complete 
Manual  of  Mineralogy,"  (2  vols.,  1841,)  and  revised  and 
continued  the  "System  of  Universal  Geography,"  which 
Malte-Brun  left  unfinished.  The  last  two  volumes  of 
this  were  written  by  M.  Huot.    Died  in  1845. 

See  "Vie  de  J.  J.  N.  Hnot,"  by  his  son,  Paul  Huot,  1846. 

Hupfeld,  hoop'f^lt,  (Hermann,)  a  German  theolo- 
gian and  Orientalist,  born  at  Marburg  in  1796,  became 
professor  of  theology  at  Halle  in  1843.  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  De  Vera  Festorum  apud  Hebraeos 
Ratione,"  (2  vols.,  1852,)  and  a  version  of  the  Psalms, 
(1855.)  He  was  an  excellent  Hebrew  scholar.  Died  at 
Halle  in  April,  1866. 

Huppazoli,  oop-p^d-zo'lee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian, 
noted  for  longevity,  born  at  Casal  in  1587,  was  at  one 
time  a  merchant,  and  in  1669  was  appointed  Venetian 
consul  at  Smyrna.  He  was  abstemious  in  his  habits, 
and  retained  the  use  of  his  faculties  to  the  last.  Died 
in  1702. 

Hurault.    See  Chiverny. 

Kurd,  (Richard,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  writer 
and  critic,  born  at  Congreve  in  1720,  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  became  a  friend  of  Warburton.  He  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry  in  1775,  and 
translated  to  the  see  of  Worcester  in  1781.  The  arch- 
bishopric of  Canterbury  was  offered  to  him,  but  was 
declined.  Among  his  works,  which  are  very  numerous 
and  able,  are  "Dialogues,  Moral  and  Political,"  '*  Letters 
on  Chivalry,"  (1762,)  "Commentary  on  Horace's  Ars 
Poetica,"  "  Lectures  on  the  Prophecies,"  and  a  "Life  of 
Warburton,"  (1794.)  "  Hurd  has  perhaps,"  says  Hal- 
lam,  "the  merit  of  being  the  first  who,  in  this  country, 
aimed  at  philosophical  criticism  :  he  had  great  ingenuity, 
a  good  deal  of  reading,  and  a  facility  in  applying  it;  but 


he  did  not  feel  very  deeply,  was  somewhat  of  a  coxcomb, 
and  assumes  a  dogmatic  arrogance  which  offends  the 
reader."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe,") 
Died  in  1808. 

See  Francis  Kilvert,  "  Memoirs  of  Bishop  Hurd,"  i860 ;  "  Life 
of  R.  Hurd,"  by  himself,  in  an  edition  of  his  Works,  8  vols.,  1811 ; 
"North  British  Review"  for  May,  1861. 

Hur'dis,  (Rev.  James,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Sussex  in  1763,  was  a  friend  of  the  poet  Cowper.  In 
1784  he  became  tutor  to  the  Earl  of  Chichester's  son, 
and  in  1793  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford.  He  wrote 
"The  Village  Curate,"  (1788,)  "Sir  Thomas  More,"  a 
tragedy,  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1801. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  i.,  1820. 

Hure,  hvi'-Rb/,  (Charles,)  a  French  Jansenist  writer, 
born  at  Champigny-sur-Yonne  in  1639,  was  for  many 
years  an  eminent  professor  of  languages  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris.  He  published  an  approved  "  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible."    Died  in  171 7. 

Huret,  hxxxy,  (Gr^goire,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Lyons  in  1610.  His  work  is  easy  and  mellow,  and 
his  heads  expressive.    Died  in  1670. 

Hurl'but,  (Stephen  A.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  about  181 5,  commanded 
a  division  of  General  Grant's  army  at  Shiloh,  April  6-7, 
1862.  With  the  rank  of  major-general,  he  directed  a 
corps  of  General  Sherman's  army  in  the  raid  to  Meridian 
in  February,  1864. 

Hurl'st9ne,(FREDERiCK  Yeates,)  an  English  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  was  born  in  Lonclon  in  1801. 
Soon  after  1830  he  joined  the  Society  of  British  Artists, 
of  which  he  became  president.  Among  his  works  are 
"  The  Spanish  Beauty"  and  "  The  Last  Sigh  of  the  Moor." 
His  portraits  are  much  admired.    Died  in  1869. 

Hurtado  de  Mendoza.    See  Mendoza. 

Hurtault,  h'uR'tb',  (Maximilien  Joseph,)  a  French 
architect,  born  at  Huningue  in  1765.  He  was  appointed 
architect  of  the  Fontainebleau  Palace,  in  which  he  re- 
stored the  gallery  of  Diana.    Died  in  1824. 

Hurter,  hooR'ter,  (Friedrich  Emanuel,)  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Schafifhausen  in  1786,  published  a 
"History  of  Pope  Innocent  III.,"  (4  vols.,  1834-42,) 
and  a  "History  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.  and  his 
Family,"  (Eltern,)  {9  vols.,  1850-57.) 

Hus'bands,  (Herman,)  a  native  of  Pennsylvania, 
became  a  leader  of  the  '*  Regulators"  in  North  Carolina 
in  1768,  and  fought  against  Governor  Tryon  in  1 771. 
Died  about  1794. 

Huschke,  hdosh'keh,  (Emanuel  Gottlieb,)  a  Ger- 
man philologist,  born  in  1761,  published  a  good  edition 
of  Tibullus,  (1819,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1828. 

Huschke,  (Georg  Philipp  Eduard,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Miinden  in  1801,  published  "Studies  on 
Roman  Law,"  (1830,)  and  other  works. 

Hus'kis-son,  (William,)  an  English  statesman  and 
financier,  born  in  Worcestershire  in  1770,  went  to  Paris 
in  1783,  where  he  lived  with  one  of  his  uncles  and  learned 
the  French  language.  Sympathizing  with  the  Revolution, 
he  was  present  at  the  storming  of  the  Bastille,  and  he 
became  a  prominent  member  of  the  "  Societe  de  1789." 
In  1790  he  was  employed  as  secretary  to  Lord  Gower, 
then  ambassador  at  Paris,  with  whom  he  returned 
to  England  in  1792.  Having  attracted  the  favourable 
notice  of  Pitt,  he  was  appointed  in  1795  under-secre- 
tary  in  the  department  ol^  war  and  the  colonies,  and  the 
next  year  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Morpeth.  He 
was  secretary  of  the  treasury  from  1804  until  the  death 
of  Pitt,  and  again  from  1807  until  1809,  when,  as  a 
friend  of  Canning,  he  resigned  with  him.  In  Parliament 
he  represented  successively  Harwich,  Chichester,  (1812- 
23,)  and  Liverpool,  (1823-30.)  He  gained  distinction 
by  his  knowledge  of  finance  and  commerce,  and  by  his 
methodical  and  luminous  reports.  In  1823,  under  the 
auspices  of  Canning,  he  became  president  of  the  board 
of  trade,  treasurer  of  the  navy,  and  a  member  of  the 
cabinet.  From  the  death  of  Canning  (1827)  to  1829  he 
acted  as  colonial  secretary.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life 
he  inclined  to  the  policy  of  the  Liberal  party  in  respect 
to  electoral  reform,  the  corn-laws,  and  other  restrictions 
on  commerce.  He  resigned  in  May,  1829,  because  he 
differed  from  the  Tory  ministry.    At  the  opening  of  the 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  Y^^ guttural ;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!;^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HUSS 


1232 


HUTCHINSON 


Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway  he  was  killed  by. an 
engine,  September  15,  1830. 

See  "  Speeches  and  Biography,"  by  Wright,  3  vols.,  1831  ;  Wm, 
Jerdan,  "Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1866;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Huss,  (John,)  [Ger.  Johann  Huss,  yo'hdn  hooss ;  Lat. 
Johan'nes  Huss,]  a  celebrated  reformer  of  the  Church, 
was  born  at  Husinec,  (or  Hussinetz,)  in  Southern  Bohe- 
mia, in  1373.  Being  appointed  in  1402  preacher  at  the 
Bethlehem  Chapel  in  Prague,  he  became  a  zealous  advo- 
cate of  the  doctrines  of  Wickliffe,  whereby  he  incurred 
the  censure  of  the  Catholic  clergy.  As  rector  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Prague,  he  had  the  works  of  Wickliffe  trans- 
lated into  Bohemian  ;  but  they  were  soon  after  burned  by 
order  of  Archbishop  Sbinko,  In  141 2  he  denounced  the 
papal  bull  issued  by  John  XXIII.  against  Ladislaus, 
King  of  Naples,  and  with  his  coadjutor,  Jerome  of  Prague, 
condemned  the  sale  of  indulgences.  He  was  excommu- 
nicated the  next  year,  upon  which  he  wrote  his  work  "  On 
the  Church,"  exposing  the  abuses  of  popery.  Cited 
before  the  Council  of  Constance  in  1414,  and  provided 
with  a  pass  by  the  emperor  Sigismund,  he  was  arrested 
on  his  arrival,  and,  as  he  adhered  firmly  to  his  opinions, 
he  was  burned  by  order  of  the  treacherous  emperor. 

See  £mile  de  Bonnechose,  "Les  Reformateurs  avant  la  Re- 
forme,"  2  vols.,  1847;  "J.  Huss  et  Hieronymi  Pragensis  Historia  et 
Monumenta,"  Nuremberg,  1558;  J.  Cochlee,  "Historia  Hussi- 
tarum,"  1549;  Hodgson,  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia, 
1867  ;  August  Neander,  "Ziige  aus  dem  Leben  des  unvergesslichen 
J.  Huss,"  Berlin,  1819;  Wm.  Gilpin,  "  Lives  of  John  Wickliffe  and 
of  the  Most  Eminent  of  his  Disciples,  Lord  Cobham,  J.  Huss,"  etc., 
1765;  Georg  Lommel,  "  J.  Huss,"  1847;  Hei,fert,  "Huss  und 
Hieronynuis  von  Prag,"  1853;  "North  American  Review"  for  Octo- 
ber, 1847,  (by  H.  W.  ToRREV.) 

Hussein  Pasha,  hoos'sTn'  pi'shi',  a  famous  Turkish 
admiral,  born  about  1750,  was  a  favourite  of  Selim  III., 
who  in  1789  appointed  him  capudan-pasha.  He  pos- 
sessed superior  talents,  and  served  his  master  with  fi- 
delity in  reforming  the  discipline  and  management  of 
the  navy.  He  commanded  the  fleet  which  in  1801  co- 
operated with  the  English  against  the  French  on  the 
coast  of  Egypt.    Died  in  1803. 

Hussein  Pasha,  (or  Pacha,)  last  Dey  of  Algiers, 
born  at  Smyrna  about  1773.  At  the  death  of  Ali  Pasha, 
in  1818,  he  was  proclaimed  his  successor.  To  avenge 
an  insult  received  by  the  French  consul,  the  French 
government  sent  in  June,  1830,  an  army  which,  after 
several  days'  fighting,  forced  Hussein  to  capitulate.  He 
was  deposed,  and  died  in  1838. 

See  A.  Nettement,  "Histoire  de  la  Conquete  d'Alger,"  1857. 

Hiis'sey,  (Giles,)  an  English  painter,  born  in  17 10, 
studied  in  Italy,  and  settled  in  London  in  1742.  He 
excelled  in  portraits,  and  attempted  to  apply  to  his  art 
the  hypothesis  of  harmonic  proportions.    Died  in  1788. 

Husson,  /^ii's6N^  (Jean  Honor^  Aristide,)  a  skil- 
ful French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1803.  Pie  gained 
the  grand  prize  of  Rome  in  1830.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Dante  and  Virgil,"  a  bas-relief,  (1836,)  a  statue  of 
Voltaire,  (1839,)  and  a  marble  statue  of  "  Haidee,"  (1850.) 
Died  in  1864. 

Hu'ston,  (Lorenzo  Dow,)  a  Methodist  minister,  born 
in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  1820,  preached  in  Kentucky,  and 
edited  several  papers. 

Hutch'e-son,  [Lat.  Hutcheso'nus,]  (Francis,)  a 
metaphysician,  born  in  the  north  of  Ireland  in  1694,  was 
educated  at  Glasgow,  and  was  ordained  as  a  Presbyterian 
minister.  While  employed  as  principal  of  an  academy 
in  Dublin,  he  published  about  1725  an  excellent  work, 
entitled  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Original  of  our  Ideas  of 
Beauty  and  Virtue,"  which  was  followed  by  an  "  Essay 
on  the  Passions  and  Affections,"  (1728.)  In  1729  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Glasgow.  Died  in  1747.  His  greatest  work,  "  A 
System  of  Moral  Philosophy,"  was  published  in  1755. 
Sir  J.  Mackintosh  thinks  Hutcheson  "was  the  father 
of  the  modern  school  of  philosophy  in  Scotland."  He 
adopted  the  opinions  of  Lord  Shaftesbury  in  moral  philos- 
ophy, 3nd  maintained  that  disinterested  affections  and  a 
distinct  moral  faculty  are  essential  parts  of  human  nature. 

See  William  Leechman,  "  Life  of  F.  Hutcheson,"  prefixed  to 
his  "  System  of  Moral  Philosophy,"  1755;  "  Riographia  Britannica," 
(Supplement;)  Sir  J.  Mackintosh,  "Preliminary  Dissertation"  in 
the  "  Encyclopaadia  Britannica;"  Jacor  I^aart  de  la  Faille, 
"  Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  F.  Hntchesoni,"  1812. 


Hutchesonus.    See  Hutcheson. 

Hutch'ins,  (Rev.  John,)  born  at  Bradford-Peverel,  in 
England,  in  1698,  wrote  the  "History  and  Antiquities 
of  the  County  of  Dorset."    Died  in  1773. 

Hutch'ins,  (Thomas,)  an  American  geographer,  born 
in  Monmouth  county.  New  Jersey,  about  1735.  He  was 
appointed  geographer  to  the  United  States  by  Congress, 
and  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Topographical 
Description  of  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and 
North  Carolina,"  (1778.)    Died  in  1789. 

Hutch^in-son,  (Ann,)  a  religious  enthusiast,  born  in 
Lincolnshire,  England,  about  1600.  She  was  the  wife  of 
William  Hutchinson,  whom  she  accompanied  to  Boston 
in  1636.  She  taught  many  doctrines  which  were  con- 
demned as  heretical  by  the  Synod  of  1637.  Mrs.  Hutchin- 
son herself  was  banished,  and  in  1642  removed  to  what 
is  now  Westchester  county.  New  York.  The  next  year 
her  house  was  set  on  fire  by  the  Indians,  and  she  and  all 
her  family,  consisting  of  sixteen  persons,  (except  a  child 
taken  captive,)  either  perished  in  the  flames  or  were 
killed  by  the  savages. 

See  "Life  of  Anne  Hutchinson,"  by  George  E.  Ellis,  in 
Sparks's  "American  Biography,"  vol.  vi.,  2d  series;  Hildreth's 
"  History  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  i.  chap.  ix. 

Hutchinson,  (John,)  Colonel,  an  English  Puritan 
and  regicide,  born  at  Nottingham  in  1616.  In  1638  he 
married  Lucy  Apsley.  (See  Hutchinson,  Lucy.)  In  1642 
he  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  army 
of  Parliament,  and  next  year  was  appointed  governor 
of  the  town  and  castle  of  Nottingham,  which  he  bravely 
defended  in  a  long  siege  against  the  royalists.  He  was  one 
of  the  judges  who  condemned  Charles  I.,  and  afterwards 
was  a  member  of  the  council  of  state.  He  was  hostile 
to  the  government  of  Cromwell.  After  the  restoration 
he  was  included  in  the  act  of  amnesty,  but,  on  a  ground- 
less suspicion  of  a  treasonable  conspiracy,  was  confined 
in  the  Tower  and  Sandown  Castle  from  1662  to  his  death 
in  1664.  His  character  was  excellent,  and  free  from  the 
austere  errors  to  which  the  Puritans  were  most  inclined. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Colonel  Hutchinson,"  by  his  wife,  1806. 

Hutchinson,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  born  at 
Spennithorne  in  1674,  was  the  founder  of  the  Hutchin- 
sonian  or  mystical  school  of  biblical  interpretation.  He 
was  employed  as  steward  by  the  Duke  of  Somerset,  and 
afterwards  as  his  riding-purveyor.  His  first  work,  called 
"  Moses'  Principia,"  was  designed  to  refute  the  argu- 
ments of  Newton's  "Principia."  He  published,  also,  a 
"  Treatise  on  Power,  Essential  and  Mechanical,"  "Glory 
or  Gravity,  Essential  and  Mechanical,"  "  The  Hebrew 
Writings  Complete,"  "  Moses  sine  Principio,"  and  other 
works.  His  leading  idea  is  that  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
contain  the  elements  of  natural  philosophy  as  well  as 
of  religion.  His  views  excited  much  controversy,  and 
were  adopted  by  Bishop  Home,  Parkhurst,  and  other 
eminent  divines.    Died  in  1737. 

See  Julius  Bates,  "Defence  of  John  Hutchinson's  Tenets," 
1751  ;  Floyd,  "  Bibliotheca  Biographica." 

Hutchinson,  (John  Hely,)  an  Irish  statesman  and 
lawyer,  born  in  171 5,  resided  in  Dublin,  and  became 
secretary  of  state.    Died  in  1794. 

Hutchinson,  (John  Hely,)  a  British  general,  born 
in  1757,  was  the  second  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1774.  Having  gained  distinction  in 
the  Irish  rebellion,  he  was  made  major-general  in  1796. 
In  1800  he  went  to  Egypt  as  second  in  command  under 
Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie.  When  the  latter  was  killed,  in 
March,  1801,  Hutchinson  succeeded  to  the  command, 
and  obliged  the  French  army  under  Menou  to  capitulate 
at  Alexandria  in  the  same  year.  He  was  rewarde-d  for 
these  services  by  the  title  of  Baron  Hutchinson.  In 
1825,  on  the  death  of  his  brother,  he  inherited  the  title 
of  Earl  of  Donoughmore.    Died  in  1832. 

Hutchinson,  (Lucy,)  an  English  authoress  of  great 
merit,  was  the  daughter  of  Sir  Allan  Apsley,  lieutenant 
of  the  Tower  of  London,  in  which  Tower  she  was  born 
in  1620.  She  was  married  in  1638  to  Colonel  John 
Hutchinson,  noticed  above,  after  having  received  a  liberal 
education.  She  shared  the  counsels  and  dangers  of  her 
husband  in  the  civil  war,  attended  him  in  prison,  and 
wrote  Memoirs  of  his  life,  (1806,)  which  are  greatly 
admired.   "  We  have  not  often  met  with  anything,"  says 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long-;  k,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit ;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


HUTCHINSON 


1233 


HUXLET 


Lord  Jeffrey,  *' more  interesting  and  curious  than  this 
volume.  ...  It  challenges  our  attention  as  containing  an 
accurate  and  luminous  account  of  military  and  political 
affairs  from  the  hand  of  a  woman,  and  as  exhibiting  the 
most  liberal  and  enlightened  sentiments  in  the  person 
of  a  Puritan.  The  views  which  it  opens  into  the  char- 
acter of  the  writer  and  the  manners  of  the  age  will  be  to 
many  a  still  more  powerful  attraction." 

See  "Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englisliwomen,"  by  Louisa  S.  Cos- 
TELLO,  London,  1844:  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  i8o8, 
(vol.  xiii.  ;)  "Monk's  Contemporaries,"  by  GuiZOT,  London,  1865. 

Hutchinson,  (Richard  Hely,)  Earl  of  Donough- 
more,  born  in  Dublin  in  1756,  was  the  eldest  son  of  John 
H.  Hutchinson,  noticed  above.  He  served  in  the  army 
during  the  Irish  rebellion  of  1798,  and  in  1800  was  raised 
to  the  peerage,  as  Earl  of  Donoughmore.  In  1805  he 
obtained  the  rank  of  major-general.  In  Parliament  he 
advocated  with  zeal  and  constancy  the  claims  of  the 
Catholics.  He  was  created  a  peer  of  the  United  King- 
dom in  1821.    Died  in  1825. 

Hutchinson,  (Roger,)  an  early  English  Reformer, 
became  Fellow  of  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1543.  He  left  theological  works,  which  were  published 
in  1842.    Died  in  1555. 

Hutchinson,  (Thomas,)  a  royal  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, was  born  in  Boston  in  1711.  He  became  a 
judge  of  probate  in  1752,  and  chief  justice  of  Massachu- 
setts in  1760.  His  course  in  relation  to  the  Stam])  Act 
rendered  him  very  unpopular.  He  succeeded  Bernard 
as  governor  in  1769,  and  pursued  a  policy  v/hich  tended 
to  provoke  a  revolt  in  the  colonies.  When  the  tea  was 
brought  to  Boston  in  1773,  the  inhabitants,  in  town- 
meeting,  resolved  that  it  should  not  be  landed,  but  be 
returned  to  its  owners.  Hutchinson,  however,  refused  to 
grant  the  ships  a  pass.  The  result  was  the  destruction 
of  the  tea  by  citizens  in  the  disguise  of  Indians,  In  1 772, 
Dr.  Franklin,  colonial  agent  in  London,  had  sent  over 
to  Massachusetts  confidential  letters  written  by  Hut- 
chinson to  England,  which  showed  that  his  whole  policy 
had  been  characterized  by  duplicity  and  evasion, — that, 
professing  to  be  the  friend  of  the  colony,  he  had  secretly 
advised  the  sending  of  troops  to  Boston,  and  other 
obnoxious  measures.  He  retired  to  England  in  1774. 
Died  near  London  in  1780.  His  principal  works  are  a 
"  History  of  the  Province  of  Massachusetts  Bay  from 
1628  to  1749,"  (2  vols.  8vo,  issued  in  1764-67,)  and  a 
"  Collection  of  Original  Papers  relative  to  the  History 
of  Massachusetts  Bay,"  (1769.)  The  "North  American 
Review"  calls  his  work  "a  mine  of  wealth  to  all  future 
historians  and  antiquaries."  "It  is  written,"  says  Ban- 
croft, "  with  lively  inquisitiveness  and  lawyer-like  criti- 
cism, though  without  a  glimpse  of  the  great  truths  which 
were  the  mighty  causes  of  the  revolution  he  describes." 

See  Allen's  "American  Biographical  Dictionary." 

Huth,  hoot,  (Georg  Leonhard,)  a  German  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Nuremberg  in  1705  ;  died  in  1761. 

Hutin,  //ii'tiN',  (Charles,)  a  French  painter  and 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1715,  worked  mostly  at  Dres- 
den, where  he  died  in  1776. 

Hutten,  von,  fon  hoot'ten,  [Lat.  Hutte'nus,]  (Ul- 
rich,)  a  German  poet,  and  one  of  the  earliest  Protestant 
Reformers,  born  near  Fulda  in  1488.  He  studied  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  and  afterwards  at  Pavia,  in  Italy. 
About  1520  he  repaired  to  Mentz,  where  he  published  a 
succession  of  severe  attacks  on  the  Roman  clergy,  and 
soon  after  became  acquainted  with  Luther,  whose  cause 
he  openly  espoused.  Owing  to  the  persecution  he  now 
encountered,  he  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Switzerland, 
where  he  died  in  1523.  He  possessed  rare  talents,  but 
lacked  discretion.  Among  his  works  are  "  Epistolce  Ob- 
scurorum  Virorum,"  satires  on  certain  pedants,  {1516.) 

See  ScHUBART,  "  Leben  Ulrich  von  Hutten's,"  1791;  Burckhard, 
"  Conimentariiis  de  Fatis  et  Mentis  Ulrici  Hutteni,"  1717-23: 
Strauss,  "  Uh-ich  von  Hutten,"  185S;  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Criti- 
cal Dictionary;"  Wagrnseii.,  "  U.  von  Hutten  nach  seinem  Leben," 
etc.,  1823 ;  Zeller,  "  U.  de  Hutten,  sa  Vie,  ses  CEuvres,  son  Temps," 
Paris,  1849;  Gervinus,  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen  National-Lite- 
ratur;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  "Eraser's  Magazine" 
for  August,  1849. 

Huttenus.    See  Hutten. 

Hutter,  hoot'ter,  (?2lias,)  a  German  linguist,  born  at 
Ulm  about  1555.  He  published  an  edition  of  the  Bible 
in  Hebrew,  and  a  Polyglot  Bible.    Died  about  1602. 


Hutter,  [Lat.  Hutte'rus,]  (Leonhard,)  a  German 
theologian,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  bora  at  Ulm 
in  1563.  He  was  noted  for  his  rigour  and  excessive  zeai 
for  Lutheranism.  He  was  professor  of  theologv  at  Wit- 
tenberg from  I596until  1616.  Among  his  numerous  works 
is  a  "  Compendium  of  Theological  Subjects,"  ("  Compen- 
dium Locorum  theologicorum,"  1610.)    Died  in  1616. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  J  G.  Neu- 
mann, "  Programma  de  Vita  L.  Hutteri,"  1706. 

Hutterus.    See  Hutter. 

Hut'ton,  (Charles,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  English 
mathematician,  born  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  in  1737, 
was  employed  for  some  years  as  a  teacher  in  his  native 
place.  Here  he  published  treatises  on  arithntetic  and 
mensuration.  From  1773  to  1806  he  was  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  Military  Academy  at  Woolwich.  In 
1774  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  which 
he  also  served  as  foreign  secretary  and  enriched  with 
able  scientific  memoirs.  He  acquired  celebrity  by  nu- 
merous works,  among  which  are  "  Mathematical  Tables," 
(1785,)  "Elements  of  Conic  Sections,"  a  "Mathematical 
and  Philosophical  Dictionary,"  (1795,)  a  "Course  of 
Mathematics,"  (1798,)  etc.  From  1804  to  i8o9he  assisted 
Shaw  and  Pearson  in  abridging  the  "  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions." He  was  eminent  for  benevolence,  modesty, 
and  simplicity  of  character.  In  1807  his  services  were 
rewarded  by  a  pension  of  ;^5oo.    Died  in  1823. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  "Gen- 
tleman's Magazine"  for  1823. 

Hut'ton,  (James,)  M.D.,  a  philosopher  and  geologist, 
distinguished  as  the  author  of  the  Plutonian  theory  of 
geology,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1726.  He  gradu- 
ated as  M.D.  at  Leyden  in  1749.  About  1768  he  became 
again  a  resident  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  "  Dissertation  on  the  Piiilosophy 
of  Light,  Heat,  and  Fire,"  (1794,)  and  "Theory  of  the 
Earth,"  (1795.)  His  geological  theory  excited  much 
discussion  and  op]50sition,  being  attacked  by  Kirwan  and 
defended  by  Professor  Playfair,  who  wrote  "  Illustra- 
tions of  the  Huttonian  Theory  of  the  Earth,"  (1802.) 
Died  in  1797. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"Edinburgh  Review,"  vol.  ii. 

Hutton,  (Matthew,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
1529,  was  made  Bishop  of  Durham  in  1589,  and  Arch- 
bishop of  York  in  1594.  He  wrote  a  work  on  Predes- 
tination.   Died  in  1605. 

Hutton,  (Matthew,)  became  Archbishop  of  York 
in  1747,  and  was  translated  to  Canterbury  in  1757.  He 
published  several  sermons.    Died  in  1758. 

Hutton,  (William,)  an  English  antiquary  and  author, 
born  of  poor  parents  at  Derby  in  1723.  He  received  a 
defective  education.  At  the  age  of  fifty-six  he  commenced 
his  career  as  an  author.  His  chief  works  are  a  "  History 
of  Birmingham,"  (1781,)  a  "History  of  Derby,"  (1790,) 
"Edgar  and  Elfrida,"  a  poem,  "The  Roman  Wall," 
(1801,)  and  an  instructive  volume  of  "Autobiography," 
(1816.)  His  daughter  Catherine  wrote  "  the  Miser 
Married,"  a  novel.    He  died  in  181 5. 

See  his  "  Autobiography ;"  "  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Diffi- 
culties," vol.  i. 

Huve,  h'n'vbi',  (Jean  Jacques  Marie,)  a  French 
architect,  born  at  Versailles  in  1783.  He  succeeded 
Vignon  as  architect  of  the  grand  church  La  Madeleine, 
which  he  finished.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute 
in  1838.    Died  in  1852. 

See  Charles  Lenormanu,  "  Notice  sur  J.  J.  M.  Huve,"  1853. 

Hux'ham,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  born  at 
Halberton  in  1694,  studied  under  Boerhaave  at  Leyden, 
and  practised  with  success  at  Plymouth.  He  wrote 
several  popular  books  on  medicine,  one  of  which  is  an 
"Essay  on  Fevers,"  (1750.)    Died  in  1768. 

Hux'ley,  (Thomas  Henry,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent 
English  physiologist  and  naturalist,  born  at  Ealing, 
Middlesex,  in  1825.  He  was  in  his  youth  a  surgeon 
in  the  royal  navy.  About  1848  he  produced  a  treatise 
"On  the  Anatomy  and  Affinities  of  the  Family  of  the 
Medusae."  He  succeeded  E.  Forbes  as  professor  of 
palaeontology  in  the  School  of  Mines  about  1854,  and 
became  professor  of  physiology  at  the  Royal  Institution. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  a  "History  of  the  Oceanic 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

78 


HUTDECOPER 


1234 


HTACINTHE 


Hydrozoa,"  (1857,)  "Man's  Place  in  Nature,"  (1863,) 
"Lectures  on  the  Elements  of  Comparative  Anatomy," 
(1864,)  and  an  essay  entitled  "Protoplasm;  or,  The 
Physical  Basis  of  Life,"  (1869.)  In  1869  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  British  Association  for  1870.  He  con- 
tributed numerous  memoirs  to  the  Transactions  of  the 
Royal  Geological  and  Zoological  Societies.  He  is  a  very 
popular  lecturer  on  natural  science,  and  stands  in  the  fore- 
most rank  among  British  physiologists  and  naturalists. 
In  natural  science  he  favours  the  Darwinian  theory. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1863 ;  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  iS6q. 

Huydecoper,  hoi'deh-ko'per,  (Balthasar,)  a  Dutch 
poet  and  excellent  critic,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1695. 
He  produced  "  Arsaces,"  (1722,)  and  three  other  trage- 
dies, a  good  metrical  version  of  the  Satires,  Epistles,  and 
"Ars  Poetica"  of  Horace,  (1737,)  and  other  poems. 
His  "Essays,  Philological  and  Poetical,  or  Observations 
on  Vondel's  Dutch  Version  of  Ovid's  Metamorphoses," 
(1730,)  are  highly  commended.  "All  that  he  has  done 
in  this  department,"  says  the  "Biographic  Universelle," 
"is  classical."    Died  in  1778. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Van 
Effen,  "  HoUandische  Spectator,"  vol.  iv.  ;  Schotel,  "Commen- 
tatio  de  B.  Huydecoperi  in  Linguam  Literasque  Belgicas  Meritis," 
Leyden,  1830. 

Huygens  or  Huyghens,  hl'gens,  [Dutch  pron.  almost 
hoi''Hens  ;  Lat.  HuGE^NIUS,]  (Christi^j^,)  a  celebrated 
Dutch  astronomer  and  geometer,  born  at  the  Hague, 
April  14,  1629.  He  inherited  the  title  of  Lord  of  Zuy- 
lichem.  About  the  age  of  sixteen  he  went  to  Leyden, 
where  he  studied  law  and  mathematics  under  Vinnius 
and  Schooten.  Soon  after  leaving  the  university,  he 
began  to  distinguish  himself  by  his  admirable  scientific 
discoveries  and  mechanical  inventions.  In  1651  he  pub- 
lished his  "Theorems  on  the  Quadrature  of  the  Hyper- 
bola," etc.,  and  in  1656  discovered  a  satellite  of  Saturn 
with  a  telescope  of  his  own  construction.  In  1657  he 
rendered  important  service  to  science  and  society  by 
improving  the  clock,  being  the  first  to  apply  the  pendu- 
lum to  the  measurement  of  time.  Two  years  later  he 
published,  in  his  "  System  of  Saturn,"  a  description  of 
Saturn's  ring,  which  he  had  discovered  with  a  telescope 
of  twenty-two  feet  focal  length.  These  and  other 
successes  had  rendered  him  pre-eminent  among  the 
contemporary  savants  and  philosophers  of  all  nations. 
Newton  was  then  a  young  student  preparing  to  rival 
or  surpass  him.  The  years  1660  and  1661  were  passed 
by  Huygens  in  France  and  England.  In  1663  he  was 
chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  From 
1665  to  1681  he  resided  in  Paris,  whither  Colbert  had 
invited  him  in  order  to  add  eclat  to  the  newly-founded 
Academy  of  Sciences.  In  this  period  he  demonstrated 
the  law  of  the  impact  of  bodies,  {1669,)  wrote  an  elegant 
treatise  on  Dioptrics,  and  published  his  great  work 
entitled  "  Horologium  Oscillatorium,"  (1673,)  dedicated 
to  Louis  XIV.  Besides  the  theory  of  the  pendulum, 
this  work  contains  several  very  important  mechanical 
discoveries,  among  which  are  the  fact  that  the  cycloid 
is  the  curve  all  the  arcs  of  which,  measured  from  the 
lowest  point,  are  synchronous,  and  the  theory  (without 
demonstration)  of  the  centrifugal  force  in  circular  mo- 
tion, by  which  he  made  a  near  approach  to  those  laws 
of  gravitation  afterwards  proved  by  Newton,  He  has 
the  credit  of  inventing  the  spiral  spring  which  is  used 
to  regulate  the  balance  of  watches,  which  invention  was 
also  claimed  by  Hautefeuille.  In  1681  Huygens  returned 
to  Holland,  where  he  spent  some  years  in  constructing 
a  planetarium,  and  telescopes  of  enormous  dimensions, 
one  of  which  had  a  focal  length  of  two  hundred  and  ten 
feet.  In  1690  appeared  (in  French)  his  "  Treatise  on  the 
Cause  of  Gravity,"  and  a  "  Treatise  on  Light,"  which  is 
esteemed  one  of  his  greatest  works.  It  contains  argu- 
ments in  favour  of  the  undulatory  theory,  which  was  first 
proposed  by  him  and  is  now  generally  adopted.  Died 
in  1695.  He  left  a  work  styled  "  Cosmotheoros,"  (printed 
in  1698,)  in  which  he  advances  bold  speculations  or  con- 
jectures on  the  constitution  of  the  planets,  which  he 
believed  to  be  inhabited.  Huygens  was  never  married. 
He  loved  retirement,  and  maintained  a  good  character 
as  a  man.    He  kept  up  a  friendly  correspondence  with 


Leibnitz  and  Newton,  the  latter  of  whom  called  him 
"  Summus  Hugenius." 

See  "  Vita  Hiigenii,"  prefixed  to  his  "Opera  Varia,"  1724;  Con- 
DORCET,  "Eloge  de  Huygens;"  Ersch  und  Cruder,  "Allgemeine 
Encyklopaedie;"  Montucla,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques  ;"  De- 
LAMBRE,  "  Histoire  de  TAstronoinie  nioderne;"  P.  H.  Pkeri.kamp, 
"Annotatio  in  Vitam  C.  Hugenii,"  1821  ;  M.  Lemans,  "  Lebens- 
beschrijving  van  C.  Huijgens;"  Dr.  F.  Hoefer,  article  in  the 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Huygens  or  Huijgens,  (Constanttjn,)  Seigneur  of 
Zuylichem,  (or  Zulichem,)  born  at  the  Hague  in  1596,  was 
the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  acted  with  credit  as 
secretary  to  three  successive  princes  of  Orange,  the  last 
of  whom  was  William  HI.  of  England.  He  wrote  Latin 
epigrams,  and  other  poetical  performances,  which  were 
received  with  favour.    Died  in  1687. 

See  his  Autobiography,  in  verse,  entitled  "De  Vita  propria  Ser- 
mones  ;"  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary,"  (in  Z  ;)  Long- 
fellow, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Schinkel,  "  Bijdrage  tot 
de  Kennis  van  het  Karakter  van  C.  Huijgens,"  1842;  "Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  May,  1854. 

Huyghens,  Hoi'Hcns,  (Gomarus,)  a  Dutch  Roman 
Catholic  theologian,  born  in  Brabant  in  1631;  died  in  1702. 

Huypt,  /?u'yo',  (Jean  Nicolas,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1780.  He  passed  several  years  in  the 
Levant,  exploring  the  ruins  of  Ephesus,  Thebes,  Athens, 
and  other  cities.    Died  in  1840. 

Huysman,  hois'min,  sometimes  written  Houseman, 
(CoRNELis,)  an  eminent  Flemish  landscape-painter,  born 
at  Antwerp  in  1648.  He  worked  mostly  at  Malines, 
(Mechlin.)  His  colouring  is  praised  by  Descamps,  who 
also  observes  that  he  had  a  great  talent  for  painting 
mountains.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Disciples  Going 
to  Emmaus."    Died  in  1727. 

See  J.  C.  Weverman,  "  De  Schllderkonst  der  Nederlanders." 

Huysman  or  Houseman,  (Jacob,)  a  Flemish  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1656;  died 
in  London  in  1696. 

Huysum,  van,  vtn  hoi'siim,  (Jacob,)  brother  of  Jan, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  about  1680.  He 
excelled  in  flower-painting,  and  copied  several  of  his 
brother's  works  with  accuracy.  Died  in  London  in  1740. 

Another  brother,  Justus,  born  in  1684,  excelled  in 
battle-pieces,  but  died  prematurely  in  1706. 

Huysum,  van,  (Jan,)  a  celebrated  Dutch  painter, 
born  in  Amsterdam  in  1682,  was  a  pupil  of  his  father, 
Justus.  His  favourite  subjects  were  flowers  and  fruits, 
in  which  he  is  thought  to  be  unrivalled.  His  works  unite 
tasteful  composition,  richness  and  harmony  of  colour, 
freedom  of  touch,  and  exquisite  finish.  His  pictures 
were  often  adorned  with  insects,  dew-drops,  birds'  nests, 
etc.  He  had  a  peculiar  art  of  preparing  his  colours, 
which  he  always  kept  secret.    Died  in  1749. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Huysum,  van,  (Justus,)  the  Old,  a  Dutch  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Amsterdam  in  1659,  was  the  father 
of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1716. 

Huzard,  //u'ztR',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  noted  French 
veterinary  physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1755,  was  a  member 
of  the  Institute.  He  wrote  numerous  aljle  and  popular 
works  on  the  vet^i'lnary  art  and  rural  economy,  and  he 
had  collected  a  library  of  forty  thousand  volumes  per- 
taining to  his  speciality.  Died  in  1839. 

See  Pariset,  "  :^loge  de  Hazard;"  Baron  Silvestre,  "Notice 
sur  Huzard." 

Hvergelmir.    See  Nidhogg. 

Hvitfeld,  hvif'feld,  (Arild,)  a  Danish  historian, 
born  in  1549.  In  1586  he  attained  the  dignity  of  senator, 
and  afterwards  was  chancellor  of  the  kingdom.  He  wrote 
a  "  Chronicle  of  the  Kingdom  of  Denmark,"  which  is 
considered  authentic.    Died  in  1609. 

See  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "  Litteraturlexicon  for  Danemark." 

Hwiid,  hweed,  (Andreas  Christian,)  a  Danish  critic, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1749,  was  educated  for  the  church, 
and  was  skilled  in  Oriental  languages.  He  published  a 
"  Life  of  Cyrus  the  Great  and  the  Younger,"  and  several 
commentaries  on  Scripture.    Died  in  1788. 

Hyaointhe.    See  Hyacinthus. 

Hyacinthe,  e't'siNt^  (Charles  Loyson,)  Pere,  an 
eniinent  French  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Orleans  about 
1828.  He  became  a  Carmelite  monk,  preached  for  some 
time  in  Lyons,  and  removed  about  1865  to  Paris,  where 
his  conferences  in  the  church  of  Notre-Dame  attracted 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


HTACINTHUS  1235 


HTLLUS 


much  attention.  In  September,  1869,  he  pubh'shed,  in 
a  letter  to  the  general  of  his  order,  a  protest  against  the 
ultramontane  doctrines  and  practices  of  the  Roman 
Church,  called  forth  by  the  Encyclical  letter  by  which 
the  pope  had  convened  a  general  council.  This  protest 
caused  a  great  commotion  in  the  religious  world.  "  Since 
Luther,"  says  Mr.  Bigelow,  "  there  has  been  no  such 
signal  revolt  against  the  authority  of  the  Romish  hier- 
archy." About  October,  1869,  he  visited  the  United 
States.  It  appears  that  he  has  not  formally  separated 
from  the  communion  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

See  notice  of  "  Father  Hyacinthe  and  his  Church,"  in  "  Putnam's 
Monthly  Magazine"  for  January,  1870,  (by  John  Bigelow.) 

Hy-a-cin'thus,  [Gr.  'TamvQog ;  Fr.  Hyacinthe,  e't'- 
s^Nt',]  a  beautiful  Spartan  youth,  beloved  by  Apollo,  by 
whom  he  was  accidentally  killed  in  a  game  of  discus. 
The  poets  feigned  that  Apollo  changed  him  into  the 
flower  called  Hyacinth. 

Hy^a-des,  [Gr.  Tac5ef,]  Anglicised  as  Hy'ads,  nymphs 
of  classic  mythology,  and  daughters  of  Atlas.  According 
to  the  poetic  legend,  they  were  changed  into  stars,  and 
now  form  part  of  the  constellation  of  Taurus.  When 
they  rose  and  set  with  the  sun,  it  was  regarded  as  a  sign 
of  rainy  weather. 

Hy'att,  (John,)  a  Calvinistic  Methodist  preacher, 
born  in  1767,  officiated  in  the  Tabernacle,  London.  He 
published  several  volumes  of  sermons.    Died  in  1826. 

Hyb're-as,  yUBpea^,]  an  eminent  Greek  orator,  a 
native  of  Caria,  flourished  about  40  B.C. 

Hyde,  (Anne,)  a  daughter  of  Lord  Clarendon,  was 
born  in  1637.  She  was  married  about  1660  to  the  Duke 
of  York,  afterwards  James  II.  She  was  the  mother  of 
Queen  Mary  and  Queen  Anne.    Died  in  167 1. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Eminent  EngHshwomen,"  by  Louisa  Stuart 

COSTEI.LO. 

Hyde,  (Edward.)    See  Clarendon,  Earl  of. 

Hyde,  (Henry.)    See  Clarendon,  Earl  of. 

Hyde,  (Lawrence,)  M.P.,  son  of  Sir  Nicholas  Hyde, 
distinguished  himself  by  his  successful  efforts  in  pro- 
moting the  escape  of  Charles  II.  after  the  battle  of  Wor- 
cester. The  king  passed  one  night  in  the  house  of 
Lawrence  Hyde's  tenant,  and  thence  was  conducted  by 
Hyde  to  the  sea-shore.    Died  in  1682. 

Hyde,  (Lawrence,)  first  Earl  of  Rochester,  was  the 
second  son  of  Edward,  Earl  of  Clarendon.  He  was 
an  ultra  Tory,  and  was  the  leader  of  the  High-Church 
iparty  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  He  became  first  com- 
missioner of  the  treasury  in  1679.  At  the  accession 
of  James  II.,  in  1685,  he  was  appointed  lord  treasurer, 
(prime  minister.)  Though  extremely  subservient  to  the 
policy  of  the  king,  he  was  removed  from  ofiice  in  Decem- 
ber, 1686,  because  he  would  not  turn  Roman  Catholic. 
After  the  flight  of  James  II.,  Hyde  gave  his  adhesion  to 
William  IH.    Died  in  171 1. 

See  Macaulav,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chaps,  ii.  and  iv., 
vol.  ii.  chaps,  vi.,  ix.,  and  x. 

Hyde,  (Sir  Nicholas,)  an  English  iudge,  born  in 
1572,  was  the  father  of  Lawrence  Hyde,  and  uncle  of  the 
first  Earl  of  Clarendon.  He  was  appointed  chief  justice 
of  the  king's  bench  in  1626,  and  presided  when  Sir  John 
Eliot  was  unjustly  condemned  to  prison.    Died  in  163 1. 

Hyde,  (Thomas,)  D.  D.,  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
in  Shropshire  in  1636,  became  Archdeacon  of  Gloucester 
in  1678,  professor  of  Arabic  at  Oxford  in  1691,  and  regius 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  1697.  He  excelled  in  Oriental 
languages,  and  was  interpreter  of  the  same  to  Charles 
II.,  James  II.,  and  William  III.  From  1665  to  1701  he 
was  principal  librarian  of  the  Bodleian  Library.  He  pub- 
lished a  treatise  on  Chinese  weights  and  measures,  (1688,) 
and  one  on  "Oriental  Games,"  (1694.)  His  principal 
work,  a  "  History  of  the  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Per- 
sians and  Magi,"  in  Latin,  (1700,)  displays  a  vast  erudi- 
tion, and  for  a  long  time  had  a  great  reputation.  "The 
variety  and  novelty  of  its  contents,"  says  Hallam,  "gave 
this  book  a  credit  which  in  some  degree  it  preserves; 
but  Hyde  was  ignorant  of  the  ancient  language  of  Persia, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  often  misled  by  Mohammedan 
authorities."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Eu- 
rope.") He  wrote  other  works,  and  compiled  dictiona- 
ries of  the  Persian  and  Turkish  languages.  Died  in  1703. 

See  "Biographia  Britannica  ;"  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 


Hyde  de  Neuville,  h^d  deh  nuh''v^K,  (Jean  Guil- 
LAUME,)  a  French  politician,  born  in  the  department  of 
Nievre  in  1776.  He  was  an  active  royalist  during  the 
republic  and  the  empire.  After  the  restoration  he  acted 
with  the  ultra  royalists  as  a  deputy  in  1815,  and  was 
minister  to  the  United  States  of  North  America  from  1816 
to  1821.  He  was  minister  of  the  marine  in  the  Mar- 
tignac  cabinet  for  a  short  time  in  1828.    Died  in  1857. 

Hyder,  the  German  of  Hydra,  which  see. 

Hyder-Alee  or  Hyder- Ali,  hiMer  c^'lee,  [sometimes 
written,  in  French,  Haider-Ali,]  a  celebrated  Hindoo 
prince,  born  about  1 718,  entered  the  army  of  the  Rajah 
of  Mysore.  His  military  talents  procured  his  promotion 
to  the  command  of  an  army,  with  which  he  captured  Ban- 
galore and  fought  against  the  Mahrattas.  About  1759,  by 
a  bold  and  successful  cotip  d'etat,  he  obtained  the  chief 
power  in  Mysore,  leaving  his  former  master  the  title  of 
rajah  and  a  pension.  The  English,  alarmed  by  his  en- 
croachments, formed  a  league  with  the  Mahrattas  against 
him,  (1766.)  In  the  war  that  ensued,  Hyder  gained  such 
advantages  that  the  English  sued  for  peace  and  entered 
into  alliance  with  him,  (1769.)  In  1771  he  was  defeated 
by  the  piratical  Mahrattas,  the  English  having  failed 
to  aid  him  according  to  the  treaty.  Having  made  an 
alliance  with  the  French  and  the  Mahrattas  against  the 
English,  he  suddenly  invaded  the  Carnatic  in  1780,  took 
several  fortresses,  defeated  some  detachments,  and  rav- 
aged the  country  almost  to  the  walls  of  Madras.  In 
1782  he  was  defeated  by  Sir  Eyre  Coote  at  Porto  Novo, 
and  died  in  the  same  year,  leaving  his  throne  to  his  son, 
Tippoo  Sahib.  Hyder  was  a  Mussulman.  He  is  reputed 
the  most  able  enemy  the  British  have  had  to  contend 
with  in  India. 

See  Meer  Hussein  Ali  Khan  Kirmain,  "  History  of  Hyder  Ali," 
(translated  into  English  by  Colonel  W.  Miles,  1842;)  F.  Robson, 
"Life  of  Hyder-Ali,"  1786;  M.  Carpani,  "  Memorie  sopra  la  Vita 
d'Hyder  Ali,"  1784:  Joseph  Michaud,  "  Histoire  du  Progres  et  de 
la  Chute  de  I'Enipirede  Mysore,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1801. 

Hy'dra,  [Gr.  "Tf5pa;  Fr.  Hydre,  ^dR;  Ger.  Hyder, 
hee'der  ;  It.  Idra,  ee'dRi,]  a  monster  which  infested  the 
Lernean  marsh  and  was  destroyed  by  Hercules.  It  was 
said  to  have  had  nine  heads.    (See  Hercules.) 

Hydre.    See  Hyj)ra. 

Hy-ge'ia  or  Hy-gi-ei'a,  [Gr.  "Tyieia ;  Fr.  Hygie, 
e'zhe',  or  Hyg^:e,  e'zhi',]  written  also  Hygea  or  Hygia, 
the  goddess  of  health,  in  Greek  mythology,  said  to  be  the 
daughter  of  Asclepias.  She  was  represented  as  holding 
a  cup  in  one  hand,  and  in  the  other  a  serpent,  drinking 
from  the  cup. 

Hygie  or  Hygee.    See  Hygeia. 

Hy-g^nus  [Fr.  Hygin,  e'zhiN^]  became  Bishop  of 
Rome  in  138  A.D.,  and  died  in  142.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  Greek. 

Hy-gi'nus  or  Higinus,  (Caius  Julius,)  a  Roman 
grammarian,  born  in  Spain  or  Alexandria.  Originally 
a  slave,  he  was  set  free  by  Augustus  Caesar,  who  gave 
him  charge  of  the  Palatine  Library.  He  wrote  a  "  Com- 
mentary on  Virgil,"  and  other  esteemed  works,  which 
are  lost.  Other  works  bearing  his  name  are  extant,  viz., 
"Mythological  Fables,"  and  "  Poeticon  Astronomicon," 
but  are  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  a  Hyginus 
who  lived  at  a  later  date. 

See  Bunte,  "Dissertatio  de  C.  J.  Hygini  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1846. 

Hyksos.    See  Shepherd  Kings. 

Hylander,  hii-lin'der,  (Anders,)  a  Swedish  Orien- 
talist, born  at  Tunhem  in  1750  ;  died  in  1830. 

Hylaret,  h&'Wxy,  (Maurice,)  a  French  monk  and 
preacher,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1539,  was  a  partisan  of 
the  League.    Died  in  1591. 

HyTas,  [Gr.  "T/laf,]  a  favourite  of  Plercules,  whom  he 
accompanied  in  the  Argonautic  expedition.  The  Naiads, 
enamoured  with  his  beauty,  drew  him  into  the  water,  so 
that  he  was  lost  to  Hercules  forever. 

Hyll,  hil,  (.?)  (Alban,)  an  English  physician,  who  prac- 
tised in  London  with  a  high  reputation.  He  wrote  a 
"Commentary  on  Galen."    Died  in  1559. 

HylTus,  [Gr.  "YXAof,]  a  son  of  Hercules  andDejanira, 
was  persecuted  by  Eurystheus,  and  after  the  death  of 
his  father  was  the  leader  of  the  Heracli'dae.  Aided  by 
the  Athenians,  he  invaded  Peloponnesus,  and  defeated 
Eurystheus,  whom  he  killed  with  his  own  hand. 


c     k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this.    (^^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


HYMEN 


1236  *  HTWELL 


Hy'm^n  or  Hymenaeus,  him-e-nee'us,  [Gr,  'Taiiv  or 
'Tixevaiog;  Fr.  Hymen,  e'm^i/,  or  Hymene:e,  e^mana',] 
the  god  of  marriage  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  was 
represented  as  a  handsome  youth,  crowned  with  flowers, 
and  holding  a  nuptial  torch  in  his  hand.  According  to 
one  tradition,  he  was  a  son  of  Apollo  and  one  of  the 
Muses.  Another  account  makes  him  the  son  of  Bac- 
chus and  Venus. 

Hymir,  hl'mir,  written  also  Eymer,  [supposed  to  be 
derived  t'vom  /lu/nr,  the  "sea,"]  the  name  of  a  great  giant 
mentioned  in  the  Norse  mythology  as  the  owner  of  a 
huge  kettle,  a  mile  deep,  which  Thor  carried  off,  having 
first  placed  it  over  his  head,  so  that  he  was  entirely 
hidden  by  it.  It  was  the  same  giant  with  whom  Thor 
w^nt  a  fishing  and  caught  the  World-serpent. 

bee  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mytliology,"  vol.  i. ;  Mallet,  "North- 
ern Anticiiuties,"  vol.  ii.  Fable  XXVII 

Hym^ni-a,  [Gr.  'T/ivia;  Fr.  Hymnie,  ^m'ne',]  a  sur- 
name of  Diana,  under  which  she  was  worshipped  in 
Arcadia. 

Hymnie.    See  Hymnia. 

Hynd''f9rd,  (John  Carmichael,)  Earl  of,  a  Scot- 
tish diplomatist,  born  in  1701.  In  1741  he  was  employed 
with  credit  as  ambassador  to  the  Prussian  court,  and 
in  1744  was  sent  in  the  same  capacity  to  Russia.  After 
successful  efforts  to  terminate  the  war  of  the  Austrian 
succession  by  a  treaty  of  peace,  he  acted  as  envoy  to 
Vienna  in  1752.  In  1764  he  was  appointed  lord  vice- 
admiral  of  Scotland.    He  died  in  1767. 

Hypatia,  hl-pa'she-a,  [Gr.  'Tnarla;  Fr.  Hypatie, 
e'pt^te',]  a  celebrated  female  philosopher  and  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Alexandria  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth 
century.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Theon,  and  displayed 
even  greater  talents  than  this  famous  mathematician  in 
the  study  of  philosophy  and  the  sciences.  She  pursued 
her  studies  with  great  assiduity,  often  studying  late  in  the 
night.  After  having  improved  herself  by  travelling  and 
attending  lectures  at  Athens  of  the  most  distinguished 
teachers  of  philosophy,  she  returned  to  Alexandria, 
where  she  was  invited  by  the  magistrates  of  the  city 
to  teach  philosophy.  She  favoured  the  Neo-PIatonic 
philosophy.  She  had  many  celebrated  disciples,  some 
of  whom  embraced  Christianity  and  cherished  through 
life  feelings  of  friendship  for  her,  although  she  con- 
tinued to  worship  the  heathen  deities  of  Greece.  She 
was  noted  for  her  virtue,  her  beauty,  her  simplicity  of 
dress,  her  accomplishments,  and  her  strength  of  mind. 
Orestes,  the  prefect  of  Alexandria,  admired  her  wisdom, 
and  often  availed  himself  of  her  counsels.  Cyril,  the 
Christian  patriarch,  and  his  fanatical  monks,  appear  to 
have  regarded  Hypatia  as  the  principal  supporter  of  the 
old  religion  ;  and  at  last  their  frenzy  reached  such  a  point 
that  they  tore  her  from  her  chariot  as  she  was  going  to 
her  school,  and  murdered  her.  This  occurred  in  March, 
415  A.D.  The  works  of  Hypatia  were  destroyed  when 
the  Mohammedans  burned  the  library  of  Alexandria. 
Among  these  were  a  "Commentary  on  Diophantus," 
an  "Astronomical  Canon,"  and  a  "Commentary  on  the 
Conies  of  Apollonius  of  Perga."  The  titles  of  all  her 
other  works  are  lost. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "Memoires;"  Wernsdorf,  "  Quatre  Disserta- 
tions sur  Hypatie  ;"  Charles  Kingsley's  historical  romance  entitled 
"  Hypatia." 

Hypatie.    See  Hypatia. 

Hy-per'bo-lus,  ['TnepSoTiog,]  an  Athenian  dema- 
gogue, born  about  450  B.C.,  was  a  leader  of  the  demo- 
cratic party  after  the  death  of  Cleon.  He  was  ostracised 
by  a  coalition  of  Nicias  and  Alcibiades  in  415.  Died 
about  410  B.C. 

Hyperide.  _  See  Hypertdes. 

Hy-per-i^es,  [Gr.  'Tnepe'idTjc  or  'T7repi%  ;  Fr.  Hype- 
ride, e^phfrhV,]  a  famous  Athenian  orator,  was  the 
son  of  Glancippus,  and  a  pupil  of  Plato.  He  was  iden- 
tified with  the  party  that  opposed  Philip  of  Macedon. 
After  the  battle  of  Chasrone'a,  (338  B.C.,)  he  proposed 
to  recall  the  exiles,  to  liberate  the  slaves,  and  to  take 
other  vigorous  measures,  which  were  adopted,  and  pro- 
cured peace  on  favourable  terms.  Having  refused  to 
touch  the  gold  with  which  Harpalus  corrupted  other 


orators  of  Athens,  he  was  chosen  to  conduct  the  prof»e« 
cution  against  Demosthenes  for  his  share  in  that  trans- 
action. Hyperides  was  put  to  death  by  Antipater  in 
322.  Cicero  ranks  him  next  to  Demosthenes ;  and  other 
ancient  critics  agree  that  his  eloquence  was  of  the  highest 
order.  He  is  the  only  one  of  the  Ten  Orators  of  Athens 
whose  orations  have  all  been  lost. 

See  Plutarch,  "  Vit^  Decern  Oratorum  ;"  Grote,  "  History  of 
Greece  ;"  Cicero,  "  Brutus,"  "  De  Oratore,"  and  "  Orator ;"  Kiess- 
LiNG,  "  De  Hyperide  Oratore  Attico,"  1737  ;  Quintilian,  book  xii. ; 
Thirlwall,  "History  of  Greece." 

Hy-per-i'on,  (or  hi-pee're-on,)  [Gr.  'TirEpiuv,]  in 
Greek  mythology,  the  name  of  a  Titan,  a  son  of  Uranus 
and  Ge,  (or  Terra,)  and  the  father  of  Aurora  and  Helios. 
In  Homer,  Hyperion  is  a  name  of  the  sun. 

Hy-pe'ri-us,  [Dutch  pron.  he-pa're-us,]  (AndrE  Ge- 
rard,) an  eminent  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Ypres 
in  151 1.  He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Marburg  from 
1542  to  1564.  Among  his  works  are  "  De  Formandis 
Concionibus  sacris,"  ("  On  the  Composition  of  Ser- 
mons," 1555,)  and  "  De  Theologo  seu  de  Ratione  Studii 
theologici,"  ("On  the  Theologian,  or  on  the  Method  of 
Theological  Study,"  1556.)    Died  in  1564. 

See  WiLHELM  Wille,  "  Program  ma  de  A.  Hyperio  Hassorum 
Theologo,"  1788;  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Hy-perm-nes'tra,  [Gr.  'TTzep/xvTjaTpa;  Fr.  Hyperm- 
nestre,  e^p§Rm'n§stV,]  one  of  the  Danaides,  which 
see. 

H;fp'si-cles,  ['TtpiKXfjg,]  a  Greek  mathematician  of 
an  uncertain  epoch,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  at  Alex- 
andria in  the  second  century.  He  wrote  a  treatise 
"  On  the  Right  Ascension  of  the  Constellations  of  the 
Zodiac,"  which  is  extant.  He  is  regarded  by  some  as 
the  author  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  books  of  the 
"  Elements"  of  Euclid.  According  to  Delambre,  he 
lived  about  146  B.C. 

Hyp-sip'y-le,  [Gr.  'TipLTzvltj,]  a  queen  of  Lemnos, 
who,  according  to  tradition,  saved  the  life  of  her  father 
when  the  other  women  of  the  island  killed  their  husbands 
and  male  relations.  She  was  afterwards  sold  into  slavery 
by  the  Lemnian  women. 

See  Lempriere's  "Classical  Dictionary." 

Hyrcan.    See  Hyrcanus. 

Hyr-ca^nus  [Gr.  'TpKavuc ;  Fr.  Hyrcan,  ^R'kSN'] 
(John,)  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  was  the  son  of  Simon 
Maccabeus,  whom  he  succeeded  in  135  B.C.  After  the 
death  of  Antiochus  Sidetes,  130  B.C.,  he  conquered  the 
Idumeans  and  destroyed  the  city  of  Samaria.  Though 
educated  as  a  Pharisee,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he 
favoured  their  rivals  the  Sadducees.  He  died  in  the 
year  103,  leaving  his  office  to  his  son  Aristobu'lus. 

See  JosEPHUs,  "History  of  the  Jews;"  Apocryphal  Book  of 
Maccabees. 

Hyrcanus  11.,  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  succeeded  his 
father,  Alexander  Jannseus,  in  76  B.C.  His  brother  Aristo- 
bu'lus  having  usurped  the  regal  power,  Hyrcanus,  who 
was  a  weak  prince,  appealed  to  the  Roman  Pompey, 
who  restored  him  to  the  throne  and  priesthood.  An- 
tigonus,  son  of  Aristobulus,  with  the  aid  of  the  Parthians, 
deposed  Hyrcanus  about  38  B.C.,  and  was  soon  after 
supplanted  by  Herod,  who  married  Mariamne,the  grand- 
daughter of  Hyrcanus,  and  put  the  latter  to  death,  30  B.C. 

.See  JosEPHUS,  "  History  of  the  Jews." 

Hyrtl,  h^R't'l,  (Joseph,)  an  able  anatomist,  born  at 
Eisenstadt,  Hungary,  in  1811.  He  became  professor  of 
anatomy  in  Vienna  in  1845.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Text-Book  of  Human  Anatomy,"  ("  Lehrbuch 
der  Anatomic  des  Menschen,"  2  vols.,  1847,)  which  has 
been  adopted  by  the  German  universities  as  a  standard. 

Hystaspe.    See  Hystaspes. 

Hys-tas'pes,  [Gr. 'T GTua-rvTjg  ;  Fr.  Hystaspe,  ^s'tSsp'; 
Persian,  GushtAsp,]  a  satrap  of  Persia,  and  the  father 
of  Darius  I.,  lived  about  550  B.C.  He  is  said  to  hav«- 
been  the  first  who  introduced  into  Persia  the  learning 
of  the  Indian  Brahmans.  According  to  one  account,  he 
was  the  chief  of  the  Magians,  which  accords  with  the 
Persian  tradition  that  Gushtasp  patronized  the  religion 
of  Zoroaster.    (See  GushtAsp.) 

Hywell.    See  Howell  the  Good. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lon^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  mli;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


UCCHUS 


1237 


IBN-KHALLIKAN 


L 


I-ac'-ehus,  [Gr.  'Ia/c,YOf,]  a  suiname  or  synonym  of 
Bacchus,  which  see. 

I-am'be,  [Gr.  'Iuw/St?,]  a  servant-maid  of  Metanira, 
Queen  of  Eleusis,  was  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Pan.  By 
her  jokes  or  tricks  she  amused  Ceres  when  the  latter 
was  in  distress.  Iambic  poetry  is  supposed  to  have 
derived  its  name  from  her. 

lamblichus.    See  Jambltchus. 

I-ap'e-tus,  [Gr.  'IcTre-of ;  Fr.  Japet,  zht^pi',]  in  classic 
mythology,  a  Titan,  and  a  son  of  Uranus.  He  was  the 
father  of  Atlas,  Prometheus,  Epimetheus,  and  Menoetius. 
He  is  by  some  considered  to  be  the  same  as  the  Japheth 
C)f  Scripture.  lapetus  was  regarded  by  the  ancient 
(jreeks  and  Romans  as  the  ancestor  of  the  human  race,* 
and,  according  to  Scripture,  the  descendants  of  Japheth 
inhabited  the  "isles  of  the  Gentiles,"  (Genesis  x.  5,) 
which  would  seem  to  signify  the  numerous  islands  along 
the  coasts  of  Europe  and  Asia  Minor,  and  probably 
also  the  adjacent  portions  of  the  two  continents  ;  in  other 
words,  all  that  part  of  the  world  with  which  the  early 
Greeks  were  acquainted. 

I-a'si-on  [Gr.  'laaiuv]  or  I-a'si-us,  a  fabulous  son  of 
Jupiter  and  Electra,  (or  of  Minos  and  Corythus.)  He 
is  said  to  have  been  beloved  by  Ceres,  who  bore  him  a 
son,  Plutus,  the  god  of  riches. 

Ibarra,  e-uir'ri,  (Joaquin,)  a  Spanish  printer,  born 
at  Saragossa  in  1725,  carried  on  business  in  Madrid. 
He  was  distinguished  for  the  perfection  of  his  publica- 
tions, especially  for  his  editions  of"  Don  Quixote,"  (1780,) 
and  a  Spanish  version  of  Sallust,  (1772.)    Died  in  1785. 

I'bas,  a  Syrian  priest  of  the  fifth  century,  acted  a 
prominent  part  in  the  disputes  about  Nestorianism.  He 
was  chosen  Bishop  of  Edessa  in  436  A. D.  At  the  Coun- 
cil of  Ephesus,  in  449,  he  was  deposed  on  the  charge  of 
favouring  the  Nestorians ;  but  he  was  reinstated  by  the 
Council  of  Chalcedony  in  451.    Died  in  457. 

Ib'bet-spn,  (Mrs.  Agnes,)  an  English  botanist,  born 
in  London  in  1757.  She  investigated  the  structure  of 
plants,  and  wrote  botanical  papers  which  were  inserted 
in  Nicholson's  "Journal"  and  the  "Philosophical  Maga- 
zine," (1809-17.)    Died  in  1823. 

Ibbetson,  (Julius  C/Esak,)  an  English  landscajje- 
painter,  born  at  Scarborough,  copied  and  imitated  with 
success  the  works  of  Berghem.  He  wrote  an  "  Accidence 
or  Gamut  of  Oil-Painting  for  Beginners."   Died  in  181 7. 

Ib'bot,  (Ben'Jamin,)  an  English  divine,  born  near 
Swaffliam,  in  Norfolk,  in  1680.  He  became  chaplain 
to  George  1.  in  1 7 16,  and  prebendary  of  Westminster 
in  1724.  He  delivered  the  Boyle  lectures  ii\  17 13-14. 
Died  in  1725.  Two  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  pub- 
lished in  1726. 

See  Dr.  S.  Clarke,  "  Life  of  Benjamin  Ibbot." 

Iberville,  d',  de'b^R'v^l',  (Lemoine  or  Lemoyne,) 
a  Canadian  navigator,  born  at  Montreal  in  1642,  distin- 
guished himself  in  many  actions  against  the  English, 
He  commanded  a  vessel  sent  by  the  French  government 
to  explore  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  which  he  dis- 
covered in  March,  1699,  He  ascended  the  river,  and 
built  a  fort  on  its  border.    Died  at  Havana  in  1706. 

Ibi,  ee'bee,  (Sinibaldo,)  an  Italian  painter,  a  pupil 
of  Perugino,  was  born  at  Perugia,  and  flourished  betweeJi 
1505  and  1528. 

IBN,  ib'n,  an  Arabic  word  signifying  "son,"  and 
forming  a  part  of  many  names  ;  as,  Ibn-Hanbal,  the 
"son  ofHanbal,"  etc.  It  is  often  written  Ben;  as,  Ali- 
BEN-ABf-TALiB,  for  Alee-Ibn-Abee  (-Abi)  -Talib. 

Ibn-Abeet(-Abi)-Yakoob,(or-Y'akub,)  ib'n  iT^ee 
yS^kool/  ( Abool-Faraj,  ^'bool  fdr'Sj,)  otherwise  called 
An-Nadeem  (-Nadim)-Mohammed-Ibn-Ishak,  Sn- 
nS-deem'  mo-hSm'med  Tb'n  is-hak',  an  Arabian  writer, 
chiefly  known  as  the  author  of  a  valuable  catalogue  of 
books  in  the  Arabic  language,  with  brief  and  excellent 


*  See  Horace,  lib.  i..  Carmen  3,  in  which  the  phrases  "Gens  hu- 
maiia"  and  "  lapeti  genus"  are  used  almost  synonymously, 
t  See  note  on  page  35. 


notices  of  their  authors.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life, 
except  that  he  wrote  in  the  latter  part  of  the  tenth  century, 

Ibn-Al-Atseer,  (-Atsyr,)  ib'n  il  St-seeR',  (Abool- 
Hassan-Alee,  or  Aboul  (-Abul)  -Hassan- All,  a'bool 
hSs'san  3.'lee,)  surnanied  Az-ed-Deen,  (Azzedijyn,)  {i.e. 
the  "  Splendour  of  Religion,")  an  Arabian  historian,  born 
in  Mesopotamia  about  1160,  became  a  citizen  of  Mosul. 
He  excelled  in  the  science  of  prophetic  traditions,  and 
had  great  knowledge  of  history,  as  appears  by  his 
Complete  Chronicle  from  the  origin  of  the  world  to 
his  own  time.    Died  in  1233. 

See  H.^ji-Khalf.a.h,  "  Lexicon  Bibliographicum  ;"  Von  Hammer- 
PuRGSTALL,  "  Llteraturgescliichte  der  Araber." 

Ibn-Al-Atseer  (or  -Al-Atsyr)-Nasr- Allah,  Tb'n  \\- 
dt-seeR'  nis'r  SKlSh,  written  also  Alatyr  and  Alatir,  an 
Arabian  writer,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Jezeereh-Benee-Omar,  on  the  Tigris,  in  1162.  He  visited 
the  court  of  Saladin,  who  engaged  him  as  vizier  to  his 
son  and  heir,  Melik-Afdhal,  He  was  eminent  for  his  learn^ 
ing,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  Prosody,  and  other  works. 

See  Irn-Khallikan,  "Biographical  Dictionary." 

Ibii-Bajah.    See  Avenpace, 

Ibn-Batuta.    See  Batootah. 

Ibn-Doreid,  Ib'n  do'rad',  (or  doMd',)  a  celebratea 
Arabian  j^oet,  born  at  Bassorah  in  838  a.d.  He  culti- 
vated various  kinds  of  poetry  with  distinguished  success. 
Died  at  Bagdad  in  933. 

Ibn-Hanbal,  ib'n  han'bSI,  (Ahmed,  Sn'med,)  the 
founder  of  the  fourth  sect  of  orthodox  Mohammedans, 
was  born  at  Bagdad  (or,  as  some  say,  at  Meru)  in  th(j 
year  of  the  Hejrah  164.  He  attained  a  great  reputation 
for  virtue  and  knowledge  of  the  traditions  of  Mohammed. 
He  received  many  traditions  from  Shafei,  with  whom  he 
was  intimate.  For  his  refusal  to  acknowledge  the  Koran 
to  have  been  created,  he  was  scourged  and  imprisoned 
by  the  caliph  Motassem,  He  died  at  Bagdad  in  A.D. 
855.    The  sect  became  very  numerous  after  his  death. 

See  Sale's  "  Koran." 

Ibn-Haukal.    See  Haukal. 

Ibn-Ishak,  (or  -Ish^q,)  Tb'n  is-htk',  an  Arabian  his- 
torian, who,  at  the  request  of  the  caliph  Al-Mansoor, 
wrote  a  life  of  Mohammed  the  prophet.  He  is  an  elo- 
quent but  not  a  trustworthy  writer.    Died  in  768  A.D, 

See  Sprenger,  "Life  of  Mohammad,"  p.  69  et  seq. 

Ibn-Khakan,  (or  -KhacSn.)    See  Al-Fath. 

Ibn-Khaldoon,  (-Khaldoun  or  -Khaldun,)  Tb'n 
K^l'doon'  (  Walee-ed-Deen-  (or  Waly-Eddyn- ) 
Aboo-Zeid-Abd-er-Rahman,  wl'lee  ed-deen'  ^'boo 
zTd  Sbd-er-rSh^min,)  a  celebrated  Arabian  historian,  born 
at  Tunis  in  1332.  He  removed  to  Cairo,  where  he  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  uprightness  as  a  judge,  and  was 
chosen  chief  of  the  Cadees  (Cadis)  of  the  sect  of  Malek- 
ites  in  1384.  Afterwards,  while  on  a  journey  to  Syria, 
he  was  made  prisoner  by  Taimoor,  (the  famous  Tamer- 
lane,) by  whom  he  was  treated  with  great  kindness  and 
respect.  His  principal  work  is  a  valuable  "History  of 
the  Arabs,  Persians,  and  Berbers,  with  Preliminary 
Observations,"  which  was  recently  published  in  France. 
"We  cannot  but  conceive,  in  reading  this,"  says  Sil- 
vestre  de  Sacy,  "a  very  high  idea  of  his  judgment, 
sagacity,  and  erudition,  and  of  the  great  variety  of  his 
knowledge."    Died  in  1406. 

See  his  Autobiography,  published  in  the  "Journal  Asiatique"  of 
1844;  SiLVESTRE  DE  Sacv,  "  Chrestomatliie  Arabe  ;"  Casiri,  "Bibli- 
otheca  Arabico  Hispana." 

Ibn-Khallikan,  Tb'n  K^Kle-kln',  written  also  Ebn- 
Khalican  or  -Khilcan,  (Shems-ed-Deen  (or-Eddin) 
Abool-  (Aboul-  or  AbCil-)  Abb^s- Ahmed,  shems 
ed-deen'  S'bool  ib'bSs'  in'med,)  a  celebrated  Arabian 
historian,  born  at  Arbela  in  1211.  He  became  grand 
Cadee  (Cadi)  of  Damascus  about  1261,  His  chief  work 
is  a  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Famous  Moslems," 
which  contains  over  eight  hundred  articles.  An  English 
translation  of  it  was  begun  by  Mr.  Slane,  the  first  volume 
of  which  was  published  in  1841.    Died  in  1282, 


€  as  ^;  9  as  j;  g  ^ar^/;  g  asyV  G,Yi,Y.,  guttural;  T^i, nasal;  Vi,  trilled;  sasz;  thas  in  this.    (2[^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


IBN-KOTEYBAH 


1238 


IDA 


Ibn-Koteybah  or  Abdallali-Ibn-Koteybah,  ab- 

daKlah  ib'n  ko-ta'bah  or  ko-tl'bah,  written  also  Cotey- 
bah  and  Qotaybali,  an  Arabian  historian  and  critic,  born 
at  Bagdad  in  828  a.d.  ;  died  in  889. 

See  Ibn-Kh ALLiKAN,  "Biographical  Dictionary." 

Ibn-Maimoon,  (-Maimuii  or  -Maimoun.)  See 

Mai  MON  IDES. 
Ibn-Rosched,  (or  -Roshd.)    See  Averroes. 
Ibu-Sina.    See  Avicenna. 

Ibn-Tofail,  (-Tofayl.)  See  Aboo-Bekr-Ibn-Tofail 
Ibnul-Abb&r.    See  Kodhaee. 

Ibii-Yoonas,  (-Younas  or  -Yunas,)  ib'n  yoo'nas, 
sometimes  spelled  Ibn-Younis,  (Alee-  (or  Ali-)  Ibn- 
Abderrahman,  A'lee  Ib'n  Sbd-er-rih^min,)  one  of  the 
most  eminent  Arabian  astronomers,  was  born  in  979  a.d. 
He  made  at  Cairo  a  series  of  observations,  the  results  of 
which  he  published  in  a  work  called  the  ''Table  of  Ibn- 
Yoonas."    Died  in  1008. 

Ibn-Zohr.    See  Avenzoar. 

Ibiaheem,  (Ibrahim,)  written  also  Ibrahym,  the 

Arabic  name  of  the  patriarch  Abraham,  which  see. 

Ibr^heem,  (Ibrahim,*)  ib-rt-heen/,  thirteenth  caliph 
of  the  Omeyyad  dynasty,  was  the  son  of  Waleed  (Walid) 

I.  He  began  to  reign  in  Damascus  in  744  A.D.,  and  a 
few  months  after  was  deposed  by  Merwan.  The  Arab 
historians  disagree  respecting  his  subsequent  fate. 

Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  I.,  (Aboo-Abdallah,  a'boo 
ib-daKlah,)  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Aglabides  in  Africa, 
was  the  son  of  Aglab,  and  a  native  of  Arabia.  About 
Soo  A.D.  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Africa  by  Haroun- 
al-Raschid.  After  the  death  of  the  latter,  (808,)  Ibraheem 
assumed  the  royal  power.    Died  about  813. 

Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  I.,  a  Turkish  Sultan,  brother 
of  Amurath  IV.,  was  proclaimed  in  1640,  at  the  age  of 
twenty-three.  His  cruelty  and  other  vices  excited  against 
him  a  powerful  and  successful  conspiracy,  by  which  he 
was  deposed  and  strangled  in  1648  or  1649.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Mahomet  IV. 

Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  II.,  Emperor  of  Hindostan,  the 
son  of  Iskander,  began  to  reign  in  15 17,  being  the  third 
of  the  Afghan  dynasty.  He  was  a  very  unpopular  ruler. 
In  1526  the  Mogul  Baber  invaded  India,  a  battle  was 
fought  at  Pani])ut,  where  Ibraheem  was  defeated  and 
killed,  and  the  Mogul  dynasty  was  established  in  India. 

Ibraheem,  (Ibrahim,)  a  favourite  of  Sultan  Solyman 

II.  ,  was  a  Genoese  by  birth,  and  was  taken  to  Constan- 
tinople by  pirates  in  his  infancy.  He  became  grand 
vizier  about  1523,  and  signalized  his  courage  in  the  war 
against  Hungary  in  1527.  He  was  put  to  death,  at  the 
instigation  of  the  Sultana,  in  1535. 

Ibraheem,  (Ibrahim,)  born  at  Aleppo,  was  the  most 
eminent  among  the  Ottoman  jurists.  His  fame  rests  upon 
a  great  work  styled  the  "  Confluence  of  the  Seas,"  ("  Mul- 
teka  al-Abhar,")  which  is  a  complete  code  of  laws.  Died 
in  1549. 

Ibraheem,  (Ibrahim,)  Pasha  of  Egypt,  the  son  of 
Mehemet  Alee,  (Ali,)  was  born  in  Rumelia  in  1789.  He 
conquered  the  Wahabees,  in  Arabia,  about  1818.  In 
1824  he  commanded  an  army  and  fleet  which  Mehemet 
Alee  sent  against  the  Greeks.  Having  landed  in  the 
Morea  with  10,000  men  in  1825,  he  took  several  towns 
and  committed  many  atrocities.  The  success  of  the  allies 
at  Navarino  and  the  French  invasion  of  the  Morea  forced 
him  to  retire  to  Egypt  in  1828.  In  a  war  waged  between 
the  Viceroy  of  Egypt  and  the  Sultan,  Ibraheem  took 
Aleppo  and  defeated  the  Turks  in  a  great  battle  at 
Konieh,  in  Syria,  in  1832.  His  victorious  progress  was 
arrested  by  the  intervention  of  the  European  powers  in 
1833.    Died  in  1848. 

See  Labat,  "L'Egypte,  ancienne  et  moderne." 

Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  Bey,  a  famous  Mameluke 
chief,  born  in  Circassia  about  1735.  went  to  Egypt 

*  The  Arabic  texts  are  by  no  means  uniform  in  regard  to  the 
penultima  of  this  name;  it  is  often  made  short,  but,  if  we  mistake 
not,  more  frequently  long,  as  given  above.  It  is  proper,  however,  to 
remark  that  a  single  instance  of  the  insertion  of  the  Alif  (the  sign  of 
the  long  vowel)  ought  to  outweigh  several  omissions,  as  the  latter 
might  more  easily  be  tlie  result  of  neglect  or  haste.  The  frequent 
omission  of  the  long  vowel  in  the  manuscript  of  writers  who  are 
generally  correct,  merely  proves  that  the  insertion  is  not  deemed 
absolutely  indispensable.  Its  omission  may  be  compared  to  the 
neglecting  to  dot  one's  /s  in  writing  English, — a  fault,  undoubtedly,  but 
a  fault  often  committed  by  writers  otherwise  remarkable  for  accuracy. 


in  his  youth,  and  entered  the  service  of  Mohammed  Bey. 
After  the  death  of  the  latter.Ibraheem  shared  with  Moorad 
Bey  the  sovereignty  of  Egypt.  When  Bonaj^arte  invaded 
Egypt  in  1798  and  defeated  Moorad,  Ibraheem  retired 
to  Syria.  In  1800  he  took  part  against  the  French  at 
Cairo,  etc.,  and,  after  they  evacuated  Egypt,  was  again 
Governor  of  Cairo,  until  supplanted  by  Mehemet  Alee. 
Died  in  1816, 

Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  Effendi,  (If-fei/dee,)  a  learned 
Turk,  who  was  born  about  1640,  and  filled  considerable 
offices  at  Constantinople.  He  was  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, was  baptized  in  1671,  retired  to  Venice,  and  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Paul  Antonio  Effendi.  He  translated 
several  books  of  the  Bible  into  Arabic.    Died  in  1697. 

Ibraheem  (Ibrahim)  Khan-Ogli,(o'glee,)  was  grand 
vizier  of  Turkey  when  Mahomet  I.  died,  in  1421.  He 
took  measures  to  secure  the  succession  of  Mahomet's 
son,  Amurath  II.,  who  was  then  absent  from  the  capital. 
To  reward  this  service,  Amurath  gave  him  the  title  of 
Khan,  with  hereditary  privileges  which  made  his  family 
the  first  in  the  empire. 

Ibrahim.    See  Ibraheem. 

Ibrahym.    See  Ibraheem. 

Ib'j^-CUS,  [TiSmof,]  a  Greek  lyric  poet,  born  at  Rhe- 
gium,  in  Italy,  flourished  about  560  B.C.,  and  passed  part 
of  his  life  at  Samos.  His  poems,  which  were  chiefly 
love-songs,  are  lost,  except  a  few  fragments.  He  was 
the  fifth  lyric  poet  of  the  Alexandrian  canon,  and  had 
a  high  reputation.  He  is  said  to  have  been  killed  by 
robbers.  His  death  has  furnished  the  subject  of  one 
of  the  finest  of  Schiller's  minor  poems,  "  Die  Kraniche 
des  Ibycus." 

19a.    See  IsA. 

Icard,  e'kik',  (Charles,)  a  French  Protestant  min- 
ister and  writer,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1636.  He  was 
driven  into  exile  by  persecution  in  1682,  and  settled  at 
Bremen  in  1688. 

Icare.    See  Icarus. 

I-ca'ri-us,  [Gr.  'I«apwf,]  also  called  Icarus,  an  Athe- 
nian, to  whom  Bacchus  is  said  to  have  taught  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  vine.  He  was  killed  by  some  shepherds,  to 
whom  he  had  given  wine  and  who  suspected  that  he  had 
poisoned  them.  The  legend  adds  that  he  was  changed 
into  the  constellation  Bootes. 

Icarius,  a  Lacedaemonian,  the  father  of  Penelope. 
He  urged  her  to  remain  at  Sjiarta  after  she  was  married 
to  Ulysses  ;  but  she  preferred  to  follow  her  husband. 

Ic'a-rus,  [Gr.  "iKapog;  Fr.  Icare,  e^kSk',]  son  of  Dae- 
dalus, with  whom,  according  to  the  Greek  mythology, 
he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Labyrinth  of  Crete.  Having 
attempted  to  fly  by  means  of  artificial  wings  made  with 
wax,  they  were  melted  by  his  approaching  too  near  the 
sun,  and  he  fell  into  the  sea,  near  the  island  of  Samos, 
which  received  from  him  the  name  of  the  Icarian  Sea. 

Iccius,  ik''she-us,  a  Roman  philosopher,  lived  about 
30  B.C.,  and  was  a  friend  of  Horace,  who  addressed  to 
him  an  epistle  and  an  ode. 

Idler,  e'shaiR',  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician  and 
Hellenist,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1658;  died  in  1713. 

I-ciPi-us,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  tribune,  who  was  affi- 
anced to  the  celebrated  Virginia.  He  was  elected  tribune 
of  the  people  in  456  B.C.,  and  favoured  the  cause  of  the 
plebeians.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  successful 
revolt  against  the  Decemviri  about  450  B.C. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Ic-ti'nus,  ['l/cnvof,]  a  celebrated  Grecian  architect, 
who  flourished  about  450  B.C.  He  built  several  grand 
temples,  among  which  was  that  of  Apollo  Epicurius  in 
Arcadia.  The  most  memorable  monument  of  his  genius 
is  the  Parthenon  of  Athens,  built  by  order  of  Pericles. 
Callicrates  was  associated  with  Ictinus  as  architect  of 
this  edifice,  which  is  probably  the  most  perfect  speci- 
men of  Grecian  architecture  in  any  age.  Its  length  was 
227  feet  and  its  breadth  about  100.    (See  Callicrates.) 

See  Pausanias,  book  viii. 

Igwara.    See  Iswara. 

Fda,  [Fr.  Ide,  ^d,]  Countess  of  Boulogne,  born  about 
1040,  was  the  mother  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  crusader 
and  King  of  Jerusalem.  She  was  eminent  for  wisdom 
and  piety.    Died  in  11 13. 

See  Baillet,  "  Vies  des  Saints." 


i,e»T>  0,  u»  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  vi,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


IDACE 


1239 


IHRE 


Idace.    See  Idacius. 

Idacius,  e-da'she-us,  [Fr.  Idace,  e'dtss',]  a  Spanish 
chronicler,  born  at  Lamego  about  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century.  He  became  Bishop  of  Chaves,  (Aquae  Flaviae,) 
in  Portugal,  He  was  author  of  a  "Chronicon"  of  the 
period  from  379  to  468  A.D.,  which  was  printed  in  Paris 
by  Sirmond  in  1619. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Fdas,  [Gr.  'I(5af,]  a  son  of  Aphareus,  took  part  in  the 
Argonautic  expedition,  and  was  renowned  for  valour. 
Idas  and  his  brother  Lynceus  having  quarrelled  with 
the  Dioscu'ri,  Idas  killed  Castor,  and  was  in  turn  killed 
by  Pollux. 

Ide.    See  Ida. 

Ideler,  eeMeh-ler,  (Christian  Ludwig,)  a  Prussian 
astronomer  and  linguist,  born  near  Perleberg  in  1766. 
He  was  appointed  in  1816  tutor  to  the  princes  William 
Frederick  and  Charles,  and  in  1821  became  professor  at 
the  Berlin  University.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Plistorical 
Researches  on  the  Astronomical  Observations  of  the 
Ancients,"  (1806,)  "On  the  Calendar  of  Ptolemy,"  and 
other  similar  treatises.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French 
Institute,  and  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin.  Died 
in  Berlin  in  1846. 

Ideler,  (Julius  Ludwig,)  a  physician,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Berlin  in  1809.  He  published 
"Meteorology  of  the  Ancient  Greeks  and  Romans," 
(1832,)  "Hermapion,  or  Rudiments  of  the  Hieroglyphic 
Literature  of  Ancient  Egypt,"  (1841,)  and  other  anti- 
quarian treatises.    Died  in  1842. 

Ideler,  (Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  Prussian  physician,  born 
in  1795,  lived  in  Berlin.  He  is  known  as  a  writer  on 
mental  maladies. 

Ides,  ee'des,  (Everard  Isrrantz,)  a  German  travel- 
ler, born  in  Holstein  about  1660.  He  was  sent  to  Pekin 
by  Peter  the  Great  in  1692  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  com- 
merce, and  returned  in  1694.  A  narrative  of  his  journey, 
published  in  1704,  is  a  work  of  some  merit. 

Idman,  id'mSn,  (Nils,)  a  Swedish  philologist,  pub- 
lished in  1778  "Researches  on  the  Finnish  People,  and 
the  Relations  between  the  Finnish  Language  and  the 
Greek." 

Idomenee.    See  Idomeneus. 

I-dom'e-neus,  [Gr. 'Ido/ztvei-f ;  Fr.  Tdomen^ie,  e'do'- 
mi'ni',]  King  of  Crete,  a  semi-fabulous  Greek  hero,  said 
to  be  a  grandson  of  Minos.  According  to  Homer,  he 
fought  bravely  at  the  siege  of  Troy.  Having  been  ex- 
pelled from  Crete  by  his  subjects,  he  went  to  Italy  and 
founded  a  city. 

Idomeneus,  [Gr.  'I(5o//evnV,]  a  Greek  historian,  born 
at  Lampsacus,  lived  about  300  B.C.  He  was  a  friend  and 
disciple  of  Epicurus.    His  works  are  not  extant. 

vSee  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Graecis." 

Iduna,  e-doo'nS,  or  Idun,  sometimes  written  Idun- 
na,  [etymology  doubtful,]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the 
goddess  of  immortality,  who  keeps  a  casket  of  apples,  of 
which  if  the  gods  partake  they  never  grow  old.  (See 
Thiassi.)  Iduna  is  said  to  be  the  wife  of  Bragi,  the  god 
of  poetry,  who  in  one  sense  may  be  said  to  possess  the 
gift  of  immortality. 

See  Thorpe's  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. 

lefremcfF  or  lefremov.    See  Yefremof. 

lenichen.    See  Jenichen. 

lermak.    See  Yermak. 

lezdedjerd.    See  Yezdejerd. 

Iffland,  ifflSnt,  (August  Wilhelm,)  a  celebrated 
German  actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1759. 
He  became  director  of  the  National  Theatre  at  Berlin  in 
1796,  and  in  181 1  was  appointed  director-general  of  the 
royal  plays.  Among  his  most  popular  dramas  are  "  The 
Hunters,"  ("Die  Jager,")  "The  Advocates,"  and  "The 
Old  Bachelors,"  ("Die  Hagestolzen.")  He  also  pub- 
lished several  treatises  on  the  dramatic  art.  "  It  is 
impossible,"  says  Madame  de  Stael,  "to  have  more 
originality  than  Iffland;  and  he  is  as  superior  in  the 
theory  as  in  the  practice  of  his  art."    Died  in  1814. 

See  his  "  Autobiography"  in  the  first  volume  of  his  Dramas,  18 
vols.,  1708-1809;  J.  L.  FoRMEV,  "A.  W.  IfHand's  Krankheits- 
geschichte,"  1814  ;  KuNZ,  "  Aus  deni  Leben  zweier  Schauspieler  : 
Iffland's  und  Devrient's,"  1838. 

Igdrasil,  (Yggdrasil.)    See  Odin. 


Iglesias  de  la  Casa,  e-gla'se-Js  di  U  kl'si,  (Jos6,) 
a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Salamanca  in  1753  ;  died  in  1791. 
See  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Igiiace.    See  Ignatius. 

Ignarra,  ^n-y&r'rS,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  antiquary 
and  priest,  born  near  Naples  in  1728,  was  a  good  clas- 
sical scholar.  He  became  professor  of  divinity  in  the 
Royal  University  of  Naples  in  1771,  director  of  the  royal 
printing-office  in  1782,  and  preceptor  of  the  prince  Fran- 
cis de  Bourbon  in  1784.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
an  esteemed  commentary  "De  Palaestra  Neapolitana," 
(1770.)    Died  in  1808. 

SeeCASTALDi,  "Ignarrae  Vita,"  prefixed  to  his  "Opuscoli,"  1807. 

Ignatius,  ig-na'she-us,  [Gr.  'lyvarLoq ;  Fr.  Ignace, 
^n^ytss';  Ger.  Ignaz,  ig-n^ts';  It.  IgnazIO,  in-ySt'se-o,] 
surnamed  Theoph'orus,  one  of  the  earliest  Christian 
Fathers,  and  one  of  the  most  eminent  among  the  imme- 
diate successors  of  the  apostles,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Syria.  About  67  A.D.  he  became  bishop 
or  minister  of  the  church  of  Antioch  by  the  appointment 
of  Saint  Peter,  or,  according  to  some  writers,  of  Saint 
John.  He  had  filled  this  station  acceptably  about  forty 
years,  when  the  emperor  Trajan  began  a  persecution 
of  the  Christians.  Ignatius  was  brought  before  Trajan 
at  Antioch,  and,  refusing  to  renounce  his  religion,  was 
condemned,  and  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome  in  107, 
being  exposed  to  wild  beasts  in  the  amphitheatre.  His 
epistles  to  the  Romans,  Philadelphians,  Smyrneans,  and 
to  Polycarp  are  extant,  and  are  regarded  as  precious 
memorials  of  the  primitive  Church.  In  one  of  his  last 
epistles  he  wrote,  "  Now  I  begin  to  be  a  disciple  :  I  weigh 
neither  visible  nor  invisible  things,  that  I  may  win  Christ !" 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria ;"  Pearson,  "  Vindicije  Ignatianse," 
Cambridge,  1672;  VV.  Cureton,  "Vindicise  Ignatianae,  or  the  Genu- 
ine Writings  of  Saint  Ignatius  vindicated  from  the  (  harge  of  Heresy," 
8vo,  1846;  Coetlosquet,  "  Viede  Saint-Ignace,  fiveque  d'Antioch," 
1857  ;  Mrs.  Jameson,  "History  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Ignatius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  born  in  799 
A.D.,  was  the  son  of  the  em])eror  Michael  Curopalates. 
When  the  latter  was  deposed,  Ignatius  entered  a  monas- 
tery, and  became  eminent  fi^r  piety  and  wisdom.  In  846 
he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  ])atriarch.  Eleven  years 
after,  he  was  banished  and  cruelly  treated  for  his  opposi- 
tion to  Bardas,  an  uncle  of  Michael  III.,  who' appointed 
in  his  place  the  ambitious  Photius.  The  schism  between 
the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches  began  while  Photius 
was  in  office,  and  has  continued  ever  since  that  time.  In 
867  the  emperor  Basilius  reinstated  Ignatius,  who  as- 
sembled in  869  an  oecumenical  council  at  Constantinople, 
which  condenuied  Photius  and  his  party.    Died  in  877. 

See  David  Nicetas,  "Vita  S.  Ignatii,"  1604. 

Ignatius  Loyola.    See  Loyola. 

Igor  (ee'gor)  I.,  third  Grand  Duke  of  Russia,  a  son 
of  Rurik,  was  born  about  875,  and  succeeded  Oleg  ir 
912  A.D.  He  led  an  expedition  against  Constantinople  in 
941,  and  compelled  the  Greek  emperor  to  sue  for  peace, 
which  was  granted  by  a  treaty  in  945.  Igor  was  killed 
in  an  ambuscade  in  945.  After  his  death  his  widow  Olga 
was  converted  to  Christianity. 

See  SoLOviEF,  "  Histoire  de  Russie." 

Igor  II.,  or  Igor  Olgovitch,  Grand  Prince  of  Russia, 
began  to  reign  at  Kief  about  1145.  His  claim  was  con- 
tested by  Iziaslaf,  who  defeated  him  in  1 146.  Igor  was 
confined  in  a  convent,  and  assassinated  in  1147. 

See  Kakamzin,  "Histoire  de  Russie." 

Ihre,  ee'reh,  (JoHx\n,)  a  Swedish  scholar,  eminent  in- 
philology,  born  at  Lund  in  1707,  graduated  with  the 
highest  honour  at  Upsal  in  1730.  After  visiting  France, 
England,  etc.,  he  returned  60  Upsal  and  became  professor 
of  poetry  and  of  theology  in  the  university  of  that  ]Dlace. 
In  1738  he  obtained  the  chair  of  belles-lettres  and  political 
science,  which  he  occupied  about  forty  years,,  acquiring 
great  celebrity  as  a  lecturer  and  author.  In  1769  he 
published  his  "Swedish  G.lossary,"  ("  Glossarium  Suio- 
gothicum,")  a  monument  of  his  immense  learning  and 
critical  sagacity,  containing  a  ])hil()sophic  treatise  on  the 
filiation  of  languages,,  besides  remarks  on  the  origin 
and  affinity  of  Swedish  words.  He  also  wrote  several 
hundred  excellent  academical  dissertations,  and  is  justly 
ranked  among  the  best  critics  of  the  eighteenth  century. 


€  asy^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,.nasa/;  RytritJed /  s.as  z;.  tJi  asin  t/n's.  (SJ:^='Se.e  Explanations^ p.  23.) 


IHRE 


1240 


IMPERIAL. 


In  1759  he  was  decorated  with  the  order  of  the  Polar 
Star.    Died  in  1780. 

See  Flodekus,  "Parentation  bfver  J.  Ihre,"  1781  ;  Gezelius, 
"  Biographiskt-Lexicoii  ofver  nainnkunnige  Svenska  Miin." 

Ihre,  (Thomas,)  a  Swedish  \yriter,  father  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Wisby  in  1659  ;  died  in  1720. 

See  T.  RuD^N,  "Trognas  Strid  och  Seger,  Likpiedikan  ofver  T. 
Ihre,"  1720. 

Iken,  ee'ken,  (Conrad,)  a  German  theologian,  born 
at  Bremen  in  1689.  He  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Bremen,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  *'  Antiquitates 
Hebraicas,"  (1730.)    Died  in  1753. 

Iken,  (Heinrich  Friedrich,)  a  German  religious 
writer,  born  at  Neuenkirchen  in  1791;  died  in  1820. 

Ildefonse.    See  Ildefonso. 

Il-de-fon'so,  [Lat.  Ildefon'sus  ;  Fr.  Ildefonse, 
^l-deh-f6Ns',]  Saint,  a  Spanish  prelate,  born  at  Toledo 
in  607  A.D.,  was  a  pupil  of  Saint  Isidore.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Toledo  in  658.  He  wrote,  besides  several 
theological  treatises,  a  continuation  of  Saint  Isidore's 
work  "  De  Viris  illustribus."    Died  in  669. 

See  CixiLA,  "Vita  Ildefonsi ;"  Gregorio  Mayans,  "Vidade  S. 
Ildefonso,"  1727. 

Ilepooshin  or  Ilepouschin,  il-e-poo'sh6n,  a  Rus- 
sian poet  of  the  present  age,  lived  near  Saint  Petersburg. 
He  wrote  pastoral  poems. 

Ilgen,  iKgen,  (Karl  David,)  a  distinguished  philolo- 
gist, born  in  Prussian  Saxony  in  1763.  He  became  in 
1794  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages  at  Jena.  His 
principal  works  are  entitled  "  Hymni  Homerici,"  and 
"Convivial  Songs  of  the  Greeks,"  ("  Scholia  sive  Car- 
mina  convivialia  Graecorum.")    Died  in  1834. 

See  F.  C.  Krafft,  "Vita  C.  D.  Ilgerti,"  1837  ;  R.  Stern,  "  Nar- 
ratio  de  C.  D.  Ilgenio,"  1839  ;  "Ilgeniana:  Enniierungen  an  Dr.  C. 
D.  Ilgen,"  Leipsic,  1853. 

Ilia.    See  Rhea  Silvia. 

I-lith-y-i'a  or  Eileithyia,  [Gr.  YlMdvLa,]  written 
also  Eleithyia  and  Eleutho,  a  Greek  goddess,  who 
presided  over  birth.  Though  originally  distinct  from 
Diana,  (Artemis,)  she  seems  later  to  have  become  identi- 
fied with  her.    (See  Lucina.) 

Hive,  I'liv,  ?  (Jacob,)  an  English  printer,  who  became 
noted  by  his  fictitious  "  Book  of  Jasher,"  (1751,)  which  he 
pretended  to  have  translated  from  Alcuin.  Died  in  1763. 

Illescas,  ^l-y^s'kSs,  (Gonsalvo,)  a  Spanish  monk, 
wrote  a  "History  of  the  Popes,"  (1570.)    Died  in  1580. 

Illgen,  iKgen,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  a  German 
Protestant  divine,  born  at  Chemnitz  in  1786,  wrote  sev- 
eral works,  and  edited  a  journal  at  Leipsic.  Died  in  1844. 

lUyricus.    See  Francowitz. 

Ilmoni,  il-mo'nee,  (Immanuel,)  a  Finnish  physician, 
born  in  1797,  wrote  "  Contributions  to  the  History  of  the 
Nosology  of  the  North,"  (3  vols.,  1846-53.)  Died  in  1856. 

Flus,  [Gr.  'Uof,]  the  founder  of  Ilium,  (Ilion,)  or  Troy, 
was  a  son  of  Tros,  (which  see.) 

Iniad-ed-Deen,  (-Eddyn  or  -Eddin,)  e-niSd'  ed- 
deei/,  {i.e.  the  "Pillar  of  Religion,")  (Mohammed, 
mo-ham'm^d, )  surnamed  Al-Katek,  was  born  at  Is- 
])ahan  in  1125  a.d.  He  went  in  1167  to  Damascus, 
where  he  became  the  secretary  of  Noor-ed-Deen.  After 
the  death  of  Noor-ed-Deen,  he  enjoyed  the  favour  of  the 
famous  Saladin,  whose  victories  he  celebrated  in  an  ode, 
and  whom  he  served  as  private  secretary  until  the  death 
of  that  prince.  Imad-ed-Deen  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  Saladin,"  and  "Memoirs  of 
the  Moslem  Poets  of  the  Sixth  Century  of  the  Hejrah." 
Died  in  1201. 

See  Ibn-Khallikan,  "  Blograpliical  Dictionary." 

Imad-ed-Dowlah,  (or  -Eddaulah,)  e-mld'ed-dow'- 
lah,  {i.e.  "  Pillar  of  the  State,")  (Alee-Abool-Hassan- 
Alee-Ibn-Booyah,  a'lee  I'bool  his'san  a'lee  tb'n  boo'- 
yah,)  King  of  Persia,  was  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of 
Bouides,  and  began  to  reign  in  933  a.d.  He  conquered 
the  Caliph  of  Bagdad,  and  died  in  949,  leaving  the  throne 
to  his  nephew,  Adhad-ed-Dowlah. 

See  1p.n-Kha[.i.ikan,  "Biographical  Dictionary;"  Weil,  "Ge- 
schichte  des  Chalifen." 

Imberdis,  ^N'bgR'd^ss',  (Andr^,)  a  French  writer, 
born  at  Ambert  about  1810,  published  a  "  Histary  of  the 
Religious  Wars  in  Auvergne  during  the  Sixteenth  and 
Seventeenth  Centuries,"  (2  vols.,  1841.) 


Imbert,  iN'baiR',  (Barth^lemy,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Nimes  in  1747.  He  produced  at  the  age  of  twenty 
"The  Judgment  of  Paris,"  a  graceful  poem,  which  was 
much  admired.  The  plan  was  ingenious,  and  the  style 
natural  and  elegant.    Died  in  1790. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Imbert,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Limoges  about  1743  ;  died  at  Paris  in  1803. 

Imbert,  (Jean,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  La  Rochelle 
about  1522,  published  "  Institutiones  Forenses,"  (1542,) 
often  reprinted.    Died  about  1600. 

Imbert,  (Joseph  Gabriel,)  an  eminent  French 
painter,  born  in  Marseilles  in  1654,  was  a  pupil  of  Le- 
brun  and  of  Van  der  Meulen.  At  the  age  of  thirty-four 
he  took  the  monastic  vows,  after  which  he  painted  only 
sacred  subjects.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  Calvary."  Died 
in  1740. 

Imboiiati,  ^m-bo-ni'tee,  (Carlo  Giuseppe,)  an  Ital- 
ian bibliographer,  born  at  Milan,  wrote  "  Bibliotheca 
Latino-Hebraica,"  (2  vols.,  1696.)    Died  after  1696. 

Imhof  or  Imhoff,  im'hof,  (Gustav  Willem,)  born 
in  Amsterdam  in  1705,  was  appointed  Governor  of  Cey- 
lon in  1736.  Having  gained  general  confidence  by  his 
conduct  and  capacity,  he  became  about  1742  Governor- 
General  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies.    Died  in  1750, 

Imhof,  von,  fon  im'hof,  (Jakob  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man genealogist,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1651.  He  was 
well  versed  in  the  history  of  the  royal  and  noble  families 
of  Europe,  and  wrote  many  works  on  genealogy,  among 
which  is  one  in  2  vols.,  (1684.)    Died  in  1728. 

See  KoELER,  "  Lebensgeschichte  Imhofs." 

Imilcon.    See  Himilcon, 

Im'i-soii,  (John,)  an  English  mechanician,  wrote  z, 
valuable  work  entitled  "The  School  of  Arts,"  which 
passed  through  several  editions.  In  1807  Professor  J. 
Webster  published  an  improved  edition,  with  the  title 
of  "Elements  of  Art  and  Science."    Died  in  1788. 

Immermanii,  im'mer-min^,  (Karl  Lebrecht,)  a 
German  dramatist  and  poet,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1796, 
was  the  author  of  a  comedy  entitled  "The  Princes  of 
Syracuse,"  (182 1,)  "The  Valley  of  Ronceval,"  "King 
Periander,"  (1823,)  and  other  tragedies.  He  also  pub- 
lished a  number  of  tales  and  lyric  poems.  Died  in  1840, 

See  Karl  Immermann,  "  Memorabilien,"  3  vols.,  1840-43;  F. 
Freiligrath,  "C.  Immermann,  Blatter  der  Erinnermig  an  ihn," 
1842;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1843. 

Imola.    See  Francuccl 

Imparato,  ^m-pi-ri'to,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Naples  about  1530,  was  a  pupil  of  Titian, 
whose  style  he  imitated  with  some  success.  Died  after 
1565- 

Imperiale,  ^ni-pk-re-I'li,  (  Francesco,  )  born  at 
Genoa  about  1370,  went  to  Spain,  and  became  attached 
to  the  court  of  Henry  HI.  of  Castile.  He  was  regarded 
as  one  of  the  best  Spanish  poets  of  that  time. 

Imperiali,  im-pa-re-^'lee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an 
Italian  physician  and  author,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1568, 
graduated  at  Padua,  and  practised  with  success  in  his 
native  city.  He  wrote  Latin  poems,  which  were  admired, 
also  a  collection  of  observations  entitled  "Exotericse 
Exercitationes,"  (1603.)    Died  in  1623. 

His  son  Giovanni,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1602,  was  also 
a  physician,  and  wrote  "Musasum  Historicum  et  Physi- 
cum,"  consisting  of  eulogies  and  memoirs  of  eminent 
literary  men.    Died  in  1670. 

Imperiali,  (Giovanni  Vincente,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Genoa  about  1570,  served  the  state  as  a  diplo- 
matist, and  held  a  high  command  in  the  navy.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  poems,  "Lo  Stato  rustico,"  (1611,)  which 
was  received  with  favour.    Died  about  1645. 

See  Soprani,  "  Scrittori  Liguri." 

Imperiali,  (Giuseppe  Renato,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
distinguished  for  his  patronage  of  learning,  was  born  of 
a  noble  family  at  Genoa  in  1651.  It  is  said  he  would 
have  been  elected  poj^e  in  1730,  if  the  court  of  Spain 
had  not  interposed  against  him.  Many  learned  men  were 
recipients  of  his  bounty.  Died  in  1737.  He  left  a  noble 
library,  which,  by  his  will,  was  kept  open  to  the  public. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  iUiistri. " 

Imperiali-Lercari,.^m-pi-re-inee  l§R-kS'ree,  (Fran- 
cesco Mario,)  was  Doge  of  Genoa  when  that  city  was 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  ^,  h,  6,  same^  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6.,    f,  short;  a,  ?,  j,  o^  obscure;  iSr,  fill,  fit;  m^^Jt;  n.6t;  good;  moon; 


IMPET 


INES 


bombarded  by  the  fleet  of  Louis  XIV.  in  1684.  Hos- 
tilities having  been  suspended  by  the  mediation  of  the 
pope,  the  Doge  went  as  ambassador  to  Paris,  and  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  in  1685. 

Im'pey,  (Sir  Elijah,)  an  infamous  judge,  who  offi- 
ciated in  India  during  the  administration  of  Warren 
Hastings. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Sir  Elijah  Impey,"  by  E.  B.  Impey,  1846; 
Macaulav,  "Essay  on  Warren  Hastings." 

Impiccati,  degli,  a  surname  of  Andrea  del  Cas- 
TAGNo.    (See  Castagno.) 

Fna  or  Fnas,  King  of  the  West  Saxons,  and  one  of 
the  chiefs  of  the  Heptarchy,  succeeded  Ceadwalla  in  689 
a.d.  He  a])pears  to  have  possessed  superior  talents, 
and  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  principal  legislators  among 
the  ancient  Anglo-Saxons.  He  waged  war  successfully 
against  the  people  of  Kent  and  the  Britons  about  710. 
In  728  he  resigned  his  crown,  and  died  at  Rome  the 
same  year. 

See  William  of  Malmesburv,  "  Gesta  Regum  Anglorum." 

In'a-ehus,  [Gr.  'Ivaxog,]  a  mythical  personage,  the 
son  of  Oceanus,  and  father  of  lo,  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  King  of  Argos.  Having  been  chosen  as  umpire 
by  Neptune  and  Juno  when  they  disputed  about  the 
possession  of  Argos,  he  decided  in  favour  of  Juno. 

Iiica,  ing'ka,  (plural  Incas,)  a  Peruvian  or  Quichua 
word,  signifying  "  chief,"  and  applied  to  the  dynasty  reign- 
ing in  Peru  on  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  in  that  coun- 
try in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  As  the 
Peruvians  did  not  possess  the  art  of  writing,  we  have  no 
means  of  ascertaining,  or  even  forming  a  satisfactory 
conjecture  respecting,  the  earliest  date  of  their  power.  The 
Incas  claimed  to  be  the  descendants  of  Manco  Capac  and 
his  wife  Mama  Ocllo,  who  were  the  children  of  the  sun. 
(See  Manco  Capac.)  The  empire  of  the  Incas,  at  the 
period  of  their  greatest  power,  extended  through  nearly 
forty  degrees  of  longitude,  and  contained  an  area  of 
between  one  and  two  million  square  miles.  Their  sub- 
jects, though  unacquainted  with  letters,  had  in  many 
respects  advanced  to  a  high  degree  of  civilization.  They 
understood  the  working  of  the  precious  metals,  archi- 
tecture, and  many  other  arts,  and  were  especially  dis- 
tinguished for  the  genera]  liberality  and  wisdom  of  their 
state  policy;  though  some  of  their  laws  and  regulations 
tv'ere,  according  to  the  standard  of  Christian  civilization, 
both  unjust  and  inhuman. 

See  Pkescott's  "Conquest  of  Peru,"  book  i.  chap.  i. 

Inch'bcild,  (Elizaheth,)  a  popular  English  actress, 
novelist,  and  dramatist,  born  at  Stanningfield  in  1753, 
ivas  the  daughter  of  a  farmer  named  Simpson.  At  the 
age  of  sixteen  she  came  to  London  with  the  intention  of 
becoming  an  actress,  and  was  married  to  Mr.  Inchbald, 
'.vho  had  obtained  some  success  on  the  stage.  After 
performing  with  her  husband  several  seasons  at  Edin- 
Durgh  and  other  towns,  she  made  her  delud  at  Covent 
Garden  in  1780,  and  was  very  successful.  Her  success 
is  ascribed  in  a  great  measure  to  her  personal  beauty 
and  virtuous  cliaracter.  In  1789  she  retired  from  the 
stage.  She  wrote  ".Such  Things  Are,"  "Every  One 
has  his  Fault,"  "To  Marry  or  Not  to  Marry,"  and  many 
other  plays.  Her  greatest  productions  are  two  novels, 
"A  Simple  Story,"  (1791,)  and  "  Nature  and  Art,"  (1796,) 
which  o1)tained  extensive  and  durable  popularity.  Her 
"'Nature  and  Art,' "  says  Hazlitt,  "is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  and  pathetic  stories  in  the  world."  The 
other  work  is  highly  commended  by  Miss  Edgeworth. 
Died  in  1821. 

See  her  Life,  by  Boaden,  1833;  Mrs.  Elwood,  "Memoirs  of 
the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commencement  of  the 
Last  Century,"  vol.  i.,  1843. 

Inch'i-quin,  (  Morrogh  O'Brien,)  Baron  of,  a 
famous  Irish  soldier,  born  about  1618.  He  acted  a 
prominent  part  in  the  civil  war,  fighting  alternately  for 
Charles  I.  and  against  hiin.  He  was  a  royalist  from  1640 
to  1645,  and  gained  several  victories.  About  1649  he 
entered  the  French  service,  with  the  rank  of  general. 
Died  in  1674. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1814. 

Inchofer,  ing'KoTer,  (Melchior,)  a  Jesuit,  born  in 
Vienna  in  1584,  lived  in  various  cities  of  Italy,  and  wrote 
several  learned  works,  among  which  is  the  "  Ecclesias- 


tical History  of  Hungary,"  (1644,  unfinished.)    He  had 
more  learning  than  critical  judgment.    Died  in  1648. 
See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Iricledon,ink'el-don,  (Benjamin  Charles,)  an  Eng- 
lish vocalist,  born  in  Cornwall  in  1764,  served  several 
years  in  the  royal  navy.  He  first  appeared  in  a  London 
theatre  in  1 790,  and  performed  many  years  with  success. 
Died  in  1826. 

Indaco,  1',  l^n'di-ko,  (Francesco,)  a  painter  of  the 
Florentine  school,  flourished  about  1530. 

Indaco,  1',  (Jacopo  da  Firenze,)  a  Florentine  painter, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  a  pupil  of  Ghirlandaio, 
and  worked  at  Rome. 

See  Vasaki,  "  Li'ves  of  the  Painters." 

India,  ^nMe-S,  (  Tullio,  )  called  the  Elder,  a 
painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  was  born  at  Verona,  and 
flourished  in  1545.  He  was  a  skilful  painter  in  fresco, 
and  an  excellent  copyist. 

His  son  Bernardino,  a  painter,  was  born  at  Verona. 
One  of  his  later  works  is  dated  1584. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

In-dib'i-lis,  a  Spanish  chief,  who  flourished  during 
the  first  Punic  war,  in  which  he  fought  for  and  betrayed 
both  sides.  He  fought  for  the  Carthaginians  in  the 
battle  at  which  Publius  Scipio  was  killed,  in  213  B.C. 
His  army  was  defeated  by  the  younger  Scipio  in  207. 
Pie  was  killed  in  battle  by  the  Romans  in  205  B.C. 

See  LivY,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxii.  and  xxv.-xxix. 

Indra,  Tn'dRa,  [etymology  doubtful  ;  possibly  related 
to  the  Latin  imber,  (Gr.  d/xi3pog,)  a  "shower"  or  "rain- 
storm,"] the  regent  of  the  firmament,  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  is  the  son  of  Kasyapa  and  Aditi.  As  the 
god  of  storms  and  thunder,  he  may  be  said  to  correspond 
very  nearly  to  the  Roman  Jupiter  and  Greek  Zeus.  In 
the  early  period  of  the  Hindoo  mythology  he  was  (like 
Jupiter)  regarded  as  the  most  powerful  of  the  gods  ;  but, 
after  the  introduction  of  the  deities  of  the  Hindoo  triad, 
Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva,  Indra,  Varuna,  and  Agni 
were  deposed  from  their  high  rank  and  made  to  occupy 
a  far  inferior  position.  Krishna,  an  avatar  of  Vishnu,  is 
represented,  while  still  an  infant,  as  bafiling  with  the 
utmost  ease  the  mightiest  efforts  of  the  god  of  thunder. 
(See  Krishna.)  Indra  is  supposed  to  preside  over  all 
atmospheric  changes  ;  the  clouds  are  his  war-elephants, 
one  of  which,  represented  with  three  trunks  and  called 
Iravat,*  (T-r^'vat,)  is  his  vahan,  (or  "vehicle,"!)  and  his 
most  terrible  weapon  is  his  vajra,  (pronounced  by  the 
modern  Hindoos  viij''ra  or  biij'ra,)  or  "adamantine  thun- 
derbolt. "J  The  heaven  or  paradise  of  Indra  is  called 
Swarga  or  Swerga,  (pronounced  swur'ga.)  Here  dwell 
the  Apsaras,  the  beautiful  dancing-girls  of  his  court,  who 
may  be  said  to  correspond  to  the  Hoorees  (Houris)  of 
Mohammed's  paradise,  and  the  Gandharvas,  or  celestial 
minstrels.  The  consort  of  Indra  is  named  Indrani,  (in- 
dR^'nee.)  His  capital  city  is  called  Amravati,  (lim-ri'- 
va-tee,)  or  the  "city  of  immortality." 

See  Moor'.s  "  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  Coleman's  "  Mythology  of  the 
Hindus;"  Sir  William  Jones's  Works,  vol.  xiii.,  (or  vol.  vi.  of 
another  edition  ;)  H.  H.  Wilson's  "Translation  of  the  Rig- Veda,' 
and  "  Essays  on  the  Religion  of  the  Hindus." 

Induno,  6n-doo'no,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  history  a.nc\  ^C7i7'e,  born  at  Milan  in  1815.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1837. 

Indutiomare.    See  Indutiomarus. 

Indutiomaius  or  Induciomarus,  in-du-she-om'a- 
rus,  [Fr.  Indutiomare,  iw^dU^seVmSR',]  a  chief  of  the 
Treviri,  fought  against  Julius  Caesar,  and  was  killed  in 
54  R-C. 

liles  {hn'yls)  or  Inez  de  Castro,  ^n'ygth  di  kSs'tRo, 
sometimes  Anglicised  as  Agnes  de  Castro,  a  beautiful 
Spanish  lady,  whose  tragical  fate  is  commemorated  by 
Camoens  in  the  "  Lusiad,"  was  born  of  a  noble  family 
in  Castile  in  the  fourteenth  century.  Having  been  a 
maid  of  honour  at  the  court  of  Alphonso  IV.  of  Por- 
tugal, she  won  the  love  of  his  son  Don  Pedro,  who 
privately  married  her.    The  king,  on  learning  the  fact, 

*  Iravat  signifies  "watery,"  "fiillof  rain," (in  'Lz^tm, pluviosiiS.) 
t  See  note  under  Garuda. 

+  This  word  {vajra)  signifies  both  "  thunderbolt"  and  "  adamant,' 
or  "diamond." 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


INF  ANT  ADO 


1242 


INGLES 


was  violently  enraged,  and,  after  vain  efforts  to  dissolve 
their  union,  authorized  her  assassination  in  1355.  She 
was  eminent  for  virtue,  grace,  and  intelligence.  Her 
story  is  the  subject  of  numerous  dramas,  legends,  etc. 

See  Mhs.  Behn,  "The  History  of  Agnes  de  Castro ;"  Lope  de 
Vega,  "  Donna  Inez  de  Castro J.  B.  Gomez,  Jr.,  "  Nova  Castro," 
Lisbon,  1S17. 

Infantado,  de,  di  ^n-fin-t^'Do,  Duque,  a  Spanish 
statesman,  born  in  1 773,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the 
Prince  of  Asturias,  (Ferdinand  VII.)  In  1808  he  ac- 
companied that  prince  to  Bayonne,  and  signed  the  con- 
stitution which  Napoleon  imposed  on  Spain.  In  1809 
he  conniianded  an  army  which  was  defeated  by  the 
French  at  Saint  Sebastian.  Ferdinand  VII.  appointed 
him  president  of  the  council  of  Castile  in  1814.  He 
resigned  in  1820,  and  was  prime  minister  for  a  short 
time  in  1825.    Died  in  1841. 

lugalls,  ing'galz,  (RuFUS,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Oxford  county,  Maine,  about  1820,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1843,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  in  September,  1862.  He  served  as  chief 
quartermaster  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  in  1863-65. 

Ingeburga,  ing'eh-booR'ga,  soinetimes  written  Ing- 
elburge  or  Ingerburga,  a  Danish  princess,  was  the 
sister  of  Canute  VI.  In  1192  she  became  the  wife  of 
Philip  Augustus  of  France,  who  soon  after  divorced 
her  without  good  reason.  She  appealed  to  the  pope. 
Innocent  III.,  who  decided  in  her  favour ;  and  after  the 
kingdom  of  Philip  had  been  laid  under  an  interdict, 
he  was  induced  to  reinstate  her.    Died  in  1236. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Histoire  universelle." 

Ingegneri,  4n-j§n-ya'ree,  (Angiolo,)  an  Italian  litte- 
rateur', born  in  Venice  about  1550,  was  secretary  of  Car- 
dinal C.  Aldobrandini  at  Rome,  whose  service  he  quitted 
in  1598.  He  wrote  a  jjastoral  called  "The  Dance  of 
Venus,"  ("  La  Danza  di  Venere,")  **  Buon  Segretario," 
and  a  few  other  works,  in  prose  and  verse.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Tasso.    Died  in  1613. 

See  GiNGUENE,  *'  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Ingegno,  L'.    See  Luigi,  (Andrea.) 

Ingelman,  ing'el-man',  (C.  G.,)  a  Swedish  poet,  born 
in  1788 ;  died  in  1845. 

In'ge-lo,  (Nathaniel,)  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman, 
wrote  "  Bentivolio  and  Urania,"  a  romance,  (1660,)  also 
a  few  sermons.    Died  in  1683. 

In'ge-low,  (Jean,)  a  popular  English  writer  and 
poetess,  born  about  1825,  published  "Poems,"  (1863,) 
"Studies  for  Stories,"  (1865,)  "A  Story  of  Doom," 
(1867,)  and  "Mopsa  the  Fairy,"  (1869.) 

Ingemann,  ing-'eh-mSn',  (  Bernhard  Severin,  )  a 
popular  Danish  poet  and  novelist,  was  born  in  the  island 
of  Ealster,  May  28,  1789.  He  produced  a  volume  of 
lyric  poems  ("Digte")  in  181 1,  and  an  epic  poem,  called 
"The  Black  Knights,"  ("  De  sorte  Riddere,")  in  1814. 
His  tragedies  "Blanca"  and  "Masaniello"  (1815)  were 
performed  with  great  success.  About  1820  he  published 
an  admired  dramatic  poem,  called  "The  Deliverance  of 
Tasso."  He  was  chosen  professor  of  Danish  at  the  Acad- 
emy of  Soroe  in  1822.  He  is  author  of  several  popular 
historical  novels,  among  which  are  "  Waldemar  the  Vic- 
tor," (1826,)  and  "Prince  Otho  of  Denmark,"  (1835.) 

See  William  and  Mary  Howitt,  "The  Literature  and  Romance 
of  Northern  Europe,"  vol.  ii.,  1852  ;  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe  Erslew,  "Almindeligt  Forfatter- Lexicon  ;"  Moi.ler. 
"Dansk  Pantlieon  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1838. 

Ingen  or  Inghen,  van,  vtn  ing'gen  or  ing'Hen,  (Wil- 
LEM,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  in  165 1,  studied  under  C. 
Maratta  at  Rome.  He  worked  in  Venice  and  Naples, 
and  settled  in  Amsterdam.  His  works  have  considera- 
ble merit.    Died  about  17 10. 

Ingenhoiisz,ing'gen -hows',  (Jan,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
physician  and  chemist,  born  at  Breda  in  1730.  About 
1767  he  visited  London,  where  he  became  intimate  with 
Dr.  Pringle,  president  of  the  Royal  Society,  by  whose 
recommendation  he  became  physician  to  the  empress 
Maria  Theresa  in  1772.  He  was  made  a  member  of 
the  aulic  council  in  Vienna,  and  received  a  pension  for 
life.  After  remaining  in  Vienna  a  number  of  years,  he 
travelled  in  France,  Italy,  etc.,  pursuing  his  scientific 
studies  and  experiments,  and  at  last  settled  in  London, 
and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  in- 
vented an  electrophorus,  and  discovered  that  growing 


plants  exposed  to  the  light  exhale  oxygen  gas,  (1779.) 
His  principal  works  (which  are  all  written  in  English) 
are  "  Experiments  on  Vegetables,  discovering  their  Power 
of  Purifying  the  Air,"  (1779,)  an  "  Essay  on  the  Food  of 
Plants,"  and  "  Experiments  and  Observations  on  Various 
Physical  Subjects."  The  invention  of  the  plate  electrical 
machine  is  attributed  to  him.  Died  in  1799. 
See  "  Biographic  Medicale." 

IngersoU,  ing'ger-sol,  (Charles  Jared,)  a  lawyer 
and  writer,  a  son  of  Jared,  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1782.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
i8i2,  and  was  appointed  district  attorney  for  Pennsyl- 
vania by  President  Madison  in  181 5.  He  was  chosen 
a  Democratic  member  of  Congress  in  1840,  1842,  and 

1844.  Among  his  works  are  "  Chiomara,"  a  poem, 
(1800,)  and  a  "Historical  Sketch  of  the  Second  War 
between  the  United  States  of  America  and  Great  Britain," 
(4  vols.,  1845-52.)    Died  in  1862. 

See  DuvcKiNCK,  "Cyclopedia  of  American  Literature."  vol.  ii. 

IngersoU,  (Jared,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist,  born 
in  Connecticut  in  1749.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1766, 
studied  law  at  the  Temple  in  London,  and  on  returning  to 
America  took  up  his  residence  in  Philadelphia.  Though 
the  son  of  a  royalist,  he  zealously  advocated  the  rights 
of  the  colonies  in  the  Revolution.  He  rose  to  great  dis- 
tinction in  his  profession,  was  twice  attorney-general  of 
Pennsylvania,  once  United  States  district  attorney,  and  in 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  president-judge  of  the  district 
court  of  Philadelphia.  He  served  in  the  convention  that 
framed  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1787,  and  in  1812  was 
the  candidate  of  the  Federal  party  for  the  Vice-Presidency 
of  the  United  States.    Died  in  1822. 

IngersoU,  (Joseph  Reed,)  D.C.L.,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Philadelphia,  June  14,  1786.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1808,  and  attained  to  a  high 
rank  in  the  legal  profession  in  his  native  city.  He  was  a 
representative  in  Congress  from  1835  to  1837,  and  was 
re-elected  by  the  Whig  party  in  1841,  and  again  in  1843, 

1845,  and  1847.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  debates 
on  the  tariff,  and  was  for  some  time  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  the  judiciary.  He  was  appointed  minister 
to  England  by  President  Fillmore  in  1852.  Died  in  1868. 

IngTiani,  (Charles  C.,)  an  eminent  American  por- 
trait-painter, born  about  1797.  He  worked  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  where  he  died  in  December,  1863.  His 
pictures  are  remarkable  for  their  high  finish. 

See  DuNLAP,  "Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in 
America." 

Inghen.    See  Ingen. 

Inghirami,  ^n-ge-ri^nee,  (Cavaliere  Francesco,) 
an  eminent  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Volterra  in  1772, 
devoted  many  years  to  researches  into  ancient  art,  and 
acquired  a  European  reputation  by  his  writings.  The 
most  important  of  these  is  his  "Monumenti  Etruschi," 
(10  vols.,  1821-27,)  which  is  the  most  complete  de- 
scription of  the  antiquities  of  Etruria.  He  wrote,  also, 
"  Galleria  Omerica,"  (3  vols.,  1827-38,)  illustrative  of 
Homer's  poems,  and  "  Letters  on  Etruscan  Erudition, 
etc.,"  (1828.)    Died  in  1846. 

See  Ersch  und  Gkuber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Inghirami,  (Tommaso  Fedra,)  an  eminent  Italian 
scholar  and  orator,  born  at  Volterra  in  1470,  settled  at 
Rome  in  early  youth,  and  obtained  high  preferments. 
He  acquired  the  fame  of  being  one  of  the  most  eloquent 
men  of  modern  Rome  ;  and  Erasmus  informs  us  that  he 
was  styled  the  Cicero  of  his  age.  He  was  patronized 
by  Julius  II.,  who  appointed  him  keeper  of  the  Vatican 
Library.  He  left  in  manuscript  a  "  Commentary  on 
Horace's  Art  of  Poetry,"  "An  Abstract  of  Roman  His- 
tory," and  other  works.    Died  in  15 16. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encj^klopaedie ;"  Tira- 
BOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

In'gi-ald,  (almost  in'j^ld,)  King  of  Sweden,  surnamed 
Illrada,  ("the  Bad,")  reigned  in  the  seventh  century, 
and  was  the  last  of  his  dynasty.  In  consequence  of  his 
crimes,  some  of  his  subjects  revolted  with  success,  and 
he  destroyed  himself.  Iwar,  Prince  of  Scania,  succeeded 
him. 

Ingles,  ing-gl§s',  (Master  Jorge,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
was  eminent  in  history  and  portraits.  He  worked  at 
Granada  in  1455. 


8,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;    ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,    i,  q,  obscure;  fl.r,  fill,  f^t;  n\lt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


INGLES 


1243 


INMAN 


Ingles,. (Don  Jose:,)  a  Spanish  fresco-painter,  born  at 
Valencia  in  1718;  died  in  1786. 

Inglis,  ing'glis,  (Henry  David,)  a  Scottish  writer  of 
travels,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1795.  He  travelled  exten- 
sively in  Europe,  and  published  excellent  books  of  travel, 
viz.,  "Solitary  Walks  through  Many  Land's,"  (3d  edition, 
1843,)  a  "Journey  through  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Den- 
mark," (1829,)  "Tour  through  Switzerland,  the  South  of 
France,"  etc.,  (1830,)  "  Spain  in  1830,"  (from  which  Lord 
Aberdeen  said  he  had  derived  more  information  than 
from  all  the  state  documents  he  ever  perused,)  "The 
Tyrol,  with  a  Glance  at  Bavaria,"  (1834,)  and  "  Rambles 
in  the  Footsteps  of  Don  Quixote."    Died  in  1835. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Inglis  or  English,  (Sir  James,)  a  poet,  born  in  Scot- 
land in  the  reign  of  James  IV.,  is  supposed  to  be  the 
author  of  a  book  entitled  "The  Complaint  of  Scotland," 
published  at  Saint  Andrew's  in  1548,  said  to  be  the  most 
ancient  Scottish  prose  work  that  is  extant.  Died  in  1530. 

Inglis,  (John,)  D.D.,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1763, 
was  one  of  the  ministers  of  the  Greyfriars'  Church  in 
that  city.  He  published  a  "Vindication  of  the  Christian 
Faith,"  (1830,)  and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1834. 

Inglis,  (John,)  an  eminent  Scottish  advocate,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1810.  He 
became  lord  advocate  in  May,  1852,  and  was  elected 
dean  of  the  faculty  in  the  same  year.  Having  retired 
from  office  with  the  Derby  ministry  in  December,  1852, 
he  was  restored  to  the  same  in  1858,  and  became  lord 
justice  clerk  in  the  same  year. 

In'glis,  (Sir  John  Eardley  Wilmot,)  a  British  gen- 
eral, born  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  about  181 5,  was  a  son 
of  the  Bishop  of  Nova  Scotia.  He  distinguished  himself 
in  the  campaign  of  the  Punjab  in  1848-49,  and  obtained 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  His  regiment  was  at 
Lucknow  when  that  place  was  besieged  by  the  Sepoys 
in  the  summer  of  1857.  On  the  death  of  Sir  Henry 
Lawrence  he  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  garrison. 
He  received  the  brevet  of  major-general  for  his  heroic 
defence  of  Lucknow.  Died  at  Homburg,  Germany,  in 
September,  1862. 

Inglis,  (Sir  Robert  Harry,)  M.P.,born  in  1786,  was 
the  only  son  of  Sir  Hugh  Inglis,  chairman  of  the  East 
India  Company.  He  was  first  elected  to  Parliament  in 
1824.  From  1829  to  1853  he  represented  the  University 
of  Oxford,  and  constantly  voted  with  the  Tories  against 
the  Reform  bill,  the  relief  of  the  Catholics,  etc.  Died 
in  1855. 

Inglis,  (Sir  William,)  a  British  general,  born  in  1762, 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Peninsular  war.  Died 
in  1835. 

Ingoldsby,  ing'golz-be,  (Thomas,)  the  assumed  name 
of  Richard  H.  Barham.    (See  Barham.) 

Ing'pn  I.,  surnamed  the  Good,  King  of  Sweden,  was 
the  son  and  successor  of  Stenkil,  and  began  to  reign 
about  1080.  He  favoured  the  propagation  of  Christianity 
among  his  subjects.    Died  in  in 2. 

Ingon  II.,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  one  of  his 
successors,  and  shared  the  royal  power  with  his  brother 
Philip.  Slavery  was  gradually  abolished  in  his  reign. 
Died  in  1 130. 

Ingoni,  ^n-go'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Modena  in  1528  ;  died  in  1608. 

Ingoni,  (Matteo,)  a  painter  of  the  Venetian  school, 
born  at  Ravenna  in  1587  ;  died  in  163 1. 

Ingouf,  ^N'gooF,(FRANgois  Robert,)  a  skilful  French 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1747.  He  engraved  "The 
Nativity,"  after  Raphael,  and  some  of  the  plates  for  the 
"Musee  Fran9ais."  Died  in  1812.  His  brother,  Pierre 
Charles,  born  in  Paris  in  1746,  was  also  a  successful 
engraver.    Died  in  1800. 

Ingraham,  ing'gra-am,  (Duncan  Nathaniel,)  a 
naval  commander,  born  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
in  1802.  He  gained  distinction  by  his  spirited  conduct 
in  procuring  the  release  froin  an  Austrian  war-vessel, 
at  Smyrna,  in  June,  1853,  of  Martin  Koszta,  a  Hungarian, 
who  had  legally  declared  his  intention  to  become  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States.  As  a  mark  of  its  approval, 
the  general  government  presented  Ingraham  with  a  medal. 
He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  captain  in  1855. 


Ingraham,  (Joseph  H.,)  an  American  writer,  born 
at  Portland,  Maine,  in  1809.  Among  his  productions 
are  the  romances  of  "  Lafitte,"  "  Captain  Kyd,"  and 
"  The  Dancing  Feather."  He  has  also  written  "  The 
Prince  of  the  House  of  David,"  and  other  similar  works. 

Ingram,  ing'gram,  (Herbert,)  an  English  printer, 
born  at  Boston  in  181 1,  founded  the  "Illustrated  Lon- 
don News"  in  1842.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in 
1856,  and  visited  the  United  States  in  i860.  In  Sep- 
tember of  that  year  he  was  drowned  in  Lake  Michigan, 
in  consequence  of  a  collision. 

Ingram,  (James,)  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Wiltshire  in  1774,  became  president  of  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  in  1824,  and  rector  of  Garsington.  He  published 
an  edition  of  the  "  Saxon  Chronicle,"  (1823,)  "  Memorials 
of  Oxford,"  (1834-37,)  which  was  favourably  received, 
and  several  other  works.    Died  in  1850. 

Ingram,  (Robert,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Beverley,  Yorkshire,  in  1727.  He  became  vicar  of  Orston 
and  Boxted,  and  published,  besides  other  works,"  Isaiah's 
Vision,"  (1784,)  and  "  The  Seventh  Plague,"  (i 787.)  Died 
in  1804. 

Ingrassia,  ^n-gRls'se-i,  written  also  Ingrassias, 

(Giovanni  Filippo,)  an  eminent  Sicilian  physician  and 
anatomist,  born  at  Palermo  about  1510,  taught  anatomy 
at  Naples.  In  1563  he  was  chosen  by  Philip  11.  first 
physician  of  Sicily,  and  in  1575  he  checked  the  ravages 
of  the  plague  at  Palermo.  He  wrote  a  "  Commentary 
on  the  Bones,"  and  other  able  treatises  on  anatomy. 
Died  in  1580. 

See  £lov,  "  Dictionnaire  historique  de  la  Medecine." 

Ingres,  iNgR,  (Jean  Augusi  e  Dominique,)  a  cele- 
brated French  historical  painter,  born  at  Montauban  in 
1780  or  1 781,  was  a  pupil  of  David.  He  gained  the  first 
prize  in  1801  for  a  picture  of  "Achilles  receiving  in  his 
Tent  the  Envoys  of  Agamemnon."  He  worked  about 
twenty  years  (1804-24)  in  Rome  and  Florence,  choosing 
Rai)hael  as  his  model.  During  this  period  he  painted 
"  OEdipus  and  the  Sphinx,"  "  Raphael  and  La  Fornarina," 
and  "Odalisque,"  (1819.)  He  returned  to  Paris  in  1824, 
became  the  founder  of  a  school,  and  exhibited  "  The 
Vow  of  Louis  XIII.,"  one  of  his  best  works,  which 
o]:)ened  to  him  the  doors  of  the  Institute  in  1825.  In 
1827  he  painted  on  the  ceiling  of  the  Louvre  "The 
Apotheosis  of  Homer,"  which  is  called  his  master-piece. 
At  the  Exposition  of  1855  a  salo?i  was  reserved  exclu- 
sively for  his  works,  which  are  said  to  have  had  a  wide 
influence  on  the  style  of  French  and  foreign  artists.  He 
is  called  the  representative  of  correct  design  and  ideal 
composition.    Died  in  January,  1867. 

See  L.  DE  LoMENiE,  "  M.  Ingres,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1842  , 
Frederic  Mekcey,  "  Peintres  et  Sculpteurs  modernes  :  J.  Ingres," 
1846;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Inguimbert,  d',  dcLN^glN^baiR',  (Joseph  Dominique,) 
a  French  bishop,  born  at  Carpentras  in  1683,  assumed 
the  name  of  DoM  Malachie.  He  became  an  intimate 
counsellor  of  Pope  Clement  XII.,  who  appointed  him 
domestic  prelate,  and  in  1733  Bishop  of  Carpentras.  He 
built  a  hospital  in  that  town,  and  founded  a  large  public 
library  there.  He  wrote  and  translated  several  religious 
works.    Died  in  1757. 

See  ViTALis,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Malachie  d' Inguimbert,"  1812 

Ingulf.    See  Ingulphus. 

In-guPphus  or  In'gulf,  a  monk,  born  in  London 
about  1030,  became  secretary  and  favourite  of  William, 
Duke  of  Normandy,  in  1051.  After  that  prince  had 
become  King  of  England,  Ingulphus  was  made  abbot  of 
the  monastery  of  Croyland.  He  died  in  1109.  He  was 
the  reputed  author  of  a  History  of  the  above  monastery, 
in  Latin,  containing  much  curious  and  important  infor- 
mation ;  but  Sir  Francis  Palgrave  has  proved  that  it  is  a 
forgery. 

See  Ordencus  Vilalis,  "  Historia  Ecclesiastica." 

In'i-go,  an  English  engraver,  whose  proper  name  was 
John  Collet,  was  born  about  1725.  He  excelled  in 
the  same  line  as  Hogarth,  and  displayed  an  original 
genius  for  humorous  design.  He  left  but  few  works, 
among  which  is  a  "  Monkey  pointing  to  a  Very  Dark 
Picture  of  Moses  striking  the  Rock."    Died  in  1780. 

In'raan,  (Henry,)  an  American  portrait-painter,  born 
at  Utica,  New  York,  in  1801,  was  a  pupil  of  Jarvis.  He 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Y^^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


INMAN 


1244 


INNOCENT 


worked  mostly  in  the  city  of  New  York.  During  a  visit 
to  England,  ni  1844,  he  painted  portraits  of  the  poet 
Wordsworth,  Dr.  Chahners,  and  T.  B.  Macaulay.  Among 
his  other  works  are  portraits  of  Chief-Justice  Marshall 
and  Bishop  White.  He  was  commissioned  by  Congress 
to  adorn  the  national  capitol  with  historical  paintings ; 
but  before  he  had  finished  them  he  died,  in  1846. 

See  DuNi.AP,  "  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in 
America;"  Tuckekman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Inman,  (John,)  a  brother  of  the  p'receding,  born  at 
Utica,  New  York,  in  1805,  was  an  associate  editor  of 
the  "New  York  Mirror"  and  "The  Commercial  Adver- 
tiser."   Died  in  1850. 

In'nes,  (Louis,)  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  born  of  a 
Scottish  family  about  1650,  He  became  secretary  to 
James  II.  after  he  was  deposed  from  the  English  throne. 
He  is  the  reputed  author  of  "  Memoirs  of  James  II.,"  part 
of  which  was  published  by  J.  Stanier  Clarke  in  1816. 

Innes,  (Thomas,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1662,  studied  in  Paris,  was  ordained  a  priest,  and  suc- 
ceeded Louis  as  principal  of  the  Scottish  College.  He 
wrote  a  "Critical  Essay  on  the  Ancient  Inhabitants  of 
the  Northern  Parts  of  Britain,"  (1729,)  which  is  highly 
commended  for  sound  learning,  judicious  criticism,  and 
valuable  information.    Died  in  1744. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

In'no-cent  [Lat.  Innocen'tius  ;  It.  Innocenzo,  hn- 
no-ch§n'zo ;  Ger.  Innocenz,  in'no-tsents  ;  Span.  Ino- 
CENCio,  e-no-///gn'//^e-o]  I.,  a  native  of  Albano,  chosen  ■ 
Bishop  of  Rome  in  402  A.D.,  was  contemporary  with 
Augustine  and  Jerome.  During  his  pontificate,  Rome 
was  pillaged  by  Alaric  the  Goth.  Innocent  strenuously 
asserted  the  supremacy  of  the  see  of  Rome,  and  con- 
demned the  doctrines  of  Pelagius.  Died  in  41 7,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Zosimus. 

See  Bruys,  "Histoire  des  Papes,"  5  vols.,  1735. 

Innocent  II.,  Pope,  was  elected  in  1130  as  successor 
to  Honorius  II.  Another  party  elected  a  rival  pope, 
under  the  name  of  Anacletus  II.,  whose  partisans  drove 
Innocent  out  of  Rome.  The  latter  was  recognized  as  pope 
by  the  Kings  of  France,  England,  and  Germany,  and  his 
rival  was  supported  by  Roger  of  Sicily.  In  1138,  Inno- 
cent, assisted  by  Lotharius  of  Germany,  recovered  the 
papal  power,  and,  his  rival  having  died  in  the  same  year, 
the  unity  of  the  Church  was  restored.  In  1139  Arnaldo 
da  Brescia  was  banished  from  Rome  for  preaching  doc- 
trines that  were  deemed  unsound.  Innocent  died  in 
1 143,  and  was  succeeded  by  Celestine  II. 

See  Platina,  "  Vite  de'  summi  Pontefici,"  161 3  ;  Alletz,  "  His- 
toire des  Papes,"  1776;  J.  Hartmann,  "Vita  Innocentii  II.  Pon- 
tificis,"  1744;  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pon- 
tifes,"  1847-49. 

Innocent  III.,  whose  proper  name  was  Lotharius, 

was  the  son  of  Trasimund,  a  Roman  count,  and  was  born 
in  Rome  in  1161.  He  was  unanimously  elected  pope  in 
January,  1198,  as  successor  to  Celestine  HI.  With  su- 
perior abilities,  improved  by  diligent  study,  he  combined 
great  resolution,  industry,  and  austerity  of  character,  and 
availed  himself  of  every  opportunity  to  magnify  his  ofiice 
and  to  assert  the  supremacy  of  the  papal  power.  In  1 199 
he  placed  the  kingdom  of  France  under  an  interdict  be- 
cause the  king,  Philip  Augustus,  had  repudiated  his  wife  ; 
and  thus  he  compelled  him  to  reinstate  her.  About  1200 
he  instigated  the  fourth  crusade,  the  principal  result  of 
which  was  the  capture  of  Constantinople  from  the  Greeks 
by  the  crusaders.  In  1212  he  excommunicated  and  de- 
posed Otho,  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  crowned  Frede- 
rick of  Sicily  in  his  place.  A  memorable  quarrel  occurred 
between  this  pontiff  and  King  John  of  England,  respect- 
ing the  appointment  of  the  "Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
(1207,)  the  right  to  appoint  being  obstinately  asserted  by 
each.  England  was  laid  under  an  interdict,  which  lasted 
two  years,  at  the  expiration  of  which,  as  John  was  still 
refractory,  the  pope  declared  him  to  be  deposed,  and 
authorized  Philip  Augustus  of  France  to  execute  the 
decree.  While  the  latter  was  preparing  to  invade  Eng- 
land, John  submitted  to  the  pope,  in  1213,  and  signed'a 
disgraceful  treaty,  in  which  he  consented  to  hold  Eng- 
land and  Ireland  as  fiefs  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  to 
pay  an  annual  tribute  of  one  thousand  marks.  In  1214 
Innocent  raised  a  cruel  persecution  or  crusade  against 


the  Albigenses  for  heresy.  During  his  pontificate  the 
papal  power  attained  its  greatest  height.  He  was  perhaps 
the  most  learned  man  and  the  most  able  statesman  of 
his  age.  He  wrote  "  Letters,"  and  other  works,  which  are 
highly  commended.  Died  in  1216,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Honorius  III. 

See  F.  HuRTER,  "Geschichte  Innocenz  III.,"  2  vols.,  1835,  (and 
French  version  of  the  same,  4  vols.,  1838-43  ;)  D.  Lessmann,  "  Pabst 
Innocenz  III.  und  Fiirst  Michael  Gliiiski,"  1830;  Jorrv,  "Histoire 
du  Pape  Innocent  III,"  1852;  Artaud  de  Montor,  "Histoire  des 
souverains  Pontifes,"  1847-49;  J-  H.  Gurnev,  "Four  Ecclesiastical 
Biographies,"  London,  1864. 

Innocent  IV.,  (Sinibaldo  de'  Fieschi— di  fe-gs'- 

kee,)  a  native  of  Genoa,  was  elected  pope  as  successor  to 
Celestine  IV.  in  1243.  He  soon  found  himself  involved 
in  a  quarrel  with  the  emperor  Frederick  II.,  (who  had 
been  excommunicated  by  Gregoiy  IX.,)  and  retired  for 
security  to  Lyons.  Here  he  summoned  a  council,  in 
1245,  and  renewed  the  excommunication  of  Frederick, 
who  was  also  formally  deposed.  The  emperor,  however, 
refused  to  submit  to  this  assumption,  and  waged  war 
against  the  pope  for  several  years,  until  his  death  in  1250. 
Innocent  then  returned  to  his  capital,  and  proclaimed  a 
crusade  against  Conrad,  the  son  of  Frederick;  but  again 
his  malignity  was  bat¥led.  He  died  in  1254,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Alexander  IV. 

See  J.  Hartmann,  "Vita  Innocentii  IV.,"  1738;  Paolo  Panza, 
"Vita  del  gran  Pontefice  Innocenzio  Quarto,"  1601. 

Innocent  V.,  (  Peter  of  Tarantasia,  )  born  at 
Moutier,  in  Savoy,  was  elected  in  1276  as  successor  to 
Gregory  X.  After  holding  office  a  few  months,  he  died 
in  the  same  year. 

Innocent  VI.,  (  Stienne  Aubert — o'baiR', )  a 
Frenchman,  born  near  Pompadour,  was  elected  pope 
in  1352.  He  succeeded  Clement  VI.,  who  had  made 
him  a  cardinal  and  Bishop  of  Ostia.  His  court  was  kept 
at  Avignon  throughout  his  pontificate.  He  reformed 
some  abuses  in  the  Church,  and  appears  to  have  acted 
with  more  moderation  and  propriety  than  most  of  his 
predecessors.    Died  in  1 362. 

See  Bruys,  "Histoire  des  Papes,"  1735;  Sismondi,  "Histoire 
des  Frangais." 

Innocent  VII.,  (Cardinal  Cosmo  Migliorati — m^l- 
yo-rS'tee,)  born  at  Sulmona  about  1338,  was  elected  pope 
in  1404,  as  successor  to  Boniface  IX.  At  that  time  there 
was  an  extensive  schism  in  the  Church,  and  Benedict 
XIII.  held  a  rival  court  at  Avignon.    Died  in  1406. 

See  Pi.ATiNA,  "Vite  de'  summi  Pontefici,"  1613. 

Innocent  VIII.,  (Giovanni  Battista  Cibo — chee'- 
bo,)  born  at  Genoa  in  1434,  was  elected  pope  in  1484,  as 
successor  to  Sixtus  IV.  He  laboured  without  success 
to  unite  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  against  the  Turks, 
and  was  himself  engaged  in  war  with  Ferdinand,  King 
of  Naples.  He  died  in  149 1,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Alexander  VI. 

See  F.  Serdonati,  "Vita  d'Inpocenzo  VIII.,"  1829;  F.  M. 
ViALARDO,  "  Istoria  della  Vita  d'Inii?>cenzo  VIII.,"  1613. 

Innocent  IX.,  (Antonio  Facchinetti  —  fSk-ke- 
net'tee,)  born  at  Bologna,  succeeded  Gregory  XIV.  in 
October,  1591,  but  only  survived  two  months  after  his 
election.  He  left  a  good  reputation  for  virtue  and 
wisdom.    Clement  VIII.  was  his  successor. 

See  Ranke,  "  History  of  the  Popes." 

Innocent  X.,  (Giovanni  Battista  Panfili — pln- 

fee'lee,)  elected  in  place  of  Urban  VIII.  in  1644,  was 
born  in  Rome  about  1570.  He  owed  his  promotion  to 
the  Barberini,  who  soon  became  his  enemies.  The  Jan- 
senist  controversy  having  made  a  great  commotion  in 
the  Church,  Innocent  appointed  a  commission  of  car- 
dinals to  settle  it,  and  in  1653  issued  a  bull  aim  occasione, 
in  which  he  condemned  the  five  propositions  of  Jansen. 
Historians  differ  widely  as  to  the  character  of  this  pontiff. 
He  died  in  1655,  and  was  succeeded  by  Alexander  VII. 

See  Ranke,  "History  of  the  Popes:"  Ci.'^conius,  "Vitae  et  Res 
gestae  Pontificum  Romanoi-um,"  4  vols.,  1677. 

Innocent  XI.,  (Cardinal  Benedict  Odescalchi — 

o-d§s-k^Kkee,)  born  at  Como  in  161 1,  succeeded  Clement 
X.  in  1676.  He  had  been  made  a  cardinal  in  1647,  and 
had  sustained  a  respectable  character.  He  soon  mani- 
fested his  zeal  to  reform  abuses  and  restore  strict  disci- 
pline, and  his  inflexible  resolution  to  maintain  the  papal 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mfet;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


INNOCENT  1245  IPHITUS 


prerogatives.  His  pontificate  was  signalized  by  a  re- 
markable contest  with  Louis  XIV.  of  France  in  relation 
to  the  regale  and  the  privileges  or  exemptions  of  foreign 
ambassadors  at  Rome.  The  pope  wished  to  abolish  the 
usage  which  rendered  the  ambassador's  palace,  with  the 
adjacent  premises,  an  asylum  for  malefactors,  etc.,  inac- 
cessible to  the  officers  of  justice.  Louis  XIV.  in  1687 
sent  his  ambassador  Lavardin  with  orders  to  maintain 
his  rights,  and  with  an  armed  retinue  of  eight  hundred 
men.  The  pope  persisted,  and  excommunicated  Lavar- 
din, who  returned  without  effecting  his  object ;  and  the 
quarrel  was  not  ended  until  after  the  death  of  Innocent, 
which  occurred  in  1689.  It  seems  that  his  enmity  to  Louis 
induced  this  pontiff  to  favour  the  English  in  resistance 
to  James  II. ;  and  some  one  remarked  that  the  peace  of 
Europe  would  be  promoted  if  James  would  become  a 
Protestant,  and  the  pope  a  Catholic. 

See  Ughei-LI,  "Italia  sacra,"  10  vols.,  1717-22;  Ranke,  "His- 
tory of  the  Popes;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Francais ;"  F. 
BuoNAMici,  "De  Vita  et  Rebus  gestis  Innocentii  XI.,"  1776. 

Innocent  XII.,  (Antonio  Pignatelli — pen-yi-teK- 
lee,)  born  in  Naples  in  161 5,  became  Cardinal  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Naples  during  the  pontificate  of  Innocent  XI., 
and  succeeded  Alexander  VIII.  as  pope  in  July,  1692. 
He  proposed  to  take  Innocent  XI.  as  his  model,  and 
appears  to  deserve  credit  for  his  economy,  regular  habits, 
liberality,  and  works  of  utility.  In  his  pontificate  a  re- 
conciliation was  effected  with  the  French  court  by  mutual 
concession.  Quietism  also  received  its  quietus,  in  1699, 
by  a  papal  brief  condemning  Fenelon's  "  Maximes  cles 
Saints."  He  died  in  1700,  and  was  succeeded  by  Clem- 
ent XL 

See  Ranke,  "History  of  the  Popes;"  Bruvs,  "Histoire  des 
Papes,"  1735. 

Innocent  XIII.,  (Michelangelo  Conti— kon'tee,) 
born  in  Rome  in  1655,  was  the  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Poli,  and  attained  the  dignity  of  cardinal  in  1706.  He 
succeeded  Clement  XI.  as  pope  in  1721,  and  exercised 
his  power  so  prudently  that  his  subjects  regretted  the 
brevity  of  its  duration.  He  died  in  1724,  and  his  place 
was  supplied  by  Benedict  XIII. 

See  Bruys,  "Histoire  des  Papes,"  1735;  "Leben  Pabst  Innocenz 
XIII.,"  Cologne,  1724. 

Innocentius.    See  Innocent. 
Innocenz.    See  Innocent. 
Innocenzo.    See  Innocent. 

I'no,  [Gr.  'Ivw,]  a  daughter  of  Cadmus  and  Harmonia, 
was  the  wife  of  Athamas,  King  of  Thebes.  According 
to  tradition,  she  incurred  the  enmity  of  Juno,  who  de- 
prived Athamas  of  his  reason.  In  a  fit  of  insanity  he 
killed  a  son  of  Ino,  who  threw  herself  into  the  sea  and 
was  changed  into  a  sea-goddess,  named  Leucothea.  Her 
story  was  dramatized  by  several  Greek  poets. 

Inocencio.    See  Innocent. 

Interiano  de  Ayala,  ^n-ti-re-i'no  di  T-S'li,  (Juan,) 
a  Spanish  author  and  monk,  born  in  1656,  became 
preacher  to  the  king.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
(mostly  in  Spanish,)  "  Pictor  Christianus  Eruditus," 
(1730,)  in  which  he  exposes  the  prevalent  errors  of 
painters  who  treat  of  religious  subjects.  His  style  is 
pure  and  elegant.    Died  in  1730. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Moreri,  "Dic- 
tionnaire  Historique." 

Inthiema,  in-te-a'ml,  (Hero,)  a  Dutch  poet  and  jurist, 
born  in  1576;  died  in  1623. 

Intieri,  ^n-te-a'ree,  (  Bartolommeo,  )  an  Italian 
economist  and  mechanician,  born  at  Pistoia  about  1674. 
He  founded  a  chair  of  political  economy  at  Naples,  and 
wrote  "On  the  Conservation  of  Grain."    Died  in  1757. 

Intorcetta,  en-toR-chet'ti,  (Prospero,)  a  Jesuit  mis- 
sionary, born  in  Sicily  in  1625,  laboured  in  China,  and 
published  Latin  translations  of  some  works  of  Confu- 
cius.   Died  in  1696. 

Inveges,  ^n-va''j?s,  (Augustin,)  a  Sicilian  historian 
and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Sciacca  in  1595,  published  a 
"History  of  Palermo,"  (3  vols.,  1649-51,)  which  was 
much  esteemed.    Died  in  1677. 

In'wood,  (Charles  Frederick,)  son  of  William 
Inwood,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1798.  He  co-operated 
with  his  father  as  architect  of  Westminster  Hospital  and 
other  edifices.    Died  in  1840. 


Inwood,  (Henry  William,)  an  English  architect,  a 

brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1794.  He  was 
associated  in  his  profession  with  his  father,  and  pub- 
lished "  Studies  of  the  Architect  from  Nature,"  and  an 
illustrated  work  on  Athenian  architecture,  called  "The 
Erechtheion  at  Athens,"  (1827.)  He  perished  by  ship- 
wreck in  1843,  while  making  a  voyage  to  Spain. 

Inwood,  (William,)  an  English  architect,  born  about 
1770,  was  employed  on  many  buildings  in  London,  and 
also  followed  the  profession  of  surveyor.  He  was  assisted 
in  his  architectural  labours  by  his  two  sons,  noticed 
above.  Saint  Pancras  Church,  London,  finished  in  1822, 
was  erected  by  him  and  his  son  Henry.  He  published 
"Tables  for  Purchasing  Estates,"  etc.    Died  in  1843. 

I'o,  [Gr.  'Id),]  a  fabulous  personage,  whom  the  Greek 
poets  represent  as  a  daughter  of  Inachus  and  a  priestess 
of  Juno.  It  was  said  that,  having  been  transformed  by 
Jupiter  into  a  white  cow,  she  was  tormented  by  a  gadfly, 
(sent  by  Juno,)  to  escape  from  which  she  swam  across 
the  Ionian  Sea  and  wandered  through  various  parts  of 
the  world.  Her  story  is  related  by  i5ischylus  in  his 
"  Suppliants." 

I-9-la'us  [Gr.  'loAaof]  or  I'9-las,  [Gr.  'loAcf,]  a  per- 
sonage of  classic  mythology,  was  a  relative  and  faithful 
companion  of  Hercules,  whom  he  aided  in  his  contest 
against  the  Lernean  Hydra. 

I'o-le,  [Gr.  'IbTiri,]  the  daughter  of  Eurytus,  King  of 
Qichalia,  who  promised  her  in  marriage  to  Hercule.s. 
But,  Eurytus  having  afterwards  refused  to  perform  his 
engagement,  lole  was  forcibly  carried  off  by  her  lover. 
On  the  death  of  the  latter,  caused  by  Dejanira's  jealousy, 
(see  DEJA.NIRA,)  lole  was  married  to  Hyllus,  the  son  of 
Hercules. 

I'on,  [Gr.  'Iwv,]  the  mythical  ancestor  of  the  lonians, 
was  supposed  to  be  the  son  of  Apollo  and  Creusa.  His 
story  was  dramatized  by  Euripides. 

Ion,  ['Iwi',]  a  Greek  tragic  poet,  who  was  born  at 
Chios,  (Scio,)  and  flourished  about  450  B.C.  He  lived 
at  Athens,  where  he  became  a  friend  of  yEschylus  and 
gained  a  prize  for  one  of  his  tragedies.  He  composed, 
besides  tragedies,  elegies,  lyric  poems,  and  some  prose 
works,  all  of  which  are  lost.  He  was  included  in  the 
canon  of  the  five  Athenian  tragic  poets  by  the  Alexan- 
drian critics. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grasca  ;"  Kavser,  "  Historia  cri- 
tica  Tragicorum  Graecoriim,"  1845;  Karl  Nieberding,  "  De  lonis 
Chii  Vita,  Moribus  et  Studiis,"  1836. 

I'o-phon,  [Gr.  'lo^wv,]  an  Athenian  tragic  poet,  a  son 
of  Sophocles  the  poet,  lived  about  420  B.C.  He  gained 
the  second  prize  in  429,  when  Euripides  received  the 
first  prize.  Among  the  titles  of  his  plays  are  "  Achilles," 
"  Actaeon,"  and  "  Pentheus."  His  works  are  not  extant. 
Died  after  405  B.C. 

See  Kayser,  "  Historia  critica  Tragicorum  Graecorum,"  1845. 

louzef  or  louzaf.    See  Yoosef. 
Iphicrate.    See  Iphicrates. 

I-phic'ra-tes,  [Gr.  '^LKpuTTjg ;  Fr.  Iphicrate,  e'fe'- 
kRtt',]  a  skilful  Athenian  general,  who  rose  from  a 
humble  rank  in  society  and  obtained  the  chief  command 
of  the  Athenian  army.  About  392  B.C.  he  defeated  the 
Spartans  near  Corinth,  and  afterwards  gained  applause 
by  his  defence  of  Corcyra  against  the  Spartans  and  Syra- 
cusans.  He  made  important  changes  in  the  armour  and 
tactics  of  his  troops,  by  exchanging  the  heavy  buckler 
for  a  light  target  and  increasing  the  length  of  the  spear 
and  the  sword.  He  was  associated  with  Timotheus  and 
Chares  in  the  command  of  an  expedition  against  Byzan- 
tium about  357  B.C. 

See  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  Cornelius  Nepos,  "  Iphi- 
crates ;"  DiODORUS  SicuLUS,  books  xiv.,  xv.,  and  xvi.  ;  Xenophon, 
"  Hellenica,"  books  iv.  and  vi. ;  Rehdantz,  "  Vitae  Iphicratis,  Cha- 
hnx  et  Timothei,"  Berlin,  1845. 

Iph-i-ge-ni'a  or  Iph-i-ge-nei'a,  [Gr.  'l(plyeveta;  Fr. 
Iphig^nie,  ^Te^zh^ne',]  a  daughter  of  Agamemnon  and 
Clytemnestra.  The  ancient  poets  relate  that  Diana 
detained  the  Greek  fleet  at  Aulis  by  a  calm,  because 
Agamemnon  had  offended  her,  and  that  the  soothsayer 
Calchas  declared  Diana  could  be  appeased  only  by  the 
sacrifice  of  Iphigenia.  When  she  was  on  the  point  of 
being  immolated,  she  was  rescued,  it  is  said,  by  Diana, 
who  carried  her  to  Tauris,  where  she  became  a  priestess 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  kard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


IPHIGENIE 


1246 


IRETON 


in  the  temple  of  the  goddess.    Her  story  is  the  subject 
of  two  of  the  dramas  of  Euripides. 
Iphigenie.    See  Ii'inoENiA. 

Iph'i-tus,  [Gr.  '{(pLTog,^  a  king  of  Eh's,  who  revived 
the  Olympic  games  about  884  B.C.,  four  hundred  and 
seventy  years  after  their  first  institution.  They  were 
celebrated  every  fifth  year,  at  Olympia,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Alpheus.  Lycurgus,  the  vSpartan  lawgiver,  was 
associated  with  Iphitus  in  this  affair. 

Ipparco,  the  Italian  of  Hipparchus,  which  see. 

Ippocrate.    See  Hippocrates. 

Ippolito.    See  Hippolytus. 

Irailh,  e'rtK,  (Augustin  Simon,)  a  French  historical 
writer,  born  at  Puy-en-Velay  in  17 19,  became  canon 
of  Monistrol.  He  wrote  an  interesting  work  entitled 
"Literary  Quarrels,  or  Memoirs  of  the  Revolutions  in 
the  Republic  of  Letters  from  the  Time  of  Homer  to 
the  Present,"  (4  vols.,  1 761,)  also  a  "History  of  the 
Reunion  of  Bretagne  with  France,"  (2  vols.,  1764.)  Died 
in  1794. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Irala  Yuso,  e-ri'li  yoo'so,  (Matias  Antonio,)  a 
Spanish  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Madrid  in  1680 ; 
died  in  1753. 

Ir'by,  (Charles  Leonard,)  an  English  traveller,  and 
a  commander  in  the  royal  navy,  Li  conjunction  with 
James  Mangles,  he  wrote  a  book  entitled  "Travels  in 
Egypt,  Nubia,  Syria,  and  the  Holy  Land,"  privately 
printed  in  1823.  It  has  since  been  published,  and  is 
reputed  a  valuable  work.    (See  Mangles,  Captain.) 

Irby,  (Frederick  Paul,)  a  British  naval  officer,  born 
in  1779,  commanded  the  Amelia  in  an  indecisive  action 
against  the  French  in  1813.    Died  in  1844. 

Ire'dell,  (Tr'del,)  (James,)  a  distinguished  jurist,  born 
in  England  in  1 751,  settled  in  North  Carolina  in  1768. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1770,  and  in  1777  became 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  North  Carolina.  This 
position  he  resigned  in  1779.  Pie  was  one  of  the  ablest 
and  most  influential  members  of  the  convention  called 
in  1788  to  consider  the  Federal  Constitution,  and  from 
1790  till  his  death,  in  1799,  was  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States.  He  published,  under  the 
authority  of  the  legislature,  the  "Laws  of  North  Caro- 
lina, 1715-1790,"  (1791-) 

See  G.  J.  McRee,  "Life  of  James  Iredell,"  1857. 

Iredell,  (James,)  a  lawyer,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Edenton,  North  Carolina,  in  1788.  He  was 
Governor  of  North  Carolina  in  1827,  and  was  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States  from  1828  to  1831.  He  was  sub- 
sequently reporter  to  the  supreme  court  of  his  native 
State,  and  published  thirteen  volumes  of  law  and  eight 
of  equity  reports.    Died  in  1853. 

IreTand,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  English  writer,  born  at 
Ashburton  in  1761,  became  prebendary  of  Westminster 
in  1802,  and  Dean  of  Westminster  and  rector  of  Islip  in 
1816.  He  founded  a  professorship  at  Oxford,  and  several 
scholarships.  He  was  a  contributor  to  the  "London 
Quarterly  Review,"  and  the  author  of  several  approved 
works  of  divinity,  among  which  is  "  Paganism  and  Chris- 
tianity Compared."    Died  in  1842. 

Ireland,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Shrop- 
shire, removed  to  London,  where  he  became  a  con- 
noisseur of  art  and  a  dealer  in  pictures.  He  compiled 
"Memoirs  of  Henderson"  the  actor,  and  published 
"  Hogarth  Illustrated,"  which  was  favourably  received. 
Died  in  1808. 

Ireland,  (Samuel,)  born  in  London,  was  a  weaver 
of  Spitalfields  in  his  youth.  He  became  subsequently  a 
dealer  in  rare  prints,  curiosities,  etc.  Having  acquired 
some  skill  in  drawing  and  engraving,  he  employed  it 
in  illustrating  various  countries,  of  which  he  published 
"  Picturesque  Tours."  He  was  the  author  of  "  Graphic 
Illustrations  of  Hogarth,"  and  the  publisher  of  the  Shak- 
speare  Papers  forged  by  his  son.  (See  below.)  Died 
in  1800. 

Ireland,  (William  Henry,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  London  in  1777.  He  acquired  notoriety 
in  1795  by  forging  legal  documents  under  the  seal  of 
Shakspeare,  and  by  practising  on  the  public  credulity  in 
relation  to  dramas  which  he  pretended  to  have  found  at 
Stratford.    One  of  these,  called  "  Vortigern,"  was  pur- 


chased by  Sheridan,  and  performed  at  Drury  Lane  before 
the  imposture  was  detected.  The  audience  were  ex- 
tremely disgusted  at  the  quality  of  the  play,  and  Ireland, 
being  required  to  explain  how  he  had  obtained  it,  con- 
fessed the  forgery  to  his  father,  and  afterwards  published 
a  written  confession,  which  displays  more  vanity  than 
penitence.    Died  in  1835. 

Irenaeus,  e-ri-na'us,  (Falkovski,)  a  learned  Russian 
prelate  and  writer  on  theology,  born  in  1762;  died  in 
1823. 

Irenaeus,  (Klementievski,)  a  Russian  theologian, 
born  in  1753,  became  Archbishop  of  Pskof  He  wrote 
commentaries  on  Scripture,  and  translated  from  the 
Greek  some  works  of  the  Fathers.    Died  in  1818. 

Irenceus,ir-e-nee'us,  fGr.  Eip7]vaLog;  Fr.  Ir^:n6e,  e'rk'- 
na';  It.  Ireneo,  e-ri-na^o,]  Saint,  a  Christian  martyr, 
born  about  130  or  140  A.D.,  was  a  Greek  by  birth,  and 
was  probably  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  as  he  was  a  pupil 
of  the  eminent  Bishop  Polycarp  of  Smyrna.  About  177 
he  became  Bishop  of  Lyons,  (Lugdunum,)  in  France,  in 
place  of  Pothinus,  who  was  the  first  that  occupied  that 
see.  He  ministered  to  his  churches  with  wisdom  and 
general  acceptance.  To  counteract  the  errors  of  the 
Gnostics  and  others,  he  wrote  a  treatise  against  Heresies, 
which  is  still  extant,  (in  a  Latin  translation.)  He  also 
wrote  several  Letters,  and  other  works,  which  are  lost, 
except  some  fragments.  It  is  generally  supposed  that 
he  suffered  martyrdom  under  Septimus  Severus  ;  but 
the  learned  are  not  agreed  whether  it  occurred  in  202 
or  208.  He  was  well  versed  in  ancient  philosophy,  as 
well  as  in  evangelical  doctrine.  His  book  on  Heresies 
is  highly  appreciated  as  a  historical  monument  and  a 
vindication  of  the  primitive  faith.  He  was  a  believer  in 
the  Millennium,  and  entertained  opinions  on  that  subject 
which  some  consider  extravagant. 

See  Saint  Jerome,  "  De  Viris  illustribus  ;"  Eusebius,  "  Historia 
Ecclesiastica ;"  Henry  Dodweli,,  "  Dissertationes  in  lrena;iim," 
1689;  Gervaise,  "  Vie  de  S.  Irenee,  second  fiveque  deLvon,"  1723; 
J.  M.  Prat,  "  Histoire  de  Saint-Irenee,"  1843;  James  Beaven, 
"Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Saint  Irenasus." 

I-re'ne,  [Gr.  EipijvT} ;  Fr.  Irene,  e'rin',]  Empress  of 
Constantinople,  was  born  at  Athens  about  752,  of  very 
obscure  parentage,  and  in  769  A.D.  became  the  wife  of 
Leo  IV.,  Emperor  of  the  East.  At  his  death,  in  780,  he 
left  a  son  of  ten  years,  named  Constantine,  during  whose 
minority  Irene  acted  as  regent.  She  was  remarkable  for 
her  beauty,  energy,  and  talents.  In  order  to  decide  the 
quarrel  between  the  Iconoclasts  and  their  opponents,  to 
whom  she  was  partial,  she  assembled  a  council  in  787, 
which  formally  sanctioned  the  worship  of  images.  When 
her  son  attained  his  majority,  her  ambition  so  far  pre- 
vailed over  natural  affection  that  she  dethroned  him  and 
deprived  him  of  sight.  In  802  she  was  deposed  by  a 
conspiracy  of  her  subjects,  and  Nicephorus  was  chosen 
emperor.    She  died  in  exile  in  803. 

See  Le  Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas- Empire;"  Vincent  Mignot, 
"Histoire  de  I'lmperatrice  Irene,"  1762;  Gibbon,  "History  of  the 
Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Irenee.  See  Iren^us. 
Ireneo.    See  Iren/eus. 

Ireton,  Tr'ton,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  English  repub- 
lican, born  in  1610.  He  was  a  student  of  law  when  the 
civil  war  began,  in  which  he  became  an  ardent  leader 
of  the  popular  cause.  Entering  the  army  as  captain  of 
cavalry,  he  was  rapidly  promoted,  and  became  highly 
distinguished  for  his  courage  and  capacity  both  in  the 
battle-field  and  the  council-chamber.  At  the  battle  of 
Naseby,  (1645,)  with  the  rank  of  commissary-general,  he 
commanded  the  left  wing,  and  was  wounded  and  taken 
prisoner  ;  but,  his  friends  having  gained  the  victory,  he 
recovered  his  liberty  the  same  day.  In  1646  he  married 
Bridget,  daughter  of  Oliver  Cromwell.  The  latter,  as 
Hume  remarks,  "had  great  deference  for  the  counsels 
of  Ireton  ;"  and  the  republicans  generally  reposed  the 
highest  confidence  in  him,  as  a  statesman  of  incorruptible 
honour.  About  1646  he  was  elected  to  Parliament,  where 
he  projected  various  wise  legal  and  constitutional  re- 
forms and  was  eminent  for  his  skill  in  drafting  ordi- 
nances. While  Charles  I.  was  a  prisoner  at  Harrlpton 
Court,  he  had  conferences  with  Cromwell  and  Ireton, 
who,  it  is  said,  were  inclined  to  reinstate  him  in  a  limited 
royalty,  until  they  intercepted  one  of  his  letters  which 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  /ofi^^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s^ort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


IRURTE 


1247 


IRFING 


convinced  them  of  his  insincerity.  Iretonwas  a  member 
of  the  court  which  tried  the  king ;  and  he  signed  the 
warrant  for  his  execution,  January,  1649.  In  reference 
to  tliis  affair,  Burnet  says,  "  Ireton  was  the  person  that 
drove  it  on  ;  for  Cromwell  was  all  the  while  in  some 
suspense  about  it."  In  July,  1649,  he  went  to  Ireland 
as  second  in  command  under  Cromwell,  who,  returning 
after  the  lapse  of  a  few  months,  left  to  Ireton  the  chief 
command,  with  the  title  of  lord  deputy.  After  gaining 
several  victories  and  taking  Limerick,  he  died  there  of 
the  plague  in  165 1.  Hume,  who  was  not  partial  to  his 
cause,  denominates  him  "a  memorable  personage,  much 
celebrated  for  his  vigilance,  industry,  capacity  even  for 
the  strict  execution  of  justice  in  that  unlimited  command 
which  he  possessed  in  Ireland.  It  was  believed  by  many 
that  he  was  animated  by  a  sincere  and  passionate  love 
of  liberty,"   ("  History  of  England.") 

See,  also,  "  Biograpliia  Britannica ;"  GuizoT,  "  Histoire  de  la 
Revolution  d'Angleterre." 

Iriarte  or  Yriarte,  e-re-aR^ti,  (Bernardo,)  nephew 
of  Don  Juan  de  Iriarte,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Tene- 
riffe  about  1734.  He  became  a  member  of  the  council 
of  state,  and  held  other  important  offices  under  the 
Spanish  government.    Died  in  1814. 

Iriarte,  (Domingo,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Teneriffe  in  1746,  was  sent  as  minister  plenipotentiary 
of  Spain  to  Poland,  and  employed  in  other  embassies. 
Died  in  1795. 

Iriarte,  (Francisco  Diego  de  Ainsay — Tn-sT',)  a 
Spanish  writer,  born  at  Huesca,  published  an  account 
of  his  native  city,  entitled  "Fundacion,  Eccelencias, 
Grandezas,  etc.  de  la  antiquisima  Ciudad  de  Huesca," 
(1619.) 

Iriarte,  (Ignacio,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Guipuscoa  in  1620,  was  a  pupil  of  the 
elder  Herrera.  He  worked  in  Seville,  and  became  a 
friend  of  Murillo,  who  painted  the  figures  for  some  of  his 
landscapes.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy 
of  Seville.  Iriarte  was  regarded  as  the  best  landscape- 
painter  of  his  country  and  his  time.  Connoisseurs  admire 
in  his  works  the  lightness  of  the  foliage,  the  transparency 
of  the  sky,  the  limpidity  of  the  water,  and  the  mastery 
of  chiaroscuro.    Died  in  1685. 

See  Raphael  Mengs,  "  Las  Obras,"  etc.,  1780 ;  Quilliet,  "  Dic- 

tionnaire  des  Peititres  Espagiiols." 

Iriarte,  de,  di  e-re-aR'ti,  (Don  Juan,)  an  eminent 
linguist  and  scholar,  born  in  the  island  of  Teneriffe  in 
1702.  He  studied  in  Paris  at  the  College  of  Louis  le 
Grand,  and  subsequently  visited  London  and  Madrid, 
where  he  was  appointed  in  1732  one  of  the  librarians 
in  the  Royal  Library.  He  became  official  translator  to 
the  principal  secretary  of  state  in  1740,  and  in  1743  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Among  his 
w^orks  may  be  named  a  "  History  of  the  Canary  Islands," 
(in  manuscript,)  a  collection  of  Spanish  proverbs  in 
Latin  verse,  and  translations  from  Martial.  Iriarte  is 
said  to  have  added  two  thousand  manuscripts  and  more 
than  ten  thousand  printed  volumes  to  the  Royal  Library 
during  the  thirty-nine  years  in  which  he  officiated  as 
librarian.    Died  in  1771. 

Iriarte,  de,  (Tomas,)  youngest  brother  of  Bernardo, 
noticed  above,  was  born  in  Teneriffe  about  1750.  He  be- 
came a  proficient  in  the  ancient  and  modern  language 
under  the  tuition  of  his  uncle,  and  subsequently  became 
archivist  to  the  principal  secretary  of  state,  and  editor 
of  the  "Madrid  Mercury."  He  was  author  of  a  poem 
entitled  "La  Musica,"  (1779,)  which  was  received  with 
great  favour  ai]d  translated  into  the  principal  European 
languages,  and  "  Literary  Fables,"  ("  Fabulas  literarias.") 
The  latter  are  written  in  various  metres,  and  are  re- 
markable for  their  graceful  versification.  They  enjoyed 
great  popularity  at  the  time,  and  are  still  ranked  among 
the  classics  of  the  language.  An  English  version  of 
these  fables,  by  George  H.  Devereux,  appeared  in  1855. 
Iriarte  also  published  a  comedy  entitled  "The  Spoiled 
Child,"  ("El  Senorito  mimado,")  a  number  of  sonnets 
and  critical  essays,  and  a  metrical  translation  of  Horace's 
"Art  of  Poetry."    Died  about  1790. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe Jolv,  no- 
tice of  the  Life  of  Tomas  de  Iriarte,  in  the  "  Repertoire  de  Littera- 
ture." 


Irico,  e-ree'ko,  (Giovanni  Andrea,)  an  Italian  priest 
and  savant,  born  at  Trino  in  1704.  He  wrote  several 
religious  and  antiquarian  works.    Died  in  1782. 

Fris,  [Gr.  ^Iptq,]  in  Greek  mythology,  the  goddess  of 
the  rainbow,  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Thaumas,  and 
sometimes  called  Thaumantias.  Homer  represents  her 
as  the  messenger  of  the  gods,  employed  to  carry  mes- 
sages from  Ida  to  Olympus  and  from  gods  to  men. 

Irland,  ^r'Ion',  (ISonaventure,)  a  French  jurist,  of 
Scottish  descent,  born  at  Poitiers  in  1551  ;  died  in  r6i2. 

Irnerius,  eR-na're-us,  sometimes  written  Warnerius, 
a  celebrated  Italian  jurisconsult,  born  at  Bologna  in  the 
eleventh  century.  He  became  the  renovator  or  restorer 
of  the  Roman  law,  which  had  been  neglected,  and  on 
which  he  wrote  commentaries,  called  "Glossee."  He 
obtained  the  office  of  judge,  and  was  sent  by  the  emperor 
to  Rome  in  1118  to  expedite  the  election  of  a  pope. 

See  B.  NiHUSius,  "Irnerius,"  Cologne,  1642;  Fantczzi,  "  Scrit- 
tori  Bo'ognesi." 

Iron  Mask.    See  Masque  de  Fer. 

Ir'vme,  (William,)  a  general,  born  near  Enniskillen, 
Ireland,  about  1742,  emigrated  to  Pennsylvania  in  1763. 
He  became  a  colonel  in  1776,  and  a  brigadier-general 
in  1779.  From  1781  to  1783  he  commanded  the  troops 
stationed  at  Fort  Pitt  for  the  defence  of  the  western 
frontier.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  Congress  in  1787, 
and  again  in  1793.    Died  in  1804. 

Ir'ving,  (David,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  biographer  and 
writer  on  law.  He  published  "  Lives  of  Scottish  Poets," 
(1804,)  "  Lives  of  the  Scottish  Writers,"  (1839,)  and  "The 
Table-Talk  of  John  Selden,"  (1854.)  He  also  wrote  the 
article  "Civil  Law"  in  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

Irving,  (Edward,)  a  celebrated  and  eloquent  Scottish 
pulpit  orator,  born  at  Annan  in  1792,  was  a  graduate  of 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.  Having  been  employed 
as  rector  of  an  academy  at  Kirkaldy  about  seven  years, 
he  was  ordained  a  Presbyterian  minister.  From  1819  to 
1822  he  was  engaged  as  assistant  in  the  pulpit  of  Dr. 
Chalmers,  Glasgow,  where  he  acquired  a  good  reputation. 
He  accepted  a  call  from  the  Scottish  Church,  Cross 
Street,  London,  in  1822,  and  soon  became  an  admired 
and  fashionable  preacher.  His  original  genius  and  his 
extraordinary  eloquence  attracted  crowded  audiences, 
among  whom  were  found  the  most  eminent  authors  and 
statesmen,  and  nobles  of  the  highest  rank.  In  1823  he 
published  a  series  of  discourses  entitled  "  For  the  Ora- 
cles of  God,  Four  Orations,"  etc.  In  1829  he  removed 
into  a  larger  church  built  for  him  in  Regent  Square.  A 
charge  of  heresy  having  been  preferred  against  him  in 
the  presbytery  of  London  in  1830,  he  was  condemned 
by  that  body,  and  ejected  from  the  church,  in  1832. 
After  this  event  he  obtained  another  place,  and  attracted 
crowds  by  his  exhibition  of  the  gift  of  unknown  tongues, 
which  he  ascribed  to  divine  inspiration.  He  published 
"  Babylon  and  Infidelity  Foredoomed  of  God,"  and  other 
theological  treatises.-  Died  at  Glasgow  in  December, 
1834.  "  He  was  unquestionably,"  says  De  Quincey,  "by 
many  degrees  the  greatest  orator  of  our  times."  It  is 
probable  that  his  devotion  was  sincere,  but  not  guided 
by  discretion,  and  that  in  the  latter  part  of  his  career 
his  mind  was  affected  with  insanity.  Carlyle,  who  was 
his  friend,  thinks  that  "bodily  and  spiritually,  perhaps, 
there  was  not  (in  that  November,  1822)  a  man  more  full 
of  genial,  energetic  life  in  these  islands."  He  left  three 
children.  The  collected  wTitings  of  Edward  Irving  have 
been  published  under  the  editorship  of  his  nephew,  the 
Rev.  G.  Carlyle,  London,  1864-65. 

See  "Life  of  Irvnng,"  by  Mrs.  Oliphant,  1862;  De  Quincey, 
"Literary  Reminiscences,"  vol.  ii.  ;  "Edinburgh  Review"  tor  Octo- 
ber, 1862 ;  "  Edward  Irving,  an  Ecclesiastical  and  Literary  Biogra- 
phy," by  W.  Wilks:  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Emi- 
nent Scotsmen,"  (Supplement;)  Michael  Hohl,  "  Bruchstiicke  aus 
dem  Leben  und  den  Schriften  E.  Irving's,"  1839  ;  Lehmann,  "  Ueber 
die  Irvingianer,"  1853;  "Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1824; 
"Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1858,  and  June,  1862; 
"Eraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1835;  "  North  British  Review" 
for  August,  1862. 

Ir'ving,  (John  Treat,)  an  American  judge  and  writer, 
brother  of  Washington  Irving,  was  born  in  1778.  He 
was  a  popular  contributor,  (political,)  both  in  prose  and 
verse,  to  the  "  Morning  Chronicle,"  and  from  1821  till 
his  death,  in  1838,  was  presiding  judge  of  the  court 
of  common  pleas  in  New  York. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,grittural:  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


IRFING 


1248 


ISABEL 


Irving,  (John  Treat,)  an  American  lawyer  and  writer, 
son  of  the  preceding,  and  a  resident  of  New  York,  is  au- 
thor of  a  volume  of  "  Indian  Sketches,"  (1835,)  and  two 
novels,  entitled  "The  Attorney,"  and  "Harry  Harson  ; 
or,  The  Benevolent  Bachelor,"  which  originally  appeared 
in  the  "Knickerbocker  Magazine." 

Irving,  (Pkter,)  an  American  journalist,  born  in  1771. 
He  became  in  1802  the  editor  and  proprietor  of  the 
"  Morning  Chronicle,"  a  Democratic  journal  of  New 
York.  In  conjunction  with  his  brother  Washington,  he 
projected  "  Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York."  He 
wrote  "Giovanni  Sbogarro,  a  Venetian  Tale,"  (1820.) 
Died  in  1838. 

Irving,  (Theodore,)  LL.D.,  an  American  author, 
and  minister  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was 
born  in  New  York  in  1809.  He  spent  some  time  in 
Europe  with  his  uncle,  Washington  Irving,  was  professor 
of  history  and  belles-lettres  in  Geneva  College,  New 
York,  from  1836  to  1849,  and  afterwards  filled  for  several 
years  the  chair  of  belles-lettres  in  the  New  York  Free 
Academy.  He  entered  the  ministry  in  1854.  He  has 
written  "  The  Conquest  of  Florida  by  Hernando  de 
Soto,"  in  2  vols.,  (Philadelj^hia  and  London,  1835,)  and 
"The  Fountain  of  Living  Waters,"  (1854.) 

Irving,  (Washington,)  a  distinguished  American 
author  and  humourist,  born  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
April  3,  1783,  was  a  son  of  William  Irving,  a  native  of 
Scotland.  About  1800  he  left  school  and  commenced 
t^ie  study  of  the  law.  For  the  benefit  of  his  health,  he 
performed  in  1804  a  voyage  to  Europe,  visited  France, 
Italy,  Switzerland,  and  England,  and  returned  in  1806. 
Soon  after  his  return  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar ;  but 
he  preferred  to  devote  himself  to  literary  pursuits,  and 
never  practised  law.  In  conjunction  with  his  brother 
William  and  with  James  K.  Paulding,  he  issued  in  1807 
a  humorous  and  satirical  magazine,  entitled  "Salma- 
gundi, or  the  Whim-Whams  and  Opinions  of  Launcelot 
Langstaff,  Esq.,  and  others."  Of  this  amusing  and  popular 
work  only  twenty  numbers  were  issued.  He  published 
in  1809  another  humorous  work,  "The  History  of  New 
York,  by  Diedrich  Knickerbocker,"  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  his  brother  Peter.  It  was  very  favourably 
received.  "  I  have  neveii,"  says  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "  read 
anything  so  closely  resembling  the  style  of  Dean  Swift 
as  the  Annals  of  Diedrich  Knickerbocker."  (Letter  to 
Henry  Brevoort,  April  23,  1813.) 

In  1810  he  became  a  silent  partner  with  his  brothers 
in  an  extensive  commercial  house  in  New  York.  He 
sailed  in  181 5  to  Europe,  where  he  remained  many 
years,  and  in  181 7  visited  Sir  Walter  Scott  at  Abbots- 
ford,  who  became  his  constant  friend.  He  was  reduced 
to  poverty  by  the  failure  of  the  firm  of  which  he  was  a 
member,  in  1817.  His  next  important  work  was  "The 
Sketch-Book,"  (1818,)  by  Geoffrey  Crayon,  which  was 
written  in  England.  It  enjoyed  great  popularity,  and 
raised  Irving  to  the  highest  rank  .of  American  authors. 
Lord  Jeffrey,  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  August, 
1820,  commended  "The  Sketch-Book"  as  "written 
throughout  with  the  greatest  care  and  accuracy,  and 
worked  up  to  great  purity  and  beauty  of  diction  on  the 
model  of  the  most  elegant  and  polished  of  our  native 
writers."  He  published  in  London,  in  1822,  "Brace- 
bridge  Hall,  or  the  Humourists,"  which  was  received 
with  great  favour  both  in  England  and  America.  Com 
menting  on  this  work.  Lord  Jeffrey  says,  "We  happen 
to  be  very  intense  and  sensitive  admirers  of  those  soft 
harmonies  of  studied  speech  in  which  this  author  is  apt 
to  indulge  himself,  and  have  caught  ourselves  oftener 
than  we  shall  confess,  neglecting  his  excellent  matter  to 
lap  ourselves  in  the  liquid  music  of  his  periods."  ("Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  November,  1822.)  For  his  "Tales 
of  a  Traveller,"  (1824,)  Murray,  the  London  publisher, 
gave  him  ;i^i500  before  he  saw  the  manuscript. 

Mr.  Irving  afterwards  spent  some  years  in  France  and 
Spain,  where  he  composed  his  "History  of  the  Life 
and  Voyages  of  Christojiher  Columbus,"  (4  vols.,  1828,) 
which  was  very  successful.  "  This  is  one  of  those  works," 
says  Alexander  H.  Everett,  "which  are  at  the  same  time 
the  delight  of  readers  and  the  despair  of  critics.  It  is 
as  nearly  perfect  as  any  work  well  can  be."  ("North 
American  Review"  for  January,  1829.)    In  1829  he  pro- 


duced an  imaginative  and  romantic  work  entitled  "The 
Chronicle  of  the  Conquest  of  Granada,  from  the  Manu- 
scripts of  Fray  Antonio  Agapida."  He  was  appointed 
secretary  of  legation  to  the  American  embassy  at  London 
in  1829,  and  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1832.  Among 
his  later  works  are  "  The  Alhambra,"  (1832  ;)  a  "T(jur  on 
the  Prairies,"  (1835;)  "Astoria,"  (3  vols.,  1836;)  "The 
Adventures  of  Captain  Bonneville,"  (2  vols.,  1837;) 
"Oliver  Goldsmith,  a  Biography,"  (1849;)  "Mahomet 
and  his  Successors,"  (1850 ;)  and  "The  Life  of  George 
Washington,"  (5  vols.,  1855-59.)  He  was  minister  to 
Spain  from  1842  to  1846.  He  passed  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  at  Sunnyside,  on  the  Hudson  River,  where  he 
died,  November  28,  1859.    He  was  never  married. 

For  an  easy  elegance  of  style,  Irving  has  no  superior, 
perhaps  no  equal,  among  the  prose  writers  of  America. 
If  Hawthorne  excels  him  in  variety,  in  earnestness,  and  in 
force,  he  is  perhaps  inferior  to  Irving  in  facility  and  grace  ; 
while  he  can  make  no  claim  to  that  genial,  lambent 
humour  which  beams  in  almost  every  page  of  "  Geoffrey 
Crayon." 

See  the  "  Life  and  Letters  of  Washington  Irving,"  by  Pierre  M. 
Irving,  1863  ;  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Ameri- 
cans," vol.  i.  ;  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America;"  Prescott, 
"Miscellanies;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  August,  1820,  November, 
1822,  and  September,  182S  ;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April, 
1821,  March,  1825,  and  Jul}',  1863;  "North  American  Review"  for 
July,  183s,  and  January,  1837,  (both  by  Edward  Everett,)  and 
April,  1858;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  July,  1820;  "  Eraser' i 
Magazine"  for  October,  1835  ;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  January 
1837;  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  Cleveland,  "Com' 
pendium  of  American  Literature;"  "  Atlantic  Monthly"  for  Novera 
ber,  i860,  and  June,  1864. 

Irving,  (William,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  wan 
born  in  New  York  in  1766.  He  married  a  sister  oi' 
James  K.  Paulding  in  1793,  became  a  merchant  in  Nevf 
York,  and  was  a  member  of  Congress  during  three 
terms,  (1813-19.)  He  aided  his  brother  and  Mr.  Pauld- 
ing in  the  "  Salmagundi,"  of  which  he  wrote  the  poetical 
parts.    Died  in  1821. 

Ir'win,  (Eyles,)  a  poet,  born  in  Calcutta,  of  Irish 
parents,  in  1748,  was  employed  in  the  civil  service  of 
the  East  India  Company.  He  wrote  several  odes  and 
eclogues,  and  "Adventures  during  a  Voyage  up  the  Red 
Sea,"  (1780.)    Died  in  1817. 

Irwin,  Viscountess.    See  Howard,  (Anne.) 

Isa,  ee'sa,  written  also  I§a  and  Isha,  one  of  the  names 
of  Siva,  which  see. 

Isaac,  I'zak,  [Heb.pnV'  or  pn^^" ;  It.  ISACCO,  e-sik'- 
ko;  Arabian,  Ishak,  is^hak',]  a  Hebrew  patriarch,  the 
son  of  Abraham  and  Sarah,  was  born  about  1890  B.C.  He 
married  Rebecca,  and  became  the  father  of  Esau  and 
Jacob.  "  Of  all  the  patriarchs,"  says  Bishop  Hall,  "  none 
made  so  little  noise  in  the  world  as  Isaac."  He  removed 
to  Gerar,  in  the  land  of  the  Philistines,  and  acquired 
riches  as  a  planter.  He  died  at  the  age  of  one  hundred 
and  eighty. 

See  Genesis  xxi.,  xxii.,  xxiv.,  xxvi.,  xxvii.,  xxviii.,  and  xxxv.  29; 
Matthew  xxii.  32;  Luke  xx.  37;  Galatians  iv.  28;  Hebrews  xi.  17. 

Isaac  I.,  or  Isaac  Com-ne'nus,  [Gr.  'laauKiog  6 
Ko/j,VT}v6c,]  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  was  chosen  by 
the  army  as  successor  of  Michael  VI.  in  1057.  Two 
years  later,  in  consequence  of  a  malady  which  he  sup- 
posed mortal,  he  resigned  the  throne  to  Constantine 
Ducas,  and  entered  a  convent.    Died  in  1061. 

Isaac  II.,  or  Isaac  An'ge-lus,  [Gr.  'loauKcoc  6  'Ayye- 
?iog,]  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  was  proclaimed  in 
1185  as  successor  to  Androni'cus,  who  was  dethroned 
by  a  popular  revolt.  He  rendered  himself  very  un- 
popular by  his  vices  and  misgovernment.  In  1195  his 
brother  Alexis  usurped  the  throne  and  in^prisoned  Isaac, 
who  was  liberated  and  restored  in  1203  by  an  army  of 
crusaders.  In  1204  he.  was  again  supplanted  by  Alexius 
Ducas,  and  died  or  was  killed  the  same  year.  Constan- 
tinople was  speedily  taken  by  the  crusaders,  who  elected 
Baldwin  emperor. 

Isaac,  ee'zSk,  (Heinrtch,)  a  German  musician,  whom 
the  Italians  called  Arrigo  Tedesco,  (i.e.  the  "  German 
Henry,")  was  born  about  1440.  He  removed  to  Italy 
about  1475,  and  was  patronized  by  Lorenzo  de'  Medici. 
He  composed  sacred  music. 

Isaacson,  T'zak-son,  (Henry,)  born  in  London  in 
1581,  wrote  a  work  on  Chronology.    Died  in  1654. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fJr,  fill,  ftt;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ISABEL 


1249 


ISAIE 


Isabel,  the  Spanish  of  Elizabeth,  which  see. 

Isabel  I.    See  Isabella  of  Castile. 

Is'a-bel  [Sp.  pron.  e-sS-beK]  II.,  (or,  more  fully, 
Maria  Isabel  Luisa,)  Queen  of  Spain,  born  at  Madrid 
in  October,  1830,  is  a  daughter  of  Ferdinand  VII.  and 
Maria  Christina,  She  succeeded  her  father  on  the  29th 
of  September,  1833,  when  her  mother  became  regent. 
Her  claim  was  disputed  by  her  uncle,  Don  Carlos,  in  a 
civil  war,  which  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  Carlists  in 
1840.  The  queen-regent  having  been  driven  from  power 
by  a  popular  revolt  in  October,  1840,  Espartero  became 
regent.  Isabel  was  declared  of  age  in  November,  1843, 
and  in  October,  1846,  was  married  to  her  cousin,  Fran- 
cisco de  Assis,  a  son  of  Francisco  de  Paula,  who  was  a 
brother  of  Ferdinand  VII.  She  has  a  son,  Francisco, 
born  in  1857.  Her  reign  was  agitated  by  many  revolu- 
tions, coups  d'etat,  and  changes  of  constitution.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1868,  she  was  deposed  by  her  revolted  subjects 
almost  without  a  struggle. 

Isabella.    See  El'izabeth. 

Is-a-beFla  of  Austria,  (  Clara  Eugenia,  )  the 
daughter  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain  and  Elizabeth  of  France, 
was  born  in  1566.  As  the  niece  of  Henry  III.  of  France, 
she  claimed  the  French  crown  at  his  death,  but  was 
excluded  by  the  Salic  law,  though  she  was  favoured  by 
the  chiefs  of  the  League.  In  1597  she  became  the  wife 
of  Archduke  Albert,  son  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Died  in  1633. 

Isabella  of  Bavaria,  daughter  of  Stephen,  second 
Duke  of  Bavaria,  born  in  1371,  became  Queen  of  France 
in  1385  by  marriage  with  Charles  VI.  She  was  remark- 
able for  beauty  and  for  her  voluptuous  and  dissolute 
character.  When  her  imbecile  consort  became  incapable 
of  ruling,  she  aspired  to  royal  power,  and  made  a  coali- 
tion with  the  English  against  the  dauphin,  her  son.  Died 
in  1435- 

Isabella  [Span.  Isabel,  e-sS-b^K;  Fr.  Isabelle,  t'zi'- 
hlV]  OF  Castile,  daughter  of  John  II.,  King  of  Cas- 
tile, was  born  at  Madrigal  in  145 1.  The  malcontent 
subjects  of  her  brother,  Henry  IV.,  forced  him  to  ac- 
knowledge her  as  his  heir,  after  which  her  hand  was 
solicited  by  several  princes  of  Europe,  and  she  became 
the  wife  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  in  1469.  In  1474  she 
was  proclaimed  Queen  of  Castile  and  Leon,  the  sove- 
reignty of  which  she  did  not  resign  to  her  husband,  but 
kept  in  her  own  hands.  Historians  agree  in  applauding 
her  beauty,  virtue,  magnanimity,  piety,  learning,  and 
political  wisdom.  It  was  under  her  auspices  that  Co- 
lumbus discovered  America,  after  his  project  had  been 
treated  with  neglect  by  Ferdinand.  Died  in  1504.  (See 
Ferdinand  V.)  Isabella  had  blue  eyes  and  auburn  hair, 
and  possessed  great  beauty  of  features,  sweetness  of 
expression,  and  dignity  of  presence. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella;"  Juan  de 
Molina,  "  Sumario  de  la  Vida  y  Hechos  de  los  catolicos  Reyes  D. 
Fernando  y  Doiia  Isabel,"  1587;  Fernandez  de  Pulgar,  "  Rerum 
a  Ferdinando  et  Elisabe  Hispaniarum  Regibus  Gestaruin  Decades 
II.,"  1545;  D-  Ci-EMENCiN,  "  Elogio  de  la  Reina  catolica  Dona 
Isabel,"  1821  ;  George  Anita,  "Memoirs  of  Queen  Isabella  of 
Castile,"  London,  1850. 

Isabelle.    See  Isabella. 

Isabelle  of  France.    See  Elizabeth  of  France. 

Isabelle  {h'z%.'hlV)  of  France,  Queen  of  England, 
daughter  of  Philip  the  Fair,  King  of  France,  was  born 
in  1292,  and  was  married  to  Edward  II.  in  1308.  The 
issue  of  this  union  was  a  son,  who  became  Edward  III. 
About  1324  she  went  to  Paris  to  negotiate  between  her 
consort  and  the  French  king,  where  she  formed  a  con- 
spiracy with  malcontent  nobles,  and  returned  to  England 
with  the  avowed  intention  to  remove  from  power  the 
king's  unworthy  favourite.  Spencer.  Entering  London 
without  resistance,  in  1326,  the  partisans  of  the  queen  de- 
posed Edward  II,  and  proclaimed  his  son  king.  Isabelle 
and  her  favourite,  Mortimer,  exercised  the  royal  power 
a  few  years  during  the  minority  of  her  son  ;  and  there 
seems  no  reason  to  doubt  that  they  contrived  the  murder 
of  Edward  II.  She  was  imprisoned  for  nearly  twenty 
years,  and  died  in  prison  in  1358.  She  was  surnamed, 
on  account  of  her  cruelty,  "the  she-wolf  of  France." 

Isabelle  of  France,  Queen  of  England,  born  in 
1389,  was  a  daughter  of  Charles  VI.  She  was  married 
to  Richard  II.  of  England  in  1396.    Died  in  1409. 


Isabelle,  h'zt'hlV,  (Charles  £douard,)  a  French 
architect,  born  at  Havre  in  1800,  wrote  "The  Circular 
Edifices  and  Domes  Classed,"  etc.,  (1843-56.). 

Isabelle  d'Angouleme,  e'zt'blK  d6N^goo'Iem',  a 
French  princess,  was  a  daughter  of  Aymar,  Count  of 
Angouleme.  She  was  married  to  John,  King  of  Eng- 
land, in  1201.    Died  in  1245. 

Isabey,  e'zi^ja',  (Eugene  Louis  Gabriel,)  an  emi- 
nent painter  of  marine  views,  born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He 
obtained  a  first-class  medal  in  1824,  and  produced  in 
1827  "The  Coast  of  Honfleur,"  and  a  "Tempest  near 
Dieppe."  Among  his  best  works  are  the  "  Battle  of  the 
Texel,"  (1839,)  "The  Departure  of  Queen  Victoria," 
(1845,)  and  the  "Embarkation  of  De  Ruyter,"  (1851.) 
He  received  a  first-class  medal  at  the  Exposition  of  1855. 

Isabey,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  celebrated  French  minia- 
ture-painter, born  at  Nancy  in  1767,  was  a  pupil  of 
David,  and  father  of  the  preceding.  About  1802  he 
became  the  most  fashionable  artist  of  Paris  in  his  depart- 
ment of  the  art.  He  was  liberally  patronized  by  the 
emperor  Napoleon,  who  had  been  his  friend  when  both 
were  obscure  citizens.  He  executed  many  admired 
portraits  of  the  Bonaparte  family  and  of  the  generals 
of  the  empire.  It  is  said  that  most  of  the  sovereigns  of 
Europe  have  been  the  subjects  of  his  pencil.  Among 
his  works  are  the  "Table  des  Marechaux,"  a  picture  on 
porcelain  of  Napoleon  and  his  marshals,  and  "  The 
Congress  of  Vienna,"  (1817.)    Died  in  1855. 

Isacs,  ee'zSks,  (Pieter,)  a  skilful  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Helzevor  in  1569;  died  about  1620. 

Isaeus,  T-see'us,  [Gr.  'laalog  ;  Fr.  Is6e,  e'za',]  a  famous 
Greek  orator,  who  flourished  about  400  B.C.,  was  a 
native  of  Chalcis,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  of 
Athens.  Having  been  a  pupil  of  Isocrates,  he  opened 
a  celebrated  school  in  Athens,  and  had  the  honour  of 
being  the  preceptor  of  Demosthenes.  Isaeus  is  one  of 
the  ten  Athenian  orators  of  the  Alexandrian  canon.  His 
style  is  at  once  elegant  and  vehement,  but  is  less  natural 
than  that  of  Lysias.  He  had  great  skill  in  dialectics 
and  in  the  distribution  of  his  arguments.  Only  eleven 
of  his  orations  are  now  extant ;  and  these  are  all  forensic. 
He  is  said  to  have  survived  the  accession  of  King  Philip 
of  Macedon,  348  B.C. 

See  J.  A.  LiEBMANN,  "  De  Isaei  Vita  et  Scriptis, "  1831  ;  E.  Jenike, 
"  Observationes  in  Isaeum,"  1838. 

Isaeus,  a  Greek  sophist  and  orator,  born  in  Assyria, 
lived  in  the  first  century  after  Christ.  His  eloquence 
is  extolled  by  Pliny. 

Isaiah,  T-za'yah  or  e-zi'a,  [Heb.  '\X^^^\0''  •  Gr.  "Hoatac; 
Lat.  Esai'as  ;  Fr.  Isaie,  e'zS'e',  or  Esaie,  kfz^i'e' ;  It, 
Isaia,  e-si-ee'S;  Sp.  Isaias,  e-si-ee'is,]  the  first  of  the 
great  Hebrew  prophets,  was  a  contemporary  of  Hosea, 
Joel,  Amos,  and  Micah.  He  prophesied  during  a  period 
of  about  fifty  years,  beginning  about  760  B.C.  He  lived 
at  Jerusalem,  and  exerted  great  influence  in  public  affairs. 
Little  is  known  of  his  personal  history,  except  that  he 
had  a  wife,  who  is  called  a  prophetess,  and  two  sons. 
There  is  a  doubtful  tradition  that  Isaiah  sufiered  death 
by  being  sawn  asunder,  at  the  command  of  King  Ma- 
nasseh.  As  a  writer  he  is  remarkable  for  versatility  of 
genius,  and  merits  the  first  rank  among  the  prophets  by 
the  majestic  simplicity  and  sublimity  of  his  compositions. 
He  declared  more  amply  and  clearly  than  any  other 
prophet  the  eternal  divinity,  vicarious  suff"erings,  and 
glorious  kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  and  hence  is  often 
called  the  evangelical  prophet.  No  other  prophet  is  so 
often  quoted  by  Christ  and  his  apostles.  (See  Matt.  i. 
22,  iii.  3,  viii.  17,  xii.  18-20,  xiii.  14;  Luke  iv.  17;  Acts 
xxviii.  25  ;  Rom.  ix.  27,  and  x.  16;  Phil.  ii.  10.)  In  our 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  he  is  always  called 
ESAIAS.  He  has  been  pronounced  by  some  critics  not 
inferior  to  Homer  in  poetical  genius ;  and  all  agree  that 
his  book  is  a  master-piece  of  beauty  and  sublimity  both 
in  thought  and  style. 

Among  the  commentators  on  Isaiah  are  Saint  Jerome, 
Vitringa,  Lowth,  Calmet,  Eichhorn,  Doderlein,  Gesenius, 
Gataker,  Hitzig,  Rosenmiiller,  and  Henderson ;  and,  in  the 
United  States,  Dr.  Alexander  and  Mr.  Albert  Barnes. 

See,  also,  Kimchi,  "Lexicon  Rabbinicum ;"  Ewald,  "Die  Pro- 
pheten  des  alten  Bundes,"  and  "Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel  bis 
Christus;"  Knobel,  "  Prophetisme  des  Hebreux." 

Isai'e.    See  Isaiah. 


•e  as     9  as  s;  g  ^ard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  yi, guttural;  n,  fiasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Sil^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

79 


ISAMBERT 


1 250 


ISLA 


Isambert,  e'zSN'baiR',  (liMii.E,)  a  French  physician 
and  biographer,  a  son  of  Fran9ois  Andre,  noticed  below, 
was  born  at  Auteuil  in  1828. 

Isambert,  (pRANgQis  Andr^:,)  a  French  jurist  and 
Protestant,  born  at  Aunay  (Eiue-et-Loire)  in  1792.  He 
distinguished  himself  about  1825  as  the  defender  of  the 
rights  of  the  free  people  of  colour  in  Martinique,  and 
"  performed  in  France,"  says  Taillandier,  "a  service  like 
that  which  Clarkson  and  Wilberforce  rendered  in  Eng- 
land." In  1830  he  was  appointed  a  judge  (conseiller )  of 
the  court  of  cassation.  He  was  a  Liberal  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1830  to  1848,  and  supported 
Cavaignac  and  the  cause  of  order  in  the  Assembly  of 
1848.  He  was  secretary  of  the  French  Society  for  the 
Abolition  of  Slavery,  of  which  he  is  said  to  have  been 
the  founder.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Manual  for  the 
Publicist  and  Statesman,"  (4  vols.,  1826,)  and  a  "History 
of  Justinian,"  (1856.)  He  wrote  many  able  articles  for 
the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale."    Died  in  1857. 

See  Taillandier,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Isarn,  e'ziRn',  (Samuel,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Cas- 
tres  in  1637,  wrote  "  The  Speaking  Pistole,"  ("  La  Pistole 
parlante,"  1660,)  which  had  great  success.   Died  in  1673. 

Isauricus.    See  Lko  HL 

Is-ca'ni-us  or  Is-ca'iiu.s,  (Joseph,)  surnamed  also 
Devo'nius,  an  English  poet,  born  at  Exeter,  derived  his 
name  from  Isca,  the  place  of  his  education.  Pie  accom- 
panied Richard  I.  on  a  crusade  to  Palestine,  and  wrote 
a  Latin  poem  "  On  the  Trojan  War,"  and  another  en- 
titled "  Antiocheis."    Died  about  1224. 

Isee.    See  Is^us. 

Iselin,  ^z'I^n',  (Isaac,)  a  Swiss  writer,  born  at  Bale 
in  1728.  He  was  assistant  secretary  of  state  from  1756 
to  his  death.  He  became  the  enlightened  advocate  of 
reform  in  morals,  education,  and  legislation,  on  which 
he  wrote  articles  for  the  journals.  His  chief  work  is 
entitled  "  On  the  History  of  Mankind,"  ("  Ueber  die 
Geschichte  der  Menschheit."  1764.)    Died  in  1782. 

See  J.  G.  ScHLOssER,  "Rede  auf  Iselin,"  1783;  S.  Hirzel, 
"Denkmal  I.  Iselin  gewidmet,"  1782. 

Iselin,  [Lat.  Iseli'nus,]  (Jacques  Christophe,)  an 
eminent  Swiss  philologist  and  divine,  born  at  Bale  in 
1681.  He  spoke  Greek  with  facility,  and  excelled  in 
Oriental  languages.  He  became  professor  of  history  at 
Bale  in  1707,  and  was  promoted  to  the  chair  of  divinity 
in  171 1.  He  wrote  an  admirable  Latin  poem  on  "The 
Gauls  Crossing  the  Rhine,"  (1696,)  a  treatise  on  the 
"Latin  Historians  of  the  Classic  Period,"  ("  De  Histo- 
ricis  Latinis  Melioris  yEvi,"  1697,)  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Domination  of  the  Magi  in  Persia,"  (1707,)  and  other 
minor  works.    Died  in  1737. 

See  Beck,  "Vita  Iselini,"  in  the  3d  vol.  of  "Tempe  Helvetica;" 
J.  R.  Iselin,  "  Laudatio  funebris  conseciandae  Memoriae  Viri  incom- 
parabilis  J.  C.  Iselini,"  1739. 

Iselin,  (Jean  Rodolphe,)  a  Swiss  jurist,  born  at 
Bale  in  1705,  wrote  "On  Eminent  Domain,"  ("De  Do- 
minio  Eminente,"  1726,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1779. 

Isembert  (e'zSN'baik')  of  Xaintes,  a  French  archi- 
tect, lived  about  1200,  and  is  supposed  to  have  built  the 
old  London  Bridge. 

Isendoorn,  van,  vtn  ee'zen-doRn',  or  Ysendoorn, 
(GijSBERT,)  a  Dutch  philosopher,  born  in  Gelderland  in 
160 1,  published  "  Effata  Philosophica,"  (1633,)  "  Ethica 
Peripatetica,"  (1659,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1657. 

IsfendiySr,  is-fei/dee-yaR^,  or  Asfandiy^r,  as-fSn'- 
dee-yta',  one  of  the  most  celebrated  heroes  in  Persian 
history,  lived  between  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  B.C., 
and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  convert  to  the  religion 
of  Zoroaster,  in  which  he  was  followed  by  his  father 
Gushtasp  (Darius  Hystaspis)  and  the  whole  Persian 
empire.  This  change  of  religion  led  to  the  invasion  of 
Persia  by  Arjasp,  King  of  Turan,  in  which  Isfendiyar, 
by  his  bravery  and  heroism,  not  only  saved  his  father's 
kingdom,  but  conquered  India,  Arabia,  and  the  West. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  by  the  celebrated  Roostum. 

See  Malcolm,  "History  of  Persia;"  J.  Atkinson,  "Abridg- 
ment of  the  Shah  Nameh  of  Firdoust." 

Ish'mael,  [Heb.  SN>'Dli'' ;  Arabic,  IsMAEELor  Ismail, 
is-mt-eeK;  Fr.  Ismael,  ^s'mt'gK,]  the  son  of  Abraham 
and  Hagar,  born  about  1900  B.C.,  was  the  ancestor  of 
the  Ishmaelites  or  Arabians.    (See  Genesis  xvi.,  xxi.) 


Ishwara.    See  Iswara. 

Isi,  ee'see,  written  also  I^i  and  Ishi,  (the  consort  of 
Isa  or  Siva,)  one  of  the  many  names  of  PARVA  i  f,  which 
see.  She  is  identified  by  some  writers,  including  Sir  W. 
Jones,  with  the  Isis  of  the  Egyptians.    (See  Isis.) 

Isiaslaf.    See  Iziaslaf. 

Is'I-dore  [Gr.  'loifiwpof;  Lat.  Isido'rus  ;  Fr.  Isidore, 
e^ze'doR';  It.  Isidoro,  e-se-do'ro]  of  Charax,  a  Per- 
sian, who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  first  century 
of  our  era,  wrote  a  work  called  "  Parthian  Itinerary," 
which  contains  a  list  of  the  eighteen  provinces  of  Parthia 
and  of  the  chief  towns,  with  the  distances  of  the  towns 
from  each  other. 

Isidore  of  Moscow,  a  Russian  prelate,  was  chosen 
Primate  of  Russia  in  1437.  He  favoured  the  reunion  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches  at  the  Council  of  Florence, 
(1437.)    Died  at  Rome  in  1463. 

Isidore,  Saint,  an  eminent  Spanish  scholar  and 
bishop,  born  at  Carthagena  about  570  A.D.,  was  a  brother 
of  Leander,  Archbishop  of  Seville.  He  understood 
Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Latin,  and  was  very  influential  in 
the  Spanish  Church.  About  600  he  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Seville.  The  Council  of  Toledo,  held  in  650, 
denominated  him  "the  glory  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  the  most  learned  man  of  his  age."  Among  his  most 
important  works  are,  in  Latin,  "A  Chronicle  from  the 
Origin  of  the  World  to  626  A.D.,"  and  "Twenty  Books 
of  Etymologies,"  which,  says  Dr.  Hoefer,  "  is  one  of  the 
most  precious  monuments  for  the  history  of  human 
knowledge."    Died  in  636  a.d. 

See  Saint  Ildefonso,  "De  Viris  illustribus ;"  Tritheim,  "De 
Scriptoribus  Ecclesiasticis ;"  Roesler,  "  Dissertatio ;  Isidori  His- 
toria  Gothoriun,  Vandalorum,"  etc.,  1803. 

Isidore,  Saint,  of  Alexandria,  born  in  Egypt  about 
318  A.D.,  was  a  friend  of  Athanasius,  by  whom  he  was 
ordained  a  priest.    Died  in  404. 

Isidore,  Saint,  of  Pelusium,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  born  between  360  and  390  A.D.  'He  lived  as  a 
hermit  in  Egypt,  and  had  a  high  reputation  for  piety  and 
wisdom.  He  wrote,  in  Greek,  a  great  number  of  short 
letters,  of  which  more  than  two  thousand  are  now  ex- 
tant. They  are  said  to  contain  sound  doctrine  and  good 
instruction  in  morals.    Died  about  450  A.D. 

See  Hermann,  "Dissertatio  de  Isidoro  Pelusiota,"  1737 ;  NiE- 
MEVER,  "  Dissertatio  de  Isidoro  Peiusiota,"  1825. 

Is'i-dore  Mer-ca'tor  or  Pec-ca'tor,  the  supposed 
name  of  a  person  who  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century 
fabricated  a  famous  code  of  canon  law  or  collection  of 
decretals,  often  called  the  "Collection  of  the  Pseudo-Isi- 
dore." Some  popes  availed  themselves  of  this  means 
to  extend  their  temporal  power. 

Isidorus.    See  Isidore. 

Is-i-d6''rus  of  Miletus,  a  Greek  architect  of  the 
sixth  century,  who  was  employed  by  the  emperor  Jus- 
tinian to  build  the  magnificent  church  of  Saint  Sophia 
in  Constantinople,  which  is  now  used  as  a  mosque. 

I'sis,  [Gr.  Toi^",]  one  of  the  chief  deities  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  was  called  the  wife  of  Osiris  and  mother  of 
Horus.  She  was  worshipped  as  the  goddess  of  fecun- 
dity, and  appears  to  have  represented  nature  or  the  earth. 
The  cow  was  sacred  to  Isis.  She  had  many  worshippers 
in  Greece  and  Rome.  There  were  famous  temples  of 
Isis  at  Memphis  and  Denderah.  She  has  been  identified 
with  the  Hindoo  Isi,  (which  see.) 

Isla,  ^s'la,  (Jos6  Francisco,)  a  witty  and  popular 
Spanish  author,  born  at  Segovia  in  1703.  He  became  a 
Jesuit  and  an  eminent  preacher.  He  effected  a  reform 
in  the  vicious  style  and  bad  taste  that  prevailed  among 
the  Spanish  priests,  which  he  ridiculed  in  his  famous 
satirical  romance  "The  Life  of  the  Popular  Preacher 
Fray  Gerundio  de  Campazas,"  (3  vols.,  1758,)  which 
is  called  the  best  picture  of  Spanish  manners  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  This  work  was  condemned  by  the 
Inquisition.  He  made  a  Spanish  version  of  "Gil  Bias," 
under  this  title  :  "  Adventures  of  Gil  Bias,  stolen  from 
Spain,  adopted  in  France  by  Le  Sage,  and  restored  to 
his  Native  Country  and  Language,"  (6  vols.,  1787.)  The 
Jesuits  having  been  expelled  from  Spain  in  1767,  he 
retired  to  Bologna,  where  he  died  in  1781. 

See  J.  I.  DE  Salas,  "  Vida  de  Jnan  de  Isla,"  1803;  Ticknor, 
"  History  of  Spanish  Literature  ;"  Everett,  "Critical  and  Miscella- 
neous Essays." 


5,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ISLEIF 


1251 


ITTIG 


Isleif,  is'lTf,  an  Icelandic  historian,  was  ordained  a 
priest  in  Rome  about  1056,  and  returned  home.  He 
wrote  "Annals  of  Iceland  and  of  Norway."  Died  about 
1080. 

Isocrate.    See  Isocrates. 

I-soc'ra-tes,  [Gr.  'laoKpuTTjc;  Fr.  Isocrate,  e'zo'- 
kntt';  It.  Isocrate,  e-sok'ri-ti,]  one  of  the  ten  great 
Athenian  orators,  born  at  Athens  in  436  B.C.,  received 
lessons  from  Gorgias,  Prodicus,  and  Theramenes,  and 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Plato.  He  soon  surpassed 
these  masters  in  the  rhetorical  art ;  but  his  insuperable 
constitutional  timidity  defeated  his  political  aspirations, 
and  disqualified  him  for  a  public  debater  or  an  oracle 
of  the  "fierce  democracy."  He  opened  a  school  of  elo- 
quence, which  numbered  among  its  pupils  many  eminent 
ilien,  such  as  Isaeus,  Timotheus,  Xenophon,  and  Hyperi- 
des.  Cicero  compared  his  school  to  the  wooden  horse 
of  Troy,  from  which  issued  the  principal  Grecian  chiefs. 
He  composed  orations  and  forensic  arguments  for  clients 
or  others,  and  discourses  on  moral  and  political  questions. 
His  style  is  extremely  polished  and  harmonious,  but 
perhaps  too  artificial  and  diffuse.  His  character  was 
honourable,  his  political  principles  were  moderate  and 
sincerely  patriotic.  He  was  one  of  the  few  who  had  the 
courage  to  appear  in  mourning  for  the  death  of  Socra- 
tes. It  is  said  that  the  disastrous  battle  of  Chaeronea 
affected  him  so  deeply  that  he  refused  to  eat  afterwards, 
and  died  at  the  age  of  ninety-eight.  Twenty-one  of  his 
orations  are  extant. 

See  Plutarch,  "Vitae  Decern  Oratorum ;"  Bilmark,  "De 
Isocrate  Oratore  Grseco,"  1798;  Pfund,  "  De  Isocratis  Vita  et 
Scriptis,"  1833;  LiCHTENAUER,  "De  Isocrate,"  1843;  O.  Muller, 
"History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece;"  P.  Ekerman,  "Iso- 
crates Patre  loquentije,"  1743. 

Ismaeel  or  Ismail,  is-mt-eel',  a  Moslem  priest,  was 
Imam  of  the  Sheeites  in  the  second  century  of  the  Hejrah. 
At  his  death  a  division  occurred  among  the  Sheeites  in 
respect  to  the  succession.  Those  who  adhered  to  the 
son  of  Ismaeel  were  called  Ismaeelites  or  Ismaeelians, 
and  became  a  powerful  sect  in  Egypt  and  Persia. 

Ismaeel,  Ismail,  or  Ismail  Shah,  is-ma-eeK  shih, 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Sofees  of  Persia,  was  born  in 
1487,  and  assumed  royal  power  about  the  age  of  four- 
teen. He  acquired  several  provinces  of  Persia  by  con- 
quest, and  died  in  1524,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son, 
Aboo-Modhaffer.  Ismaeel  is  venerated  by  the  Persians, 
who  call  him  King  of  the  Sheeites,  (a  religious  sect.) 

See  Malcolm,  "History  of  Persia;"  Von  Hammer-Purgstall, 
"  Geschiclite  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Ismaeel  (Ismail)  II.,  King  of  Persia,  the  son  of  Aboo- 
Modhaffer,  began  to  reign  in  1576,  and  made  himself  de- 
tested by  his  sanguinary  temper.  After  executing  many 
innocent  persons,  he  died  in  1577,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother,  Mohammed  Meerza,  (Mirza.) 

See  Malcolm,  "  History  of  Persia." 

Ismael,  the  French  for  Ishmael,  which  see. 

Isnard,  es'ntR',  (Achille  Nicolas,)  a  French  politi- 
cal economist  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  ;  died  about  1803. 

Isnard,  (Maximin,)  a  French  Girondist,  republican, 
and  orator,  born  at  Grasse,  in  Provence,  in  1 75 1,  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1791. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  able  and  enthusiastic  partisans 
of  the  Revolution,  to  which  he  often  gave  a  new  impulse 
by  his  brilliant,  impetuous,  and  inflammatory  eloquence. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  committee  of 
public  safety,  the  formation  of  which  he  first  proposed, 
and  was  president  of  the  Convention  a  few  days  in  May, 
1793,  during  the  struggle  between  his  party  and  the  Ja- 
cobins. He  was  involved  in  the  fatal  proscription  of  the 
Girondists,  but  escaped  death  by  concealment.  In  1795 
he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hun- 
dred. He  retired  from  political  life  when  Napoleon  be- 
came consul,  and  published  an  essay  on  the  "  Immortality 
of  the  Soul,"  (1801,)  in  which  he  professes  himself  a  con- 
vert to  revealed  religion.  He  maintained  a  fair  reputation 
for  honour  and  probity,  and  died  about  1830.  Lamartine, 
who  calls  him  the  Danton  of  the  Gironde,  says,  "  His 
speeches  were  magnificent  odes,  which  exalted  discussion 
into  lyric  enthusiasm."  {"  History  of  the  Girondists.") 
"  Isnard  was  the  man  of  the  Girondist  party,"  says 
Charles  Nodier,  "  who  possessed  in  the  highest  degree 


the  gift  of  those  vehement  inspirations  which  burst  like 
thunder  in  sudden  and  terrible  explosions." 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale  ;"  Thiers,  "  History  of  the 
French  Revohition." 

Isnardi,  es-naRMee,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  sa- 
vant, born  near  Nice  in  1749,  wrote  a  "Memoir  on  the 
Monuments  of  India  and  Egypt."    Died  in  1830. 

Isolani,  e-so-li'nee,  (Isidoro,)  an  Italian  theologian, 
born  at  Milan,  lived  between  1480  and  1550,  and  wrote 
many  works  against  the  doctrines  of  Luther. 

Isolani,  e-zo-lS'nee,  (Johann  Ludwig  Hector,) 
Count,  an  Austrian  general,  born  in  1586,  served  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  war.  For  the  part  he  took  in  the 
betrayal  of  Wallenstein  he  received  the  title  of  count. 
Died  in  1640. 

Isore,  e'zo'ri',  (Jacques,)  a  French  politician,  born 
at  Cauvigny  in  1758,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention 
in  1792,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  Died 
in  1839. 

Isourd,  d',  de'zooR',  (Joachim  Jean  Xavier,)  a 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Aix  in  1766.  He  became  a 
cardinal  in  1827,  and  in  1829  was  made  a  peer  of  France, 
with  the  title  of  duke.  After  refusing  several  archbishop- 
rics, he  accepted  that  of  Lyons  in  1839  ;  but  he  died 
before  the  end  of  that  year. 

Is'rael,  [Heb.  Gr.  'Icpar/Ti,]  a  name  often  given 

by  the  inspired  writers  to  the  patriarch  Jacob,  whose 
descendants  are  called  Israelites.    (See  Jacob.) 

Israeli.    See  Disraeli.  ^ 

Is'selt,  van,  (Michael,)  a  Dutch  historian^nd  Cath- 
olic priest,  born  at  Dokkum,  adhered  to  the  Spanish 
party  in  the  civil  war.  He  wrote  "  Historia  Belli  Colo- 
niensis,"  (1584,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1597. 

Is'ter,  [Gr.  'larpo^,]  a  Greek  historian  and  poet,  lived 
about  250  B.C.,  and  was  a  friend  or  pupil  of  Callimachus. 
He  wrote  a  history  entitled  Attiku,  and  other  works, 
none  of  which  are  extant. 

Isthvdnfi,  isht'v§n-fee,  [Lat.  Isthvan'fius,]  (Nicho- 
las,) a  Hungarian  noble,  born  about  1535,  was  rewarded 
for  his  services  by  the  office  of  Vice-Palatine  of  Hungary. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  History  of  Hungary  from  1490  to 
1606,"  (1622.)    Died  in  1615. 

Isthvanfius.    See  IsthvAnfi. 

Istria,  Duke  of.    See  Bessieres. 

Isturiz,  de,  di^s-too-rfeth',  (Don  Francisco  Xavier,) 
a  Spanish  politician,  born  at  Cadiz  in  1790.  He  pro- 
moted the  revolution  of  January,  1820,  was  elected  to 
the  Cortes  in  1822,  and  became  a  leader  of  the  Liberal 
or  democratic  party.  He  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
for  a  few  months  in  1836,  and  was  driven  into  exile  by 
an  emeiite.  Having  returned  in  1837,  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Cortes  in  1839.  He  negotiated  the 
marriage  of  the  queen  Isabel,  (1846,)  was  sent  as  minister 
to  England  in  1850,  and  to  Russia  in  1857.  He  became 
president  of  the  council  in  February,  1862. 

Iswara,  ees'wa-ra,  or  Ishwara,  eesh'wa-ra,  written 
also  l9Wara,  one  of  the  thousand  names  of  Siva,  though 
sometimes  applied  to  other  Hindoo  deities.  He  is  by 
some  writers  identified  with  the  Osiris  of  the  Egyptians. 

See  Moor's  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Itale.    See  Italus. 

It'a-lus,  [Gr.  'IraXof;  Fr.  Itale,  e'ttl',]  an  ancient 
king  of  Italy,  from  whom  that  country  is  supposed  to  have 
derived  its  name.  He  married  Electra,  a  daughter  of 
Latinus.  He  is  considered  as  fabulous  by  some  authors. 

Itard,  e'ttR',  (Jean  Marie  Gaspard,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Oraison  in  1775,  removed  to  Paris  alDOUt 
1796,  and  practised  with  success.  In  1799  he  was  ap- 
pointed physician  to  the  Institution  for  Deaf-Mutes,  which 
position  he  filled  for  many  years.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise 
on  Diseases  of  the  Ear,"  (2  vols.,  1821.)    Died  in  1838. 

Ith'a-cus,  [Gr.  "WaKoc;  Fr.  Ithaque,  e^ttk',]  a  name 
of  Ulysses,  which  see. 

Ithaque.    See  Ithacus. 

Ittig,  it'tic,  [Lat.  Ittig'ius,]  (Thomas,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  in  1643  at  Leipsic,  where  he  became 
professor  of  divinity.  He  wrote  numerous  works,  among 
which  are  one  "  On  the  Heresiarchs  of  the  Apostolic 
Age,"  (1690,)  and  "  Bibliotheca  Patrum  Apostolicorum 
Graeco-Latina,"  (2  vols.,  1699.)    Died  in  1710. 

See  F.  Kern,  "  De  Vita  et  Scriptis  T.  Ittigii,"  1710;  Ersch  und 
.  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ITURBIDE 


1252 


IZARD 


Iturbide,  e-tooR'be-Di,  (Don  Augustin,)  Emperor 
of  Mexico,  born  at  Valladolid  (Mexico)  in  1784,  (one  ac- 
count says  1790.)  He  fought  against  the  insurgents  in  the 
war  of  independence  which  began  in  18 10,  and  rose  to 
the  rank  of  general.  About  the  end  of  1821  he  became 
the  master-spirit  of  a  successful  plot  for  the  liberation 
of  Mexico  from  the  Spanish  rule.  He  was  proclaimed 
emperor  in  May,  1822  ;  but  his  power  was  resisted  ])y  a 
large  party  in  the  Congress  and  by  many  generals,  who 
preferred  a  republic.  Finding  his  position  untenable, 
he  abdicated,  and  was  banished  in  May,  1823.  In  July, 
1824,  he  returned  almost  alone,  and,  just  after  he  landed, 
was  arrested  and  shot  as  a  traitor. 

See  M.  J.  QuiN,  "Memoirs  of  Iturbide,"  and  French  version  of 
the  same,  by  J.  T.  Parisot,  1824. 

lule.    See  Iulus. 

I-u'lus,  [Gr.  'lovlo^;  Fr.  Iule,  e'iil',]  a  son  of  ^neas. 
(See  AscANius.) 

Ivan  or  Iwaii  (e-v3.n')  I.,  a  Russian  prince,  who  began 
to  reign  in  Moscow  at  the  death  of  his  brother  George, 
in  1328,  and  was  tributary  to  the  Tartars.  His  dominions 
consisted  of  Vladimir,  Moscow,  and  Novogorod.  His 
reign  was  peaceful,  and  lasted  twenty-two  years. 

His  grandson,  Ivan  II.,  son  of  Simeon,  born  in  1325, 
was  recognized  by  the  Tartars  as  heir  to  the  throne  in 
1353.  The  events  of  his  short  reign  were  unimportant. 
In  his  last  illness  he  took,  according  to  usage,  the  mon- 
astic vows,  and  died  in  1358. 

See  Ka#vmzin.  "  Histoire  de  Russia." 

Ivan  m.,  (Vasilievitch,)  son  of  Basil  IV.,  ascended 
the  Russian  throne  in  1462,  and  is  sometitnes  styled 
Ivan  I.,  Czar  of  Muscovy.  He  liberated  his  realm 
from  the  tribute  which  the  Tartars  had  exacted  by  right 
of  conquest  from  his  predecessors,  and  is  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  the  empire.  About  1475  defeated,  in 
several  actions,  the  Tartar  chief  Ahmed,  (or  Akhmet,) 
and  extended  his  dominions  by  the  conquest  of  various 
princes.  He  embellished  Moscow,  the  capital,  with  fine 
edifices,  and  patronized  the  industrial  arts.  In  i486  he 
assumed  the  title  of  "Sovereign  of  all  the  Russias."  He 
died  in  1505,  aged  sixty-six,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Basil. 

See  Heberstein,  "Rerum  Moscoviticarum  Commentarii,"  1549. 

Ivan  IV.,  or  Ivan  Vasilievitch  II.,  surnamed  the 
Terrible,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  inherited  the 
throne  at  the  death  of  Basil,  his  father,  in  1533,  when 
he  was  four  years  of  age.  He  assumed  the  titles  of  Czar 
and  Autocrat  about  the  age  of  fifteen.  He  conquered 
Kazan  and  Astrachan  from  the  Tartars,  and  waged  war 
against  Sweden  and  Poland  without  decisive  results. 
Siberia  was  discovered  and  partially  subdued  in  his 
reign.  About  1582  the  first  printing-press  was  estab- 
lished by  him  in  Russia.  He  displayed  energy  and 
ability  in  promoting  civilization,  but  is  charged  with 
excessive  cruelty  in  the  exercise  of  his  unrestrained 
power.    Died  in  1584. 

See  Oderborn,  "  Joannis  Basilidis  "Vita,"  1600;  Heidenstein, 
"  De  Bello  Moscovitico,"  1600;  S.  Ciampi,  "  Esame  critico  con 
Documenti  inediti  della  Storia  di  Ivan  Wasihewitsch,"  1827. 

Ivan  v.,  (Alexievitch,)  born  in  1666,  was  the  heir 
of  the  Russian  crown  at  the  death  of  his  brother  Feodor 
III.  in  1682  ;  but  on  account  of  his  imbecility  his  younger 
brother  Peter  (the  Great)  was  proclaimed  in  his  stead. 
Ivan  was  permitted  to  retain  the  title  of  Czar,  but  had 
no  ambition  to  rule.    Died  in  1696. 

Ivan  VI.,  sometimes  styled  Ivan  III.,  born  in  1740, 
was  the  son  of  Anthony  Ulric  of  Brunswick  and  Anne  of 
Russia,  (niece  of  the  empress  Anne.)  The  latter,  at  her 
death  in  1740,  appointed  the  infant  Ivan  her  successor; 
but  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  obtained 
the  imperial  power.  Ivan  was  confined  in  prison,  where, 
it  is  said,  he  was  killed  in  1764,  when  Mirovitch  made 
a  rash  attempt  to  raise  him  to  the  throne. 

See  E.  Mauvillon,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  du  Regne  d'lwan  VI," 
1766;  "  Geschichte  von  dem  Leben  und  Regierung  Ivans  III.,  Kaiser 
von  Russland,"  1766;  "  Nouvelle  Riographie  Generale." 

Ivanof,  e-vS'nof,  [written  in  German,  Iwanow,] 
(Feodor,)  a  Russian  dramatist,  born  in  1777,  served  in 
the  army,  and  wrote,  besides  several  successful  comedies, 
a  tragedy  called  "Martha."    Died  in  1816. 


Ivara.    See  Juvara. 

Ivernois,  d',  de'v^R^nw^',  (Francois,)  a  Swiss  politi. 
cal  writer,  born  at  Geneva  in  1757,  represented  his  native 
city  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1814.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Revolutions  of  Geneva  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century,"  (3  vols.,  1791,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1842. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Iversen,  ee'ver-sen,  (Christian,)  a  Danish  writer, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1748,  published,  among  other 
works,  the  "  Literary  Progress  of  Denmark,"  (4  vols., 
1781-89.)    Died  in  1827. 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon." 

I'ver-spn,  (Alfred,)  a  Democratic  politician,  born 
in  Burke  county,  Georgia,  in  1798,  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress in  1847,  succeeded  W.  C.  Dawson  as  United  States 
Senator  from  Georgia  in  1855,  ^"d  was  a  prominent 
advocate  of  disunion.  Having  entered  the  Confederate 
army,  he  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in  1862. 

Ives,  ivz,  (Edward,)  an  English  surgeon,  who  went 
with  Admiral  Watson  to  the  East  Indies  in  1754,  and 
published  a  valuable  account  of  his  voyage  and  of  the 
operations  of  the  English  army  in  1755,  ^756,  and  1757. 
Died  about  1780. 

Ives,  Ivz,  (Eli,)  an  American  physician,  born  at  New 
Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1779.  He  was  professor  of  medi- 
cine at  Yale  College  about  twenty  years.    Died  in  1861. 

Ives,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  antiquary,  born  af 
Yarmouth  in  1751,  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  He 
published  "  Remarks  on  the  Garianonum  of  the  Romans," 
and  other  antiquarian  treatises.    Died  in  1776. 

Ives,  (Levi  Silliman,)  a  theologian,  born  in  Meriden, 
Connecticut,  in  1797.  He  became  an  Episcopal  clergy- 
man about  1824,  and  Bishop  of  North  Carolina  in  1831. 
In  1852  he  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "The  Trials  of  a  Mind  in 
its  Progress  to  Catholicism,"  (1854.) 

Ives  or  Yves,  [modern  Fr.  pron.  ^v,]  written  also 
I'vo,  Saint,  a  French  theologian,  born  in  1035,  became 
Bishop  of  Chartres.    Died  in  1 1 15. 

Iveteaux.    See  Des  Yveteaux. 

Ivo.    See  Ives,  Saint. 

Fvp-ry,  (James,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  British  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Dundee  in  1765.  After  he  left  college, 
he  engaged  in  teaching  and  other  pursuits.  In  1804  he 
obtained  the  chair  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal  Military 
College,  Marlow,  which  he  retained  about  fifteen  years. 
He  contributed  numerous  able  papers  on  physical  as- 
tronomy and  mathematics  to  the  "Transactions"  of  the 
Royal  Society.  He  was  a  corresponding  member  of  the 
Institute  of  France  and  of  other  foreign  Academies.  In 
183 1  he  received  the  Guelphic  order  of  knighthood  and 
a  pension  of  ;i^300.    Died  in  1842. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men," (Supplement.) 

Iwan.    See  Ivan. 

Ix-i'on,  [Gr.  '\^lo)v,]  a  fabulous  king  of  the  Lapithae. 
The  poets  feigned  that  after  he  had  committed  a  murder, 
Jupiter  purified  him  and  invited  him  to  his  table.  Ixion 
attempted  to  seduce  Juno,  but  embraced  a  cloud  instead 
of  that  goddess.  To  punish  him  for  this  crime,  he  was 
chained  to  a  fiery  wheel  which  revolved  perpetually. 

See  Virgil,  "Georgica,"  book  iv.  484. 

Ixtlilxochitl,  ikst-l^l-Ho-cheetl',  ?  (Fernando  de 

Alva,)  a  Mexican  historian,  born  at  Tezcuco  about  1568, 
was  a  descendant  of  the  royal  family  of  Tezcuco.  He 
wrote  "  Historia  Chichimeca,"  and  other  chronicles  on 
Mexican  history.  The  first-named  work  has  been  trans- 
lated into  French  by  Ternaux-Compans.  Died  about 
1648. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  i. 
book  i. 

Izaacke,  T'zak,  ?  (Richard,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  at  Exeter  in  1624;  died  in  1700. 

Iz'ard,  (George,)  a  general,  born  in  South  Carolina 
in  1777.  He  became  a  colonel  in  1812,  served  in  the 
war  that  ensued,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general.    Died  in  1828. 

Izard,  (Ralph,)  a  Senator,  born  in  South  Carolina  in 
1742,  settled  in  London  in  1 77 1.  Having  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  1780,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  Con- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  filr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


IZIASLAF 


1253 


JJCKSON 


gtess  in  1781,  and  was  a  United  States  Senator  (for  South 
Carolina)  from  1789  to  1795.  He  was  an  able  debater, 
and  a  constant  supporter  of  Washington's  administra- 
tion.   Died  in  1804. 

See  his  "  Life  and  Correspondence,"  by  his  daughter,  1844. 

Iziaslaf  or  Isiaslav  (e-ze-Ss-lSf )  I.,  written  also 
Isiaslaw,  (Dmitri  or  Demetrius,)  Grand  Duke  of 
Russia,  succeeded  his  father,  Yaroslaf,  in  1054.  His 
reign  was  disturbed  by  wars  with  his  brothers  and  other 
princes,  among  whom  Russia  was  divided.  He  was  killed 
in  battle  in  1078,  and  left  the  throne  to  his  son. 

Iziaslaf  or  Isiaslav  II.,  Grand  Prince  of  Russia,  was 
the  son  of  Mstislaf.  He  began  to  reign  in  1 146,  as  suc- 
cessor to  Igor  11. ,  whom  he  defeated  in  battle.  He  was 
thrice  driven  from  his  throne,  but  as  often  recovered  it. 
He  died  in  11 54. 

Iziaslaf  or  Isiaslav  III.,  surnamed  Davidovitch, 
son  of  David,  became  Grand  Prince  of  Russia  in  11 5 7. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  about  1161. 


Iziocalt,  e-se-o-kilt',  King  of  the  Mexicans,  ascended 
the  throne  in  1433,  and  is  called  the  founder  of  the 
Mexican  empire.  He  formed  a  code  of  laws,  which  was 
adopted  by  several  adjacent  nations.    Died  in  1445. 

Izmailof,  is-mi'e-lof,  (Alexander,)  a  Russian  fabu- 
list, born  at  Moscow  in  1779.  He  became  a  resident  of 
Saint  Petersburg,  and  edited  several  reviews  or  journals. 
He  published  a  volume  of  fables,  (1804,)  which  are  highly 
commended.    Died  in  183 1. 

See  Gretch,  "  History  of  Russian  Literature,"  1819-22. 

Izmailof,  (Vladimir  Vasilievitch,)  a  Russian  writer, 
born  at  Moscow  in  1773.  He  wrote  "Travels  in 
Southern  Russia,"  (1802,)  and  translated  some  works  of 
Rousseau  and  Chateaubriand. 

Izquierdo  de  Ribera,  ^th-ke-§R'do  di  re-Ba'ri,  (Don 
EuGENio,)  a  Spanish  diplomatist,  born  at  Saragossa. 
He  was  sent  to  Paris  as  plenipotentiary  in  1806,  and 
negotiated  a  treaty  for  the  partition  of  Portugal.  Died 
in  1813. 


J. 


Jaafar,  Jafar,  Djafar,  or  Giafar,  ji'a-far  or  jS'far, 
surnamed  Sadik,  an  eminent  Mussulman  doctor  of 
Medina;  died  in  764  a.d. 

Jaafar,  Jafar,  Jafer,  Djafar,  or  Giafar,  a  Barmecide, 
who  became  the  favourite  of  Haroun-al-Raschid,  and 
to  whom,  it  is  said,  the  Caliph  g:ive  his  own  sister  Ab- 
basa  in  marriage,  on  condition  that  tlie  intercourse  of  the 
married  pair  should  be  strictly  Platonic.  Abbasa  having 
borne  a  son  to  Jaafar,  Haroun,  in  his  rage,  mercilessly 
destroyed  both  father  and  son.    (See  Barmecides.) 

Jaafar-Ibn-TofaiL    See  Aboo-Bekr-Ibn-Tofail. 

Jablonowski,  yi-blo-nov'skee,  (Stanislaus,)  a 
Polish  general,  born  in  163 1,  commanded  the  right  wing 
of  the  army  of  Sobieski  when  he  defeated  the  Turks  at 
Vienna  in  1683.  He  afterwards  had  the  chief  command 
during  the  illness  of  the  king.    Died  in  1702. 

See  De  Jonsac,  "  Histoire  de  Stanislas  Jablonowski,"  4  vols., 
Leipsic,  1774. 

Jablonowski,  von,  fon  yJ-blo-nov'skee,  (Joseph 
Alex.\nder,)  a  Polish  or  German  prince,  born  in  1711, 
was  a  patron  of  science.  He  founded  at  Leipsic  a  sci- 
entific association  which  bears  his  name,  and  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Museum  Polonicum,"  (1752.) 
Died  in  1777. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Jablonski,  yS-blon'skee,  (Daniel  Ernst,)  an  emi- 
nent German  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Dantzic  in 
1660.  He  became  pastor  at  Konigsberg  in  1690,  and 
preacher  or  chaplain  to  the  king  at  Berlin  in  1693.  He 
published  a  Hebrew  Bible,  with  notes  and  a  preface, 
(1699,)  and  wrote  several  works  on  theology.  He  la- 
boured to  effect  a  union  of  various  Protestant  sects. 
Died  in  Berlin  in  1 741. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Jablonski  or  Jablonsky,  (Johann  Theodor,)  a 
brother  of  Daniel  Ernst,  noticed  above,  was  born  at 
Dantzic  about  1654.  He  published  a  "French-German 
and  German-French  Dictionary,"  (1711.)    Died  in  1731. 

Jablonski,  (  Paul  Ernst,  )  an  eminent  Prussian 
scholar  and  divine,  a  son  of  Daniel  Ernst,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  Berlin  in  1693.  He  devoted  himself  par- 
ticularly to  the  study  of  the  Coptic  and  other  Oriental 
languages.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Pantheon 
Egyptiorum,"  (3  vols.,  1750-52,)  a  work  relating  to  the 
religion  of  the  Egyptians,  and  "  Of  the  Memnon  of  the 
Greeks  and  Egyptians."    Died  in  1757. 

See  Ersch  und  Gkuber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Jablonsky,  y^-blon'skee,  (Karl  Gustav,)  a  Prus- 
sian entomologist,  born  in  1756,  published  a  "System 
of  all  the  Known  Insects,  arranged  according  to  the 
Method  of  Linnaeus."    Died  in  1787. 

Jacetius.    See  Cattani  da  Diaceto. 

Jachaeus.    See  Jack. 

Jack,  [Lat.  Jach^'us,]  (Gilbert,)  a  Scottish  meta- 
physician, born  at  Aberdeen  about  1578.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Leyden  in  early  life.  He 


published  several  works,  among  which  is  "  Institutiones 
Physicae,"  (1612.)    Died  in  1628. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Jack,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  minister  of  Eastwood, 
wrote  "Onomasticon  Poeticum,"  (1592.)    Died  in  1596. 

Jack'son,  (Andrew,)  a  celebrated  American  general 
and  statesman,  born  in  the  Waxhaw  settlement,  North 
or  South  Carolina,  on  the  15th  of  March,  1767.  Parton 
states  that  he  was  born  in  Union  county,  North  Caro- 
lina, but  adds  that  "General  Jackson  always  supposed 
himself  to  be  a  native  of  South  Carolina,"  for  in  his 
proclamation  to  the  nullifiers  of  South  Carolina  he  thus 
addresses  them  :  "  Fellow-citizens  of  my  native  State." 
He  was  a  son  of  Andrew  Jackson,  an  Irishman,  who 
emigrated  to  America  in  1765  and  died  poor  in  1767. 
The  name  of  his  mother  was  Elizabeth  Hutchinson.  We 
have  little  definite  information  about  the  schools  that  he 
attended.  According  to  Parton,  "  he  learned  to  read,  to 
write,  and  cast  accounts ; — little  more.  .  .  .  He  was  never 
a  well-informed  man."  Having  taken  arms  against  the 
British  in  1781,  he  was  captured,  and  afterwards  wounded 
by  an  officer  because  he  refused  to  clean  his  boots. 
About  1785  he  began  to  study  law  at  Salisbury,  North 
Carolina.  He  was  addicted  in  his  youth  to  gambling, 
horse-racing,  and  other  sports.  He  was  an  excellent 
horseman,  "  a  capital  shot,"  was  very  dignified  in  man- 
ner, and  was  distinguished  for  his  courage  and  activity. 
His  stature  was  six  feet  and  one  inch  high. 

In  1788  he  removed  to  Nashville,  Tennessee,  where 
he  began  to  practise  law.  He  speedily  obtained  a  large 
practice,  of  which  disputed  land-claims  formed  the  prin- 
cipal subject.  About  1792  he  married  Rachel  Robards, 
originally  Rachel  Donelson,  whose  first  husband  was 
living  and  had  taken  preliminary  measures  to  obtain 
a  divorce,  which  was  legally  completed  in  1793.  "^^^ 
marriage  ceremony  was  again  performed  in  1794.  Jack- 
son, following  a  custom  then  extremely  common  in  the 
South  and  West,  fought  a  number  of  duels  in  the  early 
part  of  his  life.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Convention 
which  framed  the  Constitution  of  Tennessee  in  1796,  and 
in  the  autumn  of  that  year  was  elected  representative  to 
Congress  by  the  people  of  Tennessee,  which  was  then 
entitled  to  only  one  member.  He  supported  Thomas 
Jefferson  in  the  Presidential  election  of  1796.  In  1797 
he  became  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  for  Tennessee. 
He  resigned  his  seat  in  the  Senate  in  1798,  "partly  be- 
cause he  felt  himself  out  of  place  in  so  slow  and  digni- 
fied a  body,  but  chiefly  for  pecuniary  reasons."  He  was 
a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Tennessee  from  1798  to 
1804.  In  1806  he  challenged  and  killed  Charles  Dick- 
inson in  a  duel  with  pistols,  receiving  himself  a  severe 
wound.  This  affair  impaired  for  many  years  his  popu- 
larity in  Tennessee  and  other  parts  of  the  United  States. 

In  1807,  while  the  trial  of  Aaron  Burr  was  still  unde- 
termined, Jackson  "  harangued  the  crowd, [at  Richmond,] 
defending  Burr,  and  angrily  denouncing  Jefferson  as  a 
persecutor."  (Parton's  "  Life.")     After  war  had  been 


c  as  i;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    {J^^Set  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JACKSON 


1254 


yjCKSON 


declared  against  Great  Britain,  General  Jackson  (who 
several  years  before  had  been  appointed  major-general 
of  militia)  offered  his  services,  and  those  of  2500  volun- 
teers, in  June,  181 2.  He  was  ordered  to  New  Orleans, 
and  led  a  body  of  2070  men  in  that  direction  ;  hut  at 
Natchez  he  received  an  order  dated  February  6,  1813,  by 
which  his  troops  were  dismissed  from  public  service.  In 
September,  1813,  he  had  an  affray  with  Colonel  Thomas 
H.  Benton  at  Nashville,  and  was  severely  wounded  by  his 
brother,  Jesse  Benton.  In  October  next  he  took  the  field 
against  the  Creek  Indians,  whom  he  defeated  at  Talla- 
dega in  November.  By  his  services  in  this  Creek  war, 
which  ended  in  1814,  he  acquired  great  popularity,  and 
in  May,  1814,  he  was  appointed  a  major-general  in  the 
regular  army.  He  was  soon  after  ordered  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  to  oppose"  an  expected  invasion  of  the  British. 
In  November  he  seized  Pensacola,  which  belonged  to 
Spain  but  was  used  by  the  British  as  a  base  of  operations. 
About  the  ist  of  December  he  moved  his  army  to  New 
Orleans,  which  was  then  ill  prepared  for  defence.  The 
British  fleet,  conveying  an  army  of  veterans  who  had 
fought  under  Wellington,  entered  Lake  Borgne  Decem- 
ber 13,  and  captured  several  gunboats.  General  Jackson 
proclaimed  martial  law  in  the  city  on  the  i6th.  On  the 
23d  the  enemy  advanced  to  a  point  about  nine  miles  be- 
low the  city,  and  were  attacked  in  the  night  by  General 
Jackson,  who  had  about  2100  men.  The  result  of  this 
action  was  favourable  to  the  defenders  of  the  city,  who 
gained  time  to  fortify  their  position.  On  the  25th  of 
December  Sir  Edward  Pakenham  arrived  and  took  com- 
mand of  the  invaders,  whose  number  was  about  12,000. 
Jackson,  who  had  a  much  smaller  army,  composed  partly 
of  the  unerring  marksmen  of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky, 
repulsed  an  attack  on  the  1st  of  January,  1815.  On  the 
8th  of  January  the  British  made  a  general  assault  on  the 
American  lines,  but  were  defeated  with  great  loss  by 
the  deadly  fire  of  the  riflemen  and  artillery.  Generals 
Pakenham  and  Gibbs  were  killed.  "  Seven  hundred 
killed,"  says  Parton,  "fourteen  hundred  wounded,  and 
five  hundred  prisoners,  were  the  dread  result  of  that 
twenty-five  minutes'  work.  Jackson's  loss  was  eight 
killed  and  thirteen  wounded."  The  victory  of  New 
Orleans,  which  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  de- 
cisive ever  gained  by  an  American  army,  raised  Jackson's 
reputation  as  a  general  to  the  highest  point,  and  made 
him  the  idol  of  a  large  portion  of  the  American  people. 
This  was  the  last  battle  of  the  war,  a  treaty  of  peace 
having  been  signed  in  Europe  in  December,  1814. 

In  March,  181 5,  while  that  city  was  still  under  mar- 
tial law.  Judge  Hall,  of  New  Orleans,  granted  a  writ  of 
habeas  corpus  for  the  release  of  Mr.  Louaillier,  who  had 
been  arrested  by  order  of  Jackson,  for  exciting  discontent 
among  the  troops.  The  latter,  instead  of  obeying  the 
writ,  had  the  judge  arrested  and  kept  in  custody.  Peace 
having  been  formally  proclaimed.  Hall  was  set  at  liberty. 
General  Jackson  was  then  summoned  to  answer  for  con- 
tempt of  court.  He  was  found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to 
pay  a  fine  of  one  thousand  dollars.  He  immediately 
paid  the  fine;  but  it  was  afterwards  refunded  with  the 
interest  by  an  act  of  Congress  passed  in  February,  1844. 

In  1 81 7-18  he  waged  a  successful  war  against  the 
Seminoles  in  Florida,  seized  Pensacola,  and  executed 
Arbuthnot  and  Ambrister,  two  British  subjects,  accused 
of  inciting  the  savages  to  hostile  acts  against  the  Ameri- 
cans. He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Florida  in  1821. 
Before  this  date  he  had  built,  near  Nashville,  a  mansion 
called  the  "Hermitage,"  in  which  he  resided  many  years. 
In  1823  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States, 
and  nominated  as  candidate  for  the  Presidency  by  the 
legislature  of  Tennessee.  His  competitors  were  John 
Quincy  Adams,  Henry  Clay,  and  William  H.  Crawford. 
Jackson  received  ninety-nine  electoral  votes,  Adams 
eighty-fouf,  Cra  v^ord  forty-one,  and  Clay  thirty-seven. 
As  no  candidate  had  a  majority,  the  election  devolved 
on  the  House  of  Representatives,  voting  by  States,  each 
State  having  one  vote.  Through  the  influence  of  Mr. 
Clay,  John  Quincy  Adams  was  elected,  by  the  vote  of 
thirteen  States.  General  Jackson,  who  received  the 
vote  of  seven  States,  became  the  implacable  enemy  of 
Mr.  Clay,  whom  he  stigmatized  as  "this  Judas  of  the 
West."    He  habitually  attributed  the  conduct  of  his 


political  opponents  to  mean  or  improper  motives,  and, 
accordingly,  hated  Crawford,  Clay,  Adams,  and  Calhoun. 

In  1828  he  was  elected  President,  receiving  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy-eight  electoral  votes,  while  Mr.  Adams 
received  eighty-three.  Calhoun  became  Vice-President. 
Martin  Van  Buren  was  appointed  'secretary  of  state. 
Jackson  was  the  first  President  who  proscribed  public 
servants  for  political  opinions.  He  made  more  removals 
in  one  year  than  all  the  other  Presidents  in  forty  years 
before.  At  a  banquet  in  April,  1830,  the  President  gave 
this  famous  toast:  "Our  Federal  Union:  it  must  be 
preserved."  In  April,  183 1,  he  reorganized  his  cabinet, 
appointing  Edward  Livingston  secretary  of  state,  Louis 
McLane  secretary  of  the  treasury,  Lewis  Cass  secretary 
of  war,  Levi  Woodbury  secretary  of  the  navy,  and  Roger 
B.  Taney  attorney-general. 

Among  the  principal  events  of  his  first  term  was  his 
veto  of  the  bill  which  granted  anew  charter  to  the  Bank 
of  the  United  States,  (July,  1832.)  This  subject  became 
the  chief  issue  between  the  partisans  of  Jackson  and  his 
opponents,  who  supported  Henry  Clay  in  the  Presiden- 
tial election  of  1832.  General  Jackson  was  re-elected, 
receiving  two  hundred  and  nineteen  electoral  votes  out 
of  two  hundred  and  eighty-eight,  which  was  the  whole 
number,  and  Martin  Van  Buren  succeeded  Calhoun  in 
the  Vice-Presidency.  In  November,  1832,  a  Convention 
in  South  Carolina  adopted  an  ordinance  of  nullification, 
by  which  they  ordained  that  the  tariff-law  of  1828  "is 
null  and  void."  The  President  electrified  the  country 
by  his  memorable  proclamation  against  the  nullifiers, 
December  11,  1832,  in  which  he  announced  his  resolu- 
tion to  crush  any  disunion  movement  with  the  strong 
hand.  He  was  censured  by  the  Senate  for  removing 
the  public  deposits  from  the  Bank  of  the  United  States, 
September,  1833. 

lie  used  his  influence  to  procure  the  election  of  Mar- 
tin Van  Buren  to  the  Presidency  in  1836,  and  retired 
finally  from  public  life  March  4,  1837.  He  afterwards 
joined  the  Presbyterian  Church.  In  his  last  illness  Dr. 
Edgar  asked  "what  he  would  have  done  with  Calhoun 
and  the  other  nullifiers  if  they  had  kept  on."  "  Hung 
them,  sir,  as  high  as  Haman,"  was  his  reply.  He 
died,  without  issue,  at  the  Hermitage,  on  the  8th  of 
June,  1845. 

See  Eaton,  "Life  of  Jackson,"  1824;  William  Cobbett,  "Life 
of  Andrew  Jackson,"  1834;  J.  S.  Jenkins,  "Life  of  General  An- 
drew Jackson,"  1850;  J.  T.  Headley,  "Life  of  Andrew  Jackson," 
1852;  Amos  Kendall,"  Life  of  Andrew  Jackson,"  1844 ;  Alexander 
Walker,  "Jackson  and  New  Orleans,"  1S56;  James  Parton,  "Life 
of  Andrew  Jackson,"  3  vols.,  i860,  (by  far  the  most  complete  life  of 
the  Hero  of  New  Orleans  that  has  been  published;)  "National  Por- 
trait-Gallery of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  i.  ;  "New  American 
Cyclopaedia;"  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  May,  1862. 

Jack'son,  (Arthur,)  an  English  Puritan  minister, 
born  in  Suffolk  in  1593,  preached  at  Saint  Faith's,  Lon- 
don, until  1662,  when  he  was  ejected.  He  wrote  "An- 
notations on  the  Old  Testament,"  (1643-58.)  Died  in 
1666. 

Jackson,  (Charles,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist, 
was  born  in  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1775.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  with  the  highest  honours  of  his 
class  in  1793,  studied  law  with  Theophilus  Parsons,  and 
obtained  an  extensive  practice  in  his  native  town.  In 
1803  he  removed  to  Boston,  where  he  practised  law  for 
many  years.  In  1813  he  was  made  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  Massachusetts,  the  duties  of  which  he  discharged 
for  ten  years.  He  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  com- 
missioners appointed  by  the  State  in  1832  to  revise  her 
legislative  enactments.  Died  in  Boston  in  1855.  He 
published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Pleadings  and  Practice  in 
Real  Actions,  with  Precedents,"  etc.,  (1828.) 

Jackson,  (Charles  Thomas,)  M.D.,  an  American 
chemist  and  geologist,  born  at  Plymouth,  Massachusetts, 
in  June,  1805.  He  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  Harvard 
in  1829,  after  which  he  continued  his  studies  in  Paris, 
and  passed  several  years  in  visits  to  various  countries 
of  Europe.  In  conjunction  with  Francis  Alger,  he  pub- 
lished a  work  called  "  Mineralogy  and  Geology  of  Nova 
Scotia,"  (1832.)  He  became  a  resident  of  Boston  about 
1833,  was  appointed  State  geologist  of  Maine  in  1836, 
and  produced  a  "  Report  on  the  Geology  of  the  State 
of  Maine,"  (1837.)  His  second  and  third  Reports  on 
the  same  subject  appeared  in  1838  and  1839.    He  was 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moonj 


JJCKSON 


1255 


JJCKSON 


appointed  geologist  of  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  in 
1840,  He  claims  to  be  the  original  discoverer  of  anaes- 
thetics, and  was  involved  in  a  long  controversy  on  this 
subject  with  Dr.  W.  T.  G.  Morton. 

Jackson,  (Conrad  Feger,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Pennsylvania.  He  served  as  colonel  in  the 
Union  army  at  Gaines's  Mill,  June  27,  1862,  commanded 
a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September  17,  and 
was  killed  at  Fredericksburg,  December  13,  1862. 

Jackson,  (Cyril,)  Dr.,  a  noted  English  divine,  born 
at  Stamford  in  1742.  He  was  offered  the  primacy  of 
Ireland  and  an  English  bishopric,  both  of  which  he  de- 
clined. He  was  tutor  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  (George 
/    IV.)    Died  in  1819. 

Jackson,  (Henry  R.,)  was  born  in  Georgia  in  1810. 
He  served  as  a  colonel  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  was 
appointed  minister  to  Austria  in  1853.  This  position  he 
held  till  1858.  He  published  in  1851  "Tallulah,  and 
other  Poems." 

Jackson,  (James,)  a  lawyer,  born  in  Devonshire, 
England,  in  1757,  emigrated  to  America  in  1772.  He 
fought  with  distinction  against  the  British  in  Georgia 
in  1776-82,  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1789,  and  was  a 
United  States  Senator  for  Georgia  from  1792  to  1795. 
In  1798  he  became  Governor  of  Georgia,  and  in  1801 
was  again  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States.  Died 
in  1804. 

See  "National  Portrait- Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

Jackson,  (James  S.,)  an  American  lawyer  and  gene- 
ral, born  in  Kentucky  about  1822.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  in  i860  by  the  voters  of  the  second 
district  of  Kentucky,  but  he  resigned  his  seat  and  joined 
the  Union  army  in  1861.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Perryville,  October  8,  1862. 

Jackson,  (  John,  )  a  clergyman  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  born  in  Yorkshire,  England,  in  1686.  He  was  a 
zealous  advocate  of  the  Arian  doctrines,  which  prevented 
his  advancement  in  the  church.  Died  in  1763.  He  wrote 
a  valuable  work  entitled  "Chronological  Antiquities," 
(3  vols.,  1752,)  and  numerous  controversial  treatises. 

See  Dr.  Sutton,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  John 
Jackson,"  1764. 

Jackson,  (John,)  an  able  English  engraver  on  wood, 
flourished  about  1725-45. 

Jackson,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Lastingham,  Yorkshire,  in  1778,  became  a  resi- 
dent of  London  about  1797,  and  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  181 7.  Among  his  best  works 
are  portraits  of  Canova  and  Flaxman.    Died  in  1831. 

See  Cunningham,  "Lives  of  British  Painters." 

Jackson,  (Joseph,)  an  English  letter-founder,  born 
probably  in  London  in  1733  '■>  died- in  1792. 

Jackson,  (Nathaniel  J.,)  born  in  New  England, 
became  brigadier-general  in  the  Federal  army  in  1862. 

Jackson,  (Patrick  Tracy,)  a  merchant  and  manu- 
facturer, born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1780. 
He  organized  in  1821  the  Merrimac  Manufacturing 
Company,  and  founded  Lowell.    Died  in  1847. 

See  J.  A.  Lowell,  "  Life  of  P.  T.  Jackson,"  in  Hunt's  "Lives 
of  American  Merchants,"  vol.  i.,  1858. 

Jackson,  (Robert,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
1 75 1.  He  served  as  surgeon  in  the  army,  and  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  the  Fevers  of 
Jamaica,"  (1791.)    Died  in  1827. 

Jackson,  (Samuel,)  a  distinguished  physician  and 
physiologist,  born  in  Philadelphia  March  22,  1787.  He 
was  elected  in  1835  to  the  chair  of  the  institutes  of  medi- 
cine in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  which  he  filled 
with  great  credit  to  himself  and  the  institution  for 
twenty-eight  ye«rs.  He  resigned  in  1863.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Principles  of  Medicine,"  (1832,) 
and  an  "  Introduction  to  Lehman's  Chemical  Physi- 
ology," (1856.) 

Jackson,  (Thomas,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
in  Durham  in  1579.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Com- 
mentary on  the  Apostles'  Creed,"  and  of  several  devo- 
tional treatises.  He  became  Dean  of  Peterborough  in 
1638.  His  works  are  highly  praised  by  Southey.  Died 
in  1640. 

See  E.  Vaughan,  "Life  of  Thomas  Jackson,"  1673. 


Jackson,  (Thomas  Jonathan,)  commonly  known  by 
the  name  of  Stonewall  Jackson,  a  distinguished  Amer- 
ican general,  born  in  Lewis  county,  Virginia,  January  21, 
1824,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846,  standing  seven- 
teenth  in  a  class  of  fifty-nine.  He  was  considered  at 
West  Point  to  be  rather  a  dull  and  slow  student.  In  the 
Mexican  war  (1846-47)  he  served  as  first  lieutenant  with 
distinction.  Having  resigned  his  commission  in  1852, 
he  became  a  professor  in  the  Military  Institute  at  Lex- 
ington, Virginia.  About  1853  he  married  Miss  Junkin, 
a  daughter  of  Dr.  Junkin,  of  Lexington.  He  was  ap- 
pointed a  colonel  of  the  Virginian  tr(;ops  in  April,  1861, 
and  commanded  the  force  that  was  attacked  by  the  Union 
army  at  Martinsburg,  July  2.  He  served  as  brigadier- 
general  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861,  and  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general  in  the  following 
September.  It  has  been  currently  stated  that  he  received 
his  surname  from  the  fact  that  he  and  his  men  "  stood  like 
a  stone  wall"  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  ;  but,  according  to 
one  of  his  biographers,  the  name  "  Stonewall"  was  first 
applied  to  his  brigade  because  it  was  recruited  in  a  stone- 
wall country, — the  counties  of  Jefferson,  Page,  Frederick, 
etc.  He  was  defeated  by  General  Shields  near  Win- 
chester, March  23,  1862,  and  retreated  up  the  valley  to 
Harrisonburg,  pursued  by  General  Banks.  Having  been 
reinforced,  he  resumed  the  offensive  with  about  twenty 
thousand  men,  attacked  General  Banks  near  Strasburg, 
May  23,  and  drove  him  back  to  the  Potomac.  On  the 
approach  of  General  Fremont  from  the  west.  General 
Jackson  moved  hastily  up  the  valley  to  Harrisonburg. 
His  army  was  overtaken  by  General  Fremont  at  Cross 
Keys,  where  an  indecisive  battle  was  fought  on  the  8th 
of  June.  Before  the  end  of  June  he  moved  his  army 
to  Richmond  and  joined  that  of  General  Lee.  He 
commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Gaines's  Mill,  June 
27,  and  at  that  of  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862.  On  the 
9th  of  August  he  defeated  a  small  army  under  General 
Banks  at  Cedar  Mountain,  Virginia.  He  captured 
Harper's  Ferry,  with  eleven  thousand  Union  prisoners, 
on  the  15th  of  September,  and  joined  General  Lee  in 
time  to  take  part  in  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September 
17.  He  contributed  to  the  victory  at  Fredericksburg, 
December  13,  1862,  for  which  service  he  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  remained  inactive 
for  several  months,  (January-April,  1863,)  employed 
partly  in  preparing  official  reports.  On  the  ist  of  May 
he  was  ordered  by  General  Lee  to  execute  a  flank  move- 
ment on  the  right  wing  of  General  Hooker's  army.  He 
surprised  and  routed  the  eleventh  corps,  near  Chancel- 
lorsville,  on  the  evening  of  the  2d  of  May.  As  he  was 
riding  with  his  staff  from  the  front  towards  the  rear 
during  that  battle,  he  received  a  volley  from  his  own 
men,  who  in  the  darkness  mistook  the  staff  for  a  party 
of  Federal  cavalry.  General  Jackson  received  three 
wounds,  of  which  he  died  at  Guinea's  Station  on  the 
loth  of  May,  1863,  "  His  loss,"  says  Mr.  Greeley,  "was 
the  greatest  yet  sustained  by  either  party  in  the  fall  of  a 
single  man  ;  though  Sidney  Johnston  had  probably  mili- 
tary talents  of  a  higher  order.  But  JacksjDn's  power  over 
his  men  was  unequalled  ;  and  it  was  justified  by  the 
soundness  of  his  judgment,  as  well  as  the  intrepidity  of 
his  character.  Contrary  to  the  vulgar  notion,  his  attacks 
were  all  well  considered,  and  based  on  a  careful  cal- 
culation of  forces ;  and  he  showed  as  high  qualities  in 
refusing  to  squancler  his  men  at  Antietam,  and  again  at 
Fredericksburg,  as  he  did  in  his  most  brilliant  charges. 
.  .  .  It  is  doubtful  if  all  the  advantages,  including  pres- 
tige, which  the  rebels  gained  around  Chancellorsville, 
were  not  dearly  purchased  by  the  loss  of  Thomas  J. 
Jackson."  ("American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  359-60.) 
Stonewall  Jackson  was  a  man  of  deep  and  earnest  re- 
ligious convictions;  and  in  his  general  character,  as  well 
as  in  his  serene,  indomitable  courage  and  the  extraor- 
dinary influence  which  he  exerted  over  the  minds  of  his 
soldiers,  he  reminds  us  of  the  great  Puritan  leaders  who 
fought  under  Cromwell. 

See  Dabnev,  "Life  of  General  T.  J.  Jackson,"  and  a  "Life  of 
General  T.  J.  Jackson,"  in  "Southern  Generals,"  1865. 

Jackson,  (Thomas  K.,)  born  in  South  Carolina  about 
1829,  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate 
army  in  1861. 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  H,  K^guttural;  n,  nasal;  ^trilled;  s  a&z;  th  asin  this^    (2(^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JACKSON 


JACOBI 


Jackson,  (William,)  a  clergyman  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  born  in  Ireland  about  1737.  In  1794  he  was 
detected  in  a  treasonable  correspondence  with  France, 
in  which  he  recommended  the  invasion  of  Ireland.  He 
was  tried  and  found  guilty  of  high  treason,  but  died 
from  the  effects  of  poison,  before  sentence  was  passed 
upon  him,  in  1795. 

Jackson,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  musician 
and  landscape-painter,  was  born  at  Exeter  in  1730. 
Among  his  musical  compositions  are  "Twelve  Popular 
Songs,"  "  Six  Sonatas  for  the  Harpsichord,"  and  "  Twelve 
Canzonets  for  Two  Voices."  He  published  "Thirty 
Letters  upon  Various  Subjects,"  (1782,)  and  "The  Four 
Ages,"  (1798.)    Died  in  1803. 

See  F6tis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Jackson,  (Dr.  William,)  Bishop  of  Oxford,  and 
brother  to  Dr.  Cyril  Jackson,  noticed  above,  was  born 
at  Stamford  in  1750.  He  published  several  sermons. 
Died  in  181 5. 

Ja'cob,  [Heb.  3p^';  Gr.  'Ia/cw/3,]  a  celebrated  Hebrew 
patriarch,  a  son  of  Isaac,  and  the  great  progenitor  of  the 
Israelitish  nation.    He  was  also  called  Israel. 

See  Genesis  XXV.,  xxvii.,  xxviii.,  xxix.,  xxx. 

Ja'cob,  a  Hungarian  adventurer,  and  chief  of  the 
Pastoiireaux.  About  1250  he  incited  the  common  people 
to  enlist  in  a  crusade  for  the  liberation  of  Saint  Louis, 
who  was  then  a  captive.  He  mustered  a  vast  multitude 
of  French  peasants,  who  massacred  priests  and  com- 
mitted Other  outrages  in  France.  Jacob  was  killed,  and 
his  dupes  were  dispersed. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Ja'cob,  (Edward,)  a  topographical  and  antiquariaii 
writer  of  Kent,  England.    Died  in  1788. 

Jacob,  (Giles,)  an  English  author,  born  in  Hamp- 
shire in  1686.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Poetical 
Register,"  (1723,)  composed  of  memoirs  of  the  English 
dramatic  poets,  and  a  "Law  Dictionary,"  (1729,)  which 
has  passed  through  many  editions.    Died  in  1744. 

Jacob,  (Henry,)  an  English  Puritan  and  Independ- 
ent minister,  born  in  Kent  about  1562.  He  founded  in 
London  the  first  Independent  Congregational  church 
that  existed  in  England,  and  published  several  works. 
In  1624  he  removed  to  Virginia,  where  he  died  about 
1626. 

Jacob,  (Henry,)  a  philologist  and  Orientalist,  born 
in  1606  or  1607,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  became 
a  Fellow  of  Merton  College,  Oxford,  and  published 
"Grjeca  et  Latina  Poemata."    Died  in  1652. 

Ja'cob,  (Jehudah  Leon,)  a  Jew  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  born  in  Spain,  resided  in  Holland.  He  wrote 
a  "  Description  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon,"  also  a 
description  of  the  Tabernacle,  and  an  "Exposition  of 
the  Psalms." 

Jacob,  (JOHN^)  a  British  general,  born  in  181 2  or 
1813.    He  distinguished  himself  in  India  in  1843 
commander  of  the  Sinde  Horse.    Died  in  India  in  1858. 

Jacob,  (John,)  an  Armenian  carpenter,  lived  about 
1650.  He  is  distinguished  for  having  introduced  the  art 
of  printing  into  Persia. 

Jacob  OF  Edessa.    See  Barad^us. 

Jacob  or  James  [Gr.  'Iuko)6oc;  Lat.  Jaco'bus]  of 
NisiKis,  surnamed  the  Great,  a  Christian  bishop,  who 
was  regarded  as  a  prophet  and  was  distinguished  for  his 
ascetic  life.  He  became  Bishop  of  Nisibis,  and  attended, 
in  325  A.D.,  the  Council  of  Nice,  where  he  advocated  the 
orthodox  creed.  He  is  said  to  have  delivered  Nisibis 
from  the  besieging  Persians  by  his  prayers.  His  death 
is  variously  dated  from  about  340  to  350  a.d. 

See  Saint  Jerome,  "De  Viris  illustribus ;"  Fabricius,  "Bibli- 
otheca  Giieca;"  Cave,  "  Historia  Liteiaria." 

Ja'cob  Ben  Ashler,  a  learned  Jew,  born  in  Ger- 
many, wrote  a  work  called  "  Arba  Thourim."  Died  at 
Toledo  about  1340. 

Ja'cpb  Ben  Haj'im  or  Chajim,  a  Jewish  rabbi 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  distinguished  for  his  learning, 
was  born  at  Tunis.  He  edited  the  Masora  and  Hebrew 
Bible,  with  commentaries,  and  a  Chaldean  paraphrase, 
"Biblia  Rabbinica  ]-5ombergiana,'"  (4  vols.,  1525.) 

Ja'cpb  Ben  Naph'ta-li,  a  learned  Jewish  rabbi  of 
the  filih  century,  educated  at  Tiberias.  To  him  is  chiefly 


attributed  the  invention  of  the  Masoretic  points  used  in 
distinguishing  the  Hebrew  vowels. 

Jacob  de  Saint-Charles,  zht'kob'  deh  sJn  shtnl, 
(Louis,)  a  French  author  and  bibliographer,  born  at 
Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1608.  He  became  a  monk  of  the 
order  of  Carmelites.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Treatise 
upon  the  Finest  Libraries  of  the  World,"  (1644,)  "  The 
Parisian  Library,"  and  "The  French  Universal  Library," 
(1646.)    Died  in  1670. 

Jacob-Kolb,  zht'kob'  kolb,  (G^:rard,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  at  Rheims  in  1775.  He  made  valuable 
collections  of  Greek  and  Roman  medals,  autographs, 
and  books.  He  wrote  "  Historical  Researches  on  the 
Crusades  and  the  Templars."    Died  in  1830. 

Jacob  le  Bibliophile.    See  Lacroix,  (Paul.) 

Jacobaa  or  Jacobaea.    See  Jacqueline. 

Jacobaeus,  yi-ko-ba'us,  or  Jacobi,  y§.-ko'bee,  (Oli- 
GER,)  a  distinguished  physician  and  philosopher,  born 
at  Aarhuus,  in  Jutland,  in  1650,  became  professor  of 
medicine  and  natural  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Copenhagen.  He  wrote  several  works  on  natural 
history,  and  elegant  Latin  poems.    Died  in  1701. 

See  NicERON,  "Memoires;"  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "  Litteratur- 
lexicon." 

Jacobazzi,  yl-ko-blt'see,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian 
cardinal,  born  at  Rome  about  1443,  wrote  a  "Treatise 
on  Councils,"  (1538.)    Died  in  1527. 

Jacobi.    See  Jacobaeus. 

Jacobi,  yS.-ko'bee,  (Heinrich  Friedrich,)  an  emi- 
nent German  writer  and  thinker,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in 
1743.  His  father  was  a  merchant,  and  young  Jacobi 
was  destined  to  the  same  calling,  although  his  tastes  led 
him  to  other  pursuits.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was 
sent  to  school  at  Frankfort.  He  afterwards  went  to 
Geneva,  where  he  remained  three  years,  applying  him- 
self to  literary  studies.  During  this  period  he  acquired 
such  a  mastery  of  the  French  language  as  has  rarely 
been  equalled  by  any  of  his  countrymen.  On  returning 
to  Dusseldorf,  he  conducted  his  father's  business  for 
several  years,  without,  however,  abandoning  his  favourite 
pursuits.  Afterwards,  through  the  influence  of  his  friend 
and  patron  the  Count  of  Goltstein,  he  received  an  ap- 
pointment under  the  government,  and  was  thus  enabled 
to  devote  his  principal  attention  to  philosophy  and  lite- 
rature. About  this  time  he  married  Betty  von  Clermont, 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  a  lady  of  considerable  wealth  as  well 
as  of  great  accomplishments  and  personal  attractions. 
In  1779  Jacobi  was  invited  to  Munich,  where  he  became 
privy  councillor.  But,  having  exposed  the  abuses  of  the 
l^avarian  system  of  customs,  he  fell  into  disfavour  with 
the  government,  and  withdrew  to  his  estate  near  Dus- 
seldorf. In  1804  he  was  again  called  to  Munich,  to  aid 
in  the  establishment  of  the  new  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  that  city,  of  which  institution  he  became  president 
in  1807.  He  resigned  this  position  in  1813,  and  died 
in  1819. 

Among  the  works  of  Jacobi  may  be  named  "  Edward 
Allwill's  Correspondence,"  ("Eduard  Allwill's  Brief- 
sammlung,"  1781,)  "On  the  Doctrine  of  Spinoza," 
("  Ueber  die  Lehre  des  Spinoza,"  1785,)  in  a  series  of 
letters  to  Mendelssohn,  "  David  Hume  on  Faith,  or 
Idealism  and  Realism,"  ("  David  Hume  iiber  den  Glau- 
ben,  oder  Idealismus  und  Realismus,"  1787,)  "  Wolde- 
mar,"  (2  vols.,  1799,)  and  "Of  Divine  Things  and  .their 
Revelation,"  ("  Von  gottlichen  Dingen  und  ihrer  Offen- 
barung,"  1811.) 

"As  a  writer  of  fiction,"  observes  Mrs.  Austin,  "Ja- 
cobi is  distinguished  for  vigorous  painting,  admirable 
delineation  of  nature  and  the  human  heart,  M'armth  and 
depth  of  feeling,  and  a  lively,  bold,  yet  correct  turn  of 
expression.  As  a  philosopher,  he  is  admired  for  his 
rare  depth  of  thought,  for  the  fervour  of  his  religious 
feelings,  and  for  the  originality  and  beauty  of  his  style." 
Again  she  says,  "  His  character  is  rich  in  all  that  can 
attract  the  wise  and  good."  "Jacobi  is  ranked,  and 
justly,"  says  Dr.  Hedge,  "  among  the  philosophers  of 
modern  Germany,  although  his  philosophy,  far  from 
shaping  itself  into  a  system,  denies, — and  that  denial 
may  be  regarded  as  one  of  its  leading  characteristics, — 
on  philosophical  grounds,  the  possibility  of  a  system, 
and  maintains  that  any  system  of  philosophy,  carried  to 


a,  e,  T,  o  u,  y,  long-;       6,  same,  leas  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  a,    y,  sAorC;  g^j?,  j,  oi,  odscure;{ir,  fill,  f^t;  mht;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JACOBI 


JACQUELINE 


its  legitimate  results,  must  lead  to  fanaticism.  He  vin- 
dicated the  'affective'  part  of  man's  nature,  which  the 
Kantian  exaltation  of  pure  reason  had  seemed  to  dis- 
parage, at  least  to  neglect,  and  gave  to  feeling  its  due 
place  and  authority  as  a  medium  and  interpreter  of  truth. 
.  .  .  He  differed  from  contemporary  philosophers  in  being 
a  devout  believer  in  revelation, — in  the  Christian  revela- 
tion. The  gospel  was  to  him  the  test  and  criterion  of  all 
truth.  For  the  rest,  he  was  an  eclectic,  and  welcomed  light 
from  whatever  quarter  it  came.  In  philosophical  insight 
he  is  surpassed  by  none  ;  and,  though  his  fixed  idea  of 
the  impossibility  of  a  systematic  jjhilosophy  may  have 
somewhat  vitiated  his  view  of  existing  philosophies,  his 
criticisms  on  some  of  them  are  among  the  best  that 
have  been  essayed." 

See  J.  KuHN,  "Jacobi  und  die  Philosophie  seiner  Zeit,"  1834; 
"  F.  H.  Jacobi,  nach  seiiiem  Leben,  Lehren  und  Wirken,"  1819; 
F.  Hekbst,  "J.  G.  Hainann  ;  F.  H.  Jacobi,"  1830;  Eksch  und 
Gkubek,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Jacobi,  (JOHANN  Georg,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1740.  He  became  professor 
of  philosophy  and  eloquence  at  Halle,  and  in  1784 
professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Ffeiburg.  He  published 
a  collection  of  poems.    Died  in  1814. 

See  RoTTECK,  " Gedaclitnissrede  auf  Jacobi,"  1814;  Ersch  und 
Gkubek,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Jacobi,  (Karl  Gustav  Jakob,)  an  eminent  German 
mathematician,  born  at  Potsdam  in  1804,  became  in  1829 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Konigsberg.  He  wrote 
"  Foundations  of  the  New  Theory  of  Elliptical  Func- 
tions," (1829,)  and  "Canon  Arithmeticus,"  and  contrib- 
uted a  number  of  able  treatises  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  of  which  he  was  a  member.  Died  in  Berlin 
in  1S51. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Jacobi,  (MoRiTZ  Hermann,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  about  1790,  was  the  inventor  of  Galvanoplastic, 
(1840,)  on  which  he  published  a  treatise,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  electro-magnetism  to  the  moving  of  machinery. 

Ja'cobs,  [Ger.  pron.  ya'kops,](FRiEi)RiCH  Christian 
WiLHELM,)  an  eminent  German  scholar  and  writer,  born 
at  Gotha  in  1764.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  under  Jleyne 
in  1784,  and  in  1807  became  a  teacher  of  ancient  literature 
in  the  Lyceum  at  Munich,  and  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  of  that  city.  In  1810  he  was  appointed 
chief  librarian  and  director  of  the  cabinet  of  coins  at 
Gotha.  Among  his  numerous  critical  writings,  which 
are  distinguished  for  profound  learning  and  elegance  of 
style,  are  "Animadversions  on  Euripides,"  ("Animad- 
versiones  in  Euripidem,"  1790,)  "Critical  Emendations 
on  Ancient  Writers,"  ("  Emendationes  criticae  in  Scrip- 
tores  veteres,"  1796,)  and  "Emendations  on  Greek 
Anthology,"  ("Emendationes  in  Anthologiam  Grascam.") 
He  also  prepared  editions  of  Achilles  Tatius,  Bion  and 
Moschus,  and  other  classics.  He  made  translations  from 
the  Orations  of  Demosthenes,  the  Greek  Anthology,  and 
Velleius,  and  contributed  a  number  of  excellent  treatises 
to  Wieland's  "Attic  Museum"  and  to  the  "Library  of 
Ancient  Literature  and  Art."  He  also  wrote  "Glean- 
ings from  the  Journal  of  the  Pastor  of  Mainau,"  (1823.) 
Died  in  1847. 

See  his  Autobiography,  ("  Personalien,")  in  the  eighth  volume  of 
his  "  Verniischte  Schriften,"  8  vols.,  1829-44;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Jacobs,  yl'kops,  (Jurien,)  a  distinguished  Swiss 
painter  of  animals  and  hunting-scenes,  born  in  1610  ;  died 
in  1664. 

Jacobs,  (Lucas.)    See  Lucas  van  Leyden. 

Jacobs,  (Paul  Emil,)  a  German  painter,  son  of 
Friedrich  Christian  Wilhelm,  noticed  above,  was  born 
at  Leipsic  about  1800. 

Jacobs,  yl'kops,  (Simon,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Gouda,  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Haarlem  in  1572. 

Jacobsen,  yi'kop-sen,  (Levin,)  a  Danish  surgeon, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1783.  He  invented  an  instru- 
ment called  the  "lithoclaste,"  and  wrote  several  works. 
Died  in  1843. 

See  H.  C.  Oersted,  "Tale  ved  Jacobsens  Liigfard." 

Jacobsen  or  Jacopsen,  yi'kop-sen,  (Michael,)  a 
naval  commander,  born  at  Dunkirk.  He  served  in  the 
famous  Spanish  Armada  sent  against  England  in  1588, 


and,  by  his  skilful  management,  saved  several  vessels. 
Died  in  1633. 

Jacobson,  yi'kop-son,  (Johann  Karl  Gottfried,) 
a  Prussian  technologist,  born  at  Elbingen  in  1726,  pub- 
lished a  "Technological  Dictionary  of  Useful  Trades, 
Arts,"  etc.    Died  in  1789. 

Jacometti,  yi-ko-met'tee,  (Pietro  Paulo,)  a  sculp- 
tor, founder,  and  painter  of  the  Roman  school,  born  at 
Ricanati  in  1580;  died  in  1655. 

Jacomb,  jak'om, (Thomas,)  an  English  dissenting 
minister,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1622.  He  wrote  a 
"Commentary  on  the  Eighth  Chapter  of  Romans,"  a 
"  Treatise  of  Holy  Dedication,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1687. 

Jacopo  di  Pietro,  y3.'ko-po  de  pe-a'tRO,  an  Italiaa 
sculptor,  born  in  Tuscany,  was  a  pupil  of  Andrea  Or- 
cagna.    He  died  after  1368. 

Jacopo  Tedesco,  (architect.)    See  Lapo. 

Jacopone  da  Todi,  yi-ko-po'ni  dS  to'dee,  or  Ja- 
copo, yi'ko-po,  sometimes  called  Benedetto,  an  Italian 
monk  and  poet,  born  at  Todi.  He  wrote  poems  which 
were  approved  by  the  Academy  della  Crusca.  The 
"  Stabat  Mater  Dolorosa"  is  ascribed  to  him  by  some 
writers.    Died  in  1306. 

See  G.  MoDio,  "  Vita  di  Jacopone,"  1558 ;  Ginguene,  "  Histoire 
litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Jacopsen.    See  Jacobsen. 

Jacotin,  zht'ko'tiN',  (Pierre,)  a  French  ofificer  of 
engineers,  born  near  Langres  in  1765,  was  distinguished 
for  his  knowledge  of  topography.  He  drew  a  map  of 
Egypt  and  Syria  which  was  taken  from  actual  survey. 
Died  in  1827. 

Jacotot,  zht'ko'to',  (Joseph,)  a  French  teacher,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1770.  Under  Napoleon  I.  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Chamber  during  the  Hundred  Days.  He  gained 
distinction  by  his  earnest  efforts  in  the  cause  of  national 
education,  for  which  he  advocated  a  new  and  improved 
system  and  on  which  subject  he  wrote  several  works. 
Died  in  1840. 

See  A.  GuYARD,  "Jacotot  et  sa  Methode,"  1840;  C.  F.  Wurm, 
"  Hamilton -und  Jacotot,"  1831 ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Jacquand,  zht'kdN',  (Claudius,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  at  Lyons  in  1805,  settled  in  Paris  in  1833, 
and  obtained  a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1836. 

Jacquard,  zht'kSR',  (Joseph  Marie,)  a  Frenchman, 
celebrated  for  his  inventions  in  the  art  of  weaving,  was 
born  in  Lyons,  July  7,  1752.  At  an  early  age,  being 
employed  as  a  type-founder,  and  afterwards  as  a  cutler, 
he  exhibited  an  uncommon  mechanical  genius.  In  1793 
he  assisted  in  the  defence  of  his  native  city  against  the 
army  of  the  Convention.  He  subsequently  served  for  a 
short  period  in  the  army  of  the  Rhine.  In  1801  he  com- 
pleted his  great  invention  for  weaving  the  finest  and 
richest  kinds  of  figured  cloth.  This  apparatus,  which 
bears  his  name, — the  Jacquard  loom, — though  at  first 
strongly  opposed  by  the  weavers  of  France,  has  been 
brought  into  general  use  both  in  Europe  and  in  America, 
and,  instead  of  destroying  the  occupation  of  labourers,  it 
has  greatly  increased  the  number  of  operatives  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  figured  stuffs.  Jacquard  also  in- 
vented a  machine  for  weaving  nets.  For  this  invention 
he  received  a  gold  medal  in  1804  from  the  inspectors  of 
Paris.  While  in  that  city,  he  was  introduced  to  Napo- 
leon I.  Died  in  1834.  In  1840  a  public  statue  was 
raised  to  his  memory  by  the  citizens  of  Lyons. 

See  De  Fortis,  "  ^loge  historique  de  Jacquard,"  1838;  "  Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale  ;"  Lamartine,  "Memoirs  of  Celebrated 
Characters,"  1856. 

Jacquelin,  zhtk'liN',  (Jacques  Andr^;,)  a  French 
dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1776  ;  died  in  1827. 

Jacqueline,  zhtk'l^n',  Jac-o-bae'a  or  Jac-o-ba'a, 
[Ger.  pron.  yi-ko-ba'i,]  of  Bavaria,  Countess  of  Holland, 
and  heiress  of  William  VI.  of  Bavaria,  was  born  in  1400. 
She  was  married  successively  to  John  the  Dauphin  of 
France  and  son  of  Charles  VI.,  to  her  cousin  John  of 
Brabant,  and  to  Humphrey  Duke  of  Gloucester  and 
brother  of  Henry  V.  After  a  long  contest  with  her 
cousin  Philip  the  Good  of  Burgundy,  she  was  compelled 
to  give  up  to  him  her  possessions.    Died  in  1436. 

See  Petit,  "  Chronique  ancienne  et  moderne  de  la  Hollande 
A.  VAN  Overstraten,  "  Jacoba  van  Beijeren,  in  V.  Boeken,"  1790; 
MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as J;  g,  h,  y., guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JACQUELOT 


58 


JAL 


Jacquelot  or  Jaquelot,  zh^k^lo',  (Isaac,)  a  learned 
Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Champagne,  France,  in 
1647.  He  wrote  "On  the  Existence  of  God,"  (1697,) 
a  "Dissertation  on  the  Messiah,"  (1699,)  and  on  "The 
Inspiration  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,"  (171 5.) 
Died  in  Berlin  in  1708. 

See  David  Durand,  "La  Vie  de  Jaquelot,"  1785;  Niceron, 
"  Memoires." 

Jacquemard,  zhtk'nitR',  (Etienne,)  a  grammarian, 
born  in  Paris  in  1772,  wrote  a  valuable  "Elements  of 
French  Grammar."    Died  in  1830. 

Jacquemont,  zhtk'm6N',  (Victor,)  a  distinguished 
naturalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  After  making  scientific 
excursions  through  France  and  Switzerland,  he  sailed 
in  1826  for  America,  and  visited  Canada,  the  United 
States,  and  Hayti.  He  returned  to  France  in  1827,  with 
a  choice  collection  of  plants  and  minerals.  In  1828  he 
went  to  the  East  Indies,  and  explored  the  greater  part  of 
Hindostan  and  Thibet.  He  was  author  of  a  "  Geological 
Treatise  on  the  Alps,"  "Correspondenceof  Victor  Jacque- 
mont with  his  Family  and  many  of  his  Friends  during  his 
Journey  in  India,"  and  "Travels  in  India  from  the  Year 
1828  to  the  Year  1832."    Died  at  Bombay  in  1832. 

See  fioouAKD  de  Warren,  "  La  Vie  et  les  CEuvres  de  Jacque- 
mont," 1852;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "Foreign  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  February,  1S34. 

Jacques,  zhtk,  (Am^d^e,)  born  in  Paris  in  1813, 
wrote  several  works  on  philosophy,  and  edited  the 
works  of  Leibnitz. 

Jacques,  Frere.    See  Baulot. 

Jacques,  (Mathieu  Joseph,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
and  professor  of  theology  at  Lyons,  was  born  in  1736. 
He  wrote  "  Convincing  Proofs  of  the  Christian  Religion," 
and  other  theological  works.    Died  in  1821. 

Jacques,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  miniature-painter,  born 
near  Nancy  in  1780;  died  in  1844. 

Jacques  de  Chison,  zhtk  deh  she'zoN',  a  French 
poet,  who  lived  about  1250,  was  highly  esteemed  by  his 
contemporaries. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Jacquet,  zht'ka',  (Eugene  Vincent  Stanislas,)  a 
distinguished  Orientalist,  born  at  Brussels  in  1811,  was 
particularly  skilled  in  the  Sanscrit.  In  1829  he  was 
admitted  a  member  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Paris,  and 
soon  became  known  by  his  writings.    Died  in  1838. 

See  Felix  Neve,  "Memoire  sur  la  Vie  d'Eug^ne  Jacquet,"  1856 ; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Jacquet,  (Louis,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1732,  wrote  a  "  Parallel  between  the  Greek  and  French 
Tragic  Writers,"  and  a  prize  essay  upon  the  Discovery 
of  America.    Died  in  1794. 

Jacquier,  zht'ke-a',  (Francois,)  a  distinguished 
French  mathematician,  born  at  Vitry-le-Frangais  in  1711, 
was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  Roman 
College  by  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  He  edited  the  "  Prin- 
cipia"  of  Newton,  and  wrote,  with  Le  Sueur,  a  "  Treatise 
on  Algebra,"  and  other  scientific  works.    Died  in  1788. 

See  Querard,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Jacquin,  zht'kiN',  (Armand  Pierre,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Amiens  in  1721  ;  died  about  1780. 

Jacquin,  zht'k^N',?  (Joseph  Franz,)  a  German  bota- 
nist and  chemist,  son  of  Nikolaas  Joseph,  noticed  below, 
was  born  about  1766.  He  was  professor  in  the  University 
of  Vienna,  and  wrote  on  natural  history.   Died  in  1839. 

Jacquin,  (Nikolaas  Joseph,)  a  celebrated  botanist, 
born  at  Leyden  in  1727.  Having  removed  to  Vienna, 
he  was  sent  by  Francis  I.  to  the  West  Indies,  whence  he 
returned  at  the  end  of  six  years,  with  a  choice  collection 
of  plants.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  professor 
of  chemistry  and  botany  in  the  University  of  Vienna, 
and  created  baron  and  councillor  of  mines  and  coinage. 
He  wrote  numerous  works  on  botany,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  his  magnificent"  Florae  AustriactC,"  which 
contained  five  hundred  coloured  engravings,  (1773-77.) 
Died  in  Vienna  in  1817. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeiiie  Encyklopaedie ;"  Meiisel, 
"Gelehrtes  Deutschland  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  Rai- 
MANN,  "Rede  zur  Gedachtnissfeier  des  N.  J.  Jacquin,"  1818. 

Jacquinot,  zht'ke^io',  (Charles  Claude,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Melun  in  1772,  commanded  two  divisions 
of  cavalry  at  Waterloo.    Died  in  1848. 


Jacquinot- Pampelune,  zht'ke'no'  pfiMp'lun', 
(Claude  FRANgois  Joseph,)  a  French  advocate  and 
politician,  born  at  Dijon  in  1771  ;  died  in  1835. 

Jacquet,  zht^ko',  (Georges,)  a  French  statuary,  born 
at  Nancy  in  1794,  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1820,  and 
went  to  Rome  with  a  pension. 

Jadelot,  zhtd'lo',  (Nicolas,)  a  learned  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Pont-a-Mousson  in  1738,  became  professor 
of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  Nancy.  He  wrote  nume- 
rous professional  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Treatise 
upon  the  Causes  of  the  Pulsation  of  the  Arteries,"  and 
a  "Complete  Course  of  Anatomy."    Died  in  1793. 

Jadin,  zhS^diw',  (Louis  Emmanuel,)  a  French  com- 
poser of  dramatic  music,  born  at  Versailles  in  1768;  died 
in  1853. 

Jadin,  (Louis  Godefroy,)  a  French  landscape-painter, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1805. 

Jadwige.    See  Hedwig. 

Jaeger.    See  Jager. 

Jaerta,  (Johan  or  Hans.)    See  Jarta. 

Jagellon,  yS-geKlon,  Duke  of  Lithuania,  born  about 
1354.  He  embraced  Christianity,  and  married  Hedwig, 
Queen  of  Poland,  thus  uniting  the  two  territories  under 
one  government.  He  also  caused  Christianity  to  be; 
established  in  Lithuania.    Died  in  1434. 

See  Roepell,  "  Geschichtc  Polens." 

Jagemann,  yi'geh-man',  (Christian  Joseph,)  a  Ger- 
man litterateur,  born  at  Dingelstadt  in  1735,  spent  many 
years  in  Italy.  He  translated  several  Italian  works  into 
German.    Died  in  1804. 

Jager  or  Jaeger,  ya'ger,  (Gustav,)  a  German  histor- 
ical painter,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1808,  painted  some  frescos 
in  the  royal  palace  of  Munich.  His  works  (among 
which  are  oil-paintings)  are  highly  commended. 

Jager  or  Jaeger,  (Johann  Wolfgang,)  a  German 
Lutheran  divine  and  theological  writer,  born  at  Stuttgart 
in  1647  ;  died  in  1720. 

Ja'go,  (Richard,)  an  English  clergyman  and  poet, 
born  in  Warwickshire  in  1 71 5.  Among  his  poems  may 
be  mentioned  an  "Elegy  on  the  Death  of  a  Blackbird," 
"Edgehill,"  and  "Labour  and  Genius."    Died  in  1781. 

Jahan-Geer  or  Jahanguire.    See  Jehan-Geer. 

Jahn,  yi.n,  (Ferdinand  Hendrik,)  a  Danish  histo- 
rian, born  at  Neumiinster  in  1789.  He  wrote  on  Danish 
history.    Died  in  1828. 

Jahn,  ySn,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  at  Meiningen  in  1766;  died  in  1813. 

Jahn,  (Friedrich  Ludwig,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Lanz  in  1778,  published  several  treatises  on  gym- 
nastics, an  essay  "On  German  Nationality,"  (1810,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1852. 

Jahn,  (Johann,)  a  German  Orientalist  and  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  born  in  Moravia  in  1750.  He  was 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Vienna  from  1789  to 
1806.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  an  "Introduction 
to  the  Old  Testament,"  (1793,)  and  "  Biblical  Antiquities," 
(1805,)  both  of  which  were  censured  as  unsound  and  put 
in  the  "Index"  by  the  court  of  Rome.    Died  in  1816. 

See  "Vindiciae  J.  Jahn,"  Leipsic,  1822;  Ersch  und  Gruber, 
"  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;" 
Meusel,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland,"  vols,  iii.,  x.,  xi.,  xiv.,  and  xviii. 

Jahn,  (Otto,)  a  German  archaeologist,  born  at  Kiel 
in  1813.  He  became  professor  of  ])hilology  at  Leipsic 
in  1847,  and  published  a  "Life  of  Mozart,"  (1856,)  and 
other  works. 

Jaillot,  zht'yo',  (Charles  Hubert,)  a  French  geog- 
rapher and  engraver,  published  some  accurate  maps  of 
France.    Died  in  1712. 

Jaillot,  (Jean  Baptiste  Renou,)  a  French  geogra- 
pher, published  "  Researches  in  the  City  of  Paris,"  (5 
vols.,  1772.)    Died  in  1780. 

Jaime.    See  James  I.  of  Aragon. 

Jaina  and  Jains.    See  Jina. 

Jakob,  von,  fon  yd'kop,  (Ludwig  Heinrich,)  a 
learned  German  writer,  born  at  Wettin  in  1759,  became 
professor  of  political  economy  at  Halle  in  1816.  He 
published  a  "Manual  of  National  Economy,"  (1805.) 
and  other  esteemed  works.    Died  in  1827. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Jal,  zhSl,  (Auguste,)  a  French  litterateur  and  archae- 
ologist, was  born  at  Lyons  about  1791.    He  published, 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  J,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y, 


short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


JALABERT  12 


59 


JAMES 


besides  criticisms  on  art,  "  De  Paris  a  Naples  ;  Etudes 
de  Mceurs,  de  Marine  et  d'Art,"  (2  vols.,  1835,)  and 
Archeologie  navale,"  (2  vols.,  1839.)  The  latter  is  an 
important  work  on  ancient  ship-building,  published  by 
order  of  the  king. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Jalabert,  zht'lfbain',  (Charles  FRANgois,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  at  Nimes  about  1815,  obtained  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  in  1855. 

Jalal-ed-Deen,  (or  -eddin.)    See  Jelal-ed-Deen. 

Jaley,  zht'Ia',  (Jean  Louis  Nicolas,)  a  skilful  French 
statuary,  born  in  Paris  in  1802.  Among  his  works  are 
statues  of  "La  Pudeur"  and^"La  Priere,"  (1855.) 

Jallabert,  zht^lt^baiR',  (Etienne,)  a  French  natural 
philosopher  and  writer,  born  in  1658  ;  died  in  1724. 

Jallabert,  (Jean,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Geneva  in  1712,  filled  the  office  of  syndic  of  the  repub- 
lic. He  wrote  "Experiments  upon  Electricity,"  (1748,) 
and  several  other  scientific  works.    Died  in  1768. 

See  Desgenettes,  notice  in  the  "  Biographic  Medicale;"  "Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Jam'bli-ehus,  a  native  of  Syria,  who  was  enslaved 
by  the  Romans  under  Trajan,  flourished  in  the  second 
century.  He  subsequently  obtained  his  liberty,  and 
wrote  a  romance,  in  Greek,  entitled  "Babylonics,  or 
the  Loves  of  Sinonis  and  Rhodanes." 

Jamblichus  or  Jamblicus,  a  Platonic  philosopher, 
and  native  of  Syria.  He  flourished  under  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Julian,  who  dedicated  numerous  epistles  to  him. 

Jam'bli-ehus  or  I-ani'bli-ehus  •Chal-ci-de'nus, 
[Gr.  'lu/ujSXtxo^ ;  Fr.  Jamblique,  zhdN^bl^k',]  an  eminent 
heathen  philosopher,  born  at  Chalcis,  in  Syria,  flourished 
in  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great,  (306-37  a.d.)  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Porphyry,  and  was  attached  to  the  Neo- 
Platonic  school.  Many  of  the  Neo-Platonists  encouraged 
a  life  of  ascetic  meditation  and  a  belief  in  magic  and 
divination.  Their  system  was  built  on  the  doctrine 
of  emanation, — that  the  souls  of  all  beings,  after  the 
requisite  purification,  return  to  the  Source  from  which 
they  emanated.  Jamblichus  wrote  a  "Life  of  Pythago- 
ras," a  treatise  on  the  "  Mysteries  of  the  Egyptians," 
and  several  other  works.  To  his  influence  is  ascribed 
the  prevalence  of  magic,  sacrifices,  and  superstition  in 
the  Neo-Platonic  philosophy. 

See  EuNAPius,  "  Vitae  Sophistariim  ;"  Ritter,  "History  of  Phi- 
losophy ;"  Fabkicius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca ;"  Hebenstreit,  "Dis- 
sertatio  de  Jamblichi  Doctrina,"  1764. 

Jamblicus.  See  Jamhlichus. 
Jamblique.    See  Jamblichus. 

J^mee,  J^mi,  or  Djami,  j^'mee,  (Moolla-Noor- 
ed-Deen-  (Nour-ed-Din-)  Abd-er-Rahman,  nioc)Kli 
nooR-ed-deen'  ibd  eR-r^H'min,)  written  also  Djamy 
and  Dschami,  a  celebrated  Persian  poet,  born  at  Jam,  (or 
Djam,)  in  Khorassan,  in  1414,  lived  at  Herat,  where  he 
enjoyed  the  bounty  of  the  Sultan  Aboo-Saeed,  (Abou- 
Said.)  Among  his  principal  works  are  "The  Chain 
of  Gold,"  (SiKsilet-zah'ab  or  -zeh'eb,)  a  collection  of 
satires,  and  "  The  Loves  of  Joseph  and  Zuleika,  and  Mej- 
noon  and  Leila."  He  also  wrote  "  Beharistan,"  ("  Abode 
of  Spring,")  a  treatise  on  morality,  in  prose  and  verse, 
which  is  admired  for  its  graceful  style  as  well  as  for  its 
sentiments.  Jamee  has  sometimes  been  called  "  the  Per- 
sian Petrarch."  He  was  devoted  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
Soofees ;  and  many  of  his  poems  are  characterized  by 
the  spiritual  or  mystical  ideas  of  that  sect.  Died  in  1492. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale,"  article  "  Djami ;"  Ouselev, 
"  Biographical  Notices  of  Persian  Poets  ;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for 
November,  1856. 

Jameray-Duval.    See  Duval. 

James  [Sp.  Jaime,  Hl'mi]  I.,  King  of  Aragon,  sur- 
named  the  Conqueror,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in 
1213.  He  quelled  an  insurrection  formed  against  him 
by  his  nobles,  and  checked  the  encroachments  of  papal 
power.  Died  in  1276.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Pedro  HI. 

See  T.  de  Soto,  "  Vida  del  Rey  Don  Jaime  I.  de  Aragon,"  1622. 

James  II.,  King  of  Aragon,  surnamed  the  Just, 
son  of  Peter  HL,  was  born  in  1261.  He  ascended  the 
throne  in  1291.  He  annexed  Catalonia  and  Valencia  to 
his  territory,  and  carried  on  long  wars  against  Navarre 
and  the  Moors.  He  was  a  brave,  magnanimous,  and 
benevolent  prince.    Died  in  1327. 


James  I.  of  England  and  VI.  of  Scotland  was  born  in 
the  Castle  of  Edinburgh  in  June,  1566.  He  was  the  only 
child  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  and  her  husband  Henry 
Lord  Darnley,  (called,  after  his  marriage.  King  Henry.) 
Both  Queen  Mary  and  Lord  Darnley  were  grandchildren 
of  Margaret  Tudor,  sister  of  Henry  VIII.  of  England. 
It  was  through  this  princess  that  James  claimed  the 
throne  of  England.  In  1567  Lord  Darnley  was  mur- 
dered, James  was  placed  under  the  care  of  the  Earl  of 
Mar,  and  Queen  Mary  married  Bothwell,  and  was  soon 
after  made  prisoner  by  the  insurgent  lords.  Mary  was 
forced  to  abdicate  in  favour  of  her  son,  who  was  crowned, 
as  James  VI.,  on  the  29th  of  July,  1567.  During  his 
minority  Scotland  was  fearfully  rent  by  contending 
factions  and  the  violent  disputes  of  the  Protestants  and 
Catholics.  The  regent  Morton  having  rendered  himself 
odious  by  his  tyrannical  acts,  a  successful  conspiracy 
was  formed  against  him  by  a  majority  of  the  Scottish 
nobles.  Morton,  however,  on  account  of  his  Protestant 
proclivities,  soon  regained  his  former  influence.  James 
from  the  commencement  of  his  reign  exhibited  a  weak 
and  frivolous  passion  for  favourites.  His  cousin  Esme 
Stuart,  Lord  D'Aubigny,  a  native  of  France,  obtained 
the  principal  ascendency  over  his  youthful  mind.  Cap- 
tain James  Stuart  held  the  second  place  in  the  king's 
esteem.  Lord  D'Aubigny  was  created  Duke  of  Lennox, 
and  Captain  Stuart  Earl  of  Arran.  Both  eagerly  plotted 
the  destruction  of  Morton,  who  was  put  to  death  in 
1 581.  In  1582  a  company  of  nobles  seized  King  James, 
confined  him  in  the  castle  of  Ruthven,  in  Perthshire,  im- 
prisoned Arran,  and  forced  Lennox  to  retire  to  France. 
This  revolt  is  known  in  history  as  the  Raid  of  Ruthven. 
At  the  expiration  of  ten  months,  James  recovered  his 
liberty  and  reinstated  Arran  in  his  former  power.  In 
1585  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  English  and 
Scottish  sovereigns.  Elizabeth  conferred  upon  James 
an  annual  pension  of  five  thousand  pounds,  and  through 
her  influence  deprived  the  Earl  of  Arran  of  all  emolu- 
ments. In  1586  James  formed  another  treaty  with  Eng- 
land, offensive  and  defensive,  for  the  protection  of  the 
Protestant  religion.  In  1587  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  was 
executed.  James  at  first  appeared  insulted  and  enraged  ; 
he  threatened  to  invade  the  dominions  of  Elizabeth; 
but,  feeling  more  interested  for  the  inheritance  of  the 
crown  of  England  than  for  his  honour  or  for  filial  duty, 
he  was  soon  pacified.  In  1589  he  married  Anne,  daugh- 
ter of  the  King  of  Denmark.  In  1594  he  quelled  a 
rebellion  of  the  Catholic  lords.  Bothwell  also,  having 
taken  part  in  this  revolt,  was  obliged  to  fly  from  the 
country,  to  which  he  never  returned.  James  was  an 
earnest  advocate  of  Episcopacy,  and  made  strenuous 
efforts  to  establish  it  in  his  dominions,  in  opposition  to 
the  wishes  of  the  people.  On  this  account  a  tumult 
was  raised  in  Edinburgh  in  1596,  from  which  his  life 
appeared  to  be  in  imminent  danger.  But  James,  ex- 
hibiting for  him  an  unusual  share  of  spirit  and  energy, 
dexterously  turned  this  to  his  own  advantage.  In  1600 
he  was  decoyed  to  the  castle  of  the  Earl  of  Gowrie, 
where  Ruthven,  brother  of  the  earl,  made  an  attempt 
on  the  king's  life,  on  which  occasion  both  the  noblemen 
were  slain.  The  Gowrie  Conspiracy  has  always  been 
veiled  in  mystery, — no  historian  having  yet  unravelled  it. 

On  the  death  of  Elizabeth,  in  1603,  James  became 
King  of  England.  He  displeased  his  new  subjects  by 
the  prodigality  of  his  gifts  to  his  Scottish  favourites.  He 
continued  the  foreign  policy  of  Elizabeth  by  concluding 
a  treaty  with  Henry  IV.  of  France  for  assisting  Holland 
against  Spain.  In  1605,  chiefly  through  King  James's 
penetration,  the  Gunpowder  Plot  was  discovered.  (See 
Fawkes,  Guy.)  The  year  1612  was  marked  by  the  death 
of  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales,  who  by  his  manly  and  noble 
qualities  had  been  far  more  successful  than  his  father  in 
winning  the  affections  of  the  English  people.  In  1613, 
James's  daughter,  the  princess  Elizalieth,  was  married 
to  Frederick,  the  Elector-Palatine.  Among  the  king's 
favourites  were  successively  Sir  George  Hume,  Philip 
Herbert,  Earl  of  Montgomery,  and  Robert  Carr  or 
Ker,  a  young  Scotchman  who  by  his  handsome  person 
monopolized  the  royal  favour.  He  was  created  Earl 
of  Somerset.  In  1615  Carr  was  tried  and  convicted  on 
a  charge  of  poisoning  his  friend  Sir  Thomas  Overbury. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as /;  g,  H,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2(^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JAMES 


z6q 


JAMES 


This  made  room  for  a  new  favourite,  named  Villiers,  who 
was  created  Duke  of  Buckingham,  and  who  retained 
his  influence  over  the  king  during  the  remainder  of  the 
reign.  In  1617  James  visited  Scotland,  where  he  was 
very  zealous  in  introducing  episcopal  forms  into  the 
Established  Church.  In  16 18  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was 
executed  on  the  pretended  charge  of  conspiracy,  but  in 
fact  to  conciliate  the  court  of  Spain.  The  public  con- 
tempt which  this  excited  against  James  was  increased 
by  his  behaviour  towards  the  Elector-Palatine,  whom 
the  Bohemians  had  chosen  as  their  king,  and  who  was 
attacked  by  the  united  forces  of  Austria  and  Spain. 
James  pusillanimously  refused  to  give  his  son-in-law 
any  assistance  or  encouragement.  Erederick  had  been 
the  Protestant  champion  of  Europe,  and  the  people  of 
Britain  hesitated  not  to  express  their  grief  and  rage. 
During  a  long  period  James  had  wished  to  form  a  Span- 
ish alliance  for  Prince  Charles;  and  he  now  hastened 
the  negotiations.  This  alliance  was,  however,  broken 
off  through  the  rashness  and  insolence  of  Buckingham. 
Finally,  in  1624,  war  was  declared  against  Spain,  and 
an  army  was  fitted  out  to  assist  the  Elector.  Owing  to 
pestilence  and  mismanagement,  this  army  never  entered 
the  Palatinate,  which  remained  in  the  possession  of  the 
Duke  of  Bavaria.  James  died  in  March,  1625,  after  a 
reign  of  nearly  fifty-eight  years,  during  twenty-two  of 
which  he  sat  on  the  throne  of  England.  He  had  seven 
children  by  his  queen,  Anne  of  Denmark,  of  whom  only 
Prince  Charles  and  the  Princess  Elizabeth  survived  him. 

" No  prince,"  says  Hume,  "so  little  enterprising  and 
so  inoffensive,  was  ever  so  much  exposed  to  the  opposite 
extremes  of  calumny  and  flattery,  of  satire  and  panegyric, 
.  .  .  Many  virtues,  it  must  be  owned,  he  was  possessed 
of;  but  scarce  any  of  them  pure  or  free  from  the  conta- 
gion of  the  neighbouring  vices.  His  generosity  bordered 
on  profusion,  his  learning  on  pedantry,  his  pacific  dis- 
position on  pusillanimity,  his  wisdom  on  cunning,  his 
friendship  on  light  fancy  and  boyish  fondness."  (Hume's 
"  History  of  England,"  chapter  xlix.  Respecting  the 
character  of  James,  see,  also,  Gardner's  "  History," 
referred  to  below,  vol.  i.  chap.  ii.  pp.  55-57.)  James  was 
the  author  of  numerous  works,  which  displayed  con- 
siderable learning  and  no  little  pedantry  ;  but  the  most 
important  of  his  labours  was  the  supervision  of  the 
present  translation  of  the  Bible,  which  will  remain  as  a 
lasting  monument  of  his  industry  and  munificence.  The 
translation  was  not  only  made  under  his  innnediate 
superintendence,  but  the  excellent  rules  by  which  the 
translators  were  governed  were  drawn  up  by  James  him- 
self Among  his  works  we  may  cite  "Basilicon  Doron, 
or  his  Majesties  Instructions  to  his  Dearest  Son,  Henry 
the  Prince,"  "The  Essays  of  a  Prentice  in  the  Divine 
Art  of  Poesy,"  "  The  True  Law  of  Free  Monarchies," 
"  Dsemonology,"  and  "A  Counterblast  to  Tobacco." 

See  Arthur  Wilson,  "  Life  and  Reign  of  King  James  I.,"  1653 ; 
W.  Harris,  "  Life  of  James  L,"  1753 ;  Robertson,  "  History  of  Scot- 
land ;"  "Secret  Histories  of  the  Court  of  James  L,"  by  Osboknii, 
Weldon,  and  Sir  E.  Peyton,  with  notes  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  2 
vols.,  1811 ;  Gardiner,  "  History  of  England  from  tlie  Accession  of 
James  L  to  the  Disgrace  of  Chief-Justice  Coke,"  London,  1863. 

James  II.  of  England  and  VII.  of  Scotland,  son  of 
Charles  I.,  and  younger  brother  of  Charles  II.,  was  born 
at  Saint  James's,  London,  in  1633,  and  soon  after  was 
created  Duke  of  York.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Parliamentarians  in  1646.  In  1648  he  escaped  to  Hol- 
land, and  went  to  Paris,  where  he  remained  nearly  four 
years.  Having  received  a  commission  in  the  French 
army,  he  served  under  Marshal  Turenne  until  the  peace 
concluded  between  Cromwell  and  the  French  obliged 
him  to  leave  the  kingdom.  At  the  restoration,  in  1660, 
James  accompanied  his  brother  to  England,  where  he 
received  the  appointments  of  lord  high  admiral  and  lord 
warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports.  The  same  year  he  married 
Anne,  daughter  of'Chancellor  Hyde.  In  1664  the  Duke 
of  York  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  war  with  Hol- 
land. He  took  command  of  the  fleet,  and  in  June,  1665, 
gained  an  important  victory  over  the  Dutch.  In  1671 
the  Duchess  of  York  died,  and  James  avowed  himself  a 
Roman  Catholic.  In  1672  war  was  renewed  against  Hol- 
land, and  James,  as  lord  admiral,  assumed  the  command 
of  the  navy.  In  1673  the  Test  Act  was  passed  against 
Catholics  and  dissenters.    By  it  the  Duke  of  York  was 


compelled  to  resign  the  command  of  the  navy,  and  all 
other  offices  which  he  held  under  government.  The  same 
year  he  married  Maria  Beatrice  Eleonora,  daughter  of 
the  Duke  of  Modena.  In  1677,  greatly  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  English  nation,  Mary,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
York,  was  married  to  her  cousin  William,  Prince  of 
Orange,  who  was  a  Protestant. 

In  1679,  during  the  commotions  of  the  Oates  Popish 
Plot,  James  retired  to  the  continent.  In  his  absence 
a  bill  for  excluding  him  from  the  throne  was  brought 
before  the  Parliament.  It  was  passed  by  the  Commons, 
but  was  rejected  by  the  Lords.  Upon  the  death  of  King 
Charles,  in  1685,  James  ascended  the  throne  unopposed, 
and  promised  to  maintain  and  defend  the  Established 
Church.  He  summoned  a  Parliament,  which  voted  him 
all  the  revenues  his  brother  had  enjoyed.  Having  de- 
clare<l  his  intention  of  continuing  the  alliance  formed 
by  Charles  with  France,  he  received  from  Louis  XIV. 
500,000  livres.  Strong  suspicions  were  soon  excited 
against  the  king  by  his  arbitrary  measures.  It  became  too 
manifest  that  he  only  intended  to  keep  his  promises  until 
he  could  break  them  with  safety.  He  sent  an  agent  to 
Rome  to  promote  the  restoration  of  Roman  Catholicism 
in  England  ;  he  publicly  attended  the  illegal  celebration 
of  the  mass,  and  laboured  earnestly  for  the  repeal  of 
the  Test  Act.  The  blindness  of  his  zeal  was  so  apparent 
that  even  the  pope  advised  him  to  exercise  more  caution. 
In  June,  1685,  England  was  invaded  by  the  Duke  of 
Monmouth,  a  natural  son  of  Charles  II.  Monmouth 
was  totally  defeated  at  Sedgemoor  on  the  5th  of  July, 
was  captured  two  days  after,  and  executed.  James  now 
exhibited  his  true  character.  Colonel  Kirke  and  the  in- 
famous Judge  Jeffreys  were  sent  to  the  western  counties, 
which  had  been  the  principal  scene  of  Monmouth's  insur- 
rection, and,  by  the  king's  express  authority,  perpetrated 
a  series  of  butcheries.  Men  were  shot  and  hung  with- 
out the  form  of  trial,  and  women  were  burned  at  the 
stake  for  sheltering  fugitives.  In  opposition  to  law,  he 
admitted  Catholics  to  the  highest  rank  in  the  army  and 
the  navy.  Protestants  holding  high  offices  of  state  were 
discharged,  and  a  court  resembling  that  of  the  high  com- 
mission under  Charles  I.  was  established.  Episcopal 
dioceses  were  given  to  professed  Catholics,  and  the  Prot- 
estant clergy  were  driven  from  the  colleges  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  to  make  room  for  foreign  priests.  In  June, 
1688,  the  queen  gave  birth  to  a  son,  who  was  suspected 
to  be  spurious.  Previous  to  this  period,  Mary,  Princess 
of  Orange,  had  been  regarded  as  the  heir-apparent  to 
the  crown,  and  the  English  people  had  hoped  that  at 
length  they  would  again  be  governed  by  a  Protestant 
sovereign.  These  hopes  being  now  blighted,  they  ap- 
plied to  the  Prince  of  Orange  for  assistance  in  an  efibrt 
to  depose  the  king.  He  was  prepared  to  accept  the  in- 
vitation which  they  sent  him  ;  and  in  November,  1688, 
he  landed  in  Devonshire,  with  about  fourteen  thousand 
men.  The  king,  deserted  by  the  nobility,  the  gentry, 
the  army,  his  friends,  and  his  servants,  quitted  the  island 
in  December,  and  fled  to  France,  where  he  was  kindly 
received  by  Louis  XIV.  Soon  after,  the  Prince  and 
Princess  of  Orange  were  crowned,  as  King  William  III. 
and  Queen  Mary.  In  1689  James  landed  in  Ireland  with 
a  small  force  given  him  by  Louis.  He  besieged  London- 
derry, which  he  was  unable  to  take.  On  the  1st  of  July, 
1690,  King  William,  who  commanded  in  person,  totally 
defeated  James's  army  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  and 
firmly  established  his  own  power.  James  soon  returned 
to  France,  and  resided  at  Saint  Germain's  until  his  death, 
which  occurred  in  September,  1701.  As  a  king,  he  was 
brave,  determined,  energetic.  He  did  much  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  British  navy;  he  was  industrious,  and 
frugal  of  the  public  money.  But  he  was  implacable  in 
revenge,  and  his  blind  bigotry  cost  him  three  kingdoms. 
James  had  by  his  first  wife,  Anne  Hyde,  eight  children, 
of  whom  only  Queen  Mary  and  the  Princess  Anne  sur- 
vived him.  By  his  second  wife,  Mary  of  Modena,  he 
had  six  children,  two  of  whom  outlived  him.  He  also 
had  four  children  by  Arabella  Churchill,  a  sister  of  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  and  one  by  Catherine  Sedley. 

See  David  Jones,  "Life  of  James  IL,"  1702;  J.  S.  Clarke, 
"  Life  of  James  IL,  King  of  England,"  2  vols.,  1816;  Burnet,  "^His- 
tory of  liis  Own  Times;"  Macaulav,  "  History  of  England;"  C. 
J.  Fox,  "  History  of  the  Early  Part  of  the  Reign  of  James  IL,"  1808. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^lt;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


JAMES 


JAMES 


James  I.,  King  of  Scotland,  of  the  house  of  Stuart, 
and  son  of  Robert  III.,  was  born  about  1394.  In  1405 
his  father  sent  him  to  France,  in  order  that  he  might 
escape  the  intrigues  of  the  Duke  of  Albany  ;  but  he  was 
seized  by  a  British  fleet,  carried  as  prisoner  to  Lon- 
don, and  thrown  into  the  Tower,  whence,  after  remaining 
thefe  more  than  two  years,  he  was  taken  to  Windsor. 
In  141 7,  when  King  Henry  V.  invaded  France,  James  was 
obliged  to  accompany  him.  In  1424,  after  a  captivity  of 
nineteen  years,  he  w'as  released  and  restored  to  his  king- 
dom. W  hile  the  young  king  was  in  England,  Henry  V. 
had  given  him  a  good  education  ;  and,  upon  his  acces- 
sion to  power,  James  commenced  with  energy  and  firm- 
ness to  reform  the  laws  and  customs  of  Scotland.  During 
his  captivity  Scotland  had  been  governed  successively  by 
the  two  Dukes  of  Albany  as  regents,  who  had  increased 
their  own  power  and  that  of  the  feudal  lords,  to  the 
detriment  of  the  royal  authority.  On  the  recovery  of  his 
kingdom  he  resolved  to  check  with  a  strong  hand  the 
arrogance  and  lawlessness  of  the  nobles.  He  seized  his 
cousin  Murdo,  Duke  of  Albany,  his  sons,  the  Earls  of 
Douglas,  Lennox,  Angus,  and  many  other  peers  and 
barons.  All  were  reconciled  to  the  king  except  the  Duke 
of  Albany,  his  sons,  and  the  Earl  of  Lennox,  who  were 
tried  and  executed.  This  blow  struck  terror  i.nto  the  order 
of  nobles.  The  king  continued  to  conduct  his  reforms 
with  ability  and  prudence.  One  part  of  his  policy  was 
to  raise  the  ecclesiastical  power  in  order  to  balance  that 
of  the  barons.  James  had  married  Joanna  Beaufort,  a 
lady  of  the  blood-royal  of  England.  Although  the  earls 
at  first  received  the  innovations  of  the  king  in  a  si>irit 
of  submission,  they  at  length,  perceiving  the  rapid  decline 
of  their  authority,  formed  a  conspiracy  against  him,  and 
assassinated  him  in  1437.  James  had  the  reputation  of 
being  one  of  the  most  accomplished  princes  of  his  day. 
He  produced  several  poetical  pieces  and  songs,  which 
were  greatly  admired,  and  in  which  much  literary  taste 
was  displayed.  There  yet  remains  his  "Kings  Quhair." 
Robertson  justly  remarks  that  "it  was  the  misfortune  of 
James  that  his  maxims  and  manners  were  too  refined  for 
the  age  in  which  he  lived.  Happy  had  he  reigned  in  a 
kingdom  more  civilized.  His  love  of  peace,  of  justice, 
and  of  elegance  would  have  rendered  his  schemes  suc- 
cessful ;  and,  instead  of  perishing  because  he  attempted 
too  much,  a  grateful  people  would  have  applauded  and 
seconded  his  efforts  to  reform  and  improve  them." 

See  Buchanan,  "Rerum  Scoticarum  Historia  ;"  Burton,  "His- 
tory of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap,  xxvii. ;  Robertson,  "History  of 
Scotland." 

James  II.,  son  and  successor  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1430.  He  had  for  his  adviser  an  able  man, 
named  Crichton,  who  during  his  minority  obtained  chief 
control  of  the  government.  Crichton  impressed  on  the 
mind  of  the  young  monarch  the  necessity  of  further  hum- 
bling the  nobility.  But  what  James  I.  had  attempted 
to  do  slowly  and  by  legal  means,  his  son  and  Crichton 
pursued  with  an  impetuosity  as  unscrujnilous  as  it  was 
jnwise.  William,  sixth  Earl  of  Douglas,  having  defied 
the  royal  authority,  was  decoyed  by  Crichton  to  an  in- 
terview in  the  Castle  of  Edinburgh,  where  both  he  and 
his  brother  were  murdered.  James  stabbed  with  his 
own  hand  William,  eighth  Earl  of  Douglas.  This  led 
to  a  revolt,  and  the  house  of  Stuart  apj^eared  to  be  in 
imminent  peril.  The  Earl  of  Douglas  commanded  the 
greater  number  and  more  warlike  followers  ;  but,  owing 
to  his  want  of  energy,  nearly  all  his  retainers  deserted 
him  before  a  battle  was  fought,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
fly  to  England.  James  would  in  all  probability  have 
succeeded  in  his  plans,  had  he  not  been  killed  in  1460 
by  the  bursting  of  a  cannon. 

See  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap,  xxviii. ; 
Robertson,  "History  of  Scotland." 

James  III.,  the  son  and  successor  of  James  II.,  was 
born  in  1453.  During  his  minority  the  kingdom  was 
governed  successively  by  Bishop  Kennedy  and  Lord 
Boyd.  James  married  Margaret  of  Denmark  about 
1470.  He  had  respectable  abilities,  and  was  a  lover  of 
the  fine  arts  and  literature.  The  nobles  weie  offended 
because  he  neglected  them  and  chose  for  his  associates 
artists,  musicians,  and  other  persons  of  inferior  rank. 
The  king's  brothers,  the  Duke  of  Albany,  and  the  Earl 


of  Mar,  conspired  with  the  malcontent  nobles  agains; 
James,  who  was  defeated  by  them  in  battle  near  Ban- 
nockburn  in  1488,  and  was  murdered  as  he  fled  from 
the  field. 

See  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland;"  Robertson,  "History  of 
Scotland." 

James  IV.,  King  of  Scotland,  succeeded  his  father, 
James  III.,  in  1488,  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  He  was  gen- 
erous and  brave,  loved  magnificence,  delighted  in  war, 
and  was  eager  to  obtain  fame.  During  his  reign  the 
ancient  and  hereditary  enmity  between  the  king  and  the 
nobles  appears  almost  entirely  to  have  ceased.  During 
the  revolt  which  had  cost  James  HI.  his  life,  his  son 
had  been  compelled  or  persuaded  to  set  himself  at  the 
head  of  it,  and  was  openly  declared  king.  He  was  sub- 
sequently troubled  by  remorse  for  this  deed,  and,  not 
being  free  from  superstition,  he  received  from  the  pope, 
as  penance,  an  iron  belt  to  be  worn  without  cessation  for 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  also  performed  several  pil- 
grimages on  foot.  James  founded  (1497)  the  University 
of  Aberdeen,  and  he  also  created  the  order  of  Knights 
of  the  Thistle,  (or  of  Saint  Andrew.)  In  15 13,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  advice  of  his  sagest  counsellors,  he  rashly 
invaded  England  with  one  of  the  most  loyal  and  gallant 
armies  that  ever  a  Scottish  king  had  conmianded,  and 
was  defeated  at  the  famous  battle  of  Flodden,  where 
the  flower  of  the  Scottish  chivalry  perished.  The  king, 
with  twelve  earls,  thirteen  lords,  and  a  great  number  of 
barons,  died  upon  the  field,  in  September,  1 5 13. 

See  Burton,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  xxx. ;  Rob- 
ertson, "History  of  Scotland." 

James  V.,  a  son  of  James  IV.,  was  born  in  15 12,  and 
succeeded  his  father  in  15 13.  The  regency  was  conferred 
upon  his  cousin,  the  Duke  of  Albany,  a  man  of  enter- 
prise and  ability,  who  was  desirous  to  extend  the  royal 
authority ;  but,  in  spite  of  all  his  exertions,  the  aris- 
tocracy retained  their  power,  and  the  duke  resigned  his 
authority  about  1525.  The  king  was  then  in  his  thir- 
teenth year,  and  the  nobles  agreed  that  he  should  assume 
the  government.  The  Earl  of  Angus,  however,  by  his 
intrigues,  obtained  the  chief  control  of  affairs,  and  kept 
the  young  king  as  a  prisoner  in  his  own  palace.  James, 
after  suffering  this  for  some  time,  escaped,  and  Angus  was 
obliged  to  fly  from  the  country.  Firmly  seated  upon  the 
throne,  James  continued  the  policy  of  his  predecessors 
in  humbling  the  nobility.  Commencing  very  cautiously, 
he  found  loyal  supporters  among  the  clergy,  the  prin- 
cipal of  whom  was  Cardinal  Beaton.  The  nobles  had 
received  too  severe  a  blow  at  Flodden  to  resist,  and 
James  pushed  forward  his  plans  in  an  unscrupulous 
and  arbitrary  manner.  He  married  Mary  of  Guise  in 
1538.  Henry  VIII.  of  England  declared  war  against 
him  in  1542,  and  he  was  obliged  to  seek  the  assistance 
of  those  nobles  whom  he  had  oppressed.  They  took 
up  arms  at  his  command,  were  led  by  him  against  the 
English,  and  were  at  first  successful ;  but,  owing  to  the 
lateness  of  the  season,  and  to  other  causes  of  discontent, 
they  refused  to  follow  up  their  good  fortune.  A  second 
expedition  across  the  border  was  still  less  successful  : 
nearly  ten  thousand  Scots  were  taken  prisoners,  or,  as 
some  say,  went  deliberately  over  to  the  English.  This 
proved  too  great  a  blow  to  the  proud  and  ambitious 
monarch,  who  died  of  a  broken  heart  in  December, 
1542,  in  the  thirty-first  year  of  his  age,  leaving  the 
crown  to  his  only  legitimate  child,  the  unfortunate  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots.  He  had  several  natural  children,  one 
of  whom  was  the  famous  Regent  Murray. 

See  Burton,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chaps,  xxxi.-xxxiii. ; 
Froude,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chaps,  xviii.  and  xix. ; 
Robertson,  "  History  of  Scotland;"  Hume,  "  History  of  England." 

James  VI.  of  Scotland.  See  James  I.  of  Eng- 
land. 

James,  [Gr.  ;  Lat.  Jaco'bus  ;  Ger.  Jakob, 

yS'kob  ;  Fr.  Jacques,  zhtk ;  Sp.  Santiago,  sin-te-i'go ; 
It.  Giacomo,  ji''ko-mo,]  one  of  the  twelve  apostles, 
commonly  called  Saint  James,  son  of  Zebedee,  and 
brother  of  Saint  John.  He  was  one  of  the  three  apostles 
who  appeared  to  be  the  most  intimately  associated  with 
our  Saviour.  He  suffered  martyrdom  about  44  A.D.,  by 
the  order  of  Herod  Agrippa.  , 

See  Matthew  iv.  21,  x.  2,  xvii. ;  Luke  viii.  51. 


€  as  ^;  S  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  o,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JAMES  1262  JAMESON 


James,  called  the  Less,  was  one  of  the  twelve  apos- 
tles, and  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  the  brother 
of  our  Sav^iour,  and  the  author  of  the  Epistle  bearing 
that  name.  Josephus  states  that  he  was  put  to  death 
by  the  high-priest  Ananias  about  62  or  63  A.D. 

See  Matthew  x.  3,  xiii.  55,  xxvii.  56;  Mark  iii.  18,  vi.  3,  xv.  40; 
Luke  vi.  15  ;  Acts  i.  13. 

James,  (Charles  T.,)  an  American  Senator  and  in- 
ventor, born  in  West  Greenwich,  Rhode  Island,  about 
1805.  In  1851  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  for  six  years  by  the  legislature  of  Rhode  Island. 
He  invented  a  rifled  cannon,  and  was  killed  at  Sag  Har- 
bour, Long  Island,  in  October,  1862,  by  the  explosion  of 
a  shell  on  which  he  was  experimenting. 

James,  zhtm,  (  Constantin,  )  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Bayeux  in  1813.  He  edited  Magendie's 
"Lectures  on  Physiology,"  etc.,  (1837-39.) 

James,  (George  Payne  Rainsford,)  a  very  volu- 
minous novelist  and  historian,  born  in  London  in  1801. 
Before  attaining  the  age  of  seventeen  he  had  written  a 
series  of  Eastern  tales,  entitled  "The  String  of  Pearls." 
In  1825  he  published  "Richelieu,"  which  had  previously 
received  the  commendation  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  and 
Washington  Irving.  This  is  thought  to  be  his  best  pro- 
duction. In  1852  Mr.  James  was  chosen  British  consul 
at  Norfolk,  in  Virginia,  and  in  1858  received  the  same 
appointment  for  Venice.  His  works  amount  to  one 
hundred  and  eighty-nine  volumes.  Of  these  we  may 
mention  "Philip  Augustus,"  (1831,)  "Adra,  or  the  Peru- 
vians, a  Poem,"  "Memoirs  of  Great  Commanders,"  (3 
vols.,  1832,)  "  History  of  Charlemagne,"  (1832,)  "Lives 
of  Foreign  Statesmen,"  (5  vols.,  1832-38,)  and  "Came- 
ralzaman,"  a  dramatic  poem,  (1848.)    Died  in  i860. 

See  "  New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  by  R.  H.  Horne,  London,  1844  ; 
Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "North  American  Review" 
for  April,  1844,  (by  E.  P.  Whipple.) 

James,  (Henry,)  an  able  and  original  writer  on  the- 
ology, born  at  Albany  in  181 1.  About  1843  became 
acquainted  with  the  writings  of  Swedenborg,  whose 
leading  doctrines  he  appears  to  have  fully  embraced, 
without,  however,  joining  himself  to  the  ecclesiastical 
organization  of  Swedenborgians.  He  has  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Moralism  and  Christianity,"  (1852,) 
"Christianity  the  Logic  of  Creation,"  (1857,)  and  "The 
Secret  of  Swedenborg,  being  an  Elucidation  of  his  Doc- 
trine of  the  Divine  Natural  Humanity,"  (1869.) 

See  "Old  and  New"  for  January,  1870. 

James,  (John  Angell,)  an  eloquent  English  dissent- 
ing minister  and  popular  writer,  born  at  Blandford,  Dor- 
set, in  1785.  He  was  for  many  years  an  Independent 
minister  of  Birmingham,  and  acquired  great  influence  by 
his  oral  ministry  and  his  numerous  writings,  which  have 
had  an  immense  circulation.  Among  his  works  are 
"The  Anxious  Inquirer,"  "Christian  Fellowship,"  (i  ith 
edition,  1855,)  "  Family  Monitor,"  (9th  edition,  1848,) 
"The  Church  in  Earnest,"  (4th  edition,  1851,)  and  "  Fe- 
male Piety,"  (4th  edition,  1855.)    Died  in  1859. 

See  "  Life  and  Letters  of  John  Angell  James,"  by  R-  W.  Dale  ; 
Rev.  Robert  Steel,  "  Burning  and  Shining  Lights,"  1S64. 

James,  (John  Thomas,)  Bishop  of  Calcutta,  born  at 
Rugby  in  1786.  Upon  the  death  of  Bishop  Heber  he 
was  appointed  to  the  diocese  of  Calcutta,  and  sailed  for 
India  in  1827.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Tour  through 
Germany,  Sweden,  Russia,  and  Poland,"  (1816,)  "Treat- 
ise on  the  Italian,  French,  Dutch,  and  German  Schools 
of  Painting,"  (1822,)  and  "The  Semi-Sceptic,  or  the 
Common  Sense  of  Religion  considered."  Died  in  1828. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Bishop  James,"  by  his  brother,  1830. 

James,  (Rich.\rd,)  an  English  divine,  linguist,  and 
traveller,  and  nephew  of  Thomas  James,  (1571-1629,) 
was  born  at  Newport,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  1592. 
Among  his  works  are  manuscripts  upon  Russia,  and  a 
"  Poem  upon  the  Death  of  Sir  Robert  Cotton."  Died 
in  1638. 

James,  (Rorert,)  an  English  physician,  born  in  Staf- 
fordshire in  1703.  He  was  the  inventor  of  a  celebrated 
fever-powder  which  bore  his  name,  and  the  author  of  a 
"Medicinal  Dictionary,"  (1743-45,)  (in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,)  treatises  on  the  "Prac- 
tice of  Physic"  and  "  On  Canine  Madness,"  and  a  "Dis- 
sertation on  Fevers,"  (1778.)    Died  in  1776. 


James,  (Thomas,)  a  learned  divine,  born  at  Newport, 
in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  1571.  He  was  distinguished  as 
an  able  and  industrious  writer  against  the  Catholics. 
Among  the  most  important  of  his  works  are  "  A  Treat- 
ise of  the  Corruptions  of  the  Scriptures,  Councils,  and 
Fathers  by  the  Church  of  Rome,"  (1612,)  and  "The 
Jesuits'  Downfall."    Died  in  1629. 

See  Wood,  "  Athense  Oxonienses." 

James,  (Thomas,)  an  English  navigator,  who  sailed 
in  163 1  in  search  of  a  northwest  passage.  He  made 
some  discoveries  on  the  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay,  and  to 
the  country  lying  west  of  it  he  gave  the  name  of  New 
Wales.  On  his  return  to  England  he  published  "The 
Strange  and  Dangerous  Voyage  of  Captain  Thomas 
James  for  the  Discovery  of  a  Northwest  Passage  to  the 
South  Sea." 

James,  (Thomas,)  an  English  teacher,  became  head- 
master of  Rugby  School  in  1776.  He  published  a  "  Com- 
pendium of  Geography."  He  was  the  father  of  Bishop 
John  T.  James,  noticed  above.    Died  in  1804. 

James,  (Thomas  C.,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  scholar,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1766.  He  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1788,  and  followed 
his  profession  with  eminent  success  in  his  native  city. 
In  181 1  he  was  appointed  professor  of  midwifery  in  the 
above  institution.  Died  in  Philadelphia  in  1835.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  versed  in  the  Greek,  Latin,  French, 
and  German  languages,  and  to  have  possessed  some 
acquaintance  with  the  Hebrew.  He  contributed  several 
short  but  beautiful  poems  to  Dennie's  "Portfolio." 

See  "Memoir  of  Thomas  Chalkley  James,"  by  J.R.Tyson, 
Philadelphia,  1836;  Gross,  "American  Medical  Biography;"  Car- 
son, "  History  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania.'^ 

James,  (William,)  an  English  land-agent  and  sur- 
veyor, born  in  Warwickshire  in  1771.  He  was  the  first 
to  project  the  Manchester  and  Liverpool  Railway,  and  is 
generally  regarded  as  "the  father"  of  the  railway-system 
in  England.    Died  in  1837. 

James,  (William,)  an  Englishman,  known  as  the 
author  of  "  The  Naval  History  of  Great  Britain  from 
the  Declaration  of  War  by  France  in  1793  to  the  Ac- 
cession of  George  IV.  in  1820,"  (5  vols.,  1822,)  a  work 
evincing  great  research.    Died  in  1827. 

James,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  naval  officer  of 
high  rank,  born  at  Milford  Haven  about  1721.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  East  India  service  and  in  the 
American  war.    Died  in  1785. 

James  (or  Jacques,  zhtk)  de  Vitri,  (deh  ve'tRe',)  a 
distinguished  cardinal  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Vitri, 
near  Paris,  in  the  twelfth  century.  He  preached  against 
the  Albigenses,  and  about  1218  joined  the  crusade  against 
the  Saracens.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  East  and  West."    Died  in  1240. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

James  (or  Giacomo,  ji'ko-mo)  de  Voragine,  (di 

vo-r3.'je-ni,)  a  Romish  prelate,  born  at  Voraggio,  near 
Genoa,  about  1230.  In  1292  he  was  ordained  Archbishop 
of  Genoa.  Died  in  1298.  He  wrote  various  ecclesias- 
tical works,  and  a  famous  collection  of  the  lives  of  the 
saints,  entitled  the  "Golden  Legend." 

James  Francis  Edward,  called  the  first  Pretender, 
and  Chevalier  de  Saint  George,  born  in  1688,  was  the 
son  and  heir  of  James  II.  of  England.  He  was  educated 
in  France,  and  was  a  Roman  Catholic.  At  the  death 
of  his  father  he  was  recognized  as  King  of  England  by 
Louis  XIV.  He  entered  the  French  army,  and  charged 
at  the  head  of  the  cavalry  at  Malplaquet  in  1709.  Lord 
Bolingbroke  formed  a  design  to  secure  for  him  the  suc- 
cession to  the  throne,  but  was  defeated  by  the  death  of 
Queen  Anne.  In  171 5  the  Scottish  Jacobites  took  arms 
to  assert  the  title  of  the  Pretender,  and,  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  Earl  of  Mar,  were  defeated  at  Sheriffmuir. 
Another  army  of  his  partisans  surrendered  at  Preston. 
James  Francis  PMward  landed  in  Scotland  in  December, 
1715;  but,  finding  his  cause  in  a  desperate  state,  he 
returned  to  France  the  next  month.  Died  in  1 758  or  1 765. 

See  Jes.se,  "Memoirs  of  the  Pretenders  and  their  Adherents." 
1845.  , 

Ja'me-son,  (Anna,)  a  celebrated  waiter,  born  in 
Dublin  in  1797,  was  the  daughter  of  Mr.  Murphy,  a 


i.  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


JAMESON  1263 


JANIN 


painter.  She  married  in  1824  a  barrister  named  Jame- 
son, with  whom  she  went  to  live  in  Canada  ;  but,  various 
circumstances  causing  a  separation,  Mrs.  Jameson  re- 
turned to  England,  to  employ  herself  in  literature  and 
the  fine  arts.  She  was  an  earnest  labourer  for  the  fuller 
development  of  the  usefulness  and  mental  culture  of  the 
women  of  England.  Her  productions  evince  great  dis- 
crimination, learning,  and  refinement.  Among  the  most 
important  of  these  we  may  mention  "The  Diary  of  an 
Ennuyee,"  (1826,)  afterwards  enlarged  and  pulDlished 
with  the  title  of  "Visits  and  Sketches  at  Home  and 
Abroad,"  (2  vols.,  1834,)  "Loves  of  the  Poets,"  (1829,) 
"  Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Female  Sovereigns,"  (2  vols., 
1831,)  "The  Beauties  of  the  Court  of  Charles  H.," 
"Lives  of  the  Early  Italian  Painters,"  (2  vols.,  1845,) 
and  "  The  Poetry  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art,"  (2 
vols.,  1848.)    Died  in  i860. 

See  Harriet  Martineau,  "Biographical  Sketches,"  London, 
1869;  "New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  by  R.  H.  Horne;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1834,  ^'id  April,  1849;  "Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  July,  1853;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1849;  "Twelve 
Biographical  Sketches,"  by  B.  R.  Parkes,  London,  1866. 

Ja'me-spn,  (Charles  Davls,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Gorham,  Maine,  in  1827.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  with  the  rank  of 
colonel,  July,  1861,  and  commanded  a  brigade  at  Fair 
Oaks,  May,  1862.  Died  at  Oldtown,  Maine,  in  Novem- 
ber, 1862. 

Ja'me-son,  (Robert,)  an  eminent  Scottish  naturalist, 
born  at  Leith  in  1774  or  1773.  He  published  "  Mineral- 
ogy of  the  Scottish  Isles,"  (2  vols.,  i8oo,)  "  A  System  of 
Mineralogy,"  (3  vols.,  1804-08,)  and  other  works.  He 
was  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  from  1804  until  1854.  In  1819  Professor 
ameson  and  Sir  David  Brewster  founded  the  "Edin- 
urgh  Philosophical  Journal,"  which  the  former  edited 
many  years.  He  also  contributed  to  the  "  Encyclojjaedia 
Britannica."  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  professor. 
Died  in  1854. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1804,  and  April,  1805; 
"Annual  Register"  for  1854. 

Ja'nie-sone,  (George,)  an  eminent  painter,  called 
"the  Van  Dyck  of  Scotland,"  was  born  at  Aberdeen  in 
1586.  About  1616  he  went  to  Antwerp,  where,  with  Van 
Dyck,  he  studied  under  Rubens.  "  His  excellence,"  says 
Walpole,  "consisted  in  delicacy  and  softness,  with  a 
clear  and  beautiful  colouring."  It  is  said  that,  in  1633, 
when  Charles  I.  visited  Edinburgh,  the  magistrates  of 
that  city  employed  Jamesone  to  paint  the  portraits  of 
some  of  the  Scottish  monarchs,  Charles  was  so  much 
pleased  with  the  result  that  he  sat  for  his  own  portrait, 
and  presented  the  artist  with  a  diamond  ring  from  his 
finger.  Jameson  was  also  a  painter  of  historical  and 
landscape  scenes.    Died  in  1644. 

See  Allan  Cunningham,  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  British 
Painters,"  etc.  ;  Wai.pole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting ;"  Chambers, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Jamet,  zht'mi',  (Pierre  Charles,)  a  French  writer, 
born  near  Sens  in  1701.  Among  his  works  are  "Meta- 
physical Essays,"  (1732,)  "Letters  on  Taste  and  the  Doc- 
trine of  Bayle,"  (1740,)  and  "The  Mongol  Philosopher 
Dane-Che-Men-Kan,"  (1740.)    Died  about  1770. 

Jami.    See  Jamee. 

Ja'mie-son,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  learned  divine,  born  in 
Glasgow  in  1759,  became  in  1797  pastor  of  a  church  in 
Edinburgh,  where  he  remained  until  his  death.  The 
degree  of  doctor  of  divinity  was  conferred  upon  him  by 
the  College  of  New  Jersey.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Socinianism  Unmasked,"  (1788,)  "  The  Sorrows 
of  Slavery,"  a  poem,  "  The  Use  of  Sacred  History,"  (2 
vols.,  1802,)  an  "Etymological  Dictionary  of  the  Scottish 
Language,"  (2  vols.,  1809,)  which  is  highly  esteemed, 
and  "An  Historical  Account  of  the  Ancient  Culdees  of 
Zona,"  (181 L)    Died  in  1838. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  i8og,  and  May,  1828;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  September,  1810. 

Jamin,  zht'm^N',  (  Jean  Baptiste,  )  Vicomte,  a 
French  general,  born  in' 1772  ;  died  in  1848. 

Jamin,  (Jules  C^:i,esttn,)  a  French  natural  philoso- 
pher, born  in  18 18.  He  became  professor  of  physics  in 
the  Polytechnic  School  at  Paris.   He  commenced  in  1858 


the  publication  of  an  important  work,  entitled  **  Cours 
de  Physique." 

Jamin  de  Bermuy,  zht'miN'  deh  b^R^mli-e',  (Jean 
Baptiste  Auguste  Marie,)  one  of  the  best  French 
cavalry  officers  of  his  time,  was  born  in  Bretagne  in 
1773.  He  became  colonel  of  the  royal  guards  of  light 
cavalry  about  1807,  and  went  to  Spain,  where  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  battle  of  Ocana  in  1809.  As 
general  of  brigade,  he  won  additional  honours  at  the 
battle  of  Vitoria,  in  1813.  For  his  various  services  he 
was  created  baron  of  the  empire  and  Marquis  de  Ber- 
muy.   He  fell  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  181 5. 

See  J.  Nollet-Fabert,  "Le  General  Jamin,"  1853. 

Jamsheed.    See  Jemsheed. 
Jamshid.    See  Jemsheed. 

Jamyn,  zht'mAN',  (Amadis,)  a  French  poet,  born 
in  Champagne  about  1540,  His  productions  attracted 
the  attention  of  Ronsard,  who  became  a  warm  friend  and 
liberal  patron  of  Jamyn  and  procured  for  him  the  situa- 
tion of  secretary  and  reader  to  Charles  IX.  He  wrote 
poems  on  various  subjects,  and  made  translations  of  the 
last  three  books  of  the  "  Iliad"  and  the  first  three  of  the 
"Odyssey."    Died  in  1585. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Janachen,  ylxi-lfken,  {i.e.  Jan  (or  John)  Achen.) 
See  Achen. 

Jane  of  Navarre.    See  Joan. 

Janes,  janz,  (Edmund  S.,)  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Salisbury,  Connecticut, 
about  1805.  In  early  life  he  was  principal  of  an  academy 
in  New  Jersey.  About  1836  he  became  minister  of  a 
church  in  Philadelphia,  and  in  1839  was  transferred  to 
Mulberry  Street  Church,  in  New  York.  He  was  chosen 
in  1 841  financial  secretary  of  the  American  Bible  So- 
ciety, and  travelled  through  most  of  the  States  in  plead- 
ing the  cause  of  the  Bible.  He  was  elected  a  bishop  in 
1844. 

Janet,  a  French  painter.    See  Clouet. 

Jane'way,  (James,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1636.  He  was  a  preacher  of 
great  power,  and  was  very  actively  employed  at  the  time 
of  the  plague  both  in  the  pulpit  and  in  visiting  the  sick. 
He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  John  Janeway,"  his  brother,  and 
"The  Saint's  Encouragement  to  Diligence,"  (1675.) 
Died  in  1674. 

Jani,  yi'nee,  (Christian  David,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  near  Halle  in  1743.  He  published  a  good 
edition  of  Horace,  (2  vols.,  1778-82,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1790. 

Janigon,  zht'ne's^N',  (Francois  Michel,)  a  noted 
journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1674.  Being  an  avowed 
Protestant,  he  went  to  receive  his  education  in  Holland, 
which  became  his  adopted  country.  In  early  life  he 
entered  the  army,  but  finally  devoted  himself  to  litera- 
ture. Among  his  works  are  "  Present  State  of  the 
Republic  of  the  United  Provinces  and  their  Dependen- 
cies," (1729,)  a  production  of  great  merit,  and  "Serious 
and  Satirical  Letters  upon  the  Works  of  the  Savants," 
(12  vols.,  1740  et  seq.)    Died  in  1730. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  Nic^ron,  "  Memoires." 

Janin,  zhS'n^N',  (Jules  Gabriel,)  a  celebrated  French 
critic  and  litterateit}',  born  at' Saint-£tienne  in  1804.  He 
contributed  successively  to  the  "Figaro"  and  the  "Quo- 
tidienne,"  and  about  1830  became  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  "Journal  des  Debats,"  for  which  he  furnished  a 
number  of  brilliant  and  original  articles  on  politics  and 
literature.  He  was  for  a  long  time  the  dramatic  critic 
of  that  journal.  He  also  wrote  for  the  "  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,"  etc.  Among  his  other  productions  are  the 
romances  of"  Barnave,"  (183T,)  "New  Literary  Tales," 
"  Journey  in  Italy,"  (1839,)  and  "  The  Nun  of  Toulouse," 
(1850.)  He  also  wrote  an  abridgment  of  "  Clarissa  Har- 
lowe,"  and  a  "History  of  Dramatic  Literature,"  (4 
vols.,  1851-56.)  His  critiques  consist  mostly  of  literary 
gossip,  written  in  a  si)arkling  and  po'!shed  style.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  French  Academy  in  1870. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  Qijerard,  "  La 
France  Litteraire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Janin  de  Combe -Blanche,  zht'niN'  deh  k^N'- 
blfiNsh',  (Jean,)  a  celebrated  surgeon  and  oculist,  born 


4-  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  y.,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JANITIUS  1264  JJNSSENS 


in  Carcassonne,  France,  in  1731.    He  was  the  author 
of  a  "Treatise  upon  the  Lachrymal  Fistula,"  and  seve- 
ral other  works  on  diseases  of  the  eye.  Died  about  1790. 
See  QuEKARL),  "La  France  Litteiaire." 

Jaiiitius,  yi-n!t'se-us,  or  Janicki,  yS-nit'skee,  (Cle- 
ment,) a  learned  Polish  writer,  born  in  1516.  At  fifteen 
he  wrote  elegant  Latin  poetry.  Among  his  works  is 
•'Lives  of  the  Kings  of  Poland."    Died  in  1543. 

Jannabee  or  Jannabi,  Al,  ai-jdn-na^bee,  |  Lat.  Al- 
Janna'bius,  or  simply  Janna''|!IU.s,]  (Aboo-Moham- 
med-Mustafa — moos'ta  fa,)  written  also  Djannaby 
and  Dschannabi,  an  Arabian  historian,  of  whose  life 
scarcely  anything  is  known.  lie  wrote  an  abridgment 
of  universal  history,  entitled  "  Bahar-al-Zokkar,"  from 
the  creation  of  the  world  down  to  his  own  time.  Died 
in  1581. 

Jannabi.    See  Jannabee, 

Jannabius.    See  Jannabee, 

Jannequin, zhtn'kciN',  (Claude,)  Sieur  de  Rochefort, 
a  French  traveller,  sailed  for  Africa  in  1637,  and,  after 
his  return,  published  a  "  Voyage  to  Libya,  to  the  King- 
dom of  Senegal,  and  the  Banks  of  the  Niger,"  etc.,  (1643.) 

Jannequin,  (Clement,)  a  French  or  Flemish  mu- 
sician of  superior  merit,  flourished  about  1550.  He 
composed  masses,  canzoni,  chansons,  etc.  In  1544 
he  published  "Inventions  musicales  a  quatre  et  cinq 
Parties,"  which  displayed  much  inventive  genius. 

See  BuRNEV,  "History  of  Music;"  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Univer- 
selle  des  Musiciens. " 

Jan'ney,  (Samuel  M.,)  an  American  writer,  born  in 
Loudon  county,  Virginia,  January  11,  1801.  l^oth  his 
parents  were  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  or 
Quakers  ;  and  his  mind  appears  to  have  been  at  an  early 
age  deeply  impressed  with  the  truth  and  high  importance 
of  the  religious  principles  in  which  he  was  educated. 
Besides  some  smaller  works,  he  has  written  "Conver- 
sations on  Religious  Subjects,"  (1835;)  "A  Teacher's 
Gift,  consisting  of  Essays  in  Prose  and  Verse,"  (1840  ;) 
"An  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Christian  Church  during 
the  Middle  Ages,"  (1847,)  two  valuable  biographies, 
viz.,  a  "Life  of  William  Penn,"  (1852,)  and  a  "Life  of 
George  Fox,"  (1855.)  His  last  and  most  important 
publication  is  a  "  History  of  the  Religious  Society  of 
Friends  from  its  Rise  to  the  Year  1828,"  (4  vols.,  1867.) 
This  work  treats,  among  other  subjects,  of  the  causes 
and  events  of  the  separation  which  occurred  in  the 
Society  in  1827-28.  The  writer  belongs  to  the  anti- 
orthodox  division  of  the  Quakers;  and,  though  not  pro- 
fessing strict  impartiality,  he  has  evinced,  in  his  treatment 
of  this  delicate  and  difficult  subject,  great  moderation, 
a  scrupulous  regard  for  the  facts  of  the  case,  and,  on 
the  whole,  a  liberal  and  kindly  spirit.  He  is  a  highly- 
esteemed  minister  of  the  Society  of  which  he  is  a  member. 
Early  in  1869  he  was  appointed  by  President  Grant 
superintendent  of  Indian  affairs  in  the  Northern  Super- 
intendency. 

Janozki,  yi-nozh'kee,  or  Janotzki,  yS-nots'kee, 
sometimes  written  Janisck,  (John  Daniel,)  a  Polish 
or  Russian  author,  born  at  Viborg  in  1720.  He  was 
appointed  superintendent  of  the  Zaluski  Library  at 
Warsaw.  Among  his  works,  which  principally  relate 
to  the  literature  of  Poland,  are  "  Letters  on  Criticism," 
"A  Dictionary  of  the  Living  Authors  of  Poland,"  and 
"Polish  Literature  of  our  Time,"    Died  in  1786. 

Jansemin,    See  Jasmin, 

Jansen,  jan'sen  or  ySn'sen,  or  Jan-se'ni-us,  [Dutch 
pron.  ydn-sa'ne-us,]  (Cornelis,)  Bishop  of  Ypres,  cele- 
brated as  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Jansenists,  born  near 
Leerdam,  in  Holland,  in  October,  1585.  He  pursued  his 
studies  at  Paris,  and  in  161 7  was  chosen  professor  of  di- 
vinity in  the  University  of  Louvain.  About  1634  he  bitterly 
attacked  the  French  government,  in  his  "  Mars  Gallicus," 
for  having  formed  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  Dutch  Prot- 
estants. This  provoked  the  enmity  of  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
but  obtained  the  favour  of  the  King  of  Spain,  who  raised 
Jansenius  to  the  see  of  Ypres  in  1635.  His  principal 
production  was  entitled  "  Augustinus,"  (Louvain,  1640,) 
in  which  he  advocated  the  doctrines  of  Saint  Augustine 
in  regard  to  the  atonement,  divine  grace,  free  will,  and 
predestination.  This  work  was  finished  a  short  time 
previous  to  his  death,  in  1638,  and  by  his  will  he  referred 


it  to  the  judgment  of  the  Holy  See  ;  but  his  executors 
published  the  book,  and  suppressed  that  part  of  the  will 
which  related  to  it.  The  opinions  which  he  advocated 
were  directly  opposed  to  those  advanced  by  the  Jesuits, 
who  made  great  efforts  to  obtain  a  decision  against  them 
by  the  pope.  Penally  the  bishops  of  France  reduced  the 
doctrines  of  Jansenius  to  five  propositions  for  condemna- 
tion,— viz.  :  I.  That  there  are  divine  precepts  which  good 
men  are  unable  to  obey  for  want  of  God's  grace,  although 
desirous  to  do  so.  2.  That  no  person  can  resist  the  in- 
fluence of  divine  grace  when  bestowed.  3.  That  for 
human  actions  to  be  meritorious,  it  is  not  requisite  that 
they  should  be  exempt  from  necessity,  but  only  from 
constraint.  4.  That  the  Semi-Pelagians  err  grievously  in 
maintaining  that  the  human  will  is  endowed  with  power 
of  either  receiving  or  resisting  the  aids  and  influences 
of  preventive  grace.  5.  That  whoever  maintains  that 
Jesus  Christ  made  expiation  by  his  sufferings  and  death 
for  the  sins  of  all  mankind  is  a  Semi-Pelagian.  Innocent 
X.  condemned  the  first  four  of  these  propositions  as 
simply  heretical,  but  the  last  as  rash,  impious,  and  in- 
jurious to  the  Supreme  Being.  Many  bulls  were  also 
issued  by  the  succeeding  popes,  by  which  the  Jansenists, 
several  of  whom  were  among  the  most  learned  and  emi- 
nent ecclesiastics  of  France,  were  deprived  of  office  and 
declared  to  be  heretics.  Louis  XIV.,  at  the  instigation 
of  his  Jesuit  confessor,  ordered  them  to  be  persecuted 
and  their  monastery  at  Port-Royal  to  be  suppressed. 
Notwithstanding  these  attempts  to  crush  them,  the  Jan- 
senists continued  to  increase,  comprising  among  their 
champions  Pascal,  Arnauld,  Nicole,  and  many  other 
celebrated  men. 

See  Levdecker,  "  Historia  Jansenism!,"  1695;  Bayle,  "  His- 
torical and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "Port-Royal," 
tomes  i.,  ii.  ;  Heeser,  "  Historisch  Verhaal  van  de  Geboorte,  Leven, 
etc.  van  C.  Jansenius,"  1727;  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Jansen,  y^n'sen,  (Hendrik,)  a  noted  writer  and  trans- 
lator, born  at  the  Hague  in  1 741.  He  fixed  his  residence 
in  Paris  about  1770,  where  he  became  librarian  to  Tal- 
leyrand. His  works  were  chiefly  of  a  historical  and 
philosophical  character.    Died  in  1812. 

Jansenius.    See  Jansen. 

Jansenius,  yan-sa''ne-us,  (Cornelis,)  a  learned  Flem- 
ish ecclesiastic,  born  at  Plulst  in  15 10.  In  1568  he  was 
ordained  first  Bishop  of  Ghent.  Of  his  works  we  may 
mention  "  Concord  of  the  Evangelists,"  and  a  "  Para- 
phrase on  the  Psalms,"    Died  in  1576. 

Jansenius,  (Jakob,)  a  Dutch  scholar,  born  at  Ank- 
sterdam  in  1547,  became  in  1595  regius  professor  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures  at  Louvain.  Among  his  works  arc 
Expositions  of  the  Prophet  Job,  of  the  Psalms  of  David, 
and  of  the  Gospel  of  John.    Died  in  1625. 

Janson  or  Jenson,  zhdN^soN',  (Nicolas,)  a  French 
engraver,  printer,  and  type-founder,  settled  in  Venice 
about  1470.  He  produced  there  a  number  of  celebrated 
editions  between  1470  and  1480.  He  is  called  the  in- 
ventor of  the  Roman  type  now  generally  used.  Died 
about  1 48 1. 

See  G.  Sardini,  "  Esame  su  i  Principj  della  Francesa  ed  Italiana 
Tipografia,  ovvero  Storia  critica  di  N.  Jenson,"  3  vols.,  1796-98. 

Janssen,  yins'sen,  or  John'son,  (Cornelis,)  a  noted 
artist,  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1590.  In  1618  he  visited 
England,  where  he  was  employed  by  James  I.  to  paint 
the  portraits  of  the  royal  family.  He  was  also  patronized 
by  the  nobility.  He  possessed  neither  the  freedom  nor  the 
grace  of  Van  Dyck,  but  in  other  respects  was  regarded  as 
his  equal,  and  in  finishing  was  considered  even  superior 
to  him.  His  carnations  have  been  particularly  admired ; 
and  his  pictures  yet  retain  their  original  lustre,  in  conse- 
quence perhaps  of  the  ultramarine  which  he  used.  Died 
in  1665. 

Janssens,  yins'sens,(  Abraham,)  a  celebrated  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1569.  His  designs  were  elegant  and 
spirited.  He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  a  rival  of  Rubens. 
He  excelled  in  painting  subjects  illuminated  by  torches, 
where  the  brilliant  light  and  deepest  shade  were  placed 
in  a  striking  contrast.  His  most  important  works  are 
the  "  Resurrection  of  Lazarus,"  and  a  "  Descent  from  the 
Cross."    Died  at  Antwerp  in  163 1. 

Janssens,  (Erasmus,)  a  Dutch  Unitarian  theologian, 
born  about  1540,  preached  at  Clausemburg.  Died  after 
1595- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


yjNSSENS 


1265 


Janssens,  (Jan  Willem,)  a  distinguished  Dutch 
general,  born  at  Nymwegen  in  1762.  In  1802  he  was 
appointed  governor  and  general-in-chief  of  the  colony  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  he  was  defeated  by  the 
English,  who  took  possession  of  that  country  in  1806. 
After  the  abdication  of  Louis  Bonaparte,  under  whom 
he  had  held  the  office  of  minister  of  war,  Napoleon  made 
him  Governor-General  of  Holland  and  the  East  Indies. 
In  this  capacity  he  bravely  defended  Batavia  against  the 
English  in  1811,  but  was  finally  obliged  to  surrender. 
Died  in  1835. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Jansseus,  (Victor  Honorius,)  a  noted  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Brussels  in  1664.  He  studied  in  Rome 
the  works  of  Raphael,  selected  Albano  for  his  model, 
and  excelled  all  his  contemporaries  in  that  style.  At 
the  expiration  of  eleven  years  he  returned  to  Brussels, 
where  he  painted  numerous  large  pictures  for  palaces 
and  churches.    Died  in  1739. 

Janszoon.    See  Koster. 

Januario.    See  Januarius. 

Jan-u-a'ri-us,  [Fr.  Janvier,  zhSN'v^;^';  It.  Janua- 
rio, yS-noo-i're-o,]  Saint,  Bishop  of  Benevento,  was 
beheaded  during  the  persecution  of  Diocletian,  about 
305.  A  cathedral  was  erected  over  his  grave  at  Naples, 
where  it  is  believed  that  his  blood  exerts  great  power  in 
checking  the  eruptions  of  Vesuvius. 

Ja'nus,  an  ancient  Latin  deity,  represented  with  two 
faces.  He  was  regarded  as  the  opener  of  the  day  and 
as  having  charge  of  the  gates  of  heaven.*  He  seems  to 
have  presided  over  the  commencement  of  enterprises. 
The  word  Janua  ("gate")  is  supposed  to  have  been  de- 
rived from  him  ;  also  the  name  of  the  month  January. 
The  temple  of  Janus  Quirinus  at  Rome  was  kept  open 
in  time  of  war  and  closed  during  peace.  It  has  been 
conjectured  by  some  scholars  that  the  name  and  attri- 
butes of  Janus  may  be  traced  to  Ganesa,  (or  Ganesha,) 
the  Hindoo  deity  of  prudence  and  circumspection,  who, 
among  his  other  offices,  had  those  of  presiding  over  the 
commencement  of  undertakings,  guarding  gates  and 
doors,  etc. 

See  GuiGNiAUT,  "Religions  de  TAntiquite,"  Paris,  1825-29,  vol. 
ii.  book  v.  sect.  2,  chap.  iii. ;  Keightlev,  "Mythology." 

Janvier.    See  Januarius. 

Janvier,  zh6N\e-i',  (  Antide,)  an  ingenious  and  cele- 
brated horologist,  was  born  at  Saint-Claude,  in  France, 
in  1 75 1.  He  invented  numerous  improvements  for 
watches  and  for  different  kinds  of  astronomical  appa- 
ratus. In  1784  he  became  watchmaker  to  the  king. 
Died  in  1835. 

Janvier,  (Dom  Ren6  Ambroise,)  a  learned  French 
monk,  born  in  1614.  He  made  a  Latin  translation  of 
the  "  Rabbi  David  Kimchi's  Hebrew  Commentary  on 
the  Psalms."    Died  in  1682. 

Japet.    See  Iapetus. 

Japetus.    See  Iapetus, 

Ja'pheth,  [Heb.  r\D\]  a  patriarch,  one  of  the  three 
sons  of  Noah,  and  the  supposed  ancestor  of  the  Cauca- 
sian race.    (See  Iapetus.) 

See  Genesis  vi.,  vii,,  ix. 

Japix,  Japicx,  or  Japiks,  yS'piks,  (Gysbert,)  a 
celebrated  Frisian  poet,  born  at  Bolsward  in  1603.  But 
few  incidents  in  his  early  life  are  known.  Japix  was  the 
first,  and  in  fact  the  only,  writer  in  Frisian  of  any  note  of 
that  period.  In  1763,  at  Dr.  Johnson's  request.  Bos- 
well,  then  at  Utrecht,  sent  a  copy  of  Japix  as  a  specimen 
of  Frisian,  and  at  the  same  time  remarked  that  "it  was 
the  only  book  which  they  had  ;  that  there  were  no  treat- 
ises of  devotion,  ballads,  or  story-books  in  the  language." 
Japix  died  of  the  plague  in  1666. 

See  Hai.bertsma,  "  Hulde  aan  G.  Japiks,"  1827;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1829. 

Jaquelot.    See  Jacquelot. 

Jaquotot,  zht'ko'to',  (Marie  Victoire,)  a  skilful 
French  painter  on  porcelain,  born  in  Paris  in  1778.  She 
copied  several  works  of  Raphael  on  porcelain,  and 
painted  the  dessert-service  presented  by  Napoleon  I.  to 
the  Czar  of  Russia  after  the  peace  of  Tilsit.  Died  in  1855. 

*  Some  vvriters  suppose  Janus  to  be  a  corruption  of  Dianus,  (from 
Dies,  "  Day,")  because  he  was  the  opener  of  the  day. 


Jarchi,  zhtR'she',  (Solomon  Ben  Isaac,)  sometimes 
called  Haschi,  a  distinguished  Jewish  writer,  born  at 
Troyes,  in  France,  about  1040.  After  finishing  his  edu- 
cation at  the  Jewish  Academy  in  that  city,  he  travelled 
through  Egypt,  Western  Asia,  Greece,  Russia,  and  Ger- 
many. On  his  return  to  France  he  wrote  Annotations 
on  the  Five  Books  of  Moses,  the  Mishna,  and  the  Gemara. 
These  works  obtained  a  high  reputation,  and  procured 
for  the  author  the  title  of  "  Prince  of  Commentators." 
Died  in  1 105. 

Jar  din  or  Jardyn.    See  Du  Jardin. 

Jar'dine,  (George,)  born  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland, 
in  1742,  was  professor  of  logic  in  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow from  1774  to  1824,  and  made  improvements  in  the 
mode  of  teaching.  He  published  "Outlines  of  Philo- 
sophical Education,"  (1818.)    Died  in  1827. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1819. 

Jardine,  (Sir  William,)  a  Scottish  naturalist,  born 
in  Edinburgh  about  1800.  He  studied  botany,  orni- 
thology, etc.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Illus- 
trations of  Ornithology,"  (3  vols.,  1829-45.)  He  was 
one  of  the  authors  of  the  "  Naturalist's  Library,"  (40 
vols.,  1833-43,)  and  joint  editor  of  the  "Edinburgh  Phi- 
losophical Journal." 

Jardinier,  zhtR^de'ne-i',  (Claude  Donat,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1726.  Among  his  works  is  the 
"  Virgin  and  the  Infant  Jesus,"  from  C.  Maratta.  Died 
in  1774. 

Jardins,  des,  di  zhtR'd^N',  (Marie  Catherine,) 
Madame  de  Villedieu,  a  talented  and  profligate  French 
authoress,  was  born  in  1640.  She  removed  to  Paris, 
where  she  supported  herself  by  writing  romances  and 
dramas.  Her  works  were  quite  successful,  and,  not- 
withstanding her  very  exceptionable  conduct,  she  was 
much  courted  by  persons  of  distinction.  Her  active 
and  vivid  imagination  produced  a  new  era  in  French 
romances,  changing  their  old  and  tedious  style  into  that 
of  the  modern  novel.    Died  in  1683. 

Jard-Panvillier,  zhSR^pdN've'ye-a',  (Louis  Alex- 
andre,) a  French  politician,  born  near  Niort  in  1757. 
In  1792  he  was  elected  to  the  National  Convention, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  bold  defence  of 
the  king.  Napoleon  created  him  baron  of  the  empire 
and  president  of  the  court  of  exchequer.    Died  in  1822. 

Jardyn  or  Jardin,  (Karel  de.)    See  Dujardin. 

Jarnac,  de,  dehzhtR'ntk',  (Gui  Chabot,)  Seigneur, 
a  French  soldier,  who  in  1547  killed  La  Chateigneraye 
in  a  duel  which  was  fought  in  the  presence  of  King  Henry 
II.    Died  about  1560. 

See  Tavannes,  "  Memoires ;"  BrantQme,  "  M^moires,"  tome  iii. 

Jarnowich,  yaR'no-vik',  or  Giornovichi,  joR-no- 
vee'kee,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  a  celebrated  and  eccentric 
violinist,  born  at  Palermo,  Sicily,  in  1745.  He  spent 
several  years  in  France,  Prussia,  and  England.  He  sub- 
sequently visited  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  died  in  1804. 

Jaroslaf.    See  Yaroslaf. 

Jarrige,  zht'r^zh',  (Pierre,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Tulle  in  1605.  He  embraced  Protestantism,  and  wrote 
a  work  against  the  society  of  which  he  had  been  a  mem- 
ber, entitled  "The  Jesuits  upon  the  Scaffold  ;"  but  sub- 
sequently he  was  reconciled  to  them,  and  published  a 
refutation  of  his  previous  work.    Died  in  1660, 

Jarry,  zht're',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  calligraphist,  born 
in  Paris  about  1620,  was  famous  for  the  beauty  of  his 
penmanship. 

Jarry,  du,  dii  zhi^re',  (Laurent  Juilhard — zhii-e'- 
yiR',)  a  celebrated  ecclesiastic,  poet,  and  orator,  born 
near  Saintes,  in  France,  about  1658.  He  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Bossuet  and  the  Due  de 
Montausier.  In  17 14  he  gained  a  poetical  prize  at  the 
French  Academy  over  Voltaire  and  other  competitors. 
He  wrote  "The  Evangelical  Ministry,  or  Reflections 
upon  the  Eloquence  of  the  Pulpit,"  (1726,)  "Poems, 
Christian,  Heroic,  and  Moral,"  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1730. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Jars,  zhtR,  (Gabriel,)  a  distinguished  mineralogist, 
and  member  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences,  born 
at  Lyons,  in  France,  in  1732.   In  1757  he  was  sent  to  ex- 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  H,  y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

80 


JARS 


1266 


JAVELLO 


amine  the  mines  of  Germany  and  Hungary,  and  in  1765 
visited  England,  Scotland,  Norway,  and  Sweden  for  the 
same  purpose.  He  died  in  1 769,  leaving  manuscripts  from 
which  his  brother  comi)iled  ""Observations  upon  a  Great 
Number  of  Gold  and  Silver  Mines,"  (3  vols.,  1774-81.) 
See  QuERAKD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Jars,  de,  deh  zh^R,  (Franqois  de  Rochechouart — 

rosh'shoo-tk',)  Chkvalier,  a  French  officer  and  cour- 
tier. He  was  arrested  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  in  1632, 
because  he  refused  to  give  evidence  in  the  prosecution 
of  his  friend  Chateauneuf,  keeper  of  the  seals.  After 
an  imprisonment  of  eleven  months  in  the  Bastille,  and 
twenty-four  examinations,  during  which  nothing  could 
be  extorted  from  him  that  would  criminate  Chateauneuf, 
he  was  convicted  on  false  evidence  and  sentenced  to 
death.  A  reprieve,  however,  arrived  from  the  king  after 
Jars  had  placed  his  head  upon  the  block.  He  obtained 
his  liberty  after  a  long  imprisonment.  Died  in  1670. 
See  Richelieu,  "Memoires." 

Jarta  or  Jaerta,  yla'tS,  (Johan  or  Hans,)  a  Swedish 
statesman,  born  in  Dalecarlia  in  1774,  was  minister  of 
finances  from  1809  to  181 1,  and  assisted  in  framing  the 
present  Constitution  of  Sweden.    Died  in  1847. 

Jar'ves,  <James  Jackson,)  a  writer  and  traveller, 
born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  181 8.  He  produced, 
besides  other  works,  a  ^'  History  of  the  Hawaiian  or 
Sandwich  Islands,"  (1843,)  ^^'^^    Art  Hints,"  (1855.) 

Jar'vis,  (Abraham,)  D.D.,  Bishop  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  Norwalk,  in  Connecticut, 
in  1739.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1 761,  was  ordained 
in  England  in  1764,  and  became  Bishop  of  Connecticut 
in  1797.    Died  in  1813. 

Jar'vis,  (John,)  an  artist,  born  in  Dublin  about  1749, 
had  a  great  reputation  for  his  paintings  on  glass  and  his 
exquisite  manner  of  finishing  single  subjects.  Among 
his  principal  works  is  the  west  window  of  New  College 
Chapel,  Oxford,  from  a  design  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds. 
Died  in  1804. 

Jarvis,  (John  Wesley,)  a  distinguished  artist,  born 
in  the  north  of  England  in  1780,  came  at  an  early  age  to 
New  York,  where  he  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his 
portraits.  He  was  also  noted  for  his  eccentricities  and 
genial  humour. 

See  DuNLAP,  "Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in 
America;"  Tuckerman,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Jarvis,  (Samuel  Farmer,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can clergyman  and  author,  son  of  Bishop  Jarvis,  was 
born  in  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in  1786.  He  graduated 
at  Yale  in  1805,  and  was  for  some  time  professor  of 
Oriental  literature  in  Washington  (now  Trinity)  College 
at  Hartford,  and  from  1837  to  1842  was  rector  of  Christ 
Church  in  his  native  town.  He  wrote  "A  Chronological 
Introduction  to  the  History  of  the  Church,"  etc.,  (1845,) 
and  "  The  Church  of  the  Redeemed ;  or,  The  History 
of  the  Mediatorial  Kingdom,"  (1850.) 

Jasikov  or  Jazikov.    See  Yazikof. 

Jasmin,  zhis'm^N',  or  Jansemin,  zh5Nss'miN', 
(Jacques  or  Jaquou,)  the  "Barber  Poet  of  Agen,"  born 
at  that  town  in  1798.  His  poems,  which  are  written 
in  the  Provencal  patois,  enjoy  the  highest  popularity  in 
France,  and  display  great  powers  of  humour  and  pathos, 
with  a  charming  simplicity  of  diction.  Among  the  most 
admired  are  "The  Curl-Papers,"  ("Los  Papillotos,") 
and  "The  Blind  Girl  of  Castel-Cuille,"  ("L'Abuglo  de 
Castel-Cuille.")  The  latter  has  been  translated  into 
English  by  Longfellow.    Died  in  1864. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic Generale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1849. 

Ja'spn,  [Gr.  'laao)v,]  a  semi-fabulous  Greek  hero,  cele- 
brated as  the  leader  of  the  Argonautic  expedition,  which 
was  supposed  to  have  occurred  before  the  siege  of  Troy. 
The  Argonauts  went  to  Colchis  to  fetch  a  golden  fleece 
which  was  guarded  by  a  dragon.  Jason  succeeded  in 
this  enterprise  by  the  aid  of  Medea,  a  sorceress,  whom 
he  married.    (See  Medea.) 

Jason,  tyrant  of  Pherae,  and  chief  magistrate  of  Thes- 
saly,  was  ambitious  and  enterprising.  He  obtained 
control  of  Thessaly  in  374  B.C.,  and  asp'ired  to  be  master 
of  all  Greece,    He  was  assassinated  in  369  B.C. 

Jas'per,  (William,)  (known  in  history  as  Sergeant 
Jasper,)  a  brave  soldier  of  the  American  Revolution, 


born  in  South  Carolina  about  1750.  When  the  American 
flag  was  shot  away  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Moultrie,  June 
28,  1776,  he  leaped  outside  the  walls  of  the  fort,  amidst 
a  perfect  storm  of  cannon-shot,  replaced  the  flag,  and 
returned  to  his  post  without  injury.  For  this  gallant 
service  Governor  Rutledge  presented  to  him  his  own 
sword.  He  afterwards  served  with  distinction  under 
Marion,  and  was  killed  at  Savannah  in  October,  1779. 

Jaubert,  zho'baiR',  (FRANgois,)  Comte,  a  French 
lawyer,  born  at  Condom  in  1758.  In  1804  he  became 
president  of  the  Tribunate.  In  1806  he  was  appointed 
councillor  of  state.    Died  in  1822. 

Jaubert,  (Hippolyte  FRANgois,)  a  French  minister 
of  state,  and  naturalist,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  became  minister  of  public 
works  in  1840.  He  published  "  Illustrationes  Plantarum 
Orientalium,"  (2  vols.,  1842-46.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Jaubert,  (Pierre  Am^:d6e  Emilien  Probe,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  born  in  Provence  in  1779,  accompanied  Na- 
poleon to  Egypt  as  first  secretary-interpreter  in  1799. 
He  was  appointed,  after  his  return,  professor  of  Persian 
in  the  College  of  France,  was  elected  to  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions  in  1830,  and  made  a  peer  of  France  in 
1841.  He  contributed  to  the  "Journal  Asiatique,"  and 
wrote  a  number  of  learned  works.    Died  in  1847. 

See  E.  BiOT,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  M.  Jaubert;"  Querard, 
"La  France  Litteraire." 

Jaucourt,  de,  deh  zho'kooR',  (Arnail  Francois,) 
Marquis,  a  French  politician,  born  in  Paris  in  1757, 
was  a  moderate  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly 
in  1 791.  In  June,  1814,  he  acted  as  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  the  absence  of  Talleyrand.  He  founded  the 
Protestant  Bible  Society  of  Paris.    Died  in  1852. 

Jaucourt,  de,  (Louis,)  Chevalier,  an  accomplished 
PVench  writer  and  scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1704.  He 
studied  at  Geneva,  Cambridge,  and  Leyden,  and  was  a 
pupil  of  Boerhaave  in  medicine.  He  published  in  1734 
a  "  History  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  Leibnitz,"  which 
is  much  admired.  He  wrote  many  articles  on  natural 
philosophy,  natural  history,  literature,  etc.  for  the  great 
French  Encyclopasdia  of  Diderot.  His  principles  were 
more  consistent  with  the  Christian  religion  than  those 
of  the  other  Encyclopaedists.  He  wrote  a  voluminous 
Medical  Lexicon,  but  lost  the  manuscript  at  sea,  and 
contributed  largely  to  the  "  Bibliotheque  raisonnee  des 
Ouvrages  des  Savants  de  I'Europe,"  (1728-40.)  Died 
at  Compiegne  in  1779. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale;"  MM.  Haag,  "La  France 
protestante." 

Jauffret,  zh5TRi',  (Gaspard  Jean  Andr6  Joseph,) 
a  French  writer  on  theology,  born  in  Provence  in  1759, 
became  chaplain  to  Napoleon  about  1804,  Bishop  of  Metz 
in  1806,  and  Archbishop  of  Aix  in  181 1.    Died  in  1823. 

Jauffret,  (Louis  Francois,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Paris  in  1770.  He  was  secretary  of 
the  Academy  of  Marseilles,  and  wrote  several  valuable 
juvenile  books.    Died  about  1850. 

Jaugeon,  zho'zh6N',  (N.,)  an  able  French  mechani- 
cian, who  wrote  several  works  on  natural  history  and 
physiology.    Died  in  1725. 

Jault,  zho,  (AuGUSTiN  FRANgois,)  a  physician  and 
Orientalist,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1700,  became 
professor  of  Greek  and  Syriac  in  the  Royal  College  at 
Paris.  He  translated  Ockley's  "  History  of  the  Sara- 
cens" (1748)  from  the  English,  and  several  medical  works 
from  the  Latin.    Died  in  1757. 

Jauregui  y  Aguilar,  d^,  dk  How-ra'gee  e  S-ge-laR', 
(Juan,)  Chevalier  de  Calatrava,  a  Spanish  poet  and 
painter,  born  at  Toledo  about  1570.  In  1607  he  visited* 
Rome,  where  he  studied  Italian  and  improved  himself 
in  the  art  of  painting.  He  translated  into  his  native 
tongue  the  "  Pharsalia"  of  Lucan  and  the  "  Aminta"  of 
Tasso,  (1607.)  The  latter  is  an  excellent  version.  He 
introduced  a  superior  style  among  the  Spanish  painters. 
Died  in  1650,  or,  according  to  some,  in  1640. 

See  TicKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature  ;"  Quilliet,  "  Dic- 
tionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Javello,  ya-veKlo,  (Crisostomo,)  a  learned  philoso- 
pher and  theologian  of  the  Dominican  order,  was  born 
near  Milan  about  147 1. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  /on^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fUll,  ftt;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


JAFOLENUS  1267 


JAT 


Jav-o-le'nus,  (Priscus,)  a  Roman  jurist,  supposed  to 
have  lived  under  the  reigns  of  Nerva  and  Hadrian.  He 
wrote  an  "Epitome  of  the  Libri  Posteriores  of  Labeo," 
and  several  treatises  on  law. 

Jay,  zh§.,  (Antoine,)  a  French  journalist  and  littera- 
teur, born  in  the  Gironde  in  1770.  He  was  for  many 
years  chief  editor  of  the  "  Constitutionnel,"  a  daily  paper 
of  Paris,  and  the  "Minerve."  In  politics  he  was  liberal. 
He  spent  seven  years  in  the  United  States,  1 795-1802. 
In  1832  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
His  most  important  work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Ministry 
of  Cardinal  Richelieu,"  (1815,)  which  is  highly  praised 
by  Henri  Martin.    Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Jay,  (John,)  an  illustrious  American  statesman,  first 
chief  justice  of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  New  York, 
December  12,  1745.  He  was  descended  on  his  father's 
side  from  Pierre  Jay,  a  Huguenot  merchant  of  La  Ro- 
chelle,  who  fled  to  England  on  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes.  Jay  graduated  at  King's  (now  Columbia) 
College  in  1764,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  New 
York  in  1768.  At  this  period  he  combined  in  a  remark- 
able degree  the  dignity  and  gravity  of  manhood  with  the 
ardour  of  youth.  His  talents  soon  procured  for  him 
both  an  extensive  legal  practice  and  great  influence  in 
the  political  assemblies  called  to  consider  the  aggressive 
policy  of  the  British  government.  Elected  to  the  first 
Continental  Congress  at  Philadelphia  in  1774,  he  took 
a  leading  part  in  all  its  proceedings,  and,  as  one  of  a 
committee  of  three,  drew  up  the  address  to  the  people 
of  Great  Britain,  which  at  once  procured  for  its  author 
the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  elo- 
quent writers  in  America.  He  also  prepared  the  address 
issued  by  Congress  in  1775  the  people  of  Canada.  In 
the  general  debates  he  took  strong  ground  in  favour  of 
the  central  authority  and  against  separate  colonial  action. 
Having  been  recalled  from  Philadelj^hia  in  May,  1776, 
to  take  part  in  the  deliberations  of  the  New  York  pro- 
vincial Congress,  his  name  does  not  appear  on  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  which,  however,  received 
his  cordial  support.  He  exerted  great  influence  in  the 
convention  which  met  in  August  of  the  same  year  to 
frame  a  State  government  for  New  York.  To  arouse 
the  people  from  the  despondency  occasioned  by  the 
disasters  to  our  arms,  he  prepared,  in  December,  an 
address  to  the  country,  which  was  issued  by  the  con- 
vention and  ordered  by  Congress  to  be  translated  into 
German.  He  also  reported  to  the  New  York  conven- 
tion, in  March,  1777,  a  bill  of  rights,  and  had  a  chief 
share  in  framing  the  Constitution,  Before  its  adjourn- 
ment. May,  1777,  the  convention  appointed  Jay  chief 
justice  of  New  York. 

In  December,  1778,  he  again  took  his  seat  in  Congress, 
and  a  few  days  after  was  chosen  its  president.  His  dig- 
nified and  impartial  discharge  of  the  duties  of  this  posi- 
tion won  the  esteem  of  all  parties.  In  September,  1779, 
he  resigned  the  offices  both  of  president  and  chief  justice, 
to  accept  the  appointment  of  minister  to  Spain  to  nego- 
tiate for  a  loan  of  $5,000,000  and  for  the  free  navigation 
of  the  Mississippi.  After  many  months  of  vexatious 
and  fruitless  labours  at  Madrid,  he  proceeded  to  Paris, 
and  took  part  with  Adams,  Franklin,  and  others  in  ne- 
gotiating the  treaty  of  peace  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain,  signed  September  3,  1783.  Jay  re- 
turned to  New  York  in  July,  1784,  and,  learning  that 
Congress  had  already  appointed  him  secretary  of  foreign 
affairs,  then  probably  the  most  important  office  in  the 
government,  he  accepted  this  position  in  December 
following,  and  discharged  its  duties  until  the  election  of 
Washington  as  President  of  the  United  States  in  1789. 
To  answer  the  objections  of  the  opponents  to  the  Federal 
Constitution  as  it  came  from  the  General  Convention  of 
1787,  Jay  united  with  Hamilton  and  Madison  in  writing 
"The  Federalist."  "No  constitution  of  government," 
says  Chancellor  Kent,  "ever  received  a  more  masterly 
and  successful  vindication."  Jay  contributed  greatly 
towards  overcoming  the  majority  against  the  Constitution 
in  the  New  York  convention  called  to  adopt  or  reject 
it  in  1788,  (at  first  the  vote  stood  only  eleven  for,  to 
forty-six  against  it ;  afterwards  thirty  for,  to  twenty-seven 
against,)  and  on  the  reorganization  of  the  government 


under  it  in  1789  he  was  offered  by  Washington,  it  is  said, 
the  choice  of  the  offices  in  his  gift.  He  accepted  that  of 
chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court.  "  His  general  learn- 
ing and  ability,"  says  Daniel  Webster,  "  and  especially 
the  prudence,  the  mildness,  and  the  firmness  of  his  char- 
acter, eminently  fitted  Mr.  Jay  to  be  at  the  head  of  such 
a  court."  In  1792  Jay  received  a  majority  of  the  votes 
for  Governor  of  New  York ;  but,  on  some  technical 
grounds,  George  Clinton,  the  Republican  candidate,  was 
declared  elected.  In  writing  of  this  result  to  his  wife,  he 
said,  "  A  few  years  will  put  us  all  in  the  dust;  and  then 
it  will  be  of  more  importance  to  me  to  have  governed 
myself  than  to  have  governed  a  State."  In  1794  Jay 
accepted  with  reluctance  the  appointment  of  special 
minister  to  England  to  negotiate  a  settlement  of  the  dif- 
ficulties between  the  two  countries,  well  knowing  that 
in  the  state  of  public  feeling  no  adjustment  that  could  be 
effected  would  give  satisfaction  to  all  parties.  He  con- 
cluded a  treaty  on  the  19th  of  November  of  the  same  year. 
It  provided,  among  other  things,  that  pre-revolutionary 
debts  owed  to  British  subjects  should  be  paid  by  the 
United  States,  that  the  British  government  should  indem- 
nify Americans  for  losses  sustained  by  illegal  captures,  etc. 
(About  $10,000,000  were  afterwards  paid  on  this  account.) 
This  treaty  was  at  once  assailed  with  almost  unexampled 
violence  by  the  party  favourable  to  France.  Mobs  lighted 
bonfires  with  it  in  the  principal  cities,  and  in  Boston  Jay 
himself  was  burned  in  effigy.  On  the  other  hand,  Ham- 
ilton defended  the  treaty  with  an  ability  that  extorted 
the  admiration  even  of  its  opponents,  and  Fisher  Ames, 
in  one  of  the  greatest  efforts  of  American  eloquence, 
declared  that  the  "treaty  had  justly  raised  the  character 
of  the  nation."  It  was  finally  carried  into  effect  by  a 
vote  of  fifty-eight  to  fifty-one.  While  Jay  was  absent 
in  England,  he  was  elected,  without  his  knowledge  or 
consent,  Governor  of  New  York, — an  office  which  he 
held  for  six  years.  It  was  under  his  administration  that 
slavery  in  that  State  was  abolished.  In  writing  to  a 
friend,  in  1780,  he  had  declared,  "Till  America  comes 
into  this  measure,  [the  abolition  of  slavery,]  her  prayers 
to  Heaven  for  liberty  will  be  impious."  Five  years  later 
(1785)  he  was  made  president  of  g^isociety  in  New  York 
"to  promote  the  manumission  of  ^aves."  .  Having  de- 
clined a  re-election  at  the  close  of  his  second  guberna- 
torial term,  Jay  was  nominated  and  confirmed  by  the 
Senate  to  succeed  Oliver  Ellsworth  in  his  former  office 
of  chief  justice  of  the  United  States  ;  but  this  honour  he 
also  declined,  and  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  resided 
on  his  estate  at  Bedford,  Westchester  county,  New  York. 
He  died  May  17,  1829.  "In  lofty  disinterestedness," 
says  Hildreth,  "  in  unyielding  integrity,  in  superiority 
to  the  illusions  of  passion,  no  one  of  the  great  men  of 
the  Revolution  approached  so  near  to  Washington," 
(as  Jay.)  Jay  was  a  member  of  the  Episcopal  Church, 
and  was  a  man  of  deep  religious  as  well  as  earnest  moral 
convictions  ;  the  Bible  is  said  to  have  been  his  con- 
stant study.  In  stature  he  was  somewhat  less  than  six 
feet  in  height ;  he  was  well  formed,  but  rather  thin,  face 
colourless,  with  deep-blue  eyes,  and  aquiline  nose. 

See  a  "  Life  of  John  Jay,  with  Selections  from  his  Writings,"  by 
his  son,  William  Jay,  2  vols.,  1833;  James  Renwick,  "  Lives  of 
John  Jay  and  Alexander  Hamilton,"  1840;  Henry  Flanders, 
"Lives  and  Times  of  the  Chief  Justices  of  the  United  States," 
1855;  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol. 
ii. ;  "North  American  Review"  for  July,  1823,  and  October,  1833. 

Jay,  (John,)  an  eminent  lawyer,  a  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  and  a  son  of  Judge  William  Jay,  was  born  in 
New  York  in  1817.  He  graduated  at  Columbia  College 
in  1836,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1839. 
He  distinguished  himself  as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  and 
was  counsel  for  several  fugitive  slaves  in  the  courts  of 
law.  In  April,  1869,  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Aus- 
tria. He  was  thrice  chosen  precident  of  the  Union  League 
of  New  York. 

Jay,  (William,)  a  popular  English  dissenting  minis- 
ter and  writer,  born  at  Tisbury,  Wiltshire,  in  1769.  He 
was  the  pupil  and  protege  of  the  Rev.  Cornelius  Winter. 
He  began  to  preach  about  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  be- 
came in  1 791  minister  of  Argyle  Chapel,  Bath,  where 
he  continued  to  preach  for  sixty-two  years.  He  was 
called  the  "prince  of  preachers"  by  the  eminent  John 
Foster.    Among  his  works  are  "  Morning  and  Evening 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


JAY 


1268 


JEBB 


Exercises,"  (1842,)  "Lectures  on  Female  Scripture 
Characters,"  (1854,)  a  "Life  of  Cornelius  Winter," 
"Mornings  with  Jesus,"  (1854,)  and  "Evenings  with 
Jesus,"  (1854.)    Died  in  December,  1853. 

See  his  Autobiography,  edited  bv  George  Redford  and  John 
Angell  James,  1854;  "Memoir  of  William  Jay,"  by  S.  S.  Wilson, 
1854. 

Jay,  (William,)  an  American  philanthropist,  second 
son  of  Chief-Justice  Jay,  was  born  in  New  York  in  1789. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1807,  and  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  in  1829,  succeeded  to  the  family  estate  at  Bedford. 
He  had  previously,  in  1820,  been  appointed  first  judge 
of  Westchester  county,  in  which  office  he  was  continued 
till  superseded,  in  1842,  on  account  of  his  anti-slavery 
opinions.  He  early  entered  upon  his  philanthropic 
labours,  and  continued  to  exert  himself  in  behalf  of 
the  temperance  reform,  the  abolition  of  slavery,  educa- 
tional and  missionary  enterprises,  Sunday-schools,  tract 
and  Bible  societies,  etc.,  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He 
was  for  several  years  the  president  of  the  American 
Peace  Society,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  founders  of  the 
American  Bible  Society.  His  principal  works  are  the 
"  Life  of  John  Jay,  with  Selections  from  his  Writings," 
(2  vols.,  1833,)  "An  Inquiry  into  the  Character  and 
Tendency  of  the  American  Colonization  and  American 
Anti-Slavery  Societies,"  (1835,)  "A  View  of  the  Action 
of  the  Federal  Government  in  Behalf  of  Slavery,"  (1839,) 
"War  and  Peace,"  (1848,)  and  "  A  Review  of  the  Causes 
and  Consequences  of  the  Mexican  War,"  (1849.)  Died 
at  Bedford,  New  York,  in  1858. 

Jay,  le,  (Guy  Michel.)    See  Le  Jay. 

Jayadeva  or  Djayadeva,  ji-a-da'va,  a  celebrated 
Hindu  poet,  known  as  the  author  of  the  "  Gita  Govinda," 
("  Song  of  Krishna,")  a  famous  Sanscrit  poem  in  honour 
of  Krishna.  The  time  and  circumstances  of  his  life  are 
unknown.  An  Oriental  critic  refers  to  Jayadeva  as  a 
poet  in  the  following  terms:  "Whatever  is  delightful 
in  the  modes  of  music,  .  .  .  whatever  is  exquisite  in 
the  sweet  art  of  love,  whatever  is  graceful  in  the  strains 
of  poetry, — all  that  let  the  happy  and  wise  learn  from 
the  songs  of  Jayadeva." 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  j^iuheon ;"  "Asiatic  Researches,"  vol.  iii. 
p.  207.  ^ 

Jazet,  zht'z¥,  (Jean  Pierre  Marie,)  a  French  en- 
graver, born  in  Paris  in  1788.  He  perfected  the  art  of 
engraving  in  aquatint,  and  reproduced  the  works  of 
Horace  Vernet  and  other  masters. 

Jeacocke,  ja'kok,  ?  (Caleb,)  a  baker  of  London, 
known  as  the  author  of  the  "Vindication  of  the  Moral 
Character  of  the  Apostle  Paul  against  the  Charges  of 
Hypocrisy  and  Insincerity  brought  by  Bolingbroke,  Mid- 
dleton,  and  Others,"  (1765.)    Died  in  1786. 

Jean  of  France.    See  John. 

Jean  Bon  Saint-Andre,  zh6N  b6N  siN^tSN^dRi', 
Baron,  a  French  revolutionist,  born  at  Montauban  in 
1749.  He  studied  theology,  and  became  a  Protestant 
minister.  He  was  chosen  deputy  to  the  National  Con- 
vention in  1792,  joined  the  Jacobins,  voted  for  the  death 
of  the  king,  and  was  elected  one  of  the  committee  of 
public  safety.  He  was  appointed  prefect  of  Mayence, 
(Mentz,)  where  he  won  great  esteem  by  the  firmness,  in- 
tegrity, and  wisdom  of  his  adininistration.    Died  in  1815. 

Jean  Jacques.    See  Rousseau. 

Jean  de  Matha.    See  Matha. 

Jean  de  Paris,  zh6N  de  pt're^  a  French  Dominican, 
and  professor  of  theology  at  Paris,  wrote  "  De  Regia 
Potestate  et  Papali,"  in  which  he  maintained  the  cause 
of  King  Philip  against  the  pope.    Died  in  1304. 

Jean  Paul.    See  Richter. 

Jeanes,  jeenz,  (Henry,)  an  English  divine,  born  at 
AUensay,  in  Somersetshire,  in  161 1.  He  wrote  a  treatise 
on  "Abstinence  from  Evil,"  one  entitled  "The  Image 
Unbroken,"  (1651,)  in  defence  of  Charles  I.,  and  a  work 
in  reply  to  the  "  Iconoclastes"  of  Milton.    Died  in  1662. 

Jeanne  d'Albret,  zhtn  dSl'bRa',  or  Joan,  Queen  of 
Navarre,  born  in  1528,  was  the  only  child  of  Jean  II. 
d'Albret,  King  of  Navarre,  and  Marguerite,  sister  of  the 
French  monarch  Francis  I.  Her  earli'est  suitor  was  Philip, 
the  son  of  Charles  V.  of  Germany  ;  but  Francis  I.  opposed 
the  union,  and  gave  her  in  marriage  to  Antoine  de  Bour- 
bon, Duke  of  Vendome,  in  1548.  Through  her  husband's 


influence  she  embraced  the  Calvinistic  faith,  caused  it  to 
be  introduced  into  Navarre,  and  in  a  short  time  was  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  chief  supporters  of  Protestantism  in 
France.  On  the  13th  of  December,  1553,  she  gave  birth  to 
a  son,  afterwards  known  as  the  illustrious  Henry  IV.  In 
1555,  with  her  husband,  she  succeeded  to  the  sovereignty 
of  Navarre.  Two  years  later,  her  husband,  having  been 
appointed  lieutenant-general  of  France,  was  killed  at 
the  siege  of  Rouen.  Jeanne  died  at  Paris  in  1572.  She 
was  distinguished  for  her  talents,  virtues,  and  heroic 
qualities. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais ;"  De  Thou,  "  Historia 
sui  Temporis;"  D'Aubigne,  "Memoires." 

Jeanne  d'Arc.    See  Joan  of  Arc. 

Jeanne  of  Naples.    See  Joan  of  Naples. 

Jeanne  of  Navarre.    See  Joan  of  Navarre. 

Jeannin,  zbi'niN',  (Pierre,)  a  French  statesman  and 
diplomatist  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Autun  in  1 540. 
He  held  an  office  at  Dijon  in  1572,  when  a  royal  order 
came  for  the  massacre  of  the  Protestants.  Although  he 
was  a  zealous  Catholic,  he  persuaded  the  local  authori- 
ties to  disobey  or  suspend  the  execution  of  the  order, 
which  in  a  few  days  was  countermanded.  He  afterwards 
became  president  of  the  Parliament  of  Dijon.  In  1594 
he  gave  his  adhesion  to  Henry  IV.,  who  employed  him 
on  important  foreign  missions.  He  gained  the  confidence 
of  the  king  in  a  high  degree.  After  the  death  of  Henry 
IV.,  (1610,)  the  queen,  Marie  de  M^dicis,  appointed 
Jeannin  controller  of  the  finances,  and  confided  to  him 
the  chief  direction  of  affairs.  He  died  in  1622,  leaving 
"Memoirs  of  his  Negotiations,"  (1656.) 

See  Pierre  Saumaise,  "  filoge  de  Jeannin  ;"  Thiroux,  "  filoge 
de  M.  Jeannin  ;"  De  Thou,  "Historia  sui  Temporis;"  Guvton  de 
MoKVEAU,  "  fiioge  dii  President  Jeannin,"  1766;  Grotius,  "  An- 
nales  et  Historic  Belgicje;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;" 
Motley,  "  United  Netherlands,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  1.  ei  seq. 

Jeanron,  zh6N'r6N',  (Philippe  Auguste.)  a  French 
painter,  born  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer  in  1809. 

Jeaurat,  zh5^■t^  (Edme  S^basiien,)  a  French  as- 
tronomer, born  ill  Paris  in  1724.  He  published  in  1750 
a  valuable  "Treatise  on  Perspective."  In  1753  he  wa.s 
appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Military  School 
of  Paris,  where  he  caused  an  observatory  to  be  estab- 
lished. Among  his  works  is  "  Observations  on  the  Solar 
Eclipse  of  1793."  He  became  a  member  of  the  Institute 
in  1796.    Died  in  1803. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Jebb,  (John,)  M.D.,  a  celebrated  divine,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1736.  In  1768  he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures 
on  the  Greek  Testament  at  Cambridge.  He  obtained 
the  living  of  Ovington,  in  Norfolk,  in  1764,  and  became 
chaplain  to  the  Earl  of  Harborough.  Having  subse- 
quently embraced  Socinian  views,  he  resigned  all  his 
ecclesiastical  appointments  and  commenced  the  study 
of  medicine.  He  obtained  his  degree  at  Saint  Andrew's, 
and  practised  with  success.  He  was  much  engaged  in 
political  controversy,  and  earnestly  advocated  the  Amer- 
ican cause  during  the  Revolutionary  war.    Died  in  1786. 

See  Disney,  "  Life  of  John  Jebb,"  1787. 

Jebb,  (John,)  an  Irish  Protestant  bishop  and  clas- 
sical scholar,  born  at  Drogheda  in  1775,  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He  published,  in  1819  or 
1820,  an  important  work  on  "Sacred  Literature,"  which 
is  highly  praised  by  several  critics.  "It  has  the  highest 
claims,"  says  T.  H.  Home,  "  to  the  attention  of  every 
biblical  student."  In  1823  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Limerick.  Among  his  works  is  "  Practical  Theology," 
(2  vols.,  1830.)    Died  in  1833. 

See  Charles  Forster,  "Life  of  Bishop  Jebb,"  2  vols.,  1837. 

Jebb,  (Sir  Richard,)  Bart.,  son  of  Dr.  Samuel  Jebb, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Stratford,  in  Essex,  in  1729. 
He  studied  medicine  in  London,  and  afterwards  at  the 
University  of  Leyden,  where  he  obtained  the  degree  of 
M.D.  He  became  physician-extraordinary  to  George 
III.  about  1777,  and  physician-in-ordinary  to  the  Prince 
of  Wales  in  17S0.    Died  in  1787. 

Jebb,  (Samuel,)  M.D.,  a  noted  English  physician 
and  classical  scholar,  born  in  Nottinghamshire,  was  an 
uncle  of  John  Jebb,  M.D.,  noticed  above.  He  embraced 
the  principles  of  the  nonjurors,  and  became  librarian  to 
the  celebrated  Jeremy  Collier.  He  edited  the  "Dialogue 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  J?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt,  n6t>good;  moon; 


JEE-JEE-B'HOr  1269  •  JEFFERSON 


of  Justin  Martyr  with  Trypho  the  Jew,  in  Greek  and 
Latin,"  the  "  Opus  Majus"  of  Roger  Bacon,  and  several 
other  works.    Died  in  1772. 

See  Nichols,  "Literary  Anecdotes  of  Bowyer." 

Jee'jee-b'hoy',  (Sir  Jamset'jee,)  a  Hindoo  mer- 
chant and  munificent  benefactor  of  Bombay,  was  born 
in  1783.  He  amassed  a  large  fortune,  and  gave  vast 
sums  to  benevolent  institutions.  The  honour  of  knight- 
hood was  conferred  on  him  by  Queen  Victoria.  Died  in 
1859. 

See  "  North  American  Review"  for  July,  i85i,(byC.  E.  Norton.) 

Jefferson,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  American  statesman, 
and  the  third  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born, 
April  2,  1743,  at  Shadwell,  Virginia,  near  the  spot  which 
afterwards  became  his  residence  with  the  name  of  Mon- 
ticello.  He  was  the  oldest  son  in  a  family  of  eight 
children.  His  father,  Peter  Jefferson,  was  a  man  of 
great  force  of  character  and  of  extraordinary  physical 
strength.  His  mother,  Jane  Randolph,  of  Goochland, 
was  descended  from  an  English  family  of  great  respecta- 
bility. Young  Jefferson  began  his  classical  studies  at 
the  age  of  nine,  and  at  seventeen  he  entered  an  advanced 
class  at  William  and  Mary  College.  On  his  way  thither 
he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Patrick  Henry,  who  was 
then  a  bankrupt  merchant,  but  who  afterwards  became 
the  great  orator  of  the  Revolution.  At  college  Jefferson 
was  distinguished  by  his  close  application,  and  devoted, 
it  is  said,  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hours  a  day  to  study. 
He  became  well  versed,  we  are  told,  in  Latin,  Greek, 
Italian,  French,  and  Spanish,  making  at  the  same  time 
a  respectable  proficiency  in  his  mathematical  studies. 
After  a  five  years'  course  of  law  under  Judge  Wythe, 
he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1767.  His  success  in  the 
legal  profession  was  remarkable  ;  his  fees  for  the  first 
year  amounted  to  nearly  three  thousand  dollars.  In 
1769  Jefferson  commenced  his  public  career  as  a  member 
of  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses,  in  which  he  had, 
while  a  student  of  law,  listened  to  Patrick  Henry's  great 
speech  on  the  Stamp  Act. 

In  1773  he  united  with  Patrick  Henry  and  other  pa- 
triots in  devising  the  celebrated  committee  of  corre- 
spondence for  disseminating  intelligence  between  the 
colonies,  of  which  Jefferson  was  one  of  the  most  active 
and  influential  members.  Elected  the  next  year  to  a 
convention  to  choose  delegates  to  the  first  Continental 
Congress  at  Philadelphia,  he  drew  up  for  their  instruc- 
tion his  famous  "  Summary  View  of  the  Rights  of  British 
America,"  which,  though  rejected  by  the  convention  as 
being  too  radical,  was  subsequently  issued  by  the  House 
of  Burgesses,  and,  after  some  revision  by  Edmund  Burke, 
passed  through  several  editions  in  Great  Britain.  June 
I,  1775,  Jefferson  reported  to  the  Assembly  the  reply  of 
Virginia  to  Lord  North's  conciliatory  proposition,  and 
on  the  2 1  St  of  the  same  month  took  his  seat  in  the 
Continental  Congress.  His  reputation  as  a  statesman 
and  accomplished  writer  at  once  placed  him  among  the 
leaders  of  that  renowned  body.  He  served  on  the  most 
important  committees,  and,  among  other  labours,  drew 
up  the  reply  of  Congress  to  the  above  proposal  of  Lord 
North,  and  assisted  John  Dickinson  in  preparing,  in  be- 
half of  the  Colonies,  a  declaration  of  the  cause  of  taking 
up  arms.  The  rejection  of  a  final  ])etition  to  the  king 
having  at  length  destroyed  all  hope  of  an  honourable 
reconciliation  with  the  mother-country,  Congress,  early 
in  the  session  of  1776,  appointed  a  committee  to  draw 
up  a  declaration  of  independence,  of  which  Jefferson  was 
made  chairman.  In  this  capacity  he  drafted,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  other  members  of  the  committee,  (Franklin, 
Adams,  Sherman,  and  R.  R.  Livingston,)  and  reported  to 
Congress,  June  28,  that  great  charter  of  freedom  known 
as  the  "Declaration  of  American  Independence,"  which, 
on  July  4,  was  adopted  unanimously,  and  signed  by  every 
member  present  except  John  Dickinson  of  Pennsylvania. 
It  may  be  doubted  if  in  all  history  there  be  recorded  so 
important  an  event,  or  if  a  state  paper  has  ever  been 
framed  that  has  exerted,  or  is  destined  to  exert,  so  great 
an  influence  on  the  destinies  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
human  race.  The  Declaration  of  Independence,  says 
Edward  Everett,  "is  equal  to  anything  ever  born  on 
parchment  or  expressed  in  the  visible  signs  of  thought." 
**  The  heart  of  Jefferson  in  writing  it,"  adds  Bancroft, 


'*  and  of  Congress  in  adopting  it,  beat  for  all  humanity." 
In  October  following,  Jefferson  resigned  his  seat  in 
Congress,  and  also  the  appointment  of  commissioner  to 
France,  to  take  part  in  the  deliberations  of  the  Virginia 
Assembly.  A  State  Constitution  had  previously  been 
adopted,  to  which  he  had  furnished  the  preamble;  and 
he  now  applied  himself  to  a  radical  revision  of  the  laws 
of  the  commonwealth,  in  which  he  was  engaged  for  two 
years  and  a  half  Among  other  reforms,  he  procured 
the  repeal  of  the  laws  of  entail,  the  abolition  of  pri- 
mogeniture, and  the  restoration  of  the  rights  of  con- 
science,— reforms  which,  he  believed,  would  eradicate 
"every  fibre  of  ancient  or  future  aristocracy."  He  also 
originated  a  complete  system  of  elementary  and  collegiate 
education  for  Virginia. 

In  June,  1779,  Jefferson  succeeded  Patrick  Henry  as 
Governor  of  Virginia,  and  held  the  office  during  the 
most  gloomy  period  of  the  Revolution.  He  declined 
a  re-election  in  1 781,  assigning  as  a  reason  that  at  that 
critical  juncture  "the  public  would  have  more  confidence 
in  a  military  chief"  Two  days  after  retiring  from  office, 
his  estate  at  Elk  Hill  was  laid  waste,  and  he  and  his 
family  narrowly  escaped  capture  by  the  enemy.  Jefferson 
was  twice  appointed,  in  conjunction  with  others,  minister- 
plenipotentiary  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Great 
Britain, — viz.,  in  June,  1 781,  and  in  November,  1782, — 
but  was  prevented,  by  circumstances  beyond  his  control, 
from  action  in  either  instance.  Returned  to  Congress 
in  1783,  he  reported  to  that  body,  from  a  committee  of 
which  he  was  chairman,  the  definitive  treaty  of  peace, 
(concluded  at  Paris,  September  3,  1783,)  acknowledging 
the  independence  which  had  been  announced  in  the  De- 
claration of  July  4, 1776.  He  also  proposed,  and  carried 
through  Congress  at  its  next  session,  a  bill  establishing 
the  present  Federal  system  of  coinage,  which  took  the 
place  of  the  English  pounds,  shillings,  pence,  etc.,  and 
reported  a  plan  of  government  for  the  territory  of  the 
United  States.  In  May  following,  (1784,)  Congress  ap- 
pointed him  minister-plenipotentiary  to  act  with  Frank- 
lin and  Adams  in  negotiating  treaties  of  commerce  and 
amity  with  foreign  powers;  and  in  1785  he  succeeded 
Dr.  Franklin  as  resident  minister  at  Paris.  It  was  during 
this  sojourn  in  France,  which  was  one  of  the  happiest 
periods  of  Jefferson's  life,  that  he  formed  that  strong 
predilection  for  the  French  nation  over  the  English 
which- marked  so  conspicuously  his  subsequent  career. 
He  published,  while  abroad,  his  famous  "Notes  on  Vir- 
ginia," relating  to  politics,  commerce,  manufactures,  etc., 
(Paris,  1784,)  which  at  once  attracted  general  attention 
throughout  Europe.  Having  obtained  permission  to 
return  to  America,  he  left  Paris  in  September,  1789,  and 
reached  Virginia  soon  after  the  election  of  Washington 
as  first  President  of  the  United  States.  The  Federal 
Constitution,  then  recently  adopted,  did  not  meet  with 
his  approval.  He  declared  that  he  did  not  know  whether 
the  good  or  the  bad  predominated.  Subsequently,  how- 
ever, he  thought  more  favourably  of  it.  In  organizing 
the  government,  Washington  offered  him  a  seat  in  his 
cabinet  as  secretary  of  state,  which  Jefferson  accepted. 

With  Washington's  administration  began  the  fierce 
struggles  between  the  two  great  political  parties  of  the 
country,  the  Republicans  and  Federalists, — the  former 
under  the  lead  of  Jefferson,  and  the  latter  under  that 
of  Alexander  Hamilton,  then  secretary  of  the  treasury. 
Jefferson  opposed  Hamilton's  funding  system,  his  United 
States  bank,  and  other  financial  measures  ;  and  when  the 
war  broke  out  between  England  and  France  he  was  in 
favour  of  aiding  the  latter  with  our  arms,  while  Hamilton 
advocated  the  observance  of  a  strict  neutrality.  These 
differences  between  the  two  rival  chiefs,  which  were  the 
occasion  of  many  stormy  discussions  in  the  cabinet  and 
of  an  almost  unexampled  political  excitement  throughout 
the  country,  culminated  shortly  after  the  dismissal  of  the 
French  minister  Genest,  (Genet,)  and  Jefferson  resigned 
his  office,  December  31,  1793,  and  retired  to  Monticello. 
At  the  close  of  Washington's  second  term  he  was  again 
called  into  public  life,  as  the  Presidential  candidate  of 
the  Republican  party,  John  Adams  being  the  nominee  of 
the  Federalists.  In  the  ensuing  election  Adams  received 
the  highest  number  of  votes,  and  was  declared  President ; 
and,  according  to  a  rule  then  in  force,  Jefferson,  being 


€  as    9  as  s;  |  hard;'gzs j;  g,  h,  y^, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JEFFERSON  1270 


JEFFREY 


the  next  highest  candidate,  became  Vice-President.  By 
virtue  of  this  office  he  took  his  seat,  March  4,  1797, 
as  president  of  the  Senate.  The  disputes  with  France, 
and  other  difficult  questions,  rendered  the  administration 
one  of  extraordinary  turbulence.  At  its  close,  Jefferson 
and  Adams  were  again  the  respective  candidates  of  the 
Republican  and  Federal  parties.  In  this  election  the  Re- 
publicans triumphed,  but  cast  an  equal  number  of  votes 
for  Jefferson  and  Aaron  Burr, — seventy-three :  Adams 
received  but  sixty-five.  As  it  was  necessary  that  the 
person  chosen  to  the  first  office  should  have  a  plurality 
of  votes,  the  election,  in  these  circumstances,  devolved 
upon  the  House  of  Representatives,  which,  on  its  thirty- 
sixth  ballot,  declared  Jefferson  President  and  Burr  Vice- 
President,  their  terms  of  office  to  commence  March  4, 
1801.  Jefferson  was  re-elected  in  1804  by  an  electoral  vote 
of  one  hundred  and  forty-eight  to  twenty-eight,  and  in 
1809  retired  voluntarily  from  office,  after  a  prosperous  ad-, 
ministration  of  eight  years.  Among  the  important  events 
that  occurred  during  his  term  of  office  were  the  purchase 
of  Louisiana,  (1803,)  the  brilliant  victories  of  our  fleets  in 
the  Mediterranean,  and  peace  with  Morocco  and  Tripoli, 
in  1803,  Lewis  and  Clark's  overland  exploring  expedi- 
tion to  the  Pacific,  sent  out  by  the  President  in  1804,  the 
arrest  and  trial  of  Aaron  Burr  for  treason,  1807,  and  the 
attack,  the  same  year,  of  the  British  war-frigate  Leopard 
on  the  American  frigate  Chesapeake,  which  led  to  Jeffer- 
son's embargo  act  and  ultimately  to  the  second  war  with 
Great  Britain.  Washington  and  Adams  had  opened  Con- 
gress with  a  speech ;  but  Jefferson  preferred  a  written 
message,  as  being  more  democratic.  He  also  initiated 
the  policy  of  removing  incumbents  from  office  on  the 
grounds  of  a  difference  in  political  opinion.  After  par- 
ticipating in  the  inauguration  of  his  friend  and  successor, 
James  Madison,  Jefferson  retired  to  Monticello,  where 
he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  attending  to  his 
private  affairs,  receiving  the  numerous  calls  of  friends 
and  strangers,  and  in  the  exercise  of  a  most  liberal  hos- 
pitality. In  1819  he  took  the  chief  part  in  founding  the 
University  of  Virginia,  at  Charlottesville,  near  Monti- 
cello,  and  acted  as  its  rector  till  his  death,  which  occurred 
on  the  same  day  with  that  of  John  Adams,  July  4,  1826, 
— the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. The  following  epitaph,  written  by  himself,  is 
inscribed  on  his  tombstone,  a  small  granite  obelisk,  at 
Monticello  :  "  Here  was  buried  Thomas  Jefferson,  author 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  of  the  Statute  of 
Virginia  for  Religious  Freedom,  and  Father  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia."  As  the  author  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  and  the  founder  of  the  Republican  (Demo- 
cratic) party,  Jefferson  has  probably  exerted  a  greater 
influence  on  the  institutions  of  this  country  than  any  other 
American  except  Washington.  He  was  regarded  as  the 
very  embodiment  of  democracy.  All  titles  of  honour 
— even  that  of  Mr. — were  distasteful  to  him.  Dressed 
in  the  plainest  apparel,  he  was  as  accessible  to  the 
yeoman  in  his  every-day  garments  as  to  a  foreign  dig- 
nitary of  state.  In  his  intercourse  with  others  he  was 
distinguished  for  his  affability.  His  conversation  was 
fluent,  imaginative,  various,  and  eloquent.  "  In  Europe," 
wrote  the  Due  de  Liancourt,  "he  would  hold  a  distin- 
guished rank  among  men  of  letters."  His  adroitness  in 
politics  and  in  the  management  of  men  has  rarely  been 
surpassed.  In  religion  he  was  what  is  denominated  a 
free-thinker.  "His  instincts,"  says  Bancroft,  "  all  in- 
clined him  to  trace  every  fact  to  a  general  law,  and  to 
put  faith  in  ideal  truth."  Slavery  he  considered  a  moral 
and  political  evil,  and  declared  in  reference  to  it  that  he 
"trembled  for  his  country  when  he  remembered  that 
God  is  just."  His  extreme  views  of  State  rights  in 
later  life  were  very  much  modified,  and  he  owned  that 
it  was  necessary  for  the  general  government  sometimes 
"to  show  its  teeth." 

In  his  prime,  Jefferson  was  six  feet  two  and  a  half 
inches  in  height,  with  a  sinewy,  well-developed  frame, 
angular  face,  but  amiable  countenance,  and  ruddy  com- 
plexion delicately  fair.  He  had  deep-set,  light-hazel  eyes, 
and  hair  of  a  reddish  chestnut  colour,  very  fine.  He 
was  married  in  1772  to  Mrs.  Martha  Skelton,  daughter 
of  John  Wales,  a  distinguished  Virginia  lawyer.  She 
brought  him  a  large  dowry  in  lands  and  slaves,  about 


equal  in  value  to  his  own  property;  but  his  liberality 
and  generous  living  left  him  insolvent  at  his  death.  One 
daughter  and  ten  grandchildren  survived  him.  "The 
Memoirs,  Correspondence,  and  Private  Papers  of  Thomas 
Jefferson,"  in  4  vols.  8vo,  edited  by  his  grandson,  Thomas 
Jefferson  Randolph,  was  published  at  Charlottesville  in 
1829,  and  republished  in  London  and  Boston  the  same 
year,  and  in  New  York  in  1830.  In  1848  his  manuscripts 
were  purchased  by  Congress,  and  published  under  the 
title  of  "  The  Writings  of  Thomas  Jefferson,"  in  9  vols. 
8vo,  1853-55.  J^is  "Manual  of  Parliamentary  Practice" 
is  still  in  use  among  legislative  bodies  in  this  country. 

See,  in  addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned,  Henry  S.  Ran- 
DALi,,  "  Life  of  T.  Jefferson,"  3  vols.,  1858  ;  Geokgh:  Tuckek,  "Lite 
of  Thomas  Jefferson."  1836;  B.  L.  Rayner,  "  Life  of  Thomas  Jef- 
ferson," 1834;  Theodore  Dwight,  "Character  of  T.  Jefferson," 
1839;  W.  Linn,  "  Life  of  T.  Jefferson,"  1835;  Nicholas  Biudle, 
"Eulogy  on  T.  Jefferson,"  1827;  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of 
America;"  Duyckinck,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature," 
vol.  i.  ;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1830,  and  October,  1837; 
"North  American  Review"  for  April,  1830,  and  January,  1835; 
"Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1830;  and  an  excellent  article 
on  Jefferson  in  the  "New  American  Cyclopzedia,"  (by  John  E. 
Cooke.) 

Jef'fery  or  Jeffrey,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born 
at  Ipswich  in  1647.  He  was  chosen  rector  of  Kirton 
and  Falkenham,  in  Suffolk,  in  1687,  appointed 
Archdeacon  of  Norwich  in  1694.  He  published  the 
religious  works  of  Sir  Thomas  Browne.  Dr.  Jeffrey  was 
strongly  opposed  to  religious  controversy.  Died  in  1720. 

See  "  Life  of  Jeffery,"  prefixed  to  his  "Sermons." 

Jeffery  or  Jeffrey,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dissent- 
ing minister,  born  at  Exeter  about  the  year  1700.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  religious  works,  in  which  he 
displayed  great  ability.  Of  these  we  may  mention  "The 
True  Grounds  and  Reasons  of  the  Christian  Religion," 
and  "The  Divinity  of  Christ  proved  from  Holy  Scrip- 
ture."   Died  about  1728. 

Jeffrey,  (Francis,)  Lord,  a  distinguished  Scottish 
critic  and  essayist,  born  in  Edinburgh  on  the  23d  of  Oc- 
tober, 1773.  He  was  sent  to  the  University  of  Glasgow 
in  1787,  and  removed  in  1791  to  Queen's  College,  Ox- 
ford, where  he  remained  but  a  few  months.  In  1794  he 
was  admitted  an  advocate  to  the  Scottish  bar,  but  for 
several  years  obtained  scarcely  any  practice.  About 
this  time  he  became  a  member  of  the  Speculative  Soci- 
ety of  Edinburgh,  where  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of 
several  young  men  afterwards  eminent  in  the  literary 
and  political  world.  Among  these  were  Sydney  Smith 
and  Henry  (afterwards  Lord)  Brougham,  with  whom  he 
projected  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  the  first  number 
of  which  was  issued  in  October,  1802.  Three  numbers 
were  edited  by  Smith  ;  but  upon  his  removal  to  London 
the  entire  charge  devolved  upon  Jeffrey,  who  held  the 
position  of  editor  for  the  ensuing  twenty-six  years.  It 
was  successful  from  the  first,  and  in  a  short  time  the 
circulation  had  increased  to  about  nine  thousand,  and 
in  1813  it  considerably  exceeded  twelve  thousand.  As 
Jeffrey  himself  expressed  it,  "it  stood  on  two  legs,  the 
one  being  the  criticism  of  current  literature,  the  othei 
being  Whig  politics."  The  commencement  of  the  "Ed- 
inburgh Review"  formed  a  new  era  in  English  literature, 
and  completely  changed  the  style  of  the  popular  maga- 
zines. Jeffrey  was  the  principal  contributor  ;  and  his 
articles  in  both  politics  and  criticism  attracted  great  atten- 
tion. Scott,  Byron,  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  Moore,  and 
other  distinguished  poets  of  that  period  were  severely — 
sometimes  unjustly — criticised ;  but  most  of  them  after- 
wards became  warm  friends  of  the  great  reviewer.  About 
1802  he  married  his  second-cousin,  Catherine  W'ilson, 
who  died  in  1805.  In  18 13  he  married  an  American  lady 
in  New  York,  named  Charlotte  Wilkes.  Though  Jeffrey 
devoted  so  much  of  his  time  to  editorial  labours,  his 
practice  as  a  lawyer  greatly  increased.  In  rapidity,  flu- 
ency, and  eloquence  he  had  no  equal  at  the  Scottish  bar. 
Once,  while  conducting  the  prosecution  of  a  libel-suit 
at  Glasgow,  he  poured  forth  such  a  torrent  of  words  that 
the  opposing  counsel  declared  "  that,  by  calculation  with 
his  watch,  that  man  had  actually  spoken  the  English 
language  twice  over  in  three  hours."  In  1820  he  was 
elected  lord  rector  of  the  University  of  Glasgow.  Nine 
years  later  he  became  dean  of  the  faculty  of  advocates, 
and  thereupon   resigned   the   editorial   chair  of  the 


a,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  fit;  mlt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


JEFFRETS 


1271 


JELAL-ED^DEEN-ROOMEE 


"Edinburgh  Review."  In  1830  he  was  elected  to  the 
first  Parliament  of  William  IV.  He  continued  in  Par- 
liament four  years,  and  held  the  office  of  lord  advocate 
of  Scotland  under  the  administration  of  Grey.  He  re- 
ceived the  appointment  to  a  Scottish  judgeship  in  1834, 
with  the  honorary  title  of  Lord.  As  a  judge  he  was 
highly  esteemed  for  his  conscientiousness  and  his  busi- 
ness qualifications.  Lord  Jeffrey's  contributions  to  the 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  extend  over  a  period  of  nearly 
fifty  years,  and  amount  to  over  three  hundred  articles. 
The  greater  part  of  these  were  published,  in  4  vols.,  in 
1843.    Died  in  January,  1850. 

See  Lord  Cockburn,  "Life  of  Lord  Jeffrey,"  2  vols.,  1852; 
Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  July,  1852;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  September  and  October, 
1852  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1852  ;  "  North  British  Review" 
for  May,  1850,  and  August,  1852.  For  an  able,  though  somewhat 
severe,  review  of  Jeffrey's  character  as  a  critic,  see  article  entitled 
"British  Critics,"  published  in  the  second  volume  of  Whipple's 
"Essays  and  Reviews,"  New  York,  1849:  (it  first  appeared  in  the 
"  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1845.) 

Jerfreys,  (Lord  George,)  Baron  Wem,  the  infamous 
minion  of  James  II.,  was  born  at  Acton,  in  Denbighshire, 
and  studied  law  at  the  Middle  Temple.  At  first  he  pro- 
fessed to  be  a  Roundhead,  and  was  chosen  recorder  of 
London,  and  city  judge.  During  his  practice  at  the  Old 
Bailey  bar  he  had  acquired  a  boundless  command  of  the 
language  in  which  the  depraved  express  hatred  and  con- 
tempt ;  and  on  the  bench  he  hesitated  not  to  pour  forth 
torrents  of  oaths,  curses,  and  vituperative  epithets  on 
attorneys,  jurymen,  witnesses,  and  prisoners.  Age  and 
merit  were  treated  in  the  same  manner  ;  for  when  Baxter 
was  brought  before  him,  on  a  charge  of  nonconformity, 
he  railed  in  such  a  manner  at  that  eminent  divine  and 
his  counsel  that  it  was  impossible  to  obtain  a  fair  trial. 
His  voice  and  manners  were  always  disagreeable  ;  but 
these,  which  he  considered  natural  advantages,  he  had 
improved  to  such  a  degree  that  in  his  paroxysms  of  rage 
few  could  hear  him  unmoved.  His  eye  had  a  terrible 
fascination  for  the  prisoner  on  whom  it  was  fixed.  He 
appeared  to  delight  in  misery  merely  for  its  own  sake. 
Such  was  the  man  who  became  the  court  favourite  of 
James  and  chief  justice  of  England.  Jeffreys,  perceiving 
that  he  had  obtained  all  that  could  be  expected  from 
his  old  friends,  sought  the  favour  of  the  court.  He 
received  great  attention  from  the  Duke  of  York  ;  but 
the  king  regarded  him  with  contempt  and  disgust.  Not- 
withstanding these  views,  however,  Jeffreys  was  soon 
made  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench.  Upon  James's 
accession  to  the  throne  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage, 
with  the  title  of  Baron  Wem,  and  was  subsequently 
made  lord  high  chancellor  of  England.  He  gained  great 
notoriety  during  the  trials  of  those  who  had  participated 
in  the  rebellion  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth.  Pen  can 
scarcely  portray  the  atrocities  committed  under  his  juris- 
diction. He  delighted  in  torturing,  burning,  hanging, 
and  beheading  men,  women,  and  children,  after  the 
merest  shams  of  trials.  All  these  actions  appeared  to 
give  great  satisfaction  to  his  sovereign.  Yet  his  decisions 
are  said  to  have  been  generally  just  and  impartial  where 
political  purposes  were  not  to  be  subserved.  When  the 
Prince  of  Orange  came  to  England,  the  lord  chancellor 
attempted  to  escape  to  the  continent ;  but  as  he  was 
in  a  beer-house  at  Wapping,  dressed  as  a  sailor,  he 
was  discovered  by  an  attorney  whom  he  had  formerly 
abused.  This  person  gave  the  information  to  the  popu- 
lace, who  immediately  seized  Jeffreys  and  carried  him 
before  the  mayor,  from  whence  he  was  sent  to  the 
Lords.  By  them  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  where 
he  died  in  1689,  from  the  effects  of  his  intemperance  and 
misfortunes. 

See  WooLRVCH,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  G.  Jeffreys,"  1827 ; 
Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,"  1856;  Mac- 
AULAV,  "  History  of  England,"  vols.  i.  and  ii. 

Jeffreys,  (George,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  North- 
amptonshire in  1678.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  never  practised.  Among 
his  productions  were  several  tragedies,  and  an  oratorio, 
entitled  "The  Triumph  of  Truth."    Died  in  1755. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Jeflfries,  jef  fr^z,  (John,)  M.D.,  an  American  physi- 
cian, born  in  Boston  in  1744.    He  graduated  at  Harvard 


in  1763,  and  took  his  medical  degree  at  Edinburgh.  In 
the  Revolution  he  sided  with  the  British,  and  became 
surgeon-major  to  the  royal  army  in  America.  In  1780 
he  resumed  his  profession  in  London.  While  making 
some  investigations  in  atmospheric  temperature,  in  1785, 
he  crossed  from  England  to  France  in  a  balloon.  This 
was  the  first  successful  experiment  in  aeronautics  on 
an  extensive  scale.  He  returned  to  Boston  in  1789, 
and  died  in  1819. 

Jehan-Geer  or  Jahingir,  je-han'geer',  written  also 
Djahanguir,  Djehangmre,  Djahan  Gbyr,  and 
Dschehangir,  [i.e.  the  "Conqueror  of  the  World,") 
one  of  the  Mogul  emperors  of  Hindostan,  succeeded  his 
father,  the  great  Akbar,  in  1605.  Jehangeer  left  Memoirs 
of  his  own  life.  He  died  in  1627.  He  inherited  nothing 
of  the  ability  of  his  father.  It  was  during  the  reign  of 
this  emperor  that  the  celebrated  embassy  of  Sir  Thomas 
Roe  arrived  from  England  at  the  court  of  Delhi. 

See  Collin  de  Bar,  "Histoire  de  I'Inde;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  March,  1834. 

Je-ho'a-haz,  [Heb.inXIH';  Fr.  Joachaz,  zho't'ktz',] 
son  of  Jeliu,  ascended  the  throne  of  Israel  856  B.C.,  and 
reigned  seventeen  years. 

See  IL  Kings  xiii.  i-io. 

Jehoahaz,  also  called  Shallum,  succeeded  his  father 
Josiah  on  the  throne  of  Judah,  and  reigned  three  months. 
Died  about  610  B.C. 

See  IL  Chronicles  xxxvi.  1-4. 

Jehoash.    See  Joash. 

Je-hoi'a-kim,  [Heb.  D'p'in'  ;  Fr.  Joachim,  zho't^- 
kix',  ]  whose  name  was  changed  by  Pharaoh-Necho 
from  Eliakim,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Judah  608  B.C., 
and  reigned  eleven  years. 

See  IL  Chronicles  xxxvi.  4-g. 

Je-hoi'a-kin  or  Jec-o-ni'ah  was  the  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, whom  he  succeeded  as  King  of  Judah  in  597  B.C., 
and  reigned  three  months. 

See  II.  Kings  xxiv. ;  IL  Chronicles  xxxvi.  8-10. 

Je-ho'ram  or  Jo'ram,  [Heb.  □"^IH',]  King  of  Israel, 
son  of  Ahab,  succeeded  to  the  throne  896  B.C.  He  was 
killed  in  battle  by  Jehu  in  884  B.C. 

See  II.  Kings  i.-x. 

Jehoram  or  Joram,  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  ascended 
the  throne  of  Judah  893  or  892  B.C.  Died  in  885  or  884. 

See  II.  Kings  viii.  15-25;  II.  Chronicles  xxi. 

Je-hosh'a-phat,  [Heb.  DDiyiH';  Gr.  'luaadar;  Fr. 
JOSAPHAT,  zho'zt'fit',]  King  of  Judah,  a  son  of  Asa,  was 
born  about  950  B.C.  He  began  to  reign  in  914,  formed 
an  alliance  with  Ahab,  King  of  Israel,  and  reigned 
twenty-five  years.  He  had  a  high  reputation  for  piety 
and  justice. 

See  II.  Chronicles  xvii.-xxii. 

Je'hu,  [Heb.  NIH',]  King  of  Israel,  was  an  officer  in 
the  army  of  King  Jehoram,  when  he  was  anointed  king 
by  a  young  prophet  sent  by  Elisha  in  884  B.C.  He  killed 
Jehoram,  and  reigned  about  twenty-eight  years. 

See  IL  Kings  ix.  and  x. 

Jek'yll,'(Sir  Joseph,)  a  distinguished  lawyer  and 
statesman,  born  in  Nottinghamshire  in  1664.  He  was 
a  prominent  member  of  the  Whig  party  during  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne,  and  was  knighted  upon  the  accession 
of  George  I.  He  was  afterwards  master  of  the  rolls,  and 
privy  councillor.    Died  in  1738. 

Jekyll,  (Joseph,)  M.P.,  a  witty  English  barrister, 
born  about  1752,  was  distinguished  by  his  talent  for 
epigram  and  repartee.  He  became  solicitor-general  to 
the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1805.    Died  in  1837. 

Jeiai-ed-Deen  or  Djelal-Eddin,  jeh-lil'  ed-deen', 
(i.e.  the  "  Splendour  (or  Glory)  of  Religion,")  written  also 
Jalal-ed-Deen  and  Djalal-Eddin,  King  of  Khorasmia, 
who  succeeded  his  father,  Ala-ed-Deen,  in  1218,  was  re- 
nowned for  his  military  ability  and  enterprise.  He  fought 
numerous  battles  against  Jengis  Khan  with  various  suc- 
cess. It  is  said  that  he  afterwards  abandoned  himself  to 
indolence  and  pleasure,  and  when  a  Mongol  army  in- 
vaded his  capital  he  fled,  and  was  killed,  in  1231. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Geiierale." 

Jeiai-ed-Deen-Roomee,  (Jeiai-ed-Diii-Rumi  or 
Djelal-ed-dyn-Roumy,)  jeh-llK  ed-deen-roo'mee,  one 
of  the  most  eminent  Persian  poets,  born  at  Bulkh  or 
Balkh,  in  Khorassan,  about  1200.    His  father  was  a 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as G,  H,  Y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilledy  s  as  2;     as  in  this,    (^;:^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JELLACHICH  1272 


JENNENS 


noted  doctor  and  preacher  of  the  Soofee  sect,  who  set- 
tled at  Iconium,  (Konieh,)  in  Asia  Minor,  (called  in  Arabic 
and  Persian  Room,  because  it  was  part  of  the  empire 
of  Rome.)  At  his  death,  in  1233,  Jelal-ed-Deen  became 
the  chief  of  the  Soofees.  His  Mes'newee"  ("  Mesnewi") 
or  '*  Mesnevee,"  [i.e.  poem  with  rhyming  couplets,)  less 
correctly  written  "Metsnewee"  or  "  Metsnevi,"  is  re- 
garded as  an  excellent  model  of  the  mystical  style. 
"  This  precious  pearl  of  the  ocean  of  mysticism  departed 
from  this  fragile  world"  in  1272. 

Jellachich  von  Buzim,  von,  fon  yel'lS-KiK'  fon 
boot'sim,  (Franz,)  Baron,  an  Austrian  general,  born  in 
1746,  fought  with  distinction  in  the  principal  campaigns 
of  the  French  Revolution,  and  rose  to  be  lieutenant- 
field-marshal  in  1800.    Died  in  1810. 

Jellachich  von  Buzim,  von,  (Joseph,)  Ban  of  Cro- 
atia, son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Peterwardein  in 
1801.  In  the  revolution  of  1848  he  was  appointed  Ban, 
or  commander-in-chief,  of  the  Croats,  and  had  the  prin- 
cipal share  in  the  victory  of  Schwechat,  near  Vienna, 
over  the  Hungarians.  He  gained  several  advantages 
over  General  Bem,  but  was  at  length  defeated,  (1849,)  ^'""d 
forced  to  retreat  with  considerable  loss.    Died  in  1859. 

See  Balleydier,  "  Histoire  de  la  Guerre  de  Hongrie." 

Jellinek,  yeKle-nek^,  (Adolph,)  a  German  philologist, 
of  Jewish  extraction,  born  in  Moravia  in  1820,  has  written 
on  the  Cabala  and  on  Oriental  philology. 

See  JosT,  "  Adolphe  Jellinek  et  la  Kabbale,"  1852. 

Jem  or  Djem,  jim,  sometimes  called  Zizim,  a  Turkish 
prince,  born  in  1459,  was  a  son  of  Mahomet  H.,  and 
younger  brother  of  Bayazeed,  (Bajazet.)  At  the  death  of 
his  father  he  aspired  to  sovereign  power,  but  was  de- 
feated in  battle  by  Bayazeed,  (1481.)  Jem  became  an  exile, 
passed  some  years  in  France,  and  died  in  Italy  in  1495. 

Jemlah  or  Djemlah,  jSm'la,  [Hindoo  pron.  jiim''la,] 
(Mohammed,  mo-ham'med,)  called  Ameer  (or  Emir) 
AL  Omra,  {i.e.  "  Prince  of  the  Nobles,")  a  famous  states- 
man and  general,  born  near  Ispahan.  In  1652  he  entered 
the  service  of  Aurung-Zeb,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
first  vizier  of  the  Mogul  empire.  Having  been  appointed 
Viceroy  of  Bengal,  he  commanded  in  1659  an  expedition 
against  Assam,  in  which  he  displayed  great  talents  and 
prudence.    Died  in  1665. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Jemsheed  or  Jemshid,  jgm-sheed',  written  also 
Djemchyd,  Dschemschid,  and  Jamshid,  an  ancient 
Persian  king,  supposed  to  have  ascended  the  throne 
about  800  B.C.  He  greatly  improved  and  embellished 
the  city  of  Istakhar,  or  Persepolis,  the  ruins  of  which  are 
now  known  by  the  name  of  Chilminar,  ("Forty  Pillars.") 
Tradition  ascribes  to  him  the  introduction  of  the  solar 
year  among  the  Persians,  and  the  invention  of  tents.  He 
was  dethroned  by  Zohak,  an  Arabian. 

See  Atkinson,  "Abridgment  of  the  Shah  Nameh  of  Firdausi;" 
D'Herbelot,  "  Bibliotheque  Orientale." 

Jemshid  or  Jemschid.    See  Jemsheed. 

Jengis  Khan,  jgn'gis  Kan,  (written  also  Djenguiz 
Khan,  Dschengis  Chan,  Tchenguyz  Khan,  Chingis 
Khan,  and  in  various  other  modes,*)  a  celebrated  Tartar 
conqueror,  born  in  1 164,  was  the  son  of  a  Mongolian  chief. 
Having  subdued  a  number  of  Mongol  and  Tartar  tribes, 
he  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  khan  of  the  nation, 
and  about  1210  invaded  China,  took  Peking,  (1215,)  and 
in  a  few  years  gained  possession  of  the  northern  prov- 
inces. In  1218  he  marched  against  Mohammed  Koteb- 
ed-Deen,  King  of  Khorasmia,  whom  he  defeated,  and 
afterwards  destroyed  Bokhara,  Samarcand,  and  other 
cities.  Having  subjected  the  whole  of  Persia,  he  gained 
a  victory  over  the  King  of  Tangoot,  and  was  proceeding 
towards  the  south  of  China,  when  he  died  in  1227,  leaving 
the  principal  part  of  his  empire  to  his  son  Oktai.  Jengis 
Khan  is  said  to  have  caused  the  destruction  of  five  mil- 
lions of  human  beings.  He  gave  a  code  of  laws,  which 
is  still  called  by  his  name. 

See  De  Guignes,  "Histoire  generale  des  Huns,"  etc.  ;  Petis 
DE  LA  Croix,  "Histoire  du  grand  Geiighi/.can ;"  A.  Remusat, 
"Nouvelles  Melanges  Asiatiques ;"  Von  Hammer-Purgstai.l, 
"Gesciiichte  der  Goldenen  Horde  in  Kiptschak,"  1840;  Antoine 
Gaiibil,  "Histoire  de  Gentchiscan,"  1739;  Abooi.feda,  "Annales 
Mosleniici ;"  Karamzin,  "  Histoire  de  Riissie." 

*  This  name  is  written  in  more  than  twenty  different  modes,  not 
counting  such  forms  (like  Gentchiscan)  as  are  manifest  errors. 


Jenichen  or  lenichen,  ya'ne-Ken,  (Gottlob  Au- 
gust,) a  German  jurist  and  bibliographer,  born  at  Leipsic 
in  1709  ;  died  in  1750. 

Jenisch,  von,  fon  ya'nish,  (Bernhard,)  Baron,  a 
German  Orientalist,  born  at  Vienna  in  1743,  became 
in  1772  keeper  of  the  Imperial  Library.  He  pub- 
lished "  Persian  Anthology,"  (•'  Anthologia  Persica," 
1778,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Early  Kings  of  Persia 
after  the  Establishment  of  the  Mohammedan  Religion," 
("Historia  priorum  Regum  Persarum  post  firmatum  in 
Regno  Islamismum  ex  Mohamede  Mirkhond,"  1792.) 
Died  in  1807.  • 

Jenischius,  yi-nis'Ke-us,  (Paul,)  a  Dutch  or  Flemish 
writer,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1558.  He  published  "Thea- 
trum  Animarum."    Died  in  1647. 

Jenk'in,  (Robert,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  the 
isle  of  Thanet  in  1656.  He  was  educated  at  Can.bridge, 
and  received  several  preferments  ;  but,  refusing  to  take 
the  oaths  of  allegiance  to  William  and  Mary,  he  was 
deprived  of  them  all.  He  wrote  "  The  Reasonableness 
of  the  Christian  Religion,"  (1696,)  and  several  other 
works.    Died  in  1727. 

Jenkin  or  Jenk'yn,  (William,)  an  English  Puritan 
minister,  born  at  Sudbury  in  1612.  He  preached  many 
years  in  London,  and  published  an  "  Exposition  of  the 
Epistle  of  Jude,"  (1652,)  which  is  called  an  excellent 
work.  His  ministry  was  highly  commended  by  Baxter. 
He  died  in  Newgate  prison  in  1685. 

See  J.  Sherman,  "  Memoir  of  William  Jenkin,"  1839. 

Jenk'ins,  (Albert  G.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Cabell  county,  Virginia,  about  1830.  He  represented 
a  district  of  Virginia  in  Congress,  .1857-61.  He  served 
under  General  Lee  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863,  and 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5,  1864. 

Jenk'ins,  (David,)  a  Welsh  judge,  was  born  in  Gla- 
morganshire in  1586.  After  the  commencement  of  the 
civil  war  he  condemned  to  death  several  persons  who 
had  fought  against  the  king.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Parliamentary  forces,  and  confined  in  the  Tower,  in 
1645.  Having  been  brought  before  the  House  of  Com- 
mons on. a  charge  of  high  treason,  he  refused  to  kneel, 
and  called  the  House  "a  den  of  thieves."  He  was  fined 
;^iooo,  and  imprisoned  in  Newgate.  He  was  released 
about  1660.  He  wrote  several  legal  works.  Died  in  1667. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Jenk'ins,  (Henry,)  an  Englishman,  celebrated  for 
his  longevity,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1 501  ;  died  in  1670. 

Jenkins,  (John,)  an  English  musician  and  composer, 
born  at  Maidstone  in  1592;  died  in  1678. 

Jenkins,  (John  S.,)  an  American  biographer  of  the 
present  century.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
*'  Lives  of  the  Governors  of  the  State  of  New  York,"  a 
"  Life  of  Silas  Wright,"  and  a  "  Life  of  Andrew  Jack- 
son," (1847.) 

Jenkins,  (Sir  Leoline,)  a  British  civilian  and  states- 
man, born  in  Glamorganshire  in  1623.  He  fought  on  the 
king's  side  in  the  civil  war,  and  on  the  death  of  Charles 
became  tutor  to  several  families  in  Wales.  He  was  sub- 
sequently obliged  by  Parliament  to  leave  the  country. 
After  the  restoration  he  was  chosen  principal  of  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge.  In  1665  he  was  appointed  judge 
in  the  court  of  admiralty,  and  in  1672  ambassador  to 
Holland.  On  his  return  he  became  secretary  of  state. 
He  was  twice  chosen  member  of  Parliament  for  the 
University  of  Oxford.  His  letters  and  manuscrii)ts,  con- 
taining valuable  diplomatic  information,  were  published, 
in  2  vols,,  in  1724.    Died  in  1685. 

See  Wynne,  "  Life  of  Sir  L.  Jenkins,"  1724  ;  "  Biographia  Bri- 
tannica." 

Jenk'in-son,  (Anthony,)  an  Englishman,  travelled 
in  Russia  and  Persia  about  1560.  His  Adventures  were 
published  by  Halcluyt  and  Purchas. 

Jenkinson,  (Charles.)    See  Liverpool,  Earl  of. 

Jenkinson,  (Robert.)    See  Liverpool,  Earl  of. 

Jenks,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  religious  writer,  born 
in  1646,  was  curate  of  Kenley  and  Harley.  He  wrote 
"  Prayers  and  Ofiices  of  Devotion,"  (1697,)  and  "  Medi- 
tations on  Important  Subjects,"  (1701.)    Died  in  1724. 

Jen'nens,  (Charles,)  a  rich  and  vain  Englishman, 
called  "  Solyman  the  Magnificent."    He  composed  or 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  5^,  short;  a,  ^,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fdt>  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JENNER 


273 


JEROME 


selected  the  words  of  some  of  Handel's  oratorios,  and 
edited  several  plays  of  Shakspeare.    Died  in  1773. 

Jen'ner,  (Edward,)  M.D.,  celebrated  for  having  in- 
troduced the  practice  of  vaccination,  was  born  at  Berke- 
ley, in  Gloucestershire,  England,  in  1749.  He  studied 
surgery  at  Sodbury,  and  afterwards  went  to  London, 
where  he  attended  the  lectures  of  the  celebrated  John 
Hunter,  with  whom  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship. 
He  commenced  practice  at  Berkeley,  and  obtained  a 
high  reputation  for  skill.  His  attention  was  first  called 
to  the  subject  of  vaccination  by  hearing  a  countrywoman 
remark  that  she  could  not  take  the  smallpox,  because  she 
had  had  the  cow-pox.  Upon  investigating  the  subject, 
he  ascertained  that  milkers  frequently  caught  a  disease 
from  an  eruption  on  the  cow's  udder,  and  that  to  such  per- 
sons it  was  impossible  to  communicate  the  smallpox  by 
inoculation.  Jenner  related  the  circumstance  to  several 
eminent  men  in  the  profession  ;  but  they  treated  it  with 
ridicule.  By  further  experiments  he  clearly  demonstrated 
the  fact  that  from  one  of  the  several  eruptions  to  which 
cows  were  subject,  the  true  cow-pox,  as  he  termed  it, 
could  be  propagated  to  the  human  body,  and  then  from 
one  person  to  another,  and  that  this  was  a  preventive  of 
the  smallpox.  After  nearly  twenty  years  of  experiments, 
he  published  "An  Enquiry  into  the  Causes  and  Effects 
of  the  Variolae  Vaccinae,"  (1798;)  and  soon  after  more 
than  seventy  physicians  and  surgeons  signed  a  declara- 
tion of  their  entire  confidence  in  the  truth  of  Jenner's 
theory.  He  was  rewarded  by  Parliament  for  his  dis- 
covery by  a  present  of  10,000  in  1802,  and  a  grant  of 
;^20,ooo  in  1807.  He  also  received  marks  of  distinction 
from  the  Emperor  of  Russia  and  the  King  of  Prussia. 
Died  in  1823. 

See  Dr.  John  Baron,  "Life  of  Dr.  Jenner,"  1827;  Dr.  Valen- 
tin, "  Notice  historiaue  surleDocieur  Jenner,"  Nancy,  1824;  Wan- 
lop,  "Hulde  aan  L.  Jenner,"  Rotterdam,  1812;  J.  A.  Dupau, 
•'Notice  liistorique  siir  le  Dr.  E.  Jenner,"  1824;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale  ;"  "Encyclopedia  Britannica." 

Jenner,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  physician, 
born  at  Chatham  in  1815,  graduated  in  London  in  1844. 
He  became  professor  of  anatomy  in  University  College 
in  1848,  and  professor  of  clinical  medicine  there  in  1857. 
He  was  appointed  physician-in -ordinary  to  the  queen  in 
1862,  and  physician-in-ordinary  to  the  Prince  of  Wales 
in  1863. 

Jen'nings,  (David,)  a  learned  dissenting  minister, 
born  in  Leicestershire,  England,  in  1691.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  an  Independent  church  in  Wapping,  where 
he  preached  about  forty  years.  He  wrote  "An  Appeal 
to  Reason  and  Common  Sense  for  the  Truth  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures,"  "  An  Introduction  to  the  Knowledge 
of  Medals,"  (1763,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Jewish  Antiqui- 
ties," (1766,  often  reprinted.)    Died  in  1762. 

Jennings,  (Henry  Constantine,)  an  English  an- 
tiquary and  virtuoso,  born  at  Shiplake,  Oxfordshire,  in 
1 73 1.  He  had  a  passion  for  the  collection  of  medals, 
antiquities,  and  works  of  art,  by  the  purchase  of  which 
he  ruined  his  fortune.    Died  in  1819. 

Jennings,  (Sarah.)    See  Marlborough,  Duchess 

OF.  ^ 

Jen'our,  (Alfred,)  an  English  divine  and  scholar, 
was  rector  of  Kittisford,  in  Somersetshire.  He  pub- 
lished in  1830  a  "Translation  of  Isaiah,  with  Notes," 
(2  vols.) 

Jenson,  (Nicholas.)    See  Janson. 

Jen';^ns,  (Soame,)  a  distinguished  writer  and  politi- 
cian, born  in  London  in  1704,  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge. At  the  age  of  twenty  he  married  a  young  lady 
of  a  large  fortune,  from  whom  he  soon  after  separated. 
He  was  several  times  elected  to  Parliament,  and  in  1755 
was  made  a  lord  of  trade.  In  politics  he  was  a  Tory. 
His  writings  are  conspicuous  for  elegance  of  style,  wit, 
and  discrimination.  Among  them  we  may  mention  "A 
Free  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Origin  of  Evil,"  (1757,) 
"View  of  the  Internal  Evidence  of  the  Christian  Reli- 
gion," (1776,)  a  work  which  attracted  great  attention, 
and  several  poetical  productions.    Died  in  1787. 

See  C.  Nelson  Cole,  "Life  of  Soaine  Jenyns,"  1790;  Johnson 
and  Chalmers,  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets;"  "Retrospective 
Review,"  vol.  ii.,  1820. 

Jeph'spn,  (Robert,)  a  dramatic  writer,  and  captain  in 
the  English  army,  was  born  in  Ireland  in  1 736.  He  wrote, 


besides  other  works,  the  tragedies  of  "  Braganza,"  ( 1775,) 
and  "The  Count  of  Narbonne,"  which  were  successful, 
and  a  poem  entitled  "Roman  Portraits,"  (1797.)  He 
was  master  of  the  horse  under  twelve  successive  viceroys 
of  Ireland.    Died  in  1803. 

Jeph'thah,  [Heb.  nn3%]  a  judge  of  Israel,  about 
1200  B.C. 

See  Judges  xi.  and  xii. 

Jer'dan,  (William,)  a  writer  and  critic,  born  at 
Kelso,  in  Scotland,  in  1782.  He  formed  a  connection 
about  1805  with  a  newspaper  in  London  called  the 
"Aurora,"  and  in  1817  established  the  "Literary  Ga- 
zette," which  he  edited  in  an  able  manner  until  1850. 
At  this  time  he  was  granted  a  pension  by  government 
of  one  hundred  guineas  per  annum.  He  published  an 
interesting  work,  entitled  "Men  I  have  known,"  (1866.) 
Died  in  1869. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  4  vols.,  1852-53. 

Jereer,  Jerir,  or  Djerir,  jgh-reeR',  fin  German, 
DscHERiR,]  or,  more  fully,  Jereer-Ibn-Ateeyah-At- 
tenieemee,  (Attemimi,)  ib'n  i'tee'yah  St-te-mee^nee, 
surnamed  Akoo-  (Abu-)  Hazrah,  (i'boo  hSz^ra,)  a 
celebrated  Arabian  poet,  who  lived  at  Bassora,  (Basra,) 
whence  he  was  called  El-Basree,  (or  -Basry.)  He 
excelled  in  almost  every  kind  of  poetry,  in  panegyric, 
and  in  amatory  pieces,  but  was  most  distinguished  for 
his  wit  and  satiric  powers.  He  died  about  730  (or, 
according  to  some  authorities,  about  700)  a.d. 

See  article  "Djerir"  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Jer-e-mi'ah,  [Heb.  TTD")'  or  irTD"^''  ;  Lat.  Jeremi'as  ; 
Fr.  JER^MIE,"  zha-'ra^me';  Ger.  Jeremias,  ya-ra-mee-'is  ; 
It.  Geremia,  ja-rk-niee'i,]  a  prophet  of  Judah,  who 
lived  about  600  B.C.,  was  one  of  the  four  great  pro])hets 
of  the  Bible,  He  was  the  author  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  book  in  the  Old  Testament  which  bears  his  name, 
and  of  all  the  book  of  Lamentations.  He  is  called 
Jeremy  in  the  New  Testament.  (Matthew  xxvii.  9.) 
Died  about  580  B.C. 

Jeremiah  was  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  1572. 
The  Lutherans  sent  him  a  copy  of  the  Confession  of 
Augsburg,  hoping  to  obtain  his  approval  of  it ;  but,  on 
the  contrary,  he  condemned  it  in  many  of  his  writings. 

Jeiemie.    See  Jeremiah. 

Jeremie,  jer'e-me,  (Sir  John,)  an  eloquent  lawyer, 
born  in  Guernsey  in  1795,  at  the  age  of  twenty  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1824  he  was  appointed  chief 
justice  of  Saint  Lucia,  in  the  West  Indies.  When  he  first 
went  to  that  island  he  was  opposed  to  the  abolitionists ; 
but,  improving  the  opportunities  which  he  possessed 
of  investigating  the  subject  of  slavery,  he  formed  very 
different  views.  During  the  time  that  he  held  office  in 
Saint  Lucia  he  ably  enforced  the  laws  for  the  ameliora- 
tion of  the  condition  of  the  slaves.  On  his  return  to 
England,  in  183 1,  he  published  "  Four  Essays  on  Colonial 
Slavery."  In  1836  he  became  justice  of  the  supreme 
court  of  Ceylon,  and  four  years  later  Governor  and  Cap- 
tain-General of  Sierra  Leone,  where  he  died  in  1841. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "Letter  on  Negro  Emancipation 
and  African  Civilization." 

Jerir.    See  Jereer. 

Jermolov,  (Alexis  Petrovitch.)    See  Yermolok. 

Jerningham,  jer'ning-am,  (Edward,)  an  English  poet, 
born  in  1727.  Of  his  productions  we  may  cite  "The 
Rise  and  P'all  of  Scandinavian  Poetry,"  "Essay  on  the 
Mild  Tenour  of  Christianity,"  and  "The  Shakspeare 
Gallery,"  which  was  praised  by  Edmund  Burke.  Died 
in  1812. 

Jer-o-bo'am  [Heb.  D>'3"\'']  I.,  first  King  of  Israel, 
was  elected  king  by  the  ten  tribes  who  had  revolted 
from  Rehoboam,  the  son  of  Solomon,  975  B.C.  Died 
about  954  B.C. 

See  I.  Kings  xi.  to  xv. ;  IL  Chronicles  ix.  to  xiv. 

Jeroboam  II.,  a  son  of  Joash,  became  King  of  Israel 
in  834  or  825  B.C.,  and  reigned  forty-one  years. 

See  IL  Kings  xii. 

Jerome,  je-rom' or  j^r'om,  [Lat.  Hieron'ymus;  Fr. 
Jerome,  zh^'rom';  Ger.  Hierom,  hee'rom  ;  It  Giro- 
LAMO,  je-roKa-mo  ;  Sp.  Geronimo,  Ha-ron'e-mo,]  Saint, 
or,  more  fully,  Eu-se'bi-us  Hi-er-on'y-mus  So-phro'- 
ni-us,  one  of  the  most  learned  of  the  Latin  Fathers  of 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  Yi> guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


/ 

JEROME  1274 


JESSENIUS 


the  Church,  was  bom  at  Stridon,  in  Dalniatia  or  in  Pan- 
nonia,  about  340  a.d.  After  receiving  his  education  at 
Rome,  he  visited  Gaul,  where  he  collected  a  valuable 
library.  He  next  travelled  through  Thrace,  Pontus,  and 
Cappadocia,  and  finally  fixed  his  residence  in  Syria.  He 
subsequently  went  to  Jerusalem  to  study  Hebrew.  About 
382  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  became  secretary  to  Pope 
Damasus.  Upon  the  death  of  that  pontiff  he  removed 
to  a  monastery  at  Bethlehem,  where  he  died  in  420  A.D. 
A  large  portion  of  his  writings  were  of  a  controversial 
character,  exhibiting  great  learning,  eloquence,  and  in- 
genuity, though  too  often  betraying  bigotry,  passion,  and 
bitterness.  But  the  works  by  which  he  will  ever  be 
remembered  and  honoured  are  a  treatise  on  the  "  Lives 
and  Writings  of  the  Elder  Christian  Fathers,"  "  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Prophetical  Books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew,  and  several  of  the 
Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,"  and  a  translation  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  into  Latin,  known  in  the  Romish 
Church  as  the  "  Vulgate." 

See  Erasmus,  "  Vita  Doctoris  Hieronymi,"  Bale,  1519  ;  Schrokh, 
"  Kirchenjieschichte,"  vol  xi. ;  Maktianav,  "  Vie  de  Saint-Jerome," 
1706;  F.  Z.  CoLLOMBET,  "  Histoirc  de  Saint-Jerome,"  1844;  Jose 
DE  SiGUENZA,  "  Vida  de  San  Geronimo,"  Madrid,  1595  ;  Sebastiano 
DoLCi,"  Maximus  Hieronymus  Vitze  suae  Scriptor,"  etc.,  1758  ;  Ville- 
MAiN,  "Tableau  de  I'Eloquence  chretienne  au  quatrieme  Siecle," 
1857;  ViNCENZO  RoMANi,  "  Compcndio  storico  della  Vita  e  degii 
Scritti  di  S.  Girolamo,"  2  vols.,  1844;  Ersch  uiid  Gruber,  "Allge- 
meine  Encyklopaedie." 

Jerome  of  Santa  F6,  (sin'tl  f^,)  a  learned  Spanish 
Jew,  who  lived  about  1420.  His  Hebrew  name  was 
Joshua  Larchi.-  After  making  a  careful  examination 
of  the  prophecies  in  regard  to  the  Messiah,  he  was  con- 
vinced of  the  truth  of  Christianity.  He  wrote  a  treatise 
on  the  errors  of  the  Jewish  faith,  and  another  against 
the  Talmud. 

Jerome  de  Cardie.    See  Hieronymus. 

Jeromeof  Prague,  [Lat.  Hieron'ymus  Pragen'sis,] 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  followers  of  John  Huss, 
was  born  in  the  city  from  which  he  took  his  surname.  He 
studied  at  the  Universities  of  Paris,  Heidelberg,  and  Co- 
logne, each  of  which  conferred  upon  him  the  diploma  of 
D.D.  About  1400  he  became  acquainted  with  John  Huss, 
whose  doctrines  he  soon  after  began  to  preach  with  great 
effect  in  Bohemia,  Hungary,  and  Poland.  In  141 5,  when 
Huss  was  arrested,  Jerome  prepared  to  go  to  Constance 
to  defend  him.  Being  informed,  however,  of  the  great 
hostility  felt  there  towards  reputed  heretics,  he  retired 
to  Eberlingen,  and  afterwards  attempted  to  return  to 
Bohemia,  but  was  arrested,  and  placed  in  the  custody 
of  the  Prince  of  Salzburg,  who  sent  him  in  chains  to 
Constance,  where  he  was  thrown  into  prison  and  treated 
with  great  cruelty.  On  a  third  examination  before  the 
council,  he  signed  a  recantation  of  the  doctrines  of  Huss 
in  regard  to  transubstantiation  ;  but  a  few  months  after  he 
bitterly  repented  of  this,  and  declared  that  fear  of  a  cruel 
death  alone  induced  him  to  do  it.  He  was  thereupon 
condeinned  as  a  heretic,  and  sentenced  to  be  burnt  on 
the  30th  of  May,  1416.  He  suffered  with  the  greatest 
firmness,  serenity,  and  Christian  heroism,  and  his  death 
excited  the  highest  admiration  even  in  his  enemies. 

See  "  J.  Hussi  et  Hieronymi  Pragensis  Historia  at  Monumenta;" 
CocHL^us,  "Historia  Hussitarum." 

Jer'ram,  (Charles,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
1770,  was  vicar  of  Chobham,  Surrey.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Conversations  on  Infant  Baptism," 
{2d  edition,  1826.)    Died  about  1853. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  C.  Jerrani,"  by  his  son,  1855. 

Jer'rpld,  (Douglas  William,)  celebrated  as  a  hu- 
mourist, a  journalist,  and  a  dramatical  and  satirical 
writer,  was  born  in  London  in  1803.  He  was  the  son 
of  the  manager  of  Sheerness  Theatre,  where  he  imbibed 
his  taste  for  dramatic  literature.  Pie  was  apprentice^ 
to  a  printer  in  London,  in  which  situation  he  diligently 
improved  his  leisure  hours  in  the  study  of  literature  and 
the  languages.  Shakspeare  was  his  favourite  book.  His 
first  production  was  an  essay  on  the  opera  of  "  Der  Frei- 
schiitz,"  which  he  enclosed  anonymously  to  the  editor 
by  whom  he  was  then  employed.  The  article  was  highly 
commended,  and  Jerrold  had  the  satisfaction  of  placing 
it  in  type.  Thus  encouraged,  he  wrote  "Black-Eyed 
Susan,"  (about  1824,)  one  of  the  most  popular  dramas 
ever  acted  on  the  English  stage.    This  was  followed  by 


several  other  plays  of  great  merit.  He  afterwards  be- 
came a  contributor  to  "  Punch,"  the  popularity  of  which 
was  rapidly  increased  by  his  satirical  and  witty  produc- 
tions. He  also  edited  successively  "The  Heads  of  the 
People,"  "The  Illuminated  Magazine,"  "The  Shilling 
Magazine,"  and  "  Lloyd's  Weekly."  All  of  these  were 
very  successful,  and  the  last  had  an  immense  circulation. 
Many  of  his  writings  have  been  issued  in  volume  form, 
among  which  we  may  mention  "  Mrs.  Caudle's  Curtain 
Lectures,"  (new  edition,  1846,)  "Chronicles  of  Clover- 
nook,"  (1846,)  "Saint  Giles  and  Saint  James,"  (1851,) 
"Prisoner  of  War,"  "Time  Works  Wonders,"  (1854,) 
and  the  "Bubbles  of  the  Day."    Died  in  1857. 

See  "The  Wit  and  Opinions  of  Douglas  Jerrold,"  edited  bv  his 
son,  W.  B.  Jerrold,  1858;  "Life  and  Letters  of  D.  Jerrold,"  by 
W.  B.  Jkrrold,  1859;  "New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  bv  R.  H.  Horne, 
London,  1844;  "North  British  Review"  for  May,  1859. 

Jerrold,  (William  Blanchard,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  London  in  1826.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "A  Brage-Beaker  with  the  Swedes, 
or  Notes  from  the  North,"  (1853,)  and  "Life  of  Douglas 
Jerrold,"  (1859.)  He  succeeded  his  father  as  editor  of 
"  Lloyd's  Weekly  News." 

Jerusalem,  yi-roo'zi-lim',  (Johann  Friedrich 
Wilhelm,)  a  celebrated  Protestant  divine  and  pulpit 
orator,  born  at  Osnabriick,  in  Germany,  in  1709.  He 
was  appointed  in  1740  court  preacher  to  Duke  Charles 
of  Brunswick,  and  soon  after  became  tutor  to  his  son. 
Prince  Charles  William.  Through  his  influence  the 
Caroline  College  was  established  at  Brunswick.  In  1771 
he  was  created  vice-president  of  the  consistory  at  Wol- 
fenbiittel.  He  published,  besides  sermons,  "  Contem- 
plations on  the  Principal  Truths  of  Religion,"  (5  vols., 
1768-79.)  Died  in  1789.  The  suicide  of  his  son,  Karl 
Wilhelm,  suggested  to  Goethe  the  story  of  "  Werther." 

See  Jerusalem,  "  Entwurf  einer  Selbstbiographie ;"  "  Lebens- 
geschichte  des  seeligen  Jerusalem,"  1790. 

Jer'vas,  (Charles,)  a  portrait-painter,  and  native  of 
Ireland,  born  about  1675.  His  chief  excellence  lay  in 
copying.  He  gav€  lessons  to  Pope  the  poet,  who  highly 
praises  him  in  the  "Epistle  to  Jervas."    Died  in  1739. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Jer'vis,  (John,)  Earl  of  Saint  Vincent,  and  admiral  of 
the  British  fleet,  born  at  Meaford,  in  Staffordshire,  in 
1734.  He  entered  the  navy  when  ten  years  old,  and  in 
1760  became  a  post-captain.  In  1778  he  commanded  an 
eighty-gun  ship  in  Keppel's  action  against  the  French, 
and  in  1782  captured  the  Pegase,  of  seventy-four  guns. 
He  sat  in  Parliament  several  years  for  various  boroughs, 
until  the  commencement  of  the  French  Revolution,  when 
he  sailed  at  the  head  of  a  squadron  to  the  West  Indies, 
with  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  He  captured  Martinique, 
Guadeloupe,  and  Saint  Lucia.  In  1795  he  was  made 
admiral  of  the  blue,  and  commander  of  the  naval  force  in 
the  Mediterranean.  He  encountered  the  Spanish  fleet 
off  Cape  Saint  Vincent  in  February,  1797,  and,  though 
their  force  was  double  his  own,  he  gained  a  complete 
victory.  For  this  exploit  he  received  the  thanks  of  both 
Houses  of  Parliament,  and  a  pension  of  ;i^3000,  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the  titles  of  Earl  of  Saint  Vin- 
cent and  Baron  Jervis  of  Meaford.  He  was  ap])ointed 
first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  i8oi,and  retired  from  that 
office  in  1804.  He  became  admiral  of  the  fleet  in  1821. 
Died  in  1823. 

See  E.  P.  Brenton,  "Life  of  Earl  Saint  Vincent,"  2  vols.,  1838. 

Jesabel,  the  French  of  Jezebel,  which  see. 

Jesi,  ya'see,  (Samuele,)  an  Italian  engraver,  born  at 
Milan  about  1789,  executed  a  number  of  excellent  plates, 
after  Raphael.    Died  in  1853. 

Jesid.    See  Yezeed. 

Jes'se,  (Edward,)  an  English  naturalist  and  writer, 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Gleanings  in  Natural 
History,"  (3  vols.,  1832-35,)  and  "Scenes  and  Tales  of 
Country  Life,"  (1844.)    l^ied  in  1868. 

Jesse,  (John  JIeneage,)  an  English  poet  and  his- 
torical writer  of  the  present  age.  Among  his  works  are 
"Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  England  during  the  Reign  of 
the  Stuarts,"  (4  vols.,  1839-40,)  and  "Memoirs  of  the 
Pretenders  and  their  Adherents,"  (2  vols.,  1845.) 

Jessenius,  y§s-sa'ne-us,  (Johann,)  a  physician,  born 
in  Hungary  in  1566,  was  employed  by  the  Emperor  of 


5,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  m^t;  n6t;  g'Xid;  moon; 


JESSET 


1275 


JOAN 


Germany.  In  162 1  he  was  condemned  and  executed  for 
having  attempted  to  incite  his  countrymen  to  revolt 
against  the  house  of  Austria. 

Jes'sey,  (Henry,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born  in 
Yorkshire  about  1600.  He  was  ordained  after  the  Epis- 
copal forms,  and  obtained  a  living.  He  subsequently 
became  minister  of  a  Baptist  congregation.  He  com- 
menced a  new  translation  of  the  Bible,  but,  from  the 
persecutions  which  he  suffered  for  his  religious  belief, 
was  unable  to  finish  it.    He  died  in  jjrison  in  1663. 

Jes'sup,  (Thomas  S.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
1790  ;  died  in  i860. 

Je'sus  or  Jesh'u-a,  son  of  Sirach,  a  learned  Jew,  asd 
the  author  of  the  apocryphal  book  of  Ecclesiasticus.  He 
was  a  native  of  Jerusalem,  and  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
about  200  B.C. 

Je'ter,  (Jeremiah  B.,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist 
divine  and  author,  born  in  Bedford  county,  Virginia,  in 
1802,  became  pastor  in  Richmond.  He  published  several 
works. 

Jeuffroy,  zhuh'fRwS',  (R.  V.,)  a  distinguished  French 
^  engraver  of  gems  and  medals,  born  at  Rouen  in  1749. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute.    Died  in  1826. 

Jeune,  le,  leh  zhun,  (Jean,)  a  celebrated  French 
preacher,  born  in  Franche-Con^te  in  1592;  died  in  1672. 
His  sermons  were  published  in  10  vols. 

Jevhery  or  Djevhery,  jgv'hi-ree,  (Ismaeel-Ibn- 
Ham'mad,)  an  Arabian  lexicographer,  born  at  Farab. 
After  travelling  through  various  countries,  he  settled  at 
Nishapoor,  in  Persia,  where,  in  999,  he  published  one 
of  the  most  perfect  of  Arabian  dictionaries,  of  which 
Golius  made  extensive  use  in  his  "Lexicon  Arabicum." 
Died  about  1005. 

Jev'on,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatic  writer  and 
actor,  who  died  in  1688,  aged  about  thirty-five. 

Jew'ell  or  Jew'el,  (John,)  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  one 
of  the  earliest  champions  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  born 
at  Buden,  in  Devonshire,  in  1522.  He  studied  at  Oxford, 
aod  graduated  in  1540.  Under  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. 
he  openly  avowed  the  Protestant  faith,  and  assisted  Peter 
Martyr  in  his  dispute  with  the  Catholic  theologians  at 
Oxford.  After  the  accession  of  Mary  he  fled  to  Ger- 
many, (1555,)  and  at  Strasburg  again  met  Martyr,  whom 
he  assisted  on  some  of  his  works.  When  Elizabeth 
ascended  the  throne,  Jewell  returned  to  England,  and 
was  ordained  Bishop  of  Salisbury  in  1559  or  1560.  In 
this  position  he  continued  to  labour  diligently  for  the 
advancement  of  the  Protestant  religion.  He  died  in 
1571,  greatly  esteemed  for  his  eminent  piety  and  vast 
theological  knowledge.  His  writings  are  principally 
of  a  controversial  nature,  and  are  still  highly  valued. 
The  most  important  of  these  is  "  Apologia  Ecclesiaa 
Anglicanae,"  ("Apology  for  the  Church  of  England," 
1562,)  written  in  elegant  Latin,  and  translated  into 
English  by  the  mother  of  Lord  Bacon.  Versions  were 
also  rendered  of  it  into  Dutch,  French,  German,  Greek, 
Italian,  and  Spanish  ;  and  it  is  said  to  have  done  more 
for  the  promotion  of  the  Reformation  than  any  other 
work.  Jewell  also  wrote  a  "  Defence  of  the  Apology," 
(1567,)  in  answer  to  Harding,  a  Roman  Catholic,  who 
had  attacked  him. 

See  L.  HuMFREV,  "Life  of  Jewell,"  1573;  C.  W.  Le  Bas,  "Life 
of  Bishop  Jewell,"  1835  ;  Burnet,  "  History  of  the  Reformation  ;" 
"  Biographia  Britannica." 

Jews'bur-y,  (Geraldine  Endsor,)  younger  sister 
of  Mrs.  Fletcher,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Manchester 
in  1821.  She  published  a  number  of  novels,  among 
which  mav  be  named  "  Zoe,  or  the  History  of  Two 
Lives,"  (1845,)  "Marian  Withers,"  (1851,)  and  "The 
Sorrows  of  Gentility,"  (1856.) 

Jewsbury,  (Maria  Jane,)  an  English  authoress, 
born  in  Warwickshire  about  1800.  Among  her  principal 
works  are  "  Phantasmagoria,  or  Sketches  of  Life  and 
Literature,"  (1825,)  "Lays  of  Leisure  Hours,"  (1829,) 
and  "Three  Histories."  Having  been  married  in  1832 
or  1833  to  the  Rev,  William  Fletcher,  she  accompanied 
him  to  India,  where  she  died  in  1833.  She  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Wordsworth,  who  has  eulogized  her 
character  and  talents.  He  said  he  considered  her 
"unrivalled  in  one  quality, — quickness  in  the  motions 
of  her  mind." 


Jez'e-bel,  [Heb.  S^PK;  Fr.  J^sabel,  zhk'zl'hlV,]  a 
daughter  of  Ethbaal,  King  of  the  Zidonians,  and  wife  of 
Ahab,  King  of  Israel.  She  was  notorious  for  her  cruelty 
and  ill  faith.  She  was  killed  by  being  thrown  out  of  a 
window  by  the  order  of  Jehu. 

See  L  Kings  xvi.  ;  IL  Kiwgs  ix. 

Jezid  or  Jezed.    See  Yezeed. 

Jezzar  or  Djezzar  Ahmed,  jez'zar  Sn'mSd,  a  Pasha 
of  Acre  and  Sidon,  notorious  for  his  cruelty,  was  born 
in  Bosnia.  After  being  a  slave  of  Ali  Bey  in  Egypt,  he 
became  governor  of  Cairo.  In  1775  '^'^^^  appointed 
Pasha  of  Acre  and  Sidon,  and  about  1784  he  received 
the  Three  Tails.  In  1799  he  was  defeated  by  the  French, 
and  shut  himself  in  Saint-Jean-d'Acre,  which,  with  the 
aid  of  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  he  successfully  defended  against 
Bonaparte.    Died  in  1804. 

Jiiia,  jin'a,  [a  Sanscrit  word  signifying  "victorious,"] 
one  of  the  many  names  applied  to  Vishnu :  also  the 
name  of  a  celebrated  sage,  (called  also  Jaina,  ji'na,) 
the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Jains  or  Jainas.  As  the 
Hindoos  have  no  trustworthy  history,  it  seems  impos- 
sible to  determine  positively  the  character  of  the  Jains. 
They  are  commonly  regarded  as  a  division  or  offshoot 
of  the  Booddhists ;  although  in  one  passage  of  the 
"  Bhagavat"  Jina  is  spoken  of  as  the  father  of  Booddha. 
Thus  much  only  is  certain,  that  in  some  of  their  tenets 
and  customs  the  Jains  closely  resemble  the  Booddhists. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon,"  and  an  excellent  article  on  the 
Jains,  by  Mr.  Colebrooke,  in  "Asiatic  Researches,"  vol.  ix.  p.  288. 

Jo'ab,  [Heb.  chief  captain  of  the  armies  of 

Israel  under  King  David. 

See  IL  Samuel  iii.,  iv.,  x.,  xviii.,  xix.,  xx. ;  I.  Kings  ii. 

Jo'a-ehim,  [It.  Gioacchino,  jo-Sk-kee'no,]  an  Italian 
monk,  founded  the  monastery  of  Flora,  in  Calabria.  He 
wrote  several  heretical  works,  in  which  he  advanced 
the  doctrines  of  tritheism.    Died  in  1202  or  1207. 

Joachim,  (George.)    See  Rh/ETicus. 

Joachim,  yo'i-Kim,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German 
historian  and  medallist,  born  at  Halle  in  17 13.  He  was 
professor  of  history  and  law  at  Halle,  and  wrote  several 
works  on  history  and  numismatics.    Died  in  1667. 

Joachim  Murat.    See  Murat. 

Joan  or  Jo-an'na  [Fr.  Jeanne,  zhtn ;  It.  Gio- 
VANNA,  jo-vdn'na]  I.,  Queen  of  Naples,  a  daughter  of 
Charles,  Duke  of  Calabria,  was  born  in  1327.  She  was 
married  to  Andrew,  Prince  of  Hungary,  and  in  1343  suc- 
ceeded her  grandfather,  Robert,  King  of  Naples.  In  1345 
Andrew  was  murdered  by  conspirators,  probably  with 
the  connivance  of  Joan,  who  soon  after  married  Prince 
Louis  of  Tarentum.  To  avenge  the  death  of  Andrew, 
Louis,  King  of  Hungary,  invaded  Naples  and  expelled 
Joan  from  the  kingdom.  Having  gained  the  favour  of  the 
pope  by  ceding  Avignon  to  him,  she  was  restored  to  the 
throne  in  1352.  She  was  married  in  1376  to  her  fourth 
husband,  Otho  of  Brunswick,  but  continued  to  be  child- 
less. In  1381  Naples  was  invaded  by  Charles  Durazzo, 
who  captured  Joan  and  put  her  to  death  in  1382. 

See  "Historical  Life  of  Joanna  of  Sicily,"  London,  2  vols.,  1824; 
GiANNONE,  "  Storia  civile  del  Regno  di  Napoli ;"  V.  Mignot,  "  His- 
toirede  Jeanne  I,  Reine  de  Naples,"  1764;  D.  Crivelli,  "  Delia  prima 
e  della  seconda  Giovanna,  Regine  di  Napoli,"  1832;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale,"  (under  "  Jeanne  ;")"  London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  December,  1824,  "Monthly  Review"  for  December,  1S24. 

Joan  (or  Giovanna)  II.,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Durazzo,  succeeded  her  brother  Ladislaus  on  the  throne 
of  Naples  in  1414.  She  was  notorious  for  her  licentious 
conduct  and  the  number  of  her  favourites.  She  died  in 
1435,  leaving  the  kingdom  in  a  very  unsettled  state. 

See  D.  Crivelli,  "  Della  prima  e  della  seconda  Giovanna,  Regine 
di  Napoli,"  1832;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Joan,  Pope,  supposed  by  many  to  have  been  a  fabu- 
lous character,  is  placed  by  several  writers  in  the  ninth 
century.  Having  assumed  male  attire,  she  went  to  Rome, 
and  became  so  celebrated  for  her  ecclesiastical  know- 
ledge that  upon  the  death  of  Leo  IV.  she  was  unani- 
mously elected  pope.  She  was,  however,  one  day  seized 
with  the  pains  of  childbirth  as  she  was  proceeding  to  the 
Lateran  Basilica,  and  died  in  the  street,  after  a  pontificate 
of  two  years,  five  months,  and  four  days.  She  was  buried 
without  honours.  Other  accounts  state  that  upon  the 
discovery  of  the  imposture  she  was  stoned  to  death  by  the 
populace.    The  Protestants  have  been  accused  of  fabri- 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^(^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOAN 


276 


JOAO 


eating  the  account ;  but  it  has  been  satisfactorily  proved 
that  it  was  in  circulation  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century. 

See  J.  Lenfant,  "  Histoire  de  la  Papesse  Jeanne,"  1730;  S. 
Baring-Goulu,  "Curious  Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  1867. 

Joan,  Queen  of  Castile,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  the  Catholic,  was  marfied  in  1496  to  Philip, 
Archduke  of  Austria.  In  1500  she  gave  birth  to  Prince 
Carlos,  afterwards  Charles  V.  of  Germany.  She  soon 
after  lost  her  reason  ;  and  when,  upon  the  death  of  Isa- 
bella, she  became  Queen  of  Castile,  it  was  necessary  that 
a  regent  should  be  appointed.    Died  in  1555. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella;"  Mariana, 
"Historia  de  Espaiia." 

Joan,  (Jeanne,)  daughter  and  heiress  of  Henry  I. 
of  Navarre,  and  queen  of  Philippe  le  Bel  of  France, 
was  born  in  1272.  Upon  her  marriage  with  the  French 
monarch  she  retained  authority  over  her  hereditary  do- 
minions of  Navarre  and  Champagne.  She  carried  on 
a  successful  war  against  the  Castilians  and  Aragonese, 
assisted  her  husband  in  the  councils  and  administration 
of  affairs  in  France,  established  a  college  in  Navarre, 
and  was  a  liberal  patroness  of  learning.  In  1297,  Count 
de  Bar  having  invaded  Champagne,  the  queen  marched 
against  him  at  the  head  of  her  troops,  cut  his  army  in 
pieces,  and  carried  him  prisoner  to  Paris.  Died  in  1305. 

Joan  d'Albret.    See  Jeanne  d'Albret. 

Joan  of  Arc,  or  Jeanne  Dare,  zhtn  diRk,  surnamed 
THE  Maid  of  Orleans,  [Fr.  La  Pucelle  d'Orl^ans, 
It  pii's^K  doR''la'6N',]  the  most  illustrious  of  the  hero- 
ines of  history,  was  born  in  the  hamlet  of  Dom-Remy, 
in  Lorraine,  about  141 1.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
poor  and  religious  peasants,  who  implanted  in  her  heart 
at  an  early  age  the  seeds  of  that  exalted  enthusiasm 
which  subsequently  obtained  so  absolute  an  ascendency 
over  her  character.  At  this  time  the  rival  factions  of 
the  Orleanists  or  Armagnacs  and  the  Burgundians  deso- 
lated France  by  their  wars.  The  former  supported  the 
claims  of  Charles  VII. ;  while  the  latter  had  sworn  al- 
legiance to  Henry  V.  of  England.  Joan  from  infancy 
had  imbibed  the  principles  of  the  Orleanists,  by  whom 
she  was  surrounded.  Her  devotion  to  their  cause  was 
increased  by  the  cruelties  which  she  frequently  saw  the 
enemy  commit.  She  was  untiring  in  her  efforts  to  re- 
lieve the  sufferings  of  the  poor  around  her,  and  even  sold 
her  bed  and  the  greater  part  of  her  clothing  in  order  to 
procure  them  supplies.  She  afterwards  stated  that  as 
early  as  the  age  of  thirteen  she  received  commands  from 
Heaven  to  go  and  liberate  France.  These  commands 
continued  to  be  repeated  ;  but  her  parents  endeavoured 
to  suppress  her  enthusiasm.  She,  however,  obtained 
the  assistance  of  an  uncle,  who  introduced  her  to  De 
Baudricourt,  the  commander  of  a  neighbouring  fortress, 
before  whom  her  voices,  as  she  termed  them,  had  or- 
dered her  to  lay  her  divine  commission.  That  officer  at 
first  treated  her  assertions  with  scorn;  but  finally,  on 
account  of  the  disasters  that  his  prince  had  suffered,  he 
gave  her  the  assistance  which  she  had  requested,  and 
in  February,  1429,  with  a  guard  of  five  or  six  men,  she 
set  out  on  her  journey  for  Chinon,  where  Charles  then 
held  his  court.  At  this  time  his  cause  appeared  to  be 
almost  desperate.  Orleans,  which  was  the  only  place  of 
importance  that  remained  to  him,  was  closely  besieged 
by  the  English.  Joan  appeared  before  him,  and  declared 
that  her  mission  was  to  raise  the  siege  and  to  conduct 
him  to  Rheims  to  be  crowned.  At  this  period  she  had 
reached  her  eighteenth  year,  and  possessed  a  very  beau- 
tiful countenance  and  noble  form.  Charles  was  convinced 
of  the  truthfulness  of  her  statements,  and,  notwithstand- 
ing the  opposition  of  his  ecclesiastics  and  courtiers, 
raised  her  to  the  rank  of  a  military  commander,  and 
placed  a  considerable  body  of  troops  at  her  disposal. 
She  entered  Orleans  about  the  last  of  April,  1429,  with 
a  convoy  of  provisions,  and  in  one  week  raised  the  siege. 
In  battle  Joan  displayed  great  personal  bravery.  She 
subsequently  gained  the  battles  of  Jargeau  and  Patay,  in 
the  latter  of  which  the  noted  Talbot  was  made  prisoner. 
Several  important  cities  surrendered  to  her  without  resist- 
ance ;  and  in  less  than  three  months  from  the  time  that  she 
received  her  military  command,  Charles  was  crowned  at 
Rheims,  in  the  cathedral  consecrated  to  the  coronation  of 
the  French  sovereigns.   She  then  petitioned  the  king  that 


she  might  be  permitted  to  return  home  ;  but  he  prevailed 
on  her  to  continue  in  the  army.  The  following  spring,  as 
she  was  making  a  sortie  against  the  Burgundians  near 
Compiegne,  she  was  captured  by  them  and  subsequently 
handed  over  to  the  English,  who,  with  the  Bishop  of 
Beauvais  and  the  University  of  Paris,  urgently  demanded 
her  execution  as  a  sorceress.  The  King  of  England 
granted  their  request,  and  Joan,  after  a  mock-trial  at 
Rouen,  was  condemned  to  be  burnt.  On  the  31st  of 
May,  1431,  she  was  dressed  in  the  garb  of  the  victims  of 
the  Inquisition,  and,  amidst  the  clamours  of  assembled 
thousands,  conducted  to  the  stake,  where,  in  a  short 
time,  her  body  was  consumed.  She  died  declaring  that 
her  voices  had  not  deceived  her,  and  with  the  name  of 
Jesus  on  her  lips.  Many  of  those  who  had  most  eagerly 
sought  her  death  were  melted  to  tears  ;  and  even  the 
executioner  declared  that  he  had  committed  an  unpar- 
donable sin.  A  secretary  of  the  King  of  England  also 
said,  "  We  are  lost !  we  have  burned  a  saint."  Thus 
perished  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  against  whom  not  the 
slightest  crime  could  be  proved.  If  the  inspiration  which 
she  received  came  not  from  the  source  to  which  she 
attributed  it,  it  was  at  least  the  offspring  of  bravery,  of 
generosity,  of  patriotism,  of  those  virtues  which  have 
raised  to  immortality  so  many  of  the  great  and  good. 
In  the  high-coloured  and  eulogistic  account  given  of 
her  by  Michelet,  he  remarks,  "She  had  the  goodness  of 
the  ancient  martyrs,  but  with  this  difference  :  the  early 
Christians  remained  pure  and  virtuous  only  in  retiring 
from  the  encounter  and  in  separating  themselves  from 
the  struggles  and  temptations  of  the  world,  while  she 
was  benign  in  the  fiercest  conflicts,  good  among  the  bad, 
gentle  even  in  war;  'into  war,  that  triumph  of  the  devil, 
she  carried  the  spirit  of  Heaven.'  This  tenderness  of 
heart  she  had  for  all  men.  She  wept  after  the  victories, 
and  relieved  the  sufferings  of  the  wounded  English." 
Her  death  stamped  indelible  infamy  on  all  the  parties 
connected  with  the  war, — on  the  Burgundians  for  de- 
livering her  to  her  inveterate  enemies,  on  the  English 
and  their  French  allies  for  their  inhuman  cruelty  and 
thirst  for  revenge,  and  on  her  own  prince  and  party  for 
not  making  a  powerful  attempt  to  save  her. 

See  Barthf.i.emy  de  Beauregard,  "  Histoire  de  Jeanne  d'Arc," 
2  vols.,  1847  ;  Desjardins,  "Vie  de  Jeanne  d'Arc,"  1854  ;  Vai.let 
de  Virivili.e,  "  Noiivelles  Recherches  siir  la  Famille,  etc.  de  Jeanne 
Dare,"  1854;  Lenglet-Dufresnoy,  "Histoire  de  Jeanne  d'Arc," 
1753;  Le  Brun  de  Charmettes,  "Histoire  de  Jeanne  d'Arc," 
4  vols.,  1817;  Alphonse  de  I.-amartine,  "Jeanne  d'Arc,"  1852; 
Jules  Michelet,  "Jeanne  d'Arc,"  1853;  R.  M.  Evans,  "Story 
of  Joan  of  Arc,"  1847;  A.  M.  Meneghelli,  "  Giovanna  d'Arc," 
Padua,  1841  ;  Michelet,  "History  of  France;"  Carl  Liebelt, 
"  Dziewica  Orleanska  ustep  dziejow  Francyi,"  Posen,  1847;  Guido 
Goerres,  "Die  Jungfrau  von  Orleans,"  1834;  Harriet  Parr, 
"Life  and  Death  of  Jeanne  d'Arc,"  1866;  Thomas  De  Quincey, 
"  Miscellaneous  Essays;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  March, 
1842. 

Joan  [Sp.  JuANA,  Hoo-Jn'ya]  Henriquez,  (§n-ree'- 
k§th,)  Queen  of  Aragon  and  Navarre,  daughter  of  Fred- 
erick Henriquez,  of  the  blood-royal  of  Castile,  and 
admiral  of  that  kingdom.  In  1444  she  was  married  to 
John  II.  of  Aragon,  and  in  1452  gave  birth  to  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic.  She  was  a  princess  of  great  energy  of 
character  and  of  uncommon  mental  endowments  ;  and 
to  her  advice  and  assistance  many  of  the  successes  of 
John  IL  are  to  be  attributed.    Died  in  1468. 

Joanes,  Ho-a'n§s,  or  Jvianes,  Hoo-^'nes,  (Vincente,) 
an  eminent  Sj^anish  painter,  hcixw  in  Valencia  in  1523, 
studied  at  Rome,  and  was  regarded  as  the  greatest  artist 
of  the  Valencian  school.  Died  in  1579.  Among  his 
most  important  works  may  be  mentioned  Christ  after 
death  borne  by  the  angels,  the  Saviour  with  the  two 
prophets,  and  a  Saint  Francis. 

Joannes.    See  John. 

Joannes  Comnenus.    See  Calo-Joannes. 

Joannes  Massiliensis,    See  Cassian,  (John.) 

Joannet,  zho't'ni',  (Claude,)  a  French  litterateur^ 
born  at  Dole  in  1716;  died  in  1789. 

Joanny,  zho't'ne',  the  assumed  name  of  Jean  Bap- 
tiste  Bernard  Brissebarre,  a  famous  French  tragic 
actor,  born  at  Dijon  in  1775,  and  who  is  said  to  have 
been  nearly  equal  to  Talma.    Died  in  1849. 

Joao  (or  Joam)  of  Por  tugal.    See  John. 

Joao  or  Juan,  surnamed  De  Dios  or  De  Dieu.  See 

DiEU. 


a,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  3^,  short;    e,  j,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fUll,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JOJSH 


1277 


J  OH AN NOT 


Jo'ash  [Heb.  l^Xr]  or  Je-ho'ash,  King  of  Judah, 
and  son  of  Ahaziah.  He  ascended  the  throne  when 
seven  years  of  age,  and  reigned  virtuously  forty  years. 
He  was  assassinated  by  his  servants  in  838  B.C. 

See  II.  Chronicles  xxiii.  and  xxiv. ;  II.  Kings  xi.  and  xii. 

Joash  or  Jehoash,  King  of  Israel,  succeeded  his 
father,  Jehoahaz,  839  or  840  B.C.,  and  reigned  sixteen  years. 

See  II.  Kings  xiii. ;  II.  Chronicles  xxv.  17. 

Job,  [Heb.  Gr.  'Iw/3;  Arabic,  Aiyoob,  (Aiyoub 

or  Aiyub,)  Tyoob';  Ger.  HiOB,  hee'op ;  It.  Giobbe, 
job'bi,]  a  patriarch  of  Uz,  (a  country  which  is  believed 
by  many  to  be  the  same  as  Idumaea,)  who  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  a  very  remote  antiquity.  One  of  the  most 
sublime  books  of  the  Old  Testament  bears  his  name  and 
gives  an  account  of  his  life  and  virtues.  By  many  it  has 
been  thought  that  Job  was  an  allegorical  character;  but 
there  appears  to  be  little  reason  for  this  supposition. 
He  is  mentioned  by  the  prophet  Ezekiel,  (xv.  16,)  and 
by  Saint  James,  (v.  11,)  as  a  real  person.  Much  con- 
troversy has  arisen  about  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  and 
the  author  of  the  book  ;  but  both  these  points  remain 
unsettled.  This  work  was  written  in  Hebrew,  with  a 
mixture  of  Arabic. 

Job  or  Aiyoob,  Tyoob',  (Solomon,)  an  African 
prince,  son  of  a  king  of  Bondoo,  in  Senegambia.  In 
1730  he  was  sold  to  the  English,  who  carried  him  to 
Maryland,  where  he  became  a  slave.  His  story  interested 
General  Oglethorpe  and  others,  who  ransomed  him  and 
sent  him  to  England  in  1733.  presented  at 

court,  and  attracted  much  attention.  He  produced  an 
interesting  geographical  account  of  his  native  country, 
and  wrote  from  memory,  it  is  said,  three  copies  of  the 
Koran.    He  returned  to  Bondoo  about  1735. 

Jobard,  zho'btR',  (J.  B.  A.  M.,)  a  writer  on  social 
economy,  born  in  Haute-Marne,  France,  in  1792.  He 
lived  in  Belgium.    Died  in  1861. 

Jobert,  zho'baiR',  (Louis,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  anti- 
quary, born  at  Paris  in  1637.  For  some  time  he  was 
a  professor  of  rhetoric  in  his  native  city,  and  afterwards 
became  celebrated  as  a  preacher.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  treatises  on  medals.    Died  in  1719. 

Jobert  de  Lamballe,  zho'baiR'  deh  16N'btr,  (An- 
ToiNE  Joseph,)  an  eminent  French  surgeon,  born  at 
Lamballe  in  1799.  He  lectured  in  Paris,  and  puljlished, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Plastic  Surgery," 
("Traite  de  Chirurgie  plastique,"  2  vols.,  1849.)  He 
became  surgeon  to  the  emperor  in  1854.    Died  in  1867. 

Jo-cas'ta  or  Jo-cas'te,  [Gr.  'Iokuottj  ;  Fr.  Jocaste, 
zho'ktst',]  sometimes  called  Epicaste,  the  wife  of  Laius, 
and  the  mother  of  CEdipus.  According  to  tradition,  she 
was  married  to  CEdipus  without  knowing  who  he  was, 
and  hung  herself  after  she  discovered  the  relationship 
between  them. 

See  the  "  CEdipus"  of  Sophocles. 

Jocaste.    See  Jocasta. 

Jog'e-lyn,  (Robert,)  Lord,  M.P.,  an  English  poli- 
tician, born  in  1816,  visited  China  about  1840,  and  pub- 
lished *'  Six  Months  in  China."    Died  in  1854. 

Jo-eha'nan  or  Jo-ha'nan  Ben  E-li-e'zer,  a  Jewish 
rabbi,  born  in  Palestine  about  184  a.d.  He  compiled 
the  "Jerusalem  Gemara,"  a  part  of  the  Talmud.  He  is 
said  to  have  died  in  279  a.d. 

Jocher  or  Joecher,  yo'Ker,  (Christian  Gottlieb,) 
an  eminent  German  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Leipsic 
in  1694.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  and  his- 
tory at  Leipsic  about  1730.  His  most  important  work 
is  a  "  Universal  Dictionary  of  Learned  Men,"  ("Allge- 
meines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,"  4  vols.,  1750-51,)  which  is 
highK  esteemed.  Supplements  have  been  pulDlished  by 
Adelung  and  others.    Died  in  1758. 

See  Ernesti,  "Memoria  C.  G.  Jocheri,"  1758;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Adelung's  Supplement  to 
Jocher. 

Jochmus,  yoK'mAs,  (Albrecht,)  a  German  general, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1808.  About  1838  he  was  sent  by 
Lord  Palmerston  to  Constantinople  to  plan  a  campaign 
in  Syria.  He  became  general-in-chief  of  the  allied 
armies  of  England  and  Turkey  in  December,  1840.  He 
was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  by  the  Archduke 
John,  Vicar  of  the  German  empire,  in  May,  1849,  and 
resigned  in  December  of  that  year. 


Jocondus.    See  Giocondo,  (Giovanni.) 

Jode,  de,  deh  yo'deh,  (Arnold,)  son  of  Pieter,  Jr., 
noticed  below,  was  born  about  1636.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  inferior  to  his  grandfather  and  father  as  an 
engraver.  While  in  London,  in  1667,  he  engraved  for 
Charles  I.  "Mercury  Instructing  Cupid,"  by  Correggio. 
Among  his  other  works  is  "  The  Infant  Jesus  embracing 
Saint  John." 

See  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Jode,  de,  (Pieter,)  a  Flemish  engraver,  born  in  1570 ; 
died  in  1634.  Among  the  most  important  of  his  prt)- 
ductions  may  be  mentioned  "The  Last  Judgment,"  by 
Cousin,  and  "Jesus  Christ  giving  the  Keys  to  Saint 
Peter,"  by  Rubens. 

Jode,  de,  (Pieter  or  Petrus,)  Jr.,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Antwerp  about  1606.  He  engraved 
numerous  pictures  from  Rubens,  Van  Dyck,  Titian,  and 
other  artists.  Among  his  best  works  is  "The  Visita- 
tion of  the  Virgin,"  after  Rubens.    Died  after  1660. 

Jodelle,  zho'd^K,  (Etienne,)  Lord  of  Lymodin,  born 
at  Paris  in  1532.  He  was  one  of  the  seven  French  poets 
termed  the  "  Pleiades."  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
to  write  plays  in  the  French  language  and  to  introduce 
choruses  after  the  Greek  manner.  It  is  said  that  his 
fluency  of  composition  was  so  great  that  on  a  wager  he 
composed  in  one  night  five  hundred  Latin  verses  on  a 
given  subject.  He  died  poor  in  1573.  His  principal 
production  was  the  tragedy  of  "Cleopatra,"  (1552.) 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  Bayle,  "  His- 
torical and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "  Poesie  Fran^aise  au  seizieme  Siecle." 

Jo'drell,  (Richard  Paul,)  an  English  dramatic 
writer,  born  in  1745.  He  produced  "A  Widow  and  no 
Widow,"  a  farce,  "The  Persian  Heroine,"  a  tragedy, 
(1786,)  and  "  Philology  of  the  English  Language,"  (1820.) 
Died  in  1831. 

Joecher.    See  Jocher. 

Jo'el,  [Heb.  S^?V;  Gr.  'Iw^yA,]  one  of  the  twelve  minor 
Hebrew  prophets,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Uzziah,  about  800-750  B.C.  A  passage  of  his  prophecy 
is  quoted  in  Acts  ii.  17. 

Joerdens.    See  Jordens. 

Joffredus.    See  Jouffrol 

Joffrid,  an  English  abbot  of  Lincolnshire,  lived  in 
the  twelfth  century.  Peter  de  Blois,  a  writer  of  the  time 
of  Henry  II.,  states  that  Joffrid  was  the  founder  of  the 
University  of  Cambridge. 

Jogues,  zhog,  (Isaac,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Or- 
leans in  1607,  spent  many  years  in  Canada  as  a  missionary. 
He  was  killed  by  the  Mohawks  in  1646. 

Johann,  (princes  of  Germany.)    See  John. 

Johanneau,  zho't'no',  (£loi,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  near  Blois  in  1770.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Academic  Celtique.  In  i8ti  he  became  imperial 
censor  of  books.  He  wrote  on  botany,  Celtic  monuments, 
and  other  subjects.    Died  in  185 1. 

Johannaeus,  (Finnus.)    See  Jonsson,  (Finn.) 

Johannes,  the  Latin  for  John,  which  see. 

Johannes  Antiochenus.    See  John  of  Antioch. 

Johannes  Climacus.    See  Climacus. 

Johannes  Secundus.    See  Everard,  (Johannes.) 

Johannot,  zho't'no',  (Charles,)  eldest  son  of  Fran- 
9ois,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Frankfort  about  1790. 
He  was  a  skilful  engraver,  and  produced  illustrations  of 
the  life  of  Saint  Genevieve  of  Brabant.    Died  in  1825. 

Johannot,  (Charles  Henri  Alfred,)  an  engraver 
and  painter,  second  son  of  Fran9ois,  noticed  IdcIow, 
was  born  at  Offenbach  in  1801.  He  acquired  a  high 
reputation  for  his  vignette-designs  illustrating  the  French 
translations  of  Byron,  Scott,  and  Cooper.  Among  his 
best  paintings  are  "The  Entrance  of  Mademoiselle 
Montpensier  into  Orleans  during  the  Fronde,'"  and  "  Mary 
Stuart  leaving  Scotland."    Died  in  1837. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Johannot,  (Franqois,)  a  German  designer  and  en- 
graver, of  French  extraction,  was  born  in  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt, and  lived  about  1790.  He  settled  at  Paris  with 
his  partner,  Charles  Andre. 

Johannot,  (Tony,)  a  painter  and  wood-engraver,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Offenbach  in  1803. 
He  gained  a  wide  reputation  as  a  designer  and  engraver 


€  as>&;  9  as  s;  g  ^ard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal ;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (gl^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOHN 


1278 


JOHN 


of  vignettes  for  books.  Among  the  works  which  he 
illustrated  are  "  Werther,"  the  plays  of  Moliere,  "  Manon 
Lescaut,"  "  Jerome  Paturot,"  and  "  The  Vicar  of  Wake- 
field."   Died  in  Paris  in  1852. 

John  [Gr.  'ludwrjg ;  Lat.  Johan'nes  ;  Fr.  Jean,  zhdN  ; 
It.  Giovanni,  jo-vJn'nee]  the  Divine,  commonly  called 
Saint  John  the  Evangelist,  with  his  brother  James, 
was  among  the  first  to  become  a  disciple  of  our  Saviour 
when  He  commenced  his  ministry.  John  was  made 
one  of  the  twelve  apostles  ;  and  his  gentle,  loving  spirit 
appears  to  have  especially  endeared  him  to  his  divine 
Master.  He  spoke  of  himself  as  "  the  disciple  whom 
Jesus  loved."  He  was  with  his  Master  in  the  garden  of 
Gethsemane.  When  our  Saviour  was  nailed  to  the  cross, 
He  commended  his  mother  to  the  care  of  the  beloved 
disciple.  After  the  resurrection  and  ascension  of  Jesus, 
Saint  John  became  one  of  the  most  prominent  of  the 
propagators  of  the  Christian  religion.  Syria  and  Asia 
Minor  were  the  principal  scenes  of  his  labours.  We 
are  told  by  Tertullian  and  Saint  Jerome  that  under  the 
reign  of  Domitian,  by  the  order  of  a  Roman  proconsul, 
he  was  immersed  in  a  caldron  of  boiling  oil,  and  that  in 
this  terrible  ordeal  he  was  miraculously  preserved,  so 
that  he  sustained  not  the  slightest  injury.  After  this 
he  was  banished  to  the  isle  of  Patmos,  where  he  wrote 
the  Apocalypse,  or  Revelation,  He  also  wrote  three 
Epistles,  and  the  Gospel  according  to  Saint  John.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  died  at  Ephesus  in  99  a.d.,  at  the 
age  of  ninety-four. 

Among  all  the  disciples  of  Christ,  John  appears  to 
have  most  fully  comprehended  the  character  and  spirit 
of  his  divine  Master.  He  first  announced  in  clear  and 
concise  terms  the  great  central  truth  of  Christianity, 
that  *'  God  is  love," — a  truth  which,  in  his  view,  finds 
its  fullest  proof  in  the  great  fact  that  God  gave  His 
Son  for  the  salvation  of  the  world.  (See  John  iii.  16, 
17;  and  I.  Epistle  iv.  8,  9,  10.)  The  soul  of  "the  be- 
loved disciple"  seems  ever  filled  with  the  one  theme. 
Love,  not  fear,  is  to  be  the  motive  of  obedience  : — "  If  ye 
love  me,  keep  my  commandments."  The  love  to  which 
he  refers  is  not  a  mere  sentiment,  but  a  living  power: — 
"This  is  the  love  of  God,  that  we  keep  his  command- 
ments." (See  John  xiv.  15,  21,  23;  I.  Epistle  iv.  7,  8, 
16,  18,  20 ;  v.  2  and  3.) 

See  F.  A.  Tholuck,  "Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  John,"  the 
7th  edition  of  which  was  translated  into  English  by  Dr.  C.  P. 
Krauth,  Philadelphia,  1859;  Wegscheider,  "Introduction  to  the 
Gospel  of  Saint  John,"  Gottingen,  1806;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

John  I.,  surnamed  ZiMis'cES,  [Gr.  T$//icr/c^^-,]  became 
Emperor  of  the  East  in  969  a.d.  He  carried  on  a  suc- 
cessful war  against  the  Rossi,  or  Russians,  and  quelled 
serious  disturbances  in  his  eastern  provinces.  He  died 
of  poison,  as  he  was  returning  to  Constantinople,  in  975. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  superior  talents. 

John  III.,  of  the  family  of  Ducas,  surnamed  Vatat'- 
ZES,  born  in  Thrace  in  1193,  succeeded  his  father-in-law, 
Theodore  Lascaris,  in  1222,  as  Emperor  of  the  East. 
Constantinople  being  then  in  possession  of  the  Latins, 
John  fixed  his  capital  at  Nicaea,  in  Bithynia.  In  1235  he 
besieged  Constantinople,  but  was  repulsed.  He,  how- 
ever, reconquered  all  the  other  possessions  belonging  to 
the  Greek  Empire  which  had  been  taken  by  the  Latins. 
John  was  a  liberal  patron  of  the  useful  arts,  and  did  much 
to  promote  the  welfare  of  his  subjects.    Died  in  1255. 

John  IV.  (Las'caris)  succeeded  his  father  Theodore 
as  Emperor  of  the  East  in  1259,  when  he  was  aged  but 
six  years.  He  was  deprived  of  the  crown  in  1261  by 
Michael  Palseologus,  who  put  out  his  eyes  and  im- 
prisoned him  during  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

John  V.    See  Cantacuzenus. 

John  VI.,  (Palaeol'ogus,)  born  in  1332,  was  a  son  of 
Andronicus,  whom  he  succeeded  on  the  imperial  throne 
of  Constantinople  in  1341.  He  was  afterwards  impris- 
oned by  one  of  his  sons.  During  these  intestine  troubles 
the  Turks  attacked  the  capital,  and  forced  John  to  con- 
clude a  disgraceful  treaty.  He  left  the  throne  to  his  son 
Manuel.    Died  in  1391. 

John  VIL  (Palaeologus)  succeeded  his  father  Man- 
uel on  the  throne  of  Constantinople  in  1425.  Being 
unable  to  oppose  the  Turkish  invaders,  he  sought  the 
assistance  of  the  Latins  ;  and,  in  order  to  cement  the 


union,  he  formed  a  reconciliation  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Churches,  which,  however,  lasted  but  a 
short  period.  Died  in  1448.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  Constantine  XHl. 

See  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas- Empire." 

John  [Sp.  Juan,  Hoo-an']  I.,  son  of  Peter  (Pedro)  IV., 
was  born  in  1350,  and  ascended  the  throne  of  Aragon  in 
1387.    Died  in  1395. 

John  (Juan)  11.,  King  of  Aragon  and  Navarre,  born 
in  1397,  was  one  of  the  bravest  and  most  enterprising 
of  the  Spanish  sovereigns.  In  1425  he  ascended  the 
throne  of  Navarre,  as  the  husband  of  Queen  Blanche, 
and  three  years  later  was  appointed  by  his  brother  Al- 
fonso V.  to  the  government  of  Aragon.  Blanche  died 
soon  after,  and  in  1447  he  married  Joan  Henriquez,  of 
the  blood-royal  of  Castile,  who  became  the  mother  of 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  He  became  King  of  Aragon  in 
1458.  He  carried  on  long  and  successful  wars  against 
Henry  IV.  of  Castile  and  Louis  XI.  of  France.  He  also 
suppressed  a  formidable  rebellion  of  the  Catalans.  Died 
in  1479. 

See  Prescott,  "  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  chap.  ii. ;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Enc3'klopaedie." 

John  (Juan)  I.,  King  of  Castile  and  Leon,  was  born 
in  1358.  He  succeeded  his  father  Henry  (Henrique)  II. 
in  1379.  He  subsequently  invaded  Portugal,  but  met 
with  a  total  defeat  at  Aljubarota  in  August,  1385.  Died 
in  1390. 

John  II.,  King  of  Castile  and  Leon,  son  of  Henry 
(Henrique)  III.,  born  in  1404,  was  proclaimed  sovereign 
two  years  later.  He  carried  on  successful  wars  against 
the  Kings  of  Aragon  and  Navarre  and  the  Moors  of 
Granada.  By  his  first  wife,  Maria  of  Aragon,  he  left 
three  children,  one  of  whom  succeeded  him  as  Henry 
(Henrique)  IV.  By  his  second  queen,  Isabella,  he  had  a 
daughter,  afterwards  illustrious  as  Isabella  the  Catholic. 
Though  a  feeble  sovereign,  he  was  a  liberal  patron  of 
learning,  and  his  reign  was  distinguished  for  the  revival 
of  literature  in  Castile.    Died  in  1454. 

See  Prescott,  "Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  chap.  i. ;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

John  (Hans,  hins)  I.  of  Denmark  and  II.  of 
Sweden,  son  of  Christian  I.,  of  the  house  of  Oldenburg, 
born  in  1455,  ascended  the  throne  in  1481.  About  the 
year  1500  the  Swedes  rebelled  against  him  because  he 
had  garrisoned  the  fortresses  with  Danish  and  German 
troops.  He  was  finally  obliged  to  resign  all  claims  to  the 
Swedish  crown.    Died  in  1 5 13. 

John,  King  of  England,  surnamed  Sansterre,("  Lack- 
land,") the  youngest  son  of  Henry  II.  by  his  queen,  Elea- 
nor of  Guienne,  was  born  at  Oxford  in  1166.  The  king 
at  first  created  him  Earl  of  Montague,  in  Normandy,  and 
in  1 178  made  him  Lord  of  Ireland.  In  1189  he  married 
the  daughter  and  sole  heiress  of  William,  Earl  of  Glou- 
cester. The  same  year  he  was  a  confederate  in  the 
rebellion  of  his  brother  Richard.  On  the  accession  of 
the  latter  to  the  throne  he  gave  John  several  earldoms, 
including  about  one-third  of  the  kingdom.  Soon  after 
Richard's  departure  on  the  crusade  for  the  Holy  Land, 
John  formed  plans  to  obtain  the  crown  on  the  event  of 
the  king's  death,  in  opposition  to  the  rights  of  his  nephew 
Arthur,  Duke  of  Bretagne,  whom  Richard  had  recognized 
as  his  heir.  When  John  was  informed  of  his  brother's 
imprisonment  in  Germany,  he  immediately  attempted  to 
usurp  the  throne,  but  was  kept  in  check  by  the  loyalty 
of  the  nobles.  On  the  king's  return  to  England,  in 
1 194,  he  deprived  John  of  all  his  estates  and  compelled 
him  to  make  a  humble  submission.  Richard  died  in 
France  in  1199,  leaving  his  kingdom  to  John,  who  was 
then  with  him.  That  prince  hastened  to  establish  his 
authority  in  Normandy  and  his  other  dominions,  and 
was  crowned  at  Westminster  in  May,  1199.  In  I20t  he 
obtained  a  divorce  from  his  wife,  and  married  Isabella 
of  Angouleme.  Philip  Augustus  of  France  espoused 
the  cause  of  Arthur,  who  commenced  hostilities  against 
John  and  gained  several  victories,  but  was  subsequently 
taken  prisoner  by  his  uncle  and  conveyed  to  Rouen. 
Nothing  further  was  heard  from  him  ;  but  the  probability 
is  that  he  was  murdered.  The  war  afterwards  went 
entirely  against  the  King  of  England,  who  in  the  course 
of  two  years  lost  the  greater  part  of  his  continental 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


JOHN 


JOHN 


possessions.  During  this  period  he  drew  upon  himself 
the  hostility  of  the  Roman  pontiff  by  insisting  on  his 
right  to  appoint  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  that  see 
being  then  vacant.  The  pope  excommunicated  him  and 
laid  the  kingdom  under  an  interdict,  (1208.)  John,  how- 
ever, paid  no  attention  to  the  thunders  of  the  Vatican, 
but  imprisoned  or  banished  the  bishops  and  clergy  who 
obeyed  the  pope's  orders.  Meanwhile  he  reduced  Lle- 
wellyn, a  Welsh  prince,  to  subjection,  and  suppressed  a 
rebellion  in  Ireland.  Finally  the  pope,  having  formally 
deposed  him  and  absolved  his  subjects  from  their  oaths 
of  allegiance,  instigated  the  French  king  to  invade  Eng- 
land. John,  perceiving  his  danger,  made  an  abject  sub- 
mission to  the  papal  legate,  and  resigned  to  him  the 
kingdoms  of  England  and  Ireland,  (1213.)  Philip  was 
then  forbidden  to  prosecute  his  enterprise.  For  a  long 
time  John's  tyranny  had  excited  the  hatred  of  his  barons. 
This  was  increased  by  Langton,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, who,  presenting  them  with  the  charter  of  Henry  I., 
exhorted  them  to  obtain  the  liberties  therein  granted.  A 
numerous  body  of  barons  solemnly  swore  to  regain  their 
rights  or  to  levy  an  unceasing  war  on  the  king.  King 
John,  being  supported  by  the  pope,  scornfully  refused  to 
make  any  concessions  to  the  barons,  who  raised  a  power- 
ful force  and  marched  to  London,  where  the  citizens 
gladly  received  them.  On  the  15th  of  June,  1215,  John 
consented  to  grant  all  that  they  required,  and  signed  at 
Runnymede  the  famous  Magna  Charta.  Scarcely  had 
he  done  this  before  he  induced  the  pope  to  absolve  him 
from  these  obligations  and  to  excommunicate  several 
of  his  opponents.  He  also  brought  into  England  large 
bodies  of  foreign  troops,  and  gained  several  victories 
over  the  barons.  The  latter  then  chose  Louis,  Dauphin 
of  France,  as  their  king.  This  prince  landed  at  Sand- 
wich in  May,  1216.  John  would  probably  have  been 
successful,  (for  dissensions  were  already  breaking  out  in 
the  camp  of  Louis,)  had  he  not  been  carried  off  by  a 
fever  in  October  of  that  year.  John  has  left  one  of  the 
darkest  names  in  the  history  of  the  English  kings.  He 
was  extremely  cruel,  fickle,  and  licentious,  without  a 
redeeming  virtue.  He  had,  by  his  queen  Isabella,  five 
children,  the  eldest  of  whom  succeeded  him  as  Henry 
11^  The  second,  Richard,  was  elected  King  of  the 
Romans  in  1257. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England;"  Hallam,  "Constitutional 
History  of  England;"  Joseph  Berington,  "History  of  Henry  II. 
and  of  Richard  I.  and  John,  his  Sons,"  1790;  Lingard,  "History 
of  England." 

John  [Fr.  Jean,  zhSw]  I.,  a  posthumous  son  of  Louis 
X.,  King  of  France,  was  born  in  13 16,  Though  he  lived 
but  eight  days,  he  is  recorded  among  the  French  mon- 
archs. 

See  N.  DE  MoNMERQU^,  "Dissertation  historique  sur  Jean  I, 
Roi  de  France,"  1844. 

John  (Jean)  II.,  surnamed  le  Bon,  ascended  the 
throne  of  France  upon  the  death  of  his  father,  Philip 
of  Valois,  in  1350.  Charles,  King  of  Navarre,  having  ac- 
cepted an  invitation  to  meet  John  at  Rouen,  was  there 
imprisoned,  and  several  of  his  lords  put  to  death.  The 
people  of  Navarre  applied  to  England  for  assistance,  and 
Edward  the  Black  Prince  invaded  France  at  the  head  of  an 
army.  John  marched  against  him  with  60,000  men,  was 
defeated  and  made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Poitiers,  fought 
in  1356,  and  conducted  to  London,  where  he  was  received 
with  great  honour  by  Edward  III.  While  he  remained 
in  England  a  civil  war  broke  out  in  France  with  the  peas- 
antry, known  in  history  by  the  name  of  "  La  Jacquerie." 
In  this  revolt  the  castles  of  the  nobility  were  plundered 
and  burnt  and  , the  inmates  massacred.  These  ravages 
continued  for  two  years,  until  the  dauphin,  assisted  by 
several  powerful  lords,  defeated  the  peasants,  putting 
thousands  of  them  to  the  sword.  In  1360,  peace  having 
been  concluded  between  France  and  England,  John  re- 
turned to  his  capital ;  but,  finding  much  opposition  made 
by  the  nobles  to  the  conditions  of  the  treaty,  he  again 
visited  England,  to  confer  with  King  Edward.  He  was 
soon  after  taken  ill,  and  died  in  London  in  1364. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais;"  Froissart,  "Chroni- 
cles;" MiCHELET,  "Histoire  de  France;"  Henri  Martin,  "His- 
toire de  France." 

John  I.  OF  Navarre.    See  John  IT.  of  France. 
John  II.  of  Navarre.    See' John  II.  of  Aragon. 


John  III.  OF  Navarre,  or  Jean  d'Albret,  zhftN 
dtKbui',  began  to  reign  in  1494.  In  15 12  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic  invaded  Navarre  and  drove  John  from  the 
throne.    Died  in  15 16. 

John  I.,  King  of  Poland,  a  son  of  Casimir  IV.,  was 
born  in  1459,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1492.  He 
waged  war  against  the  Tartars  and  Turks.  Died  in  1 501. 

John  II.  OF  Poland.    See  Casimir  V. 

John  III.  of  Poland.    See  Sobieskl 

John  [Port.  JoAoor  Joam,  zho-owN']  I.,  surnamed  the 
Great,  King  of  Portugal,  the  natural  son  of  Peter  I., 
was  born  in  1357.  On  the  death  of  his  brother  Ferdi- 
nand, in  1385,  he  assumed  the  regal  power  in  opposition 
to  the  rights  of  Ferdinand's  daughter  Beatrix,  who  had 
married  John  I.,  King  of  Castile.  This  led  to  a  war  with 
Spain,  in  which  the  Portuguese  monarch  gained  several 
important  victories  and  firmly  established  his  power.  He 
subsequently  carried  on  a  successful  war  against  the 
Moors  of  Africa.  During  his  reign  the  Portuguese  com- 
menced those  maritime  expeditions  which  soon  after 
rendered  them  so  celebrated.  Under  the  comman  I  of 
his  son.  Prince  Henry,  they  discovered  Madeira,  the 
Canaries,  the  Azores,  and  several  places  on  the  western 
coast  of  Africa.    Died  in  1433. 

See  La  Clhde,  "Histoire  generale  de  Portugal;"  Fernando 
Lopez,  "Chronica  del  Rey  Joao  I.,"  3  vols.,  1644;  Manoel  Mon- 
teiro,  "Joannes  Portugalis  Reges,"  1742. 

John  (Joao)  IL,  King  of  Portugal,  surnamed  the 
Perfect,  son  of  Alfonso  V.,  was  born  in  1455,  and 
ascended  the  throne  in  1481.  At  the  age  of  sixteen 
years  he  fought  against  the  African  Moors  and  took  Ar- 
zile  and  Tangiers,  and  five  years  later  gained  the  battle 
of  Toro  over  the  Castilians.  Soon  after  his  coronation 
he  quelled  a  powerful  conspiracy  formed  against  him 
by  his  nobles.  He  encouraged  the  spirit  of  enterprise 
among  the  Portuguese,  and  fitted  out  a  squadron  destined 
for  the  East  Indies  and  the  Eastern  Seas.  Died  in  1495. 

See  Vasconcellos,  "  Vida  y  Acciones  del  Rey  Don  Juan  II.," 
1639,  (translated  into  French,  1641  ;)  DamiAo  de' Goes,  "Chronica 
do  Principe  Dom  Joao  Rey,"  etc.,  1567;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

John  (Joao)  III.,  King  of  Portugal,  born  in  1502, 
succeeded  his  father,  Emanuel  the  Great,  in  1521.  In 
1524  he  married  Catherine  of  Austria,  to  whose  brother, 
Charles  V.,  he  gave  his  sister  Isabella  in  marriage.  He 
colonized  Brazil,  and  sent  to  the  Eastern  Seas  a  fleet, 
by  which  Japan  was  discovered.  He  established  the 
Inquisition  in  Portugal  and  its  colonies.    Died  in  1557. 

John  (Joao)  IV.,  surnamed  the  Fortunate,  chief 
of  the  dynasty  of  Braganza,  was  born  in  1604.  He  threw 
off  the  authority  of  Spain,  to  which  Portugal  had  been 
subjected  since  the  days  of  Philip  II.,  and  became  king 
in  1640.  He  enacted  many  wise  and  beneficial  laws,  and 
died,  greatly  regretted  by  the  nation,  in  1656. 

See  Vertot,  "  Histoire  des  Revolutions  de  Portugal,"  1689. 

John  (Joao)  V.,  King  of  Portugal,  born  in  1689,  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Peter  II.,  in  1707.  He  joined  the  allies 
against  France  and  Spain  about  1702.  After  the  peace 
of  Utrecht  (1713)  he  devoted  his  time  to  the  encourage- 
ment of  education  and  commerce.    Died  in  1750. 

See  "Vida,  Successes  e  Fallecimento  do  Rey  Joao  V.,"  Lisbon, 
1750;  Ferdinand  Denis,  "Portugal." 

John  (Joao)  VI.  of  Portugal,  was  born  in  1769,  and 
was  appointed  Regent  of  Portugal  in  1793  on  account  of 
the  derangement  of  his  mother,  Maria  I.,  who  was  then 
queen-regnant.  In  1807,  when  the  French  invaded 
Portugal,  he  sailed  to  Brazil,  where  he  received  the  title 
of  emperor.  He  returned  in  1821,  soon  after  which  the 
Brazilians  revolted  and  declared  themselves  independent. 
Died  in  1826. 

See  "Histoire  de  Jean  VI,  Roi  de  Portugal,"  1827;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

John,  King  of  Scotland.    See  Baliol. 
John  of  Russia.    See  Ivan. 

John  (Johan,  yo'hin)  I.,  King  of  Sweden,  the  last 
of  the  dynasty  of  Sverker,  succeeded  Eric  in  12 16.  He 
was  very  active  in  establishing  Christianity.  Died  in  1222. 

John  II.  OF  Sweden.    See  John  I.  of  Denmark. 

John  III.,  King  of  Sweden,  the  second  son  of  Gus- 
tavus  Vasa,  was  born  in  1537.  He  married  Catherine 
Jagelion,  daughter  of  Sigismund,  King  of  Poland.  In 
1560  he  visited  England,  to  negotiate  a  marriage  between 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,  k, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  ([2^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOHN 


1280 


JOHN 


his  elder  brother  Eric  and  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  which  he 
was  unsuccessful.  In  15(58  he  deposed  Eric  and  ascended 
the  throne  in  his  stead.  Influenced  by  his  queen,  he 
attempted  to  re-establish  the  Catholic  religion,  but  was 
efiectually  resisted  by  his  brother  Charles,  Duke  of 
Sudermania,  at  the  head  of  the  Protestants.  Died 
in  1592. 

John  (Jean)  I.,  Duke  of  Bretagne,  was  born  in  12 17. 
Having  attempted  to  check  the  papal  encroachments, 
the  pope  excommunicated  him,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
go  to  Rome  to  obtain  absolution.    Died  in  1284. 

John  II.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1239.  He 
married  Beatrix,  daughter  of  Henry  III.  of  England, 
from  whom  he  received  the  title  of  Count  of  Richemont. 
He  was  also  made  a  peer  of  France  by  Philippe  le  Bel. 
He  was  killed  at  the  ordination  of  Clement  V.  at  Lyons 
by  the  falling  of  a  wall. 

John  III.,  Duke  of  Bretagne,  surnamed  the  Good, 
succeeded  his  father,  Arthur  II.,  in  13 12,  He  is  said 
to  have  been  a  just  and  benevolent  prince.  Died  in 
1341- 

John  IV.,  Duke  of  Bretagne,  known  as  Jean  de 
MoNTFORT,  half-brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1293.  John  (Jean)  HI.,  having  no  children,  willed  the 
dukedom  to  Charles  de  Blois  ;  but  Jean  de  Montfort,  re- 
garded by  many  as  the  legitimate  heir,  soon  reduced  all 
the  towns  and  provinces  to  his  subjection,  and  went  to 
England  . to  render  homage  to  King  Edward  for  his  estates. 
On  his  return  he  was  summoned  before  the  court  of  peers 
to  prove  his  claims  to  Bretagne.  The  peers  decided 
against  him,  and  he  raised  an  army  to  defend  his  rights, 
but  was  shortly  after  taken  prisoner  by  the  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy and  confined  in  the  tower  of  Louvre  at  Paris. 
In  the  mean  time  the  war  was  carried  on  with  energy 
by  his  duchess,  Jeanne  of  Flanders.  At  the  expiration 
of  nearly  four  years,  John  escaped,  disguised  as  a  mer- 
chant.   He  died  soon  after,  in  1345. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Bretagne." 

John  (Jean)  V.,  (or  John  IV.,  according  to  some 
authorities,)  Duke  of  Bretagne,  born  in  1338,  was  a 
son  of  the  preceding.  He  married  Mary,  a  daughter 
of  Edward  III.  of  England.  By  a  decisive  victory  over 
his  competitor,  Charles  de  Blois,  at  Auray,  in  1364,  he 
obtained  possession  of  Bretagne.  He  afterwards  fought 
for  the  English  against  the  French,  who  drove  him  out 
of  Bretagne  about  1374 ;  but  he  was  soon  restored.  Died 
in  1399. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Fran^ais." 

John  (Jean)  VI.,  son  of  the  preceding,  became  Duke 
of  Bretagne  in  1399,  when  he  was  ten  years  of  age.  He 
carried  on  a  war  against  the  Count  of  Penthievre  and 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  afterwards  joined  the  Eng- 
lish under  the  Duke  of  Bedford  against  France.  Died 
in  1443. 

See  D'Argentre,  "Histoire  de  Bretagne,"  etc. 

John,  surnamed  the  Fearless,  [Fr.  Jean  Sans  Peur, 
zhSN  s6n  pUR,]  Duke  of  Burgundy,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1371,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Philip  the  Bold.  At  the  age 
of  twenty-five  he  assisted  Sigismund,  King  of  Hungary, 
against  the  Turks,  by  whom  he  was  made  prisoner  at  the 
battle  of  Nicopolis.  When  taken  before  the  Sultan  Baya- 
zeed,  (Bajazet,)  he  evinced  so  much  courage  that  that 
sovereign  gave  him  his  liberty  and  the  surname  of  Sans 
Peur,  (tlie  "Fearless.")  After  his  return  to  France  he 
was  engaged  in  fighting  the  English  and  in  political  in- 
trigues at  the  French  court.  He  was  appointed  guardian 
of  the  dauphin  of  France  in  1406.  He  caused  the  assas- 
sination of  his  rival,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  in  1407,  and 
obtained  almost  unlimited  power  in  the  kingdom.  He 
was  murdered  in  1419,  at  the  instigation  of  the  dauphin, 
son  of  Charles  VI. 

See  De  Barante,  "Histoire  des  Dues  de  Bourgogne  ;"  Miche- 
LET,  "  Histoire  de  France." 

John,  [Ger.  Johann,  yo'hin,]  surnamed  the  Con- 
stant, a  son  of  the  Elector  Ernest,  was  born  in  1467, 
and  became  Elector  of  Saxony  in  1525.  He  was  a  zealous 
defender  of  the  Protestant  faith,  and  in  1530  caused  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg  to  be  proclaimed  in  the  Diet 
assembled  at  that  city.    Died  in  1532. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 


John  [Lat.  Johan'nes;  Fr.  Jean,  zh6N ;  It.  Gio- 
vanni, jo-vSn'nee|  I.,  a  native  of  Tuscany,  was  raised  to 
the  Roman  see  upon  the  death  of  Hormisdas,  in  523. 
He  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Constantinople  by  King 
Theodoric  to  obtain  toleration  for  the  Arians  ;  and  on 
his  return,  having  displeased  that  monarch,  he  was 
thrown  into  prison,  where  he  died  in  526. 

John  II.,  surnamed  Mercurius,  was  a  native  of 
Rome,  and  succeeded  Boniface  II.  in  532  or  533.  Died 

535- 

John  III.,  a  native  of  Rome,  succeeded  Pelagius  I. 
in  560.  Died  about  573,  and  was  succeeded  by  Bene- 
dict L 

John  IV.,  a  Dalmatian,  succeeded  Severinus  in"  640. 
He  condemned  the  doctrines  of  the  Monothelites  and  the 
edict  of  the  emperor  Heraclius,  called  "The  Exposition 
of  Faith,"  which  was  issued  in  their  defence.  Died  in 
642,  and  was  succeeded  by  Theodorus. 

John  v.,  a  native  of  Antioch,  in  Syria,  was  chosen 
pope  on  the  death  of  Benedict  II.,  in  685,  and  died  in 
687.    Conon  succeeded  him. 

John  VI.,  a  Greek,  succeeded  Sergius  I.  in  701.  During 
his  pontificate  Wilfred,  Archbishop  of  York,  was  tried 
and  acquitted  of  the  charges  preferred  by  the  English 
clergy.    Died  in  705. 

John  VII.,  a  native  of  Greece,  was  elected  successor 
to  the  preceding.  Died  in  707.  Sisinnius  succeeded 
him. 

John  VIII.,  (called  John  IX.  by  those  who  admit  the 
truth  of  Pope  Joan's  history,)  was  a  native  of  Rome,  and 
succeeded  Adrian  II.  in  872.  He  crowned  the  emperor 
Charles  the  Bald,  and  afterwards  Charles  le  Gros.  He 
confirmed  Phocius  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  In  878 
the  Saracen^  invaded  Italy  and  compelled  him  to  pay 
tribute.   Died  in  882.   He  was  succeeded  by  Martin  II. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

John  IX.,  an  Italian,  became  pope  in  898,  after  the 
death  of  Theodore  II.    Died  about  900. 

John  X.  was  elected  in  915,  through  the  influence  of  his 
mistress  Theodora,  as  successor  to  Lando.  He  crowned 
Berengarius  as  emperor.  Subsequently,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  this  sovereign,  he  marched  against  the  Saracens, 
who  had  invaded  Italy,  defeated  them,  and  drove  them 
from  the  country.  At  this  time  Guido,  Duke  of  Tus- 
cany, with  his  wife,  the  infamous  Marozia,  possessed 
great  power  in  Rome.  John,  having  offended  them,  was 
seized  in  his  palace  by  their  soldiers  and  put  in  prison, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  been  killed  in  928. 

John  XI.,  elected  pope  in  931,  was  the  son  of  Maro- 
zia, as  some  suppose,  by  Pope  Sergius  HI.  Alberico, 
another  son  of  Marozia,  raised  a  revolt  against  his 
mother,  whom  he  imprisoned  with  John  in  the  castle 
of  Sant'  Angelo.  The  latter  died  about  936,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Leo  VII. 

John  XII.,  son  of  Alberico,  was  elected  successor  to 
Agapetus  II.  in  956,  when  he  was  but  eighteen  years  old. 
He  changed  his  name  from  Octavianus.  Four  years 
later  he  crowned  Otho  I.  Emperor  of  Germany  and 
King  of  Italy.  Subsequently  he  became  so  notorious  for 
his  oppression  and  licentiousness  that  Otho  returned  to 
Rome  in  963  and  caused  John  to  be  deposed  and  Leo 
VIII.  to  be  chosen  in  his  place.  But,  as  soon  as  Otho 
left  Italy,  John  entered  Rome  at  the  head  of  a  powerful 
party,  drove  out  Leo,  and  committed  great  atrocities. 
He  died  in  964.  One  of  his  mistresses,  named  Joan, 
exercised  much  influence  at  Rome  during  his  pontificate  ; 
and  it  has  been  suggested  that  this  may  have  given  rise 
to  the  story  of  "  Pope  Joan." 

See  Baronius,  "  Annales."  * 

John  XIII.,  Bishop  of  Narni,  was  raised  to  the  papal 
see  in  965  by  the  influence  of  the  emperor  Otho  I.  The 
Romans,  however,  being  opposed  to  this  election,  im- 
prisoned John.  Otho  marched  to  Rome,  liberated  him, 
and  hanged  several  of  his  opponents.  John  crowned 
Otho  II.,  son  of  Otho  I.,  as  emperor.  Died  in  972,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Benedict  VI. 

John  XIV.,  Bishop  of  Pavi'a,  was  raised  to  the  papal 
see,  as  successor  to  Benedict  VIL,  about  984.  After  a 
pontificate  of  nine  months,  he  was  deposed  by  Boniface 
VII.  and  put  in  prison,  where  he  is  supposed  to  have 
been  poisoned  in  985. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;    6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon 


JOHN 


1281 


JOHN 


John  XV.,  elected  successor  to  John  XIV.,  died  a  few 
days  after.  By  some  he  is  left  out  of  the  order  of  popes. 

John  XVI.,  a  native  of  Rome,  became  pope  about 
986.  During  his  pontificate,  a  patrician,  named  Cres- 
centius,  caused  great  disturbances  and  drove  the  pope 
from  Rome.  He  was,  however,  reinstated  in  his  au- 
thority by  the  emperor  Otho.  Died  in  996,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Gregory  V. 

John  XVII.,  whose  previous  name  was  Philaga- 
THIUS,  a  native  of  Calabria,  and  Bishop  of  Piacenza,  was 
chosen  pope  in  997  by  the  faction  of  Crescentius,  in  op- 
position to  Gregory  V.  Otho  III.,  espousing  the  cause 
of  the  latter,  executed  Crescentius  with  his  adherents, 
and  imprisoned  John  after  having  horribly  mutilated  him. 

John  XVIII.  was  elected  successor  to  Sylvester  II. 
in  1003,  and  died  four  months  afterwards. 

John  XIX.,  elected  pope  in  1004.  He  sent  Saint 
Bruno  to  preach  Christianity  to  the  Russians,  and  healed 
the  schism  between  the  Churches  of  Rome  and  Constan- 
tinople. Died  in  1009,  and  was  succeeded  by  Sergius  IV. 

John  XX.,  previously  named  Romanus,  was  the  son 
of  Count  Gregory  of  Tuscany,  and  brother  of  Benedict 
VIII.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1024.  In  1027  he  crowned 
Conrad  as  emperor.  He  died  in  1033  or  1034,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Benedict  IX. 

John  XXI.,  born  in  Lisbon,  was  elected  successor  to 
Adrian  V.  about  1276.  He  died  after  a  pontificate  of  a 
few  months.    Nicholas  III.  succeeded  him. 

John  XXII.,  a  native  of  Cahors,  in  France,  and  pre- 
viously known  as  Jacques  d'Euse,  or  James  of  Ossa, 
was  chosen  to  succeed  Clement  V.  in  13 16.  He  was 
consecrated  at  Lyons,  and  made  his  residence  at  Avignon. 
At  this  period  there  was  a  competition  for  the  throne  of 
Germany  between  Louis  of  Bavaria  and  Frederick  of 
Austria.  John,  who  declared  that  he  had  the  right  to 
appoint  the  emperor,  excommunicated  Louis  in  1324  or 
1327,  and  advanced  the  claims  of  Robert,  King  of  Naples. 
This  led  to  a  long  war  in  Italy  between  the  Guelphs, 
who  were  allies  of  Robert,  and  the  Ghibelines,  who  were 
assisted  by  the  troops  of  Louis.  At  first  the  Guelphs  had 
the  advantage  ;  but  their  opponents  soon  gained  ground, 
and  in  1327  Louis  visited  Italy  and  received  the  iron 
crown  of  Milan.  At  Rome  the  Bishops  of  Venice  and 
Aleria  crowned  him  emperor,  after  which  he  deposed 
John  and  appointed  Peter  de  Corvara  in  his  place,  with 
the  name  of  Nicholas  V.  After  the  return  of  Louis  to 
Germany  the  Guelphs  began  to  obtain  the  ascendency. 
John  died  at  Avignon  in  1334.  He  possessed  extraor- 
dinary abilities,  was  devoted  to  study,  and  wrote  some 
medical  treatises.  His  avarice,  however,  was  the  most 
prominent  trait  in  his  character  ;  and  to  him  is  attributed 
the  introduction  of  the  Annates,  or  First-Fruits.  He  left, 
besides  his  jewels,  eighteen  millions  of  golden  florins  in 
his  coffers. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes;" 
Platina,  "  Historia  de  Vitis  Pontificum  Romanorum  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

John  XXIII.,  (or  XXII.,  according  to  some  authori- 
ties,) (Cardinal  CossA,)  a  Neapolitan,  was  elected  as  suc- 
cessor to  Alexander  V.  in  1410,  during  a  schism  of  the 
Church.  His  title  was  disputed  by  two  rivals,  Benedict 
XIII.  and  Gregory  XII.  He  was  a  man  of  depraved 
morals  and  of  insatialile  cupidity.  A  quarrel  between 
John  and  Ladislaus  of  Naples  resulted  in  the  expulsion 
of  the  former  from  Rome.  John  applied  for  support 
to  the  emperor  Sigismund,  who  convoked  at  Constance 
in  1414  a  general  council.  This  council  (at  which  John 
was  present)  required  him  to  abdicate  the  popedom. 
He  pretended  to  comply,  but  left  Constance  disguised, 
and  fled  towards  Rome  with  the  intention  to  resist  the 
decree  of  the  council.  He  was  quickly  arrested  and 
brought  back  to  Constance,  where  he  was  convicted  of 
many  heinous  offences,  and  formally  deposed,  in  141 5. 
He  was  confined  in  prison  about  three  years.  He  died 
at  Florence  in  1419. 

See  Ranke,  "History  of  the  Popes;"  Alletz,  "Histoire  des 
Papes,"  1776;  Th.  de  NiEM,  "  Historia  de  Vita  Joannis  XXIII.," 
1620. 

John,  (Juan,)  Don,  of  Austria,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated military  and  naval  commanders  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  was  the  natural  son  of  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
and  Barbara  Blomberg,  a  native  of  Germany.    He  was 


born  at  Ratisbnn  in  1546,  and  passed  as  the  son  of  a 
Spanish  nobleman  named  Quixada,  by  whom  he  was 
educated.  Charles  V.  on  his  death-bed  recommended 
him  to  the  protection  of  Philip  II.,  who  soon  after  ac- 
knowledged John  as  his  brother  and  made  appropria- 
tions which  enabled  him  to  live  in  princely  state.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-two  he  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  forces  sent  against  the  Moriscoes  of  Granada, 
whom  he  vanquished  in  several  battles  and  finally  re- 
duced to  complete  subjection.  In  1571,  war  having  been 
declared  between  Philip  II.  and  the  Sultan,  Don  John 
was  appointed  generalissimo  of  the  combined  fleets  of 
Spain  and  Italy.  He  sailed  from  Messina  in  the  middle 
of  September  with  two  hundred  and  fifty  ships  of  war 
and  about  fifty  thousand  men,  and  on  the  7th  of  October 
encountered  the  Turkish  fleet  in  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto, 
where  he  gained  one  of  the  greatest  naval  victories  of 
which  history  makes  mention.  Soon  after  <;he  battle 
of  Lepanto  he  received  an  embassy  from  the  Greeks  of 
Albania  and  Macedonia,  requesting  him  to  a'^sist  them 
against  the  Turks  and  to  receive  the  sovereignty  of  their 
countries.  Don  John  was  prevented  from  accepting  the 
offer  by  Philip,  who,  jealous  of  his  brother's  reputation, 
refused  the  assistance  necessary  for  the  enterprise.  Don 
John,  in  a  subsequent  expedition  against  Africa,  took 
Tunis,  Biserta,  and  several  other  important  places.  He 
was  appointed  in  1576  Governor  of  the  Netherlands, 
which  were  then  in  a  state  of  rebellion.  He  at  first  used 
conciliatory  measures  ;  but  the  States,  suspecting  him 
of  du]3licity,  declined  his  overtures  and  prepared  for  war. 
Don  John  soon  after  took  Namur  by  stratagem,  and  on 
the  1st  of  January,  1578,  gained  the  decisive  victory  of 
Gemblours.  He  afterwards  reduced  Louvain,  Nivelle, 
and  other  towns  belonging  to  the  insurgents.  While 
thus  actively  engaged,  in  October,  1578,  he  was  seized 
with  an  illness  which  carried  him  to  the  grave.  Strong 
suspicions  were  entertained  by  many  that  he  was  poisoned. 

See  L.  VAN  der  Hammen,  "Vida  de  Don  Juan,"  1627;  Brusle 
DE  MoNTPLEiNCHAMP,  "  Vie  dc  Don  Juan  d'Autriche,"  i6go  ;  Alexis 
DuMESNii.,  "Vie  de  Don  Juan  d'Autriche,"  1827;  Motley.  "Rise 
of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  vol.  iii.  part  v.  chaps,  i.-v.  ;  Pkeslott, 
"  History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  ii. ;  J.  P.  Lvser,  "  Erzherzog  Johann, 
der  Freund  des  Volkes,"  1848;  Schneidewind,  "  Leben  des  Erz- 
herzogs  Johann  von  Oesterreich,"  etc.,  1849  '>  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale,"  1848. 

John  or  J ohann,  (Nepomuk  Maria  Joseph,)  born  in 
1 801,  succeeded  his  brother  Frederick  Augustus  as  King 
of  Saxony  in  1854.  He  was  distinguished  for  great  virtues 
as  a  ruler,  and  for  his  literary  attainments,  and  published 
a  translation  of  Dante's  "Divine  Comedy."  He  was  an 
allv  of  Austria  in  the  war  against  Prussia  in  1866. 

John  OF  Bayeux,  [Fr.  Jean  de  Bayeux,  zh6N  deb 
bi'yuh',]  a  haughty  and  violent  French  prelate.  Fie 
became  Archbishop  of  Rouen  in  1070.    Died  in  1079. 

John  OF  Brienne,  [Fr.  Jean  de  Brienne,  zh6N  deh 
bRe'^n',]  King  of  Jerusalem,  and  Regent  of  Constanti- 
nople, was  born  in  France.  He  assisted  in  the  taking 
of  Jerusalem  in  1204,  and  in  1218,  at  the  head  of  a  Latin 
army,  he  took  Damietta.  In  1226  he  was  compelled  to 
resign  Jerusalem  to  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  Three 
years  later  he  was  elected,  by  the  French  barons  in  the 
East,  Regent  of  Constantinople,  which  he  bravely  de- 
fended against  the  Greek  emperor  John  Ducas.  Died 
in  1237. 

John  OF  Bruges.    See  Eyck,  (John  van.) 

John  OF  Cappadocia,  a  theologian,  became  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople  about  518.  He  co-operated  with  the 
pope  Hormisdas  in  the  restoration  of  union  between 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches.    Died  in  520. 

John  II.  OF  Cappadocia  became  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople about  582  A.D.    Died  in  596. 

John,  surnamed  Climacus  or  Climachus.  See 
Climacus. 

John  OF  Gis'cALA  or  Gischala,  a  Jewish  captain, 
was  an  enemy  of  Josephus  the  historian.  He  was  the 
chief  of  one  of  the  factions  of  zealots  and  outlaws  that 
fought  against  each  other  and  against  the  Romans  in  Je- 
rusalem while  that  city  was  besieged  by  Titus,  in  70  a.d. 
On  the  capture  of  the  city  he  was  imprisoned  for  life. 

John  OF  LuxEMHURG,  surnamed  the  Blind,  son  of 
the  emperor  Henry  VII.,  was  born  in  1295.  In  1309 
he  was  elected  King  of  Bohemia,  and  in  1322  he  con- 


•e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOHN  1282  JOHNSON 


quered  Silesia.  In  133 1  he  formed  a  league  with  Louis 
of  Bavaria,  Emperor  of  Germany,  against  Pope  John 
XXII.,  and  entered  Italy.  'I'he  pope  then  offered  to 
recognize  him  as  King  of  Italy.  The  emperor,  in  order 
to  prevent  this,  invaded  Bcjhemia.  John  left  the  com- 
mand of  his  army  in  Italy  to  his  son,  returned  to  Bo- 
hemia, and  drove  out  Louis.  He  was  soon  after  attacked 
with  a  disease  in  his  eyes,  which  produced  blindness, 
but  did  not  in  the  least  affect  his  sj^irit  of  enterprise. 
He  invaded  Poland,  reduced  it  to  subjection,  and  formed 
an  alliance  with  Philip  of  France  against  the  English. 
He  was  mortally  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Crecy,  in  1346, 
after  having  performed  great  feats  of  valour. 

See  Froissart,  "Chronicles;"  Sismondi,  "  Hlstoire  des  Fran- 
9ais." 

John  OF  Ragusa,  a  learned  Romish  prelate,  was  in 
1426  sent  by  Martin  V.  to  the  Council  of  Bale,  over  which 
he  presided  in  1431.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his 
controversies  with  the  followers  of  Huss. 

John  OF  Salisbury,  a  learned  scholastic  philosopher 
and  writer,  born  at  Salisbury  about  1120.  He  entered 
the  service  of  Thomas  a  Becket,  and  became  his  secre- 
tary. In  1 176  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Chartres. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  valuable  works,  "  Polycraticus 
de  Nugis  Curialium  et  Vestigiis  Philosophorum,"  which 
is  a  satire  on  the  follies  of  courtiers,  etc.,  and  a  "  Life 
of  Thomas  a  Becket."  Died  in  1180.  His  works  were 
published  by  J.  A.  Giles,  Oxford,  (5  vols.,  1848.) 

See  "Gallia  Christiana,"  tome  viii.  ;  B.  Haukeau,  "  De  la  Philo- 
sophie  scholastiqiie ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogi  aphie  Generale." 

John  OF  Seville  or  Ue  Luna,  a  learned  Jewish 
convert  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  translated  into  Span- 
ish many  valuable  Arabic  works. 

John  OF  SuABiA,  snrnamed  the  Parricide,  born 
in  1289,  was  a  nephew  of  the  emperor  Albert  I.  The 
latter,  having  withheld  from  him  his  hereditary  domains, 
was  murdered  by  John  and  a  band  of  conspirators. 

See  Brantome,  "Vies  des  grands  Capltaines." 

John  OF  Udine.  See  Giovanni. 
John  (Johann)  Baptist,  (Joseph  Fabian  Sebas- 
tian,) Archduke  of  Austria,  born  in  1782,  was  a  son  of 
Leopold  11.  He  succeeded  Kray  in  1800  as  commander 
of  the  Austrian  army,  and  was  defeated  by  General 
Moreau  at  Hohenlinden,  in  December  of  that  year.  In 
the  campaign  of  1809  he  directed  the  operations  in  the 
Tyrol,  and  gained  a  victory  over  the  viceroy  Eugene.  In 
une,  1848,  he  was  elected  Vicar  of  the  German  empire 
y  the  Parliament  at  Frankfort.  He  resigned  that  office 
in  December,  1849.    Died  in  1859. 

John  Cas'i-mir,  [Ger.  Johann  Casimir,  yo'hin 
ki'ze-miR,]  Count  Palatine,  born  in  1543,  was  the  second 
son  of  the  Elector-Palatine  Frederick  III.  He  was  a 
zealous  Calvinist,  and  in  1568  raised  an  army  with  which 
he  invaded  Lorraine  to  aid  the  French  Huguenots.  In 
1575  he  again  entered  France,  as  the  ally  of  the  Prince 
of  Conde.  His  court  at  Neustadt  became  the  centre 
of  the  Calvinist  policy.  After  the  death  of  his  father, 
John  Casimir  was  the  political  chief  of  the  Reformers. 
Died  in  1592. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Histoire  Universelle ;"  Daniel  Parens,  "  His- 
toria  Palatina  ;"  F.  Junius,  "  Ecloga  in  Obitum  Joannis  Casimiri," 
1592;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

John  Comnenus.    See  Calo-Joannes. 

John  Damascenus.    See  Damascenus. 

John  Frederick  [Ger.  Johann  Friedrich,  yo'hSn 
freed^iK]  I.  of  Saxony,  snrnamed  the  Magnanimous, 
was  a  son  of  the  Elector  John  the  Constant,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  1532.  Having  joined  the  Protestant  League 
of  Schmalkalden,  he  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of 
Muhlberg,  but  was  released  through  the  intervention  of 
his  cousin,  Maurice  of  Saxony,    Died  in  1554. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Caspar 
Sagittarius,  "Historia  Joannis  Friderici  Electoris,"  etc.,  1678;  C. 
BuDER,  "  Nachricht  von  der  Kurtiirst  Johann  Friedrich's  zu  Sach- 
sen,"  1755. 

John  Frederick  II.,  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1529.  He  began  to  reign 
in  1554.    Died  in  1595. 

John  George  [Ger.  Johann  Georg,  yo'hSn  ga'oRo] 
I.,  Elector  of  Saxony,  born  in  1585,  began  to  reign  in 
1611.    During  the  Thirty  Years'  war  his  course  was 


vacillating,  alternately  favouring  the  cause  of  the  emperor 
and  of  the  Protestant  allies.  In  1635  he  made  a  disad- 
vantageous peace  with  Ferdinand  II.    Died  in  1656. 

See  Karl  August  Muller,  "  Kurfiirst  Johann  Georg  I.,  seine 
Faniilie,"  etc.,  1838;  Skeligmann,  "Dissertatio  de  Vita  Joannis 
Georgii  L,"  1676. 

John  George  II.,  Elector  of  vSaxony,  born  in  1613, 
began  to  reign  in  1656,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a 
legislator.    iJied  in  1680. 

See  Stockmann,  "Progrannna:  Elector  Joannes  Georgius  II. 
Saxonia;  et  Lusatiae  Legislator,"  1789. 

John  of  Antioch,  or  John  the  Scholastic,  [Lat. 

Johan'nes  Antioche'nus,  or  Johan'nes  Scholas'ti- 
cus ;  Fr.  Jean  d'Antioche,  zh6N  d6N'te-osh',]  a  Greek 
canonist,  born  at  Antioch,  became  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople in  565  A.D.  He  published  a  collection  of  canons. 
Died  in  578.    (See  Malala.) 

John  of  Bologna,    See  Bologna, 

John  of  Damascus.    See  Damascenus. 

John  of  Gaunt  or  Ghent,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  a 
younger  son  of  Edward  III,  of  England,  was  born  in 
1340.  He  served  under  his  brother  Edward  the  Black 
Prince  in  the  French  wars,  where  he  gained  great  dis- 
tinction for  his  skill  and  bravery.  He  married  Constance, 
a  natural  daughter  of  Peter  the  Cruel,  King  of  Castile 
and  Leon,  and,  on  the  death  of  that  monarch,  laid  claim 
to  the  sovereignty  of  those  kingdoms,  but  was  defeated  by 
Henry  ofTrastamara.  He  subsequently  gave  his  daughter 
in  marriage  to  the  heir-apparent  of  the  crowns  of  Castile 
and  Leon,  upon  which  he  resigned  his  own  claims.  His 
third  wife  was  a  sister-in-law  of  the  poet  Chaucer,  to 
whom  he  proved  a  liberal  patron.  Died  in  1399.  His 
son,  snrnamed  Bolingbroke,  afterwards  ascended  the 
throne  of  England,  with  the  title  of  Henry  IV. 

John  of  Leyden,  sometimes  called  Johann  Bock- 
elson  or  Beccold,  a  notorious  fanatic,  born  at  Leyden 
in  1 5 10.  Having  joined  the  Anabaptists,  he  associated 
himself  with  Matthys,  and  with  his  followers  took  pos- 
session of  the  city  of  Miinster.  After  committing  the 
greatest  excesses  and  cruelties,  he  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  Bishop  of  Miinster,  and  executed  in  1536. 

See  JocHMi's,  "  Geschichte  der  Miinsterschen  Wiedertanfer ;" 
Robertson,  "  History  of  Charles  V.,"  book  v. ;  C.  A.  Vulpius, 
"Johann  von  Leyden,"  1793  ;  J.  C.  Wallmann,  "Johann  von  Ley- 
den," 1844;  Ersch  nnd  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

John  the  Baptist,  [Fr.  Jean  Baptiste,  zh6N  btp'- 
test';  It.  Giovanni  Battista,  jo-vin'nee  bit-tis't^,] 
son  of  Zacharias,  a  Jewish  priest,  and  his  wife  Elisabeth. 
It  was  foretold  of  him  that  he  should  come  in  the  spirit 
and  power  of  Elias,  to  prepare  the  way  of  the  Lord, 
(Luke  i,  17.)  Our  Saviour  also  said  that  no  ])rophet 
was  greater  than  John  the  Baptist.  (Luke  vii.  28.)  He 
began  to  preach  and  to  baptize  in  the  desert  country 
through  which  the  Jordan  flowed.  It  was  here  that 
Jesus  received  baptism  and  was  proclaimed  by  him  as 
the  promised  Messiah.  He  was  subsequently  cast  into 
prison,  and  beheaded  by  the  order  of  Herod. 

See  Mark  vi.  16-30. 

Johnes,  j5nz,  ?  (Thomas,)  an  English  scholar  and 
bibliomaniac,  born  at  Ludlow,  in  Shropshire,  in  1748. 
He  was  twice  elected  a  member  of  Parliament.  He 
translated  Froissart's  "Chronicle,"  and  other  literary 
works,  from  the  French.    Died  in  1816, 

John'son,  (Alexander  B.,)  an  author  and  banker, 
born  in  Gosport,  England,  in  1786.  He  settled  in  Utica, 
New  York,  in  1801,  and  engaged  in  banking  operations 
in  that  town.  He  devoted  his  leisure  to  the  study  of 
the  nature  of  human  knowledge,  or  ideas  irrespective  of 
the  words  by  which  they  are  expressed.  The  results  of 
his  investigation  are  his  "  Philosophy  of  Human  Know- 
ledge, or  a  Treatise  on  Language,"  (1828,)  a  "  Treatise  on 
Language,  or  the  Relation  which  Words  bear  to  Things," 
(1836,)  and  other  publications  on  the  same  subject.  His 
"Physiology  of  the  Senses"  (1856)  was  highly  com- 
mended by  the  "Westminster  Review."  He  has  also 
published  a  "Treatise  on  Banking." 

John'spn,  (Andrew,)  the  seventeenth  President  of 
the  United'  States,  was  born  at  Raleigh,  North  Carolina, 
in  1808.  He  learned  the  trade  of  a  tailor,  which  he  fol- 
lowed for  many  years  at  Greenville,  Tennessee.  He  was 
self-educated,  and,  it  is  said,  never  attended  any  school. 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,y,  long;  i,^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,ohsatre;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


JOHNSON  1283  JOHNSON 


In  1828  he  was  elected  alderman,  and  in  1830  mayor,  of 
Greenville.  After  he  had  served  several  terms  in  the 
legislature  of  Tennessee,  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  by  the  Democrats  in  1843,  and  continued  in 
that  body  for  ten  years.  He  was  chosen  Governor  of 
Tennessee  in  1853,  and  again  in  1855.  In  1857  he  was 
elected  a  United  States  Senator  for  six  years.  Having 
taken  a  decided  stand  against  the  disunion  movement  in 
i860  and  i86r,  he  was  appointed  Military  Governor  of 
Tennessee  by  President  Lincoln  in  1862.  He  was  elected 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States  by  the  Republicans 
in  November,  1864,  and,  on  the  death  of  Mr.  Lincoln, 
became  President  in  April,  1865.  On  his  accession  to 
office  he  displayed  at  first  a  spirit  of  great  severity 
against  the  rebels,  but  soon  afterwards  adopted  a  line  of 
policy  in  relation  to  the  reconstruction  of  the  seceded 
States  which  was  very  favourable  to  them.  His  policy, 
which  tended  to  restore  the  domination  of  the  secession- 
ists and  to  reduce  the  freedmen  again  to  many  of  the 
evils  of  slavery,  was  rejected  by  a  majority  of  Congress  ; 
and  a  violent  contest  ensued  between  that  body  and  the 
President,  who  vetoed  numerous  acts  passed  by  Con- 
gress for  the  reconstruction  of  the  Southern  States,  etc. 
His  vetoes,  however,  were  overruled  by  a  majority  of 
two-thirds  in  each  House,  and  the  policy  of  Congress 
prevailed.  In  the  course  of  a  tour  from  Washington  to 
Chicago,  in  1866,  he  made  many  undignified  political 
speeches,  which  rendered  him  very  unpopular,  and  in 
the  next  elections  his  opponents,  the  Radicals,  obtained 
large  and  increased  majorities.  He  opposed  impartial 
suffrage,  recommended  repudiation,  and  co-operated  with 
the  Democratic  party.  He  pardoned  a  large  numl)er 
of  counterfeiters.  In  August,  1867,  he  suspended  Mr. 
Stanton,  secretary  of  war,  and  appointed  General  Grant 
secretary  ad  interim.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States 
reinstated  Mr.  Stanton  in  January,  1868,  and  President 
Johnson  quarrelled  with  General  Grant  because  he  gave 
up  the  war  office  to  Mr.  Stanton.  Great  excitement  was 
produced  by  the  attempt  of  the  President  to  remove  Mr. 
Stanton  in  February,  and  he  was  impeached  of  high 
crimes  and  misdemeanours  by  a  large  majority  of  the 
House  of  Representatives.  Among  the  crimes  charged 
against  him  was  the  violation  of  the  "Act  regulating 
the  Tenure  of  certain  Civil  Offices,"  by  the  removal  of 
Mr.  Stanton  without  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  The 
trial  before  the  Senate  began  about  March  13,  and  ended, 
May  26,  in  his  acquittal.  Thirty-five  Senators  voted  that 
be  was  guilty,  and  nineteen  voted  not  guilty.  Among 
the  latter  were  seven  Republicans. 

See  "  Life  of  Andrew  Johnson,"  New  York,  1866  ;  "The  Trial 
of  Andrew  Johnson,"  (official,)  3  vols.,  1868. 

Johnson,  (Bf.n.)    See  Jonson,  (Ben.) 

Johnson,  (Chapman,)  an  eminent  American  lawyer, 
born  in  Virginia  in  1779.  He  began  the  practice  of  law 
at  Staunton,  and  rose  to  the  first  rank  in  his  profession. 
He  served  as  aide-de-camp  to  General  James  Brecken- 
ridge  in  the  second  war  with  Great  Britain.  Died  in  1849. 

John'son,  (Charles,)  an  English  dramatic  writer, 
born  in  1679,  is  mentioned  in  Pope's  "Dunciad,"  particu- 
larly on  account  of  his  obesity.  The  comedy  of  the 
"  Country  Lasses''  was  the  most  popular  of  his  plays. 
Died  in  1748. 

See  Baker,  "Biographia  Dramatica." 

Johnson,  (Cuthbert  W.,)  an  English  writer  on  agri- 
culture, born  at  Bromley,  Kent,  about  1800.  He  pub- 
lished "The  Farmer's  Encyclopaedia  and  Dictionary  of 
Rural  Affairs,"  (1842.) 

Johnson,  (Eastman,)  an  American  painter  of  por- 
traits and  genre,  born  near  Freyburg,  Maine.  Among 
his  works  are  "  The  Old  Kentucky  Home,"  "  Savoyard 
Boy,"  "The  Woodsman,"  "The  Chimney-Corner,"  and 
other  admirable  delineations  of  common  life. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Johnson,  (Edward,)  one  of  the  earliest  historians  of 
New  F^ngland,  born  in  Kent,  England,  about  1600.  He 
emigrated  to  Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  in  1630.  Died 
in  1672.  His  valuable  "History  of  New  England  from 
the  English  Planting  in  1628  till  1652"  was  published  in 
London  in  1650,  and  afterwards  in  the  Massachusetts 
Historical  Collections. 


Johnson,  (Edward,)  an  American  general,  l)orn  in 
Kentucky,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838.  lie  com- 
manded a  divisioii  of  Lee's  army  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3, 
1863,  and  was  taken  prisoner  at  Spottsylvania  Couri- 
House,  May  12,  1864. 

Johnson,  (Gabriel.)    See  Johnston. 

Johnson,  (Hester.)    See  Swift,  (Jonathan.) 

Johnson,(ISAAC,)  one  of  the  founders  of  Massachusetts 
colony,  came  from  England  with  G(jvernor  Winthrop  in 
1630.  He  and  three  others  organized,  July  30,  the  church 
of  Boston  at  Charlestown  ;  but,  for  the  want  of  good 
water,  they  removed  to  Shawmut,  now  Boston,  which 
was  settled  under  Johnson's  supervision.    Died  in  1630. 

Johnson,  (James,)  an  Irish  physician,  born  about 
1777,  practised  in  London.  He  published,  besides  other 
medical  works,  a  "Treatise  on  the  Influence  of  Tropical 
Climates  on  European  Constitutions,"  and  "The  Econ- 
omy of  Health."    Died  in  1845. 

See  "  Life  of  Dr.  James  Johnson,"  by  his  son,  1846. 

Johnson,  (John,)  a  learned  nonjuring  divine,  born 
in  Kent,  England,  in  1662.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Holy 
David  and  his  Old  English  Translation  Cleared,"  written 
in  answer  to  one  of  the  works  of  Baxter,  "  The  Clergy- 
man's Vade-Mecum,"  (1708,)  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1725. 

See  Thomas  Brett,  "Life  of  John  Johnson,"  1748. 

Johnson,  (Sir  John,)  a  general,  son  of  Sir  William, 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  1742.  He  was  a  royalist  in 
the  Revolution,  instigated  the  Indians  to  fight  for  the 
king,  and  conducted  several  raids  from  Canada  against 
the  State  of  New  York,  Near  the  close  of  last  century 
he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Upper  Canada.  Died  in 
1830. 

Johnson,  (Joseph,)  M.D.,  brother  of  Judge  William 
Johnson,  was  born  in  Charleston  in  1776.  He  practised 
as  a  ])hysician  in  his  native  city,  and  in  1807  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Medical  Society  of  South  Carolina.  Lie 
took  an  active  part  in  the  literary  and  political  move- 
ments of  Charleston,  was  long  mayor  of  the  city,  and  a 
prominent  leader  of  the  party  which  opposed  nullifica- 
tion in  1832-33.  He  wrote  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Tra- 
ditions and  Reminiscences  of  the  Revolution,"  (1851.) 

Johnson,  (Manuel  John,)  an  English  astronomer, 
born  about  1805.  He  was  astronomer  of  the  Radcliffe 
Observatory  of  Oxford,  and  published  "Astronomical 
Observations,"  (13  vols,,  1845-55.)    I^i^<^  1859. 

Johnson,  (Martin,)  an  English  landscape-painter 
and  seal-engraver  of  the  time  of  Charles  II.  Died 
about  1685. 

Johnson,  (Maurice,)  an  English  lawyer  and  antiqua- 
rian, born  in  Lincolnshire.  He  founded  an  antiquarian 
society  at  Spalding,  and  wrote  several  commentaries. 
Died  in  1755. 

Johnson,  (Reverdy,)  an  American  lawyer,  son  of 
Judge  Johnson,  was  born  in  Annapolis,  Maryland,  May 
21,  1796.  He  studied  at  Saint  John's  College,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  181 5,  and  followed  his  profession 
with  great  success  in  Baltimore.  He  has  also  been 
extensively  engaged  in  cases  before  the  supreme  court  of 
the  United  States.  In  1845  '^^'^^  elected  by  the  Whigs 
to  the  United  States  Senate.  This  position  he  resigned 
in  1849  to  accept  the  attorney-generalship  of  the  United 
States,  tendered  him  by  President  Taylor.  On  the  death 
of  General  Taylor,  in  July,  1850,  Mr.  Johnson  resumed 
his  profession  in  Baltimore.  In  connection  with  Thomas 
Harris,  he  has  published  seven  volumes  of  reports  of 
the  Maryland  court  of  appeals,  (from  1800  to  1826.)  He 
was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  for  six  years, 
(1863-69,)  and  a])pointed  minister  to  England  in  June, 
1868.  He  negotiated  in  relation  to  the  Alabama  claims 
a  convention  which  the  Senate  of  the  United  States 
rejected  almost  unanimously.  He  was  recalled  early 
in  1869. 

Johnson,  (Richard,)  a  commentator  and  gramma- 
rian, born  in  England.  Among  his  works  are  "  Noctes 
Nottinghamicas,"  and  "Grammatical  Commentaries." 
Died  in  1721. 

Johnson,  (Richard  Mentor,)  ninth  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  near  Louisville,  Kentucky, 
in  1780.  He  studied  at  Transylvania  University,  and 
practised  law  with  success.    Elected  a  representative 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOHNSON 


2 


84 


JOHNSON 


to  Congress  in  1807,  he  zealously  supported  the  admin- 
istration of  President  Madison,  and  was  regularly  re- 
elected for  a  period  of  twelve  years.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war  of  181 2,  he  raised  and  commanded  a 
regiment  of  mounted  riflemen  on  the  Indian  frontier.  In 
1813  he  again  took  the  field,  and  contributed  greatly  to 
Harrison's  victory  of  the  Thames,  (October  5,  1813.) 
I  he  Indian  chief  Tecumseh,  who  fell  in  this  battle,  is 
generally  believed  to  have  been  killed  by  Colonel  John- 
son, who  was  dangerously  wounded.  In  1819  he  was 
transferred  to  the  United  States  Senate,  of  which  he 
was  a  member  for  ten  years.  He  was  again  returned  to 
the  House  of  Representatives  in  1829,  and  was  regularly 
re-elected  till  chosen  Vice-President  in  1837,  Van  Buren 
being  the  President.  None  of  the  candidates  for  Vice- 
President  having  on  that  occasion  received  a  majority 
of  votes  in  the  electoral  college,  Colonel  Johnson  was 
elected  by  the  United  States  Senate.  He  was  again 
the  candidate  for  the  Vice-Presidency  on  the  ticket  with 
Van  Buren  in  1840,  but  was  defeated.    Died  in  1850. 

Johnson,  (Richard  W.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Kentucky  about  1827,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1849.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Stone 
River,  December  31,  1862-January  2,  1863,  and  at  Chick- 
amauga,  September  19  and  20,  1863.  He  served  under 
General  Sherman  in  Georgia  in  May,  1864. 

John'spn,  (Samuel,)  an  English  divine,  memorable 
for  his  undaunted  support  of  the  Protestant  cause,  was 
born  in  Staffordshire  in  1649.  Soon  after  he  had  taken 
orders  he  removed  to  London.  He  became  an  earnest 
advocate  of  the  bill  of  exclusion  against  James,  Duke 
of  York,  and  published  a  tract  entitled  "Julian  the 
Apostate,"  (1682,)  in  which  he  refuted  the  arguments  in 
favour  of  passive  obedience.  For  writing  this  article  he 
was  tried  and  imprisoned  ;  but  during  his  confinement  he 
issued  several  treatises  against  popery.  In  1686  he  wrote 
"An  Humble  and  Hearty  Address  to  all  the  English 
Protestants  in  the  Present  Army."  For  the  production 
of  this  essay  he  was  sentenced  to  stand  three  times  in 
the  pillory,  to  pay  a  fine  of  five  hundred  marks,  and  to 
be  publicly  whipped  from  Newgate  to  Tyburn.  He  bore 
all  these  sufferings  with  great  firnniess.  He  subsequently 
wrote  in  favour  of  the  Revolution,  and  also  of  William 
of  Orange,  on  whose  accession  he  was  rewarded  with 
a  present  of  ^^looo  and  an  annuity  of  j^300.  Died  in 
1703- 

Johnson,  (Samuel,)  an  eccentric  English  dramatic 
writer,  born  in  Cheshire  about  1705.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  comedies,  "  Hurlothrumbo,  or  the  Supernatural." 
Died  in  1773. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Johnson,  (Samuel,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  Eng- 
lish writers  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a  son  of  Michael 
Johnson,  a  bookseller,  was  born  at  Lichfield,  September 
18,  1709.  He  commenced  his  studies  in  his  native  town, 
and  subsequently  continued  them  at  a  school  in  Stour- 
bridge. In  1728  he  entered  Pembroke  College,  Oxford. 
From  boyhood  he  had  been  afflicted  with  the  scrofula, 
which  greatly  impaired  his  eyesight  and  weakened  his 
constitution.  To  this  may  be  attributed  the  natural  in- 
dolence which  he  never  fully  succeeded  in  overcoming. 
Notwithstanding  these  obstacles,  he  acquired  such  stores 
of  knowledge  that,  when  he  was  examined  at  Oxford, 
one  of  the  officers  pronounced  him  to  be  the  best  pre- 
pared among  all  those  who  had  entered  since  his  re- 
membrance. Three  years  afterwards  he  was  under  the 
necessity  of  leaving  college,  on  account  of  the  narrowness 
of  his  resources.  The  same  year,  his  father  dying  under 
pecuniary  embarrassments,  he  obtained  employment  as 
usher  to  a  school  in  Market-Bosworth.  The  duties  of 
this  office,  however,  soon  became  so  irksome  that  he 
threw  it  up  and  removed  to  Birmingham,  where  he  had 
made  an  engagement  to  contribute  to  a  newspaper.  It 
was  there,  also,  that  he  produced  his  first  book,  an 
abridged  translation  from  the  French  of  "  Father  Lobos' 
Voyage  into  Abyssinia,"  for  which  he  received  the  small 
compensation  of  five  guineas.  In  1736  he  married  Mrs. 
Porter,  the  widow  of  a  mercer.  This  lady  is  described 
as  being  nearly  twice  his  age,  and  as  having  vulgar 
manners,  a  loud  voice,  and  florid  complexion.  Johnson 
said,  however,  that  it  was  a  love-match  on  both  sides. 


Not  long  after,  he  attempted  to  establish  an  academy  at 
Edial  Hall,  where  he  obtained  only  three  pupils,  one  of 
whom  was  David  Garrick.  In  1737  he  went  to  I>ondon, 
accompanied  by  Garrick.  In  a  short  time  he  produced, 
in  imitation  of  the  third  Satire  of  Juvenal,  a  poem  on 
London,  which  attracted  great  attention.  Pope  remarked 
"that  the  author,  whoever  he  was,  would  not  be  long 
concealed."  It  was  in  the  metropolis  that  Johnson 
formed  a  friendship  for  the  poet  Savage,  with  whom  he 
frequently  walked  the  streets  at  night  because  they  were 
too  poor  to  procure  lodgings.  In  1740  he  wrote  the 
parliamentary  speeches  for  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,'' 
and  in  1744  published  the  "Life  of  Richard  Savage." 
Three  years  later  he  commenced  his  English  Dictionary. 
In  March,  1749,  the  first  number  of  the  "  Rambler"  was 
issued.  Johnson  continued  this  periodical  until  his  wife's 
death,  in  1752,  which  affected  his  mind  so  deeply  that  he 
suspended  many  of  his  literary  labours.  In  1762  George 
III.  granted  him  a  pension  of  ;^300  per  annum  ;  and 
from  that  time  he  was  enabled  to  live  in  ease  and  inde- 
pendence. He  became  a  member  of  the  famous  literary 
club  to  which  Burke,  Goldsmith,  Reynolds,  and  many 
other  celebrated  men  belonged.  He  received  the  degree 
of  LL.D.  in  1765  from  the  University  of  Dublin,  but  did 
not  assume  the  title  until  several  years  later,  when  the 
same  honour  was  conferred  on  him  by  the  University  of 
Oxford.  He  was  also  treated  with  marked  attention  by 
the  king,  to  whom  he  was  introduced  at  the  library  in 
Buckingham  House.  In  1773  he  made  an  excursion  to 
the  Western  Islands  of  Scotland,  of  which  he  wrote 
an  account,  and  two  years  later  visited  Paris.  In  1781 
he  finished  the  "Lives  of  the  British  Poets,"  the  last  of 
his  literary  works.  He  died  in  1784,  from  the  effects 
of  dropsy  and  asthma. 

Johnson's  intellect  was  incisive,  comprehensive,  and 
profound  ;  and,  when  free  from  the  influence  of  prejudice 
or  passion,  his  judgments  are,  generally  speaking,  re- 
markably just.  He  seemed  to  seize,  instantaneously  and 
without  effort,  the  essential  features  of  the  subject  under 
discussion,  and  his  decisions  are  often  expressed  with  a 
clearness  and  force  that  make  a  vivid  and  indelible  im- 
pression upon  the  minds  of  his  readers.  He  was  pre- 
eminently distinguished  for  his  conversational  powers  ; 
in  society  he  was  original,  pointed,  logical,  and  fond  of 
argument,  in  which  no  one  but  Burke  could  successfully 
encounter  him.  Much  of  the  intolerance  and  ill  temper 
which  he  too  often  betrayed  on  such  occasions  must  be 
ascribed  to  distressing  and  deep-rooted  bodily  infirmi- 
ties, which  powerfully  reacted  upon  his  mind.  If  his 
disposition  was  irritable,  his  heart  was  essentially  kind 
and  generous.  Few  persons,  with  means  so  limited  as 
his,  ever  spent  more  for  charitable  or  benevolent  pur- 
poses. "He  loved  the  poor,"  says  Mrs.  Thrale,  "as  I 
never  yet  saw  any  one  else  love  them.  .  .  .  He  nursed 
whole  nests  of  people  in  his  house,  where  the  lame,  the 
blind,  the  sick,  and  the  sorrowful  found  a  sure  retreat." 
Francis  Barber,  the  servant  and  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson, 
was  originally  a  Jamaica  slave.  It  is  related  that  John- 
son, on  making  his  will,  asked  his  physician  what  would 
be  a  sufficient  annuity  for  a  faithful  servant.  Being  told 
that  fifty  pounds  a  year  would  be  regarded  as  adequate 
in  the  case  of  a  nobleman,  "Then,"  he  said,  "I  shall 
be  nobilisshmis;  for  I  mean  to  leave  Frank  seventy  pounds 
a  year."  "  That,  with  all  his  coarseness  and  irrita- 
biHty,"  says  Macaulay,  (who  will  scarcely  be  accused  of 
any  undue  partiality  to  Johnson,)  "  he  was  a  man  of 
sterling  benevolence,  has  long  been  acknowledged.  But 
how  gentle  and  endearing  his  deportment  could  be  was 
not  known  till  the  '  Recollections  of  Madame  D'Arblay  ' 
were  published."  Although  certainly  not  wanting  in  a 
proper  respect  for  dignities,  he  possessed  a  true  Saxon 
independence  of  character,  of  which  his  well-known  letter 
to  Lord  Chesterfield  furnishes  a  fine  illustration.  He 
was  a  sincere  and  humble  believer  in  the  great  truths 
of  Christianity,  which  he  ably  upheld  and  defended. 

Johnson  was  great  in  all  the  branches  of  literature  to 
which  he  devoted  his  attention.  Few  men  have  exerted 
so  great  an  influence  while  living, — an  influence  which 
will  probably  be  felt  far  into  the  future.  His  poems, 
which  are  chiefly  descriptive  and  satirical,  have  been 
greatly  admired  by  some  of  the  most  ennnent  critics. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \i,  y 


short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JOHNSON  1285  JOHNSTON 


"I  have  had,"  said  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "more  pleasure 
in  reading  'London'  and  the  'Vanity  of  Human  Wishes' 
than  any  other  poetical  composition  that  I  can  mention." 
Of  the  latter  Kyrou  remarks,  "  'Tis  a  grand  poem,  all 
the  examples  and  mode  of  giving  them  sublime."  His 
romances  and  plays  attracted  less  attention.  He  was 
particularly  unsuccessful  with  his  female  characters. 
Burke  aptly  remarked  that  among  his  dramatis  personas 
"all  the  ladies  introduced  were  Johnsons  in  petticoats." 
His  excellence  in  literary  criticism  lies  in  his  strength, 
perspicuity,  and  originality  of  thought.  His  critical 
observations  are  generally  extremely  just  (as  already 
intimated)  when  not  biased  by  prejudice.  He  had  not, 
however,  that  nice  discrimination  or  sensibility  requisite 
in  order  to  appreciate  poetical  beauties  of  a  delicate  or 
subtle  kind.  His  most  important  critical  works  are  the 
"  Preface  and  Notes  to  Shakspeare,"  and  "  The  Lives 
of  the  British  Poets."  His  English  Dictionary,  upon 
which  he  bestowed  vast  labour  for  several  years,  is 
probably  the  most  remarkable  work  of  the  kind  ever 
produced  by  a  single  person.  His  style,  precise  and 
stately,  was  much  admired  and  imitated  during  his 
lifetime  ;  but  at  present  the  prevailing  taste  in  literature 
has  pronounced  it  too  artificial  and  elaborate  to  be  ever 
used  as  a  model. 

See  BosvvELL,  "Life  of  Johnson,"  review  of  Croker's  edition 
of  BoswELi.'s  "Life  of  Johnson,"  in  IMacaulay's  "Essays;" 
"Anecdotes  of  Dr.  Johnson,"  by  Madame  Piozzi,  (Mrs.  Thrale,) 
1786;  Anderson,  "Life  of  Johnson,"  1795;  Thomas  Carlyle, 
"Heroes  and  Hero  -  Worship ;"  Scott's  Miscellaneous  Prose 
Works  ;  Gary,  "  Lives  of  English  Poets  from  Johnson  to  Kirke 
Wliite;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1831,  June, 
1850,  April,  1858,  and  January,  1K59 ;  "Westminster  Review"  for 
October,  1831  ;  see,  also,  the  excellent  and  elaborate  article  in  Alli- 
bone's  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Johnson,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  born  in  Guilford,  Con- 
necticut, in  1696,  graduated  at  Yale  in  1714.  Having 
become  an  Episcopalian,  he  took  holy  orders  in  England 
in  1722,  and  on  his  return  settled  at  Stratford.  He  was 
chosen  president  of  King's  College  in  1754.  This  posi- 
tion he  resigned  in  1763.  Died  in  1772.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  System  of  Morality." 

Johnson,  (Thom.as,)  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  royal 
army,  distinguished  as  a^jotanist,  was  born  at  Selby, 
in  Yorkshire.  He  received  from  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford the  title  of  M.D.  He  was  mortally  wounded  at 
the  siege  of  Basinghouse,  in  1644.  He  wrote  several 
botanical  works. 

Johnson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
Oxfordshire,  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  in  1692 
he  received  the  degree  of  M.A.  He  edited  Sophocles, 
(1705,)  and  other  classical  works.    Died  about  1750. 

Johnson,  (Walter  Rogers,)  an  American  chemist 
and  geologist,  born  in  Leominster,  Massachusetts,  about 
1794.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1819  ;  and,  while 
professor  of  mechanics,  natural  philosophy,  etc.  in  the 
Philadelphia  High  School,  he  contributed  largely  by 
lectures  and  essays  towards  introducing  an  improved 
system  of  common-school  education  in  Pennsylvania. 
He  afterwards  made  important  investigations  in  the 
geology  of  that  State,  particularly  the  coal  formations, 
filled  for  four  years  (1839-43)  the  chair  of  chemistry  in 
the  Medical  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1844 
published,  by  order  of  Congress,  his  "  Report  on  the 
Different  Varieties  of  Coal."    Died  in  1852. 

Johnson,  (William,)  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  in  Charleston,  South  Caro- 
lina, in  1 77 1.  He  was  a  brother  of  Joseph,  noticed  above. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton,  with  the  highest  honours  of 
his  class,  in  1790,  rose  to  distinction  at  the  bar  of  his 
native  State,  and  was  appointed  judge  by  Jefferson  in 
180 1.  He  died,  while  undergoing  a  surgical  operation, 
in  New  York,  in  1834.  He  published  "The  Life  and 
Correspondence  of  Major-General  Greene,"  (2  vols., 
1822.) 

Johnson,  (Sir  William,)  a  British  military  officer, 
born  about  1715,  was  employed  in  North  America,  and 
had  great  influence  over  the  Indians.  He  commanded 
an  expedition  sent  against  Crown  Point  in  1755,  ^"^^ 
defeated  the  French  and  their  Indian  allies.  He  wrote 
a  short  work  "On  the  Customs  and  Languages  of  the 
American  Indians."    Died  in  New  York  in  1774. 

See  "Life  and  Times  of  Sir  W.  Johnson,"  by  W.  L.  Stone,  1865. 

€  as      9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  y^, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R, 


Johnson,  (William  B,,)  a  Baptist  minister,  born  near 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1782.  He  presided  over 
the  Baptist  Convention  of  South  Caiolina  for  twenty-five 
years  or  more.  He  was  the  author  of  several  religious 
works. 

Johnson,  (William  Samuel,)  F.R.S.,  an  eloquent 
American  lawyer  and  scholar,  born  at  Stratford,  Con- 
necticut, in  1727,  graduated  at  Yale  in  1744.  Having 
been  sent  as  a  colonial  agent  to  England  in  1766,  he 
became  an  acquaintance  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Johnson, 
with  whom  he  corresponded  for  many  years.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1785,  was  a  member  of  the  con- 
vention which  formed  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1787, 
and  was  elected  a  United  States  Senator  for  Connecticut 
in  1789.  Lie  was  president  of  Columbia  College,  New 
York,  from  1791  until  1800.    Died  in  1819. 

Johns^ton,  (Albert  Sydney,)  an  eminent  American 
general,  born  in  Mason  county,  Kentucky,  in  1803, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1826.  Having  resigned  his 
commission  in  1834,  he  enlisted  as  a  private  soldier  in 
the  army  of  Texas  in  1836.  He  soon  became  commander- 
in-chief,  in  place  of  F.  Houston,  with  whom  he  fought 
a  duel  about  1837.  He  was  secretary  of  war  of  the 
republic  of  Texas,  1838-40,  and  served  as  colonel  of 
the  army  of  the  United  States  in  the  Mexican  war, 
(1846-47.)  In  1849  was  appointed  paymaster  of  the 
army  of  the  United  States.  Having  been  raised  to  the 
rank  of  colonel,  he  commanded  the  expedition  sent  to 
Utah  against  the  Mormons  in  1857.  In  i860  he  took 
command  of  the  department  of  the  Pacific.  He  offered 
his  services  to  the  secessionists  in  1861,  and  was  ap- 
pointed commander  of  the  department  of  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee.  He  occupied  a  fortified  position  at 
Bowling  Green  in  the  autumn  of  1861.  The  capture 
of  Fort  Donelson,  February  16,  1862,  having  rendered 
this  position  untenable,  he  moved  hastily  southward 
into  Tennessee,  and  fonned  a  junction  with  the  army 
of  General  Beauregard  at  Corinth.  About  six  weeks 
were  spent  in  this  disastrous  retreat.  He  collected  a 
force  of  about  50,000  men  at  Corinth,  and  attacked  the 
army  of  General  Grant  at  Shiloh  on  the  6th  of  April, 
1862.  He  was  killed  about  two  P.M.  on  the  first  day 
of  this  battle,  by  a  ball,  which  cut  an  artery  of  his  leg. 
"A.  S.  Johnston,"  says  Mr.  Greeley,  "was  probably 
the  ablest  commander  at  any  time  engaged  in  the  rebel 
service."  ("American  Conflict.") 

See  Life  of  A.  S.  Johnston  in  "Southern  Generals,"  (anony- 
mous,) 1865;  Tenney,  "Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebel- 
lion," 1865. 

Johns'ton,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  painter,  born  in 
Edinburgh  in  1816.  His  works  mostly  represent  familiar 
scenes  of  Scottish  life,  or  events  in  Scottish  history. 

Johnston,  (Alexander  Keith,)  an  eminent  geog- 
rapher, was  born  at  Kirkhill,  in  Scotland,  in  1804.  In 
order  to  be  thoroughly  informed  upon  geography,  he 
made  himself  acquainted  with  the  French,  Spanish, 
Italian,  and  German  languages.  His  first  important 
work,  the  "National  Atlas,"  was  issued  in  1843.  In 
1848  he  published  a  valuable  "Physical  Atlas,"  which 
greatly  extended  the  celebrity  of  its  author.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Geographical  Societies  of  Ber- 
lin and  Paris,  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London,  and 
the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.  Of  the  other  works 
of  Mr.  Johnston  may  be  mentioned  "A  Dictionary  of 
Geography,"  (1850,)  and  an  "Atlas  of  the  Historical 
Geography  of  Europe." 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1849. 

Johnston,  (Dr.  Arthur,)  a  Scottish  physician  and 
poet,  eminent  for  hjs  classical  learning,  was  born  in  Aber- 
deenshire in  1587.  He  pursued  his  studies  mostly  on 
the  continent,  and  in  1610  received  the  degree  of  M.D. 
at  Padua.  He  afterwards  resided  at  Paris  several  years, 
and  on  his  return  to  England,  in  1632,  was  appointed 
physician-in-ordinary  to  Charles  I.  Died  in  1641.  He 
contributed  to  Sir  John  Scott's  collection  of  Latin 
poems,  and  composed,  in  Latin,  "Poetical  Paraphrases 
of  the  Psalms  of  David,"  (1637.)  "I  am  inclined  to 
think,"  says  Hallam,  "that  Johnston's  Psalms  do  not 
fall  far  short  of  those  of  Buchanan,  either  in  elegance 
of  style  or  in  correctness  of  Latinity." 

See  Irving,  "Lives  of  Scottish  Writers;"  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOHNSTON  1286  JOHNSTONE 


Johnston,  (Gabriel,)  a  native  of  Scotland,  was  ap- 
pointed colonial  governor  of  North  Carolina  in  1734; 
died  in  1752. 

Johnston,  (George,)  a  distinguished  naturalist,  was 
born  at  Siniprin  in  1789,  and  graduated  as  a  physician  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1819.  Among  his  inter- 
esting and  valuable  contributions  to  science  may  be  men- 
tioned "  History  of  British  Zoophytes,"  (1838,)  "  History 
of  British  Sponges  and  Lithophytes,"  (1842,)  papers  on 
"British  and  Irish  Annelides,"  a  work  on  Conchology, 
(1850,)  and  "Botany  of  the  Eastern  Borders,"  (1854.) 
He  practised  medicine  at  Berwick-on-Tweed  for  many 
years.    Died  in  1855. 

See  a  notice  of  G.  Johnston  In  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine" 
for  September,  1855. 

Johnston,  (James  T.  W.,)  a  noted  agricultural  chem- 
ist, was  born  at  Paisley,  in  Scotland,  about  1796.  He 
studied  in  Sweden,  under  Berzelius.  In  1833 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  University  of 
Durham.  He  also  visited  America,  where  he  became 
distinguished  as  an  agricultural  chemist.  Among  his 
works  are  the  "  Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemistry  and 
Geology,"  (1842,)  "  Catechism  of  Agricultural  Chemistry 
and  Geology,"  (1844,)  a  work  which  has  been  translated 
into  nearly  every  European  language,  "Contributions 
to  Scientific  Agriculture,"  (1849,)  "Notes  on  North 
America,"  (1851,)  and  "  Chemistry  of  Common  Life," 
(2  vols.,  1854-55.)  Died  in  1855. 

Johnston,  (John,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  scholar,  was 
professor  of  divinity  in  the  College  of  Saint  Andrew's. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  poems,  "  Heroes  ex  Omni  His- 
toria  Scotica  Lectissimi,"  (1603.)    Died  in  1612. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Johnston,  (John,)  an  eminent  physician  and  natural 
philosopher,  born  in  Poland  in  1603.  He  graduated  at 
the  Universities  of  Leyden  and  Cambridge.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  in  Latin,  the  "  Wonders  of  Nature, 
divided  into  Ten  Classes,"  which  was  a  natural  history 
of  beasts,  birds,  fishes,  and  insects.    Died  in  1675. 

Johnston,  (Joseph  Eggleston,)  an  able  American 
general,  born  in  Prince  Edward  county,  Virginia,  about 
1809.  Plis  mother,  whose  maiden  name  was  Wood,  was 
a  niece  of  Patrick  Henry.  He  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1829,  gained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1846,  and  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Mexican  war,  1846-47.  In  June, 
i860,  he  was  appointed  quartermaster-general,  with  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  resigned  his  commission 
in  April,  1861,  and  was  immediately  appointed  a  major- 
general,  or  general,  by  Jefferson  Davis.  He  took  com- 
mand of  a  force  at  Harper's  Ferry  in  May,  1861,  and  was 
opposed  in  that  vicinity  by  General  Patterson.  Having 
eluded  Patterson,  he  moved  his  army  rapidly  to  Ma- 
nassas, and  effected  a  junction  with  the  army  of  Beau- 
regard on  the  20th  or  21st  of  July.  General  Johnston 
was  superior  in  rank  to  Beauregard,  but  he  waived  his 
claim  to  precedence  in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21. 
He  remained  inactive  at  Manassas  Junction  during  the 
autumn  of  1861  and  the  ensuing  winter.  About  the  8th 
of  March,  1862,  he  changed  his  base  and  retired  behind 
the  Rapidan.  He  soon  moved  his  army  to  the  peninsula 
to  oppose  McClellan,  and,  having  been  repulsed  at  Wil- 
liamsburg, May  5,  retreated  towards  Richmond.  On 
the  31st  of  May  he  attacked  a  part  of  the  Union  army  at 
Fair  r)aks,  or  Seven  Pines.  In  this  battle  he  received 
a  severe  wound,  which  disabled  him  for  several  months. 
In  November,  1862,  he  was  assigned  to  the  command  of 
a  department  comprising  Tennessee,  Alabama,  and  Mis- 
sissippi. He  reported  in  April,  1863,  that  he  was  still 
unfit  for  active  service  in  the  field.  After  General  Grant 
approached  Vicksburg  from  the  south.  General  Johnston 
moved  a  small  army  to  relieve  that  place,  and  reached 
Jackson  on  the  13th  of  May.  He  was  defeated  on  the 
14th,  abandoned  Jackson,  and  retreated  to  Canton.  On 
the  29th  of  May  he  wrote  to  General  Pemberton,  "  I  am 
too  weak  to  save  Vicksburg.  Can  do  no  more  than 
attempt  to  save  you  and  your  garrison."  In  December, 
1863,  he  took  command  in  person  of  the  army  which  had 
recently  been  defeated  by  General  Grant  near  Chatta- 
nooga, and  which  was  required  to  oppose  the  advance 
of  General  Sherman  towards  Atlanta.  He  began  this 
campaign  with  about  55,000  men,  occupying  a  strong 


and  fortified  position  at  Dalton,  Georgia.  This  position 
having  been  turned  by  the  Union  army,  Johnston  fell 
back  to  Resaca,  where  he  was  attacked  on  the  15th  of 
May.  After  a  severe  battle,  he  retreated  in  the  ensuing 
night,  closely  pursued,  and  reached  Cassville,  near  the 
Etowah  River,  on  the  19th.  Having  crossed  the  Etowah 
under  cover  of  the  night.  General  Johnston  made  another 
stand  in  the  strong  position  of  Allatoona  Pass,  to  dis- 
lodge him  from  which  General  Sherman  ordered  a  flank 
movement  to  Dallas.  General  Johnston  attacked  the 
Federals  at  Dallas  on  the  28th  of  May,  was  repulsed, 
and  on  the  4th  of  June  retreated  to  Kenesaw  Mountain. 
On  the  27th  of  June,  General  Sherman  made  an  unsuc- 
cessful assault  on  the  works  at  Kenesaw,  but  he  resorted 
again  to  a  flank  movement,  which  compelled  General 
Johnston  to  abandon  Kenesaw  on  the  2d  or  3d  of  July, 
and  to  retreat  across  the  Chattahoochee.  He  was  re- 
moved from  the  command  on  the  i8th  of  July,  1864. 
Before  this  date  he  had  attained  the  rank  of  general, 
the  highest  in  the  service.  He  obtained  command  of 
an  army  in  South  Carolina  about  February,  1865,  and 
on  the  1 8th  of  March  attacked  the  advance  of  General 
Sherman's  army  at  Bentonville,  North  Carolina.  He 
retreated  to  Smithfield  on  the  21st  of  March,  and 
surrendered  his  army  to  General  Sherman  on  the  26th 
of  April,  1865,  on  the  same  terms  as  were  granted  to 
General  Lee.    (See  Sherman,  W.  T.) 

See  a  "  Life  of  General  J.  E.  Johnston"  in  "Southern  Generals," 
1865. 

Johnston,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  historical  writer,  was 
the  author  of  a  "  History  of  his  Own  Times,"  (1642,  in 
Latin.)    Died  about  1636. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Johnstone  (jons'ton)  or  Johnston  of  Warriston, 
(Archibald,)  a  Scottish  statesman,  and  leader  of  the 
Presbyterians.  He  held  several  high  offices,  and  was 
an  adherent  of  the  Parliament  in  the  civil  war  which 
began  in  1642.  He  became  lord  advocate  in  1646,  and 
was  created  a  peer  by  Cromwell.  He  was  executed  as 
a  rebel  in  1663. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Johnstone,  (Bryce,)  an  eminent  Scottish  divine,  born 
in  Dumfriesshire  in  1747.  Pie  studied  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  which  in  1786  unanimously  conferred  upon 
him  the  degree  of  D.D.  Among  his  works  may  be  men- 
tioned "  Commentary  on  the  Revelation  of  Saint  John 
the  Divine,"  (1794,)  "Essay  on  the  Influence  of  Religion 
on  Civil  Society  and  Civil  Government,"  and  a  treatise 
on  agriculture.    Died  in  1805. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Bryce  Johnstone,"  by  his  nephew,  John  John- 
stone, 1808. 

Johnstone,  Johnson,  or  Johnston,  (Charles,)  an 
author,  born  in  Ireland  about  1720,  was  educated  for  the 
bar.  The  most  important  of  his  productions  was  a  po- 
litical romance,  entitled  "  Chrysal,  or  the  Adventures  of 
a  Guinea,"  (1760,)  which  met  with  a  great  sale.  Besides 
this,  he  wrote  "The  Reverie,  or  a  Flight  to  the  Paradise 
of  Fools,"  (1762,)  "  Arsaces,  Prince  of  Betlis,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  Calcutta  in  1800. 

See  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works. 

Johnstone,  (George,)  a  diplomatist  and  post-captain 
in  the  royal  navy,  the  son  of  a  Scottish  baronet.  In  1763 
he  was  made  Governor  of  West  Florida.  During  the 
American  Revolution  he  was  appointed  (in  1778)  one  of 
the  commissioners  sent  with  Lord  Carlisle  to  the  United 
States  to  treat  with  Congress.    Died  in  1787. 

Johnstone,  (James,)  a  distinguished  Scottish  physi- 
cian, born  at  Annan  in  1730,  was  educated  at  Edinburgh 
and  Paris.  He  was  very  successful  in  malignant  fevers, 
on  which  he  wrote  a  treatise.  He  is  also  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  recommend  the  use  of  mineral  acids  in  those 
diseases.  Among  his  other  works  may  be  mentioned 
"  Medical  Essays  and  Observations,  with  Disquisitions 
relating  to  the  Nervous  System,"  (1795.)  He  practised 
at  Worcester,  where  he  died  in  1802. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Johnstone,  (John,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1768,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  He  was  equally 
celebrated  as  a  skilful  physician  and  an  accomplished 
scholar.    He  wrote  the  "Life  of  Dr.  Parr,"  (1828,)  with 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;     ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  Ci,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JOHNSTONE  1287 


JOMBERT 


whom  he  was  very  intimate  ;  also  several  medical  works. 
He  practised  in  Birmingham  about  forty  years.  Died 
in  1836. 

See  a  notice, of  J.  Johnstone  in  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for 
May,  1837. 

Johnstone,  (John  Henry,)  a  celebrated  comic  actor 
and  vocalist,  born  in  Ireland  in  1750 ;  died  in  1828. 

Johnstone,  jons'ton,  de,  Chevalier,  a  native  of 
Edinburgh,  entered  in  1745  the  army  of  the  Pretender,  to 
whom  he  soon  became  aide-de-camp.  He  served  at  the 
battle  of  Prestonpans  and  in  subsequent  engagements. 
After  the  battle  of  Culloden  he  escaped  to  Paris,  and  re- 
ceived an  appointment  in  the  French  army.  He  wrote, 
in  French,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Rebellion  in  1745  and  1746," 
which  was  translated  and  published  in  London  in  1820. 
Died  in  France  at  an  advanced  age. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1822. 

Joinville.zhvviN^v^K,  (Edmond,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1801  ;  died  in  1849. 

Joinville,  de,  deh  join'vil  or  zhwiN^^K,  (FRANgois 
Ferdinand  Philippe  Louis  Marie  d'Orli&ans,  ) 
Prince,  the  third  son  of  King  Louis  Philippe,  was  born 
in  1818.  He  served  in  the  navy,  and  obtained  the  rank 
of  captain  for  his  conduct  at  the  attack  on  Vera  Cruz  in 
1838.  In  1840  he  was  sent  to  Saint  Helena  to  bring  the 
remains  of  Napoleon  to  France.  He  commanded  the 
naval  division  which  bombarded  Tangier  in  1 844,  and  gave 
an  impulse  to  the  construction  of  steam  ships  of  war  by 
his  "Note  sur  les  Forces  navales  de  la  France,"  (1844.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Joinville,  de,  (Jean  or  Jehan,)  Sire,  a  French  noble- 
man and  chronicler  of  high  reputation,  born  in  Cham- 
pagne in  1224.  He  grew  up  at  the  court  of  Thibaut,  King 
of  Navarre  and  Count  of  Champagne,  and  in  1248  raised 
several  hundred  armed  men  from  among  his  tenants  and 
accompanied  Louis  IX.  in  his  first  crusade  to  the  Holy 
Land.  He  soon  became  a  great  favourite  with  this 
monarch.  Joinville  distinguished  himself  for  bravery  at 
the  capture  of  Damietta  in  Egypt,  and  was  subsequently, 
with  Louis,  made  prisoner  at  Mansoorah.  He  returned 
to  France  with  the  king  in  1254.  He  wrote  a  very  in- 
teresting work  entitled  "History  of  Saint  Louis  IX., 
King  of  France,  by  Jehan  Sire  de  Joinville."  "In  this 
history,"  says  Ambrose  P'irmin  Didot,  "which  is  one  of 
the  most  precious  monuments  of  ancient  or  modern 
tiines,  the  Christian,  the  man  of  the  world,  the  friend  of 
the  king,  and  the  historian,  display  themselves  with 
such  naturalness,  simplicity,  and  candour  that  the  reader 
can  penetrate  the  inner  heart  of  the  author  by  the  simple 
recital  which  he  has  given  us.  .  .  .  His  natural  and 
easy  style  has  all  the  charm  of  conversation."  ("Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale.")  He  is  supposed  to  have 
died  about  1317. 

See  F.  Feriel,  "  Notice  sur  Jean  de  Joinville,"  1853 ;  Chezjean, 
"Notice  historique  sur  Sire  de  Joinville,"  1853;  Sainte-Beuve, 
"  Causeries  du  Lundi." 

Joliet,  zho'le-k',  (Louis,)  a  French  traveller,  was  one 
of  the  first  white  men  that  explored  the  Mississijipi 
River.  He  had  resided  some  time  at  Quebec  before 
1673,  when  he  and  Marquette  were  sent  to  explore  that 
river.  (See  Marquette.)  After  the  end  of  that  voyage 
it  appears  that  he  returned  to  Quebec.  Died  about  1730. 

Joliveau  de  Segrais,  zho'le'vo'  deh  seh^gRa',  (Ma- 
rie Madeleine  Nicole  Alexandrine,)  a  French 
poetess,  born  at  Bar-sur-Aube  in  1756;  died  in  1830. 
She  wrote  "  New  Fables  in  Verse,"  etc. 

Jolivet,  de,  deh  zho'le'vi',  (Jean  Baptiste  Moyse,) 
Count,  a  French  advocate,  born  in  1754,  was  elected 
in  1791  to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  in  which  he  boldly 
denounced  the  Jacobins.  On  the  accession  of  Napoleon 
he  was  created  councillor  of  state.  Died  in  1818.  He 
wrote  various  works  on  political  economy. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

JoUivet,  zhoOe^'y,  (Adolphe,)  a  French  politician, 
born  in  1799,  wrote  many  works  against  the  abolition  (jf 
slavery;  He  was  killed  in  Paris  during  the  revolution 
of  February,  1848. 

Jollivet,  (Pierre  Jules,)  a  French  painter  of  history, 
born  in  Paris  in  1803,  gained  a  medal  of  the  first  class 
in  1835. 


JoUois,  zho'lwi',  (Jean  Baptiste  Prosper,)  a  French 
antiquary  and  engineer,  born  in  Burgundy  in  1776.  He 
was  chief  engineer  of  the  department  of  Seine,  (Paris.) 
He  published  many  works  on  French  antiquities.  Died 
in  1842. 

.See  Alfred  Maukv,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  J.  B. 
P.  Jollois,"  1846;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Joly,  zho'le',  (B^nigne,)  a  French  religious  writer, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1644,  wrote  a  number  of  devotional 
works.    Died  in  1694. 

Joly,  (Claude,)  a  French  writer  and  ecclesiastic,  born 
in  Paris  in  1607,  wrote  "A  Collection  of  True  Maxims 
for  the  Education  of  a  King,  against  the  Pernicious 
Policy  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,"  (1652,)  a  copy  of  which 
was  burnt  by  the  common  executioner.  -~He  became  a 
canon  of  the  Church  of  Paris  in  163 1.    Died  in  1700. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Joly,  (Claude,)  a  French  preacher,  born  in  Lorraine 
in  1610,  became  Bishop  of  Agen,  and  left  several  volumes 
of  sermons,  (1692-94.)    Died  in  1678. 

Joly  or  Jolly ,yiho1e',  (FRANgois  Antoine,)  a  French 
comic  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1662.  He  wrote  several 
comedies,  and  published  accurate  editions  of  Moliere 
(6  vols.,  1734)  and  Corneille,  (5  vols.)    Died  in  1753. 

Joly,  (Gui,)  a  French  writer,  a  nephew  of  Claude  Joly, 
noticed  above,  became  confidential  secretary  to  Cardinal 
de  Retz.  He  is  known  as  the  author  of  the  historical 
"  Memoirs"  from  1648  to  1665,  (1718.)  An  English  trans- 
lation of  this  work  was  published  in  1755.  His  "  Memoirs" 
are  designed  to  explain  and  complete  those  of  De  Retz. 

Joly,  (Joseph  Romain,)  a  French  monk  and  writer, 
born  in  1715  ;  died  in  1805. 

Joly,  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  in 
1672,  wrote  "The  School  of  Lovers,"  and  "The  Jealous 
Wife."   Died  in  1753. 

Joly  or  Jolly,  (Marie  Elisabeth,)  a  noted  French 
actress,  born  at  Versailles  in  1761.  In  1793  she  was 
imprisoned  by  the  revolutionists,  but  regained  her  free- 
dom on  condition  that  she  should  perform  at  the  theatre 
of  the  Republic.    Died  in  1798. 

Joly,  (Philippe  Louis,)  a  learned  French  ecclesiastic 
and  philologist,  born  at  Dijon  about  17 12.  Among  his 
works  are  "  Critical  Remarks  on  the  Dictionary  of  Bayle," 
(1748,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  French  Versification,"  (1751.) 
Died  in  1782. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Joly  de  Bevy,  zho'le'  deh  ba've',  (Louis  Philippe 
Joseph,)  a  French  judge  and  religious  writer,  born  at 
Dijon  in  1736;  died  in  1822. 

Joly-Clerc,  zho'le'  klaiR,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  natu- 
ralist, wrote  a  number  of  works  on  botany.  Died  in  181 7. 

Joly  de  Fleury,  zho'le'  deh  fluh're',  (Guillaume 
Francois,)  a  learned  and  eloquent  French  advocate  and 
magistrate,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1675.  For  more  than 
twenty  years  he  was  attorney-general  in  the  Parliament  of 
Paris.   He  wrote  several  treatises  on  law.  Died  in  1756. 

Joly  de  Fleury,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  financier, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1718.  He  succeeded 
Necker  as  minister  of  finances  in  1781,  and  resigned  in 
1783.    Died  in  1802. 

Joly  de  Fleury,  (Jean  Omer — o'maiR',)  a  French 
])riest,  nephew  of  Guillaume  Frangois,  noticed  above. 
Died  in  1755. 

Joly  de  Maizeroy.    See  Maizeroy. 

Jomard,  zho'mtK'',  (  Edme  Franqois,  )  a  French 
archaeologist  and  geographer,  born  at  Versailles  in  1777. 
He  accompanied  the  army  to  Egypt  in  1798,  returned 
in  1802,  and  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  Egyptian 
commission.  He  contributed  to  the  redaction  of  the 
great  "  Description  of  Egypt,"  and,  as  imperial  com- 
missary, directed  the  engraving  and  impression  of  the 
same  for  twenty  years,  (1807-26.)  The  portions  of  this 
work  written  by  Jomard  were  published  separately, 
with  the  title  of  "Observations  on  Ancient  and  Modern 
Egypt,  or  a  Historical  and  Picturesque  Description  of 
its  Monuments,"  (4  vols.,  1830.)  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Institute.    Died  in  1862. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Jombert,  zhoN'baiR',  (Charles  Antoine,)  a  French 
writer  on  art,  born  in  Paris  in  1712;  died  in  1784. 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  tiasal;  r,  trilled;  §  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (JC^^Sce  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOMELLI 


12 


88 


JONES 


Jomelli,  yo-mcKlee,  (Niccol6,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Aversa,  near  Naj^les,  in  1 7 14.  He 
studied  under  Feo,  Leo,  and  Martini.  His  first  opera, 
"L'Errore  amoroso,"  produced  when  he  was  twenty- 
three  years  of  age,  rendered  him  so  famous  that  he  was 
soon  after  invited  to  Rome,  where  he  composed  two 
more  operas  and  was  patronized  by  the  Cardinal  of 
York.  In  1742  he  went  to  Vienna,  where  he  formed  an 
intimate  friendship  with  Metastasio  and  gave  instruc- 
tions in  music  to  the  empress  Maria  Theresa.  He  was 
employed  as  musician  or  chapel-master  in  Saint  Peter's 
at  Rome  from  1749  to  1754.  The  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg 
having  invited  him  to  enter  his  service  as  chapel-master 
to  the  court,  Jomelli  removed  to  Stuttgart,  where  he 
]-)asscd  about  seventeen  years,  (1754-70.)  Died  at  Naples 
in  August,  1774.  Among  his  best  productions  are  operas 
entitled  "  Didone,"  (1745,)  "  Eumene,"  (1746,)  "Merope," 
(1747,)  and  "Ezio,"  (1748,)  several  oratorios  and  masses, 
and  a  miserere  for  two  voices. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographle  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  Pietro 
Alfieri,  "  Notizie  biografiche  di  N.  Jomelli,"  1845;  "  Nouvelle 
H;ogia|)hie  Generale;"  Chokon  et  F^yoll^  "  Dictionnaire  des 
.Musiciens." 

Jomini,  zho'me^ne',  (Henri,)  Baron,  an  able  general 
and  eminent  writer  on  strategy,  was  born  at  Payerne, 
in  the  Swiss  Canton  de  Vaud,  in  1779.  He  entered  the 
French  army,  became  aide-de-camp  to  Ney  about  1804, 
and  presented  to  Bonaparte  on  the  field  of  Austerlitz 
his  "  Treatise  on  the  Grand  Operations  of  War."  A 
few  days  after  this  event  he  was  appointed  chief  of  the 
staff  of  Ney.  He  received  the  title  of  baron  for  his 
conduct  at  Jena  in  1806,  and  was  employed  in  Spain  in 
1808.  In  181 1  he  became  a  general  of  brigade,  and  in 
1812  French  governor  of  Wilna.  He  contributed  greatly 
to  the  victory  of  Bautzen  in  1813.  His  promotion  having 
been  obstructed  by  the  enmity  of  Berthier,  he  quitted 
the  French  service  in  1813,  and  entered  that  of  Russia, 
with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  and  became  aide-de- 
camp to  the  emperor  Alexander.  Died  about  April  i, 
1869.  Among  his  chief  works  are  "Traite  des  grandes 
Operations  militaires,  ou  Histoire  critique  et  militaire  des 
Guerresde  Frederic  II  comparees  a  celles  de  la  Revolu- 
tion," (5  vols.,  1805,)  a  *'  Critical  and  Military  History  of 
the  Campaigns  of  the  Revolution  from  1792  to  1 801," 
(15  vols.,  1819-24,)  and  "Precis  de  I'Art  de  la  Guerre," 
(5th  ed.,  2  vols.,  1838.)  The  works  of  Jomini  are  among 
the  best  that  have  ever  been  written  on  the  art  of  war. 

See  Pascal,  "Observations  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Baron 
Jomini;"  Querard,  "  La  France  Litteraire ;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Generale ;"  "Monthly  Review,"  vol.  xci.,  1820,  (Appendix.) 

Jon  Areson.    See  Areson,  (Jon.) 

Jon,  du,  (Francis.)    See  Junius. 

Jonse,  yo'ni,  (Peter,)  Bishop  of  Strengnas,  in  Swe- 
den, was  professor  of  theology  at  Upsal  when  John  III. 
attempted  to  re-establish  the  Catholic  religion.  Jonae 
boldly  opposed  this  proceeding.    Died  in  1607. 

Jo'nah  or  Jo'nas,  [Heb.  Hjr ;  Gr.  'Iwvaf ;  Lat. 
Jonas,]  one  of  the  minor  Hebrew  prophets,  and  the 
subject  of  the  book  bearing  his  name,  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  under  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II.,  about  800 

B.  C. ;  but  some  place  him  under  that  of  Jehu. 

See  II.  Kings  xiv.  25  ;  Matthew  xii.  39,  .41  ;  Luke  xi.  29,  32. 

Jonas.    See  Jonah. 

Jonas,  yo'n^s,  Jonae,  yo'ni,  or  Jonsson,  yon'son, 
(Arngrim,)  a  learned  historian,  antiquary,  and  divine, 
born  in  Iceland  about  1568,  is  said  to  have  studied 
astronomy  under  Tycho  Brahe.  Most  of  his  works 
relate  to  the  history  of  Iceland.    Died  in  1648. 

Jonas,  yo'n^s,  (Justus,)  an  eminent  German  Re- 
,  former  and  writer,  born  at  Nordhausen  in  1493. 
became  in  1521  professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg. 
He  assisted  Luther  in  the  translation  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, accompanied  him  to  the  Diet  at  Worms  and  at 
Augsburg,  and  had  a  share  in  the  composition  of  the 
so-called  Torgau  Articles.  He  also  translated  a  number 
of  Luther's  works,  and  Melanchthon's  "  Defence  (Apol- 
ogy) of  the  Augsburg  Confession,"  from  the  Latin  into 
German.    Died  in  1555. 

See  P.  Ekerman,  "Vita  et  Acta  Dr.  J.  Jon.T.,"  Upsal,  1761  ;  G. 

C.  Knapp,  "  Narratio  de  Justo  Jona  T.heologo,"  etc.,  ,1817;  Er.sch 
und  Gruher,  "  Allgemeine  Kncyklopaedie  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale  ;"  L.  Reinhard,  "Life  of  Justus  Jonas,"  (in  Latin,)  1731. 


Jonas  or  Jonae,  (Runolph,)  a  scholar  and  author, 
born  in  Iceland,  graduated  at  Copenhagen,  where  he 
fixed  his  residence  after  1649.  He  wrote  "Elements 
of  the  Northern  Languages,"  and  "  Rudiments  of  the 
Icelandic  Grammar."    Died  in  1654. 

Jon'a-than,  [  Heb.  |njin\]  son  of  King  Saul,  and  the 
most  intimate  friend  of  the  psalmist  David.  The  death 
of  this  prince,  who  fell  with  his  father,  near  Mount  Gil  boa, 
while  fighting  the  Philistines,  furnished  the  subject  of 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  David's  songs. 

See  I.  Samuel  xviii.,  xix.,  xx.  ;  II.  Samuel  i.  17-27. 

Jon'athan  Ap'phus,  ( aPfus, )  a  celebrated  Jewish 
leader  and  high-priest,  succeeded  his  elder  brother,  Judas 
Maccabaeus,  in  161  B.C.,  as  chief  ruler  of  his  nation.  For 
seventeen  years  he  governed  with  wisdom  and  justice,  and 
carried  on  successful  wars  with  many  of  the  surrounding 
nations.  During  the  civil  dissensions  in  the  kingdom 
of  Syria  he  was  decoyed  into  the  city  of  Ptolemais  and 
massacred  with  his  entire  escort. 

Jonathan  Ben  Uz-zi'el  (or  uz'ze-el)  or  U-zi'el, 
a  Jewish  rabbi,  supposed  to  have  been  contemporary 
with  the  prophets  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi.  He 
was  the  author  of  the  "Targum,"  a  Chaldaic  paraphrase 
of  most  of  the  Hebrew  prophetical  books. 

Joncourt,  de,  deh  zhow'kooR',  (Elie,)  a  Dutch  writer, 
of  French  e.\ti  action,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1707.  He 
was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Bibliotheque  des  Sciences 
et  des  Arts,"  (50  vols.,  1754-80,)  and  wrote  various 
works.    Died  about  1775. 

Jonctys,  yonk^tis,  (Daniel,)  a  Ti\.\tc\\.  litth-ateur  ^iwd 
physician,  born  at  Dort,  lived  many  years  at  Rotterdam. 
Among  his  works  was  an  able  treatise  against  torture. 
Died  in  1654. 

Jones,  jonz,  (Anson,)  an  American  physician.  Presi- 
dent of  the  republic  of  Texas  at  the  time  of  its  annexation, 
was  born  in  Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1798. 
He  settled  in  Brazoria,  Texas,  in  1833,  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  political  and  military  movements  which 
resulted  in  the  independence  of  that  republic,  was  min- 
ister to  the  United  States  in  1838,  and  afterwards  for 
three  years  secretary  of  state  under  President  Houston. 
In  1844  he  succeeded  Houston  as  President.  Died  by 
his  own  hand  in  1858. 

Jones,  jonz,  (David,)  a  Welsh  poet,  born  in  Caer- 
narvonshire, was  also  a  collector  of  Welsh  manuscripts. 
Died  about  1780. 

Jones,  (David  R.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
South  Carolina  about  1827,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1846.  He  served  as  brigadier-general  in  the  army  of 
General  Lee  at  Antietam,  September  17,  1862.  Died 
in  1863. 

Jones,  (Edward,)  a  Welsh  musician  and  bard,  born 
in  Merionethshire  about  1750.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Musical  and  Poetical  Relics  of  the  French 
Bards,"  (1784.)    Died  in  1821. 

Jones,  j5nz,  (Ernest,)  M.P.,  an  English  poet  and 
Chartist.  He  became  the  leader  of  the  Chartist  move- 
ment about  1846.  He  was  imprisoned  about  two  years 
for  his  radical  political  speeches,  (1848-49.)  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Wood  Spirit,"  (1841,)  and  "Chartist 
Lyrics."  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  in 
1869,  and  died  the  same  year. 

Jones,  (Griffith,)  a  clergyman,  born  in  Wales  in 
1684,  was  very  active  in  supporting  schools  and  in  cir- 
culating the  Bible  among  his  indigent  countrymen.  He 
wrote  several  educational  treatises  in  Welsh  and  English. 
Died  in  1761. 

Jones,  (Griffith,)  an  English  author,  born  in  1721. 
He  edited  at  different  times  several  ]-)eriodicals,  and  was 
connected  with  Dr.  Johnson  in  the  "  Literary  Magazine" 
and  with  Goldsmith  in  the  "  British  Magazine."  Among 
his  works  are  "Great  Events  from  Little  Causes,"  and 
several  "Liliputian  Histories."    Died  in  1786. 

Jones,  jonz,  (Henry,)  an  Irish  poet  and  dramatic 
writer,  born  at  Drogheda  about  1720,  was  by  trade  a 
bricklayer.  His  productions  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  Earl  of  Chesterfield,  then  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
who  took  him  to  England  and  procured  a  large  sub- 
scription for  his  poems.  Among  his  works  we  may  cite 
the  "Tragedy  of  the  Earl  of  Es'sex,"  (1753,)  and  "The 
Cave  of  Idra."    Died  in  1770. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  xx^  y, 


short;  ^,    j,  q,  obscure;  f^r,  fl,ll,  fdt;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


yONES 


1289 


JONES 


Jones,  (Inigo,)  a  distinguished  architect,  styled  "the 
Enghsh  Paliadio,"  was  born  in  London  about  1572. 
Being  apprenticed  to  a  joiner,  his  talent  for  designing 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  who 
furnished  him  with  means  to  travel  through  Europe. 
While  in  Italy,  he  accepted  an  invitation  from  Christian 
IV.  to  visit  Denmark.  The  sister  of  that  monarch  was 
the  queen  of  James  I.  of  England  ;  and  thus  the  way 
was  paved  to  the  royal  patronage  when  he  reached  his 
native  land  in  1605.  In  a  short  lime  he  was  appointed 
architect  to  the  queen  and  to  Prince  Henry,  in  which 
position  he  formed  a  friendship  with  Ben  Jonson.  They 
subsequently  quarrelled,  and  the  poet  ridiculed  him  in 
several  plays.  In  1612  he  visited  Italy  a  second  time; 
and  it  was  at  this  period  that  he  fully  adopted  the  classic 
style  of  architecture,  which  was  then  but  little  known  in 
England.  On  his  return  he  became  surveyor-general  of 
the  royal  buildings.  He  died  in  1653.  Of  the  edifices 
designed  and  constructed  by  him  may  be  mentioned  the 
palace  at  Whitehall,  and  the  west  front  of  Old  Saint 
Paul's.  He  was  an  accomplished  classical  scholar,  and 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Stonhenge  Restored." 

See  Peter  Cunningham,  "  Life  of  Inigo  Jones,"  1848;  Camp- 
bell, "Vitiuvius  Britannicus,"  5  vols.,  1767;  bRiTxoN,  "Dictionary 
of  Architecture,"  1830-38. 

Jones,  (Jacob,)  Commodore,  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  Kent  county,  Delaware,  in  1770.  He 
became  a  lieutenant  about  1801,  and  in  October,  1812, 
commanded  the  sloop-of-war  Wasp,  with  which  he  cap- 
tured the  British  sloop  Frolic,  which  carried  more  guns 
than  the  Wasp.  He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  post- 
captain  in  1813,  and  obtained  command  of-  the  frigate 
Macedonian.    Died  in  Philadelphia  in  1850. 

Jones,  (James  Chamberlain,)  a  United  States  Sen- 
ator, born  in  Davidson  county,  Tennessee,  in  1809.  In 
1841  he  was  chosen  by  the  Whigs  Governor  of  the  State, 
James  K.  Polk  being  his  competitor.  He  was  re-elected 
in  1843,  when  Mr.  Polk  was  again  the  opposing  can- 
didate. In  the  National  Whig  Convention  of  1848 
Governor  Jones  strenuously  advocated  the  nomination 
of  Henry  Clay  ;  but  after  the  selection  of  General  Taylor 
as  the  choice  of  the  Convention  he  entered  the  canvass 
warmly  in  his  support,  and  spoke  to  large  audiences 
in  different  States  of  the  Union.  He  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1851,  and  served  the  full  term 
of  six  years.  He  supported  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill 
in  1854,  and  thenceforward  acted  principally  with  the 
Democratic  party.    Died  in  1859. 

Jones,  (Jeremfah,)  a  learned  and  eloquent  English 
dissenting  minister,  born  in  1693,  published  an  important 
work  entitled  a  "New  and  Full  Method  of  Settling  the 
Canonical  Authority  of  the  New  Testament,"  (2  vols., 
1726,)  which  is  said  to  be  the  best  English  work  on  the 
subject.    Died  in  1724. 

Jones,  (John,)  a  phvsician  and  medical  writer,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  born  in  AVales  about  1500.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  practised  at  Bath,  in  Eng- 
land. Among  his  works  was  "The  Art  and  Science  of 
Preserving  the  Body  and  Soul  in  Health,"  (1579.) 

Jones,  (John,)  a  Benedictine,  born  in  London  in 
1575.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  where  he  roomed  with 
Laud,  afterwards  the  celebrated  archbishop.  Having 
become  a  Roman  Catholic,  he  went  to  Spain,  became  a 
monk,  and  continued  his  studies  at  Compostella.  He 
was  subsequently  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  and 
divinity  at  Douay.  Pie  was  the  author  of  several  theo- 
/ogical  works.    Died  in  London  in  1636. 

Jones,  (John,)  a  Welsh  antiquary,  who  collected  and 
transcribed  numerous  old  manuscripts  in  his  native  lan- 
guage. Fifty  large  volumes  of  these  are  yet  preserved. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  1600. 

Jone.s,  (John,)  the  author  of  "Adrasta,  or  the 
Woman's  Spleen,"  (1635,)  other  dramatic  works, 
lived  in  England  during  the  reign  of  Charles  I, 

Jones,  (John,)  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, born  in  Wales  in  1700,  and  educated  at  Oxford. 
In  1 75 1  he  became  rector  of  Boulne-Hurst,  and  in  1755 
vicar  of  Hitchin.  Four  years  later  he  was  chosen  by  Dr. 
Young,  the  poet,  to  be  his  curate.  He  wrote. "  Catholic 
Faith  and  Practice,"  (1765,)  and  other  religious  works. 
Died  about  1770. 


Jones,  (John,)  LL.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister,  born  in 
Carmarthenshire  about  1765.  About  1795  he  was  ap- 
pointed pastor  of  a  congregation  at  Plymouth  Dock,  and 
afterwards  at  Flalifax,  in  Yorkshire.  He  subsequently 
removed  to  London.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce 
the  use  of  Greek-and-English  dictionaries.  Previous 
to  his  time  the  Greek  had  been  studied  entirely  with  the 
aid  of  books  written  in  Latin.  Of  his  numerous  works 
we  may  mention  "  Illustrations  of  the  Four  Gospels, 
founded  on  Circumstances  peculiar  to  our  l^ord  and  the 
Evangelists,"  (1808,)  and  "A  Greek-and-English  Lexi- 
con,""(1823.)    Died  in  1827. 

Jones,  (John,)  a  lawyer  and  writer,  born  in  Carmar- 
thenshire in  1772,  was  admitted,  to  the  bar  in  1803. 
Among  his  works  are  "A  History  of  Wales,"  and 
"Cyfamod  Newydd,"  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
from  the  Greek  into  Welsh.    Died  in  1838. 

Jones,  (John  Gale,)  an  English  political  orator,  born 
in  1771,  advocated  republican  or  radical  opinions.  He 
w^as  prosecuted  for  some  political  offence,  defended  l.y 
Romilly,  and  acquitted.    Died  in  1838. 

Jones,  (John  M.,  )  an  American  general,  born  in 
Virginia  about  1820,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841. 
He  became  a  captain  in  1853,  and  resigned  his  commis- 
sion in  i86l  He  served  as  a  brigadier-general  in  the 
army  of  General  Lee,  and  was  killed  near  Spottsylvania, 
May  ID,  1864. 

Jones,  (Colonel  Leslie  Grove,)  an  English  political 
writer,  born  in  1779.  He  served  in  the  Peninsula  as 
aide-de-camp  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  He  con- 
tributed letters  to  the  "London  Times."    Died  in  1839. 

Jones,  (Noble  Wimberly,)  a  physician  and  patriot, 
born  in  Georgia  in  1725.  He  was  an  early  and  active 
promoter  of  the  Revolution,  was  a  delegate  to  Con- 
gress in  1775,  and  was  taken  prisoner  at  Charleston  in 
1780.  In  1 781  he  was  again  elected  to  Congress.  Died 
in  1805. 

Jones,  (Owen,)  an  antiquary,  born  in  Denbighshire, 
Wales,  in  1740.  He  published  a  large  collection  of 
ancient  Welsh  poetry,  and  the  "Archseology  of  Wales," 
containing  several  historical  documents.    l3ied  in  1814. 

Jones,  (Owen,)  an  architect,  born  in  Wales  about 
1809.  In  1837  he  visited  Granada,  and  in  1842  published 
"Plans,  Elevations,  Sections,  and  Details  of  the  Al- 
hambra,"  with  a  translation  of  the  Arabic  inscriptions, 
and  a  historical  account  of  the  sovereigns  of  Granada 
from  the  Spanish.  He  chiefly  devoted  his  attention  to 
ornamental  architecture,  in  which  he  soon  acquired 
distinction.  In  1852  he  was  appointed  "Director  of 
Decorations"  at  the  Crystal  Palace  in  London.  He 
displayed  his  taste  and  artistic  knowledge  with  a  very 
happy  effect  in  arranging  and  ornamenting  the  various 
courts  of  that  building.  Among  his  writings  are  "De- 
signs for  Mosaic  and  Tessellated  Pavements,"  (1842,)  and 
the  "Grammar  of  Ornament,"  (1856.) 

Jones,  (Paul  ;  originally  John  Paul,)  a  famous  naval 
officer,  born  at  Arbigland,  in  Scotland,  in  1747.  He  emi- 
grated to  Virginia,  entered  the  colonial  naval  service  in 
1775,  w^as  appointed  a  captain  in  "August,  1776,  and  took 
command  of  the  Ranger,  a  vessel  of  eighteen  guns,  about 
June,  1777.  He  sailed  to  Europe  in  that  year,  cruised  on 
the  coast  of  Scotland,  and  made  a  bold  attack  on  White- 
haven, where  he  burnt  some  shipping.  He  also  captured 
the  Drake,  a  sloop  of  war.  Early  in  1779  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Bonhomme  Richard,  which  carried  about 
forty-five  guns.  Having  several  smaller  vessels  under 
his  command,  he  captured  or  destroyed  many  British 
vessels.  In  September  he  attacked  the  Serapis.  a  frigate 
of  forty-four  guns,  which  surrendered  after  a  long  battle. 
His  own  ship  was  so  much  damaged  in  this  action  that 
she  sank  a  few  hours  after.  Congress  voted  Captain 
Jones  a  gold  medal  for  this  victory.  He  entered  the 
Russian  service,  with  the  rank  of  rear-admiral,  in  1788; 
but,  having  quarrelled  with  one  of  the  Russian  admirals, 
he  was  soon  removed  from  the  command.  He  died  in 
Paris  in  1792. 

See  J.  H.  Sherbourne,  "Life  of  J.  P.  Jones,"  2  vols.,  1835; 
James  Hamilton,  "Life  of  Rear-Admiral  J.  P.  Jones,"  1848;  A. 
S.  Mackenzie,  "Life  of  J.  P.  Jones,"  2  vols.,  1841;  "  Het  Leven 
van  J.  P.  Jones,"  Groningen,  1829;  \V.  G.  Simms,  "  Lite  of  J.  P. 
Jones."  1845;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Di.stingiiished  Ameri- 
cans," vol.  iii. ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1825. 


€  as     c  as  s;  g  /lard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JONES 


290 


JONSON 


Jones,  (l\ici:,)  a  Welsh  poet,  born  in  1715.  He  pub- 
lished "  Welsh  Anthology,"  (1770.)    Died  in  1801. 

Jones,  (Richard,)  a  Welshman,  published  about 
1654  "Gemma  Cambricum,"  a  work  of  great  ingenuity, 
in  which  all  the  books  and  chapters  of  the  Bible  were 
abbreviated  and  written  in  his  native  dialect. 

Jones,  (Roger,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Vir- 
ginia. He  fought  against  the  British  on  the  northern 
frontier  in  1813  and  1814,  and  became  adjutant-general 
in  1825.    Died  in  1852. 

Jones,  (Samuel,)  an  American  major-general,  born 
in  Virginia,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841.  He  took 
arms  against  the  Union  in  i86r,  and  commanded  in 
Western  Virginia  in  1862-63.  He  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5,  1864. 

Jones,  (Stephen,)  born  in  London  in  1763.  He  was 
the  editor  of  the  Whitehall  "Evening  Post,"  the  "Bio- 
graphia  Dramatica,"  and  a  "  Biographical  Dictionary," 
(2d  edition,  1796.)    Died  in  1827. 

Jones,  (Sir  Thomas,)  chief  justice  of  the  common 
pleas  during  the  reign  of  James  II.  He  openly  opposed 
the  encroachments  of  the  king  on  the  laws  of  England, 
and  was  dismissed  from  office  in  1686. 

See  Macaulay,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  vi. 

Jones,  (Thomas  M.,)  born  in  Virginia  about  1835, 
became  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  army 
about  1862. 

Jones,  (Thomas  Rymer,)  an  English  physician  and 
surgeon,  distinguished  as  a  comparative  anatomist  and 
physiologist,  was  born  about  1810.  He  was  educated 
at  London  and  Paris.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
comparative  anatomy  in  King's  College,  London,  and 
in  1840  became  Fullerian  professor  of  physiology  in 
the  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain.  In  1844  he  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Among  his 
works  may  be  mentioned  "  A  General  Outline  of  the 
Animal  Kingdom,"  (1841,)  and  "The  Natural  History 
of  Animals,"  (ist  vol.,  1844.) 

Jones,  (Thomas  Wharton,)  a  British  oculist  and  phy- 
siologist, born  at  Saint  Andrew's,  Scotland,  about  1808. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Oph- 
thalmic Medicine  and  Surgery,"  and  became  professor 
of  ophthalmic  medicine  in  University  College,  London. 

Jones,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  judge  under  James 
I.  and  Charles  I.,  was  born  in  1566.  He  wrote  several 
legal  works,  and  became  a  judge  of  the  king's  bench  in 
1625.    Died  in  1640. 

Jones,  (William,)  an  able  mathematician,  born  in 
the  island  of  Anglesey  in  1680.  He  taught  mathennatics 
for  several  years,  and  corresponded  with  the  most  dis- 
tinguished scientific  men  of  that  age.  He  was  the  friend 
of  Newton  and  of  Halley,  and  the  father  of  the  emi- 
nent Orientalist  Sir  William  Jones.  He  held  the  office 
of  vice-president  of  the  Royal  Society.  Died  in  1749. 
Among  his  productions  are  "A  Compendium  of  the  Art 
of  Navigation,"  (1702,)  and  several  works  in  defence 
of  the  theories  of  Newton. 

Jones  (William)  of  Nayland,  a  learned  Episcopal 
divine  and  multifarious  writer,  born  in  Northampton- 
shire, England,  in  1726,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1749. 
Of  his  productions  we  may  mention  "Catholic  Doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  proved  from  Scripture,"  (1756,)  an  "Essay 
on  the  First  Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  (1762,) 
"A  Course  of  Lectures  on  the  Figurative  Language  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures,"  (1786,)  and  two  political  treatises 
against  the  French  Revolution,  entitled  "A  Letter  from 
Thomas  Bull  to  his  Brother  John,"  and  "  The  Scholar 
armed  against  the  Errors  of  the  Times."  He  was  per- 
petual curate  of  Nayland.    Died  in  1800. 

See  William  Stevens,  "Life  of  W.  Jones  of  Nayland,"  1801. 

Jones,  [Lat.  Jone'sius,]  (Sir  William,)  an  eminent 
Orientalist,  son  of  William  Jones,  noticed  above,  (1680- 
1749,)  was  born  in  London  September  28,  1746.  He 
lost  his  father  when  he  was  three  years  of  age  ;  but  his 
mother,  a  lady  remarkable  both  for  her  learning  and 
accomplishments,  ably  superintended  his  education.  In 
1753  he  was  placed  at  the  Harrow  School,  of  which  Dr. 
Thackeray  was  preceptor.  Jones  early  distinguished 
himself  for  his  classical  acquirements,  and  at  the  age  of 
seventeen  entered  University  College,  Oxford,  with  "more 
learning  than  many  good  scholars  have  carried  thence. 


The  following  year  he  left  Oxford,  to  become  tutor  to 
the  son  of  Earl  Spencer,  in  whose  family  he  continued 
to  reside  for  five  years.  During  this  period  he  devoted 
much  of  his  time  to  the  acquirement  of  the  Oriental 
languages.  He  was  also  versed  in  nearly  all  the  Euro- 
pean tongues.  In  1768,  at  the  request  of  the  King  of 
Denmark,  he  translated  the  "  Life  of  Nadir  Shah"  from 
the  Persian  into  French.  The  year  following  he  issued 
a  valuable  Persian  Grammar.  In  1770  he  began  the 
study  of  law,  and  in  1774  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar. 
In  March,  1783,  he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  judicature  at  Fort  William,  in  Bengal,  and  re- 
ceived the  order  of  knighthood.  Soon  after  he  married 
Anna  Maria  Shipley,  a  daughter  of  the  Bishop  of  Saint 
Asaph.  In  the  following  September  Sir  William  Jones 
reached  India,  where  he  continued  to  pursue  his  Oriental 
studies  with  unabated  zeal.  He  also  organized  (about 
1785)  the  "  Asiatic  Society,"  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
further  information  relative  to  the  sciences,  antiquities, 
languages,  and  history  of  Asia.  He  died  at  Calcutta 
on  the  27th  of  April,  1794,  after  a  short  illness.  In  the 
branch  of  literature  to  which  he  devoted  his  attention 
he  undoubtedly  surpassed  all  other  Europeans.  He  is, 
however,  to  be  equally  esteemed  for  his  noble  qualities 
and  Christian  virtues  as  for  his  vast  erudition.  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  "  Commentaries  on  Asiatic 
Poetry,"  commenced  in  his  twenty-first  year,  and  contain- 
ing translations  from  the  most  distinguished  Hebrew, 
Persian,  Arabic,  and  Turkish  poets,  treatises  "  On  the 
Gods  of  Greece,  Italy,  and  India,"  "  On  the  Second 
Classical  Book  of  the  Chinese,"  "  On  the  Musical  Modes 
of  the  Hindus,"  and  a  translation  of  the  "  Institutes 
of  Manu,"  and  a  prose  translation  of  Kalidasa's  cele- 
brated poem  "  Sacontala,"  ("  Sakoontala,")  both  from 
the  original  Sanscrit.  He  was  also  author  of  several 
works  on  the  laws  of  England  and  of  India. 

See  Lord  Teignmouth,  "Life  of  Sir  William  Jones,"  1804; 
"Autobiography  of  William  Jones,"  published  by  his  son,  London, 
1846;  H.  A.  Hamakek,  "  dratio  de  Vita  et  Mentis  G.  Jonesii," 
Leyden,  1822;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  January,  1S05;  Gary,  "Lives  of  English  Poets  from 
Johnson  to  Kirke  White." 

Jones,  (William  Alfred,)  an  American  writer  and 
critic,  was  born  in  181 7.  He  graduated  at  Columbia 
College  in  1836.  He  has  contributed  largely  to  various 
periodicals,  and  published  several  volumes  of  essays. 
His  "Characters  and  Criticisms"  (2  vols.,  1857)  was 
highly  commended  by  Washington  Irving. 

"Jonesius.    See  Jones,  (Sir  William.) 

Jong,  de,  deh  yong,  (Ludolf,)  a  Flemish  painter 
of  battle-  and  hunting-scenes,  born  near  Rotterdam  in 
1616  ;  died  in  1697. 

Jongelingx,  yong'eh-links^  (Jacob,)  a  Flemish  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Antwerp  in  1531.  Among  his  works  is  a 
monument  to  Charles  the  Bold  at  Bruges.  Died  in  1606, 

Jonin,  zho'niN',  (Gilbert,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  poet, 
born  in  Auvergne  in  1596.  He  translated  into  Latin, 
with  many  modifications,  the  Odes  of  Anacreon,  which 
he  published  under  the  title  of  "  The  Christian  Anacreon." 
He  wrote  several  Greek  and  Latin  odes.    Died  in  1638. 

Jonsius,  yon'se-us,  (Johann,)  a  German  scholar,  born 
at  Flensburg  in  1624.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  De  Scriptoribus  Historias  Philosophicae,"  (1659,)  which 
was  once  highly  prized.    Died  at  Leipsic  in  1659. 

Jon^spn  or  Johnson,  (Ben,)  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated English  poets  and  dramatists,  was  born  at  West- 
minster in  1574.  His  father,  a  Protestant  clergyman, 
died  a  month  previous  to  his  birth.  Jonson's  mother 
subsequently  married  a  master-bricklayer,  who  sent  him 
to  Westminster,  then  under  the  charge  of  Camden,  to 
whom  he  afterwards  dedicated  the  drama  entitled  "  Evei  y 
Man  in  his  Humour."  Jonson  regarded  his  preceptor 
through  life  with  esteem  and  affection.  In  his  sixteenth 
year  he  entered  the  University  of  Cambridge  ;  but,  on 
account  of  his  straitened  circumstances,  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  college  and  to  assist  his  step-father  as  a  mason. 
Becoming  disgusted  with  this  employment,  he  enlisted 
in  the  army  in  Flanders,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself 
by  his  bravery.  When  he  returned,  as  Gifford  observes, 
"  he  brought  little  but  the  reputation  of  a  brave  man,  a 
smattering  of  Dutch,  and  an  empty  purse."  He  soon 
afterwards  joined  a  company  of  actors  ;  but,  having  killed 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  /ou^rj       5,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  s/wrt;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  ndt;  good;  moorij 


yONSSON  1291  JORDENS 


one  of  them  in  a  duel,  he  was  thrown  into  prison,  and 
narrowly  escaped  with  his  life.  During  his  confinement 
he  was  converted  by  a  priest  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion.  Subsequently,  after  a  careful  examination, 
he  renounced  his  adopted  faith,  and  was  again  received 
into  the  communion  of  the  Church  of  England.  In  1598 
he  produced  *'  Every  Man  in  his  Humour,"  a  drama, 
which  at  once  brought  him  into  notice.  One  of  the 
characters  of  this  play  is  said  to  have  been  performed 
by  Shakspeare.  It  was  followed  by  numerous  produc- 
tions, which  added  to  the  fame  he  had  already  acquired. 
About  1605  he  assisted  Chapman  and  Marston  in  writing 
"Eastward  Hoe."  This  was  regarded  as  a  libel  on  the 
Scots,  and  his  associates  were  thrown  into  prison,  whither 
he  voluntarily  accompanied  them.  The  three  poets  were 
condemned  to  lose  their  ears  and  noses ;  but,  through 
Jonson's  influence  at  court,  they  escaped.  He  was  shortly 
afterwards  created  poet-laureate  by  James  I.,  with  an 
annual  pension  of;i^ioo  and  a  tierce  of  Spanish  wine. 
Jonson  died  in  1637.  On  his  death-bed  he  expressed 
the  deepest  penitence  for  the  profanity  that  he  had  intro- 
duced into  his  plays,  which,  with  this  exception,  are  far 
purer  in  morals  than  the  other  dramas  of  that  age.  Jon- 
son's convivial  habits  (perhaps  his  greatest  weakness) 
caused  him  to  suffer  from  poverty  in  his  declining  years. 
Pie  was  accustomed  to  meet  Shakspeare  and  other  dis- 
tinguished persons  at  the  drinking-houses  of  London. 
He  also  gave  costly  entertainments  at  his  own  residence. 
He  was  l3rave,  generous,  and  benevolent,  and  governed 
by  the  highest  principles  of  honour.  Towards  his  friends 
he  was  unwavering  in  his  attachment,  and  was  easily 
reconciled  to  those  who  had  injured  him.  As  a  poet  he 
exhibits  uncommon  classical  learning,  great  intellectual 
power,  and  acuteness  of  perception.  He  unquestionably 
deserves  much  praise  for  refining  English  poetry  and 
the  morals  of  the  English  stage.  "I  think  him,"  says 
Dryden,  "the  most  learned  and  judicious  writer  which 
any  theatre  ever  had.  ...  If  I  would  compare  him  with 
Shakspeare,  I  must  acknowledge  him  the  most  correct 
poet,  but  Shakspeare  the  greater  wit.  Shakspeare  was 
the  Homer  or  father  of  dramatic  poets.  Jonson  was  the 
Virgil,  the  pattern  of  elaborate  writing.  I  admire  him, 
but  I  love  Shakspeare."  Jonson  was  most  successful  in 
satirical  comedies,  the  style  of  which  he  obtained  from 
the  ancients.  To  the  refinement  and  thought  displayed 
in  his  writings  may  be  attributed  the  ill  success  which 
many  of  them  first  met  with  among  the  English  people, 
whose  taste  had  been  vitiated  by  the  low  wit  and  ob- 
scenity which  they  had  been  accustomed  to  hear  from 
the  stage.  Among  the  most  important  of  his  dramas 
are  "Cynthia's  Revels,"  (1600,)  "  Sejanus,"  (1603,)  "Vol- 
pone,"  (1605,)  "The  Alchemist,"  (1610,)  and  "Catiline's 
Conspiracy,"  (161 1.) 

See  Chetvvood,  "Life  of  Ben  Jonson,"  17^6;  "Memoir  of  Ben 
Jonson,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  works,  (g  vols.,  1816,)  by  W. 
GiFFORu;  Baker,  "  Biographia  Draniatica  ;"  Von  Baudissin,  "  B. 
Jonson  iind  seine  Scluile,"  2  vols.,  1S36;  "  Lives  of  British  Drama- 
tists," by  Campbell,  Leigh  Hunt,  etc.  ;  "Retrospective  Review," 
vol.  i.,  1S20;  "North  British  Review"  for  February,  1856. 

Jonsson,  (Arngrim.)    See  Jonas. 

Jonsson,  yons'son,  (Finn,)  [Lat.  Fin'nus  Johan- 
N^/us,]  a  clergyman  and  historical  writer  on  the  church 
and  literature  of  Iceland,  was  born  in  that  island  in 
1704.  After  receiving  his  education  at  the  University 
of  Copenhagen,  he  returned  to  Iceland.  Died  in  17^9. 
His  most  important  work  is  the  "Ecclesiastical  History 
of  Iceland,"  ("Historia  Ecclesiastica  Islandiae.") 

Jonston,  (Arthur.)    See  Johnston. 

Joi'daens,  yoR'dans,  (Jakob,)  a  distinguished  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1594.  He  studied  under  Van  Oort, 
but  was  indebted  for  the  most  of  his  artistic  knowledge 
to  Rubens,  by  whom  he  was  subsequently  employed.  He 
painted  with  rapidity  and  ease,  and  his  colouring  was 
rich  and  harmonious  ;  but  he  was  deficient  in  elegance 
and  loftiness  of  conception.  Among  his  num.erous  works 
are  "Jesus  Christ  in  the  Midst  of  the  Doctors,"  (a  paint- 
ing which  has  been  frequently  attributed  to  Rubens,) 
"The  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,"  "Saint  Peter  Cut- 
ting off  the  Ear  of  Malchus,"  and  "The  Satyr  and  the 
Man  who  Blew  Hot  and  Cold."    Died  in  1678. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.  ;  Louis 
Alvin,  "J  Jordaens,"  1S44;  J.  Campu  Weverman,  "DeSchilder- 
konst  der  Netlerlanders." 


Jordan,  zhoR'dfiN',  (Camille,)  a  French  politician 
and  orator,  born  at  Lyons  in  1771.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  moderate  principles  during  the  Revolution,  and 
his  attachment  to  the  Catholic  religion,  which  he  bravely 
defended.  Having  been  proscribed  by  the  Directory,  he 
sought  an  asylum  in  Switzerland  in  1797,  and  afterwards 
in  Germany,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  Goethe, 
Schiller,  and  other  men  of  note.  Jordan  returned  to 
France  about  1800.  During  Bonaparte's  administration 
he  led  a  private  life  ;  but  upon  the  accession  of  Louis 
XVIII.  he  was  ennobled,  and  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies.  He  wrote  several  works  of  a  political 
nature.    Died  in  182 1. 

See  L.amartine,  "  Histoi^y  of  the  Girondists;"  Pierre  Simon 
Ballanche,  "  fiioge  de  C.  Jordan,"  1823;  Th  lERs,  "  History  of 
the  French  Revolution  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "  Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes,"  vol.  Ix.,  1868. 

Jordan,  (Charles  Etienne,)  a  French  Protestant 
minister  and  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1700.  He  was 
appointed  privy  councillor  by  Frederick  the  Great  in 
1740.  He  rendered  important  services  to  Berlin  by  the 
suppression  of  mendicity  and  the  promotion  of  educa- 
tion. Among  his  works  is  "Travels  in  France  and 
England,"  (1735.)    Died  in  1745. 

See  Mi\L  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Jor'dan,  (Dorothea,)  or  Dorothy  Bland,  a  cele- 
brated actress,  born  at  Waterford,  Ireland,  about  1762. 
In  1785  she  made  her  appearance  in  London  at  Drurj 
Lane  Theatre,  where  she  enjoyed  the  highest  popularity. 
She  subsequently  became  the  mistress  of  the  Duke  of 
Clarence,  (afterwards  William  IV.,)  to  whom  she  bore 
ten  children.  This  connection  being  suddenly  broken 
off  by  the  duke  in  181 1,  Mrs.  Jordan  retired  to  France, 
where  she  died  in  1 816  in  great  poverty.  As  an  actress 
she  possessed  uncommon  versatility,  and  excelled  both 
in  comedy  and  tragedy. 

See  J.  BoADEN,  "Life  of  D.  Jordan,"  2  vols.,  1831 ;  Oxberry, 
"Dramatic  Biography." 

Jordan,  HOR-dSn',  (Esteban,)  a  Spaniard,  born  at 
Valladolid  in  1543,  excelled  in  painting,  architecture, 
and  sculpture,  iDut  devoted  his  attention  chiefly  to  the 
last-named  art.  Philip  II.  appointed  him  his  first 
sculptor.  Among  his  most  admired  productions  are 
"Saint  Peter,"  "Saint  Paul,"  and  "The  Adoration  of 
the  Kings."    Died  in  1605. 

Jordan,  yoR^din,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  noted  anti- 
quary, and  privy  councillor  to  the  King  of  Bohemia, 
was  the  author  of  annotations  on  Livy,  Dionysius  of 
Halicarnassus,  Polybius,  and  Diodorus  Siculus.  Died 
about  1740. 

Jordan,  (Sir  Joseph,)  an  English  admiral,  who  com- 
manded at  the  victory  of  Solebay,  which  was  gained  over 
the  Dutch  in  1672. 

Jordan,  (Rudolf,)  a  German  painter,  born  at  Berlin 
about  1810.  His  delineations  of  fisher-life  in  Helgoland 
are  greatly  admired  :  among  these  we  may  name  "The 
Shipwreck"  and  "The  Death  of  the  Pilot." 

Jordan,  (Sylvester,)  a  German  jurist  and  politician, 
born  near  Innspruck  in  1792.  He  was  imprisoned  about 
twelve  years  for  his  liberal  opinions,  and  was  released 
in  1845.    Died  in  1861. 

Jordan,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet  and  dramatist, 
lived  in  London  ;  died  about  1685. 

Jor'dan,  (Thomas,)  an  American  officer  in  the  Con- 
federate service,  born  in  Virginia  about  1821,  was  made 
a  brigadier-general  in  1862. 

Jordanes.    See  Jornandes. 

Jordano,  (Luca.)    See  Giordano. 

Jordano  Bruno.    See  Bruno. 

Jor''den,  (Edward,)  an  English  physician  and  scien- 
tific writer,  born  in  Kent  in  1569.  He  was  a  graduate 
of  the  University  of  Padua.    Died  in  1632. 

Jordens,  yoR^dens,  (Georg,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  at 
Deventer  in  17 18,  was  known  as  the  author  of  two  legal 
treatises, — one  in  defence  of  the  University  of  Utrecht, 
and  the  other  on  the  Mosaic,  Greek,  and  Roman  laws. 
Died  in  1771. 

Jordens  or  Joerdens,  yoR'dens,  (Karl  Heinrich,) 
a  German  philologist  and  biographer,  born  in  the  county 
of  Mansfeld  in  1757.  He  was  rector  of  an  academy  at 
Lauban.    His  chief  work  is  an  excellent  "Dictionary  of 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  yl, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JORDT 


292 


JOSEPH 


German  Poets  and  Prose  Writers,"  (6  vols.,  1805-11.) 
Died  in  1835. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Eiicyklopaedie." 

Jordy,  zhoR'de',  (Nicolas  Louis,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Abreschwiller  in  1758;  died  in  1825. 

Jore,  zhoR,  (Claude  Francois,)  a  French  printer, 
lived  about  1750,  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire,  for  whom 
he  published  several  works.  He  wrote  "Six  Letters  to 
Voltaire,"  and  some  other  productions. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance  generale." 

Jorgenson,  yoR'gen-son,  written  also  Jiirgensen, 
(JoRGEN,)  a  Danish  adventurer,  born  at  Copenhagen 
in  1779.  Having  gone  to  England  in  early  youth,  he 
was  some  years  later  promotecl  to  the  command  of  an 
English  vessel,  and  during  the  war  between  England 
and  Denmark  sailed  for  Iceland.  On  the  25th  of  June, 
1809,  he  landed  with  twelve  English  sailors  and  took 
the  governor.  Count  Trampe,  prisoner,  and  proclaimed 
that  Iceland  was  free  and  independent  of  Denmark. 
With  a  force  of  eight  Icelanders,  he  continued  to  exer- 
cise undisputed  sway  over  the  island  until  August,  when 
the  British  restored  it  to  its  former  government.  During 
this  revolution  not  a  gun  was  fired  nor  a  drop  of  blood 
shed.  The  inhabitants  feared  to  resist,  as  their  capital 
lay  exposed  to  the  guns  of  Jorgenson's  vessel.  Soon 
after  his  return  to  England  he  became  very  dissipated, 
and  was  finally  convicted  and  transported  to  New  South 
Wales,  where  he  is  supposed  to  have  died.  While  in 
Newgate,  before  his  transportation,  he  wrote  a  work  en- 
titled "The  Religion  of  Christ  the  Religion  of  Nature." 

See  Sir  Wm.  Hooker,  "Tour  in  Iceland;"  Skulason,  "J.  Jur- 
gensens  Usurpation  i  Island,"  1832  ;  Erslew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Jorisz,  yoR'is,  (Augustin,)  a  Dutch  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Delft  in  1525  ;  died  in  1552. 

Jorisz,  (David.)    See  David  George. 

Jorjauee,  Jorjani,  or  Djordjaiii,  jor-ja^iee,  (Saeed 
Shereef  Zein-ed-Deen  Abool  Hassan,  or  Said 
Scherif  Zeiu-ed-Din  Abou'l  Hassan,  si-eed'  sher- 
eef zan  (or  zin)  ed-deen'  i'bool  his'san,)  a  renowned 
Arabian  writer,  born  in  Tagoo,  (Tagou,)  in  the  district 
of  Asterabad  and  the  region  called  Jorjan,  in  1339.  He 
was  the  author  of  numerous  works,  among  which  per- 
haps the  most  important  is  an  extremely  valuable  dic- 
tionary, entitled  "  Tarafat,"  [i.e.  "  Definitions.")  Jorjanee 
enjoyed  the  favour  of  the  great  conqueror  Tamerlane, 
Died  in  1413. 

Jor-nan'des  or  Jor-da'nes,  a  distinguished  Gothic 
historian  of  the  sixth  century,  was  secretary  to  the  Gothic 
kings  of  Italy.  Having  embraced  Christianity,  he  was 
ordained  Bishop  of  Ravenna  in  552.  The  most  important 
of  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  the  Goths"  until  the  reign 
of  Vitiges,  who  was  conquered  by  Belisarius,  ("  De  Ge- 
tarum  sive  Gothorum,  Origine  et  Rebus  gestis.")  It  was 
first  printed  at  Augsburg  in  151 5,  and  is  highly  prized. 
He  also  wrote  an  abridgment  of  universal  history,  en- 
titled "De  Regnorum  et  Temporum  Successione." 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis;"  Ersch  und  Gruber, 
"Allgemeine  Encyl<lopaedie  ;"  D.  W.  Moller,  "  Disputatio  Ciicu- 
laris  de  Jornande,"  i6go. 

Jor'tin,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and  critic, 
of  French  extraction,  born  in  London  in  1698.  Soon 
after  graduating  at  Cambridge  he  settled  in  his  native 
city,  where  he  gained  great  distinction  for  his  eloquence 
and  learning.  He  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  London 
in  1764.  Of  his  works  may  be  mentioned  a  volume  of 
"Latin  Poems,"  (1722,)  which  are  classed  among  the 
most  finished  of  the  modern  productions  in  that  lan- 
guage, "  Miscellaneous  Observations  on  Authors,  An- 
cient and  Modern,"  (2  vols.,  1732,)  "Remarks  upon 
Ecclesiastical  History,"  (5  vols.,  1751-73,)  and  the  "Life 
of  Erasmus,"  (1758.)  Died  in  1770.  "Jortin's  sermons," 
says  Dr.  Johnson,  "are  very  elegant." 

See  John  Disney,  "Life  of  Jortin,"  1792. 

Josaphat.    See  Jehoshaphat. 

Jo'seph,  [Heb.  =^DV ;  Gr.  'lwcr^(/)  .•  Lat.  Jose'phus  ; 
It.  Josef,  yo-sgf ;  Sp.  Josef,  Ho-sgfM  one  of  the  twelve 
patriarchs,  and  the  favourite  son  of  Jacob,  was  born  in 
Mesopotamia  about  1525  B.C.  At  an  early  age,  on  ac- 
count of  their  jealousy,  he  was  sold  by  his  brothers  to 
some  Ishmaelitish  merchants,  who  carried  him  as  a  slave 
into  Egypt,  over  which  kingdom  he  was  subsequently 


appointed  governor  by  Pharaoh.  The  descendants  of  his 
sons  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  formed  the  two  half-tribes, 
which  exerted  no  little  influence  in  the  Hebrew  nation. 
See  Genesis  xxxv.-l. 

Joseph  [Ger.  pron.  yo's§f]  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
of  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  and  son  of  Leopold  L,  was 
born  in  1676.  In  1687  he  was  proclaimed  King  of  Hun- 
gary, and  in  1690  King  of  the  Romans.  At  the  death 
of  his  father,  in  1705,  he  ascended  the  imperial  throne. 
He  carried  on  a  successful  war  against  Louis  XIV.,  in 
which  he  was  assisted  by  England,  Holland,  and  Savoy. 
The  allied  armies  were  commanded  by  Prince  Eugene 
and  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.  Josejih  granted,  through 
the  influence  (it  is  said)  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  nume- 
rous privileges  to  his  Protestant  subjects.  Died  in  (711. 

See  G.  Langp:,  "  Leben  undThaten  des  Kaysers  Joseph  I.,"  1712; 
Franz  Wagner,  "  Histovia  Josephi  I.  Csesaris  Augusti,"  1745; 
Eksch  und  Gkuber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Joseph  H.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  the  eldest  son  of 
Francis  of  Lorraine  and  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria,  was 
born  in  Vienna  in  1741.  In  1764  he  was  elected  King 
of  the  Romans,  and. in  the  following  year  succeeded  his 
father  on  the  throne  of  Germany.  He  married  Isabella, 
a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Parma,  in  1760,  and  Maria 
Josepha,  a  daughter  of  the  emperor  Charles  VII.,  about 
1764.  In  1772  he  signed,  with  the  sovereigns  of  Russia 
and  Prussia,  the  treaty  by  which  Poland  was  divided 
between  them.  At  the  death  of  his  mother,  in  1780, 
he  came  into  possession  of  Hungary  and  all  the  other 
hereditary  dominions  of  the  house  of  Austria.  He 
united  with  Catherine  of  Russia,  six  years  later,  in  a 
Turkish  war,  in  which  his  general  Laudon  gained 
several  important  victories.  During  his  reign  he  intro- 
duced many  civil  and  ecclesiastical  reforms,  which  would 
probably  have  been  very  beneficial  to  his  subjects  had 
he  acted  with  more  calmness  and  deliberation.  He 
abolished  feudal  serfdom,  regulated  the  taxes,  allowed 
liberty  of  conscience  and  rights  of  citizenship  to  all 
denominations  of  Christians,  mitigated  the  condition  of 
the  Jews,  suppressed  several  convents,  greatly  abridged 
the  power  of  the  pope  and  clergy  in  his  dominions,  and 
encouraged  manufactures  and  industry.  But  his  zeal  in 
correcting  the  abuses  of  the  Roman  Church  caused  an 
insurrection  in  Belgium  ;  while  his  attempt  to  establish 
the  German  as  the  universal  language  in  his  dominions 
induced  the  Hungarians  to  revolt.  He  died,  without  issue, 
in  February,  1 790,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Leopold  II. 

See  Paganel,  "  Histoire  de  Joseph  II,"  1843:  F.  X.  Huber, 
"Geschiclite  Kaiser  Joseph's  II.,"  2  vols.,  1792;  L.  A.  de  Carac- 
cioi.i,  "Vie  de  Joseph  II,  Empereur  d'Allemagne,"  1790;  Ignaz 
Cornova,  "Leben  Joseph  II.,  Roniischen  Kaisers,"  1802;  C.  T. 
Heyne,  "  Geschichte  Kaiser  Joseph's  II.,"  2  vols.,  1848  ;  Ramshorn, 
"  Kaiser  Joseph  II.  und  seine  Zeit,"  1845. 

Joseph,  Father,  [It.  Era  Giuseppe,]  an  Italian  mis- 
sionary, whose  family  name  was  Sebastiani.  He  went 
to  Persia,  and  obtained  no  little  influence  at  the  court  of 
the  Shah.  He  used  his  ])Ower  in  favour  of  the  English 
interests  and  against  those  of  the  French.  He  was 
acquainted  with  several  of  the  Oriental  languages,  and 
translated  the  works  of  the  Persian  poet  Hafiz  into 
Latin. 

Joseph,  zho'zgf,  (FRANgois  Leclerc  du  Trem- 
blay — dii  tR8n/bli',)  called  Father  Joseph,  a  French 
monk,  born  in  Paris  in  1577,  became  the  agent  and 
confidant  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  who  employed  him  in 
negotiations  and  intrigues.    Died  in  1638. 

See  Abbe  Richard,  "Vie  du  Pere  Joseph,"  2  vols. ;  "  Le  veri- 
table Pere  Joseph,"  1704;  Richelieu,  "  Memoires ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Joseph  of  Exeter.    See  Lscanus. 

Joseph  APbo,  a  Jew,  distinguished  for  his  learning, 
born  at  Sora,  in  Spain,  in  the  fourteenth  century.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  work  on  Jewish  faith,  entitled  "  Se- 
pher  Ikkarim."    Died  in  1430. 

Joseph  Ben  Gorion.    See  Gorionides. 

Joseph  Emanuel,  [Port.  ]ozt  Manoel,  zho-zi'  mi- 
no-el',]  King  of  Portugal,  born  in  1714.  In  1750  he  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  John  V.  In  1755  his  kingdom  suffered 
from  a  great  earthquake,  which  destroyed  a  large  part 
of  Lisbon  and  killed  about  sixty  thousand  persons.  In 
1758  an  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  him,  in  which 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  shoj-t;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JOSEPH 


293 


JOSUH 


he  was  severely  wounded.  He  discovered  that  the  Jesuits 
were  implicated  in  the  plot,  and  immediately  caused  all 
against  whom  any  evidence  was  brought  to  be  executed. 
He  also  issued  an  edict  by  which  all  the  Jesuits  in  Por- 
tugal were  declared  traitors.  In  1762  he  united  with 
England  in  a  war  against  France  and  Spain.  He  enacted 
several  laws  to  encourage  education  and  to  advance 
religious  toleration,  and  restricted  the  powers  of  the 
Inquisition.    Died  in  1777. 

See  "Leben  Joseph  Emmanuels  Konigs  von  Portugal,"  Nurem- 
berg, 1778. 

Joseph  Meir,  (maR,)  a  French  Jew,  born  at  Avignon 
in  1496.  He  wrote  a  work,  in  Hebrew,  on  the  Kings  of 
France  and  the  Sultans  of  Turkey.    Died  in  1554. 

Josephe,  the  French  of  Josephus,  which  see. 

Josephine,  i(//.e-teei/,  [Fr.  pron.  zho'za'fei/,]  origin- 
ally Marie  Joseph  Rose  Tascher  de  la  Pagerie, 
(tt'sha'  deh  li  jitzh're',)  wife  of  Napoleon  I.  of  France, 
was  born  in  1763  in  the  island  of  Martinique.  At  a 
very  early  age  she  attracted  attention  by  her  remark- 
able beauty  and  vivacity.  About  1778  she  went  to 
reside  in  France  with  an  aunt  by  whom  she  had  been 
adopted,  and  thus  became  the  heiress  to  a  large  for- 
tune. She  was  soon  after  married  to  Viscount  de  Beau- 
hamais,  one  of  the  most  polished  noblemen  of  the  French 
court.  In  1780  she  gave  birth  to  Eugene,  who  was  sub- 
sequently appointed  Viceroy  of  Italy  by  Bonaparte,  and 
in  1783  to  Hortense,  afterwards  Queen  of  Holland,  and 
mother  of  Napoleon  III.  Jealousies  having  arisen  be- 
tween Beauharnais  and  his  wife,  the  former  sued  for  a 
divorce  before  the  Parliament  of  Paris.  The  case  was 
decided  in  favour  of  Josephine,  who  in  a  short  time 
sailed  for  Martinique  with  her  daughter.  At  this  period 
her  circumstances  were  so  straitened  that  she  was  glad 
to  accept  from  the  captain  of  the  vessel  a  pair  of  shoes 
for  Hortense.  At  the  expiration  of  three  years  she  re- 
turned to  France  and  was  reconciled  to  her  husband. 
During  the  French  Revolution  Beauharnais  boldly  op- 
posed the  measures  of  the  Jacobins,  by  whom  he  was 
executed  in  1794.  His  wife,  who  was  then  in  prison, 
escaped  the  same  fate  only  by  the  sudden  fall  of  Robes- 
pierre. Through  the  influence  of  P>arras  and  Tallien, 
she  regained  part  of  her  husband's  property,  which  hacl 
been  confiscated.  She  now  became  one  of  the  leaders 
of  fashion.  Her  talents  and  personal  attractions  enabled 
her  also  to  exert  no  little  influence  in  the  politics  of  that 
period.  In  1796  she  was  married  to  Bonaparte,  who  had 
recently  been  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
in  Italy.  At  the  time  Josephine  was  thought  by  her 
friends  to  have  formed  a  mesalliance.  After  Bonaparte 
became  First  Consul,  she  exerted  all  her  influence  to  alle- 
viate the  sufferings  of  the  royalists,  and  even  endeavoured 
to  persuade  hiin  to  restore  the  Bourbons.  While  Napo- 
leon was  in  Egvpt,  she  had  bought  for  her  favourite  resort 
the  estate  of  Malmaison,  which  slie  fitted  up  with  royal 
magnificence.  At  length  her  expenditures  for  this  and 
other  luxuries  became  so  enormous  as  to  occasion  the 
First  Consul  serious  embarrassment.  When  Napoleon 
was  raised  to  the  imperial  throne  and  she  became  Empress 
of  France,  to  her  was  due  in  a  great  measure  the  honour  of 
having  imparted  to  the  court  of  the  Tuileries  the  splendour 
and  taste  for  which  it  was  then  distinguished.  From  the 
time  of  her  coronation  her  influence  over  the  emperor 
rapidly  diminished  ;  and,  as  there  was  no  longer  hope  of 
her  bringing  him  an  heir,  he  finally  resolved  to  divorce 
her.  The  announcement  of  this  decision  plunged  the 
empress  into  the  deepest  despair.  Napoleon  himself 
is  said  to  have  been  greatly  affected  ;  but  his  resolu- 
tion was  fixed,  and  the  bill  of  divorce  was  passed  in  1809. 
Josephine,  still  retaining  her  former  dignities  and  titles, 
retired  to  Malmaison.  Napoleon  occasionally  visitecl 
her,  and  appeared  to  cherish  a  sincere  affection  for  her. 
When  the  allied  armies  invaded  France,  she  was  treated 
with  the  greatest  respect  by  the  emperor  Alexander. 
She  died  in  1814,  soon  after  the  abdication  of  Napoleon. 
The  character  of  Josephine  has  been  greatly  admired. 
The  cause  of  this  is  to  be  attributed  more  to  her  pleasing 
manners  than  to  any  exalted  virtue  which  she  possessed. 
It  is  said  that  there  was  a  fascination  in  her  countenance 
which  no  painter  could  transfer  to  canvas.  She  had  a 
very  remarkable  memory,  was  accomplished,  educated, 


and  witty  ;  but  vanity  seems  to  have  had  an  unlimited 
ascendency  over  her,  and  it  does  not  ap])ear  that  she 
was  endowed  with  so  many  uncommon  qualities  as  several 
modern  writers  have  attributed  to  her.  (See  Bona- 
parte, Napoleon.) 

See  "Josephine,  "  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale,"  vol. 
xxxvii.  For  the  private  life  of  Josephine,  the  reader  may  consult 
AuBENAs'  "  Histoire  de  I'lmperatrice  Josephine,"  2  vols.  8vo,  Paris, 
1857-59;  also  the  letters  of  Napoleon  to  Josephine,  and  of  Josephine 
to  Napoleon  and  to  her  daughter.  For  a  very  curious  account  of 
the  empress  Josephine's  descendants,  see  "Loudon  Review"  for 
June,  1866;  Marie  Anne  Le  Normand,  "  Memoires  historiques 
at  secrets  de  Josephine,"  2  vols.,  1820,  (English  version  of  the  same, 
1848;)  P.  C.  Headley,  "Life  of  the  Empress  Josephine,"  1852. 

Jo-se'phus,  [Fr.  Josephe,  zho'zeF;  It.  GioseffOj 
jo-sefTo,]  or,  more  fully,  Fla'vi-us  Jo-se'phus,  [Gr. 

4>Aa;itof  'Iwa7?7rof,]  the  most  celebrated  of  Jewish  historians, 
was  born  at  Jerusalem  a.d.  37.  His  mother  was  of  the 
royal  house  of  the  Asmonaeans,  and  his  father  belonged  to 
the  sacerdotal  order  from  which  the  chief  pontiffs  were 
chosen.  He  pursued  his  studies  in  his  native  city  with 
such  assiduity  that  at  the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  often 
consulted  on  abstruse  points  of  Jewish  law.  Fie  after- 
wards joined  the  sect  of  the  Essenes,  and  passed  three 
years  with  a  hermit  in  the  desert.  At  the  age  of  nine- 
teen he  became  a  Pharisee.  In  the  year  63  he  visited 
Rome,  in  order  to  procure  the  liberation  of  some  Jew- 
ish priests  whom  the  governor  Felix  had  sent  there  as 
prisoners.  He  was  favourably  received  at  the  imperial 
court,  and  succeeded  in  his  enterprise  through  the  in- 
fluence of  Poppaea,  the  wife  of  Nero.  On  his  return  to 
Judea  he  opposed  the  revolutionary  spirit  that  was  then 
gaining  ground  among  his  countrymen.  Perceiving  his 
efforts  to  be  of  no  avail,  he  accepted  the  government  of 
the  two  Galilees,  and  in  67  a.d.  bravely  defended  for  forty- 
seven  days  the  city  of  Jotapata  against  a  powerful  Roman 
army  under  Vespasian.  The  Romans  finally  triumphed, 
however,  and  of  the  Jewish  warriors  Josephus  alone  was 
saved,  on  account  of  his  predicting  that  Vespasian  would 
soon  receive  the  imperial  purple.  He  was  treated  with 
the  greatest  respect  by  Vespasian  and  Titus,  and  at  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  his  influence  procured  ■  the 
liberation  of  his  brother  and  fifty  of  his  friends.  He 
afterwards  accompanied  Titus  to  Rome,  where  Vespasian 
granted  him  a  pension  and  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  a 
Roman  citizen.  As  a  mark  of  gratitude  for  these  and 
other  favours,  Josephus  assumed  the  emperor's  family 
name  of  Flavins.  The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown  ; 
but  some  writers  have  placed  it  a.d.  95.  The  most  im- 
portant works  of  Josephus  are  his  "  History  of  the  Jew- 
ish War,"  in  seven  books,  "  The  Antiquities  of  the  Jews," 
{'lovdaLKT]  'Apxat-oAoy'ia,)  in  twenty  books,  two  treatises 
"  Against  Apion  of  Alexandria,"  a  "  Discourse  on  the 
Martyrdom  of  the  Maccabees,"  and  an  account  of  his 
own  life.  All  of  these  were  written  in  Greek,  with  the 
exception  of  the  first,  which  was  originally  composed  in 
Syro-Chaldaic  and  afterwards  translated  into  Greek  by 
himself.  On  account  of  the  beauty  of  his  style,  he  has 
been  called  "  the  Grecian  Livy."  His  works  have  been 
translated  into  Latin  and  most  of  the  modern  languages 
of  Europe. 

See  G.  R.  van  Hoevell,  "  F.  Josephi  Vita,"  1835;  J.  F.  Eck- 
HARD,  '■  Biographie  des  beriihmten  F.  Josephus,"  17S5  ;  Fabricius, 
"  Bibliotheca  Graeca  ;"  Cave,  "  Scriptonmi  ecclesiasticorum  Historia 
literaria  :"  C.  F.  Bof.hmert,  "  Ueber  des  Flavins  Josephus  Zeugniss 
von  Christo,"  1823;  Philarete  Chasles,  "De  I'Autorite  historique 
de  F.  Josephe,"  1841. 

Josepin.    See  Cesart,  (Giuseppe.) 

Josh^u-a,  [Heb.  >*iJ'irF  ;  Gr.  'Iriaovg  ;  Fr.  Josu^:,  zho'- 
zii'a',]  or  O'she-a,  the  son  of  Nun,  (Numbers  xiii.  16,) 
became  commander  of  the  Israelites  on  the  death  of 
Moses.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  bravery  and  mili- 
tary skill,  and  gained  numerous  imjiortant  victories  over 
the  different  Canaanite  princes.  Much  controversy  has 
arisen  in  regard  to  the  authorship  of  the  book  of  Joshua. 
Many  suppose  it  to  have  been  compiled  from  manuscripts 
written  by  himself;  others  attribute  it  to  Samuel.  Died 
about  1425  B.C. 

Jo-si''ah  [Heb.  ITTtyj^' ;  Fr.  Josias,  zho'se'is']  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Amon  on  the  throne  of  Judah  641  B.C., 
at  the  age  of  eight  years.  He  was  an  able  and  pious 
prince,  and  during  his  reign  of  thirty-one  years  many 
wise  and  beneficial  laws  were  enacted:  idoJatry  was 
suppressed,  the  Temple  was  repaired,  and  the  true  forms 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  Vi, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  23  ) 


JOSIAS 


1294 


JOUFFROr 


of  worship  were  restored.  He  was  killed  in  a  battle 
against  Pharaoh-Necho,  King  of  Egypt,  about  610  B.C. 

See  II.  Kings  xiii.,  xxii.  ;  II.  Chronicles  xxxiv.,  xxxv. 

Josias.    See  Josiah. 

Josika,  yo'she-koh,  (Miklos,)  a  Hungarian  nobleman 
and  celebrated  novelist,  born  in  1796  at  Torda,  in  Tran- 
sylvania. His  first  and  most  successful  work,  "  Abafi," 
a  historical  tale,  appeared  in  1836.  He  produced  about 
sixty  volumes  of  romances,  which  were  very  popular  with 
the  Hungarians.  In  1848,  as  a  member  of  the  upper 
house  of  nobles,  he  took  a  bold  stand  against  the  en- 
croachments of  Austria,  and  advocated  the  measures  of 
Kossuth.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Hungarians  in  1849  '^^ 
lived  in  exile.    Died  in  1865. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Josquin  Desprez  or  Depres.    See  DESPRfes, 

Josselin  de  Courtenay,  zhos'liw''  deh  kooRt'na',  a 
French  nobleman,  who  went  on  a  crusade  to  Palestine  in 
lioi.  He  was  created  Count  of  Edessa  by  the  King  of 
Jerusalem,  and  won  great  distinction  by  the  numerous 
victories  which  he  gained  over  the  Saracens.  Died  in  1 147. 

Jost,  yost,  (ISAAK  Marcus,)  a  learned  Jew,  born  at 
Bernburg,  in  Germany,  in  1793,  studied  philology  at 
Gottingen  and  Berlin.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  History 
of  the  Israelites,"  (10  vols.,  1846.)  He  also  published  a 
translation  of  the  "  Mishna,"  with  a  text  and  commen- 
tary.   Died  in  1862. 

Josue.    See  Joshua. 

Jo'tham,  [Heb.  D^V,]  King  of  Judah,  was  the  son 
of  Uzziah,  whom  he  succeeded  B.C.  757. 

See  II.  Kings  xv.  32,  38;  II.  Chronicles  xxvii. 

Jotun,  yo'tlin,  in  the  plural  Jotuns,  [an  old  Norse 
word  signifying  "giant,"  supposed  to  be  derived  from 
an  ancient  form  .of  the  verb  to  "eat,"  (Anglo-Saxon 
eoten,)  the  most  prominent  characteristic  of  the  Jotuns 
being  their  prodigious  voracity.  (See  Thorpe's  "  North- 
ern Mythology,"  vol.  i.  p.  148,)]  in  the  Norse  mythology, 
the  name  applied  to  certain  mythical  beings  supposed 
to  be  hostile  to  men  and  to  the  beneficent  ^sir.  The 
Jotuns,  or  Giants,  are  types  of  the  disturbing,  untamable, 
or  destructive  forces  of  nature.  Hence  the  wolf  Fenrir, 
(supposed  to  typify  volcanic  fire,)  Midgard's  Serpent, 
(the  vast  untamable  ocean,)  and  Hela  (the  goddess  of 
death)  are  all  represented  as  of  Jotun  birth.  Loki  him- 
self is  considered  to  be  of  Jotun  origin,  and  is  the  father 
of  the  mightiest  and  most  terrible  beings  belonging  to 
that  race.  Cold  or  frost,  being  one  of  the  principal  causes 
of  desolation  and  death,  is  represented  as  the  parent  of 
a  powerful  family  of  Jotuns,  termed  Frost-giants.  The 
abode  of  the  Jotuns  is  called  Jotunheim  or  Utgard, 
(oot'gird,  i.e.  "  outer  ward,")  and  comprises  the  desert 
regions  on  the  outermost  boundary  of  the  world.  The 
Jotuns  (i.e.  the  elements  of  disorder  and  desolation)  are 
represented  as  being  always  at  war  with  the  ^sir,  the 
powers  presiding  over  life  and  order.  (See  /EsiR.)  The 
opposition  is  eternal  ;  they  are  never  reconciled,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Vanir  and  ^Flsir,  (see  Vanir,)  because  there 
can  be  no  reconciliation  between  order  and  confusion,  or 
between  life  and  death. 

See,  besides  the  work  above  referred  to,  Keyser,  "Religion  of 
the  Northmen;"  Mallet,  "Northern  Antiquities;"  Petersen, 
"  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Jouannet,  zhoo't'na',  (FRANgois  Vatar,)  a  French 
antiquary  and  statistician,  born  in  1765  ;  died  in  1845. 
See  Lamothe,  "Jouannet,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Ecrits,"  1847. 

Jouannin,  zhoo'S'niN',  (Joseph  Marie,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1783  ;  died  in  1844. 

Joubert,  zhoo'baiR',  (Barthelemy  Catherine,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Pont-de-Vaux,  in  Bresse,  in 
1769.  In  1 791  he  enlisted  in  the  army  of  the  Rhine, 
and  served  with  distinction  against  the  Austrians.  Two 
years  later  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Sardinians.  He 
soon  after  regained  his  liberty  and  returned  to  France, 
where  he  boldly  opposed  the  Jacobins.  In  1794  he  re- 
ceived the  appointment  of  adjutant-general,  and  in  1795, 
having  displayed  great  bravery  at  Loano,  he  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  a  brigadier-general  on  the  field  of  battle. 
He  subsequently  gained  distinguished  honours  at  several 
battles  in  Italy  and  in  the  Tyrol.  In  1799  he  was  ap- 
pointed general-in-chief  of  the  army  in  Italy,  and  fell  at 


the  battle  of  Novi,  in  August  of  that  year.  "He  united 
with  great  military  talents,"  says  the  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale,"  "  all  the  virtues  of  a  citizen.  He  was 
adinired  by  all  parties,  and  devoted  exclusively  to  the 
glory  and  happiness  of  his  country." 

See  D.  J.  Garat,  "  filoge  de  B,  C  Joubert,"  1799;  J.  Laval- 
lee,  "  filoge  de  Joubert,"  1800;  Guilbert,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de 
Joubert,"  etc.,  1799;  H.  Lesueur,  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale  ;"  J.  J.  Le  pRANgois  de  Lalande,  "  Sur  le  General  Jou- 
bert," 1799;  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Joubert,  (Franc^ois,)  a  French  priest  and  Jansenist, 
distinguished  for  his  learning,  born  at  Montpellier  in 
1689.  On  account  of  his  principles,  he  was  persecuted 
by  the  Jesuits  and  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille.  He 
wrote  commentaries  on  the  Apocalypse  and  on  a  number 
of  the  Hebrew  prophecies.    Died  in  1763. 

Joubert,  (Joseph,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Lyons, 
known  as  the  author  of  a  valuable  work,  entitled  "  French 
and  Latin  Dictionary,  taken  from  the  Original  and  Clas- 
sical Authors  in  both  Languages."    Died  in  17 19. 

Joubert,  (Joseph,)  a  French  moralist,  born  at  Mon- 
tignac  (Perigord)  in  1734,  became  a  resident  of  Paris 
about  1778.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Fontanes,  by 
whose  influence  he  was  ajjpointed  inspector-general  of 
the  University  of  Paris  in  1809.  He  died  in  1824,  leaving 
many  manuscripts,  a  part  of  which  Chateaubriand  edited, 
with  the  title  of"Pensees."  A  more  complete  edition 
of  the  "  Pensees,  Essais,"  etc.  appeared  in  2  vols.,  1842. 

See  "Notice  sur  J.  Joubert,"  by  his  brother  Arnaud,  1824; 
Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  Litteraires,"  and  "  Causeries  du  Lundi," 
tome  i.  ;  Paul  Raynal,  "Notice  sur  J.  Joubert,"  prefixed  to  his 
"Pensees,"  etc.,  1842;  "Essays  in  Criticism,"  by  Matthew  Ar- 
nold, 1865. 

Joubert,  (Joseph  Antoine  Ren^,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Angers  in  1772.  He  served  with  distinction  at 
Heliopolis,  Wagram,  (1809,)  Smolensk,  (1812,)  and  Liit- 
zen,  (1813.)    Died  in  1843. 

Joubert,  (Laurent,)  an  eminent  French  physician, 
born  at  Valence  in  1529.  He  graduated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Montpellier,  of  which  he  was  afterwards  chosen 
chancellor.  He  was  also  appointed  first  physician-in- 
ordinary  to  Henry  HI.  He  wrote  "  Popular  Errors  in 
regard  to  Medicine,"  (1578-79,)  which  was  often  re- 
printed, and  a  "Treatise  on  Laughter."    Died  in  1583. 

See  Amoreux,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  L.  Joubert,"  1814;  Bayle, 
"Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron,  "  Memoires." 

Joubert,  (L60N,)  a  French  biographer  of  the  present 
century,  wrote  many  able  articles  for  the  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Jouenneaux.    See  Juvenal. 

Jouffroi,  de,  deh  zhooTRwi',  [  Lat.  Joffre'dus,  ] 
(Jean,)  a  French  prelate,  born  at  Luxeuil  about  1412. 
He  obtained  the  favour  of  Louis  XL,  who  procured  for 
him  a  cardinal's  hat  in  1461,  and  made  him  his  almoner. 
Died  in  1473. 

Jouffroy,  zhooTRwS.^  (Franqois,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1806.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in 
1832,  and  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  Academic  des  Beaux-Arts  in  1857. 

Jouffroy,  (Theodore  Simon,)  a  French  philosophical 
writer,  born  near  Mouthe  (Doubs)  in  1796,  was  a  pupil 
of  Victor  Cousin,  who  influenced  the  developnnent  and 
direction  of  his  mind.  He  was  appointed  a  tutor  of 
philosophy  repetitet(r)  in  the  Normal  School  in 

181 7.  This  school  having  been  suppressed  in  1822,  he 
began  to  write  for  several  journals  in  Paris.  In  1830  he 
became  a  professor  in  the  Normal  School,  then  re-estab- 
lished. He  produced  a  version  of  the  complete  works 
of  Thomas  Reid,  (6  vols.,  1828-35.)  In  1833  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  philosophy  in 
the  College  de  France.  He  exchanged  this  position  in 
1838  for  the  office  of  librarian  to  the  University,  and 
succeeded  Laromiguiere  as  ])rofessor  of  philosophy  in 
1837.  Among  his  works  are  "  Melanges  philosophiques," 
(1833,)  and  "Cours  d'Esthetique,"  (1843.)  He  also 
produced  a  version  of  Dugald  Stewart's  "Essays  on 
Moral  Philosophy,"  (1826,)  to  which  he  wrote  a  valuable 
preface.    Died  in  1842. 

See  MiGNET,  "Notice  sur  Jouffroy,"  1853;  Adoi.phe  Gar- 
nirr,  article  "Jouffroy"  in  the  "  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences  philoso- 
phiques," tome  iii.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Joiiffroy,  de,  deh  zhooTRwa',  (Claude  FRANgois 
Doroth^e,)  Marquis,  an  ingenious  Frenchman,  born 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  li,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JOUKOFSKl 


JO  UFENET 


in  Franche-Comte,  about  1750.  He  studied  the  con- 
struction of  different  vessels,  and  went  to  Paris,  where 
he  conceived  the  idea  of  propelling  boats  by  steam.  His 
first  vessel  of  this  kind  was  launched  in  1776.  Although 
this  attempt  was  far  from  being  successful,  Jouffroy  was 
convinced  that  his  object  was  attainable.  In  1783  he 
completed  another  steam-vessel,  one  hundred  and  forty 
feet  long,  with  which  he  ascended  the  Saone  several 
miles,  but,  on  account  of  his  limited  means,  was  unable 
to  carry  his  invention  to  a  higher  state  of  perfection. 
The  inventions  of  Jouffroy  were  highly  spoken  of  by 
Robert  P^ulton.    Died  in  1832. 

See  F.  A.  A.  Mignet,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Tra- 
vaux  de  M.  Jouffroy,"  Paris,  1853  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Joukofski,  (Vasili  Andreivitch.)    See  Zhookof- 

SKI. 

Joule,  jool, (James  P.,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  experi- 
mental philosopher,  born  at  Salford,  near  Manchester, 
in  1818.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated  Dalton.  He 
made  some  discoveries  in  electro-magnetism,  and  in  the 
theory  of  heat.  He  is  considered  by  some  persons  as 
the  founder  of  the  modern  theory  of  the  correlation  of 
forces. 

Jourdain,  zhooR^d^N',  (Amable  Louis  Marie  Mi- 
chel Brechillet — bRa'she'ya',)  a  distinguished  French 
writer  and  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1788.  Among 
his  principal  works  is  "Persia;  or,  A  Description  of  the 
History,  Government,  Religion,  and  Literature  of  that 
Empire,"  (5  vols.,  1814.)  He  was  a  contributor  to  the 
"Biographie  Universelle."    Died  in  1818. 

Jourdain,  (Anselme  Louis  Bernard  Brechillet,) 
an  eminent  surgeon-dentist,  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1734.  He  invented  several  instru- 
ments used  by  dentists,  and  wrote  numerous  treatises  on 
dentistry.    Died  in  1816. 

See  J.  R.  Duval,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Jourdain," 
1816. 

Jourdain,  (Charles  Marie  Gabriel  Brechillet,) 

a  philosopher,  a  son  of  Amable,  noticed  above,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1817.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"La  Philosophie  de  Saint  Thomas  d'Aquin,"  (2  vols., 
1858.) 

Jourdain,  (Claude,)  a  French  Benedictine  and 
antiquarian  writer,  born  at  Poligny  in  1696;  died  in 
1782. 

Jourdan,  zhoou'dSN',  (Andr6  Joseph,)  a  French 
statesman,  born  in  Provence.  In  1795  he  was  elected 
to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  where  he  opposed  the 
laws  against  the  emigrants.  For  this  reason,  in  1797  he 
was  obliged  to  seek  an  asylum  in  Spain.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Louis  XVIII.  Jourdan  was  chosen  councillor  of 
state.    Died  in  183 1. 

Jourdan,  (Antoine  Jacques  Louis,)  born  in  Paris 
in  1788,  published  a  "Dictionary  of  Terms  used  in  the 
Natural  Sciences,"  (2  vols.,  1834.)    Died  in  1848. 

Jourdan,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
at  Marseilles  in  1711  ;  died  in  1793. 

Jourdan,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  marshal  of  France,  born 
at  Limoges  in  1762,  was  the  son  of  a  poor  surgeon,  who 
paid  but  little  attention  to  his  education.  At  the  age 
of  sixteen  he  entered  the  French  army,  and  fought  for 
the  Americans  in  the  Revolutionary  war  until  1782, 
when  he  returned  home  on  account  of  ill  health.  In 
1 79 1  he  again  entered  the  army,  and  soon  after  received 
the  command  of  a  battalion,  and  served  under  La  Fa- 
yette and  Dumouriez.  In  1793  he  was  appointed  general 
of  division.  Having  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Hondschoote,  in  1793,  he  was  chosen  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  French  army.  He  then  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Wattignies,  near  Mau- 
beuge,  and  raised  the  siege  of  that  town.  He  was  sub- 
sequently called  to  Paris  by  the  committee  of  public 
safety  to  consult  upon  the  future  movements  of  the 
army.  He  was  at  first  received  with  great  enthusiasm  ; 
but,  having  given  offence  by  the  candour  with  which 
he  expressed  his  sentiments,  he  was  deprived  of  his 
authority,  and  Pichegru  was  chosen  in  his  place.  In 
1794,  however,  he  was  appointed  comniander  of  the 
army  of  the  Moselle  against  the  Austrians,  over  whom, 
in  a  few  weeks,  he  won  the  important  battles  of  Arlon 
and  F'leurus.    He  also  captured  Charleroi  and  many 


other  towns.  In  the  autumn  of  1794  he  gained  the 
victories  of  Ayvaile  and  Aldenhoven.  He  afterwards 
took  Luxemburg,  Dusseldorf,  Frankfort,  and  Wiirzburg, 
but  in  September,  1796,  was  signally  defeated  by  the 
Archduke  Charles  near  the  last-named  place.  Jourdan 
soon  after  resigned,  and,  having  returned  to  Paris,  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  of 
which  a  few  months  later  he  was  elected  president.  It 
1798  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  army  011 
the  Danube.  In  1799,  having  met  with  two  decisive 
defeats  from  the  Archduke  Charles,  he  was  succeeded 
by  Massena.  The  same  year  he  was  dismissed  from  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred  for  having  opposed  the  ambi- 
tious projects  of  Napoleon.  Pie  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  the  Cisalpine  Republic  in  1800.  Though  created  a 
marshal  of  the  empire  in  1804,  no  military  command  of 
importance  was  given  to  him  until  he  accompanied  Jo- 
seph Bonaparte  to  Spain  as  major-general.  He  remained 
with  that  monarch  through  all  his  vicissitudes,  and  was 
the  nominal  commander  of  the  French  forces  when  they 
were  defeated  at  Vitoria  by  Wellington  in  1813.  In  1818 
Louis  XVIII.  created  Jourdan  a  peer  of  France.  Died 
in  1833.  He  was  the  author  of  two  works, — "Opera- 
tions of  the  Army  of  the  Danube  under  the  Orders  of 
General  Jourdan,"  and  "  History  of  the  Campaign  of 
1796,  containing  the  Operations  of  the  Army  of  the 
Sambre-et-Meuse."  Napoleon,  at  Saint  Helena,  con- 
fessed that  he  had  ill-treated  Jourdan,  whom  he  charac- 
terized as  a  "true  patriot." 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire;"  De  Cour- 
celi.es,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais;"  Michaud,  "  Notices 
historiques  sur  le  Marechal  Jourdan,  les  Generaux  Kalckreuth,  Kil- 
maine,"  etc. ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Jourdan,  (Mathieu  Jouve,)  surnamed  Coupe-Tete, 
koop'tSt',  ("  cut-throat,")  a  French  revolutionist,  noto- 
rious for  his  inhumanity,  was  born  in  Vivarais  in  1 749. 
He  was  executed  in  1794. 

Jourde,  zhooRd,  (Gilbert  Amable,)  a  French  law- 
yer, born  in  Auvergne  in  1757,  in  1795  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred.  Died  in 
1837- 

Jourdeuil,  zhooR'duI'  or  zhooR'duh'ye,  (Didier,)  a 
French  Jacobin,  was  one  of  the  chief  instigators  of  the 
massacre  in  September,  1792.    Died  about  1800. 

Jourgniac  Saint-Meard,  zhooRn^ye-tk'  s4n  mk^tR', 
(Chevalier  Francois,)  a  French  satirical  writer  and 
royalist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1745.  In  1792  he  was 
arrested  on  a  charge  of  treason,  but  was  acquitted.  Died 
in  1827. 

Jousse,  zhooss,  (Daniel,)  an  eminent  jurist,  born 
at  Orleans,  in  France,  in  1704.  He  entered  a  college 
in  Paris,  where  he  gained  distinction  in  mathematics. 
He  subsequently  began  the  study  of  law.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  a  "  Historical  Detail  of  the  City 
of  Orleans,"  and  "  New  Commentary  upon  the  Criminal 
Ordinance."    Died  in  1 781. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

,  Joussouf,  Joussef,  or  Joussof.    See  Yoosuf. 

Jouvancy  or  Jouvency,  zhoo'v5N'se',  (Joseph,)  a 
celebrated  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Paris  in  1643. 
was  chosen  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  college  of  Louis 
le  Grand,  and  was  afterwards  called  by  his  superiors  to 
Rome  to  assist  in  writing  the  history  of  the  Jesuits.  His 
style  is  remarkable  for  its  purity  and  elegance.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Notes  upon  Juvenal,  Persius,  Terence, 
Horace,  Martial,  and  the  Metamorphoses  of  Ovid,"  and 
the  fifth  volume  of  the  "  History  of  the  Jesuits"  from 
1591  to  1616.    Died  in  1719. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  Querard,  "  La  France 
Litteraire." 

Jouvency.    See  Jouvancy. 

Jouvenet,  zhoov'iii',  (Jean,)  a  celebrated  historical 
painter,  born  at  Rouen,  France,  about  1646.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  his  uncle,  Laurent  Jouvenet,  and  afterwards 
studied  in  Paris  and  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of 
Painting.  He  was  subsequently  patronized  by  Louis 
XIV.,  who  granted  him  a  pension  of  1700  livres.  Having 
lost  the  use  of  his  right  hand  by  a  paralytic  stroke,  he 
ascertained  that  he  could  use  his  left  with  equal  facility, 
and  soon  after  painted  one  of  his  best  pictures,  a  repre- 
sentation of  Innocence  followed  by  Falsehood  and  seek- 


€  zsk;  <^2iss;gkard;  g  as/;  g,  h,     guttural ;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JOVVENNEAVX  1296  JOTEUSE 


ing  protection  in  the  arms  of  Justice.  Among  his  other 
works  are  "Esther  before  Ahasuerus,"  "Jesus  Christ 
driving  the  Money-Changers  from  the  Temple,"  "The 
Resurrection  of  Lazarus,"  and  the  "  Descent  from  the 
Cross." 

See  D'Argenville,  "  Vies  des  Peintres:"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 

Generale." 

Jouvenneaux.    See  Juvenal. 

Jouy,  de,  deh  zhoo'e^  (Louis  Francois,)  a  French 
lawyer,  and  advocate  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  where 
he  was  lx)i  n  in  1714;  died  in  1771. 

Jouy,  de,  (Victor  Joseph  Etienne,)  an  eminent 
French  writer,  born  at  Jouy,  near  Versailles,  in  1764  or 
1769.  Pie  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1790 
favoured  the  Revolution;  but  during  the  reign  of  terror 
he  fled  for  safety  to  Switzerland.  In  1794  he  returned  to 
P'rance,  and,  after  serving  for  some  time  in  the  army,  which 
he  quitted  in  1797,  fixed  his  residence  in  Paris  and  turned 
his  attention  to  literary  pursuits.  Among  his  works  are 
the  operas  of  "The  Vestal"  (1807)  and  of  "The  Ama- 
zon," the  tragedy  of  "  Sylla,"  (1822,)  "Cecil,"  a  novel, 
(1827,)  and  a  series  of  essays  entitled  "The  Hermit  of 
the  Chaussee  d'Antin,"  (5  vols.,  1812-14.)  The  last 
work,  which  somewhat  resembles  Addison's  "  vSpec- 
tator,"  obtained  a  European  reputation.  He  was  elected 
to  the  French  Academy  in  1815,  and  appointed  chief 
librarian 'of  the  Louvre  in  1831.  Besides  the  works 
above  named,  he  wrote  "The  Hermit  in  the  Province," 
("L'Hermite  en  Province,"  14  vols.,  1818  et  seq.,)  and 
"The  Hermits  in  Prison,"  ("  Les  Hermites  en  Prison," 
2  vols.,  1823,)  which  was  very  popular.    Died  in  1846. 

See  QuERAKD,  "  La  France  Litteraire  ;"  Charles  Nisard,  in  the 
"  Dictionnaire  de  la  Conversation;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale  ;"  "  Loudon  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1822. 

Jove.    See  Jupiter. 

Jovellanos,  de,  da  Ho-v§l-ya'n6s,  (Caspar  Mel- 
CHIOK,)  a  Spanish  statesman,  author,  and  scholar,  born 
of  noble  parentage  at  Gijon,  in  Asturias,  in  1744.  He 
studied  at  the  Universities  of  Oviedo,  Avila,  and  Alcala. 
In  1770  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Madrid,  and  was  soon  after  appointed  councillor  of 
state  by  Charles  III.  In  1778  he  became  a  judge  of 
the  criminal  court  at  Madrid.  Afterwards,  through  the 
instrumentality  of  Don  Manuel  Godoy,  Prince  of  Peace, 
he  was  banished  to  Majorca,  where  for  more  than  seven 
years  he  remained  a  prisoner.  He  returned  to  Spain 
in  1808,  and  in  a  short  time  became  a  member  of  the 
supreme  junta.  Among  his  works  are  several  valuable 
treatises  on  political  economy,  the  tragedy  of  "  Pelayo," 
(1790,)  the  comedy  of  "The  Honourable  Delinquent," 
a  "  Dissertation  on  English  Architecture,"  and  an  ex- 
cellent "Memoir  on  Law  applied  to  Agriculture,"  ("  In- 
forme  sobre  la  Ley  agraria.")    Died  in  1811. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Cean  Ber- 
^4UDEZ,  "  Memorias  para  la  Vida  del  Don  G.  Jovellanos,"  1814; 
Antillon,  "  Noticlas  historicas  de  G.  M.  de  Jovellanos,"  1812; 
"Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  Februaiy,  1830. 

Jo'vi-an,  [Lat.  Jovia'nus  ;  Fr.  Jovien,  zho've-iN'; 
It.  Gtoviano,  jo-ve-a'no,]  or,  more  fully,  Jo-vi-a'nus 
Fla'vi'-us  Clau'dl-us,  Emperor  of  Rome,  was  born  in 
Pannonia,  331  a.d.  He  early  distinguished  himself  as 
a  commander  in  the  Roman  army,  and,  though  an  avowed 
Christian,  received  many  marks  of  distinction  from  Julian 
the  Apostate,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his  unsuccessful 
expedition  into  Persia.  At  the  death  of  that  sovereign, 
in  363,  Jovian  was  elected  emperor  by  the  army.  The 
Roman  troops  were  at  that  time  in  imminent  danger, 
both  on  account  of  the  superior  Persian  forces  by  which 
they  were  hemmed  in,  and  the  great  scarcity  of  provi- 
sions. Jovian,  after  bravely  repelling  several  attacks  of 
the  enemy,  formed  a  treaty,  by  which  he  agreed  to  give 
up  the  Roman  conquests  west  of  the  Tigris.  Returning, 
he  spent  some  time  at  Antioch,  where  he  annulled 
Julian's  laws  against  the  Christians  and  re-established 
the  orthodox  religion.  He  died  in  364,  at  Dadastana, 
in  Galatia,  as  he  was  proceeding  to  Constantinople. 

See  Le  Beau,  "  Histoirc  du  Bas-Empire;"  Tili.kmont,  "  His- 
toire  des  Empereurs;"  Schenkel,  "  Historia  Jo\iani,"  1617;  La 
Blettekie,  "Histoirc  de  I'Empereur  Jovien,"  2  vols.,  1748. 

Jovianus.    See  Jovian. 

Jovien,  the  French  for  Jovian,  which  see. 

Jovin.    See  Jovinus. 


I  Jo-vin'i-an,  [Lat.  Jovinia'nus;  Fr.  Jovinien,  zho'- 
I  ve'ne^N',]  an  Italian  monk,  distinguished  for  his  bold 
j  opposition  to  the  growing  superstition  and  encroachments 
of  the  Roman  Church.  He  particularly  censured  celi- 
bacy, fasting,  and  the  austerities  of  the  convent.  For 
the  propagation  of  these  principles  he  was  condemned 
for  heresy  by  the  Bishops  of  Rome  and  of  Milan,  and 
in  398,  by  the  orders  of  the  emperor  Honorius,  was 
scourged  and  banished.    Died  about  410  a.d. 

Scc  Saint  Jerome,"  Contra  Jovinianum;"  Baronius,  "  Annales 
Ecclesiastici." 

Jovinianus.    See  Jovinian. 
Jovinien.    See  Jovinian. 

Jo-vi'nus,  [Fr.  Jovin,  zho'v^N',]  a  native  of  Rheims, 
was  created  a  Roman  consul  by  the  emperor  Valentinian 
in  367  A.D.  He  received  the  command  of  the  cavalry  in 
Gaul,  and  soon  after  cut  in  pieces  a  German  army  which 
had  invaded  that  country.  He  built  in  his  native  city  a 
church,  in  which  he  was  buried  in  370  a.d. 

Jovinus,  a  Roman  general,  who  in  41 1  a.d.,  under  the 
reign  of  Honorius,  assumed  the  imperial  title  and  pos- 
sessed himself  of  part  of  Gaul.  In  412  he  was  defeated 
by  Ataidphus,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  an  ally  of  Hono- 
rius.   He  was  soon  after  taken  and  executed. 

Jovius,  (Paul.)    See  Giovio,  (Paolo.) 

Jow'ett,  (Rev.  William,)  an  English  missionary, 
born  about  1787.  He  published  "Christian  Researches 
in  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land,"  (1825,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1855. 

Joy,  Joye,  or  Gee,  (George,)  an  early  English  Re- 
former, born  in  Bedfordshire.  He  graduated  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1513.  Being  accused  of  heresy,  he  retired  to 
Germany,  where  he  remained  several  years.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  died  in  1553.  He  assisted  in  the  transla- 
tion of  Tyndale's  Bible  which  was  printed  at  Antwerp  in 
1534,  and  wrote  several  religious  works,  among  which  is 
one  "On  the  Unity  and  Schism  of  the  Ancient  Church." 

See  Lewis,  "History  of  the  Translations  of  the  Bible." 

Joyant,  zhwd^ySN',  (Jules  Romain,)  a  skilful  French 
landscape-painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1803.  Pie  produced 
views  of  Venice,  which  were  much  admired.  Died  in  1854. 

Joyce,  jois,  (Jeremiah,)  an  English  writer  and  Uni- 
tarian minister,  born  in  1764.  He  was  principal  editor 
of  the  "Cyclopaedia"  which  appeared  under  the  name 
of  William  Nicholson,  and  was  the  author  of  a  justly 
popular  work,  "Scientific  Dialogues,"  "Letters  on  Nat- 
ural Philosophy,"  and  other  productions  of  a  similar 
nature.  He  was  arrested  in  1794  with  Horne  Tooke  and 
others  on  a  charge  of  treason,  but  was  released  without 
trial  after  the  acquittal  of  Tooke.    Died  in  1816. 

Joyeuse,  de,  deh  zhwS'yuz',  (Anne,)  Due,  a  French 
nobleman,  born  about  1561.  He  married  Margaret  of 
Lorraine,  sister  of  the  queen  of  Henry  HI.  About  1586 
he  received  the  command  of  the  army  sent  against  the 
Huguenots.  He  at  first  gained  some  advantages,  and 
committed  great  cruelties  upon  the  Protestants,  but  in 
October,  1587,  was  defeated  and  slain  at  the  battle  of 
Coutras  by  Henry  of  Navarre. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Fran^ais;"  D'Aubigne,  "  Me  • 
moires." 

Joyeuse,  de,  (Fran(;ois,)  Cardinal,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1562.  He  was  the  confidential 
minister  of  Henry  HI.,  Henry  IV.,  and  Louis  XIII.  In 
1614  he  became  dean  of  the  cardinals  of  Avignon.  Died 
in  1615. 

See  Auberv,  "  Histoire  du  Cardinal  de  Joyeuse,"  etc.,  Paris,  1654. 

Joyeuse,  de,  (Guillaume,)  Viscount,  a  French 
military  commander,  born  about  1520.  He  was  made 
lieutenant-general  of  Languedoc,  and  in  1562  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  wars  against  the  French  Protest- 
ants.   In  1582  he  was  created  a  inarshal.    Died  in  1592. 

Joyeuse,  de,  (Henri,)  Due,  born  in  France  in  1567. 
The  death  of  his  wife,  about  1587,  affected  him  so  deeply 
that  he  entered  the  order  of  the  Capuchins.  In  1592  he 
obtained  a  dispensation  releasing  him  from  his  vows,  and 
received  the  command  of  the  army  in  Languedoc.  Henry 
IV.  created  him  marshal  of  France.  He  afterwards  be- 
came again  a  Capuchin.    Died  in  1608. 

See  Broussk,  "Viede  Henri,  Due  de  Joyeuse,"  Paris,  1621. 

Joyeuse,  de,  (Jean  Armand,)  Marquis,  a  French 
nobleman,  born  in  163 1.    He  served  with  distinction  in 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  io/r.g;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  sho)'t;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fJt;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JOTNER 


1297 


JUDM 


Flanders  under  Turenne,  and  was  afterwards  created 
marshal  of  France.    Died  in  1710. 

Joy'iier,  (William,)  sometimes  called  Lyde,  an 
English  Catholic  and  author,  born  near  Oxford  in  1622  ; 
died  in  1706.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Roman  Em- 
press," a  comedy,  and  several  English  and  Latin  poems. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Joze,  zho-za',  (Antonio,)  a  Portuguese  Jew  and  cele- 
brated dramatist.  He  excelled  in  wit  and  sai  casm,  which, 
in  one  of  his  comedies,  he  directed  against  some  of  the 
Catholic  ceremonies.  He  was  soon  after  seized  by  the 
officers  of  the  Inquisition,  tortured,  and  finally  burned  at 
an  auto-de-fe  in  1745.  Among  the  best  of  his  comedies 
are  "Esop"  and  "The  Enchantments  of  Medea." 

Joze  Manoel.    See  Joseph  Emanuel. 

Juan,  Don.    See  John,  Don,  of  Austria. 

Juau,  Hoo-Sn',  Don,  natural  son  of  Philip  IV.  of 
Spain  and  Maria  Calderona,  an  actress,  was  born  in 
Madrid  in  1629.  In  1647  he  received  the  command  of 
the  Spanish  army  in.  Italy,  where  he  took  the  city  of 
Naples  and  gained  many  other  advantages.  Afterwards 
he  was  defeated  by  Turenne  in  the  Netherlands,  at  the 
battle  of  Dunes,  and  compelled  to  evacuate  the  country. 
His  brother,  Charles  II.,  subsequently  made  him  prime 
minister.    Died  in  1679. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Juan  de  Santa  Cruz.    See  Juan  de  Yepez. 

Juan  de  Yepez,  Hoo-in'  dk  ya'p^th,  or  Juan  de 
Santa  Cruz,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  calendar,  was  born 
in  Old  Castile  in  1542.  He,  with  Saint  Theresa,  estab- 
lished the  order  of  Barefooted  Carmelites.  Died  in  1591. 

Juan  y  Santacilia,  Hoo-Sn'e  san-tS-thee'le-S,(  Jorge,) 
Don,  a  celebrated  Spanish  mathematician  and  naval 
officer,  was  born  at  Orihuela,  in  Valencia,  in  17 12.  He 
was  sent  about  1735,  with  several  Spanish  and  French 
servants,  to  measure  the  degree  of  the  meridian  at  the 
equator.  He  devoted  much  attention  to  naval  archi- 
tecture- He  wrote  "  Observations  on  Astronomy  and 
Physics  made  in  the  Kingdom  of  Peru,"  (5  vols.,  1748,) 
and  a  treatise  on  the  construction  of  vessels,  (2  vols., 
1761.)    Died  in  1774. 

See  La  Condamine,  "Journal  du Voyage  fait  k  I'Equateur,"  etc. 

Juana  of  Spain.    See  Joan. 

Juarez,  joo-i'r§z,  [Sp.  pron.  Hoo-i'r§th,]  (Benito,) 
a  Mexican  statesman,  born  in  Oajaca  about  1S07,  is  said 
to  be  of  pure  aboriginal  stock.  He  studied  law,  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1846,  and  was  Governor  of  Oa- 
jaca from  1848  to  1852.  In  1853  he  was  banished  by 
Santa  Ana.  He  joined  the  party  of  Alvarez,  who  became 
president  in  1855,  and  served  under  him  as  minister  of 
justice.  In  1857  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by 
Comonfort,  who  was  driven  from  power  in  January,  1858. 
Juarez  was  recognized  as  the  successor  of  Comonfort  by 
the  Liberals,  but  was  opposed  by  the  clerical  party  in  a 
long  civil  war.  He  was  elected  i^resident  about  1861, 
soon  after  which  Mexico  was  invaded  by  a  French  army. 
Having  gained  several  victories,  the  French  took  the 
city  of  Mexico  in  June,  1863,  and  Maximilian  of  Austria 
assumed  the  imperial  power,  under  the  ])atronage  of 
Napoleon  III.  Juarez  was  reduced  to  a  critical  position, 
and  his  cause  seemed  desperate  ;  but  at  length  the  French 
army  was  withdrawn  in  1866,  and  the  Liberals  quickly 
recovered  the  ascendency.  (See  Maximilian.)  He  was 
elected  president  again  in  October,  1867. 

Ju'ba  [Gr.  'I66aq]  I.  succeeded  his  father,  Hiempsal, 
on  the  throne  of  Numidia  about  50  B.C.  In  the  war 
between  Caesar  and  Pompey  he  supported  the  cause  of 
the  latter,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Curio,  a 
lieutenant  of  Caesar.  After  Pompey's  defeat  at  Phar- 
salia,  Juba  continued  to  support  his  cause  in  Africa,  and 
for  some  time  held  even  Caesar  in  check.  He  was,  how- 
ever, defeated  by  the  dictator  at  the  battle  of  Thapsus, 
and  soon  after  killed  himself,  42  B.C.,  in  preference  to 
gracing  the  triumph  of  the  conqueror.  His  kingdom 
was  reduced  to  a  Roman  province,  of  which  the  historian 
Sallust  was  appointed  the  first  governor. 

See  CiBSAR,  "Bellum  Civile;"  Dion  Cassius,  "History  of 
Rome;"  Appian,  "Bellum  Civile." 

Juba  II.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  carried  to  Rome 
by  Caesar,  who  gave  him  a  liberal  education.  He  served 


in  the  army  of  Augustus,  from  whom  he  received  the 
kingdom  of  Mauritania  about  30  B.C.  He  married  Cle- 
opatra Selena,  the  daughter  of  the  celebrated  Cleopatra, 
Queen  of  Egypt,  by  Antony.  Juba  was  distinguished 
for  his  learning,  ability,  and  justice.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  works,  written  in  Greek,  upon  various  subjects. 
Pliny,  Plutarch,  Tacitus,  and  other  historians  mention  his 
writings  with  just  commendation.   He  died  about  20  B.C. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Graecis  ;"  Eckhel,  "  Doctrina  Nu- 
morum  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Jube,  zhii'ba',  (Auguste,)  a  French  historian  and 
general,  born  in  1765.  He  wrote  a  "Military  History 
of  the  Wars  of  France  from  1643  to  1815,"  (2  vols.,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1824. 

Jubd,  (Jacques,)  a  French  Jansenist,  born  near  Paris 
in  1674 ;  died  in  1745. 

Jubinal,  zhii'be'ntK,  (Michel  Louis  Achille,)  a 
French  writer  and  politician,  born  in  Paris  in  1810. 

Juda,  zhii'dS',  (L^ON,)  a  French  Protestant,  born  in 
Alsace  in  1482,  was  the  natural  son  of  Jean  Juda,  a 
priest.  In  1502,  having  formed  a  friendship  with  Zuin- 
glius,  he  was  led  to  embrace  the  principles  of  the  Re- 
formers, and  became  pastor  of  Saint  Peter's  Church  in 
Zurich.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  zeal  in  promoting 
the  Reformation,  both  from  his  pulpit  and  by  his  pen. 
Died  in  1542.  He  commenced  a  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  into  Latin,  which  was  finished  after  his  death, 
and  was  regarded  by  the  Protestants,  and  even  by  many 
Catholic  divines,  as  the  best  version  extant.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  religious  works. 

See  M.  Adam,  "Vitae  Theologorum  Germanorum  ;"  Haag,  "  La 
France  protestante." 

Ju'dah,  [Heb.  miri',]  fourth  son  of  Jacob,  and  one 
of  the  twelve  Hebrew  patriarchs,  was  born  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, B.C.  1755.  When  Joseph  was  thrown  into  the 
cave  by  his  brethren,  it  was  through  Judah's  influence 
that  they  sold  him  to  the  Ishmaelites,  instead  of  taking 
his  life  as  they  had  previously  intended.  (Genesis  xxxvii. 
26.)  Jacob,  on  his  death-bed,  foretold  that  Judah's  pos- 
terity would  become  the  principal  tribe  of  Israel,  and 
also  referred  to  the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  who  was  to 
be  his  lineal  descendant.    (Genesis  xlix.  8-12.) 

Ju'dah,  (Henry  M.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Snow  Hill,  Maryland,  about  1821,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1843,  '^'""^  ^'^^  ^  captain  before  the  civil  war 
began.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  Union  volun- 
teers early  in  1862,  and  commanded  a  division  at  Resaca, 
Georgia,  May  15,  1864. 

Judah  or  Je-hu'dah  Hak'ka-dosh',  (or  Hakka- 
dosch,)  a  learned  Jewish  rabbi,  born  in  Galilee  about 
120  A.D.  He  is  believed  to  have  compiled,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Roman  emperor  Marcus  Antoninus,  the 
Mishna,  (Mischna,)  which  contains  the  various  Jewish 
laws  and  institutions  not  found  in  the  Old  Testament. 
In  a  short  time  the  Talmud  was  ranked  among  the 
sacred  books  of  the  nation,  and  it  has  since  received  ad- 
ditions from  several  learned  rabbis.    Died  in  190  A.D. 

See  Wolf,  "  Bibliotheca  Hebraica." 

Ju'dah  Hioog,  (or  Hioug,)  he-oog',  a  Jewish  rabbi 
and  physician,  who  gained  great  distinction  for  his  learn- 
ing and  skill,  was  born  at  Fez,  in  Africa,  and  lived  about 
1040.  He  wrote  several  works  (in  Arabic)  on  the  Hebrew 
language,  and  is  now  regarded  by  his  nation  as  their  first 
and  perhaps  their  greatest  grammarian.  His  name  is 
sometimes  written  Judah  Chiug. 

Judah  Rav  or  Rab,  a  celebrated  Jewish  doctor, 
who  lived  near  Babylon  in  the  third  century  of  our  era, 
is  said  to  have  been  the  principal  author  of  that  portion 
of  the  Talmud  known  as  the  "Babylonish  Gemara." 

Ju'das  Is-car'i-ot,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles  chosen 
by  Jesus.  He  betrayed  his  Master  to  the  officers  of  the 
chief  priests  for  thirty  pieces  of  silver.  Afterwards,  being 
stung  with  remorse,  he  returned  the  money  to  the  priests 
and  "went  and  hanged  himself." 

See  Matthew  x.  4,  xxvi.  47-50,  xxvii.  3-5;  Mark  xiv.  18-21,  43. 

Ju'das  Le-vi'ta  or  HaPle-vi,  a  learned  Spanish  Jew 
and  poet,  born  in  1090  or  1080,  wrote  a  work  in  Arabic 
in  defence  of  the  Jewish  religion,  entitled  "  Sepher  Hoc- 
cori,"  which  was  translated  into  Hebrew,  Latin,  and 
Spanish.    Died  in  1140. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard:  g  as  J;  G,  H,  Y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

82 


JUDAS 


1298 


JUGURTHA 


Ju'das  Maccabae'iis,  (mak-ka-bee'us,)  [Gr.  '\ov6ag  6 
MaKKa;3aio^;  Fr,  Judas  Machabee,  zhii'dSs'  mS'kS'bi',] 
of  the  royal  line  of  the  Asmonceans,  became  leader  of  the 
Jews  upon  the  death  of  his  father,  Mattathias,  B.C.  166. 
He  conquered  and  cut  in  pieces  several  Syrian  armies 
which  had  been  sent  against  him  by  Antiochus,  subdued 
the  Idumeans,  Ammonites,  and  other  neighbouring  na- 
tions, and  restored  the  worship  of  the  true  God  in  the 
Temple  of  Jerusalem.  He  was  afterwards  besieged  in 
that  city  by  Antiochus  Eupator,  who  was,  however,  soon 
obliged  to  return  to  Syria,  on  account  of  a  civil  war  which 
had  broken  out  in  his  kingdom.  Judas,  wishing  to  form 
an  independent  government  in  Judea,  and  being  unable 
to  contend  against  the  whole  power  of  Syria,  concluded 
a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  Romans.  But,  before  any 
assistance  could  arrive,  a  large  army  of  Syrians  again 
invaded  Judea.  Judas  marched  against  them  with  a  body 
of  three  thousand  men,  which  was  soon  reduced  by  de- 
sertion to  eight  hundred.  He  nevertheless  attacked  the 
enemy,  and,  after  a  severe  battle,  was  defeated  and  slain, 
160  B.C. 

Judd,  (Sylvester,)  a  Unitarian  minister  and  writer, 
born  in  Westhampton,  Massachusetts,  in  1813.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1836,  studied  divinity  at  Harvard, 
and  from  1840  until  his  death,  in  1853,  was  pastor  of  the 
Unitarian  church  in  Augusta,  Maine.  His  principal 
work,  "  Margaret,  a  Tale  of  the  Real  and  Ideal,"  (1845,) 
is  pronounced  by  the  "North  American  Review"  "the 
most  emphatically  American  book  ever  written."  It  has 
since  been  beautifully  illustrated  by  Darley,  Among  his 
other  works  are  "  Philio,"  a  didactic  poem. 

See  "Life  and  Character  of  Sylvester  Judd,"  Boston,  1854; 
DuYCKiNCK,  "  Cyclopedia  ot  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ;  "  Era- 
ser \s  Magazine"  for  July,  1867. 

Jude,  [Gr.  'loi'dcf,]  Saint,  one  of  the  twelve  apos- 
tles. He  is  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  the  book 
bearing  his  name.  He  was  surnamed  Lebbeus  and 
Thaddeus. 

See  Matthew  x.  3  ;  Mark  iii.  18. 

Judicael,  ju'de-kal,  became  ruler  of  Bretagne  about 
632,  and  assumed  the  title  of  royalty.  After  a  reign  of 
six  years,  he  entered  a  monastery,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Alain. 

Ju'dith,  [Heb.  nmn^  ;  It.  Giuditta,  joo-det'ti,]  a 
Jewish  heroine,  of  uncertain  epoch.  According  to  tradi- 
tion, she  lived  at  Bethulia  when  that  town  was  besieged 
by  Holofernes,  a  general  of  the  King  of  Assyria.  Having 
by  insidious  arts  gained  admission  to  his  tent  and  per- 
suaded him  that  she  designed  to  betray  the  town  to  him, 
she  cut  off  his  head  and  carried  it  in  a  sack  to  Bethulia, 
which  was,  consequently,  saved  from  capture. 

See  the  Apocryphal  Book  of  Judith;  Alfonso  Niccolai,  "La 
Giuditta;  Dissertazione,"  1765. 

Jud'son,  (Adoniram,)  an  eminent  Baptist  mission- 
ary, born  in  Maiden,  Massachusetts,  in  1788,  graduated 
at  Brown  University  in  1807.  He  was  sent  as  a  mis- 
sionary to  Burmah  in  1812,  founded  a  mission  at  Ran- 
goon, and  learned  the  Burmese  language.  In  1823  he 
printed  a  Burmese  translation  of  the  New  Testament. 
He  was  thrown  into  prison  in  1824,  and  kept  in  close 
confinement  eighteen  months  or  more,  during  which  he 
and  his  companions  suffered  extremely.  He  com])leted 
a  Burmese  translation  of  the  Bible  in  1834.  He  married 
successively  Ann  Hasseltine,  Sarah  Hall  Boardman,  and 
Emily  Chubbuck,  each  of  whom  is  noticed  below.  Having 
visited  the  United  States  in  1845,  returned  to  Burmah 
in  1846,  and  resumed  his  labours  at  Maulmain.  He  died 
at  sea  in  April,  1850. 

See  Francis  Wayland,  "Memoir  of  the  Life  of  A.  Judson,"  2 
vols.,  1853  ;  James  Clement,  "  Life  of  the  Rev.  A.  Judson,"  1850; 
H.  C.  CoNANT,  "The  Earnest  Man  •  a  Sketch  of  the  Character  and 
Labours  of  A.  Judson,"  1856;  William  Hague,  "Life  of  A.  Jud- 
son," 1851. 

Judson,  (Ann,)  (originally  Miss  Hasseltine,)  a 
missionary  to  India,  wife  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Adoniram 
Judson,  was  born  in  Bradford,  Massachusetts,  in  1789. 
(See  preceding  article.)  A  "Memoir  of  her  Life,"  by 
the  Rev.  J.  D.  Knowles,  appeared  soon  after  her  death 
in  1826. 

Judson,  (Emily,)  (originally  Mi^s  Chubbuck,)  an 
American  authoress,  known  by  the  nom  de  plume  of 
"  Fanny  Forester,"  was  born  at  Eaton,  in  New  York, 


in  1817.  She  wrote  for  the  "New  York  Mirror,"  and 
published  two  volumes  of  her  essays,  sketches,  and 
poems,  under  the  title  of  "  Alderbrook,"  (1846.)  She 
was  married  in  1846  to  Dr.  Judson,  and  immediately 
sailed  with  him  for  India.  While  in  Burmah,  she  com- 
posed some  of  her  best  poems.  After  the  death  of  her 
husband,  in  1850,  she  returned  to  America,  and  died  at 
Hamilton,  New  York,  in  1854.  (See  Judson,  Adoniram.) 

Judson,  (Sarah,)  (originally  Miss  Hall,)  a  missiou- 
ary  to  India,  born  in  Alstead,  New  Hampshire,  in  1803. 
In  1825  she  was  married  to  the  Rev.  George  Dana 
Boardman,  and  the  same  year  sailed  with  him  for  Bur- 
mah. They  established  the  Baptist  Mission  at  Maul- 
main, and  subsequently  at  Tavoy.  After  the  death  of 
her  husband,  in  1831,  she  continued  her  missionary 
labours  with  great  success.  In  1834  she  was  married  to 
Rev.  A.  Judson,  noticed  above.  Died  at  Saint  Helena 
in  1845. 

Juel,  yoo'el,  (J.,)  a  Danish  adnairal,  was  a  brother 
of  Niels,  noticed  below,  with  whom  he  co-operated  in 
several  battles.  He  was  one  of  the  negotiators  of  the 
treaty  of  Lund  in  1679.    Died  about  1700. 

See  N.  JoNGE,  "  Vice-Admiral  J.  Juels  Liv  og  Lcvnctsbeskri- 
velse,"  1755. 

Juel,  (Niels  or  Nicholas,)  a  celebrated  Danish  ad- 
miral, born  in  1629.  After  serving  in  the  Dutch  navy 
under  Van  Tromp  and  De  Ruyter,  he  entered  the  Danish 
service,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  several  im- 
portant victories  which  he  gained  over  the  Swedes.  The 
King  of  Denmark  created  him  an  admiral,  knighted  him, 
and  conferred  upon  him  other  honours.    Died  in  1697. 

See  T.  DE  Hop-MAN,  "  Portraits  historiques  des  Hoinmes  il- 
lustres  de  Danemarck;"  Hagerup,  "Ligtaleover  N.  Juel,"  1795; 
H.  G.  Garde,  "  N.  Juel,"  1842;  Marcus  Gjoe,  "Ligtale  over  N. 
Juel,"  1753. 

Juenin,  zhU-i'niN',  (Gaspard,)  a  French  priest, 
writer,  And  professor  of  philosophy  in  Paris,  born  at 
Varambon,  in  Bresse,  in  1650;  died  in  1713. 

Juglaris,  yoo-gld'r^s,  (Aloisio,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and 
professor  of  rhetoric,  born  at  Nice  in  1607.  He  was  also 
employed  as  preceptor  to  Prince  Charles  Emanuel  of 
Savoy.  He  wrote  numerous  panegyrics  on  Louis  XIII. 
and  other  persons  of  distinction.    Died  in  1653. 

Jugleb,  yooG'lIp,  or  Jugler,  yooo'ler,  (Johann 
Friedrich,)  a  German  writer,  born  near  Naumburg  in 
1 718.  He  published  "Biographical  and  Critical  Notices 
of  Eminent  Jurists  and  Statesmen  of  Europe,"  (6  vols., 
1773-80,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1791. 

Ju-gur'tha,  [Gr.  'lovyovpdag  or  'loyopda^,]  an  African 
prince,  remarkable  for  his  crimes  and  tragical  death,  was 
a  natural  son  of  Manastabal.  He  was  brought  up  at  the 
court  of  his  uncle,  Micipsa,  King  of  Numidia,  and  at  an 
early  age  served  under  Scipio  yEmilianus  in  the  Roman 
army.  During  the  war  with  Numantia  he  gained  great 
distinction,  and  at  its  conclusion  was  highly  commended 
to  his  uncle  by  Scipio.  Micipsa  soon  after  created  him 
joint  heir  with  his  own  sons  Adherbal  and  Hiempsal. 
Upon  the  death  of  that  monarch,  Jugurtha  caused 
Hiempsal  to  be  murdered,  and  forced  Adherbal  to  seek 
protection  at  Rome.  Commissioners  were  sent  out  by 
the  Roman  senate  to  divide  the  kingdom  between  Ad- 
herbal and  Jugurtha;  but  the  latter,  having  bribed  them, 
received  the  largest  portion  of  the  territory,  and  was 
declared  to  be  innocent  of  the  murder  of  Hiempsal. 
Resolving,  however,  to  obtain  the  entire  kingdom,  he 
captured  Adherbal  in  the  city  of  Cirta,  while  he  was  yet 
under  the  protection  of  the  Roman  senate,  and  put  him 
to  death  with  the  greatest  cruelty.  War  was  imme- 
diately declared  against  him  by  the  Romans  ;  but  he 
succeeded  in  forming  an  advantageous  treaty  with  the 
consul  Calpurnius,  who  had  been  sent  to  reduce  him  to 
subjection.  The  senate  refused  to  ratify  this  treaty,  and 
summoned  Jugurtha  to  Rome  to  answer  the  charges 
brought  against  him.  He  obeyed  the  mandate;  but 
while  in  that  city  he  procured  the  assassination  of  his 
cousin  Massiva,  another  claimant  of  the  Numidian  crown. 
Upon  the  commission  of  this  outrage  he  was  commanded 
to  leave  Rome.  As  he  was  taking  his  last  view  of  the 
capital,  he  is  said  to  have  exclaimed,  "Mercenary  city, 
thou  waitest  only  for  a  purchaser  to  sell  thyself;  and 
thou  wilt  perish  if  one  is  found,"  After  his  return  to 
Numidia  he  defeated  a  Roman  army  under  Aulus  Post- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


JUIGNE 


1299 


JULIAN 


humius,  compelling  it  to  pass  under  the  yoke  and  to 
evacuate  the  country.  The  war  was  afterwards  con- 
tinued by  Metellus  ;  and,  though  Jugurtha  was  one  of 
the  ablest  commanders  of  that  age,  he  was  unable  to 
resist  the  Roman  general,  whose  skill  and  prudence  made 
him  ever  victorious  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  whose 
stern  integrity  rendered  him  invincible  to  the  golden 
offers  of  the  Numidian  usurper.  Jugurtha,  having  been 
twice  defeated  by  Marius,  the  successor  of  Metellus,  was 
delivered  to  his  enemies  by  the  treachery  of  his  ally, 
Bocchus,  King  of  Mauritania.  He  was  carried  in  chains 
to  Rome,  where  he  graced  the  triumph  of  Marius.  He 
was  then  thrown  into  the  Mamertine  prison.  His  death, 
which  occurred  six  days  later,  is  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  caused  by  starvation.  The  Jugurthine  war, 
which  was  terminated  B.C.  106,  is  the  subject  of  one  of 
the  histories  of  Sallust. 

See  Sai.lust,  "  Jugurtha  ;"  Plutarch,  "  Marius  ;"  Livy,  "  Epi- 
tome," books  Ixii.,  Ixiv.,  Ixvii.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Juigue,  de,dehzhu-^n'yi',(ANToiNEEL6oNOREL^:oN 
Leclerc,)  a  French  prelate,  born  in  Paris  in  1728,  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  persecution  of  the  Jansenists. 
In  1 781  he  became  Archbishop  of  Paris.    Died  in  181 1. 

See  Lambert,  "Vie  de  Messire  A.  ]S.  Leclerc  de  Juigne,"  1821. 

Juigne-Broissiniere,  de,  deh  zhii-^n'yi'  bRw^'se'- 
ne-aiR',  a  French  lawyer  and  compiler,  was  born  in 
Anjou,  and  lived  about' 1650.  His  principal  work  is  a 
"Theological,  Historical,  Poetical,  and  Cosmographical 
Dictionary,"  (1644.) 

Juillard  or  Juilhard.    See  Jarry. 

Jukes,  jiiks,  (Joseph  Beete,)  F.R.S.,  an  English 
geologist,  born  near  Birmingham  about  1812.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  '*  Popular  Physical  Geology," 
(1853-) 

Jules,  the  French  for  Jultus,  which  see. 

Ju'li-a,  [Fr.  Julie,  zhii'le',]  a  Roman  lady,  remarka- 
ble for  her  beauty  and  virtues,  was  the  daughter  of  Julius 
Caesar.  She  first  married  Cornelius  Caepio,  but,  by  her 
father's  command,  procured  a  divorce  and  became  the 
wife  of  Pompey  the  Great.  She  died  53  B.C.,  before  the 
dissensions  arose  between  her  father  and  her  husband. 

Julia,  only  daughter  of  Augustus  Caesar,  born  about 
39  B.C.,  was  distinguished  for  her  beauty,  accomplish- 
ments, and  disgraceful  intrigues.  She  was  married  to 
Marcellus,  upon  whose  death  she  became  the  wife  of 
Agrippa,  by  whom  she  was  the  mother  of  five  children. 
After  the  death  of  her  second  husband  she  was  given  in 
marriage  to  Tiberius,  who  divorced  her,  and  afterwards 
caused  her  to  be  poisoned,  14  a.d. 

Julia,  a  daughter  of  the  preceding,  born  about  18  B.C., 
was  married  to  L.  i^imilius  Paulus.  Her  character  is 
said  to  have  resembled  that  of  her  mother.  Some  writers 
identify  her  with  the  Corinna  of  Ovid.    Died  28  a.d. 

Julia,  a  daughter  of  Drusus  and  Livia,  born  about  5 
A.D.,  was  a  niece  of  Germanicus.  She  was  married  to 
Nero,  who  was  her  cousin -german. 

Julia,  daughter  of  Caesar  Germanicus,  was  born  1 7  a.d. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  she  was  married  to  a  Roman  sena- 
tor named  Vinucias.  She  was  soon  after  suspected  of 
conspiracy  and  banished  by  her  brother  Caligula,  but 
was  subsequently  recalled  by  Claudius.  She  was  put 
to  death  in  her  twenty-fourth  year,  at  the  instigation 
of  Messalina. 

Julia  de  Pontenelle,  zhii'le-t'  deh  f6N'teh-ngK, 
(Jean  S^bastien  Eugene,)  a  French  chemist,  born  at 
Narbonne  in  1790,  published  a  "Manual  for  Glass- 
makers,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1842. 

See  Henri  Julia  de  Fontenelle,  "  Notice  sur  M.  Julia  de  Fon- 
tenelle,"  1843. 

Ju'li-a  Dom'na,  wife  of  the  Roman  emperor  Septi- 
mius  Severus,  and  the  mother  of  Caracalla  and  Geta,  was 
born  in  Syria  about  170  a.d.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
]>assianus,  a  priest  of  the  sun.  After  the  death  of  Seve- 
rus she  endeavoured  to  heal  the  dissensions  between  her 
sons,  but  in  vain  ;  Geta  was  murdered  in  her  presence 
in  212,  by  his  brother's  orders.  During  the  remainder  of 
Caracalla's  reign  she  exerted  great  influence  in  the  affairs 
of  government.    Died  in  217. 

Julia  Mammaea.    See  Mamm/ea. 

Ju'li-an,  [Lat.  Julia'nus;  Fr.  Julten,  zhii'le^^N',] 
or,  more  fully,  Ju-ii-a'nus  Fla'vi-us  Clau'di-us,  sur- 


named  the  Apostate,  a  Roman  emperor,  was  born  in 
Constantinople  in  331  a.d.  He  was  the  son  of  Julius 
Constantius,  and  a  nephew  of  Constantine  the  Great. 
On  the  death  of  the  latter,  the  soldiers,  in  order  to 
secure  the  succession  of  his  sons,  massacred  all  the  other 
members  of  the  Flavian  family  except  Julian  and  his 
elder  brother  Gallus.  The  jealousy  of  the  emperor 
Constantius  afterwards  banished  the  brothers  to  Cap- 
padocia,  where  they  were  educated  in  the  principles  of 
the  Christian  religion  and  officiated  as  lecturers  in  the 
church  of  Nicomeclia.  In  351  Gallus  was  created  Caesar 
by  the  emperor,  and  Julian  was  permitted  to  return  to 
his  native  city,  but  in  a  short  time  was  again  exiled  to 
Nicomedia.  He  subsequently  embraced  the  philosophy 
of  the  Platonists,  and,  having  obtained  permission  to 
visit  Athens,  he  pursued  his  studies  in  that  city  and  was 
privately  initiated  in  the  mysteries  of  the  religion  of 
Greece.  After  the  execution  of  his  brother,  in  355,  he 
was  recalled  to  Constantinople  through  the  influence  of 
the  empress  Eusebia.  Constantius  created  him  Csesar, 
and  gave  him  command  of  the  armies  in  Gaul.  Julian 
also  received  in  marriage  Helena,  sister  of  the  emperor. 
He  made  four  successful  campaigns  against  the  Germans, 
who  had  overrun  Gaul,  expelled  them  from  that  country, 
took  captive  Chnodomarius,  their  most  powerful  king, 
invaded  Germany,  and  gained  a  high  distinction  for 
military  skill  and  personal  bravery.  Constantius, 
envious  of  the  fame  of  Julian,  and  wishing  to  destroy  his 
power,  commanded  him  to  send  his  best  troops  to 
the  East,  in  order  that  they  might  assist  in  the  Persian 
war.  The  soldiers,  who  had  become  greatly  attached  to 
Julian,  refused  to  obey,  and,  notwithstanding  his  remon- 
strances, proclaimed  him  Augustus.  It  is  even  stated 
that  they  threatened  him  with  death  if  he  refused  the 
purple.  He  then  sent  an  embassy  to  Constantius,  re- 
questing that  he  might  be  recognized  as  Augustus  in 
Gaul.  This  not  having  been  granted,  he  marched 
towards  Constantinople  ;  but  the  sudden  death  of  the 
emperor,  in  361,  enabled  Julian  to  ascend  the  imperial 
throne  unopposed.  Immediately  after  his  accession  he 
threw  off  the  hypocrisy  which  had  shielded  him  for 
so  long  a  time,  and,  renouncing  Christianity,  in  which 
probably  he  was  never  a  true  believer,  declared  his  faith 
in  the  divinities  of  Greece  and  Rome.  He  proclaimed 
liberty  of  conscience  to  all,  commanded  the  pagan  tem- 
ples to  be  reopened,  and  even  attempted  to  restore  Ju- 
daism by  rebuilding  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  He  was 
prevented  from  completing  this  project  by  remarkable 
eruptions  of  fire,  which  rendered  it  impossible  for  the 
workmen  tcw  continue  their  labours.  In  the  spring  of 
363  he  set  out  from  Antioch,  at  the  head  of  65,000  well- 
disciplined  troops,  on  his  contemplated  invasion  of  Per- 
sia. He  crossed  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  and  gained 
several  important  victories  over  the  Persians ;  but  the 
oppressive  heat  and  the  scarcity  of  provisions  compelled 
him  to  retreat,  and  in  June  of  the  same  year,  as  he  was 
bravely  repelling  an  attack  of  the  enemy,  a  javelin 
wounded  him  fatally  in  the  side.  He  died  the  following 
evening,  while  he  was  calmly  conversing  with  his  friends 
on  ])hilosophy.  Julian  was  the  author  of  an  account  of 
his  Gallic  and  German  wars,  which  has  been  lost,  "The 
Caesars,"  "Misopogon,"  a  satire  against  the  citizens 
of  Antioch,  whom  he  had  offended  by  his  philosophical 
austerity  and  his  slovenly  habits,  and  of  about  eighty 
letters  upon  various  subjects. 

See  August  Neander,  "  Ueber  Kaiser  Julian  und  sein  Zeital- 
ter,"  1812,  (translated  into  English  by  G.  V.  Cox,  1850;)  La  Blet- 
terie,  "Vie  de  TEmpereur  Julien,"  1735;  Jondot,  "  Histoire  de 
I'Empereur  Julien,"  2  vols.,  1817  ;  William  Warburton,  "Julian, 
or  a  Discourse  concerning  the  Earthquake  and  Fiery  Eruption  which 
defeated  that  Emperor's  Attempt  to  rebuild  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem," 
1750;  Abel  Desjardins,  "  fitude  sur  I'Empereur  Julien,"  1845  ;  J. 
KoRNER,  "  Kaiser  Julian  der  Abtriinnige,"  etc.,  1830  ;  Gibbon,  ''  His- 
tory of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Socrates, 
"  Historia  Ecclesiastica  ;"  Milman,  "  History  of  Christianity." 

Julian,  Hoo-le-in',  Count,  Governor  of  Andalusia 
under  the  Gothic  kings  of  Spain.  After  King  Roderick 
had  ravished  the  daughter  of  Julian,  the  latter  formed  a 
treaty  with  the  Moslems  for  the  invasion  of  Spain,  and 
rendered  them  efficient  service  at  the  battle  of  Xeres, 
where  Roderick  was  defeated  in  711  A.D. 

See  Murphy,  "History  of  the  Mahometan  Empire  in  Spain;" 
SouTHEY,  "Roderick,  the  Last  of  the  Goths." 


•e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


JULIAN 


1300 


JUNCKER 


Ju'li-an,  [Lat.  Julta'nus  ;  Fr.  Julien,  zhu'le-^N'; 
It.  GiULiANo,  joo-le-a'no,j  an  Italian  bis^hop,  distin- 
guished for  his  opposition  to  the  doctrines  of  Saint  Au- 
gustine, was  born  about  380,  and  studied  theology  under 
Pelagius,  In  416  Innocent  I.  raised  him  to  the  see  of 
Eclanum  ;  but  about  420  he  was  banished  from  Italy  on 
account  of  his  Pelagian  doctrinQS.  Having  been  con- 
demned by  several  councils,  he  settled  in  Sicily.  Died 
about  455. 

Julian,  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  a  saint  of  the 
Roman  calendar,  was  born  in  Spain,  of  Jewish  descent. 
He  was  raised  to  the  see  of  Toledo  in  680,  and  presided 
over  four  different  councils  held  in  that  city.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  work  on  death,  the  resurrection,  and  the 
final  judgment.    Died  in  690. 

Julian,  (Marcus  Aurelius,)  a  Roman  Governor  of 
Venetia,  who  in  285,  while  aspiring  to  the  imperial 
purple,  was  defeated  and  slain  near  Verona  by  Carinus. 

Julian  Cesarini.    See  Cksarini,  (Giuliano.) 

Ju-li-a'na,  a  woman  of  Portuguese  descent,  born  in 
Bengal  in  1658.  Having  gained  the  favour  of  Aurung- 
Zeb,  she  was  appointed  governess  to  his  son.  Shah  Alum, 
who  succeeded  to  the  crown  in  1707.  In  a  battle  between 
that  prince  and  his  brothers,  who  disputed  the  succession, 
she  rode  by  his  side  on  an  elephant  and  greatly  contrib- 
uted to  his  success.  Shah  Alum  raised  her  to  the  rank 
of  a  princess,  and  conferred  upon  her  many  other  honours. 

See  "Biographie  Universelle." 

Julianus.    See  Julian. 

Ju-li-a'nus  or  Julian,  (Salvtus,)  a  celebrated  Roman 
jurist,  and  great-grandfather  to  the  emperor  Didius,  was 
born  about  100  A.D.  He  was  twice  chosen  consul.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "Digesta,"  in  ninety  books, 
and  is  often  referred  to  by  writers  on  Roman  law. 
,    See  J.  G.  Heineccius,  "  Programma  de  S.  Juliano,"  1733. 

Julie.    See  Julia. 

Julien,  the  French  for  Julian,  which  see. 

Julien,  zhii'le-iN',  (Pierre,)  a  celebrated  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Saint-Paulien  in  1 731.  He  commenced 
his  studies  at  Lyons,  under  Perache,  whom  he  left  in 
1765  to  become  the  pupil  of  Coustou,  the  king's  sculp- 
tor, at  Paris.  In  1768  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  re- 
mained four  years,  to  perfect  himself  in  his  art.  In  1779 
his  statue  of  "  The  Dying  Warrior"  gained  his  admission 
to  the  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture  in  Paris. 
Died  in  1804.  Among  his  most  admirable  productions 
are  "La  Baigneuse,"  the  statues  of  La  Fontaine  and 
Poussin,  and  copies  of  Apollo  Belvedere  and  "The  Dying 
Gladiator,"  from  the  Italian.  ^ 

See  J.  Lebreton,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages 
de  P.  Julien,"  1805. 

Julien,  (Simon,)  or  Julien  of  Parma,  a  French  artist, 
born  at  Toulon  in  1736,  studied  in  Paris  under  Vanloo, 
resided  ten  years  at  Rome,  and  after  his  return  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Painting.  He  was 
called  Julien  the  Apostate,  because  he  abandoned 
the  French  style.    Died  in  1800. 

Julien,  (Stanislas,)  an  eminent  French  Orientalist, 
born  at  Orleans  in  1799.  He  studied  under  Abel  Re- 
musat,  and  devoted  himself  particularly  to  the  Chinese 
language.  He  succeeded  Abel  Remusat  as  professor  of 
Chinese  in  1832,  and  afterwards  became  administrator,  in 
the  College  of  France.  He  made  translations  from  Meng- 
tseu  (Mencius)  and  other  Chinese  authors,  and  pub- 
lished "  Practical  Exercises  of  Chinese  Syntax  and  Lexi- 
cography," (1842.)  Julien  enjoys  the  reputation  of  one 
of  the  first  Chinese  scholars  of  his  time.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  of  the  prin- 
cipal learned  societies  of  Europe.  Among  his  works  is  one 
of  great  interest,  "Voyages  des  Pelerins  Bouddhistes," 
(3  vols.,  1853-58,)  translated  from  the  Chinese. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Julio  Romano.    See  Giulio  Romano. 

Julius  [Fr.  Jules,  zhiil  ;  It.  Giulio,  joo'le-o]  I.,'a 
Roman  by  birth,  succeeded  Marcus  in  the  papal  see  in 
336.  In  340  he  convoked  a  council  at  Rome  to  settle 
the  dispute  between  Athanasius,  the  orthodox  Bishop 
of  Alexandria,  and  the  Arians,  who  had  expelled  him 
from  his  office.  Athanasius  appeared  ;  but  his  enemies 
called  at  Antioch  a  council  which  condemned  him. 


Julius,  finding  his  interpositions  to  be  in  vain,  sum- 
moned the  General  Council  of  Sardica,  which  restored 
the  bishop  to  his  see  and  introduced  the  custom  of 
appealing  to  the  pope  in  all  ecclesiastical  disputes.  Died 
in  352  A.D. 

Julius  II.,  (Cardinal  Giuliano  della  Rovere — 

deKia  ro-va'ri,)  born  in  1441,  was  elected  to  the  see  of 
Rome  upon  the  death  of  Pius  III.,  in  1503.  Haughty 
and  warlike  in  his  disposition,  he  immediately  turned  his 
ambition  to  the  aggrandizement  of  the  papal  authority. 
He  drove  Caesar  Borgia  from  the  Romagna,  and  attempted 
to  expel  the  Venetians  from  Ravenna,  Rimini,  and  other 
parts  of  his  dominions.  Failing  in  this,  he  formed  the 
League  of  Cambrai  with  the  King  of  France,  the  Emperor 
of  Germany,  and  the  Duke  of  P'errara,  for  the  destruction 
of  the  Venetian  republic.  Julius,  soon  discovering,  how- 
ever, that  he  had  more  to  fear  from  the  French  than 
from  the  Venetians,  made  a  treaty  with  the  latter  in 
1 5 10,  and  took  the  field  in  person  against  the  French, 
over  whom  he  gained  some  slight  advantages.  In  15 12 
he  allied  himself  with  the  English,  Spaniards,  vSwiss, 
and  Venetians,  and  finally  succeeded  in  expelling  the 
French  from  Italy.  But  liftle  was  gained  by  this  success  ; 
for  the  vSwiss  and  Spaniards  gave  him  as  much  trouble 
as  the  French  had  previously  done.  He  died  before 
these  new  difficulties  were  adjusted,  in  1513.  Julius 
displayed  a  great  taste  for  the  fine  arts.  He  was  the 
first  to  commence  Saint  Peter's  Cathedral  at  Rome,  and 
was  the  patron  of  Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  and  other 
men  of  distinction.    I^eo  X.  was  his  successor. 

See  Ranke,  "History  of  the  Popes;"  Bruys,  "  Histoire  des 
Papes,"  1732;  "LaViedu  Pape  Jules  11,"  (anonymous,)  Paris,  1515. 

Julius  III.,  (Cardinal  Giocci — ^jot'chee,)  born  in  1487 
at  Arezzo,  succeeded  Paul  III.  in  February,  1550.  His 
pontificate  was  marked  by  quarrels  with  the  King  of 
France,  the  Venetians,  and  other  powers.    Died  in  1555. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  soiiverains  Pontifes." 

Jullian,  zhii'le-dN',  (Pierre  Louis  Pascal,)  a  French 
historical  writer  and  politician,  born  at  Montpellier  about 
1769.  He  wrote  "Fragments  historiques,"  (1804,)  and 
"Souvenirs  de  ma  Vie,"  (1808.)    Died  about  1836. 

JuUien,  zhu^le4.N',  (Andre,)  a  writer  upon  the  culture 
of  the  vine,  born  at  Chalons-sur-Saone,  in  France,  in 
1766  ;  died  in  1832. 

Jullien,  (Louis,)  a  popular  French  composer  of  music 
and  director  of  concerts,  was  born  in  1812.  He  com- 
posed music  for  balls,  operas,  etc.,  and  performed  in 
Paris  and  London.    Died  in  i860, 

Jullien,  (Marcel  Bernard,)  a  French  grammarian 
and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1798. 

Jullien  de  la  Drdme,  zhU'le-^N'  deh  It  dRom,  (Marc 
Antoine,)  a  French  Jacobin,  distinguished  for  his  vio- 
lence, was  born  in  Dauphine  in  1744;  died  in  1821. 

Jullien  de  Paris,  zhii'le-^N'  deh  pt're',  (Marc  An- 
toine,) a  politician  and  journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1775, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  During  the  Revolution  he 
was  a  Jacobin.  He  published  several  works  on  politics, 
education,  etc.,  and  founded  in  1818  the  "Revue  Ency- 
clopedique."    Died  in  1848. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire';"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale  ;"  Boileau  d'Auxy,  "  Biographie  de  M.  J.  de  Paris,"  1842. 

Julus.    See  luLUS. 

Jumel,  zhii'm^K,  (Jean  Charles,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic and  writer,  born  in  Paris  ;  died  in  1824. 

Jumelin,  zhiim'liN',  (Jean  Baptiste, )  a  French 
savant,  physician,  and  writer,  born  in  1745,  visited  Greece, 
where  he  directed  his  attention  to  the  botany  as  well  as 
to  the  antiquities  of  that  country.    Died  in  1807. 

Jumilhac,  de,  deh  zhii'me'^ltk',  (Antoine  Pierre 
Joseph  Chapelle,)  Marquis,  a  French  royalist,  dis- 
tinguished as  a  cavalry  officer,  was  born  in  1764.  In 
1 791  Louis  XVI.  appointed  him  lieutenant-colonel  of 
his  guard.    He  served  under  Napoleon.    Died  in  1826. 

Jumlah.    See  Jemlah. 

Jumonville,  de,  deh  zhli'mAN'v^l',  (Coulon,)  a 
French  officer,  born  about  1725,  signalized  his  bravery 
in  the  Canadian  wars.  He  is  said  to  have  been  treache- 
rously killed  in  1753  the  English,  to  whom  he  was 
bearing  a  message. 

Juncker,  ydonk'ker,  (Christian,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist and  historian,  was  born  at  Dresden  in  1668.  He 


a,  e,  T,  0,  \x,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fllll,  f^lt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


JUNCKER 


JUNIUS 


published  several  works  on  German  history,  and  a  "  Life 
of  Luther,"  {1699.)    Died  at  Altenburg  in  1714. 

See  ScHADEN,  "  Ehrengedachtniss  Junckers,"  1714;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Gellius,  "  Epistola  ad  J. 
A.  Fabricium  de  C.  Jimckero,"  1714- 

Juncker  or  Junker,  (Gottlob  Johann,)  a  German 
physician,  born  near  Giessen  in  1680.  He  became  [)ro- 
fessor  of  medicine  at  Halle  in  1729,  and  maintained  the 
doctrines  of  Stahl.  He  wrote  numerous  medical  works. 
Died  at  Halle  in  1759. 

Juucosa,  Hoon-ko'si,  (Fra  Joaquin,)  a  skilful  Span- 
ish painter,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Tarragona  in  163 1  ; 
died  near  Rome  in  1708. 

Junc-ti'nus,  the  Latin  name  of  Francesco  Giuntini, 
an  Italian  astrologer  and  monk,  born  at  Florence  in  1522. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  astrology,  etc.  Died  in  1590. 

Jung,  yoong,  or  Junge,  ydong'eh,  [Lat.  Jung'ius,] 
(Joachim,)  a  German  physician  and  botanist,  born  at 
Lubeck  in  1587,  became  successively  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Giessen  and  Rostock.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
able  opponents  of  the  scholastic  philosophy,  and  for  his 
acuteness  was  compared  by  Leibnitz  to  Copernicus  and 
Galileo.  He  also,  it  is  said,  first  suggested,  in  his  "  Isa- 
goge  Phytoscopica,"  (1678,)  the  classification  of  plants 
afterwards  developed  by  Linnaeus.  He  was  rector  of  a 
school  at  Hamburg  from  1629  until  his  death.  Died  at 
Hamburg  in  1657. 

See  Martin  Vogel,  "  Historia  Vitae  et  Mortis  J.  Jungii,"  1657; 
GuHRAUKR,  "J.  Jungius  und  sein  Zeitalter,"  1850;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Gen^rale." 

Jung,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  commonly  known  by  the 
pseudonym  of  Stilling,  an  original  German  writer, 
born  at  Im-Grund,  in  the  duchy  of  Nassau,  in  1740. 
While  studying  medicine  at  Strasburg,  he  formed  an 
intimacy  with  Goethe,  who  has  given  an  interesting  ac- 
count of  him  in  his  Autobiography.  Li  1804  he  became 
professor  of  political  economy  at  Heidelberg.  He  pub- 
lished in  1777  "Henry  Stilling's  Youth,  Early  Years,  and 
Wanderings,"  which  was  followed  soon  after  by  "Henry 
Stilling's  Domestic  Life."  Among  his  fictitious  writings 
we  may  cite  "Theobald,  or  the  Enthusiast,"  "The  Chris- 
tian Philanthropist,"  and  "  Scenes  from  the  Spirit-Land." 
Stilling  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  great  earnestness 
as  well  as  simplicity  of  character,  with  a  strong  tendency 
to  religious  enthusiasm  and  mysticism.    Died  in  181 7. 

See  J.  H.  Jung,  "  H.  Stilling's  Jugend,  Jiinglingsjahre,  Wan- 
deiscliaft  und  bausliches  Leben,"  3  vols.,  1777-79:  enlarged  under 
the  title  of  "  Lebensbeschreibung  J.  H.  Jungs,"  5  vols.,  1806; 
ScHWARZ,  "  Jung-Slillings  Alier,"  1817  ;  John  Wright,  "  Life  of 
H.  Stilling,"  abridged  by  Samuel  Jackson,  1847;  "  Foreign  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  July,  1838. 

Jung-Bahadoor,  (or  -Bahadur, Idling  (or  jiing)  ba- 
hS'ddor,  (i.e.  "brave  in  war,")  [from  the  Hindostanee 
pmg,  "  battle,"  "  war,"  ?i\\d  hahddtir  or  bahadoor,  "  brave,"] 
the  naine,  or  rather  surname,  of  several  Indian  princes, 
among  whom  the  recent  minister  of  Nepaul  and  virtual 
sovereign  of  that  country  deserves  particular  mention. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  Nepaulese  general,  was  born  about 
181 5,  and  by  his  unscrupulous  audacity,  combined  with 
rare  talents  for  intrigue,  he  soon  raised  himself  to  the 
highest  position  in  the  state.  About  1850  he  visited 
England  as  ambassador,  and  while  in  that  country  was 
the  object  of  much  attention.  In  1857  he  offered  the 
English  government  his  co-operation  in  suppressing  the 
mutiny  of  the  Sepoys,  and,  with  about  9000  Goorkhas, 
(a  race  of  Tartar  origin,)  took  part  in  the  capture  of 
Lucknow,  for  which,  and  other  services,  he  received  from 
Queen  Victoria  the  grand  cross  of  the  order  of  the  Bath. 

Junger,  ydong'er,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German 
litterateur,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1759.  He  was  the  author 
of  numerous  popular  romances  and  dramatic  works. 
Among  his  novels  are  "  Yetter  Jakobs  Launen,"  (6  vols., 
1786-92,)  and  "  Der  Schein  triigt,"  (1787.)  Died  in  1797. 

Jungermann,  yd6ng'er-m§.n',(GoTTFRiED,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Leipsic.  He  published  "  Longi  Pas- 
toralia  Graece  cutn  Latina  Versione,"  (1605,)  and  other 
classical  works.    Died  in  1610. 

Jungermann,  (Ludwig,)  a  botanist,  born  at  Leipsic 
in  1572,  was  a  brother  of  the  ]:)receding.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  botany  at  Altdorf.    Died  in  1653. 

Junghuhn,  yoong'hoon,  (Fkanz  Wii.helm,)  a  Prus- 
sian naturalist,  born  at  Mansfeld  in  1812.    He  was  em- 


ployed as  army  physician  or  officer  of  health  in  India, 
and  explored  the  island  of  Java.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  an  account  of  the  topography,  botany,  and 
geology  of  Java,  ("Java,  seine  Gestalt,  Pflanzendecke 
und  innere  Bauart,"  3  vols.,  1852,)  which  is  esteemed 
the  best  work  on  that  subject. 
Jungius.    See  Jung. 

Jungmann,  ydong'min,  (Joseph  Jakob,)  a  learned 
Slavonian  philologist,  born  at  Hudlitz,  in  Bohemia,  in 
1773.  He  was  appointed  in  1815  professor  of  languages 
and  rhetoric  at  the  Gymnasium  of  Prague,  where  he  was 
afterwards  prefect.  Ilis  greatest  work  is  a  "  Bohemian- 
German  Dictionary,"  (5  vols.,  1835,)  which  gives  evi- 
dence of  immense  learning  and  industry.  He  also  wrote 
a  "  History  of  the  Bohemian  Language  and  Literature," 
(1825,)  and  a  "Bohemian  Chrestomathy."  He  wrote 
other  works,  in  prose  and  verse,  and  inade  a  number  of 
translations  from  eminent  English  and  French  writers. 
Jungmann  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  zealous  and 
efficient  promoters  of  Slavonian  literature.    Died  in  1 847. 

See  L.  Crlakovsky,  "Dodavky  ke  Slovniku  J.  Jungmanna," 
1850;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1828. 

Ju-nil'i-us,  a  bishop  who  flourished  in  Africa  about 
550  A.D.  He  wrote  a  Latin  work  "On  Parts  of  the 
Divine  Law,"  which  was  printed  at  Bale  in  1545. 

Ju'ni-us,  the  assumed  name  of  a  political  writer  who 
in  January,  1 769,  began  to  issue,  in  London,  a  series 
of  famous  letters,  which  first  appeared  in  Woodfall's 
"  Public  Advertiser."  Junius  opposed  the  ministry  then 
in  power,  and  denounced  several  eminent  persons  with 
great  severity  of  invective  and  pungency  of  sarcasm. 
His  style  is  eminently  pure,  terse,  and  vigorous.  These 
letters  had  a  great  popularity,  and  powerfully  promoted 
the  cause  of  civil  liberty.  "  The  myrmidons  of  the  court," 
said  Burke,  in  the  House  of  Commons,  "have  been  long, 
and  are  still,  pursuing  him  in  vain.  They  will  not  spend 
their  time  upon  me,  or  you,  or  you.  No :  they  disdain 
such  vermin  when  the  mighty  boar  of  the  forest,  that 
has  broken  through  all  their  toils,  is  before  them.  .  .  . 
Kings,  Lords,  and  Commons  are  but  the  sport  of  his 
fury.  Were  he  a  member  of  this  House,  what  might 
not  be  expected  from  his  knowledge,  his  firmness  and 
integrity !"  Among  the  numerous  persons  to  whom 
these  letters  have  been  attributed  were  Sir  Philip  Fran- 
cis, Lord  Chatham,  Edmund  Burke,  Henry  Grattan, 
Colonel  Barre,  Gibbon  the  historian,  John  Home  Tooke, 
Horace  Walpole,  John  Wilkes,  and  Wedderburn,  (after- 
wards Lord  Loughborough.)  The  publication  of  the 
Letters  of  Junius  continued  until  January,  1772.  In 
his  dedication  to  the  people  of  England,  he  said,  "I  am 
the  sole  depositary  of  my  own  secret,  and  it  shall  perish 
with  me." 

A  multitude  of  books  and  essays  have  been  written  in 
the  attempt  to  solve  this  mystery.  But  all  the  eff'orts 
in  that  direction  seemed  for  a  long  time  to  be  wholly 
unsuccessful  ;  so  much  so  that  a  very  able  lawyer  and 
antiquary,  Sir  N.  H.  Nicolas,  writing  in  1843,  declared 
his  conviction  that  all  the  Junius-seekers  had  completely 
failed  in  their  undertaking.  Macaulay,  however,  in  his 
essay  on  Warren  Hastings,  (1841,)  says  that  "the  evi- 
dence [against  Sir  P.  Francis]  would  support  a  verdict 
in  a  civil — nay,  in  a  criminal — proceeding."  At  the 
])resent  time  (1870)  the  question  appears  to  be  no  longer 
doubtful.  A  great  number  of  circumstances  (some  of 
which  have  only  very  lately  come  to  light)  seem  to  point 
with  unerring  certainty  to  Sir  Philip  Francis  as  the  true 
Junius.  Among  the  various  incidental  proofs  bearing  on 
this  question,  one  of  the  most  curious  and  decisive  is 
given  in  "  Lippincott's  Magazine"  for  January,  1870,  p.  1 18. 

See  John  Taylor,  "The  Identity  of  Junius  with  a  Distinguished 
Living  Character  Established,"  1816;  John  Mason  Good,  "Essay 
on  Junius  and  his  Writings ;"  Macaulay,  review  of  Gleig's  "Lite 
of  Warren  Hastings;"  Lord  Brougham,  article  in  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  November,  1817,  (vol.  xxix.  ;)  "London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  December,  1851 ;  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Ju'ni-us,  (Francis,)  [Fr.  Francois  du  Jon,  fr6N'- 
sw^'  dii  zh^N.I  a  learned  Protestant  theologian,  was  born 
at  Bourges,  in  France,  May  i,  1545.  He  studied  at  Lyons 
and  Geneva,  and  was  appointed  pastor  of  a  Walloon 
church  in  Antwerp  in  1565,  but  at  length  was  com- 
pelled to  fly  to  Germany  to  escape  the  tortures  of  the 
Inquisition.    In  1568  he  became  chaplain  to  the  army 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  K,  ^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (JJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JUNIUS 


1302 


JUPITER 


of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  Five  years  later,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Elector-Palatine,  he  went  to  Heidelberg, 
where,  with  the  assistance  of  Tremellius,  he  translated 
the  Old  Testament  into  Latin,  (1575-79.)  This  work, 
which  established  his  reputation,  is  known  as  the  version 
of  Junius  and  Tremellius.  He  afterwards  filled  succes- 
sively the  chairs  of  theology  at  Neustadt,  Heidelberg, 
and  Leyden.  He  wrote  iiumerous  works  on  divinity  and 
the  classics.    Died  at  Teyden  in  October,  1602. 

See  "Vita  F.  Juiiii  Hiturigensis  ab  ipsomet  consciipta,"  1595: 
Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron,  "  Me- 
moires;"  F.  Gomar,  "Oratio  funebris  in  Obitum  F.  Junii,"  1602. 

Junius,  (Francis  or  Franciscus,)  an  eminent  phi- 
lologist, son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Heidelberg 
in  1589,  and  was  educated  at  Leyden.  He  passed  over 
to  England  about  1620,  and  became  librarian  to  Thomas 
Howard,  Earl  of  Arundel,  with  whom  he  remained  thirty 
years.  He  devoted  his  attention  chiefly  to  the  study  of 
the  Teutonic  languages.  He  published  a  rare  and  valu- 
able work, — a  translation  of  the  Gospels  into  the  ancient 
Gothic,  (made  by  Bishop  Ulphilas  about  360  a.d.,)  with 
a  Commentary,  (1665.)  Junius  was  the  author  of  a  work 
"On  the  Painting  of  the  Ancients,"  ("De  Pictura 
Veterum,"  1637,)  and  of  an  Etymological  Dictionary, 
("  Etymologicum  Anglicanum,"  1743,)  in  which  he  ex- 
plains the  derivation  and  origin  of  numerous  English 
words.  He  left  his  choice  collection  of  manuscripts  to 
the  University  of  Oxford.    Died  at  Windsor  in  1677. 

See  Gr^vius,  "  Life  of  Francis  Junius,"  in  the  2d  edition  of  his 
"De  Pictura  Veterum,"  1694;  Bayi.e,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dic- 
tionary;" NiCEKON,  "Menioires;"  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Junius,  de,  deh  yoo'ne-us,  or  Jonghe,  yong'eh, 
(Adriaan,)  a  learned  Dutch  physician,  was  born  at 
Hoorn,  in  Friesland,  in  15 12.  He  went  to  England 
near  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VHP,  and  became 
physician  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  After  the  accession 
of  Edward  VL  he  published  a  Greek-and-Latin  Lexi- 
con, which  he  dedicated  to  that  sovereign.  For  this  he 
was  severely  censured  by  the  Roman  pontiff.  He  wrote 
in  honour  of  the  marriage  of  Queen  Mary  with  Philip 
of  Spain  a  Latin  poem  entitled  "  Philippeis."  About 
1564  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  King  of  Den- 
mark. Died  at  Middelburg  in  1575.  As  a  philologist 
and  linguist  his  contemporaries  regarded  him  as  second 
only  to  Erasmus.  In  addition  to  the  works  previously 
mentioned  are  his  "Nomenclature  of  All  Things,"  a 
vocabulary  in  seven  different  languages,  several  Latin 
poems  and  epistles,  and  various  commentaries  on  the 
writings  of  the  ancient  authors. 

See  p.  ScHELTEMA,  "Diatribe in  H.  Junii  Vitam  Ingenium  et  Merita 
literaria,"  1836. 

Junker,  yoonk'er,  or  Juniker,  yoo'ne-ker,  (Gf.org 
Adam,)  a  teacher  and  translator,  born  at  Hanau  about 
1720.  He  translated  numerous  German  dramas,  etc. 
into  French.    Died  in  1805. 

Ju'no,  [Fr.  Junon,  zhii^nAN' ;  It.  Giunone,  joo-no'- 
ni,]  a  goddess  of  the  Roman  mythology,  called  the  queen 
of  heaven  and  the  wife  of  Jupiter,  corresponding  to  the 
Greek  Hera,  ("Hpa  or  "Hp??.)  She  was  regarded  as  the 
protecting  deity  of  the  female  sex,  and  as  the  patroness 
of  marriage  and  maternity.  She  wassurnamed  Matrona 
and  Regina,  and  was  worshi])ped  by  the  Roman  women 
at  an  annual  festival  called  Matronalia.  As  the  patroness 
of  marriage,  she  was  called  Pronuba,  Gamelia,  Jugalis  or 
Juga,  and  various  other  names.  Her  aid  was  implored 
by  women  in  childbirth  under  the  name  of  LuciNA,  (which 
see.)  She  is  usually  represented  as  a  majestic  woman, 
crowned,  with  her  favourite  bird,  the  peacock,  near  her. 
The  name  Juno  is  in  all  probability  related  etymologically 
to  the  Sanscrit  word  Yont*  signifying  "matrix,"  and 
hence  denoting  maternity  and  femineity. 

See  Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biogvs.pliy  and 
Mythology;"  Keightley,  "Mythology,"  article  "Hera;"  Gui- 
GNiAUT,  "Religions  de  I'Antiquite,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  ii. 

Junon.    See  Juno. 

^  *  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remind  the  etymologist  how  nearly  u  is 

related  to  o:  m  Arabic  and  Peisian  they  have  but  a  single  letter  to 
represent  both;  in  Norwegian  and  Swedish  there  is  but  little  differ- 
ence in  the  pronunciation  of  the  two  vowels,  o  being  pronounced  pre- 
cisely like  the  Italian  or  German  y  {i.e.,  z  consonant)  in  the  Latin 
(as  it  does  in  many  of  the  modern  languages')  corresponded  to  our 
v.  The  terminal  o  in  Juno  is  merely  the  feminine  termination  so 
common  in  Greek  and  Latin  proper  names. 


Junot,  zhii^no',  (Andoche,)  Due  d'Abrantes,  a  distin- 
guished French  general,  was  born  near  Semur  in  1771. 
At  the  age  of  twenty  he  enlisted  as  a  common  soldier, 
but,  on  account  of  his  uncommon  bravery,  was  soon  made 
lieutenant.  While  serving  at  the  siege  of  Toulon,  he 
gained  the  approbation  of  Bonaparte,  who  made  him  his 
first  aide-de-camp,  with  the  rank  of  captain.  He  ac- 
companied that  general  on  his  Italian  campaigns,  and 
fought  with  his  accustomed  bravery  at  the  battles  of  Lodi, 
Areola,  Castiglione,  and  Lonato.  During  the  invasion  of 
Egypt  and  Syria  he  became  the  favourite  of  Bonaparte, 
and  gained  great  distinction  at  the  battle  of  Nazareth, 
where,  with  three  hundred  horseinen,  he  attacked  and 
held  in  check  a  body  of  three  thousand  Moslems.  After 
his  return  to  France  he  rendered  efficient  service  to 
Bonaparte  in  the  subversion  of  the  Directory.  In  1800 
he  was  appointed  commandant  of  Paris,  and  afterwards 
governor  of  that  city  and  colonel-general  of  hussars. 
He  also  received  the  decoration  of  the  grand  eagle  of 
the  legion  of  honour,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Portugal.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  in 
1805.  In  1807  he  commanded  an  army  which  invaded 
Portugal  and  took  Lisbon.  He  was  soon  afterwards 
created  Due  d'Abrantes.  In  August,  1808,  he  was 
defeated  by  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  at  Vimiera,  and  com- 
pelled to  evacuate  Portugal.  The  emj^eror  then  deprived 
him  of  the  governorship  of  Paris,  but  appointed  him 
Captain-General  and  Governor  of  the  Illyrian  provinces. 
His  misfortunes  and  disgrace  shortly  after  affected  his 
mind  so  deeply  that  he  was  obliged  to  retire  from  public 
life.    He  died  at  Montpellier  in  July,  1813. 

See  Madame  d'Abrantes,  "  Memoires;"  Thiers,  "  Histoire  du 
Consulatet  de  I'Empire  ;"  Napoleon,  "  Correspondance  ;"  Alison, 
"History  of  Europe;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Junot,(LAURE  Permon,)Madame,  Duchesse  d'Abran- 
tes, was  born  in  Montpellier  in  1784,  and  was  married 
to  General  Junot  about  1800.  Her  family  was  related  to 
that  of  Bonaparte,  to  whom  her  mother  had  shown  great 
kindness  before  he  became  a  general.  At  her  marriage 
Mademoiselle  Permon  received  from  the  First  Consul 
one  hundred  thousand  francs  as  a  marriage-portion. 
In  1806  she  accompanied  her  husband  to  Lisbon,  and 
in  1807  became  Duchesse  d'Abrantes.  On  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Bourbons  she  was  kindly  received  by  Louis 
XVIII.  She  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Memoirs  or 
Historical  Souvenirs  of  Napoleon,  the  Revolution,  the 
Directory,  etc.,"  (18  vols.,  1831-34.)    Died  in  1838. 

See  A.  D.  Roosmai.en,  "  Les  deniiers  Moments  de  la  Duchesse 
d'Abrantes,"  Paris,  1S3S;  Ignazio  Cantu,  "  Relazione  della  Du- 
chessa  d'Abrantes,"  1837;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

"  Junquieres,  de'fdeh  zhuN^ke-aiR',  (Jean  Baptiste,) 
a  French  poet  and  officer,  born  at  Paris  in  1713;  died 
in  1786. 

Junta  or  Junte,  (Filippo.)    See  Giunta. 

Junta,  (Tommaso,)  a  Venetiaii  physician,  flourished 
about  1550.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Battles  of 
the  Ancients,"  which  displays  considerable  erudition. 

Junte.    See  Giunta. 

Junterbuck,  yoon'ter-bdok',  (James,)  a  Polish  writer, 
and  professor  of  theology  at  Erfiu't,  was  born  about  1385  ; 
died  in  1465.  He  wrote  various  works,  among  which  is 
a  "Tract  on  Mental  Apparitions." 

Ju'pi-ter  or  Jup''pi-ter,  [Fr.  pron.  zhli'pe'taiR' ;  It. 
Giove,  jo''vi,  whence  the  English  JovE,*j  the  supreme 
deity  of  the  Roman  mythology,  corresponding  to  the 
Greek  Zeus,  and  represented  as  the  eldest  son  of  Saturn 
and  Rhea.  He  was  the  greatest  of  all  the  gods  of  the 
classic  mythology,  and  was  supposed  to  control  all  earthly 
and  human  affairs  and  to  foresee  futurity.  The  Romans 
ascribed  to  him  power  over  all  changes  in  the  sky,  and 
the  phenomena  of  rain  and  lightning,  and  hence  applied 
to  him  the  epithets  of  "  Pluvius,"  ("  rainy,"  or  "  raining,") 
"Tonans,"  ("thundering,")"  Fulminator,"  ("thunderer,") 
etc.  As  presiding  over  marriage,  he  is  sometimes  called 
Gamelius;  and  as  the  protector  of  the  rights  of  hospi- 
tality, he  was  invoked  as  Jupiter  Hospitalis.  He  was 
sometimes  called  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  because  his  tem- 


*  Or,  to  speak  more  accurately,  both  the  Italian  and  English  are 
derived  from  Jovis,  the  Latin  genitive  case  of  Jupiter.  The  German, 
Spanisli,  and  Portuguese  names  for  Jupiter,  in  spelling  and  accen- 
tuation, are  the  same  as  the  Latin. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  it,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fir,  fUll,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t:  good;  moon ; 


JUPPIN 


1303 


JUSSIEU 


pie  at  Rome  stood  on  the  Capitol.  He  was  the  father 
of  Apollo,  Mars,  Mercury,  Minerva,  Venus,  etc.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Greek  mythology,  he  kept  his  court  on 
Olympus.  His  most  famous  Greek  temple  was  at 
Olympia,  in  Elis.  He  is  usually  represented  as  seated 
on  a  throne,  with  a  thunderbolt  in  his  right  hand,  in  his 
left  a  sceptre,  and  near  him  his  favourite  bird  the  eagle. 
The  name  Jupiter  (who  was  also  called  Diespiter)  is 
probably  a  corruption  of  Diu-pater,  (or  Diovis  pater,) 
("father  of  the  heavens,"  or  "heavenly  father.")  Dmm, 
Dtvti??i,  and  Dies  originally  signified  the  same, — viz.,  the 
"sky,"  or  "heaven."  Others  derive  it  from  the  Greek 
Zeus  Pater  or  Zeu  Faier,  (i.e.  "  father  Zeus.")  Respect- 
ing the  probable  identity  between  Jupiter  (or  Zeus)  and 
the  Hindoo  god  Siva,  see  Siva. 

See  Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and 
Mythology;"  Guigniaut,  "Religions  de  I'Antiquite,"  vol.  ii.  chap, 
i. ;  Keightley,  "Mythology." 

Juppin,  zhii'piN',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Flemish  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Naniur  in  1678.  He  studied  in 
Brussels,  and  afterwards  visited  Italy.  Among  his  works 
is  the  "  Crater  of  Vesuvius."    Died  in  1729. 

Juret,  zhii'ri',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  critic  and  poet, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1553,  became  canon  of  Langres.  He 
published  "  Senecse  ad  Lucilium  Epistolarum  Liber," 
(1602,)  and  "  Panegyrici  Veteres  cum  Notis,"  (2  vols., 
1652.)    Died  in  1626. 

Jurieu,  zhii're-uh',  (Pierre,)  a  learned  French  theo- 
logian and  controversialist,  was  born  at  Mer,  in  Orleanais, 
in  1637.  He  became  pastor  of  a  Protestant  congregation 
in  Mer  after  he  had  studied  at  Saumur  and  vSedan.  He 
was  subsequently  appointed  professor  of  theology  and 
Hebrew  at  Sedan.  On  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes,  in  1685,  he  retired  to  Rotterdam,  where  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology.  He  wrote  numerous 
religious  works,  among  which  are  a  "  History  of  Cal- 
vinism and  Popery  compared,"  (1682,)  and  a  "Critical 
History  of  Doctrine  and  Worship,  Good  and  Bad," 
(1704,)  both  in  French.    Died  in  1713. 

See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Ju'rin,  (James,)  an  English  physician  and  philosopher, 
was  born  in  1684,  and  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society,  of  which 
he  became  secretary,  and  was  chosen  president  of  the 
College  of  Physicians.  He  wrote  several  treatises  on 
philosophy  and  physiology.    Died  in  1750. 

Jurine,  zhii'r^n',  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  physician  and  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Geneva  in  1 751,  resided  in  Paris.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise  on  ascertaining  the 
salubrity  of  the  atmosphere.    Died  in  1819. 

Jussieu,  jus-su',de,  [French  pron.  deh  zhii'se-uh',] 
(Adrien,)  a  celebrated  French  botanist,  son  of  Antoine 
Laurent,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris,  December  23, 
1797.  He  gained  the  first  prize  at  the  competition  of 
1814,  and  applied  him^lf  to  the  study  of  natural  history 
and  medicine.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  professor  of 
rural  botany  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  in  1826, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  Listitute  in  1831.  ?Ie  published 
a  series  of  memoirs  and  monographs  which  have  placed 
him  in  the  first  rank  of  botanists.  Among  his  best  works 
are  a  "  Monograph  of  the  Malpighiaceae,"  (1843,)  and 
an  "Elementary  Course  of  Botany,"  which  has  been 
translated  into  all  the  languages  of  Europe.  In  1845 
he  became  professor  of  vegetable  organography  to  the 
Faculte  des  Sciences.    Died  in  June,  1853. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Jus.sieu,  de,  (Alexis,)  a  French  journalist  and  ad- 
ministrator, born  in  1797,  was  a  nephew  of  the  great 
botanist  Antoine  Laurent.  He  was  prefect  of  Ain  and 
of  Vienne  in  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe. 

Jussieu,  de,  (Antoine,)  professor  of  botany  in  the 
Royal  Garden  of  Paris,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1686.  He 
travelled  in  France,  Spain,  and  Italy  for  the  purpose 
of  making  botanical  explorations,  succeeded  Tournefort 
as  professor  of  botany  in  1708,  and  was  the  author  of 
several  treatises  on  that  science.  He  published  a  new 
edition  of  Tournefort's  "  Institutions."    Died  in  1758. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Jussieu,  de,(  Antoine  Laurent,)  a  celebrated  French 
botanist,  born  at  Lyons  in  April,  1748,  was  the  most 


eminent  member  of  a  fainily  which  has  been  called  "the 
Botanical  Dynasty."  In  1765  he  went  to  Paris  to  study 
medicine,  and  became  the  protege  and  pupil  of  his  uncle, 
Bernard  de  Jussieu,  who  lectured  on  botany  in  the  Jar- 
din  du  Roi,  and  was  meditating  a  natural  method  of 
classification,  near  the  close  of  a  life  memorable  in  the 
records  of  botanical  science.  This  uncle,  whose  advanced 
age  and  dimness  of  sight  indisposed  him  to  the  labours 
of  authorship,  freely  communicated  his  mature  reflections 
to  young  Jussieu,  who  zealously  enlisted  in  the  important 
enterprise.  In  1770,  having  just  graduated  as  M.D.,  he 
was  appointed  demonstrator  of  botany  in  the  Jardin  du 
Roi,  as  the  substitute  of  Lemonnier,  chief  physician  to 
the  king.  His  first  production  was  an  excellent  mono- 
graph on  the  "  Ranunculacese,"  (1774,)  which  opened  to 
him  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  determined  him  to 
apply  himself  almost  exclusively  to  botany. 

In  1774  the  arrangement  of  the  plants  in  the  Royal 
Garden,  which  was  conformed  to  the  system  of  Tourne- 
fort, was  exchanged  for  one  proposed  by  Jussieu,  founded 
on  natural  affinities.  While  performing  his  duties  as 
professor,  he  continued  to  digest  and  perfect  his  new 
system,  until  1788,  when  he  developed  the  same  in  his 
great  Latin  work,  "  Genera  Plantarum  secundum  Ordines 
naturales  disposita,"  "which,"  says  Cuvier,  "forms  in 
the  sciences  of  observation  an  epoch  perhaps  as  im- 
portant as  the  '  Chemistry'  of  Lavoisier  in  the  sciences 
of  experiment."  Although  the  success  of  his  book  was 
retarded  by  the  political  convulsions  of  France,  his  philo- 
sophical system  has  gradually  prevailed  and  superseded 
the  artificial  method  of  Linnaeus.  The  idea  of  such  a 
system  had  occurred  to  other  botanists  ;  but  Jussieu  is 
entitled  to  the  honour  of  laying  its  broad  and  impreg- 
nable foundations. 

In  1793  the  school  of  the  Royal  Garden  was  reor- 
ganized, under  the  title  of  "  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory," and  the  chair  of  botany  was  given  to  Jussieu,  who 
was  also  chosen  director  of  the  institution.  A  few  years 
later  he  became  a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  in  1808 
was  appointed  a  councillor  of  the  Imperial  University. 
At  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he  lost  the  office  last 
named,  but  retained  the  professorship  until  1826,  when 
he  resigned  it  in  favour  of  his  son.  Between  1800  and 
1820  he  wrote  many  botanical  treatises  on  natural  orders 
and  families,  which  were  inserted  in  the  records  of  the 
Institute  or  the  "Annales  du  Museum."  These  are 
characterized  by  the  same  merits  as  his  principal  work, 
— profound  knowledge,  patient  observation,  a  correct 
estimate  of  the  value  of  characters,  and  an  admirable 
sagacity  in  perceiving  affinities.    Died  in  1836. 

See  Flourens,  "  fiioge  de  A.  L.  de  Jussieu,"  1838  ;  A.  T.  Brong- 
NiART,  "  Notice  historique  sur  A.  L.  de  Jussieu,"  1837;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Jussieu,  de,  (Bernard,)  a  celebrated  botanist, 
brother  of  Antoine,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Lyons  in 
1699.  After  studying  in  his  native  city,  he  accompanied 
his  brother  on  several  scientific  tours.  On  returning 
to  France  he  entered  the  medical  course  at  Montpellier, 
where  he  graduated  in  1720.  Six  years  later  he  was 
chosen  Doctor  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  at  Paris.  He 
was  the  first  to  conceive  the  idea  of  the  classification  of 
plants  according  to  their  affinities.  This  method  was  per- 
fected by  his  nephew,  the  celebrated  Antoine  Laurent  de 
Jussieu.  He  was  held  in  high  esteem  by  Louis  XV.,  to 
whom  he  gave  valuable  advice  upon  the  formation  of  the 
garden  at  Trianon.  Jussieu  visited  England,  and  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.    Died  in  1777. 

See  CoNDOKCET,  "£loge  de  Jussieu;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Jussieu,  de,  (Joseph,)  brother  of  Antoine  and  Bernard 
de  Jussieu,  was  born  in  Lyons  in  1704.  In  1735 
cornpanied,  as  a  botanist,  the  French  and  Spanish  savants 
who  had  been  sent  by  their  respective  governments  to 
Peru.  He  remained  in  that  country  and  other  parts  of 
South  America  until  1771,  and  collected  valuable  infor- 
mation on  natural  history.    Died  at  Paris  in  1779. 

Jussieu,  de,  (Laurent  Pierre,)  a  French  moralist 
and  writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1792,  was  a  brother  of 
Alexis,  noticed  above.  He  wrote  a  number  of  popular 
educational  works,  among  which  are  "  Simon  de  Nantua," 
(1818,)  and  "Antoine  et  Maurice,"  (1821.)    His  "  Post- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  H,  k, guttural;  N.,,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (jE^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


JUSSOfF 


304  JUSTINIAN 


humous  Works  of  Simon  de  Nantua"  (1829)  obtained 
the  Montyon  prize. 

See  QuERARU,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Jussow,  yoos'so,  (Heinrich  Christoph,)  a  German 
architect,  born  at  Cassel  in  1754.  He  designed  a  church 
at  Neustadt,  a  wing  of  the  royal  palace  of  Wilhelmshohe, 
and  the  Chinese  Gallery  at  Cassel.    Died  in  1825. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedle." 

Jussy,  zhii'se',  (Jacques  Philippe,)  a  French  phy- 
sician,  born  at  Besan9on  about  1716.  He  introduced  a 
new  and  successful  method  of  lithotomy.    Died  in  1798. 

Just,  Saint.    See  Saint-Just. 

Juste,  zhiist,  (Theodore,)  a  Belgian  historian,  born 
at  Brussels  in  1818.  He  published,  besides  other  works 
in  flench,  a  "Popular  History  of  Belgium,"  (1838,)  a 
"  History  of  the  Belgian  Revolution  of  1790,"  (3  vols., 
1846,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  (5  vols., 
1848.) 

Justel,  zhiis't^K,  (Christophe,)  a  French  Protestant 
statesman,  and  secretary  to  Henry  IV.,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1580.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of 
ecclesiastical  history  and  of  canon  law,  upon  which  he 
wrote  several  books.  He  also  wrote  some  historical 
works,  among  which  is  a  "  History  of  the  Family  of 
Turenne,"  (1645.)    Died  in  1649. 

See  Sax,  "  Onomasticon  ;"  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique;" 
Haag,  "La  France  protestaiite." 

Justel,  (Henri,)  a  canonist,  born  in  Paris  in  1620, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded  as 
secretary  to  the  king.  He  collected  an  extensive  library, 
especially  rich  in  manuscripts,  and  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  literary  men.  For  the  sake  of  religious  liberty  he 
emigrated  to  England  in  i68r,  and  became  librarian  to 
Charles  H.  He  published  "  Bibliotheca  Juris  Canonici 
veteris,"  (2  vols.,  1661.)    Died  in  1693. 

See  Sax,  " Onomasiicon ;"  Haag,  '"La  France  protestante ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Geiierale." 

Justen.    See  Juttsten. 

Justi,  ydos'tee,  (Johann  Heinrich  Gottlieb,)  a 
German  writer  on  political  economy  and  philosophy, 
born  in  Thuringia  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  "Treatise 
on  Manufactures  and  Fabrics,"  (3  vols.,  1758-61,)  and 
"Moral  and  Philosophical  Writings,"  (2  vols.,  1760-61,) 
both  in  German.    Died  at  Kiistrin  in  1771. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedle." 

Jus'tin,  [Lat.  Justi'nus,  or  Justi'nus  Fronti'nus,] 
a  Latin  historian  of  uncertain  period,  and  of  whose  life 
nothing  is  known.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Histo- 
riarum  Philippicarum  Libri  XLIV.,"  which,  as  he  informs 
the  reader  in  his  preface,  is  extracted  or  abridged  from 
the  History  of  the  World  written  by  Trogus  Pompeius. 
As  the  original  work  is  lost,  Justin's  history,  although 
it  has  no  great  intrinsic  merit  except  an  elegant  style, 
supplies  much  valuable  information  not  found  in  other 
histories.  The  most  ancient  writer  that  mentions  Justin 
is  Saint  Jerome  ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  former  lived 
between  150  and  350  a.d. 

See  D.  W.  Moi.ler,  "  Disputatio  de  Justino,"  1684 ;  Zembsch, 
"  Jiistinus  Trogi  Pompeii  Epitomator,"  1804. 

Jus'tin  or  Justi'nus,  surnamed  the  Martyr,  one 
of  the  earliest  and  most  learned  of  the  Christian  fathers, 
was  born  of  Greek  parentage  at  Neapolis,  in  Palestine, 
about  103  A.D.  He  was  educated  in  the  pagan  religion 
and  in  the  philosophy  of  Plato.  About  132  he  embraced 
Christianity.  He  afterwards  rennjved  to  Rome,  where 
he  wrote,  in  Greek,  his  first  apology  for  the  Christian 
religion.  It  was  addressed  to  the  em|)eror  Antoninus, 
from  whom  Justin  procured  some  concessions  for  the 
Christians.  His  other  apology  was  addressed  to  Marcus 
Aurelius.  He  also  wrote  an  account  of  his  discussions 
with  Trypho,  a  learned  Jew,  upon  the  Messiah.  He 
suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome  under  Marcus  Aurehus, 
for  refusing  to  sacrifice  to  the  heathen  gods,  about  165. 
His  writings  are  considered  very  valuable. 

See  John  Kaye,  "Life  of  Justin  Martyr,"  London,  1836;  Carl 
Semisch,  "Justin  der  Martyver,"  2  vols.,  1840-42:  Voi.kmar,  ! 
"Ueber  Justin  den  Martyrer,"  etc.,  1853;  Junut.s,  "  Dissertatlo  de 
Justino  Martyre,"  1836;  Rittkr.  "History  of  Cliristian  Philoso- 
phy;" EusKBius,  "  Ecclesiastical  History;"  Nkandkr,  "  History  of 
the  Church  ;"  Fleury,  "  Histoire  ecclesiastique. " 


Justin  or  Justinus  I.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  was 
born  a  peasant  in  Dacia  in  450  a.d.  At  an  early  age  he 
went  to  Constantinople,  where  he  enlisted  in  the  im- 
perial guards  of  Leo  I.  He  distinguished  himself  by 
his  military  abilities,  and  rose  in  rank  until  he  was  suc- 
cessively appointed  general  and  commander  of  the 
guards.  In  518,  on  the  death  of  the  emperor  Anasta- 
sius,  Justin  was  proclaimed  his  successor  by  the  soldiers 
and  the  people.  Through  his  instrumentality  the  Greek 
and  Roman  Churches  were  reconciled.  He  is  gener;illy 
regarded  as  a  just  prince.  Died  in  527,  soon  after  re- 
signing the  throne  to  his  nephew  Justinian. 

See  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  Zonaras,  "Histoiy." 

Justin  or  Justinus  II.  was  a  nephew  of  Justinian  I., 
whom  he  succeeded  as  Emperor  of  Constantinople  in 
565.  During  his  reign  the  Longobards  under  Alboin 
invaded  Italy,  the  northern  part  of  which  they  wrested 
from  the  Eastern  Empire,  and  the  Persians  made  several 
important  conquests  in  the  Asiatic  provinces.  In  574, 
perceiving  his  inability  to  govern,  he  resigned  in  favour 
of  Tiberius,  the  captain  of  his  guards.    Died  in  578. 

See  Le  Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  Menander,  "  His- 
toriarum  Libri  VHL,"  Paris,  1609;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie Generale." 

Jus-ti'nsL,  [Fr.  Justine,  zhiis't^n',]  Saint,  a  Chris- 
tian martyr,  who  is  supposed  to  have  suffered  death 
under  Diocletian,  (a.d.  304.)  She  was  the  patroness  of 
Venice  and  of  Padua.  In  the  latter  town  a  church  was 
built  in  her  honour  in  the  fifth  century. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  History  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Jus-tin'i-an  or  Jus-tin-i-a'nus  [Fr.  Justinien, 
zhiis'te'ne-iN']  I.,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Em- 
perors of  the  East,  and  nephew  of  Justin  I.,  was  born  in 
Dardania,  May  11,  483  a.d.  Justin  at  his  coronation  in 
518  appointed  Justinian  his  colleague,  and  in  527  invested 
him  with  supreme  authority.  Soon  after  ascending 
the  throne,  Justinian  commenced  an  active  persecution 
against  the  Arians,  Jews,  and  Pagans.  About  532  se- 
rious revolts  occurred,  in  one  of  which  the  church  of  Saint 
Sophia  and  other  buildings  were  destroyed  by  fire.  This 
sedition,  in  which  thirty  thousand  insurgents  are  said  to 
have  fallen,  was  incited  by  the  factions  of  the  circus,  and 
was  only  quelled  by  the  prompt  resolution  of  Belisarius  at 
the  head  of  the  imperial  guards.  Justinian  showed  great 
clemency  to  those  of  his  rebellious  subjects  who  were 
made  prisoners.  He  immediately  began  to  repair  the 
damages  of  the  conflagration.  The  magnificent  church 
of  Saint  Sophia,  which  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
edifices  of  any  age  or  country,  was  rebuilt  upon  the  plan 
furnished  by  the  architect  Anthemius.  Justinian  also 
exhibited  his  liberality  and  architectural  skill  in  the  con- 
struction of  temples,  convents,  roads,  bridges,  aqueducts, 
and  fortifications  in  many  parts  of  his  vast  empire.  But 
by  far  the  greatest  work  of  his  reign  was  the  revision  of 
the  Roman  law  and  the  publication  of  the  Codes,  Pan- 
dects, and  Institutions  which  bear  his  name,  and  which 
were  compiled  under  his  supervision  by  the  eminent 
jurist  Tribonian.  The  "Codes,"  consisting  of  twelve 
books,  were  completed  in  534.  The  "  Digesta"  or  "  Pan- 
dectae,"  embracing  all  that  was  taken  from  the  decisions, 
arguments,  and  expositions  of  the  civilians  of  Rome,  were 
subsequently  issued  in  fifty  books.  The  "  Institutiones" 
were  an  abridgment  of  the  first  principles  of  the  law  for 
the  use  of  students.  Justinian  also  composed  many  new 
laws,  mostly  in  Greek,  entitled  "  Constitutiones  No- 
velise." While  he  was  thus  rendering  such  eminent 
service  to  the  world  by  the  publication  of  his  Codes  and 
Pandects,  his  celebrated  generals  Belisarius  and  Narses 
carried  the  terror  of  his  arms  into  Persia,  Italy,  and 
Africa,  and  made  their  master  the  sovereign  of  nearly 
all  the  territory  over  which  the  first  Caesars  had  held 
dominion.  (See  Belisarius,  and  Narses.)  Justinian 
gave  liberal  encouragement  to  the  industrial  arts,  and 
was  the  first  to  introduce  silk-worms  and  the  manu- 
facture of  silken  goods  into  Europe.  He  died  in  565, 
after  a  reign  of  more  than  thirty-eight  years,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Justin  II.  Justinian,  although 
justly  censurable  for  his  occasional  intolerance,  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  general  justice  and  humanity,  as  well 
as  for  his  knowledge  of  theology,  philosophy,  law,  poetry, 
and  architecture,  for  his  administrative  powers,  and  for 
his  exceedingly  virtuous  and  temperate  life, — qualities 


a,  e,  T,  6,    y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolog oed;    e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  skort;  a,  e,  i,  a,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


JUSTINIAN  1305 


JUXON 


which  would  have  j^laccd  him  in  the  highest  rank  as  a 
monarch,  even  if  he  had  not  produced  those  Codes  which 
have  immortalized  his  name. 

See  Procopius,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis,"  (translated  into  English 
by  H01.CR0FT,  1653;)  LuDEWiG.  "  Vita  Justiniani,"  1731  ;  Isambert, 
"  Histoirede  Justinien,"  1856;  Cokvinus  de  Heldern,  "  Imperator 
Justinianiis  Catliolicus,"  1618  :  G.  Pekrin,  "Vita  Justiniani,"  1576; 
Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  Montesquieu, 
"  Grandeur  et  Decadence  des  Romains,'"  chap.  xx.  ;  H.  Vogel,  "  Dis- 
sertaiio  de  Justiniano,"  1672 ;  P.  Gauuenzio,  "  Gloria  Justiniani 
Imperatoris  vindicata,"  1639;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Geneiale." 

Justinian  [Lat.  Justinia'nus]  II.,  son  of  Constan- 
tine  III.,  ascended  the  throne  of  Constantinople  in  685. 
He  gained  important  advantages  over  the  Saracens,  and 
compelled  them  to  relinquish  some  of  their  conquests. 
Finally,  his  great  cruelties  to  his  subjects,  and  also,  it  is 
said,  his  intention  of  burning  Constantinople,  caused  his 
general  Leontius  to  depose  him,  to  cut  off  his  nose,  and 
to  banish  him  to  the  Crimea.  He  subsequently  escaped 
from  the  Crimea,  and  married  the  daughter  of  a  Turkish 
chief,  with  whose  assistance,  and  that  of  the  Bulgarians, 
he  regained  his  crown.  He  put  Leontius,  and  many 
others,  to  horrible  deaths.  He  was  preparing  to  execute 
further  cruelties,  when  he  was  killed  in  711  by  Philip- 
picus  Bardanes,  who  succeeded  him. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  Le  Beau, 
"  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  Zonaras,  "History;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^nerale." 

Justiniani,    See  Giustiniani. 
Justinianus.    See  Justinian. 
Justinien.    See  Justinian. 
Justinus.    See  Justin. 

Jus''tu-lus,  (yoos'too-lus,)  (PiETRO  Francesco,)  a 
Latin  poet,  and  secretary  to  Caesar  Borgia,  a  native  of 
Italy,  lived  about  1500.  His  poems  are  distinguished 
for  their  purity  and  elegance. 

Jusuf.    See  YoosuK. 

Ju-tur'na,  [Fr.  Juturne,  zhii'tiiRn',]  a  nymph  or 
goddess  of  the  Roman  mythology,  was  said  to  be  beloved 
by  Jupiter.  According  to  Virgil,  she  was  a  sister  of 
Turnus.  The  water  which  the  Romans  used  in  sacrifices 
was  mostly  drawn  from  the  fountain  of  Juturna. 

Juturne.    See  Juturna. 

Juusten  or  Justen,yoos'ten,  (Paul,)  Bishop  of  Abo, 
in  Finland,  was  born  at  Viborg.  He  was  sent  in  1569  by 
John  HI.  of  Sweden  as  an  ambassador  to  Ivan,  Czar  of 
Russia.  That  monarch,  on  some  false  pretence  against 
John,  threw  Juusten  in  prison,  where  he  was  confined  for 
three  years.   Died  at  AIdo  in  1575. 

Juvara,  yoo-va'rS,  or  Ivara,  e-vi'rS,  (Fii.ippo,)  first 
architect  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  was  born  at  Messina,  in 
Italy,  in  1685,  and  educated  at  Rome  under  Fontana. 
He  constructed  a  palace  at  Messina,  and  several  edifices 
in  Turin.  In  1724  he  went  to  Lisbon,  where  he  suj^er- 
intended  the  building  of  the  royal  palace  and  other  edi- 
fices, for  which  he  received  the  order  of  knighthood  and 
a  pension  of  about  thrge  thousand  dollars.  He  died  in 
1735.  Madrid.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  hunting- 
palace  of  Stupinigi,  and  the  Birago  di  Borgaro  palace, 
both  in  Turin. 

See  MiLiziA,  "Memorie  degli  Architetti ;"  QuATREMfeRE  de 
QuiNCY,  "Vies  des  Architectes  celebres;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^nerale." 

Ju've-nal,  [Lat.  Juvena'lis  ;  Fr.  Juvenal,  zhii'vk'- 
ntK,]  or,  more  fully,  De9'i-mus  Ju'ni-us  Ju-ve-na'- 
lis,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Latin  satirical  poets, 
is  believed  to  have  been  born  in  Aquinum,  a  Volscian 
town,  about  A.D.  40.  But  few  authentic  facts  have  been 
preserved  respecting  his  history  :  it  is  said,  however,  that 
he  was  the  son  of  a  wealthy  freedman,  and  that  he 
devoted  the  early  part  of  his  life  to  the  study  of  rhetoric 
and  declamation.  He  afterwards  became  a  pleader  in 
the  courts  of  law,  where  he  appears  to  have  been  suc- 
cessful. He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the  poet  Martial, 
who  mentions  him  in  two  of  his  epigrams.  None  of 
the  productions  of  Juvenal  were  given  to  the  public 
until  he  had  passed  the  age  of  sixty  years.    His  poems, 


which  he  then  recited,  gained  him  universal  admiration. 
One  of  his  earliest  satires  had  been  written  against  an 
actor  named  Paris,  who  was  a  great  favourite  with  the 
emperor  Domitian.  It  was  not  published  until  the  reign 
of  Hadrian,  who,  imagining  that  it  reflected  on  one  of 
his  own  favourites,  sent  Juvenal  into  an  honourable  exile 
by  making  him  the  prefect  of  a  legion  in  Egypt,  where 
he  is  saicl  to  have  died  about  A.D.  125.  Sixteen  of  his 
satires  have  been  preserved.  Several  translations  of 
them  have  been  made  into  English,  of  which  the  most 
prominent  are  those  of  Dryden  and  Gifford.  In  these 
satires  Juvenal  severely  lashes  the  prevailing  vices  cf 
his  time;  but  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  his  vivid 
pictures  of  the  licentiousness  of  that  age  do  not  tend  to 
fan  those  very  passions  which  they  seem  intended  to 
restrain.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  force  of  intellect, 
his  flow  of  language,  and  his  never-failing  wit.  "Juvenal 
gives  me,"  says  Dryden,  "as  much  pleasure  as  I  can 
bear.  He  fully  satisfies  expectation  ;  he  treats  his  sub- 
ject home.  .  .  .  When  he  gives  over,  'tis  a  sign  that  the 
subject  is  exhausted,  and  that  the  wit  of  man  can  carry 
it  no  further,"  His  works,  differing  equally  from  the 
austere  moral  dialogues  of  Persius  and  the  genial  raillery 
of  Horace,  are  rhetorical  rather  than  poetical.  They  are 
brilliant  and  sonorous  declamations,  and  master-pieces 
of  denunciation. 

"Magnificent  versification,"  says  Macaulay,  "and  in- 
genious combinations  rarely  harmonize  with  the  expres- 
sion of  deep  feeling.  In  Juvenal  and  Dryden  alone  we 
have  the  sparkle  and  the  heat  together.  Those  great 
satirists  succeeded  in  communicating  the  fervour  of  their 
feelings  to  materials  the  most  incombustible,  and  kindled 
the  whole  mass  into  a  blaze  at  once  dazzling  and  destruc- 
tive." ("  Essay  on  Dryden.")  Among  the  best  editions 
of  Juvenal  is  that  of  Ruperti,  (Leipsic,  2  vols.,  1801,)  to 
which  are  prefixed  all  the  ancient  documents  for  the 
biography  of  the  satirist. 

See  J.  V.  Francke,  "  Examen  criticum  D.  J.  Juvenalis  Vitse," 
1820,  and  "  Programma  de  Vita  D.  J.  Juvenalis  Questio  altera,"  1827  ; 
Volker,  "Juvenal,  Lebens-  und  Charakterbild,"  1851  ;  Bauer, 
"  Kritlsche  Bemerkungen  iiber  einige  Nachrichten  aus  dem  Leben 
Juvenals,"  1833  :  Bahr,  "Geschichte  der  Romischen  Litteratur." 

Juvenal,  zhiiv^ntK,  (Gui  Jouvenneaux.zhoo^a^no', 
or  Jouennaux,  zhoo'i'no',)  a  French  philologist  and 
ecclesiastic,  born  about  1460,  was  educated  at  Paris. 
Among  his  works  are  "Commentaries  on  the  Comedies 
of  Terence,"  and  "Monastic  Reformations  Vindicated." 
Died  in  1505. 

Juvenal  des  Ursins.    See  Ursins. 

Ju-ven'cu.s,  (Ca'ius  Vec'tius  (vgk'she-us)  Aquili'- 
NUS,)  one  of  the  earliest  Christian  poets,  was  born  in 
Spain  about  330  A.D.  His  principal  production  is  the 
"  Life  of  Christ,"  written  in  Latin  poetry  and  taken  lite- 
rally from  the  four  Evangelists. 

See  A.  R.  Gerser,  "Dissertatio  de  C.  V.  A.  Juvenci  Vita  et 
Scriptis,"  1827;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Juvenel,  zhuv'nSK,  (F^lix,)  a  French  historical  writer, 
born  at  Pezenas  in  1669,  published  "Principles  of  His- 
tory."  Died  in  1760. 

Juvigny.    See  Rigoley  de  Juvigny. 

Jux'pn,  (William,)  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  born 
in  Chichester  in  1582,  graduated  at  Oxford.  In  1621  he 
was  appointed  president  of  Saint  John's  College,  and 
afterwards  received  various  oflices  in  the  Church  through 
the  patronage  of  Archbishop  Laud.  In  1633  he  was 
successively  raised  to  the  sees  of  Hereford  and  London. 
Two  years  later  he  was  appointed  by  Charles  T.  lord 
high  treasurer  of  England.  For  about  six  ye^s  he  ful- 
filled the  duties  of  this  station  with  so  much  justice  and 
ability  that,  although  great  hostility  was  excited  that  an 
ecclesiastic  should  be  chosen  to  that  office,  no  charges 
were  made  against  his  administration.  He  remained 
with  Charles  through  his  trial,  and  accom]5*inied  him  to 
the  scaffold,  where  he  received  the  dying  injunctions  of 
that  monarch.  On  the  restoration  he  was  raised  to  the 
see  of  Canterbury.    Died  in  1663. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KJAB 


1306 


KALCKREUTH 


K. 


Kaab,  ki'ab,  a  distinguished  Arabian  poet,  who  flour- 
ished about  650  A.D.  He  was  at  first  a  bitter  enemy  of 
Mohammed ;  but  afterwards,  becoming  reconciled  to 
him,  he  wrote  a  poem,  which  is  regarded  as  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  eulogiunis  addressed  to  the  founder  of 
the  Moslem  faith.  The  prophet  was  so  much  pleased 
that  he  gave  Kaab  his  green  mantle.  The  poem  was 
hung  up  in  the  Temple  of  Mecca.  Kaab  died  in  662  a.d. 

See  D'Herbelot,  "  Bibliotheque  Orientale." 

Kaas,  kas,  [Lat.  Kaa'sius,]  (Nikolaus,)  a  Danish 
statesman,  born  in  1535,  and  educated  in  Germany,  where 
he  studied  theology  under  Melanchthon.  In  1573  he 
was  appointed  chancellor  of  Denmark,  and  in  1588  be- 
came first  regent  of  the  kingdom  during  the  minority 
of  Christian  I.  He  performed  the  duties  of  that  office 
with  commendable  ability  and  patriotism.  Died  in  1594. 
Kaas  actively  promoted  the  cause  of  education. 

See  HoFMANN,  "Portraits  historiques  des  Homines  celebres  du 
Danemarck  ;"  Folder,  "  Exegesis  Virtutum  et  Reriim  gestaruin  N. 
Kaasii,"  15S0;  P.  J.  Winstrup,  "  Ligpraediken  over  N.  Kaas," 
1594;  J.  Calundanus,  "Descriptio  Vita;  N.  Kaasii,"  1637. 

Kaasius.    See  Kaas, 

Kaau-Boerhaave,  kow  booR'hi'veh,  (Abram,)  a 
Dutch  physician,  and  nephew  of  Herman  Boerhaave, 
was  born  at  the  Hague  in  1 7 13,  and  educated  at  Leyden. 
In  1740  he  was  invited  to  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he 
became  councillor  of  state,  and  in  1748  first  physician  to 
the  imperial  court.    Died  at  Moscow  in  1753. 

Kabbete,  kal/beh-teh,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter.  Some  of  his  pictures  were  engraved  by  Perelle. 
Died  in  1660. 

Kabel,  van  der,  vSn  der  ki'bel,  (Adriaan,)  a  Dutch 
landscape-painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Riswyckin  1631. 
His  designs  were  natural  and  vigorous.    Died  in  1695. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  " Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Kabus  or  Kabous.    See  Caboos. 

Kadlubek,  kad-loo'b§k,  (Vincent,)  sometimes  writ- 
ten Kodlubko  or  Kalubko,  a  Polish  historian  and 
prelate,  was  born  in  Galicia.  In  1208  he  was  raised  to 
the  see  of  Cracow.  Died  in  1223.  He  wrote  a  valuable 
and  accurate  history  of  Poland  to  the  year  1202. 

See  OssoLiNSKi,  "  V.  Kadlubek,  ein  historisch-kritischer  Beitrag," 
etc.,  1822. 

Kaempfer.    See  Kampfer. 
Kaestner.    See  Kastner. 

Kager,  ka'ger,  (Johann  Matthias,)  a  German 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Munich  in  1566;  died  at 
Augsburg  in  1634. 

Kahle,  ka^eh,  (Ludwig  Martin,)  a  German  philos- 
opher and  jurist,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1712.  Among 
his  works  is  "  The  Balance  of  Europe,"  ("  De  Trutina 
Europae,"  1744.)    Died  in  1775. 

Kahler,  ka'ler,  (Johann,)  a  German  Lutheran  divine, 
born  at  VVolmar,  Hesse-Cassel,  in  1649,  was  a  Cartesian 
in  philosophy,  and  wrote  several  works.    Died  in  1727. 

Kahnis,  ka'nis,  (Karl  Friedrich  August,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  born  at  Greitz  in  1814.  He  studied 
under  Tholuck,  and  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Leipsic  in  1850.  He  published  a  valuable  work,  entitled 
"  Lutheri.sche  Dogmatik,"  (2  vols.,  1861-68.) 

Kaiaiiian  or  Caianian,  ki-a'ne-an,  the  name  of  the 
most  celebrated  of  all  the  ancient  Persian  dynasties,  so 
called  ixSiW  its  founder,  Kai-Kobad,  who,  according  to 
the  Persian  legends,  was  placed  on  the  throne  by  the 
famous  hero  and  conqueror  Roostum,  (or  Rustem.)  Of 
this  dynasty,  Cyrus  the  Great  (called  by  the  Persians 
Kai-Khosroo  or  Kai-Khosrau,  Kos-row')  was  the  chief 
ornament  and  glory.  (See  Cyrus.)  Darius  the  Younger, 
conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great,  was  the  last  of  the 
Kaianian  kings. 

See  Atkinson,  "  Abridgment  of  the  Shah  Nameh  of  Firdausi," 
London,  1S32;  "A  Short  History  of  Persia,"  in  vol.  v.  of  Sir  W. 
Jones's  Works. 

Kai-Kaoos,  (-K^us  or  -Kaous,)  kl  ka'oos',  an  an- 
cient  king  of  Persia,  (or  Iran,)  was  the  son  of  Kai-Kobad. 
His  general,  the  famous  Roostum,  carried  on  successful 


wars  against  the  Kings  of  TAran.  Sir  William  Jones 
places  the  date  of  this  prince's  accession  at  B.C.  610. 
Kai-Kaoos  is  said  to  have  founded  an  observatory  in 
Babylon.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Kai-Khos- 
roo, (Cyrus  the  Great.) 

See  MiRKHOND,  "Raouset;"  Atkinson,  "  Abridgment  of  the 
Shah  Nameh." 

Kai-Kaoos,  (-Kaus  or  -Kaous,)  kl  k^oos',  I., 
seventh  Sultan  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Seljookides  of 
Anatolia,  succeeded  his  father,  Kai-Khosroo,  about  A.D. 
1210.  He  was  engaged  in  wars  with  the  Grecian  em- 
peror and  several  of  the  neighbouring  princes.  Died  in 
12 19,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Kai-Kobad 
Ala-ed-Deen,  (Ala-eddin.) 

See  Ferishta,  "History." 

Kai-Kaoos  (or  -Kaus)  II.,  Azzed-ed-Deen,  (Az- 
zed-Eddin,)  Sz'zed  ed-deen',  succeeded  his  father, 
Kai-Khosroo  II.,  in  the  sovereignty  of  Anatolia,  about 
A.D.  1244.  His  reign  was  occupied  by  long  wars  with 
his  brother.  Kilij-Arslan,  and  with  the  Grand  Khan 
of  Tartary.    Died  in  1278. 

Kai-Khosrau.    See  Cyrus. 

Kai-Khosroo  (-Khosrou)  the  Elder.  See  Cyrus. 

Kai-Khos'roo^  I.,  sixth  Sultan  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Seljookides,  became  sovereign  of  Anatolia  A.D.  1192. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  in  1210  by  Theodore  Lascaris, 
Emperor  of  Constantinople. 

Kai-Khosroo  II.  succeeded  his  father,  Kai-Kobad 
Ala-ed-Deen,  (Ala-eddin,)  on  the  throne  of  Anatolia  in 
1237.  In  1244  he  was  defeated  by  the  Tartars,  and  was 
compelled  to  become  a  tributary  to  their  grand  khan. 
He  died  the  same  year. 

Kai-Khosroo  III.,  twelfth  of  the  dyiiasty  of  the 
Seljookides,  became  Sultan  about  1266.    Died  in  1283. 

Kaiiasa  or  Cailasa,  kl-ia^sa,  called  in  the  common 
dialect  Kailas,  Id-las',  the  name  of  a  very  high  mountain- 
peak  near  the  northern  extremity  of  India,  supposed  to 
be  the  favourite  abode  of  Siva  and  Parvati.   (See  SiVA.) 

Kain.    See  Le  Kain. 

Kaiook,  Kaiuk,  or  Kaiouk,  ki-ook',  a  grandson 
of  Jengis  Khan,  was  proclaimed  Grand  Khan  of  Tartary 
in  1246.  This  prince  granted  numerous  privileges  to 
the  Christians  of  his  dominions.  He  died  in  1248,  as  he 
was  raising  an  immense  army  for  the  invasion  of  Europe. 

Kairis,  karris,  (Theofhilos,)  a  Greek  ecclesiastic, 
born  in  the  island  of  Andros  in  1780.  In  1839  he  was 
banished  by  the  Synod  of  Athens  to  a  cloister  for  having 
taught  deism.  He  wrote  a  burlesque  on  the  prayers  of 
the  Christian  Church.  In  1852  he  was  sent  to  prison, 
where  he  died  in  1853. 

Kaiser,  kl'zer,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  engraver,  born 
at  Ulm  in  1775,  worked  in  Vienna.    Died  in  1819. 

Ka'kig  I.,  King  of  Armenia,  of  the  dynasty  of  Pagrat- 
ides,  succeeded  his  brother,  Sempad  II.,  in  989.  Kakig 
assumed  the  surname  Shahan-Shah,  ("  King  of  kings.") 
In  998  he  assisted  David,  a  Georgian  prince,  to  defeat  the 
Mohammedans  under  Mamloon  the  Ameer.  Died  in  1020. 

Kaia,  k^'la,  orKai,  a  .Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "time," 
[from  Zyz/,*  to  "count"  or  "reckon,"]  and  forming  one  of 
the  many  names  of  the  destroying  god  Siva,  (which  see.) 

Kalanaga.    See  Kaliya. 

Kalaun  or  Kalaoun.    See  Kelaoon. 

Kalb,  de.    See  De  Kalb. 

Kalckreuth,von,  fon  k^lk'roit',  (Friedrich  Adolf,) 

Count,  born  at  Sangerhausen,  in  Prussia,  in  1737,  served 
in  the  war  of  the  Bavarian  succession,  and  afterwards 
in  the  campaigns  of  Holland  and  France.  For  his  gallant 
defence  of  Dantzic  against  the  French,  in  1807,  he  was 
made  field-marshal.  In  July,  1807,  he  concluded  with 
Talleyrand  a  treaty  of  peace  between  Prussia  and 
France.    Died  in  1818. 

See  L.  G.  Michaud,  "Notices  historiques  sur  le  Marechal  Jour- 
dan  et  les  Generaux  Kalckreuth  et  Kilmaine." 


*  This  word  is  related  etymologically  to  the  middle  syllable  of  the 
Latin  "  intercrt/aris."  denoting  the  reckoning  of  a  day  or  space  of 
time  between  otiier  days.  The  word  "kalends"  is  not  improbably 
from  the  same  root. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  ^,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAor^;  a,  ?,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  ftt;  met;  ndt;  good;  m  Jon; 


KALDI 


1307 


KALRAAT 


Kaldi,  kaKdee,  (George,)  a  learned  and  eloquent 
Hungarian  Jesuit,  born  in  Tirnau  about  1572,  was  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Olmiitz.  Died  at  Presburg  in  1634. 
He  translated  the  Bible  into  the  Hungarian  language. 

Kale.    See  Kalf. 

Kalee.    See  KalI 

Kalergis,  kS-lgR^gis,  (Demetrius,)  a  Greek  general 
and  politician,  born  in  Taganrog  about  1802.  Pie  fought 
for  independence  against  the  Turks.  About  1843  be- 
came a  general,  and  governor  of  Athens.  He  was  min- 
ister of  war  for  about  two  years,  (1854-56.)  Died  in  1867. 

Kalf,  kilf,  written  also  Kale,  (Wilhelm,)  a  distin- 
guished Dutch  painter  of  still  life,  born  in  Amsterdam 
in  1630.  He  especially  excelled  in  painting  fruit,  gold 
and  silver  vessels,  gems,  crystals,  etc.    Died  in  1693. 

Kali  or  Kalee,  kSHee,  the  feminine  of  K^la,  (a  name 
of  Siva,)  forming  the  common  appellation  of  Siva's  con- 
sort in  her  destroying  character.  She  is  often  called 
Maha  Kali,  (ma-hcV  k^'lee,)  or  the  "Great  Kali,"  and 
Bhadra  (b'hiid'ra)  Kali,  (from  Bhadra,  one  of  the  many 
appellations  of  Siva,)  and  various  other  names.  She  is 
represented  sometimes  with  four  and  sometimes  with 
eight  hands,  and  her  person  is  decorated  with  a  necklace 
of  human  skulls.  Her  images  are  usually  painted  black 
or  of  a  dark  colour.  In  her  character  of  Maha  Kali  she 
sometimes  represents  eternity.  (See  Coleman's  "My- 
thology of  the  Hindoos,"  p.  91.)  As  active  or  militant 
virtue,  she  is  called  Durga;  in  her  ordinary  and  more 
peaceful  character  she  is  known  as  Parvati,  {i.e.  the 
"mountain  goddess,"  in  allusion  to  her  dwelling  on  the 
inaccessible  heights  of  the  Plimalayas,)  or  as  Devi,  (da'- 
vee,)  which  signifies  the  goddtss'^ par  excellence.  (See 
DuRGA,  and  ParvatI) 

Kaiidasa,  Caiidasa,  ka^i-di'sa,  or  Kalidasas, 
called  "the  Shakspeare  of  India,"  the  most  illustrious 
of  Hindoo  poets,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  50 
B.C.,  under  the  magnificent  reign  of  Vikramaditya  I.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  dramas,  of  which  the  most 
celebrated,  "  Sakoontala,"  (or  "  Sakontala,")  was  first 
made  known  to  the  nations  of  the  West  through  the  prose 
translation  of  Sir  William  Jones.  The  appearance  of 
this  remarkable  production  excited  a  deep  interest  and 
general  admiration  among  the  critics  of  Europe.  Of  its 
author,  Alexander  Humboldt  observes,  "Tenderness  in 
the  expression  of  feeling,  and  richness  of  creative  fancy, 
have  assigned  to  him  his  lofty  place  among  the  poets  of 
all  nations."  Goethe  expresses  his  admiration  in  a  still 
higher  strain  : 

"  Willst  du  die  Bliitbe  des  friilien,  die  Friichte  des  spateren  Jahres, 
Willst  du  was  reizt  und  entziickt,  willst  du  was  sattigt  und  iialirt, 
Willst  du  den  Himmel.  die  Erde,  mit  eineni  Nameii  begreifen? 
Nenn'  icli  Sakontala  dfch,  und  so  ist  alles  gesagt."* 

A  new  translation  of  Sakoontala,  by  Monier  Williams, 
the  present  professor  of  Sanscrit  at  Oxford,  was  pub- 
lished at  Hertford  in  1856.  In  this  version  the  metrical 
portions  of  the  original  play  were  for  the  first  time 
rendered  into  English  verse.  Besides  the  drama  already 
referred  to,  there  have  come  down  to  us  two  others  by 
Kalidasa,  viz.,  "  Vikrama  and  Urvasi,"  which  abounds  in 
lyrical  beauties,  and  a  comedy  entitled  "Agnimitra  and 
Malavika."  His  two  epic  poems,  "  Raghuvansa"  and 
"Kumara-Sambhava,"  possess,  with  many  individual 
beauties,  comparatively  little  merit,  taken  as  a  whole. 
Among  his  lyrical  poems,  "  Megha-duta,"  or  the  "  Cloud- 
Messenger,"  is  remarkable  for  its  deep  feeling  and  grace- 
ful delineations  of  nature.  The  "  Nalodaya,"  a  sort  of 
poetical  romance,  which,  in  spite  of  much  that  would 
strike  a  European  reader  as  ridiculous  or  absurd,  has 
many  charming  passages,  is  also  commonly  ascribed  to 
Kalidasa. 

See  the  notice  of  Kalidasa  prefixed  to  Professor  Williams's 
translation  of  "  Sakoontala,"  already  referred  to ;  Wilson's  "  Indian 
Theatre,"  in  which  there  are  Englit.h  translations  of  the  "  Megha- 
duta"  and  an  analysis  of  "Agnimitra  and  Malavika;"  also  Brock- 
HAUS,  "  Conversations-Lexikon."  The  "  Nalodaya"  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English  verse  by  the  Rev.  W.  Yates,  Calcutta,  1844. 


*  "  Wouldst  thou  the  blossoms  of  the  early,  the  fruits  of  the  later  year, 
Wouldst  thou  what  charms  and  enraptures,  what  satisfies  and  nour- 
ishes, [the  soul,] 

Wouldst  thou  comprehend  heaven  and  earth  [in  short]  under  one 
name  ? 

When  I  name  thee,  O  Sakoontala,  then  everything  is  said." 


K^liya,  k^'li-ya,  [from  the  Sanscrit  kdld,  "  black,"  and 
hence  "terrible"  or  "deadly,"]  called  also  K^lan^ga, 
(k§.'la-n3.''ga,)  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  a 
terrible  serpent  destroyed  by  Krishna.  As  the  latter  is 
by  some  identified  with  the  Apollo  of  the  Greeks,  so 
Kaliya  is  supposed  to  be  the  Python  of  classic  mythology. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kalkar.    See  Calcar. 

Kalkar,  klKkar,  (Christian  Andreas  Herman,)  a 
Danish  theologian,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1802.  He  be- 
came first  minister  of  the  diocese  of  Seeland  in  1843. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  Manual  of  Exegesis,"  (2  vols., 
1836-38.) 

Kalkbrenner,  kSlk'bRln'ner,  (Christian,)  a  Ger- 
man musician  and  composer,  born  at  Minden  in  1755. 
He  composed  dramatic  and  instrumental  music,  and 
became  chajDel-master  to  the  queen  at  Berlin  in  1788. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1806. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Kalkbrenner,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  musical  com- 
poser and  jiianist,  born  in  Berlin  in  1788,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  He  visited  Vienna  in  1803,  where  he 
studied  under  Albrechtsberger.  He  settled  in  Paris  in 
1824,  and,  in  conjunction  with  Pleyel,  founded  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  piano-manufactories  of  that  city.  As  a 
musician  he  holds  the  first  rank,  and  his  numerous  com- 
positions for  the  piano  are  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1849. 

See  L.  BoiviN,  " Kalkbrenner,"  Paris,  1842;  Fetis,  "Biographie 
Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

KaPki,  [modern  Hindoo  pron,  kuKki  ;  from  the  San- 
scrit kdl,  to  "count"  or  "reckon,"]  the  only  one  of  the 
avatars  of  Vishnu  yet  to  come.  Vishnu,  mounted  on  a 
white  horse,  with  a  fljfrning  sword  in  his  hand,  will  bring 
the  present  (or  Kali)  age  to  an  end,  to  be  followed  by  an 
era  of  purity. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kail,  kil,  (Abraham,)  an  eminent  Danish  scholar, 
born  in  Jutland  in  1743,  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Copenhagen,  where  in  1778  he  became  professor  of  the 
history  and  mythology  of  the  North.  In  1785  he  founded 
a  society  for  the  promotion  of  the  study  of  foreign  lite- 
rature, and  in  1808  was  appointed  historiographer  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Denmark  and  Norway.    Died  in  1821. 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon." 

Kallgreen.    See  Kellgren. 

Kailias.    See  Callias. 

Kallicrates.    See  Callicrates. 

Kallicratidas.    See  Callicratidas. 

Kallimachus.    See  Callimachus. 

Kallinicus.    See  Callinicus. 

Kallinus.    See  Callinus. 

Kalliope.    See  Calliope. 

Kailippus.    See  Callippus. 

Kallisthenes.    See  Callisthenes. 

Kallistratus.    See  Callistratus. 

Kalliwoda,  kSKle-wo'di,  (Johann  Wenzel,)  a  noted 
violinist  and  composer,  born  at  Prague  about  1800. 

Kalm,  kSlm,  (Pehr,)  a  Swedish  naturalist,  born  in 
1715.  In  1748,  under  the  direction  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  Stockholm,  he  sailed  for  North  America, 
where  he  remained  about  three  years,  jDrosecuting  the 
study  of  natural  history.  On  his  return  to  Sweden  he 
published  an  account  of  his  travels,  under  the  title  of 
"A  Voyage  to  North  America,"  (1753.)  The  first  part 
of  this  valuable  work  relates  to  Sweden,  Norway,  and 
England.  He  was  afterwards  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Stockholm,  and  created  knight 
of  the  order  of  Vasa.  He  wrote  several  other  scientific 
works.  Died  in  1779.  The  genus  Kalmia  was  named 
in  honour  of  him. 

See  J.  L.  Odhelius,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  P.  Kalm,"  1780; 
Adelung,  Supplement  to  Jocher's  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexi- 
kon." 

Kalo-Joannes.    See  Calo-Joannes. 

Kalraat,van,  vtn  kiKrlt'',  (Abram,)  a  Dutch  painter 
and  sculptor,  born  at  Dort  in  1643.  His  paintings  are 
chiefly  of  flowers  and  fruits.    Died  in  1699. 

Kalraat,  van,  (Bernard  or  Barent,)  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1650,  studied  under  Albert  Cuyp. 
He  was  distinguished  for  the  elegant  finish  which  he 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  K,  guthiral;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  23  J 


KALUBKO 


1308 


KANE 


gave  to  his  landscapes.  He  painted  scenes  on  the  Rhine. 
Died  in  172 1. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands/'  etc. 

Kalubko.    See  Kadlubek. 

Kalypso.    See  Calypso. 

K^iiiadeva,  ka'ma-da'va,  or  K3.niadeo,  ka'ma-da'o, 
[from  the  Sanscrit  kdmd,  "desire"  or  "love,"  and  devd, 
a  "god,"]  written  also  Camadeva,  Camadeo,  and 
Camdeo,  sometimes  called  simply  Kama  or  Cama, 
the  god  of  love  of  the  Hindoos,  is  said  to  be  the  son  of 
Maya,  ("  Illusion.)  He  is  represented  as  a  beautiful  youth, 
sometimes  as  riding  on  a  parrot,  and  sometimes  as  con- 
versing with  his  mother  Maya,  or  his  wife  Reti,  (or  Rati,) 
(i.e.  "Affection.")  He  has  a  bow  made  of  sugar-cane,  (or, 
according  to  some  authorities,  of  flowers.)  The  points 
of  his  arrows  are  tipped  with  flowers.  Vasanta  (the 
"  Spring")  is  said  to  be  his  most  intimate  friend.  The 
most  remarkable  event  in  Kamadeva's  history  is  his 
encounter  with  Siva.  It  is  related  that  he  once  pre- 
sumed to  aim  one  of  his  arrows  at  the  destroying  deity, 
who  with  one  glance  of  his  eye  reduced  the  love-god  to 
ashes.  Since  that  catastrophe  Kamadeva  has  ceased  to 
possess  any  corporeal  form  ;  but  his  actual  power  seems 
thereby  to  have  been  increased  rather  than  diminished, 
as  he  can  now  more  easily,  and  with  less  suspicion,  exert 
his  sway  over  the  minds  of  men. 

See  Moor's  "  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  Sir  William  Jones's  Works, 
vol.  vi.,  (or  vol.  xiii.  of  another  edition.) 

Kamadhenu,  ki'ma-d'ha'noo,  [i.e.  "wish-cow,"  from 
the  Sanscrit  kdftid,  "desire"  or  "wish,"  and  dhenii,  a 
"cow,"]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  a  won- 
derful cow,  produced  by  the  churning  of  the  ocean,  having 
power  to  grant  to  those  whom  she  favoured  whatever 
they  might  desire.  She  is  also  called  Surabhi,  (soo'- 
ra-b'hi,)  and  is  in  fact  a  goddess  of  no  mean  pretensions, 
and  would  appear  to  occupy  nearly  the  same  rank  as 
Vishnu's  consort  Lakshmi,  who  also  was  produced  from 
the  churning  of  the  ocean.  It  is  not  unusual  for  the 
Hindoos,  when  praying  for  prosperity  or  happiness,  to 
say,  *'  May  Lakshmi,  who  resides  among  the  gods,  (or 
"who  reposes  on  the  bosom  of  Vishnu,")  become  a  boon- 
granting  cow  to  me."  (See  LakshmJ,  ffnd  KOrma.) 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

KamalS.  or  EZemal^,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  kiim'- 
a-li';  from  kamald,  the  "lotus,"  which  is  in  its  turn 
derived  from  kd7nd,  "beauty,"  "radiance,"]  one  of  the 
names  of  Lakshmi,  (which  see.) 

Kambyses.    See  Cambyses. 

Kamehanieha  ( ka-ma-hi'ma-h^')  III.,  King  of 
Hawaii,  or  the  Sandwich  Islands,  was  born  about  1817  ; 
died  in  1854. 

Kanieliameha  IV.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1833,  was  educated  by  Protestant  missionaries.  He 
visited  Europe  in  1852,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1854. 

Kamel.    See  Camelli. 

Kamenski,  ki-men'skee,  (Count  Michael  Fedoro- 
VITCH,)  a  Russian,  born  about  1735,  was  created  field- 
marshal  by  the  emperor  Alexander  in  1802.  Four  years 
later  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
sent  against  the  French,  but  was  soon  after  succeeded 
by  Benningsen.    He  died,  or  was  killed,  in  1809. 

Karnes,  Lord.    See  Home,  (Henry.) 

Kam-Hi.    See  Khang-Hee. 

Kampen,  van,  (Jacob.)    See  Campen. 

Kampen,  van,  vSn  kim'pen,  (Nicolaas  Godfried,) 
a  Dutch  historian,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1776.  In  1829 
he  was  professor  of  Dutch  history  and  literature  in  Am- 
sterdam. Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned  "  His- 
tory of  the  French  Ascendency  in  Europe,"  (8  vols.,  1815 
-23,)  and  "Geographical  and  Statistical  Account  of  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,"  (1827.)    Died  in  1839. 

See  MuLLER,  "  Leven  van  N.  Kampen,"  1840;  Van  den  Brink, 
"  N.  G.  van  Kampen,"  etc.,  1839. 

Kampenhausen,  kSm^pen-how^zen,  (Balthasar,) 
Baron,  born  near  Riga,  in  Russia,  in  1772,  wrote  several 
political  and  topographical  works.    Died  in  1823. 

Kampfer  or  Kaempfer,  kSmp'fer,  (Engelbrecht,) 
an  eminent  German  botanist  and  traveller,  was  born  at 
Lemgo  in  165 1.  He  studied  medicine  and  the  languages. 
In  1683  he  accompanied  the  Swedish  ambassador  to 
Persia.    Having  passed  into  the  service  of  the  Dutch  j 


East  India  Company  as  surgeon,  he  visited  Bengal, 
Java,  Sumatra,  and  Japan.  He  returned  to  Europe  in 
1693,  and  published  an  important  work  entitled  "Amoe- 
nitates  Exoticse,"  (1712,)  which  contains  the  results  of 
his  researches  in  Persia,  etc.  He  also  wrote  a  valuable 
"  History  of  Japan  and  Siam,"  which  was  published  by 
Sir  Hans  Sloane  in  English,  (1727.)  It  was  also  pub- 
lished in  German  in  1777.    Died  at  Lemgo  in  17 16. 

See  HiRsCHiNG,  "  Hislorisch-litcrarisclies  Haiidbuch  ;"  "Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Kamphuizen.    See  Camphuysen. 

Kamptz,  von,  fon  kimpts,  (Karl  Almrecht  Chris- 
TOPH  Heinrich,)  an  able  Prussian  statesman,  born  at 
Mecklenburg  in  1769,  was  successively  appointed  min- 
ister of  the  interior  and  of  the  police,  and  in  1830  min- 
ister of  justice.  Died  in  1849.  He  published  "Civil 
Law  of  the  Duchy  of  Mecklenburg,"  and  "Contributions 
to  Public  and  International  Law." 

Kanada,  (the  name  of  a  sage.)    See  Kasyapa. 

Kanaris,  ki'nS-ris,  (Constantine,)  a  famous  naval 
hero  of  modern  Greece,  born  in  the  island  of  Ipsara 
about  1790.  In  1822  he  blew  up  the  Turkish  admiral's 
ship  in  the  channel  of  Chios,  and  in  1824  saved  the  island 
of  Samos  by  burning  a  large  Turkish  frigate  and  several 
transport-ships  which  were  destined  to  attack  it.  In 
1827  he  represented  Ipsara  in  the  Greek  National  Con- 
vention, and  in  1848  was  appointed  minister  of  the  marine 
and  president  of  the  cabinet.    He  resigned  in  1855. 

See  A.  SouTZo,  "  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Grecque." 

Kandace.    See  Candace. 

Kandaules.    See  Candaules. 

Kandeh  Rao,  kSnMeh  ri'o,  [perhaps  from  the  San- 
scrit kdndd,  a  "horse,"  and  rdo,  a  modern  Hindoo  word, 
signifying  "prince,"]  written  also  Kandarahu,  the 
name  of  an  avatar  of  Siva,  in  which  that  god  is  always 
represented  on  horseback.  (See  Siva.)  Kandeh  Rao 
is  worshipped  chiefly  among  the  Mahrattas. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kandjatou.    See  Kanj^too. 

Kandler,  kSnt^er,  (Johann  Joachim,)  a  German 
artist  and  modeller  in  porcelain,  born  in  Saxony  in  1706. 
He  worked  at  Meissen.    Died  in  1776. 

Kane,  (Ellsha  Kent,)  M.D.,  a  disdnguished  Ameri- 
can explorer,  born  in  Philadelphia  on  the  20th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1820.  He  was  the  son  of  Judge  John  K.  Kane. 
He  studied  medicine,  and  graduated  in  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1842,  on  which  occasion  he  wrote  an 
inaugural  thesis  on  "Kyestein."  In  1843  he  sailed  to 
China  with  Commodore  Parker,  as  surgeon  or  physician 
to  the  embassy.  He  visited  India,  Ceylon,  and  the  Phil- 
ippine Isles,  and  was  itnpelled  by  his  adventurous  spirit 
into  several  perilous  enterprises.  \w  1845  he  made  an 
excursion  to  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  ascended  the 
Nile  to  Nubia,  and  traversed  Greece  on  foot.  He  re- 
turned home  in  1846.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war  in 
1847.  I'^  May,  1850,  he  sailed  as  surgeon  to  the  expedi- 
tion which  Lieutenant  De  Haven  conducted  in  search  of 
Sir  John  Franklin.  He  published,  in  1854,  "  The  United 
States  Grinnell  Expedition  in  Search  of  Sir  John  Frank- 
lin." He  commanded  a  second  expedition  sent  out  for 
the  same  purpose,  and  sailed  from  New  York  in  the 
Advance  in  May,  1853.  He  failed  to  find  any  traces  of 
Franklin,  returned  home  in  October,  1855,  and  related 
the  adventures  and  sufferings  of  his  party  in  his  "Arctic 
Explorations,"  (2  vols.,  1856.)  In  this  voyage  he  had 
discovered  the  existence  of  an  open  Polar  sea.  He  re- 
ceived a  gold  medal  from  the  Royal  Geographical  Society 
of  London.  To  recruit  his  failing  health,  he  made  a  voy- 
age to  England  in  October,  1856,  and  jiassed  thence  to  the 
West  Indies.    He  died  at  Havana  in  February,  1857. 

See  William  Elder,  "  Biography  of  Ellsha  Kent  Kai;v>,"  1858; 
ScHMUCKEH,  "  Life  otElisha  Kent  Kane ;"  "  North  British  Review" 
for  February,  1857. 

Kane,  (Sir  Hobert,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished  chemist, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1810.  After  filling  professorships  in 
several  scientific  societies,  he  was  appointed  in  1849 
president  of  Queen's  College,  Cork,  He  had  previously 
been  knighted  by  the  lord  lieutenant.  He  wrote  various 
works  on  chemistry,  pharmacy,  and  other  sciences. 

Kane,  (Thomas  L.,)  a  general,  brother  of  Dr.  E.  K. 
Kane,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  about  1822.   He  was  sent 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  n,  y,  shori;  a,  9,  j,  g,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KANJJTOO 


1309 


KJO-TSOONG 


on  an  important  mission  to  the  Mormon  insurgents  of 
Utah  in  1858.  He  was  wounded  in  a  battle  near  Har- 
risonburg, Virginia,  in  June,  1862. 

Kanjatoo,  Kandjatou,  or  Kanjatu,  kSn-jS-too', 
fifth  Mongol  sovereign  of  the  dynasty  of  jengis  Khan, 
began  to  reign  over  Persia  A.D.  1291.  A  conspiracy 
having  been  formed  against  him  by  his  nobles,  he  was 
killed  in  1295. 

Kanne,  kin'neh,  (Johann  Arnold,)  a  learned  and 
eccentric  German  writer,  born  at  Detmold  in  1773, 
studied  philology  and  theology  at  Gottingen.  In  1818 
he  became  professor  of  Oriental  literature  at  Erlangen, 
where  he  died  in  1824.  Among  his  various  works  we 
may  name  "Anthology  of  Greek  Epigrams,"  ("Florile- 
gium  Epigrammatum  Graecorum,")  "System  of  Indian 
Myths,"  and  "Biblical  Researches." 

Kannegiesser,  kSn'neh-gees'ser,  (Gottlieb  Hein- 
RiCH,)  a  German  medical  writer,  born  at  Gotha  in  1712 ; 
died  at  Kiel  in  1792. 

Kannegiesser,  (Karl  Friedrich  Ludwig,)  a  Ger- 
man scholar,  born  at  Wendemark  in  1781,  is  known  for 
his  numerous  and  excellent  translations  into  German. 
Among  these  are  the  dramas  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher, 
Dante's  "Divine  Comedy,"  extracts  from  the  writings 
of  Byron,  Madame  de  Stael,  Mickiewicz,  and  other  cele- 
brated authors.  He  also  made  translations  from  Horace, 
Sappho,  and  Anacreon,  and  published  original  dramas 
entitled  "Mirza"  and  "Dorothea." 

Kansa.    See  Krishna. 

Kant,  (Immanuel,)  one  of  the  profoundest'metaphy- 
sicians  that  have  ever  lived,  the  founder  of  the  Critical 
(popularly  called  the  Transcendental)  school  of  philoso- 
phy in  Germany,  was  born  at  Konigsberg,  April  26,  1724. 
His  father  was  a  saddler,  and  is  said  to  have  been  of 
Scottish  extraction.  Both  his  parents  are  represented 
as  having  been  endued  with  a  severe  and  inflexible  vir- 
tue ;  and  to  the  influence  of  their  precept  and  example 
must  be  ascribed,  in  no  small  measure,  the  pure  moral 
character  and  that  profound  respect  for  moral  obliga- 
tion which  Kant  exhibited  through  the  whole  of  his 
life.  Having  gone  through  a  course  at  the  gymnasium, 
(the  Collegium  Fredericianum,)  he  entered  in  1740  the 
university  of  his  native  city.  Here  he  commenced  the 
study  of  theology,  but  soon  abandoned  it  for  other  pur- 
suits, and  devoted  his  attention  to  the  natural  sciences, 
mathematics,  and  philosophy.  On  leaving  the  university 
he  maintained  himself  for  several  years  as  a  private  tutor. 
During  this  period  he  published  his  first  work,"  Thoughts 
on  the  True  Estimation  of  the  Living  Powers,"  ("Ge- 
danken  von  der  wahren  Schatzung  der  lebendigen 
Krafte.")  About  1755  he  began  to  give  lectures  on 
logic,  physics,  metaphysics,  and  mathematics.  In  1762 
he  was  offered  the  professorship  of  poetry  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Konigsberg  ;  but  he  declined  the  position,  on 
the  ground  that  he  had  not  the  proper  qualifications. 
He  had  already  established  his  reputation  as  an  original 
and  profound  thinker,  when  at  length,  in  1770,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the 
University  of  Konigsberg.  When  he  entered  upon  his 
professorship,  he  delivered  a  discourse  on  the  World  of 
the  Senses  and  that  of  the  Understanding,  ("De  Mundi 
sensibilis  et  intelligibilis  Forma  et  Principiis,")  containing 
the  germs  of  the  philosophical  system  which  he  after- 
wards developed  in  his  great  work  entitled  "  Critique 
of  Pure  Reason,"  ("  Kritik  der  reinen  Vernunft,")  first 
published  in  1781.  He  had  previously,  in  his  work  on 
"  Universal  Natural  History  and  Theory  of  the  Heavens," 
("Allgemeine  Naturgeschichte  und  Theorie  des  Him- 
mels,"  1755,)  in  which  he  may  be  said  to  have  anticipated 
the  discovery  of  the  planet  Uranus,  given  proof  of  his 
sagacity  in  questions  relating  to  physical  science.  Among 
bis  various  other  works  may  be  named  "  Observations 
upon  the  Sentiment  of  the  Beautiful  and  vSublime," 
("  Beobachtungen  iiber  das  Gefiihl  des  Schonen  und  Er- 
habenen,"  1764,)  "Critique  of  Practical  Reason,"  ("  Kritik 
der  praktischen  Vernunft,"  1790,) — that  is,  reason  con- 
sidered in  its  application  to  our  moral  conduct, — "Cri- 
tique of  the  Faculty  of  Judging,"  ("Kritik  der  Urtheils- 
kraft,"  1793,)  and  his  essay  "On  a  Plan  for  an  Everlasting 
Peace,"  (^^zimi  ewigen  Fricden,^'' )  (1795.)  Kant  died 
February  12,  1804,  having  never,  it  is  said,  in  the  whole 


course  of  his  life  travelled  above  seven  miles  from  hii 
native  city.  Although  his  writings  embrace  a  great  va- 
riety of  subjects,  his  fame  rests  chiefly  upon  his  achieve- 
ments as  a  metaphysician.  As  a  deep  and  close  thinker 
he  has  jDerhaps  never  been  equalled.*  Our  limits  will 
not  permit  us  to  give  even  an  outline  of  the  Kantian 
system  of  philosophy,  which  could  only  be  rendered 
intelligible  in  an  extensive  treatise.  It  will  be  sufficient 
here  to  observe  that  Kant's  great  aim  was  to  determine 
the  laws  and  limits  of  the  intellect  of  man,  and  thus  to 
guard,  on  the  one  hand,  against  the  arrogant  dogmatism 
of  those  who  overestimate,  and,  on  the  other,  against 
the  absurd  skepticism  of  those  who  underestimate,  the 
powers  of  the  human  mind.  He  does  not  pretend  to 
have  made  any  important  discoveries  respecting  ques- 
tions which  belong  properly  to  religion,  (such,  for  ex- 
ample, as  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  the  moral  attributes 
of  the  Deity,  etc.,)  but  he  claims  that  the  great  points 
of  faith  are  not  only  undisturbed  by  his  system,  but  are 
rendered  more  secure  against  the  attacks  of  those  who 
use  their  reputation  for  philosophic  insight  to  give  weight 
to  arguments  against  religion,  in  questions  where,  from 
the  necessary  laws  of  the  human  intellect,  the  profoundest 
philosopher  can  know  no  more  than  the  great  mass  of 
mankind.  "Only  by  this  means,"  [i.e.  by  a  critique 
determining  the  laws  and  limits  of  the  human  reason,) 
says  he,  "  can  the  roots  of  materialism,  fatalism,  atheism, 
.  .  .  be  cut  off;"  and  he  proposes  in  this  manner  "to 
make  an  end  for  all  future  time  of  all  objections  against 
morality  and  religion,  by  presenting  the  clearest  proofs 
of  the  ignorance  of  their  assailants."  It  is  claimed  by 
some  of  the  admirers  of  Kant  (indeed,  he  himself  sug- 
gested the  parallel)  that  he  performed  for  mental  phi- 
losophy a  service  similar  to  that  which  his  countryman 
Copernicus  performed  for  astronomy.  As  the  latter  may 
be  said  to  have  determined  the  relative  importance  as 
well  as  the  true  position  of  the  earth  in  the  solar  system, 
so  the  former  has  determined  the  proper  limits  and  true 
position  of  the  human  intellect  in  relation  to  the  objects 
of  knowledge  ;  and  as  Copernicus  has  demonstrated  that 
many  of  the  apparent  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
are  not  real,  but  caused  by  the  motion  of  the  earth,  (the 
standpoint  of  the  observer,)  so  Kant  has  shown  that 
many  mental  phenomena  are  to  be  explained,  not  by 
referring  them,  as  most  philosophers  have  done,  to  in- 
dependent external  causes,  but  to  those  essential  laws 
which  regulate  the  movements  of  the  mind  itself 

For  an  excellent  popular  notice  of  the  influence  exerted 
by  Kant's  philosophy,  the  reader  is  referred  to  De  Quin- 
cey's  chapter  on  German  Literature  in  the  volume  of  his 
works  entitled  "Life  and  Manners."  He  will  also  find 
many  interesting  observations  on  Kant  and  his  writings 
in  Madame  de  Stael's  "Germany,"  Part  III.  chap.  vi. 

See,  also,  F.  Bouterwek,  "L  Kant,  ein  Denkmal,"  1804;  F. 
W.  ScHUiiKRT,  "I.  Kant's  Biographic,"  etc.,  1842;  Jachmann,  "I. 
Kant,  geschildert  in  Briefen,"  etc.,  1804;  Borow.ski,  "  Darstelliing 
des  Lebens  und  Characters  L  Kant's,"  1804;  F.  T.  Rinck,  "An- 
sichten  aiis  L  Kant's  Leben,"  1805;  Amand  Sainte.s,  "  Histoire 
de  la  Vie  et  de  la  Philosophic  dc  Kant,"  1844 ;  J.  Wii.i.m,  "  Histoire 
de  la  Philosophie  Allemande  depuis  Kant  jusqu'a  Hegel,"  Paris, 
4  vols.,  1846  ;  M.  V.  C0U.SIN,  "  Kant  dans  les  dernieres  Annees  de  sa 
Vie,"  1857;  Hasse,  "  Letzte  Aeiisscrungen  Kant's,"  1804;  Wasi- 
ANSKi,  "  Immanuel  Kant,"  etc.,  1804;  F.  Hoefer,  article  in  the 
"Nouvelle  liiographie  Generale;"  Hedge,  "Prose  Writers  of  Ger- 
many ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  1827,  (by  De  Quin- 
CEY,)  and  August,  1830;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1803. 

Kantaciizenus.    See  Cantacuzenus. 
Kantemir.    See  Cantemir. 

Kao-Tsoo  or  Kao-Tsou,  kS'o  tsoo,  the  name  of 
several  emperors  of  China,  of  whom  one  reigned  in  the 
seventh  and  two  others  in  the  tenth  century. 

Kao-Tsoong  or  Kao-Tsoung  (kJ'o  tsoong)  I.,  of 
the  dynasty  of  Tang,  succeeded  his  father,  Thai-Tsoung, 
on  the  imperial  throne  of  China  about  648  a.d.  He  was 
a  wise  and  just  ruler,  and  enacted  many  good  laws. 
He  reduced  the  Khan  of  the  Turks  to  complete  subjec- 
tion.   Died  in  684. 

See  Mailla,  "Histoire  generale  de  la  Chine;"  Pauthier, 
"  Chine  ancienne." 


*  M.  Stapfer,  author  of  the  article  on  Kant  in  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle,"  calls  him  "the  most  profound  thinker  with  whom  the 
history  of  the  human  mind  has  made  us  acquainted,"  ("le  penseur 
le  plus  profond  que  nous  fasse  connaitre  I'histoire  de  I'esprit  hu- 
niain.") 


€  as     c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K, gtittural ;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^I^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KAO~TSOO-OOTEE 


KARSTEN 


Kao-Tsoo-Ootee  or  Kao-Tsou-Outi,  kd'o-tsoo'oo'- 
tee,  called  also  Soong-Ootee  or  Soung-Outi,  soong- 
oo'te,  Emperor  of  China,  and  founder  of  the  dynasty  of 
Soong,  was  born  about  a.d.  355.  By  his  intrigues  and 
military  skill  he  reduced  many  of  the  rival  chiefs  to 
subjection,  and,  after  putting  the  emperor  and  his  son 
to  death,  ascended  the  imperial  throne.    Died  in  422. 

Kap''i-la  or  Capila,  [Hindoo  pron.  kiip'i-la,]  an  In- 
dian philosopher,  regarded  as  an  avatar  f)f  Siva,  was 
the  founder  of  a  celebrated  sect  named  Sankhya,  and  of 
a  philosophic  system  called  the  Sankhya  philosophy, 
supposed  to  have  been  the  germ  or  commencement  of 
Booddhism.  The  Saiikhya  philosophy  was  a  system  of 
rationalism  pushed  to  the  borders  of  atheism.  (See 
Vasudeva.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale,"  under  "  Capila." 

Kapnist,  k^p'nist,  (Vasili  Vasilievitch,)  a  cele- 
brated lyric  poet  and  dramatist,  born  in  Russia  in  1756. 
His  translation  of  the  Odes  of  Horace  first  fixed  his 
reputation  as  a  man  of  letters.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  the  poet  Derzhavin,  and  a  member  of  the  Im- 
perial Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg.  Among  his  works 
are  the  comedy  of  "  labeda,"  and  an  "Essay  upon  the 
Odyssey."    Died  in  1813. 

Kapodistria.    See  Capo  d'Istrias. 

Kara-George.    See  Czerni-George. 

Kara-Moustapha.    See  Cara-Mustafa. 

Kara-Yusuf.    See  Cara-Yoosef. 

Karajitch,  Karadjitch,  or  Karadschitscli,  kl-r§.'- 
jitsh,  a  learned  Servian,  was  born  near  Losnitza  in  1787. 
Having  fled  to  Vienna  in  1813  to  escape  the  cruelties 
of  the  Turks,  his  attention  was  turned  to  the  national 
ballad-poetry  of  his  country,  said  to  exceed  in  richness 
and  extent  that  of  almost  every  other  nation.  His 
collection  was  issued  in  Vienna  in  1814,  under  the  title 
of  "Servian  National  Songs."  He  published  a  Servian 
Grammar,  a  Servian-and-German  Dictionary,  and  various 
other  works. 

See  BowRiNG,  "  Servian  Poetry;"  Jungmann,  "History  of  Bo- 
hemian Literature." 

Karamzin  or  Karamsin,  kS-rSm-zeen'  or  k^-rSm- 
zin',  (Nikolai  Mikhaelovitch,)  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent of  Russian  historians,  was  born  in  the  province  of 
Orenburg  in  December,  1765,  and  was  educated  in  Mos- 
cow. In  1789  he  commenced  a  tour  through  England, 
France,  Switzerland,  and  other  countries  of  Europe.  On 
his  return  he  published  "  Letters  of  a  Travelling  Rus- 
sian." He  afterwards  issued  various  literary  productions, 
which  were  written  in  a  finished  and  elegant  style.  He 
was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  European  Messenger,"  a 
literary  journal.  In  1803  he  was  appointed  historiogra- 
pher of  Russia,  and  the  same  vear  commenced  his  great 
work,  the  "  History  of  the  Russian  Empire,"  (11  vols., 
1815-24.)  He  did  not  live  to  finish  the  work,  which  ends 
about  the  year  1610.  No  work  in  the  Russian  language 
has  obtained  greater  popularity.  The  first  edition,  of 
eight  volumes,  brought  the  author  100,000  rubles.  The 
emperor  Alexander  created  him  councillor  of  state  and 
knight  of  the  order  of  Saint  Anne  ;  and  after  the  death  of 
the  historian  his  widow  received  from  the  same  monarch 
an  annual  pension  of  50,000  rubles.  "  The  History  of 
the  Russian  Empire"  has  been  translated  into  French, 
German,  and  Polish.    Died  in  May,  1826. 

See  Depping,  notice  of  Karamzin  in  the  "  Revue  Encyclopedique  ;" 
Prince  A.  (talitzin.  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gene- 
rale  j"  "  British  and  Foreisju  Review"  for  September,  1828  ;  "  Monthly 
Review,"  vol.  xci.,  1820,  (Appendix;)  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review" 
for  September,  1828. 

Karburis.    See  Carburls. 

Karim  or  Kareem.    See  Kereem, 

Karl,  (Friedrich  August,)  Duke  of  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz,  born  at  Hanover  in  1785.  Having  distinguished 
himself  in  several  actions  against  the  French,  he  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant-general  by  the  King  of  Prussia  in  1813. 
He  entered  Paris  at  the  head  of  the  royal  guard  in  181 5. 
In  1825  he  became  a  general  of  infantry  and  president 
of  the  council  of  state.    Died  in  1837. 

Karl  Albrecht,  Elector  of  Bavaria.  See  Charles 
VII.,  Emperor. 

Karl  Alexander,  Dukeof  Wurtemberg,  born  in  1684, 
was  the  successor  of  Ludwig  Eberhard.  He  was  an 
ally  of  the  emperor  Leopold  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish 


succession.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Turin  in  1706,  defended  Landau  against  Marshal  Villars 
in  1713,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  field-marshal.  Died 
in  1737. 

Karl  der  Fiinfte.    See  Charles  V. 

Karl  der  Grosse.    See  Charlemagne. 

Karl  Eugen,  (oi-gan',)  or  Charles  Eugene,  a  snn 

of  Karl  Alexander,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1728, 
and  became  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg  in  1737.  He  i)ro- 
moted  commerce,  arts,  and  agriculture,  and  founded  the 
university  called  Carolina,  at  Stuttgart.    Died  in  1793. 

Karloman.    See  CARLOfL-xN. 

Karlstadt.    See  CARLsrADr. 

Karmarsch,  kaR'maRsh,  (Karl,)  a  German  savant, 
and  director  of  the  Polytechnic  School  at  Hanover,  born 
at  Vienna  in  1803.  He  wrote  "  First  Sketches  of  Me- 
chanical Technology,"  and  other  scientific  works. 

Karmat,  Karmath,  Carmath,  kak'niSt,  or  Kar- 
mathi,  kaR'mS-tee,  called  also  Hamdan,  ham-dan',  the 
founder  of  a  fanatical  and  numerous  sect  which  made 
great  ravages  in  the  Arabian  empire  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury. He  attempted  to  establish  a  community  of  property, 
and  taught  a  contempt  for  religion  and  morality.  His 
followers  were  called  Karmatians  (Carmatians)  or  Kar- 
mattians.    Died  about  900  A.D. 

See  D'Herbelot,  "  Biblioth^que  Orientale." 

Karneades.    See  Carneaues. 

Karnkowski,  kaRn-kov'skee,  written  also  Karn- 
cov,  kaRn'kov,  or  Karnowski,  (Stanislas,)  a  distin- 
guished prelate,  born  in  Poland  about  1525.  In  1581 
he  was  created  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Primate  of 
Poland.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning,  and  a 
successful  promoter  of  reforms  among  the  priests.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Interregnum  in  Poland,"  and 
several  other  works.    Died  in  1603. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Karoly,  ki'rol,  written  also  Karoli,  (Jasper,)  a 
Protestant  minister,  who  lived  in  Hungary  about  1580, 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  philosophy, 
theology,  and  philology.  He  produced  a  valuable  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  from  the  original  Hebrew  into  the 
Hungarian,  (1589.) 

Karpinski,  kaR-pin'skee  or  kaR-pin'skee,  (Francis,) 
a  Polish  poet,  born  in  Galicia  about  1760.  He  wrote  a 
tragedy  entitled  "Judyta,"  and  a  number  of  popular 
songs  and  idyls.    Died  in  1823. 

Karpinski,  kar-p^n'skee,  (Hyacinth,)  a  Russian 
theological  writer,  born  in  Ukraine  in  1721;  died  in 
Moscow  in  1798. 

Karpocrates.    See  Carpocrates. 

Karr,  ktR,  (Jean  Baptiste  Alphonse,)  a  popular 
French  novelist,  born  at  Munich  in  1808,  was  a  son  of 
Henri  Karr,  a  pianist.  He  produced  in  1832  a  novel 
entitled  "  Sous  les  Tilleuls,"  in  which  the  public  admired 
the  mixture  of  irony  and  sentiment,  of  fancy  and  good 
sense.  About  1837  he  became  editor  of  the  "Figaro," 
and  of  a  satirical  monthly  periodical  called  "The  Wasps," 
("  Les  Guepes.")  Among  his  numerous  novels  are  "  Fa 
dieze,"  (1834,)  "  Vendredi  Soir,"  (1835,)  and  "La  Famille 
Alain,"  (1848.)  He  also  wrote  an  ingenious  work  on 
flowers  and  gardens,  "Voyage  autour  de  mon  Jardin," 
(2  vols.,  1845.) 

See  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  February,  1842;  Clement  dk 
Ris,  "  Portraits  k  la  Plume,"  1853  ;  "  Eraser's  Masiazine"  for  May, 
1851,  and  February,  1854;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Jul^',  1852; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Karsch,  kaRsh,  or  Karschin,  kaRsh'in,  (Anna 
IvUiSE,)  a  German  poetess,  whose  original  name  was 
DuRBACH,  was  born  near  Schwiebus  in  1722.  After 
living  a  long  time  in  poverty  and  obscurity,  she  visited 
Berlin,  where  she  was  patronized  by  Gleim  and  Men- 
delssohn. Her  "Select  Poems,"  published  in  1764,  were 
very  favourably  received,  and  procured  for  her  the  title 
of  "the  German  Sappho."    Died  in  1791. 

See  L.  VON  Ki.euke,  "  Lebenslauf  der  Karschin,"  1792;  Hir- 
SCHING,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Karsten,  kaR'sten,  (Dietrich  Ludwig  Gustav,)  a 
German  mineralogist,  born  at  Biitzow  in  1768.  He  wrote 
many  able  treatises  on  mineralogy.    Died  in  1810. 

See  Leopold  VON  Buch,  "  Lobrede  auf  Karsten,"  in  the  "Ab- 
handlungen  der  Berliner  Akademie,"  1814;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAorf;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fSlI,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KARSTEN 


KAV LEACH 


Karsten,  (Franz  Christian  Lorenz,)  a  German 
agriculturist  and  writer,  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Biitzow  in  1751  ;  died  in  1829. 

Karsten,  (Karl  Johann  Bernhard,)  an  eminent 
Prussian  mineralogist,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Biitzow  in  1782.  He  was  appointed  privy  councillor  of 
mines  in  the  ministry  of  the  interior  in  1819.  He  pub- 
lished a  treatise  "  On  the  Carbonaceous  Substances  of 
the  Mineral  Kingdom,"  (1826,)  a  "  System  of  Metallurgy," 
(5  vols.,  1832,)  a  "Philosophy  of  Chemistry,"  (1843,) 
other  important  works.  In  his  peculiar  department  of 
science  Karsten  occupied  the  highest  rank.  Died  in  1853. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

K^rtikiya,  kaR-tT-ka'ya.  written  less  correctly  Car- 
ticeya  or  Cartikiya,  otherwise  named  Skan'da,  a 
son  of  Siva  and  Parvati,  and  brother  of  Ganesa,  is  the 
Hindoo  god  of  war  and  commander  of  the  celestial  armies. 
He  is  sometimes  called  Agnibhus  or  Agnibhu'va, 
("born  of  Agni"  or  Fire,)  Srimana,  and  many  other 
names.  One  of  his  greatest  exploits  was  the  destruction 
of  the  mighty  giant  Tripurasura,  who  had  acquired  such 
power  that  Indra  and  the  other  gods  trembled  for  their 
dominion. 

See  Moor's  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kartikiya.    See  Kartikeya. 

Kashyapa.    See  Kasyapa. 

Kassiopeia.    See  Cassiopeia. 

Kastner  or  Kaestner,  k§st'ner,  (Abraham  Gott- 
HELF,)  an  eminent  German  mathematician,  astronomer, 
and  poet,  born  at  Leipsic  in  September,  1719.  He  be- 
came assistant  professor  of  mathematics  at  Leipsic  in 
1746,  and  obtained  the  chair  of  mathematics  and  physics 
at  Gottingen  in  1756.  In  1762  he  succeeded  Tobias 
Mayer  as  director  of  the  Observatory  at  Gottingen.  He 
wrote,  besides  numerous  works  on  mathematics  and 
astronomy,  and  witty  epigrams,  a  "  History  of  Mathe- 
matics from  the  Revival  of  Science  to  the  End  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  (in  German,  4  vols.,  1 796-1800.) 
Died  in  June,  1800. 

See  "Vita  Kaestneri,"  by  himself,  Leipsic,  1787;  Kirsten,  "De 
A.  G.  Kscstnero,"  1787;  C.  G.  Heyne,  "  Elogium  Kjestneri,"  1801 ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Geiierale." 

Kastner,  kist'ner,  (Karl  Wilhelm  Gottloe,)  a 
German  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Greifenberg, 
in  Pomerania,  in  1783.  In  1821  he  was  professor  of 
chemistry  and  medicine  at  Erlangen.  He  wrote,  among 
other  treatises,  "  Outlines  of  Physics  and  Chemistry," 
(1821,)  and  a  "Manual  of  Meteorology,"  (3  vols.,  1823- 
30.)    Died  in  1857. 

Kas'ya-pa  or  Casyapa,  (modern  Hindoo  pron. 
kiis'ya-pa,)  [etymology  obscure  ;  perhaps  from  the  San- 
scrit kas  or  ka^,  to  "shine,"]  written  also  Kashyapa 
and  Ka9yapa,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of 
a  celebrated  sage  (Rishi)  or  demi-god,  the  father  (by 
Aditi)  of  the  Suras,  including  Indra,  and  (by  Diti)  of 
the  Asuras,  or  giants. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon;"  Monier  Williams,  "Transla- 
tion of  Sakoontala,"  (by  Kalidasa.) 

Kasyapa,  kis'ya-pa,  called  also  Kan'a-da,  a  cele- 
brated Hindoo  sage  or  philosopher,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding. 

Kate,  Ten,  tgn  ki'teh,  (Lambert,)  a  Dutch  clergyman, 
who  lived  about  1720.  He  is  known  for  his  valuable 
grammar  of  the  Dutch  language,  (Amsterdam,  1723.)  He 
also  wrote  "On  the  Connection  between  the  Gothic  and 
Dutch  Languages,"  and  a  "Life  of  Jesus  Christ." 

See  Sax,  "Onomasticon." 

Ka'ter,  (Henry,)  F.R.S.,  a  skilful  mathematician, 
born  in  Bristol,  England,  in  1777,  was  educated  in  the 
Royal  Military  College  in  Sandhurst.  He  was  distin- 
guished for  his  investigations  of  the  princi])les  of  reflect- 
ing telescopes  ;  for  his  experiments  to  determine  the 
exact  length  of  the  seconds-pendulum  ;  for  his  important 
advice  and  improvements  on  measures  and  weights  ;  and 
especially  for  his  invention  of  the  floating  collimator,  an 
instrument  for  adjusting  the  telescope.  In  1814,  when 
the  emperor  Alexander  of  Russia  visited  England,  Kater 
was  decorated  by  him  with  the  order  of  Saint  Anne. 
He  wrote  several  mathematical  treatises.    Died  in  1835. 

Katona,k6t'o-n6h,  (Stephen,)  an  eminent  Hungarian 
scholar  and  historian,  was  born  at  Papa  in  1732,  and 


became  a  Jesuit  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  He  afterwards 
filled  the  chairs  of  poetry,  rhetoric,  and  history  in  the 
University  of  Buda.  Died  in  181 1.  His  chief  produc- 
tion is  a  History  of  Hungary,  written  in  Latin,  ("  Historia 
critica  Regum  Stirpis  Austriacae,"  41  vols.,  1795  et  seq.) 
This  is  regarded  as  the  most  valuable  and  accurate 
work  upon  the  subject.  It  closes  with  the  year  1801. 
Katona  was  also  the  author  of  several  other  historical 
works,  in  the  Latin  and  Hungarian  languages. 

See  G.  Fejer,  "  Memoria  S.  Katonag,"  1812. 

Katt,  von,  fon  kit,  a  Prussian  officer,  born  in  1681, 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Prince  Frederick,  afterwards 
Frederick  the  Great.  For  having  aided  him  in  his 
attempt  to  escape  to  England,  Katt  was  executed  before 
the  prison-windows  of  the  prince. 

Kauer,  kow'er,  (Ferdinand,)  a  German  musical  com- 
poser, born  in  Moravia  in  1751.  His  works,  amounting 
in  all  to  nearly  two  hundred,  consist  of  church  music, 
operas,  symphonies,  concertos,  etc.    Died  in  1831. 

Kauffmann,  kowf  min,  (  Maria  Angelica,  )  the 
daughter  of  a  portrait-painter,  was  born  at  Coire,  in 
Switzerland,  about  1 741.  After  studying  painting  in 
Italy,  she  went  under  the  patronage  of  Lady  Wentworth 
to  England,  where  in  a  short  time  she  gained  consider- 
able celebrity  in  her  art.  Her  popularity  was  probably 
as  much  due  to  her  accomplished  manners  and  her  supe- 
rior education  as  to  any  excellence  which  she  possessed 
as  an  artist.  In  1781  she  was  married  to  Antonio  Zucchi, 
a  Venetian  painter,  whom  she  accompanied  to  Italy  in 
the  following  year.  She  still  retained  her  maiden  name 
of  Kauffmann.    Died  at  Rome  in  1807. 

See  G.  DE  Rossi,  "Vita  di  Angelica  Kauffmann,"  1810 ;  A.  Fr. 
Leon  de  Waillv,  "Angelica  Kauffmann,"  Paris,  2  vols.,  1838; 
KoNijNENBURG,  "  Kunstvevdiensten  van  A.  Kauffmann  en  Raphael," 
1810;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Kaufmann,  kowf  min,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  Ger- 
man mechanician,  born  at  Chemnitz,  in  Saxony,  in  1752, 
was  the  inventor  of  several  very  ingenious  instruments, 
among  which  was  a  flute-  and  harp-clock,  (/■7f/^'«- z/W 
Harfeniihr,)  which  was  purchased  by  the  Elector  Fred- 
erick Augustus.  His  son  Frederick,  born  in  1782, 
invented  the  automaton  trumpeter  and  other  similar 
works.    Died  in  1818. 

Kaulbach,  kowKb^K,  (Wilhelm,)  one  of  the  most 
eminent  painters  of  recent  times,  was  born  in  the  princi- 
pality of  Waldeck,  Germany,  in  1805.  Though  destined 
by  his  father  to  be  an  artist,  he  showed  little  inclination 
for  painting,  until  a  collection  of  engravings  illustrating 
Schiller's  tragedies  fell  into  his  hands  and  gave  the  first 
impulse  to  his  genius.  He  began  his  studies  under 
Cornelius  at  the  Academy  of  Dusseldorf  about  1822,  and 
in  1829  finished  his  picture  of  the  "  Mad-House,"  ("  Irren- 
haus,")  a  work  displaying  such  originality  and  power  as 
entitled  him  at  once  to  a  place  among  great  painters. 
About  this  time  he  executed  the  frescos  of  "  Apollo  and 
the  Muses,"  in  the  Odeon,  and  "  Cupid  and  Psyche,"  in 
the  palace  of  Duke  Max,  at  Munich.  In  1837  he  com- 
pleted his  "  Battle  of  the  Huns,"  founded  on  the  tradition 
of  the  combat  before  the  gates  of  Rome,  between  the 
Romans  and  the  spirits  of  the  Huns  who  were  slain, 
which,  rising  in  the  air,  continued  the  fight.  This  won- 
derful production,  so  strange  and  unique  in  its  character, 
was  received  with  general  applause,  and  is  justly  re- 
garded as  a  miracle  of  art.  His  second  great  historical 
piece,  "The  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,"  was 
finished  in  1838;  and  a  copy  of  it,  executed  in  oil  at  the 
request  of  King  Louis  of  Bavaria,  occupies  a  conspicuous 
place  in  the  Pinakothek.  Kaulbach  also  illustrated, 
somewhat  in  the  style  of  Hogarth,  Schiller's  "  Criminal 
from  Lost  Honour,"  Goethe's  "  Faust,"  and  "  Renard  the 
Fox,"  ("  Reineke  Fuchs  :")  the  last  displays  exquisite 
humour.  Besides  the  above-mentioned  works,  he  hts 
painted  a  number  of  portraits,  and  furnished  illustrations 
for  Shakspeare  and  other  poets.  Kaulbach  excels  in  the 
highest  qualities  of  his  art,  and  has  been  eminently  suc- 
cessful in  blending  in  his  style  the  ideal  and  symbolic 
with  the  real.  He  is  director  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  at 
Munich,  and  is  a  member  of  nearly  all  the  similar  institu- 
tions of  Europe. 

See  A.  Raczinski,  "  Histoire  de  I'Art  moderne  en  Allemagne  ;" 
H.  FoRTouL,  "De  I'Art  en  Allemagne;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Yi,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KAUNITZ 


1312 


KEANE 


Kaunitz,  von,  fon  kow'nits,  (Wenzel  Anton,) 
Prince,  a  celebrated  Austrian  statesman  and  diploma- 
tist, born  at  Vienna  in  February,  1711.  After  travelling 
in  England,  France,  and  Italy,  he  was  appointed  by  the 
emperor  Charles  VI.  aulic  councillor,  (1735.)  On  the 
accession  of  Maria  Theresa  he  was  made  in  1745  minis- 
ter-plenipotentiary to  Charles  of  Lorraine,  Governor  of 
the  Netherlands.  In  1748  he  was  a  member  of  the  Peace 
Congress  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  was  soon  after  created 
minister  of  state  and  knight  of  the  Golden  Fleece. 
Having  been  sent  as  ambassador  to  France  in  1750,  he 
negotiated  the  secret  alliance  between  that  country  and 
Austria.  He  was  soon  after  appointed  chancellor  of 
state  and  chancellor  of  Italy  and  the  Netherlands.  He 
enjoyed  the  unbounded  confidence  of  the  empress,  to 
whose  service  he  was  devoted,  and  the  principal  measures 
of  her  government  are  to  be  ascribed  to  his  influence. 
He  acted  a  prominent  part  in  the  ecclesiastical  reforms 
of  Joseph  II.  The  court  of  Rome,  offended  by  these 
innovations,  called  Kaunitz  "the  heretical  minister," 
("il  ministro  eretico.")  For  a  long  time  he  was  consid- 
ered as  the  oracle  of  diplomacy,  and  exercised  such  an 
influence  over  the  direction  of  affairs  that  he  was  jest- 
ingly called  "The  Coachman  of  Europe."  Kaunitz  was 
a  generous  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts,  and  was 
himself  an  accomplished  scholar.    Died  in  1794. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XV;"  Grimm,  "  Correspon- 
dance;"  Obermayer,  "Trailer  am  Grabe  des  W.  A.  Fiirsten  von 
Kaunitz,"  1794;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Kausler,  von,  fon  kows'ler,  (Franz,)  a  German 
officer  and  military  writer,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1794, 
served  in  the  campaigns  against  the  French  from  181 2 
to  1815.  He  published  a  "History  of  the  Wars  of  all 
Nations  and  Tin>es,"  (5  vols,,  1826-32,)  and  a  "Life  of 
Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy,"  (2  vols.,  1839.)    Died  in  1848. 

Kavanagh,  ktv'a-nSH,  (Julia,)  a  distinguished  writer 
of  tales  and  romances,  born  in  the  county  of  Tippe- 
rary,  Ireland,  in  1824.  In  1848  she  published  "Made- 
leine," a  tale  from  real  life,  which  was  very  successful, 
and  her  romance  of  "  Nathalie"  (1851)  was  still  more 
admired.  She  also  wrote  a  biographical  work  entitled 
"  W^oman  in  France  during  the  Eighteenth  Century," 
(2  vols.,  1850.)  Her  writings  are  remarkable  for  their 
beautiful  delineation  of  character  and  graceful  simplicity 
of  style. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1851. 

Kay,  (John,)  an  English  poet,  was  the  first  that  re- 
ceived in  England  the  title  of  poet-laureate.  He  flourished 
about  1480. 

Kay,  (John,)  a  miniature-painter  and  engraver,  born 
near  Dalkeith,  in  Scotland,  in  1742.  For  several  years 
he  gained  a  livelihood  as  a  barber  in  Edinburgh  ;  but, 
having  exhibited  a  talent  for  sketching,  he  was  assisted 
by  a  wealthy  gentleman,  that  he  might  devote  himself 
entirely  to  art.  His  paintings  were  distinguished  for 
their  correct  and  exact  likeness  to  the  original.  He 
etched  about  nine  hundred  plates,  which  contained  por- 
traits of  the  distinguished  or  eccentric  personages  of 
Edinburgh  at  that  date.  These  were  published,  under 
the  title  of  "  Kay's  Edinburgh  Portraits."  Died  in  1826. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Kay  or  Key,  kl,  (Willem,)  a  Flemish  historical 
painter,  born  in  Breda  in  1520.  Of  his  most  admired 
productions  we  may  mention  a  portrait  of  Cardinal 
Granvelle,  and  a  large  painting  in  which  the  chief  magis- 
trates of  Antwerp  were  introduced  of  the  size  of  life. 
Died  in  1568. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Kay-Shuttleworth,sluit'tel-worth,(Sir  James  Phil- 
UPS,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in  1804.  He  is  noted  for 
his  activity  in  advancmg  the  interests  of  public  schools. 
For  several  years  he  held  the  office  of  secretary  to  the 
committee  of  the  privy  council  on  education. 

Kaye.    See  Caius. 

Kaye,  ka,  (John,)  an  English  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1783, 
became  Bishop  of  Lincoln  about  1827.    Died  in  1853. 

Kaye,  (John  William,)  an  English  historical  writer, 
born  in  London  about  1814.  He  pulilished,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  the  War  in  Affghanistan,"  (1851,) 
a  "  Life  of  Sir  John  Malcolm,"  (1856,)  and  a  "  History 
of  the  Sepoy  War,"  (1866.) 


Kazinczy,  koz'int-se,  (Francis,)  a  Hungarian  noble- 
man, distinguished  for  his  contributions  to  the  litera- 
ture of  his  country,  was  born  at  Er-Semlyn  in  1759. 
He  devoted  his  attention  to  the  restoration  of  the 
Hungarian  language,  which  the  emperor  Joseph  H.  was 
attempting  to  extirpate.  This  dialect  had  then  partially 
fallen  into  disuse,  and  many  terms  to  express  modern 
-significations  were  required  to  be  added  in  order  to  give 
it  a  reasonable  degree  of  completeness.  To  effect  this, 
Kazinczy  translated  numerous  works  from  the  French, 
(ierman,  and  English,  adding  words  where  the  original 
Hungarian  was  deficient.  In  this  undertaking  he  appears 
to  have  been  eminently  successful.  In  1788  he  established 
the  first  Hungarian  magazine,  entitled  "  Magyar  Mu- 
zeum,"  and  two  years  later  commenced  the  "Orpheus." 
In  1794  he  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy  and 
condemned  to  death.  This  sentence,  however,  was  com- 
muted to  imprisonment,  and  after  the  expiration  of  about 
six  years  he  regained  his  liberty.  He  wrote  various 
poems,  and  several  works  in  prose.  Died  of  cholera 
in  1831. 

Kazwyny,  (Zacharia  Ben  Mohammed.)  See  Caz- 
weenee. 

Keach,  keech,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  Baptist  min- 
ister, born  in  Buckinghamshire  in  1640.  After  the  resto- 
ration he  was  bitterly  persecuted  on  account  of  the 
principles  which  he  had  advanced  in  his  writings.  He 
preached  some  years  in  London  after  1668.  The  most 
important  of  his  works  are  the  "  Key  to  open  Scripture 
Metaphors,"  (1682,)  and  "Exposition  of  the  Parables," 
(1704.)  He  also  wrote  two  works  in  imitation  of  Bunyan, 
viz.,  "Travels  of  True  Godliness,"  and  "Travels  of  Un- 
godliness."   Died  in  1704. 

See  Crosby,  "History  of  the  Baptists." 

Kean,  (Charles  J.,)  a  distinguished  actor,  the  son 
of  Edmund  Kean,  was  born  in  Waterford,  Ireland,  in 
181 1,  and  studied  at  Eton.  He  made  several  visits  to 
America,  the  last  of  which  was  in  1866.  About  1846  he 
became  the  manager  of  the  Princess's  Theatre,  London, 
to  the  popularity  of  which  he  contributed  greatly  by  the 
introduction  of  the  most  admirable  machinery,  such  as 
had  never  before  been  exhibited  to  the  British  public. 
He  was  also  employed  to  suj^erintend  the  royal  theatri- 
cals at  Windsor  Castle.    Died  in  1868. 

Kean,  (Edmund,)  a  celebrated  tragedian,  born  in 
London  about  1787.  He  was  the  son  of  an  actress 
named  Ann  Carey,  and,  while  very  young,  was  brought 
upon  the  stage  to  play  those  parts  in  which  children 
were  represented.  In  this  capacity  he  performed  before 
George  HI.  at  Windsor  Castle,  greatly  to  the  satisfaction 
of  that  monarch.  In  181 4  he  first  aj^peared  at  Drury 
Lane  Theatre,  in  the  character  of  "  Shylock,"  with  such 
distinguished  success  that  he  not  only  fully  established 
his  own  fame,  but  also  retrieved  the  declining  popularity 
of  the  theatre.  He  afterwards  visited  America,  where 
he  remained  two  years.  Died  in  1833.  As  a  tragedian 
Kean  is  considered  not  inferior  to  any  one  that  has  ap- 
peared on  the  English  stage.  His  remarkable  success 
was  owing  to  his  great  application  in  the  study  of  his 
characters  and  the  intensity  of  passion  which  he  threw 
into  them.  He  especially  excelled  in  his  representations 
of  "Shylock,"  "Othello,"  and  "Richard  IIL" 

See  Procter,  "Life  of  E.  Kean,"  1835;  F.  W.  Hawkins, 
"Life  of  Edmund  Kean;"  Oxberrv,  "Dramatic  Biography;" 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1835. 

Keane,  keen,  (John,)  Lord,  a  celebrated  British 
general,  was  born  at  Belmont,  in  the  county  of  Water- 
ford,  in  1 781.  He  entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  thirteen. 
In  1799  he  was  promoted  to  the  grade  of  captain,  and 
was  appointed  aide-de-camp  to  Earl  Cavan  in  Egypt. 
In  1812  he  served  as  colonel  in  Sj^ain  under  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley,  afterwards  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  was 
present  at  the  engagements  of  Vitoria,  Toulouse,  and 
other  important  battles.  He  was  subsequently  sent  to 
America,  where,  with  the  rank  of  major-general,  he 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  January,  181 5. 
In  1833  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the  forces  of 
Bombay,  and  in  1838  became  general-in-chief  of  the 
British  army  sent  against  the  Afghans.  In  1839  he  be- 
sieged the  fortress  of  Ghuznee,  which  had  been  regarded 
as  impregnable,  and  which  was  garrisoned  with  3500 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;    6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon ; 


KEARNEY 


KEFERSTEIN 


men,  well  supplied  with  all  the  munitions  of  war.  The 
place  was,  however,  taken  by  assault  in  forty-eight  hours, 
with  a  loss  of  only  two  hundred  on  the  side  of  the  British. 
For  this  victory  General  Keane  was  raised  to  the  peerage, 
with  the  title  of  Baron  Keane  of  Ghuznee.   Died  in  1S44. 

Kearney  or  Kearny,  kar'ne,  (Philip,)  an  able 
American  general,  born  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  June, 
1815.  He  was  sent  to  Europe  by  the  government  to 
study  the  French  cavalry  tactics  about  1838.  He  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  captain  in  1846,  served  in  the  Mexican 
war.,  and  lost  his  left  arm  near  Mexico  in  1847.  Having 
resigned  his  commission  in  1851,  he  passed  several  years 
in  Europe,  and  served  in  the  French  army  at  Solferino, 
(1859.)  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  the  Union 
army  in  1861.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battles 
of  Williamsburg,  May  5,  Fair  Oaks,  May  31,  White  Oak 
Swamp,  June  30,  and  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862.  In 
the  month  last  named  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
major-general.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Chantilly, 
September  i,  1862. 

Kearny,  (Stephen  Watts,)  a  major-general  in  the 
United  States  army,  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Newark,  New  Jersey,  in  1794.  He  entered  the  army 
as  lieutenant  in  1812,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  Queenstown.  Promoted  to  the  rank  of  briga- 
dier-general on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Mexican  war  in 
1846,  he  marched  westward  from  the  Arkansas,  con- 
quered New  Mexico,  and  established  a  provisional  gov- 
ernment at  Santa  Fe.  He  was  brevetted  major-general 
for  his  gallantry  at  the  battle  of  San  Pasqual,  December 
3,  1846.  In  the  following  spring  he  was  for  some  time 
Governor  of  California.    Died  in  1848. 

Keate,  keet,  (George,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  author, 
born  in  Wiltshire  in  1729.  During  his  travels  on  the 
continent  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Voltaire,  with 
whom  he  was  a  correspondent  for  a  long  time.  Of  his 
works  we  may  mention  the  poems  of'Ancient  and  Modern 
Rome,"  (1760,)  and  "  The  Alps,"  (1763.)  He  compiled  an 
account  of  the  "  Pelew  Islands"  (1788)  from  manuscripts 
placed  in  his  hands  by  Captain  Wilson.    Died  in  1797. 

Keat'ing,  (Geoffrey,)  D.D.,  a  Catholic  priest  and 
historical  writer,  was  born  in  Tipperary,  Ireland,  about 
1600.  His  chief  production  is  a  "History  of  Ireland 
from  the  Time  that  it  was  Planted  after  the  Flood  until 
the  Seventeenth  Year  of  the  Reign  of  Henry  II."  This 
work,  which  is  replete  with  fables  and  traditions,  was 
translated  from  the  Irish  by  Dermot  O'Connor,  and 
published  in  London,  in  1738. 

Keats,  (John,)  a  celebrated  English  poet,  born  in 
London  in  1795  or  1796,  and  educated  in  the  classics  at  i 
Enfield.    He  published  his  first  poems  in  181 7,  at  the  j 
recommendation  of  Leigh  Hunt.     His  "  Endymion,"  } 
which  appeared  soon  after,  was  severely  criticised  by  ! 
GifTord  in  the  "  Quarterly  Review."    As  Keats  was  of  a  I 
very  sensitive  disposition,  it  is  supposed  that  this  criti-  | 
cism  aggravated  the  disease  under  which  he  was  suffer-  : 
ing.    He  died  in  1821  at  Rome,  whither  he  had  gone  to  1 
reside  on  account  of  his  health.    The  poetry  of  Keats,  | 
though  exhibiting  a  vivid  perception  of  the  beautiful,  and  I 
great  powers  of  fancy,  is  deficient  in  intensity  and  force  ;  I 
and  his  celebrity  is  perhaps  to  be  attributed' as  much  to  ' 
the  circumstances  attending  his  early  death  as  to  his 
poetical  abilities.    Besides  the  "Endymion,"  we  may 
mention,  as  among  the  most  important  of  his  works, 
"Hyperion,"  "Lamia,"  and  "Isabella." 

"We  had  never  happened,"  says  Lord  Jeffrey,  "to 
5ee  either  of  these  volumes  ["Endymion"  and  "The 
Eve  of  Saint  Agnes"]  till  very  lately,  and  have  been 
exceedingly  struck  with  the  genius  they  display,  and  the 
spirit  of  poetry  which  breathes  through  all  theiV  extrava- 
gance. .  .  .  Mr.  Keats,  we  understand,  is  still  a  very 
young  man ;  and  his  whole  works,  indeed,  bear  evidence 
enough  of  the  fact.  They  are  full  of  extravagance  and 
irregularity,  rash  attempts  at  originality,  interminable 
wanderings,  and  excessive  obscurity.  They  manifestly 
require,  therefore,  all  the  indulgence  that  can  be  claimed 
for  a  first  attempt ; — but  we  think  it  no  less  plain  that 
they  deserve  it;  for  they  are  flushed  all  over  with  the 
rich  lights  of  fancy,  and  so  coloured  and  bestrewn  with 
the  flowers  of  poetry,  that,  even  while  perplexed  and  be- 
wildered in  their  labyrinths,  it  is  impossible  to  resist  the 


intoxication  of  their  sweetness,  or  to  shut  our  hearts  to 
the  enchantments  they  so  lavishly  present."  ("Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  August,  1820.) 

See  Richard  Monckton  Milnes,  "Life,  Letters,  and  Literary 
Remains  of  John  Keats,"  2  vols.,  1848;  "'London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  April,  1818;  "Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1S49; 
"Atlantic  Monthly"  for  Januaiy,  1861 ;  "  Monthly  Review"  tor  July, 
1820. 

Keats,  (Sir  Richard  Goodwin,)  an  English  admiral, 
born  in  Hampshire  in  1757.  In  1778  he  was  promoted  to 
a  lieutenancy  in  the  ninety-eight-gun  ship  Prince  Gecjrge, 
where  the  Duke  of  Clarence  (afterwards  William  IV.) 
was  placed  under  his  command.  He  served  with  dis- 
tinction against  the  Americans  and  the  French.  In  1782 
he  received  a  commander's  commission,  and  in  1807 
became  rear-admiral.    Died  in  1834. 

Keble,  kee'bel  or  kee'b'l,  (John,)  an  English  divine 
and  poet  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Fairford,  iii  Glou- 
cestershire, on  the  25th  of  April,  1792.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford,  elected  a  Fellow  of  Oriel  College  about  1810, 
and  ordained  a  priest  in  1816,  soon  after  which  date  he 
left  the  university.  For  twenty  ensuing  years  he  was 
employed  as  his  father's  curate  at  Fairford.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  John  Henry  Newman,  and  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Tractarian  movement  in  favour  of  High- 
Church  doctrines,  or  Puseyism.  According  to  Dr.  New- 
man, Keble  was  the  primary  author  of  this  movement. 
In  1827  he  published  "The  Christian  Year:  Thoughts 
in  Verse  for  the  Sundays  and  Holidays  throughout  the 
Year,"  which  obtained  almost  unbounded  popularity, 
and  passed  through  fifty  editions  or  more.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford  in  1833,  and 
became  vicar  of  Hursley  in  1835.  About  this  time  he 
married  Charlotte  Clarke.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Tracts 
for  the  Times,"  (1834-36,)  and  published  a  number  of 
sermons.  Among  his  popular  works  is  "Lyra  Innocen- 
tium  :  Thoughts  in  Verse  on  Christian  Children,  their 
Ways  and  Privileges,"  (1846.)  "To  English  church 
people  without  number,"  says  the  "North  British  Re- 
view," "'The  Christian  Year'  has  long  been  not  only  a 
cherished  classic,  but  a  sacred  book,  which  they  place 
beside  their  Bible  and  their  Prayer-Book.  .  .  .  Popularity 
is  no  word  to  express  the  fact  that  this  book  has  been 
for  years  the  cherished  companion,  in  their  best  moods, 
of  numbers  of  the  best  men,  of  the  most  diverse  charac« 
ters  and  schools,  who  have  lived  in  our  time."  Died  in 
March,  1866. 

See  Sir  John  T.  Coleridge,  "  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  John  Keble," 
i86g;  "North  British  Review"  for  September,  1866;  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  April  and  July,  1869  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for 
July,  1867;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  i86g. 

Keble,  (Joseph,)  an  English  writer  upon  law,  born 
in  London  about  1632;  died  in  17 10.  Of  his  numerous 
works  we  may  cite  "An  Explanation  of  the  Laws  against 
Recusants,"  (1681.) 

Keckermann,  k§k'ker-mSn',  (Bartholomaus,)  a 
learned  German  writer  on  science,  born  at  Dantzic  in 
1571.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Systema  Ethi- 
cum,"  (1610,)  and  "Systema  Mathematices,"  (1617.) 
Died  in  1609. 

Keder,  kn'der,  (Nils  or  Nicholas,)  a  Swedish  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Stockholm  in  1659.  He  wrote  his  auto- 
biography, and  several  treatises  upon  the  ancient  medals 
of  the  North.    He  was  ennobled  in  1719.    Died  in  1735. 

Keene,  keen,  (Edmund,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at 
Lynn  in  1713.  In  1752  he  was  raised  to  the  see  of 
Chester,  and  in  1770  to  that  of  Ely.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  learning  and  benevolence.    Died  in  1781. 

Keen^er,  (John  Christian,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
divine,  born  in  Baltimore  in  1819.  He  graduated  at 
Wesleyan  University,  Connecticut,  in  1834.  He  wrote 
a  popular  work  entitled  "The  Post-Oak  Circuit." 

Kee-Tse  or  Ki-Tse,  kee-tsiih,  [written  in  French, 
Ki-TsEU,]  a  Chinese  philosopher,  who  lived  in  the  twelfth 
century  B.C.  He  became  the  adviser  of  the  emperor 
Woo-Wang,  the  founder  of  the  third  Chinese  dynasty. 

See  Pauthier,  "Chine  ancienne;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Keferstein,  ka'fer-stin^  (Christian,)  a  German 
geologist,  born  at  Halle  in  1784.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Geognostic  Observations  on  the  Basaltic 
Structure  of  Western  Germany,"  (1820,)  in  which  he 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as     g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as ; 

83 


th  isin  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KEIGHTLET 


KELLER 


successfully  maintains  the  volcanic  nature  of  basalt,  and 
"Tlie  Natural  History  of  the  Earth,"  (2  vols.,  1834.) 

Keightley,  klt'le,  (Thomas,)  a  historical  and  bio- 
graphical writer,  born  in  Dublin  about  1790.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "Mythology  of  Ancient 
Greece  and  Rome,"  (3d  edition,  1854 ;)  a  History  of 
England,"  (1837  ;)  a  "  Life  of  John  Milton,"  (1855  ;)  and 
a  "  History  of  Rome." 

Keil,  Idl,  (JoHANN  Georg,)  a  German  scholar  and 
litterateur,  born  at  Gotha  in  1781.  He  published  in  1814 
an  "  Elementary  Book  of  the  Spanish  Language."  In 
1 8 13  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal  Spanish 
Academy.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  lyrical  poems. 
Died  in  1857. 

Keil,  (Karl  August  Gottlieb,)  a  German  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Grossenhain  in  1754.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  "Manual  of  Hermeneutics  of  the 
New  Testament,"  in  German,  (1810.)    Died  in  1818. 

Keill,  keel,  (James,)  a  physician,  brother  of  John, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1673. 
studied  medicine  in  his  native  city  and  at  Leyden,  and 
lectured  on  anatomy  in  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Anatomy  of 
the  Human  Body,"  and  several  physiological  treatises. 
Died  in  1719. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Keill,  (John,)  a  distinguished  mathematician,  born 
at  Edinburgh  in  1671,  and  educated  at  Oxford,  In  1700 
he  was  elected  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  wrote 
several  works  in  defence  of  the  theories  of  Newton  against 
Leibnitz.  In  171 1  he  was  chosen  to  decipher  papers  for 
the  queen,  for  which  position  he  was  well  qualified.  He 
became  professor  of  astronomy  at  Oxford,  where  he  had 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  physic.  Among  his 
works  are  "  An  Introduction  to  Natural  Philosophy," 
and  "An  Introduction  to  the  True  Astronomy,"  both 
of  which  were  published  in  Latin  and  English.  Died 
in  1 72 1. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Keim,  kim,  (Franz  Xaver,)  a  German  architect, 
born  in  1769  ;  died  in  1864. 

Keim,  kim,  (William  H.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Reading,  Pennsylvania,  in  1813.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  by  the  voters  of  Berks  county 
in  1858,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  the 
autumn  of  1861.  Died  at  Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania, 
in  May,  1862. 

Keisar,  kl'sar  or  ki'zar,  (Willem,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  about  1647;  died  about  1693. 

Keiser.    See  Kieser,  (Dietrich  Georg.) 

Keiser,  kl'zer,  (Reinhard,)  one  of  the  earliest  opera 
composers  in  Germany,  born  in  Leipsic  in  1673,  was  the 
author  of  more  than  a  hundred  operas,  besides  several 
concertos  and  pieces  of  church  music.  His  productions 
were  highly  esteemed  by  Handel.    Died  in  1739. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  Burney,  "  History  of 
Music." 

Keith,  keeth,  (George,)  fifth  Earl  Marischal  of 
Scotland,  distinguished  as  a  munificent  patron  of  learn- 
ing, and  as  the  founder  of  Marischal  (mar'shal)  College, 
Aberdeen.  He  studied  in  Paris,  and  afterwards  at 
Geneva,  where  he  had  the  celebrated  Theodore  Beza  for 
a  preceptor.  He  succeeded  his  grandfather  as  earl 
marischal  in  1581.  During  the  reign  of  James  VI.  he  was 
appointed  to  several  high  offices  of  state.  Died  in  1622. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Keith,  (George,)  hereditary  Earl  Marischal  of  Scot- 
land, was  born  in  that  country  about  1693.  He  entered 
the  army,  and  was  appointed  by  Queen  Anne  the  captain 
of  her  guards.  At  the  death  of  that  sovereign  he  made 
strenuous  but  unsuccessful  eflforts  to  have  the  Pretender 
proclaimed  in  London.  After  the  accession  of  George 
I.,  in  1 7 14,  his  property  was  confiscated,  and  sentence 
of  death  passed  against  him  by  the  British  Parliament. 
Keith  escaped  to  the  continent,  and  served  for  some 
time  in  the  Spanish  army.  He  subsequently  removed 
to  Berlin,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days  in 
high  favour  with  Frederick  the  Great.    Died  in  1778. 

See  D'Alembert,  "  filoge  de  Milord  Marechal,"  1779. 

Keith,  (George,)  a  Scottish  religionist,  who  at  an 
early  age  embraced  the  principles  of  George  Fox,  in 


the  defence  of  which  he  displayed  much  zeal  and  elo- 
quence. He  subsequently  advocated  many  views  at  va- 
riance with  those  held  by  the  Quakers,  for  which  he  was 
"  disowned"  or  excommunicated  by  the  Society.  Before 
his  death  his  views  again  changed,  and  he  died  in  the 
communion  of  the  Church  of  England.  He  wrote  "  The 
Standard  of  the  Quakers  Examined,"  (1702,)  intended  as 
a  refutation  of  Barclay's  "  Apology." 

See  Janney,  "History  of  Friends,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  iii. ;  Gough, 
'  History  of  the  Quakers;"  Smith,  "History  of  Pennsylvania." 

Keith,  (James,)  field-marshal  of  Prussia,  and  brother 
of  George  Keith,  (i 693-1 778,)  was  born  in  Scotland  in 
1696.  Having  entered  the  army  of  the  Pretender,  he 
took  part  in  the  disastrous  battle  of  Sheriffmuir,  where 
he  was  wounded.  He  afterwards  served  in  Spain  and 
in  Russia,  where  he  obtained  distinction  as  a  warrior  and 
statesman  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-gen- 
eral. Soon  after  the  accession  of  the  empress  Elizabeth 
he  removed  to  the  court  of  Frederick  the  Great,  by  whom 
he  was  created  field-marshal  of  Prussia,  and  in  1749 
governor  of  Berlin.  He  fell  at  the  battle  of  Hochkirchen, 
in  October,  1758. 

See  A.  Henderson,  "Memoirs  of  Field-Marshal  Keith,"  1759; 
Varnhagen  von  Ense,  "  Leben  des  Feld-Marschalls  J.  Keith," 
Berlin,  1844 ;  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen." 

Keith,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  Episcopal  clergyman  and 
antiquary,  born  in  Kincardineshire  in  1681,  was  conse- 
crated a  bishop  in  1727.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Affairs  of  Church  and  State  in  Scotland  from 
the  Beginning  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Reign  of  James 
V.  to  the  Retreat  of  Queen  Mary  into  England,"  (1734.) 
Died  in  1757. 

See  Chambers,  *'  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Keith,  (Sir  Robert  Murray,)  a  British  diplomatist, 
born  about  1730.  He  was  for  many  years  ambassador 
at  the  court  of  Vienna.    Died  in  1795. 

See  his  "  Memoirs  and  Correspondence,  Official  and  Familiar," 
etc.,  published  by  Mrs.  Gillespie  Smyth,  2  vols.,  1849. 

Keith,  (Thomas,)  an  English  mathematician,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1759.  He  wrote  the  "Complete  Practical 
Arithmetician,"  a  work  on  Trigonometry,  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1824. 

Keith,  Viscount.    See  Elphinstone,  (G.  Keith.) 

Keitt,  commonly  pronounced  kit,  (Lav^^rence  M.,)  a 
politician,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1824.  In  1853  ^""^ 
was  elected  a  representative  to  Congress,  and  re-elected 
in  1855,  1857,  and  1859.  In  1856  he  was  associated  with 
Preston  S.  Brooks  in  his  assault  upon  Charles  Sumner 
on  the  floor  of  the  United  States  Senate.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  Southern  disunion  movement  of  i860. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  near  Richmond  in  June,  1864. 

Keltoon,  Kelaoun,  or  Kel^un,  klVhobn',  (Alma- 
lek  -  Almansoor -  Seif -  ed  -  Deen,  (or  -Almansour- 
Saiffeddyn,)  al-miKek  il-min-sooR'  sTf-ed-deen',)  Sul- 
tan of  Egypt,  was  brought  to  that  country  as  a  slave  in 
1249  A.D.  He  rapidly  rose  in  rank,  and  in  1279,  having 
revolted  against  Almalek-al-Saeed,  he  was  proclaimed 
Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria.  He  subsequently  conquered 
Tripoli,  and  other  places  of  importance  in  Northern 
Africa.    Died  in  1290. 

Kelij-Arsian.    See  Kilij-Arslan. 

Keller.    See  Cellarius. 

Keller,  keKler,  (Georg,)  a  German  Catholic  theolo- 
gian, born  near  Bomdorf,  in  the  Black  Forest,  in  1760. 
He  became  in  1806  pastor  at  Aarau,  where  his  opinions, 
which  leaned  towards  Protestantism,  gave  great  offence 
to  the  Catholic  clergy.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  "The  Catholicon."    Died  in  1827. 

Keller,  keKler,  (Godfrey,)  a  Swiss  poet,  born  at  Zu- 
rich in  1819.  He  published  in  1846  a  volume  of  poems, 
which  were  received  with  favour.    Died  in  i860. 

Keller,  (Jakob,)  a  German  Roman  Catholic  writer, 
born  at  Seckingen  in  1568.  He  wrote  several  polemical 
works  against  the  Protestants.    Died  in  163 1. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Keller,  (Jean  Balthasar,)  a  brass-founder,  born  in 
Zurich,  Switzerland,  in  1638.  He  removed  to  Paris, 
where  he  gained  distinction  by  the  bronze  statues  which 
he  executed,  several  of  which  were  purchased  to  orna- 
ment the  garden  of  Versailles.    Died  in  1702. 


a.  e.  T.  a,    y, ;  i,^,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  a  viy^sAort;  a,  e,  i,  Q,i?^j-ir«r^,' fSr,  fill,  f^t;  m^t:  r6t;  goc  d  moon: 


KELLER 


1315 


KEMBLE 


Keller,  (Joseph,)  an  able  German  engraver,  bom  at 
Linz,  on  the  Rhine,  in  181 5,  became  professor  of  en- 
graving at  Dusseldorf.  Among  his  works  are  a  large 
engraving  of  Raphael's  "Dispute  of  the  Sacrament," 
and  several  prints  after  Overbeck. 

Keller  von  Steinbock,  keKler  fon  stm'bok,  (Fried- 
rich  LuDVViG,)  a  Swiss  jurist  and  legal  writer,  born  at 
Zurich  in  1799,  became  professor  of  law  at  Halle  in 
1843. 

Kellerhoven,  kel'ler-ho'ven,  (Moritz,)  a  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Altenrath,  duchy  of  Berg, 
in  1758,  became  court  painter  at  Munich  about  1806. 
He  excelled  in  portraits,  and  engraved  many  of  his  own 
works.    Died  in  1830. 

Kellermann,  de,  deh  ki'l^R^mSN',  (FRANgois  Chris- 
TOPHE,)  Duke  of  Valmy,  a  distinguished  French  mar- 
shal, of  German  extraction,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1735. 
After  serving  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  he  was  made  a 
lieutenant-general  in  1792,  and  was  soon  after  appointed 
to  command  the  central  army  on  the  Moselle.  He  gained 
a  decisive  victory  over  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  at  Valmy 
in  September,  1792.  Having  been  accused  of  treachery 
by  Custine  and  others,  he  was  imprisoned  for  ten.months, 
and  only  released  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre.  In  1795 
he  became  commander  of  the  army  of  the  Alps,  and 
after  his  return  to  Paris  was  appointed  inspector-general 
of  cavalry,  in  1798.  He  was  created  in  1804  senator  and 
marshal  of  France,  and  in  1806  he  obtained  from  Napo- 
leon the  command  of  the  reserve  army  on  the  Rhine,  and 
other  distinctions.  On  the  accession  of  Louis  XVHI. 
he  was  made  a  peer,  and  received  the  grand  cross  of  the 
order  of  Saint  Louis.    Died  in  1820. 

See  De  Salve.  "Fragments  historiques  sur  le  Mardchal  de  Kel- 
lermann," 1807;  Thiers,  "Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire  ;" 
BoTiDOUx,  "Esquisse  de  la  Carriere  militaire  de  F.  C.  de  Keller- 
»iann,"i8i7;  " Nouvelle  Biographic  Generaie." 

Kellermann,  de,  (Fran(Jois  Christophe  Edmond,) 
Duke  of  Valmy,  a  son  of  Fran9ois  fitienne,  noticed  below, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1802.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1839,  1842,  and  1844. 

Kellermann,  de,  (FRAwgois  Etiennp:,)  Duke  of 
Valmy,  born  at  Metz  in  1770,  was  a  son  of  General  Kel- 
lermann, noticed  above.  He  served  as  adjutant-general 
under  Bonaparte  in  Italy  in  1796,  became  a  general 
of  brigade  in  1797,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  victory 
at  Marengo  in  1800.  About  1802  he  obtained  the  rank 
of  general  of  division.  He  was  wounded  at  Austerlitz, 
where  he  directed  several  charges  of  cavalry.  In  181 5 
he  fought  for  Napoleon  at  Waterloo.    Died  in  1835. 

Kel'ley,  (Benjamin  Franklin,)  an  American  gen- 
eral in  the  Union  army,  born  in  New  Hampshire  about 
1807.  He  gained  a  victory  at  Philippi,  Virginia,  in  June, 

1861.  In  March,  1862,  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  "railroad  district"  in  Northwestern  Virginia. 

Kel'ley,  (Edward,)  a  noted  astrologer,  born  at  Wor- 
cester, England,  in  1555.  He  was  an  accomplice  of  the 
notorious  Dr.  Dee,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Germany. 
While  there,  he  was  imprisoned  as  an  impostor  by  the 
emperor  Rudolph;  but,  having  afterwards  obtained  his 
release,  he  won  the  favour  of  the  emperor,  by  whom  he 
was  knighted.  He,  however,  resumed  his  old  practices, 
and  was  again  imprisoned.  In  an  attempt  to  regain 
his  liberty,  he  fell  from  his  window,  and  was  mortally 
wounded,  in  1595.  He  wrote  various  works  upon  al- 
chemy and  astrology. 

See  Wood,  "Athenje  Oxonienses." 

Kelley,  (William  D.,)  born  in  Philadelphia  about 
1814,  studied  law,  and  was  elected  as  a  Democrat  a  judge 
of  the  court  of  common  pleas.  About  1856  he  became 
an  active  Republican,  and  was  in  i860  an  ardent  sup- 
porter of  Lincoln  for  the  Presidency.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress  from  Philadelphia  in  i860,  in 

1862,  in  1864,  in  1866,  and  in  1868.  In  the  House  of 
Representatives  Judge  Kelley  has  uniformly  acted  with 
the  radical  Republicans, 

Kellgren,  ch^l'gRgn,  (Johan  Henrik,)  an  eminent 
Swedish  poet,  born  in  West  Gothland  in  1751,  was  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Abo,  in  Finland.  In  1786 
Gustavus  III.  appointed  him  a  member  of  the  Swedish 
Academy,  and  likewise  chose  him  for  his  private  secre- 
tary and  librarian.  His  works,  consisting  of  lyric  poetry 


and  four  operas,  were  published  in  1796,  in  3  vols.,  under 
the  title  of  "Samlade  Skriftes."    Died  in  1795. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  N.  von  Ro- 
SENSTEiN,  "J.  H.  Kellgrens  Lefnad,"  1796. 

Kellie,  Earl  of.    See  Erskine,  (T.  Alexander.) 

Kel'li-son,  (Matthew,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  born  in  Northamptonshire  about  1560.  He  filled 
the  offices  of  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Rheims  and 
president  of  the  College  of  Douay.  He  wrote  numerous 
religious  and  controversial  works.    Died  in  1641. 

KeFly,  (Alfred,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  at  Mid- 
dletown,  Connecticut,  in  1787.  Having  removed  to 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  he  contributed  greatly  to  the  internal 
improvement  of  the  State  by  canals,  and  was  several 
times  elected  to  the  legislature.    Died  in  1859. 

KeFly,  (Sir  Fitzroy,)  a  British  lawyer,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1796.  He  was  for  many  years  a  Conservative 
member  of  Parliament,  and  was  attorney-general  in 
1858-59. 

Kelly,  (Hugh,)  a  dramatic  and  political  writer,  born 
at  Killarney,  in  Ireland,  in  1739.  He  removed  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  became  the  editor  of  several  periodicals. 
He  published  a  pamphlet  entitled  a  "Vindication  of  the 
Administration  of  Mr.  Pitt,"  and  the  plays  of  "  False 
Delicacy,"  (1768,)  "A  Word  to  the  Wise,"  (1770,)  and 
the  "School  for  Wives,"  (1774.)    Died  in  1777. 

See  "  Life  of  Kelly,"  prefixed  to  the  edition  of  his  Works,  1778. 

Kelly,  (John,)  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, born  at  Douglas,  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  in  1750.  He 
translated  the  Bible  into  the  Manks  language,  a  dialect 
of  the  ancient  Celtic,  in  which  he  was  exceedingly  well 
versed,  and  wrote  "A  Practical  Grammar  of  the  Ancient 
Gallic,  or  Language  of  the  Isle  of  Man."    Died  in  1809. 

Kelly,  (Michael,)  a  celebrated  singer  and  musical 
composer,  born  at  Dublin  in  1762.  At  the  age  of  sixteen 
he  went  to  Naples,  and  received  lessons  there  from 
Fineroli  and  Aprili.  He  performed  with  eminent  success 
in  Italy,  and  also  in  Germany,  where  he  was  a  favourite 
with  the  emperor  Joseph  and  an  intimate  friend  of  the 
great  Mozart.  He  afterwards  became  first  singer  at 
Drury  Lane  Theatre,  London.  He  wrote  an  interesting 
work  entitled  "  Reminiscences"  of  his  contemporaries 
and  friends.    Died  in  1826. 

See  "Musical  Biography,"  London,  1814;  "Monthly  Review" 
for  November,  1825. 

Kem'ble,  (Charles,)  a  brother  of  Mrs.  Siddons  and 
J.  P.  Kemble,  was  born  in  South  Wales  in  1775.  He 
was  educated  at  Douay,  in  France,  and  became  an  actor 
at  the  age  of  eighteen.  In  1792  he  performed  at  Drury 
Lane  as  "Malcolm"  in  "  Macbeth,"  and  continued  upon 
the  stage  as  a  successful  actor  until  1840.    Died  in  1854. 

See  OxBERRv's  "Dramatic  Biography;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine" 
for  December,  1854. 

Kemble,  (Elizabeth,)  a  daughter  of  Roger  Kemble, 
was  born  in  Lancashire,  England,  in  1761.  She  made 
her  first  appearance  in  London  in  1783.  In  form  and 
expression,  as  well  as  in  the  applause  which  she  re- 
ceived, she  has  been  compared  to  her  sister,  Mrs.  Sid- 
dons. In  1785  she  married  an  actor  named  Whitlock, 
whom  she  accompanied  to  America  in  1792.  In  this 
country  she  became  a  great  favourite,  and  performed 
several  times  before  General  Washington.    Died  in  1836. 

Kemble,  (Frances  Anne,)  often  called  Fanny 
Kemble,  a  popular  English  actress  and  writer,  born  in 
London  in  181 1,  was  a  daughter  of  Charles  Kemble.  She 
performed  both  tragedy  and  comedy  with  eminent  suc- 
cess. About  1832  she  accompanied  her  father  to  the 
United  States,  where  she  married  Pierce  Butler,  from 
whom  she  was  divorced  in  1849.  She  published  a  "Jour- 
nal of  a  Residence  in  America,"  (1835,)  "The  Star  of 
Seville,"  a  drama,  "Journal  of  a  Residence  on  a  Georgian 
Plantation  in  1838-39,"  (1863,)  etc. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1835,  and  September, 
1847;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1835;  "Fraser's  Magazine" 
for  May,  1832,  and  September,  1835. 

Kemble,  (George  Stephen,)  another  brother  of  the 
Kemble  family,  and  a  distinguished  actor,  was  born  in 
Herefordshire  in  1758.  He  first  appeared  at  Covent 
Garden  in  1783,  and  afterwards  was  successively  the 
manager  of  the  theatres  of  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  and 
Drury  Lane.    Died  in  1822. 


€  as  ^;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KEMBLE 


13 


16 


KEN 


Kemble,  (John  Mitchell,)  an  Anglo-Saxon  scholar 
and  historian,  son  of  Charles  Kemble  the  actor,  was 
burn  in  1807,  and  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge. For  several  years  he  was  the  editor  of  the 
"British  and  Foreign  Quarterly  Review."  lie  became 
a  member  of  various  foreign  scientific  and  historical 
societies.  His  chief  work  is  entitled  "The  Saxons  in 
England  ;  a  History  of  the  P^nglish  Commonwealth  till 
the  Period  of  the  Norman  Conquest,"  (2  vols.,  1849.) 
Died  in  1857. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  March  and  May,  1857. 

Kemble,  (John  Philip,)  an  eminent  English  trage- 
dian, brother  of  the  celebrated  Mrs.  Siddons,  and  son 
of  Roger  Kemble,  was  born  at  Prescot,  in  Lancashire, 
in  1757.  He  first  appeared  on  the  stage  at  the  age  of 
ten  years.  He  was  afterwards  educated  at  the  Roman 
Catholic  seminary  at  Douay,  France.  In  1776  he  again 
went  on  the  stage,  and  rose  rapidly  to  the  first  rank  in 
his  profession.  In  1783  he  first  performed  as  "  Hamlet" 
in  London  at  the  Drury  Lane  Theatre.  He  subsequently 
became  a  shareholder  and  manager  in  the  Covent  Garden 
Theatre.  He  retired  from  his  profession  in  181 7.  On 
this  occasion  a  public  dinner  was  given  him,  at  which 
Lord  Holland  presided.  On  account  of  ill  health,  he 
then  went  to  reside  in  the  south  of  France,  and  after- 
wards at  Lausanne,  in  Switzerland,  where  he  died  in  1823. 

A  competent  and  impartial  critic  thus  states  his  im- 
pressions of  Kemble  as  an  actor  :  "  His  performances 
throughout  evince  deep  study  and  application,  joined  to 
amazingly  judicious  conception.  They  are  correct  and 
highly-finished  paintings,  but  much  laboured. .  .  .  Though 
my  head  is  satisfied,  and  even  astonished,  yet  my  heart  is 
seldom  affected.  .  .  .  Once,  I  must  own,  however,  I  was 
completely  overpowered  by  his  acting.  It  was  in  the 
part  of  Zanga.  ...  I  could  not  have  believed  that  tragic 
representation  could  so  far  deceive  the  senses  and  the 
judgment."  ("  Life  and  Letters  of  Irving,"  vol.  i.  p.  156.) 
As  an  actor,  Kemble  excelled  in  the  highest  order  of 
tragedy.  He  possessed  an  elegant  and  discriminating 
taste,  and  was  learned  and  refined.  His  manners  were 
uncommonly  attractive.  He  enjoyed  a  high  character  as 
a  gentleman  and  a  man  of  honour. 

See  BoADEN,  "Memoirs  of  John  P.  Kemble,"  2  vols.,  1825; 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1826;  "Westminster  Review" 
for  April,  1825. 

Kemble,  (Priscilla,)  an  English  actress,  wife  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1755  ;  died  in  1845. 

Kemble,  (Roger,)  a  distinguished  actor,  born  in  Here- 
ford, England,  in  1721.  In  1753  he  married  Sarah  Ward, 
an  actress,  by  whom  he  had  twelve  children.  Among 
these  were  Mrs.  Siddons,  John  Philip  Kemble,  Eliza- 
beth Kemble,  and  Charles  Kemble,  all  of  whom  are 
mentioned  in  this  work. 

Kemeny,  k^n/an,  (Sigmund,)  Baron  of,  a  Hunga- 
rian writer  and  journalist,  born  in  1816.  In  1849  he  was 
elected  to  the  National  Assembly  at  Pesth,  where  he 
advocated  the  revolutionary  cause.  The  next  year  he 
became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Respublica."  He 
wrote  several  popular  romances.    Died  in  1852. 

Kemp,  (George  Mickle,)  the  designer  of  the  Scott 
monument  at  Edinburgh,  was  born  at  New  Hall,  in 
Scotland,  about  1794.  He  was  employed  for  a  time  as  a 
draughtsman,  and,  when  plans  were  requested  for  the 
Scott  monument,  he  furnished  one  which  was  preferred, 
though  he  did  not  live  to  see  the  execution  of  it.  Died 
in  1844. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Kemp,  (James,)  D.D.,  Bishop  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal diocese  of  Maryland,  born  in  Scotland  in  1764, 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1787,  and  for  more  than 
twenty  years  was  rector  at  Great  Choptank,  Maryland. 
He  was  bishop  of  that  diocese,  and  provost  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Maryland,  from  1816  until  his  death,  in  1827. 

Kemp,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  Kent  about 
1400,  was  elected  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1452,  and 
subsequently  became  lord  chancellor.  He  had  distin- 
guished abilities  both  as  a  primate  and  statesman.  Died 
in  1454. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  V.  chap.  XX. 


Kemp,  (Joseph,)  a  distinguished  musical  composer, 
and  organist  of  the  cathedral  of  Bristol,  was  born  at 
Exeter  in  1778;  died  in  1824.  Among  his  productions 
are  the  anthems  "  I  am  Alpha  and  Omega,"  "  A  Sound 
of  Battle  is  in  the  Land,"  and  "The  Siege  of  Ischia," 
an  opera. 

Kempelen,  von,  fon  k^n/peh-l^n,  (Wolfgang,)  a 
famous  mechanical  genius,  and  the  inventor  of  the  chess 
machine,  was  born  at  Presburg  in  1734.  His  remarkable 
talent  for  chess-playing  made  him  a  favourite  at  the 
court  of  Maria  Theresa,  who  created  him  an  imperial 
councillor.  In  1769  he  exhibited  to  the  empress  hia 
chess-player,  representing  a  man  of  usual  size  sitting 
before  a  table  which  held  a  chess-board.  Though  op- 
posed by  the  best  players,  the  machine  was  nearly  always 
victorious,  and  would  correct  a  false  move  of  the  other 
party.  He  visited  France  and  England,  where  his  in- 
vention caused  a  great  sensation.  In  1728  he  invented 
the  speaking-machine,  having  the  form  of  a  wooden 
box  provided  with  a  bellows.  This  was  made  to  speak 
words  distinctly  in  a  voice  like  that  of  a  child.  Kem- 
pelen wrote  a  treatise  "  On  the  Mechanism  of  Human 
Speech."    Died  in  1804. 

Kemper,  k^m'per,  (Jan  Melchior,)  an  able  Dutch 
jurist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1776.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Leyden  in  1809,  and  published  a  numbei 
of  works  on  law.    Died  in  1824. 

See  M.  SiEGENBEEK,  "Memoria  J.  M.  Kemperi,"  1824. 

Kem'per,  (Reuben,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
Fauquier  county,  Virginia.  He  distinguished  himself  in 
various  engagements  against  the  Spaniards  in  Florida 
and  Mexico,  and  took  part  in  the  defence  of  New  Orleans 
under  General  Jackson.    Died  in  1826. 

Kemph,  kSmf,  (Nikolaus,)  a  German  theologian 
and  writer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1397  ;  died  in  1497. 

Kempis,  d,  ik^m'pis,  (Thomas,)  or  Thomas  Ham'- 
er-ken,  a  celebrated  German  ascetic  writer,  born  at 
Kempen,  in  the  diocese  of  Cologne,  about  1380.  He 
became  an  inmate  of  the  monastery  of  Mount  Saint 
Agnes,  and  spent  much  time  in  copying  religious  books. 
He  is  said  to  have  employed  fifteen  years  in  writing  a 
copy  of  the  Bible.  He  also  wrote  several  original  treat- 
ises. His  reputation  is  founded  on  the  well-known  work 
entitled  "De  Imitatione  Christi ;"  but  it  remains  an 
unsettled  question  whether  he  composed  or  only  tran- 
scribed it.  Many  volumes  have  been  written  on  each 
side  of  this  question.    Died  in  1471. 

See  Brewer,  "  Thomae  a  Kempis  Biographia,"  1676;  Baehring, 
"Thomas  von  Kempen,"  etc.,  1854;  Mooren,  "  Nachrichten  iiber 
Thomas  a  Kempis,"  Crefeld,  1855,  (said  to  be  the  best  of  all  the 
biographies  of  T.  k  Kempis  ;)  Malou,  "  Recherches  sur  le  veritable 
Auteur  de  I'lmitation,"  1858:  Hodgson,  "Reformers  and  Mar- 
tyrs," Philadelphia,  1867  ;  Charles  Hoffmann,  "  T.  a  Kempis  et  ses 
Ecrits,"  1848;  J.  P.  SiLBERT,  "Gersen,  Gerson  und  Kempis,  oder 
ist  Einer  von  diesen  Dreien  der  Verfasser,"  etc.,  182S;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Ken,  (Thomas,)  a  celebrated  English  prelate,  born  at 
Berkhamstead  in  1637,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  About 
1679  he  went  to  Holland  as  chaplain  to  the  Princess 
of  Orange.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  chaplain  to 
Charles  II.,  who  raised  him  to  the  see  of  Bath  and  Wells 
in  1684.  "Pie  was,"  says  Macaulay,  "a  man  of  parts 
and  learning,  of  quick  sensibility  and  stainless  virtue.  .  .  . 
Before  he  became  a  bishop,  he  had  maintained  the 
honour  of  his  gown  by  refusing,  when  the  court  was  at 
Winchester,  to  let  Eleanor  Gwinn  [a  mistress  of  Charles] 
lodge  in  the  house  which  he  occupied  there  as  a  preben- 
dary. The  king  had  sense  enough  to  respect  so  manly 
a  spirit.  Of  all  the  prelates  he  liked  Ken  the  best." 
Deprived  of  his  bishopric  as  a  nonjuror  upon  the  coro- 
nation of  William  III.,  he  was  regarded  with  the  highest 
esteem  even  by  his  opponents.  Queen  Anne,  upon  her 
accession,  granted  him  a  pension.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  volumes  of  elaborate  sermons,  and  of  many 
poetical  productions  of  a  religious  character.  "  His 
Morning  and  Evening  Hymns,"  says  the  writer  above 
quoted,  "  are  still  repeated  daily  in  thousands  of  dwell- 
ings."   He  died  in  1711. 

See  W.  Hawkins,  "Life  of  Bishop  Ken,"  1713;  W.  L.  Bowles, 
"Life  of  Thomas  Ken,"  1830:  Macaulay,  "History  of  England," 
vol.  i.  chap,  v.;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1851; 
Miss  Stkickland,  "Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops,"  etc.,  London, 
1866  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1832. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  ^,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ia,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  f^U,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


KENDAL 


1317 


KENNICOTT 


Ken'dal,  (George,)  an  English  nonconformist  minis- 
ter, born  in  Devonshire,  was  a  Calvinist.  He  became 
rector  of  Blissland,  in  Cornwall,  from  which  he  was 
ejected  about  1662.    Died  in  1663. 

Ken'dall,  (Amos,)  an  able  American  statesman,  born 
at  Dunstable,  Massachusetts,  in  1789.  He  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College  in  181 1,  and  subsequently,  removing 
to  Kentucky,  became  a  tutor  in  the  family  of  Henry 
Clay.  He  supported  General  Jackson  in  the  Presiden- 
tial'campaign  of  1829,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  by 
him  an  auditor  of  the  treasury  department.  He  was 
made  postmaster-general  in  1835,  and  continued  to  fill 
that  post  till  1840.  He  began  about  1844  a  Life  of 
General  Jackson,  of  which  the  first  volume  was  pub- 
lished several  years  ago.    Died  in  1869. 

See  notice  in  the  "Democratic  Review"  for  Marcli,  183S,  {w\lh.  a 
portrait;)  "  Life  of  Tackson." 

Ken'dall,  (G.,)  an  English  missionary-,  who  laboured 
in  New  Zealand,  and  opened  a  school  there  in  1816.  He 
acquired  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  language  of  that 
country,  and  wrote  a  "  Grammar  and  Vocabulary  of  the 
Language  of  New  Zealand,"  (1820.)  He  was  drowned 
at  sea  in  1835. 

Kendall,  (George  Wilkins,)  an  American  writer 
and  journalist,  born  at  Amherst,  New  Hampshire,  in 
1810.  He  removed  in  1835  to  New  Orleans,  where  he 
became  associated  with  Mr.  Lumsden  as  editor  of  the 
"Picayune."  In  1841  he  accompanied  the  Santa  Fe  ex- 
pedition from  Texas,  of  which  he  published  an  account 
after  his  return.  He  brought  out  in  185 1  a  work  entitled 
"The  War  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico,"  with 
coloured  plates  of  the  principal  conflicts. 

Kendall,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  and  member  of 
the  Society  of  Friends,  born  about  1725;  died  in  1814. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "Life  of  Thomas  Story,"  and 
"Precepts  of  the  Christian  Religion," 

Kendi,  Al.    See  Alchindus. 

Ken'drick,  (Asahel  C.,)  D.D.,  an  American  scholar 
and  Baptist  clergyman,  born  at  Poultney,  Vermont,  in 
180Q.  He  graduated  at  Hamilton  College,  New  York, 
in  183 1.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  professor  of 
Latin  and  Greek  at  Madison  University,  and  in  1850 
Greek  professor  in  the  University  of  Rochester,  New 
York.  He  has  published  a  number  of  religious  and 
miscellaneous  works. 

Kendrick,  (Nathaniel,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  born 
in  Hanover,  New  Hampshire,  in  1777,  was  appointed 
professor  of  theolog}^  and  moral  philosophy  in  Hamilton 
College  (now  Madison  University)  in  1822.  His  labours 
contributed  greatly  to  the  prosperity  of  the  institution. 
Died  in  1848. 

Kenicius,  ki-nee'she-us,  (Peter,)  Archbishop  of 
Upsal,  Sweden,  during  the  reign  of  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
was  born  in  1555.  He  rendered  important  service  to 
the  cause  of  education,  and  owing  to  his  efforts  parish 
hospitals  were  established  throughout  Sweden.  He 
wrote  several  theological  works.    Died  in  1636. 

KenTy,  (John  R.,)  an  American  lawyer  and  general, 
born  in  Baltimore  about  1820.  He  commanded  a  small 
force  which  was  attacked  at  Front  Royal  by  the  army 
of  Stonewall  Jackson,  May  23,  1862.  He  was  wounded 
and  captured  in  this  action. 

Ken'na-way,  (Sir  John,)  a  British  diplomatist,  born 
at  Exeter  in  1758.  He  became  a  captain  of  the  army  in 
India  in  1780,  and  negotiated  an  important  treaty  with 
Tippoo  Saib  in  1792.    Died  in  1836. 

Ken'ne-dy,  (Grace,)  a  popular  Scottish  authoress, 
born  in  Ayrshire  in  1782.  She  published  several  moral 
and  religious  tales  of  great  merit.  Among  these  we 
may  name  "Anna  Ross,"  "The  Decision,"  and  "Jessy 
Allan,"  which  have  been  translated  into  German;  also 
"Father  Clement,"  (1825.)    Died  in  1825. 

Kennedy,  (Ildefonso,)  a  Scottish  Benedictine  and 
scientific  writer,  born  at  Muthel  in  1721,  was  secretary 
to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Munich.    Died  in  1804. 

Kennedy,  (James,)  a  Scottish  prelate,  and  grandson 
of  Robert  III.,  was  born  about  1405.  He  was  raised  in 
1440  to  the  see  of  Saint  Andrew's,  and  was  subsequently 
chosen  a  lord  of  the  regency  until  James  III.  obtained 
his  majority.  He  was  distinguished  for  the  salutary  re- 
forms which  he  effected  among  the  Scottish  clergy.  He 


was  the  founder  of  the  University  of  Saint  Salvator,  at 
Saint  Andrew's.    Died  in  1466. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Kennedy,  (John,)  a  physician  and  antiquary,  born 
in  Scotland.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  coins  of  the 
emi:)eror  Carausius.    Died  in  1760. 

Ken'ne-dy,  (John,)  an  English  author,  and  rector  of 
Bradley,  in  Derbyshire.  Among  his  works  is  "A  Scrip- 
ture Chronologv-,"  (1752.)    Died  about  1770. 

Ken'ne-dy,^(j0HN  Pendleton,)  an  American  states- 
man and  popular  writer,  born  at  Baltimore,  Maryland,  in 
1795.  He  served  in  the  war  of  1812,  ^nd  was  elected  in 
1820  to  the  Maryland  House  of  Delegates.  He  was  sub- 
sequently three  times  elected  to  the  United  States  House 
of  Representatives,  where  he  actively  supported  the  lead- 
ing measures  of  the  Whig  party.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  navy  in  1852.  He  has  published  several 
popular  works  of  fiction,  among  which  we  may  name 
"  Swallow  Barn,  or  a  Sojourn  in  the  Old  Dominion," 
(1832,)  and  "  Horse-Shoe  Robinson,  a  Tale  of  the  Tory 
Ascendency,"  (1835;)  also  a  "Life  of  William  Wirt," 
besides  other  works.    Died  in  August,  1870. 

See  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Ken'net,  (Basil.)  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  brother  of  Bishop  Kennet,  born  in  Kent 
in  1674,  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  became  chaplain 
to  the  English  factory  at  Leghorn.  He  returned  to 
England  on  account  of  ill  health.  He  wrote  various 
antiquarian  and  historical  works,  among  which  are  "The 
Antiquities  of  Rome,"  (1696,)  relating  to  the  historv'  of 
the  republic,  and  "  Lives  and  Characters  of  Ancient 
Greek  Poets,"  (1697.)    Died  in  1715. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Kennet,  (White,)  an  English  prelate  and  author, 
born  at  Dover  in  1660,  was  educated  at  Westminster 
School  and  at  Oxford.  In  1699  he  received  the  degree 
of  D.D.,  and  in  1718  was  ordained  Bishop  of  Peterbo- 
rough. He  was  distinguished  as  a  preacher  of  great 
eloquence  and  as  a  scholar  of  indefatigable  industry  and 
perseverance,  as  well  as  for  his  opposition  to  the  High- 
Church  party.  Died  in  1728.  Of  his  numerous  works 
we  may  mention  "  Parochial  Antiquities  attempted  in 
the  History  of  Ambrosden,  Burcester,  and  other  Ad- 
jacent Places  in  the  Counties  of  Oxford  and  Bucks," 
(1695,)  and  "A  Register  and  Chronicle,  Ecclesiastical 
and  Civil,"  (1728,)  relating  to  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 

See  \V.  Newton,  "Life  of  White  Kennet,"  1730;  "Biographia 
Britannica." 

Ken'neth  I.,  King  of  Scotland,  died,  after  a  short 
reign,  in  606,  and  was  succeeded  by  Eugene  III. 

Kenneth  H.  succeeded  his  father,  Alpin,  as  King  of 
the  Scots,  in  834.  He  carried  on  a  successful  war  against 
the  Britons,  and  reduced  the  Picts  to  subjection.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  sovereign  who  swayed  a 
sceptre  over  all  Scotland.    Died  about  858  a.d. 

Kenneth  III.  ascended  the  throne  of  Scotland  in  970. 
He  repelled  the  invasions  of  the  Danes,  established  a 
just  and  efficient  government  in  his  dominions,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  monarch  who  gave  Scotland 
a  written  code  of  laws.    He  was  assassinated  in  994. 

See  Buchanan,  "  History  of  Scotland." 

Ken'ni-cott,  (Benjamin,)  a  learned  divine  and  He- 
brew scholar,  born  at  Totness,  in  Devonshire,  England, 
in  1 7 18.  While  a  student  at  Oxford,  he  wrote  two  dis- 
sertations, one  "  On  the  Tree  of  Life  in  Paradise,"  and 
the  other  "On  the  Oblations  of  Cain  and  Abel,"  which 
procured  for  him,  free  of  expense  and  before  the  usual 
period,  the  degree  of  B.A.  He  was  soon  after  elected 
a  Fellow  of  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  became  canon  of 
Christ  Church,  and  obtained  the  degree  of  ^LA.  in  1750. 
In  1753  he  published  a  treatise  on  "The  State  of  the 
Printed  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Old  Testament,"  in  which 
he  unfolded  his  plan  of  collating  the  Hebrew  manuscripts' 
of  the  Old  Testament.  Although  his  efforts  met  with 
opposition  from  some  of  the  clergy,  a  large  sum  was, 
raised  to  aid  him  in  his  enterprise,  and  several  men 
of  learning  were  emploved  to  assist  him  in  his  labours. 
His  "  Hebrew  Bible,"  the  result  of  these  labours,  was 
issued  in  1776,  with  the  various  readings  attached.  Dr. 
Kennicott  and  his  assistants  in  this  valuable  work  con- 


a  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^See  Explanation's,  p.  23.) 


KENNON 


KENTON 


suited  sixteen  Samaritan  and  over  six  hundred  Hebrew 
manuscripts.    Died  at  Oxford  in  1783, 
See  "Noiivelle  Hiograi)liie  (ienerale." 

Ken'npn,  (Roukkt  Lkwis,)  a  Methodist  divine  and 
physician,  born  in  North  Carohna  in  1789.  He  excelled 
in  various  brandies  of  science,  particularly  geology,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  call  attention  to  the  coal- 
fields of  Alabama.    Died  in  1838. 

Keu'rick,  (Francis  Pairick,)  D.D.,  a  Catholic 
prelate,  born  at  Dublin  in  1797,  emigrated  in  1821 
to  America.  In  1842  he  succeeded  Dr.  Conwell  as 
Bishop  of  PhiladeJphia.  He  was  created  Archbishop  of 
Baltimore  in  1851,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  by 
the  pope  "  primate  of  honour,"  having  precedency  over 
all  other  Catholic  prelates  of  the  country.  He  enjoyed 
a  high  reputation  for  learning,  and  published, .  among 
other  works,  "  Dogmatic  Theology,"  and  *'  Moral  The- 
ology," (both  in  Latin.)    Died  in  1863. 

Kenrick,  (Peier  Richard,)  D.D.,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Dublin  in  1806.  Having  re- 
moved to  Philadelphia,  he  became  editor  of  the  "Cath- 
olic Herald."  On  the  death  of  Dr.  Rosati,  in  1843,  he 
succeeded  him  as  Bishop  of  Saint  Louis,  and  in  1847 
was  made  first  archbishop  of  that  city.  He  has  founded 
several  charitable  institutions,  and  has  been  active  in 
promoting  the  cause  of  education. 

Ken'rick,  (William,)  an  English  writer,  noted  for 
his  quarrelsome  disposition,  born  in  Hertfordshire  about 
1720,  published  "Epistles,  Philosophical  and  Moral," 
in  poetry,  (1759,)  "  A  Review  of  Dr.  Johnson's  New  Edi- 
tion of  Shakspeare,"  (1765,)  which  caused  a  controversy 
with  Johnson's  friends,  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  English 
Language,"  and  a  poem  called  "Love  in  the  Suds,"  for 
which  he  was  sued  for  damages  by  Garrick,  whom  he 
had  libelled  in  it.    Died  in  1779. 

See  Baker,  "Biographia  Dramatica." 

Ken'sett,  (John  Frederick,)  an  American  land- 
scape-painter, born  in  Cheshire,  Connecticut,  in  1818. 
He  studied  in  London,  and  in  1845  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy  his  "View  of  Windsor  Castle."  He 
afterwards  visited  Rome,  where  he  executed  several 
excellent  pictures  of  Italian  scenery.  Among  his  best 
American  landscapes  may  be  named  "  Sunset  in  the 
Adirondacks,"  "  Franconia  Mountains,"  and  "  Hudson 
River  from  Fort  Putnam."  He  became  a  member  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Design  in  1849. 

See  TucKRRMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Kent,  (Edward,)  Duke  of,  father  of  Victoria,  Queen 
of  Great  Britain,  and  the  fourth  son  of  George  HI.,  was 
born  in  1767.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Geneva.  In 
1790  he  entered  the  army,  and  three  years  later  assisted 
in  the  capture  of  Saint  Lucia.  In  1796  he  was  appointed 
lieutenant-general,  and  in  1799  was  created  Duke  of  Kent 
and  Strathern  and  Earl  of  Dublin.  In  1802  he  became 
Governor  of  Gibraltar  ;  but,  his  rigid  disci  jjline  producing 
a  mutiny,  he  was  soon  after  recalled.  In  181 8  he  married 
a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg.  The  Duke  of 
Kent  was  a  liberal  patron  of  benevolent  enterprises. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  "Life  of  Edward,  Duke  of  Kent,"  by  Ekskine  Neale,  1S50. 

Kent,  (Edward,)  LL.D.,  an  American  judge,  born  in 
Concord,  New  Hampshire,  in  1802.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard,  and  in  1825  settled  as  a  lawyer  in  Bangor, 
Maine.  He  was  afterwards  twice  Governor  of  the  State, 
and  became  an  associate  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of 
INIaine  in  1859. 

Kent,  (James,)  a  distinguished  organist  and  musical 
composer,  born  at  Winchester  in  1700.  He  became  one 
of  the  children  of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  London.  Upon 
finishing  his  education,  he  was  successively  chosen  or- 
ganist of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  of  Winchester 
Cathedral.  He  published  a  popular  work  containing 
"Twelve  Anthems"  of  his  composition.    Died  in  1776. 

See  BuRNEY,  "History  of  Music." 

Kent,  (James,)  an  eminent  American  jurist,  born  in 
Putnam  county,  New  York,  in  July,  1763.  He  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1781,  studied  law,  and  commenced  the 
practice  of  his  profession  at  Poughkeei)sie.  In  politics 
he  was  a  Federalist.  He  was  profoundly  versed  in  legal 
knowledge.    He  became  a  resident  of  the  city  of  New 


.  York  about  1793,  and  a  friend  of  Alexander  Hamilton. 

j  In  1798  he  was  apjjointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court 

j  of  New  York,  and  in  1804  became  chief  justice.  He 
lectured  on  law  at  Columbia  Ccjllege.  His  important 
decisions  in  law  and  equity  have  been  preserved  in  the 

j  Re])orts  of  Johnson  and  Caines.  He  became  chancellor 
in  1814,  and  retired  from  that  office  in  1823,  after  which 
he  was  again  professor  of  law  in  Columbia  College.  He 
published  "Commentaries  on  American  Law,"  (4  vols., 
1826-30,)  which  is  a  standard  work  of  high  authority 
and  a  production  of  great  literary  merit.  Referring  to 
this  work.  Judge  Story  remarks,  "These  Commentaries 
have  already  acquired  the  reputation  of  a  juridical  classic, 
and  have  placed  their  author  in  the  first  rank  in  the 
benefactors  of  the  profession.  They  embody  the  prin- 
ciples of  law  in  pages  as  attractive  by  the  persuasive 
eloquence  of  their  style  as  they  are  instructive  by  the 
fulness  and  accuracy  of  their  learning."  ("On  the  Con- 
flict of  Laws.")  "It  will  be  a  proud  distinction  to  Kent 
and  Story,"  says  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October, 
1852,  (p.  340,)  "that  they  have  done  more  than  any  other 
men  to  put  an  end  to  the  indifference  of  English  lawyers 
to  the  learning  of  their  American  brethren,"  Judge 
Kent  had  a  high  reputation  for  virtue.  He  died  in  New 
York  in  December,  1847,  leaving  one  son,  William. 

See  John  Duer,  "Discourse  on  the  Life  of  James  Kent ;"  "  Na 
tional  Portrait  Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Alli 
Bf)NE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors,"  vol.  ii. ;  Duvckinck,  " Cyclopjedia 
of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Kent,  (Maria  Louisa  Victoria,)  Duchess  of,  born 
in  1786,  was  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg. 
She  was  married  about  1803  to  Prince  Emich  Karl  of 
Leiningen,  and  again  to  the  Duke  of  Kent  in  1818.  Vic- 
toria, Queen  of  England,  was  the  issue  of  her  second 
marriage.    Died  in  1861. 

Kent,  (William,)  the  founder  of  the  English  style 
of  landscape-gardening,  was  born  in  Yorkshire  about 
1685.  He  studied  painting,  which  he  soon  abandoned 
for  ornahiental  architecture.  Among  his  best  designs  is 
that  of  the  temple. of  Venus  at  Stowe.  His  fame,  how- 
ever, rests  chiefly  on  the  great  improvement  he  effected 
in  landscape-gardening,  by  substituting  the  close  imita- 
tion of  nature  for  the  stiff  and  formal  style  of  the  French 
and  Dutch.  Walpole  has  styled  him  "the  creator  of 
modern  gardening."    Died  in  1748. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Kent,  (William,)  an  American  lawyer,  son  of  James 
Kent,  the  eminent  jurist,  noticed  above,  was  born  in 
1802.  He  was  appcjinted  by  Governor  Seward  a  judge 
of  the  circuit  court  of  New  York.  Having  resigned 
that  office,  he  practised  law  in  New  York  City.  Died  in 
January,~i86l. 

Kent'l-gern,  Saint,  a  Scottish  ecclesiastic,  became 
Bishop  of  Glasgow.  He  is  said  to  have  converted  many 
of  the  natives  to  Christianity.    Died  about  600. 

Ken'ton,  (Simon,)  an  American  soldier,  born  in  Fau- 
quier county,  Virginia,  was  one  of  the  associates  of 
Daniel  Boone,  the  Kentucky  pioneer.  He  fought  against 
the  Indians  on  the  Western  frontier,  and  subsequently 
in  the  war  of  1812.    Died  in  1836. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Ken'yon,  (John,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Jamaica 
about  1783,  inherited  an  ample  fortune.  He  published 
"  A  Day  at  Tivoli,  with  other  Poems."   Died  in  1856. 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  December,  1S38;  "North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1S39,  (by  Pkescott.) 

Kenyon,  (Lloyd,)  Lord,  an  eminent  English  law- 
yer, and  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench,  was  born  at 
Greddington,  in  Flintshire,  October  5,  1732.  He  be- 
came in  1754  a  member  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1761.  With  too  high  a  sense 
of  honour  to  em])loy  artifice,  and  having  no  influential 
friends  to  assist  him,  several  years  elapsed  before  he 
obtained  practice.  In  1779  he  distinguished  himself  by 
his  able  defence  of  Lord  George  Gordon,  on  trial  for 
treason.  Three  years  later  he  was  made  attorney-general. 
In  1788  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench 
and  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Ken- 
yon, Baron  Greddington,  He  died  in  1802,  after  having 
amassed  a  large  fortune.    Lord  Kenyon  was  generally 


a,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  tlr,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


KEOGH 


popular,  though  his  extremely  parsimonious  habits,  added 
to  his  overbearing  and  haughty  manner  towards  the  bar- 
risters as  well  as  towards  his  associate  judges,  made  him 
no  favourite  with  the  members  of  his  profession.  As  a 
justice,  he  was  distinguished  for  his  strict  adherence  to 
the  letter  of  the  law,  and  for  his  impartial  severity  upon 
offenders  of  every  rank. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  tlie  Chief  Justices  ;"  "  Sketch 
of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Lord  Kenyon,"  London,  1802  ;  Foss,  "The  Judges 
of  England." 

Keogh,  ka'oH,  ?  (William,)  an  Irish  lawyer,  born  at 
Galway  in  1817.  He  published  "  The  Practice  of  the 
Court  of  Chancery  in  Ireland."  In  1856  he  became  a 
judge  of  the  common  pleas. 

Kepler,  kip'ler,  or  Keppler,  [Lat.  Keple'rus,] 
(JOH.ANN,)  a  celebrated  German  astronomer,  born  at  or 
near  Weil,  in  Wiirtemberg,  on  the  27th  of  December, 
1571.  His  father,  Henry  Kepler,  lost  nearly  all  his  prop- 
erty by  becoming  surety  for  a  friend,  and  was  reduced 
to  the  position  of  tavern-keeper  at  Elmendingen.  About 
1586  he  entered  the  monastic  school  of  Maulbronn, 
where  he  was  educated  at  the  expense  of  the  Duke  of 
Wiirtemberg.  He  continued  his  studies  at  Tubingen, 
which  he  quitted  in  1591  with  the  degree  of  master. 
In  1594  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Gratz,  in  Styria.  He  pul)lished,  under  the  title  of 
*' Mysterium  Cosmographicum,"  (1596,)  an  account  of 
his  incj[uiries  and  speculations  in  relation  to  the  number, 
distances,  and  periodic  times  of  the  planets.  In  1597  he 
married  a  widow  named  Barbara  von  Muller.  Kepler 
and  the  other  Protestant  professors  were  driven  from 
Gratz  by  persecution  about  1600.  He  visited  Tycho 
Brahe,  who  then  resided  near  Prague,  and  who  intro- 
duced him  to  the  emperor  Rudolph.  At  the  request  of 
Rudolph,  he  began  to  assist  Tycho  in  the  formation  of 
astronomical  tables. 

On  the  death  of  Tycho,  in  October,  1601,  Kepler  suc- 
ceeded him  as  principal  mathematician  to  the  emperor, 
with  a  salary  of  1500  florins,  and  inherited  his  unpub- 
lished observations.  He  published  in  1604  an  important 
contribution  to  the  science  of  optics,  entitled  a  "  Supple- 
ment to  Vitellio."  After  he  obtained  the  patronage  of 
the  emperor  he  resided  for  some  years  at  Linz.  In  1609 
he  produced  his  greatest  work,  "Astronomia  nova,  sen 
Physica  celestis  tradita  Commentariis  de  Motibus  Stellae 
Martis,"  in  which  he  announced  two  of  the  laws  which 
regulate  the  periods  and  motions  of  the  planets,  and 
which  are  known  as  Kepler's  Laws.  These  are  :  i,  that 
the  orbits  of  the  planets  are  elliptical ;  2,  the  radius- 
vector,  or  line  extending  from  a  planet  to  the  sun,  de- 
scribes or  passes  over  equal  areas  in  equal  times  ;  3,  the 
squares  of  the  periodic  times  of  planets  are  proportional 
to  the  cubes  of  their  mean  distances  from  the  sun. 
"These  laws  constitute  undoubtedly,"  says  Sir  John 
Herschel,  "the  most  important  and  beautiful  system  of 
geometrical  relations  which  have  ever  been  discovered 
by  a  mere  inductive  process,  independent  of  any  con- 
sideration of  a  theoretical  kind.  They  comprise  within 
them  a  compendium  of  the  motions  of  all  the  planets, 
and  enable  us  to  assign  their  places  in  their  orbits  at  any 
instant  of  time,  past  or  to  come."  "This  beautiful  and 
simple  law,"  says  Professor  Playfair,  in  reference  to  the 
third  law,  "had  a  value  beyond  what  Kej)ler  could  pos- 
sibly conceive  ;  yet  a  sort  of  scientific  instinct  instructed 
him  in  its  great  importance.  He  has  marked  the  year 
and  the  day  when  it  became  known  to  him  :  it  was  on 
the  8th  of  May,  1618."  His  third  law  was  discovered 
with  infinite  satisfaction  in  1618,  and  announced  in  his 
"Harmonice  Mundi,"  (1619,)  the  title  and  contents  of 
which  recall  the  ideas  of  Pythagoras  on  celestial  har- 
mony. Kepler  imagines  that  in  this  music  of  the  spheres 
Saturn  and  Jupiter  perform  the  bass.  Mars  the  tenor, 
and  the  Earth  and  Venus  the  hatite-contre.  He  con- 
sidered the  sun  to  be  the  source  of  motion  as  well  as  of 
light  and  heat.  The  treasury  of  the  emperor  was  so 
exhausted  by  war  that  Kepler  could  not  obtain  the  pay- 
ment of  his  salary,  and  often  felt  the  pressure  of  poverty. 
Af  er  the  death  of  Rudolph,  (1612,)  he  was  appointed 
pro  essor  of  mathematics  at  Linz.  His  first  wife  having 
died,  he  married  Susanna  Rettinger,  about  1614.  In 
1620  he  was  visited  by  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  an  English 


ambassador,  who  invited  him  to  remove  to  England  : 
but  he  declined.  He  expended  the  labour  of  several 
years  on  his  "  Rudolphine  Tables,"  which  were  published 
in  1627  and  were  highly  prized.  Among  his  iinportant 
works  is  his  "  Dioptrica,"  (1611,)  in  which  he  describes 
the  astronomical  telescope  with  two  convex  lenses.  The 
invention  of  this  form  of  telescope  is  ascribed  to  him. 
Kepler  was  so  devoted  to  science,  and  had  so  little  re- 
gard for  riches,  except  those  of  the  mind,  that  he  used 
to  say  he  would  rather  be  the  author  of  the  works  he 
had  written  than  possess  the  duchy  of  Saxony.  He  died 
at  Ratisbon  in  November,  1630,  leaving  four  sons  and 
three  daughters. 

See  Drinkwater  Bethune,  "Life  of  Kepler,"  in  the  "Library 
of  Useful  Knowledge;"  Brkitsch\yerd,  "  Keplers  Leben  utid  Wir- 
ken,"  1S31  :  Sir  David  Brewster,  "Martyrs  of  Science,"  1*^41; 
Arago,  "  Notices  biographiques,"  tome  ii.  ;  Dr.  F.  Hoefek,  article 
in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gdnerale  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  June,  1835;  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  April,  i860. 

Kepler,  (Ludwig,)  a  German  physician,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Prague  in  1607.  He  practised 
at  Bale,  Strasburg,  and  Konigsberg,  and  wrote  several 
works.    Died  in  1663. 

Keplerus.    See  Kepler,  (Johann.) 

Kep'pel,  (Augustus,)  an  English  admiral,  son  of 
William,  Earl  of  Albemarle,  was  born  in  1725.  In  1761, 
as  commander  of  a  small  squadron,  he  captured  Belle- 
Isle,  and  the  following  year  was  created  rear-admiral  of 
the  blue.  In  1778  he  became  admiral.  He  was  subse- 
quently raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Viscount  Keppel,  Baron 
Elden,  and  was  twice  appointed  first  lord  of  the  admi- 
ralty. He  was  accused  by  Sir  Hugh  Palliser  of  neglect 
of  duty  in  an  action  against  the  French  in  July,  1778,  and 
was  tried  by  a  court-martial,  by  which  he  was  honourably 
acquitted.    Died  in  1786. 

See  "Life  of  Viscount  Keppel,"  by  Thomas  Keppel;  Kippis, 
"Life  of  Lord  Anson;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1842. 

Keppel,  Earl  of  Albemarle.    See  Albemarle. 

Keppel,  (George  Thomas,)  an  English  officer,  born 
in  1799,  was  a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Albemarle.  He  was 
elected  to  Parliament  in  1832  and  in  1847.  He  published 
a  "Journey  across  the  Balkan." 

Keppel,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  naval  officer,  a 
younger  son  of  the  Earl  of  Albemarle,  was  born  in  1809. 
He  became  a  captain  about  1837,  and  commanded  the 
naval  forces  operating  against  China  in  1857-58.  He 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "An  Expedition  to  Borneo." 

Keppler.    See  Kepler. 

Ker,  ker  or  kar,  (John,)  of  Kersland,  a  Scottish 
philologist,  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Edinburgh.  He 
was  employed  as  a  political  agent  by  William  HI.,  and 
published  "  Memoirs  and  Secret  Negotiations,"  (3  vols., 
1726.) 

Ker,  (John,)  an  eminent  bibliographer,  born  in  London 
in  1740,  was  the  son  of  Robert,  Duke  of  Roxburgh,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1755  in  the  Scottish  dukedom,  and  also  in 
the  British  peerage  as  Earl  and  Baron  Ker  of  Wakefield. 
He  died  in  1804.  In  the  accumulation  of  his  library, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  the  most  valuable  ]Drivate 
collection  in  Great  Britain,  he  exhibited  remarkable 
industry  and  rare  judgment.  The  sale  of  these  books 
after  his  death  produced  a  great  sensation  in  the  lite- 
rary world.  One — "  II  Decamerone  di  Boccaccio" — was 
sold  for  ;^225o. 

Ker,  (Robert.)    See  Carr. 

Ker  Porter.    See  Porter,  (Robert  Ker.) 

Keralio,  de,  deh  k^h-rt^e'o',  (Louis  F^lix  Guine- 
ment^ — g^i/mftN',)  a  French  officer  and  litterateiw,  born 
in  Brittany  in  173 1.  He  wrote,  besides  other  wc^ks, 
one  upon  the  "General  Principles  of  Tactics."  Died  in 
1793- 

Keratry,  de,  deh  kk^rt'tRe',  (Auguste  Hilarion,) 
a  French  litterateur  and  statesman,  born  at  Rennes  in 
1769.  He  was  twice  chosen  a  member  of  the  Chain ber 
of  Deputies,  in  181 8  and  in  1827,  and  was  made  a  peer  in 
1837.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "  Moral  and  Physi- 
ological Inductions,"  (1817,)  and  several  romances  and 
poems.    Died  in  1859. 

See  Qt'ERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Kerckherdere,  kgRk'hlR'deh-reh,  (Jan  Geraart,) 
a  Dutch  philologist  and  theologian,  born  near  Maestricht 


a  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,        guttural;  N,  naial;  R,  trilled;  s as  z;  th  as  in  this,   (^^="866  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KERCKHOVE 


1320 


KETBOGA 


about  1678.  He  was  professor  at  Louvain,  and  wrote 
several  works.    Died  in  1738. 

Kerckhove,  van  den,  vtn  d§n  k^Rk'ho'veh,  (Jan 
PoLYANDER,)  a  Protestant  theologian,  of  Dutch  extrac- 
tion, born  at  Metz  in  1568.  In  1609  he  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Leyden,  of 
which  he  was  subsequently  chosen  rector  eight  times. 
Died  in  1646. 

Kerckhove,  van  den,  written  also  Kerckchove, 

(Joseph,)  an  able  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Bruges  in 
1669,    He  painted  sacred  history.    Died  in  1724. 

Kerckring,  k^Rk'ring,  (Theodorus,)  a  physician  and 
anatomical  writer,  born  at  Amsterdam  ;  died  in  1693. 

Kereem-  (Kerim-  or  Kerym-)  Kh^n,  ker-eem'  kSu, 
became  sovereign  of  Persia  in  1750.  He  was  an  able 
warrior,  lawgiver,  and  statesman.    Died  about  1780. 

Kerguelen-Tremarec,  de,  deh  kSR'ga'lSN' tRa'mt'- 
r^k',  (Ives  Joseph,)  a  celebrated  French  navigator,  born 
at  Quimper,  in  Brittany,  in  1745.  Having  previously 
visited  the  North  Sea,  he  set  out  in  177 1  on  a  voyage  to 
the  South  Sea,  and  the  following  year  discovered,  in  498 
south  latitude,  the  island  to  which  Captain  Cook  gave, 
in  1776,  the  name  of  Kerguelen's  Land.  He  published 
a  "  Narrative  of  a  Voyage  to  the  North  Sea  and  the 
Shores  of  Iceland,  Greenland,"  etc.,  (1771,)  and  "An 
Account  of  Two  Voyages  in  the  South  Sea  and  the 
Indies,"  (1782.)    Died  in  1797. 

Kerhallet,  de,  deh  k^Vrt'la^  (Charles  Philippe,) 
a  French  hydrographer,  born  in  Brittany  in  1809.  He 
became  a  captain  in  the  navy,  and  was  en>ployed  many 
years  in  surveying  the  coast  of  Africa.  He  published  a 
"  Manual  for  the  Navigation  of  the  West  Coast  of  Africa," 
(3  vols.,  1853.)    P>ied  in  Paris  in  1863. 

Keri,  ka'ree,  (Francis  Boroia,)  a  historian  and  Jesuit, 
born  at  Zemplin,  in  Hungary,  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Empire  of  the  East."    Died  in  1769. 

Keri,  (John  or  Janos,)  a  learned  Hungarian  bishop, 
who  wrote  "  Ferocia  Martis  Turcici,"  a  history  of  the 
different  Turkish  invasions  of  Hungary.    Died  in  1685. 

Kerim-Khan.    See  Kereem-Khan. 

Keri,  k§Rl,  (Johann  Caspar,)  a  German  composer 
and  organist,  born  in  Saxony  in  1625.  He  was  chapel- 
master  to  the  Elector  of  Bavaria.  Died  about  1685. 

Kern,  kiRn,  (J.  Conrad,)  a  Swiss  statesman  of  the 
Liberal  party,  was  born  at  Berlingen  in  1808.  He  be- 
came president  of  the  Federal  Tribunal  in  1850. 

Kern,  k^Rn,  (Vincenz,)  a  skilful  German  surgeon, 
born  at  Gratz  in  1760.  He  became  professor  of  surgery 
in  the  University  of  Vienna,  and  is  said  to  have  intro- 
duced important  reforms  in  the  practice  of  surgery.  He 
published  several  professional  works.    Died  in  1829. 

Kernell,  \kvJ\\h\,  (Pehr  Ulrik,)  a  Swedish  litterateur, 
born  in  1797  ;  died  in  1824. 

Kerner,  k^R'ner,  (Andreas  Justinus,)  a  German 
lyric  ])oet,  born  at  Ludwigsburg  in  1786.  He  published 
in  1811  "Travelling  Shadows,  by  the  Magic-Lantern 
Player,"  a  work  of  great  humour  and  originality.  His 
"Visionary  of  Prevorst"  (1829)  had  great  success. 

See  a  long  notice  of  Kerner  in  Henri  Blaze's  "  ficrivains  et 
Poetes  de  I'Allemagne,"  1851  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Keroual,  k§r'roo-Sl',  or  Querouaille,  ki''roo^tI'  or 
ki'rof)'t'ye,  (Louise  Pknhoet,)  Duchess  of  Portsmouth, 
a  mistress  of  Charles  II.  of  England,  was  born  in  France 
about  1652.  She  went  to  England  as  maid  of  honour  to 
Henriette,  the  queen  of  Charles  I.,  and  received  the  title 
of  Duchess  of  Portsmouth  in  1673.  She  is  said  to  have 
used  her  influence  to  promote  the  designs  of  Louis  XIV. 
Died  in  1734. 

See  Evelyn,  "Diary;"  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV." 

Kerr,  ker  or  kar,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  surgeon  and 
scientific  writer,  born  about  1755,  was  a  member  of  the 
Royal  and  Antiquarian  Societies  of  Edinburgh.  Among 
his  works  are  "  The  Animal  Kingdom  or  Zoological 
System  of  Linnaeus,"  "  The  Natural  History  of  Quad- 
rupeds and  Serpents,"  and  a  "  History  of  Scotland  during 
the  Reign  of  Robert  Bruce."  The  first  and  second  are 
translations.    Died  in  1813. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Kersaint.    See  Duras,  dk,  (Claire  Lechat.) 
Kersaint,  de,  deh  keR's^N',  (Armand  Gui  Simon,) 
Count,  a  French  naval  commander,  born  in  Paris  about 


1741.  After  the  commencement  of  the  Revolution  he 
made  his  residence  in  Paris,  where  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Jacobin  Club.  He  afterwards  joined  the  Girondists, 
and,  as  a  member  of  the  Convention,  boldly  opposed  the 
execution  of  the  king  and  the  extreme  measures  of  the 
Jacobins.  He  was  proscribed  and  executed  in  Decem- 
ber, 1793. 

Kersenbrock,  k^r'sen-bRok",  (Hermann,)  a  German 
historian,  born  in  the  county  of  Lippe  in  1526.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Anabaptists  of  Miinster,"  (in 
Latin.)    Died  in  1585. 

Ker'sey,  (John,)  an  English  mathematician,  lived  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  and  wrote  a  work  on  Algebra, 
(1673-) 

Kersseboom,  kgRs'seh-bom',  (Willem,)  a  Dutch 
statistician,  born  in  1691,  wrote  a  number  of  valuable 
works  on  population,  mortality,  etc.    Died  in  1771. 

See  Heuschling,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Kersseboom,"  1857; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gendrale." 

Kervillars,  de,  deh  kgR've'ySR',  (Jean  Marie,)  a 
French  Jesuit,  born  at  Vannes  in  1668.  He  produced  a 
version  of  Ovid's  Elegies,  (1724.)    Died  in  1745. 

Kesava,  ka'sa-va,  written  also  Cesava  and  Kegava, 
[from  the  Sanscrit  word  kesa,  "  hair,"  probably  cognate 
with  the  Latin  ccesaries,  having  the  same  signification,] 
{i.e.  "having  beautiful  hair,")  an  epithet  of  Krishna, 
(which  see  ;)  also,  a  surname  of  Booddha. 

Kessel,  van,  vtn  kgs'sel,  (Ferdinand,)  a  distin- 
guished painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1660,  was  patronized 
by  John  Sobieski,  King  of  Poland,  and  William  HI.  of 
England.  His  death  is  variously  dated  in  1696  and  about 
1 7 10. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Kessel,  kes'sel,  or  Kessels,  van,  vtn  kes'sels,  (Jan,) 
the  Elder,  a  Dutch  artist,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1626, 
excelled  in  painting  animals,  fruits,  and  flowers.  His 
portraits  and  landscapes  were  also  of  superior  merit. 
He  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.    Died  about  1692, 

Kessel,  van,  (Jan,)  the  Younger,  the  son,  or,  ac- 
cording to  some  writers,  the  nephew,  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Antwerp  about  1648.  He  was  one  of  the 
best  portrait-painters  of  his  time  ;  and  some  of  his  works 
have  been  mistaken  for  those  of  Van  Dyck.  Having 
visited  Spain,  he  was  appointed  in  1686  court  painter  to 
Charles  II.  His  portraits  of  the  two  queens  of  Charles 
and  that  of  Philip  V.  of  Spain  are  ranked  among  his 
master-pieces.    Died  in  1708. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Kessel,  van,  (Nicolaas,)  a  painter,  born  at  Antwerp 
in  1684,  was  a  nephew  of  Ferdinand,  noticed  above.  He 
adopted  the  style  of  David  Teniers.    Died  in  1 741. 

Kessel,  van,  (Theodorus,)  a  Flemish  engraver,  born 
at  Antwerp  about  1620,  engraved  some  works  of  Rubens, 
and  historical  subjects  after  several  Italian  masters. 

Kessels,  kes'sels,  (Matthias,)  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished Dutch  sculptors  of  recent  times,  was  born  at 
Maestricht  in  1784.  Among  his  best  works  are  a  colossal 
scene  from  the  Deluge,  a  "  Madonna,"  a  "Cupid  sharp- 
ening his  Arrow,"  and  a  "  Discobolus."  Died  at  Rome 
in  1836. 

See  FiLippo  Gerardi,  "  Vita  di  M.  Kessels,"  1837  ;  Nagler, 
"  Ailgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kestner,  kest'ner,  (Christian  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
physician,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1694,  published  "  Biblio- 
theca  Medica,"  (1746.)    Died  in  1747. 

Ket  or  Kett,  (Robert,)  a  tanner,  of  Norfolk  county, 
England,  was  the  chief  leader  in  a  rebellion  which 
occurred  in  1549,  during  the  protectorate  of  Somerset. 
After  several  considerable  successes,  he  was  at  length 
defeated  by  Dudley,  Earl  of  Warwick.  Soon  after  he 
was  taken  prisoner  and  hung  at  Norwich  Castle.  Ket's 
rebellion — or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  the  Norfolk  re- 
bellion— was  "remarkable,"  says  Froude,  "among  other 
things,  for  the  order  which  was  observed  among  the 
people  during  seven  weeks  of  lawlessness."  ("  History 
of  England,"  vol,  v.  chap,  xxvi.) 

Ket,  (William,)  of  Norfolk,  an  English  rebel,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  insurgents 
who  took  Norwich.    He  was  hanged  in  1549. 

Ketboga  or  Ketbogha,  ket-bo'ga,  a  Mongolian  by 
birth,  and  Sultan  of  Egypt,  was  brought  to  that  country 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,    i,  q,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


KETCHUM  1 3  21  KHALEEL 


as  a  slave  in  a.d.  1288.  He  rapidly  rose  in  rank,  and 
finally  made  himself  the  sovereign  of  Egypt  in  1294.  In 
1296  he  was  driven  from  the  country  by  his  favourite 
Lajeen,  (Lajin  or  Ladjyn,)  who  succeeded  him. 

Ketch'um,  (William  Scott,)  an  American  officer 
in  the  Union  army,  born  at  Norwalk,  Connecticut,  in 
1813.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  in  1862  was 
made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers. 

Ketel,  ka'tel,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Gouda  in  1548.  He  commenced  his  studies  in  Paris; 
but,  being  a  Protestant,  he  was  soon  driven  from  France 
by  Charles  IX.  About  1574  he  went  to  England,  where 
he  painted  the  portraits  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  of 
several  English  noblemen.  Died  after  1602.  Among 
his  pictures  is  "  Force  Conquered  by  Wisdom,"  which 
he  painted  in  England. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Ketelaer,  ka'teh-lSa',  (Nicolaas,)  one  of  the  earliest 
of  Dutch  printers,  flourished  at  Utrecht  about  1480. 

Kett,  (Henry,)  a  learned  English  divine  and  author, 
born  at  Norwich  in  1761,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1783. 
He  was  drowned,  while  bathing,  in  1825.  Among  his 
works  are  "  History  the  Interpreter  of  Prophecy,"  (3 
vols.,  1798-99,)  "Elements  of  General  Knowledge,"  (3 
vols.,  1802,)  and  "Flowers  of  Wit,"  (1814.) 

Kett,  (Robert.)    See  Ket. 

Kettlewell,  ket'tel-wel,  (John,)  an  English  nonjuring 
divine,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1653.  He  published  in 
1678  "  Measures  of  Christian  Obedience,"  which  was 
highly  esteemed.  He  became  rector  of  Coleshill  about 
1682,  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  William 
III.  in  1689,  and  was  ejected.  His  "rare  integrity"  is 
commended  by  Macaulay.    Died  in  1695. 

See  Nelson,  "  Life  of  Kettlewell,"  "fyiS. 

Kettner,  k^t'ner,  (Friedrich  Ernst,)  a  German 
writer  on  history  and  theology,  born  at  Stollberg  in 
1671  ;  died  in  1722. 

Ketu,  ka'too,  or  Ketus,  ka'tdos,  [perhaps  etymologi- 
cally  related  to  the  Greek  /cf/rof,  a  "sea-monster,"]  a 
monster  of  the  Hindoo  mythology;  in  astronomy,  the 
dragon's  tail,  or  descending  node.    (See  Rahu.) 

Keuchen,  ko'Ken,  (Robert,)  a  poet  and  historical 
writer,  born  at  Geldern,  flourished  about  1660. 

Keulen,  van,  vtn  ko'len  or  kuh'len,  (Janszons,)  a 
Dutch  painter,  born  in  1580.  He  was  employed  in  Eng- 
land by  Charles  I.,  and  afterwards  fixed  his  residence  at 
the  Hague.    Died  in  1665. 

Keulen,  van,  (Ludolph,)  a  Dutch  mathematician, 
born  at  Hildesheim.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  circle, 
("Van  den  Cirkel,"  1596,)  and  "Geometrical  Problems." 
Died  at  Leyden  in  1610. 

Keux,  Le.    See  Le  Keux. 

Kew,  written  also  K'ew  and  Kieou,  one  of  the  names 
given  to  Confucius. 

See  Legge's  "  Life  and  Teachings  of  Confucius,"  ch.  v.  p.  58. 

Kexler,  kgks'ler,  (Simon,)  a  Swedish  scholar,  born  in 
l6o2,  wrote  various  mathematical  works.  Died  in  1669. 

Key.    See  Caius. 

Key,  (Francis  Scott,)  an  American  jurist  and  poet, 
born  in  Frederick  county,  Maryland,  in  1779.  Having 
removed  to  Washington,  he  became  district-attorney  of 
the  District  of  Columbia.  He  was  the  author  of  the 
popular  national  song  of  "The  Star-Spangled  Banner," 
and  a  number  of  other  poems.    Died  in  1843. 

Key,  (Thomas  Hewitt,)  an  English  philologist,  born 
near  London  in  1799.  Having  graduated  at  Cambridge, 
he  was  invited  in  1824  to  fill  the  chair  of  mathematics  in 
the  University  of  Virginia,  then  recently  founded.  After 
his  return  he  became,  in  1828,  professor  of  Latin  in  the 
University  of  London.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
a  "Latin  Granunar,"  (1846,)  and  numerous  valuable  con- 
tributions to  the  "Penny  Cyclopaedia"  and  the  "  Journal 
of  Education."  He  has  been  many  years  engaged  on 
a  Latin-English  dictionary. 

Key,  ki,  (Wili.em,)  a  portrait-painter,  born  at  Breda, 
in  the  Netherlands,  in  1520  ;  died  in  1568. 

Keye.s,  keez,  (Erasmus  D.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Massachusetts  about  1811,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1832.  Pie  became  a  colonel  in  the  regular  army 
in  1 86 1,  and  commanded  a  brigade  at  Bull  Run,  July  21. 


He  commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  May 
31,  1862,  and  at  other  battles  in  June  of  that  year. 

Keying,  kiting',  or  Ky-In,  kl'in',  a  Chinese  diplo- 
matist, negotiated  with  the  English  the  treaty  of  Nankm 
in  1842,  after  which  he  was  governor  of  Canton.  He 
favoured  a  friendly  policy  towards  Europeans,  and  was 
disgraced  by  Hien-Fung  in  1850,  but  restored  in  1852. 

Keylhau,  kiKhow,  (Eberhart,)  a  painter,  known  in 
Italy  under  the  name  of  MoNSU  Bernardo,  was  born 
at  Helsingor,  in  Denmark,  in  1624.  After  studying  under 
Rembrandt,  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1687. 

Keyser,  de,  deh  kl'zer,  (Nicaise,)  an  eminent  Belgian 
painter,  was  born  near  Antwerp  in  1813.  In  1836  he 
exhibited  at  Brussels  his  picture  of  "The  Battle  of  the 
Golden  Spurs."  Among  his  other  works  are  "  The  Battle 
of  Wceringen,"  one  of  the  most  admired  works  of  the 
Belgian  school,  "The  Antiquary,"  and  a  "Crucifixion." 

Keyser,  van,  vtn  ki'zer,  sometimes  written  De 
Keyser,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  architect  and  sciilptor, 
born  at  Utrecht  in  1565.  In  1619  he  C(/nipicted  the 
monument  of  William  I.,  Prince  of  Orange.  Died  in 
1621. 

Keyser,  van,  (Theodorus,)  a  skilful  F  utch  portrait- 
painter,  flourished  about  1630-50. 

Keyserling,  von,  fon  ki'zer-ling',  (Thierry,)  a  Prus- 
sian general  and  litteratetcr,  born  in  C(,urland  in  1698, 
was  a  friend  of  Frederick  the  Great.    Died  in  1745. 

See  Maui'ERTUIS,  "  filoge  de  Keyserling." 

Keysler,  kis'ler,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  anti- 
quary, born  at  Thurnau  in  1683.  He  published  "Travels 
m  Germany,  Italy,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1741,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1743. 

See  Haberlin,  "  Keysler's  Leben,"  1743. 

Khadijah,  Khadeejah,  or  Khadidja,  K^-dee^jS,  [in 
German,  Chadidscha,]  written  also  Chadijah,  a  rich 
widow  of  Mecca,  who  married  Mohammed  the  prophet. 
At  the  time  of  their  marriage  she  was  about  forty  years 
of  age,  while  he  was  only  twenty-five.  She  bore  him  eight 
children,  all  of  whom  died  young  except  Fatimah,  who 
became  the  wife  of  his  cousin  and  favourite.  Alee,  (Ali,) 
the  son  of  Aboo-Talib.    (See  Mohammed.) 

Khadyjah.    See  Khadijah. 

Khaisang,  k'hi^sang',  surnamed  Woo-tsoong,  (the 
"  Honourable  Warrior,")  called  by  the  Tartars  Kaishan- 
KuUuk-Khan,  ki'shin'  kdoKlook  kSu,  a  sovereign  of 
the  Mongolian  dynasty,  succeeded  to  the  imperial  throne 
of  China  a.d.  1308,  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine.  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  abilities  as  a  commander,  and  for 
his  patronage  of  men  of  letters.    Died  A.D.  1311. 

Khalaf,  Ki-lSf,  ascended  the  throne  of  Seistan,  in 
Eastern  Persia,  about  a.d.  963.  He  was  a  bold  and  skil- 
ful warrior  and  an  able  diplomatist,  but  was  treacherous, 
cruel,  and  tyrannical.  After  a  reign  of  forty  years,  he 
was  conquered  by  the  emperor  Mahmood  of  Ghazna, 
who  imprisoned  him  till  his  death,  a.d.  1008. 

See  Malcolm,  "History  of  Persia." 

Khaied  or  Chaled,  K§.'led,  written  also  Caled,  a 
celebrated  Arabian  general,  born  in  582  A.D.  In  the 
third  year  of  the  Hejrah  he  completely  routed  the  army 
of  Mohammed  at  the  battle  of  Ohod.  He  subsequently 
embraced  the  Moslem  faith,  gained  numerous  important 
victories  over  its  enemies,  and  received  from  the  prophet 
the  title  of  "The  Sword  of  God."  Eastern  writers  asciibe 
to  this  warrior  almost  superhuman  valour,  which,  how- 
ever, was  often  stained  with  cruelty.  Died  about  642  .a.d. 

See  OcKLEY,  "History  of  the  Saracens;"  Elmacin,  "Historia 
Saracenorum  ;"  Aboolfeda,  "Annales  Mosleniici." 

Khaled-Ben  (or-Ibn)  -Barmek.  See  Barmecides. 

Khaleel  (Khalil)  or  Chalil,  xa  ieeK,  (Aboo-Abd- 
er-Rahman,  ^'boo  abd-er-raH''man,)  a  celebrated  Arabic 
grammarian  of  Bassora,  born  about  719  A.D.  ;  died  in  786. 

Khaleel,  (Khalil,)  surnamed  Melik-al-Ashraf, 
m^Kik  ll-Ssh'raf,  {i.e.  the  "Illustrious  King,")  eighth 
Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  succeeded  his  father  Kelaoon 
(Kelaun)  a.d.  1290.  He  took  Acre  from  the  European 
Christians,  whom  he  finally  drove  from  Syria,  He  was 
assassinated  by  his  ameers,  A.D.  1293. 

Khaleel-  (Khalil-  or  Chalil-)  Beg,  Ki-leeK  beg,  of 
the  Turkoman  dynasty,  succeeded  his  father,  Oozoon 
(Uzun)  Hassan,  on  the  throne  of  Persia,  A.D.  1478.  His 
excessive  cruelty  and  oppression  caused  several  revolts 


*  as  k;  g  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (jJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KHALEEL 


1322 


KHOSROO 


among  his  subjects,  during  one  of  which  he  was  slain 
on  the  field  of  battle. 

Khaleel  (Khalil  or  Clialil)  Pasha,  grand  vizier  to 
the  Ottoman  Sultan  Amurath  II.  In  1444  he  gained 
at  Vaina  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Christian  allies. 
In  this  battle  Ladislaus,  King  of  Hungary,  fell.  Upon 
the  accession  of  Mahomet  II.  Khaleel  still  retained  his 
power,  and  commanded  the  Turkish  army  at  the  capture 
of  Constantinople,  in  1453.  He  was  a  few  days  after 
condemned  on  a  charge  of  bribery,  and  executed. 

Khalil.    See  Khaleel. 

Khallikan.    See  Ii5N-Khallikan. 

Khang-Hee,  (or -Hi,)  k'hing  hee.  Emperor  of  China, 
of  the  dynasty  of  the  Mantchoo  Tartars,  was  born  about 
1653  A.D.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Shun-Chee,  (Chun- 
tchi,)  at  the  age  of  seven  years.  In  1675  he  quelled  a 
formidable  rebellion  raised  against  him  by  the  Chinese 
under  Oo-san-Kwei.  He  afterwards  carried  on  success- 
ful wars  against  the  neighbouring  nations,  and  reduced 
nearly  all  the  princes  of  Tartary  to  vassalage.  Historians 
speak  in  the  highest  terms  of  the  justice,  candour,  libe- 
rality, and  tolerant  spirit  of  this  monarch.  Died  in  1722, 

See  BouvET,  "Life  of  Cang-Hy,  Present  Emperor  of  China," 
London,  1699;  Mah.la,  "  Histoire  generale  de  la  Chine ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Khatchadoor,  Khatchadour,  or  Khatchadur, 

Kd-ch^-dooR',  an  Armenian  poet  and  bishop,  born  at 
Caesarea,  in  Cappadocia,  about  1600.  His  poems  are 
chiefly  of  a  religious  and  moral  character. 

Khatchig  (xa'chig)  I.  was  elected  Patriarch  of  Ar- 
menia in  972.  He  founded  numerous  monasteries,  and 
encouraged  literature  and  the  fine  arts.    Died  in  992.  ^ 

Khatchig  II.,  sometimes  written  Khatchadoor,  be- 
came Patriarch  of  Armenia  in  1058.  He  was  imprisoned 
at  Constantinople  by  Constantine  Ducas,  who  afterwards 
banished  him  to  Cappadocia.    Died  in  1064. 

Khell,  kSI,  (Joseph  von  Khellburg,)  a  German 
numismatist,  born  at  Linz  in  1 714,  published  several 
works  in  Vienna.    Died  in  1772. 

Kheranitzer,  (Ivan  Ivanovitch.)     See  Chem- 

NITZER. 

Kheraskof  or  Kheraskov,  K^r'Ss-kof ,  [written,  in 
German,  Cheraskow,]  (Michael  Matvievitch,)  a 
distinguished  Russian  poet,  born  in  1733.  Among  his 
principal  works  maybe  mentioned  "  Rossiada,"  (1785,) 
an  epic  on  the  event  of  the  Russians  liberating  them- 
selves from  their  Tartar  oppressors.    Died  in  1807. 

Khevenhiiller,  Ka'ven-hiil'ler,  (Franz  Christoph,) 
a  German  historian,  born  in  1589,  rose  to  be  imperial 
minister  of  state.  He  wrote  "Annales  Ferdinandei,"  a 
history  of  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  II.    Died  in  1650. 

Khilkof  or  Khilkov,  KiKkof,  (Andrei  Yakof  Le- 
Vitch,)  a  Russian  prince,  sent  as  ambassador  to  Sweden 
by  Peter  the  Great  in  1700.  War  having  been  soon 
after  declared  between  the  two  countries,  Charles  XII. 
ordered  Khilkof  to  be  thrown  into  prison.  During  his 
confinement  of  eighteen  years  he  wrote  his  celebrated 
"  History  of  Russia."  He  died  at  the  isle  of  Aland,  on 
his  return  to  Russia,  in  1718. 

Khlesl,  klgsl,  (Melchior,)  a  German  cardinal,  born 
at  Vienna  in  1553,  became  first  minister  of  the  emperor 
Matthias,  whom  he  had  assisted  in  usurping  the  throne 
of  Rudolph  II.    Died  in  1630. 

See  Von  Hammer-Purgstall,"  Leben  des  Cardinals  M.  Khlesl," 
Vienna,  4  vols.,  1847-51. 

Khoda-Bendeh,  Ko'dah  b^n'deh,  (  Mohammed,  ) 
sovereign  of  Persia,  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Sofees,  (or 
Sofys,)  began  to  reign  in  1578.  He  was  a  weak  and 
effeminate  prince.  During  his  reign  the  Turks  and  Tar- 
tars ravaged  his  dominions.    Died  about  1587. 

See  Malcolm,  "  History  of  Persia." 

Khomarooyah  or  Khomarouyah,  Ko-mi-roo'yah, 
succeeded  his  father,  Ahmed,  as  Sultan  of  Egypt  and 
Syria,  884  a.d.,  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  He  carried  on  a 
war  with  the  caliph  Mootamed,  whom  he  obliged  to  sue 
for  peace,  and  invaded  the  Greek  empire,  from  which 
he  carried  a  rich  booty.    He  was  assassinated  in  896. 

Khomiakof,  Ko-me-J'kof,  Khomiakov,  or  Khomi- 
akow,  Ko-me-i'kov,(  Alexis  Stefanovitch,)  a  popular 
Russian  poet,  born  about  1802.  He  published  historical 
dramas,  called  "  Yermak"  (or  "  lermak")  and  "  The  False 


Demetrius,"  also  lyrical  poems,  and  some  able  prose 
works. 

Khondemeer,  Khondemir,  or  Khondemyr,  Kon- 

dg-meeR',  a  surname  of  Giyas-ed-Deen*  (Giyas- 
eddin)  Mohammed,  ge-Iss'  ed-deen'  mo-htm'med,  a 
Persian  historian,  and  a  son  of  the  eminent  historian 
Mirkhond,  was  born  at  Herat  in  the  second  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  He  wrote  a  valuable  universal  his- 
tory, extending  from  the  creation  to  1471,  also  a  work 
called  "  The  Friend  of  Biographies  and  Eminent  Men," 
which  is  highly  commended.    Died  after  1522. 

See  Abel  Remusat,  "Melanges  Asiatiques ;"  D'Herbelot, 
"  Biblioth^que  Orientale." 

Khoong-Foo-tsze.    See  Confucius. 

Khosroo  or  Khosru,  Kos'roo',  written  also  Khos- 
rou,  Khosrau,  Kos'row,  and  Khosrew,  [Gr.  Xoapdr]^; 
Lat.  Chos'roes,]  surnamed  in  Persian  Noushirvan, 
now'shiR-van',  or  Nooshirvan,  (Nuschirwan,)  said  to 
signify  "  Generous  Soul,"  the  greatest  of  the  Sassanide 
sovereigns,  was  the  son  of  Kobad,  (Cabades,)  whom 
he  succeeded  on  the  throne  of  Persia,  a.d.  531.  At  an 
early  age  he  displayed  extraordinary  talents  for  govern- 
ment, and  upon  his  accession  to  the  throne  immediately 
commenced  a  reform,  which  the  corrupt  reign  of  his 
father  had  rendered  necessary.  By  the  retrenchment 
of  expenditures,  and  other  means,  he  greatly  improved 
the  state  of  the  finances.  He  appointed  none  but  the 
most  efficient  men  to  offices  ;  he  established  a  strict 
and  impartial  justice  throughout  his  dominions  ;  he  re- 
modelled his  army,  and  suppressed  the  Zendiks,  who 
were  promulgating  doctrines  immoral  and  dangerous  to 
the  state.  He  also  concluded  a  peace  with  the  emperor 
Justinian,  who  paid  the  Persian  monarch  ten  thousand 
pounds  of  gold.  He  afterwards  carried  on  wars  with 
various  Asiatic  nations,  extending  his  empire  as  far  as 
the  Indus.  Alarmed  at  the  successes  of  Belisarius  in 
Italy  and  Africa,  he  resolved  to  strike  a  sudden  blow. 
In  540  he  invaded  Syria,  pillaged  and  burned  several 
cities,  including  Antioch,  and  took  a  multitude  of  pris- 
oners and  an  immense  amount  of  booty.  The  next  year 
he  was  opposed  by  Belisarius,  one  of  the  greatest  gene- 
rals of  that  or  of  any  age.  The  Roman  commander,  with 
a  small  number  of  ill-disciplined  soldiers,  succeeded  in 
holding  in  check  the  innumerable  hosts  of  Persia.  But 
in  542  this  great  general  was  recalled,  and  Khosroo, 
having  now  nothing  to  fear,  went  from  victory  to  victory. 
The  war  continued  until  562,  when  Justinian  purchased 
a  treaty  for  thirty  thousand  pieces  of  gold.  Hostilities 
were  again  renewed  under  the  emperor  Justin,  and  the 
King  of  Persia  met  at  length  with  a  total  defeat,  in  578, 
from  Justinian,  the  general  of  the  emperor  Tiberius. 
Khosroo  died  in  579.  The  long  and  beneficent  reign  of 
this  prince  is  mentioned  by  Oriental  poets  as  the  golden 
age  of  Persia.  His  virtues,  his  wise  and  efficient  meas- 
ures for  the  welfare  of  his  subjects,  his  conquests,  his 
liberal  encouragement  of  literature  and  science,  attested 
by  the  numerous  colleges  and  libraries  which  he  founded, 
all  rendered  it  worthy  of  this  eminent  distinction.  A 
Pehlvi  translation  of  the  celebrated  Bidpay  or  Pilpay 
Fables  of  India  was  made  under  the  auspices  of  this 
prince.    He  was  succeeded  by  Hormisdas  IV. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Mirk- 
hond, "Histoire  des  Sassanides,"  translated  by  De  Sacy  ;  D'Her- 
belot, "  Bibliotheque  Orientale,"  article  "  Nouschirvan  ;"  Le  Beau, 
"Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Khosroo,  Khosru,  or  Khosrau  (or  Chosroes)  II., 

surnamed  Parveez  or  PARWfz,  par''veez',  i.e.  the  "  Gene- 
rous," son  of  Hormisdas  IV.,  and  grandson  of  Khosroo 
I.,  was  raised  to  the  throne  of  Persia  upon  the  deposition 
of  his  father,  a.d.  590.  He  was  soon  after  driven  from 
his  capital  by  the  rebel  Bahram,  and  obliged  to  seek  the 
protection  of  Maurice,  the  Emperor  of  the  East.  This 
sovereign,  with  a  powerful  army,  overthrew  the  rebels 
and  reinstated  Khosroo.  In  602  Maurice  was  assassin- 
ated by  the  usurper  Phocas.  Khosroo  immediately  took 
up  arms  to  avenge  his  death,  and  by  a  series  of  victories 
in  a  few  years  subjugated  the  greater  part  of  the  Greek 
empire,  and  at  length  appeared  before  the  gates  of  Con- 
stantinople. Heraclius,  the  successor  of  Phocas,  having 
vainly  attempted  to  obtain  a  favourable  peace,  resolved 

*  Written  also  Gaiatheddin.    See  Introduction,  p.  15. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  lon^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAor^;  a,  9,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  modu; 


KHOSROO 


1323 


KIKKERT 


bravely  to  meet  his  foe  in  the  field.  He  gained  repeated 
victories,  and  in  five  years  drove  the  Persians  out  of 
every  province  which  they  had  wrested  from  the  empire. 
Khosroo  was  assassinated  in  628.  He  had  married  a 
Christian  lady  named  Shereen,  (Shirin,)  distinguished  for 
her  exquisite  beauty.  She  poisoned  herself  at  his  grave. 
The  romantic  and  unchanging  affection  of  these  royal 
lovers,  together  with  their  tragic  end,  has  furnished  the 
subject  of  many  an  Oriental  poem. 

See  Malcolm,  "History  of  Persia;"  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du 
Bas- Empire." 

Khosroo,  Khosrou,  or  Khosru  I.,  King  of  Armenia, 
surnamed  the  Great,  a  brave  prince  and  able  general, 
ascended  the  throne  198  A. D.  He  conquered  the  nations 
of  the  Khazars  and  Basiliens,  and  overran  the  greater  part 
of  the  Persian  dominions.    He  was  assassinated  in  232. 

Khosroo,  Khosrou,  or  Khosru  II.,  the  second 
Christian  King  of  Armenia,  and  a  contemporary  and 
ally  of  Constantine  the  Great,  ascended  the  throne  in 
314.    Died  in  325, 

IChosroo,  Khosrou,  or  Khosru  III.  was  placed 
upon  the  throne  of  Persian  Armenia  by  the  King  of 
Persia  in  387,  whilst  the  legitimate  king  Arsaces  ruled 
that  part  of  Armenia  which  belonged  to  the  Romans. 
Khosroo  gained  several  important  victories  over  the 
neighbouring  nations,  and  upon  the  death  of  Arsaces 
annexed  Roman  Armenia  to  his  own  dominions.  In  392 
the  King  of  Persia,  suspecting  Khosroo  of  the  design 
to  render  himself  independent,  took  him  prisoner,  and 
placed  another  prince  on  his  throne.  After  remaining 
in  captivity  twenty-one  years,  he  was  restored  to  his 
kingdom.    His  death  occurred  soon  after. 

See  Le  Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Khoung-Fou-Tseu  or  Khoung-Tseu.  See  Con- 
fucius. 

Khowarezmi.    See  Al-Khowarezmi. 
Khulleel.    See  Khaleel. 

Kick,  kik,  (Cornelis,)  an  artist,  celebrated  as  a 
painter  of  flowers  and  portraits,  was  born  in  Amsterdam 
in  1635  ;  died  in  1675. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Kidd,  (John,)  an  English  chemist,  born  in  1775,  was 
professor  of  chemistry,  or  medicine,  at  Oxford.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  the  Bridgewater  Treatise 
"On  the  Adaptation  of  External  Nature  to  the  Physical 
Condition  of  Man."    Died  in  185 1. 

Kidd,  (Samuel,)  an  English  Orientalist,  born  at  Hull 
in  180L  He  went  as  missionary  to  Malacca,  and  after 
his  return  was  professor  of  Chinese  in  the  University  of 
London.  He  published  "Illustrations  of  the  Symbols 
of  China,"  (184L)    Died  in  1843. 

Kidd,  (WnxiAM,)  a  notorious  American  pirate,  born 
about  1650.  In  1696  he  was  intrusted  by  the  British 
government  with  the  command  of  a  privateer,  and  sailed 
from  New  York  for  the  purpose  of  suppressing  the 
numerous  pirates  then  infesting  the  seas.  He  went  to 
the  East  Indies,  where  he  began  a  career  of  piracy,  and 
returned  to  New  York  in  1698  with  a  large  amount  of 
plunder.  He  was  soon  after  arrested,  sent  to  England 
for  trial,  and  executed  in  1701. 

See  a  "  Historical  Sketch  of  Robin  Hood  and  Captain  Kidd,"  by 
W.  W.  Campbell,  1853. 

Kid'der,  (Daniel  Parish,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Methodist  clergyman,  born  in  Genesee  county.  New 
York,  in  181 5.  He  graduated  at  the  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity, Connecticut,  and  in  1836  settled  as  a  pastor  at 
Rochester,  New  York.  In  1837  he  went  as  a  missionary 
to  Brazil,  where  he  introduced  the  Scriptures  in  the 
Portuguese  language.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Sketches  of  a  Residence  and  Travels  in  Bra- 
zil," (1845,)  which  was  republished,  with  large  additions, 
by  Rev.  James  C.  Fletcher,  in  1858. 

Kid'der,  (Richard,)  a  learned  English  theologian, 
entered  Cambridge  University  in  1649,  and,  after  various 
preferments,  was  appointed  Dean  of  Peterborough  in  1689. 
He  was  raised  by  William  HI.  to  the  see  of  Bath  and 
Wells  in  1691,  as"^  successor  to  Bishop  Ken.  He  wrote 
"A  Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,"  a  "  Demonstration 
of  the  Messias,"  and  several  other  works.  Died  in  1703. 

See  Macadlav,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  v. ;  Wood,  "  Athense 
Oxonienses." 


Kid'der-min'ster  or  Kyd'^r-myn'ster,  (Rich- 
ard,) an  English  monk,  distinguished  as  a  preacher 
and  scholar,  was  born  in  Worcestershire.  He  published 
a  Latin  treatise  against  the  doctrines  of  Luther.  Died 
in  1531- 

Kiel,  (Cornelis  van.)    See  Kilian. 

Kielmeyer,  von,  fon  keeKml'er,  (Karl  Friedrich,) 
a  German  naturalist  and  professor,  born  near  Tubingen 
in  1765.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Relations  of 
Organic  Forces,"  (1793.)  Cuvier,  who  was  his  pupil, 
speaks  of  him  as  the  founder  of  the  modern  philosophical 
school.    Died  in  1844. 

See  Von  Martius,  "  Denkrede  auf  C.  F.  von  Kielmeyer,"  1845. 

Kielsen,  keeKsen  or  ke-SKsen,  (Frederic  Chris- 
tian,) a  Danish  naturalist,  born  at  Copenhagen  in 
1774,  wrote  on  zoology  and  botany,  a  "Natural  History 
of  Birds,"  (1810,)  and  other  works. 

Kien-Loong,  (or  -Lung,)  ke-en'loong,  written  also 
Kien-Long,  born  in  17 10,  succeeded  his  father,  Yung- 
Tching,  on  the  imperial  throne  of  China  in  1735.  He 
reduced  Calmuck  Tartary  and  Thibet  to  subjection,  and 
established  numerous  fortresses  throughout  his  vast  em- 
pire. It  was  in  1770,  during  the  reign  of  this  emperor, 
that  the  Torgoots,  a  Mongolian  tribe  numbering  about 
300,000  and  inhabiting  the  country  near  the  Volga,  left 
their  homes,  and,  travelling  eastward,  after  incredible 
sufferings,  finally  reached  the  confines  of  China.  Kien- 
Loong  welcomed  them  warmly,  and  allotted  them  ample 
territory  for  their  future  home.  As  a  prince,  he  was  wise, 
just,  and  beneficent.  He  was  noted  for  his  love  of  lite- 
rature, and  for  the  liberal  encouragement  which  he  gave 
to  learned  men  of  every  nation.    Died  in  1799. 

See  FoRTL^  d'Urban,  "  Discours  sur  I'Empereur  Kien-Long," 
1841;  Abel  Remusat,  "  Nouveaux  Melanges  Asiatiques,"  tome 
ii. ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographi^  Generale."  For  an  interesting  account 
of  the  migration  of  the  Torgoots,  see  De  Quincey,  "Narrative  and 
Miscellaneous  Papers,"  etc.,  vol.  i. 

Kien-Lung.    See  Kien-Loong. 

Kieou,  (pronounced  almost  kew,)  a  name  given  to 
Confucius  in  his  childhood.    (See  Confucius.) 

Kliepert,  kee'pCRt,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  geogra- 
pher, born  in  Berlin  in  1818,  published  a  number  of 
excellent  maps,  among  which  are  the  "Atlas  of  Hellas 
[Greece]  and  the  Hellenic  Colonies,"  "Maps  of  Asia 
Minor,"  and  an  "Historical-Geographical  Atlas  of  the 
Ancient  World,"  (1848.) 

Kierings,  kee'rings,  (Alexander,)  a  skilful  land- 
scai)e-painter,  born  in  Holland  in  1590;  died  in  1646. 

Kierman,  keeR'min,  (Gustaf,)  a  Swedish  patriot, 
born  in  1702.  He  was  elected  seven  times  a  member  of 
the  Diet.    Died  in  1766. 

Kiernander  or  Kjernander,  ky^R'nanMer,  (Johan 
Zecharias,)  a  missionary,  born  in  Sweden  in  1711, 
was  sent  to  India  by  the  English  Society  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge.    Died  at  Calcutta  in  1799. 

Kieser,  kee'zer,  (Dietrich  Georg,)  a  German  natu- 
ralist and  medical  writer,  born  at  HarlDurg,  in  Hanover, 
in  1779  ;  died  in  1862. 

Kiesewetter,  kee'zeh-v^et'ter,  ( Johann  Christoph,) 
a  learned  German  writer,  born  at  Oberweissbach  in  1666. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  many  works.    Died  in  1744. 

Kiesewetter,  (Rafael  Georg,)  a  German  writer  on 
music,  born  in  Moravia  in  1773.  Among  his  productions 
are  treatises  "  On  the  Music  of  the  Modern  Greeks"  and 
"On  the  Music  of  the  Arabians."    Died  in  1850. 

Kiesling,  kees'ling,  (Johann  Rudolph,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1706;  died  in 
1778. 

Kiesling,  (Leopold,)  an  eminent  German  sculptor, 
born  at  Schoneben,  in  Austria,  in  1770.  He  worked  in 
Vienna,  and  became  sculptor  to  the  court.  Among  his 
works  are  a  bust  of  the  Archduke  Charles,  and  the 
monument  of  Von  Hammer-Purgstall.    Died  in  1827. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kif'fin  or  Kif'fen,  (William,)  an  English  merchant 
and  preacher,  born  in  1616.  He  amassed  a  large  fortune 
by  trade,  and  afterwards  became  a  dissenting  minister. 
Died  in  1701. 

See  Macaulay,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  vii. 

Kik'kert,  (Antoon,)  a  Dutch  admiral,  born  at  Vlie- 
land  in  1762  ;  died  about  1835. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  y^, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KILBOURNE 


1324 


KIMBERLET 


Kilbourne,  kiKburn,  (James,)  an  American  pioneer, 
born  in  New  Britain,  Connecticut,  in  1770.  He  organized 
about  1802  the  Scioto  Company  which  settled  in  Ohio, 
and  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1813  to  1817.  Died 
in  1850. 

Kilbye,  kiKbe,  ?  (Richard,)  an  English  divine,  born 
at  Ratcliffe,  in  Leicestershire,  about  1550.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  at  Oxford,  and  one  of  the  translators 
of  the  Bible.    Died  in  1620, 

Kilbye,  (Richard,)  an  English  minister,  author  of 
"I'he  Burden  of  a  Loaded  Conscience."    Died  in  1617. 

Kil-dare',  (Thomas  Fitzgerald,)  Earl  of,  an  Irish 
nobleman,  born  about  15 14,  was  a  son  of  Gerald,  Earl 
of  Kildare.  He  rebelled  against  the  King  of  England 
in  1534,  and  was  taken  prisoner,  sent  to  England,  and 
executed  at  Tyburn  in  1537. 

Kiliaii,  kee^e-Sn'  or  kiKe-an,  (Bartolomaus,)  a  skil- 
ful engraver,  born  in  Augsburg  in  1630,  was  the  son  and 
pupil  of  Wolfgang,  noticed  below.    Died  in  1696. 

Kilian,  kee'le-in,  or  van  Kiel,  (vtn  keel,)  (Corne- 
Lis,)  a  learned  author,  born  in  Brabant.  Among  his 
works  are  an  "  Etymology  of  the  Teutonic  Languages, 
or  a  Teutonic-and-Latin  Dictionary,"  and  several  pieces 
of  Latin  poetry.    Died  in  1607. 

Kilian,  (Georg  Christoph,)  an  engraver,  born  at 
Augsburg  in  1709,  was  a  brother  of  Philipp  Andreas, 
noticed  below.    Died  in  1781. 

Kilian,  (Lucas,)  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of 
German  engravers,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1579.  He  en- 
graved with  uncommon  ease  and  rapidity.  Among  his 
best  works  are  "  The  Resurrection,"  by  Paul  Veronese, 
and  "Christ  after  Death,"  by  Michael  Angelo.  Died 
in  1637. 

Kilian,  (Philipp  Andreas,)  an  eminent  engraver, 
was  born  in  Augsburg  in  1714.  Augustus  IIL,  King  of 
Poland  and  Elector  of  Saxony,  appointed  him  his  court 
engraver,  and  Kilian  executed  several  designs  at  Dres- 
den, though  he  continued  to  spend  most  of  his  time  at 
Augsburg.  Among  his  works  are  the  "  Adoration  of 
the  Kings,"  by  Paul  Veronese,  and  portraits  of  Francis 
I.  and  Maria  Theresa.    Died  in  1759. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kilian,  (Wolfgang,)  brother  of  Lucas,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  1581.  He  studied  engraving  at  Augsburg 
and  Venice.  The  most  important  of  his  numerous  works 
is  the  "Celebration  of  the  Westphalian  Peace  in  Augs- 
burg in  1649,"  which  contains  about  fifty  portraits.  Died 
in  1662. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kilij-  (or  Kilidj-)  Arsian,  kil'lij  aR'slSn',  written 
also  Kelij-Arsian,  I.,  Sultan  of  Iconium,  began  to  reign 
in  1092.  He  was  defeated  by  the  crusaders  under  God- 
frey of  Bouillon  at  Nicasa  in  1097.  In  iioi  he  gained  a 
complete  victory  over  a  large  army  of  crusaders.  Having 
revolted  against  the  Sultan  of  Persia,  he  was  killed  in 
battle  in  1107. 

SeeABOOLFEDA,  "Annales." 

Kilij-  (or  Kilidj-)  Arsl^n  II.,  surnamed  Azz-ed- 
Deen  or  AzzEDDYN,  dz''ed-deen',  ("  Splendour  of  the 
Faith,")  Sultan  of  Anatolia,commenced  his  reign  at  Ico- 
nium in  II 55  A.D.  He  carried  on  long  and  doubtful 
wars  against  the  Greek  empire,  but  finally  succeeded  in 
annexing  several  provinces  to  his  dominions.  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  skill,  energy,  and  generosity.  Died 
in  1 192. 

See  MiCHAUD,  "  Histoire  des  Croisades." 

Kil'li-grew,  (Anne,)  an  English  lady,  to  whom  Dry- 
den  has  addressed  his  most  beautiful  elegy,  was  cele- 
brated for  her  virtues  and  accomplishments.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  Dr.  Henry  Killigrew,  and  was  born  in 
1660.  She  excelled  both  as  a  poetess  and  as  an  artist. 
A  volume  of  her  poems  was  published  shortly  after 
her  death,  which  occurred  in  1685.  She  executed  por- 
traits of  James  II.  and  his  queen,  and  several  historical 
paintings. 

See  Ballard,  "Memoirs  of  Several  Ladies  of  Great  Britain," 
etc. ;  "Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  L.  S.  Costello, 
1844. 

Killigrew,  (Catherine,)  the  wife  of  Sir  Henry  Kil- 
ligrew, was  born  about  1530.    She  was  distinguished  for 


her  poetical  effusions  and  for  her  knowledge  of  the 
classical  and  Oriental  languages.  She  was  a  daughter 
of  Sir  Anthony  Cooke,  and  a  sister  of  Lord  Bacon's 
mother.    Died  in  1600. 

Killigrew,  (Dr.  Henry,)  a  dramatist,  and  a  brother 
of  Sir  William  Killigrew,  was  born  in  1612.  He  served 
as  chaplain  to  the  Cavaliers,  and  subsequently  gradu- 
ated as  D.D.  at  Oxford  in  1642.  He  wrote  a  tragedy, 
"The  Conspiracy,"  and  other  works.    Died  about  1688. 

See  Wood.  "Athenje  Oxonienses." 

Killigrew,  (Margaret,)  wife  of  William  Cavendish, 
Duke  of  Newcastle.  She  wrote  a  life  of  her  husband, 
and  several  philosophical  works.    Died  in  1673. 

Killigrew,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  in 
Middlesex  in  161 1,  was  a  page  to  Charles  I.  After  the 
commencement  of  the  rebellion  he  accompanied  Charles 
II.  on  the  continent,  and  married  one  of  the  queen's 
maids  of  honour.  Upon  the  restoration  he  was  made 
groom  of  the  bed-chamber,  and,  on  account  of  bis  wit 
and  oddities,  became  a  highly-privileged  person  at  court 
He  wrote  several  plays.    Died  in  1682. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Killigrew,  (Sir  William,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1605.  For  his  faithful  adherence  to  Charles 
I.  he  was  knighted  at  the  restoration,  and  was  soon  after 
appointed  vice-chamberlain.  He  wrote  several  plays, 
and  two  works  entitled  "Midnight  and  Daily  Thoughts" 
and  "Artless  Midnight  Thoughts  of  a  Gentleman  at 
Court."    Died  in  1693. 

See  Baker,  "Biographia  Dramatica." 

Kilmaine,  kil-man',  (Charles  Joseph,)  a  general, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1754,  entered  the  French  army,  and 
served  with  distinction  under  Bonaparte  in  Italy.  Died 
in  1799. 

Kilmarnock,  Earl  of.    See  Boyd,  (William.) 

Kil-pat'rick,  (Judson,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  New  Jersey  in  1838,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  iVpril, 
1861.  He  served  as  captain  at  the  battle  of  Big  Bethel, 
and  in  the  autumn  of  1 861  became  a  lieutenant-colonel 
of  cavalry.  In  1862  he  took  part  in  various  operations  of 
the  army  of  the  Potomac.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  in  May,  1863,  after  which  he  was 
employed  in  a  raid  to  Richmond  for  the  release  of  Federal 
prisoners.  He  commanded  the  cavalry  of  Sherman's 
army  in  its  march  from  Atlanta  to  Savannah,  November- 
December,  1864. 

KiPvert,  (Rev.  Francis,)  an  English  scholar  and 
author,  born  in  1793  ;  died  in  1863. 

Kilwardeby,  kil-wird^be,  (  Robert,  )  an  English 
prelate,  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1272,  and 
cardinal  in  1277.    Died  in  1279. 

Kil-war'den,  (Arthur  Wolfe,)  Lord,  an  Irish 
judge,  born  about  1740.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1766,  became  attorney-general  in  1789,  and  chief  justice 
of  the  king's  bench  in  1798.  He  was  massacred  by  a 
mob  of  insurgents  in  Dublin  in  1803,  during  a  revolt,  of 
which  Robert  Emmet  was  the  leader. 

Kim'ball,  (Nathan,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Indiana.  He  commanded  a  division  of  the  Union  army 
at  the  siege  of  Vicksburg,  June-July,  1863,  and  at  the 
battle  of  Franklin,  November,  1864. 

Kimball,  (Richard  Burleigh,)  an  American  writer 
and  lawyer,  born  at  New  Lebanon,  New  Hampshire,  in 
181 8.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College,  and  sub« 
sequently  travelled  in  England  and  on  the  continent. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "Reminiscences  of  an 
Old  Man,"  "Cuba  and  the  Cubans,"  (1850,)  and  "Ro- 
mance of  Student-Life  Abroad,"  (1853.) 

Kim'ber,  (Edward,)  son  of  Isaac  Kimber,  born  in 
1 719,  produced  some  historical  works,  and  a  novel  en- 
titled "Adventures  of  Joe  Thompson."    Died  in  1769. 

Kimber,  (Isaac,)  an  English  dissenting  minister,  born 
in  Berkshire  in  1692.  He  wrote  the  Lives  of  Bishop 
Beveridge  and  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  (1714,)  and  compiled 
a  "  History  of  England,"  (1745.)    Died  in  1758. 

Kim'ber-ley,  (John  Wodehouse,)  Earl  of,  an 
English  statesman,  born  in  1826,  graduated  at  Oxford  in 
1847.  He  was  under-secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs 
from  1852  to  1856,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Saint  Pe- 
tersburg in  the  latter  year,  and  returned  in  1858.  He 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAort;  gi,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fJr,  fill,  f^t;  m^t;  nftt-  good;  moon; 


KIMBOLTON 


1325 


KING 


was  again  appointed  under-secretary  for  foreign  affairs 
in  June,  1859,  resigned  in  August,  1861,  and  was  lord 
lieutenant  of  Ireland  from  October,  1864,  to  July,  1866. 
In  June,  1866,  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Earl  of 
Kimberley,  and  in  December,  1868,  he  was  appointed 
lord  privy  seal  in  the  new  Liberal  cabinet. 

Kimbolton,  Lord.    See  Manchester,  Earl  of. 

Kimclii,  kini'kee  or  kiN^she',  (David,)  an  eminent 
Jewish  rabbi,  born  in  the  south  of  France.  He  is  regarded 
by  his  nation  as  the  greatest  Hebrew  grammarian.  In 
1232,  on  account  of  his  influence  and  vast  erudition,  he 
was  appointed  by  the  French  and  Spanish  Jews  to  decide 
in  a  controversy  which  then  existed  between  them  in 
regard  to  the  doctrines  of  Maimonides.  His  principal 
works  are  a  Hebrew  Grammar,  a  "Dictionary  of  He- 
brew Roots,"  and  commentaries  on  nearly  all  the  books 
of  the  Old  Testament.    Died  about  1240. 

See  Wolf,  "  Bibliotheca  Hebraica;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Kimchi,  (Joseph,)  a  learned  rabbi,  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  flourished  at  Narbonne  about  1 160.  He  wrote 
treatises  on  grammar. 

Kinaston.    See  Kynaston. 

Kind,  kint,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German /////r^z/^/^r 
and  poet,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1768.  He  wrote  novels, 
dramas,  and  poems.  His  most  famous  production  is  the 
opera  "  Der  Freischiitz,"  set  to  music  by  Weber.  Died 
at  Dresden  in  1843. 

Kind,  (Karl  Theodor,)  a  German  writer,  distin- 
guished for  his  knowledge  of  the  modern  Greek  language 
and  literature,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1 799.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  "  Modern  Greek  Popular  Songs  in 
the  Original  and  with  a  German  Translation." 

King,  (Charles,)  an  American  journalist,  son  of 
Rufus  King,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  New  York 
in  1789.  He  became  in  1823  associate  editor  of  the 
"New  York  American,"  a  literary  and  political  journal 
of  a  conservative  character.  He  was  subsequently  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  "Courier  and  Enquirer,"  in  New 
York,  and  in  1849  was  chosen  president  of  Columbia 
College.    Died  near  Rome  in  1867. 

King,  (Edward,)  an  English  poet,  who  is  said  to  have 
been  the  subject  of  Milton's  monody  of  "Lycidas."  He 
was  drowned  in  1637,  aged  about  twenty-seven  years. 

King,  (Edward,)  a  learned  English  antiquary  and 
lawyer,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1735.  Li  1767  he  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  Observations  on  Ancient  Castles,"  and  a  treatise 
on  English  architecture  previous  to  the  Norman  con- 
quest.   Died  in  1807. 

King,  (Gregory,)  an  English  engraver  and  writer  on 
heraldry,  born  at  Lichfield  about  1648;  died  in  1712. 

King,  (Dr.  Henry,)  an  English  divine  and  poet,  born 
in  1591,  became  Bishop  of  Chichester.  He  wrote  "A 
Poetical  Version  of  the  Psalms,"  "Poems,  Elegies,  Para- 
doxes, and  Sonnets,"  (1659,)  and  various  sermons  and 
religious  treatises.    Died  in  1669. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

King,  (John,)  a  clergyman  and  writer,  brother  of 
Bishop  Henry  King,  was  born  about  1596  ;  died  in  1639. 

King,  (John,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in  the 
county  of  Bucks  about  1559,  was  the  father  of  Henry, 
noticed  above.  He  became  chaplain  to  Queen  Elizabeth, 
and  was  an  eloquent  preacher.  In  161 1  he  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  London.    Died  in  1621. 

King,  (Jojjn,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Cornwall  in 
1652.  He  preached  for  some  time  at  Chelsea,  and  be- 
came prebendary  of  York  in  1731.    Died  in  1732. 

His  son  John,  born  in  1696,  was  a  physician,  and 
published  an  edition  of  the  "  Orestes,"  "  Hecuba,"  and 
"Phoenissae"  of  Euripides,  (1726.)    Died  in  1728. 

King,  (John  Crookshanks,)  born  in  Ayrshire,  Scot- 
land, in  1806,  emigrated  in  1829  to  America,  where  he 
soon  became  distinguished  as  a  sculptor.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  busts  of  John  Q.  Adams,  Daniel 
Webster,  and  other  eminent  Americans. 

King,  (John  Glen,)  a  clergyman  and  writer,  was  born 
in  Norfolk,  England,  about  1735.  He  was  chosen  in 
1763  chaplain  to  the  English  factory  at  Saint  Petersburg. 
Died  in  1787.  Of  his  works  may  be  mentioned  "The 
Rites  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Greek  Church  in  Russia; 


containing  an  Account  of  its  Doctrine,  Worship,  and  Dis- 
cipline." 

King,  (John  P.,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  in  Ken- 
tucky about  1800,  was  elected  by  the  Democratic  party 
to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1833.  He  was  again 
elected,  but  resigned  before  the  term  was  completed. 

King,  (Mitchell,)  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  jurist  and 
scholar,  born  in  Scotland  in  1783.  He  removed  to 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  where  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  law.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Philosophical  Society  at  Charleston,  and  was  appointed 
in  1819  judge  of  the  city  court. 

King,  (Peter,)  Lord,  an  eminent  lawyer  and  high 
chancellor  of  England,  born  at  Exeter  in  1669,  was  the 
son  of  a  grocer.  His  talents  and  application  attracted 
the  attention  of  his  maternal  uncle,  the  celebrated  John 
Locke,  through  whose  influence  he  was  sent  to  the 
University  of  Leyden.  After  his  return  to  England  he 
studied  law,  gained  admission  to  the  bar,  and  rapidly 
rose  in  his  profession.  He  was  elected  about  1700  a 
member  of  Parliament  for  Beer-Alston,  which  seat  he 
retained  for  several  years.  In  1708  he  was  appointed 
recorder  of  London,  and  was  knighted.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  arduous  duties  of  his  profession.  King  found  time 
to  write  two  able  theological  works,  which  alone  would 
have  made  him  celebrated.  They  are  an  "  Inquiry  into 
the  Constitution,  Discipline,  Unity,  and  Worship  of  the 
Primitive  Church,"  (1691,)  (in  which  he  favoured  the 
rights  of  the  Protestant  dissenters,)  and  the  "Plistory 
of  the  Apostles'  Creed,  with  Critical  Observations  on  its 
Several  Articles,"  (1702.)  In  1714  Sir  Peter  King  was 
created  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas,  and  in  1725 
was  made  lord  chancellor,  and  raised  to  the  peerage,  as 
Baron  King  of  Ockham.  He  was  attached  to  the  \Vhig 
party.  He  resigned  the  seals  in  1733,  on  account  of  ill 
health.    Died  in  1734. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors  ;"  "  Selec- 
tion from  the  Speeches  and  Writings  of  Lord  King;"  Foss,  "The 
Judges  of  England." 

King,  (Peter,)  Lord,  an  English  statesman,  born 
in  1775,  was  a  great-grandson  of  the  preceding.  He 
entered  the  House  of  Lords  about  1796,  and  became  a 
political  and  personal  friend  of  Charles  James  Fox.  He 
published  a  "Life  of  John  Locke,"  (1829.)  He  died  in 
1833,  leaving  a  son  William,  Earl  of  Lovelace,  who 
married  Lord  Byron's  daughter  Ada. 

See  Lord  Brougham,  "  Sketches  of  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of 
George  IIL,"  (second  series.) 

King,  (Peter  John  Locke,)  an  English  legislator,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Ockham,  Surrey,  in 
1811.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1847,  and  ob- 
tained the  repeal  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  sleeping 
statutes  in  1856. 

King,  (Philip  Parker,)  an  English  navigator,  born 
in  the  island  of  Norfolk  in  1793.  He  commanded  an 
expedition  sent  in  1826  to  explore  and  survey  the  coasts 
of  South  America.  The  results  were  published  in  a 
"Narrative  of  the  Surveying  Voyages  of  H.M.S.  Ad- 
venture and  Beagle,  between  the  Years  1826  and  1836," 
(1839.)    Died  in  1855. 

King,  (Preston,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Ogdensburg,  New  York,  in  1806.  He  embraced  the 
profession  of  law,  and  was  a  representative  in  Congress 
from  1843  to  1847,  and  again  from  1849  to  1853.  He  was 
transferred  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1853,  took  an 
active  part  in  the  senatorial  debates,  and,  during  the  dis- 
union movement  of  1860-61,  advocated  a  firm  adherence 
to  the  principles  of  the  Republican  party.  He  was  ap- 
pointed collector  of  the  port  of  New  York  about  1864. 
Died  at  New  York  in  November,  1865. 

King,  (Richard,)  an  English  divine  and  polemical 
writer,  born  in  Bristol  about  1750.  Among  his  princi- 
pal works  are  "  Letters  from  Abraham  Plymley  to  his 
Brother  Peter  on  the  Catholic  Question,"  and  a  "Treat- 
ise on  the  Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures."  Died  in  1810. 

King,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
Dorsetshire  in  1771.  He  rendered  important  services 
at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  where  he  fought  as  captain, 
(1805.)  He  became  a  vice-admiral  in  1821.  Died  in  1834. 

King,  (Rufus,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in  Scar- 
borough, Maine,  in  1755,  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1777. 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KING 


1326 


KINGS  LET 


He  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1780,  and 
became  an  eloquent  pleader.  In  1784  he  was  elected 
a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress,  in  which  he 
offered  in  1785  a  resolution  "That  there  be  neither 
slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude  in  any  of  the  States 
described  in  the  resolution  of  Congress  of  Ajiril,  1784," 
i.e.  the  Northwest  Territory.  He  married  Mary  Alsop, 
of  New  York  City,  in  1786.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  Convention  which  in  1787  formed  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  and  became  a  leader  of  the 
Federal  party.  Having  fixed  his  residence  in  the  city 
of  New  York  in  1788,  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  in  1789.  He  advocated  Jay's  treaty  in 
several  eloquent  speeches,  was  re-elected  to  the  national 
Senate  in  1795,  and  was  appointed  minister-plenipoten- 
tiary to  Great  Britain  in  1796.  He  performed  the  duties 
of  this  position  with  much  ability  for  eight  years,  and 
retired  to  private  life  in  1804.  In  1813  he  was  elected 
a  United  States  Senator  by  a  legislature  of  adverse  poli- 
tics. Having  been  again  elected  in  1819  or  1820,  he 
continued  in  that  body  until  1825,  and  made  an  able 
speech  against  the  extension  of  slavery  on  the  occasion 
of  the  admission  of  Missouri.  He  was  appointed  min- 
ister to  England  in  1825,  returned  about  a  year  later,  and 
died  in  April,  1827. 

See  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

King,  (RuFUS,)  an  American  general,  a  son  of  Charles 
King,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  the  city  of  New  York 
in  1 814.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1833,  and  was 
emjDloyed  as  an  engineer  for  several  years.  About  1838 
he  became  adjutant-general  of  New  York.  He  after- 
wards edited  a  paper  at  Milwaukee.  He  was  appointed 
a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  1861,  and  commanded 
a  division  under  Generals  McDowell  and  Pope  in  the 
summer  of  1862.  He  was  minister  at  Rome  from  Oc- 
tober, 1863,  to  July,  1867. 

King,  (Susan  Prtigru,)  an  American  writer,  daugh- 
ter of  James  L.  Petigru,  was  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina.  She  has  published  "  Busy  Moments  of  an  Idle 
Woman,"  "  Sylvia's  World,"  and  other  tales  of  fashion- 
able life. 

King,  (Thomas,)  an  actor  and  dramatist,  born  in 
London  in  1730.  Among  his  productions  are  "  Love  at 
First  Sight,"  "  A  Peep  behind  the  Curtain,  or  the  New 
Rehearsal,"  and  "Wit's  Last  Stake."    Died  in  1805. 

See  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

King,  (T.  Butler,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Hampshire  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1804.  He  studied 
law,  and  removed  to  Georgia  about  1824.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress  in  1839,  1841,  and  1845,  and  be- 
came a  secessionist  in  1861.    Died  in  1864. 

King,  (Thomas  Starr,)  an  American  Unitarian  di- 
vine, born  in  New  York  in  1824.  He  became  in  1848 
pastor  of  the  church  in  HoUis  Street,  Boston,  and  in 
i860  sailed  for  San  Francisco,  where  he  assumed  charge 
of  the  Unitarian  church  in  that  city.  He  had  a  high 
reputation  as  a  lecturer,  and  published,  among  other 
works,  "The  White  Hills:  their  Legends,  Landscapes, 
and  Poetry,"  (1859.)    Died  in  1864. 

See  "A  Tribute  to  Thomas  Starr  King,"  by  R.  Frothingham. 

King,  (William,)  a  Protestant  prelate,  was  born  in 
Antrim,  Ireland,  in  1650.  He  opposed  the  Catholics 
under  James  II.,  and  favoured  the  Revolution.  In  1703 
he  was  created  Archbishop  of  Dublin.  He  wrote  "The 
Inventions  of  Men  in  the  Worship  of  God,"  (1694,) 
intended  to  reconcile  the  Irish  Presbyterians  to  the 
Episcopal  ceremonies,  and  a  treatise,  in  Latin,  on  "  The 
Origin  of  Evil,"  ("De  Origine  Mali,"  1702,)  which  was 
attacked  by  Bayle  and  Leibnitz.    Died  in  1729. 

King,  (William,)  a  learned  and  satirical  writer,  born 
in  London  in  1663.  About  1702  he  was  appointed  in  Ire- 
land to  the  offices  of  judge  of  the  admiralty,  keeper  of  the 
records,  and  commissioner  of  prizes.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Animadversions  upon  the  Pretended  Account  of 
Denmark,"  (1694,)  in  answer  to  a  work  by  Lord  Moles- 
worth,  "The  Transactioneer,"  a  satire  on  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, (1700,)  and  "Original  Works  in  Prose  and  Verse," 
(3  vols.,  1776.)  A  Memoir  of  his  life  is  prefixed  to  the 
last.    Died  in  1712. 


King,  (William,)  an  English  writer,  born  near  Lon- 
don in  1685.  Among  his  works  are  several  Latin  tracts 
on  various  subjects,  and  his  autobiography,  entitled 
"Political  and  Literary  Anecdotes,"  (1819,)  containing 
an  interesting  account  of  a  number  of  his  contemporaries. 
He  was  principal  of  Saint  Mary's  Hall,  Oxford.  Died 
in  1763. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1819;  "Monthly  Review" 
for  February,  i8ig. 

King,  (William,)  born  at  Scarborough,  Maine,  in 
1768,  was  president  of  the  convention  which  framed  the 
Constitution  of  his  native  State.  He  was  afterwards 
elected  first  Governor  of  Maine.    Died  in  1852. 

King,  (William  Rufus,)  an  American  statesman  of 
the  Democratic  party,  born  in  Sampson  county.  North 
Carolina,  in  1786.  In  18 10  he  was  elected  to  Congress. 
He  was  United  States  Senator  from  Alabama  from  1819 
to  1840,  being  re-elected  four  times.  He  supported 
General  Jackson  in  the  Presidential  campaigns  of  1824, 
1828,  and  1832,  and  was  appointed  minister  to  France  by 
President  Tyler  in  1844.  He  was  elected  president  of 
the  Senate  in  1850,  and  in  1852  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States.    Died  in  1853. 

King'lake,  (Alexander  William,)  an  English  au- 
thor and  barrister,  born  at  Taunton  in  1809,  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1837,  after  which  he  made  a 
tour  in  the  Levant,  and  published  a  book  of  travel 
called  "  Eothen,"  (1844,)  which  was  highly  successful. 
He  accompanied  the  British  army  to  the  Crimea  in  1854, 
and  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Crimean  War."  In  1857 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1844,  ''nd  April, 
1863;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  March,  1863,  and  January,  i86g; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1863;  "North  British  Review"  for 
May,  1S63. 

Kingo,  king'o,  (Thomas,)  a  Danish  poet  and  prelate, 
born  at  Slangerup  in  1634,  became  Bishop  of  Fiinen. 
His  sacred  poems  were  highly  esteemed  by  his  contem- 
poraries, and  he  has  been  compared  by  English  readers 
to  Dr.  Watts.    Died  in  1723. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Kingsborough,  kingz'biir'eh,  (Edward  King,)  Vis- 
COUN'i",  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  1795,  was  a  son 
of  the  Earl  of  Kingston.  He  published  "Antiquities  of 
Mexico,  comprising  Fac-Similes  of  Ancient  Mexican 
Paintings,"  etc.,  (9  vols.,  1830  et  seq.)    Died  in  1837. 

Kings'ley,  (Calvin,)  D.D.,  an  American  Methodist 
clergyman,  born  in  Oneida  county,  New  York,  in  1812, 
became  editor  of  the  "Western  Christian  Advocate"  in 
1856.  He  was  elected  a  bishop  in  1864.  Having  made 
a  tour  round  the  world,  he  died  on  his  return,  at  Jeru- 
salem, in  1870. 

KingsTey,  (Rev.  Charles,)  a  popular  English  writer, 
born  at  Holne  Vicarage,  in  Devonshire,  in  June,  1819. 
He  was  educated  at  Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  was 
ordained  a  priest  of  the  Anglican  Church  in  1843,  '^^'^^ 
became  rector  of  Eversley,  Hampshire,  in  1844.  About 
this  date  he  married  Miss  Grenfell,  whose  sister  is  the 
wife  of-  Froude  the  historian.  He  published  in  1848  a 
dramatic  poem  called  "The  Saint's  Tragedy."  He 
united  with  his  friend  the  Rev.  J.  F.  D.  Maurice  in  efforts 
to  improve  the  condition  of  the  working-men  by  the 
formation  of  co-operative  associations.  His  interest  in 
the  sufferings  and  trials  of  the  working-classes  in  large 
towns  was  manifested  in  his  novel  of  "Alton  Locke, 
Tailor  and  Poet,"  (1850,)  which  attracted  much  attention. 
In  1853  he  produced  a  philosophical  romance  eiititled 
"  Hypatia,"  which  appeared  first  in  "  Eraser's  Magazine" 
and'  is  regarded  as  one  of  his  most  powerful  works. 
He  afterwards  published  "  Alexandria  and  her  Schools," 
"Glaucus;  or,  The  Wonders  of  the  Shore,"  (1855,) 
"Two  Years  Ago,"  a  novel,  (1857,)  "Westward  Ho," 
and  other  works. 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1850,  June,  1S55, 
and  August,  1858 ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1848,  and  June, 
1858;  "  North  British  Review"  for  August,  1851. 

Kingsley,  (James  Luce,)  LL.D.,  born  in  Windham, 
Connecticut,  in  1778,  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1799, 
and  in  1805  became  professor  of  Hebrew,  Latin,  and 
Greek  in  that  institution.    He  wrote  the  "  Life  of  Ezra 


a,  e.  T,  6,  vi,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  n,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  nSt;  goodi  moon ; 


KINGSMILL 


1327 


KIRCHMAIER 


Stiles"  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography,"  and  pub- 
lished several  educational  works.    Died  in  1852. 

Kings'mill,  (Andrew,)  an  English  Puritan  minister, 
born  at  Sidmonton  in  1538.  He  preached  at  Oxford  and 
at  Geneva,  and  published  several  religious  works.  Died 
at  Lausanne  in  1569. 

Kings'ton,  (Elizabeth  Chudleigh,)  Duchess  of, 
an  English  beauty,  born  in  1720.  She  was  privately 
married  to  Harvey,  who  became  Earl  of  Bristol,  and 
from  whom  she  was  soon  separated.  In  1769  she  was 
again  married  to  the  Duke  of  Kingston.  She  was  tried 
on  a  charge  of  bigamy,  and  convicted.    Died  in  1788. 

See  "  An  Authentic  Detail  of  Particulars  relative  to  the  Duchess 
of  Kingston,"  London,  1788. 

Kinkel,  kink'el,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German 
patriot,  poet,  and  writer  upon  art,  born  at  Oberkassel  in 
1815.  He  published  in  1846  a  "History  of  the  Plastic 
Art  among  Christian  Nations,"  and  a  poem  entitled 
"Otto  the  Archer."  In  1848  he  established  a  journal 
called  "  Spartacus,"  in  which  he  was  a  zealous  advocate 
of  democratic  principles.  Having  taken  part  in  the 
storming  of  the  arsenal  at  Siegburg,  and  the  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Palatinate,  he  was  in  June,  1849,  taken  by  the 
Prussians  and  imprisoned  at  Spandau.  In  November, 
1850,  assisted  by  his  friend  Carl  Schurz,  he  made  his 
escape  to  England. 

See  Strodtmann,  "  Kinkels  Leben,"  2  vols.,  1850;  Longfel- 
low, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Kinkel.  (Johanna,)  the  wife  of  the  preceding,  born 
about  1807,  was  distinguished  as  an  authoress  and 
musician.    Died  in  1858. 

Kinker,  kink'er,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  author  and  poet, 
born  near  Amsterdam  about  1 760;  died  about  1825. 

KinnSra,  k?n'a-ra,  [etymology  uncertain,]  sometimes 
impr()])erly  written  Cinnara,  the  name  given  to  the  male 
dancers  of  Swerga,  or  the  paradise  of  Indra.  The  Kin- 
naras  are  represented  with  the  body  and  limbs  of  a  man 
and  the  head  of  a  horse. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  Wilson,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary." 

Kinsbergen,  van,  vin  kins'b^R''Hen,  (Jan  Hen- 
DRIK,)  a  Dutch  admiral,  born  at  Doesburg  in  1735.  I" 
1767  he  entered  the  Russian  service  under  Catherine  II., 
and  soon  after  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Turks. 
In  1781  he  assisted  in  the  famous  battle  of  Doggersbank, 
fought  between  the  Dutch  and  English.  He  was  created 
Count  of  Doggersbank  by  Louis,  King  of  Holland.  Died 
in  1820. 

See  M.  C.  van  Halt.,  "Leven  en  Karakter  van  den  Admiraal 
Jonkheer  J.  H.  van  Kinsbergen,"  1841  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Kinschot,  van,  vtn  Idns'Kot,  (Hendrik,)  a  Belgian 
jurist,  born  near  Antwerp  in  1541  ;  died  in  1608. 

Kinschot,  van,  (Kaspar,)  a  Dutch  writer  of  Latin 
poetry,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1622  ;  died  in  1649. 

Kinsky,  kin'skee,  (Franz  Joseph,)  Count,  an  Aus- 
trian general,  born  at  Prague  in  1739,  served  with  dis- 
tinction against  the  French  in  1793-96.    Died  in  1805. 

Kinson,  kin'son,  or  Kinsoen,  kin'soon,  (Frans,)  a 
skilful  Flemisli  i^ortrait-painter,  born  at  Bruges  in  1774 
or  1770,  worked  in  Paris  and  Brussels.    Died  in  1839. 

Kip,  (William  Ingraham,)  D.D.,  an  American  prel- 
ate, born  in  New  York  in  1811.  He  graduated  in  183 1 
at  Yale  College,  and  was  consecrated  in  1853  missionary- 
bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  California. 
He  published  "  Early  Conflicts  of  Christianity,"  and 
"  Dom.estic  and  Religious  Life  in  Italy." 

KipTing,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  professor  of  theology  at 
Cambridge,  aiid  Dean  of  Peterborough,  born  in  England 
about  1755.  He  wrote  "The  Articles  of  the  Church  of 
England  proved  not  to  be  Calvinistic,"  and  various  other 
works.    Died  in  1821. 

Kipping,  kip'ping,  [Lat.  Kippin'gius,!  (Heinrich,) 
a  German  philologist,  born  near  Rostock  about  1623, 
was  the  author  of  numerous  works  on  philology,  history, 
and  anti(|uities.    Died  in  1678. 

See  H.  E.  Heeren.  "Oratio  de  H.  Kippingio,"  etc.,  1755, 

Kippingius.    See  Kipping. 

Kip'pis,  (Andrew,)  an  English  dissenting  minister 
and  eminent  biographer,  born  at  Nottingham  in  1725. 
He  preached  for  some  years  in  London,  whither  he 
removed  in  1753,  and  was  appointed  teacher  in  Coward's 


Academy  for  the  education  of  dissenting  ministers,  in 
1763.  About  1780  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society.  His  most  important  work  is  a  new  and  enlarged 
edition  of  the  "  Biographia  Britannica,"  of  which  he  pub- 
lished 5  vols,  in  1778-79.  This  work  is  highly  esteemed, 
but  was  left  unfinished,  terminating  at  the  letter  F.  He 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Captain  Cook,"  (1788.)  Died  in  1795. 
See  Rees,  "  Cyclopa;dia." 

Kir'by,  (John  Joshua,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  artist 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1716.  He  published 
"  The  Perspective  of  Architecture,"  (1761,)  and  "A  Map 
of  Suffolk."    Died  in  1774. 

See  Nichols,  "Biographical  Anecdotes  of  Hogarth." 

Kirby,  (Rev.  William,)  an  eminent  English  ento- 
mologist, born  in  Suffolk  in  1759,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  educated  at  Caius  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  became  curate  of  Barham.  He  studied 
various  branches  of  natural  history,  and  was  one  of  the 
first  members  of  the  Linnaean  Society,  to  which  he 
contributed  several  papers.  He  acquired  a  European 
reputation  by  his  work  on  English  Bees,  "  Monographia 
Apium  Angliae,"  (2  vols.,  1802.)  In  conjunction  with  Mr. 
Spence,  he  published  an  excellent  "  Introduction  to  En- 
tomology," (4  vols.,  1815-26.)  He  also  wrote  the  Bridge- 
water  Treatise  entitled  "  The  Habits  and  Instincts  of 
Animals."    Died  in  1850. 

See  J.  Freeman,  "Life  of  William  Kirby,"  1852;  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  October,  1835 ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  January, 
1803,  and  November,  181 7. 

Kirch,  k^RK,  (Christfried,)  a  distinguished  as- 
tronomer and  writer,  born  at  Guben  in  1694.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Academies  of  Science  at  Paris  and  Saint 
Petersburg,  and  director  of  the  Observatory  in  Berlin. 
Died  in  1740. 

Kirch,  (Gottfried,)  father  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Lower  Lusatia  in  1639.  He  was  appointed  di- 
rector of  the  Observatory  and  royal  astronomer  at  Berlin. 
He  wrote  "  Observations  upon  the  Comet  that  appeared 
in  Italy  in  1676,"  (1677,)  "  Astronomical  Tables,"  and 
"  Christian,  Jewish,  and  Turkish  Calendar  to  the  Year 
1685."    Died  in  1710. 

Kirch,  (Marie  Margarethe  Winckelmann,)  an 
astronomer,  wife  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Upper 
Lusatia  in  1670.  She  assisted  her  husband  in  his  astro- 
nomical labours,  and  published  almanacs.    Died  in  1720. 

Kir'-eher,  [Ger.  pron.  ke^R^Ker;  Lat.  Kirche'rus,] 
(Athanasius,)  alearned  German  Jesuit,  distinguished  for 
his  talents  and  versatility,  was  born  near  Fulda  in  i6or. 
Having  studied  at  Avignon,  he  was  invited  to  Rome  by 
the  pope  to  fill  the  chair  of  mathematics  in  the  Roman 
College.  He  wrote  nuinerous  treatises  on  philology, 
hieroglyphics,  and  antiquities,  which  display  profound 
learning,  but  are  deficient  in  sound  criticism,  and  many 
of  them  are  rather  interesting  than  reliable.  Among 
these  may  be  named  "  Prodromus  Coptus,"  (1636,) 
"CEdipus  Egyptiacus,"  (3  vols.,  1652-55,)  being  an  ex- 
planation of  hieroglyphics,  "  Mundus  Subterraneus," 
(1665,)  and  "Description  of  Latium  considered  in  its 
Ancient  and  Modern  Aspect,"  ("Latium,  id  est  nova  et 
parallela  Latii,  turn  veteris,  tum  novi,  Descriptio,"  1669.) 
He  also  published  several  valuable  scientific  treatises; 
and  to  him  is  generally  ascribed  the  invention  of  the 
magic-lantern.    Died  in  1680. 

See  his  autobiography,  "Vita  Kircheri,"  in  the  "Fasciculus 
Epistolarum  Kircheri,"  1684  ;  Bavi.e,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dic- 
tionary;" NiCERON,  '•  Memoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Kircher,  (Conrad,)  a  German  philologist  and  writer, 
born  in  Augsburg.  His  chief  work  is  a  Greek  and  He- 
brew Concordance  of  the  Old  Testament,  (1607.)  Died 
after  1620. 

Kirchhoff,  k^RK'hof,  (G.,)  a  German  astronomer  of 
the  present  age,  distinguished  for  his  observations  and 
discoveries  with  the  spectroscope.  He  published  "  Re- 
searches on  the  Solar  Spectrum,"  (1862.) 

Kirchmaier  or  Kirchmayer,  keeRK'ml'er,  (Georg 
Kaspar,)  a  German  chemist  and  scholar,  born  in  Fran- 
conia  in  1635.  vvrote  commentaries  on  several  classic 
authors.  The  discovery  of  the  art  of  etching  on  glass 
with  fluoric  acid  is  attributed  to  him.    Died  in  1700. 

_  See  JocHER,  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 


€  as  k:  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (2[^"°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KIRCHMAIER 


1328 


KISFAL  UDT 


Kirchmaier,  (Thomas,)  a  Lutheran  minister,  born  in 
Bavaria  about  151 1.  He  took  the  Greek  name  of  Nao 
Georgos.  He  is  the  author  of  numerous  Latin  poems 
and  theological  and  polemical  works,  mostly  written  in 
the  Latin  language.  He  preached  at  Stuttgart,  Esslingen, 
and  Wisloch.    Died  in  1563. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Sax,  "  Ono- 
masticon." 

Kirchman,  k^Ric'm^in,  a  Russian  electrician,  of  Ger- 
man extraction,  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Saint 
Petersburg.  He  was  killed  by  the  electric  fluid,  in  the 
act  of  attracting  it  from  the  clouds,  in  1753. 

Kirchmami,  keeRK'mdn,  (Johann,)  a  German  au- 
thor and  scholar,  born  at  Luljeck  in  1575,  became  in 
1603  professor  of  poetry  at  Rostock.  He  wrote  a  "Dis- 
sertation on  the  Funeral  Ceremonies  used  among  the 
Romans,"  (1605,)  and  "  De  Annulis,'"  a  treatise  on  an- 
cient rings.    Died  in  1643. 

See  Rayi.e,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron, 
"  Memoires." 

Kirgener,  k^Rzh'naiR',  (Joseph,)  a  French  general, 
born  in  Paris  in  1766,  was  killed  at  Markersdorf  in  1813. 

Kirk,  (Edward  N.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Ohio.  He  was  a  citizen  of  Illinois  when  the  civil  war 
began.  He  commanded  a  brigade  of  the  Union  army  at 
the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6  and  7,  1862,  and  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Stone  River,  January,  1863. 

Kirk,  (Edward  Norris,)  D.D.,  an  American  Con- 
gregationalist  divine,  was  born  in  New  York  in  1802. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton  College,  New  Jersey,  and 
became  in  1828  pastor  of  a  church  at  Albany.  He  was 
afterwards  appointed  secretary  of  the  Foreign  Evangelical 
Society,  and  in  1842  settled  as  pastor  of  the  Mount  Ver- 
non Church,  Boston. 

Kirk'al,  (Edward,)  an  English  engraver,  born  in 
Sheffield  about  1700. 

Kirkaldy,  ker-kau'de,  (Sir  William,)  of  Grange, 
one  of  the  earliest  Protestants  of  Scotland,  was  the  son 
of  Sir  James  Kirkaldy,  high  treasurer  under  the  reign  of 
James  V.  Sir  William  was  implicated  in  the  assassina- 
tion of  Cardinal  Beaton,  for  which  he  was  imprisoned. 
He  finally  escaped  to  France,  where  he  was  distinguished 
as  one  of  the  most  valiant  and  chivalrous  knights  in  the 
court  and  army  of  Henry  H.  After  his  return  to  Scot- 
land, he  became  a  leader  of  the  Protestants.  He  fought 
bravely  against  the  French,  who  had  been  sent  over  to 
assist  the  Catholics,  and  made  Queen  Mary  prisoner.  He 
vainly  attempted  to  capture  Bothwell,  whom  he  pursued 
as  far  as  the  coast  of  Norway.  About  1570  Kirkaldy 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  queen,  of  whose  party  he 
became  the  leader.  He  refused  to  obey  the  mandates 
of  the  regent,  and  after  several  months  of  fighting,  in 
which  great  ferocity  was  displayed  on  both  sides,  sus- 
tained a  siege  in  Edinburgh  Castle.  He  was,  however, 
finally  obliged  by  his  soldiers  to  make  an  unconditional 
surrender.  He,  with  several  of  his  friends,  was  hung 
in  August,  1573.  John  Knox,  who  had  formerly  been 
his  intimate  friend  and  fellow-sufferer  in  the  Protestant 
cause,  deeply  deplored  his  change  of  principles  and  his 
untimely  end. 

See  "  Memoirs  and  Adventures  of  Sir  Wm.  Kirkaldy,"  Edinburgh, 
1849  ;  Robertson,  "  Histoiy  of  Scotland  ;"  Chambers,  "  Biographi- 
cal Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  Froude,  "  History  of  Eng- 
land ;"  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  January,  1849. 

_  Kirk'bride,  (Thomas  S.,)  M.D.,  an  American  phy- 
sician, born  in  Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1809. 
Having  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  he 
became  resident  physician  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital, 
and  in  1840  superintendent  of  the  Hospital  for  the  In- 
sane. He  has  published  an  excellent  work  entitled 
"  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital 
for  the  Lisane,"  (1850.) 

Kirke,  kerk,  (Percy,)  Colonel,  a  British  officer, 
notorious  for  cruelty,  lived  in  the  reigns  of  James  II,  and 
William  III.  He  served  in  the  army  which  suppressed 
the  rebellion  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  (1685.)  His 
men  were  called  "Kirke's  lambs." 

See  Pepvs,  "Diary;"  Macaui.av,  "History  of  England." 

Kirke  White.    See  White. 

Kirk'land,  (Mrs.  Caroline  Matilda  Stansbury,) 
an  American  writer,  born  in  the  city  of  New  York,  was 


married  about  1830  to  Professor  William  Kirkland,  of 
Hamilton  College.  After  a  residence  of  nearly  three 
years  in  Michigan,  she  published,  under  the  assumed 
name  of"  Mary  Clavers,"  "A  New  Home — Who'll  Fol- 
low ?"  (1839,)  "  Forest  Life,"  (1842,)  and  "  Western  Clear- 
ings," (1846,)  which  soon  obtained  a  wide  popularity. 
She  became  editor  of  the  "  Union  Magazine,"  in  New 
York,  in  1847.  Among  her  other  works  may  be  named 
"An  Essay  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Spenser,"  (1846,) 
and  "Personal  Memoirs  of  George  Washington,"  (1858.) 
Mrs.  Kirkland's  delineations  of  Western  pioneer-life  are 
among  the  most  admirable  of  their  kind,  abounding  in 
humorous  incidents,  shrewd  sense,  and  picturesque  de- 
scriptions.   Died  in  1864. 

See  Griswoi.d,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America  ;"  Duyckinck,  "  Cy- 
clopaedia of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Cleveland,  "Compen- 
dium of  American  Literature ;"  "  North  American  Review"  for 
Januai-y,  1840. 

KirkIand,(JoHN  Thornton,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Amer- 
ican scholar  and  divine,  born  at  Little  Falls,  New  York, 
in  1770.  Having  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1789,  he 
became  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  in  Summer 
Street,  Boston.  He  was  elected,  in  1810,  president  of 
Harvard  College.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Fisher  Ames," 
and  several  other  works.    Died  in  1840. 

Kirk'land,  (Thomas,)  an  English  physician  and 
medical  writer,  born  in  1721.  He  graduated  as  M.D.  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.    Died  in  1798. 

Kirk-pat'rick,  (  William  James,  )  an  Oriental 
scholar,  born  about  1760,  was  a  member  of  the  Asiatic 
Society  of  Calcutta,  and  major-general  in  the  English 
army  at  Bengal.  He  wrote  a  "  Biography  of  the  Persian 
Poets,"  "  Description  of  the  Kingdom  of  Nepaul,"  (1811,) 
and  several  other  works.    Died  in  1812. 

Kirnberger,  ke^Rn'beRG^er,  (Johann  Philipp,)  a 
German  musician  and  writer  on  art,  born  in  Thuringia 
in  1721  ;  died  in  1783. 

Kirsten,  ke^R'sten,  or  Kirchstein,  kecRK'stin, 
(Georg,)  a  physician  and  writer  on  surgery  and  anatomy, 
born  at  Stettin,  in  Pomerania,  in  1613  ;  died  in  1660. 

Kirsten,  (Michael,)  a  learned  physician  and  scientific 
writer,  born  in  Moravia  in  1620;  died  in  1678. 

Kirsten,  [Lat.  Kirste'nius,]  (Peter,)  a  distinguished 
physician  and  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Breslau  in  1577. 
He  studied  at  the  most  celebrated  universities  of  Ger- 
many, and  travelled  extensively  in  Europe.  He  was  sub- 
sequently invited  to  Sweden  by  Chancellor  Oxenstiern, 
where  he  was  appointed  physician  to  Queen  Christina 
and  medical  professor  in  the  University  of  Upsal.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  master  of  twenty-six  languages. 
He  wrote,  among  other  works,  an  "  Arabic  Grammar," 
(1608-10,)  and  "Notes  on  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew, 
from  the  Collation  of  Arabic,  Syriac,  Egyptian,  Greek, 
and  Latin  Texts,"  (1611.)    Died  at  Upsal  in  1640. 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron, 
"  Memoires." 

Kirstenius.    See  Kirsten,  (Peter.) 

Kirwan,  ker'wan,  (Richard,)  a  distinguished  chemist 
and  geologist,  born  at  Gal  way,  in  Ireland,  about  1733, 
or,  as  others  say,  in  1750.  He  was  elected  president  of 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  London,  and  member  of  various  scientific  associations 
on  the  continent.  He  published  "An  Essay  on  the 
Constitution  of  Acids,"  (1787,)  which  was  translated 
by  Lavoisier  and  refuted  by  him,  "Elements  of  Mine- 
ralogy," (1794,)  an  "Essay  on  the  Analysis  of  Mineral 
Waters,"  "  An  Estimate  of  the  Temperature  of  Different 
Latitudes,"  and  other  scientific  works.    Died  in  1812. 

See  CuviER,  "Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles." 

Kirwan,  (Walter  Blake,)  an  Irish  clergyman,  dis- 
tinguished for  his  eloquence,  born  at  Gal  way  in  1754. 
He  was  educated  as  a  Catholic  priest,  but  joined  the 
Church  of  England  in  1787,  after  which  he  preached  in 
Dublin.    Died  in  1805. 

Kis,  kfsh,  (Stephen,  )  a  Hungarian  theologian,  born  at 
Szegedin  in  1505,  was  a  disciple  of  Luther.  He  preached 
at  Temesvar,  and  published  several  works.  Died  in  1572. 

Kischtasp.    See  GushtAsp. 

Kisfaludy,  k!sh'foh-loody,  almost  kish'foh-looj, 
(KAroly,)  a  celebrated  dramatist,  the  founder  of  Hun- 
garian comedy,  was  born  at  Tete  in  March,  1790.  On 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon: 


KISFJLUDT 


1329 


KLAPROTH 


account  of  his  fiery  and  turbulent  disposition,  he  was 
placed  in  the  Austrian  army  at  an  early  age.  He  served 
as  an  officer  in  Italy  in  1805  against  Napoleon,  and  was 
afterwards  taken  prisoner  by  the  French.  Having  been 
exchanged,  he  fought  in  Germany  in  1809.  He  left  the 
army  in  1810,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Vienna,  where 
he  gained  a  li\ing  as  an  artist.  In  1819  he  acquired  a 
sudden  celebrity  by  his  play  "The  Tartar  in  Hungary." 
Soon  after  he  produced  "  Ilka,"  a  tragedy,  "  Stiber  the 
Chieftain,"  and  several  other  plays,  all  of  which  were 
received  with  the  greatest  applause.  Among  the  most 
popular  of  his  comedies  are  the  "Student  Matthias," 
of  which  the  emperor  Matthias  Corvinus  is  the  hero, 
"The  Suitors,"  and  "The  Insurgents."  Kisfaludy  es- 
tablished an  able  and  successful  literary  annual,  entitled 
the  "Aurora."    Died  in  November,  1830. 

See  T.  MuNDT,  "Geschichte  der  Literatur  der  Gegenwart ;" 
Franz  Schedel,  " Kisfaludy  K.  filete,"  Buda-Pesth,  1832;  "North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1850,  (by  Mrs.  Putnam.) 

Kisfaludy,  (Sandor,)  an  elder  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  poets  of 
Hungary,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Szalad  in  1772.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1793,  and  formed  an  attachment  for 
the  beautiful  Rosalia  Szegedy,  who  rejected  him.  He 
subsequently  served  against  Napoleon  in  Italy,  and  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  French.  While  a  captive  in  the 
place  where  Petrarch  had  poured  forth  his  immortal 
strains  to  Laura,  the  young  Hungarian  resolved  to  ad- 
dress the  object  of  his  love  in  a  similar  poem.  In  1800 
he  regained  the  affections  of  the  lady  Rosalia,  to  whom 
he  was  married.  He  left  the  army  and  retired  to  his 
paternal  estate.  The  same  year  the  anonymous  publica- 
tion of  his  poem,  under  the  title  of  "  Himfy,"  produced 
a  sensation  among  men  of  letters  never  equalled  in 
Hungary.  In  1807  he  made  himself  known  in  publish- 
ing a  poem  entitled  "Happy  Love."  He  afterwards 
wrote  several  other  poems  and  dramas,  of  which  "John 
Huniades"  and  "  Ladislaus  the  Rumanian"  were  greatly 
admired.  Died  in  1844.  Three  years  later  his  complete 
works  were  published  at  Pesth,  in  6  vols.  Several 
extracts  from  "  Himfy"  have  been  translated  into  English. 

See  T.  MuNDT,  "Geschichte  der  Literatur  der  Gegenwart," 
Leipsic,  1853;  also  the  article  on  the  "Language  and  Literature 
of  the  Magyars"  in  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  September, 
1828. 

Kiss.kis,  (Augustus,)  a  distinguished  Prussian  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Pless,  in  Upper  Silesia,  in  1802.  He  studied 
under  the  celebrated  Ranch.  He  was  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  of  Berlin.  Among  his  most 
admirable  works  are  an  equestrian  statue  of  Frede- 
rick the  Great,  and  two  colossal  groups  in  bronze, — an 
"  Amazon  attacked  by  a  Tiger,"  and  "  Saint  George 
and  the  Dragon."    Died  in  1862. 

Kisselef,  KisselefF,  or  Kisselew,  kis'seh-lgf,  (Ni- 
cholas,) Count,  a  Russian  diplomatist,  born  in  1800. 
He  was  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Paris  in 
1851,  and  was  sent  as  Russian  minister  to  Rome  in  1856. 

Kisselef,  (Paul,)  Count,  a  Russian  general  and 
diplomatist,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Moscow  in  1788.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  the 
domains  of  the  emperor  in  1837,  and  sent  as  ambassador 
to  France  in  1856. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Kisselew.    See  Kisselef. 

Kitch'en-er,  (William,)  an  English  physician  and 
writer  on  gastronomy,  born  in  London  about  1775.  He 
was  the  author  of  "The  Cook's  Oracle,"  "The  Art  of 
Invigorating  and  Prolonging  Life,"  "The  Traveller's 
Oracle,"  "Observations  on  Vocal  Music,"  and  other 
works  on  various  subjects.    Died  in  1827. 

See  William  Jerdan,  "Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1866; 
"Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1827. 

Kite,  (Charles,)  an  English  physician  and  writer, 
born  at  Gravesend  about  1768  ;  died  in  1811. 

Ki-Tseu  or  Ki-Tse.    See  Kee-Tse. 

Kit'to,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  distinguished  as  a 
biblical  scholar,  born  at  Plymouth  in  1804.  He  suffered 
much  privation  and  neglect  in  his  childhood  in  conse- 
quence of  the  intemperance  of  his  father.  About  the 
age  of  twelve  he  was  rendered  incurably  deaf  by  a  fall 
from  the  roof  of  a  house.  He  became  an  inmate  of  the 
poor-house,  where  he  manifested  such  an  earnest  desire 


to  improve  his  mind  that  some  persons  procured  for 
him  admission  to  a  college  in  Islington.  As  tutor  to  the 
children  of  Mr.  Grove,  he  travelled  in  Russia,  Arme- 
nia, and  Persia  in  1829-32.  About  1833  he  was  engaged 
by  Charles  Knight  to  write  for  the  "  Penny  Magazine." 
He  edited  "  The  Pictorial  Bible"  published  by  Charles 
Knight,  (1838,)  and  produced  numerous  valuable  and 
successful  works,  among  which  are  "  The  Cyclopsedia 
of  Biblical  Literature,"  (4  vols.,  1845-50,)  "The  Lost 
Senses — Deafness  and  Blindness,"  which  contains  an 
autobiography,  and  "  Daily  Bible  Illustrations,"  (7  vols., 
1849-53.)  W'^s  married  about  1833.    He  died  at 

Cannstadt,  Wiirtemberg,  in  1854. 

See  J.  E.  RvLAND,  "Memoirs  of  John  Kitto,"  1856;  "Brief 
Biographies,"  by  Samuel  Smiles;  "North  British  Review"  for 
February,  1847. 

Kiuperli.    See  Koprili. 

Kj oping  or  Kjoeping,  chopping,  (Nikolaus  Mat- 
son,)  a  Swedish  traveller,  born  in  1630.  In  1648  he 
sailed  to  the  East  Indies,  and  afterwards  visited  Persia, 
Farther  India,  Arabia,  and  Egypt.  An  account  of  his 
travels  was  published  after  his  death.    Died  in  1667. 

Klapka,  klop'koh,  (General  George,)  born  at  Te- 
mesvar,  in  Hungary,  in  1820.  He  became  a  cadet  in 
an  artillery  regiment  about  1838,  and  lieutenant-colonel 
in  1847.  In  1848  he  joined  the  Hungarian  revolutionists, 
and  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  his  daring  courage 
and  his  ability  as  a  commander.  He  soon  after  received 
a  general's  commission  and  was  appointed  secretary  of 
war.  In  1849,  while  defending  the  fortress  of  Comorn, 
he  made  a  sally  at  midnight,  totally  routed  the  Austrian 
army,  and  took  several  pieces  of  artillery.  He  forced 
his  enemies  to  evacuate  Raab,  and  cut  off  their  commu- 
nication with  Austria.  A  few  days  after  he  received  the 
information  that  the  Hungarian  army  in  the  South  had 
surrendered  to  the  Austrians,  and  also  a  command  from 
Gorgey  to  yield  up  the  fortress  of  Comorn.  This  man- 
date General  Klapka  refused  to  obey  ;  but  two  months 
later,  having  obtained  honourable  terms  from  Haynau 
for  himself  and  troops,  he  capitulated,  in  October,  1849. 
He  then  went  to  London,  and  afterwards  to  Geneva. 
He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  the  War  of  Independence  in 
Hungary,"  (2  vols.,  1850,)  and  a  work  upon  the  war  in 
the  East  and  the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  (1855.) 

Klaproth,  kllp'rot,  sometimes  Anglicised  in  pronun- 
ciation as  klap'rSth,  (Heinrich  Julius,)  an  eminent 
German  Orientalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Berlin,  October 
II,  1783,  was  a  son  of  Martin  II.  Klaproth,  noticed  below. 
At  an  early  age  he  acquired,  without  a  teacher,  consid- 
erable knowledge  of  the  Chinese  language,  and  in  1802 
founded  the  "  Asiatisches  Magazin"  at  Weimar.  On  the 
recommendation  of  Count  Potocki,  he  was  invited  in  1805 
to  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  was  made  adjunct  for  the 
Oriental  languages  and  literature  at  the  Academy  of 
Sciences.  In  the  capacity  of  interpreter  to  the  Russian 
embassy  to  China,  he  travelled  through  Siberia  as  far  as 
Irkootsk  in  1805,  and  collected  valuable  books  and  docu- 
ments, which  he  used  in  the  composition  of  his  "  Asia 
Polyglotta."  In  1807  he  was  sent  by  the  Russian  govern- 
ment on  a  scientific  expedition  to  the  Caucasus,  and  on 
his  return,  in  1809,  was  appointed  aulic  councillor,  and 
received  a  title  of  nobility  and  other  distinctions.  He 
resigned  his  offices  in  Russia  in  1812.  In  1816,  through 
the  influence  of  William  von  Humboldt,  Klaproth  re- 
ceived from  the  King  of  Prussia  the  honorary  title  of 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  and  literature  at  Berlin, 
together  with  a  large  pension,  and  permission  to  reside 
in  Paris.  Among  his  numerous  works  we  may  mention 
"Travels  in  the  Caucasus  and  Georgia,"  (2  vols.,  1812— 
14,)  "Geographical  and  Plistorical  Description  of  the 
Eastern  Caucasus,"  (1814,)  "Historical  Pictures  of  Asia 
from  the  Monarchy  of  Cyrus  to  the  Present  Time," 
(1824,)  "Asia  Polyglotta,"  or  a  classification  of  Orien- 
tal nations  according  to  their  languages,  (1829,)  and 
"On  the  Origin  of  Paper  Money  in  China."  Besides 
these  productions,  which  enjoy  the  highest  reputation 
throughout  Europe,  he  published  a  number  of  excellent 
maps  and  geographical  treatises,  and  wrote  valuable 
articles  for  the  "  Biographic  Universelle."  Died  in 
Paris  in  1835.  Klaproth  was  one  of  the  greatest  linguists 
of  his  time.    His  sagacity,  judgment,  and  memory  were 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as z;  th  as  in  this.    (^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

84 


KLAPROTH 


1330 


KLEIST 


extraordinary.  "  Since  Klaproth's  death,"  says  the  "  En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica,"  "  his  fame  has  continued  to  rise. 
His  merits  as  a  philologer  are  very  great ;  but  his  merits 
as  a  linguist  are  greater  still.  .  .  .  His  memory,  both  for 
comprehensiveness  and  accuracy,  was  unrivalled." 

See  Landkhsse,  "  Notice  historique  et  litteraire  sur  Klaproth ;" 
Fischer,  "  Denksclirift  auf  Klaproth,"  Berlin  ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generate  ;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  October,  1814. 

Klaproth,  (Martin  Heinrich,)  an  eminent  German 
analytical  chemist  and  mineralogist,  born  at  Wernigerode, 
in  Prussian  Saxony,  in  December,  1743.  He  served  an 
apprenticeship  as  an  apothecary,  and  about  1768  went  to 
Berlin,  where  he  studied  chemistry.  Having  gained  dis- 
tinction by  the  analysis  of  mineral  substances  and  by 
discoveries  in  chemistry,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Berlin  in  1788,  and  a  foreign  associate  of  the 
French  Institute.  He  discovered  the  metals  Uranium 
and  Titanium,  and  the  earth  Zirconia.  He  published  the 
results  of  his  researches  and  experiments  in  his  "  Con- 
tributions to  the  Chemical  Knowledge  of  Mineral  Bodies," 
(5  vols.,  1796-1810.)  About  1809  he  became  professor 
of  chemistry  in  Berlin.    Died  in  Berlin  in  181 7. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale  ;"  Kopp,  "Geschichte  der  Chemie." 

Klass,  klSs,  (Friedrich  Christian,)  a  German  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Dresden  in  1752  ;  died  in  1827. 

Klass,  (Karl  Christian,)  a  historical  painter,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Dresden  in  1747. 
Died  in  1793. 

Klauber,  klow'ber,  (Ignaz  Sebastian,)  a  German 
engraver,  was  born  in  Augsburg  in  1754.  He  was 
invited  to  Saint  Petersburg  by  the  empress  Catherine, 
who  appointed  him  professor  in  the  Imperial  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts.  Died  about  1820.  Among  his  engravings 
is  a  portrait  of  the  empress  Catherine. 

Klauber,  (Joseph,)  an  engraver,  born  at  Augsburg 
in  1 7 10,  was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1768. 

Klaus,  a  surname  of  Nicolas  von  der  Flue.  See 
Flue,  de. 

Kleander  or  Kleandros.    See  Cleander. 

Kleaiithes.    See  Cleanthes. 

Klearchus.    See  Clearchus. 

Kle'ber,  [Fr.  Kl^ber,  klilmiR',]  (Jean  Baptiste,) 
a  celebrated  French  general,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1754. 
Having  studied  at  the  military  school  of  Munich,  he 
returned  to  France  in  1788,  and  soon  attained  the  rank 
of  adjutant-major.  For  his  gallant  conduct  at  the  siege 
of  Mayence,  in  1793,  he  was  made  general  of  brigade. 
He  subsequently  gained  several  advantages  over  the 
Vendeans  ;  but  his  generous  treatment  of  the  prisoners 
called  down  upon  him  the  censures  of  the  committee  of 
safety.  He  was  removed  to  the  army  of  the  North,  in 
which,  as  general  of  division,  he  served  under  Jourdan. 
He  gained  distinguished  laurels  in  1794  at  the  battle 
of  Fleurus,  where  he  commanded  the  left  wing  of  the 
French  army.  He  soon  after  captured  Mons  and  the 
fortress  of  Maestricht.  In  1797,  displeased  with  the 
Directory,  he  retired  to  a  country-seat  near  Paris  ;  but 
he  left  this  retreat  at  the  request  of  Bonaparte,  whom  he 
accompanied  in  1798  to  Egypt,  He  was  severely  wounded 
at  the  siege  of  Alexandria,  of  which  city  he  w;as  appointed 
governor.  The  following  winter  he  marched  into  Syria 
at  the  head  of  the  French  vanguard,  reduced  El  Arish, 
Gaza,  and  Jaffa,  and  gained  in  April,  1799,  the  decisive 
victory  of  Mount  Tabor.  On  his  return  to  Egypt  he 
added  to  his  already  brilliant  reputation  at  the  battle  of 
Aboukir.  In  August,  1799,  he  was  made  commander- 
in-chief  by  Bonaparte,  who  returned  to  France.  Though 
Kleber  was  very  popular,  this  event  caused  general  dis- 
satisfaction in  the  army.  The  soldiers  were  greatly  re- 
duced in  numbers,  and  provisions  were  scarce.  The  grand 
vizier,  with  over  40,000  men  and  several  English  officers, 
having  captured  the  important  fortress  of  El  Arish,  was 
marching  against  the  French.  For  these  reasons  Kleber 
formed  a  treaty  with  the  Turks  and  the  English  admiral 
Sir  Sidney  Smith,  by  which,  upon  the  surrender  of  all 
the  fortresses  in  his  possession  except  three,  he  was  to 
receive  from  the  Turks  a  large  amount  of  gold  and  per- 
mission to  return  peaceably  to  France.  He  accordingly 
delivered  up  several  strongholds,  and  was  preparing  to 
sail  from  Egypt,  when  he  was  informed  by  Admiral  Keith 
that  the  English  government,  on  the  ground  that  Smith 


was  not  vested  with  full  authority,  would  not  consent 
that  the  French  should  leave  the  country  except  as  pris- 
oners of  war.  This  infraction  of  the  treaty  thoroughly 
aroused  the  French  general.  He  attacked  the  Turks, 
gained  over  them  the  brilliant  and  decisive  victory  of 
Heliopolis,  drove  their  army  from  Cairo,  and  within  a 
month  regained  every  position  which  he  had  previously 
abandoned.  He  then  turned  his  attention  to  the  im- 
provement of  his  conquests.  He  distributed  land  among 
his  troops,  formed  several  companies  of  native  soldiers, 
and  was  using  practicable  and  efficient  means  to  render 
Egypt  a  valuable  colony  of  France,  when  he  was  assassin- 
ated in  June,  1800,  by  a  Mohammedan  fanatic.  Kleber 
stands  as  one  of  the  very  first  of  the  many  distinguished 
generals  of  that  period.  To  his  great  intellectual  powers 
were  joined  the  generosity  of  a  lofty  mind  and  the  hatred 
of  avarice  and  cruelty.  "Kleber,"  said  Napoleon  at 
Saint  Helena,  "  w^is  an  irreparable  loss  to  France  and  to 
me.  He  was  a  man  of  the  brightest  talents  and  of  the 
greatest  bravery.  Of  all  the  generals  I  have  had  under 
me,  Desaix  and  Kleber  possessed  the  greatest  talents." 

See  Cousin  d'Avallon,  "  Histoire  des  Gen^raux  Desaix  et 
Kleber,"  1S02;  Lubert  de  H^ricourt,  "Vie  du  General  KMber," 
1800;  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution ;"  E.  Barrois, 
"Notice  sur  le  General  Kleber,"  1839;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gen^rale." 

Kleeman,  kla'min,  (Christian  Friedrich  Karl,) 
a  German  naturalist  and  painter  of  insects,  etc.,  was 
born  near  Nuremberg  in  1735.  He  wrote  several  works 
on  entomology.    Died  in  1789. 

Klefeker,  kla'feh-ker,  (Johann,)  a  German  writer, 
born  in  Hamburg  in  1698  ;  died  in  1775. 

Klein,  klin,  (Bernhard,)  a  German  composer,  born 
at  Cologne  in  1794.  Among  his  principal  works  are  the 
oratorios  of  "  Job"  and  "David,"  and  an  opera  entitled 
"Dido."    Died  ini  832. 

See  F^Tis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Klein,  kl^N,  (Dominique  Louis  Antoine,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Blamont  in  1761  ;  died  in  1845. 

Klein,  (Ernst  Ferdinand,)  a  learned  jurist,  born 
at  Breslau  in  1743,  became  privy  councillor  at  Berlin. 
He  wrote  "  Principles  of  German  and  Prussian  Penal 
Law,"  (1795,)  "System  of  Prussian  Civil  Law,"  (1830,) 
and  other  legal  works.    Died  in  1810. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  E.  F.  Klein's  Selbstbiographie,"  1810. 

Klein,  (Jakob  Theodor,  )  a  celebrated  writer  on 
natural  history,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1685.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Saint  Peters- 
burg and  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Linnaeus 
gave  the  name  of  Kleinia  to  a  .new  plant  in  honour  of 
this  naturalist.  The  works  of  Klein  are  regarded  as 
valuable  contributions  to  science.    Died  in  1759. 

See  Christian  Sendel,  "  Lobrede  auf  Herrn  J.  T.  Klein,"  1759  ; 
HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Gen^rale." 

Klein,  (Johann  Adam,)  a  distinguished  German 
painter  of  landscapes  and  animals,  and  a  skilful  engraver, 
was  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1792.  He  visited  Rome 
about  1820. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kleinarts.    See  Cl^inard. 

Kleinau,  klT'now,  (Johann,)  Baron  von  Janowitz, 
an  Austrian  general,  born  in  Bohemia  about  1760.  He 
commanded  a  corps  at  Wagram,  and  rendered  important 
services  at  Leipsic,  1813.    Died  in  1819. 

Kleist,  von,  fon  klist,  (Ewald  Christian,)  a  popu- 
lar German  poet,  was  born  near  Koslin,  in  Pomerania, 
in  1 71 5.  He  studied  at  Konigsberg,  and  afterwards 
entered  the  Danish  army.  In  1740  he  left  Copenhagen, 
and  received  a  commission  in  the  service  of  Frederick 
the  Great.  He  greatly  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Kunnersdorf  in  1759,  where  he  was  mortally  wounded. 
His  most  celebrated  work  is  a  poem  entitled  "  Spring," 
("Der  Friihling,"  1749.)  Besides  this,  he  wrote  several 
hymns  and  idyls,  a  series  of  essays,  and  a  treatise  on 
military  tactics. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  F.  Nicolai, 
"  Ehrengedachtniss  E.  C.  von  Kleist's,"  1759;  Gervinus,  "Ge- 
schichte der  Deutschen  Dichtung,"  1853. 

Kleist,  von,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  poet  and  novel- 
ist, born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  in  1776.  He  fought 
in  the  Prussian  army  against  France.    In  1808  he  was 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f3.r,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KLEIST 


KLOPSTOCK 


associated  with  Adam  Miiller  in  the  publication  of  the 
*'  Phoebus."  A  victim  of  hypochondria,  he  committed 
suicide  in  i8ii.  Gervinus  places  him  above  all  the  dra- 
matic poets  of  his  time.  His  works  include  dramas,  lyric 
poems,  novels,  and  tales,  among  which  are  the  tragedies 
entitled  "The  Prince  of  Homburg"  and  "The  Battle  of 
Hermann,"  (1809,)  and  "Michael  Kohlhaas,"  a  tale. 

See  BuLOW,  "  Heinrich  von  Kleist's  Leben  und  Briefe,"  1848; 
Gervinus,  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Dichtung,"  4th  edition,  1853  ; 
"Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  Ibr  June,  1828;  "British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  i860. 

Kleist  von  NoUendorf,  klist  fon  noKlen-doRf, 
(Emil  Friedrich,)  Count,  a  Prussian  commander, 
iDorn  at  Berlin  in  1762.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  Russian  campaign  of  1812,  and  at  the  battle  of  Baut- 
zen, after  which,  as  Prussian  plenipotentiary,  he  concluded 
the  truce.  After  the  battle  of  Dresden  and  the  retreat 
of  the  allies,  he  gained  a  signal  victory  over  Vandamme 
at  NoUendorf,  (August,  1813.)  He  was  created  a  field- 
marshal  in  1821,  having  previously  received  the  order  of 
the  Black  Eagle  and  been  made  commander-general  of 
Saxony.    Died  in  1823. 

Kleisthenes.    See  Clisthenes. 

Kleitarchos.    See  Clitarchus. 

Kleitomachos.    See  Clitomachus. 

Kleitos.    See  Clitus. 

Klemm,  klim,  (Friedrich  Gustav,)  a  German  lit- 
terateur, born  at  Chemnitz  in  1802.  He  published  a 
"History  of  Bavaria,"  (3  vols.,  1828,)  a  "Manual  of 
German  Archaeology,"  (1835,)  ^  "General  History  of 
Human  Civilization,"  (lO  vols.,  1843-50,)  and  other 
works. 

Klengel,  kl^ng'el,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  near  Dresden  in  1 751. 
Among  his  best  pictures  are  an  "  Italian  Landscape  at 
Twilight,"  and  "The  Wheat  Harvest."    Died  in  1824. 

Klenze,  kl^nt'seh,  (Clemens  August  Karl,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist,  a  brother  of  the  following,  was  born  near 
Hildesheim  in  1795.  He  wrote  a  "Manual  of  Common 
Penal  Law,"  (1833,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1838. 

Klenze,  von,  fon  klgnt'seh,  (Leo,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man architect,  born  at  Hildesheim  in  1784.  He  studied 
at  Brunswick  and  at  Berlin,  and  afterwards  in  France, 
England,  and  Italy.  In  1813  he  went  to  Munich,  where 
he  was  patronized  by  the  crown-prince  Ludwig,  and  two 
years  later  was  appointed  court  architect  to  the  King  of 
Bavaria.  In  1833  he  was  ennobled.  Among  the  most 
important  of  his  designs  are  the  Glyptothek,  a  building 
to  receive  statuary  and  gems,  completed  in  1830  ;  the 
Odeon  and  the  Pinakothek  (picture-gallery)  at  Munich, 
completed  in  1837  ;  and  the  Walhalla,  or  hall  of  heroes, 
a  magnificent  marble  edifice  near  Ratisbon,  finished  in 
1839.  This  building,  the  exterior  of  which  resembles  the 
Parthenon,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  monuments 
erected  in  modern  times.  Klenze,  in  his  designs  for 
buildings,  displays  an  uncommon  knowledge  of  the 
various  styles  of  architecture  ;  though  he  regards  the 
Grecian  models  as  superior  to  all  others.  He  also 
erected  at  Saint  Petersburg,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
emperor  Nicholas,  the  Imperial  Palace  (completed  in 
185 1 )  and  the  Imperial  Museum.  Klenze  published, 
among  other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  the  Restoration  of 
the  Tuscan  Temples,"  "  The  Walhalla  in  its  Artistic  and 
Technical  Relations,"  and  several  collections  of  Grecian 
designs.  He  was  likewise  skilled  in  painting,  and  pro- 
duced several  landscapes  and  architectural  pieces.  Died 
in  1864. 

See  R.  WiEGMANN,  "Ritter  L.  von  Klenze  und  unsere  Kunst," 
1839;  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstier-Lexikon  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale;"  Fortoul,  "De  I'Art  en  Allemagne,"  tome  i. 

Kleobulos.    See  Cleobulus. 

Kleombrotos.    See  Cleombrotus. 

Kleomedes.    See  Cleomedes. 

Kleomenes.    See  Cleomenes. 

Kleon.    See  Cleon. 

Kleopatra.    See  Cleopatra. 

Kleophon.    See  Cleophon. 

Kleostratos.    See  Cleostratus. 

Klerck,  kl^Rk,  (Hendrik,)  an  artist  and  poet,  born 
in  Brussels  about  1570.  Among  his  paintings  are  "The 
Resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ,"  and  "The  Martyrdom  of 
Saint  Andrew." 


Kletten,  klet'ten,  (Georg  Ernst,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  born  near  Wiirzburg  in  1759;  died  in  1827. 

Klettenberg,  klet'ten-b§RG',  (Susanne  Catherine,) 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1723,  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Goethe's  mother,  and  has  been  celebrated  by 
the  poet  in  his  "  Wilhelm  Meister,"  under  the  name  ^{ 
"the  Beautiful  Soul."  She  wrote  a  number  of  religious 
essays  and  hymns.    Died  in  1774. 

Kleuker,  kloi'ker,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Osterode  in  1749.  He  became  in  1798 
professor  of  theology  at  Kiel,  where  he  died  in  1827. 
He  translated  the  "  Zend  Avesta"  of  Zoroaster  from  the 
Persian,  (1776,)  and  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Religious 
System  of  the  Brahmins,"  (1797.) 

See  Ratjen,  "J.  F.  Kleuker  und  Briefe  seiner  Freunde,"  etc., 
1842. 

Klicpera,  klits'pgh-ra,  ?  (Wenceslaus,)  a  Bohemian 
dramatist,  born  at  Chlumec  in  1792  ;  died  in  1859. 

Klimrath,  kliN'rtt',  (Henri,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Strasbourg  in  1807  ;  died  in  1837. 

Klingemann,  kling'eh  -mS.n',  (Ernst  August  Fried- 
rich,) a  German  dramatic  poet,  and  director  of  the  court 
theatre  at  Brunswick,  where  he  was  born  in  1777.  Among 
his  best  works  are  "Luther,"  "Henry  the  Lion,"  and 
"German  Fidelity,"  ("Deutsche  Treue.")  Died  in  1831. 

See  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1827. 

Klingenstierna,  kling'en-shgR'n^,  (Samuel,)  an 
eminent  Swedish  philosopher  and  mathematician,  born 
near  Linkoping  about  1690,  was  educated  at  Upsal. 
Having  visited  Germany,  he  became  the  friend  and  dis- 
ciple of  the  celebrated  Wolf.  Upon  his  return  to  Swe- 
den, in  1730,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics, 
and  was  subsequently  chosen  tutor  to  the  crown-prince, 
(Gustavus  HI.)  He  performed  the  duties  of  this  office 
with  great  al^ility,  receiving  as  a  reward  the  order  of  the 
Polar  Star  and  the  title  of  councillor  of  state.  He  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Societies  of  London  and  of  Upsal. 
Klingenstierna  wrote  a  work  on  refracting  telescopes, 
which  obtained  the  prize  offered  by  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  Saint  Petersburg,  a  treatise  on  the  height  of 
the  atmosphere,  (1732,)  and  various  other  productions. 
Died  at  Stockholm  in  1785. 

See  Martin  Stroemek,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  S.  Klingen- 
stierna," 1785;  Adelung  and  Jocher,  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon." 

Klinger,  kling'er,  (Friedrich  Maximilian,)  a  Ger- 
man litterateur,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  Febru- 
ary, 1753.  Having  visited  Russia  in  1780,  he  became 
reader  to  the  grand  duke  Paul,  whom  he  accompanied 
on  his  travels.  In  181 1  he  was  created  lieutenant-general. 
He  published  poems,  dramas,  and  romances.  Died  at 
Saint  Petersburg  in  183 1.  His  drama  entitled  "  Storm  and 
Stress,  or  Impulse,"  ("Sturm  und  Drang,"  1775,)  had  a 
great  success,  and  gave  a  name  to  a  period  of  German 
literature,  ("Die  Sturm-und-Drang  Periode,")  which, 
says  Gervinus,  "was  an  epoch  of  the  revolt  of  nature 
against  civilization,  of  simplicity  against  conventionality, 
of  youth  against  age,  of  the  heart  against  reason,"  etc. 

See  Gervinus,  " Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Dichtung ;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Klingsor  von  Ungerland,  kling'soR  fon  oong'er- 

llnt^  a  German  minnesinger  and  astrologer  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  been 
the  author  of  the  famous  "  Nibelungen-Lied,"  while 
others  regard  him  as  a  fabulous  personage. 

Klingstadt,  Klingstaedt,  or  Klingstet,  kling'stit, 
(Claudius  Gustav,)  a  miniature-painter  in  the  suite 
of  the  regent  Duke  of  Orleans,  born  at  Riga  in  1657; 
died  at  Paris  in  1734. 

Klio.    See  Clio. 

Klocker,  klok'ker,  or  Kloker,  klo'ker,  (David,)  a 
portrait  and  historical  painter,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1629. 
In  early  life  he  went  as  secretary  of  legation  to  Sweden, 
where  he  was  appointed  to  give  lessons  in  drawing  to 
Queen  Christina.  He  was  afterwards  liberally  patron- 
ized by  Charles  X.    Died  at  Stockholm  in  1698. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Kloosterman.    See  Closterman,  (Johann.) 

Klopstock,  klop'stok,  (Friedrich  Gottlieb,)  a 
celebrated  German  poet,  born  at  Quedlinburg,  July  2, 
1724.  He  early  cherished  the  ambition  of  writing  an  epic 
poem.    About  1746  he  went  to  Jena  to  study  theology, 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  2,  th  as  in  this.    (2^^'See  Explanations,  p.  ?\) 


KLOSE 


1332 


KNAPP 


and  in  1747  removed  to  Leipsic.  He  produced  in 
1748  the  first  three  cantos  of  his  "Messiah,"  which 
had  immense  success  and  opened  a  new  era  in  German 
poetry.  In  1749  he  was  employed  as  tutor  in  a  family 
at  Langensalza.  He  removed  in  1751  to  Copenhagen, 
at  the  invitation  of  the  king,  Frederick  V.,  who  gave 
him  a  pension  of  four  hundred  thalers  that  he  might 
have  leisure  to  complete  his  great  poem.  In  1754  he 
married  Margaret  (Meta)  Moller,  an  accomplished  and 
literary  woman,  whom  he  has  commemorated  in  odes 
and  elegies  under  the  name  of  "Cidli."  He  remained 
twenty  years  at  Copenhagen,  where  he  was  patronized 
by  Count  Bernstorff  and  Count  Moltke.  In  1755  he  pub- 
lished five  more  cantos  of  the  "Messiah."  He  cherished 
the  idea  that  he  had  a  great  poetical  mission.  "This 
idea  of  an  epic  priesthood,"  says  Taillandier,  "gradually 
became  a  reality.  He  transferred  to  his  poem  the  events 
of  his  life  ;  he  regulated  his  life  by  the  inspirations  of 
his  poem."  "  By  his  character  and  conduct,"  says  Goethe 
in  his  Autobiography,  "  Klopstock  had  succeeded  in 
creating  attention  and  respect  for  himself  and  other  men 
of  talent.  ...  At  this  time  Klopstock  came  forward 
and  offered  his  'Learned  Republic'  for  subscriptions. 
Although  the  later  cantos  of  the  'Messiah'  could  not 
have  the  effect  of  the  earlier,  partly  on  account  of  their 
contents,  partly  on  account  of  their  mode  of  treating  the 
subject,  which  came  pure  and  innocent  into  a  pure  and 
innocent  time,  the  esteem  for  the  poet  remained  un- 
changed." The  same  writer  remarks,  "  On  the  whole, 
one  might  have  taken  him  for  a  diplomatist.  He  carried 
himself  with  the  self-conscious  dignity  of  a  person  who 
has  a  great  moral  mission  to  fulfil." 

In  1758  he  was  greatly  afflicted  by  the  death  of  his 
wife.  He  settled  at  Hamburg  in  1771,  and  published 
in  1773  the  last  cantos  of  his  "Messiah."  The  general 
sentiment  of  his  contemporaries  in  relation  to  this  poem 
is  thus  expressed  by  Madame  de  Stael,  in  her  "  Tableau 
de  I'AUemagne  :"  "  When  the  reader  commences  this 
poem,  he  receives  an  impression  like  that  of  a  person 
entering  a  grand  cathedral  filled  with  the  music  of  an 
organ."  His  admirers  compared  him  to  Homer  and 
Milton ;  but  more  sober  critics  censure  his  sentimen- 
tality, monotony,  and  lack  of  action,  Akhough  his 
"  Messiah"  is  seldom  read  at  the  present  time,  all  the 
German  schools  unite  in  the  expression  of  honour  and 
gratitude  to  the  author  for  the  impulse  which  he  gave 
to  the  national  literature.  The  finest  qualities  of  his 
genius  are  displayed  in  his  odes,  some  of  which  are  con- 
sidered as  classic  models  of  the  noble  and  the  graceful. 
He  also  wrote  a  number  of  sacred  dramas,  among  which 
is  "The  Death  of  Adam."  About  1792  he  married  a 
widow  named  Von  Winthem.  He  died  at  Hamburg  in 
March,  1803. 

See  Heinrich  Doring,  "  F.  G.  Klopstock's  Biographie,"  1853; 
Cramer,  "Klopstock  er  und  iiber  ihn,"  5  vols.,  1780-93;  Miss 
Benger,  "Klopstock  and  his  Friends,"  1814;  H.  Doring,  "Klop- 
stock's Leben,"i825;  Johann  G.  Gruber,  "  Klopstocks  Leben," 
1832;  Bon  Joseph  Dacier,  "filoge  de  Klopstock,"  Paris,  1805; 
F.  L.  Moltke,  "  Ara  D.  M.  F.  G.  Klopstock,"  Altona,  1818;  Long- 
fellow, "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  January,  1843;  Gervinus,  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen 
Dichtung  ;"  Alexander  Tolhausen,  "  Klopstock,  Lessing,  and 
Wieland:  Treatise  on  German  Literature,"  London,  184S  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Klose,  kl5s,  (F.  J.,)  an  English  musical  composer  and 
skilful  pianist,  was  born  in  London;  died  in  1830. 

Klotz,  klots,  [Lat.  Klot'zius,]  (Christian  Adol- 
PHUs,)  a  learned  German  critic  and  poet,  born  at  Bischofs- 
werda,  near  Dresden,  in  1738.  He  studied  at  Leipsic 
and  Jena,  and  in  1762  became  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Gottingen.  He  was  appointed  by  the  King  of  Prussia 
professor  of  rhetoric  at  Halle  in  1765,  with  the  title  of 
aulic  councillor.  He  wrote  numerous  commentaries  and 
short  treatises,  among  which  are  "Ridicula  Literaria," 
(1762,)  "Acta  Literaria,"  (7  vols.,  1764-73,)  and  "  Lec- 
tiones  Venusinae,"  (1771.)    Died  in  1771. 

See  C.  Hausen,  "  Leben  und  Charakter  C.  A.  Klotzens,"  1772  ; 
C.  G.  von  Murr,  "Denkmal  zur  Ehre  des  Herrn  Klotz,"  1772; 
Mangelsdouk,  "  Vita  et  Menioria  Klolzii,"  1772. 

Klotz,  (Matthias,)  a  German  painter  of  portraits 
and  landscapes,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1748;  died  in  1821. 
His  three  sons,  Caspar,  Simon,  and  Joseph,  acquired 
distinction  in  the  same  departments  of  painting. 


Klotz,  (Reinhold,)  a  German  critic  and  scholar,  born 
at  StoUberg  in  1807,  succeeded  Hermann  as  professor  of 
philology  at  Leipsic  in  1849.  He  published  editions  of 
Terence,  of  the  "  Phoeniss^"  and  "  Medea"  of  Euripides, 
and  other  works. 

Klotz,  (Simon,)  a  German  painter  of  history  and 
landscapes,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1777,  was  a  son  of 
Matthias,  noticed  above.    Died  in  1825. 

Klotzius.    See  Klotz,  (Christian  Adolphus.) 

Klotzius,  klot'se-iis,  (SrEPHEN,)  a  German  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Lippstadt  in  1606;  died  in  1668. 

Kliiber  or  Klueber,  klii'ber,  (Johann  Ludwig,)  a 
German  jurist  and  writer  of  high  reputation,  was  born 
near  Fulda  in  1762.  He  became  professor  of  law  at 
Heidelberg  in  1807,  soon  after  which  date  he  was  coun- 
cillor of  state  at  Carlsruhe.  In  1817  his  friend  Prince 
Hardenberg  procured  for  him  a  high  office  in  the  min- 
istry of  foreign  affairs  at  Berlin,  He  acquired  distinc- 
tion by  a  history  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  "  Acten  des 
Wiener  Congresses  in  den  Jahren  1814  und  1815,"  (9 
vols.,  1815-35,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1837. 

See  MoRSTADT,  "  Kliibers  Leben,"  prefixed  to  Kluber's  "  Of- 
fentliches  Recht  des  Deutschen  Bundes,"  1840;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Klueber.  See  Kluber. 
Kluegel,    See  Klugel. 

Kliigel,  klii'gel,  (Georg  Simon,)  a  German  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Hamburg  in  1739.  He  became  in  1766 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Helmstedt,  Among  his 
principal  works  is  "Elements  of  Astronomy,"  (1819,) 
Died  in  1812. 

Kluit,  kloit,  (Adriaan,)  a  Dutch  historical  writer,  born 
at  Dort  in  1735.  In  177^  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  the  archaeology  of  Holland  and  of  diplomatic  history 
at  Leyden.  Among  his  works  are  a  "History  of  the 
Political  Administration  of  Holland"  until  1795,  (5  vols., 
1802-05,)  the  "  Political  Economy  of  Holland."  Died 
in  1807. 

Kluk,  klook,  (Christopher,)  a  Polish  naturalist, 
born  in  Podlachia  in  1739,  published  a  "Dictionary  of 
Plants,"  (3  vols,  1786-88.)    Died  in  1796, 

Klupfel,  kloop'fel,  (Emmanuel  Christoph,)  a  Ger- 
man, born  in  Saxe-Gotha,  became,  in  1764,  editor  of  the 
well-known  "Almanach  de  Gotha,"    Died  in  1776. 

Kiyn  or  Klijn,  klin,  (Hendrik  Herman,)  a  Dutch 
poet,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1773,  wrote  a  poem  on 
Astronomy,  (1809,)  and  other  works. 

Klytemnestra,    See  Clytemnestra. 

Kmety,  kma'tee,  (George,)  General,  the  son  of  a 
Protestant  minister,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Gomor, 
in  Hungary,  in  18 10,  He  entered  the  Austrian  army, 
in  which  he  obtained  a  commission.  In  1848  he  joined 
the  Hungarian  army  which  fought  against  the  Austrians, 
and  signalized  his  bravery  on  several  occasions.  After 
the  surrender  of  Gorgey,  he  embraced  the  Moslem  faith, 
and  enlisted  in  the  Turkish  service,  with  the  title  of 
Ismael  Pasha.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  general  in 
the  Crimean  war,  particularly  in  a  battle  with  the  Rus- 
sians before  Kars.    Died  in  1865. 

Knapp,  knip  or  k'nip,  (Albrecht,)  a  German  divine, 
born  in  the  duchy  of  Wiirtemberg  in  1 798,  has  published 
several  collections  of  hymns  and  sacred  poems,  which 
are  highly  esteemed. 

Knapp,  (Georg  Christian,)  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Halle  in  1753.  ^^'^s  professor  of  theology  at 
Halle  about  fifty  years,  and  was  distinguished  in  sacred 
criticism.  He  was  moderately  orthodox,  endeavouring 
to  reconcile  revelation  with  the  demands  of  reason.  He 
published  "Lectures  on  Christian  Theology,"  (2  vols., 
1827,)  and  other  works.    Died  at  Halle  in  1825. 

See  A.  H.  Niemeyer,  "  Epicedien  dem  Andenken  G.  C.  Knapp's," 
etc.,  1825. 

Knapp,  (Johann,)  a  German  painter  of  flowers  and 
animals,  was  born  in  Vienna  in  1778  ;  died  in  1833. 

Knapp,  nap,  (Samuel  Lorenzo,)  a  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1784. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "  Biographical  Sketches 
of  Eminent  Lawyers,  Statesmen,  and  Men  of  Letters," 
"Travels  in  North  America,  by  Ali  Bey,"  "Lectures 
on  American  Literature,"  and  "American  Biography." 
Died  in  1838. 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  loftg;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  ftr,  f^ll,  fitj  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon- 


KNJPTON 


1333 


KNIGHT 


Knapton,  nap'ton,  (George,)  an  English  portrait- 
painter,  born  in  London  in  1698,  painted  in  crayons. 
Died  in  1788. 

Knaust,  knowst  or  k'nowst,  (Heinrich,)  a  German 
poet,  born  in  1541  ;  died  in  1577. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Knaut,  knowt  or  k'nowt,  (Christian,)  a  German 
botanist,  born  at  Halle  in  1654;  died  in  1716. 

Knaut,  (Christoph,)  a  botanical  writer,  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Halle  in  1638;  died  in  1694. 

Knauth,  knowt,  (Christian,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Gorlitz  in  1706;  died  in  1784. 

Knebel,  kna'bel,  (Emmanuel  Theophilus,)  a  Ger- 
man medical  writer,  born  at  Gorlitz  in  1772  ;  died  in  1809. 

Knebel,  von,  fon  kna'bel,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  a  Ger- 
man litterateur,  born  at  Wallerstein,  in  Franconia,  in 
1744.  He  published  an  excellent  translation  of  the 
Elegies  of  Propertius  (1798)  and  the  "  De  Rerum 
Natura"  of  Lucretius,  (1821  and  1831.)  His  interesting 
"Correspondence  with  Goethe"  came  out  after  Knebel's 
death,  which  took  place  in  1834.  He  was  intimate  with 
Mendelssohn,  Gleim,  Jacobi,  and  other  eminent  writers. 

See  T.  MuNDT,  "  Knebels  Leben,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Literarischer 
Nachlass,"  1835-40:  Schwarz,  "Zur  Erinnerung  an  K.  L.  von 
Knebel:  Rede  an  selnem  Grabe  gesprochen,"  1834;  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
January,  1838. 

Kneller,  neKler,  [Ger,  pron.  knel'ler,]  (Godfrey,) 
a  celebrated  portrait-painter,  was  born  at  Lubeck  in 
1648.  He  commenced  his  studies  under  Rembrandt, 
and  pursued  them  in  Italy.  He  afterwards  went  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  was  successively  court  painter  to  Charles 
IL,  James  H.,  William  HL,  Queen  Anne,  and  George  L 
The  last-named  created  him  a  baronet.  Kneller  was  also 
made  a  knight  of  the  Roman  empire  by  the  emperor 
Leopold.  In  addition  to  the  distinguished  personages 
of  the  English  court,  he  painted  portraits  of  Louis  XIV. 
and  Peter  the  Great.    Died  about  1723. 

See  W.  A.  Ackermann,  "  Der  Portraitmaler  Sir  Godefrey  Kneller 
im  Verhaltniss  zur  Kunstbildung  seiner  Zeit  dargestellt,"  Lubeck, 
1845- 

Kniazhnin,  kne-^zh^nin,  written  also  Kniaschnin 
and  Kniajnin,  (Yakof  Borissovitch,)  a  Russian  poet 
and  drainatist,  was  born  at  Pskov  in  1742.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  the  tragedies  of  "  Dido"  and  "  Sopho- 
nisba,"  and  a  number  of  odes,  songs,  and  fables.  At  the 
request  of  the  empress  Catherine,  he  translated  from 
the  Italian  "  La  Clemenza  di  Tito"  of  Metastasio.  Died 
in  1791. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Princess  Daschkoff,"  1840. 

Kniaziewicz,  kne-lzh'yk-vitch,  ?  (Karl,)  a  Polish 
general,  born  in  1762.  He  fought  bravely,  though  un- 
successfully, in  the  defence  of  his  country  in  1794,  and 
afterwards  entered  the  French  army  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Italian  campaign  of  1798.  He  was  made 
a  commander  of  the  legion  of  honour  in  1804.  Died  in 
1842. 

See  L.  Chodzko,  "La  Pologne  illustree,"  1840. 

Kniaznin,  kne-azh'nin,  (Francis  Dionysius,)  a 
Polish  poet,  born  in  the  government  of  Vitepsk  in  1750, 
became  teacher  in  the  Jesuits'  College  at  Warsaw,  and 
was  afterwards  secretary  to  Prince  Adam  Czartoryski. 
He  was  the  author  of  lyric  poems,  and  published  various 
translations  of  ancient  poets  into  Polish.    Died  in  1807. 

Knibb,  nib,  (Rev.  William,)  an  English  Baptist  mis- 
sionary, noted  for  his  courageous  opposition  to  slavery 
in  Jamaica,  was  born  at  Kettering,  in  Northamptonshire, 
about  1800.  He  laboured  zealously  to  ameliorate  the 
condition  of  the  slaves  ;  and  by  his  representations  to 
the  people  of  England  he  aided  not  a  little  in  the  negro 
emancipation  of  Jamaica,  as  well  as  in  the  subsequent 
abolition  of  the  apprentice  system.  He  made  a  powerful 
anti-slavery  speech  at  Exeter  Hall  in  1840.  Died  in  1845. 

See  Jas.  Hoby,  "  Memoir  of  Wm.  Knibb,"  1839;  J.  H.  Hinton, 
"Memoirs  ofWm.  Knibb,"  1847. 

Knicanin,  kne-ki-neen',  ?  (Stephan  Petrovitch,)  a 
Servian  general,  born  in  1808,  distinguished  himself  in 
the  revolution  of  1848,  and  in  1852  was  made  a  general 
and  senator.    Died  in  1855. 

Knickerbocker,  (Diedrtch.)    See  Irving. 

Kniep,  kneep,  (Christoph  Heinrich,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Hildesheim  in  1748.    He  travelled  in 


Italy  with  Goethe,  and  worked  in  Naples.  His  drawings 
in  sepia  and  crayons,  of  Italian  landscapes  and  antiqui- 
ties, are  much  admired.    Died  in  Naples  in  1825. 

Knigge,  von,  fon  knik'keh,  (Adolf  Franz  Fried- 
rich,)  Baron,  a  German  philosopher  and  writer,  born 
near  Hanover  in  1752.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Rotnance  of  my  Life,"  ("Roman  meines  Lebens," 
4  vols.,  1781,)  and  "On  the  Art  of  Living  with  Men," 
("Ueber  den  Umgang  mit  Menschen,"  1788.)  Died  in 
1796. 

See  Godeke,  "Adolf  von  Knigge,  sein  Leben  und  Blicke  in  seine 
Zeit,"  1844;  "Kurze  Biographie  des  A.  von  Knigge,"  1825. 

Knight,  nit,  (Charles,)  an  eminent  English  editor 
and  author,  born  at  Windsor  in  179L  He  settled  in 
London  about  1823,  and  commenced  business  as  a  pub- 
lisher. He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Society 
for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,  under  whose 
auspices  he  published  "The  Penny  Magazine"  (1832-45) 
at  his  own  risk,  and  "The  Library  of  Entertaining 
Knowledge."  Among  the  works  which  he  has  published 
or  edited  are  "The  Penny  Cyclopaedia,"  (30  vols.,  1833- 
46,)  "The  Pictorial  History  of  England,"  (about  1844,) 
and  a  valuable  "English  Cyclopaedia,"  (24  vols.,  1854- 
61,)  which  is  in  fact  a  recast  of  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia," 
with  important  changes  and  additions.  This  is  separated 
into  divisions  for  biography,  geography,  etc.  He  has  also 
published  a  number  of  popular  works,  among  which  are 
a  "  Life  of  Shakspere,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Pictorial  Shak- 
spere,"  (1839,)  "Knowledge  is  Power,"  (1855,)  and  his 
"Popular  History  of  England,"  (1856-62.) 

See  "Passages  of  a  Working- Life,"  by  Charles  Knight;. 
"British  Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and  October,  1864. 

Knight,  (Cornelia,)  an  English  authoress,  born 
about  1758,  was  for  a  time  companion  to  the  princess 
Charlotte.  She  resided  many  years  in  Italy.  Among 
her  works  is  "Dinarbas,"  (1790,)  which  is  a  sequel  to 
Johnson's  "Rasselas."    Died  about  1837. 

See  "  Autobiography  of  Miss  Cornelia  Knight,"  London,  1861  ; 
Bessie  R.  Parkes,  "Twelve  Biographical  Sketches,"  London, 
1866;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1862;  "British 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1862. 

Knight,  (Edward,)  an  English  comic  actor,  born  at 
Birmingham  in  1774;  died  in  1826. 

Knight,  (Godwin,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  philosopher, 
graduated  at  Oxford  in  1742.  He  published  an  "  Attempt 
to  demonstrate  that  all  the  Phenomena  of  Nature  may 
be  explained  by  Attraction  and  Repulsion,"  (1748.)  Died 
in  1772. 

Knight,  (  Henry  Gally,  )  an  English  antiquary, 
traveller,  and  writer,  born  in  1786.  He  wrote  poems 
and  treatises  on  architecture.    Died  in  1846. 

Knight,  (James,)  an  English  navigator,  who  in  17 19 
was  sent  by  a  mercantile  company  with  two  vessels  to 
search  for  a  northwest  passage  and  for  mines  of  copper. 
None  of  this  party  ever  returned. 

Knight,  (John  Prescott,)  an  English  painter,  born 
at  Stafford  in  1803,  is  the  son  of  a  noted  comedian.  He 
painted  portraits  with  success. 

Knight,  nit,  (Jonathan,)  an  American  surgeon,  born 
atNorwalk,  Connecticut,  in  1789.  He  became  professor 
of  anatomy  at  Yale  College  in  1813,  and  was  professor 
of  surgery  at  the  same  college  from  1838  to  1864.  Died 
in  1864. 

Knight,  (Richard  Payne,)  an  English  antiquary  and 
Greek  scholar,  born  in  Herefordshire  in  1750.  He  was 
several  times  elected  to  Parliament  for  the  boroughs  of 
Leominster  and  Ludlow.  He  made  a  large  collection 
of  Greek  coins,  bronzes,  and  various  works  of  art,  valued 
at  fifty  thousand  pounds,  which  he  bequeathed  to  the 
British  Museum.  Among  other  works,  he  wrote  "An 
Analytical  Enquiry  into  the  Principles  of  Taste,"  (1805.) 
He  contributed  to  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  and  wrote 
a  mediocre  poem  on  "The  Progress  of  Civil  Society," 
(1796,)  which  furnished  Canning  and  others  a  subject  for 
a  parody  in  "The  Anti-Jacobin."    Died  in  1824. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1806. 

Knight,  (Samuel,)  an  English  clergyman  and  biogra- 
pher, born  in  London  in  1674.  He  wrote  the  Lives  of 
Erasmus  (1724)  and  of  Dr.  John  Colet,  (1726.)  He 
became  chaplain  to  George  II.  in  1730,  and  Archdeacon 
of  Berks  in  1735.    Died  in  1746. 


■e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/-  G,  H,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i^=  See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KNIGHT 


»334 


KNOX 


Knight,  (Thomas  Andrew,)  a  distinguished  vege- 
table physiologist  and  horticulturist,  born  in  1758,  was  a 
bri)ther  of  R.  P.  Knight,  noticed  above.  He  succeeded 
Sir  Joseph  Banks  as  president  of  the  British  Horticul- 
tural Society.  He  wrote  "A  Treatise  on  the  Culture 
of  the  Apple  and  Pear,  and  on  the  Manufacture  of  Cider 
and  Perry,"  (1797,)  and  other  works.  He  produced  new 
and  valuable  varieties  of  fruits  from  seeds,  and  made 
experiments  in  vegetable  fecundation,  in  the  germination 
of  seeds,  and  in  other  processes  of  vegetable  physiology. 
Died  in  1838. 

Knighton  or  Knyghton,  ni'ton,  (Henry,)  a  his- 
torical writer  and  ecclesiastic,  flourished  in  England 
about  1380-1400.  His  principal  works  are  a  chronicle 
of  events  from  the  invasion  of  William  the  Conqueror, 
and  a  history  of  Richard  H. 

Knill,  nil,  (Rev.  Richard,)  an  English  Methodist  mis- 
sionary, born  in  Devonshire  in  1787.  He  was  sent  in 
1816  by  the  London  Missionary  Society  to  India,  where 
he  spent  three  years,  and  subsequently  resided  sixteen 
years  in  Russia,  where  he  laboured  with  great  zeal  and 
success.    Died  in  1857. 

See  Charles  M.  Birrell,  "  Life  of  Richard  Knill,  with  a  Review 
of  his  Life  and  Character,"  by  J.  Angell  James,  London,  i860. 

Knipperdolling,  knip'per-doriing,  (Bernhard,)  a 
German  fanatic,  born  in  Miinster,  was  associated  with 
the  principal  leaders  of  the  Anabaptist  insurrection  of 
1533.  He  was  executed  in  1536,  with  his  accomplice, 
John  of  Leyden. 

Knipstrovius.    See  Knipsi  row. 

Knipstrow,  knip'stRo,  or  Kniepstrow,  kneep'stRo, 
[Lat.  Knipstro'vius,]  (Johann,)  a  German  reformer, 
born  at  Sandow,  in  Silesia,  in  1497.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  a  public  dispute  against  Tetzel  in  1518.  In 
1539  he  became  professor  of  theology  at  Greifswalde, 
and  in  1547  rector  of  the  university  at  that  place.  Died 
in  1556. 

See  Mayer,  "Vita  Knipstrovii." 

Knjaschnin  or  Knjaznin.    See  Kniazhnin. 

Knobelsdorf,  kno'bels-doRf,  (Hans  Georg  Wen- 
CESLAUS,)  a  distinguished  Prussian  architect,  born  in 
1697,  was  appointetl  by  Frederick  the  Great  superin- 
tendent of  the  royal  buildings.  Among  his  best  works 
are  the  castle  of  Sans-Souci  and  the  Opera-House  at 
Berlin.    Died  in  1753. 

Knoblecher,  knop'l^K-er,  (N.,)  a  German  mission- 
ary and  traveller,  born  about  1800.  In  company  with  a 
trading-party,  he  ascended  the  White  Nile  in  1849-50 
to  about  4°  north  latitude,  but  was  unable  to  reach  the 
source  of  the  river. 

Knoller,  von,  fon  knol'ler,  (Martin,)  an  eminent 
historical  painter,  born  at  Steinach,  in  the  Tyrol,  in  1725, 
studied  several  years  in  Rome.  Among  his  best  works 
are  the  frescos  painted  from  incidents  in  the  life  of 
Cardinal  Borromeo,  and  a  large  fresco  at  Munich  of  the 
"Ascension  of  the  Virgin."  Knoller  received  a  patent 
of  nobility  from  the  empress  Maria  Theresa.  Pie  worked 
many  years  in  Milan.    Died  in  1804. 

See  Enrico  Clausen,  "  Memoria  della  Vita  e  delle  Opere  di  M. 
Knoller,"  Milan,  1838;  Nagler,  "  AUgenieines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Knolles,  nolz,  (Richard,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  Northamptonshire  about  1545.  Among  his  works 
are  "  General  History  of  the  Turks  from  the  Origin  of 
this  Nation  until  the  Elevation  of  the  Ottoman  Family," 
(1610,)  and  a  "Compendium  of  the  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew  Grammar."  His  "  History  of  the  Turks"  was 
praised  by  Dr.  Johnson.    Died  in  1610. 

Knolles  or  Knowles,  n51z,  (Robert,)  a  celebrated 
English  general  under  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  was 
born  about  131 7  ;  died  about  1406. 

See  Froissart,  "Chronicles." 

KnoUis  or  Knowles,  nolz,  (Sir  Francis,)  an  English 
statesman,  born  in  Oxfordshire  about  1530.  He  pro- 
moted the  Reformation  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  On 
the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  (1558,)  he  was  appointed 
chamberlain  of  the  household  and  privy  councillor.  Died 
in  1596. 

See  Turner,  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Edward  VL,"  etc. 

Knorr,  knoR,  (Georg  Wolfgang,)  a  German  en- 
graver, born  at  Nuremberg  in  1705  ;  died  in  1761. 


Knorr  von  Rosenroth,  knoR  fon  ro'zen-rot^  (Chris- 
tian,) Baron,  a  German  scholar  and  statesman,  born 
near  Liegnitz  in  1636.  He  wrote  an  "Evangelical  His- 
tory," and  "Kabbala  Denudata,"  an  exposition  of  the 
transcendental,  metaphysical,  and  theological  doctrines 
of  the  Hebrews.    Died  in  1689. 

Knott,  not,  (Edward,)  an  English  Jesuit  and  con- 
troversial writer,  whose  proper  name  was  Matthew- 
Wilson,  was  born  in  Northumberland  in  1580.  Among 
his  principal  works  is  "  Infidelity  Unmasked,"  (1652,)  in 
answer  to  Chillingworth's  "Religion  of  Protestants." 
Died  in  1656. 

Knowler,  no'ler,  ?  (William,)  an  English  clergyman, 
born  about  1700,  translated  part  of  Saint  Chrysostom's 
works.    Died  in  1767. 

Knowles,  n51z,  (James  Davis,)  an  American  writer 
and  Baptist  clergyman,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island, 
in  1798.  He  graduated  at  Columbian  College,  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  and  in  1825  became  pastor  of  a  church 
in  Boston.  He  wrote  Memoirs  of  Roger  Williams  and 
of  Mrs.  Ann  H.  Judson,  and  was  the  founder  of  the 
"Christian  Review;"    Died  in  1838. 

Knowles,  nolz,  (James  Sheridan,)  a  popular  drama- 
tist and  actor,  born  at  Cork,  in  Ireland,  in  1784.  At 
twelve  years  of  age  he  wrote  his  first  play,  and  at  four- 
teen produced  an  opera,  "The  Chevalier  de  Grillon." 
He  visited  America  in  1835,  where  he  performed  on  the 
stage  and  met  with  a  flattering  reception.  Four  years 
later,  an  annual  pension  of  two  hundred  pounds  was  con- 
ferred upon  him  by  the  British  government.  Among  the 
most  celebrated  of  his  numerous  plays  may  be  mentioned 
"Leo  the  Gipsey,"  "Caius  Gracchus,"  (1815,)  "  Vir- 
ginius,"  (1820,)  and  "The  Hunchback,"  (1832.)  Several 
years  before  his  death  he  left  the  stage  and  became  a 
Baptist  preacher.    Died  in  1862. 

See  R.  H.  Horne,  "  New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1844;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1833;  "Eraser's  Mat;nzine"  for  April.  1836; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1863;  Allibone,  "Diction- 
ary of  Authors." 

Knowles,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
writer,  born  at  Ely  in  1723.  He  wrote  "Advice  to 
Young  Clergymen,"  "Primitive  Christianity,- in  Defence 
of  the  Trinity,"  and  "Lectures  for  Passion  Week." 
Died  in  1802. 

Knowlton,  noKton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  botanist, 
born  in  1692  ;  died  in  1782. 

Knox,  noks,  (Henry,)  an  able  American  general  and 
statesman,  born  at  Boston,  July  25,  1750,  was  a  book- 
seller in  his  youth.  He  married  an  accomplished  lady 
named  Lucy  Fluker.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution 
distinguished  himself  by  his  skill  as  an  engineer  and 
artillerist.  In  1775  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  artillery.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general  in  1776,  and  served  under  Washington  in  the 
battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton,  January,  1777.  He 
directed  the  artillery  at  the  battle  of  Brandyvvine,  Sep- 
tember, 1777,  and  at  Monmouth,  June,  1778.  He  also 
contributed  to  the  defeat  and  capture  of  the  British  army 
at  Yorktown,  in  October,  1781,  soon  after  which  he  was 
promoted  to  be  a  major-general.  He  enjoyed  in  a  high 
degree  the  esteem  and  confidence  of  General  Wash- 
ington. He  succeeded  General  Lincoln  as  secretary  of 
war  in  March,  1785,  before  the  adoption  of  the  Consti- 
tution, and  was  appointed  to  the  same  office  by  President 
Washington  in  1789.  In  politics  he  was  a  Federalist. 
He  resigned  his  office  in  December,  1794,  after  which  he 
lived  in  Maine.  He  had  seven  or  more  children.  He 
died  at  Thomaston,  Maine,  in  October,  1806. 

See  Bancroft,  "History  of  the  United  States;"  "National 
Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Knox,  noks,  (John,)  the  greatest  of  the  Scottish  Re- 
formers, was  born  at  Gififord,  in  East  Lothian,  in  1505. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Saint  Andrew's, 
and  in  theology  was  a  pupil  of  John  Major  or  Mair.  He 
was  ordained  a  priest  about  1530,  soon  after  which  a  great 
change  took  place  in  his  religious  opinions.  In  1542 
he  openly  renounced  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  and 
became  a  zealous  preacher  of  the  Protestant  doctrines, 
which  at  that  time  had  few  adherents  in  Scotland.  The 
storm  of  persecution  soon  began  to  beat  against  him, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6, li,  y,  sJwrt;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KNOX 


1335 


KOCH 


and  it  is  stated  that  Cardinal  Beaton  employed  assassins 
to  take  his  life.  In  1547  he  retired  for  safety  to  the  castle 
of  Saint  Andrew's,  which  was  occupied  by  a  party  of 
Protestants  who  had  conspired  against  and  killed  Cardi- 
nal Beaton.  During  the  siege  of  this  place  he  preached 
with  great  power  and  converted  many  of  its  inhabitants. 
The  castle  at  length  was  captured  by  Regent  Arran  and 
his  French  allies  who  carried  Knox  as  a  prisoner  to 
Rouen.  He  was  confined  nineteen  months  in  the  French 
galleys,  and  released  in  1549,  after  which  he  preached 
at  Berwick  and  Newcastle  for  several  years.  He  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  Edward  VI.  about  1551,  and  was 
intimate  with  Cranmer.  In  1553  he  married  Marjory 
Bowes.  On  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary,  (1553,)  he 
was  induced  by  the  urgent  entreaties  of  his  friends  to 
retire  to  the  continent.  He  visited  Scotland  in  1555, 
after  which  he  passed  about  three  years  at  Geneva,  where 
he  formed  a  friendship  with  Calvin,  studied  Hebrew,  and 
was  employed  as  pastor  of  a  church.  In  1558  he  pub- 
lished "The  First  Blast  of  the  Trumpet  against  the 
Monstrous  Regiment  of  Women."  The  Scotch  Prot- 
estants in  the  mean  time  had  increased  in  number,  and 
the  conflict  between  the  opposing  ideas  had  reached  a 
crisis  which  required  the  inflexible  resolution  and  un- 
flinching courage  of  Knox.  He  returned  to  Scotland  in 
May,  1559,  and  became  the  master-spirit  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  that  country,  which  was  then  ruled  by  Marie, 
the  queen-regent,  a  French  princess  of  the  family  of 
Guise.  The  Protestants  raised  and  maintained  an  army 
for  self-defence,  and  were  animated  by  the  vehement 
harangues  of  Knox,  who  thundered  continually  against 
the  idolatry  of  the  Romish  Church.  The  Parliament  in 
1560  renounced  the  authority  of  the  pope,  and  adopted 
a  confession  of  faith  proposed  by  Knox.  In  1561  the 
young  queen  Mary  arrived  in  Scotland,  and  had  with 
Knox  several  interviews,  with  no  satisfactory  results. 
"  At  my  interview  with  the  queen,"  he  wrote  to  Cecil, 
"she  showed  more  artifice  than  I  ever  found  in  a  person 
so  young."  At  her  instigation,  Knox  was  accused  of 
treason,  and  tried,  but  was  acquitted,  (1563.)  His  first 
wife  having  died,  he  married  in  1564  Margaret  Stewart, 
a  daughter  of  Lord  Ochiltree.  The  projects  and  influ- 
ence of  Knox  were  promoted  by  the  abdication  of  the 
queen  and  the  appointment  of  Murray  as  regent.  But 
in  his  latter  years  he  was  greatly  afflicted  by  the  assas- 
sination of  Murray  (1570)  and  the  confusion  and  disorders 
which  followed  that  event.  He  died  in  November,  1572. 
Among  the  Reformers  of  that  age,  Knox  was  distin- 
guished for  his  courage  and  sagacity,  as  well  as  for  his 
earnestness  and  the  inflexible  austerity  of  his  principles. 
The  regent  Morton,  in  a  short  funeral  oration,  said  of 
him,  "Here  lies  he  who  never  feared  the  face  of  man." 

Of  Knox,  Froude  remarks  that  he  was  "perhaps  in 
that  extraordinary  age  its  most  extraordinary  man,  and 
whose  character  became  the  mould  in  which  the  later 
fortunes  of  his  country  were  cast."  {"  History  of  Eng- 
land," vol.  iv.  chap,  xviii.)  In  another  place  he  says, 
"  No  grander  figure  can  be  found  in  the  entire  history  of 
the  Reformation  in  this  island  than  that  of  Knox.  .  .  . 
The  one  man  without  whom  Scotland,  as  the  modern 
world  has  known  it,  would  have  had  no  existence.  .  .  . 
His  w'as  the  voice  which  taught  the  peasant  of  the 
Lothians  that  he  was  a  free  man,  the  equal  in  the  sight  of 
God  with  the  proudest  peer  or  prelate  that  had  trampled 
on  his  forefathers.  He  was  the  one  antagonist  whom 
Mary  Stuart  could  not  soften  nor  Maitland  deceive  ;  he 
it  was  that  raised  the  poor  commons  of  his  country  into 
a  stern  and  rugged  people,  who  might  be  hard,  narrow,, 
superstitious,  and  fanatical,  but  who  nevertheless  were 
men  whom  neither  king,  noble,  nor  priest  could  force 
again  to  submit  to  tyranny."  (See  "  History  of  England," 
vol.  x.  chap,  xxiii.  pp.  452-456  et  seq.) 

See  McCrie,  "Life  of  John  Knox,"  2  vols.,  1812;  Burton, 
"  History  of  Scotland,"  more  particularly  chap,  xxxviii.  ;  Robert- 
son, ■'  History  of  Scotland;"  Froude,  "  History  of  England,"  vols, 
v.,  vii.,  ix.,  X.  ;  Niemever,  "  Leben  des  _[.  Knox  and  der  beiden 
Marien,"  1824;  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica ;"  "Westminster  Re- 
view" for  July,  1853;  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Emi- 
nen  Scotsmen;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1812,  April,  1S52, 
and  July,  1853. 

Kilox,  noks,  (John,)  an  English  benefactor,  born 
about  1720,  was  a  bookseller  of  London.  He  acquired  a 


fortune  by  business,  and  spent  much  time  and  money  in 
plans  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  poor  in  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland,  which  he  visited  sixteen  times.  He 
wrote  a  "  Systematic  View  of  Scotland."    Died  in  1790. 

Knox,  (John,)  a  native  of  Edinburgh,  and  captain 
in  the  English  navy,  wrote  a  historical  account  of  the 
campaigns,  naval  battles,  etc.  in  America  during  the 
years  1757,  1759,  and  1760.    Died  in  1790. 

Knox,  (Robert,)  of  the  British  East  India  naval 
service,  was  born  about  1640.  In  1660  he  was  wrecked 
on  the  island  of  Ceylon,  where  he  remained  a  captive 
twenty  years.  After  his  escape  he  published  a  "  His- 
torical Relation  of  the  Island  of  Ceylon,"  (1681.)  Died 
about  1700. 

Knox,  (ViCESiMUS,)  D.D.,  a  celebrated  English  cler- 
gyman and  author,  born  at  Newington  Green,  in  the 
county  of  Middlesex,  in  1752.  The  title  of  D.D.  was 
conferred  upon  him  by  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
Of  his  numerous  works  may  be  mentioned  "  Essays, 
Moral  and  Literary,"  (1777,)  "Personal  Nobility,  or 
Letters  to  a  Young  Nobleman,"  "Christian  Philoso- 
phy," (1795,)  "On  the  National  Importance  of  Classical 
Education,"  and  "Considerations  on  the  Nature  and 
Efficacy  of  the  Lord's  Supper."  As  a  preacher  he  was 
very  popular.  He  obtained  the  united  rectories  of  Rum- 
w^ell  and  Ramsden  Crays  in  Essex,  and  was  master  of 
Tunbridge  School,  which  he  conducted  for  many  years. 
Died  in  1821. 

Knox,  (William,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  about  1788. 
Among  his  poems  are  "  The  Lonely  Hearth,"  and  "  Ma- 
riamne."    Died  in  1825. 

Knud.    See  Canute. 

Knupfer,  knoop'fer,  (Nikolaus,)  a  German  painter 
of  battles  and  mythological  subjects,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1603  ;  died  in  1660. 

Knut.    See  Canute. 

Knutzen,  knoot'sen,  (Maritn,)  a  German  writer,  and 
professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Konigsberg, 
was  born  in  that  city  in  1713  ;  died  in  1751. 

Knutzen,  Knuzen,  or  Cnutzen,  knoot'sen,  (Mat- 
THi.\s,)  an  atheist  or  skeptic,  was  born  in  Holstein,  and 
educated  at  Konigsberg.  He  made  numerous  proselytes, 
who,  from  his  doctrine  that  reason  and  conscience  were 
sufficient  to  guide  all  men,  have  been  called  Conscien- 
tiarians.    Died  after  1674. 

Knuzen.    See  Knutzen. 

Knyphausen,  knip'how'zen,  (Baron,)  a  German 
general,  born  in  Alsace  about  1730.  He  obtained  in  1776 
command  of  an  army  of  Hessians  who  were  hired  by 
the  British  ministry  to  fight  against  the  Americans.  He 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Brandy  wine,  September,  1777, 
and  in  other  actions  of  the  Revolutionary  war.  Died  in 
Berlin  in  1789. 

Kobad.    See  Cabades. 

Kobell,  ko''bel,  (Ferdinand,)  an  able  German  land- 
scape-painter and  engraver,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1740. 
He  worked  for  some  years  at  Munich,  where  he  died  in 
1799.    His  etchings  are  highly  prized. 

Kobell,  (Franz,)  a  German  landscape-painter,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Mannheim  in  1749.  He  also 
executed  with  his  pen  a  large  number  of  pictures,  which 
have  been  greatly  admired.    Died  in  1822. 

Kobell,  (Franz,)  a  German  poet  and  mineralogist, 
a  grandson  of  Ferdinand,  noticed  above,  was  born  at 
Munich  in  1803.  He  published  several  good  works  on 
mineralogy,  and  a  nuinber  of  popular  poems. 

Kobell,  ko'b^l,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Rotterdam  in  1 751.  He  painted  landscapes,  marine 
pieces,  and  naval  battles  with  success.    Died  in  17S2. 

Kobell,  (Jan,)  a  skilful  painter  of  landscapes  and 
animals,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1782,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding.   Died  in  1814. 

Kobell,  (WiLHELM,)  an  eminent  German  painter 
of  landscapes  and  battles,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1766, 
was  a  son  of  Ferdinand,  noticed  above.  He  worked  at 
Munich.    Died  in  1853. 

Kobenzl.    See  Cohenzl. 

Koch,  von,  fon  koK,  (Christoph  Wilhelm,)  a 
French  Protestant  and  historical  writer,  of  German 
parentage,  was  born  at  Bouxviller,  in  Alsace,  in  1737. 
He  studied  at  Strasburg  under  Schopflin,  and  gained  dis- 


^2&k;  9  as  s;  ghard;  gas  J;  g,  H,  Kyguttural;  n,  nasal;  ^Jrilled;  sasz;  tn  avS  in  this.    (^I^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KOCH 


1336 


KOHL 


tinction  as  a  lecturer  on  history,  public  law,  etc.  in  that 
city.  In  1 791  he  represented  Bas-Rhin  in  the  Legisla- 
tive Assembly.  He  was  imprisoned  during  the  reign  of 
terror,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Tribunate  in  1802. 
Among  his  important  works  are  "Tableau  des  Revolu- 
tions de  I'Europe  depuis  le  Bouleversement  de  I'Empire 
Remain,"  (1771,)  and  an  "Abridged  History  of  the 
Treaties  between  the  European  Powers  since  the  Peace 
of  Westphalia,"  (4  vols.,  1796.)  Died  in  1813. 
See  ScHWEiGHAUSER,  "Notice  biographique  de  Koch." 

Koch,  (Jean  Baptiste  Fr£d6ric,)  a  general,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Nancy  in  1 782.  He  wrote 
"  Memoirs  towards  the  History  of  the  Campaign  of  1814," 
(3  vols.,  1819,)  and  aided  Jomini  in  his  "History  of  the 
Wars  of  the  Revolution,"  (5  vols.,  1819-24.)  Died  in  1861. 

Koch,  (Joseph  Anton,)  an  eminent  landscape  and 
historical  painter,  born  in  the  valley  of  Lech,  near  Augs- 
burg, in  1768.  He  studied  in  Rome,  where  he  fixed  his 
residence.  Among  his  best  pieces  are  the  "  Sacrifice  of 
Noah,"  "  Francesca  da  Rimini,"  and  the  frescos  from 
Dante  in  the  villa  Massimi.  He  also  etched  twenty 
plates  of  Italian  landscapes,  which  are  esteemed  master- 
pieces.   Died  at  Rome  in  1839. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Koch,  (Karl  Heinrich  Emanuel,)  a  German  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Weimar  in  1809.  He  travelled  in  Southern 
Russia,  Turkey,  and  the  Caucasus,  and  published,  after 
his  return,  his  "  Journey  through  Russia  to  the  Caucasian 
Isthmus,"  (2  vols.,  1842,)  "Wanderings  in  the  East,"  (3 
vols.,  1846,)  and  a  "Flora  of  the  Levant,"  ("Beitrage  zu 
einer  Flora  des  Orientes,"  1848-54.) 

Koch,  (Wilhelm  Daniel  Joseph,)  a  German  phy- 
sician and  botanist,  born  near  Deux-Ponts  in  1771,  be- 
came, in  1824,  professor  of  botany  and  medicine  at  Erlan- 
gen.  He  published  a  treatise  "  On  European  Willows," 
("  De  Salicibus  Europaeis,"  1818,)  "  Synopsis  of  the  Flora 
of  Germany  and  Switzerland,"  (1835-37,)  and  other  works 
on  botany.    Died  in  1849. 

Koch-Sternfeld,  koK  stgRn'fglt,  (Joseph  Ernst,) 
a  German  historical  writer  and  antiquary,  born  at  Mit- 
tersill  in  1778.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Kingdom 
of  the  Longobards  in  Italy,"  (1839,)  and  "Historical 
Studies  on  Civilization  in  the  Alps,"  (2  vols.,  1852.) 

Kochanowski,  ko''Ki-nov'skee,  (John,)  a  Polish 
nobleman  and  celebrated  poet,  born  in  1 532.  For  his 
translations  of  the  Psalms  into  Polish  verse  he  received 
the  title  of  "the  Pindar  of  Poland."  His  other  poems 
were  published  at  Warsaw,  (1803-05.)    Died  in  1584. 

See  Bhntkowski,  "History  of  Polish  Literature." 

Kock,  (Matthevv^.)    See  Cock, 

Kock,  de,  deh  kok,  (Charles  Paul,)  a  French  ro- 
mance-writer and  dramatist,  of  Dutch  extraction,  born 
at  Passy,  near  Paris,  in  1794.  His  works,  though  pos- 
sessing little  merit  as  literary  productions,  and  ranking 
among  the  most  immoral  of  French  novels,  enjoy  great 
popularity  both  in  France  and  other  countries  of  Europe. 
Some  French  critics  consider  him  an  excellent  painter 
of  French  manners,  of  Parisian  roguery,  rustic  bonhomie, 
and  the  absurdity  of  the  bourgeois.    Died  in  1871. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1837;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1830,  and  October,  1839 ;  "  North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1843. 

Kochly  or  Koechly,  koK'lee,  (Hermann  August 
Theodor,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
181 5.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a  valuable 
"History  of  the  Art  of  War  among  the  Greeks,"  (1852.) 

Kodde,  van  der,  vtn  der  kod'deh,  (Jan,  Adriaan, 
and  Gysuert,)  three  brothers,  who  lived  at  Warmond, 
near  Ixyden,  and  founded  a  religious  society,  called  Col- 
legiants,  about  1620. 

Kodhaee  or  Kodhai,  Al,  ai  ko-dha'ee,  (Abdallah- 
Ibn-Abi-Bekr-Ibnul-Abbar,  Ib-daKlah  ib'n  i'bee 
bek'r  ili-nooK  ib-bSR',)  often  called  simply  Ibliul-  (or 
Ibnool-)  Abbar,  a  celebrated  Spanish  Arabian  author, 
born  at  Valencia,  in  Sjiain,  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
His  style  is  elegant,  \)u\  t,  and  terse.  Among  his  writings 
are  two  biographical  works  on  the  Arabian  poets  and 
authors. 

Kodros.    See  Codrus. 


Koeberger,  koo^b^RG-er,  (Venceslaus,)  a  Flemish 
painter  and  architect,  born  in  Antwerp  about  1550.  He 
studied  in  his  native  city,  and  afterwards  at  Rome,  where 
he  greatly  distinguished  himself.  Among  his  paintings 
are  the  "  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Sebastian,"  and  "  Christ 
taken  from  the  Cross  and  supported  by  Angels."  Died 
in  1634,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  in  1610. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Koecher.    See  Kocher. 

Koechlin,  k^k'l^N',  (Daniel,)  a  French  chemist  and 
manufacturer  of  cotton,  born  at  Mulhouse  about  1780, 
was  one  of  the  firm  of  Nicolas  Koechlin  freres.  He 
greatly  promoted  the  prosperity  of  Mulhouse  by  the 
invention  of  a  process  of  adorning  printed  muslins  with 
rich  designs  and  brilliant  colours. 

Koechlin,  (Nicolas,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Mulhouse  in  1781.  He  was  a  manufacturer  of 
fine  muslins  ( indiennes)  at  Mulhouse,  and  a  liberal  mem- 
ber of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.    Died  in  1852. 

Koechly.    See  Kochly. 

Koeck,  kook,  (Pieter,)  a  Flemish  painter,  engraver, 
and  architect,  was  born  at  Alost  about  1500.  He  studied 
in  Italy,  and  afterwards  visited  Turkey.  Among  his 
works  are  seven  large  and  well-executed  paintings  to 
illustrate  the  manners  of  the  Turks.  He  also  made 
engravings  of  these  pictures.  Koeck  was  first  painter 
to  Charles  V.    Died  in  1553. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Koegler.  See  Kogler. 
Koehler.    See  Kohler. 

Koekkoek,  kook'kook,  (Bernard  Cornelis,)  a 
Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Middelburg  in  1803, 
published  in  1841  "Recollections  and  Communications 
of  a  Landscape-Painter."  His  works  are  commended 
for  fidelity  to  nature  and  other  merits.    Died  in  1858. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Koelcsey,  (Francis.)    See  Kolcsey. 
Koeler.    See  Kohler. 
Koelliker.    See  Kolliker. 
Koelreuter.    See  Kolreuter. 
Koenig.    See  Konig. 
Koenigshoven.    See  Konigshoven. 
Koenigsmarck.    See  Konigsmarck. 
Koeppen.    See  Koppen. 
Koepstein.    See  Capito,  (Wolfgang.) 
Koerner.    See  Korner. 
Koerte.    See  Korte. 
Koerten-Block.    See  Block. 
Koes,  (F.)    See  Kos. 
Koestlin.    See  Kostlin. 

Koets,  koots,  (Roelof,)  a  Dutch  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Zvvolle  in  1655.  Among  his  works  are  the  por- 
traits of  William  III.  of  England,  and  of  several  distin- 
guished Flemings,  Germans,  and  Englishmen.  Died  in 
1725. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Kofod,  ko'fod,  (Johan  Ancher,)  a  Danish  writer, 
born  near  Bornholm  in  1777,  published  several  histories 
and  a  "Conversations-Lexicon,"  (28  vols.,  1816-28.) 
Died  in  1829. 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Kogler  or  Koegler,  koo'ler,  (  Ignaz,  )  a  learned 
Jesuit,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1680.  In  1715  he  was  sent  as 
a  missionary  to  China,  where  he  received  many  marks 
of  distinction  from  the  emperor  Kang-Hee,  (Kang-Hi.) 
He  died  in  Pekin  in  1746. 

Kohen  Att^r,  ko'hen  §.t-tSR',  written  also  Cohen 
Atthar  and  Kuhan  Atthar,  a  learned  Egyptian  phy- 
sician, lived  about  1150,  and  wrote  on  materia  medica. 

Kohl,  kol,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  traveller  and 
popular  writer,  was  born  at  Bremen  in  1808.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  "Travels  in  the  Interior  of  Russia 
and  Poland,"  (1841,)  "Travels  in  Styriaandthe  Bavarian 
Highlands,"  (1842,)  "Travels  in  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,"  (1844,)  and  "Travels  in  the  Netherlands," 
(1850.)  He  also  wrote  "Sketches  from  Nature  and 
Common  Life,"  (2  vols.,  185 1.)  His  fine  descriptive 
powers  and  attractive  style  entitle  him  to  rank  among 
the  best  writers  of  travels  in  recent  times.  Died  in  1871, 

See  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1841,  and  January, 
1842  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine'*  for  December,  1846. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  0r,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  nflt^  good;  moon; 


KOHLER 


1337 


KONIG 


Kohler  or  Koehler,  ko'ler,  (Johann  Bernhard,) 
a  German  scholar,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1742.  In  1781  he 
was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  the  Greek  and  Oriental 
languages  in  the  University  of  Konigsberg.  He  wrote 
"Remarks  on  Dion  Chrysostom,"  "Tracts  on  Roman 
Law,"  and  several  other  works.    Died  in  1802. 

Kohler,  Koehler,  or  Koeler,  (Johann  David,)  a 
German  author  and  antiquary,  born  near  Leipsic  in. 
1684.  In  1 710  he  was  appointed  professor  of  logic  at 
Altorf,  and  about  1725  was  chosen  professor  of  history 
at  Gottingen.  His  numerous  works  relate  to  history, 
bibliography,  and  literature.    Died  in  1755. 

See  J.  M.  Gesner,  "  Memoria  Koehleri,"  1755;  Gatterer  und 
J.  B.  KoHi.ER,  "J.  D.  Kohlers  Leben,"  in  the  last  volume  of  his 
"  Miinzbelustigiingen,"  22  vols.,  1729-55. 

Kohler  or  Koehler,  (Johann  Tobias,)  a  German 
numismatist,  born  at  Altorf  in  1720,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  published  a  "Cabinet  of  Ducats," 
("Ducaten-Cabinet,"  2  vols.,  1758-60.)    Died  in  1768. 

Kohlrausch,  koKrowsh,  (  Heinrich  Friedrich 
Theodor,)  born  near  Gottingen  in  1780,  published  a 
"  History  of  Germany." 

Kohne,  ko'neh,  (Frederick,)  born  in  Prussia  in 
1757,  eniigrated  to  America  in  1780,  and  made  a  large 
fortune  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina.  He  died  in  1829, 
leaving  a  great  part  of  his  property  to  the  charitable 
institutions  of  Pennsylvania  and  South  Carolina,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  coloured  as  well  as  the  white  population. 

Kolb.    See  Kolbe,  (Pp:ter.) 

Kolbe,  koKbeh,  (Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  skilful  German 
engraver  and  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1757.  He  etched 
numerous  landscapes  after  his  own  designs,  and  wrote, 
among  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Riches  of  the 
German  and  French  Languages,  and  the  Capacity  of 
both  for  Poetry,"  (1806.)    Died  in  1835. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "Mein  Lebenslauf  und  mein  Wirken," 
1825;  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kolbe,  (Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  German  painter,  nephew 
of  the  ])receding,  born  at  Berlin  in  1781  ;  died  in  1853. 

Kolbe,  written  also  Kolb,  kolp,  or  Kolben,  koKben, 
(Peter,)  a  naturalist,  born  at  Wunsiedel,  in  Bavaria, 
in  1675.  He  passed  some  years  in  Southern  Africa, 
and  wrote,  among  other  works,  "A  Description  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,"  (1719.)  His  book,  containing 
much  valuable  information,  was  translated  into  the 
French,  Dutch,  and  English  languages.    Died  in  1726. 

See  G.  C.  Oertel,  "Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Mentis  P.  Kolbii," 
1758. 

Kolben.    See  Kolbe,  (Peter.) 

Kolcsey,  koKcha,  (Francis,)  one  of  the  greatest  of 
Hungarian  orators,  celebrated  also  as  a  poet,  critic,  and 
lawyer,  was  born  in  Middle  Szolnok  in  1790.  At  an 
early  age  he  formed  a  friendship  with  Kazinczy  and  Paul 
Szemere,  and  in  1826  was  associated  with  the  latter  as 
editor  of  a  journal  entitled  "  Life  and  Literature."  He 
published  in  this  periodical  a  number  of  critical  essays, 
regarded  as  the  best  in  the  Hungarian  language,  the 
object  of  which  was  the  improvement  of  the  national 
literature  of  Hungary.  He  was  a  deputy  to  the  Diet 
of  1832-36,  where  he  was  distinguished  for  his  rare  elo- 
quence and  his  unswerving  course  in  the  support  of 
liberal  principles.  Died  in  1838.  His  complete  works, 
consisting  of  poems,  tales,  essays,  and  philosophical  and 
miscellaneous  writings,  were  published  the  same  year. 

See  an  article  on  the  "Language  and  Literature  of  the  Magyars," 
in  the  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1828. 

Koler.    See  Kohler. 

Ko-let'tis  or  Co-let'tis,  (Joannis,)  a  modern  Greek 
statesman  and  democrat,  born  near  Janina  in  1788,  was 
one  of  the  most  active  promoters  of  the  insurrection  of 
182 1.  On  the  accession  of  King  Otho  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  the  interior  and  president  of  the  cabinet. 
He  became  in  1844  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  which  post 
he  held  until  his  death,  in  1847. 

See  L.  DE  LoMENiE,  "M.  Colettis,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1842. 

Kollar,  kol'laR,  (Jan,)  a  distinguished  ecclesiastic, 
poet,  and  antiquary,  born  in  Northern  Hungary  in  1793. 
He  endeavoured  by  his  writings  to  establish  a  common 
language  and  feeling  of  nationality  between  the  various 
Slavonic  races  in  Europe.    This  spirit  pervades  all  his 


poetry,  for  which  he  used  the  Bohemian  language,  re- 
garding his  native  Slovakian  as  deficient  in  dignity  and 
comprehensiveness.  After  the  revolt  of  the  Hungarians, 
to  whom  he  was  bitterly  opposed,  he  removed  to  Vienna, 
where  he  became  professor  of  archaeology.  Died  in  1852. 
His  principal  poem  is  entitled  "  Slawy  Dcera,"  ("  Daugh- 
ter of  Glory,"  1824.)  Among  his  prose  works  are  "  Treat- 
ises on  the  Names  and  Anticjuities  of  the  Slavonic 
Nation,"  and  "On  the  Literary  Reciprocity  between  the 
Races  and  Dialects  of  the  Slavonic  Tribes,"  (1831.) 

See  Dr.  J.  Bowring,  "  Servian  Poetry ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1828. 

Kolli,  koKlee,  de,  (Baron,)  a  political  adventurer, 
born  in  Piedmont  about  1775.  He  made  an  attempt  in 
1810  to  release  from  prison  the  Spanish  prince,  (after- 
wards Ferdinand  VII.,)  but,  his  plan  having  been  be- 
trayed, he  was  imprisoned  four  years  in  the  castle  of 
Saumur.    Died  about  1825. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Baron  de  Kolli,"  by  himself;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1823. 

Kolliker  or  Koelliker,  koKle-ker,  (Albert,)  a  Ger- 
man physiologist  of  high  reputation,  born  about  1818. 
He  gained  distinction  by  his  minute  investigations  with 
the  microscope.  Among  other  works,  he  published 
"  Manual  of  Human  Histology,"  ("  Handbuch  der  Gewe- 
belehre  des  Menschen,"  1852,)  which  has  been  translated 
into  English  by  Busk  and  Huxley.  He  became  professor 
of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  WUrzburg. 

KoUmann,  koKmin,  (August  Friedrich  Karl,)  a 
German  composer,  born  near  Hanover  in  1756.  He  was 
an  organist  in  London,  and  wrote  a  "Theory  of  Musical 
Harmony,"  (1806.)    Died  in  1824. 

KoUontaj  or  Kolontaj,  korion-ti',  (Hugo,)  written 
also  Kollontay,  a  Polish  patriot,  born  in  the  government 
of  Sandomir  in  1750.  He  had  the  principal  share  in 
drawing  up  the  constitution  of  the  3d  of  May,  1791,  but, 
after  the  meeting  of  the  confederation  of  Targowitza,  was 
forced  to  leave  the  country.  He  was  afterwards  impris- 
oned for  a  time  at  Olmiitz  by  the  Austrians.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  able  political  treatises.    Died  in  1812. 

Kolmar.    See  Colmar. 

K61n.    See  Coln. 

Kol-o-ko-tro'nis  or  Colocotronis,  (Theodore,) 
a  modern  Greek  patriot,  born  in  Messenia  in  1770.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  many  engagements  with  the 
Turks,  and  rose  to  be  commander-in-chief  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus in  1823.  In  1835  he  was  made  a  councillor 
of  state  by  King  Otho,  and  obtained  other  distinctions. 
Died  in  1843. 

See  QuiNET,  "  La  Grece  moderne  dans  ses  Rapports  avec  I'An- 
tiquite." 

Kolowrat  or  Kolowrat-Liebsteinski,  ko'Io-rSt' 

leep-stln'skee,  (Franz  Anton,)  a  Bohemian  minister  of 
state,  born  at  Prague  in  1778.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  council  of  ministers  at  Vienna  in  1825,  and  had 
charge  of  the  department  of  finances  for  many  years. 

Kolowrat,  ko'lo-rit',  or  Kollowrath,  koKlo-rit', 
(Leopold  Krakowski,)  a  statesman  of  Austria  under 
the  reigns  of  Francis  I.,  Maria  Theresa,  Joseph  II., 
Leopold  II.,  and  Francis  II.  He  held  the  offices  of 
minister  of  the  interior  and  grand  chancellor  of  Bohemia. 
Died  in  1809. 

Kolreuter  or  Koelreuter,  koKroi'ter,  (Joseph 
Gottlieb,)  a  German  botanist,  born  at  julz,  on  the 
Neckar,  in  1733  ;  died  in  1806. 

Koltzof  or  Kolzov,  kolt'sof,  (Alexei  Vasilie- 
vitch,)  a  Russian  poet,  born  in  the  government  of 
Voronezh  in  1809.  His  "  Russian  Songs  and  Ballads" 
are  ranked  among  the  best  productions  of  the  kind  in 
the  language.    Died  in  1842. 

Komnenos.    See  Comnenus. 

Konarski,  ko-naR'skee,  (Stanislas  Jerome,)  a 
Polish  poet  2,x\di  litterateur,  born  at  Konary,  near  Cracow, 
in  1700.  He  founded  a  college  of  Piarists  at  Warsaw. 
He  published  numerous  works  which  contributed  to 
reform  the  national  literature.    Died  in  1773. 

See  Krajewski,  "  filoge  historique  de  Konarski,"  Warsaw,  1783. 

Kong-Fou-Tse.    See  Confucius. 
Kong-Fu-Tse.    See  Confucius. 
Konig  or  Koenig,  ko'nic,  (Christian  Gottlieb,)  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Altorf  in  1711 ;  died  in  1782. 


€  as    9  as  s;  g  hard;%zs, j;  G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  \\i  as  in  this,    (2^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KONIG 


KOOTOOZ 


Konig  or  Koenig,  ko'nic,  (Emanuel,)  a  Swiss  natu- 
ralist and  medical  writer,  born  at  Bale  in  1658.  Among 
his  works  is  "  Regnum  Vegetabile,"  (1680.)    Died  in 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (Friedrich,)  the  inventor  of  the 
steiun-press,  was  born  at  Eisleben,  in  Germany,  in  1775. 
About  1807  he  visited  London,  where  he  was  aided  in 
carrying  out  his  plans  by  Bensley,  Taylor,  and  Woodfall. 
In  181 1  a  sheet  of  the  "Annual  Register"  was  printed, 
being  the  first  that  was  done  by  a  printing-machine  by 
which  the  paper  was  applied  to  the  type  by  a  revolving 
cylinder.  In  November,  1814,  a  number  of  the  "Times" 
was  printed  by  a  steam  press  on  the  principle  of  Konig's 
invention  :  it  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  newspaper 
ever  printed  by  steam-power.  After  his  return  to  Ger- 
many, Konig,  in  conjunction  with  his  friend  Bauer,  es- 
tablished at  Oberzell,  near  Wiirzburg,  a  manufactory 
for  the  construction  of  printing-machines,  four  hundred 
of  which  had  in  1853  been  sent  forth  from  it.  After  the 
death  of  Konig,  in  1833,  the  business  was  carried  on  by 
Bauer. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (Georg  Matthias,)  a  German 
writer  and  scholar,  born  at  Altdorf,  in  Franconia,  in  1616, 
was  appointed  in  1667  professor  of  poetry  in  his  native 
city.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Latin-and-German  Lexi- 
con," (1668,)  and  a  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Authors, 
("  Bibliotheca  Vetus  et  Nova,"  1678.)    Died  in  1699. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron, 
"  Menioires." 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (Heinrich  Joseph,)  a  German 
novelist,  born  at  Fulda  in  1790.  Among  his  best  works 
are  "  The  Waldenses,"  (1836,)  "  William  Shakspeare," 
(1839,)  and  "The  Clubbists  of  Mentz,"  ("Die  Clubisten 
von  Mainz,"  1847  :)  the  last  named,  a  historical  romance, 
is  especially  admired.  He  was  secretary  of  finance  at 
Hanau  from  181 9  to  1835.    Died  in  1869. 

See  N.  Gretch,  "  H.  Konig  und  seine  Liigen  ;  Seitenstiick  zu 
Nic.  Gretsch  und  die  Russische  Literatur  in  Deutschland,"  1840. 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (Johann  Gerard,)  a  botanist,  and 
pupil  of  Linnaeus,  born  in  Livonia  in  1728.  He  visited 
Iceland  and  the  East  Indies,  and  wrote  several  treatises 
on  botany,  which  he  left  in  manuscript.  Died  at  Tran- 
quebar  in  1785. 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (Samuel,)  an  eminent  mathema- 
tician, son  of  Samuel  Heinrich,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Biidingen  in  171 2.  He  was  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Franeker,  and  professor  of  philosophy  and  law  at  the 
Hague.    Died  in  1757. 

Konig  or  Koenig,  (Samuel  Heinrich,)  a  Swiss 
Orientalist  and  theologian,  born  about  1670  at  Berne, 
where  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  and  Oriental 
languages  in  1731.    Died  in  1750. 

Konig  or  Koninck,  (Solomon.)    See  Coninck. 

Konigshoven  or  Koenigshoven,  kS'nics-hoVen, 
also  known  as  James  Twinger,  an  ecclesiastic,  born  at 
Strasburg  in  1346.    He  wrote,  in  Latin  and  German, 

Chronicles  of  Strasburg."    Died  in  1420. 

See  Obeklin,  "  De  Jacobo  Twingero,"  etc.,  1789. 

Konigsmarck  or  Koenigsmarck,  von,  fon  ko'- 
nics-maRk^  written  also  Konigsmark,  [Lat.  Konigs- 
mar'kius,]  (Johann  Christoph,)  Count,  a  celebrated 
general,  born  in  Germany  in  1600,  entered  the  service 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1630.  After  the  death  of  the 
King  of  Sweden,  he  defeated  the  Austrians  in  the  battle 
of  Wolfenbiittel.  He  also  invaded  Bohemia,  and  captured 
Prague,  in  1648.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  Governor 
of  the  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Verden.  Queen  Christina 
created  him  count  and  field-marshal.    Died  in  1663. 

See  "  Eterna  Gloria  J.  C.  Konigsmarkii,"  Holm,  1664. 

Konigsmarck,  Koenigsmarck,  or  Konigsmark, 
von,  (Maria  Aurora,)  Countess,  a  granddaughter  of 
the  preceding,  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  accomplish- 
ments, was  born  in  Bremen  about  1670.  She  was  the 
mistress  of  Frederick  Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony  and 
King  of  Poland,  by  whom  she  had  a  son,  Maurice  Count 
de  Saxe,  afterwards  famous  as  a  French  general.  In 
1702  she  was  sent  by  the  Elector  to  treat  with  Charles 
XII.  That  monarch  refused  to  see  her;  "but  she 
returned,"  says  Voltaire,  "with  the  satisfaction  of  be- 
lieving that  she  was  the  only  person  feared  by  the  King  of 


Sweden."  The  Countess  of  Konigsmarck  spoke  several 
languages  with  great  fluency  and  correctness.  She  com- 
posed a  poem  on  Charles  XII.,  written  in  the  purest 
French.    Died  in  1728. 

See  Cramer,  "  Denkwiirdigkeiten  der  M.  A.  Konigsmark,"  2 
vols.,  1836;  CoRviN-WiEKSBiTZKY,  "Maria  Aurora  Grafin  von 
Konigsmark,"  1841 ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1837. 

Konigsmarck,  von,  (Otto  Wilhelm,)  Count,  son 
of  Johann  Christoph,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  West- 
phalia in  1639.  He  subsequently  served  with  great  dis- 
tinction in  the  French  army  under  Turenne  and  with 
the  Swedish  army  in  Germany.  In  1686  he  was  created 
generalissimo  of  the  Venetian  republic,  for  which  he 
gained  several  victories  over  the  Turks.    Died  in  1688. 

Konigsmark  or  Koenigsmark,  ko'nios-maRk^  (Fi- 
LiP  Christofer,)  Count,  a  Swedish  officer,  born  about 
1640,  was  a  favourite  lover  of  Sophia  Dorothea,  the  wife 
of  George,  Elector  of  Hanover.  This  prince,  it  is  said, 
caused  him  to  be  assassinated  in  1694. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  Blaze  de  Bury,  "Episode  de 
I'Histoire  du  Hanovre." 

Konigsmarkius.    See  Konigsmarck. 
Koninck.    See  Coninck. 

Koning,  ko'ning,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  born 
at  Haarlem  about  1524,  engraved  portraits  of  celebrated 
men,  including  Luther  and  Calvin. 

Koning,  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  landscapes  and 
history,  born  at  Amsterdam  about  1645.  He  went  to 
Copenhagen,  and  worked  for  the  King  of  Denmark. 

Koning,  de,  (David.)    See  Coninck. 

Koning  or  Koninck,  de,  deh  ko'ning,  (Philipp,) 
an  able  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1619,  was 
a  pupil  of  Rembrandt.  He  was  a  good  colorist,  and 
excelled  in  landscapes  and  portraits.    Died  in  1689. 

Konon.    See  Conon. 

Konstantijn  or  Konstantyn.  See  Constantinb 
the  Great. 

Kontski,  kont'skee,  (Martin,)  a  Polish  general,  born 
in  1635,  served  with  distinction  under  John  Sobieski.  He 
directed  the  artillery  in  the  great  battle  against  the  Turks 
at  Vienna  in  1683.    Died  in  17 10. 

Konz,  (Karl  Philipp.)    See  Conz. 

Kooang  or  Kouang,  koo-ang',  (almost  kwang,)  a 
Chinese  statesman  and  celebrated  historian,  born  in  the 
province  of  Shen-see  or  Chen-si  about  1018  A.D.  He 
wrote  an  important  work  on  the  history  of  China.  Died 
in  1086. 

See  Mailla,  "  Histoire  generale  de  la  Chine." 

Kooblai  (Koublai  or  Kublai)  Khan,  koo'blT'  Kin, 
(Shee-Tsoo  or  Chi-Tsou,  shee-tsoo,)  the  founder  of 
the  Mongol  dynasty  of  China,  was  a  grandson  of  Jengis 
Khan.  He  began  to  reign  over  the  north  part  of  China 
about  1260,  soon  after  which  date  he  conquered  the 
southern  provinces  and  became  master  of  a  vast  empire 
extending  from  the  Polar  Sea  to  the  Straits  of  Malacca, 
and  including  Thibet,  Tartary,  Siam,  etc.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  an  able  ruler.  In  his  reign  Marco  Polo  visited 
China.    Died  in  1294. 

Koogen,  van  der,  vtn  der  ko'gen,  (Leonard,)  a 
Flemish  painter,  born  at  Haariem  in  1610,  was  also  an 
etcher.    Died  in  1681. 

Koolee  Khan.    See  Nadir  Shah. 

Koolnef,  Koulneff,  or  Kulnew,  kool-n^P,  ( Yakof,) 
a  Russian  general,  born  in  1763.  He  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  the  Drissa,  in  July,  1812. 

Koorakin  or  Kourakin,  koo'ri-keen'  or  koo'rS-kin', 
(Alexander  Borisovitch,)  Prince,  a  Russian  diplo- 
matist, born  in  1752,  was  a  favourite  courtier  of  Paul  I. 
He  was  ambassador  at  Paris  from  1808  to  181 2.  Died 
in  1818. 

Koorakin  or  Kourakin,  (Boris  Ivanovitch, ) 
Prince,  a  Russian  diplomatist,  born  in  1677,  was  a 
brother-in-law  of  Peter  I.  He  was  sent  to  Rome  on  a 
political  mission  by  that  emperor.    Died  in  1727. 

Koornhert.    See  Corn  he  rt. 

Kooten,  van,  vtn  kS'ten,  (Theodorus,)  a  Latin  poet, 
born  in  Holland  in  1749;  died  in  1814. 

Kootooz  or  Kutiiz,  (Kothouz,)  koo-tooz'  or  koo^- 
tooz',*  written  also  Kotouz,  (Mahmood  Seif-ed- 

*  There  is  some  discrepancy  in  the  mode  of  writing  this  name. 
Abulpharagius  more  frequently  gives  both  syllables  long.  See 
Pocock's  edition,  Oxford,  1663. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  flr,  f^ll,  Hi;  mlV,  n6t;  good;  mo5n; 


KOOTOOZOF 


1339 


KORTHOLT 


Deen  Malek  Modhaffer,  miH''mood'  sTf  ed-deen'  mo'- 
dhiFfer,)  became  Sultan  of  Egypt  in  1259  by  usurpation. 
He  defeated  the  Tartars  in  Syria.  He  was  assassinated 
by  Bibars  in  1260. 

Kootoozof,  Koutouzof,  Koutousof,  or  Kutu- 
sow,  koo-too'zof,  (Michael  Laurionovitch  Goleni- 
TCHEF,)  a  celebrated  Russian  commander,  born  in  1745, 
served  against  the  Poles  and  the  Turks,  and  rose  to  be 
lieutenant-general  in  1789.  In  1793  he  was  ambassador 
to  Constantinople,  and  on  the  accession  of  the  emperor 
Paul  was  charged  with  a  mission  to  Berlin.  After  the 
assassination  of  that  sovereign  he  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor-general of  Saint  Petersburg,  and  in  1805  was 
created  commander-in-chief  of  the  first  corps  of  the 
Russian  army  against  the  French.  He  gained  a  victory 
over  Marshal  Mortier  at  Diirrenstein,  and  soon  after 
commanded  the  allied  army  under  the  emperor  Alex- 
ander at  Austerlitz,  (1805.)  In  1812,  at  the  age  of  sixty- 
seven,  he  succeeded  Barclay  de  Tolly  as  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Russian  army,  a  few  days  before  the 
battle  of  Borodino.  For  his  victories  over  Ney  and 
Davoust  the  emperor  bestowed  upon  him  the  surname 
of  Smolenskoi.  He  died  in  1813,  at  Buntzlau,  where  a 
monument  was  erected  to  him. 

See  Segur,  "  Histoire  de  Napoleon  et  de  la  grande  Armde;" 
Mikhailovsky-Danilevsky,  "Vie  du  Feld-Marechal  Koutouzoff," 
translated  from  the  Russian  by  Fizelier,  1850;  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic Gen^rale." 

Kopernicus.    See  Copernicus. 
Kopernik.    See  Copernicus. 

Kopievitch,  ko-pe-a'vitch,  written  also  Kopieu- 
vicz,  (Elias,)  a  Russian  philologist,  who  was  sent  by 
Peter  the  Great  to  Holland  in  order  to  complete  his 
studies.  Among  his  works  are  a  Latin  Grammar  for  Rus- 
sian schools,  and  a  Slavonic-and-German  Dictionary. 

Kopisch,  ko'pish,  (August,)  a  German  poet  and 
artist,  born  at  Breslau  in  1799;  died  in  1853. 

Kopitar,  ko'pe-taR',  (Bartholomaus,)  a  philologist, 
born  in  Carniola  in  1780,  was  appointed  first  keeper  of 
the  Imperial  Library  at  Vienna,  (1843.)  He  published 
in  1808  a  '*  Grammar  of  the  Slavonian  Language  in  Car- 
niola, Carinthia,  and  Styria."    Died  in  1844. 

Kopp,  kop,  (JoHANN  Adam,)  a  German  publicist, 
born  at  Offenbach  in  1698.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  the  Law  which  now  prevails  in 
Germany,"  ("  Historia  Juris  quo  hodie  in  Germania 
utimur,"  1 741.)    Died  in  1748. 

Kopp,  kop,  (Joseph  Eutych,)  a  Swiss  historian,  born 
at  Miinster,  in  Lucerne,  in  1793.  Among  his  works  is  a 
*'  History  of  the  Swiss  Leagues,"  ( Bunde,)  (4  vols.,  1845- 
57,)  which  is  commended  as  very  interesting.  Kopp 
discredits  the  popular  tradition  of  William  Tell. 

Kopp,  (Ulrich  Friedrich,)  a  German  antiquary, 
born  at  Cassel  in  1762,  became  director  of  the  court 
archives  in  1802.  His  "  Palaeographia  critica"  (1817)  is 
much  esteemed.    Died  in  1834. 

Koppe,  kop'peh,  (Johann  Benjamin,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1750.  He  published 
several  exegetical  works,  and  left  unfinished  an  edition 
of  the  New  Testament  in  Greek,  (3  vols.)  Died  in  1791. 

See  HoppENSTEDT,  "Ueber  den  verstorbenen  J.  B.  Koppe," 
1791. 

Koppen  or  Koeppen,  kop^pen,  (Adolphus  Louis,) 
a  Danish  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Copenhagen  in 
1804.  In  1834  he  visited  Greece,  where  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  history,  archaeology,  and  modern  languages 
at  the  military  college  in  JEgm2L.  He  removed  in  1846  to 
America,  where  he  became  in  1854  professor  of  history, 
aesthetics,  and  modern  languages  in  Franklin  and  Mar- 
shall College,  Pennsylvania.  He  has  published  "The 
World  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1854,)  and  other  works. 

Koppen  or  Koeppen,  kop'pen,  (Carl  Friedrich,) 
a  German  writer,  born  about  1800,  became  assistant  pro- 
fessor in  one  of  the  principal  gymnasiums  of  Berlin.  He 
published  in  1848  a  treatise  "On  the  Divine  Right  of 
Kings,"  ("De  Jure  Divino,")  which  was  condemned  by 
the  government  and  forbidden  to  be  reprinted.  His 
work  entitled  "  The  Religion  of  Booddha  and  its  Origin" 
("  Die  Religion  des  Buddha  und  ihre  Entstehung,"  1857) 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  treatises  on  that  subject. 
He  also  published  "The  Lamaic  System  of  Religion," 
etc.,  ("Lamaische  Hierarchie,"  1859.) 


Koppen  or  Koeppen,  kop'pen,  (Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man writer  on  philosophy,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1775.  He 
became  pastor  of  a  church  at  Bremen  in  1804,  and  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Erlangen  in  1827.  Among  his 
works  is  "The  Philosophy  of  Christianism,"  (2  vols., 
1813-15.)    Died  in  1858. 

Koppen  or  Koeppen,  (Johann  Heinrich  Justus,) 
a  German  philologist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1755.  He 
published  a  Greek  Anthology,  (3  vols.,  1787,)  "Com- 
mentary on  Homer's  Iliad,"  (5  vols.,  1787-92,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1791. 

K6ppen,  kop'pen,  (Peter,)  a  Russian  writer,  born  at 
Kharkov  in  1793,  has  published  several  works  on  the 
antiquities  and  statistics  of  Russia,  and  a  valuable  "Eth- 
nographical Chart  of  European  Russia,"  (1851.) 

Koprili,  ko'pre-lee,  written  also  Coprogli  and  Kiu- 
perli,  (Mehemet,)  an  eminent  Turkish  commander, 
born  at  Kopri,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  1585,  rose  from  the 
station  of  a  cook  to  be  grand  vizier  at  Constantinople  in 
1656.  He  took  Tenedos  and  Lemnos  from  the  Vene- 
tians, and  obtained  other  advantages  over  the  enemies 
of  the  Sultan.  As  a  ruler  he  showed  great  energy  and 
prudence,  and  effected  important  reformations  in  the 
condition  of  the  country.    Died  in  1661. 

Koprili,  (Mustafa,)  surnamed  the  Virtuous,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  appointed  grand  vizier  by  Solyman 
III.  in  1689.    Died  in  1691. 

Koprili-Fazil-Ahmed,  (or  -Achmed,)  ko'pre-lee 
fl'zil  In'med,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1626, 
succeeded  Mehemet  Koprili  as  grand  vizier.  He  gained 
several  important  victories  over  the  Hungarians  and  the 
Poles,  and  took  the  island  of  Candia.    Died  in  1676. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Kops,  kops,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Belgian  landscape- 
painter,  born  about  1800. 

Koray.    See  Coray. 

Kordes,  koR'd^s,  (Bernhard,)  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Lubeck  in  1762.  He  lived  at  Kiel.  Died  in  1823. 

Koren,  (Moses  of.)    See  Moses  Chorenensis. 

Korenatz.    See  Moses  Chorenensis. 

Korf,  koRf,  (Andrei,)  Baron,  a  Russian  publicist 
and  senator,  born  near  Mittau  in  1715  ;  died  in  1823. 

Korf,  (Nicholas,)  Baron,  a  Russian  minister  of  state 
under  Peter  III.,  was  born  in  1 7 10;  died  in  1766. 

Korinna.    See  Corinna. 

Kornelisz.    See  Cornelisz. 

Korner  or  Koerner,  koR'ner,  (Christian  Gott- 
fried,) born  at  Leipsic  in  1756,  was  the  father  of  Theo- 
dor  Korner,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Schiller.  He  was 
also  a  correspondent  of  Goethe.  It  was  in  his  beautiful 
vineyard  near  Dresden  that  Schiller  wrote  "  Don  Car- 
los."   Died  in  1831. 

Korner  or  Koerner,  (Karl  Theodor,)  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  German  poets,  was  born  in  Dresden  in 
1 791.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Berlin,  and  displayed 
at  an  early  age  a  rare  poetical  genius.  Among  his  first 
productions  were  the  popular  comedies  of  "The  Green 
Domino,"  (1812,)  and  "The  Watchman,"  (1812.)  He 
was  one  of  the  first  to  enlist  in  the  war  against  Napoleon  ; 
and,  inspired  with  patriotic  enthusiasm  and  a  keen  sense 
of  his  country's  wrongs,  he  produced  some  of  the  most 
spirited  and  beautiful  martial  lyrics  in  the  German  lan- 
guage. These  were  published  under  the  title  of  "The 
Lyre  and  the  Sword,"  (1814.)  Korner  was  also  the 
author  of  two  popular  tragedies,  "  Rosamunda,"  (1812,) 
and  "Zriny,"  (1813.)  He  fell  in  battle  near  Rosenberg, 
in  1813,  at  the  age  of  twenty-two. 

See  F.  W.  Lehmann,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  K.  T.  Koerner's," 
i8ig  ;  H.  A.  Erhard,  "  T.  Koerner's  Leben,"  etc.,  1821 ;  H.  Blaze, 
"  ficrivains  et  Poetes  de  rAllemagne,"  1851  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale  ;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  October,  1820,  and  February,  1821. 

Kornmann,  koRn'm^n,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  writer 
and  lawyer,  born  in  Wiirtemberg ;  died  about  1620. 
Korosi.    See  Csoma. 

Korte  or  Koerte,  koR'teh,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Aschersleben  in  1766.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  "Life  of  Gleim,"  (1811,)  who  was 
his  great-uncle,  and  a  "Life  of  Carnot,"  (1820.)  Died 
in  1846. 

Kortholt,  koRt'holt,  [Lat.  Korthol'tus,]  (Chris- 
tian,) a  Lutheran  theologian  and  ecclesiastical  historian, 


■c  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  y.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;     as  in  this.    (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.J 


KORTHOLT 


1340 


KOSSUTH 


born  at  Burg,  in  Holstein,  in  1633.  About  1665  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  divinity  in  the  University  of  Kiel. 
He  published  numerous  religious  treatises,  of  which  we 
may  name  "  On  the  Pagan,  Mohammedan,  and  Jewish 
Religions,"  (1666,)  "Of  the  Three  Impostors  Herbert, 
Hobbes,  and  Spinosa,"  (1680,)  "On  the  Origin  and  Na- 
ture of  Christianity,"  and  "On  the  State  and  Progress 
of  Schools  and  Academies,  especially  in  Germany."  Died 
in  1694. 

See  LiNDEMANN,  "Memoria  C.  Kortholti,"  1694. 

Kortholt,  (Christian,)  a  Danish  or  German  theo- 
logian, son  of  Sebastian,  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Kiel  in  1709.  'He  became  professor  of  divinity  at  Got- 
tingen.  He  published  "The  Letters  of  Leibnitz,"  (4 
vols.,  1734-42,)  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  (in  Latin,) 
an  "Essay  on  the  Enthusiasm  of  Mohammed,"  (1745.) 
Died  in  1751. 

See  Ayrer,  "  Memoria  C.  Kortholti,"  1751. 

Kortholt,  (Sebastian,)  a  son  of  Christian,  noticed 
above,  (1633-94,)  and  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Kiel  about  1670.  He  was  a  man  of  great  learn- 
ing, and  wrote  many  literary  essays.    Died  about  1740. 

Kortholtus.    See  Kortholt. 

Kortiim  or  Kortuem,  koR'tUm,  (Johann  Friedrich 
Christoph,)  a  German  historian,  iDorn  in  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz  in  1788,  became  professor  of  history  at  Heidel- 
berg in  1840.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "  History 
of  the  Political  Constitution  of  Greece,"  and  a  "History 
of  the  Middle  Ages,"  (2  vols.,  1837.)    Died  in  1858. 

Kortiim  or  Kortuem,  (Karl  Arnold,)  a  German 
physician  and  satiric  poet,  born  at  Miilheim-an-der-Ruhr 
in  1745,  published  a  mock-heroic  poem  entitled  "The 
Jobsiad  ;  or.  The  Life,  Opinions,  and  Deeds  of  Jerome 
Jobs  the  Candidate,"  (1784.)  Died  in  1824.  An  English 
translation  of  "  The  Jobsiad,"  by  Rev.  Charles  T.  Brooks, 
was  published  in  Philadelphia  in  1863. 

Kosciusko,  kos-se-\is'ko,  [Polish,  Kosciuszko,  k6sh- 
yoo'sko,]  (Thaddeus,)  an  illustrious  Polish  patriot  and 
general,  of  a  noble  family,  was  born  in  Lithuania  about 
1750.  Having  studied  at  the  military  academy  of  Ver- 
sailles, he  embarked  about  1777  for  America,  where  he 
fought  with  distinction  at  New  York  and  Yorktown  and 
acquired  the  friendship  of  Washington.  He  returned 
to  Poland  in  1786,  but,  his  country  being  soon  after  sub- 
jected to  Russia,  he  retired  to  Leipsic.  On  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  revolution  of  1794,  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  Polish  army,  and  defeated  the  Russians 
with  greatly  superior  numbers  at  Raclawice.  For  two 
months  he  defended  Warsaw  against  the  united  forces 
of  Russia  and  Prussia,  but,  overpowered  at  last  by  fresh 
troops  advancing  under  Fersen,  suffered  a  total  defeat  at 
Maciejowice,  where  he  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner 
in  October,  1794.  After  two  years'  imprisonment,  he  was 
released  by  the  emperor  Paul,  who  offered  him  his  sword, 
which  Kosciusko  refused,  saying  "he  had  no  need  of  a 
sword,  since  he  had  no  longer  a  country."  When  solicited 
by  Napoleon  to  aid  him  in  his  ambitious  schemes  with 
regard  to  Poland,  he  steadily  refused  ;  and  the  proclama- 
tion to  the  Poles,  which  appeared  in  the  "Moniteur" 
under  his  name  in  1806,  was  declared  by  him  a  forgery. 
He  died  in  181 7,  at  Soleure,  in  Switzerland,  having 
previously  written  to  the  emperor  Alexander  entreat- 
ing him  to  give  to  Poland  a  free  constitution.  He  also 
abolished  serfdom  on  his  Polish  domain. 

See  M.  A.  Jullien,  "Notice  sur  Kosciuszko,"  1818;  Falken- 
STEiN,  "Kosciuszko,"  Leipsic,  1825;  L.  Chodzko,  "  Histoire  mili- 
taire,  politique  et  privee  i^i  Kosciuszko."  1837;  Jules  Michelet, 
"Kosciuszko,  Legenda  dei<iocratyczna,"  translated  from  the  French 
by  GoDRBESKi,  1851;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1835. 

Kosegarten,  ko'zeh-gaR^ten,  (Johann  Gottfried 
LuDWiG,)  son  of  Ludwig  Theobul,  noticed  below,  was 
born  in  the  island  of  Riigen  in  1792.  Having  studied 
philology  in  Paris,  he  became  in  1824  professor  of  Ori- 
ental languages  at  Greifswalde.  He  translated  into 
German  the  Hindoo  poem  "  Nala,"  (1820,)  and  made 
several  versions  from  the  Persian.  He  also  published 
editions  of  the  "  Moalakat,"  and  other  Arabic  works. 
Died  in  i860, 

Kosegarten,  (Ludwig  Theobul,)  a  German  divine 
and  poet,  was  born  at  Grevismiihlen,  in  Mecklenburg, 


in  1758.  He  became  in  1808  professor  of  history  at 
Greifswalde,  and  subsequently  of  theology,  and  rector 
of  the  university.  His  romance  of  "Ida  von  Plessen," 
(1788,)  as  well  as  his  "  Legends"  and  lyric  poems,  enjoy 
a  wide  popularity.  He  also  made  several  translations 
from  the  Danish  and  English  :  among  the  latter  is  Rich- 
ardson's "Clarissa."    Died  in  1818. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Koslof,  kos'lof,  or  Kozlov,  koz'lof,  (Ivan  Ivano- 
VITCH,)  a  Russian  poet,  born  in  1774,  made  a  number 
of  excellent  translations  from  the  English.  His  poems, 
written  after  he  became  blind,  are  distinguished  for  their 
melody  of  versification  and  tender  pathos.  Among  the 
most  admired  of  these  is  "The  Monk,"  ("Tchernets.") 
Died  in  1838. 

See  E.  Mecherski,  "  Les  Poetes  Russes." 

Koslovski,  (M.  I.)    See  Kozlofskl 

Kos-lov'ski,  (OssiP  Antonovitch,)  a  popular  Rus- 
sian composer,  produced,  among  other  works,  a  "  Re- 
quiem" of  great  beauty,  and  composed  the  music  for 
Oserof's  tragedy  of  "  Fingal."    Died  in  183 1. 

Kosmas.    See  Cosmas. 

Kossuth,  kosh'oot,  (Louis,)  an  eminent  Hungarian 
orator  and  statesrnan,  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Monok, 
in  the  county  of  Zemplin,  in  1802.  He  studied  law  at  the 
Protestant  college  of  Sarospatak,  and  joined  the  popular 
party  in  opposing  the  despotic  policy  of  Austria.  Having 
offended  the  government  by  his  writings,  he  was  impris- 
oned three  years,  (1837-40.)  The  Diet  of  1840  refused  to 
grant  supplies  during  the  imprisonment  of  Kossuth,  who 
was  consequently  liberated.  In  1841  he  married  Theresa 
Meszlenyi,  and  began  to  edit  a  daily  paper  at  Pesth,  called 
"  Pesti-Hirlap,"  the  tone  of  which  was  liberal,  but  not 
radical  or  democratic.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Diet  by  the  national  party  of  Pesth  in  1847,  and  acquired 
a  high  reputation  as  an  orator.  In  March,  1848,  the 
Diet  adopted  a  proposition  made  by  Kossuth,  the  object 
of  which  was  the  appointment  of  a  responsible  Hun- 
garian ministry,  as  a  pledge  of  constitutional  reforms. 
Kossuth  and  others  were  sent  as  a  deputation  to  Vienna, 
and  obtained  the  assent  of  the  emperor,  then  conscious 
of  the  pressure  of  a  powerful  revolutionary  movement. 
Kossuth  induced  the  Diet  to  vote  the  perfect  equality  of 
civil  rights  and  public  burdens  for  all  classes,  and  to 
extend  the  right  of  suffrage.  He  became  minister  of 
finance  in  the  new  ministry  formed  in  April,  1848.  Al- 
though the  benefits  of  these  reforms  were  shared  by  the 
Croatians  and  Servians,  an  anti-Magyar  party  was  soon 
formed  in  Croatia  by  the  intrigues  of  Austrian  agents. 
The  Croatians,  directed  by  Jellachich  and  secretly  aided 
by  Austria,  revolted  against  Hungary,  and  began  hos- 
tilities by  the  massacre  of  villagers  on  the  frontier.  In 
June,  1848,  the  Austrian  court  openly  sanctioned  the 
movements  of  the  Croatian  insurgents.  Kossuth  believed 
that  the  time  had  come  to  defend  by  arms  the  constitu- 
tion and  the  national  independence.  He  called  for  the 
levy  of  200,000  men,  which  was  granted  by  the  Diet.  In 
September,  1848,  Jellachich  was  defeated  in  battle,  and 
Kossuth  was  elected  president  of  a  committee  of  de- 
fence. After  the  second  insurrection  at  Vienna,  October, 
1848,  the  Hungarian  army  advanced  to  the  assistance 
of  the  Liberals  of  that  capital,  but  was  repulsed  at 
Schwechat.  The  Austrian  general  Windischgratz  then 
invaded  Hungary,  took  Pesth,  and  committed  great  atro- 
cities. A  war  of  extermination  followed,  and  the  Austrians 
were  defeated  in  several  battles.  In  April,  1849,  the 
Hungarians  renounced  allegiance  to  the  house  of  Haps- 
burg,  and  chose  Kossuth  governor  or  dictator.  But  the 
intervention  of  Russia  rendered  the  heroic  efforts  and 
sacrifices  of  the  Hungarians  unavailing.  The  victories 
gained  by  Dembinski,  Klapka,  and  Bern  served  merely 
to  prolong  the  national  agony.  Kossuth,  after  a  dis- 
agreement with  Gorgey,  whom  he  accused  of  treachery, 
resigned  his  office  on  the  nth  of  August,  1849,  and  went 
into  exile.  He  retired  to  Turkey,  and  was  imprisoned 
at  Kutaieh.  Through  the  intervention  of  England  and 
the  United  States,  he  was  released  in  August,  185 1.  He 
then  visited  England,  where  he  was  received  with  en- 
thusiastic popular  demonstrations,  and  made  several 
admirable  speeches  in  the  English  language.  In  the 
autumn  of  185 1  he  came  to  the  United  States,  the 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,,  e,  i,  o,  ^^scure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


KOSTA  1 341  KRASHENINNIKOF 


citizens  of  which  gave  him  a  very  warm  and  flattering 
reception. 

See  P.  C.  Headley,  "Life  of  L.  Kossuth,"  1852 ;  Horn,  "Louis 
Kossuth,"  1851;  "Kossuth,  von  einem  Ungarn,"  Leipsic,  1854; 
"Kossuth  in  England  und  seine  Reden,"  etc.,  1851 ;  Klapka,  "Me- 
moiren,"  1850;  "L.  Kossuth,  Dictator  von  Ungarn,"  Mannheim, 
1849  ;  "Hungary  and  its  Revolutions,  with  a  Memoir  of  L.  Kossuth." 

Kosta-Ibn-Looka,  (or  -Luka,)  kos'ti  ib'n  loo'kS, 
written  also  Costha-Ben-Louka,  an  excellent  Arabian 
scholar  and  translator,  born  at  Balbec,  flourished  from 
about  870  to  900  A.D.  He  translated  several  Greek  works 
into  Arabic,  and  wiote  original  treatises  on  philosophy, 
logic,  medicine,  etc. 

Koster.    See  Coster. 

Kos'ter  or  Cos'ter,  (Laurens  Janszoon,)  a  Dutch 
printer,  born  at  Haarlem  about  1370,  is  supposed  by 
some  writers  to  have  invented  the  art  of  printing.  Ac- 
cording to  one  tradition,  he  kept  his  art  a  secret,  but  it 
was  stolen  by  one  of  his  workmen,  named  John  Fust. 
Died  about  1440. 

See  A.  F.  Didot,  "  Essai  sur  la  Typographie ;"  Auguste  Ber- 
nard, "Histoire  de  I'Origine  de  I'lmprimerie." 

Kostlin  or  Koestlin,  kost-leen',  (Christian  Rein- 
hold,)  a  German  jurist  and  novelist,  born  at  Tiibingen 
in  1813  ;  died  in  1856. 

Kostrof,  Kostrov,  or  Kostrow,  kos'tRof,  (Ermil 
IvANOViTCH,)  a  Russian  poet,  born  in  the  province  of 
Viatka  ;  died  in  1796. 

Kothouz.    See  Kootooz. 

Kotouz  or  Kotuz.    See  Kootooz. 

Kotter  or  Cotter,  kot'ter,  (Christoph,)  a  German 
enthusiast,  born  in  Silesia  in  1585.  He  obtained  notoriety 
by  visions  and  predictions.    Died  in  1647. 

Kotzebue,  von,  fon  kot'seh-boo,  (August  Fried- 
rich  Ferdinand,)  a  prolific  and  popular  German 
dramatist,  born  at  Weimar  in  1761.  He  went  to  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1781,  and  was  appointed  president  of  the 
government  of  Esthonia.  He  produced  in  1789  "The 
Indians  in  England,"  and  "The  Stranger,"  which  were 
very  successful.  About  1800  he  settled  in  Berlin.  He 
wrote  abusive  articles  against  Goethe  and  other  great 
German  authors,  who  had  refused  to  admit  him  into 
their  literary  circle  at  Weimar.  Between  1802  and  1806 
he  made  journeys  in  different  countries  of  Europe,  and 
published  "Souvenirs  of  Paris  in  1804,"  (2  vols.,  1805.) 
After  the  battle  of  Jena  (1806)  he  took  refuge  in  Russia, 
and  edited  two  journals,  called  "The  Bee/'  (1808-10,) 
and  "The  Cricket,"  (1811-12,)  in  which  he  wrote  against 
Napoleon.  In  181 7  he  was  sent  to  Germany  by  the 
Russian  government  to  watch  and  report  the  state  and 
tendency  of  public  opinion.  He  expressed  such  hostility 
and  contempt  for  liberal  principles  and  institutions  that 
he  rendered  himself  odious  to  many  Germans,  es])ecially 
the  students.  He  was  assassinated  at  Mannheim  in  1819 
by  Karl  Ludwig  Sand,  who  was  actuated  by  a  fanatical 
zeal  against  one  whom  he  considered  a  traitor  to  liberty. 
Among  his  dramas  are  "The  Two  Klingsbergs,"  a 
comedy,  (1807,)  and  "  Pizarro,"  ("  Die  Spanier  in  Peru.") 
His  works,  which  were  very  numerous,  were  formerly 
more  popular  than  they  are  at  the  present  time.  Kot- 
zebue possessed  a  ready  invention  and  a  great  facility  in 
composition ;  but  his  productions  are  deficient  in  depth 
and  power. 

See  F.  Cramer,  "Kotzebue's  Leben,"  1820;  "  Kotzebue,  sein 
Leben,  Wirken  und  trauriges  Ende,"  Frankfort,  1819;  H.  Doring, 
"Kotzebue's  Leben,"  1830;  Geiser,  "  Kotzebue  als  Knabe,  Jiing- 
ling,  Mann.  Schriftstellerund  Exulant,"  1803  ;  "  Literary  and  Political 
Life  of  Aug.  Kotzebue,"  translated  from  the  German  ;  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;" 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1801,  September,  1805,  and  August, 
1806. 

Kotzebue,  von,  (Otto,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Reval,  in  Russia,  in  1787.  After  having  made  the 
voyage  around  the  world  with  Krusenstern,  he  set  sail 
again  in  181 5,  accompanied  by  Chamisso,  Eschscholtz, 
and  others.  He  discovered  several  islands  in  the  South 
Sea,  and  the  sound  southeast  of  Behring's  Strait  called 
by  his  name.  He  published,  after  his  return,  a  "Voyage 
of  Discovery  in  the  South  Sea  and  to  Behring's  Strait, 
to  find  a  Northeast  Passage,"  (1821.)  Having  sailed 
for  the  third  time  in  1823,  he  made  other  discoveries, 
which  are  described  in  his  "  New  Voyage  around  the 
World  in  1823-26,"  (1830.)    He  died  at  Reval  in  1846. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


Kotzeluch,  kot'seh-ldoK^  (Leopold,)  a  Bohemian 
composer  and  musician,  born  at  Welwarn  in  1753.  He 
succeeded  Mozart  as  composer  to  the  court  at  Vienna, 
(1792.)  He  composed  operas,  symphonies,  and  sonatas, 
which  were  once  very  popular.    Died  in  1814. 

Kouang.    See  Kooang. 

Koublai  Khan.    See  Kooblai  Khan. 

Kouck,  kowk,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  in 
1500  or  1 501,  worked  at  Antwerp.  He  was  patronized 
by  Charles  V.    Died  in  1550. 

Kouli  Khan,    See  Nadir  Shah. 

Koulneflf.    See  Koolnef. 

Koumas,  koo'mas,  (  Constantine  Michael,  )  a 
modern  Greek  scholar  and  author,  was  born  at  Larissa 
about  1775.  He  published  a  "Greek  Lexicon,"  (1826,) 
"Elements  of  Philosophy,"  (4  vols.,)  and  other  scientific 
works.    Died  at  Trieste  in  1836. 

Koung-Fou-Tseu.    See  Confucius. 

Kourakin.    See  Koorakin. 

Kourma  or  Kourmavatara.    See  KOrma. 

Koutouz.    See  Kootooz. 

Koutouzof  or  Koutousof.    See  Kootoosof. 

Kouwenberg,  van,  vtn  kow'en-b^Rg^  (Kristiaen,) 
a  Dutch  painter  of  history,  born  at  Delft  in  1604 ;  died 
at  Cologne  in  1667. 

Kozlofski,  koz-lofskee,  or  Koslovski,kos-lov'skee, 
(Michail  Ivanovitch,)  a  Russian  sculptor,  became 
professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Saint  Petersburg. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  the  statue  of  Suwarow  at 
Saint  Petersburg,  and  the  statue  of  Catherine  II.  as 
Minerva.    Died  in  1803. 

Kozlov.    See  Koslof. 

Kozmian,  koz'me-Sn,  ?  (Gaetan  or  C  ajetan,)  a  Polish 
poet,  born  in  Lublin  in  1771.  He  wrote  odes  which  were 
highly  esteemed, — "  The  Georgics  of  Poland," — and  an 
epic  poem  entitled  "  Stephen  Czarniecki."   Died  in  1856. 

See  F.  Morawski,  "Notice sur  Kozmian,"  Posen,  1856. 

Krafft,  kR^ft,  (Adam,)  a  German  sculptor,  born  at 
Nuremberg  about  1429.  Among  his  inaster-pieces  are 
the  tabernacle  in  the  church  of  Saint  Lawrence  at  Nu- 
remberg, the  celebrated  Ciborium  in  the  minster  at  Ulm, 
and  a  number  of  beautiful  bas-reliefs.    Died  in  1507. 

Krafft,  (Joseph,)  a  portrait-painter,  born  at  Hanau  in 
1787,  was  a  brother  of  Peter,  noticed  below.  He  worked 
in  Vienna.    Died  in  1828. 

Krafft,  (Peter,)  a  German  painter,  and  professor  at 
the  Academy  of  Vienna,  born  at  Hanau  in  1780.  Among 
his  works  we  may  name  "  Rudolph  of  Habsburg"  and 
"  Belisarius."    Died  in  1856. 

Kraft.    See  Crato. 

Kraft,  kR^ft,  or  Krafft,  (Georg  Wolfgang,)  a  Ger- 
man natural  philosopher,  born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1 701, 
was  professor  of  physics  at  Tubingen,  and  wrote  several 
works  on  geometry  and  physics.    Died  in  1754. 

Kraft  von  Toggenburg,  kRift  fon  tog'gen-bdoRG",  a 
German  minnesinger.    Died  in  1259. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Kraitsir,  kRlt'sir,  (Charles,)  a  Hungarian  physician 
and  scholar,  born  in  1804.  He  emigrated  to  America 
in  1833,  and  became  in  184^  professor  of  modern  lan- 
guages and  history  in  the  University  of  Virginia.  He 
published  "  Glossology,"  and  several  other  works.  Died 
in  Westchester  county.  New  York,  in  i860. 

Kramer.    See  Cramer. 

Kramp,  kR6N,  (Chretien,)  a  French  mathematician 
and  medical  writer,  born  at  Strasburg  ;  died  about  1828. 
Kranach.    See  Cranach. 
Krantor.    See  Grantor. 

Krantz  or  Crantz,  kR^nts,  (Albert,)  a  German  his- 
torian and  diplomatist,  born  at  Hamburg  about  1450, 
was  employed  on  several  important  embassies  to  Eng- 
land and  France.  Among  his  principal  works,  which 
are  written  in  Latin,  are  "Chronicles  of  the  Kingdoms 
of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,"  and  "Ecclesiastical 
History  of  Saxony."    Died  in  1517. 

See  WiLKENS,  "Leben  Albertii  Crantzii,"  1722 Bayle,  "His- 
torical and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  Niceron,  "  Memoires  ;"  Moller, 
"  Cinibria  Literata." 

Kranz,  (David.)    See  Cranz. 

Krasheninnikof  or  Krascheninnikov,  kR^sh-en- 
nin'ne-kof,  (Stephen  Petrovitch,)  a  Russian  natural- 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  y.^  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (St^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


KRASICKI 


KREUTZER 


ist,  born  at  Moscow  in  17 13.  He  travelled  in  Siberia 
and  Kamtschatka,  and  wrote  a  "  Description  of  Kamt- 
schatka,"  (2  vols.,  1755.)    Died  in  1755. 

See  Gretch,  "  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  de  la  Litt^rature  Russe." 

Krasicki.kRi-s^t'skee,  (Ignatius,)  an  eminent  Polish 
poet  and  litterateur,  born  at  Dubiecko  in  1734.  Having 
taken  orders  as  a  priest,  he  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Erme- 
land  in  1767,  and  in  1795  Archbishop  of  Gnesen.  His 
wit  and  conversational  powers  made  him  a  favourite 
with  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  who  once  said  to 
him,  "  I  hope,  my  lord  bishop,  you  will  take  me  into 
Paradise  with  you  under  your  mantle."  "  No,  sire,"  he 
replied,  (alluding  to  the  loss  of  some  revenues:)  "your 
majesty  has  made  it  so  short  that  I  cannot  conceal  any- 
thing contraband  under  it."  Among  his  principal  works 
we  may  name  the  mock-heroic  poem  entitled  "The 
Mousiad,"  ("Myszeis,")  founded  on  the  tradition  of  King 
Popiel  being  devoured  by  rats  and  mice,  "  War  of  the 
Monks,"  ("  Monachomachia,")  and  a  number  of  fables 
and  satires  of  great  merit.  His  novel  of"  Pan  Podstoli" 
is  also  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1801. 

See  S.  K.  Potocki,  "Essai  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Krasicki,"  1808; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  Dmochowski,  "  Jfiloge  de  Kra- 
sicki," 1801. 

Krasinski,  kR^-sin'skee,  (Valerian,)  Count,  a  dis- 
tinguished Polish  writer  and  scholar,  born  in  White 
Russia  about  1780,  After  the  suppression  of  the  Polish 
revolution  of  1830  he  repaired  to  England,  where  he 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Re- 
formation in  Poland,"  (2  vols.,  1840,)  "  Panslavism  and 
Germanism,"  (1848,)  and  "  Religious  History  of  the  Sla- 
vonic Nations,"  (1851.)    Died  in  Edinburgh  in  1855. 

Kraszewski,  kkS-sh^v'skee,  (Joseph  Ignatius,)  a 
Polish  novelist  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  War- 
saw in  18 1 2.  His  works,  which  are  very  numerous,  con- 
sist of  novels,  poems,  travels,  and  historical  treatises. 
His  romances  are  very  popular  in  Poland,  and  have  in  a 
great  measure  superseded  the  French  novels.  Among 
the  best  are  "The  Magic-Lantern,"  (1843,)  "Ulana," 
(1843,)  "Sviat  i  Poeta."  His  epic  poem  "  Ana- 
fielas,"  and  a  "  History  of  Wilna,"  are  also  ranked  among 
his  best  productions. 

Krateros.    See  Craterus. 

Krates.    See  Crates, 

Kratinos.    See  Cratinus. 

Kratippos.    See  Cratippus. 

Kratzenstein,  kRit'sen-stn/,  (Christian  Gott- 
LIKH,)  a  German  natural  philosopher,  mechanical  inventor, 
and  writer,  born  at  Wernigerode  in  1723,  became  pro- 
fessor of  physics  at  Copenhagen  in  1754.    Died  in  1795. 

Kraus,  kRowss,  (Christian  Jakob,)  a  learned  Ger- 
man writer,  professor  of  philosophy,  etc.  at  Konigsberg, 
was  born  at  Osterode  in  1753.  published  a  treatise 

on  "  Political  Economy,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1807. 

Kraus,  (Franz,)  a  German  historical  painter,  born  in 
Suabia  about  1704;  died  about  1750. 

Kraus  or  Krauss,  krowss,  (Johann  Baptist,)  a 
German  prelate  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Ratisbon 
in  1700.  He  was  prince-abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Saint 
Emmeran.    Died  in  1762.  . 

See  Petri,  "  Ehrengedachtniss  des  Pralaten  J.  B.  Kraus,"  1762. 

Kraus,  (Johann  Ulrich,)  a  German  engraver,  born 
at  Augsburg  about  1645  ;  died  in  1719. 

Kraus,  (Martin.)    See  Crusiu.s. 

Krause,  kRow'zeh,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  a  German 
economist  and  writer  on  the  science  of  forests,  born  at 
Prenzlow  in  1768;  died  in  1836. 

Krause,  (Georg  Melchior,)  a  German  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1737;  died  in  1806. 

Krause,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Artern  in  1749.  Among  his  works  is  a  "His- 
tory of  Europe,"  (5  vols.,  1789-98.)    Died  in  1799. 

Krause,(JoHANN  Gottliei?,)  a  German  bibliographer, 
born  in  Silesia  in  1684,  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Umstandliche  Biicher-Historie,"  (3  vols.,  1716.)  He  was 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Wittenberg.    Died  in  1736. 

See  KiRCHMAiRR,  "  Programma  ad  Exequias  J.  G.  Krausii,"  1736. 

Krause,  (Karl  Christian  Friedrich,)  a  German 
philosopher  and  masonic  writer,  born  at  Eisenberg  in 
1 781.  He  devoted  several  works  to  the  display  of  the 
merits  of  freemasonry,  of  which  he  was  a  zealous  advo- 


cate. Among  his  other  works  is  "Urbild  der  Mensch- 
heit,"  ("The  Type  of  Humanity,"  1811.)    Died  in  1832. 

See  LiNDEMANN,  "Darstellung  des  Lebens  und  der  Wissen- 
schaftslehre  Krauses,"  1839. 

Krause,  (  Wilhelm,)  a  German  landscape  and  marine 
painter,  born  at  Dessau  in  1803.  He  has  produced  some 
excellent  pictures  of  Norwegian  scenery. 

Kraut,  kRowt,  (Wilhelm  Theodor,)  professor  of 
law  at  Gottingen,  was  born  at  Liineburg  in  1800.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  legal  works. 

Krauth,  krawth,  (Charles  Porterfield,)  D.D.,  a 
Lutheran  divine  and  accomplished  scholar,  the  son  of 
Dr.  Charles  Philip  Krauth,  (late  president  of  Pennsyl- 
vania College  at  Gettysburg,)  was  born  at  Martinsburg, 
Virginia,  March  17,  1823.  He  graduated  at  Pennsyl- 
vania College  in  1839.  Ordained  in  1842,  he  became 
pastor  of  a  church  in  Baltimore,  and  was  subsequently 
settled  at  Winchester,  Virginia,  and  Pittsburg,  Pennsyl- 
vania. In  1859  he  was  called  to  the  pastoral  charge  of 
Saint  Mark's  Lutheran  Church,  Philadelphia,  where  he 
remained  four  years.  In  1861  he  became  editor  of  "The 
Lutheran  and  Missionary,"  issued  in  Philadelphia,  and 
in  1864  professor  of  theology,  church  history,  etc.  in  the 
Lutheran  Seminary  of  that  city.  In  1868  he  was  unani- 
mously elected  to  the  chair  of  moral  and  intellectual 
philosophy  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Among 
his  various  publications  we  may  name  his  edition  of 
Fleming's  "Vocabulary  of  Philosophy,"  to  which  he 
added  a  valuable  bibliographical  and  synthetical  Index, 
etc.,  and  his  translation  of  Tholuck's  "Commentary  on 
Saint  John,"  (1859,)  which  has  been  reprinted  in  Eng- 
land. He  has  now  (1870)  in  press  "The  Conservative 
Reformation  and  its  Theology,"  (pp.  800,  8vo.) 

Kray,  von,  fon  kRi'  or  Krajof,  von,  fon  kRi'of, 
(Paul,)  Baron,  an  Austrian  general,  born  at  Kesmark, 
in  Hungary,  in  1735.  He  fought  against  the  French  in 
the  Low  Countries  and  on  the  Rhine  in  1793-95,  and 
became  a  field-marshal-lieutenant  in  1796.  In  1799 
he  obtained  the  chief  command  of  the  army,  defeated 
Scherer  twice  in  Italy,  and  took  Mantua.  Having 
failed  in  a  campaign  against  Moreau  in  Germany  in  1800, 
he  was  removed  from  the  command.    Died  in  1804. 

See  Alison,  "History  of  Europe." 

Krayenhoff,  kRi'en-hof,  written  also  KraijenhofF, 

(CoRNELiS  RoELF,)  a  Dutch  general,  born  atNymwegen 
in  1758,  became  minister  of  war  under  Louis  Bonaparte. 
He  published  several  excellent  charts.  Died  about  1840. 
Krayer.    See  Crayer. 

Krebs,  kRgps,  (Johann  August,)  a  learned  German 
writer,  born  at  Heinaugen  in  1681  ;  died  in  1713. 

Krebs,  (Johann  Tobias,)  a  German  scholar  and  an- 
tiquary, born  in  Thuringia  in  1718  ;  died  in  1782. 

Krehl.kRal,  (August  Ludwig,)  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Eisleben  in  1784,  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Leipsic  in  1834.    Died  in  1855. 

Kreil,  kRll,  (Karl,)  an  able  astronomer,  born  at  Ried, 
in  the  Tyrol,  in  1798,  became  director  of  the  Observatory 
of  Prague  in  1845.  published  a  treatise  "On  the 

Nature  and  Motion  of  Comets,"  (1843.) 

Kreitmayer  or  Kreytmayr,  kRit'mTR,  written  also 
Kreittmayr,  (Aloys  Wigulaus,)  a  German  statesman 
and  jurist,  born  at  Munich  in  1705.  Among  his  works 
we  may  name  "Code  of  Bavarian  Judicial  Law,"(i75i,) 
and  "Bavarian  Civil  Code."    Died  in  1790. 

See  J.  A.  Kalb,  "Biographie  des  Staatskanzlers  A.  W.  von 
Kreittmayr,"  1825. 

Kremer,  kRa'mer,  (Christoph  Jakob,)  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Worms  in  1722.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  German  history.    Died  in  1777. 

Kremer,  kRa'mer,  (  Peter,  )  an  eminent  Belgian 
painter  of  history  and  genre,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1801. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Marius  at  Carthage,"  and  "  David 
Teniers  Designing  after  Nature." 

Kresa,  kRVsi,"  Father,  a  Moravian  priest  and  lin- 
guist, born  in  1648;  died  in  1715. 

Kretschmann,  kR^tsh'min,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Zittau  in  1738,  published  "Songs 
of  the  Bard  Ringulph,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1809. 

Kreutzer,  kRoit'ser,  (Konradin,)  a  German  com- 
poser of  operas  and  songs,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Baden 
in  1782  ;  died  in  1849. 


a  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f3,l],  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


KREUTZER 


1343 


KR  UGER 


Kreutzer,  IcRUt^saiR',  (Rudolf,)  a  celebrated  com- 
poser and  musician,  of  German  extraction,  born  at  Ver- 
sailles in  1766,  became  violinist  at  the  imperial  chapel, 
.  and  a  member  of  the  Conservatory  in  Paris.  Among 
his  best  works  are  the  operas  of  "Lodoiska"  and  "Paul 
and  Virginia."    Died  in  1831. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Kreysig,  kRT'zio,  (Friedrich  Ludwig,)  a  medical 
writer,  born  near  Leipsic  in  1770,  studied  medicine  at 
Pavi'a  under  Spallanzani.  In  1803  he  was  appointed 
physician  to  the  Elector  Frederick  Augustus,  afterwards 
King  of  Saxony.  He  became  in  181 5  professor  of  thera- 
peutics and  pathology  at  Dresden.    Died  in  1839. 

Kreysig,  (Georg  Christoph,)  a  German  historian, 
born  near  Annaberg  in  1697.  He  wrote  on  the  history 
of  Saxony.    Died  in  1758. 

Kreytmayr.    See  Kreitmayer. 

Krichna.    See  Krishna. 

Kriloff  or  Krilov.    See  Krylof. 

Krishna,  Crishna,  Krichna,  or  Krischna,  kRfsh'- 
na,  [a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "dark  blue  :"  see  below,] 
in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  eighth  avatar  of  Vishnu, 
usually  regarded  as  the  most  glorious  of  all  the  manifesta- 
tions of  that  deity.  It  is  said  by  the  votaries  of  Krishna 
that  in  the  other  avatars  Vishnu  manifested  only  a 
portion  of  his  godhead,  but  that  in  this  instance  he  ap- 
peared in  all  the  fulness  of  his  power  and  glory.  He 
was  born  in  the  kingdom  of  Mathura  ;  his  mortal  parents 
were  Vasudeva  and  Devaki.  It  had  been  predicted  that 
the  son  of  Devaki  should  deprive  Kansa,  the  tyrannical 
king  of  that  country,  of  his  life  and  crown.  Kansa  there- 
fore sought  by  force  and  stratagem  to  destroy  the  young 
child  ;  but  the  parents,  assisted  and  guided  by  power 
divine,  succeeded  in  bafifling  all  his  efforts.  It  is  related 
that,  when  Krishna  was  only  seven  years  old,  Indra, 
jealous  of  the  popularity  of  the  child-god,  attempted  to 
destroy  the  worshippers  of  the  latter  by  a  fearful  storm 
of  lightning,  rain,  and  hail.  But  Krishna  raised  above 
them  on  the  tip  of  his  little  finger  Mount  Goverdhen, 
the  Hindoo  Parnassus,  thus  affording  complete  shelter 
to  his  trembling  followers. 

"  Them  the  heavenly  child 
Called,  and  with  looks  ambrosial  smiled; 
Then  with  one  finger  reared  the  vast  Goverdhen, 
Beneath  whose  rocky  burden, 
On  pastures  dry,  the  maids  and  herdsmen  trod: — 
The  lord  of  thunder  felt  a  mightier  god." 

Sir  William  Jones:  Hymn  to  Indra. 

One  of  Krishna's  earliest  exploits  was  the  destruction  of 
the  great  serpent  Kaliya,  (or  Kalinaga,)  which  poisoned 
the  waters  of  the  river  Jumna.  Not  long  afterwards 
he  slew  his  malignant  enemy  Kansa,  having  first  para- 
lyzed him  with  fear.  A  remarkable  resemblance  between 
Krishna  and  the  Grecian  Apollo  has  been  pointed  out 
by  Sir  William  Jones  and  other  writers.  "  In-  honour  of 
Krishna's  triumph,"  (over  Kaliya,)  says  Moor,  "games 
and  sports  are  annually  held  in  India,  as  the  Pythic 
games  at  stated  times  were  exhibited  in  Greece.  .  .  . 
Apollo  and  Krishna  are  both  inventors  of  the  flute. 
One  was  disappointed  by  Daphne,  who  was  turned  into 
the  Lmirus,  hence  sacred  to  Apollo ;  Krishna's  coy 
nymph  was  transformed  into  the  Ttilasi,  alike  sacred  to 
him."  Krishna  was  pre-eminently  a  pastoral  god,  and 
his  followers  were  principally  milkmaids  and  herdsmen. 
Apollo  was  regarded  as  the  protector  of  flocks  and  herds, 
(his  name  of  Nomios  theos  {vo/iiog  dsbg)  is  derived  from 
nome,  {vo/n^,)  a  "meadow"  or  "pasture;")  and,  when 
compelled  to  pass  some  time  on  earth,  he  employed  him- 
self in  tending  the  flocks  of  Admetus,  King  of  Thessaly. 

The  pictures  of  Krishna  are  usually  painted  a  dark 
blue,  (the  colour  of  Vishnu,  which  see,)  this  colour  cor- 
responding to  the  signification  of  his  name.  Among  his 
other  names  are  Bhagavat,  (modern  Hindoo  pron. 
b'hug'a-vut,)  the  "adorable;"  Kesava  (ka'sa-va)  or 
Keshava,  "having  fine  or  beautiful  hair;"  GoviNDA  or 
GopAla,  the  "cow-herd,"  etc. 

See  "Biographic  Uniyerselle,"  (Partie  mythologique ;)  Moor, 
"Hindu  Pantheon;"  Coleman,  "Hindu  Mythology;"  Sir  W. 
Jones,  "On  the  Gods  of  Greece,  Italy,  and  India,"  in  "Asiatic 
Researches,"  vol.  i.  ;  see,  also,  the  episode  of  the  "  Mahabharata," 
entitled  "Bhagavat  Gita,"  {i.e.  the  "Song  of  Krishna.") 

Kritias.    See  Critias. 
Kritolaos.    See  Critolaus. 


Kriton  or  Krito.    See  Crito. 
Kroeyer.    See  Kroyer. 

Krohn,  kRon,  (Hermann  Georg,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  in  1705  ;  died  in  1756. 

Kromayer,  kRo'miR,  (Hieronymus,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Zeitz  in  1610,  wrote  "  His- 
toria  Ecclesiastica,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1670. 

See  G.  Lehmann,  "  Leichpredigt  auf  H.  Kromayer,"  1670. 

Kromayer,  (Johann,)  a  German  theologian,  born 
in  Misnia  in  1576,  was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  He 
became  superintendent  (Protestant  bishop)  at  Weimar, 
and  published  several  works.    Died  in  1643. 

Krommer,  kRom'mer,  (Franz,)  a  German  composer, 
born  at  Kamenitz,  in  Moravia,  in  1759  ;  died  in  183 1. 

Krosick,  von,  fon  kRo'zik,  (Bernhard  Friedrich,) 
Baron,  a  German  savant,  born  in  1656,  erected  a  private 
observatory  at  Berlin.    Died  in  17 14. 

Kroyer  or  Kroeyer,  kRo'yer,  (Hendrik  Nicolaus,) 
a  Danish  naturalist,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1799.  He 
was  sent  on  a  mission  to  South  America  in  1840.  He 
published,  besides  other  works  on  natural  history,  "The 
Fishes  of  Denmark,"  (2  vols.,  1838-43.) 

Kriidener  or  Kruedener,  (Juliana,)  a  Russian 
mystic  or  enthusiast,  born  at  Riga  in  1766,  was  the 
daughter  of  Baron  Vietinghof,  and  was  married  at  the 
age  of  fourteen  to  Baron  Krudener,  from  whom  she  was 
divorced  in  a  few  years.  She  was  intimate  with  Madame 
de  Stael.  Having  lived  for  a  time  in  fashionable  dissipa- 
tion, she  adopted  the  views  of  the  Pietists  about  1806, 
and  gave  herself  up  entirely  to  preaching  the  gospel  and 
prophesying.  After  travelling  in  Germany,  where  she 
formed  an  acquaintance  with  Stilling,  she  visited  Paris, 
but,  owing  to  the  disturbances  caused  by  her  meetings, 
was  obliged  to  leave  the  city,  and  soon  after  her  arrival 
in  Germany  she  was  ordered  by  the  government  to  return 
to  Russia.  She  died  in  1824.  She  was  the  author  of  a 
romance  entitled  "Valeria,"  (1803.)  She  is  said  to  have 
had  much  influence  over  Alexander,  Czar  of  Russia,  who 
heard  her  preach  in  Paris  in  1815,  and  who  submitted  to 
her  revision  his  plan  of  the  Holy  Alliance.  In  the  latter 
part  of  her  life  she  abounded  in  works  of  charity  towards 
the  poor. 

See  Ch.  Evnard,  "Vie  de  Madame  de  Kriidener,"  1849 ;  Adelb 
DU  Thou,  "  Notice  sur  Julienne  de  Krudener,"  1827  ;  "  Vie  de  Ma- 
dame de  Kriidener,"  Paris,  2  vols.,  1849;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Por- 
traits de  Femmes  ;"  W.  T.  Krug,  "  Gesprach  unter  vicr  Augen  mit 
Frau  von  Kriidener,"  1818;  "Westminster  Review"  for  January, 
1852. 

Krueger.    See  Kruger. 
Kruenitz.    See  Krunitz. 

Krug,  kRooG,  (Johann  Philipp,)  a  German  historian 
and  numismatist,  born  at  Halle  in  1764,  wrote  on  Rus- 
sian history  and  coins.  Died  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1844. 

Krug,  (WiLHELM  Traugott,)  a  German  philoso- 
phical writer,  born  near  Grafenhaynchen,  in  Prussian 
Saxony,  in  1770.  Having  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Wit- 
tenberg, he  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Leipsic 
in  1809.  He  was  chosen  in  1833  a  deputy  to  the  first 
constitutional  Diet,  where  he  was  a  warm  advocate 
of  liberalism.  Among  his  principal  writings  are  his 
"  Fundamental  Philosophy,"  (1803,)  and  "  History  of  the 
Philosophy  of  the  Ancients,  especially  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,"  (1815.)  He  professed  a  system  called 
"  transcendental  synthetism,"  which  was  very  popular 
in  Germany.    Died  in  1842. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "Meine  Lebensreise  in  sechs  Stalionen," 
1826;  Emil  F.  Vogel,  "Dr.  W.  T.  Krug,  in  drei  vertraulichen 
Briefen  an  einen  Freund  im  Auslande  biographisch-literarisch  ge- 
schildert,"  1844;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Kriiger  or  Krueger,  kRlic'er,  (Ephraim  Gottlieb,) 
a  German  engraver,  born  at  Dresden  in  1756.  Among 
his  master-pieces  is  "Ariadne  at  Naxos."  Died  in  1834. 

Kriiger  or  Krueger,  (Franz,)  a  skilful  German 
painter,  born  at  Anhalt-Dessau  in  1796.  He  worked 
in  Berlin,  where  he  painted  good  portraits  and  became 
court  painter.  His  favourite  subjects  were  hunting- 
scenes  and  landscapes  with  animals.    Died  in  1857. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lcxikon." 

Kriiger,  (Johann  Gottlob,)  a  German  naturalist, 
born  at  Halle  in  1715,  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Treatise  on  Physics,"  (" Naturlehre,"  3  vols.,  1740- 
49.)    Died  in  1759. 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  kard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  2j.) 


KR  UGER 


1344 


KUGLER 


Kriiger,  (Thkodor,)  a  learned  German  writer,  born 
at  Stettin  in  1694;  died  in  1751. 

Kriiger,  (Theodor,)  a  German  engraver,  born  about 
1575  ;  died  at  Rome  in  1650. 

Kruilof.    See  Krylof. 

Krumniacher,  kRoom'mSK'er,  (Friedrich  Adolf,) 
a  distinguished  German  theologian  and  writer,  born  at 
Tecklenl)urg,  in  Westphalia,  in  1768.  He  was  succes- 
sively professor  of  theology  at  Duisburg,  councillor  of 
the  consistory,  and  court  preacher  at  Bernburg.  His 
"Parables"  (in  verse)  (1805)  enjoy  great  popularity  both 
in  Germany  and  in  other  countries.  Among  his  other 
works  are  "Die  Kinderwelt,"  consisting  of  religious 
poems  for  children,  "  Sufferings,  Death,  and  Resurrec- 
tion of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  (1817,)  "Cornelius  the 
Centurion,"  (1829,)  and  "The  Life  of  Saint  John," 
(1833.)  He  was  attached  to  evangelical  religion  as 
distinguished  from  rationalism.    Died  in  1845. 

See  M01.LEK,  "  F.  A.  Krummacher  und  seine  Freunde,"  2  vols., 
1849. 

Krummacher,  (Friedrich  Wilhei.m,)  an  eminent 
pulpit  orator  and  writer,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
about  1796.  He  was  for  a  time  pastor  in  Wupperthale, 
where  he  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  older  Lutheran- 
ism,  and  gave  great  offence  by  his  denunciation  of  the 
rationalists.  As  preacher  of  a  reformed  community, 
he  went  to  New  York  in  1843.  After  a  few  years  he 
returned  to  Germany,  and  settled  at  Berlin  in  1847. 
Among  his  principal  works  we  may  name  "  The  Church's 
Voice  "of  Instruction,"  "Elijah  the  Tishbite,"  and  "  Sab- 
bath Bells,"  (185 1.)    Died  in  December,  1868. 

Krummacher,  (Gottfried  Daniel,)  an  uncle  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Tecklenburg  in  1774.  He 
became  in  1816  reformed  preacher  at  Elberfeld,  where 
he  was  one  of  the  principal  leaders  of  the  Pietists. 
Among  his  works  are  a  series  of  sermons,  entitled  "The 
Wanderings  of  the  Israelites  through  the  Wilderness  to 
Canaan,"  (1850,)  and  "Daily  Manna,"  which  have  been 
translated  into  English.    Died  in  1837. 

See  Friedrich  W.  Krummacher,  "G.  D.  Krummacher's  Le- 
ben,"  1838. 

Kriinitz  or  Kruenitz,  kRii'nits,  (Johann  Georg,)  a 
German  physician  and  scholar,  born  at  Berlin  in  1728,  is 
principally  known  as  the  publisher  of  the  "  Economico- 
technological  Encyclopaedia,"  seventy-three  volumes  of 
which  had  appeared  at  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1796. 
The  work  has  been  continued  by  the  brothers  Florke 
and  others,  and  in  1853  numbered  two  hundred  and 
fourteen  volumes. 

Kruse,  kRoo'zeh,  (Friedrich  Karl  Hermann,)  a 
German  historian,  born  at  Oldenburg  in  1790.  In  1825 
he  published  his  principal  work,  entitled  "  Hellas,"  and 
in  1828  was  appointed  professor  of  universal  and  Russian 
history  at  the  University  of  Dorpat.  He  also  wrote  a 
valuable  "  Chronicle  of  the  Northmen,"  (1850.) 

Kruse,  (Karsten  or  Christian,)  a  learned  German 
writer,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Olden- 
burg in  1753.  He  published  "  Atlas  and  Tables  for  the 
Survey  of  the  History  of  all  European  Countries,"  (1804.) 
Died  in  1827. 

Kruse,  kRoo'zeh,  (Laurids  or  Laurent,)  a  Danish 
litterateur,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1778.  Among  his  nu- 
merous works  are  comedies,  novels,  etc.  He  translated 
into  Danish  and  German  some  works  of  Ingemann,  and 
others.    Died  in  Paris  in  1839. 

See  his  Memoirs  of  his  Life,  "  Erinnerungen  aus  meinem  Leben," 
2  vols.,  1829. 

Kruseman,  kRoo'zeh-mSn',  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch 
historical  painter  of  great  merit,  born  at  Amsterdam  in 
1797.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "A  Burial-Scene," 
"The  Preaching  of  John  the  Baptist,"  and  "  Belisarius." 
Died  in  1857. 

Kruseman,  (Jan  Adam,)  a  painter  of  portraits  and 
sacred  history,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Haarlem  in  1804. 

Krusemark,  kRoo'zeh-maRk',(FRTEDRiCH  Wilhelm 
Ludwig,)  a  Prussian  commander  and  diplomatist,  served 
against  the  French  in  tJie  campaigns  from  1806  to  1813, 
and  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  was 
employed  successively  on  important  missions  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  Paris,  and  Vienna.    Died  in  1822. 


Krusenstern,  kRoo'zen-st§Rn',  (Adam  John,)  a  cele- 
brated Russian  navigator  and  traveller,  born  in  Esthonia 
in  1770.  In  1803  he  sailed  from  Cronstadt,  and  during 
an  absence  of  three  years  discovered  the  Orloff  Islands, 
and  obtained  much  information  respecting  countries  pre- 
viously little  known.  He  brought  out  in  1810  his  "  Voy- 
age around  the  World  from  1803  to  1806,"  (3  vols., 
with  an  atlas  and  104  plates,)  which  was  translated  into 
the  principal  European  languages.  He  also  published 
"  Contributions  to  the  Hydrography  of  the  Greater 
Oceans,"  "Atlas  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,"  and  other  similar 
works.  Krusenstern  was  the  first  Russian  navigator  who 
sailed  around  the  world.    Died  in  1846. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "Monthly  Review"  for 
June  and  July,  1814. 

Krylof,  kRe-lof,  or  Kruilof,  almost  kRwe-lof,  (Ivan 
Andreievitch,)  written  also  Krylow,  Kriloff,  and 
Krilov,  a  celebrated  Russian  fabulist,  born  at  Moscow 
in  1768,  At  an  early  age  he  became  familiar  with  the 
French  language,  and  read  with  avidity  the  works  of 
Moliere,  Racine,  and  Boileau.  His  first  compositions 
were  dramas,  which  were  not  favourably  received.  He 
was  successively  editor  of  "The  Spirit  Post,"  "The 
Spectator,"  and  the  "Petersburg  Mercury,"  and  in  1801 
was  ap]?ointed  secretary  to  Prince  Gallitsin.  In  1808  he 
published  a  collection  of  fables,  which  met  with  great 
favour.  He  was  elected  to  the  Petersburg  Academy  in 
1811,  and  subsequently  received  a  large  pension  from 
the  emperor  Alexander,  who  also  loaded  him  with  hon- 
orary distinctions.  His  "Fables,"  which  vie  with  those 
of  La  Fontaine  in  naivete  and  humour,  are  the  delight 
of  all  ages  and  classes  in  Russia,  and  many  sentences 
in  them  have  become  proverbs.  They  have  been  trans- 
lated into  German,  French,  and  Italian ;  but  no  version, 
it  is  thought,  does  justice  to  the  original.  Krylof  was 
intimate  with  Pooshkin,  (Pushkin,)  Karamzin,  and  other 
eminent  writers.    Died  in  1844. 

See  Pletnef,  "Life  of  Kriloff,"  prefixed  to  his  Works;  "Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes"  for  September  i,  1852;  Alfred  Bougeault, 
"  Kryloff,  ou  le  La  Fontaine  Russe,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Fables,"  Paris, 
1852  :  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  also  an  article  on  the  Rus- 
sian Fabulists,  in  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  February.  1839. 

Kryns  or  Krijn!3,kRTns,  (Everard,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  lived  at  the  Hague  about  1600. 

Kshat'ri-ya,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  kshut'ri-ya,] 
written  also  Kshetriya  and  Kshattriya,  the  name  of 
the  second  or  military  caste  among  the  Hindoos.  It 
originally  included  all  princes  and  professional  warriors. 
But  at  the  present  time  there  are  many  exceptions  to 
this  general  rule  :  many  of  the  Brahmans  nowadays  are 
professional  soldiers.    (See  Brahmanism.) 

Kublai  Khan.    See  Kooblai  Khan. 

Kiicken  or  Kuecken,  kiik'ken,  (Friedrich  Wil- 
helm,) a  popular  German  composer,  born  at  Bleckede  in 
1 810.  His  songs  and  ballads  are  great  favourites  both 
in  Germany  and  England.  In  185 1  he  was  appointed 
court  chapel-master  at  Stuttgart.  He  has  produced  two 
successful  operas. 

Kuecken.   See  Kucken. 

Kuegelgen.    See  KOgelgen. 

Kuehn.    See  Kuhn. 

Kuehne.    See  Kuhne. 

Kuehnoel.    See  Kuhnol. 

Kue.sel.    See  Kusel. 

Kuester.    See  Kuster. 

Kiigelgen  or  Kuegelgen,  kii'gel-gen,  (Karl  and 
Gerhard,)  German  painters,  born  at  Bacharach,  on 
the  Rhine,  in  1772,  were  twin-brothers,  and  pursued 
their  studies  together  at  Rome.  In  1799  they  visited 
Saint  Petersburg,  where  they  married  two  sisters  of 
high  rank.  Karl  remained  in  Saint  Petersburg,  where 
he  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Alexander,  while  Ger- 
hard returned  to  Dresden.  He  perished  by  the  hand  of 
a  robber  near  that  city  in  1820.  His  works  are  chiefly 
portraits  and  historical  pictures.  Among  Karl's  pro- 
ductions are  a  series  of  Crimean  and  Finnish  landscapes, 
executed  by  order  of  the  emperor.  In  1823  he  published 
"A  Painter's  Journey  in  the  Crimea."    Died  in  1832. 

See  Hasse,  "Leben  G.  von  Kiigelgen,"  etc.,  1824;  Nagler, 
"  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kugler,  kooGHer,  (Franz  Theodor,)  an  eminent 
German  critic  and  writer  on  art,  born  at  Stettin  in  1808, 
became  in  1833  professor  of  the  history  of  art  in  the 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  f,^hort;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


KUH 


1345 


KURTZ 


Academy  at  Berlin.  About  1835  he  visited  Italy,  and 
in  1837  brought  out  his  "  Hand-Book  of  the  History 
of  Painting  from  Constantine  the  Great  to  the  Present 
Time,"  which  was  followed  by  his  equally  valuable 
"Manual  of  the  History  of  Art,"  (1841,)  and  other  simi- 
lar works.  Died  in  Berlin  in  1858. 
See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Kuh,  koo,  (Ephraim  Moses,)  a  German  poet,  of 
Jewish  parentage,  born  at  Breslau  in  1731,  wrote  songs, 
odes,  fables,  and  epigrams.  He  was  a  friend  of  Lessing 
and  Mendelssohn.    Died  in  1790. 

Kuhl,  kool,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  naturalist,  born 
at  Hanau  in  1797;  died  at  Java  in  1821. 

See  T.  VAN  Swinderen,  "  Bijdragen  tot  eene  Schets  van  het 
Leven,  het  Karakter,  etc.  van  H.  Kuhl,"  1822. 

Kuhlau,  koo'low,  (Friedrich  Daniel,)  a  German 
musician  and  composer,  born  in  Hanover  in  1786  or 
1787.  He  composed  operas  which  were  popular,  and 
music  for  the  flute.    Died  in  1832. 

Kuhlmann,  kuKm6N',(CHARLES  Fred^iric,)  a  French 
chemist  and  writer,  born  at  Colmar  in  1803. 

Kuhlmann,  kooKmSn,  (Quirinus,)  a  German  vision- 
ary, born  at  Breslau  in  165 1.  He  led  a  wandering  life, 
and  published  several  extravagant  writings.  He  was 
burned  at  Moscow  in  1689. 

See  G.  WeRxNsdorf,  "  De  Fanaticis  Silesiorum  et  speciatim  de 
Q.  Kuhlmaniio,"  1698. 

Kuhn,  koon,  or  Kuhnius,  koo'ne-ils,  (Joachim,)  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Greifswalde  in  1647.  He 
was  professor  of  Greek  at  Strasburg  in  1676.  Among  his 
works  is  "  Quaestiones  Philosophicae  ex  Sacris  Veteris 
et  Novi  Testamenti  Scriptoribus,"  (1698.)  Died  in  1697. 

Kiihn  or  Cuehn,  kiin,  (Karl  Gottlob,)  a  German 
physician,  born  near  Merseburg  in  1754,  published  a 
complete  edition  of  the  '*  Extant  Works  of  the  Greek 
Physicians,"  ("Opera  Medicorum  Graecorum  quae  super- 
sunt,")  in  the  original,  with  a  Latin  translation,  29  vols., 
(1821.)    Died  in  1840. 

Kiihne  or  Kuehne,  kii'neh,  (Gustav,)  a  German 
litterateur,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1806,  published  "Clois- 
ter Novels,"  ("  Klosternovellen,")  and  other  romances. 

Kiihner,  kii'ner,  (Rafael,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Gotha  in  1802,  published  a  "Complete  Gram- 
mar of  the  Greek  Language,"  (1834,)  and  "Elementary 
Grammar  of  the  Greek  Language,"  (1837.) 

Kuhnius.    See  Kuhn. 

Kuhnol  or  Kuehnoel,  ku'nol,  (Christian  Gott- 
lieb,) a  German  biblical  critic,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1768. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Giessen  about  1809, 
and  published  "  Commentaries  on  the  New  Testament," 
(4  vols.,  1807-18.)    Died  in  1841. 

Kuick.    See  Kuyk. 

Kuli  Khan.    See  Nadir  Shah. 

Kullack  or  Kullak,  kdoKlSk,  (Theodor,)  a  Ger- 
man composer  and  pianist,  born  in  Posen  in  1818.  He 
received  the  title  of  pianist  to  the  King  of  Prussia  in  1846. 

Kulm,  kdolm,  (Johann  Adam,)  a  German  anatomist 
and  physiologist,  born  at  Breslau  in  1689;  died  in  1745. 

Kulmann,  kooKmSn,  (Elisabeth,)  a  Russian  poetess, 
of  German  extraction,  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1808. 
She  spoke  many  languages,  and  composed  lyric  poems, 
published  in  three  volumes  in  1833.    Died  in  1825. 

Kummer,  koom'mer,  (Georg  Adolf,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  at  Ortrand  in  1786  ;  died  near  Kakonda, 
Africa,  in  1817. 

Kummer,  (Karl  Wilhelm.)  a  German  geographer, 
born  about  1780,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
produced  globes  and  maps  en  relief.    Died  about  1840. 

Kun,  van  der,  (Peter.)    See  Cun^us. 

Kunckel,  koonk'kel,  (Johann,)  a  German  chemist, 
Dcrn  at  Rendsburg  in  1630.  He  is  said  to  have  dis- 
covered phosphorus.     Died  at  Stockholm  in  1702. 

See  MoLLER,  "  Cimbria  Literata;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Kundmann,  kdont'mSn,  (Johann  Christian,)  a 
German  numismatist  and  naturalist,  born  at  Breslau  in 
1684  ;  died  in  1751. 

Kunigunde,  the  German  of  Cunegonde,  which  see. 

Kunrath,  koon'rSt,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  chemist 
and  alchemist,  born  at  Leipsic  about  1560;  died  in  1605. 

Kunst,  koonst,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Leyden  in  1493  ;  died  in  1544. 


Kunth,  von,  fon  koont,  (Karl  Sigismund,)  an  emi. 
nent  German  botanist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  June,  1788.  He 
was  patronized  by  Alexander  von  Humboldt,  who  fur- 
nished him  with  the  means  to  study  in  the  University  of 
Berlin,  and  took  him  to  Paris  in  1813.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  botany  at  Berlin  in  1819.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Nova  Genera  et  Species  Plantarum  quas 
collegerunt  Bonpland  et  Humboldt,"  which  treats  of  the 
plants  collected  in  America  by  Bonpland  and  Humboldt, 
(7  vols.,  1815-25,)  "The  Grasses  of  South  America,"  (3 
vols.,  1825-33,)  and  an  "Enumeration  of  all  the  Plants 
hitherto  known,"  (5  vols.,  1833-50.)    Died  in  1850. 

Kuntz,  koonts,  (Karl,)  a  skilful  German  painter  of 
animals  and  landscapes,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1770,  was 
also  an  engraver.  He  worked  mostly  at  Carlsruhe,  where 
he  was  court  painter.  He  engraved  Claude  Lorrain's 
picture  of  "  Abraham  Sending  away  Hagar."  Died  in 
1830. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Kuntz,  (Rudolf,)  a  German  lithographer  and  painter 
of  horses,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1797. 

Kunzen,  koont^sen,  (Friedrich  Ludwig  Emil,)  a 
musical  composer,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1761,  produced  a 
number  of  successful  operas.    Died  in  181 7. 

Kupetzky  or  Kupetzki,  koo-pets'kee,  (Johann,)  an 
eminent  German  portrait-painter,  born  at  Pesing,  on  the 
borders  of  Hungary,  in  1667.  After  a  residence  of  many 
years  in  Italy,  where  he  was  patronized  by  John  Sobieski, 
he  returned  to  Vienna.  He  was  treated  with  great  dis- 
tinction by  the  emperors  Joseph  L  and  Charles  VL, 
whose  portraits  he  painted,  as  well  as  those  of  the  prin- 
cipal nobles  of  the  court.  He  painted  in  the  style  of 
Rembrandt,  and  ranks  among  the  best  artists  of  the 
time  in  his  department.    Died  in  1740. 

See  J.  C.  FuEssLi,  "  Leben  G.  P.  Rugendas  und  J.  Kupetzki,  "1758, 

Kurma,  kooR'ma,  called  also  Kurm^vatara,  koor- 
mt'va-t3,'ra,  {i.e.  the  "avatar  of  the  tortoise,")  the  second 
of  the  avatars  of  Vishnu,  on  which  occasion  he  took  the 
form  of  a  tortoise  that  he  might  furnish  a  support  to 
Mount  Mandara  while  the  gods  and  Asurs  churned 
the  ocean.  The  mountain  being  the  churn-stick,  the 
great  serpent  Sesha  was  made  use  of  for  the  string.* 
The  churning  of  the  ocean  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
and  popular  fables  related  in  the  mythology  of  the  Hin- 
doos. It  resulted  in  the  production  of  the  fourteen  gems, 
as  they  are  called, — namely,  i.  Chandra,  (the  moon  ;)  2. 
Lakshmi,  the  incomparable  consort  of  Vishnu;  3.  Sura- 
devi,  or  the  goddess  of  wine  ;  4.  Oochisrava,  a  won- 
derful eight-headed  horse  ;  5.  Kustubha,  a  jewel  of  ines- 
timable value ;  6.  Parijata,  a  tree  that  yielded  whatever 
one  might  desire  ;  7.  Surabhi  or  Kamadhenu,  a  cow 
similarly  bountiful ;  8.  Dhanwantara,  a  wondrous  phy- 
sician ;  9.  Iravata  or  Iravat,  the  elephant  of  Indra  ;  10. 
Shank,  a  shell  which  conferred  victory  on  whoever 
sounded  it ;  11.  Danusha,  an  unerring  bow  ;  12.  Vish,t  a 
remarkable  drug  or  poison ;  13.  Rembha,  (or  Rambha,) 
an  Apsara  possessed  of  surpassing  charms ;  14.  Amrita, 
or  Amrit,  the  beverage  of  immortality. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kurmivatara.    See  KOrma. 

Kurreem  Khan.    See  Kereem  Khan. 

Kurrer,  koor'rer,  (Jakob  Wilhelm  Heinrich,)  born 
in  Wiirtemberg  in  1781,  wrote  "On  the  Art  of  Dyeing 
and  Printing  Cloth,"  (3  vols.,  1848-50,)  and  other  works. 

Kurschner,  (Conrad.)    See  Pellican. 

Kurtz,  kooRts,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  Prussian  theo- 
logian, born  at  Montjoie  in  1809,  became  in  1850  pro- 
fessor of  ecclesiastical  history  at  Dorpat.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  "  The  Unity  of  the  Book  of  Genesis,"  and 
other  religious  works. 

*  It  may  be  proper  to  observe  that  in  India  churning  is  usually 
performed  by  causing  a  body,  termed  the  churn-stick,  to  revolve 
rapidly  in  the  cream  or  milk,  by  means  of  a  string,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  a  drill  is  made  to  revolve.  In  some  of  the  Hindoo  pictures  of 
the  churning  of  the  ocean,  the  gods  are  represented  as  standing  on  one 
side  of  Mount  Mandara,  and  the  Asurs  on  the  other,  both  grasping 
in  their  hands  the  serpent  Sesha,  which  is  wound  round  the  mountain. 
This  rests  upon  the  back  of  the  tortoise,  (Vishnu.)  At  the  same 
time,  the  preserving  deity,  in  consequence  of  his  ubiquitous  character, 
is  seen  standing  among  the  gods  and  grasping  Sesha,  and  also  as 
dancing  on  the  top  of  MandSra.  (See  Plate  49  in  Moor's  "  Hindu 
Pantheon.") 

t  Called  Bikh  in  some  of  the  modem  Hindoo  dialects. 


■€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

85 


KVRZ 


LABARRE 


Kurz,  kooRts,  (Heinrich,)  a  litterateur  and  Oriental 
scholar,  of  German  extraction,  born  in  Paris  in  1805. 
He  wrote  chiefly  in  German. 

Kiisel  or  Kuesel,  kii's^I,  (Matthias,)  a  German 
engraver,  born  at  Augsburg  in  162 1  ;  died  in  1682. 

Kiisel  or  Kuesel,  (Mklchior,)  a  skilful  engraver, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Augsburg  in  1622. 
He  engraved  (with  the  burin)  rtnd  etched  portraits,  sacred 
history,  and  landscapes.  He  resided  mostly  at  Augsburg. 
Died  in  1683. 

Kiister  or  Kuester,  kiis'ter,  (Georg  Gottfried,)  a 
German  historian,  born  at  Halle  in  1695.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Ancient  and  Modern  Berlin,"  (3 
vols.,  1752-59.)    Died  in  1776. 

Kiister,  (Ludolph,)  an  eminent  German  scholar, 
born  at  Blomberg,  in  Westphalia,  in  1670.  He  published 
"  Historia  Critica  Homeri,"  (1696,)  and  was  a  contributor 
to  the '*  Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Romanorum"  of  Grae- 
vius.  He  also  published  editions  of  Suidas  (3  vols.,  1705) 
and  Aristophanes,  (1710.)  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  Paris.    Died  in  17 16. 

Kiittner,  kut'ner,  (Karl  Gottlob,)  a  German  trav- 
eller, born  near  Delitzsch  in  1755.  He  published  several 
books  of  travel  and  descriptive  works  on  England, 
France,  and  other  countries  of  Europe.    Died  in  1805. 

Kutuzof  or  Kutusow.    See  Kootoozof. 

Kuvdra  or  Cuv§ra,  koo-va'ra,  [a  Sanscrit  word  sig- 
nifying "deformed,"  "lazy,"  "slow,"*]  the  name  of  the 
Hindoo  Plutus  or  god  of  riches,  said  to  be  a  half-brother 
of  the  famous  giant  Ravana.  He  is  said  to  reside  in  the 
splendid  city  of  Alaka,  and  is  sometimes  borne  through 
the  air  in  a  gorgeous  car  called  Push'paka.  His  consort 
(Sakti)  is  called  Kauveri,  (kow-va'ree.) 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Kuyk,  koik,  or  Kuick  van  Wouterszoon,  (vtn 
w6w'ter-z5n',)  (Jan,)  a  skilful  Dutch  painter  on  glass, 
born  at  Dort  in  1530.  Having  opposed  the  Jesuits,  he 
was  charged  with  heresy,  and  burned  at  Dort  in  1572. 

Kuyp.    See  Cuyp. 

Kiizing  or  Kiitzing,  kiit'sing,  (Friedrich  Trau- 
GOTT,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1807, 
published,  among  other  works,  "Elements  of  Philo- 
sophical Botany." 

Kvasir,  kvi'sir,  [etymology  unknown,]  a  mythic  per- 
sonage mentioned  in  the  Norse  legends.  He  was  so 
wise  and  knowing  that  no  one  could  ask  him  a  question 
which  he  could  not  answer.  He  was,  however,  entrapped 
and  slain  by  two  dwarfs  who  had  invited  him  to  a  feast. 
With  his  blood  they  mingled  honey,  and  thus  composed 
a  mead  which  makes  every  one  who  drinks  of  it  a  skald, 
or  wise  man. 

See  Thokpe's  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. 

*  The  signification  of  the  name  of  Kuvera  has  doubtless  allusion  to 
the  fact  that,  to  those  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  wealth,  it  usually 
seems  to  come  with  a  very  slow  and  hobbling  pace.  In  like  manner 
the  Plutus  of  the  Greeks  was  represented  as  not  only  blind,  (because 
he  bestowed  his  favours  with  so  little  discernment,)  but  lame,  because 
he  seemed  to  come  so  slowly  and  reluctantly  to  those  who  sought 
him. 


Kyau,  von,  fon  kee'ow,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,) 
Baron,  a  Prussian  nobleman,  celebrated  for  his  wit  and 
bliwit  honesty,  was  born  in  1654.  He  was  a  favourite  of 
Augustus  n..  King  of  Poland,  who  made  him  adjutant- 
general.    Died  in  1733. 

Kyd,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist,  flourished 
about  1580,  a  short  time  before  Shakspeare.  His  only 
works  extant  are  entitled  "  Cornelia,  or  Pompey  the 
Great  his  fair  Cornelia's  Tragedy,"  "  The  First  Part  of 
Geronimo,"  and  "  The  Spanish  Tragedy,  or  Hieronymo 
is  mad  again."  The  last-named  production  displays 
uncommon  power,  and  is  supposed  to  have  suggested 
to  Shakspeare  some  parts  of  "Hamlet." 

See  CoLLiEK,  "  History  of  Dramatic  Poetry." 

Kydermynster.    See  Kidderminster. 

Kyffhauser,  klf  hoi'zer,  an  ancient  palace  (now  in 
ruins)  of  the  emperors  of  the  Hohenstaufen  dynasty,  is 
situated  on  a  high  eminence  near  the  village  of  Tilleda, 
in  Germany.  There  is  a  popular  tradition  that  at  the 
Kyffliauser,  in  a  magnificent  subterranean  palace,  Fred- 
erick Barbarossa  ("  Red-beard")  exists  in  a  state  of  en- 
chantment, with  his  knights  and  squires  seated  round 
a  stone  table,  through  which  his  beard  has  grown.  Once 
in  one  hundred  years  (or,  as  some  say,  in  sixty  years) 
he  partially  awakes  from  his  enchanted  sleep,  and  sends 
out  some  one  to  inquire  how  the  time  is  passing.  It  is 
si'pposed  that  after  a  certain  period  he  will  awake  and 
revisit  his  empire,  and  then  a  better  time  will  prevail. 
One  of  Freiligrath's  finest  poems,  entitled  "  Barbaros- 
sa's  First  Awaking,"  ("  Barbarossa's  erstes  Erwachen,") 
has  reference  to  the  above  tradition. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  iii.  pp.  100-102;  S. 
Baring-Gould,  "  Curious  Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  p.  103. 

Kylian,  kiKe-Sn,  (Jacob,)  a  Bohemian  astronomer, 
born  at  Prague  in  1714  ;  died  in  1774, 

Kyn'as-ton  or  Kin'as-ton,  (Sir  Francis,)  an  Eng- 
lish poet,  born  in  Shropshire  in  1587,  translated  Chau- 
cer's "Troilus  and  Cressida"  into  Latin,  and  was  the 
author  of  a  poem  entitled  "  Leoline  and  Sydanis."  He 
was  the  founder  of  the  Museum  Minervae  in  Covent 
Garden.    Died  in  1642. 

See  Wood,  "Athen^e  Oxonienses." 

Kynaston,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Ches- 
ter in  1728,  was  a  Fellow  of  Brazennose  College,  Oxford. 
Died  in  1783. 

Kyper,  kee'per,  (Albrecht,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  born  at  Konigsberg  about  1605.  He  became 
first  physician  to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  professor 
of  medicine  at  Leyden  in  1648.    Died  in  1655. 

Kypke,  kip'keh,  (Georg  David,)  a  German  Oriental- 
ist, born  in  Pomerania  in  1724,  wrote  "  Observationes 
Sacra  in  Novi  Foederis  Libros,"  (1755.)    Died  in  1779. 

Kyrle,  kerl,  (John,)  an  English  benefactor,  eulogized 
by  Pope  in  the  verses  on  the  Man  of  Ross,  was  born 
about  1664.  He  was  a  native  or  resident  of  Ross,  in 
Herefordshire,  where  he  built  a  church  and  endowed  a 
hospital.  He  owned  an  estate  of  ;^500  a  year.  Died 
in  1754,  aged  ninety. 


L. 


Laale,  lan'leh,  (Peder,)  a  Danish  poet  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  was  born  at  Lolland.  He  wrote  "Latin-Danish 
Proverbs,"  ("Adagia  Latino-Danica.") 

Laar.    See  Laer,  van. 

Labadie,  It'bi'de',  (Jean,)  a  French  Protestant  min- 
ister, regarded  by  some  as  a  mystic  or  a  fanatic,  was  born 
at  Bourg,  in  Guienne,  in  1610.  After  joining  the  Jesuits 
and  obtaining  success  as  an  eloquent  preacher,  he  turned 
Protestant  in  1650,  and  was  for  eight  years  pastor  of  a 
church  at  Montauban.  He  subsequently  preached  at 
Geneva,  Middelburg,  etc.,  where  he  made  many  prose- 
lytes or  friends,  among  whom  were  Anna  M.  Schur- 
mann  and  the  Princess  Elizabeth  of  the  Rhine.  The 
sect  called  Labadists,  which  he  formed  in  Germany, 
continued  for  nearly  a  century.    Died  in  1674. 

See  Maucduict,  "Avis  charitable  k  Messieurs  de  Geneve  tou- 
chant  la  Vie  du  Sieur  Jean  Labadie,"  etc.,  Lyons,  1664;  Nic^ron, 
"Memoires." 


La'ban,  [Heb.  pS,]  the  son  of  Bethuel,  lived  at 
Haran,  in  Mesopotamia,  about  1740  B.C.  He  had  two 
daughters,  Leah  and  Rachel,  who  became  the  wives  of 
Jacob.    (See  Genesis  xxix.  and  xxx.) 

Labanof  (Labanov  or  Labanow)  de  Rostof, 
IS-bi'nof  deh  ros'tof,  (Prince  Alexander,)  a  Russian 
general  and  writer,  born  in  1788,  served  as  aide-de-camp 
to  the  emperor  from  1817  to  1828.  His  principal  work 
is  "Letters,  Instructions,  and  Memoirs  of  Mary  Stuart, 
Queen  of  Scots,"  (7  vols.,  1844.) 

La  Barbinais  le  Gentil,  It  btR^be^ni'  leh  zhfiN'- 
te',  a  French  traveller,  born  probably  at  Saint-Malo. 
He  visited  Chili,  Peru,  and  China,  as  a  merchant,  about 
1 71 5,  and  published  "A  New  Voyage  round  the  World 
with  a  Description  of  China,"  (3  vols.,  1727.) 

Labarraque,  It'bS'rtk',  (Antoine  Germain,)  a 
French  chemist,  born  at  Oloron  in  1777;  died  in  1850. 

Labarre.    See  Barre. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fJr,  fXll,  ftt;  mgt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LABARRE 


1347 


LABITTE 


Labarre,  It'btR',  (fiLOi,)  a  French  architect,  born  in 
Picardy  in  1764,  built  the  Bourse  and  Tribunal  of  Com- 
merce in  Paris,  (finished  about  1826.)  Pie  was  admitted 
into  the  Institute  in  1827.    Died  in  1833. 

Labarre,  (Theodore,)  a  French  composer,  and  a 
skilful  performer  on  the  harp,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1805. 
He  composed  several  popular  ballads  and  operas. 

Labarre  de  Corcelles,  de,  deh  It'b^R'  deh  koR'slK, 
(Francois  Tirecuy — t^R^kii-e',)  a  French  liberal  poli- 
tician, born  in  iSoi.  He  was  a  friend  of  Cavaignac, 
who  in  1848  sent  him  on  a  mission  to  the  pope. 

La  Barre-Duparc,  de,  deh  It'btR'  du'ptRk',  (Nico- 
las Sdouard,)  a  French  military  writer  and  officer,  born 
at  Saint-Cloud  in  1819. 

Labarthe,  It'btRt',  (Pierre,)  a  French  geographer 
and  writer,  born  at  Dax  in  1760;  died  in  1824. 

La  Bastie,  de,  deh  It  bts^te',  (Joseph  Bimard,) 
Baron,  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Carpentras  in  1703  ; 
died  in  1 742. 

Labat,  It'bt',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  monk  and 
successful  author,  born  in  Paris  in  1663.  He  went  in 
1694  to  the  West  Indies  as  a  missionary,  and,  having 
returned  to  France  in  1706,  published  a  "Description 
of  the  West  Indies,"  (6  vols.,  1722,)  a  work  of  some 
merit.  In  1728  he  published  an  excellent  Description 
of  Senegal  and  adjacent  regions,  ("Relation  de  I'Afrique 
occidentale,"  5  vols.,  1728,)  the  data  of  which  were  fur- 
nished by  De  Brue.    Died  in  1738. 

Labat,  (L60N,)  a  French  traveller  and  physician, 
born  at  Agde  in  1803.  He  cured  the  Shah  of  Persia, 
who  gave  him  the  title  of  prince.    Died  in  1847. 

Labbe,  Itb,  (Philippe,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  volumi- 
nous writer,  born  at  Bourges  in  1607.  He  lived  many 
years  in  Paris,  and  published  several  useful  works  on 
history  and  chronology,  among  which  is  "Chronological, 
Technical,  and  Historical  Agreement,"  ("  Concordia 
Chronologica,  Technica  et  Historica,"  1656.)  He  is 
chiefly  known  at  the  present  time  by  his  valuable  work 
on  Latin  pronunciation,  entitled  "Eruditae  Pronuntia- 
tionis  Catholici  Indices,"  which  was  enlarged  by  E. 
Leeds  and  republished  in  London  in  1751.  Died  in  1667. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  M^moires." 

Labbe  de  Monveron,  It'bV  deh  m^N^vi^riN', 
(Charles,)  a  French  philologist  and  advocate,  born  in 
Paris  in  1582.  He  published,  as  editor,  besides  other 
works,  "  Glossaries  of  Cyrillus,  Philoxenus,  and  other 
Ancient  Writers,"  ("Cyrilli,  Philoxeni  et  aliorum  vete- 
rum  Glossaria,"  1679.)    Died  in  1657. 

Labe,  It'bi',  (Louise,)  a  French  lady,  known  by  the 
name  of  La  belle  Cordi^re,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1526, 
and  became  the  wife  of  Ennemond  Perrin,  a  merchant 
who  dealt  in  cordage.  She  was  learned  in  languages 
and  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  ardent  imagination. 
She  composed  elegies,  sonnets,  and  a  drama  named 
"Debat  de  la  Folic  et  de  I'Amour."    Died  in  1566. 

See  Nic^RON,  "M^moires;"  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe  ;"  C.  J.  de  Ruolz,  "  Discours  sur  la  Personne  et  les 
Ouvrages  de  L.  Labe,"  1750. 

La  Bedolliere,  It  bi'do'le-aiR',  (Smile  Gigault,) 
a  French  litterateur^  born  at^miens  in  1812.  He  be- 
came an  editor  of  the  "Siecle."  Among  his  works  are 
a  "Life  of  La  Fayette,"  (1833,)  and  a  "History  of  the 
Manners  and  Private  Life  of  the  French,"  (3  vols., 
1847.)  He  translated  into  French  Fenimore  Cooper's 
works,  Mrs.  Stowe's  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  and  the 
Waverley  Novels. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Labedoyere  or  La  Bedoyere,  de,  deh 

yaiR',  (Charles  Ang^lique  Huchet,)  Count,  a  French 
general,  noted  for  graceful  manners  and  chivalrous  spirit, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1786.  He  became  aide-de-camp  to 
Marshal  Lannes  in  1808.  At  Essling,  in  1809,  he  was 
wounded  by  the  side  of  Lannes,  who  was  killed  at  the 
same  time.  He  was  aide-de-camp  to  Eugene  Beauhar- 
nais  in  1812,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  Moskwa 
and  Berezina.  In  1814  he  accepted  from  Louis  XVIII. 
the  command  of  a  regiment  stationed  at  Grenoble.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  officers  that  in  181 5  joined  the  stan- 
dard of  Napoleon,  who  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  general 
of  division  ;  and  he  was  one  of  the  last  to  leave  the  field 


at  the  battle  of  Waterloo.    Having  been  arrested  in 
Paris  and  tried  by  court-martial,  he  was  shot,  in  1 81 5. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

La'be-o,  (Quintus  Antistius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  who 
flourished  about  50  B.C.  He  fought  for  Brutus  at  Phi- 
lippi,  and,  after  the  battle  was  lost,  died  by  his  own  hand. 
His  son,  Quintus  or  Marcus  Antistius  Labeo,  was  3 
more  eminent  jurist,  a  man  of  great  learning,  and  an 
inflexible  republican.  He  lived  during  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus, to  whom  he  sometimes  expressed  his  mind  with 
boldness.  He  was  the  founder  or  head  of  a  school  of 
law,  and  was  the  rival  of  Capito.  He  wrote  Commen- 
taries on  the  Twelve  Tables,  and  many  treatises,  extracts 
from  which  are  preserved  in  the  Digest.  Labeo  and 
Capito  are  styled  "ornaments  of  Peace"  ("decora  Pacis") 
by  Tacitus.  The  disciples  of  Labeo  were  called  Procu- 
Hani,  from  Proculus,  his  successor. 

See  AuLUs  Gellius,  "  Noctes  Atticae;"  C.  van  Eck,  "  Disser- 
tatio  de  Vita,  Moribus  et  Studiis  Q.  Antistii  Labeoiiis,"  1692. 

Laberge,  de,  deh  It'biRzh',  (Charles  Auguste,) 
an  excellent  French  landscape-painter,  bprn  in  Paris  in 
1805.  He  represented  human  nature  with  surprising 
fidelity  in  a  picture  of  a  "  Diligence  passing  through  a 
Village  and  announcing  the  Revolution  of  1830."  His 
"Country  Physician"  (1832)  is  called  his  master-piece. 
His  works  are  finished  very  minutely,  without  impairing 
the  general  effect.    Died  in  1842. 

Labergerie,  de,  deh  It'bSRzh're',  (Jean  Baptiste 
Rougier,)  Baron,  an  eminent  French  agriculturist,  borw 
in  Touraine  in  1759.  He  published  several  approved 
historical  works  on  the  agriculture  of  the  ancient  Greeks, 
Romans,  and  Gauls,  also  treatises  on  Practical  Agricul- 
ture.   Died  in  1836. 

La-be'ri-us,  (Decimus,)  a  Roman  knight,  distin- 
guished as  a  writer  of  mimes,  was  born  about  107  H.c. 
In  the  year  45  Caesar  signified  a  wish  that  he  should  act 
his  mimes  in  public.  He  reluctantly  complied,  such 
practice  being  deemed  degrading,  and  acquitted  him- 
self with  credit,  at  the  same  time  availing  himself  of  the 
opportunity  to  turn  his  wit  against  the  dictator.  The 
prologue  which  he  spoke  on  this  occasion  has  been 
preserved,  and  is  much  admired.  Only  small  fragments 
of  his  works  are  extant.    Died  in  43  B.C. 

La-bi-e'nus,  (Quintus,)  was  a  son  of  Titus,  noticed 
below.  He  commanded  an  army  of  Parthians  which 
defeated  the  forces  of  Mark  Antony  in  Cilicia.  Having 
been  captured  by  the  Romans,  he  was  put  to  death  in  39 
B.C.  His  brother,  Titus  Labienus,  was  an  eloquent 
orator,  and  an  enemy  of  Augustus  Cassar.  He  died  in 
12  A.D. 

Labienus,  (Titus,)  a  Roman  general,  born  98  B.C., 
was  chosen  tribune  of  the  people  in  63,  and  praetor  a  few 
years  later.  About  60  B.C.  he  became  lieutenant  of  Caesar. 
He  was  the  ablest  general  that  served  under  Caesar  in 
the  conquest  of  Gaul,  where  he  gained  victories  over  the 
Treviri.  He  abandoned  his  late  chief  at  the  passage  of 
the  Rubicon,  and  took  arms  for  Pompey  and  the  senate  in 
49  B.C.  After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  he  commanded  in 
Africa,  and  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Munda,  in  Spain, 
in  45  B.C. 

See  C^SAR,  "De  Belle  Gallico;"  Dion  Cassius,  "History  of 
Rome." 

Labillardiere  or  La  Billardiere,  de,  deh  It'be^tR^- 
de-aiR',  (Jacques  Julien  Houton,)  a  French  botanist, 
born  at  Alen9on  in  1755.  After  he  had  explored  Cyprus, 
Syria,  and  Mount  Lebanon  as  a  botanist,  he  was  em- 
ployed as  naturalist  in  the  expedition  which  was  sent  in 
search  of  La  Perouse  in  1791.  Having  returned  to 
Paris,  he  published  two  valuable  works,  viz.,  "Narrative 
of  a  Voyage  in  Search  of  La  Perouse,"  (1800,)  and  a 
"Flora  of  New  Holland,"  (1804-06.)  The  former  has 
enriched  the  various  branches  of  natural  history.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Institute.    Died  in  1834. 

See  P.  Flourens,  "  £loge  de  J.  J.  de  Labillardiere,"  1837; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Labitte,  It'bit',  (Charles,)  a  French  critic,  born  at 
Chateau-Thierry  in  1816,  became  professor  of  foreign 
literature  at  Rennes  in  1840,  He  wrote  for  the  "Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes"  able  articles  on  M.  J.  Chenier  and 
other  authors.  Died  in  1845.  Two  volumes  of  his 
'•fitudes  litteraires"  were  published  in  1846. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  YL^guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LABI  ACHE  1348  LA  CALPRENEDE 


Lablache,  It'bltsh',  (Louis,)  a  celebrated  singer  and 
actor,  born  of  French  parentage  in  Naples  in  1794.  He 
performed  many  seasons  in  Paris  and  London.  His 
voice  embraced  two  full  octaves  ;  it  was  firm  and  sonorous, 
powerful  and  expressive.  He  was  successful  both  in 
the  serious  and  comic  opera.  It  is  stated  that  he  gave 
lessons  in  music  to  Queen  Victoria.  *'  He  has  given 
form  and  life,"  says  M.  D'Ortigue,  "to  the  immortal 
types  traced  by  musicians  of  genius ;  he  has  delighted 
civilized  Europe  for  nearly  half  a  century  as  a  tragedian 
full  of  dignity  and  as  an  inimitable  buffoon."  Died  in 
1858. 

See  Castil-Blaze,  "Biographic  de  Lablache;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biosiaphie  Generale." 

Lablee,  It'bli',  (Jacques,)  a  French  writer  of  fiction 
and  verses,  born  at  Beaugency  in  1751 ;  died  in  1841. 
La  Boetie.    See  Boetie. 
La  Borde.    See  Borde. 

Laborde,  (General.)    See  Delaborde,  (Henri  F.) 

Laborde,  It'bord',  (Maximilian,)  an  American  phy- 
sician, of  French  extraction,  born  in  Edgefield,  South 
Carolina,  in  1804.  He  became  in  1838  secretary  of  state. 
In  1842  he  was  appointed  professor  of  logic  and  belles- 
lettres  in  South  Carolina  College,  and  afterwards  of 
metaphysics  and  physiology  in  the  same  institution. 

Laborde,  It'boRd',  (Vidien,)  a  French  priest,  born  at 
Toulouse  in  1680.  He  lived  in  Paris,  and  was  patronized 
by  Cardinal  de  Noailles.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Essence,  Distinction,  and  Limits  of  the  Spiritual  and 
Temporal  Powers,"  "  Familiar  Conferences,"  and  other 
admired  religious  works.    Died  in  1748. 

Laborde,  de,  deh  IfboRd',  (Alexandre  Louis  Jo- 
seph,) Count,  a  French  antiquary  and  litterateur,  born 
in  Paris  in  1774,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Joseph,  (1724-94.) 
He  accompanied  Lucien  Bonaparte  in  his  emljassy  to 
Spain  in  1800,  after  which  he  devoted  some  years  to  the 
study  and  delineation  of  Spanish  monuments,  scenery, 
etc.  He  published  the  results  in  a  large  and  costly 
work, — "  Picturesque  and  Historic  Journey  in  Spain," 
("Voyage  pittoresque  et  historique  en  Espagne,"  4  vols., 
1807-18,  with  900  engravings,)  which  is  highly  com- 
mended. He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
in  1822  and  1827,  and  risked  his  life  for  the  popular 
cause  in  July,  1830,  after  which  he  became  a  councillor 
of  state.  Among  his  important  works  are  "The  Monu- 
ments of  France  classed  Chronologically,"  (24  parts, 
1816-26,)  and  a  "Picturesque  Journey  in  Austria,"  (3 
vols.,  1821-23.)  a  member  of  the  Institute. 

Died  in  1842. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for 
August  and  October,  1810. 

Laborde,  de,  (Jean  Joseph,)  Marquis,  a  French 
financier,  born  at  Jacca,  Aragon,  in  1724.  He  acquired 
a  very  large  fortune  by  commerce,  and  was  distinguished 
for  his  liberality.  He  was  appointed  banker  to  the 
court  by  the  Duke  of  Choiseul,  who  gave  him  the  title 
of  marquis.  He  was  guillotined  in  1794,  on  suspicion 
of  having  conspired  against  the  dominant  party. 

Laborde,  de,  (L^:on  Emmanuel  Simon  ^Joseph,) 
Count,  a  French  traveller  and  writer  on  art,  a  son  of 
Count  Alexandre  Louis  Joseph,  noticed  above,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1807.  He  became  aide-de-camp  to  La  Fa- 
yette in  1830,  and  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties in  1840.  In  1842  he  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions.  He  produced  a  splendid  work  entitled 
"  Travels  in  the  East,"  ("Voyage  en  Orient,"  etc.,  con- 
taining four  hundred  views  in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  36 
parts,  1837-55,)  "The  Renaissance  of  the  Arts  at  the 
Court  of  France,"  (1850-55,)  and  other  works  on  art. 
In  1857  he  was  chosen  director  of  the  archives  of  the 
empire. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  " London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  June,  1837. 

Labouchere,  It'boo'shaiR',  (Henry,)  Baron  Taun- 
ton, an  English  Whig  minister  of  state,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1798,  was  descended  from  a  family  of  French 
Protestants.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Taunton 
in  1830,  became  privy  councillor  in  1835,  and  president 
of  the  board  of  trade  in  1839.  Having  resigned  with 
his  party  in  1841,  he'  was  chosen  chief  secretary  for  Ire- 
land in  1846.    He  was  president  of  the  board  of  trade 


from  July,  1847,  till  February,  1852,  and  was  colonial 
secretary  from  the  accession  of  Palmerston,  in  1855,  until 
February,  1858.  His  mother  was  a  Baring,  sister  of 
Lord  Ashburton.    Died  in  July,  1869. 

Labouchere,  lt'boo'shaiR%  (Pierre  Antoine,)  a 
French  historical  painter,  was  born  at  Nantes  in  1807. 
Among  his  works  are  "  The  Colloquy  of  Geneva  in  1549  : 
Calvin,  Beza,  and  Farel,"  and  "Luther  at  the  Diet  of 
Worms,"  (1857.) 

Labouderie,  It'bood're',  (Jean,)  a  French  religious 
writer  and  abbe,  born  in  Auvergne  in  1776  ;  died  in  1849. 

Laboulaye,  It'boo'la',  (Edouard  Ren:6  Lef^bure,) 
a  French  jurist  and  historical  writer,  born  in  Paris  in 
181 1.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his  writings, 
among  which  are  a  "  History  of  the  Law  of  Landed 
Property  in  Europe,"  (1839,)  a  "History  of  the  United 
States  of  America,"  (3  vols.,  1855,)  and  an  ingenious 
and  witty  work  entitled  "  Paris  in  America."  He  trans- 
lated into  French  several  of  the  works  of  Dr.  Channing, 
(1853.)  In  1845  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions.  He  was  a  warm  friend  of  the  Union 
during  the  great  civil  war,  (1861-65,)  and  is  a  Liberal  in 
French  politics. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Labourdonnaie  or  La  Bourdonnaie,  de,  deh  It'- 

booRMo'na',  (Anne  Francois  Augustin,)  Count,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Guerande  in  1747.  In  1792  he 
was  made  a  general,  and,  having  obtained  command  of 
the  army  of  the  North,  was  denounced  by  Dumouriez  for 
obstructing  his  operations  in  Belgium,  and  was  recalled. 
He  afterwards  commanded  the  army  of  the  Pyrenees. 
Died  in  November,  1793. 

Labourdonnaie,  de,  (Franqois  Ri^gis,)  Count,  a 
French  legislator,  born  at  Angers  in  1767.  In  1815 
he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  where  for 
about  fifteen  years  he  was  one  of  the  chief  orators  of 
the  extreme  royalists.  He  obtained  the  portfolio  of  the 
interior  in  the  Polignac  ministry  in  1829,  but  resigned 
about  the  close  of  that  year.    Died  in  1839. 

Labourdonriais,  de,  (Mah^:.)    See  Mahe. 

Labourdonnais,  de,  deh  It'booRMo'na',  (Mah6, 
mt'i',)  a  Frenchman,  surnamed  "The  King  of  Chess," 
was  born  in  1795.  After  the  death  of  Philidor  he  was 
probably  the  most  skilful  chess-player  in  France.  He 
wrote  a  "  Life  of  Mahe  de  Labourdonnais,"  (his  grand- 
father.)   Died  in  1840. 

Laboureur,  Le,  leh  It'boo'ruR',  (Jean,)  a  French 
priest,  whose  works  have  thrown  light  on  the  history  of 
France,  was  born  at  Montmorency  in  1623.  He  became 
one  of  the  almoners  of  the  king.  He  published  "  Monu- 
ments of  Illustrious  Persons,"  (1641,)  "Memoirs  of 
Michel  de  Castelnau,"  (1659,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1675. 

Labrador,  ll-bRi-DoR',  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  painter  of 
the  Seville  school,  was  born  in  Estremadura.  He  painted 
flowers  and  fruits  with  great  success.  His  works  are 
highly  prized  in  Spain.  Died  in  1600,  at  an  advanced  age. 

Labrousse,  de,  deh  It'bRooss',  (Clotilde  Suzanne 
de  Couroelles — deh  kooR^seK,)  a  French  enthusiast, 
born  in  Perigord  in  1747.  She  professed  to  be  a  pro- 
phetess. In  the  Revolution  she  advocated  the  popular 
cause.    Died  in  1821. 

LaBrousse,  de,  (Nicolas,)  Comtede  Verteiilac,  (deh 
v§R'ti'ytk'',)  a  French  general,  born  in  1648,  was  killed 
near  Mons  in  1693.  Louis  XIV.  said,  "  I  have  lost  in 
the  Count  of  Verteiilac  the  best  officer  of  infantry  that  I 
have  had  since  Turenne." 

La  Brune,  de,  deh  It  bRiin,  (Jean,)  a  French  Prot- 
estant minister  and  writer,  lived  about  1690-1720. 

La  Brunerie,  de,  deh  la  bRiin're',  (Guillaume,)  Vi- 
comte  Dode,  a  French  general,  born  in  Isere  in  1775. 
He  had  the  chief  command  of  the  engineers  of  the  army 
which  invaded  Spain  in  1823,  and  directed  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Paris,  (1840-45.)  He  was  made  a  marshal  of 
France  in  1847.    Died  in  1851. 

Sec  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

La  Bruyere.    See  Bruyere,  de  la. 
La  Caille.    See  Caille,  de  la. 
La  Calleja,  de,  di  lA  kdl-ya^Ha,  (Andres,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  La  Rioja  in  1705  ;  died  in  Madrid  in  1785. 
La  Calprenede.    See  Calprenede,  de  la. 


a,  e,  I,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  f4t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LACARRT 


1349 


LACORDAIRE 


Lacarry,  It'ki're',  (Gilles,)  a  learned  French  Jesuit 
and  historian,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Castres  in  1605,  was 
for  many  years  rector  of  the  College  of  Cahors.  He  pub- 
lished several  esteemed  historical  works,  among  which 
is  a  *'  History  of  Rome  from  Julius  Caesar  to  Constan- 
tine  I.,"  (1671.)    Died  in  1684. 

Lacaussade,  It'ko'std',  (Auguste,)  a  French  poet 
and  critic,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Bourbon  in  1820.  He  made 
a  good  version  of  Ossian's  poems,  (1842,)  and  became 
secretary  to  M.  Sainte-Eeuve.  In  1852  he  published 
"  Poemes  et  Paysages,"  ("Poems  and  Landscapes.") 

Lacaze,  de,  deh  It'ktz',  (Louis,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  in  Bearn  in  1703.  Among  his  works  is 
"  Idee  de  I'Homme  physique  et  moral,"  ("  Ideal  of  the 
Physical  and  Moral  Man,"  1755.)    Died  in  1765. 

iacepede,  de,  deh  iS^si'p^d',  (Bernard  Germain 
firiENNE  DE  LA  ViLLE,)  CouNT,  an  eminent  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Agen  in  1756.  He  was  carefully  edu- 
cated at  home  by  his  father,  who  was  of  a  distinguished 
family,  and  in  early  youth  chose  natural  history  as  his 
favourite  study  and  Buffon  as  his  model.  Having  sent 
to  BufiFon  an  account  of  some  experiments  on  electricity 
and  received  a  complimentary  answer,  he  went  to  Paris 
in  1777,  and  formed  an  intimacy  with  that  naturalist  and 
Daubenton.  He  published  an  "Essay  on  Electricity" 
in  1 781,  and  soon  after  became  the  favourite  pupil  of 
Buffon,  who  selected  him  to  continue  his  "Natural  His- 
tory." In  1785  Lacepede  was  appointed  curator  and 
sub-demonstrator  in  the  Cabinet  du  Roi.  He  published, 
as  a  sequel  to  Buffon's  work,  in  1788,  a  "Natural  His- 
tory of  Oviparous  Quadrupeds  and  Serpents,"  which 
was  commended  by  Cuvier.  -  In  1791  he  entered  the 
Legislative  Assembly  as  a  moderate  friend  of  the  new 
regime,  and  during  the  reign  of  terror  found  refuge  in  the 
country.  He  obtained  a  chair  of  zoology  in  the  Museum 
of  Natural  History  in  1795,  and  was  admitted  into  the 
Institute  in  1796.  His  "Natural  History  of  Fishes"  (6 
vols.  4to,  1 798-1803)  is  elegant  in  style,  but  defective  in 
philosophy.  Having  been  chosen  president  of  the  senate 
in  1801,  grand  chancellor  of  the  legion  of  honour  in 
1803,  and  minister  of  state  in  1804,  he  was  very  assiduous 
in  the  performance  of  his  public  duties.  His  "Natural 
History  of  Cetacea"  (2  vols.,  1804)  is  called  his  best 
work.  After  the  restoration  he  was  made  a  peer  of 
France.    Died  in  1825. 

See  Cuvier,  "  filoge  historiqiie  dii  Comte  de  Lacepede,"  1826; 
ViLLENAVE,  "  filoge  historiquc  dii  Comte  de  Lacepede,"  1826; 
Amalric,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  M.  le  Comte  de 
Lacepede:"  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  "  Nouveile  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

La  Cerda.    See  Cerda,  de  la. 

Lacerda  e  Almeida,  de,  di  IS  scrMS  i  Sl-ma^-dJ, 
(Francisco  Joz^,)  a  Portuguese  traveller,  explored  parts 
of  Brazil,  and  portions  of  Africa  between  10°  and  26'' south 
latitude.    Died  in  Africa  about  1798. 

La  Chabeaussiere,  de,  deh  It  sht'bS'se^iR',  (Ange 
Etienne  Xavfer  Poisson,)  a  French  comic  poet,  born 
in  Paris  in  1752  ;  died  in  1820. 

La  Chaise  or  Lachaise,  de,  deh  It  shiz,  (Francois 
d'Aix,)  or  La  Chaise  d'Aix,  (Francois  de,)  Pere, 
a  French  Jesuit,  born  in  Forez  in  1624.  After  teaching 
philosophy  at  Lyons,  he  obtained  in  1675  the  place  of 
confessor  to  Louis  XIV.,  which  he  kept  for  thirty-four 
years.  He  had  much  influence  with  the  king,  and  ap- 
pears to  have  acted  with  moderation  and  prudence. 
Voltaire  calls  him  a  "mild  person,  with  whom  the  ways 
of  conciliation  were  always  open."  He  is  partly  respon- 
sible, however,  for  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes. 
Died  in  1709.  A  large  cemetery  of  Paris  bears  the  name 
of  Pere  La  Chaise. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Sietle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Saint-Simon,  "Me- 
moires;"  "Nouveile  Biographie  Generale." 

La  Chalotais.    See  Chalotais,  de  la. 

Lachambeaudie,  iS'shS.N'bo'de',  (Pierre,)  a  French 
fabulist,  born  at  Sarlat  in  1806.  He  joined  the  Saint- 
Simonians  about  1832,  and  published,  in  1839,  "Popular 
Fables,"  (7th  edition,  1849,)  vvhich  gained  a  prize  of  2000 
francs  from  the  French  Academy. 

La  Chambre.    See  Chambre,  de  la. 

Lachapelle  or  La  Chapelle,  de,  deh  It'sht'p^K, 
(Armand  Boisbeleau — bwi'lDch^o',)  a  French  Prot- 
estant minister,  was  born  in  Saintonge  in  1676.  After 


preaching  in  London,  he  became  pastor  of  a  church  at 
the  Hague  in  1725.  He  was  the  editor  of  the  last  ten 
volumes  of  the  "  Bibliotheque  Anglaise,"  or  "  Literary 
Journal  of  Great  Britain,"  (15  vols.,  1717-27,)  which  was 
commenced  by  Laroche,  and  wrote  several  theological 
works.    Died  in  1746. 

La  Chapelle,  de,  (Jean,)  a  mediocre  French  poet, 
born  at  Bourges  in  1655,  became  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  He  wrote  several  successful  tragedies,  among 
which  was  "  Zaide,"  and  "  The  Amours  of  Catullus," 
(1680.)    Died  in  1723. 

La-eh'a-res,  [Aa,v"p?7f,]  an  Athenian  demagogue  and 
tyrant,  who  obtained  the  chief  power  at  Athens  in  296 
B.C.    He  was  expelled  by  Demetrius  in  295. 

La  Chatre,  de,  deh  lt''shatR',  (Claude,)  a  French 
general  and  courtier,  born  about  1536;  died  in  1614. 

La  Chaussee.    See  Chauss^e. 

La^-elies,  [x\a;i;??f,]  an  Athenian  general,  commanded 
an  expedition  sent  to  Sicily  in  427  B.C.  He  was  one  of 
the  commanders  of  the  army  sent  to  Argos  in  418  B.C., 
and  was  killed  at  Mantinea  in  that  year. 

La-eh'e-sis,  [Aa^eOTf,]  a  Greek  word  signifying  "lot" 
or  "  destiny,"  the  name  of  one  of  the  ParC/E,  (which  see.) 

La  Chetardie.    See  Chetardie,  de  la. 

Lachniann,  l^K'min,  (Karl,)  an  eminent  German 
critic  and  philologist,  born  at  Brunswick  in  March,  1793. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Gottingen.  After  having 
lectured  in  the  University  of  Konigsberg,  he  became 
in  1827  professor  in  that  of  Berlin,  where  he  acquired 
a  high  reputation.  In  1830  he  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  Berlin.  He  published  excellent 
critical  essays  on  Homer  and  on  the  "  Niebelungen- 
Lied."  Between  1829  and  1845  edited  the  works  of 
Catullus,  Tibullus,  Terence,  and  Avianus.  He  published 
an  edition  of  Lucretius,  (1850.)  He  also  wrote  "  De 
Choreis  Systematis  Tragicorum  Graecorum,"  (i8i9,)and 
many  other  works.    Died  in  Berlin  in  185 1. 

See  Jacob  Grimm,  "Rede  auf  Lachmann,"  1851  ;  Martin 
Hertz,  "  K.  Lachmann,  eine  Biographie,"  1851  ;  "Nouveile  Bio- 
graphie Generale;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September, 
1847. 

Lachner,  13,K'ner,  (Franz,)  a  German  musical  com- 
poser, born  at  Rain,  in  Bavaria,  in  1804.  He  composed 
symphonies,  which  are  his  chief  title  to  fame,  and  sev- 
eral operas  and  oratorios.  After  acting  as  chapel-master 
in  Vienna  some  years,  he  became  royal  chapel-master  in 
Munich  in  1836.  He  ranks  among  the  greatest  com- 
posers of  symphonies  in  recent  times.  In  1852  he  was 
chosen  general  director  of  music  in  Munich. 

Lackemacher,  l&k'keh-mlK'er,  (Johann  Gott- 
fried,) a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Osterwick  in 
1695  ;  died  in  1736. 

Lack'ing-ton,  (James,)  an  English  bookseller,  born 
about  1745  ;  died  in  1816. 

See  his  "Autobiographic  Memoirs,"  1792. 

Lackmann,  lak'mSn,  (Adam  Heinrich,)  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Weningen  in  1694;  died  in  1753. 

La  Clede  or  Laclede,  de,  deh  It'kl^d',  (N.,)  a  French 
historian,  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire.  He  published  a  "  Gen- 
eral History  of  Portugal,"  (2  vols,  4to,  1735,)  which 
a  Portuguese  version  appeared  in  16  vols.,  (1781-97.)  He 
died  young  in  1736. 

Laclos  or  La  Clos,  de,  deh  iS'klo',  (Pierre  Am- 
BRoiSE  FRANgois  Choderlos — sho'd^R'los',)  a  French 
officer,  born  at  Amiens  in  1741.  He  was  secretary  to 
the  Duke  of  Orleans  during  the  Revolution.  In  the 
army  he  served  as  marechal-de-camp  under  the  Republic. 
He  published  a  licentious  romance,  "  The  Dangerous 
Liaisons."    Died  in  1803. 

La  Colonie,  de,  deh  It  ko^lo'ne',  (Jean  Martin,)  a 
French  historical  writer,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1674.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Bordeaux,"  (3  vols.,  1757.)  Died 
in  1759. 

Lacombe,  It'k^Mb',  (Jacques,)  a  mediocre  French 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1724.  Among  his  numerous 
works,  in  prose  and  verse,  are  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  Fine 
Arts,"  (1759,)  a  "History  of  Revolutions  in  Russia," 
(1763,)  and  a  "  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Trades,"  (8  vols,, 
1789-91.)    Died  in  1811. 

La  Coiidamine.    See  Condamine,  La. 

Lacordaire,  It'koR'diR',  (Jean  Baptiste  Henri,)  a 
celebrated  French  preacher,  and  founder  of  a  new  order 


€  as  ^/  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  o,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,   (2^°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LACORDJIRE  1350 


LACRVZ 


of  Dominicans,  was  born  at  Recey-sur-Ource  (Cote  d'Or) 
in  1802.  He  was  educated  for  the  law,  which  he  re- 
nounced in  1823  for  the  church,  having  been  converted 
from  Voltairian  views  by  the  "  Essay  on  Indifference" 
of  Lamennais.  In  1830  he  was  associated  with  Lainen- 
nais  and  Montalembert  as  an  editor  of  the  "  Avenir," 
which  was  ultramontane  in  religion  but  liberal  or  r<idical 
in  politics.  His  unity  and  co-operation  with  Lamen- 
nais ceased  in  1832,  after  a  visit  to  Rome  with  his  two 
friends  above  named,  and  after  the  pope  had  denounced 
the  "Avenir."  In  1835  the  archbishop  opened  to  him 
tiie  pulpit  of  Notre-Uame,  Paris,  where  he  attracted 
immense  crowds  by  the  novel  and  brilliant  style  of  his 
sermons,  in  which  he  availed  himself  freely  of  the  various 
interests  and  excitements  of  the  time.  He  became  a 
Dominican  friar  in  1840,  and  published  a  *'  Life  of  Saint 
Dominic."  In  1848  he  was  elected  to  the  Constituent 
Assembly ;  but  he  resigned  his  seat  in  May  of  that  year, 
having  failed  as  a  parliamentary  speaker.  He  after- 
wards preached  in  Paris  and  other  cities.  He  pub- 
lished "Considerations  on  the  Philosophic  System  of 
Lamennais,"  (1834,)  "Sermons  ( Conferences)  at  Notre- 
Dame,"  (3  vols.,  1835-50,)  "Letter  on  the  Holy  See," 
(1838,)  and  other  works.  In  1859  or  i860  he  was  elected 
to  the  French  Academy  in  place  of  De  Tocqueville. 
Died  in  November,  1861. 

See  Montalembert,  "  Vie  de  Lacordaire  ;"  "  Notice  sur  Lacor- 
daire,"  Lyons,  1845;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome 
i.  ;  L.  DE  LoMENiE,  "  Le  Pere  Lacordaire,"  1844;  Pierre  Lorrain, 
"  Biographic  historique  de  Lacordaire,"  1847;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale  ;"  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  1863;  "  London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1864;  P^ke  Chocarne,  "  Vie  du  Pere 
Lacordaire."  (and  English  translation  of  the  same,  Dublin  and  New 
York,  1867.) 

Lacordaire,  (Jean  Th^;odore,)  a  French  naturalist, 

a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Recey-sur-Ource 
in  1801.  He  travelled  extensively  in  South  America 
between  1825  and  1832.  Among  his  works  are  an  "In- 
troduction to  Entomology,"  (2  vols.,  1834-37,)  and  a 
"  Natural  History  of  Insects  :  Genera  of  Coleoptera," 
(4  vols.,  1857.) 

Lacoste,  It'kost',  (Elie,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  at 
Montagnac,  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792.  On 
the  9th  Thermidor,  1794,  he  spoke  with  energy  against 
Robespierre,  and  procured  the  suppression  of  the  revo- 
lutionary tribunal.    Died  in  1803. 

Lacour,  It'kooR',  (Pierre,)  a  French  painter  and 
archaeologist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1778. 

Lacretelle,  de,  deh  It'kReh-tSK,  (Jean  Charles 
Dominique,)  a  popular  French  historian,  born  at  Metz 
in  1766.  He  was  in  Paris  during  the  Revolution,  and  was 
a  zealous  partisan  of  the  moderate  Constitutionalists. 
After  the  fall  of  Robespierre  he  became  one  of  the  chiefs 
of  the  jeunesse  doree,  and  gained  distinction  as  an  elo- 
quent writer  and  editor  of  a  political  journal.  On  the 
i8th  Fructidor,  1797,  he  was  arrested  on  the  charge  of 
being  a  royalist,  and  imprisoned  twenty-three  months. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (5 
vols.,  1801-6,)  which  obtained  great  success,  a  "His- 
tory of  France  since  the  Restoration,"  (3  vols.,  1829-35,) 
and  many  other  works  on  French  history.  Among  his 
best  productions  is  a  "  History  of  France  during  the 
P^ighteenth  Century,"  (6  vols.,  1808,)  and  "The  National 
Convention,"  (3  vols.,  1825.)  He  was  admitted  into  the 
French  Academy  in  1811,  and  was  professor  of  history 
at  the  Faculty  of  Letters  from  1809  to  1848,  In  1827  he 
was  the  prime  mover  of  a  protest  which  the  French 
Academy  made  against  a  proposed  law  to  subvert  the 
freedom  of  the  press.    Died  in  1855. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  Tastel,  "  Histoire  des 
quarante  Fauteuils  de  I'Academie  Frangaise,"  4  vols.,  1855;  "Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1814 ;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
January,  1805. 

Lacretelle,  de,  (Pierre  Louis,)  a  French  lawyer  and 
successful  writer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Metz  in  1 75 1.  He  became  a  resident  of  Paris  at  an  early 
age.  He  gained  reputation  by  his  "Eloge  de  Montau- 
sier,"  by  a  prize  essay  "  Sur  la  Prejuge  des  Peines  infa- 
mantes,"  ("On  the  Prejudice  against  [the  Families  of 
those  who  suffer]  Infamous  Penalties,"  1784,)  and  other 
works,  for  which  the  Academy  in  1786  awarded  him  the 
prize  founded  for  the  work  most  useful  to  morals.  In 
1 79 1  he  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  where 


he  acted  with  the  moderate  Constitutionalists.  About 
1802  he  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  place 
of  La  Harpe.  After  the  restoration  of  1814  he  was  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  "Minerve  Fran9aise."  He  was 
author  of  "Portraits  and  Tableaux"  and  "Melanges  of 
Philosophy  and  Literature,"  (5  vols.,  1802-07.)  Died  in 
1824  or  1825. 

Lacroix,  It'kRwl',  (Jules,)  a  French  novelist  and 
poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1809,  published  "The  Parasites," 
(2  vols.,  1837,)  "  Memoirs  of  a  Somnambulist,"  (5  vols., 
1845,)  and  other  novels. 

Lacroix,  (Paul,)  a  prolific  writer  and  novelist,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1807,  and  is 
known  under  the  pseudonym  of  P.  L.  Jacob  bibliophile. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  in 
France,"  (4  vols,  1834,)  a  "  History  of  Napoleon  III.," 
(4  vols.,  1854,)  and  other  historical  works.  The  manners, 
arts,  and  sciences  of  Europe  in  the  middle  ages  and  in 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  are  illustrated  in  his 
"  Moyen-Age  et  la  Renaissance,"  (5  vols.,  1847-51,)  which 
is  regarded  as  a  valuable  and  important  work.  Among 
his  novels  are  "  Soirees  of  Walter  Scott  at  Paris,"  (2  vols., 
1829-31,)  "The  Good  Old  Time,"  (1835,)  and  "Lover 
and  Mother,"  ("  Amante  et  Mere,"  2  vols.,  1839.) 

Lacroix,  (Silvestre  FRANgois,)  a  French  mathema- 
tician, born  in  Paris  in  1765.  He  was  professor  in  the 
Polytechnic  School,  the  Sorbonne,  and  the  College  of 
France  for  about  sixty  years,  and  rendered  important 
services  to  science  by  his  elementary  works  on  geometry, 
algebra,  etc.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Differ- 
ential and  Integral  Calculus,"  (2  vols.,  1797,)  which  is 
highly  esteemed.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
Died  in  1843. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lacroix  or  La  Croix,  de,  deh  It'kRwJ',  (Emeric,) 
a  French  writer  against  war,  born  in  Paris  about  1590. 
Among  his  works  is  "The  New  Cyneas." 

Lacroix,  de,  (Franqois  Joseph  Pamphile,)  Vi- 
COMTE,  a  French  general,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1774; 
died  in  1842. 

Lacroix,  de,  (J.  P.,)  a  French  regicide  and  lawyer, 
was  born  at  Pont-Audemer  in  1754.  He  was  an  active 
member  of  the  Convention,  and  became  a  political  friend 
of  Danton,  with  whom  he  was  executed  in  April,  1794. 

Lacroix,  de,  (Louis  Antoine  Nicolle,)  a  French 
geographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1704.  He  published  a 
"  Modern  Geography,"  (1747,)  which  v/as  used  in  colleges 
for  about  fifty  years.    Died  in  1760. 

Lacroix,  de,  (Marie  Nicolas  Chrestien,)  a  French 
engineer  and  topographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1754.  He 
enjoyed  high  consideration  as  chief  of  the  topographical 
bureau  in  the  department  of  foreign  affairs.  Died  in  1836. 

Lacroix  du  Maine,  de,  deh  It'kRwS'  dli  mkn, 
(FRANgois  Grud^:,)  Sieur,  a  French  bibliographer,  born 
at  Mans  in  1552.  Having  collected  many  books  and  lite- 
rary materials,  he  published  in  1584  his  "  Bibliotheque 
Frangaise,"  which  contains  valuable  information  on 
French  works  and  their  authors,  and  is  commended  for 
accuracy.  He  was  assassinated  in  1592  by  some  fanatics 
who  suspected  that  he  secretly  favoured  the  Reformed 
religion. 

Lacrosse,  de,  deh  It^'kRoss',  (Bernard  Thi^obald 
Joseph,)  Baron,  a  French  politician,  born  at  Brest  in 
1796.  In  December,  1848,  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
public  works.    He  became  a  senator  in  1852. 

Lacrosse,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste  Raymond,)  Baron, 
a  French  admiral,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Meilhan  in  1765.  In  1804  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  flotilla  at  Boulogne.  Died  in  1829. 

Lacroze,  de,  deh  It'kRoz',  (Mathurin  Veyssi^re,) 
a  French  Orientalist,  born  at  Nantes  in  1661,  became 
librarian  of  the  King  of  Prussia  in  1697,  and  professor 
of  philosophy  in  Berlin.  He  wrote  an  "  Egyptian  Dic- 
tionary," and  several  historical  treatises.    Died  in  1739. 

Lacruz  or  La  Cruz,  de,  di  IS-kRooth',  (Juan,)  a 
skilful  Spanish  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was  born 
at  Valencia  in  1545,  and  was  surnamed  Pantoja.  He 
was  patronized  by  Philip  II.,  for  whom  he  painted  por- 
traits and  religious  pieces  for  the  Escurial. 

Lacruz,  de,  (Juana  Inez,)  a  Spanish  or  Mexican 
poetess,  born  near  Mexico  in  165 1.    She  published  in 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  \  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6, u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f2,r,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LACK  UZ 


LAENNEC 


1670  a  volume  of  dramas  and  other  poems,  religious  and 
secular,  which  were  greatly  admired  for  grace  and  sensi- 
bility. She  retired  to  a  convent  in  1668,  and  died  in 
1695.    She  was  often  called  "the  Tenth  Muse." 

Lacruz  y  Cano,  de,  di  la-kRooth'  e  kS'no,  (Ramon,) 
a  Spanish  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Madrid  in  1731.  He 
had  great  facility  in  versification,  and  excelled  in  ridicule 
or  facetiae.  He  produced  many  successful  comedies,  in 
which  characters  are  skilfully  treated.    Died  in  1795. 

Lacshmi.    See  Lakshmi. 

Lactance.    See  Lactantius. 

Lactantius,lik-tan'she-us,[Fr.  Lactance,  lik^tSNss'; 
It.  Lattanzio,  lit-tan'ze-o,]  (Lucius  Ccelius  Firmi- 
ANUS,)  an  eloquent  Latin  Father,  who  flourished  in  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a  native  of  Africa.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Arnobius.  About 
290  A.D.,  Diocletian  employed  him  as  teacher  of  rhetoric 
at  Nicomedia.  Some  writers  think  he  was  converted 
from  paganism  after  that  date.  Between  310  and  320  he 
was  preceptor  of  Crispus,  the  son  of  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine,  and  during  that  period  lived  in  Gaul.  His 
principal  work  is  " Institutiones  Divinae,"  ("Divine  In- 
stitutions,") a  defence  of  Christianity.  He  is  reputed 
the  most  eloquent  and  polished  of  the  Latin  Fathers, 
and  was  called  by  Saint  Jerome  "the  Christian  Cicero." 
Died  probably  about  325  a.d. 

See  Brooke  Mountain,  "  Summary  of  the  Writings  of  Lactan- 
tius," London,  1839;  Fleury,  "  Histoire  eccl^siastique ;"  Saint 
Jerome,  "De  Scriptoribus  Ecclesiasticis  ;"  P.  Eckerman,  "  Disser- 
tatio  de  Lactantio,  Cicerone  Christiano,"  1754 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Generale." 

Lacuee,  It'kii'i',  (G6rard  Jean,)  Comte  de  Cessac, 
a  French  general  and  administrator,  born  near  Agen  in 
1752.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Institute,  minister 
of  state,  (1807,)  and  minister  of  the  administration  of 
war  in  1810.    Died  in  1841. 

Lacuna.    See  Laguna. 

La'cy,  (John,)  an  English  actor  and  dramatist,  born 
at  Doncaster.  He  obtained  such  popularity  as  a  comic 
actor  that  Charles  II.  had  his  portrait  painted  in  several 
characters.  He  wrote,  besides  other  comedies,  "  The 
Dumb  Lady,"  and  '*  Sir  Hercules  Buffoon."  Died  in  1681. 

Lacy,  de,  dk  ll7//ee',  (Luis,)  an  able  Spanish  general, 
born  near  Gibraltar  in  1775.  Having  failed  in  an  attempt 
to  restore  the  authority  of  the  Cortes,  he  was  shot  in  181 7. 

Lacy,  von,  (Joseph  Franz  Moritz.)    See  Lascy. 

La-9y'des,  [AaKvdrig,]  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Pla- 
tonic school,  was  a  native  of  Cyrene.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Arcesilaus,  whose  successor  he  became  at  Athens 
about  240  B.C.  His  writings  are  not  extant.  Died 
about  215  B.C.,  (one  account  says  241  B.C.) 

Ladd,  (William,)  an  American  philanthropist,  born 
at  Exeter,  New  Hampshire,  in  1778,  was  one  of  the 
originators  of  the  American  Peace  Society,  of  which  he 
became  president.  He  was  successively  editor  of  the 
"  Friend  of  Peace"  and  the  '*  Harbinger  of  Peace,"  and 
wrote  several  essays  on  that  subject.    Died  in  1841. 

See  the  "Democratic  Review"  for  March,  1842. 

Ladenberg,  von,  fon  la'den-b§RG',  (Adalbert,)  born 
at  Anspach  in  1798,  filled  many  important  posts  und-er 
the  Prussian  government.    Died  in  1855. 

Ladenberg,  von,  (Philipp,)  a  Prussian  lawyer,  the 
father  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1769, 
became  in  1837  privy  minister  of  state.    Died  in  1847. 

Ladislaus,  lad'is-lawss  or  li'dis-lowss,  [Fr.  Ladislas, 
ItMe'sl^s';  Polish,  Wladislaw,  vliMe-slav'  or  vlSMe- 
slSf,]  I.,  King  of  Hungary,  and  Saint,  born  in  1041,  was 
a  son  of  Bela  I.  He  began  to  reign  in  1078,  and  died  in 
1095.    He  was  canonized  by  the  pope. 

See  Gan6czy,  "Dissertatio  de  S.  Ladislao,"  etc.,  Vienna,  1775. 

Ladislaus  II.,  of  Hungary,  a  son  of  Bela  II.,  was 
born  about  1134;  died  in  1162,  after  a  reign  of  about 
six  months.  He  is  omitted  from  some  lists  of  the  kings 
of  Hungary. 

Ladislaus  II.  or  III.,  King  of  Hungary,  born  about 
1 185,  was  a  son  of  Emeric.  He  was  elected  in  1204,  and 
died  in  1205. 

Ladislaus  III.  or  IV.,  surnamed  Cuman,  King  of 
Hungary,  succeeded  his  father,  Stephen  IV.,  in  1272.  In 
his  reign  Hungary  was  ravaged  by  the  Tartars  or  Mon- 
gols.   He  was  assassinated  in  1290. 


Ladislaus  IV.  or  V.,  King  of  Hungary,  born  about 
140O;  was  a  son  of  Jagellon  or  Ladislaus.  He  inherited 
the  throne  of  Poland  in  1434,  and  was  elected  King  of 
Hungary  in  1440.  His  army  gained  several  victories 
over  the  Turkish  invaders.  (See  Huniades.)  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Varna  by  the  Turks  in  1444.  He 
was  succeeded  by  the  infant  son  of  Albert  II.,  who 
was  styled  Ladislaus  VI.,  and  who  died  in  1457,  aged 
seventeen. 

See  Fessler,  "  Geschichte  der  Ungarn." 

Ladislaus  VI.  or  VII.,  King  of  Hungary,  born  about 
1450,  was  a  son  of  Casimir  IV.  of  Poland.  He  was 
elected  King  of  Hungary  in  1490.  During  his  reign  the 
conquests  of  Matthias  Corvinus  in  Austria  were  lost. 
He  died  in  15 16,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son  Louis. 

See  Count  von  Mailath,  "  Geschichte  der  Ungarn." 

Ladislaus  or  Lancelot,  King  of  Naples,  was  the 
son  of  Charles  III.,  and  began  to  reign  in  1386.  His 
rival,  Louis  IL,  had  possession  of  Naples,  but  was  ex- 
pelled in  1399.  Ladislaus  excited  the  Romans  to  revolt 
against  Innocent  VII.,  and  in  1408  made  himself  master 
of  Rome.    Died  in  1414. 

Ladislaus  of  Poland.    See  Vladislaus. 

Ladmiral,  Itd'me'rtl',  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  of 
French  descent,  born  at  Ley  den  in  1680. 

Ladoucette,  de,  deh  It'doo'sSt',  (Jean  Charles 
Francois,)  Baron,  a  meritorious  French  administrator, 
born  at  Metz  in  1770 ;  died  in  1848. 

Ladowski,  li-dov'skee,  (Remie,)  a  Polish  naturalist, 
born  at  Volhynia  in  1738,  published  a  "Natural  History 
of  Poland,"  (1783.)    Died  in  1798. 

Ladvocat,  ltdVo'ki',  (Jean  Baffiste,)  a  French 
doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  born  at  Vaucouleurs  in  1709, 
was  learned  in  philosophy,  history,  Oriental  languages, 
etc.  He  became  professor  of  divinity  in  the  Sorbonne, 
and  published,  besides  other  works,  a  Hebrew  Grammar, 
"  Bibliotheque  annuelle,"  (1748-51,)  and  a  "Historical 
Dictionary,"  (2  vols.,  1752.)  An  enlarged  edition  of  the 
last  was  published  in  5  vols,  in  1822.    Died  in  1765. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Ladvocat,  (Louis  Fran(;:ois,)  a  French  philosophica. 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1644.  He  became  a  counsellor 
and  dean  of  the  chamber  of  accounts.  He  wrote  several 
metaphysical  works,  one  of  which  is  entitled  a  "  New 
System  of  Philosophy."    Died  in  1735. 

Ladvocat,  (N.,)  a  French  publisher  and  bookseller, 
born  in  1790;  died  in  1854. 

Laelius,  lee'le-us,  (Caius,)  surnamed  Nepos,  an  emi- 
nent Roman  general.  He  had  a  high  command  under 
Scipio  Africanus  in  the  expedition  against  Spain  in  210 
B.C.  In  205  he  gained  a  victory  over  Syphax  in  Africa, 
for  which  he  received  a  crown  of  gold.  He  was  elected 
praetor  in  197,  and  consul  in  190.  His  notes  furnished 
Polybius  with  materials  for  his  history  of  Scipio's  cam- 
paigns in  Spain. 

Lselius,  (Caius,)  surnamed  Sapiens,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, studied  philosophy  with  Diogenes  the  Stoic,  and 
became  an  eminent  orator.  He  served  with  distinction 
under  his  friend  Scipio  the  Younger  at  the  siege  of  Car- 
thage, and  was  chosen  consul  in  140  B.C.  He  favoured  the 
aristocratic  party,  and  was  an  opponent  of  T.  Gracchus. 
The  celebrity  of  the  friendship  between  Laelius  and 
Scipio  caused  Cicero  to  place  the  name  of  the  former  at 
the  head  of  his  dialogue  "  De  Amicitia."  Horace  com- 
mends his  mild  philosophy, — "mitis  sapientia  Laelii," 
(Serm.  ii.  Sat.  i.)    Died  about  115  B.C. 

See  Cicero,  "Brutus"  and  "  De  Oratore  ;"  Hendrik  Hana, 
"Dissertatio  de  C.  Lslio  Sapiente,"  1832. 

Laennec,  Wnhk',  (Guillaume  FRANgois,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Quimper  in  1748,  was  the  uncle  of 
the  following.  He  became  physician-in-ordinary  to  the 
king  in  1779.    Died  in  1822. 

Laennec,  (Ren6  Theodore  Hyacinths,)  an  eminent 
French  physician,  born  at  Quimper  in  February,  1781, 
went  to  Paris  in  1800  to  pursue  his  studies.  He  gave 
special  attention  to  anatomy,  ii"i  which  he  made  several 
discoveries.  He  had  already  acquired  a  reputation  by  his 
practice  and  writings,  when  he  invented  the  stethoscope 
in  181 5,  and  opened  a  new  era  in  medicine  by  his  impor- 
tant discovery  of  auscultation.  Having  been  chosen  chief 


<  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  o,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23*) 


LAENSBERGH 


1352 


LA  FAYETTE 


physician  of  the  Hopital  Necker  in  1816,  he  studied  the 
diseases  of  the  thorax  with  great  diligence,  sagacity,  and 
success.  His  "Treatise  on  Mediate  Auscultation,"  etc. 
("Traite  de  I'Auscultation  mediate  et  des  Maladies  des 
Poumons  et  du  Coeur,"  2  vols.,  1819)  produced  a  great 
sensation,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  important 
contribution  to  medical  science  made  in  the  present  cen- 
tury. Wo,  was  appointed  professor  of  medicine  in  the 
College  of  France  in  1822,  and  obtained  the  chair  of 
clinic  medicine  in  1822  or  1823.  He  died  of  consump- 
tion in  1826. 

See  Pariset,  "  £loge  de  Laennec,"  1840 ;  A.  L.  J.  Bayle,  "  No- 
tice historique  sur  R.  T.  H.  Laennec,"  1826;  "  Novivelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Laensbergh,  iSns'b&RH  or  lins'bgRg,  (  Mathieu,) 
a  Fleming,  who  lived  about  1630,  was  the  author  of  a 
famous  almanac,  first  published  about  1635.  An  almanac 
bearing  his  name  continues  to  be  published  at  Liege. 

La  Enzina  or  Enema.    See  Fnzfna. 

Laer  or  Laar,  van,  vtn  IIr,  (Pieter,)  a  celebrated 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1613.  He  studied 
and  worked  sixteen  years  in  Rome,  where  he  was  inti- 
mate with  N.  Poussin  and  Claude  Lorrain  and  received 
the  surname  of  Bamboccio.  In  1639  he  returned  to 
Holland  and  settled  in  Haarlem.  His  favourite  subjects 
were  hunting-scenes,  rural  sports,  fairs,  fisheries,  and 
rustic  festivals,  which  he  treated  with  great  vivacity.  He 
excelled  in  design,  colour,  and  aerial  effects.  His  etch- 
ings of  his  own  designs  are  also  much  admired.  Died 
in  1673. 

Laerte._  See  Laertes. 

La-er'tes,  [Gr.  AaepTjjg ;  Fr.  Laerte,  li'^Rt',]  King 
of  Ithaca,  and  father  of  Ulysses,  is  said  to  have  been 
one  of  the  Argonauts.  He  resigned  the  crown  to  his 
son  just  named. 

Laertius,  (Diogenes.)    See  Diogenes. 

Laet,  van,  vtn  iSt,  (Jan,)  a  Flemish  geographer,  born 
at  Antwerp,  was  well  versed  in  languages  and  history. 
He  published  valuable  descriptive  works  on  Spain,  Italy, 
Persia,  etc.  His  "  Description  of  the  West  Indies"  (1640) 
is  highly  commended.    Died  about  1650. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  Memoires." 

Laevinus,  le-vl'nus,  (Marcus  Valerius,)  a  Roman 
general,  who,  having  obtained  the  office  of  praetor  in  214 
B.C.,  fought  with  success  against  Philip,  King  of  Mace- 
don,  at  Oricum.  He  became  consul  in  210  B.C.,  and 
obtained  by  lot  the  command  of  Italy,  which  was  then 
invaded  by  Hannibal  ;  but  he  exchanged  this  province 
with  Marcellus  for  Sicily.  He  quickly  expelled  the  Car- 
thaginians from  this  island.    Died  in  200  B.C. 

See  LivY,  "History  of  Rome;"  Polybius,  "  History." 

Lcevinus,  (Publius  Valerius,)  a  Roman  general, 
who  was  consul  in  280  B.C.  He  obtained  the  chief  com- 
mand in  the  war  against  Pyrrhus  and  the  Tarentines. 
His  army  was  defeated  by  Pyrrhus  in  a  great  battle  on 
the  Siris,  near  Heraclea,  in  280  B.C. 

Lsevinus,  li-vee^ius,  (  Torrentius,  )  called  also 
Vander  Beken,  vtn  der  ba'ken,  a  Flemish  prelate, 
born  at  Ghent  about  1525,  was  distinguished  as  a  Latin 
poet.  He  founded  a  college  of  Jesuits  at  Louvain,  and 
became  Bishop  of  Mechlin.    Died  in  1595. 

Leevius,  lee've-us,  a  Latin  poet,  of  whom  little  is 
known.  He  lived  in  the  first  century  before  Christ,  and 
wrote  "  Erotopaegnia." 

Lafabrique,  li'ft'bR6k',(NiC0LAS,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Naniur  ;  died  at  Liege  in  1736. 

La  Fage,  It  ft^h,  (Raimond,)  a  French  designer  and 
engraver,  born  at  Lisle  (Albigeois)  about  1650,  studied 
and  worked  at  Rome  and  at  Paris.  He  was  renowned 
for  boldness  of  touch  and  facility  of  execution.  The 
pen  was  his  favourite  instrimient  in  design.  He  left 
many  etchings.  His  habits  were  very  intemperate. 
Died  about  1690. 

La  Faille,  de,  deh  It  ftl  or  ft'ye,  (  Clement,  )  a 
French  naturalist,  born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1718;  died  in 
1782. 

Lafaist.    See  Lafave. 

La  Fare,  de,  deh  It  ftR,  (Charles  Auguste,)  Mar- 
quis, a  French  litleratein;  born  at  Valgorge  in  1644.  He 
served  several  campaigns  in  the  army,  (1667-74,)  and 
became  a  friend  of  Turenne.    Besides  some  trifling 


poetical  pieces,  he  wrote  "Memoirs  and  Reflections  on 
the  Principal  Events  of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIV.," 
(1715,)  which  is  commended.    Died  in  1712. 

La  Farge,  It  ftRzh,  (Joachim,)  a  French  financier, 
born  in  Paris  about  1750,  originated  a  system  of  tontine 
which  is  called  by  his  name.    Died  about  1825. 

La  Farge,  (Marie  Cappelle,  )  a  Frenchwoman, 
notorious  for  her  crimes,  was  born  in  Picardy  in  1816. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  a  colonel  of  artillery,  and  was 
married  in  1838  to  M.  La  Farge,  who  died  soon  after,  it 
was  supposed,  from  the  effects  of  poison  administered 
by  his  wife.  About  the  same  time  she  was  accused  of 
having  stolen  from  one  of  her  friends  some  diamonds  of 
great  value.  The  trial  which  followed  was  of  the  most 
exciting  kind,  several  eminent  chemists  having  declared, 
after  an  examination  of  the  remains,  that  there  were  no 
marks  of  poison,  while  M.  Orfila  asserted  that  arsenic 
was  present  Madame  La  Farge  was  condemned  to 
imprisonment  for  life,  but  after  twelve  years  she  was 
released,  on  account  of  ill  health,  and  died  in  1852. 

See  "Menioiies  de  Marie  Cappelle  Veiive  La  Farge,"  by  herself, 
4  vols.,  1840;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1842. 

La  Farina,  la  tl-Ree'na,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  lawyer 
and  historical  writer,  born  at  Messina  in  1815.  He 
founded  several  liberal  journals,  which  were  successively 
suppressed  by  the  government.  He  afterwards  settled 
at  Florence,  where  he  found  more  liberty,  and  published 
a  democratic  anti-papal  journal,  "  L'Alba."  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  unsuccessful  revolution  in  Sicily 
in  184S,  after  which  he  again  became  an  exile.  Among 
his  works  are  a  "History  of  Italy  from  1815  to  1850," 
(6  vols.,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Revolution  of  Sicily  in 
1848-49,"  (2  vols.) 

Lafaye,  It'fi',  (Antoine,)  a  French  Protestant  min- 
ister, born  at  Chateaudun,  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Geneva  in  1 584.  He  wrote  several  theological  works, 
and  a  "Life  of  Beza,"  (1606.)    Died  in  161 5. 

Lafaye  or  Lafaist,  It'fi',  (Pierre  Benjamin,)  a 
French  philologist,  born  in  the  department  of  Yonne  in 
1808.  His  chief  works  are  "French  Synonymes,"  (1841,) 
crowned  by  the  Institute,  and  a  "Dictionary  of  the 
Synonymes  of  the  French  Language,"  (1858.) 

Lafaye,  de,  deh  ItTa',  (Jean  Elie,)  an  able  French 
engineer,  born  at  Vienne  in  167 1.  He  served  in  the 
army  many  years  as  engineer,  and  made  discoveries  in 
the  science  of  war.    Died  in  1718. 

Lafaye,  de,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  diplomatist, 
distinguished  for  his  wit  and  accomplishments,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Vienne  in  1674.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1731. 

La  Fayette  or  Lafayette,  de,  deh  It'tl'^t',  (George 
Washington,)  the  only  son  of  General  La  Fayette,  was 
born  in  1779.  He  entered  the  army  young,  and  served 
in  Italy  about  1796.  As  aide-de-camp  of  General  Grou- 
chy, he  made  the  campaigns  of  Austria,  Prussia,  and 
Poland,  (1805-07,)  He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  1822,  and  again  in  1827,  by  the  voters  of 
Seine-et-Marne,  whom  he  continued  to  represent  until 
1848.  In  politics  he  was  an  advanced  liberal.  Died  in  1849. 

La  Fayette,  de,  (Gilbert,)  a  French  general,  born 
about  1380.  He  fought  for  the  dauphin  Charles  against 
the  English,  and  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1420. 
He  was  afterwards  one  of  the  chief  counsellors  of 
Charles  VII.,  and  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Joan 
of  Arc  at  Orleans  in  1429.  He  aided  in  expelling  the 
English  from  Normandy  in  1449.    Died  in  1462. 

See  "  Nouveile  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

La  Fayette,  de,  (Louise,)  a  French  lady,  born  in 
1616,  was  a  daughter  of  Count  Jean  de  la  Fayette, 
She  gained  the  affection  of  Louis  XIII.  about  1634,  and 
encouraged  him  to  become  more  independent  of  Riche- 
lieu.   She  entered  a  convent  about  1636.    Died  in  1665. 

La  Fayette  or  Lafayette,  de,  (Marie  Jean  Paul 
Roch  Yves  Gilbert  Motier — rosh  ^v  zh^l^baiR'  mu'- 
te-i',)  Marquis,  an  illustrious  French  statesman  and 
patriot,  was  born  at  Chavagnac,  September  6,  1757.  Mis 
father,  who  was  a  marquis  and  marechal-de-camp,  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Minden  in  1757.  After  leaving 
the  College  Du  Plessis,  in  Paris,  he  married  in  1774 
Mdlle.  d'Ayen,  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Ayen.  He 
was  the  heir  of  an  immense  fortune,  and  had  brilliant 


a,  e, T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^Il,  f^t;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


LA  FAYETTE 


1353 


LA  FERTE 


prospects  at  court,  when,  with  generous  enthusiasm  for 
liberty,  he  offered  his  services  to  the  new-born  republic 
of  America.  Silas  Deane,  commissioner  of  the  United 
States  in  Paris,  accepted  his  offer,  and  promised  him 
the  grade  of  major-general,  which  was  confirmed  by  the 
American  Congress,  In  the  spring  of  1777  he  arrived 
in  the  United  States,  and  in  the  same  year  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  the  Brandywine,  where  h^  was  wounded. 
He  gained  the  favour  and  confidence  of  Washington, 
and  received  the  thanks  of  Congress  for  his  conduct  at 
Monmouth  in  1 778.  The  French  court  having  recog- 
nized the  independence  of  the  United  States,  La  Fayette 
recrossed  the  ocean  in  1779  and  returned  with  material 
aid  to  the  scene  of  war.  He  commanded  the  advanced 
guard  of  Washington  in  1780,  and  contributed  to  the 
decisive  victory  of  Yorktown,  (1781,)  where  the  war  was 
virtually  ended. 

On  his  return  to  France,  with  a  prestige  magnified 
by  distance,  he  was  received  with  unbounded  applause, 
which  reanimated  or  confirmed  his  devotion  to  the  cause 
of  liberty.  In  1787  he  advocated  the  rights  of  the  French 
Protestants  and  various  reforms  in  the  government.  His 
principal  parliamentary  act  in  the  States-General  of  1789 
was  his  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man,  which  was 
adopted  by  that  body.  In  that  year  he  was  chosen  by  ac- 
clamation commandant  of  the  Parisian  militia,  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  of  the  National  Guard.  At  this  period 
he  was  the  popular  favourite  of  the  nation.  "  The  federa- 
tion of  1790,"  says  Lamartine,  "was  the  apogee  of  La 
Fayette.  He  overshadowed  on  that  day  both  the  king 
and  the  Assembly."  ("  History  of  the  Girondists.") 
Aiming  to  reconcile  his  loyalty  to  the  king  with  his  duty 
to  the  cause  of  freedom,  he  acted  with  the  Feuillants, 
the  friends  of  constitutional  monarchy.  In  the  main- 
tenance of  order  he  often  risked  his  life,  and  he  enforced 
martial  law  against  the  insurgents  in  the  Champ-de-Mars 
in  July,  1 791,  soon  after  the  arrest  of  the  king  at  Va- 
rennes.  Before  the  end  of  that  year  he  resigned  his  com- 
mand, and  was  a  candidate  for  the  mayoralty  of  Paris  ;  but 
the  intrigues  of  the  queen  and  court,  who  hated  or  feared 
him,  decided  the  election  in  favour  of  Pethion,  who  was 
a  radical  revolutionist.  The  large  majority  of  Pethion 
showed  that  the  star  of  La  Fayette  was  declining.  In  the 
winter  of  1791-92  he  was  chosen  commander  of  one  of 
the  three  armies,  and,  war  having  been  declared  against 
Austria  in  April,  he  directed  some  small  operations  on 
the  frontier  of  Flanders,  at  the  same  time  striving,  with- 
out success,  to  defeat  the  Jacobins  at  Paris.  Indignant 
at  the  attack  on  the  Tuileries,  (June  20,  1792,)  La  Fayette 
went,  with  a  single  officer,  to  Paris,  and,  in  a  short 
harangue  before  the  bar  of  the  Assembly,  demanded  the 
punishment  of  the  offenders.  "  In  this  attempt  to  act  as 
dictator,"  says  Lamartine,  "the  motive  was  generous, 
the  peril  great,  but  the  means  null."  Returning  to  the 
army,  he  devised  a  plan  to  save  the  king  by  transferring 
him  from  the  capital  to  his  camp ;  but  the  court  rejected 
the  offer. 

The  insurrection  of  August  10  gave  the  ascendency  to 
the  republicans,  who  deprived  La  Fayette  of  his  command. 
He  then  fled  towards  Holland,  intending  to  emigrate  to 
the  United  States,  but  was  arrested  by  the  Austrians  and 
detained  in  the  dungeons  of  Neiss  and  Olmiitz,  where 
he  was  treated  with  much  rigour.  In  a  treaty  with  Aus- 
tria in  1797,  Bonaparte  insisted  on  his  liberation,  which 
was  effected  in  September  of  that  year.  Having  passed 
about  two  years  in  Holland,  he  returned  to  France  in 
1800,  and,  refusing  several  offers  of  public  employment 
under  Bonaparte,  maintained  his  political  consistency  in 
retirement  at  La  Grange.  Some  one  having  complained 
that  La  Fayette  censured  the  government,  the  First 
Consul  replied,  "Let  him  alone  :  he  will  not  say  more 
against  me  than  he  has  expressed  openly  before  me." 

In  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1815,  he  opposed  the 
claims  of  Bonaparte  and  of  the  Bourbons,  and  wished  to 
rally  round  the  standard  of  1789  for  "liberty,  equality, 
and  order."  After  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he 
spoke  frequently  in  the  Chamber  in  opposition  to  the 
ministry.  In  1824  he  revisited  the  scene  of  his  youthful 
exploits,  where  he  was  received  with  cordial  demonstra- 
tions of  honour  and  gratritude,  and  passed  about  a  year 
in  a  triumphal  progress  through  the  twenty-four  States  of 


the  Union.  The  Congress  of  the  United  States  voted 
$200,000  in  recompense  for  his  services  in  the  war  of 
independence.  The  arbitrary  measures  of  Charles  X. 
again  roused  him  to  political  action.  He  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  as  the  chief  of  the 
popular  camp  in  Paris,  and  president  of  the  commission 
which  exercised  a  sort  of  dictatorship  after  the  expul- 
sion of  Charles  X.  He  was  also  chosen  commander 
of  all  the  National  Guards  of  France.  He  acquiesced 
in  the  accession  of  Louis  Philippe,  which  Lamartine 
thinks  he  might  easily  have  prevented  by  proclaiming 
a  republic.  On  this  occasion  he  said  to  the  new  king, 
"  You  know  that  I  am  a  republican,  and  that  I  regard 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  as  the  most  perfect 
that  ever  existed."  He  died  May  20,  1834,  leaving  one 
son  and  several  daughters.  Perhaps  no  man  ever  lived 
through  such  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  and  such  severe 
trials  of  his  virtue,  with  a  character  more  free  from  just 
reproach  than  La  Fayette.  The  high-toned  consistency 
of  his  conduct  is  expressed  in  the  assertion  of  Madame 
de  Stael,  "  that  you  could  certainly  predict  what  he  would 
do  in  every  contingency." 

See  Sarrans,  "  Lafayette  et  la  Revolution  de  1830,"  2  vols., 
1834;  Cloquet,  "Souvenirs  de  la  Vie  de  La  Fayette,"  1836;  "  Me- 
moires  et  Correspondance  du  General  Lafayette,"  (published  by 
his  family.)  6  vols.,  1838;  J.  Q.  Adams,  "Oration  on  the  Life  and 
Character  of  Lafayette,"  1834;  William  Cutter,  "Life  of  General 
Lafayette,"  New  York,  1849  ;  L.  ue  Lomenie,  "  M.  de  Lafayette,  par 
un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1842;  P.  C.  Headlev,  "Life  of  Lafayette," 
Auburn,  1851  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Critiques  et  Portraits  litteraires," 
tome  V.  ;  Smile  de  la  Bedolliere,  "Vie  politique  du  Marquis  de 
Lafayette,"  1833:  Bancroft,  "History  of  the  United  States,"  vol. 
ix.  ;  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1825,  (by  George 
TiCKNOR,)  and  January,  1830,  (by  Edward  Everett;)  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1832 ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly"  for 
October,  1832  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1833. 

La  Fayette,  de,  (Marie  Madeleine  Pioche  de  la 
Vergne — pe'osh'  deh  It  v^Rn,)  Countess,  a  popular 
French  authoress,  born  in  Paris  in  1634,  was  eminently 
beautiful.  She  married  the  Count  de  la  Fayette  in  1655, 
and  her  house  became  the  resort  of  La  Fontaine,  La 
Rochefoucauld,  Menage,  and  other  eminent  authors. 
She  wrote  two  successful  novels,  "Zayde,"  (1670,)  and 
"The  Princess  of  Cleves,"  (1678,)  which  were  the  first 
French  works  of  fiction  that  truly  represented  the  man- 
ners of  the  higher  classes.  She  left  also  "  Memoirs  of 
the  French  Court"  for  the  years  1688  and  1689,  (1731,) 
and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1693. 

See  Lemontey,  "Notice  sur  Madame  de  la  Fayette,"  1822; 
Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  de  Femmes,"  1844;  Auger,  "Notice 
biographique  sur  Madame  de  Lafayette,"  (prefixed  to  her  Letters,) 
1823  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

La  Fayette,  de,  (Oscar,)  a  son  of  George  W.,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1816.  He  served  in  the 
army  in  Africa,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain.  In 
1846  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  in 
1848  to  the  Constituent  Assembly,  in  which  he  voted 
with  the  republicans. 

Laferriere  or  La  Ferriere,  It'fi're-aiR',  (Louis 
Firmin  Julien,)  a  French  jurist,  and  a  member  of  the 
Institute,  was  born  at  Jonzac  in  1798.  His  principal 
work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Civil  Law  of  Rome  and  of 
French  Law,"  (6  vols.,  1846-53.)    Died  in  1861. 

La  Ferriere,  de,  deh  It  fi're-aiR',  (Louis  Marie,) 
Count,  born  at  Redon  in  1776,  became  a  general  of 
division.  He  lost  a  leg  at  Craonne  in  1814.  Napoleon 
left  him  a  legacy  of  100,000  francs.    Died  in  1834. 

La  Ferte-Imbault,  de,  deh  It  f^R'ta'  ^N'bo',  (Marie 
TH^RfesE  Geoffrin,)  Marquise,  a  literary  French  lady, 
born  in  Paris  in  1 71 5,  was  a  daughter  of  the  well-known 
Madame  de  Geoffrin.  She  was  trained  up  in  the  society 
of  such  men  as  Fontenelle  and  Montesquieu,  who  were 
habitues  of  her  mother's  salon.  Her  moral  or  pious  prin- 
ciples caused  her  to  close  her  door  against  D'Alembert 
and  the  other  Encyclopaedists.  She  was^riTw^/  mattresse 
of  the  order  of  Lanturelus,  designed  for  literary  diver- 
sion, and  composed  several  volumes  of  moral  maxims. 
Died  in  1791. 

See  Marmontel,  "  Memoires." 

La  Ferte-Senneterre,  de,  deh  It  fiR'tk'  sIn'taiR', 
(Henri,)  Due,  a  French  marshal,  born  in  1600,  com- 
manded a  wing  at  the  battle  of  Rocroy,  (1645.)  He 
became  a  marshal  of  France  in  165 1,  after  which  Tu- 
renne  and  he  recovered  Bar,  Arras,  and  other  towns 


«  as^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (jJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LA  FEUILLADE 


1354 


LA  FONTENELLE 


which  the  Prince  of  Conde  had  captured.  Died  in 
i68r. 

La  Feuillade.    See  Feuillade,  de  la. 

Laifitte,  It'ftt',  (Jacques,)  an  eminent  French  finan- 
cier and  liberal  statesman,  born  at  Bayonne  in  1767,  was 
the  son  of  a  carpenter.  In  1788  he  entered  as  clerk  the 
banking-house  of  Perregaux  at  Paris.  He  became  a  part- 
ner about  1802,  and  the  head  of  the  firm  in  1809.  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  chosen  governor  of  the  Bank  of 
France.  The  great  fortune  which  he  had  acquired  was 
freely  offered  for  the  defence  of  Paris  from  the  invaders 
in  1814,  and  for  the  restoration  of  the  public  credit  in 
181 5.  Napoleon  deposited  with  him  5,000,000  francs 
just  before  his  departure  to  Saint  Helena,  with  the  ex- 
pression of  perfect  confidence  in  his  honesty.  In  1816 
he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  which  he 
acted  with  the  Liberal  opposition  and  spoke  with  ability 
on  financial  questions.  "  Placed  in  the  vanguard  of  the 
defenders  of  the  Charter,"  says  M.  de  Lomenie,  "as 
popular  by  his  opinions  as  by  his  princely  munificence, 
the  opulent  banker  beheld  himself  surrounded  by  all  the 
notabilities  of  the  press  and  the  tribune."  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  dethronement  of  Charles  X.  in  1830, 
and  used  his  influence  in  favour  of  Louis  Philippe,  to 
whom  in  a  critical  hour  he  wrote,  "No  more  hesitation  ! 
Choose  between  a  crown  and  a  passport."  He  entered 
the  first  ministry  of  the  new  reign  as  minister  without  a 
portfolio.  This  ministry  having  been  speedily  dissolved, 
Lafiitte,  on  the  3d  of  November,  1830,  became  prime 
minister  (president  die  conseil)  and  minister  of  finance. 
Failing  to  command  a  majority  in  the  chamber,  he  re- 
signed in  March,  1831.  The  financial  crisis  which  fol- 
lowed ruined  his  fortune,  which  had  been  reduced  by 
large  donations  to  the  popular  cause  in  1830.  A  national 
subscription  relieved  him  from  embarrassment  about 
1833.    Died  in  1844. 

See  M.  C.  Marchal,  "Souvenirs  de  J.  Laffitte,  racont^s  par  lui- 
meme,"  1844  ;  "  Jacques  Laffitte,"  Paris,  1844 ;  "  Vie  de  M.  Laffitte," 
Paris,  1844;  Lomenie,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains  illustres." 

Lafifon  de  Lad^bat,  ltT6N'  deh  It'd^'bt',  (Andre 
Daniel,)  a  French  financier,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1746, 
was  a  merchant  in  early  life.  He  was  a  moderate  mem- 
ber of  the  Assembly  in  1 791,  and  of  the  Council  of  Elders 
in  1795.  The  coup  d''etat  of  September  4,  1797,  sent  him 
as  an  exile  to  Guiana.  After  his  return  to  France  he 
published  several  treatises  on  finance,  economy,  etc.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Protestant  Bible  Society 
in  1818.    Died  in  1829. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  Haag,  "La 
France  protestante." 

Lafitau,  It'fe'to',  (Joseph  Francois,)  a  French  Jes- 
uit, born  at  Bordeaux.  Having  been  for  many  years  a 
missionary  in  Canada,  he  returned  to  France,  and  pub- 
lished "  Manners  of  the  American  Savages  compared 
with  the  Manners  of  Primitive  Ages,"  and  two  other 
works.    Died  in  1740. 

Lafitau,  (Pierre  Franqois,)  a  French  priest  and 
writer,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1685.  He  wrote  a  "Life 
of  Clement  XI.,"  (1752,)  and  other  works.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Sisteron  in  1719.    Died  in  1764. 

Lafite,  It'f^t',  (Marie  Elisabeth  Bouee — boo'i',) 
a  French  authoress,  born  in  Paris  about  1750,  She 
wrote  several  juvenile  books,  among  which  are  "  Moral 
Conversations  and  Tales,"  etc.,  (1781,)  often  reprinted. 
Died  in  1794. 

Lafitte,  rt-fit'  or  It'f^t',  (Jean,)  a  notorious  French 
privateer,  born  about  1780,  became  about  1813  the  leader 
of  a  band  of  pirates  who  established  themselves  at 
Grande  Terre,  in  Barataria  Bay,  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
In  1814  he  was  offered  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  a 
commission  in  the  navy,  on  condition  of  his  assisting 
the  British  in  their  attack  on  New  Orleans.  He  refused 
these  proposals,  and  offered  his  services  to  defend  Loui- 
siana on  condition  of  pardon  to  himself  and  followers, 
which  offer  was  accepted.  The  time  and  circumstances 
of  his  death  are  unknown.  The  adventures  of  Lafitte 
have  formed  the  subject  of  several  tales  and  romances. 

Lafolie,  It'fo'le',  (Charles  Jean,)  a  French  littera- 
teur, born  in  Paris  in  1780,  published  "  Notices  of  the 
Public  Monuments,  Palaces,  Museums,  Colleges,  etc. 
of  Paris,"  (1820.)    Died  in  1824. 


Lafolie,  (Louis  Guillaume,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
at  Rouen  in  1739.  He  discovered  the  yellow  dye  ex- 
tracted ixovc\  gaude,  (dyer's  weed,)  and  wrote  an  imagina- 
tive work  called  the  "  Philosopher  without  Pretension," 
("  Philosophesans  Pretention,"  etc.,  1775.)  Died  in  1780. 

Lafon,  lt'f6N',  (Pierre,)  a  famous  French  tragic 
actor,  born  in  Perigord  in  1775,  made  a  successful  debut 
in  Paris  in  1800,  and  was  considered  by  his  admirers  a 
rival  of  Talma.    Died  in  1846. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gendrale." 

Lafons,  de,  deh  1ST6n',  (Franqois  Joseph  Alex- 
andre,) Baron  de  Mellicocq,  a  French  botanist  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Noyon,  Oise,  in  1802. 

Lafont,  ltT6N',  (Charles  Philippe,)  a  popular  mu- 
sician, born  in  Paris  in  1781,  was  appointed  in  1809  first 
violinist  to  the  emperor  Alexander  of  Russia,  and  on  his 
return  to  Paris  in  1815  filled  the  game  office  at  the  royal 
chapel.    Died  in  1839. 

Lafont,  (Pierre  Ch^ri,)  a  French  actor,  born  at  Bor- 
deaux in  1801. 

Lafont,  de,deh  lt'f6N',  (Joseph,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1686,  wrote  successful  comedies,  among 
which  was  "The  Festivals  of  Thalia,"  ("Les  Fetes  de 
Thalie,"  1714.)    Died  in  1725. 

Lafontaine,  lST6N'tin',  (August  Heinrich  Julius,) 
a  popular  novelist,  of  French  origin,  born  at  Brunswick 
about  1758.  Having  taken  holy  orders,  he  was  employed 
as  pastor  or  professor  at  Halle.  He  published,  in  Ger- 
man, a  great  number  of  novels,  which  had  a  temporary 
success  and  were  translated  into  French.  Among  them 
are  "The  Singular  Man,"  ("Der  Sonderling,")  "The 
Family  De  Halden,"  and  "Agnes  and  Bertha,"  (1818.) 
Died  at  Halle  in  1831.  His  style  is  easy  and  agreeable, 
but  his  sentimentality  is  considered  excessive. 

See  JoHANN  G.  Gruber,  "A.  Lafontaine's  Leben  und  Wirken," 
1833;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;""  Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  February,  1834. 

La  Fontaine  or  Lafontaine,  de,  deh  It'f^N'tan', 
(Jean,)  a  famous  French  fabulist,  born  at  Chateau- 
Thierry,  July  8,  i62i,was  the  most  popular  French  poet 
of  his  time.  He  was  remarkable  for  an  easy,  careless, 
and  indolent  temper,  and  passed  the  age  of  twenty-one 
before  he  manifested  his  poetical  genius.  He  married 
Marie  Hericart  to  please  his  father,  who  procured  for 
him  the  office  of  master  of  waters  and  forests ;  but  he 
soon  sold  his  office  and  separated  from  his  wife.  The 
Duchess  de  Bouillon,  pleased  with  his  first  literary 
efforts,  became  his  patroness  and  took  him  to  Paris.  He 
received  a  pension  from  Fouquet,  and  about  1662  com- 
posed an  admirable  elegy  on  the  fall  of  that  minister. 
He  enjoyed  for  about  twenty  years  the  hospitality  of 
Madame  Sabliere,  a  lady  of  Paris,  who  generously  pro- 
tected him  from  the  effects  of  his  improvidence  and 
incapacity  for  business.  His  first  tales  appeared  in  1664, 
and  six  books  of  Fables  in  1668.  Ten  years  later,  he 
produced  the  last  six  books  of  those  inimitable  works. 
At  the  death  of  Colbert  (1683,)  La  Fontaine  and  Boileau 
were  rival  candidates  for  the  place  which  he  left  vacant 
in  the  French  Academy ;  and  the  former  was  successful. 
Moliere  and  La  Fontaine  are  reckoned  the  two  most 
original  writers  of  the  brilliant  age  of  Louis  XIV.  Many 
anecdotes  are  related  of  his  simplicity,  naivete,  and  ab- 
sence of  mind.  "His  lines,"  says  Hallam,  "have  a, 
proverbial  truth  and  a  humour  of  expression  which 
render  them  constantly  applicable,  .  .  .  Many  of  his 
fables  are  admirable  :  the  grace  of  the  poetry,  the  happy 
inspiration  that  seems  to  have  dictated  the  turns  of 
expression,  place  him  in  the  first  rank  among  fabulists." 
("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  He  died 
in  Paris  in  April,  1695,  having  expressed  penitence  for 
the  licentious  passages  in  his  tales. 

See  La  Harpe,  "  filoge  de  Lafontaine,"  1774;  Walckenaer, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  J.  de  La  Fontaine,"  1820  ; 
Marais,  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  J.  de  La  Fontaine." 
181 1 ;  Chamfort,  "filoge  de  La  Fontaine,"  1774:  Sainte-Beuve, 
"  Portraits  litteraires,"  tome  i.,  and  "  Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  vii.  ; 
Des  Renaudes,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  de  Lafontaine,"  1852; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1820. 

La  Fontenelle  or  Lafontenelle,  de,  deh  It  f^Nt^nlK, 
(Armand  D6sir^,)  a  French  antiquary  and  biographer, 
born  in  Poitou  in  1784.    Among  his  works  are  a  "  His- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  lon^;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LAFOSSE 


1355 


LAGRANGE 


tory  of  Oliver  de  Clisson,"  {2  vols.,  1826,)  and  the  "Life 
and  Correspondence  of  Du  Plessis-Mornay,"  (with  Au- 
guis,  12  vols.,  1822-42.)   Died  in  1847. 

Lafosse,  It'foss',  (Philippe  Etienne,)  a  French  vete- 
rinary physician,  wrote  "The  Farrier's  Guide,"  (1766,) 
and  a  "Manual  of  Veterinary  Medicine,"  (1803.)  Died 
it  1820. 

Lafosse  or  La  Fosse,  de,  deh  It  foss,  (Antoine,) 
a  French  dramatist  and  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1653, 
was  accounted  by  some  the  first  tragic  poet  of  his  time. 
He  produced,  besides  other  dramas,  "  Polyxene,"  (1686,) 
and  "  Manlius  Capitolinus,"  (1698,)  a  tragedy,  which  is 
highly  praised  by  La  Harpe.    Died  in  1708. 

Lafosse,  de,  (Charles,)  a  French  historical  painter 
of  high  reputation,  born  in  Paris  in  1640,  was  an  uncle 
of  the  preceding.  He  studied  under  Lebrun,  and  in 
Rome.  He  was  employed  by  Louis  XIV.  to  adorn  the 
Trianon  and  the  Hotel  des  Livalides,  the  frescoed  dome 
of  which  is  called  his  master-piece.  He  was  admitted 
into  the  Academy  of  Painting  in  1683,  when  he  exhibited 
the  "Abduction  of  Proserpine."    Died  in  1716. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lafosse,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste  Joseph,)  a  skilful 
French  engraver,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1721 ;  died  about 
1775- 

Lafrery,  Itf'R're'  or  Iffneh-re',  (Antoine,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  at  Salins  in  1 5 12.  He  worked  in  Rome, 
where  he  published  maps  and  engravings,  and  "  Mirror 
of  Roman  Grandeur,"  ("Speculum  Romanae  Magni- 
tudinis,"  in  118  plates,  1554-73.) 

La  Fuente.    See  Fuen te,  La. 

La  Fuente,  li  fwen'ti,  (Alcantara  Miguel,)  a 
Spanish  historian  and  lawyer,  born  in  the  province  of 
Malaga  in  1817.  He  died  at  Havana  in  1850,  soon  after 
he  had  been  m2i^t fiscal  (attorney-general)  of  Cuba.  His 
chief  work  is  a  "  History  of  Granada,"  (4  vols.,  1843-48.) 

Lagalla,  li-g&l'lS,  (Giulio  Cesare,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician and  philosopher,  born  at  Padula  in  1576,  was 
professor  of  philosophy  in  the  Roman  College  from  1597 
till  his  death.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Comets," 
(1613,)  and  "  De  Immortalitate  Animorum,"  (1621,)  an 
effort  to  prove  that  Aristotle  admitted  the  immortality 
of  the  soul.    Died  in  1624. 

La  Gallissoniere.    See  Gallissoniere,  de  la. 

Lagaraye,  de,  deh  It'gS'ry,  (Claude  Toussaint 
Marot,)  Comte,  a  French  chemist  and  philanthropist, 
born  at  Rennes  in  1675.  He  founded  infant-schools, 
and  hospitals  for  the  sick  and  aged.  He  made  some 
improvements  in  vegetable  analysis,  and  published  a 
treatise  on  "Hydraulic  Chemistry,"  ("Chimie  hydrau- 
lique,"  1746.)    Died  in  1 755. 

See  "  Les  fipoux  charitables,  ou  Vies  du  Comte  et  de  la  Comtesse 
de  La  Garaye,"  Rennes,  1782. 

Lagarde.    See  DESHOULifeRES. 

La  Gardie.    See  Gardie,  de  la. 

La  Gasca.    See  Gasca,  de  la. 

Lagerbring,  la'ger-bRing,  (Sven  or  Sven  Bring,) 
a  Swedish  historian,  born  in  1707,  was  for  many  years 
professor  of  history  in  the  University  of  Lund.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  Sweden"  down  to  1457,  (3  vols., 
1769-76,)  a  work  of  much  research,  but  defective  in 
style  and  method.    Died  in  1788. 

See  C.  WoLLiN,  "Parentation  bfver  S.  Lagerbring,"  1788. 

Lagerlof  or  Lagerloef,  li^ger-lof,  (Pehr,)  a  Swedish 
scholar  and  writer,  born  in  1648,  became  professor  of 
rhetoric  at  Upsal.  He  was  learned  in  languages,  and 
wrote  Latin  verse  with  much  purity  of  style.  He  pub- 
lished several  antiquarian  treatises.    Died  in  1699. 

See  JocHER,  "  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Lagerstrom  orLagerstroem.von.fonli'ger-stRom'', 

(Magnus,)  a  Swedish  savant,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1696, 
was  a  friend  of  Linnjeus.  He  translated  French  and 
German  works  into  Swedish,  and  availed  himself  of  his 
advantages  as  director  of  the  East  India  Company  to 
collect  scientific  facts  and  specimens  and  to  promote 
researches  in  natural  history.    Died  in  1759. 

See  Kryger,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  M.  Lagerstroein,"  1760. 

Lagny,  de,  deh  ltn''ye',  (Thomas  Fantet,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  at  Lyons  in  1660.  He  removed  to 
Paris  in  1678,  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences 


in  1695,  and  chosen  professor  of  hydrography  at  Roche- 
fort  in  1697.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London.  He  published,  besides  other  ingenious  treatises, 
"The  Cubature  of  the  Sphere,"  (1703,)  "which,"  says 
Fontenelle,  "would  prove  him  to  be  a  great  geometer." 
Died  in  1734. 

See  Fontenelle,  "Eloge  de  M.  de  Lagny." 

Lagomarsini,  IS-go-maR-see'nee,  (Girolamo,  )  an 
eminent  Italian  philologist  and  Jesuit,  born  in  1698.  He 
was  professor  of  rhetoric  in  Florence  for  many  years,  and 
about  1750  became  professor  of  Greek  in  the  Roman 
College.  He  published  Latin  orations  (1746)  and  epis- 
tles, a  poem  "On  the  Origin  of  Springs,"  ("De  Origine 
Fontium,"  1749,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1773. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vitse  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium ;"  Parthe- 
Nius,  "De  Vita  et  Studiis  H.  Lagomarsini,"  1801. 

La  Grange,  (Antoine.)  See  Rivet  de  la  Grange. 

Lagrange  or  La  Grange,  It  gRfiNzh,  (Joseph  Louis,) 
one  of  the  most  eminent  geometers  of  modern  times,  was 
born  at  Turin  on  the  25th  of  January,  1736.  His  parents 
were  of  French  origin.  He  was  educated  in  the  College 
of  Turin,  where  his  mathematical  genius  wa-s  rapidly 
developed  and  was  specially  directed  to  the  study  of 
modern  analysis.  It  has  been  said  that  all  he  learned 
seemed  to  be  only  a  reminiscence  of  what  he  had  before 
known.  Having  examined  Euler's  work  on  "  Isoperi- 
metrical  Problems,"  he  sent  to  the  author  in  1755  the 
first  essays  of  his  "Method  of  Variations,"  which  alone 
would  immortalize  his  name,  and  which  he  had  invented 
to  respond  to  the  desire  of  Euler.  About  the  age  of 
nineteen  he  was  chosen  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
military  college  of  Turin.  The  first  volume  of  the  "  Me- 
moirs of  the  Academy  of  Turin"  (1759)  consisted  chiefly 
of  the  admirable  essays  of  Lagrange  on  the  most  im- 
portant and  difficult  points  of  analysis  and  mechanics, 
such  as  the  propagation  of  sound-  and  the  vibration  of 
chords.  He  published  in  1762  some  applications  of  his 
great  discovery,  which  was  afterwards  called  the  "  Method 
of  Variations."  In  1764  he  gained  the  prize  offered  by 
the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  for  a  "  Theory  of  the 
Libration  of  the  Moon."  Invited  by  Frederick  the 
Great,  he  removed  to  Berlin  in  1766,  and  was  for  twenty 
years  director  of  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences,  which 
he  enriched  with  numerous  treatises  on  "  Tautochronous 
Curves,"  "  Numerical  Equations,"  the  "  Integral  Cal- 
culus," "Partial  Differences,"  and  on  the  most  arduous 
questions  of  general  astronomy  and  celestial  mechanics. 
He  was  chosen  a  foreign  associate  of  the  Academy  of  Paris 
in  1772.  The  persuasion  of  Mirabeau  and  the  offer  of  a 
pension  from  the  king  induced  him  to  settle  in  Paris  in 
1787.  He  published  in  1788  his  magnificent  work  "La 
Mecanique  analytique,"  ("Analytical  Mechanics,")  which 
is  considered  one  of  the  master-pieces  of  the  human  in- 
tellect. His  interest  was  vividly  excited  by  the  Revolu- 
tion, in  which,  however,  he  took  no  active  part.  In  1792 
he  married  Mademoiselle  Lemonnier.  He  was  the  first 
professor  of  geometry  in  the  Polytechnic  School,  founded 
about  1794;  and  his  name  was  the  first  inscribed  on  the 
list  of  the  members  of  the  Institute,  founded  in  1795. 
Napoleon,  who  highly  appreciated  the  great  talents  of 
one  so  incapable  of  intrigue  and  adulation,  gave  him  the 
office  of  senator  and  the  titles  of  count  of  the  empire  and 
grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour.  He  died  in  April, 
1813.  "Among  the  inventors  who  have  most  enlarged 
the  boundaries  of  our  knowledge,"  says  La  Place,  "  New- 
ton and  Lagrange  appear  to  have  possessed  in  the  highest 
degree  the  power  which,  by  the  discovery  of  general 
principles,  constitutes  the  true  genius  of  science."  "After 
Newton's  discovery  of  the  elliptic  orbits  of  the  planets," 
says  Playfair,  "Lagrange's  discovery  of  their  periodical 
inequalities  is,  without  doubt,  the  noblest  truth  in  phy- 
sical astronomy ;  and,  in  respect  of  the  doctrine  of  final 
causes,  it  may  truly  be  regarded  as  the  greatest  of  all." 

See  Delambre,  "filoge  de  Lagrange;"  Virey  et  Potel, 
"Precis  historiqiie  sur  la  Vie  de  Lagrange,"  1813;  Pietro  Cossali, 
"  Elogio  di  G.  L.  Lagrange,"  1813  ;  Magistrini,  "  Discorso  in  Lode 
di  Lagrange,"  1819 ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

La  Grange,  (N.,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris 
in  1738,  translated  the  great  poem  of  Lucretius  "  De 
Rerum  Natura,"  with  notes,  (1768,)  and  the  works  of 
Seneca,  (7  vols.,  1779.)  The  former  passes  for  one  of 
the  best  versions  in  the  French  language.    Died  in  1775. 


<  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2l^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LA  GRANGE 


1356 


LAIGNELOT 


La  Grange  or  Lagrange,  de,  deh  It  gu6Nzh,  (Ad6- 
LAiDK  Blaise  Francois  le  Lievre,)  Marquis  de  Fou- 
rilles,  born  in  Paris  in  1766,  became  general  of  division 
in  1809.    Died  in  1833. 

La  Grange,  de,  (Adelaide  Edouard.)  Marquis,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  and  a  member  of  the  Institute,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1796.  He  was  an  active  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1834  to  1848,  and  voted  with 
the  friends  of  Louis  Napoleon  in  the  Assembly  of  1849. 
In  1852  he  became  a  senator.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  treatises  on  numismatics. 

La  Grange,  de,  (Amand  Charles  Louis  le  Lievre,) 
a  French  general,  born  in  1783,  served  with  distinction 
under  Napoleon  I. 

Lagrange,  de,  (Joseph,)  Comte,  a  French  general, 
born  in  1763  ;  died  in  1836. 

La  Grange,  de,  (Joseph  de  Chancel,)  a  French 
dramatic  and  satiric  poet,  commonly  called  La  Grange- 
Chancel,  was  born  at  Perigueux  in  1676.  His  drama 
of  "  Jugurtha"  was  performed  with  success  in  1694.  He 
produced  other  tragedies,  among  which  "  Amasis"  (1701) 
and  "  Ino  and  Melicerta"  (1713)  are  called  the  best.  He 
was  imprisoned  or  exiled  some  years  for  three  remark- 
able odes,  named  "  Philippiques,"  (1720,)  which  were 
libellous  satires  against  the  Regent  of  France.  "  As  a 
satiric  poet,"  says  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale," 
"  he  has  left  a  work  which,  in  spite  of  its  imperfections 
and  crying  injustice,  is  the  monument  of  satire  in  France." 
Died  in  1758. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gendrale ;"  Saint-Simon,  "Me- 
moires." 

Lagrene,  de,  deh  ItgR'ni'  or  It'gReh-ni',  (Th^odose 
Marie  Melchior  Joseph,)  a  French  diplomatist,  was 
born  at  Amiens  in  1800.  He  went  to  Athens  as  minister 
in  1836,  and  to  China  in  1844. 

Lagrenee,  It^gRa'na',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  his- 
torical painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1740.  He  worked  in  Paris 
with  success,  and  reproduced  antique  paintings  by  incrus- 
tation on  marble  and  glass.    Died  in  182 1. 

Lagrenee,  (Louis  Jean  Franqois,)  called  Ain^;,  a 
French  historical  painter,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1724.  He  was  surnamed  "the  French 
Albano."  He  studied  at  Rome,  became  Academician 
in  1755,  and  for  some  time  was  first  painter  to  the  Em- 
press of  Russia.  He  afterwards  worked  in  Paris.  Died 
in  1^05. 

See  Rendu,  "Notice  sur  Lagrenee  I'aine,"  1815. 

La  Gueronniere  or  Lagueronniere,  de,  deh  It  ga'- 
ro'ne-aiR',  (Arthur,)  Vicomte,  a  French  political 
writeTand  Bonapartist,  born  in  1816.  He  became  chief 
editor  of  Lamartine's  new  journal,  the  "Pays,"  in  1850. 
A  dissension  arose  between  him  and  Lamartine  on  the 
subject  of  a  historical  study  on  Louis  Napoleon,  which 
the  former  published  in  the  "  Pays,"  and  which  increased 
his  reputation  as  a  brilliant  writer.  He  was  elected  a 
deputy  in  1852,  and  appointed  a  councillor  of  state  in 
1854.  His  pamphlet  entitled  "Napoleon  III.  and  Eng- 
land" (1858)  produced  a  great  sensation  on  both  sides 
of  the  Channel.  He  became  an  editor  of  the  "Consti- 
tutionnel." 

Laguerre  or  La  Guerre,  It'gaiR',  (Louis,)  a  French 
painter,  born  in  1663,  was  a  pupil  of  Le  Brun.  He  went 
to  England  about  1684,  and  worked  with  or  for  Verrio. 
He  painted  "The  Labours  of  Hercules"  in  Hampton 
Court  Palace.    Died  in  1721. 

La  Guiche  or  Laguiche,  de,  deh  It  gish,  (Phili- 
BERT,)  a  French  general,  born  about  1540.  He  refused  to 
execute  the  order  of  the  court  for  the  massacre  of  Prot- 
estants in  1572.  He  commanded  the  artillery  at  Ivry, 
and  contributed  largely  to  the  victory.    Died  in  1607. 

His  nephew,  Jean  Francois,  born  in  1569,  was  a 
marshal  of  France.    Died  in  1632. 

Laguille,  WghY  or  It'ge'ye,  (Louis,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  at  Autun  in  1658,  wrote  an  "  Ancient  and  Modern 
History  of  Alsace,"  (2  vols,  folio,  1727.)    Died  in  1742. 

Laguna,  li-goo'n^,  or  Lacuna,  l^-koo'nd,  (Andres,) 
a  learned  Spanish  physician,  born  at  Segovia  in  1499. 
He  obtained  the  confidence  of  Charles  V.,  who  appointed 
him  physician  of  the  army  in  Flanders.  He  practised 
in  Metz,  (1540-46,)  and  in  Rome,  where  he  was  patron- 
ized by  the  pope,  who  made  him  a  count.    He  died  in 


Spain  in  1560,  leaving  numerous  works,  among  which 
are  Commentaries  on  Galen  and  Hippocrates,  and 
"Anatomica  Methodus,"  (1535.) 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Blbliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Laharpe  or  La  Harpe,  iSV/tRp',  (Fr^d^ric  C6sar,) 
a  Swiss  officer  and  republican,  born  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud 
in  1754.  He  was  for  some  years  preceptor  of  Alexander, 
afterwards  Czar  of  Russia,  and  about  1798  became  the 
chief  or  most  powerful  director  of  the  Helvetic  Republic. 
He  went  out  of  power  in  1800.  In  1814  he  enjoyed  the 
favour  of  Alexander,  who  was  in  Paris  and  gave  him  the 
rank  of  general  in  his  army.  He  wrote  several  treatises 
on  Swiss  politics.    Died  in  1838. 

See  Charles  Monnard,  "Notice  biographique  sur  le  General 
F.  C.  de  Laharpe,"  1838;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

La  Harpe  or  Laharpe,  de,  deh  ItV/tRp',  (Jean 
Francois,)  a  celebrated  French  critic  and  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1739,  was  educated  at  the  College  of 
Harcourt.  He  produced  in  1763  the  tragedy  of"  War- 
wick," which  was  very  successful,  and  wrote  to  Voltaire  a 
letter  on  the  dramatic  art  which  procured  him  the  favour 
and  patronage  of  that  philosopher.  He  composed,  be- 
sides other  dramas,  the  applauded  tragedies  of  "  Me- 
lanie,"  (about  1770,)  and  "  Philoctete."  His  talents 
found  a  congenial  employment  in  academic  competitions. 
He  wrote  admirable  eulogies  on  Fenelon,  Henry  IV., 
Lafontaine,  and  others,  and  he  received  several  prizes 
from  the  French  Academy,  of  which  he  was  chosen  a 
member  in  1776.  About  1786  he  began  to  lecture  at 
the  Lycee  of  Paris  on  literature.  These  lectures,  en- 
titled "Cours  de  Litterature,  ancienne  et  moderne,"  (18 
vols.,)  constitute  his  most  durable  title  to  fame.  His 
criticisms  on  French  authors  are  much  better  than  those 
on  the  ancient  classics.  "  The  seventeenth  century,"  says 
Sainte-Beuve,  "  in  some  of  its  parts  and  some  of  its 
works,  was  never  better  analyzed,"  [than  by  La  Harpe.] 
At  the  beginning  of  the  French  Revolution  he  was  a 
republican.  He  was  imprisoned  a  few  months  during 
the  reign  of  terror.    Died  in  1803. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  v.;  Leon 
Thie.sse,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Laharpe,"  1827; 
Melv-Janin,  "  Vie  de  J.  F.  de  La  Harpe,"  1813  ;  Daunou,  "  Notice 
sur  La  Harpe;"  Saint-Surin,  "Notice  sur  La  Harpe,"  1S22; 
Auger,  "Vie  de  La  Harpe,"  1813;  Serieys,  "J.  F.  de  La  Harpe, 
peint  par  lui-meme,"  1817. 

La  Haye,  (French  engraver.)    See  Delahaye. 

Laliire  or  Laliyre,  WhhK',  (Stienne  Vignoles — 
v^n'yoK,)  a  famous  French  captain  or  bandit.  He  per- 
formed many  exploits  against  the  English  in  France  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  VII.  He  never  obtained  a  very 
high  rank  in  the  army.  Having  failed  in  an  attempt  to 
rescue  Joan  of  Arc  at  Rouen,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  but 
soon  escaped.    Died  in  1442. 

La  Hire  or  Lahyre,  de,  deh  ItV/^R',  (Laurent,)  an 
eminent  French  painter  and  engraver  of  merit,  born  in 
Paris  in  1606.  He  adorned  many  of  the  churches  of 
Paris  with  his  works,  among  which  the  "Apparition  of 
Christ  to  the  Three  Marys"  is  called  the  master-piece. 
His  easel-pictures  are  very  finely  finished.  He  received 
the  title  of  painter  to  the  king,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Royal  Academy.    Died  in  1656. 

Lahire,  de,  (Philippe,)  a  French  geometer,  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1640.  He  was  admitted 
into  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1678,  amt  was  employed 
by  the  government  in  continuing  the  measurement  of  the 
meridian  commenced  by  Picard.  For  many  years  he  was 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  College  of  France.  He 
was  also  versed  in  experimental  physics.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  "Conic  Sections,"  (1685,)  a  "Treat- 
ise on  Mechanics,"  (1695,)  and  "Astronomical  Tables," 
(1702.)    Died  in  1 718  or  17 19. 

See  Fontenelle,  "  £loge  de  Lahire ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

La  Huerta.    See  Huerta. 
Lahyre.    See  La  Hire. 

Laid'law,  (William,)  a  British  poet,  born  in  1780; 
died  in  1845. 

Laignelot,  lin'yeh-lo',  (Joseph  FRANgois,)  a  French 
dramatist  and  Jacobin,  born  at  Versailles  in  1750,  com- 
posed a  tragedy  called  "Rienzi."  He  was  an  active 
member  of  the  Convention  from  1792  to  1795,  and  voted 
for  the  death  of  the  king.    Died  in  1829. 


S,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iorf;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LAINE 


1357 


LAKE 


Laine,  IcVni',  (Joseph  Henri  Joachim,)  Vicomte, 
an  eminent  French  orator  and  statesman,  born  at  Bor- 
deaux in  1767.  He  acquired  distinction  as  an  advocate 
at  Bordeaux,  supported  the  popular  cause  in  the  Revo- 
lution, and  was  for  several  years  under  the  empire  a 
member  of  the  legislative  body.  In  1813,  as  chairman 
of  a  committee  of  that  house,  he  made  an  important 
report  on  the  state  of  the  nation,  which  gave  great  offence 
t'-^  Napoleon.  Having  become  a  royalist,  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1814  and  in 
1815.  He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  and 
appointed  minister  of  the  interior  in  1816.  He  retired 
from  otifice  in  December,  1818,  became  secretary  of  state 
without  a  portfolio  in  1821,  and  was  created  a  peer  of 
France  in  1823.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  mode- 
rate royalists.  Died  in  1835.  "  M.  Laine  and  De  Serres," 
says  Lamartine,  "  were  the  two  greatest  characters  and 
the  two  most  pathetic  orators  of  the  restoration." 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Restoration;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Lainez,  la'nk',  (Alexandre,)  a  French  poet  and 
linguist,  born  at  Chimay  about  1650.  After  travelling 
several  years  in  Europe  and  Asia,  he  became  a  resident 
of  Paris.  He  was  courted  by  the  great  for  his  brilliant 
conversation  and  extensive  knowledge,  and  composed 
brief  poetical  effusions,  which  were  admired  for  grace 
and  vivacity.    Died  in  17 10. 

Lainez  or  Layiiez,  iT-nlth',  sometimes  improperly 
written  Leynez,  (  Jago  or  Diego,)  the  second  general 
of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  was  born  in  Castile,  Spain,  in 
1 5 12.  About  1536  he  was  associated  with  Ignatius  Loy- 
ola in  organizing  the  society  of  Jesuits.  (See  Loyola.) 
He  was  deputed  by  the  pope  to  the  Council  of  Trent, 
where  he  signalized  his  zeal  for  the  interests  of  the 
court  of  Rome.  In  1558  he  succeeded  Loyola  as  gen- 
eral of  the  order.  The  Council  of  Trent  having  re- 
sumed its  session,  he  made  there  a  famous  speech,  in 
which  he  argued  the  necessity  of  a  supreme  head  of 
the  Church.  Died  in  1565.  The  polity  of  the  Jesuits 
appears  to  have  been  mainly  the  product  of  the  intelli- 
gence and  subtlety  of  Lainez. 

See  RiBADENEiRA,  "  Vida  del  P.  V.  D.  Laynez,"  1604;  F.  Solier, 
"Vie  du  P.  J.  Laynez,"  1599;  F.  Rainaldi,  "Vita  di  J.  Laynez," 
Rome,  1672. 

Laing,  lang,  (Alexander  Gordon,)  Major,  a  resolute 
Scottish  traveller,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1793,  enlisted  in 
the  army  in  1810.  In  1822  the  Governor  of  Sierra  Leone 
sent  him  on  a  mission  to  the  Mandingo  country.  He 
also  explored  Solimana  and  adjacent  regions.  In  1824 
he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major,  and  was  employed 
by  Lord  Bathurst  to  explore  the  Niger.  Proceeding 
from  the  north,  he  arrived  in  August,  1826,  at  Timbuctoo, 
after  having  been  wounded  by  the  Tuariks.  On  his  way 
to  Sansanding  he  was  murdered  by  his  guide,  an  Arab 
sheik,  in  September,  1826.  His  journal  has  not  been 
recovered. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen ;" 
"Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1825. 

Laing,  (Malcolm,)  an  able  Scottish  historian  and 
lawyer,  born  in  Orkney  in  1762.  He  practised  law  in 
Edinburgh,  where  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1785. 
In  1800  he  published  a  "History  of  Scotland  from  the 
Union  of  the  Crowns  [1603]  to  the  Union  of  the  King- 
doms in  the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne,"  which  is  a  work 
of  merit  and  remarkable  for  critical  acumen,  but  defect- 
ive in  ?,\.y\e.  He  wrote  a  treatise  against  the  authenticity 
of  Ossian's  poems,  and  a  few  other  works.  He  became 
a  member  of  Parliament,  and  he  was  a  friend  of  Charles 
J.  Fox.  His  political  principles  were  liberal.  Died  in 
1818. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen 
"Monthly  Review"  for  October,  1801. 

Laing,  (Samuel,)  a  British  lawyer  and  politician,  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Scotland  in  1810. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  in  1852,  and 
was  president  of  the  company  which  owned  the  Crystal 
Palace  at  Sydenham,  from  1850  to  1854.  He  was  ap- 
pointed chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  India  in  i860. 

Lair,  ISr,  (Pierre  Aim6,)  a  French  writer  on  agricul- 
ture, born  at  Caen  in  1769,  was  noted  for  his  beneficence. 
Died  in  1853. 


Laire,  ISr,  (Francois  Xavier,)  an  eminent  French 
bibliographer  and  monk,  born  at  Vadans  in  1738.  Dur- 
ing the  Revolution  he  saved  valuable  historical  documents 
from  destruction.  He  published  a  "  Series  of  Aldine 
Editions,"  a  "  Specimen  of  Roman  Typography  of  the 
Fifteenth  Century,"  an  "Index  of  Books  from  the  In- 
vention of  Printing  to  the  Year  1500,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1801. 

Laire,  li'reh,  (Sigismond,)  a  German  painter,  born  in 
Bavaria  about  1550  ;  died  in  Rome  in  1636. 

Lairesse,  li'rgss',  (Gerard,)  a  skilful  Flemish  his- 
torical painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Liege  in  1640,  was 
a  pupil  of  his  father.  He  settled  in  Amsterdam.  His 
facility  as  an  artist  was  remarkable.  He  had  a  rich 
imagination,  and  was  skilful  in  costume  and  composi- 
tion. His  engravings  are  much  esteemed.  He  died  in 
171 1,  leaving  an  able  "Treatise  on  Painting." 

La'is,  [Aa(f,]  a  celebrated  Greek  courtesan,  lived  at 
Corinth  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  and  was  notorious  for  her 
avidity  and  caprice.  Among  her  lovers  was  the  phi- 
losopher Aristippus.  The  citizens  of  Corinth  erected  a 
monument  to  her.  Another  courtesan  of  that  name  was 
supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Sicily.  She  lived  at 
Athens  or  Corinth  about  400  B.C. 

La'i-us,  [Gr.  AuHog,]  a  king  of  Thebes,  and  the  father 
of  CEdipus.  An  oracle  having  declared  that  he  should 
be  killed  by  his  own  son,  he  exposed  his  son  soon  after 
birth  on  Mount  Cithaeron.  The  child  was  preserved  by 
strangers,  was  named  Qidipus,  and  remained  ignorant 
of  his  parentage.    (See  OEdipus.) 

Lajard,  It'zhtR',  (Jean  Baptiste  F^lix,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  at  Lyons  in  1783,  went  to  Persia  as  sec- 
retary of  embassy  in  1807.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1830.  Among  his  works  is 
"  Researches  into  the  Public  Worship  and  the  Mysteries 
of  Mithra  in  the  East  and  West,!'  (1848.)  He  pro- 
pounded a  novel  theory  on  the  relations  of  the  Greeks 
with  the  Oriental  races,  which  has  since  been  partially 
confirmed.    Died  in  1858. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Lajard,  de,  deh  It'zhtR',  (Pierre  Auguste,)  an  able 
French  statesman,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1757,  was 
minister  of  war  in  1792.  During  the  empire  he  was  a 
member  of  the  legislative  body.    Died  in  1837. 

La  Jonchere,  de,  deh  It  zh6N^shaiR',  (£tienne  L6- 
CUYER,)  a  French  engineer,  born  in  Auvergne  in  1690. 
He  projected  the  connection  of  the  Saone  and  the  Yonne 
by  a  canal,  the  construction  of  which,  however,  was  given 
to  another  engineer.    Died  about  1740. 

Lakanal,  lI'kt'ntK,  (Joseph,)  a  French  republican, 
born  at  Serres  (Ariege)  in  1762.  As  a  member  of  the 
Convention,  (1792-95,)  he  protected  the  interests  of  the 
arts  and  sciences.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
organization  of  the  Institute,  of  which  he  was  a  member. 
In  1814  he  retired  to  the  United  States,  was  welcomed 
by  Jefferson,  and  obtained  from  Congress  five  hundred 
acres  of  cotton-land.  He  was  afterwards  president  of 
the  University  of  Louisiana,  and  returned  to  France  in 
1833.    Died  in  Paris  in  1845. 

See  L  Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire,  "Lakanal,  saVie,  sesTravaux 
k  la  Convention,"  etc.,  1849;  MiGNET,  "  Notice  historique  sur  M. 
Lakanal,"  1857. 

Lake,  (Arthur,)  a  learned  English  preacher,  born  at 
Southampton,  was  appointed  Dean  of  Worcester  in  1608, 
and  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  1616.  Died  in  1626. 
Several  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  published. 

Lake,  (Gerard,)  Viscount  Lake,  a  British  general, 
was  born  in  1744.  Having  served  in  the  American  wai 
and  in  the  war  against  the  French  republic,  he  was  ap- 
pointed commander  of  the  army  in  Ireland  during  the 
rebellion  which  began  in  1797,  and  was  defeated  by  the 
French  at  Castlebar.  In  1800  he  obtained  the  chief 
command  in  India,  and  in  1803  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Mahrattas  near  Delhi.  He  defeated  them  again  the 
same  year  at  Laswarree.  Betv/een  1804  and  1806  he 
waged  a  successful  war  against  Holkar,  and  received 
the  title  of  Baron  Lake  of  Delhi,  etc.  He  returned  to 
England  in  1807,  and  was  created  a  viscount.  Died  in 
1808. 

Lake,  (John,)  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1624,  became 
Bishop  of  Chichester  in  1685.    He  was  imprisoned,  in 


€  as  i';  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  y:., guttural ;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LAKSHMI 


LALLI 


company  with  six  other  prelates,  in  the  Tower  of  London 
in  1688.    Died  in  1698. 

See  Agnes  Strickland,  "Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops." 

L^ksh'mi,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  luksh'mee ;  ety- 
mology obscure,]  called  also  Sri*  sKee,  or  Shri,  shnee, 
in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  goddess  of  wealth,  and  the 
consort  of  Vishnu,  is  fabled  to  have  sprung  from  the 
churning  of  the  ocean.  (See  KOrma.)  There  is  a  striking 
analogy  between  the  origin  of  Lakshmi  and  that  of  the 
Venus  (Aphrodite)  Anadyomene  of  the  Greeks,  who 
also  is  said  to  have  sprung  from  the  foam  of  the  sea. 
(See  Venus.)  But  Lakshmi,  though  represented  as 
extremely  beautiful,  is  not,  like  Venus,  the  patroness  of 
love,  but  the  goddess  of  wealth  and  prosperity.  She  is 
represented  with  four  arms  and  arrayed  with  the  most 
beautiful  ornaments  and  gems.  She  is  sometimes  called 
Padma,  (from  pddmd,  the  "lotus,")  in  allusion,  perhaps, 
to  her  divine  beauty,  and  by  many  other  names.  She  is 
sometimes  identified  with  the  beautiful  Apsara  Rambha, 
(or  Rembha.) 

See  Moor's  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Iialamant  or  Lallemant,  Itl'mSN',  (Jean,)  a  French 
physician  and  scholar,  who  lived  about  1550-90,  was  a 
native  of  Autun.  He  produced,  besides  works  on  medi- 
cine, history,  etc.,  a  French  version  of  Demosthenes' 
"  Philippics,"  (1549.) 

Lalande,  de,  deh  iS'lfiNd',  (Jacques,)  a  meritorious 
French  jurist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1622.  He  published 
*'  Specimen  Juris  Romano-Gallici  ad  Pandectas,"  (1690.) 
Died  in  1703. 

Lalande,  de,  (Joseph  J^;r6me  LEFRANgAis,)  one  of 
the  most  eminent  French  astronomers,  was  born  at 
Bourg  (Ain)  in  July,  1732,  and  was  the  only  child  of 
Pierre  Lefran9ais.  He  manifested  at  an  early  age  the 
love  of  fame  which  was  his  ruling  passion.  He  was  a 
student  in  a  college  of  Lyons  when  the  great  eclipse  of 
July,  1748,  inspired  him  with  a  determination  to  be  an 
astronomer.  Having  been  sent  by  his  parents  to  Paris 
to  study  law,  he  attended  the  lectures  of  Messier  and 
Lemonnier  on  astronomy  and  mathematics,  and  became 
the  favourite  pupil  of  both  professors.  The  Academy 
having  resolved  to  send  an  astronomer  to  Berlin  to 
make  observations  and  to  second  La  Caille,  who  was 
stationed  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Lalande  was 
selected  in  1751,  through  the  influence  of  Lemonnier. 
Returning  in  1 752,  his  labours  were  approved,  and  he 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
his  twentieth  year.  He  next  ascertained  the  diameter 
of  the  moon,  and  began  to  work  on  the  theory  of  the 
planets,  which  became  one  of  the  most  constant  occu- 
pations of  his  life.  He  assisted  Clairaut  in  computing 
the  effect  of  planetary  perturbations  on  the  return  of 
Halley's  comet  about  1759. 

He  was  chosen  in  1760  editor  of  the  "  Connaissances 
des  Temps,"  in  the  plan  of  which  he  introduced  impor- 
tant improvements,  and  succeeded  Delisle  as  professor 
of  astronomy  in  the  College  of  France  in  1762.  For 
forty-six  years  he  discharged  the  functions  of  this  place 
with  great  zeal  and  eclat.  In  1764  he  published  his  great 
"Treatise  on  Astronomy,"  ("Traite  d'Astronomie,")  in 
which  the  theory  and  practical  part  of  the  science  are 
extensively  treated.  He  produced  in  1772  a  "  Memoir 
on  the  Transit  of  Venus  of  1769,"  and  a  year  later  a 
speculation  on  the  possibility  of  a  collision  of  comets 
with  the  earth,  which  caused  a  panic  among  the  un- 
learned, although  he  had  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that 
such  a  collision  was  very  improbable.  He  wrote  many 
articles  for  the  "  Encyclopedie  Methodique"  and  the 
"Journal  des  Savants,"  and  published  "The  History, 
Theory,  and  Practice  of  Navigation,"  ("Abrege  de  Na- 
vigation," etc.,  1793.)  Among  his  other  works  are 
"Astronomical  Bibliography,"  (1803,)  "  Histoire  celeste 
Fran9aise,"  (1801,)  containing  the  observations  of  many 
French  astronomers,  and  "Memoirs  on  the  Parallax  of 
the  Moon."  He  died  in  1807.  "Though  in  many  re- 
spects only  an  astronomer  of  the  second  order,"  says 
Delambre,  "  he  was  the  foremost  of  all  as  a  professor, 
and  did  more  than  any  other  to  promote  the  study  of 


*  I.e.  "prosperity;"  also  "beauty"  or  "splendour." 


the  science.^'  His  temper  was  irritable,  but  candid  and 
benevolent. 

See  Dei.  AMBRE,  "  filoge  de  Lalande;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^nerale." 

Lalande,  de,  (Michel  Jean  J6r6me  LEFRANgAis,) 
an  astronomer,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Normandy  in  1766.  Under  the  direction  of  his  uncle  he 
made  observations  in  Paris,  and  ascertained  the  theory 
of  the  orbit  of  Mars.  He  became  a  member  of  the  In- 
stitute and  of  the  Bureau  of  Longitudes.    Died  in  1839. 

Lalande,  de,  (Michel  Richard,)  a  French  com- 
poser, born  in  Paris  in  1657,  became  superintendent  of 
music  of  Louis  XIV.  about  1683.  He  composed  many 
motets.  "  He  was,"  says  Denne-Baron,  "  the  most  skilful 
French  composer  of  religious  music  of  his  time."  Died 
in  1726. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

La  Landelle  or  Lalandelle,  de,  deh  It  ISnMIK, 
(GuiLLAUME  Joseph  Gabriel,)  a  French  novelist,  born 
at  Montpellier  in  1812,  wrote  "The  Naval  Crown,"  (9 
vols.,  1848,)  and  other  maritime  novels. 

Lalanne,  li'ltn',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  didactic 
poet,  born  at  Dax  in  1772. 

Lalanne,  (L^:on  Louis  Chretien,)  a  French  civil 
engineer  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1811. 

Lalanne,  (Marie  Ludovic  Chr^;tien,)  a  French 
writer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  181 5. 
Among  his  works  is  "Curiosites  litteraires,"  (1845.) 

Lallemand,  Itl'mSN',  (Charles  FRANgois  An- 
toine,)  Baron,  a  French  general,  called  Lallemand 
Ain^:,  was  born  at  Metz  in  1774.  He  served  in  Spain, 
where  he  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade,  (1811.) 
During  the  Hundred  Days  he  joined  Bonaparte,  and 
commanded  a  division  at  Waterloo.  As  a  fugitive,  he 
sought  refuge  in  the  United  States,  and  attempted  to 
found  a  colony  in  Texas  about  18 1 8,  but  failed.  In  1830 
he  returned  to  France,  was  restored  to  the  rank  of  gene- 
ral, and  entered  the  Chamber  of  Peers.    Died  in  1839. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ndrale." 

Lallemand,  (Claude  Francois,)  an  eminent  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Metz  in  1790.  He  was  professor 
of  clinical  surgery  at  Montpellier  from  1819  to  1823,  and 
again  from  1826  to  1845.  In  the  latter  year  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and 
settled  in  Paris.  He  wrote,  besides  other  medical  treat- 
ises, an  important  work  entitled  "Anatomico-Pathologic 
Researches  on  the  Brain,"  (5  vols.,  1820-36,)  which  was 
translated  into  many  languages.  He  was  once  called  to 
Egypt  to  attend  Ibraheem  Pasha.    Died  in  1854. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Lallemand,  (Henri  Dominique,)  born  in  1777,  was 
a  brother  of  Charles  Fran9ois  Antoine,  noticed  above, 
and  a  brave  partisan  of  Napoleon,  who  made  him  general 
of  division  in  the  Hundred  Days.  He  fought  at  Water- 
loo, (1815,)  after  which  he  went  as  an  exile  to  the  United 
States.    Died  at  Bordentown  in  1823. 

Lallemand,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  painter  of 
landscapes  and  sea-views,  born  at  Dijon  in  17 10,  worked 
some  years  in  Rome,  and  painted  several  pieces  for  the 
Vatican.    Died  in  1802. 

Lallemandet,  ItKmfiN'd^',  (Jean,)  a  theologian,  born 
at  Besan9on  in  1595,  wrote  "Philosophical  Decisions," 
("  Decisiones  Philosophicae,"  1644,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1647. 

Lallemant.    See  Lalamant. 

Lallemant,  ItKmdN',  (Jacques  Philippe,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  near  Abbeville  about  1660.  He  published 
a  remarkable  work,  entitled  "The  True  Spirit  of  the 
New  Disciples  of  Saint  Augustine,"  (4  vols.,  1706  et 
seq.,)  and  "Moral  Reflections,  with  Notes,  on  the  New 
Testament,"  (11  vols.,  1714.)    Died  in  1748. 

Lallemant,  (Pierre,)  a  mystical  French  writer,  born 
at  Rheims  in  1622,  published  "  The  Spiritual  Testament," 
(1672,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1673. 

Lalli,  liKlee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  diplomatist,  born  at  Norcia,  in  Umbria,  in  1572, 
was  employed  in  several  negotiations  by  the  courts  of 
Rome  and  of  Parma.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation 
by  his  epic  poem  "Titus  Vespasian,  or  the  Destruction 
of  Jerusalem,"  ("  II  Tito  Vespasiano,  overo  La  Geru- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LALLY 


1359 


LAM  ART  INK 


salemme  Desolata,"  1629.)  He  also  produced  some 
popular  burlesque  poems,  among  which  is  "  The  ^neid 
Travestied,"  (1633.)    Died  in  1637. 

Lally,  de,  deh  It'le',  (Thomas  Arthur,)  Count, 
Baron  of  Tollendal,  in  Ireland,  a  French  general,  of 
Irish  descent,  born  in  Dauphine  about  1700.  For  his 
conduct  at  Fontenoy,  in  1745,  he  was  made  brigadier- 
general.  He  fought  for  the  Pretender  in  Scotland  in 
the  same  year.  In  1756,  while  France  was  at  war  with 
England,  he  was  appointed  commandant-general  of  the 
French  possessions  in  India,  commissary  of  the  king, 
and  syndic  of  the  French  East  India  Company.  He 
took  Fort  Saint  David  in  1758,  and  attacked  Madras 
without  success.  His  plans  were  thwarted  by  the  cor- 
rupt agents  of  the  company.  In  176 1  he  surrendered 
Pondicherry  to  Sir  E.  Coote,  and  was  taken  as  prisoner 
to  England.  After  having  been  imprisoned  for  four  years 
in  the  Bastille,  he  was  executed  for  treason  in  1766.  In 
1778  the  royal  council  annulled  his  sentence,  the  injustice 
of  which  was  generally  recognized. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Si^cle  de  Louis  XV." 

Lally-ToUendal,  de,  deh  It'le'  to'lSN^tK,  (Tro- 
PHIME  GERARD,)  Marquis,  a  French  orator  and  writer, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1751.  He 
devoted  many  years  to  the  successful  vindication  of  his 
father's  memory.  In  1789  he  was  deputed  by  the  no- 
blesse to  the  States-General,  and  was  one  of  the  minority 
of  his  order  who  united  with  the  Tiers-fitat  and  favoured 
reform.  He  emigrated  to  England  in  1792,  and  returned 
to  France  in  1800.  In  1815  he  entered  the  Chamber  of 
Peers,  where  he  showed  himself  a  moderate  royalist.  He 
was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1816.  He  died 
in  1830,  leaving  many  political  treatises. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

La  Longe  or  Lalonge,  It  16Nzh,  (Hubert  or  Ro- 
bert,) called  II  Fiammingo,  {i.e.  "the  Fleming,")  a 
skilful  painter,  born  at  Brussels,  lived  mostly  in  Italy. 
Died  in  1709. 

La  Loubere.    See  Loubere,  La. 

La  Luzerne.    See  Luzerne,  La. 

Lama,  WycA,  (Giovanni  Bernardo,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  the  Neapolitan  school,  was  born  about  15 10. 
He  painted  religious  subjects  and  portraits  with  success. 
Died  about  1580. 

Lam'a-ehus,  \Ka^axoq^  an  Athenian  general,  born 
about  470  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Xenophanes,  and,  accord- 
ing to  Plutarch,  was  a  man  of  great  courage  and  honour. 
In  415  Nicias,  Alcibiades,  and  Lamachus  were  chosen 
generals  of  the  expedition  against  Syracuse.  The  people 
having  recalled  Alcibiades,  Nicias  had  the  principal 
direction  of  the  enterprise,  though  Lamachus  was  the 
abler  general.    He  was  killed  at  Syracuse  in  414  B.C. 

Lamalle.    See  Dureau. 

Lanianon,  de,  deh  lS'mi'n6N',  (Robert  de  Paul,) 
Chevalier,  a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Salon  in  1752. 
He  lived  some  years  in  Paris,  wrote  memoirs  on  fossil 
bones,  etc.,  and  accompanied  the  expedition  of  La 
Perouse  as  naturalist  in  1785.  He  was  murdered  by 
some  natives  of  one  of  the  Navigator  Islands  in  1787, 

La-mar',  (Mirabeau  B.,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  at  Louisville,  Georgia,  in  1798.  He  removed  in 
1835  to  Texas,  and  was  elected  first  Vice-President  in 
1836,  and  in  1838  President  of  the  republic.  Died  in  1859. 

Lamarche  or  La  Marche,  It  mtRsh,  (Joseph 
Drouot,)  a  French  general,  born  in  Vosges  in  1733. 
At  the  death  of  Dampierre  (1793)  the  chief  command 
devolved  on  Lamarche,  until  he  was  superseded  by 
Custine  in  July,  1793.    Died  about  1800. 

La  Marche,  (Olivier.)    See  Marche,  La. 

La  Marck,  (Robert.)    See  Marck,  La. 

Lamarck  or  La  Marck,  de,  deh  It  mtRk,  (Jean 
Baptiste  Pierre  Antoine  de  Monet,)  Chevalier,  a 
celebrated  French  naturalist,  born  in  Picardy,  August 
I,  1744.  He  was  educated  for  the  church  at  a  college  of 
Amiens,  but  entered  the  army  in  1761  and  fought  in  one 
campaign  with  distinction.  Having  been  disabled  for 
action  by  an  accidental  injury,  he  went  to  Paris,  where 
he  studied  medicine,  which,  however,  he  did  not  prac- 
tise. He  devoted  himself  to  botany,  in  the  classification 
of  which  he  made  some  innovations,  and  published 


in  1778  "Flore  Fran9aise,"  ("French  Flora,")  which 
opened  to  him  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Taking  the 
most  general  conformations  as  the  point  of  departure, 
proceeding  by  a  dichotomic  path,  and  presenting  at 
each  step  a  choice  between  two  opposite  characters  it 
was  found  a  convenient  guide.  Having  received  a  com- 
mission as  botanist  to  the  king,  he  was  employed  in 
botanical  researches  in  Holland  and  Germany,  from 
which  he  returned  in  1782.  He  extended  his  reputation 
by  the  article  Botany  in  the  "  Encyclopedic  Methodique." 
(about  1783.)  In  1788  he  became  an  assistant  of  the 
director  of  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  which  was  reorganized  in 
1793,  under  the  name  of  the  "Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory." Lamarck  was  appointed  professor  of  zoology  in 
that  institution.  His  sagacious  and  zealous  researches 
and  writings  in  the  department  of  invertebrata  (which 
devolved  on  him  because  the  other  professors  deemed 
them  beneath  their  notice)  constitute  his  principal  title 
to  celebrity,  and  raise  him  to  the  rank  of  a  legislator  in 
the  animal  kingdom.  In  1809  he  propounded,  in  his 
"  Philosophic  zoologique,"  several  novel  or  absurd  hy- 
potheses on  the  production  of  animals, — as  the  theory 
of  metamorphosis  or  progressive  development,  and  that 
of  spontaneous  generation.  His  capital  work,  entitled 
"Natural  History  of  Invertebrate  Animals,"  ("  His- 
toire  naturelle  des  Animaux  sans  Vertebres,"  7  vols., 
1815-22,)  ranks  among  the  noblest  monuments  of  human 
science.  He  had  published  an  outline  of  the  same  in 
1801.    Died  in  1829. 

See  CuviER,  "  filoge  de  Lamarck  ;"  Geoffrov  Saint-Hilaire, 
"Discours  prononce  sur  la  Tombe  de  Lamarck ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio" 
graphic  Generale;"  "Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixv.,  181 1  et  seq., 
(Appendix.) 

Lamare-Picquot,  It'mtR'  pe'ko',  (N.,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Bayeux  about  1785,  travelled  in  the 
East  Indies,  from  which  he  brought  specimens  of  zoology 
o\  eight  hundred  and  fifty-five  species.  Between  1841 
and  1848  he  explored  North  America. 

La  Marmora.    See  Marmora,  della. 

Lamarque,  It^mtRk',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  regicide, 
born  in  Perigord  about  1755,  was  elected  to  the  Con- 
vention in  1792.  He  was  one  of  the  four  deputies  who 
attempted  to  arrest  Dumouriez  at  the  head  of  his  army 
in  1793,  and  who  were  by  him  delivered  to  the  Austrians. 
Died  in  1839. 

Lamarque,  (Maximilien,)  an  able  French  general 
and  orator,  born  at  Saint-Sever  (Landes)  in  1770.  He 
served  as  a  general  of  brigade  at  Austerlitz  in  1805, 
obtained  command  of  a  division  in  1807,  and  took  Capraea 
from  the  English  in  1808.  At  the  battle  of  Wagram,  in 
1809,  his  courage  was  conspicuous.  He  joined  the 
standard  of  Napoleon  on  his  return  from  Elba,  and 
commanded  with  success  in  several  actions  against  the 
Vendeans  in  1815.  In  1828  he  became  a  liberal  member 
of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Died  in  1832.  A  bloody 
conflict  occurred  between  the  troops  and  the  populace 
at  his  funeral  in  Paris. 

See  Louis  Blanc,  "  Histoire  de  dix  Ans;"  "M^moires  et  Sou- 
venirs du  General  Lamarque,"  published  by  his  family,  3  vols.,  1835- 
36;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

La  Martelliere  or  Lamartelliere,  It  mtR'ti'le^iR', 
(Jean  Henri  Ferdinand,)  a  French  dramatic  author, 
born  at  Ferrette  in  1761  ;  died  in  1830. 

Lamartine,  de,  deh  It'mtR^t^n',  (Alphonse,)  a 
French  poet,  orator,  and  historian  of  great  celebrit)',  was 
born  at  Macon,  on  the  Saone,  on  the  21st  of  October, 
1792.  His  father  served  for  a  short  time  in  the  army 
as  captain  or  major,  and  was  imprisoned  as  a  royalist 
in  the  Revolution.  His  mother's  name  was  Alix  des 
Roys.  The  name  of  De  Prat  has  been  erroneously  given 
to  the  subject  Qf  this  article  by  some  biographers.  He 
was  educated  at  the  College  of  Belley,  which  he  left 
about  1809,  and  afterwards  passed  some  time  at  home, 
where  he  read  and  admired  Dante,  Petrarch,  Shakspeare, 
Milton,  and  Ossian.  In  1811-12  he  visited  Rome  and 
Naples.  He  entered  the  life-guards  of  Louis  XVIII.  in 
1814,  and  when  his  company  was  disbanded  on  the  re- 
turn of  Bonaparte  from  Elba,  he  retired  into  Switzerland, 
where  he  remained  during  the  Hundred  Days.  In  1820 
he  published  a  volume  of  poems  entitled  "  Meditations 
poetiques,"  which  excited  general  admiration,  and  of 
which  45,000  copies  were  sold  in  four  years.  This  volume 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  yl^  gtittural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LAM  ART  IN  E 


1360 


LAMB 


contained  "  The  Lake,"  ("  Le  Lac,")  a  beautiful  elegy, 
(composed  in  181 7,)  in  which  he  expresses  the  contrast 
between  tlie  permanence  of  nature  and  the  instability  of 
human  affairs.  Lamartine  was  appointed  in  1820  secre- 
tary of  legation  at  Florence,  (or,  as  one  writer  says,  at 
Naples,)  and  married  an  English  heiress  named  Eliza 
Marianna  Birch.  His  "  Nouvelles  Meditations  poetiques" 
appeared  in  1823.  He  was  charge-d'affaires  at  Florence 
for  several  years,  ending  in  1829,  and  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1830.  He  professed  devotion  to  the 
church  and  the  throne  in  his  "  Harmonies  poetiques  et 
religieuses,"  (1830,)  which  are  considered  by  some  critics 
as  his  best  productions. 

After  th-e  Revolution  of  1830  he  adopted  more  liberal 
political  principles,  and  resolved  to  make  a  change  in  his 
pursuits.  He  offered  himself  as  a  candidate  for  election 
to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  but  was  defeated.  In  1832, 
accompanied  by  his  wife  and  daughter  Julia,  he  visitecl 
Palestine,  the  favourite  scene  of  his  youthful  reveries  and 
aspirations,  travelling  like  a  prince  in  a  vessel  which  he 
had  chartered.  His  daughter  Julia  died  at  Beyroot.  He 
returned  in  the  autumn  of  1833,  and  published,  in  prose, 
"Souvenirs,  Impressions,  Pensees  et  Paysages  pendant 
un  Voyage  en  Orient,"  (3  vols.,  1835,)  t'"*^  English  ver- 
sion of  which  is  entitled  "A  Pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
Land."  During  his  absence  he  had  been  elected  by  the 
voters  of  Bergues  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  which 
he  maintained  a  position  independent  of  party,  but  spoke 
often  with  success  on  questions  of  social  and  political 
philosophy.  He  displayed  a  marvellous  affluence  of 
pure  sentiments  and  beautiful  images  in  his  poem  of 
"  Jocelyn,"  (1836,)  announced  or  designed  as  an  episode 
of  a  great  poem  on  the  progressive  phases  of  humanity. 
He  became  the  representative  of  Macon  in  the  Chamber 
in  1837,  and  was  classed  for  some  years  among  the 
"  progressive  conservatives ;"  but  he  censured  the  im- 
mobility of  Guizot's  policy,  and  in  1843  became  a  deter- 
min°a  opponent  of  the  ministry  and  conservative  party. 
Thj  public  were  greatly  surprised  by  the  avowal  of 
democratic  principles  and  sympathies  which  he  made  in 
his  eloquent  and  brilliant  "  History  of  the  Girondists," 
(8  vols.,  1847,)  which  had  an  important  political  influ- 
ence as  a  cause  of  the  Revolution  of  1848.  He  is  cen- 
sured for  inaccuracy  as  a  historian,  and  for  his  imitation 
of  a  habit  of  many  ancient  writers  who  ascribe  to  historical 
persons  imaginary  speeches.  "This  work,"  says  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1848,  "brings  before 
us  that  most  stirring  and  important  period  with  a  clear- 
ness and  vividness  that  all  previous  descriptions,  except 
some  of  Carlyle's,  have  failed  to  realize  :  it  presents  us 
on  the  same  page  with  distinct,  highly-finished  sketches 
of  the  principal  actors.  ...  M.  de  Lamartine  seems  to 
us,  on  the  whole,  to  have  brought  to  the  consideration 
of  the  Revolution  a  more  candid  spirit  and  more  whole- 
some sympathies  than  any  preceding  writer."  He  kept 
himself  aloof  from  the  reform  banquets  of  1847,  a"<^  iodk 
no  part  in  the  first  two  days  of  the  ensuing  revolution. 
On  the  24th  of  February  he  entered  the  Chamber,  and, 
rejecting  the  claims  of  the  falling  dynasty,  advocated 
the  formation  of  a  provisional  government.  As  a  mem- 
ber of  the  government  formed  in  that  momentous  crisis, 
he  assumed  the  functions  of  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
He  became  at  once  the  master-spirit  and  moderator  of 
the  Revolution,  and  repressed  the  spirit  of  anarchy  and 
homicide  by  memorable  demonstrations  of  eloquence, 
courage,  and  magnanimity.  His  harangue  to  the  se- 
ditious and  infuriated  bands  who  demanded  the  red  flag 
instead  of  the  tricoloured  (February  25)  was  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  triumphs  of  eloquence  recorded  in 
history.  He  addressed  a  pacific  manifesto  to  Europe, 
(March  4,)  and  was  successful  in  averting  a  general  war. 
For  some  months  his  popularity  was  immense  among 
nearly  all  classes.  In  April  he  was  elected  by  ten  de- 
partments to  the  Constituent  Assembly  which  met  on 
the  5th  of  May.  He  was  the  fourth  on  the  list  of  the 
Executive  Commission  of  Five  chosen  by  the  Assembly 
on  the  loth  of  May.  The  decline  of  his  popularity 
shown  by  this  fact  is  ascribed  to  his  connection  or  col- 
lusion with  Ledru-Rollin, — a  collusion  which  he  com- 
pared to  that  of  the  lightning-rod  with  the  pernicious 
power  which  it  averts.    Lamartine  and  his  colleagues 


resigned  in  consequence  of  the  insurrection  of  June  22, 
which  they  were  unable  to  suppress. 

On  the  6th  of  October  he  made  a  remarkable  speech 
in  the  Assembly,  in  which  he  advocated  the  election  of 
president  by  the  people,  and  said,  "If  the  republic  suc- 
ceeds, I  have  won  my  game  (partie)  against  destiny.  If 
it  fails,  either  in  anarchy  or  ir  a  reminiscence  of  despot- 
ism, my  name,  my  responsibility,  and  my  memory  will 
fall  with  it."  He  also  expressed  his  foreboding  that  the 
result  of  the  popular  vote  would  not  accord  with  his  own 
choice.  At  the  election  of  president  in  December,  1848, 
he  received  only  about  8000  votes.  After  the  coup  d'etat 
of  December,  1851,  he  took  no  part  in  political  affairs. 
He  published  in  1849  a  "  History  of  the  Revolution  of 
1848,"  (2  vols.,)  "  Les  Confidences,"  containing  memoirs 
of  his  early  life,  and  "Raphael,  Pages  de  la  vingtieme 
Annee."  Among  his  later  works  are  a  "  History  of  the 
Restoration,"  (7  vols.,  1851-52,)  "  Histoire  des  Cons- 
tituents," (4  vols.,  1854,)  and  a  "History  of  Turkey," 
(8  vols.,  1855.)  Many  of  his  works  have  been  translated 
into  nearly  all  European  languages.  His  neglect  of 
economy  and  his  expensive  habits  involved  him,  many 
years  ago,  in  pecuniary  embarrassments,  which  his  great 
literary  industry  and  success  failed  to  relieve.  His  friends 
in  1858  opened  a  national  subscription  in  his  favour  ;  but 
the  results  of  this  appeal  to  the  public  gratitude  were 
not  very  satisfactory.  Died  in  February,  1869.  "There 
is  in  the  most  imj^erfect  sketches  of  Lamartine,"  says  an 
anonymous  French  critic,  "a  grand  current  of  inspiration 
which  imparts  to  each  passion  and  idea  its  appropriate 
life  and  lustre,  God  and  man,  society  and  nature,  religion 
and  politics,  all  objects  of  thought  and  sentiment,  con- 
tribute to  this  resplendent  focus  of  universal  poetry." 

See  Charles  Robin,  "  Biographie  de  Lamartine,"  1848;  Cha- 
PUYS  MoNTLAViLi.E,  "  Vie  de  Lamartine;"  Lomenie,  "Galerie  des 
Contemporains  ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  contemporains,"  tome 
i.  ;  Lurine,  "  Histoire  de  A.  de  Lamartine,''  1848 ;  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  E.  Frensdorff,  "Lamartine," 
Berlin,  1848;  Cormenin,  "Lamartine  et  le  Gouvernement  provi- 
soire,"  1848  ;  A.  de  Lamartine,  "Trois  Mois au  Pou voir, "(and  Eng- 
lish version  of  the  same,  entitled  "  Three  Months  in  Power :  a  History 
and  a  Vindication  ;")  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1835,  and 
March,  1852;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1848,  and  January, 
1850;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1844,  and  September, 
T847 ;  "Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1836;  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  August,  1849. 

La  Martiniere.    See  Martiniere,  de  la. 

Lamb,  lam,  (Lady  Caroline,)  an  English  authoress, 
daughter  of  Frederick  Ponsonby,  Earl  of  Besborough,  was 
born  in  1785.  She  was  married  in  1805  to  William  Lamb, 
afterwards  Lord  Melbourne.  Her  romances,  entitled 
"  Glenarvon,"  "  Graham  Hamilton,"  and  "Ada  Reis," 
procured  her  some  literary  reputation.  Her  friendship 
or  love  for  Lord  Byron  attracted  much  attention,  and 
gave  rise  to  some  scandal.    Died  in  1828. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  October,  1822;  Madame  Guic- 
ciOLi,  "Recollections  of  Lord  Byron,"  pp.  100-101  et  seq. 

Lamb,  (Charles,)  a  popular  English  essayist  and 
humorist,  was  born  in  London  in  February,  1775,  and 
was  educated  at  Christ's  Hospital,  where  he  formed  an 
intimacy  with  Coleridge.  In  1792  he  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  the  East  India  Company  as  clerk  in  the  India 
House,  London.  He  began  his  literary  career  with  a 
small  volume  of  poems  published  in  1798  in  connection 
with  some  verses  of  Coleridge  and  Lloyd.  After  the 
faithful  performance  of  his  irksome  duties  at  the  desk 
for  thirty-three  years,  he  retired  in  1825,  with  a  pension 
of  ;^44i.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his  prose 
works,  especially  the  "Essays  of  Elia,"  (1830.)  His 
exquisite  taste  and  critical  sagacity  are  manifested  in 
his  "  Essays  on  the  Tragedies  of  Shakspeare,"  and  other 
works.  His  character  was  amiably  eccentric,  abounding 
in  whims  and  quaint  humours,  and  most  of  his  writings 
are  strongly  expressive  of  his  mental  individuality.  He 
remained  unmarried,  and  lived  with  his  sister  Mary,  who 
in  a  fit  of  insanity  killed  her  mother  about  1796.  She 
was  restored  to  a  sound  mind,  and  found  an  affectionate 
guardian  in  her  brother  until  his  death  in  1834.  His 
sister  died  in  1847. 

See  T.  N.  Talfourd,  "  Life  of  Charles  Lamb ;"  Bryan  W. 
Procter,  "Charles  Lamb:  a  Memoir,"  1866;  De  Quincey,  "Lite- 
rary Reminiscences,"  vol.  i.  ;  Percy  Fitzgerald,  "Charles  Lamb 
and  his  Friends;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1837  ;  "  Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  August,  1818,  and  August,  1849;  "British 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1867. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fAr,  fMl,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LAMB 


LAMBERT 


Lamb,  (George,)  an  English  author,  born  in  1784, 
was  a  younger  son  of  the  first  Lord  Melbourne,  and  a 
brother  of  prime-minister  Lord  Melbourne.  He  was 
elected  to  Parliament  by  the  Whigs  in  1818,  and  was 
several  times  re-elected.  He  contributed  to  the  "Edin- 
burgh Review,"  of  which,  said  Byron,  "  Jeffrey  and  Lamb 
were  the  Alpha  and  Omega,"  and  published  a  trans- 
lation of  Catullus.  \n  1832  he  was  appointed  under- 
secretary of  the  home  department.    Died  in  1834. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1822. 

Lamb,  (Sir  James  Bland  Burges.)  an  English  poli- 
tician and  wiiter,  born  at  Gibraltar  in  1752  ;  died  in  1824. 

Lamb,  (William.)    See  Melbourne,  Lord. 

Lamballe,  de,  deh  IdN^btK,  (Maria Therese  Louise 
de  Savoie-Carignan  —  deh  st'vwa'  kt'rfen'ySN', ) 
Princess,  born  at  Turin  in  1749,  was  a  member  of  the 
royal  family  of  Sardinia,  and  distinguished  for  beauty 
and  virtue.  In  1767  she  became  the  wife  of  the  Prince 
of  Lamballe,  (the  son  of  the  Duke  of  Penthievre,)  and  one 
year  later  was  left  a  \vidow.  She  was  a  favourite  attendant 
of  Queen  Marie  Antoinette,  whose  danger  and  adverse 
fortune  she  shared  during  the  Revolution.  Having  been 
imprisoned  in  La  Force,  she  was  massacred,  with  cir- 
cumstances of  great  atrocity,  in  September,  1792. 

See  "  Menioires  de  la  Princesse  de  Lamballe."  par  Madame 
GuEN'ARD,  4  vols.,  1801 ;  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Girondists." 

Lam'barde,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer 
and  antiquary,  was  born  in  London  in  1536,  He  be- 
came a  master  in  chancery  in  1592,  keeper  of  the  rolls 
in  1597,  and  keeper  of  the  records  of  the  Tower  in 
1600.  He  published  a  work  on  old  Saxon  laws,  entitled 
"  Archaionomia,"  (1568,)  "The  Perambulation  of  Kent," 
and  "Eirenarcha;  or.  The  Office  of  the  Justices  of  the 
Peace."  He  founded  a  hospital  for  the  poor  at  Green- 
wich.   Died  in  1601. 

See  Nichols,  "Life  of  Lambarde." 

Lambeccius  or  Lambecius.    See  Lambeck. 

Lambeck,  Idm'b^k,  [Lat.  Lamrec'cius  or  Lamre'- 
cius,]  (Peter,)  an  eminent  German  bibliographer,  born 
at  Hamburg,  April  13,  1628.  He  became  professor  of 
history  in  his  native  place  in  1652,  and  librarian  of  the 
Emperor  of  Austria,  at  Vienna,  about  1662.  Among  his 
works  are  a  "History  of  Hamburg,"  (1652,)  and  "A 
Catalogue  of  the  Imperial  Library  of  Vienna,"  ("Com- 
mentaria  de  Augusta  Bibliotheca  Cassarea  Vindobo- 
nensi,"  8  vols.,  1665-79,)  said  to  be  the  most  extensive 
ever  compiled.    Died  in  Vienna  in  1680. 

See  "Leben  des  Petri  Lambeccii,"  Hamburg,  1724. 

Lamberg.von,  fon  ISn/bgRG,  (Joseph  Maximilian,) 
Coun  t,  a  learned  and  ingenious  German  writer,  born 
at  Briinn,  Moravia,  in  1729,  corresponded  with  Voltaire 
and  Hume.  He  published  (in  French)  an  "  Essay  on 
the  ImiDossible,"  (1764,)  and  "  Memoriel  d'un  Mondain," 
("Memorial  of  a  Worldling,"  1775.)    Died  in  1792. 

Lam'bert,  the  son  of  Gui,  Duke  of  Spoleto,  Emperor 
and  King  of  Italy,  succeeded  his  father  at  an  early 
age,  in  894  a.d.  Ilis  rivals  Berenger  and  Arnulf  were 
masters  of  parts  of  Italy.  He  took  Milan  in  895,  and 
was  killed  by  falling  from  a  horse  in  898. 

Lam'bert,  (Aylmer  Bourke,)  an  English  botanist, 
born  in  1762,  contributed  memoirs  to  the  "Linnaean 
Transactions,"  and  was  a  liberal  patron  of  scientific 
men.  His  herbarium  was  one  of  the  finest  in  England. 
Died  in  1842. 

Lambert,  ISN^baiR',  (Charles  Joseph,)  called  Lam- 
bert Bey,  a  French  engineer,  born  at  Valenciennes  in 
1804.  About  1832  he  entered  the  service  of  Mehemet 
Ali  of  Egypt,  who  appointed  him  director  of  the  Poly- 
technic School  and  the  Observatory  of  Boolak. 

Lambert,  (Claude  Francois,)  a  French  compiler, 
born  at  Dole,  lived  in  Paris.  He  published  numerous 
mediocre  works,  among  which  was  a  "  History  of  all 
Nations,"  (15  vols.,  1750.)    Died  in  1765. 

Lambert,  (Daniel,)  a  famous  giant,  born  at  Leices- 
ter, England,  in  1770.  He  was  five  feet  eleven  inches  in 
height,  and  at  twenty-three  years  of  age  weighed  four 
hundred  and  forty-eight  ))ounds.  He  was  also  remark- 
able for  his  strength,  and  performed  wonderful  feats  as 
a  swimmer  and  pedestrian.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
(1809)  he  weighed  seven  hundred  and  thirty-nine  pounds. 


Lambert,  [Lat.  Lamber'tus,]  (Francois,)  a  French 
Protestant  Reformer,  born  at  Avignon  in  1487,  became  a 
monk  in  early  youth.  Having  embraced  the  Reformed  re- 
ligion, he  fled  to  Switzerland  in  1522,  assumed  the  name 
of  Johannes  Serranus,  and  was  appointed  professor 
of  theology  at  Marburg  in  1527.  He  published  com- 
mentaries on  the  Bible,  and  other  works.  He  contributed 
greatly  to  the  propagation  of  the  Reformed  doctrines  in 
Thuringia  and  Hesse.  His  system  of  theology  is  ex- 
plained in  his  "Farrago  of  almost  all  Theological  Mat- 
ters," ("  Farrago  Omnium  fere  Rerum  Theologicarum.") 
Died  in  1530. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Johann  W. 
Baum,  "  F.  Lambert  von  Avignon  nach  seinem  Leben,"  etc.,  1840 
NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lambert,  (George,)  an  eminent  English  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  Kent  about  1710.  He  painted  land- 
scapes in  the  manner  of  Gaspard  Poussin,  and  had  a 
great  talent  for  etching.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
Beefsteak  Club.    Died  in  1765. 

Lambert,  ISm'blRt,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  profound 
and  original  philosopher  and  mathematician,  was  born  of  a 
French  Protestant  family  at  Miilhouse,  Alsace,  in  August, 
1728.  From  1748  to  1759  he  was  preceptor  to  the  sons 
of  Count  de  Salis.  About  1763  he  became  a  resident 
of  Berlin  and  a  pensioned  member  of  the  Berlin  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.  He  was  afterwards  employed  in  civil 
affairs,  with  the  title  of  councillor.  He  cultivated  with 
great  success  mathematics  and  astronomy,  on  which  he 
wrote  many  treatises,  and  he  demonstrated  the  incom- 
mensurability of  the  circumference  and  diameter  of  a 
circle.  His  "  Cosmological  Letters"  (1761)  attracted 
much  attention.  He  produced,  in  German,  a  celebrated 
work  on  dialectics  entitled  "Novum  Organon,"  (1763,) 
and  "  Photometria,  sive  de  Gradibus  Luminis,"  ("  On 
the  Degrees  of  Light,"  etc.)  He  belonged  to  the  Prot- 
estant church.    Died  in  Berlin  in  1777. 

See  Matthias  Graf,  "  J.  H.  Lamberts  Leben,"  1829;  Formey, 
"  filoge  de  Lambert;"  Daniel  Hubkr,  "J.  H.  Lambert  nach  seinem 
Leben  imdWirken,"  1829;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lambert,  (John,)  a  prominent  English  republican 
general,  born  about  1620,  was  a  favourite  of  the  Inde- 
pendents. He  entered  the  army  of  the  Parliament,  fought 
as  colonel  at  Marston  Moor  in  1644,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  first  civil  war  had  obtained  the  rank  of  general.  He 
was  second  in  command  under  Cromwell  in  Scotland 
in  1649,  and  led  the  van  at  Dunbar  in  165 1.  In  1653  he 
made  the  proposition  that  the  title  of  Protector  should 
be  given  to  Cromwell.  "  Lambert,  his  creature,"  says 
Hume,  "  who,  under  an  appearance  of  obsequiousness 
to  him,  indulged  an  unbounded  ambition,  proposed  to 
temper  the  liberty  of  a  commonwealth  by  the  authority 
of  a  single  person."  After  the  death  of  Oliver  he  plotted 
against  Richard  Cromwell  in  1659,  and  commanded  the 
army  in  opposition  to  the  Parliament  until  the  triumph 
of  the  royalists  under  Monk.  In  1662  he  was  condemned 
to  death ;  but  this  penalty  was  commuted  to  banishment 
in  Guernsey,  where  he  survived  thirty  years. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England;"  Granger,  "Biographical 
History  of  England." 

Lambert,(JosEPH,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  moralist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1654,  became  prior  of  Saint-Martin-de- 
Palaiseau.  Among  his  works  are  "  The  Evangelical 
Year,  or  Homilies  on  the  Gospels,"  (7  vols.,  1693-97,) 
and  "  Instruction  respecting  the  Creed,"  ( Syj/ibole,)  (2 
vols.,  1728;  9th  edition,  1830.)    Died  in  1722. 

Lambert,  ISm'bcrt,  (Josse,)  a  Flemish  printer  and 
engraver,  lived  at  Ghent,  and  died  in  1556  or  1557. 

Lambert,  (Michel,)  a  French  musician,  born  near 
Poitiers  in  1610,  was  patronized  by  Richelieu  and  praised 
by  Boileau.  His  songs  and  cantatas  were  greatly  ad- 
mired.   Died  in  1696. 

Lambert,  (N.,)  a  French  dramatist,  lived  about  1650. 
Among  his  works  is  a  drama  in  verse,  called  "Magic 
without  Magic,"  ("La  Magie  sans  Magie,"  1668.) 

Lambert,  Saint.    See  Saint  Lambert. 

Lambert,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Maestricht,  was  assassin- 
ated in  708  by  order  of  Alpheide,  mother  of  Charles 
Martel,  for  having  censured  her  profligacy. 

Lambert,  de,  deh  ISx'baiR',  (Anne  Therese  de 
Marguenat  de  Courcelles — mtRg'nt'  deh  kooR'slK,) 
Marquise,  a  French  authoress,  born  in  Paris  in  1647, 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  o,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

86 


LAMBERT 


1362 


LA  MESNARDIERE 


was  the  wife  of  General  Henri  Lambert,  noticed  below. 
She  was  a  friend  of  Fenelon  and  Fontenelle.  She  wrote 
"Treatises  on  Friendship,  Taste,  and  Riches,"  (1732,) 
"Advice  of  a  Mother  to  her  Daughter,"  (1734,)  and 
other  works,  commended  for  purity  of  style  and  of  morals. 
Died  in  1733. 

Her  son,  Henri  FRANgois,  (1677-1754,)  became  a 
lieutenant-general  in  1720. 

See  Fontenelle,  "  £loge  de  la  Marquise  de  Lambert,"  prefixed 
to  her  "  Oiuvres  completes,"  1767;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du 
Lundi."  tome  iv. 

Lambert,  de,  (Henri,)  Marquis  de  Saint-Bris,  a 
French  general,  l^orn  in  163 1  ;  died  in  1686. 

Lambert  le  Clianoine,  IfiN'baiR'  leh  sht'nwJn',  a 
learned  compiler,  produced  a  book  called  "Liber  Flori- 
dus."    Died  at  Saint  Omer  in  1125. 

Lambert  von  Aschaffenburg,  ISm'b^Rt  fon  i-shSf- 
fen-booRG^,  a  German  historical  writer,  born  about  1020, 
was  author  of  well-written  "Annals"  published  in  1525. 
Died  about  1080. 

Lamberti,  13.m-b§R'tee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Venice  in  1757;  died  in  1832. 

Lamberti,  (Bonaventura,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Carpi  in  165 1,  was  a  pupil,  and  one  of  the  best  imi- 
tators, of  Cignani.    He  worked  in  Rome.    Died  in  1721. 

Lamberti,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  Hellenist,  born  at 
Reggio  about  1758.  In  1797  he  became  a  member  of 
the  grand  council  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic,  and  in  the 
next  year  a  member  of  the  Directory  of  the  same.  He 
was  afterwards  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  College  of 
Milan,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Italian  Institute.  His 
most  important  work  was  a  beautiful  edition  of  Homer, 
(3  vols.,  1808.)  He  published  an  ode  to  Napoleon,  and 
other  mediocre  poems.    Died  in  1813. 

Lambertini,  lim-b^R-tee'nee,  (Michele,)  a  painter 
of  the  Bolognese  school,  lived  from  1426  to  1469.  He 
painted  a  celebrated  Madonna  in  fresco  at  Bologna. 

Lambertini,  (Prosper.)    See  Benedict  XIV. 

Lambertus.    See  Lambert,  (FRANgois.) 

Lambilotte,  15N^be'lot',  ( Pere  Louis, )  a  French 
composer,  born  at  Charleroi  in  1797.  His  fugues,  motets, 
etc.  had  great  success.  The  "  Restoration  of  the  Gre- 
gorian Chant"  is  called  his  master-piece.    Died  in  1855. 

Lambin,  ISw^b^N',  [Lat.  Lambi'nus,]  (Denis,)  a 
learned  French  professor  and  classical  scholar,  born  at 
Montreuil-sur-Mer,  in  Picardy,  about  15 16.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  Greek  in  the  Royal  College  of 
Paris  in  1561.  He  published  esteemed  editions  of 
Cicero,  Horace,  (1561,)  and  Lucretius,  (1563,)  and  Latin 
versions  of  Demosthenes  and  Aristotle,  (in  part.)  He 
died  of  grief  for  the  massacre  of  the  Protestants  in  1572. 

See  Ghilini,  "  Teatro  degli  Uomiiii  illustri ;"  Teissier,  "  fioges 
des  Hommes  savantes." 

Lambinet,  iSN^be'ni',  (Emile,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Versailles  about  1812. 

Lambinet,  (Pierre,)  a  French  bibliographer,  born 
near  Mezi^res  in  1742,  wrote  "Researches  into  the  Ori- 
gin of  Printing,"  (1798.)    Died  in  1813. 

Lambinus.    See  Lamhin. 

Lamblardie,  ]6N''bltKMe',  (Jacques  Elif,,)  a  French 
engineer,  born  at  Loches,  in  Touraine,  in  1747.  He  wrote 
an  able  "  Memoir  on  the  Coasts  of  Upper  Normandy  in 
Relation  to  the  Collection  of  Shingle,"  (Galet,)  (1789.) 
He  was  the  first  director  of  the  "Iicole  centrale  des 
Travaux  publics,"  the  name  of  which  was  changed  to 
Polytechnic  School  in  1795.    Died  in  1797. 

Lam'brmi,  (Margaret,)  a  Scottish  woman,  whose 
zeal  for  the  cause  of  Mary  Stuart  induced  her  to  make 
an  attempt  against  the  life  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  Her 
pistol  having  dropped  from  her  hand  when  she  was 
about  to  fire,  her  design  was  frustrated,  and  she  was 
pardoned. 

Lambruschini,  lim-bRoos-kee'nee.  (LuiGi,)  an  Ital- 
ian cardinal,  born  at  Genoa  in  1776.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  of  foreign  affairs  by  Gregory  XVI.  In  1846 
he  obtained  more  votes  for  pope  in  the  first  scrutiny 
than  any  other  candidate,  but  was  not  elected.  He  be- 
came a  member  of  Pius  the  Ninth's  council  of  state  in 
1846,  and  fled  from  Rome  during  the  short  triumph  of 
the  popular  cause  in  1848.    Died  in  1854. 

Lambton,  (John  George.)  See  Durham,  Earl  of. 


Lambton,  lam'ton,  (William,)  Lieutenant-Colo- 
nel, an  English  officer,  who  acquired  distinction  by  his 
astronomical  and  geodesic  labours  in  Hindostan,  was 
born  about  1748.  He  was  employed  by  the  Marquis  of 
Wellesley  about  1801  to  direct  the  trigonometrical  sur- 
veys which  were  designed  to  connect,  by  a  series  of  tri- 
angles, the  eastern  with  the  western  coast  of  India.  By 
the  assiduous  labour  of  more  than  twenty  years,  he  had 
extended  his  operations  from  the  Carnatic  to  Ellichpoor, 
and  measured  an  arc  of  the  meridian  12°  in  extent.  He 
died  in  India,  of  fever,  in  1823.  The  Records  of  the 
Asiatic  Society  contain  several  Memoirs  on  the  opera- 
tions above  mentioned. 

Lame,  iS'mi',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  geometer  and 
engineer,  born  at  Tours  in  1795,  became  professor  of 
physics  at  the  Polytechnic  School  in  Paris  about  1832. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  an  able  "  Treatise 
on  Physics,"  (3  vols.,  1836,)  "Lessons  on  the  Inverse 
Functions  of  Transcendents,"  etc.,  ("  Le9ons  sur  les 
Fonctions  inverses  des  Transcendantes,"  etc.,)  and 
"  Lectures  on  the  Mathematical  Theory  of  the  Elasticity 
of  Solid  Bodies,"  (1852.)  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Institute. 

La'me-eh,  [Heb.  "Vyi,]  the  son  of  Methusaleh,  and 
the  father  of  Noah,  died  five  years  before  the  Flood, 
aged  seven  hundred  and  seventy-seven  years.  Another 
Lamech,  a  descendant  of  Cain,  is  the  first  patriarch 
mentioned  in  Scripture  as  having  more  than  one  wife. 

See  Genesis  iv.,  v. 

La  Meilleraie  or  Meilleraye.  See  Meilleraie,  La. 

Lamennais  or  La  Mennais,  de,  deh  It  m^'ni', 
(Hugues  Felicit]^  Robert,)  Abb6,  a  celebrated  French 
writer  on  religion  and  politics,  was  born  at  Saint-Malo  in 
June,  1782.  He  was  educated  at  home,  where  he  learned 
Greek,  Latin,  etc.  without  a  teacher.  Having  received 
the  tonsure  in  1811,  he  was  ordained  a  priest  at  Rennes 
in  1816,  and  acquired  sudden  celebrity  by  the  publication 
of  his  eloquent  "Essay  on  Indifference  to  Religion," 
("  Essai  sur  ITndifiference  en  Matiere  de  Religion,"  4 
vols.,  1817-23,')  in  which  he  appeared  as  an  orthodox 
champion  of  the  Catholic  Church.  In  1824  he  visited 
Rome,  and  declined  the  offer  of  a  cardinal's  hat  from 
Leo  XII.  He  published  in  1825  "Religion  considered 
in  its  Relations  with  the  Civil  and  Political  Order," 
which  favoured  the  ultramontane  doctrines.  Before  the 
revolution  of  1830  his  mind  had  made  great  progress 
towards  liberal  or  democratic  principles,  without  depart- 
ing from  his  religious  faith.  In  that  year  he  founded  the 
"  Avenir,"  a  journal  which,  in  bold  and  fervent  words, 
advocated  religious  and  political  reforms.  Lacordaire 
was  his  disciple  and  coadjutor  in  this  journal,  which  was 
condemned  l3y  the  pope  in  1832  and  suppressed.  He 
announced  in  1834  his  final  revolt  from  the  Church  of 
Rome,  in  his  "  Words  of  a  Believer,"  ("  Paroles  d'un 
Croyant,")  which  is  one  of  his  most  important  and 
powerful  productions  and  was  stigmatized  by  the  pope 
as  "small  in  volume  but  immense  in  perversity."  A 
great  outburst  of  enthusiasm  and  indignation  followed  the 
publication  of  this  work.  He  became  ultra-democratic, 
and  wrote  several  political  works,  among  which  were 
"The  Affairs  of  Rome,"  (1836,)  and  "The  Book  of  the 
People,"  (1837.)  His  "Outlines  of  Philosophy"  ("Es- 
quisse  d'une  Philosophic,"  1840-46)  obtained  great  suc- 
cess. In  1840  he  was  sentenced  for  one  of  his  writings 
to  an  imprisonment  of  one  year.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Legislative  Assembly  in  1848.  Died  in  1854.  His  com- 
plete works  appeared  in  12  vols.  8vo,  1837. 

See  E.  Renan,  "Lamennais  et  ses  ficrits,"  in  the  "Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes,"  August,  1857;  Sainte-Bkuve,  "Portraits  contem- 
porains,"  1846,  vol.  i.  ;  E.  Rc^binet,  "  fitiides  sur  rAbW  de  La- 
mennais," 183s;  Madroi.le,  "  Histoire  secrete  du  Partie  et  de 
TApostasie  de  M.  de  Lamennais,"  1843:  L.  de  Lom^nie,  "  M.  de 
Lamennais,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1840;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale  :"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1838;  "West- 
minster Review"  for  April,  1859. 

Lamennais,  de,  (Jean  Marie  Robert,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Saint-Malo  about  1775,  was  a  brother 
of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  several  religious  works,  and 
became  canon  of  the  diocese  of  Rennes.    Died  in  i860. 

La  Mesnardiere,  de,  deh  It  mi'n3.R'de-aiR',  (Hippo- 
LYTE  Jules  Pilet,)  a  mediocre  French  poet,  born  at 
Loudun  in  1610  ;  died  in  1663. 


e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m&t;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


LAMET 


1363 


LAMORICIERE 


Lamet,  de,  deh  It'mk',{ Adrien  Augustin  de  Bussy,) 
a  French  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  born  in  1621.  He 
wrote  "Solutions  of  Many  Cases  of  Conscience,"  (1714.) 
Died  in  1691. 

Lameth,  de,  deh  It'mi',  (Alexandre,)  Count,  a 
French  revolutionist,  born  in  Paris  in  1760.  In  1789  he 
was  one  of  the  deputies  of  the  noblesse  who  united  with 
the  Third  Estate  to  form  the  National  Assembly,  and  he 
acted  the  part  of  a  zealous  patriot  in  that  body.  After 
the  death  of  Mirabeau,  (1791,)  Barnave  and  the  Lameths 
were  for  a  short  time  among  the  master-spirits  of  the 
Assembly.  He  co-operated  with  his  brother  and  La 
Fayette  in  their  efforts  to  defend  the  constitution  and  the 
king  after  his  arrest  at  Varennes.  He  was  a  general  in 
La  Fayette's  army  when  the  crisis  of  August  10,  1792, 
compelled  him  to  fly  with  his  general,  and  both  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Austrians.  Lameth  recovered  his 
liberty  in  1795,  and  returned  to  France  in  1800,  In  1820 
he  acted  and  voted  with  La  Fayette  in  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Constituent 
Assembly,"  (2  vols.,  1829.)    Died  in  1829. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  Qu^rard, 
"La  France  Litteraire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lameth,  de,  (Charles  Malo  Francois,)  Count, 
a  French  politician,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1757.  He  served  at  Yorktown,  Virginia, 
in  1781.  In  1789  he  was  elected  to  the  States-General, 
in  whi(?h  he  acted  with  the  popular  party.  He  was  a 
political  friend  of  Barnave,  and  aspired  to  be  a  rival  of 
Mirabeau.  Changing  his  course  in  I79i,he  became  the 
friend  of  the  king,  and  resisted  the  progress  of  the  Revo- 
lution to  extreme  issues.  He  emigrated  about  1793,  and 
returned  home  in  i8or.  Under  the  regime  of  Napoleon 
he  was  a  general  of  brigade.    Died  in  1832. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Lameth,  de,  (Theodore,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1756.  He  obtained  the  rank  of 
marechal-de-camp  in  1 791,  and  was  in  that  year  a  tnem- 
ber  of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  in  which  he  voted  with 
the  constitutional  royalists.  He  defended  the  king  and 
queen  by  his  voice  with  courage  and  energy,  and  was  an 
exile  from  1792  to  1800.    Died  in  1854. 

La  Metherie,  de,  deh  It  mi'tRe',  (Jean  Claude,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  in  Maconnais  in  1743.  He  pub- 
lished "  Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  (2  vols., 
1787,)  "Considerations  on  Organized  Beings,"  (2  vols., 
1805,)  "Lectures  on  Geology,"  (3  vols.,  1816,)  and  other 
works.  He  became  professor  of  natural  sciences  at  the 
College  of  France  in  1812.    Died  in  1817. 

La  Mettrie.    See  Mrttrie,  La. 

Lamey,  la'mi,  (Andreas,)  a  German  historical  writer, 
born  at  Miinster  in  1726,  was  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Mannheim.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  Diplomatic  History  of  the  Counts  of  Ravensberg," 
(1779.)    Died  in  1802. 

Lami  or  Lamy,  li'me',  (Bernard,)  a  learned  French 
priest  of  the  Oratory,  born  at  Mans  in  1640.  He  taught 
philosophy  and  theology  at  Saumur,  Angers,  and  other 
places,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Descartes.  He  published 
successful  works  on  religion  and  science,  among  which 
are  a  "  Treatise  on  Rhetoric,"  "  Elements  of  Geometry," 
(1685,)  "Apparatus  Biblicus,"  (1696,)  and  a  "Descrip- 
tion of  the  Temple  and  Holy  City  of  Jerusalem,"  (in 
Latin,  1720.)  His  work  called  "  Conversations  on  the 
Sciences"  ("  Entretiens  sur  les  Sciences,"  1684)  was 
highly  esteemed  by  J.  J.  Rousseau.    Died  in  171 5. 

See  BouiLLiER,  "  Histoire  du  Cartesianisme  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Lami  or  Lamy,  (Dom  Francois,)  a  French  Bene- 
dictine monk,  born  near  Chartres  in  1636.  He  passed 
his  last  twenty  years  in  the  abbey  of  Saint-Denis.  He 
was  noted  for  his  skill  and  alacrity  in  disputation,  and 
was  the  author  of  several  theological  works,  the  tnost 
remarkable  of  which  is  "  On  the  Knowledge  of  One's 
Self,"  (6  vols.,  1694-98.)    Died  in  171 1. 

Lami,  li'mee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  antiquary  and 
litterateur  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Santa  Croce,  a 
village  between  Pisa  and  Florence,  in  1697.  He  was  a 
good  classical  scholar,  and  became  professor  of  eccle- 
siastical history  at  Florence  about  1732.    From  1740  to 


1770  he  edited  an  able  literary  periodical  named  "No- 
velle  Letterarie."  He  contributed  much  to  explain  or 
elucidate  the  civil  and  literary  history  of  Tuscany,  and 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Delights  of  Learned 
Men,"  (Delicise  Eruditorum,"  18  vols.,  1736-69,)  and  the 
lives  of  many  eminent  Italian  literati,  "  Memorabilia 
Italorum  Eruditione  praestantium,"  (3  vols.,  1742-48) 
Died  in  1770. 

See  his  Autobiography  in  the  15th  volume  of  his  "Deliciae  Eru- 
ditorum;" FoNTANi,  "  Elogio  di  Lami,"  1789;  Fabroni,  "Vitae 
Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Lami,  (Pierre  R6mi  Crussolle,)  a  French  litteraietir, 
born  in  Paris  in  1798;  died  in  1832. 

La'mi-a,  an  Athenian  courtesan,  renowned  for  wit 
and  profusion,  was  the  mistress  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes 
about  300  B.C. 

Lamice,  la'ml-ee,  [Gr.  Aa//mi;  Fr.  Lamies,  It'me',] 
fabulous  monsters  of  classic  mythology,  sometimes  rep- 
resented as  having  the  head  and  breast  of  a  woman  and 
the  body  of  a  serpent.  They  were  supposed  to  have  the 
power  of  changing  their  forms.  According  to  one  tradi- 
tion, there  was  a  queen  of  Libya  named  Lamia,  who  was 
notorious  for  her  cruelty  and  was  accustomed  to  murder 
children.  The  name  of  Lamia  was  used  to  frighten 
children  in  the  nurseries  of  antiquity. 

Lamies.    See  Lami.^. 

Lamlin  or  Laemlin,  l§m-leen',  (Alexander,)  a  Ger- 
man painter,  born  at  Hohenfeld,  Bavaria,  in  1813,  became 
a  citizen  of  Paris  in  his  youth.  Among  his  works  are  "  The 
Awaking  of  Adam, "(1841,)"  The  Ladder  of  Jacob,"  (1847,) 
and  portraits  for  the  palace  of  Versailles. 

Lamoignon,  de,  deh  lt'mw2.n'y6N',  (Chretien 
Francois,)  a  French  magistrate,  eminent  for  his  integ- 
rity and  talents,  born  in  Paris  in  1644,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  President  Guillaume  de  Lamoignon.  He  was  chosen 
master  of  requests  about  1668.  For  twenty-five  years 
(1673-98)  he  performed  with  honour  the  duties  of  advo- 
cate-general to  the  Parliament.  He  was  made  president 
h  77iortier  in  1690.  He  was  intimate  with  Racine,  and 
with  Boileau,  who  addressed  to  him  his  Sixth  Epistle.  In 
1704  he  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions, after  declining  a  fatcteiiil  in  the  Academie  Fran- 
9aise.    Died  in  1709. 

His  son  Guillaume,  Seigneur  de  Malesherbes,  born 
in  1683,  became  successively  advocate-general,  president 
of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  and  chancellor  of  France, 
(1750.)  He  maintained  the  virtuous  reputation  of  his 
family,  and  died  in  1772,  leaving  a  son,  who  was  the 
eminent  Malesherbes. 

Lamoignon,  de,  (Chr^;tien  Franqois,)  a  French 
judge,  born  probably  in  Paris  in  1735.  He  became 
president  a  mortier  in  1758,  and  shared  the  exile  of  Par- 
liament in  1772.  He  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  seals 
in  1787.    Died  in  1789. 

Lamoignon,  de,  (Guillaume,)  an  eminent  judge, 
and  first  president  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  was  born 
in  161 7.  His  father,  Chretien  de  Lamoignon  de  Baville, 
was  a  highly  meritorious  magistrate.  Guillaume  became 
master  of  requests  in  1644,  and  first  president  of  the 
Parliament  in  1658.  In  announcing  his  nomination,  the 
king  said  to  him,  "  If  I  had  known  a  better  man,  I  should 
have  appointed  him."  He  received  much  praise  for  the 
part  he  took  in  relation  to  the  ordinances  of  1667  and 
1670,  and  in  several  instances  preferred  the  claims  of 
duty  to  the  favour  of  the  court.  He  laid  the  basis 
of  an  important  judiciary  reform  in  his  "Decisions," 
("Arretes,")  printed  in  1702.    Died  in  1677. 

SeeGAiLLARn,  "  Viede  Lamoignon,"  1782;  F lech ier,  "  Funeral 
Oration;"  Saint- Simon,  "  Memoires ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Lamoignon  de  Baville,  It'mwIn'y^N'  deh  hH^hVy 
(Nicolas,)  the  fifth  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1648.  He  was  appointed  master  of  requests  in  1673. 
Died  in  1724. 

Lamoignon-Malesherbes.    See  Malesherbes. 

La  Monnoye.    See  Monnoye. 

Lamoriciere,  de,  deh  It'mo're'se-aiR',  (Christophe 
Louis  L6on  Juchault — zhii'sho',)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Nantes  in  1806.  He  gained  distinction  as  colonel 
of  zouaves  in  Algeria,  and  became  a  marechal-de-camp 
in  1840.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in 
1843,  returned  to  France  in  1846,  and  was  elected  a 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LA  MOT  HE 


1364 


LAMPS  ON 


deputy  in  1847.  In  the  Re7olution  of  1848  he  made 
strenuous  efforts  to  support  the  Orleans  dynasty.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and  com- 
manded a  division  of  the  army  in  the  fight  against  the 
insurgents  of  Paris  in  June,  1848.  He  was  Cavaignac's 
minister  of  war  about  six  months  ending  in  December, 
1848.  Having  shown  hostility  to  the  power  of  Louis 
Napoleon,  he  was  arrested  on  the  2(1  of  December,  1851, 
and  confined  a  few  weeks  in  the  Castle  of  Ham.  He  be- 
came general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  pope  in  i860,  and 
was  defeated  by  the  Sardinians  at  Castelfidardo.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  soon  after  this  action.    Died  in  1865. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^iierale  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  February,  1866. 

La  Mothe.    See  Mothe,  La. 

La  Mothe,  It  mot,  (N.,)  a  French  historian,  born 
about  1680,  was  also  called  La  Hode.  He  wrote  "  His- 
tory of  the  Revolutions  of  France,"  (1738,)  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  Louis  XIV.,"  (5  vols.,  1740.)    Died  about  1740. 

Lamothe,  de,  deh  li''mot',  (Pierre  Lambert,)  a 
French  priest,  born  in  1624.  He  went  as  a  missionary 
to  Siam  about  1662,  and  died  there  in  1679. 

La  Mothe-Houdancourt,  de,  deh  It  mot  hooMSw'- 
kooR',  (Philippe,)  Due  de  Cardone,  a  French  general, 
born  in  1605,  gained  successes  over  the  Spaniards,  and 
received  a  marshal's  baton  in  1642.  Having  been  de- 
feated at  Lerida  in  1644,  he  was  deprived  of  command. 
Died  in  1657. 

Lamothe- Langon,  de,  deh  It'mot' ISN^g^N',  (Eti- 
ENNE  L]^:oN,)  Baron,  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Mont- 
pellier  in  1786.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  poems, 
historical  memoirs,  and  romances. 

La  Mothe  le  Vayer.    See  Mothe,  La. 

La  Motte.    See  Motte,  La. 

Lamotte,  It'mot',  (Jeanne  de  Luz  de  Saint-R^my 
DE  Valois,)  Madame,  an  artful  Frenchwoman,  who 
acquired  notoriety  in  the  affair  of  the  "  Diamond  Neck- 
lace," was  born,  probably,  at  Bar-sur-Aube  about  1750. 
She  became  the  wife  of  a  person  who  styled  himself 
Count  Lamotte.  Having  practised  with  success  on  the 
credulity  of  Cardinal  Rohan,  she  induced  him  to  nego- 
tiate for  a  diamond  necklace  valued  at  about  a  million 
and  a  half  of  francs,  which  he  designed  as  a  present  to 
the  queen.  Her  husband  absconded  with  the  diamonds, 
which  she  had  obtained  by  fraud.  She  was  whipped 
and  imprisoned  for  this  offence,  and  died  in  1791. 

See  "  Memoires  justificatifs  de  la  Comtesse  de  Valois  de  la 
Motte,"  by  herself,  London,  1788;  Mlle.  Bertin,  "  Memoires  sur 
la  Reine  Marie  Antoinette." 

Lamotte-  (or  La  Motte-)  Fouque,  It'mot'  foo'ka', 
(Caroline,)  a  German  authoress,  wife  of  the  following, 
was  born  at  Nennhausen  in  1773.  She  published  suc- 
cessful novels  entitled  "Feodora,"  "Lady  of  Falken- 
stein,"  and  "Ida,"  also  "Letters  on  Female  Education" 
and  "  Letters  on  Greek  Mythology,"  which  were  received 
with  favour.    Died  in  1 831. 

Lamotte-Fouque,  de,  deh  It'mot'  foo'ki',  (Fried- 
rich  Heinrich  Karl,)  often  called  simply  Fouque, 
Baron,  a  German  poet  and  romance-writer  of  rare  genius, 
was  born  at  Brandenburg,  February  12,  1777.  He  was  a 
grandson  of  Henry  Augustus  Fouque.  (See  FoUQu6.) 
Having  served  in  several  great  battles  of  the  war  against 
Napoleon,  about  1813  he  retired  from  the  army  on  ac- 
count of  ill  health,  with  the  rank  of  major,  and  afterwards 
resided  in  Paris,  at  Halle,  and  on  his  estate  of  Nenn- 
hausen. He  found  a  congenial  sphere  for  his  fertile 
imagination  in  the  Northern  traditions  and  the  old  Ger- 
man poetry,  and  produced  many  beautiful  poems  and 
works  of  fiction,  among  which  are  "Undine,"*  a  tale, 
(1813,)  one  of  the  most  exquisite  creations  of  German 
genius,  "Corona,"  a  poem,  (1814,)  "  Der  Zauberring," 
('The  Magic  Ring,"  1816,)  "Eginhard  and  Emma," 
a  drama,  and  "Bertrand  du  Guesclin,"  an  epic  poem, 
(182 1.)    Died  in  1843. 

See  his  Autobiop;raphy,  entitled  "  Lebensgeschichte,"  etc.,  1840; 
Gekvinus,  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Diciitung;"  "Monthly  Re- 
view" for  October,  1820. 

Lamourette,  It'moo'rgt',  (Adrien,)  Abb6,  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  Picardy  in  1742.  He  became  an 
auxiliary  of  Mirabeau  in  1789,  and  wrote  the  address  on 

*  Called  in  French  Ondhie. 


the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy  which  that  orator  pro- 
nounced. In  1 79 1  he  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Rhone-et- 
Loire,  and  deputed  to  the  National  Assembly.  Having 
resisted  the  extreme  measures  of  the  dominant  party,  he 
was  guillotined  in  1794.  He  had  published  several  re- 
ligious works. 

Lamouroux,  It'moo'roo',  (Jean  Vincent  F^ltx,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  at  Agen  in  1779,  He  went  to 
Paris  in  1807,  and  was  chosen  professor  of  botany  or 
natural  history  at  Caen  about  1810.  He  gave  special 
attention  to  those  marine  productions  which  are  found 
on  the  borders  between  the  animal  and  vegetable  king- 
dom, and  which  he  described  in  several  capital  works. 
Amcjng  these  is  a  "Description  of  Coral-forming  Polypi 
or  Zoophytes,"  ("  Histoire  des  Polypiers  coralligenes 
flexibles,"  1816.)  He  also  published  "Lectures  on  Phys- 
ical Geography."    Died  in  1825. 

See  "  Notice  biographique  sur  Lamouroux,"  by  his  brother,  1829. 

Lampadius,  ISm-pa'de-us,  (Wilhelm  August,)  a 
German  chemist,  called  the  founder  of  metallurgy,  was 
born  in  the  duchy  of  Brunswick  in  1772.  He  became 
professor  of  chemistry  or  metallurgy  at  Freiberg  in  1795. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "  Manual  of  General  Metal- 
lurgy," (3  vols.,  1801-09.)    I^'ed  in  1842. 

See  Callisen,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon ;"  "Bio- 
graphic Medicale." 

Lampe,  lim'peh,  (Friedrich  Adolph,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Detmold  in  1683.  He 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Utrecht  in  1720,  and 
published  sermons  and  other  works,  among  which  was 
a  "Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  Saint  John."  Died 
in  1729. 

Lampe,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German  composer  of 
songs  and  operas,  born  about  1692,  lived  in  London. 
Died  in  1756. 

Lampetia,  lam-pee'she-a,  [Gr.  Aaimeriri ;  Fr.  Lam- 
p6tie,  l&N''pyte',]  a  daughter  of  Helios,  whose  flocks 
and  herds  she  tended  in  the  island  of  Thrinakia.  Ulysses 
having  been  long  detained  on  the  island  by  stress  of 
weather,  his  companions  killed  some  of  the  sacred  oxen, 
for  which  the  offended  gods  afterwards  sent  against  them 
a  great  tempest,  in  which  all  perished  except  Ulysses, 
who  saved  himself  on  the  piece  of  a  mast. 

Lampetie.    See  Lampetia. 

Lampillas,  lam-peeKySs,  or  Llampillas,  lam-peeK- 
ySs,  (Francisco  Xavier,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  born  in 
Catalonia  in  1731.  He  lived  at  Genoa  after  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Jesuits  from  Spain  in  1767.  His  principal 
work  is  a  defence  of  Spanish  literature  against  Bettinelli 
and  Tiraboschi,  "  Saggio  storico-apologetico  della  Let- 
teratura  Spagnuola,"  (6  vols.,  1778-81.)    Died  in  1810. 

Lamplugih,  lam'ploo,  }  (Thomas,)  an  English  prelate, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  161 5.  He  became  Bishop  of  Exeter 
in  1676,  and  was  a  partisan  of  James  II,  in  1688,  but 
after  his  flight  recognized  William  III.,  who  appointed 
him  Archbishop  of  York.    Died  in  1691. 

Lampredi,  ISm-pRaMee,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Ital- 
ian publicist  and  writer  on  law,  born  near  Florence  in 
1732  ;  died  in  1793. 

Lampredi,  (Urban,)  an  Italian  philologist,  born  at 
Florence  in  1761  ;  died  in  1838. 

Lampride.    See  Lampridius. 

Lampridio,  l^m-pRee'de-o,  (Benedetto,)  a  Latin 
poet,  born  at  Cremona.  After  being  professor  of  Greek 
in  Rome,  he  opened  a  school  in  Padua  in  1521.  He 
composed  admired  odes,  epigrams,  and  elegies.  "It 
cannot  be  denied,"  says  Tiraboschi,  "that  he  has  imi- 
tated Pindar  happily  in  nobleness  of  ideas  and  in  imagi- 
native power."    Died  about  1540. 

See  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Paolc 
Giovio,  "  Elogia  Virorum  illustrium." 

Lam-prid'i-us,  [Fr.  Lampride,  IdN^pR^d',]  (/Eliu^.,) 
a  Latin  historical  writer,  who  flourished  about  310  A.D. 
He  was  one  of  the  authors  of  the  "  Augusta  Historia," 
to  which  he  is  said  to  have  contributed  the  lives  of 
Commodus,  Diadumenus,  Pleliogabalus,  and  Alexander 
Severus. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis ;"  D.  W.  Moller,  "Dis- 
putatio  circularis  de  A.  Lampridio,"  16S8. 

Lampson,  ISmp'son,  [Lat.  Lampsonius,  limp-so'ne- 
us,]  (Dominic,)  a  Flemish  painter  and  Latin  poet,  born 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  ^,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon : 


LAMPSONIUS 


1365 


LANDEN 


at  Bruges  in  1532.    His  paintings  are  rare  and  esteemed. 
Died  in  1599. 
Lampsonius.    See  Lampson. 

Lampugnani,  lam-poon-yj'nee,  (Agostino,)  an  Ital- 
ian poet,  born  at  Milan  in  1588.  He  wrote  many  works 
which  were  once  popular.    Died  in  1668. 

Lamy.    See  Lami,  (Bernard.) 

Lana,  la'nd,  (LuiGi,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  M6- 
dena  in  1597.  He  worked  in  that  city,  and  imitated 
Guercino  with  success.  His  picture  of  "  Modena  de- 
livered from  the  Plague"  is  called  his  master-piece. 
Died  in  1646. 

Lana-Terzi,  kVn§.-t§Rd'zee  or  -t^Rt'zee,  (Francesco,) 
(or  Francesco  Terzi-Lana,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  natu- 
ral philosopher,  born  at  Brescia  in  163 1.  He  was  at  one 
time  professor  of  philosophy  in  his  native  place,  and  was 
a  diligent  observer  and  experimenter  in  natural  science. 
He  published,  besides  a  few  other  works,  "Magisterium 
Naturae  et  Artis,"  (3  vols.,  1684-92,)  which  treats  of  natu- 
ral philosophy.    Died  in  1687. 

La  Nauze,  de,  deh  IS  noz,  (Louis  Jouard,)  a  French 
scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Villeneuve  d'Agen  in  1696  ; 
died  in  1773. 

LanC'as-ter,  (Edmund,)  Earl  of,  the  son  of  Henry 
HI.  of  England,  was  born  in  London  in  1245.  Edward 
I.  sent  him  with  an  army  to  conquer  Guienne,  but,  before 
he  could  effect  that  purpose,  he  died  in  1296.  His  son 
Thomas,  Earl  of  Lancaster,  was  the  most  powerful  sub- 
ject of  his  time  in  England,  He  was  a  mortal  enemy 
to  Piers  Gaveston,  whose  death  he  procured  in  13 12. 
Having  rebelled  against  Edward  II.,  he  was  defeated 
and  beheaded  in  1322.  His  brother  Henry  became  his 
heir,  and  aided  Queen  Isabella  to  depose  the  king  in 
1326.  He  was  appointed  guardian  of  the  young  king 
Edward  III.  in  1327. 

Lancaster,  (Sir  James,)  an  English  navigator,  who 
made  a  voyage  to  India  in  1591,  and  conducted  the  first 
expedition  which  the  East  India  Company  sent  to  that 
region  (1600-03)  for  the  purpose  of  forming  commercial 
relations.  He  made  a  treaty  with  the  King  of  Acheen. 
Died  in  1620.  Narratives  of  his  voyages  may  be  found 
in  Hakluyt  and  Purchas.  An  inlet  of  Baffin's  Bay  was 
named,  in  honour  of  him,  Lancaster  Sound. 

See  J.  Barrow,  "Memoirs  of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Reign." 

Lancaster,  (John  of  Gaunt,)  Duke  of.  See  John 
OF  Gaunt. 

Lancaster,  (Joseph,)  an  Englishman,  who  acquired 
distinction  as  the  founder  of  "  Lancasterian  Schools," 
was  born  in  London  between  1771  and  1778,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  society  of  Friends.  About  the  age  of 
twenty  he  opened  a  school  in  Southwark,  and  tried  with 
success  the  system  of  mutual  instruction.  He  was  pa- 
tronized by  the  Duke  of  Bedford  and  other  noblemen. 
]iy  lectures  and  writings  he  rendered  his  system  popular, 
and  gave  an  impulse  to  the  cause  of  education  in  Eng- 
land and  other  countries.  Having  become  insolvent,  he 
went  to  the  United  States  about  1818,  and  continued  to 
labour  in  the  same  cause.    Died  in  New  York  in  1838. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  181 1  ;  "  Living 
Age"  for  April,  1845. 

Lancaster,  (Nathaniel,)  a  learned  English  writer, 
born  in  Cheshire  about  1700.  He  was  for  some  time 
rector  of  Stamford-Rivers.  His  principal  work  is  an 
"Essay  on  Delicacy,"  (1748,)  a  poem.    Died  in  1775. 

Lance,  (George,)  an  excellent  English  painter  of 
fruit  and  still  life,  was  born  in  Essex  in  1802.  He  re- 
ceived lessons  in  "  high"  or  "  historical"  art  from  Haydon, 
and  pursued  his  master's  favourite  branches  of  painting, 
until  he  discovered  that  his  genius  was  more  adapted  to 
the  treatment  of  fruit,  flowers,  game,  etc.  In  this  depart- 
ment he  is  considered  to  have  excelled  all  the  English 
oil-painters  of  his  time.  He  produced  some  historical 
pieces  and  tableaux  de  genre.    Died  in  1864. 

Lance,  (William,)  an  American  lawyer  and  political 
writer,  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1 791.  He 
published  a  "  Life  of  Washington"  in  Latin.  Died  in  1840. 

Lancelot,  16ns'1o',  (Antoine,)  a  French  litterateur 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1675.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  for  which  he  wrote  many 
learned  antiquarian  treatises.    For  a  few  years  he  had 


the  office  of  secretary  to  the  king,  which  he  sold  in  1725. 
Died  in  1740. 

Lancelot,  (Dom  Claude,)  an  able  French  gram- 
marian, born  in  Paris  in  161 5.  He  became  one  of  the 
recluses  of  Port-Royal  in  1638,  and  was  the  first  regent 
of  the  schools  of  Port-Royal,  which  flourished  from  1646 
to  1660  under  the  care  of  such  men  as  Arnauld  and  Pas- 
cal. Lancelot  was  the  first  master  of  Racine.  "  He  threw 
some  additional  lustre,"  says  Hallam,  "  around  Port- 
Royal  by  the  Latin  and  Greek  Granmiars  (1644  ^"^1 
1655)  which  are  more  frequently  called  by  the  name  of 
that  famous  cloister  than  by  his  own."  They  were  used 
for  a  long  time  in  the  French  schools.  He  published  in 
1660  "Grammaire  generale  et  raisonnee,"  a  treatise  on 
the  philosophy  of  all  languages,  which  is  esteemed  a 
work  of  the  first  class.    Died  in  1695. 

See  Sainte-Keuve,  "  Port-Royal ;"  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  His- 
torique;"  Nicekon,  "  Memoires." 

Lancelot  of  Naples.    See  Ladislas. 

Lancelotti,  Idn-cha-lot'tee,  written  also  Lancelot!, 
(Giovanni  Paolo,)  ^^'i  Italian  jurist,  born  at  Perugia  in 
1511.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  "Institutes  of  Canon  Law," 
which  were  approved  by  Pope  Paul  IV.    Died  in  1591. 

Lancillotti,  l§,n-ch^l-lot'tee,  or  Lancelloti,  lin-cl>§l- 
lo'tee,  (Secondo,)  an  Italian  author  and  priest,  born  at 
Perugia  in  1575.  He  published  in  1630  a  successful  work 
entitled  "To-Day,"  ("  L'Hoggidi,")  intended  to  prove 
that  the  world  was  not  morally  or  physically  worse  than 
it  had  been  in  ancient  times.  Pie  wrote  other  learned 
works.    Died  in  Paris  in  1643. 

Lancilotti,  l^n-che-lot'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  poet,  born  at  Florence,  lived  about  1500. 
He  excelled  in  nocturnal  scenes. 

Lancisi,  lin-chee-'see,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  eminent 
Italian  physician  and  scholar,  born  at  Rome  in  1654.  For 
thirteen  years  he  lectured  on  anatomy  with  eclat  at  the 
College  of  Sapienza,  Rome.  He  became  the  chief  phy- 
sician of  Pope  Innocent  XI.  in  1688,  and  served  Clement 
XI.  in  the  same  capacity.  Besides  other  professional 
works,  he  published,  in  Latin,  a  "Treatise  on  Sudden 
Deaths,"  (1707,)  and  one  "On  the  Noxious  Effluvia  of 
Marshes,"  (1717.)    Died  in  1720. 

See  AssALTi,  "Vie  de  Lancisi,"  prefixed  to  his  treatise  "De 
Motu  Cordis;"  Fabroni,  "  Vitae  Italorum,"  etc. ;  G.  M.  Crescim- 
BENi,  "Vita  di  G.  M.  Lancisi,"  1721 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Lancival.    See  Luce  de  Lancival. 

Lancjean,  16N'zh6N',  (  R^mi,  )  a  skilful  Flemish 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Brussels,  was  a  pupil  of  Van 
Dyck.    Died  in  1671. 

Lancre,  16NkR,  (Pierre,)  a  French  lawyer,  and  writer 
on  demonology  and  sorcery,  was  born  at  Bordeaux  ;  died 
in  1630. 

Lancret,  15N'kR&',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Paris  in  169c.  He  imitated  the  manner  of  Watteau 
with  success.  His  reputation  was  higher  in  his  own 
time  than  at  the  present.    Died  in  1743. 

Lancrinck  or  Lankrink,  lin'kRink,  (Prosper 
Henry,)  a  skilful  landscape-painter,  of  German  ex- 
traction, born  about  1628.  He  worked  in  England,  and 
was  employed  by  Sir  Peter  Lely  to  paint  the  landscapes, 
flowers,  etc.  of  his  pictures.    Died  in  1692. 

Landa,  de,  da  l&n'dS,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  painter,  lived 
at  Pam|:)e]una  from  1570  to  1630. 

Landais  or  Landois,  16N'd^',  (Pierre,)  a  French 
parvenu  of  low  birth,  born  at  Vitre,  became  the  favourite 
of  Francis  II.,  Duke  of  Brittany,  who  gave  him  absolute 
power.  Landais  was  hated  by  the  nobles,  who  conspired 
against  him  and  put  him  to  death  in  1485. 

Lande.    See  Lalande. 

Landelle,  ISnM^K,  (Charles,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  at  Laval,  Mayenne,  about  1816.  He  ob- 
tained a  medal  at  the  Great  Exposition  of  1855  for  his 
picture  of  the  "  Repose  of  the  Virgin." 

Lan'den,  (John,)  an  English  mathematician,  born  at 
Peakirk  in  1719.  He  began  to  write  for  the  "Ladies' 
Diary"  in  1744,  and  published  in  1755  "Mathematical 
Lucubrations,"  in  which  various  parts  of  high  analysis 
are  treated.  In  1766  he  was  admitted  into  the  Royal 
Society.  He  wrote  several  treatises  on  dynamics  and 
the  integral  calculus.  Among  his  principal  works  is  his 
"Residual  Analysis,"  (1764.)    Died  in  1790. 


■e  as>^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal ;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Jil^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


UNDER 


1366 


LAND  OR 


Lan'd^r,  (Frederick  William,)  an  American  en- 
gineer and  general,  born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in 
1822.  He  commanded  an  expedition  to  open  a  wagon- 
road  across  the  plains  to  California  in  1858.  It  is  stated 
that  he  made  five  explorations  across  the  continent, 
having  been  employed  by  the  government  to  survey  a 
route  for  a  Pacific  railroad.  In  July,  1861,  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  brigadier-general.  He  was  wounded  at  Ed- 
wards's Ferry,  October,  186 1,  and  signalized  his  courage 
at  Blooming  Gap,  Virginia,  in  February,  1862.  He  died 
at  Pawpaw,  Virginia,  in  March,  1862,  leaving  a  high 
reputation  for  enterprise  and  bravery. 

Lan'der,  (John,)  an  English  traveller,  born  in  1807. 
He  accompanied  his  brother  Richard  in  an  expedition  to 
explore  the  river  Niger  in  1830.  (See  Lander,  Richard.) 
Died  in  1839. 

Lander,  (Louisa,)  an  American  sculptor,  born  at 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  about  1835,  studied  at  Rome 
under  Crawford,  Among  her  best  works  may  be  named 
statues  of  "  Evangeline"  and  of  "  Virginia  Dare,"  and 
a  bust  of  Hawthorne. 

Lander,  (Richard,)  an  English  traveller,  who  has 
rendered  his  name  memorable  by  solving  the  problem 
of  the  course  of  the  Niger,  was  born  at  Truro  in  1804. 
He  had  been  employed  as  a  servant  by  several  gentle- 
men before  1825,  when,  hearing  of  Captain  Clapperton's 
proposed  expedition  to  Africa,  he  offered  his  services 
and  was  engaged  by  that  officer  as  his  confidential  ser- 
vant. (See  Clapperton,  Hugh.)  After  performing 
the  last  offices  to  his  master  near  Saccatoo  in  April, 
1827,  he  returned  with  the  papers  of  Clapperton  to 
England,  where  he  arrived  in  1828.  The  offer  which 
he  made  to  renew  the  enterprise  was  accepted  by  gov- 
ernment. Accompanied  by  his  brother  John,  he  sailed 
from  England  in  January,  1830,  traced  the  Niger  from 
Yaoori  (or  Yauri)  to  its  mouth  in  the  Bight  of  Benin, 
ar.d  returned  home  in  1831.  A  "Journal  of  an  Expe- 
dition to  Explore  the  Course  and  Termination  of  the 
Niger,"  (2  vols.,)  by  Richard  and  John  Lander,  was 
published  in  1832.  The  voyage  from  Yaoori  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river  occupied  about  four  months,  from 
August  2  to  December  i,  1830.  Having  undertaken 
another  expedition  to  Western  Africa  in  the  service  of 
a  mercantile  company,  he  was  killed  by  the  natives  in 
1835.  The  most  prominent  trait  of  his  character  was 
indomitable  perseverance. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1832;  "  North  American  Re- 
view" for  October,  1832. 

Landi,  ISn'dee,  (Costanzo,)  Count,  an  Italian  phi- 
lologist and  numismatist,  born  at  Piacenza  in  1521 ;  died 
in  1564. 

Landi,  (Gasparo,)  Chevalier,  an  Italian  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Piacenza  in  1756.  He 
worked  mostly  in  Rome,  and  became  professor  of  paint- 
ing in  the  Academy  of  Saint  Luke.  He  excelled  in  car- 
nation tints  and  in  truth  of  expression.  Some  Italian 
critics  considered  him  as  one  of  their  best  painters. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  "The  Assumption  of  the 
Virgin."    Died  at  Rome  in  1830. 

Landi,  (Giulio,)  Count,  an  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Piacenza  about  1500,  wrote  a  romance  entitled  "The 
Life  of  Cleopatra,"  (1551.)    Died  about  1580. 

Landi,  (Ortensio,)  a  witty  and  extravagant  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Milan.  He  was  for  some  time  in  the 
service  of  the  Bishop  of  Trent,  and  passed  many  of  his 
later  years  in  Venice.  He  published  several  scandalous 
and  paradoxical  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Dialogue 
on  the  Death  of  Erasmus,"  (1540,)  "  Paradoxes,"  ("  Para- 
dossi,")  and  the  "  Scourge  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Au- 
thors," (1550.)    Died  about  1560. 

See  TiKABoscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratiira  Italiana." 

Landi,  (Stefano,)  an  Italian  composer,  born  in  Rome, 
lived  about  1630.  He  composed  sacred  music,  and  was 
distinguished  for  his  inventive  genius. 

Landini,  lln-dee'nee,  or  Landino,  ISn-dee'no, 
(Chkistoforo,)  an  Italian  critic  and  scholar,  born  at 
Florence  in  1424,  was  reputed  one  of  the  principal  orna- 
ments of  the  Platonic  Academy  of  that  city.  He  became 
professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Florence  in  1457,  and  was 
chosen  by  Pietro  de'  Medici  to  finish  the  education  of 
his  two  sons.    He  wrote  several  Latin  poems,  and  es- 


teemed commentaries  or  Horace,  Virgil,  and  Dante. 
Died  in  1504. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  de  la  Litt^rature  Italienne;"  Negri, 
"  Istoria  de'  Scrittori  Fiorentini." 

Landini,  (Taddeo,)  a  Florentine  sculptor,  who  worked 
in  Rome  and  was  employed  by  Gregory  XIII.,  Sixtus  V., 
and  Clement  VIII.    Died  about  1594. 

Landino,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  organist  and  com- 
poser, surnamed  CiECO,  (the  "Blind,")  was  born  at  Flor- 
ence about  1325  ;  died  in  1390. 

Lan'do  or  Lan'don,  a  native  of  Sabina,  was  elected 
pope,  as  successor  to  Anastasius  HI.,  in  913.  He  died 
in  914  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  John  X. 

Lando,  ISn'do,  (Pietro,)  was  elected  Doge  of  Venice 
in  1539.  During  his  reign  the  Venetians  made  peace 
with  the  Turks,  and  resisted  the  efforts  of  Charles  V. 
and  Francis  I.  to  engage  them  in  new  hostilities.  Died 
in  1545,  aged  eighty-four. 

Landon,  ISnMon',  (Charles  Paul,)  a  French  painter 
and  writer  on  art,  born  in  Normandy  in  1760.  He 
studied  in  Rome  as  a  pensioner  of  the  king,  and  worked 
in  Paris,  but  acquired  more  reputation  by  his  writings 
than  by  his  paintings.  He  published  many  magnificent 
illustrated  works,  among  which  are  "The  Lives  and 
Works  of  the  Most  Eminent  Painters  of  all  Schools," 
(25  vols.,  1803  et  seq.,)  and  "Annals  of  the  Museum," 
etc.,  ("Annalesdu  Musee  et  de  I'Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts," 
(33  vols.,  1808,)    Died  in  1826. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Lan'dpn,  (Letitia  Elizabeth,)  a  popular  English 
poetess,  born  in  a  suburb  of  London  in  1 802,  She  began 
to  write  verse  about  the  age  of  thirteen,  and  in  1820 
became  a  contributor  to  the  "  Literary  Gazette,"  under 
the  signature  of  L.  E.  L.  These  poetical  efforts  pro- 
cured for  her  an  extensive  reputation,  and  enabled  her 
to  support  herself.  She  produced,  anonymously,  two 
novels,  entitled  "Romance  and  Reality"  and  "Ethel 
Churchill,"  and  poems  called  "The  Troubadour,"  "Ze- 
nana," etc.  Her  poems  are  chiefly  of  a  sentimental  or 
romantic  character.  In  1838  she  was  married  to  George 
Maclean,  Governor  of  Cape  Coast  Castle,  Africa,  whither 
they  went  to  reside.  Her  death,  which  occurred  in  1839, 
is  ascribed  to  prussic  acid,  which  she  was  in  the  habit  of 
taking  as  medicine. 

See  Laman  Rlanchard,  "Life  and  Literary  Remains  of  L.  E. 
L.,"  3  vols.,  1840;  "Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iii.  ; 
Mrs.  Elwood,  "Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from 
the  Commencement  of  tlie  Last  Century,"  vol.  ii.,  1843;  Allibone, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1825; 
"Atlantic  Monthly"  for  March,  1865. 

Lan'dor,  (Walter  Savage,)  an  eminent  English 
author,  born  at  Ipsley  Court,  Warwickshire,  January 
30,  1775,  was  a  son  of  Walter  Landor,  who  married  a 
rich  heiress  named  Elizabeth  Savage.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Rugby  and  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  became 
master  of  an  independent  fortune,  and  followed  no  pro- 
fession except  that  of  author.  He  published  a  volume 
of  poems  in  1795,  and  a  poem  entitled  "Gebir"  in  1798. 
In  1806  he  sold  his  large  estates,  quitted  England  in 
disgust,  and  removed  to  the  continent.  He  served  as  a 
colonel  in  the  Spanish  army  against  Napoleon  from  1808 
to  1814.  In  1811  he  married  Julia  Thuillier,  of  Bath. 
He  became  a  resident  of  Florence  about  1816,  and  occu- 
l^ied  the  palace  of  the  Medici  for  several  years.  He  pub- 
lished in  1820  Latin  poems,  entitled  "Idyllia  Pleroica." 
His  reputation  was  extended  by  his  "  Imaginary  Con- 
versations of  Literary  Men  and  Statesmen,"  (5  vols., 
1824-29,)  which  presented  many  novel  and  paradoxical 
ideas.  Among  his  other  works  are  "Count  Julian,"  a 
poem,  (1831,)  "Pericles  and  Aspasia,"  (1836,)  "Andrea 
of  Hungary,"  a  drama,  (1839,)  "The  Hellenics,"  (1847,) 
and  "The  Last  Fruit  of  an  Old  Tree,"  (1853.)  He  was 
a  friend  of  Robert  Southey.  Died  at  Florence  in  Sep- 
tember, 1864. 

See  John  Foster,  "Walter  S.  Landor;  a  Biography,"  1869; 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1824,  February,  1837, 
and  October,  1839;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1846,  and  April, 
1850;  "North  British  Review"  for  November,  1846,  and  July,  1869; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  R.  W.  Emerson,  "English 
Traits  ;"  "  Biographical  Sketches,"  by  Harriet  Martineau  ;  Mi.ss 
Field,  "Last  Days  of  W.  S.  Landor," in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly" 
for  April,  May,  and  June,  1866. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LAND  RUN  I 


1367 


LANGBAINE 


Landriani,  ]an-dRe-a'nee,(PAOLO  Camillo,)  a  painter 
of  the  Milanese  school,  born  about  1570 ;  died  about  1618. 

Land'seer,  (Charles,)  an  English  painter,  a  son  of 
John  Landseer,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1799.  He 
received  lessons  from  Haydon,  and  acquired  a  fair  repu- 
tation as  an  artist.  His  subjects  are  chiefly  taken  from 
English  history  and  poetry.  His  "  Monks  of  Melrose" 
(1843)  gained  a  prize  of  about  £100.  He  was  chosen 
an  Academician  in  1845,  and  keeper  of  the  Academy  in 
1851. 

Landseer,  (Sir  Edwin,)  the  most  celebrated  modern 
painter  of  animals,  was  born  in  London  in  1803.  He 
learned  to  draw  after  nature  in  his  childhood,  under  the 
direction  of  his  father,  began  to  exhibit  in  181 7,  and  at 
the  age  of  eighteen  painted  his  admirable  '*  Dogs  of  Saint 
Golhard."  Between  1821  and  1830  he  produced  "The 
Prowling  Lion,"  ''The  Return  from  Ueer-Stalking," 
(1827,)  and  "  Hunting  of  Chevy  Chase."  He  was  elected 
Royal  Academician  in  1830,  after  which  he  exhibited  "  Sir 
Walter  Scott  and  his  Dogs,"  (1833,)  "  Bolton  Abbey  in  the 
Olden  Time,"  "The  Old  Shepherd's  Chief  Mourner," 
(1837,)  highly  praised  by  Ruskin  "  as  one  of  the  most  per- 
fect poems  or  pictures  (I  use  the  words  as  synonymous) 
which  modern  times  have  seen."  His  humorous  picture 
of  "Laying  Down  the  Law"  appeared  in  1840.  His 
marvellous  technical  skill  is  subordinated  to  the  expres- 
sion of  sentiment  or  pathos  in  a  "  Pastoral  Scene,"  (1845,) 
"Peace"  and  "War,"  (1846,)  and  other  works.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  a  portrait  of  a  Newfoundland  dog, 
styled  "A  Member  of  the  Humane  Society,"  (1838,)  "A 
Scene  from  the  'Midsummer  Night's  Dream,'"  (1851,) 
and  "The  Children  of  the  Mist,"  (1853.)  Many  of  his 
works  have  been  engraved. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1856. 

Landseer,  (John,)  an  English  engraver,  the  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Lincoln  in  1769.  Having 
acquired  reputation  by  excellent  engravings  of  animals, 
after  Rubens  and  other  artists,  he  was  chosen  associate 
engraver  of  the  Royal  Academy  about  1807.  He  lec- 
tured on  art  in  London,  and  published  several  treatises 
on  art,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "  Sabaean  Researches," 
(1823.)    Died  in  1852. 

Landseer,  (Thomas,)  an  English  artist  and  eminent 
engraver,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  before  1800. 
Among  his  most  admired  productions  are  engravings  of 
his  brother  Edwin's  pictures  of  animals,  and  of  Rosa 
Bonheur's  "  Horse-Fair." 

Lan'dulph,  [Fr.  Landulphk,  l6N'dulf,]  a  mediaeval 
historian  and  priest,  born  at  Milan  about  1080,  was  a 
pupil  of  Anselm  of  Laon.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  His- 
tory of  Milan  from  1095  to  1137." 

Lane,  (Edward  William,)  an  English  Orientalist, 
born  at  Hereford  in  1801.  He  resided  several  years  in 
Egypt,  and  published  an  interesting  and  valuable  work 
"  On  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Modern  Egyp- 
tians," (1836,)  and  a  very  complete  "Arabic-and-Eng- 
lish  Lexicon,"  (in  two  Parts,  1863-65.) 

Lane,  (Henry  S.,)  an  American  Senator  and  lawyer, 
born  in  Montgomery  county,  Kentucky,  in  1811,  removed 
to  Indiana.  He  represented  a  district  of  Indiana  in  Con- 
gress, 1841-43,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  that  State 
as  a  Republican  in  1861.  Having  been  chosen  a  Sen- 
ator of  the  United  States  in  1861,  he  resigned  the  office 
of  Governor. 

Lane,  (James  H.,)  an  American  general,  born  at  Law- 
renceburg,  Indiana,  in  1814.  He  was  elected  to  Congress 
in  1852,  and  removed  in  1855  to  Kansas,  where  he  be- 
came a  leader  of  the  Free  State  party.  He  was  elected 
major-general  by  the  legislature  of  Kansas  in  1857,  and 
a  Senator  of  the  United  vStates  in  1861.  He  commanded 
a  brigade  in  the  first  year  of  the  civil  war,  but  retained 
his  seat  in  the  Senate.    Died  by  suicide  in  July,  1866. 

Lane,  (Joseph,)  an  American  general  and  politician, 
born  in  North  Carolina  in  1801.  He  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  principal  engagements  of  the  Mexican  war  of 
1846-47,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  He 
became  Governor  of  Oregon  Territory  in  1848,  and  was 
elected  United  States  Senator  from  the  State  of  Oregon 
in  1859.  In  i860  he  was  the  I>erfiocratic  candidate  for 
Vice-President,  John  C.  Breckinridge  being  the  nominee 
for  President. 


Lane,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  1*0 
Northamptonshire.  He  was  counsel  for  the  Earl  of 
Strafford  in  1640,  and  was  an  adherent  of  the  king  in  the 
civil  war.  In  1645  he  became  keeper  of  the  great  seal. 
Died  in  1651. 

Lane,  (Richard  James,)  an  English  lithographer, 
born  in  Hereford  about  1800. 

Lan'franc,  [Lat.  Lanfran'cus  ;  It.  Lanfranco,  lin- 
fR§,n'ko,]  a  distinguished  prelate.  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, was  born  at  Pavia  about  1005.  Having  embraced 
the  monastic  life,  he  became  celebrated  for  piety  and 
learning.  He  was  a  counsellor  of  William  of  Normandy 
before  his  conquest  of  England,  and  in  1070  was  chosen 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  "  His  zeal  in  promoting  the 
interests  of  the  papacy,"  says  Hume,  "was  indefati- 
gable." He  enjoyed  in  a  high  degree  the  confidence 
of  the  king,  who  consulted  him  in  affairs  of  state.  He 
crowned  William  Rufus  in  1087,  and  died  in  1089,  leaving 
several  works  on  theology. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  ii.  chap.  ii.  ;  A.  Charma,  "  Lanfranc,  Notice  biographique,  lit- 
teraire,"  etc.,  1849  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lanfranco.    See  Lanfranc. 

Lanfranco,  lin-fRin^ko,  or  Lanfranc,  ISn-fRlnk', 
[Lat.  Lanfran'cus,]  an  Italian  surgeon,  born  at  Milan 
about  1250.  He  removed  in  1295  to  Paris,  where  he 
practised  and  lectured  with  a  high  reputation.  He 
wrote  a  treatise  on  surgery,  entitled  "  Chirurgia  magna 
et  parva,"  (1490.) 

Lanfranco  or  Lanfranc,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Parma  in  1581.  He  received 
lessons  from  the  three  Caracci,  whom,  in  design  and 
expression,  he  imitated.  He  worked  in  Rome  for  the 
Dukes  Farnese  and  the  Borghese  family,  and  afterwards 
in  Naples.  His  painting  on  the  cu])ola  of  San  Andrea 
della  Valle,  Rome,  was  much  admired.  His  works  in  oil 
and  fresco  are  very  numerous.    Died  at  Rome  in  1647. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy." 

Lanfrancus.    See  Lanfranc  and  Lanfranco. 

Lang,  (Johann  Michael.)    See  Lange. 

Lang,  fang,  (Karl  Nikolaus,)  a  Swiss  physician, 
born  at  Lucerne  in  1670.  He  practised  medicine  with 
success  in  his  native  place,  cultivated  natural  history, 
and  acquired  fame  by  his  work  on  the  figured  stones  of 
Switzerland,  "  Idea  Historias  naturalis  Lapidum  figurato- 
rum  Helvetiae,"  (1705.)    Died  in  1741. 

Lang,  (Louis,)  born  in  Wiirtemberg,  Germany,  in 
1814,  studied  painting  in  Paris,  and  subsequently  at 
Rome.  In  1845  he  settled  in  New  York  City,  where 
he  has  executed  numerous  works. 

Lang,  von,  fon  ling,  (Karl  Heinrich,)  a  German 
historical  writer,  born  in  Suabia  in  1764,  was  appointe  1 
in  181 1  director  of  the  archives  of  the  kingdom  at  Munich, 
He  published  a  "History  of  the  Jesuits  in  Bavaria,"'  and 
other  works  relative  to  that  country.    Died  in  1835. 

See  Karl  Heinrich  Lang,  "Memoiren,"  1S42. 

Langallerie,  de,  deh  ISN'gtKre',  (Philippe  de  Gen- 
tils,)  Marquis,  a  French  military  adventurer,  born  at 
Lamotte-Charente  in  1656.  He  gained  the  rank  of  gene- 
ral in  the  French  army,  and  afterwards  fought  under 
Prince  Eugene  against  the  French.  He  died  in  171 7, 
leaving  two  vohnnes  of  Memoirs,  (1709,)  wlflch  have 
been  translated  into  English. 

Langara,  de,  di  ISn-gd'rS,  (Don  Juan,)  a  Spanish 
admiral,  born  about  1730.  He  was  defeated  near  Cape 
Saint  Vincent  in  1780  by  an  English  fleet  under  Rodney, 
but  was  in  the  same  year  made  lieutenant-general  of  the 
navy.  He  commanded  the  Spanish  fleet  which  took 
Toulon  in  1793.    Died  in  1800. 

Langbaine,  ISngM^an,  (Gerard,)  D.D.,  an  English 
scholar,  born  in  Westmoreland  about  1608.  He  became 
a  Fellow  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1644  keeper 
of  the  archives  of  the  university.  He  edited  Longinus, 
and  left  several  useful  catalogues,  which  remain  in  manu- 
script.   Died  in  1658. 

Langbaine,  (Gerard.)  the  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Oxford  in  1656.  Having  collected  many  old 
plays,  (nine  hundred  and  erghty,)  he  published  a  cata- 
logue of  the  same,  called  "  Momus  Triinnphans,"  which 
was  improved  and  reprinted  in  1691,  with  the  title  of 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N>  nasal;  r,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (ilS^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LANGBEIN 


1368 


LANGHORNE 


"Account  of  the  English  Dramatic  Poets."  This  work 
is  prized  for  the  information  it  affords,  but  has  little 
critical  merit.    Died  in  1692. 

Langbein,  ISng^bin,  (August  Friedrich  Ernst,)  a 
German  poet  and  writer  of  fiction,  born  at  Radeburg, 
near  Dresden,  in  1757.  He  became  a  resident  of  Berlin 
in  1800.  He  published  a  number  of  romances,  songs, 
and  humorous  poems,  which  had  a  transient  popularity. 
Among  his  prose  works  are  "Talismans  against  Ennui," 
"The  Wings  of  Time,"  and  "Ganymeda,"  (1823.)  He 
had  an  agreeable  style,  but  little  imagination.  Died  in 
1835- 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Langdale,  Lord.    See  Bickersteth,  (Henry.) 

Lang'dale,  (Sir  Marmaduke,)  an  English  general, 
born  in  Yorkshire.  He  fought  for  the  king  in  the  civil 
war,  and  commanded  with  success  at  the  siege  of  Ponte- 
fract  Castle.  He  commanded  the  left  wing  at  Naseby 
in  1645,  and  was  defeated  by  Cromwell  at  Preston  in 
1648.  On  the  restoration  he  returned  to  England  in 
1660,  after  many  years  of  exile,  and  was  chosen  lord 
lieutenant  of  Yorkshire.    Died  in  1661. 

Lang'don,  (John,)  LL.D.,  an  American  statesman, 
born  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  in  1739.  He 
became  successively  a  delegate  to  the  General  Congress, 
member  of  the  United  States  Senate  in  1789,  and  Gov- 
ernor of  New  Hampshire  several  times  between  1805 
and  181 1.  He  acted  with  the  Republican  party.  Died 
in  1819. 

Langdon,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine  and 
theological  writer,  born  at  Boston  about  1723,  became 
president  of  Harvard  College  in  1774,  and  resigned  in 
1780.    Died  in  1797. 

Lange,  ling'eh,  (Joachim,)  a  German  linguist  and 
writer,  born  at  Gardelegen  in  1670.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Halle  in  1709,  and  published,  be- 
sides some  theological  works,  a  Latin  Grammar  and  a 
Greek  Grammar,  which  were  successful.    Died  in  1744. 

Lange,  [Lat.  Lan'gius,]  (Johann,)  a  learned  German 
physician,  born  at  Lemberg,  in  Silesia,  in  1485.  He 
was  first  physician  to  several  Electors-Palatine.  He 
wrote  professional  works  which  are  commended.  Died 
in  1565. 

Lange  or  Lang,  ling,  (Johann  Michael,)  a  German 
Pi'otestant  divine,  eminent  as  an  Orientalist,  born  at 
Ezelwangen  in  1664.  He  lived  as  inspector  at  Prentzlau 
from  1 710  until  his  death,  in  1731.  He  published  a 
treatise  "On  Mohammedan  Fables,"  (1697,)  and  several 
critical  essays. 

Lange,  (Joseph,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Kai- 
sersberg.  He  published  editions  of  Martial,  Juvenal,  and 
Persius,  also  "  Florilegium,"  (1598.)    Died  about  1630. 

Lange,  (Joseph,)  a  celebrated  actor,  born  at  Wiirz- 
burg,  Bavaria,  in  1 75 1.  He  became  a  favourite  on  the 
theatre  of  Vienna,  where  he  performed  many  years.  Died 
about  1820. 

Lange,  llng'eh,  (Lars,)  a  Danish  or  Swedish  traveller, 
born  at  Stockholm.  Having  entered  the  Russian  service 
as  an  officer  of  engineers,  he  was  sent  as  minister  to 
Pekin  in  1719,  and  again  in  1726.  Several  narratives  of 
these  journeys  were  published.  The  Journal  of  Lange 
contains  some  interesting  notices  of  the  nomadic  tribes 
of  Siberia: 

Lange,  [Lat.  Lan'gius,]  (Rudolph,)  of  Munster,  a 
German  writer,  born  about  1438.  He  published  some 
Latin  poems.    Died  in  15 19. 

Lange,  de,  deh  lang'eh,  written  also  Langhe,  [Lat. 
Lan'gius,]  (Charles,)  an  eminent  Flemish  philologist 
and  critic,  born  at  Ghent  or  Brussels.  He  edited  Cicero's 
treatises  "  De  Officiis,"  "  De  Amicitia,"  and  "  De  Senec- 
tute."  Lipsius  pronounced  him  the  most  learned  Fleming 
of  his  time.    Died  at  Liege  in  1573. 

See  Fei.ix  van  Hulst,  "  C.  de  Langhe  (Carolus  Langius)  et  Lievin 
Vandeibeke,"  1846. 

Langeac,  de,  deh  ISN^zhSk',  (N.  de  l'Espinasse,) 
Chevalier,  a  French  poet,  born  about  1748.  He  pro- 
duced, besides  a  number  of  original  poems,  a  version  of 
Virgil's  "Bucolics,"  (1806.)    Died  in  1839. 

Langebeck,  llng'eh-bgk'',  (Jacou,)  a  learned  Danish 
writer,  born  in  Jutland  in  17 10.  He  was  employed  by 
the  king  to  collect  manuscripts,  inscriptions,  etc.  He 


became  keeper  of  the  national  archives,  and  councillor 
of  state.  His  principal  work  is  a  great  collection  of 
Danish  writers,  under  the  title  of  "  Danish  Historians 
of  the  Middle  Ages,"  ("  Scriptores  Rerum  Danicarum 
medii  ^vi,"  1772.)  Died  in  1774. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Langeland.    See  Longland, 

Langenbeck,  ISng'en-bgk',  (Konrad  Johann  Mar- 
tin,) a  German  surgeon  and  anatomist,  born  in  the  king- 
dom of  Hanover  in  1776,  wrote  a  "  Manual  of  Anatomy," 
(1806,)  "  Icones  Anatomicae,"  (8  vols.,  1826-39,)  and 
other  valuable  works.    Died  in  1851. 

See  Saint-Maurice  Cabany,"  C.J.  M.  Langenbeck,"  etc.,  1852. 

Langendyk,  lano'en-dik",  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  poet, 
born  at  Haarlem  in  1662.  He  excelled  in  humorous 
composition,  and  was  the  author  of  several  epigrams 
and  comedies,  among  which  is  "  Don  Quixote  at  the 
Wedding  of  Camacho."    Died  in  1735. 

Langenn,  von,  fon  \h\g-l\V,  (Friedrich  Albrecht,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Merseburgin  1798,  was  appointed 
in  1835  tutor  to  Prince  Albert. 

Langenstein,  lang'en-stTn',  (Heinrich,)  a  German 
astronomer  and  theologian,  born  in  Hesse,  was  called 
Henricus  de  Hassia.    Died  at  Vienna  in  1397. 

Langer,  ISng'er,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  German  painter, 
born  in  1756,  became  successively  director  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Arts  at  Dusseldorf  and  at  Munich,  where  he 
obtained  great  reputation  and  success  as  a  teacher.  His 
best  picture  represents  "  Christ  Blessing  Children." 
Died  in  1824.  His  son  Robert,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in 
1783,  was  distinguished  as  a  fresco-painter  and  designer. 
Died  in  1846. 

Langeron,  de,  deh  \bnzWxb^\  (Andrault,)  Count, 
a  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1763.  He  emigrated  in  1789, 
entered  the  Russian  service,  and  became  a  lieutenant- 
general  in  1799.  He  commanded  a  Russian  division  at 
Austerlitz,  in  1805,  and  gained  some  advantages  over  the 
French  in  the  campaign  of  1813.    Died  in  1831. 

Langetti,  ISn-jet'tee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Ital- 
ian painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  1635  '■>  died  in  1676. 

Langham,  lang'am,  de,  (Simon,)  an  English  car- 
dinal, born  in  Rutlandshire.  He  was  appointed  by  the 
king  chancellor  in  1364,  became  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury in  1366,  and  a  cardinal  in  1368.  He  was  hostile 
to  Wycliffe,  whom  he  removed  from  the  mastership  of 
a  college  at  Oxford.  The  temporalities  of  his  see  were 
seized  by  Edward  HL  about  1368.    Died  in  1376. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  iv.  chap.  xiii. 

Langhans,  ling^hSns,  (Karl  Gotthard,)  an  eminent 
German  architect,  born  at  Landshut  in  1733.  He  was 
appointed  director  of  the  public  buildings  of  Berlin,  and 
adorned  that  city  with  several  fine  structures,  among 
which  are  the  Brandenburg  Gate  and  a  theatre.  He 
was  the  author  of  some  treatises  on  architecture.  Died 
in  1808. 

Langhe,  de,  (Charles.)    See  Lange. 

Lang'horne,  (Rev.  Daniel,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  London.  He  published  "Chronicle  of  the 
Kings  of  England,"  ("Chronicon  Regum  Anglosrum," 
1679.)    Died  in  1681. 

Langhorne,  (John,)  an  English  poet  and  translator, 
born  in  Westmoreland  in  1735.  Having  taken  holy 
orders,  he  obtained  a  curacy  in  London  in  1764.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  successful  sentimental  works  in  prose 
and  verse,  among  which  are  "Letters  of  Theodosius  and 
Constantia,"  and  "  The  Fatal  Prophecy,"  a  drama.  About 
1768  he  obtained  the  living  of  Blagden,  Somersetshire. 
His  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his  translation  of  Plu- 
tarch's "Lives,"  (1770,)  which  is  correct  and  literal. 
He  was  assisted  in  this  by  his  brother  William.  He 
vindicated  the  Scotch  against  the  satire  of  Churchill  in 
a  poem  called  "Genius  and  Valour."  His  versification 
is  easy  and  harmonious.    Died  in  1779. 

See  Johnson  and  Chalmers,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets;' 
Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Langhorne,  (William,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1721,  and  became  rector  of  Folkstone.  He 
assisted  his  brother  in  the  translation  of  Plutarch,  and 
published  "Job,  a  Poem,"  and  a  paraphrase  in  verse  of 
a  part  of  Isaiah.    Died  in  1772, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  ^,  short;  a,  9,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  f3lt;  mgt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


LANGINI 


1369  LJNJUINJIS 


Langini,  IJn-jee'nee,  (Antonio,)  called  also  Antonio 
da  Carrara,  because  he  was  born  at  Carrara,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  lived  about  1530. 

Langius.    See  Lange. 

Langlade,  de,  deh  IdNgltd',  (Jacques,)  Baron  de 
Saumieres,  a  French  writer,  born  in  Perigord  about 
1620.  He  was  secretary  to  Cardinal  Mazarin.  Died 
in  1680. 

Langle,  IfiN'gli',  (Honor6  Francois  Marie,)  an  able 
writer  on  music,  born  at  Monaco  in  1741.  He  published 
a  "Treatise  on  Harmony  and  Modulation,"  (1797,)  and 
composed  several  operas.    Died  in  1807. 

Langle,  de,  deh  l6Ngl,  (Jean  Maximilien,)  a  French 
Protestant  minister  and  writer,  born  at  Evreux  in  1590 ; 
died  at  Rouen  in  1674. 

Langle,  de,  (Paul  Antoine  Marie  Fleuriot,)  an 
able  French  naval  officer,  born  in  1744.  He  sailed  as 
second  in  command  of  La  Perouse's  exploring  expe- 
dition. He  was  killed  b}'  the  savages  on  one  of  the 
Navigator  Islands  in  1787. 

Langles,  iSx^gl^ss',  (Louis  Mathieu,)  a  French  Ori- 
entalist, born  near  Saint-Didier  in  1763.  He  gave  special 
attention  to  Arabic  and  Persian,  became  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  professor  of  Persian  in 
Paris,  and  keeper  of  the  Oriental  manuscripts  of  the 
National  Library,  (1795.)  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  a  French  version  of  the  "  Political  and  Military 
Institutes  of  Tamerlane,"  translations  from  the  Eng- 
lish of  several  books  of  travels  in  the  East,  a  Mantchoo 
Dictionary,  and  "Ancient  and  Modern  Monuments  of 
Hindostan,"  (2  vols.,  1812-21,  unfinished.)  Died  in  1824. 

See  Abkl  Remusat,  "  Nouveaux  Melanges  Asiatiques ;"  J.  P. 
A.  Remusat,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  L.  M.  Langlis," 
1825;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Langlet.    See  Lenglet. 

Lang'ley,  (Batty,)  an  English  architect,  who  pro- 
posed to  improve  the  Gothic  style  of  architecture  by  an 
absurd  imitation  of  the  Grecian  orders.  He  published 
several  works  on  architecture.    Died  in  175 1. 

Langlois,  ISN'glwi',  (Eustache  Hyacinthe,)  a  skil- 
ful French  designer  and  engraver,  born  in  Normandy  in 
1777,  worked  chiefly  at  Rouen.  His  reputation  is  said 
to  have  increased  since  his  death.  He  published  a 
"  Collection  of  Views,  Sites,  and  Monuments  of  France," 
and  several  antiquarian  treatises.    Died  in  1837. 

See  Gilbert,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  M.  Langlois,"  1839. 

Langlois,  (Jean,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in  Paris 
in  1649,  became  a  resident  of  Rome. 

Langlois,  (Jean  Charles,)  a  French  painter  of  bat- 
tles and  panoramas,  born  in  Calvados  in  1789.  Among 
his  works  are  panoramas  of  the  "Battle  of  Moskwa," 
(1835,)  and  the  "  Burning  of  Moscow,"  (1839.) 

L'Anglois,  ISN'glwi',  (Michel,)  [Lat.  Michael 
Aj^GLi'cus,]  a  Flemish  priest  and  Latin  poet,  born  at 
Beaumont  about  1470. 

Langlois,  (Simon  Alexandre,)  a  French  Orientalist, 
born  in  1788.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions  in  1835.  Among  his  works  is  "  Rig 
Veda,  ou  Livre  des  Hymnes,"  translated  from  the  San- 
scrit, (4  vols.,  1849-52.)    Died  in  1854. 

Langrish,  lang'grish,  (Browne,)  an  English  physi- 
cian, born  about  1700,  wrote  several  works  on  medicme. 
Died  in  1759. 

Langsdorff,  ISngsMoRf,  (Georg  Heinrich,)  Baron, 
a  German  naturalist  and  physician,  born  in  Suabia  in 
1774,  accompanied  Krusenstern's  expedition  to  the 
North,  (1803,)  and  afterwards  visited  Brazil.  He  pub- 
lished a  Treatise  on  "Plants  collected  during  the  Rus- 
sian Voyage  around  the  World,"  (1810,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1852. 

Lang'toft,  (Peter,)  an  English  chronicler,  who  lived 
about  1300,  was  a  canon-regular  of  the  order  of  Saint 
Austin  at  Bridlington.  He  compiled  a  "  Chronicle  of 
England,"  (in  French  verse,)  which  extends  to  the  year 
1307.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  in  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward II. 

Lang'ton,  (Stephen,)  an  English  cardinal.  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  In  1206  he  went  to  Rome,  and 
was  made  a  cardinal.  The  election  of  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  being  contested  in  1207,  Innocent  HI.  com- 
pelled the  monks  to  choose  Langton,  whom  King  John 


refused  to  recognize  until  the  pope,  by  laying  his  king- 
dom  under  an  interdict,  reduced  him  to  submission  in 
1213.  He  co-operated  with  the  insurgent  barons  in 
asserting  the  national  liberties  against  King  John  in 
1215,  and  was  suspended  by  the  pope  for  refusing  to 
publish  the  sentence  of  excommunication  against  the 
barons.    Died  in  1228. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  ii.  chap.  xii. 

Languet,  16N'gi',  (Hubert,)  a  French  Protc-stant 
and  political  writer,  born  in  Burgundy  in  15 18,  was  a 
friend  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  He  entered  the  service  of 
Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony,  in  1568,  and  was  the  envoy 
of  that  prince  to  Paris  at  the  time  of  the  Massacre  of 
Saint  Bartholomew,  from  which  he  escaped.  He  was 
afterwards  employed  as  negotiator  by  William,  Prince 
of  Orange.  In  1579  he  published,  under  the  name  of 
Junius  Brutus,  a  famous  work,  entitled  "  Vindiciae  contra 
Tyrannos,"  a  bold  assertion  of  the  right  of  resistance  to 
tyrants.    Died  in  1 581. 

See  Philibert  de  la  Mare,  "Vie  d'Habert  Languet,"  1700: 
Chevreul,  "Hubert  Languet,"  1852;  Bayi.e,  "Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary  ;"  Niceron,  "  Memoires ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Languet  de  Gergy,  16N%i'  deh  zhgR''zhe',  (Jean 
Baptiste  Joseph,)  a  French  philanthropist  and  bene- 
factor, was  born  at  Dijon  in  1675.  He  became  vicar  of 
Saint-Sulpice,  Paris,  and  built  the  magnificent  church 
of  Saint-Sulpice,  finished  in  1745.  He  also  founded  in 
Paris  an  institution  in  which  poor  women  and  girls  were 
supported  and  educated.  It  is  said  that  he  several  times 
refused  a  bishopric.    Died  in  1750. 

Languet  de  Gergy,  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  theo- 
logian, born  at  Dijon  in  1677,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  a  zealous  adversary  of  the  Jansenists, 
and  gained  distinction  by  his  polemical  writings.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1721,  and 
Archbishop  of  Sens  in  1730.  He  published  Catechisms, 
and  other  religious  books.    Died  in  1753. 

Lanier  or  Laniere,  li-ne-aiR',  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  musician,  was  born  in  1568.  He  lived  in  Eng- 
land in  the  reign  of  Charles  I,,  who  patronized  him  and 
employed  him  to  purchase  pictures.  He  was  more  eminent 
as  a  musician  than  as  a  painter,  and  became  the  king's 
chapel -master  in  1626.  Lanier  was  also  a  dealer  in 
pictures,  and  purchased  several  at  the  sale  and  dispersion 
of  the  collection  of  Charles  I.    Died  about  1660. 

Lan'i-gan,  (John,)  an  Irish  writer  and  Roman  Cath- 
olic priest,  born  at  Cashel  in  1758.  Among  his  works  is 
an  "Ecclesiastical  History  of  Ireland,"  (4  vols.,  1822.) 
Died  in  1828. 

Lanino,  IS-nee'no,  or  Lanini,  1^-nee'nee,  (Bernar- 
dino,) an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  at  Vercelli,  was 
a  pupil  of  Gaudenzio  Ferrari,  whom  he  imitated.  He 
worked  at  Milan  and  Novara.  His  design  and  composi- 
tion are  admired.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  Scenes 
in  the  Life  of  the  Virgin,"  "  The  Sibyls,"  (at  Novara,) 
and  "The  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Catherine,"  (in  fresco,)  at 
Milan.    Died  about  1570. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Lanzi,  "  Storia  pittorica." 

Lanjuinais,  IfiN^zhii-e'ni',  (Jean  Denis,)  Count,  a 
French  lawyer  and  liberal  legislator,  born  at  Rennes  in 
1753.  He  was  deputed  to  the  States-General  in  1789, 
and  to  the  Convention  in  1792.  In  the  latter  body  he 
boldly  defended  the  king  during  his  trial,  and  resisted 
the  terrorists  with  great  energy.  His  defence  of  the 
Girondists  in  May,  1793,  is  praised  by  Lamartine.  He 
was  proscribed  with  the  Girondists,  but  escaped,  and 
kept  himself  concealed  during  the  reign  of  terror.  He 
was  chosen  a  senator  in  1800,  and  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1808.  He  published  many 
political,  religious,  and  historical  treatises.  Died  in  1827. 

See  DuPiN,  "  Notice  sur  Lanjuinais,"  1827  ;  Dacier,  "  Notice  sur 
la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Lanjuinais;"  Michel  Berr,  "Notice 
biographique  sur  le  Comte  Lanjuinais,"  1827;  V.  de  Lanjuinais, 
"Notice  historique  sur  J.  D.  de  Lanjuinais,"  1832;  Lamartine, 
"  History  of  the  Girondists;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lanjuinais,  (Joseph,)  a  French  writer,  uncle  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Bretagne.  Having  removed  to 
Moudon,  in  Switzerland,  he  turned  Protestant,  and  became 
a  school-teacher.    He  published,  besides  other  works, 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LANJUINAIS 


1370 


LJNTJRA 


"The  Accomplished  Monarch ;  or,  Prodigies  of  Goodness 
and  Wisdom  which  make  the  Eulogy  of  the  Emperor 
Joseph  II.,"  (3  vols,,  1774.)    Died  in  1808. 

Lanjuinais,  (Victor,)  a  French  lawyer,  a  son  of  Jean 
Denis,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1802.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1838,  and  to  the 
Constituent  Assembly  in  1848. 

Lank'es-ter,  (Edwin,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  naturalist 
and  popular  lecturer,  born  at  Melton,  in  Sufifolk,  in  1814, 
graduated  as  M.D.  at  Heidelberg  in  1839.  He  was  chosen 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1845,  ^"<J  professor  of 
natural  history  at  New  College,  London,  in  1850.  He 
lectui  ed  on  natural  history  at  the  Royal  Institution  and 
other  places,  and  contributed  scientific  papers  to  various 
periodicals.  He  became  joint  editor  of  the  "Quarterly 
Journal  of  Microscopical  Science"  in  1853.  Among  his 
works  are  an  article  on  sanitary  science  in  the  "Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica,"  and  "  Half-Hours  with  the  Micro- 
scope," (1859.) 

Lankrink.    See  Lancrink. 

Lanner,  lin'ner,  (Joseph  Franz  Karl,)  a  German 
composer,  born  at  Vienna  in  1802.  His  works  consist 
chiefly  of  overtures,  ballet-pieces,  marches,  and  waltzes. 
Died  in  1843. 

Lannes,  Itn,  (Jean,)  Duke  of  Montebello,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  marshals  of  the  French  empire,  was 
born  of  humble  parentage  at  Lectoure  (Gers)  in  1769. 
He  entered  the  army  as  a  volunteer  in  1792,  and  was 
rapidly  promoted  until  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  9th  Thermi- 
dor,  1794,  when  he  was  forced  to  retire  from  the  army. 
As  chef-de-bataillon,  he  served  under  Bonaparte  in  Italy 
in  1796,  and  was  made  a  colonel  for  his  conduct  at  Mon- 
tenotte.  In  1798  he  followed  Bonaparte  to  Egypt,  where 
he  became  a  general  of  division  and  rendered  important 
service  at  Aboukir.  His  courage  and  capacity  were  very 
conspicuous  at  the  battles  of  Montebello  and  Marengo, 
in  1800.  He  was  sent  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Por- 
tugal in  1 80 1,  and  on  his  return,  in  1804,  was  created  a 
marshal  of  the  empire  and  Duke  of  Montebello. 

Lannes  commanded  the  left  wing  of  the  grand  army 
in  the  campaign  of  1805,  and  added  to  his  already 
brilliant  reputation  at  Austerlitz  and  Jena,  (1806.)  His 
military  skill  was  exerted  with  success  at  the  memorable 
siege  of  Saragossa,  where  he  commanded  in  chief,  in 
1809.  In  the  second  war  against  Austria  he  contributed 
to  the  victory  at  Eckmiihl,  (1809,)  and  directed  the  suc- 
cessful attack  on  Ratisbon,  where,  when  his  men  faltered, 
he  seized  a  scaling-ladder  and  ran  forward  through  "  the 
imminent  deadly  breach."  He  was  mortally  wounded  at 
the  battle  of  Aspern  and  Essling,  in  May,  1809.  In  the 
midst  of  the  conflict.  Napoleon  paused  to  address  the 
dying  general,  who  said,  "Adieu,  Sire!  Live  for  the 
world  ;  but  bestow  a  few  thoughts  on  one  of  your  best 
friends,  who  in  a  few  hours  will  be  no  more."  The  em- 
peror is  said  to  have  been  more  deeply  affected  by  this 
scene  than  he  ever  was  before.  "  Lannes  was  at  once," 
said  Napoleon,  "  the  Roland  of  the  army  and  a  giant  in 
capacity.  He  had  been  in  fifty-four  pitched  battles.  He 
was  cool  in  the  midst  of  fire,  and  possessed  a  clear, 
penetrating  eye.  Violent  and  hasty  in  his  temper,  some- 
times even  in  my  presence,  he  was  yet  ardently  attached 
to  me.  As  a  general,  he  was  greatly  superior  to  Moreau 
or  Soult.  I  found  him  a  mere  swordsman  ;  I  raised  him 
to  the  highest  point  of  art."  He  left  a  son,  Napoleon 
Auguste,  Duke  of  Montebello. 

See  Rrne  Perin,  "  Vie  militaire  de  J.  Lannes,"  1810;  Chateau- 
NEUF,  "Viedu  Marechal  Lannes,"  1813;  Thiers,  "History  of  the 
French  Revolution;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lannes,  (Napoleon  Auguste,)  Duke  of  Montebello, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1802.  He  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Naples  in  1838,  and  became  minister 
of  the  marine  in  1847.  In  1849  he  was  elected  to  the 
Legislative  Assembly,  in  which  he  voted  with  the  ma- 
jority. He  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Russia  in  1858, 
and  commander-in-chief  of  the  French  army  at  Rome 
about  June,  1862. 

Lanno,  It'no',  (Francois  Gaspard  Aim^,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Rennes  in  1800.  He  gained  the  first 
prize  in  1827  for  his  Mucins  Scaevola.  Among  his  works 
are  statues  of  Fenelon  and  Pascal. 

Lannoi.    See  L annoy. 


Lannoy,  It'nwi',  (Juliana  Cornelia,)  Baroness  of, 
an  eminent  Dutch  poetess,  born  at  Breda  in  1738.  Her 
poetical  talents  were  displayed  in  satires,  odes,  and  epis- 
tles, which  are  admired  for  elegance  and  spirit-stirring 
power.  She  produced  three  successful  tragedies,  "  Leo 
the  Great,"  (1767,)  "  The  Siege  of  Haarlem,"  (1770,)  and 
"Cleopatra,"  (1776.)    Died  in  1782. 

Lannoy  or  Lannoi,  de,  deh  It'nwi',  (Charles,)  a 
famous  general  of  the  Spanish  armies,  was  born  in  Flan- 
ders about  1470.  Having  served  with  distinction  in 
various  campaigns,  he  received  the  badge  of  the  Golden 
Fleece  in  15 16,  and  was  appointed  Viceroy  of  Naples  by 
Charles  V.  in  1521.  After  the  death  of  Prosper  Colonna, 
he  commanded  the  imperial  armies,  and  in  1525  gained 
the  decisive  victory  of  Pavfa,  where  he  exchanged  swords 
with  Francis  I.  Died  in  1527.  (See  Avalos,  Ferdinando 
d'.  Marquis  de  Pescara.) 

His  son  Ferdinand,  Duke  of  Boyennes,  born  in  Italy 
about  1 5 10,  was  versed  in  mathematics,  and  was  reputed 
the  inventor  of  the  demi-cannon.  He  attained  the  rank 
of  general  of  artillery  in  the  Spanish  army,  and  was  after- 
wards Governor  of  Holland  and  of  Gray.    Died  in  1579. 

La  None.    See  Noue,  La. 

Lanoue,  iS'noo',  (F6lix  Hippolyte,)  a  French  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Versailles  in  1812,  He  gained  the 
first  prize  for  landscapes  in  1841. 

Lansberg,  ISns'blRG'',  or  Lansperg,  13.ns'pSRG^ 
(JoHANN,)  an  ascetic  German  writer  and  monk,  born  at 
Landsberg,  in  Bavaria.  Died  in  1539.  Among  his  chief 
works  is  a  "Manual  of  the  Christian  Warfare,"  ("En- 
chiridion Militiae  Christianae,"  1546,)  which  he  wrote  in 
opposition  to  the  "Miles  Christianus"  of  Erasmus. 

Lansberg,  ISns'b^Rg  or  lins'b§RH,  written  also  Lans- 
berghe,  (Philippus,)  a  Dutch  astronomer  and  geometer, 
born  in  Zealand  in  1 561.  He  was  for  many  years  pastor 
of  the  Protestant  church  at  Ter-Goes.  He  published, 
besides  other  works  on  mathematics,  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Diurnal  and  Annual  Motion  of  the  Earth,"  (1630,)  in 
which  he  advocates  the  Copernican  system,  and  "Geom- 
etry of  Triangles,"  (1631.)    Died  in  1632. 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Foppens, 
"  Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Lansdowne.    See  Granville,  (George.) 

Lansdowne,  lanz'down,  (Henry  Petty  Fitz-Mau- 
rice,)  third  Marquis  of,  an  eminent  English  statesman, 
born  in  1780,  was  the  second  son  of  the  first  Marquis, 
(See  Shelburne.)  About  1795  he  was  placed  under 
the  tuition  of  Dugald  Stewart  in  Edinburgh,  and  several 
years  later  he  graduated  at  Cambridge.  In  1802  Lord 
Henry  Petty  entered  the  House  of  Commons,  where  he 
at  length  became  a  successful  debater.  He  was  ap- 
pointed chancellor  of  the  exchequer  when  the  Whig 
ministry  of  GrenVille  and  Fox  came  into  power  in  1806, 
but  retired  from  that  office  in  March  of  the  ensuing 
year.  He  married  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Ilchester 
in  1808.  At  the  death  of  his  brother,  in  1809,  he  an- 
herited  the  title  of  marquis,  and  passed  into  the  House 
of  Lords.  He  cordially  supported  at  different  times  the 
efforts  to  abolish  slavery,  spoke  ably  in  favour  of  Catholic 
emancipation,  and  acted  generally  with  the  Whig  party. 
In  1827  he  was  secretary  for  the  home  department  under 
Canning  for  three  or  four  months  ;  and  during  the  brief 
ministry  of  Lord  Goderich,  which  resigned  about  the 
end  of  1828,  he  was  secretary  of  foreign  affairs.  On  the 
formation  of  a  Whig  ministry  by  Lord  Grey  in  1 831,  Lord 
Lansdowne  became  president  of  the  Council,  which  po- 
sition he  filled  with  credit  until  1841.  He  was  the  leader 
of  the  opposition  in  the  House  of  Lords  from  1841  until 
1846,  when  he  entered  the  cabinet  of  Lord  John  Russell 
as  president  of  the  Council.  He  resigned  in  1852.  Died 
about  February  i,  1863. 

His  son,  the'  fourth  Marquis  of  Lansdowne,  born  in 
1816,  died  in  July,  1866. 

Lansdowne,  Marquis  of.    See  Shelburne,  Earl 

OF. 

Lantara,  IdN'tt'rt',  (Simon  Mathurin,)  an  excellent 
French  landscape-painter,  born  nearMilly  in  1729,  or,  as 
some  say,  in  1745.  He  worked  in  Paris,  and  passed  his 
life  in  poverty,  caused  by  his  indolent  and  improvident 
habits.  His  manner  reminds  one  of  Claude  Lorrain. 
He  excelled  in  aerial  perspective,  and  represented  in  a 


e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  f§.r,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LANTERI  1 371 


marvellous  manner  the  different  periods  of  the  day.  The 
skies  of  his  pictures  present  a  vapory  tone  and  an  ex- 
quisite lightness  of  touch.    Died  in  Paris  in  1778. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres  La  Chavigne- 
RIE,  "  Recherches  historiques,  biographiques  et  litteraires  sur  le 
Peintre  Lantara,"  1852;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lanteri,  ISn-ta'ree,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Briga  in  1801.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  History 
of  the  House  of  Savoy,"  ("  Storia  della  Monarchia  di 
Casa  Savoja,"  1835.)    Died  in  1843. 

Lanthenas,  IfiNt'nSs',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  revolu- 
tionist, born  in  Forez  about  1740.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  National  Convention,  and  was  proscribed  with  the 
Girondists  in  May,  1793  ;  but  his  name  was  erased  from 
the  fatal  list  by  Marat  with  an  expression  of  contempt. 
Died  in  1799. 

Lantier,  de,  deh  l&N^te-i',  (Etienne  FRANgois,)  a 
popular  French  author,  boriTat  Marseilles  in  1734,  was 
called  "the  Anacharsis  of  the  Boudoirs,"  His  comedy 
"  L'Impatient"  was  performed  with  great  applause  in 
1778.  He  is  ranked  by  some  critics  among  the  best 
"disciples  of  the  school  of  Voltaire.  During  the  reign 
of  terror  (1793)  he  was  imprisoned  at  Lyons.  He  after- 
wards produced  a  fictitious  narrative  of  the  "  Travels  of 
Antenor,"  ("Voyages  d'Antenor,"  1798,)  which  had  a 
prodigious  success  and  was  translated  into  nearly  all 
modern  languages.  At  the  age  of  ninety  he  composed 
a  poem,  called  "  Geoffroy  Rudel,  or  the  Troubadour." 
Died  in  1826. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lanusse,  It'niiss',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Habas  (Les  Landes)  in  1772.  As  general  of 
brigade  he  rendered  important  services  at  Lodi  and 
Castiglione,  and  as  general  of  division  followed  Bona- 
parte to  Egypt  in  1798.  He  commanded  in  the  Delta 
during  the  expedition  against  Syria,  and  was  killed  by 
the  English  at  the  battle  of  Alexandria,  or  Aboukir,  in 
March,  1801. 

See  Adrien  Pascal,  "  Biographies  du  Lieut.-General  de  Lanusse 
et  du  Lieut.-General  Baron  de  Lanusse,"  1843. 

Lan'yon,  (Charles,)  an  English  architect  and  civil 
engineer,  born  in  Sussex  in  1813.  He  designed  Queen's 
College,  in  Belfast,  and  other  public  edifices. 

Lanzani,  ISn-z^'nee,  or  Lanzano,  ISn-z^'no,  (An- 
drea,) an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Milan  about  1648, 
studied  under  Carlo  Maratta.  He  worked  at  Milan  and 
Vienna,  where  he  was  employed  by  the  emperor.  Among 
his  works  are  a  Saint  Charles  Borromeo,  and  a  "Holy 
Family."    Died  at  Vienna  in  1712. 

Lanzano.    See  Lanzanl 

Lanzi,  l^n'zee,  (Luigi,)  an  eminent  Italian  antiquary 
and  writer  on  art,  was  born  near  Macerata  in  1732.  He 
became  a  good  classical  scholar,  and  had  acquired  the 
reputation  of  an  able  professor  and  writer,  when  the 
suppression  of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  of  which  he  was  a 
member,  opened  to  him  a  new  career.  He  was  chosen 
sub-director  of  the  Gallery  of  Florence  in  1773.  ^'^  ^l'^9 
he  published  an  "  Essay  on  the  Etruscan  Language,"  (3 
vols.,)  which  was  highly  prized  by  the  learned.  His 
reputation  was  increased  by  his  "  History  of  Painting 
in  Italy  from  the  Renaissance  of  Art  to  the  End  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  ("Storia  pittorica  della  Italia," 
etc.,  1792  ;  3d  edition,  6  vols.,  1809,)  which  is  character- 
ized by  good  taste  and  judicious  criticism.  It  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Thomas  Roscoe.    Died  in  1810. 

See  Zannoni,  "  Elogio  storico  di  L.  Lanzi;"  Mauro  Boni, 
"  Saegio  di  Studj  di  L.  Lanzi,"  iSiq;  A.  Cappi,  "  Biografia  di  L. 
Lanzi,"  1840;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  September,  1828. 

Lanzoni,  IJn-zo'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  eminent  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1663.  He  obtained  in  1684 
a  professorship  of  philosophy  at  Ferrara,  which  he  re- 
tained until  his  death.  His  works  have  been  collected 
under  the  title  "Opera  Omnia  Medico-Physica  et  Philo- 
sophica,"  (3  vols.,  1738.)    Died  in  1730. 

La-oc'o-on,  [Gr.  Aao/cowv,]  a  Trojan  hero,  and  a  ])riest 
of  Apollo  or  of  Neptune,  was  variously  represented  as  a 
son  of  Antenor  or  a  son  of  Priam.  He  strenuously 
opposed  the  admission  of  the  wooden  horse  into  the  city 
of  Troy,  and  thrust  his  spear  into  that  structure.  While 
he  was  offering  a  sacrifice  to  Neptune  with  his  two  sons, 
two  huge  serpents,  issuing  from  the  sea,  attacked  them 


LAO-TSE 


and  crushed  them  all  to  death.  His  story  was  a  favourite 
subject  with  the  ancient  poets  and  artists,  and  has  derived 
especial  celebrity  from  a  magnificent  marble  group  of 
Laocoon  and  his  sons  which  is  preserved  in  the  Vatican 
in  Rome,  and  which  was  described  by  Pliny  as  superior 
to  all  other  master-pieces  of  ancient  sculptors.  This 
group  was  executed  by  Agesander,  his  son  Athenodorus, 
and  Polydorus. 

Sec  Virgil's  ".^neid,"  book  ii.  41-50  and  199-233;  also,  Les- 
sing's  "  Laocoon." 

Laodameia.    See  Laodamia. 

La-o-da-mi'a  or  La-o-da-mei'a,  [Gr.  Aaodufxeia ; 
Fr.  Laodamie,  It'o'dt'me',]  a  daughter  of  Acastus,  and 
wife  of  Protesilaus,  the  first  Greek  who  fell  at  Troy.  To 
keep  alive  the  memory  of  her  husband,  whom  she  ten- 
derly loved,  she  caused  a  wooden  image  of  him  to  be 
made.  Her  father,  in  the  hope  of  dispelling  her  grief, 
ordered  it  to  be  burned,  when  she  threw  herself  into  the 
flames  and  perished  with  it. 

Laodamie.    See  Laodamia. 

La-od'i-ce,  [Aao(5k7?,]  the  name  of  several  Grecian 
princesses,  one  of  whom  was  the  mother  of  Seleucus  Ni- 
cator,  founder  of  a  Syrian  dynasty.  Another  was  the 
wife  of  Antiochus  Theos,  whom  she  poisoned  in  246  B.C. 
Her  son,  Seleucus  Callinicus,  then  became  king. 

La-om'e-don,  [Gr.  Kaoiieduv,]  the  king  and  founder 
of  Troy,  and  the  father  of  Priam.  According  to  ancient 
legends,  Neptune  and  Apollo  were  condemned  to  serve 
Laomedon  for  one  year,  and  the  former  built  the  walls 
of  Troy  for  a  stipulated  price,  but  after  the  work  was 
finished  the  perfidious  king  refused  to  pay  Neptune. 
Laomedon  was  killed  by  Hercules  for  another  breach 
of  faith. 

Laomedon,  a  Greek  general  in  the  service  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  that  king  in 
a  high  degree.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  he  became 
governor  of  Syria,  in  323  B.C.  He  was  driven  out  by  the 
army  of  Ptolemy  about  321  B.C. 

Lao-Tse,  l^'o'tseh'  or  LVo'tsiih',  or  Lao-Tseu,  13.'o'- 
tsuh',  written  also  Laou-Tsze  andLao-Tze,  sometimes 
called  Lao-Kiun,  (kyoon,)  a  celebrated  Chinese  phi- 
losopher or  sage,  who  was  born,  it  is  said,  in  the  province 
of  Honan,  565  years  before  Christ,  or  fourteen  years  be- 
fore the  birth  of  Confucius.  He  was  born,  we  are  told, 
with  white  hair  and  eyebrows,  whence  he  was  named 
Lao-Tse,  the  "hoary  or  aged  child,"  and  Lao-Kiun,  the 
"aged  prince."  His  white  hair  seems  to  have  been  re- 
garded as  an  indication  of  his  early  wisdom.  Many  other 
marvels  are  told  concerning  his  birth,  which  need  not  be 
related  here.  It  seems  probable  that  Lao-Tse  was  not 
wholly  unacquainted  with  the  religious  doctrines  of  India, 
not  only  those  of  the  Brahmans,  but  perhaps  also  of  the 
Booddhists.  For  some  years  he  was  archivist  and  his- 
toriographer to  one  of  the  Chinese  princes.  He  was,  it 
is  said,  profoundly  versed  in  the  doctrines  and  institutions 
of  the  ancients.  He  taught  the  existence  of  a  supreme 
Being,  under  the  name  of  Tao,  or  the  "supreme  reason." 
His  followers  are  called  Tao-Sse  (ti'o  si)  or  Taose, — 
that  is,  the  "disciples  of  Reason."  Instead  of  referring, 
like  Confucius,  to  the  authority  of  the  ancient  sages,  he 
taught  that  we  must  seek  for  the  principles  of  right 
within  ourselves,  in  complete  retirement  from  all  worldly 
pursuits  and  thoughts.  On  one  occasion  Confucius  had 
an  interview  with  Lao-Tse,  who  cautioned  him  against 
seeking  the  honours  of  the  world.  Lao-Tse  observed 
that  the  possessor  of  true  wisdom  seeks  rather  to  hide 
than  to  display  his  riches.  Confucius  left  him  deeply 
impressed  with  his  extraordinary  character,  and  evidently 
regarded  him  as  something  wonderful,  if  not  divine.  We 
are  told  Uiat  after  this  interview  Confucius  said  to  his 
disciples,  "It  does  not  astonish  me  to  see  the  birds  fly, 
the  fishes  swim,  or  the  beasts  run  ;  I  know  that  the  fishes 
may  be  taken  with  nets,  the  beasts  with  snares,  and  that 
the  birds  may  be  shot  with  an  arrow.  But  I  cannot  tell 
how  the  dragon*  can  fly  on  the  wind  through  the  clouds 
and  raise  himself  to  heaven.  To-day  I  have  seen  Lao- 
Tse  :  he  can  be  compared  only  to  the  dragon."  The 
date  of  Lao-Tse's  death  is  unknown.    He  was  undoubt- 


*  The  dragon  of  the  Chinese  is  regarded  as  a  supernatural  or 
divine  being. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LJO-TSEU 


1372 


LAPLACE 


edly  an  extraordinary  man,  and  his  influence  is  not  yet 
lost  in  China.  The  following  sayings  of  his  may  serve 
to  give  an  idea  of  the  cast  and  calibre  of  his  mind  :  "  He 
only  can  be  called  wise  (or  enlightened)  who  knows  him- 
self; he  only  can  be  called  valiant  who  subdues  him- 
self; he  only  can  be  called  rich  who  knows  what  is 
necessary."  Like  the  Brahmans  of  India,  Lao-Tse 
taught  the  final  absorption  of  pure  and  enlightened  souls 
into  the  supreme  eternal  Spirit,  and  that,  "having  thus 
become  one  with  the  supreme  Reason,  they  will  exist 
eternally."  He  inculcated  universal  benevolence :  we 
ought  to  show  kindness  not  only  to  the  sincere  and  vir- 
tuous, but  also  to  the  insincere  and  wicked.  "Those 
who  are  holy,"  he  says,  "will  treat  all  men  as  a  father 
treats  his  children."  The  religion  of  the  Tao-Sse,  at 
the  present  day,  seems  closely  allied  to  Booddhism ; 
and  many  of  its  votaries  of  both  sexes,  like  the  followers 
of  Gautama,  spend  their  lives  in  monasteries.  The 
modern  Tao-Sse  are  much  addicted  to  superstitious 
observances,  and  deal  largely  in  sorcery.  They  are  very 
popular  with  the  common  people,  and  in  some  parts  of 
the  empire  their  influence  rivals  that  of  the  Booddhists. 

See  Pauthier,  "Chine,"  pp.  110-120;  Legge,  "  Life  and  Teach- 
ings of  Confucius,"  chap,  v.,  London,  1867,  Triibner&Co.  ;  Brock- 
HAUs,  "  Conversations-Lexikon,"  article  "  Lao-Tse  ;"  Loomis,"  Con- 
fucius and  the  Chinese  Classics,"  p.  278  et  seq.  ;  J.  P.  A.  R^musat, 
"  Memoire  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Opinions  de  Lao-Tseu,"  1829. 

Lao-Tseu.    See  Lao-Tse. 

Laou-Tse  or  Laou-Tsze.    See  Lao-Tse. 

La  Paix,  the  French  of  Eirene,  which  see. 

Laparelli,  lJ-p§.-reKIee,  (  Francesco,  )  an  Italian 
architect,  born  at  Cortona  in  1521.  He  planned  the 
city  of  Valetta,  Malta,  and  assisted  Michael  Angelo  in 
the  design  of  Saint  Peter's,  at  Rome.    Died  in  1570. 

La  Perouse.    See  P^irouse,  de  la. 

La  Peyr^re.    See  PEYRi:RE,  La. 

La  Peyronie,  de,  deh  It  piWne',  (Franqois  Gigot,) 
a  French  surgeon,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1678.  He  re- 
ceived the  title  of  first  surgeon  to  the  king,  (Louis  XV.,) 
and  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Brain,"  (1708,) 
Died  in  1747. 

La  Peyrouse,  de,  deh  It  p^^rooz',  (Philippe  Picot,) 
Baron,  a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1744. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Flora  of  the  Pyr- 
enees," (1795-180L)    Died  in  1818. 

See  Decampe,  "  filoge  de  M.  le  Baron  de  La  Peyrouse,"  i8ig. 

Lapham,  lap'am,  (Increase  A.,)  an  American  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Palmyra,  New  York,  in  181 1.  He  has 
published  "Wisconsin  ;  its  Geography  and  Topography, 
History,  Geology,  and  Mineralogy,"  (1844,)  "Antiquities 
of  Wisconsin,"  (1855,)  and  other  scientific  works. 

Lapi,  li'pee,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Florence  in  1661,  was  a  pupil  of  Luca  Giordano.  The 
gallery  of  Florence  contains  a  "Transfiguration"  by  him. 
Died  in  1732. 

Lapide,  a  ll'pe-d^',  called  also  Steen,  (stan,) 
(Cornelius,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit,  born  in  the  diocese  of 
Liege.  He  wrote  "  Commentaries  on  the  Bible."  Died 
in  1657. 

Lapis,  ll'p^ss,  (Gaetano,)  a  painter  of  the  Roman 
school,  born  in  Umbria  in  1704  ;  died  in  1776. 

Lapisse,  It'p^ss',  (Pierre  Belon,)  Baron  de  Sainte- 
Helene,  a  French  general,  born  at  Lyons  in  1762,  was 
killed  at  Talavera  in  July,  1810. 

Lapithae,  lap'I-///ee,  [Gr.  Kamdai :  Fr.  Lapithes,  It'- 
p^t',]  a  fabulous  tribe  of  Thessalians,  whose  story  is 
intimately  connected  with  that  of  the  Centaurs.  They 
were  ruled  by  a  chief  named  Pirithous,  to  whose  mar- 
riage the  Centaurs  were  invited.  At  this  marriage-feast 
occurred  the  celebrated  fight  of  the  Lapiths^  and  the 
Centaurs,  which  was  a  favourite  subject  with  the  ancient 
poets  and  artists. 

Lapithes.    See  Lapith/e. 

Lapito,  It'pe'to',  (Louis  Auguste,)  a  French  land- 
scape-painter, born  near  Paris  in  1805.  Many  of  his 
works  are  in  the  royal  galleries  of  Luxembourg,  Tuile- 
ries,  etc. 

Laplace,  It^pltss',  (  Cyrille  Pierre  Theodore,)  a 
French  navigator,  born  in  1793.  He  commanded  two 
scientific  expeditions,  of  which  he  gave  accounts  in  the 
following  works:  a  "Voyage  around  the  World,  per- 


formed in  1830-31-32,"  (5  vols.,  1833-39,)  and  "Circum- 
navigation of  the  Artemisia,  1837-40,"  (4  vols.,  1845-48.) 
He  was  made  a  vice-admiral  in  1853. 

La  Place,  (Pierre.)    See  Place,  de  la. 

Laplace,  (Pierre  Simon,)  one  of  the  greatest  as- 
tronomers and  mathematicians  of  any  age  or  country, 
was  born  at  Beaumont-en-Auge,  (Calvados,)  in  France, 
March  23,  1749.  His  father  was  a  peasant  or  poor 
farmer.  After  making  great  progress  in  the  high  mathe- 
matics at  the  Academy  of  Beaumont,  he  went  to  Paris, 
where,  through  the  influence  of  D'Alembert,  he  became 
])rofessor  of  mathematics  in  the  military  school  about 
1 768.  He  was  chosen  a  membre-adjomt  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1773,  and  about  that  time  produced  a  capital 
"'Memoir  on  Differential  Equations  and  the  Secular  In- 
equalities of  the  Planets."  Addressing  himself  to  the 
arduous  questions  of  mathematical  astronomy,  he  began 
to  confirm  the  theories  of  his  predecessors  and  to  demon- 
strate in  detail  the  principles  of  Newton.  In  1785  he 
became  a  titular  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
which  he  enriched  with  memoirs  on  pure  mathematics, 
general  astronomy,  and  the  theory  of  the  planets.  He 
favoured  the  popular  cause  in  the  Revolution,  and  offered 
homage  to  the  rising  star  of  Bonaparte,  who  in  1799  nomi- 
nated him  minister  of  the  interior,  thinking,  perhaps, 
that  the  man  who  ascertained  the  laws  of  the  planetary 
perturbations  might  also  regulate  the  disturbing  forces 
of  the  social  and  political  spheres.  This  experiment  was 
a  failure,  and  Laplace  was  removed  from  that  office  to 
the  senat  conservateiir  in  December,  1799.  "He  was," 
said  Napoleon,  "  below  mediocrity  as  a  minister.  He 
looked  at  no  question  in  its  proper  point  of  view,  but, 
always  searching  for  subtleties,  aimed  to  conduct  the  gov- 
ernment on  the  principles  of  the  infinitesimal  calculus." 

In  1796  he  published  important  discoveries  in  his 
"  Exposition  of  the  System  of  the  Universe,"  ("  Exposi- 
tion du  Systeme  du  Monde,")  which  is  a  kind  of  trans- 
lation into  popular  language,  without  analytical  formulas, 
of  his  greater  work,  "  La  Mecanique  celeste."  It  was 
the  "  Exposition"  that  procured  for  him  the  reputation 
of  a  pure  and  elegant  writer,  and  eventually  opened  to 
him  the  Academie  Fran9aise  in  1816.  The  clearness 
and  facility  with  which  he  explains  and  demonstrates  the 
great  laws  of  astronomy  render  this  work  one  of  the  most 
admirable  resumes  which  have  ever  appeared.  "  No  work 
of  that  kind  existed  at  that  time,"  says  Parisot,  "  which 
combined  the  same  merits  in  the  same  degree."  He 
received  the  title  of  count  in  1806.  He  was  for  many 
years  a  member,  and  eventually  president,  of  the  bm  eau 
of  longitudes.  In  1814  he  voted  to  erect  a  provisional 
government  on  the  ruins  of  Napoleon's  empire,  and  he 
remained  aloof  from  the  Imperialist  party  during  the 
Hundred  Days.  He  was  created  Marquis  Laplace  in 
181 7,  and  in  the  same  year  was  chosen  president  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences.  He  had  been  chosen  an  associate 
of  many  foreign  Academies.  Among  his  important  pro- 
ductions are  "  The  Analytic  Theory  of  Probabilities," 
(1812,)  and  a  "Philosophic  Essay  on  Probabilities," 
(1814.)  The  capital  monument  of  his  genius  is  his 
"Treatise  on  Celestial  Mechanics,"  ("Traite  de  la  Me- 
canique celeste,"  5  vols.,  1799-1825,)  which  will  doubt- 
less preserve  his  memory  to  the  latest  posterity.  Among 
his  great  discoveries  are  the  theory  of  Jupiter's  satel- 
lites, and  the  causes  of  the  grand  inequality  of  Jupiter 
and  Saturn,  and  of  the  acceleration  of  the  moon's  mean 
motion.  He  shares  the  honour  of  proving  the  stability 
of  the  planetary  system  with  Lagrange,  than  whom  he 
has  attained  a  higher  celebrity  by  ranging  over  a  wider 
field  of  discovery.  One  of  his  last  expressions  was, 
"  What  we  know  is  but  little,  ( peti  de  chose ;)  that  which 
we  know  not  is  immense."    Died  in  1827. 

See  Fourier,  "  filoee  de  La  Place;"  Arago,  "Biographic  de 
La  Place,"  (and  English  version  of  the  same,  published  in  1S5Q  ;) 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  Puisieux  et  Charles,  ''No- 
tices sur  Malherbe,  Laplace,"  etc.,  1847:  "  London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  February,  i8og  :  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1808, 
and  fanuary,  1810;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1S28. 

La  Place  or  Laplace,  de,  deh  It'pltss',  (Charles 
Emile  Pierre  Joseph,)  Marquis,  a  son  of  the  great 
astronomer,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1789.  He  entered 
the  army  young,  and  served  in  the  campaigns  of  Ger- 
many, (1809,)  of  Russia,  (1812,)  and  of  France,  (1814.) 


i,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  ^,  short;  si,    j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


LJ  PLACE 


1373 


LJRDNER 


In  1827  he  was  admitted  into  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  He 
became  a  lieutenant-general  in  1843,  and  a  senator  in  1853. 

La  Place,  de,  [Lat.  Plac.e'us,]  (Josu^;,)  a  French 
Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Bretagne  about  1605.  He 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Saumur  in  1633.  Among 
his  works  are  a  treatise  "  On  the  Imputation  of  the  First 
Sin  of  Adam,"  ("De  Imputatione  Primi  Peccati  Adami," 
1655,)  in  which  he  opposes  the  doctrine  that  the  sin  of 
Adam  is  imputed  to  all  his  posterity,  and  "  An  Argument 
for  the  Divinity  of  Christ,"  (1657.)    Died  in  1665. 

La  Placette,  It  plt'sgt',  (Jean,)  a  French  Protestant 
divine  and  moralist,  born  at  Pontac  in  1639.  He  emi- 
grated when  the  edict  of  Nantes  was  revoked,  in  1685, 
and  was  pastor  of  the  French  church  in  Copenhagen 
from  1686  to  1711.  Among  his  works,  which  are  highly 
esteemed,  are  "  Essays  on  Morality,"  (2d  edition,  4  vols., 
1697,)  and  "Christian  Morals  reduced  to  Three  Princi- 
pal Duties  :  the  Repentance  of  Sinners,  the  Perseverance 
of  the  Righteous,  and  Growth  in  Grace,"  (1695.)  Died 
in  1718. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  Querard,  "  La  France  Litl^raire." 

La  Planche.    See  Regnier,  (Louis.) 

Lapo,  1^'po,  a  Florentine  architect,  was  the  pupil  of 
Niccolo  de  Pisa,  and  a  friend  of  Arnolfo  di  Lapo.  Va- 
sari  represents  him  as  a  German,  (whose  proper  name 
was  Jacob  or  Jacopo,)  and  as  the  father  of  Arnolfo ;  but 
others  have  clisproved  both  of  these  statements.  He 
adorned  Florence  with  many  fine  edifices,  which  time 
has  destroyed.    Died  about  1275. 

Lapo,  (diminutive  of  Jacopo,)  an  Italian  canonist, 
born  in  Tuscany,  taught  canon  law  at  Florence  more  than 
twenty  years,  and  was  chosen  captain  or  chief  of  the 
Guelph  party.  He  gained  distinction  by  his  researches 
for  manuscripts  of  classic  authors,  and  had  the  good  for- 
tune to  find  Cicero's  oration  for  Milo  and  the  Philippics, 
which  he  sent  to  his  intimate  friend  Petrarch.  Died  in  1381. 

See  TiRABoscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Lapo  Gianni,  li'po  jSn'nee,  an  Italian  poet,  a  native 
of  Florence,  lived  about  1250. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Lapo,  di,  de  l^po,  (Arnolfo,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
architect  and  sculptor,  born  near  Florence  about  1232, 
was  the  son  of  Cambio,  and  the  pupil  of  Cimabue  in  de- 
sign. He  had  the  reputation  of  being  the  greatest  Tuscan 
architect  in  his  time.  About  1294  he  began  to  erect 
the  church  of  Santa  Croce  in  Florence.  His  greatest 
work  is  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  called  also 
the  Duomo,  or  Cathedral,  of  Florence,  which,  however, 
he  left  unfinished.  Its  noble  and  beautiful  dome  was 
the  work  of  Brunelleschi.  Among  his  master-pieces  of 
sculpture  is  the  tabernacle  of  the  basilica  of  San  Paolo, 
near  Rome.    Died  about  1300. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors." 

Lapointe,  It'pw^Nt',  (Savinien,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Sens  (Yonne)  in  1812,  was  a  shoemaker  in  his  youth. 
He  was  befriended  by  P)eranger  and  Victor  Hugo,  with 
whose  aid  he  published  a  volume  of  verses  called  "A 
Voice  from  Below,"  ("Une  Voix  d'en  bas,"  1844.)  He 
wrote  interesting  "Memoirs  of  Beranger,"  (1857.) 

Laponneraye.  iS'pon'ri',  (Albert,)  a  French  his- 
torical writer,  born  at  Tours  in  1808,  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution  from 
1789  to  1840,"  (3  vols.,  1840.)    Died  in  1849. 

Laporte  or  La  Porte,  de,  deh  It'poRt',  (Hippolyte,) 
Marquis,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1770. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Ivelina,"  (3  vols,,  1830,)  and 
"Recollections  of  an  Emigrant,"  (1843.)    Died  in  1852. 

La  Porte,  de,  (Joseph,)  Abp6,  a  French  critic  and 
compiler,  born  at  Befort  in  1713,  The  most  important 
or  popular  of  his  compilations  was  the  "  French  Trav- 
eller," ("Voyageur  Fran9ais,")  a  melange  of  romantic 
adventures  and  historical  narratives,  (42  vols,,  1765-95.) 
Died  in  1779. 

Laporte  du  Theil.    See  Dutheil  de  la  Porte. 

Lappe,  lip'peh,  (Karl,)  a  popular  German  poet,  born 
near  Wolgast  in  1774,  published  "Funereal  Garlands," 
i"  Friedhofskranze,")  and  other  works, 

Lappenberg,  lip'pen-b^RG',  (Johann  Martin,)  an 
able  German  historian,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1794.  He 
studied  in  Edinburgh,  London,  and  Berlin,  and  was  ap- 


pointed minister  to  the  court  of  Berlin  in  1820,  In  1823 
he  became  keeper  of  the  archives  of  the  senate  of  Ham- 
burg. He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  continua- 
tion of  Sartorius's  "Authentic  History  of  the  Origin 
of  the  German  Hanse  Towns,"  (1830,)  and  a  valuable 
"  History  of  England  under  the  Anglo-Saxon  Kings," 
(2  vols,,  1834-37,)  which  has  been  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Thorpe.    Died  in  1865. 

Lappoli,  lip'po-lee,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  1492.  He  worked  in  Rome  and  at 
Arezzo.    Died  in  1552. 

Laprade,  de,  deh  It'pRtd',  (Pierre  Marin  Victor 
Richard,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Montbrison  in  1812, 
is  called  a  disciple  of  Lamartine,  His  "Symphonies" 
(1856)  opened  to  him  the  doors  of  the  French  Academy 
in  1858,  and  are  praised  by  M.  Villemain, 

La  Primaudaye,  de,  deh  It  pRe^mo'da',  (Pierre,) 
a  French  writer,  born  about  1545.  Among  his  works 
was  "L'Academie  Fran^oise,"  (1577,  often  reprinted.) 

La  Quintinie.    See  Quintinie,  de  la. 

Larauza,  lt'r5'zt',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  teacher, 
born  in  Paris  in  1793.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  Pas- 
sage of  the  Alps  by  Hannibal,"  (1826.)    Died  in  1825. 

La  Ravardiere,  de,  deh  It  rt'vtR^de-aiR',  (Daniel 
DE  la  Tousche,)  Sieur,  a  French  explorer,  born  in 
Poitou  about  1570.  He  conducted  an  expedition  to 
Brazil  in  161 1,  and  planted  a  colony  on  the  island  of 
Maranham  ;  but  they  were  expelled  by  the  Portuguese  in 
1615.    Died  after  1630. 

Larcher,  ItR'sh^,  (Pierre  Henri,)  a  French  littera- 
teur and  Hellenist,  born  at  Dijon  in  1726.  After  trans- 
lating several  works  from  the  English,  he  published  in 
1767  an  able  work,  entitled  "Supplement  to  the  Phi- 
losophy of  History,"  which  was  designed  to  refute  Vol- 
taire, from  whom  it  drew  a  sarcastic  reply.  His  chief 
work  is  a  translation  of  Herodotus  into  French,  with  a 
commentary,  (1786,)  which  is  highly  prized  as  a  monu- 
ment of  learning,  but  has  no  beauty  of  style.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  third  class  of  the  Institute  or  Academy 
of  Inscriptions,    Died  in  1812, 

See  Dacier,  "filoge  de  Larcher;"  Boissonade,  "Notice  sur 
la  Vie  et  les  £crits  de  M.  Larcher,"  1813  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Lardizabal,  de,  dk  laR-de-thi-biK,  (Don  Manuel,) 
a  Spanish  minister  of  state,  born  in  Biscay  about  1750. 
In  1814  Ferdinand  VII,  appointed  him  minister  of  the 
Indies,  Soon  after  that  date  he  was  imprisoned  for  some 
unknown  reason,  and  died  in  exile  in  1823. 

Lard'n^r,  (Dionysius,)  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  scien- 
tific writer  and  editor,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1793, 
and  educated  at  Trinity  College,  He  wrote  at  college  a 
"Treatise  on  Algebraic  Geometry,"  (1823,)  His  "  Popu- 
lar Lectures  on  the  Steam  Engine"  (1828)  passed  through 
many  editions.  In  1828  he  became  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  in  the  London  University,  and  projected  the 
"Cabinet  Cyclopaedia,"  to  which  Herschel,  Jkewster, 
and  other  eminent  authors  contributed,  P'or  this  work, 
which  appeared  in  134  volumes,  (1830-44,)  Dr.  Lardner 
wrote  the  treatises  on  hydrostatics,  pneumatics,  geome- 
try, etc.  Between  1840  and  1845  '^e  delivered  in  the 
chief  cities  of  the  United  vStates  scientific  lectures,  which 
were  published,  and  favourably  received.  He  became 
a  resident  of  Paris  in  1845,  after  which  he  published 
hand-books  of  natural  philosophy,  astronomy,  and  other 
sciences.    Died  in  1859, 

Lardner,  (Naitianiel,)  D.D.,  an  English  theologian 
of  great  merit,  was  born  in  Kent  in  1684,  He  studied 
at  Utrecht  and  Leyden,  and  became  a  dissenting  minis- 
ter. From  1 7 13  to  1729  he  was  chaplain  in  the  family 
of  Lady  Treby,  He  began  to  preach  to  the  Presbyterian 
congregation  of  Old  Jewry,  London,  in  1723,  In  1727 
he  published  the  first  part  of  his  "Credibility  of  the 
Gospel  History,"  a  work  of  profound  reasoning  and 
research,  and  one  of  the  most  successful  arguments  in 
defence  of  Christianity  ever  given  to  the  world.  Re- 
ferring to  this  work.  Sir  James  Mackintosh  remarks  that 
it  "soon  wearies  out  the  greater  part  of  readers,  though 
the  few  who  are  more  patient  have  almost  always  been 
gradually  won  over  to  feel  pleasure  in  a  display  of  know- 
ledge, probity,  charity,  and  meekness  unmatched  by  an 
avowed  advocate  in  a  case  deeply  interesting  his  warmest 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  Yi^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


374  LAROON 


\  LA  RENAUDIERE 


feelings."  (See  his  remarks  on  Paley  in  the  "View  of 
the  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy.")  Between  1733 
and  1743  he  produced  five  more  volumes  of  the  same 
work.  He  was  the  author  of  other  treatises,  one  of 
which  ("Letter  on  the  Logos,"  or  "Word")  advocates 
Socinian  doctrines.    Died  in  1768. 

See  KiPPis,  "  Life  of  N.  Lardner,"  prefixed  to  his  complete  Works, 
11  vols.,  1788;  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  the  Rev.  N.  Lardner," 
London,  1769. 

La  Renaudiere,  de,  deh  It  r?h'no'de-aiR',  (Philippe 
FRANgois,)  a  French  geographer,  born  at  Vire,  in  Nor- 
mandy, in  1 781,  was  associated  with  Malte-Brun  as  editor 
of  the  "  Annales  des  Voyages,"  (54  vols.,  1826-39.)  He 
published  several  geographical  works.    Died  in  1845. 

Larentia.    See  Acca  Laurentia. 

La^res,  a  name  applied  to  genii,  or  inferior  gods  of 
human  origin,  worshipped  by  the  ancient  Romans.  The 
Lares  were  believed  to  preside  over  houses  and  families, 
and  were  divided  into  several  classes,  as  Lares  domestici. 
Lares  publici,  Lares  urbani,  etc.  They  were  supposed 
to  be  the  spirits  of  good  men  who  had  died,  and  were 
partly  identified  with  the  Manes.    (See  Manes.) 

Lareveillere-Lepaux  or  Larevelliere-Lepeaux, 
de,  deh  Wrk'\\Vye^\v/  l^'po',  a  French  republican, 
born  at  Mortagne  in  1753.  He  was  deputed  to  the  Con- 
vention in  1792,  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king,  and 
defended  the  proscribed  Girondists  in  1793,  for  which  be 
was  doomed  to  die,  but  escaped  by  concealing  himself 
In  1795  he  resumed  his  place  in  the  Convention,  where 
he  acquired  the  reputation  of  an  effective  speaker,  and 
in  October  of  that  year  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Executive  Directory.  He  presided  over  the  department 
of  science,  morals,  and  religion,  and  showed  his  hostility 
to  the  Catholics,  who  stigmatized  him  as  a  fanatic  and 
"theophilanthropist."  He  acted  with  Barras  and  the 
majority  of  the  Directors  in  the  cot{p  d'etat  of  the  i8th 
Fructidor,  (September,  1797.)  The  Directors  became 
divided  into  two  parties,  in  which  Lepaux  was  opposed 
to  Barras,  and,  finding  himself  in  a  minority,  he  re- 
signed in  June,  1799.    Died  in  1824. 

See,  also,  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  "  Nou- 
Velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lareveillere-Lepeaux,  (Ossian,)  a  French  littera- 
teur, a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1797. 
He  wrote  important  articles  for  the  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Largilliere,  ItR^zhe^ye-aiR',  (Nicolas,)  a  skilful 
French  painter  of  portraits  and  history,  born  in  Paris  in 
1656,  was  called  "the  French  Van  Dyck."  He  worked 
some  years  in  London,  where  he  painted  portraits  of 
James  H.  and  his  queen.  In  1686  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Paris.  He  surpassed  all  his 
French  rivals  in  portraits  except  Rigaud,  worked  with 
great  facility,  and  was  a  good  colorist.  Among  his  works 
are  portraits  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Charles  Lebrun,  Died 
in  1746. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres  :"  Horace  Wal- 
POLE,  "  Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

La  Riboisiere  or  Lariboisiere,  de,  deh  It're'bwi'- 
ze-aiR',  (Jean  Ambroise  Baston,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Fougeres  in  1759.  He  became  a  general  of  di- 
vision in  1807,  and  directed  the  artillery  with  skill  at 
Eylau,  Dantzic,  and  Friedland.    Died  in  1813. 

La  Rive,  de,  deh  It  rfev,  (Auguste,)  a  Swiss  natural 
philosopher,  born  at  Geneva  in  1790,  was  a  son  of  the 
following.  He  became  professor  of  physics  in  his  native 
city,  and  wrote  many  treatises  on  electricity,  the  voltaic 
pile,  etc. 

La  Rive  or  Larive,  de,  (Charles  Gaspard,)  a  Swiss 
chemist  and  physician,  born  at  Geneva  in  1770.  He  gave 
special  attention  to  voltaic  electricity,  and  about  1820 
constructed  a  pile  of  five  hundred  pairs.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  to  demonstrate  the  action  of  the  electric 
current  on  the  magnetic  needle.    Died  in  1834. 

Larive  or  La  Rive,  de,  deh  It  r^v,  (Jean  Mauduit 
— mo'dli-e',)  a  popular  French  tragedian,  born  at  La  Ro- 
chelle  about  1746.  He  made  his  debut  in  Paris  in  1770, 
and  for  many  years  was  a  prime  favourite.  His  voice  and 
gestures  were  admirable.  No  actor  of  his  time  possessed 
in  such  perfection  the  tone  of  command,  of  disdain,  of 
irony,  and  of  menace.  He  performed  "  Achilles,"  "  Spar- 


tacus,"  "  Philoctetes,"  "Bayard,"  and  "William  Tell" 
with  great  success.  He  was  imprisoned  more  than  a 
year  by  the  Jacobins  in  1793-94.    Died  in  1827. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 
^  Larivey,  de,  deh  It're'v^',  (Pierre,)  a  French  drama- 
tist, born  at  Troyes  about  1550.  He  published  in  1579 
the  "Laquais,"  and  other  comedies,  which  in  humour 
are  compared  to  those  of  Moliere.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  in  France  who  chose  subjects  for  comedy  from  real 
life,  and  the  first  Frenchman  who  wrote  original  dramas 
in  prose.    Died  about  16 12. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

La  Riviere.    See  Riviere. 

Lariviere,  It're've-aiR',  (Charles  Philippe,)  a 
French  historical  painter,  born  in  Paris  about  1802.  He 
obtained  the  grand  prize  in  1824,  and  a  medal  of  the  first 
class  at  the  Exposition  of  1855.  Among  his  works  is 
"Bayard  wounded  at  Brescia,"  (about  1838.) 

Lariviere  or  La  Riviere,  de,  deh  It'reVe-aiR', 
(Pierre  Joachim  Henri,)  a  French  lawyer  and  orator 
of  the  Girondist  party,  was  born  at  Falaise  in  1761.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  struggle  which  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the 
Girondists  in  May,  1793.  He  found  refuge  in  Calvados, 
and  resumed  his  seat  in  1795.    Died  in  1838. 

Larmessin,  ItR'ma'sdN',  (Nicolas,)  a  skilful  French 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  about  1640,  produced  numerous 
portraits  of  illustrious  men.  His  son,  Nicolas,  born  in 
1683,  surpassed  his  father  in  the  same  art.  He  engraved 
portraits  and  history  with  equal  success,  and  received 
the  title  of  engraver  to  the  king.    Died  in  1755. 

Larnac,  ItR'ntk',  (Franqois,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Nimes  in  1760 ;  died  in  1840. 

Lar'ned,  (Rev.  Sylvester,)  an  American  Presbyte- 
rian divine,  born  at  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1796.  He 
studied  theology  at  Princeton,  and  soon  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator.  He  subsequently  became 
pastor  of  a  church  at  New  Orleans,  where  he  died  during 
the  prevalence  of  the  yellow  fever  in  1820.  A  collection 
of  his  sermons  was  published  in  1844. 

Laroche  or  La  Roche,  It'rosh',  (Benjamin,)  a 
French  poet  and  translator,  born  in  1797,  produced  good 
translations  of  "  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  Shakspeare's 
works,  (6  vols.,)  Byron's  complete  works,  (4  vols.,)  and 
the  complete  works  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  He  wrote  a 
poem  called  "The  Funeral  of  Liberty,"  (1820.)  Died 
in  1852. 

Laroche,  It'rosh',  (Marie  Sophie,)  a  German  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  born  at  Kaufbeuren  in  1731,  was  the 
author  of  "Moral  Tales,"  "Rosalie's  Letters,"  and  sev- 
eral popular  romances.    Died  in  1807. 

Laroche  du  Maine.  See  Luchet,  (Jean  Pierre 
Louis.) 

La  Rochefoucauld.    See  Rochefoucauld. 

Larochejacquelin.    See  Rochejaquelein. 

La  Rochejaquelein.    See  Rochejaquelein. 

Laromiguiere,  It'ro'me'ge^iR',  (Pierre,)  an  eminent 
French  metaphysical  philosopher,  born  in  Rouergue 
(now  Aveyron)  in  November,  1756.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Toulouse  in  1784.  Having 
removed  to  Paris,  he  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in 
1796.  As  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  Faculty  of 
Letters,  he  delivered,  in  1811  and  1812,  a  series  of  lec- 
tures which  were  attended  and  admired  by  the  elite  of 
the  capital.  He  retained  the  title  of  professor  after  1812, 
but  ceased  to  lecture,  and  published  in  1815  "Lectures 
on  Intellectual  Philosophy,  or  on  the  Cause  and  Origin 
of  our  Ideas,"  ("Le9ons  de  Philosophic  sur  les  Principes 
de  rintelligence,  ou  sur  les  Causes  et  sur  les  Origines 
de  nos  Idees,"  2  vols.)  This  work  was  adopted  by  the 
government  as  a  text-book  for  public  instruction.  Died 
in  August,  1837.  "  He  left  a  fair  and  pure  renown,"  says 
M.  Cousin,  who  delivered  an  oration  at  his  funeral. 

See  Daunou,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Laromi- 
guiere," 1839;  MiGNET,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits 
de  Laromiguiere,"  1856;  Valette,  "Laromiguiere  et  I'ficlectisme," 
1842  ;  article  by  C.  Mallet  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Laroon,  li-ron',  (Marcellus,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  the  Hague  in  1653,  was  skilful  in  copying  the  wo'-ks 
of  great  masters.  He  worked  some  years  in  England. 
Died  in  1705. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ia,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fJr,  fill,  fit;  mht;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


\ 


LARRA 


375 


LA  SALLE 


Larra,  de,  di  lir'rS,  (Don  Mariano  Jos^,)  a  popular 
and  witty  Spanish  author,  born  at  Madrid  in  1809.  He 
had  no  profession  except  literature.  In  1832  he  pub- 
lished a  satirical  journal,  "El  Pobrecito  Hablador," 
which  was  suppressed  after  the  appearance  of  the  four- 
teenth number,  and  a  few  years  later,  as  chief  editor  of 
the  "Spanish  Review,"  ("  Revista  Espanola,")  produced, 
under  the  signature  of  "  Figaro,"  able  articles  on  Span- 
ish politics,  manners,  literature,  etc.  He  published 
Macias,"  and  other  dramas.  All  his  works  bear  the 
decided  stamp  of  the  Spanish  national  character.  He 
committed  suicide  in  1837,  before  which  he  had  been 
subject  to  deep  melancholy. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Larramendi,  llr-ra-m§n'dee,  (Manuel,)  a  Spanish 
philologist,  born  in  Guipuzcoa.  He  wrote  on  the  Basque 
language.    Died  in  1750. 

Larrey,  It'ri',  (Claude  FRANgois  Hilaire,)  a  French 
physician  and  writer,  born  in  1774,  was  a  brother  of 
Dominique  Jean,  noticed  below.  He  practised  at  Nimes. 
Died  in  1819. 

Larrey,  (Dominique  Jean,)  Baron,  a  French  surgeon 
of  great  merit,  born  near  Bagneres-de-Bigorre  (Haut- 
Pyrenees)  in  1766.  Having  served  -a  short  time  in  the 
navy,  he  entered  the  land-army  about  1792,  and  rendered 
important  services  by  the  invention  of  the  ambulances 
volajites,  (flying  hospital.)  He  accompanied  Bonaparte 
to  Egypt  in  1798,  and  published  a  "Historical  and  Sur- 
gical Account  of  the  Expedition  to  the  East,"  (1803.) 
He  received  the  title  of  baron  about  1810,  and  became 
surgeon-in-chief  of  the  grand  army  in  1812.  At  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  in  181 5,  he  was  wounded  and  taken 
prisoner.  Under  the  restoration  he  was  chief  surgeon 
of  the  royal  guards  and  of  the  Hotel  des  Invalides  until 
he  resigned  in  1836.  He  died  in  1842,  leaving  a  high 
reputation  for  virtue  and  talents.  He  had  published 
"IVIemoirsof  Medicine  and  Military  Surgery,"  (1812-18,) 
"Collection  of  Treatises  on  Surgery,"  ("  Recueil  de  Me- 
moires  de  Chirurgie,"  1821,)  and  other  excellent  works. 
Bonaparte  in  his  will  mentions  Larrey  as  "the  most 
virtuous  man  I  have  ever  known." 

See  Louis  de  Lom^nie,  "Le  Baron  Larrey,  par  un  Homme  de 
Rien,"  1840;  J.  Saint-Amour,  "Notice  necrologique  siir  D.  J. 
Larrey,"  1844;  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  "Biographic 
Medicale  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  March,  1819. 

Larrey,  (F^lix  Hippolyte,)  a  French  surgeon  and 
writer,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  vi'as  born  about  1810.  He 
became  surgeon-ordinary  to  Napoleon  HI.,  and  in  1858 
medecin-inspectetir  of  the  army. 

Larrey,  de,  deh  W'x\',  (Isaac,)  a  French  Protestant 
historian,  born  at  Montivilliers  in  1638.  Having  become 
an  exile  for  the  sake  of  religion,  he  took  up  his  residence 
in  Berlin,  and  was  appointed  an  aulic  councillor  by  the 
Elector.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History 
of  Augustus,"  (1690,)  a  "History  of  England,"  (1697- 
1713,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Seven  Sages  of  Greece," 
(1713-16,)  which  were  favourably  received.  Died  in 
Berlin  in  1719. 

Larrivee,  It're'vi',  (Henri,)  a  celebrated  French 
operatic  performer  and  singer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1733. 
He  made  his  debut  in  Paris  in  1755,  maintained 
his  reputation  in  the  opera  for  thirty  years.  Died  in 
1802. 

Larroque,  IS^rok',  (Daniel,)  born  at  Vitre  in  1660, 
became  a  Catholic,  and  lived  in  Paris,  where  he  was  a 
clerk  in  the  bureaus  of  De  Torcy,  secretary  of  state. 
He  displayed  literary  talents  in  several  works,  among 
which  are  "The  Proselyte  Abused,"  (1684,)  and  the  "Life 
of  Mezeray."    Died  in  173 1. 

Larroque,  de,  deh  IS'rok',  (Mathieu,)  an  eminent 
French  Protestant  theologian,  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Lairac,  near  Agen,  in  1619.  He  was  pastor 
of  the  church  of  Vitre  from  1643  to  1669,  after  which  he 
preached  at  Rouen.  His  "History  of  the  Eucharist" 
(1669)  was  highly  esteemed.  He  wrote  several  other 
works.    Died  in  1684. 

See  "  Life  of  M.  Larroque,"  by  his  son,  prefixed  to  his  "Adver- 
saria Sacra,"  1688;  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Larruga,  ISr-roo'gJ,  (Don  Eugenio,)  a  Spanish  writer 
on  political  economy,  commenced  a  work  entitled  "  Po- 


litical and  Economical  Memoirs  on  the  Industry,  Mines, 
and  other  Resources  of  Spain."  Forty-eight  volumes 
had  been  issued  at  his  death,  in  1804. 

La  Rue  or  Larue,  de,  deh  iS^rii',  [Lat.  Ru/e'us,] 
(Charles,)  a  French  poet  and  eloquent  preacher,  born 
in  Paris  in  1643.  He  composed,  in  Latin,  tragedies  and 
other  poems,  one  of  which,  on  the  victories  of  Louis 
XIV.,  was  translated  into  French  by  P.  Corneille,  (1667.) 
His  Sermons  were  published  in  4  vols.,  1719.  His 
tragedy  of  "  Sylla"  is  commended.  He  prepared  an 
edition  of  Virgil  "in  usum  Delphini,"  (1675,)  often  re- 
printed.   Died  in  1725. 

La  Rue,  It  rii,  [Lat.  Ruve'us,]  (FRANgois,)  a  Flemish 
naturalist,  born  at  Lille  about  1520 ;  died  in  1585. 

La  Rue,  It  rii,  (Pierre,)  a  Dutch  poet  and  biographer, 
born  at  Middelburg  in  1695. 

Larue,  de,  (Gervais.)    See  Delarue. 

La  Sabliere.    See  Sabli^re,  de  la. 

La  Sabliere,  de,  deh  It  st'ble-aiR',  (Antoine  de 
Rambouillet,)  Sieur,  a  French^oet  and  financier, 
born  in  Paris  in  1624;  died  in  1679. 

Lasagni,  l^-sin'yee,  (Bartolommeo  Vincenzo  Giu- 
seppe,) an  Italian  jurist,  born  at  Rome  in  1773.  He  was 
a  judge  or  counsellor  in  the  French  court  of  cassation 
in  Paris  from  1810  to  1850.    Died  in  1857. 

La  Sale  or  La  Salle,  de,  deh  li  sfl,  (Antoine,)  a 
French  writer,  born  about  1398.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  satire  entitled  "  Les  quinze  Joyes  de  Mariage," 
("The  Fifteen  Comforts  of  Matrimony,")  which  was  often 
reprinted.    Died  after  1461. 

La  Sale,  de,  (Robert  Cavelier.)    See  La  Salle. 

Lasalle  or  La  Salle,  de,  deh  It  stl,  (Antoine,)  a 
French  metaphysician,  born  in  Paris  in  1754,  published 
"The  Natural  Balance,"  (1788,)  and  "  Moral  Mechanics," 
(2  vols.,  1789.)  He  translated  the  works  of  Lord  Bacon 
into  French,  (15  vols.,  1800.)    Died  in  1829. 

Lasalle,  de,  (Antoine  Charles  Louis  Collinet,) 
Count,  a  French  officer,  born  at  Metz  in  1775,  served 
in  several  campaigns  in  Italy.  In  1798  he  followed 
Bonaparte  to  Egypt,  where  he  gave  proof  of  courage 
at  the  Pyramids  and  Thebes.  As  general  of  brigade, 
he  contributed  to  the  victories  of  Austerlitz  (1805)  and 
Jena,  (1806.)  At  the  end  of  1806  he  was  made  general  of 
division.  In  the  second  Austrian  war  he  commanded 
the  cavalry  of  the  advanced  guard  at  Raab,  Essling,  and 
finally  at  Wagram,  where  he  was  killed  in  July,  1809. 

See  E.  A.  Begin,  "Vie  militaire  du  Comte  de  Lasalle,"  1830; 
PiGAUi.T- Lebrun,  "  filoge  historique  du  General  de  Lasalle," 
1852  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

La  Salle  or  La  Sale,  de,  (Robert  Cavelier — ktv'- 
le-i',)an  enterprising  Frenchman,  who  has  rendered  his 
name  memorable  by  his  exploration  of  the  Valley  of  the 
Mississippi,  was  born  at  Rouen  about  1635.  He  emigrated 
to  Canada  in  1667,  and  engaged  in  the  fur-trade,  making 
long  excursions  among  the  native  tribes.  In  1675  he  was 
appointed  by  Colbert  governor  of  Fort  Frontenac,  and 
was  encouraged  to  pursue  discoveries  which  his  own 
ambition  or  enterprising  spirit  had  suggested.  Having 
built  a  vessel  on  Lake  Erie,  he  began  his  voyage  in 
August,  1679,  and  passed  through  Lakes  Huron  and 
Michigan.  He  built  a  fort  at  Peoria,  Illinois,  and,  as  his 
vessel  had  been  wrecked,  returned  by  land  to  Frontenac 
in  1680.  In  1682  he  renewed  the  enterprise  with  a  nume- 
rous party,  and  descended  the  Mississippi  in  canoes  from 
the  Illinois  River  to  its  mouth,  where  he  arrived  in  April, 
1682.  The  part  of  this  river  below  the  Arkansas  had  never 
before  been  explored  by  a  European.  In  1683  he  went 
to  France,  and,  having  obtained  a  commission  to  plan', 
a  colony  in  Louisiana,  undertook  a  voyage  to  that  region 
by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  in  1684,  but  failed  to  find  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  landed  in  Texas,  There 
he  encountered  great  difficulties,  and  at  last  was  mur 
dered  by  his  own  mutinous  crew,  in  March,  1687.  "  His 
capacity  for  large  designs,"  says  Professor  Jared  Sparks, 
"  and  for  procuring  the  resources  to  carry  them  forward, 
has  few  parallels  among  the  most  eminent  discoverers. 
To  him  must  be  mainly  ascribed  the  discovery  of  the 
vast  regions  of  the  Mississippi  Valley." 

See  "Memoir  of  La  Salle,"  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography," 
vol.  i.,  2d  series;  "Journal  historique  du  dernier  Voyage  de  _  La 
Salle,"  par  Michel,  1723;  Hildreth,  "History  of  the  United 
States,"  vol.  ii.  chap,  xviii.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LA SJNTE 


,376 


LASOURCE 


La  Sante  or  Lasante,  de,  deh  It  s8Nt,  (Gilles 
Anne  Xavier,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  Latin  poet,  born 
in  Bretagne  in  1684,  taught  belles-lettres  in  Paris,  and 
numbered  Turgot  among  his  pupils.    Died  in  1762. 

Lasaulx,  von,  ton  lt's5',  (Ernst,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist and  writer  of  classic  antiquities,  was  born  at 
Coblentz  in  1805.  He  became  professor  of  philology 
at  Munich  in  1844,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  On 
the  Oracle  of  Dodona,"  (1841,)  "On  the  Myth  of  Pro- 
metheus," (1843,)  "  Studies  on  Classical  Antiquity," 
(1854.)    Died  in  1861. 

La  Saiissaye,  de,  deh  It  so'sV,  (Jean  FRANgois  de 
Paulk  Louis  Peiit,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Blois 
in  1801.  His  "  Numismatics  of  Narbonese  Gaul"("Nu- 
mismatique  de  Gaule  Narbonnaise,"  1842)  opened  to  him 
the  Acatlemy  of  Inscriptions. 

Lasca,  las'ka,  (Antonio  Francesco  Grazzini,)  an 
Italian  ])oet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Florence  in  1503.  In 
1540  he  founded  the  Florentine  Academy,  and  assumed 
the  name  of  Lasca,  ("  Mullet.")  He  afterwards  conceived 
the  idea  of  a  new  Academy,  called  Delia  Crusca,  the  aim 
of  which  should  be  to  perfect  the  Tuscan  language.  His 
most  famous  work  is  a  collection  of  tales,  entitled  "The 
First  and  Second  Supper,"  ("  La  prima  e  la  seconda 
Cena.")  He  also  composed  sonnets,  satirical  poems,  and 
"Gelosia"  and  other  comedies  in  prose.  His  works  are 
recognized  as  authorities  ( testi  di  lingua )  by  the  Academy 
Delia  Crusca.    Died  in  1583. 

See  GiNGUEN^,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

La.scaris  or  Lascari.    See  Carburis,  (Marino.) 

Lascaris,  ISs^kS-r^s,  (Agostino,)  Marquis  of  Vinti- 
miglia,  an  Italian  general  and  agriculturist,  born  at  Turin 
in  1776.  He  wrote  several  treatises  on  agriculture.  Died 
in  1838. 

Las'ca-ris,  (Andreas  Johannes,)  surnamed  Rhyn- 
DACENUS,  a  noble  Greek  scholar.  About  1454  he  went 
as  a  fugitive  to  the  court  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  by  whom 
he  was  patronized.  In  or  before  1495  he  removed  to 
Paris,  where  he  taught  Greek  to  Budaeus  and  others. 
Leo  X.  placed  him  at  the  head  of  a  Greek  college  in 
Rome  about  1508.  Between  15 18  and  1534  he  resided 
chiefly  in  Paris  or  Venice,  whither  Francis  1.  sent  him 
as  ambassador.  He  edited  "The  Greek  Anthology," 
(1494,)  "Commentaries  on  Sophocles,"  (1518,)  and  other 
Greek  works.    Died  in  1535. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Paolo  Giovio, 
"  Elogia  Virorum  ilkistrium." 

Lascaris,  (Constantine,)  a  Greek  scholar,  who 
contributed  much  to  the  revival  of  learning,  was  a  de- 
scendant of  the  royal  family  of  Constantinople.  After 
the  conquest  of  that  city  by  the  Turks,  he  took  refuge  in 
Italy,  (1454,)  and  was  employed  by  the  DuUe  of  Milan 
to  give  lessons  in  Greek  to  his  daughter  Ippolita.  He 
afterwards  taught  Greek  at  Rome,  Naples,  and  Messina, 
where  he  died  about  1494.  His  Greek  Grammar  (1476) 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  work  printed  in  Greek 
characters. 

See  HoDius,  "  De  Grascis  illustribus;"  Villemain,  "Lascaris, 
on  les  Grecs  du  quinzieme  Siecle,"  1825. 

Lascaris,  Its'kt'r^ss',  (Paul  Louis,)  a  French  trav- 
eller, born  in  Provence  in  1774.  In  the  service  of  Bona- 
parte, he  traversed  Syria  and  Asiatic  Turkey  between 
1803  and  1814  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  the  friendship 
of  the  Bedouins  and  preparing  the  way  for  an  expedi- 
tion to  India.  He  died  at  Cairo  in  1815,  leaving  notes, 
which  were  published  by  Lamartine. 

Lascaris,  (Theodore  I.,)  a  Greek  emperor,  eminent 
for  political  and  military  talents,  born  about  1175.  He 
married  about  1200  the  daughter  of  Alexis  III.,  who 
had  usurped  the  throne  of  his  brother  Isaac.  After  a 
brave  resistance  to  the  crusaders,  who  took  Constanti- 
nople in  1204,  he  was  elected  emperor  and  made  himself 
master  of  Bithynia.  He  was  crowned  as  emperor  at 
Nicaea  in  1206.  He  waged  war  for  several  years  against 
the  French  or  Latins,  and  defeated  Alexis  (above  named) 
near  Antioch  in  12 10.  He  died  in  1222,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son-in-law,  John  Ducas  Vatatzes. 

Lascaris,  (Theodore  II.,)  the  son  of  John  Ducas, 
became  Emperor  of  Nicasa  in  1255.  He  waged  a  suc- 
cessful war  against  the  Bulgarians.    He  died  in  1259, 


leaving  an  infant  son,  John,  whose  throne  was  usurped 
by  Michael  Palaeologus. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Mi- 
ch aud,  "  History  of  the  Crusades;"  Le  Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas- 
Enipire. " 

Las  Casas.    See  Casas,  de  las. 

Las  Cases,  de,  deh  ISs  kSz,  (Emmanuel  Augustin 
DiEUDONNE  Marin  Joseph,)  Marquis,  a  French  officer, 
distinguished  as  a  companion  of  Bonaparte  at  Saint 
Helena,  was  born  near  Revel,  in  Languedoc,  in  1766. 
He  served  some  years  in  the  navy,  emigrated  in  1789, 
fought  f(3r  the  royal  cause  at  Quiberon,  and  returned  to 
France  in  1800.  He  became  chamberlain  to  Bonajxu'te 
in  1810,  and  followed  him  into  exile  in  1815.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1816,  he  was  sent  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where 
he  was  imprisoned  several  months,  after  which  he  was 
taken  to  Europe.  He  had  kept  a  journal  of  Napoleon's 
conversation,  which  he  published,  under  the  title  of  "  Me- 
morial of  Saint  Helena,"  (8  vols.,  1822-23.)  Died  in  1842. 

See_  "  Memoires  d'E.  A.  D.  Comte  de  Las  Cases,  communiques 
par  hii-meme,"  etc.,  1819;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;" 
"Monthly  Review"  tor  March  and  May,  1823. 

Las  Cases,  de,  (Emmanuel  Pons  Dieudonn^;,)  a 
soi\  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Finisterre  in  1800.  He 
fought  for  the  popular  cause  in  Paris  in  July,  1830,  and 
sat  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1830  to  1848.  He 
became  a  senator  in  1852. 

Lasco  or  Laski    See  A  Lasco. 

Las'gy,  (or  La'cy,)  de,  (Peter,)  Count,  an  Irish 
general,  father  of  the  following,  was  born  in  Limerick 
in  1678.  Having  entered  the  Russian  service,  he  was 
rapidly  promoted,  and  in  1709  commanded  the  left  wing 
at  Pultowa.  The  Czar  Peter  appointed  him  general-in- 
chief  of  the  infantry  about  1722.  In  1734  he  commanded 
an  army  against  the  Poles  under  Stanislas,  and  obtained 
the  rank  of  field-marshal.  He  gained  an  important 
victory  over  the  Swedes  at  Helsingfors  in  1742.  Died 
in  1751. 

Lascy  or  Lacy,  von,  fon  lls'see,  (Joseph  Francis 
Maurice,)  Count,  a  general  in  the  Austrian  army,  born 
in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1725.  Having  saved  the  army  at 
Lowositz  in  1756,  he  was  promoted  from  the  rank  of 
colonel  to  that  of  general.  For  his  services  at  Hoch- 
kirchen,  in  1758,  he  was  made  general  of  artillery.  He 
received  from  Maria  Theresa  a  marshal's  baton  in  1762. 
After  the  peace  he  entered  the  aulic  council,  and  dis- 
played much  ability  as  minister  of  war.    Died  in  1801. 

See  "Huldigung  dargebracht  der  Wahrheit  und  den  Manen  des 
Grafen  von  Lascy,"  jSoi. 

La  Sena,  IS  sa^n^,  or  La  Seine,  It  s|n,  (Pietro,) 
also  written  Lascena,  an  Italian  philologist,  born  in 
Naples  in  1590,  practised  law  in  that  city.  He  wrote 
"  Homeri  Nepenthes,  sen  de  Abolendo  Luctu  Liber," 
(1621,)  and  several  treatises  on  philology.    Died  in  163d 

See  BuccARDi,  "Vita  P.  La  Sens,"  1637. 

Laserna.    See  Santander. 

Lasinio,  ll-see'ne-o,  (Carlo,)  Count,  an  able  Italian 
engraver,  born  at  Treviso  about  1765.  fie  engraved 
numerous  works  of  early  Italian  masters.  Among  his 
plates  is  a  collection  called  "  Etruria  pittrice."  Died 
about  1837. 

His  son,  Giovanni  Paolo,  was  an  engraver  at  Flor- 
ence. 

Lasius,  li'ze-us,  (Lorenz  Otto,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Ruden  in  1675;  died  in  1751. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Lebensbeschreibung,"  1730. 

Lasne,  lin,  (Michel,)  a  French  designer  and  engraver, 
born  at  Caen  in  1596,  engraved  chiefly  after  Italian  mas- 
ters.   Died  in  1667. 

Lasnier,  li'ne-i',  (R6mi,)  a  French  surgeon  and 
celebrated  oculist,  practised  in  Paris.  He  was  very 
successful  in  the  treatment  of  cataract.    Died  in  1690. 

Laso,  (Garcias.)    See  Garcilaso.  1 

Lasource,  It'sooRss',  (  Marie  David  Albin,  )  a 
French  Girondist  revolutionist,  born  near  Montpellier 
in  1762.  As  a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1792,  he' 
strove  to  establish  order  in  the  republic.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  members  of  the  committee  of  public  safety. 
He  attacked  Robespierre  in  a  speech  in  April,  1793, 
was  arrested  about  June  I,  and  executed  with  the  other 
Girondist  chiefs  in  October  of  that  year. 


5,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  xi,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f2.ll,  QX\  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LASPHRISE 


LJTHROP 


Lasphrise,  de,  deh  Wi^kz',  (  Marc  de  Papillon — 

pt'pe'y^N',)  Seigneur,  a  French  poet,  born  at  Aniboise 
in  1555,  composed  many  admired  sonnets,  songs,  elegies, 
and  epitaphs.    He  was  living  in  1599. 

Lassaigne,  iS'san'',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  chemist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1800.  He  became  professor  of  chem- 
istry or  pharmacy  at  Alfort  in  1828.  Among  his  dis- 
coveries were  delphine,  cathartine,  and  phosphoric  ether. 
He  published  an  "  Elementary  Treatise  on  Organic  and 
Inorganic  Chemistry,"  (2  vols.,  1829.)    Died  in  1859. 

Lassala,  ISs-si^ia,  or  Lasala,  (Manuel,)  a  Spanish 
historian  and  poet,  born  at  Valencia  in  1729.  He  be- 
came a  Jesuit,  and  as  such  was  banished  in  1767,  after 
■which  he  lived  at  Bologna.  He  published  an  "Essay 
on  Ancient  and  Modern  History,"  (3  vols.,  1755.)  Died 
in  1798. 

Lassay,  de,  deh  iS'sa',  (Armand  L6on  de  Madail- 
LAN  de  Lesparre,)  Marquis,  a  French  officer,  distin- 
guished for  his  gallantry  and  talents,  was  born  in  1652. 
He  was  intimate  with  Fontenelle  and  Voltaire.  He  died 
in  1738,  leaving  a  volume  entitled  "  Recueil  de  differentes 
Choses,"  or  "Memoirs  of  the  Marquis  de  Lassay." 

See  Paulin  Paris,  "  Le  Marquis  de  Lassay  et  I'Hotel  de  Las- 
say," 1848;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  ix. 

Las'sels,  (Richard,)  born  in  Yorkshire,  England,  in 
1603,  was  converted  to  the  Roman  Catholic  religion. 
He  wrote  "Travels  in  Italy,"  (2  vols.,  1670.)  Died  at 
Montpellier  in  1668. 

Lassen,  IJs'sen,  (Christian,)  a  Norwegian  scholar, 
distinguished  for  his  profound  knowledge  of  the  Ori- 
ental languages  and  Indian  antiquities,  was  born  at  Ber- 
gen in  1800.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg  and  at  Bonn, 
where  in  1840  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  ancient 
Indian  language  and  literature.  He  rendered  most  im- 
portant services  to  philology  by  his  excellent  editions  of 
standard  works  in  Sanscrit,  and  published  "Contribu- 
tions to  the  History  of  the  Greek  and  Indo-Scythian 
Kings  in  Bactria,  Cabool,  and  India,"  "Indian  Antiqui- 
ties," (2  vols.,  1844-52,)  and  "The  Old  Persian  Inscrip- 
tions in  the  Arrow-Headed  Characters,"  which  he  was 
the  first  to  decipher  and  explain.  His  "  Institutiones 
Linguae  Pracriticse"  (1837)  is  esteemed  the  best  work 
that  has  appeared  on  the  subject  of  the  ancient  popular 
dialects  of  India. 

See"Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  October,  1837. 

Lassis,  It's^ss',  (N.,)  a  French  physician  and  writer, 
born  at  Chatillon-sur-Loing  in  1772,  devoted  his  atten- 
tion chiefly  to  the  subject  of  contagion.  He  practised 
in  the  army  in  1812  and  1813,  during  the  prevalence  of 
the  typhus  fever.    Died  in  1835. 

Lasso,  di,  de  lis'so,  (Orlando,)  [Lat.  Orlan'dus 
Las'sus,]  sometimes  called  Roland  de  Lattre,  (deh 
IttR,)  a  famous  musical  composer,  born  at  Mons,  in  Flan- 
ders, in  1520.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  taken  to  Italy 
by  Gonzago,  Viceroy  of  Sicily.  After  passing  a  few  years 
in  Rome  and  Antwerp,  he  was  invited  by  the  Duke  of 
Bavaria  to  Munich,  whither  he  went  in  1557  and  became 
viaitre-de-chapelle.  He  vias  invited  to  Paris  by  Charles 
IX.  in  1574;  but  that  king  died  before  the  arrival  of 
Lasso.  By  the  number,  originality,  and  richness  of  his 
compositions  he  acquired  a  higher  rank  than  any  com- 
poser of  his  time  except  Palestrina.  Among  his  works 
are  masses,  motets,  magnificats,  songs,  and  other  music. 
Died  about  1595. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;"  Delmotte, 
"Notice  sur  R.  Delattre,"  1836;  Mathieu,  "Roland  de  Lattre," 
1838  ;  HuRNEY,  "  History  of  Music  ;"  F.  C.  KiST,  "  Levensgeschie- 
c'enis  van  O.  de  Lassus,"  1841. 

Lasso  or  Lassus,  von,  fon  lls'sus,  (Rudolf,)  a  mu- 
sician, born  at  Munich,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  organist  to  the  Duke  of  Bavaria.    Died  in  1625. 

Lassone,  It'son^  (Joseph  Marie  FRANgois,)  a 
French  physician,  born  at  Carpentras  in  1 717.  Having 
practised  with  success  in  Paris  for  many  years,  he  became 
physician  to  the  queen  in  1751.  After  her  death  he  was 
appointed  first  physician  to  Louis  XVI.  He  wrote 
treatises  on  medicine  and  chemistry,  which  were  inserted 
in  the  collections  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Died  in 
1788. 

See  F^Lix  Vicq  d'Azyr,  "filoge  de  J.  M.  F.  Lassone,"  1789. 


Lassus.    See  Lasso  and  Lasus. 

Lassus,  It'siis',  (Pierre,)  a  French  surgeon  and 
writer,  born  in  1 741,  was  professor  of  external  pathology 
in  Paris  for  many  years.    Died  in  1807. 

Lasteyrie,  de,  deh  Its'ta're',  (Ferdinand,)  an  anti- 
quary, born  in  Paris  in  1810.  He  acted  with  the  IJberal 
party  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  (1842-48,)  and  with 
the  moderate  republicans  in  the  Assembly,  (1848-50.) 
He  published  a  "  History  of  Painting  on  Glass,"(  1837-58.) 

Lasteyrie,  de,  (Jules,)  a  grandson  of  General  La 
Fayette,  was  born  in  1810.  He  was  elected  a  deputy  in 
1842  and  in  1846.  After  the  revolution  of  1848  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Assembly.  He  has  written  articles 
for  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes." 

Lasteyrie-Dusaillant,  de,  deh  Its^ta^re'  dii^zt'ySN', 
(Charles  Philihert,)  Count,  a  French  philanthro- 
pist and  economist,  the  father  of  Ferdinand,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  Correze  in  1759.  He  wrote  treatises 
on  agriculture  and  on  the  natural  history  of  the  sheep, 
the  horse,  etc.    Died  in  1849. 

Lastic,  de,  deh  Its't^k',  (Jean  Bonpar,)  a  brave 
French  captain,  born  in  Auvergne  about  1370.  He  was 
chosen  grand  master  of  the  order  of  Saint  John  of  Jeru- 
salem in  1437.  In  1444  he  defended  the  city  of  Rhodes 
with  success  against  the  Sultan  of  Egypt.  Died  in  1454. 

See  Vertot,  "  Histoire  de  I'Ordre  de  Saint  Jean  de  Jerusalem 
"Achievements  of  the  Knights  of  Malta,"  by  Alexander  Suther 
LAND,  Philadelphia,  1846. 

Lastman,  list'min,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  painter  and 
engraver  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Haarlem  between 
1562  and  1581.  He  visited  Rome  in  1604.  He  was  one 
of  the  masters  of  Rembrandt.  His  son  Nicolas,  born 
at  Haarlem  in  1619,  was  a  skilful  artist. 

La'sus,  [Aacrof,]  an  eminent  Greek  dithyrambic  poet, 
born  at  Hermione,  in  Argolis,  flourished  at  Athens  in  the 
sixth  century  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  master 
of  Pindar.  His  works  are  not  extant.  He  was  some- 
times reckoned  among  the  Seven  Wise  Men. 

La  Suze.    See  Coligni,  (Henriette.) 

Latapie,  It'tt'pe',  (Francois  de  Paul,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1739;  died  in  1823. 

Laterrade,  It't.Vrtd',  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French 
botanist  of  Bordeaux,  born  about  1780;  died  in  1858. 

La'tham,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  naturalist  and 
physician,  born  at  Eltham,  in  Kent,  in  1740.  He  began 
to  practise  at  Dartford  in  1763,  and,  in  the  intervals  of 
business,  pursued  the  study  of  natural  history,  especially 
ornithology.  Between  1781  and  1787  he  produced  his 
"General  Synopsis  of  Birds,"  (6  vols.,  with  plates,)  a 
work  of  much  merit.  In  1796  he  removed  to  Ronisey, 
in  Hampshire,  and  ceased  to  practise  medicine.  He 
afterwards  received  the  title  of  physician  to  the  prince- 
regent.  He  also  wrote,  besides  medical  treatises,  a  "  Gen- 
eral History  of  Birds,"  (1821-24,)  of  which  the  figures 
were  drawn  and  engraved  by  his  own  hand.  Died  in 
1837. 

Latham,  (Robert  Gordon,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish philologist  and  ethnologist,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in 
1812.  He  took  the  degrees  of  B.A.  and  M.D.  at  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  acquired  proficiency  in  ancient  and 
modern  languages.  In  1840  he  was  appointed  i)rofessor 
of  English  literature  in  University  College,  London.  He 
published  "The  English  Language,"  (1841,)  which  is  con- 
sidered a  standard  book,  and  several  English  grammars, 
which  are  extensively  used  in  the  schools.  Among  his 
other  productions  are  an  excellent  work  entitled  "  Natu- 
ral History  of  the  Varieties  of  Man,"  (1850,)  "Man  and 
his  Migrations,"  (1851,)  "Ethnology  of  Europe,"  (1852,) 
and  "Nationalities  of  Europe,"  (1863.)  Dr.  Latham 
has  attained  eminence  as  a  physician.  He  was  suc- 
cessively physician  to  the  Saint  George's  and  the  Saint 
James's  Dispensary. 

La'thrpp,  (John,)  born  at  Boston  in  1772,  was  the 
author  of  a  poem  entitled  "  Speech  of  Canonicus,  or  an 
Indian  Tradition,"  (1803.)    Died  in  1820. 

See  DuYCKiNCK,  "  Cyclopedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Lathrop,  (Rev.  Joseph,)  D.D.,  an  American  Presby- 
terian divine,  born  at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1731. 
Having  graduated  at  Yale  College,  he  became  pastor 
of  the  Congregational  church  at  West  Springfield.  He 
published  a  collection  of  sermons,  entitled  "  Wolves  in 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

87 


LATIMER 


1378 


LA  TOURETTE 


Sheep's  Clothing,"  which  obtained  extensive  popularity. 
Died  in  1820. 

Lat'i-mer,  (Hugh,)  a  celebrated  English  Reformer, 
distinguished  for  his  courage,  zeal,  and  piety,  was  born 
in  Leicestershire  about  1472.  Having  graduated  at  Cam- 
bridge and  entered  into  holy  orders,  he  gained  distinction 
as  a  zealous  and  eloquent  preacher  of  the  Reformed  re- 
ligion. He  was  patronized  by  Thomas  Cromwell,  who 
in  1529  gave  him  a  benefice  in  Wiltshire  and  saved  him 
from  persecution  which  certain  bishops  raised  against 
him.  He  became  chaplain  to  Anne  Boleyn  and  Bishop 
of  Worcester  in  1535.  On  account  of  the  passage  of  the 
act  of  six  articles  in  1539,  he  resigned  his  bishopric,  and 
was  im])risoned  in  the  Tower  until  the  death  of  Henry 
Vni.,  in  1547.  He  was  again  arrested  in  1553,  and 
compelled  by  his  enemies  to  be  present  at  a  dispute  on 
transubstantiation  at  Oxford  in  1554.  In  1555  he  was 
burned  at  the  stake,  in  company  with  Ridley,  to  whom 
he  said,  "  Be  of  good  cheer,  brother  ;  we  shall  this  day 
kindle  such  a  torch  in  England  as  I  trust  shall  never  be 
extinguished." 

See  W.  GiLPfN,  "Life  of  Hugh  Latimer,"  1780;  Froude,  "His- 
tory of  England,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  vi.  ;  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  vi., 
1822;  "Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1755. 

Latimer,  (William,)  an  English  scholar  and  reviver 
of  classical  learning.  He  became  Fellow  of  a  college  at 
Oxford  in  1489,  and  taught  Greek  to  Erasmus,  who  ex- 
pressed a  good  opinion  of  him.    Died  in  1545. 

Latini,  Id-tee'nee,  (Brunetto,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
poet,  orator,  and  grammarian,  born  at  Florence  about 
1230.  He  taught  philosophy  and  grammar  in  Florence, 
where  Dante  was  his  pupil,  and  he  held  some  of  the 
highest  offices  in  the  republic.  He  was  attached  to  the 
Guelph  party.  His  greatest  work,  entitled  "The  Trea- 
sure," ("  Le  Tresor,")  is  written  in  French,  and  consists 
of  extracts  and  translations  from  classic  authors  on  his- 
tory, philosophy,  rhetoric,  etc.  He  also  composed  "  The 
Little  Treasure,"  ("  II  Tesoretto,")  a  poem,  and  a  treatise 
on  rhetoric.    Died  in  1294. 

See  Negri,  "  Istoria  degli  Scrittori  Fiorentini ;"  Tiraboschi, 
"Storiadella  Letteratura  Italiana;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^ne- 
rale." 

Latini,  li-tee'nee,  or  Latinio,  ll-tee'ne-o,  (Latino,) 
[Lat.  Lati'nus  Latin'ius,]  a  learned  and  judicious 
Italian  critic,  was  born  at  Viterbo  in  15 13.  He  became 
a  resident  of  Rome  in  1552,  and  served  as  secretary  to 
several  cardinals,  among  whom  was  Cardinal  Colonna. 
He  published  "Letters,  Conjectures,  and  Observations," 
(1659,)  in  Latin,  which  treat  of  many  points  of  history, 
antiquity,  and  criticism.    Died  in  1593. 

Latino.    See  Latinus. 

La-ti'nus,[Gr.  AaTlvoq ;  It.  Latino,  la-tee'no,]  a  legen- 
dary king  of  Latium,  a  son  of  Faunus,  and  the  father  of 
Lavinia,  who  became  the  wife  of  /Eneas.  According  to 
some  authors,  he  was  an  incarnation  of  Jupiter  Latiaris. 

See  Virgil's  "^Eneid,"  book  vii. 

Latinus  Latinius.    See  Latinl 

Lat'o-mus,  (or  It'to^miiss',)  the  Latin  name  of  a  Flem- 
ish theologian,  sometimes  called  James  Masson,  who 
was  born  in  Hainault  about  1475.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Louvain,  and  was  one  of  the  ablest  adver- 
saries of  Luther.  He  wrote  several  works  against  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformers.    Died  in  1544. 

Latomus,  (Barth^lemy,)  a  scholar,  born  in  Luxem- 
burg about  1485,  became  professor  of  eloquence  in  the 
College  Royal  of  Paris  in  1534.  He  wrote  notes  on 
Cicero,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1566. 

La-to'na,  [Gr.  Atjto)  ;  Fr.  Latone,  It'ton',]  in  classic 
mythology,  a  daughter  of  the  Titans  Coeus  and  Phoebe, 
was  the  wife  of  Jupiter,  and  the  mother  of  Apollo  and 
Diana.  The  poets  relate  that,  persecuted  by  Juno,  she 
wandered  about  until  she  came  to  Delos,  which  was 
then  a  floating  island,  but  became  stationary  when  she 
touched  it  Here  Apollo  and  Diana  were  born.  Latona 
received  from  Niobe  an  affront  which  Apollo  and  Diana 
severely  revenged. 

Latone.    See  Latona. 

Latouche  or  La  Touche,  de,  deh  It'toosh',  (Hya- 
CINTHE  Thabaud,)  a  French  poet  and  romancer,  born 
at  La  Chatre,  in  Berry,  in  1785,  was  known  by  the  name 
of  Henri  de  Latouche.    He  edited  the  posthumous 


poems  of  Andre  Chenier  about  1819.  Among  his  Ijest 
works  are  the  fictitious  "Correspondence  of  Clement 
XIV,  and  Carlin,"  (1827,)  and  several  short  poems. 
Died  in  1851. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tomeiii. ;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

La  Touche-Tr^ville,  de,  deh  It  toosh  tRi'v^K, 
(Louis  Ren6  Madeleine  le  Vassor,)  a  French  admiral, 
born  at  Rochefort  in  1745.  He  was  elected  to  the  States- 
General  in  1789,  and  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1792.  He 
commanded  in  a  naval  battle  against  Nelson  in  1801, 
Died  in  1804. 

Latour.    See  Tour,  de  la. 

Latour  or  La  Tour,  It'tooR',  (Dominique,)  a  French 
physician  and  medical  writer,  born  in  1749,  was  chief 
physician  to  Louis  Bonaparte  while  he  was  King  of 
Holland.    Died  about  1820. 

Latour,  (Jean  Raimond  Jacques  Am6d6e,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1805.  He  founded 
in  1847  the  "Union  Medicale,"  a  journal. 

Latour,  de,  (Cagniard,)  Baron.    See  Cagniard. 

Latour,  de,  deh  Iftook',  (Louis  Antoine  Tenant,) 
a  French  poet  and  litterateur,  born  in  Haute-Vienne  in 
1808,  published  "Far  from  the  Fireside,"  ("Loin  du 
Foyer,"  1841,)  and  other  poems. 

Latour,  de,  (Maurice  Quentin,)  an  eminent  French 
portrait-painter,  born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1704.  He 
removed  to  Paris  about  1727,  and  became  a  fashionable 
painter  of  portraits  in  pastel.  In  1750  he  received  the 
title  of  painter  to  the  king.  Among  his  works  are  por- 
traits of  Voltaire  and  Rousseau.    Died  in  1788. 

Latour.von,  fon  It'tooR',  (Karl  Anton  Maximilian 
Baillet,)  Count,  an  Austrian  general,  born  in  1737. 
He  obtained  command  of  the  army  of  the  Lower  Rhine 
in  1796.  In  this  campaign  he  was  opposed  to  Moreau, 
and,  in  concert  with  the  Archduke  Charles,  fought  seve- 
ral battles,  in  which  the  Austrians  were  worsted.  He 
became  president  of  the  council  of  war,  and  died  in  1806. 

La  Tour  (or  Latour)  d'Auvergne,  de,  deh  IftooR' 
do'vaRn^  (Th^:Ophile  Malo  Corret,)  a  iDrave  officer, 
surnamed  "  the  first  grenadier  of  France,"  was  born  at 
Carhaix  in  1743.  He  was  eminent  for  modesty  and 
generosity.  Having  becoine  captain  about  1789,  he  re- 
fused further  promotion  ;  but  in  1793  he  became  com- 
mander of  a  division  of  8000  grenadiers,  which  formed 
the  vanguard  of  the  army  of  the  Pyrenees  and  was  called 
"the  infernal  column."  By  the  rapidity  of  his  move- 
ments he  usually  decided  the  victory  before  the  main 
body  of  the  army  reached  the  field  of  battle.  Napoleon 
having  presented  him  a  sabre  inscribed  to  "the  first 
grenadier  of  France,"  he  answered,  "Among  us  soldiers 
there  is  no  first  nor  last."  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Oberhausen,  in  1800.  He  learned  many  languages,  and 
published  "Researches  into  the  Language,  Origin,  and 
Antiquities  of  the  Bretons,"  (1792.) 

See  BuHOT  de  Kersers,  "  Histoire  de  La  Tour  d'Auvergne," 
1841  ;  Calohar,  "  Notice  sur  La  Tour  d'Auvergne,"  1841  ;  Roux 
DE  RocHELLE,  "  Notice  sur  La  Tour  d'Auvergne,"  1800;  Priou, 
"  Notice  sur  T.  M.  de  La  Tour  d'Auvergne,"  1843  ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Latour  du  Pin  Gouvernet,  de,  deh  It'tooR'  dii 
pdN  goo'v^R^na',  (Jean  Fr^:d6ric,)  Comte  de  Paulin, 
a  French  general,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1727.  He  was 
elected  in  1789  to  the  States-General,  and  was  minister 
of  war  from  August,  1789,  to  November,  1790.  He  was 
executed  in  1794. 

Latour  -  Maubourg,  de,  deh  It'tooR'  mo'booR', 
(Marie  Charles  C6sar  Fay,)  Count,  a  French  gene- 
ral, born  in  1758.  He  was  one  of  the  three  commis- 
saries who  escorted  the  king  from  Varennes  to  Paris  in 
1791,  after  which  he  was  marechal-de-camp  in  the  army 
of  La  Fayette.  He  escaped  with  La  Fayette  in  1792, 
and  shared  his  long  captivity  in  Austria.    Died  in  1S31. 

Latour  -  Maubourg,  (Marie  Victor  de  Fay,) 
Marquis,  a  general,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1766.  Having  become  a  general  of  division  in  1807, 
he  distinguished  himself  in  Spain  and  Russia,  and  lost  a 
leg  at  Leipsic,  (1813.)  He  was  minister  of  war  about 
two  years,  (1820-21.)    Died  in  1850. 

See  A.  Sala,  "Le  General  de  Maubourg,"  Paris,  1850;  "  Nou 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

La  Tourette.    See  Tourette,  de  la. 


•ayC,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  ti,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fSll,  fJt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LATREILLE 


1379 


LAUDERDALE 


Latreille,  WiKkV  or  It'tR^Vye,  (Pierre  Andr^,)  an 
eminent  French  naturalist,  surnamed  "the  Prince  of 
Entomology,"  was  born  at  Brives  (La  Correze)  in  1762. 
While  a  student  in  the  college  of  Cardinal  Lemoine, 
Paris,  he  gained  the  favour  of  Abbe  Haiiy.  In  1786  he 
retired  to  his  native  province,  where  he  spent  all  his 
leisure  in  the  study  of  insects,  having  adopted  the  pro- 
fession of  a  priest.  In  consequence  of  the  revolutionary 
troubles,  he  abandoned  that  profession,  and  applied  him- 
self to  his  favourite  science  as  his  chief  business.  He 
published  in  1796  a  treatise  "  On  the  Generic  Characters 
of  Insects."  About  1798  he  was  employed  to  arrange 
insects  in  the  Museum  of  Paris,  in  which  position  he 
remained  nearly  thirty  years.  In  1814  he  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Institute,  and  in  1829  he  succeeded  La- 
marck as  professor  of  zoology.  He  had  published  "The 
Natural  History  of  Ants,"  (V802,)  "  The  Natural  History 
of  Reptiles,"  (1802.)  "A  Memoir  on  the  Sacred  Insects 
of  the  Egyptians,"  and  many  other  works.  Latreille  was 
the  author  of  the  entomological  part  of  Cuvier's  "  Regne 
Animal,"  and  of  the  portion  of  Buffon's  and  Sonnini's 
work  which  treats  of  Crustacea  and  insects.  His  capital 
work  is  "The  Genera  of  Crustacea  and  Insects,  arranged 
according  to  the  Natural  Order,"  ("  Genera  Crustaceo- 
rum  et  Insectorum  secundum  Ordinem  naturalem  dis- 
posita,"  4  vols.,  1806-09.)    I^ied  in  1833. 

See  "  Biographic  Medicale  ;"  Querard,  "  La  France  Litteraire  ;" 
V.  AuDOUiN,  "Discoiirs  prononce  sur  la  Tombe  de  M.  Latreille," 
1833;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale;"  "Monthly  Review,"  vol. 
Ivi.,  180S,  (Appendix.) 

La  Tremouille.    See  Trimouille,  de  la. 

La  Trimouille,  de,  deh  It  tRe'mool'  or  It  tRe'moo'ye, 
(CL.A.UDE,)  Due,  a  French  Protestant  commander,  born 
in  1566,  was  a  brother-in-law  of  the  prince  Henri  de 
Conde.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Ivry.  Died  in  1604. 

His  son  Henri,  born  in  1599,  became  a  general  in  the 
service  of  Louis  XIII.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of 
William  the  Silent,  Prince  of  Orange.    Died  in  1674. 

La'tro,  (M.  Porciu.s,)  a  Latin  rlietorician,  born  about 
50  B.C.,  was  a  friend  of  Seneca  the  elder.  He  had  a  high 
reputation  as  a  declaimer,  and  was  master  of  a  cele- 
brated school  in  Rome,  where  Ovid  was  his  pupil.  He 
was  called  by  Quintilian  "imprimis  clari  nominis  pro- 
fessor."   Died  in  4  B.C. 

Latrobe,  It'trob',  (Benjamin  Henry,)  an  architect, 
born  in  England  in  1 763.  He  emigrated  to  America  in 
1795,  and  was  employed  as  engineer  by  the  State  of  Vir- 
ginia. He  was  architect  of  the  United  States  Bank  in 
Philadelphia,  and  of  the  first  Hall  of  Representatives  at 
Washington.    Died  in  1820. 

Latrobe,  (Charles  Joseph,)  an  English  traveller, 
who  visited  the  United  States  and  Mexico  in  1832,  pub- 
lished "The  Rambler  in  North  America,"  (London, 
1835,)  also  entitled  "The  Rambler  in  Mexico."  It  is 
commended  by  Prescott  and  other  competent  critics. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1835;  "West- 
minster Review"  for  January,  1837. 

Lattaignant.    See  Attaignant,  de  l'. 
Lattanzio.    See  Lactantius. 
Lattre.    See  La.sso. 
Latude.    See  Masers. 

.Laube,  low'beh,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  poet  and  lit- 
terateur, born  in  Silesia  in  1806.  His  "Tales  of  Travel," 
("  Reisenovellen,")  published  in  1834,  resemble  those 
of  Heine,  and  are  by  some  critics  ])referred  to  them. 
Among  his  other  productions  we  may  cite  "  The  Countess 
Chateaubriand,"  a  romance,  (1843,)  "Prhiz  Friedrich," 
and  other  dramas,  and  an  interesting  work  entitled  "The 
First  German  Parliament,"  (3  vols.,  1849.) 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

L'Aiibespine.    See  Aubespine,  de  l'. 

Laud,  lawd,  (William,)  a  celebrated  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  was  born  at  Reading,  in  Berkshire,  in  1573, 
and  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  l)ecame  one  of  the  chap- 
lains of  the  king  about  1615,  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in 
1621,  and  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  1626.  After  the 
accession  of  Charles  I.  he  rose  rapidly  into  great  influ- 
ence at  court.  In  1628  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of 
London,  and  became  the  chief  minister  or  favourite  of 
the  king.  He  disgraced  himself  by  the  persecution  of 
the  Puritans,  and  was  suspected  of  a  strong  bias  in  favour 


of  popery.  In  1633  he  was  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  "Of  all  the  prelates  of  the  Anglican 
Church,"  says  Macaulay,  "  Laud  had  departed  farthest 
from  the  principles  of  the  Reformation  and  had  drawn 
nearest  to  Rome."  "Of  all  men  then  living,"  says  Gar- 
diner, "he  [Laud]  was  the  least  fitted  to  be  intrusted 
with  political  power.  .  .  .  His  thorough  belief  in  the 
unbounded  efficacy  of  external  forms  and  institutions, 
combined  with  his  complete  ignorance  of  human  nature, 
would  be  sufficient  to  goad  to  madness  any  nation  which 
might  be  subjected  to  his  control."  ("History  of  Eng- 
land from  1603  to  1616,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  x.  p.  41.)  In  1640 
he  was  impeached  by  the  Commons  and  committed  to 
the  Tower.  After  he  had  been  tried  for  treason,  without 
obtaining  a  judicial  sentence,  the  Commons  passed  an 
ordinance  for  his  execution,  and  he  was  beheaded  in 
1645.  "His  zeal  was  unrelenting,"  says  Hume,  "in  the 
cause  of  religion, — that  is,  in  imposing  by  rigorous  meas- 
ures his  own  tenets  and  pious  ceremonies  on  the  obsti- 
nate Puritans,  who  had  profanely  dared  to  oppose  him." 

See  "Life  of  Laud,"  by  Prvnne,  1644,  Hevi.tn,  1671,  Lawson, 
1829,  Baines,  1855;  Wharton,  "Troubles  and  Trial  of  W.  Laud, 
to  which  is  prefixed  the  Diary  of  his  own  Life,"  1794;  Hume,  "  His- 
tory of  England,"  chap.  Hi.  ;  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  vii.,  1823. 

Laudati,  low-di'tee,  (Gioseffo,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  the  Roman  school,  born  at  Perugia  in  1672,  was  a 
favourite  pupil  of  Carlo  Maratta.    Died  after  17 18. 

Lau'der,  (Sir  John,)  Lord  Fountainhall,  an  eminent 
Scottish  lawyer,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1646.  He  became 
a  member  of  Parliament,  and  opposed  the  arbitrary 
policy  of  James  11.    Died  in  1722. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Lauder,  (Robert  Scott,)  a  Scottish  painter,  born 
near  Edinburgh  in  1803.  Among  his  best  works  are 
"The  Bride  of  Lammermuir,"  "Trial  of  Effie  Deans," 
and  other  scenes  from  Scott.  He  worked  mostly  in 
London  and  Edinburgh. 

Lauder,  (Sir  Thomas  Dick,)  a  Scottish  author,  born 
in  1784,  inherited  a  baronetcy  from  his  father,  and  lived 
near  Edinburgh.  He  was  one  of  the  early  contributors 
to  "  Blackwood's  Magazine,"  and  author  of  various 
works,  among  which  are  "  Lochandhu,"  a  novel,  "High- 
land Rambles,"  (1837,)  and  a  "Tour  round  the  Coasts 
of  Scotland."    Died  in  1848. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Lauder,  (William,)  a  Scotchman,  who  gained  no 
toriety  by  literary  impostures  designed  to  prove  that 
Milton  was  a  plagiarist  In  1751  he  published  an  "Es- 
say on  Milton's  Use  and  Imitation  of  the  Moderns  in 
his  Paradise  Lost,"  in  which  he  charged  Milton  with 
making  too  free  use  of  the  ideas  of  Grotius  and  others. 
He  was  convicted  of  having  interpolated  in  Grotius's 
Latin  drama  "  Adamus  Exsul"  several  verses  copied 
from  an  obscure  version  of  Milton's  poem.  He  died  in 
Barbadoes  in  1771. 

Sec  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Lau'der-dale',  (James  Maitland,)  Earl  of,  an  able 
Scottish  Whig  statesman,  born  in  1759,  was  the  son  of 
the  seventh  Earl  of  Lauderdale,  and  was  first  styled 
Lord  Maitland.  About  1781  he  was  elected  to  the 
House  of  Commons,  where  he  acted  as  the  political 
friend  of  Fox,  and  in  1787  was  chosen  one  of  the  man- 
agers of  the  impeachment  of  Hastings.  He  inherited  the 
title  of  earl  in  1789,  and  was  chosen  one  of  the  Scottish 
representative  peers  in  1790.  He  favoured  the  French 
republic,  and  opposed  the  war  against  the  French  which 
began  in  1793.  In  1806  he  became  a  peer  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  keeper  of  the  seal  of  Scotland,  and  was 
sent  by  Mr.  Fox  to  Paris  with  full  powers  to  negotiate 
a  peace,  but  without  success.  On  the  fall  of  the  Whig 
ministry  in  1807  he  gave  up  the  seal  of  Scotland.  He 
died  in  1839,  leaving  his  title  to  his  son  James.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  finance  and  political  economy. 

Lauderdale,  (John  Maitland,)  Duke  of,  a  British 
courtier,  born  at  Lethington  in  1616,  was  a  grandson 
of  John  Lord  Maitland,  Chancellor  of  Scotland.  His 
father  was  first  Earl  of  Lauderdale.  He  was  conspicu- 
ous among  the  Scottish  insurgents  of  1638,  and  began  his 
public  career  as  a  zealous  supporter  of  the  Covenant. 
After  the  restoration  of  1660  he  became  the  prime  fa- 
vourite of  Charles  II.,  and  in  1670  was  a  member  of  that 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  H,  YL^guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (St^^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LJUDinO 


13 


80 


LAURENCE 


corrupt  cabinet  called  the  Cabal.  "Under  the  outward 
show  of  boisterous  frankness,"  says  Macaulay,  "  he  was 
perhaps  the  most  dishonest  man  in  the  whole  Cabal." 
He  was  created  duke  in  1672.  In  1678  he  became  min- 
ister for  Scottish  affairs,  which  he  managed  in  a  violent 
and  arbitrary  manner.  "  He  had  the  fortune,  beyond 
any  other  minister,"  says  Hume,  "to maintain  an  ascend- 
ant over  Charles  H.  during  the  greater  part  of  his  reign." 
("  History  of  England.")  Died  in  1682.  As  he  left  no 
male  issue,  his  brother  inherited  the  earldom. 

See  Macaulay,  "History  of  England;"  Burnet,  "  History  of 
his  Own  Time." 

Laudivio,  16vv-dee've-o,  (Zaccaria,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  near  Genoa,  lived  about  1470.  He  wrote  "  Letters 
of  the  Grand  Turk,"  ("Epistolae  Magni  Turci,"  1473,) 
often  rej)rinted,  and  "On  the  Praises  of  Wisdom  and 
Virtue,"  ("De  Laudibus  Sapientiae  et  Virtutis.") 

Laudon,  von,  fon  low'don,  written  also  Laudohn 
and  Loudon,  (Gideon  Ernst,)  Baron,  a  famous  field- 
marshal  of  the  Austrian  army,  was  born  in  Livonia  in 
1 7 16.  He  entered  the  service  of  Maria  Theresa  in  1743, 
and  for  his  exploits  in  several  campaigns  was  rewarded 
with  the  rank  of  general  in  1757.  The  next  year  he  was 
made  lieutenant-general,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the 
victory  of  Hochkirchen  over  the  Prussians.  In  1759  he 
gained  a  complete  victory  at  Kunersdorf,  where  Frederick 
the  Great  commanded  in  person.  He  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  field-marshal  in  1778,  gained  several  victories 
over  the  Turks  in  1788,  and  was  chosen  generalissimo 
in  1789.    Died  in  1790. 

See  Toi.NAY,  "  Laudon's  Ehrendenknial ;"  Johann  Pezzl,  "Le- 
bensgescliiclite  Laudon's,"  1790;  Frihdkich  von  der  Trenck, 
"Deuknifil  and  Trauerrede  bei  dem  (irabe  des  Feldmarschalls  Lau- 
don," 1790;  "Leven  en  Heldendaden  van  G.  E.  van  London,"  1792. 

Lauffer,  lovvf  fer,  (  Jakoi?,  )  a  Swiss  historian  and 
Protestant  divine,  born  at  Zoffingen  in  1688.  He  wrote, 
in  German,  a  "  History  of  Helvetia,"  (or  Switzerland,) 
("  Helvetische  Geschichte,"  18  vols.,  1736-38.)  Died 
in  1734. 

Laugel,  WzhlV,  (Auguste,)  a  French  writer,  visited 
the  United  States  of  North  America  in  1864.  He  pub- 
lished a  work  entitled  "  The  United  States  during  the 
War,"  ("  Les  Etats-Unis  pendant  la  Guerre,"  1866.) 
There  is  a  good  English  translation  of  it,  said  to  be  by 
the  author. 

Laugier,  I6'zhe-a',  (Andr^;,)  an  able  French  chemist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1770.  In  1809  he  succeeded  Fourcroy 
as  professor  of  chemistry  in  his  native  city.  His  lectures 
were  published  with  the  title  of  "  Cours  de  Chimie  gene- 
rale,"  (3  vols.,  1828.)  He  excelled  in  chemical  analysis, 
and  wrote  numerous  memoirs  on  the  analysis  of  minerals. 
Died  in  1832. 

See  P.  J.  RoBiQUET,  "Notice  historique  sur  A.  Laugier,"  1832; 
"  Nouvelle  Blographie  Generale." 

Laugier,  (Ernest,)  an  astronomer,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1812,  obtained  in  1841  the 
Lalande  medal  for  the  discovery  of  a  comet  and  the  cal- 
culation of  its  orbit. 

Laugier,  (Jean  Nicolas,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Toulon  in  1785,  worked  in  Paris.  Among  his  works 
are  "Leonidas  at  Thermopylae,"  and  "Trance  of  Saint 
Paul,"  after  Poussin. 

Laugier,  (Marc  Antoine, )  a  French  writer  and 
priest,  born  at  Manosque  in  1713.  He  preached  in  sev- 
eral pulpits  of  Paris,  and  afterwards  obtained  the  abbey 
of  Ribeaute  in  1757.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  successful  "Essay  on  Architecture,"  (1753-55,)  and  a 
"History  of  Venice,"  (12  vols.,  1759-68,)  which  was  the 
best  which  had  appeared  until  that  of  Daru  was  pub- 
lished in  1819.    Died  in  1769. 

Laugier,  de,  deh  lo^zhe^',  (C^sar  de  Pellecour,) 
Count,  a  general,  was  born  in  the  isle  of  Elba  in  1789. 
He  is  ranked  among  the  best  military  writers  of  Italy. 
In  May,  1848,  he  obtained  the  chief  command  of  the  Tus- 
can corps  raised  to  fight  against  Austria.  With  about 
5000  men  he  resisted  30,000  Anstrians  for  six  hours  near 
Mantua.  He  was  minister  of  war  under  Leopold  II.  in 
1850  and  1851.  Among  his  works  is  "Annals  and  Vicis- 
situdes of  the  Italian  Peoples  from  1801  to  1815,"  (13 
vols.,  1829-32.) 

Laujon,  It/zh^N',  (Pierre,)  a  French  poet,  born  in 
Paris  in  1727.    He  composed  admired  songs  and  lyrical 


dramas.  In  1807  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Insti- 
tute.   Died  in  181 1. 

See  "  Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixviii.,  1812,  (Appendix.) 

Lauman,  law'man,  or  Landman,  (Jacob  G.,)  an 
American  general,  born  in  Maryland  in  1813.  He  com- 
manded a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6  and  7, 
1862,  and  a  division  at  the  siege  of  Vicksburg,  June  and 
July,  1863. 

Laumont,  de,  deh  lo'moN',  (FRANgois  Pierre  Ni- 
colas Gillet — zhe'ya',)  a  French  mineralogist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1747.  He  discovered  several  minerals,  and 
wrote  memoirs  which  were  printed  in  the  "  Annales  des 
Mines"  and  other  journals.    Died  in  1834. 

Launay,  de,  deh  I5'ni',  (Franqois,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Angers  in  161 2.  He  was  professor  of  French 
law  at  the  College  Royal,  and  published  several  legal 
works.    Died  in  1693 

Launay,  de,  (Pierre,)  a  French  Protestant  theo- 
logian, born  at  Blois  in  1573.  He  received  the  title  of 
counsellor  to  the  king,  and  taught  Greek  gratis  at  the 
Academy  of  Saumur.  He  wrote  a  "Paraphrase  on  the 
Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,"  (2  vols.,  1650,)  and  other  com- 
mentaries on  Scripture,  which  were  highly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1661. 

Launey,  de,  deh  lo^n^,  (Bernard  Ren^;  Jourdan,) 
the  last  governor  of  the  Bastille,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1740,  and  became  governor  in  1776.  The  storming  of 
that  state  prison  by  the  populace,  being  the  first  violent 
symptom  of  the  Revolution,  has  rendered  his  name 
historical.  On  the  14th  of  July,  1789,  he  repulsed  the 
insurgents  for  several  hours  with  cannon  and  other 
guns,  and  attempted  to  blow  up  the  building  by  firing 
the  magazine,  but  was  prevented.  He  was  massacred 
immediately  after  the  capture  of  the  place. 

Launey,  (Emmanuel  de.)    See  Entraigues,  d'. 

Launoi  or  Launoius.    See  Launoy. 

Launoy  or  Launoi,  de,  deh  lo^nwi',  [Lat.  Launo'- 
lUS,]  (Jean,)  a  French  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  born  near 
Valogne  in  1603,  had  a  high  reputation  for  learning.  In 
1643  he  was  chosen  royal  censor  of  books.  He  published, 
besides  many  works  on  theology,  a  "  History  of  the  Col- 
lege of  Navarre,"  (1677,)  and  defended  the  liberties  of 
the  Galilean  Church  against  the  pretensions  of  the  court 
of  Rome.  Pie  was  noted  for  his  zeal  and  sagacity  in 
expunging  the  names  of  spurious  saints  from  the  calen- 
dar, and  was  said  to  have  dethroned  more  saints  than 
ten  popes  had  canonized.    Died  in  1678. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron. 
"Memoires;"  J.  Reiser,  "J.  Launoius  Tlieologus,"  etc.,  1685. 

Laura.    See  Noves,  de,  and  Petrarch. 

Laura,  (Filtppo.)    See  Laurt. 

Lauraguais,  de,  deh  lo'rt'ga',  (Louis  L^on  F^li- 
CIt6,)  Comte,  Due  de  Brancas,  an  eccentric  French 
nobleman,  born  at  Versailles  in  1733.  He  patronized 
literature  and  science,  and  by  his  chemical  experiments 
associated  his  name  with  those  of  Lavoisier  and  Daicet. 
He  wrote  many  political  treatises.    Died  in  1824. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Laiirati.    See  Lorenzetti,  (Pietro.) 
Laurati,  16w-r^'tee,(PiETRO,)  an  Italian  fresco-painter, 
born  at  Sienna  in  1282;  died  in  1340. 
Laurel.    See  Laurelius. 

Laurelius,  low-rn^e-us,  or  Laurel,  low'rel,  (Olaus,) 
a  Swedish  theologian,  born  in  West  Gothland  in  1585. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Westeras  in  1647.  ]?ublished, 
besides  other  works,  a  "System  of  Theology,"  (1641,) 
which  was  esteemed  a  standard  work.    Died  in  1670. 

Laurenberg,  low'ren-bgRc',  or  Lauremberg,  low'- 
rem-b§Rc/,  (Johann,)  a  poet  and  philologist,  born  at 
Rostock  in  1590.  He  ranked  high  among  the  poets  of 
his  time.  Among  his  works  are  four  poetical  satires, 
(1652-70,)  and  "Graecia  Antiqua,"  a  description  of 
ancient  Greece,  (1661.)    Died  in  1658. 

Laurenberg,  (Pejer,)  a  botanist  and  anatomist,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rostock  about 
1575.  He  became  professor  at  Rostock  in  1624,  and 
published  several  works  on  anatomy.    Died  in  1639. 

Lau'rence  or  Law'rence,  (Dr.  French,)  an  eminent 
English  civilian  and  author,  born  at  Bristol,  graduated 
at  Oxford  about  1780.  "He  was," says  Lord  Brougham, 
"  one  of  the  most  able,  most  learned,  and  most  upright 


i,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, 


short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LAURENCE 


LAUZUN 


men  that  ever  adorned  the  legal  profession.  .  .  .  He 
united  in  himself  the  indefatigable  labour  of  a  Dutch 
commentator  with  the  alternate  playfulness  and  sharp- 
ness of  a  Parisian  wit."  He  was  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment about  twenty  years.  About  1797  he  was  chosen 
professor  of  civil  law  at  Oxford.  He  was  the  intimate 
friend  and  executor  of  Edmund  Burke.  He  wrote  some 
of  the  "Probationary  Odes,"  and  contributed  largely  to 
the  epigrams  and  satires,  in  prose  and  verse,  of  "The 
Rolliadr"    Died  in  1809. 

Laurence,  (Richard,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Bath  in  1760.  He  became  professor  of 
Hebrew  at  Oxford  in  1814,  and  Archbishop  of  Cashel 
in  1822.    Died  in  1838. 

Laureuciii,  de,  deh  lo^rSN^s^N',  (Jean  Espi^rance 
Blandine,)  Comte,  a  French  poet,  born  near  Valence 
in  1733  ;  died  in  1812. 

Laurens.    See  Du  Laurens. 

Lau'rens,  (Henry,)  an  American  statesman,  born  at 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1724.  Soon  after  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Revolution  he  was  elected  a  dele- 
gate to  the  General  Congress,  of  which  he  subsequently 
became  president,  in  November,  1777.  While  on  his 
voyage  as  ambassador  to  the  Hague,  in  1780,  he  was 
taken  by  the  British  and  imprisoned  for  fourteen  months 
in  the  Tower  of  London.  In  conjunction  with  Franklin 
and  Jay,  he  afterwards  signed  the  preliminaries  to  a  treaty 
with  England,  November,  1782.    Died  in  1792. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Laurens,  (John,)  an  American  patriot  and  soldier, 
born  in  South  Carolina  about  1756,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  entered  the  army  early  in  1777,  became 
an  aide-de-camp  to  Washington,  and  was  wounded  at 
Germantown.  It  is  stated  that  he  distinguished  him- 
self in  every  action  of  the  army  which  Washington 
commanded.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  General 
Hamilton.  In  1781  he  was  sent  to  France  on  a  special 
mission,  for  which  he  was  selected  by  Washington.  He 
was  successful,  and  returned  in  time  to  take  part  in 
the  victory  at  Yorktown,  October,  1781.  He  was  killed 
in  a  battle  on  the  Combahee  River,  South  Carolina, 
in  August,  1782.  Colonel  Laurens  is  represented  as 
having  been  a  man  of  rare  endowments,  as  blending  in 
harmonious  union  the  character  of  a  gallant  officer,  a 
fine  scholar,  and  an  accomplished  gentleman. 

Laurent.    See  Lawrence,  Saint. 

Laurent,  lo'rfiN',  (Auguste,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
near  Langres  in  1807.  He  became  assayer  of  the  mint 
at  Paris  in  1848,  and  wrote  a  "Method  of  Chemistry," 
(1854.)    Died  in  1853. 

Laurent,  (Paul  Marie,)  a  French  historian,  born  in 
Ardeche  in  1793.  His  principal  work  is  a  "History  of 
Napoleon,"  with  500  designs  by  Horace  Vernet,  (9  vols., 
1838-42.) 

Laurent,  (Pierre.)  a  skilful  French  engraver,  born 
at  Marseilles  in  1739,  worked  in  Paris.  He  excelled  in 
landscapes  and  animals,  and  published  engravings  of 
the  master-pieces  of  the  Louvre.    Died  in  1809. 

Laurent,  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  skilful  Flemish  mecha- 
nician, born  at  Bordeaux  in  1715.  He  was  appointed 
director  of  the  canals  of  Flanders  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
one,  and  gained  reputation  by  the  junction  of  the  Somme 
with  the  Scheldt.  He  was  very  skilful  in  the  fabrication 
of  artificial  limbs.    Died  in  1773. 

Laurentie,  15'r6N^te',  (Pierre  S^bastien,)  a  French 
historical  and  political  writer,  born  at  Houga  (Gers)  in 
1793.  He  edited  several  royalist  journals  in  Paris,  and 
published  "Studies,  Literary  and  Moral,  on  the  Latin 
Historians,"  (2  vols.,  1822,)  and  a  "History  of  France," 
(1841-43.) 

Laurentius,  (Joannes.)    See  Lydus. 

Laurentius,  (Lydus.)    See  Lydus. 

Laurentzen,  low'rent-zen,  or  Lorentsen,  lo'rent- 
sen,  (Johan,)  a  Danish  historical  writer,  born  at  Ribe. 
He  wrote  on  Danish  history,  and  produced  a  Danish 
version  of  the  Bible,  (1719.)    Died  about  1728. 

Lauretti,  low-ret'tee,  or  Laureti,  low-ra'tee,  (Tom- 
MASO,)  an  Italian  jDainter,  born  at  Palermo,  worked  at 
Rome  for  Gregory  XIII.,  and  became  president  of  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Luke.  His  pictures  of"  Brutus  Judging 


his  Sons"  and  "  Horatius  Codes  Defenditig  the  Bridge" 
were  much  admired.    Died  about  1600,  aged  eighty. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Lauri,  low'ree,  (Balthasar,)  a  Flemish  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1570 ;  died  at  Rome  in 
1642. 

Lauri  or  Laura,  low'ri,  (Filippo,)  an  eminent  painter 
of  history  and  landscapes,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Rome  in  1623.  Filippo  painted  in  preference  small 
cabinet  pictures  which  were  remarkable  for  imagination 
and  spirit.  He  also  painted  figures  for  the  landscapes 
of  Claude  Lorrain.  His  design  and  composition  are 
highly  commended  by  E.  Breton  in  the  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale."  Died  in  1694.  His  brother 
Francesco  was  a  promising  artist  when  he  died  in 
1635,  aged  twenty-five. 

See  Lanzi.  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Lauria,  (Roger  de.)    See  Loria. 

Lauriere.  de,  deh  lo're-aiR',  (Eusebe  Jacob,)  a  pro- 
found French  jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1659.  He  was 
thoroughly  versed  in  legal  science,  and  attained  great 
proficiency  in  literature.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  "The  Origin  of  the  Law  of  Amortizement,"  (1692,) 
and  "Library  of  Common  Law,"  ("  Bibliotheque  des 
Coutumes,"  1699.)    Died  in  1728. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Laurillard,  lo're'ytR',  (Charles  Leopold,)  a  French 
naturalist  and  artist,  born  at  Montbeliard  in  1783,  was  a 
pupil  of  Cuvier,  who  employed  him  in  the  execution  of 
his  anatomical  designs.  He  published  "The  Mammifera 
and  Human  Races,"  (1849.)    Died  in  1853. 

Laurimanus.    See  Lauw^erman. 

Lauriston,  de,  deh  16'r^s't6N',  (Jacques  Alexan- 
dre Bernard  Law,)  Marquis,  a  marshal  of  France, 
was  born  in  India  in  1768,  and  was  great-nephew  of 
John  Law,  the  famous  projector.  In  1800  he  became 
aide-de-camp  to  Bonaparte,  and  served  at  the  battle  of 
Marengo.  He  was  made  a  general  of  brigade  in  1802, 
general  of  division  in  1805,  and  governor-general  of 
Venice  in  1807.  Having  received  the  title  of  count, 
as  commander  of  the  artillery  of  the  imperial  guard,  he 
took  part  in  several  victories  over  the  Austrians  in  1809. 
He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Russia  in  1811,  and  com- 
manded a  corps  in  the  campaign  of  1813.  He  was  created 
a  marquis  in  181 7,  became  minister  of  the  royal  house- 
hold in  1821,  received  a  marshal's  baton  in  1823,  and 
was  appointed  minister  of  state  in  1824.    Died  in  1828. 

See  De  CouRCELLEfs,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Fran^ais ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lauro,  low'ro,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  modern  Latin 
poet,  born  at  Perugia  in  1581  ;  died  at  Rome  in  1629. 

Laus  du  Ferret.    See  Duperret. 

Lauterbach,  low'ter-blK^  (Wolfgang  Adam,)  a 
German  jurist,  born  in  1618,  wrote  a  work  on  the  Pan- 
dects, (3  or  4  vols.,  1690-17 14.)    Died  in  1678. 

Lauth,  lot,  (Alexandre,)  a  skilful  French  anatomist, 
born  at  Strasbourg  in  1803.  He  published  a  "Manual 
for  the  Anatomist,"  (1829,)  and  other  able  professional 
works.    Died  in  1837. 

Lautrec,  lo'tRik',  (Odet  de  Foix,)  Marshal,  a 
brave  French  general,  was  a  cousin  of  Gaston  de  Foix. 
He  was  wounded  at  Ravenna  in  1 5 12.  Just  after  Con- 
stable Bourbon  had  resigned  the  command,  Francis  I. 
appointed  Lautrec  his  lieutenant-general  in  Italy,  (1516.) 
He  was  defeated  at  Bicoque  in  1522,  and  fought  by  the 
side  of  Francis  I.  at  Pavia  in  1525.  In  1527  he  resumed 
command  of  the  army  in  Italy,  and  was  besieging  Naples, 
when  he  died  of  fever  in  1528. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Francais." 

Lauwerman,16w'er-man'',|Lat.  Laurima'nus,]  (Cor- 
NELis,)  a  Dutch  teacher  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Utrecht 
about  1520;  died  in  1573. 

Lauzun,  Due  de.  See  Biron,  (Armand  Louis  i  e.) 

Lauzun,  de,  deh  Io'ziin'',  (Antoine  Nompar  de 
Caumont,)  Duke,  a  French  courtier  and  general,  whose 
life  presents  remarkable  vicissitudes,  was  born  in  Gascony 
in  1632.  He  became  a  favourite  of  Louis  XIV.,  who 
gave  him  a  high  rank  in  the  army  before  he  had  merited 
it  by  services.    In  167 1  he  commanded  the  army  which 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


LAVAL 


1382 


LA  VERNE 


accompanied  the  king  to  Flanders.  He  was  engaged  to 
Anna  Maria,  Duchess  of  Montpensier,  a  granddaughter 
of  Henry  IV.,  hut  the  match  was  broken  off,  and,  having 
incurred  the  enmity  of  Madame  Montespan,  he  was  im- 
prisoned from  1671  to  1681,  when  his  penalty  was  com- 
muted into  exile  from  court.  It  is  supposed  that  he  was 
secretly  married  to  the  lady  first  above  named.  When 
the  throne  and  person  of  James  H.  of  England  were 
menaced  by  revolution,  (1688,)  that  king  confided  his 
wife  and  son  to  Lauzun,  who  escorted  them  to  Paris 
and  by  that  service  regained  the  favour  of  Louis  XIV. 
He  commanded  the  French  army  sent  to  Ireland  to  fight 
for  James  II.,  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  in 
1690,  and  returned  to  France  about  the  end  of  that  year. 
Died  in  1723.  "His  life  was  like  a  romance,"  said  La 
Bruyere,  "except  that  it  lacked  probability." 

See  La  Bruyeke,  "  Caracteres ;"  Saint-Simon,  "  Memoires  ;" 
Dangeau,  "Journal;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Geiieiale;"  Delort, 
"  Histoire  de  ia  Detention  de  Fouquet,  de  Pellisson  et  de  Lauzun," 
3  vols.,  1820;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1822. 

Laval,  It'vtK,  (Anne  Adrien  Pierre  de  Mont- 
morency,) Due  de  Laval,  born  in  Paris  in  1768,  was 
the  son  of  the  Due  de  Laval.  He  was  sent  as  ambas- 
sador to  Spain  in  1 814,  to  Rome  about  1820,  and  to 
Vienna  in  1828.  In  1829  he  was  transferred  to  the  court 
of  Saint  James.    Died  in  1837. 

Lavalette,  de,  deh  It'vt'lgt',  (Pere  Antoine,)  a 
French  Jesuit,  born  in  1707.  He  was  chosen  superior- 
general  of  the  missions  of  South  America  in  1754.  He 
engaged  in  mercantile  speculations  which  resulted  in  a 
disgraceful  bankruptcy.  This  afi'air  was  one  of  the 
causes  or  pretexts  of  the  abolition  of  the  order  of  Jesuits 
in  France  in  1762. 

Lavalette,  de,  (Charles  Jean  Marie  Felix,)  Mar- 
quis, a  French  diplomatist,  born  at  Senlis  in  1806.  He 
was  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the  Sublime  Porte  from 
1 85 1  to  1853,  and  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  senator  in 
the  latter  year.  In  1865  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
the  interior.  He  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in 
December,  1868. 

La  Valette,  de,(  Jean  Parisot.)  See  Valette,  de  la. 

Lavalette,  de,  (Marie  Chamans,)  Count,  a  favour- 
ite officer  and  minister  of  Bonaparte,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1769.  He  entered  the  army  in  1792,  and  obtained 
the  grade  of  captain  at  Areola  in  1796.  Soon  after  this 
date,  Bonaparte  employed  him  in  important  missions, 
and  gave  him  for  his  wife  Emilie  de  Beauharnais,  a 
niece  of  Josephine.  During  the  Egyptian  campaign 
(1798)  he  was  one  of  Bonaparte's  favourite  attendants. 
In  1800  he  was  called  to  preside  over  the  post-office 
department,  first  with  the  title  of  commissary,  and  soon 
after  with  that  of  director-general.  At  the  restoration 
of  1814  he  retired  to  private  life,  but  on  the  return  of 
Napoleon  from  Elba  he  resumed  his  functions  as  post- 
master-general on  the  20th  of  March,  1815.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  arrested  by  the  agents  of  Louis  XVIII.  and 
condemned  to  death.  Just  before  the  day  of  execution, 
Madame  Lavalette  visited  him  in  prison,  and  remained 
in  his  place  while  he  escaped  disguised  in  her  dress.  By 
the  aid  of  Sir  R.  Wilson  and  other  Englishmen,  he 
reached  Flanders  safely.  He  was  pardoned  by  the  king 
in  1822,  and  died  in  1830,  leaving  two  volumes  of  me- 
moirs of  his  life,  (183L)  He  wife  was  tried  and  ac- 
quitted, but  became  permanently  insane  in  consequence 
of  the  exertion  and  excitement 

See  Lavalette,  "  Memoires  et  Souvenirs,"  2  vols.,  1831,  and 
"Notice  bioi^raphique  sur  le  Comte  de  La  Valette,"  Paris,  1830. 

La  Vallee,  It  vt'la',  (Joseph,)  Marquis  de  Bois-Ro- 
bert,  a  French  writer,  born  at  Dieppe  in  1747.  Among 
his  works  is  a  piquant  journal  called  "  Semaines  cri- 
tiques," (4  vols.,  1797.)    Died  in  London  in  1816. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixxxv.,  i8i8,  (Appendix.) 

Lavallee,  (Theophile  S^ibastien,)  a  French  histo- 
rian, born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  published  a  "History 
of  the  French  from  the  Time  of  the  Gauls  to  1830,"  (3 
vols.,  1839;  loth  edition,  1854,)  and  other  works. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixxxiv.,  1817,  (Appendix.) 

La  Valliere.    See  VAi.LifeRE,  de  la. 

Lavardin,  de,  deh  It'vtRMdN',  Marshal,  a  French 
general,  whose  proper  name  was  Jean  de  Beaumanoir, 
was  born  in  Maine  in  1551.    He  fought  as  second  in 


command  of  the  Catholic  army  at  Coutras  in  1578,  but 
entered  the  service  of  Henry  IV.  in  1595,  and  was 
then  made  a  marshal  of  France.  He  was  riding  in  the 
carriage  with  the  king  when  the  latter  was  assassinated 
in  1610.    Died  in  1614. 

Lavardin,  de,  (Henri  Charles  de  Beaumanoir,) 
Marquis,  was  a  great-grandson  of  the  preceding.  In 
1687  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome,  with  a  large 
retinue  of  armed  men,  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  a 
claim  to  certain  privileges  or  franchises  which  the  pope 
refused  to  grant.  (See  Innocent  XI.)  Lavardin  en- 
tered Rome  as  a  victor  at  the  head  of  an  army,  but  was 
excommunicated,  and  returned  to  France  in  1689.  Died 
in  1 701. 

Lavater,  li'vi-ter  or  It'vS'taiR',  (John  Caspar,)  a 
celebrated  Protestant  minister  and  writer  on  physiog- 
nomy, born  at  Zurich  in  1741.  He  was  educated  for  the 
church,  which  profession  was  congenial  to  his  character. 
In  1763  he  made  a  journey  to  Berlin  with  Henry  Fuseli 
the  artist.  He  produced  in  1767  his  admirable  "Swiss 
Songs,"  and  in  1768  an  ingenious  work  entitled  "Pros- 
pects into  Eternity,"  ("Aussichte  in  die  Ewigkeit.")  He 
was  ordained  a  deacon  in  1769,  and  a  few  years  later 
became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Zurich.  His  sermons 
were  much  admired,  and  widely  diffused  by  the  press; 
but  he  was  censured  by  some  for  a  tendency  to  paradox, 
superstition,  and  mystical  theology.  In  1775-78  he  pub- 
lished, in  German,  his  celebrated  "Physiognomic  Frag- 
ments for  the  Promotion  of  the  Knowledge  and  Love 
of  Mankind,"  ("  Physiognomischen  Fragmente  zur  Be- 
fdrderung  der  Menschenkenntniss  und  Menschenliebe," 
4  vols.)  This  is  the  result  of  multiplied  and  curious 
observations  generalized  into  an  ingenious  system.  He 
was  the  author  of  numerous  religious  and  moral  works 
in  prose  and  verse,  among  which  are  "Pontius  Pilate," 
(1782,)  and  two  poems,  "The  Messiah"  (4  vols.,  1783-86) 
and  "The  Human  Heart,"  (1789.)  He  was  a  friend  of 
Goethe,  with  whom  he  corresponded.  In  the  commo- 
tions which  followed  the  French  Revolution  he  displayed 
courage  and  firmness  in  opposing  the  French  party, 
(though  not  with  carnal  weapons;)  and  at  the  capture 
of  Zurich  by  Massena,  in  September,  1799,  he  was  shot 
in  the  street  by  a  soldier.  After  suffering  from  the  wound 
more  than  a  year,  he  died  in  1801.  His  character  was 
eminently  honest  and  noble.  "  Lavater's  spirit,"  says 
Goethe,  in  his  Autobiography,  "was  altogether  im- 
posing. Near  him,  you  could  not  resist  his  decided  in- 
fluence ;  and  I  had  to  submit  to  observing  brow  and 
nose,  eyes  and  mouth,  in  detail,  and  to  weighing  their 
relations  and  proportions  to  each  other.  .  .  ,  Many 
times  in  my  after-life  I  had  occasion  to  think  about  this 
man,  who  is  one  among  the  most  excellent  with  whom  I 
have  ever  attained  to  so  intimate  a  relation," 

See  Meistek,  "J.  C.  Lavater,"  1802;  Gessner,  "Lavater's 
Lebensbeschreibung,"  3  a^oIs.,  1802;  Goethe,  "  Briefe  an  Lavater," 
1833;  BoDEMANN,  "Life  of  Lavater,"  1856;  P.  L  Heisch,  "  Me- 
moirs of  J.  C.  Lavater,"  London,  1842;  C.  L.  Hai.i.er,  "  Denktnal 
auf  Lavater,"  1801  ;  F.  W.  Jung,  "  Erlnnerungen  an  Lavater,"  1S12 ; 
F.  Herbst,  "Lavater  nach  seinem  Leben  und  Wirken,"  1832. 

Lavater,  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  clergyman,  born 
in  1527.  He  lived  in  Zurich,  and  wrote  many  theological 
and  other  works,  among  which  is  a  curious  treatise  on 
spectres,  apparitions,  etc.,  (1570.)    Died  in  1586. 

Laveaux,  lt'v6',(jEAN  Charles  Thibault,)  a  French 
grammarian,  born  at  Troyes  in  1749.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  French  Lan- 
guage," (1826.)    Died  in  1827. 

Lavergne,  de,  deh  It'viRn^  (Louis  Gabriel  L^once 
Guilhaud — ge'16',)  a  French  economist  and  writer,  born 
at  Bergerac  in  1809.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Memoir 
on  the  Rural  Economy  of  France,"  (1857,)  and  many 
important  articles  in  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes" 
on  Spanish  history,  literature,  etc. 

La-ver'na,  [Fr.  Laverne,  iS'v^Rn',]  in  Roman  my- 
thology, was  regarded  as  the  patroness  of  thieves  and 
impostors. 

Laverne.    See  Laverna. 

La  Verne,  de,  deh  IS  vCRn,  (Leger  Marie  Philippe 
Tranchant — trS^'shON',)  Comte,  a  French  tactician 
and  writer  on  the  art  of  war,  born  near  Vesoul  in  1769. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  General  Suwarow," 
(1809.)    Died  in  181 5. 


1,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  llr,  f^ll,  f^t;  ra§t;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


LAFES 


1383 


LAWES 


Laves,  lI'vSs,  (Georg  Ludwig  Friedrich,)  an  emi- 
nent German  architect,  and  chief  director  of  buildings 
for  the  kingdom  of  Hanover,  was  born  at  Uslar  in  1789. 
In  1852  he  finished  the  new  theatre  at  flanover,  which  is 
regarded  as  his  best  work. 

Lavigne,  de,  deh  It'v^iV,  (Anne,)  a  French  poetess, 
born  at  Vernon,  in  Normandy;  died  in  1684. 

La  Ville  de  Mirmont,  de,  deh  li  v^I  deh  m^R'm^N', 
(Alexandre  Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  dramatic  poet, 
born  at  Versailles  in  1782.  His  drama  '*  Le  Libere" 
(1835)  gained  the  Montyon  prize  of  the  French  Acad- 
em).    Died  in  1845. 

La  Villemarque,  de,  deh  It  v^KmtR'ki',  (Th^;odore 
Claude  Henri  Hersart — h^R^stR',)  Vicomte,  a  French 
philologist,  born  at  Quimperle  in  1815.  He  published 
"The  Popular  Songs  of  Bretagne,"  (1839,)  with  a  French 
version,  and  other  works. 

Lav'ing-ton,  (George,)  a  learned  English  prelate, 
born  in  Wiltshire  in  1683.  He  became  a  canon  of  Saint 
Paul's,  London,  in  1732,  and  Bishop  of  Exeter  in  1747. 
He  published,  besides  sermons,  **  The  Enthusiasm  of  the 
Methodists  and  Papists  Compared."    Died  in  1762. 

La-vin'i-a,  [Fr.  Lavinie,  li've'ne',]  a  daughter  of 
Latinus,  King  of  Latium,  and  his  wife  Amata,  who 
promised  her  to  Turnus.  She  was  married  to  ^neas 
instead  of  Turnus  because  an  oracle  had  declared  that 
she  should  be  the  wife  of  a  foreign  prince.  She  was  the 
mother  of  yEneas  Sylvius. 

See  Virgil,  "^neid,"  book  vii. 

Lavinie.    See  Lavinia. 

Lavocat,  iS'vo^kS',  (Antofne,)  a  French  mechanician 
and  inventor,  born  near  Nancy  in  1707;  died  in  1788. 

Lavoisier,  la'vwi'ze-i',  (  Antoine  Laurent,  )  an 
illustrious  F"rench  chemical  philosopher,  and  the  chief 
founder  of  modern  chemistry,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the 
26th  of  August,  1743.  After  leaving  the  College  Maza- 
rin,  where  he  obtained  high  honours,  he  pursued  with 
zeal  the  study  of  astronomy,  mathematics,  and  especially 
chemistry.  In  1766  he  gained  the  prize  offered  by  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1763  for  an  improved  method 
of  lighting  the  streets  of  Paris,  and  in  1768  was  chosen 
an  associate  of  that  institution.  About  this  period  he 
entered  the  public  service  as  farmer-general,  in  order  to 
obtain  the  funds  required  for  his  scientific  researches, 
to  which  he  devoted  the  greater  part  of  his  time.  He 
acquired  durable  celebrity  by  the  discovery  of  a  new 
chemical  theory  of  combustion,  (called  the  anti-phlo- 
gistic,) which  was  partially  developed  in  1773  in  a  work 
entitled  "Physical  and  Chemical  Essays,"  ("Opuscules 
physiques  et  chimiques,")  and  which  forms  a  great  epoch 
in  the  science  of  chemistry.  In  a  memoir  which  he  read 
to  the  Academy  in  1775,  he  announced  that  calcination 
and  combustion  are  the  results  of  the  union  of  a  "highly 
respirable  gas"  (oxygen)  with  combustible  bodies,  and 
soon  after  proposed  the  theory  that  the  heat  produced 
during  combustion  was  disengaged  from  that  respirable 
air.  "These  two  propositions,"  says  Cuvier,  "belong 
to  Lavoisier  in  his  own  right,  and  form  the  basis  and 
fundamental  character  of  the  new  chemical  theory."  In 
1776  he  was  appointed  to  superintend  the  fabrication  of 
saltpetre  and  gunpowder,  of  which  he  greatly  improved 
the  quality.  Co-operating  with  other  French  chemists,  he 
rendered  an  important  service  by  reforming  the  chemical 
nomenclature,  and  published  in  1787  "  Method  of  Chemi- 
cal Nomenclature,"  ("Methode  de  Nomenclature  chi- 
mique,")  in  which  a  simple,  systematic,  and  expressive 
terminology  was  substituted  for  the  absurd  or  fanciful 
terms  of  the  alchemists.  He  displayed  his  admirable 
talent  for  explaining  the  truths  which  he  had  discovered 
in  his  "Elementary  Treatise  on  Chemistry,"  ("Traite 
elementaire  de  Chimie,"  2  vols.,  1789.)  He  invented  the 
pneumatic  cistern,  the  gasometer,  and  other  chemical 
apparatus.  His  glorious  career  was  prematurely  closed 
by  an  unjust  suspicion  against  the  farmers  of  the  revenue, 
although  in  this  service  he  had  acquitted  himself  with 
great  honour  and  success.  In  the  reign  of  terror  La- 
voisier and  many  of  his  colleagues  were  condemned  to 
death  on  frivolous  charges,  one  of  which  was  that  they 
moistened  with  water  the  tobacco  of  which  they  had  the 
monopoly.  His  request  for  a  respite  of  a  few  days,  in 
order  to  finish  some  important  experiments,  was  refused, 


and  he  was  executed  in  May,  1794.  About  that  time  he 
had  published  two  volumes  of  a  large  and  important 
work  on  chemical  philosophy,  entitled  "Memoires  de 
Chimie,"  which  remained  unfinished. 

See  article  on  Lavoisier,  by  Cuviek,  in  the  "  Biographie  Univer- 
selle;"  Fouhckoy,  "Notice  sur  Lavoisier,"  1796 ;  J.J.  Le  FRANgois 
DE  L.ALANUE,  '■  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Lavoisier," 
1796:  Dr.  F.  Hoefek,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale;"  KiKEEV.sKY,  "  Histoire  des  Legislateurs-Chimistes  :  Lavoisier, 
Berthollet,  H.  Davy,"  1845. 

Law,  (Edmund,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  metaphy- 
sician, born  in  Lancashire  in  1703,  was  the  father  of  Lord 
Ellenborough.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and, 
while  a  student  there,  published  a  translation  of  King's 
"Essay  on  the  Origin  of  Evil,"  with  notes,  and  an  "  En- 
quiry into  the  Ideas  of  Space  and  Time."  He  became 
rector  of  Graystock,  Cumberland,  in  1737,  and  arch- 
deacon of  Carlisle  in  1743.  Soon  after  this  date  appeared 
his  admired  "Reflections  on  the  Life  and  Character  of 
Christ."  He  was  appointed  master  of  Peter-House, 
Cambridge,  about  1755,  professor  of  casuistry  in  1764, 
and  prebendary  of  lJurham  in  1767.  In  1769  he  was 
made  Bishop  of  Carlisle.  He  published  in  1777  an 
edition  of  the  works  of  Locke,  with  a  life  of  the  author, 
of  whom  he  was  a  disciple.  He  belonged  to  the  rational 
and  liberal  school  of  theology.    Died  in  1787. 

Law,  (Edward.)    See  Ellenborough. 

Law,  (John,)  of  Lauriston,  a  famous  Scottish  pro- 
jector and  financier,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1671, 
and  inherited  an  estate  called  Lauriston.  About  1694 
he  went  to  London,  where,  by  means  of  his  handsome 
figure  and  graceful  address,  he  gained  admission  into 
fashionable  society,  and  supported  himself  by  gaming. 
Having  killed  a  man  in  a  duel,  he  fled  to  the  continent, 
where  he  followed  the  trade  of  a  gambler  with  great 
success  in  Paris,  Venice,  Genoa,  etc.  About  17 15  he 
persuaded  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  Regent  of  France,  to 
favour  a  scheme  by  which  he  promised  to  greatly  im- 
prove the  financial  condition  of  the  kingdom.  In  1716 
he  obtained  a  charter  for  a  general  bank  of  issue  and 
discount,  under  the  name  of  Law  &  Company.  In 
connection  with  this  bank  he  formed  the  Mississippi 
Company,  with  a  capital  of  one  hundred  million  francs, 
and  with  the  exclusive  right  of  the  trade  between  France 
and  Louisiana,  China,  India,  etc.  The  stock  of  these 
companies  was  bought  up  with  avidity,  and  the  former 
was  soon  erected  into  the  Royal  Bank,  with  the  privilege 
of  coining  gold  and  silver.  The  hope  of  enormous  profits 
infatuated  the  public  so  generally  that  the  stock  of  the 
company  rose  to  twenty  times  its  original  value.  In 
January,  1720,  Law  was  appointed  contr die ur -general  o( 
finances,  [i.e.  prime  minister.)  The  fall  of  his  baseless 
fabric  was  sudden  and  ruinous  in  1720,  when  the  public 
confidence  began  to  fail,  and  the  notes  of  his  bank  fell 
to  one-tenth  of  the  nominal  value.  Law  was  compelled 
to  leave  France;  and  he  died  poor  at  Venice  in  1729. 
His  system  is  often  called  the  "  South  Sea  Bubble." 

See  John  Philip  Wood,  "Memoirs  of  John  Law  of  Lauriston," 
1824;  A.  CocHUT,  "Law,  son  Systeme  et  son  fipoque,"  1853;  Le- 
VAssEUR,  "  Recherches  sur  le  Systeme  de  Law,"  1857;  Theodore 
Vial,  "  J.  Law  et  le  Systeme  dii  Papier-Monnaie  de  1716,"  1849; 
J.  Heymann,  "Law  und  sein  System,"  1853;  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Law,  (William,)  a  pious  and  mystical  English  au- 
thor, born  at  King's  Cliff,  Northamptonshire,  in  1686. 
He  became  a  Fellow  of  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
but  forfeited  his  fellowship  by  refusing  to  take  the  re- 
quired oath  at  the  accession  of  George  I.  in  17 14.  He 
lived  some  years  as  tutor  in  the  family  of  Gibbon,  (father 
of  the  historian,)  to  whom  he  was  related,  and  was  after- 
wards chaplain  to  Miss  Hester  Gibbon  at  King's  Cliff. 
He  adopted  the  mystical  doctrines  of  Jacob  Bohme,  (or 
Behmen,)  which  he  inculcated  in  his  "W^ ay  to  Know- 
ledge," "Spirit  of  Love,"  and  "Letters."  Mr.  Law 
published  many  other  works,  of  which  the  most  popular 
is  his  "  Serious  Call  to  a  Devout  and  Holy  Life,"  (1729.) 
This  was  praised  by  Dr.  Johnson  and  by  Gibbon.  "In 
mere  dialectical  skill,"  saytj  Macaulay,  "he  had  very  few 
superiors."   Died  in  176 1. 

See  Richard  Tighe,  "The  Life  and  Writings  of  the  Rev.  Wil- 
liam Law,"  1813. 

Lawes,  lawz,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  English  composer, 
born  probably  at  Salisbury  in  1600.    He  was  one  of  the 


•€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,     guttural;     nasal;     trUUd;  s  as    th  as  in  this^   (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LAWES 


1384 


LAWRENCE 


gentlemen  of  the  royal  chapel,  and  clerk  of  the  cheque 
to  Charles  I.,  in  whose  service  he  continued  until  1649. 
He  composed  the  music  for  Milton's  "Comus,"  (per- 
formed in  1634,)  in  which  the  poet  compliments  him  as 
one 

"Whose  artful  strains  have  oft  delayed 
The  huddling  brook  to  hear  his  madrigal, 
And  sweetened  every  musk-rose  of  the  dale." 

In  1653  he  published  "  Ayres  and  Dialogues,"  consisting 
of  songs,  duets,  and  trios.  "  Milton  probably  took  lessons 
[in  music]  froin  him."  (Masson.)    Died  in  1662, 

Lawes,  (William,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
a  skilful  musician  and  composer,  and  was  one  of  the 
gentlemen  of  the  royal  chapel.  He  fought  for  the  king 
in  the  civil  war,  and  was  killed  at  Chester  in  1645.  He 
composed  music  for  Sandys's  paraphrase  of  the  Psalms, 
and  many  other  works. 

Law'less,  (John,)  an  Irish  agitator  and  orator,  born 
in  Dublin  in  1772,  was  often  called  "honest  Jack  Law- 
less."   Died  in  London  in  1837. 

See  Thomas  McGee,  "Sketches  of  O'Connell  and  his  Friends." 

Lawless,  (Valentine.)    See  Cloncurry. 

Law^rance,  (John,)  a  judge,  born  in  Cornwall,  Eng- 
land, in  1750.  He  emigrated  in  1767  to  the  city  of  New 
York,  where  he  practised  law,  and  rose  to  distinction  in 
his  profession.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Congress  of 
the  Confederation  in  1785-87,  and  represented  the  city 
of  New  York  in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  from 
1789  to  1793.  In  1794  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the 
district  court  for  New  York.  He  was  elected  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States  for  New  York  in  1796,  and  resigned 
his  seat  in  1800.  He  was  a  Federalist,  and  a  personal 
friend  of  Alexander  Hamilton.    Died  in  1810. 

Law'rence,  (Abbott,)  an  eminent  American  mer- 
chant and  philanthropist,  born  in  Groton,  Massachusetts, 
in  1792.  As  the  partner  of  his  brother,  Amos  Law- 
rence, he  acquired  a  large  fortune,  a  portion  of  which 
was  invested  by  them  in  the  cotton-factories  of  Lowell, 
which  owes  its  prosperity  chiefly  to  these  enterprising 
merchants.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1839,  and  in 
1843  was  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  to  settle 
the  northeast  boundary  question  with  Great  Britain.  He 
was  United  States  minister  to  England  in  1849.  He 
died  in  1855.  Among  his  numerous  and  munificent  do- 
nations was  that  of  $100,000  to  Harvard  University  to 
found  the  scientific  school  called  by  his  name.  He  also 
bequeathed  the  sum  of  $50,000  towards  erecting  model 
lodging-houses. 

See  Appi.eton,  "Life  of  Abbott  Lawrence;"  Hunt,  "Lives  of 
American  Merchants." 

Lawrence,  (Amos,)  a  distinguished  philanthropist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Groton,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1786.  Having  acquired  an  immense  fortune 
as  a  merchant,  he  spent  a  great  part  of  it  in  various 
charities  and  donations  to  public  institutions  ;  and  the 
amount  of  his  benefactions  is  estimated  at  $700,000. 
Among  the  colleges  to  which  he  gave  large  sums  were 
Kenyon  College,  Ohio,  Williams  College,  and  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  Bangor,  Maine.  He  died  in  1852, 
and  his  "Life  and  Correspondence"  was  published  by 
his  son  in  1855. 

Law'rence,  (Sir  Henry  Montgomery,)  an  English 
officer,  born  in  Ceylon  in  1806,  served  with  distinction 
in  the  campaigns  of  the  Sutlej.  He  was  apjjointed  presi- 
dent of  the  board  of  government  in  the  Punjaub  about 
1850,  and  chief  commissioner  of  Oude  in  1857.  He 
rendered  important  service  by  the  defence  of  Lucknow 
against  the  mutinous  Sepoys,  and  was  killed  during  the 
siege  of  that  city  in  July,  1857. 

See  J.  W.  Kaye,  "Lives  of  Indian  Officers,"  London,  1867; 
"  Frnser's  Magazine"  for  December,  1857;  "North  British  Review" 
for  May,  i860. 

Lawrence,  (James,)  an  American  naval  officer,  of 
distinguished  bravery,  born  at  Burlington,  New  Jersey, 
in  1 78 1.  He  served  under  Commodore  Decatur  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  succes- 
sively to  the  command  of  the  Vixen,  the  Wasp,  the  Argus, 
and  tlie  Hornet.  In  1813  he  captured  the  Peacock  from 
the  British  after  a  short  engagement,  and  was  soon  after 
made  post-captain,  and  commander  of  the  frigate  Ches- 
apeake.   On  the  1st  of  June,  1813,  he  encountered  near 


Boston  the  British  frigate  Shannon,  and  after  a  severe 

contest,  in  which  he  was  mortally  wounded,  his  vessel 
was  boarded  and  taken  by  the  English.  It  was  on  this 
occasion  that  he  uttered  the  inemorable  words,  "  Don't 
give  up  the  ship."  The  remains  of  Captain  Lawrence 
were  subsequently  removed  to  Trinity  church-yard, 
where  a  monument  has  been  erected  to  him.  He  left  a 
widow  and  two  children.  He  had  been  in  command  of 
the  Chesapeake  only  a  few  days,  and  was  a  stranger  to 
the  crew,  who  were  not  well  disciplined. 

Lawrence,  (John,)  an  English  agriculturist,  born  at 
Colchester  in  1756,  became  a  merchant  in  London.  He 
published  a  "Philosophical  and  Practical  Treatise  on 
Horses,"  and  several  treatises  on  rural  economy.  Died 
about  1836. 

Lawrence,  (Sir  John  Laird  Mair,)  an  English 
administrator  of  great  ability,  a  brother  of  Sir  Henry  M. 
Lawrence,  was  born  in  1810.  He  entered  the  civil  service 
of  the  East  India  Company  about  1830,  and  became  chief 
commissioner  of  the  Punjaub  soon  after  the  conquest  of 
that  country.  He  was  knighted  for  his  services  in  the 
suppression  of  the  mutiny  of  1857,  and  was  appointed 
Governor-General  of  India  in  November,  1863. 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  May,  and  June,  1869; 
"  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1869.  ' 

Lawrence,  (Jonathan,)  an  American  poet  and  law- 
yer, born  in  New  York  in  1807.  He  died  in  1833,  leaving 
a  number  of  poems  and  prose  essays. 

See  Griswoi.d,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Law'rence,  [Lat.  Lauren'tius;  Fr.  Laurent,  15'- 
r6N';  It.  Lorenzo,  lo-rgn'zo ;  Ger.  Lorenz,  lo'rgnts,] 
Saint,  a  martyr,  born  in  Rome  in  the  third  century, 
was  in  257  appointed  by  Pope  Sixtus  treasurer  of  the 
Church.  In  consequence  of  edicts  issued  against  the 
Christians  by  Valerian,  he  suffered  martyrdom  in  258. 
It  is  said  he  was  burned  to  death  on  a  gridiron. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Lawrence,  (Stringer,)  an  English  general,  born  in 
1697,  commanded  in  India  for  many  years.   Died  in  1775. 

Lawrence,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  physician, 
born  in  Westminster  in  171 1.  He  became  a  Fellow  of 
the  College  of  Physicians  in  1744,  and  was  president  of 
the  same  from  1767  to  1774.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Wil- 
liam Harvey,"  and  several  medical  treatises  in  Latin. 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson.  Died  in  1783. 

Lawrence,  (Sir  Thomas,)  a  celebrated  English  por- 
trait-painter, born  at  Bristol  in  1769.  His  artistic  talents 
were  marvellously  developed  in  early  childhood,  when 
he  was  also  remarkable  for  his  memory,  musical  voice, 
and  personal  beauty.  It  is  stated  that  he  drew  with  a 
crayon  accurate  likenesses  of  eminent  persons  about  the 
age  of  six  years.  In  1782  he  became  a  pupil  of  Prince 
Hoare  at  Bath,  and  soon  acquired  the  grace,  inspiration, 
and  delicacy  of  manner  which  rendered  him  unrivalled 
among  contemporary  English  artists  in  the  expression 
of  female  beauty.  He  removed  to  London  in  1787,  and 
was  admitted  as  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1 791.  In  1792  he  succeeded  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as 
first  painter  to  the  king.  From  that  time  he  was  abun- 
dantly patronized  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  guineas  for 
a  full-length  portrait.  In  1797  he  painted  a  portrait  of 
Mrs.  Siddons,  which  is  one  of  his  master-pieces.  Be- 
tween 1814  and  1820  he  painted,  by  order  of  the  prince- 
regent,  the  King  of  Prussia,  the  Emperor  of  Austria, 
Pope  Pius  VII.,  Wellington,  and  many  famous  generals 
and  statesmen.  He  received  the  honour  of  knighthood 
in  181 5,  and  visited  Vienna  and  Rome  in  1819.  On  the 
death  of  Benjamin  West,  in  1820,  Sir  Thomas  was  elected 
president  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Died  in  1830.  He 
excelled  in  the  art  of  imparting  ideal  beauty  to  his  sub- 
jects without  departing  from  the  reality.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  portraits  of  Benjamin  West,  John 
Kemble,  Curran,  Lord  Erskine,  Lady  Cowper,  and  the 
Duchess  of  Sutherland. 

See  D.  E.  Williams,  "  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Sir  T.  Law- 
rence," 3  vols..  1831  ;  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres ;" 
Brvan,  "Dictionary  of  Painters;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  De- 
cember, 1831. 

Lawrence,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  surgeon, 
born  about  1785.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy 
and  surgery  to  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  London, 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


LAWSON 


LAZZARO 


about  i8i6,  and  delivered  "Lectures  on  the  Physiology, 
Zoology,  and  Natural  History  of  Man,"  which  attracted 
much  attention.  Among  his  works  are  "Anatomico- 
Chirurgical  Descriptions  and  Views  of  the  Nose,  Mouth, 
Larynx,  and  Fauces,"  a  "Treatise  on  Ruptures,"  (5th 
edition,  1838,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Eye." 
Died  in  1867. 

Law'son,  (George,)  a  learned  Scottish  divine,  born 
in  West  Linton  in  1749;  died  in  1820.  His  memory 
was  so  extraordinary  that  he  knew  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  Bible  by  heart.  It  was  his  own  belief  that  if  the 
Holy  Scriptures  should  be  destroyed  he  could  restore 
them  all  from  his  memory,  with  the  exception  of  two  or 
three  chapters  in  the  Old  Testament. 

See  the  "  Sketch  of  Professor  George  Lawson"  in  the  "Watch- 
man and  Reflector,"  1867. 

Law^son,  (Henry,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  savant,  born 
at  Greenwich  in  1774.  He  erected  an  observatory  at 
Bath,  and  published  a  "  History  of  the  New  Planets," 
(1847.)    Died  in  1858. 

Lawson,  (Sir  JoHxN,)  an  English  admiral,  born  at 
Hull,  became  a  captain  before  the  end  of  the  civil  war. 
He  co-operated  with  Monk  in  the  restoration  of  Charles 
H.,  and  was  made  rear-admiral.  About  1664  he  and  De 
Ruyter  were  sent  with  combined  fleets  into  the  Medi- 
terranean in  order  to  chastise  the  pirates  of  liarbary. 
He  was  killed  in  a  battle  against  the  Dutch  in  1665. 

See  Campbell,  "Lives  of -the  British  Admirals." 

Lawson,  (John,)  a  native  of  Scotland,  emigrated  to 
America,  where  he  became  surveyor-general  of  North 
Carolina.  He  was  captured  and  put  to  death  by  the 
Lidians  in  1712.  He  published  "A  New  Voyage  to 
Carolina,"  etc.,  (1709.) 

Law'tpn,  (Alexander  R.,)  an  American  officer,  born 
in  Georgia  about  1820,  became  a  brigadier-general  in  the 
Confederate  army  in  1861. 

Lax,  (Rev.  William,)  an  English  astronomer,  born  in 
^75 1.  He  became  professor  of  astronomy  and  geometry 
at  Cambridge  in  1795.    Died  in  1836. 

Laxmann,  l^ks'mdn,  (Adam,)  a  Russian  officer,  who 
in  1792  was  sent  by  his  government  to  Japan  for  the 
purpose  of  opening  commercial  intercourse  with  the 
Japanese.  He  failed  in  this  object,  and  wrote  a  succinct 
narrative  of  his  journey. 

Lay,  (Benjamin,)  an  eccentric  philanthropist,  born  in 
England,  became  a  resident  of  Abington,  Pennsylvania. 
He  was  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  zealous  opponents 
of  slavery  in  the  United  States,  and  the  coadjutor  of 
Franklin  and  Benezet.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  Friends,  in  which  he  bore  a  faithful  testimony  against 
the  practice  of  slaveholding,  then  prevalent  among  them. 
He  resolutely  refused  to  i)artake  of  any  food  or  wear  any 
clothing  which  was  wholly  or  in  part  produced  by  the 
labour  of  slaves.    Died  in  1760. 

See  "Life  of  Benjamin  Lay,"  by  R.  Vaux,  Philadelphia,  1815. 

Laya,  It'yf,  (Alexandre,)  a  French  jurist  and 
writer,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1806.  He  published  a  work 
on  English  law,  "Droit  Anglais,  ou  Resume  de  la  Legis- 
lation Anglaise,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1845,)  and  "Studies  on 
the  Life  of  M.  Thiers,"  (2  vols.,  1846.) 

Laya,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  dramatist,  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1761.  His  comedy 
"  The  Friend  of  the  Laws"  was  received  with  great 
favour  in  1793,  but  was  proscribed  by  the  terrorists. 
He  wrote  various  other  works,  and  was  chosen  a  mem- 
ber of  the  French  Academy  in  181 7.    Died  in  1833. 

See  "Notice  biographique  sur  J.  L.  Laya,"  Paris,  1833;  "Nou- 
velle  Hiographie  Generale." 

Laya,  (L^:on,)  a  French  dramatist,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Paris  in  1809.  He  produced  many 
popular  comedies,  amc)ng  which  are  "Emma,  or  the 
Giinrdian  Angel,"  (1844,)  and  "An  April  Fool,"  ("Un 
Poisson  d'Avril,"  1845.) 

Lay'ard,  (Austen  Henry,)  an  Orientalist  and  anti- 
quary, a  grandson  of  the  following,  was  born  in  Paris,  of 
English  parents,  in  March,  1817.  He  visited  Asia  Minor, 
Persia,  etc.  about  1840,  and  a  few  years  later  discovered 
the  ruins  of  Nineveh  near  Mosul.  Under  the  auspices 
of  I^ord  Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  and  in  conjunction  with 
M.  Botta,  he  made  extensive  excavations  at  Nimroud, 
where  he  found  monuments  marked  with  cuneiform 


inscriptions,  and  colossal  emblematic  figures  in  the  form 
of  winged  bulls  and  lions, — memorials  of  a  civilization 
which  existed  before  the  commencement  of  profane  his- 
tory. These  sculptures,  bas-reliefs,  etc.  are  now  deposited 
in  the  British  Museum.  Mr.  Layard  returned  to  England 
in  1847,  '^'''d  published  an  account  of  his  researches  in 
"  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,"  (2  vols.,  1849.)  He  resumed 
the  enterprise  in  1849,  and  published  a  second  work, 
entitled  "  Discoveries  in  the  Ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Baby- 
lon, with  Travels  in  Armenia,  Kurdistan,  and  the  Desert," 
(1853.)  In  1852  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament. 
He  was  under-secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs  from 
August,  1 86 1,  to  June,  1866.  He  is  a  member  of  the 
Liberal  party.  In  December,  1868,  he  was  appointed 
commissioner  of  public  works,  and  ambassador  to  Spain 
in  1869. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1848 ;  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  April,  1849  ;  "  North  British  Review"  for  May,  1853. 

Layard,  (Charles  Peter,)  an  English  divine,  of 
French  descent,  born  about  1748,  was  grandfather  of 
the  preceding.  He  obtained  the  Seatonian  prize  for 
poetry  at  Cambridge  about  1774.  In  1800  he  was 
appointed  Dean  of  Bristol.    Died  in  1803. 

Layens,  de,  deh  IT'ens  or  li'ydN',  (  Mathieu,  )  a 
Flemish  architect  of  Louvain.  He  designed  the  Hotel- 
de-Ville  of  Louvain,  an  excellent  specimen  of  what  is 
termed  ogival  architecture.    Died  in  1484. 

Laynez.    See  Lainez,  (Jago.) 

Lazare.    See  Lazarus. 

Laz'a-rus,  [Gr.  Au^apof  ;  Fr.  Lazare,  It'ztR' ;  It.  Laz- 
zaro,  lit'si-ro,]  one  of  the  personal  friends  of  Christ,  and 
a  brother  of  Mary  and  Martha.  The  Saviour  wrought 
one  of  his  most  memorable  miracles  by  recalling  Lazarus 
to  life  after  he  had  been  dead  four  days. 

See  John  xi.  and  xii. 

Lazeri.lSd-za'ree,  ?  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  writer  on  eccle- 
siastical history,  born  at  Sienna  in  1710;  died  in  1789. 

Lazius,  ISt'se-iis,  (Wolegang,)  a  German  antiquary, 
born  at  Vienna  in  15 14,  practised  medicine  in  that  city. 
About  1550  the  emperor  Ferdinand  appointed  him  his 
physician.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "On 
the  Migrations  of  Nations  and  Origin  of  Languages," 
etc.,  ("  De  Gentium  aliquot  Migrationibus,  Linguarumque 
Initiis,"  etc.,  1557.)    Died  in  1565. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  Sax,  "  Onomasticon." 

Lazzarelli,  lit-sS-reKlee,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an 
Italian  satirical  poet,  born  at  Gubbio  in  1621.  His 
principal  works  are  "La  Cicceide,"  a  personal  satire, 
and  "  Cosmopoli,"  (1691.)  "  He  was,"  says  Tiraboschi, 
"among  the  small  number  of  poets  who  did  not  follow 
the  bad  taste  oi  his  age."    Died  in  1694. 

Lazzarelli,  (Luigi,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  at  San  Seve- 
rino  in  1450.  He  wrote  "  The  Cup  of  Hermes,"  ("  Crater 
Hermetis,")  and  "  Bombyx,"  a  poem  on  silk-worms, 
(15 18.)    Died  in  1500. 

Lazzari.    See  Bramante,  (Donato  Lazzari.) 

Lazzariui,  lit-si-ree'nee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  near  Macerata  in  1668.  He  composed  a 
few  dramas,  sonnets,  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1734. 

Lazzarini,  (Giovanni  Andrea,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter  and  elegant  writer,  was  born  at  Pesaro  in  1710, 
and  became  a  canon  of  the  church.  His  master-piece 
is  a  "  Virgin  with  Saint  Catherine,"  (at  Gualda,)  some 
figures  of  which  Lanzi  pronounces  "truly  Raffaelesque." 
He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Painting,"  which 
was  often  reprinted.  Died  in  1786,  or,  as  others  say,  in 
1801.  "  Lazzarini  was  perfectly  master  of  good  painting 
as  well  as  good  writing,"  says  Lanzi ;  "easy,  yet  always 
studied  in  every  part ;  at  once  noble  and  graceful,  .  . 
yet  free  from  affectation  and  parade." 

See  MoNTANARi,  "  Biografia  del  Canonico  G.  A.  Lazzarini," 
1836:  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Fantuzzi,  "  Notizie 
del  Canonico  Lazzarini." 

Lazzarini,  (Gregorio,)  an  Italian  painter  of  history, 
born  at  Venice  in  1655.  He  excelled  in  design  and 
colouring.  His  "  S.  Lorenzo  Giustiniani"  was  greatly 
adnn'red.  He  was  one  of  the  best  Venetian  painters 
of  his  time.    Died  in  1730  or  1740. 

See  L  \NZi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Lazzaro.    See  Lazarus. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  y.^ guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (Sl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEA 


LEBAS 


Lea,  lee,  (Henry  C.,)  a  son  of  Isaac  Lea,  noticed 
below,  and  a  grandson  of  Mathew  Carey,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  September  19,  1825.  He  wrote  Supersti- 
tion and  Force — Essays  on  the  Wager  of  Law,  the  Wager 
of  Battle,,  the  Ordeal  and  Torture,"  (1866,)  and  "  Studies 
in  Church  History,"  etc.,  (1869.)  Mr.  Lea  is  the  present 
representative  of  the  celebrated  publishing-house  estab- 
lished towards  the  close  of  the  last  century  by  Mathew 
Carey  &  Sons,  which  for  a  long  period  held  the  first 
place  among  all  the  establishments  of  the  kind  in  the 
United  States. 

Lea,  (Isaac,)  LL.D,,  an  American  naturalist,  born 
at  Wilmington,  Delaware,  in  1792.  He  became  in  1821 
the  partner  of  his  father-in-law,  Mathew  Carey,  a  promi- 
nent publisher  in  Philadelphia.  His  "Observations  on 
the  Genus  Unio"  came  out  in  1827,  and  was  followed 
by  "Contributions  to  Geology,"  (1833.)  He  also  pub- 
lished "  Fossil  Footmarks  in  the  Red  Sandstones  of 
Pottsville,"  "  Synopsis  of  the  Family  of  Naiades,"  and 
other  scientific  treatises.  He  was  elected  president  of 
the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia,  in  1858. 
Mr.  Lea's  contributions  on  conchology  to  the  "Trans- 
actions" of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  are 
esteemed  among  the  most  valuable  that  have  appeared 
on  that  subject. 

Lea,  (Thomas  Gibson,)  a  botanist,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Wilmington,  Delaware,  in  1785  ; 
died  in  1844. 

Leach,  leech,  (William  Elford,)  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish naturalist  and  physician,  born  at  Plymouth  in  1790. 
He  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  Edinburgh  about  1812, 
and  was  appointed  curator  of  the  natural  history  depart- 
ment of  the  British  Museum  in  1813.  Thenceforth  he 
devoted  his  time  to  the  study  of  natural  history,  espe- 
cially zoology.  In  181 5  he  published  the  first  part  of 
his  excellent  "History  of  the  British  Crustacea,"  which 
was  never  completed.  He  largely  promoted  the  intro- 
duction into  England  of  the  natural  system  which  La- 
marck and  Cuvier  had  adopted.  About  182 1  he  resigned 
the  place  of  curator,  on  account  of  ill  health.  Died  in 
Italy  in  1836. 

Lead  or  Ledde,  l§d,  (Jane,)  an  English  mystical 
writer,  born  in  1623,  was  a  disciple  of  Jacob  Bohmen. 
She  wrote  a  number  of  works,  among  which  is  "The 
Wonders  of  the  Creation  in  Eight  Different  Worlds,  as 
they  were  revealed  to  the  Author,"  (1695.)    Died  in  1704. 

See  Lke,  "Life  of  Jane  Lead." 

Leake,  leek,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
Surrey  in  1656,  was  the  son  of  Captain  Richard  Leake, 
noticed  below.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  battle 
of  La  Hogue,  in  1692,  and  displayed  skill  as  commander 
at  Gibraltar  in  1705.  He  commanded  the  fleet  which 
took  Alicante,  Majorca,  etc.  in  1706.  In  1707  he  was 
made  an  admiral  and  chosen  commander-in-chief  of  the 
fleet,  and  in  1709  became  a  lord  of  the  admiralty.  Died 
in  1720. 

See  S.  M.  Leake,  "  Life  of  Sir  John  Leake,"  1750. 

Leake,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  born  at  Ain- 
stable.  He  practised  with  success  in  London,  and  ex- 
celled in  obstetrics.  He  wrote  treatises  "  On  Puerperal 
Fever,"  the  "Diseases  of  Women,"  etc.    Died  in  1792. 

Leake,  (Richard,)  an  English  naval  officer,  born  at 
Harwich  in  1629.  He  displayed  great  courage  in  a  battle 
against  the  Dutch  in  1673,  and  was  appointed  master- 
gunner  of  England.    Died  about  1690. 

Leake,  (Stephen  Martin,)  a  nephew  of  Sir  John, 
noticed  above,  was  born  in  England  in  1702.  He  ob- 
tained a  high  office  in  the  Heralds'  College,  and  pub- 
lished a  "History  of  British  Coins,"  (1726,)  and  a  "Life 
Df  Sir  John  Leake,"  (1750.)    Died  in  1774. 

Leake,  (Colonel  William  Martin,)  an  English  trav- 
eller, distinguished  by  his  researches  in  the  antiquities 
of  Greece,  was  born  in  1777.  Having  obtained  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  army,  he  commenced  about 
1800  his  travels  in  Asia  Minor,  the  Morea,  and  other 
parts  of  Greece.  He  returned  to  England  in  1810,  and 
afterwards  published  a  number  of  valuable  works, — viz., 
"  Researches  in  Greece,"(i  814,)"  Topography  of  Athens," 
(1821,)  "Travels  in  the  Morea,"  (1830,)  "Travels  in 
Northern  Greece,"  (1835,)  and  "Numismata  Hellenica," 
a  catalogue  of  Greek  coins,  (1854.)    By  his  thorough 


research  and  critical  sagacity  he  has  done  more,  probably, 
than  any  other  traveller  to  illustrate  the  history  and 
geography  of  ancient  and  modern  Greece.  Died  in  i860. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1814. 

Le-an'der,  [Gr.  Keiavdpog ;  Fr.  L^andre,  Ik'SNdR',] 
a  youth  of  Abydos,  and  a  lover  of  Hero.  He  swam 
across  the  Hellespont  every  night  to  visit  Hero  at  Sestos. 
As  he  was  once  attempting  to  cross  in  a  storm,  he  was 
drowned.    (See  Hero.) 

Leander,  [Fr.  L^andre,]  Saint,  Archbishop  of  Sev- 
ille, in  Spain,  was  a  brother  of  Saint  Isidore.  He  was 
a  zealous  opponent  of  Arianism.  He  died  about  600 
A.D.,  leaving  a  work  " De  Institutione  Virginum,"  ("On 
the  Education  of  Virgins.") 

Leandre.    See  Leander. 

Leang-Oo-Tee,  (or  -Ou-Ti,)  lining'  oo'tee.  Emperor 
of  China,  and  founder  of  the  Leang  dynasty,  usurped  the 
throne  about  502  A.D.  Through  devotion  to  the  doc- 
trines of  Fo  and  the  mysticism  of  the  Bonzes,  (priests 
of  Fo  or  Booddha,)  he  neglected  the  care  of  the  empire. 
He  died  in  549,  soon  after  he  had  been  dethroned  by 
one  of  his  officers,  Heoo-King. 

Leao.    See  Leo. 

Leao,  la-6vvN',  or  Liao,  do,  do  Ic-own',  (Duarte 
Nunez,)  a  Portuguese  historian,  born  at  Ev'ora  in  1608. 

Lea'ppr,  (Mary,)  an  English  poetess,  born  in  North- 
amptonshire in  1722,  was  the  daughter  of  a  gardener, 
and  received  the  usual  education  of  the  lower  class.  At 
her  death,  in  1746,  she  gave  her  father  several  poems 
which  she  had  kept  secret,  and  which  have  considerable 
merit.    One  of  them  is  called  "The  Temple  of  Love." 

Lear,  leer,  (Tobias,)  a  diplomatist,  born  at  Ports- 
mouth, New  Hampshire,  about  1760.  He  became  pri- 
vate secretary  to  General  Washington  in  1785,  and 
negotiated  a  peace  Vv^ith  Tripoli  in  1805.    Died  in  1816. 

Le-ar'-ehus,  [Gr.  Keapiog ;  Fr.  L6arque,  Ik'tRk',]  an 
ancient  Greek  statuary  of  Rhegium,  lived  about  600  or 
700  B.C.  Pausanias  states  that  he  saw  at  Sparta  a  bronzQ 
statue  of  Jupiter  executed  by  Learchus. 

Learque.    See  Learchus. 

Lebaillif,  leh  bt'y^f,  (Alexandre  Claude  Martin,) 
a  French  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Saint-Fargeau  in 
1764.  He  constructed  excellent  micrometers  and  elec- 
trometers, and  invented  a  sideroscope.    Died  in  1831. 

Lebailly,  leh-bt'ye',  (Antoine  Franqois,)  a  French 
fabulist,  born  at  Caen  in  1756.  He  published  a  collec- 
tion of  fables  in  1784,  and  another  in  1811.  They  are 
praised  for  wit,  imagination,  style,  and  good  morality. 
He  also  wrote  operas,  etc.    Died  in  1832. 

Lebarbier,  leh-btR^be-i',  (Jean  Jacques  Francois,) 
a  French  historical  painter,  born  at  Rouen  in  1738, 
worked  in  Paris.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy.    Died  in  1826. 

Lebas  or  Le  Bas,  leh-bS',  (Jacques  Philippe,)  an 
eminent  French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1707.  He 
was  for  a  long  time  the  most  popular  of  French  engravers. 
In  1743  he  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Painting. 
He  engraved  many  works  of  Teniers,  Wouwerman,  and 
Vernet,  and  some  of  his  own  designs,  which  are  also 
admired.  In  1782  he  received  the  title  of  engraver  to 
the  king.    Died  in  1784. 

See  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Lebas  or  Le  Bas,  (Jean  Baptiste  Apolltnaire,) 
a  French  engineer,  born  in  the  department  of  Var  in 
1797.  He  superintended  the  removal  of  an  obelisk  from 
Luxor,  Egypt,  to  Paris  in  1836,  and  published  an  account 
of  that  difficult  enterprise. 

Le  Bas,  (Louis  Hippolyte,)  a  French  architect,  born 
in  Paris  in  1782.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
His  principal  works  are  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  de 
Lorette,  commenced  about  1825,  and  the  prison  of  La 
Roquette,  Paris. 

Lebas,  (Philippe,)  a  French  archaeologist,  son  of  the 
succeeding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1794.  He  became  in 
1820  the  preceptor  of  Louis  Napoleon,  (late  emperor,) 
returned  to  France  in  1828,  and  in  1842  was  sent  on 
a  scientific  mission  to  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  The 
results  of  this  mission  were  published  by  order  of  the 
government  in  his  "Antiquarian  Journey  in  Greece  and 
Asia  Minor,"  ("  Voyage  archeologique  en  Grece  et  en 
Asie  Mineure,"  about  12  vols.,  1847  et  seq.) 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  flll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LEBAS  1387  LEBRUN 


Lebas,  (Philippe  Franqois,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born 
near  Arras  in  1765.  He  became  the  devoted  personal 
friend  and  partisan  of  Robespierre,  and  voted  for  the 
death  of  the  king  in  the  Convention.  As  the  commis- 
sary of  the  Convention  in  the  departments  of  the  Rhine, 
he  seconded  Saint-Just  in  the  direction  of  the  army,  and 
arrested  several  generals.  At  his  own  request,  he  was 
included  in  the  decree  against  Robespierre  on  the  9th 
Thermidor,  1794,  and  killed  himself  on  the  same  day. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoiy  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Lebeau  or  Le  Beau,  leh-b5^  (Charles,)  a  learned 
French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1701.  He  obtained 
the  chair  of  eloquence  in  the  College  of  France  in  1752, 
and  was  chosen  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions  in  1755.  He  published  Latin  verses,  ("Car- 
mina,"  3  vols.,  1782,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Lower  Em- 
pire from  the  Time  of  Constantine  the  Great,"  ("  Histoire 
du  Bas-Empire  en  commen^ant  a  Constantin  le  Grand," 
22  vols.  i2mo,  1757-79,)  which  is  a  judicious  and  accu- 
rate resume  of  the  Byzantine  historians,  but  is  faulty 
in  style.  Having  been  left  unfinished  by  Lebeau,  it  was 
completed  by  Ameilhon  and  published 'in  twenty-seven 
volumes.  A  revised  edition  was  published  by  Saint- 
Martin  and  Brosset,  (21  vols.,  1836.)    Died  in  1778. 

See  Charles  F.  Dupuis,  "  filoge  de  C.  Lebeau,"  1779;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  July  and  August, 
1770. 

Lebeau,  (Jean  Louis  Joseph,)  a  Belgian  minister  of 
state,  born  at  Huy  in  1794.  He  was  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  from  April,  1840,  to  April,  1841.    Died  in  1865. 

See  L.  DE  LoMENiE,  "M.  Lebeau,  parun  Homme  de  Rien,"  1844. 

Lebedef,  l^b'eh-dgf,  (Guerasim  or  Herasim,)  a 
Russian  traveller  and  Orientalist,  born  in  1 749.  He 
passed  some  years  at  Madras  and  Calcutta,  and  pub- 
lished a  "Grammar  of  the  Pure  and  Mixed  East  Indian 
Dialects,"  (London,  1801.)    Died  after  1815. 

Lebeed,  Lebid,  or  Lebyd,  leb-eed^  a  popular  Ara- 
bian poet,  born  about  530  A.D.  He  had  acquired  a  great 
reputation  when,  at  the  age  of  ninety,  he  was  converted 
to  Islamism  by  Mohammed,  whom  he  followed  in  his 
flight  to  Medina.  Under  the  reign  of  Omar  he  settled 
at  Koofah,  where  he  died  about  673  a.d.,  at  the  extra- 
ordinary age  of  one  hundred  and  forty-five.  Another 
account  states  that  he  died  in  662,  aged  about  ninety. 
His  poems  are  said  to  abound  in  original  ideas. 

See  De  Sacy,  "  Notice  sur  le  Poete  Lebyd ;"  D'HeRBELOT, 
"  Biblioiheque  Orientale ;"  Caussin  de  Perceval,  "  Essai  sur 
I'Histoire  des  Arabes." 

Leberecht,  von,  fon  la'beh-r^Kt^  (Karl,)  a  German 
engraver  of  medals,  born  at  Meiningen  in  1749.  He 
settled  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1775,  and  became  in  1800 
director  of  the  Russian  mint,  or  Cour  des  Monnaies. 
Died  in  1827. 

Le  Berriays,  leh  bi're'i',  (Ren^:,)  a  French  horticul- 
turist, born  near  Avranches  in  1722,  wrote  a  valuable 
"Treatise  on  Gardens,"  (2  vols.,  1775.)    Died  in  1807. 

Lebeuf,  leh-buf,  (Jean,)  a  French  antiquary  and 
priest,  born  at  Auxerre  in  1687.  In  1740  he  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  for  which  he 
wrote  many  memoirs.  He  published  several  dissertations 
on  French  history.    Died  in  1760. 

Lebid.    See  Lebeed. 

Leblanc  or  Le  Blanc,  leh-bl6N',  (Franqois,)  a 
French  numismatist,  born  in  Dauphine  ;  died  in  1698. 

Leblanc  or  Le  Blanc,  (Jean  Bernard,)  Abb^:,  a 
mediocre  French  writer,  born  at  Dijon  in  1 707.  He 
published  various  works,  two  of  which  had  a  transient 
popularity,  viz.,  "Abensaid,"  a  tragedy,  and  "Letters 
of  a  Frenchman  on  the  English  Nation,"  (3  vols.,  1745.) 
Died  in  1781. 

Leblanc,  (Louis,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  at  Pon- 
toise,  practised  at  Orleans  about  1770. 

Le  Blanc  or  Leblanc,  (Marcel,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
who  was  sent  to  Siam  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  He 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  English,  and  not  released 
until  1690.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Revolutions 
of  Siam,"  (1692.)    Died  at  Mozambique  in  1693. 

Le  Blanc,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  chemist,  born  at 
Issoudun  in  1753,  was  attached  as  a  surgeon  to  the 
household  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  He  discovered  about 
1790  a  method  of  obtaining  soda  from  sea-salt,  and  thus 


rendered  an  important  service  to  the  industrial  arts. 
Died  in  1806. 

Le  Blanc,  (Thomas,)  a  French  author,  born  at  Vitry 
in  1599,  wrote  many  works  for  the  promotion  of  religion 
and  morality.    Died  in  1669. 

Leblanc  de  Castillon,  leh-bl6N'  deh  kts'te'y6N', 
(Jean  FRANgois  Andr^,)  a  French  magistrate,  born  at 
Aix  in  1719,  was  eminent  for  his  legal  knowledge  and 
eloquence.    Died  in  1800. 

Leblanc  de  Guillet,  leh-bl6N'  deh  ge'yi',  (Antoine 
Blanc,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1730. 
He  produced,  besides  other  works,  two  tragedies,"  Manco 
Capac,"  (1763,)  and  "The  Druids,"  (1772.)  Died  in  1799. 

Leblond,  ]eh-bl6N',  (Auguste  Savinien,)  a  French 
naturalist  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1760.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "Dictionary  of  Celebrated  Men  of  Antiquity 
and  Modern  Times,"  (2  vols.,  1802.)    Died  in  1811. 

Leblond  or  Le  Blond,  (Gaspard  Michel,)  a  French 
antiquary  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Caen  in  1738,  lived 
in  Paris.  He  was  keeper  of  the  Mazarin  Library,  and 
a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  wrote  several  treatises 
on  medals.    Died  in  1809. 

Leblond,  (  Guillaume,  )  a  French  mathematician, 
born  in  Paris  in  1704.  He  was  selected  in  1751  by  Louis 
XV.  to  teach  mathematics  to  the  princes-royal.  He 
published  "Elements  of  Fortification,"  "Elements  of 
Tactics,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1781. 

Leblond,  (Jean  Baffiste,)  a  French  naturalist,  born 
at  Toulongeon  in  1747.  He  travelled  in  South  America 
many  years  between  1767  and  1802,  and  published 
"Travels  in  the  Antilles  and  South  America,"  (1813.) 
Died  in  1815. 

Lebon  or  Le  Bon,  leh-b^N',  (Jean,)  a  French  medi- 
cal writer,  born  in  Champagne,  was  physician  to  Charles 
IX.    He  published  numerous  works,  (1554-76.) 

Lebon,  (Joseph,)  a  French  revolutionist,  who  ren- 
dered his  name  infamous  by  his  cruelties,  was  born  at 
Arras  in  1765.  He  became  a  partisan  of  Robespierre 
and  a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1 793.  He  was 
executed  in  1795. 

Lebon,  (Philippe,)  a  French  chemist  and  engineer, 
born  near  Joinville  in  1769.  He  is  said  to  have  invented 
the  use  of  gas  for  illumination.    Died  in  1804. 

Lebossu,  leh-bo'sii',  (Rene,)  a  French  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1631.  He  joined  the  canons-regular  of  Saint- 
Genevieve  in  1649,  and  taught  the  humanities  in  various 
schools.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Epic  Poetry," 
(1675,)  which  was  praised  by  Boileau  as  one  of  the  best 
works  on  poetry  that  have  appeared  in  the  language. 
Died  in  1680. 

Le  Boucq,  leh  book,  (Simon,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  at  Valenciennes  in  1591.  He  wrote  on  the  history 
and  antiquities  of  Valenciennes.    Died  in  1657. 

Le  Bouvier,  leh-boo've-^',  (Gilles,)  a  French  chroni- 
cler, born  at  Bourges  in  1386,  wrote  a  "  History  of 
Charles  VII.  of  France."    Died  about  1460. 

Lebret,  la'bR^t  or  leh-bR^',  (Johann  Friedrich,) 
born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1732,  wrote  a  "History  of  Ger- 
many," (1772,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1807. 

Lebreton  or  Le  Breton,  leh-bReh-toN',  (Andr6 
Fran(;:ois,)  a  French  bookseller,  born  in  Paris  in  1708. 
He  was  the  publisher  of  Diderot's  "  Encyclopedic," 
commenced  in  1751,  and  took  the  liberty  to  suppress 
or  modify  furtively  some  passages  which  were  offensive 
to  the  court  and  clergy.  Diderot  was  extremely  angry 
when  he  detected  the  fact.    Died  in  1779. 

Lebreton,  (Joachim,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in 
Bretagne  in  1760  ;  died  at  Rio  Janeiro  in  1819. 

Leiareton,  (Theodore,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Rouen 
in  1803.  He  was  befriended  by  Beranger  and  Lamar- 
tine,  and  published  a  collection  of  poems,  "  Leisure 
Hours  of  a  Workman,"  ("  Heures  de  Repos  d'un  Ou- 
vrier,"  1837.) 

Lebrixa,  (Antonio.)    See  Nebrissensis. 

Lebrun  or  Le  Brun,  leh-brim',  (Anne  Charles,) 
Duke  of  Piacenza,  (Plaisance,)  a  French  general,  born  in 
Paris  in  1775,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  statesman  C.  F. 
Lebrun.  He  was  aide-de-camp  of  Desaix  at  Marengo, 
(1800,)  distinguished  himself  at  Jena,  (1806,)  and  became 
a  general  of  brigade  in  1807.  He  was  an  aide  to  Napo- 
leon at  Eylau  and  Wagram  in  1809,  and  was  made  a 


«  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,    guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^(^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEBR  UN 


LECCHI 


general  of  division  in  1812.  During  the  Hundred  Days 
he  took  the  field  for  Napoleon.  He  inherited  the  title 
of  duke  in  1824.  In  1852  he  was  appointed  a  senator. 
Died  in  1859. 

See  "  15iographie  des  Membres  du  Senat,"  1852. 

Lebrun  or  Le  Brun,  (Antoine  Louis,)  a  French 
poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1680,  wrote  verses  in  Latin  and 
French.  Among  his  best  works  is  a  collection  of  fables, 
(1722.)  Voltaire  iin])uted  to  Lebrun  the  authorship 
of  the  satire  for  which  the  former  was  confined  in  the 
Bastille.    Died  in  1743. 

Lebrun  or  Le  Bi'uii,  (Charles,)  a  celebrated  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  March,  1619.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Vouet  in  Paris,  and  afterwards  studied  six  years  with 
Poussin  at  Rome.  In  1648  he  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Painting,  and,  having  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation, he  became  first  painter  to  Louis  XIV.  in  or  before 
1662.  He  displayed  his  genius  as  a  painter,  and  his  ex- 
traordinary powers  of  invention,  in  a  series  of  pictures  of 
the  battles  of  Alexander  the  Great,  which  are  among  his 
most  admired  productions.  "The  Family  of  Darius"  is 
called  his  master-piece.  He  was  appointed  president 
of  the  Royal  Academy  and  director  of  the  Gobelin 
manufactory,  and  exercised  a  sort  of  dictatorship  in 
the  arts  for  many  years.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on 
Physiognomy."    Died  in  1690. 

See  Felibien,  "Vies  des  Peintres ;"  Charles  Blanc,  "  His- 
toire  des  Peintres;"  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lebrun  or  Le  Brun,  (Charles  Francois,)  Duke  of 
Piacenza,  a  French  statesman  and  author,  born  in  Nor- 
mandy in  1739.  He  was  versed  in  ancient  and  modern 
languages.  He  composed  many  discourses  and  edicts 
for  his  patron  Maupeou  during  his  contest  with  the  par- 
liaments. In  1776  he  published  an  esteemed  version 
of  Homer's  "Iliad."  Elected  to  the  States-General  in 
1789,  he  acted  with  the  moderate  friends  of  reform. 
Lebrun  became  one  of  the  ablest  members  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Elders  in  1796,  and  was  appointed  Third  Consul 
by  Bonaparte  in  1799.  He  enjoyed  the  confidence  of 
the  First  Consul,  (who  afterwards  designated  him  as  one 
of  the  best  writers  of  France,  and  a  man  of  strict  probity.) 
He  was  appointed  chief  treasurer  in  1804,  and  made  Duke 
of  Piacenza  (Plaisance)  in  1808.  In  1810  he  was  chosen 
Viceroy  or  Lieutenant-General  of  Holland,  the  throne  of 
which  Louis  Bonaparte  had  just  resigned.  The  Dutch 
were  pleased  with  his  modest  temper  and  methodical 
habits.  From  181 1  to  1813  inclusive  he  was  Governor- 
General  of  Holland.  He  published  an  admired  version 
of  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1824. 

See  Marie  du  Mesnil,  "  M^moire  sur  le  Prince  Lebrun,  Due 
de  Plaisance,"  1828  ;  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution  ;" 
"  Opinions,  Rapports  et  Choix  d'ficrits  politiques  de  C.  F.  Lebrun," 
preceded  by  a  "  Natice  biographique"  by  his  son  Charles,  1828; 
•'Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lebrun,  (Denis,)  a  French  jurist,  became  an  advo- 
cate in  the  Parliament  of  Paris  in  1659  ;  died  in  1706. 

Lebrun,  (Jean  Bapttste  Pierre,)  a  French  picture- 
dealer,  critic,  and  amateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1748.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  best  connoisseur  of  paintings  in 
Europe.  His  wife,  in  her  "  Souvenirs,"  says  he  ruined 
her  fortune  by  his  passion  for  gaming  and  other  vices. 
They  lived  separately  many  years.  Died  in  1813.  He 
published  a  "  Gallery  of  Flemish,  Dutch,  and  German 
Painters,"  containing  two  hundred  plates. 

Lebrun,  leh-briiN',  (Karl  August,)  born  at  Halber- 
stadt,  in  Germany,  in  1792,  acquired  celebrity  as  an  actor, 
and  wrote  several  successful  dramas.    Died  in  1842. 

Lebrun,  Madame,  {jiee  Marie  Louise  Elisabeth 
Vigee — ve'zhi',)  a  French  lady,  eminent  for  her  beauty 
and  her  skill  as  a  portrait-painter,  was  born  in  1755.  In 
1776  she  was  married  to  J.  B.  P.  Lebrun,  a  painter  and 
dealer  in  pictures.  She  became  a  fashionable  artist,  and 
was  welcomed  in  aristocratic  society  as  an  accomplished 
woman.  Between  1779  and  1789  she  painted  several 
portraits  of  Marie  Antoinette.  Her  soirees  were  thronged 
with  people  of  rank  and  celebrity.  After  her  return  to 
Paris,  in  1801,  she  painted  Lord  Byron,  Madame  de  Stael, 
etc.  In  1835  she  published  well-written  "Souvenirs" 
of  her  life.  The  number  of  her  portraits  is  over  six 
hundred.    Died  in  1842. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1837. 


Lebrun,  (  Pierre,  )  a  French  theologian,  born  at 
Brignolles  in  1661,  was  professor  in  several  colleges. 
He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "Critical  History  of 
Superstitious  Practices  which  have  seduced  the  People," 
(1702.)    Died  in  1729. 

Lebrun,  (Pierre,)  a  French  lawyer,  born  at  Mont- 
pellier  in  1761.  He  wrote  agreeable  verses,  and  was 
the  author  of  the  version  of  Horace's  "  Ars  Poetica" 
published  by  Count  Daru,  who  was  his  brother-in-law. 
Died  in  1810. 

Lebrun,  (Pierre  Antoine,)  a  popular  French  lyric 
and  dramatic  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1785.  In  1805  he 
received  a  pension  for  his  "  Ode  to  the  Grand  Army." 
His  tragedy  "  Ulysses"  was  received  with  favour  in  1814. 
After  the  restoration  he  produced  "  Joan  of  Arc"  and 
other  odes,  and  a  poem  on  the  death  of  Napoleon, 
(1821,)  which  was  much  admired.  His  drama  "Marie 
Stuart"  (1820)  had  a  great  success,  and  is  called  his 
capital  work.  In  1828  he  was  elected  to  the  French 
Academy  in  place  of  Fran9ois  de  Neufchateau.  From 
183 1  to  1848  he  was  director  of  the  royal  printing-estab- 
lishment, and  in  1839  he  was  admitted  to  the  Chamber 
of  Peers.    He  became  a  senator  in  1853. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Portraits  con  teraporains ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Lebrun,  (Pierre  Henri  H6lene  Marie  Tondu,)  a 
French  Girondist,  born  at  Noyon  in  1763.  He  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  August,  1792,  and 
was  executed  in  1793. 

Lebrun,  (  Ponce  Denis  £couchard,  )  a  popular 
French  lyric  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1729,  was  called  Le- 
brun Pindare,  (pJiN'dtR',)  or  the  French  Pindar.  In 
early  life  he  began  a  poem  on  Nature,  which  was  never 
finished.  He  composed  a  number  of  beautiful  odes 
before  the  Revolution,  and  during  the  Republic  favoured 
the  popular  cause.  He  was  patronized  by  the  Conven- 
tion, and  afterwards  by  Napoleon,  who  in  1801  granted 
him  a  pension  of  6000  francs.  In  1803  he  produced  a 
National  Ode  on  the  prospective  invasion  of  England. 
"Although  he  excelled  in  epigram,"  says  Marie  J.  Che- 
nier,  "and  though  he  displayed  remarkable  beauties  in 
poems  which  he  left  unfinished,  he  will  owe  chiefly  to 
his  odes  his  durable  reputation,  and  will  pass  to  pos- 
terity as  one  of  the  three  great  French  lyric  poets."* 
La  Harpe  judged  him  less  favourably.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Institute.    Died  in  1807. 

See  GiNGUEN^,  "Notice  sur  Lebrun,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of 
Lebrun's  works,  4  vols.,  1811 ;  M.  J.  Chenier,  "Tableau  de  la 
Litterature ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  litteraires,"  tome  i.,  and 
"  Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  v.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;" 
"Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixvii.,  1812,  (Appendix.) 

Lebrun  de  Charmettes,  leh-bRuN'  deh  shtR'm^t', 
(Philippe  Alexandre,)  a  French  poet  and  historian, 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1785.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"History  of  Joan  of  Arc,"  (4  vols.,  1817,)  and  "L'Orle- 
anide,"  a  poem,  (2  vt>l-s.,  1819.) 

Lecamus.  See  Camus,  Le,  (Antoine  and  Etienne.) 

Lecanu,  leh-kS'nii^  (Louis  Ren6,)  a  French  chemist, 
born  in  1800,  published  numerous  worlds. 

Lecat,  lel/kS',  (Claude  Nicolas,)  an  eminent  French 
surgeon,  born  in  Picardy  in  1700.  He  settled  about  1733 
at  Rouen,  where  he  lectured  on  anatomy  and  practised 
with  success.  In  1744  he  founded  a  Royal  Academy  at 
Rouen.  He  was  a  skilful  lithotomist,  and  published 
several  treatises  on  that  branch  of  surgery.  He  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Senses,"  (1740,)  and  other  professional 
works.    Died  in  1768. 

See  L.  A.  Valentin,  "  filoge  de  Lecat,"  1769;  Monfalcon,  in 
the  "Biographie  M^dicale  :"  Haller,  "  Bibhotheca  Chirurgica ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lecchi,  lek'kee,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  born  at  Milan  in  1702.  He  obtained  in 
1739  the  chair  of  mathematics  in  Pavfa,  where  he  taught 
with  great  success  for  twenty  years.  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  by  Maria  Theresa  mathematician  of  the  court 
at  Vienna.  Pie  published,  besides  other  works,  "Ele- 
ments of  Geometry,"  (1753,)  ^  "  Theory  of  Light,  including 
Optics,"  (1759,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Hydrostatics,"  (1765.) 
Died  in  1776. 

See  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 


J.  B.  Rousseau  and  Malherbe  being  the  other  two. 


S,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;. a,  e,  I,  ©,  u,  y,  short;  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  n6t;  go6d;  moonj 


LECENE 


1389 


LECLUSE 


Lecene,  leh-s^n',  (Charles,)  a  learned  French  Prot- 
estant theologian,  born  at  Caen  about  1647.  He  retired 
to  Holland  in  1685,  and  afterwards  to  London,  where 
he  attempted  to  found  an  Arminian  church,  but  failed, 
because  he  was  suspected  of  holding  Socinian  views. 
He  made  a  French  translation  of  the  Bible,  (1741,) 
which  deviates  too  much  from  the  literal  sense,  and 
wrote  several  works  on  theology.  Died  in  London  in  1703. 

Lechevalier  or  Le  Chevalier,  leh  sheh-vt'le-^', 
(Je\n  Baptiste,)  a  French  traveller  and  savant,  born 
neai  Coutances  in  1752.  In  1784  he  went  to  the  Levant 
as  St  retary  of  Choiseul-Gouffier,  ambassador  to  the 
Ottoman  Porte,  and  made  diligent  researches  in  the 
plain  ol  Troy,  which  attest  the  accuracy  of  Homer's 
descriptions.  He  published  his  "Voyage  de  la  Troade," 
(1798  or  1800,)  and  a  "Voyage  to  the  Propontis  and  the 
Euxine,"  (1800.)    Died  in '1836. 

Leck'y,  (W.  E.  H.,)  an  English  philosopher,  pub- 
lished in  1865  a  "History  of  the  Rise  and  Influence  of 
the  Spirit  of  Rationalism  in  Europe,"  (London,  2  vols.) 
*'We  closed  them,"  says  the  "Edinburgh  Review," 
(April,  1865,)  "with  the  conviction  that  Mr.  Lecky  is 
one  of  the  most  accomplished  writers  and  one  of  the 
most  ingenious  thinkers  of  the  time."  He  also  wrote 
a  "  History  of  European  Morals,  from  Augustus  to 
Charlemagne,"  (1869.) 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1869;  "British 
Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and  October,  1865;  "  Fraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  November,  1865,  and  September,  1S69. 

Leclerc  or  Le  Clerc,  leh-klaiR',  (Daniel,)  a  Swiss 
physician,  born  at  Geneva  in  1652,  was  a  brother  of 
Jean  the  eminent  critic.  He  practised  with  distinction 
in  Geneva,  became  a  counsellor  of  the  republic,  and 
published,  besides  some  other  works,  a  "Complete 
Surgery,"  (1695,)  and  a  "History  of  Medicine,"  (1696,) 
which  was  translated  into  English.    Died  in  1728. 

Leclerc,  (David,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  theologian,  born 
at  Geneva  in  1591  ;  died  in  1654. 

Leclerc,  (David,)  a  skilful  Swiss  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Berne  in  1680,  worked  many  years  in  Frankfort, 
and  painted  portraits  in  oil  and  miniature  of  numerous 
German  jirinces.    Died  in  1738. 

Leclerc,  leh-klaik',  (Gakriel,)  a  French  physician, 
practised  in  Paris.  He  became  physician-in-ordinary  to 
Louis  XIV.,  and  published  between  1694  and  1706  several 
professional  works,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "Convenient 
Medicine,"  ("La  Medecine  aisee.") 

Leclerc,  [Lat.  Cler'icus,]  (Jean,)  an  eminent  Swiss 
critic  and  divine,  born  at  Geneva  in  1657.  He  became 
a  champion  of  Arminianism,  and  removed  to  Holland  in 
1683.  After  preaching  for  a  short  time  in  the  church  of 
the  Remonstrants  in  Amsterdam,  he  obtained  in  that  city 
the  chair  of  philosophy  and  Hebrew,  which  he  retained 
until  his  death.  In  1686  he  commenced  the"Biblio- 
theque  Universelle,"  the  first  of  those  three  celebrated 
series  of  reviews  to  which  he  owes  much  of  his  fame, 
and  which  was  issued  monthly  until  1693,  It  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  "  Bibliotheque  Choisie,"  (1703-13,)  and  the 
" Bibliotheque  ancienne  et  moderne,"  (1714-27.)  "These 
journals,"  says  Hallam,  "enjoyed  an  extraordinary  in- 
fluence over  Europe,  and  deserved  to  enjoy  it.  .  .  .  He 
is  generally  temperate  and  judicious,  and  displays  a  very 
extensive  erudition."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe.")  He  published  many  other  valuable  works, 
among  which  are  "  Ars  Critica,"  (2  vols.,  1696,)  "  Par- 
rhasiana,"  (2  vols.,  1699-1701,)  and  a  "Commentary  on 
the  Bible."    Died  in  1736. 

See  J.  Ci.ERici,  "Vita  et  Opera  ad  Annum  171 1  Amici  ejus  Opus- 
cuhmi :"  Van  der  Hoeven,  " Dissertationes  IL  de  J.  Clerico  et 
Philippo  a  Limborch,"  1843;  "  Nouvelle  Blographie  Generale;" 
MM  Haag,  "  La  France  protestante." 

Leclerc,  (Jean  Baptlste,)  a  French  legislator  and 
writer,  born  at  Angers  in  1756.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Convention,  (1792-95,)  and  of  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred,  (1795-99.)  He  wrote  "Pastoral  Poems," 
(1786,)  and  other  literary  works.    Died  in  1826. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Leclerc,  (Jean  Louis.)    See  Buffon. 

Leclerc,  (Joseph  Victor,)  a  French  classical  scholar, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1 789.  He  obtained  the  chair  of  Latin 
eloquence  at  the  Faculty  of  Letters  in  1824,  and  was  ad- 


mitted into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1834.  He 
published,  besides  some  original  works,  "The  Thoughts 
of  Plato,"  in  Greek  and  French,  (1818,)  and  "The  Com- 
plete Works  of  Cicero,"  with  a  French  version,  (30  vols., 
1821-25.) 

Leclerc,  (Laurent,)  a  French  priest,  born  in  Paris  in 
1677,  was  a  son  of  Sebastien  Leclerc  the  engraver.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "A  Critical  Letter  on 
Bayle's  Dictionary."    Died  in  1736. 

Leclerc,  (Michel,)  a  French  poet  and  advocate, 
born  at  Albi  in  1622.  His  principal  work  is  "Virginia 
the  Roman  Girl,"  ("Virginie  Romaine,"  a  tragedy, 
1645.)  He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
Died  in  1691. 

Leclerc,  (Nicolas  Gabriel.)    See  Clerc. 

Leclerc,  (Oscar,)  known  as  Leclerc  Thoiiin,  an 
agriculturist,  born  in  Paris  in  1798,  was  a  son  of  Jean 
Baptiste,  noticed  above,  and  a  nephew  of  Andre  Thoiiin. 
He  published  treatises  on  agriculture.    Died  in  1845. 

Leclerc,  (Sebastien,)  a  skilful  French  designer  and 
engraver,  born  at  Metz  in  1637,  removed  to  Paris  in 
1665.  In  1672  he  was  chosen  professor  of  perspective 
in  the  Academy  of  Painting.  His  works  were  nearly 
all  designed  by  himself.  Louis  XIV.  appointed  him 
engraver  of  his  cabinet  and  professor  in  the  Ecole  des 
Gobelins.  Leclerc  published  a  "  System  of  Vision," 
("  Systeme  sur  la  Vision,"  1679,)  and  an  esteemed  treat- 
ise on  Architecture,  (1^14.)    Died  in  1714. 

See  Vallemont,  "  Eloge  de  M.  Leclerc  Dessinateur,"  etc.,  1715  ; 
QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Leclerc  or  Le  Clerc,  (S^;bastien,)  a  good  his- 
torical painter,  born  in  Paris  about  1684,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  about  1 704.    Died  about  1765. 

Leclerc  or  Le  Clerc,  (Victor  Emmanuel,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Pontoise  in  1772.  He  served  at  the 
siege  of  Toulon,  (1793,)  where  he  formed  a  friendship  with 
Bonaparte,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  Italian  cam- 
paign of  1796.  He  followed  Bonaparte  to  Egypt  in  1798, 
and  promoted  the  success  of  the  coup  d^etat  of  i8th  Bru- 
maire,  1799.  Soon  after  this  event  he  married  Pauline 
Bonapartef  with  the  consent  of  her  brother,  the  First 
Consul,  who  in  1801  gave  him  command  of  a  large 
armament  (35,000  men)  sent  to  subjugate  the  revolted 
negroes  of  Hayti.  He  obtained  some  successes,  and 
sent  Toussaint  L'Ouverture  as  a  captive  to  France  ;  but 
his  army  was  wasted  by  the  yellow  fever,  of  which  he 
died  in  November,  1802. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  and  "His- 
tory of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Leclerc  des  Essarts,  leh-klaiR'  di  za'stR',  (Louis 
Nicolas  Marin,)  a  French  general,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Pontoise  in  1770.  For  his  services 
at  Eckmiihl,  Wagram,  etc.,  in  1809,  he  received  the  title 
of  count.  He  commanded  a  division  in  Russia  in  1812, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  courage  and  skill. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Leclercq  or  Le  Clercq,  leh-kl&Rk',  (Chretien,)  a 
French  missionary,  born  in  Artois  about  1630.  In  1655 
he  was  sent  to  Canada,  where  he  laboured  many  years. 
After  his  return  to  France  he  published  "The  History 
of  the  French  Colonies  in  New  France,  and  of  Lasalle's 
Expedition  to  Explore  the  Mississippi,"  (1691.) 

Leclerq,  (Michel  Th^iodore,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1777.  He  published  "Dramatic  Pro- 
verbs," (4  vols.,  1823-26,)  which  were  very  popular. 
Died  in  1851. 

Lecluse  or  L'ticluse,  de,  deh  Ik'kliiz',  written  also 
L'Escluse,  (Charles,)  [Lat.  Car'olus  Clu^sius,]  a 
savant,  who  made  important  contributions  to  the  science 
of  botany,  was  born  at  Arras  in  1526.  He  studied  at 
Louvain,  Wittenberg,  and  Montpellier.  At  the  last-named 
place  he  graduated  as  physician  in  1555.  After  travelling 
many  years  in  France,  Spain,  etc.,  for  botanical  informa- 
tion, he  was  director  of  the  emperor's  garden  at  Vienna 
from  1573  to  1587.  He  published,  in  Latin,  a  "Descrip- 
tion of  the  Rare  Plants  of  Spain,"  (1576,)  and  a  "De- 
scription of  the  Rare  Plants  of  Austria,"  (1583,)  both  of 
which  were  afterwards  united  in  his  "Rariorum  Plan- 


€  as  /J;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  yl, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (Sl^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LECLUSE 


1390 


LEDESMJ 


tarum  Historia,"  ("History  of  the  Rarer  Plants,"  1601,) 
with  figures.  In  1593  he  became  professor  of  botany  at 
l^eyden,  where  he  died  in  1609.  He  was  endowed  with 
a  great  memory  and  a  rare  sagacity,  and  excelled  in 
description.  He  left  a  work  on  foreign  animals  and 
plants,  entitled  "Exoticorum  Libri  Decem,  quibus  Ani- 
malium,  Plantarum,  Aromatumque  Historias  describun- 
tur,"  (1605.) 

See  Hai.ler,  "Ribliotheca  Botanica  ;"  Nic^ron,  "  M^moires  ;" 
^LOY,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Medecine  ;"  Mokren,  "Ala  Memoire 
de  C.  de  L'Escluse,  un  des  P^res  de  la  Botaiiiqiie,"  etc.,  Liege,  1853. 

Lecluse,  de,  (Fleury,)  a  French  Hellenist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1774.  Among  his  works  is  a  "History  of  Greek 
and  Latin  Literature,"  (2  vols.,  1837.)    Died  in  1845. 

Lecointe.    See  Cointe,  Le. 

Lecointe-Puiraveau,  leh-kw^Nt'  pii-e'rtVo',  (Mi- 
chel Mathieu,)  a  French  legislator,  born  at  Saint- 
Maixent  about  1750,  was  an  active  member  of  the  Con- 
vention, (1792-95.)    Died  in  1825. 

Lecointre,  leh-kwiNtR',  (Laurent,)  a  French  regi- 
cide. He  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king  in  the  Con- 
vention, and  instigated  the  execution  of  the  queen. 
Died  in  1805. 

Lecomte  or  Le  Comte,  leh-k6Nt',  (F6 lix,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1737,  was  a  pupil  of  Falconet. 
He  was  received  as  Academician  in  1771.  By  order  of 
the  king,  he  executed  statues  of  Fenelon  and  Rollin. 
He  is  classed  in  the  second  rank  of  French  sculptors. 
Died  in  1817. 

Lecomte,  (Jules,)  an  able  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Boulogne-sur-Mer  in  1812.  He  edited  several  journals, 
and  ])ublished  "Letters  on  French  Authors,"  (1837,)  a 
"History  of  the  Revolution  of  1848,"  (1850,)  and  "The 
English  Pontoons,"  ("Les  Pontons  Anglais,"  a  maritime 
novel,  5  vols.,  1850-52.)    Died  in  1864. 

Lecomte,  (Louis,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Bor- 
deaux, was  one  of  six  mathematicians  sent  as  mission- 
aries to  China  in  1685.  He  laboured  some  years  in 
the  mission  of  Shensee,  (Chensi,)  and,  having  returned 
to  France,  published  in  1696  "  Memoirs  on  the  Present 
State  of  China,"  which  was  censured  by  the  Faculty  of 
Theology.    Died  in  1729.  * 

Leconte,  leh-koNt',  [Lat.  Con'tius,]  (Antoine,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Noyon,  was  a  cousin-german  of 
Calvin,  but  an  opponent  of  his  doctrines.  He  lectured 
on  law  at  Orleans  and  Bourges,  and  left  several  legal 
works.    Died  in  1586. 

Le  Conte,  le-k6nt,  (John,)  an  American  naturalist, 
and  officer  in  the  corps  of  United  States  engineers,  was 
born  near  Shrewsbury,  New  Jersey,  in  1784.  He  pub- 
lished "  Descriptions  of  the  Species  of  North  American 
Tortoises,"  "  Monographs  of  the  North  American  Spe- 
cies of  Utricularia,"  etc.,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1861. 

Leconte,  (John  L.,)  M.D.,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  New  York  in  1825,  is  distinguished  as  an  ento- 
mologist. He  has  published  numerous  treatises,  etc. 
on  entomology,  among  which  is  one  "  On  the  Classifi- 
cation of  the  Carabid^e  of  the  United  States." 

Leconte,  (John,)  M.D.,  an  American  naturalist  and 
physician,  born  in  Liberty  county,  Georgia,  in  1818.  He 
became  in  1856  professor  of  natural  and  mechanical 
philosophy  in  South  Carolina  College,  Columbia. 

Leconte,  (Joseph,)  M.D.,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Lil)erty  county,  Georgia,  in  1823.  \w  1851 
he  accompanied  Professor  Agassiz  on  a  scientific  tour  in 
Florida,  and  in  1856  became  professor  of  chemistry  and 
geometry  in  South  Carolina  College.  He  has  published 
several  chemical  and  geological  works. 

Leconte  de  Lisle,  ]eh-k5Nt'  deh  161,  (Charles 
Marie,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Bourbon  in 
1820,  removed  to  Paris  in  1847.  He  produced  in  1852 
a  volume  of  "  Poemes  antiques,"  which  obtained  a  prize 
of  the  French  Academy,  and  in  1854  "  Poesies  nou- 
velles."  "  His  character,"  says  Sainte-Beuve,  "  is  one  of 
the  most  decided  (prononce)  and  most  worthy  among 
the  poets  of  our  time."  "His  art,"  says  Villemain,  "is 
at  the  same  time  skilful  and  bold,  more  worthy  of  glory 
than  sure  of  popularity."  The  form  of  his  poetry  is 
compared  to  an  exquisitely-finished  antique  statue. 

See  "  Rapports  de  M.  Villemain  i  TAcad^mie  Frangaise  sur  les 
Prix  decernds  en  1853,"  etc.;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeriesdu  Lundi," 
tome  V. 


Lecoq  or  Le  Coq,  leh-kok',  (Henri,)  a  French  nat- 
uralist, born  at  Avesnes  (Nord)  in  1802.  He  wrote 
treatises  on  geology,  chemistry,  and  botany.  His  most 
important  work  is  "  Studies  on  the  Botanical  Geography 
of  Europe,"  (7  vols.,  1854-57.) 

Lecoq,  von,  fon  leh-kok',  (Karl  Christian  Erd- 
MANN  Edler,)  an  able  German  general,  born  at  Torgr.i 
in  1767.  He  fought  for  the  French  at  Wagram  in  1809, 
and  commanded  a  division  of  Saxon  troops  in  the  Rus- 
sian campaign  of  18 12.  After  18 15  he  received  the 
chief  command  of  the  Saxon  army.    Died  in  1830. 

Le  Courayeror  Le  Courrayer.  See  Courayer,  Ie. 

Lecourbe  or  Le  Corn-be,  leh-kooRb',  (Claude 
Joseph,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Lons-le-Saulnier  in 
1760.  In  1799  he  defeated  the  Austrians  in  Switzerland. 
Having  been  selected  by  Moreau  to  command  the  right 
wing  of  his  army  in  1800,  he  distinguished  himself  at 
Hochstadt  and  other  places.  On  account  of  his  attach- 
ment to  Moreau,  he  was  deprived  of  command  in  1804- 
Died  in  1815. 

Lecouvreur  or  Le  Couvreur,  leh-koov'ruR',  (  Adri- 
enne,)  a  popular  French  actress,  born  near  Epernay 
about  1690.  She  excelled  in  tragedy,  and  was  a  great 
favourite  in  Paris  from  171 7  until  her  death.  Voltaire 
and  other  poets  offered  poetical  homage  to  her  talents. 
Died  in  1730. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi." 

Lect,  ]§kt,  [Lat.  Lec'tius,]  (Jacques,)  a  learned 
Swiss  jurisconsult,  born  in  1560,  at  Geneva.  He  obtained 
a  chair  of  law  in  that  city  in  1583,  and  the  next  year  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  council  of  state.  In  the  critical 
times  which  followed  he  showed  firmness  and  ability. 
He  wrote  several  legal  works,  an  edition  of"  Poetae  Graeci 
veteres  Carminis  heroici  Scriptores,"  (1606,)  and  short 
Latin  poems,  "  Po<jmata  Varia,"  (1609.)    Died  in  1611. 

Lectins.    See  Lect. 

Lecurieux,leh-kii're''uh',(jACQUES  Joseph,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  at  Dijon  in  1801,  Among  his 
works  are  "  Saint  Louis  at  Damietta,"  and  "  Mary  of 
Burgundy." 

Le'da,  [Gr.  A^cJa,]  the  wife  of  Tyndareus,  King  of 
Sparta,  and  mother  of  Castor,  Pollux,  Helen,  and  Cly- 
temnestra.  According  to  the  popular  legend,  two  of 
these  were  the  offspring  of  Jupiter,  who,  when  he  visited 
Leda,  assumed  the  form  of  a  swan. 

Le  Dain,  leh  d^N,  (Olivier,)  a  Flemish  barber,  who 
became  a  favourite  of  Louis  XI.  of  France.  He  was 
hung  by  Charles  VIH.  in  1484. 

Ledebonr,  von,  fon  laMeh-booR',(KARL  Friedrtch,) 
an  eminent  German  botanist,  born  at  Stralsund  in  1785. 
He  was  professor  of  botany  at  Dorpat  from  1811  to  1836, 
and,  after  a  journey  to  the  Altai  Mountains,  published 
"  Flora  Altaica,"  (4  vols.,  1829-34.)  His  "  Flora  Rossica" 
(3  vols.,  1842-51)  is  regarded  as  the  best  work  that  has 
appeared  on  the  flora  of  Russia.  He  also  published 
"  Illustrations  of  New  Russian  Plants,  in  five  hundred 
coloured  plates,"  (5  vols.,  1829-34.)    Died  in  1851. 

Ledebur,  von,  fon  laMeh-booR',  (Leopold  Karl 
Wilhelm  August,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Berlin 
in  1799,  published  a  number  of  geographical,  historical, 
and  antiquarian  works. 

Lederlin,  leh-dlR^^N',  (Jean  Henri,)  a  French 
philologist,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1672.  He  published 
editions  of  the  "  Onomasticon,"  by  Pollux,  of  Elian's 
History,  (1713,)  J=nd  of  other  works.    Died  in  1737. 

Ledermiiller,  laMer-muI'ler,  (Martin  Frobenius,)  a 
German,  distinguished  for  his  researches  with  the  micro- 
scope, was  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1719.  He  published 
"  Microscopic  Studies,"  (1759,)  and  "  Microscopic  Amuse- 
ments," ("  Mikroskopische  Gemiiths-  und  Augenergot- 
zen,"  3  vols.,  1760-64,)  often  reprinted.   Died  in  1769. 

Ledesma,  de,  di  li-Des'mk,  (Alonzo,)  a  Spanish 
poet,  born  at  Segovia  in  1552.  He  was  a  disciple  of 
Gongora,  and,  notwithstanding  the  obscurity  and  othei 
defects  of  his  poetry,  acquired  a  high  reputation.  Lope 
de  Vega,  in  his  "Laurel  d'Apollo,"  mentions  him  in 
fovourable  ^erms.  He  published  "Spiritual  Thoughts," 
("Conceptos  Espirituales,"  1600-16,)  and  other  poems. 
Died  in  1623. 

See  TicKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature  ;"  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 


a.  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LEDESMA 


LEE 


Ledesma,  de,  (Jos^,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Bur- 
gos in  1630;  died  in  1670. 

Ledieu,  leh-de-uh',  (FRANgois,)  Abb^;,  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  l^orn  at  Peronne,  was  private  secretary  to 
the  celebrated  Bossuet,  Bishop  of  Meaux.  He  wrote 
•'Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  Bossuet,"  (4  vols., 
1856.)    Died  in  1713. 

Ledoux,  leh-doo',  (Claude  Nicolas,)  a  French 
architect,  born  at  Dor  mans  in  1736.  The  most  remark- 
able monuments  of  his  invention  are  the  Barrieres 
of  Paris.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  Architecture." 
Died  in  1806. 

Ledran,  leh-dRdw',  (Henri  FRANgois,)  an  eminent 
French  surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1685,  became  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Pie  wrote,  besides  other 
j^rofessional  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Lithotomy,"  (i730>) 
"Observations  on  Surgery,"  (1731,)  and  "Practical  Re- 
flections on  Gunshot  Wounds,"  (1737.)    Died  in  1770. 

Ledru,  leh-dRii',  (Andr^  Pierre,)  a  French  priest 
and  naturalist,  born  in  Maine  in  1761,  was  employed 
as  botanist  in  Baudin's  expedition  to  the  Canaries  and 
the  Antilles  in  1796.  He  wrote  several  works.  Died 
about  1825. 

Ledru,  (Nicolas  Philippe,)  a  French  experimenter 
in  natural  philosophy,  born  in  Paris  in  173 1,  was  a 
grandfather  of  Ledru-Rollin.  He  made  discoveries  in 
magnetism.    Died  in  1807. 

Ledru-Rollin,  le-dru'  roKlin  or  leh-dRii'  to'ISn', 
(Alexandre  Auguste,)  a  distinguished  French  socialist 
and  radical  republican,  born  in  Paris  in  1808.  His  family 
name  was  Ledru,  to  which  he  added  that  of  Rollin.  He 
became  an  advocate  about  1830,  and  was  employed  as 
counsel  for  the  defence  in  many  political  trials  between 
1832  and  1848.  In  1841  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  by  the  voters  of  Mans,  and  became  the  chief 
orator  of  the  extreme  gauche,  or  ultra-democrats.  As  a 
tribune  and  popular  agitator  he  was  distinguished  for  his 
audacity  and  vehemence,  but  had  not  much  influence 
in  the  Chamber.  He  founded  "La  Reforme,"  a  political 
j(Mirnal,  and  took  a  prominent  part  at  the  reform  ban- 
quets of  1847. 

During  the  Revolution  of  February,  1848,  he  entered 
the  Chamber  when  the  regency  of  the  Duchess  of  Or- 
leans was  under  discussion.  By  the  exertion  of  great 
physical  force  he  occui)ied  the  tribune,  and,  amidst  the 
violent  tumult,  spoke  against  the  regency.  He  was  chosen 
by  acclamation  as  a  member  of  the  provisional  govern- 
ment, and  became  minister  of  the  interior.  (See  Lamar- 
TINE.)  His  measures  in  this  capacity  were  not  approved 
by  the  majority  of  his  colleagues.  He  was  censured  for 
an  attempt  to  j^roscribe  the  defeated  party  ;  but  he  is  said 
to  have  saved  the  government  from  the  violence  of  the 
insurgents  on  the  i6th  of  April.  At  the  election  of  five 
members  of  the  executive  commission  by  the  Assembly 
in  May,  he  was  the  lowest  of  the  successful  candidates, 
receiving  four  hundred  and  fifty-eight  votes  out  of  about 
eight  hundred.  He  owed  this  election  to  the  influence 
of  Lamartine.  He  lost  his  popularity  with  the  masses, 
and  retired  from  power  in  June,  1848,  when  Cavaignac 
became  dictator.  In  December,  1848,  Ledru-Rollin  re- 
ceived only  370,119  votes  for  president,  having  failed  to 
obtain  the  support  of  the  socialists.  He  was  the  chief 
of  the  "Mountain"  in  the  Assemblies  of  1848  and  1849, 
to  the  latter  of  which  he  was  elected  by  five  departments, 
and  made  eloquent  speeches  against  the  government. 
In  June,  1849,  he  demanded  the  impeachment  of  the 
president,  and,  when  this  was  refused,  called  on  his 
partisans  to  rise  in  arms.  The  few  who  obeyed  this  call 
were  quickly  dispersed  by  the  troops,  and  Ledru-Rollin 
escaped  to  England,  where  he  remained  many  years.  In 
his  absence  he  was  condemned  to  deportation.  He  pub- 
lished a  book  "On  the  Decline  of  England,"  (2  vols., 
1850,)  and  united  with  Kossuth  and  Mazzini  to  form  a 
revolutionary  committee  for  the  promotion  of  the  demo- 
cratic cause  in  Europe.  Among  his  publications  is 
"French  Jurisprudence,"  etc.,  ("Jurisprudence  Fran- 
9aise,  ou  Repertoire  du  Journal  du  Palais,"  8  vols., 
1843-48.)  Availing  himself  of  the  general  amnesty,  he 
returned  to  France  in  1870. 

See  N.  Gai.i.ois,  "Vie  politique  de  Lerlru-'Rollin,"  1850 ;  "Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  August,  1850;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^- 
rale." 


Leduc  or  Le  Due,  leh-diik',  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  the  Hague  about  1638,  was  a  pupil 
and  skilful  imitator  of  Paul  Potter.  He  painted  interiors, 
guard-rooms,  robbers,  etc.  About  1671  he  entered  the 
army,  in  which  he  obtained  the  rank  of  captain,  and 
abandoned  his  art. 

Led'wich,  (Edw^ard,)  an  Irish  antiquary,  born  in 
1739,  became  vicar  of  Aghaboe.  He  published  a  valu- 
able work  entitled  "The  Antiquities  of  Ireland,"  (1794,) 
and  a  few  other  treatises.  He  offended  many  of  his 
countrymen  by  denying  the  truth  of  the  legend  of  Saint 
Patrick,    Died  in  1823. 

Led'yard,  (John,)  a  celebrated  American  traveller, 
born  at  Groton,  in  Connecticut,  in  1751.  At  an  early 
age  he  took  passage  as  a  common  sailor  on  a  vessel 
bound  for  Gibraltar,  and  thence  repaired  to  London, 
where  in  1776  he  set  sail  with  Captain  Cook  on  his  third 
voyage  around  the  world.  After  his  return,  in  1780,  he 
published  a  journal  of  the  voyage,  including  an  account 
of  the  circumstances  attending  the  death  of  Captain 
Cook.  Having  projected  an  expedition  to  the  Arctic 
regions,  he  set  out  in  1786,  and,  after  a  journey  of  great 
hardships,  he  arrived  at  Irkootsk  in  January,  1787.  Here 
he  was  arrested  as  a  spy  by  order  of  the  empress,  and 
forbidden  again  to  enter  Russia.  He  next  went  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  was  most  kindly  received  by  Sir  Joseph 
Banks,  and  in  June,  1788,  under  the  patronage  of  the 
African  Association,  set  out  on  a  voyage  of  discovery 
to  Central  Africa.  He  reached  Cairo  in  August,  but, 
while  making  preparations  for  his  journey,  was  attacked 
by  a  fever,  of  which  he  died.  The  news  of  his  death 
was  heard  with  deep  regret  by  his  friends  in  England, 
who  had  formed  the  highest  opinion  of  his  qualifica- 
tions for  the  arduous  task  of  African  exploration.  He 
was  described  by  Mr.  Beaufoy,  secretary  of  the  African 
Association,  as  "adventurous  beyond  the  conception  of 
ordinary  men,  yet  wary  and  considerate,  and  appeared 
to  be  formed  by  nature  for  achievements  of  hardihood 
and  peril." 

See  Sparks,  "Life  of  Ledyard,"  in  bis  "American  Biography;" 
"Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  ii. ;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1828,  (by  Southey;)  "North  American 
Review"  for  October,  1828;  Cleveland,  "Compendium  of  Ameri- 
can Literature." 

Ledyard,  (William,)  Colonel,  an  American  officer, 
born  in  Connecticut  about  1750,  commanded  at  Fort 
Griswold  during  the  attack  made  by  the  British  in  1781. 
He  was  brutally  stabbed  by  the  English  commander, 
Major  Bromfield,  after  he  had  delivered  up  to  him  his 
sword.  He  was  an  uncle  of  the  distinguished  traveller 
John  Ledyard. 

Lee,  (Alfred,)  an  American  theologian,  born  at 
Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1807,  was  consecrated 
Protestant  Episcopal  Bishop  of  Delaware  in  1841.  He 
has  published  a  "Life  of  the  Apostle  Peter,"  and  a  "Life 
of  Saint  John." 

Lee,  (Anne,)  founder  of  the  sect  called  Shakers,  was 
born  at  Manchester,  in  England,  in  1735.  Having  re- 
moved to  America,  she  settled  near  Albany,  New  York, 
where  she  gathered  a  number  of  proselytes  around  her. 
She  taught  many  strange  doctrines, — among  others,  that 
all  marriage  is  sinful,  and  is  to  be  shunned  under  all 
circumstances.  She  was  usually  styled  by  her  fol- 
lowers "Mother  Anne."  She  died  in  1784.  Among 
the  principal  settlements  made  by  her  followers  are  those 
at  New  Lebanon,  near  Albany,  and  at  Harvard,  Massa- 
chusetts. 

See  Allen's  "American  Biographical  Dictionary." 

Lee,  (Arthur,)  an  American  statesman  and  revolu- 
tionist, born  in  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  in  1740, 
was  a  brother  of  Richard  Henry  Lee.  He  studied  medi- 
cine in  Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  became  a  student 
of  law  in  London.  He  there  pul)lished  a  number  of 
eloquent  political  essays,  under  the  name  of  "Junius 
Americanus,"  in  which  he  advocated  the  cause  of  the 
American  people.  He  was  sent  as  minister  to  France 
in  1776;  and,  in  conjunction  with  Franklin  and  Deane, 
he  negotiated  a  treaty  with  the  French.  He  was  recalled 
in  1779.  After  his  return  he  was  elected  to  Congress 
in  1782,  and  was  subsequently  made  a  counsellor  of  the 
supreme  court  of  the  United  States,  and  a  member  of 
the  board  of  treasury,  (1784.)    He  was  never  married. 


c  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEE 


1392 


LEE 


He  was  a  good  classical  scholar,  and  an  intimate  friend  of 
Sir  William  Jones.    Died  in  1792. 

See  R.  H.  Lke,  "Life  of  Arthur  Lee,"  2  vols.,  1829:  "North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1830;  "  Encyclopjedia  Americana." 

Lee,  (Ch.xrles,)  a  distinguished  officer  in  the  American 
Revolutionary  war,  was  a  native  of  Wales.  Having  served 
for  a  time  in  the  British  army,  he  removed  to  America. 
He  was  appointed  major-general  by  Congress  in  June, 
1775.  In  1776  he  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command 
of  the  Southern  colonies.  He  was  surprised  and  taken 
prisoner  by  the  English  while  marching  through  New 
Jersey  to  join  Washington  in  Pennsylvania,  (December, 
1776;)  but  after  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne,  in  October, 
1777,  he  was  exchanged.  Having  disobeyed  General 
Washington's  orders  at  the  battle  of  Monmouth,  in  1778, 
he  was  tried  by  a  court-martial,  and  suspended  from 
service  for  a  year.  Died  in  1782.  General  Lee  was  the 
author  of  several  political  works. 

See  "  Encyclopsedia  Americana." 

Lee,  (Edward,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  Kent  in 
1482.  He  became  chaplain  of  Henry  VHL,  who  em- 
ployed him  in  several  diplomatic  missions.  In  1529 
he  was  sent  to  Rome  to  negotiate  for  the  divorce  of  the 
king,  and  in  153 1  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  York. 
He  opi^osed  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  but  favoured  the 
innovations  which  Henry  VIII.  made  in  the  Church. 
He  wrote  "  Epicedia  C'larorum  Virorum,"  and  other 
works  in  Latin.    Died  in  1544. 

Lee,  (  Eliza  Buckminster,  )  an  American  writer, 
daughter  of  the  Rev.  Joseph  Buckminster,  was  born  at 
Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire.  Among  her  principal 
works  are  "  Sketches  of  a  New  England  Village,"  and 
"Naomi,  or  Boston  Two  Hundred  Years  Ago."  She 
has  also  translated  the  "Life  of  Jean  Paul  Richter,"  and 
portions  of  Richter's  works,  from  the  German. 

Lee,  (Ezra,)  an  American  officer,  who  served  in  the 
Revolutionary  war,  was  born  in  1749  ;  died  in  1821. 

Lee,  (FiTZ-HuGH,)  an  American  general,  a  nephew 
of  General  Robert  E.  Lee,  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1835. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1856,  and  commanded 
a  division  of  cavalry  in  the  Confederate  army  in  the 
summer  of  1863. 

Lee,  (Francis  Lightfoot,)  an  American  statesman 
and  patriot,  born  in  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  in 
October,  1734,  was  a  younger  brother  of  Richard  Henry 
Lee.  He  inherited  a  large  estate,  and  married  a  daugh- 
ter of  Colonel  John  Tayloe  in  1772.  He  was  elected  to 
the  General  Congress  in  1775,  and  signed  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  in  1776.  Having  been  re-elected,  he 
continued  to  serve  in  Congress  until  1779.  He  was  too 
diffident  to  gain  distinction  as  a  debater,  but  took  an 
active  part  in  legislative  business.  Died  without  issue, 
at  Richmond,  in  1797.  He  was  eminent  for  conversa- 
tional powers,  and  was  a  general  favourite  in  society. 

Lee,  (Frederick  Richard,)  a  popular  English  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Barnstaple  about  1800.  He  began 
to  exhibit  at  the  Royal  Academy  about  1824,  and  was 
chosen  an  Academician  in  1838.  He  is  most  successful 
in  river-scenery  and  in  landscapes  where  trees  are  promi- 
nent objects.  His  pencil  has  been  employed  exclusively 
on  British  scenery.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Mill," 
"  The  Storm  on  the  Lake,"  and  "  The  Avenue  of  Sho- 
brooke  Park." 

Lee,  (Hannah  F.,)  an  American  novelist  and  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts. 
Her  "Three  Experiments  of  Living,"  published  in  1838, 
passed  through  numerous  editions  both  in  America  and 
Europe.  Among  her  works  are  "  Grace  Seymour," 
"Eleanor  Fulton,"  "Luther  and  his  Times,"  and  a 
"History  of  Sculpture  and  Sculptors." 

Lee,  (Harriet,)  an  English  writer  of  fiction,  was 
born  in  London  in  1756.  In  partnership  with  her  sister 
Sophia,  she  taught  school  for  many  years  (1780-1803) 
at  Bath.  After  publishing  "Clara  Lennox"  and  other 
novels,  which  are  now  neglected,  she  produced  between 
1797  and  1805  five  volumes  of  the  "Canterbury  Tales," 
which  were  very  successful.  Died  in  1851.  Lord  Byron, 
referring  to  "  Kruitzner"  in  Lee's  "Canterbury  Tales," 
(from  which  he  took  the  subject  of  his  "  Werner,")  says, 
*'  I  am  not  sure  it  ever  was  very  popular  ;  .  .  .  but  I 
have  generally  found  that  those  who  had  read  it  agreed 


with  me  in  their  estimate  of  the  singular  power  of  mind 
and  conception  which  it  develops.  .  .  .  Amongst  those 
whose  opinions  agreed  with  mine  upon  this  story  I  could 
mention  some  very  high  names."  (See  Preface  to  the 
tragedy  of  "  Werner.") 

Lee,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  American  general,  born  in 
Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  in  January,  1756.  His 
father,  Henry  Lee,  was  a  first-cousin  of  Richard  Henry 
Lee.  He  became  a  captain  of  cavalry  in  1776,  joined 
the  main  army  in  September,  1777,  and  performed  several 
daring  exploits.  He  captured  a  British  fort  at  Paulus 
Hook  in  July,  1779.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-colonel about  1780,  after  which  year  he  served  in 
the  army  of  General  Greene  as  an  officer  of  cavalry.  He 
rendered  important  services  at  Guilford  Court- House, 
March,  1781,  and  at  the  attack  on  Fort  Ninety-Six.  His 
legion  of  cavalry  also  contributed  to  the  victory  at  Eutaw 
Springs,  September  8,  1781.  He  was  appointed  a  dele- 
gate to  the  General  Congress  in  1786,  and  was  elected 
Governor  of  Virginia  in  1791  or  1792.  He  was  again  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1799,  and  was  selected  by  Con- 
gress to  pronounce  a  eulogy  on  Washington,  whom  he 
characterized  as  "first  in  war,  first  in  peace,  and  first  in 
the  hearts  of  his  countrymen."  He  wrote  about  the  yeai 
1809  valuable  "Memoirs  of  the  War  in  the  Scnithern 
States."  In  1814  he  was  severely  injured  by  a  Baltimore 
mob,  against  which  he  fought  to  defend  a  printing-office 
and  editor.  He  never  recovered  from  this  injury,  and 
died  in  Georgia  in  March,  1818,  leaving  four  sons, — 
Henry,  Charles  C,  Robert  E.,  (the  famous  general,)  and 
Sidney  Smith.  He  was  often  called  Light -Hc^rse 
Harry.  In  a  letter  to  Henry  Lee,  General  Greene 
wrote,  "Everybody  knows  I  have  the  highest  opinion  oi 
you  as  an  officer.  .  .  .  No  man  in  the  progress  of  the 
campaign  had  equal  merit  with  yourself." 

See  DuvcKiNCK,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i.  ; 
"  Encyclopsedia  Americana." 

Lee,  (Jesse,)  an  American  Methodist  divine,  born 
in  Virginia  in  1758,  was  for  many  years  a  chaplain  to 
Congress.    Died  in  1816. 

Lee,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  professor  of  divinity, 
born  about  1780.  He  became  principal  of  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  about  1840,  and  afterwards  professor  of 
divinity  there.    Died  in  1859. 

Lee,  (Leroy  Madison,)  D.D.,  aii  American  clergy- 
man of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  born  at  Peters- 
burg, Virginia,  in  1808.  He  published  several  religious 
works,  and  in  1836  became  editor  of  the  Richmond 
"Christian  Advocate." 

Lee,  (Luther,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  American  divine 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Scho- 
harie county,  New  York,  in  1800.  He  was  editor  of  the 
"New  England  Christian  Advocate"  and  "The  True 
Wesleyan."  He  became  president  and  professor  of  the- 
ology in  Michigan  Union  College  in  1856.  He  has  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  "  Slavery  Examined  in  the 
Light  of  the  Bible,"  and  "The  Immortality  of  the  Soul." 

iiee,  (Mary  E.,)  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
in  1813,  was  the  author  of  "Tales  from  History,"  and 
made  a  number  of  translations  from  the  French,  Italian, 
and  German.    Died  in  1849. 

See  Griswold,  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

Lee,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  about 
1658.  After  he  had  appeared  as  an  actor  on  the  London 
stage  without  success,  he  composed  thirteen  tragedies, 
two  of  which — viz.,  "Alexander  the  Great"  and  "Theo- 
dosius" — obtained  public  favour.  He  was  confined  in 
Bedlam  for  insanity  in  1684,  and  released  about  1688. 
Died  in  1691.  His  imagination  is  extravagant,  and  in- 
clined to  bombast.  "  Among  our  modern  English  poets," 
says  Addison,  "there  is  none  who  was  better  turned  for 
tragedy  than  Lee,  if,  instead  of  favouring  the  impetuosity 
of  his  genius,  he  had  restrained  it  within  proper  bounds." 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  iii.,  1821. 

Lee,  (Rachel  Fanny  Antonina,)  an  eccentric  Eng- 
lish authoress,  originally  named  Dashwood,  was  born 
about  1770.  She  wrote'  an  "Essay  on  Government," 
which  was  commended  by  Wordsworth.    Died  in  1829. 

See  De  Quincev,  "Autobiographic  Sketches,"  chap.  iv. 

Lee,  (Richard  Henry,)  an  American  statesman  and 
orator,  and  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    ky  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LEE 


1393 


LEE 


dependence,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Westmoreland, 
Virginia,  in  1732,  He  was  educated  in  England,  and, 
after  his  return,  was  elected  about  1757  to  the  House  of 
Burgesses  in  Virginia.  He  married  Miss  Aylett  in  early 
life.  In  1765  he  eloquently  defended  the  resolutions 
against  the  Stamp  Act,  introduced  by  Patrick  Henry. 
He  was  a  delegate  from  Virginia  in  1774  to  the  Conti- 
nental Congress,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  pro- 
ceedings of  that  body.  The  memorial  to  the  people  of 
British  America,  authorized  by  the  Continental  Congress, 
is  attributed  to  his  pen.  In  June,  1776,  he  introduced 
into  Congress  the  measure  declaring  the  colonies  free 
and  independent  States,  which  motion  he  supported  by 
a  most  eloquent  and  powerful  speech.  Mr.  Lee  was 
again  elected  to  Congress  in  1778  ;  he  became  president 
of  that  body  in  1784,  and  was  elected  a  United  States 
Senator  from  Virginia  in  1789.  Like  most  other  Vir- 
ginians, he  disapproved  the  Federal  Constitution.  Died 
in  1794. 

See  Goodrich,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence;"  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  R.  H.  Lee,"  by  his  grand- 
son, R.  H.  Lee,  2  vols.,  1825  ;  "  North  American  Review"  for  April, 
1826,  (by  Edward  Everett.) 

Lee,  (Robert,)  D.D.,  a  theologian,  born  at  North  Dur- 
ham in  1804,  was  a  minister  of  the  Established  Church  of 
Scotland.  He  became  professor  of  biblical  criticism  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1846.    Died  in  1868. 

Lee,  (Robert  Edmund,)  a  celebrated  American 
general,  a  son  of  General  Henry  Lee,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  Stratford,  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia, 
in  1806.  His  mother's  name  was  Anne  Carter.  He 
graduated  at  the  head  of  his  class  at  West  Point  in  1829, 
and  married  in  1832  a  daughter  of  George  Washington 
Parke  Custis,  who  was  the  adopted  son  of  General 
Washington.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1838, 
and  served  in  the  Mexican  war  (1846-47)  as  chief  engi- 
neer of  the  army  of  General  Scott,  by  whom  his  conduct 
was  highly  commended.  For  his  services  in  Mexico  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  brevet  colonel.  He  was 
superintendent  of  the  Academy  at  West  Point  from 
September,  1852,  to  April,  1855.  By  his  marriage  he 
became  proprietor  of  the  Arlington  House,  on  the  Poto- 
mac, where  his  family  resided  when  the  civil  war  began. 
He  was  appointed  a  colonel  of  cavalry  in  March,  1861. 
On  the  20th  of  April,  1861,  he  resigned  his  commission 
by  a  letter  to  General  Scott,  to  whom  he  wrote,  "  My 
resignation  would  have  been  presented  at  once,  but 
for  the  struggle  it  has  cost  me  to  separate  myself  from 
a  service  to  which  I  have  devoted  all  the  best  years  of 
my  life." 

About  the  21st  of  April  he  was  appointed  major- 
general  in  command  of  all  the  forces  of  Virginia.  In 
July  ensuing,  his  rank  was  fixed  as  brigadier-general  in 
the  Confederate  army,  and  he  took  command  of  a  force 
in  Northwestern  Virginia.  He  was  opposed  to  General 
Rosecrans  in  this  campaign,  the  results  of  which  were 
rather  favourable  to  the  Unionists;  though  no  impor- 
tant battle  was  fought.  About  December,  1861,  he  was 
ordered  to  take  charge  of  the  coast-defences  of  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia.  He  returned  to  Richmond  in 
March,  1862,  and  on  the  3d  of  June  took  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  army  destined  to  defend  the  capital.  On 
the  26th  of  June  he  attacked  the  army  of  General 
McClellan  at  Mechanicsville.  The  conflict  was  renewed 
on  the  27th  at  Gaines's  Mill,  where  both  armies  suffered 
heavy  losses.  Having  been  attacked  at  Savage's  Sta- 
tion on  the  29th,  the  Union  army  retired  to  Malvern 
Hill,  close  to  the  James  River.  Lee's  army  was  defeated 
at  Malvern  Hill,  July  I,  losing  about  6500  killed  and 
wounded.  General  McClellan  was,  nevertheless,  soon 
after  compelled  to  retreat,  and  to  abandon  t'le  siege  of 
Richmond.  The  seat  of  war  having  been  transferred 
to  the  northern  part  of  Virginia,  General  Lee  gained  a 
victory  over  General  Pope  at  Bull  Run,  or  Manassas, 
on  the  29th  and  30th  of  August,  and  invaded  Maryland 
about  the  4th  of  September.  He  commanded  in  person 
at  the  great  battle  of  Antietam,  September  17,  where  he 
had,  according  to  Pollard,  about  70,000  men.  His  loss 
at  South  Mountain  and  Antietam  is  reported  to  have 
been  1842  killed  and  9399  wounded,  besides  several 
thousand  prisoners.    General  Lee  retired  to  Virginia  on 


the  i8th,  but  was  not  pursued,  and  occupied  a  strongly- 
fortified  position  at  Fredericksburg,  where  General 
Burnside  attacked  him  on  the  13th  of  December  and 
was  repulsed  with  heavy  loss.  On  the  2d  and  3d  of 
May,  Generals  Lee  and  Hooker  fought  a  great  battle  at 
Chancellorsville,  where  the  former  had  the  advantage; 
but  the  losses  were  nearly  equal,  and  the  retiring  Union 
army  was  not  pursued.  Having  been  largely  reinforced, 
he  assumed  the  offensive  with  an  army  of  about  95,000 
men,  and  crossed  the  Potomac  on  the  24th  of  Jinie,  1S63, 
for  the  invasion  of  Pennsylvania.  Marching  against 
Harrisburg,  he  was  confronted  at  Gettysburg  by  the 
Union  army,  commanded  by  General  Meade  and  jjosted 
on  a  range  of  hills.  The  Union  army  acted  on  the 
defensive  in  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  which  began  on 
the  ist  of  July  and  was  renewed  on  the  2d  without  a 
decisive  result.  On  the  3d,  General  Lee  made  several 
desperate  assaults,  which  were  repulsed,  and  the  Union 
army  was  finally  victorious.  According  to  the  report  of 
General  Meade,  the  Federals  took  here  13,621  prisoners, 
including  the  wounded.  General  Lee  retired  in  the 
night  of  the  4th  of  July,  through  the  rain,  and  returned 
to  Virginia.  His  army  was  not  engaged  in  any  great 
battles  during  the  ensuing  winter. 

The  campaign  of  1864  was  opened  about  the  4th  of 
May  by  General  Grant,  who  crossed  the  Rapidan  and 
advanced  towards  Richmond.  A  severe  and  indecisive 
battle  ensued  at  the  Wilderness  on  the  5th  and  6th  of 
May.  General  Grant  continued  to  approach  his  objective 
point  by  a  series  of  flank  movements,  alternating  with 
great  battles  at  Spottsylvania  Court-PIouse,  May  9-12, 
at  the  North  Anna  River,  May  23,  and  Cold  Harbour, 
June  3.  In  these  battles  General  Lee  acted  mostly  on 
the  defensive  in  fortified  positions,  and  his  losses  were 
probably  less  than  those  of  Grant.  General  Grant,  how- 
ever, referring  to  those  battles,  says,  "  Bloody  and  terrible 
as  they  were  on  our  side,  they  were  even  more  damaging 
to  the  enemy."  Having  crossed  the  James  River  about 
June  15,  the  Union  army  commenced  the  long  siege  of 
Petersburg,  near  which  several  actions  were  fought  in 
July  and  August.    (See  Grant,  Ulysses  S.) 

In  February  or  March,  1865,  General  Lee  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  all  the  Confederate  armies.  During 
the  winter  of  1864-65  the  army  of  Virginia  had  been 
mostly  inactive,  and  greatly  trammelled  by  the  necessity 
of  defending  Richmond  and  Petersburg.  About  the  30th 
of  March  the  armies  operating  against  these  cities  began 
to  move,  and  to  cut  the  Danville  and  Southside  Railroads, 
by  which  Lee's  army  received  supplies.  The.  right  wing 
of  his  army  was  defeated  by  General  Sheridan  at  F'ive 
Forks  on  the  ist  of  April,  and  General  Grant  made  a 
general  and  successful  assault  on  the  works  at  Peters- 
burg on  the  2d.  General  Lee  evacuated  Richmond  and 
Petersburg  in  the  night  of  April  2,  and  retreated  towards 
Danville  with  about  35,000  men.  He  was  pursued  by 
the  cavalry  under  General  Sheridan,  who  attacked  him 
on  the  6th  near  the  Appomattox  River  and  took  about 
6000  prisoners.  He  received  pacific  overtures  from 
General  Grant  on  the  7th,  and  surrendered  his  army  at 
Appomattox  Court-House  on  the  9th  of  April,  1865.  It 
was  then  agreed  by  the  contracting  parties  that  "each 
officer  and  man  will  be  allowed  to  return  to  his  home, 
not  to  be  disturbed  by  United  States  authority  so  long 
as  they  observe  their  paroles  and  the  laws  in  force  where 
they  reside."  Soon  after  the  end  of  the  war.  General  Lee 
became  president  of  Washington  College,  at  Lexington, 
Virginia.  Speaking  of  the  character  of  Lee  as  a  general, 
Mr.  Greeley  remarks  that  he  knew  how  to  make  the 
most  of  a  good  defensive  position,  "the  single  point  in 
which  (but  it  is  a  vital  one)  his  admirers  can  justify 
their  claim  for  him  of  a  rare  military  genius.  No  other 
American  has  ever  so  thoroughly  appreciated  and  so 
readily  seized  the  enormous  advantage  which  the  in- 
creased range,  precision,  and  efficiency  given  to  musketry 
by  rifling  have  insured  to  the  defensive,  when  wielded 
by  a  commander  who  knows  how  speedily  a  trench  may 
be  dug  and  a  slight  breastwork  thrown  up,  which  will 
stop  nine-tenths  of  the  bullets."  ("  American  Conflict," 
vol.  ii.  p.  581.)  He  died,  at  Lexington,  October  12,  1870. 

See  "  Sonthern  Generals,"  (anonymons,)  New  York,  1865  ;  E.  A. 
Pollard,  "Lee  and  his  Lieutenants,"i867. 


€  as  z^;;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  ;';  g,  h,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal ;  r,  trilled ;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

88 


LEE 


J  394 


LEFEBVRE 


Lee,  (Samuel,)  an  English  nonconformist  minister, 
born  in  London  in  1625.  He  preached  in  London  for 
some  years,  and  emigrated  to  New  England  about  1686. 
He  published  several  religious  works,  among  which  is 
"The  Temple  of  Solomon.^'    Died  in  1691. 

Lee,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  Orientalist, 
born  at  Longnor,  in  Shropshire,  in  1783.  He  learned 
the  trade  of  a  carpenter,  which  he  followed  for  some 
years,  during  which  he  studied  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
Syriac,  Arabic,  etc.  About  1817  he  took  the  degree  of 
B.A.  at  Cambridge,  and  entered  holy  orders.  He  was 
chosen  professor  of  Arabic  at  Cambridge  in  1819,  and 
professor  of  Hebrew  about  1832,  after  which  date  he 
obtained  the  rectory  of  Barley.  He  published  a  Hebrew 
Grammar,  (1830,)  a  "Hebrew,  Chaldaic,  and  English 
Lexicon,"  (1840,)  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Nature,  Progress, 
and  End  of  Prophecy,"  (1849,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1852. 

Lee,  (Samuel  P.,)  an  American  naval  officer,  born  in 
Virginia,  became  a  midshipman  in  1825.  He  commanded 
the  Oneida  in  the  battle  against  the  forts  and  gun- 
boats below  New  Orleans  in  April,  1862,  and  in  1863 
was  promoted  to  the  command  of  the  North  Atlantic 
Blockading  Squadron. 

Lee,  (Sarah,)  (Mrs.  Bowdich,)  an  English  writer, 
born  about  1800,  was  the  wife  of  T.  E.  Bowdich,  whom 
she  accompanied  to  South  Africa.  She  wrote  "  Stories 
of  Strange  Lands,"  (1825,)  a  "  Memoir  of  Baron  Cuvier," 
(1833,)  and  other  works.  She  was  married  again  to  a 
Mr.  Lee.    Died  in  1856. 

Lee,  (  Sophia,  )  an  English  dramatist  and  novelist, 
born  in  London  in  1750,  was  a  sister  of  Harriet,  noticed 
above.  She  began  her  literary  career  in  1780  by  the 
"  Chapter  of  Accidents,"  a  comedy,  which  was  success- 
ful, and  was  followed  by  novels  entitled  "The  Recess," 
(1785,)  and  "The  Life  of  a  Lover."  In  1796  she  com- 
posed "  Almeyda,  Queen  of  Granada,"  a  tragedy,  of  which 
Mrs.  Siddons  performed  the  principal  n?/^  with  applause. 
She  wrote  two  of  the  "Canterbury  Tales"  published  by 
her  sister,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1824. 

See  BoADEN,  "  Life  of  Mrs.  Siddons,"  chap.  vi.  p.  103. 

Lee,  (Thomas,)  a  Virginian  planter,  distinguished  for 
his  talents,  was  president  of  the  Council  of  Virginia.  He 
was  the  father  of  Richard  Henry,  Francis  Lightfoot,  and 
Arthur  Lee.    Died  in  1750. 

Lee,  (Thomas,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  in  1769.  He  was  appointed  by 
President  Monroe  judge  of  the  United  States  district 
court  for  South  Carolina  in  1823.    Died  in  1839. 

Lee,  (Thomas  Bland,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Virginia  about  1762.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1789  to  1795.    Died  in  1827. 

Leeb,  lap,  (Johann,)  a  German  sculptor,  born  at 
Memmingen  in  1790;  died  about  1856. 

Leech,  (John,)  an  English  artist  and  caricaturist, 
born  in  London  about  1816.  He  is  chiefly  known  as  the 
designer  of  the  humorous  figures  which  illustrate  the 
London  "  Punch."  His  sketches  are  excellent  as  works 
of  art,  though  drawn  with  rapidity  and  haste.  He  pub- 
lished "Pictures  of  Life  and  Character,"  and  "The 
Rising  Generation,"  (1848,)  which  display  a  rare  percep- 
tion of  the  varieties  of  character  and  the  keenest  sense 
of  the  ludicrous.    Died  in  1864. 

See  the  "North  British  Review"  for  March,  1865. 

Leech'man,  (William,)  a  learned  Scottish  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Lanarkshire  in  1706.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Glasgow  for  seventeen  years.  His  lectures 
in  defence  of  revealed  religion  against  Voltaire  and  Hume 
are  commended.  He  published  a  collection  of  sermons, 
and  a  work  "  On  the  Nature,  Reasonableness,  and  Ad- 
vantages of  Prayer,"  (1743.)    Died  in  1785. 

Leeds,  Duke  of.    See  Danby,  Earl  of. 

Leemans,  la'mdns,  (Conrad,)  a  Dutch  archaeologist, 
born  at  Zalt  Boemel  in  1809,  published  an  extensive 
work  "  On  the  Egyptian  Monuments  of  the  Museum  of 
Leyden,"  (1835-52.) 

Leepe,  van  der,  vtn  der  la'peh,  (Jan  Antoon,)  a 
Flemish  landscape-painter,  born  at  Brussels  in  1664, 
excelled  in  marine  views.  His  execution  is  easy,  his 
touch  light,  and  his  colour  good.  Among  his  works  is 
a  "  Flight  into  Egypt."    Died  in  1720. 


Lee'ser,  (Isaac,)  a  Jewish  theologian  and  religious 
writer,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1806,  emigrated  to  Amer- 
ica, and  became  in  1829  rabbi  of  the  principal  synagogue 
of  Philadelphia.    Died  ini  868. 

Leeu,  Leuw,  or  Leeuw,  van  der,  vtn  der  15  or  luh, 
(Gabriel,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  animals,  born  at  Dort  in 
1643.  He  worked  at  Amsterdam,  Paris,  Naples,  and 
Rome  with  success,  and  adopted  the  Italian  manner. 
His  touch  was  grand  and  decided.  His  works  rej^resent 
flocks  of  sheep,  herds  of  cattle,  etc.    Died  in  1688. 

Leeu  or  Leeuw,  van  der,  (Pieter,)  a  painter  of  land- 
scapes and  cattle,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
about  1645.  His  style  resembles  that  of  Van  der  Vekle. 
He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  painted  with  facility.  Died 
about  1705. 

Leeuw  or  Leuw,  van  der,  vtn  der  15  or  luh,  (Wil- 
lem,)  a  Flemish  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1600. 
He  engraved  many  works  of  Rubens,  among  which  is 
"  Daniel  in  the  Lions'  Den,"  and  several  works  of  Rem- 
brandt, including  "David  Playing  on  the  Harp."  Died 
about  1665. 

Leeuwen,  van,  vtn  luh'wen  or  15' wen,  (Simon,)  a 
Dutch  jurist,  born  at  Leyden  in  1625  ;  died  in  1682. 

Leeuwenhoeck.    See  Leuwenhoek. 

Leeves,  leevz,  (Rev.  William,)  an  English  composer, 
born  in  1749,  was  the  author  of  the  air  of  "  Auld  Robin 
Gray."    Died  in  1828. 

Lefebure,  leh-fa'biiR',  (Louis  Henri,)  a  French 
litteratetir,  born  in  Paris  in  1754.  He  wrote  a  prize 
essay  against  lotteries,  besides  several  treatises  on  music 
and  botany.    Died  in  1839. 

Lefebure  de  Fourcy,  leh-fa'biiR'  deh  fooR'se', 
(Louis,)  a  French  mathematician,  born  at  Saint  Do- 
mingo in  1785.  He  succeeded  Lacroix  as  professor  in 
the  Faculty  of  Sciences  in  Paris,  and  published  "De- 
scriptive Geometry,"  (4th  edition,  1843,)  and  "Analytic 
Geometry,"  (1827.) 

Lefebvre.    See  Lefevre. 

Lefebvre,  leh-fivR'  or  leh-f!vR',  (Charlemagne 
Th^;ophile,)  a  French  traveller,  born  at  Nantes  in 

1811,  became  an  officer  in  the  navy.  He  wrote  "  Travels 
in  Abyssinia,"  (6  vols.,  1845-50,)  a  scientific  work  of 
much  merit. 

Lefebvre,  (FRANgois  Joseph,)  Duke  of  Dantzic,  a 
French  marshal,  born  at  Ruffach,  in  Alsace,  in  1755.  He 
was  rapidly  promoted  in  the  war  which  began  in  1792,  and 
became  a  general  of  division  in  January,  1794.  He  con- 
tributed greatly  to  the  victories  of  Fleurus  (1794)  and 
Altenkirchen,  (1796.)  In  August,  1799,  he  was  appointed 
by  the  Directory  commander  of  the  military  division  of 
which  Paris  was  the  head-quarters.  On  the  i8th  Bru- 
maire  he  acted  as  lieutenant  of  Bonaparte,  to  whom  he 
rendered  important  services  in  that  coup  d''etat  which 
made  him  dictator.  He  was  made  a  marshal  of  the 
empire  in  1804,  commanded  the  foot-guards  at  the  battle 
of  Jena,  and  was  rewarded  for  his  success  at  the  siege 
of  Dantzic  in  1807  by  the  title  of  Duke  of  Dantzic.  In 
the  Austrian  campaign  of  1809  his  skill  and  courage 
were  conspicuous  at  Eckmiihl  and  Wagram.  He  com- 
manded the  imperial  guard  in  the  Russian  campaign  of 

1812,  and  defended  France  at  Montmirail,  etc.  in  1814. 
On  the  return  of  Bonaparte  from  Elba,  Lefebvre  ac- 
cepted a  place  in  his  Chamber  of  Peers,  and  conse- 
quently was  excluded  from  that  of  Louis  XVIII.  in 
1816.  He  was  reinstated  in  his  military  rank  in  1819. 
Died  in  1820.  He  had  the  reputation  of  being  one  of 
the  best  generals  of  the  army,  uniting  great  intrepidity 
with  superior  judgment,  and  had  the  faculty  of  animating 
his  men  as  if  by  an  electric  influence.  "  His  military 
genius,"  says  Marshal  Suchet,  "found  on  the  scene  of 
action,  an  1  without  any  previous  combination,  extraor- 
dinary resources  to  decide  the  victory." 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  and  "  History 
of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire;"  De  Coukcei.les,  " Dictionnaire 
des  Generaux  Frangais;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lefebvre,  (Tanneguy.)    See  Lefevre. 

Lefebvre  or  Lefevre,  (Valentin.)  See  Febre,  Le. 

Lefebvre  de  Cheverus,  (Jean  Louis  Anne  Made- 
leine.)   See  Cheverus. 

Lefebvre  -  Desnouettes,  leh  -  f^vR'  da'noo'  §t', 
(Charles,)  Count,  a  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fdll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LEFEFRE 


1395 


LEG ARE 


1773.  He  entered  the  army  in  1792,  and  was  chosen 
one  of  Bonaparte's  aides-de-camp  in  1800.  As  colonel 
he  distinguished  himself  at  Austerlitz  in  1805.  He  be- 
came a  general  of  division  in  1808,  commanded  the  chas- 
seurs of  the  emperor's  guard  in  1809,  and  was  employed 
near  Napoleon's  person  in  Russia,  (1812.)  At  the  first 
restoration  he  was  retained  in  his  command  by  Louis 
XVHI. ;  but  he  joined  the  standard  of  Bonaparte  in 
March,  181 5,  and  fought  at  Waterloo.  Having  been 
condemned  to  death  by  a  council  of  war,  he  escaped  to 
the  United  States  in  1816.  He  perished  in  the  wreck 
of  the  Albion  packet-ship,  as  he  was  returning  to  Europe, 
in  April,  1822. 

Lefevre.  See  Caumartin,  Dacier,  F±vre,  Le- 
FEKVRE,  and  Faber,  (Jean.) 

Lefevre,  (Charles  Shaw.)    See  Eversley. 

Lefevre  or  Lefebvre,  (Claude.)    See  FfevRE,  Le. 

Lefevre,  leh-favR',  (Jean,)  a  French  astronomer, 
born  at  Lisieux,  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1682.  He  edited  the  "  Connaissances  des 
Temps"  from  1684  to  1701.    Died  in  1706. 

Lefevre,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  liberal  French  publisher, 
born  at  Neufchateau  in  1779,  settled  in  Paris  in  his 
youth.  He  published  excellent  editions  of  many  Greek, 
Latin,  and  French  classics,  for  some  of  which  he  wrote 
notes.    Died  in  1858. 

Lefevre,  (Nicolas,)  an  able  French  chemist,  emi- 
grated to  England  in  1664  at  the  invitation  of  Charles 
IL,  who  gave  him  the  direction  of  a  laboratory  in  his 
palace.  He  wrote  "Theoretical  and  Practical  Chem- 
istry," (1660.)    Died  in  1674. 

Lefevre,  (Pierre  Francois  Alexandre,)  a  French 
dramatist  and  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1741,  produced 
tragedies  entitled  "Zuma,"  (1776,)  and  "Elisabeth  de 
France,"  (1783,)  also  "Gustavus  Vasa,"  an  epic  poem. 
Died  in  1813. 

Lefevre,  (Robert,)  a  French  portrait-painter,  born 
at  Bayeux,  in  Calvados,  in  1756,  removed  to  Paris  in 
1784.  Having  acquired  a  high  reputation,  he  painted 
portraits  of  Napoleon  and  Josephine,  which  were  so 
much  admired  that  more  than  twenty  copies  were  or- 
dered by  various  cities,  courts,  and  other  parties.  About 
1815  he  received  the  title  of  first  painter  to  the  king. 
Died  in  1830. 

Lefevre  or  Lefebvre,  leh-fivR',  (Tannegui  or  Tan- 
neguy,  tSn'ge',)  [Lat.  Tanaquil'lus  Fa'ber,]  an  emi- 
nent French  scholar  and  critic,  born  at  Caen  in  1615,  was 
the  father  of  the  renowned  Madame  Dacier.  He  was 
appointed  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  inspector  of  the  royal 
printing-establishment  in  Paris.  After  the  death  of 
Richelieu  he  joined  the  Protestants,  and  was  chosen  a 
professor  in  the  Academy  of  Saumur  about  1655.  He 
pul^lished  annotated  editions  of  Lucretius,  (1662,)  Lon- 
ginus,  (1663,)  Horace,  (1671,)  Virgil,  and  other  classics, 
and  translated  into  French  several  Greek  works.  Died 
in  1672. 

See  F.  Graverol,  "  Memoires  pour  servir  k  la  Vie  de  T.  Le- 
ftvie,"i686:  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  MM.  Haag,  "La  France 
protestanie  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lefevre  de  la  Boderie,  leh-f^vR'  deh  It  bod're', 
(Guy,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born  near  Falaise  in  1541. 
He  co-operated  with  Arias  Montanus  in  the  Polyglot 
Bible  of  Antwerp,  for  which  he  edited  and  translated 
into  Latin  the  Syriac  version  of  the  New  Testament, 
(1572.)    He  also  wrote  some  poems.    Died  in  1598. 

Lefevre  d'idtaples,  leh-fivR'  da'ttpK,  [Lat.  Fa'ber 
S'I'apulen'sis,]  (Jacques,)  an  eminent  French  scholar 
and  theologian,  born  at  Staples  about  1455.  "^'^^ 
condemned  as  a  heretic  by  the  Sorb(Mine,  but  was  justi- 
fied by  Francis  L,  who  employed  him  as  preceptor  to 
his  son.  Lefevre  produced  the  first  complete  French 
version  of  the  Bible,  (1530.)  His  version  is  used  in  the 
French  Protestant  churches.  He  wrote  commentaries 
on  the  works  of  Aristotle.  Erasmus  expressed  veneration 
for  his  character,  ( singularevt  vitce  sanctimoniam  veneror.) 
Died  in  1537. 

See  C.  H.  Graf,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Merits  de  J.  Lefevre 
d'J^taples,"  1842;  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;" 
Haag,  "  La  France  protestante  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lefevre  de  Saint-Remy,  leh-f^vR'  deh  s3,n  ri'me', 
(Jean,)  a  French  chronicler,  born  near  Abbeville  about 
1394 ;  died  in  1468. 


Lefevre-Deumier,  leh-fivR'  duh'me-i',  (Jules,)  a 
French  poet,  born  about  1804.     He  Ijecame  private 
librarian  of  President  Louis  Napoleon  in  1849, 
librarian  at  the  Tuileries  in  1852.    Died  in  1857. 

Leflo,  leh-flo'',  (Adolphe  Charles  Emmanuel,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Lesneven  in  1804.  He  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Russia  in  1848,  and  was  banished  in 
1852. 

Lefort  or  Le  Fort,  leh-foR',  (FRANgois,)  a  Swiss 
general,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1656.  He  entered  the 
Russian  service,  and  fought  several  campaigns  against 
the  Turks  before  the  peace  of  1681.  He  rendered  valu- 
able service  to  the  Czar  Peter  in  his  contest  with  Sophia, 
his  sister  and  rival  ;  and  when  that  prince  triumphed,  in 
1689,  Lefort  became  his  favourite  and  chief  minister,  a 
dignity  which  he  merited  by  his  virtues  and  talents.  He 
gave  wise  counsels  to  the  young  autocrat,  and  was  the 
author  of  many  of  the  reforms  which  marked  that  reign. 
Lefort  was  appointed  general-in-chief  and  admiral  about 
1693.    Died  in  1699. 

See  Basseville,  "Vie  de  F.  Lefort,"  1784;  Golikof,  "Vie  de 
Lefort,"  Moscow,  1800;  Voltaire,  "  Histoire  de  Pierre  le  Grand." 

Lefranc.    See  Pompignan. 
Lefranc,  (Martin.)    See  Franc,  Le. 
Lefranc,  leh-tR6N',  (Victor,)  a  French  advocate  and 
writer,  born  at  Garsin  in  1809. 
Lefrangais.    See  Lalande. 

Lefren,  la'fRen  or  lii'fRgn,  (Lars  Ulof,)  a  Swedish 
Orientalist,  born  in  1722;  died  in  1803. 

Lefuel,  leh-fU-eK,  (Martin  Hector,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  at  Versailles  in  1810.  In  1853  he  succeeded 
Visconti  as  architect  of  the  structures  by  which  the 
Louvre  is  joined  to  the  Tuileries.  He  designed  the 
facades  and  distributed  the  interiors  of  this  work,  which 
was  finished  in  1857.  He  designed  the  palace  of  the 
Universal  Exposition  of  1855. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Legallois  or  Le  Gallois,  leh-gt'lwS.',  (Julien  Jean 
C^sar,)  a  French  physiologist,  born  near  Dol,  in  Bre- 
tagne,  in  1770.  In  1801  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D., 
and  wrote  an  able  treatise  entitled  "  Is  the  Blood  iden- 
tical in  all  the  Vessels  through  which  it  passes?"  He 
merited  a  high  rank  among  physiologists  and  experi- 
menters by  his  "Experiments  on  the  Principle  of  Life, 
especially  on  that  of  the  Movements  of  the  Heart  and 
on  the  Seat  of  this  Principle,"  (1812.)    Died  in  1814. 

See  Boisseau,  in  the  "  Biographie  Medicale;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Le  Gallois,  (Pierre,)  a  French  bibliographer,  born 
in  Paris.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Finest  Libra- 
ries of  Europe,"  (1680.) 

Legare,  pronounced  leh-gree',  (Hugh  Swinton,)  an 
American  statesman  and  scholar,  of  Huguenot  descent, 
was  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  January  2,  1797. 
He  graduated  at  the  South  Carolina  College  about  181 5, 
after  which  he  pursued  his  studies  in  Paris  and  Edin- 
burgh. He  was  well  versed  in  Greek  and  other  lan- 
guages. He  also  studied  law,  and  gave  much  attention 
to  juridical  philosophy.  In  1830  he  was  elected  attorney- 
general  of  South  Carolina.  He  contributed  many  able 
articles  to  the  "  Southern  Review,"  and  was  an  adherent 
of  the  Union  when  nullification  was  agitated  in  his  State. 
Having  served  as  charge -d'affaires  at  Brussels  for  about 
three  years,  he  returned  home  in  1836,  and  was  elected 
by  the  voters  of  Charleston  a  member  of  Congress,  in 
which  he  served  one  term,  (1837-39.)  As  a  lawyer  he 
stood  high  in  his  profession.  In  1840  he  advocated  the 
election  of  General  Harrison  to  the  Presidency  by  several 
eloquent  speeches  in  New  York,  Virginia,  etc.  He  was 
appointed  in  September,  1841,  attorney-general  of  the 
United  States  under  President  Tyler.  He  died  at  Boston 
in  June,  1843.  Among  his  writings  are  an  "Essay  on 
Classical  Learning,"  an  "Essay  on  Roman  Literature," 
and  "The  Constitutional  History  of  Greece."  "The 
impression  left  by  his  collected  writings,"  says  R.  W. 
Griswold,  "  is  that  his  mind  was  of  the  first  order,  but  that 
it  did  not  hold  in  that  order  a  very  prominent  place." 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America,"  and  a  Memoir  pre- 
fixed to  Legare's  collected  works,  2  vols.,  1846. 

Legare,  (Bullen,)  (Mary  Swinton,)  sister  of  Hugh 
S.  Legare,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Charleston,  South 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  H,  y.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Jl^P'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEGAZPI 


1396 


LEGOUFE 


Carolina,  about  1800.  She  has  acquired  distinction  as  an 
artist, 

Legazpi,  de,  di  li-gSth-pee',  (Miguel  Lopez,)  a 
Spanish  commander,  born  at  Zubarraja,  He  went  to 
Mexico  in  1545,  and  commanded  an  expedition  sent  in 
1564  against  the  Philippine  Isles,  which  he  conquered 
about  1565-70.    Died  in  1572. 

Legendre  or  Le  Geiidre,  leh-zhSwdR',  (Adrien 
Marie,)  an  eminent  French  geometer,  and  one  of  the 
most  profound  analysts  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Tou- 
louse in  1752.  He  was  educated  at  Mazarin  College, 
Paris,  and  in  early  life  obtained  a  chair  of  mathematics 
in  the  £cole  militaire  of  that  city.  Having  written  a 
prize  essay  on  the  balistic  problem,  and  a  memoir  on 
the  attraction  of  spheroids,  {1782,)  he  was  admitted  into 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1783.  He  was  associated 
in  1787  with  Cassini  and  Mechain  in  the  operation  to 
connect  the  Observatories  of  Paris  and  Greenwich  by  a 
series  of  triangles.  In  1794  he  published  his  admirable 
"  Elements  of  Geometry,"  which  has  been  extensively 
used  as  a  text-book  in  various  languages,  and  has  done 
more  to  popularize  his  name  than  any  other  work.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  bureau  of  longitudes,  and  from 
1807  to  181 5  an  honorary  councillor  of  the  Imperial 
University.  In  1807  he  produced  an  important  work 
called  Exercises  on  Integral  Calculus,"  etc.,  ("Exer- 
cices  de  Calcul  integral  sur  divers  Ordres  de  Transcen- 
dantes,"  3  vols.,)  which  contains  his  discoveries  on  the 
subject  of  elliptic  functions.  This  subject  was  more 
fully  developed  in  his  "Traite  des  Fonctions  elliptiques 
et  des  Integrales  Euleriennes,"  (3  vols.,  1827.)  He  also 
made  valuable  additions  to  the  theory  of  numbers,  on 
vv^hich  he  published  an  essay.  Died  in  1833.  Eaplace, 
Lagrange,  and  Legendre  formed  a  mathematical  trium- 
virate, which  the  French  consider  entitled  to  pre- 
eminence among  European  geometers  of  that  age. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "  Memoir  of  Legendre" 
in  the  "Report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution"  for  1867,  translated 
from  the  French  of  £lie  de  Beaumont;  "North  American  Re- 
view" for  July,  1828. 

Legendre,  (Louis,)  a  French  historian,  born  at 
Rouen  in  1655.  He  became  a  canon  of  the  church  of 
Notre-Dame,  Paris,  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  France,  ending  at  the  Death  of  Louis 
XIII.,"  (3  vols.,  1718.)    Died  in  1733. 

Legendre,  (Louis,)  a  subaltern  demagogue  of  the 
French  Revolution,  born  in  1756.  He  was  deputed  in 
1792  to  the  Convention,  in  which  he  voted  with  the 
"Mountain."  "He  was,"  says  Lamartine,  "the  most 
courageous  friend  of  Danton,  and  was  by  turns  the 
agitator  and  moderator  of  the  people."  The  next  day 
after  the  arrest  of  Danton,  Legendre  openly  defended 
him  in  the  Convention  by  a  speech.    Died  in  1797. 

Legendre,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  at 
Etampes  in  1619,  worked  in  Paris.  His  subjects  are 
chiefly  religious.    Died  in  1671. 

Le  Gentil.    See  La  Barbinais. 

Legentil  de  la  Galaisiere,  leh-zhSw'te'  deh  It  gf- 
l|'ze-aiR',  (GuiLLAUME  Joseph  Hyacinthe  Jean  Bap- 
TISTkT)  a  French  astronomer  and  traveller,  born  at 
Coutances  in  1725.  In  1769  he  went  to  Pondicherry  to 
observe  the  transit  of  Venus,  but  failed,  because  the  sun 
was  hidden  by  clouds.  He  published  a  "Voyage  in  the 
Indian  Seas,"  (1779,)  which  contains  valuable  observa- 
tions on  monsoons,  currents,  and  tides,  and  information 
respecting  the  manners,  religion,  and  science  of  the 
Hindoos.    Died  in  1792. 

See  Jean  Dominique  Cassini,  "filoge  de  M.  Legentil,"  1810. 

Leger,  Ik^zhi'  or  la'zhaiR',  (Antoine,)  a  Protestant 
divine,  born  in  Savoy  in  1594.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  and  Oriental  languages  at  Geneva  from  1645 
until  his  death,  in  1661.  He  published  a  Greek  edition 
of  the  New  Testament,  (1638.) 

Leger,  (Antoine,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Geneva  in  1652,  and  was  ordained  a  minister.  He 
filled  the  chair  of  philosophy  for  twenty-four  years  at 
Geneva  with  eminent  success.  He  published  several 
scientific  treatises  and  many  sermons.    Died  in  1 7 19. 

Leger,  (Jean,)  a  cousin  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Savoy  in  161 5.  He  was  a  pastor  of  a  church  of  the 
Waldenses,  and,  having  escaped  from  the  massacre  of 


1655,  he  went  to  France,  and  solicited  the  intervention 
of  the  court  for  his  countrymen.  In  1663  he  became 
pastor  of  a  Walloon  church  in  Leyden.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Churches  of  the  Valleys  of  Piedmont,'' 
(the  Waldenses,  1669.)    Died  about  1670. 

See  "  Abiege  de  la  Vie  de  Jean  Leger,  ecrite  par  lui-meme,"  at 
the  end  of  his  "  History  of  the  Waldenses." 

Leger,  Saint.    See  Saint-Leger. 

Legge,  Igg,  (George,)  Lord  Dartmouth,  an  English 
admiral,  born  about  1648.  He  distinguished  himself  in 
the  war  against  the  Dutch  in  1671,  was  made  Baron  of 
Dartmouth  in  1682,  and  admiral  in  1683.  At  the  acces- 
sion of  James  II.,  in  1685,  he  was  appointed  master  of 
the  horse  and  general  of  the  ordnance.  He  commanded 
the  fleet  in  1688,  and  made  an  ineffectual  effort  to  pre- 
vent the  landing  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  After  taking 
the  oath  to  William  III.,  he  joined  a  Jacobite  conspiracy 
in  1690.  "  He  laid  a  plan,"  says  Macaulay,  "for  betray- 
ing Portsmouth  to  the  French."  He  was  arrested  for 
treason,  and  sent  to  the  Tower,  where,  after  a  short 
confinement,  he  died  of  apoplexy  in  1691. 

Leg''gett,  (William,)  an  American  journalist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  New  York  in  1802.  In 
1828  he  founded  in  his  native  city  a  literary  gazette  en- 
titled "The  Critic,"  which  was  subsequently  united  with 
"The  Mirror."  To  these  journals  he  contrilDuted  a  num- 
ber of  spirited  tales  and  sketches,  afterwards  published 
under  the  titles  of  "Sketches  of  the  Sea"  and  "Tales  by 
a  Country  Schoolmaster."  He  married  Elmira  Waring 
in  1828,  and  became  associated  with  Mr.  Bryant  as 
editor  of  the  "Evening  Post"  in  1829,  and  in  1836  estab- 
lished "The  Plaindealer,"  (issued  weekly,)  which  soon 
acquired  a  high  reputation  for  its  independent  spirit  and 
the  distinguished  ability  with  which  it  was  conducted. 
He  was  appointed  a  diplomatic  agent  from  the  United 
States  to  the  republic  of  Guatemala  in  April,  1838,  but, 
while  preparing  for  his  departure,  died  suddenly,  on 
the  29th  of  May,  1838.  Two  volumes  of  his  political 
writings,  with  a  Memoir,  were  published  by  his  friend 
Mr.  Theodore  Sedgwick,  who  says,  in  his  preface,  "  It  is 
not  the  suggestion  of  a  too  fond  affection,  but  the  voice 
of  a  calm  judgment,  which  declares  that,  whatever  public 
career  he  had  pursued,  he  must  have  raised  to  his 
memory  an  imperishable  monument." 

See  R.  W.  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America  ;"  Duvc- 
KiNCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  "London 
Quarterly  Review,"  1828;  "Democratic  Review"  for  January,  1840, 
(with  portrait.) 

Legillon,  leh-zhe'y6N',  (Jean  Franqols,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Bruges  in  1739;  died  in  Paris  in  1797. 

Legipont,  leh-zhe^poN',  (Oliver,)  a  learned  monk 
and  writer,  born  at  Soiron,  in  Limburg,  in  1698;  died 
in  1758. 

Le  Glay,  leh  gla,  (Andr^:  Joseph  Ghislain,)  a 
French  historian,  born  at  Arleux  in  1785. 

Legnani,  l^n-yi'nee  or  lan-yi'nee,  (Stefano,)  an 
Italian  painter,  also  called  Legnanino,  born  at  Milan  in 
1640,  was  a  pupil  of  Cignani  and  Carlo  Maratta.  He 
painted  frescos  at  Milan.    Died  in  1715. 

See  E.  Corazzi,  "  Elogio  storico  di  S.  Legnani,"  1720. 

Legobien,  leh-go''be4,N',  (Charles,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  at  Saint-Malo  in  1653,  became  secretary  of  the 
missions  to  China.  He  published,  about  1702,  a  collec- 
tion of  letters  from  missionaries  in  China,  etc.,  entitled 
"Lettres  edifiantes  et  curieuses  ecrites  des  Missions 
etrangeres."  This  interesting  publication  was  continued 
by  Duhalde.    Died  in  1708. 

Le  Gonidec,  leh  go'ne'd^k',  (Jean  FRANgois  Marie,) 
a  French  philologist,  born  at  Conquet,  in  Bretagne,  in 
1775.  published  a  good  "  Dictionnaire  Breton- 

Frangais,"  (1821.)    Died  in  1838. 

Legote,  li-go'ti,  (Pablo,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
about  1600  ;  died  at  Cadiz  about  1670. 

Legouve,  leh-gooS'i',  (Ernest  Wilfrid,)  a  French 
poet  and  novelist,  born  in  Paris  in  1807.  He  obtained  a 
prize  of  the  French  Academy  for  his  poem  "  On  the  In- 
vention of  Printing,"  (1829,)  and  produced  several  dramas. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1855. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraiie." 

Legouve,  (Gabriel  Marie  Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
dramatic  poet,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moou; 


LE  GOUZ 


1397 


LEHNBERG 


in  1764.  He  produced  "The  Death  of  Abel,"  (1792,) 
which  was  very  successful,  and  other  tragedies.  He  t)e- 
came  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1798.  His  tragedy 
"Henry  IV.  of  France"  (1806)  displays  dramatic  skill 
and  elegant  diction.  He  composed  several  popular 
poems,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "Female  Merit,"  ("Me- 
rite  des  Femmes,"  1800.)  Died  in  1812,  or,  according 
to  some  authorities,  in  1814. 

See  "  Notice  of  Legouve,"  prefixed  to  his  works,  by  Bouilly  and 
Malo,  1826;  QuERAKD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Le  Gouz.    See  Gouz. 

Legoyt,  leh-gw^',  (Alfred,)  a  French  economist  and 
statistician,  born  at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1815,  became 
chief  of  the  bureau  of  general  statistics,  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  "La  France  statistique,"  (1843.) 

Legrain  or  Legrin,  leh-gR^N',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
French  historian,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1565.  He  held 
some  office  at  the  court  of  Henry  IV.,  and  was  master 
of  requests  of  the  queen  Marie  de  Medicis.  He 
wrote  a  History  of  the  Reign  of  Henry  IV.,  ("Decade 
contenant  la  Vie  et  les  Gestes,"  etc.,  1614,)  and  "  The 
History  of  Louis  XIII.  from  1610  to  1617,"  (1618.) 
Died  in  1642. 

Legrand  or  Le  Grand,  leh-gRSw',  (Antoine,)  a 
French  writer  and  monk,  born  at  Douay,  lived  about 
1650-80.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy  and  theology 
in  Douay,  and  was  a  disciple  of  the  Cartesian  philosophy, 
on  which  he  wrote  several  treatises.  He  published  a 
"Sacred  History  from  the  Creation  to  Constantine  the 
Great,"  (1685,)  and  other  works. 

Le  Grand,  (Baptiste  Alexis  Victor,)  a  meritorious 
French  engineer  and  administrator,  born  in  Paris  in 
1791.  He  became  engineer-in-chief  of  the  first  class, 
and  in  1834  was  appointed  director-general  of  bridges, 
roads,  and  mines.  He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  five  times.  It  is  stated  that  no  person  con- 
tributed more  to  the  success  of  the  vast  plan  conceived 
in  his  time  to  increase  the  riches  of  France  by  facility  of 
transport.  His  moral  dignity,  public  spirit,  and  various 
merits  are  highly  commended  by  M.  Villemain,  who 
calls  him  a  true  model  of  the  able  and  zealous  adminis- 
trator.   Died  in  1848. 

See  Villemain's  article  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Legrand,  (Claude  Just  Alexandre,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  the  department  of  Oise  in  1762.  As 
general  of  division,  he  commanded  under  Moreau  at 
Hohenlinden,  (1800,)  and  served  at  Austerlitz,  (1805.) 
He  maintained  his  reputation  at  Jena  (1806)  and  at 
Wagram,  (1809.)  He  commanded  the  second  corps- 
d'armee  at  the  Berezina,  (1812.)    Died  in  1815. 

Legrand,  (Jacques  Guillaume,)  an  eminent  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1743,  was  a  pupil  of  Clerisseau, 
whose  daughter  he  married.  After  he  had  travelled  in 
Italy  and  acquired  a  pure  taste,  he  was  employed  as 
architect  of  several  public  edifices  in  Paris,  among  which 
are  the  Halle  aux  Bles,  (Corn-Market,  1783,)  Halle  aux 
Draps,  (Cloth-Market,  1786,)  and  Theatre  Feydeau, 
(1790.)  Molinos  was  associated  with  him  in  these  works. 
Legrand  published  a  "  Comparison  between  Ancient  and 
Modern  Architecture,"  (1799,)  and  wrote  an  "Essay  on 
the  History  of  Architecture,"  (1809.)    Died  in  1807. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Legrand,  (Joachim,)  a  French  historian  and  abbe, 
born  at  Saint-Lo  in  1653,  was  a  person  of  great  erudi- 
tion. He  was  secretary  of  legation  in  Spain  about  1702, 
and  was  afterwards  employed  in  the  foreign  office.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  the  Divorce  of  Henry  VIII.  of 
England,"  (1688,)  and  a  few  other  historical  works. 
Died  in  1733. 

Legrand,  (Louis,)  a  French  theologian,  born  in  Bur- 
gundy in  1711.  He  became  professor  or  maitre  des  etudes 
m  the  seminary  of  Saint-Sulpice,  Paris,  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Incarnation  of 
the  Word,"  (1751.)  He  composed  the  censures  which 
the  Faculty  of  Theology  published  against  Rousseau's 
"fimile"  (1762)  and  Buffon's  "  Epoques  de  la  Nature." 
Died  in  1780. 

Legrand,  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French  dramatist  and 
actor,  born  in  Paris  in  1673.  He  composed  a  number 
of  popular  comedies,  among  which  are  "  The  Blind 


Clairvoyant,"  (1716,)  and  "  Roi  de  Cocagne,"  1719.  Died 
in  1728. 

Legrand  d'Aussy,  leh-gR6N'  do'se',  (Pierre  Jean 
Baptiste,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Amiens  in  1737. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Fabliaux,  or  Tales  of 
the  Twelfth  and  Thirteenth  Centuries,"  (1779.)  In  1795 
he  was  chosen  keeper  of  the  French  manuscripts  of  the 
National  Library.    Died  in  1800. 

Legranzi,  li-gR^n^zee,  or  Legrenzi,  Ik-gR^n'zee, 
(Giovanni,)  an  Italian  composer,  born  near  Bergamo 
about  1625  ;  died  about  1690. 

Legras,  leh-gR^',  (Antoine,)  a  French  scholar  and 
writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1680.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Works  of  the  Fathers  who  lived  in 
the  Time  of  the  Apostles,  with  Notes,"  (1717.)  Died 
in  1751. 

Legraverend,  leh-gRtv^RoN',  (Jean  Marie  Ema- 
nuel,) a  French  jurist,  born  at  Rennes  in  1776,  published 
a  "Treatise  on  Criminal  Legislation  in  France,"  (1816,) 
and  other  approved  works.    Died  in  1827. 

Legrenzi.    See  Legranzl 

Legrin.    See  Legrain. 

Legris-Duval,  leh-gRe'  dii'vtl',  (Ren^;  Michel,)  a 
French  priest,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1765,  was  a  zealous 
and  efficient  promoter  of  benevolent  institutions.  Died 
in  1819. 

Legroing  de  la  Maisonneuve,  leh-gRwiN'  deh 
It  ma'zo'nuv',  (FRANgoiSE  Th^:rese  Antoinette,) 
Countess,  a  French  authoress,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1764. 
She  wrote  "  Zenobia,"  a  novel,  (1800,)  an  "  Essay  on  the 
Education  of  Women,"  (1801,)  and  a  "  History  of  the 
Gauls  and  of  France  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  End 
of  the  Reign  of  Hugh  Capet,"  (1830.)    Died  in  1837. 

Legros  or  Le  Gros,  leh-gRo',  (Nicolas,)  a  French 
Jansenist  theologian,  born  atRheimsin  1675.  He  passed 
"the  last  twenty-five  years  of  his  life  in  Holland,  to  which 
he  retired  for  refuge  from  persecution.  Among  his  works 
are  a  French  translation  of  the  Bible,  (1739,)  which  is 
esteemed  for  fidelity,  and  a  "Manual  for  the  Christian," 
(1740.)    Died  in  1751. 

Legros,  (Pierre,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris 
in  1666.  He  studied  in  Rome,  where  he  executed  many 
admired  works.  His  statue  of  Saint  Dominic  is  reckoned 
among  the  master-pieces  of  the  Basilica  of  Saint  Peter. 
He  also  adorned  the  chateau  of  Versailles.  He  sacri- 
ficed less  to  the  depraved  taste  of  the  time  than  most 
other  French  artists.    Died  in  Rome  in  17 19. 

Le  Guaspre.    See  Dughet. 

Lehmann,  la'mS^n,  (Christian  Gottfried  Wil- 
HELM,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Halberstadt  in  1765. 
He  published  a  "  Summary  of  the  Natural  History  of 
Man,"  (1799.)    Died  in  1823. 

Lehmann,  (Heinrich,)  a  skilfiil  German  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Kiel  in  1814.  He  became 
in  youth  a  resident  of  Paris,  where  he  obtained  medals 
of  the  first  class  in  1840,  1848,  and  1855,  was  em 
ployed  by  the  emperor  to  adorn  the  palace  of  Luxem 
bourg. 

Lehmann,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  topographer 
born  in  1765,  invented  about  1793  a  new  method  of  sur- 
veying, since  called  by  his  name.    Died  in  1811. 

Lehmann,  (Johann  Georg  Christoph,)  a  German 
botanist,  born  about  1794,  was  professor  of  botany  at 
Hamburg.  He  wrote  monographs  of  several  genera, 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1861. 

Lehmann,  (Johann  Gottlob,)  a  German  philoso- 
pher, who  acquired  a  European  reputation  as  a  mine- 
ralogist. In  1 76 1  he  removed  from  Berlin  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  in  compliance  with  an  invitation  from  the 
empress,  who  gave  him  a  place  in  the  Academy  of  that 
city.  He  published  a  work  on  mineralogy  for  the  use 
of  schools,  (1759,)  and  other  treatises  on  that  science. 
Died  in  1767. 

Lehmann,  (Rudolf,)  a  painter,  and  a  brother  of 
Heinrich,  was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1819.  He  worked 
mostly  in  Rome,  and  received  medals  at  the  Salon  of 
Paris.  Many  of  his  works  represent  the  manners,  cos- 
tumes, and  scenery  of  Italy. 

Lehnberg,  lan'b^RG,  (Magnus,)  an  eloquent  Swedish 
writer  and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  1758,  became  Bishop 
of  Linkoping.    Died  in  1809. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Si^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEHOC 


LEIDY 


Lehoc,  leh-ok',  (Louis  Gr^goire,)  a  French  littera- 
teur, born  in  Paris  in  1743.  Among  his  works  is  "Pyr- 
rhus,"  a  tragedy,  (1807.)    Died  in  i8io. 

Lehrberg,  I'aK'beRG,  (Aron  Christian,)  a  Russian 
scholar,  born  at  Dorpat,  in  Livonia,  in  1770.  He  re- 
moved to  Saint  Petersburg,  and  wrote  "  Inquiries  into 
the  Early  History  of  Russia,"  (1814.)    Died  in  1813. 

Le  Huerou,  leh  hii-a^Roo',  (Julien  Marie,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Prat  in  1807.  He  wrote  on  the  history 
of  the  Franks,  Gauls,  etc.    Died  in  1843. 

Leibnitz  or  Leibniz,  von,  fon  Iliynits  or  Hp'nlts, 
[Lat.  Leibnit/Zius,]  (Gottfried  Wilhelm,)  Baron,  a 
German  philosopher  and  mathematician  of  the  first 
order,  pre-eminent  among  the  moderns  as  a  universal 
genius,  was  born  at  Leipsic  on  the  6th  of  July,  1646. 
He  was  a  son  of  F"riedrich  Leibnitz,  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  at  Leipsic.  After  learning  Latin  and  Greek 
at  the  school  of  Saint  Nicholas,  he  entered  the  University 
of  Leipsic  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  studied  law,  philoso- 
phy, mathematics,  etc.  He  acquired  a  profound  know- 
ledge of  the  works  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  whose  systems 
he  endeavoured  to  harmonize.  In  1666  he  produced  a 
remarkable  treatise  on  the  combination  of  numbers  and 
ideas,  "  De  Arte  Combinatoria,"  and  took  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  laws  at  Altorf.  He  accepted  in  1667  the  office 
of  councillor  of  state  at  Frankfort,  and  published  his 
"New  Method  of  I^earning  and  Teaching  Jurispru- 
dence," ("Nova  Methodus  discendae  docendaeque  Juris- 
prudentiae,"  1668,)  an  ingenious  and  profound  essay  on 
Roman  law,  which  raised  him  to  the  first  rank  of  philo- 
sophic writers. 

Attracted  by  a  tendency  to  universality  in  science,  he 
meditated  the  plan  of  an  encyclopaedia,  which  became 
one  of  his  favourite  projects,  and  produced  in  rapid 
succession  works  on  politics,  religion,  and  philosophy, 
in  Latin  and  French, — for  he  scarcely  ever  wrote  in  his 
mother-tongue.  He  advanced  new  and  bold  theories  of 
motion  in  his  "Theory  of  Concrete  Motion"  ("Theoria 
Motus  concreti")  and  "  Theory  of  Abstract  Motion," 
("Theoria  Motus  abstracti,"  1671.)  In  1672  he  visited 
Paris,  where  he  met  Cassini  and  Huyghens,  and  declined 
to  enter  the  Academy  of  Sciences  with  the  condition  that 
he  should  abjure  the  Protestant  religion.  Proceeding 
to  London,  he  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Newton, 
Boyle,  and  others,  and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society.  In  1676  he  removed  to  Hanover,  having  been 
appointed  by  the  Duke  of  Brunswick-Llineburg  his  coun- 
sellor [Ho/rath]  and  librarian.  About  this  time  he  made 
the  great  discovery  of  the  infinitesimal  calculus,  nearly 
identical  with  Newton's  method  of  fluxions.  Many 
years  later  an  acrimonious  controversy  was  carried  on 
between  the  friends  of  these  two  rivals,  respecting  the 
priority  of  claim  to  this  discovery.  A  committee  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  London  (about  1705)  decided  in 
favour  of  Newton  ;  but  M.  Biot  maintains  that  Leibnitz 
anticipated  Newton  in  respect  to  publicity  by  a  letter  to 
Oldenburg  in  1676,  and  accords  to  both  the  honour  of 
the  original  invention,  Leibnitz  developed  the  power 
of  this  calculus  with  a  marvellous  felicity  in  its  applica- 
tion to  the  theory  of  curves,  to  mechanical  problems,  etc. 

In  1682  he  became  editor  of  the  "Acta  Eruditorum" 
of  Leipsic,  a  journal  which  he  rendered  celebrated.  He 
wrote  in  1693  ^  treatise  on  geology,  entitled  "Protogaea," 
"which,"  says  Hallam,  "no  one  can  read  without  per- 
ceiving that  of  all  the  early  geologists  Leibnitz  came 
nearest  to  the  theories  which  are  most  received  in  the 
English  school  at  this  day."  He  was  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin  in  1702,  with- 
out being  required  to  change  his  residence  or  to  retire 
from  the  service  of  the  Elector  of  Brunswick.  Charles 
VI.  of  Germany  gave  him  the  titles  of  baron  and  of  aulic 
councillor,  but  could  not  prevail  on  him  to  enter  his 
service.  Between  1690  and  1700  he  was  engaged  in  a 
long  epistolary  negotiation  with  Bossuet  in  order  to  re- 
store the  unity  of  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  churches. 
He  crowned  his  career  as  author  by  his  great  work 
entitled  "Essay  of  Theodicea  on  the  Goodness  of  God, 
the  Liberty  of  Man,  and  the  Origin  of  Evil,"  ("Essai  de 
Theodicee  sur  la  Bonte  de  Dieu,  la  Liberie  de  I'Homme, 
et  rOrigine  du  Mai,"  1710.)  According  to  his  system, 
God  is  the  supreme  Reason  of  the  universe,  the  first  and 


last  term  in  the  series  of  efficient  causes,  as  in  that 
of  final  causes.  In  forming  the  world  He  has  realized 
the  ideal  models  of  truth,  beauty,  and  perfection  which 
existed  eternally  in  His  mind.  To  the  parallelism  estab- 
lished in  the  divine  mind  between  the  reign  of  efficient 
causes  and  that  of  final  causes,  corresponds  another  har- 
mony, of  a  superior  order,  between  the  kingdoms  of  nature 
and  of  grace.  From  the  infinite  perfection  of  the  divine 
attributes  he  deduces  the  celebrated  theory  of  Optimism, 
— that  among  all  possible  plans  of  creation  the  Almighty 
has  chosen  the  best,  the  one  which  combines  the  greatest 
variety  with  the  greatest  order, — in  which  matter,  space, 
and  time  are  most  wisely  economized.  He  died  at  Hano- 
ver, November  14,  17 16.  Among  his  important  works 
is  one  entitled  "New  Essays  on  the  Human  Understand- 
ing," ("Nouveaux  Essais  sur  I'Entendement  humain," 
about  1 765,)  in  which  he  controverts  the  opinions  of  Locke. 
Another  of  his  works  is  called  "  Pre-Established  Har- 
mony," ("  Harmonic  pre-etablie.")  His  "  Monadologie," 
(1714,)  in  which  his  metaphysical  system  is  developed, 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  monuments  of  his  intel- 
lectual power.  "There  was  only  one  man  in  the  world," 
says  Hallam,  "who  could  have  left  so  noble  a  science  as 
philosophical  jurisprudence  for  pursuits  of  a  still  more 
exalted  nature  and  for  which  he  was  still  more  fitted; 
and  that  man  was  Leibnitz  himself."  ("Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of -Europe.")  He  was  never  married.  His 
disposition  was  cheerful,  his  manners  were  affable,  and 
his  habits  temperate.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works 
has  recently  been  published  by  Foucher  de  Careil,  Paris. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  filogc  de  Leibnitz;"  J.  A.  Eberhard, 
"  Characteristik  des  Freilierrn  von  Leibnitz,"  1817;  Lampkecht, 
"  Leben  des  Freiherrn  G.  W.  von  Leibnitz,"  1740;  Hissmann, 
"Versucli  iiber  das  Leben  des  Freiherrn  von  Leibnitz,"  1783;  De 
Jaucourt,  "Vie  de  Leibnitz,"  1734;  Guhrauer,  "G.  VV.  von  Leib- 
nitz, Biographie,"  2  vols.,  1845;  G.  Schilling,  "Leibnitz  als 
Denker,"  1846;  Jean  Svlvain  Baili.y,  "  ^filoge  de  Leibnitz,"  1769; 
John  M.  Mackie,  "  Life  of  G.  W.  Leibnitz,"  Boston,  1845;  Emil 
F.  VoGKL,  "G.  W.  von  Leibnitz,"  Leipsic,  1846;  Dr.  F.  Hoefer, 
article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  Biot,  article  in  the 
"  Biograjihie  Universeile ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1846  , 
"  Atlantic  Monthly"  for  June,  1858. 

Leibnitzius.    See  Leibnitz. 

Leicester,  Earl  of.    See  Dudley,  (Robert.) 

Leicester,  les'ter,  of  Holkham,  (Thomas  William 
Coke,)  P2arl  of,  an  eminent  English  agriculturist,  was 
the  son  of  Wenman  Roberts,  of  Norfolk,  and  was  born 
in  1752.  His  father  assumed  the  name  of  Coke  when 
he  inherited  the  estates  of  his  uncle  Thomas  Coke,  who 
was  Earl  of  Leicester  and  a  descendant  of  Sir  Edward 
Coke.  From  1776  to  1832  he  represented  the  county  of 
Norfolk  in  Parliament,  and  was  a  constant  supporter  of 
the  Whig  party.  He  owned  a  very  large  and  highly- 
cultivated  estate  at  Plolkham,  and  became  distinguished 
for  his  liberality  and  zeal  in  the  improvement  of  agricul- 
ture. After  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford  (1802)  he 
was  reputed  to  hold  the  highest  place  among  English 
cultivators.  In  1837  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as 
Earl  of  Leicester  of  Holkham.  The  last  name  of  this 
title  was  annexed  to  distinguish  him  from  another  Earl 
of  Leicester.    Died  in  1842. 

Leich,  llK,  (JoHANN  Heinrich,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Leipsic  in  1720,  became  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  that  city  in  1748.  He  wrote  the  "Life  and 
Reign  of  Constantinus  Porphyrogenitus,"  and  several 
other  works.    Died  in  1750. 

Leichner,  llK^ner,  (Eccard,)  a  German  naturalist 
and  physician,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1612.  He  practised 
at  Erfurt,  where  he  died  in  1690. 

Leichner,  (Johann  Georg  Heinrich,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1684;  died  in  1769. 

Leidy,  liMe,  (Joseph,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  a  distinguished 
American  naturalist,  of  German  extraction,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  September  9,  1823.  He  graduated  as  M.D. 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1844,  and  the  same 
year  commenced  the  practice  of  his  profession,  but  soon 
abandoned  it  for  more  congenial  pursuits.  From  1846 
to  1852  he  gave  private  courses  of  lectures  on  anatomy 
and  physiology.  In  1853  he  was  elected  professor  of 
anatomy  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  which  position 
he  still  holds.  Besides  anatomy,  human  and  compara- 
tive, he  has  devoted  much  attention  to  natural  history, 
more  especially  zoology  and  palaeontology.    Since  1846 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


l^EIGH 


1399 


LEKAIN 


he  has  occupied  the  position  of  chairman  of  the  curators 
in  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  The  third  volume 
of  the  "Catalogue  of  Scientific  Papers,"  compiled  and 
published  by  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  gives  a  list 
of  one  hundred  and  eleven  of  his  published  papers  up 
to  i860.  Among  the  most  important  of  these  are  the 
"  Flora  and  Fauna  within  Living  Animals,"  and  the 
"Ancient  Fauna  of  Nebraska,"  both  published  by  the 
Smithsonian  Listitution.  Since  1S60,  besides  publishing 
an  "Elementary  Treatise  on  Human  Anatomy,"  he  has 
largely  added  to  his  list  of  scientific  papers.  Among 
the  most  important  of  these  are  the  "Cretaceous  Rep- 
tiles of  the  United  States,"  published  in  the  fourteenth 
volume  of  the  "  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Know- 
ledge," in  1865,  and  "The  Extinct  Mammalian  Fauna 
of  Dakota  and  Nebraska,  together  with  a  Synopsis  of  the 
Mammalian  Remains  of  North  America,"  (4to,  with  30 
plates,)  published  as  the  seventh  volume  of  the  "Journal 
of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences"  of  Philadelphia. 

Leigh,  lee,  (Benjamin  Watkins,)  an  American  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  in  Chesterfield  county,  Virginia,  in 
1781.  He  practised  law  at  Richmond,  and  became  one 
of  the  most  prominent  politicians  in  the  State.  He  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  legislature 
of  Virginia  in  1834  or  1835,  and  resigned  his  seat  in  1837. 
Died  in  1849. 

Leigh,  lee,  (Charles,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  naturalist, 
born  in  Lancashire  about  1650.  He  practised  medicine 
in  London  and  other  cities,  and  published  several  works, 
the  most  important  of  which  is  a  "  Natural  History  of  Lan- 
cashire, Cheshire,  and  the  Peak  of  Derbyshire,"  (1700.) 

Leigh,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English  writer  and  biblical 
scholar,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1602,  was  educated  for 
the  law.  In  the  civil  war  he  favoured  the  popular  cause, 
and  was  a  member  of  Parliament,  from  which  he  was 
expelled  in  1648  by  the  extreme  opponents  of  the  king. 
He  displayed  much  learning  in  his  "  Critica  Sacra, 
or  the  Hebrew  Words  of  the  Old  and  the  Greek  of  the 
New  Testament,"  (1639,)  and  published  a  "Treatise  of 
Divinity,"  (1646,)  and  other  esteemed  religious  works. 
Died  in  1671. 

Leighton,  la'ton,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  clergy- 
man, born  at  Edinburgh  in  1568.  He  was  professor  of 
moral  philosophy  in  that  city  for  several  years  prior  to 
1613,  when  he  removed  to  London  and  obtained  a  lec- 
tureship. For  libellous  or  offensive  expressions  against 
the  king,  queen,  and  the  bishops  in  his  book  called 
"  Zion's  Plea,"  (1629,)  he  was  punished  by  the  Star 
Chamber  with  mutilation,  the  pillory,  and  long  imprison- 
ment. He  was  released  in  1640,  and  died  about  1646. 
Laud  appears  to  be  responsible  for  the  cruel  treatment 
of  Leighton. 

Leighton,  la'tgn,  (Robert,)  a  British  divine  of  emi- 
nent merit  and  piety,  born  in  London  about  1612,  was 
the  son  of  the  preceding.  About  1641  he  became  min- 
ister of  the  Presbyterian  church  at  Newbottle,  near 
Edinburgh.  Finding  that  his  moderation  was  unaccept- 
able to  the  contentious  spirit  and  fierce  zeal  which  then 
prevailed,  he  retired  from  the  pulpit,  and  was  chosen 
principal  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  When  Charles 
IL  resolved  to  restore  Episcopacy  in  Scotland,  (about 
1661,)  Leighton  was  made  Bishop  of  Dumblane.  About 
1670  he  became  Archbishop  of  Glasgow.  His  conduct 
was  more  conciliatory  than  that  of  the  other  bishops. 
He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher,  and  published 
sermons  and  other  works,  which  are  greatly  esteemed. 
His  commentary  on  the  first  epistle  of  Peter  was  often 
reprinted.  In  1674  he  resigned  his  archbishopric,  prob- 
ably from  an  abhorrence  of  the  violent  contest  which 
disturbed  the  Church  and  State.    Died  in  1684. 

See  John  N.  Pearson,  "  Life  of  R.  Leighton,"  1832;  George 
Jekment,  "Remains  of  the  Life  of  R.  Leighton,"  180S;  Burnet, 
"  Histoiy  of  his  Own  Time;"  "R.  Leighton  ein  apostolischer 
Mann,"  etc.,  Berhn,  1834;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary 
of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Leiningen,  von,  fon  H'ning-en,  (Charles,)  Prince, 
a  German  prince,  born  in  1804,  was  a  half-brother  of 
Victoria,  Queen  of  England.    Died  in  1856. 

Leinster,  lin'ster  or  leen'ster,  (William  Robert 
Fitzgerald,)  Duke  of,  an  Irish  peer,  born  in  1749, 
entered  the  British  House  of  Lords  in  1776,  and  acted 
with  the  Tories.    Died  in  1805. 


Leisewitz,  li'zeh-wits^  (Johann  Anton,)  a  German 
dramatist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1752,  wrote  a  popular 
tragedy,  entitled  "Julius  von  Tarent."    Died  in  1806. 

Leisler,  lls'ler,  (Jacob,)  an  adventurer  and  revolu- 
tionist, born  at  ^'"rankfort-on-the-Main,  in  Germany,  emi- 
grated to  America  in  1660,  and  became  a  resident  of 
Albany.  Fie  was  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners 
of  the  court  of  admiralty  in  1683.  In  1689  he  was  the 
leader  of  a  mob  which  seized  the  fort  and  public  funds 
of  New  York,  "  for  the  preservation,"  as  he  said,  "  of  the 
Protestant  religion."  Having  declared  himself  for  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  he  strengthened  the  fort,  and  was 
proclaimed  by  his  adherents  commander-in-chief  of  the 
province.  Sloughter  having  been  soon  after  appointed 
Governor  of  the  colony,  Leisler  was  arrested,  and  exe- 
cuted in  1691. 

See  a  "Life  of  Jacob  Leisler,"  by  C.  F.  Hoffman,  in  Sparks's 
"American  Biography,"  vol.  iii.  2d  series. 

Leismann,  lls'min,  (Johann  Anton,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Salzburg  in  1604.  He  settled  in  Venice, 
painted  landscapes  and  battles,  and  had  a  high  re])uta- 
tion.  His  manner  is  said  to  resemble  that  of  Salvator 
Rosa.    Died  in  1698. 

Leith,  leeth,  (Sir  James,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
Aberdeenshire,  Scotland,  in  1763.  He  served  as  major- 
general  under  Sir  John  Moore  in  the  Peninsula,  and 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Corunna,  in  1809.  He  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  forces  in  the  West  Indies 
in  1814.    Died  in  1816. 

Lejay,  leh-zhi',  (Gabriel  Francois,)  a  French  Jes- 
uit, born  in  Paris  about  1660.  He  was  eminent  as  a 
professor  of  rhetoric  in  Paris,  where  Voltaire  was  his 
pupil.  He  published,  besides  other  works  in  Latin, 
"  Bibliotheca  Rhetorum,"  ("Library  of  Orators,"  1725,) 
which  is  said  to  be  a  valuable  systematic  treatise  on 
eloquence.    Died  in  1734. 

Lejay  orLe  Jay,  (Gui  Michel,)  a  Frenchman,  known 
by  the  Polyglot  Bible  which  bears  his  name,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1588.  He  expended  the  labour  of  seventeen 
years  and  a  large  patrimony  in  the  publication  of  his 
"Bible  in  Hebrew,  Samaritan,  Chaldee,"  etc.,  ("Biblia 
Hebraica,  Samaritana,  Chaldaica,  Graeca,  Syriaca,  Latina, 
Arabica,"  1645,)  which  is  a  master-piece  of  typography. 
Lejay  was  assisted  in  editing  this  work  by  Morin,  Gabriel 
Sionita,  and  other  learned  men.  He  was  made  a  privy 
councillor.    Died  in  1674. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lejeune,  leh-zhun',  (Claude,)  a  famous  French 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Valenciennes  about 
1540.  He  received  the  title  of  composer  to  Henry  IV. 
Died  about  1600. 

Le  Jeune,  (Jean.)    See  Jeune,  Le. 

Lejeune  or  Le  Jeune,  (Louis  FRANgois,)  Baron, 
a  French  general  and  painter,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1775. 
For  his  conduct  at  Austerlitz  he  was  made  chef-de-batail- 
lon  in  1805.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade 
at  Borodino  in  181 2,  and  is  said  to  have  saved  the  army 
of  Oudinot  at  Hoyerswerda.  He  painted,  besides  other 
subjects,  "The  Battle  of  Marengo,"  (1801,)  "The  Battle 
of  Lodi,"  (1804,)  and  "The  Battle  of  the  Moskwa," 
(1824.)    Died  in  1850. 

Lejeune,  (Paul,)  a  French  missionary,  born  in  1592, 
laboured  in  Canada  for  many  years.  He  published  a 
descriptive  work  on  Canada  and  its  native  tribes,  (7 
vols.,  1640.)    Died  in  1664. 

Lejeune-Dirichlet,  (Gustav.)    See  Dirichlet. 

Lekain,  leh-k^N',  (Henri  Louis,)  a  famous  French 
actor,  born  in  Paris  in  1728.  He  was  patronized  by 
Voltaire,  who  discerned  in  him  the  germ  of  great  talent 
while  he  was  acting  in  a  private  troupe.  He  made  his 
debut  in  1750,  and  attained  a  celebrity  scarcely  equalled 
by  that  of  any  actor  of  modern  times  except  Garrick. 
Lekain  was  most  successful  in  tragedy  and  in  the  ex- 
pression of  deep  emotion.  Voltaire  designated  him  as 
the  only  truly  tragic  actor.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
career  he  performed  at  Berlin,  by  request  of  Frederick 
the  Great.    Died  in  1778. 

See  "  Memoires  de  Lekain,"  published  by  his  son,  1801  ;  F.  J. 
Tai.ma,  "Memoire  siir  Lekain  et  sur  I'Art  dramatique,"  1827; 
Voltaire,  "  Correspondance ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;" 
"Monthly  Review,"  vol.  xxxvi.,  1801,  (Appendix.) 


«  as ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  K^guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^^Stt  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LE  KEUX 


1400 


Le  Keux,  leh-kooks,  ?  (Henry,)  a  skilful  English 
engraver,  born  in  1788.  He  engraved  some  works  of 
Turner  and  Prout,  illustrations  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
Poems,  etc.    Died  in  1868. 

Le  Keux,  (John,)  an  English  architectural  engraver, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  London  in  1783 
or  1784.  He  excelled  in  the  engraving  of  Gothic  ar- 
chitecture, the  principles  and  details  of  which  he  had 
diligently  studied.  His  works  have  contributed  much 
to  the  diffusion  of  a  taste  for  the  Gothic  style  in  England. 
He  engraved  part  of  Britton's  "Cathedral  Antiquities," 
and  of  Pugin's  "Antiquities  of  Normandy"  and  "Gothic 
Specimens,"  and  other  works.    He  died  in  1846. 

Le  Keux,  (John  Henry,)  an  excellent  engraver  and 
draftsman,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  18 12. 
He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  engraver  of  architec- 
ture. Among  his  works  are  numerous  plates  in  Ruskin's 
"  Modern  Painters." 

Le  Laboureur,  (Jean.)    See  Laboureur,  Le. 

Le'land,  (Charles  Godfrey,)  an  American  littera- 
teur, born  at  Philadelphia  in  1824.  He  was  a  contributor 
to  the  "  Knickerbocker  Magazine"  and  other  periodicals. 
He  published  in  1855  the  "Sketch-Book  of  Meister 
Karl"  and  "The  Poetry  and  Mystery  of  Dreams,"  and 
in  1856  a  translation  of  Heine's  "Pictures  of  Travel," 
("  Reisebilder.") 

Lel'and  or  Laylonde,  la'lond,  (John,)  an  eminent 
English  antiquary  and  linguist,  born  in  London  soon 
after  1500.  He  learned  the  ancient  and  modern  lan- 
guages at  Oxford  and  Paris.  Having  entered  into  holy 
orders,  he  became  chaplain  to  Henry  VHL,  who  em- 
ployed him  as  librarian  and  in  1533  gave  him  the  title 
of  his  antiquary,  with  orders  to  explore  the  antiquities 
of  England.  He  spent  about  seven  years  in  collecting 
materials  for  history,  and  in  1545  compiled  his  "Account 
of  British  Authors,"  ("  Commentarii  de  Scriptoribus  Bri- 
tannicis.")  He  became  insane  in  1550,  and  died  in  1552, 
leaving  many  manuscripts,  which  were  deposited  in  the 
Bodleian  Library.  His  "Itinerary"  (9  vols.)  was  edited 
by  Hearne  in  17 10. 

See  HuDDESFORD,  "Lives  of  Leland,  Hearne,  and  Wood,"  1772; 
Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Wood,  "Athenas 
Oxonienses." 

Leland,  (John,)  an  English  dissenting  minister,  born 
in  Lancashire  in  1691.  He  became  pastor  of  a  Presby- 
terian congregation  in  Dublin  in  17 16.  In  1733  he  pub- 
lished an  "Answer  to  Tindal's  '  Christianity  as  Old  as 
the  Creation.'"  He  wrote  other  approved  treatises  in 
defence  of  Christianity,  and  in  1754  published  his  chief 
work,  a  "View  of  the  Principal  Deistical  Writers  that 
have  appeared  in  England  in  the  Last  and  Present  Cen- 
tury."   Died  in  1766. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1754,  March,  1755,  and 
June,  1764. 

Leland,  (John,)  an  American  Baptist  divine,  born  at 
Grafton,  Massachusetts,  in  1754.  He  published  nume- 
rous sermons,  and  essays  on  various  subjects.  Died  in 
1841. 

Leland,  (Thomas,)  a  classical  scholar  and  historical 
writer,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1722.  He  took  orders,  and 
became  eminent  as  a  preacher.  In  1756  he  produced 
the  first  volume  of  an  excellent  translation  of  Demos- 
thenes' Orations,  which  was  finished  in  1770.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  oratory  in  Trinity  College  in  1763. 
His  principal  works,  besides  the  above-named,  are  a 
*'  History  of  the  Life  and  Reign  of  Philip  of  Macedon," 
(1758,)  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Principle  of  Human  Elo- 
quence," (1764,)  and  a  "History  of  Ireland,"  (1773.) 
Died  in  1785. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  August,  1758,  and  September  and 
November,  1773. 

Leleux,  leh-luh',  (Adolphe,  )  a  popular  French 
painter  of  genre,  born  in  Paris  in  181 2.  Among  his 
works  are  "  The  Spanish  Smugglers,"  and  "  The  Return 
from  Market,"  (1847.) 

Leleux,  (Arm and,)  a  painter  of  genre,  etc.,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1818. 

Lelewel,  li-la'vel,?  (Joachim,)  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent Polish  historians  of  modern  times,  was  born  at 
Warsaw  in  1786.  He  conspired  with  the  insurgents  at 
Warsaw  against  Constantine  of  Russia  in  November, 


LEMAIRE 


1830,  and  was  proposed  for  dictator;  but  Chlopicki  was 
preferred.  Lelewel  held  several  high  offices  in  the  new 
government  f(jr  a  short  time,  until  the  victories  of  the 
Russians  drove  him  into  exile  in  1831.  After  1833  he 
resided  at  Brussels.  Among  his  most  popular  works 
are  a  "  History  of  Poland,"  (1829,)  a  "  History  of  Poland 
under  Stanislas  Augustus,"  (1831,)  and  "Poland  of  the 
Middle  Ages,"  (1846-51.)  He  published  (in  French)  an 
important  work  on  "Mediaeval  Geography,"  (1852,)  and 
various  other  books.    Died  in  1861. 

See  L.  Chodzko,  "Notice  biographique  sur  J.  Lelewel,"  4th 
edition,  1834. 

Lelli,  leKlee,  (Ercole,)  an  Italian  painter  and  modeller 
of  the  Bolognese  school,  born  in  1702.  He  excelled  in 
the  art  of  anatomical  preparations.    Died  in  1766. 

Lelong,  leh-l6N^  (Jacques,)  a  French  priest  and 
bibliographer  of  high  reputation,  born  in  Paris  in  1665, 
was  learned  in  languages  and  literary  history.  He  be- 
came librarian  in  the  Maison  Saint- Honore,  at  Paris. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "Bibliotheca  Sacra;  or, 
Syllabus  of  nearly  all  Editions  and  Versions  of  the 
Scriptures,"  (2  vols.,  1 709,)  and  "  Bibliotheque  historique 
de  la  France,"  (1719,)  containing  a  catalogue  of  vv-orks 
which  treat  on  French  history,  with  notes.  An  enlarged 
edition  of  the  latter  was  published  by  Fevret  de  Fon- 
tette,  (5  vols.,  1768-78.)    Died  in  1721. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Le  Lorrain,  leh  lo'r^N',  (Louis  Joseph,)  a  French 
engraver  and  mediocre  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1715; 
died  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1760. 

Lelorrain  or  Le  Lorrain,  (Robert,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor, born  in  Paris  in  1666,  was  a  pupil  of  Girardon.  He 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1701. 
His  works  display  good  talents,  but  are  censured  for 
mannerism.    Died  in  1743. 

Lelut,  la^ii',  (Louis  FRANgois,)  a  French  physician, 
born  in  Haute-Saone  in  1804.  He  wrote  able  treatises 
on  psychology,  insanity,  etc. 

LeTy,  (Sir  Peter,)  or  Van  der  Faes,  vtn  der  fas,  a 
successful  portrait-painter,  of  Dutch  descent,  was  born 
at  Soest,  in  Westphalia,  in  1617.  He  removed  to  Lon- 
don in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  He  excelled  in  the  repre- 
sentation of  female  beauty,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
fashionable  artists  of  that  time.  After  the  restoration 
in  1660,  he  received  the  title  of  first  painter  to  Charles 
II.,  the  beauties  of  whose  court  were  the  subjects  of 
his  master-pieces.  His  works  are  generally  censured  for 
immodesty.    Died  in  1680. 

See  Bkyan,  "Dictionary  of  Painters ;"  Walpole,  "Anecdotes 
of  Painting." 

Lemaire,  leh-mSR',  (Henri,)  a  French  novelist,  born 
at  Nancy  in  1756.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  The 
French  Gil  Bias,  or  Adventures  of  Henri  Langon,"  (3 
vols.,  1792.)    Died  in  1808. 

Lemaire,  leh-mSR^,  (Jacques,)  a  Dutch  navigator  and 
merchant,  who  was  director-general  of  a  company  which 
in  1615  sent  an  expedition  to  find  a  new  route  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  He  discovered  the  strait  which  bears 
his  name  and  separates  Staten  Land  from  Terra  del 
Fuego,  in  1616,  doubled  Cape  Horn  for  the  first  time, 
and  sailed  to  the  East  Indies.  He  died  at  sea  in  1616. 
C.  Schouten  was  captain  of  the  ship  which  made  this 
voyage. 

See  A.  G.  Chotin,  "Notice  sur  J.  Lemaire,  Navigateur." 

Lemaire,  (Jean,)  a  Belgian  poet  and  historian,  born 
in  Hainault  about  1473.  He  entered  the  service  of 
Margaret  of  Austria  as  librarian.  His  principal  work 
is  entitled  "  Illustrations  of  the  Gauls,"  ("  Illustrations 
des  Gaules,"  1512.)    Died  about  1548. 

Lemaire,  (Nicolas  ELOi,)a  French  classical  scholar 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Triancourt  (Meuse)  in  1767.  He 
was  chosen  i^rofessor  of  Latin  poetiy  in  the  Faculty  of 
Letters,  Paris,  in  1811.  He  composed  Latin  verses  with 
remarkable  facility.  Among  his  productions  is  a  Latin 
"Ode  on  the  Birth  of  the  King  of  Rome,"  (1812.)  He 
acquired  reputation  among  classical  literati  by  the  pub- 
lication of  all  the  best  Latin  authors,  in  154  vols.  8vo, 
under  the  title  of  "Bibliotheca  Classica  Latina."  This 
is  said  to  be  the  best  collection  of  the  classics  that  exists. 
Died  in  1832. 

See  "  Notice  sur  N.  E.  Lemaire,"  Paris,  1842. 


i,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y, lottg;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y, short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


LEMAIRE 


LEMOINE 


Lemaire,  (Philippe  Henri,)  a  French  sculptor,  a 
member  of  the  Institute,  was  born  at  Valenciennes  in 
1798.  He  gained  the  first  prize  in  182 1,  and  studied  in 
Rome.  His  design  for  the  fronton  or  pediment  of  the 
church  of  Madeleine,  Paris,  was  preferred  in  1836.  This 
vast  composition  is  called  his  capital  work. 

Lemaire,  (  Pierre  Auguste,  )  a  French  classical 
scholar,  a  nephew  of  Nicolas  £loi,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Triancourt  in  1802.  He  edited  Lucan,  Lucre- 
tius, and  other  classic  authors. 

Lemaistre,  leh-mitR',  (Antoine,)  a  French  advocate, 
born  in  Paris  in  1608,  was  a  brother  of  Lemaistre  de  Sacy. 
He  acquired  a  great  reputation  by  his  eloquence,  and 
afterwards  retired  to  the  cloister  of  Port-Royal.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Pascal,  and  a  nephew  of  Arnauld  d'Andilly. 
Referring  to  his  published  forensic  speeches,  Hallam 
says,  "  Lemaistre  is  fervid  and  brilliant ;  he  hurries  us 
with  him.  Both  Lemaistre  and  Patru  do  great  honour 
to  the  French  bar."  He  was  one  of  the  translators  of 
the  Port-Royal  New  Testament.    Died  in  1658. 

See  Philu-pe  Simon  Dupin,  "Notice  sur  A.  Lemaistre,"  1822; 
Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Fournel,  "  Histoire  des  Avo- 
cats;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lemaistre,  (Jean,)  a  French  magistrate,  who  in  1591 
was  nominated  first  president  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris 
by  the  chiefs  of  the  League.  At  a  critical  period  in  the 
contest  between  the  League  and  Henry  IV.  he  procured 
a  decree  of  Parliament  in  favour  of  the  latter,  (1593.) 
Died  in  1596. 

Lemaistre  de  Saci  or  Sacy,  leh-mitR'  deh  st'se', 
(Isaac  Louis,)  a  French  Jansenist  theologian,  born  in 
Paris  in  1613,  was  a  nephew  of  Antoine  Arnauld  le 
Grand.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1650,  and  became 
confessor  or  principal  director  of  the  recluses  of  Port- 
Royal.  He  was  confined  in  the  Bastille  two  years,  (1666- 
68,)  during  which  he  made  a  French  translation  of  the 
Old  Testament.  He  was  one  of  the  translators  of  the 
New  Testament  of  Mons,  (1667,)  which  was  often  re- 
printed. In  consequence  of  renewed  persecution,  he  left 
Port-Royal  in  1679.  He  published  French  versions  of 
several  works,  among  which  were  the  fourth  and  sixth 
books  of  the  "vEneid."   Died  in  1684. 

See  Fontaine,  "M^moires  sur  Port-Royal;"  Sainte-Beuve, 
'Port-Royal,"  tome  ii.  ;  Lelong,  "  Bibliotheque  sacree;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Lemaitre,  leh-mitR',(FR^:D6Ric,)  a  celebrated  French 
actor,  born  at  Havre  in  1798,  was  called  "the  Talma 
of  the  Boulevards."  He  was  successful  in  tragedy  and 
comedy,  and  excelled  in  the  romantic  drama. 

Le'man,  (Rev.  Thomas,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  1751  ;'died  in  1827. 

Le  Marchant,  leh  mtR^shfiN',  (Jacques,)  a  Flemish 
historian,  born  at  Furnes  in  1537,  wrote  several  works 
on  the  history  of  Flanders.    Died  in  1609. 

Lemare,  leh-mtR',  (Pierre  Alexandre,)  a  French 
grammarian,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1766,  published 
several  successful  works  on  grammar.    Died  in  1835. 

Lemazurier,  leh-mt'zii're-a',  (Pierre  David,)  a 
French  writer,  born  at  Gisors  in  1775;  died  in  1836. 

Lembke,  Igmp'keh,  (Johann  Philipp,)  a  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  163 1,  painted 
battles,  sieges,  and  hunting-scenes  with  success.  He 
was  invited  to  the  court  of  Sweden  by  Charles  XL,  who 
gave  him  the  title  of  painter  to  the  king.    Died  in  1721. 

Lemchen.    See  Lemnius,  (Simon.) 

Lemene,  li-ma'nk,  (Francesco,)  Count,  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Lodi  in  1634.  He  composed  many  elegant 
Latin  verses,  but  his  principal  poems  were  written  in  the 
Italian  language.  He  had  a  rich  and  poetic  imagination, 
and  contributed  much  to  reform  the  poetry  of  his  country. 
Died  in  1704. 

See  ToMMASO  Ceva,  "Memorie  di  alcune  Virtu  del  Signor 
Conte  F.  di  Lemene,"  1706;  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura 
Italiana." 

Lemens,  van,  vtn  la'mens,  (Balthasar,)  a  Flemish 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1637,  worked  in 
London.    Died  in  1704. 

Lemercier,leh-m§R^se-i',  (Jacques,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  at  Pontoise  about  1600.  By  order  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  he  built  about  1635  the  church  of  the  Sor- 
bonne  at  Paris,  and  the  Chateau  Richelieu.  He  obtained 
the  title  of  chief  architect  to  the  king.    Among  his  most 


admired  works  are  the  church  of  the  Annonciade  at 
Tours,  and  that  of  Saint-Roch  in  Paris.    Died  in  1660. 

See  Fontenav,  " Dictionnaire  des  Artistes;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie Generale  ;"  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  "Vies  des  plus  celebres 
Architectes." 

Lemercier,  (Louis  Jean  N^pomuc^ne,)  a  popular 
French  poet  and  dramatist,  born  in  Paris,  April  21, 
1 771.  He  was  a  republican  in  the  Revolution  and 
through  all  the  changes  which  followed.  His  tragedy 
of  "Agamemnon,"  in  verse,  (1797,)  procured  for  him 
a  triumph  of  which  the  annals  of  the  theatre  offer  few 
examples.  He  afterwards  produced  "Ophis,"  "Louis 
XL,"  (1821,)  and  other  successful  tragedies.  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1810.  Pie 
wrote  a  poem  entitled  "The  French  Ages,"  (1803,)  and 
many  other  works.  Talleyrand  is  reported  to  have  said 
that  Lemercier  conversed  better  than  any  other  man  in 
France.    Died  in  1840. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lemery,  l^im're',  (Louis,)  a  skilful  physician  and 
chemist,  a  son  of  Nicolas,  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1677.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  for  which  he  wrote  many  memoirs.  For  thirty- 
three  years  he  was  physician  to  the  Hotel-Dieu,  Paris. 
Died  in  1743. 

Lemery,  (Nicolas,)  M.D.,  a  French  chemist,  born 
at  Rouen  in  1645,  was  educated  a  Protestant.  In  1672 
he  settled  in  Paris,  where  he  lectured  on  chemistry  with 
eclat,  and  published  a  "Course  of  Chemistry,"  ("Cours 
de  Chimie,"  1675,)  which  was  very  successful.  It  was 
often  reprinted,  and  was  translated  into  many  languages. 
After  suffering  much  persecution  for  religion,  he  abjured 
Calvinism  in  1686.  He  was  received  into  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1699.    Died  in  1715. 

See  Paul  Antoine  Cap,  "filoge  de  N.  Lemery,"  1838;  J.  Ton- 
net,  "  Notice  sur  N.  Lemery,"  1844  ;  Fontenelle,  "  Eloge  de  N. 
Lemery,"  1715;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lemierre,  leh-me-aiR',  (Antoine  Marin,)  a  French 
dramatic  poet,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1723.  He  produced 
in  1758  "  Hypermnestre,"  a  tragedy,  which  was  com- 
pletely successful.  His  tragedies  "William  Tell"  (1766) 
and  "The  Widow  of  Malabar"  (1770)  were  often  per- 
formed with  applause.  He  composed  a  poem  on  Painting, 
(1769,)  which  contains  several  fine  passages.  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1781.  Died 
in  1793. 

See  Pekrin,  "  Notice  de  Lemierre,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his 
works,  Paris,  3  vols.,  1810;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lemire,  leh-m^R'  or  leh-meeR',  [  Lat.  Mir^'us,  ] 
(AuHERT,)  a  Flemish  compiler,  born  at  Brussels  in  1573. 
He  studied  for  the  clerical  profession,  and  became  vicar- 
general  at  Antwerp  in  1624.  He  published,  besides  other 
Latin  works,  "  Eulogies  of  Eminent  Belgian  Authors," 
(1602,)  and  "Annals  of  Belgium,"  ("Rerum  Belgicarum 
Annales,"  1624.)    Died  in  1640. 

See  Nic^ron,  "  Memoires  ;"  Foppens,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Lemire,  leh-m^R',  (Noel,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Rouen  in  1724,  was  a  pupil  of  Lebas.  He  engraved 
landscapes,  portraits,  etc.,  and  excelled  in  vignettes. 
"The  Partition  of  Poland"  (designed  and  engraved  by 
him)  is  called  his  master-piece.    Died  in  1801. 

Lemmens.    See  Lemnius, 

Lemnius,  l§m'ne-us,  or  Lemmens,  iSm'm^ns,  (LiE- 
VIN,)  a  Dutch  physician  and  philosopher,  born  at  Zierikzee 
in  1505.  He  practised  in  his  native  place,  and  acquired 
a  European  reputation  by  his  skill..  He  wrote,  in  elegant 
Latin,  "  De  occultis  Naturae  Miraculis,"  ("The  Secret 
Wonders  of  Nature,"  1559,)  and  other  scientific  or  moral 
works,  which  were  very  successful.    Died  in  1568. 

See  Hardrrwijck,  "Jets  over  L.  Lemnius,"  1843;  M.  Adam, 
"Vitae  Medicorum  Germanorum." 

Lemnius,  Igm'ne-us,  (Simon,)  a  Swiss  poet,  whose 
proper  name  was  Lemchen,  (iSm'Ken,)  was  born  in  the 
Grisons.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  whence  he  was 
banished  by  the  influence  of  Luther  or  Melanchthon 
about  1538,  probably  on  account  of  his  writings.  He 
published  Latin  epigrams  and  other  verses.  Died  in  1550. 

Lemoine,  leh-mwin',  (Antoine,)  a  French  officer,  a 
brother  of  DTberville,  was  born  at  Montreal  in  1683.  He 
became  Governor  of  Cayenne,  where  he  died  about  1730. 
(See  Iberville,  d'.) 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Vi^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JC^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEMOINE 


1402 


LENAU 


Lemoine  or  Lemoyne,  leh-mwtn',  (Charles,)  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1656,  at  Montreal, 
of  which  he  afterwards  became  governor.  Died  in  1729. 

Lemoine  or  Lemoyne,  (Etienne,)  a  French  Prot- 
estant divine  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Caen  in  1624, 
wrote  "  Varia  Sacra."    Died  in  1689. 

Lemoine,  (Franqois,)  an  eminent  French  historical 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1688,  was  a  pupil  of  Galloche. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Royal  Academy  in  1718,  in 
consideration  of  his  "  Hercules  and  Cacus."  He  made 
a  short  visit  to  Italy  in  1723,  and  at  his  return  was  chosen 
professor  of  painting  in  the  Academy.  His  master- 
piece is  "The  Apotheosis  of  Hercules,"  (1736,)  an  oil- 
painting,  which  adorns  a  ceiling  in  the  palace  of  Ver- 
sailles, and  is  said  to  be  the  largest  in  Europe,  (64  feet 
by  54.)  He  excelled  in  composition,  and  had  probably 
a  higher  reputation  than  any  French  painter  of  his  time  ; 
but  his  design  was  incorrect.  In  1736  he  became  first 
painter  to  the  king,  and  in  the  next  year  committed 
suicide. 

See  Bryan,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Lemoine,  (Jean,)  a  French  cardinal  and  canonist, 
born  at  Crecy.  He  founded  in  Paris  the  college  which 
bears  his  name.    Died  in  13 13. 

Lemoine,  (Joseph,)  brother  of  Charles,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  Montreal  in  1668.  In  1719  he  took  Pen- 
sacola  from  the  Spaniards.    Died  in  France  in  1734. 

Lemoine  or  Lemoyne,  (Pierre,)  a  French  poet 
and  Jesuit,  born  at  Chaumont,  in  Bassigny,  in  1602.  He 
took  part  in  the  dispute  between  the  Jesuits  and  Jan- 
senists.  His  principal  work  is  a  bombastic  epic  poem  en- 
titled "  Saint  Louis,  or  the  Holy  Crown  recovered  from 
the  Infidels,"  (1653,)  which  obtained  little  favour  with 
the  public.  His  "  Devotion  Made  Easy"  ("  La  Devotion 
aisee,"  1652)  was  criticised  by  Pascal  in  the  eleventh  of 
his  "Provincial  Letters."    Died  in  1671. 

Lemoine,  (Sauvolle,)  brother  of  Joseph,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  Montreal  about  1671.  He  accom- 
panied his  brother  D'Iberville  on  his  western  expedition, 
and  was  appointed  by  Louis  XIV.  governor  of  the 
colony  of  Louisiana  in  1699.    Died  in  1 701. 

Lemoine  d'Iberville.    See  Iberville,  d'. 

Lem'on,  (George  William,)  an  English  gramma- 
rian, born  in  1726.  He  published  an  "Etymological 
English  Dictionary."    Died  in  1797. 

Lemon,  (Mark,)  an  English  dramatist,  humorist, 
and  editor,  born  in  London  in  1809.  He  produced  a 
large  number  of  farces,  melo-dramas,  etc.,  among  which 
are  "The  Serious  Family"  and  "The  Ladies'  Club." 
Several  of  his  plays  are  quite  popular.  He  became 
editor  of  the  London  "  Punch"  soon  after  its  first  pub- 
lication, and  literary  editor  of  the  "Illustrated  London 
News."    Died  in  May,  1870. 

Lemonnier,  leh-mo'ne-i',  (Anicet  Charles  Ga- 
briel,) a  French  painter,  was  born  at  Rouen  in  1743. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Cleombrotus"  and  the  "  Death 
of  Antony."    Died  in  1824. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lemonnier,  (Guillaume  Antoine,)  a  French  abbe 
and  litterateur^  born  in  1 72 1,  produced  French  trans- 
lations of  Terence  and  Perseus,  and  wrote  a  volume  of 
"Fables  and  Tales."    Died  in  1797. 

Lemonnier  or  Le  Monnier,  (Louis  Guillaume,) 
a  French  physician  and  botanist,  born  in  1 71 7,  was  a 
brother  of  Pierre  Charles,  noticed  below.  He  succeeded 
Bernard  Jussieu  as  professor  of  botany  in  the  Jardin  du 
Roi  in  1777,  and  received  the  title  of  first  physician  to 
the  king  about  1780.  He  was  for  some  time  chief  phy- 
sician of  the  army.  He  rendered  considerable  service 
to  the  science  of  botany,  and  wrote  several  treatises 
which  were  inserted  in  the  collection  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.    Died  in  1799. 

See  Challan,  "  Essai  historique  surlaVie  de  L.  G.  Lemonnier," 
1800. 

Le  Monnier,  (Pierre,)  a  French  astronomer,  born 
in  Normandy  in  1675.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy 
at  the  College  of  Harcourt,  and  published  a  work  called 
"  Course  of  Philosophy,"  ("  Cursus  Philosophias,"  6  vols., 
1750.)    Died  in  1757. 

Lemonnier  or  Le  Monnier,  (Pierre  Charles,)  a 
distinguished  French  astronomer,  born  in  Paris  in  171 5, 


was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1736,  and  assisted  Mau- 
pertuis  and  Clairaut  in  measuring  a  degree  of  the  me- 
ridian at  Torned,  within  the  polar  circle,  in  1736-37.  In 
1746  he  ascertained  the  inequalities  of  Saturn  caused  by 
the  attraction  of  Jupiter,  and  in  1748,  during  an  eclipse, 
measured  the  diameter  of  the  moon  on  the  disc  of  the 
sun.  He  was  for  many  years  a  professor  of  physics 
in  the  College  of  France.  He  published  "Histoire  ce- 
leste," (1741,)  "Astronomic  Institutes,"  ("Institutions 
astronomiques,"  1746,)  a  good  elementary  work  on 
astronomy,  "Nautical  Astronomy,"  (1771,)  and  other 
treatises  on  astronomy,  navigation,  etc.  Died  in  1799. 
See  Lalande,  "  Bibliographie ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lemontey,  leh-m6N'ti',  (Pierre  Edouard,)  an  able 
French  historical  writer  and  lawyer,  born  at  Lyons  in 
1762.  He  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly  in 
1 791.  During  the  empire  he  gained  the  confidence  of 
Napoleon,  who  ordered  him  to  write  the  "  History  of 
France  in  the  Eighteenth  Century."  He  published  in 
1818  an  "Essay  on  the  Monarchical  System  ( Etablisse- 
meitt)  of  Louis  XIV.,"  and  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy  in  1819.  Died  in  1826.  In  1832  appeared  his 
"  History  of  the  Regency  and  the  Minority  of  Louis 
XV./'  a  part  of  his  unfinished  "  History  of  France." 

See  ViLLEMAiN,  "Discours  prononc^  aux  Fundrailles  de  Lemon- 
tey;" "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  Passeron,  "Notice  sur 
Lemontey." 

Lemos,  la'm6s,  (Tomas,)  a  Spanish  theologian,  born 
in  Galicia,  was  professor  at  Valladolid  in  1594  when  the 
Thomists  and  Molinists  began  a  controversy  about  grace. 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  favour  of  the  former,  and 
wrote  many  works,  one  of  which  was  entitled  "  Panoply 
of  Grace,"  ("  Panoplia  Gratiae,"  1676.)    Died  in  1629. 

Lemos,  de,  da  la'm6s,  (Don  Pedro  Fernandez  de 
Castro,)  Count,  a  Spanish  statesman,  born  at  Madrid 
about  1564.  He  became  president  of  the  Council  of  the 
Indies  in  1603,  and  Viceroy  of  Naples  about  1610.  He 
was  a  patron  of  Cervantes.    Died  in  1634. 

Lemot,  leh-mo',  (Francois  Frederic,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Lyons  in  1773.  Having  gained  the 
grand  prize  about  1790,  he  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension. 
He  afterwards  worked  in  Paris,  and  was  chosen  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Institute.  Among  his  admired  works  are 
statues  of  Henry  IV.,  Lycurgus,  Leonidas,  Brutus,  and 
Cicero.    Died  in  1827. 

See  J.  S.  Passeron,  "  Notice  sur  Lemot." 

Lemoyne.    See  Lemoine. 

Lemoyne,  leh-mwtn',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1704;  died  in  1778. 

Lemoyne,  (Jean  Bap  nsTE  Moyne,)  a  French  com- 
poser, born  in  Perigord  in  1751.  He  composed  "  Phedre," 
(1786,)  and  other  successful  operas.  The  poem  of 
"Phedre"  was  written  by  Hoffman.    Died  in  1796. 

L'Empereur.    See  Empereur,  L'. 

Lempriere,  llm'pre-er  or  l^m-preer',  (John,)  D.D., 
a  teacher  and  classical  scholar,  born  in  the  island  of 
Jersey  about  1 760.  He  published  in  1788  an  excellent 
classical  dictionary,  which  has  enjoyed  a  wide  popularity 
and  is  still  in  extensive  use.  After  acting  as  master  of 
the  grammar-school  at  Exeter,  he  obtained  the  rectory 
of  Meeth,  in  Devonshire,  about  1811.  He  also  pub- 
lished a  "Universal  Biography,"  (1808.)    Died  in  1824. 

Lem'u-res,  [Fr.  L6MURES,^la'muR^j  a  name  applied 
by  the  ancient  Romans  to  spectres  or  departed  spirits, 
which,  as  they  believed,  returned  to  the  world.  If  benefi- 
cent, they  were  called  Lares;  and  if  malign.  Larva. 
Some  authors,  however,  considered  the  Lemures  and 
Larvae  as  identical.  To  propitiate  them  or  counteract 
their  influence,  solemn  rites  were  annually  performed. 

Lenaeus,  le-nee'us,  (Pompeius,)  a  grammarian,  born 
at  Athens,  lived  aboitt  50  B.C.  lie  was  once  a  slave  of 
Pompey  the  Great,  who  liberated  him.  He  defended 
Pompey  against  the  charges  of  Sallust. 

Lenain.    See  Tillemont. 

Lenau,  la'now,  (Nikolaus,)  an  eminent  poet,  born 
in  Hungary,  August  15,  1802.  His  family  name  in  full 
was  Niembsch  von  Strehlen.a.u,  (neempsh  fon  stRa'- 
leh-now^)  After  he  left  the  University  of  Vienna  he 
studied  law,  medicine,  and  natural  sciences,  and  visited 
the  United  States  in  1832.    He  produced  about  1832  a 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolongedj  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  s/ior^;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LENCLOS 


LENOIR 


collection  of  lyric  poems  in  German,  which  had  great 
success.  He  also  wrote  several  epic  poems,  among 
which  is  "The  Albigenses,"  ("Die  Albigenser,"  1841.) 
He  is  ranked  by  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale" 
among  the  first  lyric  poets  of  Germany.    Died  in  1850. 

See  Uffo  Horn,  "  N.  Lenau,  seine  Ansichten  und  Tendenzen,  " 
1838  ;  Theodor  Opitz,  "  N.  Lenau  ;  ausfiihrliche  Characteristik 
des  Dichters,"  1850;  L.  A.  Frankl,  "Zu  Lenau's  Biographie," 
1854. 

Lenclos  or  L'Enclos,  de,  deh  15N^klo',  (Anne  ; 
commonly  called  Ninon,)  a  French  courtesan,  celebrated 
for  her  wit  and  beauty,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1616.  She 
was  courted  by  many  men  of  high  rank  and  of  eminent 
talents,  with  whom  she  formed  liaisons.  Among  her 
female  friends  were  Madame  de  Maintenon  and  Madame 
de  La  Fayette.  She  was  never  married.  It  appears  that 
venality  was  not  one  of  her  vices.  Her  letters  are 
marked  by  an  elegant  simplicity  of  style.  Moliere  is 
said  to  have  had  such  a  high  opinion  of  her  literary 
taste  that  he  often  consulted  her.    Died  in  1706. 

See  Bret,  "  Memoire  sur  Ninon  de  L'Enclos,"  1750;  Guvon  de 
Sardieke,  "Viede  Ninon  de  L'Enclos;"  L.  Damours,  "  Lettres 
de  Ninon  de  Lenclos  au  Marquis  de  Sevigne,  augmentees  desa  Vie," 
2  vols.,  1752,  (translated  into  English,  London,  1761.) 

Lenet,  leh-ni',  (Pierre,)  a  French  historian,  born  at 
Dijon,  was  devoted  to  the  Prince  of  Conde  during  the 
war  of  the  Fronde.  He  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  the  Civil 
War  which  began  in  1649,"  (2  vols.,  1729.)  Died  in  1671. 

Le  Neve,  leh-neev',  (John,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  about  1679.  He  published  "  Fasti  Ecclesise  Angli- 
canse."    Died  about  1740. 

Le  Neve,  (Peter,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
1662,  became  Norroy  king-at-arms.    Died  in  1729. 

Lenfant,  IdN^fdN',  (Alexandre  Charles  Anne,)  a 
French  Jesuit,  eminent  as  a  preacher,  was  born  at  Lyons 
in  1726.  He  preached  in  Paris  and  other  cities,  and 
was  reputed  one  of  the  most  eloquent  pulpit  orators  of 
his  time.  He  was  one  of  the  victims  of  the  massacre 
in  Paris  in  September,  1792. 

Lenfant,  (Jacques,)  a  French  Protestant  divine  of 
great  merit,  born  at  Bazoche  in  1661.  He  was  educated 
at  Saumur  and  Geneva,  and  in  1689  removed  to  Berlin, 
where  he  preached  forty  years.  About  1705  he  became 
chaplain  to  Frederick  William  of  Prussia,  and  in  1724 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He 
was  the  author  of  many  valuable  works,  among  which 
are  a  "  History  of  the  Council  of  Constance,"  (2  vols., 
1714,)  a  "  Preventive  against  Reunion  with  the  See  of 
Rome,"  (1723,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Wars  of  the 
Hussites  and  of  the  Council  of  Basle,"  (2  vols.,  1 731.) 
In  partnership  with  Beausobre,  he  produced  a  French 
translation  of  the  New  Testament,  with  notes  and  a 
learned  introduction  by  Lenfant,  (171 8.)  Died  in  1728. 
His  histories  are  admitted  to  be  impartial  and  moderate. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Leng,  (John,)  an  English  scholar,  born  at  Norwich 
in  1665.  He  became  chaplain  to  George  L,  who  ap- 
pointed him  Bishop  of  Norwich  in  1723.  He  pub- 
lished "The  Clouds"  of  Aristophanes,  (1695,)  ^^''d  a 
good  edition  of  Terence,  (1701.)    Died  in  1727. 

Lengard.    See  Lennard. 

Lengerke,  von,  fon  l^ng'er-keh,  (Alexander,)  a 
celebrated  agricultural  writer,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1802. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  the  "Agricultural  Con- 
versations-Lexicon," (4  vols.,  1835-38.)    Died  in  1853. 

Lengerke,  von,  (  Casar,  )  a  learned  theologian, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1803. 
His  principal  works  are  "Commentaries  on  the  Prophet 
Daniel  and  the  Psalms." 

Lenglet-Dufresnoy,16N''gla'  dii'fRi'nwi',  (Nicolas,) 
a  French  abbe,  noted  as  a  voluminous  and  sarcastic  writer, 
was  born  at  Beauvais  (Oise)  in  1674.  He  was  several 
times  confined  in  the  Bastille  for  his  freedom  or  impru- 
dence as  a  writer.  He  displayed  great  erudition  in  his 
numerous  works,  which  are  chiefly  historical.  Among 
his  most  important  works  are  "Method  for  the  Study 
of  History"  (2  vols.,  1713)  and  "Method  for  the  Study 
of  Geography."  (4  vols.,  1716.)  He  also  wrote  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Hermetic  Philosophy,"  (3  vols.,  1742,)  and 
edited  the  works  of  various  authors.    Died  in  1755. 

See  Michault,  "  Memoire  de  Lenglet-Dufresnoy,"  1761  ;  Que- 
KARD,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


Lengnich,  Igng'niK,  (Gottfried,)  a  Prussian  hi» 
torian  and  publicist,  born  at  Dantzic  about  1690.  He 
published  a  "History  of  Polish  Prussia  from  1526  to 
1748,"  (9  vols.,  1723-48,)  "The  Public  Law  of  Poland," 
(1742,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1774. 

Lengnich,  (Karl  Benjamin,)  a  German  numismatist 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1742  ;  died  in  1795. 

Lenhossek,  de,  deh  l^n-hosh'ek,  ?  (Michael,)  a 
Hungarian  physician,  born  at  Presburg  in  1773.  He 
obtained  the  title  of  first  physician  of  Hungary,  and 
published  many  able  professional  works.    Died  in  1840. 

Len^nard  or  Lengard,  ling'gard,  (Sampson,)  an 
English  antiquary,  who  fought  under  Sir  Philip  Sidney 
at  Zutphen.  He  translated  from  the  French  Charron's 
"La  Sagesse,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1633. 

Lenne,  \Wny,  (Peter  Joseph,)  born  at  Bonn  in  1789, 
acquired  a  high  reputation  throughout  Germany  for  his 
skill  and  taste  in  landscape-gardening. 

Lennep,  van,  vtn  len'nep,  (David  Jacob,)  a  Dutch 
poet  and  philologist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1774.  He 
became  professor  of  eloquence  at  Leyden,  and  was 
eminent  as  a  classical  scholar.  He  wrote  philological 
essays  and  elegant  verses,  and  published  editions  of 
Hesiod  and  of  Ovid.    Died  in  1853. 

See  Koenen,  "Lijkrede  op  D.  J.  van  Lennep,"  1853. 

Lennep,  van,  (Jacob,)  a  celebrated  novelist,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1802.  He 
chose  the  profession  of  the  law,  in  which  he  attained 
eminence.  Among  his  early  productions  are  poems 
entitled  "  National  Legends,"  ("  Vaderlandsche  Legen- 
den.")  In  1830  he  produced  "The  Village  on  the 
Frontier,"  a  political  farce,  which  had  immense  success. 
He  published  many  popular  novels,  among  which  are 
"Our  Forefathers,"  ("Onze  Voorouders,")  and  "The 
Rose  of  Dekama."  He  translated  into  Dutch  some  plays 
of  Shakspeare,  and  poems  of  Byron  and  Tennyson.  He 
is  often  called  "  the  Walter  Scott  of  Holland." 

Lennep,  van,  (Jan  Daniel,)  a  Dutch  linguist  and 
critic,  born  at  Leeu warden  in  1724.  He  was  professor  of 
Latin  and  Greek  at  Groningen  from  1752  to  1768.  He 
gained  a  high  reputation  by  a  work  "  On  the  Analogy 
of  the  Greek  Language,"  and  by  his  "Etymology  of  the 
CTreek  Language,"  ("  Etymologicum  Linguae  Graecae,") 
(published  i)y  Scheide,  2  vols.,  1790.)    Died  in  1 77 1. 

See  Sax,  "  Onomasticon." 

Lenngren,  len'gR§n,(ANNA  Maria,)  a  Swedish  writer, 
originally  named  Malmstedt,  (m^lm'st^t,)  born  at  Upsal 
in  1754,  was  the  author  of  poems  of  a  humorous  character. 
Died  in  1817. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Len'nox,  (Charlotte,)  an  ingenious  authoress,  born 
at  New  York  in  1720,  was  the  daughter  of  Colonel  Ram- 
say, lieutenant-governor  of  that  place.  She  went  to  Eng- 
land in  her  youth,  and  appears  to  have  been  dependent 
on  her  literary  talents  for  support  before  and  after  her 
marriage  with  Mr.  Lennox.  She  wrote  "The  Female 
Quixote,"  (1752,)  "  Henrietta,"  a  successful  novel,  (1758,) 
and  other  works  of  fiction.  In  1753  she  published 
"  Shakspeare  Illustrated,"  a  collection  of  tales  on  which 
the  plays  of  that  dramatist  are  founded,  translated  from 
various  languages.  She  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Dr. 
Johnson,  who  expressed  a  high  opinion  of  her  works. 
Died  in  1804. 

Lenoble,  leh-nobK,  (Eustache,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Troyes  in  1643.  He  wrote  many  works  in  prison, 
where  he  was  confined  for  forgery,  and  acquired  some 
popularity  as  a  gay,  sprightly  writer.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Political  Dialogues,"  (1690,)  and  "The  School  of  the 
World."    Died  in  17 11. 

Lenoir,  leh-nw^R',  (Alexandre,)  a  French  antiquary 
and  artist,  born  in  Paris  in  1761.  In  the  Revolution  he 
saved  from  destruction  many  monuments  and  works  of 
art  found  in  convents  and  churches.  He  was  chosen 
keeper  ( adniinistrateur )  of  the  Museutn  of  French  Monu- 
inents  in  1801.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
"History  of  Painting  on  Glass,"  (1804,)  and  a  "History 
of  the  Arts  in  France  proved  by  Monuments,"  (1810,) 
Died  in  1839. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lenoir,  (Alexandre  Albert,)  an  architect,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1801.    He  was 


«  as  i;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (gl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LENOIR 


1404 


LEO 


architect  of  the  museum  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
Palais  des  Thermes  with  the  Hotel  de  Cluny. 

Lenoir,  (Etienne,)  a  Frenchman  distinguished  for 
his  skill  in  the  fabrication  of  astrononiical  and  mathe- 
matical instruments,  was  born  at  Mer  in  1744.  He  fur- 
nished the  instruments  for  the  expeditions  of  La  Perouse 
and  Baudin,  and  those  used  by  the  savants  whom  Bona- 
parte took  to  Egypt  in  1798.    Died  in  1832. 

Lenoir,  (Nicolas,)  called  Le  Romain,  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1726.  He  was  employed  as  an 
architect  by  Voltaire  at  Ferney.    Died  in  1810. 

Lenormand,  leh-noR''m6N',  (Marie  Anne  Ade- 
laide,) a  French  fortune-teller,  born  at  Alen9on  in  1772. 
She  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Em- 
press Josephine,"  (1829,)  which  has  been  translated  into 
English.    Died  in  1843. 

See  F.  GiRAULT,  "  Mademoiselle  Le  Normand,  sa  Biographie,  ses 
Predictions,"  etc.,  1843. 

Lenormant,  leh-noR'm5N',  (Charles,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1802.  He  accompanied 
Champollion  to  Egypt  in  1828,  and  was  chosen  a  substi- 
tute of  Guizot  as  professor  of  history  in  Paris  in  1835. 
He  wrote  an  "  Introduction  to  Oriental  History,"  (1838,) 
and  other  works. 

Lendtre,  leh-n5tR',  (AndrE,)  a  French  architect  and 
designer  of  the  royal  gardens,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1613. 
He  displayed  his  inventive  genius  in  adorning  the  park 
and  garden  of  Versailles  for  Louis  XIV.,  and  designed 
or  embellished  other  royal  gardens  at  Chantilly,  Saint- 
Cloud,  and  the  Tuileries.  In  1675  the  king  granted 
him  letters  of  nobility.  Died  in  1700.  "The  gardens 
of  the  Tuileries  and  of  Versailles,"  says  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle,"  "  will  always  be  the  master-pieces  of  the 
style  invented  by  Lenotre." 

See,  also,  Mor^ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Lenourry,  leh-noo're',  (Denis  Nicolas,)  a  learned 
French  monk,  born  at  Dieppe  in  1647.  He  devoted 
many  years  to  a  work  entitled  "Apparatus  ad  Bibliothe- 
cam  maximam  Patrum  Veterum,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1694-97,) 
which  contains  critical  dissertations  on  the  works  of  the 
Fathers.    Died  in  1724. 

Len'px,  (Matthew  Stuart,)  Earl  of,  a  Scottish 
nobleman,  was  the  father  of  Lord  Darnley,  In  1544  he 
was  driven  out  of  Scotland  by  the  hostility  of  the  regent 
Arran,  and  went  to  the  court  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  gave 
him  his  niece  Margaret  Douglas  in  marriage.  He  was 
invited  to  return  to  Scotland  with  his  son  in  1564.  In 
1570  he  was  chosen  Regent  of  Scotland  by  the  party 
which  was  hostile  to  Queen  Mary.  Her  partisans  sur- 
prised him  at  Stirling  in  1572,  and,  perceiving  that  his 
friends  were  likely  to  rescue  him,  instantly  put  him  to 
death. 

See  Robertson,  "  History  of  Scotland." 

Lens,  iSns  or  16n,  (Andreas  Cornelis,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1739.  He  worked  in  Brus- 
sels, and  painted  history  and  portraits.  He  excelled  in 
design,  colouring,  and  chiaroscuro.    Died  in  1822. 

See  De  Stassart,  "A.  C.  Lens,"  1846. 

Lens,  (Bernard,)  a  Belgian  painter  and  engraver, 
excelled  in  miniature.  He  became  court  painter  to 
George  II.  of  England.    Died  in  1741. 

Lenstrom  or  Lenstroem,  l^n'strom,  (Karl  Julius,) 
a  Swedish  writer,  born  at  Gefle  in  1811.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  his  native  place,  and  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Theories 
of  Art,"  (2  vols.,  1839,)  and  a  "History  of  Swedish 
Poetry,"  (1840.) 

Lenthal  or  Lenthall,  ISnt'al,  ?  (William,)  an  English 
statesman  and  lawyer,  born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1591.  He 
was  returned  to  Parliament  in  1639,  and  in  1640  was 
chosen  Speaker  of  the  Commons  by  the  popular  or  re- 
publican party.  When  the  king  attempted  to  arrest 
Hampden,  and  four  other  members,  in  the  House,  and 
asked  Lenthal  if  they  were  present,  he  prudently  re- 
plied, "  I  have  neither  eyes  to  see  nor  tongue  to  speak 
in  this  place,  but  as  the  House,  whose  servant  I  am,  is 
pleased  to  direct  me."  In  1653  he  ceased  to  be  Speaker, 
the  Parliament  having  been  violently  dissolved  by  Crom- 
well, but  was  elected  by  the  new  House  to  the  same 


office  in  1654.  He  also  acted  as  Speaker  for  a  short 
time  in  1660,  before  Charles  II.  was  restored.  Died  in 
1682,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  in  1662. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England;"  Clarendon,  "History  of 
the  Rebellion." 

Len'tu-lus,  the  name  of  a  noble  Roman  family,  a 
branch  of  the  gens  Cornelia,  which  produced  several 
distinguished  men.  Publius  Cornelius  Lentulus 
Sura,  a  man  of  corrupt  character  but  popular  manners, 
was  chosen  consul  in  73  B.C.,  and  was  afterwards  ex- 
pelled from  the  senate  for  some  misconduct.  He  was 
an  accomplice  in  Catiline's  conspiracy,  and  was  per- 
suaded by  the  soothsayers  that  he  was  the  third  member 
of  the  Cornelia  gens  destined  by  the  fates  to  have  the 
chief  power  in  Rome.  By  the  orders  of  Cicero  and  the 
senate,  he  was  put  to  death  in  62  B.C. 

P.  Cornelius  Lentulus  Spinther  was  consul  in 
57  B.C.,  when  he  promoted  the  recall  of  Cicero.  In  the 
civil  war  he  took  arms  for  Pompey,  was  made  prisoner 
and  liberated  by  Caesar,  but  fought  for  Pompey  at  Phar- 
salia,  and  fled  to  Rhodes.  Nothing  further  is  known 
respecting  him. 

Lentulus,  ISn'too-liis,  (Cyriacus,)  a  German  publi- 
cist, born  at  Elbingen  about  1620.  He  published,  in  Latin, 
"  Arcana  of  Kingdoms  and  Republics,"  (1653,)  and  "  The 
Absolute  Prince,"  (1663,)  which,  with  his  other  works, 
form  an  ample  commentary  on  Tacitus.    Died  in  1678. 

Lenz,  Ignts,  (Heinrich  Friedrich  Emil,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Dorpat  in  1804.  He  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Saint  Peters- 
burg in  1834,  and  was  afterwards  professor  of  medicine 
at  the  university  in  that  city,  and  numbered  among  his 
pupils  the  imperial  princes. 

Lenz,  (Jakob  Michael  Reinhold,)  a  German  poet 
and  intimate  friend  of  Goethe,  born  in  Livonia  in  1750. 
He  became  insane  in  consequence  of  an  unrequited 
passion  for  Frederica  Brion,  who  has  been  celebrated 
l3y  Goethe.    He  wrote  several  comedies.    Died  in  1792. 

See  A.  Stober,  "  Der  Dichter  Lenz  und  Friederike  von  Sesen- 
heim,"  1842. 

Lenz,  (Karl  Gotthold,)  a  German  philologist  and 
writer,  born  at  Gera  in  1763  ;  died  at  Gotha  in  1809. 

Lenz,  (Samuel,)  a  German  historian,  born  at  Stendal 
in  1686;  died  about  1760. 

See  HucH,  "  S.  Lenz's  Leben,"  1758. 

Le'o  [Fr.  L60N,  la'6N']  L,  Fla'vi-us,  Emperor  of 
Constantinople,  was  a  native  of  Thrace.  At  the  death  of 
Marcianus,  in  457  A.D.,  he  held  a  high  rank  in  the  army, 
bv  which  he  was  proclaimed  emperor  through  the  influ- 
ence of  Aspar,  who  designed  to  make  him  only  a  nominal 
monarch.  Having  gained  a  victory  over  the  Huns,  he 
sent  an  expedition  against  Genseric  in  Africa,  which  was 
unsuccessful.  He  is  represented  as  an  able  ruler.  He 
died  in  474  A.D.,  having  named  as  his  successor  his 
grandson,  Leo,  an  infant,  who  died  after  a  nominal  reign 
of  a  few  months.  Zeno,  the  father  of  Leo  II.,  then  began 
to  reign. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Le  Beau, 
"Histoire  du  Bas-Empire,"  edited  by  Saint-Martin. 

Leo  11,  born  about  470  A.D.,  succeeded  Leo  1.  in 474, 

and  died  the  same  year. 

Leo  III.,  called  Isau'ricus,  one  of  the  most  able 
emperors  of  the  East,  was  born  in  Isauria,  of  obscure 
parentage.  In  the  army  of  Justinian  II.  he  rose  to  the 
highest  rank.  When  Anastasius  II.  was  dethroned,  in 
716  A.D.,  Leo  and  Theodosius  aspired  to  succeed  ;  and 
the  former  prevailed  in  717.  The  first  important  event 
of  his  reign  was  his  great  victory  over  the  Saracens,  who 
had  besieged  Constantinople  for  two  years,  (718-19.) 
The  prosperity  of  his  reign  was  soon  blasted  by  a  dis- 
pute about  the  use  of  images,  which  Leo  prohibited 
in  727,  and  which  the  Greek  patriarch  and  the  pope 
defended.  Thus  began  the  schism  of  the  Iconoclasts, 
which  convulsed  the  empire  with  persecutions,  revolts, 
and  great  calamities  to  the  end  of  his  reign,  and  caused 
the  final  separation  of  the  Latin  from  the  Greek  Church. 
He  died  in  741  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Constantine  Copronymus. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire ;"  Le  Beau, 
"Histoire  dn  Bas-Empire ;"  Theophanes,  "  History  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
j3iographie  Generale." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,    short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  flr,  fJll,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LEO 


1405 


LEO 


Leo  IV.,  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  born  in  751 
A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Constantine  Copronymus,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  775.  His  wife  was  the  ambitious  Irene. 
He  was  a  zealous  Iconoclast,  and  is  charged  with  perse- 
cuting the  orthodox  or  image-worshippers.  He  died  in 
780,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  minor  son,  Constantine  VL 

See  CEDRENUS,  "History." 

Leo  v.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  is  called  the  Armenian, 
because  his  father  was  a  native  of  Armenia.  Supported 
b}  the  army,  which  he  had  corrupted,  he  rebelled  against 
Michael  Rangabe,  and  usurped  the  throne,  in  813  a.d. 
He  defeated  the  Bulgarians,  who  invaded  his  dominions, 
in  814.  He  was  a  zealous  Iconoclast,  and  violently  per- 
secuted the  image-worshippers,  who  appear  to  have  been 
the  majority.  He  was  assassinated  in  820  A.D.,  and 
Michael  the  Stammerer  became  emperor. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Leo  VL,  surnamed  THE  Philosopher,  Emperor  of 
the  East,  born  in  865  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Basilius  the 
Macedonian,  whom  he  succeeded  in  886.  He  exiled  the 
patriarch  Photius.  His  empire  was  invaded  by  the  Sara- 
cens, who  gained  several  victories.  After  a  weak  and 
inglorious  reign,  he  died  in  911,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus.  Leo  was  more 
successful  as  an  author  than  as  a  ruler.  He  wrote  an 
esteemed  treatise  on  Tactics,  a  poem  on  the  desolation 
of  Greece,  moral  discourses,  and  other  works. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Le 
Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas- Empire  ;"  Fabricius,"  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Le'o[Fr.  L]^on,  li'6N';  It.  Leone,  li-o'ni;  Sp.  Leon, 
\k-6\V;  Port.  Leao,  li-6wN']  L,  Pope,  called  the 
Great,  an  ambitious  and  able  pontiff,  was  a  native  of 
Rome,  and  was  chosen  bishop  of  that  see  in  440  A.D.,  as 
successor  to  Sixtus  III.  His  talents  and  learning  had 
been  approved  in  several  important  missions.  In  445 
he  reversed  the  decision  of  Hilaire,  (Hilarius,)  a  French 
bishop,  on  a  question  of  discipline.  It  was  the  con- 
stant aim  of  his  policy  to  promote  the  supremacy  of  the 
Bishops  of  Rome.  He  pronounced  against  the  heresy 
of  Eutyches,  which  was  condemned  in  the  oecumenic 
Council  of  Chalcedon  in  451.  Tradition  informs  us  that 
Attila,  marching  against  Rome  in  452,  was  persuaded 
by  the  prayers  of  Leo  to  spare  that  city.  He  failed 
to  prevent  the  pillage  of  Rome  by  the  Vandal  king 
Genseric  in  455.  He  died  in  461  a.d.,  leaving  many 
sermons  and  epistles,  which  are  valuable  for  the  light 
they  throw  on  the  history  of  the  age.  Hilarius  I.  was 
his  successor. 

See  p.  DE  MoRNAY,  "Histoire  pontificale,"  1612  ;  P.  Dumoulin, 
"Vie  et  Religion  de  deux  bons  Papas,  Leon  I  et  Gregoire  I,"  1650; 
E.  Perthel,  "Pap'^t  Leo's  L  Leben  und  Lehren,"  1843;  W.  A. 
Arendt,  "  Leo  der  Grosse  und  seine  Zeit,"  1835;  Saint-Ch^ron, 
"Histoire  du  Pontificat  de  S.  Leon  le  Grand,"  2  vols.,  1845. 

Leo  IL,  Pope,  a  native  of  Sicily,  succeeded  Agathon 
in  682  A.D.  He  is  praised  for  virtues  and  learning  by 
Catholic  writers.  He  died  in  May,  684,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Benedict  II. 

Leo  IIL,  a  Roman  by  birth,  was  chosen  pope  in  795 
A.D.,  in  place  of  Adrian  I.  His  first  act  was  the  recog- 
nition of  his  subjection  or  allegiance  to  Charlemagne,  to 
whom  he  sent  the  keys  of  Saint  Peter's,  In  799  he  was 
attacked  by  a  band  of  conspirators,  and  escaped  with 
several  wounds.  Charlemagne  visited  Rome  in  800,  and 
was  crowned  by  the  pope  as  Emperor  of  the  Romans, 
with  the  title  of  Augustus.  Thus  the  Western  Empire 
was  restored,  after  it  had  been  subverted  three  hundred 
and  twenty-five  years.  Leo  died  in  816  a.d.,  and  was 
succeeded  by  ^Stephen  IV. 

See  J.  G.  Faber,  "Dissertatio  de  Leone  IIL  Papa  Romano," 
i7i8. 

Leo  IV.,  a  native  of  Rome,  was  chosen  pope  in  847 
A.D.,  in  place  of  Sergius  II.  He  bravely  defended  Rome 
against  the  Saracens,  who,  however,  pillaged  the  basilica 
of  Saint  Peter.  He  built  a  suburb  of  his  capital,  which 
was  named  Leonina.  His  character  is  said  to  have  been 
good.  He  died  in  855,  and  was  succeeded  by  Benedict 
III.  The  fabulous  female  pope  Joan  was  supposed  by 
some  writers  to  have  been  the  successor  of  Leo  IV. 

See  Baronius,  "Annales." 

Leo  v.,  a  native  of  Ardea,  was  elected  pope  in  903 
A.D.,  after  the  death  of  Benedict  IV.  About  two  months 


after  his  election  he  was  deposed  by  his  rival  Christopher, 
and  died  in  prison,  according  to  one  account,  in  903. 

Leo  VI.  succeeded  John  X.  in  928  a.d.,  when  the 
Church  was  in  a  deplorable  state  and  Italy  was  filled 
with  disorder.  After  a  reign  of  seven  months,  he  died, 
in  929,  and  was  succeeded  by  Stephen  VII. 

Leo  VII.  was  chosen  pope  after  the  death  of  John 
XI.,  in  937  A.D.  He  has  the  reputation  of  a  wise  and 
pious  pontiff.  His  reign  was  not  marked  by  im]jortant 
events.  He  died  in  939,  and  Stephen  VIH.  then  became 
pope. 

Leo  VIII.  was  elected  pope  in  963  a.d.,  in  place  of 
John  XII.,  who  had  been  deposed  by  a  council.  John 
returned,  expelled  Leo  from  Rome,  and  held  the  place 
until  his  death,  in  964.  The  Romans  then  elected  Bene- 
dict V.  ;  but  Leo  was  restored  by  the  emperor  Otho.  Lie 
died  in  965,  and  was  succeded  by  John  XIII. 

See  Platina,  "Vitae  Pontificum  Romanorum." 

Leo  IX.,  originally  Bruno,  bRoo'no,  was  born  in 
Alsace  in  1002,  and  was  a  cousin-german  of  the  emperor 
Conrad  the  Salic.  He  was  noted  for  learning,  and  be- 
came Bishop  of  Toul.  In  1049  he  succeeded  Daniasus 
II.  He  held  frequent  councils,  and  laboured  zealously 
to  reform  the  morals  of  the  clergy  Having  raised  an 
army  to  oppose  the  Normans,  he  was  defeated  by  them 
and  made  prisoner,  but  was  at  last  released.  He  died  in 
1054,  and  was  succeeded  by  Victor  II. 

See  F.  X.  Hunkler,  "Leo  IX.  und  seine  Zeit,"  1851 ;  Mura- 
TORi,  "Rerum  Italicarum  Scriptores,"  vol.  iii.,  1733. 

Leo  X.,  (Cardinal  Giovanni  de'  Medici — di  m^d'- 

ee-chee,)  celebrated  as  a  munificent  patron  of  literature 
and  the  arts,  the  second  son  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  (the 
Magnificent,)  was  born  at  Florence  in  1475.  He  was 
created  a  cardinal  at  the  age  of  thirteen.  In  1512  he 
was  made  prisoner  by  the  French  at  Ravenna,  but  soon 
regained  his  liberty.  Julius  II.  having  died,  Cardinal  de' 
Medici  was  elected  pope,  March  11,  1 513,  and  assumed 
the  name  of  Leo  X.  He  announced  his  patronage  of 
literature  by  choosing  two  eminent  authors,  Bembo  and 
Sadolet,  as  his  apostolical  secretaries.  The  pontificate  of 
Leo  is  a  memorable  epoch  in  religion,  politics,  and  the  fine 
arts.  In  1515  he  negotiated  and  signed,  with  Francis  I.  of 
France,  an  important  concordat,  which  remained  in  force 
nearly  three  centuries  and  gave  to  the  king  the  right  of 
nominating  bishops  in  his  own  dominions'.  One  of  the 
most  momentous  acts  of  his  administration  was  the  im- 
mense issue  and  sale  of  indulgences, which  were  authorized 
in  1517,  (ostensibly  for  the  completion  of  the  cathedral 
of  Saint  Peter's,)  and  which  impelled  Luther  to  denounce 
the  corruptions  and  defy  the  power  of  the  Church  of 
Rome.  (See  Luther.)  He  is  censured  by  many  Catho- 
lics for  his  lenity  towards  Luther.  By  violence  and  craft 
he  annexed  Urbino  and  Perugia  to  the  Papal  State.  In 
1521  he  made  a  treaty  with  Charles  V.,  and  became  the 
^illy  of  that  prince  in  a  war  against  Francis  I.  The 
capture  of  Milan  had  just  been  achieved  by  the  allies, 
when  Leo  died  in  December,  1 52 1,  not  without  suspicion 
of  poison.  He  was  succeeded  by  Adrian  VI.  It  is 
generally  admitted  that  Leo  was  rather  worldly  and 
luxurious  as  the  head  of  the  Church.  His  fondness  for 
buffoonery  gave  much  offence  to  the  stricter  Catholics. 
As  a  temporal  ruler  he  is  considered  more  meritorious. 
Under  his  auspices  Michael  Angelo  obtained  celebrity 
at  Florence  and  the  splendid  works  of  Raphael  were 
completed  in  the  Vatican.  He  restored  its  alienated 
revenues  to  the  Roman  University,  in  which  one  hundred 
professors  received  salaries,  founded  a  Greek  college  at 
Rome,  and  liberally  patronized  poets,  scholars,  and 
artists.  The  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  in  which  learn- 
ing and  art  flourished  most  remarkably  is  generally 
designated  as  the  "age  of  Leo  the  Tenth." 

See  W.  RoscoE,  "  Life  of  Leo  X.,"  3d  edition,  1840;  A.  Farroni, 
"Vita  Leonis  X.,"  1797  ;  Audin,  "  Histoire  de  Leon  X,"  1844 ;  Paui.o 
Giovio,  "Vita  Leonis  X.,"  1651;  Artaud  de  Montor,  "Histoire 
des  souverains  Pontifes,"  vol.  iv. ;  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary;"  Guicciardini,  "  Istoria  d'ltalia;"  Ranke,  "History 
of  the  Popes;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1806;  "  Monthly 
Review"  for  October  and  November,  1806. 

Leo  XL,  (Cardinal  Alessandro  de'  Medici — di 
mid'e-chee,)  was  advanced  in  years  when  he  succeeded 
Clement  VIII.  on  the  ist  of  April,  1605.  He  died  on 
the  27th  of  the  same  month,  probably  from  the  fatigue 


«  as  ^;  5 as  s;  | hard;%?&j;  g, H,  Yi^guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as z;  th  as  in  this.    (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEO 


1406 


LEONHARD 


of  the  coronation.  He  had  been  legate  to  France  under 
Clement  VIII.,  and  had  the  reputation  of  a  virtuous  and 
moderate  prelate.    Paul  V.  was  his  successor. 

Leo  XII.,  (Cardinal  Annibat.e  della  Genga — deKli 
jSn'gS,)  was  born  in  the  district  of  Spoleto  in  1760.  Having 
acted  for  some  years  as  nuncio  in  Germany  and  France, 
he  became  a  cardinal  in  1816.  In  September,  1823,  he 
succeeded  Pope  Pius  VII.  He  proclaimed  a  jubilee  in 
1825,  and  made  reforms  in  the  civil  administration.  His 
biographers  give  him  credit  for  political  prudence.  In 
a  circular  letter  of  1825  he  denounced  the  Bible  Socie- 
ties. He  died  in  February,  1829,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Pius  VIII. 

See  P.  RuDONi,  "Leone  XII.  e  Pio  VIII.,"  1829;  C.  Schmid, 
"Trauerrede  aiif  Leo  XII,"  1829;  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire 
du  Pape  Leon  XII.,"  2  vols.,  1843  ;  Cardinal  Wiseman,  "  Recol- 
lections of  the  Last  Four  Popes." 

Leo,  an  astronomer,  who  lived  at  Constantinople. 
He  was  invited  to  Bagdad  by  the  caliph  Al-Mamoon, 
but  the  emperor  refused  to  part  with  him.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Archbishop  of  Thessalonica,  but  was  deprived 
of  that  office,  for  his  opposition  to  image-worship,  in 
849  A.D. 

Leo  [Gr.  Keuv]  of  Byzantium,  [Fr.  L^on  de  By- 
ZANCE,  li'^N'  deh  be'zdNss',]  a  philosopher,  who  lived 
about  350  B.C.,  was  a  disciple  of  Plato.  He  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Philip  of  Macedon.  His  writings  have 
not  come  down  to  us. 

Leo  OF  MoDENA,  a  celebrated  Jewish  rabbi,  whose 
proper  name  was  Juda  Arie  or  Arje,  (aR'yi,)  was  born 
at  Venice  about  1572,  and  lived  mostly  in  that  city.  He 
wrote  verses  in  Hebrew  and  Italian,  and  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  Hebrew  dictionary,  and  an  "  Ac- 
count of  the  Rites  and  Customs  of  the  Jews,"  (1637.) 
Died  about  1650. 

See  Wolf,  "  Bibliotheca  Hebraica," 

Leo  OF  Orvieto,  [Lat.  Leo  Urbeveta'nus,]  an 
Italian  chronicler,  who  flourished  about  1320.  He  wrote, 
in  barbarous  Latin,  a  chronicle  of  the  emperors,  ending 
in  1308,  and  a  chronicle  of  the  popes,  ending  in  1314. 

Leo,  la'o,  (Heinrich,)  an  eminent  German  historian, 
born  at  Rudolstadt  in  1799.  He  obtained  about  1828 
the  chair  of  history  at  Halle,  which  he  filled  for  twenty- 
five  years  or  more.  In  1830  he  published  a  "  Manual  of 
.Mediaeval  History"  and  a  "History  of  the  Italian  States," 
(5  vols.,)  which  were  received  with  favour.  He  is  an 
adversary  of  the  Liberal  or  radical  party  in  politics. 
Among  his  other  works  is  a  "  Guide  to  Universal  His- 
tory," ("  Leitfaden  der  Universal-Geschichte,"  1838-40.) 

See  EnuARD  Meyen,  "  H.  Leo  der  verhallerte  Pietist,"  etc.,  1839. 

Leo,  la'o,  (Juan,)  surnamed  Africa'nus,  a  Moorish 
geographer,  born  at  Granada,  was  a  child  when  his  pa- 
rents, flying  from  the  victorious  Spaniards,  took  him  to 
Africa  in  1491.  He  travelled  extensively  in  Africa  and 
Asia,  was  taken  captive  by  Christian  corsairs,  and  pre- 
sented to  Pope  Leo  X.  about  1517.  He  abjured  Islam- 
ism,  and  wrote,  in  Arabic,  a  "  Description  of  Africa," 
(1^26,)  which  was  published  by  Ramusio  in  1550  and 
was  for  a  long  time  the  best  work  on  that  subject. 

See  Casiri,  "  Bibliotheca  Arabico-Hispana." 

Leo,  la'o,  (Leonardo,)  an  eminent  Italian  composer, 
born  in  Naples  in  1694,  was  a  pupil  of  Scarlatti.  He 
composed  admired  Italian  operas,  but  acquired  a  more 
durable  reputation  by  his  "  Miserere,"  "  Dixit  Dominus," 
and  other  pieces  of  sacred  music,  in  which  a  grand  effect 
is  produced  by  means  comparatively  simple.  He  was 
the  master  of  Piccini  and  of  other  excellent  composers. 
His  death  is  variously  dated  1742,  1745,  or  1755. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Leo  Allatius.    See  Allatius. 

Le'o  Di-ac'o-nus,  a  Byzantine  historian,  was  born  at 
Caloe,  in  Ionia,  about  950  a.d.,  and  became  a  resident 
of  Constantinople.  He  wrote  a  narrative  of  events  from 
959  to  975,  which  is  called  a  valuable  supplement  to  the 
Byzantine  history. 

Leo  the  Grammarian,  one  of  the  Byzantine  his- 
torians. He  wrote  about  1013  (as  a  continuation  of 
Theophanes)  a  history  of  Leo  V.  and  seven  succeeding 
emperors,  entitled  "  Chronographia  Res  a  recentioribus 
Imperatoribus  gestas  complectens,"  from  813  to  929. 


Leo  the  Great.    See  Leo  I.,  Pope. 
Leo  Juda.    See  Juda,  (Leo.) 

Leo  Pi-la'tu.s  or  Leon'tius  (le-on'she-us)  Pila'tus 
[Fr.  L^ONCE  Pilate,  li'6Nss'  pe'lSt',]  a  Greek  scholar, 
who  taught  Greek  at  Florence,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  who  translated  Homer  into  Italian  or  Latin.  He 
was  killed  by  lightning  at  sea  about  1364. 

See  HoDius,  "De  Graecis  illustribus;"  Petrarch,  "Epistol2e," 
V.  and  vi. 

Leo  Urbevetanus.    See  Leo  of  Orvieto. 

Le-o-eh'  a-res,  [Aew;\^ap77f,]  ^n  excellent  Greek  sculp- 
tor, flourished  at  Athens  in  the  fourth  century  before 
Christ.  His  master-pieces  were  the  "  Rape  of  Gany- 
mede," a  statue  of  Apollo  wearing  a  diadem,  and  one 
of  Jupiter  Tonans,  which  was  placed  in  the  Capitol  of 
Rome.  He  executed,  in  gold  and  ivory,  portrait-statues 
of  King  Philip  and  Alexander  the  Great.    Died  after 

338  B.C. 

Le-od'a-mas,  [AewcJa/mf,]  an  Athenian  orator  of  high 
reputation,  was  a  disciple  of  Isocrates,  and  flourished 
about  400-350  B.C. 

Leon,  the  French  for  Leo,  which  see. 

Leon,  li-6n',  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  general,  born  in 
1804.  In  the  civil  war  which  began  in  1833  he  fought 
for  the  queen  against  Don  Carlos.  He  was  reputed  the 
best  general  of  cavalry  in  Spain.  In  1840  he  became  a 
partisan  of  Christina  in  her  contest  with  Espartero,  and 
was  appointed  by  her  captain-general  of  Madrid.  He 
conspired  against  Espartero,  was  made  prisoner,  and 
executed  in  1841. 

Leon,  (Ponce  de.)    See  Ponce  de  Leon. 

Leon  de  Saint-Jean,  li'6N'  deh  s^n  zh6N,  or  Leo 
of  Saint  John,  a  French  theologian,  born  at  Rennes 
in  1600.  He  wrote  "  Studium  Sapientiae  universalis." 
Died  in  1671. 

Leonard,  laVntR',  (Nicolas  Germain,)  a  French 
poet,  born  at  Guadeloupe  in  1744,  came  to  France  in 
early  youth.  He  wrote  a  poem  on  the  seasons,  and 
several  idyls,  (L766.)    Died  at  Nantes  in  1793. 

Leonard  de  Limou.sin,  Ik'o^ntR'  deh  le'moo'z^N', 
or  Limosin,  le^mo^ziw',  a  French  painter  and  enamel- 
ler,  born  at  Limoges  about  1500.  He  was  director  of  a 
manufactory  of  enamels  which  Francis  I.  founded  at 
Limoges.  His  works  are  admirable  in  design  and  colour. 
He  copied  the  master-pieces  of  Raphael,  Giulio  Romano, 
and  other  Italian  painters.    Died  about  1580. 

Leonardi,  Ik-o-naR'dee,  or  Leonardoni,  li-o-naR- 
do'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Venice 
in  1654,  excelled  in  portraits.    Died  at  Madrid  in  1711. 

Leonardo,  li-o-naR'do,  (  Augustin,  )  a  Spanish 
painter  and  friar,  born  at  Valencia  about  1580.  He 
painted  history  and  portraits  with  success  in  Seville  and 
Madrid.    Died  about  1640. 

Leonardo  (or  Lionardo,  le-o-naR'do)  da  Pisa,  li- 
o-naR'do  di  pee'si,  called  also  Lionardo  Pisano 
(pe-s^'no)  and  Leonardo  Bonaooi  (bo-nlf'chee)  or 
Fibonacci,  (fe-bo-nit'chee,)  an  Italian  mathematician, 
who  flourished  about  1200.  He  was  probably  the  first 
who  introduced  into  Europe  the  Arabic  numeration  and 
the  knowledge  of  algebra,  which  he  derived  from  the 
Saracens.  He  wrote  a  work  which  remained  in  manu- 
script and  is  described  in  Cossali's  "  History  of  Algebra." 

See  GuGLiELMiNi,  "  Elogio  di  Lionardo  Pisano,"  1813. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci.    See  Vinci. 

Leonarducci,  14-o-naR-doot'chee,  (Gaspare,)  an  Ital- 
ian poet,  born  at  Venice  in  1685.  His  principal  poem  is 
"  Providence,"  ("La  Providenza,"  1739.)    Died  in  1752. 

Leonatus.    See  Leonnatus. 

Leonbruno,  li-on-bRoo'no,  (Lorenzo,)  a  painter  of 
the  Mantuan  school,  born  in  1489;  died  about  1537. 
See  Pranui,  "  Notizie  spettanti  la  Vita  di  L.  Leonbruno,"  1825. 

L^once.    See  Leontius. 

Leonce  Pilate.    See  Leo  Pilatus. 

Leone.    See  Leo. 

Leonelli,  li-o-neKlee,  (Zecchini,)  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician and  architect,  born  at  Cremona  in  1776;  died 
in  1847. 

Leonhard,  von,  fon  la'on-haRt',  (Karl  Caesar,)  an 
eminent  German  geologist,  born  near  Hanau  in  1779. 
He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  in  1818  was  appointed 
professor  of  geology  at  Heidelberg.  Among  his  numerous 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  loftg;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LEONHARDI 


1407 


LEOPARDI 


works  we  may  name  his  "Topographical  Mineralogy," 
(3  vols.,  1805-09,)  and  "Geology,  or  Natural  History  of 
the  Earth,"  (8  vols.,  1836-45,)  which  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English,  French,  and  Dutch. 

Leonhardi,  li-on-haRMee,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a 
German  physician,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1746.  He  became 
physician  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony.    Died  in  1823. 

Leoni,  li-o'nee,  (Giacomo,)  a  Venetian  architect,  who 
removed  to  England.    Died  about  1746. 

Leoni,  (Leone,)  a  skilful  sculptor  and  engraver  of 
medals,  born  at  Arezzo,  in  Tuscany.  He  was  patronized 
by  Charles  V.,  for  whom  he  worked  at  Brussels  and 
Madrid.  He  made  marble  statues  of  Charles  and  his 
empress,  and  a  colossal  bronze  statue  of  the  former  at 
Madrid.  Died  about  1592.  His  son  Pompeio  was  also 
skilful  in  the  same  arts,  and  was  enriched  by  the  favours 
of  Philip  H.  of  Spain.    Pompeio  died  at  Milan  in  1660. 

See  CicoGNARA,  "  Storia  della  Scultura." 

Leoni,  (Luior,)  an  Italian  painter,  sculptor,  and  en- 
graver, surnamed  Padovano,  was  born  at  Padua  in 
1 53 1.  He  practised  his  three  arts  at  Rome  with  nearly 
equal  success.  His  paintings  are  landscapes  and  his- 
torical pieces.    Died  in  1606. 

Leoni,  (Ottavio,)  surnamed  IL  Padovano  or  Pado- 
VANINO,  the  son  and  pupil  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Rome  about  1576,  and  became  one  of  the  most  famous 
portrait-painters  of  his  time.  He  was  chosen  principal 
of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Rome.   Died  about  1630. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Leoniceno,  li-o-ne-cha'no,  [Lat.  Leonice'nus,](Nic- 
COl6,)  an  eminent  Italian  physician,  born  at  Lonigo,  in 
the  Vicentine,  in  1428.  He  was  professor  of  medicine 
or  philosophy  at  Ferrara,  and  gained  a  high  reputation 
by  his  writings.  He  was  the  first  who  translated  Galen's 
work  into  Latin.  Among  his  works  is  a  treatise  "On 
Syphilis,"  ("  De  Morbo  Gallico,"  1497.)    Died  in  1524. 

See  Paolo  Giovio,  "  Elogia  Virorum  illustrium  ;"  Tiraboschi, 
"Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Leonicenus.    See  Leoniceno. 

Le-on-i-ce'nus  Om-ni-bo'nus,  [It.  Ognibu6no  di 
Lonigo,  on-ye-boo-o'no  de  lo-nee'go,J  an  eminent  Ital- 
ian grammarian,  born  at  Lonigo  about  1420.  He  lived 
in  Venice,  where  it  is  supposed  he  taught  rhetoric.  He 
published  a  Latin  "Treatise  on  Grammar,"  (1473,)  ^^'^^ 
Commentaries  on  Lucan,  Cicero,  and  other  classics. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Latina  mediae  et  infimas /Etatis." 

Leonico,  la-on'e-ko,  (Tommaso  Niccol6,)  an  Italian 
classical  scholar,  born  at  Venice  in  1456.  He  translated 
some  works  of  Aristotle  and  other  ancient  Greeks.  Died 
in  1531- 

Le-on'i-das,  [  Aecdvidag,  ]  a  heroic  king  of  Sparta, 
renowned  for  his  invincible  courage,  patriotic  devotion, 
and  noble  and  tragical  end,  was  the  son  of  Anaxandrides. 
He  succeeded  his  brother,  Cleomenes  I.,  in  492  B.C.  When 
Xerxes  invaded  Greece  with  his  countless  myriads,  in 
480,  the  Greek  Congress  resolved  to  defend  the  pass  of 
Thermopylae,  and  Leonidas  commanded  the  small  band 
to  which  that  task  was  confided.  With  about  4000  men, 
he  resisted  the  Persian  army  for  several  days,  until  a 
treacherous  Greek  guided  10,000  of  the  enemy  through 
a  secret  path  over  the  mountain.  Leonidas,  perceiving 
that  his  position  was  turned,  dismissed  all  his  men  ex- 
cept 300  Spartans  and  about  1000  other  Greeks.  The 
Spartans  maintained  their  post  until  they  were  all  slain. 
The  Persians  are  said  to  have  lost  there  20,000  men.  The 
monument  raised  on  the  grave  of  the  Spartans  bore  this 
inscri])tion  :  "Go,  traveller,  and  tell  at  I.acedaemon  that 
we  fell  here  in  obedience  to  her  laws."  He  left  a  son, 
Pleistarchus,  who  became  king. 

See  Herodotus,  books  v.  and  vii.  ;  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece ;" 
Justin,  book  ii. ;  P.  Eckerman,  "  Dissertatio  de  Virtute  Leonidae," 
1762. 

Leonidas  IL,  King  of  Sparta,  the  son  of  Cleonymus, 
ascended  the  throne  in  256  B.C.  He  factiously  opposed 
the  reforms  of  Agis  IV.,  his  colleague,  who  wished  to 
restore  the  regulations  of  Lycurgus.  After  having  been 
deposed  for  a  short  time,  he  regained  his  power  in  240, 
and  procured  the  death  of  Agis.  In  236  B.C.  he  died, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Cleomenes  HI. 

Leonidas  of  Tarentum,  a  Greek  poet,  born  at 
Tarentum,  flourished  about  275  B.C.    He  wrote  about 


one  hundred  epigrams,  which  are  preserved  in  the  Greek 
Anthology  and  are  much  admired. 
See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grjeca." 

Leonio,  li-o'ne-o,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Spoleto  in  1650,  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Academy  of  Arcades,  and  contributed  by  his  precepts 
and  example  to  reform  Italian  poetry.    Died  in  1720. 

Leonnat.    See  Leonnatus. 

Le-on-na'tus  or  Le-o-na'tus,  [Gr.  Aeovvuto^  ;  Fr. 
LEONNAT,  li'o'nt',]  a  Macedonian  general  of  Pella,  ac- 
companied Alexander  the  Great  in  his  invasion  of  Persia 
in  334  B.C.  He  was  one  of  the  officers  employed  a1)out 
that  king's  person  and  on  occasions  requiring  entire 
confidence.  In  the  attack  on  Malli  the  life  of  Alexander 
was  saved  by  the  personal  bravery  of  Leonnatus  and 
Peucestas.  At  the  death  of  his  chief  he  obtained  the 
satrapy  of  Phrygia  Minor,  and  was  soon  urged  by  An- 
tipater  to  aid  him  against  the  revolted  Greeks.  For 
this  purpose  he  marched  with  an  army  into  Thessaly, 
where  he  was  killed  in  battle  in  322  B.C. 

See  Arrian,  "  Anabasis,"  books  ii.,  iii.,  iv.,  vi.,  and  vli. ;  Dio- 
DORUS  SicuLUS,  "History." 

Le-on-ti'a-des,  [Gr.  Acovrmc^T^f,]  a  leader  of  the  oli- 
garchical party  which,  aided  by  the  Spartan  army,  ob- 
tained the  mastery  at  Thebes  about  382  B.C.  He  was 
killed  in  his  own  house  by  Pelopidas  in  379  B.C. 

Leontief  or  Leontiew,  li-on'te-lf,  (Alexis  Leon- 
TIEVITCH,)  a  Russian  savant,  who  obtained  in  1779  the 
title  of  aulic  councillor,  and  held  other  high  offices.  He 
was  deeply  versed  in  the  Chinese  literature,  and  trans- 
lated into  Russian  several  Chinese  works  on  history, 
geography,  etc.    Died  in  1786. 

Leontium,  le-on'she-um,  [Gr.  Aeovtlov,']  an  Athenian 
courtesan,  the  disciple  and  mistress  of  Epicurus.  She 
acquired  some  distinction  as  a  philosopher,  and  com- 
posed in  answer  to  Theophrastus  a  work  on  philosophy, 
the  style  of  which  is  praised  by  Cicero  as  written  "  scito 
quidem  sermone  et  Attico."*  Among  her  various  lovers 
was  Metrodorus,  the  disciple  and  intimate  friend  of  Epi- 
curus. 

Leontius,  le-on'she-us,  [Gr.  Aeovnog ;  Fr.  L^once, 
1^^6nss',]  Emperor  of  Tire  East,  was  born  about  650  a.d. 
He  became  a  general,  and  gained  several  victories.  In 
695  A.D.  he  rebelled  against  Justinian  II.,  and  usurped 
the  throne.  He  was  deposed  by  Apsimerus  in  698, 
and  in  705  A.D.  was  put  to  death  by  Justinian,  who  had 
recovered  his  power. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Leontius  of  Byzantium,  called  Scholas'ticus,  an 
ecclesiastical  writer,  lived  about  the  end  of  the  sixth 
century.    He  wrote  "  De  Sectis,"  and  other  works. 

Leontius  Pilatus.    See  Leo  Pilatus. 

Leopardi,  li-o-paR'dee,  (Alessandro,)  an  excellent 
Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  born  at  Venice.  Among 
his  works  are  the  mausoleum  of  Doge  Andrea  Vendra- 
mini,  (Venice,)  and  the  three  bronze  columns  in  the 
Piazza  di  San  Marco,  on  which  the  standards  of  the  re- 
public were  suspended.  The  elegance  and  proportions 
of  these  are  equally  admirable.    Died  in  1515. 

See  Cicognara,  "Storia  della  Scultura;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario." 

Leopardi,  (Giacomo,)  Count,  an  eminent  Italian 
poet  and  philologist,  born  at  Recanati,  in  the  Papal 
States,  in  June,  1798.  Between  1818  and  1820  he  won  a 
place  among  the  first  lyric  poets  of  Italy  by  canzoni  "To 
Italy,"  and  "On  the  Monument  which  Florence  was 
about  to  erect  to  Dante."  In  1822  he  removed  to 
Rome,  where  he  produced  an  excellent  criticism  on  the 
publication  of  the  "Chronicon"  of  Eusebius  by  Mai 
and  Zohrab,  (1823.)  His  poems,  published  collectively 
under  the  title  of  "Canti,"  (1831,)  contain  passages  of 
great  eloquence  and  pathos.  His  prose  essays,  "  Operette 
morali,"  (1827,)  are  esteemed  among  the  finest  models  of 
Italian  prose  which  the  present  century  has  produced. 
Died  in  Naples  in  1837.  "  We  believe,"  says  the  "  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  April,  1850,  "it  may  be  said  without 
exaggeration  that  he  was  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
men  whom  this  century  has  produced,  both  in  his  powers 
and  likewise  in  his  performances,  achieved  as  they  were 
under  singular  disadvantages.    For  not  only  did  he  die 

*  I.e.  "  In  a  skilful  and  elegant  style." 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEOPOLD 


1408 


LEOPOLD 


at  thirty-eight,  almost  nel  mezzo  del  cammin  di  nostra 
vita,  but  likewise  'Heaven's  unimpeached  decrees,'  in 
his  case,  nearly 

'  Made  that  shortened  span  one  long  disease.' 
With  a  life  thus  limited,  .  .  .  Count  Giacomo  Leopardi 
amassed  great  stores  of  deep  and  varied  learning,  proved 
himself  to  be  possessed  of  profound  literary  judgment, 
exquisite  taste,  and  a  powerful  imagination,  and  earned 
in  his  own  country  the  character  summed  up  in  the  words 
of  one  of  his  editors,  as  sonuno  Jilologo,  sommo  poeta  e 
sommo  filosofo.'^  Leopardi  sympathized  with  the  efforts 
to  liberate  Italy  from  foreign  domination. 

See  MoNTANARi,  "  Biografia  del  Conle  Leopardi,"  1838;  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "  Portraits  conteinporaiiis,"  tom'e  iii.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale;"'  "  Encyclopsedia  Britannica;"  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
December,  1S48. 

Le'o-pold  [It.  Leopoldo,  li-o-poKdo]  L,  often  called 
Leopold  the  Great,  [Ger.  Leopold  der  Grosse,  la'- 
o-polt  dgR  gkSs'seh  ;  Lat.  Leopol'dus  Mag'nus,]  Em- 
peror of  Germany,  of  the  house  of  Austria,  the  second  son 
of  Ferdinand  III.  and  of  Maria  Anna  of  Spain,  was  born 
in  June,  1640.  He  became  King  of  Hungary  in  1655, 
and  King  of  Bohemia  in  1657.  After  the  death  of  his 
father,  and  a  competition  with  Louis  XIV.  of  France, 
Leopold  was  elected  emperor  on  the  i8th  of  July,  1658. 
The  Turks,  having  invaded  Hungary  with  a  large  army, 
were  defeated  at  Saint  Gothard  in  1664,  and  Leopold 
then  made  with  them  a  truce  of  twenty  years.  In  1674 
he  commenced  war  against  Louis  XIV.,  which,  after 
indecisive  campaigns  on  the  Rhine,  was  ended  by  the 
treaty  of  Nymwegen  in  1678.  The  Hungarians,  driven 
by  his  despotic  measures  to  revolt,  chose  Tekeli  as  their 
leader  in  1682,  and  were  aided  by  a  Turkish  army  of 
200,000  men,  which  besieged  Vienna  in  July,  1683.  So- 
bieski.  King  of  Poland,  saved  the  capital  by  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  Turks  in  September  of  that  year.  The 
Austrians,  commanded  by  Prince  Eugene,  finished  the  war 
by  a  victory  at  Zenta  in  1697,  in  which  year  also  a  second 
war  against  France  was  ended  by  the  peace  of  Ryswick. 
The  claim  of  his  family  to  the  throne  of  Spain,  vacated 
by  the  death  of  Charles  II.  in  1700,  involved  Leopold 
in  another  war  with  Louis  XIV.  He  renewed  his  alli- 
ance with  England  and  Holland  in  1701.  His  army, 
commanded  by  Prince  Eugene,  gained  several  victories 
in  Italy  in  1 701-02,  and  shared  the  triumph  of  the  allies 
at  Blenheim  in  1704.  Before  the  termination  of  this 
long  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  he  died,  in  May, 
1705,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Joseph  I.  He  had 
had  three  wives,  the  first  of  whom  was  a  Spanish  prin- 
cess, Margarita  Theresa.  His  prosperity  is  ascribed  to 
the  merit  of  his  ministers  and  generals,  rather  than  to 
his  own  abilities.  Among  the  important  events  of  his 
reign  was  the  recognition  of  Ernest  Augustus  of  Hanover, 
in  1692,  as  an  Elector  of  the  empire. 

See  "Life  of  Leopold  L,"  London,  1706;  Mencke,  "Leben 
Leopolds  L,"  1707;  Wagner,  "Historia  Leopold!  Magni,"  1719-31  ; 
RiNCK,  "  Leben  und  Thaten  Leopolds  des  Grossen,"  1708  ;  Reina, 
"Vita  ed  Imperio  di  Leopoldo  L,"  1710;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Leopold  IL  OF  Germany,  the  second  son  of  the 
empress  Maria  Theresa,  was  born  May  5,  1747.  At  the 
death  of  his  father,  Francis  I.,  in  1765,  he  inherited  the 
grand  duchy  of  Tuscany,  which  he  ruled  twenty-five 
years  in  a  wise  and  liberal  spirit.  During  this  period 
he  made  many  reforms  in  the  administration.  He  sup- 
pressed the  Inquisition,  abolished  the  penalty  of  death, 
and  co-operated  with  Ricci,  Bishop  of  Pistoia,  in  the 
reformation  of  monastic  discipline,  which  caused  an 
angry  contest  between  him  and  the  court  of  Rome.  On 
the  death  of  his  brother,  Joseph  II.,  February  20,  1790, 
Leopold  became  heir  of  the  Austrian  monarchy,  which 
was  then  not  in  a  prosperous  condition.  The  Low  Coun- 
tries were  in  revolt,  Hungary  was  discontented,  Turkey 
and  Prussia  were  hostile,  and  France  was  estranged  from 
Austria  by  the  Revolution.  He  quickly  reduced  the 
Low  Countries  to  obedience  by  an  army,  and  pacified 
his  other  subjects  by  a  conciliatory  policy.  In  1791  he 
concluded  peace  with  Turkey  at  Sistova,  and  was  elected 
Emperor  of  Germany.  The  alarming  progress  of  the 
French  Revolution  induced  him  to  form  an  alliance  with 
Prussia  at  Pilnitz,  in  1 791,  for  the  restoration  of  Louis 
XVI.    Hostilities  were  about  to  begin,  when  he  died 


suddenly  on  the  ist  of  March,  1792,  leaving  the  repu- 
tation of  an  able  and  jusc  ruler.  His  wife  was  Maria 
Louisa,  daughter  of  Charles  III.  of  Spain.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis  II.,  (of  Germany,)  who 
in  reference  to  Austria  is  styled  Francis  I. 

See  "Leben  Leopolds  IL,"  Prague,  1791  ;  Foucault,  "  Histoire 
de  Leopold  H,"  1791;  Alxingek,  "  Ueber  Leopold  IL,"  1792; 
Sartori,  "  Leopoldinische  Annalen,"  2  vols.,  1792;  J.  B.  Schels, 
"  Leopold  II. ,"  1837. 

Leopold  L,  King  of  Belgium,  Duke  of  Saxony,  and 
Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  was  born  at  Coburg  in 
1790.  He  was  a  son  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Saal- 
feld,  was  a  brother  of  the  Duchess  of  Kent,  and  uncle  of 
the  British  queen  Victoria.  In  May,  181 6,  he  married 
the  princess  Charlotte,  daughter  of  George  IV.  and  heir- 
apparent  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  who  died  in 
childbirth  before  the  end  of  that  year.  He  refused  the 
crown  of  Greece,  offered  to  him  in  1830.  On  the  4th  of 
June,  1 83 1,  he  was  elected  King  of  the  Belgians,  who 
were  separated  from  Holland  by  the  revolution  of  1830. 
Hostilities  were  renewed  by  the  Dutch,  and  a  French 
army  came  to  the  aid  of  the  Belgians.  In  1832  Leopold 
married  Louise  Marie  Therese,  a  daughter  of  King  Louis 
Philippe.  He  was  quite  popular  among  his  subjects, 
towards  whom  his  policy  was  marked  by  liberality  and 
a  scrupulous  regard  for  their  constitutional  rights."  He 
died  in  December,  1865,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Leopold  II. 

See  L.  Hymans,  "  Histoire  du  R^gne  de  Leopold  I,"  1864  :  Ras- 
TOtJL  DE  MoNGEOT,  "  Lcopold  I,  Roi  des  Beiges,  sa  Vie  militaire  et 
politique,"  1850;  Theodore  Juste,  "Leopold,  Roi  des  Beiges," 
1S68;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate;"  "London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  April,  1869;  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  May,  1866. 

Leopold  I.,  Duke  of  Austria,  was  born  in  1 157.  He 
served  under  Richard  I.  of  England  at  the  siege  of  Acre. 
In  1 193,  to  gratify  his  avarice  and  to  revenge  an  insult 
he  fancied  he  had  received  from  Richard,  he  arrested 
him  at  Vienna  on  his  homeward  journey  and  threw  him 
into  prison.  He  received  a  large  sum  of  money  for  the 
transfer  of  the  royal  captive  to  the  emperor  Henry  VI. 
Died  in  1 194. 

Leopold  IL,  Duke  of  Austria,  born  in  1292,  was  the 
third  son  of  Albert  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  who  was 
killed  in  1308,  leaving  his  dominions  in  joint-tenancy  to 
his  sons.  Leopold  ruled  Suabia,  Alsace,  and  Switzer- 
land. His  brothers,  Frederick  and  Louis  of  Bavaria, 
were  competitors  for  the  imperial  throne.  In  13 15  Leo- 
pold attacked  the  Swiss,  (who  favoured  the  cause  of 
Louis  of  Bavaria,)  and  was  defeated  at  Morgarten.  In 
1325  a  treaty  was  made  between  the  two  parties,  and  it 
was  agreed  that  Louis  and  Frederick  should  reign  jointly. 
Leopold  died  about  1326. 

See  LicHNOWsKY,  "  Geschichte  Hauses  Habsburg." 

Leopold  IIL,  Duke  of  Austria,  the  son  of  Albert  II., 
was  born  about  1350.  He  became  ruler  over  Suabia, 
Tyrol,  etc.  War  having  broken  out  between  him  and 
the  Swiss  cantons,  he  was  defeated  and  killed  in  1386  at 
the  famous  battle  of  Sempach,  where  Arnold  of  Win- 
kelried  decided  the  victory  by  throwing  himself  on  the 
Austrian  spears  and  breaking  the  phalanx. 

See  KuRZ,  "  Oestreich  unter  Albrecht  III." 

Leopold  1.  OF  Tuscany.  See  Leopold  IL,  (Em- 
peror.) 

Leopold  IL,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  was  born  at 
Florence  in  1797,  and  was  a  son  of  Ferdinand  III.,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1824.  He  conceded  a  constitution  to 
Tuscany  in  1847.  In  consequence  of  the  triumph  of 
the  democratic  party,  he  retired  from  Florence,  but  was 
restored  by  the  Austrian  army  in  July,  1849.  He  was 
forced  to  abdicate  by  the  revolutionary  movements  of 
the  spring  of  1859,  and  Tuscany  was  annexed  to  Sardinia. 
He  published  a  fine  edition  of  the  works  of  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  (4  vols.,  1825.)    Died  in  1870. 

Leopold  OF  Anhalt-Dessau.  See  Anhalt-Dessau. 

Leopold  OF  Lorraine.    See  Lorraine. 

Leopold,  la'o-pold^  (Carl  Gustaf,)  an  eminent 
Swedish  poet,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1756.  In  1778  he 
composed  an  "Ode  on  the  Birth  of  the  Prince-Royal 
Gustavus  Adolphus,"  and  in  1788  he  became  private 
secretary  of  Gustavus  III.,  who  treated  him  with  much 
favour  and  confidence.  He  produced  two  successful 
tragedies,  "Odin"  (1790)  and  "Virginia,"  and  sang  the 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f3.r,  fill,  fl.t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LEOPOLD 


1409 


LEPIDUS 


martial  exploits  of  the  Swedes  in  several  admired  odes. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  in  181 8.  Died  in  1829. 

See  Magnus  af  Pontin,  "  Minne  af  C.  G.  Leopold,"  1830; 
Ehrenstroem,  "Notice  biograpliique  sur  M.  da  Leopold,"  1838; 
Skjoei.debrand,  "Tai  vid  C.  G.  af  Leopolds  Graf,"  1829;  Long- 
fellow, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Leopold  Friedrich,  la'o-polt'  fReed'riK,  Duke  of 
Anhalt-Dessau,  was  born  in  1794.  On  the  death  of  his 
grandfather,  in  181 7,  he  succeeded  to  the  government, 
and  in  1853  to  that  of  Anhalt-Kothen. 

Leopold  Friedrich  Franz,  la'o-polt'  fReed'riK 
fRSnts,  Duke  of  Dessau,  born  in  1740.  In  1758  he 
assumed  the  government,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  able  administration  and  his  patronage  of  learning 
and  the  arts.  He  died  in  181 7,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  grandson,  the  subject  of  the  preceding  article. 

Leopoldo.    See  Leopold  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Leosthene.    See  Leosthenes. 

Le-os'the-nes,  [Gr.  Aeioodei^?]^ ;  Fr.  L^iosTitENE,  li'- 
os'tin',]  an  Athenian  general,  who  makes  his  first  ap- 
pearance in  history  about  the  time  of  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  324  B.C.  He  was  attached  to  the  party 
of  Demosthenes,  and  seems  to  have  had  a  high  repu- 
tation, as  he  was  chosen  commander  of  the  combined 
Greek  army  in  the  Lamian  war,  the  object  of  which  was 
to  liberate  Greece  from  the  Macedonian  yoke.  He  de- 
feated Antipater  in  Thessaly,  and  besieged  him  in  Lamia. 
At  this  siege  Leosthenes  was  killed,  in  323  B.C.,  after 
which  success  deserted  the  Athenian  arms. 

See  Grote,  "History  of  Greece;"  Thirlwall,  "History  of 
Greece." 

Leotaud,  li'o'to',  (Vincent,)  an  able  French  geome- 
ter, born  in  the  diocese  of  Embrun  in  1595.  He  was  a 
professor  at  the  College  of  Dole.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Elements  of  Practical  Geometry,"  {"  Geometricoe 
practicae  Elementa,"  1631,)  and  "  Cyclomathia,"  etc., 
(1663.)    Died  in  i_672. 

Le-o-ty-eh'i-des,  [Gr.  AeurvxiS?]^;  Fr.  L^otychide, 
li'o'te'ked',]  a  Spartan  king,  the  son  of  Menares,  suc- 
ceeded Demaratus,  who  was  deposed  about  491  B.C. 
Leonidas  L  was  his  colleague  in  the  government.  He 
obtained  command  of  the  Greek  fleet,  and  shared  with 
Xanthippus  the  honour  of  the  signal  victory  over  the 
Persians  at  Mycale  in  479  B.C.  Having  been  accused  of 
receiving  a  bribe  from  some  Thessalians,  he  was  banished 
in  469,  and  died  in  exile  at  Tegea. 

See  Herodotus,  "  History,"  books  vi.,  viii.,  and  ix. 

Leowitz,  la'o-<^its',  [Lat.  Leovi'tius,]  (Cyprian,) 
a  Bohemian  astronomer,  born  near  Hradisch  in  1524; 
died  in  1574. 

Le  Paige,  leh-pizh',  (Thomas,)  a  French  religious 
writer,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1597  ;  died  in  1658. 

Lepaute,  leh-pot',  (Jean  Andr^:,)  a  French  clock- 
maker,  born  at  Montmedy  in  1709.  He  lived  in  Paris, 
and  was  celebrated  for  the  perfection  of  his  works.  He 
made  time-pieces  for  many  public  edifices  of  Paris,  and 
for  the  most  of  the  observatories  of  Europe.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Treatise  on  Clockwork,"  ( Horlogerie.)  Died 
in  1789. 

His  wife,  nee  NrcoLE  Reine  idtable  de  Labriere — 
i'ttb'K  deh  lt'bRe''aiR',  born  in  Paris  in  1723,  acquired 
distinction  as  an  astronomer.  She  was  a  friend  of  Clai- 
raut  and  Lalande,  whom  she  assisted  in  the  calcula- 
tions on  the  return  of  Halley's  comet,  (1757.)  She  was 
the  author  of  "  Observations"  inserted  in  the  "Connais- 
sances  des  Temps,"  of  "  Tables  of  the  Sun,  Moon,  and 
Planets,"  and  of  several  memoirs  on  astronomy.  Died 
ini788. 

Lepautre  orLep6tre,leh-p5tR',  (Antotne,)  a  French 
arcliitect,  born  in  Paris  in  1614.  He  was  first  architect 
of  Louis  XIV.  In  1652  he  published  an  esteemed  work 
entitled  "The  Architecture  of  A.  Lepautre."  He  had 
an  excellent  talent  for  decoration,  and  abounded  in  new 
inventions.  The  church  of  Port-Royal,  in  a  suburb  of 
Paris,  was  designed  by  him.    Died  in  1691. 

See  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Lepautre,  (Jean,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Paris  in  161 7,  was  a  skilful  designer  and  engraver. 
He  designed  and  etched  many  subjects  which  are  ad- 
mirable models  for  architects  and  other  artists.  Died 
in  1682. 


Lepautre,  (Pierre,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris 
in  1660,  was  a  son  of  Antoine,  noticed  above.  He  studied 
and  worked  in  Rome  for  fifteen  years,  and  then  returned 
to  Paris,  where  he  obtained  success,  though  his  works 
are  defective  in  taste.  His  chief  production  is  the  group 
of  x^neas  and  Anchises,  at  the  Tuileries.    Died  in  1744. 

Lepaux.    See  Lar^veii.i.ere. 

Le  Pays,  de,  deh  leli  p.Ve',  (  Ren]^,  )  Sieur  Plessis- 
Villeneuve,  a  gay  and  witty  Ficnch  versifier,  born  at 
Nantes  or  Fougeres  in  1636.  He  was  for  many  years 
director-general  of  the  salt-tax  (gabelle)  in  Dauphine  and 
Provence.  He  was  noted  for  his  bons  mots.  His  "  Friend- 
ships, Loves,  and  Little  Loves"  ("Amities,  Amours  et 
Amourettes,"  1664)  had  a  great  success.  He  published 
many  letters,  sonnets,  etc.    Died  in  1690. 

See  Bayf-e,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Moreri, 
"  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Lepee,  (Abb^:.)    See  fip^iE,  de  l'. 

Lepekhin  or  Lepeohin,  l§p-eh-Keen'  or  Igp-eh-Kin', 

(Ivan  Ivanowitch,)  a  Russian  naturalist,  born  about 
1740.  He  was  charged  by  Catherine  II.  to  explore 
Russia,  and  published  the  results  in  a  "  Journal  of 
Travels  through  the  Various  Provinces  of  the  Russian 
Empire,"  (3  vols.,  1771-80.)    Died  in  1802. 

Lepelletier,  leh-p^Kte-i',  (Claude,)  a  French  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Franche-Comte  about  1670,  became  canon 
of  Rheims.  He  wrote  polemical  treatises  against  the 
Jansenists,  and  many  religious  works.    Died  in  1743. 

Lepelletier  or  Le  Pelletier,  (Jean,)  a  French  an- 
tiquary and  merchant,  born  at  Rouen  in  1633.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on  Noah's  Ark,"  (1704.) 
Died  in  171 1. 

Lepelletier  (or  Le  Peletier,  leh  peh-leh-te-a')  de 
Saint-Fargeau,  leh-p^rte-i'  deh  siNTlR'zho',  (Louis 
Michel,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born  in  Paris  in  1760, 
was  president  a  mortier  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  and 
was  the  owner  of  an  immense  fortune.  He  became  a 
partisan  of  the  new  regime,  and  in  1792  was  an  influen- 
tial member  of  the  Convention.  It  appears  that  he  had 
given  the  royalists  reason  to  expect  he  would  favour 
lenity  in  the  king's  trial,  but  was  impelled  by  the  ter- 
rorism of  the  Jacobins  to  vote  for  death.  For  this  act 
he  was  assassinated  by  Paris,  a  royalist,  in  January,  1793. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  F^Lix  Le- 
pelletier, "Vie  de  M.  Lepelletier,"  1793. 

Le  Pere,  leh  paiR,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  in  Paris  in  1761.  He  accoinpanied  the  expe- 
dition to  Egypt  in  1798,  and  was  directed  by  Bonajiarte 
to  draw  up  a  j^lan  for  the  restoration  of  the  canal  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Suez.    Died  in  1844. 

L^picie,  li'pe'se-i,  (Bernard,)  a  skilful  Frencli  en- 
graver and  painter,"\vas  born  in  Paris  in  1698.  He  went 
to  England,  and  engraved  Raphael's  Cartoons  at  Hamp- 
ton Court.  He  afterwards  worked  in  Paris,  and  became 
secretary  of  the  Academy  in  1740.  His  manner  is  broad 
and  mellow,  and  his  design  correct.    Died  in  1755. 

Lepicie,  (Nicolas  Bernard,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1735.  He  was  a  pupil  of  C.  Vanloo,  became  professor 
in  the  Royal  Academy,  and  received  the  title  of  painter 
to  the  king.  His  works  are  marred  by  the  faults  which 
prevailed  in  the  French  school  at  that  time.  Died 
in  1784. 

Lep'i-da  Do-mi'ti-a,  (do-mish'e-a,)  a  Roman  lady 
of  great  personal  beauty  but  infamous  character.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  Drusus,  and  aunt  of  the  emperor 
Nero. 

Lep'i-dus,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  Roman  family 
of  the  patrician  gens  ^^milia.  Marcus  ^^^^Imilius  Lepi- 
Dus  was  elected  consul  in  187  B.C.,  pontifex  maximus 
in  180,  and  censor  in  179.  He  was  six  times  chosen  by 
the  censors  princeps  SenaUis.  Died  about  152  B.C.  The 
triumvir  of  the  same  name  was  his  lineal  descendant. 

Lepidus,  (Marcus  ^milius,)  a  Roman  orator,  a 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  consul  in  137  B.C.  In 
the  next  year  he  commanded  in  several  battles  in  Spain, 
and  was  defeated.  Cicero  represents  him  as  the  greatest 
orator  of  his  age. 

Lepidus,  (Marcus  ^milius,)  the  father  of  the  tri- 
umvir, was  praetor  in  Sicily  in  81  B.C.  In  79  he  was 
chosen  consul  by  the  partisans  of  Marius,  and  attempted 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  K^gutiural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (jJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

89 


LEPIDUS 


1410 


LERMA 


to  nullify  or  repeal  the  measures  of  Sulla,  who  had  just 
died.  A  violent  contest  ensued  between  the  factions.  In 
77  Lepidus  was  declared  by  the  senate  a  public  enemy, 
and  was  defeated  in  battle  by  Pompey  near  Rome.  He 
died  about  76  B.C. 

Lepidus,  (Marcus  ^milius,)  the  Triumvir,  was 
praetor  when  the  civil  war  broke  out  between  Pompey 
and  Caesar,  in  49  B.C.  He  joined  the  party  of  Caesar, 
who,  at  his  departure  for  Spain,  left  Lepidus  in  charge 
of  the  capital.  In  48  he  obtained  the  province  of  Nearer 
Spain,  with  the  title  of  proconsul,  and  in  46  became  the 
colleague  of  Caesar  in  the  consulship.  He  was  master 
of  the  horse  when  Caesar  was  killed,  in  44  B.C.  When 
the  senate  and  Antony  came  to  an  open  rupture,  Lepidus 
joined  the  latter  with  an  army,  and  in  October,  43,  he 
united  with  Antony  and  Octavian  to  form  the  famous 
triumvirate.  He  put  his  own  brother  on  the  list  of  the 
proscribed  who  were  sacrificed  by  this  coalition.  In 
the  division  of  provinces,  Spain  and  Narbonese  Gaul 
were  allotted  to  Lepidus,  who  remained  in  Italy,  while 
the  other  two  led  their  army  against  Brutus.  After  their 
victory  at  Philippi,  Octavius  and  Antony  ceased  to  treat 
him  as  their  equal,  and  deprived  him  of  his  provinces 
in  42,  but  gave  him  a  command  in  Africa.  When  the 
triumvirate  was  renewed,  however,  (37  B.C.,)  he  was 
nominally  included  in  it.  In  36  he  failed  in  an  attempt 
to  recover  power,  and,  being  deserted  by  his  troops,  sur- 
rendered to  Octavius,  who  spared  his  life  but  banished 
him  from  Rome.    He  died  in  13  B.C. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "History  of  Rome;"  Appian,  "  Bellum 
Civile;"  Merivale,  "The  Romans  under  the  Emperors." 

Lepidus,  (Marcus  ^Emilius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
formed  a  conspiracy,  in  30  B.C.,  to  kill  Augustus  on  his 
return  to  Rome  after  the  battle  of  Actium.  Maecenas 
detected  the  plot,  and  sent  Lepidus  to  Augustus,  who 
put  him  to  death. 

Lepidus,  (Paulus  ^Emilius,)  a  brother  of  the  tri- 
umvir, became  aedile  about  55  B.C.,  praetor  in  53,  and 
consul  in  50.  After  the  death  of  Caesar,  44  B.C.,  he  acted 
with  the  aristocratic  party  in  opposition  to  the  triumvirs. 
Died  about  40  B.C. 

Leplat,  leh-plt',  (Josse,)  a  Belgian  jurist  and  canonist, 
born  at  Malines  in  1732  ;  died  in  1810. 

Lepois.    See  Pois,  Le. 

Le  Poittevin,  leh  pw^t^iN',  a  successful  French 
painter  of  landscapes,  genre,  and  marine  pieces,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1806.  His  proper  name  is  Edmonde 
MoDESTE  Eugene  Poidevin.  He  gained  a  medal  of 
the  first  class  in  1836. 

Le  Prevost  d'Iray,  leh  pRk'vo'  de'ri',  (Chretien 
Simeon,)  a  French  poet  and  antiquary,  born  in  Nor- 
mandy in  1768.  Among  his  works  is  a  "History  of 
Egypt  under  the  Romans,"  (1816.)    Died  in  1849. 

Leprince  or  Le  Prince,  leh  pR^Nss,  (Jean,)  a  French 
painter,  born  at  Metz  in  1733.  worked  several  years 
in  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  adorned  the  imperial 
palace.  He  returned  to  France  many  years  before  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  1781. 

Le  Prince  de  Beaumont,  leh  priNss  deh  bo^miw', 
(Marie,)  a  sister  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rouen 
in  1 7 II.  She  was  divorced  from  M.  Beaumont  in  1745, 
and  removed  to  London,  where  she  was  employed  as 
governess  or  teacher  for  many  years.  She  published 
many  useful  and  successful  juvenile  books,  moral  tales, 
etc.  Her  "Magazine  for  Children"  ("  Magasin  des  En- 
^^ants,"  1757)  was  often  reprinted  and  translated.  She 
was  author  of  a  popular  "Magazine  for  Young  Ladies," 
'The  Modern  Mentor,"  (1772,)  "Complete  Education," 
etc.  About  1764  she  went  to  reside  at  Annecy,  in  Savoy. 
Died  in  1780. 

Lepsius,  ISp'se-tls,  (Karl  Peter,)  a  German  anti- 
quary, born  at  Naumburg,  on  the  Saale,  in  1775,  was  the 
father  of  Karl  Richard,  noticed  below.  He  studied  law, 
and  obtained  several  civil  offices  under  the  Saxon  and 
Prussian  governments.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Mediaeval  Architectural  Monuments  of  Saxony  and 
Thuringia,"  and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1853. 

Lepsius,  (Karl  Richard,)  a  German  philologist  and 
antiquary,  highly  distinguished  for  his  Egyptian  re- 
searches, was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  born 
at  Naumburg,  in  Prussian  Saxony,  December  20,  1813, 


and  received  his  first  instruction  from  his  father.  He 

pursued  his  studies  in  the  Universities  of  Leipsic  and 
Gottingen,  giving  special  attention  to  languages  and  phi- 
lology. In  1834  he  published  "Palaeography  as  an  Aid 
to  Philology,"  which  obtained  a  prize  from 'the  French 
Institute,  and  was  followed  by  an  "Essay  on  the  Affinity 
of  the  Semitic,  Indian,  Ancient  Persian,  Egyj^tian,  and 
Ethiopian  Languages,"  (1835.)  In  1836  he  visited  Rome, 
where  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  Bunsen, 
and  wrote  a  "  Letter  to  Rosellini  on  the  Hieroglyphic 
Alphabet,"  (1837,)  which  attracted  great  attention.  He 
visited  England  in  1838,  and  afterwards  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Berlin.  He  produced  a  treatise  on  the  "  Etrurian 
andOscan  Dialects,"  (1841,)  and  "  Obituary  of  the  Egyp- 
tians," ("Das  Todtenbuch  der  Aegypter,"  1842.)  Lep- 
sius having  projected  a  great  historical  and  antiquarian 
work  on  Egypt,  the  King  of  Prussia  was  induced  by 
Bunsen  and  Humboldt  to  send  to  Egypt  an  expedition 
under  his  direction.  Assisted  by  artists  of  various 
sorts,  he  investigated  the  antiquities  of  that  country  from 
1842  until  1846.  On  his  return  he  was  chosen  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Berlin,  and  in  1849  produced 
the  first  volume  of  his  "Chronology  of  the  Egyptians." 
He  published  the  interesting  and  important  results  of 
his  late  expedition  in  a  splendid  work  entitled  "The 
Monuments  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,"  ("  Denkmaler  aus 
Aegypten  und  Aethiopien,"  1849-59.)  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  are  "  Letters  on  Egypt,  Ethiopia,  and  the 
Peninsula  of  Sinai,"  (1852,)  and  "  Universal  Linguistical 
Alphabet,"  ("Das  allgemeine  linguistische  Alphabet," 
1855.) 

Leptine.    See  Leptines. 

Lep'ti-nes,  [Gr.  AenTlvrjg;  Fr.  Leptine,  Igp't^n',]  a 
Syracusan  commander,  was  a  brother  of  Dionysius  the 
Elder.  He  contributed  greatly  to  the  defeat  of  the 
Carthaginians  at  Syracuse  about  396  B.C.  He  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Cronium,  in  383  B.C. 

Lequien,  leh-ke-dN',  (Michel,)  a  learned  French 
monk,  born  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer  in  1661.  Among  his 
works  are  a  "Defence  of  the  Hebrew  Text,  and  of  the 
Vulgate,"  (1690,)  and  "Oriens  Christianus,"  (3  vols., 
1740,)  an  account  of  the  churches,  patriarchs,  etc.  of 
the  East,  which  is  commended.    Died  in  1733. 

Lequien  de  la  Neuville,  leh-ke-^N''  deh  It  nuhV^K, 
(Jacques,)  a  French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1647.  He 
accompanied  the  French  ambassador  to  Lisbon  in  1713, 
and  there  composed  his  principal  work,  a  "  History  of 
Portugal,"  (2  vols.,  1700-20.)    Died  in  1728. 

Leray,  leh-ri',  (Theodore  Constant,)  a  French 
admiral,  born  at  Brest  in  1795  ;  died  in  1849. 

Lerche,  l^R'Keh,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  German  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Potsdam  in  1703  ;  died  at  Saint  Peters- 
burg in  1780. 

Lerchenfeld,  IgR'Ken-f^lt',  (Maximilian,)  Baron 
OF,  a  German  statesman  of  liberal  opinions,  born  at 
Munich  in  1779;  died  in  1843. 

Lerebours,  leh-reh'booR',  (Noel  Jean,)  a  French 
optician,  born  in  Normandy  in  1762.  He  made  tele- 
scopes of  superior  quality,  and  other  optical  instruments. 
Died  in  1840. 

Leri,  de,  deh  leh-re',  (Jean,)  a  French  Protestant 
minister,  born  in  1534.  He  laboured  in  Brazil  about  two 
years,  (1556-58,)  and  published  "An  Account  of  his 
Voyage  to  Brazil,"  (1577.)    Died  in  1611. 

Lerma,  de,  di  l^R'mS,  (Francisco  de  Roxas  (or 
RojAs)  de  Sandoval,)  Duke,  a  Spanish  statesman  of 
moderate  ability.  He  was  equerry  to  Don  Philip,  who 
in  1598  became  king  as  Philip  HI.  and  appointed  the 
subject  of  this  article  prime  minister.  He  was  then 
created  Duke  of  Lerma,  having  previously  been  called 
Marquis  of  Denia.  He  equipped  a  large  fleet  which 
was  ordered  to  cruise  on  the  English  coast,  but  was 
destroyed  by  a  storm,  after  which  he  made  a  peace  on 
terms  favourable  to  England.  For  twenty  years  he 
retained  the  favour  of  the  king,  and  had  entire  control 
of  the  government.  His  policy  was  mild,  pacific,  and 
prudent  in  some  respects,  but  was  not  successful  in 
relation  to  finances.  He  was  supplanted  in  1618  by  his 
son,  the  Duke  of  Uzeda.    Died  in  1625. 

See  Watson,  "  History  of  Philip  II.;"  Motley,  "United  Nether- 
lands," vol.  iv.  chap,  xlviii. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fUll,  f^t;  mStj  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LERMINIER 


LE  SAGE 


Lerminier,  l?R'me'nej^',  (Jean  Louis  Eugene,)  a 
French  publicist  and  la\vyer,  born  in  Paris  in  1803.  He 
obtained  in  1831  a  chair  of  legislation  in  the  College  of 
France,  where  his  eloquent  lectures  were  much  admired 
by  the  ardent  youth.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Phi- 
losophy of  Law,"  (2  vols.,  1831,)  and  a  "History  of  the 
Legislators  and  Constitutions  of  Ancient  Greece,"  (2 
vols.,  1852.)  He  wrote  the  article  "Guizot"  in  the  '*  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale."  He  was  remarkable  for 
animation  of  style,  vigour  of  images,  and  nobleness  of 
expression.    Died  in  1857. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lerminier,  (Theodoric  Nelamond,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Saint- Valery-sur-Somme  in  1770.  In 
1808  he  was  appointed  physician  par  qtiartier  for  the 
service  of  the  imperial  household.  He  attended  Na- 
poleon in  the  campaigns  of  Spain,  Russia,  (1812,)  and 
Saxony,  and  gave  proof  of  great  professional  talent 
and  courage.    Died  in  Paris  in  1836. 

L'Ermite.    See  Ermite,  L'. 

LermontofjLermontov,  or  Lermontow,  l§R'mon- 
tof,  (Mikhail  Ivanovitch,)  a  popular  Russian  poet, 
born  in  1811,  became  an  officer  in  the  guards.  In  1837, 
by  a  poem  "  On  the  Death  of  Pushkin,"  he  offended  the 
emperor,  who  ordered  him  to  join  the  army  of  the  Cau- 
casus. While  serving  there  in  the  army,  he  wrote  "The 
Circassian  Boy,"  and  other  popular  poems,  and  a  suc- 
cessful novel,  called  "A  Hero  of  our  Own  Time,"  (1840.) 
He  was  killed  in  a  duel  in  1841.  Like  Byron,  he  ex- 
presses his  own  character  and  feelings  in  his  writings, 
and  is  the  principal  person  in  the  tales  or  pictures  which 
his  imagination  produces. 

See  Saint-Rene  Taillandier,  "Le  Poete  dii  Caiicase,"  in  the 
"Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  for  February  i,  1855;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Lernaean  Hydra.    See  Hydra. 

Lernout,  l^R'noo',  (Jean,)  [Lat.  J.\'nus  Lernu'tius,] 
a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Bruges  in  1545.  He  was  made 
prisoner  by  the  English  in  1587,  and  detained  five  years. 
His  "Carmina,"  odes,  epigrams,  etc.,  published  in  1579, 
are  said  to  have  considerable  merit.    Died  in  1619. 

Lernutius.    See  Lernout. 

Leroi.    See  Leroy. 

Leroux,  leh-roo',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Sevres  in  1749.  Having  been  elected  to  a  high 
municipal  office  in  Paris  in  1790,  he  exposed  his  life  in 
his  efforts  to  defend  the  royal  family,  for  which  he  was 
proscribed.    Died  in  1832. 

Leroux,  (Pierre,)  a  French  socialist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1798.  He  founded,  in  partnership  with  Madame  George 
Sand,  the  "  Revue  Independante."  His  principal  work 
is  "On  Humanity:  its  Principle  and  its  Prospects," 
("  De  I'Humanite  :  de  son  Principe  et  de  son  Avenir," 
2  vols.,  1840.) 

Leroy,  leh-Rwd',  (Charles,)  a  French  physician,  born 
in  Paris  in  1726,  was  a  son  of  Julien,  noticed  below.  He 
published  two  valuable  works,  viz.  :  "Memoirs  and  Ob- 
servations on  Medicine,"  and  "  Melanges  of  Philosophy, 
Chemistry,"  etc.,  (1771.)    Died  in  1779. 

Leroy,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  natural  philosopher,  born 
in  Paris,  was  a  son  of  Julien,  noticed  below.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  175 1,  and  wrote 
several  memoirs  on  electricity.    Died  in  1800. 

Leroy,  (Jean  Baptiste  On^sime,)  a  French  dramatic 
writer,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1788.  He  produced  suc- 
cessful comedies. 

Leroy  or  Le  Roy,  (Julien,)  a  French  watchmaker, 
born  at  Tours  in  1686.  He  settled  in  Paris,  and  ac- 
quired a  European  reputation  by  the  excellence  of  his 
workmanship.  He  obviated  the  changes  of  temperature 
by  a  mechanism  of  compensation,  invented  horizontal 
clocks,  and  made  many  improvements  in  the  art.  In 
1739  he  received  the  title  of  horloger  to  the  king.  Died 
in  1759.  His  sons  Charles,  Jean  Baptiste,  Julien 
David,  and  Pierre  are  noticed  in  this  work. 

Leroy  or  Leroi,  (Julien  David,)  a  French  architect, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  about  1726, 
Having  visited  and  studied  the  ancient  models  in  Greece, 
he  published  in  1758  an  excellent  work  entitled  "Ruins 
of  the  Finest  Monuments  of  Greece,"  which  contributed 
greatly  to  reform  the  vitiated  taste  that  prevailed  in 


France  before  its  appearance.  The  lectures  which  he 
gave  for  forty  years  as  professor  of  architecture  finished 
the  revolution  which  that  book  commenced.  He  wrote, 
also,  "  Observations  on  the  Edifices  of  Ancient  Nations," 
(1767,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1803. 

See  Gabet,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Leroy  or  Le  Roy,  [Lat.  Re'gius,](Louis,)  an  excellent 
French  classical  scholar,  born  at  Coutances.  He  trav- 
elled much  in  his  youth,  and  on  his  return  home  gained 
distinction  by  translations  of  Demosthenes'  "  Philippics" 
and  of  some  works  of  Plato.  He  was  an  old  man  when 
he  obtained  the  chair  of  Greek  in  the  College  Royal  in 
1572.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Life  of  Budaeus,"  in 
elegant  Latin,  (1540,)  "The  Origin  and  Excellence  of 
the  Art  of  Government,"  (VArt  politique,)  (1567,)  and 
"The  Vicissitude  and  Variety  of  Things,"  (1576.)  He 
is  reputed  one  of  the  first  French  writers  who  attained 
harmony  in  prose.    Died  in  1577. 

See  NiCERON,  "M^molres;"  Teissier,  "  filoges." 

Leroy,  (Pierre,)  a  French  satirical  writer,  who  lived 
about  1590,  vvas  a  canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Rouen.  He 
was  one  of  the  principal  authors  of  a  very  popular  satire 
and  master-piece  of  pleasantry,  entitled  "Menippean 
Satire  on  the  Virtue  of  the  Spanish  Catholicon,"  ("  Satyre 
Menippee  de  la  Vertu  du  Catholicon  d'Espagne,"  1593.) 
"which,"  said  Voltaire,  "was  as  profitable  to  the  cause 
of  Henry  IV.  as  the  battle  of  Ivry." 

Leroy,  (Pierre,)  a  skilful  watchmaker,  born  in  Paris 
in  1 71 7,  was  the  son  of  Julien,  noticed  above.  He  vvas 
chiefly  noted  for  the  perfection  he  attained  in  marine 
time-pieces,  and  received  a  prize  from  the  Academy  for 
the  best  method  of  measuring  time  at  sea.  He  has  the 
credit  of  discovering  the  isochi  onism  of  spiral  springs. 
He  published  several  remarkable  treatises  on  his  art, 
— one  called  "Etrennes  chronometriques  pour  I'Annee 
1760."    Died  in  1785. 

Leroy  d'idtiolles,  Ieh-Rw5'  di'te'oK,  (Jean  Jacques 
Joseph,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1798,  is 
distinguished  as  the  inventor  of  instruments  used  in 
lithotrity.  This  invention  was  also  claimed  by  M.  Ci- 
viale ;  but  a  committee  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
awarded  a  prize  to  Leroy  d'litiolles  "  for  having  first 
made  known  (in  1822]  the  instruments  which  he  had 
invented."    He  invented  other  surgical  instruments. 

Leroy  de  la  Corbinaye,  leh-Rwd'  deh  It  koR'be'n^', 
(Charles,)  a  French  lexicographer,  born  at  Saint-Brieuc 
in  1690.  He  published  a  valuable  "Treatise  on  French 
Orthography,  in  the  Form  of  a  Dictionary,"  (1739,)  which 
is  praised  for  accuracy,  method,  etc.    Died  in  1739. 

Leroy  de  Saint- Aniaud,  leh-RwS'  deh  sixt  'i.\<'wo', 
(Arnaud  Jacques,)  a  French  general,  born  in  Paris 
about  1800.  He  distinguished  himself  in  Algeria,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  marechal-de-camp  in  1847,  and  that 
of  general  of  division  in  185 1,  as  a  reward  for  his  suc- 
cessful operations  against  the  Kabyle  tribes.  Having 
become  minister  of  war  in  October,  1851,  he  promoted 
the  coup  d''etat  of  December  2,  and  was  made  a  marshal 
of  P^-ance  in  December,  1852.  He  obtained  the  chief 
command  in  the  Crimean  war,  which  began  in  1854, 
and,  although  suffering  severely  from  disease,  displayed 
his  usual  energy  and  skill  at  the  battle  of  the  Alma, 
September  20,  1854.  He  was  obliged  by  the  state  of  his 
health  to  resign  the  command,  and  he  died  on  the  29th 
of  September,  1854. 

See  DuPERKEi.  Sainte-Marie,  "M.  le  General  Leroy  de  S.iint- 
Arnaud,"  1852;  Charras,  "  Les  trois'  Marechaux  MM.  de  Saint- 
Arnaud,  Magnan  et  Castellane,"  1851. 

Lery,  li're',  or  Leri,  (Jean,)  a  French  Protestant  and 
traveller,  born  at  Margelle  in  1534.  He  went  as  a  mis- 
sionary to  Brazil  in  1556,  and  returned  in  1 558.  He 
published,  in  French  and  in  Latin,  "A  Narrative  of  a 
Voyage  to  Brazil,"  with  a  good  description  of  that  re- 
gion, (1578.)    Died  in  i6ir. 

Le  Sage  or  Lesage,  leh  stzh,  (Alain  Ren6,)  a  cele- 
brated French  romancer  and  dramatist,  Ijorn  at  Sarzeau, 
near  Vannes,  (Morbihan,)  May  8,  1668.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  lawyer,  was  educated  at  the  College  of  Vannes,  and 
is  supposed  to  have  been  employed  several  years  in  the 
collection  of  taxes.  In  1692  he  went  to  Paris  to  study 
law  and  philosophy.  There  his  handsome  figure  and  his 
intelligence  and  fine  literary  taste  procured  for  him  free 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  y.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LE  SAGE 


141 2 


LESDIGUIERES 


access  to  the  most  polished  and  aristocratic  society.  In 
1694  he  married  Mademoiselle  Huyard,  of  Paris,  and  was 
admitted  as  advocate  of  the  Parliament,  but  soon  relin- 
quished all  other  pursuits  that  he  might  devote  himself 
to  literature.  He  studied  Spanish,  and  improved  his 
style  by  translating  or  imitating  several  Spanish  come- 
dies. Ilis  comedy  "  Don  Caesar  Ursin,"  imitated  from 
Calderon,  was  a  failure;  Init  his  "Crispin  Rival  de  son 
Maitre"  ("Crispin  the  Rival  of  his  Master")  was  per- 
formed with  brilliant  success  in  1707.  In  the  same  year  he 
produced  "  Le  Diable  boiteux,"  [i.e.  "The  Lame  I)evil," 
popularly  called  in  English  "The  Devil  on  Two  Sticks," 
and  sometimes  "Asmodeus,")  a  romance,  the  idea  and 
name  of  which  he  derived  from  a  work  of  Luis  Velez  de 
Guevara.  By  its  satire  on  all  conditions,  its  nervous 
style,  and  its  truthful  portraits,  this  book  attained  great 
popularity.  He  increased  his  reputation  by  an  original 
prose  play  called  "Turcaret,"  which  exposed  the  iniqui- 
ties of  the  traitants  and  other  agents  of  the  revenue. 
These  parties  offered  him  one  hundred  thousand  francs 
to  suppress  the  piece  ;  but  he  refused  the  bribe,  and  it 
was  performed  with  immense  applause  in  1709.  It  is 
superior  to  any  play  which  he  imitated  from  the  Spanish. 

Li  1 71 5  Le  Sage  published  two  volumes  of  his  most 
celebrated  work,  "Gil  Bias  de  Santillane,"  which  is 
perhaps  a  more  universal  favourite  than  any  other  novel, 
and  owes  its  success  to  its  admirable  and  natural  pictures 
of  human  life  in  all  its  conditions  and  all  its  phases. 
It  has  been  translated  into  all  the  languages  of  Europe. 
Voltaire  and  others  attempted,  without  success,  to 
convict  him  of  borrowing  or  purloining  the  story  from 
some  Spanish  writer.  Their  charges  have  been  refuted 
by  Fran9ois  de  Neufchateau.  He  employed  the  period 
between  17 13  and  1738  chiefly  in  writing  comic  operas 
and  other  pieces,  which  were  exhibited  at  the  fair  of 
Saint-Germain  and  were  extremely  popular.  He  pub- 
lished "Roland  I'Amoureux,"  (1717-21,)  an  imitation  of 
"Orlando  Innamorato,"  and  "The  Adventures  of  Guz- 
man d'Alfarache,"  (1732,)  an  amusing  novel,  superior 
to  the  Spanish  work  of  which  it  is  a  version  or  imitation. 
In  1735  he  produced  a  dialogue  full  of  witty,  wise,  and 
original  thoughts,  entitled  "  A  Day  of  the  Parcae,"  ("  Une 
Journee  des  Parques,")  and  finished  the  last  volume  of 
"Gil  Bias."  After  composing  several  other  works  and 
enjoying  a  large  share  of  domestic  haj^piness,  he  died  at 
Boulogne  in  November,  1747.  He  had  the  re])utation 
of  a  high-minded  and  honourable  man.  His  eldest  son, 
who  assumed  the  name  of  Montm^nil,  became  a  famous 
play-actor. 

See  AuDiFFRET,  "  Notice  sur  A.  R.  Lesage,"  1822  ;  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  "Biographical  Notice  of  Le  Sage,"  (in  his  Miscellaneous 
Works:)  M  alitourne,  "  filoge  de  Le  Sage,"  1822  ;  Sainte-P.euve, 
"  Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  ii. ;  Henri  Patin,  "  filoge  de  Lesage," 
1822;  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Vii.i.rmain, 
"  Litt^rature  Frangaise  du  dix-huitieme  Siecle,"  tome  i. ;  Saint- 
Marc  GiRARDiN,  "  filoge  de  Lesage,"  1822;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1807. 

Le  Sage  or  Lesage,  (Bernard  Marie,)  a  French 
revolutionist,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1792, 
and  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  As  a  Girondist  he 
was  proscribed  and  outlawed  in  1793,  but  escaped  by 
flight.    Died  in  1796. 

Le  Sage  or  Lesage,  (George  Louis,)  a  Swiss  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Geneva  in  1724.  He  studied  medicine, 
but  did  not  practise  it.  His  favourite  studies  were  natural 
philosophy,  mathematics,  and  mechanics.  In  1750  he  be- 
came a  teacher  of  mathe«natics  at  Geneva.  He  published 
an  "Essay  on  Mechanical  Chemistry,"  (1758,)  an  inge- 
nious treatise  called  "Newtonian  Lucretius,"  ("Lucrece 
Newtonien,"  1782,)  and  "Fragments  on  Final  Causes," 
and  left  many  works  in  manuscript.  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  corresponded  with 
D'Alembert  and  other  eminent  savants.    Died  in  1803. 

See  P.  Prevost,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  G.  L.  Lesage,"  1805; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Le  Sage  (or  Lesage)  de  Montmenil,  leh  stzh  deh 
mAN'mi'n^K,  (Rkn6  An'DR^:,)  a  son  of  the  author  of  "  Gil 
Bias,"  was  born  in  Paris  in  1695.  He  made  his  debut  ow 
the  stage  in  1 726,  and  performed  various  7'oles  in  comedy 
with  success.  He  soon  became  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated French  actors  of  that  time.  His  private  character 
is  said  to  have  been  noble.    Died  in  1743. 


LSs-bo'nax,  [AeaSwm^,]  a  Greek  sophist  and  rheto- 
rician of  Mitylene,  who  lived  in  the  first  century  B.C.,  in 
the  time  of  Augustus.  He  was  the  father  of  Polemon, 
the  jjreceptor  of  Tiberius.  His  philosophic  works  have 
not  come  down  to  us  ;  but  we  have  two  orations  of  some 
merit,  which  are  ascribed  to  him.  Another  Lesbonax,  a 
Greek  grammarian,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  a  later 
period.  He  was  author  of  a  small  work  on  grammatical 
figures,  Etyu  I,xvf^^'!'<^v,  which  is  extant. 

See  SuiDAS,  "Lesbonax." 

Lescaille,  la'kal'  or  li'kt'ye,  (Catherine,)  a  Dutch 
poetess,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1649,  was  called  "the 
Sappho  of  Holland."  She  wrote  tragedies, —  "  Genseric," 
"Cassandra,""  Herod  and  Mariamne,"  etc.  Died  in  1 7 11. 

See  MoK^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique. " 

Lescaille,  (Jacques,)  a  Flemish  or  Dutch  poet  and 
publisher,  born  in  1610,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
Died  in  1677. 

Lescale.    See  Scaliger. 

Lescallier,  LVkrie^'  or  l^'ktKya',  (Daniel,)  a 
French  officer  of  the  marine,  born  at  Lyons  in  1743.  He 
wrote  a  "  French-English  Vocabulary  of  Marine  Terms," 
(1777,)  and  "Travels  in  England,  Russia,"  etc.,  (1800.) 
Died  in  1822. 

Lescarbot,  la'ktR'bo',  (Marc,)  a  French  writer  and 
lawyer,  born  at  Vervins.  He  contributed  to  form  the 
first  French  colony  in  Canada,  and,  having  returned  to 
France,  published  in  1609  a  "History  of  New  France." 

Lescene-Desmaisons,  t^'s^n'da'mi'z^N',  (Jacques,) 
a  French  historical  writer,  born  at  Granville  in  1750. 
He  published  in  1781  a  "  History  of  the  Last  Revolution 
in  Sweden,"  and  in  1789  a  "  Political  History  of  the 
French  Revolution."    Died  in  1808. 

Leschassier,  LVsht^se-y,  (Jacques,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1550;  died  in  1625. 

Leschenault  de  La  Tour,  lash^no'  deh  It  tooR, 
(Jean  Baptiste  Louis  Claude  Theodore,)  a  French 
naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Chalons-sur-Saone  in 
1773.  travelled  in  Hindostan  about  five  years,  (1816- 
21.)  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Vegetation 
of  New  Holland."    Died  in  1826. 

Les'-ehes  [Aea^tz/f]  or  Les'cheus,  [A£a;^;ej;f,]  a  Greek 
poet,  born  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  lived  about  700  or 
600  B.C.  He  is  the  reputed  author  of  a  poem  called 
"The  Little  Iliad,"  ('IXicig  /uicpu.) 

L'Escluse.    See  L'liCi.usH:. 

Lescoiivel,  de,  deh  la'ko.N'vSK,  (Pierre,)  a  French 
writer  of  fiction,  born  about  1650;  died  in  Paris  in  1722. 

Lescot,  iSs'ko',  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French  archi- 
tect, born  in  Paris  about  15 10.  Little  is  known  of  his 
life,  except  that  he  was  abbe  of  Clagny.  He  designed 
the  Louvre,  which  was  begun  about  1 541.  The  part  of 
this  palace  called  the  Fa9ade  de  I'Horloge  is  considered 
a  master-piece.  Another  specimen  of  his  good  taste  is  the 
Salle  des  Caryatides,  in  the  same  edifice,  "He  will  ever 
be  regarded,"  says  the  "Biographie  Universelle,"  "as 
one  of  the  greatest  architects  of  France."   Died  in  1571. 

See  QuATREMERE  iJE  QuiNCY,  "  Vies  des  plus  illustres  Archi- 
tectes  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lescuii,  de,  deh  les'kuN',  (Thomas  de  Foix,)  Sei- 
gneur, a  French  general,  was  a  younger  brother  of 
Lautrec.  He  was  made  a  marshal  of  France  in  1521. 
After  fighting  the  armies  of  Charles  V.  at  several  places 
in  Italy,  he  was  mortally  wounded  at  Pavia  in  1525. 

Lescure,  de,  deh  l^'kiiR^,  (Louis  M arif;,)  Marquis, 
a  French  royalist  and  Vendean  chief,  was  born  in  1766, 
and  was  a  cousin  of  Larochejaquelein,  He  was  the  most 
scientific  officer  in  the  Vendean  army,  and  was  noted  for 
his  cool  bravery.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Fontenay 
and  Torfou,  and  was  mortally  wounded  at  Tremblaye 
in  October,  1793.  "His  humanity,"  says  Alison,  "was 
angelic.  Alone  of  all  the  chiefs  in  that  memorable 
struggle,  it  could  be  said  with  truth  that  his  glory  was 
unstained  by  human  blood."  ("  History  of  Europe.") 

See  Madame  de  la  Rochejaquelkin,  "Memoires." 

Lesdiguieres,  de,  deh  UV de'ge-ai r',  (Francois  de 
Bonne,)  Duke,  a  distiiiguished  French  marshal,  born  in 
Dauphine  in  1543.  He  fought  for  the  Protestants  in 
the  civil  war  which  began  about  1562,  and  obtained  the 
chief  command  of  the  Protestant  army  in  1575.  He  was 
one  of  those  who  most  effectually  aided  Henry  IV.  in 


R,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  /on^^;  k,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  i%X\  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LESEUR 


LESLIE 


obtaining  the  throne.  In  1608  he  was  rewarded  with  the 
rank  of  marshal  and  a  dukedom,  and  about  1610  com- 
manded the  army  in  Italy,  where  he  defeated  the  Span- 
iards. He  was  accused  by  some  writers  of  conspirhig 
with  other  Protestant  leaders  to  form  a  republic  after 
the  death  of  Henry  IV. ;  but  he  refused  to  fight  against 
the  court  in  the  civil  war  that  began  about  1620.  In 
1622  he  abjured  Calvinism,  and  was  appointed  Con- 
stable of  France.  Died  in  1626.  Henry  IV.  once  said 
he  would  acknowledge  his  own  inferiority  to  no  captain 
in  Europe  except  Lesdiguieres. 

See  Louis  Videl,  "Vie  du  Marechal  de  Lesdiguieres,"  1638; 
Brantome,  "  Vies  des  grands  Capitaines  ;"  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui 
Temporis;"  J.  C.  Martin,  "  Histoire  abregee  de  la  Vie  de  F.  de 
Bonne,"  1802;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Leseur,  leh-zUR',  (Thomas,)  an  able  French  geometer, 
born  at  Rethel  in  1703.  He  became  a  professor  of  ma- 
thematics in  the  College  of  Sapienza,  in  Rome.  There 
he  formed  an  intimacy  with  F.  Jacquier,  whom  he  as- 
sisted in  two  works,  viz.,  a  "  Commentary  on  Newton's 
Principia"  and  "Elements  of  the  Integral  Calculus," 
(1748.)    Died  in  1770. 

Leske,  l^s'keh,  (Nathaniel  Gottfried,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  at  Muskau  in  1757;  died  in  1786. 

Lesley.    See  Leslie,  (Alexander.) 

LesTey,  (John,)  Bishop  of  Ross,  a  Scottish  Catholic 
prelate,  chiefly  noted  for  his  zeal  and  fidelity  in  the 
service  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  was  born  in  1527.  He 
escorted  Mary  from  France  to  Scotland  in  1561,  and  was 
soon  after  appointed  Bishop  of  Ross.  When  Queen 
Mary  was  detained  as  a  prisoner  in  England,  and  com- 
missioners were  ordered  to  examine  her  cause  in  1568, 
Lesley  was  one  of  the  commissioners  whom  she  chose 
to  defend  her.  Having  taken  part  in  the  matrimonial 
intrigue  between  Mary  and  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  he  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  in  1571,  and  released  in  1573. 
He  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  exile.  He  wrote  a 
Latin  work  "On  the  Origin,  Customs,  and  Achievements 
of  the  Scotch,"  (1578,)  eloquent  arguments  in  defence  of 
Queen  Mary,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1596. 

See  Robertson,  "History  of  Scotland;"  Laing,  "History  of 
Scotland;"  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xli.  ; 
Froude,  "History  of  England;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dic- 
tionary of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Les'lie  (l^s'le)  or  Lesley,  (Alexander,)  Earl  of 
Leven,  an  eminent  Scottish  general.  He  served  some 
years  under  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden,  who  pro- 
moted him  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal.  In  1628  he 
defended  Stralsund  with  success.  Having  returned 
home  in  1639,  when  the  Covenanters  were  preparing  to 
resist  Charles  I.,  he  was  chosen  general-in-chief  of  their 
army  ;  but  before  any  battle  was  fought  a  treaty  of  peace 
was  made.  War  was  renewed  in  1640.  Leslie  defeated 
the  king's  army  at  Newburn,  and  another  treaty  followed. 
He  commanded  the  large  Scottish  army  which,  in  Jan- 
uary, 1644,  marched  to  assist  the  English  Parliament. 
Having  effected  a  junction  with  the  army  of  Fairfax,  he 
led  a  division  at  Marston  Moor,  (1644,)  where  he  was 
driven  off  the  field,  though  his  allies  gained  the  victory. 
Ii\  May,  1646,  Charles  I.  delivered  himself  up  to  the 
army  of  Leslie,  then  encamped  at  Newark.  On  account 
of  his  great  age,  he  resigned  his  command  in  1650.  Died 
in  1661. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England;"  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Leslie,  (Charles,)  a  British  polemical  writer  on 
politics  and  religion,  was  born  in  Ireland  about  1650. 
He  took  orders  about  1680  in  the  Anglican  Church,  and 
gained  distinction  as  a  disputant  against  the  Catholics. 
In  the  Revolution,  however,  (1688,)  he  was  a  staunch 
Jacobite  and  nonjuror,  at  the  sacrifice  of  his  preferment 
in  the  church.  He  wrote  several  controversial  works 
against  the  Jews,  Deists,  Socinians,  and  other  sects.  In 
his  "  Snake  in  the  Grass"  he  attacked  the  Society  of 
Friends.  After  the  death  of  James  II.,  Leslie  joined  the 
court  of  the  Pretender  in  France.  He  died  in  Ireland 
in  1722.  His  most  esteemed  work  is  a  "'Short  and 
Easy  Method  with  the  Deists,"  (1694.)  Dr.  Johnson 
pronounced  him  the  only  one  of  the  nonjurors  that 
could  reason. 

See  Burnet,  "History  of  his  Own  Time;"  Mor^ri,  "Diction- 
naire  Historique." 


Leslie,  (Charles  Robert,)  an  eminent  English  his- 
torical painter,  born  of  American  parents  in  London  in 
1794,  was  a  brother  of  Eliza  Leslie  the  authoress.  After 
passing  twelve  years  in  Philadelphia  with  his  parents, 
he  removed  in  1813  to  London,  where  he  was  instructed 
in  the  study  of  art  by  West  and  Allston.  Among  his 
first  successful  works  was  "Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  going 
to  Church,"  (1820.)  He  was  elected  an  Associate  of  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1821,  and  Royal  Academician  in  1826. 
His  subjects  are  mostly  of  a  homely  and  familiar  char- 
acter, illustrative  of  the  works  of  Shakspeare,  Moliere, 
Cervantes,  and  other  humorous  writers.  Among  his 
most  admired  productions  are  his  illustrations  of  "Don 
Quixote."  He  was  also  successful  in  portraits.  In  1847 
he  was  chosen  professor  of  painting  in  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy. He  published  a  "  Life  of  John  Constable,"  (1843,) 
and  a  "  Hand-Book  for  Young  Painters,"  (1855.)  Died 
in  1859.  "The  more  I  learn  of  art,"  says  Ruskin,  "the 
more  respect  I  feel  for  Mr.  Leslie's  painting  as  such. 
Given  a  certain  quantity  of  oil-colour  to  be  laid  with  one 
touch  of  the  pencil  so  as  to  produce  at  once  the  subtlest 
and  largest  expressional  result  possible,  and  there  is  no 
man  now  living  who  seems  to  me  to  come  at  all  near  Mr. 
Leslie,  his  work  being  in  places  equal  to  Hogarth  for 
decision." 

See  Ruskin,  "Modern  Painters;"  C.  R.  Leslie,  "Autobio- 
graphic Recollections,"  edited  by  Tom  Taylor,  Boston,  1865; 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  i860;  "North  American 
Review"  for  January,  1861. 

Leslie  or  Lesley,  (David,)  an  able  Scottish  general. 
After  serving  with  distinction  under  Gustavus  Adolphus 
of  Sweden,  he  returned  to  Scotland  about  1642.  He 
had  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general  when  he  fought 
against  Charles  I.  at  Marston  Moor  in  1644.  The  suc- 
cess of  this  action  was  ascribed  chiefly  to  Cromwell  and 
Leslie,  In  1646  he  defeated  Montrose  at  Philiphaugh. 
On  the  resignation  of  the  Earl  of  Leven,  (1650,)  Leslie 
was  chosen  commander-in-chief  of  the  Scottish  army 
raised  to  restore  Charles  II.  He  intrenched  his  army 
between  Edinburgh  and  Leith,  and  prudently  declined 
Cromwell's  offer  of  battle.  Leslie  followed  the  English 
army  to  Dunbar,  where  they  were  reduced  to  extremi- 
ties for  want  of  provisions.  Against  his  own  judgment, 
he  was  induced  by  the  clergy  to  descend  from  his  ad- 
vantageous position  and  offer  battle.  The  result  was  a 
signal  defeat  of  the  Scotch,  September  3,  1650.  Leslie 
was  second  or  third  in  command  at  Worcester  in  165 1. 
In  the  retreat  from  this  battle  he  was  made  prisoner,  and 
was  confined  in  the  Tower  until  1660.  He  received  the 
title  of  Lord  Newark  in  1661.    Died  in  1682. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England  ;"  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  Clarendon,  "  History  of  the 
Rebellion." 

Leslie,  (Eliza,)  an  American  writer,  sister  of  Charles 
Robert,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1787. 
She  was  the  author  of  numerous  tales  and  sketches, 
which  display  uncommon  powers  of  humour  and  satire 
and  acquired  extensive  popularity.  Among  the  principal 
of  these  are  "  Pencil  Sketches,  or  Outlines  of  Character 
and  Manners,"  (1833,)  "  Atlantic  Tales,"  "  The  American 
Girl's  Book,"  and  "  Althea  Vernon,"  (1841.)  She  also 
published  "The  Domestic  Cookery  Book,"  the  "Beha- 
viour Book,"  and  other  similar  works.    Died  in  1857. 

See  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1833. 

Leslie,  (John,)  born  in  Scotland  about  1570,  was  the 
father  of  Charles  Leslie,  (1650-1 722.)  He  spoke  Latin 
and  several  modern  languages.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Raphoe  in  1633,  and  built  a  strong  castle, 
which  he  defended  against  Cromwell  in  the  civil  war. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  last  in  Ireland  to  submit 
to  the  victor.  In  166 1  he  became  Bishop  of  Clogher. 
Died  in  1671. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Leslie,  (Sir  John,)  an  eminent  Scottish  geometer  and 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Largo,  in  Fifeshire,  in  1766. 
He  was  educated  at  Saint  Andrew's  and  Edinburgh,  and 
became  a  resident  of  London  in  1790.  In  1793  he  pro- 
duced a  translation  of  Buffon's  "  Natural  History  of 
Birds,"  which  was  very  favourably  received.  About 
1795  he  invented  the  Differential  Thermometer.  He 
published  in  1804  his  ingenious  "Experimental  Inquiry 


<  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LESPINJSSE 


1414 


LESSING 


into  the  Nature  and  Propagation  of  Heat,"  for  which 
the  Royal' Society  awarded  him  the  Runiford  medal.  In 
1805  he  was  elected  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
University  of  Edin!)urgh,  although  the  clergy  formally 
protested  against  his  election,  because  he  had  com- 
mended Hume's  "  Theory  of  Causation."  He  succeeded  ! 
Playfair  as  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  Edinburgh 
in  1819,  and  contributed  much  to  the  perfection  of  the 
apparatus  and  experiments  of  that  department.  He 
wrote  many  scientific  articles  for  the  "  Encyclopaedia 
liritannica"  and  "Edinburgh  Review."  Among  his 
separate  publications  were  "Elements  of  Geometry," 
stc,  (1809,)  and  "Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy," 
(1823.)  He  wrote  an  interesting  and  excellent  "Dis- 
course on  the  Progress  of  Mathematical  and  Physical 
Sciences  during  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  which  is  one 
of  the  preliminary  dissertations  in  the  first  volume  of 
the  new  edition  of  the  "Encyclopaedia  Eritannica."  His 
treatise  on  "  Heat,"  above  noticed,  indicates  a  remarka- 
ble original  genius,  and  constitutes  an  era  in  the  history 
of  that  branch  of  science.    Died  in  1832. 

See  Macvey  Napier,  "Memoir  of  Sir  John  Leslie,"  1838; 
"  Encyclopasdia  Britannica  ;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary 
of  Eminent  Scotsmen ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1805,  and 
July,  1812. 

Lespinasse.    See  Esptnasse,  de  l'. 

Lespinasse,  l^s^pe'nts',  (Augustin,  )  Count,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Preuilly  in  1737.  In  1796  he 
fougiit  under  Bonaparte  in  Italy,  and  directed  the  artil- 
lery at  Mantua,  Castiglione,  and  Areola  with  great  skill, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  division.  Died  in  1816. 

Lessart,  de,  deh  l^'stn',  (Antoine  de  Valdec,)  a 
French  minister  of  state,  born  in  Guienne  in  1742.  He 
was  appointed  minister  of  the  interior  about  January  i, 
1791,  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  December  of  that 
year.  His  policy  offended  the  dominant  party,  which 
impeached  him  in  March,  1792.  He  was  imprisoned, 
and  perished  in  the  massacre  of  September,  1 792. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Lesseps,  de,  deh  l^'sSp',  (Ferdinand,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1805.  He  became 
consul  at  Cairo  about  1833,  and  in  1842  was  appointed 
consul  at  Barcelona.  During  the  boml^ardment  of  this 
city  by  Espartero,  Lesseps  performed  perilous  acts  of 
humanity,  for  which  he  received  testimonials  of  honour 
from  several  governments.  He  was  minister  at  Madrid 
from  April,  1848,  to  February,  1849.  In  May,  1849,  he 
was  sent  to  Rome  to  negotiate  a  peace  between  the 
popular  party  and  the  French  army.  He  was  recalled 
in  disgrace  in  June  of  that  year,  because  he  was  too 
favourable  to  the  Roman  republic.  He  expended  many 
years  in  a  great  project  to  construct  a  ship-canal  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  for  which  purpose  a  joint-stock 
company  was  formed  under  his  direction.  This  canal, 
about  one  hundred  miles  long,  was  completed  and 
opened  in  November,  1869,  at  a  cost  of  nearly  sixty 
millions  of  dollars. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lesseps,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste  Barth^lemi,)  a  French 
traveller  and  civil  officer,  born  at  Cette  in  1766.  As 
interpreter  he  accompanied  La  Perouse's  expedition  in 
1785,  and  on  their  arrival  at  Kamtchatka  (1787)  was 
scut  home  by  land  with  despatches,  etc.  He  published 
a  Journal  of  his  Travels  from  Kamtchatka  to  France, 
(1790.)    Died  in  1834. 

Lesser,  l^s'ser,  (Friedrich  Christian,)  a  German 
naturalist  and  theologian,  born  at  Nordhausen  in  1692. 
He  became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Nordhausen  in  1739. 
His  most  popular  work  is  the  "Theology  of  Insects," 
(1738.)  "The  plan  of  this  work  is  excellent,"  says 
Walckenaer  ;  "  but  the  art  of  describing  with  precision 
and  narrating  with  elegance  is  not  found  in  it."  He  also 
wrote  the  "Theology  of  Stones,"  (1735.)    Died  in  1754. 

See  J.  P.  F.  Lesser,  "  Nnchiicht  von  dem  Leben  \nid  den 
Schriften  F.  C.  Lessers,"  1755;  Meusel,  "  Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 

Lesser,  de,  (Augustin  Creuz^:.)    See  Creuz6. 

Lessing,  l^s'sing,  (Go  ithold  Ephraim,)  an  eminent 
author,  regarded  as  the  father  of  the  new  era  of  German 
literature,  was  born  at  Kamentz,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  in 
1729.  When  twelve  years  old,  he  was  sent  to  the  high 
school  at  Meissen,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by 


his  application  and  his  rapid  acquisition  of  knowledge. 
Being  destined  by  his  parents  to  the  ministry,  he  entered, 
at  the  age  of  seventeen,  the  university  at  Leipsic.  While 
here,  his  taste  for  general  literature  and  his  fondness  for 
the  theatre  caused  him  to  neglect,  and  ultimately  to 
!  abandon,  the  study  of  theology,  that  he  might  devote 
himself  wholly  to  his  favourite  pursuits.  Not  to  mention 
several  dramas  of  minor  importance,  Lessing  brought 
out  in  1755  "Miss  Sarah  Sampson,"  a  tragedy,  which 
was  received  by  the  German  public  with  extraordinary 
favour,  and  was  translated  into  other  languages.  In 
1757  he  commenced,  in  concert  with  Mendelssohn  and 
Nicolai,  the  publication  of  the  "  liibliothek  der  schonen 
Wissenschaften,"  (literally,  the"  Library  of  the  Beautiful 
Sciences,") — a  literary  journal  of  great  merit.  He  pub- 
lished in  1766  his  "  Laocoon,  or  the  Limits  of  Poetry 
and  Painting."  This  work  has  exerted  a  great  and  ])er- 
manent  influence  on  the  science  of  criticism  in  Germany, 
both  in  literature  and  art.  In  1768  appeared  the  "  Dra- 
maturgic,"— another  critical  work,  in  which  Lessing 
opposes  the  French  and  defends  the  English  drama. 
He  completed  in  1772  his  "Emilia  Galotti,"  which  has 
been  styled  "the  master-piece  of  German  tragedy,  as 
the  '  Laocoon'  is  the  master-])iece  of  German  criticism 
and  in  1775  he  brought  out  his  "Minna  von  Barnhelm," 
regarded  as  the  most  perfect  of  his  comedies.  His 
last  important  work  was  "Nathan  the  Wise,"  ("Nathan 
der  Weise,") — a  sort  of  controversial  drama  in  iambic 
verse,  directed  against  religious  intolerance.  Our  limits 
will  scarcely  permit  us  to  do  more  than  allude  to  his 
various  minor  productions,  nearly  all  of  which,  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  bear  the  decided  impress  of  an 
earnest,  independent,  and  original  mind.  We  may, 
however,  mention  his  "  Letters  on  Literature,"  ("  Lite- 
raturbriefe,")  his  "Education  of  the  Human  Race," 
("Erziehung  des  Menschengeschlechts,")  and  especially 
his  "  Fables,"  so  rich  in  wit  and  original  thought :  many 
of  these  have  a  literary  aiiplication. 

One  of  the  great  objects  for  which  Lessing  earnestly 
laboured  was  to  build  up  a  national  literature.  The 
Germans  had  previously,  to  a  great  extent,  neglected 
or  despised  the  rich  native  resources  of  their  own 
tongue.  Lessing  sought  by  precept  and  example  to  re- 
call his  countrymen  from  the  almost  exclusive  study  of 
the  French,  recommending  in  preference  the  English 
dramatic  models,  as  superior  in  themselves  and  better 
adapted  to  the  genius  of  the  German  people. 

In  1760  Lessing  was  made  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin,  and  soon  after  accom- 
panied General  Tauenzien,  Governor  of  Silesia,  as  his 
secretary,  to  Breslau,  where  he  resided  five  years.  During 
this  period  he  became  addicted  to  gambling  ;  but  this 
vice  does  not  appear  to  have  materially  interfered  with 
his  application  to  literature.  In  1770  he  obtained  the 
office  of  head  librarian  of  the  Wolfenbiittel  Library. 
Soon  after,  he  discovered  and  published  the  famous 
"  Wolfenbiittel  Fragments,"  (on  the  discrepancies  of  the 
gospel  narratives,)  by  Reimarus,  who,  however,  at  that 
time  was  not  known  as  the  author.  This  pul^lication 
brought  upon  Lessing  much  censure  and  reproach  :  he 
was  accused  of  a  deliberate  design  to  undermine  Chris- 
tianity. If,  however,  we  may  believe  his  friend  Herder, 
he  gave  those  "Fragments"  to  the  public  "  purely  for 
the  interests  of  truth,  for  the  sake  of  freer  inquiry  and 
of  examination  and  confirmation  on  all  sides."  A  candid 
examination  of  Lessing's  own  writings  will,  we  are  per- 
suaded, go  far  to  justify,  if  not  fully  to  confirm.  Herder's 
opinion.  The  extraordinary  activity  and  incessant  appli- 
cation of  Lessing's  mind  at  length  wore  out  his  physical 
constitution.  He  died  at  Brunswick  1781,  aged  fifty-two. 

See  E.  P.  Evans.  "Life  and  Works  of  G.  E.  Lessing,"  from  the  Ger- 
man of  ADOL^  W.  T.  S  I'AHR,  2  vols.,  1867  ;  Danzel,  "  G.  E.  Lessing, 
sein  Leben  und  seine  Werke,"  1850;  C.  G.  Lessing,  "  G.  E.  Lessing's 
Leben,"  etc.,  3  vols.,  1793;  Doking,  "G.  E.  Lessing's  Biographie," 
1853;  Dii.i.EK,  "  Erinnerunjren  an  G.  E.  Lessing,"  1841;  Schink, 
"  Characterislik  G.  E.  Lessing's,"  1X2=;;  Grossmann,  "Lessing's 
Denkmal,"  1791  ;  A.  Tolhausen,  "  Klopstock,  Lessing,  and  Wie- 
land,"  London,  184S  ;  H.  G.  Graeve.  "  G.  E.  Lessing's  Lebensge- 
schichte,"  etc.,  i82g;  F.  Schlegel,  "  Characteristics  and  Criticisms  " 
("  Characteristiken  und  Kritiken")  on  Lessing,"  1801  ;  "Charac- 
teristics of  Men  of  Genius,"  by  E.  P.  Whipple,  1840;  "Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  November,  1826.  (by  De  Quincev  :)  Hedge, 
"  Prose  Writers  of  Germany,"  1847  ;  "  Biographie  Universelle." 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  ftlt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LESSING 


1415 


LETELLIER 


Lessing,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  an  eminent  German 
painter,  and  grand-nephew  of  the  celebrated  critic,  was 
born  at  Wartenberg  in  1808.  He  studied  architecture 
for  a  time,  but  soon  yielded  to  his  stronger  attraction 
for  painting.  In  1825  he  finished  his  picture  of  "The 
Church-Yard,"  which  excited  great  admiration.  He 
soon  after  studied  historical  painting  under  Schadow  at 
Dusseldorf.  In  this  department  he  produced  in  1829 
•'The  Battle  of  Iconiuni,"  and  completed  other  illustra- 
tions of  the  life  of  Frederick  Barbarossa,  left  unfinished 
by  Cornelius.  His  next  productions,  representing  scenes 
from  Biirger's  "  Lenore"  and  Uhland's  "Royal  Mourn- 
ers," display  great  originality  and  poetic  fancy.  Among 
his  master-pieces  we  may  also  name  "  Huss  before  the 
Council  of  Constance,"  "The  Robber  and  his  Child," 
and  a  "Scene  in  the  Eifel,"  with  several  other  exqui- 
site landscapes.  Lessing,  while  retaining  many  of  the 
peculiar  excellencies  of  the  ideal  or  romantic  school, 
has  avoided  the  formality  of  style  into  which  it  has 
sometimes  degenerated. 

See  Nagi.er,  "AUgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Lessing,  (Karl  Gotthelf,)  a  German  dramatist, 
born  in  1740,  was  a  brother  of  the  great  author.  He 
published  several  comedies,  and  a  "  Life  of  Gotthold 
Ephraim  Lessing." 

Lessius,  les'se-us,  (Leonard,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit,  born 
at  Brechtan,  in  Brabant,  in  1554.  He  lectured  on  the- 
ology with  eclat  at  Louvain  from  1585  until  1623.  He 
wrote  several  popular  w^orks,  among  which  are  one 
"On  Justice  and  other  Cardinal  Virtues,"  (1621,)  and 
another  "On  the  Power  of  the  Pope."  He  was  charged 
with  favouring  semi-Pelagianism.    Died  in  1623. 

Lessmann,  l^s'mSn,  (Daniel,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  at  Soldin  in  1794.  He  wrote  lyric  poems,  and 
a  number  of  novels  and  tales.  He  died  in  183 1,  it  is 
supposed  by  suicide. 

Lesson,  iys6N',  (Ren6  Primevere,)  a  French  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Rochefort  in  1794.  Among  his  numerous 
works  are  a  "Manual  of  Ornithology,"  (2  vols.,  1828,) 
and  a  "Supplement  to  the  Works  of  Buffon,"  ("Com- 
plement des  CEuvres  de  Buffon,"  10  vols.,  1828  et  seq.) 
Died  in  1849. 

See  Amedee  Lef^vre,  "  filoge  historique  de  R.  P.  Lesson," 
1850. 

Les'ter,  (Charles  Edwards,)  an  American  littera- 
teur, born  in  New  London  county,  Connecticut,  in  1815. 
He  published  the  "Life  and  Voyages  of  Americus 
Vespucius,"  "Artists  of  America,"  and  various  other 
works,  and  made  several  translations  from  the  Italian. 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1846. 

Lestiboudois,  l^s'te^booMwi',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
French  botanist,  born  at  Douay  in  1715;  died  in  1804. 
His  grandson,  Th^mistocles,  born  at  Lille  in  1797,  is 
a  physician  and  writer  on  botany,  etc. 

Lestocq  or  Lestoq,  l^s'tok',  (Johann  Herman,) 
a  surgeon,  born  of  French  parents  in  Hanover  about 
1695.  removed  in  1 713  to  Saint  Petersburg,  and 

became  surgeon  to  Peter  the  Great.  In  1725  he  was 
appointed  surgeon  to  the  princess  Elizabeth.  He  was 
the  master-spirit  of  the  plot  or  revolution  which  made 
her  empress  in  1741.  For  some  years  afterwards  he 
was  treated  with  much  favour,  and  took  an  influential 
part  in  affairs  of  state;  but  in  1750  he  was  disgraced 
and  exiled.  He  was  recalled  by  Peter  III.  in  1762. 
Died  in  1767. 

Lestoile  or  Letoiie.    See  £toile,  de  l'. 

L'Estrange,  l^s-tranj',  (Sir  Roger,)  an  English  par- 
tisan writer,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1616,  was  a  zealous 
royalist  in  the  civil  war.  Having  been  detected  in  a  plot 
to  surprise  Lynn,  he  was  sentenced  to  death  as  a  spy  in 
1644,  but  obtained  a  respite,  and  escaped  in  1648.  After 
passing  a  few  years  in  exile,  he  returned  in  1653  and 
obtained  from  Cromwell  a  release  from  the  sentence.  In 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  he  was  censor  of  the  press.  He 
translated  the  works  of  Josephus,  Seneca's  "Morals," 
and  ^sop's  Fables,  and  wrote  many  popular  political 
tracts.  His  style  is  censured  for  vulgarity,  and  his  works 
abound  in  slang.  After  the  restoration  he  edited  several 
political  journals.  "  His  ^Esop's  Fables,"  says  Hallam, 
"will  present  everything  that  is  hostile  to  good  taste." 


("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  Died  in 
1704. 

See  "  Biographla  Britannica." 

Lesueur  or  Le  Sueur,  leh-sli'uR',  (Charles  Alex- 
andre,) a  French  naturalist  and  designer,  born  at  Havre 
in  1778.  He  explored  with  Peron  the  coasts  of  Aus- 
tralia, and  wrote  many  memoirs  on  mollusca,  etc.  Died 
in  1846. 

Lesueur,  (Cic^ron  Jean  Baptlste,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  near  Rambouillet  in  1794,  became  a  member 
of  the  Institute.  He  published  a  "Chronology  of  the 
Kings  of  Egypt,"  (1848-50.) 

Lesueur,  (Eustache,)  an  excellent  painter  of  history, 
surnamed  "the  French  Raphael,"  was  born  in  Paris  in 
161 7.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Vouet.  He  excelled  in  com- 
position, expression,  and  chiaroscuro.  Among  his  works 
are  "Saint  Paul  Preaching  at  Ephesus,"  "The  Annun- 
ciation," "The  Life  of  Saint  Bruno,"  (in  22  pictures,) 
and  "The  Death  of  Tabitha."  The  first  is  called  a 
master-piece  of  invention  and  style.  He  died  prema- 
turely in  1655. 

See  Chari.es  Blanc,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Frangais,"  and  "  fitude 
sur  E.  Lesueur,"  1845;  Louis  Vitet,  "  E.  Lesueur,  sa  Vie  et  ses 
OEuvres,"  1853;  L.  Dussieux,  "  Nouvelles  Recherches  sur  la  Vie 
d'E.  Lesueur,"  1S52. 

Lesueur,  (Jean,)  a  French  historian  and  Protestant 
minister.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Church  and  Em- 
pire from  the  Birth  of  Christ,"  (1672.)    Died  in  i68l 

Lesueur  or  Le  Sueur,  (Jean  FRANgoLS,)  a  cele- 
brated French  composer,  born  near  Abbeville  about 
1760.  Having  gained  reputation  by  his  motets  and 
masses,  he  was  chosen  chapel -master  of  Notre-Dame, 
Paris,  in  1786.  His  opera  "La  Caverne"  (1792)  was 
very  successful.  In  1804  he  became  chapel-master  of 
Napoleon,  and  produced  "The  Bards,"  ("  Les  Bardes,") 
an  opera,  which  was  greatly  applauded.  He  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Institute  in  181 5.  He  composed  other 
operas,  an  "Essay  on  Sacred  Music,"  and  a  "Treatise 
on  Ancient  Music,"  which  are  highly  commended.  Died 
in  1837. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  Generale." 

Le  Sueur,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  philologist,  born  in 
Paris  about  1540,  became  president  of  the  Chamber  of 
Inquqsts  in  the  Parliament  of  Paris.  He  made  a  good 
translation  of  Pindar's  Odes  into  Latin  verse,  (1575.) 
Died  in  1594. 

Lesueur,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  engraver  of  cameos, 
born  in  Paris  in  1690;  died  in  1764.  His  uncle  Pierre, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1636,  was  one  of  the  best  engravers  on 
wood  of  his  time.    Died  in  1716. 

Leszczinski.    See  Stanislas. 

Letanduere,  de,  deh  la'tdN'dii'aiR',  (Henri  Fran- 
gois  Dp:sheriuers,)  Marquis,  an  able  French  naval 
officer,  born  at  Angers  in  1682.  He  was  made  chef  d'es- 
cadre'm  1745.  In  that  year  he  captured  four  English 
frigates  near  Brest.    Died  in  1750. 

Letellier.  See  Louvois,  Courtanvaux,  de,  and 
Es  TR^ES,  d',  (Louis  Cesar.) 

Letellier,  leh-t^'le-k',  a  French  painter,  born  at  Rouen 
in  1614,  was  a  ne])hew  and  pupil  of  the  celebrated 
Poussin.  His  favourite  subjects  were  devotional.  He 
excelled  in  expression  and  linear  perspective.  Among 
his  best  works  are  a  "  Holy  Family,"  an  *'  Ascension," 
and  an  "Annunciation."    Died  in  1676. 

Letellier  or  Le  Tellier,  (Michel,)  a  French  states- 
man, born  in  1603.  By  the  patronage  of  Mazarin,  he 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state  for  the  war  department 
soon  after  1642,  During  the  troubles  of  the  Fronde  he 
was  an  adherent  of  Mazarin.  The  latter  having  with- 
drawn from  France  about  1651,  Letellier  was  employed 
as  minister  by  the  queen-regent  during  the  short  period 
of  his  absence.  In  1677  he  was  appointed  chancellor 
of  France.  He  sealed  with  alacrity  the  fatal  edict  against 
the  Protestants  which  in  1685  revoked  the  edict  of  Nantes. 
Died  in  1685.  Louvois,  the  minister  of  Louis  XIV.,  was 
his  son. 

See  Voltaire,  "Si^cle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Choisy,  "  M^moires." 
Letellier,  (Michel,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Vire, 
in  Normandy,  in  1643.    He  edited  Quintus  Curtius  for 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LETHE 


1416 


LEURET 


the  use  of  the  dauphin  (in  usum  Delphini)  in  1678,  and 
wrote  against  Jansenism.  In  1709  he  became  confessor 
to  Louis  XIV.,  with  the  privilege  of  presenting  subjects 
for  benefices.  U'Alembert  and  others  accuse  him  of 
giving  the  king  perfidious  counsels.  At  the  death  of 
Louis  XIV.  (1715)  he  was  exiled.    Died  in  1719. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Saint-Simon,  "M^- 
moires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Le'the,  [A^9?/,]  a  Greek  word  signifying  "  forgetful- 
ness"  or  "oblivion,"  and  forming  the  name  of  one  of 
the  streams  of  Hades.    See  Pluto. 

Lethiere,  leh-te-aiR',  (Guillaume  Guii.lon,)  an 
eminent  P'rench  landscape-  and  historical  painter,  was 
born  in  Guadeloupe  in  1760.  He  studied  in  Rome,  and 
worked  in  Paris  with  success.  Among  his  works  are 
"The  Death  of  Caesar,"  "The  Judgment  of  Paris,"  and 
"Homer  reciting  his  Poems."    Died  in  1832. 

Lethiiigton.    See  Maitland,  (William.) 

Leti,  la'tee,  (Gregorio,)  an  Italian  historical  writer, 
born  at  Milan  in  1630.  He  went  to  Geneva,  turned 
Protestant,  and  opened  a  school  in  1660.  In  1669  he 
published  a  "Life  of  Sixtus  V.,"  which  is  his  most 
popular  work.  His  satirical  humour  involved  him  in 
difficulties,  which  compelled  him  to  leave  Geneva  in 
1679.  He  passed  some  time  at  the  court  of  Charles 
II.  of  England,  and  was  ordered  to  quit  that  kingdom 
in  1682.  He  died  in  Amsterdam  in  1 701,  leaving  many 
histories  and  biographies,  which  are  unreliable. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires." 

Leto.    See  Latona. 

Leto,  (Pompon  10.)    See  Pomponius  L^tus. 

Letourneur,  leh-tooR^nUR',  (Charles  Louis  Fran- 
gois  HoNOR]^,)  a  Director  of  the  French  republic,  was 
born  in  Basse-Normandie  in  1751.  He  was  deputed  to 
the  Convention  in  1792,  and  voted  with  the  Girondists 
for  the  death  of  the  king.  He  was  one  of  the  members 
of  the  Executive  Directory  elected  in  October,  1795  or 
1796.  He  was  exiled  as  a  regicide  in  1816,  and  died 
in  1817. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Le  Tourneur,  (Pierre.)    See  Tourneur,  Le. 

Letronne,  leh-tRon^  (Jean  Antoine,)  an  eminent 
French  antiquary  and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1787,  was 
remarkable  for  sagacity,  mental  activity,  and  variety  of 
acquirements.  After  returning  from  his  travels  in  Italy 
and  other  countries,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1816.  In  1823  he  published 
a  "Historical  Essay  on  Egypt  during  the  Domination 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans."  He  wrote  able  articles 
for  the  "Biographie  Universelle"  and  "  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes."  He  was  appointed  professor  of  history  in  the 
College  of  France  about  183 1,  and  keeper  of  the  archives 
of  France  in  1840.  Among  his  principal  works  is  "A 
Collection  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Inscriptions  of  Egypt," 
(2  vols.  4to,  1842-48.)  He  proved  that  the  zodiac  of 
Denderah  belonged  to  the  tinfie  of  the  Roman  emperors, 
thus  exploding  the  theory  of  Dupuis.    Died  in  1848. 

See  BuRNOUF  et  Quatrem^re,  "  Discours  prononc^s  aux  Fun^- 
railles  de  Letronne,"  1848;  Walckenaer,  "  Eloge  de  Letronne," 
1850;  Edmond  Garnier,  "  Notice  sur  Letronne  ;"  Alfred  Maury, 
"  Notice  sur  Letronne,"  1849;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Letrosne,  leh-tRon',  (Guillaume  FRANgois,)  a 
French  advocate  and  economist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1728. 
He  published  a  treatise  in  favour  of  free  trade  in  grain, 
and  other  works  on  political  economy.    Died  in  1780. 

Lette,  let'teh,  (Wilhelm  Adolph,)  a  Prussian  econ- 
omist and  liberal  politician,  born  at  Kienitz  in  1799. 
He  was  elected  to  the  legislative  assembly  of  Prussia 
several  times  between  1850  and  1856. 

Lettice,  let'tiss,  (John,)  an  English  poet  and  clergy- 
man, born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1737.  His  poem  on 
the  conversion  of  Saint  Paul  gained  a  prize  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1764.  He  attained  eminence  as  a  pulpit  orator. 
In  1785  he  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Peasemarsh, 
Sussex.  He  was  author  of  "  Fables  for  the  Fireside," 
(1812,)  "Strictures  on  Elocution,"  (1821,)  sermons,  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1832. 

Lett'som,  (John  Coakley,)  an  English  physician, 
born  in  the  West  Indies,  near  Tortola,  about  1744.  His 
parents  were  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He 
studied  in  Edinburgh,  Paris,  and  Leyden,  and  in  1769 


settled  in  London,  where,  through  the  influence  of  Dr. 
Fothergil),  he  obtained  a  large  practice.  He  acquired  an 
extensive  scientific  reputation,  and  was  elected  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1 771.  Besides  several  profes- 
sional treatises,  he  published  "The  Natural  History  of 
the  Tea-Tree,"  (1772,)  the  "Naturalist's  and  Traveller's 
Companion,"  (1774,)  and  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Fothergill," 
(1783.)    Died  in  1815. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  J.  C.  Lettsom,"  by  T.  J.  Pettigkew,  1817; 
Desgenettes,  in  the  "Biographie  Medicale." 

Leu,  loi,  [Fr.  pron.  luh,]  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Swiss 
writer,  born  at  Zurich  in  1689.  His  most  important 
work  is  a  "Universal  Dictionary  of  Switzerland,"  (20 
vols.,  1746-63,)  which  treats  of  the  civil,  religious, 
literary,  and  natural  history  of  that  country.  Died  in 
1768. 

Leuchtenberg,  Duke  of.  See  Beauharnais,  de, 
(Eugene.) 

Leuchtenberg,  de,  deh  loiK'ten-b^Rc/,  (Karl  Au- 
gust Napoleon,)  Princp:,  the  eldest  son  of  Eugene  de 
Beauharnais,  Viceroy  of  Italy,  was  born  at  Milan  in 
1810.  His  mother  was  Augusta  Amelia,  daughter  of  the 
King  of  Bavaria.  He  passed  his  youth  in  Bavaria. 
About  1834  he  was  made  the  first  peer  of  Bavaria  by 
his  uncle,  Louis  I.  He  married  Maria,  Queen  of  Por- 
tugal, in  January,  1835,  and  was  created  Duke  of  Santa 
Cruz,  but  died  before  the  end  of  the  year. 

Leucippe.    See  Leucippu.s. 

Leu-cip^pus,  [Gr.  Aev/ciTTTrof;  Fr.  Leucippe,  luh^s^p',] 
a  famous  Greek  philosopher,  who  is  generally  reputed 
the  author  of  the  atomic  philosophy.  He  was  a  disciple 
of  Zeno  of  Elea.  The  time  and  place  of  his  birth  are 
unknown  ;  but,  as  he  was  the  teacher  of  Democritus,  he 
probably  lived  earlier  than  450  B.C.  Different  accounts 
state  that  he  was  born  at  Elea,  Abdera,  or  Miletus.  His 
works  have  not  come  down  to  us.  His  doctrines  are 
supposed  to  have  been  similar  to  those  of  Democritus. 

See  Ritter,  "History  of  Philosophy ;"  Diogenes  Laertius. 

Leuckfeld,  loik'f^lt,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German 
historian,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1668;  died  in  1726. 

Leu'con,  [Ae^/cwv,]  an  Athenian  poet  of  the  old 
comedy,  was  a  contemporary  and  rival  of  Aristophanes. 

Leu-coth'e-a,  (or  lu-k5'the-a,)  [Gr.  KevKodea;  Fr. 
Leucothee,  lulVko'ti',]  i.e.  "White  Goddess,"  a  name 
given  to  Ino,  which  see. 

Leucothee.    See  Leucothea. 

Leunclavius,  loin-kli've-iis,  (Johann,)  an  excellent 
German  scholar,  whose  proper  name  was  Lowenklau 
or  Loewenklau,  (lo'-^en-klow^,)  was  born  at  Amel- 
bauern,  in  Westphalia,  in  1533.  He  was  well  versed  in 
Greek,  Latin,  and  public  law.  A  large  part  of  his  life  was 
passed  at  the  courts  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy  and  of  other 
princes.  He  published  editions  with  Latin  versions  of 
Xenophon,  (1569,)  Dion  Cassius,  Zosimus,  (1579,)  Pro- 
copius,  and  other  Greek  authors.  Scaliger,  Bayle,  and 
others  praise  him  highly  as  a  translator.  He  wrote  a 
few  original  works,  among  which  was  a  "  History  of 
the  Moslems,"  ("  Musulmanicae  Historiae  Libri  XVIII.," 
1595.)    Died  at  Vienna  in  1593. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron, 
"Memoires;"  M.  Adam,  "Vitas  Philosophorum  Germanorum." 

Leupold,  loi'polt,  (Jakob,)  an  ingenious  Saxon 
mechanician,  born  at  Planitz  in  1674.  He  excelled  in 
the  fabrication  of  mathematical  and  philosophical  instru- 
ments. The  Elector  of  Saxony  appointed  him  a  member 
of  the  Council  of  Mines.  He  published  in  1723-27  an 
important  work  called  "Theatre  of  Machines,"  ("Thea- 
trum  Machinarum,")  which  treats  of  machines,  statics, 
hydrostatics,  mechanical  sciences,  etc.    Died  in  1727. 

See  Tettelbach,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  J.  Leupolds,"  1735. 

Leupoldt,  loi'polt,  (Johann  Michael,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Weissenstadt,  Bavaria,  in  1794.  He 
published  a  number  of  treatises  on  pathology,  physi- 
ology, and  hygiene,  and  a  "  General  History  of  Medi- 
cine," (1825.) 

Leuret,  luh'ri',  (  Francois,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1797.  Having  given  special  attention 
to  mental  maladies,  he  acquired  distinction  by  his  "  Psy- 
chological Fragments  on  Insanity,"  (1834,)  and  other 
works,  among  which  is  one  "  On  the  Moral  Treatment 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lon^;  i,    b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  il,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


LEUSDEN 


1417 


LEVERRIER 


of  Insanity,"  (1840,)  He  became  chief  physician  of  the 
Bicetre  in  Paris.    Died  in  1851. 

See  U.  Trelat,  "Notice  siir  Y.  Leuret,"  1851  ;  Charles  He- 
QUET,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  la  Vie  du  Docteur  Leuret,"  1852. 

Leusden,  lusMen,  [Lat.  Leusdf/nius,]  (Jan,)  a 
Dutch  philologist,  eminent  as  a  Hebrew  scholar,  was 
born  in  1624,  at  Utrecht.  He  studied  the  Oriental  lan- 
guages in  that  city  and  Amsterdam.  In  1649  he  obtained 
the  chair  of  Hebrew  at  Utrecht,  which  he  held  until  his 
death.  He  explained  many  curious  Biblical  questions 
in  three  works,  entitled  "Hebrew  Philologist,"  ("Philo- 
logus  Hebraeus,"  1656,)  "Philologus  HebrEeo-Mixtus," 
(1663,)  and  "  Hebrew-Greek  Philologist,"  ("  Philologus 
Hebraeo-Grfficus,"  1670.)  Among  his  other  works  are 
"Scholia  Syriaca,"  "Compendium  Biblicum,"  (1674,) 
and  a  Greek  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  (1675.) 
Died  in  1699. 

See  NicERO.v,  "Memoires  :"  Burmann,  "Trajectum  Eruditum  ;" 
G.  DE  Vries,  "Oiatio  in  Obitum  J.  Leusdenii,"  1699. 

Leusdenius.    See  Leusden. 

Leutholf.    See  Ludolph,  (Job.) 

Leutinger,  loi'ting-er,  (Nikolaus,)  a  German  his- 
torian, born  in  Brandenburg  in  1547.  He  published 
about  1587  a  "History  of  Brandenburg."    Died  in  1612. 

Leutze,  loit'seh,  (Emanuei.,)  a  distinguished  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Gmiind,  in  Wiirtemberg,  in 
1816.  At  an  early  age  he  accompanied  his  father  to 
Philadelphia,  where  his  talents  attracted  the  notice  of 
Mr.  Carey,  by  whose  assistance  he  was  enabled  to  visit 
Europe.  He  studied  at  Dusseldorf  under  Lessing,  and 
about  1842  produced  his  "Columbus  before  the  Council 
at  Salamanca,"  which  gave  him  a  high  reputation. 
Among  his  pictures,  many  of  which  illustrate  American 
history,  we  may  mention  "The  Landing  of  the  North- 
men," "Washington  Crossing  the  Delaware,"  " John 
Knox  and  Mary  Stuart,"  "  Washington  at  Princeton," 
and  "Columbus  before  the  Queen."  Died  at  Washing- 
ton in  July,  1868. 

See  H.  T.  Tuckerman,  "American  Artist  Life,"  1867,  and 
"Book  of  the  Artists." 

Leuwenhoek,  van,  vSn  luh'wen-hook',  (Antoon,) 
sometimes  written  Leeuwenhoek  or  Leeuwenhoeck, 

a  celebrated  Dutch  naturalist,  born  at  Delft  in  1632. 
He  first  acquired  reputation  by  his  skill  in  the  fabrica- 
tion of  microsco])es.  By  his  successful  use  of  the  micro- 
scope in  researches  into  the  intimate  structure  of  the 
human  system  and  the  composition  of  animal  fluids,  he 
afterwards  obtained  celebrity  as  an  anatomist  and  physi- 
ologist. He  communicated  many  of  his  discoveries  to 
the  Royal  Society  of  London,  of  which  he  was  chosen  a 
Fellow  in  1680.  He  discovered  the  so-called  animalcules 
in  the  spermatic  fluid  in  1677.  About  1690  he  proved 
the  continuity  of  the  arteries  with  the  veins,  and  success- 
fully combated  the  prevalent  hyjiothesis  of  the  fermen- 
tation of  the  blood.  He  described  with  accuracy  the 
structure  of  tlie  lamina  which  compose  the  crystalline 
lens  of  the  eye.  In  1698,  Peter  the  Great,  passing 
through  Delft,  requested  the  favour  of  seeing  Leuwen- 
hoek and  his  microscopes,  which  was  accorded.  Died 
in  1723.  Leuwenhoek's  works  were  printed  in  the 
"Philosophical  Transactions,"  (London.)  Four  vol- 
umes of  his  collected  works  were  published  at  Leyden 
in  1724,  under  the  title  of  "Opera  Omnia." 

See  L  VAN  Haastert,  "A.  van  Leemvenhoeck,  vereerend  Her- 
dacht  in  eene  korte  Levensschets,"  etc.,  1823  ;  Hai.bertsma,  "Dis- 
sertatio  historico-medica  de  A.  Leeuwenhoeckii  Meritis,"  etc.,  1843. 

Leva.    See  Leyva. 

Le  Vacher  de  Chamois.    See  Charnois,  de. 

Le  Vaillant.    See  Vaii.lant,  Le. 

Leval,  leh-vtK,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  general, 
born  in  Paris  in  1761.  As  general  of  division,  he  ob- 
tained success  at  Philipsburg  in  1799.  He  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Jena,  in  1806.   Died  in  1834. 

Levasseur,  leh-vfsUR',  a  French  anatomist,  who 
wrote  about  1540.  "He  appears,"  says  Hallam,  "to 
have  known  the  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the 
lungs,  as  well  as  the  valves  of  the  arteries  and  veins, 
and  their  direction  and  its  purpose, — treading  closely 
on  an  anticipation  of  Harvey." 

Levasseur,  (Jean  Charles,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Abbeville  in  1734.  He  engraved  some  works 
of  Boucher,  Lemoine,  Vanloo,  etc.    Died  about  1810. 


Levasseur  de  la  Sarthe,  leh-vt'suR'  deh  It  stRt, 
(Ren6,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  in  Maine  in  1747,  voted 
in  the  Convention  of  1792  for  the  death  of  the  king,  and 
was  a  violent  enemy  of  the  Girondists.    Died  in  1834. 

See  Achille  Roche,  "Memoires  de  R.  Levasseur,"  2  vols.,  1829, 

Levassor,  leh-vt'soR',  (Michel,)  a  French  historian 
and  priest,  born  at  Orleans.  About  1675  he  became  a 
Protestant,  and  emigrated  to  Holland.  He  afterwards 
removed  to  England,  and  published  a  "  History  of  Eu- 
rope in  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIII.,"  (10  vols.,  1700-IL) 
Voltaire  calls  him  "  un  declamateur  odieux,"  ("  an  odious 
declaimer,")  and  says  he  was  thought  to  be  erroneous  in 
nearly  all  his  judgments.    Died  in  1718. 

Levati,  lit-v^'tee,  (Carlo  Ambrogio,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Biassono  in  1790.  Among  his  works  is 
a  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Illustrious  Women  of  all 
Ages  and  Nations,"  (3  vols.,  1822.)    Died  in  184L 

Levau  or  Leveau,  leh-vo',  (Louis,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  in  16 12.  He  built  the  Hotel  Lambert  and 
Hotel  Colbert,  at  Paris.  He  obtained  the  title  of  first 
architect  to  Louis  XIV.,  by  whose  order  he  added  to  the 
chateau  of  the  Tuileries  the  Pavilions  de  Flore  and  de 
Marsan.    Died  in  1670. 

See  Qu.\TREMfeRE  DE  QuiNCY,  "  Vics  des  plus  illustres  Archi- 
tectes." 

Le  Vayer.    See  Mothe,  La. 

Leven,  Earl  of.    See  Leslie,  (Alexander.) 

Levdque,  li'vfk',  (Pierre,)  an  able  French  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Nantes  in  1746.  To  a  sound  judgment 
he  added  extensive  acquirements  in  various  sciences  and 
languages.  He  published  "  The  Navigator's  Guide," 
(1779,)  which  was  praised  by  Lalande,  and  other  nautical 
works.  He  was  elected  to  the  Institute  in  1801.  Died 
in  1814. 

See  Delambre,  "  ^loge  de  Leveque,"  1816;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Le'ver,  (Sir  Ashton,)  an  English  naturalist,  born 
near  Manchester.  He  formed  a  museum  of  natural  his- 
tory.   Died  in  1788. 

Leaver,  (Charles  James,)  a  popular  Irish  novelist, 
was  born  in  Dublin  in  1806.  He  practised  medicine  a 
few  years,  but  abandoned  that  profession  when  he  be- 
came editor  of  the  "  Dublin  University  Magazine,"  about 
1842.  He  has  written  a  multitude  of  novels,  among 
which  are  "  Harry  Lorrequer,"  "  Charles  O'Malley," 
"The  Knight  of  Gwynne,"  (1854,)  "The  Daltons,"  and 
"  Davenport  Dunn,"  (1859.)  After  1845  he  resided  for 
many  years  at  Florence.  In  1858  he  was  appointed 
vice-consul  at  Spezzia,  and  transferred  to  Trieste  in  1867. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1862  ;  "  Eraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  September,  1840,  and  October,  1842. 

Lever,  (Thomas,)  an  eloquent  English  divine,  born 
in  Lancashire.  He  was  ordained  a  Protestant  minister 
in  1550.  On  the  accession  of  Mary  (1553)  he  retired  to 
the  continent.  He  afterwards  dissented  from  the  Angli- 
can Church,  from  a  partiality  to  Calvinism.  He  ])ub- 
lished  sermons,  and  other  religious  works.  Died  in  1577. 

Lev'e-rett,  (Frederick  Percival,)  an  American 
scholar,  born  at  Boston  in  1803.  He  published  a  "  Lexi- 
con of  the  Latin  Language,"  an  edition  of  Caesar's  "  Com- 
mentaries," and  other  educational  works.    Died  in  1836. 

Leverett,  (Sir  John,)  born  in  England  in  t6i6, 
emigrated  to  America,  where  he  was  elected  in  1673 
Governor  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  made  a  baronet 
by  Charles  II.    Died  in  1679. 

Leverett,  (John,)  grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Boston  in  1662,  became  president  of  Harvard  University 
in  1708.  He  was  a  distinguished  jurist  and  scholar,  and 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.    Died  in  1724. 

Lev'e-ridge,  (Richard,)  an  English  singer,  song- 
writer, and  musical  composer,  was  born  about  1670.  He 
published  two  volumes  of  his  own  songs,  and  composed 
the  music  for  many  of  Purcell's  songs.    Died  in  1758. 

Leverrier  or  Le  Verrier,  leh  vi're-a',  (Urbain 
Jean  Joseph,)  an  eminent  French  astronomer,  born  at 
Saint-L6  (La  Manche)  in  March,  1811.  He  entered  the 
Polytechnic  School  about  1830,  and  after  leaving  it  de- 
voted himself  with  success  to  chemistry  and  mathematics. 
He  became  a  tutor  ( repetiteiir)  in  the  Polytechnic  School, 
and  in  1839  wrote  two  treatises  on  astronomy,  which  pro- 
cured for  him  the  friendship  of  Arago.   In  January,  1846, 


«  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


\ 


LE  VERT  1418  LEWIS 


he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Before  that  date  he  had  undertaken  to  rectify  the  tables 
of  Uranus,  the  orbit  of  which  was  subject  to  perturba- 
tions from  an  unknown  cause.  Conjecturing  this  cause 
to  be  a  planet,  he  calculated  its  orbit,  mass,  and  position, 
and  announced  the  results  in  a  memoir  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  June,  1846.  The  planet  was  observed  by 
telescope  near  the  place  indicated,  by  Galle,  of  Berlin,  in 
September  of  that  year,  and  received  the  name  of  Nep- 
tune. Leverrier  acquired  a  just  celebrity  by  this  great 
discovery,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  astronomy  in 
the  Faculty  of  Sciences,  Paris.  In  1849  he  was  elected 
to  the  Legislative  Assembly.  Having  supported  Louis 
Napoleon's  policy,  he  was  chosen  a  senator  in  1852.  He 
succeeded  Arago  in  1853  as  astronomer  to  the  bureau 
of  longitudes  and  director  of  the  Imperial  Observatory. 
He  has  published,  besides  other  works,  "Annales  de 
rObservatoire  de  Paris,"  (1856.)  About  i860  he  pre- 
sented to  the  Institute  an  interesting  memoir  on  Mer- 
cury. He  observed  a  movement  of  the  perihelion  of  that 
planet  which  suggested  the  existence  of  a  small  planet 
between  Mercury  and  the  sun.  In  1870  he  was  removed 
from  the  position  of  director  of  the  Observatory. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "  Biographic  des  Membres 
du  Senat,"  1852. 

Le  Vert,  leh  vert,  (Octavia  Walton,)  an  American 
writer,  born  in  Georgia  about  1820.  She  has  published 
"Souvenirs  of  Travel,"  (1857,)  and  made  various  con- 
tributions to  English  and  American  periodicals. 

Levesque,  li^vSk',  (Pierre  Charles,)  a  French  his- 
torian and  translator,  born  in  Paris  in  1736.  He  became 
professor  of  belles-lettres  in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1773. 
In  1780  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  published  his  "His- 
tory of  Russia,"  ("  Histoire  de  Russie,"  6  vols.,  1782,) 
which  is  esteemed  a  classic  work.  He  afterwards  was 
chosen  a  professor  in  the  Royal  College  and  a  mem])er 
of  the  Institute.  In  1795  he  produced  a  successful  trans- 
lation of  Thucydides.  He  wrote  other  historical  works, 
and  translated  some  of  the  writings  of  Plutarch  and 
Xenophon.    Died  in  1812. 

See  Dacier,  "  filoare  de  Levesque;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale  ;"  "  Monthly  Review,"  vol.  liv.,  1807  et  seq.,  (Appendix.) 

Leve.sque  de  Burigny.    See  Burigny,  de. 

Levesque  de  la  Ravaliere,  li'vik'  deh  IS  rS'vt'- 
le-aiR',  (Pierre  Alexandre,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Troyes  in  1697.  He  was  chiefly  known  by  his  edition 
of  the  poems  of  Thibault  de  Champagne,  King  of  Na- 
varre, (1742,)  which  was  accompanied  by  an  "Essay  on 
the  Revolutions  of  the  French  Language  from  Charle- 
magne to  Saint  Louis,"    Died  in  1762. 

Levesque  de  Pouilly,  li'vSk'  deh  poo^ye',  (Louis 
Jean,)  a  French  litterateicr,  born  at  Rheims  in  1691.  He 
was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscri])tions  in  1722. 
He  corresponded  with  Fontenelle,  Voltaire,  and  Lord 
Bolingbroke.  His  principal  work  is  the  "Theory  re- 
specting the  Agreeable  Sentiments,"  ("  Theorie  des 
Sentiments  agreables,"  1747,)  revised  and  enlarged  in 
1749.    Died  in  1750. 

His  son,  Jean  Simon,  (i 734-1820,)  wrote  a  "Life 
of  Chancellor  L'Hopital,"  (1764,)  and  a  work  called 
"Theory  of  the  Imagination,"  ( 1803.) 

Le'vi,  [Heb.  ""h  ;  Gr.  Am,]  a  Hebrew  patriarch,  a 
son  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  was  born  in  Mesopotamia  about 
1750  ILC.  He  died  in  Egypt,  aged  one  hundred  and 
thirty-seven,  leaving  three  sons,  one  of  whom  was  the 
grandfather  of  Moses. 

See  Genesis  xxix.,  xxxiv.,  xlix.,  and  Exodus  vi.  16. 

Levi,  (David,)  a  learned  Jew,  born  in  London  in  1740. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Lingua  Sacra,  or  a 
Grammar  and  Dictionary  of  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and 
Talmudic  Dialects,"  (3  vols.,  1789.)    Died  in  1799. 

Levi,  la'vee,  (Leone,)  a  writer  on  commerce  and 
commercial  law,  born  at  Ancona  in  1821.  He  became 
professor  of  commercial  law  in  King's  College,  London. 
Among  his  works  is  an  important  treatise  on  "  The  Com- 
mercial Law  of  Great  Britain,"  (4  vols.,  1850-52.) 

Levieil,  leh-ve-M',  (Pierre,)  a  French  painter  on 
glass,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1708.  He  restored  the 
painted  windows  of  Notre-Dame,  and  wrote  a  com- 
plete technical  "  Treatise  on  Painting  on  Glass."  Died 
in  1772. 


Levieux,  leh-ve-uh',  (Renaud,)  a  French  painter  of 
history,  born  at  Nisnies  about  1630.  By  correctness  of 
design  and  brilliancy  of  colour  he  merited  a  place 
among  artists  of  the  second  order. 

Lev'ing-ston,  (Tames,)  Earl  of  Callendar,  a  Scottish 
officer,  fought  for  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war.  Died  in 
1672. 

Levis,  de,  deh  li've'  or  hVv^ss',  (Francois,)  Due, 
marshal  of  France,  was  born  in  Languedoc  in  1720.  He 
succeeded  Montcalm,  who  was  killed  at  Quebec  in  1759, 
and  took  up  his  winter-quarters  at  Montreal.  He  de- 
fended Canada  several  months  ;  but  he  was  forced  by 
want  of  stores  to  cajDitulate  to  the  English  about  1760. 
He  was  made  a  marshal  in  1783.    Died  in  1787. 

Levis,  de,  (Pierre  Marc  Gaston,)  Due,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  about  1760.  In  1789  he  was  de- 
puted to  the  Constituent  Assembly,  in  which  he  favoured 
moderate  reform.s.  He  emigrated  in  1792  to  England, 
and  returned  in  1800.  He  acquired  literary  distinction 
by  his  "Maxims  and  Reflections"  (1808)  and  "Souve- 
nirs and  Portraits,"  (1813,)  and  wrote  several  other 
works.  In  1816  he  became  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  and  of  the  privy  council.    Died  in  1830. 

See  Le  Bas,  "  Dictionnaire  encydopedique  de  la  France." 

Levita.    See  Eltas  Levita. 

Levitschnigg,  la'vit-shnik^  (HEiNRieH,)  a  popular 
Austrian  poet,  born  at  Vienna  in  1810,  is  the  author  of 
a  number  of  lyric  and  romantic  poems. 

Levizac,  de,  deh  leh-ve'ztk',  (Jean  Pons  Viotor 
Lecout/.,)  Abb6,  a  French  grammarian,  born  in  Langue- 
doc. Having  been  driven  into  exile  by  the  Revolution, 
he  emigrated  to  London,  where  he  taught  French.  He 
published  in  1797  a  "Grammar  of  the  French  Lan- 
guage," which  was  extensively  used  by  persons  to  whom 
the  F'rench  is  a  foreign  tongue.  He  wrote  other  educa- 
tional works.    Died  in  1813. 

Levret,  leh-vRa',  (Andr^:,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  in 
Paris  in  1703,  had  a  high  reputation  for  skill  in  accouche- 
ments.  He  was  called  to  court  to  attend  the  dau])hiness, 
mother  of  Louis  XVI.  He  wrote  excellent  works  on 
obstetrics,  among  which  is  "The  Accoucheur's  Art 
demonstrated  by  Physical  and  Mechanical  Principles," 
("L'Art  des  Accouchements  demontre  par  des  Principes 
de  Physique  et  Mecanique,"  1753.)    Died  in  1780. 

Lewald,  la'\^§,lt,  (Fanny,)  a  popular  authoress,  and 
a  relative  of  the  writer  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Konigsberg  in  i8ir.  Her  principal  works  are  novels, 
tales,  and  sketches  of  travel.  She  was  married  to  Adolf 
Stahr,  the  author,  about  1854. 

Lewald,  (Johann  Karl  August,)  a  German  littera- 
teur, born  at  Konigsberg  in  1792.  He  produced  a  number 
of  dramatic  works,  novels,  and  tales,  and  in  1835  founded 
a  journal  entitled  "  Europe,  or  Chronicle  of  the  Educated 
World." 

See  "Aquarelle  aus  dem  Leben,"  4  vols.,  1837. 

Lewenhaupt.    See  Lowenhaupt. 

Lewes,  lu'iss,  (George  Henry,)  a  popular  English 
author,  distinguished  for  his  learning  and  versatility,  was 
born  in  London  in  1817.  He  studied  medicine,  but  soon 
exchanged  that  profession  for  literature,  in  which  his 
labours  have  been  very  abundant  and  diversified.  He 
contributed  many  literary,  historical,  scientific,  and  phi- 
losophical essays  to  the  "  Edinburgh,"  "  Westminster," 
and  other  quarterly  reviews.  He  also  wrote  articles  for 
Blackwood's  and  Eraser's  Magazines  and  the  "  Penny 
Cyclopaedia."  Among  his  principal  separate  works  we 
may  mention  "Biographical  History  of  Philosophy," 
(1845,)  "  Rose,  Blanche,  and  Violet,"  a  novel,  (1848,) 
"Comte's  Philosophy  of  the  Sciences,"  (1853,)  "The 
Life  and  Works  of  Goethe,"  (1855,)  which  is  one  of 
his  most  popular  productions,  and  "  Sea-Side  Studies," 
(1858.)  He  is  the  author  of  a  successful  tragedy,  "The 
Noble  Heart,"  (1850,)  and  of  other  dramas.  In  1865 
he  became  for  a  short  time  the  chief  editor  of  the 
"  Fortnightly  Review." 

See  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and  October,  1864. 

Lewis  or  Ludwig,  lood'<^iG,  (Karl  August,)  I.,  King 
of  Bavaria,  born  in  August,  1786,  was  the  son  of  King 
Maximilian  Joseph.  He  married  in  1810  the  princess 
Therese  of  Saxe-Hildburghausen.  Before  his  accession  he 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  d,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LEWIS 


1419 


LEWIS 


built  the  Glyptothek,  a  splendid  museum  for  the  master- 
pieces of  sculpture.  He  became  king  in  1825,  and  made 
economical  reforms  in  the  government.  His  reign  is 
remarkable  for  the  great  impulse  given  by  his  liberality 
and  taste  to  the  fine  arts,  especially  architecture.  He 
assembled  in  his  capital  many  scholars  and  artists,  and 
adorned  Munich  with  numerous  fine  edifices,  among 
which  are  the  Odeon,  the  Pinakothek,  the  royal  palace, 
university,  and  several  churches.  He  built  the  famous 
Walhalla  at  Ratisbon,  (Regensburg,)  and  made  a  canal 
which  bears  his  name.  In  1829  he  published  a  collection 
of  poems.  The  latter  part  of  his  reign  did  not  correspond 
with  the  beginning.  He  excited  disaffection  by  restf)ring 
convents  and  restricting  the  political  and  religious  liber- 
ties of  his  subjects.  The  influence  of  Lola  Montez  over 
the  king  was  another  cause  of  offence.  Stimulated  by 
the  revolution  in  France,  (1848,)  the  Bavarians  revolted, 
demanding  reforms,  in  consequence  of  which  he  abdi- 
cated in  March,  1848,  in  favour  of  his  son,  Maximilian 
n.  Otho,  ex-King  of  Greece,  is  his  second  son.  Died 
at  Nice  in  February,  1868. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lewis,  (Kings  of  France.)    See  Louis. 

Lew'is  or  Louis,  loo'is,  [Ger.  Ludvvig,  lood'<^iG; 
Lat.  LuDOVi'cus,]  L,  King  of  Germany,  styled  le  Ger- 
MANIQUE,  (or  German'icus,)  the  third  son  of  Louis  le 
Debonnaire,  was  born  in  806,  and  became  King  of  Ba- 
varia in  817  A.D.,  when  his  father  divided  his  dominions 
among  his  three  sons.  Having  revolted  against  his 
father,  he  seized  Saxony,  and  assumed  the  title  of  King 
of  Germany.  In  alliance  with  Charles  the  Bald,  he 
defeated  his  brother,  Lothaire  I.,  at  Fontenoy  in  841. 
He  died  in  876  A.D.,  leaving  three  sons,  Carloman, 
Lewis,  and  Charles. 

See  H.  LuDEN,  "Geschichte  des  Deutschen  Volkes,"  12  vols., 
1825-37  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Lewis  (Ludwig)  IL  or  III.  of  Germany  was  the 
second  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded  in  876. 
The  same  year  he  defeated  his  uncle,  Charles  the  Bald, 
who  had  invaded  his  kingdom.  He  died  at  Frankfort 
in  882,  while  waging  war  with  the  Normans. 

Lewis  (Ludwig)  IIL  or  IV,,  called  the  Lnfant, 
(das  Kind,)  born  in  893  a.d.,  was  the  son  of  the 
emperor  Arnulph,  and  became  King  of  Germany  in 
900.  He  died  in  912,  and  was  the  last  prince  of  the 
race  of  Charlemagne  in  Germany. 

Lewis  IV.  or  v.,  Ein|)eror  of  Germany,  born  in  1286, 
was  the  son  of  Lewis,  Duke  of  l^avaria,  and  Matilda, 
who  was  a  daughter  of  the  emperor  Rudolph  of  Haps- 
burg.  After  the  death  of  Henry  VII.  (1314)  Lewis 
and  his  cousin,  Frederick  of  Austria,  were  rival  candi- 
dates for  the  throne,  and  both  claimed  to  have  been 
elected.  A  long  civil  war  was  the  result,  in  which  the 
Ghibelines  fought  for  Lewis  and  the  Guelphs  for  Frede- 
rick, who  was  taken  prisoner  in  1322.  Lewis  released 
him  after  he  had  signed  an  act  of  renunciation  of  the 
empire,  and  was  crowned  at  Rome  in  1328.  About 
this  time  he  was  excommunicated  by  Pope  John  XXII., 
against  whom  he  retorted  the  charge  of  heresy.  In  1346 
Clement  VI.  issued  a  bull  agairi.-,t  Lewis,  and  attempted 
to  transfer  the  crown  to  Charles  IV. ;  but  Lewis  defended 
himself  until  his  death,  in  1347. 

See  Conrad  Mannert,  "Kaiser  Ludwig  IV.,"  1812;  N.  KuR- 
GUNDUS,  "  Historia  Bavarica,  sive  Ludovicus  IV.,"  etc.,  1636;  J. 
ScHLETT,  "  Hiographie  von  Kaiser  Ludwig  dem  Bayer,"  1822  ;  KoT- 
ZEBUE,  "Geschichte  Kaiser  Ludwigs  IV.,"  1812. 

Lewis  I.,  surnamed  the  Great,  King  of  Hungary 
and  Poland,  born  in  1326,  was  the  son  of  Charobert, 
whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne  of  Hungary  in  1342. 
He  waged  successful  wars  against  the  Venetians  and 
against  Joan,  Queen  of  Naples.  After  the  death  of  his 
uncle  Casimir,  in  1370,  he  was  elected  King  of  Poland. 
He  died  in  1382,  leaving  three  daughters,  one  of  whom 
was  married  to  Sigismund,  Emperor  of  Germany.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  a  just  and  wise  ruler. 

See  BoNFiNius,  "  De  Rebus  Hungaricis;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Lewis  II.  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  was  born  in 
1506,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Ladislaus  VI.,  in  1516. 
Owing  to  his  youth  and  the  factious  conduct  of  the 
nobles,  his  power  was  only  nominal.    In  1521  he  mar- 


ried Mary,  a  sister  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  His 
kingdom  was  invaded  by  the  Turks,  and  his  army  com- 
pletely defeated  at  Mohacs,  where  Lewis  was  killed  in 
1526.  He  left  no  issue,  and  Ferdinand  I.  of  Austria 
became  master  of  Hungary. 

Lewis,  (Kings  of  Italy  and  Spain.)    See  Louts. 

Lewis  [  Sp.  Luis,  loo-^ss'J  I.  of  Spain,  the  eldest  son 
of  Philip  v.,  was  born  in  1707.  Philip  V.,  having  fallen 
into  a  melancholy  mood,  retired  to  the  solitude  of  Saint 
Ildefonso,  and  resigned  the  crown  to  Lewis,  who  was 
proclaimed  in  January,  1724.  A  few  months  after  his 
accession  he  died  of  smallpox,  and  Philip  V.  resumed 
the  cares  of  royalty. 

Lewis  [Ger.  Ludwig,  lood'\^iG]  I.,  Grand  Duke  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  born  in  1753,  succeeded  his  father  in 
1790.  He  joined  the  alliance  against  Napoleon  in  18 13. 
Died  in  1830. 

See  Steiner,  "Ludwig  I.  von  Hessen-Dannstadt,"  1S42. 

Lewis  (Ludwig)  II.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1777,  and  became  grand  duke  in  1830.    Died  in  1848. 

Lewis,  (Ludwig,)  Prince  of  Prussia,  often  called 
Ludwig  Ferdinand,  was  a  nephew  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  and  was  born  in  1772.  He  was  a  son  of  Prince 
August  Ferdinand.  He  served  in  the  campaign  against 
the  French  in  1792.  In  1806  he  was  the  head  of  the 
war-party  which  urged  the  king  into  a  disastrous  contest 
with  Bonaparte.  Having  obtained  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
ant-general, he  engaged  a  superior  force  under  Lannes 
at  Saalfeld,  October  10,  1806,  when  he  was  defeated  and 
killed,  preferring  to  die  rather  than  to  surrender. 

Lew'is,  (Andrew,)  born  in  Ireland  about  1730,  emi- 
grated to  Virginia,  and  served  with  distinction  in  the 
war  of  the  Revolution,  being  made  brigadier-general 
about  1775.  His  statue  occupies  a  place  near  Washing- 
ton's Monument  at  Richmond.  Died  in  1780.  His  three 
brothers,  Thomas,  William,  and  Charles,  were  also 
noted  as  patriots  and  soldiers. 

Lewis,  (Dixon  Hall,)  a  Senator  and  lawyer,  born 
in  Hancock  county,  Georgia,  in  1802,  removed  to  Ala- 
bama. He  was  a  Democratic  member  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  from  1830  to  1844,  and  became  a  United 
States  Senator  in  the  latter  year.    Died  in  1848. 

Lewis,  (Edmonia,)  an  American  sculptor,  of  negro 
and  Indian  extraction,  born  near  Albany,  New  York, 
about  1845.  Among  her  works  are  "The  Freedwoman 
on  first  hearing  of  her  Liberty,"  and  a  bust  of  Colonel 
Shaw. 

Sec  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Lewis,  (Ellis,)  LL.D.,  an  able  American  jurist,  born 
in  York  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1798.  He  rose  through 
various  offices  to  be  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1854.    Died  in  1871. 

Lewis,  (Enoch,)  a  distinguished  American  mathema- 
tician, born  in  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1776. 
He  became  teacher  of  mathematics  in  the  Friends'  Acad- 
emy, Piiiladeliihia,  in  1799,  and  subsequently  at  the  West- 
town  Boarding-School,  established  by  the  Society  of 
Friends.  He  was  the  author  of  treatises  on  algebra, 
trigonometry,  etc.,  a  "  Life  of  William  Penn,"  and  other 
valuable  works.  In  1847  became  editor  of  the 
"Friends'  Review,"  Philadelphia.    Died  in  1856. 

Lewis,  (Estelle  Anna  Rokinson,)  an  American 
poetess,  born  in  Maryland  about  1825,  has  published 
"Records  of  the  Heart,"  (1844,)  ^^^^  "Myths  of  the 
Minstrel,"  etc.,  (1852,)  and  has  been  a  contributor  to 
the  "  Democratic  Review"  and  other  periodicals. 

See  Griswold,  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

Lewis,  (Francis,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  American  Independence,  born  in  Wales  in  1713, 
emigrated  to  New  York  in  1735.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Continental  Congress  in  1775.    Died  in  1803. 

Lew'is,  (Sir  George  Cornewall,)  Bart.,  an  eminent 
English  statesman  and  author,  born  in  London  in  Octo- 
htr,  1806,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Frankland 
Lewis.  He  graduated  with  high  honours  in  the  classics 
at  Oxford,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1831,  but  never 
practised  law.  In  1844  he  married  a  sister  of  the  Earl 
of  Clarendon.  In  1847  he  was  elected  by  the  Liberal 
party  member  of  Parliament  for  Herefordshire,  and  was 
appointed  secretary  to  the  board  of  control.  He  became 
under-secretary  for  the  home  department  in  1848,  and 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  v., guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (2!:^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LEWIS 


1420 


LETDEN 


secretary  of  the  treasury  in  1850.  He  resigned  this  office 
when  Lord  John  Russell  ceased  to  be  premier,  in  March, 
1852.  In  this  year  he  published  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Method  of  Observing  and  Reasoning  in  Politics."  He 
because  editor  of  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  in  1854,  but 
retired  from  that  post  in  the  early  part  of  the  next  year. 
From  February,  1855,  until  February,  1858,  he  was 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  Palmerston's  cabinet. 
On  the  formation  of  a  new  Liberal  ministry  under  Pal- 
merston,  in  June,  1859,  Sir  George  was  appointed  home 
secretar3^  He  succeeded  Lord  Herbert  as  secretary  of 
war  in  July,  1861.  He  wrote  several  able  political  and 
philosophical  works,  among  which  is  an  "  Inquiry  into 
the  Credibility  of  Early  Roman  History,"  and,  with 
the  Riglit  Hon.  H.  Tufnel,  made  a  translation  of  K.  O. 
Miiller's  "Die  Dorier,"  ("The  Dorians,"  2  vols.,  1830.) 
Died  in  1863. 

See  article  entitled  "Lewis  on  Early  Roman  History,"  in  the 
"  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1856  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  Feb- 
ruary, 1848. 

Lewis,  (John,)  an  English  theologian  and  antiquary, 
born  at  Bristol  in  1675.  He  became  curate  of  Margate 
and  rector  of  Saltwood  and  Eastbridge.  Besides  many 
works  on  theology,  he  published  a  "  Plistory  of  John 
Wickliff,"  (1720,)  and  a  "Life  of  Caxton,"  (1737.)  Died 
in  1746. 

Lewis,  (John  Frederick,)  an  excellent  English 
painter,  born  in  London  in  1805,  received  instruction 
from  his  father,  F.  C.  Lewis,  a  landscape-painter.  After 
a  visit  to  Spain,  he  produced  about  1835  several  admired 
pictures  in  water-colours  of  Spanish  scenes,  among  which 
was  a  "Bull-Fight  in  Seville."  Between  1840  and  1850 
he  worked  and  travelled  in  Egypt,  Asia  Minor,  and  other 
parts  of  the  Levant.  After  his  return  he  increased  his 
reputation  by  excellent  and  finely-finished  pictures  of 
"The  Harem,"  (1850,)  "An  Arab  Scribe,"  and  "Mount 
Sinai."  Pie  was  elected  president  of  the  Society  of 
Painters  in  Water-Colours  in  1855,  and  became  an  asso- 
ciate of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1859. 

Lewia,  (Lady  Maria  Theresa,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  in  1803,  was  a  sister  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon.  She 
was  married  to  Thomas  Henry  Lister  in  1830,  and  to 
Sir  George  Cornevvall  Lewis  in  1844.  She  wrote  novels 
entitled  "The  Semi-Detached  House"  and  "The  Semi- 
Attached  Couple."    Died  in  1865. 

Lewis,  (Matthew  Gregory,)  a  successful  English 
novelist  and  dramatist,  often  called  Monk  Lewis,  was 
born  in  London  in  1775.  He  inherited  from  his  father 
an  ample  fortune,  which  consisted  partly  in  an  estate 
and  slaves  in  Jamaica.  About  the  age  of  twenty  he 
produced  "  The  Monk,"  a  novel  which,  by  an  artful  com- 
bination of  mysterious  horrors  and  voluptuous  images, 
obtained  a  large  circulation,  but  was  stigmatized  as  per- 
nicious by  the  stricter  moralists.  He  composed  several 
successful  dramas,  among  which  were  "  The  Castle 
Spectre,"  "  Adelgitha,"  a  tragedy,  and  "  Timour  the 
Tartar,"  (1812.)  He  also  wrote  other  romances  and  a 
few  poetical  pieces.  He  died  at  sea,  on  a  voyage  from 
Jamaica  to  England,  in  1818. 

See  "Life  and  Correspondence  of  M.  G.  Lewis,"  London,  1839; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1803,  (by  Sydney  Smith.) 

Lewis,  (  Meriwether,  )  an  enterprising  American 
traveller,  born  in  Virginia  in  1774.  He  became  private 
secretary  to  President  Jefferson  about  1801,  and  was 
soon  after  employed  by  the  United  States  government, 
conjointly  with  Captain  Clarke,  to  explore  the  northwest 
part  of  the  American  continent.  They  gave  the  names 
of  Jefferson,  Gallatin,  and  Madison  to  the  three  streams 
which  form  the  Missouri.  They  also  explored  the  Co- 
lumbia River  to  its  mouth.  After  his  return,  in  1806, 
Captain  Lewis  was  made  Governor  of  Missouri  Territory. 
He  committed  suicide  in  1809,  in  a  fit  of  temporary  in- 
sanity. One  of  the  ]3rincipal  affluents  of  the  Columbia 
River  was  named  in  his  honour.  A  "  Memoir"  of  Cap- 
tain Lewis  was  written  by  Jefferson. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1815  ;  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  February,  1815;  "Monthly  Review"  for  July,  August, 
and  September,  1815. 

Lewis,  (Morgan,)  an  American  general  and  Gov- 
ernor, born  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1754,  was  a  son 
of  Francis,  noticed  above.    He  served  with  distinction 


in  the  Revolutionary  war,  at  the  end  of  which  he  had 
the  rank  of  colonel.  In  1801  he  became  chief  justice 
of  the  supreme  court  of  New  York.  He  was  Governor 
of  that  State  from  1805  to  1807,  and  commanded  the 
forces  in  New  York  in  1814,  with  the  rank  of  major- 
general.    Died  in  1844. 

See  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

Lewis,  (Samuel,)  an  American  philanthropist,  born 
at  Falmouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1799,  settled  in  Ohio, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in  promoting 
education  and  other  reforms.    Died  in  1854. 

Lewis,  (Tayler.)  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  American 
scholar  and  author,  born  in  Saratoga  county.  New  York, 
in  1802,  became  professor  of  Greek  in  Union  College 
in  1849.  He  has  written  several  critical  and  theological 
works,  evincing  much  learning  and  ability. 

See  Allibone,  "  DIciionai-y  of  Authors." 

Lewis,  (William,)  an  English  chemist  and  physician, 
who  practised  at  Kingston,  Surrey.  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  was  employed  to  read  lectures 
on  chemistry  to  the  Prince  of  Wales  at  Kew.  He  pub- 
lished "  An  Experimental  History  of  the  Materia  Medica," 
(1760,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1781. 

Ley  or  Leigh,  lee,  (Sir  James,)  an  English  lawyer, 
born  in  Wiltshire  in  1552.  He  was  appointed  chief 
justice  of  the  court  of  king's  bench  in  1621,  and  lord 
high  treasurer  in  1625.  He  was  afterwards  created  Earl 
of  Marlborough.  Died  in  1628.  His  "Reports  of 
Cases  in  the  Courts  of  Westminster"  were  published. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Ley,  (John,)  an  English  controversial  writer,  born  at 
Warwick  in  1583.  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  Parliament 
in  the  civil  war.    Died  in  1662. 

Leyba,  de,  di  la^-KS,  (  Francisco,  )  a  Spanish 
dramatic  poet  of  the  seventeenth  century.  His  works 
are  highly  commended. 

Leybourn,  la'burn,  ?  (William,)  an  English  mathe- 
matician, who  was  in  his  youth  a  printer  in  London. 
He  edited  the  works  of  Gunter„_and  published,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Complete  Siu'veyor,"  "Mathematical 
Course,"  ("Cursus  Mathematicus,"  1690,)  and  "The 
Trader's  Guide,"  (1693.)    He  died  about  1690. 

Leydecker,  ll'd^k^er,  (Melchior,)  a  learned  Dutch 
Calvinist  theologian,  born  at  Middelburg  in  1642.  He 
became  professo-r  of  theology  at  Utrecht  in  1678,  and 
published  (in  Latin)  several  esteemed  works,  among 
which  are  a  "History  of  the  African  Church,"  (1690,) 
"On  the  Hebrew  Republic,"  (1704,)  and  a  treatise 
against  the  philosophy  of  Descartes,  called  "The  Torch 
of  Truth,"  ("Fax  Veritatis.")    Died  in  1721. 

Leyden,  li'den,  (John,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  poet  and 
antiquary,  eminent  as  an  Oriental  scholar,  was  born  at 
Denholm,  on  the  Teviot,  in  1775.  At  a  college  of  Edin- 
burgh he  studied  the  principal  ancient  and  modern 
languages.  He  afterwards  studied  medicine,  and  in 
1802  went  to  Madras  as  an  assistant  surgeon  in  the 
service  of  the  East  India  Company.  There  he  learned 
Sanscrit,  Persian,  Hindostanee,  and  other  Asiatic  lan- 
guages. About  1806  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Hindostanee  at  Calcutta.  He  became  assay-master  of 
the  Calcutta  Mint  in  1810.  He  contributed  to  Scott's 
"  Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border,"  wrote  other  poetical 
pieces,  and  published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Languages  and 
Literature  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Nations."  Died  in  Java 
in  1811. 

See  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "Essay  on  the  Life  of  Leyden,"  in 
Scott's  Miscellaneous  Works;  and  a  Memoir  by  Morton  pre- 
fixed to  the  "  Poems  of  Leyden,"  1819;  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  July, 
1822. 

Leyden,  (John  of.)    See  John  of  Leyden. 

Leyden,  van,  vtn  li'den,  (Lucas,)  [Fr.  Lucas  de 
Leyde,  lii'kJs'  deh  l^d,]  or  Lucas  Danimesz,  a  cele- 
brated Dutch  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Leyden  in 
1494.  He  received  his  first  lessons  in  design  from  his 
father,  Hugh  Jacobs  or  Jacobze,  and  at  the  age  of  twelve 
painted  in  distemper  a  picture  of  Saint  Hubert,  which 
was  greatly  admired.  He  painted,  with  equal  success, 
landscapes  and  portraits.  As  an  engraver  he  excelled 
in  aerial  perspective  and  chiaroscuro,  and,  according  to 


I,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LETNEZ 


VHOPITAL 


Vasari,  surpassed  Albert  Diirer  in  composition.  "  As  a 
painter,"  says  the  "Biographie  Universelle,"  "he  passes 
for  the  greatest  artist  of  the  Flemish  school  in  his  time." 
Among^  his  master-pieces  are  a  painting  of  the  "Last 
Judgment,"  an  "  Ecce  Homo,"  dated  1510,  an  engraving 
of  "  Mary  Magdalene  Dancing,"  and  another  called  "  Eu- 
lenspiegel,"  of  which,  it  is  said,  only  five  or  six  proofs 
are  extant.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Albert  Diirer. 
Died  in  1533. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  Descamps,  "Viesdes 
Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Leynez.    See  Lainez. 

Leys,  lis  or  li,  (Jean  Auguste  Henri,)  an  eminent 
Belgian  historical  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1815.  He 
obtained  one  of  the  grand  medals  at  the  Exposition  of 
Taris  in  1855,  when  he  exhibited  "The  New  Year  in 
Flanders,"  and  other  pictures. 

Leyser,  von,  fon  li'zer,  (Augustin,)  an  eminent 
German  jurist,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1683.  He  pub- 
lished many  legal  works,  the  most  important  of  which 
is  "Thoughts  on  the  Pandects,"  ("  Meditationes  ad  Pan- 
dectas,"  11  vols.,  1717-47.)    Died  in  1752. 

Leyser,  von,  written  also  Lyser,  [Lat.  Lyse'rus,] 
(PoLYCARP,)  a  German  Lutheran  divine,  was  born  in 
Wiirtemberg  in  1552.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
theology  at  Wittenberg  in  1576.  From  1594  until  his 
death  he  w^as  the  first  preacher  at  the  court  of  Dresden. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  continuation  of 
Chemnitz's  "Harmonia  Evangelica."    Died  in  1610. 

Leyssens,  ITs'sens,  (Nicolaas,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  about  1660,  worked  with  success  in  his 
native  city.    Died  in  1720. 

Leyva,  de,  di  la^-vS,  or  Leva,  la'vS,  (Antonio,) 
one  of  the  ablest  generals  of  the  emperor  Charles  V., 
was  born  in  Navarre  about  1480.  He  fought  at  Ravenna 
in  15 12,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Rebec  in  1524. 
He  commanded  in  Pavi'a  when  it  was  besieged  by  Francis 
I.  His  obstinate  defence  occasioned  the  battle  of  Pavi'a, 
(1525,)  during  which  he  made  a  sortie,  and,  falling  upon 
the  rear  of  the  French,  decided  the  fate  of  the  day.  In 
1532  he  was  chosen  generalissimo  of  the  Italian  league 
against  Francis  I.  He  accompanied  Charles  V.  in  his 
expedition  against  Tunis  in  1535,  and  had  the  chief 
direction  of  the  army  which  invaded  Provence  in  1536. 
He  died  of  an  epidemic  in  the  same  year. 

See  Robertson,  "  History  of  Charles  V." 

Leyva,  de,  (Jago,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  about 
1580.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  worked  at  Burgos. 
Died  in  1637. 

Lezardiere,  de,  deh  li^ztR^de-aiR',  (Marie  Char- 
lotte Pauline  Robert,)  a  French  female  publicist, 
born  in  La  Vendee  in  1754.  She  produced  in  1791  a 
work  of  some  merit,  entitled  "Theory  of  the  Political 
Laws  of  the  French  Monarchy,"  re-printed  in  4  vols., 
1844.    Died  in  1835. 

Lezay-Marnesia,  de,  deh  leh-za'  mtRn'ze^',  (Ad- 
RIEN,)  Count,  a  French  ])ublicist,  born  near  Orgelet 
in  1770.  He  published  a  tract  against  the  Constitution 
I795»  ^  work  "On  the  Causes  of  the  Revolution," 
(1797,)  and  other  political  treatises.  He  was  prefect  of 
Strasbourg  when  he  died,  in  1814. 

Lezay-Marnesia,  de,  (Claude  Franqois  Adrien,) 
Marquis,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Metz  in  1735.  He  was  a  liberal  member  of  the  States- 
General  in  1789.  He  published,  besides  several  prose 
works,  a  poem  of  some  merit,  called  "Essays  on  Rural 
Nature,"  ("Essais  sur  la  Nature  champetre,"  1787.) 
Died  in  1800. 

L'Heritier  de  Brutelle,  1^'re'te-i'  deh  bRii'tSl', 
(Charles  Louis,)  a  French  botanist,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1746.  He  was  admitted  into  the  court  of  aids  in  1775. 
After  the  Revolution  he  was  twice  appointed  a  judge 
of  the  civil  tribunal  of  Paris.  His  principal  works  are 
"New  or  Rare  Plants,"  ("Stirpes  novae  aut  minus  cog- 
nitae,"  1784,)  and  "  Sertum  Anglicum,"  (1788,)  a  descrip- 
tion of  plants  in  the  royal  garden  of  Kew,  in  England. 
"His  works,"  says  Cuvier,  "are  prized  throughout 
Europe  for  the  exactitude  of  the  descriptions  and  the 
finish  of  the  plates."  He  left  in  manuscript  a  "  Flora  of 
Peru,"  which  he  compiled  from  the  notes  and  herbal  of 
Dombey.    He  was  assassinated  near  his  house  in  1800. 


Neither  the  author  nor  the  motive  of  this  crime  was  ever 
discovered. 

See  Cuvier,  "l!!oge  de  L'Heritier,"  in  the  "Menioires  de  I'lns- 
titut;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

L'Heritier  de  Villandon,  \\'x^\q-\'  deh  ve'16N'- 
doN',  (Marie  Jeanne,)  a  French  authoress,  born  in 
Paris  in  1664,  wrote  in  prose  and  verse.    Died  in  1734. 

L'Heritier  de  Villandon,  (Nicolas,)  a  French 
dramatic  poet,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris 
about  1613;  died  in  1680. 

L'Hermite,  \h\K'mh\!,  (Francois,)  a  popular  French 
poet  and  dramatist,  known  under  the  name  of  Tristan, 
was  born  in  La  Marche  in  1601.  He  was  admitted  into 
the  French  Academy  in  1649.    Died  in  1655. 

L'Homond  or  Lhomond,  lo'm^N',  (Charles  Fran- 
cois,) a  French  teacher,  born  at  Chaulnes  in  1727,  was 
a  professor  in  the  University  of  Paris.  He  was  a  friend 
of  the  eminent  Haiiy,  whose  first  scientific  efforts  he 
directed.  He  published  two  elementary  works  which 
are  used  in  many  schools  of  P'rance,  England,  and 
America,  viz.,  "Viri  Romae,"  and  "Epitome  of  Sacred 
History,"  ("  Epitome  Historic  Sacras.")    Died  in  1794. 

See  QuERAKD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

L'H6pital,  de,  deh  15'pe'ttl',  (Francois,)  Comte  de 
Rosnay,  a  marshal  of  France,  born  in  1583,  was  a  brother 
of  Marshal  de  Vitry.  As  lieutenant-general,  he  com- 
nianded  in  Lorraine,  where  he  gained  several  victories 
between  1638  and  1642.  He  received  a  marshal's  baton 
in  1643,  and  was  selected  to  advise  the  young  Prince  of 
Conde,  who  had  just  taken  command  of  the  army  in 
Flanders.  Against  the  orders  of  the  ministry  and  the 
advice  of  L'Hopital,  Conde  risked  a  battle  at  Rocroy, 
in  1643,  and  gained  a  victory  over  the  Spaniards.  Died 
in  1660. 

See  De  Courceixes,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Geiieraux  Fran^ais." 

L'Hopital  or  L'Hospital,  de,  (Gui  llaume  Francois 
Antoine,)  Marquis  de  Saint-Mesme  and  Count  d'En- 
tremont,  a  distinguished  French  geometer,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  i66r.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  is  said  to  have 
been  a  profound  mathematician.  In  early  life  he  was 
forced  to  renounce  the  military  profession  by  the  weak- 
ness of  his  sight.  In  1692  he  learned  from  John  Ber- 
noulli the  new  geometry  which  Leibnitz  had  discovered. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences  about 
1694.  In  1696  l^ernoulli  challenged  the  geometers  of 
Europe  to  a  trial  of  skill  in  the  problem  of  the  brachys* 
tochron, — i.e.  line  or  curve  of  quickest  descent.  At  the 
expiration  of  the  stated  time  (ten  months)  solutions  were 
furnished  'by  only  four  persons, — Newton,  Leibnitz, 
L'Hopital,  and  James  Bernoulli.  The  result  was  the 
paradoxical  cycloid.  In  1696  he  published  "Analyse  des 
infiniment  petits,"  ("Analysis  of  Infinitesimals,")  which, 
being  the  first  work  adapted  to  initiate  students  in  the 
mysteries  of  the  infinitesimal  calculus  of  Leibnitz,  was 
received  with  great  eagerness  and  marked  the  epoch  of 
arevolution  in  the  science.  He  died  in  1704.  His  post- 
humous work,  "Analytic  Treatise  on  Conic  Sections," 
(1707,)  had  a  high  reputation. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  Eloge  du  Marquis  de  L'Hopital;"  Mon- 
TUCi.A,  "  Histoire  des  Matheinatiques ;"  "Acta  Eruditoruin,"  1721. 

L'Hopital  or  L'Hospital,  de,  (Michel,)  Chancellor 
of  France,  an  illustrious  legislator  and  statesman,  was 
born  at  Aigueperse,  in  Auvergne,  in  1505.  His  father, 
Jean,  was  physician  to  Constable  Bourbon,  to  whom  he 
adhered  in  his  defection  from  the  service  of  Francis  I. 
to  that  of  Charles  V.  lie  studied  law  at  Padua  for  six 
years,  and  about  1534  settled  in  Paris.  Three  years  later, 
Morin,  lieutenant-criminel,  gave  him  his  daughter,  and  the 
office  of  counsellor  to  the  Parliament  as  her  dowry.  His 
promotion  was  hindered  by  the  connection  of  his  father 
with  the  defection  of  Bourbon,  and  by  his  own  modesty  ; 
but  he  at  last  found  a  patron  in  Chancellor  Olivier,  and 
was  appointed  ambassador  to  the  Council  of  Trent  in 
1547.  About  1554  he  was  chosen  by  Henry  II.  superin- 
tendent of  the  finances,  in  the  management  of  which  he 
made  important  reforms.  In  1560  the  regent  Catherine 
de  Medicis  appointed  him  chancellor  of  France.  On  his 
arrival  at  court  he  found  that  the  chiefs  of  the  house  of 
Guise  had  resolved  to  establish  the  Inquisition  and  to 
ruin  the  Protestants.  He  defeated  the  first  project,  and 
opposed  the  other  with  partial  success.    He  caused  the 


€  as  i^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  h,  Y^, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VHOPITAL 


1422 


LIBERIUS 


States-General  to  be  convoked  at  Orleans  in  December, 
1560,  and  obtained  edicts  favourable  to  liberty  or  tolera- 
tion. But,  in  spite  of  his  mediatorial  efforts,  the  war 
between  Catholics  and  Protestants  began  in  1562.  His 
advice  was  no  longer  listened  to  at  court,  and  he  was 
removed  from  office  in  1568.  He  was  at  his  country- 
seat  at  Vignay  during  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholo- 
mew, and  his  life  was  spared  through  the  mediation  of  a 
lady  at  court.  He  died  in  1573,  leaving  a  name  greatly 
venerated  for  wisdom  and  integrity.  As  a  statesman 
and  legislator  he  holds  a  high  rank.  His  political  prin- 
ciples are  announced  in  a  Latin  poem,  (composed  on 
occasion  of  the  coronation  of  Francis  II.,)  which  was 
much  admired.  He  wrote  other  elegant  Latin  poems 
and  discourses,  which  have  been  published. 

See  M.  Vn,i,EMAiN,  "Vie  de  L'Hopital,"  in  his  "Etudes  d'His- 
toire  moderne ;"  Levesque  de  Pouilly,  "  Vie  de  Michel  de  L'Hospi- 
tal,"  1764 ;  Charles  Butler,  "  Essay  on  the  Life  of  M.  de  L'Hopi- 
tal," 1814;  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  De  Thou, 
"  Historia  sui  Temporis;"  M.  Cresson,  "  filoge  historique  de  M, 
de  L'Hopital,"  1850;  Taillandier's  article  in  the  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

L'Hdpital,  de,  (Michel  Hurault,)  Seigneur  de 
Belesbat,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
chancellor  of  Henry  of  Navarre  before  the  latter  became 
King  of  France,  (1589.)  He  was  also  employed  by  Henry 
as  ambassador  to  Holland  and  Germany,  and  wrote  two 
able  political  treatises  "On  the  State  of  France,"  (1588- 
93.)    Died  in  1592. 

Ii'Hote  or  Lhdte,  lot,  (Nestor,)  an  artist  and  anti- 
quary, born  of  French  parents  at  Cologne  in  1804.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  commission  sent  in  1828  to  ex- 
plore Egypt  under  the  direction  of  ChampoUion,  who 
employed  him  as  draughtsman.  In  1838  he  made  fur- 
ther explorations  and  illustrations  of  Egypt,  for  the 
purpose  of  rendering  more  complete  Champollion's 
posthumous  work  on  the  monuments  of  that  country. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1842. 

Lhoyd,  loid,  written  also  Lhuyd  and  Llwyd, 
(Humphry,)  a  learned  British  antiquary,  was  born  at 
Denbigh,  in  Wales.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  Cambria 
from  Caradoc,"  "On  Mona,  the  Island  of  the  Druids," 
("  De  Mona  Druidum  Insula,")  and  other  works.  Died 
about  1570. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Lhuyd,  commonly  pronounced  loid,  (Edward,)  an 
eminent  Welsh  antiquary,  born  in  Carmarthenshire 
about  1665.  He  became  keeper  of  the  Ashmolean  Mu- 
seum in  1690.  He  published  a  catalogue  of  the  figured 
fossils  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  called  "  Lythophylacii 
Britannici  Iconographia,"  (1699,)  and  a  treatise  on 
British  antiquities,  "  Archaeologia  Britannica,"  (1707.) 
Died  in  1709. 

Iiiadieres,  leTde^iR',  (Pierre  Charles,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Pan  in  1792.  He  composed  several 
dramas,  and  other  mediocre  works  in  prose  and  verse. 
Died  in  1858. 

Liais,  (Emmanuel,)  a  French  astronomer,  born 
at  Cherbourg  in  1826.  He  was  appointed  an  assistant 
in  the  Observatory  of  Paris  in  1852. 

Liancourt,  de,  deh  le^6N''kooR',  (Jeanne  de  Schom- 
berg,)  Duchess,  a  French  lady,  distinguished  for  her 
talents  and  piety,  born  in  1600,  was  the  daughter  of 
Henri  de  Schomberg,  marshal  of  France.  She  became 
the  wife  of  the  Due  de  Liancourt.  Her  house  was 
frequented  by  Pascal,  Arnauld,  and  other  recluses  of 
Port-Royal.    Died  in  1674. 

See  J.  J.  Boileau,  "  Vie  de  Madame  de  Liancourt,"  1698. 

Liano,  da,  di  le-^'no,  (Teodoro  Felipe,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Madrid  in  1575,  excelled  in  miniatures, 
and  was  surnamed  the  Little  Titian.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Lope  de  Vega.    Died  in  1625. 

Liard,  le'Sa',  an  eminent  French  engineer,  born  in 
Lorraine  in  1747.  His  principal  work  is  the  important 
canal  which  connects  the  Rhine  with  the  Rhone.  It  was 
commenced  about  1805  and  completed  in  1832.  Died 
in  1832. 

Liban,  lee'bin,  [Lat.  Liba'nius,]  (George,)  a  Polish 
classical  scholar,  born  at  Liegnitz  in  1490.  He  taught 
Greek  at  Cracow.    Died  in  1550. 

3Libanius.    See  Liban. 


Li-ba'ni-us,  [Gr.  Aigmwf,  ]  a  celebrated  heathen 
sophist  and  rhetorician,  born  at  Antioch  in  314  a.d.  He 
studied  with  Diophantes  of  Athens  and  others.  After 
he  had  taught  rhetoric  for  several  years  at  Constanti- 
nople and  Athens  with  success,  he  settled  in  354  at  An- 
tioch, where  he  opened  a  school,  which  became  very 
celebrated.  Among  his  pupils  were  Saint  Basil  and 
Saint  Chrysostom.  He  accepted  the  office  of  quaestor 
from  the  emperor  Julian,  who  was  his  friend  and  ad- 
mirer. He  died  probably  about  390  A.D.,  leaving  many 
works,  which  are  still  extant,  and  display  a  brilliant 
imagination.  They  consist  chiefly  of  declamations  on 
events  of  Greek  history,  and  have  been  designated  by 
Gibbon  as  "  the  vain  and  idle  compositions  of  an  orator 
who  cultivated  the  science  of  words."  But  this  is  re- 
garded by  other  eminent  critics  as  too  harsh  a  judgment. 

See  his  Autobiography,  entitled  Bi'os  i]  A6709  rrepc  rrj?  eavrou 
Tu'x'??;  EuNAPius,  "Vits  Sophistarum  ;"  Fabkicius,  "  Bibiioiheca 
Grsca;"  J.  G.  Berger,  "  De  Libanio  Disputationes  sex,"  i6g6 ; 
C.  Petersen,  Coinmentatio  de  Libanio  Sophista,"  1827;  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Libavius,  le-b^'ve-us,  (Andreas,)  a  German  physi- 
cian and  chemist,  born  at  Halle.  He  was  chosen  rector 
of  the  gymnasium  of  Coburg  in  1605.  He  gained  repu- 
tation by  works  on  chemistry,  in  which  he  endeavoured 
to  refute  the  reveries  of  Paracelsus.  His  "  Alchymia 
recognita  emendata  et  aucta"  (1597)  was  the  best  manual 
of  chemistry  which  had  appeared  at  that  time.  Died 
in  1616. 

See  Freher,  "  Theatrum  Eruditorum ;"  Linden,  "De  Scriptori- 
bus  Medicis." 

Libelt,  lee'b^lt,  (Karol,)  an  able  Polish  writer  on 
philosophy  and  politics,  was  born  at  Posen  in  1806.  He 
fought  with  distinction  against  the  Russians  in  the  Polish 
insurrection  which  began  in  1830.  For  his  share  in  a 
democratic  conspiracy  he  was  imprisoned  at  Berlin  in 
1846,  but  was  released  by  the  revolution  of  1848.  Soon 
after  his  release  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Slavonic 
congress  of  Prague.  While  a  prisoner  in  Berlin  in  1847 
he  wrote  "The  Maid  of  Orleans."  Among  his  works 
are  excellent  philosophical  and  critical  essays,  "Filo- 
zofia  i  Krytyka,"  (1845-50.) 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Libber,  a  name  applied  by  the  Romans  to  the  Bac- 
chus or  Dionysus  of  the  Greek  mythology.  Liber  was 
an  ancient  Italian  divinity.    See  Bacchus. 

Lib'e-ra,  in  the  Roman  mythology,  was  the  wife  of 
Liber,  and  was  supposed  to  preside  over  the  culti- 
vation of  the  vine.  She  was  sometimes  identified  with 
Proserpine. 

Liberale  da  Verona,  \t-\A-xV\\  d3,  \\-\o'w\  a 
painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  born  at  Verona  in  145 1. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  excellent  artists  of  his  country 
at  that  time.  His  painting  of  the  "Epiphany"  is  said 
to  be  still  visible  at  Verona.    Died  in  1536. 

Lib-er-a'tus,  a  deacon  of  the  Church  of  Carthage. 
He  was  sent  to  Rome  about  535  by  a  council  of  African 
bishops. 

Libere.    See  Lirerius. 

Liberi,  lee'bi-ree,  (Pietro,)  Cavaliere,  an  eminent 
Italian  painter,  surnamed  Libertino,  (le-b?R-tee'no,) 
born  at  Padua  in  1605,  was  a  pupil  of  Padovanino.  He 
pursued  his  studies  in  Rome,  Parma,  Venice,  etc.,  and 
formed  a  style  in  which  the  characteristics  of  several 
schools  were  united.  "  He  was  regarded,"  says  the  "  Bio- 
graphie Universelle,"  "as  the  most  skilful  draftsman  of 
the  Venetian  school."  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
the  "  Massacre  of  the  Innocents,"  at  Venice,  "The  Gene- 
ral Deluge,"  "  Noah  coming  out  of  the  Ark,"  "  The  Judg- 
ment of  Paris,"  and  several  pictures  of  Venus  nude.  His 
style  was  sometimes  grand  and  sometimes  graceful.  It 
is  said  that  when  he  worked  for  connoisseurs  his  manner 
was  bold  and  free,  but  for  other  patrons  he  finished  his 
work  with  much  care  and  precision.    Died  in  1687. 

See  GuALDO  Priorato,  "Vita  ckl  Cavaliere  P.  Liberi,"  iSiS; 
RtDOLFi.  "V:te  dei  Pittori  Veneti ;"  Winckelmann,  "  Neues 
Mahler-Lexikon." 

Li-be'ri-us,  [Fr.  Lib^re,  le'baiR' ;  It  Liberio,  le- 
ba're-o,]  a  native  of  Rome,  was  elected  pope  in  352 
or  353  a.d.,  and  succeeded  Julius  I.  He  favoured  the 
orthodox  in  the  controversy  with  the  Arians  ;  and,,  the 
Council  of  Milan  having  condemned  Athanasius  in  355, 


l,e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  k,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


LIBERT  AS  1423  LIGHT  WER 


he  refused  to  sanction  that  act.  For  this  cause  he  was 
banished  by  the  emperor  Constantius  to  Beroea.  After 
an  exile  of  two  years,  he  recovered  his  see  in  358, 
by  signing  the  formula  of  Sirmium,  a  modification  of 
Arianism.  He  refused  to  subscribe  the  confession  of 
the  Council  of  Rimini,  (359,)  where  the  Arians  again 
prevailed.  He  died  in  366  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Damasus  I. 

See  Baronius,  "Annales;"  Larroque,  "  Dissertatio  de  Liberie 
Romano,"  1670. 

Lib'er-tas,  [Fr.  Libert^,  le^b^R^tV,]  the  goddess  of 
liberty  worshipped  by  the  ancient  Romans.  She  was 
represented  as  a  matron,  holding  in  one  hand  a  broken 
sceptre  and  in  the  other  a  pike  surmounted  by  a  cap, 
( pileus.) 

Liberte.    See  Libertas. 

Libertino.    See  Liberi. 

Libes,  leb,  (Antoine,)  a  Ffench  savant,  born  at 
Beziers  in  1752.  For  many  years  he  taught  the  physi- 
cal sciences  in  the  College  Charlemagne,  Paris.  He 
discovered  that  pressure  is  one  of  the  elements  of  the 
intensity  of  electric  tension  developed  by  contact,  and 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  The  Physical  and 
the  Moral  World,"  (1815.)    Died  in  1832. 

Li-beth'ri-des,  [Gr.  ka^i]Q{)L&^,\  a  name  of  the  Muses, 
which  they  derived  from  Mount  Libethrius,  or  from  a 
well  called  Libethra,  in  Thrace.    (See  Mus^.) 

Lib-i-trna,  [Fr.  Libitine,  le'be't^n',]  a  Roman  god- 
dess, supposed  to  preside  over  funerals.  All  things 
needful  for  funerals  were  kept  for  sale  in  her  temple. 
The  business  of  an  undertaker  was  also  called  libitina. 

Libitine.    See  Libitina. 

Li'bon  or  Li'bo,  [Gr.  A/^wv,]  a  Greek  architect,  a 
native  of  Elis,  flourished  about  450  B.C.  He  built  near 
Pisa  or  Olympia,  in  the  Doric  style,  the  magnificent 
temple  of  Olympian  Jove,  245  feet  long  by  100  wide.  In 
the  vicinity  of  this  the  Olympic  games  were  celebrated, 
and  the  master-pieces  of  art  were  accumulated  for  many 
ages.  It  contained  a  celebrated  statue  of  Jupiter  by 
Phidias. 

See  QuATREMfeRE  DE  QuiNCY,  "  Jupitcf  Olympian." 

Libri,  dai,  di-e  lee'bRee,  (Girolamo,)  a  Venetian 
painter  and  illuminator,  born  at  Verona  in  1472,  was  one 
of  the  most  skilful  artists  of  his  time.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  Deposition  from  the  Cross,"  and  "  The  Expulsion 
of  Adam  and  Eve  from  Eden."  He  painted  many  books 
for  the  Church,  and  excelled  in  miniature.  Died  in  1555. 

His  son  Francesco  was  a  promising  painter,  who 
died  young. 

Libri-Cai'rucci,lee'bRee  kSr-root'chee,  (Guillaume 
Brutus  Icilius  Timoi.6on,)  Count,  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Florence  in  1803.  He  became  a  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Pisa  in  1823,  and  emigrated  to 
France  in  1830.  Having  been  naturalized  as  a  French 
citizen,  he  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1833,  and 
was  appointed  inspector-general  of  the  libraries  of 
France.  On  a  false  charge  of  purloining  books  of  great 
value  from  the  public  libraries,  he  was  condemned  in 
1850  to  imprisonment  for  ten  years  ;  but  he  had  pre- 
viously escaped  to  London.  His  principal  work  is  a 
"  History  of  Mathematical  Sciences  in  Italy,"  (4  vols., 
1838-41,)  which  is  highly  commended.    Died  in  1869. 

See  "  Nouvelle  P>iographie  Generale." 

Liburnio,  le-booR'ne-o,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  gram- 
marian, born  at  Venice  in  1474,  became  a  canon  of  San 
Marco,  in  that  city.    Died  in  1557. 

Liceti,  le-cha'tee,  or  Liceto,  le-cha'to,  (Fortunio,) 
an  Italian  physician  and  professor,  famous  in  his  time 
as  a  Peripatetic  philosopher,  was  born  at  Rapallo,  near 
Genoa,  in  1577.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Padua  in  1609,  and  professor  of  medicine  in  1645.  He 
published  a  treatise  on  the  nature  of  monsters,  (1616,) 
and  other  works,  the  majority  of  which  are  now  justly 
neglected.  He  had  more  erudition  than  judgment. 
Died  in  1657. 

See  Bavi.e,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron, 
*'  Memoires." 

Lichnowsky,  von,  fon  liK-nov'skee,  (Eduard  Ma- 
ria,) Prince,  a  German  historian,  born  in  1789.  He 
wrote  a  "History  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg,"  (4  vols., 
1836-44,)  which  is  commended.    Died  in  1845. 


Lichnowsky,  von,  (Felix,)  Prince,  a  Prussian 
general,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1814.  He 
fought  for  Don  Carlos  in  Spain  about  1839.  In  German 
politics  he  was  a  conservative  or  absolutist.  He  was 
killed  by  a  mob  at  Frankfort  in  1848. 

See  KosTLiN,  "Auerswald  und  Lichnowsky,"  1853. 

Lichtenau,  von,  fon  liK'teh-now^  (Wilhelmine 
Enke,)  Countess,  born  at  Potsdam  in  1754,  was  the 
daughter  of  a  poor  musician.  She  became  the  mistress 
of  the  crown -prince  of  Prussia,  Frederick  William. 
After  his  accession  to  the  throne,  in  1786,  she  was  a 
powerful  and  influential  person  until  the  death  of  the 
king.    Died  in  1820. 

See  her  "Autobiographic  Memoirs,"  1S08. 

Lichtenberg,  liK'ten-bgRG',  (Georg  Christoph,)  a 
German  savant  and  witty  author,  born  near  Darmstadt 
in  July,  1742.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  made  great 
progress  in  nearly  all  departments  of  knowledge.  In 
1770  he  was  aj^pointed  professor  of  philosophy  and  exact 
sciences  at  Gottingen.  He  visited  England,  where  he 
associated  with  the  most  eminent  literati.  He  wrote 
excellent  scientific  articles  for  two  periodicals  of  Gottin- 
gen,— "The  Magazine  of  Science  and  Literature,"  (1780- 
85,)  and  "The  Almanac,"  (1778-99,)  which  owed  their 
great  success  chiefly  to  him.  The  charms  of  his  style 
contributed  greatly  to  the  diffusion  of  a  taste  for  the 
sciences.  He  particularly  excelled  in  what  in  English 
is  called  "humour."  Among  his  most  popular  works  is 
his  "Ample  Commentarv  on  the  Engravings  of  Hogarth," 
which  he  began  to  publish  in  1794,  and  left  unfinished 
at  his  death.  It  abounds  in  wit  and  satire,  and  displays 
much  insight  into  human  nature.  His  autobiography  is 
said  to  be  the  most  candid  and  piquant  ever  written. 
Died  at  Gottingen  in  1799.  "  He  is,"  says  Stapfer,  "gay 
without  the  least  trace  of  levity,  versatile  and  profound 
without  ceasing  to  be  solid  and  clear."  ("  Biographic 
Universelle.") 

See  his  Autobiography,  in  an  edition  of  his  works,  Gottingen,  9 
vols.,  1800-1806;  "  Elogiiim  Lichtenbergii,"  by  Kastner,  1799; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  Heinrich  Doring,  "  Lebens- 
umrisse  von  Karl  August  von  Sachsen-Weimar,  J.  D.  Falk,  Lich- 
tenberg," etc.,  1840;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1804; 
"Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1836. 

Lichtenstein,  liK'ten-stln',  (Martin  Heinrich 
Karl,)  a  German  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at 
Hamburg  in  1780.  About  1802  he  became  physician 
to  the  Governor  of  Cape  Colony,  Africa,  and  in  1810 
published  "Travels  in  Southern  Africa,"  (2  vols.,)  a 
valuable  contribution  to  natural  history.  In  1813  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  Zoological  Museum  of 
Berlin,  which,  under  his  care,  became  one  of  the  largest 
in  Europe.  His  favourite  pursuit  was  ornithology.  Died 
in  1857. 

See  Callisen,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon,"  (Supple- 
ment.) 

Lichtenstein,  von,  fon  liK'ten-stTn^  (Johann  Jo- 
seph,) Prince,  a  general,  the  head  of  one  of  the  most 
noble  families  of  Austria,  was  born  in  Vienna  in  1760. 
After  serving  in  several  campaigns  against  the  French, 
he  negotiated  the  conditions  of  peace  at  Presburg  in 
1805.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Essling  and  Wagram 
in  1809.    Died  in  1836. 

Lichtenstein,  von,  (Joseph  Wenzel,)  Prince,  an 
Austrian  general,  born  in  Vienna  in  1696.  His  services 
in  the  campaigns  of  1733  and  1734  were  rewarded  with 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  Having  been  made  field- 
marshal,  he  commanded  the  army  in  Italy  in  1746,  and 
gained  a  victory  at  Piacenza.  Pie  was  afterwards  em- 
ployed with  success  in  diplomatic  affairs.    Died  in  1772. 

Lichtenstein,  von,  (Ulric,)  one  of  the  early  Ger- 
man poets,  was  born  about  1199.  His  principal  poem, 
entitled  "  Frauendienst,"  though  possessing  no  great 
literary  merit,  is  a  valuable  monument  of  the  manners 
of  that  time.    Died  about  1275. 

Lichtwer,  liKt'<ver,  (Magnus  Gottfried,)  one  of 
the  most  popular  German  fabulists,  was  born  at  Wurzen 
in  1719.  He  published  the  first  edition  of  his  "  Fables" 
in  1748,  and  in  the  next  year  removed  from  Wittenberg 
to  Halberstadt,  where  he  obtained  a  canonicate.  In 
1758  he  produced  another  edition  of  the  "  Fables."  The 
German  critics  rank  him  as  a  fabulist  with  Lessing  and 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,gutiural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LICINIA 


1424 


LIEBIG 


Gellert,  whom  perhaps  he  surpasses  in  piquancy  of 
style  and  talent  for  narration.    Died  in  1783. 

See  EiCHHoi.z,  "  Lichtwer's  Leben,"  1784;  Hirsching,  "His- 
torisch-literarisches  Handbuch. " 

Li-cin'i-a,  (or  li-sin'e-a,)  the  name  of  the  wife  ut  C. 
Gracchus,  Also  the  name  of  the  wife  of  Maecenas,  said 
to  have  been  distinguished  for  her  conjugal  tenderness, 

Li-cin-i-a'nus  Gra'ni-us,  a  Roman  historian,  who 
lived  probably  in  the  first  century  1?,C,  In  1853  Mr. 
Pertz,  of  Berlin,  discovered  a  portion  of  his  "Annals" 
among  some  Syriac  manuscripts  brought  from  the  desert 
of  Nitria  in  1847. 

Licinio,  le-chee'ne-o,  (Bernardino,)  a  painter  of  the 
Venetian  school,  born  at  Pordenone,  was  one  of  the  best 
pupils  of  Pordenone,  who  was  his  relative.  He  painted 
portraits  and  Madonnas,    He  was  living  in  1540, 

Licinio,  (Giovanni  Antonio.)   See  Pordenone, 

Licinio,  (Giulio,)  called  il  Romano,  (^1  ro-mS'no,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  about  1500,  was  a  nephew  of 
Pordenone,    Died  at  Augsburg  in  1561, 

Li-cin'i-us,  (or  le-sin'e-us,)  (Flavius  Valerius,) 
(called  by  some  writers  Pub'lius  Fla'vius  Gale'rius 
Valeria'nus  Licinia'nus,)  a  Roman  emperor,  born  in 
Dacia  about  263  a,d,,  was  originally  a  peasant.  He  rose 
to  the  rank  of  general  in  the  army,  and  gained  the  favour 
of  Galerius,  who  in  307  made  him  a  partner  in  the 
empire,  with  the  title  of  Augustus.  In  313  he  married 
Constantia,  sister  of  Constantine  the  Great,  and,  having 
defeated  Maximin,  became  master  of  all  the  Eastern 
provinces.  A  war  soon  ensued  between  him  and  Con- 
stantine, which  ended  in  the  complete  defeat  of  Licinius 
at  Chalcedon,  near  Byzantium,  in  323.  He  was  put  to 
death  by  order  of  the  victor  in  324  A,D.  He  was  noto- 
rious for  cruelty  and  other  vices. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Li-cin'i-us  CaPvus,  (Caius,)  an  eminent  Roman 
orator  and  poet,  son  of  C,  Licinius  Macer,  was  born  in 
82  K.c,  Cicero  thought  his  style  was  too  laboured,  but 
admitted  that  he  had  wit,  judgment,  and  much  learning, 
Plis  style  was  eulogized  by  Quintilian  as  grave,  chaste, 
and  sometimes  vehement.  As  a  poet  he  was  usually 
ranked  with  Catullus,  and  was  very  popular.  Plis  works 
are  all  lost  except  fragments  of  his  poems,  which  con- 
sisted of  elegies  and  epigrams  or  lampoons.  He  died 
about  the  age  of  thirty-five. 

See  Wkichekt,  "  De  C.  Licinio  Calvo  Oratore  et  Poeta,"  1825; 
Pliny,  "  Natural  History,"  vii.  and  xxxiv. 

Licinius  Macer.    See  Macer, 

Li-cin'i-us  Sto'lo,  or,  more  fully,  Ca'ins  Licin'ius 
CaPvus  Sto'lo,  a  Roman  legislator,  of  plebeian  family, 
who  effected  important  changes  in  the  constitution  of 
Roine.  In  375  b,c.,  he  and  his  friend  L.  Sextius  La- 
teranus  were  chosen  tribunes  of  the  peojile,  and  pro- 
posed the  enactment  of  these  laws  :  1st.  That  in  future 
one  of  the  two  consuls  chosen  annually  should  be  a  ple- 
beian, and  that  no  more  military  tribunes  should  be 
appointed  ;  2d.  That  no  citizen  should  possess  more 
than  five  hundred  acres  (jiigera )  of  public  land.  These 
innovations  were  strenuously  resisted  by  the  patricians 
for  about  ten  years,  a  period  of  anarchy,  during  which 
Camillus  was  chosen  dictator.  The  land,  in  question 
had  been  acquired  by  conquest,  and  had  been  appro- 
priated by  the  patricians.  The  laws  above  named  were 
passed  in  366,  and  Licinius  was  elected  consul  in  364 
B.C.  He  was  re-elected  in  360,  and  was  fined  ten  thou- 
sand asses  in  356  for  the  violation  of  his  own  agrarian 
law. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome," 
books  vi.  and  vii.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Li-ci'nus  Por'cius,  (por''she-us,)  a  Roman  poet,  men- 
tioned by  Aulus  Gellius,  lived  about  120  B.C. 

Licquet,  le'k.V,  (Fkanqois  Isidore,)  a  French  litte- 
rateiir.hoxw  at  Caudebec,  Normandy,  in  1787.  He  wrote, 
besides  several  dramas,  a  "History  of  Normandy,"  (2 
vols.,  1835,)  a  work  of  merit,  which  was  completed  by 
Depping.    Died  in  1835. 

Lid'del,  (Duncan,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Aberdeen  in  1561.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Helmstedt  in  1591,  after  which 
he  was  first  physician  at  the  court  of  Brunswick.  Having 
returned  to  Scotland  in  1607,  he  founded  a  professorship 


at  Aberdeen.  He  was  author  of  several  medical  work*, 
one  of  which  is  called  "  Arj  Medica,"  (1607.)  Died  m 
1613. 

See  Stuart,  "Life  of  Duncan  Liddel,"  1790;  Chambers,  "  Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Lid'dell,  (Rev.  Henry  George,)  an  English  scholar, 
born  in  1812.  He  became  chaplain  to  the  prince-consort 
about  1845,  and  Dean  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1855. 
He  produced,  in  conjunction  with  Mr,  Scott,  an  excel- 
lent "Greek-English  Lexicon,"  (1843,)  on  ^^e  basis  of 
the  Greek-German  Lexicon  of  Passow,  and  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Rome." 

Liddell,  (Sir  John,)  F.R.S.,  a  British  physician,  born 
at  Dumblane  in  1 794,  He  served  as  surgeon  in  the  royal 
navy,  was  knighted  in  1850,  and  was  appointed  director- 
general  of  the  medical  department  of  the  royal  navy 
about  1854.  In  1859  he  became  honorary  physician  to 
Queen  Victoria. 

Liden,  le-diln',  (Johan  Henrik,)  a  Swedish  writer, 
born  at  Linkoping  in  1741,  was  struck  in  the  prime  of 
life  with  palsy,  which  deprived  him  of  the  use  of  his 
limbs.  He  composed  a  "  History  of  Swedish  Poets," 
and  several  literary  memoirs.    Died  in  1793, 

See  Wai.lin,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  bfver  J.  H.  Liden,"  1797. 

Lidner,  lid'ner,  (Bengt,)  a  Swedish  poet,  born  in 
1759,  resided  some  time  in  Paris,  His  chief  work,  "The 
Countess  Spastara,"  is  commended  for  eloquence  and 
pathos.    Died  in  1793. 

Lidskialf,  (Hlidskialf.)   See  Odin. 

Liebault,  le'a'b5',  (Jean,)  a  French  writer  on  medi- 
cine and  agriculture,  born  at  Dijon  about  1535;  died  in 
1596, 

Liebe,  lee'beh,  (Christian  Sigismond,)  a  German 
numismatist,  born  in  Misnia  in  1687,  He  was  a  large 
contributor  to  the  "Acta  Eruditorum,"    Died  in  1736. 

Lieber,  lee'ber,  (Francis,)  a  German  historical  and 
political  writer  of  distinguished  ability,  born  at  Berlin, 
March  18,  1800.  He  served  against  the  French  in  1815, 
and  was  present  at  the  battles  of  Ligny  and  Waterloo. 
Being  imprisoned  some  years  after  for  his  liberal  opinions, 
he  was  released  through  the  influence  of  Niebuhr,  and 
sought  refuge  in  1827  in  the  United  States.  In  1829  he 
edited  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Americana,"  (13  vols,,)  taking 
for  its  basis  Brockhaus's  "  Conversations-Lexikon,"  (pub- 
lished at  Leipsic,  in  Germany.)  He  was  appointed  in  1835 
professor  of  history  in  Columbia  College,  in  South  Caro- 
lina, which  position  he  held  until  1856,  He  afterwards 
became  j^rofessor  of  the  law  of  nations  and  constitutional 
law  in  the  same  institution.  Among  his  numerous  and 
popular  works  are  a  "  Manual  of  Political  Ethics," 
(1838,)  "Laws. of  Property:  Essays  on  Property  and 
I.abour,"  (1842,)  "Civil  Liberty  and  Self-Government," 
(2  vols.,  1853,)  and  "Reminiscences  of  Niebuhr  the 
Historian." 

See  Ai.i.inoNE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors;"  Duyckinck,  "  Cyclo- 
pzedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii,  ;  "  North  American  Review" 
for  January,  1832. 

Lieber,  (Thomas.)    See  Erastus. 

Lieberkuhn,  lee'ber-koon',  (Johann  Nathaniel,)  a 
German  anatomist,  born  at  I>erlin  in  1711,  practised  in 
that  city.  He  was  very  skilful  in  the  art  of  injections. 
He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don,   Died  in  1756, 

Liebhard.    See  Camerarius,  (Joachim.) 

Liebig,  von,  fon  lee^DiG,  (Justus,)  Baron,  one  of  the 
greatest  chemists  of  the  present  century,  was  born  at 
Darmstadt,  in  Germany,  in  May,  1803,  He  entered  the 
University  of  Bonn  in  1819,  and  in  1822  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  became  acquainted  with  Humboldt  and  Gay- 
Lussac,  Favoured  by  the  influence  of  Humboldt,  Liebig 
obtained  in  1824  the  appointment  of  professor  of  chem- 
istry in  the  University  of  Giessen.  He  founded  there 
the  first  model  laboratory  of  Germany,  which  became 
very  celebrated  and  made  that  university  the  central 
point  of  attraction  to  the  chemical  students  of  Europe. 
Although  his  services  have  been  great  in  every  depart- 
ment of  chemical  science,  he  owes  his  celebrity  chiefly 
to  his  discoveries  in  organic  chemistry.  He  produced 
in  1840  an  important  work  entitled  "Organic  Chem- 
istry in  its  Application  to  Agriculture  and  Physiology," 
("Die  organische  Chemie  in  ihrer  Anwendung  auf 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LJEBKNECHT 


1425 


LIGONIER 


Agricultur  und  Physiologic")  His  principal  works, 
besides  the  above,  are  "Animal  Chemistry,  or  Chemistry 
in  its  Application  to  Physiology  and  Pathology,"  (1842,) 
"Researches  on  the  Chemistry  of  Food,"  (1849,)  and 
a  "Dictionary  of  Chemistry,"  (5  vols.,  1837-51,)  in 
which  he  was  assisted  by  Wohler.  He  received  the  title 
of  baron  in  1845,  and  accepted  the  chair  of  chemistry 
at  Munich  in  1852.  In  1848  Liebig  and  Professor 
Kopp  began  to  issue  an  annual  report  on  the  progress 
of  chemistry.  His  "  Familiar  Letters  on  Chemistry" 
(1844)  are  much  admired,  and  are  well  adapted  to 
render  the  science  popular.  His  principal  works  above 
named  have  been  translated  into  English  and  French. 

See  Cai.lisen,  "  Mediciiiisches  Scliriftsteller-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Ijiojxraphie  Generale  ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June, 
1842;  "North  American  Review"  for  July,  1841,  April,  1842,  and 
October,  1S42. 

Liebknecht,  leep'kneKt^  (Johann  Georg,)  a  Ger- 
man antiquary,  born  at  Wassungen  about  1680,  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Discourse  on  the  Great  Deluge," 

Discursus  de  Diluvio  Maximo,"  1704.)   Died  in  1749. 

Liemaecker  or  Liemaker,  lee^m.Vker,  (Nikolaas,) 
a  skilfid  Flemish  painter,  surnamed  RoosE,  was  born  at 
Ghent  in  1575,  and  was  a  friend  of  Rubens.  Among  his 
works,  which  are  mostly  of  large  dimensions,  are  "The 
Last  Judgment,"  and  "  The  Transfiguration."  Died  in 
1646. 

Lieoo-  (or  Lieou-)  Pang,  le-oo'  pSng,  a  Chinese 
emperor,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Han,  was  born 
about  250  B.C.  He  was  proclaimed  emperor  in  202. 
One  of  his  generals,  named  King-Poo,  having  revolted, 
a  battle  was  fought,  in  which  Lieoo-Pang  gained  the  vic- 
tory, but  received  a  wound  of  which  he  died  in  195  B.C. 

Lieutaud,  le-uh^t5',  (Joseph,)  a  skilful  French  physi- 
cian, born  in  1703,  at  Aix,  in  Provence.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1752.  Li  1774  he  was 
appointed  first  physician  to  Louis  XVL  He  published, 
besides  other  professional  works,  "  Synopsis  of  Univer- 
sal Medical  Practice,"  ("Synopsis  Universae  Praxeos 
Medicae,"  1765,)  a  work  of  much  merit.    Died  in  1780. 

See  CoNiiORCET,  "filoge  de  Lieutaud,"  1780;  Lasservolle, 
"  filoge  historique  de  M.  Lieutaud,"  1781  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Lieven,  de,  deh  lee'ven,  (Dorothea,)  Princess,  a 
Russian  lady,  of  German  extraction,  celebrated  for  her 
diplomatic  talents  and  political  intrigues,  was  born  in 
1784.  Her  maiden  name  was  Benkendorf.  She  went 
to  London  about  181 2  with  her  luisband,  who  was 
Russian  ambassador  at  that  court,  and  acquired  much 
influence  by  her  conversational  powers.  After  1838 
she  resided  in  Paris,  where  her  salon  was  frequented  by 
many  diplomatists,  statesmen,  etc.  She  was  often  called 
the  "  Egeria  of  Guizot."    Died  in  1857. 

Lieven,  von,  fon  lee'ven,  (Johan  Henrik,)  Count, 
a  Swedish  general,  born  in  Livonia  in  1670.  After  the 
defeat  of  Charles  at  Pultowa,  in  1709,  Lieven  was  sent 
by  the  council  of  regency  on  a  mission  to  that  king, 
then  in  Turkey.    Died  in  1733. 

Lievens,  lee'vens,  (Jan,)  [Lat.  Johan'nes  Livine'- 
lus,]  a  Flemish  Hellenist,  born  about  1546.  He  was 
canon  of  Antwerp.  He  edited  and  translated  some  works 
of  Chrysostom  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa.    Died  in  1599. 

See  Paquot,  "M^moires." 

Lievens  or  Livens,  (Jan,)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Leyden  in  1607.  About  1630  he 
went  to  England,  and  painted  portraits  of  the  royal 
family.  He  afterwards  worked  at  Antwerp,  chiefly  on 
historical  subjects,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation.  As  an 
engraver  he  is  said  to  rival  Rembrandt.    Died  in  1663. 

SeeDESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Ligario,  le-gi're-o,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
in  the  Valtellina  in  1686;  died  in  1752. 

Li-ga'ri-us,  (Quintus,)  a  Roman  ofiicer,  who  fought 
for  Pempey  in  the  civil  war,  and  after  the  battle  of  Phar- 
salia  renewed  the  war  against  Caesar  in  Africa.  He  was 
pardoned  by  the  victor,  but  was  forbidden  to  enter  Italy. 
When  his  friends  made  efforts  to  restore  him  to  citizen- 
ship, they  were  opposed  by  Tubero,  who  became  his 
public  accuser  in  a  trial  before  the  dictator,  in  45  or  46 
B.C.  On  this  occasion  Cicero  pronounced  his  admirable 
oration  "Pro  Ligario."  Plutarch  informs  us  that  Cassar 


had  resolved  to  condemn  Ligarius,  but  that  in  the 
course  of  the  speech  his  colour  often  changed,  his  frame 
trembled,  and  a  verdict  of  acquittal  was  obtained  from 
him  through  the  transcendent  powers  of  the  orator. 
See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Cicero." 

Liger,  le'zhi',  (Louis,)  a  French  writer  on  agricul- 
ture, born  at  Auxerre  in  1658.  He  published  several 
mediocre  but  useful  works.    Died  in  171 7. 

Light'foot,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  eminent  as  a 
biblical  conmientator,  was  born  in  vStaffordshire  in  1602. 
He  was  an  excellent  Hebrew  scholar.  In  1630  he  be- 
came rector  of  Ashley,  and  in  1642  obtained  the  living  of 
Saint  Bartholomew,  in  London.  He  was  identified  with 
the  Presbyterians  during  the  civil  war.  About  1644 
he  was  chosen  master  of  Catherine  Hall,  Cambridge, 
and  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Great  Munden.  In 
Rabbinical  literature  he  had  few,  if  any,  superiors.  He 
published  "  Horse  Hebraicas  et  Talmudicae,"  (1658,)  and 
many  Latin  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures,  one  of 
which  is  called  "  Harmony  of  the  Four  Evangelists," 
(1644-50.)    Died  in  1675. 

See  "  Brevis  Descriptio  Vitae  J.  Lightfooti,"  1699;  Niceron, 
"  Memoires." 

Lightfoot,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  botanist,  born 
in  Gloucestershire  in  1735.  He  was  educated  for  the 
church,  became  chaplain  to  the  Duchess  of  Portland, 
and  obtained  the  livings  of  Sheldon  and  Gotham.  In 
company  with  Pennant,  he  explored  the  Hebrides  about 
1772,  and  published  in  1777  a  valuable  "Flora  of  Scot- 
land," ("  Flora  Scotica,"  2  vols.,)  with  excellent  figures. 
His  herbal  was  purchased  l)y  the  king,  and  was  after- 
wards consulted  with  profit  by  Sir  J.  E.  Smith.  Died 
in  1788. 

See  Pennant,  "Life  of  J.  Lightfoot." 

Lignac,  de,  deh  Un'ytk',  (Joseph  Adrien  le  Large,) 
a  French  abbe  and  author,  born  of  a  noble  family  of 
Poitiers.  He  wrote  "  Letters  to  an  American  on  Puffon's 
Natural  History,"  (1751-56,  4  vols.,)  and  a  few  other 
works.    Died  in  1762. 

Ligne,  de,  deh  l^n,  (Karl  Joseph,)  Prince,  an  able 
Austrian  general  and  witty  author,  born  at  Brussels, 
May  12,  1735,  ^'^^  t^""^  SO'"*  of  ^  field-marshal  in  the  Aus- 
trian service.  H^  served  with  distinction  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  (1755-62,)  and  was  made  a  general-major  in 
1765.  In  1782  he  was  ambassador  to  Russia,  and  was 
highly  favoured  by  Catherine  II.  He  commanded  a 
corps  at  the  capture  of  Belgrade  in  1789.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  field-marshal  in  1808.  His  generous  and 
chivalrous  character  rendered  him  the  idol  of  his  army. 
He  died  at  Vienna  in  1814,  leaving  interesting  memoirs, 
letters,  and  other  works,  (in  French,)  which  contain 
curious  anecdotes  and  picjuant  passages.  Madame  de 
Stael  published  in  1809  a  volume  of  "Letters  and 
Thoughts  of  Prince  de  Ligne."  He  had  published 
"Military,  Literary,  and  Sentimental  Miscellanies," 
("Melanges  militaires,  litteraires  et  sentimentaires," 
34  vols.,  1795-1811.)  According  to  Madame  de  Stael, 
"  he  was  the  only  foreigner  that  became  a  model  in  the 
French  style,  instead  of  an  imitator." 

See  "  Letters  and  Reflections  of  the  Austrian  Field-Marshal 
Prince  de  Ligne ;"  Soubiran,  "  Biographie  du  Prince  C.  de  Ligne," 
1807;  SainteBeuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Ligniville,  de,  deh  l^n'ye'v^K,  (Ren6  Charles  Eli- 
sabeth,) Comte,  a  French  general,  born  in  1757;  died 
in  1813. 

Lignon,  l^n'y6N',  (£tienne  Fr^d^ric,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1779  ;  died  in  1833. 

Lig'on,  ?  (Richard,)  an  English  traveller,  who  emi- 
grated to  Barbadoes  in  1647  and  returned  to  England 
in  1650.  He  published  "A  True  and  Exact  History 
of  Barbadoes,"  a  work  of  some  value.  He  was  the 
overseer  of  the  female  slave  Yarico,  whose  story  is 
narrated  in  his  book  and  furnished  Steele  a  subject  for 
the  eleventh  number  of  the  "Spectator." 

Ligonier,  lig'o-neer',  (John,)  Earl,  an  eminent  gene- 
ral of  the  British  army,  was  born  of  Protestant  parents  in 
France  in  1678,  and  emigrated  to  England  in  early  youth. 
He  fought  at  Blenheim, (1704,)  Ramillies,  and  Malplaquet, 
(1709,)  and  commanded  the  infantry  at  Fontenoy,  (1745.) 
In  1746  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the 


€  as>*;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  ;;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  t/iis.  (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

90 


L  IGOR  10 


1426 


LIMATRAC 


British  forces  in  Flanders.  He  displayed  great  skill  and 
courage  at  Laffeldt  in  1747,  but  was  there  made  prisoner. 
He  became  an  English  peer,  with  the  title  of  Earl  Ligo- 
nier,  in  1766,  and  was  a  field-marshal  and  privy  coun- 
cillor at  his  death,  in  1770. 

See  MM.  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Ligorio,  le-go're-o,  (Pirro,)  an  Italian  architect, 
painter,  and  antiquary,  born  in  Naples  about  1530,  or, 
as  others  say,  1498.  He  was  appointed  by  Paul  IV. 
architect  of  the  Vatican  and  of  Saint  Peter's  Church, 
which  Michael  Angelo  had  previously  superintended. 
The  latter  left  Rome  about  that  time.  Ligorio,  having 
deviated  from  the  plan  of  Michael  Angelo,  which  he  was 
ordered  to  follow,  was  discharged  in  1568.  He  then  was 
employed  as  architect  by  Alphonso,  Duke  of  Ferrat-a. 
He  died  about  1580,  leaving  in  manuscript  voluminous 
writings  on  antiquities  and  architecture,  which  are 
praised  by  Muratori. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Iiigozzi,  le-got'see,  (Jacopo,)  an  eminent  Ital'ian 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Verona  in  1543,  was  a  pupil 
of  Paul  Veronese.  He  painted  both  in  fresco  and  in  oil. 
Having  acquired  a  high  reputation  at  Verona,  he  re- 
moved to  Florence,  where  he  received  the  title  of  painter 
to  the  grand  duke  Ferdinand.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  "The  Four  Crowned  Saints,"  at  Imola,  and  the 
"  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Dorothea,"  at  Pescia.  His  smaller 
pictures  are  highly  finished.    Died  in  1627. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "Dlziona- 
rio  ;"  Lomazzo,  "  Idea  del  Tempio  della  Pittura." 

Liguori,  da,  d^  le-goo-o'ree,  (Alfonso  Maria,)  an 
Italian  priest  and  casuist,  born  at  or  near  Naples  in 
1696.  He  founded  in  1732  an  order  of  missionaries  to 
convert  or  instruct  the  lower  classes,  and  named  it  the 
Order  of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer.  In  1762  he  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Saint  Agatha  dei  Goti.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  approved  works,  a  "  Moral  Theology," 
(1755,)  which  was  often  reprinted.    Died  in  1787. 

See  Gfattini,  "Vita  del  beate  A.  M.  Liguori,"  1815  ;  G.  Kloth, 
"  Leben  des  heiiigen  A.  M.  Liguori,"  1835  ;  "Life  of  Saint  A.  M.  de 
Liguori,"  London,  2  vols.,  1848. 

LiPburne,  (John,)  an  English  Puritan  enthusiast  and 
radical  agitator,  was  born  in  Durham  in  161 8.  He  was 
accused  before  the  Star  Chamber  in  1637  of  distributing 
seditious  pamphlets,  and  was  condemned  to  be  whipped 
and  imprisoned.  He  was  released  in  1640,  and  obtained 
£1000  damages.  In  1644  he  fought  bravely  against  the 
king  at  Marston  Moor,  where  he  led  a  regiment.  He 
afterwards  attacked  Prynne,  Lenthal,  and  others  in  pam- 
phlets, for  which  he  was  committecl  to  Newgate.  He 
was  one  of  the  master-spirits  of  the  "Levellers,"  and 
a  stubborn  opponent  of  Cromwell's  authority.  In  165 1 
he  was  tried  for  treason  and  acquitted  by  the  jury.  He 
became  a  Quaker  a  few  years  before  his  death,  which 
occurred  in  1657.  Hume  designates  him  as  "the  most 
turbulent,  but  the  most  upright  and  courageous,  of  human 
kind."    ("  History  of  England.") 

See,  also,  Clarendon,  "History  of  the  Rebellion;"  "Monk's 
Contemporaries,"  by  GuizoT,  London,  1865. 

Lilieblad,  lee'le-eh-bldd^  or  Liljenblad,  leel'yen- 

blSd^  (GusTAVUS,)  a  Swedish  scholar  and  linguist,  born 
at  Strengnes  in  165 1.    He  was  for  many  years  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  at  Upsa1,  and  wrote,  in  Latin,  a 
"History  of  Egypt,"  (1698.)    Died  in  1710. 
See  Gezelius,  "  Biographiskt- Lexicon." 

Lilienberg  or  Liljenberg,  lee'le-gn-b§Rg^  (Erik 
GusTAF,)  Baron  of,  a  Swedish  general,  who  served  in 
the  French  army  at  Laufeld  and  in  other  battles.  Died 
in  1770. 

Lilienkrantz  or  Liljenkrantz,  lee'le-en-kRints",  or 
Liliecrantz,  lee'le-eh-kRints',  (Johann,)  Count  de,  a 
Swedish  financier,  born  about  1730.  On  the  accession 
of  Gustavus  III.  (1771)  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
finances,  which  he  managed  with  success  for  many  years. 
Died  in  1815. 

See  Gever,  "  Histoire  de  la  Su^de." 

Lilienthal,  lee'le-gn-ttK,  (Michael,)  a  learned  Prus- 
sian philologist,  born  at  Liebstadt  in  1686.  He  was 
for  many  years  professor  of  theology  in  the  University 


of  Konigsberg.  He  was  the  principal  editor  of  the 
"Erlautertes  Preussen,"  (1724-28,)  a  highly-esteemed 
literary  journal,  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Historical  and  Literary  Selections,"  ("Selecta  His- 
torica  et  Literaria,"  1711-19.)    Died  in  1750. 

See  HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch  ;"  Meusel, 
"  Lexikon." 

Lilienthal,  (Theodor  Christian,)  a  German  theo- 
logian and  writer,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Konigsberg  in  1 71 7;  died  in  1782. 

Lilio,  lee'le-o,  or  Lilli,  l^Klee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Ancona  in  1555.  He  worked  at  Rome 
for  Sixtus  v.,  and  at  Ancona.    Died  in  1610. 

Lilio,  (LuiGi,)  [Lat.  Ai.oy'sius  Lil'ius,]  an  Italian 
physician  and  astronomer,  born  in  Calabria.  He  is 
remembered  only  for  the  part  he  had  in  the  reform  of 
the  calendar  under  the  auspices  of  Gregory  XIII.  He 
applied  the  epacts  to  the  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  and, 
by  adding  one  day  to  the  end  of  each  cycle,  he  arrived 
at  an  approximative  equation  of  the  solar  and  lunar 
years.  He  died  in  1576,  just  after  he  had  finished  the 
work.    His  method  was  approved  by  the  pope  in  1582. 

Lilio  Giraldi.    See  Giraldl 

Lilius.    See  Lilio. 

Liljenblad.    See  Lilieblad. 

Liljenkrantz.    See  Lilienkrantz. 

LilTo,  (George,)  a  successful  English  dramatist,  born 
in  1693,  became  a  jeweller  of  London.  He  holds  a  high 
rank  among  English  dramatists  of  the  second  order. 
"The  Fatal  Curiosity,"  a  tragedy,  (1737,)  is  called  his 
master-piece,  and  is  constructed  with  remarkable  skill. 
His  "George  Barnwell"  and  "Arden  of  Feversham" 
were  also  popular.    Died  in  1739. 

See  "  Biographia  Dramatica;"  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the 
British  Poets." 

LiPly,  written  also  Lily  and  Lyly,  (John,)  an  English 
dramatic  writer,  born  in  Kent  about  1553.  He  wrote 
several  dramas,  which  were  performed  with  success,  and 
flourished  as  a  wit  at  the  court  of  Elizabeth.  About  1580 
he  published  "  Euphues  :  the  Anatomy  of  Wit,"  which 
became  very  popular  with  that  pedantic  generation  for 
its  affected  and  dainty  style,  called  "Euphuism."  "It 
deserves  notice,"  says  Hallam,  "on  account  of  the  influ- 
ence it  is  recorded  to  have  had  upon  the  court  of  Eliza- 
beth and  over  the  public  taste."  Pie  was  the  author  of 
a  famous  satirical  pamphlet  against  Martin  Mar-Prelate, 
called  "Pap  with  a  Hatchet."   Died  about  1600. 

See  "The  Dramatic  Works  of  John  Lyly,  with  some  Account 
of  his  Life,"  etc.,  by  T.  W.  Fairholt,  1858;  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1861. 

Lilly,  (William,)  a  famous  English  astrologer,  born 
in  Leicestershire  in  1602.  In  early  life  he  was  employed 
as  a  servant  in  London.  He  began  to  study  astrology 
in  1632,  and  acquired  fame  as  a  fortune-teller.  He  pro- 
fited by  the  credulity  of  Charles  I.,  who  consulted  him 
on  political  affairs  in  the  civil  war.  Some, agents  of  the 
popular  party  also  patronized  him.  He  published  an- 
nually an  almanac,  called  "  Merlinus  Anglicus  Junior," 
(1644-81.)  His  character  is  represented  by  Butler  under 
the  name  of  "Sidrophel."    Died  in  1681. 

See  "Life  and  Times  of  W.  Lilly,"  by  himself,  1715;  "Retro* 
spective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  1820. 

LiPy  or  LiPly,  (William,)  a  distinguished  English 
schoolmaster,  born  at  Odiham,  in  Hampshire,  about 
1468.  After  studying  languages  in  Greece  and  Rome, 
he  settled  in  London  in  1509,  and  opened  a  grammar- 
school.  He  appears  to  have  been  the  first  who  taught 
Greek  in  London.  In  15 12  he  became  master  of  Saint 
Paul's  School,  just  founded  by  Colet.  He  published, 
besides  Latin  poems,  "  I^revissima  Institutio  sen  Ratio 
Granmiatices  cognoscendre,"  (1513,)  commonly  called 
"  Lily's  Grammar,"  which  was  for  a  long  time  more 
used  in  English  schools  than  any  other  Latin  grammar. 
He  was  intimate  with  Erasmus.    Died  in  1523. 

See  Warton,  "History  of  Poetry." 

Lima,  de,  di  lee'ma,  (Luiz  Caetano,)  a  Portuguese 
historian  and  grammarian,  born  in  Lisbon  in  167 1 ;  died 
in  1757. 

Limayrac,  le^mi'rtk',  (Paultn,)  a  French  litterateur^ 
born  at  Caussade  in  181 7.  He  became  chief  editor  of 
"La  Patrie,"  a  daily  paper  of  Paris,  in  1858. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  4,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  QX\  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


LIMBORCH 


1427 


LINCOLN 


Limborch,  van,  vtn  lim'boRK',  written  also  Lim- 
borg,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  the  Hague 
in  1680,  was  one  of  the  best  pupils  of  Adrian  van  der 
Werf,  of  whose  works  he  made  fine  copies.  Died  in  1758. 

Limborch,  van,  (Philippus,)  a  learned  Dutch  theolo- 
gian, was  born  in  Amsterdam  the  19th  of  June,  1633.  f  ie 
was  one  of  the  principal  supporters  of  the  Remonstrant 
or  Arminian  doctrines,  which  were  condemned  by  the 
Synod  of  Dort  in  1619.  After  preaching  f,)r  ten  years 
at  Gouda,  he  became  in  1668  pastor  and  professor  of 
theology  at  Amsterdam.  He  corresponded  for  a  long 
time  with  John  Locke.  His  most  important  work  is 
"Theologia  Christiana,"  (1686,)  "a  system  of  divinity 
and  morals  which,"  says  Hallam,  "is  the  fullest  delinea- 
tion of  the  Arminian  scheme."  He  wrote  a  "History 
of  the  Inquisition,"  (1692.)    Died  in  1712. 

See  Leclekc,  "  Oratio  fimebris  in  Obitiim  P.  Limborch,"  1712; 
Van  der  Hoeven,  "  Dissertationes  II.  de  J.  Clerico  et  P.  a  Lim- 
borch," etc.,  1843;  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Limbourg,  van,  vtn  lim'bdoRG',  (Jan  Philippus,) 
a  Flemish  medical  writer,  born  near  Spa  in  1726.  He 
practised  at  Spa  with  great  success.    Died  in  181 1. 

Limburg-Brouwer,  van,  vSn  lim'buRii  bRow'er, 
(PiETER,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  in  1795;  died  in  1847. 

Limnaeus  or  Limnaus,  lim-na'us,  (Johann,)  a  Ger- 
man publicist,  born  at  Jena  in  1592.  He  was  preceptor 
of  the  Margrave  of  Anspach  and  of  Albert  of  Branden- 
burg, who  afterwards  employed  him  as  chancellor  and 
privy  councillor.  He  wrote  an  esteemed  work  on  "  The 
Public  Law  of  the  Romano-Germanic  Empire,"  (3  vols,, 
1645-57,)  and  an  "Account  of  the  French  Monarchy  and 
Constitution,"  ("  Notitia  Regni  Galliae,"  2  vols.,  1655.) 
Died  in  1663. 

See  Strebel,  "Leben  und  Schriften  des  Staatslehrers  J.  Lim- 
n«eus,"  1741. 

Limousin  or  Limosin.  See  Leonard  de  Limousin. 
Lin.    See  Linus. 

Lin,  van,  vtn  lin,  (Hans,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  genre, 
who  flourished  about  1650,  was  surnamed  StiLHEID.  He 
excelled  in  battle-pieces,  and  painted  horses  better  than 
any  other  Dutch  artist  except  Wouvverman. 

Linacre,  lin'a-ker,  written  also  Linacer  (or  Lina- 
ker)  and  Lynacer,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English 
physician  and  scholar,  born  at  Canterbury  about  1460. 
He  learned  Greek  of  Demetrius  Chalcondylas  at  Flor- 
ence, and  studied  medicine  at  Rome.  After  his  return  to 
England  he  lectured  on  medicine,  and  taught  Greek  at 
Oxford  for  several  years,  until  Henry  VI H.  employed 
him  as  physician  and  preceptor  of  Prince  Arthur.  He 
was  the  principal  founder  and  first  president  of  the  Col- 
lege of  Physicians,  London.  At  an  advanced  age  he  took 
orders,  and  obtained  the  rectory  of  Mersham,  a  prebend 
in  York  Cathedral,  and  other  benefices.  He  was  an  ex- 
cellent classical  scholar,  and  a  correspondent  of  Erasmus. 
He  translated  several  of  Galen's  works  into  Latin,  and 
wrote  "On  the  Correct  Structure  of  Latin  Prose,"  ("  De 
Emendata  Structura  Latini  Sermonis,")  which  Hallam 
calls  "the  first-fruits  of  English  erudition,"  and  which 
must,  he  says,  have  been  highly  valuable.    Died  in  1524. 

See  "Lives  of  British  Physicians,"  London,  1857;  Bayle,  "  His- 
torical and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Linant,  le'nSN',  (Michel,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Louviers  in  1708.  Voltaire,  who  was  his  friend,  spoke 
highly  of  his  taste  and  imagination.  Linant  lived  in 
Paris,  and  was  employed  as  tutor  to  the  sons  of  M. 
Hebert.  He  wrote  odes,  epistles,  and  other  short  poems, 
which  gained  several  prizes  of  the  French  Academy.  He 
also  published  an  edition  of  Voltaire's  works,  (1738.) 
Died  in  1749. 

Linck,  link,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Leipsic  in  1674;  died  in  1734. 

Lincoln,  link'on,  (Abraham,)  the  sixteenth  President 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Hardin  county,  Ken- 
tucky, (in  a  part  now  included  in  Larue  county,)  the 
I2th  of  February,  1809.  His  ancestors  were  of  English 
descent;  they  are  supposed  to  have  originally  emigrated 
to  America  with  the  followers  of  William  Penn.  A 
little  before  the  middle  of  last  century  they  resided  in 
Berks  county,  Pennsylvania,  whence  a  part  of  the  family 
removed  in  1750  to  Virginia.  About  the  year  1780 
Abraham  Lincoln,  the  grandfather  of  the  subject  of  this 


notice,  settled  in  Kentucky,  where  not  long  after  he  was 
stealthily  shot  by  an  Indian.  He  left  three  sons,  of  whom 
the  eldest,  Thomas  Lincoln,  married  and  settled  in  Har- 
din county  in  1806.  Abraham  Lincoln  was  his  second 
child  and  oldest  son.  His  childhood  was  passed  in  the 
midst  of  hardship  and  toil.  When  he  was  scarcely 
eight  years  old,  his  parents  removed  to  Spencer  county, 
Indiana.  It  was  a  difiicult  and  wearisome  journey,  and 
he  ever  afterwards  retained  a  vivid  recollection  of  the 
trials  and  hardships  which  he  passed  through  on  that 
occasion.  Before  he  was  eleven  years  of  age,  he  ex- 
perienced a  bitter  and  irreparable  loss  in  the  death  of 
his  mother.  Under  her  guidance  he  had  learned  to 
read  and  prize  the  Bible,  and  to  her  influence,  there  is 
reason  to  believe,  he  was  largely  indebted  for  the  develop- 
ment of  those  rare  and  noble  moral  traits  which  have 
conferred  upon  him,  if  not  a  brilliant,  at  least  a  si:)()tless 
and  ever-enduring  fame.  Among  the  books  which,  as  a 
boy,  he  particularly  valued,  was  a  Life  of  Washington  ; 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  contemplation  of  such  a 
character,  which  united  to  plain  and  practical  common 
sense  moral  qualities  of  the  highest  order,  may  have 
contributed  not  a  little  to  that  combination  of  straight- 
forward siuiplicity  and  moral  grandeur  for  which  Lin- 
coln was  afterwards  distinguished.  The  "  Pilgrim's 
Progress"  was  also  one  of  his  favourite  books  ;  and  its 
influence  u|)on  his  style  may  j^erhaps  be  traced  not 
merely  in  his  preference  for  forcible  and  racy  Saxon 
words,  but  also  in  that  homely  directness  of  expression 
by  which  all  his  speeches  and  writings  are  characterized. 

On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Black  Hawk  war,  in  the 
early  part  of  1832,  Lincoln  promptly  volunteered  for  the 
defence  of  the  frontier  settlements,  and  was  chosen  captain 
of  his  company.  The  war,  however,  having  been  speedily 
brought  to  a  close  before  he  had  an  opportunity  of  meet- 
ing the  enemy,  he  returned  to  the  pursuits  of  peace.  In 
the  political  contest  which  took  place  between  General 
Jackson  and  Henry  Clay  in  the  autumn  of  1832,  he  zeal- 
ously espoused  the  cause  of  the  latter,  for  whom  he 
had  felt  an  enthusiastic  admiration  from  his  boyhood. 
He  himself  was  a  candidate  for  the  State  legislature; 
and,  although  unsuccessful,  he  received  in  his  own  pre- 
cinct two  himdred  and  seventy-seven  votes  out  of  the 
two  hundred  and  eighty-four  which  had  been  cast ;  that 
is,  thirty-nine  fortieths  of  the  whole  number.  In  1834 
he  was  again  a  candidate  for  the  legislature,  and  was 
elected.  He  was  re-elected  in  1836.  In  March,  1837, 
he  gave  proof  of  the  uprightness  as  well  as  independ- 
ence of  his  character  by  recording  his  i^rotest  on  the 
journal  of  the  House  against  some  extreme  i^ro-slavery 
resolutions  which  had  been  passed  by  the  Democratic 
majority  in  the  legislature.  At  that  time  the  expression 
of  any  anti-slavery  sentiments  was  extremely  unpopular 
in  every  part  of  the  United  States,  but  perhaps  nowhere 
north  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  was  it  more  so  than  in 
Illinois.  Lincoln  and  another  member  who  shared  his 
views  declared  in  their  protest  that  "  they  believe  that 
the  institution  of  slavery  is  founded  in  injustice  and  bad 
policy."  Having  been  again  elected  to  the  legislature 
in  1838,  he  became  the  acknowledged  leader  of  the 
Whigs  in  the  House,  and  received  the  entire  vote  of  his 
party  for  the  speakership,  which  he  lost  by  only  one  vote. 
He  had  been  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1836,  and  in  April, 
1837,  he  established  himself  ]:)ermanently  in  Springfield 
and  commenced  the  practice  of  law  in  earnest,  with  John 
T.  Stuart  as  his  partner.  In  November,  1842,  he  mar- 
ried Miss  Mary  Todd,  daughter  of  Robert  S.  Todd,  Esq., 
of  Lexington,  Kentucky.  Having  accepted  the  nomi- 
nation for  Congress  in  1846,  he  was  triumphantly  elected, 
being  the  only  Whig  out  of  the  seven  representatives 
sent  by  Illinois  to  the  national  legislature.  During  the 
time  that  he  was  in  Congress  he  uniformlv  gave  his  voice 
in  favour  of  freedom,  voting  against  laying  on  the  table 
without  consideration  the  petitions  for  the  abolition  of 
slavery,  and  always  supporting  the  doctrines  of  the 
Wilmot  Proviso  whenever  any  measure  of  this  kind 
was  before  the  House.  The  passage  of  the  Nebraska 
bill  in  May,  1854,  involving  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise,  gave  everywhere  fresh  interest  and  ar- 
dour to  the  contest  between  freedom  and  slavery.  A 
United  States  Senator  was  to  be  chosen  by  the  Illinois 


e  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  y., guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (^Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LINCOLN 


1428 


LINCOLN 


legislature.  Lincoln  had  been  nominated  by  the  Repub- 
lican party  as  their  candidate  for  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States.  Judge  Douglas,  confessedly  the  ablest  politician 
and  best  debater  among  all  the  Democratic  leaders  of 
the  West,  was  the  opposing  candidate.  Lincoln  chal- 
lenged his  opponent  to  a  series  of  public  discussions 
respecting  the  views  and  policy  of  the  two  contending 
parties.  That  political  contest  first  fully  revealed  the 
versatility,  depth,  and  comprehensiveness  of  Mr.  Lin- 
coln's mind.  Even  some  of  those  belonging  to  the  party 
of  fudge  Douglas  admitted  that  the  latter  was  inferior 
to  his  opponent  both  in  learning  and  in  argument, — in 
short,  in  every  essential  qualification  for  the  discussion 
of  those  great  principles  which  were  then  agitating  the 
country  from  one  extremity  to  the  other.  As  the  elec- 
tion of  United  States  Senator  depended  on  the  legisla- 
ture, and  not  011  a  direct  vote  b^  the  people,  Douglas 
was  the  successful  competitor;  but  the  extraordinary 
al.)ility  displayed  by  Lincoln  in  the  discussion  above  re- 
ferred to,  led  to  his  nomination  by  the  Republican  party 
in  i860  as  their  candidate  for  the  Presidency.  No  Presi- 
dential contest  involving  issues  so  momentous  had  ever 
before  occurred.  The  general  election  then  about  to 
take  place  was  to  decide  the  all-important  question 
whether  the  blighting  influence  of  slavery  should  be 
allowed  to  extend  to  every  part  of  the  republic,  or  should 
thenceforward  be  restricted  to  the  territory  which  it 
already  possessed.  Never  before  had  any  Presidential 
election  so  strongly  excited  all  the  hopes  and  fears  of  the 
patriot,  all  the  affections  and  passions  of  the  people. 
It  took  place  on  the  6th  of  November,  i860.  Lincoln 
received  the  electoral  votes  of  all  the  free  States  except 
New  Jersey,  which  was  divided,  giving  him  four  votes 
and  Douglas  three.  Breckinridge  received  the  votes 
of  all  the  slave  States  except  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Missouri ;  the  three  former  voted  for  Bell, 
the  last  for  Douglas.  Lincoln  received  in  all  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  electoral  votes,  Breckinridge  seventy-two, 
Bell  thirty-nine,  and  Douglas  twelve. 

No  sooner  was  the  result  of  the  election  known  than 
several  of  the  Southern  States  made  preparations  for 
formally  separating  themselves  from  the  Federal  Union. 
South  Carolina  took  the  lead  in  the  secession  movement. 
The  legislature  convened  in  November  and  passed  an 
act  calling  a  State  convention  to  meet  on  the  17th  of 
December.  It  met  accordingly,  and  on  the  20th  an 
ordinance  was  passed  unanimously  dissolving  the  union 
till  then  "subsisting  between  South  Carolina  and  other 
States  under  the  name  of  the  United  States  of  America." 
It  was  evident,  from  the  language  of  the  leading  men  in 
that  convention,  that  the  ordinance  of  secession  was  not 
the  result  of  any  sudden  excitement  or  hastily-adopted 
resolution,  but  was  the  deliberate  fulfilment  of  a  settled 
and  long-cherished  purpose.  "The  secession  of  South 
Carolina,"  said  Mr.  Rhett,  "was  not  the  event  of  a  day." 
It  was  "a  matter  which  had  been  gathering  head  for 
thirty  years."  Mr.  Inglis  said  that  most  of  them  had 
had  it  "under  consideration  for  the  last  twenty  years." 
"So  far,"  says  Raymond,  "as  South  Carolina  was  con- 
cerned, there  can  be  no  doubt  that  her  action  was  de- 
cided by  men  who  had  been  plotting  disunion  for  thirty 
years,  not  on  account  of  any  wrongs  her  people  had  sus- 
tained at  the  hands  of  the  Federal  government,  but  from 
motives  of  personal  and  sectional  ambition,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  a  government  which  should  be 
permanently  and  completely  in  the  interest  of  slavery." 
("Lincoln's  Administration,"  chap,  i.)  Following  the 
example  of  South  Carolina,  Mississippi  passed  an  ordi- 
nance of  secession  on  the  9th  of  January,  1861,*  Florida 
January  10,  Alabama  January  ii,  Georgia  January  18, 
Louisiana  January  26,  Texas  February  i.  Thus,  more 
than  a  month  previous  to  the  expiration  of  Mr.  Buch- 
anan's term  of  office,  seven  States  had  done  all  that 
lay  in  their  power  to  dissolve  their  connection  with  the 
Union.  Delegates  appointed  by  the  conventions  of  the 
seceding  States  met  at  Montgomery  early  in  February, 
and  formed  a  new  Confederacy,  of  which  Jefferson  Davis, 
of  Mississippi,  was  elected  President,  and  Alexander  H. 

_  *  Tliese  dates,  and  most  of  the  others  in  this  article  connected 
with  the  events  of  the  rebellion,  are  taken  from  Greeley's  "American 
Conflict." 


Stephens,  of  Georgia,  Vice-President.  Not  long  after, 
Mr.  Stephens,  in  an  elaborate  speech  addressed  to  the 
people  of  Savannah,  attempted  to  vindicate  the  course 
of  the  seceders  in  setting  up  a  new  government  in  oppo- 
sition to  that  of  the  United  States.  On  that  occasion  he 
said  that  the  prevailing  ideas  of  Jefferson  and  "most 
of  the  leading  statesmen  at  the  time  of  the  formation  of 
the  old  Constitution  were  that  the  enslavement  of  the 
African  was  a  violation  of  the  laws  of  nature,  that  it  was 
wrong  in  principle,  socially,  morally,  politically.  .  ,  . 
These  ideas,  however,  were  fundamentally  wrong.  They 
rested  upon  the  assumption  of  the  equality  of  races. 
This  was  an  error.  .  .  .  Our  new  government  was 
founded  upon  exactly  the  opposite  ideas  ;  its  foundations 
are  laid,  its  corner-stone  rests,  upon  the  great  truth  that 
the  negro  is  not  equal  to  the  white  man  ;  that  slavery, 
subordination  to  the  superior  race,  is  his  natural  and 
normal  condition.  This,  our  new  government,  is  the 
first  in  the  history  of  the  world  based  upon  this  great 
physical,  philosophical,  and  moral  truth." 

While  President  Buchanan  took  the  ground  that  the 
Federal  government  had  no  right  to  coerce  the  seceding 
States,  several  members  of  the  cabinet  had  not  neglected 
the  opportunities  which  their  official  posidon  afforded,  of 
promoting  the  interests  of  the  Southern  Confederacy. 
The  secretary  of  war,  John  B.  Floyd,  took  care  to  make 
such  a  disposition  of  the  Federal  arms  and  ammunition 
that  in  case  the  new  administration  should  be  disposed 
to  adopt  a  more  decisive  policy  it  would  find  its  energies 
paralyzed  by  a  total  want  of  the  material  of  war,  while 
the  revolted  States,  in  case  of  necessity,  might  readily 
possess  themselves  of  that  very  material  which  had  been 
thus  adroitly  placed  beyond  the  reach  of  the  Federal 
government.  An  official  report  from  the  ordnance 
department,  dated  January  16,  1861,  shows  that  during 
the  year  i860  115,000  muskets  had  been  removed  from 
Northern  armories  and  sent  to  Southern  arsenals  by  a 
single  order  of  the  secretary  of  war  ;  and  it  was  claimed 
for  him,  by  one  of  his  eulogists  in  Virginia,  that,  while 
a  member  of  President  Buchanan's  cabinet,  Mr.  Floyd 
"thwarted,  resisted,  and  forbade"  certain  measures 
which,  if  carried  into  effect,  would  have  rendered  the 
formation  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  impossible. 

It  was  under  such  circumstances  as  these — with  seven 
of  the  most  influential  of  the  United  States  in  open  re- 
volt, and  several  others  on  the  eve  of  secession, — with 
timorous  indecision  at  the  head  of  the  government,  and 
secret  treason  lurking  not  only  among  the  members 
of  the  cabinet,  but  also  among  the  officers  of  the  army 
and  navy — that  Abraham  Lincoln,  on  the  iith  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1861,  left  his  Western  home  and  proceeded  to 
Washington  to  take  into  his  hands  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment. His  brief  parting  words  to  his  friends  at  Spring- 
field reveal  at  one  view  the  simple,  manly  earnestness 
of  his  character,  and  that  humble  but  unfaltering  trust 
in  God  by  which  he  was  sustained  through  all  the  perils 
and  darkness  which  surrounded  his  administration.  "  My 
Friends  :  No  one  not  in  my  position  can  appreciate  the 
sadness  I  feel  at  this  parting.  To  this  people  I  owe  all 
that  I  am.  Here  I  have  lived  more  than  a  quarter  of  a 
century ;  here  my  children  were  born,  and  here  one  of 
them  lies  buried.  I  know  not  how  soon  I  shall  see  you 
again.  A  duty  devolves  upon  me  which  is,  perhaps, 
greater  than  that  which  has  devolved  upon  any  other 
man  since  the  days  of  Washington.  He  never  would 
have  succeeded  except  for  the  aid  of  divine  Providence, 
upon  which  he  at  all  times  relied.  I  feel  that  I  cannot 
succeed  without  the  same  divine  aid  which  sustained 
him ;  and  on  the  same  almighty  Being  I  place  my  reli- 
ance for  support ;  and  I  hope  you,  my  friends,  will  all 
pray  that  I  may  receive  that  divine  assistance,  without 
which  I  cannot  succeed,  but  with  which  success  is 
certain.    Again  I  bid  you  all  an  affectionate  farewell." 

A  rumotir  was  current  some  time  before  the  President- 
elect left  his  home  in  Illinois,  that  he  would  never  reach 
the  national  capital  alive.  An  attempt  was  made  (Feb- 
ruary II)  on  the  Toledo  and  Western  Railroad  to  throw 
from  the  track  the  train  on  which  he  was  ;  and  after- 
wards, just  as  he  was  leaving  Cincinnati,  a  hand-grenade 
was  found  to  have  been  secreted  on  the  car.  A  plot  had 
likewise  been  formed  to  take  his  life  during  his  passage 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  go6d;  moon* 


LINCOLN 


1429 


LINCOLN 


through  Baltimore  on  his  way  to  Washington.  Mr. 
Seward  and  General  Scott,  having  been  informed  of 
that  fact,  arranged  it  that  Lincoln  should  pass  through 
Baltimore  several  hours  earlier  than  had  at  first  been 
proposed.  The  plans  of  the  conspirators  were  thus 
frustrated,  and  the  President-elect  reached  Washington 
in  safety  on  the  morning  of  the  23d  of  February. 

Mr.  Lincoln  was  inaugurated  as  President  of  the 
United  States  on  the  4th  of  March,  i86r.  In  his  ad- 
dress on  that  occasion  he  mildly  but  distinctly  and 
firmly  announced  his  purpose  to  "  take  care  that  the 
laws  of  the  Union  be  faithfully  executed  in  all  the  States." 
"I  trust,"  he  adds,  "this  will  not  be  regarded  as  a 
menace.  .  .  .  There  need  be  no  bloodshed  or  violence  ; 
and  there  shall  be  none,  unless  it  be  forced  upon  the 
national  authority.  The  power  confided  to  me  will  be 
used  to  hold,  occupy,  and  possess  the  property  and  places 
belonging  to  the  government,  and  to  collect  the  duties 
and  imposts ;  but,  beyond  what  may  be  necessary  for 
these  objects,  there  will  be  no  invasion,  no  using  of  force 
against  or  among  the  people,  anywhere.  .  .  .  The  mails, 
unless  repelled,  will  continue  to  be  furnished  in  all  parts 
of  the  Union.  So  far  as  possible,  the  people  everywhere 
shall  have  that  sense  of  perfect  security  which  is  most 
favourable  to  calm  thought  and  reflection.  .  .  .  Physically 
speaking,  we  cannot  separate.  We  cannot  remove  our 
respective  sections  from  each  other,  nor  build  an  impass- 
able wall  between  them.  A  husband  and  wife  may  be 
divorced  and  go  out  of  the  presence  and  beyond  the 
reach  of  each  other  ;  but  the  different  parts  of  our  coun- 
try cannot  do  this.  They  cannot  but  remain  face  to  face  ; 
and  intercourse,  either  amicable  or  hostile,  must  continue 
between  them.  Is  it  possible,  then,  to  make  the  inter- 
course more  advantageous  or  more  satisfactory  after 
separation  than  before  ?  .  .  .  The  Chief  Magistrate 

DERIVES  ALL  HIS  AUTHORITY  FROM  THE  PEOPLE  ;  AND 
THEY  HAVE  CONFERRED  NONE  UPON  HIM  TO  FIX  TERMS 
FOR  THE  SEPARATION  OF  THE  States.  .  .  .  His  DUTY  IS 
TO  ADMINISTER  THE  PRESENT  GOVERNMENT  AS  IT  CAME 
INTO  HIS  HANDS,  AND  TO  TRANSMIT  IT  UNIMPAIRED  BY 
HIM  TO  HIS  SUCCESSOR. 

"My  countrymen,  one  and  all,  think  calmly  and  well 
upon  this  whole  subject.  Nothing  valuable  can  be  lost 
by  taking  time.  If  there  be  an  object  to  hurry  any  of 
you  in  hot  haste  to  a  step  which  you  would  never  take 
deliberately,  that  object  will  be  frustrated  by  taking 
time  ;  but  no  good  object  can  be  frustrated  by  it.  .  .  . 

"  In  your  hands,  my  dissatisfied  fellow-countrymen, 
and  not  in  mine,  is  the  momentous  issue  of  civil  war. 
.  .  .  You  can  have  no  conflict  without  being  yourselves 
the  aggressors.  You  have  no  oath  registered  in  heaven 
to  destroy  the  government,  while  I  shall  have  the  most 
solemn  one  to  'preserve,  protect,  and  defend'  it."  Mr. 
Lincoln  did  not  deny  that  the  laws  of  the  Federal  gov- 
ernment, and  even  the  Constitution  itself,  might  perhaps 
bear  unequally  and  hardly  upon  some  sections  of  the 
country;  but  he  thought  that  all  grievances  of  this  kind 
would  be  far  more  likely  to  be  properly  redressed  through 
a  calm  and  friendly  appeal  to  the  sense  of  justice  in  the 
people  than  by  violence  or  war. 

It  was  enough,  however,  for  the  slave-holding  party 
that  he  denied  not  merely  the  expediency  but  the  right 
of  any  State  or  sectional  combination  of  States  to  se- 
cede. This  was  considered  equivalent  to  a  declaration 
of  war;  and  aCtive  preparations  for  the  coming  struggle 
were  at  once  commenced  throughout  the  seceded  States. 
The  moderate,  reasonable,  and  conciliatory  tone  of  the 
Inaugural  had,  it  cannot  be  doubted,  a  most  happy  effect, 
not  only  in  uniting  and  consolidating,  so  to  speak,  the 
public  sentiment  of  the  North,  but  also  in  encouraging 
all  those  in  the  border  States  who,  whatever  may  have 
been  their  views  in  relation  to  slavery,  had  not  yet  cast 
off  all  attachment  to  the  national  flag  and  the  Federal 
Union.  Fort  Sumter,  in  the  harbour  of  Charleston,  was 
occupied  by  a  United  States  garrison,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Major  Anderson.  General  Beauregard,  on  the 
part  of  the  Southern  Confederacy,  demanded  its  sur- 
render. To  this  demand,  which  was  made  on  the  nth 
of  April,  Major  Anderson  at  once  replied  that  his  "sense 
of  honour  and  his  obligations  to  his  government  prevented 
his  compliance."    Early  on  the  12th  an  attack  on  the  fort 


was  commenced,  and  kept  up  with  the  utmost  fury  with 
shells  and  red-hot  cannon-balls,  in  consequence  of  which 
Major  Anderson,  after  a  gallant  resistance  of  thirty-three 
hours,  was  at  length  obliged  to  evacuate  the  place,  which 
he  did  on  the  morning  of  the  14th.  The  bombardment 
of  Fort  Sumter  was  the  first  aggressive  act  committed 
on  either  side.  It  produced  a  deep  and  intense  excite- 
ment throughout  the  Northern  States,  breaking  down 
for  a  time  all  party  distinctions,  and  uniting  the  whole 
people  in  an  earnest,  unfaltering  purpose  to  support  the 
government.*  The  President,  justly  regarding  this  un- 
provoked attack  upon  a  United  States  fort  as  the  com- 
mencement of  actual  war,  issued  on  the  next  day  (April 
15)  a  proclamation  directing  both  Houses  of  Congress 
to  meet  in  extra  session  on  the  4th  of  July  following, 
and  calling  out  "the  militia  of  the  several  States  of  the 
Union,  to  the  aggregate  number  of  75,000,"  for  the  pur- 
pose of  supporting  tlie  authority  and  enforcing  the  laws 
of  the  Federal  Union.  It  was  not,  however,  merely  for 
maintaining  the  authority  of  the  government  that  troops 
were  needed,  but  for  the  defence  of  the  national  capital 
itself.  The  President  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  had 
declared,  more  than  a  month  before,  that  whenever  war 
should  commence  the  North  and  not  the  South  should 
be  the  battle-field  ;  and  the  recent  attack  on  Fort  Sumter 
was  a  sufficient  proof  that  no  veneration  for  the  national 
flag  nor  any  lurking  scruples  of  any  kind  would  be  likely 
to  prevent  the  carrying  out  of  that  threat  if  it  were  pos- 
sible to  accomplish  it.  All  the  Northern  States  responded 
to  the  demand  of  President  Lincoln  with  the  utmost 
alacrity  and  zeal.  Massachusetts — be  it  said  to  her 
immortal  honour — was  the  first  in  the  field.  The 
next  day  after  the  issue  of  the  proclamation,  her  Sixth 
regiment  left  Boston  for  the  national  capital.  Two 
more  regiments  set  out  within  forty-eight  hours.  The 
Sixth  regiment  was  attacked  (April  19)  in  Baltimore 
by  a  moi)  carrying  a  secession  flag,  and  several  of 
the  soldiers  were  killed  or  severely  wounded.  Gov- 
ernor Hicks  having  united  with  Mayor  Brown,  of  Balti- 
more, in  urging,  for  prudential  reasons,  that  no  more 
troops  should  be  brought  through  that  city,  it  was  ar- 
ranged that  those  needed  for  the  defence  of  Washington 
should  in  future  be  sent  thither  by  way  of  Annapolis. 
On  the  19th  of  April  President  Lincoln  issued  a  procla- 
mation blockading  the  ports  of  the  seceded  States.  The 
excitement  caused  by  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter, 
which  tended  so  powerfully  to  unite  public  sentiment  at 
the  North,  appeared  to  have  produced  a  still  greater 
effect  in  the  Southern  States,  where  the  enthusiasm 
of  the  people  was  inflamed  almost  to  frenzy  by  what 
seemed  the  brilliant  success  of  the  Confederates,  in  re- 
ducing so  quickly  a  fortress  which  was  regarded  as  one 
of  the  strongest  in  the  United  States,  though  it  was  at 
that  time  feebly  garrisoned  and  supplied  with  provisions 
for  a  few  days  only.  Yielding  to  this  whirlwind  of  ex- 
citement, the  legislature  of  Virginia,  on  the  17th  of 
April,  (three  days  after  the  taking  of  Fort  Sumter,) 
passed  an  ordinance  of  secession  by  a  vote  of  88  to  55. 
Not  long  after,  the  State  Convention  of  North  Carolina, 
elected  during  the  excitement  which  followed  the  cap- 
ture of  Sumter,  passed  unanimously  an  ordinance  of 
secession. 

The  most  active  preparations  were  made  on  both  sides 
for  the  contest  which  was  now  inevitable.  In  the  seceding 
States  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  troops  had  been 
raised,  of  which  the  larger  portion  had  been  marched 
towards  the  Northern  border.  The  greatness  of  the  force 
arrayed  against  the  government  made  an  additional  sup- 
ply of  troops  necessary  for  the  security  of  the  national 
capital.  A  second  proclamation  was  issued  on  the  3d 
of  May,  calling  into  the  United  States  service  a  large 
number  of  volunteers,  and  greatly  increasing  the  force 
both  of  the  army  and  navy.  The  difficulties  surrounding 
the  new  administration  were  rendered  still  more  for- 
midable by  the  precipitate  action  of  the  French  and 
English  governments,  which,  as  soon  as  information  was 

*  The  very  next  day  after  Major  Anderson  had  evacuated  the  ruins 
of  Fort  Sumter,  a  leading  journal  of  New  York  (the  "  Tribune")  aptly 
and  forcibly  observed,  "  P^ort  Sumter  is  lost,  but  freedom  is  saved. 
...  It  is  hard  to  lose  Sumter ;  it  is  a  consolation  to  know  that  in 
losing  it  we  have  gained  a  united  people." 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  2y) 


LINCOLN 


1430 


LINCOLN 


received  that  hostilities  had  actually  begun  in  America, 
determined,  in  concert,  to  acknowledge  the  Southern 
Confederacy  as  a  belligerent  power. 

In  accordance  with  the  proclamation  of  the  15th  of 
April,  Congress  met  in  extra  session,  July  4,  1861,  In 
the  message  which  on  that  occasion  the  President  ad- 
dressed to  the  Senators  and  representatives,  after  re- 
viewing the  condition  of  the  country  and  ex])laining 
the  course  of  the  government,  he  proceeds  to  say, — 

"  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  assault  upon  and  reduction 
of  Fort  Sumter  was  iii  no  sense  a  matter  of  self-defence 
upon  the  part  of  the  assailants.  They  well  knew  that 
the  garrison  in  the  fort  could  by  no  possibility  commit 
aggression  upon  them.  They  knew,  they  were  expressly 
notified,  that  the  giving  of  bread  to  the  few  brave  and 
hungry  men  of  the  garrison  was  all  which  would  on  that 
occasion  be  attempted,  unless  themselves,  by  resisting 
so  much,  should  provoke  more.  ^^Fhey  knew  that  this 
government  desired  to  keep  the  garrison  in  the  fort,  not 
to  assail  them,  but  to  maintain  visible  possession,  and 
thus  to  preserve  the  Union  from  actual  and  immediate 
dissolution,  trusting,  as  before  stated,  to  time,  discussion, 
and  the  ballot-box  for  final  adjustment ;  and  they  assailed 
and  reduced  the  fort  for  precisely  the  reverse  object,  to 
drive  out  the  visible  authority  of  the  Federal  Union  and 
thus  force  it  to  immediate  dissolution.  ...  In  this  act, 
discarding  all  else,  they  have  forced  upon  the  country 
the  distinct  issue,  'immediate  dissolution  or  blood.' 

"And  this  issue  embraces  more  than  the  fate  of 
these  United  States.  It  presents  to  the  whole  family  of 
man  the  question  whether  a  constitutional  republic  or 
democracy — a  government  of  the  people  by  the  same 
people — can  or  cannot  maintain  its  territorial  integrity 
against  its  own  domestic  foes.  .  .  . 

"  It  was  with  the  deepest  regret  that  the  Executive 
found  the  duty  of  employing  the  war-power  in  defence 
of  the  government  forced  upon  him.  He  could  but  per- 
form this  duty  or  surrender  the  existence  of  the  govern- 
ment. .  .  .  As  a  private  citizen,  the  Executive  could  not 
have  consented  that  these  institutions  should  perish  ; 
much  less  could  he,  in  betrayal  of  so  vast  and  so  sacred 
a  trust  as  these  free  people  have  confided  to  him.  He 
felt  that  he  had  no  right  to  shrink,  or  even  to  count  the 
chances  of  his  own  life,  in  what  might  follow." 

There  were  a  few  members  in  both  Houses  who  in- 
sisted that  any  employment  of  the.  war-power  against 
the  rebels  was  unconstitutional  ;  but  the  genera]  senti- 
ment of  Congress  fully  sustained  the  President  in  the 
course  he  had  taken.  On  July  15,  Mr.  McClernand,  a 
Democratic  member  from  Illinois,  offered  a  resolution 
pledging  the  Plouse  to  vote  any  amount  of  money  and 
any  number  of  men  necessary  to  suppress  the  rebellion 
and  restore  the  authority  of  the  government.  This  reso- 
lution was  adopted  with  but  five  dissenting  votes.  The 
spirited  action  of  Congress  seemed  to  inspire  the  people 
everywhere  throughout  the  North  with  renewed  hope 
and  confidence.  Towards  the  latter  part  of  June,  a  large 
rebel  force  had  occupied  a  strong  position  on  Bull  Run 
Creek,  near  Manassas.  It  was  resolved  on  the  part  of 
the  Federal  government  to  attack  and  drive  back  this 
force  ;  and  the  belief  was  generally  entertained  that  a 
single  decided  success  on  the  part  of  the  Union  armies 
would  put  an  end  to  the  war.  The  Federal  forces,  com- 
manded by  General  McDowell,  made  an  attack  upon 
the  position  of  the  rebels  on  the  21st  of  July  ;  but  they 
met  with  a  disastrous  defeat,  and  were  driven  back  in 
great  disorder  towards  Washington.  Then,  for  the  first 
time,  the  Northern  States  realized  the  greatness  of  the 
conflict  which  was  before  them.  They  then  understood 
how  great  were  the  advantages  possessed  by  the  Con- 
federates in  consequence  of  their  having  been  for  years 
preparing  for  war.  No  inconsiderable  portion  of  their 
troops  had  been  thoroughly  disciplined  under  excellent 
officers,  while  many  of  the  Northern  troops  had  scarcely 
any  discipline  at  all.  Add  to  this  that  a  large  proportion 
of  the  best  and  most  experienced  officers  in  the  regular 
army  of  the  United  States  had  resigned  their  commis- 
sions and  joined  the  Confederate  cause.  All  the  prin- 
cipal Confederate  officers,  with  scarcely  an  exception, 
had  been  educated  at  the  national  military  academy  at 
West  Point,  and  had  afterwards  held  important  positions 


in  the  regular  army.  It  may  suffice  to  cite  the  names  of 
Generals  Joseph  PI  and  Albert  Sydney  Johnston,  Jeffer- 
son Davis,  the  President  of  the  Southern  Confederacy, 
and  General  Robert  E.  Lee,  regarded,  at  the  time  of  the 
breaking  out  of  the  rebellion,  as  by  far  the  ablest  officer 
in  the  United  States  army,  General  Scott  having  become 
through  age  and  infirmities  unequal  to  the  duties  of  the 
field.  But  the  disaster  of  Bull  Run  damped  the  hopes 
of  the  Unionists  for  a  moment  only.  After  the  first 
surprise  was  over,  its  effect  was  to  rouse  the  courage  and 
determination  of  the  people  to  the  highest  point.  Vol- 
unteers flocked  by  thousands  to  join  the  national  army. 
From  the  time  of  Lincoln's  inauguration,  through  all  the 
anxious  months  of  the  spring  and  summer  of  1861,  Gene- 
ral Scott  had  retained  his  position  as  commander  of  the 
armies  of  the  United  States,  and  had  given  the  govern- 
ment the  benefit  of  his  wisdom  and  experience  and  the 
support  of  his  great  influence  and  unwavering  loyalty. 
At  length,  on  the  31st  of  October,  in  consequence  of  ill 
health  and  advancing  age,  he  applied  to  the  secretary  of 
war  to  be  released  from  active  service.  He  was  accord- 
ingly placed  upon  the  list  of  retired  officers  of  the  army 
of  the  United  States,  but  retaining  his  full  pay,  according 
to  a  special  provision  passed  by  Congress  in  the  summer 
session.  At  the  recommendation  of  General  Scott,  Gene- 
ral McClellan,  who  had  obtained  marked  distinction  by 
his  success  during  the  summer  of  1 861  in  clearing 
Western  Virginia  of  rebel  troops,  was  called  to  Wash- 
ington and  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Federal 
forces.  He  at  once  commenced  a  thorough  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  army,  and  before  many  months  brought  it 
into  a  state  of  high  and  efficient  discipline.  Unfortunately, 
his  sympathies  were  rather  with  the  moderate  slav^e- 
holders  than  with  the  staunch  supporters  of  the  govern- 
ment, and,  when  it  became  necessary  to  sacrifice  slavery 
in  order  to  save  the  republic,  he  could  not  nerve  himself 
to  the  task.  In  a  war  of  a  different  kind,  requiring  simply 
vigilance,  skill,  and  the  spirit  of  conciliation,  he  might 
have  earned  enduring  laurels.  But  the  Confederates  had 
gone  too  far  to  be  won  back  by  conciliation.  As  nothing 
could  satisfy  them  short  of  breaking  up  the  Union,  so 
nothing  was  left  for  the  Federal  government,  if  it  would 
escape  general  disru])tion  and  utter  ruin,  but  to  suppress 
the  rebellion  by  force  of  arms. 

The  forces  under  the  immediate  command  of  General 
McClellan  having  remained  inactive  during  most  of  the 
winter  of  1861-62,  President  Lincoln  issued  on  the  27th 
of  January,  1862,  an  order  that  on  the  22d  of  February  a 
general  movement  against  the  insurgents  should  be  made 
by  the  land  and  naval  forces  of  the  United  States.  Gene- 
ral McClellan  at  first  objected,  in  a  letter  to  the  secre- 
tary of  war,  to  the  plan  of  operations  which  he  had  been 
directed  to  pursue.  At  length,  on  the  13th  of  March,  a 
council  of  war  was  held,  in  which  it  was  decided  to  ad- 
vance against  Richmond  from  Fortress  Monroe.  The 
army  was  conveyed  by  water  down  the  Potomac  and 
Chesapeake  Bay  to  the  mouth  of  James  River.  Soon 
after  the  commencement  of  the  campaign.  General 
McClellan  began  to  complain  that  he  was  not  properly 
supported  by  the  Executive  at  Washington.  Advancing 
into  the  heart  of  a  hostile  country,  where  his  enemies, 
by  means  of  the  railroads,  which  they  could  completely 
control,  might  concentrate,  at  a  very  short  notice,  all  their 
available  force  at  or  near  the  point  of  threatened  attack, 
it  behooved  him,  undoubtedly,  to  use  great  circumspec- 
tion. Unhappily,  the  extreme  precautions  which  he  took 
against  a  doubtful  or  contingent  peril  had  no  other  effect 
than  to  surround  him  with  real  dangers  of  the  most  for- 
midable character.  His  movements  were  so  slow  and 
hesitating  that  the  Confederates  not  only  had  time  to 
assemble  their  forces  from  distant  points  and  erect  ex- 
tensive fortifications,  but  even  to  raise  and  discipline 
large  reinforcements  of  fresh  troops.  Had  he  early  in 
April  advanced  with  his  army  against  Yorktown,  he 
would  have  met  with  a  feeble  resistance,  and  might,  in 
all  probability,  have  pushed  on  at  once  to  the  conquest 
of  Richmond.  But  he  decided  to  approach  it  by  a  regular 
siege  ;  extensive  earthworks  were  thrown  up,  and  the 
campaign  was  protracted  into  the  hottest  part  of  the 
summer.  His  troops,  compelled  to  encamp  among  the 
swamps  adjacent  to  the  Chickahominy,  perished  in  great 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LINCOLN 


LINCOLN 


numbers  from  disease.  At  last,  after  a  series  of  sangui- 
nary but  indecisive  conflicts,  the  army  was  forced  to 
retreat.  It  was  moved  in  August  from  James  River  by 
water  to  Aqui'a  Creek,  on  the  Potomac,  some  forty  miles 
below  Washington.  About  the  same  time  the  army  of 
General  Pope,  after  several  days  of  hard  fighting  near 
Manassas  and  Centre ville,  was  driven  back  with  heavy 
loss  upon  Washington.  There  was  perhaps  no  darker 
period  during  the  whole  war  than  that  in  which  the 
summer  of  1862  came  to  a  close  ;  and  we  may  safely  say 
that  no  one  throughout  the  land  felt  more  deeply  the 
reverses  and  sufferings  of  his  countrymen  than  President 
Lincoln. 

On  the  2d  of  September,  General  McClellan  took 
command  of  all  the  available  troops  for  the  defence  of 
the  capital.  General  Lee,  having  crossed  the  Potomac 
(September  5)  into  Maryland,  was  attacked  and  de- 
feated by  McClellan  at  Antietam  on  the  i6th  and  17th 
of  September.  He  retreated  into  Virginia,  and  was  not 
pursued.  Early  in  October  McClellan  was  ordered  to 
cross  the  Potomac  and  give  battle  to  the  enemy  or  drive 
him  southward ;  but,  having  delayed  his  advance  for 
about  three  weeks,  he  was  removed  from  his  command, 
by  an  order  dated  November  5.  General  Burnside,  who 
succeeded  McClellan  as  commander  of  the  army  of  the 
Potomac,  attacked  (December  13)  General  Lee,  then 
occupying  a  strongly-fortified  position  at  Fredericks- 
burg, and  was  repulsed  with  severe  loss.  Again,  on  the 
2d  and  3d  of  May,  1863,  General  Hooker  was  worsted 
by  General  Lee  in  a  very  hard-fought  battle  at  Chancel- 
lorsville.  The  great  and  repeated  disasters  experienced 
by  the  Union  armies  from  the  beginning  of  the  war,  but 
more  particularly  those  of  the  summer  of  1862,  appear 
to  have  prepared  the  people  of  the  Northern  States  for 
the  adoption  of  a  more  radical  policy  on  the  part  of  the 
government.  At  first  it  had  been  the  aim  of  the  Execu- 
tive to  preserve  the  Union  with  all  the  provisions  of  the 
Constitution  as  it  was  originally  adopted.  But,  the  slave- 
holders having  by  their  rebellion  forfeited  all  claim  to 
the  protection  of  that  instrument,  it  might  become  ex- 
pedient or  necessary  to  assail  them  on  the  side  where 
they  were  confessedly  weakest, — viz.,  through  the  institu- 
tion of  slavery.  President  Lincoln  had  been  censured 
by  some  for  not  taking  a  more  decided  position  on  the 
subject  of  slavery  at  the  commencement  of  the  war  ;  but 
he  had  very  strong  reasons  for  the  line  of  policy  which 
he  had  hitherto  thought  proper  to  pursue.  So  powerful 
was  the  influence,  so  plausible  the  arguments,  brought 
by  the  Confederates  to  bear  upon  the  border  States,  that 
it  was  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  Maryland, 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Missouri  could  be  preventecl 
from  following  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  and  joining 
the  rebellion.  If,  then,  the  Federal  government,  with 
those  States  stancling  neutral  or  divided,  was  able  to  re- 
establish its  authority  only  after  years  of  conflict  and  the 
loss  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  lives,  what  might  have 
been  the  issue  had  those  four  populous  and  warlike 
States  from  the  very  commencement  of  the  war  been 
closely  and  firmly  united  with  the  Confederacy.'*  Had 
President  Lincoln  at  once,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the 
rebellion,  attempted  the  overthrow  of  slavery,  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  all  the  above-named  States  would 
have  arrayed  themselves  against  the  government,  and 
the  theatre  of  war,  instead  of  being  almost  exclusively 
confined  to  the  territory  of  the  slave  States,  would,  in  all 
probability,  have  been  extended  to  the  adjacent  free 
States, — to  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  if  not  still  farther. 
Nor  would  this  have  been  the  only  misfortune  ;  such  an 
attempt  would,  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted,  have  divided 
the  people  in  many  of  the  free  States,  and  prevented 
them  from  giving  the  government  that  cordial  and  united 
support  so  indispensable  to  the  Union  cause  in  such  a 
crisis. 

The  conscientious  and  anxious  desire  evinced  by  the 
President  to  respect  the  constitutional  rights  of  every 
section  of  the  country,  if  it  produced  no  favourable  influ- 
ence upon  the  minds  of  the  Confederates,  had  at  least 
the  effect  of  gaining  over  to  his  cause  multitudes  of  his 
political  opponents  in  the  Northern  as  well  as  in  the  bor- 
der States  ;  so  that  tens  of  thousands  who  had  opposed 
his  election  in  i860  became,  before  the  close  of  his  first 


Presidential  term,  of  the  number  of  his  most  cordial 
supporters.  He  considered  it,  indeed,  to  be  not  merely 
expedient,  but  to  be  his  imperative  duty,  to  weigh  care- 
fully all  the  circumstances  by  which  he  was  surrounded. 
A  religious  or  moral  reformer  may  very  properly  content 
himself  with  merely  proclaiming  and  expounding  great 
truths,  and  then  leave  the  minds  of  men  to  embrace 
them,  as  they  may  be  prepared  to  do  so.  But  he  who, 
being  placed  at  the  head  of  a  government,  neglects  to 
consider  the  question  whether  his  measures  are  prac- 
ticable, or  whether  they  are  or  are  not  adapted  to  the 
actual  condition  and  wants  of  the  people,  can  have  no 
claim  to  the  name  of  statesman,  although  he  may  pos- 
sibly merit  that  of  a  far-seeing  reformer  or  philanthropist. 

To  some,  who  were  urging  him  to  issue  at  once  a 
proclamation  of  emancipation,  intimating  that  they  felt 
assured  it  was  the  will  of  God  that  he  should  do  so, 
Lincoln  replied,  "I  hope  it  will  not  be  irreverent  for  me 
to  say  that,  if  it  is  probable  that  God  would  reveal  his 
will  to  others  on  a  point  so  connected  with  my  duty,  it 
might  be  supposed  he  would  reveal  it  directly  to  me  ; 
for,  unless  I  am  more  deceived  in  myself  than  I  often 
am,  it  is  my  earnest  desire  to  know  the  will  of  Providence 
in  this  matter  ;  and  if  I  can  learn  what  it  is,  I  will  do  it." 
At  another  time  he  said,  "There  are  50,000  bayonets  in 
the  Union  army  from  the  border  slave  States.  It  would 
be  a  serious  matter  if,  in  consequence  of  a  proclamation 
such  as  you  desire,  they  should  go  over  to  the  rebels. 
.  .  .  Every  day  increases  their  Union  feeling."  He  dili- 
gently sought  every  opportunity  of  informing  himself  re- 
specting the  condition  of  public  sentiment,  especially  in 
regard  to  the  question  of  emancipation.  A  great  change 
in  the  minds  of  the  people  had  undoubtedly  taken  place 
in  this  respect,  not  only  in  the  North,  but  also  in  several 
of  the  slave  States.  After  mature  deliberation,  being  at 
length  satisfied  that  the  welfare  of  the  country  would  be 
promoted  by  such  a  measure,  and  that  public  senti- 
ment would  sustain  it,  he  issued  (September  22,  1862)  a 
proclamation  of  emancipation,  in  which  it  was  declared 
that  on  the  first  day  of  January,  1863,  "all  persons  held 
as  slaves  within  any  State,  or  designated  part  of  a  State, 
the  people  whereof  shall  then  be  in  rebellion  against  the 
United  States,  shall  be  then,  thenceforward,  and  forever 
free  ;  and  the  executive  government  of  the  United  States, 
including  the  military  and  naval  authority  thereof,  will 
recognize  and  maintain  the  freedom  of  such  persons, 
and  will  do  no  act  or  acts  to  repress  such  persons,  or 
any  of  them,  in  any  efforts  they  may  make  for  their 
actual  freedom." 

After  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville  the  tide  of  success 
seemed  to  turn  in  favour  of  the  Union  cause.  This  is 
not  the  place  to  go  into  any  detailed  account  of  the 
movements  of  the  different  armies.  It  may  suflice  briefly 
to  notice  a  few  of  the  principal  battles  which  constituted, 
so  to  speak,  turning-points  in  the  history  of  the  war,  and 
which  had  an  immediate  and  important  influence  in 
bringing  it  to  a  close. 

On  the  3d  of  July,  1863,  the  army  of  the  Potomac, 
under  General  Meade,  defeated  the  rebel  forces,  com- 
manded by  General  Lee,  in  a  great  battle  (which  had 
lasted  three  days)  near  Gettysburg,  in  Pennsylvania. 
On  the  4th  of  the  same  month.  General  Grant  cap- 
tured Vicksburg,  after  a  long  and  most  obstinate  defence 
on  the  part  of  the  garrison,  and  in  spite  of  the  strenuous 
efforts  of  the  Confederate  general  Joseph  E.  Johnston  to 
raise  the  siege.  The  number  of  Confederate  troops 
paroled  at  Vicksburg  was  about  27,000,  of  whom  only 
15,000  were  fit  for  duty.  "This,"  says  Mr.  Greeley, 
"  was  the  heaviest  single  blow  ever  given  to  the  muscu- 
lar resources  of  the  rebellion  ;  and  no  other  campaign 
in  the  war  equals  in  brilliancy  of  conception  and  general 
success  in  execution  that  which  resulted  in  the  capitula- 
tion of  Vicksburg."  As  Commander  Farragut,  supported 
by  a  land-army  under  General  Butler,  had  already  (April, 
1862)  taken  possession  of  New  Orleans,  the  conquest 
of  Vicksburg  gave  to  the  Unionists  the  command  of  the 
Mississippi  throughout  its  entire  length. 

The  courage,  skill,  and,  above  all,  the  unconquerable 
energy  displayed  by  General  Grant  in  the  siege  and 
capture  of  Vicksburg,  seemed  to  point  him  out  to  the 
government  as  pre-eminently  qualified  to  conduct  a  war 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,  (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LINCOLN 


1432 


LINCOLN 


in  which  a  wise  foresight,  an  untiring  vigilance,  and  an 
indefatigable  activity  were  equally  necessary  to  success. 
There  was  another  point  also  wherein,  to  adopt  the 
language  of  Mr.  Greeley,  "his  fitness  for  the  chief 
command  was  decided,  if  not  pre-eminent;  and  that 
was  an  utter  disbelief  in  the  efficacy  of  any  rose-water 
treatment  of  the  rebellion."  On  the  ist  of  March,  1864, 
in  compliance  with  a  recommendation  of  Congress,  the 
President  appointed  General  Grant  lieutenant-general  of 
the  armies  of  the  United  States.  When  he  presented 
General  Grant  with  his  commission,  Mr.  Lincoln  ad- 
dressed him  with  these  words  :  The  nation's  apprecia- 
tion of  what  you  have  already  done,  and  its  reliance  upon 
vou  for  what  still  remains  to  be  done,  in  the  existing 
great  struggle,  are  now  presented  with  this  commission, 
constituting  you  lieutenant-general  of  the  armies  of  the 
United  States.  With  this  high  honour  devolves  upon 
you  also  a  corresponding  responsibility.  As  the  country 
herein  trusts  you,  so,  under  God,  it  will  sustain  you.  I 
scarcely  need  to  add  that  with  what  I  here  speak  for 
the  nation,  goes  my  own  hearty  personal  concurrence." 

In  the  autumn  of  1864,  Mr.  Lincoln  was  a  second  time 
elected  President  of  the  United  States,  General  McClel- 
lan  being  the  opposing  candidate.  Lincoln  received  the 
votes  of  all  the  Northern  States  except  New  Jersey  and 
Delaware. 

General  Grant,  having  taken  immediate  command  of 
the  army  of  the  Potomac,  commenced  early  in  May  the 
ever-memorable  campaign  of  1864  against  Richmond. 
After  many  severe  and  bloody  conflicts,  and  the  display 
of  consummate  military  skill  on  the  part  of  the  rival  com- 
manders, and  an  obstinate  bravery  on  the  part  of  their 
troops,  rarely  paralleled  in  the  history  of  warfare.  Gen- 
eral Lee  was  at  length  (April  2,  1865)  forced  to  abandon 
the  defence  of  Richmond,  which  was  evacuated  the  fol- 
lowing night,  and  on  the  9th  of  April  he  surrendered  to 
General  Grant  with  all  his  army.  On  the  17th  of  the 
same  month.  General  J.  E.  Johnston,  commander  of  the 
southern  division  of  the  Confederate  army,  then  in  North 
Carolina,  entered  into  terms  of  capitulation  with  Gen- 
eral Sherman,  according  to  which  all  the  Confederate 
troops  still  remaining  in  the  field  were  to  lay  down  their 
arms  and  return  to  their  respective  States.  Thus  the 
war  of  the  rebellion  was  brought  to  a  close.  But,  before 
the  final  arrangement  between  Sherman  and  Johnston 
was  completed,  the  universal  joy  of  the  Northern  States 
was  changed  into  bitter  mourning  by  the  death  of  Presi- 
dent Lincoln,  who  was  cut  off  in  the  very  hour  of  triumph 
by  the  hand  of  an  assassin.  A  desperate  band  of  con- 
spirators, of  whom  John  Wilkes  Booth,  a  native  of 
Maryland,  was  the  ringleader,  had  for  some  time  enter- 
tained the  design  of  seizing  the  President  and  making 
him  a  prisoner.  Finding  no  opportunity  to  carry  their 
purpose  into  effect,  they  resolved  at  length  to  take  his 
life.  The  great  object  of  Lincoln's  administration — the 
restoration  of  the  authority  of  the  government — having 
been  at  last  accomplished,  on  the  evening  of  the  14th  of 
April  he  sought  at  Ford's  Theatre  a  brief  relaxation  from 
the  duties  and  cares  of  his  high  office.  Booth,  being  an 
actor  by  profession,  had  free  admittance  to  the  theatre. 
While  the  President's  attention  was  absorbed  by  the 
scene  before  him,  the  assassin  approached  him  from 
behind,  unperceived.  To  make  sure  of  his  victim,  Booth 
discharged  his  pistol  when  the  muzzle  was  not  more 
than  a  few  inches  from  the  head  of  the  President,  who, 
as  the  ball  entered  his  brain,  sank  slightly  forward  with- 
out uttering  a  sound;  and,  although  he  continued  to 
breathe  for  several  hours,  he  was  evidently  wholly  un- 
conscious from  the  time  that  he  received  the  fatal  wound 
until  his  death,  which  occurred  at  half-past  seven  on  the 
morning  of  the  15th.  Mr.  Lincoln  had  often  received 
anonymous  letters  threatening  him  with  death ;  but  his 
thoughts  were  too  much  occupied  with  the  affairs  of 
the  nation  to  permit  him  to  feel  anxiety  for  his  personal 
safety ;  and,  indeed,  it  was  impossible  for  him,  as  he 
intimated  to  some  of  his  friends  who  urged  him  to  be 
more  on  his  guard,  to  render  his  life  secure  without 
adopting  precautions  alike  repugnant  to  his  own  feel- 
ings and  to  the  universal  usage  of  his  country.  We 
believe  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that,  since  the  dawn 
of  history,  no  more  upright  or  conscientious  ruler  than 


Abraham  Lincoln  ever  presided  over  the  dcstiriies  of  a 
great  nation  ;  nor  has  there  been  any  more  tree  from 
every  taint  of  selfish  ambition  or  personal  resentment. 

Among  the  many  eminent  men  who,  in  their  writings 
or  public  speeches,  have  attempted  to  portray  the  char- 
acter and  commemorate  the  virtues  of  President  Lincoln, 
we  know  of  none  who  has  been  more  successful  than 
Mr.  Emerson.  The  admirable  fitness  of  his  remarks 
must  be  our  apology,  if  any  be  needed,  for  giving  the 
following  extracts  from  his  discourse  delivered  at  the 
funeral  services  held  in  Concord,  Massachusetts,  April 
19,  1865  : 

"A  plain  man  of  the  people,  an  extraordinary  for- 
tune attended  him.  Lord  Bacon  says,  'Manifest  virtues 
procure  reputation;  occult  ones,  fortune.'  He  offered 
no  shining  qualities  at  the  first  encounter;  he  did  not 
offend  by  superiority.  He  had  a  face  and  manner  which 
disarmed  suspicion,  which  inspired  confidence,  which 
confirmed  good  will.  He  was  a  man  without  vices.  He 
had  a  strong  sense  of  duty,  which  it  was  very  easy  for 
him  to  obey.  Then  he  had  what  farmers  call  a  'long 
head  ;'  was  excellent  in  working  out  the  sum  for  himself, — 
in  arguing  his  case  and  convincing  you  fairly  and  firmly. 
.  .  .  He  had  avast  good  nature,  which  made  him  tolerant 
and  accessible  to  all.  .  .  .  Then  his  broad  good  humour, 
running  easily  into  jocular  talk,  in  which  he  delighted 
and  in  which  he  excelled,  was  a  rich  gift  to  this  wise 
man.  It  enabled  him  to  keep  his  secret,  to  meet  every 
kind  of  man,  and  every  rank  in  society,  ...  to  mask 
his  own  purpose  and  sound  his  companion,  and  to  catch 
with  true  instinct  the  temper  of  every  company  he  ad- 
dressed. His  ocmpying  the  chair  of  state  7ms  a  triumph 
of  the  good  sense  of  mankind  and  of  the  public  conscience. 
This  middle-class  country  had  got  a  middle-class  Presi- 
dent at  last.  Yes,  in  manners  and  sympathies,  but  not 
in  powers ;  for  his  powers  were  superior.  This  man 
grew  according  to  the  need  ;  his  mind  mastered  the  prob- 
lem of  the  day;  and  as  the  problem  grew,  so  did  his 
comprehension  of  it.  Rarely  was  a  man  so  fitted  to  the 
event.  ...  It  cannot  be  said  that  there  is  any  exagger- 
ation of  his  worth.  If  ever  a  man  was  fairly  tested,  he 
was.  There  was  no  lack  of  resistance,  nor  of  slander, 
nor  of  ridicule.  .  .  .  Then  what  an  occasion  was  the 
whirlwind  of  the  war !  Here  was  place  for  no  holiday 
magistrate,  no  fair-weather  sailor  :  the  new  pilot  was 
hurried  to  the  helm  in  a  tornado.  In  four  years — four 
years  of  battle-days — his  endurance,  his  fertility  of  re- 
sources, his  magnanimity,  were  sorely  tried  and  never 
found  wanting.  There,  by  his  courage,  his  justice,  his 
even  temper,  his  fertile  counsel,  his  humanity,  he  stood 
a  heroic  figure  in  the  centre  of  a  heroic  epoch.  He  is 
the  true  history  of  the  American  people  in  his  time — the 
true  representative  of  this  continent — father  of  his  country, 
the  pulse  of  twenty  millions  throbbing  in  his  heart,  the 
thought  of  their  minds  articulated  by  his  tongue." 

"The  name  of  Lincoln,"  says  the  eminent  historian 
Merle  d'Aubigne,  "  will  remain  one  of  the  greatest  that 
history  has  to  inscribe  on  its  annals."  "This  man," 
observes  Henry  Martin,  "  will  stand  out  in  the  traditions 
of  his  country  and  the  world  as  an  incarnation  of  the 
people,  and  of  modern  democracy  itself." 

See  Raymond,  "Life  and  Administration  of  President  Lincoln," 
1864 ;  Greeley,  "American  Conflict,"  2  vols.  8vo,  Hartford,  1S64-66 ; 
Dr.  J.  G.  Holland,  "Life  of  A.  Lincoln,"  1S65;  and  the  noble 
and  eloquent  tribute  to  the  memory  of  Lincoln  in  Mrs.  Stowe's 
"Men  of  our  Time,"  Hartford,  1868. 

Lincoln,  (Benjamin,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Hingham,  Massachusetts,  in  January,  1733.  He  was 
originally  a  farmer.  In  1776  he  was  appointed  a  major- 
general  of  militia,  and  joined  the  army  of  Washington 
with  reinforcements  in  February,  1777.  In  this  year  he 
was  appointed  major-general  by  Congress,  and  was  or- 
dered to  join  the  Northern  army,  commanded  by  General 
Gates.  In  October,  1777,  he  received  a  wound  which 
disabled  him  for  nearly  a  year.  He  was  appointed  to 
the  chief  command  of  the  Southern  department  about 
September,  1778,  and  defended  Charleston  against  Gen- 
eral Prevost  in  the  spring  of  1779.  In  October  of  that 
year  General  Lincoln  and  Count  D'Estaing  made  an 
unsuccessful  assault  on  Savannah.  He  was  besieged  by 
Sir  Henry  Clinton  in  Charleston,  which  he  was  com- 
pelled to  surrender  in  May,  1780.    He  afterwards  com- 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  J?,  short;  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  f5r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LINCOLN 


H33 


LINDET 


manded  a  division  at  the  siege  of  Yorktown,  in  October, 
1 781.  He  had  the  reputation  of  an  able  and  prudent 
general.  In  October,  1781,  he  became  secretary  of  war. 
He  retired  from  this  office  about  the  end  of  1784,  and 
was  elected  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Massachusetts  in 
1787  by  the  Federalists.    Died  at  Hingham  in  1810. 

See  a  "Life  of  Benjamin  Lincoln,"  by  Francis  Bowen,  in 
Sparks's  "American  Biography,"  second  series,  vol.  xiii. ;  "Na- 
tional Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Lincoln,  link'on,  (Edward  Clinton,)  Earl  of,  an 
English  admiral,  born  in  1512,  was  the  only  son  of 
Thomas  Lord  Clinton.  He  was  appointed  lord  admiral 
for  life  in  1550.  In  1557  he  commanded  a  division  of 
the  English  army  at  Saiut-Quentin.  On  the  accession 
of  Elizabeth  (1558)  he  was  retained  in  the  office  of  lord 
admiral.  In  the  peaceful  reign  that  followed  he  had 
little  opportunity  to  acquire  renown.  He  was  created 
Earl  of  Lincoln  in  1572.  Died  in  1584,  leaving  the  title 
to  his  son  Henry.  A  Henry  Clinton,  Earl  of  Lincoln, 
married  the  daughter  of  Henry  Pelham,  who  was  prime 
minister  about  1750.  In  1768  he  inherited  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Newcastle. 

Lincoln,  (Enoch,)  a  lawyer,  brother  of  Levi,  noticed 
below,  ( 1 782-1 868,)  was  born  at  Worcester,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1788.  He  represented  a  district  of  Maine  in 
Congress  from  1819  to  1826,  and  was  Governor  of  that 
State  in  1827-29.  Died  in  1829.  He  wrote  several 
poems,  including  one  entitled  "The  Village,"  (1816.) 

Lincoln,  (John  Larkin,)  LL.D.,  an  American  scholar 
and  critical  writer,  born  at  Boston  in  181 7.  He  was 
appointed  in  1844  professor  of  the  Latin  language  and 
literature  in  Brown  University.  He  published  an  edition 
of  Horace  for  the  use  of  schools. 

Lincoln,  (Levi,)  an  American  jurist  and  statesman, 
born  in  Hingham,  Massachusetts,  in  1749,  graduated  at 
Harvard  College.  He  practised  law  at  Worcester,  and 
became  one  of  the  most  eminent  lawyers  in  the  State. 
In  1799  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress.  He  was 
a  Democrat  or  Republican  in  party  politics,  and  was 
attorney-general  under  Jefferson  from  1 801  to  December, 
1805.  In  1807-08  he  was  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts.   Died  at  Worcester  in  1820. 

Lincoln,  (Levi,)  a  lawyer,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  in  1782.  He 
was  chosen  Governor  of  his  native  State  in  1825,  being 
supported  by  both  parties,  and  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress during  three  terms,  (1835-41.)    Died  in  1868. 

Lmd,  (James,)  an  English  physician,  born  about  17 16, 
published  a  valuable  "Treatise  on  the  Scurvy,"  (1753,) 
and  "  Essay  on  the  Diseases  to  which  Europeans  are 
exposed  in  Hot  Climates,"  (1768,)  which  were  often 
reprinted.    Died  at  Gosport  in  1794. 

Lind,  (Jenny,)  a  celebrated  Swedish  vocalist,  born 
at  Stockholm  in  1821,  was  the  daughter  of  a  teacher  of 
languages.  She  began  to  sing  on  the  stage  about  the 
age  of  ten  years,  and  performed  in  vaudevilles  with 
success.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  she  became  the  prime 
favourite  of  the  Stockholm  Opera,  where  she  made  her 
debut  as  Agatha  in  "Der  Freischiitz."  In  1841  she 
became  a  pupil  of  Garcia,  the  celebrated  singing-master 
in  Paris,  where  she  met  Meyerbeer,  who  engaged  her 
for  the  Opera  of  Berlin.  She  sang  in  Berlin  in  1844  and 
1845,  exciting  great  and  unabated  enthusiasm.  After 
performing  in  several  capitals  of  Germany,  she  visited 
London,  where  she  was  greeted  with  the  warmest  ap- 
plause, in  1847  the  two  ensuing  years.  Having 
made  an  engagement  with  P.  T.  Barnum  to  sing  in  the 
United  States,  she  arrived  at  New  York  in  September, 
1850.  Her  concerts  in  this  country  excited  enthusi- 
astic admiration,  and  were  repeated  in  the  chief  cities  of 
the  Union  until  1852,  when  she  returned  to  Europe  with 
Otto  Goldschmidt,  a  skilful  pianist,  to  whom  she  had 
been  married  in  1851.  She  gave  many  thousand  dollars 
for  charitable  purposes  in  the  United  States.  Her 
private  character  is  excellent.  Her  voice  is  a  soprano, 
remarkable  for  sweetness.  Since  her  marriage  she  has 
ceased  to  perform  on  the  stage. 

See  N.  P.  Willis,  "  Memoranda  of  the  Life  of  Jenny  Lind  ;"  J. 
A.  Becher,  "J.  Lind:  Skizze  ihres  Lebens,"  etc.,  1847;  "Memoir 
of  J.  Lind,"  London,  1847;  Hans  Christian  Andersen,  "True 
Story  of  my  Life;"  the  same  notice  in  the  "Living  Age"  for  No- 
vember, 1850. 


Linda.    See  Lindanus. 

Lindanus,  lin-di'nus,  or  Linda,  lin'di,  (William 
Damasus,)  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  noted  as  a  con- 
troversialist, was  born  at  Dort,  Holland,  in  1525.  He 
was  remarkable  for  the  severity  with  which  he  per- 
formed the  office  of  Inquisitor  of  the  faith.  In  1562 
he  was  appointed  by  Philip  II.  Bishop  of  Ruremond. 
His  most  popular  work  was  "Evangelical  Panoj^ly," 
("Panoplia  Evangelica,"  1563.)    Died  in  1568  or  1588. 

See  A.  Havensius,  "Vita  G.  Lindani,"  1609. 

Lindberg,  l!nd'b§RG,  (Jacob  Christian,)  a  Danish 
theologian  and  numismatist,  born  at  Ripen,  Jutland,  in 
1797.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Cufic  Coins," 
(1830,)  a  "Hebrew-Danish  Hand-Lexicon,"  (1835,)  and 
able  works  on  theology,  etc. 

Lindblom,  lind''blom,  (Jacob  Axel,)  a  Swedish  prel- 
ate, born  in  Ostrogothia  in  1747.  He  was  professor  of 
belles-lettres  in  the  University  of  Upsal,  and  published 
a  "  Latin-Swedish  Dictionary"  before  he  became  Bishop 
of  Linkoping,  (1789.)  He  was  afterwards  chosen  Arch- 
bishop of  Upsal.    Died  in  1819. 

See  Hedborn,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  J.  A.  Lindblom,"  iSig. 

Linde,  von,  fon  lin'deh,  (Justin  Timotheus  B.\l- 
THASAR,)  a  German  jurist,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1797, 
published  numerous  legal  treatises. 

Linde,  von,  fon  lin'deh,  (Samuel  Gottlob,)  an  emi- 
nent Polisli  lexicographer,  born  at  Thorn  in  1771.  About 
1803  he  became  rector  of  the  Lyceum  and  chief  librarian 
of  the  University  in  Warsaw.  In  1807  he  produced  the 
first  volume  of  his  great  "  Dictionary  of  the  Polish  Lan- 
guage," (6  vols.,)  regarded  as  the  best  work  of  the  kind. 
From  1833  to  1838  he  was  director  of  the  gymnasium 
of  Warsaw.  He  wrote  a  "  Historical  Outline  of  the 
Literature  of  the  Slavonic  Races,"  (1825.)  Died  at  War- 
saw in  1847. 

See  Saint-Maurice  Cabanv,  "S.  T.  de  Linde,"  etc.,  1853. 

Lindeblad,  lin'deh-bldd',  (Assar,)  a  Swedish  poet, 
born  near  Lund  in  1800.  Among  his  best  productions 
is  "The  Missionary,"  (1839.) 

Linden,  van  der,  vtn  der  lin'den,  (David,)  a  Flemish 
poet  and  antiquary,  born  at  Ghent  about  1570;  died 
about  1635. 

Linden,  van  der,  vtn  der  lin'den,  (Jan  Antonides,) 
a  learned  Dutch  physician,  born  at  Enkhuysen  in  1609. 
He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Leyden  about  1650. 
He  published  a  "  Medical  Bibliography,"  ("  De  Scriptis 
Medicis,"  1637,)  "Physiological  Medicine,"  ("  Medicina 
Physiologica,")  and  a  good  edition  of  Hippocrates,  in 
Greek.    Died  in  1664. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron, 
"  Memoires." 

Lindenau,  von,  fon  lin'deh-now^  (Bernhard  Au- 
gust,) a  German  astronomer,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1780. 
Between  1826  and  1843  he  served  the  King  of  Saxony 
as  privy  councillor,  minister  of  the  interior,  etc.  In  1843 
he  retired  from  political  life  to  devote  himself  to  as- 
tronomy. Among  his  publications  are  "  Tables  of  Venus," 
(1810,)  "Tables  of  Mars,"  (1811,)  and  a  "  History  of 
Astronomy  during  the  First  Decade  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century,"  (1811.)    Died  in  1854. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Lindenbrog,  lin'den-bRoo',  or  Lindenbruch,  lin'- 

den-bRooK^,  [Lat.  Tiliobro'ga,]  (Erpold,)  a  German 
historical  writer,  born  at  Bremen  in  1540.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Kings  of  Denmark,"  and  "  Chronicle 
of  the  Life  and  Actions  of  Charlemagne,"  He  also 
edited  the  "  Historians  of  Northern  Germany."  Died 
in  1616. 

See  WiLKENS,  "  Leben  der  beriihmten  Lindenbrogiorum,"  1723. 

Lindenbrog  or  Lindenbruch,  (Friedrich,)  a  jurist 
and  classical  scholar,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Hamburg  in  1573;  died  in  1648. 

Lindenschmit,  lin'den-shmit',  (Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man historical  painter,  born  at  Mentz  in  1806.  Among 
his  works  are  frescos  painted  for  Prince  Ludwig  in 
the  Hofgarten,  Munich,  and  in  the  Pinakothek.  Died 
in  1848. 

Lindet,  l^N^di',  (Jean  Baptiste  Robert,)  a  French 
Jacobin  and  financier,  born  at  Bernay,  Normandy,  in 


«  as  ^;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as j;  o,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LINDLET 


H34 


LINGELBACH 


1743.  He  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  committee  of  public  safety  after 
its  number  was  reduced  and  after  it  was  invested  with 
supreme  executive  power,  (1793.)  He  was  reputed  one 
of  the  least  violent  but  most  subtle  chiefs  of  the  domi- 
nant faction.  He  was  minister  of  finances  from  June, 
1799,  until  Bonaparte  became  First  Consul,  in  November 
of  that  year.    Died  in  1825, 

Lmd^ley,  (John,)  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  botanists  of  the  present  century,  was  born  at 
Cattt;n,  near  Norwich,  England,  in  1 799.  He  was  the 
son  of  the  proprietor  of  a  nursery-garden.  About  1821 
he  became  a  resident  of  London,  and  was  employed  to 
write  the  descriptions  of  Loudon's  "Encyclopaedia  of 
Plants,"  (1829.)  In  1830  he  published  an  "  Introduction 
to  the  Natural  System  of  Botany."  Of  this  system  he 
is  a  zealous  advocate,  and  has  contributed  more  than 
any  other  English  botanist  to  render  it  popular.  His 
"Introduction  to  Systematic  and  Physiological  Botany" 
(1832)  is  highly  commended.  In  1836  he  produced  "  A 
Natural  System  of  Botany,"  which  was  expanded  into 
"The  Vegetable  Kingdom,"  (1846,)  with  engravings, — 
probably  the  most  excellent  and  comprehensive  work 
that  has  ever  appeared  on  that  subject.  Pie  adopted  in 
this  work  an  improved,  or  at  least  new,  system  of  classi- 
fication, and  explained  the  uses  of  plants.  In  1829  Dr. 
Lindlcy  became  professor  of  botany  in  the  University 
College,  London,  where  he  was  very  successful  as  a  lec- 
turer. His  "Flora  Medica"  (1838)  describes  the  plants 
used  in  medical  practice.  He  wrote  many  botanical 
articles  for  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia,"  and  a  good  ele- 
mentary work  on  Botany  inserted  in  the  "Library 
of  Useful  Knowledge."  In  his  excellent  work  entitled 
"  Theory  of  Horticulture,"  (1844,)  he  successfully  ap- 
plied science  to  practical  utility.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  popular  treatises,  entitled  "  Ladies'  Botany," 
"  School  Botany,"  "  British  Pomology,"  and  "  Orchard 
and  Kitchen  Garden."  About  1841  he  became  editor 
of  the  "  Gardener's  Chronicle,"  a  valuable  periodical. 
Died  at  Acton  Green,  November  i,  1865. 

Lindner,  lint'ner,  (Friedrich  Ludwig,)  a  German 
political  writer,  born  at  Mitau,  Courland,  in  1772.  In 
1824  he  published  "Secret  Papers,"  and  in  1825  became 
editor  of  the  "  Political  Annals,"  at  Munich.  He  also 
wrote  "  Europe  and  the  Orient,"  (1839,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1845. 

Lindner,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German  teacher 
and  theologian,  born  at  Weida  in  1779.  He  became 
professor  of  the  science  of  teaching  at  Leipsic  in  1825. 
He  published  a  Latin  treatise  on  the  art  of  teaching, 
"  De  Finibus  et  Praesidiis  Artis  paedagogicae,"  (1825,) 
and  a  work  on  free- masonry. 

Lindner,  (Wilhelm  Bruno,)  a  writer  on  theology, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1814.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic  in  1846. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "  Manual  of  the  History  of  the 
Christian  Church,"  (2  vols.,  1848-54.) 

Lindpaintner,  lint'pint'ner,  (Peter  Joseph,)  a  Ger- 
man composer,  born  at  Coblentz  in  1791.  He  produced 
symphonies,  overtures,  instrument  pieces,  and  operas 
entitled  "The  Sicilian  Vespers"  and  "  The  Vampyre." 
Died  in  1856. 

Lindsay,  lin'ze,  (Alexander  William  Craw- 
ford,) Lord,  a  British  author,  the  son  of  the  Earl  of 
Crawford,  was  born  in  Cumberland  in  1812.  After 
making  a  tour  in  the  East,  he  published  in  1838  "  Letters 
on  Egypt,  Edom,  and  the  Holy  Land,"  which  passed 
through  several  editions.  He  increased  his  reputation 
by  an  important  and  novel  work,  entitled  "  Sketches  of 
the  History  of  Christian  Art,"  (1847,)  which  displays 
much  research  and  contains  eloquent  passages.  In  1849 
he  published  the  "  Lives  of  the  I^indsays,"  a  family  his- 
tory of  much  merit. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1847. 

Lindsay,  (Sir  David,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  about 
1495.  became  in  1512  a  page  or  servitor  to  the 

prince,  (afterwards  James  V.,)  and  continued  in  his  ser- 
vice until  1524.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "The 
Dream,"  "The  Complaint  of  the  King's  Papingo,"  (a 
satire  on  the  clergy,)  a  "  Satire  on  the  Three  Estates," 
and  "The  Monarchic."    He  excelled  in  sarcasm,  which 


he  directed  with  much  effect  against  the  Romish  Church, 
He  is  supposed  to  have  died  after  1567. 

See  Lord  Lindsay,  "Lives  of  the  Lindsays,"  1849;  Chalmers, 
"  Life,"  prefixed  to  Lindsay's  works,  1806  ;  Chambers,  "  Riograijhicai 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  lane. 
1808. 

Lindsay,  lin'ze,  (John,)  an  English  nonjuring  minis- 
ter, born  about  1686.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Regal 
Succession,"  (1720.)    Died  in  1768. 

Lindsay,  (John,)  Earl  of  Crawford,  an  able  British 
general,  born  in  1702.  For  his  conduct  at  Fontenoy  he 
obtained  the  rank  of  major-general.  He  was  renowned 
for  generosity,  talents,  and  other  popular  qualities.  Died 
in  1749. 

See  Richard  Roi-T,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  J.  Lindsay,"  etc., 
1753;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Lindsay,  (William  Shaw,)  a  British  merchant,  born 
in  Ayrshire  in  1816,  is  reputed  one  of  the  largest  ship- 
owners in  the  kingdom.  He  was  once  a  cabin-boy,  and 
has  raised  himself  to  affluence  by  industry  and  prudence. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Tynemouth  in  1854. 

Lindsey,  Earl  of.    See  Bertie,  (Robert.) 

Lindsay,  lin'ze,  (Montague  Bertie,)  Earl  of, 
born  in  1608,  was  a  son  of  Robert  Bertie.  (See  Bertie.) 
He  fought  for  Charles  I.  at  Edgehill  and  Naseby,  and, 
when  the  king  was  imprisoned  in  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
negotiated  the  treaty  of  Newport.    Died  in  1666. 

Lindsey,  (TheoPHILUS,)  an  English  Unitarian  min- 
ister, born  in  Cheshire  in  1723.  Having  taken  orders 
in  the  Anglican  Church,  he  obtained  in  1763  the  living 
of  Catterick,  Yorkshire.  He  became  so  dissatisfied  with 
the  Trinitarian  creed  that  in  1773  he  resigned  his  living 
and  published  an  "  Apology"  for  his  course,  which  is  a 
work  of  much  research.  He  then  removed  to  London, 
where  he  was  successful  in  forming  a  Unitarian  congre- 
gation, and  preached  about  twenty  yesvs.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Historical  View  of  the  State  of 
the  Unitarian  Doctrine  and  Worship,"  (1783.)  Died  in 
1808. 

See  Thomas Belsham,  "Memoirs  of  Theaohilus  Lindsey,"  1812. 

Lindsley,  linz'le,  (Philip,)  D.D.,  an  American  di- 
vine and  scholar,  born  at  Morristown,  New  Jersey,  in 
1786.  He  became  in  1850  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
archaeology  in  the  New  Albany  Theological  Seminary, 
Indiana.    Died  in  1855. 

Ling,  (Pehr  Henrik,)  born  in  Smdland,Jn  Sweden, 
in  1776,  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  modern  gym- 
nastic institutions,  the  first  of  which  he  established  at 
Stockholm.  They  were  subsequently  adopted  at  Berlin, 
Vienna,  and  other  German  cities.    Died  in  1839. 

Lmga,  ling'ga,  or  Lingam,  Ifng'gam,  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  a  phallic  symbol,  or  type  of  the  veproductive 
power,  which  is  regarded  as  the  especial  attribute  of 
Siva.    (See  Siva.) 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  Guigniaut,  "Religions  de  I'An- 
tiquite,"  book  i.  chap.  ii. 

Lingard,  ling'gard,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  histo- 
rian, born  at  Winchester  in  1771.  He  became  a  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  and  settled  at  Hornby,  Lancashire,  about 
1811.  He  published  in  1819  the  first  volume  of  his 
"  History  of  England  from  the  First  Invasion  by  the 
Romans  to  the  Accession  of  William  and  Mary  in  1688," 
of  which  the  sixth  edition,  in  10  vols.,  appeared  in 
1855.  This  work  is  highly  esteeined  for  its  style,  accu- 
racy, and  other  merits.  He  also  wrote  "  The  Antiquities 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church,"  (1806,)  and  other  works. 
He  visited  Rome  in  1825,  and,  it  is  said,  refused  the 
offer  of  a  cardinal's  hat.    Died  in  185 1. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1825,  (vol.  xlii.,)  and  March, 
1831,  (vol.  liii.  ;)  "Monthly  Review"  for  July  and  .September,  iSig, 
and  September,  1825;  "North  British  Review"  for  November,  1846. 

L'Ingegno.  See  Luigi,  (Andrea  dl) 
Lingelbach,  ling'el-baK',  (Johann,)  sometimes  writ- 
ten Linglebach,  an  eminent  painter  of  genre  and  land- 
scapes, was  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1625.  He 
studied  in  Rome,  and  settled  in  Holland  about  1650. 
He  excelled  in  the  treatment  of  markets,  fairs,  and  sea- 
ports. His  colour  is  good,  his  touch  free  and  spirited, 
and  his  works  remarkable  for  variety.  His  blue  dis- 
tances and  lightly-clouded  skies  produce  an  exhilarating 
effect.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Sea-Port  in  the  Levant," 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LINGENDES 


1435 


LINN^US 


and  "  The  Vegetable  Market."  Died  at  Amsterdam  in 
1687. 

See  C.  Blanc,  "  Les  Peintres  de  toutes  las  Ecoles;"  Nagler, 
"Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Lingendes,  de,  deh  liN^zhSNd',  (Claude,)  a  French 
pulpit  orator  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Moulins  in  1591  ;  died 
in  1660. 

Lingendes,  de,  (Jean,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Mou- 
lins about  1 580,  composed  stanzas,  odes,  and  other  verses. 
Died  in  1616. 

Lingendes,  de,  (Jean,)  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Moulins  in  1595.  He  became  an  eminent 
preacher,  and  chaplain  to  Louis  XIII.  He  was  made 
Bishop  of  Macon  in  1650.    Died  in  1665. 

Linguet,  lAN'ga',  (Simon  Nicolas  Henri,)  an  elo- 
quent French  advocate  and  polemical  writer,  born  at 
Rheims  in  1736.  He  pleaded  with  success  at  the  bar  of 
Paris,  but  made  many  enemies  by  his  sarcasms  and  his 
impetuous  temper.  He  was  confined  in  the  Bastille  two 
years,  ending  in  1782.  He  published  numerous  works, 
which  display  learning  and  talent  but  are  censured  as 
paradoxical.  Among  them  are  a  "History  of  the  Age  of 
Alexander  the  Great,"  (1762,)  and  "The  Fanaticism  of 
Philosophers,"  (1764.)  He  fell  a  victim  to  the  reign  of 
terror  in  1794. 

See  Gardaz,  "  Essai  siir  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Linguet," 
1808;  "NoLivelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Liniere,  de,  deh  le'ne-aiR',  (Franqois  Payot,)  a 
French  satiric  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1628,  was  a  gay 
votary  of  pleasure.  He  composed  songs  and  epigrams 
with  facility.  Boileau,  in  his  ninth  Satire,  mentions 
Liniere  as  a  judicious  critic.    Died  in  1704. 

Link  or  Linck,  link,  (Heinrich  Friedrtch,)  a 
German  naturalist  and  physician,  born  at  Hildesheim 
in  1767.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  botany  and 
chemistry  at  Breslau  in  1811,  and  in  1815  filled  the 
same  chair  at  Berlin.  He  published  numerous  works 
on  botany,  of  which  we  may  name  "The  Anatomy  of 
Plants,"  (1807,)  and  "Elements  of  Botanical  Philos- 
ophy," (1824.)    Died  in  185 1. 

See  Von  Martius,  "  Denkrede  auf  H.  F.  Linck,"  1851  ;  "  Bio- 
grapliie  Medicale." 

Lin'ley,  (Thomas,)  an  excellent  English  musical 
composer,  born  at  Wells  about  1725,  was  a  pupil  of  Pa- 
radies.  In  his  early  life  he  conducted  the  concerts  and 
oratorios  at  Bath.  He  composed  the  nuisic  for  Sheri- 
dan's "Duenna,"  which  had  great  success,  in  1775.  In 
1776  he  removed  to  London,  and  became  one  of  the 
proprietors  of  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  in  partnership  with 
his  son-in-law,  R.  B.  Sheridan,  the  great  orator.  Mr. 
Linley  directed  the  musical  department,  and  composed 
for  it  the  "Carnival  of  Venice,"  "The  Camp,"  etc. 
Among  his  admired  productions  are  "Six  Elegies," 
"Twelve  Ballads,"  and  a  madrigal  to  these  verses  of 
Cowley, 

"  Let  me,  careless  and  unthoiightfiil  lying, 
Hear  the  soft  winds  above  me  flying." 
Died  in  1795. 

See  BuRNEY,  "History  of  Music." 

Linley,  (Thomas,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Bath  about  1756,  and  inherited  his  father's  musical 
talent.  He  studied  under  the  best  masters  of  Italy,  and 
became  very  intimate  with  Mozart.  He  composed  seve- 
ral admired  airs  for  the  theatre.  He  was  drowned  in 
1778,  while  sailing  in  a  pleasure-boat  in  Lincolnshire. 

Linley,  (William,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  about  1766.  In  his  youth  he  went  to  India  as  a 
clerk,  and  rose  to  the  office  of  sub-treasurer  at  Fort  Saint 
George.  He  returned  to  England  in  the  prime  of  life, 
and  devoted  himself  to  music  and  literature.  He  com- 
posed several  glees,  songs,  and  other  verses,  and  pub- 
lished the  dramatic  songs  of  Shakspeare.    Died  in  1835. 

Linn,  (John  Blair,)  D.D.,  an  American  poet  and 
divine,  born  at  Shippensburg,  Pennsylvania,  in  1777, 
was  brother-in-law  of  the  celebrated  novelist  Charles 
Brockden  Brown,  and  son  of  William  Linn,  who  was 
also  a  divine.  He  became  assistant  pastor  of  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Philadelphia  in  1798.  He 
was  the  author  of  "The  Powers  of  Genius,"  and  other 
poems,  and  a  reply  to  Dr.  Priestley's  "  Comparison 
between  Socrates  and  Christ."    Died  in  1804. 

See  DuYCKiNCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature." 


Linn,  (Lewis  Fields,)  M.D.,  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  near  Louisville,  Kentucky,  in  1795..  ^"<^ 
removed  to  Missouri  about  1816.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Senate  by  the  Democrats  in  1833,  and  again  about  1838. 
Died  in  1843. 

See  "Life  of  L.  F.  Linn,"  by  E.  A.  Linn  and  N.  Sargent, 
1857. 

Linnaeus,  lin-nee'us,  [Sw.  Von  Linn6,  fon  lin-nu',] 

(Charles  or  Carl,)  a  celebrated  Swedish  botanist, 
and  the  most  influential  naturalist  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  was  born  at  Rdshult,  in  Smaland,  on  the  24th 
of  May,  1707.  He  was  the  son  of  Nicholas  Linnaeus,  a 
village  curate,  who,  it  is  said,  so  far  underrated  his  son's 
capacity  that  he  made  him  an  apprentice  to  a  shoemaker 
after  he  had  reached  the  age  of  seventeen  without  mak- 
ing much  progress  in  his  studies.  In  1727,  however,  he 
was  sent  to  the  University  of  Lund  to  study  medicine, 
and  his  inclination  for  natural  history  was  favoured  by 
Professor  Stobaeus,  Although  nearly  destitute  of  pecu- 
niary resources,  he  pursued  his  studies  at  Upsal,  (1728,) 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Olaus  Celsius,  who  relieved 
him  from  his  extreme  poverty.  About  1730  he  conceived 
the  idea  of  a  reform  in  botanical  method  and  nomencla- 
ture, and  began  the  composition  of  several  great  works, 
noticed  below.  At  the  expense  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Upsal,  he  made  a  botanical  excursion  on  foot  through 
Lapland  in  1732,  the  results  of  which  appeared  in  his 
"Flora  Lapponica,"  (1737.) 

Between  1735  and  1738  he  passed  three  years  in  the 
house  of  George  Cliffort,  a  rich  Dutch  gentleman  living 
between  Leyden  and  Haarlem,  who  employed  him  to 
arrange  his  fine  garden  and  museum.  Linnaeus  has 
expressed  his  gratitude  to  this  benefactor  for  the  facilities 
he  there  enjoyed  for  his  favourite  pursuits,  and  has 
honoured  his  memory  by  a  work  entitled  "  The  Garden 
of  Cliffort,"  ("Hortus  Cliffortianus.")  He  perceived 
that  it  was  necessary  to  invent  methods  of  distribu- 
tion capable  of  embracing  all  creatures,  and  founded  on 
characters  well  defined ;  to  invent  terms  sufficiently 
numerous  to  designate  the  prodigious  variety  of  their 
conformation,  and  define  these  terms  with  precision  ; 
finally,  to  make  a  general  review  of  all  beings  described 
in  former  works,  or  to  be  found  by  the  exploration  of 
nature.  The  first  sketch  of  this  great  enterprise  ap- 
peared in  two  small  volumes,  entitled  "  System  of  Nature, 
or  the  Three  Kingdoms  of  Nature  exhibited  methodically 
in  Classes,  Orders,  Genera,  and  Species,"  ("  Systema  Na- 
turae, seu  Regna  tria  Naturae  systematice  proposita,  per 
Classes,  Ordines,  Genera  et  Species,"  1735,)  and  "  Funda- 
menta  Botanica,"  (1736.)  The  characters  of  genera  were 
largely  developed  in  his  "Genera  of  Plants  according  to 
the  Number,  Figure,  Position,  etc.  of  the  Parts  of  Fruc- 
tification," ("  Genera  Plantarum  secundum  Numerum, 
Figuram,  etc.  omnium  Fructificationis  Partium,"  1737.) 
He  removed  in  1738  to  Stockholm,  where  he  practised 
medicine,  lectured  on  botany,  and  received  the  title  of 
physician  to  the  king.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Dr. 
More  in  1739.  In  1741  he  obtained  at  Upsal  the  chair 
of  botany,  which  he  occupied  thirty-seven  years,  witness- 
ing the  continuous  growth  of  his  fame  and  influence,  and 
exerting  his  unabated  activity  to  improve  his  scientific 
productions.  Thunberg,  Kalm,  Hasselquist,  Forskal,  and 
other  eminent  naturalists,  who  had  been  his  puj^ils,  visited 
various  foreign  countries  and  brought  back  willing  tribute 
to  enrich  his  collections  and  publications.  The  botanical 
philosophy  of  Linnaeus  was  reproduced  in  its  enseynble^ 
arranged  in  its  parts,  and  enforced  by  examples  in  his 
"  Philosophia  Botanica,"  (1751.)  "This  work,"  says 
Cuvier,  "which  exhibits  on  every  page  proofs  of  the 
rarest  ingenuity  (finesse  d''esfrit)  and  the  most  sur- 
prising profoundness  of  observation,  has  enjoyed  a  suc- 
cess which  was  previously  unexampled.  It  has  become 
as  it  were  a  fundamental  law,  to  which  all  botanists  con- 
form in  their  descriptions  and  in  their  use  of  terms." 
His  artificial  sexual  system  was  for  a  long  time  uni- 
versally adopted,  but  has  been  superseded  in  a  great 
measure  by  the  natural  method  of  Jussieu.  In  1753  he 
produced  his  "  Species  Plantarum,"  an  important  work, 
in  which  he  adopted  the  happy  idea  of  designating  each 
species  by  a  single  epithet  added  to  the  name  of  the 
genus.    He  also  applied  his  methods  with  success  to  the 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanation  s,  p.  23.) 


LINNjEUS 


LIPPT 


animal  kingdom  in  several  enlarged  editions  of  his 
"  Systema  Naturoe,"  in  his  "Fauna  Suecica,"  ("Swedish 
Fauna,"  1744,)  or  history  of  Swedish  animals,  and  va- 
rious other  works.  Died  in  January,  1778. 

See  PuLTENEY,  "Life  of  Linnseus,"  1781  :  Agarda,  "Antiqui- 
tates  Liiinaeaiiie,"  1S26 ;  A.  L.  A.  Fee,  "Vie  de  Lintie,"  1832; 
Miss  Hrightweli.,  "  Life  of  Linnjeus  ;"  Van  Hai.l,  "  Epistolc-E  Lin- 
njei  ;"  J.Tkafp,  "  Life  of  Linn£eus,"  1794;  Stoever,  "  Leben  des 
Ritters  C.  von  Linne,"  2  vols.,  1792;  Auam  Afzelius,  "  Egenhan- 
diga  Anteckniiigar  af  C.  Liniisus  om  sig  sjelf,"  1823  ;  Antonio 
Cattaneo,  "  Cenni  sulla  Vita  di  C.  Linne,"  1838;  "  Noiivelle  Bio- 
graphie  G^nerale  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1785. 

Linnaeus,  (Linne,)  von,  (Charles  or  Carl,)  only 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Fahlun  in  1741.  He 
was  chosen  demonstrator  of  botany  at  the  Royal  Garden 
of  Upsal  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  succeeded  his  father 
as  professor  in  the  university  of  that  place  in  1778.  He 
published  "Two  Decades  of  Rare  Plants  of  the  Gar- 
den of  Upsal,"  "Methodus  Muscorum,"  ("Method  of 
Mosses,")  and  a  few  other  small  works.  His  talents 
were  moderate.  He  died  in  1783,  and  the  family  then 
became  extinct. 

See  SvEN  Anders  Hedin,  "  Minne  af  C.  von  Linne,  Fader  och 
Son,"  1808. 

Linne.    See  Linn^us. 

Lin^nell,  (John,)  a  successful  English  portrait-  and 
landscape-painter,  born  in  London  in  1792.  He  has 
represented  English  scenery  with  success  in  the  "Heath 
Scene,"  "The  Windmill,"  (1847,)  and  "The  Forest 
Road,"  (1853.)  Among  his  other  great  works  are  the 
"Eve  of  the  Deluge,"  (1848,)  "The  Return  of  Ulysses," 
(1849,)  and  "  Christ  and  the  Woman  of  Samaria,"  (1850.) 
His  portraits  of  Thomas  Carlyle  (1844)  and  Sir  Robert 
Peel  are  admired.    He  is  called  an  excellent  colorist. 

Linschooten,  van,  vtn  lin'sK5'ten,  (Adriaan,)  a 
skilful  Dutch  painter  of  history  and  genre,  born  at  Delft 
in  1590.  Among  his  works  is  "  The  Repentance  of  Saint 
Peter."    Died  about  1678. 

Linschooten  or  Linschoten,  van,  (Jan  Hugo,)  a 
Dutch  voyager,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1563.  He  went  to 
Goa  in  1583,  and  remained  there  several  years  in  the 
service  of  Archbishop  Fonseca.  After  his  return,  he 
published  in  1596  an  "Account  of  his  Voyage,  with  a 
Description  of  the  Portuguese  East  Indies,"  which  is 
said  to  be  reliable,  and  has  often  been  reprinted.  Died 
in  1633. 

Linsenbahrt,  lin^sen-bSRt',  [Lat.  Rosi'nus  Len- 
til'ius,]  a  German  medical  writer,  born  at  Waldenburg 
in  1657;  died  at  Stuttgart  in  1733. 

Lint,  van,  vtn  lint,  (Hendrik,)  a  skilful  Flemish 
landscape-painter,  lived  probably  about  1630-50.  He 
worked  in  Rome,  where  he  obtained  the  surname  of 
Srunio.    Among  his  works  is  "Views  near  Rome." 

Lint,  van,  (Pieter,)  a  Flemish  painter  of  history, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1609.  He  worked  in  Rome,  and 
afterwards  at  Antwerp,  to  which  he  returned  in  1639, 
and  was  patronized  by  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark.  He 
was  a  good  colorist,  a  correct  designer,  and  painted 
history  with  equal  success  in  large  or  small  pictures. 
Died  about  1668. 

See  Descamps,  "Vie  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Lin'ton,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Liverpool  about  1790.  He  became  a 
resident  of  London  in  his  youth,  and  afterwards  travelled 
extensively  in  the  South  of  Europe.  The  subjects  of  his 
best  works  are  Italian  and  Grecian  scenes,  among  which 
are  "The  Ray  of  Naples,"  "Lake  Lugano,"  "Ruins 
of  Paestum,"  "Athens,"  and  "An  Arcadian  Landscape." 
His  style  is  simple  and  rather  austere. 

Li'nus,  [Gr.  Aivof,]  a  fabulous  personage,  whom  the 
ancients  regarded  as  a  son  of  Apollo  or  Mercury,  and  as 
one  of  the  inventors  of  poetry.  He  is  called  by  some 
authors  a  personification  of  the  dirge.  Among  the  an- 
cient Greeks  circulated  a  plaintive  song  or  dirge  called 
"Linus,"  which  is  mentioned  by  Homer,  ("Iliad,"  xviii. 
569.)  According  to  tradition,  he  was  killed  by  Hercules, 
who  was  his  pupil. 

Li'nus,  [Fr.  Lin,  IAn,]  Bishop  of  Rome,  was  a  native 
of  Volterra,  in  Tuscany.  According  to  some  accounts, 
he  became  bishop  in  66  a.d.,  and  was  the  immediate 
successor  of  Saint  Peter.  Little  is  known  of  his  history  ; 
but  it  is  supposed  that  he  suffered  martyrdom  about  78 


A.p.  He  is  mentioned  in  Saint  Paul's  second  Epistle  to 
Timothy,  chap.  iv.  21. 

Lin'wood,  Miss,  an  English  artist,  born  at  Birming- 
ham  in  1 755,  made,  in  needle-work,  copies  of  many  pic- 
tures of  tlie  old  masters.  She  was  offered,  it  is  said,  three 
thousand  guineas  for  one  of  her  works.    Died  in  1845. 

Lionardo  da  Vinci.    See  Vinci,  da. 

Li'o-nel,  Duke  of  Clarence,  the  third  son  of  Edward 
III.  of  England,  was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1338.  He  died 
in  1368,  leaving  no  issue  except  a  daughter,  Philippa, 
who  was  married  to  Edmund  Mortimer,  Earl  of  March. 

Lionne,  de.deh  le''on',  (HuGUES,)  Marquis  de  Berny, 
a  French  statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Grenoble 
in  161 1.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome  in  1655. 
He  succeeded  Mazarin  in  1661  as  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  which  he  directed  with  great  ability  for  ten  years. 
Died  in  1671. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Fran- 
cais." 

Lionnet.    See  Lyonnet. 

Liotard,  leVttR',  (Jean  Etienne,)  a  Swiss  portrait- 
painter,  surnamed  THE  Turk,  because  he  adopted  the 
Turkish  costume,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1702.  In  1725 
he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  acquired  reputation  by  his 
skill  in  crayon  and  enamel  miniatures.  He  worked  four 
years  in  Constantinople,  (1738-42),  painting  Turkish  cos- 
tumes, etc.  He  afterwards  painted  portraits  of  the  royal 
families  of  Austria  and  France.    Died  in  1790. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Liotard,  (Jean  Michel,)  a  twin-brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding,  born  at  Geneva  in  1702,  was  an  engraver,  and 
one  of  the  best  pupils  of  Benoit  Audran.  He  engraved 
the  great  cartoons  of  C.  Cignani  in  Italy,  and  afterwards 
worked  in  Paris.  He  returned  to  Geneva,  where  he 
died  about  1760. 

Liotard,  (Pierre,)  a  French  botanist,  born  near 
Grenoble  in  1729,  was  originally  a  poor  peasant.  He 
acquired  a  good  knowledge  of  the  plants  of  the  Alps, 
and  was  employed  as  guide  by  J.  J.  Rousseau  and 
Desfontaines.  He  corresponded  for  some  years  with 
Rousseau.    Died  in  1796. 

Liouville,  Woo'vhV,  (Joseph,)  an  able  French  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Saint-Omer  in  1809.  He  became  in 
1839  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  wrote  several  im- 
portant treatises,  and  edited  for  a  long  time  a  journal 
of  pure  mathematics  called  by  his  name. 

Lipano,  de,  di  le-pi'no.  Countess,  was  the  title 
assumed  by  Caroline,  Queen  of  Naples,  after  the  death 
of  Murat,  her  husband.  See  Bonaparte,  (Caroline 
Marie.) 

Liparini,  le-pi-ree'nee,  (Ludovico,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  history,  born  at  Bologna  in  1800  ;  died  in  1856. 

Lipenius,  le-pa'ne-us,  (Martin,)  a  learned  German 
bibliographer,  born  in  Brandenburg  in  1630,  was  rector 
of  gymnasiums  at  Halle  and  Stettin.  He  compiled 
"  Bibliotheca  Juridica,"  (1679,)  "Bibliotheca  Realis,  etc. 
Philosophica,"  (2  vols.,  1682,)  "Bibliotheca  Realis  The- 
ologica,"  (2  vols.,  1685,)  and  other  works.  Died  at 
Lubeck  in  1692. 

See  J.  H.  VON  Seelen,  "Vita  M.  Lipenii,"  edited  by  Jenichen, 
1737;  Niceron,  "  Memoires." 

Lipinski,  le-pen'skee,  (Charles,)  a  celebrated  Polish 
violinist,  born  at  Radzin  in  1790.  He  received  the  title 
of  first  violinist  to  the  Emperor  of  Russia. 

Lippert,  lip'^peRt,  (Philipp  Daniel,)  a  German  artist 
and  glyptographer,  was  born  at  Meissen  in  1703.  He 
published  "  Dactyliotheca ;  or,  A  Collection  of  Two 
Thousand  Prints  of  Antique  Gems."    Died  in  1785. 

Lippe-Schaumburg,  von,  fon  lip'peh  showm^'bdoRG, 
(Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  Count,  a  German  general,  born 
in  London  in  1724.  He  served  several  campaigns  in  the 
Austrian  army,  and  afterwards  travelled  in  Italy.  He 
obtained  the  chief  command  of  the  British  troops  sent 
in  1 761  to  aid  Portugal,  which  he  defended  with  success 
against  the  Spaniards.    Died  in  1777. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Lippi,  l^p'pee,  (Annibale,)  a  Roman  architect,  who 
lived  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Lippi,  (FiLiPPO,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  old 
Italian  painters  in  oil  and  fresco,  born  at  Florence  in  1412, 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  filll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LIPPl 


1437 


LISFRJNC 


was  a  pupil  of  Masaccio.  Before  he  was  of  age  he  was 
captured  by  pirates  and  enslaved  in  Africa.  His  master 
was  so  pleased  with  a  portrait  of  himself,  drawn  with  a 
coal  on  the  wall,  that  he  gave  the  artist  his  liberty. 
Lippi  then  returned  to  Florence,  and  adorned  the 
churches  and  convents  of  that  city,  and  of  Spoleto, 
Prato,  etc.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  Madonna, 
in  oil,  "The  Life  of  Saint  Stephen,"  "The  Death  of  San 
Bernardo,"  in  oil,  at  Prato,  two  "  Annunciations,"  and 
"The  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  in  fresco.  He  excelled 
in  invention,  design,  and  colouring,  and  is  ranked  among 
the  greatest  painters  before  Raphael.    Died  in  1469. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy;"  Baldinucci,  "  Notizie  ;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario ;" 
"  Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lippi,  (FiLiPPO  or  Filippino,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Florence  in  1460,  and  became  an  excellent 
])ainter.  He  studied  with  Sandro  Botticelli,  and  worked 
chiefly  in  Florence  and  Rome.  He" was  distinguished 
for  his  good  taste  and  correctness  of  design,  and  was 
perhaps  the  first  painter  among  the  moderns  who  treated 
costumes  and  other  accessories  with  propriety.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  "  Saint  Peter  and  Saint  Paul  before 
the  Proconsul,"  the  "  Death  of  Lucretia,"  at  the  Pitti 
palace  in  Florence,  several  Madonnas,  and  frescos  in 
Santa  Maria  Novella,  in  the  same  city.    Died  in  1505. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lippi,  (GlACOMO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  near  Bo- 
logna in  the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  pupil  of  L.  Caracci. 

Lippi,  (LiPPO,)  called  Lippo  of  Florence,  a  Floren- 
tine painter,  born  in  1354,  was  the  father  of  Filippo 
Lippi,  (1412-69.)  His  works,  which  are  praised  by 
Vasari,  are  not  now  extant.    Died  in  1415. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Lippi,  (Lorenzo,)  a  successful  Italian  painter  and 
poet,  born  at  Florence  in  1606,  received  lessons  in  art 
from  Roselli.  He  worked  in  Florence,  and  was  rejjuted 
one  of  the  best  draughtsmen  of  his  time.  "The  Martyr- 
dom of  Saint  Sebastian"  and  "The  Triumph  of  David" 
are  called  his  master-pieces.  He  wrote  a  facetious  poem 
called  "II  Malmantile  racquistato,"  (1676,)  which  was 
admired  and  recognized  by  the  Academy  della  Crusca 
among  the  testi  di  lingiia.    Died  in  1664. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters  ;"  Lanzi, 
"History  of  Painting  in  Italy  ;"  Baldinucci,  "  Notizie." 

Lip'pin-cott,  (Joshua  B.,)  an  American  publisher, 
distinguished  for  his  ability,  energy,  and  enterprise, 
was  born  in  l^urlington  county.  New  Jersey. 
About  1828  he  came  to  Philadelphia  and  engaged  him- 
self in  a  small  bookstore.  At  an  early  age  he  com- 
menced the  publishing  and  bookselling  business,  which 
he  conducted  successfully.  In  1850  he  jnirchased  the 
business  of  Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot,  and  the  firm  of 
which  he  became  the  head  soon  took  its  place  among 
the  most  distinguished  publishing  houses  in  the  United 
States. 

Lippincott,  (Sarah  G.,)  a  popular  American  writer, 
whose  original  name  was  Clarke,  was  born  at  Pompey, 
in  Onondaga  county.  New  York,  about  1825.  Her  first 
productions  appeared  in  the  New  York  "  Mirror,"  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Grace  Greenwood.  She  also 
contributed  to  the  "National  Era,"  Washington.  Her 
principal  works  are  "Greenwood  Leaves,"  (1850-52,) 
"History  of  my  Pets,"  (1850,)  "Poems,"  (1851,)  "Recol- 
lections of  my  Childhood,"  (1851,)  "Haps  and  Mishaps 
of  a  Tour  in  Europe,"  (1852,)  "Forest  Tragedy,  and 
other  Tales,"  (1856,)  and  "Stories  and  Legends  of  His- 
tory and  Travel,"  (1857.)  She  was  married  in  1853  to 
Leander  K.  Lippincott,  of  Philadelphia,  where  she  be- 
came editor  of  a  popular  juvenile  periodical  called  "The 
Little  Pilgrim." 

See  Cleveland,  "Compendium  of  American  Literature;"  Alli- 
BuNE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Lippo  OF  Florence.    See  Lippl 

Lippomani,  l^p-po-mS'nee,  (Aloisio,)  a  learned  Ital- 
ian prelate,  born  at  Venice  about  1500.  He  obtained 
successively  the  bishoprics  of  Modon,  Verona,  and  Ber- 
gamo, and  was  one  of  three  prelates  selected  to  preside 
over  the  Council  of  Trent.  In  1556  he  became  secretary 
to  Pope  Julius  III.  He  wrote,  besides  a  few  other  works, 


commentaries  on  Genesis,  Exodus,  and  the  Psalms.  Died 
in  1559- 

Liprandi,  le-pRSn'dee,  (Paul  Petrovitch,)  a  Rus- 
sian general,  born  in  1796,  distinguished  himself  at  the 
taking  of  Warsaw,  in  1 83 1,  and  in  the  Crimean  war  took 
(October  25,  1854)  the  Turkish  fortress  at  Kadikoi. 

Lips,  lips,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  Swiss  painter,  de- 
signer, and  engraver,  born  near  Zurich  in  1758.  Among 
his  best  works  are  the  engravings  for  Lavater's  "Phys- 
iognomical Fragments,"  and  a  "Saint  Sebastian,"  after 
Van  Dyck.    Died  in  181 7. 

Lipse,  (Juste.)    See  Lipsius. 

Lipsius,  lip''se-us,  (Justus,)  [Fr.  Juste  Lipse,  zhiist 
l^ps,]  a  Flemish  scholar,  critic,  and  philologist  of  high 
reputation,  was  born  at  Isque,  between  Brussels  and 
Louvain,  in  1547.  He  was  educated  at  Brussels  and 
Louvain.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  ])roduced  "  Various 
Readings,"  ("  Varias  Lectiones,")  which  were  received 
with  favour.  He  was  professor  of  history  in  Jena  two 
years,  ending  in  1574,  and  occupied  the  same  chair  at 
Leyden  from  1579  to  1592.  About  this  time  he  became  a 
Roman  Catholic,  and  was  afterwards  professor  of  history 
at  Louvain.  He  wrote  many  works  on  history,  criticism, 
antiquities,  etc.,  which  were  very  popular  in  his  time. 
His  best  work,  according  to  Scaliger,  is  a  commentary 
on  Tacitus,  (1574,)  whose  history,  it  is  said,  he  knew  by 
heart.  His  admiration  of  Tacitus  and  Seneca  spoiled 
his  Latinity,  which  was  affectedly  concise.  His  moral 
character  is  said  to  have  been  good.    Died  in  1606. 

See  MiR^iJS,  "Vita  Justi  Lipsii,"  1606;  Scribani,  "Justi  Lipsii 
Defensio ;"  Charles  Nisard,  "  Le  Triumvirat  litteraire  an  XVIe 
Siecle,  J.  Lipse,  Joseph  Scaliger  et  I.  Casaubon,"  1852;  Edward 
VAN  Even,  "  J.  Liv)sius  als  Vaderlander,"  1849:  Bayle,  "  Historical 
and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Liron,  le'rc)N',  (Jean,)  a  learned  French  Benedictine 
monk,  born  at  Chartres  in  1665,  lived  in  Paris  and  at 
Mans.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Amenities  of  Criti- 
cism," (2  vols.,  1717,)  and  a  curious  book  called  "His- 
toric and  Literary  Oddities,"  ("  vSingularites  historiques 
et  litteraires,"  4  vols.,  1734-40.)    Died  in  1749. 

Liruti,  le-roo'tee,  (Giovanni  Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  in  Friuli  about  1710;  died  in  1780. 

Lis,  lis  or  l^ss,  (Charles  Augusts,)  a  Belgian  com- 
poser, born  at  Antwerp  in  1784;  died  in  1845. 

Lis  or  Lys,  liss,  or  Van  der  Lys,  vtn  der  liss,  (Jan,) 
a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Oldenburg  in  1570.  He  worked 
in  Rome  and  Venice,  taking  for  his  models  Titian  and 
Paul  Veronese.  Some  critics  find  in  his  works  the  good 
colouring  of  the  former  with  the  grace  of  the  latter. 
Among  his  productions  are  "Adam  and  Eve  Mourning  for 
Abel,"  and  "The  Prodigal  Son."  Died  at  Venice  in  1629. 

Lis  or  Lys,  van  der,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Breda  about  1600.  A  picture  of  "Diana  Bathing"  is 
called  his  best  work. 

Lisboa,  de,  da  l^s-bo'S,  (Marcos,)  a  Portuguese  his- 
torian and  Franciscan  friar,  born  at  Lisbon  in  15 11. 
He  wrote  a  "Chronicle  of  the  Order  of  Friars  of  Saint 
Francis,"  (3  vols.,  1556,  1570,  1660,)  and  is  ranked  among 
the  classic  authors  of  Portugal.    Died  in  1 591. 

Liscov,  lis'kof,  (Christian  Ludwig,)  the  most  ex- 
cellent satirist  and  prose  writer  of  Germany  before  Les- 
sing,  was  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1701.  He  lived  at 
Lubeck,  Dresden,  etc.,  and  about  1741  became  secretary 
to  Bruhl,  the  Saxon  minister.  In  1745  he  obtained  the 
title  of  Kricgsrath,  (councillor  of  war,)  but  a  few  years 
later  he  was  removed  from  ofiice.  He  published  in  1739 
a  "  Collection  of  Satirical  and  Serious  Writings."  Ilis 
style  was  remarkable  for  purity.  His  works  are  per- 
vaded by  a  sound  philosophical  spirit,  and  have  been 
more  highly  appreciated  since  his  death  than  before. 
He  was  a  complete  master  of  the  weapons  of  irony. 
One  of  his  treatises  is  entitled  "The  Excellence  and 
Utility  of  Bad  Writers."    Died  in  1760. 

See  LiscH,  "Liscovs  Leben,"  1845;  Karl  Gustav  Helbig, 
"  C.  L.  Liscow:  Beitrag  zur  Literatur-  und  Cultur-Geschichte,"  etc., 
1844. 

Lisfranc,  le'fRfiN',  (Jacques,)  a  distinguished  French 
surgeon,  born  in  the  department  of  Loire  in  1790.  Among 
his  works  is  "Diseases  of  the  Uterus,"  ("Maladies  de 
I'Uterus,"  1836.)    Died  in  1847. 

See  L.  A.  Coutourier,  "  Biographie  de  J.  Lisfranc,"  1852 ;  "  Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  g,  h,  Y.,guUural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LISLE  1438  LITTJ 


Lisle,  111,  (Lady  Alice,)  was  the  widow  of  an  English 
lawyer  who  took  an  active  part  against  Charles  I.  She 
was  condemned  to  death  by  Judge  Jeffreys,  and  executed 
in  1685. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap.  v. 

Lisle,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  royalist  officer,  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  battle  of  Newbury.  Having 
been  taken  prisoner  at  Colchester  in  1648,  he  was  shot. 

L'Isle-Adam.    See  Villiers. 

Lisle,  de.    See  Delisle. 

Lisle,  de,  deh  1^1,  (Jean  IUptiste  Isoard,)  a  prolific 
French  writer,  called  also  Delisle  de  Sales,  was  born 
at  Lyons  in  1743.  He  was  condemned  to  exile  for  the 
alleged  immorality  of  his  "  Philosophy  of  Nature," 
which  consequently  attracted  attention;  but  his  sentence 
was  annulled  or  remitted.  He  wrote  many  other  works. 
Died  in  1816. 

JLiismauin,  lis-mi-neen',  (Francis,)  a  Socinian  theo- 
logian, born  at  Corfu,  became  confessor  to  the  Queen  of 
Poland  about  1546.    Died  about  1563. 

Lisola,  de,  deh  le'zoHS',  (Francois  Paul,)  Baron, 
an  able  diplomatist,  born  at  Salins,  France,  in  1613.  He 
was  successively  employed  by  the  Empero,r  of  Germany 
as  minister  to  England,  (1743,)  to  Poland,  and  to  Spain. 
He  wrote  several  successful  political  treatises,  one  of 
which,  called  "Shield  of  the  State  and  of  Justice," 
(1667,)  was  directed  against  the  ambition  of  Louis  XIV. 
Died  about  1675. 

List,  list,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  political  economist, 
was  born  at  Reutlingen  in  1789.  In  1825  he  emigrated 
to  Pennsylvania,  where  he  was  extensively  engaged  in 
coal-mining,  and  ])ublished,  in  English,  "Outlines  of  a 
New  System  of  Political  Economy,"  (Philadelphia,  1827.) 
Having  been  appointed  United  States  consul  at  Leipsic, 
he  returned  to  Europe  in  1832,  and  in  several  publica- 
tions efficiently  advocated  the  construction  of  railroads 
in  Germany.  He  published  "A  National  System  of  Po- 
litical Economy,"  (Stuttgart,  1841,)  in  which  he  favours 
the  ])rotection  of  native  industry.  He  committed  suicide 
in  1846.  Since  his  death  his  merit  has  been  more  fully 
recognized  throughout  Germany. 

See  "  Life  of  List,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  works  published 
at  Stuttgart,  1851. 

Lista  y  Aragon,  l^s'tS  e  ^-rl.-gb\V,  (Don  Alberto,) 
an  eminent  Spanish  poet,  critic,  and  mathematician,  born 
at  Triana,  a  suburb  of  Seville,  in  1775.  the  age  of 
twenty  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  nau- 
tical college  of  Seville.  He  obtained  the  chair  of  rhetoric 
and  poetry  in  the  university  of  that  city  in  1807,  but  lost 
it  in  consequence  of  the  French  invasion  of  1808.  He 
passed  about  four  years  as  an  exile  in  France,  from  1813 
to  181 7.  In  1820  he  began  to  edit  "The  Censor,"  at 
Madrid.  After  various  removals  and  adverse  fortunes, 
he  became  about  1833  editor  of  the  "  Gaceta  de  Madrid," 
which  in  his  hands  w^as  an  able  and  successful  political 
journal.  In  1822  he  published  a  volume  of  poems,  which 
are  greatly  admired.  His  superior  critical  ability  is  dis- 
played in  his  "  Lectures  on  the  Dramatic  Literature  of 
Spain,"  (1839.)  He  also  published  a  "Treatise  on  Pure 
and  Mixed  Mathematics,"  which  is  a  standard  work. 
As  a  lyric  poet  he  united  the  fervour  and  splendid  colour 
of  the  old  Spanish  school  with  the  purer  taste  and  depth 
of  reflection  of  the  moderns.  His  imitations  of  Horace, 
in  his  "Philosophic  Poems,"  are  admirable.  Died  in  1848. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lis'ter,  (Joseph  Jackson,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  mer- 
chant of  London,  Vt'ho  attained  distinction  by  his  know- 
ledge of  optics  and  by  his  improvement  of  the  achromatic 
microscope.  He  had  been  led  to  the  use  of  that  in- 
strument by  a  love  of  natural  history.  About  1828  he 
produced  a  combination  of  lenses  which  was  perfectly 
achromatic,  with  a  large  focal  pencil,  thus  surmounting 
what  had  before  been  the  chief  obstacle  to  the  perfection 
of  the  microscope.  He  sent  to  the  Royal  Society  an 
account  of  it,  which  was  inserted  in  their  "Philosophical 
Transactions." 

Lister,  (Martin,)  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  an  English  naturalist, 
born  at  Radcliffe  (Bucks)  about  1638.  In  1670  he  settled 
at  York,  where  he  practised  medicine.  Pie  removed  to 
London  in  1684,  and  published  "Synopsis  Conchylio- , 


rum,"  (1685-93,)  a  valuable  work  on  conchology,  which 
was  highly  commended  by  Linnaeus.  In  1709  he  became 
physician  to  Queen  Anne.  He  wrote  three  exce'.ient 
treatises  on  English  Spiders,  Fluviatile  Shells,  and 
Marine  Shells,  (1678,)  and  other  works.  "Lister  may 
be  reckoned,"  says  Hallam,  "one  of  those  who  have 
done  most  to  found  the  .science  of  conchology."  ("  In- 
troduction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")    Died  in  17 11. 

See  Thompson,  "History  of  the  Royal  Society." 

Lister,  (Sir  Matthew,)  an  English  physician,  born 
in  Yorkshire  about  1565.  He  became  president  of  the 
College  of  Physicians,  London,  and  physician  to  Charles 
I.    Died  in  1657. 

Lister,  (Thomas  Henry,)  an  English  author  and 
gentleman,  born  about  1800,  was  the  son  of  Thomas 
Lister,  Esq.,  of  Armitage  Park.  He  obtained  the  office 
of  registrar-general  of  births.  He  published  two  novels, 
entitled  "Granby,"  (1826,)  and  "Herbert  Lacy,"  and  a 
"  Life  of  Lord  Clarendon  the  Historian."  He  married 
the  sister  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon,  known  as  the  au- 
thoress of  "  Sketches  of  the  Contemporaries  of  Lord 
Chancellor  Clarendon."  Died  in  1842.  In  1844  his 
widow  became  the  wife  of  Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis. 
He  was  a  brother-in-law  of  Lord  John  Russell. 

Lis'ton,  (John,)  a  popular  English  comedian,  born 
in  London  in  T776,  appeared  on  the  London  stage  about 
1805.  He  excelled  in  low  comedy,  and  acted  many  years 
at  the  Playmarket,  Covent  Garden,  and  Drury  Lane 
Theatres.    Died  in  1846. 

_  Lis'ton,  (Rohert,)  F'.R.S.,  an  emineiit  Scottish  phy- 
sician, born  in  1794.  About  181 7  he  began  to  practise 
in  Edinburgh,  where  he  attained  great  eminence  as  a 
surgeon.  In  1833  he  published  his  "Principles  of  Sur- 
gery." He  removed  to  London  in  1834,  practised  with 
success,  and  became  professor  of  clinical  surgery  in 
University  College.    Died  in  1848. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Liszinski,  le-sh^n'skee,  (Casimir,)  a  Polish  philoso- 
pher, who  was  beheaded  in  1689  on  a  false  charge  of 
heresy  or  atheism. 

Liszt,  list,  (Franz,)  a  Hungarian  musician,  and  the 
most  celebrated  pianist  of  recent  times,  was  born  at  Rai- 
ding in  1811.  Lie  was  instructed  by  Czerny  and  Salieri 
at  Vienna,  and  afterwards  repaired  to  Paris,  where  his 
performance  made  a  great  sensation.  About  1823  he 
visited  England,  and  was  received  with  equal  enthusiasm. 
Having,  after  his  return  to  Paris,  heard  Paganini,  he  re- 
solved to  obtain  the  same  mastery  over  the  ])iano  which 
that  great  musician  had  gained  over  the  violin  ;  and  it  is 
generally  allowed  that  he  has  succeeded.  He  visited 
the  principal  cities  of  Europe,  and  everywhere  excited 
the  warmest  admiration.  Though  he  has  produced  several 
compositions,  he  chiefly  excels  as  a  performer.  Liszt  is 
distinguished  for  generosity,  and  has  given  largely  to 
charitable  and  useful  institutions.  In  1848  he  was  ap- 
pointed leader  of  the  orchestra  in  the  imperial  chapel 
at  Weimar.  He  is  the  author  of  a  "Life  of  Frederick 
Chopin." 

See  L.  Rei.i.stab,  "  F.  Liszt:  Beurtheilungen,  Berichte,  Lebens- 
skizze,"  1842;  GusTAV  Schilling,  "  F.  Liszt;  sein  Leben  und 
Wirken,"  1844;  F.  Kempe,  "  F.  Liszt;"  Richard W.agner,  "Apho- 
ristische  Memoiren,"  etc.,  1852. 

Lith'gow,  (William,)  a  traveller,  who  traversed  on 
foot  a  large  part  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  pub- 
lished in  1614  an  entertaining  narrative  of  his  travels. 
At  Malaga  he  was  arrested  as  a  spy  and  heretic,  and 
tortured  by  the  Inquisition. 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  xi.,  1825. 

Lithov,  lit'hov,  }  (Gustavus,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  in 
Sweden  in  1692.  In  1734  he  published  "Heroic-Mis- 
cellaneous Poems,"  (  Poeniata  heroico-miscellanea."  ) 
His  "Panegyric  on  Charles  XII."  (1720)  produced  a 
great  sensation.    Died  in  1753- 

Litta,  l^l'ta,  (PoMPEO,)  Count,  an  Italian  historical 
writer,  born  in  Milan  in  1781.  He  entered  the  French 
army  in  1804,  fought  at  Austerlitz,  (1805,)  and,  having 
obtained  the  grade  of  chef-de-bataillon,  left  the  service  ia 
1814.  In  1819  he  began  to  publish  at  Milan  his  famous 
and  costly  work,  "  Celebrated  Italian  Families,"  which 
was  continued  until  his  death,  and  contains  accounts  of 


5,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f3.r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


LITTLE 


H39 


LIf'IJ 


seventy-five  families.    It  is  considered  remarkable  for 
historical  accuracy.    Died  in  1852. 
See  Bkockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Little.    See  Moore,  (Thomas.) 

Lit'tle,  (Henry,)  an  American  general,  born  at  Bal- 
timore, served  in  Mexico  in  1846,  and  entered  the  Con- 
federate army  in  1861.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
luka,  in  1862. 

Lit'tle,  (William,)  an  English  historian,  called  Nau- 
BRiGENSis,  was  born  at  Bridlington,  Yorkshire,  in  1136. 
He  became  a  monk  of  Newborough  Abbey,  and  wrote  a 
"  History  of  England  from  the  Conquest  to  1197,"  which 
is  a  work  of  merit. 

Lit'tle-ton,  (Adam,)  an  English  divine,  eminent  as 
a  philologist  and  Orientalist,  was  born  in  Shropshire  in 
1627.  He  became  chaplain  to  Charles  H.,  rector  of 
Chelsea,  and  prebendary  of  Westminster.  His  Latin 
Dictionary  (1679)  was  esteemed  and  often  reprinted.  He 
published  many  sermons,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1694. 

Littleton,  (Edward,)  Lord,  lord  keeper  of  the  great 
seal  of  England,  born  at  Munslow,  Shropshire,  in  1589, 
was  a  lineal  descendant  of  the  jurist  Thomas  Littleton. 
After  finishing  his  studies  in  the  Inner  Temple,  he  soon 
rose  to  the  summit  of  his  profession.  In  1626  he  entered 
Parliament,  where  he  was  at  first  a  zealous  adherent  of 
the  popular  party,  bijt  afterwards  went  over  to  the  court 
with  Wentworth  and  others.  He  was  made  chief  justice 
of  the  common  pleas  in  1640,  and  reluctantly  accepted 
the  great  seal  in  January,  1641.  He  was  then  raised  to 
the  peerage,  as  Lord  Littleton.  The  vacillation  which 
he  displayed  in  the  contest  between  Charles  I.  and  the 
Parliament  is  ascribed  to  lack  of  moral  courage  ;  but  he 
was  suspected  of  perfidy  by  the  royalists  and  by  the  king. 
In  1642  the  king,  then  at  York,  ordered  Falkland  to  de- 
mand the  great  seal  from  the  "traitor."  Littleton  soon 
joined  the  court  at  York,  and,  through  the  intercession 
of  Lord  Clarendon,  was  retained  in  office  until  his  death, 
in  1645.  "He  was,"  says  Lord  Campbell,  "a  man  of 
excellent  private  character." 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors  of  Eng- 
land," 1846;  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Littleton,  (Edward,)  an  English  poet.  He  was 
presented  to  the  living  of  Maple  Durham  about  1727, 
and  was  afterwards  chaplain  to  the  king.  He  was  author 
of  Verses  on  a  Spider,  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1734. 

Littleton,  Lord.    See  Lyttleton. 

Littleton  or  Lyttleton,  (Thomas,)  a  celebrated 
English  judge  and  jurist,  born  probably  about  1420,.  was 
the  son  of  Thomas  Westcote,  of  Devonshire,  and  Eliza- 
beth Littleton.  He  studied  in  the  Inner  Temple.  In 
1455  he  was  appointed  king's  serjeant,  and  rode  the 
northern  circuit  as  judge  of  assize.  After  the  triumph 
of  the  house  of  York,  he  received  a  pardon  from  Edward 
IV.,  about  1462,  and  was  retained  in  the  oftice  of  king's 
sergeant.  He  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  court  of 
common  pleas  in  1466,  and  created  a  knight  of  the  Bath 
in  1475.  died  in  1481,  leaving  three  sons,  from  whom 
the  lord  keeper  Lyttleton  and  other  eminent  men  de- 
scended. His  treatise  on  "  Tenures,"  written  in  Norman 
French,  is  regarded  as  the  principal  basis  of  the  laws 
of  property  in  Great  Britain,  and  is  indispensable  to 
students  of  English  law.  The  style  is  remarkably  clear 
and  pure.  Sir  Edward  Coke  wrote  a  celebrated  com- 
mentary on  Littleton. 

See  Foss,  "  The  Judges  of  England." 

Littre,  l^tR,  (Alexis,)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Cordes  in  1658,  practised  in  Paris,  and  wrote  many 
memoirs  on  pathological  anatomy.    IDied  in  1725. 

Littre,  le'tRi',  (Maxtmilien  Paul  Emile,)  a  French 
philologist,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  was  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  "Nationel,"  a  democratic  journal,  from 
183 1  to  185 1.  His  most  important  work  is  an  edition 
of  Hippocrates  with  a  French  version,  (8  vols.,  1839-52,) 
which  is,  say  the  French  critics,  the  best  edition  extant. 

Littrow,  lit'tRof  or  lit'tRo,  (Joseph  Johann,)  an 
eminent  astronomer,  born  in  Bohemia  in  1781.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  astronomy  at  Cracow  in  1807,  and 
at  Kazan  in  1810.  In  1819  he  became  director  of  the 
Observatory  of  Vienna,  which  he  greatly  improved,  and 
lectured  on  astronomy  with  success  in  that  city.  He 
published  many  valuable  scientific  works,  among  which 


are  "Theoretic  and  Practical  Astronomy,"  (1822-26,) 
"  Dioptrics,"  (1830,)  and  "The  Wonders  of  the  Heavens," 
(1853.)  The  last  is  called  one  of  the  best  popular  books 
on  that  subject.    Died  in  1840. 

Littrow,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Kazan  in  1811.  He  succeeded  his  father 
as  director  of  the  Observatory  of  Vienna  in  1842.  The 
Annals  of  this  observatory  which  have  appeared  since 
his  appointment  are  esteemed  among  the  most  valuable 
astronomical  registers.  In  1847  Littrow  and  W.  Struve 
were  employed  to  connect  Austria  and  Russia  by  trian- 
gulation. 

Lit-y-er'ses,  fGr.  ALTvepariQ,']  a  son  of  Midas,  King 
of  Phrygia,  was  killed  by  Hercules. 
Liutprand.    See  Luitprand. 
Liiitprandus.    See  Luitprandus. 
Livens.    See  Lievens. 

Liverani,  le-va-ri'nee,  an  Italian  theologian,  born  at 
Castel-Bolognese  in  1823,  published  in  1861  a  work 
against  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope. 

Liv'er-more,  (Abiel  Abbott,)  an  American  Unita- 
rian divine,  born  at  Wilton,  New  Hampshire,  in  181 1, 
became  in  1850  pastor  of  a  church  at  Cincinnati.  He 
has  published  a  number  of  works  in  prose  and  verse. 

Liv'er-pool,  (Charles  Jenkinson,)  first  Earl  of, 
a  British  statesman,  born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1727,  was 
the  son  of  Charles  Jenkinson.  In  1761  he  entered  Par- 
liament, and  was  appointed  by  Lord  Bute  under-secretary 
of  state.  After  the  retirement  of  Lord  Bute,  in  1763,  he 
acquired  the  favour  of  the  king,  and  incurred  much 
popular  odium  as  the  chief  of  the  secret  cabinet.  He 
became  one  of  the  lords  of  the  treasury  in  1767,  was 
secretary  of  war  under  Lord  North  from  1778  to  1782, 
and  was  afterwards  president  of  the  board  of  trade  in 
the  ministry  of  the  younger  Pitt.  He  was  created  Lord 
Hawkesbury  in  1786,  and  Earl  of  Liverpool  in  1796.  In 
1758  he  had  published  a  "Discourse  on  the  Conduct  of 
Great  Britain  with  respect  to  Neutral  Nations."  He  died 
in  1808,  leaving  his  title  to  his  son,  who  became  premier. 

Liverpool,  (Robert  Banks  Jenkinson,)  Earl  of, 
a  conservative  British  statesman,  eminent  for  his  prit- 
dence  and  prosperity,  born  in  1770,  was  the  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford.  In  1790  he 
entered  Parliament  as  a  political  friend  of  Pitt.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  candour  in  debate,  by  abilities 
more  solid  than  brilliant,  and  by  his  persistent  hostility 
to  innovation  or  reform.  About  1796  he  received  the 
title  of  Lord  Hawkesbury,  and  married  a  daughter  of 
the  Earl  of  Bristol.  He  became  foreign  secretary  in  the 
ministry  of  Addington  in  March,  1801,  and  made  peace 
with  Napoleon  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens  in  1802.  In 
i8o4he  accepted  the  office  of  home  secretary  under  Pitt, 
who  had  returned  to  power.  The  ministry  having  been 
dissolved  by  the  death  of  Pitt,  in  1806,  Lord  Hawkesbury 
was  requested  by  the  king  to  form  a  new  ministry;  but 
he  declined  the  task.  He  took  office  as  home  secretary 
in  the  cabinet  of  the  Duke  of  Portland  in  1807,  and  suc- 
ceeded to  his  father's  earldom  in  1808,  In  June,  1812, 
he  obtained  the  place  of  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  or 
premier,  vacated  by  the  death  of  Percival,  which  he  re- 
tained until  he  was  prostrated  by  a  stroke  of  apoplexy 
in  February,  1827.  "He  presided  over  the  councils  of 
England,"  says  Brougham,  "for  a  longer  time  than  any 
other,  excepting  Walpole  and  Pitt.  It  happened  to  him 
that  the  years  during  which  the  helm  of  the  state,  as  it 
is  called,  were  intrusted  to  his  hands,  were  those  of  the 
greatest  events,  alike  in  negotiation,  in  war,  in  commerce, 
and  in  finance,  which  ever  happened  to  illustrate  or  to 
checker  the  annals  of  Europe.  ...  So  long  and  so  little 
interrupted  a  course  of  official  prosperity  was  never, 
perhaps,  enjoyed  by  any  other  statesman."  Brougham 
also  represents  him  as  remarkable  for  discretion  and 
as  a  model  of  safe  mediocrity.  He  is  censured  for  op- 
posing the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  and  for  the  part 
he  took  in  the  persecution  of  Queen  Caroline.  Died 
in  December,  1828. 

See  Brougham,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  IIL ;" 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Public  Life  of  Lord  Liverpool,"  London,  1827. 

Liv'i-a,  [Fr.  Livie,  le^e',]  or,  more  fully,  Livl-a 
Dru-siPia,  a  Roman  empress,  born  in  58  B.C.,  was 
first  married  to  Tiberius  Nero.     After  becoming  the 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  h,  VL,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LIFIA 


1440 


LIVINGSTONE 


mother  of  Tiberius  and  Drusus  Germanicus,  she  was 
married  in  38  B.C.  to  the  emperor  Augustus,  over  whom 
she  acquired  an  ascendency  which  she  retained  until  his 
death.  She  persuaded  him  to  adopt  her  son  Tiberius  as 
his  successor.  By  his  last  will  he  appointed  Livia  and 
Tiberius  his  heirs,  and  directed  her  to  assume  the  name 
of  Julia  Augusta.  She  was  a  woman  of  superior  talents. 
Died  in  29  a.d. 

See  J.  D.  KdRHLER,  "Dissertatio  de  Livia  Augusta,"  1715; 
Tacitus,  "Annales,"  i.  and  v.  :  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Liv'i-a  Liv-ilTa,  a  granddaughter  of  the  preceding, 
was  the  sister  of  Germanicus.  She  became  the  wife  of 
her  cousin  Drusus,  the  son  of  Tiberius,  and  was  sus- 
pected of  poisoning  her  husband  in  concert  with  Sejanus. 
She  was  put  to  death  for  that  crime,  by  order  of  Tiberius, 
about  30  A.D. 

Livie.    See  Livia. 

Livineius.    See  Ltevens,  (John.) 

LivTng-stoii,  (Brockholsi  ,)  an  American  jurist  and 
soldier,  born  in  New  York  in  1764,  served  with  distinc- 
tion in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  subsequently  rose  to 
be  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States, 
lie  was  a  son  of  William  Livingston,  Governor  of  New 
Jersey.    Died  in  1823. 

Livingston,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  American  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  in  Clermont,  Columbia  county,  New 
York,  on  the  26th  of  May,  1764,  was  a  son  of  Robert 
Livingston,  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  New  York. 
His  mother  was  Margaret  Beekman.  He  graduated  at 
Princeton  College,  New  Jersey,  in  1 781,  studied  law, 
and  began  to  practise  in  the  city  of  New  York  about 
1785.  He  married  Mary  McEvers,  of  New  York.  After 
he  had  acquired  great  eminence  as  an  advocate,  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1794  by  the  Democrats. 
He  was  re-elected  in  1796  and  in  1798.  In  1801  he  was 
appointed  district-attorney  of  the  United  States  for  the 
wState  of  New  York,  and  elected  mayor  of  the  city  of 
New  York  for  two  years.  In  the  autumn  of  1803  he 
became  a  public  defaulter  in  consequence  of  the  mis- 
conduct of  one  of  his  clerks.  He  made  an  assignment 
of  his  property,  resigned  his  offices,  and  removed  in 
1804  to  New  Orleans.  Having  lost  his  first  wife,  he 
married  a  creole,  named  Louise  Moreau  de  Lassy,  in 
1805.  He  enjoyed  great  professional  success  in  New 
Orleans,  and  paid  in  full  the  debt  which  he  owed  to 
the  government.  He  was  involved  in  a  long  controversy 
and  litigation  about  the  title  to  some  land,  called  the 
Batture,  which  he  purchased  in  New  Orleans.  President 
efferson  was  one  of  his  adversaries  in  this  dispute ; 
out  Livingston  gained  his  cause.  At  the  battle  of  New 
Orleans,  January  8,  181 5,  he  acted  as  aide-de-camp  to 
General  Jackson,  who  was  his  intimate  friend.  In  1821 
he  was  authorized  by  the  legislature  of  Louisiana  to 
revise  the  system  of  criminal  law.  He  acquired  celebrity 
by  his  "  System  of  Penal  Law  or  Criminal  Codes,"  pub- 
lished in  i8j3,  in  which  he  opposed  capital  punishment. 
"  This  volume,"  says  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July, 
1864,  "is  a  perfect  treasure-house  of  juridical  and  legis- 
lative schemes  and  suggestions,  doctrines  and  contri- 
vances ;  and  its  indirect  influence  has  been  immense." 
M.  Villemain  declared  the  "System"  to  be  "a  work 
without  example  from  the  hand  of  any  one  man.  .  .  . 
The  lapse  of  time  has  deepened  and  strengthened  the 
foundations  of  his  fame." 

He  represented  a  district  of  Louisiana  in  Congress 
from  1823  to  1829,  and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  by  the  legislature  of  that  State  in  the 
latter  year.  In  April  or  May,  183 1,  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state  by  President  Jackson.  Having  re- 
signed this  office  in  May,  1833,  was  immediately 
appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  to  France,  where  he 
is  said  to  have  "  hit  the  happy  medium  between  firm- 
ness and  conciliation  in  diplomacy."  He  returned  home 
about  the  end  of  1835,  and  died  at  Rhinebeck,  New 
York,  in  May,  1836.    He  had  several  children. 

_  See  a  "  Life  of  Edward  Livingston,"  bv  Charles  Havens  Hunt, 
with  an  Litroduction  by  George  Bancroft,  1864;  "National  Por- 
trait-Gallery of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  i. ;  "  North  American 
Review"  for  October,  1836. 

Liy'ing-ston,  (John,)  a  Scottish  Presbyterian  divine, 
born  in  1603.    Having  declined  to  take  the  oath  of  alle- 


giance in  1663,  he  was  banished,  and  retired  to  Rotter- 
dam, where  he  died  in  1672. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
A.  Gunn,  "Memoirs  of  J.  Livingston,"  New  York,  1829. 

Livingston,  (Rev.  John  H.,)  an  American  divine 
of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  born  at  Poughkeepsie, 
New  York,  in  1746.  Having  studied  at  Yale  College 
and  in  Holland,  where  he  received  the  degree  of  D.D., 
he  became,  on  his  return,  pastor  of  the  Dutch  Church 
in  New  York.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  theology 
at  Queen's  College,  New  Jersey,  in  1807,  and  president 
of  that  institution  in  1810.    Died  in  1825. 

Livingston,  (Philip,)  an  American  revolutionist,  and 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  at  Al- 
bany in  1716.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1737, 
and  in  1759  was  elected  a  member  of  the  General  Assem- 
bly of  the  colony  from  the  city  of  New  York.  In  1770 
he  was  one  of  the  committee  appointed  to  correspond 
with  the  celebrated  Edmund  Burke,  then  agent  for  the 
colony  of  New  York.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Congress  of  1774  and  1776.    Died  in  1778. 

Livingston,  (Roberj-,)  the  first  possessor  of  the 
Livingston  Manor,  New  York,  was  born  in  Scotland  in 
1654.  He  emigrated  to  New  York  about  1672,  and  ob- 
tained a  grant  of  a  large  tract  of  land  near  the  Hudson 
River.  He  was  the  ancestor  of  several  eminent  men  named 
Livingston.  He  had  three  sons,  Philip,  Robert,  and 
Gilbert,  from  the  second  of  whom  the  statesmen  Robert 
R.  and  Edward  Livingston  were  descended. 

Livingston,  (Robert  R.,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  New  York  in  1746,  was  a  brother  of  Edward 
Livingston,  the  great  jurist.  He  graduated  at  King's 
College,  New  York,  in  1765.  He  was  a  descendant  of 
Robert,  noticed  above.  As  a  member  of  the  Congress 
of  1776,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  cominittee  to  draw 
up  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  became  chan- 
cellor of  the  State  of  New  York  in  1777,  was  secretary 
for  foreign  affairs  about  two  years,  (1781-83,)  and  in 
1801  was  sent  as  minister  to  France,  where  he  was  very 
favourably  received  by  Napoleon  and  assisted  in  the 
negotiation  for  the  purchase  of  Louisiana.  He  returned 
home  in  1805,  after  which  he  aided  Robert  Fulton  in 
the  introduction  of  steam-navigation,  and  promoted 
improvements  in  agriculture.    Died  in  February,  1813. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Livingston,  (William,)  an  American  jurist,  brother 
of  Philip,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  New  York  in  1741. 
Having  removed  to  New  Jersey,  he  was  elected  to  the 
first  Congress  from  that  State  in  1774.  He  became 
Governor  of  New  Jersey  in  1776,  which  office  he  filled 
for  fourteen  years.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Convention 
which  framed  the  Constitution,  (1787.)  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  Review  of  the  Military  Operations  in  North 
America  from  1753  to  1758;"  also  of  several  political 
works,  and  of  a  poem  entitled  "Philosophical  Solitude." 
Died  in  1790. 

See  "Memoir  of  William  Livingston,"  by  Theodore  Sedg- 
wick, Jr. 

Liv'ing-stone  or  Liv'ing-ston,  (David,)  a  Scottish 
missionary,  distinguished  as  an  explorer  of  Africa,  was 
born  at  Blantyre,  near  Glasgow,  about  1 81 5.  He  worked 
in  a  cotton-factory  in  his  youth.  Having  studied  medi- 
cine and  theology,  with  an  intention  to  labour  as  a  mis- 
sionary, he  was  sent  by  the  London  Missionary  Society 
to  South  Africa  in  1840.  He  laboured  and  travelled  in 
the  interior  of  Africa  for  sixteen  years,  and  made  im- 
portant discoveries,  for  which  the  Geographical  Society 
awarded  him  a  gold  medal.  He  returned  to  England  in 
1856,  and  published  an  interesting  work  entitled  "Mis- 
sionary Travels  and  Researches  in  South  Africa,"  etc., 
(1857.)  In  1858  he  again  went  to  Africa,  as  consul  at 
Quilimane  or  Killimane,  with  a  view  to  explore  the  river 
Zambesi,  to  promote  the  production  of  cotton,  and  to 
open  commercial  intercourse  with  the  natives  of  that 
region.  He  returned  to  England  in  1864,  and  about  the 
end  of  1865  published  a  "Narrative  of  an  Expedition  to 
the  Zambesi,  1858-64."  He  set  out  again  for  Africa  in 
1865.  A  report  reached  Europe  in  the  spring  of  1867 
that  Dr.  Livingstone  had  been  killed  near  Lake  Nyassa ; 
and,  although  later  information  showed  that  rumour  to 


S,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6  .  good;  moon; 


LIFIN 


1441 


LLOYD 


have  been  false,  great  uncertainty  still  prevails  respecting 
his  fate. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1866;  "West- 
minster Review"  for  January,  1866;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for 
January.  1858. 

Livin  Menus,  lee'vin  ma'nus,  ?  a  skilful  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1630,  worked  for  many 
years  at  Florence,  where  he  died  in  1691. 

Iiivius,  (Titus.)    See  Livy, 

Liv'i-us  An-dro-ni'cus,  a  popular  Roman  dramatist 
and  actor,  who  began  his  career  as  an  author  about  240 
B.C.  The  place  of  his  birth  is  unknown.  He  is  regarded 
as  the  earliest  dramatic  writer  of  Rome.  He  composed 
both  tragedies  and  comedies,  of  which  only  small  frag- 
ments now  remain,  and  was  the  sole  performer  of  his 
own  plays,  which  were  used  in  schools  in  the  time  of 
Horace,  tfe  was  a  writer  of  industry  and  learning 
rather  than  original  genius. 

See  Professor  Sellars,  "  Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic," 
chap.  iii. 

Livonniere,  de,  deh  le'vo'ne-aiR',  (Claude  Pec- 
quet— po'k^',)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Angers  in  1652  j 
died  in  Paris  in  1726. 

Livoy,  de,  deh  le'vwi',  (Pere  Timoth^e,)  a  French 
friar  and  litterateur,  born  at  Pithiviers  in  171 5.  He  pub- 
lished, in  1767,  a  "Dictionary  of  French  Synonyms.'" 
Died  in  1777. 

Liv'y,  [Lat.  Liv'rus,]  (Titus,)  [It.  Tito  Livio,  tee'to 
lee've-o  ;  Fr.  Tite  Live,  t^t  l^v,]  a  celebrated  Roman 
historian,  was  born  at  Patavium  (now  Padua)  in  59  B.C. 
Ancient  writers  furnish  us  few  particulars  of  his  life, 
except  that  he  was  patronized  by  Augustus  and  became 
a  person  of  consideration  at  court.  He  appears  to  have 
passed  the  greater  part  of  his  time  jn  Rome.  Niebuhr 
favours  the  opinion  that  he  was  in  early  life  a  teacher  of 
rhetoric.  His  great  history  of  Rome,  from  the  origin  of 
the  city  to  the  year  9  B.C.,  was  called  by  him  "  Annales," 
and  was  comprised  in  one  hundred  and  forty-two  books, 
of  which  thirty-five  have  come  down  to  us  entire, — viz., 
the  first,  third,  and  fourth  decades,  and  five  books  of  the 
fifth  decade.  We  have  also  epitomes,  by  an  unknown 
hand,  of  one  hundred  and  forty  books.  The  first  book 
was  probably  published  or  written  between  29  and  25 
B.C.  His  dialogues  on  philosophy  and  politics,  which, 
according  to  some  writers,  procured  him  the  favour  of 
Augustus,  are  not  now  extant. 

The  great  popularity  of  his  history  must  be  ascribed 
to  the  excellence  and  beauty  of  his  style  and  his  wonder- 
ful powers  of  description.  The  numerous  orations  by 
which  the  history  is  diversified  are  models  of  eloquence. 
"The  painting  of  the  narrative,"  says  Macaulay,  in  his 
essay  entitled  "  History,"  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review," 
"is  beyond  description  vivid  and  graceful.  The  abun- 
dance of  interesting  sentiments  and  S])lendid  imagery  in 
the  speeches  is  almost  miraculous."  But  he  was  desti- 
tute of  many  qualifications  essential  to  a  historian  of  the 
first  order.  Incapable  of  broad  philosophic  views,  and 
indisposed  to  profound  research,  he  was  more  studious 
to  exalt  the  national  glory  and  produce  a  picturesque 
effect  than  to  compose  a  true  history.  He  made  little 
use  of  public  documents,  and  was  not  familiar  with  the 
antiquities  of  his  country.  His  work  is  also  deficient 
in  the  explanation  of  the  original  constitution  of  the 
state,  the  contests  between  the  orders,  the  progress 
of  civilization,  ind  other  domestic  affairs.  Livy  was 
married,  and  had  two  or  more  children.  Died  at  Padua 
in  17  A.D. 

See  N.  Machiaveli.i,  "  Discorso  sopra  la  prima  Decada  di  Tito 
Livio,"  1532,  (translated  into  English  by  E.  Dacres,  1636:)  D.  W. 
MoLLER,  "Disputatio  circularis  de  Tito  Livio,"  1688;  A.  M.  Mene- 
GHELLi,  "Vita  di  Tito  Livio,"  1835;  G.  F.  Tommasini,  "  Vita  Titi 
Livii,"  1630;  J.  C.  Hand,  "  De  Tito  Livio  Oratore,"  1773. 

Llanos  de  Valdez,  Ii'n6s  di  vSKdSth,  (Don  Seba.s- 
TIAn,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Granada  about  1602; 
died  after  1670. 

Llewellyn  or  Llywelyn,  loo-^Kin,  L,  Prince  of 
Wales,  began  to  reign  about  11 90,  and  married  a  daughter 
of  John,  King  of  England.  The  latter  afterwards  invaded 
Wales  and  forced  him  to  do  homage.  Llewellyn  waged 
war  against  Henry  HI.  about  1228.  Being  harassed  by 
the  rebellion  of  his  youngest  son  Griffith,  he  made,  in 
X237,  a  treaty  with  Henry,  and  purchased  peace  by 


acknowledging  himself  the  vassal  of  that  king.  He  died 
in  1240,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  David. 

Llewellyn  IL  was  the  son  of  Griffith,  and  successor 
of  his  uncle  David.  He  renewed  the  homage  to  Henry 
III.,  but  conspired  with  the  Earl  of  Leicester  against 
him  in  1263.  Llewellyn  and  his  allies  were  defeated  at 
Evesham  in  1265.  In  1276  he  was  summoned  by  Edward 
I.  to  come  and  do  homage;  but  he  declined.  Wales 
was  then  invaded  and  conquered  by  Edward  in  1277. 
Llewellyn,  having  again  revolted,  was  killed  in  battle, 
about  1280. 

Llorente,  Io-r§n'ta,  (Bernardo  Germano,)  a  Span- 
ish ])ainter,  born  at  Seville  in  1685  ;  died  in  1757. 

Llorente,  (Don  Felix,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at 
Valencia  in  1712,  was  successful  in  history,  landscapes, 
and  portraits.    Died  in  1787. 

Llorente,  (Don  Juan  Antonio,)  a  learned  Spanish 
historian,  born  near  Calahorra,  in  Aragon,  in  1756. 
Having  been  ordained  as  a  priest,  he  was  chosen  vicar- 
general  of  the  see  of  Calahorra  in  1782.  Favoured  by 
Florida-Blanca  or  the  king,  he  was  appointed  in  1789 
secretary-general  of  the  Inquisition,  of  which  he  became 
a  determined  adversary.  In  1794  the  Grand  Inquisitor 
directed  Llorente,  whose  opinions  were  known  to  be 
liberal,  to  write  an  exposition  of  the  abuses  of  the  In- 
quisition. In  1808  he  embraced  the  party  of  the  French 
invaders,  was  admitted  into  the  council  of  state  by  King 
Joseph,  and  promoted  the  suppression  of  the  Inquisition 
in  1809.  On  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from  Spain,  in 
1814,  he  went  as  an  exile  to  Paris,  where  he  published 
in  1817  his  "Critical  History  of  the  Spanish  Inquisi- 
tion," which  was  his  great  work.  It  is  said  by  Prescott 
to  be  the  only  authentic  account  of  that  institution.  He 
also  wrote  "  Historical  Notices  of  the  Basque  Provinces," 
(1806-8.)    Died  in  1823. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  parti.  ; 
his  autobiographic  Memoirs,  "  Noticia  biografica  o  Memorias  para 
la  Historia  de  su  Vida,"  1818  ;  J.  A.  Mahul,  "  Notice  biographique 
sur  Don  J.  A.  Llorente,"  1823;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale  ;" 
"Monthly  Review,"  vol.  xci.,  1820,  (Appendix.) 

Lloyd,  loid,  (Charles,)  an  English  banker,  eminent 
as  a  scholar  and  philanthropist,  born  in  Birmingham 
in  September,  1748,  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  He  was  conspicuous  as  an  advocate  of  the 
abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  and  was  a  man  of  great  in- 
fluence in  the  community.  He  was  an  uncle  of  Thomas 
F.  Buxton,  and  father  of  Anna  Braithwaite.  Died  in  1828. 

Lloyd,  (Charles,)  an  English  bishop,  born  in  Buck- 
inghamshire in  1784.  He  was  appointed  regius  professor 
of  divinity  in  Oxford  in  1822,  and  Bishop  of  Oxford  in 
1827.    Died  in  1829. 

Lloyd,  (Charles,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Birming- 
ham, was  a  son  of  Charles  Lloyd,  banker,  noticed  above, 
and  was  a  friend  of  Coleridge,  Lamb,  and  Southey.  In 
1796  he  went  to  Bristol,  and  lived  in  the  same  house 
with  Coleridge.  Lloyd  produced,  besides  other  poems, 
"  Nugae  Cano.:as,"  ("Sounding  Trifles,"  1819,)  "Desul- 
tory Thoughts  in  London,"  (1821,)  and  "The  Duke 
of  Ormond,"  a  tragedy,  (1822.)  He  translated  the 
tragedies  of  Alfieri  into  English.    Died  in  1839. 

See  De  Quincev,  "  Literary  Reminiscences,"  vol.  ii. ;  "  Monthly 
Review"  for  May,  1816,  July,  1820,  and  July,  1823. 

Lloyd,  (David,)  a  British  biographer,  born  in  Merio- 
nethshire in  1625.  He  took  orders,  and  successively 
held  several  bejiefices.  Among  his  principal  works  is 
"  The  Statesme^i  and  Favourites  of  England  since  the 
Reformation,"  (1665.)    Died  in  1691. 

Lloyd,  (Henry,)  a  British  officer,  distinguished  as  a 
writer  on  tactics,  was  born  in  Wales  about  1725.  He 
served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  first  in  the  Austrian 
army  and  afterwards  in  that  of  Prussia.  About  1770 
he  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general  in  the  Russian 
army,  and  was  employed  in  a  war  against  the  Turks,  but 
was  suspected  of  being  a  secret  agent  of  the  English 
government.  Suddenly  quitting  the  Russian  service,  he 
went  to  Gibraltar,  and  gave  valuable  counsel  to  General 
Elliott  respecting  the  siege  of  that  fortress.  He  died  at 
Huy  in  1783,  leaving  an  "Introduction  to  the  History  of 
the  War  between  the  King  of  Prussia  and  the  Empress 
Maria  Theresa,"  (1781,)  a  "  Memoir  on  the  Invasion  and 
Defence  of  England,"  (1798,)  and  other  works. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 


«  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,  yl,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2i^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

91 


LLOYD 


1442 


LOBSTEIN 


Lloyd,  (Nicholas,)  a  British  writer,  born  in  Flint- 
shire in  1634.  He  obtained  the  living  of  Newington, 
Surrey,  in  1672.  In  1670  he  published  a  "  Historical, 
Geographical,  and  Poetical  Dictionary,"  which  was  once 
esteemed.    Died  in  1680. 

Lloyd,  (RoBKRi,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  West- 
minster in  1733.  He  became  an  usher  in  the  West- 
minster School,  and  a  companion  of  Churchill,  Colman, 
etc.  His  health  and  fortune  were  injured  by  dissipated 
habits.  He  composed  an  admired  poem,  "The  Actor," 
(1760,)  "The  Capricious  Lovers,"  a  comic  opera,  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1764. 

See  Newton,  "  Life  of  R.  Lloyd;"  Kenrick,  "Life  of  Lloyd," 
1774- 

Lloyd,  (William,)  a  pious  and  learned  English 
bishop,  born  in  Berkshire  in  1627.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Saint  Asaph  in  1680,  and  was  one  of  the 
bishops  imprisoned  by  James  II.  in  1688  for  refusing  to 
publish  in  their  churches  the  declaration  of  indulgence 
to  Catholics  and  dissenters.  He  became  almoner  to 
William  III.,  Bishop  of  Lichfield  in  1692,  Bishop  of 
Worcester  in  1699  or  1700,  and  almoner  to  Queen  Anne 
a  few  years  later.  He  furnished  Burnet  valuable  mate- 
rials for  his  history,  and  wrote  several  religious  treatises. 
Died  in  1717. 

See  Burnet,  "  History  of  his  Own  Times;"  Macaulav,  "  His- 
tory of  England  ;"  Miss  Stricicland,  "  Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops," 
London,  1866. 

Llywelyn.    See  Llewellyn. 

Loaysa,  lo-i'si,  (Garcias,)  a  Spanish  cardinal  and 
eloquent  preacher,  born  at  Talavera  about  1480.  About 
1524  he  became  confessor  to  Charles  V.  He  was  after- 
wards Bishop  of  Seville,  and  president  of  the  Royal 
Council  of  the  Indies.    Died  in  1546. 

Lobau,  de,  deh  lo'bo',  (Georges  Mouton — moo'- 
t6N',)  Count,  a  French  general,  born  in  Phalsbourg  in 
1770.  He  entered  the  army  in  1792,  became  aide-de- 
camp of  Joubert  in  1798,  and  aide-de-camp  of  Bonaparte 
in  1805.  His  services  were  rewarded  by  the  rank  of 
general  of  division  in  1807.  He  displayed  great  courage 
at  Eckmiihl,  Aspern,  and  Lobau  in  1809,  and  received 
the  title  of  Count  de  Lobau.  In  the  invasion  of  Russia 
(1812)  he  was  aide-major-general  of  the  imperial  guard. 
He  fought  at  Lutzen  and  Bautzen  in  1813,  and  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Waterloo  in  181 5,  after  which  he  passed  many 
years  in  retirement.  During  the  revolution  of  1830  he 
favoured  the  cause  of  Louis  Philippe,  who  appointed  him 
commander  of  the  national  guard  in  December,  1830,  and 
gave  him  a  marshal's  baton  in  1831.    Died  in  1838. 

See  J.  Noli,et-Fabkrt,  "  Le  Marechal  Mouton,"  1852  ;  Pierre 
Philippe  de  Segur,  "  filoge  historique  de  M.  le  Comte  de  Lobau," 
1839- 

Lobb,  (Theophilus,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
London  in  1678.  He  practised  with  success  in  that  city, 
and  wrote  medical  works,  among  which  are  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Small-Pox,"  (1731,)  and  "Medical  Practice  in 
Curing  Fevers,"  (1735.)    Died  in  1763. 

Lolbe,  lo'beh,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German  mu- 
sical composer,  born  at  Weimar  in  1797.  He  produced 
in  1833  "The  Princess  of  Granada,"  an  opera.  His 
theoretic  works  are  highly  esteemed. 

Lobeck,  lo'b^k,  (Christian  August,)  one  of  the 
most  thorough  and  acute  philologists  and  antiquaries  of 
recent  times,  was  born  at  Naumburg,  in  Prussia,  in  1781. 
He  became  professor  of  ancient  literature  and  eloquence 
at  Konigsberg  in  1814.  He  published  valuable  editions 
of  the  "Ajax"  of  Sophocles,  (1810,)  and  of  Phrynicus, 
(1820.)  Among  his  other  most  important  works  is  "  Pa- 
thologise  Linguae  Graecas  Elementa,"  (1853.)    Died  in 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Lobeira  or  Lobeyra,  de,  di  lo-ba'e-rS,  written  also 
Loveira,  (Vasco,)  a  celebrated  Portiiguese  author,  was 
l)orn  at  Oporto  about  1360.  He  was  knighted  by  King 
John  I.  of  Portugal  on  the  battle-field  of  Aljubarrota  in 
1386,  and  died  in  1403.  He  was  the  author  of  the  famous 
romance  "  Amadis  de  Gaul,"  which  is  now  seldom  read. 
The  earliest  edition  now  known  was  printed  in  1519.  It 
passed  for  the  best  of  the  romances  of  chivalry  until  the 
satire  of  Cervantes  rendered  them  all  unpopular. 

See  Ticknor's  "Spanish  Literature,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xi.  p.  221 
ei  seq. 


Lobel  or  L'Obel,  \o'hlV,  (Mathieu,)  an  eminent 
botanist,  born  at  Lille,  France,  in  1538.  He  practised 
medicine  at  Antwerp,  and  became  physician  to  the  Prince 
of  Orange,  after  whose  death  he  went  to  England,  where 
he  passed  the  most  of  his  life.  In  1570  Lobel  and  Pena 
published  in  London  "  Stirpium  Adversaria,"  which  ])re- 
sents  the  first  sketch,  though  rude,  of  a  natural  method 
of  botany,  with  neat  engravings  of  about  two  hundred 
and  seventy  plants.  He  published  in  1 581  a  valuable 
work  entitled  "  Icones  Stirpium,"  which  contains  figures 
of  about  two  thousand  plants,  and  is  still,  says  Duvau, 
often  consulted.  Lobel  was  also  j^hysician  to  James  1. 
Died  near  London  in  1616.  The  genus  Lobelia  was 
named  in  honour  of  him. 

See  C.  F.  A.  Morren,  "  Notice  biographique  surM.  de  L'Obel," 
1853:  Ei.ov,  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Medecine." 

Lobell  or  Loebell,  lo'bel,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a 
German  historian,  born  in  Berlin  in  1786.  He  became 
professor  of  history  at  Bonn  about  1830. 

LobenorLoeben.lo'ben,  (Otto  Heinrich,)  Count, 
a  German  writer  of  the  romantic  school,  born  at  Dresden 
in  1786,  is  known  by  the  name  of  Isidorus  Orientalis. 
He  wrote,  besides  numerous  tales  and  poems,  romances 
entitled  "  Guido"  (1808)  and  "Arcadion,"  (1811.)  Died 
in  1825. 

Lobera,  lo-Ba'rS,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  physician,  born 
at  Avila,  in  Old  Castile.  He  was  physician  to  Charles 
v.,  and  published  treatises  on  anatomy  and  medicine, 
(1542-51-) 

Lobineau,  lo'be'no',  (Gui  Alexis,)  a  learned  French 
monk,  born  at  Rennes  in  1666.  He  wrote  a  continuation 
of  the  "  History  of  Bretagne"  (1707)  by  Legallois,  and 
another  of  Felibieij's  "  History  of  Paris,"  (5  vols.,  1725.) 
Died  in  1727.  !^ 

Lobkowitz.    See  Caramuel. 

Lobkowitz.    See  Hassenstein. 

Lobkowitz,  von,  fon  lob'ko-^its',  (Georg  Chris- 
tian,) Prince,  an  Austrian  general,  born  in  1702.  He 
took  command.of  the  army  of  the  empress  Maria  Theresa 
in  1 741,  and  gained  advantages  over  the  French  at  Brau- 
nau  and  Prague.  Died  in  1753.  His  son  Joseph,  born 
in  1725,  distinguished  himself  in  the  Seven  Years'  war  as 
major-general.  In  the  reign  of  Joseph  11.  he  was  made 
a  field-marshal.    Died  in  1802. 

Lobo,  lo'bo,  (Francisco  Rodriguez,)  a  celebrated 
Portuguese  poet,  born  at  Leiria  about  1550.  He  was  the 
author  of  songs,  pastoral  romances,  sonnets,  and  of  a 
prose  work  entitled  "  Court  in  the  Country  and  Winter 
Nights."  He  has  been  styled  "the  Portuguese  Theocri- 
tus." "  He  was,"  says  Longfellow,  "a  scholar  of  great 
erudition ;  and  the  services  he  rendered  to  the  Portu- 
guese language  and  style  make  an  era  in  that  literature." 

See  Longfellow's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Lobo,  Io'ro,  (Gerardo,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  in  Old 
Castile.  He  became  a  favourite  at  the  court  of  Philip 
IV.,  who  sometimes  required  his  companions  to  talk 
in  verse  to  him.  Lobo  had  a  remarkable  facility  for 
improvisation,  and,  it  is  said,  could  converse  all  day 
without  descending  to  prose.  His  productions  consist 
of  odes,  sonnets,  etc.    Died  in  1668. 

Lobo,  (Jeronimo,)  an  enterprising  Portuguese  mis- 
sionary and  Jesuit,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1593.  He  was 
sent  to  labour  in  the  mission  of  Goa  in  1622.  In  1625, 
with  other  missionaries,  he  undertook  to  evangelize 
Abyssinia,  whose  sultan,  Seged,  (Segued,)  had  become  a 
Roman  Catholic,  or  at  least  was  friendly  to  that  Church. 
The  sultan  having  died,  the  missionaries  were  expelled 
by  his  successor  in  1634.  In  1640  he  went  again  to  Goa, 
where  he  was  chosen  provincial  of  his  order.  He  re- 
turned to  Lisbon  in  1656,  and  published  a  valuable  rela- 
tion of  his  travels  in  Abyssinia,  entitled  a  "  History  of 
Ethiopia,"  (1659.)  which  was  translated  into  English  by 
Dr.  Johnson.    Died  in  1678. 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "  Ribliotheca  Lusitana." 

Lobstein,  ISp'stin  or  lol/st^N',  (Jean  Fr6d^;ric,)  a 
French  anatomist  and  surgeon,  born  near  Strasburg  in 
1736  ;  died  in  1784. 

Lobstein,  (Jean  Fr]£d6ric,)  an  anatomist,  a  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Giessen  in  1777,  lived  at  Stras< 
burg.    Died  in  1835. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  4,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  flr,  fSlI,  filt;  m^t;  nftt;  good ;  moon; 


LOCATELLI 


H43 


LOCKE 


Locatelli,  lo-kS-tel'lee,  or  Lucatelli,  loo-ki-tel'lee, 
(Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter  of  landscapes  and  genre, 
born  at  Rome.  He  adorned  his  landscapes  with  figures 
which  are  admired,  and  displayed  good  taste  in  familiar 
scenes.    His  works  are  praised  by  Lanzi.  Diedini74i. 

Locatelli,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at  Ber- 
gamo, invented  the  "balm  of  Lucatel."    Died  in  1637. 

Locatelli  or  Lucatelli,  (Pietro,)  a  historical  painter, 
born  in  the  Roman  States.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Luke  in  1690. 

Locatelli,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  violinist,  born  at  Ber- 
gamo in  1693  ;  died  in  1764. 

Loccenius,  lok-sa'ne-us,  (Johan,)  a  Swedish  histo- 
rian, born  in  Holstein  about  1598.  Queen  Christina  gave 
him  the  title  of  historiographer  of  Sweden.  He  wrote, 
in  Latin,  "  History  of  Sweden,"  (1654,)  and  several  works 
on  law.    Died  in  1677. 

See  M.  Steuch,  "  Memoria  J.  Loccenii,"  1678;  Olof  A.  Knoes, 
**  Lefvernes  Beskrifning  om  J.  Loccenius,"  1S07. 

Loch,  lok  or  loK,  (James,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born  in 
1780.  He  was  employed  as  auditor  by  the  Earl  of  Elles- 
mere  and  other  noblemen,  and  was  for  many  years  a 
Liberal  member  of  Parliament.  He  published  a  "  Sta- 
tistical and  Historical  Account  of  the  County  of  Suther- 
land."   Died  in  1855. 

Locher,  loK'er,  (Jakob,)  a  German  poet,  born  in 
Suabia  in  1470,  was  surnamed  Philomusus.  He  was 
crowned  poet-laureate  by  the  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Among  his  works  (in  Latin)  are  a  poem  on  Lazarus 
and  Dives,  and  "The  Judgment  of  Paris,"  (1501.)  Died 
in  1528. 

Lochner,  loK'ner,  (Michael  Friedrich,)  a  skilful 
German  physician  and  botanist,  born  near  Nuremberg 
in  1662  ;  died  in  1720. 

Lock,  (Matthew,)  an  excellent  English  composer, 
born  at  Exeter  about  1635.  Soon  after  the  restoration 
(1660)  he  received  the  title  of  composer-in-ordinary  to 
Charles  II.  He  is  called  the  first  English  composer  for 
the  stage.  Some  of  his  sacred  compositions  appeared  in 
the  "  Harmonia  Sacra."  His  chief  title  to  durable  fame 
is  the  admirable  "  Music  in  Macbeth."  Died  in  1677. 

See  RuRNEY,  "  History  of  Music." 

Lock'art,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born 
near  Edinburgh  in  1675.  He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  Scot- 
land."  Died  in  1732. 

Locke,  lok,  [Lat.  Loc'kius,]  (John,)  a  celebrated 
English  philosopher  and  philanthropist,  born  at  Wring- 
ton,  in  Somersetshire,  in  1632,  was  the  son  of  Captain 
Locke,  who  served  in  the  parliamentary  army  during 
the  civil  war.  He  studied  at  Westminster  School,  and  in 
165 1  entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  soon  6k- 
tinguished  himself  by  his  talents  and  acquirements.  He 
left  Oxford  with  no  very  favourable  views  of  the  system 
of  instruction  there  pursued.  He  had,  indeed,  been  far 
more  indebted  for  his  mental  culture  to  his  own  efforts 
than  to  the  skill  or  labour  of  his  tutors,  and  was  himself 
an  example  of  that  self-teaching  which  in  his  writings 
he  so  strongly  recommends.  In  1665  Locke  accom- 
panied, as  secretary.  Sir  Walter  Vane,  royal  envoy  to 
the  Elector  of  Brandenburg.  He  returned  to  England 
in  February,  and  soon  after  formed  the  acquaintance  of 
Lord  Ashley,  (afterwards  Shaftesbury,)  who  received  him 
into  the  number  of  his  most  intimate  and  confidential 
friends.  In  1672,  Shaftesbury  being  then  lord  chancellor, 
Locke  was  appointed  secretary  for  the  presentation 
of  benefices,  but  quitted  this  ofiice  in  1673,  when  his 
patron,  having  quarrelled  with  the  court,  resigned  the 
great  seal.  In  1675  Locke  visited  the  south  of  France 
on  account  of  his  health.  He  resided  more  than  a  year 
at  Montpellier,  and  afterwards  spent  much  time  in  Paris. 
He  returned  to  his  own  country  in  1679;  but,  Shaftes- 
bury having  been  compelled  by  his  enemies  to  leave 
England  towards  the  close  of  1682,  Locke  followed  him 
to  the  continent  in  1683,  and  passed  several  years  in 
Holland.  In  1688  he  returned  to  his  native  land  in 
the  same  fleet  that  conveyed  the  Princess  of  Orange  to 
England.  Soon  after  his  arrival,  he  was  offered  by  Lord 
Mord-aunt  the  position  of  envoy  to  one  of  the  European 
courts  ;  but  he  declined  the  office  on  account  of  his 
feeble  health  :  he  accepted,  however,  the  post  of  com- 
missioner of  appeals,  which  yielded  him,  it  is  said. 


two  hundred  pounds  a  year, — no  inconsiderable  sum  for 
that  period.  The  asthmatic  affection  under  which  he 
had  been  suffering  for  many  years  having  become  more 
aggravated,  he  resigned,  in  1700,  his  position  under  the 
government,  and  retired  to  Oates,  in  Essex.  Here  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  days  at  the  house  of  Sir 
Francis  Masham,  whose  accomplished  lady  was  the 
daughter  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Cudworth.  He  died 
October  28,  1704. 

Locke  was  no  less  distinguished  for  his  virtues  and 
piety  than  for  his  extraordinary  intellectual  endowments. 
All  his  writings  may  be  said  to  have  had  for  their  object 
the  improvement  of  mankind  in  knowledge,  liberty,  and 
virtue.  Although  he  was  in  favour  of  the  utmost  free- 
dom of  investigation  in  regard  to  religious  as  well  as 
other  truths,  he  entertained  for  the  Holy  Scriptures  the 
profoundest  veneration.  To  a  friend  inquiring  the  best 
way  to  attain  a  true  knowledge  of  the  Christian  religion, 
he  answered,  "Study  the  Holy  Scriptures,  especially 
the  New  Testament :  therein  are  contained  the  words 
of  eternal  life.  It  has  God  for  its  author,  salvation  for 
its  end,  and  truth  without  any  mixture  of  error  for  its 
matter."  A  little  before  his  death,  while  acknowledging 
that  his  life,  on  the  whole,  had  been  a  happy  one,  he 
pronounced  all  sublunary  enjoyments  to  be  "vanity," 
and  earnestly  exhorted  his  friends  to  prepare  for  the 
endless  life  to  come.  He  extolled  the  goodness  of  God 
in  providing  for  the  salvation  of  mankind  through  faith 
in  Jesus  Christ,  and  expressed  particular  gratitude  that 
he  had  been  led  through  divine  goodness  to  the  know- 
ledge of  the  Saviour.  (See  a  letter  by  Coste,  the  French 
translator  of  the  "  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding," 
published  February,  1705.)  As  a  controversialist,  Locke 
was  remarkable  not  only  for  the  clearness  and  cogency 
of  his  arguments,  but  also  for  the  perfect  fairness  and 
respect  with  which  he  treated  his  opponents.  His  con- 
versation, we  are  told,  was  a  "happy  union  of  wit  and 
good  sense  ;"  so  that  his  company  was  sought  by  many 
of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  that  period, — such  as 
Halifax,  Buckingham,  etc.  As  an  evidence  of  the  variety 
and  extent  of  his  attainments,  we  may  mention  that  the 
great  Sydenham,  alluding  to  Locke's  skill  in  medicine, 
gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  "in  genius,  penetration,  and 
accurate  judgment  he  had  in  that  age  few  equals  and 
scarcely  any  superior."  From  the  character  of  Locke 
as  given  by  Le  Clerc,  which  he  assures  us  "is  an  accu- 
rate and  by  no  means  flattered  description,"  we  take  the 
following  :  "  He  was  a  profound  philosopher,  and  a  man 
fit  for  the  most  important  affairs.  He  had  much  know- 
ledge of  belles-lettres,  and  his  manners  were  very  polite 
and  particularly  engaging.  He  knew  something  of  almost 
everything  which  can  be  useful  to  mankind,  and  was 
thoroughly  master  of  all  that  he  had  studied;  but  he 
showed  his  superiority  by  not  appearing  to  value  himself 
in  any  way  on  account  of  his  g^reat  attainments.  .  .  .  He 
was  very  charitable  to  the  poor,  provided  they  were  not 
the  idle  nor  the  profligate.  .  .  .  He  was  an  exact  ob- 
server of  his  word,  and  what  he  promised  was  sacred. 
He  was  scrupulous  about  recommending  people  whom 
he  did  not  know  ;  and  he  could  not  bring  himself  to 
praise  those  whom  he  did  not  think  worthy."  (See  "Life 
of  Locke,"  by  Lord  King,  pp.  267-271.) 

Locke's  great  work,  entitled  an  "  Essay  on  the  Human 
Understanding,"  was  first  published  in  1690,  (three  years 
after  the  appearance  of  Newton's  "  Principia,")  although 
the  original  copy,  still  preserved  and  in  his  own  hand- 
writing, is  dated  1671, — an  evidence  of  his  great  caution 
(evinced  also  in  his  other  works)  with  respect  to  offering 
his  views  to  the  public.  The  leading  position  of  his 
essay  is  that  the  human  mind  has  no  innate  ideas,  and 
that  all  ideas,  with  their  various  combinations,  are  to  be 
referred  to  sensation  and  reflection.  His  other  publica- 
tions were, — three  "  Letters  on  Toleration,"  (1690-92,) 
a  "Treatise  on  Education,"  (1690,)  one  on  the  value  of 
money,  (1691,)  "The  Reasonableness  of  Christianity," 
(1695,)  a  first  and  second  Vindication  of  the  last-named 
work,  (1696,)  and  three  elaborate  letters  in  defence  of 
the  "  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding"  against 
Stillingfleet,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  (1697-99.)  Locke's 
work  on  the  "Conduct  of  the  Human  Understanding," 
and  his  "Discourse  on  Miracles,"  and  "Commentaries 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOCKE 


1444 


LODUR 


on  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,"  were  published  after  his 
death." 

See  "Life  of  Locke,"  by  Lord  King;  **  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gen^rale;"  "Biographic  Universelle ;"  article  "Locke"  in  the 
"  Eiicyclopasdia  Britamiica  ;"  Jkan  Leci.ekc,  "filogc  liistoriqiie  de 
feu  M.  Locke,"  171 1  ;  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  J.  Locke,"  1742; 
J.  G.  Meli.king,  "Merita  J.  Lockii  in  Fhilosophiam,"  1792;  Lil- 
JENROTH,  "  Dissertatio  Vitain  J.  Lockii  expoiiens,"  1793;  Kdouard 
Laboui.aye,  "  l^ocke  Legisiateiir  de  la  Caroline,"  1850;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  April,  1854  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1847. 

Locke,  (John,)  M.D.,  an  American  geologist,  born 
at  Fryeburg,  Maine,  in  1792.  He  became  professor 
of  chemistry  at  Cincinnati  in  1836.  He  was  well  versed 
in  geology  and  natural  history.  Died  in  Cincinnati 
in  1856. 

Locke,  (Joseph,)  M.P.,  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English 
railway-engineer,  born  near  Sheffield  in  1805.  He  learned 
the  business  of  engineering  with  the  celebrated  George 
Stephenson.  He  gained  a  high  reputation  as  engineer 
of  the  Grand  Junction  Railway,  (of  which  Birmingham 
is  one  of  the  termini,)  completed  in  1837.  The  London 
and  Southampton  Railway,  under  his  direction,  was 
opened  in  1840.  He  was  afterwards  employed  as  en- 
gineer of  the  railways  connecting  Paris  and  Rouen,  and 
Havre  and  Rouen,  in  France.  For  several  years  before 
his  death  he  was  a  member  of  Parliament,  in  which  he 
acted  v\;ith  the  Liberal  party.    Died  in  i860. 

See  "  Life  of  Josepli  Locke,"  by  J.  Devey,  1862. 

Lock'^r,  (Edward  Hawke,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  Kent  in  1777.  He  was  private  secretary  to  Lord 
Exmouth  about  fifteen  years,  commencing  in  1800.  He 
was  one  of  the  projectors  and  editors  of  "The  Plain 
Englishman,"  a  useful  periodical  adapted  to  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  people.  He  also  published  "Lectures  on  the 
Bible  and  Liturgy."    Died  in  1849. 

Lockhart,  lok'art,  (Sir  George,)  an  eminent  Scot- 
tish lawyer,  was  a  brother  of  Sir  William,  noticed  be- 
low. He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  about  1656,  and  was 
appointed  lord  president  of  the  court  of  sessions  in  1685. 
He  was  murdered  in  Edinburgh  in  1689. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  ot  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Lockhart,  (George,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  near  Edinburgh  in  1673,  He  was  a  zealous  and 
prominent  partisan  of  the  Pretender  about  the  time  of 
the  rebellion  of  1715.  He  wrote  "Memoirs  concern- 
ing the  Affairs  of  Scotland,"  which  are  of  some  historical 
value.    Died  in  1731. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Lockhart,  (John  Gibson,)  a  distinguished  British 
author,  poet,  and  critic,  was  born  at  the  manse  of  Cam- 
busnethan,  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  in  1794.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  Presbyterian  minister,  who  removed  to  Glasgow 
while  the  subject  of  this  article  was  in  his  infancy.  As 
a  student  in  the  Glasgow  University  he  obtained  a  valua- 
ble bursary,  in  virtue  of  which  he  entered  Baliol  College, 
Oxford.  He  studied  law,  and  was  called  to  the  Scottish 
bar  in  1816,  but  preferred  the  profession  of  literature. 
He  was  one  of  the  chief  contributors  to  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  about  seven  years  after  it  was  first  estab- 
lished, in  181 7.  He  advocated  Tory  principles  in  politi- 
cal articles  which  displayed  a  great  mastery  of  sarcasm 
and  invective.  In  1820  he  married  Sophia,  daughter  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott.  He  produced  in  1821  "Valerius,  a 
Roman  Story,"  which  is  much  admired,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  "Reginald  Dalton,  a  Story  of  English  Univer- 
sity Life,"  (1823.)  About  this  time  he  published  elegant 
translations  of  "Ancient  Spanish  Ballads."  In  1825  or 
1826  he  removed  to  London,  and  became  editor  of  the 
"  Quarterly  Review,"  which  he  conducted  with  success 
until  1853,  and  for  which  he  wrote  many  excellent  criti- 
cal and  biographical  articles.  In  1843  he  was  appointed 
to  the  lucrative  office  of  auditor  of  the  duchy  of  Corn- 
wall. His  most  important  work  is  his  "Life  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott,"  (7  vols.,  1838,)  which  ranks  very  high  in 
respect  to  literary  merit,  and  is  surpassed  in  interest 
by  few,  if  any,  biographies  in  the  English  language. 
He  also  published  a  "Life  of  Robert  Burns,"  (1825,) 
which  was  received  with  favour,  and  Lives  of  Theodore 
Hook  and  Napoleon  I.  His  manners  were  reserved 
and  even  chilling.  His  last  years  were  rendered  un- 
happy by  the  loss  of  his  wife  and  two  sons.  He  died  in 
1854,  leaving  a  daughter,  who  was  the  only  surviving 


descendant  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  when  she  was  married 
to  Mr.  Hope. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement;)  "Biographical  Sketches,"  by  Hakkiet  Martineau, 
London,  1869;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1864; 
"  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1830,  (with  a  portrait.) 

Lockhart,  (Sir  William,)  of  Lee,  an  able  British 
statesman,  born  in  1621.  He  fought  for  Charles  11., 
and  was  made  prisoner  at  Preston,  (1650.)  In  1652  he 
entered  the  civil  service  of  Cromwell,  and  in  1655  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  He  com- 
manded the  British  at  the  siege  of  Dunkirk  in  1658,  and 
then  became  governor  of  that  place.  At  the  restoration 
of  1660  he  was  recalled.  Died  in  1675.  "  was," 
says  Clarendon,  "  a  man  of  great  address  in  treaty." 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"  North  British  Review"  for  February,  1862. 

Lockius.    See  Locke,  (John.) 
Lockman.    See  Lokman. 

Locksman,  (John,)  an  English  writer  on  various 
subjects,  born  in  1698;  died  in  1771. 

Lock'wood,  (Henry  H.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Kent  county,  Delaware,  about  1814,  graduated  at 
West  Point.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  United 
States  volunteers  in  August,  1861,  and  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863. 

Locman.    See  Lokman. 

Locr6  de  Roissy,  lo'kRa'  deh  Rwi'se',  (Jean  Guii.- 
laume,)  a  jurist,  born  of  a  French  fatnily  at  Leipsic  in 
1758,  came  to  France  in  his  youth.  He  published  "The 
Spirit  of  the  Code  Napoleon,"  ("  Esprit  du  Code  Napo- 
leon," etc.,  (5  vols.,  1806,)  and  "The  Civil,  Commercial, 
and  Criminal  Legislation  of  France,"  (31  vols.,  1826-32.) 
Died  in  1840. 

Loder,  lo'der,  (Justus  Christian,)  an  anatomist, 
born  at  Riga  in  1753.  In  1809  the  Czar  Alexander  called 
him  to  Moscow  and  chose  him  for  his  first  physician. 
He  published  "Anatomical  Plates,"  ("Tabulae  Ana- 
tomicae,"  1794,)  with  explicative  text,  a  work  of  great 
merit.    Died  in  Moscow  in  1832. 

See  Meusei,,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 

Lodge,  (Edmund,)  an  English  herald  and  biographer, 
born  in  London  in  1756.  He  became  Norroy  king-at- 
arms  in  1822,  and  Clarenceux  king-at-arms  in  1838.  He 
published  valuable  "  Illustrations  of  British  History," 
(3  vols.,  1791,)  and  "Portraits  of  Illustrious  Personages 
of  Great  Britain,"  (4  vols.,  1821-34,)  which  is  his  prin- 
cipal work.  It  was  republished  in  8  vols.,  1849.  In 
reference  to  it  Sir  Walter  Scott  remarked,  "It  is  impos- 
sible for  me  to  conceive  a  work  which  ought  to  be  more 
interesting  to  the  present  age  than  that  which  exhibits 
before  our  eyes  our  'fathers  as  they  lived,'  accompanied 
with  such  memorials  of  their  lives  and  characters  as 
enable  us  to  compare  their  persons  with  their  sentiments 
and  actions."    Died  in  1839. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1792. 

Lodge,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist  and  versatile 
writer,  born  probably  about  1556.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  in  early  life  a  soldier  and  play-actor.  Ac- 
cording to  some  authorities,  he  practised  medicine  with 
success  in  London,  and  died  of  the  plague  in  1625.  He 
translated  Josephus  and  Seneca  into  English,  and  wrote 
successful  dramas,  novels,  and  other  works.  Among  his 
principal  productions  are  "The  Wounds  of  Civil  War," 
a  traged}',  (1594,)  a  "  Looking-Glass  for  London  and 
England,"  (a  drama,  of  which  R.  Greene  was  joint  author,) 
and  "Rosalynde:  Euphues'  Golden  Legacie,"  (1590,)  a 
novel  which  furnished  the  incidents  of  Shakspeare's  "As 
You  Like  It."  Hallam  calls  him  one  of  the  best  poets 
of  the  age.  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses  ;"  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Lodge,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  engraver, 
born  at  Leeds  in  1649.  He  travelled  in  Italy  and  in  his 
native  country,  and  published  engravings  of  places,  etc. 
which  he  had  designed.  He  translated  into  English 
Barri's  "Picturesque  Journey  in  Italy,"  (1679,)  and  en- 
graved with  remarkable  skill  a  series  of  portraits  of 
eminent  persons.    Died  in  1689. 

Lodi,  (Calisto  da.)    See  Piazza,  (Calisto.) 

Lo'dur,  [related  to  the  German  lodern,  to  "blaze,"] 
one  of  the  gods  of  the  Norse  mythology,  who  assisted 


a,  e, T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m6t;  nSt;  good;  moon, 


LOEBELL 


H45 


LOHAIA 


Odin  in  the  creation  of  mankind.  He  is  supposed  to 
typify  vital  warmth.  As  Loki  is  named  from  the  perni- 
cious qualities  of  fire,  so  Lodur  would  seem  to  represent 
its  beneficent  properties.    (See  LoKi,  also  Hoenir.) 

Loebell.    See  Lobell. 

Loeben.    See  Lohen. 

Loefling.    See  Lofling. 

Loehr.    See  Lohr. 

Loennrot.    See  Lonnrot. 
I  Loescher.    See  Loscher. 
j  Loesel.    See  Losel. 

Loeve-Veimars,  lo'^v'  vi'mtR',  (Francois  Adol- 

[phe,)  Baron,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1801. 
He  published  translations  from  the  German,  tales,  cri- 
tiques, a  "  History  of  Ancient  Literature,"  (1825,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1854. 
Loewen.    See  Lowen. 
Loewenklau.    See  Leunclavius. 
Lofft,  (Capel,)  an  English  writer  on  various  subjects, 
born  in  London  in  1751,  was  a  gentleman  and  lawyer. 
He  patronized  the  poet  Bloomfield,  advocated  the  abo- 
lition of  the  slave-trade,  and  wrote  political  pamphlets, 
dramas,  verses,  etc.    He  died  in  France  in  1824. 

Lofling  or  Loefling,  lofling,  (Peter,)  a  Swedish 
botaaiist,  born  at  Tollforsbruch  in  1729.  He  was  a 
favourite  pupil  of  Linnaeus,  by  whose  mediation  he  was 
appointed  botanist  to  the  King  of  Spain  in  1751.  He 
accompanied  as  naturalist  an  expedition  sent  by  the 
Spanish  government  to  South  America  in  1754.  After 
brief  explorations  of  the  districts  of  Cumana  and  Guiana, 
he  died  in  1756.  His  "Excursion  in  Spain"  ("Iter  His- 
panicum")  was  published  in  1758  by  Linnaeus. 

Lofn,  lof'n,  or  Lov'na,  [from "praise,"  also 
"  leave,"  "  favour  :"  compare  the  German  Lob  and  Ver- 
laub,\  in  the  Norse  mythology,  a  goddess,  who  is  espe- 
cially favourable  to  lovers,  by  whom  she  is  principally 
worshipped.  Power  is  given  to  her  to  unite  those  who 
love  each  other,  whatever  obstacles  may  stand  in  the 
way.  From  a  root  cognate  with  her  name  the  Swedes 
derive  their  fdrlofva  and  the  Germans  their  verloben, 
signifying  to  "betroth." 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology;"  Mallet,  "Northern 
Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.,  Fable  XVIII. 

Lof'tus,  (Dudley,)  an  Irish  lawyer,  versed  in  Orien- 
tal lore,  was  born  near  Dublin  in  1618.  He  became  a 
master  in  chancery  and  a  judge  of  the  prerogative  court. 
He  translated  several  works  from  the  Syriac,  and  made 
the  Latin  version  of  the/Ethiopic  New  Testament  which 
was  published  in  Walton's  Polyglot.    Died  in  1695. 

Lof'tus,  (William  Kennett,)  an  English  archaeolo- 
gist, born  at  Rye  about  1820.  Pie  explored  the  sites  of 
ancient  cities  on  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,- and  pub- 
lished a  valuable  work  entitled  "Travels  and  Researches 
in  Chaldaea  and  Susiana,"  etc.,  (1857.)    Died  in  1858. 

Lo'gan,  a  celebrated  Indian  chief,  of  the  tribe  of  the 
Cayugas,  whose  original  name  was  Tah-gah-jute,  was 
born  about  1725.  His  family  having  been  murdered 
by  a  party  of  white  men,  he  avenged  himself  by  waging 
a  destructive  war  on  the  Western  settlers,  in  which  the 
Indians  were  at  length  defeated.  He  was  killed  in  1780 
in  a  skirmish  with  a  party  of  Indians.  Logan's  regard 
for  the  whites  caused  him  to  be  called  by  his  country- 
men "the  Friend  of  the  White  Man."  A  granite  monu- 
ment was  erected  to  his  memory  at  Fair  Hill  Cemetery, 
near  Auburn,  in  Cayuga  county,  New  York. 

Logan,  (George,)  an  American  physician  and  philan- 
thropist, born  near  Philadelphia  in  1753,  ^'^^  ^  grandson 
of  James  Logan,  noticed  below,  tie  was  an  earnest 
advocate  of  peace,  and  went  to  France  in  1798  in  order 
to  prevent  a  war  between  France  and  America.  He 
represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  from  1801  to  1807.  He  acted  with  the  Repub- 
licans, and  was  denounced  by  the  Federalists  for  his 
voluntary  services  in  France.    Died  in  182 1. 

Lo'gan,  (James,)  a  colonial  statesman  and  author, 
born  at  Lurgan,  Ireland,  in  1674,  was  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  Friends.  He  was  master  of  the  Greek,  Latin, 
French,  and  German  languages.  In  1699  he  accompanied 
William  Penn  to  America  as  his  secretary.  Under  the 
patronage  of  William  Penn  he  was  much  employed  in 
public  affairs.    He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  pro- 


vince in  1 701,  after  which  he  became  chief  justice  and 
president  of  the  council.  He  acted  as  Governor  about 
two  years  after  the  death  of  Governor  Gordon,  in  1736. 
Among  his  works  is  a  Latin  treatise  on  the  generation 
of  plants,  "  Experimenta  et  Meletemata  de  Plantarum 
Generatione,"  (1739.)  He  produced  a  good  version  of 
Cicero  "De  Senectute,"  (1744.)  He  collected  a  library 
of  about  3000  volumes,  which  is  known  under  the  name  of 
the  Loganian  Library  and  is  included  in  the  Philadelphia 
Library.    Died  near  Philadelphia  in  October,  1751. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  James  Logan,"  by  W.  Armistead. 

Lo'gan,  (John,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  poet,  born  at 
Soutra  in  1748.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  Leith  in 
1773,  and  became  an  eloquent  and  popular  preacher. 
He  delivered  in  Edinburgh  lectures  "On  the  Philosophy 
of  History,"  which  were  published  in  1781.  In  this  year 
he  published  a  volume  of  admired  poems,  chiefly  lyrical, 
among  which  is  an  "Ode  to  the  Cuckoo."  Having  given 
offence  to  his  church  by  writing  "  Runnimede,"  a  tragedy, 
(1783,)  he  removed  to  London  in  1785.  There  he  wrote 
a  pamphlet  entitled  "  Review  of  the  Charges  against 
Warren  Hastings,"  advocating  the  cause  of  Hastings. 
It  led  to  the  celebrated  trial  of  Stockdale,  his  publisher. 
Died  in  1788.  His  sermons  were  published  in  1790,  and 
are  highly  esteemed. 

See  "  Life  of  Logan,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  poems,  1805; 
Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Logan,  (John  A.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Jackson  county,  Illinois,  in  February,  1826.  He  studied 
law,  which  he  practised  with  success  until  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress  by  the  Democrats  of  the  ninth 
district  of  Illinois,  in  1858.  In  i860  he.  was  again  elected 
to  Congress.  Having  raised  a  regiment  of  volunteers, 
he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  same  in  September, 

1 86 1,  and  was  wounded  at  Fort  Donelson,  February, 

1862.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  in  March,  1862, 
and  a  major-general  about  the  end  of  that  year.  He 
served  with  clistinction  in  the  campaign  against  Vicks- 
burg  which  ended  July  4,  1863.  In  October,  1863,  he 
obtained  command  of  the  fifteenth  army  corps,  with 
which  he  contributed  to  the  victories  gained  by  Sherman 
between  Chattanooga  and  Atlanta,  after  McPherson  was 
killed.  He  commanded  the  army  of  the  Tennessee  in  a 
battle  near  Atlanta,  July  22,  1864.  He  also  led  a  corps 
of  Sherman's  army  in  the  march  from  Savannah  through 
South  Carolina  and  North  Carolina  in  February  and 
March,  1865.  He  was  one  of  the  most  successful  of  the 
civilian  or  political  generals  in  the  civil  war.  In  1866 
he  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a  Radical.  He  was  one 
of  seven  members  elected  March  2,  1868,  as  managers 
to  conduct  the  impeachment  of  President  Johnson.  He 
was  again  elected  to  Congress  in  1868. 

Logan,  (Sir  William  Edmond,)  a  distinguished  geol- 
ogist, born  at  Montreal,  Canada,  in  1798.  About  1842 
he  was  appointed  to  superintend  a  geological  survey  of 
Canada.  He  received  the  gold  medal  of  honour  at  the 
Paris  Industrial  Exhibition  of  1855,  and  in  1856  the 
Wollaston  palladium  medal. 

Logau,  von,  fon  lo'gow,  (Friedrich,)  Baron,  a  Ger- 
man poet,  born  in  Silesia  in  1604.  He  passed  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  in  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Liegnitz, 
and  died  in  1655,  leaving  a  great  number  of  epigrams, 
which  were  highly  praised  by  Lessing  and  are  remark- 
able for  irony  and  pathos. 

Loges,  des,  d^  lozh,  Madame,  a  Protestant  French 
lady,  whose  maiden  name  was  Marie  Bruneau,  (bRii'- 
n5',)  was  born  at  Sedan  about  1584.  Her  house  in  Paris 
was  frequented  by  Malherbe  and  other  eminent  wits, 
attracted  by  the  charm  of  her  conversation.  Died  in  1641. 

Log'gan,  (David,)  an  eminent  engraver  and  designer, 
born  at  Dantzic  about  1635.  He  became  a  resident  of 
London,  where  he  published  Engravings  of  the  Colleges 
of  Oxford,  ("Oxonia  Illustrata,")  and  similar  illustra- 
tions of  those  of  Cambridge.  After  the  restoration  of 
1660,  he  engraved  portraits  of  Charles  II.,  and  of  many 
dukes,  earls,  prelates,  etc.  of  his  time.    Died  in  1693. 

See  Strutt,  "Dictionary  of  Engravers." 

Lohaia,  Ibn,  ib'n  lo-hi'a,  or  Ibn-Lahia,  ib'n  li-hee'si, 
a  Moslem  doctor,  born  about  710  A.D.  He  was  appointed 
Cadee  of  Egypt  in  771,  and  died  about  790.  The  tra- 
ditions transmitted  through  him  are  of  great  authority 


«  as    9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  o,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal ;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i:^=^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOHENSTEIN 


1446 


LOKI 


among  Egyptians.  Silvestre  de  Sacy  attaches  importance 
to  the  historical  traditions  derived  from  him. 

Lohenstein,  von,  fon  Ic/en-stu/,  (Daniel  Caspar,) 
a  German  writer,  born  at  Nimptsch,  in  Silesia,  in  1635. 
He  founded  a  literary  school  which  corrupted  the  na- 
tional taste,  and  wrote  tragedies  and  other  poems.  "  He 
was  always  tumid,"  says  Hallam,  "and  striving  at  some- 
thing elevated,  so  that  the  'Lohenstein  swell'  became  a 
byword  with  later  critics."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  Europe.")    Died  in  1683. 

See  Passovv,  "  D.  C.  von  Lohenstein,  seine  Trauerspiele,"  etc., 
1852. 

Lohr  or  Loehr,  loR,  (Johann  Andreas  Christian,) 
a  German  writer,  born  at  Halberstadt  in  1764,  published 
several  popular  works  for  children.    Died  in  1823. 

Lohurasp,  lo^hdo-rSsp',  written  also  Lohrasp,  a 
Persian  king,  who  was  (according  to  the  "  Shah  Nameh") 
the  father  of  Gushtasp.  He  is  supposed  to  have  reigned 
about  550  B.C.  According  to  the  Arabian  chronicles, 
his  army  took  Jerusalem. 

See  J.  Atkinson's  "  Abridgment  of  the  Shah  Nameh  of  Fir- 
dausi,"  London,  1832. 

Loir,  IwiR,  (Nicolas  Pierre,)  a  skilful  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1624.  After  a  visit  to  Rome, 
he  returned  in  1649,  was  received  as  Academician  in 
1663,  and  was  patronized  by  Louis  XIV.,  who  gave  him 
a  pension  of  four  thousand  francs.  He  worked  with 
facility,  and  was  successful  in  history  and  landscapes. 
The  picture  of  "Cleobis  and  Biton  drawing  the  Chariot 
of  their  Mother"  is  called  his  master-piece.  He  etched 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pieces  of  his  own  and  of 
other  artists.    Died  in  1679. 

His  brother  Alexis,  born  about  1640,  had  a  high 
reputation  as  an  engraver.  He  engraved  several  works 
of  Poussin,  Lebrun,  etc.    Died  at  Paris  in  17 13. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Loiseau  de  Mauleon,  Iwi'zo'  deh  mo'li'6N',  (Alex- 
andre J^uome,)  an  eloquent  French  advocate,  born  in 
Paris  in  1728.  He  was  a  friend  of  Rousseau,  who  ad- 
vised him  to  defend  good  causes  exclusively.  "He  fol- 
lowed my  counsel,"  says  Rousseau,  "and  has  found  the 
advantage  of  it.  His  defence  of  M.  de  Portes  is  worthy 
of  Demosthenes."    Died  in  1771. 

See  Rousseau,  "Confessions." 

Loisel,  (Antoinf.,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 

Beauvais  in  1536.  He  wrote,  besides  other  legal  works, 
"Institutes  coutumieres,"  (1607,)  a  treatise  on  common 
law.    Died  in  1617. 

Loiseleur-Deslongchamps,  Iwiz^luR'di'ldN'shftN', 
(AnGUSTE  Louis  Armand,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1805,  gave  special  attention  to  the  Sanscrit. 
His  most  important  work  is  "The  Book  of  the  Laws  of 
Manu,"  ("  Manava-Dharma-Sastra,"  1832.)  Died  in  1840. 

Loiseleur-Deslongchamps,  (Jean  Louis  Au- 
GUSTE,)  a  French  botanist,  born  at  Dreux  in  1775,  was 
the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  obtained  a  diploma  as 
physician  in  1805.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Flora  Gal- 
lica,"  (2  vols.,  1806-7,)  and  "  Le  Nouveau  Duhamel,"  or 
"Treatise  on  Trees  and  Shrubs  cultivated  in  the  Open 
Air  in  France,"  (7  vols.,  181 2-19.)    Died  in  1849. 

See  Leclerc,  "  filoge  de  M.  Loiselenr-Deslongchamps,"  1851. 

Loison,  IwS'zAn',  (Louis  Henri,)  a  French  general 
of  division,  born  in  Lorraine  about  1770,  received  the 
grand  cross  of  honour  for  his  conduct  at  Austerlitz, 
(1805.)    Died  in  1816. 

Lojsalfar.    See  Elves. 

Lok  or  Loke.    See  Lokl 

Loki,  lo'ke,  or  Loke,  lo'keh,  written  also  Lok,  [from 
the  old  Norse  hgi,  (Ger.  Loke,)  "flame,"  allied  to  the 
Latin  hic-eOy  to  "shine,"  and  to  the  Scottish  hig,  "fire;" 
probably  so  named  because  he  united  the  subtlety  and 
iintrustvvorthiness  (or  treachery)  of  fire  with  its  destroy- 
ing properties,]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  god  of  evil 
and  deceit,  corresponding  in  the  main  with  the  Ahriman 
of  the  Zoroastrians.  He  is  of  Jotun  (giant)  descent,  but 
was  received  among  the  gods,  and  in  the  beginning  was 
a  foster-brother  of  Odin.  From  his  association  w^th  the 
-^sir,  he  is  often  styled  Asa-Loki  or  Asaloke.  He  is 
called  by  various  appellations  ;  among  others,  the  Slan- 
derer or  Accuser, — epithets  exactly  corresjionding  to  the 
Greek  dLaSaXog,  (Latin  Diab'ohis.)    He  is  the  enemy  and 


mocker,  as  well  as  tempter,  of  gods  and  men.  As  proof 
of  his  subtlety,  he  often  changed  his  sex,  assuming  on 
different  occasions  the  form  of  a  mare,  a  cow,  an  old 
woman,  etc.,  as  well  as  that  of  the  gods.  The  ^sir  often 
made  use  of  his  cunning  and  strength  ;  but  still  more 
frequently  they  had  cause  to  rue  those  very  powers  em- 
ployed against  themselves.  Professor  Petersen  furnishes 
perhaps  the  most  philosophical  and  most  satisfactory 
account  of  Loki  and  his  various  attributes  that  can  any- 
where  be  found.  Among  other  things,  he  observes  that 
"Asaloke  forms  an  antagonism  (modscetfting)  to  ail  the 
other  gods.  He  is  the  [principle  of]  evil  exerting  itself 
in  every  direction.  He  runs  in  the  veins  of  mankind  as 
sensuality.  He  is  the  destructive  [power]  of  nature  in 
air,  in  fire,  and  in  water.  In  the  bosom  of  the  earth  [he 
shows  himself]  as  volcanic  fire;  in  the  sea  as  a  devour- 
ing serpent;  in  the  lower  world  (tinderverden)  as  pale 
Death.  He  is  not  confined  to  any  one  part  of  nature, 
but,  like  Odin,  pervades  it  all.  .  .  .  And  all  that  he  is 
in  [external]  nature,  the  same  is  he  in  the  mind  of  man  : 
shrewdness,  but  also  cunning  and  falsehood  at  the  same 
time  ;  spirit,  but  likewise  craft,  deceit,  and  malice.  .  .  . 
And  in  each  of  these  forms  he  continually  becomes  worse 
and  worse;  according  to  the  old  proverb,  that  'every- 
thing grows  worse  as  it  grows  older.'"  ("Nordisk  My- 
thologi,"  pp.  355-6.) 

Through  the  deceitful  malice  of  Loki,  Balder,  the 
beautiful  and  good,  was  slain  by  the  hand  of  his  l)lind 
brother  Hoder.  (See  Balder.)  By  the  female  Jotun 
Angurboda,  Loki  was  the  father  of  the  wolf  Fenrir,  of 
the  World-Serpent,  (or  Midgard's  Ormr,)  and  of  Hela, 
the  goddess  of  death.  He  is  also  fabled  to  have  been  (by 
a  change  of  sex)  the  dam  of  the  horse  Sleipnir.  The 
yEsir,  exasperated  on  account  of  the  death  of  Balder, 
determined  at  length  to  take  vengeance  on  Loki.  He 
had  fled  to  the  mountains,  and  there  built  himself  a 
house  which  was  open  on  four  sides,  whence  he  could 
see  everything  that  happened  throughout  the  world.  By 
day  he  often  transformed  himself  into  a  salmon,  and  hid 
himself  in  a  waterfall.  The  gods,  learning  his  hiding- 
place,  attempted  to  catch  him  with  a  net ;  he  sprang 
over  the  net,  but  Thor  caught  him  by  the  tail.  This  is 
the  reason,  we  are  told,  why  the  salmon  has  so  thin  and 
pointed  a  tail.  Having  thus  captured  Loki,  the  gods 
bound  him  with  magic  cords  to  three  sharp  stones.  A 
venomous  snake  was  then  hung  above  his  head,  so  that 
the  poison  might  continually  drip  on  his  face.  V>wi  his 
faithful  wife  Sigyn  (sig'in)  stands  by  him  and  catches  the 
falling  venom  in  a  cup.  When  the  cup  is  full,  while  she 
is  emptying  it  the  poison  falls  upon  his  face,  which  makes 
him  howl  with  anguish  and  writhe  his  body  so  that  the 
whole  earth  trembles.  Loki  will  break  loose  from  his 
bonds  at  Ragnarock,*  (the  "twilight  or  evening  of  the 
gods,")  when  he  will  become  the  leading  spirit  among 
the  enemies  of  the  ^Esir.  He  is  not  only  the  leader  of 
Fenrir  and  the  other  progeny  of  evil,  but  he  is  said 
to  steer  the  fatal  ship  Naglfar  which  conveys  the  sons 
of  Muspel  over  the  ocean.  In  the  final  conflict  he  will 
encounter  Heimdall,  and  they  will  slay  each  other.  Frey 
falls  under  the  sword  of  Surt.  Tyr  slays  and  is  slain  by 
the  dog  Garm.  Odin  is  devoured  by  the  wolf  Fenrir, 
which  in  turn  is  killed  by  Vidar.  Thor  slays  the  world- 
serpent,  but  dies  immediately  afterwards  from  the  effects 
of  its  venom.  Then  Surt  scatters  fire  over  the  earth, 
and  the  whole  world  is  consumed.  (See  Fenrir.)  We 
are  told,  however,  that  this  destruction  is  not  to  last 
forever.  A  new  earth,  forever  green  and  beautiful,  will 
rise  out  of  the  sea.  Vali  and  Vidar  (the  slayer  of  Fen- 
rir) will  survive  the  conflagration,  and  will  be  joined  by 
Modi  and  Magni,  the  sons  of  Thor  and  Balder,  and 
Hoder  will  return  from  the  realms  of  Hela.  The  sun 
before  her  destruction  bore  a  daughter  more  beautiful 
than  herself.  As  successor  to  her  mother,  she  will  pursue 
her  appointed  path  through  the  renovated  world.  A  new 
race  shall  fill  the  earth,  and  all  evil  come  to  an  end. 

See  Keyser,  "  Religion  of  the  Northmen,"  translated  by  Pen- 
nock,  pp.  101-104 ;  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  Mal- 
let, "  Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  li.,  Fable  XVL,  also  XXX.  to 
XXXIII.  inclusive;  Petersen,  "Nordisk  Mythologi." 


*  Derived,  according  to  Keyser,  from  Regin,  the  "  ruling  powers," 
and  hence  "gods."  and  Rdkkr,  "darkness,"  also  "  twilight." 


I,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  filr,  All,  f2lt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LOKMAN 


1447 


LOMBJRDUS 


Lokm^n  or  Locm^n,  lok'mSn',  written  also  Loq- 
man,  an  ancient  Arabian  sage,  celebrated  for  his  wis- 
dom, and  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  a  collection  of 
popular  Oriental  fables.  He  is  mentioned  in  the  Koran, 
and  is  regarded  as  a  contemporary  of  David  and  Solo- 
mon. One  Arabian  writer  tells  us  that  Lokman  (who  is 
called  "the  oldest  sage")  was  an  Abyssinian  slave  be- 
longing to  an  Israelite  in  the  time  of  King  David,  and 
that  he  was  a  tailor  by  trade.  Another  writer  says  he 
had  read  more  than  10,000  wise  sayings  and  maxims,  but 
none  finer  than  those  of  Lokman.  It  is  related  that 
Lokman,  being  asked  whence  he  had  learned  his  wisdom, 
replied,  "  From  the  blind,  who  do  not  set  down  their 
feet  until  they  know  the  place  ;"  and  when  asked  from 
whom  he  had  learned  good  manners,  he  said,  "  From 
the  ill-mannered,  because  I  avoid  everything  offensive 
in  them."  Coincident  traditions  suggest  the  possible,  if 
not  probable,  identity  of  Lokman  and  ^sop.  "Many 
passages  of  his  history,"  says  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  "seem 
evidently  borrowed  from  the  life  of  i^isop."  "  Nothing 
in  his  fables  is  characteristic  of  Arabian  genius ;  and 
they  have  received  the  name  of  Lokman  only  because 
he  was  renowned  for  wisdom."  They  were  edited  and 
translated  into  Latin  by  Erpenius  in  1615. 

See  Hammer-Purgstall,  "  Literaturgeschichte  der  Araber," 
vol.  i.  p.  31  et  seg. 

Lola  Montez,  lo'lS  mon't§z,  (Maria  Dolores  Por- 
Ris  Gilbert,)  a  famous  female  adventurer,  was  born 
about  1820,  at  Limerick.  At  an  early  age  she  made  her 
debut  at  Paris  as  a  danseuse,  and  by  her  beauty  and 
genius  attracted  many  admirers.  About  1846  she  went 
to  Munich,  where  she  captivated  the  king,  Louis,  who 
gave  her  the  title  of  Countess  of  Lansfeld.  After  several 
ministers  had  been  discarded  by  her  influence,  her 
enemies  prevailed  in  1848,  and  she  retired  from  Bavaria. 
She  was  afterwards  married  twice,  and  lived  in  England 
and  the  United  States,  where  she  lectured  with  success 
in  various  cities.  She  published  a  volume  of  lectures, 
and  was  the  reputed  author  of  a  work  called  "The  Arts 
of  Beauty,  or  Secrets  of  a  Lady's  Toilet."  She  died  in 
New  York  in  1861. 

See  "Fraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1848. 

Loli,  lo'lee,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Bologna  in  1612,  was  a  pupil  of  Guido 
Reni.  His  most  admired  works  are  etchings,  after  Guido, 
Sirani,  etc.    Died  in  1691. 

LolTard  or  LoFhard,  (Walter,)  a  person  of  whom 
we  have  little  information,  except  that  he  was  burned 
to  death  as  a  heretic  at  Cologne  in  1322.  His  followers 
or  fellow-believers,  called  "  Lollards,"  were  a  numerous 
sect  in  England  many  years  after  his  death.  Their  doc- 
trines appear  to  have  been  similar  to  those  of  the  Prot- 
estants. The  term  Lollard  was  applied  to  the  disciples 
of  Wickliffe  by  their  opponents.  In  the  reign  of  Henry 
V.  (1414)  the  Lollards  were  persecuted,  and  revolted 
without  success.    (See  Cobham,  Lord.) 

Lolli,  loKlee,  (Anjonio,)  an  Italian  violinist,  born  at 
Bergamo  in  1728;  died  in  1802. 

LolTi-a  Pau-li'iia,  a  l^onian  empress,  whose  l^eauty 
captivated  Caligula.  She  was  married  to  him  in  38  A.D., 
but  was  soon  discarded  by  the  capricious  emperor.  She 
was  put  to  death  in  49  A.D.  by  the  order  of  Agrippina, 
who  was  prompted  to  this  act  by  jealousy. 

Lol-li-a'nus,  [AoAAtavof,]  a  Greek  sophist  and  writer 
on  rhetoric,  born  at  Ephesus,  lectured  at  Athens  in  the 
reign  of  Hadrian,  (11 7-138  A.D.) 

See  Kavser,  "P.  Hordeoniiis  Lollianus  geschildert,"  etc.,  1841. 

Lollio,  loKle-o,  (Alberto,)  an  Italian  orator  and 
poet,  born  at  Florence  in  1508.  He  published  elegant 
orations  and  letters,  and  several  poems,  among  which  is 
"Arethusa,"  a  pastoral  drama,  (1563.)    Died  in  1568. 

LoPli-us,  (M.,)  a  Roman  general  in  the  service  of 
Aneustus.  He  was  defeated  in  Gaul  by  the  Germans  in 
16  B.C.    Died  in  3  a.d. 

Lolme.    See  De  Lolme, 

Lom'ax,  (John  Taylor,)  an  American  lawyer,  born 
in  Caroline  county,  Virginia,  in  1781,  was  appointed  in 
1826  professor  of  law  in  the  University  of  Virginia. 

Lomazzo,  lo-mSt'so,  (Giovanni  Paolo,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  able  writer  on  art,  was  born  at  Milan  in 
1538.    He  was  appointed  by  Cosimo  de'  Medici  keeper 


of  his  vast  gallery  of  pictures  in  Florence.  He  was 
versed  in  belles-lettres  and  various  sciences,  and  ac- 
quired a  profound  theoretical  and  practical  knowledge 
of  the  fine  arts.  Having  become  blind  in  the  prime  of 
life,  he  composed  his  "Trattato  della  Pittura,"  (1584,) 
"  the  most  complete  treatise  on  painting,"  says  the  "  Bio- 
graphic Universelle,"  "  that  has  hitherto  appeared."  His 
praises  were  sung  by  the  first  Italian  poets  of  his  time. 
He  also  published  "  Idea  (or  Image)  of  the  Temple  of 
Painting,"  ("  Idea  del  Tempio  della  Pittura,"  1591.) 
Died  about  1600. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy  ;"  Winckelmann, 
"  Neues  Mahler-Lexikon  ;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizionario." 

Lombard,  l^N^btR',  (Claude  Antoine,)  a  French 
surgeon,  born  at  Dole  in  1741;  died  in  1811. 

Lombard,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  artillerist,  born 
at  Strasburg  in  1723,  was  learned  in  languages,  etc.  He 
published  a  translation  of  Robins's  "  Principles  of  Ar- 
tillery," (1783,)  and  other  esteemed  works  on  gunnery. 
Died  in  1794. 

Lombard,  lom'baRt,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  Prus- 
sian politician,  born  at  Berlin  about  1767.  He  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  foreign  affairs  about  1800.  He 
favoured  the  French  interest  by  promoting  the  neutrality 
in  which  Prussia  persisted  until  1806.    Died  in  181 2. 

Lombard,  lAN'btR',  [Lat.  Lombar'dus,]  (Lambert,) 
an  excellent  Flemish  painter  and  architect,  born  at  Liege 
about  1500.  He  studied  in  Italy  under  Andrea  del  Sarto, 
and  returned  to  his  native  city.  In  his  school  of  design 
were  formed  several  eminent  artists,  among  whom  was 
Frans  Floris.  His  style  is  Italian.  Among  his  master- 
pieces is  an  oil-painting  of  the  "  Last  Supper."  Died  in 
1565. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Dominicus  Lampsonius, 
(or  Lampson.)  *'  Lamberti  Lombardi  apud  Eburones  Pictoris  celeber- 
rinii  Vita,"  1565. 

Lombard,  (Theodore,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  An- 
nonay  in  1699  ;  died  about  1770. 

Lombard  de  Langres,  liN^bia'  deh  15NgR,  (Vin- 
cent,) a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Langres  about  1765. 
He  wrote  "Neslie,"  (1798,)  and  other  poems,  and  "Me- 
moirs of  the  French  Revolution,"  (2  vols.,  1823.)  Died 
in  1830. 

Lombardi,  lom-baR'dee,  (Alfonso,)  an  Italian  sculp- 
tor, was  born  at  Ferrara  in  1487.  He  had  an  excellent 
talent  for  portraits.  Among  his  works  were  portraits  of 
Bembo,  Ariosto,  and  Charles  V.,  and  a  group  in  terra 
cotta  representing  the  "Death  of  the  Virgin."  Died 
in  1536. 

See  G.  Baruffaldi,  "Vita  di  A.  Lombardi,"  1839;  Vasari, 
"Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors;"  Cicognara,  "Storia  della 
Scultura." 

Lombardi,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at 
Rimini,  became  a  Protestant,  and  a  professor  of  philoso- 
phy and  medicine  at  Marburg,  where  he  died  in  1669. 

Lombardi,  (Giovanni  Domenico,)  called  L'Omino, 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Lucca  in  1682  ;  died  in  1752. 

Lombardi,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at 
Ferrara,  lived  about  1550.  He  was  employed,  under  the 
direction  of  Sansovino,  on  the  church  of  San  Marco, 
Venice. 

Lombardi,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  philologist,  born 
at  Verona  in  1707  ;  died  in  1792. 

Lombardo,  lom-baR'do,  (Pietro,)  a  Venetian  archi- 
tect and  sculptor.  He  made  the  monument  raised  to 
Dante  at  Ravenna  in  1482,  and  designed  the  church  of 
Santa  Maria  de'  Miracoli  at  Venice.  Among  his  works  is 
the  tower  for  the  clock  on  the  Piazza  San  Marco.  Died 
about  1520.  His  sons  Antonio  and  Tullio  were  able 
sculptors  and  architects.  The  latter  designed  the  church 
of  San  Salvator,  Venice.  His  finest  works  as  a  sculptor 
were  two  marble  bas-reliefs  in  the  Chapel  del  Santo  at 
Padua.    Died  in  1559. 

See  Cicognara,  "  Storia  della  Scultura." 

Lombardo,  (San  ie,)  an  architect  and  sculptor,  born 
at  Venice  in  1504,  was  a  nephew  of  Tullio.  Among  his 
works  was  the  Scuola  di  San  Rocco  at  Venice.  Died 
in  1560. 

Lombardo,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at 
Lugano,  lived  about  1530. 
Lombardus.    See  Lombard,  (Lambert.) 


<  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this,   (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOME  ART 


1448 


LONDONDERRT 


Lombart,  liN^btk',  (Pierre,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  in  Paris  in  1612.  Among  his  works  are  twelve 
portraits,  after  Van  Dyck,  a  "  Nativity,"  after  Poussin, 
and  a  "  Penitent  Magdalene,"  after  Titian.  Died  in  1682. 

Lombert,  lAw^baiR',  (Pikrrk,)  a  French  translator, 
born  in  Paris,  was  an  associate  of  the  Port-Royalists. 
He  produced  French  versions  of  the  works  of  Saint 
Cyprian,  (2  vols.,  1672,)  and  of  Saint  Augustine's  "City 
of  God,"  (2  vols.,  1675.)    Died  in  1710. 

Lomeier,  lo'ml'er,  written  also  Lomeir,  (Jan,)  a 
learned  Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Zutphen  in  1636.  He 
became  minister  of  the  church  in  that  town  in  1674,  and 
professor  of  belles-lettres  there  in  1686.  He  published 
a  curious  treatise  *' On  Libraries,"  ("  De  Bibliothecis," 
1669,)  and  a  work  on  ancient  history  and  philology,  en- 
titled '*  Dierum  Genialium."    Died  in  1699. 

See  Sax,  "  Onomasticon." 

Lomeni,  lo-ma'nee,  (Tgnazio,)  an  Italian  writer  on 
rural  economy,  born  at  Milan  in  1779;  died  in  1838. 

Lomenie,  de,  deh  Wmk'ne',  (Henri  Auguste,) 
Count  de  Brienne,  a  French  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in 
1594.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  obtained  the  reversion 
of  the  office  of  secretary  of  state,  which  his  father  had 
held.  In  1624  he  was  sent  to  England  to  draw  up  the 
articles  of  the  marriage  between  Henrietta  of  France 
and  the  Prince  of  Wales.  He  retired  from  office  in  1661, 
and  died  in  1666. 

Lomenie,  de,  (Louis  Hp:nri,)  Count  de  Brienne,  the 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1635.  About  the  age 
of  twenty-six  he  resigned  the  office  of  secretary  of  foreign 
affairs,  and  became  a  priest  of  the  Oratory.  He  wrote 
poems,  memoirs,  and  other  works,  which  have  some 
literary  merit.  He  was  expelled  from  the  order  of  the 
Oratory  for  eccentric  or  improper  conduct,  and  was 
deranged  many  years.    Died  in  1698. 

See  "  Memoires  de  L.  H.  de  Lomenie,"  2  vols.,  1720. 

Lomenie,  de,  (Louis  L^ionard,)  a  French  author, 
born  in  Haute-Vienne  in  1818.  He  began  his  literary 
career  by  a  series  of  biographies,  entitled  "Gallery  of 
Illustrious  Contemporaries,  by  a  Man  of  no  Account," 
("  Galerie  des  Contemporains  illustres,  par  un  Homme 
de  Rien,"  10  vols.,  1840-47,)  which  procured  for  him  an 
honourable  reputation  for  good  taste,  discretion,  and 
other  merits.  Many  of  these  biographies  have  been 
published  separately.  Among  his  works  is  "  Beaumar- 
chais  and  his  Times  :  Studies  on  French  Society,"  (2 
vols.,  iSsS-) 

Lomenie  de  Brienne,  de,  deh  lo'ma'ne'  deh  bRe'?n', 
(firiENNE  Charles,)  a  French  cardinal  and  minister  of 
state,  born  in  Paris  in  1727.  He  was  appointed  Arch- 
bishop of  Toulouse  in  1763.  In  1770  he  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy.  in  May,  1787,  he  succeeded 
Calonne  as  contrdleur-general  of  finances,  without  abili- 
ties adequate  to  the  crisis.  An  exciting  contest  arose 
between  the  court  and  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  which 
was  exiled  from  the  capital  and  deprived  of  political 
power.  In  1788  he  was  invested  with  the  title  of  prime 
minister  and  made  Archbishop  of  Sens.  In  this  year, 
yielding  to  the  importunate  appeals  of  the  people,  then 
in  a  state  of  great  excitement,  he  convoked  the  States- 
General  for  Mav,  1789.  Having  been  so  unsuccessful  as 
a  financier  that  he  was  compelled  to  suspend  payments, 
he  was  dismissed  on  the  24th  of  August,  1788,  and  Necker 
became  premier.  He  was  one  of  those  in  the  new  regime 
who  took  the  oath  as  a  constitutional  bishop.  Died  in 
1794. 

See  Droz,  "  Histoire  du  Rfegne  de  Louis  XVI ;"  *'  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Lomi,  lo'mee,  (Artemisia,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Pisa  in  1 590,  was  a  daughter  of  Orazio  Lomi,  and  a 
pupil  of  Guido.  She  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  portrait- 
painter,  and  painted  some  historical  works,  among  which 
is  "  Judith  and  Holofernes."  She  died  in  London  or 
Naples  about  1644. 

Lomi,  (Aurelio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Pisa  in 
1556,  is  called  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  school  of  Pisa. 
He  painted  frescos  and  oil-paintings  in  Rome,  Genoa, 
Florence,  Pisa,  etc.  Among  his  admired  works  are  a 
Saint  Jerome  and  "Adoration  of  the  Magi."  Died  in  1622. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Baldinucci,  "No- 
lizie." 


Lomi,  (Baccto,)  an  Italian  painter,  an  uncle  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Pisa,  lived  about  1 570-1600.  He 
worked  at  Pisa  with  success,  and  founded  a  school. 

Lomi,  (Orazio,)  an  Italian  painter,  called  Gknti- 
LESCHi,  a  brother  of  Aurelio,  noticed  above,  was  born 
at  Pisa  about  1563.  He  worked  in  Rome,  where  he  was 
employed  by  Agostino  Tassi  to  paint  figures.  About 
1623  he  removed  to  London,  where  he  was  patronized 
by  Charles  I.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Repose  in 
Egypt,"  and  an  "Assumption."  Died  in  London  in  1646. 

Lomm,  lom,  [Lat.  Lom'mius,]  (Josse,)  one  of  the 
most  skilful  physicians  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Buren, 
in  Holland,  in  1500.  He  practised  at  Tournai  and  at 
Brussels,  whither  he  removed  about  1557.  In  his  "  Medi- 
cinal Observations"  ("  Observationes  Medicinales,"  1 560) 
many  diseases  are  accurately  described.  He  wrote  other 
works,  in  Latin  of  uncommon  purity.    Died  after  1 562. 

See  Paquot,  "Memoires." 

Lommius.    See  Lomm. 

Lomonosof,  Lomonossov,  Lomonosov,  or  Lom- 
onosow,  lom-o-no'sof,  (Michael  Vasilievitch,)  a  cele- 
brated Russian  poet,  born  at  or  near  Kolmogory,  in  the 
government  of  Archangel,  in  171 1,  is  called  the  father 
of  modern  Russian  literature.  He  was  the  son  of  a  serf, 
whom  he  assisted  in  the  business  of  a  fisherman  until 
his  thirst  for  knowledge  led  him  to  Moscow,  and  thence 
to  Saint  Petersburg,  in  1734.  He  became  learned  in  an- 
cient and  modern  languages  and  in  abstract  and  natural 
sciences.  In  1746  he  was  appointed  professor  of  chem- 
istry, and  in  1760  rector  of  the  gymnasium  and  Uni- 
versity of  Saint  Petersburg.  He  rendered  the  Russian 
language  more  polished  and  more  rich  by  his  multifarious 
productions,  in  prose  and  verse,  on  grammar,  history, 
chemistry,  rhetoric,  etc.  His  poem  entitled  "  Petriade" 
(an  unfinished  epic,  of  which  Peter  the  Great  is  the 
hero)  is  one  of  his  most  popular  works.  He  also  pro- 
duced two  volumes  of  odes,  religious  and  secular,  and 
an  abridged  "  History  of  Russia."  He  was  made  council- 
lor of  state  in  1764.  Died  in  1765.  Polevoi  has  published 
a  work  entitled  "  M.  V.  Lomonossov,"  (1836,)  which  is 
said  to  be  a  biography  blended  with  fiction. 

See,  also,  G.  Geitlin,  "  Dissertatio  de  Meriiis  literariis  Lomo- 
nossovii,"  1829;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  "Foreign  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  July,  1839. 

Londe,  l6Nd,  (Charles,)  a  French  medical  writer, 
born  at  Caen  in  1798.  His  "Elements  of  Hygiene" 
(1827)  have  been  translated  into  many  languages. 

Londe,  de  la,  deh  IS  16Nd,  (FRANgois  Richard,)  a 
French  poet,  born  at  Caen  in  1685  ;  died  in  1765. 

Londerseel,  lonMer-saK,  (  Assur,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1550. 

Londerseel,  van,  vtn  lonMer-saK,  (Jan,)  a  Flemish 
engraver,  born  at  Bruges  about  1580. 

Lon^don-der'ry,  (Charles  William  Stewart,) 
third  Marquis  of,  born  in  Dublin  in  1778,  was  a  son 
of  Robert  the  first  Marquis,  and  a  half-brother  of  Lord 
Castlereagh.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  Lord  Chan- 
cellor Camden.  He  entered  the  army  in  1793,  became 
colonel  and  aide-de-camp  to  the  king  in  1803,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  Portugal  under  Sir  John  Moore. 
He  served  as  adjutant-general  under  Sir  Arthur  Wel- 
lesley  for  several  years  in  the  Peninsula.  In  18 13  Sir 
Charles  was  envoy-extraordinary  to  the  court  of  Berlin, 
and  was  officially  attached  to  the  head-quarters  of  Ber- 
nadotte.  Much  importance  is  ascribed  to  the  eflforts 
and  menaces  by  which  he  induced  Bernadotte  to  co- 
operate with  the  allies  at  Leipsic.  He  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  as  Lord  Stewart,  in  1814.  and  was  one  of  the 
plenipotentiaries  sent  by  England  to  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  in  1815.  Having  married  a  daughter  and  heiress 
of  Sir  Harry  Vane  Tempest  in  1819,  he  assumed  the 
name  of  Vane.  He  succeeded  his  half-brother  as  Mar- 
quis of  Londonderry  in  1822,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
general  in  1837.  In  politics  he  was  an  ultra-conserva- 
tive. He  was  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Peninsular 
War,"  (1813.)  He  died  in  1854,  leaving  two  sons,  Wil- 
liam Robert,  who  inherits  the  title  of  marquis,  and 
George,  who  is  Viscount  Seaham. 

See  T.  P.  Fitzgerald,  "Life  of  Lord  Londonderry;"  "Bio- 
graphical Sketches,"  by  Harriet  Martineau. 

Londonderry,  Marquis  of.    See  Castlereagh. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ti,  Jr,  short;    e,  j,  o,  obscure;  ilx,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


LONDON  10 


1449 


LONG HI 


Londonio,  lon-do'ne-o,  (  Francesco,  )  an  Italian 
painter  of  animals,  born  at  Milan  in  1723  ;  died  in  1783. 

Long,  (Edward,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Corn- 
wall in  1734.  He  emigrated  in  1757  to  Jamaica,  where 
he  was  appointed  a  judge.  Having  returned  to  England 
in  1769,  he  published  a  "History  of  Jamaica,"  (1774,) 
and  several  minor  works.    Died  in  1813. 

Long,  (George,)  an  eminent  English  scholar  and 
editor,  born  at  Poulton,  Lancashire,  in  1800,  Having 
been  educated  at  Cambridge,  he  became  professor  of 
ancient  languages  in  the  University  of  Virginia  in  1824, 
and  professor  of  Greek  in  the  London  University  in 
1826.  About  this  time  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,"  under 
whose  auspices  he  edited  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia,"  with 
great  ability,  from  1832  to  1843.  He  afterwards  edited 
for  the  same  society  a  "  Biographical  Dictionary,"  which 
was  dis'continued  at  the  end  of  the  letter  A.  He  has 
contributed  many  articles  to  Smith's  "Classical  Diction- 
ary," edited  Cicero's  Orations,  and  published,  besides 
other  works,  "France  and  its  Revolutions,"  (1850,)  and 
"The  Decline  of  the  Roman  Republic,"  (3  vols.,  1864- 
69  ;  yet  unfinished.)  He  has  translated  into  English  the 
"  Thoughts  of  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus." 
In  1849  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  professors  in  the 
college  at  Brighton. 

Long,  (Roger,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  astronomer,  born 
in  the  county  of  Norfolk  in  1680.  He  became  Lowndes 
professor  of  astronomy  at  Cambridge  in  1749,  and  after- 
wards obtained  the  rectory  of  Bradwell.  He  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  Astronomy,"  of  which  the  first  volume  was 
published  in  1742  and  the  second  in  1764.    Died  in  1770. 

Long,  (Stephen  H.,)  an  Anierican  engineer,  born  at 
Hopkinton,  New  Hampshire,  in  1784.  About  1816  he 
set  out  on  a  tour  for  expli:)ring  the  western  frontier  from 
Texas  to  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  and  published 
in  1824  his  "Expedition  to  the  Source  of  Saint  Peter's 
River,  Lake  of  the  Woods,"  etc. 

Long,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at  Exe- 
ter in  162 1.  About  1660  he  obtained  a  prebend  in  Exeter 
Cathedral,  from  which  he  was  ejected  as  a  nonjuror  in 
1688,  He  wrote  a  "Vindication  of  the  Primitive  Chris- 
tians in  Point  of  Obedience  to  their  Prince,"  (1683,)  and 
other  polemical  works.    Died  in  1700, 

Long,  Le.    See  Lelong. 

Longchamps,  de,  deh  16N'sh6N',  (Pierre,)  a  French 
writer,  born  probably  at  Rochelle.  He  translated  the 
Elegies  of  Propertius  into  French  prose,  and  wrote 
"Memoirs  of  a  Nun,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1812. 

Longepierre,  de,  deh  liNzh'pe-aiR',  (Hilaire  I^er- 
nard  de  Rkqueleynic,)  Baron,  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Dijon  in  1658.  He  was  an  excellent  Greek  scholar,  and 
produced  poetical  versions  of  Anacreon,  Sappho,  Bion, 
and  Moschus.  His  tragedy  of  "Medea,"  says  Voltaire, 
although  too  full  of  declamation,  is  superior  to  Corneille's 
"Medea."    Died  in  1721. 

Longet,  l^N'zhi',  (Francois  Achille,)  a  French 
physician  and  physiologist,  born  at  Saint-Germain-en- 
Laye  in  181 1.  He  jniblished  "  Anatomy  and  Physiology 
of  the  Nervous  System,"  (2  vols.,  1843-46,)  and  a  "  Com- 
plete Treatise  on  Physiology,"  (1850-55.)  He  became 
one  of  the  consulting  physicians  of  the  emperor. 

Long'fel-low,  (Henry  Wadsworth,)  an  eminent 
American  poet  and  scholar,  born  at  Portland  (Maine) 
the  27th  of  February,  1807.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin 
College  in  1825,  soon  after  which  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  modern  languages  and  literature  in  that  institu- 
tion, with  the  understanding  that  he  should  have  the 
privilege  of  spending  some  time  in  Europe  in  order  more 
fully  to  qualify  himself  for  his  new  position.  He  left 
home  in  1826,  and  spent  four  years  abroad,  chiefly  in 
France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Germany.  In  1835  he  suc- 
ceeded Mr.  George  Ticknor  in  the  chair  of  modern 
languages  and  belles-lettres  at  Harvard.  The  same  year 
he  visited  Europe  the  second  time  ;  and,  after  making 
an  extensive  tour  through  Denmark,  Sweden,  Germany, 
etc.,  he  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  professorship  in 
1838.  In  1839  appeared  his  romance  of  "  Hyperion," 
and  a  collection  of  his  poems,  entitled  "Voices  of  the 
Night,"  which  attracted  great  attention  and  raised  him 
at  once  to  the  first  rank  among  American  poets.  In 


1841  he  published  "Ballads,  and  other  Poems:"  his 
charming  drama  of  "The  Spanish  Student"  apj^eared 
in  1843.  This  was  followed  by  his  "  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe,"  (1845,)  "The  Belfry  of  Bruges,  and  other 
Poems,"  (1846,)  and  "Evangeline,"  (1847,)  one  of  the 
most  admired  of  all  his  productions.  It  has  been  pro- 
nounced (and  we  think  justly)  "the  most  perfect  speci- 
men extant  of  the  rhythm  and  melody  of  the  English 
hexameter."  It  was  followed  by  "The  Golden  Legend," 
(1851,)  "The  Song  of  Hiawatha,"  (1855,)  perhaps  the 
most  popular  of  all  his  works,  "The  Courtship  of  Miles 
Standish,"  (1858,)  and  "Tragedies  of  New  England," 
(1868.)  Of  his  prose  writings,  besides  "Hyperion," 
already  referred  to,  we  may  mention  "Outre-Mer:  a 
Pilgrimage  beyond  the  Sea,"  (1835,)  "Kavanagh,"  a 
novel,  (1849,)  and  his  contributions  to  the  "North 
American  Review."  His  last  important  work  is  a  trans- 
lation of  Dante's  "Divina  Commedia,"  (1867,)  remark- 
able for  its  literalness  and  fidelity  to  the  original.  Mr. 
Longfellow  resigned  his  chair  at  Harvard  in  1854,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Professor  Lowell. 

As  a  poet,  Longfellow  is  characterized  by  tenderness 
and  depth  of  feeling,  |o  the  expression  of  which  the  pic- 
turesque and  graceful  simplicity  of  his  language  often 
imparts  an  indescribable  charm.  He  seldom  or  never 
attempts  to  excite  admiration  by  far-sought  conceits,  by 
wild  or  lofty  flights  of  imagination,  or  by  the  exhibition 
of  dark  and  terrible  passions.  He  relies  chiefly  for  his 
success  on  a  simple  and  direct  appeal  to  those  sentiments 
which  are  common  to  all  mankind, — to  persons  of  every 
rank  and  of  every  clime. 

It  is,  in  fact,  to  his  command  over  those  feelings  which 
are  universal  in  the  human  heart,  that  we  must  ascribe 
the  extraordinary  popularity  of  his  Indian  story  of  "  Hia- 
watha." It  is,  perhaps,  not  too  much  to  say  that  he  is 
not  merely  the  first  but  the  only  writer  who  has  suc- 
ceeded in  giving  a  deep  and  living  interest  to  a  story  of 
Indian  life.  Restricted  as  he  necessarily  was  by  the 
nature  of  the  subject, — by  the  extreme  simplicity,  not  to 
say  meagreness,  of  the  character  of  our  aborigines, — he 
has  yet  produced  a  poem  which  not  only  comes  home  to 
the  hearts  of  the  masses  of  the  people,  but  which  must  ex- 
cite the  admiration  of  the  cultivated  reader  who  will  take 
into  consideration  the  inherent  difiiculties  of  the  task, 
and  the  limits  and  restrictions  which  the  poet,  in  selecting 
such  a  subject,  had  necessarily  to  impose  upon  himself. 
The  form  of  the  verse  is  in  admirable  keeping  with  the 
simplicity  of  the  story.  But,  "unhappily  for  the  poet,"  as 
"Blackwood"  for  February,  1856,  justly  observes,  "this 
is  the  very  measure  to  attract  the  parodist,  '  Punch' 
has  opened  the  assault ;  and  we  will  not  venture  to  pre- 
dict how  many  gleeful  voices  may  echo  his  good-humoured 
mockery  before  the  year  is  out."  We  may,  indeed,  safely 
assert  that  whatever  declension  there  has  been  from  the 
first  popularity  of  "  Hiawatha"  must  in  a  great  measure 
be  attributed  to  the  "good-humoured  mockery"  of  the 
countless  parodies  that  have  been  made  upon  it.  Happily, 
there  are  those  (and  we  would  fain  hope  their  number 
is  not  small)  who  can  judge  of  a  poem  by  its  intrinsic 
merits,  and  who  will  not  permit  a  whole  "college  of  wit- 
crackers"  to  destroy  their  enjoyment  of  what  is  truly 
beautiful  or  prevent  their  admiration  of  what  is  truly 
excellent.  A  writer  in  the  "London  Examiner"  thinks 
"  Hiawatha"  "the  most  original  of  all  his  [Longfellow's] 
productions."  Several  different  translations  of  it  have 
been  made, — one  by  the  distinguished  German  poet  Frei- 
ligrath, — and  it  has  been  read  and  admired  in  every  part 
of  Europe. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors ;"  Griswold,  "  Poets  and 
Poetry  of  America  ;"  Duvckinck,  "  Cyclopsedia  of  American  Litera- 
ture," vol.  ii.  ;  "North  American  Review"  for  January,  1840,  July, 
1842,  Julv,  1S45,  and  January,  i<S48  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  March, 
1848  :  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  January  and  April,  1864. 

Longhena,  lon-ga'nS,  (Baldassare,)  an  Italian  archi- 
tect, worked  at  Venice  about  1640. 
Longhi.    See  Lunghi. 

Longhi,  lon'gee,  (Alessio  or  Alessandro,)  a  Vene- 
tian painter  and  engraver,  born  in  1726  ;  died  about  1790. 

Longhi,  (Giuseppe,)  a  celebrated  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Monza,  in  Lombardy,  in  1766.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Vincenzo  Vangelisti.  He  worked  mostly  at  Milan, 
where  he  became  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as/;  G,  h,    guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LONG HI 


1450 


LONGSTREET 


His  works  are  admired  for  the  magical  effect  of  the  chiaro- 
scuro. He  was  an  excellent  draftsman.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  "The  Marriage  of  the  Virgin,"  after 
Raphael,  "  The  Magdalene,"  after  Correggio,  a  "  Gala- 
tea," after  Albani,  and  "The  Last  Judgment,"  after  Mi- 
chael Angelo.  He  published  "  La  Calcographia,"  (1830,) 
an  able  treatise  on  engraving.    Died  in  183 1. 

See  F.  LoNGHENA,  "  Nolizie  bio.eraficlie  di  G.  Longlii,"  1831  ; 
Sacchi,  "  Biografia  di  G.  Longhi,"  1831  ;  Tifaluo,  "  Biografia  degli 
Italiani  illustri ;"  G.  Beretta,  "Vita  del  Cavaliere  G.  Longhi," 
1837. 

Longhi,  lon'gee,  or  Lunghi,  loon'gee,  (Luca,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Ravenna  in  1507,  always  resided 
in  that  city.  He  excelled  in  portraits,  and  also  painted 
some  subjects  of  sacred  history  with  success.  Died  in 
1580.  "  His  conceptions,"  says  Lanzi,  "  are  sweet,  varied, 
and  graceful,  with  a  powerful  union  of  colours."  His 
daughter  Barbara  was  also  a  painter. 
.  See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Longhi,  (PiETRO,)  an  Italian  painter  of  masquerades, 
dances,  and  other  gay  or  familiar  scenes,  born  at  Venice 
in  1702  ;  died  in  1762. 

Longin.    See  Longinus. 

Longino.    See  Longinus. 

Longinus.    See  Dlugosz. 

Lon-gi'nus,  [Gr.  Aoyylvog;  Fr.  Longin,  l6N'zh4N';  It. 
Longing,  lon-jee'no,]  a  celebrated  Greek  philosopher 
and  critic,  was  born  probably  in  Syria,  and  flourished 
in  the  third  century.  Some  ancient  writers  call  him 
Longinus  Cassius,  or  Dionysius  Cassius  Longinus. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  his  uncle  Phronto  of  Emesa,  and  was 
a  Platonist  in  philosophy.  He  opened  at  Athens  a 
school  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric,  which  became  very 
celebrated.  The  famous  Porphyry  was  one  of  his  pupils. 
After  passing  many  years  at  Athens,  he  accepted  the 
invitation  of  Zenobia,  Queen  of  Palmyra,  to  reside  at 
her  court.  He  taught  her  Greek,  and  served  her  as 
councillor  or  prime  minister  during  her  war  against  Au- 
relian,  Emperor  of  Rome.  The  latter,  having  captured 
Palmyra,  put  Longinus  to  death  in  273  a.d.  Longinus 
was  the  first  to  whom  was  applied  the  phrase,  often  re- 
peated since,  "a  living  library,"  and  is  considered  the 
greatest  philosopher  of  his  age.  He  wrote  many  critical 
and  philosophical  works,  none  of  which  have  comedown 
to  us  except  his  admirable  "Treatise  on  the  Sublime," 
(Hepl  "Yipovc;,)  which  Boileau  translated  into  French  and 
called  a  "master-piece  of  good  sense,  learning,  and  elo- 
quence." vSome  writers,  however,  have  doubted — but  with 
little  reason,  it  would  seem — whether  Longinus  was  the 
real  author  of  this  work.  (See,  on  this  subject,  the  arti- 
cle "  Longin"  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biogra])hie  Generale.") 

It  has  been  truly  said  that  to  be  a  good  critic  one  n,uist 
be  something  of  a  poet.  This  qualification  Longinus 
possessed  in  a  pre-eminent  degree.  Pope,  addressing 
him,  says, 

"Thee,  bold  Longinus  !  all  the  Nine  inspire, 
And  bless  their  critic  with  a  poet's  fire  ; 
An  ardent  judge,  who,  zealous  in  his  trust, 
With  warmth  gives  sentence,  yet  is  always  just ; 
Whose  own  example  strengthens  all  his  laws. 
And  is  himself  that  great  sui:)lime  he  draws." 

Essay  on  Criticism,  part  iii. 

OfLonginus's  "Treatise on  the  Sublime," several  good 
French  translations  have  been  made, — one  by  the  cele- 
brated critic  and  poet  Boileau,  (1674.)  It  has  also  been 
translated  into  German  by  Schlosser,  and  into  English 
by  W.  Smith. 

See  D.  RuHNKEN,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  Longini," 
1776:  P.  Ekekman,  "  Dissertatio  de  D.  Longino  Cassio,"  1750; 
L.  Vaucher,  "  fitudes  critiques  siir  la  Traite  du  Sublime  et  sur 
les  ficrits  de  Longin,"  1854;  "Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale;" 
"Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1779;  Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Biography." 

Long'land  or  Lang'land,  (John,)  an  English  bishop, 
born  at  Henley  in  1473.  He  became  confessor  to  Henry 
VIII.,  and  Bishop  of  Jjncoln,  in  1520.  On  the  question 
of  the  divorce  of  Queen  Catherine  he  gave  the  king 
such  counsels  as  were  most  agreeable  to  the  latter.  His 
sermons  were  published.    Died  in  1547. 

Longland,  written  also  Langelande,  (Robert,)  an 
early  English  poet,  a  native  of  Shropshire,  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Chaucer,  and  a  disciple  of  Wickliffe.  He 
was  the  reputed  author  of  a  celebrated  poem  called  the 


"  Visions  of  Piers  Plowman,"  (1369.)  It  is  a  satire 
directed  against  the  vices  of  the  clergy  and  other  pro- 
fessions, and  displays  considerable  fancy  and  originality. 

Long'man,  (Thomas  Norton,)  an  English  merchant 
and  publisher,  born  about  1770,  was  honourably  and 
widely  known  as  the  head  of  the  great  publishing-firm 
of  Longman  &  Company,  Paternoster  Row,  London. 
He  published  works  for  Scott,  Wordsworth,  and  Thomas 
Moore.    Died  in  1842. 

Longobardi,  lon-go-baR'dee,  (Niccol6,)  a  Jesuit, 
born  in  Sicily  in  1565.  He  went  to  China  as  a  mission- 
ary in  1596,  and  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Confucius  and  his 
Doctrine,"  ("  De  Confucio  ejusque  Doctrina  Tractatus.") 
Leibnitz  ])ublished  a  new  edition  of  this  work,  with  notes. 
Died  at  Pekin  in  1655. 

Longolius.    See  Longueil. 

Longolius,  long-go'Ie-iis,  (Johann  Daniel,)  a  Ger- 
man scientific  writer,  born  at  Meissen  in  1677  ;  died  in 
1740. 

Longolius,  (Paul  Daniel,)  a  learned  German  writer, 
born  near  Dresden  in  1704.  He  was  rector  of  the  gym- 
nasium of  Hof  for  forty-four  years,  and  was  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  "  German  Encyclopaedia,  or  Universal 
Lexicon,"  of  Zedler,  (Leipsic,  1731-50.)  He  also  pub- 
lished editions  of  Pliny  the  Younger,  and  of  Aulus 
Gellius.    Died  in  1779. 

See  G.  W.  Kirsch,  "  Vier  Programme  von  P.  D.  Longolii  Leben," 
1779-81;  "Life  of  Longolius,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Notitia  Hermuu- 
dorum  maximseque  Partis  Germaniae,"  by  Ernesti,  1793. 

Longomontan.    See  Longomontanus. 

Longomontanus,  lon'go-mon-ti'nus,  [Fr.  Longo- 
montan, 16N'go'm6N''t6N',  ]  (Christian,  )  a  Danish 
astronomer,  born  in  1562  at  Langsberg,  (Jutland,)  of 
which  place  he  assumed  the  name.  Latinizing  it,  accord- 
ing to  the  custom  of  the  time.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
poor  labourer,  whose  family  name  was  Severin.  He 
obtained  the  favour  of  Tycho  Brahe,  whom  he  assisted 
in  calculations  and  observations  at  Huen,  or  Hoene, 
from  1589  to  1597.  From  1605  to  1645  he  was  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  Academy  of  Copenhagen.  He 
died  in  1647.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "First 
Part  of  a  Mathematical  System,"  ("  Systematis  Mathema- 
tici  Pars  I.,"  161 1,)  "  Danish  Astronomy," >("  Astronomia 
Danica,"  1622,)  "Pentas  Problematum  Philosophise," 
(1623,)  and  "Invention  of  the  Quadrature  of  the  Circle." 

See  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  L.  Scavenius,  "Programma  Lon- 
gomontani." 

Longperier,  de,  deh  16N'pi're-i',  (Henri  Adrien 
Prevost,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1816, 
wrote  treatises  on  numisntatics,  etc. 

Long'street,  (Augustus  Baldwin,)  son  of  William, 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  Augusta,  Georgia,  in  1790. 
He  became  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  and  was  appointed  president  of  the  South  Caro- 
lina College  in  1857. 

Longstreet,  (James,)  an  able  American  general,  born 
in  South  Carolina  in  1821,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1842.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and 
was  breveted  major  for  his  conduct  at  Molino  del  Rey. 
In  1852  he  obtained  the  rank  of  captain.  Pie  resigned 
his  commission  about  June,  1861,  commanded  a  brigade 
in  the  Confederate  arniy  at  Bull  Run,  July  21,  and  be- 
came a  major-general  soon  after  that  date.  He  took 
part  in  the  battles  near  Richmond  in  May  and  June, 
1862,  and  commanded  the  right  wing  of  General  Lee's 
army  at  .Antietam,  September  17.  Having  been  raised 
to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  he  commanded  a  corps 
at  the  battle  of  Gettysbui-g,  July  2-3,  1863.  In  the  Sep- 
tember ensuing  he  joined  the  army  of  (General  Bragg, 
under  whom  he  served  at  Chickamauga,  September  19- 
20.  He  commanded  a  force  which  General  Bragg  sent 
against  Burnside  in  October,  1863;  and  he  attempted  to 
take  Knoxville  in  November,  without  success.  In  the 
battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  6,  1864,  he  was  wounded 
in  the  throat  by  a  ball  fired  by  a  Confederate  soldier  in 
mistake.  He  was  disabled  for  five  months  by  this 
wound. 

See  a  Memoir  of  General  J.  Longstreet  in  "Southern  Generals," 
(anonymous,)  1865. 

Longstreet,  (William,)  an  American  inventor,  born 
in  New  Jersey,  removed  to  Georgia.    He  obtained  a 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  i,  q,  obscure;  fSr,  fail,  ftt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LONG  VEIL 


LOON 


patent  for  an  improvement  in  the  cotton-gin.  Died  in 
1814. 

Longueil,  de,  deh  IdN^guI'  or  liN^guh'ye,  [Lat.  Lon- 
Go'nus,]  (Christophe,)  an  eminent  French  scholar, 
born  at  Malines  in  1490.  He  practised  law  in  Paris, 
and  was  chosen  conseiller  au  parlement.  Afterwards  he 
removed  to  Padua,  and  devoted  himself  to  literature. 
He  was  one  of  the  Latin  scholars  whose  fastidious  purity 
Erasmus  ridiculed  in  his  " Ciceronianus,"  and  who 
affected  to  use  no  terms  which  were  not  found  in  Cicero's 
works.  He  was  author  of  discourses  against  Luther,  of 
"Letters  to  Bembo  and  Sadolet,"  etc.    Died  in  1522. 

See  PoLUS,  "Vita  Longtilii :"  Paolo  Giovio,  "  Elogia  Viroruni 
illustrium;"  Nicekon,  "  Me  moires Foppens,  "  Bibliotheca  Bel- 
gica." 

Longueil,  de,  deh  \bWg\^Y,  [Lat.  Longo'lius,]  (Gil- 
bert,) a  Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1507.  He 
taught  school  at  Deventer  and  Cologne,  and  practised 
medicine.  He  published  a  "Latin-Greek  Lexicon," 
(1533,)  and  notes  on  Ovid,  Plautus,  and  Cicero.  Died 
at  Cologne  in  1543. 

Longueil,  de,  (Joseph,)  a  French  engraver,  born  at 
Givet  in  1736;  died  in  1792. 

Longuemar,  de,  deh  lixg^mtR',  (  Alphonse  le 
ToUR^:,)  a  French  geologist  and  antiquary,  born  at 
Saint- Dizier  about  1800. 

Longuerue,  de,  deh  l^Ng'rii',  (Louis  Dufour,) 
Abb^:,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  eminent  for  learning,  was 
born  at  Charleville  in  1652.  He  was  deeply  versed  in 
languages,  history,  philosophy,  etc.,  and  wrote  many 
works,  but  published  none.  His  friends,  however,  pub- 
lished for  him  an  "Essay  on  the  Antiquities  of  Chaldea 
and  Egypt,"  "Description  of  France,  Ancient  and  Mod- 
ern," (1719,)  "Annals  of  the  Arsacidae,"  (1732,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1733. 

See  MoR^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique,"  edition  of  1759;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Geiierale." 

Longueval,  l6Ng'vtK,  (Jacques,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  near  Peronne  in  1680.  He  taught  rhetoric  and 
theology  in  various  colleges,  and  was  author  of  the  first 
eight  volumes  of  a  "History  of  the  Gallican  Church," 
(1730-49,)  which  was  continued  by  Fontenay  and  others. 
Died  in  1735. 

Longueville,  liNg^v^l',  (?:dme  Paul  Marcellin,)  a 
French  Hellenist,  born  in  Paris  in  1785  ;  died  in  1855. 

Longueville,  de,  deh  16Ng\^K,  (Anne  Genevieve 
de  Bourbon  -  Conde  —  deh  booR'b^N'  k6N'dy, ) 
Duchess,  a  French  lady,  distinguished  for  beauty,  tact, 
and  talent,  was  born  at  Vincennes  in  1619.  She  was  a 
sister  of  the  great  Conde,  and  was  married  to  the  Due 
de  Longueville,  noticed  below,  in  1642.  The  enmity 
between  the  parliaments  and  Mazarin  gave  rise  to  the 
faction  or  conspiracy  of  the  Fronde,  of  which  she  became 
the  heroine.  Her  nonchalance  and  languor  were  agree- 
ably diversified  by  surprising  and  splendid  awakenings 
of  genius.  She  exercised  great  influence  over  the  chiefs 
of  the  Fronde,  and  had  a  liaison  with  La  Rochefou- 
cauld, who  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  that  party.  When 
her  husband  and  brothers  were  imprisoned  by  Mazarin 
in  1650,  she  escaped  to  Stenay,  the  head-quarters  of 
Turenne,  whom  she  induced  to  join  the  party  of  the 
Fronde.  With  his  aid  she  effected  the  release  of  her 
three  friends  in  1651,  and  returned  to  Paris  in  triumph. 
Peace  was  made  between  the  Frondeurs  and  the  court 
in  1659,  after  which  she  ceased  to  meddle  with  politics. 
She  became  devout,  and  spent  much  time  in  her  latter 
years  at  the  cloister  of  Port-Royal.  Cardinal  Mazarin 
once  said,  "  We  have  three  women  in  France  who  would 
be  competent  to  govern  or  overturn  three  great  king- 
doms, namely,  the  Duchess  de  Longueville,  the  Princess 
Palatine,  and  the  Duchess  de  Chevreuse."  Died  in  1679. 

See  BouRGoiNG  de  Vii.i.efoke.  "Vie  de  Madame  de  Longue- 
ville," 1738:  V.  CoiisiN,  "La  Jeimesse  de  Mine,  de  Longueville," 
1853:  La  Rochefoucauld,  "Menioires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^nerale." 

Longueville,  de,  (Charles  Paris  d'Orl^ans,) 
Due,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1640, 
inherited  the  brilliant  qualities  of  his  mother.  He  served 
in  the  army  of  his  uncle  the  Prince  of  Conde,  and  was 
killed  at  tne  passage  of  the  Rhine  in  1672,  when  the 
Polish  deputies  were  on  their  way  to  offer  him  the  crown 
of  Poland. 


Longueville,  de,  (Henri,)  Due,  a  French  general, 
born  in  1595,  was  the  son  of  Henri  d'Orleans,  a  prince 
of  the  blood,  and  was  a  grand-nephew  of  Henry  IV.  In 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  he  distinguished  himself  by 
military  exploits  in  Italy,  etc.  He  married  the  sister  of 
the  Prince  of  Conde  in  1642,  and  supported  the  party  of 
the  latter  in  the  time  of  the  Fronde.    Died  in  1663. 

Lon'gus,  [Aoy^of,]  a  Greek  sophist  or  author,  of  whom 
little  or  nothing  is  known.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century  of  our  era,  and  to  have  been 
the  author  of  an  ingenious  prose  romance  entitled 
Tlot/j.evtKd  ra  Kara  Au.(j)viv  kol  XXoTjv,  ("Pastorals  relating 
to  Daphnis  and  Chloe,")  sometimes  called  "Loves  of 
Daphnis  and  Chloe."  It  is  admired  for  a  charming, 
elegant  style,  and  other  literary  merits.  In  1810  Paul 
Louis  Courier  found  at  Florence  a  manuscript  of  Longus 
which  su])plied  a  hiatus  of  all  the  other  manuscripts. 
He  published  a  complete  edition  of  the  original  and  a 
corrected  edition  of  Amyot's  French  version. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca ;"  Dunlop,  " Histoiy  of 
Fiction  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generalc." 

Long'worth,  (Nicholas,)  an  American  cultivator, 
born  at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  in  1782.  Having  removed 
to  Cincinnati,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  culture  of  native 
grapes  and  the  manufacture  of  wine,  by  which  he  acquired 
an  immense  fortune.    Died  in  1863. 

Loni,  lo'nee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Florence  in  1655,  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo  Dolce.  Died 
in  1702. 

Lonicer,  lo'n!t-ser,  [Lat.  Lonice'rus,]  (Adam,)  a 
German  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Maiburg  in 
1528,  was  a  son  of  Johann,  noticed  below.  He  obtained 
in  1554  the  place  of  pensioned  physician  of  Frankfort, 
which  he  occupied  thirty-two  years.  He  published 
several  treatises  on  medicine,  and  a  Latin  work  on  Plants, 
Animals,  and  Minerals,  called  "  Naturalis  Historiae  Opus 
Novum,"  (1551-55,)  which  was  often  reprinted.  Died  in 
1586. 

His  son,  Johann  Adam,  born  in  1557,  was  a  physician 
of  Frankfort.  He  published  Latin  poems,  and  a  treatise 
on  the  chase,  called  "  Venatus  et  Aucupium." 

Lonicer,  [Lat.  Lonice''rus,]  (Johann,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  Mansfeld  in  1499.  From  1527  until  his 
death  he  was  professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  at  Mar- 
burg. He  made  good  Latin  translations  of  several  Greek 
authors,  among  whom  were  Pindar,  Isocrates,  and  De- 
mosthenes. He  was  a  friend  and  correspondent  of 
Melanchthon.    Died  in  1569. 

See  M.  Adam,  "Vitas  Philosophorum  Germanorum." 

Lonicerus.    See  Lonicer. 

Lonjumeau.    See  Gaillard  de  Lonjumeau. 

Lonnrot  or  Loennrot,  lon'rot,  (Elias,)  a  Finnish 
])hii(^logist,  born  in  the  district  of  Helsingfors  in  1802. 
He  became  a  zealous  student  of  the  national  literature 
of  Finland.  About  1835  he  discovered  and  published 
the  famous  Finnish  poem  of  "Kalevala,"  which  is  said 
to  resemble  the  "  Hiawatha"  of  Longfellow.  He  suc- 
ceeded Castren  as  professor  of  Finnish  at  Helsingfors  in 
1852,  and  published  several  collections  of  old  legends, 
proverbs,  etc.,  with  a  view  to  revive  the  use  of  the  Finn- 
ish language. 

Lons'dale,  (Henry,)  an  English  physician  and 
writer,  born  at  Carlisle  in  1816.  He  gained  distinction 
by  his  researches  in  the  toxicology  of  prussic  acid  and 
other  subjects. 

Lonsdale,  (William  Lowther,)  Earl  of,  an  Eng- 
lish peer,  born  in  1787.  He  was  postmaster-general  from 
1 841  to  1845.  and  was  lord  president  of  the  council  in 
the  cabinet  of  Lord  Derby  in  1852. 

Loo.    See  Vanloo. 

Loo'mis,  (Elias,)  an  American  astronomer  and  phy- 
sicist, born  in  Tolland  county,  Connecticut,  in  181 1, 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1830.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy  at  the  Western  Reserve 
College,  Ohio,  in  1837,  and  obtained  a  similar  chair  in 
the  New  York  University  in  1844.  He  made  valuable 
contributions  to  magnetism,  astronomy,  and  meteor- 
ology. Among  his  works  are  "  Elements  of  Natural 
Philosophy,"  and  an  "  Introduction  to  Practical  As- 
tronomy." 

Loon.    See  Van  Loon. 


•€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOON 


LOR  ED AND 


Loon,  van,  vtn  Ion,  (Thkodork,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  l^russels  about  1630.  His  design  was  correct, 
and  his  colouring  excellent.  After  working  with  Carlo 
Maratta  at  Rome,  he  returned  to  Brussels,  where  he  con- 
firmed his  rei)Utation  by  many  historical  paintings  in  the 
manner  of  Maratta.  Some  of  the  churches  of  Rome  and 
Florence  are  adorned  with  his  works.    Died  in  1678. 

Loopolof,  Loupolov,  or  Lupolow,  loo'po-lof, 
(Prascovia,)  a  Russian  heroine,  born  in  1784,  was  a 
daughter  of  an  otifiicer  exiled  to  vSiberia.  She  performed 
on  foot  the  journey  from  Tobolsk  to  Saint  Petersburg, 
and  obtained  a  pardon  for  her  father.  Her  adventures 
form  the  subject  of  Madame  Cottin's  "Elizabeth,  or  the 
Exiles  of  Siberia."    Died  in  1809. 

Loos,  16s,  [Lat.  Callid'ius,]  (Cornp:lis,)  a  Dutch 
Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Gouda  about  1545.  He 
was  persecuted  for  opposing  the  prevalent  superstitious 
notions  respecting  magic  in  his  book  "  De  vera  et  falsa 
Magia,"  ("  On  True  and  False  Magic,")  and  for  con- 
demning the  practice  of  burning  those  called  witches. 
He  wrote  other  works.    Died  in  1595. 

See  '•  Callidius,"  in  Bavle's  "Historical  and  Critical  Diction- 
ary;" NiCEKON,  "Memolres." 

Loosjcs,  los'yes,  (Adriaan,)  a  Dutch  poet  and  novel- 
ist, born  at  Haarlem  in  1 761,  was  a  dealer  in  books. 
He  passed  his  life  in  his  native  city.  Among  his  works 
are  novels  entitled  "  John  De  Witt"  (1805)  and  "Susanna 
Bronkhorst,"  (6  vols.,  1806,)  and  a  poem  called  "The 
Last  Campaign  of  De  Ruyter."    Died  in  1818. 

See  "  Hulde  aan  de  Nagedaclitenis  van  A.  Loosjes,"  by  P.  H. 
Peerlkamp,  C.  de  Koning,  a.  van  der  Willigen,  and  H.  Meijer, 
1818. 

Loots,  lots.  (CoRNELis,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Am- 
sterdam in  1774;  died  about  1850. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Lope  de  Rueda,  lo'pi  di  roo-a'ci,  a  Spanish  actor 
and  dramatic  author,  born  at  Seville  about  1500.  He 
was  the  leader  of  the  first  troupe  of  strolling  players  in 
Spain,  and  was  praised  by  Cervantes  as  an  actor  and 
writer.  His  plays  were  dialogues  between  a  few  shep- 
herds.   Died  in  1564. 

Lope  de  Vega  Carpio,  lo'pi  dk  va'gi  kaR'pe-o, 
(Felix,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  poet  and  dramatist,  born 
at  Madrid  on  the  25th  of  November,  1562,  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Cervantes  and  Shakspeare.  His  father 
was  a  hidalgo,  (gentleman,)  but  rather  poor.  Felix  began 
to  write  verses  in  early  childhood,  and  composed  dramas 
about  the  age  of  twelve.  While  a  student  at  the  Uni- 
.versity  of  Alcala,  he  found  a  powerful  patron  in  the 
Duke  of  Alva,  whose  service  he  entered,  and  at  whose 
request  he  wrote  his  "  Arcadia,"  a  pastoral  heroic  poem, 
which  first  revealed  his  superior  genius.  It  was  first 
printed  in  1598,  though  finished  many  years  earlier.  He 
quitted  the  service  of  Alva,  and  married  Dona  Isabel 
de  Urbino.  Having  in  a  duel  wounded  his  antagonist, 
he  fled  from  Madrid,  and  passed  a  few  years  in  Valencia. 

His  grief  for  the  death  of  his  wife  is  assigned  as  his 
motive  for  becoming  a  soldier.  In  1588  he  enlisted  as 
a  private  volunteer,  and,  with  ardent  zeal  for  what  he 
deemed  a  holy  cause,  took  part  in  the  expedition  of  the 
Invincible  Armada,  during  which  he  wrote  his  admired 
poem  the  "  Beauty  of  Angelica,"  ("  Hermosura  de  An- 
gelica,") a  continuation  of  Ariosto's  "Orlando."  Re- 
nouncing martial  pursuits  in  1590,  he  returned  to  Madrid, 
where  he  began  to  write  for  the  stage,  and  by  his  mar- 
vellous fertility  of  invention  rapidly  acquired  fame  and 
affluence.  He  required  only  a  single  day  to  compose  a 
versified  drama.  This  astonishing  facility  enabled  him 
to  produce  two  thousand  original  dramas,  consisting  of 
spiritual  jjlays,  historical  comedies,  and  dramas  of  in- 
trigue, called  De  Capa  y  Espada,  ("Of  the  Cloak  and 
Sword,")  which  were  performed  with  immense  applause. 
There  is  scarcely  an  example  on  record  of  an  equal 
popularity.  His  name  became  a  synonym  for  the  super- 
lative degree,  and  it  was  the  fashion  to  say  a  Lope  dia- 
mond, a  Lope  dress,  etc.,  to  express  the  splendour  or 
perfection  of  those  articles.  He  was  styled  the  "Centre 
of  Fame,"  the  "  Darling  of  Fortune,"  the  "  Phoenix  of 
Ages,"  etc.  Among  his  dramas  we  may  mention  "The 
Beautiful  Deformed,"  ("La  Hermosa  fea," )  "The 
Prude,"  ("La  Dama  melindrosa,")  "The  Certain  fori 


the  Doubtful,"  ("  Lo  Cierto  por  lo  Dudoso,")  and  "Es- 
trella  de  Sevilla,"  or  "  Don  Sancho  Ortiz."  In  richness 
of  invention,  vivacity  of  dialogue,  and  variety  of  ideas 
he  is  perhaps  unsurpassed  by  any  dramatist.  For  the 
sake  of  trying  the  public  taste,  he  published,  without 
his  naine,  a  poem  entitled  "  Soliloquies  on  God,"  which 
was  received  with  much  favour.  After  the  death  of  his 
second  wife  he  became  a  priest,  (1609,)  but  continued  to 
write  for  the  stage.  He  also  wrote  epic  poems,  entitled 
"Circe,"  "Andromeda,"  and  "Jerusalem  Delivered," 
which  are  considered  much  inferior  to  his  dramas.  Died 
in  1635.  (^o''  some  very  interesting  remarks  on  Lope  de 
Vega,  particularly  in  reference  to  the  marvellous  fertility 
of  his  genius,  see  Prescott's  "  Miscellanies,"  pp.  137-139.) 

See  MoNTALVAN,  "  Kama  iiosthiiina  a  la  Vida  y  Muerte  del  Lope 
de  Vega  Carpio,"  Madrid,  1636;  Lord  Holland,  "Some  Account 
of  the  Life  of  Lope  de  Vega  Carpio,"  1817  ;  Larramendi,  "  Planto 
funebre  en  la  Muerte  de  L.  F.  de  Vega  Carpio,"  1635:  Ticknor, 
"History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  His- 
pana  Nova;"  Sedano,  "  Parnaso  Espanol ;"  Fauriel,  "  Lope  de 
Vega,"  in  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  September  i,  1830,  and 
September  15,  1843;  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;" 
Enk  von  der  Burg,  "  Studien  iiber  Lope  de  Vega,"  Vienna,  1839; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lopes,  lo'p^s,  (Fernando,)  a  Portuguese  historian, 
born  about  1380 ;  died  in  1449. 

Lopez.    See  Ayala,  de,  Gomara,  and  Castanheda. 

Lopez,  lo'i^^th,  (Alonzo,)  a  Spanish  critic,  born  at 
Valladolid.  He  practised  medicine  with  such  success 
that  he  received  the  title  of  physician  to  Maria  of  Castile, 
daughter  of  Charles  V.  He  published  in  1596  "Ancient 
Poetical  Philosophy,"  ("  Philosophia  antiqua  poetica.") 

Lopez,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  artist,  who  became 
painter  to  Philip  III.  about  1602,  and  adorned  the  Prado 
with  frescos.    He  was  living  in  1638. 

Lopez,  lo'pes  or  lo'pSth,  (Don  Francisco  Solano,) 
an  able  South  American  general  and  political  leader, 
born  about  1826.  He  was  elected  in  September,  1862, 
President  of  Paraguay,  as  the  successor  of  his  father, 
Don  Carlos  Lopez.  He  declared  war  against  Brazil  in 
1865,  and  ct)mmanded  his  army  in  person  with  various 
success.    He  was  killed  in  battle  or  retreat  in  March,  1870. 

Lopez,  (I AGO  or  Diego,)  a  Spanissh  painter,  born  at 
Toledo  about  1465  ;  died  about  1530. 

Lopez,  (Don  Joaquin  Maria,)  an  able  and  eloquent 
Spanish  statesman,  born  at  Villena  in  1802,  was  a  zeal- 
ous adherent  of  the  constitutional  party.  In  1836  he 
became  minister  of  the  interior  under  Calatrava.  He 
resigned  in  March,  1837.  He  was  prime  minister  for  a 
short  time  in  1843. 

Lopez,  (Jos6,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Seville 
about  1650,  was  a  pupil  of  Murillo. 

Lopez,  lo'p^s  or  lo'p^th,  (Narcisso,)  an  American 
revolutionist  or  filibuster,  born  in  Venezuela  in  1799. 
He  served  some  time  as  an  ofiicer  in  the  Spanish  army, 
and  in  1849  organized  in  the  United  States  an  expedition 
for  the  conquest  of  Cuba,  which  failed.  He  renewed  the 
enterprise  in  August,  1 851,  was  captured,  and  garroted 
at  Havana  the  same  year, 

Lopez,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  painter,  was  a  pupil  of 
Greco.  His  chief  work  is  the  "Adoration  of  the  Magi," 
(dated  1608,)  at  Toledo,  which  is  much  admired. 

Lopez  de  Lerena,  lo'pith  dk  li-ra'nl,  (Don  Pedro,) 
a  Spanish  financier,  born  at  Val  de  Moro  in  1734.  He 
was  appointed  in  1785  secretary  of  state  for  the  finances, 
which  he  managed  with  success  until  his  death,  in  1792. 

Loqm^n.    See  Lokman. 

Lorch,  loRK,  written  also  Lorich,  (Melchior,)  a 
Danish  painter  and  eminent  engraver,  born  in  Sleswick 
in  1527.  He  visited  many  foreign  countries,  and  died  in 
Rome  in  1586.  Among  his  works  are  engravings  of 
Luther,  of  Albert  Diirer,  and  of  the  Deluge. 

Lord,  (Nathan,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Berwick,  Maine,  in  1792.  He  graduated 
at  Bowdoin,  and  in  1828  became  president  of  Dartmouth 
College.   Died  in  1870. 

Lordon,  loR'd^N',  (Pierre  Jerome,)  a  French  histori- 
cal painter,  born  in  1780,  worked  in  Paris.    Died  in  1838. 

Loredano,  lo-ri-d^'no,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  a 
mediocre  Italian  poet  and  litterateur,  born  at  Venice  in 
1606.  He  became  a  senator,  and  obtained  other  high 
offices.  About  1630  he  founded  the  academy  of  the  In- 
cogniti.    He  wrote  numerous  works  inverse  and  prose, 


ii  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  nigt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LOREDANO 


1453 


LORRAINE 


among  which  are  "The  Agreeable  Jests,"  ("Gli  Scherzi 
geniali,"  1632,)  "  L'lliade  giocosa,"  a  burlesque  of  the 
"Iliad,"  (1654,)  and  "Amorous  Tales."    Died  in  1661. 

See  A.  Liipis,  "Vita  di  G.  F.  Loredano,"  1663;  G.  Brunacci, 
"Vita  di  G.  F.  Loredano,  Senatore  Veneto,"  1662. 

Loredano,  (Leonardo,)  was  Doge  of  Venice  from 
1501  until  1521,  when  he  died,  at  the  age  of  ninety.  His 
administration  was  disturbed  by  the  wars  which  were 
consequent  on  the  League  of  Cambray,  and  was  a  period 
of  disaster  to  the  republic.  He  waged  war  against  a 
powerful  coalition  consisting  of  France,  Germany,  and 
the  pope.    He  was  one  of  the  greatest  doges  of  Venice. 

Lorentz,  lo'r^nts,  (Johann  Frieorich,)  a  German 
mathematician,  born  at  Halle  in  1738;  died  in  1807. 

Lorentz  or  Lorenz,  \o\h's\  (Joseph  Adam,)  a 
French  surgeon,  born  in  Alsace  in  1734;  died  in  1801. 

Lorenz.    See  Lorenzo  and  Lawrence. 

Lorenz,  lo'r^nts  or  lo'rSN',  (Jean  Michel,)  a  French 
historical  writer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1723,  became  pro- 
fessor of  history  in  his  native  city,  and  of  eloquence  in 
1784.  He  published,  (in  Latin,)  besides  other  works  of 
merit,  a  "  Life  of  Saint  Paul,"  ("  Annales  Paulini,"  1769,) 
a  "  History  of  Ancient  Gaul,"  and  "  Rudiments  of  Ger- 
man History,"  (1776.)    Died  in  1801. 

See  MM.  Haag,  "  La  France  protestante." 

Lorenzetti,  lo-r^n-zet'tee,  or  Lorenzetto,  \o-xln- 
zet'to,  (Ambrogio,)  sometimes  called  Ambrogio  di 
Lorenzo,  an  old  Italian  painter,  born  at  Sienna  about 
1260,  was  a  pupil  of  his  father  Lorenzo,  and  was  a 
brother  of  Pietro.  His  birth  is  variously  dated  about 
1257,  1277,  and  1300.  Ambrogio  and  Pietro  worked 
together  in  Sienna,  and  were  among  the  greatest  artists 
of  their  time.  The  works  of  Ambrogio  are  nearly  all 
destroyed  ;  but  some  of  his  frescos  are  still  visible  in 
Sienna.  He  was,  says  Vasari,  universally  admired.  Died 
in  1340,  1348,  or  1360. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lifes  of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  Baldinucci,  "  Notizie." 

Lorenzetti,  (Pietro,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
worked  in  Sienna,  Florence,  Rome,  and  Pisa,  and,  ac- 
cording to  Vasari,  surpassed  Cimabue  and  Giotto.  In 
the  Catnpo  Santo  of  Pisa  is  preserved  his  picture  repre- 
senting the  "  Life  of  the  Fathers  in  the  Desert,"  in  fresco. 
He  painted  several  Madonnas,  which  have  been  de- 
stroyed. He  is  sometimes  called  Laurati.  His  last 
works  are  dated  1355. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Lorenzetto.    See  Campanato. 

Lorenzi,  lo-r^n'zee,  (Hartoi.ommeo,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  Jesuit,  born  near  Verona  in  1732,  had  an  excellent 
talent  for  improvisation.    Died  in  1822. 

Lorenzi,  (Battista,)  an  Italian  sculptor  and  engraver, 
born  in  Tuscany  in  1528;  died  in  1593. 

Lorenzi,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Verona  in  1719  ;  died  in  1783. 

Lorenzi,  (Stot.do  di  Gino,  stolMo  de  jee'no,)  an 
Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Settignano  about  1540. 

Lorenzini,  lo-r^n-zee'nee,  (Franc?:sco  Maria,)  an 
Italian  poet,  born  in  Rome  in  1680.  He  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  poet,  and  was  remarkable  for  the 
energy  of  his  style.  In  1728  he  succeeded  Crescimbeni 
as  president  of  the  Academy  of  Arcades.  He  was  the 
author  of  satires,  epigrams,  dramas,  and  other  poems  in 
Italian  and  Latin,    \y\td  in  1743. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vitae  Italoriim." 

Lorenzini,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1665.  He  engraved  the  works  of 
Andrea  del  Sarto  and  other  Italian  masters.  Died  in  1 740. 

Lorenzini,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  geometer,  born  at 
Florence  in  1652.  For  some  political  offence  he  was 
imprisoned  at  Volterra  twenty  years,  ending  about  1700, 
and  in  this  period  wrote  an  able  work  on  conic  sections. 
Died  in  1721. 

Lorenzo.    See  Lawrence,  Saint. 

Lorenzo  de'  Medici.    See  Medici. 

Lorenzo  the  Magnificent.  See  Medici,  (Lo- 
renzo de'.) 

Loret,  k/ri',  (Jean,)  a  French  rhymer,  born  in  Nor- 
mandy. He  began  to  issue  in  1650  a  weekly  newspaper, 
called  "Gazette  en  Verses  burlesques,"  which  was  very 


successful.  From  1656  to  1665  it  was  published  under 
the  title  of  "Muse  historique."    Died  about  1665. 

Lorge,  loRzh,  (Jean  Thomas  Guillaume,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Caen  in  1767  ;  died  in  1826. 

Lorges.    See  Durfort,  de,  (Gui  Alphonse.) 

Lorgna,  loRn'yS,  (Antonio  Maria,)  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Verona  about  1734.  After  obtaining 
the  rank  of  colonel  of  engineers,  he  became  professor 
in  the  military  school  of  Verona.  He  had  the  reputation 
of  being  one  of  the  best  geometers  of  Italy.  Died  in 
1796.  Among  his  works  are  treatises  on  Statics  and 
Mechanics,  and  "Essays  on  Mathematics  and  Physics," 
("Opuscula  Mathemat'ica  et  Physica,"  1770.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Loria,  di,  de  lo're-S,  or  Lauria,  low're-i,  (Roger,) 
an  able  Italian  admiral,  born  at  Loria,  (or  Lauria.)  In 
1282,  as  admiral  of  Peter  II.,  King  of  Aragon  and  Sicily, 
he  defeated  the  fleet  of  Charles  I.  of  Naples  near  Mes- 
sina. He  gained  a  naval  victory  over  the  French  near 
Barcelona  in  1285,  and  another  over  the  Neapolitans 
before  Castellamare  in  1287.  Having  entered  into  the 
service  of  Jayme  of  Aragon,  he  defeated  the  Sicilian 
fleet  at  Cape  Orlando  in  1299,  and  again  in  1300.  Died 
in  1305.  Sismondi  considers  him  the  greatest  admiral 
that  Italy  has  produced. 

See  QiiiNTANA,  "Lives  of  Celebrated  Spaniards;"  Sismondi, 
"  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes;"  Giovanni  Villani,  "  Isto- 
rie  Florentine." 

Lorichon,  lo're'sh^N',  (Antoine  Constant  Louis,) 
a  PVench  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1800. 

Lorieux,  lo're-uh',  (Auguste  Julien  Marie,)  a 
French  writer  and  lawyer,  born  at  Croisic  in  1797.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Charles  X.,"  and  a 
"  Treatise  on  the  Royal  Prerogative  in  France  and  Eng- 
land," (1840.)    Died  in  1842. 

Lorin,  lo'r^N',  (Jean,)  a  French  theologian,  born  at 
Avignon  in  1559;  died  in  1634. 

Lo'ring,  (William  W.,)  an  American  major-general, 
born  in  North  Carolina  about  181 5.  He  took  arms 
against  the  Union  in  1 861,  and  was  employed  in  the 
defence  of  Vicksburg  in  the  spring  of  1863. 

Lorinser,  lo'rin-ser,  (Karl  Ignaz,)  a  German  medi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Nimes,  in  Bohemia,  in  1796;  died  in 
1853- 

Loriot,  lo'reV,  (Antoine  Joseph,)  a  French  me- 
chanician, born  near  Pontarlier  in  1716.  He  gained  a 
wide  reputation  by  his  ingenious  and  useful  inven- 
tions, among  which  were  a  loom  for  ribbons,  machines 
for  working  mines,  and  a  new  mortar  or  water-proof 
cement  which  bears  his  name.    Died  in  1782. 

Loriot,  (Pierre,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Salins,  be- 
came professor  of  law  at  Leipsic  in  1550;  died  about 
1568. 

Loriquet,  lo're'ki',  (Jean  Nicolas,)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  historical  writer,  born  at  ^fipernay  in  1760.  He 
published  many  school-books  in  which  history  was  ex- 
purgated or  falsified  to  promote  sectarian  and  partisan 
opinions.  He  stated  in  one  of  his  works  that  "In  1809 
the  Marquis  of  Bonaparte,  as  lieutenant-general  of  the 
King  of  France,  entered  Vienna  at  the  head  of  an  army." 
Died  in  1845. 

Loritz.    See  Glareanus. 

Lorme,  de.    See  Delorme. 

Lorn,  Lord.  See  Campbell,  (Archibald,)  Marquis 
of  Argyle. 

Lorrain,  (Claude.)    See  Claude  Lorrain. 

Lorrain,  Le,  (Robert.)    See  Lelorrain. 

Lorraine.  See  Charles  II.,  Charles  IIL,  Fran- 
cis I.,  Guise,  Harcourt,  (Henry,)  and  Mayenne. 

Lorraine,  lor-ran'  or  lo'rin',  (Antoine,)  Duke  of, 
the  son  of  l\ene  II.,  was  born  at  Bar-le-Duc  in  1489. 
He  succeeded  his  father  in  1508,  and  married  Renee  de 
Bourbon,  a  French  lady.  He  maintained  a  neutrality  in 
the  war  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.,  and  reigned 
mostly  in  peace,  except  some  bloody  contests  with  the 
German  Protestants.  He  died  in  1544,  leaving  the  duchy 
to  his  son,  Francis  II. 

Lorraine,  Cardinal.    See  Guise,  (Charles  de.) 

Lorraine,  k/ran',  (Charles  IV.,)  Duke  of,  the  son 
of  Fran9ois,  Comte  de  Vaudemont,  was  born  in  1604,  and 
succeeded  his  uncle  Henry  (whose  daughter  he  had  mar- 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  yl, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LORRAINE 


H54 


LOTARIO 


ried)  in  1624.  Louis  XIII.  of  France  invaded  Lorraine 
in  1632,  and  took  without  much  resistance  Nancy  (the 
capital)  and  several  fortresses.  In  the  Thirty  Years' 
war,  which  began  about  1620,  Charles  fought  for  the 
German  empire,  contributed  to  the  victory  over  the 
Swedes  at  Nordlingen  in  1634,  and  as  an  ally  of  Spain 
fought  against  the  French  in  several  ensuing  campaigns. 
By  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  (1659)  Lorraine  was  re- 
stored to  him,  but  France  retained  the  duchy  of  Bar.  In 
1662  he  appointed  Louis  XIV.  his  heir,  but  soon  took 
arms  against  him,  and  became  a  general  in  the  imperial 
army.    Died  in  1675. 

See  DoM  Calmkt,  "  Histoire  de  Lorraine;"  C.  A.  Ri^gin,  "  His- 
toire  Hes  Duches  de  Lorraine  et  Bar,"  1834  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Lorraine,  (Charles  V.,)  Duke  of,  an  able  general 
and  statesman,  born  at  Vienna  in  1643,  ^'^^  the  nephew 
of  the  preceding.  He  was  the  son  of  Francis,  (a  brother 
of  Charles  IV.)  At  the  death  of  Charles  IV.  the  duke- 
dom was  claimed  by  the  subject  of  this  article,  and  by 
the  French  king,  who  had  possession  ;  but  Charles  was 
recognized  as  duke  by  the  other  powers  of  Europe. 
Having  entered  the  Austrian  service,  he  was  made  a 
general  in  1672,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Senef  in 
1675.  His  reign  over  Lorraine  was  only  nominal.  He 
was  chosen  generalissimo  of  the  imperial  army  in  1676. 
In  1678  he  married  a  sister  of  the  Austrian  emperor,  and 
was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Nymwegen  to  his  duchy, 
with  the  condition  of  ceding  Nancy  to  France  ;  but  he 
refused  to  accept  these  terms.  He  rendered  signal 
services  to  Austria  in  the  war  against  the  Turks  which 
began  in  1683,  and  commanded  a  corps  against  the 
French  in  1689.  He  died  in  1690,  leaving  his  title  to  his 
son,  Leopold  I. 

See  Jean  de  la  Brune,  "-Vie  de  Charles  V,"  1691  ;  C.  Frks- 
CHOT,  "Vita  di  Caroli  V.,"  1692  ;  Dufont,  "  Abreg^  historique  de  la 
Vie  de  Charles  V,"  1701. 

Lorraine,  (Henri,)  Duke  of,  surnamed  the  Good, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1563,  was  the  son  of  Charles  III.  and 
Claude,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  France.  He  married 
Catherine  de  Bourbon,  a  sister  of  King  Henry  IV.,  and 
in  1608  succeeded  his  father.  He  died  in  1624,  leaving 
the  duchy  to  his  nephew,  Charles  IV. 

Lorraine,  (Leopold  I.,)  Duke  of,  born  at  Innspruck 
in  1679,  was  the  son  of  Charles  V.  By  the  treaty  of 
Ryswick,  in  1697,  he  recovered  Lorraine,  with  the  con- 
dition that  he  should  not  repair  the  dismantled  forts  nor 
keep  an  army.  He  married  Elizabeth  Charlotte,  niece 
of  Louis  XIV.  He  showed  himself  a  wise  ruler,  and 
improved  the  condition  of  his  dominions,  which  had  been 
desolated  by  long  wars.  In  reference  to  him,  Voltaire 
says,  "One  of  the  petty  sovereigns  of  Europe  has  done 
the  most  good  to  his  people."  He  died  in  1729,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Francis,  who  married  Maria 
Theresa  of  Austria,  and  exchanged  Lorraine  for  Tuscany. 
He  was  the  last  Duke  of  Lorraine. 

Lorraine,  (Ren6  II.,)  Duke  of,  born  in  1451,  be- 
came duke  in  1473.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of 
Rene  of  Anjou,  and  heiress  of  the  duchy  of  Lorraine.  His 
dominions  having  been  invaded  by  Charles  the  Bold  of 
Burgundy,  Rene,  with  his  Swiss  allies,  defeated  Charles 
at  Morat  in  1476.  The  next  year  he  gained  another 
famous  victory  near  Nancy,  where  Charles  was  killed  in 
battle.  He  formed  an  alliance  with  Venice,  and  in  1480 
was  appointed  captain-general  of  that  republic;  but  on 
the  death  of  Louis  XI.  of  France  he  left  the  service 
of  Venice  to  urge  his  claims  to  Anjou  and  Provence, 
which  he  failed  to  obtain.  He  died  in  1508,  leaving  two 
sons,  Antoine,  who  was  his  heir,  and  Claude,  the  first 
Duke  of  Guise. 

See  DoM  Cai.met,  "Histoire  de  Lorraine." 

Lorrain,  de,  (Charles  I.)  See  Charles  de  France. 
Lorraine,  de,  (Charles  II.)  See  Charles  II.,  Duke 
of  Lorraine. 

Lorraine,  de,  (Charles  III.)  See  Charles  III., 
called  THE  Great. 

Lorraine,  de,  deh  lor-ran',  (Charles,)  an  Austrian 
general,  called  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine,  born  at 
Luneville  in  1712,  was  the  second  son  of  Duke  Leopold 
I.,  and  a  brother  of  Francis  I.  of  Austria.  He  commanded 
the  Austrians  in  the  war  between  Maria  Theresa  and 
Frederick  the  Great,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  at  Czas- 


lau  in  1742.  In  1744  he  forced  Frederick  to  evacuate 
Bohemia,  married  a  sister  of  Maria  Theresa,  and  was 
appointed  Governor  of  the  Low  Countries.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Seven  Years'  war  he  was  commander  of 
the  Austrians,  and  gained  a  victory  over  the  Prussians 
at  Breslau  in  1757  ;  but,  having  been  completely  defeated 
in  the  great  battle  of  Leuthen,  in  the  same  year,  he  re- 
signed his  command.    Died  in  1780. 

Lorraine,  de,  (Francois,)  grand-prieur  of  France, 
was  born  in  1534,  and  was  a  son  of  the  Duke  of  Guise. 
After  serving  with  distinction  in  naval  war  against  the 
Turks,  he  was  made  general  of  the  galleys,  and  com- 
manded several  expeditions.    Died  in  1563. 

Lorris,  de,  deh  lo'r^ss',  (Guillaume,)  a  mediaeval 
French  bard,  born  at  Lorris,  on  the  Loire.  He  was  the 
author  of  the  "Romance  of  the  Rose,"  ("Roman  de  la 
Rose,")  a  remarkable  poem,  which  had  a  great  influence 
on  French  literature.  The  subject  is  the  art  of  love,  and 
is  treated  in  an  agreeable  style.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
died  about  1240. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Lorry,  lo're',  (Anne  Charles,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Crosne  in  1726.  He  practised  in  Paris,  and 
attained  the  highest  rank  in  his  profession.  He  became 
docteur-regent  oi the  faculty,  and  attended  Louis  XV.  in  his 
last  illness.  He  published  a  valuable  treatise  "  On  Cuta- 
neous Diseases,"  (1777;)  also  an  edition  of  the  "Apho- 
risms" of  Hippocrates,  and  other  wciks.    Died  in  1783. 

See  Vicq-d'Azvr,  "  fiioge  de  Lorry;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Lort,  (Michael,)  an  English  writer  on  theology,  born 
in  1725.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge 
about  1759.    Died  in  1790. 

Lortic,  loR't^k',  (Andr6,)  a  French  Protestant  min- 
ister and  writer,  born  at  Saintonge,  lived  between  1650 
and  1700.    Died  in  London. 

Lortzing,  loRt'sing,  (Albert  August,)  a  German 
composer,  born  in  Berlin  in  1803;  died  in  1851. 

Losada,  1o-s3.'dS,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  officer,  who 
conquered  the  native  tribes  of  Venezuela,  and  founded 
Santiago  de  Leon.    Died  in  1569. 

Losana,  lo-si'ni,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  priest,  born 
in  Piedmont  in  1738.  He  published  useful  treatises  on 
rural  economy,  insects,  etc.    Died  in  1833. 

Lo.scher  or  Loescher,  lo'sher,  (Valentin  Ernst,) 
a  German  theologian,  born  at  Sondershausen  in  1672. 
He  taught  theology  at  Wittenberg  for  many  years,  and 
published  there  a  monthly  journal  of  theology  and  lite- 
rature, (1701-20,)  which  had  great  success.  Died  ih  1749. 

Loschge,  losh'geh,  (Friedrich  Heinrich,)  a  Ger- 
man physician  and  writer,  born  at  Anspach  in  1 755; 
died  in  1840. 

Losel  or  Loesel,  lo'zel,  (Johann,)  a  German  bota- 
nist, born  at  Brandenburg  in  1607.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  and  botany  at  Konigsberg,  and  died 
in  1656,  leaving  in  manuscript  a  "  Flora  Prussica," — a 
mere  catalogue  of  plants, — which  Gottsched  published 
in  1703. 

Losenko,  lo-sgn'ko,  written  also  Lossenko,  (Ivan,) 
an  eminent  Russian  painter,  born  about  1720.  He  was 
director  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Saint 
Petersburg.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Parting  of  Hec- 
tor and  Andromache."    Died  in  1773. 

Los'sing,  (Benson  John,)  an  American  historian  and 
engraver,  born  in  Dutchess  county.  New  York,  in  1813. 
He  published  numerous  illustrated  works,  most  of  which 
have  enjoyed  a  great  and  deserved  popularity.  Among 
the  most  important  are  "The  Pictorial  Field-Book  of 
the  Revolution,"  (2  vols.,  1850-52,)  "  The  Life  and  Times 
of  Philip  Schuyler,"  (2  vols.,  i860,)  a  "Life  of  Washing- 
ton," (3  vols.,  i860,)  and  a  "  Pictorial  History  of  the 
Civil  War  in  the  United  States,"  (3  vols.,  1866-69.) 

Lossiiis,  los'se-us,  (Lucas,)  a  German  musician  and 
writer,  born  at  Vach  in  1508;  died  in  1582. 

Lot,  [Heb.  £3lS ;  Fr.  Loth,  lot,]  a  Hebrew  patriarch, 
who  lived  about  1900  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Haran,  and 
nephew  of  Abraham.  He  resided  in  Sodom  until  he 
was  warned  by  angels  of  its  impending  destruction. 

See  Genesis  xi.,  xii.,  xiii.,  xix.  ;  IL  Peter  ii.  7. 

Lotario.    See  Lothaire  I. 


i,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


LOTEN 


H55 


LOUDON 


Loten,  lo'ten,  (John  or  Jacob,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  who  excelled  in  wild,  rocky  scenery,  and  storms. 
He  worked  mostly  in  England,  where  he  died  in  i68l. 

Loth.    See  Lot. 

Loth,  lot,  or  Loti,  lo'tee,  [in  Italian,  Lotti,]  (Johann 
Karl,)  a  German  painter,  born  at  Munich  in  1632.  He 
acquired  a  high  rank  among  the  realists,  whom  the  Ital- 
ians call  "Naturalist!."  Among  his  chief  works  are 
"The  Death  of  Abel,"  and  a  "Nativity."  He  received 
the  title  of  first  painter  to  the  emperor  Leopold  I.  Died 
at  Venice  in  1698. 

Lothaire,  lo-thair',  [Fr.  pron.  lo'tSR' ;  Lat.  Lotha'- 
Rius  ;  Ger.  LoTHAR,  lo-tiR' ;  It.  Lotarto,  lo-ti're-o,]  L, 
Emperor  of  the  West  or  of  Rome,  born  about  795  A.D., 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire.  His  father  as- 
sociated him  with  himself  in  the  empire  in  817,  and  made 
him  King  of  Italy  in  822.  Pepin  and  Louis,  brothers  of 
Lothaire,  received  respectively  Aquitaine  and  Germany. 
At  the  death  of  his  father,  in  840,  he  claimed  supremacy 
as  emperor  ;  but  his  brothers,  Louis  the  Germanic  and 
Charles  the  Bald,  united  to  dispute  his  title,  and  defeated 
him  at  the  great  battle  of  Fontanet,  (now  Fontenailles,)  in 
841.  By  the  treaty  of  Verdun  (843)  Lothaire  retained 
Italy,  with  some  provinces  of  France.  His  capital  was 
Aix-la-Chapelle.  He  died  in  855  a.d.,  leaving  three  sons, 
Louis,  Charles,  and  Lothaire,  among  whom  the  empire 
was  divided. 

See  AsTRONOMUs,  "Vita  Ludovici  Pii ;"  Fauriel,  " Histoire  de 
la  Gaule  meridionale,"  tome  iv.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Lothaire  [Lat.  Lotha'rius  ;  Ger.  Lothar]  IL  or 
IIL,  Emperor  of  Germany,  sometimes  called  Lothaire 
OF  Saxony,  was  born  in  1075.  He  was  the  son  of  Geb- 
hard,  Count  of  Arnsberg.  After  the  death  of  Henry 
V.  he  was  elected  emperor,  in  1125.  Conrad,  Duke 
of  Franconia,  protested  against  the  election,  and  was 
crowned  at  Milan  by  his  partisans.  About  1132  Lothaire 
marched  to  Rome  and  restored  Pope  Innocent  II.,  who 
had  been  expelled  by  his  rival  Anaclete.  He  was 
crowned  at  Rome  by  Innocent,  and  performed  acts  of 
homage  to  the  pope  which  were  afterwards  cited  as  an 
evidence  that  the  empire  was  a  fief  of  the  Roman  See. 
He  died  in  1137,  and  Conrad  III.,  above  named,  became 
emperor.  In  the  reign  of  Lothaire  the  Diet  of  the  empire 
asserted  its  exclusive  right  to  impose  taxes  and  make 
war  or  peace. 

See  Gervais,  "Geschichte  Deutschlands  unter  Kaiser  Heinrich 
V.  iind  Lothar  III.,"  2  vols.,  1S42;  Mascov,  "  Commentarii  de 
Rebus  Imperii  Romaiio-Germanici  sub  Lothario  II.,"  lys.l ;  Jaffe, 
"Geschichte  des  Deutschen  Reiches  unter  Lothar  von  Sachsen," 
1841. 

Lothaire,  lo-thair'or  Io'iSr',  King  of  France,  the  son 
of  Louis  d'Outremer,  was  born  in  941  a.d.,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  954.  His  reign  was  disturbed  by 
contests  with  powerful  vassals,  among  whom  was  Hugh 
Capet,  and  he  waged  war  with  Otho  II.  of  Germany.  He 
died  in  986,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  V. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lothaire,  King  of  Italy,  was  the  son  of  Hugh  of 
Provence,  who  admitted  him  to  a  share  of  the  royal 
power  in  931.  He  reigned  alone  a  few  years,  and  died 
in  950,  leaving  an  only  child,  Emma,  who  was  married  to 
Lothaire  of  France.    His  successor  was  Berenger  II. 

Lothaire,  King  of  Lorraine,  was  the  second  son  of 
the  eni|)eror  Lothaire  I.  In  855  he  inherited  the  country 
situated  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Meuse,  which  was 
called  Lotharingia, — Gallice  Lorraine.  He  weakened  the 
royal  power  by  yielding  to  the  encroachments  of  the 
clergy,  and  by  other  impolitic  measures.  Died  in  869  A.D. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lothar.    See  Lothaire. 

Lotharius.    See  Lothaire. 

Lotharius,  Cardinal.    See  Innocent  III. 

Lotich,  lo'tiK,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  German  physician 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Nauheim  in  1598,  was  a  nephew 
of  Peter,  noticed  below.  He  lived  at  Frankfort,  where 
he  died  in  1669.  He  was  the  author  of  Latin  epigrams 
and  of  several  historical  and  medical  works. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires." 

Lotich,  [Lat.  Lotich'ius,]  (Peter,)  a  celebrated 
German  poet,  born  at  Schluchtern,  Hesse-Cassel,  in 
1528,  was  called  Secundus,  to  distinguish  him  from  his 


uncle  of  the  same  name.  He  fought  for  the  Protestant 
League  of  Schmalkalden,  and  afterwards  entered  the 
civil  service  of  the  Elector-Palatine.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Heidelberg  in  1557,  and  died  in 
1560.  He  owes  his  fame  to  Latin  elegies  and  other 
poems,  (1551,)  which  were  highly  praised  by  eminent 
critics.  "Lotich,"  says  Hallam,  "is  a  very  elegant  and 
classical  versifier,  and  perhaps  equal  in  elegy  to  any 
Cisalpine  writer  of  the  sixteenth  century."  ("  Intro- 
duction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Johann  Hagrn,  "Vita  Petri  Lotichii  Secundi,"  1586;  Nic^- 
RON,  "  Memoires;"  M.  Adam,  "Vitse  Germanorum  Philosophorum, " 

Lotichius.    See  Lotich,  (Peter.) 

Lotteri,  lot-ta'ree,  (Angelo  Luigi,)  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician, born  in  the  Milanese  in  1760.  Among  his 
works  is  "The  Principles  of  the  Differential  and  Integral 
Calculus,"  (1788.)    Died  at  Milan  in  1839. 

Lotti.    See  Loth. 

Lotti,  lot'tee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  composer,  born 
at  Venice  about  1665  ;  died  in  1740. 

Lotti,  (Cosimo,)  a  Florentine  painter  and  architect, 
was  noted  for  mechanical  ingenuity,  and  made  several 
automata  at  Florence.  About  1628  he  was  invited  by 
Philip  IV.  to  Madrid,  where  he  built  the  theatre  Buen 
Retiro. 

Lottin,  lo't^N',  (Augustin  Martin,)  a  French  book- 
seller, born  in  Paris  in  1726.  He  published  a  "Return 
from  Saint-Cloud  by  Land  and  Sea,"  a  facetious  work. 
Died  in  1793. 

Lotto,  lot'to,  (Lorenzo,)  an  excellent  Italian  painter, 
was  born  at  Venice  about  1490.  He  worked  chiefly  at 
Bergamo,  and  had  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the 
best  painters  of  the  Venetian  school.  Among  his  master- 
pieces are  several  Madonnas  at  Bergamo.  His  first 
works  are  dated  about  1515,  and  his  last  about  1560. 
"His  master-pieces,"  says  Lanzi,  "place  him  almost  on 
a  level  with  the  first  luminaries  of  the  art." 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting 
in  Italy;"  Ridolfi,  "  Vite  degli  illustri  Pittori  Vencti." 

Louandre,  loo'flNdR',  (Charles  Leopold,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1 813. 

Loiibere,deIa,  dehlt  loo^bain',  (Antotne,)  a  French 
geometer,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1600.  He  taught  va- 
rious sciences  in  the  colleges  of  the  Jesuits,  and  pub- 
lished several  learned  mathematical  works.  Died  in  1664. 

Loubere,  de  la,  (Simon,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Toulouse  in  1642.  He  was  sent  as  envoy 
to  Siam  in  1687.  After  his  return  he  published  a  work 
"On  the  Kingdom  of  Siam,"  (1691,)  which  is  praised  for 
fidelity  and  judicious  observations.  He^^'vas  elected  to 
the  French  Academy  in  1693.    Died  in  1729.- 

Loubon,  loo'b6N',  (  Charles  Joseph  Emile,  )  a 
French  painter  of  history  and  landscapes,  born  at  Aix 
in  1809. 

Louchet,  loo'sh^',  (Louis,)  a  French  Jacobin,  who 
became  a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1792.  He  was 
the  first  who  ventured,  on  the  9th  Thermidor,  1794,  to 
move  the  arrest  or  trial  of  Robespierre.  Lamartine 
calls  him  an  obscure  representative.    Died  in  1 81 5. 

Loudon,  (Gideon  Ernst.)    See  Laudon. 

Loudon,  low'don,  (Jane,)  the  wife  of  J.  C.  Loudon, 
noticed  below,  and  daughter  of  Thomas  Webb,  was  born 
near  Birmingham  in  1808.  She  was  married  in  1381, 
before  which  she  had  published  a  novel  called  "The 
Mummy."  She  gave  efficient  aid  to  her  husband  in  his 
literary  enterprises,  and  after  his  death  published  new 
editions  of  some  of  his  works.  She  also  wrote  "The 
Ladies'  Flower-Garden,"  (  1841,)  "Botany  for  Ladies," 
(1852,)  "Gardening  for  Ladies,"  and  other  esteemed 
works.    Died  in  1858. 

See  "Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iv.  chap,  xvii.; 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1842. 

Loudon,  (John  Claudius,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
writer  on  horticulture  and  agriculture,  was  born  at 
Cambuslang  in  1783.  Having  learned  the  business  of 
a  landscape-gardener,  he  removed  to  London  in  1803. 
A  few  years  later  he  rented  a  farm,  on  which  he  tried 
new  modes  of  cultivation  with  success,  and  soon  acquired 
an  easy  fortune.  After  visiting  various  countries  of 
Europe,  he  returned  to  London,  and  published  "The 
Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening,"  (1822,)  which  had  a  very 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (2l^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOUET 


1456 


LOUIS 


large  sale.  He  afterwards  produced  "  Encyclopjedia  of 
Agriculture,"  (1825,)  and  "Encyclopaedia  of  Cottage, 
Farm,  and  Villa  Architecture,"  {1832.)  The  last  was 
especially  popular.  He  was  editor  of  the  "Gardener's 
Magazine,"  commenced  in  1826,  and  of  the  "Magazine 
of  Natural  History,"  ( 1828-36.)  His  industry  and  ex- 
tensive learning  were  displayed  in  an  expensive  work  on 
the  trees  and  shrubs  of  Britain,  entitled  "  Arboretum  et 
Fruticetum  Britannicum,"  (1838.)    Died  in  1843. 

See  "Memoir  of  J.  C.  Loudon,"  by  his  wife,  1845;  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  July,  1839. 

Louet,  loo'i',  (Georges,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Angers  about  1540;  died  in  1608. 

Lough,  luf,  (John  Graham,)  an  English  sculptor, 
born  at  Green  head,  in  Northumberland.  He  produced 
about  1827  an  admirable  statue  of  Milo  for  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  and  went  to  Italy  in  1834.  After  his  return 
home,  in  1838,  he  exhibited  "  Ophelia,"  "  Hebe  banished," 
"The  Roman  Fruit-Girl,"  a  statue  of  Victoria,  (1845,) 
and  a  statue  of  Prince  Albert,  (1847.)  Among  his 
greatest  works  is  a  colossal  marble  group  of  "  Satan 
subdued  by  the  Archangel  Michael,"  (1851.) 

Loughborough,  Lord.    See  Wedderburn. 

Louis,  loo'iss,  [It.  LuiGi,  loo-ee'jee,]  L,  King  of  Etru- 
ria,  born  at  Parma  in  1773,  vvas  the  son  of  Ferdinand, 
Duke  of  Parma.  In  1795  he  married  Maria  Louisa,  a 
daughter  of  Charles  IV.  of  Spain.  By  a  treaty  between 
the  Spanish  court  and  Napoleon  in  1801,  Louis  acquired 
Tuscany  in  exchange  for  Parma,  and  the  name  of  the 
former  was  changed  to  Etruria.  He  died  in  1803, 
leaving  a  son,  Louis  II. 

Louis,  loo'iss,  [Fr.  pron.  loo'e' ;  Ger.  Ludwig,  lood'- 
^iG  ;  Lat.  LuDOVi'cus,]  the  name  of  many  kings  of 
France.  Louis  L,  surnamed  le  Debonnaire  and  the 
Pious,  [Lat.  Ludov/cus  Pi'us ;  Ger.  Ludwig  der 
Fromme,]  Emperor  of  the  West,  and  King  of  France, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Charlemagne,  was  born  at 
Casseneuil  in  778  A.D.  Two  elder  brothers  having  died 
before  their  father,  Louis  became  heir  of  all  the  vast 
dominions  of  Charlemagne  in  814  ;  but  his  character 
was  too  feeble  to  maintain  the  integrity  of  the  empire. 
He  had  three  sons,  Lothaire,  Pepin,  and  Louis,  whom 
about  820  he  made  his  colleagues  in  the  government, 
giving  Italy  to  the  first,  Aquitaine  to  the  second,  and 
Bavaria  to  the  third.  After  this  division  another  son, 
Charles  the  Bald,  was  born  to  him.  His  sons  Lothaire 
and  Pepin  revolted  in  830,  and  deposed  him.  He  was 
compelled  to  do  public  penance,  and  confined  in  a  con- 
vent. By  the  efforts  of  his  sons  Louis  and  Pepin,  he  was 
restored  to  thi'  throne  a  short  time  before  his  death, 
which  occurred  in  840. 

See  Frantin,  "Louis  le  Pieux  et  son  Siecle,"  2  vols.,  1840; 
Franck,  "Ludwig  der  Fromme,"  1832;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Louis  IL,  surnamed  le  Begue,  leh  b|g,  {i.e.  "the 
Stammerer,")  King  of  France,  the  son  of  Charles  the 
Bald,  was  born  in  846  A.D.  He  succeeded  his  father  in 
877.  He  propitiated  his  turbulent  nobles  by  granting  to 
them  many  duchies,  earldotns,  and  seignories.  He  died 
in  879,  leaving  three  sons,  Louis,  Carloman,  and  Charles 
the  Simple. 

See  MiCHELET,  "  Histoire  de  France." 

Louis  IIL,  King  of  France,  born  about  863,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Louis  II.  In  879  the  kingdom  was  divided 
between  Louis  and  Carloman,  the  former  of  whom  re- 
ceived for  his  share  Neustria.  He  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Normans  who  invaded  France,  when  he  died,  with- 
out issue,  in  882  A.D.,  aged  about  twenty,  and  Carloman 
became  sole  king  of  France. 

See  Mjchei.kt,  "  Histoire  de  France." 

Louis  IV.,  surnamed  d'Outremer  (dootR'maiR') 
because  he  had  visited  England  in  infancy,  was  the  son 
of  Charles  the  Simple.  He  was  born  in  920  A.D.,  and 
crowned  king  in  936.  Among  the  events  of  his  reign 
was  a  war  between  him  and  Hugh,  the  father  of  Hugh 
Capet.  He  died  in  954,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Lothaire  II. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Louis  v.,  King  of  France,  surnamed  le  Faineant, 
(i.e.  "the  Idle"  or  " Do-Nothing,")  the  son  of  Lothaire 


H.,  was  born  about  966.  He  inherited  the  title  of  king  in 
986,  and  died  in  987,  without  issue,  being  the  last  king 
of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty.  Hugh  Capet  was  elected 
as  his  successor. 

See  MiCHELET,  "Histoire  de  France." 

Louis  VL  of  France,  surnamed  LE  Gros,  (leh  gRo,) 
was  the  son  of  Philip  I.  and  of  Bertha.  He  was  born 
in  1078,  and  became  king  in  1108.  liefore  his  accession 
the  royal  power  had  been  much  reduced  by  the  preva- 
lence of  the  feudal  system,  and  in  his  reign  many  sei- 
gneurs asserted  by  arms  the  sovereign  power  over  their 
fiefs.  He  waged  war  against  Henry  I.  of  England  for 
the  possession  of  Normandy,  but  was  not  successful. 
He  is  represented  as  a  brave  and  generous  prince,  and 
is  honoured  for  the  establishment  of  communes  and 
municipal  governments,  by  which  he  promoted  the  politi- 
cal influence  of  the  third  estate.  He  died  in  1137,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  VII. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Fran9ais;"  Michelet,  "Histoire 
de  France." 

Louis  VIL,  King  of  France,  surnamed  le  Jeune, 
("the  Young,")  born  in  1120,  was  the  son  of  Louis  VI., 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1 137.  He  married  Eleanor, 
heiress  of  the  Duke  of  Aquitaine.  Having  been  anathe- 
matized by  the  pope,  he  became  penitent,  and,  in  order 
to  expiate  his  sins,  he  joined  the  second  crusade  to  Pal- 
estine in  1 147,  and  was  followed  by  a  large  army  of 
Frenchmen  and  others.  After  many  defeats  and  disas- 
ters, by  which  he  lost  nearly  all  his  men,  he  returned  in 
1 149.  His  wife  Eleanor,  having  been  divorced  in  11 52, 
married  Henry  II.  of  England,  who  by  this  marriage 
acquired  Guienne  and  Poitou.  War  ensued  between 
Louis  and  Henry,  but  no  decisive  advantage  was  gained 
by  either.  He  died  in  1180,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Philip  Augustus, 

See  MiCHELET,  "Histoire  de  France;"  Michaud,  "  History  of 
the  Crusades;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Louis  VIIL,  surnamed  Cceur-de-Lton,  (kuR'deh- 
le'oN',)  the  son  of  Philip  Augustus,  was  born  in  1187, 
and  ascended  the  throne  in  1223.  His  wife  vvas  Blanche 
of  Castile.  He  recovered  by  arms  Poitou  and  several 
places  which  the  English  held  in  France/  Instigated  by 
the  pope,  he  led  a  crusade  against  the  Albigenses,  and 
waged  an  unjust  war  against  the  Count  of  Toulouse, 
who  was  denounced  as  a  heretic.  At  the  end  of  the  first 
campaign  he  died,  in  1226,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son, 
Louis  IX. 

See  RvMER,  "  Foedera,"  1704  ;  Vaissette,  "  Histoire  generale 
du  Languedoc,"  5  vols.,  1730-45. 

Louis  IX.,  or  Saint  Louis,  King  of  France,  was  born 
in  1215,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Louis  VIIL,  in  1226. 
His  mother,  Blanche  of  Castile,  was  regent  during  his 
minority,  and  defended  his  throne  with  wisdom  against 
Thibaut  de  Champagne  and  other  barons  who  were 
leagued  with  him.  Louis  married  Margaret  of  Pro-- 
vence  in  1234.  In  1244  he  recovered  from  a  dangerous 
illness,  and  made  a  vow  to  conduct  a  crusade  against 
the  infidels.  Having  raised  a  large  army,  he  departed 
in  1248,  and  in  the  next  year  entered  Egypt.  There  his 
army  was  ravaged  by  disease,  and  defeated  at  Mansourah 
by  the  Saracens,  who  took  Saint  Louis  prisoner.  By 
paying  a  ransom  he  obtained  his  liberty,  and  pursued 
his  course  to  Palestine,  where  he  remained  about  three 
years.  He  returned  to  France  in  1254,  and  employed 
himself  in  improving  the  condition  of  the  people  by  wise 
laws.  His  foreign  policy  was  pacific  towards  European 
nations,  but  his  zeal  against  infidels  urged  him  to  another 
crusade  in  1270.  He  first  directed  his  operations  against 
Tunis,  but  before  he  had  reached  that  place  he  died,  near 
Carthage  or  Tunis,  in  August,  1270.  He  was  canonized 
in  1297.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Philippe  le  Hardi. 
"  Louis  vvas,"  says  Voltaire,  "  in  all  respects  a  model  for 
men.  His  piety,  which  was  that  of  an  anchorite,  did  not 
deprive  him  of  royal  virtues.  He  made  a  profound  policy 
agree  and  concur  with  exact  justice ;  and  perhaps  he  is 
the  only  sovereign  who  merits  this  praise." 

See  G.  DE  Nangls,  "Vie  de  Saint-Louis;"  Joinville,  "Vie  de 
Saint- Louis ;"  Filleau  de  la  Chalse,  "Histoire  de  Saint-Louis," 

2  vols  ,  1688;  Bury,  "Histoire  de  Saint-Louis,"  1775;  Michelet, 
"  Histoire  de  France  ;"  MiCHAim,  "History  of  the  Crusades;"  Vil- 
leneuve-Bargemont,  "  Histoire  de  Saint-Louis,  Roi  de  France," 

3  vols.,  1836;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


i,  e,  T,  6,  xi,  y,  long;    6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  ^,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


LOUIS 


H57 


LOUIS 


Louis  X.,  surnanied  le  Hutin,  (leh  hii'tiN',)  King  of 
France,  the  sou  of  Philippe  le  Bel,  was  born  in  1289, 
and  became  king  in  13 14.  He  married  Clemence,  a 
daughter  of  the  King  of  Hungary.  Among  the  chief 
events  of  his  short  reign  was  his  unfortunate  expedition 
against  Flanders.  He  died,  without  male  issue,  in  1316, 
and  his  brother,  Philippe  le  Long,  was  his  successor. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Louis  XL,  King  of  France,  born  at  Bourges  in  1423, 
was  the  son  of  Charles  VH.  He  married  Charlotte,  a 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  His  ambitious  and  un- 
scrupulous character  was  early  manifested  by  revolts 
against  his  father.  He  became  king  in  1461,  soon  after 
which  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  other  nobles  formed 
against  him  the  "  League  of  the  Public  Good."  Besieged 
in  his  capital  by  the  army  of  this  league  in  1465,  he  in- 
duced them  to  retire  and  disband  by  the  large  conces- 
sions of  a  treaty  which  he  intended  to  violate  at  his  own 
convenience.  By  crafty  policy,  superior  abilities,  and 
vigorous  measures,  he  greatly  increased  the  royal  power 
at  the  expense  of  the  nobles,  many  of  whom  fell  victims 
to  his  cruelty.  His  inveterate  enemy,  Charles  the  Bold 
of  Burgundy,  having  been  killed  in  battle  at  Nancy  in 
1477,  Louis  availed  himself  of  the  occasion  to  seize  his 
large  domains,  but  was  resisted  with  partial  success  by 
Maximilian  of  Austria  in  a  war  of  several  years.  Louis 
had  made  peace  with  Edward  IV.  of  England  in  1475. 
He  died  in  1483,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son,  Charles 
VIH.  The  reign  of  Louis  XL  is  remarkable  for  the 
multitude  of  important  events,  and  for  the  complete 
revolution  which  the  monarchy  then  passed  through. 
Post-offices  were  first  established  by  him  in  France. 

See  CoMiNES,  "  Memoires  contenant  les  Choses  advenues  durant 
le  Regne  de  Louis  XI,"  1523  :  the  same  in  English  ;  Duci.os,  "  His- 
toire de  Louis  XL"  1745;  Jean  de  Troves,  "Chronique  scanda- 
leuse  ;"  Mathieu,  "Histoire  de  Louis  XL"  i6io  ;  Basin,  "  De 
Rebus  gestis  Caroli  VIL  et  Ludovici  XL;"  Michelet,  "Histoire 
de  France;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Louis  XIL  of  France,  born  at  Blois  in  1462,  was  the 
son  of  Charles,  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  Marie  of  Cleves. 
At  the  accession  of  Charles  VHL  (1483)  he  was  the 
first  prince  of  the  blood.  Before  that  date  he  had  been 
compelled  to  marry  Jeanne,  the  daughter  of  Louis  XL 
In  1495  he  attended  his  cousin,  Charles  VHL,  in  his 
expedition  against  Naples,  and  in  1498  became  the  suc- 
cessor of  that  king,  who  left  no  issue.  He  married  Anne 
de  Bretagne,  the  widow  of  the  late  king,  thus  securing 
the  province  of  Bretagne  for  the  crown.  His  army  con- 
quered the  duchy  of  Milan,  and  brought  Duke  Francis 
Sforza  a  captive  to  France  in  1500.  He  resolved,  also, 
to  prosecute  the  claims  of  his  family  to  Naples,  then 
ruled  by  Frederick  of  Aragon.  Li  1501  Louis  and  Fer- 
dinand of  Spain  agreed  to  partition  between  themselves 
the  kingdom  of  Frederick,  who,  finding  resistance  im- 
possible, retired  to  France  and  received  a  pension  from 
,  Louis.  The  quarrel  that  ensued  between  Louis  and 
Ferdinand  ended  in  1503  by  the  expulsion  of  the  French 
from  Naples  by  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova.  The  pope,  Julius 
IL,  having  formed  a  league  against  Louis,  the  French 
were  defeated  at  Novara  in  15 13  and  driven  out  of  Italy. 
At  the  age  of  fifty-three  he  married  Mary,  a  sister  of 
Henry  VIII.  of  England.  He  died  on  the  1st  of  Janu- 
ary, 1 51 5,  leaving  two  daughters,  Claude  and  Renee. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Francis  I.  Louis  XII.  gained  the 
affection  of  his  subjects  by  reducing  the  taxes  and  pro- 
moting justice,  and  received  the  surname  of  "  Father  of 
the  People." 

See  Jean  d'Auton,  "Histoire  de  Louis  XII,"  1615;  Claude 
DE  Seyssel,  "Les  Louanges  du  bon  Roi  Louis  XII,"  1508;  Jay, 
"  Histoire  de  Louis  XII  ;"  Brantome,  "  CEuvres ;"  A.  Varillas, 
"Histoire  de  Louis  XII,"  1688;  Sismonoi,  "Histoire  des  Fran- 
jais  ;"  P.  L.  Ginguene,  "  filoge  de  Louis  XII,"  1788. 

Louis  Xin.  of  France,  the  son  of  Henry  IV.  and  of 
Marie  de  Medicis,  was  born  at  Fontainebleau  on  the 
27th  of  September,  1601.  He  succeeded  his  father 
May  14,  1610,  under  the  regency  of  his  mother,  was  de- 
clared of  age  in  16 14,  and  married  Anne  of  Austria,  a 
daughter  of  Philip  III.  of  Spain,  in  1615.  Soqu  after 
that  date  Marie  de  Medicis  was  exiled  from  court,  and 
the  Duke  de  Luynes  became  the  royal  favourite.  In 
1620  Louis  marched  against  his  Protestant  subjects,  who 
had  been  provoked  into  a  revolt.    During  the  progress 


of  this  war  Richelieu  obtained  the  favour  and  confi- 
dence of  the  king,  who  made  him  prime  minister  in 
1624.  As  Louis  was  very  deficient  in  political  ability, 
Richelieu  was  the  master-spirit  of  the  government  from 
that  time  until  his  death.  Among  the  memorable  events 
of  this  reign  was  the  capture  of  Rochelle  from  the  Prot- 
estants, (1628,)  after  a  siege  of  about  a  year.  The  great 
talents  and  policy  of  Richelieu  were  directed  with  suc- 
cess to  the  subjection  of  the  Huguenots,  the  establish- 
ment of  absolutism  in  France,  and  the  abatement  of  the 
overgrown  power  of  Austria.  During  the  Thirty  Years' 
war  the  French  armies  obtained  frequent  successes 
against  the  Spaniards  and  Imperialists,  and  extended 
the  boundaries  of  France  by  the  conquest  of  Roussillon, 
Alsace,  and  the  duchy  of  Bar.  Louis  died  in  May,  1643, 
leaving  the  crown  to  his  son,  Louis  XIV.  His  character 
was  timid,  and  not  adapted  to  win  the  favour  or  admira- 
tion of  the  French.  He  is  said,  however,  to  have  given 
proof  of  personal  courage  in  several  battles. 

See  Malingre,  "  Histoire  de  Louis  XIII,"  1646;  Ch.  Bernard, 
"Histoire  de  Louis  XIII,"  1646;  J.  Howell,  "Life  of  Lewis 
XIII.,"  1646;  Le  Vassor,  "Histoire  du  Regne  de  Louis  XIII," 
1700-11;  Bazin,  "Histoire  de  France  sous  Louis  XIII,"  1837; 
"  Nouvelle  Bioo:raphie  Generale." 

Louis  XIV.,  surnamed  le  Grand,  (leh  gR6N,)  or  "  the 
Great,"  often  called  even  by  English  speakers  Louis 
QuATORZE,  (loo'e'  kt'toRz',)  the  eldest  son  of  Louis  XIII. 
and  Anne  of  Austria,  was  born  on  the  i6th  of  September, 
1638.  At  the  age  of  five  he  ascended  the  throne,  in  1643, 
under  the  regency  of  his  mother,  who  was  a  daughter  of 
Philip  HI.  of  Spain.  During  his  minority  the  government 
was  directed  by  Cardinal  Mazarin,  (which  see,)  a  for- 
eigner, whose  ministry  was  very  unpopular,  and  who  was 
involved  in  a  civil  war,  against  a  faction  called  La  Fronde, 
from  1648  until  1653.  In  1649  Louis  and  his  mother  were 
driven  out  of  the  capital  by  the  Frondeurs,  of  whom 
Conde  was  the  chief.  The  Thirty  Years'  war  was  ended 
in  1648  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  on  terms  favourable 
to  France  ;  but  Spain,  refusing  to  unite  in  this  treaty,  con- 
tinued the  war  against  the  French  until  the  treaty  of  the 
Pyrenees,  (1659,)  when  Louis  married  Maria  Theresa, 
daughter  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain. 

At  the  death  of  Mazarin,  in  1661,  Louis  resolved  to  be 
his  own  prime  minister,  and  was  fortunate  in  obtaining 
the  services  of  so  able  a  financier  as  Colbert.  France 
was  then  without  doubt  the  greatest  and  most  compact 
power  in  Europe.  To  the  arduous  duties  of  his  new 
position  the  king  brought  imposing  and  popular  personal 
qualities,  and  political  talents  of  a  high  order.  His  am- 
bition was  to  make  France  prosperous  and  the  monarchy 
absolute.  His  policy  was  briefly  summed  up  in  his  fa- 
mous saying,  "Z'^/a/,  c^est  moi T  ("The  State — that  is 
myself!")  The  death  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  in  1665, 
furnished  him  a  pretext  for  the  extension  of  his  domin- 
ions towards  the  Rhine.  In  exchange  for  the  dowry 
promised  to  his  queen,  which  the  Spanish  court  neglected 
to  pay,  he  claimed  Flanders  and  Franche-Comte,  which 
he  invaded  with  success  in  1667.  The  emperor  Leopold 
and  the  Dutch  aided  the  Spaniards  against  him  until  the 
treaty  of  Nymwegen,  (1678,)  by  which  Louis  retained 
Franche-Comte  and  a  large  part  of  Flanders.  In  the 
mean  time  the  administration  had  been  reformed  and 
centralized  by  Louis,  and  the  taxes  had  been  reduced 
and  the  revenue  increased  by  Colbert.  In  1670  Louis 
made  a  secret  treaty  with  Charles  II.  of  England,  whose 
alliance  he  purchased  by  a  pension.  Commerce,  manu- 
factures, arts,  literature,  etc.  were  liberally  encouraged  in 
his  reign  ;  but  the  intolerant  zeal  of  the  king  betrayed 
him  into  one  very  unjust  and  impolitic  measure  when, 
in  1685,  he  revoked  the  edict  of  Nantes,  which  had  se- 
cured the  religious  liberty  of  Protestants.  His  Catholic 
zeal,  however,  did  not  deter  him  from  a  serious  quarrel 
with  the  pope,  on  the  question  of  franchises,  in  1687. 
About  this  time  he  secretly  married  Madame  de  Main- 
tenon,  a  lady  of  obscure  origin  but  eminent  merit.  (See 
Maintenon.) 

A  second  general  war  broke  out  in  1688,  between  Louis 
on  one  side,  and  Spain,  Austria,  England,  and  the  Prince 
of  Orange  on  the  other.  Louis  failed  in  his  attempt  to 
restore  James  II.  of  England,  and  found  a  formidable 
adversary  in  James's  successor,  William  III.  After  many 
sieges  and  indecisive  actions  in  Flanders,  the  war  was 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

92 


LOUIS 


1458 


LOUIS 


suspended  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  (1697.)  By  the  will 
of  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  (1700,)  Philip,  Duke  of  Anjou, 
a  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  appointed  heir  to  the 
Spanish  throne.  This  occasioned  a  great  European  coali- 
tion against  the  French  king,  and  the  long  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession,  in  which  he  had  to  contend  against 
the  English  and  Austrians,  under  Marlborough  and  Eu- 
gene, who  won  great  victories  at  Blenheim,  Malplaquet, 
etc.  ;  but  the  French  pfince  Philip  remained  master  of 
Spain,  and  hostilities  were  ended  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht, 
in  April,  17 13.  After  a  reign  of  seventy-two  years,  he 
died,  on  the  ist  of  September,  171 5,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  great-grandson,  Louis  XV.  The  age  of  Louis 
XIV.  was  the  most  brilliant  in  the  literary  history  of 
France,  and  he  was  a  very  judicious  as  well  as  a  very 
munificent  patron  of  literary  merit.  He  preserved  his 
equanimity  in  his  successes  and  his  reverses. 

"No  sovereign,"  says  Macaulay,  in  his  review  of  Du- 
mont's  "Recollections  of  Mirabeau,"  "has  ever  repre- 
sented the  majesty  of  a  great  state  with  more  dignity 
and  grace.  .  .  .  He  was  not  a  great  general ;  he  was  not 
a  great  statesman  ;  but  he  was,  in  one  sense  of  the  words, 
a  great  king.  Never  was  there  so  consummate  a  master 
of  what  our  James  I.  would  have  called  king-craft. 
Though  his  internal  administration  was  bad,  though  the 
military  triumphs  of  his  reign  were  not  achieved  by 
himself,  though  his  later  years  were  crowded  with  de- 
feats, ...  he  succeeded  in  passing  himself  off  on  his 
people  as  a  being  above  humanity." 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV,"  1752  ;  Peli.isson,  "  His- 
toire  de  Louis  XIV,"  1749;  Dangicau,  "  Journal  de  la  Cour  de  Louis 
XIV  ;"  '*  Letters  of  Madame  de  Maintenon  ;"  J.  de  Larrey,  "  His- 
toirede  France  sous  le  Regne  de  Louis  XIV,"  1718-22  ;  Capefigue, 
"  Louis  XIV,  son  Gouvernement,"  e  c,  6  vols.,  1837  ;  Saint-Simon, 
"  Me  moires ;"  G.  P.  R.  James,  "The  Life  and  Times  of  Louis 
XIV.,"  4  vols.,  1838;  Lord  Bolingbroke,  "  Siecle  politique  de 
Louis  XIV,"  2  vols.,  1754;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;" 
*' London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1818. 

Louis  XV.  of  France,  the  great-grandson  of  Louis 
XIV.,  was  born  at  Fontainebleau  the  15th  of  February, 
1 7 10.  His  father  was  the  virtuous  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
and  his  mother  was  Maria  Adelaide  of  Savoy.  Louis 
became  king  on  the  ist  of  September,  1 715,  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  a  nephew  of  Louis  XIV.,  being  then  appointed 
regent.  The  minority  of  Louis  was  a  period  of  scan- 
dalous corruption  in  morals  and  politics.  Among  the 
ruinous  errors  of  the  regent's  administration  was  his 
adoption  of  the  financial  system  of  the  famous  projector 
Law.  (See  Law,  John.)  In  1723  the  king  was  declared 
of  age,  the  Duke  of  Orleans  died,  and  the  Duke  of 
Bourbon  became  prime  minister.  In  1725  Louis  married 
Marie  Leczinska,  daughter  of  Stanislas,  the  dethroned 
king  of  Poland,  and  in  the  next  year  Bourbon  was  super- 
seded by  the  eminent  statesman  Cardinal  Fleury,  who 
had  been  preceptor  of  the  young  king  and  had  merited 
his  confidence.  By  his  prudent  and  pacific  administra- 
tion Fleury  restored  some  degree  of  order  and  prosperity 
in  the  state,  and  arrested  the  downward  progress  of  the 
monarchy.  A  war  which  began  between  the  French  and 
Austrians  in  1733  waged  on  the  Rhine  and  in  Italy 
until  1735,  when  Lorraine  was  ceded  to  France  by  the 
treaty  of  Vienna.  Against  the  advice  of  Fleury,  Louis 
joined  in  1741  the  iniquitous  coalition  against  Maria 
Theresa  of  Austria,  and  sent  an  army  into  Bohemia. 
The  English  then  declared  war  against  France.  In  1743 
Cardinal  Fleury  died,  and  Louis  resolved  to  dispense 
with  a  prime  minister.  Among  the  principal  events  of 
this  war  was  the  battle  of  Fontenoy,  (1745,)  where  in 
presence  of  Louis  his  army  defeated  the  English  under 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland.  Hostilities  were  suspended 
by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748.  About  this 
period  Louis  ceased  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  govern- 
ment, and  abandoned  himself  to  scandalous  vices  in  the 
harem  called  the  "  Pare  aux  Cerfs." 

Rival  claims  of  the  French  and  English  in  Canada 
were  the  cause  or  pretext  of  a  war  which  began  in  1755, 
and  the  French  court  was  at  the  same  time  involved  in 
the  Seven  Years'  war  as  the  ally  of  Maria  Theresa.  The 
disasters  and  disgraces  of  this  war  increased  the  un- 
popularity of  the  king,  who  was  stabbed  by  a  fanatic 
named  Damiens  in  1757,  but  only  slightly  hurt.  The 
French  were  defeated  by  Frederick  the  Great  at  Ross- 
bach  (1757)  and  at  Minden,  (1759,)  and  in  various  naval 


battles  by  the  English.  After  losing  Canada  and  other 
colonies,  the  French  court  signed  the  treaty  of  Paris  in 
1763,  and  ended  a  war  the  odium  of  which  was  thrown 
on  Madame  de  Pompadour.  Under  the  auspices  of  the 
Due  de  Choiseul,  then  chief  minister,  the  order  of  the 
Jesuits  was  suppressed  about  1762.  Louis  died  in  May, 
1774,  leaving  the  kingdom  impoverished,  oppressed,  and 
deuKjralized.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Louis 
XVI.,  whose  father,  the  dauphin,  had  died  in  1765. 

See  Lacretelle,  "  Histoire  de  France  pendant  le  dix-huitieme 
Siecle,"  5  vols.,  1809;  Bauer,  "  Ludwig  XV.,  Konig  von  Frank- 
reich,"  1804;  Voltaire,  "Histoire  du  Siecle  de  Louis  XV;"  De 
TocQUEVit.LE,  "Histoire  philosophique  du  Regne  de  Louis  XV," 
1847;  Maukepas,  "Memoires,"  1791;  M.  Capefigue,  "  Louis  XV 
et  la  Society  du  XVIIIe  Siecle;"  Carlyle,  "  French  Revolution." 

Loui.s  XVI.,  the  grandson  of  Louis  XV.,  was  born 
at  Versailles,  August  23,  1754.  He  was  the  second  son 
of  Louis,  Dauphin  of  France,  and  Marie  Josephe  of 
Saxony,  and  received  at  his  birth  the  title  of  Due  de 
Berry.  In  1770  he  married  Marie  Antoinette,  a  daughter 
of  Maria  Theresa,  Empress  of  Austria.  He  ascended 
the  throne  in  1774,  appointed  Turgot  minister  of  the 
finances,  which  were  then  in  great  disorder.  Turgot, 
a  man  of  probity  and  ability,  undertook  wise  and  exten- 
sive reforms  ;  but  these  were  resisted  by  the  nobility 
and  clergy,  and  he  was  dismissed  from  office  in  1776. 
Necker  then  became  contrdleur-general,  or  prime  minister. 
(See  Necker,  J.)  In  1778  the  French  court  recognized 
the  independence  of  the  United  States,  declared  war 
against  England,  and  sent  a  fleet  and  army  to  fight  for 
the  new  republic.  Peace  was  restored  between  France 
and  England  in  1783,  and  the  French  soldiers  returned 
home  enthusiasts  for  liberty. 

Necker  having  resigned  in  1 781,  Calonne  was  ap- 
pointed contrdleur-general.  He  not  only  failed  to  supply 
the  deficit  in  the  revenue,  but  increased  the  public  dis- 
tress by  his  prodigality,  and  called  an  Asseinbly  of  Nota- 
bles in  1787.  In  this  year  Calonne  was  superseded  by 
Lomenie  de  Brienne,  who  also  was  found  incompetent 
to  guide  the  state  through  that  great  financial  and  politi- 
cal crisis,  and  advised  the  king  to  convoke  the  States- 
General,  which  had  not  been  assembled  since  1614 
Louis  recalled  Necker  to  the  place  of  prime  minister 
about  September  i,  1788,  and  convoked  the  States-Gene- 
ral at  Versailles  in  May,  1789.  This  event  was  the  signal 
for  the  explosion  of  passions,  ambitions,  and  resentments 
which  had  accumulated  and  fermented  during  a  long 
period  of  misrule.  The  popular  cause  derived  great 
advantage  from  Necker's  ordinance  that  the  number  of 
the  deputies  of  the  Third  Estate  should  be  equal  to  the 
sum  of  all  the  noblesse  and  clergy.  After  a  contest 
between  the  Third  Estate  and  the  other  orders  on  the 
question  whether  they  should  vote  together  or  separately 
by  orders,  the  Third  Estate  prevailed,  and  took  the  name 
of  the  National  Constituent  Assembly.  Necker  having 
been  dismissed  in  July,  1789,  the  populace  of  Paris  de- 
stroyed the  Bastille  a  few  days  later.  Thenceforth  the 
progress  of  revolution  was  rapid  and  irresistible.  The 
Assembly  made  a  great  and  sudden  change  in  the  po- 
litical and  social  condition  of  France  by  the  abolition  of 
tithes,  titles  of  nobility,  feudal  privileges,  and  inveterate 
abuses.  The  landed  estates  of  the  Church,  comprising 
nearly  one-third  of  France,  were  confiscated.  The  king, 
who  was  disposed  to  make  large  concessions  and  lacked 
firmness  to  resist  popular  aggressions,  remained  as  a 
hostage  of  the  old  regime  in  the  hands  of  the  natioiu 
The  position  of  Louis  became  so  irksome  and  perilous 
that  he  attempted,  in  June,  1791,  to  escape  with  his 
family  from  Paris,  but  was  arrested  at  Varennes  and 
compelled  to  return.  He  then  accepted  the  new  consti- 
tution, which  proclaimed  liberty,  equality,  and  universal 
suffrage.  In  March,  1792,  a  Girondist  ministry  was 
formed,  in  which  Dumouriez  and  Roland  were  the  chief 
ministers,  and  war  was  declared  against  Austria  and 
Prussia.  By  the  insurrection  of  August  10,  the  Jacobins, 
led  by  Danton  and  Robespierre,  effected  the  total  sub- 
version of  the  monarchy  and  initiated  the  reign  of  terror. 
Louis  was  confined  in  a  prison  called  the  Temple,  after 
being  subjected  to  indignities  and  outrages  from  the  mob. 
He  was  tried  for  treason  by  the  National  Convention, 
which  met  in  September,  1792,  defended  by  Deseze  and 
Tronchet,  and  condemned  to  death,  the  vote  being  387 


i,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  Y,  6,  vi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  ftt;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LOUIS 


1459 


LOUIS 


for  death  and  334  for  banishment  or  detention.  He  was 
executed  January  21,  1793,  and  died  with  tranquil  forti- 
tude. He  left  a  son,  Louis,  styled  the  Seventeenth,  and 
a  daughter,  Elizabeth.  His  virtues  were  better  adapted 
to  a  private  station  than  to  a  throne. 

See  Gassier,  "Vie  de  Louis  XVI,"  1S14;  Dlrdext,  "  Histoire 
de  Louis  XVL"  1S17;  J.  Druz,  "•Histoire  du  Regne  de  Louis 
XVL"  3  vols.,  1839-42  ;  Fallolx,  "  Louis  XVI,"  1*40  ;  Capefigue, 
"Louis  XVI,  son  Administration,"  etc.,  4  vois.,  1S44;  Soul-avie, 
"Memoires  du  Regne  de  Louis  XVI,"  6  vols.,  iSoi ;  Thiers, 
"Hi5tor>-  of  the  French  Revolution;  '  Lamartine,  "History-  of 
the  Girondists,"  1S47 ;  Carlvle,  ''French  Revolution;"  ''Last 
Years  of  the  Reign  and  Life  of  Louis  XVI.,"  by  Francis  Hue 

Louis  XVEL  of  France,  the  second  son  of  Louis 
XVL,  was  born  in  17S5.  He  became  dauphin  at  the 
death  of  an  elder  brother  in  17S9,  and  was  recognized  as 
king  in  January,  1793,  by  the  French  royalists  and  several 
foreign  courts,  but  was  closely  confined  by  the  Jacobins. 
The  cruel  treatment  which  he  received  from  his  jailers 
hastened  his  death,  which  occurred  in  prison  in  June, 
1795- 

See  A.  DE  Beaucheske,  "Life,  Sufferings,  and  Death  of  Louis 
XVII.,"  translated  by  \V.  Hazlitt;  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  October,  1S53. 

Louis  XVHL  of  France,  born  at  Versailles  in  No- 
vember, 1755,  was  the  third  son  of  the  dauphin,  and 
younger  brother  of  Louis  XVL     He  received  at  his 
birth  the  names  of  Louis  Stanislas  Xavier,  and  the  title 
of  Count  de  Provence.    He  was  also  styled  Monsieur 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  XVL    In  1771  he  married 
Marie  Josephine  de  Savoy.    He  favoured  the  Revolu- 
tion in  its  first  stages,  and  by  his  influence  determined 
that  the  Third  Estate  should  send  to  the  States-General  j 
as  many  deputies  as  both  of  the  other  orders.    He  re- 
mained in  Paris  until  the  flight  of  the  king  to  Varennes,  i 
in  June,  1791,  when  he  escaped  by  another  route.  During  j 
the  republic  and  empire  he  resided  at  Verona,  Mitau,  j 
Warsaw,  and  Hartwell,  England.     In  April,  1814,  he 
returned  to  France  and  ascended  the  throne  vacated  ! 
by  Bonaparte.    He  hastened  to  accept  a  constitutional  | 
charter  which  his  ministers  presented.    By  the  escape  . 
of  Napoleon,  his  daring  march  to  Paris,  and  the  defec- 
tion of  the  army,  Louis  was  forced  to  fly  on  the  20th  of 
March,  1 81 5,  and  retired  to  Ghent.    (See  Bon.\p.\rte.) 

He  was  again  restored  by  the  allied  armies  in  July, 
181 5,  at  one  of  the  most  disastrous  epochs  in  French 
history.  "  The  king  must  have  had,"  says  Lamartine, 
"great  courage  or  a  great  thirst  of  power,  to  accept  a 
throne  and  a  nation  buried  under  so  many  ruins."  Louis 
dismissed  Talleyrand,  and  selected  for  prime  minister 
the  Due  de  Richelieu ;  but  M.  Decazes,  minister  of 
police,  was  his  chief  favourite.  The  majority  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  were  extreme  royalists,  and  main- 
tained an  opposition  to  the  ministry.  Several  Bona- 
partists  were  executed,  and  others  banished.  On  Sep- 
tember 5,  1 816,  the  king  dissolved  the  Chamber,  and  by 
this  coup  d' eta t  gdJxntd  much  popularitv.  The  next  elec- 
tions resulted  in  favour  of  the  moderate  royalists.  In 
December,  1818,  a  new  liberal  ministrv-  was  formed,  and 
Decazes  became  prime  minister.  (See  Dec.\zes.)  The  1 
ultra-royalists,  with  Villele  as  premier,  came  into  power 
in  Februar}-,  1820,  and  passed  an  electoral  law  less 
favourable  to  the  liberal  party.  In  1823  the  French 
court  sent  an  army  into  Spain,  and  supported  the  cause 
of  absolutism,  as  an  ally  of  Ferdinand  VII.  Louis  died 
in  September,  1824,  without  issue,  and  was  succeeded  bv 
his  brother,  Charles  X.  "  His  qualities,"  says  Michaud, 
"were  rather  brilliant  than  solid."  He  had' respectable 
literary  attainments  and  an  easy  elocution.  He  is  re- 
puted the  author  of  the  saying,  "  Punctuality  (exactitude) 
is  the  politeness  of  kings." 

See  Alphonse  de  Beaichamp.  "Vie  de  Louis  XVIII,"  1821 ; 
Lacretelle,  "Histoire  de  France  depuis  !a  Re-tauration,"  4  vols., 
1829-36;  Lamarti.ve,  "  History  of  the  Restoration  ;"  "Memoires 
de  Louis  XVIII,"  (anonymous,)  Paris,  1832;  Chateacbriand, 
"Memoires  d'Outr^-Tombe :"  "  Nouveile  Kiographie  Generale;" 
Eyre  Eva.ns  Crowe,  "  History  of  Louis  XVIII.  and  Charles  X.," 
2  vols.,  1S54;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  Januar^^  1833. 

Louis,  (Kings  or  princes  of  Germanv.)    See  Lewis. 

Louis  [It.  LuiGi,  loo-ee'jee]  LL,  King  and  Emperor  of 
Italy,  the  son  of  Lothaire  I.,  was  born  about  822  a.d. 
He  became  the  colleague  of  his  father  in  850,  and  at  the 
death  of  the  latter,  in  855,  inherited  the  throne  of  Italy. 
Among  the  events  of  his  reign  were  battles  which  he 


fought  with  various  success  against  the  Saracens  whc 
invaded  Italy.  He  died  in  875,  leaving  a  daughter 
Ermengarde,  who  was  married  to  Boson,  King  of  Aries. 
They  had  a  son,  who  was  styled  Louis  III. 

See  McRATORi,  "  Annali  d'ltalia ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Louis  (Luigi)  IIX,  King  or  Emperor  of  Italy,  sur- 

named  the  Blind,  born  about  879,  was  a  grandson  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  a  son  of  Boson,  King  of  Aries, 
and  Ermengarde.  In  900  he  was  invited  to  Italy  by 
several  barons,  and  was  crowned  in  place  of  Berenger, 
who  took  Louis  prisoner  in  905  and  put  out  his  eyes. 
Died  in  929. 

Louis  (Luigi)  of  T.xrentlm,  King  of  Naples,  born 
in  1320,  was  a  grandson  of  Charles  the  Lame.  He  was 
a  cousin  of  Queen  Joan  of  N^aples,  who  married  Louis 
in  1346,  after  she  had  strangled  her  husband  Andrew. 
Died  in  1362. 

Louis  (Luigi)  H.,  King  of  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Jerusa- 
lem, born  in  1377,  was  a  son  of  Louis  I.  He  was  crowned 
by  the  pope  in  13S9,  and  obtained  possession  of  Naples, 
from  which  he  was  expelled  by  Ladislaus  in  1399.  Died 
in  1417. 

Louis  (Luigi)  HL,  of  Naples,  Duke  of  Anjou,  bom 
in  1403,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  inherited  his 
father's  title  to  the  throne  of  Naples,  which,  however, 
was  occupied  by  Alfonso  of  Aragon.  He  invaded  Italy, 
and  conquered  a  large  part  of  the  kingdom,  but  died  in 
1434,  before  his  enterprise  was  finished. 

Louis  [Port.  Luis,  loo-^ss']  L,  King  of  Portugal,  born 
in  1838,  began  to  reign  at  the  death  of  his  brother, 
Pedro  v.,  in  November,  1861,  before  which  he  was  the 
Duke  of  Oporto.  He  married  Maria  Pia,  a  daughter  of 
Victor  Emmanuel  of  Italy,  in  1862. 

Loui^  (Luigi)  L,  King'  of  Sicily  or  of  Naples,  Count 
of  Provence,  Duke  of  Anjou,  etc.,  born  in  1339,  was 
a  younger  son  of  Jean  II.  of  France.  At  the  instigation 
of  Pope  Clement  VII.,  Queen  Joan  of  Naples  adopted 
Louis  as  her  successor  in  1380,  but  his  title  was  disputed 
by  Charles  of  Durazzo,  who  afterwards  became  King  of 
Naples.    Died  near  Bari  in  1384. 

Louis  [Sp.  Luis,  loo-^ss']  of  Ar.\gox,  King  of  Sicily, 
born  in  1338,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Peter  II.,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  1342.    Died  in  1355. 

Louis,  Dauphin  of  France,  the  son  of  Louis  XIV. 
and  Maria  Theresa,  was  born  in  i66r,  and  was  called 
Monseigneur.  His  education  was  directed  by  Bossuet, 
who  wrote  for  him  his  "Discourse  on  Universal  His- 
tory." The  dauphin,  however,  had  a  great  aversion  to 
study,  and  appears  to  have  had  only  moderate  abilities. 
He  married  Marie  Christine  of  Bavaria,  and  became 
father  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  of  the  Duke  of 
Anjou,  who  was  afterwards  Philip  V.  of  Spain.  In  1688 
Louis  XIV.  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  the 
Rhine,  under  the  direction  of  Vauban.  As  commander 
of  the  army  in  Flanders  in  1694,  the  dauphin  received 
credit  for  a  march  which  protected  Dunkirk.  His  last 
years  were  passed  in  compulsory  idleness.  Died  in  17 11. 

Louis,  Dauphin  of  France,  the  son  of  Louis  XV., 
was  born  in  1729.  His  virtues,  talents,  and  attainments 
are  highly  commended  by  M.  Michaud,  Jr.  In  1747  he 
married  Marie  Josephe  of  Saxony,  by  whom  he  had 
I  three  sons,  who  became  kings,  viz.,  Louis  XVL,  Louis 
i  XVIII.,  and  Charles  X.  He  was  excluded  by  his  father 
from  all  participation  in  the  government.    Died  in  1765. 

Louis,  looV,  (Antoine,)  a  celebrated  French  sur- 
geon, born  at  Metz  in  1723.  He  settled  in  Paris  at  an 
early  age,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his  writings 
on  surgery.  He  wrote  many  able  surgical  articles  iox 
the  "  Encyclopedic."  He  was  for  many  years  the  oracle 
and  counsel  of  the  tribunals  in  questions  of  medical 
jurisprudence.  Died  in  1792. 
See  "  Xouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Louis,  (Louis  Dominique,)  Baron,  a  successful 
French  financier,  better  known  as  Abb^:  Louis,  was  born 
at  Toul  in  1755.  emigrated  to  England  in  1792,  and 
returned  about  the  end  of  1799.  During  the  enipire  he 
became  administrator  of  the  treasurv.  councillor  of  state, 
and  a  baron.  From  April,  1814.  until  August,  1815,  he 
served  Louis  XVIII.  as  minister  of  finance.  He  was  re- 
called to  the  same  oftice  in  1818  by  Decazes,  and  resigned 


<  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOUIS 


1460 


LOURDOUEIX 


in  November,  1819.  He  was  also  appointed  minister  of 
finance  by  Louis  Pliilippe  in  1830.    Died  in  1837. 

See  "Souvenirs  sur  le  Baron  Louis,"  Paris,  1842;  Comte  de 
Saint-Cricq,  "  filoge  de  Baron  Louis,"  1838 ;  "  Nouveile  Bio- 
graphie  Geiierale." 

Louis,  (Pierre  Charles  Alexandre,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Ai  (Marne)  in  1787.  Among  his 
works  is  "  Researches  on  Typhoid  Fever,"  (2  vols., 
1828.) 

Louis  Napoleon,    See  Napoleon  III. 

Louis  Philippe,  loo'e'  fel^p',  Duke  of  Orleans,  King 
of  the  French,  often  called  "the  Citizen  King,"  was 
born  in  Paris  on  the  6th  of  October,  1773,  and  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Louis  Philippe  Joseph,  Duke  of  Orleans, 
who  was  styled  Philippe  Egalite.  His  mother  was  Louise 
Marie  de  Bourbon,  a  daughter  of  the  Due  de  Pen- 
thievre.  His  early  education  was  directed  by  Madame 
de  Genlis,  who  taught  him  liberal  principles  and  formed 
him  to  habits  of  prudence  and  self-control.  During  the 
life  of  his  father,  who  was  executed  in  1793,  he  was  styled 
the  Duke  of  Chartres.  About  1790  he  entered  the  army 
as  colonel,  and  merited  two  civic  crowns  by  saving  the 
lives  of  two  priests  in  an  emetde.  He  favoured  the 
popular  cause  in  the  Revolution,  and  served  in  the  first 
campaign  against  the  Austrians  in  1792.  In  November 
of  that  year  he  commanded  the  centre  at  Jemmapes, 
and  was,  says  Lamartine,  the  favourite  lieutenant  of 
Dumoiiriez,  the  general-in-chief.  Having  been  sum- 
moned to  appear  at  the  tribunal  of  the  committee  of 
public  safety  in  April,  1793,  he  escaped  across  the  Bel- 
gian frontier  with  Dumouriez,  in  whose  conspiracy  with 
the  Austrians  he  was  implicated.  He  afterwards  wan- 
dered as  an  exile  and  in  disguise  through  various  coun- 
tries and  strange  vicissitudes,  and  was  for  some  months 
(1794)  professor  in  the  College  of  Reichenau,  uaider  the 
name  of  M.  Chambaud.  In  1796  he  came  for  greater 
safety  to  the  United  States,  where  he  travelled  more  than 
a  year.  From  1800  until  1808  the  Duke  of  Orleans  re- 
sided in  England.  He  married  Maria  Amelia,  daughter 
of  Ferdinand,  King  of  Naples,  in  1809.  At  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Bourbons  (1814)  he  returned  to  France,  and 
was  reinstated  in  his  hereditary  honours  and  possessions. 
When  the  escape  of  Bonaparte  from  Elba  became  known 
at  Paris,  Louis  XVIII.  appointed  the  Duke  of  Orleans 
commander  of  the  army  of  the  North  ;  but  he  soon  re- 
signed this  place.  He  took  little  part  in  public  affairs 
until  the  revolution  of  July,  1830,  had  dethroned  Charles 
X.,  and  a  provisional  government  was  formed,  under  the 
direction  of  La  Fayette,  Lafitte,  Guizot,  Thiers,  and  others. 
A  powerful  party  then  urged  the  claim  of  Louis  Philippe 
to  the  throne,  while  others  wished  a  republic.  The  scale 
appears  to  have  been  turned  by  La  Fayette,  (who  did  not 
consider  France  yet  prepared  for  a  republic,)  and  the 
crown  was  offered  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans  by  the  Deputies 
and  Peers,  on  the  9th  of  August,  and  accepted,  with  a 
remodelled  constitution.  The  king  called  into  his  cabi- 
net the  Due  de  Broglie,  Count  Mole,  M.  Guizot,  and 
Lafitte.  He  was  soon  after  recognized  by  the  great  powers 
of  Europe.  In  October,  1830,  M.  Lafitte  became  premier, 
and  in  March,  1831,  was  superseded  by  Casimir  Perier. 
The  first  part  of  this  reign  was  disturbed  by  riots  and 
conspiracies  of  the  Carlists  and  republicans,  and  several 
attempts  were  made  to  assassinate  the  king.  In  October, 
1832,  a  new  ministry  was  formed,  of  which  Marshal  Soult 
was  premier  and  Guizot  and  Thiers  were  members,  the 
majority  being  Doctrinaires.  Frequent  changes  of  the 
ministry  afterwards  occurred,  by  which  Count  Mole,  the 
Due  de  Broglie,  Thiers,  and  Guizot  were  successively 
raised  to  the  office  of  prime  minister.  In  October,  1836, 
Louis  Napoleon  made  at  Strasbourg  an  abortive  attempt 
to  dethrone  Louis  Philippe,  for  which  he  was  banished  to 
tlie  United  States.  Louis  Philippe  followed  a  pacific  policy, 
and  waged  no  wars  against  the  great  European  powers ; 
but  his  army  made  iniportant  conquests  in  Algeria.  His 
reign,  however,  though  successful,  was  not  generally 
popular.  It  was  stigmatized  as  reactionary,  temporizing, 
"egotistical."  The  peace  which  had  been  the  chief  merit 
of  this  reign  was  at  last  imperilled  by  the  impolitic  mar- 
riage of  the  king's  son,  the  Duke  of  Montpensier,  to  the 
eventual  heiress  of  the  Spanish  crown.  Electoral  reform 
became  the  rallying-cry  of  a  plan  of  agitation  concerted 


by  a  coalition  of  republicans,  Bonapartists,  and  royalists 
in  1847.  The  forcible  opposition  of  the  ministry  to  this 
open  agitation  at  reform  banquets  caused  a  collision  be- 
tween the  troops  and  the  Parisian  populace  on  February 
24,  1848.  Unwilling  to  authorize  a  great  slaughter  of 
the  people,  the  king  then  abdicated  in  favour  of  his 
grandson.  Count  of  Paris;  but  the  republic  proclaimed 
by  Lamartine,  Arago,  and  others  prevailed.  Louis  Phi- 
lippe escaped  in  disguise  to  England,  where  he  was  kindly 
received.  He  died  at  Claremont,  England,  in  August, 
1850,  leaving  four  sons,  styled  the  Due  de  Nemours, 
the  Due  de  Montpensier,  the  Prince  de  Joinville,  and 
the  Due  d'Aumale. 

vSeeBouDiN,  "  Histoirede  Louis  Philippe,"  1847;  L.  G.  Michaud, 
"The  Public  and  Private  Lite  of  Louis  Philippe,"  in  French,  1849; 
NouvioN,  "Viede  Louis  Pliilippe,"  1849;  G.  N.  Wright,  "The 
Lite  and  Times  of  Louis  Philippe,"  1842;  Louis  Blanc,  "  Histoire 
de  dix  Ans,"  (1830-40)  Paris,  1842;  Alfred  E.  Douglas,  "Life 
and  Times  of  Louis  Philippe,  ex- King  of  tlie  French,"  1848;  Guizot, 
"  Memoires  pour  servir  k  I'Histoire  de  mon  Temps;"  "Nouveile 
Biographic  Generale ;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April  and 
Oct()ber,  1850. 

Louis  Quatorze.    See  Louis  XIV. 

Louisa  (Or  Luise)  Auguste  Wilhelmine  Amalie, 

Queen  of  Prussia,  the  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Mecklen- 
burg-Strelitz,  was  born  at  Hanover  in  1776.  She  was 
married  in  1793  to  the  prince-royal,  who  in  1797  became 
King  Frederick  William  HI.  After  becoming  the  mother 
of  several  children,  she  died  in  1810.  Her  beauty  and 
accomplishments  are  highly  praised. 

See  Charlotte  Richardson,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Private  Life  of 
Louisa,  Queen  of  Prussia,"  1847;  J.  F.  Schink,  "Louise  Preus- 
sens  Schutzgeist,"  1817;  "Nouveile  Biographic  Generale." 

Louise  de  Lorraine,  loo'^z'  deh  lo'rin',  Queen  of 
France,  born  in  1554,  was  the  daughter  of  Nicolas, 
Count  de  Vaudemont.  In  1575  she  was  married  to 
Henry  HI.,  who  treated  her  with  neglect.  Died  in  1601. 

Louise  de  Savoie,  loo'ez'  deh  st'vwi',  Regent  of 
France,  born  at  Pont  d'Ain  in  1476,  was  the  daughter 
of  Philip,  Duke  of  Savoy.  She  married  Charles  of  Or- 
leans, and  had  a  son  who  became  king  as  Francis  I. 
On  his  departure  to  Italy,  in  1515,  he  appointed  her 
regent  of  the  kingdom.  She  caused  the  loss  of  the 
Milanese  by  appropriating  to  herself  the  money  destined 
to  pay  the  troops,  and  by  her  unjust  treatment  provoked 
Constable  Bourbon  to  join  the  enemy.  She  obtained 
the  regency  again  in  1524,  and  retained  it  during  the 
captivity  of  the  king.  In  1529  she  negotiated  with  Mar- 
garet of  Austria  the  treaty  of  Cambray  between  Francis 
I.  and  Charles  V.    Died  in  1532. 

See  Marillac,  "Vie  du  Connetable  de  Bourbon  ;""  Nouveile 
Biographic  Generale." 

Louise  d'Orleans,  loo'^z'  doR'la'Sw',  (Marie  Th6- 
rese  Caroline  Isabelle,)  Queen  of  Belgium,  born  at 
Palermo  in  1812,  was  a  daughter  of  Louis  Philippe  of 
France.  She  was  married  to  Leopold,  King  of  Belgium, 
in  1832.    Died  in  1850. 

SeeT.  ScHELLiNCK,  "  Een  Engel  in  den  Hemel  of  Leven  van  H. 
M.  Louise  Marie,"  etc.,  1850;  Morren,  "Heliotrope;  Immortalitd 
de  Louise  Marie,  Renie  des  Beiges,"  1S50. 

Louise  (or  Luise)  Ulrike,  loo-ee'zeh  doKre-keh, 
Queen  of  Sweden,  born  at  Berlin  in  1720,  was  a  sister 
of  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia.  She  became  ac- 
quainted with  Voltaire,  who  wrote  verses  in  praise  of 
her  agreeable  qualities.  In  1744  she  was  married  to 
Prince  Adolphus  Frederick,  who  became  king  in  1751. 
She  founded  an  Academy  of  Belles-Letties  at  Stockholm 
in  1753.    Died  in  1782.    Gustavus  HI.  was  her  son. 

Loup,  loo,  [Lat.  Serva'tus  Lu'pus,]  Abbe  of  Fer- 
rieres,  is  regarded  as  the  most  polished  writer  that 
France  produced  in  the  ninth  century.  He  was  born  in 
the  diocese  of  Sens  in  805.  He  was  employed  by  Charles 
the  Bald  in  important  missions,  and  corresponded  with 
the  most  eminent  men  of  his  time,  including  several 
kings.  liis  letters  are  prized  for  the  light  they  throw 
on  the  events  of  that  period. 

See  "Gallia  Christiana;"  "Nouveile  Biographie  Gdn^rale." 

Loupolof.    See  Loopolof. 

Louptiere,  de  la,  deh  It  loo'te-aiR',  (Jean  Charles 
DE  Relongue — reh-loNg^)  a  French  poet,  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Sens  in  1727;  died  in  1784. 

Lourdoueix,  looR'doo'4',(SoPHiE  Tessier,)  a  French 
writer  of  fiction,  born  in  Paris  in  1793.    She  married  M. 


i,  e,  1,  5,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f2lr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LOUREIRO 


LOVE  JOT 


Lourdoueix,  an  editor  of  the  "  Gazette  de  France." 
Among  her  works  is  "The  Son  of  his  Works,"  ("  Le 
Fils  de  ses  CEuvres,"  2  vols.,  1845.) 

Loureiro,  de,  di  lo-ra^-ro,  (Joao,)  a  Portuguese  bot- 
anist, born  about  17 15."  ^He  practised  medicine  many 
years  in  Cochin  China  and  China,  and  returned  to  Por- 
tugal after  an  absence  of  thirty-six  years.  His  "  Flora 
of  Cochin  China"  (1790)  described  many  new  genera, 
and  was  esteemed  a  valuable  contribution  to  botanical 
science.    Died  in  1796. 

Loutherbourg,  loo't^R^booR',  or  Lutherburg,  loo'- 
t^R-booRG',  (Philippe  Jacques,)  a  skilful  French  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Strasburg  about  1735,  was  a  pupil 
of  Casanova.  After  working  some  years  in  Paris,  he 
removed  in  1771  to  London,  where  he  painted  decora- 
tions for  the  Opera.  He  excelled  in  landscapes,  battle- 
pieces,  and  views  on  the  sea-coast.  His  execution  is 
remarkable  for  facility  and  vigour.  He  etched  some  of 
his  own  designs.    He  died  in  London  about  1812. 

See  Naglek,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Louvard,  Ioo'vIr',  (Francois,)  a  French  Jansenist 
and  polemical  writer,  born  in  Maine  in  1661  ;  died  in  1739. 

Louvel,  loo'v^K,  (Pierre  Louis,)  a  French  assassin, 
born  at  Versailles  in  1783,  was  a  saddler  by  trade. 
Prompted  by  party  spirit  and  enmity  to  the  Bourbons, 
he  assassinated  the  Due  de  Berry,  February  13,  1820. 
This  act  caused  great  political  excitement,  and  led  to  the 
resignation  of  the  prime  minister  Decazes.  Louvel  was 
executed  in  June,  1820. 

Louverture.    See  Toussaint. 

Louvet,  loo'vi',  (Pierre,)  a  mediocre  French  histo- 
rian, born  at  Beauvais  in  161 7.  He  wrote  histories  of 
Languedoc,  Aquitaine,  and  Provence.    Died  about  1680. 

Louvet,  (Pierre,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  near 
Beauvais  about  1570;  died  in  1646. 

Louvet  de  Couvray,  \oo'\W  deh  koo'vRi',  (Jean 
Baptiste,)  a  French  Girondist  orator,  born  in  Paris  in 
1760.  He  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  and 
became  a  prominent  member  of  the  Girondist  party.  In 
October,  1792,  he  attacked  Marat  and  Robespierre  in  a 
bold  and  effective  speech.  He  was  proscribed  with  the 
Girondist  chiefs  about  June  i,  1793,  but  escaped  by  flight 
to  Normandy.  In  April,  1794,  he  entered  Paris,  where 
he  concealed  himself  until  the  fall  of  Robespierre.  In 
1795  he  resumed  his  seat  iti  the  Convention,  from  which 
he  passed  into  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred.  He  pro- 
duced several  successful  romances,  comedies,  and  polit- 
ical tracts.  Died  in  1797.  In  reference  to  the  aljove- 
named  speech,  which  is  inserted  in  his  "  History  of  the 
Girondists,"  Lamartine  says,  "  Louvet  was  one  of  those 
men  whose  political  destiny  is  composed  of  a  single  day; 
but  this  day  conquers  futurity  for  them,  because  it  asso- 
ciates with  their  name  the  memory  of  a  sublime  talent 
and  a  sublime  courage." 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Girondists ;"  Thiers,  "  His- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Louviers,  de,  deh  loo^'e-y,  (Charles  Jacques,)  a 
French  writer,  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  council 
of  state  by  Charles  V.  in  1376.  He  is  supposed  to  be 
the  author  of  the  famous  "Dream  of  the  Orchardist," 
("Songe  du  Vergier,")  the  aim  of  which  is  to  prove  that 
the  pope  has  no  temporal  power  over  princes.  The  book 
is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue. 

Louville,  de,  deh  loo'v^l',  (Charles  Auguste  d'Al- 
lonville — dt'16N'v^K,)  Marquis,  a  French  diplomatist, 
born  in  1668.  In  1701  he  was  chosen  gentleman  of  the 
chamber  to  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  who  afterwards  employed 
him  in  missions  to  Paris  and  Rome.    Died  in  1731. 

Louville,  de,  (Jacques  Eugene  d'Allonville,) 
Chevalier,  a  French  astronomer,  born  in  the  Chartrain 
in  1671,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  devoted 
himself  to  astronomy,  and  erected  an  observatory  near 
Orleans.  Having  been  admitted  into  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  he  contributed  to  it  "New  Tables  of  the  Sian," 
"Observations  on  the  Obliquity  of  the  Ecliptic,"  etc. 
Died  in  1732. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  filoge  de  M.  Louville." 

Louvois,  de,  deh  loo'vwi',  (Camille  Letelijer,) 
Abh6,  born  in  Paris  in  1675,  was  a  son  of  the  celebrated 
minister  of  war.  He  was  included  by  Baillet  among  the 
"enfants  celebres,"  and  was  elected  to  the  French 


Academy  in  1706.  He  added  30,000  books  to  the  Roval 
Library.    Died  in  1718. 

Louvois,  de.  Chevalier.  See  Estrees,  d',  (Louis 
C6sar  Letellier.) 

Louvois,  de,  (Francois  Michel  Letellier,)  Mar- 
quis, a  powerful  French  minister  of  state,  born  in  Paris 
in  1641,  was  a  son  of  Michel  Letellier,  chancellor  of 
France.  In  1654  his  father,  who  was  then  secretarv  of 
war,  obtained  the  reversion  of  that  office  for  Louvois, 
who,  having  qualified  himself  by  diligent  studies  and 
gained  the  favour  of  the  king,  became  sole  minister  of 
war  in  1666.  While  Colbert  managed  the  finances  and 
increased  the  resources  of  France,  Louvois  contributed 
greatly  to  the  military  successes  of  Louis  XIV.  He 
supplanted  Colbert  in  the  favour  of  the  king,  and  in- 
stigated Louis  to  persecute  the  Protestants.  By  the 
counsels  of  this  unscrupulous  and  haughty  minister,  who 
was  then  extremely  powerful,  the  edict  of  Nantes  was 
revoked  in  1685,  and  the  Palatinate  was  wasted  by  fire 
and  sword  in  1689.  The  atrocity  of  the  latter  measure 
excited  general  horror.  His  insolence  at  last  exhausted 
the  patience  of  the  king.  In  1691  Louvois  excited  the 
anger  of  Louis  by  proposing  to  burn  Treves,  and  would 
have  been  dismissed  if  he  had  not  died  suddenly  in  the 
same  year.  He  is  censured  for  having  caused  the 
derangement  of  the  finances,  and  for  fomenting  the  ag- 
gressive martial  ambition  of  his  master.  "  He  was  the 
greatest  adjutant-general,  the  greatest  quartermaster- 
general,  the  greatest  commissary-general,"  says  Macau- 
lay,  "that  Europe  had  seen.  He  may,  indeed,  be  said 
to  have  made  a  revolution  in  the  art  of  disciplining,  dis- 
tributing, equipping,  and  provisioning  armies."  His 
son,  the  Marquis  of  Barbesieux,  was  his  successor  as 
minister  of  war. 

See  Chamlav,  "  Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'Histoire  du  Marquis 
de  Louvois;"  Saint-Simon,  "  Klemoires  ;"  Dangeau,  "Journal;" 
Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV  ;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Fran- 
(jais  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Louvrex,  de,  deh  IooVr^',  (Mathias  Guillaume,) 
a  Belgian  jurist  and  historian,  born  at  Liege  in  1665  ; 
died  in  1734. 

Lovat,  liiv'at,  (Simon  Fraser,)  Lord,  a  Scottish 
Jacobite  conspirator,  born  near  Inverness  about  1666. 
At  the  death  of  Lord  Lovat,  who  was  chief  of  the  Fraser 
clan,  Simon  Fraser  made  unsuccessful  attempts  to  obtain 
the  title  and  estates.  To  evade  the  penalty  of  some 
crime,  he  passed  over  to  France  about  1700,  and  turned 
a  Roman  Catholic.  Having  entered  the  service  of  the 
Pretender,  he  was  sent  to  Scotland  in  1702  to  incite  the 
Highlanders  to  rebellion  ;  but  he  betrayed  his  trust,  and 
acted  the  part  of  informer  against  the  Jacobites.  For 
this  offence  he  was  confined  in  the  Bastille  several  years. 
In  1 71 5  Fraser  fought  against  the  cause  of  the  Stuarts  at 
Inverness,  and  was  rewarded  wnth  the  estates  of  the 
Erasers  and  the  title  of  Lord  Lovat.  In  the  rebellion 
of  1745  he  was  detected  in  treasonable  acts  against  King 
George,  for  which  he  was  executed  in  London  in  1747. 

See  Akbuthnot,  "Life  of  Simon  Fraser,"  1746:  Foster,  "Me- 
moirs of  Lord  Lovat,"  1746;  "Memoirs  of  Lord  Lovat,"  by  him- 
self, 1797  ;  John  Hill  Burton,  "  Lives  of  Lord  Lovat  and  Duncan 
Forbes,"  1846;  "North  British  Review"  for  May,  1847. 

Love,  luv,  (Christopher,)  a  Presbyterian  theologian, 
was  born  at  Cardiff,  Wales,  in  16 18.  He  began  to 
preach  in  London  in  1644,  after  which  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Assembly  of  Divines.  After  the  death  of  Charles 
I.,  he  entered  into  a  conspiracy  called  Love's  Plot,  the 
design  of  which  was  to  restore  Charles  II.  For  this 
cause  he  was  executed  in  August,  165 1.  His  Sermons, 
and  other  works,  were  published  in  three  volumes. 

Love,  (James,)  the  assumed  name  of  a  dramatist  and 
actor,  who  was  a  son  of  Mr.  Dance,  a  London  architect. 
A  satire  against  Walpole  having  appeared  under  the 
title  "Are  these  Things  so.''"  he  wrote  an  answer,  en- 
titled Yes,  they  are  :  What  then  .?"  for  which  Walpole 
gave  him  a  present.  He  acted  at  Drury  Lane  from  1762 
until  his  death,  and  wrote  "  Pamela,"  and  other  come- 
dies.   Died  in  1774. 

Loveira.    See  Lobeira. 

Love'joy,  (liiv'joi,)  (Elijah  P.,)  an  American  clergy- 
man and  opponent  of  slavery,  born  at  Albion,  in  Maine, 
in  1802,  graduated  at  Waterville  in  1826,  He  began  to 
edit  at  Alton,  Illinois,  about  1836,  an  anti-slavery  paper, 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  K,guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOVE  J  or 


1462 


LOWELL 


called  "The  Alton  Observer."  His  press  was  twice  de- 
stroyed by  a  pro-slavery  mob.  While  defending  his 
premises  at  Alton  against  a  third  attack,  he  was  shot 
and  mortally  wounded,  in  November,  1837. 

See  Gkeeley,  "American  Conflict,"  vol.  i.  pp.  130-142. 

Lovejoy,  (Owen,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Albion,  Kennebec  county,  Maine,  in  i8ii.  He 
was  employed  as  minister  of  a  Congregational  church  at 
Princeton,  Illinois,  from  1838  to  1854,  and  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  by  the  Republicans  of  the  third 
district  of  Illinois  in  1856.  He  was  re  elected  in  1858, 
i860,  and  1862.  He  was  a  radical  opponent  of  slavery. 
Died  at  Brooklyn,  New  York,  in  March,  1864. 

Love'lace,  (Ada  Augusta  Byron,)  Countess  of, 
the  only  child  of  the  poet  Lord  Byron,  was  born  in  181 5. 
She  was  married  to  the  Earl  of  Lovelace,  who  was  a  son 
of  Lord  Peter  King.    Died  in  1852. 

Lovelace,  (Richard,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Kent 
in  1618.  He  fought  for  the  king  in  the  civil  war,  and 
rose  to  the  rank  of  captain.  Having  spent  his  fortune 
in  the  royal  cause,  he  entered  the  French  service  in 
1646.  On  his  return  to  England  in  1648,  he  was  impris- 
oned for  political  reasons.  In  1649  he  was  released, 
and  published  a  volume  of  poems,  consisting  of  odes, 
sonnets,  etc.  addressed  to  "Lucasta."  Some  of  these  are 
admired  for  grace  and  vigour.    He  died  poor  in  1658. 

See  Wood,  "Atlienae  Oxonienses ;"  Eli.is,  "Specimens  of 
Poetry;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  iv.,  1821. 

Lovell,  liiv'el,  (Mansfield,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  the  District  of  Columbia  about  1822,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1842.  He  lived  in  New  York  City 
when  the  civil  war  began.  In  October,  1861,  he  took 
command  of  the  disunion  army  at  New  Orleans.  After 
the  Union  fleet  had  passed  the  forts  below  the  city,  he 
evacuated  New  Orleans,  which  he  transferred  to  the  cus- 
tody of  the  mayor  on  the  25th  or  26th  of  April,  1862. 

Lover,  luv'er,  (Samuel,)  an  Irish  novelist,  poet,  and 
painter,  born  in  Dublin  in  1797.  He  acquired  in  his  youth 
a  good  reputation  as  a  portrait-painter,  and  afterwards 
became  a  successful  author.  Besides  numerous  ballads 
and  dramas,  he  produced  "  Legends  and  Stories  of  Ire- 
land," and  a  novel  entitled  "  Handy  Andy,"  (1842,)  and 
"  Rory  O'Moore,"  a  song.  Among  his  later  publications 
is  "Metrical  Tales,  and  other  Poems,"  (1859.)  Died  in 
July,  1868. 

Lov'i-bond,  (Edward,)  an  English  poet,  was  born 
in  Middlesex,  and  inherited  an  easy  fortune.  He  con- 
tributed several  essays  to  "The  World,"  a  popular  pe- 
riodical, and  was  the  author  of  various  poems,  among 
which  "The  Tears  of  Old  May-Day"  (1754)  is  highly 
praised.    Died  in  1775. 

Lovini.    See  Luinl 

Low,  (George,)  a  Scottish  naturalist,  born  in  Forfar- 
shire in  1746.  He  became  a  clergyman  in  Pomona,  one 
of  the  Orkney  Isles,  in  1774.  He  wrote  "Fauna  Or- 
cadensis,"  (1813,)  which  treats  of  the  animals  of  the 
Orkney  and  Shetland  Isles.    Died  in  1795. 

Lowe  or  Loewe,  lo'l^eh,  the  name  of  a  German 
family,  distinguished  in  various  departments  of  art. 
August  Leopold  Lowe,  born  at  Schwedt  in  1767,  was 
the  composer  of  a  popular  opera  entitled  "The  Island 
of  Temptation."  Died  in  1816.  His  son  Ferdinand, 
born  in  1787,  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  tragedian. 
Died  in  1832.  His  daughter  Sophie,  born  in  1815, 
became  one  of  the  most  celebrated  vocalists  in  Germany. 
She  was  married  about  1840  to  Prince  Frederick  of 
Liechtenstein.  Her  brother,  Francis  Louis  Feodor, 
born  in  1816,  distinguished  himself  as  an  actor  and  a 
poet.  Julia  Lowe,  aunt  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1790, 
was  very  successful  as  an  actress  at  Vienna.  Died  about 
1850. 

Lowe,  15,  (Sir  Hudson,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
Ireland  about  1770.  He  served  many  campaigns  in 
Egypt,  Italy,  Germany,  etc.,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
major-general  in  1 814.  In  1815  he  was  selected  to  be 
the  jailer  of  Bonaparte  in  Saint  Helena.  He  was  cen- 
sured by  many  French  and  English  writers  for  arbitrary, 
rude,  and  illiberal  treatment  of  the  captive,  who  in  18 16 
refused  to  see  him  or  have  any  further  intercourse  with 
him.    Died  in  1844. 

See  a  "Histoiy  of  the  Captivity  of  Napoleon,  from  the  Letters 
of  Sir  Hudson  Lowe,"  etc.,  by  W.  Forsyth,  4  vols.,  1853. 


Lowe,  (JoHANN  Karl  Gottfried,)  a  German  com- 
poser, born  near  Halle  in  1796.  His  works  include 
operas,  sonatas,  ballads,  and  oratorios  :  of  the  last  we 
may  name  "  The  Seven  Sleepers." 

Lowe,  (Peter,)  a  Scottish  medical  writer,  practised 
medicine  in  Paris.  He  wrote  a  "Discourse  on  Chi- 
rurgery,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1612. 

Lowe,  (Robert,)  an  English  financier  and  eminent 
orator,  born  at  Bingham  in  1811.  He  graduated  at  Ox- 
ford in  1833,  and  practised  as  a  barrister  in  Australia 
from  1843  to  1850.  In  1852  he  was  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment for  Kidderminster.  He  was  appointed  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  education  board  in  1859,  but  was  removed  a 
few  years  later.  Mr.  Lowe  is  an  editor  or  contributor  to 
the  London  "Times."  He  was  a  leader  of  the  Adullam- 
ites,  (nominal  Liberals,  who  opposed  the  Reform  bill 
of  Russell  and  Gladstone  in  1866,)  and  is  one  of  the 
ablest  and  most  brilliant  debaters  in  Parliament.  Having 
supported  Gladstone's  motion  for  the  disestablishment 
of  the  Anglican  Church  in  Ireland,  he  was  appointed 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  when  the  Liberal  party 
came  into  power,  in  December,  1868.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  Parliament  for  the  University  of  London 
in  November,  1868. 

Low'ell,  (Charles,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  a  son 
of  Judge  Lowell,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Boston  in 
1782.  He  became  minister  of  the  West  Congregational 
Church  in  that  city  about  1806.  He  travelled  exten- 
sively in  Europe  and  the  East,  returning  home  in  1840. 
Among  his  publications  are  two  volumes  of  sermons, 
(1855.)    Died  January  20,  1861. 

Lowell,  (Colonel  Charles  Russell,)  an  American 
officer,  born  in  Boston  in  1835,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
poet,  J.  R.  Lowell.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1854 
with  the  first  honours.  He  served  as  captain  of  cavalry 
in  the  peninsular  campaign  in  1862,  and  commanded 
a  body  of  cavalry  which  protected  Washington  in  the 
summer  of  1863,  after  which  he  served  under  General 
Sheridan  and  commanded  a  brigade.  He  had  thirteen 
horses  shot  under  him.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Cedar  Creek,  Virginia,  October  19,  1864.  He  was  a 
young  man  of  great  promise. 

Lowell,  (Francis  Cabot,)  brother  of  John  Lowell, 
(the  second  of  the  name,)  born  at  Newburyport  in  1775, 
was  one  of  the  principal  founders  of  the  city  of  Lowell, 
to  which  he  gave  his  name.  He  was  a  merchant  and 
manufacturer  of  cotton.    Died  in  181 7. 

Lowell,  (James  Russell,)  a  distinguished  American 
poet,  critic,  and  scholar,  the  son  of  the  Rev.  Charles 
Lowell,  noticed  above,  was  born  February  22,  1819. 
Having  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1838,  he  entered  the 
law  school  of  that  institution,  where  he  remained  two 
years,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1841  ;  but  he  soon 
abandoned  the  profession,  that  he  might  devote  himself 
wholly  to  literature.  He  published  in  1844  a  volume 
of  poems  containing  a  "Legend  of  Brittany,"  "Pro- 
metheus," and  a  number  of  smaller  pieces.  In  1848 
appeared  a  second  collection  of  poems,  and  in  a  small 
volume  (separately)  "The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal."  In 
the  same  year  he  also  published  the  "Biglow  Papers," 
a  witty  and  humorous  satire,  written  in  the  "Yankee" 
dialect,  on  the  events  of  the  Mexican  war,  and  a  "  Fable 
for  Critics,"  a  charmingyW/  cTesprit,  which,  in  the  words 
of  Professor  Bowen,  is  "a  very  witty  review  article  done 
into  rhyme."*  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  best 
parts  of  this  poem  (which,  by  the  way,  is  very  unequal) 
are  scarcely  surpassed  either  in  wit  or  .in  felicity  of  ex- 
pression by  anything  of  a  similar  kind  in  the  English  lan- 
guage. In  the  summer  of  1851  Mr.  Lowell  visited  Europe, 
and  returned  home  after  an  absence  of  somewhat  more 
than  a  year.  In  the  winter  of  1854-55  he  delivered  in 
Boston  a  very  popular  course  of  lectures  on  the  British 
poets.  Professor  Longfellow  having,  in  1854,  resigned 
the  chair  of  the  modern  languages  and  belles-lettres  at 
Harvard,  Mr.  Lowell  was  appointed  his  successor  in 
January,  1855.  On  the  establishment  of  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  in  1857,  Profe.ssor  Lowell  became  the  editor, — 
a  position  which  he  held  about  five  years, — ^and  under 
his  auspices  this  magazine  acquired  a  wide  and  deserved 


*  See  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1849^ 


^,  e,  1,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  k,  h,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  mocMi; 


LOWELL 


1463 


LOWNDES 


popularity.  Among  his  more  recent  poetical  produc- 
tions we  may  mention  Under  the  Willows,  and  other 
Poems,"  {1869,)  and  "The  Cathedral,"  (1870.)  Besides 
the  various  collections  of  his  poems  referred  to  above, 
he  has  published  a  volume  of  his  prose  writings,  entitled 
"  Among  my  Books,"  (1870,)  consisting  of  literary  essays, 
contributions  to  Reviews,  etc. 

Among  the  poets  of  America,  Lowell  is  distinguished 
by  the  great  range,  (if  we  may  use  the  expression,)  as 
well  as  by  the  versatility,  of  his  powers.  He  seems 
equally  at  home  in  the  playful,  the  pathetic,  or  the  medi- 
tative realms  of  poetry.  And  we  always  rise  from  the 
perusal  of  his  productions  with  the  impression  that  he 
has  not  put  forth  all  his  strength,  but  that,  had  he  aS; 
pired  to  something  still  higher,  it  would  not  have  been 
beyond  the  reach  of  his  genius. 

Several  editions  of  his  collected  poems  have  been 
published  in  England  as  well  as  in  the  United  States. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "North  American  Re- 
view" for  April,  1841,  April,  1844,  and  January,  i84g;  and  the  article 
on  "American  Humour,"  in  the  "North  British  Review"  for  No- 
vember, i860. 

Lowell,  (John,)  an  American  statesman,  born  at 
Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1 743.  He  began  to 
practise  law  in  Boston  about  1777.  As  a  member  of  the 
convention  which  formed  the  Constitution  of  Massachu- 
setts in  1780,  he  efficiently  promoted  the  liberation  of 
slaves  held  in  that  State.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  Congress  in  1781,  and  appointed  a  judge  of  the  dis- 
trict court  of  Massachusetts  in  1789.  He  had  three 
sons,  John,  Francis  C,  and  Charles.  Died  at  Roxbury 
in  1802. 

Lowell,  (John,)  an  able  lawyer  and  political  writer, 
born  at  Newburyport  in  October,  1769,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1786, 
practised  law  at  Boston,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation. 
About  1803  he  visited  Europe.  He  was  a  Federalist, 
wrote  much  for  the  public  journals,  and  exerted  great 
influence  in  New  England,  but  declined  to  enter  the 
public  service.  He  published  twenty-five  or  more  pam- 
phlets, mostly  political,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Boston  Athenaeum  and  the  Massachusetts  General 
Hospital.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  colloquial  powers. 
Died  at  Boston  in  1840. 

Lowell,  (John,)  the  founder  of  Lowell  Institute,  was 
born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  1799,  and  was  a  son 
of  Francis  Cabot  Lowell,  noticed  above.  Having  lost 
his  wife  and  children  about  i83i,he  travelled  extensively 
in  Europe,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  He  died  at  Bombay  in 
March,  1836,  leaving  by  his  will  about  $250,000  to  main- 
tain in  Boston  annual  courses  of  gratuitous  lectures  on 
various  subjects. 

Lowell,  (Maria  White,)  an  American  poetess,  the 
wife  of  James  Russell  Lowell,  noticed  above,  was  born 
at  Watertown,  Massachusetts,  in  1821.  She  was  married 
to  Mr.  Lowell  in  1844.  She  died  in  1853.  She  is 
described  as  having  been  singularly  beautiful  both  in 
person  and  character.  A  volume  of  her  poems  appeared 
in  1855. 

See  (jRiswold's  "Female  Poets  of  America." 

Lowell,  (Mary.)    See  Putnam,  (Mrs.  Mary.) 

Lowell,  (Robert  Traill  Spence,)  son  of  the  Rev. 
Charles  Lowell,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Boston  in 
1816.  He  was  ordained  a  clergyman  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  in  1842,  and  subsequently  became  rector  of 
Christ  Church,  Duanesburg,  New  York.  He  has  pub- 
lished a  novel  entitled  "The  New  Priest  in  Conception 
Bay,"  and  a  collection  of  poems. 

Lowen  or  Loewen,  lo'wen,  (Johann  Frifdrtch,) 
a  German  poet  and  writer  of  fiction,  born  at  Klausthal 
in  1729  ;  died  in  1771. 

Lowendahl  or  Loewendahl,  lo'^^^'en-dSK,  written 
also  Loevendahl,  (Ulkich  Frikdrich  Woldemar,) 
a  celebrated  general,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1700,  was 
a  great-grandson  of  Frederick  III.  of  Denmark.  He 
entered  the  service  of  Russia  in  the  reign  of  Anne,  about 
1736,  and  as  general  of  artillery  gained  victories  over  the 
Turks  and  Tartars.  In  1743  he  passed  into  the  French 
service  as  lieutenant-general,  and  in  1745  commanded 
the  reserve  corps  at  Fontenoy.  As  second  in  command 
under  Marshal  Saxe,  he  took  many  towns  in  Flanders 


in  the  same  year.  For  the  capture  of  Bergen-op-Zoom, 
in  1747,  he  was  rewarded  with  a  marshal's  baton.  He 
died  in  1755. 

See  Carl  C.  Rothe,  "  Grev  von  Loevendals  Liv  og  Levnet," 
1750;  M.  Ranft,  "  Leben  und  Thaten  des  Grafen  von  Lbwenthal," 
1754;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Lowenhaupt  or  Loewenhaupt,  lo'<^en-h6wpt', 
(Adam  Louis,)  Count,  a  skilful  Swedish  general,  born 
in  1659.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Riga  in  1706. 
On  his  march  to  join  the  army  of  Charles  XII.,  who  had 
invaded  Russia,  he  was  attacked  by  the  Czar  Peter  at 
Liesna  in  1708,  and  lost  about  4000  men,  but  pursued 
his  course.  He  displayed  great  courage  at  Pultowa, 
July,  1 709,  and  when  Charles  fled  to  Turkey  the  command 
of  the  Swedish  army  devolved  on  Lowenhaupt,  who  was 
forced  to  capitulate  in  1709.  He  was  kept  as  a  prisoner 
in  Russia  until  his  death,  in  1 7 19. 

Lowenhaupt  or  Loewenhaupt,  von,  fon  lo'^en- 
howpt',  (Carl  Emil,)  Count,  a  Swedish  general,  born 
in  1692.  War  having  been  declared  against  Russia,  he 
was  chosen  general-in-chief  of  an  army  sent  to  invade 
Finland  in  1742.  His  success  was  hindered  by  dissen- 
sions among  the  Swedish  officers,  and  he  surrendered 
at  Helsingfors,  in  September,  1742.  The  anti-war  party 
having  become  dominant,  he  was  tried  for  that  reverse, 
and  executed  in  1743. 

Lftwenhielm  or  Loewenhielm,  lo'wen-he-glm', 
(Carl  Gustaf,)  Count  of,  a  Swedish  statesman,  was 
the  chief  of  the  party  of  "Caps."  His  party  having 
gained  the  ascendency  in  1765,  he  was  then  made  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs.  He  wrote  several  memoirs  for 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.    Died  in  1768. 

Lowenhielm  or  Loewenhielm,  (Gustaf  Carl 
Frederik,)  Count  of,  a  Swedish  diplomatist,  born  at 
Stockholm  in  1 771.  He  served  in  the  army,  and  obtained 
the  rank  of  general.  He  represented  Sweden  at  the 
Congress  of  Vienna,  (1814,)  and  was  Swedish  minister 
at  the  court  of  Paris  from  1818  until  1856.  He  wrote 
several  military  treatises,  and  a  remarkable  work  on  the 
organization  of  government.    Died  in  1856. 

Lowenklau.    See  Leunclavius. 

LSw'er,  (Richard,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English 
anatomist,  born  in  Cornwall  about  1630.  He  became  a 
friend  and  coadjutor  of  Dr.  Willis,  whom  he  assisted  in 
his  work  on  the  "Anatomy  of  the  Brain."  In  1661  he 
confirmed  the  Harveian  theory  by  experiments  on  the 
transfusion  of  blood.  He  practised  medicine  in  London 
many  years,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Heart,  on  the  Motion  of  the  Blood,"  etc.  Died 
in  1691. 

See  "  Biographic  Medicale." 

Lower,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  dramatist,  born 
in  Cornwall ;  died  in  1662. 

Lowitz,  lo'^^'its,  (Georg  Moritz,)  a  German  astrono- 
mer, born  near  Nuremberg  in  1722.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Gottingen  about  1755,  and  was 
afterwards  director  of  the  observatory  at  that  place.  In 
1766  he  removed  to  Saint  Petersburg,  and  was  admitted 
into  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  by  which  he  was  employed 
in  astronomical  observations.  He  was  killed  by  some 
rebels  at  Dmetriefsk  in  1774.  He  had  written  several 
memoirs  on  astronomy. 

His  son  Toi?iAS,  born  at  Gottingen  in  1757,  became 
one  of  the  most  eminent  members  of  the  Imperial  Acad- 
emy of  Saint  Petersburg,  and  professor  of  chemistry. 
Died  in  1804. 

Low'man,  (Moses,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
in  London  in  1680.  About  17 10  he  settled  at  Clapham, 
where  he  preached  many  years  to  a  congregation  of  Dis- 
senters. He  wrote  a  "  Rationale  of  the  Ritual  of  the 
Hebrew  Worship,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1752. 

Lowndes,  lowndz,  (Rawlins,)  born  in  the  British 
West  Indies  in  1722,  settled  at  Charleston,  South  Caro- 
lina, where  he  rose  to  eminence  as  a  statesman  and  law- 
yer. He  was  elected  president  or  Governor  of  South 
Carolina  in  1778.    Died  in  1800. 

Lowndes,  (William  Jones,)  an  eminent  American 
statesman,  a  son  of  the  ])receding,  was  born  at  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  on  the  7th  of  p^ebruary,  1782.  He 
studied  law,  and  married  a  daughter  of  General  Thomas 
Pinckney.   In  1810  or  181 1  he  was  elected  a  member  of 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  H,  y.^  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R, 


trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this,  (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LOWNDES 


1464 


LUBBOCK 


Congress  for  a  district  of  South  Carolina.  He  was  an 
eloquent  debater,  and  was  eminent  for  his  wisdom  and 
logical  acumen.  He  is  said  to  have  been  modest  and 
unambitious.  He  continued  to  serve  in  Congress  about 
eleven  years,  and  was  chairman  of  the  committee  of 
ways  and  means  from  1818  to  1822.  It  appears  that  he 
was  a  general  favourite,  and  was  reputed  to  stand  in  the 
first  rank  of  American  statesmen.  His  health  having 
failed,  he  sailed  for  Europe,  but  died  on  the  voyage  in 
October,  1822. 

See  "Encyclopaedia  Americana,"  (Supplement.) 

Lowndes,  (William  Thomas,)  an  English  bibliog- 
rapher, lived  in  London.  He  published,  about  1834, 
"  The  Bibliographer's  Manual,"  which  is  highly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1843. 

LQw'ry,  (Wilson,)  a  skilful  English  engraver,  born 
at  Whitehaven  in  1762,  became  a  resident  of  London. 
He  contributed  to  the  perfection  of  his  art  by  several 
important  inventions,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation, 
especially  as  an  engraver  of  architecture  and  mechanism, 
in  which  he  was  unsurpassed.  He  engraved  many  figures 
^r  Rees's  "Cyclopaedia."    Died  in  1824. 

Lowth,  lowth,  (Robert,)  an  English  bishop  and  emi- 
nent writer,  born  at  Winchester  in  17 10,  was  the  son  of 
"William  Lowth,  noticed  below.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford, and  became  eminent  as  a  biblical  scholar.  Having 
been  chosen  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford,  (1741,)  he 
delivered  "  Lectures  on  the  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,"  (in 
Latin,)  which  were  published  in  1753,  and  often  reprinted. 
This  work  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  most  eminent 
critics.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in 
1766,  translated  to  the  see  of  Oxford  in  the  same  year, 
and  to  that  of  London  in  1777.  Among  his  most  impor- 
tant works  is  an  excellent  "  Translation  of  the  Prophet 
Isaiah,"  (1778.)    Died  in  1787. 

See  P.  Hall,  "Life  of  Bishop  Lowth,"  1834  ;  "  Memoirs  of  the 
I,ife  of  Robert  Lowth,"  London,  1797;  "Monthly  Review"  for 
February  and  March,  1779,  and  April,  1780. 

Lowth,  (  Simon,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  about  1630.  He  was  vicar  of  Saint 
Cosmus  and  Damian-on-the-Blean.  He  published  "Let- 
ters between  Dr.  G.  Burnet  and  Simon  Lowth,"  (1684,) 
and  other  writings.    Died  in  1720. 

Lowth,  (William,)  a  scholar  and  commentator,  the 
father  of  Robert,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  London  in 
1661.  He  was  chaplain  to  the  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
and  became  rector  of  Buriton  about  1700.  He  wrote 
several  highly  esteemed  works,  among  which  are  "  Di- 
rections for  the  Profitable  Reading  of  the  Holy  vScrip- 
tures,"  (1708,)  and  a  "Commentary  on  the  Four  Greater 
Prophets,"  (4  vols.,  1714-26.)    Died  in  1732. 

Lowther,  (William.)    See  Lonsdale,  Earl  of. 

Loyd,  loid,  (Lewis,)  an  English  banker,  born  in  1768. 
He  was  a  partner  of  the  banking-house  of  Jones,  Loyd 
&  Co.,  London,  and  was  distinguished  as  a  financier.  He 
died  in  1858.  His  son,  Samuel  J.  Loyd,  received  the 
title  of  Lord  Overstone. 

Loyer,  Le,  leh  Iwi'yi',  (Pierre,)  a  French  lawyer, 
born  in  Anjou  in  1550,  was  learned  in  antiquities  and 
Oriental  languages.  He  wrote  a  curious  work  on  de- 
monology,  entitled  "On  Spectres,  Angels,  and  Demons 
distinctly  manifesting  themselves  to  Men,"  ("Quatres 
Livres  des  Spectres,  Anges  et  Demons  se  montrant  sen- 
siblement  aux  Hommes,")  and  other  works.  Died  in  1634. 

Loyola,  loi-o'la,  [Sp.  pron.  lo-yo'li,}  (Ignatius,) 
originally  Don  iNKiO  Lopez  de  Recalde,  (di  ri-kil'di,) 
often  called  Saint  Ignatius,  (ig-na'she-us  ;)  [Fr.  Saint- 
Ignace,  s^N^t^n^yts';  It.  Sant'  IgnazTo,  sint  in-ySt'- 
se-o,]  a  celebrated  Spanish  reformer,  and  the  founder 
of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  at 
Loyola  Castle,  in  Biscay,  in  1491.  He  received  from 
nature  an  ardent,  imaginative  temperament,  and  in  youth 
was  the  very  prototype  of  the  hero  of  Cervantes,  an 
enthusiastic  votary  of  chivalrous  romance.  After  signal- 
izing his  gallantry  in  several  campaigns,  he  received 
about  1520,  at  the  siege  of  Pampeluna,  a  wound  which 
made  him  a  cripple  for  life.  During  the  tedious  con- 
finement which  followed,  his  attention  was  directed  to 
the  mysteries  of  religion.  Ascribing  his  recovery  to  a 
miracle  of  grace,  he  dedicated  himself  to  arduous  re- 
ligious enterprises  and  to  the  service  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 


gin. He  became  a  popular  preacher,  and  was  renowned 
tor  his  penances  and  vigils.  In  1523  he  performed  a 
pilgriniage  to  Jerusalem,  from  which  he  returned  to 
Spain  in  1524.  He  passed  several  ensuing  years  at  Al- 
cala  and  Salamanca  in  the  study  of  grammar,  philosophy, 
etc.,  which  he  had  neglected  to  learn  in  his  youth.  In 
1528  he  became  a  student  in  the  University  of  Paris, 
where  he  found  several  congenial  spirits,  among  whom 
were  Francis  Xavier  and  James  Lainez.  With  these  he 
farmed  in  1534  a  religious  society  devoted  to  the  educa- 
tion of  youth,  the  renovation  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  the  conversion  of  the  infidels. 

After  they  had  digested  the  polity  and  peculiar  maxims 
of  the  new  order,  Paul  III.  gave  it  his  formal  sanction 
m  1540,  and  Loyola  was  chosen  superior  or  general 
(with  absolute  power)  of  the  order,  which  was  styled  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  Loyola  thenceforth  remained  in  Rome, 
and  witnessed  the  extraordinary  success  of  his  efforts. 
"Under  his  rule,"  says  Macaulay,  "the  order  grew 
rapidly  to  the  full  measure  of  its  gigantic  powers.  With 
what  vehemence,  with  what  policy,  with  what  exact 
discipline,  with  what  dauntless  courage,  with  what  self- 
denial,  with  what  unscrupulous  laxity  and  versatility  in 
the  choice  of  means,  the  Jesuits  fought  the  battles  of 
their  Church,  is  written  in  every  page  of  the  annals  of 
Europe  during  several  generations.  In  the  Order  of 
Jesus  was  concentrated  the  quintessence  of  the  Catholic 
spirit;  and  the  history  of  the  Order  of  Jesus  is  the 
history  of  the  great  Catholic  reaction.  This  order  pos- 
sessed itself  at  once  of  all  the  strongholds  which  cotii- 
mand  the  public  mind, — of  the  pulpit,  of  the  press,  of 
the  confessional,  of  the  academies.  .  .  .  Nor  was  it  less 
their  office  to  plot  against  the  thrones  and  lives  of  apos- 
tate kings,  to  spread  evil  rumours,  to  raise  tumults,  to 
inflame  civil  wars,  to  arm  the  hand  of  the  assassin." 
(See  Review  of  Ranke's  "History  of  the  Popes.")  It 
does  not  appear,  however,  that  Loyola  was  responsible 
for  the  corruptions  referred  to  in  the  above  quotation. 
His  chief  work  is  "Spiritual  Exercises,"  ("  Exercicios 
espirituales,"  1548,)  in  which  he  gives  rules  and  counsels 
for  the  guidance  of  believers.  He  died  in  1566,  and  was 
canonized  as  a  saint  by  the  pope  in  1622. 

See  RiBADENEiRA,  "  Vida  de  S.  Ignazio,"  1570;  G.  P.  Maffei, 
"  De  Vita  et  Moribus  Ignatii  Loyolae,"  1584;  Stein,  "Vita  Ignatii 
Loyolae,"  1598;  P.  Bouhours,  "  Vie  de  Saint-Ignace,"  1679;  Bom- 
bina,  "Vita  S.  Ignatii,"  1615  ;  M.  VValpole,  "  Life  of  Saint  Igna- 
tius," 1617;  Isaac  Taylor,  "  Lite  of  Ignatius  Loyola;"  Bartoli, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Societe  de  Jesus;"  Gretser,  "  Apologia  pro  Vita 
S.  Ignatii,"  1599-1604;  Genelli,  "  Leben  des  Ignatius  von  Loyola," 
1848;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ix.,  1824. 

Loyseau.    See  Loiseau. 

Loyseau,  Iwl'zo',  (Charles,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Nogent-le-Roi  in  1566;  died  in  1627. 

Loysel.    See  Loisel. 

Loyson,  (Charles.)    See  Hyacinthe. 

Loyson,  Iwi'zdN',  (Charles,)  a  French  poet,  born 
in  Mayenne  in  1791,  was  maitre  des  conferences  in  the 
Normal  School.  He  published,  in  1819,  a  volume  of 
elegies  and  epistles,  which  abound  with  beautiful  verses. 
"He  approaches  Lamartine,"  says  Sainte-Beuve,  "in 
elevation  and  spiritiialisme  of  sentiments."  Died  in  1820. 

Lu'a,  [frotTi  luo,  to  "purge"  or  "purify,"]  a  Roman 
goddess,  who  presided  over  things  purified  by  lustra- 
tions.   By  some  she  is  identified  with  Ops  or  Rhea. 

Lubbert,  lul/bert,  or  Luthbert,  liit'bgRt,  (Sibrand,) 
a  learned  Dutch  Calvinist,  born  in  Friesland  about  1555. 
He  was  for  many  years  professor  of  divinity  at  Franeker, 
and  was  deputed  to  the  Synod  of  Dort  about  161 8.  He 
wrote  controversial  works  against  Socinus,  Arminris, 
and  Grotius.    Died  in  1625. 

Lub'bpck,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  banker  and  savant, 
a  son  of  Sir  John  William,  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
London  in  1834.  In  1870  he  was  elected  to  Parliament 
as  a  Liberal  from  Maidstone.  Besides  several  scientific 
memoirs,  he  is  the  author  of  two  important  works,  "  Pre- 
historic Times,"  (1865,)  and  "The  Origin  of  Civilization  ; 
or,  The  Primitive  Condition  of  Man,"  (1870.) 

Lubbock,  (Sir  John  William,)  Bart,  an  English 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  born  in  London  in  1803, 
was  educated  at  Cambridge.  About  1830  he  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  which  he  served  as  treas- 
urer for  many  years.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Philosophic 
Transactions"  treatises  on  the  "Tides,"  "On  Meteor- 


a.  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  ^,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


LUBERSJC 


1465 


LUCAS 


ology,"  "  Researches  in  Physical  Astronomy,"  etc.  In 
1833  he  produced  a  work  "On  the  Theory  of  the  Moon 
and  on  the  Perturbations  of  the  Planets."  Died  in  1865. 

Lubersac,  de,  deh  lU'b^R'stk',  (N.,)  a  French  writer 
and  amateur  of  art,  born  in  Limousin  in  1730;  died 
in  1804. 

Lubert,  de,  deh  lii'baiR',  Mademoiselle,  a  French 
romance- writer,  born  in  Paris  about  17 10.  She  com- 
posed successful  romances  and  fairy-tales,  one  of  which 
is  entitled  "Princess  Rose-Colour  and  Prince  Celadon." 
Voltaire  complimented  her  with  the  title  of  "Muse  et 
Grace."    Died  about  1780.  • 

Lubieniecius.    See  Lubienieckl 

Lubieniecki,  loo-be-en-e-^ts'kee,  written  also  Lu- 
bienetski  or  Lubienietski,  (Christopher,)  a  painter, 
of  Polish  extraction,  born  at  Stettin  in  1659.  He  settled 
in  Amsterdam,  where  he  painted  portraits  and  history. 
Died  in  1729. 

Lubieniecki  or  Lubienietski,  [Lat.  Lubienie'- 
cius,]  (Stanislas,)  a  Polish  Socinian  and  astronomer, 
was  born  at  Cracow  in  1623.  He  became  minister  of  a 
church  in  Lublin,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Polish 
Reformation,"  (1685.)  He  was  exiled  from  Lublin  for 
his  opinions  in  theology,  and  died  at  Hamburg  in  1675. 
His  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his  "Theatrum  Cometi- 
cum,"  (1667,)  which  gives  an  ample  account  of  four 
hundred  and  fifteen  comets  which  appeared  from  the 
Deluge  to  his  own  time. 

See  Bayi.e,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Lubieniecki  or  Lubienetski,(THEODORE,)  a  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Cracow  in  1653,  was  a  brother  of 
Christopher,  noticed  above.  He  became  a  resident  of 
Berlin,  where  he  painted  landscapes  and  historical  pic- 
tures. A  Socinian  treatise  which  he  wrote  having  been 
burnt  by  the  hangman,  he  resigned  his  place,  and  re- 
turned to  Poland,  in  1706.    Died  in  1720. 

Lubin,  lii^bdN',  (Aucujstin,)  a  French  monk,  born  in 
Paris  in  1624.  He  received  the  title  of  geographer  to 
the  king,  and  published,  besides  other  learned  works 
on  ancient  and  sacred  geography,  "  Plates  of  Sacred 
Geography,"  ("Tabulae  Sacrae  Geographicae,"  1670.) 
Died  in  1695. 

Lubin,  loo'hin,  (Eflhard,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  in  Oldenburg  in  1565.  He  became  in  1595  pro- 
fessor of  belles-lettres  at  Rostock,  where  he  died  in  1621, 
leaving,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Key  to  the  Greek  Lan- 
guage," ("  Clavis  Linguae  Graecae,"  1622,)  and  notes  on 
Horace,  Persius,  and  Juvenal. 

Lubin,  (Jacques,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in  Paris 
in  1637;  died  about  1695. 

Lubis,  lii'b^ss',  (E.  p.,)  a  French  political  writer, 
born  in  1806,  published  a  "  History  of  the  Restoration," 
(in  French,  6  vols.,  1836.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1859. 

Lublink,  liib'link,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  writer,  born  at 
Amsterdam  in  1735.  He  translated  into  Dutch  Thom- 
son's "  Seasons"  and  Young's  "  Night  Thoughts,"  and 
wrote  other  works.    Died  about  181 5. 

Lubomirski,  loo-bo-m^R'skee,  (Stanislas  Hera- 
CLIUS,)  a  noble  Polish  writer,  born  about  1640.  He 
became  grand  marshal  of  Poland,  and  defended  the 
national  independence  with  his  pen  and  sword.  One 
of  his  works  is  a  political  treatise  called  "Consultations  ; 
or,  On  the  Vanity  of  Counsels,"  ("  Consultationes,  sive 
de  Vanitate  Consiliorum,"  1700.)    Died  in  1702. 

Luc,  the  French  for  Luke,  which  see. 

Luc,  Saint.    See  Luke,  Saint. 

Luc,  de.    See  Deluc. 

Luc  de  Bruges.    See  Lucas  Brugensis. 

Luca.    See  Luke. 

Luca,  loo'ki,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  prelate,  born  at  Venosa  in  1614.  He  published 
"Theatre  of  Truth  and  Justice,"  ("  Theatrum  Veritatis 
et  fustitias,"  7  vols.,  1697,)  which  treats  on  canon  and 
civil  hiw  and  was  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1683. 

Luca  or  Lucae,  loo'tsA,  (Samuel  Christian,)  a 
German  anatomist,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1787;  died  in 
1821. 

Luca,  von,  fon  loo'k^l,  (Ignaz,)  a  German  historian 
and  political  writer,  born  in  Vienna  in  1746;  died  in  1799. 

Luca  Santo,  loo'ka  sin'to,  or  Saint  Luke,  a  Flor- 
entine painter  of  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century.    He  is 


supposed  to  have  painted  the  Madonnas  which  were 
ascribed  to  Saint  Luke  the  Evangelist. 
Lucain.    See  Lucan. 

Lu'can,  (George  Charles  Bingham,)  Earl  of,  a 
British  general,  a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Lucan,  was  born  in 
London  in  1800.  He  succeeded  to  the  earldom  about 
1840,  and  voted  with  the  Conservative  party  in  the  House 
of  Lords.  In  1854  he  obtained  conmiand  of  the  cavalry 
in  the  Crimea,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He 
was  censured  for  the  disastrous  result  of  the  cavalry 
charge  at  Balaklava. 

Lu'can,  [Lat,  Luca'nus;  Fr.  Lucain,  lii'kiN' ;  It. 
Lucano',  loo-ki'no,]  (Marcus  Ann.*:us,)  a  Roman  epic 
poet,  born  at  Corduba,  (Cordova,)  Spain,  in  38  a.d.,  was 
a  nephew  of  the  philosopher  Seneca.  He  was  educated 
at  Rome.  His  early  poems  procured  him  the  favour  of 
Nero,  who  appointed  him  quaestor  and  augur  and  con- 
descended to  appear  as  his  rival  in  a  literary  contest. 
Lucan  gained  the  prize,  but  at  the  same  time  lost  the 
favour  of  the  tyrant,  whom  he  had  formerly  addressed 
with  gross  adulation.  Nero  forbade  him  to  read  any  more 
poems  in  public.  Lucan,  with  Piso  and  others,  conspired 
against  the  life  of  Nero;  the  plot  was  detected,  and  the 
poet  was  put  to  death  in  65  a.d.  His  fame  rests  on  a 
poem  entitled  "  Pharsalia,"  which  treats  of  the  civil  war 
between  Caesar  and  Pompey,  and  displays  great  beauties 
with  great  defects.  Among  the  latter  is  an  inflated, 
declamatory  style.  Corneille  and  Voltaire  were  warm 
admirers  of  Lucan.  "  His  genius,"  says  Villemain,  re- 
ferring to  his  early  death,  "  had  only  time  to  produce 
grandeur,  without  naturalness  or  truth."  Among  his 
merits  are  exalted  imagination,  intense  energy,  and 
impressive  diction. 

See  Karl  H.  Weise,  "Vita  Lucani,"  1835;  Jacob  Palmer, 
"Apologia  pro  Lucano,"  1704;  Voltaire,  "  Essai  sur  la  Poesie 
epiqiie;"  J.  G.  Meusel,  " Dissertationes  II.  de  Lucano,"  1767; 
Smith,  "  Dictionaiy  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Lucano.    See  Lucan. 

Lucauus.    See  Lucan. 

Lucar,  (Cyril.)    See  Cyril-Lucar. 

Lu'cas,  (Charles,)  an  Irish  physician,  patriot,  and 
politician,  born  in  17 13.  He  was  a  popular  member  of 
the  Irish  Parliament,  and  an  opponent  of  the  court. 
Died  in  1771. 

Lu'cas,  (Frederick,)  an  English  lawyer  and  editor, 
was  born  in  Westminster  in  1812.  About  1840  he  was 
converted  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  and  soon  after 
became  editor  of  "The  Tablet,"  a  newspaper  published 
in  London.  Having  removed  to  Dublin,  he  was  elected 
to  Parliament  in  1852,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his 
zeal  to  promote  the  political  power  or  privileges  of  the 
Irish  Catholics.    Died  in  1855. 

Lucas,  V\x'\A',  (Hippolyte  Julien  Joseph,)  a  French 
poet  and  writer  of  fiction,  born  at  Rennes  in  1807.  He 
produced  in  1834  two  volumes  of  verse  and  prose, 
entitled  "The  Heart  and  the  World."  Among  his 
numerous  works  is  a  "  Philosophic  and  Literary  His- 
tory of  the  French  Theatre,"  (1843.) 

Lucas,  (Jean,)  a  French  poet  and  Jesuit,  born  in 
Paris  about  1650.  He  wrote  a  Latin  poem  entitled 
"Actio  Oratoris,"  (1675,)  which  treats  on  gesture  and 
elocution. 

Lucas,  (Jean  Andr^  Henri,)  a  French  mineralo- 
gist, born  in  Paris  in  1780  ;  died  in  1825. 

Lucas,  (Jean  Jacques  Etienne,)  a  French  naval 
officer,  born  at  Marennes  in  1764.  In  1803  he  obtained 
command  of  the  Redoutable.  At  the  battle  of  Trafalgar 
(1805)  his  ship  grappled  with  Nelson's  flag-ship,  the  Vic- 
tory, and  one  of  his  crew  gave  Nelson  a  mortal  wound. 
Lucas  was  taken  prisoner  in  this  action.    Died  in  1819. 

Lucas,  (Jean  Marie  Charles,)  a  French  economist, 
born  at  Saint-Brieuc  in  1803.  He  wrote  "On  the  Re- 
form of  Prisons,"  (3  vols.,  1836-38,)  and  other  works. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1836. 

Lucas,  (Margaret.)  See  Cavendish,  (Margaret.) 

Lucas,  (Paul,)  a  French  traveller,  born  at  Rouen  in 
1664,  was  in  early  life  a  dealer  in  jewels.  He  visited 
Upi^er  Egypt,  Syria,  Persia,  etc.,  and  published  "Voyage 
to  the  Levant,"  (1704.)  Having  received  a  commission 
from  Louis  XIV.  to  collect  medals  and  other  monu- 
ments of  antiquity,  he  again  explored  the  Levant,  (1705- 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  K,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LUCAS 


1466 


LUCILIUS 


08,)  and  published  a  narrative  of  his  journey.  In  17 19 
he  produced  his  best  work,  entitled  a  *'  Journey  in  Turkey, 
Syria,  Palestine,  and  Egypt,"  (performed  in  1 715-16.) 
Many  of  his  stories  are  exaggerated  and  absurd.  Died 
in  1737. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historiqiie ;"  *' Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Lu'cas,  (Richard,)  a  learned  British  divine,  born 
in  Radnorshire  in  1648.  He  settled  in  London  about 
1684,  and  became  prebendary  of  Westminster  in  1696. 
He  published  an  "Enquiry  after  Happiness,"  and  "Prac- 
tical Christianity,"  which  are  highly  commended,  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1 71 5. 

Lucas,  Saint.    See  Luke,  Saint. 

Lucas,  (Samuel,)  an  English  journalist  and  miscel- 
laneous writer,  born  at  Bristol  in  1818.  He  was  editor 
of  the  "  Press"  and  of  "  Once  a  Week."  He  contributed 
to  the  Edinburgh  and  Quarterly  Reviews.   Died  in  1865. 

Lu'cas  Bru-gen'sis,  [or  Luc  de  Bruges,  liik  deh 
briizh,]  (pRANgois,)  a  Flemish  theologian  and  excellent 
linguist,  born  at  Bruges  in  1549.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Concordances  of  the  Vulgate  Edition  of 
the  Sacred  Books,"  ("Sacrorum  Bibliorum  Vulgatas 
Editionis  Concordantiae,"  1617;  and  5  vols.,  1712.)  Died 
in  1619. 

Lucas  de  Cranach.    See  Cranach. 
Lucas  van  Ley  den.    See  Ley  den. 
Lucatelli.    See  Locatelli. 

Lucceius,  luk-see'us,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  orator  and 
friend  of  Cicero,  flourished  about  60  B.C. 

Lucchesini,  look-ki-see'nee,  (Cesare,)  an  Italian 
philologist,  born  at  Lucca  in  1756,  was  a  brother  of 
the  marquis,  noticed  below.  He  acquired  a  European 
reputation  by  his  numerous  works  on  philology,  among 
which  is  "  The  Sources  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Lan- 
guages."   Died  in  1832. 

See  TiPALUo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Lucchesini,  (Giovanni  Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit, 
born  at  Lucca  in  1638.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  refutation  of  Machiavel's  workon  Politics,  (1697.)  Died 
about  1 7 10. 

Lucchesini,(GiovANNi  ViNCENZO,)an  Italian  scholar, 
born  at  Lucca  in  1660.  He  lived  in  Rome,  and  obtained 
from  Clement  XII.  the  high  office  of  secretary  of  briefs. 
He  published  an  edition  of  Demosthenes'  Orations,  with 
notes  and  a  good  Latin  translation,  and  a  "History  of 
Europe  from  1678  to  about  1 735."    Died  in  1744. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vitas  Italorum  doctiina  excellentium." 

Lucchesini,  da,  di  look-ki-see'nee,  (Girolamo,) 
Marquis,  an  able  diplomatist,  born  at  Lucca  in  1752. 
He  removed  to  Berlin  in  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  who  appointed  him  his  librarian 
and  reader.  He  was  sent  as  minister  of  Prussia  to  Vi- 
enna in  1793,  and  to  Paris  in  1802.  After  the  battle  of 
Jena  (1806)  he  negotiated  a  truce  with  the  victor  ;  but  it 
was  not  ratified  by  the  Prussian  court.  Soon  after  this 
event  he  returned  to  Lucca.  He  wrote  a  work  called 
"  On  the  Causes  and  Effects  of  the  Confederation  of 
the  Rhine,"  (1819.)    Died  in  1825. 

See  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Luce,  the  French  of  Lucius,  (Pope,)  which  see. 

Luce  de  Lancival,  liis  deh  IdN^se'vtl',  (  Jean 
Charles  Julien,)  a  French  litterateur^  born  in  Picardy 
in  1764.  He  was  chosen  professor  of  belles-lettres  in 
the  Prytanee,  a  college  of  Paris,  about  1797.  Among 
his  best  productions  are  a  poem  called  "Achilles  at 
Scyros,"  (1805,)  and  "Hector,"  a  tragedy,  (1809,)  which 
Villemain  pronounces  "truly  Homeric."    Died  in  1810. 

See  ViLi,EMAiN,  notice  in  the  "  Magasin  Encydopedique ;"  H. 
Greli.et,  "  Luce  de  Lancival:  Notice  biographique,"  1857. 

Lucena,  de,  di  loo-sa'nS,  (Joao,)  a  Portuguese  writer, 
born  at  Trancoso  about  1548.  He  was  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  Ev'ora,  and  author  of  an  excellent  "Life  of 
Francis  Xavier,"  (1600,)  often  reprinted.    Died  in  1600. 

Lucena,  de,  (Vasco  Fernandez,)  Count,  a  Portu- 
guese historian  and  statesman,  born  about  1410.  He 
translated  Quintus  Curtius  into  French  for  Charles  the 
Bold  of  Burgundy,  He  received  the  title  of  chancellor 
of  Portugal.    Died  about  1500. 

Lu-ce'ri-us,  ["  light-bringing,"]  a  surname  of  Jupi- 
ter, which  see. 


Luchet,  lii'sh^',  (Auguste,)  a  French  litterateur  and 
democrat,  born  in  Paris  in  1806.  He  was  sentenced  in 
1842  to  an  imprisonment  of  two  years  for  one  of  his 
works. 

Luchet,  de,  deh  lli'shi',  (Jean  Pierre  Louis,)  Mar- 
quis, a  prolific  French  author,  born  at  Saintes  about 
1740,  was  styled  Marquis  de  la  Roche  du  Maine.  He 
published  many  superficial  works.  His  "Literary  His- 
tory of  Voltaire"  (1782)  furnishes  some  curious  details. 
Died  in  1792. 

Luchetto  da  Geneva.    See  Cambiaso,  (Luca.) 

Lucian*loo'sh.e3n,  [Gr.  KovKiavoq ;  Lat.  Lucia'nus; 
Fr.  Lucien,  lii'se-^N';  It.  Luciano,  loo-chS'no,]  one 
of  the  most  witty  and  original  Greek  writers,  was  born 
at  Samosata,  (Someisat,)  on  the  Euphrates,  about  120 
A.d.  He  practised  law  a  short  time  at  Antioch,  and 
exchanged  that  profession  for  the  more  lucrative  pursuit 
of  sophist  and  teacher  of  rhetoric,  which  he  followed 
with  success  in  Gaul  until  he  was  about  forty  years  old. 
Again  changing  his  profession,  he  returned  to  the  East, 
and  lived  many  years  at  Athens,  where  he  was  intimate 
with  Demonax  and  employed  his  time  in  literary  com- 
position. His  principal  works  are  dialogues,  written 
in  pure  and  elegant  Greek,  on  history,  mythology,  phi- 
losophy, and  various  other  subjects.  His  object  appears 
to  have  been  to  cure  men  of  their  prejudices  and  super- 
stitions and  their  foolish  admiration  of  philosophic  char- 
latans. His  genius  is  eminently  satirical,  and  his  works 
are  remarkably  humorous ;  but  some  of  them  are  cen- 
sured as  offensive  to  morality  and  religion.  Among  the 
titles  of  his  dialogues  are  "Timon  the  Misanthrope," 
"Charon,"  "Menippus,"  and  "The  Assembly  of  Gods." 
English  versions  of  his  dialogues  have  been  published  by 
T.  Franklin  (1780)  and  William  Tooke,  (1820.)  Wieland 
produced  a  good  German  translation.  Good  editions  of 
the  Greek  text  have  been  published  by  Dindorf  (Paris, 
1840)  and  Bekker,  (1853.) 

See  Karl  Georg  Jacob,  "  Characteristik  Lucian's  von  Samo- 
sata," 1832;  Tiemann,  "Versuch  iiber  Lucian's  von  Samosata  Phi- 
losophic," 1804;  Eduard  Em;l  Struve,  "  Specimina  IL  de  ^tate 
et  Vita  Luciani,"  1829-30;  Passow,  "  Lucian  und  die  Geschichte," 
1854;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
January,  February,  April,  May,  and  June,  1839;  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  Januai^y,  1828. 

Lucian,  [Fr.  Lucien,  lii^se'^N',]  Saint,  a  Christian 
martyr,  born  at  Samosata  in  the  third  century,  was  emi- 
nent for  piety  and  learning.  He  was  ordained  a  priest 
or  presbyter  at  Antioch.  He  prepared  a  revised  edition 
of  the  Scriptures,  which,  Jerome  says,  was  more  correct 
than  those  of  Hesychius  and  Pamphilus.  Diocletian 
having  issued  an  edict  against  the  Christians,  Lucian 
suffered  martyrdom  in  312  A.D. 

See  Saint  Jerome,  "De  Viris  illustribus;"  Eusebius,  "  Historia 
Ecclesiastica." 

Luciano.    See  Piombo,  (Sebastiano  del.) 

Lucianus.    See  Lucian. 

Lucien,  the  French  of  Lucian,  which  see. 

Lu'ci-fer,  Bishop  of  Calaris,  (now  Cagliari,)  in  Sar- 
dinia, was  noted  for  his  intolerance  and  zeal  against 
Arianism.  About  355  a.d.  he  was  banished  by  Constan- 
tius,  who  favoured  the  Arians.  He  wrote  a  "Defence 
of  Athanasius,"  and  other  works.  He  refused  to  recog- 
nize as  orthodox  those  bishops  who  signed  the  formula 
of  Rimini,  (359,)  or  to  have  fellowship  with  any  who 
recognized  them,  and  finally  became  the  author  of  a 
schism.  He  had  many  followers,  who  formed  a  distinct 
sect,  called  Luciferians.    Died  about  370  a.d. 

Lu-ciPi'-us,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  satiric  poet,  born  at 
Suessa  Aurunca,  (now  Sessa,)  in  Italy,  about  148  B.C.,  was 
a  great-uncle  of  Pompey  the  Great.  In  early  youth  he 
served  under  Scipio  Africanus  at  the  siege  of  Numan- 
tia,  and  became  an  intimate  friend  of  that  general.  He 
composed  thirty  satires  and  various  other  poems;  but 
only  fragments  of  his  works  have  come  down  to  us. 
Horace  asserts  that  he  was  the  first  writer  of  satire 
among  the  Romans,  (Sat.,  lib.  2,  i.  62.)  His  satires 
were  much  admired  by  many  ancient  critics,  including 
Cicero,  QuiRtilian,  and  Pliny.  "  He  was,"  says  Professor 
Sellar,  "  vehement  in  invective,  because  he  was  thor- 
oughly earnest  in  his  purpose  to  expose  vice  and  base- 
ness among  the  high  and  low  with  impartial  severity. 
Although  probably  few  writers  of  verse  have  had  less 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y;  short;  ^,  §,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


LUCILIUS 


1467 


LUCULLUS 


poetical  faculty,  yet,  by  his  originality  and  force  of  char- 
acter, he  became  the  favourite  of  his  own  time  and  coun- 
try; and  he  alone  among  Roman  writers  has  introduced 
a  new  and  permanent  form  of  poetry  into  the  world." 
Died  about  100  B.C. 

See  Seli.ar,  "Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic,"  chap.  vi.  ;  Petkr- 
MANN,  "  Dissertatio  de  C.  Lucilii  Vita,"  1842;  Smith,  "Dictionary 
of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography." 

Lucil'ius  Ju'nior,  a  Roman  poet  and  naturalist, 
lived  in  the  first  century,  and  was  a  friend  of  Seneca. 
He  is  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  a  poem  of  six  hun- 
dred and  forty  hexameter  verses,  entitled  *'  ^tna,"  which 
presents  some  fine  passages. 

Lu-ci'na,  [Fr.  Lucine,  lii's^n',]  the  name  of  the  god- 
dess that  brings  to  light  and  presides  over  the  birth  of 
children,  was  used  as  a  surname  of  Juno  and  of  Diana, 
both  of  whom  were  supposed  to  assist  women  in  partu- 
rition, and  were  sometimes  called  LuciN/E.  The  Greek 
goddess  Ilithyi'a  or  Eileithyia  ['ECAeLdvio]  appears  to 
be  essentially  the  same  as  Diana  (Artemis)  in  her  char- 
acter of  Lucina. 

See  B<3ttiger,  "  Ilithyia,"  Weimar,  1799. 

Lucine.    See  Lucina. 
Lucius.    See  Luz. 

Lucius,  loo'she-us,  [Fr.  Luce,  liiss,]  I.,  Bishop  of 
Rome,  succeeded  Cornelius  in  October,  252  A.D.,  and 
died  in  March,  253.    Stephen  L  was  his  successor. 

Lucius  II.,  a  native  of  Bologna,  was  elected  pope  in 
March,  1 144,  as  successor  to  Celestine  IL  He  died  in 
1 145,  after  a  pontificate  of  eleven  months,  and  Eugenius 
IH.  was  chosen  in  his  place. 

Lucius  III.  (Cardinal  Ubaldo  of  Lucca)  was  elected 
pope  in  1 181,  after  the  death  of  Alexander  \\\.  His 
election  was  the  first  that  was  decided  by  the  cardinals, 
the  clergy  and  people  being  excluded  from  the  right  to 
vote.  A  revolt  of  the  people  of  Rome  obliged  him  to 
leave  the  city,  and  he  retired  to  Verona.  He  died  in 
1 185,  and  was  succeeded  by  Urban  HL 

Lucius,  (C/ESAR,)  a  Roman  prince,  born  17  B.C.,  was 
a  son  of  M.  Agrippa  and  Julia,  w-ho  was  a  daughter  of 
the  emperor  Augustus.  He  and  his  brother  Caius  were 
heirs-presumptive  of  the  empire,  but  they  died  before 
Augustus.  Lucius  died  in  2  A.D.  The  Maison  Carree 
at  Nimes  was  a  temple  dedicated  to  Caius  and  Lucius. 

Lucius,  lu'she-iis,  (It.  Lucio,  loo'cho,]  (Giovanni,) 
a  historian,  born  at  Trau,  in  Dalmatia.  He  published 
in  1666  a  "History  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia."  Died  in 
1684. 

Lucius  Verus.    See  Verus. 

Liicke  or  Luecke,  liik'keh,  (Gottfried  Christian 
Friedrich,)  an  eminent  German  theologian,  was  born 
at  Egeln,  near  Magdeburg,  in  1 791.  He  studied  at 
Halle  in  1810,  and  subsequently  at  Gottingen,  where 
he  formed  a  friendship  with  Bunsen  and  Lachmann. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Bonn  in  1818,  and 
soon  after  published,  conjointly  with  Schleiermacher  and 
De  Wette,  the  "Theological  Journal."  His  "Commen- 
tary on  the  Writings  of  Saint  John  the  Evangelist"  (4 
vols.,  1820-32)  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best  works  of  its 
kind.  Li  1827  he  succeeded  Staudlin  in  the  chair  of 
theology  at  Gottingen,    Died  at  Gottingen  in  1855. 

Luckner,  look'ner,  (Nikolaus,)  a  marshal  of  France, 
born  at  Kampen,  in  Bavaria,  in  1722.  At  an  early  age 
he  entered  the  service  of  Prussia,  for  which  he  fought 
with  distinction  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  (1756-63.) 
About  1763  he  accepted  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general 
in  the  French  army,  which  for  many  subsequent  years 
was  not  called  into  active  service.  Having  submitted 
to  the  new  regime,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  mar- 
shal in  December,  1 791.  In  the  spring  of  1792  he  ob- 
tained command  of  one  of  the  armies  which  defended  the 
frontier  against  the  Austrians,  and  a  few  weeks  later 
succeeded  Rochambeau  as  general-in-chief.  The  domi- 
nant party,  distrusting  both  his  fidelity  and  capacity,  de- 
prived him  of  the  command  in  1792.  He  was  guillotined 
in  Januarj',  1794. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Lucotte,  lii'kot',  (Edme  Aim6,)  Count,  a  French 
general,  born  in  Burgundy  in  1 770.  The  Bourbons  con- 
fided to  him  the  defence  of  Paris  in  March,  181 5.  Died 
in  1815. 


Lucrece.    See  Lucretia  and  Lucretius. 

Lucretia,  loo-kree'she-a,  [It.  Lucrezia,  loo-kR^t'- 
se-S ;  Fr.  Lucrece,  lii'kRis',]  a  Roman  lady,  distin- 
guished for  her  beauty,  virtue,  and  tragical  destiny,  was 
the  wife  of  Collatinus,  who  was  related  to  Tarquin  the 
Proud,  King  of  Rome.  The  outrage  offered  to  her  honour 
by  Sextus  Tarquin,  and  the  voluntary  sacrifice  of  her 
life,  (507  B.C.,)  have  furnished  a  favourite  theme  for  poets 
and  painters,  and,  according  to  a  doubtful  legend,  caused 
the  dethronement  of  Tarquin,  and  the  conversion  of  the 
Roman  state  into  a  republic,  under  the  direction  of 
Junius  Brutus. 

Lucretius,  lu-kree'she-us,  [Fr.  LucRi:cE,  lii'kRiss' ; 
It.  LucREZio,  loo-kR§t'se-o ;  Sp.  LucRfXio,  loo-kRa'- 
the-o,\  or,  to  give  his  full  name,  Ti'tus  Lucre''tius 
Ca'rus,  one  of  the  greatest  Latin  poets,  was  born  in 
Italy  in  95  B.C.,  and  was  contemporary  with  Cicero. 
The  records  of  antiquity  throw  scarcely  any  light  on  his 
life,  which  was  probably  passed  in  studious  retirement. 
It  is  not  known  whether  he  ever  visited  Greece  ;  but 
it  is  evident  from  his  writings  that  he  had  profoundly- 
studied  the  language,  philosophy,  and  manners  of  that 
people.  A  doubtful  tradition  asserts  that  he  was  subject 
to  insanity  caused  by  a  love-potion  ;  and  the  statement 
that  he  committed  suicide  in  his  forty-fourth  year  is  gen- 
erally credited.  He  left  only  one  work, — a  philosophic 
and  didactic  poem,  in  six  books,  entitled  "De  Rerum 
Natura,"  ("  On  the  Nature  of  Things,")  in  which  he  ex- 
pounds and  illustrates  the  physical  and  ethical  doctrines 
of  Ejiicurus,  of  whom  he  was  a  disciple.  From  such 
abstruse  speculations  and  intractable  subjects  he  has 
produced  one  of  the  most  admirable  poems  in  the  lan- 
guage. Although  his  system  is  erroneous  and  incoherent, 
his  reasoning  is  remarkably  clear  and  close.  Probably 
no  other  work  so  amply  demonstrates  the  power  of  the 
Latin  language  to  utter  the  sublimest  conceptions  with 
a  sustained  majesty  and  harmony.  "A  great  atheistic 
poet,"  says  Villemain,  "is  surely  a  surprising  phenom- 
enon. His  genius  finds  sublime  accents  to  attack  all 
the  inspirations  of  genius.  He  renders  even  nothing- 
ness poetic;  he  insults  glory;  he  enjoys  death.  Out  of 
the  abyss  of  skepticism  he  sometimes  soars  to  a  height 
of  enthusiasm  which  is  rivalled  only  by  the  sublimity  of 
Homer."  Referring  to  this  work,  Macaulay  remarks, 
"Tlie  finest  poem  in  the  Latin  language — indeed,  the 
finest  didactic  poem  in  any  language — was  written  in 
defence  of  the  silliest  and  meanest  of  all  systems  of 
natural  and  moral  philosophy."  Ovid  appears  to  be 
the  only  contemporary  writer  who  fully  appreciated  the 
genius  of  Lucretius. 

See  the  article  on  Lucretius,  by  Villemain.  in  the  "Biographic 
Universeile ;"  Sellar,  "Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic;"  Carl  F. 
ScHMiD,  "Dissertatio  de  T.  Lucretio  Caro,"  1768;  J.  Siebelis, 
" Quaestiones  Lucretians,"  1844  ;  J.  Legris,  "Rome,  ses  Novateurs, 
ses  Conservateurs,  etc.  fitudes  liistoriques  sur  Lucrece,  Catiille,"  etc., 
1846;  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Latina  ;"  Smith,  "  Dictionaiy  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Biography  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1807, 

Lucrezia.    See  Lucretia. 
Lucrezio.    See  Lucretius. 

Lu-cuPlus,  (Lucius  Licinius,)  a  celebrated  Roman 
general,  born  of  a  patrician  family  about  no  B.C.  In 
the  year  87  he  went  to  Asia  as  quaestor  under  Sulla, 
who  gave  him  many  proofs  of  his  confidence.  After  an 
absence  of  several  years,  during  which  the  civil  war  be- 
tween Marius  and  Sulla  raged  at  Rome,  he  returned,  and 
was  elected  consul  in  74  B.C.  In  this  year  he  obtained 
tiie  chief  command  in  the  war  against  Mithridates,  whom 
he  defeated  at  Cyzicus  in  73,  and,  after  other  victories, 
drove  him  out  of  the  kingdom  of  Pontus.  He  afterwards 
defeated  Tigranes  of  Armenia,  whose  capital  he  took 
about  68  B.C.  The  mutiny  of  his  troops  prevented  his 
final  triumph  over  Mithridates,  and  he  was  superseded 
by  Pompey  in  the  year  66.  Cicero  expressed  the  opinion 
that  so  great  a  war  was  never  conducted  with  more 
prudence  and  courage.  ("  Pro  Muraena.")  LucuUus  then 
retired  from  public  affairs,  and  expended  part  of  the  im- 
mense fortune  he  had  acquired  in  the  East  in  building 
magnificent  villas,  giving  sumptuous  entertainments,  and 
collecting  expensive  paintings  and  statues.  He  was  a 
liberal  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts.  Sulla  had  dedi- 
cated to  him  his  Commentaries.  Plutarch,  after  com- 
paring him  with  Cimon,  says  it  is  hard  to  say  to  which 


€  as    9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (2i^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LUCUMO 


1468 


LUINI 


side  the  balance  inclines.  He  was  living  in  59,  but  was 
not  living  in  56  B.C. 

See  "  Liicullus,"  in  Plutarch's  "  Lives ;"  Cicero,  "Pro  Lege 
Manilla;"  Jon  an  Upmarck,  "Dissertatio  historica  de  LucuUo," 
170^;  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxxv.  and  xxxvii. ; 
Drumann,  "  Geschichte  Roins,"  vol.  iv. ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gene  rale. " 

Lucumo.    See  Tarquinfus  Priscus. 

Ludeke,  looMeh-keh,  or  Ludecke,  loo'd^k-keh, 
(Christofh  Wilhelm,  )  a  German  writer,  born  at 
Schonberg  in  1737,  was  minister  of  a  German  church 
in  Stockholm.  He  published  a  "  Historical  Account 
of  Turkey."    Died  in  1805. 

Luden,  loo'den,  (Hkinrich,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man historical  and  political  writer,  born  in  the  duchy 
of  Bremen  in  1780.  He  became  in  1810  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Jena,  where  he  also  lectured  on  history. 
His  most  important  work  is  a  "  History  of  the  German 
Nation,"  ("Die  Geschichte  des  Deutschen  Volkes,"  12 
vols.,  1825-37,)  brought  down  to  1237.  He  also  wrote 
general  histories  of  the  nations  of  antiquity  and  of  the 
middle  ages,  a  "Life  of  Hugo  Grotius,"  (1806,)  several 
biographies,  etc.    Died  at  Jena  in  1847. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Riickblicke  in  mein  Leben,"  1847. 

Luden,  (Heinrich,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Jena  in  1 810.  He  became  a  professor  of  law,  and  a 
member  of  the  court  of  cassation  at  Jena.  He  published 
several  legal  works. 

Liiders,  lU'ders,  (Alexander  Nikolaievitch,)  a 
Russian  general,  of  German  origin,  born  in  1790.  He 
defeated  the  Hungarians  under  Bem  in  July,  1849,  '^"'^ 
succeeded  Gortchakof  in  the  command  of  the  army  of 
the  Danube  in  1855.  He  was  commander-in-chief  in 
the  Crimea  for  a  few  weeks  between  the  fall  of  Sebas- 
to])ol  and  the  end  of  the  war. 

Ludewig.    See  LuDovicr,  (Karl  Gunther.) 

Ludewig,  von,  fon  loo'deh-^io',  (Johann  Peter,) 
a  learned  German  jurist  and  historian,  born  in  Suabia 
about  1670.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Halle  in  1695,  and  of  history  in  1703.  The  King  of 
Prussia  made  him  a  privy  councillor  in  1709.  Among 
his  works  are  "Germania  Princeps,"  (1702,)  treating 
on  the  rights,  privileges,  etc.  of  the  house  of  Austria 
and  of  the  Electors,  "  Writers  of  German  History," 
("Scriptores  Rerum  Germanicarum,"  1718,)  and  a  "Life 
of  Justinian,"  (1730.)    Died  in  1743. 

See  Frieurich  Wiedeburg,  "De  Vita  et  Scriptis  J.  P.  de  Lnde- 
wig,"  Halle,  1757;  Hirsching,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Hand- 
buch." 

Lu'di-us,  a  Roman  painter,  who  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  and  of  whom  we  know  little.  He  gained 
renown  by  decorating  walls  with  landscapes  of  large 
dimensions. 

Lud'low,  (Edmund,)  an  able  English  republican 
general,  born  in  Wiltshire  about  1620.  He  fought  against 
the  king  at  Edgehill  in  1642,  and  led  a  regiment  at  the 
battle  of  Newbury.  Elected  to  Parliament  in  1645,- he 
voted  for  the  conversion  of  the  kingdom  into  a  republic, 
and  was  one  of  the  judges  who  condemned  Charles  L 
in  1649.  In  this  year  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
council  of  state,  in  which  he  opposed  the  ambitious 
designs  of  Cromwell.  In  1650  he  went  to  Ireland  as 
lieutenant-general.  On  the  death  of  Ireton,  November, 
165 1,  the  command  of  the  army  devolved  on  Ludlow. 
As  he  refused  to  support  the  government  of  the  Pro- 
tector, (1653,)  he  was  deprived  of  command.  After  the 
death  of  Oliver  (1658)  he  resumed  his  seat  in  Parliament, 
and  obtained  command  of  the  army  in  Ireland  in  1659. 
At  the  restoration  (1660)  he  escaped  through  France  to 
Vevay,  where  he  resided  mostly  until  his  death,  in  1693. 
He  left  Memoirs  of  his  life,  (2  vols.,  1698.)  Macaulay 
refers  to  him  as  "almost  the  only  survivor,  [in  1689,! 
certainly  the  most  illustrious  survivor,  of  a  mighty  race 
of  men,  the  judges  of  a  king,  the  founders  of  a  repub- 
lic. .  .  .  There  was  but  a  single  blemish  on  his  fame," — 
i.e.  the  execution  of  Charles  I. 

See  Clarendon,  "  History  of  the  Rebellion  ;"  Hume,  "  History 
of  England  :"  Guizot,_  '*  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  de  I'Angleterre  ;" 
Wm.  Sewhi.,  "  Memoirs  of  E.  Ludlow,"  3  vols.,  1698-99;  "Monk's 
Contemporaries,"  by  Guizot,  London,  1864. 

Ludolf,  loo'dolf,  (HiERONYMUS,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1679  ;  died  in  1728. 


Ludolph,  loo'dolf,  (Heinrich  Wilhelm,)  a  nephew 
of  the  following,  was  born  at  Erfurt  in  1655.  He  became 
secretary  to  Prince  George  of  Denmark,  who  married 
Queen  Anne  of  England.  Me  published  a  Russian 
Grammar,  (Oxford,  1696,)  and  several  small  religious 
treatises.    Died  in  1711. 

Ludolph  OF  Saxony,  a  monk,  who  died  at  Mentz 
about  1370.  He  composed,  in  Latin,  a  "  Life  of  Christ," 
which  was  po]jular  and  often  reprinted. 

Ludolphus,  loo-doKfus,  written  also  Ludolph  and 
Ludolf,  originally  Leutholf,  loit'holf,  (Job,)  an  emi- 
nent German  Orientalist,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1624.  He 
is  said  to  have  acquired  twenty-five  languages,  among 
which  was  the  Abyssinian.  The  Duke  of  Saxe-Gotha 
employed  him  to  educate  his  sons,  and  appointed  him 
an  aulic  councillor.  Ludolf  published,  in  Latin,  an 
esteemed  "History  of  Abyssinia,"  (1681,)  an  Ethiopian 
Grammar,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1704. 

See  C.  JuNCKRR,  " Commentarius  de  Vita  J.  Ludolfi,"  1710; 
Vockerodt,  "  Memoria  J.  Ludolfi  renovata,"  1723;  Nicekon, 
"Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Ludovici,  loo-do-veet'see,  or  Ludwig,  lood'i^ic, 
(Gottfried,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Baruth,  in 
Prussia,  in  1670.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Universal  History,"  (2  vols.,  1716.)    Died  in  1724. 

Ludovici,  (Karl  Gunther,)  a  learned  German  pro- 
fessor, born  at  Leipsic  in  1707.  He  wrote  a  "  Dictionary 
of  Commerce,"  (5  vols.,  1752-56,)  and  a  "Plan  of  a 
History  of  the  Philosophy  of  Leibnitz,"  (1737.)  Died  in 
1778.  He  spelled  his  name  Ludewig  in  his  latter  years. 

Ludovisio.    See  Gregory  XV. 

Ludwig.    See  Lewis,  Louis,  and  Ludovicl 

Ludwig,  (Kings  of  Germany.)    See  Lewis. 

Ludwig,  lood'v^iG,  (Christian  Gottlieb,)  a  German 
botanist,  born  at  Brieg,  Silesia,  in  1709.  About  1732  he 
made  a  botanical  excursion  to  Africa.  He  was  chosen 
professor  of  medicine  at  Leipsic  in  1747.  He  contributed 
to  reform  botanical  science  by  his  writings,  among  which 
are  works  "On  the  Sexes  of  Plants,"  "Definitions  of 
Plants,"  (1737,)  and  "  Botanical  Aphorisms,"  (1738.)  J. 
J.  Rousseau  expressed  the  opinion  that  Ludwig  was  the 
only  botanist  besides  Linnaeus  that  viewed  botany  like  a 
philosopher.    Died  in  1773. 

See  Hirsching,  "Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographic  Generale." 

Ludwig,  (Daniel,)  a  German  writer  on  materia 
medica,  born  at  Weimar  in  1625  ;  died  in  1680. 

Ludwig,  (Johann,)  a  self-taught  German  peasant, 
born  near  Dresden  in  1 715,  became  a  proficient  in  as- 
tronomy. 

See  C.  L.  Brightwell,  "Annals  of  Industry  and  Genius." 

Lueoke.    See  Lucke. 
Luetzelburger.    See  Lutzelburger. 
Luetzow.    See  Lurzow. 

Lufft,  looft,  (Hans,)  a  German  printer  and  bookseller, 
born  in  1495,  resided  at  Wittenberg,  where  he  published 
the  first  editions  of  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible. 
This  work  appeared  complete  in  1534.  Within  fifty 
years  one  hundred  thousand  copies  were  issued  from 
Lufft's  office  ;  and  he  his  been  surnamed  the  Bible 
Printer.    Died  in  1584. 

Luganski.    See  Dahl,  (Vladimir  Tvanovitch.) 

Lugo,  de,  di  loo'go,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  born 
at  Madrid  in  1583.  He  taught  theology  at  Rome  twenty 
years,  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1643,  and  wrote  several 
theological  works,  which  were  often  reprinted.  Died  in 
1660.  His  brother  Francisco  (i 580-1652)  was  also  a 
Jesuit,  and  author  of  several  works  on  theology. 

Luigi,  di,  de  loo-ee'jee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter, 
surnamed  lTngegno,  (l^n-jei/yo,)  and  sometimes  called 
Andrea  di  Assisi,  was  born  at  Assisi  about  1470.  He 
assisted  Perugino  in  adorning  the  Cambio  at  Perugia, 
and  worked  mostly  at  his  native  place.  He  painted  a 
coat  of  arms  for  the  town-hall  of  Assisi.  It  appears 
that  nothing  is  known  certainly  of  his  other  works. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Luini,  loo-ee'nee,  (Aurelio,)  an  Italian  painter,  a 
son  of  Bernardino,  noticed  below,  was  born  about  1530. 
He  worked  at  Milan,  and  painted  scriptural  subjects, 
among  which  is  "The  Adoration  of  the  Magi."  He 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAor^;  a,  9,  i,  9,  odscure;  (ir,  (kU,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  gdod;  moon; 


LUINI 


1469 


LUMSDEN 


died,  according  to  Lanzi,  in  1593;  but  some  date  his 
death  many  years  earlier. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Luini,  Luvini,  loo-vee'nee,  or  Lovini,  lo-vee'nee, 
(Bernardino,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  was  born  at 
Luino,  on  Lake  Maggiore.  He  is  called  the  most  ex- 
cellent imitator  and  pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  Lo- 
mazzo  says  he  was  already  a  distinguished  painter  in 
1500.  Luini  worked  both  in  fresco  and  oil,  and  painted 
at  Milan  several  works  which  are  still  in  good  preserva- 
tion. "  Few  painters,"  says  Lanzi,  "deserve  to  be  com- 
pared to  him."  Among  his  master-pieces  in  oil  are  a 
"  Magdalene,"  a  "  Madonna,"  and  a  "Saint  John  with  a 
Lamb,"  all  at  Milan.  He  excelled  in  colouring,  chiaro- 
sacro,  and  the  expression  of  feminine  grace.  He  died 
after  1530.  His  sons,  AuRELio  and  Evangelista,  were 
skilful  painters. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.;  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Luini,  (Evangelista,)  a  decorative  painter  of  Milan, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.    Died  after  1584. 

Luini,  (ToMMASO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Rome 
about  1597.  He  was  called  Caravaggino,  because  he 
imitated  Caravaggio,    Died  about  1632. 

Luino,  loo-ee'no,  or  Luini,  loo-ee'nee,  (Francesco,) 
an  Italian  geometer,  born  at  Milan  in  1740,  He  was 
professor  of  mathematics  successively  in  a  college  of 
Milan  and  in  the  University  of  Pavia.  He  published  a 
treatise  on  "Progressions  and  Series,"  ("SuUe  Progres- 
sioni  e  suUe  Serie,"  1767,)  "Philosophic  Meditation," 
and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1792. 

Luis,  the  Spanish  for  Louis,  which  see. 

Luis  de  Granada.    See  Granada,  (Luis  de.) 

Luisini,  Luisino,  or  Luisinus.  See  Luvigini, 
(Francp:sco.) 

Luithold  von  Savene,  loit'holt  fon  s^'veh-neh,  or 
Liitolt  von  Saven,  lii'tolt  fon  si'ven,  a  German  minne- 
singer of  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Luitprand,  loo'it-prand  or  lut'prand,  written  also 
Liutprand,  King  of  the  Lombards,  the  son  of  Ans- 
prand,  reigned  from  712  A. I),  until  744.  His  valour  and 
wisdom  are  praised  by  Sismondi.  In  739  he  marched 
into  France  to  aid  Charles  Martel  against  the  Saracens. 
He  died  in  744,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Hil- 
debrand. 

See  MuRATORi,  "Annali  d'ltalia." 

Luitprand  or  Liutprand,  [Lat.  Luitpran'dus,]  a 
historical  writer,  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of 
the  age.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Constantinople 
in  946  by  lierenger.  Marquis  of  Ivrea.  Having  been 
chosen  Bishop  of  Cremona,  he  attended  in  963  a  council 
(at  Rome)  which  deposed  Pope  John.  In  968  the  em- 
peror Otho  I.  sent  him  on  a  mission  to  Constantinople, 
where  he  was  maltreated  by  the  emperor.  He  was  au- 
thor of  an  esteemed  "  History  of  Europe  from  862  to  964." 

See  KoEPKE,  "De  Vita  et  Scriptis  Luitprandi,"  1842;  "Nouvelie 
Biographic  Generale." 

Lukaszewitsch,loo-kl'shg-'^itch,  (Joseph,)  a  Polish 
writer,  born  near  Posen  about  1800,  published  several 
valuable  works  on  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Poland. 
Among  these  we  may  name  the  "  History  of  the  Churches 
of  the  Helvetic  Confession  of  Faith  in  Lithuania,"  (1842.) 

Luke,  [Gr.  Aovmg ;  Lat.  Lu'CAS;  ¥r.  Luc,  liik;  It. 
LuCA,  loo'kS,]  Saint,  one  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  was  a 
companion  of  the  Apostle  Paul  in  his  mission  to  the  Gen- 
tiles, between  50  and  66  A.D.  The  time  and  place  of  his 
birth  are  unknown.  That  he  was  liberally  educated  is 
made  evident  by  the  classical  style  of  his  writings  and 
by  the  learned  details  which  he  gives  on  historical  and 
geographical  subjects.  His  Gospel  contains  valuable 
accounts  which  are  not  found  in  the  others.  He  also 
wrote  "The  Acts  of  the  Apostles,"  which,  as  well  as  his 
Gospel,  is  in  the  Greek  language.  Tradition  indicates 
that  Saint  Luke  is  the  same  as  the  physician  Luke 
mentioned  by  Saint  Paul  in  Colossians  iv.  14,  and  the 
same  as  Lucas  named  in  Philemon  24.  (See  II.  Tim- 
othy iv.  II.) 

Lu'kin,  (Lionel,)  an  English  mechanic,  noted  as  the 
inventor  of  the  life-boat,  was  born  about  1742;  died  in 
1834. 


Lull.    See  Lulli,  (Raymond.) 

LuUi  or  Lulle,  looKlee,  [Fr.  Lulle,  liil,]  (Antonio,) 
a  grammarian,  born  in  Majorca.  He  corresponded  with 
Erasmus,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  rhetoric,  called  "  De 
Oratione."    Died  in  1582. 

Lulli  or  LuUy,  lii'le',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  composer,  called  "the  father  of  French  dramatic 
music,"  was  born  at  Florence  in  1633.  About  the  age 
of  fourteen  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  became  a  skilful 
performer  on  the  violin,  and  was  patronized  by  Louis 
XIV.  In  the  f^ies  which  were  often  repeated  at  court, 
he  found  occasion  to  try  his  talents  for  operatic  music. 
In  1672  the  king  gave  him  the  privilege  or  direction  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  from  which  time  dates 
the  foundation  of  the  Grand  Opera  in  France.  Co-ope- 
rating with  Quinault  the  poet,  Lulli  composed  in  fifteen 
years  nineteen  operas,  which  were  very  successful.  He 
finally  became  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  king.  Died 
in  1687. 

See  F^Tis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musicians ;"_  De  la 
BoRDE,  "  Essai  sur  la  Musique,"  1780  ;  "  Nouvelie  Biographie  Gene- 
rale:" Le  Provost  d'Exmes,  "Lulli  Musicien." 

Lulli  or  LuUy,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  1665.  With  his  brother  Louis  he  com- 
posed an  opera  called  "Orphee,"  (1690.)    Died  in  1701. 

Lulli,  (Jean  Louis,)  born  in  1667,  succeeded  his 
father,  Jean  Baptiste,  as  composer  to  the  king.  Died 
in  1688. 

Lulli,  (Louts,)  a  musician,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1664.  Pie  became  composer  to  the 
king  in  1688.    Died  about  1736. 

Lulli,  written  also  LuUy,  Lulle,  and  Lull,  [Lat. 

Lul'lus  or  Lul'lius,]  (Raymond,)  a  philosopher, 
surnamed  THE  Enlightened  Doctor,  was  born  at 
Palma,  in  Majorca,  about  1235.  He  professed  to  believe 
that  he  was  called  to  convert  the  Moslems,  and  he  pre- 
pared himself  for  the  task  by  learning  Arabic.  In  order 
to  prove  that  the  mysteries  of  faith  were  not  opposed 
to  reason,  he  composed  a  treatise,  or  method,  called 
"  Ars  Lulli,"  or  "Ars  Magna  Lulli,"  ("The  Great  Art 
of  Lulli,")  designed  also  to  systematize  knowledge  and 
facilitate  the  process  of  reasoning  on  all  questions. 
His  method  obtained  great  celebrity;  but,  according 
to  Hallam,  it  was  an  "idle  and  fraudulent  attempt  to 
substitute  trick  for  science."  "  He  was  one  of  those 
innovators  in  philosophy  who,  by  much  boasting  of  their 
original  discoveries  in  the  secrets  of  truth,  gain  credit 
for  systems  of  science  which  those  who  believe  in  them 
seldom  trouble  themselves  to  examine."  ("  Introduction 
to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  He  made  several  attempts 
to  convert  the  Moors  in  Northern  Africa,  and  was 
violently  persecuted.    Died  in  1315. 

See  Wadding,  "Viede  R.  Lulle;"  Segui,  "Viede  R.  Lulle," 
1605  ;  CoLLETET,"  Vie  de  R.  Lulle,"  1646 ;  LoEV,  "  De  Vita  R.  Lulli 
Specimen,"  1830;  Perroquet,  "Vie  et  Martyre  de  R.  Lulle,"  1667; 
Helffereich,  "Raymond  Lull,"  Berlin,  1858;  "Nouvelie  Biogra- 
phie Generale." 

LuUin  de  Chateauvieux,  1u'I4n'  deh  shI'toVe-uh', 
(Jacob  Fr^d^ric,)  a  Swiss  agriculturist  and  writer, 
iDorn  at  Geneva  in  1772;  died  in  1840. 

LuUin  de  Chateauvieux,  (Michel,)  a  Swiss  writer 
and  experimenter  on  agriculture,  born  at  Geneva  in 
1695  ;  died  in  1781. 

LuUy.    See  Lulll 

Lulof,  lii'lof,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  astronomer,  born  at 
Zutphen  in  171 1.  He  wrote  several  works  on  astronomy. 
Died  in  1768. 

Lumene  van  Marck,  Ui'meh-neh  (?)  vtn  mank,  [Lat. 
LuMiNy^:''us,]  (Jacques  Corneille,)  a  Flemish  scholar 
and  Benedictine  monk,  born  at  Ghent  about  1570.  He 
produced  many  Latin  poems.    Died  in  1629. 

Luminaeus.    See  Lumene  van  Marck. 

Lump'kin,  (Joseph  Henry,)  brother  of  Governor 
Lumpkin,  noticed  below,  born  in  Oglethorpe  county, 
Georgia,  in  1799,  became  professor  in  the  Lumpkin  Law 
School  at  Athens,  in  his  native  State. 

Lumpkin,  (Wilson,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  Pittsylvania  county,  Virginia,  in  1783.  He  was  twice 
elected  Governor  of  Georgia,  and  became  a  United 
States  Senator  in  1838. 

Lilms'den,  (Matthew,)  a  distinguished  Scottish 
Orientalist,  born  in  Aberdeenshire  in  1777.    He  was 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  k, gjittural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


LUNA 


1470 


LUSSI 


chosen  professor  of  Persian  and  Arabic  in  the  College 
of  Calcutta  in  1805.  In  1810  he  published  an  excellent 
'*  Grammar  of  the  Persian  Language,"  and  in  1813  an 
"Arabic  Grammar."  About  1820  he  returned  to  Great 
Britain.    Died  in  London  in  1835. 

His  brother  Thomas,  an  officer,  published  a  Journey 
from  Merut,  India,  to  London,  (1822.) 

See  Zenker,  "  Bibliotheca  Orientalis." 

Lu'na,  [Fr.  Lune,  liin,]  the  Moon,  a  goddess  wor- 
shipped by  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Luna,  loo'nS,  (Fabrizio,)  an  Italian  lexicographer, 
born  at  Naples,  is  said  to  have  been  the  compiler  of 
the  first  Italian  dictionary,  called  "  Vocabulary  of  Five 
Thousand  Tuscan  Words,"  (*'  Vocabulario  di  cinque  mila 
Vocabuli  Toschi,"  1536.)    Died  in  1559, 

Luna,  de,  dii  loo'ni,  (Don  Alvaro,)  a  Spanish  cour- 
tier and  poet,  who  became  the  chief  favourite  and  min- 
ister of  John  II.  of  Castile.  In  1423  he  was  made  Con- 
stable of  Castile.  Through  the  enmity  of  the  grandees, 
he  was  exiled  in  1427,  and  again  in  1439.  In  1445  he 
was  recalled,  and  obtained  command  of  the  army,  with 
which  he  defeated  the  malcontents.  Having  lost  the 
favour  of  the  king,  he  was  executed  in  1453. 

See  a  well-written  biography,  entitled  "  Cronica  del  Condestable 
Don  Alvaro  de  Luna,"  by  an  anonymous  contemporary  writer,  pub- 
lished in  1546,  and  "  Histoire  de  Alvaro  de  Luna,"  Paris,  1720. 

Lund,  loond,  (Carl,)  a  Swedish  writer  on  law,  born 
at  Jonkoping  in  1638,  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  the  Law  of  Sweden."    Died  in  1715. 

Lund,  (Daniel,)  a  Swedish  professor  of  Hebrew, 
born  in  1666;  died  in  1747. 

Limden.    See  Lundin. 

Lttn'din  or  Lun'den,  (Sir  Alan,)  an  ambitious  Scot- 
tish politician,  was  born  in  Forfarshire.  He  married  a 
natural  daughter  of  Alexander  II.,  and  in  1243  was 
chosen  lord  justiciar  of  Scotland,  Having  opposed  the 
coronation  of  the  minor  son  of  the  late  king,  he  was 
dismissed  froiH  office  about  1250.  He  was  afterwards 
pardoned,  and  held  the  same  office  for  several  years. 
Died  in  1275. 

Lundorp,     See  Londorp. 

Lun'dy,  (Benjamin,)  an  American  philanthropist, 
born  in  Sussex  county.  New  Jersey,  in  1789.  He  founded 
in  1815  an  anti-slavery  association,  called  the  "Union 
Humane  Society,"  and  subsequently  became  editor  of 
the  "Genius  of  Universal  Emancipation,"  originally 
published  at  Mount  Pleasant,  Ohio,  but  removed  to 
Baltimore  in  1824,  He  was  also  active  in  promoting 
lectures  on  slavery  and  in  advocating  abstinence  from 
the  products  of  slave-labour.    Died  in  1839. 

See  the  "  Life,  Travels,  etc.  of  Benjamin  Lundy,"  by  Thomas 
Eari.e;  Greeley,  "American  Conflict,"  vol.  i.  pp.  111-115. 

Luneau  de  Boisjermain,  lii'nd'  deh  bwS'zhSR'- 
miN',  (Pierre  Joseph  FRANgois,)  a  mediocre  French 
writer,  born  at  Issondun  in  1732.  He  became  a  school- 
teacher in  Paris,  and  published  several  educational  works 
on  history  and  languages.  He  also  edited  the  works  of 
Racine,  (1768.)    Died  in  iFoi. 

Lunghi,  (LucA.)    See  Longhl 

Lunghi,  loon'gee,  (Martino,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  in  the  Milanese,  He  was  employed  in  Rome  by 
Pope  Gregory  XTII.,  erected  the  Campanile  of  the  Capi- 
tol, and  built  the  elegant  palace  of  Prince  Borghese. 
His  last  works  were  built  about  1600.  His  grandson, 
Martino,  was  an  architect,  and  worked  in  Rome, 
Naples,  and  Milan.    Died  in  1657. 

See  QuATREM^RE  DE  QuiNCY,  "  DictioHnaire  d' Architecture," 
and  "Vies  des  Architectes  celebres." 

Lunghi,  written  also  Longhi  and  Longo,  (Stlla 
Giacomo,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Vigiu,  in  the 
Milanese  ;  died  about  1625. 

Lunig,  loo'niG,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German  com- 
piler and  publicist,  born  in  1662.  He  published  valua- 
ble works  entitled  "  Archives  of  the  German  Empire," 
(24  vols.,  1713-22,)  "  Diplomatic  Code  of  Italy,"  ("  Codex 
Italiae  Diplomaticns,"  4  vols.,  1725-35,)  and  "  Diplomatic 
Code  of  Germany,"  ("Codex  Germaniae  Diplomaticus," 
2  vols.,  1733.)    Died  in  1740, 

Lttnt,  (George,)  an  American  lawyer  and  miscella- 
neous writer,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts.  He 
was  appointed  in  1849  district  attorney  for  Massachu- 


setts, and  in  1857  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
"  Boston  Courier." 

See  Griswoi.d,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Lupercalia,    See  Pan. 

Luperci,    See  Pan, 

Lu-per'cus,  an  ancient  deity,  who  was  worshipped 
by  the  Italian  shepherds  as  the  guardian  of  their  flocks 
against  wolves,  and  sometimes  identified  with  Pan. 

Lupi,  loo'pee,  (Antonio  Maria,)  a  learned  Italian 
Jesuit  and  antiquary,  born  at  Florence  in  1695  ;  died  in 
17.37. 

Lupi,  (Mario,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at  Bergamo 
in  1720 ;  died  in  1 789. 

Lupin,  von,  fon  loo-peen',  (Friedrtch,)  Baron,  a 
German  writer  and  mineralogist,  born  at  Memmingen  in 
1771  ;  died  in  1844, 

See  his  Autobiography,  ("  Selbstbiographie,")  2  vols.,  1844-47. 

Lupoli,  loo'po-lee,  (Vincenzio,)  an  Italian  canonist 
and  jurist,  born  near  Aversa  in  1737,  published  several 
works  on  law.    Died  in  1800, 

Lup'set,  (Thomas,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in  Lon- 
don about  1496,  He  obtained  the  chair  of  rhetoric  at 
Oxford,  and  corresponded  with  Erasmus  and  SirThoma.s 
More,  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Charity,"  and  other 
religious  works,  and  translated  parts  of  the  writings  of 
Cyprian  and  Chrysostom.    Died  in  1532. 

Lup'ton,  (Donald,)  an  English  biographer,  of  whom 
little  is  known.  He  published  in  1637  a  "  History  of  the 
Moderti  Protestant  Divines."  (translated  from  the  Latin,) 
and  "The  (jlory  of  their  Times;  or,  The  Lives  of  the 
Primitive  Fathers,"  (1640.) 

Lu'pus,  or  Wolf,  w6lf,  (Christian,)  a  Catholic 
theologian,  born  at  Ypres  in  1612,  He  became  a  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Louvain,  and  published  several 
works  on  dogmatic  theology.    Died  in  1681. 

Lupus  Servatus.    See  Loup. 

Luque,  de.diloo'ki,  (Hernando,)  a  Spanish  bi.shop 
of  Peru.  He  was  a  priest  of  Panama  when,  in  1525,  he 
associated  himself  with  Pizarro  and  Almagro  in  an  ex- 
pedition for  the  conquest  of  Peru.  De  Luque  furnished 
the  money  for  this  enterprise.    Died  in  1532. 

See  Hrrrera,  "  Historia  general  de  los  Viajes  en  las  Indias  Occi- 
dentales  ;"  Pkrscott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  ii. 

Lurine,  lil'r^n',  (Louis,)  a  French  writer  of  fiction, 
satire,  etc.,  born  in  1816.  He  contributed  many  articles 
to  the  public  journals, 

Luscinius,  loos-see'ne-vis,  (Othmar,)  a  litterateur, 
whose  proper  name  was  Nachtigall,  (nSK'te-g^l,)  was 
born  at  Strasburg  about  1480,  He  removed  from  Augs- 
burg to  Bale  in  1526,  and  afterwards  lodged  with  Eras- 
mus at  Freyburg,  He  edited  some  works  of  Lucian  and 
Martial,  and  published  various  other  works.  Died  about 
1535- 

Lilsh'ing-ton,  (Right  Hon.  Stephen,)  D.C.L.,  an 
eminent  English  civilian  and  statesman,  born  in  London 
in  1782,  was  the  son  of  Sir  Stephen  Lushington,  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  called  to  the  bar  in  1806. 
Between  1807  and  1841  he  represented  Yarmouth,  II- 
chester,  the  Tower  Hamlets,  and  other  places,  in  Par- 
liament, voting  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  (1807) 
and  for  other  liberal  measures.  He  also  contributed 
greatly  to  the  abolition  of  slavery.  He  was  one  of  the 
counsel  for  the  defence  in  the  trial  of  Queen  Caroline, 
(1821,)  In  1838  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  admi- 
ralty, and  privy  councillor, 

L'usignan,  (Guy  de,)    See  Guy  de  Lustgnan. 

Lusignan,  de,  deh  lU'z^n'yfiN'  or  loo-s^n-yin',  (Ste- 
FANO,)  a  descendant  of  the  royal  family  of  Cyprus,  was 
born  in  that  island  in  1537.  He  became  a  priest,  and 
emigrated  to  Italy  in  1571.  He  wrote  a  "History  of 
Cyprus  from  the  Time  of  Noah  until  1572,"  and  other 
works.    Died  about  1590. 

Lussan,  de,  deh  Iu'sSn',  (Marguerite,)  a  French 
novelist,  born  in  Paris  in  1682.  In  1730  she  published 
the  "  Story  of  the  Countess  de  Gondes,"  which  was  suc- 
cessful. She  also  wrote  "  The  Lite  of  the  Brave  Crillon," 
(1757,)  and  several  historical  romances.    Died  in  1758. 

See  Qit^rard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Lussi,  loos'see,  (Melchior,)  a  Swiss  general  and 
diplomatist,  born  at  Stanz  in  1529  ;  died  in  1606, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ky  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  ftll,  ftt;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


LUTATIUS  1 47 1 


Lutatiiis  Catulus.    See  Catulus. 

Luthbert.    See  Lubbert,  (Sibrand.) 

Lu'ther,  (Martin,)  [Ger.  pron.  maR'tin  loo'ter;  Lat. 
Makti'nus  Luthe'rus;  It.  Martino  Lutero,  maR- 
tee'no  loo-ta'ro  ;  Sp.  Martin  Lutero,  maR-t^ii'  loo- 
ta'ro,]  the  great  leader  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany, 
was  born  at  Eisleben,  the  roth  of  November,  1483.  He 
was  the  son  of  Hans  Luther,  a  miner.  His  mother's 
maiden  name  was  Margarethe  Lindemann.  At  the  age 
of  fifteen  he  was  sent  to  the  Latin  school  at  Eisenach, 
then  under  the  direction  of  Trebonius.  In  1501  he  en- 
tered the  university  at  Erfurt.  While  here,  he  found 
in  the  university  library  a  rare  and  precious  book, — a 
Latin  Bible, — which  became  an  object  of  extraordinary 
interest  to  him.  About  this  time  a  severe  attack  of  ill- 
ness, and,  soon  after,  the  sudden  death  of  one  of  his 
intimate  friends,  (caused,  as  some  historians  state,  by  a 
stroke  of  lightiring,)  produced  such  an  impression  on 
the  mind  of  young  Luther,  that  he  made  a  solemn  vow 
to  become  a  monk,  and  in  July,  1505,  he  entered  the 
Augustine  convent  at  Erfurt.  In  1507  he  was  ordained 
a  priest,  and  in  the  following  year,  through  the  influence 
of  Staupitz,  (the  provincial  of  his  order,  and  subsequently 
vicar-general,)  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy 
in  the  University  of  Wittenberg.  Luther's  visit  to  Rome, 
made  in  15 10,  in  fulfilment  of  a  previous  vow,  opened  to 
him  new  views  of  the  character  and  condition  of  the 
Romish  Church.  In  1 5 12  he  was  made  licentiate  and 
doctor  of  divinity,  and  began  about  this  time  to  declare 
openly  his  views  of  scriptural  theology,  which  he  ex- 
plained according  to  the  system  of  Saint  Augustine, 
resting  the  doctrine  of  justification  solely  on  faith  in  the 
sacrifice  of  the  Saviour.  In  1517,  Tetzel,  a  Dominican 
monk,  received  from  the  pope,  (Leo  X.,)  through  the 
Archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  a  commission  for  the  sale  of 
indulgences.  With  a  view  to  increase  the  demand  for 
his  merchandise,  Tetzel  asserted,  what  few  or  none  of 
the  other  Catholics  appear  to  have  ever  claimed,  that 
the  indulgences  not  only  released  the  purchasers  from 
the  necessity  of  penance,  but  absolved  them  from  all  the 
consequences  of  sin  both  here  and  hereafter.  Indignant 
at  what  he  regarded  as  an  insult  to  reason  and  religion, 
Luther  drew  up  his  celebrated  ninety-five  propositions, 
in  which  he  set  forth  in  the  strongest  language  the  theo- 
logical unsoundness  as  well  as  the  pernicious  effects  of 
Tetzel's  doctrine  of  indulgences.  This  publication  in- 
volved Luther  in  violent  controversies.  Among  the 
most  conspicuous  of  his  opponents  was  Dr.  Eck,  (in 
Latin,  Eckhis  or  Eccitcs,)  professor  of  divinity  at  Ingol- 
stadt.  But  the  cause  of  the  Reformer  steadily  gained 
ground,  and  among  the  number  of  his  favourers  was 
Frederick  the  Wise,  the  Elector  of  Saxony, — one  of  the 
most  powerful  princes  of  Germany.  Leo  having  sum- 
moned Luther  to  plead  his  cause  at  Rome,  the  Elector 
interposed,  and  it  was  arranged  that  the  examination  or 
trial  should  take  place  at  Augsburg,  before  Cardinal 
Cajetan,  (Caietano,)  the  legate  of  the  pope.  The  car- 
dinal having  refused  to  enter  into  any  discussion  with 
Luther,  at  the  same  time  insisting  that  the  latter  should 
submit  himself  unreservedly  to  the  authority  of  the 
papal  see,  Luther,  fearing — perhaps  with  too  much 
reason — the  fate  of  John  Huss,  secretly  withdrew  from 
Augsburg,  leaving  an  "appeal  to  the  pope  when  he 
should  be  better  informed."  Soon  after  Leo  issued  a 
bull  in  support  of  the  doctrine  of  indulgences  ;  where- 
upon Luther  appealed  from  the  pope  to  a  general  council 
of  the  Church. 

With  a  view  to  restore  tranquillity  to  the  Church,  Leo 
sent  his  chamberlain  Miltitz — a  Saxon  by  birth,  and  a 
man  of  great  tact  and  intelligence — as  nuncio  into  Ger- 
many. By  kindness  and  flattery,  Miltitz  obtained  from 
Luther  (March,  1 5 19)  a  promise  that  he  would  submit 
to  the  authority  of  the  pope  and  discontinue  the  con- 
troversy respecting  indulgences,  on  condition  that  his 
adversaries  should  also  preserve  silence  on  the  subject. 
Dr.  Eck,  however,  would  not  permit  the  controversy  to 
slumber.  He  soon  after  challenged  Carlstadt,  one  of 
Luther's  disciples,  to  a  public  dispute  at  Leipsic  ;  so  that 
Luther  himself  was  again  almost  unavoidably  involved 
in  the  contest.  The  result  was  a  confirmation  of  his 
former  views  of  the  fallibility  of  the  pope  and  the  errors 


LUTHER 


of  the  Church,  which  found  expression  in  several  publi- 
cations, and  especially  in  a  work  entitled  "  De  Captivi- 
tate  Babylonica  Ecclesiae,"  ("  On  the  Babylonian  Cap- 
tivity of  the  Church.")  Leo  had,  a  short  time  previously 
to  this  publication,  issued  a  bull  condemning  forty-one 
propositions  which  had  been  selected  from  the  works  of 
Luther,  aiid  directing  the  bishops  to  search  diligently 
for  the  writings  in  which  those  errors  were  contained, 
and  to  have  them  publicly  burned.  Luther  resolved  to 
anticipate  the  blow,  and  at  the  same  time  to  render  the 
breach  between  himself  and  Rome  forever  impassable. 
Attended  by  a  crowd  of  doctors,  professors,  and  students, 
he  proceeded  to  a  spot  fixed  on  for  the  purpose,  without 
the  walls  of  Wittenberg,  near  the  east  gate,  and  there 
burned  before  the  assembled  multitude  the  bull,  with 
the  accompanying  decretals  and  canons  relating  to  the 
pope's  supreme  authority. 

Up  to  this  period,  it  would  appear  that  the  reverence 
for  the  Church  in  which  Luther  had  been  educated  had 
always  exercised  a  controlling  influence  upon  his  mind  ; 
for,  although  he  denounced  in  the  boldest  manner  the 
abuses  of  the  ecclesiastical  power,  he  had  ever  mani- 
fested a  profound  respect  for  the  sovereign  pontiff  him- 
self. But  now  he  broke  through  all  restraint,  and  not 
only  denied  the  authority  of  the  pope,  but  he  assailed 
him  with  all  the  fierce  invective  and  vituperation  which 
were  so  common  in  that  age. 

After  this  additional  provocation,  it  was  not  to  be  ex- 
pected that  the  thunders  of  the  Church  should  slumber. 
Not  content  with  merely  excommunicating  Luther  and 
laying  every  place  which  should  harbour  him  under  an 
interdict,  Leo  urged  the  newly-elected  emperor,  Charles 
v.,  to  come  forward  as  the  champion  of  Catholicism 
and  inflict  upon  the  arch-heretic  and  his  adherents  the 
punishment  due  to  their  apostasy.  But  the  Elector  of 
Saxony,  to  whom  Charles  had  been  indebted  for  his  new 
dignity,  interposed  a  second  time,  and  so  far  prevailed 
that  it  was  determined  the  cause  of  Luther  should  be 
tried  before  the  Diet  of  the  empire.  The  Diet  assem- 
bled at  Worms  early  in  the  year  1521.  It  was  the  wish 
and  intention  of  the  legate  Aleander  and  the  other 
advocates  of  the  papal  cause  that  Luther  should  not  be 
present  at  his  own  trial.  But  the  majority  of  the  Diet, 
whether  influenced  by  friendship  for  the  Reformer  or  by 
the  desire  to  preserve  the  appearance  of  justice  in  their 
proceedings,  insisted  that  Luther  should  not  be  con- 
demned unheard.  The  emperor  was  prevailed  upon  to 
grant  him  a  safe-conduct,  (dated  March  6,  1521.)  The 
greater  number  of  Luther's  friends  earnestly  dissuaded 
him  from  going  to  Worms.  Even  Spalatin,  the  secretary 
and  confidential  adviser  of  the  Elector  Frederick,  sent 
him  a  pressing  message  exhorting  him  on  no  account  to 
enter  that  city.  Luther  replied,  "  Were  there  as  many 
devils  in  Worms  as  tiles  upon  the  roofs  of  the  houses, 
still  would  I  enter,"  ("  Wenn  so  viel  Teufel  zu  Worms 
waren  als  Ziegel  auf  den  Dachern,  doch  wollt'  ich 
hinein.'')  He  arrived  in  the  city  on  the  i6th  of  April, 
and  appeared  before  the  Diet  the  following  day.  When 
asked  if  he  was  the  author  of  the  works  produced  against 
him,  containing  the  passages  which  had  been  condemned, 
he  replied  in  the  affirmative.  On  being  again  asked 
whether  he  was  prepared  to  retract  the  olijectionable 
doctrines  contained  in  them,  he  answered  that,  as  this 
question  concerned  the  word  of  God,  the  Christian  faith, 
and  the  salvation  of  souls,  it  was  of  great  importance 
that  he  should  not  speak  rashly,  lest  he  should  offend 
against  the  word  of  God  :  he  therefore  desired  that  time 
might  be  allowed  him  for  consideration.  The  next  day 
he  was  again  brought  before  the  Diet.  While  he  ad- 
mitted that  in  some  instances  he  might  have  written 
with  less  humility  and  more  violence  than  became  his 
ecclesiastical  character,  he  refused  to  retract  anything 
that  he  had  said,  unless  it  could  be  shown  to  be  con- 
trary to  the  Scriptures  ;  at  the  same  time,  he  boldly 
repeated  and  defended  several  of  his  positions  which 
had  been  objected  to.  Hereupon  Charles  and  the  other 
favourers  of  the  Catholic  cause  refused  to  hear  him  any 
further.  He  was  commanded  to  leave  Worms.  He 
accordingly  returned  to  Saxony.  As  he  was  journeying 
on  the  borders  of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  he  was  sud- 
denly seized  by  a  number  of  warriors  in  masks,  and 


€  as     9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (Sl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LUTHER 


1472 


LUTI 


hurried  off  to  the  solitary  castle  of  Wartburg,  where 
his  ecclesiastical  habit  was  exchanged  for  the  dress 
and  sword  of  a  knight.  This  whole  proceeding  was  a 
stratagem  of  Frederick  to  protect  the  Reformer  against 
the  designs  of  his  enemies,  Luther  had  previously  been 
apprised  of  the  contemjilated  scheme.  He  remarks,  in 
one  of  his  letters,  that  he  scarcely  knew  himself  in  his 
strange  disguise. 

Immediately  after  the  departure  of  Luther,  Aleander, 
the  Papal  legate,  prevailed  on  Charles  to  give  the  edict 
against  him  the  sanction  of  the  imperial  signature  and 
seal.  It  was  declared,  in  the  name  of  the  emperor,  that, 
as  soon  as  the  term  of  his  safe-conduct  had  expired, 
Luther  should  be  seized  and  held  in  durance  until  they 
should  be  informed  how  to  deal  with  him. 

Luther  remained  in  the  castle  of  Wartburg  about  ten 
months.  He  left  it  in  Marcli,  1522,  and  returned  to  Wit- 
tenberg in  order  to  rebuke  the  excesses  into  which  some 
of  his  former  disciples  had  fallen.  In  1524  he  laid  aside 
the  monastic  dress;  and  in  1525  he  married  Catharina 
von  Bora,  who  had  once  been  a  nun.  Luther  completed 
his  German  version  of  the  Old  Testament  in  1534;  his 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  had  appeared  in  1522. 
These  translations,  l>y  their  extensive  circulation,"  as  well 
as  by  the  force  and  beauty  of  the  language,  have  exerted 
a  most  important  influence  upon  German  literature, 
which  may  almost  be  said  to  date  its  origin  from  their 
composition. 

Frederick  the  Wise,  Luther's  faithful  friend  and  pro- 
tector, died  in  1525,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew 
John,  who  was  an  open  and  devoted  adherent  of  the 
great  Reformer.  During  the  latter  portion  of  his  life, 
Luther  was  held  in  the  highest  consideration  by  most 
of  the  princes  of  Germany,  where  his  doctrines  continued 
to  spread,  and  finally,  even  during  his  lifetime,  extended 
to  Moravia,  Bohemia,  Denmark,  and  Sweden.  He  died 
at  Eisleben,  the  i8th  of  February,  1546,  in  the  sixty-third 
year  of  his  age.  Among  Luther's  voluminous  works, 
his  translation  of  the  Bible,  already  mentioned,  is  the 
most  important.  Besides  his  controversial  writings,  he 
has  left  numerous  letters,  sermons,  etc.  His  "Table- 
Talk,"  ("  Tischreden,")  which  is,  says  Carlyle,  "the 
most  interesting  now  of  all  the  books  proceeding  from 
him,"  consists  of  sayings  and  anecdotes  collected  by 
Luther's  friends  after  his  death. 

Although  the  character  of  Luther  was  especially  dis- 
tinguished by  ardent  zeal  and  unconquerable  courage, 
yet  on  important  occasions  he  could  exercise  the  greatest 
moderation  as  well  as  discretion.  The  intrepidity  with 
which  he  faced  the  dangers  that  threatened  him  at  Worms 
is  not  more  deserving  of  our  praise  than  the  admirable 
prudence  and  tact  which  he  displayed  in  his  defence  on 
that  memorable  occasion.  The  fierce  invective  and  coarse 
vituperation  for  which  his  controversial  writings  have 
been  censured,  are  palliated  by  the  consideration  that 
such  was  the  almost  universal  custom  of  that  age.  If 
his  opposition  was  violent,  it  was  not  malignant  or  un- 
forgiving. When  his  bitterest  enemy,  Tetzel, — the  man 
who  had  excited  Luther's  fiercest  indignation, — was  in 
misfortune  and  disgrace,  forsaken  by  all  his  friends,  he 
received  from  his  generous  adversary  a  letter  of  con- 
dolence and  consolation.  As  a  reformer,  Luther  sought 
to  introduce  such  changes  only  as  he  deemed  to  be  im- 
peratively demanded  ;  and  to  the  last  he  clung  to  some 
of  the  doctrines  of  his  early  faith  which  were  rejected 
by  all  or  nearly  all  the  other  Protestants.  He  was  always 
an  advocate  of  peace  where  peace  could  be  had  without 
the  sacrifice  of  any  great  principle  ;  and,  so  long  as  he 
"lived,  he  steadfastly  opposed,  both  by  his  counsels  and 
by  his  influence,  those  religious  contests  which  after  his 
death  desolated  Germany. 

"Justification  by  Faith"  formed  the  great  central  doc- 
trine in  Luther's  system  of  theology,  as  unconditional 
election  and  reprobation  was  the  central  idea  of  that  of 
Calvin.  The  great  aim  of  the  latter  would  seem  to  have 
been  to  prove  the  utter  and  absolute  helplessness  of 
man  ;  and,  in  the  march  of  his  inexorable  logic,  he  some- 
times appears  equally  regardless  of  the  hopes  of  man- 
kind and  of  the  justice  of  God.  Luther,  while  ascribing 
everything  in  the  act  of  conversion  to  the  grace  of  God, 
seems  not  so  completely  to  close  the  door  to  human 


aspirations, — taking  for  his  motto,  "  If  thou  canst  believe 
—all  things  are  possible  to  him  that  believeth." 

Luther  is  described  as  a  man  of  low  stature  but  hand- 
some person,  with  a  lively  complexion  and  falcon  eyes. 
His  voice  was  clear  and  of  great  power.  On  behold- 
ing his  picture,  Melanchthon  is  said  to  have  exclaimed, 
"  Each  one  of  thy  words  was  a  thunderbolt !"  ("  Fulmina 
erant  singula  verba  tua.")  Carlyle  says  of  him,  "  No 
more  valiant  man  ever  lived  in  that  Teutonic  kindred 
whose  character  is  valour  :  the  thing  he  will  quail  before 
exists  not  on  this  earth  or  under  it."  "  He  was,"  observes 
Heine,  "  not  only  the  greatest,  but  the  most  German, 
man  of  our  history.  In  his  character  all  the  faults  and  all 
the  virtues  of  the  Germans  are  combined  on  the  largest 
scale.  He  had  qualities  which  are  very  seldom  found 
united,  which  we  are  accustomed  to  regard  as  irrecon- 
cilable antagonisms.  .  .  ,  He  was  not  only  the  tongue, 
but  the  sword,  of  his  time.  Sometimes  he  was  wild 
as  the  storm  that  uproots  the  oak,  and  again  he  was 
as  gentle  as  the  zephyr  which  dallies  with  the  violet," 
In  a  not  dissimilar  strain,  Carlyle  contrasts  the  wild, 
unconquerable  energy  with  the  affectionate  tenderness 
of  Luther's  character :  "  A  most  gentle  heart  withal, 
full  of  pity  and  love,  as,  indeed,  the  truly  valiant  heart 
ever  is,"  Alluding  to  Luther's  fondness  for  music,  he 
adds,  "Death-defiance  on  the  one  hand,  and  such  love 
of  music  on  the  other, — between  these  two,  all  great 
things  had  room," 

Those  who  may  desire  to  see  a  less  favourable  view  of 
the  great  Reformer's  character  and  influence,  are  referred 
to  the  article  "  Luther"  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale,"  from  the  pen  of  the  editor,  Dr,  Hoefer. 

See  D'AuBiGN^,,  "History  of  the  Reformation;"  Michei.et, 
"Memoires  de  Luther,"  2  vols.,  1835;  Melanchthon,  "Life  of 
Lutlier,"  ("Vita  Liitheri ;")  Johann  Mathesius,  "  Historia  von 
Dr.  M.  Luther's  Anfang,  Lehr,  Leben,"  etc.,  1565  ;  Immanuel  Vega, 
"  De  M.  Lutheri  Vita  et  Miracu'is,"  1586:  M  Dresser,  "  Historia 
M.  Lutheri,"  1598  ;  T.  Hayne,  "  Life  and  Death  of  Martin  Luther," 
1641  :  C.  Juncker,  "Vita  Lutheri,"  etc.,  1699;  C.  M.  Seidel,  "  Er- 
bauliches  Leben  Dr.  M.  Luther's,"  1718;  J.  Coi.erus,  "  Lutherua 
Redivivus,"  1718;  J.  Cochlaeus,  "  Commentaria  de  Actis  et  .Scriptis 
M.  Lutheri,"  1549;  N.  Taili,epied,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  M.  Lu- 
ther," 1577  ;  Glocerus,  "  Historia  von  der  Lehre,  Leben,  etc.  Dr.  M. 
Lutheri,"  1586:  J.  D.  Herrenschmidt,  "  Vita  Dr.  M.  Lutheri," 
etc.,  1742;  C.  J.  Wagenseii.,  "  Lebensgeschichte  Dr.  M.  Luther's," 
1782  ;  TiscHER,  "Leben,  Thaten  und  Meinungen  Dr.  M.  Luther's," 
1783;  F.  G.  Zimmermann,  "  Memoria  Dr.  M.  Lutheri,"  j8oS;  A. 
Bower,  "  Life  of  Dr.  M.  Luther,"  1813;  Ukert,  "Dr.  M.  Luther's 
Leben,"  1817  ;  H.  Muei.i.er,  "  Dr.  M.  Luthers  Leben  und  Wirken," 
1817  ;  Stang,  "  M.  Luther,  sein  Leben,"  etc.,  1835  :  G.  Pfizer,  "  M, 
Luther's  Leben,"  1836;  J.  E.  Riddle,  "Luther  and  his  Times," 
1837  ;  John  Scott,  "  Luther  and  the  Lutheran  Reformation,"  1838  ; 
AuDiN,  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  M.  Luther,"  2  vols.,  1839;  Hannah 
Lee,  "Life  and  Times  of  M.  Luther,"  Boston,  1839;  M.  Meurer, 
"  M.  Luther's  Leben,"  3  vols.,  1846;  Carl  Jurgen.s,  "M.  Luther's 
Leben,"  3  vols.,  1847;  R.  Ferguson,  "  Luther:  his  Times,  Charac- 
ter, and  Works,"  1848;  F.  W.  Genthe,  "Leben  und  Wirken  Dr. 
M.  Luther's,"  1842:  Ignaz  Dollinger,  "Luther:  eine  Ski/.ze," 
1851;  E.  Haag,  "Vie  de  M.  Luther,"  1840;  Jander,  "Luther's 
Leben,"  etc.,  1853:  N.  M.  Petersen,  "M.  Luther's  Levnet,"  1840; 
J.  A.  Cramer,  "Luther  und  Melanclithon,"  1817;  Paul  Seidel, 
"  Historia  und  Geschichte  des  Vaters  Dr.  M.  Lutheri,"  1581  ;  Carl 
R.  RiCHTER,  "Geschichte  Dr.  M.  Luther's,"  1817;  K.  F.  A, 
Kahnis,  "  Lutherische  Dogmatik,"  2  vols.,  t86i-68;  Dr.  C.  P. 
Krauth,  "Tlie  Conservative  Reformation  and  its  Theology,"  etc., 
1870;  Carlyle,  "On  Heroes  and  Hero-Worsliip  ;"  Hedge,  "Prose 
Writers  of  Germany;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1839, 

Luther,  (Paul,)  a  chemist,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Wittenberg  in  1533.  He  became  physician  to 
Augustus,  Elector  of  .Saxony,  and  to  his  successor.  Chris- 
tian,   Died  at  Leipsic  in  1593. 

Luther,  (Rokert,)  a  German  astronomer,  born  about 
1810,  lived  near  Dusseldorf.  He  discovered  eight  small 
planets  or  asteroids  between  1852  and  1858. 

Lutherburg.    See  Louthkrkourg. 

Luti,  loo'tee,  or  Lutti,  loot'tee,  (Benedetto,)  an 
excellent  Italian  painter  of  history,  born  at  Florence  in 
1666,  was  a  pupil  of  Gabbiani.  He  worked  chiefly  in 
Rome,  and  was  patronized  by  Clement  XI.  According 
to  Lanzi,  many  connoisseurs  designated  him  the  last 
master  of  the  Florentine  school.  Among  his  merits  ai  e 
forms  delicate  and  graceful,  and  a  skilful  distribution  of 
colours  and  shadows.  He  painted  in  oil,  in  fresco,  and 
in  pastel.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  an  "Annun- 
ciation," "San  Ranieri  taking  the  Habit,"  and  "The 
Prophet  Isaiah,"  in  the  Lateran.    Died  in  1 724. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Paintins:  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "  Diziona 
rio  ;"  Winckelmann,  "  Neues  Mahler- Lexikon." 


a,  e,T,  o,  \\,yJoHg:    ^,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a, e,  1, 6, ii, y,  j/4<7r/;  a,e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


LUTON 


H73 


LUTNES 


Luton,  lu't6.N',  (Louis,)  a  French  chemist  and  painter 
on  glass,  born  in  Paris  in  1757  ;  died  in  1852. 

Luttrell,  Colonel.    See  Wilkes,  (John.) 

Lut'trell,  (Narcissus,)  an  English  political  writer, 
who  kept  a  diary  of  public  events  during  the  Revolution 
of  1688  and  subsequent  years,  which  Macaulay  often 
quotes  and  calls  a  valuable  manuscript.  Died  about 
1732.    His  diary  was  published  in  1857. 

See  "North  British  Review"  for  November,  1S57. 

Liitzelburger  or  Luetzelburger,  lut'sel-booRc'er, 
sometimes  erroneously  written  Leutzelburger,  (Hans,) 
also  called  Hans  Frank,  a  Swiss  wood-engraver,  of 
whom  very  little  is  known,  lived  about  1520-40.  Among 
the  most  important  works  attributed  to  him  is  the 
"  Dance  of  Death,"  (usually  ascribed  to  Holbein,)  "  Illus- 
trations of  the  Old  Testament,"  a  portrait  of  Erasmus, 
and  "The  Sale  of  Indulgences." 

See  Nagi.er,  "Allgenieines  Kiiiistler-Lexikon." 

Liitzow  or  Luetzow,  liit'so,  (Ludwig  Adolf  Wil- 
HELM,)  a  Prussian  general,  born  in  1782;  died  at  Ber- 
lin in  1834. 

Liitzow,  von,  fon  liit'so,  (Theresa  von  Struve,) 
Madame,  a  German  authoress,  born  at  Stuttgart  in 
1804.  She  wrote  several  novels  and  books  of  travel. 
Died  in  Java  in  1852. 

Liivigini,  loo-ve-jee'nee,  Luisini,  loo-e-see'nee,  or 
Luisino,  loo-e-see'no,  [Lat.  Luisi'nus,]  (Francesco,) 
an  Italian  scholar,  born  at  Udine  in  1 523.  He  was  pre- 
ceptor of  the  son  of  Ottavio  Farnese,  Duke  of  Parma. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "Latin  Commentary  on  Horace's 
Art  of  Poetry,"  (1554.)  His  poetical  talent  is  praised 
by  Muret  and  Giraldi.    Died  in  1568. 

Luvigini  or  Luisino,  (Luigi,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Udine,  was  a  physician  at  Venice.  Among 
his  works  is  a  version  of  the  "Aphorisms"  of  Hippocrates, 
in  Latin  hexameters,  (1552.) 

Lux,  looks,  (Adam,)  a  German  republican,  born  at 
Mentz  about  1770.  He  was  sent  to  Paris  in  March,  1793, 
to  solicit  the  annexation  of  his  country  to  France.  He 
witnessed  with  sympathy  and  admiration  the  conduct  of 
Charlotte  Corday  at  her  execution.  A  few  days  later  he 
published  an  apology  for  that  heroine.  For  this  and 
other  offences  he  was  executed  in  November,  1793. 

Luxdorf,  looks'doRf,  (Bolle  Willum,)  a  Danish 
writer  and  lawyer,  born  in  the  island  of  Seeland  in  1716. 
He  cultivated  Latin  poetry  with  success.    Died  in  1788. 

Luxembourg,  liik's6N'booR',  (Christian  Louis  de 
Montmorenci,)  Prince  de  Tingri,  a  French  general, 
born  in  Paris  in  1675,  was  the  fourth  son  of  the  great  Mar- 
shal Luxembourg.  For  his  services  at  Oudenarde  and 
Lille  (1708)  he  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general. 
He  commanded  at  Ettlingen  in  1734,  and  was  made  a 
marshal  of  France  in  the  same  year.  From  that  time  he 
was  called  Marshal  de  Montmorenci.    Died  in  1746. 

See  PiNARD,  "Chronologie  militaire." 

Luxembourg,  de,  deh  liik'sSN'booR',  (Charles 
FRANgois  Fr6d^ric  de  Montmorenci,)  Marshal, 
born  in  1702,  was  a  grandson  of  the  first  Marshal  Lux- 
embourg. He  was  aide-de-camp  of  Louis  XV.  in  the 
war  of  1 741,  and,  having  served  with  distinction  in  Ger- 
many, became  a  marshal  of  France.  He  gave  a  home  to 
J.  J.  Rousseau  at  Montmorenci.  (See  the  notice  of  his 
wife,  below.)    Died  in  1764. 

See  Rousseau,  "Confessions." 

Luxembourg,  de,  written  also  Luxemburg,  (Fran- 
gois  Henri  de  Montmorenci,)  Due,  a  celebrated  mar- 
shal of  France,  born  in  Paris  in  1628,  was  a  son  of  the 
Count  de  Montmorenci-Bouteville,  and  a  cousin-german 
of  the  great  Prince  de  Conde.  For  his  conduct  at  Lens 
in  1648  he  was  made  marechal-de-camp.  From  devotion 
to  the  Prince  of  Conde,  he  served  several  campaigns 
against  France  between  1653  and  1659,  during  wh'ich 
period  Conde  commanded  the  Spanish  army.  Having 
received  a  pardon  from  the  king  in  1660,  he  married  the 
heiress  of  the  house  of  Luxembourg,  and  assumed  that 
name.  In  1672  he  obtained  command  of  an  army  which 
invaded  Holland  and  took  several  towns.  His  skilful 
retreat  from  Utrecht  to  Charleroi  in  November,  1673, 
raised  him  to  the  rank  of  the  first  captains  of  that  age. 
In  1674  he  commanded  the  right  wing  of  Conde's  army 
at  Senef,  and  in  1675  received  a  marshal's  baton.  He 


gained  victories  over  the  allies  in  Flanders  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1677,  which  was  followed  by  a  long  peace. 
Having  incurred  the  enmity  of  Louvois,  he  was  confined 
in  the  Bastille  fourteen  months  on  a  charge  of  sorcery. 
In  1690,  Louis  XIV.^  against  whom  Austria,  Spain,  and 
England  had  formed  a  coalition,  gave  the  chief  com- 
mand of  his  army  to  Marshal  Luxembourg,  who,  since 
the  death  of  Turenne  and  Conde,  was  the  ablest  of  his 
generals.  He  defeated  the  allies  at  Pleurus  in  1690. 
In  the  campaign  of  1691  he  defeated  William  III.  of 
England  at  the  great  battle  of  Steenkerke.  He  was  victo- 
rious over  the  same  enemy  and  leader  at  Neerwinden, 
or  Landen,  in  1693.  He  died  in  January,  1695,  after 
which  the  army  of  Louis  gained  few  victories,  "  Even 
the  admirers  of  William  III.,"  says  Macaulay,  "were 
forced  to  own  that  in  the  field  he  was  not  a  match  for 
Luxembourg,"  whose  "judgment  was  clearest  and  surest 
when  responsibility  pressed  heaviest  on  him  and  when 
difficulties  gathered  thickest  around  him."  "  He  gained 
immense  renown  at  William's  expense  ;  but  he  had  not 
the  art  of  improving  a  victory,  while  William,  of  all  gen- 
erals, was  best  qualified  to  repair  a  defeat."  ("  History 
of  England,"  vol.  iv,  chap,  xix.) 

See  Beaurain,  "  Histoire  militaire  du  Due  de  Luxembourg," 
1756;  "Memoirs  of  Marshal  Luxemburg,"  written  by  himself,  1758; 
Voltaire, '■  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;" 
Desor.meaux,  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Montmorenci,"  vols.  iv.  and 
V.  ;  L.  Artoing,  "  Le  Marechal  de  Luxembourg,"  1S53  ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Luxembourg  or  Luxemburg,  de,  (Louis,)  Comte 
de  Saint-Pol,  an  ambitious  French  general,  born  in  141 8. 
He  fought  against  Louis  XI.  at  Montlheri  about  1464, 
but  was  soon  after  won  over  by  the  high  oflice  of  Con- 
stable of  France,  and  married  the  queen's  sister,  Marie 
de  Savoie.  He  was  called  the  pivot  of  the  principal 
intrigues  of  that  time.  His  perfidy  provoked  Louis  XL 
and  Charles  the  Bold  to  declare  him  their  common 
enemy.    He  was  beheaded  in  1475. 

See  CoMiNES.  "Memoires  ;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Francais ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Luxembourg,  de,  (Madelene  Ang^lique  de  Neuf- 
ville-Villeroi — deh  nufv^K  v^KRwd^)  Marechale- 
DucHESSE,  born  in  1707,  was  a  granddaughter  of  Marshal 
Villeroi.  She  was  married  to  ^larshal  C,  F.  de  Luxem- 
bourg in  1750.  About  1758  this  couple  gave  Rousseau 
an  asylum  at  Montmorenci,  Rousseau  has  commemo- 
rated in  his  "Confessions"  her  charming  conversation 
and  liberality.  Her  rank  and  talents  gave  her  great 
social  influence  in  Paris.    Died  in  1787. 

Luxembourg-Ligni,  de,  deh  luk'sSN^booR'  len'ye', 
(Waleran,)  Comte  de  Saint-Pol,  was  born  in  1355,  of 
one  of  the  most  illustrious  families  of  Europe,  VVhile 
fighting  for  the  French  king,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  English  in  1374.  He  married  Matilda,  a  sister  of 
Richard  II.  of  England.  Having  been  chosen  Con- 
stable of  France  in  1412,  he  defeated  the  Armagnacs 
in  battle.    Died  in  1417, 

Luxemburg.    See  Luxembourg, 

Luykeu  or  Luycken,  loi'ken,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  en- 
graver, born  in  1649,  lived  in  Amsterdam.  He  etched, 
after  his  own  designs,  many  admired  works,  which  dis- 
play a  fertile  invention.  The  "Death  of  Coligny"  is 
called  his  best  production.    Died  in  1712. 

Luynes  or  Luines,  de,  deh  lii-en',  (Charles  d'Al- 
BERT,)  Due,  the  favourite  of  Louis  XHI.  of  France, 
was  born  in  Languedoc  in  1578.  As  the  companion 
of  Louis  in  youth,  he  acquired  an  ascendency  over  him, 
and  about  1616  he  became  his  most  powerful  minister. 
His  cupidity  and  ambition  excited  many  enemies,  among 
whom  was  the  king's  mother;  but  through  his  influence 
she  was  sent  into  exile.  In  162 1  he  was  appointed  Con- 
stable of  France,  and  declared  war  against  the  Hugue- 
nots, It  appears  that  Louis  had  resolved  to  discard  him  ; 
but  before  that  purpose  was  effected  Luynes  died,  in 
December,  1621,  He  was  a  brother  of  Marshal  Chaulnes, 
noticed  in  this  work. 

See  Bazin,  "Histoire  de  Louis  XIII;"  Bassompierre,  "Me- 
moires;" Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie Generale." 

Luynes,  de,  (Honor^  Th^odoric  Paul  Joseph 
d'Albert,)  Due,  a  French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in 
1802,  was  a  liberal  patron  of  arts  and  sciences.    He  was 


€  as  if;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (:::^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

93 


LUTTS 


«474 


LTCURGUS 


admitted  in  1830  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  to 
which  he  contributed  many  valuable  treatises  on  antiqui- 
ties and  medals. 

Luyts,  loits,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  philosopher  and  astrono- 
mer, born  at  Horn  about  1660,  became  professor  of 
physics  at  Utrecht.  He  was  an  opponent  of  the  Cartesian 
philosophy.    Died  in  1721. 

Luz,  iiiz,  ?  [T.at.  Lu'cius,]  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  Protest- 
ant theologian,  born  at  Bale  in  1577.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Jesuits,"  (1626,)  and  other  worlds.  Died  in 
1642. 

Luzac,  lii'zSk',  (Elias,)  a  Dutch  philosopher  and 
jurist,  born  near  Leyden  in  1 723.  He  published  in  1756 
"  Researches  into  the  Principles  of  Human  Knowledge." 
His  "Riches  of  Holland,"  (1778,)  a  history  of  Dutch 
commerce,  is  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1796. 

Luzac,  (Jan,)  a  philologist  and  publicist  of  great 
merit,  born  at  Leyden  in  1746.  He  practised  law  in  his 
native  place.  In  1775  became  chief  editor  of  the 
"Gazette  de  Leyde."  From  1785  until  1796  he  was 
professor  of  Greek  in  Leyden  University.  He  corre- 
sponded with  Washington  and  Jefferson,  the  former  of 
whom  wrote,  "America  is  under  great  obligations  to  the 
writings  and  actions  of  such  men  as  you."  Among  his 
works  are  "  Socrates  as  a  Citizen,"  ("De  Socrate  Cive,") 
dedicated  to  John  Adams,  of  Massachusetts,  and  "Attic 
Readings,"  ("Lectiones  Atticae,"  1809.)  He  was  killed 
by  an  explosion  of  gunpowder  at  Leyden  in  1807. 

See  SiEGENBEEK,  "  Noticc  sur  la  Vie  et  lesTravaux  de  J.  Luzac." 

Luzac,  (Steven,)  the  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Leyden  in  1706.  He  became  in  1738  proprietor  and 
editor  of  the  "  Gazette  de  Leyde,"  which  is  described 
as  a  model  of  accuracy  and  wisdom,  and  possessed  much 
historical  value.    Died  in  1787. 

Luzan,  loo-thln',  (Don  Ignacio,)  a  Spanish  critic, 
poet,  and  literary  reformer,  born  at  Saragossa  in  1702. 
About  1750  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  mint,  a 
councillor  of  state,  and  minister  of  commerce.  To  coun- 
teract the  vicious  poetical  style  of  Gongora,  he  wrote 
his  celebrated  "  Art  of  Poetry,"  ("  La  Poetica,  o  Reglas 
de  la  Poesia  en  general,"  1737,)  which  is  said  to  have 
been  effectual  in  rectifying  the  national  taste.  He  pro- 
duced several  admired  poems,  one  of  which  is  "  The 
Judgment  of  Paris."   Died  in  1754. 

See  TicKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Longfellow, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Luzarches,  de,  deh  lii'ztRsh',  (Robert,)  a  French 
architect,  designed  the  magnificent  cathedral  of  Amiens, 
which  was  commenced  in  1220  and  finished  in  1269. 

Luzerne,  de  la,  deh  It  lii^z^Rn',  (Anne  C^sar,) 
Chevalier,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1741. 
In  1779  he  was  sent  as  minister  to  the  United  States, 
where  he  had  much  influence,  and  performed  with  credit 
the  duties  of  a  position  which  the  absence  of  instructions 
made  more  responsible.  He  left  the  United  States  in 
1783.  He  was  ambassador  from  France  to  London  from 
1788  until  his  death,  in  September,  1 791. 

Luzerne,  de  la,  (C6sar  Guillaume,)  a  learned  prel- 
ate, born  in  Paris  in  1738,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  became  Bishop  of  Langres  in  1770,  and  was 
elected  to  the  wStates-General  in  1789.  He  emigrated  in 
1 791,  returned  in  1814,  and  was  made  a  cardinal  in  181 7. 
Among  his  numerous  works  is  "  Considerations  on 
Divers  Points  6f  Christian  Morality,"  (5  vols.,  1795.) 
Died  in  1821. 

See  QuitRARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Luzerne,  de  la,  (C6sar  Henri,)  Count,  a  French 
minister  of  state,  born  in  Paris  in  1737,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  and  a  nephew  of  Malesherbes.  He  was 
appointed  minister  of  the  marine  in  1787.  The  hostility 
of  the  dominant  party  caused  him  to  resign  in  1790.  He 
emigrated  in  1791,  and  died  in  Austria  in  1799. 

Lyaeus,  ll-ee'us,  [Gr.  KvaloQ,  from  Ivu,  to  "  free"  or 
"  loosen,"]  a  surname  given  to  Bacchus,  because  he  (wine) 
frees  the  mind  from  care  ;  though  some  say  it  is  because 
he  loosens  the  limbs  of  his  votaries,  rendering  them  un- 
able to  walk.    (See  Bacchus.) 

Lycambes.    See  Archilochus. 

Ly-ca'on,  [Gr,  Avk(uov,'\  a  fabulous  king  of  Arcadia, 
and  a  son  of  Pelasgus.    He  and  his  numerous  sons  were 


notorious  for  impiety  and  cruelty  The  poets  feigned 
that  Jupiter  in  disguise  once  visited  Lycaon,  who  offered 
him  human  flesh  to  eat,  for  which  offence  he  was  changed 
into  a  wolf. 

Lycius,  lish'e-us,  [Kvklo^,]  a  Greek  sculptor,  born  in 
Boeotia,  lived  abmTt  425  B.C.  According  to  Pliny,  he  was 
a  pupil  of  Myron. 

Lycomede.    See  Lycomedes. 

Lycomede,  le'ko'mkK,  the  assumed  name  of  Giu- 
seppe Maria  Arright,  (ir-ree'gee,)  a  Corsican  writer, 
born  in  1768.  He  published,  in  Italian,  a  "Historical 
Essay  on  the  Civil  and  Political  Revolutions  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Naples,"  (3  vols.,  1812.)    Died  in  1834. 

Lyc-o-me'des,  [Gr.  KvKoiir]^7]q ;  Fr.  Lycomede,  le'- 
ko'mad',]  a  king  of  Scyros  and  of  the  Dolopians,  was 
the  father  of  Deidamia,  who  became  the  mother  of 
Pyrrhus  by  Achilles,  The  poets  relate  that  young 
Achilles  was  committed  to  his  care  by  Thetis  to  prevent 
him  from  going  to  the  Trojan  war.  Lycomedes  is  said 
to  have  murdered  Theseus,  who  sought  refuge  at  his 
court. 

Lycomedes,  [Gr.  Av/co//^(5?7f,]  an  Arcadian  general, 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  Megalopolis,  (370  B.C.)  He 
defeated  the  Spartans  in  369,  and  took  Pellene.  He  was 
murdered  about  366  B.C. 

Ly'con,  [A{)«:6jv,]  an  Athenian  orator,  who  acquired 
notoriety  as  one  of  the  accusers  of  Socrates.  He  was 
banished  with  Anytus  for  this  offence. 

Lycon,  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Laodicea,  lived 
about  300  B.C.  He  was  the  successor  of  Strato,  and  for 
about  forty  years  was  the  head  of  the  Peripatetic  school 
of  Athens.    He  had  a  high  reputation  for  eloquence. 

See  RiTTER,  "History  of  Philosophy." 

Lj^c'o-phron,  [Awf60pw^',]  a  Greek  poet  and  gram- 
marian, born  at  Chalcis,  in  Euboea.  He  lived  at  the 
court  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  in  Alexandria,  from  280 
to  250  B.C.  He  was  one  of  the  seven  poets  who  were 
styled  the  "  Pleiades."  The  numerous  tragedies  which 
he  wrote  have  all  been  lost,  but  his  lyric  poem  called 
"Cassandra,"  or  "Alexandra,"  has  come  down  to  us.  It 
is  very  obscure  and  enigmatical,  but  is  admired  as  a 
prodigy  of  learning  and  valued  as  a  treasury  of  facts 
and  traditions. 

SeeOsiANDER,  "  Bemerkungen  zu  Lycophron,"  1826;  Fabricius, 
"Bibliotheca  GrJEca ;"  Volker,  "De  Lycophronis  Cassandra," 
1820;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ly-cor'tas  [Av/coprafl  of  Megalopolis,  an  Achaean 
general,  was  the  father  of  Polybius  the  historian,  and  a 
friend  of  Philopoemen.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Rome  in  189  B.C.    Died  after  168  B.C. 

Lycosthenes,  le-kos'ta-nes,  (Conrad,)  the  Greek 
name  of  Conrad  Wolffhart,  a  scholar,  born  in  Alsace 
in  1 5 18.  He  became  minister  of  a  church  in  Bale  in 
1545,  and  published  a  curious  work  on  "  Prodigies," 
("  Prodigiorum  Chronicon,")  a  new  edition  of  Gesner's 
"Bibliotheca,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1561. 

Ly-cur'gus,  [Gr.  K.vKovpyoq;  Fr.  Lycurgue,  le'kiiRg',] 
in  classic  mythology,  a  king  of  Thrace,  who  is  said  to  have 
been  a  persecutor  of  Bacchus,  and  to  have  been  punished 
with  madness.  According  to  another  tradition,  Jupiter 
deprived  him  of  sight. 

Lycurgus,  [Gr.  KvKov()yoq ;  Fr.  Lycurgue,  le^kiiRg'; 
Ger.  Lykurgus,  le-kooR'go6s,]  a  famous  Spartan  law- 
giver, who  belongs  to  the  period  anterior  to  authentic 
history.  Plutarch  begins  his  biography  with  the  remark 
that  nothing  certain  can  be  said  concerning  him.  Accord- 
ing to  Aristotle,  he  lived  more  than  850  years  B.C.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  son  of  King  Eunomus,  w^ho  was 
succeeded  by  another  son,  Polydectes.  At  the  death  of 
the  latter,  Lycurgus  refused  the  crown,  and  defended  the 
right  of  Charilaus,  a  posthumous  son  of  Polydectes.  He 
visited  many  foreign  countries,  whose  institutions  he 
studied,  and^  after  a  long  absence,  returned  to  Sparta, 
where  he  made  social  and  political  changes  of  the  most 
radical  kind.  His  constitution  was  considered  by  the 
Greeks  as  the  model  of  a  perfect  aristocracy,  but  con- 
tained a  strong  democratic  element.  The  executive 
power  was  divided  between  two  persons  called  kings.  A 
remarkable  feature  in  his  system  was  the  equal  division 
or  community  of  property,  which  existed  to  an  extent 
unequalled  in  any  other  country  in  ancient  or  modern 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


LrCURGUS 


H75 


LTNAR 


times.  The  interference  of  the  state  with  domestic  affairs 
and  relations  was  carried  to  a  great  excess.  His  laws  were 
based  on  the  idea  that  men  are  made  for  the  government, 
rather  than  the  government  for  men.  He  is  said  to  have 
prohibited  the  use  of  gold  and  silver  money,  and  abol- 
ished all  professions  among  the  Spartans  except  that  of 
arms,  assigning  all  mechanical  and  menial  employment 
to  the  slaves,  (Helots,)  who  appear  to  have  been  treated 
with  great  severity.  Having  imposed  on  the  people  an 
oath  that  they  would  not  alter  his  laws  during  his  ab- 
sence, he  went  into  voluntary  exile,  from  which  he  never 
returned.  Tradition  informs  us  that  he  vanished  myste- 
riously from  the  earth.  The  Spartans  erected  a  temple 
to  him,  and  paid  him  divine  honours.  According  to  one 
legend,  he  ordered  his  ashes  to  be  cast  into  the  sea  after 
his  death,  fearing  that  if  his  body  were  conveyed  to 
Sparta  the  Spartans  might  think  themselves  absolved 
from  their  oath. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Lycurgus ;"  Grote,  "History  of 
Greece,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  vi.  ;  Pi.ato,  "  De  Legibus ;"  K.  O.  Muller, 
"DieDorier;"  Aristotle,  "  Politica  ;"  Thirlwall,  "  History  of 
Greece;"  Weichert,  " Questionum  Lycurgearum  Specimen,"  1844  ; 
J.  Wegelin,  "  Politische  und  moraiische  Betrachtungen  iiber  die 
Spartanische  Gesetzgebung  des  Lycurgus,"  1763;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Geiierale." 

Lycurgus,  an  eminent  Athenian  orator,  born  about 
400  H.c,  was  the  son  of  Lycophron.  He  is  said  to  have 
studied  philosophy  under  Plato,  and  eloquence  under 
Isocrates.  For  about  fifteen  years  he  presided  over  the 
public  revenue  with  a  high  reputation  for  integrity  and 
financial  ability.  In  the  contest  with  Philip  of  Macedon 
he  supported  the  democratic  party.  He  was  one  of  the 
orators  whom  Alexander  required  Athens  to  deliver  up 
to  him  in  335  B.C.  This  demand  was  firmly  refused. 
P'ifteen  of  his  orations  were  extant  in  the  time  of  Plu- 
tarch, and  only  one  (that  against  Leocrates)  has  come 
down  to  us.  His  style  is  noble  rather  than  elegant. 
Died  in  323  B.C. 

See  NissEN,  "  Dissertatio  de  Lycurgi  Oratoris  Vita,"  1833 ;  G.  A. 
Blume,  "Narratio  de  Lycurgo  Oratore,"  1834;  Plutarch,  "Vitae 
Decern  Oratorum." 

Lyde.    See  Joyner,  (William.) 

Lyd'gate,  (John,)  an  old  English  poet,  born  about 
1375,  became  a  monk  of  the  abbey  of  Bury  vSaint  Ed- 
mund's. He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1397,  after  which 
he  travelled  on  the  continent.  On  his  return,  he  opned 
at  the  abbey  above  named  a  school,  in  which  he  taught 
languages,  rhetoric,  and  versification.  He  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  poet.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  "The  Story  of  Thebes,"  "  The  Fall  of  Princes,"  and 
the  "  History,  Siege,  and  Destruction  of  Troy."  Died 
about  1460. 

See  Warton,  "History  of  English  Poetry." 

Lyd'i-at,  (Thomas,)  an  English  chronologer  and 
mathematician,  was  born  at  Okerton  in  1572.  He  be- 
came rector  of  Okerton  about  161 2.  During  the  civil 
war  he  suffered  persecution  for  his  loyalty  to  Charles  I., 
and  he  died  very  poor  in  1646.  His  adversities  are 
commemorated  in  these  verses  of  Dr.  Johnson  : 
"  If  dreams  yet  flatter,  once  again  attend: 
Hear  Lydiat's  Hfe  and  Galileo's  end." 

Among  his  works  (in  Latin)  are  a  Censure  of  Scaliger's 
Chronology,  ( "  Emendatio  Temporum  contra  Scalige- 
rum,"  1609,)  "The  Period  of  the  Sun  and  Moon,"  and 
"The  Measurement  of  the  Solar  Year." 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Wood,  "Athe- 
ns Oxonienses;"  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Lydius,  lid'e-us,  (Jakob,)  a  Dutch  scholar  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  a  minister  of  Dort  He  pub- 
lished "  Belgium  Gloriosum,"  and  other  works. 

Ly'dus,  a  son  of  Atys  and  Callithea,  was  the  sup- 
posed ancestor  of  the  ancient  Lydians. 

Lydus,  [Gr.  Av6hg,]  the  surname  of  Joannes  Lau- 
RENTius,  ['IwawT^f  AavpevTLOQ,^  a  Greek  historical  writer, 
born  at  Philadelphia,  in  Lydia,  about  490  A.D.  He  was 
employed  many  years  in  various  official  functions  in  the 
imperial  palace  at  Constantinople.  He  resigned  his 
offices  about  550,  and  afterwards  wrote  many  works, 
some  of  which  are  lost.  An  important  treatise,  "  On  the 
Magistrates  of  the  Roman  Republic,"  is  still  extant. 

See  Photius,  "  Bibliotheca  ;"  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


Lye,  li,  (Edward,)  an  English  philologist  and  clergy- 
man, born  at  Totness  in  1704.  Soon  after  he  left  college 
he  obtained  the  living  of  Houghton  Parva,  and  in  1750 
became  vicar  of  Yardley  Hastings.  He  acquired  dis- 
tinction by  his  researches  into  the  Saxon  language  and 
literature.  In  1743  he  published  the  "  Etymologicon 
Anglicanum,"  which  Francis  Junius  had  left  in  manu- 
script. His  chief  work  is  his  "Anglo-Saxon  and  Gothic 
Dictionary,"  (1772.)    Died  in  1767. 

Ly'ell,  (Charles,)  a  Scottish  botanist,  born  about 
1767,  resided  at  Kinnordy,  Forfarshire.  He  was  the 
father  of  the  geologist  of  the  same  name.  Died  in  1849. 

Lyell,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  eminent  British  geologist, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Kinnordy,  in  Forfar- 
shire, in  November,  1797.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in 
1821,  and  studied  law,  but  soon  relinquished  the  prac- 
tice of  that  profession  in  order  to  devote  his  time  to 
geology.  About  1826  he  began  to  contribute  to  the 
"  Transactions  of  the  Geological  Society"  a  series  of 
papers  which  display  superior  powers  of  observation 
and  comparison,  and  in  1830  published  the  first  volume 
of  his  important  work,  "Principles  of  Geology,"  (3 
vols.,  1830-33,)  which  was  very  favourably  received.  It 
reached  the  fifth  edition  in  1837.  He  afterwards  divided 
the  work  into  two  parts,  one  of  which  was  published 
under  the  title  of  "  Elements  of  Geology,"  (1838.)  In  a 
subsequent  edition  the  name  was  changed  to  "  Manual 
of  Elementary  Geology."  It  is  generally  admitted  that 
his  work  contributed  much  to  place  geology  on  a  philo- 
sophical basis  as  an  inductive  science.  Having  visited 
the  United  States  in  1841,  he  lectured  on  geology  at  Bos- 
ton, and  after  his  return  published  "  Travels  in  North 
America,  with  Geological  Observations  on  the  United 
States,  Canada,  and  Nova  Scotia,"  (2  vols.,  1845.)  He 
also  wrote  many  treatises  on  the  geology  of  America, 
which  were  printed  in  the  "  Transactions"  of  the  Geo- 
logical Society,  and  in  other  journals.  In  1845  he  made 
another  excursion  to  the  United  States,  the  result  of 
which  was  a  "  Second  Visit  to  the  United  States,"  (2 
vols.,  1849.)  Both  of  these  books  of  travel  contain  much 
to  interest  the  general  reader.  Mr.  Lyell  was  knighted 
in  1848.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  Geological 
Society  in  1836,  and  again  in  1850.  He  published  in 
1863  "The  Geological  Evidences  of  the  Antiquity  of 
Man,  with  Remarks  on  Theories  of  the  Origin  of  Species 
by  Variation."  He  was  formerly  prominent  among  the 
opponents  of  the  "development"  or  Darwinian  theory; 
but  within  the  last  few  years  he  has  changed  his  views 
in  that  respect. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for 
July,  1839,  and  July,  1863;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July, 
1849,  and  October,  1851;  "North  British  Review"  for  February, 
1851 ;  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1845. 

Ly'ford,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
Berkshire  about  1 598.  He  became  a  Calvinistic  minister 
at  Sherborne,  Dorsetshire,  and  wrote  several  works,  one 
of  which  is  called  "  Principles  of  Faith  and  of  a  Good 
Conscience."    Died  in  1653. 

Lykurgos,  le-koor'gos,  (Logothetis,)  a  modern 
Greek  patriot,  born  in  the  island  of  Samos  in  1772. 
Soon  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  independence 
in  Greece,  (1821,)  he  was  chosen  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  in  Samos.  He  was  also  appointed  civil  and 
military  governor  of  the  island,  which  ofifice  he  held  till 
1826.  He  afterwards  became  a  senator  under  the  new 
monarchy  of  Greece.    Died  in  1850. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Lykurgus  or  Lykurgos.    See  Lycurgus. 

Lyly,  (John.)    See  Lilly,  (John.) 

Ly'man,  (Phineas,)  an  American  officer,  born  at 
Durham,  in  Connecticut,  in  1716.  He  served  with  dis- 
tinction against  the  French  in  Canada  under  General 
Johnson,  Abercrombie,  and  others,  and  attained  the 
rank  of  major-general.    Died  in  1775. 

Lyna.    See  Hlina. 

Lynacer.    See  Linacre. 

Lynar,  von,  fon  lee'naR,  (Friedrich,)  Count,  a 
German  statesman  and  scholar,  born  in  Lower  Lusatia 
in  1708.  He  held  several  high  offices  in  Denmark 
between  1740  and  1749.  He  wrote  political  treatises, 
"Travels  in  Germany,"  etc.    Died  in  1781. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (^J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LTNCEE  1476  LTONS 


Lyncee.    See  Lynceus. 

Lyn'geus,  [  Gr.  AvyKtvg ;  Fr.  Lync^:e,  liN^sV,  ]  a 
king  of  Argos,  was  a  son  of  i^igyptus,  and  married 
Hypermnestra,  one  of  the  Danaides.  She  saved  his  life 
when  her  forty-nine  sisters  killed  their  husbands,  (See 
Danaides.) 

Lynceus,  one  of  the  Argonauts,  was  a  son  of  Apha- 
reus,  and  celebrated  for  his  keenness  of  sight.  He  was 
killed  by  Pollux. 

Lynch,  (John,)  a  learned  Irish  priest  and  writer, 
bv)rn  at  Galway  about  1600.  He  took  refuge  in  France 
in  1652,  and  returned  to  Ireland  after  the  restoration, 
(1660.)  He  wrote  a  historical  work  in  Latin,  entitled 
"  Cambrensis  Eversus,"  (1662,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1674. 

Lynch,  (Thomas,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  American  Independence,  was  born  in  Prince 
George's  Parish,  South  Carolina,  in  1 749.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Cambridge,  England,  and  soon  after  his  return 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a  company  in  the  first 
South  Carolina  regiment  of  provincial  regulars.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Congress  of  1776.  While  on  a  voyage 
for  his  health,  he  was  lost  at  sea  in  1779. 

Lynch,  (William  F.,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  Virginia  about  1805.  He  set  out  in  1847  or^ 
an  expedition  to  explore  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
of  which  he  published  an  interesting  account,  entitled 
"  Narrative  of  the  United  States  Expedition  to  the  River 
Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea,"  (1849.)    Died  in  1865. 

Lyncker,  von,  fon  link'er,  (Nikolaus  Christoph,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Marburg  in  1643.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  aulic  council  at  Vienna,  and  wrote  many 
legal  works.    Died  in  1726. 

Lynde,  lind,  (Sir  Humphry,)  an  English  author,  born 
in  Dorsetshire  in  1579.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament 
for  several  years.  He  published  "Ancient  Characters 
of  the  Visible  Church,"  and  "Via  Tuta,  or  the  Safe 
Way,"  which  was  often  reprinted.    Died  in  1636, 

Lynd'hurst,  (John  Singleton  Copley,)  Lord,  an 
eminent  English  statesman,  born  at  Boston,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1772,  was  the  son  of  the  distinguished  painter 
John  S.  Copley,  who  took  him  to  England  about  1775. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  chose  the  profes- 
sion of  law.  Having  gradually  risen  to  be  the  leader 
of  the  Midland  circuit,  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  as 
a  Tory  in  1818,  and  .appointed  solicitor-general  in  1819, 
when  he  was  also  knighted.  Sir  John  became  attorney- 
general  in  1824,  and  was  returned  to  Parliament  by  the 
University  of  Cambridge  in  1826.  After  opposing  the  bill 
for  Catholic  emancipation,  he  accepted  the  office  of  lord 
chancellor  in  the  Liberal  ministry  of  Canning  in  April, 
1827,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Lyndhurst. 
Having  been  retained  in  his  office  by  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington, he  voted  in  concurrence  with  his  colleagues  for 
Catholic  emancipation  in  1829.  In  November,  1830,  the 
Liberal  party,  under  Earl  Grey,  came  into  power,  and 
Lord  Lyndhurst  was  deprived  of  the  great  seal ;  but 
in  1 83 1  he  was  appointed  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer. 
He  made  an  able  speech  against  the  Reform  bill  in  1832. 
In  the  court  of  exchequer  he  displayed  eminent  judicial 
qualifications.  He  was  again  lord  chancellor  during  the 
brief  ministry  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1834.  In  August, 
1841,  Sir  Robert  became  premier,  and  Lord  Lyndhurst 
lord  chancellor,  of  a  new  Conservative  ministry,  which 
was  deprived  of  power  by  the  triumph  of  the  Whigs  in 
1846.  After  that  date,  until  near  his  death,  he  was  one 
of  the  most  prominent  orators  of  his  party  in  the  House 
of  Lords.  He  advocated  the  prosecution  of  the  Russian 
war  (1854-56)  in  several  eloquent  speeches.  Died  in  1863. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Life  of  Lord  Lyndhurst,"  1869;  Foss, 
"  The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  ix.  ;  "  Biographical  Sketches  from 
the  Note- Book  of  a  Law  Reporter,"  by  W.  H.  Bennett,  London, 
1867. 

Lyndsay.    See  Lindsay. 

Lynedoch,  In/doK,  (Thomas  Graham,)  Baron,  a 
British  general,  born  in  Perthshire  in  1750.  Having 
obtained  the  rank  of  general,  he  served  under  Sir  John 
Moore  in  Portugal  in  1808-9.  He  gained  a  victory  at 
Barossa  in  181 1,  and  commanded  the  left  wing  at  the 
battle  of  Vitoria,  in  1813.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1814.    Died  in  1843. 


Lyn'wood,  Lynd'wood,  or  Lin' wood,  (Wil- 
liam,) an  English  canonist,  and  Bishop  of  Saint  David's. 
Died  in  1446, 

Ly'on,  (George  Francis,)  an  English  navigator, 
born  in  Sussex  in  1795,  entered  the  navy  in  his  youth. 
In  1818-19  he  was  the  companion  of  J.  Ritchie  in  an 
expedition  into  the  interior  of  Africa,  of  which  he  pub- 
lished an  account  in  1821.  Captain  Lyon  commanded 
one  of  the  ships  in  Parry's  voyage  to  the  Northern 
Ocean,  (1821-23,)  ^^^^  ^^P^  a  journal,  which  was  pub- 
lished. Both  of  the  works  above  named  are  commended. 
Died  in  1832. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1821. 

Ly'on,  (Mary,)  a  meritorious  teacher,  born  at  Buck- 
land,  Massachusetts,  in  1797,  was  the  founder  of  the 
Mount  Holyoke  Female  Seminary  in  that  State.  It  was 
opened  in  1837,  and  soon  acquired  a  very  high  reputa- 
tion and  extensive  patronage.  "  She  presided  for  years 
over  an  admirable  school,"  says  Allen.  Died  at  South 
Hadley  in  1849. 

See  Dr.  Humphrey's  "  Lifeof  Mary  Lyon,"  and  "Recollections 
of  Mary  Lyon,"  by  Miss  F.  FiSK,  Boston,  1866;  Allen's  "Amer- 
ican Biographical  Dictionary." 

Lyon,  (Matthew^,)  born  in  Wicklow  county,  Ireland, 
in  1746,  emigrated  to  America,  where  he  served  in  the 
Revolutionary  war  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  poli- 
tician of  the  Democratic  party.    Died  in  1822. 

Lyon,  (Nathaniel,)  an  able  American  general,  born 
at  Ashford,  Windham  county,  Connecticut,  in  July,  1819, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841.  He  served  in  the 
Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and  became  a  captain  in  1851. 
Early  in  1861  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  United 
States  Arsenal  at  Saint  Louis,  where  he  rendered  im- 
portant services  to  the  cause  of  the  Union.  He  captured 
a  large  band  of  secessionists  at  Camp  Jackson,  Missouri, 
in  May,  and  was  appointed  commander  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Missouri  in  June,  1861.  He  defeated  the  insur- 
gents at  Booneville,  June  17,  after  which  he  marched  to 
Springfield.  He  commanded  an  army  of  about  6000 
men  which  engaged  a  superior  force  at  Wilson's  Creek, 
where  he  was  killed,  August  10,  1861.  His  loss  was 
deeply  lamented  as  a  national  disaster.  He  left  by  will 
about  thirty  thousand  dollars  to  the  public  treasury. 

See  Tenney,  "Military  History  of  the  Rebellion;"  "Last  Po- 
litical Writings,  etc.  of  Nathaniel  Lyon,"  New  York,  1861. 

Lyonnet,  leVni^  (Pierre,)  a  skilful  anatomist,  natu- 
ralist, and  engraver,  of  French  origin,  was  born  at  Maes- 
tricht  in  1707.  He  studied  law,  and  was  employed  at 
the  Hague  as  secretary  and  translator  for  Latin  and 
French  by  the  government.  About  1760  he  published 
an  "  Anatomical  Treatise  on  the  Caterpillar  which  eats 
the  Willow,"  which,  says  Cuvier,  "is  among  the  master- 
pieces of  human  industry."  The  engravings  are  ex- 
quisitely neat  and  delicate.    Died  in  1789. 

See  P.  H.  Marron,  "Notice  biographique  sur  P.  Lyonnet," 
1795;  JouRDAN,  in  the  "Biographie  Medicale,"  vol.  vi. ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Lyonnet,  (Robert,)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Puy-en-Velay.  He  became  physician  to  Louis  XIIL, 
and  published  a  treatise  on  the  Plague,  (1639.) 

Ly''ons,  (Edmund,)  Lord,  a  British  admiral,  born 
near  Christchurch,  Hants,  in  1790.  He  entered  the 
navy  about  1801.  In  1811  he  performed  a  daring  exploit 
when  he  captured  by  storm  the  Dutch  fort  Marrack  in 
the  island  of  Java.  He  became  a  post-captain  in  1814, 
after  which  a  long  peace  followed.  In  1828  he  com- 
manded a  vessel  at  the  blockade  of  Navarino,  He  was 
knighted  in  1835,  and  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary 
to  the  court  of  Athens,  where  he  remained  until  1849. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  war  against  Russia,  (1853,)  Sir 
Edmund  was  appointed  second  in  command  in  the  Black 
Sea.  His  ship,  the  Agamemnon,  was  engaged  with  the 
enemy  on  the  shore  at  the  battle  of  Alma,  in  September, 
1854.  He  planned  a  successful  expedition  against  the 
forts  0n  the  Sea  of  Azov,  and  became  commander-in- 
chief, bf  the  fleet  in  June,  1855.  He  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  as  Baron  Lyons  of  Christchurch,  in  1856.  Died 
in  1858. 

Lyons,  (Israel,)  a  Polish  Jew,  taught  Hebrew  in  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  and  published  a  Hebrew 
Grammar.    Died  in  1770. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


LTONS 


H77 


LrSONS 


Lyons,  (Israel,)  an  English  botanist  and  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Cambridge  in  1739,  was  the  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Fluxions," 
and  a  work  on  the  plants  growing  near  Cambridge.  At 
the  invitation  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  he  went  to  Oxford 
about  1762,  and  lectured  there  on  botany.  The  bureau 
of  longitude  selected  him  to  accompany  Captain  Phipps 
in  a  voyage  towards  the  North  Pole  in  1773.  Died  in 
1775- 

Lyons,  (Richard  Bickerton  Pemell,)  Lord,  a 
son  of  Edmund,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  181 7,  and 
inherited  the  title  of  baron  in  1858.  He  was  ambassador 
to  the  United  States  from  1859  to  1865.  About  the  end 
of  1865  he  was  sent  in  the  same  capacity  to  Constanti- 
nople. 

Lyra,  de,  deh  le'rS',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  monk  and 
exegetical  writer  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Lyre  in 
the  thirteenth  century.  He  was  a  good  Hebrew  and 
Greek  scholar.  He  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Bible, 
"  Postillae  Perpetuje,"  which  was  esteemed  and  often 
reprinted.  The  first  edition  appeared  at  Rome  in  1472, 
(5  vols.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1340. 

Lys.    See  Lis. 

Ly-san'der,  [Gr.  Avoavdpo^ ;  Fr.  Lysandre,  le'- 
zSNdu' ;  Ger.  Lysandros,  le-zin'dRos,]  one  of  the  ablest 
generals  and  statesmen  of  ancient  Sparta,  makes  his 
first  appearance  in  history  near  the  close  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war.  In  407  B.C.  he  was  chosen  commander  of 
the  fleet,  with  which  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  Athe- 
nians at  Notium  in  that  year.  He  made  himself  very 
popular  with  the  Persian  allies  of  Sparta,  and  he  de- 
feated the  Athenian  fleet  in  a  decisive  battle  at  /Egos- 
potami  in  405.  In  404  he  captured  Athens,  and  changed 
its  democracy  into  an  oligarchy  ruled  by  thirty  archons, 
(usually  called  the  Thirty  Tyrants.)  He  was  then  the 
most  pow^^erful  man  in  Greece,  but  soon  found  an  able 
rival  in  Agesilaus,  who  became  King  of  Sparta  in  398 
B.C.  and  thwarted  his  ambitious  designs.  Lysander 
meditated  a  revolution  in  Sparta  by  the  abolition  of 
hereditary  royalty.  Before  his  design  was  matured,  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  an  army  sent  against  the 
Thebans,  and  was  killed  in  battle  at  Haliartus  in  395 
B.C.  In  Plutarch's  "Lives"  Lysander  is  brought  into 
comparison  with  the  Roman  Sulla. 

See  Xenophon,  "  Hellenica  ;"  Cornelius  Nepos,  "Vita  Lysan- 
dri ;"  W.  Vischer,  "  Alcibiades  und  Lysandros,"  1S45;  Plutarch, 
"Life  of  Agesilaus;"  Thirlwall,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Lysandre.    See  Lysander. 

Lysandros,  the  German  of  Lysander,  which  see. 

Lyschanderor  Lyscander,  lis-ktn'der,  (Claudius 
Chrisiofhorsen,)  a  Danish  chronicler,  born  in  1557. 
He  wrote  a  "Chronicle  of  Greenland,"  in  Danish  verse, 
(1608,)  and  flattered  the  national  vanity  in  a  fabulous 
work  on  the  genealogy  of  the  Danish  kings,  entitled 
"  Synopsis  of  Danish  History,"  ("  Synopsis  Historiae 
Danicae,"  1622.)    Died  in  1623. 

Lyser,  lee'zer,  originally  Leonhardt,  la'on-haRt', 
(Caroline,)  a  German  authoress,  born  at  Dresden  in 
1817.  Among  her  works  are  fugitive  poems,  "Sketches 
of  Character  for  German  Matrons  and  Maids,"  (1838,) 
and  "Albert  Diirer,"  a  drama,  (1840.) 

Lyser,  (Michael,)  a  German  anatomist,  born  at 
Leipsic  about  1650.  He  published  a  good  manual  of 
anatomy,  entitled  "Culter  Anatomicus,"  (1653.)  He 
shares  with  Bartholin  the  honour  of  the  discovery  of 
the  lymphatic  vessels. 

Lyser  or  Lyserus,  (Polycarp.)    See  Leyser. 

Lysias,  lish'e-as,  [Avamf,]  one  of  the  ten  Athenian 
orators,  was  born  at  Athens  in  458  B.C.,  and  was  the  son 
of  Cephalus,  in  whose  house  Plato  placed  the  scene  of 
his  famous  dialogue  "On  the  Republic."  From  443  until 
411  he  lived  at  Thurium,  in  Italy,  from  which  he  was 
expelled  by  the  victorious  Spartans  at  the  latter  date. 
Pie  then  returned  to  Athens,  where  his  property  was 
confiscated  by  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  who  would  have  put 
him  to  death  if  he  had  not  escaped,  404  B.C.  Soon  after 
that  date  he  united  with  Thrasybulus  in  the  expulsion 
of  the  Thirty,  and  opened  a  school  of  rhetoric  in  Athens. 
His  orations,  amounting  to  more  than  two  hundred, 
were  mostly  composed  after  his  return  to  Athens,  (411.) 
Thirty-five  of  these  have  come  down  to  us.  Lysias 


died  at  Athens  about  378  B.C.,  leaving  a  high  reputation 
as  a  writer  of  orations,  only  one  of  which,  it  is  said,  was 
spoken  by  him.  His  diction  is  eminently  graceful,  pure, 
and  perspicuous.  "  He  resembles,"  says  Quintilian, 
"  rather  a  pure  fountain  than  a  great  river,"  ("  puro  fonti 
quam  magno  flumini  propior.") 

See  Plutarch,  "Vitas  Decern  Oratorum  Franz,  "Dissertatio 
de  Lysia  Oratore  Attico,"  (in  Greek,)  183S;  Suidas,  "Lysias;" 
L.  HoELscHER,  "Dissertatio  de  Lysise  Vita  et  Dictione,"  1837; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ly-sic'ra-tes,  [KvauipaTrig,']  an  Athenian,  who  lived 
about  335  B.C.,  and  whose  name  has  been  preserved  by 
means  of  a  beautiful  choragic  monument  built  for  him  at 
Athens.  It  has  been  commonly  called  "the  Lantern  of 
Demosthenes,"  from  a  tradition  that  he  used  it  as  a 
place  of  study. 

Ly-sim'a-ehus,  [Gr.  Avo'i/iaxog;  Fr.  Lysimaque, 
le''ze''mik',j  King  of  Thrace,  was  born  in  Macedonia 
about  355  B.C.  In  his  youth  he  was  so  distinguished 
for  courage  and  strength  that  Alexander  the  Great 
chose  him  as  one  of  his  body-guards.  In  the  division  of 
provinces  at  the  death  of  Alexander,  (323,)  Lysimachus 
obtained  Thrace  and  some  adjacent  districts.  In  315 
he  joined  Seleucus,  Cassander,  and  Ptolemy  in  a  coali- 
tion against  Antigonus.  Lysimachus  marched  into  Asia 
Minor,  formed  a  junction  with  Seleucus,  and  fought  a 
battle  at  Ipsus  in  301  B.C.,  where  Antigonus  was  defeated 
and  killed.  By  this  victory  he  acquired  the  northwest- 
ern part  of  Asia  Minor.  Demetrius  of  Macedon  having 
been  defeated  and  dethroned  by  the  allied  armies  of 
Lysimachus,  Pyrrhus,  and  Seleucus,  the  first  annexed 
Macedon  to  his  dominions  in  286.  He  was  soon  after 
involved  in  a  war  with  Seleucus,  and  was  killed  in  battle 
at  Corupedion  in  281  B.C. 

See  Arrian,  "Anabasis;"  Justin,  "  History,"  books  xiii.,  xv., 
and  xviii. ;  Diodorus  Siculus,  books  xviii.,  xix.,  and  xx. 

Lysimaque.    See  Lysimachus. 
Lysippe.    See  Lysippus. 

Ly-sip'pus,  a  Greek  poet  of  the  old  comedy,  born  in 
Arcadia,  flourished  about  434  B.C. 

Lysippus,  [Gr.  Avonrno^ ;  Fr.  Lysippe,  le'z6p',]  a 
Greek  statuary  of  great  celebrity,  was  born  at  Sicyon, 
and  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Alexander  the  Great,  about 
330  B.C.  He  formed  his  style  by  the  imitation  of  nature, 
without  much  respect  to  the  conventionalities  of  the 
schools.  His  statues,  according  to  Pliny,  amounted  to 
six  hundred  and  ten,  all  or  nearly  all  of  which  were  of 
bronze.  None  of  his  works  are  now  extant.  Among 
his  master-pieces,  described  by  Pliny,  Pausanias,  and 
others,  were  colossal  statues  of  Zeus  and  Hercules,  a 
statue  of  Time  or  Opportunity,  (Kaipog,)  and  several 
images  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who  is  said  to  have 
issued  an  edict  that  no  one  should  make  his  statue  but 
Lysippus. 

See  Pliny,  "Natural  History,"  book  xxxiv.  ;  Pausanias,  i.,  ii., 
vi.,  and  ix.  ;  Sillig,  "  Catalogus  ;"  Nagler,  "  Aligemeines  Kiinst- 
ler-Lexikon  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ly'sis,  [Ai}(7«f,]  an  eminent  Greek  philosopher,  born 
at  Tarentum,  lived  about  400  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have 
received  lessons  from  Pythagoras.  Having  been  driven 
from  Italy  by  persecution,  he  settled  at  Thebes,  and  be- 
c?me  the  teacher  of  Epaminondas. 

See  RiTTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy;"  Diogenes  Laertius. 

Lysistrate.    See  Lysistratus. 

Ly-sis'tra-tus,[Fr.  Lysistrate,  le'ze'stRtt',]  a  Greek 
statuary  of  Sicyon,  was  a  brother  of  Lysippus,  and  flour- 
ished about  425  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
who  used  gypsum  moulds  in  the  formation  of  wax 
figures. 

Ly'sons,  (Daniel,)  an  English  physician,  practised 
at  Bath,  where  he  died  in  1800.  He  had  published  several 
medical  treatises. 

Lysons,  (Rev.  Daniel,)  an  English  topographical 
writer,  born  at  Rodmarton  in  1760,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding.  He  published  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  The 
Environs  of  London,"  (1792-96,)  and  became  rector  of 
Rodmarton.  In  partnership  with  his  brother  Samuel, 
he  published  another  excellent  topographical  work, 
"Great  Britain,"  ("Magna  Britannia,"  1806-22.)  Died 
in  1834. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  August,  1807,  and  January,  1812. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  Aarcf;  g  as g,  h,  k,  ^ttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


LrSONS 


MACJDJM 


Lysons,  (Samuel,)  an  English  antiquary,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rodmarton  in  1763.  He 
was  one  of  the  directors  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 
About  1804  he  was  chosen  keeper  of  the  records  of 
the  Tower  of  London.  His  principal  work  is  "  Great 
Britain,"  ("Magna  Britannia,"  1806-22,)  in  which  he 
was  aided  by  his  brother  Daniel.    Died  in  1819. 

Lyte,  (Henry,)  an  English  botanist,  born  in  Somer- 
setshire in  1529.  He  published,  in  1578,  an  English 
version  of  Dodoen's  "History  of  Plants,"  with  many 
engravings.    Died  in  1607. 

Lytle,  li'tel,  (William  Haines,)  an  American  gene- 
ral, born  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  1826.  He  served  as 
colonel  in  Western  Virginia  in  1861,  and  was  wounded 
at  Perryville,  Kentucky,  in  October,  1862.  He  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  September  20,  1863. 

Lyt'tle-ton  or  Lyt'tel-ton,  (Charles,)  an  P^nglish 
antiquary,  born  at  Hagley  in  17 14,  was  a  brother  of  Lord 
George,  noticed  below.  He  became  Bishop  of  Carlisle 
in  1762.    Died  in  1768. 

Lyttleton  or  Lyttelton,  (George,)  Lord,  an  Eng- 
lish author  and  statesman,  born  in  1709,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Sir  Thomas  Lyttleton,  of  Hagley,  in  Worcester- 
shire, and  a  descendant  of  the  great  jurist  Littleton. 
About  1730  he  entered  Parliament,  where  he  became  a 
successful  speaker  and  acted  with  the  opponents  of 
Walpole.    He  was  afterwards  secretary  to  Frederick, 


Prince  of  Wales,  and  in  1744  was  appointed  a  lord  of 
the  treasury.  In  1747  he  published  "Observations  on 
the  Conversion  and  Apostleship  of  Saint  Paul,"  a  work 
of  superior  merit.  He  was  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
for  several  months  in  1756,  and  resigned  that  office  (for 
which  he  was  not  well  qualified)  when  Pitt  became  prime 
minister.  In  1759  he  was  created  Baron  Lyttleton.  He 
was  author  of  a  popular  work  entitled  "  Dialogues 
of  the  Dead,"  (1760,)  of  a  valuable  "History  of  Henry 
II.,"  and  of  several  poems,  "which,"  says  Dr.  Johnson, 
"have  nothing  to  be  despised,  and  little  to  be  admired." 
Died  in  1773. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  Phillimore,  "  Life  of  Lord 
Lyttleton,"  1845;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1846; 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  April  and  May,  1772,  and  December,  1774. 

Lyttleton,  (Thomas.)    See  Littleton. 

Lyttleton,  (Thomas,)  Lord,  a  son  of  Lord  George, 
noticed  above,  was  born  about  1744.  The  day  of  his 
death  is  said  to  have  been  announced  to  him  three  days 
before  it  occurred,  by  means  of  a  dream  or  vision.  Died 
in  1779. 

Lytton,  Lord.    See  Bulwer,  (Edward.) 

Lyveden,  liv'den,  (Robert  Vernon  Smith,)  Lord, 
born  in  London  in  1800,  was  a  nephew  of  the  famous 
Rev.  Sydney  Smith.  He  represented  Northampton  as 
a  Liberal  member  of  Parliament  from  183 1  to  1859,  and 
was  secretary  at  war  for  a  few  months  in  1852. 


M. 


Maan,  m6N,  (Jean,)  a  French  historian  and  eccle- 
siastic, born  at  Mans,  became  canon  of  Tours  in  1648. 

Maanen,  van,  vtn  mS'nen,  (Cornelis  Felix,)  a 
Dutch  statesman,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1769.  After  the 
accession  of  King  William  he  was  made  president  of 
the  Assembly  of  Notables,  and  minister  of  justice,  (1815.) 
His  unpopular  measures  contributed  to  bring  about  the 
Belgian  revolution,  and  in  1830  he  resigned  his  office. 
Died  in  1843. 

Maas,  mis,  (Arnoult  van  Aart,)  a  Dutch  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Gouda  about  1620,  was  a  pupil  of 
D.  Teniers.    Died  after  1650. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Maas  or  Maes,  mts,  (Dirk  or  Diedrik,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1656,  was  a  pupil  of  Berg- 
hem  and  Huchtenburgh.  He  excelled  in  battle-pieces 
and  hunting-scenes.    Died  in  1715. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters;"  Descamps,  "Vies 
des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Maas  or  Maes,  mis,  (Godfried,)  a  skilful  Flemish 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1660,  was  a  pupil 
of  his  father.  He  was  chosen  a  director  of  the  Academy 
in  1682,  and  acquired  a  fair  reputation  as  an  artist.  He 
died  in  1722,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  about 
1710. 

Maas  or  Maes,  (Nicolaas,)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter 
of  genre  and  portraits,  born  at  Dort  in  1632,  was  a  pupil 
of  Rembrandt.  In  his  youth  he  imitated  the  manner 
of  that  master  with  success.  He  afterwards  adopted  a 
different  style.  About  1678  he  removed  to  Amsterdam, 
where  he  applied  himself  chiefly  to  portraits  and  became 
a  fashionable  artist.    Died  in  1693. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Maass,  miss,  (Johann  Gebhard  Ehrenreich,)  a 
German  philosopher  and  savant,  born  near  Halberstadt 
in  1766.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Halle 
in  1798,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "Essays  on 
the  Imagination,"  (1792,)  the  "  Passions,"  (1805-07,)  and 
the  "Sentiments,"  (1811.)    Died  in  1823. 

Mabellini,  mi-bll-lee^iee,  (Giovanni  Battista 
Carlo  Maria,)  an  Italian  Hellenist,  known  in  France 
by  the  name  of  Ahb^;  Mablin  or  Mablini,  was  born 
in  Piedmont  in  1774.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  in 
Paris,  where  he  died  in  1834. 

Mabil  or  Mabille,  ma-beel'  or  m^'hhV,  (Pierre 
Louis,)  a  learned  writer,  of  Italian  extraction,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1752.  He  made  a  good  translation  of  Livy 
into  Italian,  and  published  "  Mabiliania,"  "  The  Influence 


of  Poetry  on  the  Customs  of  Nations,"  (1804,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1836. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri;"  Catullo, 
"Cenni  biografici  del  Cavaliere  P.  L.  Mabil,"  1836. 

Mabillon,  mt'be'y5N',  (Jean,)  a  very  learned  French 
author,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Rheims  in  1632,  became  a 
Benedictine  monk.  In  1685  he  visited  Italy,  by  order  of 
the  king,  to  collect  manuscripts  and  historical  documents, 
and  on  his  return  published  his  "  Museum  Italicum," 
(1687-89.)  His  "  Treatise  on  Monastic  Studies"  (1691) 
was  received  with  favour.  Among  his  most  important 
works  is  a  treatise  on  Diplomatics,  (1681.)  Died  in  1707. 

See  Chavin  de  Malan,  "  Histoire  de  Mabillon,"  1843;  J.  La- 
BOUDERiE,  "  Notice  sur  Dom  Mabillon ;"  Thierry  Ruinart, 
"Abregs  de  la  Vie  de  Dom  J.  Mabillon,"  1709;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Mably,  de,deh  mt'ble',  (Gabriel  Bonnot,)  Abbe, 
a  French  historical  writer,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1709, 
was  a  brother  of  fitienne  Bonnot  de  Condillac.  He 
became  a  resident  of  Paris  in  his  youth,  and  produced 
in  1740  his  "Parallel  between  the  Romans  and  French 
in  Respect  to  Government,"  which  was  very  successful. 
In  1743  he  negotiated  a  secret  treaty  with  Prussia  against 
Austria.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Observations 
on  the  Romans,"  (1751,)  and  "Observations  on  the  His- 
tory of  France,"  (1765.)    Died  in  1785. 

See  L.  Barthei.emy,  "Vie  privee  de  Mably,"  1791  ;  Brizard, 
"  filoge  de  Mably,"  1787;  P.  C.  Levesque,  "  Eloge  historique  de 
I'Abb?  de  Mably,"  1787;  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Maboul,  mt'booK,  (Jacques,)  a  French  pulpit  orator. 
Bishop  of  Alet,  horn  in  Paris  about  1650;  died  in  1723. 

Mabuse,  mfbiiz'',  or  Maubeuge,  m5'buzh',  (Jan,) 
a  famous  Flemish  painter,  whose  family  name  was  Ges- 
SART  or  Gassaert,  was  born  at  Maubeuge  in  1499.  He 
is  said  to  have  studied  in  Italy.  He  worked  in  Middel- 
burg  and  in  London,  where  he  painted  portraits  of  the 
royal  family  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  historical 
pictures,  which  are  still  admired.  Among  his  master- 
pieces was  a  "Descent  from  the  Cross,"  which  was  de- 
stroyed by  lightning  at  Middelburg,  and  "The  Wise 
Men's  Offering,"  now  owned  by  the  Earl  of  Carlisle. 
His  habits  were  very  intemperate  and  prodigal.  Died 
about  1562. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.  ;  Pierart, 
"  Recherches  historiques  sur  Maubeuge,"  1853. 

Macaber,  m^'ki-ber,  a  German  poet,  was  the  author 
of  a  work  called  "The  Dance  of  Death." 

Mac-ad''am,  (John  Loudon,)  a  Scottish  surveyor, 
noted  for  his  improvement  in  roads,  was  born  in  Ayr- 
shire in  1756.    He  made  the  first  macadamized  loacs, 


a ,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good ;  moon  j 


MAC  J  IRE 


H79 


MACAVLAT 


nea,r  Bristol,  about  1815,  and  explained  his  system  in  his 
"Essay  on  the  Scientific  Repair  and  Preservation  of 
Public  Roads,"  (1819.)    In  1827  he  was  made  general  1 
surveyor  of  the  metropolitan  roads,  and  afterwards  re- 
ceived a  grant  of  _;i^io,ooo  for  his  services.    Died  in  1836. 

See  "Annual  Register,"  1836  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;" 
Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Sup- 
plement.) 

Macaire.    See  Macarius. 

Mac-a-nal'ly,  (David  Rice,)  an  American  Methodist 
divine,  born  in  Granger  county,  Tennessee,  in  1810.  He 
hai  published  "  Sketches  of  the  Life  and  Character  of 
Mrs.  Ramsay,"  and  other  biographical  works, 

Mac-Ar'dell,  (James,)  an  excellent  English  engraver 
in  niezzotinto,  born  about  1710.  He  engraved  portraits 
of  many  eminent  contemporaries,  and  subjects  after  Rem- 
brandt, Van  Dyck,  Murillo,  and  other  masters.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Moses  on  the  Nile,"  after  Van  Dyck,  and 
an  "Assumption,"  after  Murillo.  Died  in  1765.  Of 
MacArdell  Basan  observes  that  he  "  was  one  of  the  best 
engravers  in  mezzotinto  that  England  ever  produced." 

See  Strutt,  article  "  Ardell"  in  his  "Dictionary  of  Engravers." 

Macarel,  mt'kt'rIK,  (Louis  Antoine,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1790.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Elements  of  Administrative  Jurispru- 
dence," [1818.)    Died  in  1851. 

Ma-ca-'ri-us,  [Gr.  Mampto^ ;  Fr.  Macaire,  mt'k|iR',] 
an  eminent  ascetic  or  hermit  of  Egypt,  born  about  300 
A.D.,  has  been  canoni/^ed  as  a  saint  by  the  Catholic 
Church.  Fifty  extant  Greek  homilies  are  ascribed  to 
him.    Died  about  390  A.D. 

Another  Saint  Macarius,  called  Junior,  lived  at 
Alexandria  in  the  fourth  century,  and  was  noted  for 
his  ascetic  piety.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  a 
work  called  the  "Rule  of  Saint  Macarius." 

See  Tii-LEMONT,  "  M^moires  ;"  Chillier,  "  Histoire  des  Auteurs 
sacres;"  Schatteman,  "  Leven  van  den  H.  Macarius,"  1623  ;  Gen- 
NADius,  "De  Viris  illustribus." 

Mac-ar'thur,  (Duncan,)  an  American  soldier  and 
statesman,  born  in  Dutchess  county,  New  York,  in  1772. 
He  served  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Ohio 
in  1830.    Died  in  1840. 

Mac-Ar'thur,  (John,)  a  general,  born  in  Scotland 
about  1826,  emigrated  to  Illinois  about  1850.  He  com- 
manded a  brigade  of  the  Union  army  at  Shiloh,  April, 
1862,  and  at  Corinth,  in  October  of  the  same  year. 

MacArthur,  (John,)  a  distinguished  architect,  born 
at  Bladenoch,  in  Wigtonshire,  Scotland,  May  13,  1823, 
came  to  Philadelphia  when  only  ten  years  of  age.  He 
learned  the  business  of  a  carpenter,  and  studied  drawing 
and  architecture  in  his  evenings.  In  1848  he  was 
awarded  the  first  premium  for  his  plan  of  a  new  House 
of  Refuge,  and  was  given  the  entire  charge  of  the  erection 
of  the  building.  Among  the  prominent  buildings  erected 
by  him  in  Philadelphia,  we  may  name  the  Continental 
Plotel  and  Jayne's  splendid  mansion  at  the  corner  of 
Nineteenth  and  Chestnut  streets.  He  was  architect  for 
the  war  department  during  the  war,  and  after  its  close 
for  the  navy  department,  for  which  he  built  the  Naval 
Hospital  at  Philadelphia,  and  other  similar  works. 

Mac-art'ney,  (George,)  Lord,  a  statesman,  of  Scot- 
tish descent,  born  near  Belfast,  Ireland,  in  1737.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1768,  and  appointed  chief 
secretary  for  Ireland  in  1769.  In  1775  he  was  chosen 
Governor  of  the  island  of  Granada,  which  the  French 
captured  from  him  in  1779.  From  December,  1780,  to 
1786,  he  was  Governor  of  Madras.  He  was  appointed 
Governor-General  of  India,  as  successor  to  Warren 
Hastings,  but  declined  on  account  of  ill  health.  His 
most  remarkable  public  service  was  his  embassy  to 
China,  where  he  arrived  in  August,  1793,  being  the  first 
English  ambassador  to  that  court.  He  refused  to  pros- 
trate himself  before  the  emperor,  according  to  Chinese 
etiquette.  Though  he  failed  to  obtain  a  commercial 
treaty,  he  maintained  his  reputation  as  an  able  negotiator. 
He  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Macartney,  in 
1796.  He  died  in  1806,  after  which  appeared  a  "Jour- 
nal of  the  Embassy  to  China  in  1792-94." 

See  an  "Account  of  the  Public  Life,  etc.  of  Lord  Macartney," 
by  John  Rakkow,  1807;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;" 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  August  and  September,  i8o8. 


Macaulay,  ma-kaw'le,  (Catharine,)  an  English 
authoress,  whose  maiden  name  was  Sawbridge,  was 
born  in  Kent  in  1733.  She  was  married  to  Dr.  George 
Macaulay,  of  London,  about  1760,  and  published  a 
"  History  of  England  from  the  Accession  of  James  T.  to 
the  Elevation  of  the  House  of  Hanover,"  (1763,)  which 
is  favourable  to  republicanism.  In  1785  she  visited 
Washington  at  Mount  Vernon.  She  wrote  several  ])o- 
litical  treatises.  "  Her  history,"  says  T.  B.  Macaulay, 
"is  more  distinguished  by  zeal  than  either  by  candour 
or  skill."    Died  in  1791. 

See  WiLKE.s,  "  Life  and  Letters ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  March 
1765,  May,  1769,  and  August,  1771. 

Macaulay,  (Thomas  Babington,)  Baron,  an  emi- 
nent English  scholar,  critic,  and  historian,  was  born  at 
Rothley  Temple,  in  Leicestershire,  October  25,  1800. 
His  father,  Zachary  Macaulay,  was  a  native  of  Scotland, 
of  Highland  descent ;  his  mother,  Selina  Mills,  the 
daughter  of  a  bookseller  of  Bristol,  was  of  a  Quaker 
family.  His  home  education  was  religious  and  somewhat 
austere.  Mrs.  Hannah  More,  who  was  intimate  with 
his  parents,  has  given  in  her  letters  many  interesting 
particulars  of  the  future  historian.  From  his  earliest 
childhood  he  was  passionately  fond  of  poetry, — so  much 
so  that  he  could  hardly  be  prevailed  on  to  read  prose. 
Later,  however,  we  find  him  dee])ly  interested  in  history, 
and  warmly  discussing  with  a  friend  of  his  own  age  the 
respective  merits  of  Marlborough  and  other  eminent 
commanders.  (See  "  Letters  of  Hannah  More  to  Zach- 
ary Macaulay,  containing  Notices  of  Lord  Macaulay's 
Youth,"  i860.) 

When  about  twelve  years  of  age,  he  was  placed  under 
the  instruction  of  Mr.  Preston,  with  whom  he  laid  the 
foundations  of  his  acquaintance  with  the  classics.  At 
eighteen  he  entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  greatly  distinguished  himself,  having  twice  w(^n  the 
chancellor's  medal  for  English  verse, — the  first  time  for 
a  poem  on  "  Pompeii,"  in  1819,  the  second  for  one  on 
"Evening," in  1820.  He  graduated  as  B.A.  in  1822,  and 
soon  after  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  his  college.  He 
studied  law  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1826.  "The  Battle  of  Ivry,"  one  of  the  most 
universally  admired  of  his  shorter  poems,  was  published 
in  "Knight's  Quarterly  Magazine"  in  1824.  In  1825  he 
contributed  to  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  an  article  on 
Milton,  which  at  once  placed  him  in  the  foremost  rank 
of  the  most  distinguished  essayists  of  the  age.  This 
was  the  commencement  of  that  splendid  and  fascinating 
series  of  review-articles,  the  publication  of  which  maybe 
said  to  form  an  era  in  the  history  of  literature,  when  for 
the  first  time  the  critical  or  historic  essay  threatened  to 
bear  away  the  palm  of  popularity  from  the  most  brilliant 
works  of  fiction. 

Macaulay  entered  Parliament  in  1830,  as  a  representa- 
tive of  the  borough  of  Calne.  While  at  Cambridge  he 
had  distinguished  himself  as  an  orator,  and  he  now  more 
than  justified  the  high  expectations  which  his  friends 
had  formed  of  his  parliamentary  career.  His  speeches 
on  the  Reform  bill  (in  1830-32)  established  his  fame  as 
an  able  and  eloquent  speaker.  It  is  said,  however,  that, 
owing  to  his  rapid  and  somewhat  monotonous  delivery, 
his  speeches  were  more  effective  and  convincing  when 
they  appeared  in  print  than  when  spoken  in  the  House 
of  Commons.  One  of  his  most  remarkable  efforts  was 
his  great  speech  (1833)  ^^^^  renewal  of  the 

charter  of  the  East  India  Company.  He  was  soon  after 
made  a  member  of  the  supreme  council  of  India,  and 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  law  commission  to  prepare  a 
new  code  for  the  government  of  that  country.  Although 
it  was  found  impossible  to  carry  into  immediate  effect 
many  of  the  reforms  which  he  sought  to  introduce,  his 
efforts  in  this  cause  have  not  been  without  important 
results.  Since  the  government  of  India  was  transferred 
to  the  imperial  crown,  his  code  has  been  made  the  basis 
of  the  legal  system  of  the  country.  His  sojourn  in  India 
(from  1835  to  1838)  had  made  him  acquainted  with  its 
history  and  with  the  character  of  its  various  peoples  ; 
and  to  the  knowledge  thus  acquired  in  a  field  hitherto 
untrodden  by  him,  we  are  indebted  for  two  of  his  most 
effective  and  most  brilliant  essays, — those  on  Clive  and 
Warren  Hastings. 


€zsk;q  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  YiyZuttural;  N»  nasal;  r»  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2:^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MACAVLAT 


1480 


MACAVLAT 


Having  returned  to  England  in  1838,  he  again  entered 
Parliament,  as  a  representative  of  the  city  of  Edinburgh, 
and  soon  after  received  the  appointment  of  secretary 
at  war  in  the  Melbourne  ministry.  On  the  fall  of  the 
Whigs  in  1841,  he  went  into  the  opposition.  When  they 
returned  to  power  in  1846,  he  was  made  paymaster-gene- 
ral. He  had  been  regularly  re-elected  from  Edinburgh 
until  1847,  when,  owing  to  an  unusual  combination  of 
different  party  elements,  he  was  defeated.  The  mor- 
tification of  this  repulse  stung  him  very  deeply.  He 
resolved  to  devote  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  studious 
retirement.  He  seems  to  have  felt,  indeed,  that  his 
proj)er  vocation  was  the  pursuit  of  literature,  apart  from 
the  excitements  of  the  political  arena.  One  of  the  im- 
portant results  of  his  withdrawal  from  public  life  was  his 
being  able  to  apply  himself  without  interruption  to  the 
composition  of  his  great  work,  the  History  of  Eng- 
land," the  first  two  volumes  of  which  made  their  appear- 
ance near  the  close  of  1848.  Never  before  in  the  annals 
of  literature  was  any  work  of  history  welcomed  by  the 
public  with  such  enthusiastic  admiration.  His  work  was 
read  by  tens  of  thousands  with  as  much  eagerness  and 
delight  as  a  fresh  novel  by  Scott  or  Bulwer  would  have 
been.  In  1849  Macaulay  was  chosen  lord  rector  of  the 
University  of  Glasgow.  Not  long  after,  in  a  speech  which 
he  made  in  that  city,  he  took  a  formal  leave  of  political 
life,  explaining  at  the  same  time  the  principles  by  which 
he  had  sought  to  guide  his  course  while  he  was  con- 
nected with  the  government.  Among  other  things,  he 
said  on  that  occasion,  "  I  cannot  accuse  myself  of  having 
ever  been  untrue  either  to  the  cause  of  civil  or  religious 
liberty,  or  to  the  cause  of  property  and  law.  I  reflect 
with  pleasure  that  I  bore  a  part  in  some  of  those  reforms 
which  corrected  great  abuses  and  removed  just  discon- 
tents. I  reflect  with  equal  pleasure  that  I  never  stooped 
to  the  part  of  a  demagogue,  and  never  feared  to  confront 
what  seemed  to  me  to  be  an  unreasonable  clamour."  In 
1852  the  people  of  Edinburgh,  as  some  atonement  for 
the  injustice  which  they  felt  had  been  done  him  five  years 
before,  again  returned  Macaulay  to  Parliament,  without 
his  having  so  much  as  offered  himself  as  a  candidate  or 
having  made  the  smallest  effort  to  procure  his  re-elec- 
tion. Although  he  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, his  declining  health  did  not  permit  him  to  take 
any  active  part  in  the  debates.  During  the  whole  time 
that  he  was  in  the  House  he  spoke  but  twice  :  on  both 
occasions  he  was  listened  to  with  the  most  respectful 
and  eager  attention.  An  imperfect  and  extremely  in- 
accurate collection  of  his  speeches  having  been  printed 
without  his  sanction,  a  correct  edition  was  by  his  au- 
thority issued  in  1854.  In  1856,  on  account  of  ill  health, 
he  resigned  his  seat  in  Parliament.  In  1855  the  third 
and  fourth  volumes  of  his  History  made  their  appearance. 
They  were  welcomed  as  warmly  and  read  as  eagerly  as 
the  two  former  had  been.  It  was  his  original  purpose 
to  bring  his  History  from  the  accession  of  James  II. 
down  to  a  time  within  the  memory  of  persons  still  living. 
But  in  the  last  volume  he  had  only  reached  the  peace 
of  Ryswick,  in  1697.  After  his  decease  another  frag- 
mentary volume  was  published,  including  an  account 
of  the  death  of  William  III. 

In  1857  Macaulay  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the 
title  of  Baron  Macaulay  of  Rothley.  Although  his 
health  continued  to  decline,  he  still  applied  himself  to 
his  literary  labours  until  very  near  the  time  of  his  death. 
His  disease  was  an  affection  of  the  heart,  of  which  he 
died  suddenly  on  the  28th  of  December,  1859. 

Besides  the  various  productions  of  his  pen  already 
referred  to,  he  contributed  a  series  of  valuable  biogra- 
phies to  the  "  Encyclopsedia  Britannica."  Not  content 
with  his  acknowledged  mastery  in  the  different  depart- 
ments of  prose,  he  became  again  in  1842  a  candidate  for 
poetic  laurels,  and  gave  to  the  world  his  "  Lays  of  Ancient 
Rome,"  of  which  it  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say  that, 
for  a  combination  of  jMCturesqueness,  simplicity,  and 
power,  there  is  nothing  of  the  kind  superior  to  them  in 
the  English  language. 

It  is,  however,  as  a  writer  on  history  that  the  name 
of  Macaulay  is  destined  to  take  its  most  distinguished 
place  and  descend  to  the  remotest  posterity.  Already, 
in  his  essays,  he  had  proved  his  mastery  in  this  depart- 


ment of  composition.  A  perfect  history,  according  to 
his  ideal,*  would  not  be  content  with  merely  recording 
wars  and  revolutions,  the  lives  of  kings  and  heroes,  but 
would  include  literature  and  the  arts,  manners  and 
usages,  the  progress  of  civilization, — in  short,  the  whole 
life  of  the  nation  ;  not  of  the  aristocracy  only,  but  of  the 
people  in  every  rank  and  condition.  Referring  to  Mac- 
aulay's  historic  essays,  Dean  Milman  well  observes,  "The 
variety  of  topics  is  almost  as  nothing  to  the  variety  of 
information  on  every  topic."  Of  the  style  he  remarks, 
'*  It  was  eminently  his  own.  ...  Its  characteristics  w^ere 
vigour,  animation,  copiousness,  clearness, — above  all, 
sound  English,  now  a  rare  excellence.  .  .  .  His  English 
was  pure  both  in  idi(mi  and  in  words  ;  pure  to  fastidious- 
ness ;  not  that  he  discarded  or  did  not  make  free  use 
of  the  plainest  and  most  homely  terms,  .  .  .  but  every 
word  must  be  plain  English, — nothing  that  approached 
real  vulgarity,  nothing  that  had  not  the  stamp  of  popu- 
lar use  or  the  authority  of  sound  English  writers." 

That  Macaulay  possessed  in  a  pre-eminent  degree 
many  of  the  highest  attributes  of  a  great  historian,  none 
will  deny.  In  that  power  of  imagination  by  which  he 
was  enabled  to  clothe  the  dead  past  with  all  the  activity 
and  fulness  of  life,  he  was  scarcely,  if  at  all,  inferior  to  the 
most  gifted  writers  of  fiction.  In  the  extent  and  variety 
of  his  knowledge,  in  the  quickness  and  strength  of  his 
intellect,  by  which  he  was  able  to  grasp  with  facility  the 
most  difficult  political  and  moral  problems,  in  his  thor- 
ough acquaintance  with  all  the  springs  of  human  action, 
in  the  vividness  of  his  descriptions,  in  the  animation 
and  sustained  interest  of  his  nairative,  in  the  clearness, 
force,  and  brilliancy  of  his  style,  in  his  command,  in 
short,  over  every  species  of  eloquence,  whether  declama- 
tory, argumentative,  or  poetical,  he  has,  even  among  the 
greatest  masters  of  historical  composition,  few,  if  any, 
superiors.  He  is,  however,  it  must  be  confessed  with 
regret,  deficient  in  one  important  or  rather  essential 
qualification, — impartiality.  His  feelings  were  so  intense, 
his  attachments  and  aversions  so  strong,  that,  where 
these  chanced  to  enter  into  the  subject  to  be  weighed, 
the  balance  was  too  seldom  held  with  an  equal  hand. 

Macaulay's  great  work  has  been  compared  to  a  vast 
painting,  in  which  the  different  figures  correspond  to 
prominent  historic  characters.  It  may  be  said  that  as 
in  his  style  he  too  often  sacrifices  simplicity  to  his  love 
of  antithesis,  so  in  his  history  he  is  too  apt  to  exagger- 
ate, for  the  sake  of  effect,  the  lights  and  shadows  of  his 
portraits. 

In  relation  to  his  conversational  powers.  Dean  Milman 
observes,  "In  the  quiet  intercourse  with  the  single 
friend,  no  great  talker  was  more  free,  easy,  and  genial 
than  Macaulay.  There  was  the  most  equable  interchange 
of  thought ;  he  listened  with  as  much  courtesy  as  he 
spoke  with  gentle  and  pleasant  persuasiveness.  In  a 
larger  circle,  such  as  he  delighted  to  meet  and  assemble 
around  him  to  the  close  of  his  life,  a  few  chosen  in- 
timates, some  accomplished  ladies,  foreigners  of  the 
highest  distinction  who  were  eager  to  make  his  acquaint- 
ance, his  manners  were  frank  and  open.  In  conversation 
in  such  a  circle,  a  commanding  voice,  high  animal  spirits, 
unrivalled  quickness  of  apprehension,  a  flow  of  language 
as  rapid  as  inexhaustible,  gave  him,  perhaps,  a  larger 
share,  but  a  share  which  few  were  not  delighted  to  yield 
up  to  him.  His  thoughts  were  like  lightning,  and  clothed 
themselves  at  once  in  words.  .  .  .  And  the  stores  which 
his  memory  had  at  instantaneous  command  !  .  .  .  With 
these  came  anecdotes,  touches  of  character,  drollery,  fun, 
excellent  stories  excellently  told." 

"Lord  Macaulay,"  observes  the  same  writer,  "was 
never  married  ;  his  strong  domestic  affections  were 
chiefly  centred  in  his  sister — happily  married  to  his 
friend  Sir  Charles  Trevelyan — and  her  family.  Her 
children  were  to  him  as  his  own,  and  cherished  with 
almost  parental  tenderness.  As  a  friend  he  was  singu- 
larly steadfast.  He  was  impatient  of  anything  dispar- 
aging of  one  for  whom  he  entertained  a  sincere  esteem. 
In  the  war  of  political  life  he  made,  we  believe,  no  lasting 
enemy  ;  he  secured  the  unswerving  attachment  of  his  po- 
litical friends,  to  whom  he  had  been  unswervingly  true." 


*  See  his  essay  on  "  History,"  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  1828. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ia,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  i,  o,  obsaire;  fSr,  fjll,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MACAULAT  1481  MACCHIETTI 


All  Macaulay's  works  have  been  reprinted  in  Germany. 
His  "  History''  has  been  translated  into  French,  the  first 
two  volumes  by  M.  Jules  de  Peyronnet,  the  second  and 
third  by  M.  Amedee  Pichot. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  Lord  Macaulay,"  written  for  the  Royal  Society 
by  Dean  Milman  ;  the  excellent  article  in  Ali.ibone's  "  Dictionary 
of  Authors;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  "Biographical 
Sketches,"  by  Harriet  Martineau,  i86q;  Whipple's  "Essays 
and  Reviews,"  2  vols.,  1852;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1849, 
October,  1854,  January,  1857,  and  October,  1861  :  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  March,  1843,  April,  1849,  and  April,  i868  ;  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  April,  1849,  August  and  September,  1856,  July  and 
August,  1859;  "North  British  Review"  for  May,  1856,  and  Novem- 
ber^ 1S60;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1856;  J.  Paget,  "New 
Exameii ;"  "  Jahrbuch  zum  Conversations- Lexikon"  for  i860. 

Macaulay,  (Zachary,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  philan- 
thropist, of  Scottish  descent,  born  about  1768,  was  the 
father  of  Lord  Macaulay,  the  historian.  He  was  a 
zealous  coadjutor  of  Wilberforce  in  the  abolition  of 
the  slave-trade,  in  which  cause  he  laboured  many  years. 
Died  in  1838.  His  father,  John  Macaulay,  minister  at 
Inverary,  is  mentioned  in  Dr.  Johnson's  "Tour  to  the 
Hebrides." 

Mac-Au'ley,  (Catherine  E.,)  an  Irish  lady,  eminent 
for  benevolence  and  piety,  born  in  the  county  of  Dublin 
in  1787.  She  was  educated  a  Catholic.  Having  lost 
her  parents  in  early  life,  she  was  adopted  by  Mr.  Cal- 
lahan, a  wealthy  gentleman,  who  at  his  death,  in  1822, 
left  her  his  entire  fortune.  She  founded  in  1827,  in 
Baggot  Street,  Dublin,  an  institution  designed  as  a 
temporary  home  for  poor  women  out  of  employment, 
and  a  school  for  children.  It  was  afterwards  called  the 
Institute  of  Our  Blessed  Lady  of  Mercy,  having  for  its 
object  the  care  of  the  sick.  She  became  in  183 1  superior 
of  the  Order  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  This  order  has 
been  introduced  into  Great  Britain,  the  United  States, 
Australia,  and  South  America.    Died  in  1841. 

See  "  Life  of  Catherine  MacAuley,"  by  a  member  of  the  Order 
of  Mercy,  New  York,  1866. 

Mac-beth'  or  Macbeda,  mak-ba'tha,  a  king  of 
Scotland,  who,  according  to  the  common  tradition,  was 
a  cousin  of  King  Duncan,  and  originally  Thane  of  Gla- 
mis.  About  1040  Macbeth  assassinated  Duncan  and 
usurped  the  throne.  Malcolm,  the  lawful  heir,  fled  to 
England,  and,  having  returned  with  an  army,  defeated 
Macbeth,  who  was  killed  in  1056  or  1057. 

The  story  of  Macbeth's  usurpation  would  seem  to 
possess  scarcely  any  positive  historic  basis.  '*  However 
he  may  have  gained  his  power,"  says  Burton,  "  he  exer- 
cised it  with  good  repute,  according  to  the  reports  nearest 
to  his  time.  It  is  among  the  most  curious  of  the  an- 
tagonisms that  sometimes  separate  the  popular  opinion 
of  people  of  mark  from  anything  positively  known  about 
them,  that  this  man,  in  a  manner  sacred  to  splendid  in- 
famy, is  the  first  whose  name  appears  in  the  ecclesiastical 
records  both  as  a  king  of  Scotland  and  a  benefactor  of 

the  Church  He  had  a  wider  dominion  than  any 

previous  ruler,  having  command  over  all  the  country 
now  known  as  Scotland,  except  the  isles  and  a  portion 
of  the  western  highlands."  ("  History  of  Scotland,"  vol. 
i.  chap.  X.)  The  legend  of  Macbeth  forms  the  subject 
of  one  of  Shakspeare's  most  celebrated  tragedies. 

See  HoLiNSHED,  "Chronicles  of  Englande,  Scotlande,"  etc.; 
Buchanan,  "  Historia  Scotlca." 

Mac-Bride',  (David,)  an  eminent  surgeon,  born  in 
the  county  of  Antrim,  Ireland,  in  1726,  settled  in  Dublin 
in  1749.  Besides  other  works,  he  published  an  "Intro- 
duction to  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Medicine,"  (1772,) 
which  is  much  esteemed.    Died  in  1778. 

Maccabaeus,  (Judas.)    See  Judas. 

Mac'ca-bees,  [Gr.  MaKKaSaloi;  Fr.  Maccabees,  mt'- 
kS'lia'',]  a  celebrated  Jewish  family,  which  attained  the 
royal  dignity  in  Judea.  The  surname  Maccabeus,  from 
the  Hebrew  Makkab,  a  "  hammer,"  was  first  given  to 
Judas  for  his  victories  over  the  King  of  Syria,  about  165 
B.C.  His  family  and  descendants  were  also  called  Mac- 
cabees or  Asmonseans.  Judas,  who  was  the  son  of 
Mattathias,  had  three  brothers,  John,  Simon,  and  Jona- 
than, noticed  in  this  work. 

See  Apocryphal  Book  of  Maccabees;  Josephus,  *' Antiquitates 
Judaicae." 

Mac-CiLll',  (George  A.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1802,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1822. 


He  took  command  of  a  division  or  corps  called  the  Penn- 
sylvania Reserves,  about  May,  1861,  and  commanded  the 
same  at  Mechanicsville  and  Gaines's  Mill,  June  26-27, 
1862.  He  was  taken  prisoner  June  30  of  that  year. 
Died  in  February,  1868. 

Mao-CauF,  (Rev.  Alexander,)  an  English  Hebraist 
and  writer  on  theology,  was  born  about  1800.  He  be- 
came prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's,  London,  in  1845.  Died 
in  1863. 

Macchi,  mSk'kee,  (Mauro,)  an  Italian  political 
writer,  born  at  Milan  in  1815.  He  was  a  moderate  Lib- 
eral in  politics. 

Macchiavelli  or  Machiavelli,  de,  dk  mS-ke-l-veK- 
lee,  often  Anglicized  as  Machiavel,  mak'e-a-vgl,  fLat. 
Machiavel'lus  ;  Fr.  Machiavel,  mt'she'S^^K,]  (Nic- 
col6  di  Bernardo,  )  a  famous  Italian  statesman, 
di]5]omatist,  and  writer,  whose  character  abounds  in 
enigmas  and  paradoxes,  and  from  whose  name  has  been 
derived  a  synonym  of  perfidious  policy,  ( Machiavellism.) 
He  was  boVn  at  Florence  on  the  3d  of  May,  1469.  In 
1499  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  Ten  who  managed 
the  diplomatic  affairs  of  the  republic.  He  retained  this 
office  about  fourteen  years,  during  which  he  was  em- 
ployed in  many  foreign  missions  to  France,  etc.,  and 
acquitted  himself  with  great  dexterity.  In  1 5 10,  for  the 
third  time,  he  was  sent  to  France,  and  negotiated  an 
alliance  with  Louis  XII.  He  zealously  exerted  his  talents 
and  influence  to  maintain  the  independence  of  Florence, 
but  without  success.  In  1512  the  Medicis  obtained  sove- 
reign power  in  Florence  by  the  aid  of  the  pope  and  the 
emperor,  and  Macchiavelli  was  banished  from  the  city, 
but  forbidden  to  leave  the  country.  He  passed  several 
ensuing  years  in  retirement,  and  during  this  period  com- 
posed a  treatise  on  the  "Art  of  War,"  and  his  important 
work  entitled  "The  Prince,"  ("Del  Principe,"  or  " De 
Principatibus,")  which  has  entailed  a  large  portion  of 
conventional  infamy  on  his  name.  It  was  written  for  the 
private  use  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  and  not  designed  for 
publication.  "Few  books,"  says  Hallam,  "have  been 
more  misrepresented.  His  crime,  in  the  eyes  of  the 
world,  was  to  have  cast  away  the  veil  of  hypocrisy." 
("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  About 
1520  he  was  recalled  into  public  service  by  Leo  X.,  and 
was  employed  on  several  missions,  the  last  of  which  was 
to  the  army  of  the  league  against  Charles  V.,  (1526.)  He 
died  at  Florence  in  June,  1527.  His  last  work  was  an 
excellent,  luminous,  and  picturesque  history  of  Florence, 
("  Storie  Fiorentine,"  1525,)  the  style  of  which  is  greatly 
admired.  He  was  also  author  of  several  comedies  of 
some  merit,  and  of  valuable  "  Discourses  on  Livy." 
"The  character  of  Macchiavelli,"  says  Macaulay,  "was 
hateful  to  the  new  masters  of  Italy.  His  works  were 
misrepresented  by  the  learned,  misconstrued  by  the 
ignorant,  censured  by  the  Church,  abused  with  all  the 
rancour  of  simulated  virtue  by  the  minions  of  a  base 
despotism  and  the  priests  of  a  baser  superstition.  .  .  . 
The  name  of  a  man  whose  genius  had  illuminated  all 
the  dark  places  of  policy,  and  to  whose  patriotic  wisdom 
an  oppressed  people  had  owed  their  last  chance  of 
emancipation,  passed  into  a  proverb  of  infamy.  .  .  .  The 
terms  in  which  he  is  commonly  described  would  seem 
to  import  that  he  was  the  tempter,  the  evil  principle,  the 
discoverer  of  ambition  and  revenge,  the  original  inventor 
of  perjury,"  etc.  "  His  History  of  Florence,"  says  Hal- 
lam, "is  enough  to  immortalize  the  name  of  Machiavel. 
Seldom  has  a  more  giant  stride  been  made  in  any  de- 
partment of  literature  than  by  this  judicious,  clear,  and 
elegant  history."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.") 

See  Galanti,  "  Elog"o  di  Niccolo  Machiavelli,"  1779;  Bal- 
DEi.i.i,  "  Elogio  di  Niccol6  Machiavelli,"  1794;  PERifes,  "Histoire 
de  N.  Machiavel,"  1823;  Artaiid  de  Montor,  "Machiavel,  son 
Genie  et  ses  Erreurs,"  1833;  Macaulay's  "Essays,"  article  "Ma- 
chiavelli;" T.  MuNDT,  "Macchiavelli  und  der  Gang- der  Euro- 
paischen  Politik,"  1852;  Gingueni^,  "Histoire  de  la  Litterature 
Italienne;"  Gervinus,  "  Historische  Schriften  ;"  F.  W.  Ebeling, 
"  N.  di  Bernardo  de  Macchiavelli's  politisches  System."  etc.,  1850; 
"  Nouvelle  Biograpihie  Generale  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  Septem- 
ber, 1816,  p.  209,  (by  Sir  James  Mackintosh;)  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  March,  1827  ;  "  North  American  Review"  for  July,  1835. 

Macchietti,  mSk-ke-et'tee,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  surnamed  del  CROCiFissAjo,(kRo-che-f^s-sS'yo,) 
(because,  as  we  are  told,  his  master  painted  crucifixes,) 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  s  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^='See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


MACCLELLAN 


1482 


MACCLINTOCK 


was  born  at  Florence  about  1540.  He  worked  at  Florence 
and  Rome,  and  painted  history  and  portraits  with  great 
success.  Among  his  master-pieces  was  a  picture  of  the 
"  Adoration  of  the  Magi." 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  tlie  Painters." 

Mac-CleFlan,  (George,)  M,D.,  an  eminent  American 
surgeon,  born  at  Woodstock,  Windham  county,  Con- 
necticut, in  1796.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
181 5,  and  studied  medicine  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1819. 
He  founded  about  1826  the  Jefferson  Medical  College 
in  Philadelphia,  in  which  he  became  professor  of  surgery 
and  a  very  popular  lecturer.  He  was  one  of  the  first  in 
the  United  States  to  introduce  the  system  of  clinical 
instruction  into  the  medical  schools.  He  was  particu- 
larly distinguished  as  a  bold  and  successful  surgical 
operator.    Died  in  1847. 

See  S.  D.  Gross,  "American  Medical  Biography,"  1861 ;  Samuel 
G.  Morton,  "Biographical  Notice  of  Dr.  George  McClellan,"  1849  ; 
W.  Darkach,  "  Memoir  of  Dr.  George  McClellan,"  1847. 

MacClellan,  {  George  Brinton,  )  a  distinguished 
American  general,  the  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  December  3, 1826.  He  entered  the  Military 
Academy  at  West  Point  in  1842,  and  graduated  there  in 
the  summer  of  1846,  standing  second  in  general  rank  in 
a  large  class.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war  as  lieutenant 
of  engineers  in  1847,  and  was  breveted  captain  for  his 
services  at  the  capture  of  Mexico.  In  the  spring  of  1855 
the  government  sent  to  the  seat  of  war  in  the  Crimea  a 
military  commission  to  examine  the  military  systems  of 
the  European  powers,  etc.  Captain  McClellan  was  one 
of  the  three  officers  selected  for  this  mission.  He  re- 
turned home  in  April,  1856,  and  gave  the  results  of  his 
observations  in  a  valuable  report  to  the  war  department. 
He  resigned  his  commission  in  the  army  in  1857,  and 
was  appointed  chief  engineer  of  the  Illinois  Central 
Railroad. 

In  May,  1 86 1,  he  took  command  of  the  Union  forces 
in  Western  Virginia,  which  defeated  the  enemy  at  Rich 
Mountain  and  Cheat  River  in  July.  A  few  days  after 
the  battle  of  Bull  Run  (July  21,  1861)  he  was,  at  the  re- 
commendation of  General  Scott,  appointed  commander 
of  the  army  at  Washington.  He  reorganized  that  army 
and  brought  it  into  a  high  state  of  discipline.  When 
General  Scott  retired  from  active  service,  November  i, 

1861,  McClellan  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
armies  of  the  United  States.    About  the  end  of  January, 

1862,  the  President  ordered  that  a  general  movement 
should  be  made  by  all  the  armies  on  the  22d  of  February. 
Having  been  relieved  from  the  command  of  all  the  de- 
partments except  that  of  the  Potomac,  McClellan  began 
to  move  towards  Richmond  about  the  loth  of  March. 
He  conveyed  his  army  by  water  down  the  Potomac  and 
Chesapeake  Bay  to  the  mouth  of  James  River.  Soon 
after  the  opening  of  this  campaign  he  began  to  complain 
that  he  was  not  properly  supported  by  the  President. 
He  commenced  active  operations  about  the  5th  of  April, 
by  the  siege  of  Yorktown,  which  the  insurgents  evacuated 
on  the  3d  or  4th  of  May.  On  the  next  day  he  fought  an 
indecisive  battle  at  Williamsburg,  from  which  he  slowly 
followed  the  retiring  enemy  to  the  Chickahominy. 

According  to  his  biographer  and  admirer,  Mr.  Hillard, 
"the  mind  of  McClellan  was  constantly  burdened  with 
a  conviction  that  his  troops  were  not  numerous  enough." 
He  had  about  95,000  men  at  Yorktown.  The  Union 
army  was  attacked  at  Fair  Oaks  on  the  31st  of  May  by 
General  J.  E.  Johnston,  who  was  repulsed  with  heavy 
loss.  According  to  Hillard,  McClellan  was  confined  to 
bed  by  illness  during  this  battle.  His  army  remained 
nearly  inactive  in  the  swamps  of  the  Chickahominy  for 
about  three  weeks,  during  which  he  lost  great  numbers 
by  sickness.  Active  hostilities  were  renewed  by  the 
enemy  on  the  26th  of  June,  and  then  began  the  Seven 
Days'  battles,  at  Mechanicsville,  Savage's  Station, 
White  Oak  Swamp,  Gaines's  Mill,  and  Malvern  Hill, 
(July  I,  1862,)  the  result  of  which  was  that  the  Union 
army  was  compelled  to  retreat  and  abandon  the  con- 
quest, of  Richmond,  He  wrote  to  Secretary  Stanton, 
June  28,  "  If  I  save  this  army  now,  I  tell  you  plainly 
that  I  owe  no  thanks  to  you  or  to  any  other  persons  in 
Washington.  You  have  done  your  best  to  sacrifice  this 
army."    In  July,  1862,  he  wrote  the  President  a  letter 


on  the  policy  which  ought,  iu  his  view,  to  be  adopted 
in  the  conduct  of  the  war.  "  Military  power,"  he 
wrote,  "should  not  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  the  rela- 
tions of  servitude.  ...  A  declaration  of  radical  views, 
especially  upon  slavery,  will  rapidly  disintegrate  our 
present  armies." 

In  August  his  army  left  the  peninsula,  and  was 
moved  by  water  from  the  James  River  to  Aqui'a  Creek 
About  the  2d  of  September  he  was  appointed  general-in- 
chief  of  the  army  which  had  been  commanded  by  Pope 
and  had  been  driven  back  to  Washington.  General 
Lee,  having  crossed  the  Potomac  into  Maryland,  was 
pursued  by  McClellan,  who  gained  a  victory  at  Antietam 
Creek  on  the  i6th  and  17th  of  September,  1862.  The 
Union  army  lost  in  this  battle  11,426  in  killed  and 
wounded,  and  was  unprepared  or  unable  to  pursue  Lee, 
who  retired  to  Virginia  on  the  i8th  of  September.  On 
the  6th  of  October  McClellan  was  ordered  to  cross  the 
Potomac  and  give  battle  to  the  enemy  or  drive  him 
south  ;  but  he  delayed  his  advance  for  about  three  weeks, 
and  was  removed  from  command  by  an  order  dated  the 
5th  of  November  and  received  on  the  7th.  In  August, 
1864,  he  was  nominated  as  Democratic  candidate  for  the 
Presidency  by  the  Convention  at  Chicago.  He  received 
at  the  election  only  twenty-one  electoral  votes,  cast  by 
the  States  of  Kentucky,  Delaware,  and  New  Jersey. 
He  resigned  his  commission  as  major-general  of  the 
regular  army,  November  8,  1864,  and  made  a  long  visit 
to  Europe,  from  which  he  returned  in  1868.  (See  the 
article  on  Lincoln,  (Abraham,)  in  this  work.) 

See  Hillard,  "Life  of  General  McClellan,"  1865  ;  Raymond, 
"Administration  of  President  Lincoln,"  chap.  vi.  ;  Greeley, 
"American  Conflict." 

Mac-Cler'nand,  (John  A.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Breckinridge  county,  Kentucky,  in  1812.  He 
removed  to  Illinois,  and  served  as  a  member  of  Congress 
from  that  State  from  1843  1861.  He  commanded  a 
brigade  at  Fort  Donelson,  February,  1862,  and  a  division 
at  Shiloh,  April  6  and  7  of  that  year.  He  succeeded 
General  Sherman  as  commander  of  an  army  in  Missis- 
sippi in  January,  1863,  and  directed  a  corps  at  the  siege 
of  Vicksburg  in  May.  He  was  removed  from  this  com- 
mand before  the  end  of  that  siege. 

Mac-Clint'pck,  (Sir  Francis  Leopold,)  a  successful 
Arctic  explorer,  born  at  Dundalk,  Ireland,  in  1819.  He 
entered  the  navy  about  1831,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  in  1845.  In  1848  and  1849  he  served  under 
Sir  James  Ross  in  his  expedition  in  search  of  Sir  John 
Franklin.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  enterprise, 
skill,  and  energy  in  several  subsequent  expeditions  for 
the  same  purpose,  and  performed  remarkable  feats  in 
sledge-travelling.  In  1857  Captain  McClintock  received 
command  of  the  "  Fox"  screw-steamer,  fitted  out  by  Lady 
Franklin  for  a  final  effort  to  obtain  tidings  of  the  lost 
navigator.  In  the  winter  of  1858-59  he  and  his  officers 
performed  extensive  sledge-journeys,  and  in  May  found 
at  Point  Victory,  on  King  William's  Island,  the  record 
of  Franklin's  death  and  the  remains  of  the  last  sur- 
vivors of  his  party.  (See  Franklin,  Sir  John.)  Soon 
after  his  return,  September,  1859,  he  was  knighted,  and 
received  various  honours  and  rewards.  He  published  a 
"  Narrative  of  the  Discovery  of  the  Fate  of  Sir  John 
Franklin,"  (i860.) 

Mac-Clint'ock,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  American 
scholar  and  Methodist  divine,  born  in  Philadelphia  in 
1814,  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1835.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  Dickinson 
College  at  Carlisle,  became  editor  of  the  "Methodist 
Quarterly  Review"  in  1848,  and  conducted  the  same  with 
great  ability  for  eight  years.  In  1857  he  was  appointed 
pastor  of  Saint  Paul's  Church,  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
where  he  acquired  distinction  as  a  pulpit  orator.  He 
accepted  in  i860  the  charge  of  the  American  Chapel 
in  Paris,  During  the  civil  war  he  rendered  important 
services  to  the  cause  of  the  Union  by  his  pen  and  voice, 
and  his  home  in  Paris  became  a  rallying  centre  for  pa- 
triotic Americans.  Having  returned  home  about  1865, 
he  resumed  his  literary  labours,  and  was  selected  in  1867 
to  organize  the  Drew  Theological  Seminary.  His  most 
important  work,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  Dr.  W. 
Strong,  is  a  "  Theological  and  Biblical  Cyclopaedia,"  still 


a,  e,  I,  0,  ii,  y,  long;  ct,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  ^,    j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MAC^CLURE 


1483 


MACDIARMID 


unfinished,)  of  which  three  volumes  have  been  published, 
(1867-69.)    Died  in  March,  1870. 

Mac-Clure'  or  Maclure,  (Sir  Robert  Le  Mesu- 
RIER,)  a  navigator,  was  born  at  Wexford,  Ireland,  in 
1807.  After  serving  many  years  in  the  navy,  he  accom- 
panied Sir  James  Ross  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin 
in  1848.  On  his  return,  in  1849,  he  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  captain.  In  1850,  as  captain  of  the  Investigator, 
he  was  directed  to  renew  the  enterprise  by  advancing 
eastward  from  Behring's  Strait.  He  entered  a  strait 
which  he  named  the  Prince  of  Wales  Strait,  and,  after 
his  ship  was  frozen  fast,  he  pursued  the  exploration  by 
sledges  until  he  reached  Melville  or  Barrow's  Strait,  in 
the  winter  of  1850-51.  This  is  called  the  first  discovery 
of  the  Northwest  Passage.  In  the  next  season  he  dis- 
covered a  second  passage,  on  the  north  side  of  Baring 
Island.  In  1853  he  was  extricated  from  a  perilous  situ- 
ation by  Captain  Kellet,  who  arrived  at  Melville  Island 
from  the  east ;  but  he  was  forced  to  abandon  the  Inves- 
tigator. On  his  return  home  he  received  a  reward  of 
;^5ooo  for  his  discoveries. 

See  OsBORN,  "  Narration  of  the  Discovery  of  the  North-West 
Passage,"  1856. 

Mac-clurg',  (James,)  an  American  physician,  born 
at  Plampton,  Virginia,  in  1747,  was  the  author  of  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Human  Bile,"  which  was  translated 
into  several  languages.    Died  in  1825. 

Mac-con'nel,  (John  L.,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
writer,  born  in  Illinois  in  1826.  He  has  published  "Tal- 
bot and  Vernon,"  and  other  sketches  of  Western  life. 

Mac-Cook',  (Alexander  McDowell,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  Columbiana  county,  Ohio,  in  1851,  grad- 
uated at  West  Point  in  1852.  He  served  as  colonel  at 
Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861,  became  a  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers  in  September  of  that  year,  and  fought  at 
Shiloh  in  April,  1862.  Having  obtained  the  rank  of 
major-general  in  the  ensuing  July,  he  commanded  a 
corps  at  the  battle  of  Perryville,  October  8,  1862.  He 
led  the  right  wing  at  the  battle  of  Stone  River,  which 
ended  January  2,  1863,  and  commanded  a  corps  at  Chicka- 
mauga,  September  19  and  20  of  that  year. 

MacCook,  (  Robert  L.,  )  an  American  general,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Jefferson  county, 
Ohio,  in  1 837.  He  was  a  lawyer  before  the  war.  He 
served  as  colonel  at  Mill  Springs,  Kentucky,  January, 
1862.  He  was  murdered  by  guerillas  near  Salem,  Ala- 
bama, in  August  of  the  same  year. 

Mac-cord',  (David  J.,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in 
Saint  Matthew's  parish.  South  Carolina,  in  1797,  con- 
tributed a  number  of  essays  to  the  "  Southern  Review" 
and  "De  Bow's  Review."  Died  in  1855.  His  wife, 
Louisa  S.  (Cheves,)  published  "Caius  Gracchus,"  a 
tragedy,  and  several  other  works. 

Mac-Cor^mic,  (Charles,)  a  historical  writer,  born  in 
Ireland  in  1 744,  wrote  "The  Reign  of  George  III.  to 
1783,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1807. 

Mac-Cosh',  (James,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  Scottish  writer 
on  theology  and,  metaphysics,  was  born  in  Ayrshire  about 
1810.  He  became  a  minister  of  the  Free  Church  of 
Scotland,  and  about  1852  professor  of  logic  at  Belfast, 
Ireland.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Method  of  the 
Divine  Government,  Physical  and  Moral,"  (1850,)  "The 
Intuitions  of  the  Mind  Inductively  Investigated,"  (i860,) 
and  "  Examination  of  Mr.  J.  S.  Mill's  Philosophy,"  (1866,) 
and  ill  conjunction  with  Dr.  George  Dickie,  of  Belfast, 
"Typical  Forms  and  Special  Ends  in  Creation,"  (1869.) 
Dr.  MacCosh  is  a  very  clear  as  well  as  a  profound 
thinker,  and  has  thrown  valuable  light  on  some  of  the 
abstrusest  questions  of  the  philosophy  of  the  human 
mind.  At  the  earnest  invitation  of  the  trustees  and 
other  friends  of  Princeton  College,  New  Jersey,  he  came 
to  America  in  1868  and  assumed  the  office  of  president 
in  that  institution,  to  the  prosperity  of  which  his  name 
and  influence  appear  to  have  given  a  new  impulse. 

Maccovius.    See  Makowskl 

Mac-C6wn',  (John  Porter,)  an  officer,  born  in  Ten- 
nessee, served  in  the  Mexican  war  in  1847,  and  became 
a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  army  in  1861. 

MacCrea,  mak-kra',  (Jane,)  a  daughter  of  a  Scottish 
clergyman  in  New  Jersey,  was  murdered  in  1777  by  the  In- 
dian allies  of  Burgoyne,  near  Fort  Edward,  on  the  Hudson. 


MacCrie,  mak-kree',  (Thomas,)  an  eloquent  Scottish 
Presbyterian  writer,  born  at  Dunse,  in  Berwickshire,  in 
1772.  He  belonged  to  "  the  most  straitest  sect"  of  his 
religion,  styled  "  Anti-Burghers,"  a  part  of  the  Secession 
Church.  About  1795  he  was  ordained  minister  of  a  con- 
gregation in  Edinburgh.  In  181 1  or  1812  he  published 
a  "  Life  of  John  Knox,"  which  obtained  great  popularity. 
His  "  Life  of  Andrew  Melville"  (1819)  displays,  with  warm 
sectarian  partiality,  much  learning  and  ability.  He  after- 
wards produced,  besides  other  works,  an  interesting 
"  History  of  the  Progress  and  Suppression  of  the  Re- 
formation in  Italy,"  (1827.)  Died  in  1835.  In  reference 
to  his  "  Life  of  Knox,"  Lord  Jeffrey  says,  "  We  do  not 
hesitate  to  pronounce  it  by  far  the  best  piece  of  history 
which  has  appeared  since  the  commencement  of  our 
critical  career.  It  is  extremely  accurate,  learned,  and 
concise,  and  at  the  same  time  very  full  of  spirit  and 
animation." 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1812;  Chambers,  "Biogra- 
phical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement.) 

MacCullagh,  mak-kuKlaH,  (James,)  a  distinguished 
mathematician  and  natural  philosopher,  born  in  the 
county  of  Tyrone,  Ireland,  in  1809,  was  educated  in 
Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of 
that  college  in  1832,  and  professor  of  natural  philosophy 
in  1843.  gained  distinction  by  his  researches  in  the 

wave  theory  of  light,  and  other  subjects,  on  which  he 
wrote  several  treatises.  In  1846  he  received  the  Copley 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society  for  his  contributions  to  the 
science  of  light.    He  died,  by  suicide,  in  1847. 

MacCuUoch,  mak-kuKloh,  (Benjamin,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  Rutherford  county,  Tennessee,  in  1814 
He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and  took  arms 
against  the  Union  in  1861.  He  commanded  at  the  battle 
of  Wilson's  Creek,  Missouri,  August  10,  1861,  and  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862. 

See  Tenney,  "Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  1865. 

MacCuUoch,  mak-kul'loh  or  mak-kul'loK,  (Hora- 
tio,) a  skilful  Scottish  landscape-painter,  born  in  Glas- 
gow in  1806,  worked  in  Edinburgh.    Died  in  1867. 

MacCuUoch,  mak-kuKloh,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  a  Brit- 
ish geologist  and  naturalist,  born  in  Guernsey  in  1773. 
He  studied  medicine,  which  he  practised  for  a  short 
time.  About  1812  he  began  to  make  a  scientific  survey 
and  exploration  of  Scotland  in  the  service  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  while  thus  employed  he  examined  the  geology 
and  mineralogy  of  that  region.  He  became  well  versed 
in  many  natural  sciences  and  in  several  arts.  In  182 1 
he  published  a  "  Geological  Classification  of  Rocks," 
etc.,  and  in  1824  "The  Highlands  and  Western  Isles  of 
Scotland,  in  a  Series  of  Letters  to  Sir  W.  Scott."  For 
many  years,  ending  in  1832,  he  was  employed  in  the 
geological  and  mineralogical  survey  of  Scotland.  He 
afterwards  published  the  results  of  this  survey  in  an 
excellent  mineralogical  map.    Died  in  1835. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  May,  1820,  and  January,  1831. 

MacCuUoch,  (John  Ramsay,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
writer  on  political  economy  and  commerce,  was  born  in 
Wigtonshire  about  1789.  He  edited  the  "Scotsman" 
in  Edinburgh  for  a  few  years,  and  contributed  many 
articles  to  the  "Edinburgh  Review."  About  1828  he 
removed  to  London  and  became  professor  of  political 
economy  in  the  new  university.  He  wrote  many  works, 
which  are  highly  esteemed.  Among  these  are  "The 
Principles  of  Political  Economy,"  (1825,)  a  valuable 
"Dictionary  of  Commerce  and  Commercial  Naviga- 
tion," (1832,)  often  reprinted,  and  a  "Dictionary,  Geo- 
graphical, Statistical,  and  Historical,"  etc.  About  1838 
he  became  comptroller  of  the  stationery  office,  London. 
Died  in  1864. 

Macdiarmid,  mak-der'mid,  .?  (John,)  a  Scottish 
author,  born  in  Edinburgh  about  1790.  In  181 7  he 
became  editor  of  the  "  Dumfries  Courier,"  which,  under 
his  direction,  was  an  excellent  and  successful  journal 
for  many  years.  He  published  a  "Life  of  Cowper,'' 
"  Sketches  from  Nature,"  "  The  Scrap-Book,"  and  a  few 
other  works.    Died  in  1852. 

Macdiarmid,  (John,)  a  Scottish  author,  born  in 
Perthshire  in  1779.  He  settled  in  London,  where  he 
edited  "The  Saint  James's  Chronicle."    He  was  author 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  ^ittural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (S^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MACDONALD 


1484 


MAC  EDO 


of  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  System  of  Military  Defence," 
and  "Lives  of  British  Statesmen."    Died  in  1808. 

See  DisRAELF,  "Calamities  of  Authors;"  Chambers,  "Bio- 
grapliical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mac-don'ald,  (Andrew,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at 
Leith'  about  1755.  He  was  an  Episcopal  clergyman  in 
Glasgow  for  a  few  years.  He  wrote  *'  Velina,"  a  poem, 
and  a  tragedy  called  "  Vimonda,"  which  was  performed 
with  success  in  Edinburgh.  Having  retired  from  the 
clerical  profession,  he  removed  about  1786  to  London, 
where  he  was  reduced  to  extreme  poverty.  Died  in  1788. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
Disraeli,  "  Calamities  of  Authors." 

Macdonald,  [Fr.  pron.  mtkMo'ntK,]  (Etienne 
Jacques  Joseph,)  Duke  of  Tarentum,  an  able  French 
marshal,  was  born  of  a  Scottish  family  at  Sancerre  in 
1765.  For  his  conduct  at  Jemmapes  (1792)  he  was  made 
a  colonel.  In  1793,  as  general  of  brigade,  he  served  under 
Pichegru  in  Flanders.  He  was  made  a  general  of  division 
in  1795  or  1796,  and  joined  the  army  of  Italy  in  1797.  In 
February,  1799,  he  succeeded  Championnet  in  the  chief 
comtiiand  at  Rome,  where  his  operations  were  success- 
ful. He  commanded  at  the  great  battle  of  Trebbia,  (June, 
1799))  where  the  superior  numbers  of  the  allied  forces 
under  Suwarow  were  victorious.  In  November,  1800,  he 
led  an  army  to  Italy  by  the  celebrated  passage  of  the 
Splugen,  which,  says  Alison,  "was  perhaps  the  most 
wonderful  achievement  of  modern  war."  ("  History  of 
Europe.")  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Denmark  in 
1802,  and  returned  in  1804.  After  this  he  passed  about 
five  years  without  employment,  having,  it  is  supposed, 
offended  Bonaparte  by  his  public  expressions  in  favour 
of  Moreau.  Having  received  command  of  a  division  in 
1809,  he  displayed  great  skill  and  courage  at  Wagram, 
(July,  1809,)  where  Bonaparte  gave  him  a  marshal's 
iDaton  on  the  field  of  battle.  Soon  after  this  event  he 
was  created  Duke  of  Tarentum.  In  the  Russian  cam- 
paign of  1812,  Marshal  Macdonald  commanded  the  tenth 
corps.  He  contributed  to  the  victories  of  Lutzen  and 
Bautzen,  (1813,)  and  served  the  emperor  with  fidelity  to 
the  last  in  the  campaign  of  1 8 14.  When  Napoleon  was 
about  to  abdicate,  he  expressed  his  grateful  sense  of 
Macdonald's  services,  and  presented  to  him  a  Turkish 
sabre.  Having  declared  his  adhesion  to  Louis  XVIII., 
he  refused  to  serve  his  former  master  during  the  Hun- 
dred Days,  and  in  1816  was  appointed  grand  chancellor 
of  the  legion  of  honour,  and  commander  of  a  military 
division.  He  died  in  1840,  leaving  his  title  of  duke  to 
an  only  son. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  du  Consulat  at  de  I'Empire;"  Jomini, 
"Precis  des  Operations  militaires  ;"  Thibaudeau,  "  Histoire  de 
Napoleon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Macdonald,  (  Flora,  )  a  Scottish  heroine,  born  in 
one  of  the  Hebrides  in  1720.  After  the  battle  of  Cul- 
loden,  (1746,)  the  Pretender  Charles  Edward  Stuart  be- 
came a  fugitive,  and  was  hunted  from  place  to  place  by 
the  king's  troops  until  he  was  rescued  by  the  courageous 
exertions  of  Flora,  who  conducted  him  (disguised  as  her 
female  servant)  to  the  Isle  of  Skye.  She  was  imprisoned 
a  few  months  for  this  offence.  About  1750  she  was  mar- 
ried to  Macdonald  of  Kingsburgh.  They  emigrated  to 
the  United  States  of  North  America  about  1774,  and 
afterwards  returned  to  Skye,  where  she  died  in  1790. 

See  the  "Autobiography  of  Flora  Macdonald,"  Edinburgh,  1869. 

Macdonald,  (James,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician, 
born  at  White  Plains,  New  York,  in  1803.  He  pub- 
lished an  "  Essay  on  the  Construction  and  Management  of 
Insane  Hospitals,"  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in  1849. 

Macdonald,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  a  Scottish  officer  and 
writer,  was  the  son  of  Flora,  above  noticed,  and  was  born 
at  Kingsburgh  in  1759.  He  passed  many  years  in  the 
military  service  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  became 
a  captain  in  the  corps  of  engineers.  About  1800  he  re- 
turned to  England.  He  published  a  valuable  "Treatise 
on  Telegraphic  Communications,"  (1808,)  and  wrote 
many  articles  on  magnetism  and  other  sciences,  some  of 
which  were  inserted  in  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine." 
He  translated  from  the  French  several  works  on  military 
tactics.    Died  in  1831. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1S31 ;  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement.) 


Macdonald,  (Laurence,)  a  Scottish  sculptor,  born 
about  181 5,  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  mature  life  at 
Rome.  His  subjects  are  mostly  taken  from  the  Greek 
and  Roman  mythology,  and  are  treated  in  the  pure 
classical  style. 

Macdonough,  mak-don'gh,  (Thomas,)  an  American 
commodore,  born  in  New  Castle  county,  Delaware,  in 
1784.  As  commander  of  the  American  fleet  on  Lake 
Champlain,  he  gained  a  splendid  and  decisive  victory 
over  the  British  in  September,  1814,  in  an  action  of  little 
more  than  two  hours.  For  this  service  he  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  captain.    Died  in  1825. 

See  "  Encyclopaedia  Americana,"  (Supplement.) 

Macdougal,  mak-doo'gal,  (Alexander,)  an  Amer- 
ican officer,  born  about  1750,  distinguished  himself  in  the 
war  of  the  Revolution,  rose  to  be  major-general,  and 
commanded  at  the  battle  of  White  Plains,  (1776.)  He 
was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1781.  Died 
in  1786. 

Mac-D6w'ell,  (Irwin,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Franklin  county,  Ohio,  about  1818,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1838.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846- 
47,)  and  became  a  captain  in  1847.  I"  May,  1861,  he 
was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  the  regular  army. 
He  commanded  the  Union  forces  at  the  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  July  21,  1861.  In  April,  1862,  he  took  command  of 
the  department  of  the  Rappahannock.  He  commanded 
a  corps  of  the  army  of  General  Pope,  and  took  part  in 
several  battles  near  Manassas  in  August,  1862.  He 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  department  of  the 
Pacific  in  1862  or  1863,  and  commander  of  the  fourth 
military  district  (Mississippi  and  Arkansas)  in  Decem- 
ber, 1867.  He  was  removed  by  President  Johnson  in 
June,  1868. 

MacDowell,  (James,)  an  American  Statesman,  born 
in  Rockbridge  county,  Virginia,  in  1796.  He  was  Gov- 
ernor of  Virginia  from  1842  to  1845,  and  a  member  of 
Congress  from  1845  to  1851.    Died  in  185 1. 

Mac-Dow'ell,  (Patrick,)  a  skilful  sculptor,  born  at 
Belfast,  in  Ireland,  in  1799.  After  he  had  served  sev- 
eral years  as  an  apprentice  to  a  coachmaker  of  London, 
he  became  a  self-taught  sculptor.  His  marble  statue 
of  a  "Girl  Reading"  (1838)  was  greatly  admired,  and 
procured  for  him  liberal  patronage.  In  1844  he  pro- 
duced a  marble  group  called  "  Love  Triumphant."  He 
was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1846.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  "Psyche,"  "Eve,"  "Early  Sorrow," 
and  "  The  Day-Dream." 

Mac-Duf'fie,  (George,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
politician,  born  in  Columbia  county,  Georgia,  about 
1788.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1821  to 
1835,  supported  Jackson  for  the  Presidency  in  1828,  and 
was  elected  Governor  of  South  Carolina  in  1834.  He 
gained  distinction  as  a  public  speaker,  and  took  an 
active  part  in  the  debates  of  Congress,  in  which  he 
advocated  State  rights  and  the  policy  of  J.  C.  Calhoun. 
In  1843  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
by  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina.  He  resigned  his 
seat  in  1846,  on  account  of  ill  health.    Died  in  185 1. 

Mace,  mt'sa',  (Franqois,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and 
biblical  writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1640.  He  wrote 
"La  Science  de  I'ficriture  sainte,"  (1708,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1721. 

Mace,  mas,  (Thomas,)  an  English  musician,  born  in 
1613,  published  a  book  called  "Music's  Monument," 
(1676.)    Died  in  1709. 

See  BuRNEV,  "History  of  Music." 

Macedo,  de,  di  mi-sa'do,  (Antonio,)  a  Portuguese 
Jesuit,  born  at  Coimbra  in  1612.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  Portuguese  Popes  and  Cardinals,"  (1663.)  Died 
in  1693. 

Macedo,  de,  (Francisco,)  a  Portuguese  monk  and 
prolific  writer,  born  at  Coimbra  in  1596,  was  a  brother 
of  the  preceding.    Died  at  Padua  in  1681. 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron, 
"  Memoires ;"  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographic  Generale." 

Macedo,  de,  (Joz6  Agostinho,)  a  distinguished 
Portuguese  poet  and  critic,  born  at  Ev'ora  about  1770. 
He  adopted  the  profession  of  a  priest,  and  became  a 
popular  preacher  in  Lisbon.    He  edited  the  official 


a,  e,  i,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,    j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MJCEDON 


1485 


MACILVAINE 


Gazette  of  Lisbon,  and  wrote  several  political  tracts. 
About  181 1  he  produced  an  epic  poem  called  "Gama." 
A  revised  edition  appeared  with  the  title  "The  Orient," 
("O  Oriente.")  He  was  also  author  of  poems  entitled 
"Meditation"  (" Meditacao")  and  "Newton.",  Died  in 
1831. 

Ma9'e-don,  [Ma/ce(5a>v,]  said  to  have  been  a  son  of 
Jupiter  and  Thyia,  and  a  brother  of  Magnes.  From  his 
name  that  of  Macedonia  is  supposed  to  be  derived. 

Macedon'icus,  a  surname  of  Q.  C/*;ciLius  Metel- 
Lus.    See  Metellus. 

Mag-e-do'ni-us,  [Gr.  Ma/cecJoviof,]  the  founder  of  a 
heretical  sect  called  Macedonians.  He  was  a  leader  of 
the  Semi-Arians,  and  was  chosen  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople by  the  Arians  about  341  A.D, ;  but  the  Catholics 
refused  to  recognize  him.  In  360  he  was  deposed.  He 
afterwards  denied  the  divinity  or  personality  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  found  followers, who  composed  a  separate  sect. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "  Memoires  ;"  Saint  Augustine,  "  De  Haeresi- 
bus;"  Saint  Athanasius,  "  Historia  Arianorum." 

Macer.    See  Calvus,.  (C.  Licinius  Macer.) 

Ma'cer,  (^^iMiLius,)  a  Roman  poet  of  Verona,  was 
contemporary  with  Virgil.  He  wrote  a  poem  or  poems 
on  Birds,  Snakes,  and  Medicinal  Plants.  His  works  are 
not  extant.    Died  in  16  B.C. 

Macer,  (^milius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  who  lived  in  the 
time  of  Alexander  Severus.  He  wrote  several  legal 
works,  of  which  extracts  are  given  in  the  "  Digest." 
Among  the  titles  of  these  are  "  De  Appellationibus"  and 
"  De  Re  Militari." 

Macer,  (C.  Licinius,)  a  Roman  historian,  born  about 
no  B.C.,  was  the  father  of  C.  Licinius  Calvus,  and  a 
leader  of  the  democratic  party.  He  became  praetor 
about  the  year  70.  His  history  of  Rome,  entitled  "An- 
nales,"  or  "  Rerum  Romanorum  Libri,"  is  referred  to  by 
Livy  with  respect.  Having  been  impeached  by  Cicero, 
and  convicted  under  the  law  "De  Repetundis,"  in  66 
B.C.,  he  committed  suicide. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  iv.,  vii.,  ix.,  and  x. 

Macfarlane,  mak-far'len,  (Charles,)  a  British  au- 
thor, who  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Our  Lidian 
Empire,"  (2  vols.,  1844,)  "The  French  Revolution,"  (4 
vols.,  1845,)  conjunction  with  George  L.  Craik, 

"The  Pictorial  History  of  England,"  (8  vols.,  1849,) 
which  is  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1858. 

Macfarlane,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  in 
1734.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  George 
III,,"  edited  the  "  Morning  Chronicle,"  London,  and  is 
said  to  have  assisted  Macpherson  in  the  preparation  of 
Ossian.    Died  in  1804. 

See  Chambp:rs,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mac-far'ren,  (George  Alexander,)  an  eminent 
English  musical  composer,  born  in  London  in  1813.  He 
became  a  professor  in  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  and 
produced  many  successful  operas,  songs,  duets,  etc. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "The  Devil's  Opera," 
(1838,)  "Don  Quixote,"  (1846,)  "King  Charles  IL," 
(1849,)  "Robin  Hood,"  (i860,)  and  "Jessie  Lea,"  (1863.) 

Mac-fer'rin,  (John  Berry,)  an  American  Method- 
ist divine,  born  in  Rutherford  county,  Tennessee,  in 
1807,  became  editor  of  the  "Southwestern  Christian 
Advocate,"  Nashville,  in  1840. 

Mac-giPli-vray,(  Alexander,)  born  in  Coosa  county, 
Alabama,  about  1740,  became  chief  of  the  Creek  Indians 
on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolutionary  war,  in  which 
he  sided  with  the  British.    Died  in  1793. 

Mac-giPli-vray,  (William,)  a  Scottish  naturalist, 
born  in  the  Isle  of  Harris  in  1796.  He  became  con- 
servator of  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons 
in  Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  professor  of  civil  and 
natural  history  in  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen.  He 
was  distinguished  as  a  zoologist,  and  also  cultivated 
botany  and  geology.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  History 
of  British  Birds,"  (3  vols.,)  two  volumes  of  which  were 
published  after  his  death.  Among  his  other  works  is  a 
"  Plistory  of  British  Quadrupeds."    Died  in  1852. 

See  "  P.rief  Biographies,"  by  Samuel  Smiles;  "North  British 
Review"  for  May,  1853. 

Mac-greg'pr,  (John,)  a  British  statistician  and 
economist,  born  at  vStornoway,  county  of  Ross,  in  1797. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "  British  America,"  (1832,) 


and  became  assistant  secretary  of  the  board  of  trade  in 
1840,  and  a  member  of  Parliament  about  1847.  Among 
his  works  is  "  The  Progress  of  America  from  the  Dis- 
covery of  Columbus  to  the  Year  1846,"  (2  vols.,  1847.) 
Died  in  1857. 

Machado.    See  Barbosa-Machado. 

Ma-chan'i-das,  a  tyrant  of  Sparta,  was  killed  by 
Philopoemen  in  207  B.C. 

Ma-eha'on,  [Ma;t;a(jv,]  a  celebrated  Greek  physician, 
a  son  of  yEsculapius,  He  is  said  to  have  served  as 
surgeon  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  and,  according  to  some 
authors,  was  one  of  the  Greek  heroes  inclosed  in  the 
wooden  horse. 

See  Vikgil's  ".^neid,"  book  ii.,  1.  263. 

Machault,  de,  deh  mt'sho',  (Jacques,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  in  Paris  in  1600.  He  wrote  "The  History 
of  Japan,"  ("  De  Rebus  Japonicis,"  1646,)  and  a  work 
on  the  Indian  and  Persian  Missions.    Died  in  1680. 

Machault,  de,  (Jean,)  a  Jesuit  and  writer,  born  in 
Paris  in  156 1,  was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  Died  in 
1629. 

Machault  d'Arnouville,  mt'sho'  dtR^noo'vM', 
(Jean  Baptiste,)  an  able  French  financier  and  statesman, 
born  in  1701.  He  was  appointed  co7itrdleiir-general  of 
the  finances  in  1745,  and  received  in  addition  the  office 
of  keeper  of  the  seals  in  1750.  In  order  to  divide  the 
imposts  more  equally,  he  encroached  on  the  pecuniary 
privileges  of  the  clergy,  and  thus  made  powerful  enemies. 
In  1754  he  was  removed  from  the  control  of  the  finances, 
but  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  marine.  He  was  dis* 
missed  finally  from  office  in  1757.    Died  in  1794, 

See  Martin,  "  Histoire  de  France  ;"  Bresson,  "  Histoire  finan- 
ci^re  de  la  France  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Machet,  mt^shi',  (G^irard,)  a  French  cardinal,  born 
at  Blois  about  1380.  He  was  confessor  to  Charles  VII., 
and  presided  over  the  examination  of  Joan  of  Arc  in 
March,  1429,  (while  the  king  was  yet  doubtful  whether 
to  trust  her  predictions,)  when  he  declared  that  the 
advent  of  a  liberatress  was  announced  by  prophecy,  and 
that  he  had  read  it  in  books.    Died  in  1448. 

See  H.  Gr^goire,  "  Histoire  des  Confesseurs,"  1824. 

MacCheyiie,  mak-shan',  (Robert  Murray,)  a  Scot- 
tish divine,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1813.  He  studied 
theology  under  Dr.  Chalmers  in  the  university  of  his 
native  city,  and  in  1836  was  ordained  minister  of  Saint 
Peter's,  Dundee.  His  earnest  and  faithful  labours  were 
instrumental  in  converting  great  numbers  during  the 
memorable  revival  of  1839.  He  died  in  1843,  leaving  a 
number  of  hymns  of  great  beauty. 

See  "  Memoir  and  Remains  of  Robert  M.  McCheyne,"  by  Rev. 
A.  A.  Bonar,  1844;  Rev.  Robert  Steel,  "Burning  and  Shining 
Lights,"  1864;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen,"  (Supplement.) 

Machiavel.    See  Macchiavelli. 

Machin,  mak'in,  ?  (John,)  F.R.S.,  a  British  mathema- 
tician, was  made  professor  of  astronomy  in  Gresham  Col- 
lege in  1713.  He  wrote  "On  the  Laws  of  the  Moon's 
Motions,"  a  "  Solution  of  Kepler's  Problem,"  and  a  treat- 
ise "On  the  Curve  of  Quickest  Descent."  Died  in  1751. 

See  Ward,  "Lives of  the  Professors  of  Gresham  College,"  1740. 

Ma'-ehon,  [Ma;^;(jv,]  a  Greek  comic  poet,  born  at 
Corinth  or  Sicyon,  lived  at  Alexandria  between  300  and 
260  B.C.  According  to  Athengeus,  he  was  one  of  the 
best  poets  of  the  "Pleiad."  His  works  are  lost,  except 
small  fragments, 

Machy,  de,  deh  mt'she',  (Pierre  Antoine,)  a  French 
painter  and  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1722  ;  died  in  1807. 

Macias,  mi-///ee'is,  one  of  the  most  admired  Span- 
ish poets  of  his  age,  lived  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
was  surnamed  el  Enamorado,  ("  the  Enamored,")  in 
reference  to  an  unhappy  passion  which  inspired  his  best 
poetical  effusions.  He  had  many  imitators  among 
Spanish  poets.  He  was  assassinated  by  a  man  whose 
motive  was  jealousy. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Maciejowski,  mit-se-a-yov'skee,  (Wenceslaus 
Alexander,)  a  Polish  historian  and  jurist,  born  in  1792. 
He  published  an  excellent  work  entitled  "  Historya  Pra- 
wodawstw  Slowianskich,"  (4  vols,,  1835,)  which  treats  of 
the  political  and  civil  institutions  of  the  Slavonic  nation. 

Macllvaine,  mak-il-van',  (Charles  Pettit,)  D.D., 
LL.D.,  an  eminent  American  divine  and  writer,  born  at 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (^i^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MACINTOSH 


i486 


MACKENZIE 


Burlington,  New  Jersey,  in  1798.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  ethics  and  chaplain  in  the  Military  Aca^demy 
at  West  Point  in  1825.  In  1832  he  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  Ohio. 
His  lectures  on  "The  Evidences  of  Christianity,"  deliv- 
ered in  New  York  in  1831,  and  published  in  1832,  have 
had  an  extraordinary  success,  and  have  been  republished 
in  Eondon  and  Edinburgh. 

Mac'Iii-tosh,  (John,)  an  American  soldier  of  the 
Revolution,  was  a  native  of  Georgia;  died  in  1826.  His 
son,  James  S.  Macintosh,  served  with  distinction  in 
the  war  of  1812  and  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  was  mor- 
tally wounded  at  the  battle  of  Molino  del  Rey,  in  1847. 

Macintosh  or  Mackintosh,  (Lachlan,)  born  near 
Inverness,  Scotland,  in  1727,  emigrated  to  Georgia, 
where  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  the 
American  army.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1784. 
Died  in  1806. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait- Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

Macintosh,  (Maria  J.,)  an  American  writer,  born 
at  Sunbury,  Georgia.  She  has  published  "Jessie 
Graham,"  "Praise  and  Principle,"  (1845,)  "Charms 
and  Counter-Charms,"  (1848,)  and  several  other  tales. 

See  DuvcKiNCK,  "  Cyclopjedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. 

Mack  von  Leiberich,  mik  fon  IT'beh-rlK",  (Karl,) 
Baron,  an  Austrian  general,  noted  for  his  ill  success, 
was  born  at  Neuslingen  in  1752.  He  served  as  quarter- 
master-general against  the  French  in  1793.  In  1794  he 
was  sent  to  London  to  concert  with  the  English  minis- 
ters the  operations  of  the  war.  The  court  of  Naples 
having  in  1798  requested  that  of  Austria  to  send  a  gene- 
ral to  command  the  army  against  the  French,  Mack  was 
selected.  He  was  quickly  defeated  by  Championnet, 
and  sought  refuge  from  the  rage  of  the  Neapolitans  in 
the  French  camp,  (1799.)  In  1805  he  obtained  com- 
mand of  the  Austrian  army,  which  was  invested  by  Na- 
poleon in  person  at  Uhn.  On  the  20th  of  October  he 
ignominiously  surrendered  his  army  of  30,000  men  as 
prisoners.  Mack  was  tried  by  court-martial,  and  pun- 
ished by  imprisonment  for  several  years.    Died  in  1828. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  1' Empire ;"  Alison, 
"History  of  Europe;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mac-kail',  (William  W.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  the  District  of  Columbia  about  1818,  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Mexican  war  of  1846-47,  and  became 
in  1 86 1  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  army. 

Mackau,  mt'ko',  (Ange  Ren^:  Armand,)  a  French 
admiral,  born  in  Paris  in  1788.  He  was  minister  of  the 
marine  from  July,  1843,  to  May,  1847.    Died  in  1855. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mac-kay',  (Andrew,)  an  English  mathematician, 
autlior  of  a  "Treatise  on  the  Longitude."  Died  in  1809. 

Mac-kay',  (Charles,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  writer  of 
songs,  was  born  at  Perth  in  18 14.  Between  1835 
1844  he  published  "The  Salamandrine,"  a  poem,  and 
several  other  works.  His  "  Voices  from  the  Crowd" 
(1846)  included  a  popular  song  called  "The  Good  Time 
Coming."  He  afterwards  published  several  volumes  of 
verses,  entitled  "Voices  from  the  Mountains,"  (1847,) 
"Town  Lyrics,"  (1848,)  and  "  Egeria,  or  the  Spirit  of 
Nature,"  (1850.) 

Mac-Kean',  (Thomas,)  an  American  patriot  and 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in 
Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1734.  In  1765  he  rep- 
resented the  counties  of  Newcastle,  Kent,  and  Sussex, 
in  Delaware,  in  the  so-called  Stamp-Act  Congress.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Congress  of  1774  from  Delaware,  in 
which  post  he  continued  till  1783.  He  had  been  appointed 
in  1777  president  of  the  State  of  Delaware,  and  chief 
justice  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  Governor  of  the  latter 
State  from  1799  to  1808.  Died  in  1817.  He  was  a 
political  friend  of  Jefferson. 

See  Goodrich,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence ;"  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

MacKean,  (Thomas  J.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Bradford  county,  Pennsylvania,  about  1810,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1831.  He  became  a  brigadier-general 
a1)out  November,  1861,  and  commanded  a  division  at 
Corinth,  October  4,  1862. 


MacKean,  (William  W.,)  an  American  commodore, 
born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1801,  was  a  nephew  of  Governor 
Thomas  McKean,  noticed  above.  He  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  West  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron  in 
1861.    Died  in  1865. 

Mac-Kee'ver,  (Isaac,)  an  American  commodore, 
born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1793.  He  distinguished  himself 
in  the  war  of  181 2,  and  in  185 1  commanded  the  squadron 
on  the  coast  of  Brazil.    Died  in  1856. 

Mackeldey,  mik^kel-dl',  (Ferdinand,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1784.  He  became  first  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Bonn  in  1818,  and  published  a  "Manual 
of  the  Institutes  of  Roman  Law  of  the  Present  Time," 
(1814.)    Died  in  1834. 

Mac-Kel'lar,  (Thomas,)  an  American  poet,  born  in 
the  city  of  New  York  in  1812.  He  became  a  printer, 
and  removed  to  Philadelphia  in  1833.  On  the  death  of 
Mr.  Johnson,  in  i860,  Mr.  Mackellar  succeeded  him  as 
the  head  of  the  type-foundry  of  L.  Johnson  &  Co.,  (now 
of  MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan,)  perhaps  the  most  ex- 
tensive establishment  of  the  kind  in  the  United  States. 
He  has  published  several  small  volumes  of  poems,  some 
of  which  have  been  warmly  commended  by  N.  P.  Willis, 
W.  C.  Bryant,  and  other  competent  critics. 

See  Allibone's  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Mac-ken'dree,  (William,)  born  in  King  William 
county,  Virginia,  in  1 757,  entered  the  ministry  about  1 788. 
He  was  chosen  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  1808.    Died  in  1835. 

Mac-ken'zie,  (Sir  Alexander,)  an  enterprising 
Scotchman,  born  at  Inverness  about  1755.  ^'"^  youth 
he  emigrated  to  Canada,  and  became  a  clerk  in  the 
service  of  the  Northwest  Fur  Company.  From  1781  to 
1789  he  spent  eight  years  in  trading  with  the  Indians  at 
Lake  Athabasca,  and  in  the  latter  year  discovered  the 
river  which  bears  his  name,  and  traced  it  from  its  source 
to  its  entrance  into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  where  he  arrived 
in  July,  1789.  In  1792  he  led  another  exploring  party 
westward  to  the  Pacific.  On  his  return  to  England,  in 
1801,  he  published  his  "Voyages  from  Montreal  to  the 
Frozen  and  Pacific  Oceans,"  which,  says  Chateaubriand, 
"is  a  work  of  great  merit."    Died  in  1820. 

See  Chateaubriand,  "Voyages  en  Amerique;"  Chambers, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen ;"  "  Monthly  Review" 
for  July  and  August,  1802. 

Mac-ken'zie,  (Alexander  Slidell,)  an  American 
naval' officer  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  New  York 
in  1803.  Having  visited  Europe  in  1825,  he  published, 
soon  after  his  return,  his  "  Year  in  Spain,"  which  was 
received  with  great  favour.  In  1835  he  made  another 
voyage  to  Europe,  the  result  of  which  was  his  two  works 
entitled  "The  American  in  England"  and  "Spain  Re- 
visited." While  commander  of  the  Somers,  in  1842,  he 
ordered  the  mutineer  Spencer  and  two  of  his  associates 
to  be  hanged  from  the  yard-arm  of  the  vessel,  which  act 
was  publicly  approved  by  a  high  court  of  inquiry  after 
his  return.  He  died  in  1848.  Besides  the  above-named 
works,  he  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Paul  Jones,"  in  Sparks's 
"American  Biography." 

See  DuvcKiNCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. 

Mackenzie,  (Charles  Frazer,)  a  Scottish  mission- 
ary, born  in  Peebleshire  in  1825.  He  went  to  Southern 
Africa  in  i860,  and  began  to  labour  near  the  Zambesi 
River.    He  died  in  Africa  in  January,  1862. 

Mackenzie,  (Donald,)  a  merchant,  born  in  Scot- 
land in  1783.  He  became  in  1809  a  partner  of  John 
Jacob  Astor  in  the  fur-trade,  and  made  an  overland 
journey  to  the  Pacific.    Died  in  1851. 

Mackenzie,  (George,)  Earl  of  Cromarty,  a  Scottish 
politician  and  writer,  born  in  1630.  He  was  appointed 
justice-general  in  1678,  and  a  lord  of  session  in  16S1. 
In  1685  he  was  created  Viscount  Tarbat,  and  in  1703 
Earl  of  Cromarty.  He  was  secretary  of  state  for  Scot- 
land from  1701  to  1704.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Synopsis  Apocalyptica,"  (1708,)  and  an  "Account  of 
the  Conspiracy  of  the  Earl  of  Gowrie  against  James 
VI.,"  (1713.)    Died  in  1714. 

See  Walpole,  "Royal  and  Noble  Authors;"  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mackenzie,  (Sir  George,)  a  Scottish  lawyer  and 
writer,  born  at  Dundee  in  1636.    He  attained  eminence 


a,  e.  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  skort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fSt;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MACKENZIE 


1487 


MACKINTOSH 


in  his  profession,  and  about  1661  was  appointed  justice- 
depute,  or  judge.  He  published  "  Religio  Laid,"  a  treat- 
ise on  religion  and  morality,  (1663,)  "Moral  Gallantry," 
(1667,)  "  fnstitutions  of  the  Laws  of  Scotland,"  (1684,) 
and  other  works.  From  1674  to  1685  he  was  employed 
as  king's  advocate,  and  in  this  period  had  some  agency 
in  the  persecution  of  the  Covenanters,  who  designated 
him  "  the  bloodthirsty  advocate."    Died  in  1691. 

See  "  Life  of  Sir  G.  Mackenzie,"  prefixed  to  his  works  ;  Burnet, 
'*  History  of  his  Own  Times ;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary 
of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mackenzie,  (  George,  )  a  Scottish  physician  and 
writer,  who  practised  in  Edinburgh  with  success,  and 
published  "  Lives  and  Characters  of  the  Most  Eminent 
Writers  of  the  Scottish  Nation,"  (3  vols.,  1708-22.) 
Died  in  1726. 

Mackenzie,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  Scottish  novelist 
and  essayist,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1745.  In  his  youth 
he  obtained  the  office  of  attorney  in  the  Scottish  court  of 
exchequer.  In  1771  he  published,  anonymously,  "The 
Man  of  Feeling,"  a  novel,  which  is  his  principal  work, 
and  was  generally  admired.  He  edited  "The  Mirror," 
a  periodical  resembling  the  "  Spectator,"  which  was  first 
issued  in  1779,  and  was  discontinued  the  next  year. 
More  than  one-third  of  the  articles  in  this  popular  work 
were  written  by  him.  He  afterwards  produced  "The 
Man  of  the  World,"  a  novel,  several  political  treatises 
favourable  to  the  Tory  party,  "  The  Prince  of  Tunis," 
and  other  dramas.  He  contributed  many  essays  to  "  The 
Lounger,"  a  successful  periodical,  of  which  he  was  editor 
in  1785-86.  In  1804  he  obtained  the  lucrative  office  of 
comptroller  of  taxes  for  Scotland.    Died  in  183 1. 

See  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works;  "Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale ;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary 
of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  Allibone,  "  Dictionaiy  of  Authors." 

Mackenzie,  (Robert  Shelton,)  D.C.L.,  a  writer 
and  journalist  of  much  ability,  born  in  Limerick  county, 
Ireland,  in  1809.  He  was  editor  successively  of  the 
"  Liverpool  Journal"  and  various  other  British  periodi- 
cals, and  in  1852  settled  in  America,  where  he  became 
literary  and  foreign  editor  of  the  Philadelphia  "  Press." 
He  has  published  "Lays  of  Palestine,"  (1828,)  "Life 
of  Curran,"  (1855,)  "Tressilian,  or  the  Story-Tellers," 
(1857,)  a  valuable  "Life  of  Charles  Dickens,"  (1870,) 
and  many  other  works. 

Mackenzie,  (William  Lyon,)  a  Canadian  journalist 
and  ]X)litician,  born  at  Dundee,  Scotland,  in  1794.  He 
emigrated  to  Canada  in  early  lite,  and  became  the  editor 
of  a  paper.  He  was  the  leader  of  a  party  which  took 
arms  against  the  government  in  December,  1837,  and 
was  quickly  dispersed.  He  took  refuge  in  New  York. 
Died  in  i86r. 

Mackey,  mak'ee,  (Albert  Gallatin,)  an  American 
physician  and  journalist,  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1807.  He  published  a  "Text-Book  of 
Masonic  Jurisprudence,"  and  other  works  of  the  kind. 

Mackey,  mak'ee,  (John,)  an  Englishman,  who,  as 
an  agent  of  William  HI.,  watched  the  movements  of  the 
Jacol)ite  exiles  after  the  revolution  of  1688.  He  wrote 
a  "  Picture  of  the  Court  of  Saint  Germain,"  (1695.) 
Died  in  1726. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Secret  Services  of  John  Mackey,"  London, 
1833- 

Mackie,  mak-kee',  (John,)  a  Scottish  physician,  born 
in  Fiteshire  in  1748,  published,  besides  medical  treatises, 
"  A  Sketch  of  a  New  Theory  of  Man."    Died  in  1831. 

Mackie,  (John  Milton,)  an  American  writer,  born 
at  Wareham,  Massachusetts,  in  1813.  He  has  written  a 
"Life  of  Godfrey  William  von  Leibnitz,"  (1845,)  "Life 
of  Schamyl,  the  Circassian  Chief,"  (1856,)  and  contrib- 
uted various  articles  to  the  "  North  American  Review." 

Mac-kin'non,  (Daniel,)  Colonel,  a  British  officer, 
born  in  1791.  He  commanded  a  regiment  of  Coldstream 
Guards  at  Waterloo,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Cold- 
stream Guards."    Died  in  1836. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Mackinnon,  (Henry,)  a  British  general,  born  near 
Winchester  in  1773.  He  served  many  campaigns  against 
the  French.  He  distinguished  himself  in  several  actions 
in  Spain,  obtained  command  of  a  brigade  in  1809,  and 
was  killed  at  Ciudad  Rodrigo  in  1812. 


Mack'in-tosh,  (Sir  James,)  an  illustrious  British 
author,  orator,  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Aldourie, 
near  Inverness,  on  the  24th  of  October,  1765.  He  was 
the  son  of  Captain  John  Mackintosh,  of  the  army,  and 
Marjory  Macgillivray.  At  King's  College,  Aberdeen, 
which  he  entered  in  1780,  he  profited  by  the  congenial 
society  of  Robert  Hall,  who  was  his  fellow-student  and 
intimate  friend.  He  studied  medicine  in  Edinburgh, 
and,  having  obtained  his  diploma,  in  1788  removed  to 
London,  where  he  married  Catherine  Stuart  in  1789.  His 
fluent  elocution,  admirable  temper,  and  refined  manners 
procured  his  admission  into  the  best  society.  He  had  a 
"boundless  literary  ambition,"  and  a  most  capacious  and 
accurate  memory.  In  defence,  or  rather  ardent  eulogy, 
of  the  first  reforms  of  the  French  Revolution,  he  produced, 
in  answer  to  Burke's  famous  "Reflections,"  his  "  Vindi- 
cias  Gallicas/'  (1791,)  which  raised  him  into  sudden 
celebrity  and  caused  him  to  be  warmly  caressed  by  Fox, 
Sheridan,  and  other  chiefs  of  the  Whig  party.  About 
this  time  he  renounced  medicine  and  became  a  student 
of  law.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1795,  gave  special 
attention  to  public  law,  and  practised  with  success  in  the 
home  circuit.  In  1799  he  delivered  a  series  of  lectures 
"On  the  Law  of  Nature  and  of  Nations,"  which  were 
highly  applauded  by  the  most  eminent  judges  of  all 
parties  as  a  noble  monument  of  intellectual  power  and 
wisdom.  He  expressed  in  these  lectures  more  conserva- 
tive views  than  those  of  his  "Vindiciae  Gallicae."  In 
1803  he  gained  a  high  reputation  for  forensic  eloquence 
by  his  defence  of  M.  Peltier,  a  French  emigrant,  who 
was  tried  for  a  libel  on  Bonaparte,  and  was  acquitted. 
This  speech  was  translated  into  French  by  Madame  de 
Stael.  He  accepted  the  office  of  recorder  of  Bombay, 
where  he  arrived  in  1804,  and  was  appointed  judge  of 
the  admiralty  court  in  1806.  Sir  James  returned  to 
England  in  1812,  and  was  elected  to  Parliament  by  the 
Whigs  in  1813.  He  won  and  maintained  a  high  place 
among  parliamentary  speakers.  From  1818  to  1824  he 
was  professor  of  law  and  politics  in  the  college  at  Hai- 
leybury.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Edinburgh  Review," 
and  wrote  an  important  "  Dissertation  on  the  Progress 
of  Ethical  Philosophy,"  which  appeared  among  the  pre- 
liminary essays  of  the  "  Encyclopsedia  Britannica."  In 
1830  he  accepted  office  as  commissioner  for  the  affairs 
of  India  under  the  ministry  of  Earl  Gray.  He  made  a 
powerful  and  luminous  speech  in  the  House  on  the  Re- 
form bill  in  183 1.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  England,"  a 
work  of  great  merit,  which  was  published  in  "  Lardner's 
Cyclopaedia,"  (1831.)  He  died  in  May,  1832,  leaving 
unfinished  a  "  History  of  the  Revolution  in  England 
in  1688,"  which  was  published  in  1832.  "We  have  no 
hesitation,"  says  Macaulay,  "in  pronouncing  this  frag- 
ment decidedly  the  best  history  now  extant  of  the  reign 
of  James  II.  .  .  .  The  intellectual  and  moral  qualities 
which  are  most  important  in  a  historian,  he  possessed  in 
a  very  high  degree.  He  was  singularly  mild,  calm,  and 
impartial  in  his  judgments  of  men  and  of  parties."  The 
same  critic  adds,  "He  distinguished  himself  highly  in 
Parliament.  But  nevertheless  Parliament  was  not  ex- 
actly the  sphere  for  him.  The  effect  of  his  most  success- 
ful speeches  was  small,  when  compared  with  the  quantity 
of  ability  and  learning  which  was  expended  on  them." 

"  It  would  be  difficult,"  says  Mr.  Whipple,  "  to  men- 
tion any  writer  whose  name  has  been  connected  with  the 
literary  journals  of  the  nineteenth  century,  who  has 
carried  into  the  task  of  criticism  so  much  fairness  and 
moderation  as  Mackintosh.  His  nature  was  singularly 
free  from  asperity  and  dogmatism.  To  a  large  under- 
standing and  boundless  stores  of  knowledge  he  united 
candour  and  even  humility  in  their  employment.  .  .  . 
The  beauty  of  his  character  will  long  continue  to  exert  an 
influence  in  insensibly  moulding  the  minds  of  scholars 
and  statesmen."  (See  article  on  "  British  Critics"  in 
the  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1845.) 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir  James  Mackintosh,"  edited  by 
his  son,  Robert  J.  Mackintosh,  2  vols.,  1835  ;  "  Historical  Char- 
acters," by  Sir  H.  L.  Bulwer,  London,  1868;  "Encyclopaedia 
Britannica ;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  October,  1835,  (by  Jeffrey  ;)  "  British  Quarterly  Review" 
for  November,  1846;  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1832, 
(by  A.  H.  Everett;)  and  the  veiy  elaborate  article  on  "Mackin- 
tosh" in  Allibone's  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MACKLIN 


1488 


MJCLURE 


Mac-klin',  (Charles,)  a  popular  Irish  actor  and 
dramatist,  (whose  family  name  was  McLaughlin,)  was 
born  at  Westmeath  in  1690.  He  appeared  on  the  Lon- 
don stage  in  1725,  and  did  not  retire  until  1789.  He 
excelled  in  the  rdle  of  "Shylock,"  and  wrote,  besides 
several  other  plays,  a  successful  comedy  called  "The 
Man  of  the  World."    Died  in  1797,  at  the  age  of  107. 

See  J.  T.  KiRKMAN,  "  Memoirs  of  Charles  Macklin,"  1790;  Wil- 
liam Cooke,  "  Meinoirs  of  C.  Macklin,"  1804  ;  "  Monthly  Review" 
for  November  and  December,  1799. 

MacKnight,  mak-nit',  (James,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Irvine  in  1721.  He  became 
minister  at  Maybole  in  1753,  and  published  his  "  Har- 
mony of  the  Gospels,"  (1756,)  which  is  esteemed  an  ex- 
cellent standard  work  and  has  been  often  reprinted.  In 
1763  he  produced  "The  Truth  of  the  Gospel  History," 
which  was  received  with  favour.  From  1772  until  1778 
he  preached  in  Lady  Yester's  parish  in  Edinburgh,  and 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life  he  was  minister  of  the 
Old  Church  of  that  city.  In  1795  he  published  a  "  Lite- 
ral Translation  of  all  the  Apostolic  Epistles,"  a  work  of 
high  reputation.    Died  in  1800. 

See  "Life  of  J.  Macknight,"  by  his  son;  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Maclane,  mak-lan',  (Archibald,)  an  Irish  clergyman, 
born  at  Monaghan  about  1722.  He  preached  for  the 
Anglican  Church  of  the  Hague  about  fifty  years,  ending 
in  1796.  He  published  a  volume  of  sermons,  and  trans- 
lated Mosheim's  "History  of  the  Church,"  (1765,) 
Died  in  1804. 

MacLane,  mak-lan',  (Louis,)  an  American  states- 
man, born  at  Smyrna,  Delaware,  in  May,  1786.  He 
gained  distinction  as  a  lawyer,  and  represented  Delaware 
in  Congress  from  1817  to  1827.  In  the  latter  year  he 
was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  legis- 
lature of  Delaware.  He  served  as  minister  to  England 
about  two  years,  (1829-31,)  and  was  appointed  secretary 
of  the  treasury  by  President  Jackson  in  April  or  May, 
183 1  ;  but,  not  approving,  it  is  said,  of  the  removal  of  the 
deposits  from  the  United  States  Bank,  he  was  in  1833 
removed  from  the  treasury  and  made  secretary  of  state, 
which  position  he  resigned  in  June,  1834.  In  1845 
went  to  England  as  ambassador.  After  th§  question  of 
the  boundary  of  Oregon  was  settled,  he  returned  home. 
Died  in  October,  1857. 

See  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  i. 

Mac-lar'en,  (Charles,)  a  Scottish  journalist  and 
geologist,  born  about  1783.  He  was  chief  editor  of  the 
"  Scotsman"  (a  leading  political  journal  of  Edinburgh) 
from  1820  to  1847.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Geology  of  Fife  and  the  Lothians,"  (1839.)  Died 
in  September,  1866. 

Mac-lau'rin,  (Colin,)  an  eminent  Scottish  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Kilmodan  in  1698.  He  obtained  the 
chair  of  mathematics  in  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen, 
in  1717.  In  1720  he  published  "  Geometria  Organica  sive 
Descriptio  Linearum  Curvarum  universalis,"  a  treatise 
on  curve  lines,  which  is  said  to  have  excited  the  admira- 
tion of  Newton.  In  1725  he  was  appointed  assistant  of 
Professor  Gregory  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  where 
he  remained  about  twenty  years.  While  he  was  em- 
ployed in  fortifying  Edinburgh  against  the  Pretender's 
army,  in  1745,  he  contracted  a  disease  which  hastened 
his  death.  He  shared  with  D.  Bernoulli  and  Euler  the 
prize  awarded  in  1740  by  the  Academy  of  Paris  for  a 
memoir  on  Tides.  He  was  the  author  of  several  original 
and  profound  works,  among  which  are  a  "  Treatise  on 
Fluxions,"  (1742,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Algebra,"  (1748.) 
Died  in  1746. 

See  MoNTuct.A,  "  Histoire  des  Math^matiques ;"  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Maclaurin,  (John,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1734,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  became 
a  judge  about  1787,  when  he  received  the  title  of  Lord 
Dreghorn.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  Literary  Property," 
a  drama  entitled  "  Hampden,"  and  several  other  works 
in  prose  and  verse.    Died  in  1796. 

See  "Life  of  Lord  Dreghorn,"  prefixed  to  his  works. 

Mac-Laws',  (Lafaye'ITE,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Georgia.  He  commanded  a  division  of  General  Lee's 
army  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863. 


Mac-lay',  (Archibald,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  born 
in  Scotland  in  1778,  emigrated  to  America  in  1805,  and 
became  pastor  of  a  church  in  New  York.  He  was 
thirteen  years  general  agent  of  the  American  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society.    Died  in  i860. 

MacLean  or  Maclean,  mak-lan',  (John,)  an  Ameri- 
can statesman  and  jurist,  born  in  Morris  county.  New 
Jersey,  in  March,  1785.  He  removed  with  his  father  to 
Ohio  about  1798,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1807,  and 
began  to  practise  at  Lebanon.  In  1812  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress,  in  which  he  acted  with  the 
Democrats,  and  supported  the  war  against  England. 
He  was  again  elected  by  a  unanimous  vote  in  1814, 
was  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Ohio  from  1816  to 
1822,  and  became  postmaster-general  in  1823.  He  filled 
this  office  with  great  credit  and  ability  until  March,  1829, 
during  which  period  he  introduced  many  improvements 
and  brought  the  department  into  a  state  of  the  highest 
efficiency.  He  declined  a  place  in  the  cabinet  of  Presi- 
dent Jackson,  and  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States  in  1829.  He  dissented  from 
the  decision  of  the  court  in  the  Dred  Scott  case,  as  given 
by  Chief-Justice  Taney  in  1857,  and  opposed  the  exten- 
sion of  slavery.  At  the  Republican  National  Convention 
of  1856  he  received  one  hundred  and  ninety-six  votes  as 
a  candidate  for  the  Presidency  of  the  United  States. 
Died  in  Cincinnati  in  April,  1861. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Maclean,  (Mrs.  L.  E.)    See  Landon,  (L.  E.) 

Mac-LePlan,  (Isaac,)  an  American  poet,  born  at  Port- 
land, Maine,  about  1810.  Among  his  works  we  may 
mention  "The  Fall  of  the  Indian,  (1830,)  and  "The 
Year,  and  other  Poems,"  (1832.) 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America;"  Cleveland, 
"Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Macleod,  mak-lowd',  (Alexander,)  D.D.,  born  in 
the  island  of  Mull  in  1774,  emigrated  to  the  United 
States,  and  became  in  1801  pastor  of  a  Reformed  Pres- 
byterian church  in  New  York.  He  was  the  author  of  an 
"  Ecclesiastical  Catechism,"  "  Negro  Slavery  Unjustifi- 
able," "The  Life  and  Power  of  True  Godliness,"  and 
other  religious  works.    Died  in  1833. 

MacLeod,  (John,)  a  Scottish  surgeon,  born  at  Bun- 
hill  in  1782.  He  became  in  181 7  surgeon  of  the  Alceste, 
which  conveyed  Lord  Amherst  to  China,  and  in  1818 
published  "The  Voyage  of  the  Alceste  along  the  Coast 
of  Corea,"  etc.    Died  in  1820. 

See  Walckenaer,  "  Collection  des  Relations  des  Voyages." 

MacLeod  or  Macleod,  (Rev.  Norman,)  a  Scottish 
divine,  born  at  Campbelton  in  1812.  He  became  min- 
ister of  Loudon  in  1838,  of  Dalkeith  in  1843,  and  of  the 
Barony  Parish,  Glasgow,  in  185 1.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  "Home  Education,"  and  "The  Earnest 
Student,"  and  is  editor  of  a  monthly  periodical  called 
"Good  Words." 

Macleod,  (Xavier  Donald,)  a  son  of  Alexander, 
noticed  above,  born  in  New  York  in  1821,  published 
numerous  works  in  prose  and  verse,  among  which  we 
may  name  a  "Life  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,"  (1857,)  and 
a  poem  entitled  "The  Saga  of  Viking  Torquil."  Died 
in  1865. 

Maclise,  mak-leess',  (Daniel,)  a  popular  historical 
painter,  born  at  Cork,  Ireland,  in  1811.  He  went  to 
London  in  1828,  and  became  a  student  in  the  Royal 
Academy,  where  he  quickly  won  several  prize  medals. 
He  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  "  Vow  of  the  Ladies 
and  the  Peacock,"  (1835,)  and  "Merry  Christmas  in  the 
Baron's  Hall,"  (1838.)  In  1840  he  was  elected  an 
Academician.  Among  his  admired  productions  are 
"The  Sleeping  Beauty,"  (1841,)  "The  Play  Scene  in 
Hamlet,"  (1842,)  "Noah's  Sacrifice,"  (1847,)  and  "  Shak- 
speare's  Seven  Ages,"  (1848.)  He  is  regarded  as  one 
of  the  most  original  of  English  painters  of  the  present 
time.    Died  in  April,  1S70. 

Maclure.    See  Macclure. 

Mac-lure',  (William,)  an  eminent  naturalist,  and 
pioneer  of  American  geology,  born  at  Ayr,  in  Scotland, 
in  1763.  Having  made  an  extensive  scientific  tour  in 
Europe,  he  removed  to  the  United  States,  and  about 
1806  entered  upon  a  geological  survey  of  that  country. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAor(;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  \  ill,  fdt;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MACMAHON 


MACPHERSON 


In  the  accomplishment  of  this  task,  he  visited  nearly 
every  State  and  Territory  in  the  Union,  and  crossed  and 
recrossed  the  Alleghanies  fifty  times.  An  account  of  his 
tour  was  published  in  the  "Transactions  of  the  Ameri- 
can Philosophical  Society,"  (1809.)  In  1812  Mr.  Maclure 
became  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences  just  founded  at  Philadelphia,  and  was 
elected  president  of  that  institution  in  1817.  He  con- 
tinued to  fill  this  post  for  twenty-two  years,  and  the  "  Jour- 
nal" of  the  Academy  was  begun  under  his  auspices.  His 
donations  of  books  to  the  Academy  amounted  to  nearly 
fifteen  hundred  volumes,  comprising  valuable  works  on 
natural  history,  antiquities,  etc.,  and  he  gave  the  sum  of 
320,000  towards  the  erection  of  the  building  on  Broad 
Street,  finished  in  1840.  Died  in  1840,  at  San  Angel,  in 
Mexico,  whither  he  had  gone  on  account  of  his  health. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Wm.  Maclure,"  by  Samuel  G.  Morton. 

MacMahon,  mtk'mt'^N',  (Marie  Edme  Patrice 
Maurice,)  Due  de  Magenta,  a  French  marshal,  of  Irish 
extraction,  born  in  1808,  was  a  son  of  a  peer  of  France. 
He  served  in  Algeria  from  1830  to  1850.  In  1852  he 
became  a  general  of  division.  In  the  siege  of  Sebastopol 
he  commanded  the  division  which  took  the  Malakoff  by 
assault  on  the  8th  of  September,  1855.  commanded 
the  second  corps-d'armee  in  the  Italian  campaign  of  1859, 
and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  battle  of  Magenta. 
This  service  was  rewarded  (June  5,  1859)  by  the  rank  of 
marshal  of  France  and  the  title  of  Due  de  Magenta.  He 
also  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Solferino,  June  24,  1859. 
In  the  recent  war  with  Prussia  he  was  defeated  at  Worth 
(August  6,  1870)  and  at  the  great  battle  of  Sedan,  (about 
September  i,)  where  he  was  severely  wounded. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

MacMichael,  mak-mi'kel,  (Morton,)  an  able  Ameri- 
can editor  and  orator,  born  in  Burlington  county.  New 
Jersey,  in  1807,  was  sheriff  of  the  county  of  Philadelphia 
from  1843  1846-  I"  1845  he  became  proprietor  and 
chief  editor  of  the  "North  American  and  United  States 
Gazette,"  which  position  he  still  holds.  He  was  mayor 
of  Philadelphia  from  1865  to  1868. 

MacMichael,  mak-mrkel,  (William,)  an  English 
physician,  born  in  1784.  He  published  a  "Journey  from 
Moscow  to  Constantinople,"  (1819.)   Died  in  1839. 

Mac-Nab',  (Sir  Allan,)  an  officer  in  the  British  ser- 
vice, born  in  Canada  in  1798.  He  studied  law,  and  was 
elected  to  the  legislature  of  Canada  West.  During  the 
insurrection  of  1837  he  commanded  near  Niagara,  and 
sent  over  the  falls  the  steamboat  Caroline,  which  had 
been  captured  from  the  insurgents.  He  was  the  prin- 
cipal minister  during  part  of  the  period  in  which  Lord 
Elgin  governed  Canada,  (1846-54.)  He  was  knighted 
for  his  services  in  the  rebellion  above  mentioned.  Died 
in  Canada  in  August,  1862. 

MacNaghten,  mak-naw'ten,  (Sir  William,)  a  British 
officer  in  the  civil  service  of  the  East  India  Company, 
was  sent  as  envoy  to  vShah  Soojah  about  1840,  and  was 
assassinated  at  Cabool  by  Akbar  Khan  in  1841. 

Mac-Nal'ly,  (Leonard,)  an  Irish  barrister  and  dram- 
atist, born  in  Dublin  in  1752.  He  wrote  "Fashionable 
Levities,"  a  successful  comedy,  and  several  operas  and 
farces,  also  "The  Rules  of  Evidence."    Died  in  1820. 

Mac-neil',  (Hector,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  near 
Roslin  in  1746.  He  passed  many  of  his  early  years  in 
the  West  Indies,  probably  as  overseer,  and  returned  to 
Scotland  about  1788.  He  published  "The  Harp,"  (1789,) 
"Scotland's  Skaith,"  (1795,)  which  was  much  admired, 
and  other  poems.    Died  in  181 8. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mac-neil',  (John,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
New  Hampshire  in  1784,  served  with  distinction  at  the 
battle  of  Chippewa  in  1814.    Died  in  1850. 

Macneile,  mak-neeK,  (Rev.  Hugh,)  D.D.,  an  Irish 
Protestant  clergyman,  born  in  the  county  of  Antrim  about 
1794.  He  preached  several  years  in  London,  and  be- 
came the  incumbent  of  Saint  Paul's,  near  Liverpool,  in 
1848.  He  published  "The  Church  and  the  Churches 
of  Christ,"  (1847,)  and  other  works. 

MacNeill,  mak-neeK,  (Sir  John,)  G.C.B.,  a  British 
officer  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Colonsay  in  1795.  He 
passed  several  years  in  the  army  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany.   From  1835  until  1844  he  was  British  ambassador 


to  the  court  of  Persia,  where  he  gained  important  in 
formation  respecting  the  policy  and  resources  of  severalv 
Asiatic  nations.  In  the  winter  of  1854-55  he  was  one 
of  two  commissioners  sent  to  the  Crimea  to  inspect  the 
commissariat  department.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  privy  council  in  1857. 

Mac-nev'in,  (William  James,)  born  in  Galway 
county,  in  Ireland,  in  1763,  joined  the  United  Irishmen 
in  the  rebellion  of  1791,  and  subsequently  entered  the 
French  army.  In  1805  he  removed  to  America,  and 
was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Medical 
College,  New  York.  He  was  the  author  of  "Rambles 
in  Switzerland,"  and  several  scientific  works.  Died  in 
1841. 

Mac-nish',  (Robert,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  author,  born 
at  Glasgow  in  1802.  He  became  one  of  the  editors  of 
"  Eraser's  Magazine"  in  183 1.  Among  his  works  is  "  The 
Philosophy  of  Sleep,"  (1830.)    Died  at  Glasgow  in  1837. 

See  D.  MoiR,  "Life  of  R.  Macnish,"  prefixed  to  a  collection  of 
his  "Tales,  Essays,  and  Sketches,"  1839  and  1844;  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement;) 
"  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  December,  1835,  (with  a  portrait.) 

Macomb,  ma-koom'  or  ma-k5m',  (Alexander,)  a 
distinguished  American  general,  born  at  Detroit  in  1782. 
He  served  in  the  war  of  181 2,  and,  as  brigadier-general, 
in  1814,  gained  the  victory  of  Plattsburg  over  the  British 
at  the  same  time  that  Commodore  Macdonough  signally 
defeated  them  on  the  lake.  General  Macomb  was  ap- 
pointed in  1835  commander-in-chief  of  the  United  States 
army.    Died  in  1841. 

See  the  "National  Portrait- Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  i. 

Ma'cpn,  (Nathaniel,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  Warren  county,  North  Carolina,  in  1757.  He  served 
as  a  private  in  the  army  from  1778  to  1782,  and  opposed 
the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
(1788.)  In  1791  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress 
for  a  district  of  North  Carolina,  which  he  represented 
until  1 81 5.  He  was  always  a  Democrat,  and  a  strict- 
constructionist.  He  was  Speaker  of  the  National  House 
of  Representatives  for  three  terms,  (1801-06,)  and  be- 
came a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1816.  His 
speeches  were  short,  but  effective.  He  served  in  the 
Senate  until  1826,  having  then  been  a  member  of  Con- 
gress for  thirty-seven  consecutive  years.  He  died  in 
Warren  county.  North  Carolina,  in  June,  1837.  John 
Randolph  called  him  "  the  best  and  wisest  man  that  I 
ever  knew." 

Mac-pher'son,  (James,)  a  Scottish  poet,  celebrated 
as  the  translator  or  author  of  "  Ossian,"  was  born  in  In- 
verness-shire in  1738.  After  leaving  college  he  became 
a  school-teacher  at  Ruthven,  and  in  1758  published  "The 
Highlander,"  a  poem,  which  was  not  successful.  In  1760 
he  surprised  the  literary  world  by  the  publication  of 
"Fragments  of  Ancient  Poetry  collected  in  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland,  and  translated  from  the  Gaelic  or  Erse 
Language."  These  were  admired  by  the  poet  Gray  and 
others,  and  a  subscription  was  raised  to  aid  Macpherson 
in  exploring  the  Highlands  for  other  similar  treasures. 
The  ostensible  result  of  this  search  appeared  in  "  Fingal, 
an  Epic  Poem,"  (1762,)  and  "Temora,  an  Epic  Poem," 
(1763,)  which  purported  to  be  the  work  of  Ossian,  a 
poet  of  the  third  century.  These  poems  found  many 
enthusiastic  admirers  throughout  Europe.  An  animated 
controversy  ensued  about  their  authenticity,  which  was 
defended  by  Dr.  Blair  and  other  eminent  critics.  Dr. 
Johnson,  on  the  other  hand,  confidently  maintained  that 
they  were  forgeries.  Many  others  adopt  the  theory  that 
he  caught  the  spirit  of  the  Ossianic  poetry  from  the 
tales  of  the  old  Celtic  bards,  but  supplied  from  his  own 
invention  much  of  the  peculiar  imagery  and  cloudy 
verbiage  which  abound  in  his  pretended  translations. 
About  1772  he  settled  in  London,  and  produced  a  prose 
version  of  the  "Iliad,"  which  was  a  failure,  a  "History 
of  Great  Britain,"  and  other  works.  He  was  a  member 
of  Parliament  from  1780  to  1790.    Died  in  1796. 

See  Blair,  "  Critical  Dissertation  on  the  Poems  of  Ossian,"  1763  ; 
H.  Mackenzie,  "Report  of  the  Committee  of  the  Highland  Society 
of  Scotland,"  etc.  ;  J.  Sinclair,  "On  the  Authenticity  of  Ossian's 
Poems,"  1806;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  Chamber.s,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  Review  of  "  Ojsian," 
in  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  January  and  February,  1762, 


e  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^(^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

94 


I 


MACPHERSON 


MACRO  BIUS 


Mac-Pher'son,  (James  Birdseye,)  an  eminent  Amer- 
ican  general,  born  in  Sandusky  county,  Ohio,  in  Novem- 
ber, 1828.  He  entered  the  Military  Academy  of  West 
Point  in  1849,  and  graduated  at  the  head  of  his  class  in 
1853.  Having  been  assigned  to  the  corps  of  engineers, 
ne  was  employed  as  engineer  at  New^  York,  Fort  Del- 
aware, and  Alcatraz  Island,  California.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  first  lieutenant  in  1858,  and  that  of  captain 
in  August,  1861.  In  November  ensuing  he  became 
aide-de-camp  to  General  Halleck,  with  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-colonel. He  served  as  chief  engineer  on  General 
Grant's  staff  at  the  capture  of  Fort  Donelson,  and  at  the 
battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6  and  7,  1862.  In  May  of  that 
year  he  was  appointed  a  colonel  in  the  regular  army, 
and  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He  commanded  a 
division  which  broke  through  the  lines  of  General  Price, 
then  investing  Corinth,  and  marched  in  to  the  relief  of 
the  garrison  in  October.  For  this  service  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  major-general  on  the  8th  of  Octo- 
ber, 1862.  Having  obtained  command  of  the  seventeenth 
army  corps  in  December,  he  served  under  General  Grant 
in  the  campaign  against  Vicksburg.  His  corps  gained  a 
victory  at  Raymond  on  the  12th  of  May,  1863,  and,  with 
the  aid  of  General  Sherman's  corps,  defeated  General 
Joseph  E.  Johnston  at  Jackson  on  the  14th.  General 
McPherson  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Champion's 
Hills,  and  took  part  in  two  unsuccessful  assaults  on 
the  works  of  Vicksburg  in  May.  For  his  services  in  this 
campaign  he  was  promoted  to  be  a  brigadier-general  in 
the  regular  army,  to  date  from  the  capture  of  Vicksburg, 
and  was  appointed  commander  of  the  district  of  Vicks- 
burg, July,  1863,  He  served  under  Sherman  in  the 
expedition  to  Meridian  in  February,  1864.  In  the  next 
month,  General  Grant,  who  had  just  been  nominated 
general-in-chief  of  all  the  Union  armies,  wrote  a  letter 
to  Sherman,  in  which  he  expressed  his  thanks  to  Sher- 
man and  McPherson  as  the  men  to  whom  he  was  most 
indebted  for  his  success.  On  the  12th  of  March,  McPher- 
son was  appointed  commander  of  the  department  and 
army  of  the  Tennessee. 

As  commander  of  the  army  of  the  Tennessee,  he 
maintained  his  high  reputation  in  the  campaign  which 
Sherman  conducted  in  Georgia.  His  army  fought  with 
success  against  the  rebels  at  Dallas  on  the  28th  of  May. 
On  the  27th  of  June,  Generals  Thomas  and  McPherson 
assaulted  the  fortified  lines  of  Kenesaw  Mountain,  but 
were  repulsed  with  severe  loss.  By  a  flank  movement 
of  the  army  of  McPherson,  General  Johnston  was  induced 
to  abandon  his  strong  position  at  Kenesaw  about  July  3, 
and  to  retreat  to  Atlanta.  After  the  Union  armies  had 
advanced  to  the  vicinity  of  Atlanta,  the  enemy  adopted 
a  bolder  policy,  and  made  several  attacks,  in  one  of  which 
McPherson  was  killed,  July  22,  1864.  "About  i  p.m. 
of  this  day,"  says  General  Grant,  "  the  brave,  accom- 
plished, and  noble-hearted  McPherson  was  killed."  (Re- 
port, dated  July  22,  1865.) 

See  Tenney,  "  Military  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Macpherson,  (Sir  John,)  born  in  Skye,  Scotland, 
about  1767,  became  a  member  of  the  supreme  council 
of  Bengal  in  1781.  He  acted  as  Governor-General  of 
India  alter  the  retirement  of  Warren  Hastings,  (Feb- 
ruary, 1785,)  until  July,  1786.    Died  in  182 1. 

Macquarie,  ma-kw6r're,  (Lachlan,)  a  British  gene- 
ral, born  in  the  island  of  Mull  in  1762.  He  served  many 
years  in  India,  and  fought  against  the  French  in  Egypt  in 
1801.  From  1809  to  1821  he  was  Governor  of  New  South 
Wales.  About  1814  he  obtained  the  rank  of  general. 
Died  in  1824. 

Macquait,  mt'ktR',  (Louis  Charles  Henri,)  a 
French  mineralogist,  born  at  Rheims  in  1745.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Manual  of  the  Properties  of  Water,"  (1783,) 
and  a  "  Dictionary  of  Health  and  Education,"  (2  vols., 
1800.)    Died  in  1808. 

Macquer,  mt'kaiR',  (Philippe,)  a  ¥ rewch  litterateur 
and  advocate,  born  in  Paris  in  1720.  He  was  author 
of  a  "  Chronological  Abridgment  of  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory," (2  vols.,  1 75 1,)  "Roman  Annals,"  (1756,)  and  an 
"Abridged  History  of  Spain  and  Portugal,"  (2  vols., 
1759,)  (all  in  French,)  which  were  received  with  favour. 
Died  in  1770. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 


Macquer,  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  meritorious  French 
chemist  and  physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1 718,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  discovered  new  properties 
in  many  chemical  substances,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  who  proved  that  the  diamond  is  combustible, 
(177 1.)  He  published  "  Elements  of  Theoretical  Chem- 
istry," (1741,)  and  a  valuable  "Dictionary  of  Chemistry," 
(1766.)  In  1745  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.  He  succeeded  Bourdelin  as  professor  of 
chemistry  at  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  and  edited  the  scientific 
department  of  the  "  Journal  des  Savants'"  from  1768  to 
1776.    Died  in  1784. 

See  F.  HoEFER.  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Macready,  ma-kreeMe,  (  William  Charles,  )  a 
popular  English  tragic  actor,  born  in  London  in  1793. 
He  made  a  successful  debut  at  Birmingham  in  1810,  and 
appeared  on  the  London  stage  in  1816,  when  he  per- 
formed "  Orestes"  at  Covent  Garden  with  great  applause. 
His  reputation  was  increased  by  his  performance  of  the 
"  Virginius"  of  Sheridan  Knowles,  and  of"  Richard  III." 
and  other  leading  characters  of  Shakspeare.  From  1837 
to  1839  he  was  lessee  and  manager  of  Covent  Garden 
Theatre.  About  1842  he  assumed  the  management  of 
Drury  Lane ;  but,  as  he  failed  to  make  it  profitable,  he 
kept  it  only  two  or  three  seasons.  He  performed  with 
great  success  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States 
in  1848  and  1849.  While  he  was  in  this  country,  a 
quarrel  between  him  and  Edwin  Forrest  resulted  in  a 
serious  riot  in  New  York.  He  retired  from  the  stage 
in  1851. 

See  Littleton,  "Biography  of  W.  C.  Macready,"  1851;  R* 
H.  HoRNE,  "New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1844;  "New  American  Cy- 
clopsedia." 

Macret,  mfkRi',  (Charles  FRANgois  Adrien,)  a 
French  engraver,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1750;  died  in 
1783. 

Mac-ri-a'nus,  [Fr.  Macrien,  mi^kReJ^N',]  (Marcus 
FuLVius,)  a  Roman  emperor,  born  in  Egypt.  He  rose 
from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  rank  in  the  army.  The 
emperor  Valerian  having  been  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Persians,  a  part  of  the  army,  in  261  a.d.,  chose  for  his 
successor  Macrianus,  who  was  then  an  old  man.  In 
262  he  was  defeated  in  Illyricum,  and  put  to  death,  by 
Domitian,  a  general  of  Gallienus. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "Histoire  des  Einpereurs." 

Macrien.    See  Macrianus. 

Macrin.    See  Macrinus,  and  Salmon,  (Jean.) 

Macrino  d'Alba,  mS-kRee'no  dSKbi,  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Alba,  near  Turin,  about  1460.  He  was 
among  the  most  skilful  artists  of  his  time,  and  one  of  the 
first  to  adopt  the  modern  style.  Many  of  his  works  are 
preserved  at  Turin  and  Alba.    Died  about  1520. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Macrinus,  mt'kRe'niiss',  (Charles  Salmon,)  a 
French  writer,  was  a  brother  of  Jean  the  poet,  and  pre- 
ceptor to  Catherine  of  Navarre.  He  was  a  victim  of  the 
Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  (1572.) 

Ma-cri'nus,  [Fr.  Macrin,  mt'kRiN',]  (M.  Opelius 
or  Opilius,)  a  Roman  emperor,  was  born  of  obscure 
parents  in  Mauritania  in  164  a.d.  Pie  obtained  the  high 
office  of  prefect  of  the  praetorians  under  Caracalla.  In 
April,  217  A.D.,  he  instigated  the  assassination  of  Cara- 
calla, and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  army,  whose 
choice  was  confirmed  by  the  senate.  In  the  same  year 
he  was  defeated  by  the  Parthians  at  Nisibis.  He  was 
defeated  near  Antioch  in  June,  218,  by  the  partisans  of 
Elagabalus,  and  put  to  death. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "Histoire  des  Einpereurs;"  "  Nouvelle  Bicgra- 
phie  Generale." 

Ma'cro,  [Fr.  Macron,  mt'kR6N',]  (N/evius  Serto- 
RIUS,)  a  profligate  Roman  courtier,  who  enjoyed  the 
favour  of  the  emperor  Tiberius  and  was  the  principal 
agent  in  the  arrest  of  Sejanus.  After  the  death  of 
Sejanus,  he  became  prefect  of  the  praetorian  guard.  He 
was  put  to  death  by  Caligula  in  38  a.d. 

See  Tacitus,  "  Annales." 

Macrobe.    See  Macrobius. 

Ma-cro'bi-us,[Fr.  Macrobe,  mt'kRob',](AMBROsius 
Aurelius  Theodosius,)  a  grammarian  and  writer,  who 
is  supposed  to  have  lived  at  Rome  in  the  fifth  century. 


5  A,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


M  ACT  YE  IRE  1491  MADISON 


It  is  not  known  whether  he  was  a  Christian  or  a  pagan,  a 
Greek  or  a  Roman.  He  was  the  author  of  three  Latin 
works  which  have  come  down  to  us,  a  "  Treatise  on  the 
Latin  and  Greek  Verb,"  a  "Commentary  on  the  Dream 
of  Scipio,"  and  a  series  of  curious  and  valuable  essays 
on  history,  mythology,  criticism,  etc.,  entitled  "Saturna- 
liorum  Conviviorum  Libri  Septem." 

See  Fabkicius,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina ;"  Alphonse  Mahul, 
"Dissertation  sur  la  Vie  etles  Ouvrages  de  Macrobe,"  1817;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mactyeire,  mak-te-air',  ?  (Holland  Nimmons,) 
D.D.,  a  Methodist  divine,  born  in  South  Carolina  in 
1S24,  became  editor  of  the  "Christian  Advocate,"  at 
Nashville. 

Mac-vick'ar,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  American  Episcopal 
divine,  born  in  New  York  in  1787.  He  was  appointed 
in  1817  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  rhetoric  in 
Columbia  College.  He  has  published  "  Outlines  of  Po- 
litical Economy,"  "The  Professional  Years  of  Bishop 
Hobart,"  and  other  works. 

Macwhorter,  mak-hwiir'ter,  ?  (Alexander,)  a  Pres- 
byterian minister,  born  in  New  Castle  county,  Delaware, 
in  1734.  He  preached  many  years  at  Newark,  New  Jer- 
sey.   Died  in  1807. 

Madai,  von,  von  mod'oy,  (David  Samuel,)  a  Hun- 
garian numismatist,  born  at  Schemnitz  in  1709.  He  pub- 
lished a  work  entitled  "A  Complete  Cabinet  of  Medals," 
(1765-74.)    Died  in  1780. 

Mad^'an,  (Martin,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  near 
Hertford  in  1726.  He  became  a  popular  preacher  at  the 
Lock  Hospital,  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Thelyphthora,"  in  which  he  advocated  polygamy.  Died 
in  1790. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  October  and  November,  1780. 

Madan,  (Spencer,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  be- 
came Bishop  of  Peterborough.    Died  in  1813. 

Madan,  (Rev.  Spencer,)  a  son  of  Martin,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  1759.  He  was  an  eloquent  preacher, 
and  obtained  the  living  of  Ibstock  and  the  prebend  of 
Peterborough.  For  about  thirty  years  he  was  chaplain 
to  the  king.    Died  in  1836. 

Mad'den,  (Sir  Frederick,)  an  eminent  English 
antiquary,  born  at  Portsmouth  in  1801,  was  appointed 
keeper  of  the  manuscripts  in  the  British  Museum  in 
1837.  He  was  a  valuable  contributor  to  British  history, 
and  edited  many  works,  among  which  are  "  Havelock 
the  Dane,"  (1828,)  and  "Layamon's  Brut,  or  Chronicle 
of  Britain,"  (1847.) 

Mad'den,  (Richard  Robert,)  an  Irish  physician 
and  writer  on  various  subjects,  was  born  in  Dublin  in 
1798.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "Travels  in 
Turkey,  Egypt,  and  Palestine,"  (2  vols.,  1829,)  "The 
Lives  and  Times  of  the  United  Irishmen,"  (7  vols.,) 
and  "  Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of  the  Countess  of 
Blessington,"  (3  vols.,  1855.) 

Madden,  (Samuel,)  an  Irish  clergyman  and  writer, 
whom  Dr.  Johnson  said  Ireland  ought  to  honour,  was 
born  in  1687.  He  was  noted  for  public  spirit,  and  founded 
at  Dublin  a  society  for  the  promotion  of  the  arts  by  pre- 
miums. He  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  the  Twentieth  Cen- 
tury," (1732,)  and  the  "Monument  of  Boulter,"  a  poem. 
Died  in  1765. 

See  Nichols  and  Bowver,  "Literary  Anecdotes." 

Maddersteg,  mid'der-stgG',  (Michael,)  a  Dutch 
painter  of  marine  views,  etc.,  born  at  Amsterdam  in 
1659,  worked  in  Berlin.    Died  in  1709. 

Maddius.    See  Maggi,  (Carlo.) 

Mad'dox,  (Isaac,)  born  in  London  in  1697,  became 
Bishop  of  Worcester  in  1743.  He  wrote  a  "  Review  of 
Nenl's  History  of  the  Puritans."    Died  in  1759. 

Madeleine.    See  Magdalene. 

Madelenet,  mtd'leh-ni',  (Gakrtel,)  a  French  poet, 
born  in  the  Auxerrois  about  1 587,  lived  mostly  in  Paris. 
He  composed  elegant  Latin  odes.    Died  in  1661. 

Mader,  miMer,  (Joachim  Johann,)  a  German  philol- 
ogist, born  at  Hanover  in  1626.  He  published  editions 
of  some  Latin  and  Greek  Fathers,  and  wrote  "  De  Coro- 
nis  sacris  et  profanis,"  (1662.)    Died  in  1680. 

Maderno,  ml-d§R'no,  (Carlo,)  an  eminent  Italian 
architect,  born  in  Lombardy  in  1556.  He  studied  or 
worked  with  his  uncle,  Domenico  Fontana,  in  Rome. 


Having  acquired  a  great  reputation,  he  obtained  about 
1614  the  title  of  architect  of  Saint  Peter's  Church,  and 
was  charged  by  the  pope  to  finish  the  anterior  part.  He 
deviated  from  the  original  plan  by  adopting  the  form  of 
a  Latin  cross  instead  of  a  Greek  cross.  His  additions 
to  this  edifice  are  condemned  by  Milizia  and  others. 
Among  his  best  works  is  the  Mattel  palace.  Died  in 
1629. 

See  QuATREM^RE  DE  QuiNCV,  "  Vies  des  plus  cdl^bres  Archi- 
tectes;"  Cicognara,  "  Storia  della  Scultura;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizio- 
nario;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Maderno,  (Stefano,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  near 
Como  in  1576.  He  adorned  some  churches  of  Rome 
with  bas-reliefs  and  statues.    Died  in  1636. 

Madeweis,  m§.''deh-'<A'is^  (Friedrich,)  a  learned  Ger- 
man writer,  born  at  Samtnentin  in  1648;  died  in  1705. 

Madier  de  Montjau,  mt'de-V  deh  moN'zho^  (Pau- 
LIN,)  a  French  advocate  and  judge,  born  at  Bourg-Saint- 
Andeol  in  1785.  He  showed  firmness  and  sagacity  in  the 
repression  of  the  excesses  committed  by  the  royalists 
about  1816-20. 

Mad'i-son,  (James,)  D.D.,  an  American  prelate,  born 
in  Rockingham  county,  Virginia,  in  1749,  became  Episco- 
pal Bishop  of  Virginia  in  1790.  He  had  been  previously 
elected  president  of  William  and  Mary  College.  Died 
in  1812. 

Madison,  (James,)  an  eminent  American  statesman, 
the  fourth  President  of  the  United  States,  born  in  King 
George  county,  Virginia,  on  the  i6th  of  March,  1751, 
was  a  son  of  Colonel  James  Madison  and  Eleanor  or 
Nelly  Conway.  He  entered  Princeton  College,  New 
Jersey,  in  1769,  and  graduated  in  1771,  after  which  he 
studied  law.  In  1776  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Assembly  or  Convention  of  Virginia.  He  was  defeated 
in  the  election  of  1777  because  he  refused  to  "treat"  the 
voters;  but  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Geneial 
Congress  by  the  Assembly  of  Virginia  in  1779.  From 
this  period  he  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  men  in 
the  political  history  of  the  republic.  He  was  re-elected 
in  1786,  and  was  a  member  of  the  National  Convention 
which  met  at  Philadelphia  in  1787  to  form  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  debates  on  the  Constitution,  and  advocated  the 
adoption  of  the  same  by  a  series  of  able  essays,  forming 
part  of  "The  Federalist,"  which  is  the  joint  production 
of  Hamilton,  Madison,  and  Jay.  Madison  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Virginia  Convention  which,  after  a  spirited 
contest,  adopted  the  Federal  Constitution  by  a  small 
majority  in  June,  1788.  He  became  a  member  of  Con- 
gress in  1789,  and  united  with  the  Republicans  as  a 
moderate  opponent  of  the  administration  of  Washington 
and  the  financial  measures  of  Hamilton.  He  was  dis- 
posed to  be  a  mediator  rather  than  a  partisan  in  the 
dissensions  which  arose  among  the  founders  of  the  re- 
public. In  1794  he  married  Dorothy  Todd,  originally 
Dorothy  Paine,  a  woman  eminent  for  her  virtues  and 
accomplishments.  He  declined  the  office  of  secretary 
of  state  vacated  by  Jefferson  in  December,  1793,  and 
continued  to  serve  in  Congress  until  1797.  He  opposed 
the  alien  and  sedition  laws  of  1798,  and  was  the  author 
of  a  series  of  resolutions  adopted  by  the  Assembly  of 
Virginia  and  known  as  the  Resolutions  of  1798,  which 
protested  against  all  attempts  to  increase  the  power  of 
the  Federal  government  by  forced  constructions  of  gen- 
eral clauses  of  the  Constitution.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state  by  President  Jefferson  in  March,  1801, 
and  filled  that  office  for  eight  years  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  acquire  the  confidence  and  approbation  of  the  people. 
Having  been  nominated  for  the  Presidency  by  a  caucus 
of  Republican  members  of  Congress,  he  was  elected  in 
1808,  receiving  one  hundred  and  twenty-two  electoral 
votes  out  of  one  hundred  and  seventy-five,  which  was 
the  whole  number.  Charles  C.  Pinckney,  the  Federal 
candidate,  received  forty-seven  votes.  On  entering  upon 
the  office  of  President,  March  4, 1809,  he  found  the  United 
States  involved  in  difficulties  and  disputes  with  the  Brkish 
government,  which  had  offended  the  Americans  by  im- 
pressing seamen  and  by  searching  American  vessels  for 
deserters,  and  had  injured  their  commerce  by  orders 
in  council.  His  cabinet  at  first  consisted  of  Robert 
Smith,  secretary  of  state,  Albert  Gallatin,  secretary  of 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


M ABLER 


1492 


M^CENAS 


the  treasury,  William  Eustis,  secretary  of  war,  and  Paul 
Haniilton,  secretary  of  the  navy. 

In  May,  1810,  Congress  passed  a  non-intercourse  act. 
The  President  sent  to  Congress  a  special  message  on 
the  subject  of  British  aggressions  about  the  ist  of  June, 
1812,  and  war  was  declared  on  the  i8th  of  the  same 
month.  A  few  days  later  the  British  ministry  repealed 
their  orders  in  council  in  relation  to  the  rights  of  neu- 
trals, but  they  refused  to  satisfy  the  Americans  in  relation 
to  the  impressment  of  seamen.  In  the  autumn  of  1812 
Mr.  Madison  was  re-elected  to  the  Presidency  by  one 
hundred  and  twenty  eight  electoral  votes.  His  com- 
petitor was  De  Witt  Clinton,  who  received  eighty-nine 
votes.  The  slave  States,  with  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and 
Vermont,  voted  for  Madison.  A  strong  party  in  the 
United  States  was  opposed  to  the  war  of  1812,  which 
was  waged  with  various, success  on  land  and  sea.  Com- 
modore Perry  gained  a  naval  victory  on  Lake  Erie  in 
September,  1813.  About  the  3d  of  July,  1814,  a  small 
American  army  invaded  Canada,  gained  a  victory  at 
Chippewa,  and  fought  a  severe  battle  at  Lundy's  Lane, 
or  Niagara,  (July  25,)  in  which  the  Americans  lost  743 
killed  and  wounded  and  the  British  lost  878.  In  August 
of  that  year  a  small  British  force  ascended  the  Chesa- 
peake, tuok  Washington  by  a  sudden  movement,  and 
^  burned  the  Capitol.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at 
;  Ghent,  December  24,  1814;  but,  before  the  tidings  of 
this  event  had  reached  the  United  States,  General  Jack- 
son gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  British  at  New 
Orleans,  January  8,  1815.  In  1816  Madison  approved  a 
bill  which  Congress  had  passed  to  charter  the  Bank  of 
the  United  States  for  twenty  years.  On  the  4th  of  March, 
181 7,  he  retired  from  public  life.  He  passed  the  re- 
mainder of  his  days  on  his  farm  at  Montpelier,  Orange 
county,  Virginia.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia 
Convention  called  in  1829  to  revise  the  Constitution  of 
the  State.    Died  at  Montpelier,  June  28,  1836. 

*'  This  great  statesman  and  philosopher,"  says  R.  W. 
Griswold,  "was  the  confidential,  personal,  and  political 
friend  of  Jefferson  ;  but  in  almost  every  respect  their 
characters  were  essentially  different.  Mr.  Madison's  in- 
tellect was  of  a  far  higher  order,  and  its  ascendency  over 
his  passions  was  nearly  perfect.  His  triumphs  were 
those  of  pure  reason.  His  public  and  private  life  were 
above  reproach.  .  ,  .  His  writings  on  the  Constitution 
and  other  subjects  were  second  only  to  those  of  Hamilton 
in  ability  and  influence;  and  his  extensive  information, 
sound  judgment,  skill  as  a  logician,  and  unvarying  cour- 
tesy, secured  him  the  highest  consideration  in  the  Con- 
gresses of  which  he  was  a  member."  ("  Prose  Writers 
of  America.")  He  left  in  manuscript  "  Reports  of  the 
Debates  in  the  National  Convention  of  1788,"  which 
were  purchased  by  Congress  after  his  death,  and  pub- 
lished in  3  vols.,  (1840.)  This  is  a  work  of  great  value  to 
students  of  political  philosophy. 

See  Wm.  C.  Rives,  "  History  of  the  Life  and  Times  of  James 
Madison,"  3  vols.,  1859-1868,  (unfinished.  This  work  extends  only 
to  1797;)  John  Q.  Adams,  "Life  of  James  Madison,"  1850;  Ban- 
croft, "History  of  the  United  States;"  "  National  Portrait-Gallery 
of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iii.  ;  "New  American  Cyclopae- 
dia;" "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1812. 

Madler  or  Maedler,  m^d'ler,  (Johann  Heinrich,) 
a  German  astronomer,  born  in  Berlin  in  1794.  In  con- 
junction with  Beer,  he  produced  an  excellent  lunar  chart, 
— "Mappa  Selenographica,"  (1834-36.)  In  1840  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  astronomy  and  director  of  the 
Observatory  of  Dorpat.  He  has  published,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Existence  of  a  Central  Sun,"  (1846,) 
and  "  Researches  into  the  System  of  Fixed  Stars,"  which 
is  highly  commended. 

See  Bkockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Mad'oc  or  Madog,  the  second  son  of  Owen  Gwy- 
nedd,  Prince  of  Wales,  lived  in  the  twelfth  century. 
Soine  writers  favour  the  hypothesis  that  he  discovered 
America  about  11 70,  at  which  period  he  was  compelled 
to  leave  Wales  by  a  successful  rebellion  against  his 
dynasty.  Tradition  informs  us  that  he  sailed  from  Wales 
on  a  second  expedition  to  the  newly-discovered  shores, 
and  was  never  heard  from  after.  His  history  furnishes 
the  subject  of  Southey's  poem  entitled  "  Madoc." 

See  Owen,  "British  Remains,"  1777. 


Madog.    See  Madoc. 

Madox,  (Isaac.)    See  Maddox. 

Mad'ox,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  antiquary, 
was  an  inmate  of  the  Middle  Temple,  London,  and 
was  called  to  the  bar  about  1704.  He  was  a  diligent 
collector  of  old  legal  and  historical  records,  and  obtained 
the  title  of  royal  historiographer.  His  principal  work 
is  "The  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Exchequer  of 
the  Kings  of  England  from  the  Norman  Conquest  to 
the  End  of  the  Reign  of  Edward  II.,"  (1711.)  He  also 
published  "  Firma  Burgi ;  or,  A  Historical  Essay  con- 
cerning the  Cities,  Towns,  and  Boroughs  of  England," 
(1726.) 

See  Nichols  and  Bowyer,  "Literary  Anecdotes." 

Madoz,  mi-ddth',  (Pascual,)  a  Spanish  author  and 
liberal  statesman,  was  born  at  Pampeluna  in  1806.  He 
chose  the  profession  of  the  law,  and  was  appointed  a 
judge  at  Barcelona  in  1835.  He  edited  a  "Universal 
Geographical  Dictionary,"  (1831-34,) — a  work  of  de- 
cided merit.  Having  been  elected  a  deputy  to  the 
Cortes,  he  removed  to  Madrid,  where  he  devoted  much 
time  to  an  arduous  and  successful  enterprise,  as  editor 
of  a  voluminous  "  Geographical  -  Historical  Dictionary 
of  Spain,"  (1848,)  which  is,  perhaps,  the  most  com- 
plete and  excellent  work  of  the  kind  ever  published. 
Madoz  became  a  leader  of  the  party  called  Progre- 
sistas,  and  was  minister  of  finance  for  about  four  months 
in  1855. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Madrazo,  de,  d^  mS-DRa'tho,  (Don  Federico,)  a 
Spanish  painter,  a  son  of  the  following,  was  born  at 
Rome  in  1815.  He  painted  portraits  with  success,  and 
became  court  painter  at  Madrid.  He  gained  a  medal  of 
the  first  class  in  1855. 

Madrazo  y  Agudo,  de,  dk  ml-DRi'tho  e  l-goo'Do, 
( Don  Jos^;, )  a  Spanish  painter  of  history  and  portraits, 
born  at  Santander  in  1781.  He  became  court  painter  to 
Ferdinand  VII.,  and  director  of  the  Academy  of  Madrid. 
Died  in  1859. 

Madrid,  de,  da  m^D-reD',  ( Jos:^  Fernandez,)  born 
at  Carthagena,  South  America,  in  1789.  He  was  chosen 
president  of  the  republic  of  New  Granada  in  181 6,  but 
in  the  same  year  was  made  prisoner  by  the  Spaniards. 
After  an  imprisonment  of  nine  years  in  Havana,  he 
escaped  in  1825,  after  which  he  was  employed  by  Bolivar 
as  secret  agent  in  Paris.  He  wrote  "  Atala,"  a  tragedy. 
Died  in  1830. 

Madrolle,  mt^Rol',  (Antoine,)  a  French  writer  on 
religion  and  politics,  born  at  Saint-Seine  in  1792.  He 
published  numerous  works,  in  which  he  advocated  ultra- 
montane doctrines.    Died  in  1861. 

Madvig,  mSd'vig,  (Johann  or  Jens  Nikolai,)  a 
Danish  philologist,  born  in  the  isle  of  Bornholm  in  1804. 
He  was  appointed  minister  of  public  instruction  in  1848. 
Among  his  works  is  "Opuscula  Academica,"  2  vols., 
(1834-42.) 

Maecenas,  me-see'nas,  [It.  Mecenate,  mS-chi-nl'ti, 

orMECENATO;  Fr.  Mecene,  ma'skn',]  (Caius  Cilnius,) 
a  celebrated  patron  of  literature  at  Rome,  was  born  prob- 
ably about  70  B.C.  He  was  descended  from  an  ancient 
and  royal  Etruscan  family,  and  belonged  to  the  eques- 
trian order.  (Horace,  Carm.  I.  1-20.)  He  was  the  friend 
of  Octavius  before  his  accession  as  the  emperor  Augus- 
tus. His  fidelity  and  talents  having  been  approved  in 
many  important  negotiations,  Octavius  intrusted  to  him 
the  administration  of  Rome  during  his  absence  in  36  B.C. 
when  he  went  to  war  against  Sextus  Pompeius.  After 
the  battle  of  Actium  (31  a.d.)  had  rendered  Octavius 
master  of  Rome,  he  is  said  to  have  followed  the  counsel 
of  Maecenas  in  founding  an  empire  instead  of  restoring 
the  republic.  Agrippa  and  Maecenas  were  the  favourites 
and  chief  ministers  of  Augustus  for  many  years.  The 
political  career  of  the  latter  ended  about  16  B.C.  Mae- 
cenas was  versed  in  Greek  and  Rotnan  literature,  and 
rendered  his  name  memorable  by  his  liberal  patronage 
of  Horace,  Virgil,  and  other  poets,  who  were  his  intimate 
friends.  His  name  had  become  proverbial  as  a  patron 
of  letters  as  early  as  the  time  of  Martial.  It  is  said  that 
Virgil's  "  Georgics"  was  written  at  the  request  of  Mae- 
cenas. In  the  councils  of  state  he  advocated  mild  and 
liberal  measures  and  the  free  expression  of  opinions. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  ail,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moor\; 


MjECIANUS 


H93 


MAGATI 


He  wrote  several  mediocre  works,  of  which  only  small 
fragments  are  extant.    Died  in  8  B.C. 

See  A.  RiviNUS,  "  Dissertationes  II.  de  Maecenate,"  i649-";2; 
Henri  Richer,  "Vie  de  Mecenas,"  1746;  R.  Schomberg,  "Life 
of  MsEcenas,"  London,  1766;  C.  Caporali,  "Vita  di  Mecenate," 
1604;  S.Viola,  "Storia  di  C.  C.  Mecenato,"  1816;  Frandsen,  "C. 
C.  Msecenas,"  etc.,  1843  ;  Meibomius,  "  De  C.  C.  Maecenatis  Vita," 
1653 ;  Bellman,  "  Maecenas  Liteiatorum  Patronus,"  Upsal,  1705  ; 
Tacitus,  "  Annales,"  books  i.,  iii.,  vi.,  and  xiv. ;  Dion  Cassius, 
"  History  of  Rome." 

Msecianus,  me-se-a'nus,  (Lucius  Volusius,)  a 
Roman  jurist  of  the  second  century.  He  was  a  legal 
adviser  of  Antoninus  Pius,  and  a  preceptor  of  Marcus 
Aurelius.  He  wrote  "  De  Fideicommissis,"  and  other 
works,  of  which  extracts  are  found  in  the  "Digest." 

Maedler.    See  Madler. 

Maelzel.    See  Malzel. 

Maenades,  m§n'a-dez,  [from  fiacvofiai,  to  "rave,"]  a 
name  of  the  priestesses  of  Bacchus,  (which  see.) 

Maeonides,  me-on'i-deez,  [Gr.  Maiovidrj^,]  or  Maeonian 
bard,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  Homer,  because  he 
was  reported  to  have  been  born  in  Lydia,  the  ancient 
name  of  which  was  Maeonia.    (See  Homer.) 

Maerland  or  Maerlant,  van,  vtn  mSr'lint,  (Jacob,) 
an  early  Flemish  poet,  born  about  1235,  is  called  "the 
father  of  Flemish  poetry."  He  was  a  person  of  uncom- 
mon information  and  learning  for  that  age.  Among  his 
works  are  "  Sentences  from  Aristotle,"  "  The  War  of 
Troy,"  and  "  Wapen  Martyn."    Died  in  1300. 

See  J.  F.  WiLLEisis,  "J.  van  Maerlant,"  1838;  Visscher,  "Jets 
over  J.  de  Coster  van  Maerlant,"  1838. 

Maes.    See  Maas. 

Maes,  mis,  (Andreas,)  a  Belgian  Orientalist,  born 
in  Brabant  in  1515  or  1516;  died  in  1573. 
Maestlin.    See  Mastlin. 

Maevius,  mee'vejas,  an  obscure  Roman  poetaster  of 
the  Augustan  age,  acquired  notoriety  by  his  envious 
attacks  on  the  best  poets  of  his  time.  His  name  has 
been  saved  from  oblivion  by  the  ridicule  of  Virgil,  who 
mentions  him  in  his  Third  Eclogue.  The  name  of 
Gilford's  satiric  poem  "The  Maeviad"  is  derived  from 
Msevius. 

Maffei,  mSf-fa'ee,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  in  15 13,  wrote  a  "  Commentary  on  Cicero's  Epistles." 
Died  at  Rome  in  1553. 

Maffei,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Vicenza.  He  imitated  Paul  Veronese  in  colouring.  His 
style  is  grand,  but  rather  exaggerated.  Died  about  1660. 

Maffei,  (Francesco  Scipione,)  Marquis,  a  cele- 
brated Italian  scholar  and  author,  born  at  Verona  in 
June,  1675.  He  made  a  campaign  in  the  service  of 
Bavaria,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Donauwerth  in 
1704,  but  soon  renounced  the  military  profession  and 
devoted  himself  to  literature.  In  1713  he  produced 
"Merope,"  a  tragedy,  which  was  highly  applauded,  and 
ran  through  seventy  editions  in  forty  years.  His  prin- 
cipal work,  "Verona  Illustrata,"  (2  vols,  fol.,  1731, ) 
treats  of  the  origin,  history,  and  literary  history  of 
Verona.  It  is  admirable  for  profound  research,  sound 
criticism,  and  elegant  style.  He  also  wrote  "Introduc- 
tion to  the  Science  of  Diplomatics,"  ("Istoria  diplo- 
matica  che  serve  d'Introduzione  all'  Arte  critica  in  tal 
Materia,")  and  other  works.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Societies  of  London  and  of  Berlin.   Died  in  1755. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vitas  Italonim  doctrina  excellentium ;"  Pindh- 
MONTE,  "  Elogio  dei  Marcliese  Maffei,"  1784;  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia 
degli  Italiani  illustri;"  "  Nouvelie  Biographie  Generale." 

Maffei,  [Lat.  Maff.^'ius  or  Maph^'us,]  (Giovanni 
Pietro,)  an  excellent  Italian  writer,  born  at  Bergamo 
in  1535.  He  went  to  Rome  and  entered  the  order  of 
Jesuits  in  1565,  after  which  he  lectured  on  eloquence  for 
six  years  at  the  Roman  College  with  great  success.  His 
most  celebrated  work  is  "  Historiae  Indicae,"  ("  History 
of  India,"  1588,)  of  which  the  style  is  the  chief  merit. 
"Maffei,"  says  Hallam,  "threw  all  the  graces  of  a  pure 
Latin  style  over  his  description  of  the  East."  He  wrote 
a  "  Life  of  Loyola,"(  1 585,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1603. 

See  TiRABoscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Nici^RON, 
'*  M^moires." 

Maffei,  (Paolo  Alessandro,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  at  Volterra  in  1653.  He  published  a  "Collection 
of  Ancient  and  Modern  Statues,  with  Critical  Observa- 


tions," and  another  esteemed  work,  illustrative  of  ancient 
gems,  ("Gemme  antiche  figurate,"  1707.)    Died  in  1716. 

Maffei,  (Raffaello,)  also  called  Raifaello  Volter- 
rano,  rif-fi-eKlo  vol-tir-ri'no,  an  Italian  scholar,  born 
at  Volterra  in  145 1.  His  most  important  work  is  "  Com- 
mentarii  Urbani,"  which  treats  of  geography,  biography, 
sciences,  etc.  It  was  reprinted  at  Paris  in  1526.  Died 
at  Rome  in  1522. 

See  Falconini,  "Vita  di  Raffaello  Volterrano,"  1722. 

Maffeo  (or  Maffei)  Vegio,  mif-fa'o  va'jo,  [Lat 
Maph^'us  Ve'gius,]  one  of  the  most  eminent  Latin 
poets  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  born  at  Lodi  in  1406. 
He  became  a  resident  of  Rome,  and  was  appointed 
secretary  of  briefs  and  datary  by  Eugene  IV.  Besides 
several  religious  works  in  prose,  he  composed  Latin 
poems,  entitled  "  The  Golden  Fleece,"  ("  Astyanax  Vel- 
lus  Aureum,")  and  "^neidos  Supplementum,"  (1471,) 
a  continuation  of  Virgil's  great  epic.  The  last  was  the 
most  admired  of  his  works.  He  was  highly  praised  by 
Scaliger.  Died  in  1458. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Bayle, 
"Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron,  " Memoires." 

Maf'fitt,  (John  Newland, )  a  noted  Methodist 
preacher,  born  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1794.  Having 
emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1819,  he  became 
in  1833  associate  editor  of  the  "Western  Methodist," 
published  at  Nashville,  Tennessee.  He  was  elected 
professor  of  elocution  at  La  Grange  College,  Alabama, 
in  1837.    Died  in  1850. 

Mafoma.    See  Mohammed. 

Magalhaens.    See  Magellan. 

Magalhaens,  mi-gil-y3.'gNs,  (Gabriel,)  a  Portu- 
guese missionary,  born  near  Coimbra  in  1609,  laboured 
in  the  Jesuit  missions  in  China  from  1640  until  his  death, 
in  1677,  and  wrote  a  "Description  of  China,"  (1688.) 

Magalhaens  de  Gandavo,  de,  dk  mi-gil-yi'^Ns 
dk  gin-di'vo,  (Pedro,)  a  Portuguese  historian,  born  at 
Braga  about  1550.  He  passed  some  years  in  Brazil,  and 
published  at  Lisbon  in  1576  a  "History  of  Brazil,"  a 
work  of  some  merit. 

Magalon,  mt'gt'l6N',  (Jean  Denis,)  a  French  writer 
and  journalist,  born  at  Bagnoles  in  1794;  died  about  1840. 

Magalotti,  ma-gd-lot'tee,  (  Lorenzo,  )  Count,  an 
Italian  philosopher,  born  at  Rome  in  1637,  was  versed 
in  ancient  and  modern  languages.  He  became  a  resident 
of  Florence,  the  grand  duke  of  which  employed  him  on 
diplomatic  missions  to  Vienna  and  Mantua.  Among  his 
works  are  a  treatise  against  atheism,  called  "  Familiar 
Letters,"  (1719, )  "Scientific  and  Learned  Letters,'* 
("  Lettere  scientifiche  ed  erudite,"  1721,)  and  "Ana- 
creontic Songs,"  (1723.)  "The  Letters  of  Magalotti 
and  of  Redi,"  says  Hallam,  "seem  to  do  more  credit 
than  anything  else  to  this  period,"  (of  Italian  literature.) 
Died  in  1712. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  P.  Po«- 
ZETTi,  "  Elogio  storico  del  Conte  L.  Magalotti,"  1787  ;  TiraboscHi, 
"Storia della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Maganza,  mi-gln'za,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1556.  He  imitated 
Paul  Veronese  with  moderate  success.  Died  in  1630. 
Alessandro  had  three  sons,  who  were  promising  artists  : 
but  they  died  prematurely  before  their  father. 

See  A.  M.  Meneghelli,  "  Elogio  diA.  Maganza,"  1845;  Lanzi, 
"  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Maganza,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  painter, 
surnamed  IL  Magagno,  (^1  mi-gin'yo,)  born  at  Vicenza 
in  1509,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Titian,  and  was  successful  in  portraits  and  his- 
tory. He  was  author  of  a  volume  of  poems,  ("  Rime,") 
published  in  1570.    Died  in  1589. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Baldinucci,  "  No- 
tizie." 

Maganza,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  painter  of  the 
Venetian  school,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1577,  was  a  son  and 
pupil  of  Alessandro,  noticed  above.    Died  in  161 7. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Ma'gas,  [Gr.  Mdyag,]  a  king  of  Cyrene,  and  a  step- 
son of  Ptolemy  Soter.    Died  in  258  B.C. 

Magati,  mi-gi'tee,  or  Magatti,  mS-git'tee,  [Lat. 
Maga'tus,]  (Cesare,)  an  eminent  Italian  surgical  writer, 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAGATVS 


1494 


MAGLIABECCHI 


born  at  Scandiano  in  1579.    He  wrote  *' De  rara  Medi- 
catioiie  Viilnerum,"  (1616.)    Died  in  1647. 
Magatus.    See  Magati. 

Mag'da-lene  or  Mag'da-len,  [Fr.  Madeleine  or 
Mauei.en'e,  mtd'lc\n',]  (Mary,)  an  eminent  Christian 
saint,  was  probably  born  at  Magdala,  in  Galilee.  She 
was  one  of  the  personal  followers  of  Christ,  by  whom 
she  was  "  healed  of  evil  spirits  and  infirmities."  (See 
I.uke  viii.  2.)  Nothing  appears  to  be  known  of  her  his- 
tory in  addition  to  the  facts  narrated  by  the  four  Evan- 
gelists, (See  Matthew  xxvii.  and  xxviii.,  Mark  xvi,,  and 
John  xix.  25  and  xx.  i-i8.)  The  learned  differ  on  the 
question  of  her  identity  with  Mary  the  sister  of  Lazarus 
of  Bethany.  The  prevalent  notion  that  her  morals  were 
very  depraved  before  her  conversion  appears  to  have  no 
real  foundation. 

Ma-gee',  (William,)  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  was 
born  in  Ireland  in  1765.  He  opposed  Unitarianism  in 
"  Discourses  on  the  Scriptural  Doctrines  of  the  Atone- 
ment," (2  vols.,  1801,)  which  procured  for  him  a  wide 
reputation.  He  became  Bishop  of  Raphoe  in  1819,  and 
Archl)ishop  of  Dublin  in  1822.    Died  in  1831. 

Magellan,  md-jeKlan,  [Sp.  pron.  md-h^l-yin';  Port. 
Magalhaens,  mi-gal-yi'eNs,]  (Fernando,)  a  Portu- 
guese navigator,  distinguished  for  his  skill,  enterprise, 
and  important  discoveries,  was  born  about  1470.  He 
served  several  years  in  the  East  Indies  under  Albu- 
querque, and  took  part  in  the  capture  of  Malacca  in 
15 II.  A  few  years  later  he  offered  his  services  to 
Charles  V.,  and  received  command  of  a  fleet  of  five 
vessels  and  230  men.  With  these  he  sailed,  September, 
1 5 19,  with  a  view  to  find  a  western  route  to  the  East 
Indies.  He  passed  the  winter  of  1520  (from  May  to 
September)  in  the  Bay  of  Saint  Julian,  about  49°  south 
latitude,  where  a  serious  mutiny  or  conspiracy  was  sup- 
pressed by  the  execution  of  two  captains  of  vessels.  In 
October,  1520,  he  discovered  and  passed  through  the 
strait  which  bears  his  name.  Pursuing  his  course  through 
the  great  ocean  of  which  he  was  the  first  navigator, 
and  which  he  named  the  Pacific,  he  discovered  the  La- 
drones  about  the  6th  of  March,  1 521.  He  proceeded 
thence  to  the  Philippine  Isles,  and  was  amicably  received 
by  the  Prince  of  Zebu  or  Cebu.  Having  become  an  ally 
of  this  prince  in  a  war  against  another  small  island  of 
the  same  group,  Magellan  was  killed  in  battle  in  April, 
1521.  One  of  his  ships,  the  Vittoria,  commanded  by 
Sebastian  del  Cano,  returned  to  Spain,  and  was  the  first 
that  circumnavigated  the  globe.  An  Italian  named  Pi- 
gafetta  accompanied  Magellan  in  this  last  voyage,  and 
kept  a  journal,  which  was  published.   (See  Pigafetta.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biograi^hie  Generale;"  Ed.  Charton,  "Voya- 
geurs  anciens  et  modernes." 

Magellan  or  Magalhaens,  (  Joao  Jacinto,)  was 
born  at  Lisbon  in  1723.  He  emigrated  to  England 
about  1764,  cultivated  natural  philosophy  with  success, 
and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  (1774.) 
He  wrote  a  "  Description  of  English  Octants  and  Sex- 
tants," and  other  scientific  treatises.  Died  near  London 
in  1790. 

Magendie,  mt'zh5N'de',  (Franqois,)  an  eminent 
French  physiologist  and  physician,  was  born  at  Bor- 
deaux on  the  15th  of  October,  1783,  and  was  educated 
in  Paris.  He  became  demonstrator  of  anatomy  in  the 
Faculty  of  Medicine,  Paris,  about  1805.  In  1816  he 
produced  a  manual  of  physiology,  "  Precis  elementaire 
de  Physiologie,"  which  was  translated  into  German  and 
English.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences about  1 82 1,  and  became  professor  of  anatomy  or 
medicine  in  the  College  of  France  in  183 1.  His  experi- 
ments contributed  greatly  to  the  progress  of  physiology. 
Among  his  important  services  was  the  discovery  or 
demonstration  of  the  functions  of  the  spinal  nerves.  The 
honour  of  this  discovery,  however,  is  shared  by  Charles 
Bell.  Magendie  discovered  that  in  the  circulation  of 
the  blood,  the  arteries  act  not  by  irritability,  but  by  elas- 
ticity, and  proved  that  the  veins  are  organs  of  absorption. 
He  experimented  on  living  animals  more  than  any  of  his 
predecessors.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "  Lectures 
on  the  Physical  Phenomena  of  Life,"  ("  Le9ons  sur  les 
Phenomenes  physiques  de  la  Vie,"  4  vols.,  1836-42,) 
and  "  Lectures  on  the  Functions  and  Diseases  of  the 


Nervous  System,"  (2  vols.,  1839.)  He  founded  in  1821 
the  "Journal  of  Experimental  Physiology,"  which  he 
continued  to  edit  until  1831.  He  was  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  board  of  public  health  ( comite  consultatif 
(V hygihie publique )  in  1848.    Died  in  October,  1855. 

See  Flourens,  "  liiloge  histoi  ique  de  F.  Magendie,"  1858 ;  Du- 
bois d'Ami  ENS,  "  ^filoge  de  Magendie ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Magenta,  Due  de.    See  MacMahon. 

Mageoghegan,  mi-ge-SH'e-gan,  (James,)  an  Irish 
historian,  born  in  1702,  became  a  resident  of  Paris,  and 
a  priest.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Ireland,  Ancient  and 
Modern,"  (3  vols.,  1758-63.)    Died  in  1764. 

Maggi,  mad'jee,  [Lat.  Mad'dius,]  (Carlo  Maria,) 
an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Milan  in  1630.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Academy  Delia  Crusca,  and  professor 
of  Greek  in  Milan.  His  works  consist  of  Greek,  Latin, 
and  Italian  poems,  of  Letters,  etc.  '*  Maggi  bore  an 
honourable  jDart,"  says  Hallam,  "in  the  restoration  of 
poetry."    Died  in  1699. 

See  L.  A.  Muratori,  "  Vita  di  C.  M.  Maggi,  Milanese,"  1700; 
TiRABOscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Maggi,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter  and  etcher, 
born  in  Rome  about  1566;  died  after  1618. 

Maggi,  (Girolamo,)  a  lawyer  and  writer,  born  at 
Anghiari,  in  Tuscany.  About  1560  he  settled  in  Venice, 
where  he  published  several  works,  among  which  were 
"The  War  of  Flanders,"  a  poem,  and  "  Variae  Lec- 
tiones."  Having  been  made  prisoner  by  the  Turks  in 
Cyprus,  he  attempted  to  escape,  was  recaptured,  and 
strangled  in  Constantinople  in  1572. 

Maggi,  (LuciLio  Filalteo,)  a  learned  Italian  physi- 
cian, was  born  at  Brescia  about  15 10.  He  obtained  the 
chair  of  medicine  in  the  University  of  Pavia  about  1553. 
He  wrote  "  Familiar  Letters"  ("  Epistolae  Familiares") 
on  the  literary  history  of  Italy.    Died  about  1570. 

Maggio,  mdd'jo,  or  Magio,  mi'jo,  (Francesco 
Maria,)  a  monk,  born  at  Palermo  in  1612,  became 
skilled  in  Oriental  languages.  He  was  employed  as  a 
missionary  in  Syria,  Georgia,  etc.,  and  wrote  a  "Gram- 
mar of  the  Georgian  Language."    Died  in  1686. 

Ma'gi,  a  religious  sect  or  priestly  caste  of  ancient 
Persia,  which  had  exclusive  possession  of  scientific 
knowledge.  They  worshipped  fire  and  the  sun,  and 
were  reformed  by  Zoroaster.  In  the  Gospel  certain 
members  of  this  caste  are  mentioned  as  "  wise  men  of 
the  East."  (  See  Matthew  ii.  i.)  In  process  of  time 
the  term  Magi  became  synonymous  with  philosophers, 
learned  men,  astronomers,  and  soothsayers,  or  dealers 
in  magic  arts. 

Magini,  mJ-jee'nee,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
astronomer,  born  at  Padua  in  1555.  He  was  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Bologna  from  1588  to  161 7,  and  wrote 
many  works,  among  which  are  "  Ephemerides,"  and 
"  New  Theories  of  the  Celestial  Orbs,"  ("  Novae  Coeles- 
tium  Orbium  Theorize,"  1589.)    Died  in  1617. 

See  Lalande,  *'  Bibliotheque  astronoinique." 

Ma-ginn',  (William,)  a  witty  and  versatile  writer, 
born  at  Cork,  in  Ireland,  about  1793.  He  removed  to 
London  about  1824,  and  adopted  literature  as  a  profes- 
sion. About  this  time  he  was  a  frequent  contributor  to 
"Blackwood's  Magazine,"  in  which  he  appears  as  the 
"Morgan  O'Doherty"  of  the  "  Noctes  Ambrosianae." 
About  1828  he  became  sub-editor  of  "The  Standard,"  a 
Tory  paper,  and  began  to  write  able  and  caustic  articles 
for  "Eraser's  Magazine."  He  also  wrote  a  novel  called 
"  Whitehall."    Died  in  1842. 

See  "Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  vii. ; 
"Fraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1831,  (with  a  portrait,)  and  for 
February,  March,  and  April,  1838. 

Magirus,  ma-gee'rus,(ToRiAS,)  a  German  philosopher, 
born  at  Angerniiinde  in  1586,  taught  logic  and  physics 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.    Died  in  1651. 

Magistris,  de,  deh  mS-j^s'tR^ss,  (Giacinto,)  an  Ital- 
ian missionary,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Cremona  in  1605; 
died  at  Goa,  India,  in  1666. 

Magistris,  de,  (Simone,)  an  Italian  priest,  noted  for 
his  mastery  of  ancient  languages,  was  born  in  Corsica  in 
1728  ;  died  at  Rome  in  1802. 

Magliabecchi,  mai-yS-bek'kee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
bibliomaniac  and  librarian,  noted  for  his  prodigious 


a,  e,  T,  Q,  u,  yjong;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f2Lr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MAGNAN 


H95 


MAGO 


memory  and  learning,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1633.  He 
devoured  a  great  number  of  books  with  avidity,  became 
versed  in  languages  and  antiquities,  and  was  regarded  as 
an  oracle  by  the  learned.  His  habits  were  very  eccentric. 
He  was  for  many  years  librarian  of  Cosimo  IN.,  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  of  his  successors.  At  his  death, 
in  1 7 14,  he  left  his  rich  library  to  the  city  of  Florence, 
by  which  it  is  kept  open  to  the  public. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratiira  Italiana;"  Fabroni, 
"Vitae  Italoriim  doctrina  excellentium ;"  L.  Brightwell,  "By- 
Paths  of  Biography;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  A.M. 
Salvini,  "Orazione  funerale  in  Lode  di  A.  Magliabecchi,"  1715. 

Magnan,  mtn'ySN',  (Bernard  Pierre,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  Paris  in  1791.  He  served  as  captain  at 
Waterloo,  (181 5,)  and  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel  about 
1827,  after  which  he  was  employed  in  Algeria.  He 
became  a  lieutenant-general  in  1845,  ^^^^  commanded 
the  army  of  the  Alps  in  1849.  In  July,  1 851,  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Paris,  and 
in  December,  1852,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  marshal 
of  France.    Died  in  1865. 

See  J.  Lassagne,  "Notice  sur  le  General  Magnan,"  1852. 

Magnan,  (Dominique,)  a  French  antiquary  and  monk, 
born  at  Raillane  in  1 73 1.  He  lived  in  Avignon  and 
Rome,  and  acquired  a  European  reputation  by  his  works, 
among  which  are  a  "  Description  of  the  City  of  Rome," 
(1763,)  and  several  treatises  on  numismatics.  Died  in 
1796. 

Magnani,  mSn-y^'nee,  (Cristoforo,)  an  able  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Pizzighettone  before  1550,  was  a  pupil 
of  Bernardino  Campi. 

Magnasco,  min-yls'ko,  (Alessandro,)  called  Lis- 
SANDRiNO,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  1681. 
His  favourite  subjects  were  processions,  etc.  Died  in 
1747- 

Magnasco,  (Stefano,)  a  painter,  born  about  1630, 
was  the  father  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1665. 

Magne,  mtn,  (Pierre,)  a  French  advocate  and  min- 
ister of  state,  born  at  Perigueux  in  1806.  He  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  public  works  in  January,  185 1,  and 
minister  of  finance  in  February,  1855.  He  retired  from 
this  office  about  1861. 

Magnence.    See  Magnentius. 

Magnentius,  mSg-n^n'she-us,  [Fr.  Magnence,  mtn'- 
yftNss',]  (Flavius,)  a  Roman  general,  born  in  Germany 
about  300  A.D.  While  commanding  an  army  in  Gaul, 
he  revolted  against  the  emperor  Constans,  and  usurped 
the  empire  of  the  West  in  350.  Constans  was  killed  by 
his  orders.  Magnentius  made  himself  master  of  the  city 
of  Rome.  A  war  ensued  between  him  and  Constantius, 
who  defeated  the  usurper  on  the  river  Drave  in  351. 
He  retreated  to  Gaul,  was  again  defeated,  and  killed 
himself  in  August,  353  a.d. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Le 
Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Mag'nes,  [Mayv7?f,]  an  Athenian  poet  of  the  old 
comedy,  was  born  in  Icaria,  and  lived  about  450  B.C. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Gra£ca." 

Magni,  (Johan.)    See  Magnus. 

Magni,  mig'nee,  written  also  Magne,  [from  Magn, 
"  strength,"]  a  son  of  Thor,  who,  with  his  brother  Modi, 
will  survive  the  conflagration  of  the  world  at  Ragnarock. 
(See  Modi.) 

Magni,  mSg'nee,  or  Magnus,  mSg'nus,  (Johan  or 
Jonas,)  a  Swedish  bishop,  born  at  Wexio  in  1583,  wrote 
"  Synopsis  Historiae  universalis,"  (1622,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1651. 

Magni,  mSn'yee,  [Lat.  Mag'nus,]  (Valeriano,)  an 
Italian  writer  and  Capuchin  friar,  born  at  Milan  about 
1586.  He  wrote  against  the  Jesuits.  "  This /^;v,"  says 
Pascal,  in  a  letter  to  the  Jesuits,  "  has  found  the  secret 
of  stopping  your  mouth."  Among  his  works  is  "  Or- 
gannm  theologicum,"  (1643.)    Died  in  1661. 

See  Pascal,  "Lettres  Provinciales." 

Magnien-Grandpre,  mtn'ye-3,N'  gR5N'pRk',  (N.,)  a 
French  financier  and  writer,  born  at  Challon  in  1745; 
died  in  181 1. 

Magnier,  mtn'ye-a',(LAURENT,)  called  also  Maniere, 
a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1618  ;  died  in  1700. 

Magnin,  mtn'yiN',  (Charles,)  a  French  critic,  born 
in  Paris  in  1793.    He  acquired  reputation  as  a  critic  of 


dramatic  literature.  Among  his  works  are  a  series  of 
"Lectures  on  the  Drama,"  (1838,)  and  "  Causeries  et 
Meditations  historiques  et  litteraires,"  (2  vols.,  1842.) 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  contemporains." 

Magnocavalli,  min-yo-k^-vSKlee,  (Francesco  Ot- 
TAVio,)  Count  de  Varengo,  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Casal  in  1707,  wrote  "  Corradin,  Marquis  de  Mont- 
ferrat,"  and  other  tragedies.    Died  in  1788. 

Magnol,  mtn'yoK,  (Pierre,)  a  French  botanist  and 
physician,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1638.  He  became 
professor  of  botany  in  his  native  city  in  1694,  before 
which  he  had  puolished  "Introduction  to  the  General 
History  of  Plants,"  ("Prodromus  Historiag  generalis 
Plantarum,"  1689.)  He  had  some  sound  ideas  on 
botanical  philosophy,  and  shares  with  other  botanists 
of  his  time  the  merit  of  favouring  the  progress  of  the 
natural  method.  He  wrote  several  minor  works  on 
botany.  The  genus  Magnolia  was  named  in  his  honour. 
Died  in  1715. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Magnon,  mtn'y6N',  (Jean,)  a  mediocre  French  poet 
and  dramatist,  born  at  Tournus.  He  left  unfinished  a 
poem  entitled  "La  Science  universelle,"  (1663.)  He 
was  assassinated  at  Paris  in  1662. 

Mag'nus  I.,  King  of  Norway,  surnamed  the  Gooi\ 
was  the  son  of  Saint  Olaiis.  He  became  king  in  1034, 
and  at  the  death  of  Canute  II.,  in  1042,  obtained  the 
throne  of  Denmark.  He  died  in  1047,  leaving  Norway 
to  Harold,  and  Denmark  to  Sweyn,  a  nephew  of  Canute 
the  Great. 

See  ToRF^us,  "  Historia  Rerum  Norvegicarum." 

Magnus,  surnamed  Ladulos,  King  of  Sweden,  born 
in  1240,  was  the  second  son  of  Birger.  He  deposed  his 
own  brother,  Waldemar,  and  reigned  many  years.  He 
died  in  1298,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Birger. 

Magnus,  surnamed  Smek,  King  of  Sweden,  born  in 
13 16,  was  the  son  of  Duke  Eric,  and  succeeded  Birger 
in  1320.  Plis  actual  reign  began  in  1337.  He  was  placed 
under  interdict  by  the  pope,  and  deposed  by  his  nobles 
about  1363,  when  Albert  of  Mecklenburg  became  king. 
Magnus  died  in  1374. 

See  F.  Runs,  "  Geschichte  Schwedens." 

Mag'nus,  a  Greek  physician,  lived  about  100  a.d. 
He  was  one  of  the  Pneumatic  sect. 

Magnus,  (Albertus.)    See  Albertus  Magnus. 

Magnus,  mSg'nus,  (Eduard,)  a  German  painter  of 
genre  and  portraits,  born  at  Berlin  in  1799.  His  works 
are  commended  as  excellent  in  colour  and  correct  in 
design. 

Magnus,  m^'nus,  or  Magni,  m^g'nee,  (Johan  or 
Jonas,)  Archbishop  of  Upsal,  was  born  at  Linkoping  in 
1488.  He  opposed  the  Reformation  in  Sweden  without 
success,  and  retired  to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1544. 
He  was  author  of  a  "  History  of  Sweden,"  in  Latin, 
("Historia  Gothorum  Suevorumque,"  1554.) 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  Scheffer,  "  Suecia  Literata." 

Magnus,  (Olaus  or  Olof,)  a  Swedish  prelate,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Linkoping  about  1490.  He 
was  sent  by  Pope  Paul  III.  to  the  Council  of  Trent  in 
1546.  He  wrote  (in  Latin)  a  "History  of  the  Northern 
Nations,"  (1555,)  which  was  translated  into  English, 
Dutch,  German,  and  Italian.    Died  in  Rome  in  1568. 

See  Anders  Norberg,  "  Dissertationes  IL  de  Meritis  tt  Fatis  J. 
et  O.  Magnorum,"  1741-43. 

Mag'nus,  (Thomas,)  an  English  emissary,  sent  by 
Cardinal  Wolsey  to  Scotland  in  1524,  in  the  twofold 
capacity  of  ambassador  and  spy.  He  sent  to  the  Eng- 
lish court  some  curious  details  (preserved  in  the  state 
papers  of  Henry  VIII.)  relating  to  the  young  King  of 
Scotland  and  the  customs  of  those  times. 

See  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  chaps,  xxxii.  and  xxxvii. 

Magnusen,  mig'ntis-en,  or  Magnusson,  mig'nus- 
son,  (Finn,)  an  Icelandic  historian  and  antiquary,  born 
at  Skalholt  in  1781.  He  published,  among  other  works, 
a  "Translation  and  Explanation  of  the  Elder  Edda," 
(1821.)    Died  in  1847. 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter-Lexikon  ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review 
for  April,  1828,  and  April,  1829. 

Ma'go,  fGr.  Muyuv  ;  Fr.  Magon,  mt'g6N',]  a  Cartha- 
ginian admiral,  who  gained  a  victory  over  the  fleet  of 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  asz;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^=^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAGO  1496  MAHMOOD 


Syracuse  about  396  B.C.  A  few  years  later  he  was  de- 
feated by  Dionysius  in  Sicily.  He  returned  to  Carthage, 
and  was  elected  chief  magistrate.  Having  led  another 
land-army  into  Sicily,  he  was  killed,  and  his  army  was 
defeated  at  Cabala\by  Dionysius,  about  382  B.C.  His 
son,  Mago,  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  army,  and 
prosecuted  the  war  with  success. 

Another  Mago  commanded  a  fleet  which  the  senate 
of  Carthage  sent,  in  280  B.C.,  to  aid  the  Romans  against 
Pyrrhus.    He  was  grandfather  of  Hannibal. 

See  DiODORUS  Siculus. 

Mago,  a  Carthaginian  writer  of  uncertain  period,  was 
called  "the  father  of  agriculture"  by  Columella.  He 
wrote  an  extensive  work  on  agriculture,  which  was  trans- 
lated into  Latin  by  the  order  of  the  Roman  senate  after 
the  destruction  of  Carthage. 

Mago,  a  brother  of  the  famous  Hannibal,  followed 
him  in  the  invasion  of  Italy,  and  held  a  high  command 
at  the  battle  of  Cannce,  2i6  B.C.  He  carried  the  news 
of  this  victory  to  Carthage,  and  solicited  reinforcements, 
but  was  ordered  to  Spain,  where  he  and  Hasdrubal  com- 
manded for  several  years  against  the  Scipios  with  vari- 
ous success.  After  gaining  some  advantages  in  Liguria, 
where  he  was  severely  wounded,  he  was  ordered  to 
hasten  to  the  defence  of  Carthage,  but  he  died  during 
the  voyage,  in  203  B.C. 

See  LivY,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxi.-xxx.  ;  Polybius, 
"  History,"  books  iii.,  x.,  and  xi. 

Magon.    See  Mago. 

Magon  de  Clos-Dore,  mt'g6N'  deh  klo'doW, 
(Charles  Rene,)  a  French  rear-admiral,  born  in  Paris 
in  1763.    He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  in  1805. 

Ma-goon',  (Elisha  L.,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist 
divine,  born  at  Lebanon,  New  Hampshire,  in  1810, 
published  "Proverbs  for  the  People,"  "Orators  of  the 
American  Revolution,"  and  other  works. 

Magri,  m^'gRee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  writer,  born 
in  Malta  in  1604.  He  published  a  "  Lexicon  of  Ec- 
clesiastic Terms  and  Rites,"  ("Notizia  de'  Vocaboli 
ecclesiastici.")    Died  in  1672. 

Magruder,  ma-groo'der,  (John  B.,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  Virginia  about  1810,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1830.  He  served  as  captain  in  the  Mexican 
war,  (1846-47.)  With  the  rank  of  major-general,  he 
fought  against  the  Union  at  White  Oak  Swamp  and 
Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862.  He  commanded  the  army 
in  Texas  in  1863  and  1864.   Died  in  1871. 

Maguire,  ma-gwir',  (John  Francis,)  M.P.,  an  Irish 
Catholic  politician,  born  at  Cork  about  1815,  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  "Rome  and  its  Rulers,"  (1857.) 

MAHA,vc\2i-\\'^' ,  [from  the  adjective ^/z^/^^?/,  "great,"]  a 
Sanscrit  prefix  forming  a  portion  of  many  Indian  names, 
as  Mahadeva,  "great  god,"  Maha-Pralya, the  "great 
destruction,"  etc.  See  these  names  in  their  alphabetical 
place. 

Maha-Bali.    See  Bali. 

Mahabharata,   ma-ha'ba'ra-ta,  or  Mahtbharat, 

ma-h^'bi'rat,  [from  the  Sanscrit  mdhd,  "great,"  and 
BJidratA,  a  descendant  of  Bharata,  a  famous  Hindoo 
prince,]  the  name  of  the  great  epic  poem  of  the  Hindoos, 
so  called  because  it  treats  of  the  war  waged  among  the 
descendants  of  Bharata,  It  is  said  to  contain  200,000 
lines,  or  100,000  double  verses.  Tradition  ascribes  it 
to  Viyasa,  the  arranger  or  editor  of  the  Vedas.  (See 
ViYASA.)  But  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  the 
production  or  compilation  of  several — perhaps  of  many 
— writers,  living  in  different  ages,  both  before  and  after 
the  Christian  era.  It  was  made  a  kind  of  cyclopaedia 
of  such  knowledge  as  was  deemed  desirable  for  the 
Kshatriyas,  or  warrior  caste. 

See  tlie  article  on  "Sanscrit  Literature"  in  the  "  New  American 
Cyciopaiflia,"  (by  Professor  Whitney,)  xiv.,  p.  337. 

Mahadeva,  ma-ha^da'va,  or  Maha-Deo,  ma-h^'da'o, 
{i.e.  the  "  great  god,")  the  name  by  which  Siva  is  com- 
monly known  in  many  parts  of  India.    (See  SiVA.) 

Maha-Kaia,  nia-hd'  ka'la,  a  name  of  Siva,  regarded 
as  Time,  which  is  the  great  destroyer.    (See  SiVA.) 

Maha-Kaii.    See  Kali. 

Maha-Maya,  ma-h^'  m3.'ya,  the  name  of  the  mother 
of  liooddha.    See  Gautama. 


Ma-ha'  PraPya,  [  modern  Hindoo  pron.  ma-hl' 

prviKya,]  [i.e.  the  "great  end"  or  "great  destruction,")  a 
term  applied  to  the  final  consummation  of  all  things, 
which,  it  is  supposed,  will  take  place  after  a  hundred 
years  of  Brahma  have  elapsed,  in  which  each  day  (with 
its  night)  is  reckoned  as  8640  millions  of  our  years.  At 
the  time  referred  to,  all  the  gods,  including  Brahma,  as 
well  as  all  creatures,  will  be  annihilated  ;  Brahm,  the 
eternal,  self-existent  Spirit,  will  alone  remain. 
See  Moor,  "  Hindoo  Pantheon." 

Maharbal.    See  Maherbal. 

Maha-Rudra,  a  name  of  Siva.    See  Rudra. 

Mahdee,  Mahdy,  or  Mahdi,  Al,  tl  mahMee,  (Mo- 
hammed, mo-Hc^m'niSd,)  the  third  Abbasside  caliph  of 
Bagdad,  succeeded  his  father,  Al-Mansoor,  in  775  A.D. 
He  waged  war  against  the  Greeks  with  such  success  that 
the  empress  Irene  sued  for  peace.  He  died  in  785,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Hadee,  (or  Hady.) 

See  Weil,  "  Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  iii. 

Mahe  de  la  Bourdonnais,  mt'i'  deh  It  booR^do'- 

\\\\  (Bernard  FRANgois,)  a  distinguished  French  naval 
otficer,  born  at  Saint-Malo  in  1699.  About  1718  he 
entered  the  service  of  the  French  East  India  Company. 
He  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  the  Isles  of 
France  and  Bourbon  in  1734,  and  received  command  of 
a  squadron  in  1741.  War  having  begun  between  France 
and  England,  he  repulsed  an  English  fleet  near  Madras, 
and  captured  that  place,  in  1746.  He  quarrelled  with 
Dupleix,  governor  of  the  French  possessions  in  Hin- 
dostan,  who  refused  to  give  up  Madras,  which  La  Bour- 
donnais by  treaty  had  agreed  to  restore  to  the  English. 
Having  been  recalled  to  France,  where  he  arrived  in 
1748,  he  was  confined  in  the  Bastille  three  years,  and 
then  tried  and  acquitted.  His  talents  and  virtues  are 
praised  by  Saint-Pierre  in  the  preface  to  "Paul  and 
Virginia."    Died  in  1754  or  1755. 

See  Gerard,  "  Vies  des  phis  illustres  Marins  Frangais,"  1825  ; 
Mill,  "  History  of  British  India,"  1826. 

Ma-hen'dra,  called  also  Mahin'do,  a  son  of  Asoka, 
introduced  Booddhism  into  Ceylon  about  200  B.C. 

Ma-her'bal  or  Ma-har'bal,  [Gr.  Maapga^-,]  a  Car- 
thaginian general,  who  followed  Hannibal  into  Italy, 
fought  at  Thrasymene,  and  commanded  the  right  wing  at 
the  battle  of  Cannas,  in  216  B.C.  He  urged  Hannibal  to 
advance  on  the  Roman  capital,  and,  when  the  latter 
rejected  this  counsel,  said  to  him,  "You  know  how  to 
gain  victories,  but  not  how  to  improve  them." 

See  LivY,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxi.-xxiii. 

Mahesa,  ma-ha'sa,  or  Mahdsha,  ma-ha'sha,  and 
Mahdswara,  ma-has' wa-ra,  names  of  Siva,  which  see. 
Mahindo.    See  Mahendra. 

Mahlmann,  mlKm^n,  (Siegfried  August,)  a  Ger- 
man poet,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1 771.  Some  of  his  produc- 
tions were  very  popular.    Died  in  1826. 

Mahmed.    See  Mohammed. 

Mahmood,  Mahmoud,  or  Mahmud,  mSn-mood', 

I.,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  born  in  1696,  was  the  son  of 
Mustafa  II.  He  succeeded  his  uncle,  Ahmed  (Achmet) 
III.,  in  1730.  In  1734  he  began  a  war  against  the  Rus- 
sians, who  were  assisted  by  the  Austrians.  The  latter 
made  peace  and  gave  up  Belgrade  to  Turkey  in  1739. 
Soon  after  that  date  he  made  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
Russia.  Mahmood  left  the  direction  of  affairs  to  his 
ministers.    Died  in  December,  1754. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs 
Levesque,  "  Histoire  de  la  Russie." 

Mahmood,  Mahmoud,  or  Mahmud  II.,  Sultan 
of  Turkey,  a  younger  son  of  Sultan  Abdool  Hamid, 
was  born  July  20,  1785.  His  youth  was  passed  in  seclu- 
sion or  confinement  and  in  literary  pursuits.  During 
the  reign  of  his  brother,  Mustafa  IV.,  the  deposed  Sul- 
tan, Selim  HI.,  was  his  fellow-captive,  and  initiated  him 
in  those  projects  of  reform  which  he  himself  had  failed 
to  effect.  In  July,  1808,  Mustafa  was  dejjosed  by  the 
military,  and  Mahmood  was  proclaimed  Sultan  at  one  of 
the  most  critical  periods  in  the  history  of  the  Ottoman 
empire.  The  pashas  of  Asia  and  Africa  had  rendered 
themselves  nearly  independent  of  the  Sultan,  and  the 
disaffection  of  the  Janissaries  threatened  a  revolution  in 
the  capital.    He  began  the  work  of  reform  in  the  army, 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  A,  h,  d,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/wrt;  a,    |,  q,  obsaire;  f^r,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MAHMOOD 


H97 


MAHMOOD 


which  he  ordered  to  be  organized  after  the  European 
system.  In  November,  1808,  the  Janissaries  rebelled, 
attacked  the  Sultan's  palace,  and  proclaimed  Mustafa. 
Mahmood  suppressed  this  dangerous  revolt  by  the  exe- 
cution of  Mustafa  and  his  heirs,  after  which  he  remained 
the  only  surviving  prince  of  his  race. 

A  war  with  Russia,  in  which  the  Turks  had  been  de- 
feated, was  terminated  by  a  treaty  of  peace  in  May,  1812. 
He  pursued  his  projects  of  reform  with  courage  and 
energy,  amidst  the  violent  opposition  of  his  subjects. 
About  1822  began  a  general  insurrection  of  the  Greeks, 
who,  after  a  war  of  several  years,  were  liberated  from 
the  Turkish  yoke.  During  this  war  he  continued  his 
bold  innovations  against  the  old  customs  and  traditions  ; 
he  dressed  himself  in  the  European  fashion,  and  finally 
accomplished  his  most  important  measure, — the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Janissaries,  who  had  instigated  a  formidable 
insurrection  in  the  capital.  The  next  day  (June  15)  the 
standard  of  the  prophet  was  unfurled,  and  all  good 
Mussulmans  were  summoned  to  arms.  The  Janissaries 
were  outnumbered  and  speedily  overpowered,  and  many 
thousands  of  them  were  killed.  On  the  i6th  an  edict 
was  issued  for  the  abolition  of  their  organization. 

On  the  20th  of  October,  1827,  Mahmood's  fleet  was 
defeated  and  all-but  annihilated  at  Navarino  by  the  allied 
French,  English,  and  Russians,  who  fought  there  for  the 
liberty  of  Greece.  Mahmood  is  censured  for  rashness 
in  renewing  the  war  with  Russia  in  1828.  The  Russian 
general  Diebitsch  defeated  the  Turks  at  Shumla,  crossed 
the  Balkan,  and  took  Adrianople  in  1829.  The  existence 
of  the  Turkish  empire  was  in  peril  ;  but,  through  the 
mediation  of  England  and  other  powers,  the  Sultan  ob- 
tained peace  (September,  1829)  by  paying  a  large  sum 
of  money  and  resigning  the  sovereignty  of  Moldavia, 
Wallachia,  and  Servia.  In  1832  he  was  involved  in  war 
with  Mehemet  AH  of  Egypt,  whose  army,  commanded 
by  his  son  Ibraheem,  (Ibrahim,)  gained  a  decisive  vic- 
tory at  Konieh,  (December,  1832.)  Russia  interposed 
to  protect  Mahmood  against  his  rebellious  vassal.  The 
Ottoman  empire  was  apparently  on  the  verge  of  disso- 
lution, when  the  Sultan  died,  in  June,  1839,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Abdool-Mejeed. 

See  Von  Munch,  "  Mahmud  II.,  sein  Leben,"  etc.,  1839 ;  Pouque- 
vii.LK,  "  Histoire  de  la  Reireneration  de  la  Grece,"  and  article 
"Mahnioud"  in  the  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Mahmood,  Mahmoud,  or  Mahmud,  mSn'mood', 
(Abool-Kasim- Yemeen-ed-Dowlah,  or  Abul- 
(Aboul-)  Kasim-Yemin-ed-Daulah,  .^'bool  kS'sim 
y§h-meen'  ed-dow'lah,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  all 
the  Mohammedan  conquerors,  the  founder  of  the  Gazne- 
vide  dynasty,  and  the  first  who  estal)lished  a  permanent 
Moslem  empire  in  India,  was  born  at  Gazna  (or  Ghiznee) 
in  967  A.D.  He  was  the  son  of  Sabiiktageen,  whom  he 
succeeded  as  governor  of  the  province  of  Candahar,  (or 
Gazna.)  At  an  early  age  he  distinguished  himself  while 
fighting  under  his  father  against  the  enemies  of  Nooh, 
(or  Nouh,)  the  Samanide  sovereign  of  Persia,  from  whom 
he  received  the  title  of  Seif-ed-Dowlah,  ("  Sword  of  the 
State.")  But  afterwards,  having  been  ill  treated  by 
Mansoor,  a  successor  to  Nooh,  he  overthrew  the  throne 
of  the  Samanides,  and  established  his  empire  over  a 
vast  territory,  including  what  is  now  called  Affghanistan, 
besides  an  extensive  region  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
Persia.  But,  still  unsatisfied,  he  resolved  on  the  subju- 
gation of  the  countries  beyond  the  Indus.  During  a  reign 
of  rather  more  than  thirty  years,  he  made  no  fewer  than 
twelve  expeditions  into  India,  besides  carrying  on  several 
important  wars  in  Central  Asia.  He  extended  his  con- 
quests not  only  over  the  whole  of  the  Punjab,  but  pene- 
trated as  far  as  Bundelcund  on  the  east  and  Guzerat  on 
the  south.  Moore,  in  his  beautiful  poem  of  "  Paradise 
and  the  Peri,"  gives  a  striking  picture  of  Mahmood's 
sanguinary  and  desolating  career  through  Hindostan, 
Apostrophizing  India,  he  says, 

"  Land  of  the  sun  !  what  foot  invades 
Thy  pagods  and  thy  pillared  shades? 
'Tis  he  of  Gazna, — fierce  in  wrath 
**#*#*# 

He  comes,  and  India's  diadems 
Lie  scattered  in  his  ruinous  path. 
His  bloodhounds  he  adorns  with  gems 
Torn  from  the  violated  necks 
Of  many  a  young  and  loved  sultana  ; 


Maidens  within  their  pure  zenana, 
Priests  in  the  very  fane  he  slaughters. 
And  chokes  up  with  the  glittering  wrecks 
Of  golden  shrines  the  sacred  waters." 

Lalla  Rookh, 

It  is  related  by  Ferishta,  a  celebrated  Moslem  his- 
torian, that,  having  heard  of  the  immense  riches  de- 
posited in  the  temple  of  Somnath,  famous  throughout 
all  India  for  its  sanctity,  Mahmood  determined  to  take 
possession  of  that  place.  The  priests  of  Somnath  had 
boasted  that,  if  he  dared  approach  their  holy  shrine,  he 
would  receive  from  the  avenging  gods  the  just  reward 
of  his  temerity.  The  temple  stood  on  the  extremity 
of  a  point  of  land  in  Guzerat,  and  was  surrounded  on 
three  sides  by  the  sea.  It  was  defended  by  the  Hindoos 
with  all  the  courage  of  religious  enthusiasm  and  all  the 
obstinacy  of  despair.  But  nothing  could  withstand  the 
valour  of  the  fierce  invaders.  Mahmood,  having  entered 
the  temple,  was  about  to  demolish  a  gigantic  image,  the 
object  of  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  Hindoos.  The 
Brahmans,  in  great  trepidation,  offered  him  an  immense 
sum  of  gold  if  he  would  spare  their  idol.  Some  of  his 
officers  advised  him  to  accept  the  ransom ;  but  his  zeal 
as  a  true  Moslem  forbade  such  a  compromise.  He 
smote  the  image  and  broke  it  to  pieces.  It  proved  to 
be  hollow,  and  a  countless  treasure  of  diamonds,  rubies, 
and  pearls  was  poured  from  its  cavity  upon  the  ground, 
thus  richly  rewarding  the  incorruptible  zeal  of  the  con- 
queror, and  at  the  same  time  explaining  the  pious  libe- 
rality of  the  Brahmans.  In  the  extensive  wars  which 
Mahmood  carried  on  in  Central  Asia,  after  his  first  ex- 
pedition into  India,  he  appears  to  have  been  mainly 
indebted  for  his  success  to  the  elephants  used  in  his 
army.  It  is  related  that  on  one  occasion  Ilij  (or  Elich) 
Khan,  a  Turkish  prince,  invaded  Khorassan  with  a  large 
army.  Mahmood  hastily  assembled  an  inferior  force, 
which  was  accompanied,  however,  by  five  hundred  ele- 
phants. The  hostile  armies  met  near  Biilkh,  (or  Balkh,) 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  river  Amoo,  or  Oxus.  Mahmood 
was  mounted  on  a  superb  elephant,  which,  during  the  heat 
of  the  battle,  rushed  forward,  and,  seizing  with  his  trunk 
the  chief  standard-bearer  of  the  Turks,  hurled  him  into 
the  air.  The  other  elephants  followed  the  example  of 
their  great  leader  :  with  their  trunks  they  lifted  the  horse- 
men from  their  saddles  and  dashed  them  on  the  ground, 
so  that  the  Turkish  army  was  soon  broken  and  put  to  a 
total  rout.  Later,  the  military  establishment  of  Mah- 
mood is  said  to  have  comprised  no  fewer  than  thirteen  \ 
hundred  elephants  and  more  than  fifty  thousand  horse. 

Along  with  great  military  talents  and  a  fierce,  uncoa- 
querable  energy  and  courage,  Mahmood  possessed  some 
virtues  of  a  more  exalted  kind.  A  woman  from  a  dis- 
tant province,  it  is  said,  complained  one  day  to  the  Sultan 
that  her  son  had  been  killed  and  her  property  carried 
off  by  robbers.  He  replied  that  it  was  impossible  for 
him  to  prevent  all  disorders  in  a  region  so  remote. 
"Why,  then,"  said  the  woman,  "do  you  conquer  king- 
doms which  you  cannot  protect,  and  for  which  you  will 
have  to  answer  at  the  day  of  judgment  ?"  Far  from 
resenting  the  freedom  of  this  rebuke,  he  immediately 
took  effective  measures  for  establishing  order  in  that  dis- 
tant part  of  his  dominions.  After  his  Indian  conquests 
he  not  only  greatly  embellished  Gazna,  which  still  con- 
tinued to  be  the  capital  of  his  empire,  so  that  it  rivalled, 
it  is  said,  the  most  splendid  cities  of  the  East,  but  he 
showed  himself  a  patron  of  science  and  literature,  espe- 
cially of  poetry.  It  was  during  his  reign  that  Firdousee, 
(or  Firdausi,)  the  greatest  of  all  the  poets  of  Moham- 
medanism, flourished.  (See  Firdousee.)  Seven  other 
distinguished  poets,  according  to  Von  Hammer,  lived  at 
his  court  and  chanted  his  praises.  Mahmood  was  the 
first,  it  is  said,  of  the  great  Moslem  rulers  who  employed 
the  Persian  language  in  official  documents.  Died  in  1030. 

See  Ferishta,  "  History  of  the  Rise  of  the  Mahomedan  Power 
in  India,"  (translated  by  General  Briggs;)  Ibn  Khallikan,  "Dic- 
tionnaire  Biographique ;"  Wilken,  "  Historia  Ghasnevidarum  ;" 
Von  Hammer,  "  Geschichte  der  schonen  Redekunste  Persiens ;" 
Hamdallah  Mestoufi,  "  Histoires  choisies;"  "  History  of  British 
India,"  in  "Harper's  Family  Library,"  vol.  i.  ;  Von  Hammer, 
"  Gemahldesaal  grosser  Moslemischer  Herscher." 

Mahmood  (Mahmoud  or  Mahmud)  II.,  surnamed 
Nasir-ood-Deen,  (Nasir-oud-Din,)  ni'sir  ood-deen', 
{i.e.  "Defender  of  the  Faith,")  an  eccentric  though  able 


€  as     9  as  s;  %  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


M  AH  MOOD 


1498 


MAI 


Sultan  of  Delhi,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1246.  After 
the  death  of  his  father,  Altmish,  (llt'mish,)  he  was  im- 
prisoned by  his  step-mother,  and  remained  in  confine- 
ment several  years.  During  this  period  he  voluntarily 
earned  his  bread  by  copying  manuscripts.  Even  after 
he  was  raised  to  the  throne  he  continued,  it  is  said,  to 
earn  his  subsistence  by  his  pen.  As  a  king  he  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  ability,  justice,  and  liberality ;  he  was 
a  patron  of  learning,  the  protector  of  his  people,  and  a 
friend  of  the  poor.  He  was  a  successful  general,  and 
speedily  reduced  several  insurrections  which  broke  out 
during  his  reign.  Contrary  to  the  custom  of  Moslem 
princes,  Mahmood  had  but  one  wife,  whom  he  required 
to  be  as  industrious  as  himself,  and  to  perform  all  the 
homely  duties  of  housewifery  like  the  meanest  of  her 
s^ibjects.  Her  majesty,  having  one  day  burned  her 
fingers  while  cooking,  begged  Mahmood  to  let  her  have 
a  maid  to  assist  her  ;  but  he  refused,  saying  he  was  but  a 
trustee  of  the  state  and  had  no  right  to  burden  it  with 
needless  expenses.  He  used  to  say,  "  Those  who  will 
not  work  for  their  bread  do  not  deserve  it."  Mahmood 
Nasir-ood-Deen  was  a  half-brother  of  the  distinguished 
Sultana  Ruzeea  Begum.  (See  Ruzeea  Begum.)  He 
died  after  a  reign  of  twenty  years. 

See  Ferishta,  "Rise  of  the  Mahomedan  Power  in  India," 
(Briggs's  translation,)  vol.  i.  ;  "  Histoiy  of  British  India,"  vol.  i.,  in 
"Harper's  Family  Library." 

Mahmood  (Mahmoud  or  Mahmud)  Shah,  (Na- 
sir-ed-Deen  or  -Eddyn,  n^'sir  ed-deen',)  Emperor  of 
Hindostan,  was  the  son  of  Mohammed  IH.  He  ascended 
the  throne  of  Delhi  in  1394,  and  was  a  feeble  ruler.  His 
reign  was  a  disastrous  period  of  intestine  wars  , and  an- 
archy. Timur  (Tamerlane)  invaded  India,  defeated  the 
army  of  Mahmood  in  1399,  and  took  Delhi.  A  few  years 
later,  Mahmood  returned  to  Delhi,  but  he  obtained  but 
little  power.  He  died  in  1413,  being  the  last  of  his 
dynasty. 

Mahmood,  (Sultan  of  Syria  and  Egypt.)  See  NooR- 

ed-Deen.) 

Mahmoud.    See  Mahmood. 

Mahmud.    See  Mahmood. 

Mahomet,  (the  Prophet.)    See  Mohammed. 

Ma-hom^et*  [  Fr.  pron.  mt'o^mi']  or  Mohammed 
(mo-ham'mgd)  I.,  Emperor  or  Sultan  of  the  Ottomans, 
born  in  1374,  was  a  younger  son  of  Bayazeed  (Bajazet)  I., 
who  was  defeated  by  Tamerlane  at  Ancyra  in  1401.  At 
this  time  he  was  governor  of  Amasia,  of  which  the  victor 
left  him  in  possession.  Mahomet  and  his  brother  Moosa 
(Mousa)  having  appealed  to  arms  for  a  decision  of  their 
claims  to  the  throne,  the  latter  was  killed  in  battle  in  1413. 
Mahomet  restored  the  Ottoman  empire  to  its  former  sta- 
bility, subjected  the  Bosnians  and  Servians,  and  was  the 
first  Sultan  that  disputed  with  the  Venetians  the  empire 
of  the  sea.  He  died  in  142 1,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Amurath  H. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Mahomet  or  Mohammed  II.,  styled  the  Great,  the 
son  of  Amurath  H.,  was  born  in  1430,  and  succeeded  his 
father  in  145 1.  Having  raised  an  army  of  about  300,000 
men,  he  attacked  Constantinople,  defended  by  the  Greek 
emperor  Constantine  Palaeologus.  After  a  siege  of  fifty- 
five  days,  the  city  was  taken  by  storm  on  the  29th  of  May, 
1453,  and  Constantine  was  killed  fighting  in  the  breach. 
Great  numbers  of  the  Greek  citizens  were  massacred  by 
the  orders  or  permission  of  the  victor,  who  in  1456  returned 
to  Adrianople,  his  former  capital.  In  that  year  he  was 
defeated  at  Belgrade  by  the  Hungarian  chief  Huniades. 
He  conquered  Trebizond  from  David  Comnenus  in  1461, 
and  afterwards  acquired  by  his  arms  Bosnia,  and  seve- 
ral islands  in  the  Archipelago.  In  1465  he  was  defeated 
by  Scanderbeg  in  Albania.  He  waged  successful  wars 
against  the  Venetians  and  the  Persians,  (1470-78,)  and 
invaded  Italy  in  1480.  Death  arrested  his  progress  to 
further  conquest  in  I48i,and  delivered  Christian  nations 
from  a  formidable  adversary.  He  left  the  throne  to  his 
son,  Bayazeed  (Bajazet)  II. 

See  Gun.i,ET  de  Saint-Georges,  "  Histoire  du  R^gne  de  Ma- 
homet," 16S2 ;  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen 
Reichs;"  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

*  For  some  remarks  on  the  pronunciation  of  this  name,  see  Mo- 
hammed, (the  Prophet.) 


Mahomet  or  Mohammed  III.,  Sultan  of  Turkey, 
was  born  about  1568,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Amurath 
HI.,  in  1595.  He  put  his  brothers  to  death  in  the  first 
days  of  his  reign.  He  was  a  feeble  ruler,  and  preferred  the 
pursuit  of  pleasure  to  his  duties  as  a  monarch.  Among 
the  chief  events  of  his  reign  was  a  war  with  the  emperoi 
Rudolph  in  Hungary,  where  the  Turks  lost  several 
towns.  He  died  in  1603,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Ahmed  (Achmet)  I. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Mahomet  or  Mohammed  IV.,  the  son  and  succes- 
sor of  Ibraheem  I.,  was  seven  years  old  when  his  father 
was  killed  by  the  Janissaries  in  1649,  Having  a  ruling 
passion  for  the  chase,  he  permitted  the  grand  vizier, 
Mahomet  Koprili,  to  direct  the  affairs  of  the  empire. 
That  able  minister  took  Lemnos  and  Mitylene  from  the 
Venetians  in  1660,  and  about  the  same  time  waged  war 
against  the  Austrians  in  Hungary.  After  several  victories, 
the  Turks  were  defeated  at  Saint  Gothard  on  the  Raab  in 
1663,  and  the  war  was  suspended  by  a  treaty.  In  that  year 
Koprili  died,  and  his  son  Ahmed  (Achmet)  became  grand 
vizier.  He  took  the  capital  of  Candia  in  1669,  after  a 
long  siege.  In  1683  a  Turkish  army  of  about  200,000 
men  under  Cara  Mustafa  invaded  Austria  and  besieged 
Vienna,  from  which  the  emperor  Leopold  fled  without 
offering  battle.  After  a  siege  of  nearly  two  months,  John 
Sobieski  marched  to  the  relief  of  the  city,  and  put  the 
Turks  to  a  total  rout.  In  consequence  of  this  and  other 
later  reverses,  Mahomet  was  deposed  in  1687,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  Solyman  II.  Mahomet  was 
imprisoned  until  his  death,  in  1691. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs;' 
Devize,  "  Histoire  de  Mahomet  IV  depos6  en  1687,"  Amsterdam, 
1688. 

Mahon,  Lord.    See  Stanhope,  Earl  of. 

Mahon,  mt'6N',  (Paul  Augustin  Olivier,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Chartres  in  1752.  He  wrote  "  Mede- 
cine  legale,"  (3  vols.,  1802.)    Died  in  1801. 

Ma-ho'ny,  (Francis,)  an  Irish  writer  and  wit,  born 
about  1805,  wrote  under  the  assumed  name  of  "Father 
Prout."  He  contributed  many  able  articles  to  "  Fraser's 
Magazine,"  which  were  published  separately  in  i860. 
He  also  wrote  as  correspondent  for  several  daily  jour- 
nals of  London.    Died  in  1866. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1836. 

Mahudel,  mt'\x'dhV,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  at  Langres  in  1673.  He  practised  medicine  in 
Paris  for  many  years.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Ancient  Medals  or  Coins  of  Spain,"  (1725,)  and  several 
antiquarian  treatises  inserted  in  the  records  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions.    Died  in  1747. 

Mahul,  mt^iil',  (Alphonse  Jacques,)  a  French  po- 
litical writer,  born  at  Carcassone  in  1793.  He  published 
a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Annuaire  necrologique,  ou 
Supplement  annuel  et  Continuation  de  toutes  les  Bio- 
graphies," (6  vols.,  1821-26.) 

Mai,  mS'ee  or  mi,  (Angelo,)  Cardinal,  a  celebrated 
Italian  critic  and  philologist,  born  at  Schilpario,  in  the 
province  of  Bergamo,  on  the  7th  of  March,  1782.  He 
became  an  excellent  classical  scholar,  and  about  1808 
was  admitted  as  an  associate  in  the  Ambrosian  Library 
of  Milan,  which  was  rich  in  ancient  manuscripts.  He 
applied  himself  to  the  task  of  deciphering  palimpsests, 
and  discovered  portions  of  Cicero's  orations  and  other 
classic  works  which  had  never  been  printed.  In  1819 
he  was  appointed  chief  librarian  of  the  Vatican  at  Rome. 
The  discovery  which  made  the  greatest  sensation  was 
that  of  six  books  of  Cicero,  "  De  Republica,"  which  he 
published,  with  able  critical  notes,  in  1822.  These 
books,  which  had  been  lost  since  the  twelfth  century, 
were  found  by  him  in  the  Vatican.  Among  the  monu- 
ments of  his  critical  sagacity  and  patient  research  are 
three  collections,  entitled  "A  New  Collection  of  Ancient 
Authors,  produced  from  the  Library  of  the  Vatican," 
("  Scriptorum  Veterum  nova  Collectio  e  Vaticanis  Codi- 
cibus  edita,"  10  vols.  4to,  1825-38,)  "Classic  Writers 
published  from  the  Manuscripts  of  the  Vatican,"  ("Clas- 
sici  Scriptores  ex  Codicibus  Vaticanis  editi,"  10  vols., 
1828-38,)  and  "New  Library  of  the  Fathers,"  ("Nova 
Bibliotheca  Patrum,"  6  vols.,  1845-53.)  He  was  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  cardinal  in  1838,  was  chosen  a  foreign 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  lo?ig;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  %  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  i%X\  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MAI  A  1499  MAILLET^DUCLAIRON 


associate  of  the  French  Institute  in  1842,  and  librarian 
of  the  Roman  Church  in  1853.  Died  in  September,  1854. 

See  P.  A.  MuTTi,  "Elogio  di  Angelo  Mai,"  1828;  "Nouvelle 
Biogiaphie  Generale." 

Mala,  [Mam  or  Mamf,]  in  Greek  mythology,  is  repre- 
sented as  the  daughter  of  Atlas  and  Pleione,  (whence 
she  was  called  Atlantis  and  Pleias,)  and  the  eldest  of  the 
Pleiades.    She  was  the  mother  of  Hermes,  (Mercury.) 

Another  Maia,  alias  Majesta,  was  a  goddess  of  the 
Romans,  who  named  one  of  the  months  in  honour 
of  her. 

Maiano  or  Majano,  da,  di  mi-yi'no,  (Benedetto,) 
an  eminent  Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  was  born  in 
Tuscany,  perhaps  in  Florence,  in  1424,  or,  according  to 
other  authorities,  in  1442.  He  acquired  fame  first  by 
his  unrivalled  skill  in  inlaid  work,  and  afterwards  de- 
voted himself  to  sculpture  in  marble.  He  worked  in 
Florence  and  Naples.  Among  his  best  productions  are 
a  bust  of  Giotto,  and  a  marble  pulpit  of  Santa  Croce, 
(in  Florence,)  in  which  he  represented  the  life  of  Saint 
Francis.    Died  in  1498. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.;  Quatrem6re  de 
QuiNCY,  "Vies  des  Architectes  celebres." 

Maiano  or  Majano,  da,  (Giuliano,)  an  excellent 
Italian  architect,  born  in  Naples.  His  birth  is  variously 
dated  1377,  1387,  and  1432.  He  designed  at  Naples  the 
royal  palace  of  Poggio  Reale  and  the  triumphal  arch  of 
Castello  Nuovo.  Having  been  invited  to  Rome  by  Paul 
II.,  he  built  between  1464  and  1471  one  of  the  courts  of 
the  Vatican  and  the  palace  and  church  of  San  Marco. 
Died  about  1490. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;Ticozzi,  "Dizionario." 

Maichel,  ml'Kel,  (Daniel,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Stuttgart  in  1693,  became  professor  of  philoso- 
phy at  Tubingen  in  1724.  He  published  an  '*  Introduc- 
tion to  Literary  History,"  in  which  he  describes  the 
great  libraries  of  Paris.    Died  in  1752. 

Maidalchini-Pamfili.    See  Maldachini-Pamfill 

Maienne.    See  Mayenne. 

Maier.    See  Mayer. 

Maier,  mi'er,  (Michael,)  a  famous  German  alchemist, 
born  in  Holstein  in  1568.  He  became  physician  to  the 
emperor  Rudolph,  but  left  his  service,  and  wasted  his 
time  and  money  in  the  researches  of  alchemy.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Jocus  Severus,"  "  Atalanta  fu- 
giens,"  ( 1618,)  and  '*  Tripus  Aureus,"  ("  Golden  Tripod,") 
which  are  prized  by  amateurs.    Died  in  1622. 

See  HoEFER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Maignan,  min'ySN',  [Lat.  Maigna'nus,](Emanuel,) 
a  French  monk,  eminent  as  a  geometer  and  philosopher, 
W£S  born  at  Toulouse  in  1601.  'He  became  professor 
of  mathematics  in  Rome  in  1636.  He  wrote  "  Perspec- 
tiva  Horaria,"  an  able  "  Treatise  on  Catoptrics,"  (1648,) 
and  a  few  other  works.    Died  in  1676. 

See  Sagukns,  "  De  Vita,  Moribus,  etc.  E.  Maignani,"  1697; 
NiCER()N,  "Memoires." 

Maignanus.    See  Maignan. 

Maigrot,  mi'gRo',  (Charles,)  a  French  missionary, 
born  in  Paris  in  1652.  He  laboured  in  China  from  1683 
to  1 706,  and  wrote  "  De  Sinica  Religione,"  (unpublished.) 
Died  at  Rome  in  1730. 

See  M  AiLLA,  "  Histoire  generale  de  la  Chine." 

Maikof,  Maikov,  Maikoff,  or  Maikow,  mi-kof, 

(Vasil  Ivanovi  tch,)  a  Russian  soldier  and  poet,  born 
at  Yaroslaf  in  1725.  He  obtained  some  reputation  for 
humour  and  comic  power  by  his  "  Yelisei,  or  Bacchus 
Enraged,"  a  burlesque  poem.  He  also  wrote  several 
dramas  and  fables.    Died  in  1778. 

Maildth  or  Majlath,  mj'lSt,  (JAnos  Nepomuk,) 
Count,  an  eminent  Hungarian  poet  and  historian,  was 
born  at  Pesth  in  1786.  He  was  employed  many  years 
in  the  civil  service  of  Austria.  In  the  affairs  of  Hun- 
gary he  was  identified  with  the  conservatives,  or  adver- 
saries of  Kossuth.  He  published,  in  German,  two 
important  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Magyars,"  (1828- 
31,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Austrian  Empire,"  (1834-50.) 
The  revolution  of  1848  deprived  him  of  his  official  em- 
ployment as  judex  airice  at  Pesth,  and  reduced  him  to 
extreme  poverty.  He  and  his  daughter  Henrietta  drowned 
themselves  in  Lake  Starnberg,  in  Bavaria,  in  1855.  He 


left  several  poems  and  translations.  He  was  highly 
respected  as  a  man. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon ;"  also  an  article  on 
the  "  Language  and  Literature  of  the  Magyars"  in  the  *'  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1828,  and  October,  1839. 

Mailhe,  m^l,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  revolution- 
ist, born  in  1754,  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792. 
During  the  trial  of  the  king,  he  voted  for  an  appeal  to 
the  people ;  but  he  was  counted  among  those  who  voted 
for  death  conditionally.    Died  in  1834. 

Mailla,  Maillat,  mt'yt',  or  Maillac,  de,  deh  mt'yik', 
(Joseph  Anne  Marie  de  Moyria,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  near  Nantua  in  1679.  He  was  sent  to 
China  in  1702,  resided  at  court,  and  received  the  title  of 
mandarin.  He  translated  into  French  a  "General  His- 
tory of  China,"  (12  vols.,  1777-83.)  "This  work," says 
Weiss,  "with  the  Memoirs  published  by  Batteux,  Bre- 
quigny,  etc.,  (1775-1816,)  forms  the  most  extensive  and 
valuable  collection  that  has  yet  appeared  on  China."  He 
died  in  Pekin  in  1748. 

Maillac.    See  Mailla. 

Maillane.    See  Durand  de  Maillane. 

Maillard,  mt''yiR',  (Olivier,)  a  celebrated  French 
pulpit  orator,  born  in  Bretagne.  He  preached  in  Paris 
in  1494,  and  gave  much  offence  by  his  boldness.  Louis 
XI.  having  threatened  to  throw  him  into  the  river,  Mail- 
lard said  to  the  person  who  conveyed  the  menace,  "  Go 
tell  the  king  that  I  shall  arrive  at  heaven  by  water  sooner 
than  he  can  by  post-horses."    Died  about  1505. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Maillard,  (Sebastian,)  a  scientific  Austrian  general, 
born  at  Luneville  in  1746.  He  wrote  "The  Mechanics 
of  Arches,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1822. 

Maillard  de  Chambure,  mt'ytR'  deh  sh6N^biiR', 
(Charles  Hippolyte,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at 
Semur  in  1772  ;  died  in  1841. 

Maillat.    See  Mailla. 

Maillebois,  de,  deh  mtrbw^'  or  mt'ye-bwS',  (Jean 
Baptisi'e  Francois  Desmarets — di-miW,)  Marquis, 
a  famous  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1682,  was  a  son 
of  Nicolas  Desmarets,  contrdleur-geiicral,  and  a  grandson 
of  the  great  Colbert.  After  many  services,  he  was  made 
lieutenant-general  in  1 73 1,  commanded  a  division  in  Italy 
in  1 733,  and  took  Corsica  in  1 739.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  marshal  in  1 741,  defeated  the  Austrians  on  the  Po  in 
September,  1745,  and  was  forced  to  retreat  at  the  battle 
of  Piacenza,  in  June,  1746.    Died  in  1762. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XV  ;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des 
Frangais  :"  Masson  de  Pezay,  "  Histoire  des  Campagnes  du  Mare* 
chal  de  Maillebois  en  Italie,"  3  vols.,  1775. 

Maille-Breze,  de,  deh  mt'yi'  bReh-za',  (Urbain,)  a 
French  general,  who  obtained  command  of  the  French 
army  in  Germany  in  1634,  and  defeated  the  Spaniards 
at  Avesnes  in  1635.  Having  gained  several  advantages 
in  Flanders  between  1642  and  1650,  he  was  made  a 
marshal  of  France.  His  wife  was  Nicole,  a  sister  of 
Cardinal  Richelieu.    He  died  in  1650. 

His  son,  Armand,  born  in  1619,  became  Due  de 
Fronsac  and  de  Caumont.  As  admiral  of  France,  he 
defeated  the  Spaniards  off  Cadiz  in  1640,  and  was  killed 
at  Orbitello  in  1646. 

See  Grikfet,  "  Histoire  de  Louis  XIIL" 

Maille  de  Breze,  de,  deh  mt'yi'  deh  bReh-zi', 

(Simon,)  a  French  prelate,  born  in  1515.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Tours  in  1554,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  Trent    Died  in  1597. 

Maillet,  mt'y^',  (  Jacques  Leonard,  )  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1823.  He  gained  the  first 
prize  in  1847. 

Maillet,  de,  deh  mt'yi',  (BenoIt,)  a  French  writer, 
born  at  Saint-Mihiel  in  1656.  He  was  consul-general  of 
France  in  Egypt  about  ten  years,  ending  in  1702,  and 
published  a  "Description  of  Egypt,"  (1735,)  which  has 
some  merit.  He  also  wrote  a  singular  treatise  on  cos- 
mology, entitled  "Telliamed,"  (anagram  of  De  Maillet.) 
Died  in  1738. 

Maillet-Duclairon,  mt^yi'  dii^kli'r^N',  (Antoine,) 
a  French  author,  born  near  Macon  in  1721.  He  cor- 
responded with  Voltaire  and  Turgot,  and  wrote  several 
works,  among  which  is  "Cromwell,"  a  tragedy,  (1764.) 
Died  in  1809. 


•e  as  i^;;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Vi,gutfural;  N  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (S^=*See  Explanations,  p  23.) 


MAILLY 


1 500 


MJINTENON 


Mailly,  mS'ye',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  respectable  French 
historian,  l)orn  at  Dijon  in  1744.  He  lectured  on  his- 
tory at  Godran  College  in  Dijon,  and  published  "  Spirit 
of  the  Fronde,"  ("  L'Esprit  de  la  Fronde,"  1772,)  and 
"  Spirit  of  the  Crusades,"  ("  L'Esprit  des  Croisades,"  4 
vols.,  1780.)    Died  in  1794. 

Mailly  d'Hautcourt,  de,  deh  mt'ye'  d5'kooR',  (Jo- 
SETH  AuGUSi'iN,)  CouNT,  a  French  general,  born  in 
1708.  After  the  peace  of  1763  he  was  commandant-in- 
chief  of  Roussillon.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  marshal 
in  1783.    He  was  beheaded  as  a  royalist  in  1794. 

Maimbourg,  miN'booR',  (Louis,)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  historian,  born  at  Nancy  in  1620.  He  acquired 
reputation  by  his  historical  works,  which,  however,  are 
neither  accurate  nor  impartial.  Having  written  a  treatise 
in  defence  of  the  liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church,  and 
thus  offended  the  pope,  he  was  expelled  from  the  order 
of  Jesuits.  Among  his  works  are  (in  French)  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Iconoclasts,"  (1674,)  a  History  of  the 
Crusades,"  (1675,)  a  "History  of  Arianism,"  (1682,)  a 
"History  of  Calvinism,"  (1682,)  and  a  "  History  of  the 
Pontificate  of  Saint  Leo,"  (1687.)  His  style  is  agree- 
able. Voltaire  expressed  the  opinion  that  he  was  "  over- 
rated at  first,  and  too  much  neglected  afterwards."  Died 
in  1686. 

See  DupiN,  "  Bibliotheque  ecclesiastique  ;"  Bavle,  "  Historical 
and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Maimon.    See  Maimonides. 

Maimon,  mi'mon,  .(Solomon,)  a  Jewish  rabbi  and 
philosopher,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1753.  He  had  a  talent 
^or  metaphysical  speculations,  and  a  skeptical  spirit. 
Among  his  best  works  are  "  Critical  Researches  on  the 
Human  Mind,"  ("  Kritische  Untersuchungen  iiber  den 
menschlichen  Geist,"  1797,)  and  memoirs  of  his  own  life, 
entitled  "  Lebensgeschichte,"  (2  vols.,  1793.)  Died  in 
1800. 

See  Wolf,  "  Rhapsodien  zur  Characteristik  S.  Maimons,"  1813. 

Maimonide.    See  Maimonides. 

Maimonides,  ml-mon'e-des,  [Fr.  Maimonide,  mt^e'- 
mo'n^d',  ]  or  Mo'ses-Ben-Maimon,  ( bgn-niT'mon, ) 
called  by  the  Arabs  Moosa-Ibn-Maimoon,  (Musa- 
Ibn-Maimun  or  -Maimoun,)  moo'sS  Tb'n  ml'moon',  a 
Jewish  rabbi  and  philosopher  of  great  celebrity,  was  born 
at  Cordova,  in  Spain,  about  1135.  He  studied  philosophy 
and  medicine  under  the  famous  Averroes,  with  whom  he 
formed  a  lasting  friendship,  and  was  also  versed  in  mathe- 
matics and  several  languages.  Having  removed  to  Egypt 
about  1165,  he  became  chief  physician  to  the  Sultan 
Saladin  and  his  successor.  He  acquired  a  great  repu- 
tation for  talents  and  learning.  Among  his  numerous 
works  are  "  The  Strong  Hand,"  a  digest  of  Hebrew 
laws,  and  "  More  Nebokhim ;  or,  Teacher  of  the  Per- 
plexed," (in  Arabic,)  which  explains  difficult  and  obscure 
portions  of  the  Old  Testament.    Died  in  1209. 

See  Abraham  Geiger,  "  Mose  Ben  Maimon,  seine  Lebensge- 
schichte," 1850;  Olaus  Celsius,  "  De  Maimonide,"  1727;  Peter 
Beer,  "  Das  Leben  Moses  ben  Maimon,"  1835  :  Lemans,  "  Levens- 
beschrijvinjj  van  Maimonides,"  1815  ;  Stein,  "  Moses  Maimonides," 
1846;  R.  M.  Maimonides,  "Account  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Maimoni- 
des," London,  1837;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mainardi,  ml-naR'dee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Cremona  about  1550.  He  was  sometimes  called 
Chiaveghino,  (ke-i-vi-gee'no.)    Died  after  1613. 

Mainardi,  (Bastiano,)  a  painter  of  the  Florentine 
school,  born  in  Tuscany,  lived  about  1500. 

Mainardi,  (Lattanzio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Bologna,  lived  about  1590.  He  was  employed  by  the 
pope  Sixtus  V.  to  adorn  with  frescos  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore,  and  the  Vatican.  Died  at  the  age  of 
twenty-seven. 

Maindron,  miN^RiN',  (Btienne  Hippolyte,)  a 
French  statuary,  born  in  the  department  of  Maine-et- 
Loire  in  1801. 

Maine,  (Lacroix  du.)    See  Lacroix  du  Maine. 

Maine  de  Biran,  mkn  deh  be^rSN',  (Marie  Fran- 
gois  Pierre  Gonthirr,)  an  eminent  French  metaphy- 
sician, born  near  Bergerac  in  1766.  After  opposing  the 
excesses  of  the  Revolution,  he  was  deputed  from  Dor- 
dogne  to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1797.  From 
1809  to  1814  he  was  a  member  of  the  legislative  body. 
After  the  restoration  of  1816  he  was  a  moderate  royalist 
member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.    He  gained  in 


1803  a  prize  of  the  Institute  for  his  essay  "  On  the  Influ- 
ence of  Habit  on  the  Faculty  of  Thought,"  ("  De  ITnflu- 
ence  de  1' Habitude  sur  la  Faculte  de  Penser.")  He  also 
wrote  the  metaphysical  part  of  the  article  "  Leibnitz"  in 
the  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  a  "  Memoir  on  the  De- 
composition of  Thought,"  ("Sur  la  Decomposition  de  la 
Pensee,"  1805,)  and  several  other  works.  M.  V.  Cousin 
estimated  him  as  the  greatest  metaphysician  of  France 
since  Malebranche,    Died  in  1824. 

See  Ernest  Naville,  "Maine  de  Biran,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Pens^es," 
1857  ;  Damiron,  "  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  de  la  Philosophic  en  France 
au  dix-neuvieme  Siecle;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi;" 
Cousin,  Preface  to  the  "  (Euvres  philosophiques  de  Maine  de 
Biron,"  1841  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "  British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  1866. 

Maine,  du,  dii  m^n,  (Louis  Auguste  de  Bourbon,) 
Duke,  the  son  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Madame  de  Montes- 
pan,  was  born  in  1670,  and  legitimated  in  1673.  He  was 
appointed  general  of  the  galleys  in  1688,  and  grand 
master  of  the  artillery  in  1694.  The  king  recognized 
him  as  a  prince  of  the  blood  and  capable  of  succeeding 
to  the  throne.  The  duke  appears  to  have  displayed  a 
gentle  and  liberal  spirit,  with  moderate  literary  talents. 
Died  in  1736. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  Lemontey,  "  Histoire  de  la 
Regence;"  Madame  de  Sevigne,  "Lettres." 
Mainfroi.  See  Manfred. 

Maino,  mi'no,  (Giasone,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at 
Pesaro  in  1435.  He  was  professor  of  law  at  Pavia  from 
1467  to  i486.  After  an  absence  he  returned  to  Pavia  in 
1491,  and  lectured  to  large  classes  of  Italian,  French, 
and  German  students.  He  published  commentaries  on 
the  Digest,  three  Latin  orations,  and  "  Consilia  sive 
Responsa."    Died  in  15 19. 

See  Faeroni,  "Vita  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Maintenon,  de,  deh  mdNt'n6N',  (Franqois  d'Au- 
BiGNii:,)  Marquise,  a  French  lady,  whose  life  was 
marked  by  romantic  adventures  and  surprising  vicissi- 
tudes, was  born  in  1635,  in  the  prison  of  Niort,  (where 
her  father.  Constant  d'Aubigne,  was  detained.)  She  was 
a  granddaughter  of  the  eminent  author  T.  A.  d'Aubigne. 
Having  become  a  poor  orphan,  she  was  constrained 
by  her  guardians  to  abjure  Calvinism.  To  escape  the 
miseries  of  dependence  on  her  unkind  godmother,  she 
married  in  1652  Scarron  the  burlesque  poet  and  wit,  who 
was  infirm  and  deformed  in  person.  His  house  was  a 
fashionable  resort  of  the  most  brilliant  wits  and  noblesse 
of  Paris.  Pie  died  in  1660,  leaving  her  again  destitute 
of  resources  except  her  rare  beauty  and  talents.  Her 
eyes  are  described  as  dark,  intensely  spiritual,  and  inex- 
pressibly lustrous.  She  received  a  pension  of  2000  livres 
from  the  queen-mother  for  several  years  preceding  the 
death  of  the  latter,  in  1666. 

About  1670  Madame  Scarron  was  selected  as  govern- 
ess of  the  Due  du  Maine,  a  son  of  Louis  XIV.  and 
Madame  de  Montespan.  The  king  presented  to  her  the 
estate  of  Maintenon  in  1674,  after  which  she  was  called 
Madame  de  Maintenon.  She  gradually  gained  a  com- 
plete ascendant  over  Louis,  and  was  secretly  married  to 
him  in  1685.  The  marriage  was  never  formally  avowed 
by  him.  "  It  would  be  hard  to  name  any  woman,"  says 
Macaulay,  "who,  with  so  little  romance  in  her  temper, 
has  had  so  much  in  her  life.  ...  A  just  understanding; 
an  inexhaustible  yet  never  redundant  flow  of  rational, 
sprightly  conversation  ;  a  temper  of  which  the  serenity 
was  never  for  a  moment  ruffled  ;  a  tact  which  surpassed 
the  tact  of  her  sex  as  much  as  the  tact  of  her  sex  sur- 
passes the  tact  of  ours  :  such  were  the  qualities  which 
made  the  widow  of  a  buffoon  first  the  confidential  friend 
and  then  the  spouse  of  the  proudest  and  most  ])owerful 
of  European  kings."  Madame  de  Sevigne  describes  her 
society  as  "  truly  delicious." 

She  laboured  assiduously  to  convert  the  king  to  vital 
religion.  Louis  transacted  business  with  his  ministers 
in  her  apartment,  discussed  the  most  important  ques- 
tions in  her  presence,  and  often  asked  her  advice  in  these 
terms:  "Qu'en  pense  votre  Solidite  ?"  ("What  does 
your  Solidity  think  about  it?")  He  was  once  dissuaded 
by  her  from  the  cruel  purpose  of  burning  the  city  of 
Treves.  As  the  king  grew  old  and  fretful,  her  task  of 
entertaining  him  became  very  arduous.  "I  have  seen 
her,"  says  Mile.  d'Aumale,  "  divert  the  king  by  a  thou- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  9,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


MJINFIELLE  1 50 1  MAITLAN  D 


sand  inventions  for  four  hours  together,  without  repeti- 
tion, yawning,  or  slander."  She  founded  a  good  school 
for  girls  at  Saint-Cyr.  She  died  in  1719.  Her  letters 
and  other  works  have  been  published  by  M.  Lavallee,  in 
ID  vols.,  (1854  et  seq.)  This  edition  includes  "  Souvenirs 
de  Mine,  de  Caylus,"  and  "  Memoires  de  Mile.  d'Au- 
male." 

See  Caraccioli,  "  Vie  de  Madame  de  Maintenon,"  1786;  Ma- 
dame SuARD,  "  Madame  de  Maintenon  peinte  par  elle-meme,"  1810 ; 
MoNMERQUE,  "  Notice  siir  Madame  de  Maintenon,"  1829;  La 
BeauiMelle,  "  Memoires  pour  servir  il'Histoire  de  Mme.  de  Main- 
tenon,"1756;  Le  Due  DE  Noailles,  "  Histoire  de  Madame  de 
Maintenon,"  4  vols.,  1848-59;  Lafont  d'Ausonne,  "Histoire  de 
Madame  de  Maintenon,"  1814;  Voltaire,  "Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;" 
Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  dii  Lundi,"  tome  iv.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generate  ;"  W.  H.  D.  Adams,  "  Famous  Beauties  and 
Historic  Women,"  vol.  i.,  London,  1865;  "Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  February,  1850 ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1849; 

Letters  of  Madame  de  Maintenon,"  in  the  *'  Monthly  Review"  for 
January,  1753. 

Mainvielle,  mW\^'lV,  or  Mainville,  miN'v^K, 
(Pierre,)  a  member  of  the  French  Convention  of  1792, 
was  born  at  Avignon  in  1765.  He  was  executed  with 
the  Girondists  in  October,  1793. 

See  Lamartine,  "Histoire  des  Girondins." 

Mainzer,  mlnt'ser,  (Joseph,)  a  German  musician  and 
writer  on  music,  born  at  Treves  in  1801  ;  died  in  1851. 

Maio  or  Majo,  da,  di  mS'yo,  (Francesco  or  Cic- 
cio,)  an  excellent  Italian  composer  of  operas  and  sacred 
music,  born  at  Naples  in  1745,  (some  say  about  1740.) 
Among  his  operas  are  "Montezuma,"  (1765,)  and 
"Ipermnestra,"  (1770.)    Died  at  Rome  in  1774. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Maioli  or  Majoli,  mi-yo'lee,  (Cesare,)  an  Italian 
naturalist,  born  at  Forli  in  1746.  He  obtained  a  chair 
of  philosophy  at  Rome  in  1781.  He  wrote  many  works 
on  botany  and  zoology,  the  most  of  which  remain  in 
manuscript.    Died  in  1823. 

See  Farini,  "Memorie  sopra  la  Vita  del  Majoli,"  1824. 

Maioli  or  Majoli,  (Simone,)  an  Italian  canonist, 
born  at  Asti  about  1520. 

Maioragio  or  Majoragio,  mS-yo-rJ'jo,  [Lat.  Ma- 
JORa'gius,]  (Marcantonio,)  an  eloquent  and  learned 
ItaHan  writer,  whose  proper  name  was  Antonio  Maria 
CoNTi,  was  born  in  the  Milanese  in  15 14.  At  the  age 
of  twenty-six  he  obtained  the  chair  of  eloquence  at 
Milan.  He  wrote  a  "Commentary  on  the  Works  of 
Cicero,"  poems,  harangues,  and  various  other  works. 
Died  in  1555. 

Maiquez,  ml-k^th',  (Isidoro,)  a  popular  Spanish 
comedian,  born  at  Carthagena  about  1766.  He  intro- 
duced at  Madrid  a  more  simple  and  natural  style  of 
action,  and  was  reputed  the  most  excellent  comedian 
that  Spain  had  produced.    Died  in  1820. 

Mair,  (John.)    See  Major,  (John.) 

Mairan,  de,  deh  m^'rdN',  (Jean  Jacques  Dortous,) 
a  distinguished  French  savant  and  litteratetir,  born  at 
Beziers  in  1678.  About  1718  he  removed  to  Paris,  and 
was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  for  which  he 
wrote  many  memoirs  on  geometry,  physics,  and  other 
sciences.  He  published  a  "  Dissertation  on  Ice,"  ("  Dis- 
sertation sur  la  Glace,")  "  Letters  on  China,"  and  other 
works.  In  1740  he  succeeded  Fontenelle  as  secretary 
to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  in  1743  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy.  He  was  intimate  with  Voltaire. 
Died  in  1771. 

See  ViLLEMAiN.  "Tableau  de  la  Litt^rature  Frangaise  au  dix- 
huitieme  Siecle  ;"  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance  Generale ;"  Saba- 
THiHR.  "  Elose  de  Mairan,"  1842  ;  Grandjean  de  Fouchy,  "  £loge 
de  Mairan,"  1771 ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mairault,  de,  deh  m^'r5',  (Adrien  Maurice,)  a 
French  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1708.  He  aided  Desfon- 
taines  in  his  critical  works.    Died  in  1746. 

Maire,  Le.    See  Lemaire. 

Mairet,  mi'ra',  (Jean,)  a  French  dramatic  poet,  born 
at  Besan9on  in  1604.  In  1629  he  produced  his  principal 
work,  "  Sophonisba,"  a  tragedy,  which  was  very  suc- 
cessful, and  formed  an  epoch  in  the  annals  of  the  French 
theatre,  being  the  first  in  which  the  rule  of  unities  was 
observed.  He  wrote  many  other  tragedies  and  come- 
dies.   Died  in  1686. 

See  La  Harpe,  "Goursde  la  Litt^rature ;"  Guizot,  "Comeille 
et  son  Temps  ;"  Fontenelle,  "Vie  de  Comeille." 


Mairobert,  de,  deh  m^WbaiR',  (Mathieu  Fran- 
gois  Pidansat,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Champagne  in 
1707.  Among  his  works  is  the  "Observateur  Anglais," 
(4  vols.,  1778,)  reprinted  under  the  title  of  "Espion 
Anglais,"  ("English  Spy.")    Died  in  1779. 

Maironi  da  Ponte,  mi-ro'nee  di  pon'ti,  (Gio- 
vanni,) an  Italian  naturalist  and  writer,  born  at  Ber- 
gamo in  1748;  died  in  1833. 

Maiseaux,  Des.    See  Desmaiseaux. 

Maison,  ma'zoN',  (Nicolas  Joseph,)  Count,  a  mar- 
shal of  France,  was  born  at  fipinay,  near  Paris,  in  1 771. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  Jemmapes  in  1792.  In  1799 
he  became  adjutant-general  or  chief  of  the  staff  in  the 
army  of  Bernadotte.  For  his  services  at  Austerlitz,  in 
1805,  he  was  made  a  general  of  brigade.  He  took  part 
in  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812,  during  which  he  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  general  of  division.  In  1814  he 
received  from  Louis  XVIII.  the  title  of  peer  and  the 
command  of  the  army  of  Paris.  He  refused  to  recog- 
nize Bonaparte  on  his  return  from  Elba.  He  commanded 
the  expedition  against  the  Turks  of  the  Morea  in  1828, 
and  on  his  return  received  a  marshal's  baton.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Vienna  in  1830,  and  became  min- 
ister of  war  in  1835.    Died  in  1840. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoire  de  la  Republique,  du  Consulat  et  de 
I'Empire  ;"  Marmont,  "  Memoires  ;"  Victor  de  Brogue,  "  ^loge 
historique  du  Marechal  Maison,  "  1842;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Maisonfort,  de  la,  deh  It  mi^z6NToR',  (Louis  Du- 
bois Descours,)  Marquis,  a  French  biographer,  born 
in  Berry  in  1763,  was  a  royalist.  He  published  a  bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  those  who  figured  in  the  French 
Revolution,  (3  vols.,  1800.)    Died  in  1827. 

Maisonneuve,  de,  deh  mi'zo'nuv',  (Louis  Jean 
Baptiste,)  a  French  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Saint-Cloud 
about  1745.  His  tragedy  of  "  Roxelane  et  Mustapha" 
(1785)  had  a  prodigious  success.  He  produced,  also, 
"  Odmar  and  Zulma,"  (1788.)    Died  in  1819. 

Maissiat,  mi''se't',  (Michel,)  a  French  topographical 
engineer,  born  at  Nantua  in  1770.  He  published  several 
professional  works.    Died  in  1822. 

Maistral,  m^'tRtK,  (Esprit  Tranquille,)  a  French 
naval  ofiicer,  born  at  Quimper  in  1763  ;  died  in  1805. 
'  Maistre.    See  Sacy. 

Maistre,  (Isaac.)    See  Lemaistre. 

Maistre,  de,  deh  mitR,  (Joseph  Marie,)  Count,  an 
eminent  political  writer  and  philosopher,  was  born  at 
Chambery,  in  Savoy,  in  1754.  He  was  a  warm  oppo- 
nent of  the  French  Revolution,  and  attached  to  the 
ultramontane  school  of  theology.  In  1796  he  published 
"Considerations  on  France,"  which  obtained  great  suc- 
cess. He  was  appointed  by  the  King  of  Sardinia  grand 
chancellor  in  1799.  From  1802  to  1816  he  was  ambas- 
sador to  Saint  Petersburg,  and,  on  his  return  to  Turin 
in  181 7,  became  minister  of  state.  His  most  important 
work  is  entitled  "On  the  Pope,"  ("Du  Pape,"  1819,)  an 
argument  for  the  cause  of  popery  and  absolutism.  Died 
in  1821.    He  was  distinguished  as  an  original  thinker. 

See  Raymond,  "  liloge  du  Comte  J.  M.  de  Maistre,"  1827;  Vil- 
LEMAiN,  "  Cours  de  Litterature  Frangaise  au  dix-huiti^me  Siecle  ;" 
Villeneuve-Arifat,  "  Sloge  du  Comte  J.  de  Maistre,"  1853; 
Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  and  "  Portraits  contempo- 
rains;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Edinburgh  Review" 
for  October,  1852  ;  "Fraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1849. 

Maistre,  de,  (Xavier,)  a  popular  and  witty  author, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Chambery 
in  1764.  He  entered  the  Russian  service  about  1800, 
fought  against  the  Persians,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
major-general.  In  1794  he  produced  (in  French)  his  in- 
genious and  humorous  "  Journey  around  my  Chamber," 
("Voyage  autour  de  ma  Chambre.")  He  maintained 
his  reputation  as  an  elegant  writer  by  tales  entitled 
"Prisoners  of  the  Caucasus,"  and  "  Prascovie,  ou  la 
jeune  Siberienne."  After  181 7  he  lived  alternately  in 
France  and  Saint  Petersburg.    Died  in  1852. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  contemporains  ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Maitani,  mi-ti'nee,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Sienna  about  1240;  died  after  1310. 

Mainland,  (Sir  Frederick  Lewis,)  a  British  naval 
officer,  born  in  Scotland  in  1779.  As  captain,  he  served 
with  distinction  against  the  French  on  the  coast  of  Egypt 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAITLAND 


1502 


MAJORAGIO 


Jn  1 801.  In  181 5  he  was  ordered  to  keep  watch  on  the 
coast  of  France  in  order  to  prevent  the  escape  of  Na- 
poleon, who  surrendered  himself  to  Captain  Maitland  in 
July  and  was  conveyed  by  him  in  the  Bellerophon  to 
England.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  Died 
in  1839. 

Maitland,  (James.)    See  Lauderdale,  Earl  of. 

Maitland,  (John.)    See  Lauderdale,  Duke  of. 

Maitland,  (John,)  of  Thirlestane,  first  Lord  Mait- 
land, an  eminent  Scottish  statesman,  born  about  1540, 
was  the  second  son  of  Sir  Richard  Maitland,  noticed 
below,  and  grandfather  of  the  Duke  of  Lauderdale.  He 
was  appointed  keeper  of  the  privy  seal  in  1567.  For  his 
loyalty  to  Queen  Mary  he  was  proscribed  by  the  domi- 
nant party  about  1570  and  imprisoned  several  years.  In 
1584  he  was  made  secretary  of  state,  and  became  in  fact 
the  chief  minister  of  James  VI.  He  was  appointed  chan- 
cellor of  Scotland  in  1586  or  1587,  and  created  Baron 
Maitland  in  1590.  He  is  praised  for  his  moderation  and 
integrity  as  well  as  for  his  talents.  Several  of  his  Latin 
epigrams  have  been  published.    Died  in  1595. 

See  Mackenzie,  "Scotch  Writers;"  Lodge,  "  Lives  of  Eminent 
Personages." 

Maitland,  (Sir  Richard,)  of  Lethington,  a  Scottfsh 
writer  and  judge,  born  in  1496,  was  the  father  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Maitland,  noticed  below,  and  of  John,  first  Lord 
Maitland.  He  studied  law  in  France,  and  held  several 
high  offices.  About  1550  he  was  chosen  a  lord  of  session, 
and  in  1562  lord  privy  seal.  He  acquired  distinction 
as  a  poet  and  collector  of  Scottish  poetry.  One  of  his 
poems  is  entitled  "  Creation  and  Paradise  Lost."  Died 
in  1586. 

See  Irvine,  "  Lives  of  the  Scottish  Poets  ;"  Mackenzie,  "Scotch 
Writers;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men." 

Maitland,  (Rev.  Samuel  Roffey,)  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  an 

able  English  essayist  and  writer  on  ecclesiastical  history, 
etc.,  was  born  in  London  in  1792.  He  was  librarian  to 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  from  1837  to  1848.  He 
was  author  of  numerous  essays  on  theology,  morals,  etc. 
Among  his  principal  and  most  popular  works  is  "The 
Dark  Ages  :  being  a  Series  of  Essays  intended  to  Illus- 
trate the  State  of  Religion  and  Literature  in  the  Ninth, 
Tenth,  Eleventh,  and  Twelfth  Centuries,"  (1844.)  He 
aims  to  prove  that  those  ages  were  not  so  dark  as  they 
are  commonly  represented.    Died  in  1866. 

Maitland^  (Sir  William,)  of  Lethington,  Lithington, 
or  Lidington,  an  able  Scottish  minister  of  state,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Richard,  noticed  above.  In  1558 
he  became  principal  secretary  to  Mary  of  Guise,  queen- 
regent  ;  but  in  1559  he  joined  the  Protestant  chiefs  who 
had  taken  arms  against  her.  He  was  restored  to  the 
office  of  secretary  of  state  by  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  in 
1 56 1.  Though  not  a  Catholic,  he  enjoyed  the  favour  and 
confidence  of  the  queen,  who  sent  him  on  several  em- 
bassies to  Queen  Elizabeth.  After  Mary  was  imprisoned, 
(1567,)  he  adhered  to  her  cause,  and  united  with  the 
Duke  of  Norfolk  in  an  effort  to  save  her.  Having  failed 
in  an  attempt  to  mediate  between  the  two  hostile  parties, 
in  1570  he  declared  openly  for  the  queen.  His  enemy. 
Regent  Morton,  took  him  prisoner,  and  would  probably 
have  hung  him  if  Maitland  had  not  died  soon  after,  as 
some  suppose,  by  his  own  hand,  in  1573.  "All  the  con- 
temporary writers,"  says  Robertson,  "mention  him  with 
an  admiration  which  nothing  could  have  excited  but  the 
greatest  superiority  of  penetration  and  abilities."  "  His 
name,"  says  Burton,  "  was  a  by-word  for  subtlety  and 
state-craft.  Yet,  ...  if  we  look  at  his  life  and  doings, 
we  do  not  find  he  was  one  of  those  who  have  left  the 
mark  of  their  influence  upon  their  age.  .  .  .  He  had 
great  abilities,  but  they  were  rather  those  of  the  wit  and 
rhetorician  than  of  the  practical  man."  ("History  of 
Scotland,"  vol.  iv,  pp.  55-57.)  Hume  styles  Maitland 
"  Secretary  Lidington."  Queen  Elizabeth  called  him 
"the  flower  of  the  wits  of  Scotland," 

See  Froude,  '^  Reign  of  Elizabeth,"  passim,  but  particularly 
chaps,  xix.  and  xxiii. ;  Hume,  "  History  of  England;"  Robertson, 
"  History  of  Scotland." 

Maitland,  (William,)  a  Scottish  antiquary,  born  at 
Brechin  about  1693.  He  became  a  resident  of  London, 
and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.    He  ; 


published  a  "  History  of  London,"  (1739,)  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  Edinburgh."    Died  in  1757. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Maittaire,  mi't^R',  (Michel,)  an  eminent  scholar 
and  bibliographer,  born  in  France  in  1668,  was  the  son 
of  Protestant  parents,  who  emigrated  to  England  when 
the  edict  of  Nantes  was  revoked,  (1685.)  He  was  a 
good  classical  scholar,  and  edited  many  Greek  and  Latin 
authors.  He  resided  many  years  in  London.  Among 
his  most  important  productions  are  "  Dialects  of  the 
Greek  Language,"  (1706,)  and  "Typographic  Annals 
from  the  Invention  of  Printing  to  1557,"  ("Annales  Ty- 
pographic! ab  Artis  Inventae  Origine  ad  Annum  1557," 
9  vols.,  1 7 19-41,)  a  work  of  great  research,  and  superior 
to  any  that  had  appeared  on  that  subject.   Died  in  1747. 

See  DiBDiN,  "Bibliomania;"  P.  Chasles,  "Dissertation  on  the 
Life  and  Works  of  M.  Maittaire,"  London,  1819. 

Maitz  de  Goimpy,  du,  dii  m^ts  deh  gw^N'pe',  (Fran- 
gois  Louis  Edme  Gabriel,)  Count,  a  French  astrono- 
mer and  naval  officer,  born  in  Beauce  in  1729 ;  died  after 
1784. 

Mains.    See  May. 

Maizeroy,  de,  deh  miz'rwS',  (Paul  G^d^on  Joly,) 
a  French  officer  and  eminent  tactician,  was  born  at  Metz 
in  1 7 19.  He  served  several  campaigns,  ending  at  the 
peace  of  1763,  and  became  lieutenant-colonel.  He  wrote 
numerous  works  on  tactics  and  military  science,  which 
had  a  transient  success,  but  are  now  obsolete.  Died  in 
1780. 

Maizi^res,  de,  deh  mi'ze-aiR',  (Philippe,)  a  French 
writer,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Amiens  in  1312.  He  insti- 
gated the  Kings  of  France  and  of  Cyprus  to  conduct  a 
crusade  against  the  Saracens  of  Egypt  in  1365,  He 
wrote  an  allegory,  "  Le  Songe  du  vieil  Pelerin,"  etc 
Died  in  1405. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Majano.    See  Maiano. 

Majlath.    See  Mailath. 

Majo.    See  Maio. 

Majoli.    See  Maioll 

Major,  mS'yoR,  or  Meier,  ml'er,  (Georg,)  a  German 
Lutheran  theologian,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1502.  He 
studied  under  Luther  and  Melanchthon  at  Wittenberg, 
where  he  was  afterwards  professor  of  theology  for  many 
years.  He  published  commentaries  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  many  theological  works.    Died  in  1574. 

See  C.  Ui-ENBERG,  "Vita  et  Res  gestae  M.  Lutheri,  P.  Melanch- 
thonis  et  G.  Majoris,"  1622. 

Major,  (Isaac,)  a  German  painter  and  engraver, 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1576.  He  engraved 
a  number  of  large  landscapes  representing  scenes  in 
the  mountains  of  Bohemia.    Died  in  1630. 

Major,  (Johann  Daniel,)  a  German  physician  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Breslau  in  1634.  He  practised  with 
success  at  Hamburg.  In  1665  he  obtained  the  chair  of 
medicine  at  Kiel,  where  he  planted  a  botanic  garden. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  many  learned  professional  treatises. 
Died  in  1693. 

Ma'jor,  (John,)  written  also  Mair,  a  Scottish  his- 
torian and  theologian,  born  near  North  Berwick  about 
1470.  He  passed  a  number  of  years  in  Paris  as  a  stu- 
dent and  then  as  a  professor  of  scholastic  philosophy. 
In  1 5 19  he  returned  to  Scotland,  and  some  years  later 
l^ecame  professor  of  theology  at  Saint  Andrew's,  where 
George  Buchanan  and  John  Knox  were  his  pupils.  He 
wrote,  (in  Latin,)  besides  other  works,  "  Commentaries 
on  the  Four  Books  of  Sentences,"  and  a  "  History  of 
Scotland."  Died  about  1550.  Robertson  calls  him  a 
"  succinct  and  dry  writer." 

See  Ch.^mbers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Ma'jor,  (Richard  Henry,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  London  in  1818.  He  edited  several  works,  and 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator,"  (1868.) 

Major,  (Thomas,)  a  skilful  English  engraver,  born 
about  1715.  He  engraved  landscapes  after  Berghera, 
Teniers,  Claude  Lorrain,  etc.  Among  his  most  ad- 
mired works  are  twenty-four  views  of  the  Ruins  of 
Paestum,  after  J.  B.  Borra,  published  at  London,  (1768.) 

See  TiRABoscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Majoragio.    See  Maioragio. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  iiX;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MAJORAGIVS  1503 


MALE  ONE 


Majoragius.    See  Maioragio. 

Majorano,  (Gaetano.)    See  Gaffarelli. 

Ma-jo'ri-an,  [Lat.  Majoria'nus;  Fr.  Majorien, 
mt'zho''re4N',]  (Julius  Valerius,)  a  Roman  general, 
who  succeeded  Avitus  as  Emperor  of  the  West  in  457 
A.D.  He  defeated  Theodoric  the  Visigoth  in  Gaul  in  459, 
and  afterwards  waged  war  against  Genseric.  He  was 
deposed  and  put  to  death  by  Ricimer  in  461. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "  Histf)ire  des  Empereurs Smith,  "Diction- 
ary of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography." 

Majorien.    See  Majorian. 

Majus,  mi'yus,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  natural  philos- 
opher, born  at  Cassel  in  1632  ;  died  in  1696. 

Majus,  (JoHA>TN  BuRKHARD,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Pfortzheim  in  1652.  He  wrote  "  De  Rebus 
Badensibus,"  (1678,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1726. 

Majus  or  Maius,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  an  Oriental- 
ist, brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1653.  wrote 
on  theology  and  Hebrew  antiquities.    Died  in  1 7 19. 

Makeblyde,  m^'keh-birdeh,  (Louis,)  a  Flemish 
religious  writer,  born  at  Poperingue  in  1564;  died  in 
1630. 

Makkaree,  Makkari,  or  Makkary,  Al,  tl  m^k'- 

kS-ree,  (AHMED-lKN-MoHAMMED,lH''med  ib'n  mo-hlm'- 
m^d,)  an  Arabian  historian,  born  at  Tlemcen  about 
1585.  He  became  a  resident  of  Cairo  about  1620,  and 
wrote  numerous  historical  and  theological  works,  the 
most  important  of  which  is  a  valuable  "  History  of  Spain 
during  the  Domination  of  the  Moors,"  which  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Pascual  de  Gayangos,  under  the 
title  of  a  "  History  of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  in 
Spain,"  (2  vols.,  1843.)  Died  in  1631. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mako,  mokOco,  (Paul,)  a  learned  Hungarian  Jesuit, 
born  in  1723.  He  wrote  on  geometry,  physical  science, 
etc.    Died  in  1793. 

Makouski.    See  Makowskl 

Makowski,  mi-kov'skee,  written  also  Makouski, 
[Lat.  Macco'vius,]  (John,)  a  Polish  Protestant  divine, 
born  at  Lobzenick  in  1588.  He  was  noted  for  disputa- 
tiousness  and  fondness  for  scholastic  subtleties.  Died 
in  1644. 

See  Johann  Cocceji,  "Oratio  in  Funere  J.  Maccovii,"  1644. 

Makreezee  or  Makrizi,  Al,  tl  ml-kRee'zee,  sur- 
nanied  Takyah-ed-Deen  or  Taky-ed-Deen,  (or  Taki- 
EDDix,)  t^k'yed-deen',  (z>.  the  "  Support  of  Religion,")  a 
celebrated  Arabic  writer,  born  at  Cairo  about  1360.  He 
held  several  civil  and  religious  offices  in  his  native  city. 
He  wrote  many  historical  works,  which  attest  the  variety 
and  extent  of  his  knowledge.  His  "  Historical  and  Topo- 
graphical Description  of  Egypt"  gives  an  ample  account 
of  the  events  which  occurred  after  the  conquest  of  the 
Saracens,  and  of  the  customs  and  antiquities  of  that 
country.  He  also  wrote  a  "  History  of  Saladin  and 
his  Successors,"  and  a  treatise  on  Moslem  Coins.  The 
above-named  works  have  been  translated  into  French 
by  Silvestre  de  Sacy.  Al  Makreezee  has  the  reputa- 
tion of  being,  on  the  whole,  an  impartial,  trustworthy, 
and  eminently  judicious  writer.    Died  in  1442. 

See  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  "  Chrestomathie  Arabe." 

Makrizi.    See  Makreezee. 

Malabranca,  mS-ia-bRan^kl,  (Latino,)  an  Italian 
Dominican,  called  also  Frangipani,  was  a  nephew  of 
Pope  Nicholas  HI.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Ostia  and 
Velletri  in  1278.  His  diplomatic  talents  were  employed 
and  approved  by  several  successive  popes.  Died  about 
1294.  The  celebrated  hymn  "  Dies  Irae"  is  attributed 
to  him  by  many  writers. 

Malacarne,  ml  IS-kaR'ni,  (Michele  Vincenzo,)  an 
Italian  surgeon,  born  at  Saluzzo  in  1744.  He  contributed 
by  his  works  to  the  progress  of  science  in  Italy.  He  was 
professor  of  surgery  at  Padua  from  1794  until  his  death, 
in  1816.  Among  his  works  is  a  treatise  on  Encepha- 
lotomv. 

MaVa-ehi,  [Heb.  'DxSo.]  the  last  of  the  minor  He- 
brew prophets,  is  supposed  to  have  prophesied  about 
420  B.C.  Nothing  is  positively  known  of  his  history. 
The  name  signifies  "  angel,"  or  "  messenger  of  the  Lord." 
The  book  of  Malachi  is  the  last  book  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, in  the  order  of  time  as  well  as  of  position. 


Malachowski,  mS-li-Kov'skee,  (Casimir,)  a  Polish 
general,  born  in  1765.  He  had  the  chief  command  at 
Warsaw  when  that  place  was  taken  by  the  Russians  in 
183 1.    Died  in  1845. 

Malagrida,  mi-ld-gReeMI,  (Gabriele,)  an  Italian 
Jesuit,  born  in  the  Milanese  in  1689.  He  removed  to 
Portugal,  became  a  popular  preacher,  and  wrote  several 
works.  He  was  suspected  of  complicity  in  the  attempt 
to  assassinate  the  King  of  Portugal,  (1758,)  and  was 
convicted  of  heresy,  for  which  he  was  burned  in  1761. 

See  Smith,  "Memoirs  of  the  Marquis  of  Pombal ;"  Voltaire, 
"  Precis  du  Siecle  de  Louis  XV  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;" 
Platel,  "  Relazione  della  Condamna  ed  Esecuzione  del  Gesuita  G. 
Malagrida,"  1761. 

Malaguti,  mS-lS-goo'tee,  (Francois,)  a  distinguished 
chemist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1802.  Having  settled  in 
France,  he  studied  in  the  laboratory  of  Gay-Lussac,  and 
became  in  1850  professor  of  chemistry  at  Rennes.  He 
published  several  valuable  works,  among  which  is  "  Les- 
sons of  Agricultural  Chemistry,"  (1848.) 

Malaine,  mt'lan',  (Joseph  Laurent,)  a  French 
painter  of  flowers,  born  at  Tournai  in  1745 ;  died  in 
Paris  in  1809. 

Mal'a-la,  Mal'e-la,  or  Mal'e-las,  [Gr.  MoAaAa  or 
Ma^^Aa,]  called  also  John  of  Antioch,  was  the  author 
of  a  Greek  chronicle  which  extends  from  the  creation 
to  the  year  566  a,d.  It  was  first  printed  by  Chilmead, 
at  Oxford,  in  1691.  The  time  and  place  of  his  birth  and 
death  are  not  known.  He  was,  perhaps,  the  same  as 
John  of  Antioch  the  Scholastic. 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Malan,  mt^l6N',  (Abraham  Henri  C6sar,)  a  Swiss 
theologian,  born  at  Geneva  in  1787,  was  the  leader  of  a 
sect  sometimes  called  momiers.    Died  in  1864. 

See  the  "Life,  Labours,  etc.  of  Caesar  Malan,"  by  his  son,  Lon- 
don, 1869. 

Malapert,  mtli'paiR',  (Charles,)  a  Flemish  poet 
and  geometer,  born  at  Mons  in  1581.  He  became  a 
Jesuit,  and  a  professor  of  mathematics  in  various  col- 
leges. He  published  Latin  poems,  and  several  works 
on  geometry.    Died  in  Spain  about  1630. 

Malarme,  de,  deh  mt'ltRm',  (Charlotte,)  Count- 
ess, a  novelist,  born  at  Metz,  France,  in  1753,  was  a 
sister  of  Count  de  Bournon,  the  mineralogist.  She 
wrote  "Niralba,"  (1800,)  and  other  novels.  l3ied  about 
1830. 

Malaspina,  ml-ia-spee'nS,  (Ricordano,)  the  earliest 
historian  of  Florence,  was  born  in  that  city  in  the  thir- 
teenth century.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Florence  from 
its  Origin  to  the  Year  1281." 

See  Tiraboschi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Malaspina  di  Sannazaro,  ma-l§,-spee'ni  de  sSn- 
nSd-z§.'ro,  (LuiGi,)  Marquis,  an  Italian  writer  and  politi- 
cal economist,  born  at  Pavi'a  in  1754.  He  founded  a 
school  of  fine  arts  in  his  native  city.    Died  in  1834. 

Malatesta,  mS-li-tSs'tS,  a  noble  Italian  family,  which 
acquired  the  lordship  of  Rimini  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, and  furnished  several  leaders  of  the  Guelph  party. 
Malatesta  II.  and  Galeotto  Malatesti,  sons  of 
Pandolfe  I.,  began  to  reign  over  Rimini  in  1335.  They 
had  a  great  military  reputation,  and  next  to  the  Visconti 
were  perhaps  the  most  powerful  princes  of  Italy.  The 
former  died  in  1364,  and  Galeotto  in  1385,  leaving  two 
sons.  Carlo  and  Pandolfo  III.  These  two  became 
able  generals,  and  commanded  the  army  of  Visconti, 
Duke  of  Milan,  from  1393  to  1408.  Carlo,  who  was 
Lord  of  Rimini,  died  without  issue  in  1429.  The  de- 
scendants of  Pandolfo  III.  possessed  Rimini  until  1528, 
when  it  was  added  to  the  papal  dominions. 

Malatesta,  (Battista,)  an  Italian  lady  of  emii.e  it 
talents,  was  married  in  1405  to  Galeotto  Malatesta, 
Seigneur  of  Pesaro.  She  taught  philosophy  in  public, 
made  Latin  orations  before  the  emperor  and  pope,  and 
wrote  some  admired  verses. 

Malaval,  mt'lt'vtK,  (Franqois,)  a  French  mystic, 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1627,  became  blind  in  infancy, 
but  studied  Latin  with  success.  He  published,  besides 
several  prose  works  of  a  mystical  character,  "  Poesies 
spirituelles,"  ("Spiritual  Poems.")   Died  in  1719. 

Mal-bone',  (  Edward  G.,  )  an  American  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1777.  He 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y.^  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MALCHUS 


1504 


MALEBRJNCHE 


visited  Europe  in  1801  in  company  with  Washington 
Allston,  but  returned  the  same  year  to  America,  where 
he  soon  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  his  art.  Died 
in  1807. 

See  DuNLAP,  "History  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  America,"  vol. 
ii.  chap.  ii.  ;  Tuckerman,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

MaF-ehus  [Gr.  MaA;t''f]  of  Philadelphia,  called 
THE  S(JPH1ST,  a  Byzantine  historian,  lived  about  600 
A.D.    Fragments  of  his  works  are  extant. 

See  Cavk,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Malchus,  von,  fon  mai'Kiis,  (Karl  August,)  Baron, 
a  German  writer,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1770,  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  the  interior  in  the  kingdom  of  West- 
phalia in  1813.  He  published  several  works  on  political 
economy.    Died  in  1840. 

Malcolm  (mdl'kom)  I.,  King  of  Scots,  the  son  of 
Donald  IV.,  succeeded  his  cousin,  Constantine  III.,  in 
938  A.D.  He  was  killed  by  soine  of  his  own  subjects  who 
had  revolted  ;  but  the  date  of  this  event  is  not  known. 

Malcolm  II.,  King  of  Scotland,  was  the  son  of  Ken- 
neth III.  He  began  to  reign  in  1003,  and  resisted  seve- 
ral hostile  incursions  of  the  Danes  with  success.  He 
died  in  1033,  leaving  two  daughters,  one  of  whom  was 
the  mother  of  Duncan  I. 

Malcolm  III.,  surnamed  Canmore,  ("  Great  Head,") 
was  the  son  of  King  Duncan,  whose  virtues  and  tragical 
fate  are  commemorated  in  Shakspeare's  "  Macbeth." 
When  Duncan  was  killed,  in  1040,  Malcolm  escaped  to 
England.  (See  Macbeth.)  He  returned  with  an  army, 
defeated  INIacbeth,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  1057. 
About  1090  a  war  commenced  between  William  II.  of 
England  and  Malcolm,  who  was  killed  in  battle  at  Aln- 
wick Castle  in  1093.  His  sons  Alexander  and  David 
became  kings. 

See  Burton,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xi. 

Malcolm  IV.,  King  of  Scotland,  was  born  about 
1140,  and  succeeded  his  grandfather,  David  I.,  in  I153. 
He  made  peace  with  Henry  II.  of  England  by  ceding 
to  him  Northumberland.  He  died  in  11 65,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  William. 

See  BuRTcM,  "  Histoi-y  of  Scotland,"  vol.  ii.  chaps,  xiii.,  xiv. ; 
Buchanan,  "  Kerum  Scoticarum  Historia." 

Malcolm,  m^Kkom,  (James  Peller,)  an  engraver 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Philadelphia  about  1768.  He 
visited  Europe  in  his  youth,  and  became  a  student  in 
the  Royal  Academy  of  London.  He  published  "  Lon- 
dinum  Redivivum  ;  or.  The  Ancient  History  and  Modern 
Description  of  London,"  (1802-05,)  "Seventy  Views 
taken  within  the  Compass  of  Twelve  Miles  round  Lon- 
don," (1811,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1815. 

See  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1815. 

Malcolm,  miKkom,  (Sir  John,)  G.C.B.,  a  British 
general  and  eminent  historian,  born  in  Dumfriesshire, 
Scotland,  in  1769.  In  his  youth  he  went  to  India  as  a 
cadet  in  the  army  of  the  Company.  After  performing 
an  important  political  mission  to  Persia,  (1799,)  he  was 
appointed  to  the  presidency  of  Mysore  in  1803.  He 
was  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the  court  of  Persia  in 
1809  and  1810.  Having  collected  information  respect- 
ing Persia,  he  went  to  England  in  1812,  and  published 
a  valuable  "History  of  Persia"  (1815)  from  the  earliest 
times  to  the  date  of  publication.  He  returned  to  India 
in  1817,  obtained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and,  as 
second  in  command,  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Mehidpoor,  where  Holkar  was  defeated.  For  several 
ensuing  years  he  governed  Malwa  and  the  adjacent 
provinces  in  a  manner  which  is  highly  commended.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1821,  with  the  rank  of  major- 
general,  was  appointed  Governor  of  Bombay  in  1827, 
and  resigned  that  post  about  the  end  of  1830.  Sir  John 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Political  History  of 
India,"  (from  1784  to  1823,)  and  left  a  "Life  of  Lord 
Clive,"  which  appeared  in  1836.  He  was  a  brother  of 
Admiral  Sir  Pulteney  Malcolm.    Died  ini833. 

See  J.  W.  Kave,  "  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Sir  John  Mal- 
colm," 2  vols.,  1S56;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1816, 
and  July,  1823;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1812,  and  April, 
1857;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Malcolm,  (Sir  Pulteney,)  G.C.B.,  a  British  admiral, 
born  near  Langholm,  Scotland,  in  1768,  was  a  brother  of 


the  preceding.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1778,  fought 
against  the  French  in  the  West  Indies,  and  was  made 
a  post-captain  in  1794.  He  escorted  the  army  of  Sir 
Arthur  Wellesley  to  Portugal  in  1808,  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1813.  In  1816  and  181 7  he  was 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Saint  Helena  station,  where 
his  duty  called  him  into  intercourse  with  Bonaparte,  who 
expressed  himself  much  pleased  with  his  manners  and 
conduct.  He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  full  admiral 
in  1837.    Died  in  1838. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Mal'com,  (Howard,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1799,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
American  Tract  Society  and  of  the  American  Sunday- 
School  Union.  In  1835,  as  a  missionary,  he  visited 
India  and  China,  and  on  his  return  published  "Travels 
in  South-Eastern  Africa,"  (1839.)  He  published  a  "  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible,"  which  had  an  extensive  circulation, 
and  other  religious  works. 

Malczewski,  mil-chgv'skee,  written  also  Mal- 
czeski,  (Antuni,)  an  excellent  Polish  poet,  born  in  Vol- 
hynia  about  1792,  was  a  son  of  a  general  in  the  Russian 
service.  He  received  a  French  education,  and  entered 
the  army  in  1811.  Having  quitted  the  army  in  1816,  he 
travelled  for  some  years,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  Pole  that  ascended  Mont  Blanc.  His  reputation  is 
founded  on  a  single  poem,  entitled  "Maria;  a  Tale  of 
the  Ukraine,"  (Warsaw,  1826,)  which  is  one  of  the  most 
popular  poems  in  the  Polish  language.  He  died  poor  at 
Warsaw  in  1826. 

See  BiELOwsKi,  "A.  Malczewski,"  etc.,  1843. 

Maldachini  -  Pamfili,  mai-di-kee'nee  pim-fee'lee, 
(Donna  Olimpia,)  an  Italian  woman,  noted  for  her  am- 
bition, vices,  and  political  influence,  was  born  at  Viterbo 
in  1594.  She  was  married  to  a  man  whose  brother,  J.  B. 
Pamfili,  was  elected  pope  in  1644  and  assumed  the  title 
of  Innocent  X.    Died  in  1656, 

MaPden,  (Henry,)  an  English  writer,  born  about 
1800,  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1822.  He  became 
professor  of  Greek  in  University  College,  London,  about 
1830. 

Maldonado,  mil-do-nl'Do,  (Lopez,)  a  Spanish  poet 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  contemporary  with  Cer- 
vantes, who  mentions  him  with  eulogy. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Maldonado,  (Lorenzo  Ferrer,)  a  navigator,  who 
was  born  probably  in  Spain.  Pie  wrote  a  narrative  of  a 
voyage  which  he  made,  or  pretended  to  have  made,  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  through  Behring  Strait  in  1588. 
The  majority  of  geographers  liave  discredited  his  story. 

See  F.  DK  Navarrete,  "Historia  de  la  Nautica." 

Maldonat,  m§,!-do-n.^t',  [Lat.  Maldona'tus,](Juan,) 
a  celebrated  Spanish  theologian,  born  in  Estremadura 
in  1534.  Having  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits,  he  went 
to  Paris  about  1564,  and  and  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  a  professor  of  theology.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a 
person  of  great  talents,  learning,  and  piety,  and  to  have 
written  Latin  with  much  purity.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "  Commentaries  on  the  Four  Evangelists," 
(1596,)  which,  says  Hallam,  "have  been  highly  praised 
by  theologians  of  the  Protestant  side."    Died  in  1583. 

See  Prat,  "  Maldonat  et  I'Universiie  de  Paris,"  1857;  Bavle, 
"  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Maldonatus.    See  Maldonat. 

Malebranche,mtl'bR6Nsh',[Lat.  Malebran'chius,] 
(Nicolas,)  a  French  metaphysical  philosopher  of  great 
eminence,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  6th  of  August,  1638. 
His  habits  in  youth  were  retired  and  studious.  He  became 
a  priest  of  the  Oratory  in  1660,  and  was  a  zealous  Carte- 
sian in  philosophy,  which  was  his  favourite  study.  In  1674 
he  produced  the  first  volume  of  his  admirable  and  original 
"  Search  for  Truth,"  ("  Recherche  de  la  Verite,")  which 
was  quickly  and  highly  appreciated.  New  and  enlarged 
editions  of  it  rapidly  followed.  The  general  design  of 
this  work  is  to  demonstrate  the  harmony  of  the  Cartesian 
philosophy  with  revealed  religion.  His  style  is  eminently 
pure,  perspicuous,  and  elegant,  having,  says  Fontenelle, 
"  all  the  dignity  which  the  subject  requires,  and  all  the 
grace  or  ornament  which  it  could  properly  receive." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MALEBRANCHIUS 


1505 


MJLHERBE 


"He  was,"  says  Hallam,  "a  warm  and  almost  enthusi- 
astic admirer  of  Descartes,  but  his  mind  was  independent, 
searching,  and  fond  of  its  own  inventions  ;  he  acknow- 
ledged no  master,  and  in  some  points  dissents  from  the 
Cartesian  school.  .  .  .  The  fame  of  Malebranche,  and, 
still  more,  the  popularity  in  modern  times  of  his  '  Search 
for  Truth,'  have  been  affected  by  that  peculiar  hypothe- 
sis, so  mystically  expressed,  the  seeing  all  things  in  God, 
which  has  been  more  remembered  than  any  other  part 
of  that  treatise."  "  He  bears  a  striking  resemblance," 
adds  the  same  critic,  "to  his  great  contemporary  Pascal. 
Both  of  ardent  minds,  endowed  with  strong  imagination 
and  lively  wit,  sarcastic,  severe,  fearless,  disdainful  of 
popular  opinion  and  accredited  reputations.  .  .  .  But 
in  Malebranche  there  is  a  less  overpowering  sense  of 
religion  ;  his  eye  roams  unblenched  in  the  light  before 
which  that  of  Pascal  had  been  veiled  in  awe.  He  has 
less  energy,  but  more  copiousness  and  variety."  ("  Intro- 
duction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  "  This  ingenious 
philosopher  and  beautiful  writer,"  says  Mackintosh,  "is 
the  only  celebrated  Cartesian  who  has  professedly 
handled  the  Theory  of  Morals.  .  .  .  The  manner  in 
which  he  applied  his  principles  to  the  particulars  of 
human  duty  is  excellent.  He  is  perhaps  the  first  phi- 
losopher who  has  precisely  laid  down,  and  rigidly  ad- 
hered to,  the  great  principle  that  virtue  consists  in  pure 
intentions  and  dispositions  of  niindy  without  which  actions, 
however  conformable  to  rules,  are  not  truly  moral."  He 
was  involved  in  a  long  and  intemperate  controversy  with 
Arnauld  on  the  theory  of  ideas  and  on  the  doctrine  of 
grace. 

In  1687  he  combined  all  the  parts  of  his  system,  and 
developed  them  more  fully,  in  "  Conversations  on  Meta- 
physics and  Religion,"  ("  Entretiens  sur  la  Metaphysique 
ef  la  Religion.")  He  was  author  of  other  religious  and 
Rjystical  works,  among  which  are  "Christian  and  Meta- 
physical Meditations,"  (1683,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Mo- 
rality," ("Traite  de  Morale,"  1684.)  He  gave  proof  of 
his  profound  attainments  as  a  geometer  by  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Communication  of  Motion."  Died  at  Paris  in 
October,  1715. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  £  loge  de  Malebranche;"  Mackintosh, 
"View  of  the  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy;"  J.  E.  Erdmann, 
"Malebranche,  Spinoza  und  die  Sceptiker  und  Mystiker  des  sieb- 
zehnten  Jahrhunderts,"  1836;  Karl  Relstag,  "  Dissertatio  de 
Malebranchio  Philosopho,"  1846;  Nic^ron,  "Memoires;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Malebranchius.    See  Malebranche. 

Maleguzzi-Valeri,  mS-li-goot'see  vi-la'ree,  (Vero- 
nica,) Countess,  one  of  the  most  learned  and  gifted 
women  of  Italy,  was  born  at  Reggio,  Lombardy,  in  1630. 
She  wrote  a  drama  called  "  Innocence  Recognized." 
Died  in  1690. 

Maiek-Ibn-Anas,  m^'lek  ib'n  Sn'as,  the  chief  or 
founder  of  one  of  the  four  Moslem  sects  which  are  ac- 
counted orthodox,  was  born  at  Medina  in  714  a.d.  His 
doctrines,  of  which  he  published  an  explanation,  were 
generally  adopted  by  the  Mussulmans  of  Spain,  Egypt, 
and  Barbary.    Died  about  795. 

See  Hammer-Purgstall,  "  Literaturgeschichte  der  Araber;" 
"  Noiivelle  Biographie  G^nerale. " 

Malek-Shah.    See  Malik-Shah. 
Malela.    See  Malala. 

Malermi,  mS-lgn'mee,  or  Malerbi,  ml-llR'bee,  (Nic- 
Col6,)  an  Italian  translator,  born  in  Venice  in  1422.  He 
produced  (1471)  the  first  Italian  version  of  the  Bible 
that  was  ever  printed. 

Malesherbes,  de,  deh  mtl'ziRb',  (Chretien  Guil- 
Laume  de  Lamoignon — lt'mwtn'y6N',)  a  meritorious 
French  judge  and  philanthropist,  born  in  Paris  in  1721, 
was  a  son  of  Chancellor  de  Lamoignon.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-four  he  was  chosen  a  counsellor  in  the  Parliament, 
and  in  1750  became  president  of  the  Cour  des  Aides.  He 
was  directeur  de  la  librairie,  or  censor  of  books,  from 
1750  to  1768,  and  was  praised  for  his  liberality  or  indul- 
gence by  Rousseau,  Voltaire,  and  the  Encyclopaedists. 
He  acqmVed  great  popularity  by  his  defence  of  the  Parlia- 
ment against  the  ministry  about  1772.  In  1775,  having 
been  indicated  by  the  public  voice,  he  was  appointed  a 
colleague  of  Turgot  in  the  new  ministry,  as  minister  of 
the  king's  household  and  of  the  police,  but  he  resigned 
in  1776,  when  Turgot  was  dismissed.    He  was  elected 


to  the  French  Academy  in  1775,  though  he  had  not  pro 
duced  any  purely  literary  work.  He  was  author  of 
treatises  on  rural  economy  and  finances,  and  of  a  "  Me* 
moir  on  the  Liberty  of  the  Press."  When  Louis  XVI. 
was  arraigned  by  the  Convention  in  1792,  Malesherbes 
generously  offered  to  him  his  services  as  counsel,  which 
were  accepted.  This  act  of  fidelity  having  rendered  him 
suspected  by  the  terrorists,  he  was  executed  in  April, 
1794.  His  virtues  are  warmly  eulogized  by  both  royal- 
ists and  republicans. 

See  Delisle  de  Sales,  "  Memoires  sur  la  Vie  publique  et  privee 
de  Malesherbes,"  1803;  Gaillard,  "Vie  ou  filoge  historique  de 
Malesherbes,"  180=;;  J.  B.  Dubois,  "Notice  sur  Lamoignon-Males- 
herbes,"  1806 ;  Boissv  d'Anglas,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Males- 
herbes," 2  vols.,  1818  ;  C.  P.  DuPLESsis,  "£loge  de  Malesherbes," 
1820;  DupiN  AiNE,  "filoge  de  Lamoignon-Malesherbes,"  1841  ; 
Sainte-Beuve,  "Malesherbes,"  in  "  Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  ii. 

Malet,  de,  deh  mt'li',  (Claude  FRANgois,)  a  French 
general  and  conspirator,  born  at  Dole  in  1754.  About 
1806  he  was  dismissed  from  the  service,  and  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  plotted  against  Bonaparte,  and  was  im- 
prisoned from  1808  to  1812.  Having  formed  another 
conspiracy,  he  announced  at  the  barracks,  in  Paris,  on 
the  24th  of  October,  1812,  that  Bonaparte  had  died  in 
Russia,  and  that  he  (Malet)  had  been  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Paris  by  the  senate.  By  forged  orders  he  im- 
posed on  the  prefect  of  Paris,  made  Savary  prisoner,  and 
shot  General  Hullin.  At  this  crisis  his  audacity  was 
baffled  by  Laborde,  who  made  him  prisoner.  Malet  and 
his  accomplices  were  shot,  after  a  summary  process,  in 
October,  181 2. 

See  Lafon,  "  Histoire  de  la  Conspiration  du  General  Malet," 
1814;  DouKiLLE,  "  Histoire  de  la  Conspiration  de  Malet,"  1840. 

Mal'e-vill  or  Mel'vill,  (Geoffrey,)  a  Scottish  states- 
man, became  lord  justiciary  of  Scotland  in  1171.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  who  held  that  oftice. 

Maleville,  de,  deh  mtl'v^K,  (Jacques,)  Marquis,  a 
French  jurist,  born  in  Perigord  in  1741.  He  aided  Por- 
talis  and  others  in  framing  the  Civil  Code,  about  1800, 
and  wrote  an  "  Analysis  of  the  Discussion  of  the  Civil 
Code,"  (4  vols.,  1805.)    Died  in  1824. 

Maleville,  de,  (L60N,)  a  French  advocate  and  poli- 
tician, born  at  Montauban  in  1803.  He  was  minister  of 
the  interior  for  a  short  time  in  December,  1848.  He 
was  a  moderate  royalist,  and  a  devoted  friend  of  Thiers. 

Colonel  de  Maleville,  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Domme  in  1813,  was  killed  at  Solferino  in  July, 
1859. 

Malezieu,  de,  deh  miKze-uh',  (Nicolas,)  a  French 
scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1650.  He  was  a  friend  of  Fene- 
lon  and  Bossuet,  whose  influence  procured  for  him  the 
place  of  preceptor  of  the  Due  du  Maine.  He  after- 
wards taught  mathematics  to  the  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1701,  and  pub- 
lished "Elements  of  Geometry  for  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy," (1715.)    Died  in  1729. 

Malfiiatre  or  Malfiimtre,  de,  deh  mSKfe'lStR', 
(Jacques  Charles  Louis,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Caen  in  1733.  He  composed  a  poem  on  the  "Transla- 
tion of  Elijah  to  Heaven,"  and  another  called  "  Narcissus 
in  the  Island  of  Venus,"  (1769,)  which  is  said  to  possess 
great  beauties.    Died  in  1767. 

See  De  Baudrh,  "  Discours  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Malfilatre,"  1825  ; 
La  Harpe,  "Cours  de  Litterature." 

Malgaigne,  mtKgiii',  (Joseph  Franqois,)  a  French 
medical  writer  and  surgeon,  born  in  Paris  about  1806. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Sur- 
gical Anatomy  and  Experimental  Surgery,"  (2  vols., 
1838.)    Died  in  1865. 

Malherbe,  de,  deh  mt'liRb',  (  Francois,  )  a  dis- 
tinguished French  lyric  poet,  born  at  Caen  about  1555. 
He  served  several  campaigns  in  the  civil  wars  of  the 
League,  and  married  Madeleine  de  Carriolis  in  1581. 
In  1587  he  composed  his  first  work,  "The  Tears  of  Saint 
Peter."  An  "  Ode  to  the  Queen  Marie  de  Medicis"  (1600) 
was  the  foundation  of  his  fame.  He  came  to  Paris  a  few 
years  later,  and  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  Henry  IV. 
during  the  life  of  that  prince.  Malherbe  was  called  the 
poet  of  princes  and  the  prince  of  poets.  He  died  in  1628. 
"  He  was,"  says  La  Harpe,  "  the  first  [French]  model  of 
the  noble  style,  and  the  creator  of  lyric  poetry.  He  has 
its  enthusiasm,  its  movements,  and  its  tournures.''^  "  Mal- 


€  as  ^;  5  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

95 


MALHOUET 


1506 


MALLET 


herbe,"  says  Hallain,  "gave  a  polish  and  a  grace  to  the 
lyric  poetry  of  France,  which  has  rendered  his  name  cele- 
brated in  her  criticism.  In  general,  we  find  in  his  poems 
neither  imagery  nor  sentiments  that  yield  us  delight." 
Comparing  him  with  Horace,  the  same  critic  remarks, 
"He  is  far  from  deficient  in  that  calm  philosophy  which 
forms  the  charm  of  the  Roman  poet."  Introduction 
to  the  Literature  of  Europe.'') 

ijee  Roux-Ai.PHERAN,  "  Recherches  sur  Malherbe  et  sa  Famille," 
1S40;  "Malherbe,  s.i  Vie  et  ses  CEuvres,"  by  M.  de  Gournay, 
1852  ;  Saintr-Beuve,  "Causeriesdu  Lundi,"  tomeviii. ;  "  Nouvelle 
Blogrnphie  Geiierale." 

Malhouet.    See  Malouet. 

Malibran,  mS'le'bRdN',  (Maria  FelicitA,)  a  cele- 
brated singer  and  actress,  born  in  Paris  in  1808,  was  the 
daughter  of  Manuel  Garcia,  a  Spanish  tenor  singer.  She 
made  her  debut  in  London  in  1825,  and  in  1826  visited 
New  York,  where  she  married  M.  Malibran,  a  banker. 
After  he  had  become  a  bankrupt,  she  separated  from  him 
and  went  to  Paris,  where  she  performed  with  complete 
success  in  1828.  In  Italy,  England,  and  Germany  she 
also  obtained  triumphs  almost  unexampled  in  the  his- 
tory of  artistes.  Her  voice  was  a  mezzo-soprano  of  great 
volume.  She  was  very  successful  as  an  actress.  She 
died  in  England  in  1836,  soon  after  a  second  marriage 
with  M.  de  Beriot,  a  violinist. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Uiiiverselle  des  Musicietis;"  "Memoirs 
of  Madame  Malibran,"  by  the  Countess  of  Merlin. 

Malik  (miKik)  or  Melik,  m^l'ik.  El  Adel,  l\  i'del, 
I.,  (Seif-ed-DeeD  Aboobeker  Mohammed,  or  Saif- 
Eddyn  Aboubekr  Mohammed,  sif  ed-deen'  i'boo- 
bek'er  mo-hSm'med,)  Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Damascus, 
born  at  Baalbec  in  1139,  was  a  brother  of  the  famous 
Saladin.  He  gained  victories  over  the  crusaders  in  11 74 
and  1 187.  In  1201  he  became  Sultan  of  Egypt.  He 
extended  his  dominions  by  conquest  in  Syria.  Died 
in  1218. 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  iii, 

Malik-Shah,  miKik  shih,  written  also  Malek- 
(Malec-  or  Melek-)  Sh^h,  a  famous  Seljookide  sove- 
reign, the  son  of  Alp-Arslan,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1072. 
Under  Malik-Shah  the  Seljookian  empire  reached  its 
highest  point  of  power  and  glory.  His  character,  like 
that  of  his  father,  appears  to  have  been  singularly  noble. 
His  succession  to  the  throne  had  been  disputed  by  his 
brother  Toortoosh,  (Tourtousch.)  Before  giving  battle 
to  his  rival,  he  asked  his  minister,  Nizam-ool-Moolk,  as 
they  came  out  of  the  mosque  together,  what  he  had 
prayed  for.  "  I  have  prayed,"  answered  the  minister, 
"  that  God  would  give  you  the  victory  over  your  brother." 
"And  I,"  said  Malik-Shah,  "that  God  would  take  away 
my  life  and  crown,  if  my  brother  is  worthier  to  reign  than 
I."  Perhaps  the  onlv  stain  upon  the  character  of  this 
great  prince  is  his  having,  at  the  instigation  of  his  Sul- 
tana, the  Khatoon  Toorkan,  removed  from  office  his 
minister,  the  illustrious  Nizam-ool-Moolk,*  to  whose 
wise  administration  the  empire  was  chiefly  indebted  for 
its  long-continued  prosperity.  Nizam  dbl-Mo61k  died 
soon  after  by  the  dagger  of  an  assassin.  Malik-Shah 
survived  his  minister  only  a  few  months.  He  died  in  1092. 

"There  is  no  instance,"  says  Sir  John  Malcolm,  "in 
Persian  history,  of  so  vast  an  empire  enjoying  so  long  a 
period  of  tranquillity.  The  kingdom  he  inherited,  which 
extended  from  the  plains  of  Tartary  to  those  of  Syria, 
was,  during  the  twenty  years  of  his  reign,  only  disturbed 
by  a  short  contest  with  his  uncle  and  brother,  .  .  .  Agri- 
culture was  promoted,  learning  was  encouraged;  an  as- 
sembly of  astronomers  from  every  part  of  Malik-Shah's 
wide  dominions  were  employed  for  several  years  in  re- 
forming the  calendar." 

See  Malcolm,  "  History  of  Persia,"  vol.  i.  chap.  viii. 

Malinche  or  Malintzin.    See  Marina. 
_  Malingre,  ma'l^NgR',  (Claude,)  a   French  histo- 
rian of  little  merit,  born  at  Sens  about  1580.    He  wrote 
several  works  on  F'rench  history,  which  were  not  suc- 
cessful.   Died  about  '653. 

MaFla-ry,  (Charles,)  a  Baptist  minister,  born  in 
Poultney,  Vermont,  in  1801,  removed  to  Georgia.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  Mercer  Theological  Seminary, 
at  Penfield,  Georgia. 

*  I  his  name,  the  only  one  by  vhich  he  was  known,  signifies  the 
"regulator  of  the  state  or  kingdom." 


Mallary,  (Rollin  Carlos,)  a  lawyer,  a  brother  o! 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Cheshire,  Connecticut,  in 
1784.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1819  until 
his  death,  in  1831. 

Mallemans,  mtl'mSN',  (Jean,)  a  French  writer,  noted 
for  singular  and  extravagant  opinions,  born  at  Beaune 
in  1649,  was  a  brother  of  Claude,  noticed  below.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Church  before  the  Reign  of 
Jovian,"  (1704,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1740. 

Mallemans  de  Messanges,  mtl'mow'  deh  ma's6Nzh', 
(Claude,)  a  French  savant,  born  at  Beaune  in  1653.  He 
was  professor  of  philosophy  for  thirty-four  years  at  the 
College  du  Plessis,  Paris.  He  published  "  A  Physical 
Treatise  on  the  World,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1723. 

Malleolus.    See  Hammerlein. 

Mallery,  de,  deh  mtKre',  (Charles,)  a  Flemish  en- 
graver, born  at  Antwerp  in  1576.  His  son  Philip,  born 
in  1600,  was  a  skilful  engraver. 

See  F.  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Mallet,  mt'iy,  (Charles  Auguste,)  a  French  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Lille  in  1807.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Etudes  philosophiques,"  (2  vols.,  1837- 
38,)  which  gained  a  prize  of  the  French  Academy.  He 
wrote  numerous  articles  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

MaFlet  or  Malloch,  maKloK,  (David,)  a  Scottish 
poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Crieff,  in  Perthshire,  about 
1698,  was  the  son  of  James  Malloch.  He  removed  to 
London  about  1724,  and  changed  his  name  to  Mallet.  In 
1728  he  produced  "The  Excursion,"  a  poem,  and  in  1731 
"  Eurydice,"  a  tragedy.  He  became  intimate  with  Pope, 
who  procured  him  a  situation  as  travelling  tutor.  His 
tragedy  "  Mustapha"  (1739)  was  performed  with  ap- 
plause. About  1740  he  was  appointed  under-secretary 
to  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales.  Among  his  other  works 
are  "  Amyntor  and  Theodora,"  and  a  "Life  of  Bacon." 
He  is  censured  for  acting  as  the  venal  agent  of  Boling- 
broke  in  an  attempt  to  blast  the  memory  of  Pope,  (1749.) 
Died  in  1765.  "As  a  writer,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "he 
cannot  be  placed  in  any  high  class.  His  dramas  had 
their  day, — a  short  day, — and  are  forgotten  :  his  blank 
verse  seems  to  my  ear  the  echo  of  Thomson." 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets  ;"  Ruffhead,  "  Life  of  Pope  ;" 
Boswell,  "  Life  of  Johnson;"  Disraeli,  "  Quarrels  of  Authors;" 
Chamhers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mallet,  (Edme,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Melun 
in  1 7 13.  He  published  an  "Essay  on  the  Study  of 
Belles-Lettres,"  and  translated  into  French  Davila's 
"  History."    Died  in  1755. 

Mallet,  miKlet,  (Fredrick,)  a  Swedish  writer  on 
science,  born  in  1728,  was  for  many  years  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Upsal.  He  published  many  treatises 
between  1752  and  1774,  and  co-operated  with  Bergman 
in  a  general  description  of  the  earth.  Of  this  work 
Mallet  wrote  the  astronomical  part.    Died  in  1797. 

Mallet,  x\\t'W,  (Jacques  Andr6,)  called  Mallet- 
Favre,  a  vSwiss  astronomer,  born  at  Geneva  in  1740,  was 
a  favourite  pupil  of  Daniel  Bernoulli.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  astronomy  at  Geneva  about  1770,  and  built  an 
observatory  there.  He  wrote  memoirs  on  astronomy, 
mechanics,  etc.  for  the  Academy  of  Paris  and  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  of  which  he  was  a  member.  Died 
in  1790. 

See  PicoT,  "  filoge  de  J.  A.  Mallet,"  1790. 

Mallet,  (Paul  Henri,)  a  Swiss  historian,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1730.  He  taught  French  to  the  Prince-Royal 
of  Denmark,  (Christian  VII.,)  and  returned  to  Geneva 
in  1760.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  history  in  the 
Academy  of  that  city.  Among  his  works  (in  French) 
are  "Monuments  of  the  Mythology  and  Poetry  of  the 
Celts,"  (1756,)  "Memoirs  on  the  Literature  of  the 
North,"  (6  vols.,  1760,)  and  a  "History  of  Denmark," 
(3  vols.,  1777,)  which  is  highly  esteemed  and  has  been 
translated  into  English,  German,  etc.    Died  in  1807. 

His  "Introduction  a  I'Histoire  de  Danemark"  was 
translated  into  English,  under  the  title  of  "Northern  An- 
tiquities," which  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  works  on 
Northern  mythology. 

See  SisMONDi,  "De  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de  P.  H.  Mallet,"  1807; 
Haag,  "  La  France  protestante  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gend- 
rale  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1771. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  filr,  fall,  fit;  m§t;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


MALLET-DUPAN 


1507 


MALTE-BRUN 


Mallet-Dupan,  mt'W  dii'pdN',  (Jacques,)  a  distin- 
guished publicist  and  editor,  born  at  Geneva  in  1749. 
He  became  a  resident  of  Paris  in  1782,  and  editor  of  a 
journal  called  "  Mercure  historique  et  politique,"  which 
was  very  successful.  In  the  Revolution  he  defended  the 
royalist  cause,  and  in  1792  was  compelled  to  suspend 
the  publication  of  the  "  Mercure,"  of  which  he  had 
written  the  political  editorials.  He  then  became  an 
exile,  and  in  1799  began  to  issue,  in  London,  the  "Mer- 
cure Britannique,"  which  was  ranked  among  the  ablest 
political  journals  of  that  time.  Died  in  England  in  1800. 

See  "Memoireset  Correspondance  de  Mallet-Dupan,"  Paris, 
1851  ;  S AiNTE-  Beuve,  "  Causeries  dii  Lundi  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Geiierale;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1852. 

Mallet-Prevost,  mt'l|'  pRi\6',  (Henri,)  a  scientific 
Swiss  writer,  born  at  Geneva  in  1727.  He  published  a 
valuable  "Metrologic  Manual,  or  Repertory  of  Weights, 
Measures,  and  Coins  of  Various  Nations,"  (1802,)  and  a 
"Description  of  Geneva,"  (1807.)  Died  in  1811.  He 
was  a  brother  of  Paul  Henri  Mallet,  noticed  above. 

Malleville,  de,  deh  mtl'v^K,  (Claude,)  a  French 
minor  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1597,  was  one  of  the  first 
members  of  the  Academic  Fran9aise.  "  He  seldom 
produced  a  finished  piece,"  says  Hallam,  "  though  not 
deficient  in  spirit  and  delicacy."  His  poems  are  son- 
nets, one  of  which  is  called  "The  Fair  Early-Riser," 
("La  belle  Matineuse.")    Died  in  1647. 

See  "  Histoire  de  I'Acadeinie  Frangaise." 

Mallinkrot,  von,  fon  mlKlin-kRot^  (Bernard,)  a 
German  philologist,  was  dean  of  the  chapter  of  Miinster. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Rise 
and  Progress  of  the  Art  of  Printing."    Died  in  1664. 

Mallio,  miKle-o,  (Michele,)  an  Italian  writer  of  verse 
and  fiction,  born  at  Sant'  Elpidio  in  1756;  died  in  1831. 

Malloch.    See  Mallet,  (David.) 

Mal'lo-ry,  (Stephen  R.,)  an  American  Democratic 
politician,  born  about  i8ro.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of  Florida  in  1850, 
and  re-elected  in  1856.  He  served  as  secretary  of  the 
navy  of  the  Confederate  States  from  March,  1861,  to 
1865. 

Malmesbury,  Earl  of.    See  Harris,  (James.) 

Malmesbury,  mims'ber-e,  (James  Howard  Har- 
ris,) third  Earl  of,  a  British  Tory  statesman,  a  grand- 
son of  the  first  Earl  of  Malmesbury,  was  born  in  1807. 
He  succeeded  to  the  earldom  at  the  death  of  his  father, 
in  1841,  before  which  he  was  styled  Lord  Fitzharris. 
In  February,  1852,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  foreign 
affairs  in  the  Derby  ministry,  which  was  dissolved  in 
December  of  that  year.  He  again  became  foreign  secre- 
tary under  Lord  Derby  in  1858,  and  on  the  formation 
of  the  I-iberal  ministry  in  June,  1859,  was  succeeded  by 
Lord  John  Russell.  He  edited  the  "  Diaries  and  Official 
Correspondence  of  the  First  Earl  of  Malmesbury,"  (1844.) 
About  July  I,  1866,  he  was  appointed  lord  privy  seal. 
He  retired  from  office  in  December,  1868. 

Malmesbury,  (William  of,)  an  old  English  histo- 
rian, who  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  in  Somerset- 
shire about  1095.  He  became  a  monk  in  the  monastery 
of  Malmesbury,  where  he  held  the  office  of  librarian. 
His  principal  works  are  a  "  History  of  England  from 
450  to  1127,"  ("  De  Gestis  Regum  Anglorum,")  "  Recent 
History,"  ("  Historia  Novella,")  wherein  he  relates  events 
of  which  he  was  an  eye-witness,  and  a  "  History  of  the 
English  Prelates,"  ("  De  Gestis  Pontificnm."  )  These  are 
highly  prized  for  accuracy,  veracity,  and  critical  judg- 
ment.   He  died  in  or  after  1143. 

Malm.strbm  or  Malmstroem.  mJlm'stRom,  (Elts,) 
a  Swedish  poet,  born  in  1816.  He  published  a  collection 
of  elegies  entitled  "Angelica,"  (1840,)  and  an  epic  poem 
of  "Ariadne."    Died  at  Stockholm  in  June,  1865. 

Malombra,  ma-lom'bRa,(PfETRO,)  aVenetian  painter, 
born  in  1556.  He  was  successful  in  portraits  and  in 
historical  pictures.    Died  in  1618. 

Malon,  mt'l^N',  (Julius,)  a  Belgian  statesman  and 
prominent  leader  of  the  Catholic  party,  born  at  Ypres 
in  1810.    He  became  minister  of  finance  in  1845. 

Ma-lone',  (Edmund,)  an  Irish  critic,  chiefly  distin- 
guished as  an  editor  and  commentator  of  Shakspeare, 
was  born  in  Dublin  in  1741.  Having  inherited  an  easy 
fortune,  he  removed  to  London  and  devoted  himself  to 


literature.  He  associated  with  Dr.  Johnson,  Burke,  and 
other  eminent  authors.  In  1790  he  published  his  edition 
of  Shakspeare,  with  commentaries.  He  excelled  Stee- 
vens.  a  rival  commentator,  in  candour  and  love  of  truth  ; 
but  "neither  seems,"  says  Hallam,  "to  have  had  a  full 
discernment  of  Shakspeare's  genius."  Malone  published 
an  edition  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds's  works,  with  a  Me- 
moir of  his  Life,  (1797,)  and  other  works.  He  died  in 
1812,  leaving  unfinished  an  improved  edition  of  Shak- 
speare, since  published,  (1821.) 

See  James  Boswell,  "  Biographical  Memoir  of  Edmund  Ma- 
lone;"  Sir  James  Prior,  "Life  of  Edmund  Malone,"  i860; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1793. 

Malouet  orMalhouet,  mt'loo'i',  (Pierre  Victor,) 
a  French  statesman,  born  at  Riom  in  1740.  In  1789  he 
was  elected  to  the  States-General,  where  he  became 
prominent  as  a  liberal  royalist  and  co-operated  with 
Clermont-Tonnerre.  He  took  refuge  in  England  in 
1792,  returned  about  1802,  and  was  chosen  a  councillor 
of  state  in  1810.    Died  in  1814. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Malouin,  mt'loo-iN',  (Paul  Jacques,)  a  French 
chemist  and  physician,  born  at  Caen  in  1701.  He  be- 
came professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  Paris, 
in  1745,  wrote  many  articles  on  that  science  for  the 
"  Encyclopedie,"  and  published  an  esteemed  work  on 
"Medical  Chemistry,"  (1750.)  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences.    Died  in  1778. 

See  CoNDORCET,  "  filoge  de  P.  J.  Malouin  ;"  "  Biographie  Medi- 
cale." 

Malpighi,  mll-pee'gee,  (Marcello,)  [Lat.  Marcei/- 

LUS  Malpic/hius,]  a  celebrated  Italian  anatomist  and 
naturalist,  born  near  Bologna  in  1628.  Having  gradu- 
ated as  a  physician  in  1653,  he  became  professor  at  Pisa 
in  1656,  and  at  Messina  about  1664.  He  published,  be- 
tween 1661  and  1665,  treatises  "On  the  Lungs,"  ("  De 
Pulmonibus,")  "  On  the  Tongue,"  ("  De  Lingua,")  anc! 
"  On  the  Brain,"  ("  De  Cerebro.")  Malpighi  was  the 
first  who  used  the  microscope  in  the  study  of  anatomy. 
In  1670  he  returned  to  Bologna,  and  wrote  an  important 
work  on  the  anatomy  of  plants,  "  Anatome  Plantarum," 
(1675,)  a  science  which  was  first  cultivated  by  Grew  and 
Malpighi.  He  made  discoveries  in  the  structure  of  the 
skin  and  glands.  In  1691  he  was  chosen  chief  physician 
to  Pope  Innocent  XII.    He  died  in  Rome  in  1694. 

See  Regis,  "Vita  Malpighii,"  prefixed  to  his  "Opera  posthnma," 
i6q8;  Fabroni,  "Vita  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  G.  Atti, 
"  Notizie  biografiche  di  M.  Malpiphi,"  etc.,  1847;  Niceron,  "Me- 
moires ;"  Cuvier,  "Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Malpighins.    See  Malpighl 

Malsburg,  mSls^booRG,  (Ernst  Friedrich  Georg 
Otto,)  Baron,  a  German  litterateur,  born  at  Hanau  in 
1786,  translated  Calderon's  dramas  into  German,  and 
published  a  number  of  religious  poems.    Died  in  1824. 

Mait'by,  (Edward,)  an  English^  theologian,  born  at 
Norwich  in  1770.  He  became  Bishop  of  Durham  in 
1836,  and  published  several  volumes  of  sermons.  Died 
in  1859. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1820. 

Malte-Brun,  mault'brun'  or  mtKteh-bruN',(CoNRAD,) 
a  Danish  author  and  geogra])her  of  great  merit  and  celeb- 
rity, was  born  at  Thister,  Jutland,  in  1775.  His  original 
name,  Malthe  Conrad  Bruun,  (bRoon,)  was  changed 
by  the  French  into  Malte-Brun,  by  which  he  is  now 
universally  known.  He  had  a  great  facility  for  learnv*« 
languages,  and  wrote  French  with  an  ease  and  elegance 
which  perhaps  no  other  foreigner  ever  acquired.  In  hi.<i 
enthusiasm  for  liberty,  he  wrote  some  political  articles, 
for  which  he  was  banished  in  1796.  He  composed  several 
admired  odes  ;  that  on  the  death  of  Count  Bernstorf 
is  esteemed  one  of  the  finest  in  the  Danish  language. 
Induced  partly  by  admiration  of  Napoleon,  he  became 
an  adopted  citizen  of  France  about  1800.  In  1806  he 
was  engaged  as  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "Journal  des 
Debats"  of  Paris,  for  which  he  wrote,  during  many  years, 
able  articles  on  foreign  politics,  history,  languages,  science, 
etc.  Malte-Brun  and  Eyries  edited  in  1808  the  "An- 
nals of  Voya-ges  of  Geograjihy  and  of  History,"  ("Annales 
des  Voyages  de  la  Geographie  et  de  I'Histoire.")  Be- 
fore this  period  he  had  devoted  his  attention  chiefly  to 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Yi,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


\ 


MJLTE-BRUN 


I  ?o8 


MAMMuEA 


the  science  of  geography,  in  which  he  surpassed  all  his 
predecessors  by  his  happy  union  of  philosophy  with  a 
highly  poetic  imagination.  In  i8io  he  published  the 
first  volume  of  his  great  work,  "A  System  of  Universal 
Geography,"  ("  Precis  de  la  Geographie  universelle,") 
the  plan  of  which  was  too  vast  for  one  man  to  execute. 
The  sixth  volume  was  finished  in  1825.  Exhausted  with 
excessive  labour  and  study,  he  died  in  December,  1826, 
leaving  his  task  unfinished.  The  language  of  this  work 
is  graphic,  picturesque,  and  at  times  highly  poetical.  In 
order  to  complete  the  plan,  two  more  volumes  were  sub- 
sequently added  by  M.  Huot.  There  is  a  good  English 
version  of  Malte-Brun's  Geography,  by  J.  G.  Percival,  the 
American  poet  and  savant. 

See  BoRY  de  Saint-Vincent,  "Notice  biographique  sur  M. 
Malte-Brun,"  1827;  Querakd,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  Erslew, 
"  Fort'atter- Lexicon  ;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Malte-Brun,  (Victor  Adolphe,)  a  geographer,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1816.  He 
became  professor  of  history  at  Pamiers  in  1838.  He 
published  a  new  edition  of  his  father's  Geography,  (8 
vols.,  1852-55.) 

Mal'thus,  (Thomas  Robert,)  an  English  political 
economist,  distinguished  as  the  author  of  the  Malthusian 
theory,  was  born  near  Dorking,  Surrey,  in  1766.  He 
graduated  as  M.A.  at  Cambridge  in  1797,  took  orders, 
and  settled  in  a  parish  near  his  native  place.  In  1798 
he  controverted  the  theories  of  Godwin  and  others  on 
the  progress  and  perfectibility  of  human  nature,  in  his 
"  Essay  on  the  Principle  of  Population  as  it  affects  the 
Future  Improvement  of  Society."  Much  attention  was 
excited  by  his  fundamental  principle,  that  population 
tends  to  increase  in  geometrical  progression,  and  that 
the  supply  of  food  and  other  necessaries  of  life  can  only 
be  increased  in  an  arithmetical  progression.  After  ex- 
ploring several  countries  of  Europe  in  search  of  facts  to 
confirm  his  system,  he  published  in  1803  an  enlarged 
edition  of  his  essay.  His  principles  were  approved  by 
many  statesmen  and  political  economists.  From  1805 
until  his  death  he  was  professor  of  modern  history  and 
political  economy  in  the  college  at  Haileybury.  He  was 
author  of  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Progress  of 
Rent,"  (1815,)  *'  Principles  of  Political  Economy,"  (1820,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1834. 

See  Otter,  "Memoir  of  Malthus ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1837;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  December,  1803.  January,  1804,  and  May,  1821. 

Maltitz,  mSl'tits,  (Franz  Friedrich,)  Baron,  a 
Russian  statesman,  of  German  extraction,  born  in  1794, 
was  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  of  Russia  at  the 
Hague.  He  was  the  author  of  poems  and  dramas,  (in 
German,)  and  wrote  a  continuation  of  Schiller's  "  Deme- 
trius." 

Maltiz,  mSKtits,  (Apollonius,)  ^litterateur ■axy^.  diplo- 
matist, of  German  extraction,  born  in  1795,  was  ambas- 
sador from  the  Russian  court  to  Lisbon.  He  wrote 
epigrams  and  other  poems. 

Maltiz,  mlKtits,  (Gotthilf  August,)  Baron,  a 
German  writer,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1794,  published 
several  dramas,  and  a  political  satire  entitled  "Pepper- 
Corns,"  ("  Pfefferkorner.")    Died  in  1837. 

M^Pton,  (Th(jmas,)  an  English  geometer  and  artist, 
born  between  1735  and  1750,  lived  in  London.  He 
published  about  1776  a  "Complete  Treatise  on  Per- 
spective," which  is  highly  commended.  Pie  also  pub- 
lished various  engravings,  designed  by  himself,  among 
which  were  "  Views  of  I.ondon."    Died  about  1802. 

Malus,mt'lus',  (Stienne  Louis,)  an  eminent  French 
optician  and  military  engineer,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1775. 
He  became  a  student  of  the  Polytechnic  School  about 
1794,  and,  aided  by  the  tuition  of  Monge,  made  great 
progress  in  mathematics.  "Of  all  the  pupils  who  then 
attended  that  school,"  says  Biot,  "he  showed  himself 
the  first  in  application  and  talents."  In  1798  he  accom- 
panied as  engineer  the  army  to  Egypt,  and  was  employed 
at  the  sieges  of  Jaffa,  Cairo,  etc.  He  returned  to  France 
in  1 801,  devoted  his  leisure  to  analytic  optics,  and  pub- 
lished an  excellent  "Traite  d'Optique."  In  1808  the 
Institute  proposed  a  prize  for  a  memoir  on  the  double 
refraction  of  crystals.  Mains  won  this  prize,  after  a  mul- 
titude of  experiments,  in  which  he  happened  to  make 
one  of  the   most   important   discoveries  of  physical 


science, — viz.,  the  property  or  phenomenon  which  he 
named  the  "polarization  of  light."  He  was  elected  to 
the  Institute,  and  in  181 1  received  the  Rumford  medal 
from  the  Royal  Society  of  London  for  the  discovery  just 
named.  He  was  chosen  examiner  for  physics  and  geome- 
try at  the  Polytechnic  School.  "  While  thus  surrounded," 
as  Biot  observes,  "  with  numerous  friends  who  appre- 
ciated his  genius,  honoured  with  eminent  positions  to 
which  his  talents,  services,  and  probity  had  raised  him, 
already  celebrated  for  great  discoveries,"  etc.,  he  died 
prematurely,  in  February,  1812. 

See  Arago,  "Notices  biographiques,"  vol.  iii. ;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Malvasia,  mai-vS-see'l,  (Carlo  Cesare,)  a  learned 
Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Bologna  in  1616,  was  versed 
in  law,  medicine,  and  theology.  He  became  professor 
of  law  in  the  University  of  Bologna,  and  published,  be- 
sides numerous  other  works,  one  on  the  Bolognese 
painters,  "  Felsina  Pittrice,  Vite  e  Ritratti  de'  Pittori 
Bolognesi,"  (1678.)    Died  in  1693. 

See  Crespi,  "Vita  di  C.  C.  Malvasia." 

Malvenda,  mll-vgn'da,  (Tomas,)  a  learned  Spanish 
Dominican,  born  at  Xativa  in  1566,  was  a  good  Hebrew 
scholar.  He  lived  at  Rome  and  Valencia.  He  wrote  a 
"Commentary  on  the  Old  Testament,"  with  a  literal 
Latin  version,  and  a  "  Commentarius  de  Paradise," 
("Account  of  Paradise.")    Died  in  1628. 

Malvezzi,  mil-v^t'see,  (Virgilio,)  Marquis,  an 
Italian  author,  born  at  Bologna  in  1599.  He  served  in 
the  Spanish  army,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Eng- 
land by  Philip  IV.  of  Spain.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
historical  and  political  works,  "A  Life  of  Romulus,"  and 
a  "Life  of  Tarquin  the  Proud."    Died  in  1654. 

Malvoisine.    See  Mawmoisine. 

Malzel  or  Maelzel,  m^lt'sel,  (Leonhard,)  a  Ger- 
man  mechanician,  noted  for  ingenuity,  was  born  at  Rat 
isbon  in  1776.  He  made  an  automaton  chess-player 
and  invented  the  metronome,  which  is  said  to  be  usefu\ 
to  musicians.    Died  at  Vienna  in  1855. 

Mamachi,  mi'mS-kee,  (Tommaso  Maria,)  a  monk, 
born  in  the  isle  of  Scio  in  1713.  He  went  to  Rome  in 
1740,  and  became  professor  in  the  College  of  the  Propa- 
ganda. He  wrote  "  On  the  Oracles  of  the  Heathen," 
(1738,)  and  "Christian  Antiquities,"  ("Origines  et  Anti- 
quitates  Christianae,"  4  vols.,  1749-55.)   Died  in  1792. 

Mambelli,  mdm-beKlee,  (Marcantonio,)  an  Italian 
grammarian,  born  at  Forli  in  1582  ;  died  in  1644. 

Mambrun,  mSN'bRuN',  (Pierre,)  a  French  critic 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1600.  He 
became  a  Jesuit,  and  taught  philosophy  at  Caen  and 
theology  at  La  Fleche  with  a  high  reputation.  Taking 
Virgil  for  his  model,  he  composed  Latin  eclogues,  an 
epic  poem  called  "  Constantinus,"  (1658,)  and  an  "  Essay 
on  Epic  Poetry."  His  epic  obtained  a  transient  favour 
with  the  public.    Died  in  1661. 

Ma-mer'cus  [Gr.  Ma//fp/cof]  was  tyrant  of  Catana 
when  Timoleon  invaded  Sicily  in  344  B.C.  He  formed 
an  alliance  with  Hicetas  and  the  Carthaginians  against 
Timoleon,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  and  executed  about 
338  B.C. 

Mamiani,  mJ-me-^'nee,  (Terenzio  della  Rovere,) 
Count,  an  Italian  philosopher  and  poet,  born  at  Pesaro 
about  1802.  He  produced  "  Nuove  Poesie,"  (1836,)  and 
"  Dialoghi  di  Scienza  prima,"  (1846.)  He  was  minister 
of  the  interior  and  president  of  the  ministry  at  Rome 
from  May  to  July,  1848.  In  politics  he  was  a  moderate 
Liberal,  and  opposed  to  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope, 
on  which  he  published  an  able  work,  "Del  Papato," 
(185 1.)  He  became  minister  of  public  instruction  under 
Victor  Emmanuel  in  i860,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  Greece  in  1861. 

Mammaea,  mam-mee'a,  or  Mamaea,  ma-mee'a,  (Ju- 
lia,) a  Roman  lady  or  princess,  born  at  Emesa,  was  the 
daughter  of  Julia  Massa,  and  the  aunt  of  Elagabalus.  She 
became  the  wife  of  Gessius  Marcianus  and  the  mothei 
of  Alexander  Severus,  whose  moral  education  she  guarded 
with  watchful  diligence,  Severus  having  been  chosen 
emperor  in  222  A.D.,  she  acted  as  regent  during  hia 
minority.  She  and  her  son  were  assassinated  by  the 
partisans  of  Maximin  in  235  a.d. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome." 


a ,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MA  MO  ON 


1509 


MANCINI 


Mamoon,  Mamoun,  or  Mamun,  Al,  ai-m^'moon', 
(Abool-  (or  Abul-)  Abbas- Abdallah,  i'booK  il/bis' 
ib-diKlah,)  the  seventh  Abbasside  caliph,  was  born  at 
Bagdad  in  786  A.D.,  and  was  the  son  of  Haroun-al- 
Raschid.  After  defeating  his  brother  Alameen  in  battle, 
he  ascended  the  throne  in  813.  His  reign  was  disturbed 
by  rebellions  excited  by  princes  of  the  race  of  Alee  and 
others.  He  enforced  by  persecution  the  dogma  that  the 
Koran  was  created  and  not  eternal,  which  was  considered 
heretical  by  many  of  the  Moslem  doctors.  While  he 
was  prosecuting  a  war  against  the  Greek  emperor  The- 
ophilus  in  Cilicia,  he  died,  in  833,  leaving  his  extensive 
empire  to  his  brother  Motassem.  Mamoon  was  cele- 
brated as  a  patron  of  science  and  literature,  and  was 
praised  by  Eastern  writers  for  his  talents  and  liberality. 
He  founded  colleges,  collected  Greek  and  Hindoo  manu- 
scripts, which  were  translated  at  his  expense,  and  invited 
the  scholars  and  savants  of  all  nations  to  his  capital, 
(Bagdad,)  then  the  great  centre  of  learning  and  science 
in  the  world. 

See  Hammkr-Purgstall,  "  Literatuigeschichte  der  Araber;" 
Abooi-Feda,  "  Aniiales  Moslemici ;"  Elmacin,  "  Historia  Sara- 
ceiiorum  :"  Conde,  "Historia  de  la  Dominacioii  de  los  Arabes ;" 
Weil,  "  Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  vii. ;  Casiri,  "  Biblio- 
theca  Arabico-Hispana. " 

Mamoun.    See  Mamoon. 
Mamun.    See  Mamoon. 

Ma-mu'ri-us  Ve-tu'rf-us,  a  worker  in  brass  at 
Rome  in  the  time  of  Numa,  was  employed  to  make 
other  shields  exactly  like  the  one  which  was  said  to 
have  fallen  from  heaven.  He  asked  no  other  reward 
but  that  his  name  might  be  sung  at  the  feast  of  the  An- 
cilia,  (shields.) 

Ma-mur'ra,  a  Roman  knight,  was  the  commander 
of  the  engineers  in  Julius  Caesar's  army  in  Gaul.  He 
amassed  a  large  fortune. 

Man  or  Maan,  mSn,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Delft  in  162 1.  Having  studied  and 
worked  in  Rome  and  Venice  some  years,  he  settled  at 
Delft.  He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  his  style  is  said  to 
have  resembled  that  of  Titian.  His  portraits  of  surgeons 
and  physicians  in  the  Surgeons'  Hall  of  Delft  are  highly 
praised.    Died  in  1706. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Manaigo,  mJ-ni'go,  (Silvestro,)  a  historical  painter, 
born  in  Venice  about  1680. 

Manara,  ma-n^'ri,  (Prospero,)  Marquis,  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Taro,  near  Parma,  in  17 14.  He  became 
a  councillor  of  state,  and  afterwards  prime  minister  of 
the  Prince  of  Parma.  He  translated  into  Italian  verse 
Virgil's  "Georgics"  and  "  Eclogues,"  and  wrote  sonnets, 
eclogues,  and  other  short  poems.    Died  in  1800. 

See  Antonio  Cerati,  "  Elogio  di  P.  Manara,"  1801. 

Manardi,  m^-naRMee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician and  writer,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1462 ;  died  in 
1536. 

Manasse.    See  Manasseh. 

Ma-nas'seh  or  Ma-nas'ses,  [Heb.  nU'JD  ;  Fr.  Ma- 

NASsi,  mt'nt'sa',]  a  Hebrew  patriarch,  born  in  Egypt 
about  1 712  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Joseph  and  Asenath. 
(See  Genesis  xli.  51.)  His  descendants  formed  a  half- 
tribe  among  the  tribes  of  Israel. 

Manasseh,  [Heb.  nt^jrD,]  King  of  Judah,  the  son  of 
Hezekiah,  was  twelve  years  of  age  when  he  succeeded 
his  father,  in  697  B.C.  Having  forsaken  the  true  worship 
and  become  an  open  idolater,  he  was  taken  captive  by 
the  King  of  Assyria,  and  detained  at  Babylon  some 
years.  He  repented,  and  was  restored  to  his  kingdom. 
After  a  reign  of  fifty-five  years,  he  died,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Anion. 

See  II.  Kings  xxi.  and  II.  Chronicles  xxxiii. 

M^-nas'ses,  (Constantine,)  a  Greek  writer  of  the 
twelfth  century,  wrote  a  general  chronicle,  in  verse,  from 
the  creation  to  the  year  io8r  a.d.  It  is  of  some  value 
for  the  history  of  the  Byzantine  empire. 

Ma-nas'ses  Ben-Jo'seph-Ben-Is'rael,  a  learned 
Jewish  rabbi,  born  in  Spain  about  1604.  He  resided 
mostly  at  Amsterdam.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"On  the  Harmony  of  the  Scriptures,"  ("  De  Convenien- 
tia  Locorum  Sanctae  Scripturae,"  etc.,)  and  "The  Hope 
of  Israel,"  ("  Spes  Israelis.")    Died  in  1659. 


Man'by,  (Captain  George  William,)  a  British 
officer,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1765.  Having  entered  the 
army,  he  obtained  the  rank  of  captain.  About  1808 
he  invented  a  mode  of  saving  life  by  shooting  from  a 
mortar  a  rope  to  mariners  shipwrecked  near  the  coast. 
Several  crews  having  been  rescued  by  this  means,  the 
government  provided  mortars  and  other  apparatus  at 
numerous  stations,  and  presented  to  Captain  Manby 
several  sums,  amounting  to  £']ooo.    Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  May,  1823. 

Man'ches-ter,  (Sir  Edward  Montagu,)  Earl  of, 
an  English  general,  born  in  1602,  was  the  son  of  Henry, 
first  Earl  of  Manchester.  He  was  styled  Lord  Kimbolton 
before  his  father's  death,  (1642.)  Having  joined  the 
opposition  to  the  court  about  1640,  he  acquired  great 
popularity.  In  1642  he  was  impeached  for  treason,  with 
Hampden  and  four  other  members  of  Parliament,  whom 
the  king  attempted  to  seize  in  the  House.  He  was 
appointed  a  general  of  the  army  of  Parliament  in  1643, 
and  co-operated  with  Fairfax  at  the  victory  of  Marston 
Moor,  (1644.)  Manchester  and  Essex  were  charged  by 
Cromwell  with  temporizing  and  with  being  averse  to  a 
decisive  victory  of  the  popular  party,  and  the  command 
was  takpn  from  them  by  the  "  Self-denying  Ordinance," 
(1644.)  At  the  restoration  (1660)  he  was  appointed  lord 
chamberlain  by  Charles  II.  Died  in  1671.  "He  was 
distinguished,"  says  Hume,  "by  humanity,  generosity, 
and  every  amiable  virtue." 

See  Clarendon,  "History  of  the  Rebellion;"  Lodge,  "  Por- 
traits of  Illustrious  Personages." 

Manchester,  (Henry  Montagu,)  first  Earl  of,  an 
English  statesman,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Northamptonshire  about  1562.  He  became  lord  chief 
justice  about  1617,  and  lord  treasurer  of  England  in 
1620.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Manchester  in  1626, 
Died  in  1642. 

Manchoo  or  Manchu  Khan.    See  Mangoo. 

Mancinelli,  min-che-neKlee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Velletri  in  1452.  He  taught  grammar  at 
Rome,  Venice,  etc.,  and  wrote  several  works  on  gram- 
mar. He  was  author  of  "The  Mirror  of  Morality," 
("Speculum  de  Moribus,")  "Carmen  de  Vita  sua,"  (a 
poem  on  his  own  life,)  and  other  poems.  Died  about 
1506. 

See  Bayi.e,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron, 
"  Memoires." 

Mancini,  min-chee'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  the  Romagna  in  1725.  He  worked  in 
Rome,  and  was  reputed  one  of  the  best  painters  of  his 
time.    Died  in  1758. 

Mancini,  (Hortensia,)  Duchess  of  Mazarin,  an 
Italian  lady  of  remarkable  beauty,  born  at  Rome  in 
1646,  was  a  niece  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  who  refused  to 
give  her  in  marriage  to  Charles  II.  of  England,  then  an 
exile.  She  made  in  1661  an  ill-assorted  marriage  with 
the  French  Due  de  la  Meilleraie,  who  then  received  the 
title  of  the  Due  de  Mazarin.  She  soon  separated  from 
him,  and  lived  many  years  in  London,  where  her  house 
was  the  resort  of  men  of  wit  and  pleasure.  Died  in 
1699.  According  to  Macaulay,  she  was  one  of  the  sul- 
tanas of  Charles  II.  in  the  last  years  of  his  reign. 

See  A.  Renee,  "Les  Nieces  de  Mazarin." 

Mancini,  (Louis  Jules.)    See  Nivernois. 

Mancini,  (Maria,)  Princess  of  Colonna,  a  sister  of 
Hortensia,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Rome  in  1640, 
and  was  a  daughter  of  Cardinal  Mazarin's  sister.  Louis 
XIV.  was  so  well  pleased  with  her  in  his  early  youth 
that  he  was  inclined  to  marry  her  ;  but  Mazarin  sent 
her  to  a  convent.  In  1661  she  was  married  to  Prince 
Colonna.  She  ran  away  from  him  in  1672,  obtained  a 
divorce,  and  became  a  nun.    Died  about  1715. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  A.  Renee,  "Les  Nieces  de 
Mazarin." 

Mancini,  (Maria  Anna,)  Duchess  of  Bouillon,  a  niece 
of  Mazarin,  was  born  in  Rome  in  1649.  She  was  mar- 
ried in  1662  to  the  Duke  of  Bouillon,  and  became  the 
mother  of  the  Prince  de  Turenne.  She  was  the  first 
person  who  patronized  La  Fontaine  the  fabulist,  who  has 
praised  her  in  his  letters.    She  died  in  1 7 14. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  A.  Renee,  "Les  Nieces 
de  Mazarin." 


■e  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MANCINI 


1510 


MANETHO 


Mancini,  (Olympia,)  Countess  de  Soissons,  another 
sister  of  the  preceding,  born  about  1642,  was  married  to 
Eugene  Maurice  of  Savoy,  Count  de  Soissons.  She  was 
the  mother  of  the  celebrated  Prince  Eugene,  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Austrian  armies. 

Mancini,  (Paolo,)  the  founder  of  the  Academy  of 
Uf/ioristi,  was  born  at  Rome.  He  was  the  grandfather 
of  Hortensia  and  Maria  Mancini,  noticed  above.  Died 
in  1635. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Man'co  Ca-pac'(or  mlng'ko  kl-pik')  was,  according 
to  tradition,  the  first  Inca  of  Peru.  He  instituted  the 
worship  of  the  sun,  of  which  he  pretended  to  be  the 
offspring,  founded  the  city  of  Cuzco,  and  gave  laws  to 
the  natives  of  that  region,  whom  he  found  in  a  savage 
state.  He  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  about  1000 
A.D.    (See  Inca.) 

Manco  Capac,  Inca  of  Peru,  was  the  son  of  Huayna 
Capac.  He  became  heir  to  the  throne  after  Atahualpa 
was  killed  by  Pizarro,  in  1533.  He  made  a  treaty  with 
Pizarro,  but,  finding  himself  treated  as  a  captive,  he 
escaped  in  1535,  raised  a  native  army,  and  besieged 
Cuzco.  The  approach  of  Almagro  forced  him  to  retire. 
He  was  assassinated  by  a  Spaniard  about  1 544. 

See  Pkescott,  "  Histoi^y  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  ii.  chap, 
iii.  ;  G.  ue  Vega,  "  Hisloria  general  del  Peru." 

Mandajors,  de,  deh  mSN^dt'zhoR',  (Jean  Pierre 
DEs  Ours,)  a  French  historical  writer,  born  at  Alais  in 
1679.  He  published  a  "Critical  History  of  Gallia  Nar- 
bonensis,"  (1733.)    Died  in  1747. 

Man'da-ne,  [Gr.  'Kav6dvri,\  a  daughter  of  Astyages, 
King  of  Media,  and  mother  of  Cyrus  the  Great. 

Mandar,  mun'diu-,  the  same  as  Mandara,  which  see. 

Mandar,  mSN^dtk',  (Michel  Philippe,)  better  known 
as  Theophile  Mandar,  a  French  political  writer  and 
revolutionist,  born  at  Marines  in  1759.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  several  insurrections  in  Paris  from  1789  to  1793. 
It  is  said  that  in  the  councils  of  his  party  he  attempted 
to  arrest  the  massacre  of  September,  1792,  and  proposed 
a  dictatorship  for  that  purpose.  He  wrote  "The  Genius 
of  Ages,"  and  other  poems,  and  several  political  works. 
Died  in  1823. 

See  Louis  Bi.anc,  "  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Frangaise." 

Man'da-ra,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  mun'da-ra,]  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  a  famous  mountain  used  by  the  gods 
in  churning  the  ocean.    (See  Kurma.) 

Mandel,  mSn'del,  (Eduard,)  a  German  engraver, 
born  at  Berlin  in  1810.  His  portrait  of  Charles  I.,  after 
Van  Dyck,  is  esteemed  a  master-piece.  He  obtained  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  at  the  Exposition  of  Paris  in  1855. 

Mandelot,  de,  deh  mSNd'lo',  (Francois,)  a  French 
fanatic  and  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1529.  He  was 
commandant  at  Lyons,  and  co-operated  with  the  king  in 
the  massacre  of  the  Protestants  in  1572.    Died  in  1588. 

Mander,  van,  vtn  mSn'der,  (Carel,)  an  eminent 
Flemish  painter,  poet,  and  biographer,  born  at  Meule- 
beke,  near  Courtrai,  in  1548.  He  received  lessons  in  art 
from  Lucas  de  Heere  of  Ghent,  and  about  1574  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  worked  three  years  and  gained  a  high 
leputation  as  a  painter  of  landscapes  and  of  frescos. 
In  1583  he  settled  at  Haarlem,  where  he  remained 
twenty  years  and  founded  an  academy  of  painting. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "Adam  and  Eve  in  Eden," 
and  "The  Adoration  of  the  Magi."  He  translated  the 
"Iliad,"  and  Virgil's  "  Bucolics"  and  "  Georgics."  He 
was  author  of  "  Dina,"  a  drama,  and  of  other  poems. 
His  best  literary  work  is  "  Lives  of  Flemish  and  Italian 
Painters,"  (1604,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  Died  in 
1606. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. ; 
Geslacht,  "Vie  de  Carel  van  Mander,"  prefixed  to  his  works; 
Nagi.kr,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Mander,  van,  (Carel,)  a  painter,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Delft  in  1580.  He  worked  at  the 
court  of  Denmark.    Died  about  1665. 

Man'de-ville,  de,  (or  deh  m6Nd'v^K,)  (Bernard,)  an 
ingenious  author,  born  at  Dort,  in  Holland,  about  1670. 
He  became  a  resident  of  London,  where  he  practised 
medicine  before  he  appeared  as  an  author.  In  1 7 14  he  pub- 
lished a  poetical  satire  called  "The  Grumbling  Hive,  or 


Knaves  Turned  Honest.''  This  having  been  censured  as 
immoral  by  William  Law  and  other  writers,  he  published, 
with  notes,  a  new  edition,  with  the  title  of  "The  Fable 
of  the  Bees,  or  Private  Vices  Public  Benefits,"  (1723.) 
It  was  denounced  by  the  grand  jury  of  Middlesex  as  a 
pernicious  book.  (For  an  analysis  of  this  remarkable 
work,  see  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale,"  article 
"Mandeville,  B.  de.")  He  also  wrote  "Free  Thoughts 
on  Religion,  the  Church,  and  National  Happiness." 
Died  in  1733. 

See  Birth,  "Life  of  Bernard  de  Mandeville;"  "  Biographia 
Britannica." 

Mandeville,  de,  deh  man'deh-vir,  (Sir  John,)  a  fa- 
mous English  traveller,  born  at  Saint  Alban's  about  1300. 
In  early  life  he  practised  medicine.  In  1327  he  went 
to  Palestine,  enlisted  in  the  army  of  the  Sultan  of 
Egypt,  and  afterwards  travelled  in  various  countries  of 
Asia.  He  spent  about  three  years  in  Cambalu,  (Peking,) 
and  returned  home  in  1360.  He  wrote  an  account  of 
his  travels,  which  obtained  a  wide  reputation.  His  book 
abounds  in  marvellous  and  extravagant  stories,  partly 
borrowed  from  Pliny  and  from  mediaeval  romances.  Died 
in  1372.    He  is  called  the  first  English  prose  writer. 

See  Disraeli,  "Amenities  of  Literature;"  Sprengei.,  "Ge- 
schichte  der  geographischen  Entdeckungen ;"  "Retrospective  Re- 
view," vol.  iii.,  (1821.) 

Mandosio,  min-do'se-o,  (  Prospero,)  a  mediocre 
Italian  writer,  born  at  Rome.  He  compiled  a  work 
called  "  Bibliotheca  Romana,"  consisting  of  biographies 
of  about  five  hundred  Roman  writers,  ancient  and 
modern,  (2  vols.,  1682-92.)    Died  about  1700. 

Manes.    See  Lares. 

Ma'nes,  Ma^ni,  or  Manichaeus,  man-e-kee'us,  the 

founder  of  the  heretical  sect  of  Manichaeans,  was  prob- 
ably born  in  Persia  in  the  early  part  of  the  third  cen- 
tury. He  corrupted  the  Christian  religion  by  mixing 
with  some  doctrines  of  the  Magi,  teaching  that  the 
world  is  made  or  ruled  by  two  eternal  and  opposing 
principles  of  light  and  darkness.  He  rejected  the  Old 
Testament,  professed  that  he  was  the  Comforter  promised 
in  John  xvi.,  held  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis,  and 
published  a  book  which  he  pretended  contained  a  revela- 
tion from  heaven.  Manes  obtained  proselytes  in  Persia, 
Egypt,  and  other  countries.  Saint  Augustine  was  a  zealot 
of  this  sect  in  his  youth.  The  Oriental  accounts  of  Manes, 
differing  widely  from  those  of  the  Greek  or  Catholic 
writers,  state  that  he  was  born  of  the  race  of  Magi,  lived 
in  Susiana,  was  an  adept  in  painting  and  other  arts, 
produced  a  "gorgeous  picture-book,"  which  was  re- 
ceived as  sacred  by  his  disciples,  and  was  put  to  death 
by  Varanes,  King  of  Persia,  about  272  A.D.  The  Latin 
and  Greek  writers  say  that  his  original  name  was  CuBRi- 
CUS,  that  he  derived  his  doctrines  from  an  impostor 
named  Terebinthus,  and  was  punished  with  death  for 
his  heresy,  in  277  A.D. 

See  Beausobre,  "  Histoire  du  Manicheisme  ;"  Basnage,  "His- 
toire des  Eglises  reforniees ;"  Saint  Augustine,  "  De  Moribus 
Manichaeorum;"  Walch,  "  Geschichte  der  Ketzereien  ;"  Plucquet, 
"  Dictionnaire  des  Heresies;"  Rittek,  "  History  of  Philosophy;" 
Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary,"  article  "  Manicheism." 

Manesse,  mt^n^ss',  (Denis  Joseph,)  a  French  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Landrecies  in  1743  ;  died  in  1820. 

Manesson-Mallet,  mfni's^N'  mt'W,  (Alain,)  a 
French  geometer  and  military  engineer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1630.  He  published  a  "Description  of  the  World," 
("  Description  de  I'Univers,"  5  vols.,  1683.)  Died  in  1706. 

Man'e-tho,  [Gr.  M-aveduv  and  Mavedug ;  Fr.  Man^:- 
THON,  mt^ni't6N',]  a  celebrated  Egyptian  writer  and 
priest,  was  a  native  of  Sebennytus,  or,  according  to  some 
accounts,  of  Diospolis,  and  flourished  in  the  reigns  of 
Ptolemy  Soter  and  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  between  300 
and  250  B.C.  He  was  reputed  to  have  attained  the  highest 
possible  degree  of  wisdom.  He  was  keeper  of  the  sacred 
archives  at  Heliopolis,  and  author  of. several  important 
works,  among  which  was  a  "  General  History  of  Egypt," 
in  Greek.  This  is  lost,  except  fragments  preserved  by 
Josephus  in  his  "Reply  to  Apion,"  and  by  George  Syn- 
cellus.  He  was  the  first  Egyptian  who  wrote  in  Greek 
an  account  of  the  religion,  history,  and  chronology  of 
Egypt.  A  poem,  in  Greek,  on  the  influence  of  the  stars, 
entitled  "Apotelesmatica,"  (which  has  come  down  to  u? 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  i,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  ail,  fit;  mgt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MANETHON 


MAN GUM 


entire,)  is  sometimes  ascribed  to  Manetho,  but  was  proba- 
bly written  by  a  later  author. 

See  BuNSEN,  "  Egyptens  Stelle  in  der  Weltgeschichte Boeck, 
"Manetlio  und  die  Hundssteinperiode,"  1845;  Fabkicius.  *' Biblio- 
tlieca  Graeca  :"  Fruin.  "Dissertatio  historica  de  Manetlione,"  1847; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Manethoii.    See  Manetho. 

Mauetti,  ma-net'tee,  [Lat.  Manet'tus,]  (Gian- 
Nozzo,)  an  Italian  statesman  and  author,  born  at  Flor- 
ence in  1396,  was  one  of  those  who  contributed  to  the 
revival  of  learning  in  Italy.  He  was  versed  in  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Hebrew,  and  was  reputed  one  of  the  most 
learned  men  of  his  time.  After  holding  other  high  offices 
in  Florence,  he  was  elected  to  the  Council  of  Ten,  and 
was  secretary  to  Pope  Nicholas  V.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  Life  of  Petrarch,"  and  a  "  Specimen  of  the  Lite- 
rary History  of  Florence  during  the  Thirteenth  and 
Fourteenth  Centuries,"  in  Latin,  (1747.)    Died  in  1459. 

^ee  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana ;"  J.  B. 
R^uiER,  "  Vie  de  G.  Manetti,  Senateur  de  Florence,"  1762  ;  Nai.do 
Naldi,  "  Vita  Manetti,"  in  Muratori's  "  Scriptores  Rerum  Itali- 
caruni," 

Manetti,  (Rutilio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Sienna 
in  1571,  was  a  pupil  of  Francesco  Vanni.  His  design 
and  style  are  commended  as  correct  and  noble.  He 
painted  both  in  oil  and  fresco  with  equal  success.  Died 
in  1639. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Baldinucci,  "No- 
tizie." 

Manetti,  (Saverio,)  an  Italian  physician  and  natu- 
lalist,  born  at  Florence  in  1723.  He  became  keeper  of 
the  botanic  garden  of  that  city,  and  corresponded  with 
the  most  eminent  savants  of  Europe.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Different  Species  of 
Grain  and  Bread,"  (1765,)  and  a  splendid  work  on  the 
"  Natural  History  of  Birds,"  with  coloured  plates,  (1767.) 
Died  in  1785. 

Manettus.    See  Manetti,  (Giannozzo.) 

Man'fred,  [It.  Manfredi,  mSn-fra'dee;  Lat.  Man- 
Fke'dus;  Fr.  Maixfroi,  miN^Rw^',]  King  of  Naples, 
born  about  1234,  was  a  natural  son  of  the  emperor  Frede- 
rick II.,  from  whom  he  seems  to  have  inherited  noble  or 
at  least  popular  qualities.  By  the  will  of  Frederick,  who 
died  in  1250,  Manfred  became  Regent  of  the  Two  Sicilies 
until  the  arrival  of  Conrad,  the  lawful  heir,  who  was 
in  Germany.  Conrad  died  in  1254,  leaving  an  infant 
son,  Conradin  or  Corradino,  and  Manfred  again  became 
regent.  A  rumour  of  Conradin's  death  having  obtained 
credence,  Manfred  was  proclaimed  king  in  1258,  and  he 
refused  to  relinquish  the  royal  power  when  that  report 
was  proved  to  be  false.  He  became  an  ally  of  the  Ghibe- 
lines  of  Northern  Italy  against  the  Guelphs.  Urban  IV., 
who  became  pope  in  1261,  and  who  had  long  been  an 
enemy  to  the  house  of  Suabia,  excommunicated  Manfred, 
and  offered  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  Charles 
of  Anjou,  a  brother  of  Louis  IX.  of  France.  Charles 
accepted  it  as  a  fief  of  the  see  of  Rome,  marched  an 
army  into  Nai^les,  and  gained  a  victory,  in  which  Man- 
fred was  killed,  in  1266. 

See  BuKiGNi,  "Histoire  de  Sicile ;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des 
Reinibliqiies  Italiennes;"  Giuseppe  de  Cksare,  "Storia  di  Man- 
fredi Re  di  Sicilia,"  2  vols..  1837  :  Von  Munch,  "  Konig  Manfred," 
1840;  C.  M.  Riccio,  "Alcuni  Stndii  storiri  mtorno  a  Manfredi," 
etc.,  1S50;  F.  A.  Sebire,  "fitude  historique:  Les  Partis  au  Moyen- 
Age,"  etc.,  1853. 

Manfredi.    See  Manfred. 

Manfredi,  mSn-fRaMee,  (Bartoi.ommeo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Mantua  about  1580.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Caravaggio,  whom  he  imitated  so  well  that  good  judges 
mistook  his  works  for  those  of  his  master.  Among  his 
productions  is  "A  Party  of  Men  drinking."  Died  in 
Rome  in  161 7. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Manfredi,  (Eustachio,)  an  eminent  Italian  geometer 
and  astronomer,  born  at  Bologna  in  1674.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
Bologna  in  1698,  and  astronomer  to  the  Institute  of  that 
city  in  1711.  He  published  Ephemerides  from  1715  to 
1750,  "  Elements  of  Chronology,"  (1744,)  "Institutes  of 
Astronomy,"  ("  Instituzioni  astronomiche,")  and  other 
works.  Manfredi  also  wrote  admired  sonnets  and  can- 
zofli    He  was  a  foreign  associate  of  the  Academy  of 


Sciences  of  Paris,  and  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London.    Died  in  1739. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  fiioge  de  Manfredi;"  G.  P.  Zanotti,  "Vita 
di  E.  Manfredi,"  1745;  Fabroni,  "Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excel- 
lentinm;"  Fantuzzi,  "Scrittori  Bolognesi." 

Manfredi,  (Gahriele,)  born  at  Bologna  in  1681,  be- 
came professor  of  mathematics  in  Bologna  in  1720.  He 
succeeded  his  brother  Eustachio  in  1739  as  superin- 
tendent of  the  waters.  He  wrote  an  able  treatise  "  On 
Equations  of  the  First  Degree,"  and  several  Memoirs 
for  the  Institute  of  Bologna,    Died  in  1761. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques." 

Manfredini,  man-fRi-dee'nee,  (  Federigo,  )  Mar- 
quis, an  Italian  minister  of  state,  born  at  Rovigo  in 
1743.  He  became  prime  minister  of  the  archduke  Fer- 
dinand of  Tuscany  in  1790.  His  prudent  measures  pre- 
served Tuscany  from  invasion  by  the  French  until  1799, 
when  Ferdinand  and  his  minister  were  forced  to  retire 
into  exile.    Died  in  1829. 

Manfredus.    See  Manfred. 

Mangeart,  mfiN'zh^R',  (Thomas,)  a  French  nu- 
mismatist and  monk,  born  at  Metz  in  1695,  wrote  an 
"Introduction  to  the  Knowledge  of  Medals,"  (1763.) 
Died  in  1762.  • 

Mangenot,  mSNzh'no',  (Louis,)  Abb^,  a  French  poet 
and  priest,  born  in  Paris  in  1694.  He  wrote  an  admired 
eclogue  called  "The  Rendezvous."    Died  in  1768. 

Manget,  m5N'zh^',  (Jean  Jacob,)  a  Swiss  physician 
and  writer,  born  at  Geneva  in  1652.  He  practised  in 
that  city,  and  published  many  scientific  works,  among 
which  are  "Anatomical  Library,"  ("  Bibliotheca  Ana- 
tomica,"  1685,)  and  "Curious  Chemical  Library,"  ("Bi- 
bliotheca chemica  curiosa,"  1702.)  In  1699  he  received 
the  title  of  first  physician  to  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg. 
Died  at  Geneva  in  1742. 

See  Senebier,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  Geneve." 

Man'gey,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theological  writer, 
born  at  Leeds  in  1684.  He  obtained  the  first  stall  of 
Durham  in  1722.    Died  in  1755. 

See  Hutchinson,  "History  of  Durham." 

Mangili,  min-jee'lee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  natu- 
ralist and  physician,  born  at  Caprino  in  1767;  died  in 
1829.    He  wrote  several  scientific  treatises. 

Mangin,  m6N'zh3,N',  (Charles,)  a  French  architect, 
born  near  Meaux  in  1 721,  designed  several  important 
edifices  in  Paris,  among  which  were  the  Halle  au  Ble 
(Grain-Market)  and  the  Church  du  Gros-Caillou.  Died 
in  1807. 

Mangin,  (Jean  Henri  Claude,)  a  French  advocate, 
born  at  Metz  in  1786.  He  wrote  several  legal  works. 
Died  in  1835. 

Manglard,  mSN'gltR',  (Adrien,)  a  French  painter 
of  landscapes  and  marine  views,  was  born  at  Lyons  in 
1695  ;  died  at  Rome  in  1760. 

Mangles,  mang'g'lz,  (Captain  James,)  a  British  trav- 
eller, who  obtained  the  rank  of  commander  in  the  navy 
in  181 5.  In  1816,  accompanied  by  Captain  Irby,  he  be- 
gan an  extensive  journey,  in  which  they  explored  the 
Upper  Nile,  the  ruined  city  of  Petra,  and  the  Dead 
Sea.  They  returned  to  England  in  1820.  See  Irby, 
(Charles  L.) 

Man'goo'  (or  Mangou)  Khan,  written  also  Meng- 
ko  and  Moengke,  Emperor  or  Grand  Khan  of  the 
Mongols,  was  the  son  of  Toolee,  (Touli,)  and  grandson  of 
Jengis  Khan.  He  ascended  the  throne  about  1250.  His 
empire  included  Tartary,  India,  a  part  of  China,  and 
Persia.  One  of  his  armies,  under  his  brother  Kooblai 
Khan,  subdued  Thibet ;  and  another  army  at  the  same 
time  (1256)  conquered  in  Persia  the  Ismaeelian  dynasty. 
Two  years  later  he  took  Bagdad  and  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  the  caliph's  dominions.  While  pursuing  his  con- 
quests in  China,  he  was  killed  in  battle,  in  1259.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  Kooblai  Khan. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Histoire  des  Ilkans ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Mangum.mang'gum, (Willie  Person,)  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  Orange  county.  North  Carolina,  in 
1792.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
by  the  legislature  of  North  Carolina  in  1831,  and  acted 
with  the  Whigs  until  that  party  was  dissolved.  He 
also  represented  North  Carolina  in  the  Senate  for  two 


€  as  >^r;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sasz;  %h  as  in  this.    (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MANHES 


1512 


MANN 


terms,  (1841-53,)  and  was  president  of  that  body  during 
the  administration  of  Tyler.    Died  in  1861. 

Manhes,  mt'ngs',  (Charles  Antoine,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Aurillac  in  1777.  He  entered  the  service 
of  Murat  in  1809,  and  suppressed  brigandage  in  Calabria 
with  extreme  severity.    Died  in  1854. 

Mani.    See  Manes. 

Manichaeus.    See  Manes. 

Manigault,  man'e-go',  .-'(Gabriel,)  a  wealthy  Amer- 
ican merchant  and  patriot  of  the  Revolution,  born  at 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1704;  died  in  1781. 

Ma-niFi-a  Gens,  the  name  of  a  plebeian  Roman 
gens^  which  was  not  numerous  and  consequently  was 
not  divided  into  families.  Marcus  Manilius,  who  be- 
came consul  in  149  B.C.,  was  the  first  member  of  this 
geiis  that  fic;ures  in  history. 

Ma-niFi-us,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  tribune,  and  partisan 
of  Pompey.  He  was  tribune  of  the  people  in  66  B.C. 
He  proposed  a  bill  called  "Lex  Manilla,"  granting  to 
Pompey  the  command  of  the  war  against  Mithridates  in 
place  of  Lucullus.  On  this  occasion  Cicero  uttered  his 
celebrated  oration  "  Pro  Lege  Manilla." 

Manilius,  (Marcus  or  Caius,)  a  Latin  poet,  known 
as  the  author  of  an  astrological  poem  called  "  Astro- 
nomica."  His  name  is  sometimes  written  Mallius  or 
Manlius.  Nothing  is  certainly  known  of  his  nativity 
or  history ;  but  he  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  Rome 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus  or  of  Tiberius.  His  poem, 
first  discovered  by  Poggio  about  1410,  is  a  work  of 
much  learning,  and  contains  some  fine  passages,  but  is 
faulty  in  style. 

See  ScAi.iGER,  "  Prolegomena  in  Manilium,"  1600 ;  F.  Jacob, 
"De  M.  Manilio  Poeta,"  etc.,  1832;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^ne- 
rale." 

Manin,  mi-neen',  (Daniele,)  an  eminent  Italian 
patriot  and  statesman,  born  in  Venice  in  May,  1804,  was 
educated  for  the  profession  of  advocate.  He  was  a  re- 
publican, and  promoted  the  liberation  of  Venetiaby  legal 
means  rather  than  by  arms.  In  March,  1848,  he  pro- 
claimed a  republic  at  Venice,  and  became  president  of 
the  provisional  government.  Having  vainly  opposed 
the  annexation  of  Venetia  to  Piedmont,  he  resigned  in 
July,  1848.  He  was  soon  recalled,  and  governed  Venice 
as  dictator  during  the  siege,  which  lasted  a  year,  and 
ended,  after  a  heroic  struggle,  in  August,  1849.  He 
went  into  exile,  and  died  in  Paris  in  1857.  His  remains 
were  honoured  with  a  magnificent  public  funeral,  by 
order  of  the  Italian  Parliament,  in  the  metropolitan 
church  of  Venice,  in  March,  1868. 

See  Henri  Martin,  "Life  of  Daniel  Manin,"  1859;  G.  V. 
RovANi,  "  Memoria  storica  di  D.  Manin,"  Turin,  1850;  H.  Cas- 
Tii-LE,  "Manin;"  Chassin,  "Manin  et  I'ltalie,"  1859;  Edmond 
Flagg,  "Venice,  the  City  of  the  Sea,"  New  York.  1853  ;  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  November,  1857;  "Westminster  Review"  for  April, 
i860. 

Manin  or  Manini,  mS-nee'nee,  (Lodovico,)  the  last 
Doge  of  Venice,  was  born  about  1727.  He  was  elected  in 
1788,  a  period  when  the  republic  manifested  evident  signs 
of  approaching  ruin.  He  refused  to  join  Austria  in  a 
coalition  against  the  French  in  1 792,  and  remained  neutral 
in  the  war  that  ensued.  Venice  was  invaded  by  the 
French  in  1797,  the  form  of  the  government  was  changed, 
and  Manini  retired  to  private  life. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Manini,  mi-nee'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  writer  on 
theology  and  history,  was  born  at  Ferrara  in  1750;  died 
in  1834. 

Manini,  (Lodovico.)    See  Manin. 

Man'ley,  (James  R.,)  an  American  physician,  born 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  became 
professor  in  the  Medical  College  of  New  York.  Died 
in  1851. 

Manley,  (John,)  Captain,  an  American  naval  officer 
of  the  Revolution,  born  in  1734.  He  performed  several 
important  services.    Died  in  Boston  in  1793. 

ManTey,  (De  la  Riviere,)  Mrs.,  a  popular  English 
authoress,  born  in  Guernsey  about  1672,  was  the  daughter 
of  Sir  Roger  Manley.  To  procure  a  subsistence,  she 
wrote  "  The  Royal  Mischief,"  (1696,)  a  tragedy,  which 
was  successful.    Her  next  work  was  a  romance  called 

Memoirs  of  the  New  Atalantis,"  containing  severe 
strictures  on  some  of  the  persons  in  power,  which  caused 


her  to  be  prosecuted  and  imprisoned  for  libel.  She 
wrote  political  articles  for  the  Tory  ministry  between 
1710  and  1714,  and  edited  the  "  Examiner"  with  ability 
after  Dean  Swift  had  retired  from  the  direction  of  that 
paper.    Died  in  1724. 

See  Gibber,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Man'li-a  Gens,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  cele- 
brated of  the  patrician  genles  or  tribes  of  Rome.  The 
family  names  of  the  Manlii  were  Cincinnatus,  Acidinus, 
Capitolinus,  Torquatus,  and  Vulso.  Among  the  emi- 
nent persons  of  this  gens  was 

Man'li-us  Cap-it-o-li'nus,  (Marcus,)  who  was 
elected  consul  in  392  B.C.  In  399  the  Gauls  under  Bren- 
nus  captured  Rome  and  besieged  the  Capitol,  which 
Manlius  and  others  defended.  According  to  tradition,  an 
attempt  of  the  Gauls  to  surprise  this  fortress  by  night  was 
defeated  by  Manlius,  who  was  awakened  by  the  clamour 
of  a  flock  of  geese.  For  this  service  he  received  the 
surname  of  Capitolinus.  He  became  a  champion  of 
the  popular  party,  or  plebeians,  in  385,  spent  his  for- 
tune freely  for  the  relief  of  those  who  were  oppressed 
by  debt,  and  was  accused  of  aspiring  to  royalty.  His 
enemy  Camillus  was  appointed  dictator,  and  Manlius, 
having  been  tried  for  treason  and  condemned  to  death 
by  the  patricians,  was  thrown  from  the  Tarpeian  rock  in 
381  B.C. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  Cicero,  "DeRepublica  ;"  Aure- 
Lius  Victor,  "  De  Viris  ilhistribus." 

Man'li-us  Tor-qua'tus,  or,  more  fully,  Ti'tus  Man'- 
lius  Capitoli'nus  Torqua'tus,  a  popular  Roman  hero, 
was  the  son  of  L.  Manlius  Imperiosus,  who  was  dictator 
in  362  or  363  B.C.  He  signalized  his  filial  affection  by 
extorting  from  Pompon ius  an  oath  that  he  would  desist 
from  the  prosecution  of  his  father.  In  359  he  was  elected 
a  military  tribune.  He  killed  in  battle  a  Gaul  of  gigantic 
stature  and  despoiled  him  of  a  (torques,)  from 

which  he  derived  the  surname  Torquatus.  He  was  ap- 
pointed dictator  in  353,  and  again  in  349  B.C.  Having 
been  elected  consul  for  the  third  time  in  340,  he  defeated 
the  Latins,  and  punished  with  death  his  own  son,  who 
had  violated  orders  by  fighting  a  single  combat  with 
one  of  the  enemy. 

See  Livv.  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  vii.,  viii.  ;  Aurelius  Vic- 
tor, "De  Viris  illustribiis  ;"  P.  Ekerman,  "  Dissertatio  de  T.  Man- 
lio  Torqiiato,"  1767.  • 

Manlius  Torquatus,  (Titus,)  a  Roman  general,  of 
the  same  family  as  the  preceding,  was  consul  in  235  B.C. 
Sardinia  having  been  subjected  by  him  in  that  year,  the 
temple  of  Janus  was  shut,  for  the  second  time  in  the  his- 
tory of  Rome,  because  the  Romans  enjoyed  a  universal 
peace.  He  was  re-elected  consul  in  224,  and  made  a 
speech  against  the  motion  to  ransom  the  prisoners  taken 
by  Hannibal  at  Cannae,  (216.)  In  215  B.C.  he  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  the  Carthaginians  in  Sardinia.  He 
was  appointed  dictator  in  208,  and  died  in  202  B.C. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxii.,  xxiii.,  xxv.,  etc. 

Man'lius  Vul'so,  (Cneius,)  a  Roman  general,  elected 
consul  about  190  B.C.  He  conquered  the  Gauls  of  Ga- 
latia,  and  received  the  honour  of  a  triumph  in  186  B.C. 

Man'l;^,  (Basil,)  a  Baptist  minister,  born  in  Chatham 
county.  North  Carolina,  in  1798.  He  became  president 
of  the  University  of  Alabama  in  1837.    Died  in  1868. 

Mann,  (Horace,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  American  edu- 
cationist, born  in  Franklin,  Norfolk  county,  Massachu- 
setts, May  4,  1796.  His  father  was  a  farmer  in  limited 
circumstances,  so  that  Horace  was  obliged  to  procure  by 
his  own  exertions  the  means  of  obtaining  an  education. 
The  books  to  which  he  had  access  in  early  life,  as  he 
informs  us,  "were  few,  and  their  contents  meagre  and 
miserable."  "My  teachers,"  he  adds,  "were  very  good 
people,  but  they  were  very  poor  teachers."  There  was, 
however,  no  lack  of  hard  work,  and  in  summer  his 
labours  often  encroached  upon  the  hours  which  should 
have  been  devoted  to  sleep  ;  yet,  with  all  these  disad- 
vantages, his  mind  gave  early  ])roof  of  uncommon  power 
and  intense  activity.  He  had  earned  his  school-books, 
when  a  child,  by  braiding  straw;  and  his  severe  and 
frugal  life  gave  him  the  habit  of  depending  solely  upon 
himself  for  the  gratification  of  all  his  wants.  When 
about  the  age  of  twenty,  he  commenced  the  study  of 
Latin,  and  in  six  months  prepared  himself  to  enter  the 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  at,  e,  j,  q,  obscure;  f^r,  fUll.  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MANN 


1513 


MANNING 


sophomore  class  in  Brown  University,  at  Providence, 
Rhode  Island,  where  he  graduated  with  the  highest 
honours  in  1819.  The  subject  of  his  discourse  on  that 
occasion  was  "  The  Progressive  Character  of  the  Human 
Race."  This  was  always  a  favourite  theme  with  him, 
and  his  first  oration  may  be  said  to  have  foreshadowed 
his  subsequent  career  as  philanthropist  and  statesman. 
While  at  Providence  he  became  acquainted  with  the 
young  lady  whom  he  afterwards  married.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Dr.  Messer,  president  of  the  university.  In 
1 82 1  he  entered  the  law  school  at  Litchfield,  and  in  1823 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  commenced  the  practice 
of  law  at  Dedham.  He  was  elected  in  1827  to  the  .State 
legislature,  and  during  his  connection  with  that  body  was 
distinguished  for  the  zeal  with  which  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  interests  of  education  and  temperance.  In  the 
practice  of  his  profession  he  had  adopted  the  principle 
never  to  take  the  unjust  side  of  any  cause  :  it  is  said  that 
he  gained  four  out  of  five  of  all  the  contested  cases  in 
which  he  was  engaged.  The  extraordinary  influence 
which  he  exerted  over  the  minds  of  the  juries  was  owing 
in  a  great  measure  to  the  confidence  which  all  felt  in 
his  honesty  of  purpose.  In  1833  he  removed  from 
Dedham  to  Boston,  and  soon  after  was  elected  to  the 
State  Senate.  In  1836,  and  again  in  1837,  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Senate.  About  this  time  he  became 
acquainted  with  Dr.  W.  E.  Channing  and  Dr.  S.  G.  Howe, 
for  whom  he  ever  afterwards  cherished  the  sincerest 
respect  and  affection. 

To  his  enlightened  philanthropy  and  untiring  efforts 
was  due  the  establishment  of  the  State  Lunatic  Hospital 
at  Worcester.  In  1837  he  was  elected  secretary  of  the 
Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  (then  recently  organ- 
ized,) and  was  unanimously  re-elected  to  the  same  posi- 
tion for  eleven  successive  years.  From  the  moment  that 
he  entered  upon  his  new  duties,  he  devoted  himself  to 
them  with  undivided  attention  and  unremitting  zeal.  By 
his  lectures  and  writings  he  awakened  an  interest  in  the 
cause  of  education  that  had  never  been  felt  before. 
Through  his  influence,  important  changes  were  made  in 
the  school  laws  of  Massachusetts,  and  a  thorough  reform 
was  effected  in  the  educational  system  of  the  State. 

In  May,  1843,  Mr.  Mann  married  as  his  second  wife 
Miss  Mary  Peabody,  daughter  of  Dr.  Nathaniel  Peabody 
and  sister-in-law  of  Mr.  Hawthorne  ;  and  immediately 
afterwards  he  sailed  for  Europe,  chiefly  for  the  purpose 
of  visiting  European  schools,  particularly  those  of  Ger- 
many. He  returned  to  his  native  country  in  the  autumn 
of  the  same  year. 

In  the  spring  of  1848,  Mr.  Mann  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress, as  successor  to  J.  Quincy  Adams,  who  had  died 
in  February  of  that  year.  His  first  speech  in  the  House 
of  Representatives  was  in  advocacy  of  the  right  and  duty 
of  Congress  to  exclude  slavery  from  the  territories.  He 
says,  in  a  letter  dated  December,  1848,  "I  think  the 
country  is  to  experience  serious  times.  Interference 
with  slavery  will  excite  civil  commotion  at  the  South. 
Still,  it  is  best  to  interfere.  Now  is  the  time  to  see 
whether  the  Union  is  a  rope  of  sand  or  a  band  of  steel." 
In  another  letter,  dated  January,  1850,  he  says,  "Dark 
clouds  overhang  the  future  ;  and  that  is  not  all :  they  are 
full  of  lightning."  Again,  "  I  really  think  if  we  insist 
upon  passing  the  Wilmot  Proviso  for  the  territories  that 
the  South — a  part  of  them — will  rebel.  But  /  would 
pass  it,  rebellion  or  not.  /  consider  no  evil  so  great  as  that 
of  the  extension  of  slavery.'"  On  the  7th  of  March,  1850, 
Webster  delivered  his  great  speech  against  the  Wilmot 
Proviso.  This  led  to  an  open  rupture  between  him  and 
Mann.  Through  the  influence  of  Webster's  friends,  in 
the  following  November  Mann  failed  by  a  single  vote  to 
obtain  a  re-nomination  in  the  Whig  convention.  He, 
however,  appealed  to  the  people  as  an  independent  can- 
didate, and  was  triumphantly  re-elected. 

In  September,  1852,  Mr.  Mann  was  chosen  president  of 
Antioch  College,  at  Yellow  Springs,  Ohio.  On  the  same 
day  he  was  nominated  for  Governor  of  Massachusetts  by 
a  convention  of  the  Free  Democracy  (otherwise  called 
the  Free-Soil  party)  assembled  at  Lowell.  Although  not 
elected  Governor,  his  popularity  was  shown  by  his  vote 
running  far  ahead  of  that  of  the  other  Free-Soil  candi- 
dates.   He  accepted  the  presidency  of  Antioch  College, 


which  under  his  able  management  attained  a  large 
measure  of  success.  But  the  labours  and  anxieties  of 
that  responsible  position  proved  at  length  too  much  for 
his  health,  never  strong,  and  now  undermined  by  a  life 
of  the  most  intense  and  unremitting  activity.  He  died 
August  2,  1859.  The  immediate  cause  of  his  death  was 
doubtless  the  extraordinary  and  unceasing  mental  effort 
called  forth  at  the  college  commencement  in  July,  1859. 
His  address  to  the  graduating  class  on  that  occasion* 
is  an  eloquent  resume  of  the  great  principles  by  which 
his  life  was  governed,  and  forms  an  appropriate  close  to 
the  labours  of  this  heroic  and  gifted  philanthropist. 

See  "  Life  of  Horace  Mann,"  by  his  wife,  Boston,  1865;  "New 
American  Cyclopjedia." 

Mann,  min,  (THioDORE  Augustin,)  Abb6,  a  Flem- 
ish writer  and  antiquary,  born  about  1740,  resided  at 
Brussels.  He  published  a  "Tableau  of  the  Coins, 
Weights,  and  Measures  of  Different  Nations,"  (1779,)  a 
"Description  of  Brussels,"  (1785,)  and  other  works. 
Died  at  Prague  in  1809. 

Manne,  de,  deh  mtn,  (Louis  Charles  Joseph,)  a 
French  librarian,  born  in  Paris  in  1773.  He  became  in 
1820  keeper  of  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  in  which  he 
classified  300,000  volumes.  Died  in  1832.  His  son 
Edmond  succeeded  him  as  librarian. 

Manners.    See  Rutland,  Duke  of. 

Manners,  (John.)    See  Granby,  Marquis  of. 

Man'ners,  (John  James  Robert,)  Lord,  a  second 
son  of  the  Duke  of  Rutland,  was  born  in  1818.  He 
entered  the  House  of  Commons  in  1841,  and  identified 
himself  with  the  Tory  party.  He  was  first  commissioner 
of  the  board  of  works  for  a  short  time  in  1858-59,  and 
obtained  the  same  position  in  the  Derby  cabinet  in  July, 
1866.    He  resigned  in  December,  1868. 

Manners,  (Robert,)  Lord,  a  younger  son  of  John, 
Marquis  of  Granby,  was  a  brother  of  the^  fourth  Duke 
of  Rutland.  He  died  of  wounds  received  at  a  battle  in 
the  West  Indies  in  August,  1782,  where  he  commanded 
the  ship  Resolution. 

Manners,  (Robert  William,)  Lord,  an  English 
general,  born  in  1781.  He  entered  the  army  in  1798, 
served  Wellington  as  aide-de-camp  in  the  Peninsular 
war  from  1808  to  1813,  and  was  wounded  at  Waterloo, 
(181 5.)  In  1830  he  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general. 
He  was  frequently  elected  to  Parliament.   Died  in  1835. 

Mannert,  mSn'ngRt^,  (Konrad,)  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Altclorf  in  1756,  was  tltc  author  of  a  "History 
of  the  Vandals,"  (1785,)  "  History  of  Bavaria,"  (1826,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1834. 

Manni,  mSn'nee,  (Domenico  Maria,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  antiquary  and  printer,  born  at  Florence  in  1690. 
He  published  new  editions  of  early  Italian  works,  which 
he  enriched  with  prefaces,  notes,  etc.,  and  wrote  valuable 
dissertations  on  the  history  of  Florence.  His  "  Historic 
Observations  on  the  Seals  of  the  Middle  Ages"  (30  vols., 
1739-86)  is  a  work  of  merit.    Died  in  1788. 

See  ToMiTANO,  "  Elogio  di  D.  M.  Manni,"  1789. 

Manni,  (Giannicola,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Perugia  about  1478,  was  a  pupil  of  Perugino.  Died  in 
1544- 

Man'ning,  (Henry  Edward,)  a  Roman  Catholic 
prelate,  born  in  London  in  1809,  graduated  at  Oxford. 
He  took  orders  in  the  Anglican  Church,  and  became 
Archdeacon  of  Chichester  in  1840.  In  1851  he  entered 
the  priesthood  of  the  Catholic  Church.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Archbishop  of  Westminster  in  1865.  Among 
his  works  are  "The  Unity  of  the  Church,"  (1843,)  and 
"The  Temporal  Sovereignty  of  the  Popes,"  (i860.)  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  CEcumenical  Council  which 
held  its  sessions  in  Rome  from  December,  1869,  to  May, 
1870,  and  he  maintained  the  dogma  of  papal  infalli- 
bility. 

Man'ning,  (James,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist  di- 
vine, born  at  Elizabethtown,  New  Jersey,  in  1738,  was 
the  first  president  of  Brown  University,  Rhode  Island. 
Died  in  1791. 

Manning,  (Owen,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1721.  He  became  Vicar  of  Godal- 
ming  and  rector  of  Pepperharrow,  (1769.)  He  wrote  the 

*  Printed  in  his  "Life,"  pp.  SS4-S7S- 


€  as^-  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  I  as  2;  th  as  in  this,   (2i:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MANNING  1 5 14  MANSO 


**  History  and  Antiquities  of  Surrey,"  and  completed 
Lye's  "  Saxon  Dictionary."    Died  in  1801. 

SeeW.  Kray,  "  Life  of  O.  Manning,"  prefixed  to  the  first  volume 
of  his  "Antiquities  of  Surrey." 

Manning,  (Thomas,)  an  English  linguist,  born  in 
Norfolk  in  1774.  He  resided  for  a  long  time  in  Thibet, 
and  accompanied  Lord  Amherst  to  China  in  1816.  Died 
in  1840. 

Mannini,  min-nee'nee,  (Jacopo  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1646;  died  in  1732. 

Manno,  min'no,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Palermo  in  1754;  died  in  1831. 

Mannory,  mt'no^e',  (Louis,)  a  French  advocate, 
born  in  Paris  in  1696.  He  published  "  Voltairiana," 
(1748,)  and  "  Plaidoyers  et  Memoires,"  (18  vols.,  1759.) 
Died  in  1777. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance." 

Mannozzi,  man-not'see,  (Giovanni,)  an  excellent 
Italian  fresco-painter,  born  at  San  Giovanni,  near  Flor- 
ence, in  1590,  was  sometimes  called  Giovanni  da  San 
Giovanni.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Rosselli.  In  162 1  he 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  painted,  in  rivalry  with  Guido's 
"Aurora,"  a  picture  of  "Night  in  a  Chariot,"  Having 
returned  to  Florence,  he  painted  "  The  Judgment  of 
Paris,"  "Aurora  and  Tithonus,"  etc.  The  picture  of 
"  The  Patronage  of  the  Arts  and  Sciences  by  Lorenzo 
de'  Medici"  is  called  his  master-piece.    Died  in  1636. 

See  Baldinucci,  "  Notizie  ;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario  ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Man'nyng  or  Man'ning,  (Robert,)  an  English 
monk,  was  also  called  Robert  de  Prunne.  He  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  and  Edward  II.,  and  was  a 
canon  in  the  monastery  of  Brunne  or  Bourne.  He  trans- 
lated into  English  rhyming  chronicles  from  the  "  Brut 
d'Angleterre"  and  "  Roman  le  Rou." 

Manoel.    See  Manuel. 

Manoel  of  Portugal.   See  Emmanuel. 

Manoncourt.    See  Sonnini. 

Manrique,  m^n-ree'ki,  (Jorge,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  about  1420.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  his 
moral  poems,  which  are  highly  commended.  Died 
about  1485. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Mansard  or  Mansart,  mSN^'^tR',  (Francois,)  an 
excellent  French  architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1598.  He 
restored  the  Hotel  Toulouse,  and  erected  the  chateaus 
of  Berny  and  of  Choisy-sur-Seine,  and  several  churches 
in  Paris.  The  Chateau  de  Maisons,  a  few  miles  from 
Paris,  is  one  of  his  most  admired  works.  His  designs 
are  remarkable  for  nobleness  and  majesty.  He  invented 
the  curb-roof  called  "  Mansard."   Died  in  1666. 

See  FoNTENAV,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Mansard  or  Mansart,  (Jules  Hardouin,)  a  cele- 
brated architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1645,  was  a  son  of 
Jules  Hardouin,  a  painter.  His  mother  was  a  sister  of 
F.  Mansard,  noticed  above.  He  studied  the  art  with 
this  uncle,  and  assumed  his  name.  Having  obtained 
the  favour  of  Louis  XIV.,  he  designed  the  most  im- 
portant architectural  works  of  his  reign.  He  had  a  rare 
opportunity  to  display  his  genius  in  the  chateau  or  royal 
palace  of  Versailles,  which,  though  imposing  in  dimen- 
sions and  rich  in  ornaments,  fails  to  satisfy  the  require- 
ments of  good  taste.  He  built  the  Hotel  des  Invalides, 
— in  the  grand  dome  of  which  he  attempted  to  rival  Sir 
Christopher  Wren, — the  Chateau  de  Marly,  the  Place 
Vendome,  and  other  public  works.  In  1699  he  was 
chosen  superintendent  of  buildings,  arts,  and  manufac- 
tures.   Died  in  1708. 

See  QuATKEM^RE  DE  QuiNCV,  "  Vies  des  plus  celebres  Archi- 
tectes  ;"  Fontenay,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes;"  Jean  Duchesne, 
"Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  J.  H.  Mansart,"  1805. 

Mansart.    See  Mansard. 

Man'sel,  (Rev.  Henry  Longueville,)  a  prominent 
English  writer  on  metaphysics  and  theology,  logic,  etc., 
was  born  at  Cosgrove,  in  Northamptonshire,  in  1820. 
He  became  professor  of  moral  and  metaphysical  philos- 
ophy at  Oxford  about  1859,  and  regius  professor  of 
ecclesiastical  history  in  1867,  Among  his  works  is 
"The  Limits  of  Religious  Thought  Examined,"  (1858,) 
which  has  attracted  much  attention  and  no  little  criti- 


cism and  has  passed  through  a  number  of  editions.  In 
this  treatise  he  takes  as  the  basis  of  his  argument  Sir 
William  Hamilton's  position  that  "the  unconditioned  is 
incognizable  and  inconceivable  ;"  and  the  work  is  justly 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important  applications  of 
the  Hamiltonian  philosophy  to  questions  of  religion. 
He  edited  Sir  W.  Hamilton's  works  on  logic  and  meta- 
physics. He  also  contributed  to  the  "Encyclopaedia 
Britannica"  a  valuable  treatise  on  metaphysics,  which 
has  since  been  published  in  a  separate  form.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Dean  of  Saint  Paul's,  London,  in  October,  1868. 

Mansfeld,  von,  fon  mins'fglt,  (Ernst,)  Count,  one 
of  the  greatest  generals  of  his  time,  born  in  1585,  was 
the  natural  son  of  Peter  Ernst,  noticed  below.  After 
fighting  for  the  King  of  Spain  and  the  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, he  left  their  service  about  1610,  and  became  art 
enemy  of  the  house  of  Austria.  He  avowed  himself  a 
convert  to  the  Reformed  faith,  and  in  1618  was  chosen 
general-in-chief  of  the  Bohemian  insurgents.  In  the 
service  of  Frederick,  whom  those  insurgents  had  elected 
king,  he  fought  many  battles,  and  defeated  the  Bavarians 
in  1622.  He  afterwards  marched  into  Flanders  and  re- 
pulsed the  Spaniards  at  Fleurus.  Having  raised  another 
army  to  attack  Austria,  he  was  defeated  by  Wallenstein 
in  1626,  and  died  near  Zara  in  the  same  year.  He  was 
one  of  those  generals  who  are  as  formidable  after  defeat 
as  before. 

See  "Acta  Mansfeldica,"  1624;  Niemann,  "  Geschichte der  Gra- 
fen  von  Mansfeld,"  1834;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mansfeld,  von,  (Peter  Ernst,)  Count,  an  able 
German  general,  born  in  1517.  In  his  youth  he  entered 
the  army  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  After  serving  in 
several  campaigns,  he  commanded  an  army  against  the 
French  in  1552,  and  in  1569  led  another  army  to  aid 
Charles  IX.  against  the  Huguenots.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Moncontour.  He  succeeded  the 
Duke  of  Parma  as  Governor-General  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries in  1592.    Died  in  1604. 

See  Schannat,  "  Histoire  du  Comte  de  Mansfeld,"  1707;  Mo- 
Ri^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  Motley,  "  United  Netherlands," 
vol.  i. 

Mans'field,  (Jared,)  an  American  mathematician, 
born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy  in  the  Military  Academy  at 
West  Point.  He  published  several  scientific  worlds. 
Died  in  1830. 

Mansfield,  (Joseph  King  Fenno,)  an  American 
general,  born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1803, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1822.  He  served  as  captain 
in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and  became  a  colonel  in 
1853.  He  commanded  the  department  of  Washington 
in  June  and  July,  1861,  and  directed  a  corps  at  the 
battle  of  Antietam,  where  he  was  killed,  September  17, 
1862.    He  was  a  brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army. 

See  Tennev,  "Militai-y  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Mansfield,  Lord.    See  Murray,  (William.) 

Mansi,  man'see,  (Giovanni  Domenico,)  a  learned 
Italian  prelate,  born  at  Lucca  in  1692.  He  translated 
into  Latin  Calmet's  "  Dictionary  of  the  Bible"  and  the 
"  Commentary"  of  the  same  author,  and  edited  several 
works  of  theology.  One  of  the  most  important  of  his 
works  was  an  edition  of  the  "  Collection  of  Councils," 
("  Sacrorum  Conciliorum  nova  et  amplissima  Collectio," 
1757  et  seg.,)  in  which  he  was  aided  by  N.  Coleti.  He 
was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Lucca  in  1765.  Died  in 
1769. 

See  Zatti,  "Vita  di  D.  Mansi,"  1772. 

Manso,  mSn'so,  orManzo,  man'zo,  (Giovanni  Bat- 
TISTA,)  Marquis  de  Villa,  an  Italian  author,  eminent  as 
a  patron  of  literature,  was  born  in  Naples  about  1560. 
He  expended  part  of  his  fortune  in  founding  in  Naples 
the  Academy  degli  Oziosi.  He  was  intimate  with  the 
poet  "I'asso,  who  commemorated  their  friendship  in  his 
dialogue  entitled  "II  Manso."  Milton,  who  had  been 
his  guest  in  Naples,  addressed  to  him  in  complimentary 
terms  a  beautiful  Latin  poem  or  eclogue  entitled  "  Man- 
sus."  Manso  wrote  the  "  Life  of  Torquato  Tasso,"  (1619,) 
and  several  poems.    Died  in  1645. 

See  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Manso,  min'so,  (Johann  Kaspar  Friedrich,)  a 
German  scholar  and  historian,  born  in  the  duchy  of 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  ^"o^pn; 


MANSOOR 


MJNTUJNO 


Gotha  in  1759.  He  published  a  "Life  of  Constantine 
the  Great,"  (181 7,)  and  a  number  of  poems  and  an- 
tiquarian treatises.    Died  in  1826. 

See  Klug,  "Manso  als  Schulmann  und  Gelehrter,"  1826. 

Mansoor,  (Aboo-Amir-Mohammed.)    See  Al- 

Mansoor. 

Mansoor,  Mansour,  Man90ur,  or  Mansur,  Al,* 
3.1  mInsooR',  ( Aboo-Jaafar-  (or  Djafar-)  Abdallah, 

S'boo  jS'far  Sb-diKlah,  tlie  second  Abbasside  caliph  of 
the  Arabian  empire,  succeeded  his  brother  As-Seffah  (or 
Al-Saffah)  in  754  a.d.  About  765  he  founded  Bagdad, 
which  thenceforth  was  the  capital  of  the  empire  for  five 
centuries.  He  waged  war  with  success  against  the 
Turcomans  and  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor,  but  lost 
Spain,  which  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Omeyyads. 
He  is  said  to  have  united  superior  talents  with  great 
cruelty  and  other  vices.  He  died  in  775  A.D.,  leaving 
the  throne  to  his  son  Mahdee,  (or  Mahdi.) 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  ii. 

Manstein,  von,  fon  mSn'stln,  (Christoph  Her- 
mann,) an  able  general  and  historical  writer,  born  in 
Saint  Petersburg  in  171 1.  In  1745  he  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  Prussia,  and  a  few  years  later  became  a  major- 
general.  He  was  employed  by  Frederick  the  Great  in 
important  political  affairs,  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Prague,  (1757.)  He  was  killed  in  a  skirmish  the  same 
year.  He  left  "Historical,  Political,  and  Military  Me- 
moirs of  Russia,"  (in  French,  2  vols.,  1772.)  This  work 
has  been  translated  into  English. 

See  HuBER,  "Vie  de  Manstein,"  prefixed  to  his  "Memoires." 

Mansueti,  mSn-soo-a'tee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  Venice  about  1450  ;  died  after  1500. 

Mant,  (Richard,)  an  English  bishop  and  commen- 
tator, born  at  Southampton  in  1776.  In  conjunction 
with  D'Oyly,  he  prepared  an  edition  of  the  Bible,  with 
notes,  (1 81 7.)  He  became  Bishop  of  Down  and  Connor 
about  1823.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History 
of  the  Church  in  Ireland."    Died  in  1848. 

See  Bkrens,  "  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  Bishop  Mant,"  1849  ;  "  Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1812. 

Mantegna,  mdn-tgn'yi,  (Andrea,)  an  eminent  Italian 
historical  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Padua  about 
1430,  was  a  pupil  of  F.  Squarcione,  who  adopted  him 
as,ason.  After  he  had  worked  at  Padua  and  Verona, 
he  went  to  Milan,  where  he  painted  the  "Triumph  of 
Julius  Caesar,"  which  Vasari  esteemed  his  master-piece, 
and  which  was  purchased  by  Charles  I.  of  England.  It 
is  now  at  Hampton  Court.  He  painted  several  frescos 
in  the  Vatican  at  Rome,  and  worked  some  years  in  Man- 
tua, where  he  was  patronized  by  the  Marquis  de  Gon- 
zaga.  Among  his  most  admired  oil-paintings  is  the 
"Delia  Vittoria,"  (1495,)  picture  of  the  Marquis  of 
Mantua  rendering  thanks  to  the  Virgin  for  his  victory 
at  Fornovo,)  which  still  retains  its  beauty.  He  was 
probably  the  first  engraver  of  his  time.    Died  in  1506, 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  Ridoi.fi,  "Vite  degli  illnstri  Pittori  Veneti ;" 
LoMAZZo,  "  Idea  del  Temjiio  delta  Pittura  ;"  Mks.  Jameson,  "Me- 
moirs of  Early  Italian  Painters;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mantegna,  (Bernardino,)  a  painter  of  the  Mantuan 
school,  born  in  1490,  was  a  son  and  pupil  of  the  pre- 
ceding.   Died  in  1528. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Mantegna,  (Francesco,)  an  able  Italian  painter,  son 
of  Andrea,  noticed  above.  He  was  a  pupil  of  his  father, 
and  completed  several  works  which  the  latter  left  un- 
finished at  iMantua.  It  is  stated  that  he  was  the  first 
master  of  Correggio.    Died  after  15 14. 

Mantegna,  del,  d§l  man-tgn'yS,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  was  a  relative  and  pupil  of  Andrea  Mantegna, 
noticed  above.  In  1514  he  was  master  of  a  school  of 
artists  in  Genoa. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Man'tell,  (Gideon  Algernon,)  an  eminent  English 
geologist  and  palaeontologist,  born  at  Lewes,  in  Sussex, 
in  1790.  He  adopted  the  medical  profession,  which  he 
practised  many  years  at  Lewes.  A  mine  near  that  place 
offered  him  a  rich  field  for  observations  in  geology,  to 
which  his  attention  was  early  directed.    He  collected 

*  Al  Mansoor  signifies  "the  Victorious."  | 


from  the  Wealden  formation  and  the  chalk  a  museum  of 
specimens  of  extinct  reptiles,  fishes,  and  plants,  which  was 
afterwards  bought  by  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum 
£S'^'^o.  About  1825  he  discovered  the  Iguanodon, 
an  extinct  reptile  about  sixty  feet  long,  and  in  that  year 
was  elected  to  the  Royal  Society.  He  also  discovered 
three  other  genera  of  the  colossal  Dinosaurian  reptiles. 
In  1822  he  published  "  The  Fossils  of  the  South  Downs." 
He  removed  to  Clapham  in  1839,  and  a  few  years  later 
to  London.  He  not  only  enriched  the  science  by  his 
discoveries,  but  was  unsurpassed  by  any  English  geolo- 
gist of  his  time  as  a  lecturer  and  a  popular  expounder 
of  geological  facts.  His  most  important  works  are  "On 
the  Iguanodon,"  "The  Geology  of  the  Southeast  of 
England,"  (1838,)  "The  Wonders  of  Geology,"  (1838,) 
and  "The  Medals  of  Creation,"  (1844.)    Died  in  1852. 

See  Agassiz  and  Strickland,  "  Bibliographia  Zoologias  et 
Geologise." 

Manteuffel,  mSn'toiffel,  (Otto  Theodor,)  Baron, 
a  Prussian  statesman,  born  at  Liibben  in  1805.  He  was 
appointed  director  in  the  ministry  of  the  interior  in  1846, 
and  minister  of  the  interior  about  November,  1848. 
Many  of  the  notes  and  diplomatic  circulars  of  1848  and 
1849  were  written  by  him.  He  was  president  of  the 
council  of  ministers  from  December,  1850,  to  December, 
1858. 

See  G.  Hesekiel,  "O.  T.  Manteuffel:  ein  Preussisches  Lebens- 
bild,"  1851. 

Mantica,  mSn-tee'ki,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  prel- 
ate and  jurist,  born  at  Pordenone  in  1534,  published 
"  Decisiones  Romanae,"  (1618.)    Died  in  1614. 

Man'to,  [Gr.  Mavrw,]  a  prophetess,  daughter  of  Tire- 
sias,  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Argives  at  Thebes,  and 
was  dedicated  to  Apollo,  under  whose  auspices  she  is 
said  to  have  uttered  oracles  at  Delphi.  She  was  some- 
times called  Daphne.  She  became  the  wife  of  Rhakius 
or  Rhacius,  and  the  mother  of  Mopsus. 

Man'ton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
Somersetshire  in  1620.  He  obtained  the  living  of  Stcke 
Newington  in  1643,  and  afterwards  preached  at  Covcnt 
Garden  in  London.  He  was  eminent  for  eloquence  and 
learning,  and  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Cromwell  in 
1653.  In  1660  he  became  a  chaplain  to  Charles  II., 
but  was  ejected  from  his  church  in  London  for  non- 
conformity in  1662.  Several  volumes  of  his  sermonSj 
lectures,  etc.  were  published.    Died  in  1677. 

Mantouan,  Le.    See  Mantuano. 

Mantovano.    See  Mani  uano. 

Mantuan,  man-too-an',or  Mantuano,  m§,n-too-S'no, 
(Battista,  )  or  Battista  Spagnuoli,  (spSn-yoo-o'lee,) 
a  Latin  poet,  once  of  great  celebrity,  was  born  at  Mantua 
in  1448.  He  had  great  facility  as  a  versifier,  but  was  de- 
ficient in  taste,  and  his  works,  consisting  of  eclogues, 
silvcs,  etc.,  are  now  entirely  neglected.  "  He  was,  and 
long  continued  to  be,"  says  Hallam,  "the  poet  of 
school-rooms.  Erasmus  says  that  he  would  be  placed 
by  posterity  not  much  below  Virgil."  He  was  a  Car- 
melite friar.    Died  in  151 6. 

Mantuano,  mSn-too-a'no,  (Adamo  Ghisi,)  an  able 
engraver,  born  at  Mantua  about  1530,  was  a  son  of 
Giovanni  Battista,  noticed  below.  He  engraved  after 
Michael  Angelo,  Giulio  Romano,  and  other  masters. 

Mantuano,  (Giorgio  Ghisi,)  born  at  Mantua  about 
1522,  was  a  skilful  engraver  and  painter.  He  worked 
many  years  in  Rome,  and  engraved  the  finest  works  of 
Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  and  other  masters.  Among 
them  are  "The  Last  Judgment,"  after  Angelo,  and  the 
"  Holy  Family"  and  "School  of  Athens,"  after  Raphael. 
He  was  living  in  1578. 

His  sister,  Diana  Mantuana,  a  skilful  artist,  en- 
graved several  works  of  Raphael  about  1570-80. 

Mantuano,  [Fr.  Le  Mantouan,  leh  m6N'too''5N',] 
(Giovanni  Battista  Bertano,)  an '  Italian  painter, 
sculptor,  engraver,  and  architect,  the  father  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Mantua  about  1500.  He  was  the 
head  of  a  family  which  produced  several  artists,  and 
whose  proper  name  was  Ghisi.  He  was  the  pupil  of 
Giulio  Romano.  His  engraving  of  the  "Burning  of 
Troy"  is  highly  praised. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters."  / 

Mantuano,  (Teodoro.)    See  Ghisl 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Y.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^=='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MANU 


1516 


MAN  WOOD 


Manu,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  mun'oo,]  written  also 
Menu,  [from  the  Sanscrit  man,  to  "know,"]  a  celebrated 
Hindoo  sage,  the  son  of  Brahma,  and  the  revealer  of  the 
code  of  laws  known  as  the  "Institutes  of  Manu." 

See  Wilson,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary;"  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Manuce,  (Aldk.)    See  Manutius,  (Aldus.) 

Maii'u-el  I.  Com-ne'nus,  [Gr.  yiavovrfk  6  Kofivrjvog  ; 
Fr.  Manuel  Comnene,  mi^nxx^kV  kom^nin',]  a  Greek 
emperor,  born  about  1 120,  was  a  younger  son  of  John 
Comnenus,  who  designated  him  for  his  successor.  Manuel 
began  to  reign  at  Constantinople  in  1 143.  He  was  am- 
bitious, brave,  and  licentious.  He  is  accused  of  perfidy 
towards  the  crusaders  Conrad  of  Germany  and  Louis 
VH.,  King  of  France,  who  passed,  with  their  armies, 
through  his  dominions  in  1 147,  and  with  whom  he  had 
made  a  treaty  of  alliance.  He  afterwards  waged  war 
against  Roger,  King  of  Sicily,  the  Hungarians,  and  the 
Turks,  over  whom  he  gained  several  victories.  Peace 
was  made  between  him  and  Roger  in  1155.  In  1176  he 
was  defeated  disastrously  by  Az-ed-Deen,  the  Turkish 
Sultan,  near  Myriocephalus,  where  Manuel  fought  in 
person.  The  Turks  were  defeated  in  turn  by  his  army 
in  Lydia,  in  11 77,  when  the  war  was  ended  by  treaty. 
He  died  in  1 180,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  only  son, 
Alexis  II. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire ;"  Le  Beau, 
"  Histoire  du  Bas- Empire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Manuel  II.  Palaeologus,  (pal-e-oKo-gus,)  [Gr.  Ma- 
vov7/?i  6  na?iaLo?i6-yoc ;  Fr.  Manuel  Pal^ologue,  mt'nii'^K 
pt^laVlog',]  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  was  the  second 
son  of  John  VI.,  who  admitted  him  as  his  associate  in 
the  empire  about  1372.  At  the  death  of  his  father,  in 
1391,  Manuel  was  held  as  a  hostage  by  Sultan  Bayazeed 
I.  He  escaped  from  Nicasa,  and  fled  to  his  own  capital, 
in  the  same  year.  The  enraged  Sultan  marched  against 
him,  and  besieged  Constantinople.  The  French  and 
German  chivalry  came  to  his  assistance  with  a  large 
army,  and  forced  Bayazeed  to  raise  the  siege ;  but  he  de- 
feated those  allies  at  Nicopolis  (Nicopol)  in  1396.  The 
Sultan  prosecuted  the  siege  for  several  years,  until  the 
alarming  jirogress  of  Tamerlane  called  him  away  for  the 
defence  of  his  own  kingdom.  After  the  defeat  and  death 
of  Bayazeed,  in  1403,  Manuel  reigned  in  peace.  He  died 
in  1425,  aged  seventy-seven,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  John  VII.  Palaeologus. 

See  Gibbon,  "History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire;"  Von  Hammer,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs ;" 
Berger  dh  Xivrev,  "  Memoire  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Ma- 
nuel Paleologue,"  1853. 

Manuel,  m^-noo-^K,  or  Manoel,  ml-no-§K,  (Fran- 
cisco,) an  eminent  Portuguese  poet,  born  at  Lisbon  in 
1734.  He  wrote  admired  odes,  sonnets,  and  epistles, 
and  attained  the  reputation  of  the  most  excellent  modern 
lyric  poet  of  Portugal.  Among  his  poems  is  an  ode  to 
Washington.  The  liberality  of  his  principles  subjected 
him  to  a  charge  of  heresy,  for  which  he  was  sunmioned 
before  the  Inquisition.  He  escaped,  and  retired  to  Paris 
in  1788.  He  made  admirable  Portuguese  versions  of  La 
Fontaine's  "Fables,"  Chateaubriand's  "Martyrs,"  and 
Wieland's  "  Oberon."  His  poems  were  published,  under 
the  name  of"  Filinto  Elysio."    Died  in  Paris  in  1819. 

Manuel,  mt'nii'^l',  (Jacques  Antoine,)  a  French 
orator  and  republican,  born  at  Barceloimette  (Low  Alps) 
in  1775.  In  the  profession  of  advocate  he  attained 
eminence  at  Aix.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  during  the  Hundred  Days,  (1815,)  when  he 
S])oke  against  the  pretensions  of  Bonaparte  and  of  the 
Bourbons.  In  1818  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  by  the  liberals,  and  was  ranked  among  the 
ablest  debaters  of  that  assembly.  "Of  all  the  revolu- 
tionary orators,"  says  Lamartine,  "he  was  the  most 
feared  and  hated  by  the  majority."  After  a  speech  in 
reply  to  Chateaubriand,  he  was  expelled  from  the  Cham- 
ber in  1823.  Died  in  1827.  "He  had  no  one  to  con- 
sole him,"  says  Lamartine,  "but  Beranger,  whose  heart 
loved  in  Manuel  the  antique  stamp  of  the  premature 
but  intrepid,  moderate,  and  upright  republican.  ...  He 
was  rnore  remarkable  for  character  than  eloquence ;  he 
preferred  action  to  speech,"  etc. 

See  Fadeville,  "  Manuel  jiige  par  ses  Actions,"  1824;  Ramond 
DE  LA  Croisette,  "  M.  Manuel,"  1824;  Fourtanier,  "  Eloge  de 
Manuel,"  1849;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


Manuel,  xni-noo-hV,  (Don  Juan,)  a  Spanish  prince 
and  author,  was  a  nephew  of  Alfonso  X.  of  Castile.  He 
was  Regent  of  Castile  during  part  of  the  minority  of 
Alfonso  XL,  and  distinguished  himself  in  battle  against 
the  Moors.  He  wrote  many  works,  in  prose  and  verse. 
His  political  and  moral  treatise  called  "The  Count  of 
Lucanor"  ("  El  Conde  de  Lucanor")  was  esteemed  by 
Bouterwek  as  the  finest  monument  of  Spanish  literature 
in  the  fourteenth  century.    Died  about  1350. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Ticknor, 
"  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Manuel,  (Louis  Pierre,)  a  French  revolutionist, 
born  at  Montargis  in  1751.  According  to  Beaulieu,  he 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  riot  of  the  loth  of  August, 
1792,  and  was  a  partisan  of  Danton.  Soon  after  this 
date  he  conducted  the  royal  captives  to  the  prison  of  the 
Teiiiple.  He  rescued  Madame  de  Stael  and  Beaumar- 
chais  from  the  massacre  of  September.  As  a  member 
of  the  Convention,  he  voted  against  the  death  of  Louis 
XVI.    For  this  he  was  proscribed  and  executed  in  1793. 

See  Pkudhomme,  "  Les  Revolutions  de  Paris  ;"  Louis  Blanc, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Manuel,  mt'nii'eK,  (Nicolas,)  a  Swiss  artist,  author, 
and  Reformer,  born  at  Berne  in  1484,  was  sometimes 
called  Deutsch,  in  Italian  Tedesco,  {i.e.  the  "German.") 
About  1510  he  went  to  Venice  and  became  a  pupil  of 
Titian.  He  returned  to  Berne,  and  painted  "The  Dance 
of  Death,"  in  fresco.  He  wrote  satirical  poems  and 
songs,  and  "  Dramatic  Moralities  and  Mysteries,"  a  hu- 
morous composition.  In  his  latter  years  he  held  several 
l^ublic  offices,  and  was  an  active  promoter  of  the  Swiss 
Reformation.    Died  in  1530. 

Manutius,  ma-nu'she-us,  (Al'dus,)  [It.  Aldo  Ma- 
nuzio, SKdo  mi-noot'se-o ;  Fr.  Alue  Manuce,  tld 
mt'niiss',]  a  celebrated  Italian  printer  and  scholar,  born 
at  Bassiano,  in  the  Papal  States,  in  1447.  With  the 
patronage  of  Pico  de  Mirandola  and  Alberto  Pio,  he 
established  a  printing-press  at  Venice  about  1490.  He 
invented  the  form  of  type  called  Italic,  procured  manu- 
scripts from  various  countries,  and  published  editions  of 
classics  which  surpassed  all  others  in  correctness.  About 
1500  he  formed  at  Venice  a  literary  association  called  the 
Aldine  Academy,  the  design  of  which  was  to  promote 
literature  by  perfecting  the  copies  of  the  models  of  an- 
tiquity. He  compiled  a  Greek-and-Latin  Lexicon,  (1497.) 
Died  in  1515. 

See  Unger,  "  De  Aldi  Pii  Manutii  Vita  Meritisque,"  1752:  D. 
M.  Manni,  "Vita  di  Aldo  Pio  Manuzio,"  1749;  A.  Renouard, 
"Aiinales  de  I'lmprimerie  des  Aide;"  Ambroise  Firmin  Didot, 
article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Manutius,  (Aldus,)  or  Manuzio,  (Aldo,)  the 
Younger,  born  at  Venice  in  1547,  was  a  son  of  Paolo, 
noticed  below.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  j^ublished  a 
"  System  of  Orthography,"  ("  Orthographiae  Ratio.")  He 
was  professor  of  eloquence  at  Bologna,  Pisa,  and  Rome. 
He  wrote,  besides  antiquarian  treatises,  "The  Life  of 
Cosimo  I.  de'  Medici,"  and  "The  Accomplished  Gentle- 
man," ("II  perfetto  Gentil'uomo.")    Died  in  1597. 

See  A.  Renouard,  "Annales  des  Aide." 

Manutius,  (Paulus,)  or  Manuzio,  (Paolo,)  an 
Italian  printer,  author,  and  critic,  born  at  Venice  in  15 12, 
was  a  son  of  Aldus  Senior.  As  the  successor  of  his 
father  in  the  printing-establishment,  he  published  excel- 
lent editions  of  Latin  classics  in  Venice.  About  1562 
he  removed  his  press  to  Rome,  whence  he  returned  to 
Venice  in  1570.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a 
critic  and  as  a  writer  of  elegant  Latin.  Among  his  ])rin- 
cipal  works  are  "On  the  Roman  Senate,"  ("  De  Senatu 
Romano,")  "On  the  Roman  State,"  ("  De  Civitate  Ro- 
mana,")  "Roman  Antiquities,"  and  a  volume  of  Latin 
Epistles.  "  The  letters  of  Manutius,"  says  Hallani,  "  pall 
on  the  reader  by  their  monotonous  elegance.  .  .  .  Sciop- 
pius  thinks  him  consummate  in  delicacy  and  grace." 
("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  Died  in 
1574- 

See  A.  Renouard,  "Annales  de  i'lmprimerie  des  Aide,"  1834; 
.  G.  Krause,  "Apparatus  ad  P.  Manutii  Vitam,"  1669;  Ambroisb 
irmin  Didot,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Manuzio.    See  Manutius, 

Man'wood,  (John,)  an  English  jurist,  flourished 
about  1600,  and  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Laws  of  the 
Forest." 


a,  e, T,  6,  u,  y,  lon^;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  ?,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fSU,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MAN  WOOD 


1517 


MJRJNSIN 


Manwood,  (Sir  Roger,)  probably  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  chief  baron  of  the  court  of  exchequer. 
Died  in  1593. 

Manzi,  niSn'zee,  (Gulielmo,)  an  Italian  litterateur, 
born  at  Civita  Vecchia  in  1784.  He  made  a  good  Italian 
version  of  Lucian,  (1819,)  and  wrote  a  "Discourse  on 
the  vSpectacles,  Festivals,  and  Luxury  of  the  Italians  of 
the  Sixteenth  Century,"  (1818.)    Died  in  1821. 

See  TiPALDO.  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri ;"  Rossi,  "  Elogio 
storico  di  G.  Manzi,"  1822. 

Manzi,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Civita 
Vecchia  in  1785,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
published  "  The  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  {1817,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1839. 

Manzo.    See  Manso. 

ManzoUi,  mSn-zoKlee,  or  Manzoli,  min-zo'lee,  (Pie- 
tro or  Pier  Angelo,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Stellata,  on 
the  Po,  in  Italy,  flourished  about  1510-40.  He  was  bet- 
ter known  by  his  assumed  name,  Palingenio  or  Palin- 
Ge'nius  Stella'tus.  The  events  and  circumstances 
of  his  life  are  unknown.  Pie  wrote  a  long  moral  poem, 
entitled  "  Zodiacof  Life,"  ("  Zodiacus  Vitae,"  Bale,  1537,) 
the  books  of  which  are  named  from  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac.  "It  is  not  very  poetical,"  says  Hallam,  "but 
by  no  means  without  strong  passages  of  sense  and 
spirit,  in  a  lax  Horatian  metre.  The  author  has  said 
more  than  enough  to  incur  the  suspicion  of  Lutheran- 
ism."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Grrdes,  "  Historia  Reformationis ;"  "Palingene,"  in 
Bayle's  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Manzoni,  min-zo'nee,  (Alessandro,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  novelist  and  poet,  was  born  at  Milan,  March  8, 
1784.  His  father  bore  the  title  of  .count,  and  his  mother 
was  a  daughter  of  the  Marquis  Beccaria,  the  eminent 
jurist  and  writer.  About  1805  he  made  a  long  visit 
to  Paris,  where  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with 
Fauriel  and  produced  a  poem  on  the  death  of  Carlo 
Imbonati,  (1806.)  He  married  Henriette  Louise  Blondel, 
of  Geneva,  in  1808,  and  became  a  zealous  member  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Soon  after  this  event  he 
produced  several  hymns  on  the  Nativity,  the  Passion, 
the  l^esurrection,  etc.,  which  have  much  literary  merit. 
His  next  work  was  a  tragedy,  called  "II  Conte  di  Car- 
magnola,"  (1820,)  in  which  the  three  unities  are  not  ob- 
served. This  drama  was  warmly  applauded  by  Goethe. 
He  published  another  tragedy,  entitled  "  Adelchi,"  and 
an  admirable  ode  on  the  death  of  Napoleon,  "  II  cinque 
Maggio."  His  capital  work  is  the  historical  novel  of 
"I  promessi  Sposi,"  (3  vols.,  1827,)  an  English  version 
of  which  has  appeared  under  the  title  of  "  The  Betrothed 
Lovers."  It  presents  a  vivid  picture  of  Italian  society 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  style  is  natural,  elo- 
quent, and  beautiful.  Manzoni  became  a  senator  of  the 
kmgdom  of  Sardinia  in  i860. 

See  LmiisDE  Ixim^nie,  "  M.  Manzoni,  par  un  Homme  deRien," 
1842;  Sainte-Eeuve,  "A.  Manzoni;  Fragment  biograpliique," 
1845  ;  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetrv  of  Europe  ;"  "  Nonvelle 
Biographie  Generale ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and 
November,  1827;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1826; 
"North  American  Review"  for  October,  1840. 

Manzoni,  (Francesca,)  an  Italian  poetess,  born  in 
the  Milanese  in  1710,  was  versed  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
languages.    Died  in  1743. 

Manzuoli,  mSn-zoo-o'lee,  (Tommaso,)  an  able  Italian 
painter,  born  near  Florence  in  1536,  was  also  called 
Maso  da  San  Friano.  He  adorned  several  churches 
of  Florence.  His  master-piece  is  the  "  Visitation,"  which 
is  preserved  in  the  gallery  of  the  Vatican.    Died  in  1575. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Mapes,  map,?  or  Map,  (Walter,)  an  old  English 
author,  born  in  the  Welsh  marches  about  11 50.  He 
became  a  favourite  of  Henry  II.,  who  sent  him  on  a  mis- 
sion to  the  King  of  France  and  gave  him  several  bene- 
fices. In  1 196  he  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Oxford. 
He  wrote  satirical  Leonine  Latin  poems,  among  which 
is  an  ode  which  begins  "  Meum  est  propositum  in  taberna 
mori."  In  Latin  prose  he  wrote  a  curious  and  interesting 
work  called  "  De  Nugis  Curialium."  He  was  the  re- 
puted autlior  of  several  romances  in  French  or  Anglo- 
Norman. 

See  G.  Phillips,  "  W.  Map,  ein  Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  Konig 
Heinrichs  IL  von  England,"  1853. 


Maphaeiis.    See  Maffei  and  Maffeo. 

Mapletoft,  ma'pel-toft,  (John,)  an  English  physician, 
born  in  LIuntingdonshire  in  163 1.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  medicine  in  Gresham  College,  London,  in 
1675.  About  1680  he  took  holy  orders.  He  translated 
into  Latin  Sydenham's  "Observations,"  at  the  request 
of  the  author,  and  wrote  "The  Principles  and  Duties 
of  the  Christian  Religion."    Died  in  1721. 

Mapp,  mtp,  [Lat.^MAP'pus,]  (Marc,)  a  French  bot- 
anist and  physician,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1632.  He  wrote 
a  mediocre  "  Description  of  the  Plants  of  Alsace."  Died 
in  1701. 

Mappus.    See  Mapp. 

Maquet,  mt'ki',  (Auguste,)  a  French  novelist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1813.  He  was  author  (in  part)  of  a  number 
of  works  which  were  published  under  the  name  of  Alex- 
andre Dumas.    Among  these  is  "  Monte-Cristo." 

Mar,  Earl  of.    See  Erskine,  (John.) 

M^ra,  mi'ra,  a  famous  deva  of  the  Hindoo  mythology, 
mentioned  in  the  history  of  Gautama,  (which  see.) 

Mara,  m^'rS,  originally  named  Schmelling,  (Eliza- 
beth,) a  celebrated  German  singer,  was  born  at  Cassel 
in  1749.  She  was  a  pupil  of  Paradisi,  and  became  the 
wife  of  J.  Mara,  a  violoncellist  of  Berlin.  Between  1784 
and  1787  she  appeared  four  times  as  first  vocalist  at  the 
Handel  Commemoration,  and  was  gi'eatly  admired.  She 
afterwards  performed  with  applause  in  Paris  and  Berlin. 
She  sang  in  four  languages.    Died  in  1833. 

See  Grosheim,  "Das  Leben  der  Kiinstlerin  Mara,"  1823. 

Mara,  de,  deh  mi'rt',  (Guillaume,)  a  priest  and 
Latin  poet,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Coutances,  France, 
about  1470;  died  about  1530. 

Maracci.    See  Marraccl 

Maracci,  mi-rSt'chee,  or  Marracci,  mSr-rlt'chee, 
(GiovANNL)  an  Italian  historical  painter,  born  at  Lucca 
in  1637,  was  a  pupil  of  Pietro  da  Cortona.   Died  in  1704. 

Marais,  mt'ri',  (Marin,)  a  French  musical  composer, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1656.  Among  his  works  is  an  opera 
entitled  "Alcyone,"  (1706.)    Died  in  1728. 

Marais,  (Mathieu,)  a  French  jurist  and  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1664.  He  wrote  some  articles  for  Bayle's 
"  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary,"  and  a  "  Life  of 
La  Fontaine,"  (1811.)    Died  in  1737. 

Marais,  des.    See  Regnier-Desmarais. 

Maraldi,  ma-rSKdee,  (Jacques  Philippe,)  an  as- 
tronomer, born  at  Perinaldo,  in  the  county  of  Nice,  in 
1665,  was  a  nephew  of  Giovanni  Domenico  Cassini, 
under  whom  he  studied  astronomy  in  Paris.  About 
1700  he  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  spent  many  years  in  astronomical  observations,  and 
in  forming  a  Catalogue  of  the  fixed  stars,  which  he  left 
in  manuscript  when  he  died,  in  1729. 

See  Farroni,  "Vitas  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium ;"  Fonte- 
NELLE,  "  filoge  de  Maraldi." 

Maraldi,  (Jean  Dominique,)  a  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Perinaldo  in  1 709.  He  became 
assistant  astronomer  at  the  Paris  Observatory,  and  made 
many  observations,  which  were  inserted  in  the  collection 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.    Died  in  1788. 

Maran,  mSV6N',  [Lat.  Mara'nus,]  (Dom  Prudent,) 
a  learned  French  Benedictine  monk,  born  at  Sezanne  in 
1683.  He  wrote  a  "  Dissertation  on  the  Semi-Arians," 
and  edited  the  works  of  Saint  Cyprian.    Died  in  1762. 

Marana,  mS-r^'ni,(GiovANNi  Paolo  or  Giampaolo,) 
an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Genoa  about  1642.  He  was 
imprisoned  four  years  (1670-74)  for  a  political  reason. 
About  1682  he  removed  to  Paris,  and  obtained  a  pen- 
sion from  the  king.  In  1684  he  published,  in  French,  the 
first  volume  of  "  The  Turkish  S])y,"  ("  L'Espion  Turc,") 
which  was  very  successful.  "  The  Turkish  vSpy,"  says 
Hallam,  "  is  no  ordinary  production,  but  contains  as 
many  proofs  of  a  thoughtful,  if  not  very  profound,  mind, 
as  any  we  can  find.  It  suggested  the  Persian  Letters 
to  Montesquieu."  He  puljiished  a  second  volume  in 
1686.    Died  in  1693. 

Marangoni,  mS-rSn-go'nee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1673.  He  wrote  a  learned 
treatise  on  the  Flavian  Amphitheatre,  and  "Thesaurus 
Parochorum."   Died  in  1753. 

Maransin,  mfrSN^s^N',  (Jean  Pierre,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Lourdes  in  1770 ;  died  in  1828. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,     guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MARANTA 


1518 


MARCEL 


Maranta,  mi-rilt/ta,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  bot- 
anist and  physician,  lived  at  Venosa,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples.  He  assisted  Ferrante  Imperato  in  writing  his 
"  Natural  History,"  and  wrote  an  esteemed  elementary 
work  on  botany,  entitled  "  Methodus  Cognoscendorum 
Medicainentorum  simpliciuni,"  (1559.)  "The  author," 
says  Hallam,  "  is  independent,  though  learned,  extremely 
acute  in  discriminating  plants  known  to  the  ancients,  and 
has  discovered  many  himself."  ("Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe.")    Died  about  1554. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Maranus.    See  Maran. 

Marat,  mt'rt',  (Jean  Paul,)  a  notorious  Jacobin 
demagogue,  born  near  Neufchatel,  in  Switzerland,  in 
1744.  He  practised  medicine  in  Paris  before  the  Revo- 
lution, and  published  many  treatises  on  electricity, 
optics,  etc.  In  1789  he  incited  the  populace  to  anarchy 
and  bloodshed  by  his  journal  "The  Friend  of  the  Peo- 
ple," ("  L'Ami  du  Peuple.")  Among  the  Jacobin  leaders 
he  was  probably  the  mo«;t  rancorous  enemy  of  the  royal- 
ists and  the  Girondists.  In  1792  he  was  elected  to  the 
Convention,  and,  uniting  with  Danton  and  Robespierre, 
formed  the  bloody  triumvirate  of  the  reign  of  terror. 
He  became  a  self-constituted  public  accuser  before  the 
commune  and  the  Convention.  In  May,  1793,  the  ma- 
jority of  the  Convention  ordered  his  arrest  for  outrages 
committed  against  that  assembly.  He  was  tried,  but 
was  acquitted  by  the  tribunal  and  brought  back  to  the 
Convention  in  triumph  by  the  mob.  "The  hesitation 
of  Danton,"  says  Lamartine,  "and  the  temporizing  of 
Robespierre,  raised  Marat  at  this  moment  to  the  apogee 
of  his  popularity  and  power.  He  shrugged  his  shoulders 
at  the  names  of  Danton  and  Robespierre,  expressing  his 
doubts  of  their  capacity  to  guide  the  Revolution."  He 
WJS  assassinated  by  Charlotte  Corday  in  his  own  house 
in  July,  1793.    (See  Corday,  Charlotte.) 

See,  also,  Desmarest,  "Vie  de  Marat  deptiis  1789;"  Val- 
tOuiSE,  "Marat,"  1840;  "  Skizzen  aus  Marats  Leben,"  Hamburg, 
1846;  Paul  Lacroix,  "Marat  Philosophe,  Naturaliste,"  etc.,  1854; 
Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolulion." 

Maratta,  m^-rit'ti,  or  Maratti,  mi-rit'tee,  (Carlo,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Camurano,  in  the  March  of 
Ancona,  in  May,  1625,  enjoyed  in  his  time  the  reputation 
of  being  one  of  the  best  painters  in  Europe.  He  became 
a  pupil  of  Andrea  Sacchi  and  a  devout  student  of  Ra- 
phael's works,  and  chose  Rome  as  his  jjermanent  resi- 
dence. He  was  employed  by  Clement  IX.  and  by  four 
other  successive  popes,  and  received  the  title  of  painter- 
ordinary  to  Louis  XIV.,  for  whom  he  painted  a  picture 
of  Daphne.  His  Madonnas  are  admired  for  modest 
dignity  and  amiable  expression.  He  preferred  to  paint 
pictures  for  galleries  and  altars,  rather  than  large  works. 
Maratta  also  excelled  in  the  art  of  etching.  He  was  the 
last  great  painter  of  the  Roman  school.    Died  in  1 713. 

See  Bei.lori,  "Vita  del  Cavalier  Maratti,"  1732;  Lanzi,  "His- 
tory of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Pascoi.i,  "Vite  de'  Pittori  inoderni ;" 
Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Maratta  or  Maratti,  (Maria,)  a  daughter  of  the 
preceding,  was  a  painter  and  a  poetess.  She  was  mar- 
ried to  G.  Zappe,  the  poet. 

Maratti.    See  Maratta. 

Maraviglia,  mi-ri-veKyi,  (Giuseppe  Maria,)  an 
Italian  philosopher  and  moralist,  born  at  Milan.  His 
Latin  name  was  Miraiulia.    Died  in  1684. 

Marazzoli,  mS-rit-so'lee,  (Marco,)  an  Italian  com- 
poser of  operas  and  oratorios,  born  at  Parma ;  died  in 
1662. 

Marbach,  maR'blK,  (Johann,)  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Lindau  in  1 52 1.  Among  his  works 
is  "  The  Faith  of  Jesus  and  of  the  Jesuits,"  ("  Fides  Jesus 
et  Jesuitarum.")    Died  in  1581. 

Marbeau,  mtR'bo',  (Jean  Baptiste  Francois,)  a 
French  writer  on  social  economy,  born  at  Brives  in  1798. 
He  founded  in  1844  charitable  institutions  called  Creches, 
for  infants  whose  mothers  serve  as  labourers  out  of  their 
own  houses. 

Mar'beck,  (John,)  an  English  composer  of  cathedral 
music,  was  organist  of  Windsor  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VHI.  He  coinposed  the  notes  to  the /'rd'c^j  and  Re- 
sponses used  in  the  English  cathedrals.  Having  iden- 
tified himself  with  the  Protestant  cause,  he  was  con- 


demned to  be  burned  for  heresy  about  1545,  but  was 
pardoned, — perhaps  on  account  of  his  musical  skill.  He 
published  a  "Book  of  Common  Prayer  Noted,"  (1550,) 
and  a  "Concordance."    Died  in  1585. 
See  Hawkins,  "  History  of  Music." 

Marbeuf  or  Marboeuf,  mtR'buf,  (Louis  Charles 
Ren6,)  Marquis,  a  French  general,  born  near  Rennes 
in  1712.  He  commanded  in  Corsica  against  Paoli,  by 
whom  he  was  defeated  in  1768.    Died  in  1786. 

Marbois,  mtR^bwi',  (  Francois  de  Barbe— deh 
btR'bi',)  Marquis,  called  also  Marquis  de  Marbois, 
a  French  statesman  and  writer,  born  at  Metz  in  1745. 
About  1780  he  was  charge-d'affaires  and  consul-general 
to  the  United  States.  In  1792  Louis  XVI.,  who  esteemed 
him  for  his  probity,  sent  him  on  an  embassy  to  Vienna. 
He  was  elected  in  1795  to  the  Council  of  Elders,  in  which 
he  spoke  often  and  with  ability.  In  September,  1797,  he 
was,  with  others,  deported  to  Guiana  by  the  Directory. 
Bonaparte  appointed  him  director  of  the  treasury,  or  min- 
ister of  finance,  in  1801.  Marbois  was  dismissed  in  1805, 
but  in  1808  became  first  president  of  the  Cour  des 
Comptes,  (Chamber  of  Accounts,  or  exchequer.)  He  held 
this  office  about  thirty  years.  He  was  keeper  of  the  seals 
and  minister  of  justice  in  181 5  and  1816,  and  received 
the  title  of  marquis  in  181 7.  He  wrote  numerous  moral, 
political,  and  historical  works,  among  which  are  "The 
Conspiracy  of  Arnold  against  the  United  States," 
(i8r6,)  and  a  "History  of  Louisiana,"  (1828.)  Died  in 
1837. 

See  Antoine  Passy,  "  Notice  sur  le  Marquis  de  Barbe-Marbois," 
1838;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Marbot,  mtn^bo',  (Antoine  Adolphe  Marcellin,) 
a  French  general,  born  at  Altillac  in  1781  ;  died  in  1844. 

Marbot,  (Jean  Baptiste  Antoine,)  a  general,  born 
at  Altillac  in  1782,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  Na- 
poleon left  him  a  legacy  of  one  hundred  thousand  francs. 
Died  in  1854. 

Marc,  the  French  for  Mark,  which  see. 

Marc,  mtRk,  (Charles  Chretien  Henri,)  a  physi- 
cian, born  at  Amsterdam  in  1 771,  settled  in  Paris  in  1798. 
About  1 818  he  became  physician  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
who,  on  his  accession  as  Louis  Philippe,  in  1830,  gave 
him  the  title  of  first  physician  to  the  king.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Insanity,"  ("  De  la 
Folic,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1840,)  and  published  several  able 
medical  treatises.    Died  in  1841. 

See  Pariset,  "  filoge  de  Ch.  Ch.  H.  Marc,"  1842;  Reveill^- 
Parisse,  "Notice  sur  C.  C.  H.  Marc,"  1842. 

Marc,  Saint.    See  Mark,  Saint,  and  Marcus. 

Marc  Antoine,  the  French  for  Mark  Antony.  See 
Antonius,  (Marcus.) 

Marc  Antonio.    See  Raimondl 

Marc  Aurel,  the  German  for  Marcus  Aurelius. 

Marc  Aurele.    See  Aurelius,  (Marcus.) 

Marca,  de,  deh  mtk^kt',  (Pierre,)  an  ambitious  and 
learned  French  prelate,  born  in  Bearn  in  1594.  At  the 
request  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  he  wrote  his  famous 
treatise  on  the  liberty  of  the  Galilean  Church,  entitled 
"De  Concordia  Sacerdotii  et  Imperii,"  (1641,)  which 
offended  the  court  of  Rome.  He  was  made  Bishop  of 
Toulouse  in  1652,  minister  of  state  about  1658,  and 
Archbishop  of  Paris  in  1661.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"  History  of  Bearn."    Died  in  1662. 

See  Dr  Facet,  "Vie  de  Pierre  de  Marca;"  Bompart,  "filoge 
de  Marca,"  1672. 

Marceau,  mtR's5',  (FRANgois  S^vertn  De.sgra- 
VIERS,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Chartres  in  1769.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1786,  and  becatne  a  general  of 
brigade  at  the  age  of  twenty-two.  In  1793  he  obtained 
the  chief  command  of  the  army  sent  against  the  Ven- 
deans,  whom  he  defeated  at  Mans.  In  1795  and  1796  he 
commanded  a  division  on  the  Rhine  and  in  the  Palati- 
nate, where  he  gained  advantages  over  the  Austrians. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  near  Altenkirchen  in  1796. 
Kleber,  who  was  his  friend,  said,  "I  have  never  known 
any  general  so  capable  as  Marceau  to  change  the  plan 
of  battle  on  the  spot  with  sang-froid  and  judgment." 

See  Claude  Desprez,  "Kleber  et  Marceau,"  1857;  Lavalt.^, 
"filoge  liistorique  du  General  Marceau,"  1797;  Sergent-Mar- 
CEAU,  "  Notice  sur  le  General  Marceau,"  1820. 

Marcel.    See  Marcellus  L,  Bishop  of  Rome. 


fi,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,    short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mfit;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MARCEL 


MJRCELLUS 


Marcel,  nitR's^K,  (firiENNE,)  a  French  partisan  chief 
and  agitator  of  reform,  was  provost  of  the  merchants  of 
Paris  when  King  John  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner 
at  Poitiers,  in  1356.  He  became  the  leader  of  the  popular 
party  in  its  contest  with  the  dauphin  Charles,  who  acted 
as  regent.  Marcel  was  predominant  in  Paris,  and  con- 
trolled a  majority  in  the  States-General,  which  refused 
to  vote  supplies  for  the  war  unless  their  grievances 
should  be  redressed.  A  revolution  was  effected  which 
rendered  the  government  almost  repul:)lican.  Having 
given  the  command  of  Paris  to  Charles  the  Bad,  of 
Navarre,  he  was  betrayed  by  him,  and  was  assassinated 
in  1358. 

See  Naudet,  "Conjuration  d'fitienne  Marcel,"  etc.  ;  FroIssart, 
"  Chroniqiie  ;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Marcel,  (Guillaumr,)  a  French  chronologist,  born 
at  Toulouse  in  1647.  He  negotiated  a  treaty  with  the 
Dey  of  Algiers  in  1677.  He  published  valuable  "Chro- 
nological Tablets,"  and  a  "  History  of  the  Origin  and 
Prog'ress  of  the  French  Monarchy,"  (1686,)  which  is 
commended  for  accuracy  in  dates.    Died  in  1708. 

Marcel,  (Guillaiimf.,)  a  French  writer  and  priest, 
born  about  1612,  He  wrote  Latin  and  French  verse, 
etc.    Died  in  1702. 

Marcel,  (Jean  Joseph,)  an  eminent  French  Orien- 
talist and  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  November,  1776. 
He  went  to  Egypt  in  1798  as  a  member  of  the  scientific 
commission,  and,  having  returned  to  France  in  1801, 
was  selected  as  one  of  the  redactet<rs  oi  the  "Descrip- 
tion of  Egypt."  He  was  director  of  the  national  printing 
department  (imprimerie)  from  1802  to  1814.  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  "  Melanges  Orientaux,"  (1833,) 
a  "  History  of  Egypt  from  the  Arabian  Conquest  to  the 
French  Expedition,"  (2d  edition,  1844,)  and  a  "Scien- 
tific and  Military  History  of  the  French  Expedition 
5n  Egypt,"  (with  Louis  ^eybaud,)  (10  vols.,  1830-36.) 
jjied  in  1854. 

See  Bei.in,  "Notice  sur  J.  J.  Marcel,"  in  the  "Journal  Asi- 
atique,"  1854;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale. " 

Marcel,  maRt'sel,  (N.,)  a  German  painter  of  flowers, 
fruits,  etc.,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1628;  died  in  1683. 

Mar-cePla,  a  Roman  lady,  was  a  daughter  of  C. 
Marcelkis  and  Octavia,  who  was  a  sister  of  the  emperor 
Augustus.  She  was  married  first  to  M.  V.  Agrippa, 
divorced  in  21  B.C.,  and  married  again  to  a  son  of  Mark 
Antony  the  triumvir. 

Marcellin.    See  Marcet.t.tnus. 

Mar-cel-li'nus,  [  Fr.  Marcf.lltn,  mtR^si'l^N',  ] 
Saint,  a  native  of  Rome,  succeeded  Cains  as  Bishop  of 
Rome,  or  pope,  in  295  A.D.  During  his  tenure  of  that 
office  the  Church  was  persecuted  by  Diocletian.  He 
died  in  304  or  305,  and  was  succeeded  by  Marcellus  L 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes 
Remains." 

Marcellinus  Ammianus.    See  Ammtanus. 

Marcellis,  mar-seKlis,  (Otho,)  a  Dutch  painter  of 
■floxyers  and  animals,  was  born  in  16 13.  He  worked 
with  success  in  Paris,  Rome,  and  Amsterdam.  Died 
in  1673. 

Marcello,  maR-cheKlo,  (Benedetto,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  composer  and  poet,  born  of  a  patrician  family  at 
Venice  in  1686,  was  a  pupil  of  Gasparini.  He  studied 
law,  and  was  for  fourteen  years  a  member  of  the  Coi^ncil 
of  Forty.  He  gained  distinction  as  a  i^oet  by  a  number 
of  sonnets  and  canzoni.  His  capital  work  is  a  collection 
of  psalms,  entitled  "  Estro  poetico-armonico  Parafrasi 
sopra  i  50  primi  Salmi,"  (1724.)  These  were  received 
with  universal  enthusiasm  throughout  Europe,  and  mer- 
ited for  the  author  the  appellation  of  the  Pindar  and 
Michael  Angelo  of  musicians.    Died  in  1739. 

See  RuRNKY,  "General  History  of  Music;"  Fetis  "Biographie 
Universelle  des  Miisiciens;"  F.  Fontana,  "Vita  di  B.  Marcello," 
1788;  F.  Caffi,  "Delia  Vita  e  del  Comporre  di  B.  Marcello,"  1830: 
Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Marcello,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  biographer,  lived  at 
Venice  about  1500,  and  wrote  "  De  Vita  Principum  et 
Gestis  Venetorum,"  (1554.) 

Mar-cePlus  [Fr.  Marcel,  mtR'slK;  It.  Marcello, 
maR-cheKlo|  I.,  Bishop  of  Rome,  was  a  Roman  by  birth, 
and  was  elected  in  308  A.n.  His  efforts  to  maintain 
strict  discipline  are  said  to  have  caused  a  schism  and 


sedition  among  the  believers.  He  died  in  309  or  310, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Eusebius. 

Marcellus  II.,  Pope,  born  at  Fane  in  1501,  was 
named  Marcellus  Cervius.  He  was  elected  pope  in 
April,  1555,  after  the  death  of  Julius  HI.  About  three 
weeks  after  his  election  he  died,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Paul  IV. 

See  A.  Bower,  "  History  of  the  Popes;"  Artaud  de  Montor, 
"  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes  Remains." 

Mar-cePlus,  (Caius  Claudius,)  a  Roman  consul, 
who  married  Octavia,  the  sister  of  Octavius  Caesar. 
He  became  consul  in  50  B.C.,  before  which  he  had  at- 
tached himself  to  the  party  of  Pompey.  While  in  this 
office  he  made  a  motion  in  the  senate  to  deprive  Caesar 
of  his  command,  but  did  not  succeed.  He  remained  in 
Italy  during  the  civil  war,  and  shared  the  clemency  of 
Cassar  after  the  victory  of  the  latter.  Died  about  40  B.C. 

Mar-cePlus,  [It.  Marcello,  maR-cheKlo,](DoNATO,) 
an  Italian  physician,  born  at  Mantua.  He  wrote  "  De 
Historia  Medica  mirabili,"  (1586.) 

Marcellus,  (Marcus  Claudius,)  a  Roman  general, 
celebrated  as  the  conqueror  of  Syracuse,  born  about  266 
B.C.,  was  the  greatest  member  of  a  consular  plebeian 
family  which  produced  several  eminent  men.  In  222 
he  became  consul,  (with  Cn.  Cornelius  Scipio,)  defeated 
the  Insubrians  on  the  Po,  and  obtained  the  honour  of  a 
triumph.  After  Hannibal  had  invaded  Italy  in  the  second 
Punic  war,  Marcellus  was  chosen  praetor  for  the  year  216 
B.C.,  in  which  the  battle  of  Cannae  was  fought.  He  was 
not  present  at  this  battle.  The  command  of  the  forces 
which  escaped  from  that  defeat  having  devolved  on  him, 
he  repulsed  the  attack  of  Hannibal  on  Nola,  and  was  the 
first  that  checked  his  victorious  progress.  He  was  elected 
for  the  third  time  consul  for  the  year  214,  with  the  great 
Fabius  Maximus  as  his  colleague.  His  most  famous 
exploit  was  the  conquest  of  Syracuse,  which,  though 
defended  by  the  genius  of  Archimedes,  he  took,  after  a 
siege  of  two  years  and  some  months,  in  212  B.C.  He 
again  obtained  the  consulship  in  210  B.C.,  with  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  in  Italy,  and  fought  an  indecisive  bat- 
tle with  Hannibal  at  Numistro.  Marcellus  and  Hannibal 
commanded  the  respective  armies  at  Canusium,  (209,) 
where  the  Romans  claimed  the  victory.  Marcellus  was 
elected  consul  for  the  fifth  time  in  208  B.C.  Having 
advanced  to  reconnoitre  near  Venusia,  he  fell  into 
an  ambuscade,  and  was  killed  in  the  skirmish  with  the 
advanced  posts  of  Hannibal,  in  that  year.  Plutarch 
has  drawn  a  parallel  between  Marcellus  and  Pelopidas, 
"who,"  he  says,  "  were  both  men  of  heroic  strength,  and 
were  equal  in  courage  and  magnanimity."  Polybius 
denies  that  Marcellus  ever  defeated  Hannibal. 

See  Plutarch's  "Lives;"  Aurelius  Victor,  "De  Viris  illus- 
tribus;"  Livy,  "History  of  Rome,"  books  xxii.-xxvii. ;  Polybius, 
"History;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Marcellus,  (Marcus  Claudius,)  a  Roman  general, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  wounded  in  the 
skirmish  in  which  his  father  was  killed.  He  was  elected 
praetor  in  198  B.C.,  and  consul  in  196,  when  he  com- 
manded in  Cisalpine  Gaul  and  defeated  the  Insubrians. 
In  189  he  was  censor.    Died  in  177  B.C. 

Marcellus,  (Marcus  Claudius,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, obtained  the  consulship  in  166  B.C.  He  was 
chosen  consul  again  in  155,  and  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Ligurians.  In  152  he  obtained  a  third  consulship, 
with  command  of  the  army  in  S])ain,  where  he  subdued 
the  Celtiberians  and  founded  Corduba,  (Cordova.)  He 
perished  by  shipwreck  in  148  B.C. 

Marcellus,  (Marcus  Claudius,)  the  friend  of  Cicero, 
and  the  subject  of  the  admirable  oration  "  Pro  M.  Mar- 
cello," was  a  descendant  of  the  great  Marcellus.  He 
had  a  high  reputation  as  an  orator.  Elected  consul  in 
52  B.C.,  he  urged  the  senate  to  extreme  measures  against 
Caesar.  In  the  civil  war  he  was  an  adherent  of  Pompey 
and  the  senate.  He  fled  from  Rome  in  49,  and  joined 
the  army  in  Epirus.  After  the  ruin  of  his  cause  at  Phar- 
salia,  he  exiled  himself  to  Mitylene.  Overcome  by  the 
warm  intercession  of  the  senators,  Caesar  granted  him  a 
pardon  in  47  B.C.  On  this  occasion  Cicero  expressed  his 
thanks  to  the  dictator,  and  his  high  estimate  of  the  merit 
of  Marcellus,  in  the  oration  which  bears  his  name. 
Marcellus  was  on  his  homeward  journey  when  he  was 


f.z&k,  ^Tas  s;  g  hard;  g  as    G,  H,  K,  ^mttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2!^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MARCELLUS 


I  520 


MJRCHETTI 


assassinated,  near  Athens,  by  P.  Magius,  one  of  his  at- 
tendants, about  46  B.C. 

See  CiCKKO,  "Pro  M.  Marcello Drumann,  "  Geschichte 
Roms;"  Orki.i.i,  "  Onomasticon  Tullianum." 

Marcellua,  (Marcus  Claudius,)  was  the  son  of  C. 
Claudius  Marcellus,  noticed  above,  and  Octavia.  About 
the  year  25  B.C.  he  was  adopted  by  his  uncle,  the  empe- 
ror Augustus,  who  gave  him  his  daughter  Julia  in  mar- 
riage. Me  was  a  youth  of  promising  talents,  and  was  a 
general  favourite.  He  died  in  his  twentieth  year,  in  the 
autumn  of  23  B.C.  His  memory  was  embalmed  by  Vir- 
gil in  a  beautiful  passage  of  his  epic  poem,  (book  vi.,  v. 
872,  etc.,)  which  was  recited  by  the  poet  in  the  presence 
of  Octavia  and  Augustus.    (See  OctaVIA.) 

See  Plutarch,  "  Maicelliis  ;"  Tacitus,  "Annales." 

Mar-cel'lu.'3  Em-pir'i-cus,  a  Latin  writer,  born  at 
Burdigala,  (Bordeaux.)  He  was  magister  officiorum  in 
the  reign  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  (379-395  A.D.)  He 
was  author  of  a  pharmaceutical  work,  "  Ue  Medica- 
mentis  Enipiricis,  Physicis,"  etc. 

Mar-cePlus  Si-de'tes,  a  native  of  Side,  in  Pam- 
phylia,  lived  about  140  A.D.  He  wrote  a  long  Greek 
medical  poem,  of  which  fragments  are  extant. 

Mar-cel'lus  Ul'pi-us,  a  Roman  jurist,  who  flourished 
about  150  A.D.,  and  was  a  legal  adviser  of  the  emperor 
Antoninus  Pius.  He  was  author  of  thirty-one  books  of 
"  Digesta,"  six  books  on  the  "  Leges  Julia  et  Papia," 
and  one  book  of  "  Responsa."  About  one  hundred  and 
fifty  excerpts  from  his  works  are  found  in  the  "Digest." 
He  is  often  quoted  as  high  authority  by  Ulpian,  Paulus, 
and  other  jurists. 

See  M.  Tydeman,  "De  Marcelll  Vita,"  1762;  J.  T.  Seger,  "  Ul- 
pius  Marcellus,"  1768. 

Marcellus,  de,  deh  miR'si'Riss',  (Marie  Louis 
Jean  Andi<6  Charles  Demartin  du  Tirac — deh- 
mtR^t^N'  dli  te''rtk',)  CoMi'E,  a  French  writer,  critic, 
and  diplomatist,  born  in  Guienne  in  1795.  During  a  mis- 
sion to  the  Levant,  in  1820,  he  brought  away  the  statue 
of  Venus  of  Milo.  He  published  '*  Souvenirs  of  the 
Levant,"  (2  vols.,  1839,)  "Popular  Songs  of  Greece," 
(1851,)  and  "  Cliateaubriand  and  his  Times,"  (1859.) 

Marcet,  mar's^t'  or  miR'si',  (Alexandra:,)  RR.S., 
a  skilful  Swiss  physician  and  chemist,  born  at  Geneva  in 
1770.  Having  been  exiled  for  political  reasons,  he  settled 
in  London  about  1797,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
a  practitioner  and  a  lecturer  on  chemistry.  In  1815  he 
returned  to  Geneva,  where  he  was  elected  to  the  supreme 
council.  His  principal  work  is  an  "  Essay  on  the  Chem- 
ical History  and  Treatment  of  Calculous  Disorders," 
(181 7,  in  English.)    Died  in  1822. 

Marcet,  (Jane  Haldimand,)  a  popular  writer  on 
science,  wife  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Geneva  in 
1785.  She  published  "Conversations  on  Chemistry," 
(in  English,)  which  i^assed  through  many  editions,  and 
"Conversations  on  Political  Economy,"  (1816.)  "Every 
girl,"  says  Macaulay,  "who  has  read  Mrs.  Marcet's  dia- 
logues on  political  economy  could  teach  Montague  or 
Walpole  many  lessons  on  finance."    Died  in  1858. 

See  a  notice  of  Mrs.  Marcet,  by  Professor  De  la  Rivh,  in  the 
"  Bibliotheque  Universelle,"  new  series,  1858,  vol.  iii. ;  Harriet 
Martineau,  "Biographical  Sketches,"  London,  1869. 

Marcgraf,  maRk'gRa.f,  or  Marggraf,  maRc/gRlf, 
(Georg,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Liebstadt  in  1610, 
was  author  of  a  "Natural  History  of  Brazil,"  (in  Latin,) 
published  at  Leyden  in  1648.  "The  descriptions  of 
Marcgraf,"  says  Hallam,  "are  good,  and  enable  us  to 
identify  the  animals.  They  correct  the  imperfect  notions 
of  Gesner,  and  add  several  species  which  do  not  appear 
in  his  work."    Died  in  Guinea  in  1644. 

March,  maRch,  (Ausias  or  Osias,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  at  Valencia.  He  imitated  Petrarch  with  success, 
and  wrote  many  short  poems  on  love,  morals,  etc.,  which 
were  printed  in  1543.    Died  in  1460. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

March,  (Miguel,)  a  Spanish  painter  of  religious 
subjects,  born  at  Valencia  in  1633  ;  died  in  1670. 

March  de  les  Batallas,  maRch  di  lis  ba-tSKySs, 
(EsTKBAN,)  a  Spanish  painter,  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Valencia.  He  acquired  a  great  reputation 
as  a  painter  of  battles.    He  died  at  Valencia  in  1660. 

.See  Cean-Bermudez,  "Diccionario  Historico,"  etc. 


Marchais,  dea,  d^  mtR'shy,  (Renaud,)  a  French 
traveller,  wrote  a  description  of  Western  Africa,  which 
was  published  by  Labat,  in  4  vols.,  (1731.)  Died  about 
1728. 

Marchal,  mtR'shtK,  (Francois  Joseph  Ferdinand,) 
a  Belgian  writer,  born  at  Brussels  in  1780.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Charles  V.,"  (18S7.) 
Died  in  1858. 

Marchand,  mtR'shSx',  (Etienne,)  a  French  navi- 
gator, born  in  the  island  of  Grenada  in  1755.  He  made 
a  voyage  round  the  world  in  1790-92,  and  discovered 
several  small  islands  in  the  Northern  Pacific  Ocean.  A 
narrative  of  the  voyage  was  published.    Died  in  1793. 

Marchand,  (Jean  Gabriel,)  Comte,  a  French 
general,  born  near  Saint-Marcellin  in  1765.  He  served 
as  general  of  division  at  the  battles  of  Jena  (1806)  and 
Friedland,  (1807.)  When  Napoleon  returned  from  Elba, 
(181 5,)  Marchand  adhered  to  Louis  XVIII.  Died  in 
1851. 

Marchand,  (Jean  Henri,)  a  witty  French  writer  in 
prose  and  verse.  Among  his  works  are  "Memoirs  of 
an  Elephant,"  (1771,)  and  "Political  Testament  of  M. 
de  v.,"  (Voltaire.)    Died  about  1785. 

See  Rarbier,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Anonymes." 

Marchand,  (Lours,)  a  French  organist,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1669.  He  became  organist  of  the  royal  chapel 
at  Versailles.    Died  in  1732. 

Marchand,  (Prosper,)  a  learned  French  bibliogra- 
pher,  born  in  Picardy  about  1675.  Having  become  a 
Protestant,  he  removed  to  Amsterdam  in  1711.  He 
published  editions  of  rare  books,  collected  literary  anec- 
dotes, and  wrote  a  "  Historical  Dictionary,  or  Critical 
and  Literary  Memoirs,"  (1758,)  a  work  of  considerable 
interest.  (See  Allamand.)  He  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  "Journal  Litteraire,"  an  able  periodical  published 
at  the  Hague,  (1713-37,)  anc^  author  of  a  "History  of 
the  Art  of  Printing."    Died  in  1756. 

See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Marchangy,  de,  deh  mtR'shftN^zhe',  (Louis  An- 
TOiNE  FRANgois,)  a  French  author  and  advocate,  born 
at  Clamecy  in  1782.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  The  History  of  P>ance,  considered  in  its  Relations  with 
Poetry,  Eloquence,  and  the  Fine  Arts,"  ("  La  Gaule 
poetique,"  etc.,  1813.)    Died  in  1826. 

Marchant,  mtR'shSN',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  botanist, 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
(1666.)    Died  at  Paris  in  1678. 

Marchant,  (Nicolas  Damas,)  Baron,  a  French 
antiquary  and  physician,  born  in  1767;  died  in  1833. 

Marche,  de  la,  deh  It  tntRsh,  (Olivier,)  a  poet  and 
chronicler,  born  in  Burgundy  in  1426.  He  served  Charles 
the  Bold  as  captain  of  his  guards,  and  was  made  prisoner 
at  the  battle  of  Nancy,  (1477.)  He  was  afterwards 
mattre-d'hStel  (steward)  of  Mary  of  Burgundy  and  her 
son  Philip.  He  wrote,  in  French,  "  Historical  Memoirs," 
(of  events  which  occurred  from  1435  to  1492,)  which  are 
considered  valuable  and  candid.  He  also  wrote  several 
poems,  one  of  which  is  called  "  Le  Chevalier  delibere, 
ou  la  Vie  de  Charles  le  Temeraire."    Died  in  1501. 

See  CoMiNES,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Marchena,  maR-cha'nS,  (Jos6,)  a  Spanish  litterateur, 
born  in  Andalusia  in  1768,  went  to  France  about  1790. 
Bei^ig  an  expert  linguist,  he  was  employed  as  secretary 
by  General  Moreau,  (i 798-1804.)  He' translated  into 
Spanish  Moliere's  "  Tartuffe,"  Rousseau's  "£mi]e,"and 
other  works.    Died  in  1821. 

Marches!,  maR-ka'see,  or  Zaganelli,  (Francesco,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Cotignola.  He  lived  about 
1520,  and  worked  at  Ravenna. 

Marches!,  (Girolamo,)  a  painter,  was  born  about 
1480.  He  painted  portraits  and  history  at  Rome  and 
Naples.    Vasari  dates  his  death  about  1550. 

Marchesi,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1699;  died  in  1771. 

Marchesi,  (Pompeo,)  an  able  Italian  sculptor,  born 
in  1790,  was  a  pupil  of  Canova.  Among  his  works  are 
a  marble  statue  of  Goethe  at  Frankfort,  and  a  Saint  Am- 
brose at  Milan.    Died  at  Milan  in  1858. 

Marchetti,  maR-ket'tee,  (Alessandro,)  an  eminent 
Italian  poet  and  professor,  was  born  at  Pontormo.  in 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lon^;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,    short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  gootl;  moon ; 


MARCHETTI 


MARCUS 


Tuscany,  in  1633.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Pisa  from  1659  to  1679.  In  the  latter  year  he  obtained 
the  chair  of  mathematics  at  Pisa.  He  published  an  able 
treatise  "  On  the  Resistance  of  Solids,"  and  other  works 
on  physics  and  mathematics.  His  reputation  rests  chiefly 
on  his  Italian  versions  of  Anacreon  and  Lucretius.  The 
version  of  Lucretius,  in  sciolti,  or  blank  verse,  is  generally 
admired  for  fidelity  and  elegance.  He  wrote,  also,  short 
original  poems.    13ied  in  1 7 14. 

See  Francesco  Marchetti,  "Vita  di  A.  Marchetti,"  1755;  Fa- 
BRONi,  '"Vits  Italoruni  doctrina  excellentium ;"  Niceron,  "Me- 
moiies;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Marchetti,  (  GiovAxNNI,  )  an  Italian  ecclesiastical 
writer,  born  at  Empoli  in  1753.  He  defended  the  cause 
of  the  pope  in  some  of  his  numerous  works.  Among 
these  is  a  "  Critique  on  Fleury's  History  of  the  Church," 
(2  vols.,  1782.)    Died  in  1829. 

Marchetti,  (Giuseppe  Salvagnoli — sil-vin-yo'lee,) 
an  Italian  poet,  born  near  Empoli  in  1799.  He  com- 
posed several  small  poems,  and  translated  Virgil's 
Eclogues  into  Italian  verse.    Died  in  1829. 

Marchetti,  (Marco,)  called  Marco  da  Faenza,  a 
Bkilful  Italian  painter,  born  at  Faenza;  died  in  1588. 

Marchettis,  di,dee  maR-ket'tess,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian 
writer  on  surgery,  born  at  Padua  in  1593.  He  published 
*'  Sylloge  Observationum  Medico-Chirurgicarum,"  (1664, 
often  reprinted.)    Died  in  1673. 

Marchi,  da,  dimaR'kee,  (Francesco,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  engineer,  born  at  Bologna  about  1506.  He  served 
the  King  of  Spain  as  military  engineer  in  Flanders  for 
thirty  years,  and  made  inventions  in  fortification.  His 
reputation  was  founded  on  a  work  entitled  "  On  Forti- 
fication," (Della  Architettura  militare,"  1599.)  Died 
about  1599. 

See  Marini,  "Vita  di  F.  Marchi,"  1810;  Ginguene,  "  Histoire 
de  la  Litteiature  Italienne." 

Marchin,  de,  deh  mtR'shix',  (Ferdinand,)  Count, 
sometimes  written  Marsin,  a  French  general,  born  in 
1656.  He  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  the  King  of  Spain 
in  1 701.  He  returned  to  France  in  1 703,  and  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  marshal.  At  the  battle  of  Blenheim  (1704) 
he  was  second  in  command,  and,  after  Tallart  was  made 
prisoner,  conducted  the  retreat  in  good  order.  He  com- 
manded under  the  Duke  of  Orleans  at  the  great  battle 
of  Turin,  (1706,)  where  the  French  were  defeated  by 
Prince  Eugene  and  Marchin  was  killed. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "  Memoires ;"  De  Courcelles,  "Diction- 
naire  des  Generaux  Fran^ais." 

Marchini,  maR-kee'nee,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an 
Italian  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Vercelli  in  17 13.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  Treatise  on  the  Divinity  of  the  Sacred  Books," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1774. 

Marchione  (maR-ke-o'ni)  of  Arezzo,  a  mediaeval 
Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  flourished  about  1200. 
One  of  his  works,  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Pieve, 
is  extant  at  Arezzo. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Marchmont,  Earl  of.  See  Hume,  (Sir  Patrick,) 
and  Hume,  (Hugh  Campbeli.) 

Marcia  or  Martia  (mar'she-a)  Gens,  a  Roman 
gens,  originally  patrician,  claimed  to  be  descended  from 
Ancus  Marcius.  The  family  of  Coriolanus  belonged  to 
this  gens. 

Marcian,  mar'she-an,  [Lat.  Marcia'nus  ;  Gr.  Map/c«- 
avbq;  Fr.  Marcien,  mtR'se-SN',]  Emperor  of  the  East, 
was  born  of  obscure  parents  in  Thrace  about  390  a.d. 
He  had  risen  by  his  merit  to  a  high  rank  in  the  army 
when  Theodosius  the  Younger  died,  in  450.  He  then 
accepted  from  Pulcheria,  a  sister  of  Theodosius,  the 
offer  of  her  hand,  and  became  emperor.  His  reign 
was  wise  and  peaceful.  He  refused  to  pay  the  tribute 
demanded  by  Attila,  King  of  the  Huns,  saying,  "I 
have  gold  for  my  friends,  and  iron  for  my  enemies." 
He  died,  without  issue,  in  457  a.d.,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Leo  I. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Le 
Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Marcianus.    See  Marcian. 

Marcianua,  mar-she-a'nus,  (2E1.IUS,)  a  Roman  jurist, 
who  wrote  in  the  reigns  of  Septimius  Severus  and  Cara- 
calla.   He  survived  the  latter,  who  died  in  217  a.d.  The 


Digest  contains  many  excerpts  from  his  "  Institutiones," 
his  "  Publica  Judicia,"  and  other  works. 
See  Oelrichs,  "  De  Vita  ^Elii  Marciani,"  1754. 

Marcianus  of  Heracleia,  (in  Pontus,)  [Fr.  Mar- 
cien d'H^racl^e,  mtR^se-iN'  dk'rt'kli',]  a  Greek 
geographer,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  fourth 
century.  He  wrote  a  "Periplus  of  the  External  Sea, 
both  Eastern  and  Western,"  of  which  fragments  have 
come  down  to  us  and  are  esteemed  valuable. 

See  Ukert,  "  Geographie  der  Griechen  und  Romer." 

Marcien.    See  Marcian. 
Marcile.    See  Marcilius. 

Marcilius,  mar-see'le-us,  [Fr.  Marcile,  mtR^s^l',] 
(Theodorus,)  a  Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Arnhem  in 
1548.  He  was  professor  of  rhetoric  in  several  colleges 
of  Paris  from  1578  to  161 7.  He  published  notes  on 
Persius,  Horace,  Lucian,  and  other  classics,  and  wrote 
"  Lusus  de  Nemine,"  (1586,)  a  poem,  and  a  "History 
of  New- Year's  Gifts,"  ("  Historia  Strenarum,"  1599.) 
Died  in  1617. 

See  P.  Valens,  "  Marcilii  Elogium,"  1620. 

Marcion,  mar'she-on,  [Gr.  Map/ci'wv,]  a  celebrated 
heresiarch  of  the  second  century,  was  born  at  Sinope,  in 
Pontus.  Having  been  excommunicated  for  some  youthful 
fault,  he  went  to  Rome  about  140  a.d.  He  devised  a 
new  creed  or  system,  which  was  accepted  by  numerous 
disciples  (Marcionites)  and  was  opposed  by  Tertullian, 
Origen,  and  other  Fathers.  He  taught  the  existence  of 
two  original  principles, — the  authors  of  good  and  evil, — 
and  ascribed  the  Mosaic  law  to  the  evil  principle.  He 
also  rejected  a  large  part  of  the  New  Testament. 

See  TiLi.EMONT,  "Memoires  ecclesiastiques  Lardner,  "  His- 
tory of  Heretics ;"  ScHEi.r.iNG,  "  Dissertatio  de  Marcione,"  1795; 
Neander,  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church :"  Cave,  "  Historia 
Literaria ;"  Tertullian,  "Contra  Marcionem." 

Marck,  de  la,  deh  It  maRk,  (Guillaume,)  a  Flemish 
chief,  born  in  1446,  was  noted  for  his  ferocity,  and  was 
surnamed  THE  Wild  Boar  of  Ardennes.  He  assas- 
sinated the  Bishop  of  Liege,  and  ravaged  Brabant,  but 
was  defeated  by  the  archduke  Maximilian.  He  then 
made  an  alliance  with  Rene  of  Lorraine  in  order  to  re- 
new the  war.  Maximilian  caj^tured  him,  and  put  him  to 
death  in  1485.  William  de  la  Marck  is  a  conspicuous 
character  in  Scott's  romance  of  "Quentin  Durward." 

Marck,  de  la,  (Robert,)  Count,  was  master  of  the 
duchy  of  Bouillon  and  of  Sedan.  He  was  an  ally  of 
France  in  the  war  against  the  Austrians.  He  was  driven 
out  of  his  dominions  by  the  armies  of  Charles  V.,  but 
was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Madrid,  (1526.)  Died  in 
1535.  His  son  Robert  became  marshal  of  France.  (See 
Fleuranges.) 

Marco  Calabrese,  maR'ko  kS-lS-bRa'si,  an  Italian 
painter  of  the  Neapolitan  school,  flourished  from  1508 
to  1541.    His  proper  name  was  Cardisco. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Marco  da  Faenza.    See  Marchetti,  (Marco.) 
Marco  da  Forli.    See  Palmegianl 
Marco  Polo.    See  Polo. 

Marconville,  de,  deh  mtR^k^NV^l',  or  Marcou- 
ville,  mtR'koo'v^K,  (Jean,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Le 
Perche  about  1540.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Origin  of  the  Diversity  in  the  Opinions  of  Men," 
and  one  "  On  the  Goodness  and  Depravity  of  Women," 
("  La  Bonte  et  Mauvaistie  des  Femmes.") 

Marcot,  mtk'ko',  (Eustache,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1686.  He  became  first  physician- 
in-ordinary  to  the  king.    Died  in  1755. 

Marculfe,  mar'kulf,  a  French  monk,  who  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  about  650  a.d.  He  formed  a  collection  of 
formulas  of  contracts,  deeds,  and  public  acts  which  were 
used  and  approved  in  his  time.  This  collection  is  valued 
as  a  monument  of  French  history  and  jurisprudence. 

Mar'cus,  [Fr.  Marc,  miRk,]  a  native  of  Rome,  was 
elected  Pope  or  Bishop  of  Rome,  in  place  of  Sylvester, 
in  336  A.D.  He  died  about  nine  months  after  his  elec- 
tion, and  was  succeeded  by  Julius  I. 

Marcus  Aurelius.    See  Aurelius  Antoninus. 

Mar'cus  Grae'cus  (gree'kus)  passes  for  the  author 
ot  a  Latin  work  on  the  art  of  destroying  enemies  by  fire, 
("  Liber  Ignium  ad  Comburendos  Hostes,")  a  manuscript 
of  which  is  said  to  be  found  in  the  Royal  Library  of 


«  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (2!^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

96 


MARCr  1522  MARGARET 


Paris.  No  ancient  writer  mentions  him,  and  nothing  is 
known  of  his  history.  G.  Fournier  (of  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle")  conjectures  that  he  wrote  near  the  close 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  thinks  the  "  Liber  Ignium" 
is  a  rather  bad  version  of  a  Greek  original.  "  It  is  a 
tissue  of  errors,"  he  adds,  "and  a  collection  of  recipes, 
one  or  two  of  which  give  almost  exactly  the  composition 
of  gunpowder." 

See  F.  HoEFEK,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Mar'cy,  (Randolph  B.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Massachusetts  about  1812,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1832.  He  became  a  captain  in  1846,  and  colonel  in 
1861.  He  served  as  chief  of  the  staff  of  the  army  of  the 
Potomac  in  1862,  under  General  McClellan,  his  son-in- 
law. 

Marcy,  (William  L,,)  a  distinguished  American 
statesman  of  the  Democratic  party,  born  at  Southbridge, 
Massachusetts,  in  1786.  Having  graduated  at  Brown 
University  in  1808,  he  studied  law  at  Troy,  New  York. 
He  entered  the  army  as  lieutenant  on  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  of  1812,  and  distinguished  himself  in  several 
engagements  in  Canada.  About  1820  he  became  editor 
of  the  "Troy  Budget,"  a  Democratic  journal,  and  in  1823 
was  elected  comptroller  of  the  State.  He  became  a 
United  States  Senator  in  183 1,  and  was  chosen  Governor 
of  New  York  in  1832,  1834,  and  1836.  He  was  a  candi- 
date in  1838,  but  was  defeated  by  Mr,  Seward.  He  was 
appointed  by  President  Polk  secretary  of  war  in  March, 
1845,  and  displayed  much  ability  in  this  position,  which 
was  rendered  more  arduous  by  the  occurrence  of  the 
Mexican  war.  He  retired  from  office  in  March,  1849, 
after  which  he  passed  four  years  in  private  life.  He 
supported  General  Cass  in  the  Presidential  election  of 
1848,  and  was  secretary  of  state  in  the  cabinet  of  Presi- 
dent Pierce  from  March  4,  1853,  to  March  4,  1857. 
During  this  period  he  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a 
diplomatist.  He  died  at  Ballston  Spa  on  the  4th  of 
July,  1857. 

Mar-do'ni-us,  [Gr.  Map^oviof,]  an  able  Persian  gen- 
eral, was  a  son-in-law  of  Darius  Hystaspes.  In  492  B.C. 
he  commanded  a  large  armament  sent  by  Darius  against 
the  Grecian  states.  Having  lost  a  great  part  of  his  fleet 
in  a  storm,  he  returned  without  success.  In  481  he 
held  a  high  command  in  the  expedition  which  Xerxes 
led  against  the  Greeks.  After  the  Persians  had  been 
defeated  at  Salamis,  (480  B.C.,)  Xerxes  returned  home, 
leaving  300,000  men  under  Mardonius,  who  captured 
Athens  without  much  resistance.  He  was  defeated  and 
killed  at  Plataea  in  479  B.C.  by  the  army  of  Pausanias. 

See  Grote,  "History  of  Greece;"  Herodotus,  "History," 
books  vi.-ix. 

Mare,  de  la,  deh  It  mtR,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  magis- 
trate, born  near  Paris  in  1639.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Police,"  ("Traite  de  la  Police,"  4  vols,,  1707-38.) 
Died  in  1723, 

Mare,  de  la,  (Philibert,)  a  French  historical  writer, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1615.  He  wrote  "  De  Bello  Burgundico," 
(1641,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1687. 

Marec,  mt'rgk',  (Pierre,)  a  French  legislator,  born 
at  Brest  in  1759,  was  a  moderate  member  of  the  Conven- 
tion, (1792-95.)  He  rendered  valuable  services  in  the 
committees  of  finance  and  marine.    Died  in  1828. 

Marechal,  mt'ri^shtK,  (Georges,)  a  French  surgeon, 
born  at  Calais  in  1658.  He  was  appointed  in  1703  first 
surgeon  to  Louis  XIV.  He  wrote  several  valuable  treat- 
ises on  surgery.    Died  in  1736. 

Marechal,  (Laurent  Charles,)  a  French  painter 
on  glass,  born  at  Metz  about  1800,  adorned  many  of  the 
grand  churches  of  France  with  windows  of  painted  glass. 

Marechal,  (Pierre  Sylvain,)  a  French  litteratetcr, 
born  in  Paris  in  1750,  is  said  to  have  been  an  atheist. 
He  published  a  "  Dictionary  of  Atheists,"  (1800,)  and 
many  other  works.  His  chief  production  is  "  Travels  of 
Pythagoras  in  Egypt,  Chaldea,  India,"  etc.,  ("  Voyages 
de  Pythagore  en  Egypte,"  etc.,  6  vols.,  1799,)  which  dis- 
plays much  learning  and  research.    Died  in  1803. 

See  Lalande,  "Notice  sur  S.  Marechal,"  1803;  "  Nouvelle 
]?iographie  G^n^iale." 

Marenco,  mS-rSn'ko,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  near  Mondovi  in  1752.  He  wrote  "Osiris,  sive  De 
Legum  Origine,"  (1797,)  and  other  poems.   Died  in  1813. 


Marenzeo,  mi-rSn'ze-o,  (LucA,)  an  eminent  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Brescia  about  1550.  His  works  are 
principally  madrigals,  which  are  esteemed  models  of  ten- 
derness and  harmony.    Died  in  1599. 

Marescalchi,  mS-res-kaKkee,  (Ferdinando,)  an 
Ital  an  diplomatist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1764.  He  was 
employed  in  1803  to  negotiate  a  treaty  between  the 
Italian  republic  and  the  court  of  Rome.    Died  in  1816. 

Marescalco,  mS-rgs-kiKko,  (Pietro,)  sometimes 
called  La  Spada,  a  painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  born 
at  Feltre,  lived  about  1500. 

Marescot,  de,  deh  mS'rgs'ko',  (Armand  Samuel,) 
Count,  a  skilful  French  military  engineer,  born  at 
Tours  in  1758.  He  was  appointed  first  inspector-general 
by  Bonaparte  in  1800,  and  was  made  a  count  in  1804. 
Died  in  1831. 

Maresius.    See  Desmarets,  (Samuel.) 

Marestier,  mt'rgs'te^i',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  an  able 
French  engineer  and  naval  architect,  born  at  Saint-Ser- 
van  about  1780.  He  constructed  the  first  steamboat 
used  by  the  military  marine  for  the  service  of  seaports. 
He  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Steamboats  of  the 
United  States,"  etc.,  (1824,)    Died  in  1832. 

Maret,  mt'ri',  (Hugues,)  a  learned  French  physician 
and  writer,  born  at  Dijon  in  1726.  He  was  a  corre- 
sponding member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Paris, 
and  a  friend  of  the  celebrated  chemist  Guyton  de  Mor- 
veau.  One  of  his  sons  was  the  Duke  of  Bassano, 
noticed  below.    Died  in  1786. 

Maret,  (Hugues  Bernard,)  Duke  of  Bassano,  an 
able  French  statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1763.  He  studied  law  in  Paris,  and  in  1789  reported 
the  debates  of  the  National  Assembly  in  a  daily  "Bul- 
letin." This  was  soon  united  with  the  "  Moniteur," 
which  owed  its  success  to  the  reports  of  Maret.  Under 
the  new  regime  he  was  rapidly  advanced  in  the  depart- 
ment of  foreign  affairs,  and  was  sent  on  missions  to 
England  and  Naples  in  1793.  On  his  way  to  Naples  he 
was  arrested  by  the  Austrians,  and  confined  in  a  dun- 
geon about  two  years.  From  1800  to  181 1,  as  secretary- 
general,  or  secretary  of  state,  he  directed  the  home 
department  with  great  credit,  had  a  large  share  of  Bona- 
parte's confidence,  and  accompanied  him  in  his  cam- 
paigns. In  1811  he  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  and  received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Bassano.  On  the 
return  of  Bonaparte  from  Elba,  Maret  became  again  his 
secretary.  He  was  restored  to  the  rank  of  a  peer  of 
France  in  183 1,  and  in  1834  was  minister  of  the  interior 
for  a  short  time.  He  had  been  admitted  into  the  Institute 
(Academic  Fran9aise)  in  1803.    Died  in  1839. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale ;"  Las  Cases,  "Memorial 
de  Sainte'Helene." 

Maret,  (Jean  Philibert,)  a  French  surgeon,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1705;  died  in  1780. 

Marets,  des.    See  Desmarets. 

Marezoll,  ml'rgt-soK,  (Gustav  Ludwig  Theodor,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Gottingen  in  1794.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  legal  works. 

Mar'ga-ret  of  Anjou,  [Fr.  Marguerite  d'Anjou, 
mtR'gR^t'  dbn'zhoo' ,]  a  daughter  of  Rene  of  Anjou, 
Duke  of  Lorraine,  was  born  in  Lorraine  in  1429.  She 
was  married  in  1445  to  Henry  VI.,  King  of  England, 
and,  in  consequence  of  his  imbecility,  had  the  principal 
share  in  the  government.  In  the  ensuing  contest  be- 
tween the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  her  troops 
were  several  times  victorious  over  the  former ;  but  they 
suffered  a  fatal  defeat  at  Towton  in  1461.  After  several 
unsuccessful  efforts  to  repair  her  fortunes,  Margaret  was 
again  defeated  and  made  a  prisoner  at  Tewksbury  by 
Edward  IV.  in  147 1.  She  was  ransomed  by  the  French 
king,  Louis  XT.,  and  passed  the  remainder  of  her  life  in 
France,  where  she  died  in  1481. 

See  Agnes  Strickland,  "Lives  of  the  Queens  of  England;" 
Abbe  Provost,  "Histoire  de  Marguerite  d'Anjou,"  2  vols.,  1750; 
Louis  Lallemand.  "Marguerite  d' Anjou-Lorraine,"  1855;  J.  J. 
Roy,  "  Histoire  de  Marguerite  d'Anjou,"  1857. 

Margaret  of  Austria,  [Ger.  Margarethe  von 
Oestreich,  maR-gi-ra'teh  fon  ost'rlK,]  daughter  of  Max- 
imilian, Emperor  of  Germany,  and  Mary  of  Burgundy, 
was  born  at  Ghent  w  1480.  She  was  betrothed  when  a 
child  to  Charles  VTTI.  of  France.  But  he  refused  to 
keep  the  engagement,  and  married  in  1491  Anne,  the 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  \  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  filr,  {1.11,  ftt;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


MARGARET 


1523 


M ARGON 


heiress  of  Brittany.  Margaret  was  married  in  1497  to 
Don  Juan,  Infant  of  Spain,  son  of  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
bella, who  survived  but  a  few  months.  She  was  again 
married  in  1501  to  Philibert  the  Handsome,  Duke  of 
Savoy,  who  died  in  1505.  In  15 17  Margaret  was  ap- 
pointed by  her  father  ruler  of  the  Netherlands,  in  which 
post  she  displayed  signal  ability.  She  had  a  part  in  the 
League  of  Cambray,  formed  in  1508  by  the  principal 
European  powers  against  Venice.  She  died  in  1530, 
leaving  a  number  of  works  in  prose  and  verse,  including 
her  "Correspondence,"  which  was  published  in  1839, 
(2  vols.) 

See  MuN'CH,  "Leben  Margarethes,"  1833;  Altmeyer,  "Vie 
de  Marguerite  d'Autriche,"  in  the  "Revue  Beige,"  1839;  P-  J- 
d'Avoine,  "  Essai  historique  sur  Marguerite  d'Autriche,"  1849. 

Margaret  of  Austria,  Duchess  of  Parma,  born  at 
Brussels  in  1522,  was  a  natural  daughter  of  Charles 
v..  Emperor  of  Germany.  She  was  married  in  1533  to 
Alessandro  de'  Medici,  Duke  of  Florence,  and  after  his 
death  to  Ottavio  Farnese,  Duke  of  Parma.  In  1599  she 
was  appointed  Governor  of  the  Netherlands  by  Philip 
II.  of  Spain.  This  difficult  post  she  occupied  till  1567, 
when  she  resigned  it  to  the  Duke  of  Alva.  The  cele- 
brated Alexander  Farnese,  afterwards  Duke  of  Parma, 
was  her  son  and  only  child. 

See  Motley,  "History  of  the  Dutch  Republic;"  Prescott, 
"History  of  Philip  II.;"  Schiller,  "Geschichte  des  Abfalls  der 
Niederlande." 

Margaret,  [Danish,  Margarethe,  maR-gl-ra'teh,] 
daughter  of  Waldemar  III.,  King  of  Denmark,  born  at 
Copenhagen  in  1353,  was  married  in  1363  to  Haquin, 
King  of  Norway.  In  1376  she  was  appointed  Regent  of 
Denmark  during  the  minority  of  her  son  Olaus,  then  but 
five  years  old.  On  the  death  of  Haquin,  in  1380,  she  be- 
came Queen  of  Norway,  and,  her  son  dying  in  1387,  the 
Danes  also  acknowledged  her  as  their  sovereign.  Soon 
after  this,  Margaret  engaged  in  a  war  with  Albert,  King 
of  Sweden,  against  whom  his  subjects  had  rebelled.  Her 
army  defeated  the  Swedes  and  captured  Albert,  (1388,) 
who  obtained  his  liberty  only  by  renouncing  the  crown 
of  Sweden.  At  an  assembly  of  the  estates  of  the  three 
kingdoms,  held  at  Calmar  in  1397,  the  famous  treaty 
called  "the  Calmar  Union"  was  formed.  By  this  it  was 
agreed  that  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Norway  should  in 
future  be  united  under  one  sovereign,  and  Eric  VII., 
nephew  of  Margaret,  was  appointed  her  successor.  Died 
in  141 1. 

See  SuHM,  "Historic  af  Danmark;"  Magnus,  "Gothorum  His- 
toria;"  WiCHMANN,  "Margarethe  Dronning  til  Danmark  Norge  og 
Sverrig,"  1824. 

Margaret  [Fr.  Marguerite,  mtR^gR^t']  of  France, 
daughter  of  Francis  I.,  born  in  1523,  was  distinguished 
for  her  learning  and  accomplishments  and  her  patron- 
age of  literature.  She  was  married  in  1559  to  Emmanuel 
Philibert,  Duke  of  Savoy.    Died  in  1574. 

See  Brantome,  "Vies  des  Dames  illustres;"  M^zeray,  "  His- 
toire  de  France." 

Margaret  of  France,  or  of  Valots,  [Fr.  Margue- 
rite de  Valois,  mtR^R^f  deh  vtKwi',]  a  daughter 
of  Henry  II.  and  Catherine  de  Medicis,  was  born  in 
1553.  She  had  respectable  talents,  but  little  virtue.  In 
1572  she  was  married  to  Henry  of  Navarre;  but  love 
apparently  had  no  part  in  this  fatal  alliance.  During 
the  festivities  that  followed  the  marriage,  the  perfidious 
court  of  Charles  IX.  ordered  the  Massacre  of  Saint 
Bartholomew.  She  had  lived  separately  from  her  hus- 
band some  years  before  he  became  Henry  IV.  of  France, 
and  their  union  was  formally  dissolved  about  the  year 
1600.    Died  in  1615. 

See  MoNGES,  "Histoire  de  la  Reine  Marguerite  de  Valois,"  etc., 
1777  :  Brantome,  "Vies  des  Dames  illustres." 

Margaret,  Queen  of  Navarre,  originally  Margaret 
of  Angoulime,  fFr.  Marguerite  d'Angouleme, 
mtR^gR^t'  ddN'goo'lf  m',]  daughter  of  Charles,  Count  of 
Angouleme,  and  Louise  of  Savoy,  and  sister  of  Francis 
I.,  was  born  in  1492.  She  was  married  in  1509  to 
Charles,  Duke  of  Alen9on,  who  died  in  1525,  and  in  1527 
she  became  the  wife  of  Henry  d'Albret,  King  of  Navarre. 
She  was  distinguished  for  her  beauty,  talents,  and  supe- 
rior culture,  and  exercised  great  influence  in  the  govern- 
ment of  her  brother,  Francis  I.,  to  whom  she  was  warmly 
attached.    The  mildness  and  toleration  she  displayed 


towards  the  Protestants,  and  particularly  her  protection 
of  Calvin,  brought  upon  her  the  imputation  of  heresy 
from  the  Catholic  party.  She  was  the  author  of  nume- 
rous w^orks  in  prose  and  verse,  among  which  may  be 
named  the  "  Heptameron,"  a  collection  of  tales  in  the 
style  of  Boccaccio's  "  Decamerone,"  and  a  devotional 
treatise  entitled  "Mirror  of  the  Sinful  Soul."  She  died 
in  1549,  leaving  a  daughter,  Jeanne  d'Albret,  afterwards 
the  mother  of  Henry  IV.  of  France. 

See  Brantome,  "Vies  des  Dames  illustres;"  Sismondi,  "His- 
toire des  Frangais ;"  Miss  Freer,  "Life  of  Marguerite,  Queen  of 
Navarre,"  1855;  Victor  Durand,  "Marguerite  de  Valois  et  la  Cour 
de  Frangois  I,"  2  vols.,  1848;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
October,  1842. 

Margaret  of  Provence.    See  Marguerite. 

Margaret,  Saint,  [Lat.  Sanc'ta  Margari'ta  ;  Fr. 
Sainte-Marguerite,  siNt  mtR'gR^t',]  a  virgin  of  An- 
tioch,  supposed  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  in  275  A.D. 
According  to  tradition,  she  was  solicited  in  marriage  by 
Olibrius,  governor  of  Antioch,  and  on  her  refusal  was 
tortured  and  put  to  death  by  his  order.  This  legend  has 
formed  the  subject  of  Milman's  "  Martyr  of  Antioch," 
and  of  numerous  works  of  art. 

See  Baillet,  "Vies  des  Saints;"  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Sacred  and 
Legendary  Art." 

Margaret,  Saint,  daughter  of  Edward,  a  Saxon 
prince,  and  sister  of  Edgar  Atheling,  was  born  in  1046. 
She  was  married  about  1070  to  Malcolm  III.,  King  of 
Scotland,  and  died  a  few  days  after  the  death  of  her 
husband  and  son,  who  fell  in  battle  in  1093. 

See  Saint  ./Elred,  "Vita  Sanctse  Margarita;"  Baillet,  "Vies 
des  Saints." 

Margaret  of  Scotland,  daughter  of  James  I.,  was 
married  in  1436  to  the  Dauphin  of  France,  afterwards 
Louis  XI.    Died  in  1445. 

See  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des  Fran9ais;"  Duclos,  "Histoire  de 
Louis  XI." 

Margarit,  maR-gi-r^',  or  Marguerit,  de,  di  maR- 
gi-r6t',  (Jos6,)  Marquis  d'Aguilar,  a  Spanish  soldier, 
born  in  Catalonia  in  1602,  was  a  prominent  leader  in 
the  insurrection  of  that  province  against  the  Spanish 
government  in  1640.  He  was  afterwards  appointed 
Governor  of  Catalonia  by  Louis  XIII.    Died  in  1685. 

Margarit  or  Marguerit,  de,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  car- 
dinal, born  at  Girona  about  1415,  rose  to  be  chancellor 
of  Aragon.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Spain,  entitled  "  Para- 
lipomenon  Hispaniae."    Died  in  1484. 

Margarit,  (Pedro,)  was  educated  at  the  court  of 
Ferdinand  V.  He  sailed  with  Christopher  Columbus  in 
1492,  and  discovered  the  archipelago  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  of  Marguerite  Isles. 

Margaritone,  maR-gi-re-to'ni,  an  Italian  painter, 
sculptor,  and  architect,  born  at  Arezzo  about  1236.  His 
pictures  were  executed  in  fresco  on  wood  and  on  copper, 
and  he  sculptured  in  wood  as  well  as  marble.  His 
monument  to  Pope  Gregory  X.,  in  the  cathedral  of 
Arezzo,  is  ranked  among  his  best  works.  Died  about 
1313- 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,  Sculptors,"  etc.;  Lanzi, 
"History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Margeret,  mtRzh'ri',  (Jacques,)  a  French  officer, 
born  in  Burgundy.  He  entered  the  Russian  service, 
which  he  exchanged  about  1610  for  that  of  Poland.  He 
wrote  an  "Account  of  the  Russian  Empire,  etc.  from 
1590-1606,"  (in  French,  1607,)  which  was  translated  into 
Russian. 

Marggraf,  maRg'gR^f,  (Andreas  Sigismund,)  an 
eminent  German  chemist,  born  in  Berlin  in  1709.  He 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
1738,  and  director  of  the  class  of  physics  about  1762.  He 
was  an  ingenious  and  sagacious  experimenter,  and  wrote 
many  able  treatises  or  memoirs,  which  were  inserted  in 
the  records  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin.  He  made  the 
important  discovery  that  sugar  can  be  procured  from 
the  beet.    Died  in  1780. 

See  F.  Hoefer,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Generale." 

Marggraf,  (Georg.)    See  Marcgraf. 

Margon,  de,  deh  mtR'g6N',  (Guillaume  Plantavit 
de  la  Pause,)  Arb6,  a  French  satirist,  born  near  Beziers 
about  1685.  He  wrote  several  controversial  works,  dis- 
tinguished for  their  virulence  and  bitter  personalities, 


t:  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  YL,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (2!:^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MJRGUERIE 


1524 


MAR  I  ALVA 


and  directed  alternately  against  the  Jesuits  and  the  Jan- 
senists.    ])ie(l  in  1760. 

Marguerie,  mtRg're',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French 
mathematician  and  writer,  born  near  Caen  in  1742.  He 
served  as  lieutenant  in  the  navy  against  the  British 
in  1778-79,  and  was  killed  near  Grenada  in  1779. 

Marguerit.    See  Margarit. 

Marguerite.    See  Margaret. 

Marguerite  de  Provence,  mtR^R^t'  deh  pRo'- 
v6nss',  daughter  of  Raymond  lierenger,  Comte  de  Pro- 
vence, born  in  1221,  was  married  in  1234  to  Louis  IX., 
King  of  France,  commonly  called  Saint  Louis.  She 
accompanied  him  in  his  expedition  to  Egypt,  and  while 
in  Damietta  gave  birth  to  a  son.  She  died  in  a  convent 
in  1295. 

See  JoiNViLLE,  "Memoires  ;"  Guillaume  de  Nangis,  "Vie  de 
Saint-Louis." 

Marguerittes,mtR'gR^t',  (Jean  Antoine  Teissier,) 
a  French  dramatist  and  royalist,  born  at  Nimes  in  1744, 
was  a  deputy  to  the  Constituent  Assembly.  He  was 
executed  by  the  terrorists  in  1794. 

Margunius,  maR-goo'ne-iis,  or  Marguiiio,  maR- 
goo'ne-o,  (Maximus,)  a  modern  Greek  prelate  and 
scholar,  born  in  the  island  of  Candia  about  1525.  He 
founded  a  printing-office  at  Venice,  where  he  published 
numerous  editions  of  the  Greek  classics,  remarkable  for 
their  accuracy.  In  1585  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Cerigo.  He  wrote  "  Anacreontic  Hymns,"  and  several 
ecclesiastical  works.    Died  in  1602. 

Marheineke,  maR-hT'neh-keh,  (Philipp  Konrad,) 
a  German  Protestant  theologian  of  high  reputation,  born 
at  Hildesheim  in  1780,  became  successively  professor  of 
theology  at  Erlangen,  Heidelberg,  and  Berlin.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany,"  (4 
vols.,  1816,)  "  Christian  Symbolics,"  and  several  philo- 
sophical works,  in  which  he  favours  the  system  of  Hegel. 
Died  in  1846. 

Maria,  the  Latin  of  Mary  and  Marie,  which  see. 

Ma-ri'a  of  Austria,  a  daughter  of  the  archduke 
Philip  the  Handsome  and  Joanna  of  Aragon,  vvas  born 
at  Brussels  in  1503.  She  was  married  in  152 1  to  Louis 
II.,  King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  and  after  his  death 
was  appointed  by  her  brother,  Charles  V.,  ruler  over  the 
Netherlands.  Soon  after  the  abdication  of  the  emperor 
she  resigned  her  office  and  retired  to  Spain,  where  she 
died  in  1558. 

See  Lanz,  " Correspondenz  Karls  V. ;"  Brantome,  "Vies  des 
Dames  illustres. " 

Maria,  mS-ree'l,  II.,  (da  Gloria,  dS  glo're-S,)  daugh- 
ter of  Don  Pedro,  Emperor  of  Brazil,  and  Leopoldine, 
Archduchess  of  Austria,  was  born  at  Rio  Janeiro  in  1819. 
Her  father  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Portugal  in  March, 
1826,  but  renounced  his  right  in  favour  of  Dona  Maria. 
Her  uncle  Don  Miguel  usurped  the  throne  about  May, 
1828,  and  was  supported  by  the  absolutist  party.  A  civil 
war  ensued,  Don  Miguel  was  defeated,  and  Dona  Maria 
became  queen  about  September,  1833.  She  married 
Duke  Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg-Kohary  in  April,  1836. 
Her  reign  was  disturbed  by  emeutes  and  insurrections. 
She  died  in  November,  1853,  and  was  succeeded  by  her 
son,  Pedro  V. 

Maria,  m^-ree'^,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
architect,  surnamed  Falconetti,  born  at  Verona  in  1458. 
He  formed  a  lasting  friendship  with  the  celebrated  Louis 
Cornaro,  in  whose  household  he  lived  for  twenty-two 
years.    Died  in  1534. 

Maria,  di,  de  mS-ree'S,  (Francesco,)  a  Neapolitan 
painter,  born  in  1623,  was  a  pupil  of  Domenichino.  Died 
in  1690. 

Ma-ri'a  El-e-o-no'ra  of  Brandenburg,  daughter 
of  John  Sigismund,  Elector  of  Brandenburg.  She  was 
married  in  1620  to  Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden, 
whom  she  accompanied  in  his  campaigns  in  Germany. 
Died  in  1655. 

See  Geijer,  "  History  of  Sweden,"  (translated  by  Turner.) 

Maria  Leszczynska,  mS-ree'd  Igsh-ch^ns'skS, 
daughter  of  Stanislas  Leszczynski,  King  of  Poland,  was 
born  in  1703,  and  was  married  in  1725  to  Louis  XV. 
of  France.    Died  in  1768. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XV;"  Proyart,  "Vie  de 
Marie  Leszcinska." 


Maria  Louisa,  ma-rl'aloo-ee'za,  [Fr.  Marie  Louise, 
mt're'  loo'^z',]  daughter  of  the  emperor  Francis  I. 
of  Austria  and  Maria  Theresa  of  Naples,  was  born  at 
Vienna  in  1791.  She  was  married  in  1810  to  Napo- 
leon I.,  Emperor  of  France,  to  whom  she  bore  a  son 
in  March,  1811.  On  the  abdication  of  Napoleon,  in 
1814,  she  retired  to  Vienna,  and  in  1816  the  allied 
powers  gave  her  the  duchy  of  Parma.  She  was  pri- 
vately married  to  Count  Neipperg,  her  chamberlain. 
Died  in  1847. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Maria  Theresa,  mS-ree'a  ti-ra'sl,  [Fr.  Marie  Th6- 
RfesE,  mt're'  ti'r^z',]  daughter  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain, 
was  married  in  1660  to  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  (See 
Louis  XIV.) 

Maria  Theresa,  ma-ri'a  te-ree'si,  [Fr.  Marie  Th:6- 
RESE,  mt're'  tk'rkz' ;  It.  Maria  Teresia,  mS-ree'S  tk- 
ra'se-S,]  daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
and  Elizabeth  Christina  of  Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel,  was 
born  in  May,  1 71 7.  She  was  married  in  1736  to  Francis, 
Duke  of  Lorraine.  Charles  VI.  having  died  in  1740, 
his  daughter  succeeded  him  on  the  throne  of  Germany, 
in  accordance  with  the  act  called  the  Pragmatic  Sanction. 
Her  title  was  soon  disputed  by  the  Electors  of  vSaxony 
and  Bavaria  and  the  Kings  of  Prussia,  Spain,  and  Sar- 
dinia, each  claiming  some  portion  of  Germany  in  the 
name  of  the  Austrian  princesses  with  whom  they  were 
connected.  Maria  Theresa  immediately  repaired  to  Vi- 
enna, where  she  received  the  homage  of  her  Austrian 
states,  and  thence  proceeding  to  Presburg  was  crowned 
Queen  of  Hungary  in  1 741.  She  received  offers  of  as- 
sistance from  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  on  condition  of 
her  ceding  to  him  Lower  Silesia,  but  she  firmly  refused. 
Her  capital  being  soon  after  threatened  with  a  siege  by 
the  Elector  of  Bavaria  and  his  French  allies,  the  empress 
convoked  the  Hungarian  Diet  at  Presburg,  where,  with 
her  infant  children,  she  said  to  the  deputies  that,  "being 
assailed  by  enemies  on  every  side,  she  had  no  hopes  ex- 
cept in  their  loyalty,  and  she  had  come  to  place  under 
their  protection  the  daughter  and  son  of  their  kings." 
The  Hungarian  nobles  responded  with  enthusiasm  to 
this  appeal,  and  drew  their  swords,  exclaiming,  "  We 
will  die  for  our  king,  Maria  Theresa !"  ("  Moriamur 
pro  rege  nostro,  Maria  Theresia  !")  The  French  and 
Bavarians  were  soon  driven  out  of  her  hereditary  states 
by  the  Imperial  forces  under  General  Kevenhuller  and 
Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine.  In  1742  a  treaty  of  peace 
was  concluded  between  Maria  Theresa  and  the  King  of 
Prussia,  by  which  the  latter  obtained  Silesia.  The  Elec- 
tor of  Bavaria,  who  had  been  previously  chosen  Emperor 
of  Germany  under  the  name  of  Charles  VII.,  having  died 
in  1745,  Francis,  the  husband  of  Maria  Theresa,  was 
elected  to  that  dignity.  In  1746  the  Imperialists  gained 
important  victories  in  Italy,  and  defeated  the  French  and 
Spaniards  at  Piacenza.  The  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
in  1748,  put  an  end  to  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession, 
leaving  the  empress  in  possession  of  all  her  hereditary 
estates  except  Silesia.  The  Seven  Years'  war,  carried 
on  by  Prussia  against  France,  Russia,  and  Austria,  ter- 
minated in  1763,  leaving  the  boundaries  of  Austria  and 
Prussia  the  same  as  before.  The  emperor  Francis 
having  died  in  1765,  his  son  Joseph  was  elected  to  the 
imperial  dignity  ;  but  Maria  Theresa  still  retained  the 
administration  of  the  government.  She  is  said  to  have 
refused  to  take  any  part  in  the  partition  of  Poland  (1772) 
until  prevailed  upon  by  the  representations  of  Joseph  II. 
and  Prince  Kaunitz.  Among  the  important  reforms  of 
her  reign  was  the  abolition  of  the  torture  (1776)  and 
of  feudal  service.  She  also  abolished  the  Inquisition 
at  Milan,  and  suppressed  the  order  of  Jesuits.  She 
died  in  November,  1780,  and  was  succeeded  by  her  son, 
Joseph  II. 

See  Paolo  Frisi,  "  Elogio  di  Maria  Teresia,"  1783;  Sabatier 
DE  Castres,  "Abreg^  de  la  Vie  de  Marie  Therese,"_i773 ;  Rich- 
TER,  "  Lebens-  iind  Staatsgeschichte  Mariae  Tberesiae,"  3  vols., 
1745;  Duller,  "Maria  Theresia  und  ihre  Zeit,"  1844;  Rauten- 
STRAUCH,  "  Biographic  der  Kaiserin  Maria  Theresia,"  1780;  Rrn- 
ner,  "  Maria  Theresia  und  Friedrich  der  Grosse,"  1831  ;  Wolf, 
"Oestreich  unter  Maria  Theresia,"  1855;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gene  rale." 

Marialva,  m^-re-kVvk,  (Dom  Joao  Coutinho  — 
ko-t^n'yo,)  Count,  a  Portuguese  officer,  fought  under 


a  ,  e,  T,  6,  u, y,  /on£-;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  s^ori;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MAR  I  Air  A 


1525 


MARIE 


Alphonso  V.  against  the  Moors  in  Africa,  and  was  killed 
while  assisting  in  the  capture  of  Arzilla,  in  1471. 

Marialva  y  Menezes,  mi-re-iKvi  e  mi-na'z^s, 
(Antonio  Luiz,)  Count  de  Castanhede,  an  able  Portu- 
guese general  and  statesman,  born  about  1627.  In  1659 
he  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Castilians  at  Elvas, 
and  soon  after  became  principal  minister  of  state,  Marquis 
of  Marialva,  and  lieutenant-general  of  the  armies  of  the 
kingdom.    Died  about  1668. 

See  Laclede,  "  Histoire  de  Portugal." 

Ma-ri-am'ne,  [Gr.  Mapm/zv??,]  a  beautiful  Jewess,  a 
granddaughter  of  the  high-priest  Hyrcanus  II.,  became 
in  38  B.C.  the  wife  of  Herod  the  Great,  who,  when  he 
departed  from  his  capital  to  meet  Octavian,  gave  secret 
orders  that  she  should  be  put  to  death  in  case  he  did 
not  return  in  safety.  •  This  secret  having  been  revealed 
to  her,  she  received  him  coldly  on  his  return,  and  excited 
his  jealousy,  which  was  increased  by  the  intrigues  of 
Herod's  sister  Salome,  who  suborned  the  royal  cup- 
hearer  to  testify  that  Mariamne  designed  to  poison  the 
king.  She  was  put  to  death  in  29  B.C.  This  story  is  the 
subject  of  one  of  Voltaire's  tragedies. 

See  JosKPHUs,  "  History  of  the  Jews;"  Smith,  "  Dictionary  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Biography." 

Mariana,  de,  d^  ml-re-J'ni,  (Juan,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  historian,  born  atTalavera  in  1536.  He  studied 
at  Alcala,  and,  having  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits,  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology  in  their  college  at  Rome, 
(1560.)  He  returned  to  Spain  in  1574,  where  he  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  life  in  retirement,  devoted  to  literary 
pursuits.  He  published  in  1599  his  "Treatise  on  Roy- 
alty," ("De  Rege  et  Regis  Institutione,")  in  which  he 
maintains  that  it  is  lawful  in  certain  cases  to  put  a  king 
to  death.  This  work  caused  a  great  sensation,  particu- 
larly in  France,  where  it  was  denounced  by  the  Sorbonne, 
and  soon  after  the  assassination  of  Henry  IV.  it  was 
publicly  burned  by  order  of  the  Parliameur.  In  1592  he 
brought  out  his  great  work  entitled  "  Historia  de  Rebus 
Hispaniae,"  ("History  of  Spain,")  which  was  received 
with  great  favour  and  was  soon  after  translated  by  him 
into  Sjianish.  His  Latin  style  is  characterized  by  great 
elegance  and  animation,  and  has  been  compared  to  that 
of  Livy  ;  while  his  Spanish  history  is  generally  esteemed 
the  most  admirable  work  of  the  kind  in  the  language. 
"  Noble,  pure,  and  rich  without  diffuseness,  it  unites 
with  rare  felicity,"  says  a  French  critic,  "the  picturesque 
vivacity  of  the  chroniclers  with  the  dignity  of  history  ;" 
and  Ticknor,  in  his  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature," 
observes,  "Its  admirably  idiomatic  style,  so  full  yet  so 
unencumbered,  so  pure  and  yet  so  rich,  renders  it,  if 
not  the  most  trustworthy  of  annals,  at  least  the  most 
remarkable  union  of  picturesque  chronicling  with  sober 
history  that  the  world  has  ever  seen."  Mariana  also 
published  a  treatise  "On  Weights  and  Measures,"  "On 
Death  and  Immortality,"  and  other  learned  works,  in 
Latin,  and  an  essay  entitled  "De  las  Enfermedades  de 
la  Compania  y  de  sus  Remedios,"  ("On  the  Disorders 
of  tlie  Society  [of  Jesuits]  and  their  Remedies,"  1625,) 
in  which  he  boldly  exposes  and  condemns  the  errors  of 
the  Jesuits.    Died  in  1623. 

See  I'icKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature  ;"  Tamajo  (or 
TAMAYfA  UE  Vargas,  "Vida  del  P.  Juan  Mariana;"  N.  Antonio, 
"  Bihliotheca  Hispana  Nova;"  Acosta,  "Vida  de  Mariana;"  F. 
BuCHHOi.z,  "J.  de  Mariana,  oder  Entwickeiungsgeschichte  eines 
Jestiiten,"  1804;  Bouterwrk,  "Histoire  de  la  Liiterature  Espa- 
gnole;"  and  L.  Joubert's  excellent  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
grapliie  Generale." 

Mariani,  mS-re-i'nee,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  sculptor 
and  painter,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1565  ;  died  in  161 1. 

Mariani,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Ascoli  about  1650.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a 
"  Bajitism  of  Saint  James,"  at  Rome. 

Ma-ri-a'nus  Sco'tus,  a  Scottish  chronicler,  born  in 
1028,  is  said  by  Matthew  of  Westminster  to  have  been 
a  relative  of  the  Venerable  Bede.  His  principal  work  is 
a  "  Universal  Chronicle  from  the  Creation  to  the  Year 
1083,"  (in  Latin.)    Died  in  1086. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Latinis." 

Marichi,  ma-ree'chi,  a  celebrated  Hindoo  sage  or 
demi-god,  was,  according  to  one  account,  the  son  of 
Brahma, — according  to  another,  the  son  of  Bhrigu.  He 
was  the  father  of  Kasyapa.    By  some  he  is  considered 


as  the  god  of  "light,"  which  appears  to  be  the  etymo- 
logical signification  of  his  name. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  "  Institutes  of  Manu,"  chap.  i. 

Marie,  the  French  for  Mary,  which  see. 

Marie,  mt're',  (Alexandre  Thomas,)  a  French  ad- 
vocate and  republican,  born  at  Auxerre  in  1795.  He 
was  minister  of  public  works  from  February  to  June, 
1848,  and  minister  of  justice  from  July  to  December  of 
that  year.  He  was  elected  to  the  Corps  Legislatif  in 
1863.   Died  in  1870. 

Marie  Adelaide  de  Savoie,  mt're'  t'di'lt'W  deh 
st'vwi',  daughter  of  Victor  Amadeus,  Duke  of  Savoy, 
born  at  Turin  in  1685,  was  married  in  1697  to  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  She 
died  in  1 712,  leaving  one  son,  afterwards  Louis  XV. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires  de  Louis  XIV,"  etc.;  Madame 
de  Maintenon,  "  Lettres." 

Marie  Amelie  de  Bourbon,  mt're'  t'mi'le'  deh 

booR'boN^,  Queen  of  France,  born  near  Naples  in  1782, 
was  a  daughter  of  Ferdinand  I.,  King  of  the  Two  Sici- 
lies. She  was  married  in  1809  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
afterwards  King  Louis  Philippe.  After  his  death  she 
retired  to  England,  where  she  resided  at  Claremont, 
near  London.    Died  in  1866. 

Marie  Anne  Christine  Victoire  de  Baviere, 
mtfre'  tn  kR^s't^n' v^k'twiR' deh  bt've^aiR',  daughter  of 
Ferdinand,  Elector  of  Bavaria,  was  born  at  Munich  in 
1660.  In  1680  she  was  married  to  Louis,  the  Dauphin 
of  France,  son  of  Louis  XIV.  She  died  in  1690,  leaving 
three  sons. 

Marie  Antoinette  Josfephe  Jeanne  d'Autriche, 

mS^re'  6N'twS.'net'  zho''zif'  zhtn  do'tR^sh',  (commonly 
called  simply  Marie  Antoinette,)  born  at  Vienna  in 
1755,  was  the  daughter  of  Maria  Theresa  and  the  em- 
peror Francis  I.  of  Germany.  She  was  married  in 
1770  to  the  Dauphin  of  France,  afterwards  Louis  XVI. 
liigh-spirited  and  energetic,  she  strove  during  the 
revolutionary  troubles  to  inspire  the  king  with  her  own 
courage  ;  but  her  counsels  often  led  him  into  greater 
difficulties.  It  was  her  misfortune  and  the  misfortune  of 
France  that  she  resisted  all  those  reforms  which  might 
have  prevented  or  moderated  the  violence  of  the  Revo- 
lution. Possessing  extraordinary  personal  charms  and 
great  vivacity  of  disposition,  the  freedom  of  her  manners 
was  often  misconstrued  by  her  enemies  ;  but  their  accu- 
sations are  generally  believed  to  have  been  groundless. 
During  the  terrible  scenes  which  followed  the  captivity 
of  the  royal  family,  she  displayed  the  greatest  firmness 
and  dignity,  showing  on  all  occasions  more  concern  for 
her  husband  and  children  than  for  herself.  After  the 
fall  of  the  Girondists,  Marie  Antoinette  was  condemned 
to  death  by  the  Jacobins,  and  executed  in  October,  1793. 
(See  Louis  XVL) 

See  Madame  Campan,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  Marie  Antoi- 
nette ;"  "  Memoires  de  Mademoiselle  Berlin  sur  la  Reine  Marie 
Antoinette  ;"  Madame  Vigee-Lebrun,  "  Souvenirs,"  1835  ;  Thiers, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Frangaise  ;"  Lamartine,  "  History  of 
the  Girondists  ;"  Weber,  "  Memoires  concernant  Marie  Antoinette," 
1822. 

Marie  Clotilde  Adelaide  Xaviere  de  France, 

mt^re'  klo'teld'  t'di'lt'ed'  zi^ve-aiR'  deh  fR6Nss,  sister 
of  Louis  XVI.,  born  at  Versailles  in  1759,  was  married 
in  1775  to  the  Prince  of  Piedmont,  afterwards  Charles 
Emmanuel,  King  of  Sardinia.    Died  in  1802. 

Marie  de  Bourgogne.    See  Mary  of  Burgundy. 

Marie  de  Guise.    See  Mary  of  Guise. 

Marie  de  I'lncarnation,  mfre'  deh  15,N'ktR'na'- 
se-6N',  a  French  missionary,  whose  original  name  was 
Guyard,  born  at  Tours  in  1599,  visited  Canada  in  1639, 
where  she  made  many  converts  among  the  Indians,  and 
founded  a  convent  of  her  order.    Died  in  1672. 

See  "  Vie  de  la  Mere  Marie  de  I'lncarnation,"  by  P.  Ch/.rle- 
voix. 

Marie  de  Lorraine.    See  Mary  of  Guise. 

Marie  Madeleine.    See  Magdalene. 

Marie  de  Medicis,  mt're'  deh  mi'de^s^ss',  or  Maria 
de'  Medici,  mS^-ree'i  d^  mid'e-chee,  the  daughter  of 
Francis,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  the  archduchess 
Joan  of  Austria,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1573.  She  was 
married  in  1600  to  Henry  IV.  of  France.  She  had 
moderate  abilities,  but  exorbitant  ambition ;  and  her  ob- 
stinacy and  violent  temper  were  the  source  of  constant 


€  as    9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  o,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MARIE 


15 


26 


MJRINEO 


dissension  between  her  and  her  husband.  On  the  death 
of  Henry  she  became  regent,  for  which  office  she  proved 
herself  utterly  incompetent.  Having  given  offence  to  her 
subjects  by  her  partiality  for  unworthy  favourites,  she 
was  deposed  and  imprisoned,  but,  effecting  her  escape, 
again  took  part  in  the  government.  She  introduced 
Richelieu  into  the  administration,  who  soon  possessed 
himself  of  the  highest  power,  and  induced  her  son, 
Louis  Xni.,  to  imprison  her  (1630)  at  Compiegne.  After 
a  second  escape,  she  died  at  Cologne  in  1642. 

See  Miss  Pardoe,  "Life  of  Marie  de'  Medici;"  Richelieu, 
*'  Memoires  ;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoiredes  Frangais ;"  RuAU,  "  Tableau 
de  la  Regeiice  de  Marie  de  Medicis,"  1615. 

Marie  d'Orleana,  mt^re'  doR^li'Sw',  {Marie  Chris- 
tine Caroline  Adelaide  Fran^oise  LAopoldine  de 
Valois,  mt're'  kR^s't^n'  kt'ro^l^n'  t'di'lt'^d'  fRdN'swSz' 
li'o'poKd^n'  deh  vtKwS.',)  Duchess  of  Wurtemberg, 
born  at  Palermo  in  1813,  was  the  youngest  daughter  of 
Louis  Philippe,  King  of  France.  Having  early  mani- 
fested a  love  for  the  arts,  she  studied  sculpture  and  de- 
sign under  Ary  Scheffer.  Among  her  works  the  statue 
of  Joan  of  Arc  is  the  most  generally  admired.  She  was 
married  in  1837  to  Duke  Alexander  of  Wurtemberg. 
Died  in  1839. 

Marie  Therese.    See  Maria  Theresa. 

Mariette,  mt're'^t',  (Auguste  £douard,)  a  cele- 
brated French  archaeologist,  born  at  Boulogne  in  1821. 
Having  acquired  a  knowledge  of  Egyptian  hieroglyphics, 
he  was  charged  in  1850  with  a  scientific  mission  to 
Egypt,  where  he  discovered  the  site  of  the  city  of  Mem- 
phis and  disinterred  the  temple  of  Serapis  and  a  ne- 
cropolis of  vast  extent.  In  this  were  found  the  granite 
sarcophagi  of  the  bulls  of  Apis,  hewn  out  of  a  single 
stone,  fifteen  feet  long,  nine  in  width,  and  the  same  in 
height.  He  also  removed  the  sand  from  the  colossal 
Sphinx,  which  was  cut  entire  from  a  rock.  He  published, 
about  1856,  a  work  on  the  monuments  discovered  during 
the  disinterring  of  the  Serapeum  at  Memphis,  a  specimen 
of  a  larger  work  which  he  has  in  preparation. 

Mariette,  (Jean,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in  Paris 
in  1660,  executed  a  number  of  prints  after  Poussin  and 
Le  Brun.    Died  in  1742. 

Mariette,  (Pierre  Jean,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Paris  in  1694,  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  ama- 
teurs of  his  time,  and  became  director  of  the  Imperial 
Gallery  at  Vienna.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Painting  in  Paris,  and  of  the  Academy  of  Design  at 
Florence.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a  "  Treat- 
ise on  the  Engraved  Gems  of  the  Royal  Cabinet."  Died 
in  1774. 

See  DuMESNiL,  "  Histoire  des  plus  cdlfebres  Amateurs  Frangais," 
1856  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Marignano,  mS-r^n-y^'no,  written  also  Melegnano, 
[Fr.  Marignan,  mt'r^n'ySN',]  (Gian  Giacomo,)  Mar- 
quis de  Medichino,  a  celebrated  Italian  soldier,  born  at 
Milan  in  1497.  He  entered  the  service  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  who  sent  him  in  1540  to  reduce  the  city  of 
Ghent,  of  which  he  was  afterwards  appointed  governor. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  siege  of  Metz,  in  1552,  and 
was  subsequently  employed  by  the  grand  duke  Cosimo 
de'  Medici  to  suppress  the  revolt  in  the  republic  of 
Sienna,  where  he  ravaged  the  country  and  was  guilty  of 
great  barbarity  towards  the  inhabitants.    Died  in  1555. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis ;"  Brantome,  "Vies 
des  grands  Capitaines;"  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques 
Italiennes;"  Misagi.ia,  "Vita  del  Marchese  di  Marignano,"  1605; 
Robertson,  "  History  of  Charles  V.,"  book  xi. 

Marignie,  de,  deh  mt'r^n'ye-^',  (Jean  Etienne 
Franqois,)  a  French  litteratetir^  born  in  Languedoc  about 
1755,  was  one  of  the  most  zealous  defenders  of  Louis 
XVI.  in  the  National  Convention.  He  published  a  num- 
ber of  dramas  and  political  treatises.    Died  about  1830. 

Marigny,  de,  deh  mt'r^n'ye',  (Abel  FRANgois  Pois- 
son — pwS's^N',)  Marquis,  a  French  architect,  born  in 
Paris  in  1727,  was  a  brother  of  Madame  de  Pompadour, 
through  whose  influence  he  was  appointed  in  1 75 1  di- 
rector-general of  the  royal  buildings.    Died  in  1781. 

Marigny,  de,  (Enguerrand,)  a  French  statesman, 
filled  several  high  offices  under  Philippe  le  Bel,  and 
attained  the  rank  of  prime  minister.  Soon  after  the  ac- 
cession of  Louis  X.,  he  was  condemned  to  death  on  the 
false  accusations  of  his  enemies,  and  executed  about  13 15. 


Marigny,  de,  (FRANgois  Augier,)  a  French  Orien- 
talist and  historian,  born  about  1690.  He  produced  a 
"History  of  the  Twelfth  Century," (5  vols.,  1750,)  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Arabs  under  the  Government  of  the 
Caliphs,"  (4  vols.,  1750.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1762. 

Marigny,  de,  (Gaspard  Augustin  Ren^:  Bernard,) 
a  French  officer,  born  at  Lu5on  in  1754,  was  one  of  the 
royalist  chiefs  in  the  Vendean  war.  He  was  condemned 
to  death  by  his  own  party  for  alleged  neglect  of  duty, 
and  executed  in  1794. 

Marigny,  de,  (Jacques  Carpentier,  )  a  French 
priest,  noted  for  his  wit,  born  near  Nevers.  He  wrote 
several  poems,  and  Letters,  (1678.)    Died  in  1670. 

Marillac,  de,  deh  mt're'ySk',  (Charles,)  an  able 
French  negotiator,  born  in  Auvergne  about  1 5 10.  He 
was  chosen  Archbishop  of  Vienne,  and  conducted  suc- 
cessfully some  important  negotiations  in  Germany  and 
Rome.  He  was  at  the  head  of  a  small  number  of  French 
bishops  known  by  their  tendency  to  a  philosophic  spirit. 
Died  in  1560. 

Marillac,  de,  (Louis,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Auvergne  in  1572,  He  served  with  distinc- 
tion in  the  armies  of  Henry  IV.,  and  was  made  a  mar- 
shal of  France  in  1629.  Being  afterwards  suspected  of 
conspiring  against  Cardinal  Richelieu,  he  was  executed, 
on  a  charge  of  peculation,  in  1632. 

See  "  Proces  du  Marechal  de  Marillac,"  etc.,  1633;  Richelieu, 
"Journal." 

Marillac,  de,  (Michel,)  a  French  statesman,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1563,  He  was 
appointed  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  keeper  of  the  seals, 
(1626.)  Having  subsequently  incurred  the  enmity  of 
the  cardinal,  he  was  imprisoned  at  Chateaudun  in  1630, 
where  he  died  in  1632. 

Marin.    See  Marinus  of  Tyre. 

Marin,  mt'riN',  a  French  mechanician,  and  a  native 
of  Lisieux,  invented  the  air-gun,  which  he  exhibited  in 
the  presence  of  Henry  of  Navarre. 

Marin,  (Franqois  Louis  Claude,)  a  French  Uttira- 
teiir,  born  in  Provence  in  1721.  Among  his  principal 
works  is  a  "  History  of  Saladin,  Sultan  of  Egypt,"  etc. 
Died  in  1809. 

Marin,  (Michel  Ange,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and 
devotional  writer,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1697.  He  pub- 
lished "  Lives  of  the  Hermits  of  the  East,"  (3  vols.  4to, 
1 761,)  and  numerous  other  works.    Died  in  1767. 

See  Chaudon,  "  filoge  historiquedu  Pere  M.  A.  Marin,"  1769. 

Marina,  mi-ree'ni,  Malinche,  ml-l^n'chk,  written 
also  Malintzin,  the  daughter  of  a  Mexican  chief,  born 
about  1505,  was  sold  as  a  slave,  and  subsequently  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Cortez,  whom  she  accompanied  in  all 
his  expeditions.  She  possessed  rare  beauty  and  talents, 
and,  from  her  knowledge  of  the  Spanish  as  well  as 
Mexican  languages,  was  of  great  service  as  an  inter- 
preter. After  the  death  of  Cortez,  she  was  married  to 
Don  Juan  de  Xamarillo,  a  Spanish  officer.  Marina  has 
been  celebrated  by  the  Spanish  poet  Moratin  in  his 
"  Noves  de  Cortes." 

See  Bernal  Diaz,  "Historia  de  la  Conquista  del  Mexico;" 
Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  book  ii. 

Marina,  m^-ree^ni,  (Don  Francisco  Martinez,)  a 
Spanish  political  writer  of  the  liberal  party,  born  about 
1757.  He  published  the  "  Theory  of  the  Cortes,"  (1821,) 
"  Discourse  on  the  Origin  of  the  Spanish  Monarchy," 
etc.,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1833. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella." 

Marinali,  mi-re-nd'lee,  (Orazio,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  at  Bassano  in  1643  ;  died  in  1720. 

Marinari,  m^-re-ni'ree,  (Onorio,)  a  Florentine 
painter,  born  about  1660,  was  a  pupil  and  imitator  of 
Carlo  Dolce.    Died  in  1715. 

Marinas,  de  las,  di  lis  mi-ree'nis,  (Enriquez,)  a 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Cadiz  in  1620,  was  celebrated 
for  the  excellence  of  his  marine  views,  from  which  he 
derived  his  surname.    Died  in  1680. 

Marinella,  mi-re-nel'li,  or  Marinelli,  mi-re-nei'lee, 
(Lucrezia,)  an  Italian  poetess,  born  at  Venice  in  1571. 
She  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Life  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,"  ("Vita  di  Maria  Vergine,"  1617.)   Died  in  1653. 

Marineo,  mi-re-na'o,  (Lucio,)  a  Sicilian  scholar  and 
historian,  born  at  Bidino  about  1460.   He  became  chap- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y, 


r,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  filr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MARINI 


1527 


MARIUS 


lain  and  historiographer  to  Ferdinand  V.  of  Spain,  and 
was  also  distinguished  by  the  favour  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  He  wrote  several  works  on  Spanish  history, 
(in  Latin.)    Died  about  1535. 

Marini,  ma-ree'nee,  (Benedetto,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Urbino,  lived  about  1625. 

Mariui,  (Gaetano  Luigi,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born 
at  San  Arcangelo  in  1740.  He  wrote  several  valuable 
works,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "Acts  and  Monu- 
ments of  the  Rural  Brothers,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1795.)  Died 
in  1815. 

Marini  or  Marino,  mS-ree'no,  (Giambattista,)  an 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Naples  in  1569,  was  a  friend  of 
Tasso.  He  produced  "  Adonis,"  and  many  other  poems, 
which  were  greatly  admired  by  his  contemporaries,  but 
are  marred  by  affected  conceits  and  extravagant  meta- 
phors. He  passed  several  years  in  Paris,  and  received 
a  pension  from  Queen  Marie  de  Medicis.  Died  in  1625. 

See  Baiacca,  "Vita  del  Cavalier  Marino,"  1625;  F.  Chiaro, 
•'Vita  del  Cavalier  Marino,"  1626;  Loredano,  "Vita  del  Cavalier 
Marino,"  1633;  Camola,  "Vita  di  G.  B.  Marini,"  1633;  Poppe, 
"Vita  J.  B.  Marini,"  1771;  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of 
Europe  ;"  "  Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by  the  Rev.  Henrv  Steb- 
BING,  London,  1831. 

Marini,  (Giovanni  Ambrogio,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Genoa  about  1594.  He  wrote  two  popular 
romances,  entitled  "  II  Caloandro  fedele"  and  "  Quarrels 
of  the  Desperadoes,"  ("  Le  Gare  de'  Desperati.")  Died 
about  1650. 

Marini,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  a  Piedmontese  phy- 
sician and  writer,  born  in  1726 ;  died  in  1806. 

Marini,  (Giovanni  Filippo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  near  Genoa  in  1608.  He  resided  four- 
teen years  at  Tonquin,  and  published  a  valuable  work 
entitled  "A  New  and  Curious  Account  of  the  Kingdoms 
of  Tonquin  and  Laos,"  (1666.)    Died  in  1677. 

Marino.    See  Marini,  (Giambattista.) 

Marinoni,  mi-re-no'nee,  (Giovanni  Giacomo,)  an 
Italian  mathematician,  born  at  Udine  in  1676.  He  was 
appointed  court  mathematician  by  the  emperor  Leopold 
I.,  and  drew  a  plan  of  Vienna  and  its  environs.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of  Military  Science 
at  Vienna  in  171 7,  and  subsequently  built  at  his  own 
expense  an  observatory,  which  is  esteemed  one  of  the 
best  in  Europe.  He  published  several  scientific  works. 
Died  in  1755. 

Ma-ri'nus,  [Gr.  Maptvof,]  a  native  of  Samaria,  studied 
philosophy  at  Athens  under  Proclus,  whom  he  succeeded 
as  a  teacher  in  485  a.d.  His  only  work  extant  is  a  "  Life 
of  Proclus." 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Graecis." 

Ma-ri'nus,  Saint,  [It.  San  Marino,  sin  m^-ree'no; 
Fr.  Saint-Marin,  sIn  mt'riN',]  an  ecclesiastic  of  the 
fourth  century,  was  a  native  of  Dalmatia,  and  lived  as  a 
hermit  near  Rimini,  in  Italy.  The  miracles  said  to  have 
been  wrought  at  his  tomb  drew  thither  many  pilgrims, 
who  in  time  built  a  town  called  San  Marino,  which  for 
ten  centuries  has  formed  the  centre  of  a  little  republic. 

See  Baillet,  "Vies  des  Saints." 

Marinus  of  Tyre,  [Fr.  Marin  de  Tyre,  mt^r^N' 
deh  t^R,]  a  Greek  geographer,  who  lived  about  150  a.d. 
His  works  were  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries, 
but  none  of  them  are  extant. 

See  Ukert,  "Geographie  der  Griechen  und  Romer." 

Mario  Nuzzi.    See  Fiori,  de',  (Mario.) 

Marion,  mt're'6N',  (Elie,)  a  leader  of  the  Camisards 
in  France,  born  in  1678,  was  the  author  of  several  re- 
ligious works  and  so-called  prophecies. 

Mar'i-on,  (Francis,)  a  celebrated  American  general 
of  the  Revolution,  was  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1732. 
Soon  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  he  entered  the 
army,  and  assisted  in  the  defence  of  Sullivan's  Island 
against  the  British  in  1776.  The  enemy  having  taken 
possession  of  Georgia  and  besieged  Charleston,  Marion 
raised  a  brigade  of  soldiers,  at  the  head  of  whom  he 
carried  on  for  more  than  three  years  a  guerilla  warfare, 
often  attended  with  brilliant  successes,  and  baffling  all 
the  attempts  of  the  British  generals  to  effect  his  capture. 
Died  in  1795. 

See  the  "  Life  of  General  Marion,"  by  P.  Horrv  and  M.  L. 
Weems,  and  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Ameri- 
cans," vol.  iii. 


Marion  Delorme.    See  Delorme. 

Marion  -  Dufresne,  mt're'6N'  dii^frin',  (Nicolas 
Thomas,)  a  French  navigator,  born  at  Saint-Malo  in 
1729,  sailed  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  to  the  South  Sea 
in  1 771.  Soon  after  landing  at  New  Zealand,  Marion 
was  treacherously  murdered  by  the  natives,  together 
with  the  greater  part  of  his  men,  (1772.) 

Marion  du  Mersan,  mt're'6N'  dii  m^R^sSN',  (Th^o- 
phile,)  a  French  antiquary  and  dramatist,  born  in  1780, 
published  a  great  number  of  popular  comedies  and  prose 
essays  on  various  subjects.    Died  in  1849. 

Mariotte,  mt're'ot',  (Edme,)  an  eminent  French 
mathematician  and  physicist,  was  a  resident  of  Dijon. 
He  was  one  of  the  earliest  experimental  philosophers  in 
France,  and  discovered  the  law  of  elastic  fluids  called 
by  his  name.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "  Dis- 
course on  the  Nature  of  Air,"  (1676,)  "Treatise  on  the 
Movement  of  Waters,"  (1690,)  "Experiments  on  the 
Colours  and  Congelation  of  Water,"  and  an  "  Essay  on 
Logic,"  which  is  highly  commended  by  Condorcet.  Died 
in  1684. 

See  Condorcet,  "  Eloges  des  Academiciens,"  etc. ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generaie." 

Mariti,  mi-ree'tee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  traveller 
and  writer,  born  at  Florence  in  1736,  visited  the  isle  of 
Cyprus,  Syria,  and  Palestine,  and  published  in  1769  an 
account  of  his  journey,  which  was  translated  into  French, 
German,  and  Swedish.    Died  in  1806. 

Maritz,  mi'rits  or  mi'r^ts',  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  mecha- 
nician, born  at  Berne  in  17 11,  invented  a  machine  for 
boring  and  turning  cannon.  For  this  service  he  was 
ennobled  by  the  French  government.    Died  in  1790. 

Mariuccia.    See  Marozia. 

Ma'ri-us,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  general,  distinguished 
for  his  splendid  talents,  indomitable  energy,  and  unprin- 
cipled ambition,  was  born  near  Arpinum  (now  Arpino) 
in  157  B.C.  His  parents  were  poor  and  plebeian.  He 
served  under  Scipio  Africanus  at  the  siege  of  Numantia, 
and  was  chosen  tribune  of  the  people  in  119.  He  ob- 
tained the  praetorship  in  115,  though  strongly  opposed 
by  the  patrician  party,  and  about  the  same  time  married 
Julia,  an  aunt  of  Julius  Caesar.  Having  accompanied 
Metellus  as  legate  and  second  in  command  into  Africa, 
(109  B.C.,)  he  won  such  popularity  by  his  skill  and  bravery 
that  he  was  elected  consul  for  107  B.C.  and  intrusted 
with  the  command  of  the  Jugurthine  war.  He  defeated 
Jugurtha,  who  was  made  prisoner  in  106.  In  104  B.C. 
Marius  was  again  chosen  consul,  as  being  the  only  one 
capable  of  defending  the  state  from  the  threatened  in- 
vasion of  the  Teutones  and  Cimbri.  He  defeated  the 
barbarians  at  Aix,  (Aquae  Sextiae,)  in  Gaul,  in  102  B.C. 
Having  been  elected  consul  the  next  year,  for  the  fifth 
time,  Marius,  in  conjunction  with  Catulus,  gained  a  sig- 
nal and  overwhelming  victory  over  the  Cimbri  in  the 
plain  of  Vercellae,  (Vercelli.)  By  the  aid  of  the  tribune 
Saturninus,  Marius  became  consul  for  100  B.C.,  in  spite 
of  the  determined  hostility  of  the  patricians.  During 
this  consulate  an  agrarian  law  was  passed,  and  Metellus 
Numidicus  was  exiled  for  refusing  to  conform  to  it.  On 
the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office,  Marius  went  to  Asia, 
under  the  pretext  of  sacrificing  to  Cybele,  but  really  in 
order  to  excite  Mithridates  to  a  war  with  Rome,  that  he 
n\ight  again  distinguish  himself  in  his  congenial  element. 
In  90  B.C.  both  Marius  and  Sulla  entered  the  service 
of  the  consuls  Octavius  and  Cinna  in  the  Marsian  or 
Social  war  ;  but,  jealous  of  the  reputation  of  his  rival, 
the  former  soon  resigned.  Sulla,  having  become  consul 
in  88  B.C.,  obtained  the  command  in  the  Mithridatic 
war,  upon  which  Marius,  assisted  by  his  friends,  caused 
a  law  to  be  passed  transferring  it  to  him.  He  was  soon 
driven  from  the  city  by  Sulla  and  his  adherents,  and 
forced  to  take  refuge  in  Africa.  When  Sextilius,  Gov- 
ernor of  Libya,  sent  him  orders  to  leave  the  country,  on 
pain  of  being  treated  as  an  enemy,  Marius  replied  to  the 
messenger,  "  Go  tell  him  that  you  have  seen  the  exile 
Marius  sitting  on  the  ruins  of  Carthage."  The  next 
year,  while  Sulla  was  absent  in  Greece,  Marius,  joined 
by  the  consul  Cinna,  entered  Rome  and  ordered  a 
general  massacre  of  the  opposite  party.  Among  the 
patricians  who  perished  was  M.  Antonius,  the  orator  so 
highly  praised  by  Cicero.    Marius  and  Cinna  became 


€  a«     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


MARim 


1528 


MARLBOROUGH 


consuls,  (86  B.C.,)  but  the  former  was  attacked  by  a  fever, 
of  which  he  died  the  same  year. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Marius ;"  George  Long,  "Life  of 
Marias,"  London,  1844;  Merimee,  "  ]£tiides  sur  I'Histoire  Ro- 
maine,"  etc.  ;  Sallust,  "Jugurtha;"  F.  Weiland,  "  C.  Marii  sep- 
ties  CoiisuHs  Vita,"  Berlin,  1845  :  P.  Ekerman,  "Dissertatio  de  C. 
Mario  septies  Consule,"  1742;  Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  P>iography;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Marius,  (Caius,)  nephew  and  adopted  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, took  refuge,  after  the  proscription  of  his  uncle, 
with  Hiempsal,  King  of  Numidia.  He  was  made  consul 
in  82  B.C.,  and  signalized  himself  by  many  acts  of  in- 
justice and  cruelty.  Having  been  defeated  by  Sulla,  he 
caused  himself  to  be  killed  by  one  of  his  officers. 

See  Plutarch,  "Marius." 

Marius,  (Marcus  Aurelius,  )  one  of  the  Thirty 
Tyrants  of  Gaul,  was,  on  the  death  of  Victorinus  the 
Younger,  chosen  emperor  by  the  army.  He  was  assas- 
sinated about  268  A.D.,  after  a  reign  of  a  few  months. 

Marivaux,  de,  deh  mS're\o',  (Pierre  Carlet  de 
Chamhlain,)  a  French  novelist  and  dramatic  writer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1688.  His  principal  works  are  his  ro- 
mances entitled  "Marianne"  and  "  Le  Paysan  parvenu," 
which  enjoyed  great  popularity  at  the  time,  and  were 
among  the  first  novels  which  delineated  real  life  and 
manners.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  comedies.  The 
affected  style  and  false  sentiment  of  these  productions 
have  given  rise  to  the  term  marivaudage.  "  Never," 
says  La  Harpe,  "did  any  one  turn  common  thoughts  in 
so  many  ways,  each  more  affected  than  the  last ;"  and 
Voltaire,  admitting  that  Marivaux  knew  "the  paths  to 
the  heart,"  maintains  that  "he  was  ignorant  of  the  high- 
road." He  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1743, 
having  Voltaire  for  a  competitor.    Died  in  1763. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance  avec  D'Alembert ;"  Grimm, 
"  Correspondance  litteraire;"  La  Harpe,  "  Lycee ;"  Villemain, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Frangaise  au  dix-huitieme  Siecle ;" 
Sain  ie-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale.'* 

Marivetz,  de,  deh  mi're'vk',  (Etienne  Clement,) 
Baron,  a  French  savant,  born  at  Langres  in  1728,  pub- 
lished several  treatises  on  phvsics.  etc.  He  was  executed, 
by  order  of  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  in  1793. 

Marjolin,  mtR^zho'liw',  (Jean  Nicolas,)  a  French 
writer  and  surgeon,  born  in  1780;  died  in  1850. 

Mark,  f Gr."Map/co? ;  Lat.  Mar'cus;  It.  Mar'co  ;  Fr. 
Marc,  maRk,]  Saint,  the  Evangelist.  He  was  a 
coinpanion  of  Saint  Peter  in  his  travels,  (see  I.  Peter  v. 
13,)  and  is  supposed  to  have  planted  the  Church  at  Alex- 
andria. The  early  Christian  writers  believed  that  he  was 
the  interpreter  of  Saint  Peter,  and  that  he  wrote  his 
Gospel  in  Greek,  under  the  direction  and  with  the  appro- 
bation of  that  apostle.  Saint  Augustine  thought  it  was 
an  abridgment  of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew.  According  to 
tradition,  he  suffered  martyrdom  in  Egypt  in  68  a.d. 
By  many  critics  he  is  identified  with  John  surnamed 
Mark,  who  was  a  companion  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  in 
their  mission  to  the  Gentiles  about  45  a.d.,  (Acts  xii. 
12,  25,  xiii.  13,  XV.  37,)  and  who  was  in  Rome  with 
Paul  in  63  A.D. 

See  Colossians  iv.  10;  IL  Timothy  iv.  11. 

Markham,  mark'am,  (Gervase,)  an  English  soldier 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Nottinghamshire 
about  1570,  served  in  the  royalist  army  in  the  civil  war. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  tragedy  entitled  "  Herod  and 
Antipater,"  "The  Poem  of  Poems,  or  Sion's  Muse,"  etc., 
and  other  works.    Died  about  1655. 

See  Warton,  "  History  of  English  Poetry;"  Langbaine,  "Dra- 
matic Poets;"  Drake,  "  Shakespeare  and  his  Times." 

MarkTand,  (Jeremiah,)  an  eminent  English  scholar 
and  critic,  born  in  Lancashire  in  1693.  He  published 
editions  of  the  "  Sylvae"  of  Statins  (1728)  and  the 
"Snpplices"  of  Euripides,  which  are  esteemed  master- 
pieces of  acute  criticism.  He  also  assisted  Dr.  Taylor 
in  preparing  his  editions  of  Demosthenes  and  Lysias, 
and  ]niblished  "  Remarks  on  the  Epistles  of  Cicero  to 
Brutus,"  etc.,  in  which  he  attempts  to  prove  them  spu- 
rious.   Died  in  1776. 

See  Nichols  and  Bowyer,  "Literary  Anecdotes." 

Markof,  maR'kof,  Markov,  or  Markow,  (Arcadi 
Ivanovitch.)  Count,  a  Russian  diplomatist.    On  the 


accession  of  Alexander  I.  he  was  appointed  minister- 
plenipotentiary  to  France,  (1800.) 

Marlborough,  miKbur  uh,  (popularly  called  in 
French  Malkrouk,  mtl'brook' ;  Sp.  Mamhru,  mSm- 
broo',)  Duke  of,  originally  John  Churchill,  an  English 
general,  whose  military  genius  and  triumphs  have  been 
equalled  by  those  of  few  men  of  modern  times,  was  born 
at  Ashe,  in  Devonshire,  June  24,  1650.  He  was  the  son 
ot  Sir  Winston  Churchill  and  of  Elizabeth  Drake.  His 
education  was  rather  defective.  He  received  from  nature 
an  eminently  handsome  person,  a  bland  temper,  and  all 
the  qualities  essential  to  a  successful  general  and  cour- 
tier. In  1672,  with  the  rank  of  captain,  he  served  in  the 
army  which  fought  in  alliance  with  France  against  the 
Dutch.  His  bravery  in  this  and  the  ensuing  campaigns 
attracted  the  favourable  notice  of  Turenne  and  Louis 
XIV.  At  the  peace  of  1678  he  returned  to  England, 
and  married  Sarah  Jennings,  whose  talents  and  impe- 
rious temper  enabled  her  to  exert  an  important  influence 
over  his  political  conduct. 

He  was  the  favourite  attendant  and  confidential  agent 
of  the  Duke  of  York  before  his  accession  as  James 
II.,  in  1685  ;  and  soon  after  that  event  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage,  as  Baron  Churchill  of  Sandridge.  Having 
contributed  to  the  defeat  of  Monmouth  at  Sedge- 
moor,  he  was  made  a  major-general.  His  wife  was  the 
favourite  of  the  king's  daughter.  Princess  Anne,  over 
whom  she  had  a  complete  ascendency.  In  the  combi- 
nations and  intrigues  which  preceded  the  revolution  of 
1688,  Lord  Churchill  acted  with  deep  duplicity.  After 
secretly  committing  himself  to  the  cause  of  William 
of  Orange,  he  professed  his  devotion  to  James  in  Novem- 
ber, 1688,  and,  a  few  days  later,  deserted  to  the  stronger 
party.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Marlborough  on  the 
accession  of  William  HI.,  (1689,)  and  made  a  lord  of 
the  bedchamber. 

He  commajided  the  English  forces  employed  against 
the  P'rench  in  the  Low  Countries  in  1689,  and  led  a  suc- 
cessful expedition  against  Cork  and  Kinsale  in  Septem- 
ber, 1690.  While  he  was  thus  trusted  by  William  and 
hated  as  an  arch-traitor  by  the  Jacobites,  he  opened  a 
treasonable  correspondence  with  the  dethroned  king, 
who  was  at  Saint  Germain's.  According  to  Macaulay, 
he  undertook  to  corrupt  the  army,  with  which  his  bril- 
liant successes  and  winning  manners  rendered  him  a 
favourite  in  spite  of  his  sordid  avarice.  The  country 
being  apprised  of  this  plot,  he  was  deprived  of  his  offices 
in  January,  1692,  and  committed  to  the  Tower  a  few 
months  later.  Though  he  was  quickly  admitted  to  bail, 
he  passed  the  next  four  years  in  disgrace.  About  the 
end  of  1696  he  was  restored  to  his  military  rank  and 
command,  and  admitted  to  the  privy  council.  (Respecting 
Macaulay's  charges  against  Marlborough,  see  J.  Paget's 
"New  Examen,"  1861,  and  the  "Quarterly  Review"  for 
April,  1868.) 

In  1 701,  William  took  Marlborough  to  Holland,  gave 
him  command  of  his  army,  and  invested  him  with  ample 
powers  to  negotiate  with  the  allies  in  relation  to  the  im- 
pending war  of  the  Spanish  succession.  He  displayed 
here  the  sagacity  and  address  of  a  consumntate  diplo- 
matist. The  accession  of  Queen  Anne,  in  March,  1702, 
opened  to  him  a  brilliant  career  of  glory  abroad  and 
power  at  hoine.  He  became  conmiander-in-chief  of  the 
allied  army,  and  at  the  end  of  the  campaign  in  Flanders, 
December,  1702,  was  created  Duke  of  Marlborough. 
About  this  time  he  and  Prince  Eugene  began  to  act  in 
concert,  and  formed  a  cordial  friendship,  which  greatly 
promoted  the  success  of  the  allies.  Among  their  most 
celebrated  achievements  was  the  decisive  victory  at  Blen- 
heim over  the  French  marshal  Tallard,  August  13,  1704. 
Marlborough  gained  a  great  victory  at  Ramillies  in  1706, 
and  shared  with  Eugene  the  triumph  at  Oudenarde  in 
1708.  The  allies  also  claimed  the  victory  over  Mar- 
shal Villars  at  Malplaquet,  (1709,)  although  their  loss 
amounted,  it  is  said,  to  25,000  men. 

During  these  foreign  transactions,  Godolphin,  the 
duke's  personal  and  political  friend,  had  been  the  head 
of  the  English  Tory  ministry.  The  Tories,  who  had  the 
warm  sympathy  of  the  queen,  wished  to  discontinue  the 
war,  and  fomented  intrigues  against  Marlborough.  His 
duchess,  a  zealous  Whig,  with  much  importunity  pre- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    k,  d,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  .6,  u,  y,  s/iori;  ^,  ?,  j,  9,  obscuu;  f3j,  (iLll,  f^t;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MARLBOROUGH 


1529 


MARMONTEL 


vailed  on  him  to  coalesce  with  the  Whigs,  who  insisted 
on  prolonging  the  war.  The  fondness  of  the  queen  for 
the  Duchess  of  Marlborough  was  at  length  turned  into 
violent  aversion.  The  Tories  obtained  a  complete  as- 
cendency in  1 7 10,  and  Marlborough  was  dismissed  with 
disgrace  from  all  his  employments  at  the  end  of  171 1. 
On  the  accession  of  George  I.  (1714)  he  was  restored  to 
favour,  and  again  became  captain-general  and  master  of 
the  ordnance.  He  died  in  1722,  leaving  his  titles  and 
estate  to  the  male  heirs  of  his  daughter,  who  was  mar- 
ried to  Charles  Spencer,  Earl  of  Sunderland. 

See  CoxR,  "Memoirs  of  John,  Duke  of  Marlborough,"  3  vols., 
1818;  Sir  A.Alison,  "Life  of  Marlborough,"  1847;  Macaulay, 
"  Hii^tory  of  England  ;"  Thomas  Ledyard,  "  History  of  John, 
Duke  of  Marlborough,"  3  vols.,  1736;  John  Campbell,  "Military 
Historj'  of  Prince  Eugene  and  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,"  2  vols., 
1736;  Charles  Bucke,  "Life  of  John,  Duke  of  Marlborough," 
1839;  J.  F.  HuGUEs  Dutems,  "  Histoire  de  J.  Churchill,"  etc., 
3  vols.,  iSq6-o8,  written  by  the  order  of  Napoleon  L  ;  George 
Murray,  "History  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough;"  Abraham  de 
Vkyer,  "  Historic  van  J.  Churchill,"  etc.,  4  vols.,  1738-40;  "  History 
of  Prince  Eugene  and  Marlborough,"  by  Dumont  and  Rousset, 
translated  from  the  French,  1736;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
May.  1S20;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  July  and  November,  1846, 
and  June,  1859. 

Marlborough,  (Sarah  Jennings,)  Duchess  of,  the 
wife  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1660,  was  celebrated  for 
her  beauty,  ambition,  and  political  influence.  She  was 
brought  up  from  childhood  with  the  princess  Anne,  who 
regarded  her  with  romantic  fondness,  combined  with  the 
deference  which  the  weak  feel  for  superior  minds.  Im- 
patient of  the  restraints  of  etiquette,  Anne,  in  conversa- 
tion and  correspondence  with  her  favourite,  assumed  the 
name  of  Mrs.  Morley,  and  addressed  her  friend  as  Mrs. 
Freeman.  In  1678  Miss  Jennings  was  married  to  Colo- 
nel Churchill,  in  whom  she  found  an  uxorious  husband. 
"  History,"  says  Macaulay,  "  exhibits  to  us  few  specta- 
cles more  remarkable  than  that  of  a  great  and  wise  man 
who  could  carry  into  effect  vast  and  profound  schemes 
of  policy  only  by  inducing  one  foolish  woman,  who  was 
often  unmanageable,  to  manage  another  woman  who  was 
more  foolish  still.  ...  To  the  last  hour  of  her  hus- 
band's life,  she  enjoyed  the  pleasure  and  distinction  of 
being  the  one  human  being  who  was  able  to  mislead 
that  far-sighted  and  sure-footed  judgment,  who  was  fer- 
vently loved  by  that  cold  heart  and  servilely  feared 
by  that  intrepid  spirit."  Having  been  supplanted  in 
the  royal  favour  by  Mrs.  Masham,  she  was  dismissed  from 
court  in  1 7 10,  and  became  an  inveterate  misanthrope. 
Died  in  1744. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  Loi;iSA  S.  Cos- 
TELi.o,  London,  1844. 

Marliani,  maR-le-i'nee,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Milan.  He  wrote  "Topography  of 
Rome,"  ("  Urbis  Romae  Topographia,")  and  other  works. 
Died  about  1560. 

Marlorat,  mSR^o^rt',  (Augustin,)  a  French  Prot- 
estant theologian,  born  at  Bar-le-Duc  in  1506.  He  be- 
came minister  of  the  Reformed  Church  at  Rouen  in  1560, 
and  acquired  a  great  influence  by  his  talents.  He  wrote 
commentaries  on  Scripture,  and  other  works.  He  was 
put  to  death  at  Rouen  in  1563. 

See  Ha  AG,  "  La  France  protestante." 

Marlowe,  mar'Io,  (Christopher,)  an  English  drama- 
tist, born  at  Canterbury  in  1564.  He  studied  at  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degree 
in  1587.  He  afterwards  devoted  himself  to  dramatic 
writing,  and,  according  to  some  authorities,  became  an 
actor.  He  was  addicted  to  low  vices",  and  was  killed  in  a 
quarrel  with  a  footman  in  1593.  The  principal  dramas 
known  to  be  his  are  "The  Jew  of  Malta,"  "Edward 
tlie  Second,"  and  "The  Tragical  History,  etc.  of  Dr. 
?'austus:"  the  last-named  was  the  original  of  Goethe's 
celebrated  "  Faust."  Marlowe  is  characterized  by  the 
French  critic  Villemain  as  a  genius,  whose  rude  dramas, 
disorderly  as  his  life,  contain  splendid  beauties  and  a 
gloomy  audacity,  the  influence  of  which  has  not  been 
lost  upon  Shakspeare.  His  "  Faust"  is  less  elegant  and 
less  ironical  than  that  of  Goethe,  but  every  thing  that 
the  pathos  of  such  a  subject  can  effect — the  fever  of 
doubt  in  a  superstitious  imagination,  the  boldness  of 
impiety  in  a  despairing  heart — stamps  this  work  with 
the  impress  of  extraordinary  power.  His  "  Edward  II," 
was  greatly  admired  by  Charles  Lamb,  who  says  that 


one  of  its  scenes  moves  pity  and  terror  beyond  any 
scene,  ancient  or  modern. 

See  Warton,  "  History  of  English  Poetry  ;"  Campbell,  "  Speci- 
mens of  the  British  Poets;"  Villemain,  "Melanges  litt^raires ;" 
Drake,  "Shakspeare  and  his  Times;"  "Retrospective  Review," 
vol.  iv.,  (1821.) 

Marmier,  mtR'me-4',  (Xavier,)  a  French  litterateur 
and  traveller,  was  bonTat  Pontarlier  in  1809.  He  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  "  Studies  on  Goethe,"  "  Poetic 
Sketches,"  and  "  History  of  Literature  in  Denmark  and 
Sweden,"  (1839,)  and  made  numerous  translations  from 
the  English  and  German. 

Mar'mi-pn,  (Shakerly,)  an  English  dramatist,  born 
in  Northamptonshire  in  1602.  His  principal  works  are 
the  comedies  of  "  Holland's  Leaguer,"  "  A  Fine  Com- 
panion," and  "The  Antiquary."   Died  in  1639. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica ;"  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxo- 
nienses." 

Marmitta,  maR-m^t'tS,  (Ludovico,)  an  Italian  gem- 
engraver,  born  at  Parma.  Among  his  master-pieces  is 
a  cameo  representing  a  head  of  Socrates.  He  lived 
about  1500. 

Marmol,  de,  dk  maR-moK,  (Luis  Caravajal,)  a 
Spanish  writer,  born  at  Granada  about  1520,  accom- 
panied the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  his  African  campaigns. 
He  wrote  a  "General  Description  of  Africa,"  (1599,) 
and  a  "  History  of  the  Rebellion,  etc.  of  the  Moors  of 
Granada,"  (1600.) 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Prescott, 
"  History  of  Piiilip  IL,"  vol.  iii.  book  v. 

Marmont,  de,  deh  mtR^miN',  (Auguste  Frederic 
Louis  Viesse,)  Duke  of  Ragusa,  a  celebrated  French 
marshal,  born  at  Chatillon-sur-Seine  in  1774,  received 
his  military  education  at  the  artillery  school  of  Chalons. 
He  accompanied  Bonaparte  as  aide-de-camp  in  the  Ital- 
ian campaign  of  1794,  and,  as  general  of  brigade,  took 
part  in  the  invasion  of  Egypt  in  1798.  He  fought  with 
distinguished  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Marengo,  (1800,) 
obtained  command  of  a  division,  and  was  appointed 
inspector-general  of  artillery  about  1802.  Having  as- 
sisted at  the  capture  of  Ulm,  in  1805,  Marmont  became 
in  1806  general-in-chief  of  the  army  in  Dalmatia,  and 
gained  a  signal  victory  over  a  superior  force  of  Russians 
and  Montenegrins  at  Castelnuovo.  In  1807  he  carried 
out  a  system  of  public  works,  the  most  important  of 
which  was  a  line  of  road-way  two  hundred  and  ten  miles 
in  length  ;  and  for  this  service  he  was  created  Duke  of 
Ragusa.  Soon  after  the  battle  of  Wagram  (1809)  he 
was  made  a  marshal  of  France,  and  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  the  lUyrian  provinces.  As  commander  of 
the  second  corps,  in  1813  he  took  part  in  the  battles 
of  Bautzen,  Dresden,  and  Leipsic,  and  closed  the  cam- 
paign of  1814  by  his  engagement  near  Paris  with  the 
allied  army  of  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria,  (March  30.) 
Though  contending  against  a  greatly  superior  force, 
Marmont  and  Mortier  refused  to  capitulate  until  au- 
thorized to  do  so  by  Joseph  Bonaparte.  In  April,  1814, 
Marshal  Marmont,  after  stipulating  with  Prince  Schwar- 
zenberg  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  troops  into 
Normandy,  entered  the  service  of  the  allies.  He  subse- 
quently filled  several  high  offices  under  the  Bourbons. 
Being  called  upon  to  suppress  the  revolt  of  July,  1830, 
he  brought  great  opprobrium  upon  himself  by  his  failure 
in  this  difiicult  task  ;  his  name  was  struck  off"  the  army 
list,  and  he  was  exiled.  He  died  at  Venice  in  1852, 
leaving  "  Memoires  du  Due  de  Raguse,"  (8  vols.,  1856.) 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  Consulate  and  of  the  Empire;" 
Vaulabelle,  "Histoire  des  deux  Restaurations ;"  Bourrienne, 
"Memoires;"  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Restoration;"  Mau- 
DUiT,  "Derniers  Jours  de  la  grande  Armee ;"  L.  de  Lomenie, 
"  M.  le  Marechal  Marmont,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1844: 
Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  vi. ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic G^nerale;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1845; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1857. 

Marmontel,  mtR'm6N'tgK,  (Jean  Francois,)  a  cele- 
brated French  critic  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in 
Limousin  in  1723.  His  family  was  poor,  and  he  was 
educated  in  the  Jesuits'  College  at  Mauriac,  but  he  did 
not  enter  their  order.  At  an  early  age  he  acquired  the 
friendship  and  patronage  of  Voltaire,  on  whose  recom- 
mendation he  visited  Paris  in  1746,  and  published  the 
same  year  a  translation  of  Pope's  "Rape  of  the  Lock." 
He  brought  out  in  1748  his  "Dionysius  the  Tyrant,'* 


<  as  /t;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (JJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MARMORA 


MARONI 


(*'  Denys  le  Tyran,")  which  was  soon  followed  by  **  Aris- 
tomene"  and  "  Cleopatre,"  three  tragedies,  which  had 
considerable  success  at  the  time.  His  *'  Moral  Tales" 
("Contes  moraux,"  1761)  were  received  with  extraor- 
dinary favour,  and  were  translated  into  the  principal 
languages  of  Europe,  including  Danish  and  Hungarian. 
They  are  written  with  great  elegance  and  animation ; 
though  their  morality  is  often  questionable.  About  this 
time  Marmontel  was  imprisoned  for  a  short  time  in 
the  Bastille,  on  a  false  accusation  of  having  satirized  a 
person  of  rank.  He  published  in  1763  his  "  Poetic^ue 
Fran9aise,"  and  in  1767  his  political  romance  of  "  Beli- 
saire,"  which  obtained  great  popularity  and  has  taken 
its  place  among  the  classics  of  the  language.  The 
empress  Catherine  II.  ordered  a  translation  of  it  into 
Russian,  and  versions  of  it  appeared  in  nearly  all  the 
European  languages.  Some  passages  in  the  book,  how- 
ever, which  favoured  toleration,  were  denounced  by  the 
Sorbonne,  and  the  work  was  condemned  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  as  containing  impious  and  heretical 
propositions.  In  the  exciting  controversy  which  followed, 
Voltaire  took  an  active  part,  and  published  several  witty 
and  caustic  pamphlets  in  defence  of  his  protege.  Mar- 
montel was  soon  after  appointed  historiographer  of 
France.  Among  the  most  important  of  his  other  works 
we  may  name  *'  Les  Incas,"  a  romance,  dedicated  to 
Gustavus  III.  of  Sweden,  the  comic  operas  of  "  Le  Hu- 
ron," "Sylvain,"  and  "Zemire  et  Azor,"  and  the  tragedy 
of  "  Le-s  Ileraclides,"  which  is  highly  commended  by  La 
Harpe.  His  "Elements  de  Litterature"  (6  vols.,  1787) 
is  also  ranked  among  his  best  productions.  In  1 783 
Marmontel  succeeded  D'Alembert  as  perpetual  secretary 
of  the  French  Academy.  He  lived  in  retirement  in  the 
country  during  the  greater  part  of  the  Revolution,  and 
died  in  1799,  leaving  "  Memoires"  of  his  life.  He  had 
married  about  1778  the  niece  of  Abbe  Morellet. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance  ;"  Saint-Surin,  "Notice  sur 
Marmontel,"  1824;  La  Harpe,  "Lycee;"  Grimm,  "Correspon- 
dance litteraire;"  Villenave,  "Notice  sur  les  Ouvrages  de  Mar- 
montel," 1820;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Caiiseries  du  Lundi,"  tome  iv. ; 
Morellet,  "  Eloge  de  Marmontel,"  1805;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie 
Generale;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1806;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  November  and  December,  1805. 

Marmora,  della,  deKli  maR'mo-rS,  (Alberto  Fer- 
rero — f^r-ra'ro,)  Count,  a  Sardinian  general  and  savant, 
born  in  1789.  He  entered  the  French  army,  and  rose 
to  be  military  commander  in  the  island  of  Sardinia  in 
1849.  He  published  "Travels  in  Sardinia;  or.  Statis- 
tical, Physical,  and  Political  Description  of  that  Island." 

Marmora,  della,  (Alessandro  Ferrero,)  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  1799,  fought  in  the  war  for 
Italian  independence  in  1848,  and  became  a  major-gene- 
ral.   He  died  in  the  Crimea  in  1855. 

Marmora,  della,  (Alfonso  Ferrero,)  an  Italian 
general  and  statesman,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Turin  in  1804.  He  was  appointed  minister  of 
war  by  the  King  of  Sardinia  in  November,  1849,  resigned 
in  February,  1855,  and  the  same  year  took  command  of 
the  Sardinian  forces  in  the  Crimean  war,  after  which  he 
again  served  as  minister  of  war.  He  was  president  of 
the  Council  of  Ministers  from  July,  1859,  to  July,  i860. 
In  September,  1864,  he  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
and  president  of  the  Council  of  Ministers  in  the  kingdom 
of  Italy.  He  was  succeeded  by  Ricasoli  in  June,  1866, 
took  command  of  the  army,  and  was  defeated  by  the 
archduke  Albert  of  Austria,  at  Custozza,  in  July  of  the 
same  year. 

Marmora,  della,  (Carlo  Ferrero,)  Marquis,  Prince 
of  Masserano,  eldest  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1788.  Having  been  made  lieutenant-general  and  sen- 
ator of  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  he  accompanied  Charles 
Albert  as  first  aide-de-camp  in  the  campaigns  of  1848 
and  1849.    Died  in  1854. 

Marne,  de,  deh  mikn,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Flemish 
Jesuit  and  historian,  born  at  Douai  in  1699,  wrote  a 

History  of  the  County  of  Namur,"  which  has  a  high 
reputation.    Died  in  1756. 

Marne,  de,  or  Demarne,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  painter, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1744.  He  was  reduced  to  the  neces- 
sity of  working  at  the  porcelain-manufactory  of  Sevres, 
and  fell  into  a  mannerism  called  the  maniire  porcelaine. 
His  early  style  was  much  more  graceful.    Died  in  1829. 


Marner,  maR'ner,  (Konrad,)  a  German  minnesinger, 
flourished  about  1250-70. 

Marnesia  or  Marnezia.    See  Lezay-Marnesia. 

Marnix  de  Saint- Aldegonde,  van,  vtn  mtr'n^ks' 
deh  s^N'ttKdeh-gdNd',  (Philippe,)  an  eminent  Flemish 
virriter  and  Protestant  Reformer,  was  born  at  Brussels  in 
1538.  He  studied  at  Geneva,  where  he  acquired  the 
friendship  of  Calvin  and  adopted  his  faith.  In  1566 
he  drew  up  the  celebrated  formulary  of  the  Flemish 
nobles  against  the  Inquisition.  As  burgomaster  of  Ant- 
werp, he  defended  that  city  in  1584  against  Alexander, 
Duke  of  Parma  ;  but  he  was  forced  to  capitulate  in  1585. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Picture  of  the  Difference  be- 
tween the  Christian  Religion  and  Popery,"  and  "The 
Romish  Bee-Hive."  He  also  translated  the  Psalms  into 
Dutch  verse,  and  was  engaged  on  a  Flemish  version  of 
the  Scriptures  when  he  died,  in  1598.  "He  was,"  says 
Motley,  "a  man  of  most  rare  and  versatile  genius. 
Scholar,  theologian,  diplomatist,  swordsman,  orator, 
poet,  pamphleteer,  he  had  genius  for  all  things,  and  was 
eminent  in  all." 

See  Motley,  "  History  of  the  United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  chap, 
iii.  ;  Strada,  "  De  Bello  Belgico:"  Johannes  Prins,  "  Leven  van 
P.  van  Marnix,"  1782;  Dressei.huis,  "  F.  van  Marnix,  Heer  van 
Mont  Saint- Aldegonde,"  1832;  Willem  Broes,  "  F.  van  Marnix, 
Heer  van  Saint- Aldegonde,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1838-40. 

Maro,  the  cognomen  of  Publius  Virgilius  Maro. 
(See  Virgil.) 

Maroohetti,  mi-ro-ket'tee,  (Charles,)  Baron,  a 
celebrated  Sardinian  sculptor,  iDorn  at  Turin  about  1805. 
After  executing  several  works  in  Paris,  among  which 
was  an  equestrian  statue  of  Emmanuel  Philibert,  Duke 
of  Savoy,  he  went  to  London  in  1848.  Under  the  patron- 
age of  the  court  and  the  nobility,  he  produced  a  colossal 
equestrian  statue  of  Richard  Coeur-de-Lion,  (1851,)  a 
bust  of  Prince  Albert,  an  equestrian  statue  of  Queen 
Victoria  at  Glasgow,  (1854,)  a  statue  of  Lord  Clyde, 
(1867,)  and  several  groups  of  statuary.  He  was  elected  a 
Royal  Academician  in  1866.    Died  in  December,  1867. 

Marochetti,  (Vincenzio,)  an  Italian  scholar,  father 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Piedmont  about  1768. 
He  was  appointed  advocate  to  the  court  of  cassation  in 
Paris.    Died  in  1820. 

Maroli,  mi'ro-lee,  (Domenico,)  a  Sicilian  painter, 
born  at  Messina  in  1612.  He  was  killed  in  the  revolu- 
tion of  Naples,  (1676.) 

MaroUes,  de,  deh  mt'rol',  (Michel,)  a  French  litti- 
rateiir,  born  in  Touraine  in  1600,  was  Abbe  de  Villeloin. 
He  made  translations  from  Juvenal,  Statins,  and  other 
classics,  which  were  much  esteemed  at  the  time.  He 
made  a  valuable  collection  of  prints,  which  were  added 
to  the  royal  cabinet.    Died  in  1681. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  M.  de  Marolles,  "Memoires," 
1656,  (and  in  3  vols.,  1755.) 

Matron,  Saint,  written  also  Maroun,  an  anchorite 
of  the  fourth  century,  resided  in  Asia  Minor.  He  is 
supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  been  the  founder  of 
the  Maronites,  while  others  ascribe  the  origin  of  that 
sect  to  another  of  the  same  name,  living  in  the  seventh 
century. 

Maroncelli,  mS-ron-cheKlee,  (Piero,)  an  Italian  pa- 
triot, musician,  and  poet,  born  at  Forli  in  1795.  He 
published  in  1819  a  hymn,  for  which  he  was  imprisoned 
a  short  time.  He  was  again  arrested  in  1820,  and  con- 
demned to  twenty  years'  imprisonment  in  the  fortress 
of  Spielberg,  where  his  intimate  friend  Silvio  Pellico 
was  confined  at  the  same  time.  They  were  at  first  sepa- 
rated, but  at  the  end  of  three  years  were  permitted  to 
enjoy  each  other's  society.  They  were  released  in  1830, 
Maroncelli  having  previously  suffered  the  amputation  of 
one  of  his  legs,  in  consequence  of  a  disease  contracted 
in  the  prison.    Died  in  New  York  in  1846. 

See  Silvio  Pellico,  "My  Prisons;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Marone,  mi-ro'ni,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  improvisa- 
tore,  born  in  the  Friuli  in  1474,  was  celebrated  for  his 
skill  in  improvising  Latin  verse  on  any  given  subject. 
Died  in  1527. 

Maroni,  da,  di  mi-ro'nee,  or  Maron,  m^-ron', 

(Theresa,)  a  sister  of  the  celebrated  Raphael  Mengs, 
was  distinguished  as  a  painter  of  miniatures.  Having 
accompanied  her  brother  to  Rome,  she  was  there  mar- 


e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  long;  il,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,    i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f3,t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MAR  OOF 


MARK  TAT 


ried  to  the  Chevalier  da  Maroni,  an  artist.  Died 
in  1806.  _ 

Maroof-  (or  Marouf-)  el-Karkhi,  mS-roof  §1  kan'- 
Kee,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Soofees,  (Soufis,)  or 
Mussuhnan  mystics,  born  near  Bagdad  about  750; 
died  about  815. 

See  Hammer-Purgstall,  "  Literaturgeschichte  der  Araber." 

Maroof-  (or  Marouf-)  Mohammed-ben-Abdel- 
Khalik,  ma-roof  mo-hirn'mgd  hln  K^'lik,  an 

Arab  lexicographer  of  the  ninth  century.  His  principal 
work  is  an  Arabic  Lexicon,  in  which  words  are  explained 
in  Persian. 

Marot,  mt^ro',  (Clement,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Cahors  in  1495,  was  a  son  of  Jean,  noticed  below.  He 
was  patronized  at  the  court  of  Francis  I,,  and  became  a 
page  to  his  sister,  Margaret  of  Valois.  He  was  impris- 
oned in  1526  on  a  charge  of  heresy,  and  during  his  con- 
finement composed  his  "  Enfer,"  ("  Hell,")  an  allegorical 
satire,  and  prepared  a  new  edition  of  the  "  Roman  du 
Rose."  After  his  release  he  visited  Geneva,  where  he 
professed  Calvinism  ;  but  he  was  subsequently  obliged 
to  leave  the  place,  on  account  of  some  misdemea- 
nour, and,  having  renounced  his  new  faith,  accompanied 
Francis  I.  in  his  Italian  campaign  of  1535.  He  was  the 
author  of  numerous  lyric  poems,  epigrams,  etc.,  which 
were  greatly  admired  for  their  grace  and  vivacity ;  and 
the  style  Marotiqtie  has  been  imitated  by  La  Fontaine 
and  other  French  writers.  His  version  of  the  Psalms 
was  very  popular  at  the  time.    Died  in  1544. 

See  AuGUis,  "Vie  de  Marot,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  works, 
5  vols.,  1823;  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Jan 
Suet,  "Leven  en  Bedrijf  van  C.  Marot,"  1655 ;  Sainte-Beuve, 
"  Tableau  de  la  Poesie  Frangaise  au  seizi^me  Si^cle :"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale ;"  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  Longfellow, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Marot,  (Daniel,)  son  of  the  architect  Jean  Marot 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  about  1660.  He  be- 
came architect  to  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  England  in  1688. 

Marot,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  painter,  born  in  Paris 
in  1667  ;  died  in  1719. 

Marot,  (Jean,)  a  French  poet,  born  near  Caen  in 
1463,  was  patronized  by  Anne  of  Brittany,  queen  of 
Charles  VHI.  He  subsequently  accompanied  Louis 
XH.  in  his  expedition  to  Venice  and  Genoa,  of  which  he 
wrote  an  account.    Died  in  1523. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "La  Poesie  Frangaise  au  seizi^me  Si^cle." 

Marot,  (Jean,)  a  French  architect  and  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  about  1630.  He  furnished  the  design  for  the 
principal  fafade  of  the  Louvre.  Although  a  Protestant, 
he  was  appointed  royal  architect.    Died  in  1679. 

Maroto,  mi-ro'to,  (Don  Rafael,)  a  Spanish  Carlist 
general,  born  at  Conca  in  1785.  On  the  death  of  Zu- 
mala-Carreguy,  he  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command 
in  Biscay,  and  soon  after  defeated  Espartero  at  Arrigoria. 
In  1839  he  concluded  with  the  queen's  party  the  treaty 
of  Bergara.    Died  in  1847. 

Maroun.    See  Maron. 

Maroutha.    See  Marutha. 

Marozia,  mS-rot'se-i,  or  Mariuccia,  mS-re-oot'chS, 
a  Roman  lady,  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  profligacy, 
was  the  daughter  of  the  famous  Theodora.  She  was 
successively  married  to  Duke  Alberic  of  Tuscany,  Guido, 
Marquis  of  Tuscany,  and  Hugo,  King  of  Italy  and  Aries. 
In  928  she  caused  Pope  John  X.  to  be  murdered,  and 
afterwards  raised  three  others  to  the  tiara,  among  whom 
was  her  son  by  Pope  Sergius  III.  Her  son  Alberic  hav- 
ing revolted  against  her,  she  was  imprisoned  for  the 
remainder  of  her  life. 

Mar-pes'sa,  [Gr.  '^upirriGaa ;  Fr.  Marpesse,  mtR^- 
p§ss',]  a  daughter  of  Evenus,  beloved  by  Apollo. 

See  Homer's  "Iliad,"  book  ix. 

Marpurg,  maR'pooRG,  (Friedrtch  Wilhelm,)  an 
eminent  writer  on  music,  born  at  Seehausen,  in  Prussian 
Saxony,  in  17 18.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Treat- 
ises on  Fugue,"  "Critical  Introduction  to  the  History 
of  Music,"  ( 1 754,)  and  "  Rudiments  of  Theoretic  Music," 
(1760.)    Died  in  1795. 

See  Fi^Tis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Marquard.    See  Freher,  (Marquard.) 
Marquet,  mtR'kV,  (FRANgois  Nicolas,)  a  French 
botanist,  and  physician  to  Leopold,  Duke  of  Lorraine, 


was  born  at  Nancy  in  1687.  He  wrote  several  medica^. 
and  botanical  works.    Died  in  1759. 

Marquette,  mtR'kgt',  (Jacques,)  a  celebrated  French 
missionary  and  discoverer,  was  born  in  Picardy.  He 
travelled  and  laboured  several  years  in  Canada  and  other 
regions.  The  first  Europeans  who  are  certainly  known 
to  have  discovered  and  explored  the  Mississippi  River 
were  Father  Marquette  and  M.  Joliet,  who  in  1673  con- 
ducted a  small  exploring  party  from  Quebec.  Entering 
the  great  river  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wisconsin,  they  de- 
scended in  canoes  nearly  to  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas, 
or  to  latitude  34°,  which  they  reached  in  July,  1673.  They 
were  deterred  from  pursuing  the  voyage  by  reports  that 
the  river  below  was  infested  by  armed  savages,  and  they 
returned  in  canoes  to  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois,  which 
they  ascended.  Marquette  wrote  a  narrative  of  this 
expedition,  which  was  published  in  Paris  in  1681.  *'  He 
writes,"  says  Professor  Sparks,  "  as  a  scholar  and  as  a 
man  of  careful  observation  and  practical  sense.  In  every 
point  of  view,  this  tract  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
among  those  that  illustrate  the  early  history  of  America." 
Having  resumed  his  missionary  labours  among  the 
Miamis  on  Lake  Michigan,  he  died  there  in  1675. 

See  Charlevoix,  "  Histoire  de  la  Nouvelle  France  ;"  Moreri, 
"Dictionnaire  Historique ;"  Sparks,  "American  Biography,"  vol. 
X.,  ist  series. 

Marquis,  mtR'ke',  (Alexandre  Louis,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  at  Dreux  in  1777.  He  published  *'  Frag- 
ments of  Botanic  Philosophy,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1828. 

Marracci,  mar-rSt'chee,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  priest, 
eminent  as  an  Oriental  scholar,  was  born  at  Lucca  in 
1612.  He  became  professor  of  Arabic  in  the  College  della 
Sapienza,  Rome.  His  principal  work  is  an  excellent 
edition  of  the  Koran  in  Arabic,  with  a  Latin  version, 
(1698.)  "This,"  says  Hallam,  "is  still  esteemed  the 
best."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 
Died  in  1700. 

See  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Marrast,  mt'rSs',  (Armand,)  a  French  republican 
journalist  and  political  writer,  born  in  Haute-Garonne 
in  1801.  Soon  after  the  revolution  of  1830  he  became 
associate  editor  of  the  "Tribune,"  the  organ  of  the  ultra- 
Liberal  party.  He  was  imprisoned  in  1834  on  a  charge 
of  being  implicated  in  the  "  Conspiracy  of  April,"  but 
he  soon  effected  his  escape,  and  repaired  to  England, 
where  he  married  Lady  Fitz-Clarence.  On  his  return 
to  France  he  succeeded  Armand  Carrel  (1836)  as  prin- 
cipal editor  of  "  Le  National,"  a  popular  daily  journal, 
which  he  conducted  with  great  ability  for  nearly  twelve 
years.  After  the  abdication  of  Louis  Philippe,  (1848,) 
Marrast  became  successively  secretary  of  the  provisional 
government,  mayor  of  Paris,  and  president  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly.  He  made  valuable  contributions  to 
the  "  Paris  Revolutionnaire"  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1852. 

See  Regnault,  "Armand  Marrast,"  in  "Le  Si^cle,"  1859; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Marre,  van,  vtn  maR,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at 
Amsterdam  in  1696.  His  principal  works  are  tragedies 
entitled  "Jacqueline  of  Bavaria"  and  "  Marcus  Curtius." 
Died  in  1763. 

Marrier,  mt're-i',  (Martin,)  a  learned  French  Bene- 
dictine monk,  born  in  Paris  in  1572.  He  published 
"Bibliotheca  Cluniacensis,"  (1614.)    Died  in  1644. 

Marron,  mt'r6N',  (Marie  Anne  Carrelet,)  Ba- 
ronne  de  Meillonaz,  a  French  artist  and  dramatic  writer, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1725.  She  was  a  friend  and  corre- 
spondent of  Voltaire.    Died  in  1778. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance." 

Marron,  m^'r6N',  (PaulHenpi,)  a  Protestant  divine, 
of  French  extraction,  born  at  Leyden  in  1754.  He  be- 
came pastor  of  a  church  in  Paris  in  1788,  and  favoured 
the  Revolution,  He  contributed  numerous  valuable 
articles  to  the  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  and  published 
other  works,  on  various  subjects.  He  died  in  1832, 
leaving  a  large  collection  of  engraved  portraits,  which 
were  purchased  by  Louis  Philippe. 

See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Mar'r5^-at,  (Frederick,)  a  popular  English  novelist 
and  naval  officer,  born  in  London  in  1792.    He  entered 


«  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Y^,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MJRS  1532 


MARSHALL 


the  service  as  midshipman  under  Lord  Cochrane  in 
1806,  and  distinguished  himself  during  the  three  follow- 
ing years  in  numerous  engagements  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean and  off  the  French  coasts.  He  was  made  a  captain 
in  1815,  and  in  1821  commanded  the  Rosario,  which 
brought  to  the  English  government  the  news  of  the 
death  of  Napoleon.    He  assisted  in  the  attack  on  Ran- 
goon in  1823,  and  in  the  expedition  against  the  Malays 
in  1824.    He  published,  besides  other  novels,  "  Peter 
Simple,"  (1834,)  "Jacob  Faithful,"  (1834,)  "  Japhet  in 
Search  of  his  Father,"  (1836,)  "Mr.  Midshipman  Easy," 
(1836,)  and  "  Masterman  Ready,"  (1841.)    Among  his 
works  is  "  Valerie,"  an  Autobiography,  and  a  "  Diary 
in  America,"  (6  vols.,  1839.)    Died  in  1848. 
See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1839. 
Mars,  [Gr.  *Apw,  (Ares;)  It.  Marte,  maR'tk,]  the 
name  of  the  Roman  god  of  war,  was  a  contraction  of 
Mayors.    He  was  supposed  to  be  a  son  of  Jupiter  and 
Juno,  and  was  identified  with  the  Ares  of  Greek  my- 
thology.   According  to  Ovid,  he  was  a  son  of  Juno,  but 
had  no  father.    He  was  worshipped  with  extraordinary 
honours  by  the  Romans,  of  whom  he  was  one  of  the 
tutelary  deities.     Homer  and  other  poets  relate  that 
Mars  fought  for  the  Trojans  at  the  siege  of  Troy  and 
was  wounded  by  Diomede.    He  was  called  Gradivus, 
Quirinus,  Mavors,  Salisubulus,  Mamers,  Enyalus,  and 
Camulus.    The  amours  of  Mars  and  Venus  are  very 
celebrated.    He  was  said  to  be  the  ifather  of  Romulus, 
Remus,  Cupid,  Harmonia,  and  Meleager.   Ares  was  one 
of  the  twelve  great  Olympian  gods  of  the  Greeks,  and 
was  especially  worshipped  in  Thrace.    According  to 
tradition,  he  fled  to  Egypt  during  the  contest  between 
Typhon  and  the  gods,  and  changed  himself  into  a  fish. 
Having  killed  a  son  of  Neptune,  he  was  prosecuted 
before  the  Areopagus  (Mars  Hill)  at  Athens,  and  was 
acquitted.    Mars  was  believed  to  love  war  for  its  own 
sake,  and  to  delight  in  carnage.    He  is  usually  repre- 
sented as  a  grim  soldier  in  full  armour, — sometimes  as 
driving  furiously  in  a  war-chariot. 

Mars,  marz  or  mtRs,  (Anne  FRANgoiSE  Hippolyte 
Boutet  Monvel — boo'ta'  m6N'vgK,)  Mademoiselle, 
a  celebrated  French  actress,  born  in  Paris  in  1779.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  Monvel,  a  popular  actor  at  the 
Theatre  Fran9ais,  and  an  actress  named  Mars,  and 
was  early  trained  for  the  stage.  She  excelled  in  genteel 
comedy,  in  which  she  was  considered  unrivalled  among 
the  actors  of  her  time.  She  retired  from  the  stage  in 
1841.    Died  in  1847. 

See  A.  LiREUx,  "Mademoiselle  Mars;  Notice  biographique," 
1847;  L.  Fusii.,  "Notice  sur  Mademoiselle  Mars,"  1847;  R.  de 
Beauvoir,  "  Memoires  de  Mademoiselle  Mars,"  2  vols.,  1849; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Marsais,  du.    See  Du  mars  a  is. 

Marsand,  maR-sind',  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  littera- 
teur, born  at  Venice  in  1765.  He  published  an  excellent 
edition  of  Petrarch's  poems,  with  a  memoir,  and  several 
original  works  on  various  subjects.    Died  in  1842. 

Marschall  von  Bieberstein,  maR'shil  fon  bee'ber- 
stln^,  (Friedrich,)  Freiherr,  a  German  botanist,  born 
in  1766,  removed  to  Russia,  where  he  became  a  council- 
lor of  state.  He  published  "Flora  Taurico-Caucasica," 
(1808-19.)    Died  in  1826. 

Marschner,  maRsh'ner,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  com- 
poser and  musician,  born  at  Zittau  in  1795,  was  appointed 
chapel-master  at  Hanover.  Among  his  most  popular 
works  are  the  operas  of  "The  Vampyre,"  "The  Templar 
and  the  Jewess,"  and  "  Hans  Heiling."    Died  in  1861. 

See  F^Tis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Mars'den,  (William,)  an  eminent  Orientalist,  of 
English  extraction,  born  at  Dublin  in  1754.  Having  en- 
tered the  service  of  the  East  India  Company,  he  sailed 
in  1 771  to  Bencoolen,  Sumatra,  where  he  w^as  appointed 
principal  secretary  to  the  government  and  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  the  Malay  language.  He  returned 
in  1779  to  England,  and  was  soon  after  elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society.  He  published  in  1782  his  "His- 
tory of  Sumatra,"  which  was  very  favourably  received 
and  was  translated  into  French  and  German.  He  was 
subsequently  appointed  chief  secretary  to  the  board  of 
admiralty,  with  the  war  salary  of  ;^4000  per  annum. 
Having  resigned  this  post  in  1807,  he  brought  out  in  I 


1812  his  "Grammar"  and  "Dictionary"  of  the  Malay 
language,  which  are  esteemed  standard  works.  He  also 
made  an  excellent  translation  of  the  "Travels  of  Marco 
Polo,"  with  a  commentary,  and  wrote  a  description  of 
Eastern  coins,  entitled  "  Numismata  Orientalia  Illus- 
trata,"  (1823.)  He  gave  up  his  pension  to  the  gov- 
ernment in  183 1,  and  soon  after  presented  his  valuable 
collection  of  coins  and  medals  to  the  British  Museum, 
and  his  library  to  King's  College.    Died  in  1836. 

See  "Memoir  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  William  Marsden,"  by  himself, 
1838. 

Marsh,  (Anna  Caldwell,)  Mrs.,  an  English  au- 
thoress, born  in  Staffordshire  about  1798.  Among  her 
most  popular  works  we  may  name  "Tales  of  the 
Woods  and  Fields,"  (1836,)  "  Ravenscliffe,"  "Mount 
Sorel,"  (1843,)  and  "Emilia  Wyndham,"  (1846.) 

Marsh,  (Catherine,)  an  English  writer,  born  at 
Colchester  about  181 5.  Among  her  works  are  "Me- 
morials of  Captain  Hedley  Vicars,"  "  English  Hearts 
and  English  Hands,"  and  "Light  for  the  Line,  or  the 
Story  of  Thomas  Ward,"  which  have  gained  extensive 
popularity. 

Marsh,  (Dexter,)  an  American  geologist,  born  in 
1806,  made  a  large  and  choice  collection  of  specimens 
of  fossil  footprints,  obtained  chiefly  in  the  Connecticut 
valley.    Died  in  1853. 

Marsh,  (  George  Perkins,  )  LL.D.,  an  American 
philologist  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Windsor  county, 
Vermont,  in  1801.  He  was  appointed  minister  resi- 
dent at  Constantinople  in  1849,  ^"f^  1^52  was  sent  on 
an  embassy  to  Greece.  He  has  published,  among  other 
works,  a  "Compendious  Grammar  of  the  Old  Northern 
or  Icelandic  Language,  compiled  and  translated  from 
the  Grammar  of  Rask,"  (1838,)  and  "  Man  and  Nature," 
(1864.)  His  wife,  Caroline  C.  Marsh,  has  published  a 
number  of  poems  and  made  translations  from  the  Ger- 
man.   In  1861  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Italy. 

See  Gkiswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Marsh,  (Herbert,)  a  learned  English  theologian, 
born  in  London  in  1757.  He  became  professor  of  di- 
vinity at  Cambridge  in  1807,  and  rose  to  be  Bishop  of 
Peterborough  in  1819.  He  published  several  religious 
and  controversial  treatises,  and  translated  Michaelis's 
"  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament"  into  English. 
Died  in  1839. 

Marsh,  (James,)  an  English  chemist,  born  in  1789, 
was  the  inventor  of  an  apparatus,  called  by  his  name, 
which  detects  the  presence  of  arsenic  in  liquids,  how- 
ever minute  the  quantity.  Its  utility  and  certainty  were 
verified  by  Orfila  and  other  toxicologists.    Died  in  1846. 

Marsh,  (James,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished  American 
scholar  and  divine,  born  at  Hartford,  Vermont,  in  1794. 
He  was  appointed  professor  of  classics  at  Hampden- 
Sidney  College,  Virginia,  and  in  1826  president  of  the 
University  of  Vermont.  He  translated  from  the  German 
Herder's  "Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,"  and  contributed 
religious  and  philosophical  essays  to  the  "Christian 
Spectator"  and  other  journals.    Died  about  1842. 

Marsh,  (Narcissus,)  a  learned  prelate,  born  in  Wilt- 
shire in  1638,  became  successively  Archbishop  of  Dublin 
and  of  Armagh.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  an  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Theory  of  Sounds,"  which  was  inserted  in 
the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Died  in  1713. 

Mar'shall,  (Charles  Kimball,)  an  American  Meth- 
odist divine,  born  at  Durham,  Maine,  in  1812,  became 
pastor  of  a  church  at  Natchez,  Mississippi. 

Marshall,  (Humphry,)  an  American  botanist,  was 
a  resident  of  Pennsylvania.  He  published  in  1785  his 
"  Arbustum  Americanum,"  or  catalogue  of  the  trees  and 
shrubs  of  America,  which  was  translated  into  French. 
Died  about  1805. 

See  W.  Darlington,  "  Memorials  of  John  Bartram  and  H. 
Marshall,".  184Q. 

Marshall,  (John,)  an  eminent  American  jurist  and 
statesman,  born  at  Germantown,  Fauquier  county,  Vir- 
ginia, on  the  24th  of  September,  1755.  He  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Colonel  Thomas  Marshall  and  Mary  Keith, 
who  had  fifteen  children.  He  never  attended  a  college, 
but  he  was  well  educated  under  the  care  of  his  father. 
He  enlisted  in  the  army  in  1776,  became  a  captain  in 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;    ^,  T,  6,  u,    short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  f^x,  fill,  f&t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MARSHALL 


1533 


MARSTON 


May,  1777,  and  served  at  the  battles  of  Brandy  wine, 
September,  1777,  Germantown,  and  Monmouth,  June, 
1778.  Having  resigned  his  commission  in  1 781,  he  be- 
gan to  practise  law,  and  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Delegates  in  1782.  In  1783  he  married  Mary 
"Willis  Ambler,  of  York,  Virginia,  and  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Richmond.  As  a  member  of  the  Convention 
of  Virginia,  in  1788,  he  advocated  the  adoption  of  the 
Federal  Constitution  by  several  powerful  speeches.  He 
contributed  more  to  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution 
by  Virginia  than  any  man  except  James  Madison.  He 
became  identified  with  the  Federal  party,  and  cordially 
supported  the  administration  of  Washington.  His 
reputation  was  widely  extended  by  a  speech  in  the 
Assembly  of  Virginia  in  favour  of  the  treaty  negotiated 
by  John  Jay  with  Great  Britain  in  1794.  In  1797  he 
was  associated  with  General  Pinckney  and  Mr.  Gerry  in 
a  special  mission  to  the  French  Directory.  His  incli- 
nation or  interest  induced  him  to  decline  several  high 
offices,  but,  at  the  special  request  of  General  Washing- 
ton, he  became  a  candidate  for  Congress,  and  was  elected, 
in  1799.  He  made  a  great  speech  in  Congress,  defend- 
ing President  Adams  for  his  surrender  of  Thomas  Nash, 
alias  Robbins,  who  was  claimed  by  the  British  govern- 
ment as  a  fugitive  from  justice.  This  speech  settled 
forever  the  question  whether  such  cases  should  be 
decided  by  the  executive  or  the  judiciary.  "That  argu- 
ment," says  R.  W.  Grisvvold,  "deserves  to  be  ranked 
among  the  most  dignified  displays  of  human  intellect." 
He  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  President  Adams 
in  May,  1800,  and  displayed  great  diplomatic  ability  in 
his  correspondence  with  Rufus  King,  minister  to  Eng- 
land. On  the  31st  of  January,  1801,  he  was  appointed 
chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States. 
He  performed  the  functions  of  this  high  office  for  thirty- 
four  years,  and  rendered  important  services  by  the  just 
and  liberal  principles  according  to  which  he  construed 
the  Constitution.  His  profound  learning  and  wisdom, 
his  moral  courage,  and  his  high-toned  virtue  secured  for 
him  universal  respect  and  confidence.  His  services  as 
an  expounder  of  constitutional  law  are  commended  by 
Judge  Story  in  the  following  terms:  "If  all  others  of 
the  chief  justice's  judicial  arguments  had  perished,  his 
luminous  judgments  on  these  occasions  would  have 
given  an  enviable  immortality  to  his  name."  In  1804 
he  published  a  "Life  of  George  Washington,"  (5  vols.,) 
which  is  highly  esteemed.  Judge  Marshall  was  distin- 
guished for  his  benevolence,  modesty,  urbanity,  and 
simplicity.  He  was  a  devout  believer  in  Christianity, 
and  was  happy  in  his  domestic  relations.  He  died  in 
Philadelphia  (whither  he  had  gone  for  medical  advice) 
in  July,  1835.  "To  one  who  cannot  follow  his  great 
judgments," says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "in  which  at  the  same 
time  the  depths  of  legal  wisdom  are  disclosed  and  the 
limits  of  human  reason  measured,  the  language  of  just 
eulogy  must  wear  an  appearance  of  extravagance.  In 
his  own  profession  he  stands  for  the  reverence  of  the 
wise  rather  than  for  the  enthusiasm  of  the  many." 

See  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America:"  Judge  Joseph 
Stoky,  notice  ot  John  Marshall,  in  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery 
of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  i.  ;  Horace  Binney,  "  Eulogy 
on  the  Life  and  Character  of  John  Marshall ;"  "  North  American 
Review"  for  January,  1828,  and  January,  1836. 

Mar'shall  or  Mareschal,  (Thomas,)  an  English 
scholar,  born  in  Leicestershire  about  1621.  He  became 
successively  rector  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  chaplain- 
in-ordinary  to  the  king,  and  Dean  of  Gloucester,  (1681.) 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  the  Oriental 
tongues  and  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,  and  published  "  Ob- 
servations on  Two  Ancient  Versions  of  the  Gospels, — 
the  Gothic  and  the  Anglo-Saxon,"  (in  Latin,  1665,)  also 
a  "Life  of  Archbishop  Usher."    Died  in  1685. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Marshall,  (William  Calder,)  a  Scottish  sculptor, 
born  in  Edinburgh  in  1813,  was  a  pupil  of  Chantrey. 
He  visited  Rome  about  1836,  and  settled  in  London  in 
1839.  Among  his  chief  works  are  "  Sabrina,"  "Una 
and  the  Lion,"  the  "Dancing-Girl  Reposing,"  (1846,) 
which  gained  a  prize  of  five  hundred  pounds,  and  a 
statue  of  Sir  Robert  Peel. 

Marshall,  (William  Humphrey,)  an  English  bota- 
nist and  agricultural  writer,  born  in  1745.   He  published 


a  number  of  works  which  contributed  greatly  to  the  im- 
provement of  agriculture  in  England.  He  also  wrote 
"  The  American  Grove  ;  or,  Catalogue  of  the  Trees,  etc. 
of  the  United  States."   Died  in  1818. 

Marsh'am,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  chronologist,  born 
in  London  in  1602.  He  embraced  the  cause  of  the 
royalists  in  the  civil  war.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "  Chronologicus  Canon  ^gyptiacus,  Ebraicus," 
etc.,  (1672,)  in  which  he  attempts  to  reconcile  Egyptian 
chronology  with  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  by  supposing 
four  collateral  dynasties  of  Egyptian  kings  reigning  at 
the  same  time.  This  theory  has  been  adopted  by  several 
eminent  scholars.    Died  in  1685. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses;"  Shuckford,  "Sacred  and 
Profane  History." 

Marsh'man,  (Joshua,)  an  eminent  English  divine 
and  Orientalist,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1767.  Being  sent 
by  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  to  India  in  1799, 
he  became  a  proficient  in  the  Chinese,  Sanscrit,  and 
Bengalee  languages.  He  translated  the  four  Gospels 
into  Chinese,  and  assisted  Dr.  Carey  in  preparing  a 
Sanscrit  Grammar  and  a  Bengalee-and-English  Diction- 
ary. He  also  translated  the  works  of  Confucius,  and 
wrote  a  "  Defence  of  the  Deity  and  Atonement  of  Jesus 
Christ,  in  Reply  to  Rammohun  Roy,"  (1822.)  Died  in 
1837. 

See  Cox,  "History  of  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society." 

Marsigli,  maR-s^Kyee,  (LuiGi  Ferdinando,)  a  dis- 
tinguished Italian  naturalist  and  mathematician,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1658.  He  served  in  the  Austrian  army 
against  the  Turks  in  1683  and  in  several  succeeding 
campaigns,  and  was  made  a  colonel  in  1689.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society  of  Sciences  and  Arts 
at  Bologna,  (1712,)  to  which  he  gave  a  very  valuable 
scientific  collection.  He  afterwards  visited  England, 
where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Newton  and  Halley 
and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  was 
the  author  of  "Physical  History  of  the  Sea,"  (1725,)  a 
description  of  the  shores  of  the  Danube,  entitled  "  Danu- 
bius  Pannonico-Mysicus,"  etc.,  (1726,  7  vols,  fob,  finely 
illustrated,)  "The  Military  State  of  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire," (1732,)  and  other  works.  He  had  been  elected 
in  1725  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Paris. 
Died  in  1730. 

See  QuiNCY,  "  M^moires  sur  la  Vie  du  Comte  de  Marsigli,"  1741 ; 
FoNTENELi.E,  "  Eloges  des  Academiciens ;"  Fabroni,  "Vitae  Ita- 
lorum  doctvina  excellentium  ;"  G.  Fantuzzi,  "  Memoria  della  Vita 
del  Conte  Marsigli,"  1770;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Marsilio  (maR-see'le-o)  [Lat,  Marsil'iusJ  of  Padua, 
an  Italian  jurist,  sometimes  called  Menandrino,  born 
at  Padua.  He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Louis  of 
Bavaria,  in  whose  favour  he  wrote  his  "Defensor  Pacis," 
an  attack  on  the  papacy,  for  which  he  was  excommuni- 
cated in  1327.    Died  in  1328. 

Marsilius.    See  Marsilio. 

Marsilius  Ficinus.    See  Ficmus. 

Marsin.    See  Marchin. 

Marso,  maR'so,  [Lat.  Pisci'nus,]  (Paolo,)  an  Italian 
savant,  said  to  have  been  born  at  Piscina.  He  wrote  a 
commentary  on  the  "  Fasti"  of  Ovid,  published  in  1485, 
and  several  Latin  poems. 

MarsoUier,  mtR'so'le-i',  (Jacques,)  a  French  writer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1647,  was  author  of  a  "  History  of  the 
Inquisition  and  its  Origin,"  (1693,)  and  several  other 
works.    Died  in  1724. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

MarsoUier  des  Vivetieres,  miR'so'le-i'  di  v^v'- 
te-aiR',  (Benoit  Joseph,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1750,  produced  numerous  comic  operas,  which 
had  great  popularity.    Died  in  181 7. 

Mars'ton,  (John,)  an  English  dramatist,  was  the 
author  of  tragedies  entitled  "Antonio  and  Mellida," 
"  Sophonisba,"  and  "  Antonio's  Revenge,"  and  several 
comedies  ;  he  was  also  associated  with  Ben  Jonson  and 
Chapman  in  writing  "Eastward,  Ho  !"  His  comedy  of 
"  The  Malecontent"  is  esteemed  his  best  work  ;  but  lie 
is  said  to  have  borrowed  a  great  part  of  it  from  Webster. 
Died  in  1634. 

See  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Marston,  (Westland,)  an  English  poet  and  drama- 
tist, born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1819.     He  wrote  "The 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  §  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MARSUPIUS 


MARTIAL 


Patrician's  Daughter,"  "The  Heart  and  the  World," 
and  several  other  popular  dramas. 

Marsupius.    See  Marsuppini. 

Marsuppini,  maR-soop-pee'nee,  [Lat.  Marsu'pius,] 
(Carlo,)  an  Italian  scholar,  sometimes  called  Are- 
TiNO,  born  at  Arezzo  about  1399.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  rhetoric  at  Florence  in  1434,  and  secretary 
of  the  Florentine  republic  in  1444.  He  translated  into 
Latin  hexameter  verse  Homer's  "  Batrachomyomachia," 
and  wrote  a  number  of  Latin  poems.    Died  in  1453. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Mar'sus,  (Domitius,)  a  Roman_poet  under  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  was  a  friend  of  Virgil  and  Tibullus.  Among 
his  extant  works  is  a  poem  entitled  "  Cicuta,"  and  a 
number  of  fragments  have  been  collected  by  Broek- 
huisen  in  his  edition  of  Tibullus. 

See  Weichert,  "  De  Domitio  Marso,  Poeta." 

Marsy,  mSk'se',  (Gaspard  and  Balthasar,)  brothers 
and  distinguished  French  sculptors,  born  at  Cambray, 
the  former  in  1625  and  the  latter  in  1628.  Among  their 
master-pieces  are  the  figures  of  the  Baths  of  Apollo, 
representing  the  "  Tritons  showering  the  Horses  of 
the  Sun,"  and  the  group  of"  Latona  and  her  Children." 
Both  brothers  were  members  of  the  Academy  of  Painting 
and  Sculpture.  Balthasar  died  in  1674,  and  Gaspard 
in  1681. 

See  Lenoir,  "Musde  des  Monuments  Fran^ais." 

Marsy,  de,  deh  mtR'se',  (FRANgois  Marie,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1 7 14.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  Mary  Stuart,"  and  a  Latin 
poem  entitled  "  Painting,"  ("  Pictura,")  which  was  much 
admired.    Died  in  1763. 

See  La  Harpe,  "  Cours  de  Littdrature." 

Mar'sy-as,  [Gr.  Mapavaf,]  a  personage  of  the  Greek 
mythology,  was  called  by  some  authors  a  Satyr,  and  a 
son  of  Olympus.  According  to  tradition,  he  found  a 
flute  which  Minerva  had  thrown  away,  (because  her 
face  was  distorted  by  playing  on  it,)  and  challenged 
Apollo  to  a  trial  of  skill  in  music,  on  the  condition 
that  the  victor  might  do  what  he  pleased  with  the  van- 
quished. Apollo  gained  the  victory,  and  flayed  Marsyas 
alive.  This  story  was  a  favourite  subject  of  ancient 
poets  and  artists. 

Martainville,  mtR^tiN'v^K,  (  Alphonse  Louis  Dieu- 
DONn6,)  a  littiratenr  2iwd  journalist,  of  French  extraction, 
born  at  Cadiz  in  1776.  He  became  associate  editor  of 
several  political  journals  of  Paris.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  bold  and  witty  satires  on  the  Jacobins,  and  several 
popular  comedies.    Died  in  1830. 

Martange,  de,  deh  mtR't6Nzh',  (N.  Bonnet,)  a 
French  general  and  writer,  born  at  Beauce  in  1722, 
served  in  the  Austrian  army  in  the  Seven  Years'  war. 
He  wrote  several  poems  and  tales.    Died  in  1806. 

Marteilhe,  mtR'tal'  or  mtR'tk'ye,  (Jean,)  a  French 
Protestant,  born  at  Bergerac  in  1684,  was  condemned  in 
1702  to  the  galleys  at  Dunkirk,  where  he  spent  seven 
years.    Died  in  1777. 

See  "  The  Huguenot  Galley-Slave,"  New  York,  1867 ;  "  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1866. 

Martel,  (Charles.)    See  Charles  Martel. 

Martel,  mtR't^K,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  surgeon,  born 
at  Perigueux  in  1549.  He  became  first  surgeon  to  Henry 
IV.    Died  about  1610. 

Martel,  maR-t^K,  (Geronimo,)  a  Spanish  historian, 
wrote  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Forma  de  celebrar 
Cortes."    He  became  royal  historiographer  in  1597. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i. 
pirt  i. 

Marteliere,  de  la,  deh  It  mtRt'le-aiR',  (Pierre,)  a 
celebrated  French  lawyer,  was  born^  at  Bellesme  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  He  published  a  number  of 
pleas,  one  of  which,  in  favour  of  the  University  of  Paris 
against  the  Jesuits,  was  very  much  admired.  Died 
in  1631. 

Martelli,  maR-teKlee,  (Lunovico,)  an  Italian  poet, 
Dorn  at  Florence  in  1499.  He  wrote  lyric  poems,  and 
"  Tullia,"  a  tragedy.    Died  in  1527. 

See  GiNGUENii,  "  Histoire  litt^raire  d'ltalie." 

Martelli  or  Martello,  maR-tel'lo,  (Pietro  Giacomo,) 
an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Bologna  in  1665.    He  wrote 


poems  and  dramas,  which  were  popular  at  the  time. 
Died  in  1727. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium ;"  "Vita  di 
Martelli,"  (written  by  himself,)  in  Calogera's  "Raccolta,"  vol.  ii. 

Martelly,  de,  deh  miR^ti'le',  (Honor6  Franqois 
Richard,)  a  French  actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  Aix  in 
175 1,  published  a  comedy  entitled  "The  Two  Figaros," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1817. 

Martene,  mtR'tiN',  (Dom  Edmond,)  a  learned  French 
ecclesiastic,  of  the  order  of  Benedictines,  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Dijon  in  1654.  In  1708  he  visited  the  abbeys 
and  cathedrals  of  France,  in  order  to  procure  materials 
for  a  new  edition  of  the  "Gallia  Christiana."  He  also 
published  a  "Collection  of  Old  Authors  and  Historical 
Monuments,"  (1700,)  in  Latin,  and,  conjointly  with  his 
friend  Durand,  "Literary  Travels  of  Two  Benedictines 
of  Saint-Maur,"  (1717.)    Died  in  1739. 

See  Tassin,  "  Histoire  litt^raire  de  la  Congregation  de  Saint- 
Maur." 

Martens,  maR'tens,  written  also  Mertens,  [Lat. 

Marti'nus,]  (Thierry,)  a  Flemish  printer,  born  at  Alost 
about  1450,  is  said  to  have  introduced  the  art  of  printing 
into  the  Netherlands.  He  exercised  his  profession  at 
his  native  town,  and  subsequently  at  Louvain  and  Ant- 
werp. He  printed  in  Roman  characters,  hitherto  un- 
known, and  his  editions  of  the  classics  were  highly  prized. 
Martens  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Erasmus,  who  com- 
posed a  Latin  epitaph  upon  him.    Died  in  1534. 

See  Maittaire,  "Annales  Typographicae ;"  Marchand,  "His- 
toire de  rimprimerie  ;"  F.  A.  van  Lseghem,  "Biographic  de  Thierry 
Martens,"  1852;  Theodore  Juste,  "Notice  biographique  sur  T. 
Martens,"  1849. 

Martens,  von,  fon  maR'tens,  (Georg  Friedrich,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  in  Hamburg  in  1756.  Among  his 
works,  which  are  chiefly  written  in  French,  we  may  name 
his  "Collection  of  Treaties,"  (1791,)  and  "Summary  of 
Modern  European  Law,"  (1821.)    Died  in  1821. 

Martens,  von,  (Karl,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  about  1790.  He  was  employed  as  a  diplomatist 
by  the  King  of  Prussia.  He  published,  besides  other 
works  in  French,  "Causes  celebres  du  Droit  de  Gens," 
(3  vols.,  1827,)  and  "  Guide  diplomatique,"  (2  vols.,  1832.) 

Martensen,  maR' ten-sen,  (Hans  Lassen,)  a  Danish 
theologian,  born  at  Flensborg  in  1808.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Seeland  in  1843,  and  court  preacher  at  Copen- 
hagen in  1845.  His  principal  work  is  a  treatise  on 
Christian  Doctrine,  "  Den  Christelige  Dogmatik,"  (1849.) 

Mar'tha,  [Gr.  Map^a;  Fr.  Marthe,  mtRt,]  a  sister  of 
Mary  and  Lazarus  of  Bethany. 

See  John  xi.  ;  Luke  x. 

Marthe.    See  Martha. 

Marthe,  mlRt,  (Anne  Biget — be'zha',)  a  French 
nun,  called  Sister  Martha,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1749, 
devoted  herself  during  the  Revolution  to  the  relief  of  the 
sick  and  wounded,  and  of  prisoners  of  all  nations.  Died 
in  1824. 

Marti,  maR'tee,  [Lat.  Marti'nus,]  (Manuel,)  a 
Spanish  scholar  and  poet,  born  near  Valencia  in  1663. 
He  published  a  collection  of  poems,  entitled  "  Amalthea 
Geographica,"  and  made  several  translations  from  the 
Latin.    Died  in  1737. 

See  Mayan,  "Vita  Emanuelis  Martini,"  1735. 

Martial,  mar'she^l,  [Fr.  Martial,  mtR'se'iK;  Lat. 
Martia'lis  ;  It.  Marziale,  maRt-se-i'li,]  or,  more  fully, 
Mar'cus  Vale'rius  Martia'lis,  a  famous  Latin  epi. 
grammatic  poet,  born  at  Bilbilis,  in  Spain,  about  40  a.d., 
went  to  Rome  at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  and  resided  there 
thirty-five  years.  The  events  of  his  life  are  very  imper- 
fectly known  ;  but  it  appears  that  he  devoted  his  atten 
tion  chiefly  to  poetry.  Some  epigrams  which  he  wrote 
on  the  occasion  of  the  public  spectacles  given  by  Titus 
about  the  year  80,  procured  him  the  favour  of  that  prince. 
He  was  also  patronized  by  Domitian,  who  made  him  a 
tribune  and  a  Roman  knight.  He  was  intimate  with 
Juvenal,  Quintilian,  and  Pliny  the  Younger.  About  98 
A.D.  he  returned  to  his  native  place,  where  he  died  a  few 
years  later.  Fourteen  books  of  his  "  Epigrams"  are  still 
extant,  and  are  much  admired  by  some  eminent  critics, 
such  as  Scaliger,  Lipsius,  and  Malte-Brun.  The  latter 
thinks  his  writings  are  among  the  most  interesting  monu- 
ments of  Roman  literature,  though  many  of  them  offend 
against  good  taste  and  pure  morality.    Probably  no  poet 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  h,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MARTIAL 


1535 


MARTIN 


ever  estimated  his  works  more  justly  than  he  did  in  the 
following  line  :  * 

"  Sunt  bona,  sunt  quaedam  mediocria,  sunt  plura  mala." 
("  Some  are  good,  some  indifferent,  and  more  are  bad.") 
See  Crusius,  "  Life  of  Martial,"  in  "Lives  of  the  Roman  Poets," 
1726:  Lessing,  "Vermischte  Schriften;"  A.  P^ricaud,  "  Essai  sur 
Martial,"  1816:  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina ;"  "  M.  V.  Mar- 
tialis  als  Mensch  und  Dichter,"  Berlin,  1843;  "Martial  and  his 
Times,"  in  the  "Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1853. 

Martial  d'Auvergne.  See  Auvergne,  d',  (Mar- 
tial.) 

Martialis.    See  Martial. 

Martiaiiay,  nitR'se^t^ni',  (Dom  Jean,)  a  French 
Benedictine  monk  and  theological  writer,  born  in  1647  ; 
died  in  1717. 

Martignac,  de,  deh  mtR't^n^ytk',  (£tienne  Algay,) 
a  French  litth-ateiir,  born  at  Brives-la-Gaillarde  about 
1620.  He  published  "  Memoirs  of  Gaston,  Duke  of 
Orleans,"  and  made  translations  from  Horace,  Juvenal, 
and  other  classics.    Died  in  1698. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV." 

Martignac,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste  Sylv^re  Gaye,) 
VicoMTE,  an  able  and  eloquent  French  statesman  under 
Charles  X.,  was  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1776.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1821.  As  the 
head  of  the  ministry  that  came  into  power  in  January, 

1828,  he  held  the  office  of  minister  of  the  interior,  and 
sought  to  unite  conflicting  parties  for  the  support  of  the 
throne  ;  but,  unable  to  effect  this  object,  and  forsaken  by 
the  king  and  the  court,  he  resigned  his  place  in  August, 

1829,  and  was  succeeded  by  Polignac.  On  the  trial  of 
the  latter,  Martignac  became  his  eloquent  defender 
in  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  He  died  in  1832,  leaving  a 
"  Historical  Essay  on  the  Spanish  Revolution,"  and 
other  works. 

See  Capefigue,  "  Histoire  de  la  Restauration ;"  Chateaubriand, 
"  Memoires  d'Outre-Tombe  ;"  L.  de  Lom^nie,  "  M.  de  Martignac, 
par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1842  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Martigues,  mtR't^g',  (S6bastien  de  Luxembourg,) 
Viscount,  a  brave  French  officer,  who  assisted  at  the 
siege  of  Metz,  (1552,)  and  in  the  capture  of  Calais  by 
the  Duke  of  Guise,  (1558.)    He  was  killed  in  1569. 

Mar'tin  [Lat.  Mart/nus]  I.  succeeded  Theodore  as 
pope  in  649  a.d.  Having  condemned  the  Monothelites, 
he  was  banished  by  the  emperor  Constans  II.,  who 
favoured  that  sect,  to  the  Thracian  Chersonesus,  where 
he  died  in  655  a.d. 

Martin  II.,  or  Marinus  I.,  succeeded  John  VIII.  as 
pope  in  882  a.d.  Died  in  884,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Adrian  III. 

Martin  III.,  or  Marinus  II.,  born  at  Rome,  suc- 
ceeded Stephen  VIII.  in  942,  and  died  in  946.  His 
successor  was  Agapetus  II. 

Martin  IV.,  (Cardinal   Simon  de  Brion  —  deh 

bRe'6N',  (or  Brie — bRe,))  a  native  of  Touraine,  in  France, 
succeeded  Nicholas  HI.  in  1281.  He  adhered  to  the 
cause  of  Charles  of  Anjou,  and  when,  after  the  Sicilian 
Vespers,  that  sovereign  lost  his  power  in  Sicily,  Martin 
excommunicated  Peter  of  Aragon,  who  had  been  chosen 
king  of  that  country.  He  died  in  1285,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Honorius  IV. 

Martin  V.  (Cardinal  Otho  Colonna  — ko-lon'na) 
was  elected  pope  in  141 7,  in  the  place  of  John  XXIII., 
deposed  by  the  Council  of  Constance.  In  1431  he 
called  a  council  at  Bale,  in  Switzerland,  for  the  purpose 
of  effecting  a  reform  in  the  Church,  and  sent  Cardinal 
Julian  Cesarini  as  his  legate.  He  died  soon  after,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Eugene  IV. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes 
Romains." 

Martin,  son  of  Martin,  King  of  Aragon,  ascended 
the  throne  of  Sicily  in  1399,  He  married  in  1401,  as  his 
second  wife,  Blanche,  daughter  of  the  King  of  Navarre. 
He  died  in  1409,  and  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  was  united 
to  that  of  Aragon  by  his  father,  who  survived  him. 

Martin,  surnamed  Gallus,  a  French  ecclesiastic  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  was  a  missionary  to  Poland,  and 
wrote  a  history  of  that  country,  ("  Chronica  Polonorum,") 
a  valuable  work,  and  the  earliest  one  written  on  that 
subject. 

Mar'tin,  (Alexander,)  born  in  New  Jersey  about 
1740,  served  as  a  colonel  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution, 


and  was  chosen  Governor  of  North  Carolina  in  1782. 
Died  in  1807. 

Martin,  mtR^t^N',  (Andr^,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  in  Poitou  in  1621.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest 
advocates  of  the  Cartesian  philosophy,  and  wrote 
"Christian  Moral  Philosophy,"  ("  Philosophia  Moralis 
Christiana.")    Died  in  1695. 

Mar'tin,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  mathematician,  born 
in  Surrey  in  1704.  He  was  the  author  of  "The  Philo- 
sophical Grammar,"  (1735,)  "New  System  of  Optics," 
(1740,)  and  other  scientific  works.    Died  in  1782. 

Martin,  (Bon  Louis  Henri,)  an  eminent  French 
historian,  born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1810.  He  has  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  France  from  the  Earliest  Times  to 
1789,"  (18  vols.,  1838-53,)  "  Monarchy  in  the  Seventeenth 
Century,"  (1848,)  a  "Life  of  Daniel  Manin,"  (1859,)  and 
other  similar  works.  The  first  enjoys  a  high  reputation, 
and  has  gained  a  prize  of  the  Academic  Fran9aise.  He 
published  a  revised  edition  of  his  "  History  of  France," 
(1855-60.) 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1857. 

Martin,  (Christian  Reinhold  Dietrich,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist,  born  near  Gottingen  in  1772,  was  the  author 
of  several  legal  works.    Died  in  1857. 

Martin,  (Claude,)  a  French  soldier,  born  at  Lyons  in 
1732.  He  accompanied  General  Lally  to  India,  and  sub- 
sequently entered  the  English  service.  Having  amassed 
a  large  fortune,  he  built  a  magnificent  palace  near  Luck- 
now.  He  died  in  1800,  leaving  numerous  bequests  for 
charitable  purposes. 

See  G.  Martin,  "  £loge  historique  de  C.  Martin,"  1830. 

Martin,  (Claude,)  a  learned  French  Benedictine 
monk,  born  at  Tours  in  1619,  published  several  devo- 
tional works.    Died  in  1696. 

Martin,  (David,)  a  French  Protestant  theologian, 
born  at  Revel  in  1639.  He  published  a  "History  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament,"  "  Treatise  on  Natural 
Religion,"  and  other  works,  which  enjoy  a  high  reputa- 
tion.   Died  in  1721. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires." 

Martin,  (Franqois,)  an  agent  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, born  in  France.  In  1674  he  formed  a  colony  at 
Pondicherry,  of  which  city  he  afterwards  became  gov- 
ernor.   Died  about  1725. 

Martin,  (Edme,)  a  French  jurist,  born  near  Sens 
about  1 7 14,  became  professor  of  canon  law  in  Paris. 
Died  in  1793. 

Martin,  (Franqois  Xavier,)  LL.D.,  born  at  Mar- 
seilles, France,  in  1764,  emigrated  about  1785  to  North 
Carolina,  and  subsequently  settled  in  Louisiana.  He 
attained  a  high  reputation  as  a  jurist,  and  published  His- 
tories of  Louisiana  and  North  Carolina.    Died  in  1846. 

Martin,  (Gregory,)  an  English  Catholic  theologian, 
was  a  native  of  Sussex.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Douai,  and  subsequently  at  Rheims.  His  principal 
work  is  an  English  translation  of  the  Bible,  which 
appeared  in  1610.    Died  in  1582. 

Martin,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  painter,  surnamed 
DES  Batailles,  ("of  battles,")  born  in  Paris  in  1659. 
On  the  death  of  Van  der  Meulen,  in  1690,  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  Louis  XIV,  to  paint  his  battles.  Died  in  1735. 

Martin,  (Jean  Blaise,)  a  celebrated  French  vocalist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1767.  He  held  the  place  of  tenor  solo 
in  the  imperial  chapel  under  Napoleon  and  his  succes- 
sors, Louis  XVIII.  and  Charles  X.    Died  in  1837. 

Martin,  (John,)  an  English  painter,  born  in  North- 
umberland in  1789.  He  studied  under  Bonifacio  Musso, 
and  in  1815  obtained  the  prize  at  the  British  Institution 
for  his  picture  of  "  Joshua  commanding  the  Sun  to  stand 
still."  This  was  followed  by  "The  Fall  of  Babylon," 
(1818,)  " Belshazzar's  Feast,"  ( 1821,)  "The  Deluge," 
(1826,)  "The  Fall  of  Nineveh,"  (1828,)  and  other 
works  on  similar  subjects,  which  enjoyed  great  tem- 
porary popularity.  He  published  in  1828  "A  Plan  for 
supplying  with  Pure  Water  the  Cities  of  London  and 
Westminster."    Died  in  1854. 

See  "Autobiography  of  John  Martin,"  in  the  "Athenaeum," 
1854;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Martin,  (Louis  Aim6,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1781,  became  professor  of  rhetoric,  history, 


€  as     9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Yi^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MARTIN 


MARTINET 


etc.  in  the  Polytechnic  School,  Paris,  about  1815.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre,  whose 
widow  he  married.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his 
"Letters  to  Sophia  on  Physics,  Chemistry,"  etc.,  (1810,) 
"Collection  of  Tales,  etc.  in  Verse  and  Prose,"  (1813,) 
and  an  "Essay  on  the  Life  and  Works  of  Bernardin  de 
Saint-PieVre,"  (1820.)    Died  in  1847. 

See  Lamartine,  '*  Discours  prononce  sur  la  Tombe  de  M.  Aim^ 
Martin;"  Quhkakd,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Martin,  (Luther,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  about 
1745.  He  was  a  delegate  from  Maryland  to  the  conven- 
tion which  in  1787  formed  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  In  this  body  he  advocated  the  sovereignty  and 
equality  of  the  States,  contending  that  a  small  State 
should  send  as  many  members  to  Congress  as  a  large 
State.    Died  in  1826. 

Martin,  (Margaret  Maxwell,)  born  at  Dumfries, 
Scotland,  in  1807,  emigrated  to  America,  and  was  mar- 
ried in  1836  to  the  Rev.  William  Martin,  a  Methodist 
divine.  She  has  published  "  Methodism,  or  Christianity 
in  Earnest,"  and  other  religious  works. 

Martin,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Bonn,  in 
Prussia,  in  1814.  His  mother  was  a  sister  of  Karl  Sim- 
rock  the  poet.  Among  his  works  is  *'  Le  Presbytere, 
Epopee  domestique,"  (1856.) 

Martin,  (Pierre,)  an  admiral,  of  French  extraction, 
born  in  Canada  in  1752.  In  1795  he  maintained  a 
prolonged  fight  with  a  superior  English  fleet  under 
Hotham,  and  was  soon  after  made  vice-admiral.  Died 
in  1820. 

Martin,  (Robert  Montgomery,)  an  English  writer, 
born  in  Tyrone  county,  Ireland,  about  1803.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Colonies  of  the  British  Em- 
pire," (1834-38,)  and  "The  Indian  Empire  :  its  History, 
Topography,"  etc.,  (1858-6L)    Died  in  1870. 

Martin,  [Lat.  Marti'nus,]  Saint,  an  eminent  eccle- 
siastic of  the  fourth  century,  was  a  native  of  Pannonia. 
He  was  converted  to  Christianity  at  an  early  age,  and 
was  made  Bishop  of  Tours  about  360  A.D.  He  founded 
the  abbey  of  Marmoutier,  near  the  river  Loire,  and  he 
also  established  a  monastery  at  Liguge,  near  Poitiers, 
said  to  be  the  oldest  institution  of  the  kind  in  France. 
Died  about  396. 

See  Gervaise,  "Vie  de  Saint-Martin,"  1699 ;  Mrs.  Jameson, 
"  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art ;"  A.  Dupuv,  "  Histoire  de  Saint- 
Martin,"  1852. 

Martin,  Saint,  born  in  Hungary,  became  Archbishop 
of  Braga,  in  Portugal,  and  founded  a  number  of  monas- 
teries in  Galicia.  He  was  the  author  of  several  theo- 
logical works,  in  Latin.    Died  in  580  A.D. 

Martin,  (Sarah,)  an  English  philanthropist,  born  near 
Yarmouth  in  1791,  was  distinguished  for  her  labours  in 
the  cause  of  prison -reform.    Died  in  1843. 

See  "  Brief  Biographies,"  by  Samuel  Smiles;  Rev.  Erskine 
Neale,  "  Cliristianity  and  Infidelity  Contrasted  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  April,  1847. 

Martin,  (Theodore,)  a  British  writer,  born  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1816.  He  became  a  resident  of  London  about 
1846.  In  conjunction  with  Professor  Aytoun,  he  pro- 
duced a  version  of  Goethe's  poems  and  ballads,  (1858.) 
He  also  translated  the  Odes  of  Horace,  (i860.) 

See  the  "North  British  Review"  for  February,  1862,  and  March, 
1866. 

Martin,  (Thomas,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Suffolk  in  1697.  was  the  author  of  a  "History  of 

Thetford,"  published  after  his  death  by  Gough,  (1779,) 
and  was  a  contributor  to  Le  Neve's  "  Monumenta  Angli- 
cana."    Died  in  1771. 

Martin,  (Thomas  PIenri,)  a  French  philosopher, 
born  at  Bellesme,  in  Orne,  in  1813.  His  "Studies  on 
the  TimjEus  of  Plato"  (2  vols.,  1841)  obtained  a  prize  of 
the  French  Academy.  He  also  published  a  "History 
of  the  Physical  Sciences  in  Antiquity,"  (2  vols.,  1849.) 

Martin,  (William,)  an  English  naturalist,  born  in 
Nottinghamshire  in  1769.  He  published  "  Figures  and 
Descriptions  of  Petrifactions  in  Derbyshire,"  and  other 
scientific  works.    Died  in  1810. 

Martin,  (William  D.,)  an  American  jurist  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  South  Carolina  in  1789;  died  in  1833. 

Martin,  de,  deh  mtR't^N',  (Jacques,)  a  French  writer, 
born  in  the  diocese  of  Mire])oix  in  1684.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Gauls  and  of 


'heir  Conquests,"  etc.,  and  "The  Religion  of  the  Gauls." 
Died  in  1751.  * 

Mar'tin-dale,  (John  Henry,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Sandy  Hill,  New  York,  about  1815,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1835.  ^  lawyer  before  the 

civil  war.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battles  of 
Gaines's  Mill,  Junie  27,  and  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862. 
He  commanded  a  division  of  General  Grant's  army  in 
the  summer  of  1864.  In  November,  1866,  he  was  elected 
attorney-general  of  New  York. 

Mar'tme,  (Georg?:,)  a  Scottish  physician,  born  in 
1702,  accompanied  Lord  Cathcart  to  America,  where 
he  died  in  1743.  He  published  "Commentaries  on  the 
Anatomical  Tables  of  Eustachius,"  (in  Latin,)  and  other 
works. 

Martineau,  mar'te-n5,  (Harriet,)  an  English  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  born  at  Norwich  in  1802,  was  de- 
scended from  a  French  Huguenot  family.  Being  left  in 
limited  circumstances  on  the  death  of  her  father,  she 
devoted  herself  to  literature  as  a  means  of  support,  and 
published,  in  1823,  "  Devotional  Exercises  for  the  Use 
of  Young  People,"  which  was  succeeded  by  a  number 
of  popular  tales,  among  which  we  may  name  "Christmas 
Day,"  "The  Rioters,"  (1826,)  "Mary  Campbell,"  (1827,) 
"The  Turn-Out,"  and  "My  Servant  Rachel,"  (1828.) 
Her  "Traditions  of  Palestine"  came  out  in  1831,  and 
were  soon  followed  by  a  series  of  tales  illustrating  po- 
litical economy,  which  were  received  with  great  favour 
and  were  translated  into  French  and  German.  In  1835 
she  visited  the  United  States,  where  she  spent  about 
two  years,  and  published,  after  her  return,  "  Society  in 
America,"  (1837,)  and  "  Retrospect  of  Western  Travel," 
(1838.)  Her  novel  of  "  Deerbrook"  appeared  in  1839, 
and  in  1840  the  romance  of  "The  Hour  and  the  Man." 
Her  health  becoming  impaired  about  this  time,  she  was 
obliged  to  suspend  her  literary  labours.  After  her  re- 
covery she  published,  besides  other  works,  "Life  in  a 
Sick-Room,"  (1845,)  ^'""^^  "  Forest  and  Game  Law  Tales," 
(1845.)  Among  her  later  publications  are  a  "  History 
of  P^ngland  during  the  Thirty  Years'  Peace,"  (2  vols., 
1850,)  "  Letters  between  Miss  Martineau  and  Mr.  H.  G. 
Atkinson,"  etc.,  (1857,)  and  "Biographical  Sketches," 
(London,  1869.)  She  has  also  been  a  contributor  to  the 
"  Westminster  Review"  and  other  literary  journals. 

See  "Men  and  Women  of  the  Time;"  "Brief  Biographies,"  by 
Samuei,  Smii.es;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1833,  April,  1S38, 
and  April,  1847  :  "  London  Quarterly"  for  January,  1839;  "  Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  April,  1851. 

Martineau,  (James,)  a  Unitarian  divine,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Norwich,  in  England,  about 
1805.  He  became  professor  of  moral  and  metaphysical 
philosophy  in  Manchester  New  College,  London,  in  1853, 
and  in  1858  associate  pastor  of  the  Unitarian  Chapel  in 
Little  Portland  Street  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"Rationale  of  Religious  Inquiry,"  (1839,)  "Endeavours 
after  the  Christian  Life,"  (1843,)  and  "Studies  of  Chris- 
tianity," (1858.)  Mr.  Martineau  occupies  a  prominent 
position  both  as  theologian  and  philosopher,  being  the 
representative  on  the  one  hand  of  Unitarianism  as  op- 
posed to  Trinitarian  orthodoxy,  and  on  the  other  of 
Theism  and  Spiritualism  as  opposed  to  the  materialistic 
tendencies  of  the  age. 

See  the  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1859. 

Martinelli,  maR-te-neKlee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian 
architect  and  painter,  born  at  Lucca  in  1650.  Among 
his  best  works  is  the  palace  of  Prince  Lichtenstein  at 
Vienna.    Died  in  171 8. 

Martinengo,  maR-te-n§n'go,  (Girolamo  Silvio,) 
Count,  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Venice  in  1753,  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost"  ("  II 
Paradiso  Perduto")  into  Italian  verse.    Died  in  1834. 

Martinengo,  (Tito  Prospero,)  a  learned  Ituiian 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Brescia,  published  a  nun  ber  of 
devotional  poems,  in  Latin  and  Greek.    Died  in  1595.  , 

Martinengo-Coleoni,  maR-te-n^n'go  ko-li-o'nee,l 
(Giovanni  Ettore,)  an  Italian  officer  and  diplomatist, 
born  at  Brescia  in  1754,  entered  the  French  service. 
Died  about  1830. 

Martinet,  mtR'te'ni',  a  French  officer,  who  lived 
about  1660-80  and  introduced  great  improvements  into 
military  tactics  and  the  organization  of  the  army. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Sifecle  de  Louis  XIV." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  hug;  i,  4,  <S,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, 1, 6,  ia,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


MARTINET 


1537  MARTINIERE 


Martinet,  mtR'te'ni',  (Jan  Florens,)  a  Dutch  divine 
and  writer,  born  about  1735,  was  pastor  of  the  Men- 
nonite  church  at  Zutphen.    Died  in  1796. 

Martinet,  (Louis  Achille,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  in  1806,  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1830.  He 
engraved  several  works  of  Raphael  and  other  old 
masters. 

Martinetti,  maR-te-net'tee,  (Giambattista,)  an  Ital- 
ian architect,  born  at  Bironico  in  1764  ;  died  in  1829. 

Martinez,  mar-tee'n^th,  (Domingo,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Seville  in  1690  ;  died  in  1 750. 

Martinez,  (Gregorio,)  a  Spanish  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Valladoiid,  worked  at  Madrid.  Among  his  best 
works  is  a  "  Holy  Family  with  Saint  Francis  d'Assisi." 
Died  about  1610. 

Martinez,  (Jos6,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Sara- 
gossa  in  1612,  became  painter  to  King  Philip  IV.  Died 
in  16S2. 

Martinez,  (Sebastian,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at 
Jaen  in  1602.  On  the  death  of  Velasquez  he  became 
first  painter  to  King  Philip  IV.  Among  his  master- 
pieces are  a  "  Nativity"  and  a  "Saint  Jerome."  Died 
in  1667. 

Martinez,  (Tom as,)  a  Spanish  painter,  was  a  native 
of  Seville.  He  imitated  successfully  the  style  of  Mu- 
rillo.  His  "  Mater  Dolorosa"  is  esteemed  a  master- 
piece.   Died  in  1734. 

Martinez  del  Barranco,  maR-tee'ngth  del  b^r-rSn'- 
ko,  (Bernardo,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Cuesta  in 
1738  ;  died  in  1791, 

Martinez  de  la  Plaza,  maR-tee'n§th  di  IS  plS'thS, 
(Litis,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Antequera  in  1585  ;  died 
in  1635. 

Martinez  de  la  Rosa,  maR-tee'ngth  di  IS  ro'sS, 
(Francisco,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  poet,  orator,  and 
statesman,  born  at  Granada  in  1789.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war  of  1808,  he  ably  defended  the  cause  of 
the  patriots  both  by  his  tongue  and  pen.  About  181 1 
he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  London,  where  he  published 
his  first  poem,  entitled  "Zaragoza."  After  his  return  to 
Spain  he  wrote  his  tragedy  "The  Widow  of  Padilla," 
("La  Viuda  de  Padilla,")  and  the  comedy  of  "The 
Consequences  of  Holding  Office,"  ("  Lo  que  puede  un 
Empleo,")  which  were  brought  out  on  the  stage  at  Cadiz 
while  that  city  was  besieged  by  the  French,  and  were 
received  with  enthusiasm.  In  1812  he  was  chosen  a 
deputy  to  the  Cortes.  On  the  restoration  of  Ferdinand, 
in  1814,  he  was  imprisoned  six  years  in  the  fortress  of 
Gomera,  on  the  African  coast.  In  1821  he  obtained  an 
office  in  the  ministry  ;  but,  being  accused  of  want  of  zeal 
by  the  Liberal  party,  he  retired  to  Paris.  Having  re- 
turned to  Spain,  he  became  prime  minister  in  1834,  and 
drew  up  the  "Estatuto  Real,"  granting  a  new  constitu- 
tion. He  was  obliged  to  resign  his  post  in  1836,  and 
resided  for  a  time  in  Paris  and  London.  In  185 1  he 
was  chosen  president  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  Among 
his  most  popular  productions  are  the  dramas  entitled 
"The  Conspiracy  of  Venice"  and  "CEdipus,"  "The 
Girl  at  Home  and  the  Mother  at  the  Masquerade,"  a 
comedy,  and  "El  Arte  poetica,"  a  didactic  poem.  He 
also  published  a  historical  work,  called  "  El  Espiritu  del 
Siglo,"  ("The  Spirit  of  the  Age,")  in  10  vols.,  and  the 
romance  of  "  Isabel  de  Solis."  Martinez  held  the  post 
of  perpetual  secretary  at  the  Spanish  Academy.  Died 
in  February,  1862. 

See  James  Kennedy,  "Modern  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Spain  ;" 
Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  Lomenie,  "  Galerie 
des  Contemporains  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1838. 

Martini,  maR-tee'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  preiate, 
born  at  Prato  in  1720,  was  created  Archbishop  of  Flor- 
ence in  1781.  He  published  an  Italian  translation  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  several  original  works. 
Died  in  1809. 

Martini,  maR-tee'nee,  (Cornelts,)  a  Belgian  writer 
on  logic  and  metaphysics,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1567; 
died  in  1621. 

Martini,  maR-tee'nee,  (Ferdinand  Heinrich  Wil- 
HELM,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Gotha 
in  1729.  Among  his  works  are  the  first  three  volumes 
of  a  "  Systematic  Cabinet  of  Shells,"  ("  Conchylien- 
Cabinet,"  10  vols.,  1768-88.)    Died  in  1778. 


Martini,  (Georg  Heinrich,)  a  German  archaeologist, 
born  in  Misnia  in  1722.  He  wrote  on  Greek  and  Roman 
antiquities.    Died  in  1794. 

Martini,  (Giambattista,)  an  eminent  Italian  musi- 
cian and  composer,  sometimes  called  Padre  Martini, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1706.  His  compositions  are  chiefly 
of  a  religious  character,  and  possess  great  merit ;  but  his 
reputation  rests  principally  on  his  "  History  of  Music" 
(3  vols.,  1757-81)  and  "Essay  on  Counterpoint,"  (1775.) 
He  has  been  styled  "the  most  profound  harmonist,  and 
the  best  acquainted  with  the  art  and  science  of  music,  in 
Italy."    Died  in  1784. 

See  Della  Valle,  "Memorie  storiche  intorno  alia  Vita  di  G.  B. 
Martini,"  1785;  P'etls,  "  liiographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Martini,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  musician,  a  native 
of  Milan,  visited  England,  where  he  was  patronized  by 
Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales.  He  was  an  excellent  per- 
former on  the  hautboy,  and  composed  a  number  of  con- 
certos and  sonatas,  which  are  greatly  admired.  Died 
in  1750. 

Martini,  (Jean  PaulEgidius,)  often  called  Martini 
IL  Tedesco,  ("the  German,")  a  German  musician  and 
composer,  whose  original  name  was  Schwartzendorf, 
born  at  Freistadt  in  1 741.  In  J767  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  the  Duke  of  Choiseul  and 
the  Prince  of  Conde.  He  brought  out  in  1 771  his  o])era 
of  "The  Lover  of  Fifteen,"  ("  L'Amoureux  de  quinze 
Ans,")  which  had  a  brilliant  success;  it  was  followed 
by  "  Henri  IV,"  "  Sapho,"  "  Annette  et  Lubin,"  and 
other  works  of  the  kind,  which  had  great  popularity. 
Martini  was  also  distinguished  for  his  improvements  in 
military  music.    Died  in  Paris  in  1816. 

See  F^TL'^,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Martini,  (Martino,)  a  Jesuit  missionary,  born  at 
Trent  in  1614,  visited  China,  and  published  after  his 
return  a  "  History  of  the  Tartar  War  in  China,"  ("  De 
Bello  Tartarico  in  Sinis,")  which  was  translated  into 
the  principal  European  languages ;  also  an  excellent 
map  of  China,  ("Atlas  Sinensis,")  and  a  "History  of 
China  previous  to  the  Christian  Era,"  (in  Latin.)  Died 
in  1661. 

Martini,  (Matthias,)  a  German  philologist,  born 
in  Waldeck  in  1572,  published  a  good  "Lexicon  Philo- 
logicum"  (1623)  of  the  Latin  language.    Died  in  1630. 

Martini,  (Vincenzo,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  composer, 
born  at  Valencia  in  1 754.  He  visited  Italy  and  Germany, 
where  his  operas  were  received  with  great  favour,  and  in 
1788  took  up  his  residence  at  Saint  Petersburg.  He  was 
appointed  director  of  the  Italian  Opera  in  that  city  by  the 
emperor  Paul  I.  Among  his  best  works  we  may  name 
"  Ipermnestra,"  "  L'accorta  Cameriera,"  ("The  Prudent 
Chambermaid,")  and  "La  Cosa  rara,"  from  which  Mo- 
zart borrowed  a  portion  of  his  "Don  Giovanni."  Died 
in  1810. 

See  F^Tis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Martini,  di,  de  mar-tee'nee,  or  Martino,  mar-tee'no, 
an  Italian  painter,  sometimes  called  SiMONE  DI  Mem- 
mi,  and  Simon  of  Sienna,  was  born  in  Sienna  about 
1280.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Giotto,  and  a  friend  of  Petrarch, 
for  whom  he  painted  a  portrait  of  Laura.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  the  frescos  in  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  Novella  at  Florence.  Petrarch  dedicated  two 
sonnets  to  Martini,  who  was  esteemed  one  of  the  greatest 
painters  of  his  time.    Died  in  1344. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Martiniere,  de  la,  deh  IS  mtR'te'ne-aiR',  (Antoine 
AuGUSTiN  Bruzen  —  bRii'zSN',)  a  FrelTch  writer,  born 
at  Dieppe  about  1680,  was  appointed  first  geographer 
to  Philip  v..  King  of  Spain.  His  works  are  numerous 
and  valuable.  Among  the  most  important  we  may  name 
"  The  Historical,  Geographical,  and  Critical  Dictionary," 
(10  vols.,  1726,)  and  a  "Life  of  Moliere."  Died  at  the 
Hague  about  1748. 

See  "Biographic  Universelle." 

Martiniere,  de  la,  (Pierre  Martin,)  a  French  phy- 
sician and  traveller,  born  at  Rouen,  accompanied  the 
expedition  sent  by  the  King  of  Denmark  to  the  Arctic 
regions  in  1653,  and  published,  after  his  return,  his  "  New 
Voyage  to  the  North,"  etc.,  (1671,) 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,    guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    ((J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

97 


MJRTINO  1538 


MAR  WAN 


Martino.    See  Martini,  (Simone.) 

Martinot,  m^R^te'n(/,  (Henri,)  a  French  mecha- 
nician, horn  in  Paris  in  1646,  was  patronized  by  Louis 
XIV.,  who  empl(jyed  him  to  make  the  clocks  for  Ver- 
sailles and  the  Trianon.    Died  in  1725. 

Martins,  mtR'tiN',  (Charles  Fr^d6ric,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  in  Paris  in  1806,  became  professor  of 
botany  at  Montpellier  in  1847.  He  published  several 
scientific  works,  among  which  we  may  name  his  treatise 
"On  Vegetable  Teratology,"  and  "Botanical  Journey  in 
Norway,"  ( 1841.) 

Martinus.    See  Martens  and  Marti. 

Mar-ti'nus  Po-lo'nus  or  Bo-he'mus,  a  Polish 
chronicler  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Troppau,  in  Silesia. 
He  became  chaplain  and  confessor  to  Pope  Clement  IV. 
and  several  of  his  successors,  and  was  appointed  in  1278 
Archbishop  of  Giiesen.  He  wrote  a  valuable  work, 
entitled  "Chronicon  de  Summis  Pontificibus,"  ("Chron- 
icle of  the  Popes.")    Died  in  1278. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires." 

Martirano,  maR-te-ra'no,  (Coriolano,)  an  Italian 
litterateur,  born  at  Cosenza,  was  Bishop  of  San  Marco, 
in  Calabria.  He  wrote  a  number  of  dramas.  Died  in 
1557. 

Martire,  (Pietro.)  .See  Peter  Martyr. 

Martins,  von,  fon  maRt'se-us,  (Karl  Frtedrtch 
Philipp,)  an  eminent  German  botanist,  born  at  Erlangen 
in  1794.  He  studied  medicine  in  his  native  city,  and  in 
181 7  joined  the  scientific  expedition  sent  by  the  Austrian 
and  Bavarian  governments  to  Brazil.  After  his  return 
he  published,  in  1824,  liis  "Brazilian  Travels,"  a  work 
very  attractive  in  its  style,  and  full  of  valuable  infor- 
mation concerning  the  natural  history  of  that  country. 
In  1832  he  brought  out  his  "Nova  Genera  et  Species 
Plantarum,"  (3  vols.,  with  coloured  plates,)  and  in  1845 
his  superb  "Genera  et  Species  Palmarum,"  being  a 
complete  description  of  the  palms,  (3  vols.,  with  219 
coloured  plates.)  Besides  the  above,  we  may  name  the 
"Flora  Brasiliensis,"  and  "The  Plants  and  Animals  of 
Tropica]  America,"  (1831.)  Von  Martius  was  appointed 
director  of  the  botanic  garden  at  Munich,  and  chosen 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  other 
institutions  of  the  kind.    Died  in  December,  1868. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1830. 

Martorelli,  maR-to-reKlee,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Naples  in  1699.  He  published  a  treat- 
ise "On  the  Ancient  Colonies  of  Naples,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1777. 

Martos,  mar'tos,  (Ivan  Petrovitch,)  a  Russian 
sculptor,  born  in  Little  Russia  about  1760.  Among  his 
best  works  are  the  mausoleum  of  the  emperor  Alexander 
at  Taganrog,  the  colossal  group  in  bronze  of  the  patriots 
Minin  and  Pozharsky  at  Moscow,  and  the  monument  of 
Potemkin  at  Cherson,  also  the  bas-relief  on  the  monu- 
ment of  the  grand  duchess  Helena  Paulovna.  Martos 
was  director  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Saint  Peters- 
burg.   Died  in  1835. 

See  Nagler,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Mar''tyn,  (Henry,)  an  able  English  lawyer  and  ex- 
cellent scholar,  known  as  a  contributor  to  the  "  Specta- 
tor." His  name  appears  in  No.  555  of  the  "  vSpectator" 
at  the  head  of  a  list  of  contributors  given  by  Steele,  who 
says,  "  He  can  hardly  be  mentioned  in  a  list  wherein  he 
would  not  deserve  the  precedence."  He  was  appointed 
inspector-general  of  imports  and  exports,  to  reward  him 
for  the  service  he  rendered  the  government  by  the 
publication  of  "The  British  Merchant,  or  Commerce 
Preserved,"  (about  1713.)    Died  in  1721. 

Martyn,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  English  missionary 
and  Orientalist,  born  at  Truro,  in  Cornwall,  in  1781.  He 
studied  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  attainments  in'the  classics, 
and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  college  in  1802.  Having 
become  acquainted  with  the  Rev.  Charles  Simeon  about 
this  time,  and  experienced  deep  religious  convictions,  he 
embarked  in  1805  as  a  missionary  for  India.  He  made 
rapid  progress  in  acquiring  the  language  of  the  country, 
and  was  soon  able  to  translate  the  New  Testament  into 
Hindostanee,  and  subsequently  into  Persian,  He  also 
made  a  Persian  translation  of  the  Psalms.  His  health 
at  length  gave  way  under  his  devoted  labours,  and  he 


died  at  Tokat,  in  Asia  Minor,  while  on  his  way  to  Eng- 
land, in  1812. 

See  Rev.  J.  Sargent,  "Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Henry  Martyn," 
1821  ;  J.  W.  Kave,  "  Lives  of  Indian  Officers,"  1867 ;  "  London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1821. 

Martyn,  (John,)  an  English  physician  and  botanist, 
born  in  London  in  1699.  He  was  elected  to  the  Royal 
Society  in  1727,  and  in  1733  became  professor  of  botany 
at  Cambridge.  His  "  History  of  Rare  Plants,"  (in  Latin, 
1728,)  illustrated  by  Van  Huysum,  was  the  best  work 
of  the  kind  then  published,  and  was  translated  into 
German.  Martyn  also  made  an  excellent  translation 
of  Virgil's  "Bucolics"  and  "  Georgics,"  and  was  a  con- 
tributor to  the  "  Grub  Street  Journal."  The  genus 
Martynia  was  named  in  his  honour.    Died  in  1768. 

See  GoRHAM,  "Memoirs  of  John  and  Thomas  Martyn,"  1830; 
CuviER,  "  Hlstoire  des  Sciences  naturelles."  , 

Martyn,  (Thomas,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Chelsea  in  1735.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  professor 
of  botany  at  Cambridge  in  1761.  He  wrote  several  bo- 
tanical works  and  miscellaiieous  treatises.  Died  in  1825. 

See  GoRHAM,  "Memoirs  of  John  and  Thomas  Martyn,"  1830. 

Martyn,  (William,)  an  English  writer,  born  at 
Exeter  in  1562,  was  the  author  of  the  "History  and  Lives 
of  the  Kings  of  England  from  William  the  Conqueror 
to  the  End  of  the  Reign  of  Henry  VIII."  Died  in  161 7. 

Martyr.    See  Justin  Martyr. 

Martyr,  (Peter.)    See  Peter  Martyr. 

Martyr,  (Peter.)    See  Anghiera. 

Marucelli,  ml-roo-cheKlee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
scholar  and  philanthropist,  born  at  Florence  in  1625, 
was  a  liberal  patron  of  learned  men.    Died  in  1713. 

Marucelli,  (Giovanni  Stefano,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  architect,  born  at  Umbria  in  1586  ;  died  in  1646. 

MaruUo,  mi-rooKlo,  (Michele  Tarcagnota — taR- 
k^n-yo'td,)  [Lat.  Marul'lus  Tarchanio'tes,]  a  modern 
Greek  scholar  and  poet,  born  at  Constantinople.  He 
was  the  author  of  numerous  Latin  hymns  and  epigrams 
of  great  elegance.    Died  in  1500. 

See  GiNGUEN^,  "  Histoire  de  la  I.itterature  Italienne." 

MaruUus.    See  Marullo. 

Ma-ruFhis,  (Marcus,)  a  Latin  satiric  poet  in  the  time 
of  Marcus  Aurelius.  His  style  is  commended  by  Saint 
Jerome.    There  is  only  a  fragment  of  his  works  extant. 

Marut  [Hindoo  pron.  mvir^oot]  or  M&rut,  m§,'root, 
a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "  wind,"  and  applied  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology  to  the  genii  (or  gods)  presiding  over 
the  winds.  In  the  Vedas  the  Maruts  are  often  ad- 
dressed as  the  attendants  and  allies  of  Indra,  and  are 
called  the  sons  of  Prisni,  (or  Pri9ni,)  or  the  Earth  ;  they 
are  also  called  Rudras,  or  the  sons  of  Rudra,  (rood'ra.) 

See  the  Introductions  to  the  several  volumes  of  Professor  Wil- 
son's translation  of  the  "Rig- Veda  ;"  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Ma-ru'tha  or  Maroutha,  ma-roo'tha.  Saint,  a  Syrian 
prelate,  became  Bishop  of  Martyropolis.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Saint  Chrysostom,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Council  of  Nice,"  and  other  works.  Died  about  420. 

Mar'vell,  (Andrew,)  an  eminent  English  patriot  and 
satirical  writer,  born  at  Kingston-upon-Hull  in  1620. 
Having  travelled  through  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Hol- 
land, where  he  acquired  the  languages  of  those  countries, 
he  was,  after  his  return  to  England,  appointed  assistant 
to  Milton,  then  Latin  secretary  to  Cromwell,  (1657.)  He 
was  first  elected  to  Parliament  in  1660,  and  in  this  office 
gave  such  entire  satisfaction  to  his  constituents  that  he 
continued  to  represent  them  till  his  death.  Marvell's 
wit  and  distinguished  abilities  rendered  him  formidable 
to  the  corrupt  administration  of  Charles  II.,  and  attempts 
were  made  to  win  him  over  by  the  offer  of  a  large  sum 
of  money,  which  he  promptly  refused,  thus  proving  his 
integrity  to  be  equal  to  his  talents.  As  a  writer  he  is 
chiefly  known  by  his  "  Rehearsal  Transposed,"  written 
in  answer  to  Dr.  Parker,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Oxford,  a 
fanatical  defender  of  absolute  power.    Died  in  1678. 

See  the  "Life  of  Andrew  Marvell,"  by  John  Dove  ;  Hartley 
Coleridge,  "Lives  of  Distino^uished  Northerns;"  Campbell, 
"Specimens  of  the  British  Poets:"  Disraeli,  "Quarrels  of  Au- 
thors;" "Retrospective  Review,"  vols.  x.  and  xi.,  (1824,  1825;) 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1844;  "Westminster  Review" 
for  January,  1833. 

Marville,  de,  (Vigneul.)    See  Argonne,  d'. 
Marw^n.    See  Merwan. 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, !,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MARX 


1539 


MART 


Marx,  maRks,  (Adolph  Bernhard,)  a  German  com- 
poser and  writer  on  music,  born  at  Halle  in  1799,  became 
professor  of  music  in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1830. 
Among  his  works  are  "  The  Theory  of  Musical  Compo- 
sition," (1837,)  and  "  General  Theory  of  Music,"  ("  Allge- 
meine  Musiklehre,"  1839.) 

Ma'ry,  daughter  of  Henr^-  VII.  of  England,  was  born 
in  1497.  She  became  in  15 14  the  third  wife  of  Louis 
XII.  of  France,  who  died  in  the  following  year.  A  few 
months  after  she  was  married  to  Charles  Brandon,  Duke 
of  Suffolk.  She  left  one  daughter,  named  Frances,  who 
was  the  mother  of  Lady  Jane  Grey.    Died  in  1534. 

Mary,  commonly  called  Bloody  Ql'Een  Mary,  on 
account  of  her  cruel  persecution  of  the  Protestants, 
daughter  of  Henr^'  VIII.  by  his  first  wife,  Catherine 
of  Aragon,  was  born  at  Greenwich  in  1516.  During  her 
childhood  several  negotiations  were  entered  into  for  her 
marriage,  none  of  which,  however,  were  carried  into 
effect.  After  the  divorce  of  Catherine,  the  title  of 
Princess  of  Wales  was  transferred  from  Mary  to  the 
princess  Elizabeth.  In  1536,  on  the  execution  of  Queen 
Anne,  Man,-  was  induced  to  acknowledge  Henry's  eccle- 
siastical supremacy  and  the  nullity  of  his  marriage  with 
her  mother.  Having,  by  her  outward  compliance  with 
her  father's  whims,  in  some  degree  gained  his  favour, 
the  inheritance  was  secured  to  her,  after  her  brother 
Edward  and  his  heirs,  in  the  act  of  succession  of  1544. 
When  Edward  succeeded  to  the  throne,  Mary  resisted  all 
his  entreaties,  and  those  of  his  ministers,  to  change  her 
religious  views,  upon  which,  by  the  advice  of  Northum- 
berland, he  made  over  the  crown  to  Lady  Jane  Grey. 
(See  Grey,  Lady  Jane.)  Mary's  first  act\vhen  estab- 
lished on  the  throne  was  to  restore  to  their  sees  Bonner, 
Gardiner,  and  other  bishops  who  had  been  deposed  during 
the  late  reign  ;  and  shortly  afterwards  Cranmer  and  Lati- 
mer were  committed  to  the  Tower.  These  measures  gave 
rise  to  an  insurrection  of  the  Protestants,  headed  by  Sir 
Thomas  Wyatt,  in  1554,  which,  being  soon  quelled,  was 
followed  by  the  execution  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  her  hus- 
band and  father,  and  of  Wyatt  himself.  In  July,  1554, 
Mary  was  married  to  the  son  of  Charles  V.,  afterwards 
Philip  II.  of  Spain.  In  the  November  following,  Par- 
liament passed  acts  restoring  the  authority  of  the  pope 
and  reviving  the  former  statutes  against  heresy.  From 
this  time  began  a  fierce  persecution  of  the  Protestants, 
and  it  is  estimated  that  two  hundred  and  eighty  victims 
died  at  the  stake  between  the  years  1555  and  1558. 
Among  the  most  eminent  of  these' martyrs  were  Bishops 
Latimer  of  Worcester  and  Ridley  of  London,  and  Cran- 
mer, Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  In  1557  Marv  was 
induced  to  assist  Philip  in  his  war  against  France,  and 
the  united  forces  of  England  and  Spain  obtained  a  victory 
over  the  French  at  Saint-Quentin.  But  the  following 
year  Calais  was  taken  by  the  Duke  of  Guise.  This 
was  a  severe  blow  to  Mary,  and  probably  hastened  her 
death,  which  took  place  in  November,  1558.  She  was 
succeeded  by  her  half-sister  Elizabeth, 

Without  defending  the  cruelties  with  which  Mary's 
reign  has  been  reproached,  the  candid  historian  will  find 
many  palliations  for  her  conduct  in  the  spirit  of  that  age, 
which  favoured  persecution,  in  the  injustice  with  which 
she  had  been  treated  by  her  father,  and  in  the  state  of 
her  health  during  that  part  of  her  reign  when  the  per- 
secutions were  at  their  height,  which  made  it  impossible 
for  her  to  know  the  true  state  of  affairs.  Froude,  who 
•will  hardly  be  suspected  of  any  bias  in  her  favour,  says, 
"To  the  time  of  her  accession  she  had  lived  a  blameless 
and,  in  many  respects,  a  noble  life  ;  and  few  men  or 
women  have  lived  less  capable  of  doing  knowingly  a 
wrong  thing."  He  adds  that  her  trials  and  disappoint- 
ments, "it  can  hardly  be  doubted,  affected  her  sanity." 
And  he  ends  with  laying  the  chief  blame  of  the  persecu- 
tions of  her  reign  first  on  Gardiner,  and  secondly,  and 
more  especially,  on  Cardinal  Pole. 

See  Froi:de,  "Histon'  of  England."  vol.  v.  chap,  xxviii.,  and 
the  whole  of  vol.  vi.  ;  Strickl.^nd.  "Queens  of  England;"  also, 
Hl'me's  and  Ling.ard's  "  Histor>'  of  England." 

Mary,  [Gr.  Mapk;  Lat.  Mari'a  ;  Fr.  Marie,  mt're'; 
It.  Maria,  mS-ree'i,]  Saint,  a  Hebrew  woman,  cele- 
brated as  the  mother  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  styled 
by  the  Roman  Catholics   the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary, 


(Beata  Virgo  Maria,)  also  the  Mother  of  God  and  Queen 
of  Heaven. 

See  Matthew  i. ;  Luke  i.  ;  John  i.  and  xix.  25;  Duvergier  de 
H.ALR.AKNE,  "Vie  de  la  sainte  Vierge,"  1664  ;  F.  W.  Genthe,  "  Die 
Jungfrau  Maria,"  etc,  1852;  Carlo  Massini,  "Vita  della  santissima 
Vergine  Maria,"  1830;  Orsini,  "La  Vierge:  Histoire  de  la  Mere 
de  Dieu,"  etc.,  1S37. 

Mary  of  Burgundy,  [  Fr.  Marie  de  Bourgogne, 
mt're'  deh  booR'gon'.J  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold 
and  Isabella  de  Bourbon,  was  born  at  Brussels  in  1457. 
On  the  death  of  her  father,  in  1477,  she  became  heiress 
of  Burgundy,  and  was  married  the  same  year  to  the 
archduke  Maximilian,  son  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany. 
She  died  in  14S2,  in  consequence  of  a  fall  from  her  horse. 
She  left  two  children,  Philip,  the  father  of  Charles  V., 
and  Margaret,  Duchess  of  vSavoy. 

See  Barante,  "  Histoire  des  Dues  de  Bourgogne  ;"  Gaillard, 
"Histoire  de  Marie  de  Bourgogne;"  Munch,  "Marie  von  Bur- 
gund,"  1S32. 

Mary  of  Guise,  (^weez,)  [Fr.  Marie  de  Guise, 
mt're'  deh  gii-ezM  or  Mary  of  Lorraine,  [Fr.  Marie 
DE  Lorraine,  mt're''  deh  lo^rai/,]  a  daughter  of  Claude, 
Duke  of  Guise,  born  in  15 15,  was  married  in  1534  to 
Louis  d'Orleans.  Duke  of  Longueville,  who  died  the 
following  year.  In  1538  she  was  married  ^to  James  V. 
of  Scotland,  and  after  his  death  became,  for  a  short  time, 
regent  of  the  kingdom.  She  is  described  by  the  histo- 
rian De  Thou  as  naturally  inclined  to  justice  and  tolera- 
tion, but  she  was  influenced  by  the  court  of  France  and 
her  brothers,  the  Duke  and  Cardinal  of  Guise.  She 
died  in  1560,  leaving  a  daughter  Mary,  afterwards  the 
celebrated  Queen  of  Scots. 

See  Burton-,  "  Histon.'  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iv.  chaps,  xxxvii.  and 
xx.xviii.  :  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sni  Temporis;"  Robertson,  "His- 
tory- of  Scot'and  ;"  Frocde,  "  History  of  England." 

Mary  Magdalene.  See  Magdalene. 
Mary  de'  Medici.  See  Marie  de  M6dicis. 
Mary  Stu'art,  Queen  of  Scots,  born  at  Linlithgow 
about  the  7th  of  December,  1542,  was  the  only  surviving 
child  of  James  V.  and  Mary  of  Guise,  (or  Lorraine,)  who 
was  a  daughter  of  the  French  Duke  of  Guise.  James 
V.  died  a  few  days  after  the  birth  of  Mary,  who  was 
crowned  in  September,  1543,  by  Cardinal  Beatoun.  This 
ambitious  and  unscrupulous  prelate,  who  was  the  head 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  party,  usurped  the  office  of  re- 
gent. A  treaty  having  been  negotiated  for  the  marriage 
of  Mary  with  the  Dauphin  of  France,  she  was  sent  to 
France  in  the  summer  of  154S  to  complete  her  education. 
Before  the  year  just  mentioned,  Scotland  had  been  in- 
volved in  a  war  against  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  who 
wished  to  obtain  the  hand  of  Mary  for  his  son  and  thus 
unite  the  two  countries  under  one  crown. 

Educated  at  the  polite  and  voluptuous  court  of  Paris, 
Mary  excelled  in  various  accomplishments,  and  at  an 
earlvage  became  mistress  of  the  Latin,  French,  and  Ital- 
ian languages.  About  the  age  of  fourteen  she  composed 
and  pronounced  before  Henry  II.  a  Latin  oration,  in 
which  she  maintained  that  it  is  becoming  for  women  to 
learn  literature  and  liberal  arts.  Her  rare  and  radiant 
personal  beauty,  her  intellectual  graces,  and  her  fasci- 

I  nating  manners  rendered  her  a  general  favourite  and  the 
chief  ornament  of  the  French  court.  "  Graceful  alike  in 
person  and  intellect,"  says  Froude,  "she  possessed  that 
peculiar  beauty  in  which  the  form  is  lost  in  the  expres- 
sion, and  which  every  painter,  therefore,  has  represented 
differently.  Rarely,  perhaps,  has  any  woman  combined 
so  many  noticeable  qualities  as  Mary  Stuart :  with  a 
feminine  insight  into  men  and  things  and  human  life, 
she  had  cultivated  herself  to  that  high  perfection  in 
which  accomplishments  were  no  longer  adventitious 

I  ornaments,  but  were  wrought  into  her  organic  constitu- 

j  tion.  .  .  .  She  had  vigour,  energy,  tenacity  of  purpose, 
with  perfect  and  never-failing  self-possession,  and,  as  the 

'  one  indispensable  foundation  for  the  effective  use  of  all 

'  other  qualities,  she  had  indomitable  courage."  ("  History 
of  England,"  vol.  vii.  chap,  iv.) 

In  April,  1558.  she  was  married  to  the  dauphin,  who 
on  the  death  of  his  father,  Henry  II.,  ascended  the 
throne  of  France,  as  Francis  II.,  in  1559.  On  the  death 
of  the  English  queen  Marv,  Francis  and  Mary  assumed 

I  the  titles  of  King  and  Queen  of  England,  refusing  to 
recognize  the  right  of  Elizabeth  to  the  throne.  The 

1  brilliant  prospects  of  Mary  were  suddenly  clouded  by 


€  as     c  as  /.•  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,gutiural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  tkit.    (2:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MARY 


1540 


MART 


the  death  of  Francis,  who  died,  without  issue,  in  De- 
cember, 1560.  One  great  obstacle  to  her  prosperity 
was  her  zealous  attachment  to  the  Roman  Catholic  re- 
ligion, which  was  rejected  or  abhorred  by  a  majority  of 
her  subjects.  The  Scottish  Estates  sent  Lord  James 
Stuart,  Mary's  half-brother,  to  invite  her  to  Scotland 
and  to  offer  her  the  free  exercise  of  her  religion.  Having 
resolved  to  return  to  her  native  land,  she  requested 
permission  to  pass  through  England  on  her  way  thither ; 
but  Elizabeth  would  not  grant  this  favour  to  a  rival 
claimant  of  her  crown.  Mary  was  thus  reduced  to  the 
alternative  of  a  voyage  by  sea,  with  the  risk  of  being 
captured  by  the  English  fleet.  She  embarked  in  August, 
1 561,  and  parted  with  regret  from  la  belle  France,  at 
which,  with  eyes  bathed  in  tears,  she  continued  to  gaze 
until  it  was  hidden  by  the  darkness.  After  a  passage  of 
four  days,  she  arrived  safely  at  Leith,  and  chose  for  her 
chief  advisers  Lord  James  Stuart  and  William  Maitland, 
of  Lethington,  both  Protestants.  She  made  friends  even 
among  the  Protestants,  but  failed  to  propitiate  John 
Knox,  with  whom  she  had  an  interview.  According  to 
Randolph,  he  made  her  weep  on  this  occasion. 

Soon  after  her  arrival  in  Scotland,  Mary  sent  Secretary 
Maitland  to  London  as  ambassador.  He  made  overtures 
of  peace  and  friendship,  requiring,  however,  as  an  indis- 
pensable condition,  that  Elizabeth  and  the  English  Par- 
liament should  recognize  Mary  as  her  successor  in  case 
the  former  should  die  without  issue.  On  this  condition 
Mary  promised  she  would  not  claim  the  English  crown 
during  the  life  of  Elizabeth.  "  Elizabeth,"  says  Froude, 
"refused  positively  to  name  Mary  Stuart  her  successor, 
knowing  that  she  would  be  signing  her  own  death- 
warrant."  These  words  suggest  the  probable  assassina- 
tion of  Elizabeth  by  the  partisans  of  her  rival.  Mary 
attempted  to  open  the  chapel  "  royal  for  public  Catholic 
service,  but  the  Protestant  mob  drove  away  the  priest 
with  a  broken  head,  and  the  queen  made  concession  to 
the  popular  will  by  ordering  that  the  service  should  be 
performed  privately.  In  1562  Mary  wrote  a  letter  to 
Elizabeth,  and  expressed  a  great  desire  to  have  an  inter- 
view with  her.  Several  courteously-worded  letters  were 
exchanged  by  them,  and  their  correspondence  grew  more 
and  more  cordial  ;  but  a  serious  difference  arose  on  the 
choice  of  a  husband  for  Mary.  Elizabeth  objected  to 
her  proposed  marriage  with  Don  Carlos  of  Spain,  and 
suggested  Lord  Robert  Dudley,  her  own  favourite;  but 
Mary  preferred  her  cousin  Henry  Stuart,  Lord  Darnley, 
(a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Lennox,)  whom  she  married  on 
the  29th  of  July,  1565,  By  this  act  she  provoked  the 
violent  hostility  of  the  English  queen,  and  estranged 
from  her  support  her  half-brother,  James  Stuart,  Earl 
of  Murray,  the  ablest  Scottish  statesman  of  his  time. 
"  Her  gentle  administration,"  says  Robertson,  "  had 
secured  the  hearts  of  her  subjects,  who  were  impatient 
for  her  marriage  and  wished  the  crown  to  descend 
in  a  right  line  from  their  ancient  monarchs.  She 
herself  was  the  most  amiable  woman  of  her  age.  .  .  . 
No  event  in  that  age  excited  stronger  political  fears  and 
jealousies,  none  interested  more  deeply  the  passions 
of  several  princes,  than  the  marriage  of  the  Scottish 
queen."  ("  History  of  Scotland.")  Mary  made  an  un- 
wise choice  at  last ;  for  the  character  of  Darnley  was  at 
once  weak,  capricious,  and  obstinate.  She  gave  him 
the  title  of  king,  by  a  stretch  of  her  prerogative  which, 
according  to  Robertson,  was  a  strong  proof  of  the  vio- 
lence of  her  love  or  the  weakness  of  her  counsels.  In- 
stigated by  Queen  Elizabeth,  the  Scottish  malcontents, 
including  the  Earl  of  Murray,  took  arms  against  Mary 
in  August,  1565  ;  but  this  revolt  was  quickly  suppressed 
by  the  queen,  who  rode  on  horseback  at  the  head  of  her 
army,  and  the  leaders  of  the  insurgents  took  refuge  in 
England.  Elizabeth  disclaimed  all  responsibility  for  their 
conduct,  and  expressed  her  abhorrence  of  their  treason. 

In  1566  Mary  Stuart  joined  the  King  of  France,  the 
pope,  and  others,  in  a  Catholic  league  for  the  extirpation 
of  heresy,  and  began  to  attempt  the  restoration  of  popery 
in  Scotland.  "  To  this  fatal  resolution,"  says  Robertson, 
"  maybe  imputed  all  the  subsequent  calamities  of  Mary's 
life."  She  took  into  her  confidence  and  favour  David 
Rizzio,  (or  Ritzio,)  an  Italian  musician,  who  became  her 
French  secretary  and  inseparable  companion,  even  in 


the  council-room.  "  He  had  the  control,"  says  Froude, 
"of  all  the  business  of  the  state."  Mary  soon  repented 
of  her  union  with  the  insolent  and  dissolute  Lord  Darn- 
ley, who  treated  her  with  rudeness  and  neglect  and 
became  jealous  of  Rizzio,  whom  he  resolved  to  remove 
by  violence.  Rizzio  was  dragged  from  the  queen's  pres- 
ence by  the  accomplices  of  Darnley,  and  killed,  in  March, 
1566.  This  act  was  the  result  of  a  plot  in  which  the 
Earl  of  Morton,  Ruthven,  Maitland,  and  other  Protestants 
united  for  political  reasons.  Deserted  and  betrayed  by 
Darnley,  they  failed  to  recover  power,  and  fled  to  Eng- 
land. Although  Mary  deeply  resented  the  conduct  of  her 
husband,  she  plied  him  with  caresses  and  gained  him  over 
to  her  interest.  About  this  time  a  new  favourite  acquired 
an  ascendant  over  her  heart  and  began  to  influence  her 
counsels.  This  was  James  Hepburn,  Earl  of  Bothwell, 
a  man  of  some  ability,  but  unscrupulous  and  reckless  to 
the  last  degree.  In  June,  1566,  occurred  an  event  which 
apparently  tended  to  confirm  the  power  and  promote 
the  interest  of  Queen  Mary, — the  birth  of  her  son  James. 
In  January,  1 567,  Darnley  was  attacked  with  a  severe 
illness  at  Glasgow,  where  Mary  visited  him,  and,  having 
employed  her  artifices  to  gain  his  confidence,  persuaded 
him  to  be  removed  to  the  vicinity  of  Edinburgh.  He 
was  lodged  in  a  detached  house  at  Kirk-a-Field,  very 
near  the  capital.  Mary  attended  her  husband  assidu- 
ously, and  slept  two  nights  in  the  house  at  Kirk-a-Field, 
which  she  left  on  the  9th  of  February  at  ii  p.m.  About 
three  hours  later  the  house  was  blown  up  by  gunpowder, 
and  Darnley  was  found  dead  in  the  garden.  Suspicion 
fell  on  Bothwell  as  the  chief  perpetrator  of  this  crime, 
and  on  Mary  as  an  accessary.  She  outraged  public  sen- 
timent so  far  that  she  not  only  screened  Bothwell  from  a 
fair  trial,  but  married  him  in  May,  1567.  Robertson  and 
Froude  agree  in  the  opinion  that  Mary  was  responsible 
for  the  death  of  Darnley. 

Impelled  by  a  just  and  burning  indignation,  the  Scottish 
lords  and  people,  both  Protestant  and  Catholic,  rose  in 
arms  against  Mary  and  Bothwell,  who,  in  June,  1567, 
met  them  at  Carberry  Hill  with  a  small  army.  The 
troops  of  the  queen,  however,  refused  to  fight,  and  she 
was  compelled  to  surrender  herself  to  her  adversaries, 
who  confined  her  on  a  little  island  in  Loch  Leven.  Queen 
Elizabeth  now  interposed  in  favour  of  Mary,  thinking 
the  treatment  she  received  a  dangerous  example,  and  de- 
manded her  release, — without  effect.  The  captive  queen 
abdicated  in  favour  of  her  son,  and  the  Earl  of  Murray 
became  regent,  (July,  1567.)  Letters  which  Mary  had 
written  to  Bothwell  were  produced  in  the  Scottish  Par- 
liament, by  which  she  was  declared  to  be  accessory  to 
the  murder  of  the  king.  By  the  aid  of  George  Douglas, 
a  youth  of  eighteen,  she  escaped  from  prison  in  May, 
1568,  and  was  quickly  joined  by  an  army  of  six  thousand 
men,  which  Regent  Murray  routed  at  Langside  on  the 
13th  of  May.  Mary  fled  to  England,  and  rashly  threw 
herself  on  the  generosity  of  her  rival,  who  refused  to 
admit  her  into  her  presence  because  she  was  not  yet 
cleared  from  the  charge  of  murder.  Treated  as  a  pris- 
oner, Mary  was  confined  at  Bolton  Castle,  Coventry,  and 
Fotheringay.  She  had  many  adherents  in  England,  who 
made  several  attempts  against  the  power  and  life  of 
Elizabeth.  In  1586  she  was  accused  of  complicity  in 
Babington's  conspiracy,  for  which  she  was  tried  by  a 
commission,  and  condemned  without  proof.  She  was  be- 
headed at  Fotheringay  Castle  on  the  8th  of  February,  1587. 

"All  contemporary  authors,"  says  Robertson,  "agree 
in  ascribing  to  Mary  the  utmost  beauty  of  countenance 
and  elegance  of  shape  of  which  the  human  form  is  ca- 
pable. Her  hair  was  black,  her  eyes  were  a  dark  gray, 
her  complexion  was  exquisitely  fine,  and  her  hands  and 
arms  remarkably  delicate  both  as  to  shape  and  colour. 
Her  stature  was  of.  a  height  that  rose  to  the  majestic."  j 

See  Burton,  "  Histoiy  of  Scotland ;"  Froude,  "  History  of 
England  :"  Robertson,  "  History  of  Scotland  ;"  Tytler,  "  His- 
tory of  Scotland  ;"  Hume,  "  History  of  England  ;"  Samuel  Jebb, 
"Life  of  Mary  Stuart,"  1725;  Chalmers,  "Life  of  Mary,  Queen 
of  Scots,"  1818:  Miss  Benger,  "Life  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots," 
1823;  Bell,  "  Life  of  Mary  Stuart,"  1831  ;  Buckingham,  "  Life  of 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,"  1844  ;  De  Marsv,  "  Vie  de  Mane  Stuart," 
3  vols.,  1743:  Gentz,  "Marie  Stuart's  Leben,"  1799;  Schuetz, 
"  Leben  Marie  Stuart's,"  1839  :  Mignet,  "  Histoirede  Mane  Stuart." 
2  vols.,  1854;  Dargaud,  "  Histoire  de  Marie  Stuart,"  2  vols.,  1850; 
Strickland,  "Lives  of  the  Queens  of  Scotland,"  8  vols.,  1854; 
Labanoff,  "RecueildesLettres  de  Marie  Stuart,"  7  vols.,  1844. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MARZARI 


MASERS 


Marzari - Peucati,  maRd-zS'ree  p§n-ki'tee,  (Giu- 
seppe,) Count,  an  Italian  mineralogist,  born  at  Vicenza 
in  1777,  discovered  in  1810  the  mine  of  fossil  coal  at 
Borgo  di  Valsugna.  He  invented  an  instrument  for 
measuring  angles,  called  "  Tachigonimetro."  Died  in 
1836. 

Masaccio  Guidi  da  San  Giovanni,  mi-sat'cho 
goo-ee'dee  dS  sin  jo-vSn'nee,  (Tommaso,)  an  eminent 
Italian  painter  of  the  Florentine  school,  born  near 
Florence  in  1401,  ranks  first  among  the  artists  of  the 
second  or  middle  age  of  modern  painting.  His  works 
were  studied  by  Raphael,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Leonardo 
da  Vinci.  His  figures  are  characterized  by  great  anima- 
tion and  fidelity  to  nature  and  graceful  arrangement  of 
the  draperies.  He  also  excelled  in  perspective,  which 
he  learned  under  Brunelleschi.  *'  Masaccio,"  says  Fuseli, 
"  was  a  genius,  and  the  head  of  an  epoch  in  the  art.  He 
may  be  considered  as  the  precursor  of  Raphael,  who 
imitated  his  principles  and  sometimes  transcribed  his 
figures."  Among  his  most  admired  works  are  the  frescos 
of  San  Pietro  del  Carmine  at  Florence,  and  the  picture 
of  "  Christ  Curing  the  Demoniacs."  Masaccio  died  in 
1443,  and  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  poisoned. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  Me- 
moirs of  Early  Italian  Painters." 

Masaniello,  ml-si-ne-el'lo,  or  Tommaso  Aniello, 
born  at  Amalfi,  in  Italy,  in  1622,  was  the  son  of  a  fisher- 
man, and  in  1647  became  leader  of  a  revolt  against  the 
Duke  of  Arcos,  Spanish  Viceroy  of  Naples.  At  the  head 
of  50,000  insurgents,  he  compelled  the  duke  to  abolish 
a  tax  which  he  had  imposed,  and  also  to  give  up  the 
charter  of  exemption  granted  to  Naples  by  Charles  V. 
The  intoxication  produced  by  this  sudden  change  of 
fortune  seems  to  have  affected  the  reason  of  Masaniello, 
and,  having  by  his  conduct  alienated  his  friends,  he 
was  soon  after  assassinated  by  the  adherents  of  the 
viceroy. 

See  "  History  of  the  Rise  and  Fall  of  Masaniello,"  by  Francis 
MiDON,  London,  1729;  A.  Giraffo,  "  Rivohizioni  di  Napoli,"  1647  ; 
Meissner,  "Masaniello;  historisches  Pjrnchstiick,"  1785;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  Au- 
gust, 1829. 

Mascagni,  mis-kan'yee,  (Donato,)  an  Italian  monk 
and  painter,  called  Fra  Arsenio,  born  at  Florence  in 
1579  ;  died  in  1636. 

Mascagni,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  anatomist,  born  near 
Sienna  in  1 752.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  in 
the  University  of  Sienna  in  1774.  He  wrote  an  admi- 
rable work  entitled  "  History  and  Iconography  of  the 
Lymphatic  Vessels  of  the  Human  Body,"  an  outline 
of  which  had  previously  obtained  the  prize  offered 
by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris.  In  1801  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  anatomy,  chemistry,  and  physi- 
ology at  the  hospital  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova  at  Florence. 
Among  his  works  is  "Anatomia  universa."  Died  in 
1815. 

See  G.  Sarchiani,  "  Elogio  del  P.  Mascagni,"  1816;  Tipaldo, 
"Biografiadegli  Italian!  illustri ;"  Desgenettes,  article  in  the  "Bio- 
graphie  Medicale." 

Mascardi,  nias-kaRMee,(AGOSTiNO,)an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Sarzana  in  1591.  He  was  appointed  by  Pope 
Urban  VHI.  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  College  della 
Sapienza  at  Rome,  (1628.)  He  published,  among  other 
works,  "  Five  Treatises  on  the  Art  of  Writing  History." 
Died  in  1640. 

See  TiRABoscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Mascardi,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastic  and 
writer  on  jurisprudence,  born  at  Sarzana,  near  Genoa, 
was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1588. 

Mascaron,  mts'kt'r6N',  (Jules,)  an  eminent  French 
prelate  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Aix  in  1634.  He 
acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his  funeral  oration  on 
Anne  of  Austria,  (1666,)  and  was  soon  after  appointed 
preacher-in-ordinary  to  Louis  XIV,  He  was  created 
Bishop  of  Tul'e  in  1671,  and  of  Agen  in  1679.  He  is 
said  to  have  converted  many  Calvinists  in  the  latter  dio- 
cese to  Catholicism.  He  died  in  1703,  leaving  all  his 
property  to  the  poor,  to  whom  his  virtues  had  greatly 
endeared  him.  A  volume  of  his  "  Funeral  Orations" 
was  published  in  1704.  That  on  Marshal  Turenne  is 
eulogized  by  La  Harpe  as  a  master-piece. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


Masch,  mish,  (Andreas  Gottlieb,)  a  German 
writer  and  theologian,  born  in  Mecklenburg  in  1724. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Contributions 
towards  the  History  of  Remarkable  Books,"  (1769,)  and 
an  excellent  edition  of  Lelong's  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra." 
Died  in  1807. 

Mascheroni,  mSs-ki-ro'nee,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  born  near  Bergamo  in  1750.  He  became 
professor  of  Greek  at  Pavia,  and  subsequently  of  geoin- 
etry  at  Bergamo.  On  the  invasion  of  Italy  by  the  F  rench, 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  legislative  body  in  the 
Cisalpine  Republic.  He  published  "  Researches  on  the 
Equilibrium  of  Vaults,"  (1785,)  and  other  mathematical 
treatises  of  a  high  character,  also  a  curious  work  called 
"The  Geometry  of  the  Compass,"  (1797,)  and  a  number 
of  poems.    Died  in  Paris  in  1800. 

See  Savioli,  "Memorie  alia  Vita  dell'Abate  L.  Mascheroni," 
1801  :  G.  Mangili,  "  Elogio  storicodi  L.  Mascheroni,"  i8og;  Mc;n- 
TUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Masclef,  mts'kllf,  (Franqois,)  a  French  Orientalist, 
born  at  Amiens  in  1662.  He  published  a  "Hebrew 
Grammar,"  ("  Grammatica  Hebraica,")  in  which  he  op- 
poses the  use  of  vowel-points.  It  is  regarded  as  one  ot 
the  best  works  of  the  kind.    Died  in  1728. 

See  Querard,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Mascov,  mSs'kof,  (Gottfried,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  at  Dantzic  in  1698.  He  lectured  at  Gottingen,  and 
published  several  works.    Died  in  1760. 

Mascov,  [Lat.  Masco'vius,]  (Johann  Jacob,)  a 
German  jurist  and  historian,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1689, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  became  professor 
of  law  at  Leipsic  in  17 19,  and  was  the  author  of  a 
treatise  "On  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Public  Law," 
and  other  legal  works,  in  Latin.  He  also  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Germany  to  the  Commencement  of  the 
Franconian  Monarchy,"  (unfinished.)    Died  in  1761. 

See  "Memoria  J.  J.  Mascovii,"  Leipsic,  1761. 

Mascovius.    See  Mascov. 

Mascrier,  Le,  leh  mts'kRe-i',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Caen  in  1697.  assisted 
in  the  translation  of  De  Thou's  "Universal  History," 
and  published  several  original  works.    Died  in  1760. 

Masdeu,  misMS-oo,  (Juan  Francisco,)  a  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  historian,  was  born  at  Barcelona  in  1740.  He 
wrote  a  "Critical  History  of  Spain  and  of  Spanish  Cul- 
ture in  every  Department,"  (20  vols.,  1783-1800,)  which 
has  a  high  reputation  for  learning  and  accuracy.  Died 
in  1817. 

Masen.    See  Masenius. 

Masenius,  ml-sa'ne-us,  or  Masen,  mi'sen,  (James,) 
a  Flemish  writer,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Juliers  in  1606. 
He  became  professor  of  eloquence  in  the  college  of 
Cologne,  and  was  the  author  of  a  Latin  poem  entitled 
"Sarcotis,"  or  ,"  Sarcothea,"  which,  it  is  pretended  by 
Lauder,  suggested  to  Milton  the  idea  of  "  Paradise 
Lost."    Died  in  1681. 

Maseres  or  Mazeres,  mt'zaiR',  (Francis,)  Baron, 
a  distinguished  mathematician,  of  French  extraction, 
born  in  London  in  1731.  He  was  for  a  time  attorney- 
general  for  Canada,  and  in  1773  was  appointed  cursitor- 
baron  of  the  exchequer.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Dis- 
sertation on  the  Use  of  the  Negative  Sign  in  Algebra," 
and  other  similar  works,  and  reprinted  at  his  own  ex- 
pense a  collection  of  the  writings  of  Kepler  and  other 
mathematicians,  also  one  containing  the  optical  works 
of  Descartes,  Huyghens,  Gregory,  and  Halley.  The 
latter  was  completed  by  Mr.  Bal)bage.  He  was  recorder 
of  the  city  of  London  for  about  forty  years.  Died  in 
1824. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1824. 

Masers  de  Latude,  mt'zaiR'  deh  It'tlid',  (Henri,) 
was  born  in  Languedoc  in  1725.  Having  given  offence 
to  Madame  de  Pompadour,  he  was  by  her  orders  im- 
prisoned in  the  Bastille.  After  remaining  captive  nearly 
three  years,  he  effected  his  escape,  (1756,)  with  the  assist- 
ance of  a  fellow-prisoner  and  by  means  of  the  most 
persevering  toil.  He  was  soon  arrested,  with  his  com- 
panion, D'Alegre,  and,  after  suffering  an  imprisonment 
of  thirty  years,  was  at  length  released,  by  the  efforts 
of  Madame  Legros,  who  interested  Cardinal  Rohan, 


«  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2l^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MASHAM 


1542 


MASON 


Madame  Necker,  and  others,  in  his  behalf.  His  "Me- 
moirs" were  published  by  M.  Thierry.    Died  in  1805. 

See  Thiekrv,  "  Le  Despotisme  devoile,  ou  Memoires  de  La- 
tiide,"  3  vols.,  1792. 

Mash'am,  (Abigail  Hill,)  born  in  London  about 
1670,  was  a  cousin  of  the  celebrated  Duchess  of  Marlbo- 
rough, upon  whose  recommendation  she  became  waiting- 
maid  to  the  princess,  afterwards  Queen  Anne.  She 
continued  in  this  post  after  Anne  ascended  the  throne, 
and  by  her  arts  supplanted  the  Duchess  of  Marlborough 
in  the  royal  favour.  She  was  married  in  1 707  to  Mr. 
Mashani,  who  was  made  a  peer  in  1711.  It  appears 
that  her  influence  raised  Harley  and  the  Tories  to  power 
in  1 7 10,  deprived  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  of  the  com- 
mand of  the  army,  (1712,)  and  made  important  changes 
in  the  politics  of  Europe.  In  allusion  to  her  intrigues, 
Macaulay  says,  "The  great  party  which  had  long  swayed 
the  destinies  of  Europe  was  undermined  by  bedchamber- 
women."    Died  in  1734. 

See  Macaulay's  Review  of  Lord  Mahon's  "  Histoiy  of  the 
War  of  the  Succession." 

Masham,  (Lady  Da  maris,)  the  daughter  of  Dr. 
Ralph  Cudworth,  born  at  Cambridge,  England,  in  1658, 
was  married  to  Sir  Francis  Masham,  of  Essex.  She  was 
distinguished  for  her  piety  and  for  her  attainments  in 
history,  philosophy,  and  divinity.  She  was  a  friend  and 
pupil  of  the  celebrated  Locke,  who  died  at  her  house, 
having  resided  there  for  some  time.  Lady  Masham 
wrote  several  religious  treatises.    Died  in  1708. 

See  Lord  King,  "Life  of  Locke." 

Mas-i-nis'sa,  [Gr.  M.aoaavaaarjc,']  King  of  Numidia, 
the  son  of  Gula,  who  reigned  in  Massylia,  was  born  about 
250  B.C.  In  the  second  Punic  war  he  fought  at  first  for 
the  Carthaginians  in  Spain,  but,  having  been  generously 
treated  by  Scipio  Africanus,  he  became  a  zealous  and 
faithful  ally  of  the  Romans.  He  waged  war  with  Syphax, 
a  Numidian  prince,  and  was  defeated  by  him  twice.  The 
Romans  under  Scipio  came  to  his  assistance,  and  in  203 
the  allies  gained  a  decisive  victory.  Among  the  captive^s 
was  the  charming  Sophonisba,  a  Carthaginian  lady, 
whom  Masinissa  married.  Being  sternly  reproved  by 
Scipio  for  this  impolitic  act,  he  sent  her  a  cup  of  poison, 
which  she  drank,  it  is  said,  with  heroic  spirit.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  victory  of  the  Romans  at  the  battle  of 
Zama,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  kingdom  of  Numidia. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  wise  ruler  and  to  have  done 
much  to  civilize  his  subjects.  He  died  about  the  age  of 
ninety-seven,  leaving  the  kingdom,  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  Scipio  ^milianus,  to  his  three  sons,  Micipsa, 
Gulussa,  and  Mastanabal. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "Lectures  on  Roman  History,"  vol.  i.  ;  Livv, 
"History  of  Rome,"  books  xxiv.-xxx. ;  Sallust,  "Jugurtha;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Masius.    See  Maes,  (Andreas.) 

Mas'ke-lyne,  (Nevil,)  an  English  astronomer  of 
great  merit,  born  in  London  in  1732.  He  was  sent  to 
Saint  Helena  in  1761  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus, 
in  which  enterprise  he  failed  because  the  sun  was  ob- 
scured by  clouds.  In  1765  he  succeeded  Mr.  Bliss  as 
astronomer  royal.  He  originated  the  "Nautical  Alma- 
nack," (1767,)  and  superintended  its  publication  till  his 
death.  It  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  Europe,  and  was 
styled  by  Lalande  "the  most  perfect  Ephemeris  that 
had  ever  been  made."  For  forty-seven  years  Maskelyne 
made  exact  observations  of  the  sky  at  Greenwich,  and 
was  the  first  to  give  a  standard  catalogue  of  stars,  (1790.) 
In  1772  he  visited  Scotland,  in  order  to  ascertain  the 
density  of  the  earth  by  observing  the  effect  of  the  moun- 
tain Schehallien  upon  the  plumb-line.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  astronomical  treatises  in  the  "  Philosophical 
Transactions,"  and  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  was  also  a  foreign  associate  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences in  Paris.    Died  in  1811. 

See  Dklambre,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  N.  Maskelyne,"  1813; 
Rees,  "Cyclopedia;"  Dei.ambre,  "  Hlstoire  de  I'Astronomie  au 
dix-huitieme  Siecle  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1786. 

Mas-Latrie,  de,  deh  mi'lt'tRe',  (Jacques  Marie 
JosEiMi  Louis,)  a  French  archaeologist  and  historical 
writer,  born  at  Castelnaudary  in  1815.  He  published  a 
"Historic  Chronology  of  the  Popes,  General  Councils," 
etc.,  (1837,)  "History  of  the  Isle  of  Cyprus  under  the 


Rule  of  the  Princes  of  the  House  of  Lusignan,"  (1852,) 
and  other  works. 

Maso.    See  Finiguerra. 

Maso  da  San  Friano.    See  Manzuoll 

Ma'spn,  (Armistead  Thom.son,)  a  son  of  Stevens 
T.  Mason,  (i  760-1803,)  was  born  in  Loudon  county, 
Virginia,  in  1787.  He  was  chosen  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  by  the  Democrats  in  181 5,  and  was  killed 
in  a  duel  by  J.  M.  McCarty  in  1819. 

Ma'son,  (Charles,)  an  English  astronomer,  who 
assisted  Dr.  Bradley  in  the  Royal  Observatory  at  Green- 
wich. He  published  an  improved  edition  of  Mayer's 
"Lunar  Tables,"  and,  in  company  with  Mr.  Dixon,' was 
sent  to  America  to  determine  the  limits  of  Maryland  and 
Pennsylvania.  They  measured  a  degree  of  the  meridian, 
and  in  1768  Dr.  Maskelyne  published  an  account  of  their 
operations  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  for  that 
year.    Died  in  1787. 

Mason,  (Francis,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Durham  in  1566,  became  Archdeacon  of  Norwich.  He 
published  a  "Defence  of  ihe  Anglican  Church,"  ("  Vin- 
diciae  Ecclesias  Anglicanae.")    Died  in  1621. 

Mason,  (Francis,)  D.D.,  a  learned  Baptist  divine  and 
missionary,  born  at  York,  England,  in  1799.  Having 
emigrated  to  America,  he  studied  theology  at  Newton, 
Massachusetts,  and  sailed  for  India  in  1830.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Memoir  of  Mrs.  Helen  M.  Mason,"  (1847,) 
"  Burmah,  its  People  and  Natural  Productions,"  (1852,) 
"  Life  of  Kotha-byn,  the  Karen  Apostle,"  a  translation 
of  the  Bible  into  the  Karen  language,  (1853,)  and  other 
works.  He  was  also  editor  of  a  Karen  journal,  entitled 
"The  Morning  Star." 

Mason,  (George,)  Colonel,  an  English  statesman 
and  soldier  under  the  reigns  of  Charles  I.  and  Charles 
II.,  emigrated  to  America  about  1654,  and  settled  in 
Virginia. 

Mason,  (George,)  an  American  statesman,  a  de- 
scendant of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Stafford  county, 
now  Fairfax  county,  Virginia,  in  1726.  He  wrote  the 
Declaration  of  Rights  and  the  Constitution  of  Virginia, 
(1776,)  after  which  he  served  in  the  legislature.  In  1777 
he  was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress.  He  was 
reputed  one  of  the  ablest  debaters  that  Virginia  ever 
produced.  He  was  a  member  of  the  national  convention 
which  framed  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  but 
he  refused  to  sign  that  Constitution,  and  vehemently 
opposed  its  adoption  in  the  Virginia  Assembly,  for  the 
alleged  reason  that  it  tended  to  monarchy.  He  was 
highly  eulogized  by  Jefferson.    Died  in  1792. 

Mason,  (George,)  an  English  litterateur,  who  wrote 
a  "  Life  of  Lord  Howe,"  an  "Answer  to  Thomas  Paine," 
and  an  "Essay  on  Designs  in  Gardening."  Died  in  1806. 

Mason,  (James,)  a  distinguished  English  engraver, 
born  about  1710,  executed  a  number  of  landscapes  after 
Claude  Lorrain,  G.  Poussin,  Hobbema,  and  other  artists. 
Died  about  1780. 

Mason,  (James  Murray,)  an  American  Democratic 
politician,  born  in  Fairfax  county,  Virginia,  about  1798. 
He  became  a  member  of  Congress  in  1837,  and  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  legisla- 
ture of  Virginia  in  1847.  He  continued  to  be  a  member 
of  the  Senate  for  fourteen  years,  and  was  the  author  of 
the  fugitive-slave  law  of  1850.  He  was  sent  with  J. 
Slidell  on  a  mission  to  England  by  Jefferson  Davis  in 
1861.  During  the  passage  in  the  steamer  Trent  they 
were  seized  by  Captain  Wilkes,  of  the  Federal  navy,  in 
November,  1861.  They  were  claimed  by  the  British 
government,  and  were  liberated  in  January,  1862,  after 
which  Mr.  Mason  passed  several  years  in  England, 
remaining  abroad  during  the  civil  war.    Died  in  1871. 

Mason,  (Jeremiah,)  an  American  statesman  and 
lawyer  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Lebanon,  Connecticut, 
in  April,  1768,  graduated  at  Yale  College.  He  practised 
law  many  years  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  to 
which  he  removed  in  1797.  He  was  a  Federalist,  and 
a  friend  of  Daniel  Webster,  who  expressed  a  very  high 
opinion  of  him.  He  represented  New  Hampshire  in  the 
Senate  of  the  United  States  from  1813  to  181 7.  In  1832 
he  removed  to  Boston,  where  he  died  in  October,  1848. 
He  was  considered  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  cen- 
tury to  be  the  foremost  lawyer  in  New  England. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  \  hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  nuxjn; 


MASON 


1543 


MASSJSSOIT 


Mason,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  statesman,  born  at 
Abingdon  in  1500.  He  was  privy  councillor  in  the  reigns 
of  Henry  VIH.,  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth.  Died 
in  1566. 

Mason,  (John,)  a  native  of  England,  born  in  1600, 
emigrated  to  America,  where  he  became  Deputy  Gov- 
ernor of  Connecticut.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "History 
of  the  Pequot  War."    Died  in  1672. 

See  G.  E.  Ellis,  "  Life  of  John  Mason,"  in  Sparks's  "Amer- 
ican Biography,"  vol.  iii.,  2d  series. 

Mason,  (John,)  an  English  divine  and  religious  writer, 
born  in  Essex  in  1706,  was  the  author  of  a  popular  work, 
entitled  "Self-Knowledge,"  (1745,)  which  was  translated 
into  several  languages.    Died  in  1763. 

Mason,  (John  Mitchell,)  a  celebrated  American 
theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  New  York  in  1770. 
He  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1789,  and  subse- 
quently finished  his  theological  studies  in  Edinburgh. 
In  1 793  he  succeeded  his  father  as  pastor  of  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Cedar  Street,  New  York,  where 
he  attracted  great  numbers  by  his  eloquence.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  first  theological  seminary  in  the  United 
States,  of  which  he  was  appointed  professor.  He  be- 
came editor  of  the  "  Christian's  Magazine"  in  1807,  and 
was  elected  in  181 1  provost  of  Columbia  College,  and 
in  1821  president  of  Dickinson  College,  Pennsylvania. 
Among  his  most  admired  writings  is  his  "  Oration  on 
the  Death  of  Alexander  Hamilton,"  who  was  his  intimate 
friend.  Dr.  Mason  died  in  1829.  His  works  (in  4  vols.) 
were  edited  by  his  son,  the  Rev.  Ebenezer  Mason. 

See  "Memoirs  of  J.  M.  Mason,"  by  J.  Van  Vechten,  1856; 
DuYCKiNCK,  "  Cyclopsedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i  ;  Cleve- 
land, "  Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Mason,  (John  Thomson,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
statesman,  son  of  Thomson  Mason,  noticed  below,  was 
born  in  Stafford  county,  Virginia,  in  1764.  He  was  a 
personal  friend  of  Jefferson,  who  appointed  him  to  seve- 
ral high  offices.    Died  in  1824. 

Mason,  (John  Thomson,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Washington  county,  Maryland,  in  1 81 5,  became 
collector  of  the  port  of  Baltimore  under  President 
Buchanan. 

Mason,  (John  Y.,)  born  in  Sussex  county,  Virginia, 
about  1795,  was  secretary  of  the  navy  under  President 
Tyler,  and  attorney-general  and  secretary  of  the  navy 
(1846-49)  under  President  Polk.  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  minister  to  France  by  President  Pierce.  Died 
in  Paris  in  1859. 

Mason,  (Lowell,)  an  American  composer  and  teacher 
of  music,  born  at  Medfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1792.  He 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  in  music  from  the  New 
York  University  in  1855.  He  has  been  a  contributor  to 
the  "  Musical  Review,"  and  has  published  numerous 
works  on  music,  both  original  and  compiled. 

Mason,  (Richard  B.,)  grandson  of  George  Mason, 
noticed  above,  served  with  distinction  in  the  Mexican 
war  of  1848,  and  became  civil  and  military  Governor  of 
California.    Died  in  1850. 

Mason,  (Stevens  Thomson,)  a  nephew  of  George 
Mason,  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1760.  He  served  in  the 
war  of  the  Revolution,  and  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1794.    Died  in  1803. 

Mason,  (Stevens  Thomson,)  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Loudon  county,  Virginia,  in  1811. 
He  was  elected  in  1835  first  Governor  of  Michigan. 

Mason,  (Thomson,)  younger  brotherlof  George  Ma- 
son, noticed  above,  was  born  in  1730.  He  distinguished 
himself  as  a  jurist  and  a  patriot,  and  was  the  author  of 
several  able  political  essays.    Died  in  1785. 

Mason,  (William,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Hull  in 
1725.  He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  Pembroke  College  in 
1747,  and,  after  taking  orders,  became  chaplain  to  the 
king.  Mason  is  chiefly  remembered  as  the  friend  and 
biographer  of  the  poet  Gray.  His  principal  works  are 
two  tragedies,  entitled  "  Elfrida"  and  "  Caractacus," 
several  odes,  and  "The  English  Garden,"  a  descriptive 
poem.  He  was  also  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  paint- 
ing and  music.    Died  in  1797. 

See  Hartley  Coleridge,  "  Lives  of  Distinguished  Northerns;" 
'Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  Warton,  "  History 
of  English  Poetry;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1816; 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  March.  1772,  June,  1783,  and  August,  1796. 


Masoodee  Alee-Abool-Hassan,  Mas'udi  Ali- 
Abul-Hassan,  or  Masoudy  Ali-Aboul-Hassan, 

mi-soo'dee  i''lee'  ^'hobV  his'san,  often  called  Al-Ma- 
soodee,  (or  Al-Mas'udi,)  an  eminent  Arabian  historian, 
born  at  Bagdad  in  the  ninth  century.  His  profound  and 
various  attainments  in  almost  every  department  of  know- 
ledge have  obtained  for  him  the  admiration  of  Eurt)peans 
as  well  as  of  his  own  countrymen.  He  travelled  over  a 
great  part  of  Asia,  and  as  far  west  as  Morocco  and  Spain. 
Among  his  most  important  works  are  his  "  History  of 
the  Times,"  and  his  "Meadows  of  Gold  and  Mines  of 
Gems,"  the  latter  of  which  comprises  the  history,  poli- 
tics, religion,  and  geography  of  Eastern  and  European 
nations.  Masoodee  is  supposed  to  have  died  at  Cairo, 
in  956  A.D. 

See  firiENNE  Quatremere,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages 
de  Mas'oudy,"  1839  ;  Reinaud,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Masotti,  ma-sot'tee,  (Domenico,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  surgeon,  born  at  Faenza  in  1698,  was  appointed 
professor  of  physiology  and  surgery  at  Florence,  and 
afterwards  of  lithotomy.  In  1763  he  published  his  prin- 
cipal work,  entitled  "Lithotomy  for  Women  Perfected." 
Died  in  1779. 

Masoudi.    See  Masoodee. 

Masque  de  Fer,  mtsk  deh  fiR,  (L'Homnie  an, 

lo;n  6,)  (the  "Man  with  the  Iron  Mask,")  an  unknown 
person,  who  in  1662  was  imprisoned  in  the  chateau  of 
Pignerol,  afterwards  conveyed  to  the  isle  of  Sainte-Mar- 
guerite,  and  in  1698  to  the  Bastille,  where  he  died  in  1703. 
Various  conjectures  have  been  formed  concerning  this 
mysterious  prisoner,  who  was  evidently  a  person  of  high 
rank  and  refined  tastes.  Some  writers  have  supposed 
him  to  have  been  a  twin  brother  of  Louis  XIV.  ;  others, 
that  he  was  the  Count  of  Vermandois,  the  Duke  of 
Beaufort,  or  Count  Mattioli. 

See  G.  J.  W.  A.  Ellls,  (Lord  Dover,)  "  History  of  the  Stats 
Prisoner  called  The  Iron  Mask,"  1826;  Paul  Lacroix,  "L'Homme 
au  Masque  de  Fer,"  1837  :  L.  Letourneur,  "  Histoire  de  I'Homme 
au  Masque  de  Fer,"  1849;  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;" 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1826. 

Masquelier,  mtsk'le-a',  (Louis  Joseph,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  near  Lille  in  1741.  In  1802  he  obtained 
from  the  gallery  of  Florence  a  gold  medal  for  his  en- 
gravings.   Died  in  1811. 

Massa,  mis'si,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  physician  and 
medical  writer,  born  at  Venice  ;  died  about  1563. 

Massard,  mt'stR',  (Jean,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Belleme  in  1740.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Painting  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.,  and,  on  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  was  made,  in  1814,  engraver 
to  the  king.  His  most  admired  works  are  "The  Family 
of  Charles  I.,"  after  Van  Dyck,  and  "The  Death  of 
Socrates,"  after  David.    Died  in  1822. 

Massard,  (Jean  Baptiste  Raphael  Urbain,)  a  skil- 
ful French  engraver,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1775.  He  engraved  some  works  of  Raphael, 
Giulio  Romano,  and  David.    Died  in  1849. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Massaredo.    See  Mazarkedo  y  Salazar. 

Massari,  mas-si'ree,  (Lucio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1569,  was  a  pupil  of  Ludovico  Caracci. 
He  was  intimate  with  Albano,  and  took  part  in  some  of 
his  labours.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  the  "Mar- 
riage of  Saint  Catherine,"  and  a  "  Noli  me  Tangere." 
"  Some  of  his  works,"  says  E.  Breton,  "  are  so  graceful 
that  they  defy  the  severest  criticism."    Died  in  1633. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Baldinucci,  "  No- 
tizie  ;"  Malvasia,  "  Felsina  piltrice." 

Massaria,  mas-sS-ree'S,  (Ai.essandro,)  a  learned 
Italian  physician,  born  at  Vicenza  about  15 10.  He 
studied  under  Fracantianus  and  Fallopius,  and  in  1587 
succeeded  Mercuriale  as  professor  of  medicine  in  the 
University  of  Padua.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Plague"  and  a  "Treatise  on  Bleeding,"  which  are 
highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1598. 

See  Portal.  "Histoire  de  I'Anatomie." 

Mas'sas-soit,  an  Indian  chief  of  the  Womponoags, 
born  in  Massachusetts.  In  1621  he  formed  a  league  with 
the  colonists  at  Plymouth,  which  was  never  violated.  He 
was  the  father  of  the  celebrated  w-arrior  King  Philip. 
Died  in  1661. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (3[^=^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MASSE 


1544 


MASSINGER 


Masse,  mS'sk',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  artist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1687,  engraved  the  pictures  which  Le- 
brun  had  executed  for  the  gallery  of  Versailles.  Masse 
became  painter  to  Louis  XV.    Died  in  1767. 

Masse,  (Victor,)  a  French  composer,  born  at  Lorient 
in  1822.  He  produced,  besides  other  works,  a  comic 
opera  entitled  "Galathee." 

Massena,  mt'si'nS^  [It.  Massena,  mSs-sa'ni,]  (An- 
dre,) Prince  of  Essling,  Duke  of  Rivoli,  and  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  marshals  of  Napoleon  L,  was 
born  of  Jewish  parentage  at  Nice  in  1758.  He  enlisted 
in  1775  as  a  private  of  the  royal  Italian  regiment,  from 
which  he  retired  at  the  expiration  of  fourteen  years, 
having  attained  no  higher  rank  than  that  of  a  sergeant. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  French  Revolution  he  again  en- 
tered the  army,  and  in  a  short  time  was  successively  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  colonel,  general  of  brigade,  and 
general  of  division.  In  1794  he  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Austrians  near  Tanaro,  took  Ormea,  and  rendered  effi- 
cient service  at  the  battle  of  Saorgio.  The  following  year, 
while  serving  under  General  Scherer,  he  drove  the  Aus- 
trians from  their  position  at  Vado  and  gained  over  them 
the  decisive  victory  of  Loano.  In  1796  he  acquired 
great  distinction  at  the  engagements  of  Montenotte,  Mil- 
lesimo,  Castiglione,  and  Areola,  His  gallant  conduct  at 
the  battle  of  Rivoli,  in  1797,  subsequently  procured  for 
him  the  title  of  Duke  of  Rivoli.  The  next  year  he  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  army  in  the  Papal 
States  ;  but  his  rapacity  and  avarice  excited  so  great 
hostility  both  in  his  soldiers  and  in  the  inhabitants  that 
he  was  soon  after  compelled  to  resign.  In  1799,  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  armies  of  Switzerland  and  the 
Danube,  he  exhibited  the  highest  order  of  military  talent, 
especially  at  Zurich,  where  he  gained  an  important  and 
brilliant  victory  over  the  Russians.  In  1804  he  was 
created  a  marshal  of  France,  The  next  year  he  was  sent 
to  Italy,  to  command  against  the  Archduke  Charles, 
whom  he  finally  succeeded  in  driving  back  into  Germany. 
In  1806  he  reduced  the  insurgent  Calabrians  to  subjec- 
tion, took  the  fortress  of  Gaeta,  and  enabled  Joseph 
Bonaparte  to  seat  himself  firmly  upon  the  Neapolitan 
throne.  He  reaped  further  laurels  in  1809,  at  the  battles 
of  Landshut  and  Eckmiihl  and  by  the  capture  of  the 
fortress  of  Ebersdorf.  The  same  year  he  was  created 
Prince  of  Essling,  for  his  distinguished  services  at  the 
battle  of  that  place.  Massena  was  appointed  in  1810 
general-in-chief  of  the  army  in  Portugal,  where,  although 
he  exhibited  his  usual  courage  and  military  skill,  he  was 
ultimately  obliged  to  yield  to  the  superior  genius  of  Sir 
Arthur  Wellesley.  He  has,  however,  received  the  highest 
commendation  from  English  as  well  as  French  historians 
for  the  strategic  skill  with  which  he  conducted  his  re- 
treat into  Spain,  In  1812  Marmont  was  appointed  to 
succeed  him.  The  year  following,  Massena  joined  the 
Bourbons.  He  acknowledged  the  authority  of  Napoleon 
when  he  returned  from  Elba,  but  took  no  part  in  the 
affairs  of  government  during  the  Hundred  Days.  He 
was  subsequently  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the 
National  Guard  in  Paris,  and  also  received  several  marks 
of  distinction  from  Louis  XVIII.  He  died  in  Paris, 
April  4,  1817. 

See  General  Koch,  "  M^moires  de  Massena,"  1849;  Napier, 
"  History  of  the  Peninsular  War  ;"  M  ajor-Gener  ai,  J.  Mitchell, 
"Biographies  of  Eminent  Soldiers  of  the  Last  Four  Centuries," 
1S65  ;  Pons,  "  Notice  historique  snr  le  Marechal  Massena,"  1837  ; 
Thiers,  ''  History  of  the  Consulate  and  of  the  Empire;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Massenbach,  von,  fon  mas'sen-blK',  (Christian,) 
a  Prussian  officer,  born  at  Schmalkalden  in  1768.  He 
published  several  historical  works.    Died  in  1827. 

Mas'sey,  (Gerald,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Hert- 
fordshire in  1828.  The  child  of  indigent  parents,  he 
was  ol)]iged  at  an  early  age  to  work  in  a  factory,  and  re- 
ceived no  other  instruction  than  that  of  a  penny  school. 
He  published  in  1847  "Poems  and  Chansons,"  which 
were  followed  in  1853  by  "The  Ballad  of  Babe  Chris- 
tabel,  with  other  Lyrical  Poems," 

See  "  Brief  Biographies,"  by  Samuel  Smiles. 

Massiac,  de,  deh  mS'se'Sk',  (Gabriel,)  a  French 
officer  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Narbonne  in  1657, 
He  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  the  Most  Important  Events  of 
the  War  from  1688  to  1698."    Died  in  1727. 


Massias,  mt'se'ds',  (Nicolas,)  Baron,  a  YrtnchlittS- 
rateur,  born  at  Villeneuve  d'Agen  in  1764.  Among  his 
philosophical  works  is  an  "  Essay  on  Instinct,  Intelli- 
gence, and  Life,"  (4  vols.,  1822.)    Died  in  1848. 

Massie,  mas'se,  (Nathaniel,)  an  American  soldier 
and  pioneer,  born  in  Goochland  county,  Virginia,  in  1763, 
settled  in  Ohio,  where  he  became  one  of  the  largest  land- 
owners in  the  State.  He  founded  in  1796  the  town  of 
Chilicothe.    Died  in  1813, 

Massieu,  mt'se-uh',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  lit- 
terateur, born  at  Caen  in  1665,  He  was  appointed  in 
1 7 10  professor  of  Greek  in  the  College  of  France.  He 
translated  the  Odes  of  Pindar,  and  wrote  a  "His- 
tory of  French  Poetry,"  brought  down  to  the  reign  of 
Francis  I.    Died  in  1722. 

See  Gros  de  Boze,  "lEloge  de  Massieu;"  Thery,  "  Notice  sur 
I'Abbe  Massieu." 

Massieu,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  in  Picardy,  became  constitutional  Bishop  of  L'Oise 
in  1 791,  He  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  in  the 
National  Convention,    Died  in  1818. 

Massillon,  mt's^KyiN'  or  mt'se^y^N',  (Jean  Bap- 
tiste,) a  French  pulpit  orator  of  great  celebrity,  born 
at  Hieres,  in  Provence,  in  1663.  He  was  educated  in 
the  college  of  that  town,  and  became  a  priest  of  the 
Oratory.  After  professing  belles-lettres  and  theology  at 
Montbrison  and  Vienne,  and  pronouncing  some  funeral 
orations,  he  was  called  to  Paris  in  1696  to  direct  the 
Seminary  of  Saint-Magloire.  .His  talent  was  gradually 
developed  by  the  ecclesiastic  conferences  which  he  com- 
posed at  this  period.  He  admired  the  austere  eloquence 
of  Bourdaloue,  but  chose  for  himself  a  different  style, 
characterized  by  profound  pathos  and  an  insight  into 
the  most  secret  motives  of  the  human  heart.  In  1699 
he  preached  at  Paris  the  Lent  sermon,  which  was  warmly 
applauded.  The  same  year  he  was  chosen  to  preach  the 
Advent  at  court,  on  which  occasion  Louis  XIV.  said  to 
him,  "I  have  heard  many  great  orators  and  been  pleased 
with  them  ;  but  after  hearing  you  I  am  displeased  with 
myself"  The  death  of  Bossuet  and  Bourdaloue,  in 
1704,  left  him  at»the  head  of  French  pulpit  orators.  In 
this  year  he  again  preached  before  Louis  XIV.,  whose 
funeral  oration  he  pronounced  in  1 715.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Bishop  of  Clermont  in  171 7,  and  preached  before 
the  young  king  the  Lent  sermon  called  "  Petit-Careme," 
which  is  esteemed  his  master-piece.  His  diction  is  noble, 
simple,  and  unaffected,  Voltaire  kept  a  volume  of  his 
sermons  constantly  on  his  desk,  as  a  model  of  eloquence. 
Massillon  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in 
1719.  In  the  government  of  his  diocese  he  was  moderate, 
charitable,  and  conciliatory.  He  died  in  1742,  His  pub- 
lished works  consist  of  Sermons,  Ecclesiastical  Con- 
ferences, Paraphrases  of  certain  Psalms,  Letters,  etc. 
Voltaire  thought  him  "  the  preacher  who  best  understood 
the  world, — whose  eloquence  savoured  of  the  courtier, 
the  academician,  the  wit,  and  the  philosopher." 

See  La  Harpe,  "  Cours  de  Litterature ;"  Maury,  "  filoquence 
de  la  Chaire  ;"  F.  Theremin,  "  Demosthenes  und  Massillon,"  1845; 
D'Alembert,  "  filoge  de  Massillon;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries 
du  Lundi  ;"  Talbert,  "  ^  lege  de  Massillon,"  1773;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Massimiliano.    See  Maximilian. 
Massimo,    See  Maximus, 

Mas'sin-ger,  (Philip,)  an  eminent  English  dramatic 
poet,  was  born  at  Salisbury  in  1584.  In  his  eighteenth 
year  he  entered  Saint  Alban's  Hall,  Oxford,  supported 
by  the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  Here,  according  to  Anthony 
Wood,  "he  spent  his  time  in  reading  poetry  and  ro- 
mances instead  of  logic  and  philosophy,  which  he  ought 
to  have  done,  as  he  was  patronized  to  that  end."  He 
became  a  resident  of  London  about  1606,  and  assisted 
Fletcher  in  the  composition  of  several  dramas.  The 
first  production  of  Massinger  was  the  "Virgin  Martyr," 
(1622,)  Eighteen  of  his  dramas  are  extant,  mostly 
tragedies  and  tragi-comedies.  Among  the  most  admired 
are  "The  City  Madam,"  "The  Maid  of  Honour," 
"A  New  Way  to  Pay  Old  Debts,"  and  "The  Fatal 
Dowry,"  The  latter  has  given  to  Rowe  the  outline  of 
the  "  Fair  Penitent,"  Massinger's  dramas  are  reinark- 
ably  free  from  profanity  ;  and  the  coarseness  which  dis- 
figures some  of  them  is  probably  to  be  attributed  to  his 
coadjutors.    He  is  said  to  have  been  the  only  dramatist 


a.  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  ^,  short;  ai,  ^,  i,  q,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MASSMANN 


1545 


MATHAM 


of  that  time  who  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  right 
of  kings.    Died  in  1 640. 

See  Davies,  "Some  Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  P. 
Massinser,"  lySg:  "Lives  of  the  British  Dramatists,"  by  Camp- 
bell, Leigh  Hunt,  etc. 

Massmann,  mSs'iTian,  (Hans  Ferdinand,)  a  Ger- 
man sciiolar,  born  at  Berlin  in  1797.  He  published  an 
edition  of  the  "Explanation  of  the  Gospel  of  Saint 
John"  in  Gothic. 

Massolino,  da,  dS  mSs-so-lee'no,  (Panicale,  pJ-ne- 
kS'ii,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  near  Florence  in  1378. 
His  master-pieces  are  the  pictures  in  the  chapel  of  San 
Pietro  al  Carmine,  re])resenting  leading  incidents  in  the 
life  of  Saint  Peter.  He  numbered  among  his  pupils  the 
celebrated  Masaccio.    Died  in  141 5. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Masson.    See  Latomus. 

Masson,  mS'sdN',  (Antoine,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  near  Orleans  in  1636.  He  excelled  particularly  in 
representing  colour  and  the  different  textures  of  objects. 
His  jM-int  of  the  "Disciples  at  Enimaus,"  after  Titian,  is 
esteemed  one  of  his  master-pieces,  though  not  free  from 
a  fantastic  style  of  executing  the  hair,  peculiar  to  himself. 
Masson  was  also  a  painter,  and  his  engravings  from  his 
own  portraits,  as  well  as  from  those  of  other  artists, 
are  greatly  admired,  many  of  them  representing  the 
most  distinguished  men  of  that  time.  He  was  engraver- 
in-ordinary  to  the  king.    Died  in  1702. 

Plis  daughter,  Madelene  Masson,  born  in  1666,  was 
a  skilful  imitator  of  her  father's  style,  and  executed  the 
portraits  of  Maria  Theresa,  the  Duchess  d'Alengon,  and 
several  others. 

See  DuMESNiL,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  Fran^ais." 

Masson,  (Augusts  Michel  BENofr  Gaudichot,)  a 
French  novelist  and  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1800. 

Masson,  (Bartholomew.)    See  Latomus. 

Masson,  (Charles  Franqois  Philibert,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1762.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Institute  of  France.  He  wrote  "  Me- 
moirs of  Russia,"  (3  vols.,  1800-02,)  and  a  poem  entitled 
"The  Helvetians."    Died  in  1807. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mas'son,  (David,)  a  Scottish  critic  and  litterateur, 
born  at  Aberdeen  in  1823,  became  a  contributor  to  "  Era- 
ser's Magazine"  and  the  "  North  British"  and  "  Quarterly 
Reviews,"  and  other  publications.  In  1859  he  became 
editor  of  "  Macmillan's  Magazine,"  and  in  1865  was 
appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  and  English  literature 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  His  principal  works 
are  "The  Life  and  Times  of  Milton,"  (1859,)  "British 
Novelists  and  their  Styles,"  (1859,)  and  "Critical  and 
Biographical  Essays." 

Masson,  (Francis,)  a  distinguished  Scottish  botanist, 
born  at  Aberdeen  in  1741.  About  1771  he  visited  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  he  made  a  valuable  collec- 
tion of  plants  for  the  Kew  Gardens.  After  having  spent 
some  time  in  Portugal  and  the  West  Indies,  he  was  sent 
to  Canada,  where  he  died  in  1805.  He  left  an  admirable 
work  entitled  "  Stapeliae  novae,"  in  folio,  with  41  coloured 
plates. 

See  Rees,  "Cyclopaedia." 

Masson,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Nor- 
mandy in  1745.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  several 
groups  in  the  garden  of  the  Tuileries,  the  bas-reliefs  of 
the  Pantheon,  the  sculptures  on  the  tomb  of  Vauban, 
and  an  exquisite  tigure  of  Flora.    Died  in  1807. 

See  Regnault,  "  Notice  historique  sur  Fran9ois  Masson." 

Masson,  (Jean,)  a  French  litteratetir  and  Protestant 
divine,  born  about  1680,  wrote  the  Lives  of  Horace  and 
Ovid,  and  several  antiquarian  treatises.    Died  in  1750. 

Masson,  (Jean  Papire — pt'p^R',)  [Lat.  Papir'ius 
Masso'nus,]  a  French  writer,  born  at  Saint-Germain- 
Laval  in  1544.  He  became  an  advocate  of  Parliament  in 
1576.  ITe  was  the  author  of  "  Annals  of  France,"  (1577,) 
a  "  Description  of  the  Rivers  of  France,"  (1618,)  and  a 
collection  of  biographies  of  eminent  persons,  entitled 
"  Elogia."  Masson  was  a  friend  of  the  historian  De 
Thou,  who  has  written  his  Life.    Died  in  1611. 

See  Dk  Thou,  "Vita  P.  Massoni ;"  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Masson  de  Pezay.    See  Pezay. 


MSssooa  or  Massoua,  mis'soo'a,  written  also  Ma- 
sua  and  Mesne,  a  celebrated  Arabian  savant,  who  was 
physician  to  the  caliph  Haroun-al-Raschid. 

Massuet,  mt'sii-i',  (Pierre,)  a  learned  French  phy- 
sician, born  near  Sedan  in  1698,  studied  under  the 
celebrated  Boerhaave.  He  wrote  several  historical 
treatises.    Died  in  1776. 

Massuet,  (Rene,)  a  learned  French  ecclesiastic,  born 
in  Normandy  in  1666.  On  the  death  of  Mabillon  and 
Ruinart,  he  wrote  a  continuation  of  the  "Annals  of  the 
Benedictine  Order."  He  also  published  an  excellent 
edition  of  the  works  of  Saint  Irenasus.    Died  in  1716. 

Mastelletta.    See  Donducci. 

Mas'ters,  (Robert,)  an  English  divine  and  antiquary, 
born  in  1713,  published  a  "History  of  the  College  of 
Corpus  Christi,"  (1753,)  and  other  works.  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.    Died  in  1798. 

Masters,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Glou- 
cestershire about  1600.  He  was  a  friend  of  Lord  Her- 
bert of  Cherbury,  whom  he  is  said  to  have  assisted  in 
some  of  his  writings.  He  wrote  a  Greek  poem  on  the 
"  Passion  of  Christ,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1643. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Mastlin  or  Maestlin,  m§st-leen',  (Michael,)  a  Ger- 
man astronomer,  born  in  Wurtemberg  about  1550.  He 
passed  a  portion  of  his  early  life  in  Italy,  where  he  asso- 
ciated with  Galileo.  Having  returned  home,  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  mathematics  at  Tubingen,  where 
he  was  the  tutor  and  generous  friend  of  Kepler.  He 
accepted  the  Copernican  theory.  He  was  author  of 
"  Thesis  de  Eclipsibus,"  "  Epitome  Astronomiae,"  (1597,) 
and  other  works.  Hallam  designates  him  as  "the  illus- 
trious master  of  Kepler."    Died  in  1590  or  1631. 

See  Kastner,  "  Geschichte  der  Mathematik ;"  Vossius,  "De 
Scientiis  Mathematicls." 

Mastropetro,  mis-tRo-pa'tRO,  (Orto,)  was  elected 
Doge  of  Venice  in  1179.  He  abdicated  in  1191,  and 
retired  to  a  monastery,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  cele- 
brated Dandolo. 

Masuoci,  mi-soot'chee,  (Agostino,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Rome  in  1691,  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo 
Maratta.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a  "  Holy  Family." 
Died  in  1758. 

Masuccio,  mS-soot'cho,  I.,  an  Italian  architect  and 
sculptor,  born  at  Naples  in  1230.  He  built  the  church 
of  San  Domenico  Maggiore,  and  completed  that  of  Santa 
Maria  del  Nuova,  begtui  by  Giovanni  Pisano.  Diedin  1305. 

Masuccio  II.,  (Tommaso  de'  Stefan l)  a  pupil  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  129 1.  Among  his  works  are  the 
castle  of  Saint  Ermo,  and  the  church  of  San  Lorenzo 
at  Naples.  He  also  executed  sculptured  monuments  of 
great  merit.    Died  in  1338. 

See  CicoGNARA,  "Storia  della  Scultura." 

Masudi  or  Al-Masudi.    See  Masoodee. 

M^tali,  mi'ta-li,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  chariot- 
eer of  Indra. 

See  Williams's  translation  of  "  Sakoontala,"  Act  vi. 

Matani,  ml-t3,'nee,  (Antonio,)  a  learned  Italian  phy- 
sician, born  at  Pistoia  in  1730.  He  was  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He  published 
a  treatise  "  On  the  Figure  of  the  Earth,"  and  several 
medical  works.    Died  in  1779. 

See  TiPALDO,  "Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Match'am,  (George,)  an  English  traveller,  born  in 
1755,  published  a  "Journey  from  Aleppo  to  Bagdad 
across  the  Arabian  Desert."    Died  in  1833. 

Matelief,  ml'teh-leef,(CoRNELis,)  a  Dutch  navigator, 
born  about  1570,  was  sent  in  1605  as  commander  of  a 
squadron  to  the  East  Indies,  for  the  purpose  of  opposing 
the  Portuguese  and  of  opening  relations  with  China  and 
Japan.  He  died  about  1628,  and  an  account  of  his  voy- 
age was  published  at  Amsterdam,  (1705.) 

See  Motley,  "United  Netherlands,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xlix. 

Maternus.    See  Firmicus. 

Matham,  ml'tim,  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  born 
at  Haarlem  in  1571,  was  a  pupil  of  Henry  Goltzius. 
Died  in  1631. 

Matham,  (Theodorus,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Haarlem  in  1589,  engraved  a  number  of  portraits,  and 
several  historical  pieces  of  great  merit.    Died  in  1677. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (S^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MATHER 


1546 


MATILDA 


Matli'er,  (Cotton,)  D.D.,  a  celebrated  American 
theologian  and  writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1663,  was  a  son 
of  Increase  Mather,  noticed  below.  He  was  ordained 
as  a  minister  in  1684,  and  preached  in  Boston.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  "The  Wonders  of  the  Invisible 
World,"  (1693,)  "Magnalia  Christi  Americana,  or 
The  Ecclesiastical  History  of  New  England,"  (1702,) 
"Essays  to  do  Good,"  (1710,)  "  Psalterium  America- 
num,"(i7r8,)  " The  Christian  Philosopher,"  (1721,)  and 
"  Illustrations  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,"  (in  manuscript.) 
His  character  exhibits  a  remarkable  compound  of  ardent 
piety,  (which,  however,  was  not  without  a  tincture  of 
self-conceit,)  uncommon  activity,  and  force  of  intellect 
joined  to  a  credulity  which,  even  in  that  age,  had 
scarcely  any  parallel  among  educated  men.  From  the 
first  he  was  eager  to  bring  to  trial  and  punishment  those 
supposed  to  be  guilty  of  witchcraft,  and,  when  others 
began  clearly  to  see  the  folly  and  injustice  of  these  cruel 
persecutions,  he  earnestly,  though  vainly,  strove  to  stem 
the  reaction  in  the  popular  mind.    Died  in  1728. 

See  DuYCKiNCK,  "  Cyclopjedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i.  : 
"North  American  Review"  for  July,  1840;  Hildreth,  "  History  of 
the  United  States,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  xx. 

Mather,  (Increase,)  son  of  Richard  Mather,  a  non- 
conformist divine  who  removed  from  Lancashire  to  New 
England,  was  born  at  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  in  1635. 
He  was  sent  about  1685  to  England  as  agent  of  the 
province  for  the  redress  of  grievances.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  Remarkable  Provi- 
dences."   Died  in  1723. 

Mather,  (Moses,)  D.D.,  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Lyme,  Connecticut,  in  17 19.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "  Systematic  View  of  Divinity,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1806. 

Mather,  (Richard,)  an  English  Puritan,  born  in  Lan- 
cashire in  1596,  emigrated  to  New  England  in  1635. 
He  preached  at  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  f«r  many 
years.    Died  in  1669. 

See  a  "  Life  of  R.  Mather,"  by  his  son  Increase. 

Matheson.    See  Mattheson. 

Math''ew,  (Rev.  Theobald,)  the  celebrated  Apostle 
of  Temperance,  a  Catholic  priest,  born  in  the  county 
of  Tipperary,  Irelaiid,  in  1790.  He  was  appointed  afte\- 
his  ordination  to  a  missionary  charge  at  Cork,  where  he 
established  a  charitable  association  on  the  model  of  that 
of  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul.  About  1838  he  became  presi- 
dent of  a  temperance  society,  and  in  a  few  months  admin- 
istered the  pledge  to  150,000  persons  in  Cork  alone. 
He  afterwards  visited  different  parts  of  Ireland,  the  cities 
of  London,  Manchester,  and  Liverpool,  and  the  United 
States  of  America,  being  everywhere  received  with  en- 
thusiasm. For  these  eminent  services  in  the  cause  of 
religion  and  morality.  Queen  Victoria  bestowed  upon 
Father  Mathew  an  annuity  of  £^00.    Died  in  1856. 

See  "Father  Mathew,  a  Biography,"  by  J.  F.  Maguire;  P.  M. 
MoRKis,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Theobald  Mathew,"  New  York, 
1841  :  I.  S.  Henshaw,  "Life  of  Father  Mathew,"  New  York,  1849; 
"Biographical  Sketches,"  by  Harriet  Martineau,  1869 ;  "  Fra- 
ser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1841. 

Math'ews,  (Charles,)  a  celebrated  English  come- 
dian, born  in  London  in  1776.  Having  visited  the  United 
States  in  1822,  he  brought  out  on  his  return  his  enter- 
tainment entitled  "A  Trip  to  America,"  which  obtained 
great  popularity.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  extraor- 
dinary talent  for  imitation,  in  the  exercise  of  which  he 
was  seldom  if  ever  ill-natured  or  offensive.  He  died  in 
1836,  leaving  "Memoirs"  of  his  life,  which  were  finished 
by  his  widow,  (4  vols.,  1839.) 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1836 ;  "  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  December,  1839;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  Janu- 
ary, 1839. 

Mathews,  (Charles  James,)  an  English  comedian, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1803.  He  mar- 
ried Madame  Vestris  in  1838,  and,  after  her  death,  in 
1857,  another  actress,  Mrs.  Davenport.  He  produced 
several  dramas,  among  which  is  "My  Wife's  Mother," 
(1833.) 

Math'ews,  (Cornelius,)  a  distinguished  American 
litterateur  and  journalist,  born  at  Port  Chester,  New 
York,  in  1817.  Having  previously  contributed  numerous 
articles  in  prose  and  verse  to  the  "American  Monthly 
Magazine,"  "  New  York  Review,"  and  "Knickerbocker 


Magazine,"  he  published,  in  1839,  "  Behemoth,  a  Legend 
of  the  Mound-Builders."  Among  his  other  works  may 
be  named  "The  Politicians,"  a  comedy,  (1840,)  "Poems 
on  Man  in  the  Republic,"  (1843,)  "  Witchcraft,"  a  tragedy, 
(1846,)  "Money-penny,  or  the  Heart  of  the  World," 
(1850,)  and  a  comedy  entitled  "False  Pretences,"  (1856.) 
Mr.  Mathews  has  been  a  zealous  advocate  of  inter- 
national copyright. 

See  DuvcKiNCK,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ; 
Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Mathews,  (George,)  an  American  jurist,  born  near 
Staunton,  Virginia,  in  1774,  removed  to  Louisiana,  where 
he  was  appointed  presiding  justice  of  the  supreme  court. 
Died  in  1836. 

Mathias,  mS-tWas,  (Thomas  Jame.s,)  an  English  lit- 
terateur, born  about  1 757, wrote  a  poem  entitled  "  Pursuits 
of  Literature,"  (1794,)  "  Runic  Odes,"  and  other  English 
works  ;  also  a  number  of  poems  in  Italian.  He  died  at 
Naples  in  1835.  He  translated  Milton's  "Lycidas"  into 
Italian. 

Mathieu,  mt'te-uh',  (Adolphe  Charles  Ghislain,) 
a  Belgian  poet  and  journalist,  born  at  Mons  in  1804,  pub- 
lished numerous  works. 

Mathieu,  mt'te-uh',  (Claude  Louts,)  a  French 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  born  at  Macon  in  1784. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Acaderny  of  Sciences  in  181 7. 
He  was  a  brother-in-law  of  Francis  Arago. 

Mathieu  de  la  Redorte,  mt'te-uh'  deh  It  reh-doRt', 
(David  Maurice  Joseph,)  Com'i%  a  French  general, 
born  at  Saint- Affrique  in  1768.  He  became  general 
of  division  in  1799,  and  peer  of  France  in  1819.  He 
married  Mademoiselle  Clery,  a  sister  of  Joseph  Bona- 
parte's wife.    Died  in  1833. 

Mathieu  de  Dombasle,  mt'te-uh'  deh  d6N'baK, 
(Christophe  Joseph  ALEXANDRE,y~a  French  agricul- 
tural writer,  born  at  Nancy  in  1777  ;  died  in  1843. 

Mathieu-Mirampal,  mt'te-uh'  me''r6N^ptl',  (Jean 
Baptiste  Charles,)  born  at  Compiegne,  in  France, 
in  1764,  was  a  deputy  to  the  National  Convention  in 
1792,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  Died  in  1833. 

Mathilde.    See  Matilda. 

Mathon  de  la  Cour,  mt'tdN'  deh  It  kooR,  (Charles 
Joseph,)  a  French  litterateur,  son  of  Jacques,  noticed 
below,  born  at  Lyons  in  1738.  He  wrote  a  treatise 
"  On  the  Danger  of  reading  Books  hostile  to  Religion," 
(1770,)  which  was  crowned  by  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions, and  other  works.  He  was  guillotined  at  Lyons 
in  1793. 

Mathon  de  la  Cour,  (Jacques,)  a  French  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Lyons  in  17 12.  He  published  several 
scientific  treatises.    Died  about  1770. 

Mathusalem.    See  Methuselah. 

Matignon,  mt't^n'ydN',  (Charles  Auguste  de 
Goyon — deh  gwi'ydN',)  Comte  de  Gace,  a  French 
marshal,  born  in  1 647,  accompanied  James  II.  of  Eng- 
land in  his  Irish  campaign.  He  afterwards  distinguished 
himself  at  Fleurus,  Mons,  and  Namur,  and  was  created 
a  marshal  in  1708.    Died  in  1729. 

Matignon,  de,  deh  mt'tin'y6N',  (Jacques  de  Goyon,) 
Comte,  a  French  marshal,  born  in  Normandy  in  1525. 
He  served  in  the  wars  of  Henry  II.  and  Henry  III. 
against  the  Protestants.  He  was  made  a  marshal  in 
1579.    Died  in  1597. 

See  Brantome,  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaines  Frangais;"  Cal- 
LifeRES,  "  Histoire  du  Mareschal  de  Matignon,"  i66i. 

Ma-tiFda,  Maud,  or  Maude,  [Fr.  Mathilde,  mt'- 
t^kK,]  Empress  of  Germany  and  Queen  of  England,  born 
about  1 102,  was  a  daughter  of  Henry  I.  of  England.  She 
was  married  in  mo  to  Henry  V.  of  Germany,  who  died 
in  1125.  About  1127  she  became  the  wife  of  Geoffrey 
Plantagenet,  Count  of  Anjou,  and  was  recognized  by 
her  father  as  his  successor.  On  the  death  of  Henry 
(1135)  her  title  was  disputed  by  Stephen  of  Blois,  and  a 
long  civil  war  ensued  between  them.  Matilda  prevailed 
in  1141,  and  was  crowned  in  London.  She  was  the 
mother  of  Henry  II.    Died  in  1167. 

See  Matthew  Paris,  "  Historia  major." 

Matilda,  daughter  of  Boniface  III.,  Marquis  of  Tus- 
cany, was  born  about  1046.  She  was  first  married  to  God- 
frey le  Bossu,  son  of  the  Dnke  of  Lorraine.  He  died  in 
1076,  and,  her  mother  having  died  the  same  year,  Matilda 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  ai,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  m^t;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


MATILDA 


1547 


MATTHESON 


came  into  possession  of  lier  vast  estates,  including  the 
greater  part  of  Northern  Italy.  In  the  contest  for  su- 
premacy between  Pope  Gregory  VII.  and  the  Emperor 
of  Germany,  she  espoused  with  great  zeal  the  cause  of 
the  former ;  and  it  was  at  her  castle  of  Canossa  that 
Henry  IV.  underwent  the  humiliating  penance  imposed 
by  the  pope.  In  1077  she  made  a  reversionary  grant 
of  all  her  dominions  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  She  was 
married  in  1089  to  Guelph,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  from  whom 
she  was  divorced  in  1095.    Died  in  1 1 15. 

See  FiORENTiNi,  "  Memorie  di  Matilda  la  Coiitessa  di  Toscana," 
1642;  Amedee  Renee,  "La  grande  Italienne,"  1859;  Mozzi  de' 
Capitani,  "Sulla  Contessa  Matilda,"  etc.,  1845;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Matilda,  (Caroline.)    See  Caroline  Matilda. 
Matius.    See  Calvena. 

Matius,  ma'she-us,  written  also  Mattius,  (Cneius,) 
a  Roman  poet  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  whose  friend- 
ship and  patronage  he  enjoyed.  He  was  the  author  of 
epic  and  dramatic  poems,  and  mimiambi.  Of  the  last- 
named  there  are  fragments  extant,  which  are  greatly 
admired.  He  also  translated  the  "Iliad"  into  Latin 
verse.  He  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  same  as  Cal- 
vena, (which  see.) 

Maton  de  la  Varenne,  mt'toN'  deh  It  vt'r^n',  (P. 
A.  L.,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  about  1760; 
died  in  1813. 

Matooan-  (or  Matouan-)  lin,  mi-too-ln'  lin,  a  very 
learned  Chinese  writer,  born  in  the  province  of  Kiang-si 
about  1250.  He  was  the  author  of  a  historical  work, 
entitled  "  Wen-hian-thoon-khao,"  which  displays  im- 
mense erudition  and  embraces  a  great  variety  of  sub- 
jects. Abel  Remusat  says  of  this  production,  "  It  is  in 
itself  worth  a  library,  and,  if  Chinese  literature  contained 
no  other,  it  would  be  worth  while  to  learn  Chinese  in 
order  to  read  it." 

Matos,  de,  di  ma''t6s,  (Joao  Xavier,)  a  Portuguese 
poet  of  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  the 
author  of  sonnets,  odes,  etc.,  and  of  a  tragedy  entitled 
"  Viriacia." 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Matos  Fragoso,  mi't6s  fR^-go'so,  (Juan,)  a  dramatic 
writer,  born  at  Elvas,  in  Portugal,  about  1630,  was  the 
author  of  numerous  popular  comedies,  (in  Spanish.) 
Died  in  1692. 

Matsko,  motsh'ko,  (John  Matthias,)  a  Plungarian 
astronomer,  born  at  Presburg  in  1721  ;  died  in  1796. 

Mats'ya,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  miits'ya,]  a  Sanscrit 
word  signifying  a  "fish,"  and  forming  the  najne,  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  of  the  first  avatar  of  Vishnu.  On 
that  occasion  the  preserving  deity  is  said  to  have  as- 
sumed the  form  of  a  great  fish  shining  like  gold,  and, 
according  to  one  account,  "  extending  a  million  leagues," 
that  he  might  protect  the  ark  which  contained  Satyavrata 
and  the  seven  Rishis  with  their  wives,  all  the  rest  of  the 
human  race  having  been  destroyed  by  the  deluge. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Matsys-  mSt-sTs',  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  or  Flemish 
engraver,  born  about  1500  ;  died  in  1560. 

Matsys,  (Jan,)  a  relative  of  Quentin,  noticed  below. 
His  pictures  are  few  in  number,  but  of  great  merit,  and 
painted  in  the  style  of  Quentin  Matsys.  Died  about 
1560. 

Matsys,  mat-sis',  or  Metsys,  mgt-sTs',  written  also 
Messis,  (QiTENTiN,)  a  celebrated  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Antwerp  about  1450.  He  was  originally  a  blacksmith, 
and  is  said  to  have  changed  his  vocation  in  order  to 
obtain  the  hand  of  a  lady  he  loved,  who  was  the  daughter 
of  an  artist.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  The  Descent 
from  the  Cross,"  in  the  Museum  at  Antwerp,  "The 
Misers,"  in  the  Gallery  at  Windsor,  and  the  "  Portrait 
of  a  Jeweller,"  in  the  imperial  collection  of  Vienna.  Died 
in  1529. 

See  Drscamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.;  E.  van 
EwKN,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  Q.  Metsys,"  1846. 

Mat-ta-thi'as,  a  Jewish  priest,  appointed  to  officiate 
in  tiie  Temple,  was  the  founder  of  the  family  of  the 
Maccabees,  and  the  father  of  the  celebrated  warrior 
udas  Maccabaeus.  During  the  persecution  of  the  Jews 
y  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  he  was  conspicuous  for  his 
zeal  in  the  defence  of  his  religion,  and,  with  a  band  of 


his  followers,  marched  against  the  idolaters  and  over- 
threw their  altars.    Died  in  166  B.C. 

Matte,  mSt,  (Nicolas  Augusi'in,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Paris  in  1781.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
busts  of  Racine  and  Corneille.    Died  about  1840. 

Matteani,  mdt-ta-a'nee,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  mathematician,  born  at  Marostica  in  1535.  He  be- 
came professor  of  law  at  Padua  in  1589.    Died  in  1600. 

Mattei,  mSt-ta'ce,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at  Rome  in  1744.  In  1777  he  became  Archbishop 
of  Ferrara,  and  in  1797  he  was  sent  to  negotiate  with 
Bonaparte,  then  marching  towards  Rome.   Died  in  1820. 

Mattei,  (Loretto,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Rieti  in 
1622.  He  was  the  author  of  "  II  Salmista  Toscano,"  a 
paraphrase,  in  verse,  of  the  Psalms.    Died  in  1705. 

Mattei,  (Saverio,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  in  Cala- 
bria in  1742.  He  became  in  1767  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Naples.  His  translation  of  the  Book  of 
Psalms  was  very  popular.    Died  in  1795. 

Mattei,  (Stanislao,)  an  Italian  composer,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1750 ;  died  in  1825. 

Matteis,  mSt-ta'ess,  or  Mattei,  mjt-ta'ee,  (Paolo,) 
an  Italian  painter  and  engraver,  born  near  Naples  in  1662. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  the  pictures  of  the  "  Sa- 
viour and  Saint  Gaetano,"  in  the  church  of  Saint  Paul 
at  Pistoia,  and  the  "Meeting  of  Erminia  and  the  Shep- 
herds," in  the  Museum  of  Vienna.    Died  in  1728. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Matte-Lafaveur,  mtt  It'ft'vuR',  (S^;bastien,)  a 
French  chemist,  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Practice  of 
Chemistry."    Died  about  1684. 

Matte'o  da  Siena,  nidt-ia^o  di  se-a'nd,  or  Matteo 
di  Giovanni,  mit-ta'o  de  jo-van'nee,  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Sienna  in  1420.  He  adorned  the  cathedral  of 
that  city  with  his  works.    Died  in  1495. 

Matter,  mt'taiR',  (Jacques,)  a  French  historian  and 
philosopher,  born  near  Saverne  in  1791.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Critical  History  of  Gnosticism," 
etc.,  (2  vols.,  1828,)  a  "  General  History  of  the  Christian 
Church,"  (4  vols.,  1828-35,)  and  "The  Philosophy  of 
Religion,"  (1857,)  all  in  French.  He  became  in  1845 
inspector-general  of  the  libraries  of  France. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Matteucci,  mat-too'chee,  [It.  pron.  mSt-t|^ot-chee,] 
(Carlo,)  an  Italian  writer,  distinguished  for  his  researches 
in  electro-physiology,  was  born  in  1811.  He  published, 
besides  other  valuable  works,  "  Lectures  on  the  Physico- 
Chemical  Phenomena  of  Living  }>odies,"  (1844,)  for  which 
he  received  the  prize  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences 
and  the  Copley  Medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London. 
He  became  minister  of  public  insti  uction.  Died  at  Flor- 
ence in  1868.  (For  two  of  his  works,  see  "  Smithsonian 
Reports"  for  1865  and  1867.) 

Matteucci,  (Petronio,)  an  Italian  astronomer.  In 
1786  he  gave  an  account  of  the  transit  of  Mercury.  Died 
in  1810. 

Matthaeus,  mit-ta'us,  (Antoon,)  a  Dutch  jurist  and 
anticjuary,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1635  ;  died  in  17 10. 

Matthai  or  Mattheei,  mit-ta'ce,  (Christian  Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  scholar,  born  in  Thuringiain  1744,  was 
appointed  professor  of  Greek  at  Wittenberg,  and  subse- 
quently of  classic  literature  at  Moscow.  He  published 
a  number  of  critical  treatises  and  editions  of  various 
Greek  classics.    Died  in  i8ii. 

Matthai  or  Matthcei,(FRiEDRiCH,)  a  German  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Meissen  in  1777.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Casanova,  and  subsequently  of  Fiiger, 
at  Vienna,  and  was  appointed  in  1809  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Painting  at  Dresden.  Died  in  1832.  His 
brother,  Ernst  Gottlieb,  born  in  1779,  was  a  sculptor 
of  great  merit,  and  was  appointed  honorary  professor  in 
the  university  at  Rome.    Died  in  1842. 

Matthesius,  mSt-ta'ze-us,  (Johann,)  a  German  Prot- 
estant minister,  born  at  Rochlitz  in  1504.  He  became 
first  preacher  at  Joachimsthal  about  1543.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Luther's  Doctrine,  Life,  and  Death,"  (in 
German,  1565.)    Died  in  1568. 

Mattheson,  mit'teh-son,  (Johann,)  a  German  mu- 
sician and  composer,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1681.  His 
works  are  very  numerous,  comprising  operas,  church 
mu.sic,  sonatas,  etc.    He  also  published  several  treat- 


c  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  ^i, -nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MATTHEW 


1548 


MATTIOLl 


ises  on  music,  which  are  highly  esteemed.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Handel.    Died  in  1764. 

See  BuRNEY,  "  History  of  Music;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^- 
rale." 

Matthew,  math'ii,  [Gr.  yiaTQdioq ;  Fr.  Matthieu, 
mt'te-uh';  It.  Matteo,  mit-ta'o,]  Saint,  the  Evan- 
GELibrTa  native  of  Galilee,  is  generally  believed  to  have 
been  the  same  person  as  Levi,  the  son  of  Alpheus,  men- 
tioned in  Mark  (ii.  14)  and  Luke,  (v.  27.)  His  employ- 
ment was  that  of  a  publican,  or  collector  of  customs, 
under  the  Romans,  and  while  engaged  in  this  function 
he  was  called  by  Christ  to  be  one  of  the  apostles.  The 
history  of  Matthew  after  the  ascension  of  Christ  is  not 
known,  some  writers  asserting  that  he  suffered  death 
at  Naddabar,  in  Ethiopia,  and  others  that  he  was  one 
of  the  ap(jstles  who  escaped  martyrdom. 

Matthew  of  Cracow,  [Lat.  Matthi'as  Cracovi- 
en'sis,]  a  German  bishop  and  Reformer,  born  in  Pome- 
rania.  He  became  Bishop  of  Worms  in  1405,  and  wrote 
against  the  corrupt  practices  of  the  Church.  Among  his 
works  is  a  treatise  "  On  the  Pollutions  of  the  Romish 
Court."    Died  in  1410. 

See  Hodgson,  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Matthew  of  Westminster,  an  English  monk  and 
historical  writer  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was  the  author 
of  "Flowers  of  History,"  ("  Flores  Historiarum,")  ex- 
tending from  the  creation  to  the  death  of  Edward  L  It 
is  highly  valued  for  its  accuracy. 

Matthew,  math'u,  (Tobias,)  an  English  prelate,  born 
in  Bristol  in  1546.  In  1572  he  was  chosen  president  of 
Saint  John's  College,.  Oxford,  and  one  of  the  queen's 
chaplains-in-ordinary.  In  1595  he  was  created  Bishop 
of  Durham,  and  in  1606  Archbishop  of  York.  The 
learning  and  piety  of  Archbishop  Matthew  have  been 
warmly  eulogized  by  Camden.    Died  in  1628. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Matthew,  (Tobias,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Oxford  in  1578,  became  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  was 
employed  by  James  I.  in  162 1  to  negotiate  the  marriage 
of  the  Prince  of  Wales  with  the  Infanta  of  Spain.  He 
was  knighted  in  1623.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Life 
of  Saint  Theresa,"  and  a  "Collection  of  Letters  includ- 
ing a  Character  of  Lucy,  Countess  of  Carlisle."  Died  in 
1655- 

See  Wood,  "  Atheiise  Oxonienses." 

Matthew  Paris,  math'vl  pir'iss,  a  celebrated  English 
chronicler,  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  Henry  III.,  from 
whom  he  obtained  important  privileges  for  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Historia  Major 
Anglias,"  and  "  Historia  Minor  Anglias."  The  former 
extends  from  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror  to  the 
reign  of  Henry  HI.    Died  in  1259. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Matthews,  math'uz,  (George,)  an  American  officer 
of  the  Revolution,  born  in  Augusta  county,  Virginia,  in 
1739.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Georgia  in  1780,  and 
again  in  1794.    Died  in  1812. 

Matthews,  (Thomas,)  a  British  naval  officer,  born 
in  Wales  in  1681,  distinguished  himself  in  the  engage- 
ment at  Cape  Passaro  under  Admiral  Byng,  (1718,)  and 
in  other  campaigns  of  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession. 
He  obtained  the  rank  of  admiral  of  the  blue.  Died  in 
1751- 

See  Van  Tenac,  "  Histoire  generale  de  la  Marine." 

Matthia  or  Matthiae,  mat-tee'a",  (August  Hein- 
RICH,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Gottingen  in- 1769. 
He  published  "Elements  of  Greek  and  Roman  Litera- 
ture," a  "  Complete  Greek  Grammar,"  which  was  trans- 
lated into  French,  an  excellent  edition  of  the  Tragedies 
of  Euripides,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1835. 

Matthia,  (Johan,)  a  Swedish  prelate,  born  in  Ostro- 
gothia  in  1592,  became  court  preacher  and  almoner  to 
Gustavus  Adolphus.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  pre- 
ceptor to  Christina,  the  daughter  of  that  monarch,  and 
was  created  Bishop  of  Strengnas  in  1643.  He  wrote 
several  moral  and  theological  works.    Died  in  1670. 

Matthiae.    See  Matthia. 

Matthias,  ma-thi'ass,  [Ger.  pron.  mit-tee'Sss ;  It, 
Mattia,  mit-tee'^,]  Emi)eror  of  Germany,  born  in  1557, 
was  the  son  of  Maximilian  II.  and  Mary,  daughter  of 


Charles  V.  He  was  invited  in  1578,  by  the  Catholics 
of  the  Netherlands,  to  assume  the  government  of  that 
country,  which  office  he  soon  resigned.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Stadtholder  of  Austria  in  1595,  and  in  1611  was 
invited  by  the  Bohemians  to  become  their  ruler.  On 
the  death  of  his  brother  Rudolf,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
in  1612,  Matthias  succeeded  to  the  throne.  In  the  en- 
suing contest  between  the  Protestant  and  Catholic  fac- 
tions he  pursued  a  vacillating  policy,  and  while  striving 
to  direct  made  himself  distrusted  by  both.  He  con- 
cluded a  disadvantageous  treaty  with  the  Turks,  then  in 
possession  of  Hungary,  (1615,)  and  soon  after  caused 
his  cousin  Ferdinand  to  be  proclaimed  King  of  Bohemia 
and  Hungary.  (See  Ferdinand  II.)  Matthias  died  in 
1619,  in  the  midst  of  the  dissensions  which  preceded  the 
Thirty  Years'  war. 

See  Khevenhuli.er,  "  Annales  Ferdinandei ;"  P.  Santoric, 
"Vite  di  Ridolfo  e  Mattia  Imperatori,"  1664;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Matthias,  ma-thl'ass,  an  American  fanatic  and  impos- 
tor, originally  named  Matthews,  born  in  Washington 
county,  New  York,  about  1790,  became  a  street-preacher 
in  Albany,  and  prophesied  the  destruction  of  that  city. 

See  "Matthias  and  his  Impostures,"  by  Wm.  L.  Stone,  New 
York,  1835;  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1835. 

Matthias  of  Janow,  (yl'nov,)  a  German  priest  and 
Reformer,  preached  in  Prague.  He  wrote  against  popery, 
and  published  "The  Abomination  of  Carnal  Priests  and 
Monks."    Died  in  1394. 

See  Hodgson,  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Matthias  Corvinus,    See  Corvinus. 

Matthieu,  the  French  for  Matthew,  which  see. 

Matthieu,  mt'te-uh',  (Pierre,)  a  French  poet  and 
historical  writer,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1563.  He 
became  historiographer  of  France  under  Henry  IV., 
wrote  a  tragedy  entitled  "  La  Guisiade,"  of  which  the 
Duke  of  Guise  is  the  hero  ;  also  a  "  History  of  Henry 
III.  and  Henry  IV."    Died  in  1621. 

See  PoiRSON,  "Histoire  du  R^gne  de  Henri  IV;"  Nic^ron, 
"  Memoires." 

Matthieu  de  Vendome,  mt'te-uh'  deh  v5N'dom',  a 
French  statesman  and  ecclesiastic,"Korn  about  1220,  was 
appointed  regent  of  the  kingdom  by  Louis  IX.  on  his 
departure  for  Palestine.  After  the  accession  of  Philip 
he  was  made  prime  minister  in  1270.    Died  in  1286. 

Matthieu  de  Vendome,  a  French  scholar  and  Latin 
poet,  lived  about  1180-1200. 

Matthiolus.    See  Mattioli. 

Matthisson,  von,  von  mit'te-son^  (Friedrich,)  an 
eminent  German  lyric  poet,  born  near  Magdeburg  in 
1 761.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  in  1794  accompanied 
the  Princess  of  Anhalt-Dessau  on  her  tour  through 
Switzerland,  Italy,  and  the  Tyrol.  In  1812  the  King 
of  Wurtemberg  appointed  him  his  chief  librarian  and 
conferred  upon  him  a  title  of  nobility.  His  poems  are 
characterized  by  great  tenderness  of  feeling,  graceful 
versification,  and  faithful  delineations  of  nature.  He 
also  published  an  interesting  work  entitled  "  Remi- 
niscences," ("  Erinnerungen,"  5  vols.,  1810-16,)  being  an 
account  of  persons  and  places  he  had  visited.  Died  in 
1831. 

See  DoRiNG,  "  Matthisson's  Leben,"  1833  ;  Longfellow,  "  Poets 
and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  F.  von  Matthisson,  "  Selbstbiographie," 
1818. 

Matthys,  m§.t-tis',  (Gerard,)  a  Flemish  philosopher 
and  Greek  scholar,  born  in  Gelderland  in  1523.  He 
published  a  number  of  commentaries  on  Aristotle,  and 
other  critical  works.    Died  in  1574. 

Matti,  mit'tee,  (Emanuel,)  a  Spanish  ecclesiastic 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Oropesa  in  1663,  was  appointed 
Dean  of  Alicante.    Died  in  1737. 

Mattioli,  mit-te-o'lee,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Crevalcore  in  1662,  executed  a  number  of  prints 
after  the  Caracci.  He  was  also  distinguished  as  a 
painter.    Died  about  1745. 

See  G.  Atti,  "Vita  di  L.  Mattioli,"  1836. 

Mattioli,  [Lat.  Matthi'olus,]  (Pietro  Andrea,) 
an  eminent  Italian  physician  and  botanist,  born  at  Sienna 
in  1500.  Being  invited  to  Prague  by  the  emperor  Fer- 
dinand, he  was  made  aulic  councillor,  and  subsequently 
appointed  first  physician  to  Maximilian  II.  He  published 


a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  s/iori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fSll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MATTIVS 


1549 


MAUPEOU 


"  Coniiiientaries  on  the  Materia  Medica  of  Dioscorides," 
(in  Latin,  1554,)  which  are  highly  esteemed  and  have 
been  translated  into  several  languages ;  also  a  number 
of  medical  and  botanical  treatises.  The  well-known 
genus  Matthiola  (Stock-gilliflower)  was  named  in  honour 
of  this  botanist.    Died  in  1577. 

See  CuviEK,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles;"  Hallek, 
"  Bibliotheca  Botanica  ;"  Van  der  Linden,  "De  Scriptoribus  Me- 
dicis." 

Mattius.    See  Matius. 

Mafu-rin,  (Charles  Robert,)  a  distinguished  poet, 
novelist,  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Dublin  in  1782,  was 
descended  from  a  French  Protestant  family.  He  studied 
at  Trinity  College,  and  was  subsequently  appointed 
curate  of  Saint  Peter's,  Dublin.  He  published  in  1807 
"The  Fatal  Revenge,  or  the  Family  of  Montorio,"  which 
was  followed  by  "  The  Milesian  Chief,"  "Women,  or 
Pour  et  Contre,"  "Melmoth  the  Wanderer,"  and  other 
romances  of  the  Radclifife  school.  His  tragedy  of  "Ber- 
tram," brought  out  at  the  Drury-Lane  Theatre  in  1816, 
met  with  brilliant  success.  It  has  been  translated  into 
French,  as  well  as  several  of  his  romances.  In  1824  he 
published  "  Controversial  Sermons,"  directed  against  the 
corruptions  of  the  Roman  Church,  which  obtained  great 
popularity.    Died  in  1824. 

See  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1818;  "London  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  December,  1818,  and  January,  1821 ;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  August,  1818,  et  seq. 

Maturino  di  Firenze,  mS-too-ree'no  de  fe-r^n'zi, 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Florence  about  1490,  was  a 
pupil  of  Raphael,  and  a  friend  of  Polidoro  Caravaggio, 
in  conjunction  with  whom  he  executed  a  number  of 
frescos  at  Rome.  These  works  are  preserved  in  the 
engravings  of  Cherubino,  Alberti,  Goltzius,  and  other 
artists.    Died  about  1528. 

Matuszewic,  mS-too'shi-vits,  (Thaddeus,)  a  Polish 
statesman,  was  appointed  minister  of  finance  in  1815. 
Died  in  1818. 

Maty,  mi'tee,  (Matthew,)  an  eminent  physician  and 
writer,  born  near  Utrecht  in  1718,  studied  at  Leyden, 
and  subsequently  settled  in  England,  (1740.)  He  founded 
in  1750  the  "Journal  Britannique,"  a  literary  periodical 
of  great  merit,  which  was  highly  commended  by  Gibbon. 
He  was  elected  in  1758  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
of  which  he  became  perpetual  secretary  in  1765.  In 
1772  he  succeeded  Dr.  Knight  as  chief  librarian  of  the 
British  Museum.  He  published  an  "  Essay  on  the 
Character  of  the  Great  Physician,  or  a  Critical  Eulogy 
on  Boerhaave,"  (in  French,  1747,)  "Authentic  Memoirs 
of  Richard  Mead,"  (1755,)  and  "  Memoirs  of  Lord  Ches- 
terfield."   Died  in  1776. 

See  Nichols,  "Literary  Anecdotes;"  Gibbon,  "Memoirs." 

Maty,  (Paul  Henry,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  London  in  1745.  He  became  one  of  the  secre- 
taries of  the  Royal  Society  in  1778.  He  published  a 
translation,  from  the  German,  of  Riesbeck's  "Travels," 
(1787.)    Died  in  1787. 

Maubert  de  Gouvest,  mo'baiR'  deh  goo'vi',  (Jean 
Henri,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Rouen  in  1 721, 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Political  History  of  the  Age," 
which  was  commended  by  Lord  Bolingbroke.  Died  in 
1767. 

Maubeuge.    See  Mabuse. 

Maubreuil,  de,  deh  mo'bRuI'  or  mo'bRuh'ye,  (Ma- 
rie Armand  Guerri,)  Marquis,  a  French  political 
adventurer,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1782.  He  served  in  the 
army  as  captain.  According  to  his  own  statement,  he 
was  authorized  and  bribed  by  certain  members  of  the 
provisional  government  in  i8i4to  assassinate  Napoleon 
and  to  rob  the  Queen  of  Westphalia  of  her  diamonds. 
He  performed  the  latter  part  of  his  mission,  and  was 
cast  into  prison  for  that  offence.    Died  in  1855. 

Mauburne,  mo'biiRn',  or  Momboir,  m6N'bw3.R', 
(Jean,)  a  Flemish  ecclesiastic  and  devotional  writer, 
born  at  Brussels  about  1460,  was  a  friend  and  corre- 
spondent of  Erasmus.    Died  in  1502. 

Maucomble,  m5'k6Mbl',  (Jean  FRANgois  Dieu- 
Donne,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Metz  in  1735,  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  the  Antiquities  of  the  City  of 
Nimes,"  (1767.)    Died  in  1768. 

Maucroix,  de,  deh  mo^kRw^',  (Francois,)  a  French 
scholar,  born  at  Noyon  in  1619.    He  made  translations 


from  the  "  Philippics"  of  Demosthenes,  the  "  Homilies" 
of  Saint  Chrysostom,  and  other  Greek  classics.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Boileau,  Racine,  and  La  Fontaine, 
and  published  conjointly  with  the  last-named  a  collection 
of  works  in  prose  and  verse.    Died  in  1708. 

Maud  or  Maude.    See  Matilda. 

Maudsley  or  Maudslay,  mawdz'le,  (Henry,)  an 
English  artisan,  born  at  Woolwich  in  1771,  was  an  em- 
ploye of  Joseph  Bramah.  He  made  several  valuable 
mechanical  inventions.    Died  in  1831. 

See  Smiles,  "  Industrial  Biography." 

Mauduit,  mo'dii-e',  (  Antoine  Ren6,  )  a  French 
mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  173 1.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  "  Elements  of  Conic  Sections  De- 
monstrated," which  is  highly  commended  by  Lalande. 
Died  in  181 5. 

Mauduit,  mo'dwe',  (Israel,)  an  English  writer,  of 
French  extraction,  born  at  Bermondsey  in  1708,  was 
appointed  agent  for  the  province  of  Massachusetts.  He 
published  a  "  Short  View  of  the  History  of  the  New 
England  Colonies,"  (1769,)  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1787. 

Mauduit,  (Michel,)  a  French  theologian,  born  at 
Vire,  in  Normandy,  in  1644.  He  was  the  author  of  an 
"Analysis  of  the  Gospel,  according  to  the  Historic 
Order,"  etc.,  a  "  Treatise  on  Religion,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1709. 

Mauduit  du  Plessis,  mS'dii-e'  dii  pli'se',  (Thomas 
Antoine,)  a  French  officer,  born  at  Hennebon  in  1753, 
served  in  the  American  war,  where  his  courage  and 
abilities  won  for  him  the  particular  regard  of  Washington. 
Having  joined  the  royalists  soon  after  the  breaking  out 
of  the  French  Revolution,  he  was  killed  in  attempting 
to  suppress  a  mutiny  among  his  soldiers  in  Hayti,  in 
1791. 

Maugras,  mo'gRi',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  phi- 
losopher and  writer,  born  near  Bourbonne-les-Bains  in 
1762  ;  died  in  1830. 

Mauguin,  mo'giN',  (Franqois,)  an  eloquent  French 
advocate,  born  at  13ijon  in  1785.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  sat  in  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  until  1848.    Died  in  1854. 

See  M.  DE  CoRMENiN,  "  Le  Livre  des  Orateurs  ;"  L.  deLom^nie, 
"  M.  Mauguin,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1840. 

Maule,  (Fox.)    See  Panmure,  Lord. 

Maulmont,  moKm6N',  or  Malmont,  de,  deh  mSK- 
m6N',  (Jean,)  a  French  scholar  and  theologian,  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  J.  C.  Scaliger. 

Maultrot,  mS'tRo',  (Gabriel  Nicolas,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1 714,  published  numerous  treat- 
ises on  canon  law.    Died  in  1803. 

Maun'der,  (Samuel,)  an  English  compiler,  born 
about  1790.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
"  Treasury  of  Useful  Knowledge,"  and  a  "  Biographical 
Treasury,"  (6th  edition,  1847.)    Died  in  1849. 

See  Wm.  Jerdan,  "Men  I  have  known." 

Maundeville.    See  Mandeville,  (Sir  John.) 

Maun'drell,  (Henry,)  an  English  traveller,  born 
about  1650,  visited  Palestine  in  1697,  and  published  in 
1698  his  "  Journey  from  Aleppo  to  Jerusalem,"  etc.,  which 
was  translated  into  French.    Died  about  1710. 

Maunoir,  mo'nwSR',  (Julien,)  a  learned  French  ec- 
clesiastic, born  in  1606,  wrote  several  theological  treat- 
ises in  Latin,  and  a  number  of  works  in  the  dialect  of 
Brittany,  including  a  grammar  and  dictionary.  Died  in 
1683. 

Maupas,  de,  deh  mo'pi',  (Charles  Cauchon,)  a 
French  soldier,  born  at  Rheims  in  1566,  was  appointed 
councillor  of  state  by  Henry  IV.,  and  was  subsequently 
ambassador  to  the  court  of  England.    Died  in  1629. 

Maupas  du  Tour,  de,  deh  mo^pS'  dii  tooR,  (Henri 
Cauchon,)  a  French  writer,  born  near  Rheims  in  1600, 
rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Evreux  in  1661.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of 
Saint  Francis  de  Sales,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1680. 

Maupeou,  de,  deh  m5'poo',  (  Ren^:  Charles,)  a 
French  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1688.  He  was  suc- 
cessively appointed  first  president  of  the  Parliament  of 
Paris,  keeper  of  the  seals,  and  vice-chancellor,  (1763.) 
Died  in  1775. 

See  De  Tocqueville,  "  Histoire  de  Louis  XV ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 


€  as  k;  9  as  .y;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nai  il ;  r,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAUPEOU 


1550 


MAURICE  AU 


Maupeou,  de,  (Rf,n6  Nicolas  Charles  Augus- 
TIN,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1714,  rose  through 
various  high  offices  to  be  chancellor  of  France  in  1768. 
In  this  post  he  directed  all  his  efforts  towards  the  over- 
throw of  the  parliament,  which,  by  his  intrigues,  was 
accomplished  in  1771.  The  president  Lamoignon  and 
several  distinguished  members  were  exiled  ;  but  on  the 
accession  of  Louis  XVI.  (1774)  they  were  recalled,  and 
the  former  system  was  re-established.  Maupeou  was  ban- 
ished to  his  estate,  near  Les  Andelys,  where  he  died 
in  1792,  having  bequeathed  to  the  nation  the  sum  of 
800,000  livres.  He  was  the  last  chancellor  of  the 
ancient  monarchy. 

See  "Letti  es  de  Madame  du  Deffand  ;"  De  Tocqueville,  "  His- 
toiie  de  Louis  XV;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Maupertuis,  de,  deh  mo'p^R'tii-e',  (Pierre  Louis 
MoREAU,)  an  eminent  French  mathematician,  born  at 
Saint-Malo  in  1698.  He  finished  his  studies  in  Paris, 
was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1723,  and  in 
1727  became  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  London. 
In  1736  he  was  the  chief  of  a  party  of  savants,  in- 
cluding Clairaut  and  Lemonnier,  who  were  sent  to 
Lajiland  by  the  Academy  in  order  to  measure  a  degree 
of  the  meridian.  The  result  of  this  experiment,  which 
is  his  chief  title  to  celebrity,  exposed  the  error  which 
had  been  made  by  Dominic  and  Cassini  in  their  measure- 
ment in  France,  and  tended  to  confirm  Newton's  theory 
of  the  oblate  form  of  the  earth.  On  the  invitation  of 
Frederick  II,  of  Prussia,  Maupertuis  repaired  in  1740  to 
Berlin,  where  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.  He  was  the  author  of  an  "  Essay  on 
Moral  Philosophy,"  "The  Balistic  Arithmetic,"  "The 
Measure  of  the  Northern  Degree,"  "  Discourse  on  the 
Figure  of  the  Stars,"  and  several  able  treatises  on  geom- 
etry.   Died  in  1759. 

See  L.  A.  de  i.a  Beaumelle,  "  Vie  de  Maupertuis,"  1856 ;  Dam^- 
RON,  "  Memoire  siir  Maupertuis;"  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance 
Generale  ;"  J.  H.  Formey,  "  Eloge  de  Maupertuis,"  1761;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mauquest  de  la  Motte,  mo'ka'  deh  It  mot,  (Guil- 
LAUME,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  at  Valognes  in  1655, 
wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Surgery,"  (3  vols.,  1722.)  Died 
in  1737. 

Maur.    See  Raran-Maur. 

Maurand  or  Mauran,  mo'rSN',  (Pierre,)  the  first 
leader  of  the  Albigenses,  was  born  at  Toulouse.  It  is 
said  that,  under  the  pressure  of  severe  persecution,  he 
abjured  his  doctrines.    Died  in  1199. 

Maureillan,  mo'r^'ySN',  (Casimir  Poitevin,)  Vi- 
COMTE,  a  French  general,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1772, 
succeeded  the  Duke  of  Ragusa  as  Governor  of  Dalmatia 
in  1806.    Died  in  1829. 

Maurepas,  de,  deh  moR'p3.',  (Jean  Fr^d^ric  Phe- 
lypeaux — fa']e']35',)  Comte,  a  French  statesman,  born 
at  Versailles  in  1701,  was  a  grandson  of  Chancellor  Pont- 
chartrain.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Jerome  de  Pontchar- 
train,  as  secretary  of  state  in  1715,  and  in  1725  became 
minister  of  marine.  Though  frivolous  in  his  character 
and  superficial  in  his  attainments,  he  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  learned  men,  and  i)romoted  the  scientific  expeditions 
of  Maupertuis  and  his  companions  to  Lapland  and  of 
Jussieu  to  South  America.  Having  offended  Madame 
de  Pompadour  by  an  epigram,  he  was  banished  from 
court  ;  but  after  twenty-five  years  he  was  recalled.  The 
principal  measure  of  his  subsequent  administration  was 
the  restoration  of  the  parliaments.    Died  in  1781. 

See  CoNDORCET,  "  iSloge  de  M.  de  Maurepas,"  1782;  Voltaire, 
"Siecle  de  Louis  XV  ;"  Droz,  "  Histoire  de  Louis  XVI;"  Mar- 
MONTEL,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Maurer,  mow'rer,  (Christoph,)  a  Swiss  painter  and 
engraver,  son  of  Josias,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Zurich 
in  1558.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Tobias  Stimmer.  Died  in 
1614. 

Maurer,  mow'rer,  (Gf.org  Ludwig,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  near  Durkheim,  in  Bavaria,  in  1790,  became  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs  and  of  justice  in  1847.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  treatises  on  German  law. 

Maurer  or  Murer,  moo'rer,  (Josias,)  a  Swiss  artist 
and  litteratetir,  born  at  Zurich  in  1530,  excelled  as  an 
engraver  and  painter  on  glass.    Died  in  1580. 

Maurice,  Emperor  of  the  East.    See  Maurtcius. 

Maurice,  the  French  for  Mauricius,  which  see. 


Maurice,  mo'r^ss',  (Antoine,)  a  French  Protestant 
theologian  and  Orientalist,  born  in  Provence  in  1677. 
He  became  professor  of  history,  Oriental  languages,  and 
theology  at  Geneva.    Died  in  1756. 

Maurice,  (Antoine,)  a  theological  writer,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Geneva  in  1716,  succeeded  his 
f^ither  in  the  chair  of  theology  in  that  city,  (1756.)  Died 
in  1795. 

Maurice,  (Fr6d6ric  Guillaume,)  Baron,  a  Swiss 
writer,  son  of  Antoine,  (the  second  of  the  name,)  born 
at  Geneva  in  1750,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "  Bi- 
bliotheque  Britannique,"  (1796,)  and  published  several 
agricultural  works.    Died  in  1826. 

Maurice,  mau'riss,  (John  Frederick  Dennison,) 
an  English  divine  and  prominent  leader  of  the  "Broad 
Church"  party,  born  in  1805.  He  studied  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became  editor  of  the 
London  "Athenaeum."  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  "Theological  Essays,"  "Prophets  and  Kings  of  the 
Old  Testament,"  "Unity  of  the  New  Testament,"  "The 
Kingdom  of  Christ,"  (1841,)  "Religions  of  the  World," 
"Philosophy  of  the  First  Six  Centuries,"  "Doctrine  of 
Sacrifice  deduced  from  the  Scriptures,"  "Lectures  on 
National  Education,"  "Philosophy  of  the  Middle  Ages," 
"Claims  of  the  Bible  and  of  Science,"  (1862,)  and  "The 
Conflict  of  Good  and  Evil  in  our  Day,"  (1865.)  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Cambridge 
in  1866. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1854  ;  "  New  American  Cy- 
clopjedia." 

Maurice,  (Rev.  Thomas,)  an  English  divine  and 
scholar,  born  in  Hertford  in  1755,  became  vicar  of  Cud- 
ham,  in  Kent.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Indian  Antiqui- 
ties," (7  vols.,  1797,)  "History  of  Hindostan,"  (3  vols., 
1799,)  and  "Modern  History  of  Hindostan,"  (2  vols., 
1804.)  He  also  translated  into  verse  the  "OEdipus 
Tyrannus"  of  Sophocles,  and  published  several  poems 
and  dramas.    Died  in  1824. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Rev.  Thomas  Maurice,"  1819,  by  himself; 
"Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1824. 

Maurice  of  Nassau.    See  Nassau. 

Maurice,  mau''riss,  [Ger.  Mo'ritz;  Lat.  Mauri'tius,] 
Elector  of  Saxony,  a  celebrated  general  and  champion 
of  the  Protestant  cause,  was  born  at  Freiberg,  March 

21,  1521.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Henry,  Duke  of 
Saxony,  in  1541,  and  married  Agnes,  a  daughter  of  Philip, 
Landgrave  of  Hesse.  In  1546  he  formed  a  secret  alliance 
with  the  emperor  Charles  V.  against  the  Protestant 
League  of  Schmalkalden,  with  a  design  to  supplant  John 
Frederick  as  Elector  of  Saxony,  whose  dominions  he 
invaded  with  success.  The  title  of  elector  was  trans- 
ferred to  him  by  Charles  V.  In  consequence  of  his  un- 
expected hostility  to  the  Protestants,  the  Imperial  army 
gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Miihlberg  in  April,  1547,  and 
the  Protestant  cause  was  apparently  ruined.  Having 
changed  his  policy,  and  formed,  in  1551,  a  secret  treaty 
with  Henry  II.  of  France,  Maurice,  aided  by  several  Ger- 
man princes,  in  the  spring  of  1552  took  arms  for  the 
assertion  of  religious  liberty,  and  marched  against  Charles 
v.,  who  was  at  Innspruck.  Surprised  by  this  sudden 
movement,  Charles  was  compelled  to  retreat,  the  Council 
of  Trent  was  dispersed  in  confusion,  and  hostilities  were 
terminated  by  the  memorable  treaty  of  Passau,  August 

22,  1552,  which  secured  religious  liberty  to  the  Protest- 
ants of  Germany.  Maurice  was  killed  in  a  battle  against 
Albert  of  Brandenburg,  at  Sievershausen,  in  July,  1553. 

See  J.  Camerarius,  "Vita  Mauritii  Electoris  Saxoniae,"  1569; 
Georg  Arnold,  "Vita  Mauritii,"  1719;  F.  A.  von  Langenn, 
"  Moritz  Herzog  und  Cluirfiirst  von  Saclisen,"  2  vols.,  1841  ;  Schi.en- 
kert,  "  Moritz  Churfiirst  von  Sachsen,"  4  vols.,  1798-1800;  "  Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Maurice,  mau'riss,  [Fr.  pron.  mo'r^ss',]  Saint,  a 
Christian  martyr,  was  commander  of  the  Theban  Legion, 
which  was  composed  entirely  of  Christians.  Being  or- 
dered by  the  emperor  Maximian  to  make  a  sacrifice  to 
the  gods  for  the  success  of  the  Roman  arms,  he  refused 
to  comply,  and  was  put  to  death,  together  with  the  greater 
part  of  the  legion  he  commanded,  (286  A.D.) 

See  J.  DE  Llsle,  "  Defense  de  la  Verite  du  Martyre  de  la  Legion 
Thebeenne,"  1737. 

Mauriceau,  mo're'so',  (Francois,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  in  Paris,  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Dis- 


3,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MAURICUNUS 


1 55 1 


MAFOR 


eases  of  Pregnancy,"  which  was  translated  into  several 
languages.    Died  in  1 709. 

Maiiricianus,  mau-rish-i-a'nus,  (Junius,)  a  Roman 
jurist  under  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius. 

Mauricius  or  Mauritius,  mau-rishl-us,  [Gr.  Mav- 
o'lmog :  Fr.  Maurice,  mo'r^ss' ;  It.  Maurisio,  mow- 
ree'se-o,]  (Flavius  Tiberius,)  Emperor  of  the  East, 
born  in  Cappadocia  in  539  A.D.  Having  been  appointed 
bv  the  emperor  Tiberius  commander  of  his  armies 
against  the  Persians,  he  gained  several  important  victo- 
nes,  and  was,  on  his  return,  rewarded  by  Tiberius  with 
his  daughter's  hand.  After  carrying  on  war  for  some 
time  with  the  Abares,  a  barbarous  tribe  on  the  Danube, 
a  mutiny  broke  out  among  his  soldiers,  who  chose  for 
their  leader  a  centurion  named  Phocas.  Mauritius  was 
put  to  death,  having  previously  witnessed  the  execution 
of  five  of  his  sons,  (602.) 

See  GiBBo.v.  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Le 
Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas- Empire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
raie. ' ' 

Maurisio,  mow-ree'se-o,  (Gerardo,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  historian,  born  at  Vicenza,  lived  about  1200-1240. 
He  served  under  the  Ghibeline  commander  Ezzelino 
da  Romano,  and  subsequently  wrote  a  history  of  his 
achievements,  which  enjoys  a  high  reputation. 

Mauritius.  See  Maurice  of  Saxony,  and  Mauri- 
cius. 

Mauro,  Fra,  fRi  mow'ro,  an  eminent  Italian  geog- 
rapher, was  a  monk  of  the  order  of  the  Camaldules, 
near  Venice.  His  principal  work  is  an  excellent  map 
of  the  world,  executed  about  1458.  Several  copies  of 
it  have  been  made ;  one  of  the  best  of  these  is  in  the 
British  Museum. 

See  Placido  Zurla.  "II  Mappamundo  di  Fra  Mauro,"  1806. 

Maurooenus.    See  Morosini. 

Maurocordato.    See  MavroCORD.\tos. 

Maurolico,  mow-ro'ie-ko,  (Fra.nce.sco,)  a  celebrated 
Sicilian  gcumeter,  born  at  Messina  in  1494,  was  for  many 
years  professor  of  mathematics  in  his  native  city.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "Treatise  on  Conic  Sections,"  "Op- 
tical Ti.eorem,"  and  other  valuable  works  in  Latin,  and 
made  translations  from  Euclid,  Apollonius,  and  Auto- 
lycus.    Died  in  1575. 

See  F.  Mauroi.ico,  "Vita  del  .\bbate  Francesco  Maurolico," 
1613  ;  i).  SoiNA,  ••  E.ogio  di  F.  Mauro. ico,"  iSoS. 

Mau'rus  Terentia'nus,  (te-rgn-she-a'nus,)  a  Latin 
writer,  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Carthage,  was 
the  author  of  a  poem  on  the  rules  of  Latin  versification, 
entitled    De  Literis,  Syllabis,  Pedibus,"  etc. 

Maury,  m5're',  (  Jean  Siffrein,)  a  celebrated  French 
prelate  and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  the  Venaissin  in  1746. 
He  repaired  to  Paris  about  1766,  and  soon  acquired  a 
high  reputation  by  his  "  Funeral  Oration  on  the  Dauphin." 
and  his  "  Eulogy  of  Fenelon."  He  published  in  1777 
his  "Treatise  on  Pulpit  Eloquence,"  and  in  1778  was  ap- 
pointed to  preach  the  Careme  (Lent)  sermon  before  the 
king.  His  "  Panegyric  on  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  which 
is  esteemed  his  master-piece,  appeared  in  1785,  and  he 
was  soon  after  chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
In  1789  he  was  a  deputy  of  the  clerg}-  of  Peronne  to  the 
States-General,  where  he  was  conspicuous  as  the  elo- 
quent advocate  of  the  Church  and  of  the  royalist  party 
and  the  most  powerful  opponent  of  Mirabeau.  On  the 
dissolution  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  the  countn.',  and  at  the  invitation  of  Pius  VI. 
he  took  up  his  residence  at  Rome,  where  he  was  made 
a  cardinal  in  1794.  In  1804  he  wrote  a  letter  of  con- 
gratulation to  the  emperor  Xapoleon,  and  henceforth 
attached  himself  to  the  interests  of  the  new  sovereign. 
He  was  successively  created  by  him  a  member  of  the 
Institute,  first  almoner  of  Jerome  Bonaparte,  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  (1810.)  After  the  restoration  of  the 
Bourbons,  Cardinal  Maury  was  deprived  of  his  place, 
and  retired  to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1817.  Maury  was 
noted  for  his  brilliant  repartee,  of  which  the  following 
instances  may  be  given.  Being  asked  by  Xapoleon  how 
he  stood  with  regard  to  the  Bourbons,  he  replied,  "  Sire, 
my  respect  for  them  is  unalterable  ;  but  I  have  lost  faith 
and  hope,  and  there  remains  to  me  only  charity."  Once, 
in  the  Assembly,  some  ladies  of  rank,  known  for  their 
republican  opinions,  attempted  by  their  loud  conversa- 


tion to  drown  his  voice,  when,  turning  to  the  president, 
he  said,  "I  pray  you  silence  those  Sans-culottes." 

See  "Viedu  Cardinal  Maury,"  1827, by  his  nephew;  Poujoulat, 
"  Le  Cardinal  Maury,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEuvres,"  1855  ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
eraphie  Generale ;"  "Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixix.,  1812,  (Appen- 
dix) 

Maury,  mow-ree',  (Juan  Maria,)  a  Spanish  poet 
and  critic,  born  at  Malaga,  published  in  1826  a  collection 
of  Spanish  lyrics,  entitled  "Poetical  Spain,"  ("Espagne 
poetique,")  which  were  translated  into  elegant  French 
verse  and  accompanied  with  critical  and  biographical 
notices.    Died  in  1845. 

Maiury,  (Louis  Ferdinand  Alfred,)  a  French  anti- 
quarian writer,  born  at  Meaux  in  181 7.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1857.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  works,  the  most  valuable  of  which 
is  his  "  History  of  the  Religions  of  Ancient  Greece," 
(3  vols.,  1857.) 

Mau'ry,  (Matthew  Fontaine,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
hydrographer  and  naval  officer,  born  in  Spottsylvania 
county,  Virginia,  in  1806.  About  1826  he  sailed  in  the 
Vincennes  on  a  voyage  around  the  world,  and  after  his 
return  was  made  a  lieutenant  in  1836.  He  has  published 
a  "Treatise  on  Navigation,"  (about  1835,)  "Letters  on 
the  Amazon  and  the  Atlantic  Slopes  of  South  America," 
"Relation  between  Magnetism  and  the  Circulation  of 
the  Atmosphere,"  "Astronomical  Observations,"  (1853,) 
and  "  Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea,"  (1855,  sixth  edi- 
tion, 1856,)  a  work  which  has  been  highly  praised  by 
competent  judges. 

See  the  "  North  British  Re\'iew"  for  May,  1858. 

Mausole.    See  Mausolus. 

Mau-soTus,  [Gr.  Mafaw/^f ;  Fr.  Mausole,  mo'zol',] 
son  of  Hecatomnus,  became  King  of  Caria,  in  Greece, 
about  377  B.C.  He  made  considerable  conquests  in 
Persia  and  in  different  parts  of  Greece,  and  was,  accord- 
ing to  Demosthenes,  one  of  the  instigators  of  the  Social 
war.  From  his  name  is  derived  the  word  "  Mausoleum." 
(See  Artemisia.) 

See  Clinton,  "Fasti  Hellenici." 

Maussac,  de,  deh  mo'stk',  [Lat.  Maussa'cus,] 
(Philip  Jacques,)  an  eminent  French  critic  and  scholar, 
born  near  Beziers  about  1590.  He  became  first  president 
of  the  Chambre  des  Comptes  at  MontpelHer  in  1647. 
He  published  the  "Greek  Lexicon"  of  Harpocration, 
with  notes,  (1614,)  an  edition  of  Aristotle's  "History  of 
Animals,"  and  of  Psellus"On  the  Virtues  of  Minerals." 
Maussac  was  one  of  the  first  Greek  scholars  of  his  time, 
and  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Salmasius.    Died  in  1650. 

See  Baillet,  "  Jugements  des  Savants." 

Maussacus.    See  Maussac. 

Mautour,  de,  deh  mS'tooR',  (Philtbert  Bernard 
;  MoREAU,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Beaune  in  1654. 
I  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Dissertation  on  the  History  of 
!  the  Amazons."    Died  in  1737. 

I  Mauvais,  mo'v|',  (F6lix  Victor,)  a  French  astron- 
'  omer.  born  at  Maiche,  in  Doubs,  in  1809;  died  in  1854. 
I  Mauvillon,  mo've'v^N',  (El6azar,)  a  French  litfe- 
I  rateui\  born  in  Provence  in  1712,  became  secretary  to 
'  Frederick  Augustus,  King  of  Poland.  He  published  a 
I  "History  of  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy,"  (5  vols.,  1740,) 
!a  "History  of  Peter  the  Great,"  (1742,)  "History  of 
'  Gustavus   Adolphus,"  (1764,)   and   other  works,  (in 

French.)  Died  at  Brunswick  in  1779. 
I  Mauvillon,  (Jacob,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
'  Leipsic  in  1743,  became  professor  of  military-  science  at 
;  Cassel  in  1771.  He  wrote  a  "Historical  Essay  on  the 
1  Art  of  War,"  etc.,  (in  French,  1784,)  and  other  works 
i  in  French  and  German,  also  "The  Prussian  Monarchy," 

("La  Monarchic  Prussienne," )  in  conjunction  with 
j  Mirabeau,  who  was  his  intimate  friend.    Died  in  1794. 

See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
i  Generale." 

I    Mauzinho  Quevedo  de  Castello  Branco,  mow- 

I  zen'yo  kk-va'do  di  kis-teKlo  bRSn'ko,  a  Portuguese 
j  poet,  wrote  a  poem  entitled  "  Alphonso  the  African," 

commemorating  the  achievements  of  King  Alphonso  V. 

MaVor,  (WIlliam  Fordyce,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born 
'  near  Aberdeen  in  1758,  became  tutor  to  the  children 

of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.  He  published  a  number 
I  of  useful  compilations,  among  which  we  may  name  a 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  kard;  g2cs,j;  g,  h,  K,guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAVORS 


1552 


MAXIMILIAN 


"  Historical  Account  of  the  Most  Celebrated  Voyages," 
*•  Elements  of  Natural  History,"  and  "The  British  Cor- 
nelius Nepos."    Died  in  1837. 
Mavors.    See  Mars. 

Mavrocordatos,  mSv-ro-kor-di'tos,  or  Mavrocor- 
dato,  mav-ro-kor-di'to,  (Alexander,)  a  modern  Greek 
physician,  statesman,  and  scholar,  born  about  1636.  He 
studied  at  Rome  and  Padua,  and  took  his  medical  degree 
at  Bologna.  Having  settled  at  Constantinople,  his  pro- 
found knowledge  of  both  Oriental  and  European  lan- 
guages procured  for  him  the  post  of  grand  dragoman  to 
the  Ottoman  Porte,  (1673.)  He  was  afterwards  employed 
in  important  embassies  to  Vienna,  and  negotiated  the 
treaty  of  Carlowitz,  (1698.)  His  services  to  Austria  on 
this  occasion  were  rewarded  by  the  emperor  Leopold 
with  the  title  of  count  of  the  empire,  while  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  state  by  the  Sultan,  and  obtained 
other  distinctions.  He  was  the  author  of  a  medical 
work  entitled  "  Pneumaticum  Instrumentum,"  etc.,  which 
was  translated  into  French,  German,  and  Spanish,  a 
"Modern  Greek  Grammar,"  and  a  collection  of  letters. 
Died  in  1709. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mavrocordatos,  (Alexander,)  a  Greek  statesman, 
born  at  Constantinople  in  1791.  He  took  arms  against 
the  Turks  in  1821,  and  was  appointed  president  of  the 
executive  committee  in  January,  1822,  soon  after  which 
he  took  command  of  the  army.  Having  been  rendered 
almost  powerless  by  the  dissensions  among  the  Greeks 
and  by  the  enmity  of  Colocotronis  and  Ypsilanti,  he  re- 
signed or  refused  the  office  of  president  in  1823.  In  1832 
he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  cabinet  by  King  Otho, 
whom  he  served  as  ambassador  to  Munich,  Berlin,  and 
London  between  1834  and  1840.  He  was  prime  minis- 
ter for  a  short  time  in  1841,  and  president  of  the  council 
in  1844.  About  May,  1854,  he  was  restored  to  power, 
which  he  resigned  a  few  months  later.  Died  in  1865. 

See  Tricoupis,  "  History  of  the  Greek  Revolution,"  (in  modern 
Greek,)  4  vols.,  1853-56;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  L.  de 
LoMENiE,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains." 

Mavrocordatos,  (  Constantine,  )  was  appointed 
Hospodar  of  Wallachia  in  1735.  abolished  serfdom, 
and  introduced  great  improvements  in  the  agriculture 
of  the  country.    Died  in  1765. 

Mavrocordatos,  (Nicholas,)  son  of  Alexander, 
(the  first  of  the  name,)  was  appointed  successively 
dragoman  to  the  Sultan,  Hospodar  of  Moldavia  (1709) 
and  of  Wallachia,  (1711.)    Died  in  1730. 

Mavromichalis,  mav-ro-me-Ki'lis,  known  also  as 
PiETRO  Bey,  a  modern  Greek  patriot,  born  in  the  Morea 
about  1775.  He  fought  against  the  Turks  in  the  revo- 
lution which  began  in  1821,  and  became  a  member  of 
the  provisional  government.    Died  in  1848. 

Mawe,  maw,  (Joseph,)  an  English  naturalist,  born  in 
Derbyshire  in  1764,  published  "  Travels  in  the  Interior  of 
Brazil,"  etc.,  (1812,)  "Treatise  on  Diamonds  and  Precious 
Stones,"  (1813,)  "Mineralogy  of  Derbyshire,"  and  other 
scientific  treatises.    Died  in  1829. 

Mawmoisine,  maw'moi-zin,  or  Malvoisine,  de, 
deh  miKvo-zin,  (William,)  a  prelate,  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  France.  Having  visited  Scotland,  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  Saint  Andrew's  in  1202.  He  estab- 
lished many  monasteries  in  that  country,  and  was  active 
in  promoting  a  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land. 

Maxcy,  mak'see,  (Jonathan,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Baptist  divine,  born  at  Attleborough,  Massachusetts,  in 
1768.  He  became  successively  professor  of  divinity  at 
Brown  University,  Rhode  Island,  (1791,)  president  of 
Union  College,  New  York,  (1802,)  and  president  of 
South  Carolina  College,  (1804.)    Died  in  1820. 

See  the  "  Literary  Remains  of  Rev.  Jonathan  Maxcy,"  with  a 
Memoir  by  R.  Elton,  D.D.,  1844. 

Maxence.    See  Maxentius. 

Maxentius,  maks-§n'she3s,  [Fr.  Maxence,  mtk'- 
s6nssM  (Marcus  Aureliijs^Valerius,)  a  Roman  em- 
peror, was  the  son  of  Maximian,  who  abdicated  in  305 
A.n.  He  married  the  daughter  of  the  emperor  Galerius. 
He  thought  himself  slighted  by  the  promotion  of  Con- 
stantine to  the  rank  of  Caesar  in  306,  and  excited  a 
revolt  among  the  PriEtorian  guards,  who  proclaimed  him 


emperor  at  Rome  in  the  same  year.  Galerius,  who  was 
then  in  a  distant  province,  sent  against  him  an  army 
under  Severus,  who  was  defeated  and  killed  by  the  aid 
of  Maximian.  Maxentius  and  his  father  reigned  together 
for  a  short  time,  and  made  an  alliance  with  Constantine, 
who  married  Fausta,  a  sister  of  Maxentius.  Maximian 
was  expelled  from  Rome  in  308,  in  consequence  of  a 
quarrel  with  his  son.  In  312  the  army  of  Constantine 
defeated  that  of  Maxentius,  who,  in  the  retreat,  was 
drowned  in  the  Tiber. 

See  Gibbon,  ."Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Tille- 
MONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Maxime.    See  Maximus. 

Maxime  de  Tyr.    See  Maximus  Tyrius. 

Max-im'i-an,  [Fr.  Maximien,  mtk'se'me2|.N' ;  Lat. 
Maximia'nus,]  or,  more  fully,  Mar''cus  Vale'rius 
Maximia'nus,  a  Roman  emperor,  born  in  Pannonia, 
was  the  son  of  a  peasant.  He  had  obtained  high  rank  in 
the  army  when  Diocletian,  in  286  A.D.,  adopted  hiin  as 
his  colleague  in  the  empire.  In  the  division  of  the  em- 
pire, Italy  and  Africa  were  assigned  to  Maximian.  In 
305  Diocletian  and  Maximian  formally  abdicated  in 
favour  of  Galerius  and  Constantius  Chlorus.  The  next 
year  he  joined  his  son  Maxentius  in  an  effort  to  recover 
power,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor.  In  the  war  that 
ensued  between  him  and  Constantine  he  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  executed  in  310.    (See  Maxentius.) 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Tille- 
MONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Maximianus.    See  Maximian. 
Maximien.    See  Maximian. 

Max-i-miFi-an  [Ger.  pron.  mSk-se-mee'le-Sn ;  Fr. 
Maximilien,  mtk'se'me^le'iN';  Lat.  Maximilia'nus  ; 
It.  Massimiliano,  mis-se-me-le-i'no]  I.,  Emperor  of 
Germany,  born  at  Neustadt  in  1459,  was  the  son  ot 
Frederick  HI.  and  Leonora  of  Portugal.  He  married, 
in  1477,  Mary  of  Burgundy,  daughter  and  heiress  of 
Charles  the  Bold,  who  died  in  1482,  leaving  two  children, 
Philip  and  Margaret.  In  accordance  with  the  stipulations 
of  the  peace  of  Arras,  (1482,)  he  betrothed  his  daughter 
Margaret  to  the  Dauphin,  (afterwards  Charles  VIII.  of 
France,)  with  Burgundy,  Artois,  and  Flanders  for  her 
portion.  For  several  years  following  he  was  involved  in 
a  contest  with  France,  and  with  his  subjects  in  the  Neth« 
erlands,  incited  to  revolt  by  Louis  XI.  About  1492  he 
prepared  to  make  war  on  Charles  VIII.,  who  not  only 
refused  to  keep  his  engagement  with  Maximilian's  daugh- 
ter, but  had  deprived  him  of  his  intended  bride,  Anne, 
the  wealthy  heiress  of  Brittany.  By  the  mediation  of 
Philip,  Elector  of  the  Palatinate,  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
concluded,,  between  the  two  sovereigns  at  Senlis,  (1493,) 
by  which  Charles  was  compelled  to  give  up  the  dowry 
of  the  princess.  Maximilian  was  crowned  Emperor  of 
Germany,  and  in  1494  married  Bianca  Sforza,  daugh- 
ter of  the  Duke  of  Milan,  which  alliance  gave  rise  to  a 
succession  of  wars  in  Italy.  He  soon  after  joined  the 
League  of  Cambray,  formed  between  Pope  Julius  II., 
Ferdinand  of  Spain,  and  Louis  XII.  of  France,  against 
the  Venetians ;  but,  that  republic  having  soon  after 
become  reconciled  to  the  pope,  Maximilian  joined  the 
so-called  Holy  League  between  England,  Spain,  Venice, 
and  the  pope,  in  opposition  to  the  French,  who  were 
signally  defeated  by  the  forces  of  Henry  VIII.  and  the 
emperor,  in  the  "  battle  of  the  spurs,"  near  Guinegate, 
(1513.)  Francis  I.,  having  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
France,  captured  Milan,  and  compelled  Maximilian  to 
give  up  Verona  to  the  Venetians  for  200,000  ducats.  By 
the  treaty  of  Bale  (1499)  he  had  been  obliged  to  acknow- 
ledge the  independence  of  Switzerland.  Though  often 
unsuccessful  in  his  wars,  he  had  the  fortune  to  acquire 
extensive  territories  by  the  marriage  of  his  son  Philip 
with  the  Infanta  of  Spain,  and  of  his  grandchildren  P'er- 
dinand  and  Maria  with  the  son  and  daughter  of  Ladislaus, 
King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  His  daughter  Mar- 
garet was  married  to  the  Spanish  prince  Don  Juan,  a 
son  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  Among  the  important 
acts  of  his  reign  were  the  establishment  of  the  Imperial 
Chamber  and  Aulic  Cotmcil,  and  the  abolition  of  the 
Secret  Tribunal  of  Westphalia  ;  he  also  created  a  stand- 
ing army  and  introduced  military  discipline.  He  was  a 
liberal  patron  of  learned  men,  and  was  the  author  of 


5,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lo7ig;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fa.t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  mooi. ; 


MAXIMILIAN 


1553 


MJXIMUS 


several  works  in  prose  and  verse.  He  died  in  January, 
1519,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Charles  V. 

See  CoxH,  "History  of  the  House  of  Austria;"  Hegewisch, 
"  Gescliichte  der  Regieruug  Maxitniliaus  I.,"  1782  ;  Karl  Haltaus, 
"Geschichte  des  Kaisers  Maximilian,"  1850;  Van  dkr  Voort, 
"Maximilian  van  Oostenrijk,"  1844;  LiCHNOwsKY,  "  Geschichte 
des  Hauses  Habsburg." 

Maximilian  II.,  born  in  1527,  was  the  son  of  Fer- 
dinand I.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1564  as  Emperor  of 
Germany.  He  was  soon  after  engaged  in  a  war  with  the 
Turks,  who  had  established  themselves  in  Hungary. 
After  the  death  of  Solyman  H.  a  truce  of  eight  years 
was  concluded  between  his  successor  and  the  emperor. 
Maximilian  was  favourably  inclined  towards  the  Protest- 
ants, whom  he  allowed  to  fill  important  offices;  but  the 
influence  of  the  pope,  the  King  of  Spain,  and  the  Catho- 
lic princes  of  Germany  prevented  him  from  formally 
embracing  their  doctrines.  He  died  in  1576,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Rudolph. 

See  CoxE,  "  History  of  the  House  of  Austria;"  DeThou,  "  His- 
toria  sui  Temporis;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Maximilian  I.,  Elector  of  Bavaria,  born  in  1573. 
On  the  formation  by  the  Protestants  of  the  confederacy 
called  the  Union,  {1608,)  Maximilian  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  opposing  Catholic  faction  of  the  League. 
In  conjunction  with  the  emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  he  fought 
in  the  Thirty  Years' war  against  the  Palatine  Frederick  V., 
and  conquered  the  Upper  and  Lower  Palatinate.  In  1623 
he  obtained  the  electoral  dignity  of  the  Palatinate  and 
the  hereditary  domains  of  Frederick  V.  Maximilian  was 
an  able  ruler,  and  founded  a  number  of  colleges  and  other 
useful  institutions.    Died  in  165 1. 

See  Karl  Maria  von  Aketin,  "Geschichte  des  Herzogs  und 
Kurfiirsten  Maximilian  I.,"  1842. 

Maximilian  II.,  (Joseph,)  King  of  Bavaria,  the 
eldest  son  of  King  Lewis,  was  born  in  181 1.  He  mar- 
ried in  1842  a  daughter  of  Prince  Frederick  William  of 
Prussia.  In  March,  1848,  he  succeeded  his  father,  who 
abdicated  the  throne.  He  opposed  the  project  to  unite 
the  German  peoples  into  one  nation  or  confederacy  of 
which  the  King  of  Prussia  should  be  the  head.  He  died 
in  March,  1864,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Lewis. 

Maximilian,  (Ferdinand  Joseph,)  Emperor  of 
Mexico  and  Archduke  of  Austria,  born  in  July,  1832, 
was  a  brother  of  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph.  He 
married  Carlotta,  or  Charlotte,  a  daughter  of  Leopold, 
King  of  Belgium,  about  1858.  In  1859  he  was  appointed 
an  admiral  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  Austrian  navy. 
In  1863  he  was  tempted  by  Napoleon  III.  to  act  the  part 
of  emperor  in  Mexico,  then  partly  conquered  by  the 
French  and  partly  governed  by  the  republican  President 
Juarez.  He  arrived  at  the  Mexican  capital  in  June,  1864. 
He  issued  a  decree  that  all  who  adhered  to  the  republic 
or  resisted  his  authority  should  be  shot.  Many  prisoners, 
including  General  Orteaga,  accordingly  suffered  death  by 
his  order.  According  to  the  New  York  "Evening  Post," 
July  I,  1867,  he  ordered  the  enslavement  of  the  whole 
labouring  population  of  Mexico.  The  United  States 
refused  to  recognize  him  as  emperor,  and  required  Na- 
poleon to  withdraw  his  army.  Maximilian  was  much 
embarrassed  by  the  want  of  money,  and  offended  the 
clerical  party  (which  had  favoured  him)  by  refusing  to 
restore  the  property  of  the  Church,  which  had  been 
confiscated  by  the  Liberals.  The  French  troops  de- 
parted about  the  end  of  1866,  after  which  the  republicans 
gained  several  victories  and  the  empire  quickly  collapsed. 
Maximilian  was  captured  at  Queretaro  in  May,  and  shot 
on  the  19th  of  June,  1867. 

See  his  "Recollections  of  my  Life,"  3  vols.,  1868;  F.  Hall, 
"Life  of  Maximilian,"  1868. 

Maximilian,  (Alexander  Philipp,)  Prince  of  Neu- 
wied,  a  German  naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Neu- 
wied  in  1782.  In  1815  he  set  out  on  a  journey  through 
Brazil,  where  he  spent  two  years  and  made  a  rich  col- 
lection of  specimens.  On  his  return  he  published  his 
"Travels  in  Brazil"  and  a  "Description  of  the  Natural 
History  of  Brazil."  In  1833  he  visited  the  western  part 
of  the  United  States.  His  "Journey  through  North 
America,"  a  magnificent  work,  illustrated  with  eighty- 
one  engravings,  came  out  in  1843,  and  is  said  to  be 
superior  to  anything  of  the  kind  that  had  hitherto 
appeared  in  Germany. 


Maximilian  Mari'a  Eman'uel,  Elector  of  Bavaria, 
born  in  1662,  was  a  grandson  of  Maximilian  I.  In  16S5 
he  married  Maria  Antonia,  daughter  of  the  emjjeror  ^ 
Leopold  I.,  and  was  appointed  in  1692  Governor  of  the 
Netherlands.  Having  taken  part  with  the  French  in 
the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  he  delivered  up  to 
them  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  After  his  defeat  at  the 
battle  of  Schellenberg,  he  was  obliged  by  the  emperor 
to  give  up  his  possessions,  which,  however,  were  restored 
at  the  peace  of  Baden  in  17 14.    Died  in  1726. 

Max''i-min,  [Lat.  Maximi'nus;  Fr.  Maximin,  mtk'- 
se'ttiiN',]  or,  more  fully,  Cai'us  JuTius  Ve'rus  Max- 
imi''nus,  a  native  of  Thrace,  born  in  173  A.D.,  served 
in  the  Roman  army  under  Septimius  Severus.  Having 
followed  Alexander  Severus  in  his  German  canq^aign, 
he  caused  him  to  be  assassinated,  a.d.  235,  and  was 
proclaimed  emperor  in  his  stead.  In  consequence  of  his 
cruelties,  the  province  of  Africa  soon  after  revolted,  and 
Gordianus  was  made  emperor  by  the  senate  of  Rome, 
A.D.  237.  Maximinus,  having  defeated  and  slain  Gor- 
dianus, laid  siege  to  Aquileia,  during  which  he  was  killed 
in  a  mutiny  of  his  soldiers,  together  with'  his  son,  in  238 
A.D.  If  we  may  trust  the  concurrent  testimony  of  ancient 
writers,  Maximin  was  above  eight  feet  high,  well  propor- 
tioned, and  of  such  strength  that  he  could  easily  draw  a 
loaded  wagon,  and  with  a  kick  break  the  leg  of  a  horse. 
He  is  said  to  have  used  his  wife's  bracelet  for  a  finger- 
ring. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "Histoire  des  Empereurs," 

Max-i-mi'nus  Da'za,  an  Illyrian  peasant,  a  relative 
of  Galerius,  was  raised  by  him  to  the  dignity  of  Caesar, 
A.D.  305.  He  ruled  over  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  perse- 
cuted the  Christians.  On  the  death  of  Galerius,  in  311, 
Maximinus  took  possession  of  all  the  Asiatic  provinces. 
He  afterwards  made  war  on  Licinius,  but  was  defeated, 
and  died  by  poison  at  Tarsus  in  313  A.D. 

Max'I-nius,  |Fr.  Maxime,  mtk's^m';  It.  Massimo, 
mis'se-mo,  ]  (  Magnus  Clemens,  )  a  usurper  of  the 
Roman  empire,  was  a  native  of  Spain.  Having  for  sev- 
eral years  commanded  the  Roman  army  in  Britain  with 
success,  he  revolted  against  Gratian  about  381  A.D., 
and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  soldiers.  He  then 
invaded  Gaul  to  offer  battle  to  Gratian,  who  was  defeated, 
or  fled  without  fighting,  and  was  killed  in  383.  Theo- 
dosius  and  Valentinian  recognized  him  as  Emperor  of 
Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain.  Attempting  to  obtain  Italy 
also  by  conquest,  he  was  defeated  by  Theodosius,  taken 
prisoner,  and  executed  in  388  A.D. 

See  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  Tillemont,  "  His- 
toire des  Empereurs." 

Maximus,  [Fr.  Maxime,  mik's^m',]  Saint,  sur- 
named  the  Confessor  and  the  Monk,  an  eminent 
Greek  theologian,  born  at  Constantinople  about  580 
A.D.  He  zealously  opposed  the  heresy  of  the  Monothe- 
lites,  and  wrote  many  works  on  theology,  which  were 
highly  esteemed  in  the  middle  ages.    Died  in  662  a.d. 

Max'i-mus  the  Greek,  a  native  of  Albania,  was 
invited  to  Russia  by  the  grand  duke  Vassili  Ivanovitch, 
in  order  to  examine  numerous  Greek  manuscripts  re- 
cently discovered.  He  made  translations  of  the  princi- 
pal ones  into  Latin,  which  were  rendered  by  others  into 
Slavonian.  At  the  request  of  the  Czar,  he  undertook 
to  revise  the  early  translations  of  the  books  of  the 
Greek  Church ;  but  the  humerous  corrections  which  he 
made  gave  great  offence,  and  he  was  excommunicated 
as  a  heretic  in  1525.    Died  in  1556. 

Maximus  Fabius.    See  Fabius. 

Max'i-mus  Pe-tro'ni-us,  an  ambitious  Roman  cour- 
tier, born  in  395  A.D.  He  was  twice  chosen  consul. 
In  455  he  procured  the  assassination  of  Valentinian 
III.,  was  proclaimed  emperor,  and  married  Eudoxia,  the 
widow  of  Valentinian.  Genseric  the  Vandal,  invited  by 
Eudoxia,  marched  an  army  towards  Rome,  when  Maxi- 
mus attempted  to  escape  by  flight,  but  was  killed  by  his 
soldiers,  or  by  the  officers  of  Eudoxia,  in  455  A.D. 

See  Tillemont,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Max'i-mus  Ru-til'i-us,  a  Roman  jurist,  supposed  to 
have  lived  under  Severus  and  Caracalla.  He  was  the 
author  of  "  Ad  Legem  Falcidiam,"  or  Commentary  on 
the  Lex  Falcidia. 

Max'i-mus  Tyr'i-us,  [Fr.  Maxime  de  Tyr,  mSk'- 
s^m'  deh  t^R,]  an  eminent  Platonic  philosopher,  born  at 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^="See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 

98 


MAXWELL 


1554 


MATER  US 


Tyre  in  the  second  century,  lived  at  Athens  and  Rome 
in  the  reigns  of  the  Antonines  and  of  Commodus.  He 
wrote,  in  Greek,  numerous  philosophical  dissertations, 
the  style  and  sentiments  of  which  are  commended.  Two 
of  these  are  entitled  *'  On  the  Daemonium  of  Socrates," 
and  "  On  Plato's  Ojjinion  respecting  the  Deity." 

See  RiTTKR,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca 
Gfjeca." 

Max'well,  (Sir  Murray,)  a  Scottish  naval  ofificer, 
born  near  Perth  in  1766,  served  with  distinction  in  sev- 
eral campaigns  against  the  French  and  Spaniards,  and 
in  1815  accomjianied  Lord  Amherst  on  his  embassy  to 
China.    lie  was  made  a  knight  in  1818.    Died  in  1831. 

See  Basil  Halt.,  "  Voyage  of  Discovery  to  the  Western  Coast 
of  Corea,"  etc.  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  October  and  November, 
1S42. 

Maxwell,  (Rorert,)  one  of  the  Scottish  lords  of  the 
regency  during  the  absence  of  James  V.  in  France,  had 
a  share  in  the  mutiny  at  Solway  Moss.  In  the  first 
Parliament  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  (1543,)  he  intro- 
duced a  bill  to  allow  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  in  the 
vulgar  tongue, 'which  was  passed  in  spite  of  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  lord  chancellor,  the  bishops  and  priests. 
Died  in  1546. 

Maxwell,  (William  Hamilton,)  a  writer,  born  in 
Ireland  in  1795.  He  published,  besides  several  novels, 
a  "  Life  of  Wellington,"  and  contributed  to  "  Bentley's 
Miscellany."    Died  in  1850. 

Maxwell,  (Wiixiam  Stirling.)    See  Stirling. 

May,  (Caroline,)  an  American  writer,  and  resident 
of  New  York,  has  jDublished  several  poems  and  prose 
works,  and  prepared  an  edition  of  the  ''American  Female 
Poets,"  with  notes. 

May,  (Edith.)    See  Drinker. 

May,  (Edward  H.,)  an  American  painter,  of  English 
extraction,  resided  in  New  York  City.  He  studied  under 
Couture,  in  Paris,  and  produced  a  number  of  pictures 
which  were  highly  commended  by  French  critics.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  "  Jewish  Captives  at  Babylon," 
"  Francis  I.  at  Prayer  after  hearing  of  the  Death  of  his 
Son,"  and  a  "  Scene  from  Waverley." 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

May,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Sussex 
about  1595,  was  appointed  by  Cromwell  secretary  and 
historiographer  to  the  Parliament.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "  History  of  the  English  Parliament  which  began 
November,  1640,"  which  is  commended  by  Warburton ; 
also  the  tragedies  of  "  Antigone"  and  "Agrippina,"  a 
comedy  entitled  "The  Heir,"  and  other  works.  He 
likewise  translated  Lucan's  "  Pharsalia,"  and  wrote  a 
continuation  of  it,  in  Latin  and  English.  It  is  eulogized 
by  Dr.  Johnson  and  other  critics.    Died  in  1650. 

See  CiBBER,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  Warburton,  "Letters  to 
Hard;"  "Monk's  Contemporaries,"  by  Guizot,  London,  1864. 

May,  (Thomas  Erskine,)  an  English  historian  and 
writer  on  law,  born  about  181 5.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  Constitutional  History  of  England  from 
1760  to  i860,"  (1861-63.) 

May  de  Romain-Motier,  mh  deh  ro^miN'  mo'te-i', 
(Emmanuel,)  a  Swiss  writer,  born  at  Berne  in  1734, 
published  a  "  Military  History  of  the  Swiss,"  etc.,  (1772.) 
Died  in  1799. 

May^,  m^'ya,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  *'  Illusion," 
and  applied  by  the  Hindoos  in  a  philosophical  or  mys- 
tical sense  to  that  Power  which  caused  or  created  the 
visible  phenomena  of  the  universe,  it  being  assumed  that 
external  objects  have  no  absolute  existence,  but  that 
they  are  mere  impressions  on  the  mind,  according  to 
the  theory  held  by  Berkeley  and  some  other  European 
philosophers.  The  Maya  of  the  Hindoo  mythology  is, 
according  to  some,  a  mighty  goddess,  regarded  as  the 
wife  or  consort  of  Brahma. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindoo  Mythology ;"  Wilson,  "  Sanscrit  Dic- 
tionary." 

Mayans  y  Siscar,  mT-^ns'  e  s^s-kaR',  [Lat.  Maian'- 
Sius,]  (Gregorio,)  a  Spanish  jurist  and  scholar,  born 
at  Oliva  in  1699.  He  luiblished  a  "Life  of  Miguel  Cer- 
vantes," (1738,)  and  a  number  of  legal  and  critical  works 
of  a  high  character.    Died  in  1781. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literatnre;"  Strodtmann, 
"G.  Maiansii  Vita,"  1756. 


Maydieu,  m^'de-uh',  (Jean,)  a  French  litterateitr, 
who  was  born  at  Troyes,  and  lived  about  1 760-1800.  He 
wrote  several  works  of  fiction. 

Mayenne  or  Maienne,  de,  deh  mt^ygn',  (Charles 
de  Lorraine,)  Due,  an  able  French  general,  born  in 
1554,  was  the  second  son  of  Francis,  Duke  of  Guise. 
He  fought  against  the  Huguenots  in  the  civil  wars 
under  Charles  IX.  and  Henry  III.  His  brother  Henry 
and  he  organized  the  Catholic  League  in  1577.  (See 
Guise,  de,  Henry,  Duke.)  On  the  death  of  his  brother 
Henry,  in  is88,  the  Duke  of  Mayenne  became  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  of  the  League.  He  occupied 
Paris  in  February,  1589,  and  opposed  the  succession  of 
Henry  IV.,  who  defeated  Mayenne  at  Ivry  in  March, 
1590.  The  duke  retained  possession  of  Paris  until  1593, 
and  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Henry  IV.  in  1596. 
Died  in  161 1, 

See  Nerv^ze,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  du  Due  de  Mayenne,"  1618; 
SiSMONor,  "  Histoire  des  Fran^ais  ;"  Davila,  "  History  of  the 
Civil  Wars  of  France  ;"  H.  Martin,  "  Histoire  de  France." 

Mayenne,  de,  (Henri  de  Lorraine,)  Due,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  1578.  He  acted  a  prominent 
part  in  the  tumults  and  violent  feuds  which  prevailed 
during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIII.  In  1621  he  was 
killed  at  Montauban,  where  he  fought  against  the  Prot- 
estants. 

Mayer,  mi'er,  (Andreas,)  a  German  astronomer, 
born  at  Augsburg  in  1716  ;  died  in  1782. 

May'er,  (Branz,)  an  American  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  at  Baltimore  in  1809.  He  published  "  Mexico 
— Aztec,  Spanish,  and  Republican,"  (1851,)  "Observa- 
tions on  Mexican  History  and  Archaeology,"  etc.,  and 
"Mexican  Antiquities,"  (1858.) 

Mayer,  mS'ya',  (Charles  Joseph,)  a  French  novel- 
ist and  historical  writer,  born  at  Toulon  in  1 751  ;  died 
about  1825. 

Mayer,  (Johann  Christoph  Andreas,)  a  German 
anatomist,  born  at  Greifswalde  in  1747,  became  physician 
to  the  King  of  Prussia  in  1789.    Died  in  1801. 

Mayer,  ml'er,  [Lat.  Maye'rus,]  (Johann  Tobias,) 
an  eminent  German  mathematician  and  astronomer,  born 
at  Marbach  in  1723.  At  an  early  age  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  the  exact  sciences,  and  in  1750 
became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
Gottingen,  and  the  next  year  director  of  the  observatory 
in  that  place.  In  1755  he  published  his  "  Lunar  Tables," 
a  work  of  the  greatest  accuracy  and  which  at  once 
gained  him  a  high  reputation.  Among  his  many  able 
productions  we  may  name  the  "  Zodiacal  Catalogue,"  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Libration  of  the  Moon,"  "  Solar  Tables," 
and  "  Terrestrial  Refractions."  Mayer  also  discovered 
the  principle  of  the  repeating  circle,  since  developed  by 
Borda  and  employed  by  him  to  measure  the  arc  of  the 
meridian.  After  Mayer's  death,  which  took  place  in 
1762,  the  British  Parliament,  at  the  suggestion  of  the 
board  of  longitude,  paid  to  his  widow  the  sum  of  ;i^3000, 
being  the  prize  offered  for  the  "Lunar  Tables." 

See  A.  G.  Kastner,  "  Elogium  T.  Mayeri,"  1762;  Nopitsch, 
"  Lebensbeschreibung  Tobias  Mayers,"  1805;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Mayer  or  Mayr,  miR,  (Simon,)  a  celebrated  German 
composer,  born  at  Mend(jrf,  in  Bavaria,  in  1763.  He 
studied  under  Lenzi  and  Bertoni  in  Italy,  and  in  1802 
became  chapel-master  at  Bergamo.  He  composed  a 
great  number  of  operas,  among  the  most  popular  of 
which  are  his  "  Medea,"  "  Lodoiska,"  and  "  Music-Mad," 
("  II  Fanatico  per  la  Musica.")    Died  in  1845. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Miisiciens." 

Mayerne  -  Turquet,  de,  deh  mt'y^Rn'  tuR'ki', 
(Louis,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Lyons  about  1550,  was 
the  author  of  a  "  General  History  of  Spain,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  161 8. 

Mayerne-Turquet,  de,  (Th^;odore,)  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Geneva  in  1573,  became  physician- 
in-ordinary  to  Henry  IV.  of  France.  In  1611  he  was 
appointed  first  physician  to  James  I.  of  England,  and 
held  the  same  office  under  Charles  I.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  valuable  medical  works  in  Latin.  Died 
in  1655. 

See  S^NEBiER,  "  Histoire  litt^raire  de  Geneve." 

Mayerus.    See  Mayer,  (Johann  Tobias.) 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s^ort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  ail,  fit;  mSt;  n£t;  good;  moon; 


MATEUR 


1555 


MAZARIN 


Mayeur  de  Saint-Paul,  mt'yuR'  deh  siN'poK, 
(Francois  Marie,)  a  French  actor  and  dramatist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1758,  published  a  number  of  comedies, 
romances,  and  poems.    Died  in  1818. 

Maygrier,  ma'gRe'k',  (Jacques  Pierre,)  a  French 
surgeon,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1 77 1,  wrote  on  anatomy 
and  medicine.    Died  in  1835. 

May'hew,  (Henry,)  an  English  litterateur  and  jour- 
nalist, born  in  London  in  1812.  He  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  periodical  entitled  "  Figaro  in  London,"  and 
in  1841  became  the  first  editor  of  "  Punch."  He  sub- 
sequently edited  the  "  Comic  Almanac."  Among  his 
works  may  be  named  "  What  to  Teach,  and  How  to 
Teach  it,"  (1842,)  "London  Labour  and  the  London 
Poor,"  (1851,)  and  "The  Wonders  of  Science."  In 
conjunction  with  his  brothers  Augustus  and  Horace, 
he  published  a  series  of  comic  sketches. 

May'hew,  (Jonathan,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine, 
born  in  Martha's  Vineyard  in  1720,  was  distinguished  as 
a  preacher  and  controversialist,  and  published  a  number 
of  theological  works.  Among  these  we  may  name 
"  Observations  on  the  Charter  and  Conduct  of  the  So- 
ciety for  Propagating  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,"  and 
"Christian  Sobriety."    Died  in  1766. 

Maynard,  mcVn^R',  (Francois,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Toulouse  in  1582,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Malherbe. 
He  was  the  author  of  odes,  epigrams,  and  other  poems, 
which  are  characterized  by  La  Harpe  as  possessing  great 
eloquence  of  diction,  but  are  deficient  in  warmth.  Died 
in  1646. 

May'nard,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
Devonshire  in  1602.  He  became  Cromwell's  sergeant 
in  1653,  and,  after  the  restoration,  filled  the  same  office 
under  Charles  H.  He  was  active  in  promoting  the  Revo- 
lution of  1688,  and  was  appointed  in  1689  one  of  the 
lords  commissioners  of  the  great  seal  of  England.  Died 
in  1690. 

Mayne,  man,  (Jasper,)  an  English  divine  and  poet, 
born  in  Devonshire  in  1604.  He  obtained  several  offices 
under  Charles  L,  of  which  he  was  deprived  after  Crom- 
well's usurpation.  On  the  restoration  he  was  appointed 
chaplain-in-ordinary  to  Charles  H.,  and  Archdeacon  of 
Chichester.  He  was  the  author  of  a  comedy  entitled 
"The  City  Match,"  and  a  tragi-comedy  called  "The 
Amorous  Warre."    Died  in  1672. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses ;"  Princk,  "Worthies  of 
Devon  ;"  Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Mayno,  mi'no,  (Juan  Bautista,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  at  Toledo  about  1590,  was  drawing-master  to  Philip 
IV.  Among  his  best  productions  are  "The  Nativity" 
and  "The  Resurrection."    Died  in  1654. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Maynwaring,  min'si-ring,  (Arthur,)  an  English 
satirist  and  political  writer,  born  in  Shropshire  in  1668. 
He  was  for  a  time  attached  to  the  cause  of  James  II., 
and  satirized  the  government  of  William  III.,  to  which, 
however,  he  was  afterwards  reconciled.  After  the  peace 
of  Ryswick  he  visited  Paris,  where  he  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Boileau.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament 
for  Preston  in  1705.  Maynwaring's  productions,  both  in 
prose  and  verse,  were  much  esteemed,  and  Sir  Richard 
Steele  dedicated  to  him  the  first  volume  of  the  "Tatler." 
Died  in  1712. 

See  Oldmixon,  "Life  and  Posthumous  Works  of  A.  Mayn- 
waring." 

Mayo,  ma'o,  (Amory  Dwight,)  an  Am.erican  divine, 
born  at  Warwick,  Massachusetts,  in  1823,  became  pastor 
of  the  First  Congregational  Unitarian  Church  in  Albany. 
He  published  "Graces  and  Powers  of  the  Christian 
Life,"  (1852,)  "Symbols  of  the  Capital,"  and  other  works. 
His  wife,  S.  C.  Edgarton  Mayo,  was  the  author  of  a 
number  of  poems  of  great  beauty,  chiefly  on  religious 
subjects.    She  died  about  1850. 

Ma'yo,  (Herbert,)  an  English  physician,  became 
professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  King's  College, 
London,  and  acquired  distinction  as  a  lecturer.  He  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Geological 
Society.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Outlines  of 
Human  Physiology,"  (1827,)  "  Outlines  of  Human  Pa- 
thology," (1836,)  (translated  into  German,)  "Philosophy 
of  Living,"  (1837,)  "The  Nervous  System  and  its  Func- 


tions," (1842,)  and  "Letters  on  the  Truths  contained  in 
Popular  Superstitions,"  (1849.)  Died  near  Mentz  in  1852. 

Ma'yo,  (Richard  Southwell  Bourke,)  Earl  of, 
and  Lord  Naas,  a  Conservative  statesman,  was  born  in 
Dublin  in  1822.  He  was  appointed  chief  secretary  for 
Ireland  in  1852,  in  1858,  and  again  in  1866.  In  1868 
he  became  Governor-General  of  India.   Died  in  1870. 

Mayo,  (William  Starkuck,)  an  American  physician 
and  writer,  born  at  Ogdensburg,  New  York,  in  1812.  Fie 
published,  in  1849,  "  Kaloolah,"  a  fictitious  tale  of  African 
adventure,  which  was  followed  by  "The  Berber,  or  the 
Mountaineer  of  the  Atlas,"  (1850,)  and  "Romance-Dust 
from  the  Historic  Placer." 

Mayow,  ma'6,  ?  (John,)  an  English  physician,  born 
in  Cornwall  in  1645,  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  work 
"On  Nitre  and  Nitro-Aerial  Spirit,"  in  which  he  origi- 
nated some  of  the  most  important  modern  discoveries 
in  pneumatic  chemistry.    Died  in  1679. 

Mayr,  von,  fon  mlR,  (Johann  Marie  Eck,)  a  Ger- 
man general,  born  in  Vienna  in  1716,  fought  for  Frede- 
rick the  Great  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.    Died  in  1759. 

Mayseder,  mi^zeh-der,  (Joseph,)  a  German  violinist 
and  composer,  born  at  Vienna  in  1789. 

Mazarin,  maz'a-reen',  [Fr.  pron,  mt'zS'r^N';  It.  Ma- 
ZARINI,  mid-zi-ree'nee  ;  Lat.  Mazari'nus,]  (Giulio  or 
Jules,)  Cardinal,  a  celebrated  courtier  and  prime  min- 
ister of  France,  was  born  in  Italy  in  1602.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  a  college  of  Jesuits  at  Rome,  (where  his  father, 
Pietro  Mazarini,  resided,)  and  adopted  the  profession  of 
law.  He  had  acquired  the  reputation  of  an  adroit  nego- 
tiator in  the  service  of  the  pope,  when,  in  1630,  he  met 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  who  secured  his  attachment  to  the 
interest  of  France.  When  the  French  and  Spanish  were 
about  to  engage  at  Casal,  he  prevented  a  battle,  and  ne- 
gotiated the  treaty  of  Cherasco  in  1631.  He  was  nuncio 
extraordinary  to  France  in  1634,  and  gained  the  favour 
of  the  French  king,  who  sent  him  as  ambassador  to 
Savoy  in  1640.  Through  the  influence  of  the  French 
court,  Mazarin  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1641.  The  next 
year  he  was  admitted  into  the  supreme  council.  The 
death  of  Richelieu  (in  1642)  and  of  Louis  XIII.  (in  1643) 
0]3ened  a  wider  sphere  to  the  ambition  of  Mazarin,  whom 
Richelieu  recommended  as  his  successor.  By  the  will 
of  the  late  king  he  was  declared  sole  adviser  of  the 
queen-regent,  Anne  of  Austria,  in  respect  to  ecclesiastic 
affairs,  and  he  soon  acquired  the  principal  power  in  the 
government,  as  well  as  the  confidence  of  that  queen.  He 
used  his  power  at  first  with  moderation,  and  courted 
popularity  by  gracious  and  affable  manners.  He  prose- 
cuted the  war  against  Spain  which  began  under  his  pre- 
decessor, and  in  which  Conde  and  Turenne  maintained 
the  honour  of  the  French  arms.  A  dispute  which  arose 
between  the  court  and  the  Parliament  of  Paris  was  fo- 
mented by  Cardinal  de  Retz  into  the  revolt  of  the  Paris- 
ians called  "the  Day  of  the  Barricades,"  (August  27, 
1648,)  and  was  followed  by  the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde. 
The  queen,  with  her  son,  Louis  XIV.,  and  Mazarin,  were 
driven  out  of  Paris  in  1649  by  the  Frondeurs.  This  civil 
war  was  more  remarkable  for  the  levity  of  the  people  than 
for  their  military  exploits.  Ladies  directed  the  several 
factions,  and  cabals  were  made  or  broken  by  amorous 
intrigues.  In  the  midst  of  these  domestic  broils,  Maza- 
rin had  been  so  fortunate  or  politic  as  to  conclude  with 
the  German  emperor  the  famous  treaty  of  Westphalia, 
(1648,)  by  which  the  latter  ceded  to  France  the  province 
of  Alsace.  In  165 1  the  cardinal  was  exiled  to  Cologne  ; 
but  about  two  years  later  he  returned  to  the  capital  in 
triumph,  and  the  end  of  the  rebellion,  in  1654,  restored 
him  to  his  former  power.  He  made  in  1655  a  treaty  of 
alliance  with  Cromwell,  who,  being  solicited  as  an  ally 
by  the  French  and  the  Spanish  courts,  preferred  the 
former.  He  acquired  the  same  influence  over  the  king, 
who  had  attained  his  majority,  as  he  had  exerted  over 
the  queen.  It  is  said  that  Louis  XIV.  wished  to  marry 
Marie  Mancini,  a  niece  of  his  minister,  but  the  latter 
discouraged  the  match,  and  in  1659  negotiated  a  marriage 
with  a  Spanish  princess.  Mazarin  once  said  "  Louis  con- 
tained the  material  for  four  kings  and  one  honest  man." 
He  died  at  Vincennes  in  March,  1661.  His  person  was 
remarkably  handsome,  and  his  manners  fascinating. 
"Mazarin,"  says  Mignet,  "had  a  far-seeing  and  invent- 


^    €  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,  y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2[^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MAZJRINI 


1556 


MAZZINI 


ive  mind,  a  character  rather  supple  than  feeble.  His 
device  was  'Le  Temps  et  moi.'"  Much  diversity  of 
opinion  exists  respecting  his  merit  as  a  statesman  ;  but 
it  may  safely  be  affirmed  that  he  was  able  and  skilful, 
and,  though  avaricious,  he  was  not  a  cruel  or  revengeful 
minister. 

See  AuBERY,  "  Histoire  du  Cardinal  Mazarin,"  1751 ;  Mignet, 
"Memoires  relatifs  la  Succession  d'Espagne;"  Saint-Aulaire, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Fronde  ;"  Hazin,  "  Histoire  de  France  sous  le  Mi- 
nistere  du  Cardinal  Ma/arin  ;"  Voltaire,  "  Si^cle  de  Louis  XIV  ;" 
Gualdo-Pkiorato,  "Vita  del  Cardinal  Mazarini,"  1662;  John 
Calvert,  "Life  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,"  1670;  Retz,  "Memoires;" 
SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Francais  ;"  Gramont,  "Memoires;"  V. 
Cousin,  "  La  Jeunesse  de  Mazarin;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale  ;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1831,  and  February,  1832. 

Mazarini.    See  Mazarin. 
Mazarinus.    See  Mazarin. 

Mazarredo  y  Salazar,  ma-th^r-ra'Do  e  sl-li- 
thaR',  (Jose  Maria,)  a  Spanish  admiral,  born  at  Bilbao 
in  1 714,  distinguished  himself  by  his  defence  of  Cadiz 
against  the  English  in  1797.  He  was  appointed  by  Joseph 
Bonaparte  minister  of  the  marine  in  1808.   Died  in  1812. 

Mazdak,  miz^dak,  or  Maz'dek,  a  Persian  impostor, 
who  was  born  about  470  a.ix,  professed  to  be  a  prophet, 
and  advocated  a  community  of  property.  He  induced 
King  Kobad  to  adopt  his  system,  and  effected  great 
changes  in  the  social  order. 

Mazdek.    See  Mazdak. 

Mazeas,  mt'za'i',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  writer, 
born  at  Landernau  in  17 12,  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London.    Died  in  1776. 

Mazel,  vci^/lV,  (Abraham,)  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Camisards  in  France,  born  at  Saint-Jean-du-Gard. 
After  the  insurrection  of  the  Cevennes,  in  1702,  he  was 
imprisoned,  but,  having  escaped,  he  again  attempted  to 
rouse  the  people  to  revolt,  and  was  killed  in  a  skirmish 
near  Uzes  in  17 10. 

See  Court,  "  Histoire  des  Camisards." 

Mazeline,  mtz''len',  (Pierre,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1633.  The  palace  of  Versailles  is 
adorned  with  several  of  his  works.    Died  in  1708. 

Ma-zep'pa,  (Ivan  Stepanovitch,)  a  celebrated  Po- 
lish adventurer,  born  in  the  government  of  Kief  in  1644, 
was  educated  at  the  court  of  John  Casimir,  King  of 
Poland.  Having  been  detected  in  an  intrigue  with  the  wife 
of  a  nobleman,  he  was  bound  by  his  orders  to  one  of  the 
wild  horses  of  the  Ukraine  and  carried  to  the  country 
of  the  Cossacks.  He  was  kindly  received  by  them, 
and  rose  to  be  hetman,  or  commander-in-chief  of  their 
armies,  about  1687.  When  Peter  the  Great  attempted 
to  take  possession  of  the  Ukraine,  Mazeppa  strongly 
opposed  the  measure,  but,  finding  resistance  vain,  en- 
tered into  a  negotiation  with  Charles  XH.  of  Sweden 
for  the  independence  of  his  country.  The  plan  being 
discovered,  and  Mazeppa  deserted  by  his  troops,  he 
joined  the  Swedish  army,  and  after  the  battle  of  Pultava 
took  refuge  in  Turkey,  where  he  died  in  1709.  The  ad- 
ventures of  Mazeppa  have  formed  the  subject  of  one  of 
Byron's  poems. 

See  Voltaire,  "Histoire  de  Charles  XII;"  Lesur,  "Histoire 
des  Cosaques;"  Adlerfei.d,  "  Histoire  militaire  de  Charles  XII ;" 
Kamenski,  "Life  of  Mazeppa,"  (in  Russian,)  1834. 

Mazois,  mt'zwi',  (Charles  FRANgois,)  a  French 
architect  and  antiquary,  born  at  Lorient  in  1783,  was 
employed  by  Murat,  King  of  Naples,  to  restore  the 
Portici  palace,  and  other  edifices.  He  afterwards  in- 
vestigated the  antiquities  of  Pompeii.  He  published  in 
1811  his  principal  work,  "The  Ruins  of  Pompeii,"  the 
last  two  volumes  of  which  appeared  after  his  death. 
Died  in  1826. 

Mazolini,  mid-zo-lee'nee,  [Lat.  Prie'rias,  derived 
from  the  name  of  his  birthplace,]  (Silvestro,)  an  Italian 
theologian,  born  at  Prierio  about  1460;  died  in  1523. 

Mazo-Martinez,  del,  del  mi'tho  maR-tee'n^th, 
(Juan  Bautista,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Madrid 
about  1620,  was  a  pujiil  and  son-in-law  of  Velasquez, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1661  as  painter  to  Philip  IV.  His 
portraits  and  landscapes  are  highly  esteemed.  Died  in 
1687. 

Mazure,  mt'ziiR',  (F.  A.  J.,)  a  French  journalist  and 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1776,  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  English  Revolution  of  1688,"  and  a  *'  Life  of  Vol- 
taire."   Died  in  1828. 


Mazza,  mIt'sS,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  philologist, 
born  at  Parma  in  1724.  He  published  "Select  Chap- 
ters of  Church  History,"  (in  Latin,  1757.)  Died  in  1797. 

Mazza,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Parma  in 
1 741,  became  professor  of  Greek  in  his  native  city,  (1768.) 
He  was  the  author  of  an  ode  entitled  "Aura  Armonica," 
and  a  number  of  lyrics,  which  obtained  for  him  a  high 
reputation.    Died  in  1817. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Mazza,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Bo- 
logna in  1652  ;  died  in  1741. 

Mazzinghi,  mit-s^n'gee }  (Joseph,)  an  English  mu- 
sician and  composer,  born  in  London  in  1768,  was 
patronized  by  George  HI.  and  George  IV.  Among  his 
inost  popular  operas  we  may  name  "The  Blind  Girl," 
"The  Exile,"  and  "Paul  and  Virginia."  Died  at  Bath 
in  1844. 

Mazzini,  mit-see'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  patriot  and  writer,  born  at  Genoa  about  1807,  was 
educated  for  the  profession  of  law.  In  his  youth  he 
wrote  a  number  of  literary  articles  for  the  "  Indicatore 
Genovese"  and  other  journals,  and  was  an  adherent  of 
the  romantic  school.  He  devoted  himself  at  an  early 
age  to  the  liberation  and  unity  of  Italy,  which  was  then 
degraded  and  oppressed  by  Austria  and  by  various  petty 
despots.  In  1830  he  joined  the  Society  of  Carbonari, 
which  he  proposed  to  reform.  Having  been  banished 
or  proscribed,  he  retired  in  1831  to  Marseilles,  where  he 
organized  a  political  association  called  "  Young  Italy," 
( La  Giovine  Italia,)  whose  watchword  was  "  God  and 
the  People,"  and  whose  fundamental  idea  was  that  the 
liberty  of  the  Italians  can  only  be  secured  by  the  union 
of  the  several  states  or  kingdoms  into  one  nation.  He 
propagated  his  principles  by  writings,  and,  during  a 
long  period  of  exile  and  adversity,  pursued  his  purpose 
with  invincible  constancy. 

About  1842  he  became  a  resident  of  London,  and 
began  to  contribute  political  and  scientific  articles  to 
various  journals,  among  which  was  the  "  Westminster 
Review."  His  letters  were  opened  in  the  post-office  in 
1844  by  the  British  secretary  for  the  home  department, 
Sir  James  Graham.  The  revolutionary  movements  of 
1848  restored  him  to  his  native  country.  He  issued  a 
journal  called  "  Italia  del  Popolo,"  and,  although  he 
preferred  a  republic,  was  disposed  to  co-operate  with 
King  Charles  Albert  in  resistance  to  Austrian  domina- 
tion, and  he  enlisted  under  the  standard  of  Garibaldi. 
In  February,  1849,  he  went  to  Rome,  in  which  a  republic 
had  recently  been  organized  after  the  flight  of  the  pope. 
He  was  quickly  recognized  as  the  leader  and  master- 
spirit of  the  republicans,  and  in  March  of  that  year 
Mazzini,  Safii,  and  Armellini  were  appointed  triumvirs. 
They  defended  Roine  resolutely  against  the  French 
army,  by  which  that  city  was  at  length  captured  in  July, 
1849.  Mazzini  then  went  into  exile,  and  chose  London 
as  the  base  of  his  operations.  He  associated  himself 
with  Kossuth  and  Ledru-Rollin  to  form  an  international 
revolutionary  committee  about  185 1. 

In  1857  he  incited  an  insurrection  in  Northern  Italy, 
and  went  to  Genoa  to  direct  it ;  but  the  movement  failed. 
He  co-operated  with  Garibaldi  in  his  victorious  expedi- 
tion to  Sicily  in  i860,  and  opposed  the  project  which 
Napoleon  III.  formed  for  a  confederation  of  Italian 
states.  In  1861  he  republished,  with  additions,  an  es- 
say "  On  the  Unity  of  Italy,"  in  which  he  says,  "  I  know 
that  the  idea  of  a  confederation  is  both  the  counsel  and 
design  of  one  whom  many  Italians  still  regard  as  the 
friend  and  protector  of  Italy ;  but  I  know,  too,  that  he  is 
treacherous,  a  foreigner,  and  a  despot.  That  he  should 
seek  to  weaken  in  order  to  dominate  us  is  easily  under- 
stood ;  but  the  mere  fact  that  the  suggestion  springs 
from  such  a  source  ought  to  be  one  of  the  most  powerful 
warnings  against  it." 

Some  of  his  predictions  have  been  verified  by  recent 
events  in  Italy,  which  have  tended  to  raise  his  reputation 
for  sagacity  and  practical  wisdom.  He  is  the  author  of 
a  work  entitled  "The  Duties  of  Man,"  (1858;  English 
version,  1862,)  which  enjoys  great  popularity  in  Italy, 
and  of  many  other  works.  In  1864  appeared  the  first 
volume  of  the  "  Life  and  Writings  of  Joseph  Mazzini," 
in  English,  (6  vols.) 


a,  e,  T,  0,  %  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obsmre;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moonJ  n 


MAZZOCCHI 


1557  MEADE 


The  character  of  Mazzini  is  well  described  by  Thomas 
Carlyle  in  a  letter  to  the  London  "Times,"  June,  1844, 
reprinted  in  the  "Westminster  Review"  for  September 
of  that  year.  He  says,  "  I  have  had  the  honour  to  know 
M.  Mazzini  for  a  series  of  years  ;  and  I  can,  with  great 
freedom,  testify  to  all  men  that  he,  if  I  have  ever  seen 
one  such,  is  a  man  of  genius  and  virtue,  a  man  of  sterling 
veracity,  humanity,  and  nobleness  of  mind, — one  of  those 
rare  men,  numerable,  unfortunately,  but  as  units  in  this 
world,  who  are  worthy  to  be  called  martyr-souls  ;  who 
in  silence  piously  in  their  daily  life  understand  and 
practise  what  is  meant  by  that." 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  6  vols.,  1864;  Jules  de  Breval, 
"  Mazzini  juge  par  lui-meme,"  1853  ;  "  Jahrbuch  zum  Conversations- 
Lexikon"  for  1859. 

Mazzocchi,  mlt-sok'kee,  or  Mazzoccolo,  mit-sok'- 
ko-lo,  (Alessio  Simmacho,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born 
at  Santa  Maria  di  Capua  in  1684.  He  became  professor 
of  Greek  and  Hebrew  at  Naples,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  of  Paris.  He  wrote  many 
valuable  treatises  in  Latin  and  Italian.    Died  in  1771. 

Mazzoccolo.    See  Mazzocchl 

Mazzola,  mat-so'li,  (Girolamo  Bedolo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  sometimes  called  Mazzolino,  born  near  Parma 
in  1503,  was  the  most  distinguished  pupil  of  Parmigiano. 
He  excelled  as  a  colorist  and  in  perspective.  Among 
his  best  productions  are  a  "Madonna  with  Saint  Cathe- 
rine," and  "Miracle  of  the  Multiplication  of  Loaves." 
Died  about  1590. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Mazzola,  Mazzuola,  mat-soo-o'li,  or  Mazzuoli, 
mit-soo-o'lee,  (Girolamo  Francesco  Maria,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  painter,  surnamed  IL  Parmigiano,  ("the 
Parmesan,")  born  at  Parma  in  1503.  He  visited  Rome 
in  1523,  and  was  employed  by  Clement  VII.  to  execute 
a  number  of  works  in  that  city.  His  style,  formed 
on  that  of  Correggio  and  Raphael,  is  characterized  by 
exceeding  grace  and  delicacy  of  form  and  softness  of 
colouring,  and  it  was  said  by  his  admirers  that  "the 
spirit  of  Raphael  had  passed  into  him."  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  the  "  Madonna  della  Rosa,"  in  the 
gallery  of  Dresden,  an  "  Annunciation,"  in  the  principal 
church  of  Viadana,  the  "Madonna  with  Saint  Margaret, 
Saint  Jerome,"  etc.,  in  the  Museum  at  Bologna,  the 
"  Madonna  dello  Lungo  Collo,"  at  Florence,  and  the 
"Vision  of  Saint  Jerome,"  in  the  National  Gallery,  Lon- 
don. Mazzola  was  the  first  Italian  artist  who  engraved 
with  aquafortis.    Died  in  1540. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.;  Affo,  "Vita  di  F- 
Mazzola,"  1784;  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Memoirs  of  Early  Italian 
Painters;"  F.  Bellini,  "  Cenni  intnrno  alia  Vita  ed  alle  Opere  di 
F.  Mazzola,"  1844;  Mortara,  "  Memoria  della  Vita  di  F.  Maz- 
zuola," 1846. 

Mazzolari,  mit-so-li'ree,  (Giuseppe  Maria,)  called 
also  Mariano  Partenio,  an  Italian  writer  and  excellent 
Latin  scholar,  born  at  Pesaro  in  1712.  He  published 
poems,  orations,  critical  essays,  commentaries,  etc.  Died 
in  1786. 

See  Montenaki,  "  Biografia  di  G.  M.  Mazzolari,"  1837. 

Mazzoli.    See  Mazzola. 

Mazzolino,  mit-so-lee'no,  (LuDOVico,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  painter,  surnamed  IL  Ferrarese,  was  born  at 
Ferrara  in  1481.  His  "Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  and 
"  Christ  in  the  Midst  of  the  Scribes,"  are  ranked  among 
his  master-pieces.    Died  about  1530. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Mazzoni,  m^t-so'nee,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Cesena  in  1548.  He  produced  several  critical 
and  philosophical  works,  the  most  important  of  which 
is  his  "Defence  of  Dante,"  ("Defesa  di  Dante,"  1573.) 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Tasso.    Died  in  IS'^S. 

See  Serassi,  "Vita  di  G.  Mazzoni,"  1790;  Ginguene,  "  Histoire 
de  la  Litterature  Italienne." 

Mazzuchelli,  mit-soo-kel'lee,  (Giovanni  Maria,) 
Count,  an  Italian  biographer,  born  at  Brescia  in  1707. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Historical  and  Critical  Notices 
of  the  Lives  and  Writings  of  Learned  Italians,"  ("  Scrit- 
tori  d'ltalia,  cioe  Notizie  storiche  e  critiche  intorno  alle 
Vite  ed  agli  Scritti  de  letterati  Italiani,")  a  work  of  great 
merit,  which  he  did  not  live  to  complete.  He  published 
two  volumes  of  this  work,  (1753-63.)    Among  his  other 


works  are  a  "Life  of  Archimedes,"  (1737,)  and  a  "Life 
of  Pietro  Aretino,"  (1741.)    Died  in  1765. 

See  Rodella,  "Vita  del  Conte  G.  Mazzuchelli,"  1766;  Fabroni, 
"  Vitae  Italoruni  doctrina  exceilentium  ;"  TiPALiio,  "  Biografia  degli 
Italiani  illiistri;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Mazzuchelli,  (Piero  Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter, 
surnamed  IL  Morazzone,  was  born  at  the  village  of  that 
name  in  1571.  He  studied  at  Milan,  where  he  after- 
wards established  a  school.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  a  "  P'lagellation,"  and  "  Saint  Michael  Triumphant." 
Died  in  1626. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Mazzuola.  See  Mazzola. 
Mazzuoli.    See  Mazzola. 

Mazzuoli,  m3.t-soo-o^lee,  or  Mazzola,  mSt'so-lS, 
(FiLiPPO  or  Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter,  surnamed  il 
Bastaruolo,  born  at  Ferrara  about  1530;  died  in  1589. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Mead,  (Matthew,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
born  in  Buckinghamshire  in  1629.  He  was  the  author 
of  "  The  Young  Man's  Remembrancer,"  and  "  Sermons 
on  Ezekiel's  Wheels."    Died  in  1699. 

Mead,  (Richard,)  a  celebrated  English  physician, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Stepney  in  1673.  He 
studied  at  Leyden,  and  subsequently  visited  Italy,  where 
he  took  his  medical  degree  at  Padua.  He  was  after- 
wards elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the 
College  of  Physicians,  and  on  the  accession  of  George 
II.  (1727)  becaiTie  his  physician-in-ordinary.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "  Mechanical  Account  of  Poisons," 
(1702,)  "  A  Short  Discourse  concerning  Pestilential  Con- 
tagion," (1720,)  which  was  translated  into  French  and 
Latin,  "  Medicina  Sacra,"  (1749,)  or  an  account  of  dis- 
eases mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and  other  medical  works 
of  a  high  character.  Dr.  Mead  numbered  among  his 
friends  Pope,  Newton,  and  Boerhaave.    Died  in  1754. 

See  Maty,  "Authentic  Memoirs  of  Richard  Mead,"  1755;  Le- 
MAN,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Dr.  Richard  Mead." 

Meade,  meed,  (George  G.,)  a  distinguished  American 
general,  was  born  in  1816,  at  Cadiz,  in  Spain,  where 
his  father,  R.  W.  Meade,  was  United  States  consul. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1835,  served  in  the 
Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and  became  a  captain  in  1856. 
He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in 
August,  1861,  and  served  in  the  battle  of  Gaines's  Mill, 
June  27,  1862.  At  Malvern  Hill  he  received  two  wounds, 
July  I.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Antietam,  Sep- 
tember 17,  1862.  Having  been  raised  to  the  rank 
major-general,  he  directed  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Fred- 
ericksburg, December  13,  1862,  and  at  that  of  Chancel- 
lorsville,  May  2-3,  1863.  On  the  28th  of  June  ensuing, 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of 
the  Potomac.  Just  before  the  date  last  named,  Gen- 
eral Lee  had  invaded  Pennsylvania  with  a  large  army, 
which  the  Union  army  encountered  at  Gettysburg  on 
the  ist  of  July.  General  Meade,  whose  forces  occu- 
pied a  good  position  on  a  range  of  hills,  acted  mostly  on 
the  defensive  at  this  battle,  which  lasted  three  days  and 
contributed  largely  to  the  triumph  of  the  Union  cause. 
(See  Lee,  R.  E.)  General  Meade  reported  that  he  took 
at  Gettysburg  13,621  prisoners,  some  of  whom  were 
probably  wounded,  and  he  lost  16,643  killed  and  wounded. 
He  was  promoted  to  be  a  brigadier-general  of  the  regu- 
lar army  by  a  commission  dated  July  3,  1863.  About 
the  i8th  of  July  he  moved  his  army  across  the  Potomac 
into  Virginia,  where  he  had  several  skirmishes  with  the 
enemy  in  October  and  November,  1863.  He  was  second 
in  command  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  in  its  operations 
against  Richmond  in  1864.  "  I  tried  as  far  as  possible," 
says  General  Grant,  "  to  leave  General  Meade  in  inde- 
pendent command  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac.  My 
instructions  for  that  army  were  all  through  him,  and 
were  general  in  their  nature,  leaving  all  the  details  and  the 
execution  to  him.  The  campaigns  that  followed  proved 
him  to  be  the  right  man  in  the  right  place."  In  August, 
1864,  he  was  appointed  a  major-general  of  the  regular 
army.  The  army  of  which  he  had  the  immediate  com- 
mand fought  great  battles  at  the  Wilderness,  Spottsyl-^ 
vania  Court-House,  and  Cold  Harbour,  and  was  em- 
ployed many  months  in  the  siege  of  Petersburg.  (See 
Grant,  U.  S.)    General  Meade  was  appointed  com- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  y:.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MEADE  1558 


MEDICI 


inander  of  the  third  military  district,  comprising  Georgia, 
Florida,  and  Alabama,  in  December,  1867. 

Meade,  (Richard  Kiddkr,)  an  American  soldier  of 
the  Revolution;  born  in  Nansemond  county,  Virginia, 
about  1 750,  was  one  of  General  Washington's  aides.  Died 
about  1 810. 

Meade,  (William,)  D.D.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Clarke  county,  Virginia,  in  1789.  He  graduated 
at  Princeton  College  in  1808,  and  in  1841  succeeded 
Bishop  Moore  as  Bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  Virginia.  Me  published  several  theological 
works.    Died  in  1862. 

Meadowcourt,  m§d'o-kort,  (Richard,)  an  English 
critic,  born  in  Staffordshire  in  1697,  published  Notes  on 
Milton's  "  Paradise  Regained."    Died  in  1769. 

Meagher,  manner  or  ma'er,  (Thomas  Francis,)  a 
general,  born  at  Waterford,  Ireland,  in  1823.  He  joined 
the  movement  for  the  independence  of  Ireland,  and  was 
condemned  in  1848  to  banishment  or  penal  servitude 
for  life.  He  escaped  from  Tasmania  in  1852,  and  took 
refuge  in  the  United  States.  He  raised  in  1861  an  Irish 
brigade,  which  he  commanded  at  Gaines's  Mill,  June 
27,  at  Antietam,  September  17,  and  at  Fredericksburg, 
December  13,  1862.    Died  in  1867. 

Mean,  de,  deh  mk'hn',  (Charles,)  Baron,  a  Belgian 
jurist,  born  at  Liege  in  1604;  died  in  1674. 

Means,  (Alexander,)  a  Methodist  minister,  born 
in  North  Carolina  in  1801.  He  became  professor  of 
natural  science  in  Emory  College  in  1838,  and  professor 
of  chemistry  in  a  medical  college  at  Atlanta,  Georgia, 
in  1855. 

Meaume,  m5m,  (Edouard,)  a  French  jurist  and 
archaeologist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1812.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  Life  of  Jacques  Callot,"  (2  vols.,  i860.) 

Mecenate.    See  M/^lCenas. 

Mecene,  the  French  of  M^cenas,  (which  see.) 

Mechain,  ma'sh^N',  (Pierre  Franqois  Andr6,)  an 
eminent  French  astronomer,  born  at  Laon  in  1744. 
Having  visited  Paris,  he  acquired  the  friendship  and 
patronage  of  Lalande.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  about  1782,  and  in  1785  succeeded 
Jeaurat  as  editor  of  the  "  Connaissances  des  Temps."'  In 
1 791  he  was  appointed,  conjointly  with  Delambre,  to 
measure  the  arc  of  the  meridian  between  Dunkirk  and 
Barcelona.  Dissatisfied  with  the  result  of  his  calcula- 
tions, he  was  preparing  to  prolong  the  measurement  to 
the  Balearic  Isles,  when  he  was  attacked  with  fever,  and 
died  on  the  journey,  (1805.) 

See  Delambre,  "  Histoire  de  I'Astronomie  au  dix-huitieme 
Siecle." 

Mecliel,  mik'el,  (Christian,)  a  Swiss  engraver,  born 
at  l^ale  in  1737  ;  died  in  181 7. 

Mecheln,  m^K^gln,  or  Meckenen,  van,  vtn  mhk^- 
keh-nen^,  (Israel,)  a  celebrated  German  painter  and 
engraver,  said  to  have  been  born  near  Bocholt,  in  the 
bishojjric  of  Munster.  It  is,  however,  supposed  by  many 
that  there  were  two  artists  of  the  name.  The  principal 
works  attributed  to  Meister  Israel,  as  he  was  called,  are 
in  the  Pinakothek  at  Munich.  They  possess  great  excel- 
lence, and  entitle  him  to  rank  with  Van  Eyck,  Memling, 
and  other  eminent  painters  of  the  Flemish  school.  Died 
in  1503. 

Mecherino.    See  Beccafumi. 

Mechi,  m§k'e,  ?  (John  Joseph,)  a  distinguished  cul- 
tivator and  agricultural  writer,  of  Italian  extraction,  born 
in  England  about  1800.  Having  made  a  fortune  by  trade 
in  London,  he  purchased  in  Essex  a  farm,  which  is  es- 
teemed one  of  the  finest  in  England.  He  also  published 
''Letters  on  Agricultural  Improvement,"  "Experience 
in  Drainage,"  and  "How  to  Farm  Profiitably,"  (1859.) 

Mechitar.    See  Mekhitar. 

Meckel,  ni§k'kel,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  an  eminent 
German  anatomist,  born  at  Wetzlar  in  1 714.  He  became 
surgeon  to  the  King  of  Prussia.  He  made  discoveries 
in  anatomy,  and  wrote  numerous  medical  and  anatomical 
works.     Died  in  1774. 

See  J.  H.  S.  FoRMEY,  "  filoge  de  M.  Meckel,"  1774. 

Meckel,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German  anatomist, 
"hoxn  at  Halle  in  1781,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding. 
He  became  professor  of  surgery  and  anatomy  at  Halle 
in  1806.    He  ])ublished  "  Contributions  to  Comparative 


Anatomy,"  and  translated  Cuvier's  "  Comparative  Anat- 
omy," to  which  he  added  valuable  notes.    Died  in  1833. 
Meckenen.    See  Meckeln. 

Meda,  mi'dt^  or  Merda,  mgRMf,  (Charles  An- 
Dr6,)  a  French  general,  born  in  1775,  served  in  the  prin- 
cipal wars  of  the  Revolution,  and  attained  the  rank  of 
general  of  brigade,  (1808.)  He  was  mortally  wounded  at 
the  battle  of  Moskwa,  (1812.) 

Mede,  meed,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  English  scholar 
and  divine,  born  in  Essex  in  1586.  He  studied  at  Christ 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  afterwards  became  pro- 
fessor of  Greek.  His  "  Clavis  Apocalyptica,"  published 
in  1627,  is  esteemed  a  standard  work.    Died  in  1638. 

See  "Life  of  Joseph  Mede,"  prefixed  to  his  works,  1672. 

Me-de'a,  [Gr.  MZ/dem;  Fr.  Medee,  ma'da',]  a  famous 
sorceress,  daughter  of  ^etes,  King  of  Colchis.  Having 
assisted  Jason  to  obtain  the  golden  fleece,  she  became 
his  wife  and  accompanied  him  to  Greece.  Being  after- 
wards deserted  by  him,  she  destroyed  their  two  sons. 
The  story  of  Medea  has  formed  the  subject  of  tragedies 
by  Euripides  and  Sophocles  among  the  ancients,  and 
Corneille  among  the  moderns.  Those  written  by  Soph- 
ocles, /Eschylus,  and  Ovid  are  lost. 

Medee.    See  Medea. 

Mederer,  maMeh-rer,  (Johann  Nepomuk,)  a  Ger- 
man litterateur,  born  in  1734,  published  several  works  on 
German  history.    Died  in  1808. 

Med^hurst,  (Walter  Henry,)  an  English  mission- 
ary and  Chinese  scholar,  born  in  London  in  1796.  Hav- 
ing spent  many  years  in  China,  Java,  and  Malacca,  and 
become  thoroughly  versed  in  the  languages  of  those 
countries,  he  published  a  "  Chinese-and-English  Dic- 
tionary," (1842,)  "  Chinese  Dialogues,"  (1844,)  "  English- 
and-Japanese  Vocabulary,"  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1857. 

Medici,  (Alessandro  de'.)    See  Leo  XI. 

Medici,  de',  di  mSd'e-chee  or  ma'de-chee,  (Alessan- 
dro,) the  subverter  of  the  liberties  of  Florence,  born  in 
1 5 10,  is  sup|Dosed  by  some  to  have  been  a  natural  son  of 
Lorenzo,  Duke  of  Urbino,  and  by  others,  of  the  cardi- 
nal Giulio  de'  Medici,  afterwards  Clement  VII.  After 
the  sacking  of  Rome,  in  1527,  the  latter  made  a  treaty 
with  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  1529,  by  which  it  was 
agreed  that  the  Medici  should  be  restored  to  their 
former  rank  at  Florence,  with  Alexander  as  chief  of  the 
republic.  A  marriage  was  also  arranged  between  him 
and  Margaret  of  Austria,  a  natural  daughter  of  the  em- 
peror. In  1530  Florence  was  taken  by  the  Imperial 
troops  under  Ferdinand  de  Gonzaga,  and  soon  after  the 
pope  obtained  from  the  emperor  a  diploma  which  was 
to  decide  the  constitution  of  Florence.  By  this  article 
Alexander  was  declared  head  of  the  republic,  but  the 
Florentines  were  left  in  possession  of  the  same  privileges 
they  had  enjoyed  under  the  former  Medici.  At  length,  by 
the  united  intrigues  of  Clement  VII.  and  Alexander,  the 
latter  was  declared  duke  of  the  republic  in  1532,  and  the 
old  form  of  government  was  abolished.  He  now  sig- 
nalized himself  by  every  species  of  cruelty  and  oppres- 
sion. In  1535,  Cardinal  Ippolito  de'  Medici,  whom  he 
had  long  feared  as  a  rival,  was  poisoned  by  his  orders  ; 
and  he  is  believed  to  have  caused  the  death  of  his  own 
mother  in  the  same  manner.  In  1537,  Lorenzino  de' 
Medici,  a  distant  relative  of  the  duke,  desiring  to  rid 
his  country  of  such  a  tyrant,  procured  his  assassination. 
Alexander  left  a  son,  named  Giuliano. 

See  SiSMONui,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes;"  Madame 
Allart,  "  Histoire  de  la  Republiqiie  de  Florence." 

Medici,  de',  (Cosimo  or  Cosmo,)  surnamed  the 
Elder,  a  celebrated  statesman  of  the  Florentine  repub- 
lic, was  born  in  1389.  Pie  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning 
and  the  arts,  and  made  a  munificent  use  of  the  immense 
fortune  he  had  accumulated  by  commerce,  in  adorning 
his  native  city  with  public  edifices  and  founding  institu- 
tions for  educational  and  charitable  purposes.  Among  the 
most  important  of  these  was  an  academy  at  Florence  for 
teaching  the  Platonic  philoso])hy,  at  the  head  of  which 
he  placed  Marsilio  Ficino.  He  also  made  a  large  col- 
lection of  Latin,  Greek,  and  Oriental  manuscripts,  which 
he  bestowed  on  the  Laurentian  Library.  These  benefits, 
and  the  urbanity  and  moderation  of  his  character,  won 
for  him  great  personal  popularity  and  the  title  of  "Father 


a,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  xi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  f5.t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MEDICI 


1559 


MEDINA 


of  his  Country."  To  give  a  detailed  account  of  his  ser- 
vices to  literature  and  art  would  be  to  write  the  history 
of  the  Renaissance  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. In  the  words  of  Ginguene,  "  One  saw  at  Florence 
Masaccio  and  Lippi  adorn  churches  and  palaces  with 
the  productions  of  their  pencil,  Donatelli  give  life  and 
expression  to  marble,  and  Brunelleschi,  architect,  sculp- 
tor, and  poet,  raise  the  magnificent  cupola  of  Santa 
Maria  del  Fiore  ;  while  the  Greek  refugees,  in  return 
for  the  noble  asylum  he  had  given  them,  spread  abroad 
the  treasures  of  their  beautiful  language  and  the  master- 
pieces of  their  orators,  philosophers,  and  poets."  Cosimo 
died  in  1464,  leaving  a  son,  named  Piero. 

Medici,  de',  (Cosimo,)  called  the  Great,  [Lat. 
Cos'mus  Medice'us  Mag'nus,]  son  of  the  general 
Giovanni  de'  Medici,  was  born  in  1519.  On  the  death  of 
Alexander  he  was  declared  his  successor  in  1537,  through 
the  influence  of  Cardinal  Cibo,  which  choice  was  con- 
firmed by  Charles  V.  In  1537  he  obtained  a  victory  at 
Montemerlo  over  the  hostile  Florentines.  Cruel  and 
suspicious  in  his  disposition,  he  caused  upwards  of  four 
hundred  Florentine  emigrants  to  be  put  to  death  in  the 
early  part  of  his  reign,  and,  having  deprived  the  magis- 
trates of  all  authority,  was  invested  with  absolute  power. 
In  1554  the  Marquis  de  Marignano,  one  of  his  generals, 
defeated  the  French  army  under  Marshal  Strozzi,  at 
Siannagallo,  and  soon  after  Philip  II.,  having  succeeded 
the  emperor,  conferred  upon  the  Duke  of  Florence  the 
state  of  Sienna,  with  the  exception  of  the  ports.  In  1562 
Giovanni  de'  Medici,  a  son  of  Cosimo,  died  suddenly, 
as  is  supposed,  by  the  hand  of  his  brother  Don  Garcias. 
A  short  time  after,  the  latter  also  died,  and  his  father 
was  charged  with  his  death.  Eleonora  of  Toledo,  wife 
of  the  grand  duke,  soon  followed  her  sons,  and  her  death 
was  likewise  attributed  to  Cosimo.  These  fatal  events 
form  the  subject  of  Alfieri's  tragedy  of  "Don  Garcias." 
In  1564  Cosimo  made  his  son  Francesco  his  associate  in 
the  government,  and  in  1569  he  was  declared  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany  by  a  bull  of  Pius  V.  He  died  in  1574, 
leaving  three  legitimate  sons,  Francesco,  Ferdinand,  and 
Piero. 

See  Baldini,  "Vita  di  Cosmo  de'  Medici  I.,"  1578;  Fabroni, 
"Magni  Cosmi  Medicei  Vita;"  Aldo  Manucci,  "Vita  di  Cosimo 
de'  Medici,"  1586;  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Itali- 
ennes." 

Medici,  de',  (Cosimo  II.,)  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany, 
born  in  1590,  was  a  son  of  Ferdinand  I.  He  began  to 
reign  in  1609,  and  ruled  with  moderation  and  clemency. 
Died  in  1621, 

See  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Medici,  de',  (Cosimo  III.,)  a  son  of  Ferdinand  II., 
was  born  in  1642,  and  became  grand  duke  in  1670.  He 
married  Marguerite  d'Orleans,  (a  daughter  of  Gaston  de 
France,)  who  regarded  Cosimo  with  extreme  dislike  and 
caused  him  much  trouble.  He  died  in  1723,  and  his 
family  then  became  extinct. 

See  BoTTA,  "  Storia  d'ltalia." 

Medici,  de',  (Giovanni.)    See  Leo  X. 

Medici,  de',  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  statesman,  born 
in  1360,  was  the  father  of  Cosimo  the  Elder,  noticed 
above.  He  amassed  a  large  fortune  by  commerce,  and 
rose  through  various  offices  to  be  gonfaloniere  of  justice 
in  142 1.    Died  in  1428. 

Ste  Machiavel,  "  Storie  Fiorentine." 

Medici,  de',  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  general,  of  the 
same  family  as  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1498.  He 
distinguished  himself  both  by  his  courage  and  his 
ferocity  in  the  civil  wars  of  his  country,  and  afterwards 
entered  the  French  service.  He  was  mortally  wounded 
in  battle  in  1526. 

Medici,  de',  (Giuliano,)  youngest  son  of  Lorenzo 
the  Magnificent,  was  born  in  1478.  He  married  in  15 15 
Philiberta  of  Savoy,  aunt  of  Francis  I.,  by  whom  he 
was  created  Duke  of  Nemours.    Died  in  15 16. 

See  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Medici,  de',  (Giuuo.)  See  Clement  VIL 
Medici,  de',  (Ippolito,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  at 
Urbino  in  1511,  was  a  natural  son  of  Giuliano,  noticed 
above.  He  possessed  immense  wealth,  and  was  noted 
for  his  accomplishments  and  his  profligacy.  He  died 
in  1535,  from  the  effects  of  poison  administered,  it  is 


supposed,  by  order  of  Alessandro  de'  Medici,  Duke 
of  Florence. 

See  Varchi,  "Istoria  Fiorentina." 

Medici,  de',  (Lorenzo  I.,)  surnamed  the  Magnifi- 
cent, [Fr.  Laurent  le  Magnifique,  lo'rdN^  leh  mtn^- 
ye'f^k' ;  Lat.  Lauren'tius  Med'ices  or  Medicf/us  ; 
It.  Lorenzo  il  Magnifico,  lo-r§n'zo  ^1  man-y^Fe-ko,] 
Prince  of  Florence,  was  born  in  1448.  He  was  the  son 
of  Piero  I.,  and  grandson  of  Cosimo  the  Elder,  and, 
having  early  entered  public  life,  succeeded  to  the  influ- 
ence and  popularity  of  his  predecessors.  He  was  care- 
fully educated  by  the  best  masters  of  the  time,  being 
instructed  in  the  Platonic  philosophy  by  the  celebrated 
Marsilio  Ficino.  In  1478  he  narrowly  escaped  falling 
a  victim  to  a  conspiracy  formed  by  the  Pazzi  family  of 
Florence  in  conjunction  with  the  Archbishop  of  Pisa 
and  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  His  brother  Giuliano  was  assas- 
sinated, and  he  received  a  slight  wound.  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Pisa  was  hanged  for  this  offence,  and  Lorenzo 
was  excommunicated  by  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  In  1484  the 
latter  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Innocent  VIII.,  who 
became  a  friend  and  ally  of  Lorenzo.  Florence  enjoyed 
great  prosperity  under  the  government  of  Lorenzo,  who 
acquired  the  favour  of  the  people  by  his  munificence, 
prudence,  and  clemency.  He  was  highly  distinguished 
as  a  patron  of  literature  and  art,  founded  at  Florence  an 
academy  for  the  study  of  the  antique,  and  expended  large 
sums  in  the  erection  of  public  edifices  and  in  the  collec- 
tion of  libraries.  He  also  attained  considerable  eminence 
as  a  poet.    Died  in  April,  1492. 

See  RoscoE,  "  Life  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,"  2  vols.  4to,  1795  ; 
Angelo  Fabroni,  "  Laurentii  Medicis  Magnifici  Vita,"  2  vols., 
1784;  Papire-Ma.sson,  "  Vita  Laurentii  Medicis,"  1587  ;  Macchia- 
VELLi,  "  Istorie  Fiorentine ;"  N.  Valori,  "  Laurentii  Medicei  Vita," 
1749;  Scipione  Ammirato,  "  Istorie  Fiorentine;"  Sismondi,  "  His- 
toire des  Republiques  Italiennes;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale  ;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  "  Lives  of  the 
Italian  Poets,"  by  the  Rev.  Henry  Stebbing,  London,  1831. 

Medici,  de',  (Lorenzo  II,,)  eldest  son  of  Piero  II., 
born  at  Florence  in  1492,  was  placed,  through  the  in- 
fluence of  his  uncle,  Leo  X,,  at  the  head  of  the  republic. 
He  married  in  15 18  Madeleine  de  La  Tour,  daughter  of 
Jean,  Count  d'Auvergne,  and  died  in  15 19,  leaving  an 
infant  daughter,  Catherine  de  Medicis,  afterwards  Queen 
of  France, 

Medici,  de',  (Ludovico,)  Duke  of  Sarto,  called  also 
the  Chevalier  de  Medici,  a  Neapolitan  statesman,  born 
in  1760.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  finance  in  1810, 
and  in  181 5  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Vienna.  Died 
in  1830. 

Medici,  de',  (Piero  I.,)  eldest  son  of  Cosimo  the 
Elder,  born  in  1414,  succeeded  his  father  as  chief  of  the 
Florentine  republic.  He  had  powerful  rivals  in  the 
Pitti  family  and  other  nobles  of  Florence,  whose  attempt 
to  assassinate  him  was  defeated  by  the  prudence  of  his 
son  Lorenzo,    Died  in  1469, 

See  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Medici,  de',  (Piero  II,,)  eldest  son  of  Lorenzo  the 
Magnificent,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1471,  He  succeeded 
to  the  rank  and  influence  of  his  father  in  the  republic ; 
but  his  arrogance  and  rashness  soon  deprived  him  of  the 
popularity  hitherto  enjoyed  by  his  family.  On  the  in- 
vasion of  Italy  by  Charles  VIII.,  in  1494,  Piero  made 
overtures  to  the  French  king,  into  whose  hands  he  sur- 
rendered several  important  places.  Having  subsequently 
entered  the  French  army,  he  shared  in  its  defeat  at  the 
Garigliano  by  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova  in  1503,  and  was 
drowned  in  attempting  to  cross  the  river. 

See  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes." 

Medici,  de',  (Salvestro,)  a  Florentine  statesman, 
belonged  to  the  Ghibeline  faction,  and  was  one  of  the 
principal  rivals  of  the  Albizzi  family.  He  was  made 
gonfaloniere  of  justice  in  1378;  but,  the  Guelph  party 
having  again  come  into  power,  he  was  banished  in  1381. 

See  Noble,  "Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Medici." 

Medicis.    See  Catherine  de  Medicis. 

Medicus,  ma'de-kus,  (Friedrich  Casimir,)  a  Ger- 
man botanist,  born  at  Grumbach  in  1736.  He  published 
several  able  botanical  and  medical  works.  Died  in  1808. 

Medina,  mi-dee'na,  (Sir  John  Baptist,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  of  Spanish  extraction,  born  at  Brussels  in  1630, 
resided  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  Great  Britain,  He 


<  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MEDINA 


MEHEMET-ALEE 


-v'as  a  pupil  of  Rubens,  and  enjoyed  a  high  reputation. 
Died  in  171 1. 

Medina,  mi-Dee'nS,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  writer,  born 
at  Seville  about  1510,  was  the  author  of  several  historical 
and  mathematical  works,  and  a  treatise  on  navigation, 
entitled  "Arte  de  Navegar,"  (1545,)  which  was  trans- 
lated into  several  languages. 

Medina,  de,  di  m^-Dee'ni,  (Salvador  Jacinto 
Polo,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Murcia,  wrote  the  "  Fable 
of  Apollo  and  Daphne,"  and  a  number  of  epigrams, 
lyrics,  etc.    Died  about  1660. 

Medina  de  Medinilla,  de,  dk  mi-Dee'ni  di  mi-De- 
n^Kyi,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  poet,  supposed  to  have  been 
a  native  of  Seville.  He  wrote  an  eclogue  on  the  death 
of  Isabella,  wife  of  Lope  de  Vega,  his  intimate  friend. 

Medina- Sidonia,  de,  dk  mk-Dee'ni  se-do'ne-S, 
(Gasi'ar  Alonzo  Perez  de  Guzman  —  pa'rgth  d^ 
gooth-mS.n^,)  Duke,  a  Spanish  grandee,  who  lived  about 
1640,  was  a  nephew  of  the  prime  minister  Olivarez.  He 
formed  a  project  to  make  himself  King  of  Andalusia  ; 
but  his  design  was  discovered  before  he  began  to  exe- 
cute it. 

Medinilla,  mi-De-n^KyS,  (  Balthasar  Elisio,)  a 
Spanish  poet,  born  at  Toledo  in  1585,  was  a  friend  and 
disciple  of  Lope  de  Vega,  who  wrote  an  elegy  on  his 
early  death. 

Med-i-tri'na,  a  Roman  goddess  of  medicine,  in  whose 
honour  the  festival  of  Meditrinalia  was  celebrated  in  the 
month  of  October. 

Med'ows,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  general,  born 
in  1738.  He  served  in  America,  and  was  wounded  in 
the  battle  of  Brandywine,  (1777.)  He  was  made  lieu- 
tenant-general in  1792,  and  in  1801  succeeded  Lord 
Coinwallis  as  Viceroy  of  Ireland.    Died  in  1813. 

Medrano,  de,  di  mi-DR^'no,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish 
lyric  poet  of  the  seventeenth  century,  whose  works  are 
highly  praised.    Little  is  known  of  his  life. 

Me-du'sa,  [Gr.  M.e6ovoa;  Fr.  M^;duse,  mk'diiz',]  one 
of  the  Gorgons,  was  represented  as  a  beautiful  woman 
who  captivated  Neptune  and  ofifended  Minerva  by  re- 
ceivirig  his  embraces  in  her  temple.  The  goddess  changed 
her  hairs  into  serpents,  after  which  Perseus  cut  ofif  her 
head  and  gave  it  to  Minerva,  who  placed  it  in  the  centre 
of  her  asgis.    (See  Gorgon.) 

Meduse.    See  Medusa. 

Meek,  (Alexander  Beaufort,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  writer,  born  at  Columbia,  South  Carolina,  in  1814. 
As  a  member  of  the  legislature  of  Alabama,  he  procured 
the  adoption  of  a  system  of  free  schools  about  1853. 
Among  his  works  is  a  volume  of  "Songs  and  Poems  of 
the  South,"  (1857.) 

Meel.    See  Mi  el. 

Meer,  van  der,  vtn  der  maR,  (Jan,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Schoenhoven  in  1627.  His  fa- 
vourite subjects  were  sea-views,  landscapes,  and  animals, 
in  which  he  attained  great  excellence.    Died  about  1690. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  HoUandais,"  etc. 

Meer,  van  der,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Haarlem  about  1665,  was  a  pupil  of  Nicholas 
Berghem.    Died  in  1704. 

Meerbeeck,  van,  vtn  maR'bak,  (Adrian,)  a  Flemish 
writer,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1563,  was  the  author  of  several 
historical  works  in  Latin  and  Flemish.    Died  about  1630. 

Meerman,  maR^man,  (Geraart,)  a  learned  Dutch 
jurist,  born  at  Leyden  in  1722,  was  appointed  pensionary 
of  Rotterdam.  He  published  a  valuable  work  on  civil 
law,  entitled  "  Novus  Thesaurus  Juris  Civilis,"  etc.,  (7 
vols.,  1751,)  and  "Origines  Typographies,"  (1765,)  a 
treatise  on  the  origin  of  printing.    Died  in  1 771. 

Meerman,  (Jan,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
the  Hague  in  1753.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  took 
his  degree  of  doctor  of  law  at  Leyden.  He  was  made  a 
senator  and  count  of  the  empire  by  Napoleon,  (1811,) 
and  became  minister  of  public  instruction  under  Louis 
l^onaparte.  He  wrote  a  supplement  to  his  father's 
"Thesaurus,"  and  published  several  works  in  French. 
He  died  in  181 5. 

See  Cras,  "  Elogium  Johaiuiis  Meerman,"  1S17, 

Meerveldt,  von,  fon  maR'fSlt',  .  (  Maximilian,  ) 
Count,  a  German  general,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1766, 


commanded  a  corps  of  Austrians  at  Leipsic  in  1813. 
Died  in  1814. 

Meerza  or  Mirza,  meeR'zS,  (Samuel,)  a  Persian  his- 
torian, born  near  Ispahan  about  1490,  was  a  son  of  Shah 
Ismail,  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Softs.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Poets."    Died  after  1550. 

Meerza-  (or  Mirza-)  Iskander-Kazem-Beg,  meeR'- 
zl  is-kSn'der  ka'zem-b§g,  (Moliam'med  APee,)  a 
Persian  philologist,  born  in  the  province  of  Ghilan  in 
1803.  Having  settled  in  Russia,  he  was  converted  to 
Christianity  in  1822,  and  subsequently  became  ])rofessor 
of  the  Persian  language  and  literature  at  the  University 
of  Saint  Petersburg.  He  published  an  "Essay  on  Arabic 
Literature,"  (in  Persian,)  and  other  works  in  Russian  and 
Persian,  and  has  written  a  "  Concordance  of  the  Koran," 
(in  Arabic,)  and  a  "  General  History  of  the  Turks,"  (in 
Russian.) 

Meetkercke.    See  Metkerke,  (Adolphus.) 
Megabyze.    See  Me(;abyzus. 

Meg-a-by'zus  or  Meg-a-ba'zus,  [Gr,  lAeyaSvCpQ  or 
MeyutiaCpq ;  Fr.  Megabyze,  mi'gt'b^z',  or  Megabaze, 
m^'gt'btz',]  a  Persian  nobleman,  and  one  of  the  seven 
who  conspired  against  Smerdis  the  Magian  in  521  B.C. 
He  afterwards  commanded  an  army  of  Darius  I.  in 
Europe. 

See  Herodotus,  books  iii.  and  vii. 

Megeera.    See  Furi^. 

Meg'a-ra,  [Gr.  Meyupa ;  Fr.  M^gare,  mi'gtR',]  a 
daughter  of  Creon,  King  of  Thebes,  was  a  wife  of  Her- 
cules, who,  after  he  had  in  a  paroxysm  of  insanity  killed 
her  children,  gave  her  to  lolas. 

Megare.    See  Megara. 

Megasthene.    See  Megasthenes. 

Me-gas'the-nes,  [Gr.  Meyaadevtjc  ;  Fr.  Megasthene, 
mi'gts'tin',]  a  Greek  geographer  under  the  reign  of 
Seleucus  Nicator,  King  of  Syria,  whom  he  served  as 
secretary  about  300  B.C.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "  Indica,"  extracts  from  which  are  contained  in 
the  writings  of  vStrabo,  yElian,  and  Arrian. 

Megerie.    See  Abram  a  Sancta  Clara. 

Meggot.    See  Elwes. 

Megingjord  or  Megingjardar.    See  Thor. 

Me-gis'ti-as,  [Meviarmf,]  a  celebrated  soothsayer,  a 
native  of  Acarnania,  fell  with  Leonidas  at  Thermopylae. 

Meglio,  del,  del  meKyo,  (Jacopo  Coppi,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  the  Florentine  school,  born  in  1 523,  assisted 
Vasari  in  painting  the  pictures  in  the  Palazzo  Vecchio. 
Died  in  1591. 

Meliegan,  mi'i'gSN',  (Guillaume  Alexandre,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  La  Salle  in  1721.  He  became 
professor  of  French  literature  at  Copenhagen  in  175 1. 
His  most  important  work  is  entitled  "  Picture  of  Modern 
History  from  the  Fall  of  the  Western  Empire  to  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia,"  (1766.)    Died  in  1766. 

Mehemet-Alee,  (or  -Ali,)  m^h'heh-m^t  i'lee,  or 
Mo-ham'med-APee,  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  was  born  at 
Kavala  in  1769.  Having  lost  his  parents  at  an  early  age, 
he  was  protected  by  the  Turkish  governor  of  the  town. 
His  distinguished  abilities  and  energy  soon  won  for  him 
a  high  reputation,  and  he  was  sent  in  1799  to  assist  the 
British  in  expelling  the  French  from  Egypt.  He  was 
appointed  in  1804  Pasha  of  Cairo,  for  his  services  in 
defending  that  city  from  the  oppression  of  the  Mame- 
lukes, and  in  1806  was  made  Governor  of  Upper  Egypt 
by  the  Sultan.  After  a  protracted  contest  with  the  Mame- 
lukes, who  had  for  centuries  been  the  scourge  of  the 
country,  Mehemet  Alee  invited  them  to  a  festival  at 
Cairo,  and,  having  enclosed  them  in  the  citadel,  ordered 
a  general  massacre,  in  which  four  hundred  and  seventy 
perished,  (1811.)  This  sanguinary  act  was  followed  by 
the  destruction  of  the  Mamelukes  in  other  parts  of  Egypt. 
In  1830  he  invaded  Syria,  which  he  soon  subdued,  and 
which,  after  the  interference  of  the  sovereigns  of  Europe, 
was  ceded  to  him  by  the  Sultan,  on  condition  of  his  being 
a  vassal  of  the  Porte,  (i"833.)  The  Sultan,  becoming 
jealous  of  his  powerful  rival,  made  a  treaty,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  several  Eiiropean  powers,  in  1841,  by  which  Me- 
hemet was  obliged  to  relinquish  Syria,  but  his  family  was 
permitted  to  retain  the  pashalic  of  Egypt.  He  died  in 
1849,  having  the  previous  year  resigned  the  government 
to  his  son,  Ibraheem  Pasha.    As  a  ruler,  Mehemet  Alee 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  at,    j,  o,  obscure;  tlr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


MEHEMET-ALEE 


MEINICKE 


displaj^ed  talents  of  a  very  high  order,  and  few  princes 
have  h)unded  nioie  beneficent  institutions  or  shown  a 
more  just  and  liberal  spirit.  He  established  schools  and 
colleges,  created  an  army  and  navy,  and  introduced  the 
manufactures  of  Europe.  He  protected  his  Christian 
subjects,  and  aided  by  his  liberality  the  researches  of 
Champollion,  Lepsius,  and  other  eminent  savants. 

See  F.  Mengin,  "  Histoire  de  I'figypte  sous  le  Goiivernejnent  de 
Mohammed  Ali,"  1839;  A.  de  Vaulabelle,  "Histoire  del'figypte." 

Mehemet-Alee,  (Pasha,)  m§h'heh-mlt  S'lee  pS'shi', 
an  Ottoman  minister  of  state,  born  at  Trebizond  about 
1807.  He  became  a  general  of  division  in  1840,  and  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  Sultan  Mahmood  in  1844.  He  was 
grand  vizier  of  Turkey  from  October,  1852,  to  May,  1853. 
Died  in  1865. 

Mehul,  ma'iiK,  (Stienne  Henri,)  a  celebrated  French 
composer,  born  in  the  department  of  Ardennes  in  1763. 
Having  previously  received  some  instruction  from  Hau- 
ser,  a  German  organist,  he  repaired  in  1778  to  Paris, 
where  he  became  a  pupil  of  Gluck.  In  1790  he  brought 
out  his  opera  of  "Euphrosyne  and  Coradin,"  which  met 
with  brilliant  success  and  was  pronounced  by  Gretry  equal 
to  the  finest  productions  of  Gluck.  Among  his  operas, 
which  are  more  than  forty  in  number,  we  may  name 
*' Stratonice,"  "Joseph  in  Egypt,"  and  "The  Blind  Man 
of  Toledo."  His  "  Song  of  Victory"  and  other  popular 
melodies  of  the  kind  are  also  greatly  admired.  Mehul 
was  one  of  the  inspectors  of  the  Conservatory  of  Music, 
and  a  member  of  the  French  Institute.    Died  in  181 7. 

See  QuATREMEKE  DE  QuiNCV,  " Notice  sur  Mehul;"  F^tis, 
"  Biographie  Univeiselle  des  Musiciens;"  Vieillard,  "Notice  sur 
Mehul,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEuvres,"  1S59;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Melius,  ma'iis',  (Livio,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at 
Oudenarde  in  1630,  studied  in  Italy  under  Pietro  da 
Cortona,  and  died  at  Florence  in  169 1. 

Melius,  ma'oos,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  scholar,  a 
native  of  Florence,  lived  about  1730-50. 

Meibom,  mi'bom,  [Lat.  Meibo'mius,]  (Heinrich,) 
a  German  historian  and  philologist,  born  at  Lemgo 
in  1555.  He  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  history  of 
Germany  in  the  middle  ages.    Died  in  1625. 

Meibom,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  physician 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Helmstedt  in  1 590,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  He  wrote  a  number  of  medical  treatises, 
and  also  a  "Life  of  MiEcenas."  Died  in  1655.  His  son, 
Heinrich  Meibom,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1638,  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Helmstedt  in  1661,  and  of  his- 
tory and  poetry  in  1678.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
able  medical  works  and  a  "  History  of  Germany,"  (in 
Latin.)    Died  in  1700. 

Meibom,  (Markus,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at 
Tonningen  in  1630.  He  was  a  profound  classical  scholar, 
and  published  a  work  entitled  "  Seven  Greek  Writers 
on  Music,"  (2  vols.,  1652,)  which  he  dedicated  to  Chris- 
tina of  Sweden,  at  whose  court  he  resided  for  a  time. 
He  afterwards  became  professor  of  history  at  Amsterdam, 
where  he  died  in  1711. 

Meibomius.    See  Meibom. 

Meier.    See  Major,  (George.) 

Meier,  mi'er,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  a  German  critic 
and  philosopher,  born  near  Halle  in  1 7 18,  was  appointed 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Berlin  in  1746.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  Critique  on  the  Poetry  of  Gottsched," 
"  Thoughts  on  Spectres,"  (1748,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1777. 

See  S.  G.  Lange,  "Leben  G.  F.  Meier's,"  1778. 

Meier,  (Moritz  Hermann  Eduard,)  a  German  an- 
tiquary and  philologist,  born  at  Glogau  in  1796,  was 
appointed  in  1848  to  the  chair  of  eloquence  at  Halle. 
Among  his  works  is  a  treatise  "  On  the  Life  and  Orations 
of  Lycurgus."    Died  in  1855. 

Meierotto,  mi'eh-rot'to,  (Johann  Heinrich  Lud- 
WIG,)  a  German  scholar  and  popular  teacher,  born  at 
Stargard  in  1742,  became  in  1772  professor  of  eloquence 
in  Joachim  College,  Berlin.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "On 
the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Romans,"  etc.,  and 
other  works,  in  Latin  and  German.  Died  in  1800. 
^ee  Brunner,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  Meierottos,"  1802. 

Meigs,  mggz,  (James  Atkins,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished 
American  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Philadelphia 


in  1829.  He  became  in  1856  librarian  of  the  Academy 
of  Natural  Sciences,  and  in  1859  professor  of  the  insti- 
tutes of  medicine  in  Pennsylvania  College.  In  1868  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  the  institutes  of  medicine  in 
Jefferson  Medical  College  as  successor  to  Dr.  Dunglison. 
He  has  published  several  ethnological  treatises,  among 
which  we  may  name  "  The  Cranial  Characteristics  of  the 
Races  of  Men." 

Meigs,  (Montgomery  C.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Georgia  about  1816.  He  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1836,  served  several  years  as  an  engineer,  and  was 
appointed  about  1852  to  superintend  the  extension  of 
the  Capitol  at  Washington.  In  May,  186 1,  he  became 
quartermaster-general  of  the  Union  army,  the  duties  ot 
which  office  he  continued  to  perform  with  distinguished 
zeal  and  ability  till  the  end  of  the  civil  war. 

Meigs,  (Return  Jonathan,)  an  American  officer, 
born  at  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in  1740,  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Revolutionary  war.    Died  in  1823. 

His  son,  of  the  same  name,  became  Governor  of  Ohio 
in  1810,  and  in  1814  was  appointed  postmaster-general. 
Died  in  1825. 

Meikle,  mik'el,  ?  (James,)  a  Scottish  surgeon  and 
writer,  born  at  Carnwath  in  1730.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "Metaphysical  Maxims,"  (1797,)  and  "  Soli- 
tude Sweetened,"  (1803.)    Died  in  1799. 

Meikle,  (William  J.)    See  Mickle. 

Meil,  mil,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  skilful  German 
designer  and  engraver,  born  at  Gotha  in  1729,  furnished 
illustrations  for  Gellert's  and  La  Fontaine's  Fables  and 
Biirger's  poems.    Died  in  1803. 

Meil,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Altenburg  in  1732.  He  became  director  of 
the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Berlin.  His  prints  and 
vignettes  are  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1805. 

Meilleraie,  de  la,  deh  It  mirra'  or  m^'ye-rk', 
(Charles  de  la  Porte — deh  It  poRt,)  Due,  a  French 
general,  was  cousin-german  to  Cardinal  Richelieu.  He 
served  in  several  campaigns,  and  in  1639  was  created 
marshal  of  France.  He  was  regarded  as  the  most  skil- 
ful general  of  his  time  in  conducting  sieges.  He  died 
in  1664,  leaving  an  only  son,  who  married  liortense 
Mancini,  niece  of  Cardinal  Mazarin. 

Meiiieke,  mi'neh-keh,  (Johann  Albrecht  Fried- 
rich  August,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Soest  in  1791. 
He  published  excellent  editions  of  Menander  and  Phi- 
lemon, and  wrote  a  number  of  critical  treatises  on  the 
classics,  among  which  are  "  Commentationes  Miscel- 
laneae,"  (1822.)  His  "  Fragments  of  the  Greek  Comic 
Poets,"  ("  Fragmenta  Comicorum  Graecorum,"  5  vols., 
1839-43,)  preceded  by  biographical  notices  of  the  same, 
is  highly  esteemed. 

Meiner,  mi'ner,  (Johann  Werner,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  in  Francoriia  in  1723  ;  died  in  1789. 

Meiners,  mi'ners,  (Christoph,)  a  learned  German 
writer  and  antiquary,  born  near  Otterndorf,  in  Hanover, 
in  1747.  He  obtained  a  chair  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen 
about  1774,  and  published  numerous  and  various  works, 
among  which  are  a  "  History  of  the  Origin,  Progress, 
and  Decline  of  the  Sciences  in  Greece  and  Rome,"  (2 
vols.,  1782,)  and  "Biographies  of  the  Eminent  Men  of 
the  Time  of  the  Renaissance,"  ("Lebensbeschreibung 
berlihmter  Manner  aus  den  Zeiten  der  Wiederherstell," 
etc.,  3  vols.,  1796-99.)    Died  in  1810. 

See  C.  G.  Heyne,  "Memoria  C.  Meiners,"  1810;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Meinhold,  min'holt,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
writer  and  divine,  born  in  the  island  of  Usedom.  He  was 
the  author  of  various  poems,  and  a  novel  entitled  "The 
Amber  Witch,"  ("Die  Bernstein  Hexe,"  1843,)  which 
made  a  great  sensation  and  was  for  some  time  regarded 
as  a  true  narrative.  It  was  translated  into  English,  and 
is  characterized  by  a  writer  in  the  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  as  a  tale  worthy  of  De  Foe.  He  also  published 
"  Sidonia  the  Sorceress,"  etc.,  ("  Sidonia  von  Borck  die 
Kloster-Hexe,"  New  York,  1850.)    Died  in  1851. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1844;  "British 
Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1846;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
October,  1848. 

Meinicke,  ml'nik-keh,  (Karl  Eduard,)  a  German 
geographer,  born  in  Brandenburg  in  1803.    Among  his 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,    guttural,  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  I  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MEIR 


1562  MELJNCHTHON 


works  we  may  name  a  **  History  of  the  European  Colo- 
nies in  the  West  Indies,"  (1831,)  and  "The  Continent 
of  Australia,"  (1837.) 

Meir  ben  Todros,  ni5.r  b§n  to'dR6s,  a  learned 
Spanish  rabbi,  wrote  several  able  treatises  on  the  Tal- 
mud and  the  Mosaic  rites.    Died  in  1244. 

Meisner,  mis'ner,  (Balthasar,)  a  German  Lutheran 
theologian,  born  in  1587  ;  died  in  1626. 

Meissel,  (Conrad.)    See  Celtes. 

Meissner,  mis'ner,  (Alfred,)  a  German  poet,  born 
at  Toplitz  in  1822,  has  published,  among  other  works, 
"  Ziska,"  an  epic  poem,  "  The  Son  of  Atta  Troll,"  and 
•'Recollections  of  Heinrich  Heine." 

Meissner,  (August  Gottlieb,)  a  celebrated  German 
litth-ateiir  and  dramatist,  born  in  Upper  Silesia  in  1753. 
He  wrote  several  dramas,  of  which  his  "John  of  Suabia" 
is  esteemed  the  best.  He  owes  his  reputation  princi- 
pally to  his  "  Sketches,"  ("  Skizzen,")  consisting  of  nar- 
ratives, anecdotes,  fables,  etc,  which  obtained  extensive 
popularity  and  have  had  many  imitators.    Died  in  1807. 

See  Mkusel,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland," 

Meissonier,  ma'so'ne^',  (Jean  Louis  Ernest,)  a 
celebrated  French  paint^r^born  at  Lyons  about  1811. 
Among  his  most  admired  works  are  "  The  Little  Mes- 
senger," "The  Painter  in  his  Studio,"  and  "  The  Chess- 
players," His  pictures  are  of  small  size  but  of  exquisite 
finish,  and  command  high  prices.  He  was  made  officer 
of  the  legion  of  honour  in  1856,  and  has  received  a 
number  of  medals. 

Meissonier,  (Juste  Aur^le,)  a  French  artist,  born 
at  Turin  in  1675,  was  skilled  in  painting,  sculpture,  and 
architecture.  He  excelled  particularly  in  ornamental 
gold-work,  and  became  goldsmith  to  the  king,  Louis 
XV.    Died  in  1750. 

Meister,  mls'ter,  (Jacques  Henri,)  a  Swiss  writer, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1744,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Necker, 
Diderot,  and  Grimm.  He  wrote  "  Letters  on  Imagina- 
tion," (1794,)  "Studies  on  Man,"  (1805,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1826. 

Meister,  (Leon hard,)  a  Swiss  lilth-ateur,  born  near 
Zurich  in  1 741,  wrote  several  historical  works.  Died 
in  181 1. 

Meister,  mis'ter,  (Simon,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Coblentz  in  1803,  studied  under  Horace  Vernet,  and 
acquired  great  skill  in  painting  battles  and  horses.  Died 
in  1844. 

Mejanes,  de,  deh  ma'zhin',  (Jean  Baptiste  Marie 
de  Piquet — deh  pe'ki',)  Marquis,  a  French  nobleman, 
born  at  Aries  in  1729,  was  the  owner  of  a  library  of  more 
than  seventy-five  thousand  volumes,  which  at  his  death, 
in  1786,  he  bequeathed  to  the  city  of  Aix. 

Mejia.    See  Mexia. 

Mekhitar  or  Mechitar,  miK'e-tar',  (Peter,)  an 
Armenian  i^riest  and  reformer,  born  at  Sebaste  in  1676. 
Having  embraced  Catholicism,  he  became  a  distinguished 
and  popular  preacher,  and  founded,  in  1740,  an  Armenian 
monastery  at  Venice.  He  also  established  there  a  print- 
ing-house for  the  Armenian  language.  Among  the  works 
issued  from  this  press  were  an  Armenian  Grammar  and 
Lexicon. 

Mekhitar  Kosh,  the  Beardless,  a  learned  Arme- 
nian ecclesiastic,  born  about  1140,  founded  a  monastery 
in  the  valley  of  Dandsoud,  in  Eastern  Armenia,  of  which 
he  became  the  first  abbot.    Died  in  12 13. 

Me'la,  (Pomponius,)  an  eminent  Roman  geographer, 

born  in  Spain,  flourished  probably  about  50  A.D.  He 

wrote  a  valuable  work  entitled  "On  the  Situation  of  the 

Earth,"  ("  De  Situ  Orbis.")    A  good  edition  of  it  was 

published  by  Tzschucke,  Leipsic,  (7  vols.,  1807  et  seq.) 

See  Malte-Buun,  article  on  "  Mela"  in  the  "  Biographie  Univer- 
selle." 

Melampe.    See  Melampus. 

Me-lam'pus,  [Gr.  M.tkaii7:ovq ;  Fr.  Melampe,  m^'- 
16Nj/,]  a  mythical  personage  of  Argos,  famous  as  a 
soothsayer,  was  a  son  of  Amythaon.  He  was  considered 
as  the  first  mortal  that  possessed  prophetic  power,  and 
the  first  that  practised  medicine. 

Me-lan-eh'thon  [Ger.  pron.  mi-iauK'ton]  or  Me- 
lan'thon,  (Philip,)  an  eminent  German  Reformer  and 
scholar,  whose  original  name  was  Schwarzerd  or 
SCHVVARZERDT,(shwaRts'lRt:  i.e.  "Black Earth,") which,  | 


according  to  the  usage  of  the  time,  he  changed  into  Greek, 
was  born  at  Bretten,  in  the  Palatinate,  February  16, 1497 
His  father  was  a  skilful  and  prosperous  armourer.  He 
entered  in  1507  the  Academy  of  Pforzheim,  where  he  en- 
joyed the  patronage  of  Reuchlin,  who  was  his  great-uncle. 
About  the  age  of  twelve  he  passed  to  the  University  of 
Heidelberg,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  bachelor  of 
arts,  and  went  in  15 12  to  finish  his  studies  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tubingen,  He  learned  the  Greek  language, 
mathematics,  jurisprudence,  etc.,  and  remained  in  this 
university  a  number  of  years,  during  which  he  gave 
public  lectures  on  the  classics  and  other  subjects.  In 
1 5 18  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wittenberg,  then  recently  founded,  and  there 
became  the  colleague  and  friend  of  Luther,  whose  doc- 
trines he  adopted.  The  renown  of  his  learning  and 
eloquence  soon  attracted  multitudes  of  students  from 
all  parts  of  Germany.  In  15 19  Luther  and  Melanchthon 
held  a  public  disputation  at  Leipsic  with  Eckius,  one 
of  the  ablest  champions  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Melanchthon  married  in  1520  Katharina  Krapp,  daugh- 
ter of  a  burgomaster  of  Wittenberg.  It  appears  that 
he  was  never  ordained  as  a  minister  of  the  gospel.  He 
gave  much  attention  to  biblical  exegesis,  and  became  a 
prominent  advocate  of  the  Reformed  religion  by  his 
writings.  Compared  with  the  other  Reformers,  he  was 
distinguished  for  moderation  and  gentleness,  which 
tended  to  restrain  the  impetuosity  of  Luther.  In  1521 
he  published  an  able  defence  of  the  Reformed  doctrines, 
in  a  systematic  treatise  on  theology,  entitled  "Loci  com- 
munes Rerum  theologicarum,"  which  enjoyed  great  popu- 
larity. It  was  commended  by  Luther  as  being  "next  to 
the  Holy  Scriptures  the  most  excellent  work  on  theol- 
ogy." He  aided  Luther  in  his  German  translation  of 
the  Bible,  on  which  he  expended  much  time,  (1522-34.) 
In  1529  he  attended  the  Diet  of  Spire.  Having  been 
appointed  by  the  leading  Reformers  to  compose  a  formal 
exposition  of  the  Lutheran  faith,  he  wrote  the  celebrated 
"Augsburg  Confession,"  which  was  presented  to  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  in  1530, 
and  is  perhaps  the  most  important  symbolical  book  of 
the  Lutheran  Church.  A  Latin  version  of  this  Con- 
fession was  published  under  the  title  of  "Confessio  Fidei 
exhibita  invictissimo  Imperatori  Carolo  V.,"  etc,  (1531.) 
He  also  wrote,  in  reply  to  certain  Catholic  theologians, 
an  "Apology  of  the  Confession,"  ("  Apologie  der  Augs- 
burgischen  Confession.")  He  was  invited  by  Henry  VIII. 
of  England  and  Francis  I.  of  France  to  visit  their  courts ; 
but  he  declined  both  invitations,  and  remained  at  Wit- 
tenberg. He  was  one  of  the  theologians  that  disputed 
with  the  Roman  Catholics  at  the  Conference  of  Worms 
(1540)  and  the  Conference  of  Ratisbon,  (1541,)  where  he 
proposed  concessions  and  compromises  which  the  other 
Reformers  rejected.  After  the  death  of  Luther,  in  1546, 
Melanchthon  was  recognized  as  the  leader  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  Germany.  His  conduct  was  conformed  to  the 
maxim  "In  necessariis  unitas,  in  dubiis  libertas,  in  om- 
nibus caritas,"  ("  In  essentials  unity,  in  doubtful  points 
liberty,  in  all  things  charity,")  which  subjected  him  to 
violent  denunciations  from  some  Protestant  zealots.  In 
1 55 1  he  was  sent  as  a  delegate  to  the  Council  of  Trent, 
which,  however,  was  dispersed  by  the  hostile  movements 
of  Maurice  of  Saxony  before  Melanchthon  arrived  at 
Trent.  The  latter  years  of  his  life  were  greatly  troubled 
by  the  acrimonious  dissensions  among  the  Protestant 
theologians.  He  died  at  Wittenberg  on  the  19th  of  April, 
1560,  leaving  three  surviving  children.  He  was  a  man 
of  small  stature.  Among  his  numerous  works  were 
"  Elements  of  Logic  and  Ethics,"  a  Greek  Grammar, 
Commentaries  on  the  Scriptures,  editions  of  several 
classic  authors,  with  notes,  and  an  extensive  corre- 
spondence with  his  eminent  contemporaries.  An  edi- 
tion of  his  works  was  published  at  Wittenberg  by  his 
son-in-law,  Peucer,  in  1562-64. 

See  Camerarius,  "Vita  P.  Melanchthonis,"  1566;  F.  A.  Cox, 
"Life  of  P.  Melanchthon,"  1815;  A.  H.  Niemeyer,  "P.  Melanch- 
thon als  Prasceptor  Germaniae,"  1817  ;  C.  Matthhs,  "  P.  Melanch- 
thon, sein  Leben  und  Wirken,"  1841 ;  M.  Facius,  "  P.  Melanchlhon's 
Leben,"  1832;  F.  Galle,  "Versuch  einer  Charncteristik  Melanch- 
thon's,"  etc.,  1840;  Ledderhose,  "P.  Melanchthon  nach  se?n!%n 
aiissern  nnd  innern  Leben  dargestellt,"  1847;  D.  Nisard,  "  fitndes 
sur  la  Renaissance  ;"  D'Aurigke.  "  History  of  the  Reformation 
Dr.  F.  Hoefer's  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  lo7ig;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m&t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MELANDER 


1563 


MELETIUS 


Melander,  mi-ian'der,  or  Melanderhjelm,  mi-lSn'- 
dei"-he-elm',  (Daniel,)  an  eminent  Swedish  astronomer, 
born  at  Stockholm  in  1726.  He  succeeded  Stromer 
as  professor  of  astronomy  at  Upsal  in  1761,  and  sub- 
sequently became  perpetual  secretary  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.  He  was  also  ennobled  by  Gustavus  HI., 
(iSoi.)  He  wrote  a  "  Synopsis  of  Astronomical  Lessons," 
and  other  treatises,  (in  Latin.)  Melander  was  a  corre- 
sponding member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris. 
Died  in  1810. 

See  Lalande,  "  Bibliographic  astronomique ;"  Kjellin,  "  Are- 
niinne  btver  D.  Melanderhjelm,"  1811. 

Me-la'm-a,  [Fr.  Melanie,  ma'lt'ne',]  Saint,  called 
THE  Younger,  a  Roman  lady  of  a  noble  family,  born 
about  388  A.D.  Having  been  converted  to  Christianity, 
she  founded  a  convent  in  Palestine,  and  subsequently  a 
monastery  near  Mount  Calvary, 

See  Mace,  "  Histoire  de  Sainte-Melanie." 

Melanie.    See  Melania. 

Melanippide.    See  Melanippides. 

Mel-an-ip'pi-des,  [Gr.  MeAavL'mTldrjg ;  Fr.  M^la- 
Nii'FiDE,  ma'it''ne'p^d^]  a  Greek  poet,  born  in  the 
island  of  Melos,  lived  in  the  time  of  Perdiccas,  King  of 
Macedonia,  (about  450  B.C.,)  at  whose  court  he  died.  He 
is  styled  by  Xenophon  one  of  the  greatest  dithyrambic 
poets  of  Greece  ;  and  he  also  excelled  in  music.  His 
only  writings  extant  are  to  be  found  in  Bergk's  "  Poetae 
Lyrici  Grseci." 

See  Plutarch,  "  De  Musica;"  Xenophon,  "Memorabilia;" 
Fahricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca  ;"  Scheibel,  "  Dissertatio  de  Me- 
lanippide,"  1848. 

Melanthe.    See  Melanthius, 

Me-lan'thi-us  or  Me-lan'thus,  [Gr.  MelavOLoq  or 
Mi'Aavdog ;  Fr.  Melanthe,  m^'lSNt',]  an  eminent  Greek 
painter,  was  contemporary  with  Apelles,  with  whom  he 
studied  under  Pamphilus.  He  ranked  among  the  first 
artists  of  the  time,  and  his  pictures  commanded  very 
high  prices. 

Melanthius,  [Me/lav^wf,]  a  Greek  tragic  poet  of 
Athens,  flourished  about  400  B.C.,  and  was  noted  for  his 
wit.  He  was  satirized  by  Aristophanes  and  other  comic 
poets.    Plis  works  are  lost. 

Melanthus.    See  Melanthius. 

Melas,  ma'lis,  (Michael,)  Baron,  an  Austrian  gen- 
eral, born  in  Moravia  in  1730.  He  served  under  Mar- 
shal Daun  in  the  Seven  Years'  war  and  in  several  subse- 
quent campaigns  against  the  French,  and  in  1796  became 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Austrian  forces  in  Italy.  He 
was  signally  defeated  by  the  French  army  at  Marengo, 
(1800,)  and  was  obliged  to  sign  a  capitulation.  Died  in 
1806. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  Consulate  and  of  the  Empire." 

Melbourne,  m^l'biirn,  (William  Lamb,)  Viscount, 
a  popular  English  statesman,  son  of  Sir  Peniston  Lamb, 
afterwards  Lord  Melbourne,  was  born  in  1779.  He 
entered  the  House  of  Commons  in  1805,  and  advocated 
a  moderate  Whig  policy.  His  father  dying  in  1828,  he 
inherited  his  title,  entered  the  House  of  Lords,  and,  on 
the  formation  of  Earl  Grey's  ministry,  in  1830,  became 
secretary  of  state.  He  was  appointed  first  lord  of  the 
treasury  in  1834;  but  the  Tories,  under  Peel  and  Wel- 
lington, soon  gaining  the  ascendant,  he  was  compelled 
to  resign.  In  1835  he  succeeded  in  forming  a  Whig 
ministry,  which  lasted  six  years.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  tact  and  popular  qualities  and  accomplishments. 
Died  in  1848,  Lord  Melbourne  was  the  author  of  a 
comedy  entitled  "The  Fashionable  Friends."  His  wife 
was  known  as  an  authoress.    (See  Lamb,  Caroline.) 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1849. 

Melchthal,  von,  fon  mglK'tSl,  (Arnold,)  a  Swiss 
patriot,  became,  in  concert  with  his  friends  Furst  and 
Stauffacher,  one  of  the  founders  of  Swiss  liberty.  In 
1307,  in  conjunction  with  thirty  of  their  countrymen, 
they  formed  a  confederacy  for  the  defence  of  Switzer- 
land against  Austrian  oppression.  In  the  course  of  the 
following  year  the  adventure  of  William  Tell  with  Gess- 
ler  brought  affairs  to  a  crisis.  (See  Tell.)  These 
incidents  form  the  subject  of  "  Wilhelm  Tell,"  one  of 
Schiller's  most  popular  dramas. 

SeeTscHARNKR,  "Histoire  des  Conf^d^res Muller,  "  Histoire 
de  la  Confederation  Suisse." 


Melcombe,  Lord.    See  Dodington. 

Melder,  meKder,  (Gerard,)  a  Dutch  miniature- 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1693  ;  died  in  1740. 

Meldolla,  mel-doKli,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  engraver,  born  in  Dalmatia  about  1520,  was  a  pupil 
of  Mazzuoli,  (Parmigiano.)  He  is  supposed  by  some 
writers  to  have  been  the  same  as  Andrea  Schiavone. 
Died  in  1582. 

See  Le  Blanc,  "Manuel  de  I'Amateur  d'Estampes." 

Me-le-a'ger,  [Gr.  Melmypog  ;  Fr.  M^:l6agre,  mi'li'- 
tgR',]  a  famous  hero  of  classic  mythology,  was  a  son  of 
CEneus  and  Althaea,  or,  as  others  say,  a  son  of  Mars. 
According  to  tradition,  when  he  was  seven  days  old  the 
Moirae  (or  Fates)  warned  his  mother  that  he  would 
die  as  soon  as  the  billet  which  was  burning  on  her 
hearth  should  be  consumed.  Althaea  then  extinguished 
the  fatal  brand  and  hid  it  in  a  chest.  He  signalized  his 
valour  in  the  Argonautic  expedition  and  the  Calydonian 
hunt.  He  fought  with  the  Calydonians  against  the 
Curetes,  and  offended  his  mother  by  killing  her  brothers. 
She  therefore  cast  the  above-mentioned  brand  into  the 
fire,  and  Meleager  speedily  died. 

Meleager,  [Gr.  lAeledypoq,]  a  Macedonian  general, 
who  served  under  Alexander  the  Great,  and,  after  the 
death  of  that  monarch,  attempted  to  raise  Arrhidaeus  to 
the  throne  in  opposition  to  Perdiccas.  His  partisans 
were  defeated,  and  he  was  put  to  death,  323  B.C. 

See  Droysen,  "Geschichte  Alexanders  des  Grossen." 

Meleager,  a  Greek  poet,  supposed  to  have  lived  in 
the  first  century  before  the  Christian  era,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  made  a  collection  of  fugitive  poems 
and  epigrams  called  an  "Anthology,"  ("  Anthologia.") 

See  Brunck,  "  Analecta,"  vol.  i. 

Meleagre.    See  Meleager. 
Melece.    See  Meletius. 

Melek  Shah,  (a  Seljookide  Sultan.)  See  Malik 
Shah. 

Melendez-Valdez,  mi-l§n'dgth  vSKdlth,  or  Valdes, 
vSKdds,  (Juan  Antonio,)  an  eminent  Spanish  poet,  born 
in  Estremadura  in  1754.  He  studied  law  at  Salamanca, 
where  he  becaine  intimate  with  the  poet  Cadalso,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  attainments  in  English 
literature,  of  which  he  was  a  warm  admirer.  His 
idyl  .  "  Batilo"  (1780)  won  the  prize  at  the  Spanish 
Academy,  and  another  was  given  to  his  "  Pindaric  Ode 
on  the  Fine  Arts"  by  the  Academy  of  San  Fernando. 
He  published  in  1785  a  collection  of  lyric  and  pastoral 
poems,  which  established  his  reputation  as  the  first  Span- 
ish poet  of  his  time.  He  had  been  appointed  in  1 781, 
through  the  influence  of  his  friend  Jovellanos,  professor 
of  humanities  at  Salamanca.  In  1791  he  obtained  an 
important  office  in  the  chancery  of  Valladolid,  and  in 
1798  became  fiscal  of  the  supreme  court  of  Madrid.  He 
published  in  1797  another  collection  of  poems,  dedicated 
to  Godoy,  who  soon  after  appointed  him  to  a  high  office 
at  court.  On  the  fall  of  the  minister  Jovellanos,  Melen- 
dez  was  exiled  from  Madrid,  to  which  he  was  not  per* 
mitted  to  return  until  the  fall  of  Godoy,  (1808.)  Having 
subsequently  joined  the  French  party  in  Spain,  he  was 
created  councillor  of  state  and  minister  of  public  in- 
struction bv  Joseph  Bonaparte.  He  died  in  France  in 
1817.  Of  Melendez,  Ticknor  observes,  "There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  he  was  better  fitted  to  form  a  new  school, 
and  give  a  guiding  impulse  to  the  national  ])oetry,  than 
any  writer  that  had  appeared  in  Spain  for  above  a 
century." 

See  Ticknor,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Kennedy, 
"  Modern  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Spain  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and 
Poetry  of  Europe;"  Quintana,  "Life  of  Melendez-Valdez,"  pre- 
fixed to  an  edition  of  his  works,  Madrid,  4  vols.,  1820;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Meletius,  me-lee'she-us,  [Gr.  MeAmof,]  Bishop  of 
Lycopolis,  was  founder  of  a  sect  called  by  his  name. 
Having  been  deposed  by  the  Bishop  of  Alexandria, 
about  301  A.D.,  he  formed  a  schism,  and  united  with  the 
Arians. 

Meletius,  [Fr.  M^LfecE,  mi'lis',]  Saint,  called  the 
Great,  born  in  Little  Armenia,  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Sebaste  in  357  A.D.,  and  in  360  Patriarch  of  Antioch. 
Through  the  influence  of  the  Arians,  he  was  thrice  de- 
posed from  his  office  and  exiled,  being  finally  restored 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yiyguttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.   (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MELETIUS 


1564 


MELO 


in  378.  He  presided  over  the  first  General  Council  at 
Constantinople,  (381,)  and  died  the  same  year,  having 
previously  confirmed  the  nomination  of  Saint  Gregory 
Nazianzen  as  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  His  funeral  oration 
was  delivered  by  Saint  Gregory  of  Nyssa. 

See  TiLi.EMONT,  "  Memoires,"  etc.  ;  Baillet,  "  Viesdes  Saints;" 
Maimbourg,  "  Histoire  de  rArianisme." 

Meletius,  a  Greek  prelate  and  geographer,  born  at 
Janina  in  1661.  He  wrote  an  "Ecclesiastical  History," 
(3  vols.,  1798.)    Died  in  1714. 

Me-le'tus,  [Me^T^rof,]  written  less  correctly  Me-li'tus, 
a  Greek  tragic  poet,  is  chiefly  known  as  one  of  the  three 
principal  accusers  of  Socrates.  He  was  a  licentious 
writer,  and  a  man  of  profligate  habits.  He  was  put  to 
death  by  the  Athenians  when  they  repented  of  their 
treatment  of  Socrates. 

Mel'fort,  (John  Drummond,)  Duke  of,  was  prime 
minister  to  King  James  H.  of  England,  whom  he  ac- 
companied in  his  exile  to  France.  Being  accused  of 
planning  a  second  invasion  of  England,  he  was  banished 
by  Louis  XIV.  to  Angers,  where  he  died  in  17 16. 

Meli,  ma'lee,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  Sicilian  poet, 
born  at  Palermo  about  1740.  His  works,  consisting 
chiefly  of  eclogues,  odes,  and  sonnets,  are  written  in  the 
Sicilian  dialect,  to  which  he  gave  a  grace  and  refinement 
hitherto  unknown.  His  pastoral  poems  are  exquisite 
specimens  of  their  kind,  especially  the  "Ecloghe  Pesca- 
torie,"  or  fishermen's  dialogues,  distinguished  for  their 
humour  and  the  graceful  simplicity  of  their  language. 
Meli  also  wrote  satires  and  fables,  and  a  mock-heroic 
poem  entitled  "Don  Quixote."    Died  in  1815. 

See  LoMBARDO,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana  ;"  "  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1829;  A.  Gallo,  "  Cenni  biogra- 
fici  di  G.  Meli,"  1836. 

Mel-i-cer'ta  or  Mel-i-cer'tes,  [Gr.  MeXtneprTic;  Fr. 
Melicerte,  mi'le's^Rt',]  a  son  of  Athamas  and  Ino. 
The  poets  feigned  that  Ino  threw  herself  and  her  son 
into  the  sea,  and  Neptune  changed  them  into  sea-deities. 
Melicerta  then  received  the  name  of  Palaemon. 

Melicerte.    See  Melicerta. 

Melingue,  mi'liNg',  (Etienne  Martin,)  a  French 
actor  and  sculptor,  born  at  Caen  in  1808. 

Meliorati.    See  Innocent  VII. 

Me-lis'sa,  [Gr.  MeXcaaa;  Fr.  M^;lisse,  mil^ss',]  a 
daughter  of  Melissus,  King  of  Crete,  was  said  to  have 
fed  the  infant  Jupiter  with  the  milk  of  goats. 

Melissa,  in  classic  mythology,  a  nymph  who  first  dis- 
covered the  use  of  honey,  or  the  method  of  procuring  it ; 
whence  bees  (in  Greek  MeXiGoai)  are  said  to  have  derived 
their  name. 

Melisse.    See  Melissa. 

Me-lis'sus,  [MeXcaaog,]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at 
Samos,  flourished  about  440  B.C.  He  was  also  distin- 
guished as  a  naval  commander,  and  gained  an  important 
victory  over  the  Athenians.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Par- 
men  ides,  and  was  the  author  of  philosophical  works  of 
which  only  fragments  are  extant. 

Melissus,  mi-lis'sus,  (Paul,)  a  German,  distinguished 
as  a  Latin  poet,  born  in  Franconia  in  1539  ;  died  in  1602. 

MeFi-ton  or  Mel'i-to,  [Gr.  MeTihuu,]  an  ecclesias- 
tical writer  of  the  second  century  A.D.,  Ijecame  Bishop 
of  Sardis  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  His  works 
were  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries,  but  they 
have  been  lost,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  fragments. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "  Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'Histoire  ecclesias- 
tique." 

Melitus  or  Melitos.    See  Meletus. 

Me'li-us  or  Maelius,  mee'le-us,  (Spurius,)  a  Roman 
Icnight,  who  gained  the  favour  of  the  people  by  the 
liberal  or  profuse  use  of  his  large  fortune.  He  was  ac- 
cused by  L.  Minucius  Augurinus  of  a  design  to  make 
himself  king,  and  was  summoned  before  Cincinnatus, 
who  was  appointed  dictator  for  this  occasion.  Refusing 
to  submit,  he  was  killed  by  Servilius  Ahala  in  439  B.C. 

See  LiVY,  "  History  of  Rome;"  Niebuhr,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Mellan,  m^'16N',  (Claude,)  an  eminent  French  en- 
graver  and  painter,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1598,  studied 
under  Villamena  and  Vouet  at  Rome.  He  originated  a 
new  method  of  engraving,  which  consisted  in  producing 
light  and  shade  by  varying  the  thickness  of  the  single 
lines  instead  of  crossing  one  set  by  another.  Among 


his  master-pieces  are  *'  Saint  Peter  Nolascus  borne  by 
Two  Angels,"  the  "  Face  of  Christ,"  "  Rebecca  at  the 
Well,"  and  a  portrait  of  Pope  Urban  VIII.  Died  in 
1688. 

See  RENO!JviER,"Des  Types  et  Manieres  des  Maitres-Graveurs ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Melle,  meKleh,  (Jacob,)  a  German  numismatist,  born 
at  Lubeck  in  1659.  He  published  several  works  on 
numismatics,  etc.    Died  in  1743. 

MelTen,  (Grenville,)  an  American  poet,  born  at 
Biddeford,  in  Maine,  in  1799,  was  a  son  of  Chief-Justice 
Mellen,  LL.D.,  of  that  State.  Among  his  principal  works 
we  may  name  "Our  Chronicle  of  Twenty-Six,"  (1827,) 
"  Glad  Tales  and  Sad  Tales,"  (in  prose,  1829,)  "  The 
Martyr's  Triumph,"  and  "  Buried  Valley,  and  other 
PoemsV  (1834.)    Died  in  1841. 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetiy  of  America;"  Cleveland, 
"  Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Mellin,  mil-leen',  (Gustaf  Henrik,)  one  of  the  most 
popular  Swedish  novelists  and  historians,  born  in  Fin- 
land in  1 813.  Among  his  romances,  which  are  generally 
founded  on  Swedish  history,  we  may  name  "  Flickorna 
i  Askersund,"  (1832,)  "Helena  Wrede,"  (1834,)  and 
"Johannes  Fjallman."  His  "Den  Skandinaviska  Nor- 
dens  Historia"  (1850)  and  "  Faderlandets  Historia" 
(1852)  are  highly  esteemed  by  his  countrymen.  The 
greater  part  of  his  romances  have  been  translated  into 
German. 

Mellin  de  Saint-Gelais,  mi^iN'deh  s^n  zheh-li',  a 

French  poet,  born  in  149 1,  was  the  author  of  ballads, 
sonnets,  elegies,  etc.    Died  in  1558. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Melling,  mel'ling,  (Anton  Ignaz,)  a  German  painter, 
born  at  Carlsruhe  in  1763  ;  died  in  Paris  in  183 1. 

Melliiii,  mil-lee'nee,  (Giuseppe  Zama,)  an  Italian 
writer  on  religion,  born  at  Bologna  in  1788;  died  in 
1838. 

Mello,  de,  di  meKlo,  or  Melo,  ma'Io,  (Francisco 
Manoel,)  a  Portuguese  writer,  born  at  Lisbon  in  161 1, 
wrote  (in  Spanish)  a  valuable  history  of  the  Catalo- 
nian  revolution,  entitled  "  Historia  de  los  Movimientos  y 
Separacion,  etc.  de  Cataluna,"  (1645.)  He  also  wrote 
a  number  of  dramas  and  poems,  among  which  we  may 
name  "The  Three  Muses  of  Melodino,"  ("Las  tres 
Musas  de  Melodino.")    Died  in  1665. 

See  Barbosa-Machado,  "Bibliotheca  Lusitana." 

Mello,  de,  (P.  Joz6,)  an  eminent  Portuguese  jurist, 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Portuguese  Civil  Law,"  (3d  edition, 
1800.)    Died  in  1798. 

Melloni,  m§l-lo'nee,  (Macedonio,)  an  Italian  savant, 
born  at  Parma  in  1801.  He  was  appointed  in  1839  di- 
rector of  the  Conservatory  of  Arts  and  Trades  at  Naples. 
He  wrote  several  scientific  works,  one  of  which  was 
entitled  "La  Termocrasi,"  etc.,  explaining  his  theory 
concerning  the  radiation  of  heat  and  the  coloration  of 
light.  He  originated  valuable  discoveries  on  these  sub- 
jects, for  which  the  Royal  Society  of  London  bestowed 
upon  him  the  Rumford  medal.    Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mel'motli,  (William,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
1666,  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "Great  Impor- 
tance of  a  Religious  Life,"  which  was  ascribed  by  Walpole 
to  the  first  Earl  of  Egmont.  One  hundred  thousand 
copies  of  this  work  were  printed  after  the  author's  death. 
Died  in  1743. 

See  Nichols,  "Literary  Anecdotes;"  "Memoirs  of  a  Late  Emi- 
nent Advocate." 

Melmoth,  (William,)  an  English  litterateur,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  17 10.  He  published  in 
1747  a  translation  of  the  "Letters  of  Pliny,"  which  is 
esteemed  one  of  the  best  versions  of  a  Latin  author  in 
the  English  language,  and  is  mentioned  by  Warton  as 
"one  of  the  few  that  are  better  than  the  original."  He 
also  translated  the  "  Letters  of  Cicero  to  Several  of  his 
Friends,"  and  the  treatises  "  On  Friendship"  (*  'De 
Amicitia")  and  "  On  Old  Age"  ("  De  Senectute")  of  the 
same  author.    Died  in  1799. 

See  Nichols,  "  Literaiy  Anecdotes." 

Melo.    See  Mello. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MELON 


1565 


MEMNON 


Melon,  meh-l6N'',  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  lit- 
teraieur,  resided  at  Bordeaux,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
the  Duke  de  la  Force,  founded  the  Academy  of  that  city 
in  1712.  He  afterwards  became  secretary  to  the  regent 
Orleans.  He  wrote  "  Mahmoud  the  Gaznevide,"  an  alle- 
gorical history  of  the  regency,  and  a  "  Political  Essay  on 
Commerce."  The  latter  work  was  highly  commended 
by  Voltaire.    Died  in  1738. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XV,"  chap.  iii. 

Meiot,  meh-lo',  (Anicet,)  a  French  savant,  born  at 
Dijon  in  1697,  became  in  1738  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions,  to  which  he  contributed  several 
able  treatises.  In  1741  he  was  appointed  royal  librarian. 
He  wrote  a  '*  Dissertation  on  the  Capture  of  Rome 
by  the  Gauls,"  and  other  antiquarian  works.  Died  in 
1759- 

Melozzo  da  Forli,  mi-lot'so  di  foR-lee',  (Fran- 
cesco,) an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Forli  in  1438,  invented 
the  sotfo  hi  su,  and  discovered  the  rules  of  vertical  per- 
spective. Among  his  finest  extant  frescos  is  *'  Sixtus  IV. 
giving  to  Platina  charge  of  the  Vatican  Library,"  now  in 
the  Vatican.  His  works  are  highly  commended  by  Vasari. 
He  excelled  in  foreshortening.    Died  in  1492. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Mel-pom'e-ne,  [Gr.  MeXTrofievrj ;  Fr.  MELPOMfeNE, 
mSKpo'man',]  one  of  the  nine  Muses,  presided  over 
tragedy,  and  was  represented  as  holding  in  her  hand  a 
tragic  mask.  She  was  said  to  be  the  mother  of  the 
Sirens.    (See  Mus^.) 

Melun,  de,  deh  meh-liiN',  (Charles,)  a  French  states- 
man under  Louis  XL,  was  appointed  in  1465  grand 
master  of  France.  Having  subsequently  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  the  king,  he  was  condemned  to  death  and 
executed,  (1468.) 

Melvil.    See  Melville,  (Sir  James.) 

Mel'vill,  (Rev.  Henry,)  an  eloquent  English  divine, 
and  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  Queen  Victoria,  was  born  in 
Cornwall  about  1800.  Having  graduated  at  Cambridge, 
he  was  appointed  principal  of  the  East  India  College, 
Haileybury,  about  1840.  He  published  several  volumes 
of  sermons. 

Melvill  van  Carnbee,  mIKvil  vtn  karn'ba,  (  Pie- 
TER,)  Baron,  a  geographer  and  naval  officer,  born  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1816.  He  produced  the  '*  Mariner's 
Guide,"  ("Zeeman's  Gid,"  1842.)    Died  in  1856. 

Melville,  m^Kvil,  (Andrew,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
Reformer  and  scholar,  born  in  Forfarshire  in  1545.  He 
studied  in  Paris,  and  subsequently  became  professor  of 
humanities  at  Geneva.  After  his  return  to  Scotland  he 
was  appointed  principal  of  Glasgow  College,  where  he 
introduced  great  improvements  in  the  discipline  and 
was  eminently  successful  as  a  teacher.  Pie  was  actively 
engaged  in  the  religious  controversies  of  the  time,  and 
was  chiefly  instrumental  in  the  abolition  of  episcopacy 
in  Scotland.  He  became  in  1580  principal  of  Saint 
Mary's  College,  Saint  Andrew's,  where  he  also  filled  the 
chair  of  theology  and  the  Oriental  tongues.  Having 
given  offence  to  King  James  by  his  bold  opposition  to 
the  measures  of  the  court,  he  was  imprisoned  five  years, 
and  subsequently  retired  to  France,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Sedan.    Died  in  1622. 

See  T.  McCrie,  "Life  of  Andrew  Melville,"  1819;  Gardiner, 
"  History  of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  vol.  i.  chap.  ix.  ;  Cham- 
bers, "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  "Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  September,  1824. 

Melville,  (George  Whyte,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  about  1820.  He  was  a  captain  in  the  Coldstream 
Guards.  He  produced  popular  novels,  entitled  "Digby 
Grand,"  (1853,)  "General  Bounce,"  "Kate  Coventry," 
and  "  Holm  by  House,"  (i860.) 

Melville,  (Henry  Dundas,)  Viscount,  a  British 
general,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  180L  He  served  in  India 
against  the  Sikhs  in  1849,  ^^<^  inherited  the  peerage  at 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  185L 

Melville,  (Herman,)  an  American  novelist  and  trav- 
eller, born  in  New  York  in  1819.  Having  made  a  voy- 
age to  the  Pacific  in  1841,  he  spent  several  months  on 
one  of  the  Marquesas  Islands,  and  subsequently  visited 
the  Sandwich  and  Society  Islands.  He  published,  after 
hi.s  return,   a  narrative  of  his   adventures,  entitled 


"Typee,"  (1846,)  which  was  received  with  great  favour, 
both  in  the  United  States  and  England.  Among  his 
other  principal  works  are  "  Omoo,  a  Narrative  of  Ad- 
ventures in  the  South  .Seas,"  "White  Jacket,  or  the 
World  in  a  Man-of-War,"  (1850,)  and  "The  Piazza 
Tales." 

See  DuvcKiNCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. 

Melville  or  Melvil,  (Sir  James,)  a  Scottish  states- 
man and  historian,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1530.  Having 
been  appointed  page  to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  during 
her  residence  in  France,  he  accompanied  her  on  her 
return  to  Scotland,  and  was  made  her  privy  councillor 
and  employed  in  several  important  negotiations.  He 
died  in  1606,  leaving  in  manuscript  a  work  published  in 
1683,  under  the  title  of  "Memoirs  of  Sir  James  Melvil 
of  Halhill,"  etc.,  which  are  highly  valuable  as  records 
of  his  time.  Froude  speaks  of  Melville  as  "  a  man  who, 
without  the  faintest  pretensions  to  statesmanship,  was 
as  skilled  an  intriguer  as  Europe  could  boast."  ("  His- 
tory of  England,"  vol.  viii.  chap,  viii.) 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Melville,  Lord.    See  Dundas,  (Henry.) 

Melville,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  officer,  born  in  Fife- 
shire in  1723,  served  against  the  French  in  the  West 
Indies  in  1762,  and  was  appointed  governor  of  the  pos- 
sessions conquered  from  France.  He  was  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 
Died  in  1809. 

Melzi,  mll'zee,  (Gaetano,)  Count,  an  Italian  littera- 
teur, born  at  Milan  in  1783,  published  a  "Biography  of 
Italian  Romances  and  Poems  of  Chivalry,"  (1838,)  and 
"  Dictionary  of  Pseudonyms  and  Anonymous  Works  of 
Italian  Writers,"  etc.,  (1848,)  both  of  which  enjoy  a 
high  reputation.  He  was  the  owner  of  a  library  of 
more  than  thirty  thousand  volumes,  consisting  chiefly 
of  rare  and  valuable  works.    Died  in  1852. 

Melzi  d'Eril,  mIKzee  di-r^K,  (Francesco,)  an  Ital- 
ian  statesman,  born  at  Milan  in  1753.  On  the  invasion 
of  Italy  by  the  French  he  had  a  prominent  part  in  the 
establishment  of  the  Cisalpine  republic,  of  which  he 
was  made  vice-president  in  1802.  He  was  afterwards 
created  by  Napoleon  high-chancellor  of  Italy,  and  Duke 
of  Lodi,  (1809.)  He  was  a  grandee  of  Spain.  Died 
in  1816. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  Consulate  and  of  the  Empire  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Memling,  m§m'ling,  Hemling,  hSm'ling,  or  Mem 
melinck,  mem'meh-link',  an  eminent  Flemish  painter, 
the  date  and  place  of  whose  birth  are  unknown.  He 
flourished  about  1450-85.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
the  "  Marriage  of  Saint  Catherine,"  and  a  "  Baptism  of 
Christ." 

See  P.  H^DOUIN,  "Memling,  fitude  sur  sa  Vie  et  ses  Ouvrages,' 
1847  ;  "  Lives  of  the  Early  Flemish  Painters." 

Memmi.    See  Martini,  (Simone  da.) 

Memminger,  mSm'min-jer,  ?  (Charles  Gustavus,) 
a  native  of  Wiirtemberg,  Germany,  born  in  1803,  settled 
at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  where  he  became  distin- 
guished as  a  lawyer  and  politician.  He  zealously  opposed 
the  State  Rights  party,  which  he  satirized  in  his  "  Book 
of  Nullification,"  (1832.)  He  was  appointed  secretary  of 
the  treasury  in  the  cabinet  of  Jefferson  Davis  in  February, 
1861,  and  resigned  in  June,  1864. 

Mem'mi-us,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  tribune,  was  a  strenu- 
ous opponent  of  the  aristocrats.  He  became  tribune 
of  the  people  in  in  B.C.,  and  exposed  the  venality  and 
corruption  of  the  aristocratic  leaders  in  their  manage- 
ment of  the  Jugurthine  war.  While  a  candidate  for  the 
consulship,  he  was  killed  by  the  mob  led  by  Saturninus 
in  TOO  B.C. 

Memmius,  (Caius  Gemellus,)  a  Roman  orator, 
poet,  and  politician,  was  a  tribune  of  this  people  in  66 
B.C.,  and  praetor  in  58.  He  was  a  son-in-law  of  Sulla, 
and  friend  of  Lucretius,  who  dedicated  to  him  his  poem 
"  De  Rerum  Natura."  He  is  also  frequently  mentioned 
by  Cicero.  Having  been  accused  of  bribery,  (ambitus,) 
he  went  into  exile  about  54  B.C. 

Mem'non,  [Gr.  Mc^uvov,]  a  mythical  personage,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  son  of  Tithonus  and  Eos,  (Aurora,) 
and  a  king  of  Ethiopia  or  Egypt.  According  to  tradition. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  V.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  *h  as  in  this.    (J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MEMNON 


1566 


ME  NCI  US 


he  fought  for  the  Trojans  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  slew  An- 
tilochus,  and  was  killed  by  Achilles.  The  poets  feigned 
that  the  dew-drops  which  appear  in  the  morning  are  the 
tears  which  Aurora  shed  for  the  death  of  Memnon.  Many 
writers  identify  Memnon  with  Amenophis  II.  of  Egypt, 
in  whose  honour  was  erected  the  celebrated  colossal 
statue  near  Thebes.  This  statue,  which  is  still  extant 
and  is  about  fifty  feet  high,  was  commonly  believed  by 
the  ancients  to  emit  a  sound  when  it  was  first  touched 
by  the  beams  of  the  morning  sun.  Some  writers,  in- 
cluding Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson,  believe  that  the  phe- 
nomenon was  the  result  of  imposture. 

See  Sir  J.  Gardner  Wilkinson,  "Topography  of  Thebes," 
PP-  33-37- 

Mem'non,  a  Greek  general  in  the  service  of  Da- 
rius. King  of  Persia,  attained  the  rank  of  high  admiral, 
and  Governor  of  Western  Asia.  He  had  great  military 
talents.    Died  in  333  B.C. 

See  Clinton,  "Fasti  Hellenici." 

Memnon,  a  Greek  historian,  supposed  to  have  lived 
under  the  reign  of  Augustus  or  the  Antonines.  He 
wrote  a  history  of  Heraclea,  of  which  only  fragments 
are  extant. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Grjecis." 

Mena,  de,  dh.  ma'na,  (Felipe  Gil,)  a  Spanish  por- 
trait-painter of  great  merit,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1600 ; 
died  in  1674. 

Mena,  de,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Cordova 
about  1410.  He  was  patronized  by  John  II.,  King  of  Castile, 
who  made  him  his  Latin  secretary  and  historiographer. 
His  principal  work  is  an  allegorical  poem,  entitled  "The 
Labyrinth,"  ("  El  Labirinto,")  which  enjoyed  a  high  repu- 
tation in  his  time.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Henry 
de  Villena,  the  Marquis  de  Santillana,  and  other  eminent 
writers  of  that  age.    Died  in  1456, 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature ;"  Prescott, 
"History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  pp.  18,  ig,  20;  Long- 
fellow, "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Menabrea,  ma-nS-bua'a,  (L^ON  Camille,)  a  littera- 
teur^ born  near  Chambery  in  1804.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  mediceval  antiquities,  and  left  unfinished  an 
important  work  entitled  "  Les  Alpes  historiques."  Died 
in  1857. 

Menabrea,  ma-nS,-bRa'S,  (LuiGi  F.,)  Count,  an  Ital- 
ian general  and  statesman,  born  about  1809.  He  was 
appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and  president  of 
the  council  of  ministers  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in 
October,  1867. 

Meneechmus,  m§-n§k'mus,  [  M.haixiioq,  ]  a  Greek 
sculi)tor,  born  at  Naupactus,  lived  about  480  B.C.  His 
principal  work  was  a  statue,  in  gold  and  silver,  of 
Diana  Laphyra  at  Calydon,  in  which  he  was  assisted 
by  Soidas. 

Menage,  ma^ntzh',  (Gilles,)  a  celebrated  French 
critic  and  scholar,  born  at  Angers  in  1613.  He  studied 
law,  and  practised  for  a  time  in  Paris,  where  he  became 
an  advocate  to  the  Parliament.  He  subsequently  de- 
voted himself  entirely  to  literary  pursuits,  and  his  house 
became  the  resort  of  the  distinguished  wits  and  writers 
of  the  time,  including  Balzac,  Sarrazin,  and  Madame 
Rambouiilet.  He  was  patronized  by  Paul  de  Gondi, 
afterwards  Cardinal  de  Retz,  whose  favour  he  subse- 
quently lost,  owing  to  his  arrogance  and  strong  propen- 
sity for  satire.  He  was  also  involved  in  a  literary  feud 
with  Boileau,  who  has  severely  satirized  him  in  one  of 
his  poems,  and  with  Moliere,  who  introduced  him  into 
his  "  Femmes  savantes,"  in  the  character  of  Vadius. 
His  reputation  rests  principally  on  his  "Etymological 
Dictionary  of  the  French  Language,"  (1650,)  which  is 
still  esteemed  a  standard  work.  "He  also  published  a 
number  of  poems  in  Latin,  French,  and  Italian,  and 
a  collection  of  witticisms,  etc.,  entitled  "  Menagiana," 
(1693,)  which  ranks  among  the  best  productions  of  the 
kind.  His  "  Request  of  the  Dictionaries,"  a  satire  on 
the  Dictionary  of  the  French  Academy,  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  cause  of  his  exclusion  from  that  institu- 
tion.   Died  in  1692. 

See  Antoine  Galland,  "Menagiana,"  1693;  Bayle,  "His- 
torical and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "  M^moires  pour  servir  i  la  Vie  de 
Manage,"  prefixed  to  the  "Menagiana,"  1715;  Moreri,  "  Diction- 
naire  Historique  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


Menageot,  mi'nt'zho',  (FRANgois  Guillaume,)  a 
painter,  of  French  extraction,  born  in  London  in  1744. 
He  studied  in  Paris  under  Vien  and  Boucher,  and  was 
appointed  director  of  the  French  Academy  at  Rome  in 
1787.  Among  his  works  may  be  named  "Time  arrested 
by  Study,"  and  "Diana  seeking  Adonis."   Died  in  1816. 

Men'a-hem,  [Heb.  DnjD,]  the  son  of  Gadi,  having 
slain  Shallum,  King  of  Samaria,  usurped  his  throne 
and  reigned  ten  years  over  that  country. 

See  IL  Kings  xv.  14. 

Me-nan'der,  [Gr.  'Wivav^^oq ;  Fr.  M^nandre,  mi'- 
nSNdk';  Ger.  Menandros,  ma-n^n^duos,  ]  a  Greek 
dramatic  poet,  born  at  Athens  in  341  B.C.,  is  called  the 
originator  of  the  new  comedy,  giving  representations  of 
actual  life  and  manners.  He  enjoyed  the  highest  repu- 
tation among  his  contemporaries,  and  is  eulogized  by 
Julius  Caesar,  Plutarch,  and  other  eminent  men  of  anti- 
quity. His  dramas  were  very  numerous,  but  they  have 
been  lost,  with  the  exception  of  the  fragments  preserved 
in  the  works  of  several  Greek  writers. 

See  Clinton,  "Fasti  Hellenici;"  K.  O.  MiJLLER,  "History 
of  Greek  Literature;"  Hauptmann,  "  De  Menandro  atque  illius 
Comoediis,"  1743;  G.  Guizot,  "Menandre;  fitude  historique," 
etc.,  1855;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  January,  1856. 

Menander,  a  Macedonian  general,  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Lydia  by  Alexander  the  Great  in  331  B.C. 
He  became  a  partisan  of  Antigonus,  for  whom  he  fought 
against  Eumenes  in  320  B.C. 

Menander,  a  Roman  jurist  under  the  reigns  of 
Severus  and  Caracalla. 

Me-nan'der  Pro-tec'tor,  a  Greek  historian  of  the 
sixth  century,  was  one  of  the  body-guard  of  the  emperor 
at  Constantinople.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History 
of  the  Eastern  Empire  from  559  to  582  A.D.,"  of  which 
only  fragments  are  extant. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Grsecis." 

Menandre.    See  Menander. 

Menandrino,  ma-nSn-dRee'no,  (Marsilio,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  sometimes  called  Marsilius  of  Padua.  He  was 
counsellor  to  Louis  of  Bavaria,  for  whom  he  wrote  a 
treatise  entitled  "  Defender  of  the  Peace,"  in  support  of 
the  authority  of  the  emperor  over  the  pope.  For  this 
he  was  excommunicated  by  John  XXII.    Died  in  1328, 

Menandros.    See  Menander. 

Menard,  mk'ntR',  (Claude,)  a  French  writer,  born 
at  Saumur  about  1574,  was  the  author  of  a  "History  of 
Anjou,"  which  is  commended  by  Menage.  He  also  edited 
Joinville's  "  History  of  Saint  Louis,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1652. 

Menard,  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born 
at  Nimes  in  1637,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Flechier. 
Died  in  1710. 

Menard,  (L60N,)  a  French  jurist  and  antiquary,  born 
at  Tarascon  in  1706.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  City 
of  Nimes,"  a  treatise  "  On  the  Manners  and  Customs  of 
the  Greeks,"  and  other  works.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions.    Died  in  1767. 

See  Le  Beau,  "  Eloge  de  Menard,"  in  the  "M^moires"  of  th« 
Academy  of  Inscriptions. 

Menard,  (Nicolas  Hugues,)  a  French  theologian 
and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  Paris  in  1585,  wrote  several 
religious  and  ecclesiastical  works.    Died  in  1644. 

Me'nas,  [Gr.  Mt/t'c/c,]  a  freedman  of  Pompey  the 
Great  and  of  his  son,  Sextus  Pompey.  He  commanded 
a  fleet  sent  against  Octavius,  afterwards  deserted  Pom- 
pey for  the  service  of  Octavius,  and  was  slain  (b.c.  35) 
at  the  siege  of  Siscia. 

Men -as 'sell  Ben  Is'ra-el,  an  eminent  Jewish 
rabbi,  born  in  Spain  about  1604,  studied  in  Holland, 
and  was  appointed  to  explain  the  Talmud  in  the  syn- 
agogue at  Amsterdam.  He  published  a  treatise  "  On 
the  Resurrection  of  the  Dead,"  and  a  work  on  the  Pen- 
tateuch, entitled  "Conciliador  nel  Pentateucho,"  which 
was  recommended  by  Grotius  to  students  of  theology. 
Died  in  1659. 

Mencius,  mln'she^s,  the  Latinized  form  of  Meng- 
Tse,  m^ng'tseh',  or^eng-Tseu,  m^ng'tsuh',  (named 
also  Meng-Kho,  in  his  youth,)  was,  after  Confucius,  the 
most  celebrated  of  all  the  Chinese  philosophers.  He 
was  born  in  the  little  state  of  Tsow,  (or  Tsou,)  which 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  ftt;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MENCIUS 


1567 


MENCIUS 


was  subsequently  included  in  the  kingdom  of  Loo,  and 
in  the  modern  province  of  Shan-Toong,  (or  Shan-Tung,) 
about  370  years  before  Christ :  he  was,  therefore,  a  con- 
temporary of  Plato  and  Aristotle.  He  lost  his  father  in 
his  early  childhood.  To  his  mother,  who  appears  to  have 
been  a  woman  of  rare  intelligence  and  worth,  he  was 
indebted,  in  a  great  measure,  not  merely  for  his  inclina- 
tion towards  learning  and  philosophy,  but  also  for  that 
pure  and  lofty  virtue  for  which  he  was  so  distinguished. 
It  is  related  that  after  the  death  of  her  husband  she  re- 
sided for  a  short  time  near  a  butcher's  shop,  but,  fearing 
that  the  frequent  sight  of  scenes  of  blood  might  harden 
and  deprave  the  heart  of  her  son,  she  removed  to  another 
abode.  This  happened  to  be  near  a  cemetery,  and  young 
Mencius  amused  himself  with  acting  the  various  scenes 
which  he  witnessed  at  the  tombs.  "This,"  said  his 
mother  to  herself,  "is  no  place  for  my  son."  She  again 
changed  her  dwelling,  and  took  a  house  in  the  market- 
place. But  here  he  soon  began  to  play  the  part  of  a 
salesman,  vaunting  his  wares  and  chaffering  with  cus- 
tomers. The  watchful  and  anxious  mother  was  not  yet 
satisfied.  At  last  she  found  a  house  close  by  a  school. 
Her  son's  attention  was  attracted  by  the  various  studies 
and  exercises  which  he  saw  pursued  in  the  school,  and  a 
desire  for  learning  was  awakened  in  his  mind.  Soon 
after  she  sent  him  to  the  school ;  and  he  is  said  to  have 
distinguished  himself  by  the  quickness  of  his  intellect, 
and  subsequently  by  his  earnest  application  to  study. 
The  following  story  may  serve  to  show  his  mother's  con- 
scientious watchfulness  in  regard  to  the  moral  education 
of  her  son.  Seeing  a  butcher  killing  pigs,  he  asked  her 
what  that  was  done  for.  She  replied  rather  thoughtlessly, 
(as  it  appears,)  "It  is  to  furnish  you  with  food."  Her 
conscience  at  once  reproved  her  for  saying  what  was  not 
strictly  true,  and,  anxious  not  to  set  him  an  example  of 
untruthfulness,  she  went  and  bought  some  pork  in  order 
to  make  good  her  words.  One  day  when  he  returned 
home  from  school,  she  looked  up  from  the  web  which 
she  happened  to  be  weaving,  and  asked  him  how  he  was 
getting  on.  He  answered,  carelessly,  that  he  was  doing 
well  enough,  whereupon  she  took  a  knife  and  cut  through 
her  web.  Alarmed,  he  inquired  what  she  meant.  She 
then  showed  him  that  she  had  only  done  what  he  was 
doing  :  she  had  lost  her  labour  and  thrown  away  the  time 
she  had  spent  in  weaving  the  web,  he  also  was  throwing 
away  his  precious  time  through  neglect  of  his  studies. 
The  lesson  was  not  lost  upon  him,  and  did  not  need  to 
be  repeated. 

Some  writers  represent  Mencius  as  having  studied 
under  Tseu-sse,  (or  Tsze-sze,)  the  grandson  of  Confucius. 
But  this  is  scarcely  possible,  since  Tseu-sse,  had  he  been 
living,  would  have  been  more  than  a  hundred  years  old 
when  Mencius  was  born.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  he 
diligently  studied  the  writings  of  Confucius,  to  the  neglect 
of  whose  precepts  he  attributed  the  miserable  state  of 
things  which  he  saw  everywhere  around  him,  faith  and 
justice  being  disregarded,  the  bonds  of  society  breaking 
asunder,  and  the  whole  empire  hastening  to  decay.  He 
resolved  to  devote  his  life  to  correcting  these  evils  and 
restoring,  so  far  as  it  lay  in  his  power,  the  virtues  of  the 
primitive  ages. 

Although  Mencius  considered  himself  a  follower  of 
Confucius,  yet  in  his  mode  of  instruction,  and  especially 
in  his  behaviour  towards  those  rulers  who  sought  his 
counsel,  he  differed  materially  from  his  master.  In  his 
reasoning,  if  less  grave  than  Confucius,  he  displayed 
more  art  and  more  acuteness.  His  method,  indeed,  was 
not  unlike  the  dialectic  of  Socrates  ;  he  pushed  his  ad- 
versary from  one  admission  to  another,  until  he  obliged 
him  either  to  confess  his  defeat  or  else  to  maintain  the 
most  obvious  and  palpable  absurdities.  In  his  inter- 
course with  kings  he  was  more  bold  and  severe  than 
Confucius,  both  in  exposing  folly  and  denouncing  injus- 
tice and  oppression.  Mencius  appears  to  have  been 
held  in  great  respect  by  most  of  the  Chinese  princes  to 
whom  his  fame  had  penetrated.  It  is  not  known  at  what 
time  in  his  life  he  first  began  to  teach  publicly ;  but  we  are 
told  that  when  he  felt  that  he  was  sufficiently  conversant 
with  the  doctrines  and  precepts  of  the  great  teachers 
of  Chinese  philosophy,  he  commenced  his  travels  for  the 
purpose  of  offering  his  counsels  to  the  different  petty 


sovereigns  who  ruled  in  the  states  adjacent  or  neighbour- 
ing to  Loo.  But,  although  he  seems  to  have  enjoyed 
more  consideration  than  Confucius  had  done,  he  was 
scarcely  more  successful  in  carrying  into  practice  his 
ideal  plans  of  government.  His  theory  of  morals  was 
too  high  and  difficult  for  human  nature  in  its  ordinary 
condition.  He  appears  not  to  have  succeeded  in  a  single 
instance  in  prevailing  on  any  of  the  princes  to  embrace 
and  consistently  carry  out  his  principles  ;  and  accordingly 
he  had  little  inducement  to  continue  at  any  of  the  courts 
longer  than  was  necessary  in  order  to  make  a  fair  trial 
of  what  his  influence  could  effect.  He  is  said  to  have 
passed  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  in  the  more  con- 
genial society  of  his  disciples,  and  in  writing  those  works 
by  which  he  has  perhaps  exerted  a  greater  influence  on 
after-ages  than  he  did  upon  that  in  which  he  lived.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  died  at  an  advanced  age  about  29c 
B.C.  According  to  Dr.  Legge,  he  died  288  B.C.  ;  some 
other  authorities,  however,  place  the  date  of  his  death 
many  years  earlier.  The  descendants  of  Mencius,  like 
those  of  Confucius,  constitute  at  the  present  day  a  class 
of  what  may  be  termed  hereditary  nobles, — the  only 
hereditary  nobility  in  China. 

One  of  the  chief  doctrines  of  Mencius  was  that  man  is 
naturally  good,  although  he  admitted  that  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  mankind  had,  through  unfavourable  cir- 
cumstances or  influences,  become  perverted.  He  says 
the  way  in  which  a  man  loses  his  natural  goodness  is 
like  the  way  in  which  trees  are  deprived  by  the  wood- 
man of  their  branches  and  foliage.  And  if  they  still 
send  forth  some  buds  and  sprouts,  then  come  the  cattle 
and  goats  and  browse  upon  them.  As  in  the  tree  all 
appearance  of  life  and  beauty  is  destroyed,  so  in  man, 
after  a  long  exposure  to  evil  influences,  all  traces  of 
native  goodness  seem  to  be  obliterated.  But  he  main- 
tains that  there  is  an  original  power  of  goodness  in  the 
race,  and  that  all  men  may,  if  they  will,  become  like 
Yao  and  Shun,  two  of  the  early  sages  and  kings,  who 
were  pre-eminent  for  their  virtue.  A  distinguished 
Chinese  scholar  says  the  great  object  of  Mencius,  in  his 
writings,  is  to  rectify  men's  hearts.  "If  a  man  once 
rectify  his  heart,"  says  Mencius,  "little  else  will  remain 
for  him  to  do."  In  another  place  he  says,  "  The  great  or 
superior  man  is  he  who  does  not  lose  his  child's  heart," 
an  expression  which  vividly  recalls  those  beautiful  lines 
of  the  great  German  poet, — 

"  Wohl  dem  der  frei  von  Schuld  und  Fehle 
Bevvahrt  die  kindlich  reine  Seele."* 

It  is  evident,  however,  that,  owing  to  his  sanguine  and 
ardent  nature,  or  to  some  other  cause,  Mencius  did  not 
very  fully  realize  the  exceeding  difficulty  of  "  rectifying 
one's  heart."  Yet  Confucius,  who  was  regarded  by 
Mencius  as  the  most  perfect  of  human  beings,  recognized 
this  great  but  melancholy  truth,  when  he  said  it  was 
only  at  the  age  of  seventy  that  "  he  could  follow  what 
his  heart  desired  without  transgressing  what  was  right." 
("Analects,"  book  ii.) 

Confucius  had  always  inculcated  the  reciprocal  obli- 
gation between  kings  and  subjects.  Mencius,  without 
denying  the  general  obligation  of  obedience  on  the  part 
of  subjects,  taught  nevertheless  that  among  the  various 
elements  in  a  state  "  the  people  are  the  most  important 
element,  and  the  sovereign  the  least  important  ;"  and 
he  did  not  hesitate  to  draw  the  legitimate  inference  from 
such  a  position  that  a  bad  sovereign  ought  to  be  de- 
throned, and  even  slain,  if  his  life  should  endanger  or  in 
any  way  interfere  with  the  public  good. 

The  distinguished  Orientalist  Remusat,  in  drawing  a 
comparison  between  Confucius  and  Mencius,  says  the 
former  "is  always  grave,  and  even  austere;  he  exalts 
men  of  virtue  of  whom  he  presents  an  ideal  portrait ; 
he  speaks  of  bad  men  only  with  a  cool  indignation. 
Mencius,  with  the  same  love  of  virtue,  seems  to  feel 
for  vice  rather  contempt  than  abhorrence.  He  assails 
it  with  the  force  of  argument ;  he  does  not  disdain  to 
even  employ  against  it  the  weapons  of  ridicule."  Men- 
cius combined  a  certain  modesty  with  a  just  and  manly 
appreciation  of  himself    He  seemed  greatly  surprised 

*  "  Happy  he  who,  free  from  sin  and  fault, 
Preserves  the  pure  childlike  soul." 

Schiller's  Kraniche  des  Ibicus. 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MENCKE 


1568 


MENDOZA 


when  one  of  his  disciples  was  disposed  to  rank  him  as  a 
sage  ;  yet  he  said  on  another  occasion,  "  When  sages 
shall  rise  up  again,  they  will  not  change  my  words."  He 
believed  that  he  was  appointed  by  Heaven  to  uphold  or 
restore  the  doctrines  of  the  ancient  sages,  such  as  Yao, 
Shun,  and  Confucius.  Han-Yu,  a  celebrated  Chinese 
critic,  says,  "If  we  wish  to  study  the  doctrines  of  the 
sages,  we  must  begin  with  Mencius.  ...  It  is  owing  to 
his  words  that  learners  nowadays  still  know  to  revere 
Confucius,  to  honour  benevolence  and  righteousness,  to 
esteem  the  true  sovereign,  and  to  despise  the  mere 
pretender."  We  have  already  noticed  some  of  the  lead- 
ing opinions  of  Mencius.  The  following  are  a  few  of  his 
most  characteristic  sayings  :  "  I  love  life  ;  I  also  love 
righteousness.  If  I  cannot  keep  both,  I  will  let  life  go, 
and  choose  righteousness."  (The  Works  of  Mencius, 
book  vi.  chap,  x.)  "There  is  a  nobility  of  Heaven,  and 
there  is  a  nobility  of  man.  Benevolence,  righteousness, 
self-consecration,  and  fidelity,  with  unwearied  joy  in  these 
virtues,  —these  constitute  the  nobility  of  Heaven."  (Book 
vi.  chap,  xvi.)  "Benevolence  subdues  its  opposite,  just 
as  water  subdues  fire.  Those,  however,  who  practise 
benevolence  nowadays  do  it  as  if  with  one  cup  of  water 
they  could  save  a  whole  wagon-load  of  fuel  on  fire,  and, 
when  the  flames  are  not  extinguished,  should  say  that 
water  cannot  subdue  fire.  This  conduct,  moreover,  greatly 
encourages  those  who  are  not  benevolent."  (Book  vi. 
chap,  xviii.)  "  There  is  no  greater  delight  than  to  be 
conscious  of  sincerity  on  self-examination."  (Book  vii. 
chap,  iv.)  Kung-Sun-Chow  said  to  Mencius  that  his 
principles  were  admirable,  but  they  were  too  difficult 
and  lofty  for  ordinary  minds,  and  asked  him  why  he  did 
not  adapt  his  teachings  to  the  capacity  of  the  learners. 
He  replied,  "A  great  artificer  does  not,  for  the  sake  of  a 
stupid  workman,  alter  or  do  away  with  the  marking-line." 
(Book  vii.  chap,  xli.) 

See  the  excellent  notice  of  Mencius  prefixed  to  the  works  of  that 
philosopher,  in  the  second  volume  of  Dr.  Legge's  "Chinese  Clas- 
sics," Hoiig-Kong,  i86i  ;  also  Pauthiek's  "Chine,"  pp.  187-193; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale,"  article  "Mencius,"  by  L^on 
RosNY  ;  "  Les  quatre  Livres  de  Philosophic,  Morale  at  Politique  de 
la  Chine,"  translated  by  G.  Pauthier,  Paris,  1851  ;  the  Chinese 
Classical  Works,  translated  by  the  late  Rev.  David  Collie,  Malacca 
Mission  Press,  1828  ;  Stanislaus  Julien's  translation  (into  Latin) 
of  the  Works  of  Mencius,  Paris,  1824;  "Confucius  and  the  Chinese 
Classics,"  (book  iv.,)  by  Rev.  A.  W.  Loomis,  San  Francisco,  1867. 

Mencke,  m^nk'keh,  (Friedrich  Otto,)  a  German 
scholar  and  writer,  son  of  Johann  Burkhard,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1708.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  history  at  Leipsic  in  1732.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "Life  of  Angelo  Poliziano,"  (in  Latin,  1736.)  Died 
in  1754. 

Mencke,  (Johann  Burkhard,)  born  at  Leipsic  in 
L675,  became  in  1708  historiographer  to  Frederick 
Augustus,  King  of  Poland.  He  published,  in  Latin, 
"  Two  Orations  on  the  Charlatanry  of  the  Learned," 
(1715,)  and  a  work  entitled  "Writers  of  German  His- 
tory," (3  vols.,  1728-30.)  The  former  caused  a  great 
sensation,  and  was  translated  into  several  foreign  lan- 
guages. Mencke  also  wrote  a  number  of  poems,  and, 
after  the  death  of  his  father,  conducted  the  "Acta  Eru- 
ditorum."    Died  in  1732. 

See  R.  Treitschke,  "  B.  Mencke,  Professor  der  Geschichle  zu 
Leipzig,"  1842;  JocHER,  "  Gelehrten-Lexikon." 

Mencke,  (Otto,)  a  learned  German,  the  father  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Oldenburg  in  1644.  He  became 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Leipsic.  In  1682  he 
founded  the  first  literary  and  scientific  journal  published 
in  Germany.  It  was  entitled  "Acta  Eruditorum,"  and 
numbered  among  its  contributors  Leibnitz  and  other 
eminent  savants.    Died  in  1707. 

See  Seligmann,  "  Leichenpredigt  auf  O.  Mencken,"  1707;  Nice- 
RON,  "  Memoires." 

Mendana  de  Neyra,  m§n-dln'ya  di  na^-rS,  (Al- 
VARO,)  a  Spanish  navigator,  born  in  1541,  sailed  on  a 
voyage  to  the  Pacific  in  1567,  and  discovered  between 
7°  and  12°  south  latitude  the  islands  of  Saint  Chris- 
topher, Isabella,  and  Guadalcanar.  He  discovered  in 
1595  the  isles  since  called  by  Admiral  Byron  the  Dan- 
gerous Islands,  and  the  large  island  of  Santa  Cruz,  to 
which  Carteret  gave  the  name  of  Egmont  in  1767.  He 
also  established  a  colony  at  Bahia  Graciosa.    The  part 


of  Australasia  which  includes  the  Marquesas  has  been 
named  the  Mendafia  Archipelago.    Died  in  1595. 

See  De  Brosses,  "  Histoire  des  Navigations  aux  Terres  australes," 
1756. 

Mendelssohn,  mSn'dels-sSn',  (Moses,)  an  eminent 
philosopher,  born  at  Dessau,  in  Germany,  in  1729,  was 
the  son  of  a  Jewish  schoolmaster.  In  consequence  of 
the  limited  means  of  his  family,  he  owed  his  early  educa- 
tion chiefly  to  his  own  exertions.  In  1745  he  repaired 
to  Berlin,  where  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of 
mathematics  and  the  philosophy  of  Wolf  and  Leibnitz. 
In  1754  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  Lessing, 
in  conjunction  with  whom  he  afterwards  wrote  the  treat- 
ise entitled  "  Pope  a  Metaphysician."  He  next  pub- 
lished his  "  Letters  on  the  Sensations,"  and  in  1767  his 
"  Phsedo,  a  Dialogue  on  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul." 
The  latter  work  was  received  with  great  favour,  and  was 
translated  into  the  principal  languages  of  Europe.  Men- 
delssohn was  one  of  the  most  profound  thinkers  of  his 
time,  and  was  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries  for 
the  excellence  of  his  character,  as  well  as  his  intellectual 
endowments.    Died  in  1786. 

See  Mirabeau,  "  Sur  M.  Mendelssohn,"  etc.,  1787;  "Memoirs 
of  Moses  Mendelssohn,"  by  M.  Samuels;  Winckler,  "  Notice  sur 
M.  Mendelssohn,"  1798 ;  Hkinemann,  "  M.  Mendelssohn,"  1819 ; 
J.  A.  L.  RicHTER,_"M.  Mendelssohn  als  Mensch,"  etc.,  1829; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate." 

Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,  m§n'dels-son'  baR-tol'- 
dee,  (Felix,)  an  eminent  German  composer,  born  at 
Hamburg  in  1809,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  At 
an  early  age  he  manifested  extraordinary  musical  talent, 
which  received  the  most  elaborate  culture  under  Zelter 
and  Ludwig  Berger.  He  performed  with  brilliant  suc- 
cess in  Berlin  and  Paris  before  he  had  completed  his 
tenth  year,  and  in  1827  he  brought  out  at  Berlin  his 
"Overture  to  the  Midsummer  Night's  Dream"  and  his 
opera  of  "  The  Wedding  of  Camacho."  He  subsequently 
visited  London  and  Paris,  where  the  "  Overture"  above 
named  was  received  with  enthusiasm.  After  his  return 
to  Germany,  he  was  appointed,  in  1835,  director  of  the 
Gewandhaus  concerts  at  Leipsic.  In  1836  he  brought 
out  his  oratorio  of  "  Saint  Paul,"  at  Dusseldorf  and 
Leipsic,  and  the  following  year  at  Birmingham,  Eng- 
land. His  "  Elijah,"  an  oratorio,  performed  at  the  Bir- 
mingham Festival  in  1846,  caused  a  greater  sensation 
in  the  musical  world  than  had  been  known  in  England 
since  the  days  of  Handel.  Subsequently,  Mendelssohn's 
health,  which  had  been  some  time  declining,  failed 
rapidly,  and  he  died  soon  after  his  return  to  Germany, 
in  November,  1847.  Among  the  more  important  of  his 
other  compositions,  we  may  name  the  overtures  of 
"  Fingal's  Cave,"  "  A  Calm  Sea  and  Happy  Voyage," 
("  Meeresstille  und  gliickliche  Fahrt,")  and  "The  Beau- 
tiful Melusina,"  ("Die  schone  Melusine,")  besides  a 
great  number  of  cantatas  and  instrumental  pieces.  His 
"Songs  without  Words"  are  particularly  admired.  As  a 
musician  and  composer,  he  is  esteemed  second  only  to 
Handel  and  Mozart. 

See  Julius  Benedict,  "Life  and  Works  of  F.  Mendelssohn- 
Bartholdy,"  1850;  W.  A.  Lampadius,  "  Life  of  Felix  Mendelssohn- 
Bartholdy,"  1865  ;  F^Tis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musicians  ;" 
V.  Magnien,  "fitude  biographique  sur  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy," 
1850 ;  ^  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1848,  by  Mrs.  Austin  ; 
"  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1862. 

Mendez  Pinto.    See  Pinto. 

Mendizabal,  y,  e  m^n-de-th^-biK,  (Don  Juan  Al- 
varez,) a  Spanish  statesman,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born 
at  Cadiz  about  1790.  Having  amassed  a  large  fortune 
by  trade,  he  rose  to  be  minister  of  finance  in  1835.  Died 
in  1853. 

Mendoga  or  Mendoza,  de,  di  m§n-do'sS,  (Andrea 
Hurtado,)  a  Portuguese  naval  commander,  who  ren- 
dered great  services  to  his  country  by  clearing  the  South 
Seas  of  pirates  and  thus  protecting  the  Portuguese  es- 
tablishments in  the  East  Indies.    Died  about  1606. 

Mendoza,  de,  di  m^n-do'thi,  (Antonio  Hurtado,) 
a  Spanish  writer,  born  about  1590,  was  appointed  private 
secretary  to  Philip  IV.  He  wrote  a  number  of  popular 
dramas,  also  lyric  poems  and  prose  works.  Died  in  1644. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Mendoza,  de,  (Antonio  Sarmiento,)  a  Spanish 
writer,  a  native  of  Burgos,  lived  about  1630.  He  trans- 
lated Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered"  into  Spanish. 


a.  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  3?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


1569  MENESTHEUS 


MENDOZA 


Mendoza,  de,  (Don  Bernardino,)  a  Spanish  his- 
torian and  diplomatist,  was  employed  by  Philip  II.  in 
several  missions  to  France  and  England.  He  had  a 
prominent  share,  while  in  France,  in  the  formation  of  the 
Catholic  League.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "History  of 
the  Netherlands  from  1567  to  1577,"  and  a  treatise  "  On 
the  Theory  and  Practice  of  War." 

See  Motley,  "  History  of  the  United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  chap, 
iii.  :  Capkkic;ue,  "  Histoire  de  la  Reiorme  et  la  Ligue." 

Mendoza,  de,  (Dikgo  Hurtado,)  a  celebrated  Span- 
ish writer,  soldier,  and  dij^lomatisr,  born  at  Granada  in 
1503,  was  a  grandson  of  the  Marquis  de  Santillana, 
noticed  below.  He  studied  at  Salamanca,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  attainments  in  the  classics, 
theology,  and  civil  and  canon  law.  He  was  afterwards 
patronized  by  Chai  les  V.,  who  sent  him  in  1538  on  an 
embassy  to  Venice.  While  in  this  post,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  collection  of  Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts,  of 
which  he  acquired  a  great  number,  comprising  works  of 
Saint  Basil,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  Archimedes,  They 
were  subsequently  ceded  to  the  Library,  of  the  Escurial. 
He  was  soon  after  appointed  by  the  emperor  ambassador 
at  Rome  and  governor  of  Sienna.  Having  returned  to 
Spain  in  1554,  he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Philip  II., 
who  banished  him  from  court.  He  devoted  himself 
thenceforth  to  literary  pursuits,  and  published  in  1610 
his  "  History  of  the  Wars  against  the  Moors,"  ("  Guerra 
de  Granada  contra  los  Moriscos.")  This  work,  which 
has  taken  its  place  among  Spanish  classics,  is  charac- 
terized by  great  accuracv  and  impartiality,  and  is  esteemed 
the  best  imitation  of  the  Latin  historians  in  modern  lite- 
rature. He  was  also  the  author  of  a  number  of  poems, 
and  the  celebrated  comic  romance  of  "  Lazarillo  de 
Tormes,"  (1554,)  in  which  he  originated  the  so-called 
Picaresque  school  of  fiction,  afterwards  followed  by  Le 
Sage  in  his  "Gil  Bias."  "  Mendoza,"  says  Prescott,  "by 
the  brilliant  success  which  he  achieved  as  a  statesman, 
a  diplomatist,  a  novelist,  a  poet,  and  a  historian,  has 
established  a  reputation  for  versatility  of  genius  second 
to  none  in  the  literature  of  Spain."    Died  in  1575. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  Hi'story  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Sismondi, 
"Histoire  des  Republiques  Italiennes;"  Prescott,  "History  of 
Philip  II.;"  LoNGFEM.ow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  N. 
Antonio,  "  P>ibliotheca  Hispana  Nova;"  Boutervvek,  "Histoire 
de  la  Litlerature  Es]iagnole;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale;" 
Notice  of  "Lazarillo  de  Tormes"  in  tlie  "Retrospective  Review," 
vol.  ii.,  1S20. 

Mendoza,  de,  (Inigo  Lopez.)  See  Mondejar,  Mar- 
quis DE. 

Mendoza,  de,  (Inigo  Lopez,)  Marquis  de  Santillana, 
(dk  san-t61-yS'n3.,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  in  1398,  was  a 
friend  of  Juan  de  Mena  and  the  Marquis  de  Villena,  and 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  writers  of  the  court  of  John  II. 
He  is  said  to  have  introduced  the  sonnet  into  Spanish 
poetry.  Among  his  best  works  is  an  "  Elegy  on  the 
Marquis  de  Villena."  Mendoza  was  also  a  distinguished 
soldier,  and  was  created  a  marquis  as  a  reward  for  his 
services  at  the  battle  of  Olmedo,  (1445.)    Died  in  1458. 

See  I'lCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature  :"  Bouterwek, 
"  Geschichte  der  Spanische  Poesie  und  Beredtsamkeit ;"  Longfel- 
low, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Mendoza,  de,  (Juan  Gonzalez,)  a  Spanish  mission- 
ary, born  at  Toledo  about  1 540.  He  visited  China  in 
1580,  and  subsequently  South  America  and  Mexico. 
He  died  as  Bishop  of  Popayan  in  New  Granada,  (1617.) 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Great  Kingdom 
of  China,"  (1586,)  which  enjoys  a  high  reputation  and 
has  been  translated  into  French. 

Mendoza,  de,  (Don  Pedro,)  a  wealthy  Spaniard, 
born  at  Cadiz  about  1487.  He  offered  his  services,  in 
1529,  to  the  em]jeror  Charles  V.,  to  complete,  at  his  own 
expense,  the  exploration  of  the  rivers  La  Plata  and  Para- 
guay. Having  been  created  by  the  emperor  military 
chief  of  the  country  adjacent  to  those  rivers,  he  set  sail 
in  1534,  and  founded  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  in  1535. 
He  died  soon  after,  while  at  sea  on  his  return  to  Spain. 

Mendoza,  de,  (Pedro  Gonzalez,)  a  Spanish  prelate 
and  statesman,  called  the  Grand  Cardinal,  born  in 
1428.  He  enjoyed  the  favour  of  John  II.  and  Henry 
IV.,  and  was  created  successively  Bishop  of  Siguenza, 
Chancellor  of  Castile  and  Leon,  and  cardinal,  (1473.) 
Under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  he  became  Archbishop 


of  Toledo.  He  also  distinguished  himself  in  the  Moorish 
war,  in  which  he  held  a  command.  He  founded  the 
magnificent  College  of  Santa  Cruz  at  Valladolid,  and  a 
hospital  at  Toledo.    Died  in  1495. 

See  Mariana,  "Historia  Hispanise  >"  Salazar  de  Mendoza, 
"Coronica  del  gran  Cardinal  de  Espaiia,"  1625. 

Mendoza,  de,  (Pedro  de  Salazar,)  a  Spanish  his- 
torical writer,  born  at  Toledo  about  1550,  published  a 
"  Chronicle  of  the  House  of  Ponce  de  Leon,"  (1620,)  and 
a  "Chronicle  of  the  Grand  Cardinal  of  Spain,  Pedro 
Gonzalez  de  Mendoza,"  (1625.)    Died  in  1629. 

Me-nec'ra-tes,  [Gr.  MevmpuTr]^,]  a  physician  who 
made  himself  ridiculous  by  calling  himself  Jupiter.  His 
vanity  was  rebuked  by  Philip  of  Macedon,  who  in- 
vited him  to  a  banquet  and  offered  him  only  incense 
and  libations. 

Menedeme.    See  Menedemus. 

Men-e-de'mus,  [Gr.  MeveSrjfxo^ ;  Fr.  M^n^d^me, 
mi'na'dim',]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Eretria  in  the 
fourth  century  B.C.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  school  of 
Eretria,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Plato  and  Stilpo.  Died 
about  277  B.C. 

See  C.  Mallet,  "  Histoire  de  I'ficole  de  Megare  et  d'firetrie  ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Meneghelli,  m^-ni-geKlee,  (Antonio  Maria,)  an 
Italian  litterateitr,  born  in  1765,  was  professor  of  law  at 
Padua.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Life  of  Livy,"  ("  Vita 
di  Tito  Livio,"  1835.)    Died  in  1844. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  La  mia  Vita,"  1845. 

Menelas.    See  Menelaus. 

Men-e-la'us,  [Gr.  Utvi'kaoq^  Mf veAewf,. or  Me^eAaf  ;  Fr. 
M^n^las,  ma''na'lSs',  |  a  Grecian  hero  and  king  of  Sparta, 
was  a  son  of  Atreus.  He  and  his  brother  Agamemnon 
were  called  Atridae.  He  married  the  beautiful  Helen, 
who  preferred  him  to  all  of  her  nuiTierous  suitors,  but 
afterwards  eloped  with  Paris.  At  the  siege  of  Troy, 
which  was  the  consequence  of  the  abduction  of  Helen, 
Menelaus  behaved  with  great  spirit  and  courage,  and 
fought  a  single  combat  with  Paris,  whom  he  was  about 
to  vanquish,  when  Venus  interposed  and  rescued  him. 
He  was  one  of  the  daring  band  that  entered  Troy  in 
the  wooden  horse.  On  the  capture  of  Troy  he  recov- 
ered Helen,  was  reconciled  to  her,  and,  after  a  devious 
voyage  of  several  years,  returned  to  Sparta.  A  temple 
was  erected  in  his  honour  at  Therapne. 

Menelaus,  a  celebrated  mathematician  and  astrono- 
mer of  Alexandria,  resided  in  Rome  under  the  reign  of 
Trajan.  His  only  extant  work  is  a  treatise  on  spherical 
geometry,  which  was  translated  into  Latin. 

Me-ne'nI-us  A-grip'pa,  surnamed  Lana'tus,  a 
Roman  patrician  and  senator,  was  chosen  consul  in 
503  B.C.  He  obtained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Sa- 
bines,  for  which  a  triumph  was  decreed  him.  Through 
his  mediation  the  contest  between  the  patricians  and 
the  plebeians  was  appeased  in  493.  On  this  occasion 
he  related  the  fable  of  the  belly  and  the  members  to 
the  plebeians. 

Me'nei  [Gr.  Wtjvi]^,  or  Wfivtq\  was  the  first  king  of 
Egypt,  according  to  the  traditions  of  that  country.  He 
is  said  to  have  founded  Memphis,  and  to  have  introduced 
the  worship  of  the  gods.  He  Jived  probably  2000  B.C., 
or  earlier. 

Meneses  or  Menezes,  ma-na'sgs,  (Aleixo,)  a  Por- 
tuguese prelate,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1559,  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Goa,  and  in  1607  succeeded  Alphonso  de 
Castro  as  Viceroy  of  the  Indies.  He  was  appointed 
by  Philip  III.  of  Spain  Viceroy  of  Portugal  in  1614. 
Died  in  1617. 

See  Vevssi6re  La  Croze,  "  Histoire  du  Christianisme  des 
Indes." 

Meneses  Osorio,  mi-na'sgs  o-so're-o,  (Francisco,) 
a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Seville  in  1630,  was  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  pupils  of  Murillo.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  "Saint  Philip  de  Neri  adoring  the 
Virgin,"  and  "  Saint  Catherine."     Died  in  1705. 

Menesthee.    See  MiNESTHEUS. 

Me-nes'theus,  [Gr.  MtTea^e?;f  ;  Fr.  M^nesth^e,  mi'- 
nSs't^',]  a  semi-fabulous  king  of  Athens,  obtained  the 
throne  in  the  absence  of  Theseus,  who  was  the  lawful 
monarch.  He  commanded  the  Athenians  in  the  Trojan 
war. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,    guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

QQ 


MENESTHEUS 


1570 


MENTCHIKOF 


Menestheus,  \M.evEad£v^,]  an  able  Athenian  general, 
was  a  son  of  Iphicrates.  He  was  appointed  commander 
in  the  Social  war,  356  B.C.  He  also  commanded  a  naval 
expedition  against  the  Macedc^nians  in  335  B.C. 

Menestrier,  meh-nSs'tRc-a^  (Claude  Francois,)  a 
learned  French  ecclesiastic  and  antiquary,  born  at  Lyons 
in  163 1.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  treatises  on 
heraldry,  antiquities,  and  history,  among  which  we  may 
name  "On  Ancient  and  Modern  Chivalry,"  (1673,)  "The 
Origin  of  Armorial  Bearings,"  (1679,)  and  "The  Philos- 
ophy of  Images,"  (2  vols.,  1682-83.)    ^^i^d  in  1705. 

Menestrier,  Le,  leh  meh-nSs'tRe-i',  (Claude,)  a 
French  antiquary,  whose  principal  work  is  entitled 
"  Statue  of  the  Symbolical  Ephesian  Diana  Explained." 
Died  in  1639. 

Menestrier,  Le,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  anti- 
quary, born  at  Dijon  in  1 564,  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "  Medals,  Coins,  and  Antique  Monuments  of  the 
Roman  Empresses,"  (1625.)    Died  in  1634. 

Meneval,  de,  deh  min'vtK,  (Claude  FRANgois,) 
Baron,  a  French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1778.  During 
the  empire  he  served  Napoleon  as  secretary,  (secretaire 
da portefeuille. )  He  wrote  "Napoleon  et  Marie  Louise, 
Souvenirs  historiques,"  (3  vols.,  1843-45.)    Died  in  1850. 

Menezes.    See  Meneses. 

Menezes.    See  Ericeira. 

Mengoli,  raSn'go-lee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  geometer, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1625  ;  died  in  1686. 

Mengs,  m^ngs,  (Anion  Rafael,)  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man painter,  born  at  Aussig,  in  Bohemia,  in  1728.  He 
was  instructed  by  his  father,  with  whom  he  resided  several 
years  at  Rome.  On  his  return  to  Germany  he  was  ap- 
pointed court  painter  at  Dresden,  in  1744.  While  on  a 
second  visit  to  Rome,  he  painted  a  "  Holy  Family,"  which 
won  for  him  a  high  reputation.  The  Madonna  in  this 
picture  was  the  portrait  of  a  beautiful  peasant-girl,  whom 
Mengs  afterwards  married,  having  become  a  Catholic 
for  her  sake.  He  became  in  1754  director  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Painting  at  Rome,  and  in  1757  he  executed  his 
celebrated  fresco  of  "Apollo  and  the  Muses"  in  the  villa 
of  Cardinal  Albani.  On  the  invitation  of  Charles  IH. 
of  Spain,  he  repaired  to  Madrid,  where  he  was  appointed 
first  painter  to  the  king,  with  a  large  salary.  Here  he 
produced  several  of  his  master-pieces,  among  which  we 
may  name  his  "Temple  of  Glory"  and  "Triumph  of 
Trajan"  in  the  royal  palace.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1779. 
Mengs  is  ranked  among  the  best  painters  of  his  time, 
his  works  being  distinguished  by  great  accuracy  of  de- 
sign and  neatness  of  execution,  but  they  are  censured 
by  critics  as  deficient  in  warmth  and  animation. 

See  GuiBAL,  "  iSloge  historique  de  Mengs,"  1781 ;  J.  J.  Ma- 
RiETTE,  "Abecedario ;"  Bianconi,  "  Elngio  storico  di  R.  Mengs," 
1780;  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Meng-Tse  or  Meng-Tseu.    See  Mencius. 

Menil-Durand,  de,  deh  ma'neK  dli'rSN',  (Francois 
Jean  de  Graindorge  d'Orgeville — gRiN^oRzh' 
doRzh'v^K,)  Baron,  a  French  officer,  born  at  Lisieux 
in  1729,  published  a  number  of  works  on  military  tactics. 
Died  in  1799. 

Meniriski,  meh-n^N'ske',  (Franqois  de  Mesgnien,) 
a  French  Orientalist,  whose  original  name  was  Menin, 
born  in  Lorraine  in  1623.  Having  accompanied  the 
Polish  ambassador  to  Constantinople,  he  became  inter- 
preter to  the  embassy,  and  subsequently  ambassador. 
He  was  appointed  in  1671  first  interpreter  of  Oriental 
languages  at  the  court  of  Vienna.  His  principal  work 
is  a  "  Dictionary  of  Oriental  Languages,"  ("Thesaurus 
Linguarum  Orientalium,"  3  vols.,  1680,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed.    Died  in  1698. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Menippe.    See  Menippus. 

Me-nip'pus,  [Gr.  MewTTTrof ;  Fr.  Menippe,  mi^i^p',] 
a  Cynic  philosopher  and  poet,  was  a  native  of  Phoenicia, 
and  lived  probably  about  60  K.c.  Having  amassed  a 
large  fortune  by  usury,  he  destroyed  himself  in  con- 
sequence of  having  been  robbed  of  his  treasures.  He 
was  the  author  of  numerous  satires,  none  of  which  are 
extant.  Varro  is  said  to  have  imitated  the  style  of  Menip- 
pus.  He  is  also  mentioned  by  Lucian  in  his  "  Dialogues." 

See  Varro,  "  Satirse  Menippes  ;"  J.  F.  Ley,  "  Dissertatio  de 
Vita  Scriptisque  Menippi  Cynici,"  1S43. 


Menippus,  a  Greek  geographer  under  the  reign  of 
Augustus,  was  a  native  of  Pergamus,  in  Asia  Minor. 

See  "  Menippos  der  Geograph  aus  Pergainon,"  etc.,  1841,  by 
Grotefend  and  Ulrichs. 

Menippus  of  vStratonice,  an  eminent  Greek  rheto- 
rician, renowned  throughout  Asia  for  his  eloquence.  He 
is  highly  cotnmended  by  Cicero  in  his  "BruClis." 

Mennander,  mgn-'nan'der,  (Carl  Fredrik,  )  a 
learned  Swedish  prelate,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1712. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Abo,  in  Finland,  and  subsequently 
Archbishop  of  Upsal,  (1775.)    Died  in  1786. 

Mennechet,  mSn'sha',  (Sdouard,)  a  French  litte- 
rateur, born  at  Nantes  in  1794.  He  produced  odes, 
dramas,  and  "  Le  Plutarque  Fran9ais,"  a  collection  of 
lives  of  eminent  Frenchmen,  (8  vols.)    Died  in  1845. 

Mennes,  menz,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  poet  and 
royalist,  born  in  Kent  in  1591  ;  died  in  1671. 

Menno,  men'no,  [Fr.  Mennon,  ma'n^N',]  (Simonis,) 
the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Mennonites,  was  born  in  Fries- 
land  in  1496.  His  doctrines  resembled  in  some  points 
those  of  the  Anabaptists,  but  were  free  from  the  absurd- 
ities and  excesses  of  the  latter.  The  Mennonites  were 
included  in  the  proscriptive  edicts  of  the  emperor  Charles 
V.  in  1540,  and  a  price  was  set  on  the  head  of  their 
founder.  Menno  died  in  1561.  His  followers  settled  in 
England,  Holland,  and  North  America,  and  are  every- 
where favourably  known  for  their  virtues  and  industry. 

See  MuLLER,  "Cimbria  Literata." 

Mennon.    See  Menno. 

Menochio,  ma-no'ke-o,  [Lat.  Meno'chius,]  (Gio- 
vanni Stefano,)  a  learned  Italian  Jesuit  and  theologian, 
born  at  Pavia  in  1576.  He  became  rector  of  the  colleges 
of  his  order  at  Rome  and  Modena.  His  principal  work 
is  a  commentary  on  the  Scriptures,  entitled  "  Brevis  Ex- 
positio  Sensus  literalis  totius  Scripturse,"  (2  vols.,  1630.) 
Died  in  1655, 

Menochio,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian  jurist,  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Pavia  in  1532.  He  was  appointed 
a  president  of  the  Council  of  Milan  by  Philip  II.  of 
Spain.  He  wrote  several  valuable  legal  treatises,  in 
Latin.    Died  in  1607. 

Menochius.    See  Menochio. 

Me-nod'o-tus,  [Gr.  M.rivb6oToq^  a  Greek  physician  of 
Nicomedia,  lived  probably  about  100  A.D.  He  belonged 
to  the  sect  of  Empirici.  He  wrote  a  medical  work, 
which  Erasmus  translated  into  Latin. 

Menoetius,  me-nee'she-us,  [Gr.  Mewmof,]  a  son  of 
Actor,  and  father  of  Patroclus,  took  part  in  the  Argo- 
nautic  expedition. 

Me'non,  [Gr.  Mevwi^,]  a  Thessalian  general,  who 
served  in  the  Lamian  war  against  the  Macedonians.  He 
and  Antiphilus  were  defeated  by  Antipater  at  Cranon  in 
322  B.C.    He  was  killed  in  battle  in  321  B.C. 

Menon  de  Turbilly,  de,  deh  meh-n6N'  deh  tiiR'- 
b^'ye',  (Louis  FRANgois  Henri,)  Marquis,  a  French 
agricultural  writer,  born  near  La  Fleche  in  17 12,  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  Clearing  Land."    Died  in  1776. 

Menou,  de,  deh  meh-noo',  (Jacques  FRANgois,) 
Baron,  a  French  general,  born  in  Touraine  in  1750. 
He  served  in  the  republican  army  in  the  Vendean  cam- 
paign of  1793,  and  in  1795  commanded  the  National 
Guard  which  suppressed  the  insurrection  in  the  Fau- 
bourg Saint-Antoine.  As  general  of  division,  he  accom- 
panied Napoleon  to  Egypt  in  1798,  and  on  the  death  of 
Kleber  was  invested  with  the  chief  command.  In  1801 
he  was  besieged  in  Alexandria  by  Sir  Ralph  Abercrom- 
bie,  to  whom  he  was  obliged  to  capitulate.  After  his 
return  to  France,  in  1802,  he  was  appointed  by  Napo- 
leon Governor  of  Piedmont,  and  subsequently  of  Venice. 
Died  in  1810. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  Consulate  and  of  the  Empire  ;"  De 
CouRCELLES,  "  Dictionuaire  des  Generaux  Frangais '•Nouvelle 
Biographle  Generale." 

Ment'chi-kor,  written  also  Mentsohikow,  Ment- 
schikof,  and  Menchikof,  (Alexander  Danielo- 
viTCH,)  Prince,  a  celebrated  Russian  statesman  and 
general,  born  at  Moscow  about  1670,  was  the  son  of  a 
pastry-cook.  His  talents  procured  for  him  at  an  early 
age  the  notice  and  favour  of  Peter  the  Great,  and,  having 
served  with  great  distinction  in  several  campaigns  against 
the  Swedes,  he  was  created  a  field-marshal  after  the  battle 


a,  e,  I,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  %  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fdt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MENTCHIKOF 


MERCER 


of  Pultava,  (1709.)  He  was  also  made  a  prince  of  the 
empire,  and  governor-general  of  Saint  Petersburg,  and 
obtained  from  the  King  of  Prussia  the  decoration  of  the 
Black  Eagle.  On  the  "death  of  Peter  (1725)  Mentchikof 
caused  the  empress-dowager  to  be  proclaimed  empress, 
under  the  title  of  Catherine  I.,  and  appointed  a  council 
of  regency  for  the  son  of  Alexis,  afterwards  Peter  II. 
The  latter,  becoming  weary  of  the  insolence  of  Mentchi- 
kof, caused  him  to  be  arrested  for  his  abuse  of  power, 
and  exiled  to  Siberia,  where  he  died  in  two  years,  (1729.) 

See  M.  Ranft,  "  Leben  des  beriilimten  Fiirsten  Mentschikow," 
1774;  "  Leben  und  Todt  des  Fiirsten  Menzikofif,"  1730;  Voltaire, 
"Histoire  de  Russie  sous  Pierre  le  Grand;"  "Anecdotes  secretes 
de  la  Coiir  du  Czar,"  1780. 

Mentchikof,  (Alexander  Sergeivitch,)  a  Russian 
adiniral,  great-grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1789. 
Soon  after  the  accession  of  the  emperor  Nicholas,  he 
was  sent  as  ambassador-extraordinary  to  Persia.  He 
was  appointed  Governor-General  of  Finland  in  1831, 
and  was  subsequently  created  an  admiral  and  minister 
of  the  marine.  In  the  Crimean  war  he  was  charged  with 
the  defence  of  Sevastopol,  and  was  defeated  at  the  Alma 
by  the  allies  in  September,  1854.    Died  in  May,  1869. 

See  Desessarts,  "  Portraits  des  Hommes  de  la  Guerre  de 
rOrient;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mentel,  m5N't§]',  (Jacques,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Chateau-Thierri  in  1597,  wrote  a  Latin  work  in 
which  he  claims  the  invention  of  printing  for  John  Men- 
tel of  Strasburg.    Died  in  1671. 

Mentel,  m^n'tel,  or  Mentelin,  mgn'teh-leen^,  (Jo- 
HANN,)  the  first  printer  of  Strasburg,  born  at  Schelestadt 
about  1410,  is  said  to  have  been  instructed  in  his  art  by 
Gutenberg..  He  printed  in  1473  the  "Specula"  of  Vin- 
ceint  de  Beauvais,  (10  vols,  fol.)  Mentel  was  ennobled 
by  the  emperor  Frederick  III.    Died  in  1478. 

See  Laborde,  "Debuts  de  I'lmprimerie  k  Strasbourg,"  1840; 
Jacques  Mentel,  "  De  vera  Typographiae  Origine,"  1650. 

Mentelle,  mSx'tgK,  (Edme,)  born  in  Paris  in  1730, 
was  the  author  of  a  "Selection  of  Geographical  and 
Historical  Lectures,"  (6  vols.,  1783,)  and  other  similar 
works.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Institute. 
Died  in  1815. 

See  QuERAKD,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  Salm-Dyck,  "Notice 
sur  la  Vie  de  Mentelle,"  1830. 

Men'tor,  [Gr.  Mfvrwp,]  a  wise  and  faithful  friend  of 
Ulysses,  King  of  Ithaca,  who,  on  his  departure  to  the 
siege  of  Troy,  intrusted  to  him  the  care  of  his  house. 
Minerva  is  said  to  have  assumed  the  form  of  Mentor, 
and  to  have  accompanied  Telemachus  in  his  travels. 
(See  "Odyssey,"  books  ii.,  iii.,  and  iv.)  Minerva,  as 
Mentor,  performs  a  conspicuous  part  in  Fenelon's  cele- 
brated romance  of  "  Telemaque." 

Mentor,  a  Greek  artist  of  the  time  of  Pericles,  was 
celebrated  for  his  exquisite  chased  work  in  gold  and 
silver.  His  productions  are  eulogized  in  the  highest 
terms  by  Pliny,  Cicero,  and  Martial,  and  Crassus  is  said 
to  have  paid  100,000  sesterces  for  one  of  his  goblets. 

Mentor,  a  Greek  general,  and  a  brother  of  Memnon. 
He  entered  the  service  of  the  Persian  king  Artaxerxes 
Ochus  about  350  K.c,  and  led  a  successful  expedition 
against  the  Egyptians.  By  treachery  he  obtained  pos- 
session of  Hermias,  (a  friend  of  Aristotle,)  whom  he 
delivered  to  King  Artaxerxes. 

Mentzel,  m^nt'sel,  (Christian,)  a  German  naturalist 
and  philologist,  born  at  Fiirstenwald  in  1622.  He  pub- 
lished "  Kurze  Chinesischen  Chronologic,"  ("Chinese 
Chronology  Abridged,"  1696,)  and  several  botanical 
works.    Died  in  1701. 

Menu.    See  Manu. 

Menu  de  Chomorceau,  meh-nli'  deh  sho^moR's5', 
(Jean  Stienne,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  1724, 
wrote  a  heroic  poem  entitled  "  Renaud,"  in  imitation  of 
Tasso.    Died  in  1802. 

Menuret  de  Chambaud,  meh-nii^r^  deh  sh6N'bo', 
(Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Monteli- 
mart  in  1733.  He  contributed  several  valuable  articles 
to  the  "Encyclopedic"  of  Diderot.    Died  in  1815. 

Menzel,  meiit'sel,  (Adot.ph,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Breslau  in  181 5.  Among  his  principal  works  may  be 
named  "Frederick  the  Great  at  Sans-Souci,"  (in  oil.) 

Menzel,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German,  born 
about  1726,  was  private  secretary  at  the  court  of  Saxony. 


Having  revealed  to  the  Russian  ambassador  the  secret 
correspondence  between  Russia,  Saxony,  and  Austria, 
he  was  imprisoned  at  Konigstein,  where  he  died,  after  a 
captivity  of  thirty-three  years,  in  1796. 

Menzel,  (Karl  Adolph,)  a  German  historian,  born 
at  Griinberg  in  1784,  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of 
Germany  till  the  Reformation,"  (1815,)  and  a  "Modern 
History  of  Germany  from  the  Reformation  to  the  Act 
of  Confederation,"  (14  vols.,  1848,)  both  of  which  are 
highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1855. 

Menzel,  (Wolfgang,)  a  German  critic  and  litterateur^ 
born  at  Waldenburg,  in  Silesia,  in  1798.  He  became  a 
resident  of  Stuttgart  about  1825,  and  edited  the  "  Litera- 
turblatt"  for  many  years.  He  attacked  the  old  German 
school  and  the  disciples  of  Goethe.  Among  his  nume- 
rous works  are  a  "History  of  Germany,"  (1824-25,) 
"  German  Literature,"  ("  Die  Deutsche  Literatur,"  2 
vols.,  1828,)  and  a  historical  romance  called  "  Furore," 
(3  vols.,  185 1.) 

See  L.  WiENBARG,  "Menzel  und  die  Junge  Literatur,"  1835;  L. 
Borne,  "Menzel  der  Franzosenfresser,"  1844;  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  1835;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February, 
1840. 

Menzies,  mgn'zez,  (Archibald,)  a  Scottish  bota- 
nist, born  in  Perthshire  about  1754.  He  served  as  as- 
sistant surgeon  in  the  navy.    Died  in  1842. 

Menzini,  mgn-zee'nee,  (Benedetto,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Florence  in  1646.  He  visited  Rome  in  1685, 
and  obtained  the  patronage  of  Christina  of  Sweden,  then 
residing  in  that  city.  His  poems  are  chiefly  sonnets, 
hymns,  and  satires,  which  have  a  high  reputation.  His 
"  Arte  Poetica"  especially  ranks  among  the  classics  of 
the  language.    Died  in  1704. 

See  Paolucci,  "Vita  di  B.  Menzini,"  1732;  Fabroni,  "Vitae 
Italorum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  Tikaboschi,  "  Storia  della  Let- 
teratura  Italiana  ;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Menzocchi.  See  Minzocchl 

Merat,  mi'rt',  (Franqois  Victor,)  a  French  medical 
writer  and  botanist,  born  in  Paris  in  1780  ;  died  in  1851. 

Mercadante,  meR-ki-ddn'ti,  (Saverio,)  an  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Altamura  in  1 798,  produced  a  num- 
ber of  popular  operas,  among  which  we  may  name 
"  Elisa  e  Claudio,"  "  Didone,"  and  "  The  Two  Illustrious 
Rivals."  He  vvas  appointed  in  1839  director  of  the  Con- 
servatory of  Music  at  Naples.    Died  in  1870. 

See  F^Tis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musicians." 

Mercati,  m§R-ki'tee,  or  Mercado,  m^R-kl'do,  (Mr- 
CHELE,)  an  Italian  naturalist,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1541, 
became  physician  to  Pope  Clement  VIII,  He  formed  a 
valuable  collection  of  minerals,  which  was  placed  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Vatican,  and  of  which  he  wrote  a  de- 
scription entitled  "  Metallotheca,"  etc.,  (1717.)  Died  in 
1593- 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires;"  Magelli,  "Vita  di  Mercati,"  pre- 
fixed to  his  "  Metallotheca." 

Mercator.    See  Isidore  Mercator. 

Mer-ca'tor,  [Dutch  pron.  m§R-kcVtor,]  (Gerard,)  a 
celebrated  geographer  and  mathematician,  born  at  Rupel- 
monde,  in  East  Flanders,  in  1512,  was  originally  named 
Kauffmann,  ("Merchant,"  Lat.  Mercator.)  Through 
the  influence  of  Cardinal  Granvelle,  he  was  introduced 
to  the  notice  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  to  whom  he  pre- 
sented two  globes,  superior  to  anything  of  the  kind  that 
had  then  appeared.  He  is  chiefly  known  from  the  method 
of  geographical  projection  called  by  his  name.  He  pub- 
lished in  1569  the  first  hydrographic  map  of  that  kind. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  Latin  treatise  "On  the  Use  of 
the  Astronomical  Ring,"  and  other  works.  He  also 
executed  numerous  maps  and  charts.    Died  in  1594. 

See  Adam,  "Vitae  Phllosophorum ;"  T.  van  Raemdonck, 
"  Gerard  Mercator,  sa  Vie  et  ses  QEuvres." 

Mercator,  m^R-kl'tor,  (Nicholas,)  a  Danish  mathe- 
matician, whose  original  name  was  Kauffmann,  born  in 
Holstein  about  1630.  He  was  the  inventor  of  a  new 
method  of  constructing  logarithms,  which  he  described 
in  a  work  entitled  "  Logarithmotechnia,"  (1668.)  Having 
visited  England  about  1660,  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society.    Died  in  1687. 

Mer'^cer,  (Hugh,)  a  distinguished  general  in  the 
American  Revolutionary  war,  was  a  native  of  Scotland. 
He  fought  against  the  French  and  Indians,  and  served 
under  Braddock  in  the  campaign  of  1755.     He  was 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MERCER 


1572 


MERE 


severely  wounded  at  Fort  Du  Quesne,  after  which  he 
travelled  on  toot  to  Fort  Cumberland,  a  distance  of 
more  than  one  hundred  miles.  He  afterwards  took  part 
in  the  engagements  of  Trentt)n  and  Princeton,  and  was 
mortally  wounded  at  the  latter  place,  January,  1777.  A 
monument  has  been  erected  to  his  memory  at  Laurel 
Hill,  near  Philadelphia. 

Mercer,  (Jkssk,)  an  American  Baptist  divine,  born  in 
Halifax  county.  North  Carolina,  in  1769.  He  published 
a  collection  of  hymns  entitled  "Mercer's  Cluster."  He 
died  in  1841,  leaving  the  principal  ])art  of  his  estate  to 
the  university  in  Georgia  called  by  his  name. 

Mercer,  (John,)  an  American  officer  and  statesman, 
served  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  convention  which  framed  the  United  States  Con- 
stitution. He  was  elected  Governor  of  Maryland  in 
iSor.    Died  in  1821. 

Mercerus.    See  Mercier,  (Jean.) 

Mercey,  de,  deh  meR'sa'  or  m^R'si',  (Fr6d^;ric 
BouiiGKois,)  a  French  litterateur  2i\\di  landscape-painter, 
l^orn  in  Paris  in  1808.  He  wrote  works  on  art,  and  was 
jilaced  at  the  head  of  the  Direction  des  Beaux-Arts  in 
1853- 

Mercier,  m^R^se-i',  (Barthelemi,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic and  writer,  born  at  Ly(jns  in  1734.  He  published  a 
Supplement  to  Prosper  Marchand's  "  History  of  Print- 
ing," and  several  bibliographical  works.    Died  in  1799. 

Mercier  or  Le  Mercier,  leh  m^R^se-ci',  [Lat.  Mer- 
Ce'rus,]  (Jean,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born  at  Uzes, 
succeeded  Vatable  as  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Royal 
College  in  1546.  He  made  a  number  of  translations 
from  ihe  Chaldee  and  Syriac,  and  published  commenta- 
ries on  various  books  of  the  Scriptures.    Died  in  1570. 

Mercier,  (Josias,)  Sieur  des  Bordes  et  de  Grigny, 
a  French  scholar,  born  at  Uzes,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  made  a  councillor  of  state  by  Henry 
IV.  He  published  "Annotations"  on  Tacitus  and  other 
Classics.  Mercier  was  father-in-law  of  the  celebrated 
Salmasius.    Died  in  1626. 

Mercier,  (Louis  Sebastien,)  an  eccentric  French 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1740,  became  professor  of  rhet- 
oric in  the  College  of  Bordeaux.  He  was  the  author 
of  "The  Year  2440,"  etc.,  (1770,)  a  caustic  satire  on 
Parisian  society,  entitled  "Picture  of  Paris,"  ("Tableau 
de  Paris,"  1 781,)  and  a  number  of  dramas,  romances, 
and  miscellaneous  treatises.  In  his  "Essay  on  the  Dra- 
matic Art"  he  denounces  the  dramas  of  Racine  and 
Corneille  and  proposes  that  his  own  should  take  their 
place  on  the  French  stage.  Among  the  most  successful 
of  b.is  plays  were  "The  Deserter,"  and  "The  Wheel- 
barrow of  the  Vinegar-Dealer,"  ("  La  Brouette  du 
Vinaigrier.")  Mercier  was  chosen  in  1792  a  deputy  to 
the  National  Convention,  where  he  acted  with  the 
Girondists,  voted  for  the  imprisonment  of  the  king,  and 
was  proscribed  by  the  Jacobins.  He  was  afterwards  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  of  the 
Institute  of  France.    Died  in  1814. 

See  Delisle  de  Sai.es,  "Notice  des  Ouvrages  de  Mercier;" 
NoDiER,  "  Souvenirs  de  I'Empire  ;"  Qu^rard,  "  La  France  Litte- 
raire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mercier,  (Philip,)  a  painter,  of  French  extraction, 
born  at  Berlin  in  1689,  resided  principally  in  England, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales. 
His  works  are  commended  by  Walpole.    Died  in  1760. 

See  Wai.pole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Mercier  de  la  Riviere,  m^R'se-i'  deh  It  re\^iR', 
a  French  writer  on  political  economy,  born  about  1720. 
His  jMincipal  work  is  "The  Natural  and  Essential 
Order  of  Political  Societies,"  (1767.)    Died  about  1794. 

Merck,  mguk,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  lit- 
tcrahiir,  born  at  Darmstadt  in  1741,  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Goethe.  He  translated  Addison's  "  Cato,"  and 
other  English  works,  and  contributed  to  Lavater's 
"  Physiognomy."  He  also  wrote  for  the  "  Deutschen 
Mercur,"  and  other  literary  journals.  He  died,  by  sui- 
cide, in  1 79 1. 

See  Auoi.i'H  Stahr,  "J.  H.  Merck;  ein  Denkmal,"  1840; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1836. 

Mercklin,  miRk-leen',  (Georg  Abraham,)  a  German 
physician  and  writer,  born  at  Weissemburg  in  1644; 
died  in  1702. 


Mercceur,  m^R'kuR',  (£lisa,)  a  French  poetess,  born 
at  Nantes  in  1809,  was  patronized  by  Chateaubriand- 
Lamartine,  and  other  celebrated  writers  of  the  time. 
Died  in  1835. 

Mercoeur,  de,  deh  m^R'kuR',  (Philippe  Emmanuel 
de  Lorraine — deh*  lo'rin',)  Due,  a  French  Catholic 
leader,  born  in  1558,  was  appointed  Governor  of  Bre- 
tagne  in  1582.  He  revolted  against  Henry  III.  in  1589, 
and  afterwards  defied  the  authority  of  Henry  IV.  until 
1598,  when  he  submitted,  and  received  a  large  sum  of 
money  froni  the  king.    Died  in  1602. 

See  Brusle  de  Montpi.ainchamp,  "  Vie  de  P.  E.  de  Lorraine," 
1689  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mercure  or  Mercur.    See  Mercury. 

Mercuri,  mCR-koo'ree,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Rome  about  1808.  He  worked  with  success  in 
Paris  from  1832  to  1847. 

Mercuriale,  m^R-koo-re-i'li,  or  Mercuriali,  m^R- 
koo-re-^'lee,  [Latin,  Mercuria'lis,]  (Girolamo,)  an 
Italian  physician,  born  at  Forli  in  1530,  succeeded  Fra- 
cantiani  as  professor  of  medicine  at  Padua,  (1569.)  On 
the  invitation  of  Maximilian  II.,  he  visited  Vienna,  and 
was  made  a  chevalier  and  count  palatine  by  the  emperor. 
He  edited  the  works  of  Hippocrates,  and  published, 
among  other  works,  a  treatise  "On  the  Gymnastic  Art," 
(in  Latin.)    Died  in  1606. 

See  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  F.  Boer- 
ner,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  H.  Mercurialis,"  1751. 

Mercurialis.    See  Mjercuriale. 
Mercuric.    See  Mercury. 
Mercurius.    See  Mercury. 

Mer'cu-ry,  [Lat.  Mercu'rius  ;  Fr.  Mercure,  m§R'- 
kiiR';  It.  Mercurio,  m§R-koo're-o ;  Ger.  Mercur, 
m§R-kooR',]  in  the  Roman  mythology,  a  god  of  com- 
merce and  gain,  (from  the  Latin  merx^  plural  merces, 
"  merchandise,")  was  regarded  as  the  messenger  of 
the  gods,  the  patron  of  orators,  merchants,  travellers, 
and  thieves.  He  was  identified  by  the  Romans  of  the 
later  ages  with  the  Greek  Hermes,  and  was  said  to  be 
a  sor.  of  Jupiter  and  Maia.  The  poets  feigned  that  it 
was  his  office  to  conduct  the  souls  of  the  dead  to  the 
infernal  regions, — that  he  stole  from  Neptune  his  trident, 
from  Venus  her  girdle,  from  Mars  his  sword,  and  from 
Jupiter  his  sceptre, — that  he  could  assume  whatever 
shape  he  pleased,  and  render  himself  invisible.  Having 
invented  the  lyre  and  given  it  to  Apollo,  he  received 
from  that  god  a  golden  wand,  called  cadticeiis.  The 
invention  of  the  alphabet,  of  numbers,  of  astronomy,  of 
music,  and  other  things,  was  ascribed  to  Mercury,  who 
was  also  interested  in  alliances  and  treaties.  He  was 
represented  with  a  winged  cap  (petasus)  and  winged 
sandals,  (talaria.)  He  received  numerous  surnames, 
among  which  are  Cyllenius,  (from  Mount  Cyllene,  where 
he  was  born,)  Caduceator,  [i.e.  the  "  herald"  or  "  wand- 
bearer,")  Argeiphontes,  (the  "slayer  of  Argus,")  and 
many  other  names. 

See  J.  D.  Guigniaut,  "  Commentatio  de  'Ep/aov  seu  Mercurii 
Mythologia,"  1835. 

Mercy,  m^R'se',  (Claude  Florimond,)  a  distin- 
guished military  commander,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1666, 
was  a  grandson  of  Fran9ois,  noticed  below.  Having 
entered  the  Austrian  service,  he  fought  against  the 
French  in  the  principal  campaigns  from  1702  to  1734, 
and  attained  the  rank  of  field-marshal  and  general-in- 
chief  of  the  Imperial  forces  in  Italy.  He  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Parma,  (1734.) 

Mercy,  (FRAwgois,)  a  celebrated  general,  born  in 
Lorraine  about  1595.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Austrian  army  during  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  and  gained 
a  decided  advantage  over  Turenne  at  Marienthal,  in 
1645.  mortally  wounded  in  an  action  with  the 

Duke  of  Enghien,  near  Nordlingen,  the  same  year. 

See  Kraft,  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  d'Autriche." 

Mercy  d'Argenteau,  de,  deh  m§R'se'  dtR^zhSN^to', 
(FRAxgois,)  CoMTE,  was  Austrian  ambassador  from 
the  court  of  Vienna  to  Paris  in  1791.  He  advised  the 
flight  of  the  royal  family.    Died  in  1794. 

Mere,  de,  deh  mi'^ra',  (Georges  Brossin — bRo'siw',) 
Chevalier,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Poitou  about 
1610.    His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Conversations  of 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MEREDITH 


1573 


MERLET 


Marshal  Cleranibault  and  Chevalier  de  Mere."  He  was 
intimate  with  Pascal  and  Balzac.    Died  in  1685. 

See  Sainte  Beuve,  "  Derniers  Portraits  litteraires." 

Mer'e-dith,  (Gkorge,)  an  English  novelist,  born  in 
Hampshire  about  1828.  Among  his  works  are  "Farina, 
a  Legend  of  Cologne,"  (1858,)  and  "  Vittoria,"  (1866.) 

Mei'edith,  (Henuy,)  an  English  navigator,  born  in 
17S2,  visited  the  northern  part  of  Guinea,  and  wrote 
an  "  Account  of  the  Gold  Coast,  with  a  Brief  History  of 
the  African  Company."  He  died  in  Guinea  of  injuries 
received  from  the  natives,  (1812.) 

See  W.  HuTTON,  "Voyage  to  Guinea,"  1821. 

Meredith,  (Owen.)    See  Bulwer. 

Mer'e-dith,  (William  Morris,)  an  eminent  Amer- 
ican lawyer,  born  in  Philadelphia,  June  8,  1799,  graduated 
with  distinction  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1812.  He  commenced  the  practice  of  law  about  1820. 
From  1824  to  1828  he  represented  his  native  city  in  the 
Pennsylvania  house  of  representatives,  and  from  1834 
to  1849  was  president  of  the  select  council  of  Phila- 
delphia. In  1837  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Con- 
vention for  amending  the  Constitution  of  the  State.  On 
the  inauguration  of  President  Taylor,  in  March,  1849, 
Mr.  Meredith  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
which  position  he  held  till  the  death  of  the  President,  in 
July,  1850.  In  1 86 1  he  became  attorney-general  of  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania,  and  filled  this  office  until  1867. 

As  a  lawyer,  Mr.  Meredith  has  for  many  years  stood 
in  the  foremost  rank  in  his  native  State,  and  has  Ijeen 
constantly  engaged  in  important  cases  both  in  the  su- 
preme court  of  Pennsylvania  and  that  of  the  United 
States.  As  an  able  and  ready  legal  debater,  he  has  few 
equals  and  scarcely  any  superior  in  our  country. 

Mer'i-am,  (Eben,)  an  American  meteorologist,  born 
at  Concord,  Massachusetts,  in  1794.  He  was  a  diligent 
collector  of  statistics,  and  originated  a  theory  of  cycles 
of  atmospherical  phenomena.  Died  at  Brooklyn,  New 
York,  in  1864. 

Merian,  mi're'SN',  (Jean  Bernard,)  a  Swiss  littera- 
teicr,  born  near  Bale  in  1723.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
number  of  philosophical  essays  of  great  merit,  and  trans- 
lated into  French  some  of  the  "  Essays"  of  Hume. 
Died  in  1807. 

See  Ancillon,  "  filoge  de  Merian,"  i8io. 

Merian,  ma're-in,  (Maria  Sibylla,)  a  celebrated 
flower-painter  and  naturalist,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the 
Main  in  1647,  was  a  pupil  of  Mignon.  She  was  married 
in  1665  to  John  Andrew  Graff,  an  artist,  whose  name, 
however,  she  did  not  assume.  Having  made  a  scientific 
tour  in  South  America  in  1698,  she  published,  after  her 
return,  a  magnificent  work  "  On  the  Metamorphoses  of 
Surinam  Insects,"  (1705,  in  Dutch  and  Latin  ;)  also  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Origin  of  Caterpillars,  their  Nourish- 
ment and  Changes."  These  works  are  illustrated  by 
designs  from  nature  and  painted  with  exquisite  skill  and 
accuracy.  She  died  in  171 7,  leaving  two  daughters, 
Jane  Maria  Helena  and  Dorothea  Maria  Henrietta, 
who  were  distinguished  in  the  same  department  of  art. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Merian,  (Matthieu,)  an  eminent  Swiss  engraver, 
the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Bale  in  1593, 
and  resided  at  Frankfort-on-the  Main.  His  prints  are 
very  numerous,  and  are  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  165 1. 

Merian,  (Maithieu,)  born  at  Bale  in  1621,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  studied  under  Sandrart  and  Carlo 
Maratta,  and  painted  portraits  of  great  excellence  in  the 
style  of  Van  Dyck.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  an  eques- 
trian portrait  of  Count  Soderini.    Died  in  1687. 

Meric,  de,  deh  ma^r^k',  (Jean,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Metz  in  1 717,  served  under  Marshal  Saxe,  and 
was  killed  in  an  engagement  near  Malines  in  1747. 

Merilhou,  ma'ie'loo',  (Joseph,)  a  French  lawyer, 
born  at  Montignac  in  1788.  He  gained  distinction  as  an 
advocate  in  political  trials.  In  1830  he  became  minister 
of  public  instruction  in  Lafitte's  cabinet.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  183 1,  and  in  1837  was 
made  a  peer.  He  published  a  "  Historical  Essay  on  the 
Life  and  Works  of  Mirabeau,"  (1827.)    Died  in  1856. 

See  P.  S.  DupiN,  "Notice  sur  J.  Merilhou,"  1826;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 


Merille,  xnk'xhV  or  mi-re'ye,  (Edmond,)  a  French 
jurist  and  legal  writer,  born  at  Troyes  in  1579;  died  in 
1647. 

Merimee,  mbJrt'nA',  (Jean  FRANg(jis  L^nore,)  a 
French  painter,  born  in  1765;  died  in  Paris  in  1836. 

Merimee,  (Prosper,)  a  distinguished  novelist  and 
historian,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1803.  He  produced  in  1825,  as  translations  from  the 
Spanish,  several  dramas,  under  the  title  of  "Theatre  de 
Clara  Gazul."  In  1834  he  was  appointed  inspector- 
general  of  historical  monuments.  His  novel  of  "  Co- 
lomba"  (1841)  was  very  successful.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1844,  and  became  a 
senator  in  1853.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "The 
Double  Mistake,"  ("  La  double  Meprise,")  a  moral  tale, 
(1833,)  "Notes  of  a  Journey  in  the  South  of  France," 
(1835,)  "Notes  of  a  Journey  in  the  West  of  France," 
(1836,)  "Studies  in  Roman  History,"  "The  Conspiracy 
of  Catiline,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1844,)  ^  *'  History  of  Don 
Pedro  I.,  King  of  Castile,"  (1848,)  "  Les  faux  Deme- 
trius; iSpisode  de  I'Histoire  de  Russie,"  (1853,)  and 
"Melanges  historiqnes  et  litteraires,"  (1855.)  He  had 
an  excellent  talent  for  narration.    Died  in  1870. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  conteniporains,"  and  "  Cause- 
ries  du  Lundi  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Blackwood's 
Mai^azine"  for  March,  1S49;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1850. 

Merino,  mi-ree'no,  (Don  Geronimo,)  a  Spanish 
guerilla  chieftain,  born  at  Villasbiado,  in  Old  Castile, 
about  1770,  distinguished  himself  in  the  principal  cam- 
paigns against  the  French  from  1808  to  1811.  Having 
afterwards  embraced  the  cause  of  Don  Carlos,  he  suftered 
a  total  defeat  in  1838,  and  fled  to  France,  where  he  died 
in  1847. 

Me-ri'o-nes,  [Gr.  Mrjptot^rjc ;  Fr.  M^irione,  mi're^on',] 
a  Cretan  hero,  was  one  of  the  suitors  of  the  celebrated 
Helen.  He  was  a  friend  of  Idomeneus,  whom  he  served 
as  charioteer  in  the  Trojan  war,  in  which  he  acted  a 
prominent  part. 

M6r''I-vale,  (Charles,)  an  English  historian,  a  son 
of  John  Herman  Merivale,  noticed  below,  was  born 
about  1808.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1830,  and 
became  rector  of  Lawford,  Essex.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire,"  (7  vols.,  1850-62.) 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1850,  and  July,  1857. 

Merivale,  (Herman,)  an  English  writer,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1805.  He  became 
professor  of  political  economy  at  Oxford  about  1837. 
Among  his  works  are  "Lectures  on  Colonization  and 
the  Colonies,"  (2  vols.,  1841.)  He  completed  the  "Me- 
moirs of  the  Life  of  Sir  Philip  Francis,"  which  had  been 
commenced  by  Joseph  Parkes,  (2  vols.,  1867.) 

Merivale,  (John  Herman,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
writer,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Exeter 
in  1779.  He  practised  in  the  court  of  chancery,  and 
published  in  1827  a  "Letter  on  the  Chancery  Com- 
mission." In  183 1  he  was  made  a  commissioner  of 
bankruptcy.  He  translated  the  minor  poems  of  Schiller, 
and  various  other  works  from  the  German,  Greek,  and 
Italian.    Died  in  1844. 

Mer'i-weth-er,  (David,)  an  American  soldier,  born 
in  Virginia  in  1755,  served  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution. 
He  was  chosen  to  represent  a  district  of  Georgia  in 
Congress  in  1800. 

Merkel,  m^R'kel,  (Garlieb,)  born  in  Livonia  in  1776, 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Kotzebue,  with  whoin  he  was 
associated  as  editor  of  the  "  Freimuthigen"  in  Berlin. 
Died  in  1850. 

Merle,  m^Rl,  (Jean  Toussatnt,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1785.  Among  his  most  po])ular 
works  are  "  The  Youth  of  Henry  IV."  and  "The  IS^ew- 
Market  Races."    Died  in  1852. 

Merle,  (Matthieu,)  a  French  officer,  born  at  Uz^s, 
in  Languedoc,  in  1548.  He  fought  on  the  side  of  the 
Protestants  in  the  civil  wars  of  the  time,  and  was  dis- 
tinguished by  the  favour  of  Henry  IV.  Died  about 
1590. 

Merle,  van.    See  Merula,  (Paul.) 
Merle-d'Aubigne.    See  D'Aubign6. 
Merler.    See  Horstius,  (Jacobus.) 
Merley,  m^R'li',  (Louis,)  a   French  engraver  of 
medals,  born  at  Saint-fitienne  in  1815. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (3^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MERLIEUX 


1574 


MERU 


Merlieux,  mgu^le-uh',  (Louis  Parfait,)  a  French 
sculptor,  bcnn  in  Paris  in  1796.  He  was  employed  by 
Cuvier  in  1822  to  reproduce  the  forms  of  extinct  animals. 
Plis  master-piece  is  a  statue  of  "Capaneus  struck  with 
Thunder,"  (1837.) 

Mer'lin  or  Merdhin,  merMin,  [Lat.  Merli'nus 
Ambro''siu.s,]  a  celebrated  prophet  and  magician,  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  Britain  about  450  a.d.  He 
is  alluded  to  by  Spenser  in  his  "Faerie  Queene,"  and 
forms  the  subject  ot  the  metrical  romance  of  "Merlin." 

Another  MicRLiN,  called  "the  Caledonian,"  is  said  to 
have  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century.  He  is 
frequently  mentioned  in  the  works  of  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
and  his  grave,  near  the  Tweed,  is  still  pointed  out.  The 
"  Prophecies"  of  Merlin  have  been  attributed  to  both 
writers  of  the  name. 

See  T.  Heywood,  "Life  of  Merlin  Ambrosius,"  etc. 

Meriin,  m^R^aw',  (Antoine  FkANgois  Eugene,) 
Count,  a  French  general,  son  of  Merlin  de  Douai,  was 
born  at  Douai  in  1778.  Having  accompanied  Bonaparte 
to  Egypt  as  his  aide-de-camp  in  1798,  he  was  present  at 
the  battle  of  Aboukir.  He  afterwards  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Spain.    Died  in  1854. 

Mei-lin,  (Christoi'He  Antoine,)  Count,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Thionville  in  1771.  He  served  under 
Josei)h  Bonaparte  in  Spain.    Died  in  1839. 

Merlin,  (Pierre,)  a  French  Protestant  minister,  born 
about  1535,  had  much  influence  in  the  Church.  He  pub- 
lished several  religious  works.    Died  in  1603. 

Merlin  de  Douai,  mCR'liN'  deh  doo^a^  (Philippe 
An  roiNE,)  CouN'J",  a  French  statesman  and  jurist,  born 
at  Arleux  in  1754.  Elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly 
in  1789,  he  at  first  favoured  moderate  measures,  but  sub- 
sequently identified  himself  with  the  republican  party, 
and,  as  a  member  of  the  National  Convention  in  1792, 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  In  1793  he  presented 
to  the  Convention  the  infamous  decree  called  the  law 
of  the  suspected,  (hi  des  suspects.)  He  was  appointed 
minister  of  justice  in  1795,  and  was  subsequently  created 
by  Napoleon  a  councillor  of  state,  count  of  the  empire, 
and  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour.  He  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  French  Institute  soon  after  its  founda- 
tion.   He  died  in  1838,  leaving  several  legal  treatises. 

See  Mathieu,  "£loge  historiqiie  du  Comte  Merlin,"  1839; 
C.  Paulmier,  "Merlin,"  1839;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Merlin  de  Thionville,  m^R'l^N'  deh  te'AN'v^K, 
(An  roiNE  Christophe,)  born  at  Thionville  in  1762,  was 
a  brother  of  Christophe  Antoine,  noticed  above.  He 
was  elected  in  1792  to  the  National  Convention,  where 
he  supported  for  a  time  the  measures  of  the  Jacobins, 
whom  he  afterwards  opposed.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred.    Died  in  1833. 

See  Reynaud,  "Vie  et  Correspondance  de  Merlin  de  Thionville," 
1S60. 

Merlinus.    See  Merlin. 

Mermet,  mgR'ma',  (Julien  Augustine  Joseph,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Quesnoi  in  1772.  He  served  in 
several  campaigns  in  Italy  and  Spain.    Died  in  1837. 

Merode,  m§'ro-deh  or  ma'rod^  (Charles  Ghislain,) 
a  Belgian  diplomatist,  born  at  Brussels  in  1763.  Having 
been  made  a  senator  by  Napoleon  in  1809,  he  defended 
the  cause  of  Pope  Pius' VII.    Died  in  1830. 

Merode,  (Jean  Philippe  Eugene,)  Marquis  of  Wes- 
terloo,  born  at  Brussels  in  1674,  entered  the  Austrian 
service,  and  was  created  a  field-marshal  and  count  of 
the  empire.  He  died  in  1732,  leaving  a  volume  of  "Me- 
moirs," reprinted  at  Mons  in  1840. 

Merode,  (Ludvvig  Friedrich  Ghislain,)  a  Belgian 
count,  born  in  1792,  was  killed  near  Antwerp  in  1830, 
while  fighting  against  the  Dutch. 

Merode,  de,  deh  ma'ro-deh  or  mk'rod',  (Philippe 
Felix  Balthasar  Othon  Ghislain,)  Count,  a  Bel- 
gian minister  of  state,  born  in  1791,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  the  most  eloquent  chief  of  the 
Catholic  party.  He  became  minister  of  state  under 
Leopold  I.    Died  in  1857. 

Mer'o-pe,  [Gr.  mpdm] :  Fr.  Mi^rope,  m^rop',]  in 
classic  mythology,  was  a  daughter  of  Atlas,  and  one  of  the 
Pleiades.  She  was  married  to  Sisyphus.  It  was  fabled 
that  she  ajjpears  less  luminous  than  the  other  Pleiads, 
because  she  was  ashamed  of  her  marriage  with  a  mortal. 


Merouan.    See  Merwan. 
Merovaeus.    See  M6rov6e. 

Merovee,  mi'ro'vi',  [Lat.  Merov^'us  ;  Ger.  Mero- 
vig,  ma^ro-viG,]  the  son  of  Clodion,  born  about  411,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  third  king  of  France,  and  was 
the  founder  of  the  Merovingian  dynasty.  In  conjunc- 
tion with  the  Roman  general  Aetius,  he  defeated  Attila, 
King  of  the  Huns,  in  451  a.d.    Died  in  457  or  458. 

See  A.  TuiEKRY,  "  Attila  et  I'Empire  des  Huns;"  Gibbon,  "De- 
cline and  Fall  of  ilie  Roman  Empire." 

Merovee  or  Mer'o-vig,  a  son  of  Chilperic  I.,  King 
of  Neustria.  He  married  in  576  a.d.  Brunehaut,  Queen 
of  Austrasia,  who  was  his  aunt.  By  this  act  he  lost  the 
favour  of  his  father.  He  was  persecuted  by  Queen 
Fredegunda,  his  step-mother,  who  employed  assassins 
to  kill  him.  After  he  had  fled  for  refuge  to  various 
cities,  he  was  killed  in  577  a.d. 

Merovig.    See  Merovi^e. 

Mer^ret,  (Christopher,)  an  English  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  in  Gloucestershire  in  1614,  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  College  of  Physicians. 
He  published  an  "Account  of  the  Animal,  Vegetable, 
and  Mineral  Productions  of  Great  Britain,"  and  several 
medical  treatises.    Died  in  1695. 

See  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses." 

Mer'rick,  (James,)  an  excellent  English  divine  and 
poet,  born  in  1720,  published,  at  the  age  of  fourteen, 
"The  Messiah,  a  Divine  Essay."  In  1739  he  translated 
the  poem  of  Tryphiodorus  on  the  "  Capture  of  Troy." 
He  became  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  in  1744. 
He  also  wrote  a  "  Dissertation  on  Proverbs,"  and  a 
translation  of  the  Psalms  into  English  verse,  regarded  as 
one  of  the  best  in  the  language.    Died  in  1769. 

See  Doddridge,  "  Letters,"  p.  339  ;  Coates,  "  History  of  Read- 
ing." 

Merritt,  (Timothy,)  an  American  Methodist  divine, 
born  at  l^arkhamstead,  Connecticut,  in  1775,  was  editor 
of  "  Zion's  Herald,"  Boston,  and  published  several  re- 
ligious works.    Died  in  1845. 

Mer'ry,  (Robert,)  an  English  poet  and  dramatist, 
born  in  London  in  1755,  was  the  author  of  "Lorenzo," 
a  tragedy,  and  a  drama  entitled  "  Ambitious  Vengeance." 
He  died  at  Baltimore,  in  the  United  States,  in  1798. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  vol.  Ixix. 

Mersch,  van  der,  vtn  der  m^Rsh,  (Jean  Andr^,) 
a  Belgian  general,  born  at  Menin  in  1734,  headed  the 
revolt  of  his  countrymen  against  the  Austrian  emperor 
Joseph  II.  in  1789.  Having  been  deprived  of  his  com- 
mand and  imprisoned  through  the  intrigues  of  his  rivals, 
he  was  released  when  the  Austrians  regained  their  power 
in  Belgium.    Died  in  1792. 

Mersenne,  meR^sin',  [Lat.  Mersen'nus,]  (Marin,) 
a  learned  French  philosopher,  mathematician,  and  theo- 
logian, born  in  Maine  in  1588.  He  studied  at  the  Col- 
lege de  la  Fleche,  where  he  formed  an  intimate  and 
lasting  friendship  with  Descartes.  He  subsequently 
entered  the  religious  order  of  Minims.  Among  his  most 
important  works  are  a  commentary  on  Genesis,  entitled 
"Quaestiones  celeberrimae  in  Genesim,"  (1623,)  and  a 
"  Treatise  on  Universal  Harmony,"  (1627.)  Died  in  1648. 

See  Hii.AKioN  de  Coste,  "Vie  dii  Pere  Mersenne;"  Baillet, 
"Vie  de  Descartes;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mertens,  meR'tens,  (Charles,)  a  Flemish  physician, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1737  ;  died  in  1788. 

Mer'ton,  de,  (Walter,)  an  English  prelate  and 
statesman,  was  created  chancellor  of  the  kingdom  in 
1258,  and  Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1274.  He  was  the 
founder  of  Merton  College,  Oxford.    Died  in  1277. 

Meru,  ma'roo,  or  Merus,  ma'roos,  [Gr.  M//p6f,]  a 
word  of  doubtful  etymology,  forming,  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  mountain,  said  to 
be  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  seven  continents.  Its 
height  is  supposed  to  be  84,000  yojanas,*  of  which  16,000 
are  below  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The  sacred  river 
Ganges  (Ganga)  tails  from  heaven  on  its  summit,  and 
flows  to  the  surrounding  worlds  in  four  streams,  of 
which  the  southernmost  is  the  Ganges  of  India.  Brahma, 


A  yo'jana  (called  yo'jun  in  the  common  dialect  of  India)  is  usu- 
ally reckoned  at  16,000  yards,  or  about  nine  of  our  miles;  but,  ac- 
cording to  some  authorities,  it  is  only  five  miles. 


i,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  met;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


MERVLA  1575 


attended  by  Rishis  (sages)  and  celestial  minstrels,  is 
supposed  to  reside  on  Mount  Meru,  on  one  of  the  highest 
summits  of  which,  Kailasa,  dwells  also  Siva,  with  his 
consort,  Parvati. 

See  Wilson,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary  ;"  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Merula,  ma'roo-li  or  m§R'oo-li,  (Giorgio,)  an  Italian 
scholar,  born  at  Alessandria  della  PagHa  in  1424.  He 
brought  out  in  1470  an  edition  of  Martial's  Epigrams, 
said  to  be  the  first  ever  published,  and  wrote  comment- 
aries on  Cicero,  Pliny,  and  other  classics.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Visconti,  Princes  of  Milan," 
(in  Latin.)    Died  in  1494. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  Niceron,  "  Me- 
moires;"  V(«sius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis." 

Merula,  mir'oo-ll,  (Paul,)  a  Dutch  jurist  and  writer, 
born  at  Dort  in  1558,  was  originally  named  Van  Merle. 
In  1593  he  succeeded  Justus  Lipsius  as  professor  of  his- 
tory at  Leyden.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Erasmus,"  and  a 
number  of  legal  and  historical  works,  (in  Latin.)  Died 
in  1607. 

Merville,  m^R^v^K,  the  assumed  name  of  Pierre 
FRAN-gois  Camus,  a  French  dramatist,  born  at  Pontoise 
in  1783  ;  died  in  1853. 

MerwSn  or  Merouan  (merVIn')  I.,  surnamed  Ibn- 
Tarid,  caliph  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Omeyyads,  born 
at  Mecca  about  623.  Having  gained  a  victory  over  his 
rival,  Abdallah  ben  Zobeir,  Merwan  was  proclaimed 
caliph  in  684.  He  was  assassinated  by  one  of  his  wives 
in  685  A.D. 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  viii. 

Merw^n  or  Merouan  II.,(Aboo-  (Abu-  or  Abou-) 
Abdelmelek,  a'boo  Sbd-el-m^Kek,)  one  of  the  Omey- 
yad  caliphs,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Damascus  in  688  A.D.  He  was  victorious  over  several 
rivals,  but  was  at  last  defeated  by  Abool-Abbas,  son 
of  Ibrahim,  in  749  A.D.  He  was  subsequently  killed  by 
the  Christians,  whom  he  had  cruelly  persecuted. 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xvii. 

Mery,  m^'re',  (Jean,)  a  French  surgeon  and  anato- 
mist, born  at  Vatan  in  1645,  published  a  work  entitled 
"New  System  of  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood,"  (1700,) 
and  other  medical  treatises.  He  was  first  surgeon  of 
the  Hotel-Dieu,  in  Paris,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.    Died  in  1722. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  filoges  des  Academiciens,"  etc. 

Mery,  (Joseph,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  near  Mar- 
seilles in  1798,  wrote  numerous  poems,  romances,  and 
dramas. 

Merz,  m^Rts,  (Jacob,)  a  Swiss  painter  and  engraver, 
born  in  the  canton  of  Zurich  in  1783;  died  in  1807. 

Merzliakof  or  Merzliakov,  m§rz-le-a'kof,  (Alexis 
Feodorovitch,)  a  Russian  critic  ancT^poet,  born  in 
1778,  became  professor  of  eloquence  and  poetry  at 
Moscow.  Among  his  principal  works  is  a  "  Discourse 
on  the  Poetry  of  the  Ancients,"  etc.  His  lyric  poems 
are  highly  esteemed  by  his  countrymen.  He  also  trans- 
lated into  Russian  Tasso's  "Gerusalemme  Liberata," 
and  various  works  in  Latin,  Greek,  and  French.  Died 
in  1827. 

Mesa,  ma'sS,  (Cristobal,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  in 
Estreniadura  about  1540.  During  a  residence  of  five 
years  at  Rome,  he  became  an  intimate  friend  of  Tasso. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  heroic  poems,  which,  how- 
ever, are  much  less  esteemed  than  his  translations  of 
Virgil's  "^neid,"  "  Georgics,"  and  "  Bucolics."  Died 
about  1620. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Mesenguy  or  Mesengui,  mi-z6N'ge',  (  Franqois 
Philii'I'K,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Beauvais  in 
1677,  was  an  adherent  of  Jansenism,  and  published  sev- 
eraK  treatises  against  the  constitution  Unigenitus.  He 
also  wrote  an  "Abridgment  of  the  History  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,"  (1737,)  which  is  commended  by 
Rollin.    Died  in  1793. 

See  Lkqueux,  "  Memoire  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  I'Abbe  Mesengui,'' 
1763. 

Mesihi,  m§s'e-hee,  a  celebrated  Turkish  poet,  flour- 
ished in  the  reign  of  Solyman  I.  He  is  one  of  the  seven 
whose  names,  written  in  golden  letters,  are  suspended 
in  the  temple  of  Mecca,  and  who  have  been  styled  by 


MESSJLJ 


I  their  countrymen  "the  Pleiades."  One  of  his  idyls  has 
been  translated  by  Sir  William  Jones,  in  his  "  Commen- 
taries on  Asiatic  Poetry." 

See  Von  H.a.m.mer,  "Geschichte  der  Osmanischen  Dichtung." 

Mesle,  ma'la',  (Jean,)  a  French  advocate  in  the  Par- 
liament of  Paris,  wrote  a  valuable  "Treatise  on  Minori- 
ties," (1714.)    Died  in  1756. 

Mesmer,  mgs'mer,  (Friedrich  Anton,)  founder  of 
the  doctrine  of  Mesmerism,  or  animal  magnetism,  was 
born  at  Meersburg,  in  Sual3ia,  in  1733.  Having  made 
various  experiments  with  the  mineral  magnet,  he  was 
led  to  the  discovery  of  the  power  since  called  Mesmer- 
ism. This  he  made  public  in  1775,  in  his  "Letter  to 
a  Foreign  Physician  on  Magnetism."  He  soon  after 
established  a  hospital  at  Vienna  for  the  perfection  and 
promulgation  of  his  discovery,  and  repaired  in  1778  to 
Paris,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  cure  of  diseases 
and  made  many  proselytes.  He  subsequently  refused  a 
large  sum  of  money  offered  him  by  the  French  govern- 
ment for  his  secret.  A  number  of  his  adherents  having 
presented  him  with  340,000  livres,  on  condition  of  being 
instructed  in  his  doctrine,  he  received  the  money,  but 
did  not  perform  his  promise.  He  died  in  Germany  in 
1815,  leaving  several  treatises,  one  of  which  was  entitled 
"Memoire  de  Mesmer  sur  ses  Decouvertes,"  (1799.) 

See  Thouret,  "  Recherches  et  Doutes  sur  le  Magnetisme  ani- 
mal," 1784;  JozwiK,  "Sur  le  Magnetisme  animal,"  1832;  Dr. 
HoEFER,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mesmes,  de.    See  Avaux. 

Mesmes,  de,  deh  mim,  (Henri,)  a  French  states- 
man, born  in  Paris  in  1531,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Jacques, 
noticed  below.  He  became  chancellor  of  the  kingdom 
of  Navarre.    Died  in  1596. 

Mesmes,  de,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  diplomatist, 
born  in  1490,  was  patronized  by  Catherine  of  Navarre 
and  Francis  I.,  and  was  appointed  master  of  requests 
in  1544.    Died  in  1569. 

Mesmon,  de,  deh  mes'm6N',  (Germain  Hyacinthe 
de  Romance — deh  ro^mSNss',)  Marquis,  a  French 
journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1745.  He  edited  succes- 
sively, at  Hamburg,  the  "  Spectateur  du  Nord,"  the 
"  Reveil,"  and  the  "Censeur,"  and  afterwards  repaired 
to  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  became  editor  of  the 
"Journal  du  Nord."    Died  in  183 1. 

Mesnager,  Le,  leh  mi'nt'zha',  (Nicolas  le  Baillif,) 
a  French  dii^lomatist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1658.  He  was 
sent  as  a  secret  agent  to  London  in  171 1,  to  negotiate 
the  preliminaries  of  peace,  and  he  was  one  of  the  French 
diplomatists  that  signed  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  (1713.) 
Died  in  1714. 

Mesnard,  mi'ntR',  (Jacques  Andk^,)  a  French 
lawyer  and  senator,  born  at  Rochefort  in  1792.  He 
became  a  counsellor  in  the  court  of  cassation  in  1841, 
and  a  senator  in  1852.  He  translated  into  French  the 
"  Divina  Commedia"  of  Dante,  (3  vols.,  1858.)  Died  in 
1858. 

Mesnardiere  or  Menardiere,  de  la,  deh  It  ma'- 
ntR^de-aiR',  (Hippolytf.  Jules  Pilf.t,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Loudun  aliout  1610,  was  patronized  by  Cardinal 
Richelieu.  In  1655  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy,  a  distinction  which  he  owed  chiefly 
to  his  brilliant  conversational  powers.    Died  in  1663. 

Mesnil,  Du.    See  Dumesnil. 

Mesnil,  du,  du  ma'n^K,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
lawyer,  born  in  Paris  in  1517,  was  appointed  in  1556 
royal  advocate.    Died  in  1569. 

Mes-o-me'des,  [Gr.  Mecr()uf;f57/f,]  a  lyric  poet,  who 
flourished  under  the  emperor  Hadrian.  Three  of  his 
poems  are  preserved  in  the  Greek  Anthology. 

Mesonero  y  Romanos,  de,  di  ma-so-na'ro  e  ro- 
nia'nis.  (Ramon,)  a  pojnilar  Spanish  writer,  born  at 
Madrid  in  1803.  His  principal  works  are  a  "  Manual 
of  Madrid,  Description  of  the  Court  and  the  City,"  and 
"  Panorama  of  Madrid,"  ("  Panorama  Matritense,"  1S35,) 
which  are  admired  for  their  faithful  delineations  of  life 
and  manners  and  the  elegance  of  their  style. 

Mes-saTa(orMes-salTa)  Cor-vi'nu's,  (Marcus  Va- 
lerius,) a  celebrated  Roman  orator  and  general,  born  59 
B.C.,  at  first  opposed  the  party  of  Antony,  and  commanded 
a  division  of  the  army  of  Brutus  at  the  battle  of  Philippi. 
After  the  death  of  Brutus  he  became  general-in-chief. 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  thts.  (2!^=See  Explanations,  p.  2^  J 


MESSJLINA                    1576  METCALFE 
 \ 


He  was  subsequently  reconciled  to  Augustus,  who  made 
him  consul,  31  n.C,  and,  five  years  after,  prefect  of  Rome. 
Among  his  other  important  military  services,  he  reduced 
Aquitania  to  subjection,  for  which  he  obtained  a  triumph, 
(27  H.c.)  Died  about  11  a.d.  Of  the  writings  of  Messala 
only  fragments  remain  ;  but  his  eloquence  is  spoken  of 
in  the  highest  terms  by  Quintilian,  Seneca,  and  the  two 
Plinys.  He  was  intimate  with  Horace,  Ovid,  and  Pollio, 
and  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning. 

See  M.  C.  van  Hall,  "  M.  V.  Messala  Corvinus,"  etc.,  2  vols., 
1821 ;  L.  WiESE,  "  Dissertatio  de  Messalae  Corvini  Vita  et  Studiis," 
iSag;  Tacitus,  "Annales,"  books  iv.  and  vi. ;  Appian,  "  Bellum 
Civile." 

Mes-sa-li'na,  [Fr.  Messaline,  ma'st'l^n',]  a  Roman 
empress,  notorious  for  her  crimes,  was  a  daughter  of  M. 
Valerius  Messala  Barbatus.  She  was  married  to  Clau- 
dius, who  afterwards  became  emperor.  She  caused  a 
number  of  eminent  Romans  to  be  put  to  death.  She 
was  executed,  by  order  of  Claudius,  in  48  A.D. 

Mes-sa-irna  Sta-tiPi-a,  granddaughter  of  Statilius 
Taurus,  became  the  third  wife  of  the  emperor  Nero,  in 

66  A.D. 

Messalla.  See  Messala. 
Messape.    See  Messapus. 

Messapus,  [Gr.  MeaaaTToq;  Fr.  Messape,  ma'stp',] 
in  classic  mythology,  a  son  of  Neptune,  and  a  king  of 
Etruria.  He  fought  for  Turnus  against  .^Eneas,  and  was 
supposed  to  be  invulnerable. 

Mes-se'ne,  [Gr.  Mtacr^v//,]  the  wife  of  Polycaon,  whom 
she  induced  to  take  possession  of  the  country  which  was 
afterwards  called,  from  her,  Messenia.  A  temple  was 
erected  to  her  honour. 

Mes-se'ni-us,  [Sw.  pron.  m§s-sn'ne-us,]  (Arnold,) 
son  of  Johan  Messenius,  noticed  below,  was  made  his- 
toriographer to  Christina  of  Sweden,  and  obtained  a 
title  of  nobility.  Having  been  concerned  with  his  son 
in  writing  a  libel  on  the  royal  family,  they  were  both 
condemned  to  death  and  executed,  (1648.) 

See  "Anecdotes  de  Suede,"  The  Hague,  1716. 

Messenius,  (Johan,)  a  Swedish  historian,  born  in 
Ostrogothia  in  1 584,  was  professor  of  law  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Upsal.  lieing  accused  of  a  treasonable  cor- 
respondence with  the  King  of  Poland  and  the  Jesuits,  he 
was  imprisoned  in  1616.  During  his  confinement  of 
nearly  twenty  years  he  wrote  several  historical  works, 
of  which  the  most  important  is  entitled  "  Scandia  Illus- 
trated," (in  Latin.)    Died  in  1637. 

See  "  Biogrnphiskt-Lexicon  ofver  naninkunnige  Svenska  Man  ;" 
P.  Stenreck,  "  De  Vita  et  Meritis  Messeniorum,"  1741. 

Mes'ser,  (Asa,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  divine  and 
scholar,  born  at  Methuen,  Massachusetts,  in  1769.  He 
graduated  at  Brown  University,  where  he  became  suc- 
cessively professor  of  the  learned  languages,  (1796,)  of 
mathematics  and  natural  philosophy,  (1799,)  and  presi- 
dent of  the  institution,  (1802.)    Died  in  1836. 

Messier,  ma'se-a',  (Chart,es,)  a  French  astronomer, 
boni  at  Badonviller,  in  Lorraine,  in  1730.  Having  visited 
Paris  in  175 1,  he  was  employed  by  De  Lisle  in  his  ob- 
servatory, and  distinguished  himself  by  the  accuracy  of  his 
astronomical  observations.  He  is  said  to  have  observed 
forty-six  comets,  of  which  he  discovered  twenty-one. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris, 
and  of  similar  institutions  at  St.  Petersburg,  Berlin,  and 
other  cities.  He  died  in  1817,  leaving  "Memoires"  con- 
taining his  observations.  I.alande  named  in  honour 
of  this  astronomer  a  constellation  situated  between  Ce- 
pheus,  Cassiopeia,  and  the  Camelopard. 

See  Delamrre,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  Messier,"  in  the 
"  Memoires"'  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  vol.  ii. ;  La  Harpe,  "  Cor- 

res]iondance  litteraire." 

Messina,  da.    See  Antonello  da  Messina. 

Messis.    See  Matsys,  (Quentin.) 

Mes'ton,  (William,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Aber- 
deenshire about  1688,  was  the  author  of  "  Mother  Grim's 
Tales,"  in  verse,  and  a  poem  entitled  "The  Knight." 
Died  in  1745. 

See  "  Life  of  William  Meston."  prefixed  to  hisvvorks  ;  Chambers, 
'  Biograjiliical  Dictionary  <>f  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Mestrezat,  mes'tkeh-zS',  (Jk..a.n,)  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Geneva  in  1592,  became 
pastor  of  the  church  at  Charenton,  and  distinguished 


himself  by  his  bold  and  eloquent  defence  of  the  Protest- 
ants against  the  Roman  clergy.  He  was  the  author 
of  theological  treatises  and  sermons,  which  are  nighly 
esteemed.    Died  in  1657. 

See  Senerier,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  Geneve," 

Mesne  or  Messua.    See  Massooa. 

Meszaros,  ma'st-rosh,  (Lazar,)  a  Hungarian  general 
and  statesman,  born  in  the  county  of  Bacs  in  1796.  In 
1848  he  was  appointed  minister  of  war  in  the  Hungarian 
cabinet  of  Batthyanyi,  but  on  the  breaking  out  of  the 
war  joined  the  revolutionary  party.  After  sharing  with 
Dembinski  the  defeat  of  Temesvar,  he  took  refuge  in 
Turkey,  and  afterwards  visited  England  and  America. 
Died  in  1858. 

Metastase.    See  Metastasio. 

Metastasio,  m^-tSs-ti'se-o,  [Fr.  Mi^tastase,  ma'tts'- 
ttz',]  (PiKTRO  Bonaventura,)  an  eminent  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Rome  in  1698,  was  originally  named  Trapassl 
He  manifested  at  an  early  age  extraordinary  talents 
for  improvisation  on  any  subject.  Having  attracted  the 
notice  of  the  celebrated  jurist  Gravina,  he  was  adopted 
by  him,  and  his  name  was  changed  to  Metastasio,  (a 
"changing,")  in  allusion  to  his  adoption.  His  benefactor 
died  in  1718,  leaving  his  property  to  Metastasio,  who 
now  devoted  himself  principally  to  literary  pursuits, 
and  brought  out  in  172 1  his  lyric  drama  entitled  "The 
Gardens  of  the  Hesperides,"  ("Gli  Orti  Esperidi.") 
This  piece  was  received  with  great  favour,  one  of  the 
principal  parts  in  it  being  performed  by  Signora  Bulga- 
rini,  (La  Romanina,)  esteemed  the  first  vocalist  of  her 
time.  At  the  request  of  this  lady,  he  relinquished  the 
legal  profession,  which  he  had  practised  for  a  time,  and 
gave  his  attention  exclusively  to  poetry.  His  opera  of 
"  Didone  Abbandonata"  was  performed  with  great  ap- 
plause at  Naples  in  1724,  and  was  followed  by  his  "  Ca- 
tone,"  "  Semiramide,"  "Artaserse,"  and  other  operas, 
which  established  his  reputation.  On  the  invitation  of 
the  emperor  Charles  VI,,  he  repaired  to  Vienna,  and 
succeeded  Apostolo  Zeno  as  imperial  laureate.  In  1734 
he  lost  his  "inestimable  counsellor  and  friend,"  Signora 
Bulgarini,  who  bequeathed  to  him,  after  the  death  of 
her  htisband,  her  property,  amounting  to  twenty-five 
thousand 'crowns.  This,  with  characteristic  delicacy,  he 
refused  to  accept.  He  brought  out  during  his  residence 
at  Vienna  two  of  his  most  admired  operas,  the  "  Olim- 
piade"  and  "  La  Clemenza  di  Tito,"  which  the  music 
of  Mozart  has  contributed  to  render  immortal.  Besides 
the  works  above  named,  he  composed  a  number  of  ora- 
torios, cantatas,  sonnets,  etc.  He  died  at  Vienna  in 
1782,  The  genius  of  Metastasio  is  eulogized  by  Vol- 
taire and  La  Harpe,  the  former  of  whom  compares  some 
of  his  scenes  to  the  most  sublime  of  the  Greek  poets. 
Rousseau,  in  his  "  Nouvelle  Heloise,"  pronounces  him 
"  the  only  poet  of  the  heart,  the  only  genius  who  can 
move  by  the  charm  of  poetic  and  musical  harmony ;" 
and  Schlegel  observes  that  his  purity  of  diction,  grace, 
and  delicacy  have  rendered  him  in  the  eyes  of  his  coun- 
trymen a  classic  author, — the  Racine  of  Italy. 

See  Burnev,  "  Memoirs  of  Metastasio,"  3  vols.,  1796;  Torcia, 
"  Elogio  del  Abbate  P.  Metastasio,"  1782  ;  Hiller,  "  Ueber  P.  Me- 
tastasio und  seine  VVerke,"  1786;  Loncfellovv,  "  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe  ;"  Altanesi,  "Vita  di  P.  Metastasio,"  1787  ;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale ;"  "Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by  the  Rev. 
Henry  Stkbring,  London,  1831. 

Metcalfe,  mlt'kc^f,  (Charles  Theophilus,)  Baron, 
an  able  English  statesman,  born  in  Calcutta  in  1785,  was 
educated  at  Eton.  He  entered  the  service  of  the  East 
India  Company  as  a  writer,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
Supreine  Council  of  India  in  1827.  He  resigned  his 
office,  returned  to  England  in  1837,  and  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Jamaica  in  1839.  For  three  years  he  per- 
formed the  duties  of  this  difficult  position  with  surcess. 
He  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  Canada  about 
February,  1843,  I"  politics  he  was  a  Liberal.  He  re- 
signed on  account  of  ill  health  in  the  autumn  of  1845, 
and  died  at  Basingstoke  in  September,  1846, 

See  John  William  Kaye,  "  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Charles, 
Lord  liletcalfe,"  1854;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  December, 
1846,  and  February,  1855. 

Met'calfe,  (Thomas,)  an  American  Whig  statesinan, 
born  in  Fauquier  county,  Virginia,  in  1780,  removed  at 
an  early  age  to  Kentucky.    He  worked  at  the  trade  of 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolongfd;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  J?,  short;  9, 5,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


METELLI 


METRODORUS 


stone-mason  in  his  youth.  He  became  Governor  of 
Kenrucky  in  1828,  and  filled  that  office  four  years.  In 
184.8  he  succeeded  Mr.  Crittenden  in  the  United  States 
Senate.  His  term  expired  in  March,  1849.  Died  in  1855. 
Metelli.    See  Mitelli. 

Me-tel'lus,  (Quintus  Ci^;ciLius,)  called  Macedo'ni- 
cus,  an  eminent  Roman  general,  of  a  noble  family,  was 
chosen  praetor  in  148  B.C.  He  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Macedonians  in  that  year,  and  took  their  leader,  An- 
driscus,  prisoner,  for  which  a  triumph  was  decreed  him. 
In  146  he  defeated  the  Achasans  near  Thermopylae.  He 
was  made  consul  in  143,  and  was  sent  to  Spain  to  op- 
pose Viriathus.  It  was  during  the  censorship  of  Metellus 
and  Pompeius  (13 1  B.C.)  that  the  decree  was  passed 
obliging  all  Roman  citizens  to  marry.  He  opposed  the 
Gracchi.    Died  in  115  B.C. 

See  Tacitus,  "Annales;"  LiVY,  "Epitome." 

Metellus,  (Quintus  C.ecilius  Numidicus,)  an  able 
Roman  general,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  a  leader 
of  the  aristocratic  party.  Having  been  chosen  consul 
for  109  B.C.,  he  obtained  as  his  province  Numidia,  then 
the  seat  of  war  with  Jugurtha,  who  had  hitherto  suc- 
ceeded in  outgeneralling  or  outwitting  all  the  Roman 
commanders  sent  against  him.  Metellus  was  more  suc- 
cessful, and  finally  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  African 
prince  at  the  river  Muthul,  towards  the  close  of  that 
year.  Before  the  end  of  this  war  the  command  was 
transferred  to  Marius  ;  but  Metellus  was  honoured  with 
a  triumph  on  his  return  to  Rome  in  107,  and  received  the 
surname  of  Numid'icus.  He  became  censor  in  102,  and 
was  banished  about  100  B.C.,  through  the  influence  of 
Marius  and  Saturninus,  but  he  was  recalled  the  next  year. 
He  was  distinguished  as  an  orator,  and  was  reputed  one 
of  the  most  virtuous  men  of  his  time. 

See  Sali.ust,  "  Bellum  Jiigurthinum  ;"  Plutarch,  "  Marius." 

Metellus,  (Quintus  C^cilius  Pius,)  a  Roman 
general,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  became  praetor  in  89 
B.C.  In  the  civil  war  between  Marius  and  Sulla  he 
fought  for  the  latter,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
Carbo  and  Norbanus,  near  Faventia,  in  82  B.C.  lie  was 
chosen  consul  with  Sulla  in  the  year  80,  after  which  he 
commanded  in  Spain  and  spent  several  years  in  un- 
successful efforts  to  ct)nquer  Sertorius.  He  became 
pontifex  maxim  us.    Died  about  63  B.C. 

Me-tel'lus  Ce'ler,  (Q.  C/ECIlius,)  a  Roman  states- 
man, and  leader  of  the  aristocratic  party.  He  became 
praetor  in  63  B.C.,  acted  with  Cicero  against  Catiline, 
and  was  chosen  consul  for  the  year  60.  During  his 
consulship  he  resolutely  opposed  the  laws  which  his 
colleague  Afranius  desired  to  enact  for  the  benefit  of 
Pompey.    Died  in  59  B.C. 

Me-tel'lus  Ne'pos,  (Quintus,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  became  tribune  of  the  people  in  63  B.C.,  and 
was  a  partisan  of  Pompey.  As  tribune,  he  opposed 
Cicero  with  some  violence.  He  became  prsetor  in  60, 
and  consul  in  57  B.C.    Died  about  55  B.C. 

Meteren,  van,  vtn  ma'teh-ren,  (Emanuel,)  a  Flem- 
ish Protestant  historian,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1 535,  was 
the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Netherlands  from  the 
Early  Part  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  to  his  Own  Time," 
(in  Latin  and  Flemish.)  It  is  valued  for  its  accuracy; 
but  the  historian  is  accused  by  some  writers  of  injustice 
towards  the  Catholics.    Died  in  1612. 

See  S.  Rcytinck:,  "  Biographie  de  Van  Meteren,"  prefixed  to  his 
"Histnire,"  (French  translation.) 

Metezeau,  meh'teh'zo',  (Clement,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  at  Dreux,  constructed  the  great  dyke  of  La 
Rochelle,  which,  suggested  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  was 
the  principal  means  of  reducing  that  city  in  1628.  Died 
about  1650. 

Method  or  Methode.    See  Methodius. 

Me-tho'di-us,  [Fr.  Methode,  vak'iocV,]  Saint,  one 
of  the  early  Christian  martyrs,  surnamed  Patarensis 
on  account  of  his  having  been  Bishop  of  Patara.  He 
was,  also  Bishop  of  Olympus,  in  Lycia,  and  afterwards 
of  Tyre.  His  piety  and  learning  are  highly  commended 
by  Epiphanius  and  Jerome.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled 
*'The  Banquet  of  Ten  Virgins,"  of  which  a  great  part 
is  extant.  He  suffered  martyrdom  under  Diocletian 
about  312. 

See  Lardner,  "  Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History." 


Methodius  [Gr.  lAedodmg]  the  Confessor,  born  at 
Syracuse,  was  appointed  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in 
842  A.D.  He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  worship 
of  images,  and  was  the  author  of  several  learned  works. 
Died  in  846. 

See  Baronius,  "Annales." 

Methodius,  [Fr.  Methode,  mk'tod';  Ger.  Method, 
ma'tod,]  a  native  of  Thessalonica,  was  sent,  with  his 
brother  Cyrillus,  by  the  Greek  emperor  Michael  III.,  to 
convert  the  Saracens  on  the  Euphrates,  and  about  863 
went  on  a  mission  to  the  Slavonians.  They  invented 
the  Slavonian  alphabet,  and  translated  the  Psalter  and 
Gospels  into  Slavonic.  Methodius  resided  in  the  country 
nearly  thirty  years,  and,  it  is  said,  translated  all  the 
Scriptures  into  Slavonic. 

See  F.  X.  Richter,  "Cyrill  und  Method  der  Slaven  Apostel," 

Me-thu'se-lah,  [Heb.  nSiyiriD  ;  Fr.  Mathusalem,* 
mt'tu'zS'lSN',  or  Mathusala,  mt'tii'zt'lt^]  a  Hebrew 
patriarch,  noted  for  his  longevity,  was  a  son  of  Enoch. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  six  years  before  the 
deluge,  aged  nine  hundred  and  sixty-nine  years. 

See  Genesis  v. 

Me'tis,  [Gr.  M^nf ;  Fr.  M^Tis,  mi'tess',]  in  classic 
mythology,  the  personification  of  prudence,  was  the 
daughter  of  Oceanus,  and  the  first  wife  of  Zeus  or  Jupiter. 

Metius,  ma'te-us,  (Adriaan,)  a  Dutch  mathematician, 
born  at  Alkmaar  in  1571.  He  studied  under  Tycho 
Brahe  in  Denmark,  and  after  his  return  to  Holland  was 
appointed,  in  1598,  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Franeker.  Among  his  works  is  a  Latin  essay 
*'  On  the  Institutes  of  Astronomy."    Died  in  1635. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "Histoire  des  Mathematiques." 

Metius,  (Jakob,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  is  regarded 
by  Descartes  and  some  other  savants  as  the  inventor  of 
the  refracting  telescope. 

See  Barlow,  "History  of  Optics;"  Borel,  "  De  vero  Tele- 
scopii  Inventore." 

Metkerke,  van,  vtn  m^t'kgR^keh,  or  Meetkercke, 

mat'kek'keh,  (Adolphus,)  a  distinguished  Flemish  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Bruges  in  1528.  He  was  a  Protestant, 
and  was  sent  by  the  United  Provinces  on  an  embassy  to 
Queen  Elizabeth  of  England.  He  translated  Theocritus 
into  Latin  verse,  and  published  an  edition  of  Dion  and 
Moschus.  Metkerke  was  president  of  the  Council  of 
Flanders.    Died  in  1591. 

See  Mt)Ti.EY,  "United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  chap.  ill. 

Metochita,  mgt-o-Kee'ta,  (Theodore,)  a  modern 
Greek  historian,  was  the  author  of  a  "  Compendium  of 
Roman  History  from  Julius  Caesar  to  Constantine  the 
Great,"  and  a  "  Paraphrase  of  the  Physics  of  Aristotle." 
Died  in  1332. 

Me'ton,  [Merwv,]  a  Greek  astronomer,  flourished  in 
432  B.C.  He  observed  the  solstice  at  Athens,  and  dis- 
covered the  lunar  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  designed  to 
make  the  solar  and  lunar  years  begin  at  the  same  time. 
This  invention  is  called  the  Metonic  cycle,  and  is  still 
employed  by  the  Western  Churches  in  their  computation 
of  Easter. 

See  SuiDAS,  "  Meton  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Metrodore.    See  Metrodorus. 

Met-ro-do'rus  [Gr.  MrjTpodupog ;  Fr.  Metrodore, 
mi'tRo'doR^J  OF  Chios,  a  (jreek  philosopher,  who  lived 
about  400  B.C.,  and  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  Nature,"  which 
was  very  celebrated.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  mas- 
ter of  Anaxarchus. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Fabricius 
"Bibliotheca  Grasca." 

Metrodorus  of  Lampsacus,  a  Greek  philosopher, 
born  in  230  B.C.,  was  a  disciple  and  intimate  friend  of 
Epicurus.  He  sensualized  and  debased  the  doctrines 
which  he  had  received  from  his  master,  and  contributed 
not  a  little  to  bring  the  Epicurean  philosophy  into  con- 
tempt with  the  wise  and  virtuous.  He  wrote  numerous 
works,  the  titles  of  which  have  been  preserved  by  Dio- 
genes Laertius. 

See  RiTTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy ;"  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca 
Grseca." 


*  The  name  was  sometimes  so  written  by  the  old  English  poets. 
Cowley,  in  his  "Fragments,"  says,  "Seven  royal  years  to  a  public 
spirit  will  seem  more  than  the  private  life  of  a  Mathusalem." 


€  as  ^;  $  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Kyguttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  ikis.    (S^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


METRODORUS  1578  MEXIA 


Metrodorus,  [Gr.  MT/rpoc^wpof,]  a  celebrated  Athenian, 
born  about  200  B.C.  After  the  defeat  of  Perseus  by 
Paulus  P^milius,  in  168  B.C.,  the  latter  commanded  the 
Athenians  to  send  their  best  artist  to  paint  his  triumph 
and  their  greatest  philosopher  to  educate  his  sons.  Me- 
trodorus, being  esteemed  by  his  countrymen  as  first  in 
both  departments,  was  sent  accordingly,  and  gave  entire 
satisfaction  to  the  Roman  general. 

Mettenleiter,  met'ten-li'ter,  (Johann  Michael,)  a 
German  engraver,  born  in  1765,  executed  a  number  of 
mezzotints  and  lithographs  of  great  merit.  Died  in  1845. 

Metternich,  von,  fon  met'ter-niK^  (Clemens  Wen- 
ZEL,)  Prince,  an  eminent  Austrian  statesman  and  diplo- 
matist, born  at  Coblentz  in  1773,  was  a  son  of  Count 
Metternich,  who  was  a  minister  of  state  at  Vienna  and 
died  in  1818.  He  was  sent  as  minister  to  Dresden  in 
1801,  and  to  Berlin  in  1803.  In  1806  he  became  ambas- 
sador to  Paris,  where  he  remained  until  the  renewal  of 
the  war  in  1809.  After  the  capture  of  Vienna  and  the 
restoration  of  peace,  he  was  appointed  chancellor  and 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  October,  1809.  For  more 
than  thirty  years  from  that  date  he  had  the  chief  direc- 
tion of  affairs  in  Austria.  He  represented  his  govern- 
ment at  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  {1814,)  after  which  he 
had  great  influence  in  European  politics.  "No  diploma- 
tist," says  Alison,  "  even  in  that  age  of  intellectual  giants, 
excelled,  perhaps  hardly  any  equalled,  Metternich  in  the 
sagacious  survey  which  he  took  of  existing  events,  and 
the  admirable  tact  with  which  he  contrived  to  render 
them  conducive  to  the  interests  of  his  country."  ("  His- 
tory of  Europe.")  In  politics  he  was  extremely  conser- 
vative. He  was  driven  from  power  and  into  exile  by 
the  revolution  of  March,  1848.  He  returned  to  Vienna 
in  1851.  Died  in  1859.  "  He  always  comprehended  his 
position,"  says  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1858, 
"  and  never  lost  an  opportunity.  He  acted  with  equal  jus- 
tice and  calculation,  and  never  made  a  retrograde  step. 
His  conduct  was  always  politic,  and  never  precipitate." 

See  Binder,  "  Clement  von  Metternich  und  sein  Zeitalter,"  1836  ; 
J.  VON  HoRMAVR,  "  Kaiscr  Franz  und  Metternich,"  1848;  Cape- 
FiGUE,  "  Diplomates  contemporains ;"  L.  de  Lomenie,  "  M.  de 
Metternich,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1840;  Thiers,  "  History  of 
the  Consulate  and  of  the  Empire;"  "Biographical  Sketches,"  by 
Harriet  Martineau,  1869:  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;" 
"  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1859  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine" 
for  February  and  March,  1844;  "  Jahrbuch  zum  Conversations-Lexi- 
kon"  for  1861. 

Metternich,  von,  (Richard,)  Prince,  a  diplomatist, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1828.  He  was 
sent  by  the  Austrian  government  as  ambassador  to  Paris 
in  1859. 

Mettrie,  de  la,  deh  It  mi'tRe',  (Julien  Offray,)  a 
French  physician  and  atheistic  writer,  born  at  Saint- 
Malo  in  1709,  published  an  infamous  work  entitled  "The 
Man  Machine,"  which  he  had  the  impertinence  to  dedi- 
cate to  Haller.    Died  in  1751. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance  Generale." 

Metsys.    wSee  Matsys. 

Metz,  mets,  (Konrad  Martin,)  a  German  engraver, 
born  at  Bonn  in  1755,  executed  a  number  of  prints  after 
Michael  Angelo  and  Caravaggio.    Died  in  1827. 

Metzger,  mgts'ger,  (Eduard,)  a  German  architect, 
born  at  Pappenheim  in  1807,  visited  Greece  in  183 1. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  architecture. 

Metzu,  mSt'zU,  (Gabriel,)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Leyden  in  161 5.  Among  his  master-pieces  we 
may  name  the  "  Vegetable-Market  at  Amsterdam," 
"  Interior  of  a  Kitchen,"  "Chemist  Reading  near  a  Win- 
dow," and  a  "Young  Girl  Looking  at  a  Butterfly." 
Metzu  is  styled  by  Descamps  one  of  the  greatest  artists 
of  his  nation.    Died  in  1658. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Hollandais,"  etc.;  Charles 
Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Meulan,  de,  (Pauline.)  See  Guizot,  (Elisabeth 
Charloti  e.) 

Meulemeester,  de.    See  Demeulemeester. 

Meulen,  van  der,  vtn  der  muh'len  or  mo'len,  (An- 
TOON  Fkans,)  a  celebrated  Flemish  battle-painter,  born 
at  Brussels  in  1634,  was  a  pupil  of  Snayers.  Having 
visited  Paris  about  1666,  he  was  patronized  by  Colbert, 
and  employed  by  Louis  XIV.  to  represent  his  principal 
engagements.    He  married  the  niece  of  Le  Brun,  and 


assisted  that  artist  in  hi?  works  at  the  castle  of  Ver- 
sailles. In  1673  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Painting.  As  a  painter  of  battles,  Van  der  Meulen 
had  perhaps  no  superior,  and  his  landscapes  also  possess 
great  merit.    Died  in  1690. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.;  Charles 
Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Meulen,  van  der,  (Peter,)  a  Flemish  painter  of 
battles,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  went  to 
England  in  1670,  and  was  patronized  by  King  Wil- 
liam IIL 

Meulen,  Ver.    See  Vermeulen. 

Meun,  Meung,  muN,  or  Mehun,  mi-iiN',  (Jean,) 
a  French  poet,  surnamed  Clopinel,  from  his  lameness, 
born  about  1280.  He  was  the  author  of  the  principal 
part  of  the  "  Romance  of  the  Rose,"  one  of  the  earliest 
poems  in  the  language,  which  was  begun  by  Guillaume 
de  Lorris.  The  best  edition  was  published  in  Paris  in 
1814,  (4  vols.  8vo.) 

See  Fauchet,  "Originede  la  Po^sie;"  Massieu,  "Histoire  de 
la  Poesie  Frangaise." 

Meurice,  muh'r^ss',  (FRANgois  Paul,)  a  French 
dramatic  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1820,  became  a  brother- 
in-law  of  Victor  Hugo.  He  produced  successful  dramas 
called  "  Hamlet,  Prince  of  Denmark,"  and  "Benvenuto 
Cellini." 

Meurs,  de,  deh  muRs,  [Lat.  Meur'sius,]  (Jan,)  a 
Dutch  scholar  and  historian,  born  near  the  Hague  in 
1579.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  at  Leyden 
in  i6u,  and  soon  after  historiographer  to  the  States  of 
Holland.  He  subsequently  became  royal  historiographer 
to  the  King  of  Denmark.  He  published  a  number  of 
treatises  on  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities,  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  Denmark,"  (in  Latin.)    Died  in  1639. 

See  SwEERT,  "Athens  Belgicse ;"  Niceron,  "  Memoires ;" 
Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique;"  Schramm,  "  Dissertatio  de 
Vita  et  Scriptis  J.  Meursii,"  1715. 

Meursius.    See  Meurs,  de. 

Meusebach,  moi'zeh-blK^,  (Karl  Hartwig  Gre- 
GOR,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  near  Artern  in  1 781, 
published  a  number  of  critical  essays.  He  numbered 
among  his  friends  Tieck  and  Goethe.    Died  in  1847. 

Meusel,  moi'zel,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  his- 
torian and  bibliographer,  born  near  Bamberg  in  1743. 
He  became  professor  of  history  at  Erfurt  in  1 769,  and 
at  Erlangen  in  1779.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Bibliotheca  Historica,"  (22  vols.,  1782-84,)  which  con- 
tains notices  of  ancient  and  modern  historians,  a  valuable 
collection  of  biographies  of  German  scholars,  entitled 
"  Gelehrtes  Deutschland,"  (15  vols.,  1796-1812,)  to  which 
Ersch  and  Lindner  added  seven  volumes,  and  a  "  Dic- 
tionary of  German  Authors  who  died  between  1750 
and  1800,"  (15  vols.,  1802-16.)  All  of  these  are  highly 
esteemed.    Died  in  1820. 

See  Karl  Heinrich  Rau,  "Dem  Andenken  J.  G.  Meusels," 
etc.,  1820  ;"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "  Monthly  Review," 
1800  et  seq.,  (Appendix.) 

Meusel,  written  also  Moezel,  [Lat.  Mus'culus,] 
(Wolfgang,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian  and  He- 
Ijraist,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1497.  became  minister 

of  a  church  at  Augsburg  in  1531,  and  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Berne  in  1549.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly 
on  his  commentaries  on  Genesis,  Isaiah,  and  the  Psalms. 
Died  in  1563. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  M.  Adam, 
"  Vitse  Theologoruni." 

Meusnier,  muh^ne-i',  (Jean  Baptists  Marie,)  a 
French  general  and  savant,  born  in  Paris  in  1754,  in- 
vented several  machines  and  apparatus.  He  was  killed 
in  battle,  near  Mentz,  in  June,  1793. 

Meusnier,  (Philippe,)  a  French  painter,  born  in 
Paris  in  1656,  was  a  favourite  at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV., 
and  became  treasurer  of  the  Academy  of  Painting.  He 
excelled  in  architectural  views  and  perspective.  Died 
in  1734. 

Meusnier  de  Querlon,  muh'ne-i'  deh  kgR06N', 
(Anne  Gabriel,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Nantes 
in  1702.  He  wrote  critiques,  works  of  fiction,  etc.,  and 
translated  Pliny's  "  Natural  History"  into  French.  Died 
in  1780. 

Mexia  or  Mejia,  mi-iiee'S,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  his- 
torian, born  at  Seville  about  1496,  published  a  compila- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f3,r,  fill,  fSt;  niSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


METENDORFF 


1579 


MEZZOFJNTI 


tion  entitled  "  Silva  de  varia  Leccion,"  and  a  "  History 
of  the  Roman  Emperors  from  Julius  Caesar  to  Maximilian 
of  Austria."  He  was  patronized  by  Charles  V.,  who 
appointed  him  historiographer.    Died  in  1552. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  Histoiy  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Meyendorff,  von,  fon  ml'en-doRf,  (Peter,)  a  Rus- 
sian diplomatist,  born  about  1790.  He  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Berlin  in  1839,  and  represented  Russia 
at  Vienna  from  1850  to  1854. 

Meyer,  mi'er,  (Conrad,)  a  Swiss  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Zurich  in  1618.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  engraver  who  used  soft  instead  of  hard  varnish. 
Died  in  1689. 

Meyer,  (Felix,)  an  eminent  Swiss  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Winterthur  in  1653.  His  delineations  of  the 
mountain-scenery  of  Switzerland  are  esteemed  master- 
pieces of  the  kind.    Died  in  1713. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters;"  Descamps,  "Vies 
des  Peintres  Flamands,  Allemands,"  etc. 

Meyer,  mT'er,  (Friedrich  Johann  Lorenz,)  a  Ger- 
man litterateur,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1760  ;  died  in  1844. 

Meyer,  mi'er,  [Lat.  Meye'rus,]  (Jacob,)  a  Flemish 
historian,  sometimes  called  Baliola'nus,  born  near  Bail- 
leul  in  1491,  was  the  author  of  a  "History  of  Flanders," 
and  other  works,  (in  Latin.)  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Erasmus.    Died  in  1552. 

See  SwEERT,  "Athenae  Belgicas." 

Meyer,  (Jan  Lodewyck,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  marine 
views,  born  in  Amsterdam  about  1809.  He  painted 
landscapes  in  his  youth,  and  afterwards  distinguished 
himself  as  a  marine  painter  at  the  Hague. 

Meyer,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  distinguished  German 
painter,  called  Meyer  von  Bremen,  born  in  1813.  His 
best  works  are  delineations  of  domestic  life,  particularly 
those  representing  the  actions  and  sports  of  children. 
Among  these  may  be  named  "  The  Game  of  Blind-Man's 
Buff,"  and  "The  Youngest  Brother." 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Meyer,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  Swiss  artist  and 
amateur,  born  at  Stafa,  on  Lake  Zurich,  in  1759.  While 
on  a  visit  to  Italy,  in  1784,  he  formed  an  intimate  friend- 
ship with  Goethe  and  Herder.  In  1807  he  became 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Design  at  Weimar.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "History  of  the  Plastic  Arts  among  the 
Greeks,"  (1824,)  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Pro- 
pylaen"  and  other  works  of  Goethe.    Died  in  1832. 

See  Goethe,  "  Briefwechseln." 

Meyer,  (Jonas  Daniel,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  at  Arn- 
hem  in  1780.  He  published,  in  French,  "The  Spirit, 
Origin,  and  Progress  of  the  Judicial  Institutions  of  the 
Principal  Nations  of  Europe,"  (5  vols.,  1818-23.)  Died 
in  1834. 

Meyer,  von,  fon  mi'er,  (Hermann,)  a  German  geol- 
ogist and  naturalist,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in 
1801,  published  several  works. 

Meyerbeer,  ml'er-baR^  (Giacomo,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man composer,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Berlin  in 
1794,  was  originally  named  Jacob  Meyer  Beer.  He 
studied  under  Clementi  and  Vogler,  and  at  the  age  of 
nine  years  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  pianists  in 
Berlin,  His  first  operas,  entitled  "  Jephthah's  Daughter" 
and  "Abimelech,  or  the  Two  Caliphs,"  were  coldly  re- 
ceived, but,  having  visited  Italy  in  1815,  he  there  pro- 
duced his  "Romilda  e  Costanza,"  (1818,)  "  Semiramide 
Riconosciuta,"  (1819,)  and  "  Emma  di  Resburgo,"  (1820,) 
which  met  with  enthusiastic  applause.  To  these  suc- 
ceeded, in  1824,  his  "  Crociato  in  Egitto,"  which  was 
performed  with  brilliant  success  in  all  the  principal 
cities  of  Europe.  His  "  Robert  le  Diable,"  brought  out 
in  Paris  in  1831,  raised  his  reputation  to  the  highest 
point,  and  is  ranked  among  the  master-pieces  of  musical 
art.  He  afterwards  produced  operas  entitled  "  The 
Huguenots,"  (1836,)  and  "  Le  Prophete,"  (1849,)  both 
of  which  were  greatly  admired.  About  1842  he  was  ap- 
pointed director-general  of  music  by  the  King  of  Prussia. 
Among  his  later  works  are  "  L'fitoile  du  Nord,"  (1854,) 
and  "  Le  Pardon  de  Ploermel,"  (1859,)    Died  in  1863. 

See  L.  de  Lomenie.  "M.  Meyerbeer,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
18^1;  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
plne  G^nerale." 


Meyerheim,  mi'er-hlm',  (Friedrich  Eduard,)  a 
German  painter  of  great  merit,  born  at  Dantzic  about 
1810.  He  studied  at  Berlin,  and  in  1838  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Arts  in  that  city.  His  favourite 
subjects  are  rural  and  domestic  scenes,  which  he  repre- 
sents with  exquisite  skill  and  fidelity.  Among  his  master- 
pieces are  "The  Blind  Beggar,"  "The  Village  School," 
and  an  "  Old  Woman  Teaching  her  Granddaughter  to 
KniL"  His  brother  Wilhelm  has  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  painter  of  animals,  battles,  and  camp-life. 

Meyering,  mi'er-ing,  (Albert,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1645  ;  died  in  1 714. 

Meyern,  mi'^Rn,  (Wilhelm  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man novelist,  born  near  Anspach  in  1762.  He  wrote 
a  political  romance,  entitled  "  Dya-na-Sore,  or  the 
Wanderers,"  (1787.)    Died  in  1829. 

Meyerus.    See  Meyer,  (Jacob.) 

Meygret  or  Meigret,  ma'gRk',  (Louis,)  a  French 
grammarian,  born  at  Lyons  about  1 5 10,  produced  in  1550 
a  "  Treatise  on  French  Grammar,"  said  to  be  the  first 
which  ever  appeared.  He  attempted  to  introduce  a  new 
orthography  conformed  to  the  sound.    Died  after  1560. 

Meyrick,  m^r'ik,  written  alsoMyriok,  (Sir  Samuel 
Rush,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  1783.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  a  "Critical  Inquiry  into  Ancient  Armour, 
with  Special  Reference  to  England  from  the  Norman 
Conquest  to  the  Time  of  Charles  II.,"  (1824,)  which  is 
highly  esteemed.  He  was  knighted  in  1832.  Died  in 
1848. 

Mezence.    See  Mezentius. 

Mezentius,  me-z§n'shenis,  [Gr.  MecrevriOf;  Fr.  Me- 
zence, mi'zdNss',]  a  fabulous  king  of  the  Etruscans, 
notorious  for  his  cruelty  and  impiety.  According  to 
Virgil,  he  was  an  ally  of  Turnus,  and  was  killed  in  battle 
by  ^neas.    He  was  the  father  of  Lausus. 

See  Virgil's  "i^neid,"  book  vii.  648,  book  viii.  482,  and  book  x. 
689-908. 

Mezeray,  de,  deh  miz^Ri',  (Franqois  Eudes,)  a 
French  historian,  born  in  Lower  Normandy  in  1610,  was 
patronized  ])y  Cardinal  Richelieu.  His  principal  work 
is  a  "  History  of  France,"  (3  vols.,  1651,)  which  enjoyed 
extraordinary  popularity  at  the  time,  owing  in  great 
part  to  the  engraved  portraits  it  contained.  He  suc- 
ceeded Voiture  as  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in 
1649,  and  became  perpetual  secretary  of  that  institution 
in  1675.  He  was  also  historiographer  of  France.  Died 
in  1683. 

See  Larroque,  "Vie  de  Frangois  Mezeray,"  1720;  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "Causeriesdu  Lundi ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Meziriac,  de,  deh  meh-ze^re'tk',  (Claude  Gaspar 
Bachet,)  a  French  scholar  and  mathematician,  born  at 
Bourg-en-Bresse  in  1581.  He  published  an  edition  of 
the  "Arithmetic"  of  Diophantus,  (with  notes,)  and  trans- 
lated a  number  of  Ovid's  "  Epistles"  into  French  verse. 
Died  in  1638. 

Mezzofanti,  m^t-so-fin'tee,  (Giuseppe  Gasparo,)  a 
celebrated  Italian  linguist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1774.  He 
studied  at  the  episcopal  seminary  of  his  native  city,  and 
was  ordained  a  priest  in  1797.  In  1804  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  and  the  Oriental  languages  at  Bologna, 
and  in  181 5  was  appointed  chief  librarian  of  the  uni- 
versity. Distinguished  foreigners  who  visited  Bologna 
at  this  time  praised  his  extraordinary  attainments  and 
bore  witness  to  the  accuracy  with  which  he  spoke  their 
respective  languages.  On  the  invitation  of  Pope  Gregory 
XVI.,  he  repaired  in  1831  to  Rome,  where  he  succeeded 
Angeio  Mai  as  keeper  of  the  Vatican  Library,  and  in 
1838  was  made  a  cardinal.  A  German  scholar  says  of 
him  at  this  period,  "  He  is  familiar  not  only  with  the 
principal  European  languages,  but  with  the  Irish,  Welsh, 
and  even  Lappish."  He  is  said  to  have  spoken  upwards 
of  fifty  languages,  and  was  thoroughly  versed  in  the 
idioms  and  provincialisms  peculiar  to  each  :  he  could 
entertain  his  English  friends  with  specimens  of  York- 
shire dialect,  and  his  French  or  German  visitors  with  the 
patois  of  their  respective  countries.  Lord  Byron  styles 
Mezzofanti  a  prodigy  of  languages,  who  should  have  lived 
in  the  times  of  the  tower  of  Babel,  to  serve  as  a  universal 
interpreter.    Died  in  1849. 

See  William  Russell,  "Life  of  Cardinal  Mezzofanti,"  etc., 
1857;  Manavit,  "  Esquisse  historique  sur  le  Cardinal  Mezzofanti," 
1854;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  1855. 


«  as    5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  y.,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MULL  1 5  80  MICHAEL  ANGEL  O 


Mi'all,  (liDWARD,)  an  English  dissenter,  born  at 
Pt)rtj^nioiUh  in  1809.  He  founded  "  The  Nonconformist," 
in  London,  and  wrote  several  works  against  the  union  of 
Church  and  State.  In  1852  he  was  elected  a  Liberal 
member  of  Parliament  for  Rochdale.  He  was  returned 
to  Parliament  for  Bradford  in  1869. 

Miaulis  or  Miaoulis,  me-ow'iis,  (Andreas  Vokos,) 
a  distinguished  patriot  and  admiral  of  modern  Greece, 
born  at  Negroj^ont  about  1768.  In  1821  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  chief  command  of  the  fleet  of  the  Greeks, 
and  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Turks  at  Patras. 
In  1825  he  burnt  the  Turkish  fleet  in  the  harbour  of 
Modon,  He  was  created  high  admiral  in  1832.  On 
the  accession  of  King  Otho  to  the  throne  of  Greece, 
Miaulis  became  one  of  his  most  zealous  adherents.  He 
died  in  1835,  and  was  buried  near  the  monument  of 
Themistocles. 

See  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  1859;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Miazzi,  me-it'see,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Pergamo  in  1699.  Among  his  most  admired 
works  are  the  theatre  at  Treviso  and  the  Spineda 
palace  at  Venegaz/.a.    Died  about  1780. 

Miscall,  [Heb.  HD'D  ;  Fr.  Mich^e,  me^shk',]  one  of 
the  minor  Hebrew  prophets,  was  contemporary  with 
Isaiah  and  Hosea,  and  flourished  under  the  reigns  of 
Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  from  759  to  699  B.C.  "  His 
style,"  says  Bishop  Lowth,  "  is  in  many  parts  animated 
and  sublime,  and  in  general  truly  poetical." 

Mical,  me'ktK,  (N.,)  an  ingenious  French  mecha- 
nician, born  about  1730,  constructed  several  admirable 
automatons,  among  which  were  two  speaking  heads, 
presented  by  him  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1783. 
Died  about  1790. 

See  "Memoires  secrets." 

Micali,  me-kl'lee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  historian 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Leghorn  about  1780.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  entitled  "  Italy  before  the  Dominion  of  the 
Romans,"  (4  vols.,  1810.)    Died  in  1844. 

Mi'-eha-el,  [Heb.  S^<D''D  ;  Gr.  Mixar^X ;  Fr.  Michel, 
me'sh^K;  It.  Michele,  me-ka'l^,]  one  of  the  archangels 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  was  regarded  as  the 
especial  protector  of  the  Jewish  nation.  A  festival  was 
instituted  in  his  honour,  as  a  defender  of  the  Church, 
by  the  Christians  of  the  ninth  century,  which  is  still 
celebrated  on  the  29th  of  September,  (Michaelmas  Day.) 

See  Daniel  x.  13-21  ;  Revelation  xii.  7-9. 

Mi'-eha-el  [Gr.  Mixar/Ti;  Fr.  Michel,  me'sh8K;It. 
Michele,  me-ka'la]  I.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  surnamed 
Rhangabe,  (6  'Pavyu[3r],)  succeeded,  in  811  A.D.,  Stau- 
racius,  whose  sister  Procopia  he  had  married.  Being 
unsuccessful  in  his  war  against  the  Bulgarians,  he  abdi- 
cated his  ^crown  in  813  and  retired  to  a  convent.  Died 
about  845. 

See  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Michael  II.,  the  Stammerer,  also  called  Michael 
the  Phrygian,  succeeded  Leo  the  Armenian,  whom  he 
had  caused  to  be  assassinated,  as  Emperor  of  Constanti- 
nople, in  820  A.D.  He  died  after  a  reign  of  nine  years, 
leaving  the  empire  to  his  son  Theophilus. 

Michael  III.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  a  son  of  The- 
ophilus, ascended  the  throne  in  842  A.D.,  when  he  was 
about  three  years  old.  He  was  assassinated  by  Basil 
the  Macedonian  in  867.  His  character  was  very  de- 
praved. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Michael  IV.,  surnamed  the  Paphlagonian,  [Gr. 
Mq^af/zL  6  Uacplayuv,]  became  emperor  in  1034,  having 
previously  married  Zoe,  widow  of  Romanus  III.,  whom 
she  had  put  to  death.  He  died  in  1041,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  nephew,  Michael  Calaphates. 

Michael  V.,  surn«kjned  Calaphates,  [Gr.  6  KaXa- 
<j>uTr]c,]  was  made  Emperor  of  the  East  in  1041,  but  he 
was  deposed  by  his  subjects  in  1042. 

Michael  VI.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  surnamed  Stra- 
tiot'icus,  began  to  reign  in  1056.  He  was  deposed  in 
1057,  and  was  succeeded  by  Isaac  Comnenus. 

Michael  VII.,  surnamed  Parapina'ces,  a  son  of 
Constantine  XL,  succeeded  Romanus  III.  in  107 1.  He 
was  feeble  and  incompetent  to  reign,  and  he  abdicated 
in  1078. 


Michael  VIII.  PalseoPogus,  [Gr.  Uixa^l  6  Ualai' 
oloyog  ;  Fr.  Michel  Paleologue,  me'sh^K  pt'iyo'iog',] 
Emperor  of  the  East,  and  a  son  of  Androni'cus  Palaeol- 
ogus,  was  born  in  1224.  He  usurped  in  1260  the  throne 
of  John  Lascaris,  the  infant  heir  of  the  late  Emperor 
of  Nicaea.  In  1261  his  army  took  Constantinople  from 
the  Latin  ruler,  Baldwin  II.  He  was  excommunicated 
by  the  Patriarch  Arsenius  for  his  cruel  treatment  of  John 
Lascaris,  whom  he  deprived  of  sight.  Under  his  auspices 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  made  a  treaty  of 
union  in  1274;  but  this  attempt  to  restore  the  union 
proved  abortive.  In  1281  he  defeated  the  army  which 
Charles  of  Anjou  and  the  pope  sent  to  invade  the  Eastern 
empire.  He  died  in  1282,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Androni'cus  II. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  George 
Pachvmerrs,  "  Historia  Rerum  a  Michaele  Palseologo  gestarum," 
1666  ;  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Mi'-eha-el  An'ge-lo  [Fr.  Michel-Ange,  me'sh^K 
oNzh ;  It.  Michelangelo,  me-k^l-§.n'ji-lo ;  Lat.  Mi- 
chael An'gelus]  Buonai-otti  (boo-o-n^-rot'tee)  or 
Buonarroti,  a  celebrated  Italian  painter,  sculptor, 
and  architect,  was  born  in  the  castle  of  Caprese,  in  Tus- 
cany, on  the  6th  of  March,  1474.  He  was  descended 
from  the  noble  family  of  Canossa.  At  the  time  of  his 
birth,  his  father,  Lodovico  Buonarotti  Simone,  was 
podesta  or  governor  of  Chiusi  and  •  Caprese.  His 
mother's  name  was  Francesca  del  Sera.  He  attended  a 
grammar-school  in  Florence,  and  became  in  1488  a  pupil 
of  Domenico  Ghirlandaio.  Soon  after  that  date  he 
began  to  study  sculpture  in  an  academy,  or  garden,  which 
Lorenzo  the  Magnificent  had  furnished  with  antique 
statues  and  bas-reliefs,  in  Florence.  He  gained  the 
favour  of  Lorenzo,  who  about  1490  invited  him  to  be- 
come an  inmate  of  his  palace  and  treated  him  with  much 
respect  and  kindness.  Here  he  enjoyed  the  society  of 
eminent  literary  men,  one  of  whom,  Angelo  Poliziano, 
(Politian,)  became  his  intimate  friend.  Among  his  ear- 
liest works  was  a  marble  bas-relief,  the  subject  of 
which  was  "The  Battle  of  Hercules  with  the  Centaurs." 
This  work,  which  was  approved  by  his  own  mature  judg- 
ment, is  preserved  in  Florence.  His  patron,  Lorenzo 
de'  Medici,  died  in  1492,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  de- 
generate son  Piero,  by  whose  order  Michael  Angelo 
made  a  colossal  statue  of  snow.  In  1494  he  went  to 
Bologna,  where  he  worked  about  a  year.  Having  re- 
turned to  Florence,  he  executed  a  statue  of  a  "  Sleeping 
Cupid,"  which  some  person  passed  off  as  an  antique 
and  sold  for  a  high  price  to  Cardinal  San  Giorgio.  About 
1497  he  produced  an  admirable  marble  group,  called  a 
"  Pieta,"  representing  "  The  Virgin  weeping  over  the 
Dead  Body  of  her  Son."  "  In  none  of  his  works,"  says 
Ernest  Breton,  "has  he  displayed  more  perfect  know- 
ledge of  design  and  anatomy,  or  more  profound  truth  of 
expression."  ("  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale.")  This 
group  now  adorns  a  chapel  in  the  church  of  Saint  Peter 
at  Rome.  He  found  another  patron  in  Pietro  Soderini, 
the  gonfaloniere  (chief  ruler)  of  Florence,  who  employed 
him  in  sculpture  and  painting.  He  executed  a  gigantic 
marble  statue  of  the  psalmist  David,  which  stands  in 
front  of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  in  Florence.  He  received 
four  hundred  ducats  for  this  work,  on  which  he  spent 
about  eighteen  months  and  which  he  finished  in  1504, 
Having  been  commissioned  by  Soderini  to  paint  in 
fresco  a  historical  picture  in  the  hall  of  the  ducal  palace, 
he  chose  for  his  subject  an  event  in  the  war  between  the 
Florentines  and  the  people  of  Pisa.  He  displayed  in  the 
cartoon  of  this  composition  a  grandeur  of  style  and  a 
knowledge  of  anatomy  which  had  not  been  equalled  by 
any  modern  painter,  "  Such  was  the  excellence  of  this 
work,"  says  Vasari,  "  that  some  thought  it  absolute  per- 
fection." This  cartoon  has  perished,  and  the  painting 
itself  was  never  begun.  Among  his  early  paintings  is 
an  oil-picture  of  the  "Holy  Family,"  (about  1504.)  He 
was  invited  to  Rome  by  Julius  II.  soon  after  the  acces- 
sion of  that  pontiff,  who  employed  him  to  build  his 
monument  or  mausoleum.  He  formed  a  magnificent 
design  for  this  work,  which  design  was  approved  by 
the  pope  and  has  been  described  by  Vasari,  but  was 
never  completely  executed.  While  they  were  consulting 
about  a  suitable  place  for  the  monument,  the  architect, 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  ^,    j,  g,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MICHAEL  JNGELO 


MICHJLLON 


San  Gallo,  suggested  that  a  new  chapel  ought  to  be 
built  expressly  for  so  superb  a  mausoleum.  The  pope 
concurred  in  his  opinion,  and  determined  to  rebuild  the 
church  of  Saint  Peter.  Thus  Michael  Angelo's  design 
is  said  to  have  been  the  cause  of  the  erection  of  the 
most  magnificent  church  in  the  world.  In  1506  he  was 
offended  at  the  pope  because  he  was  not  admitted  to 
his  presence  when  he  went  to  the  palace  on  business. 
He  therefore  abruptly  quitted  his  service,  and  retired  to 
Florence.  Julius  II.  sent  messengers  to  bring  him  back, 
but  he  refused  to  return,  until  the  pope  had  urged  him 
by  several  letters  and  mandates.  Michael  Angelo  wished 
to  finish  the  monument  which  he  had  begun,  but  Julius 
had  changed  his  mind,  and  ordered  the  great  artist  to 
decorate  with  frescos  the  ceiling  and  walls  of  the  Sistine 
Chajjel  in  the  Vatican.  He  painted  in  the  Sistine  Chapel 
numerous  scenes  from  the  book  of  Genesis,  and  colossal 
figures  of  prophets  and  sibyls.  "  From  the  commence- 
ment," says  Duppa,  "to  the  conclusion  of  this  stupen- 
dous monument  of  human  genius,  twenty  months  only 
were  employed.  So  short  a  time  for  the  completion  of 
so  vast  a  work  could  hardly  be  credited,  if  it  were  not 
more  difficult  to  refuse  the  testimony  on  which  it  is 
supported."  It  was  finished  in  1 5 12.  Michael  Angelo 
and  Raphael  worked  in  the  Vatican  at  the  same  time. 

Julius  II.  died  in  15 13,  and  was  succeeded  by  Leo  X., 
who  is  censured  for  his  illiberal  conduct  towards  Michael 
Angelo.  Leo  ordered  him  to  build  the  fa9ade  of  the 
church  of  San  Lorenzo  at  Florence,  and  compelled  him 
against  his  will  to  spend  several  years  in  procuring 
marble  for  that  purpose.  "  It  is  a  mortifying  reflection," 
says  Duppa,  "that  the  talents  of  this  great  man  should 
have  been  buried  and  his  time  consumed,  during  the 
whole  reign  of  Leo  X.,  in  little  else  than  in  raising  stone 
out  of  a  quarry  and  making  a  road  to  convey  it  to  the 
sea."  ("  Life  of  M.  Angelo.")  Under  the  patronage 
of  Clement  VII.,  who  was  elected  pope  in  1523,  he 
began  to  build  the  library  and  chapel  of  San  Lorenzo,  at 
Florence.  He  erected  fortifications  at  Florence  in  1528 
or  1529,  and  aided  in  the  defence  of  that  city  against  the 
papal  troops.  After  the  accession  of  Pope  Paul  III.,  in 
1534,  Michael  Angelo  was  permitted  to  resume  the 
monument  of  Julius  II.,  which  he  completed  on  a  smaller 
scale  than  that  which  he  first  designed.  It  consists  of 
seven  statues,  one  of  which  represents  Moses,  and  was 
placed  in  the  churcli  of  San  Pietro  in  Vinculo.  This 
statue  of  Moses  is  called  one  of  his  master-pieces. 

Among  his  greatest  productions  is  a  picture,  in  fresco, 
of  "The  Last  Judgment,"  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  Rome. 
This  work,  which  occupied  him  about  eight  years  and 
comprises  nearly  three  hundred  figures,  was  finished  in 
1541.  It  presents  a  confused  mass  of  naked  bodies  in 
the  most  violent  attitudes  and  most  admired  disorder, 
and  excels  chiefly  in  energy  of  expression.  "  In  the 
'  Last  Judgment,'  "  says  E.  Breton,  "  one  will  seek  in  vain 
for  that  celestial  light  and  divine  inspiration  which  ap- 
pear in  the  'Transfiguration,'"  (of  Raphael.) 

In  1546  he  was  appointed  architect  of  Saint  Peter's 
Church,  which  Julius  II.  began  to  build  about  1506. 
Michael  Angelo  accepted  this  appointment  on  the  con- 
ditions that  he  should  receive  no  salary,  and  that  he 
should  deviate  from  the  design  of  San  Gallo,  the  former 
architect  of  the  church.  He  adopted  a  more  simple 
design,  formed  a  model  for  the  dome,  and  devoted  the 
remainder  of  his  life  chiefly  to  that  grand  fabric,  but  did 
not  live  to  see  it  completed.  He  finished  the  Farnese 
palace,  which  is  greatly  admired,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
imposing  edifices  of  modern  Rome.  In  his  latter  years 
he  adorned  the  Capitoline  Hill  with  several  fine  buildings, 
among  which  is  the  senatorial  palace.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  numerous  sonnets  and  other  poems,  which  are 
distinguished  for  elegance  and  purity  of  style.  These 
were  published  in  1538,  and  often  reprinted.  He  never 
married.  He  died  in  Rome  in  February,  1563,  or,  ac- 
cording to  some  authorities,  in  1564.  His  moral  character 
is  represented  as  good. 

"  He  was  the  bright  luminary,"  says  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds, "  from  whom  painting  has  borrowed  a  new  lustre, 
under  whose  hands  it  assumed  a  new  appearance  and 
became  another  and  superior  art,  and  from  whom  all 
his  contemporaries  and  successors  have  derived  what- 


ever they  have  possessed  of  the  dignified  and  majestic." 
("  Discourses  on  Painting,"  vol.  ii.)  Comparing  him 
with  Raphael,  Quatremere  de  Quincy  remarks,  "If 
Michael  Angelo  is  the  greatest  of  draughtsmen,  Raffaello 
is  the  first  of  painters."  ("  Life  of  Raffaello.")  "  In 
painting,"  says  Duppa,  "  the  great  work  on  which  Michael 
Angelo's  fame  depends,  and,  taking  it  for  all  in  all,  the 
greatest  work  of  his  whole  life,  is  the  ceiling  of  the  Sis- 
tine Chapel.  .  .  .  His  Sibyls  and  prophets  exhibit  with 
variety  and  energy  the  colossal  powers  of  his  mind.  .  .  . 
In  his  great  works,  his  superior  abilities  are  shown  in 
the  sublimity  of  his  conceptions  and  the  power  and 
facility  with  which  they  are  executed."  It  is  doubtful 
whether  any  oil-painting  by  this  artist  is  now  extant. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  Painters  and  Sculptors  ;"  Condivi,  "  Vita 
di  Michelangelo  Buonan  oti,"  1553;  Lanzi,  "  Storia  della  Pittura  ;" 
Richard  Duppa,  "  Life  of  Michael  Angelo,"  London, 1806  ;  Vignali, 
"Vita  di  Michelangelo,"  1753;  Hauchecorne,  "Vie  de  Michel- 
Ange ;"  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  "Vie  de  Michel- Ange,"  1835; 
WiNCKELMANN,  "  Neues  Mahler- Lexikon  ;"  Nagler,  "  Kiinstler- 
Lexikon  ;"  Cicognara,  "  Storia  della  Scultura ;"  B.  Cellini,  "  Me- 
morie  ;"  Lannau-Roli.and,  "  Michel-Ange  Poete  ;"  J.  S.  Har- 
ford, "  Life  of  Michael  Angelo,"  1856;  Marie  Henri  Beyle, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Peintiire  en  Italie,"  2  vols.,  1817,  (said  to  contain 
an  ample  and  well-written  account  of  Michael  Angelo ;)  Hermann 
Grimm,  "Michael  Angelo's  Leben,"  and  English  version  of  the 
same,  London,  2  vols.,  1S65. 

Michael  Angelo  delle  Battaglie.  See  Cerquozzl 
Mi'chael  Feodo'rovitch,  (fa-o-do'ro-vitch,)  Czar 

of  Russia,  born  in  1596,  was  a  son  of  Feodor  Romanof. 

He  began  to  reign  in  1613.    His  rule  is  said  to  have 

been  beneficial  to  Russia.    He  had  two  sons  and  three 

daughters.    Died  in  1645. 

See  Berch,  "Reign  of  Michael  Feodorovltch,"  (in  Russian,) 

1832;  Levesque,  "Histoire  de  Russia." 

Michaeler,  me-K^'eh-ler,  (Karl  Joseph,)  a  German 
historian  and  scholar,  born  at  Innspruck  in  1735;  died 
in  1804. 

Michaelis,  me-KS-a'lis,  (Johann  Benjamin,)  a  Ger- 
man poet,  born  at  Zittau  in  1746.  He  was  the  author 
of  lyric  poems,  fables,  and  satires  :  the  last-named  are 
particularly  esteemed.  He  was  intimate  with  Jacobi  and 
Gleim,  and  resided  with  the  latter  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  (1772.) 

See  ScHMiD,  "Leben  J.  B.  Michaelis,"  1775. 

Michaelis,  (Johann  David,)  an  eminent  German 
theologian  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Halle  in  1 71 7.  He 
studied  in  the  university  of  his  native  city,  and  acquired 
a  profound  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew,  Syriac,  and  Chal- 
dee  languages  and  biblical  exegesis.  He  subsequently 
visited  Holland  and  England,  and  was  appointed  after 
his  return  professor  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen,  (1745.) 
In  conjunction  with  Haller,  he  founded  the  Society  of 
Sciences  in  that  city,  of  which  he  afterwards  became 
director.  He  was  editor  of  the  "  Gelehrte  Anzeigen," 
at  Gottingen,  from  1753  to  1770,  and  about  the  same  time 
held  the  office  of  librarian  at  the  university.  He  was  the 
author  of  "Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,"  ("Ein- 
leitung  in  die  Gottlichen  Schriften  des  Neuen  Bundes," 
2  vols.,  1750,)  "Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Moses," 
("Das  Mosaische  Recht,"  6  vols.,  1770,)  and  other  works, 
which  entitle  him  to  rank  among  the  most  learned  men 
of  his  time.  He  also  published  grammars  of  the  Hebrew, 
Syriac,  and  Chaldee  languages,  and  several  valuable 
treatises  on  chronology  and  geography.  Michaelis  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  Paris,  and  privy  councillor 
of  Hanover.    Died  in  1791. 

See  J.  D.  Michaelis,  "  Leben sbeschreibung  von  ihm  selbst  abge- 
fasst,"  1793;  C.  G.  Heyne,  "  Elogium  J.  D.  Michaelis,"  1791; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Michaelis,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  Oriental- 
ist and  theologian,  born  at  Klettenberg,  Saxony,  in  1668. 
He  taught  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Chaldee  at  Halle,  and 
became  professor  of  theology  at  that  place  about  1709. 
He  wrote  works  on  philology,  etc.    Died  in  1738. 

Michailowski.    See  Mikhailofski. 

Michallon,  me'sht'16N',  (Achille  Etna,)  a  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1796,  He  gained  the  first  prize 
in  181 7,  and  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension.  Died  in  1822. 

Michallon,  (Claude,)  a  French  sculptor,  the  fathe* 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Lyons  about  1751-  He 
studied  at  Rome.    Died  in  1799. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,    guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MICHAUD 


1582 


MICHELIUS 


Michaud,  me'sho',  (Claude  Ignace  Francois,)  an 
able  fVench  general,  born  near  the  Jura  Mountains  in 
1753.  lie  became  general  of  division  in  1793,  and  in 
1794  succeeded  Pichegru  as  commander  -in-chief  of  the 
army  of  the  Rhine.  In  the  same  year  he  gained  victories 
at  Kaiserslautern,  Mannheim,  and  other  places.  From 
1806  to  181 3  he  was  Governor  of  the  Hanse  towns. 
Died  in  1835. 

Michaud,  (Joseph  Francois,)  a  distinguished  French 
writer  and  journalist,  born  in  Savoy  in  1767.  Soon  after 
the  breaking  out  of  the  French  Revolution  he  repaired 
to  Paris,  where  he  was  associate  editor  for  many  years 
of  the  royalist  journals  the  "Gazette  Fran9aise"  and 
"La  Quotidienne."  In  181 1  he  began,  in  conjunction 
with  his  brother,  the  publication  of  the  celebrated  "  Bio- 
graphie  Universelle,"  (completed  in  1840,  85  vols.  8vo,) 
which  numbered  among  its  contributors  the  most  emi- 
nent literary  and  scientific  men  of  France.  Michaud 
was  the  author  of  an  excellent  "  History  of  the  Crusades," 
(6  vols.,  1841,)  a  poem  entitled  "The  Spring-Time  of  an 
Exile,"  which  had  great  popularity,  and  other  works  in 
prose  and  verse,  besides  a  number  of  contributions  to 
the  "  Biographie  Universelle."  He  was  for  many  years 
a  prominent  bookseller  and  publisher  in  Paris.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  ViLLENEUVE,  "Notice  historique  sur  Michaud,"  1839; 
Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  February,  1830. 

Michaud,  (Louis  Gabriel,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Bourg-en-Bresse  in  1772.  He  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  in  conjunction  with  whom  he  established  a 
printing-house  in  Paris,  from  which  issued  the  principal 
royalist  publications  of  the  time.  He  was  the  author 
^of  a  "  Historical  Picture  of  the  First  Wars  of  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,"  "  History  of  Saint-Simonism,"  etc.,  and 
made  numerous  contributions  to  the  "  Biographie  Uni- 
verselle."   Died  in  1858. 

Michault,  me'sho'',  (Jean  Bernard,)  a  French  phi- 
lologist and  bibliographer,  born  at  Dijon  in  1707;  died 
in  1770. 

Michaux,  me'sho',  (Andri^,)  a  distinguished  French 
botanist  and  traveller,  born  at  Versailles  in  1746.  After 
having  traversed  Persia  and  other  countries,  he  was  sent 
by  the  government  to  North  America  in  1785  for  the 
purpose  of  collecting  trees  and  plants.  For  about  eleven 
years  he  thoroughly  explored  the  botanical  productions 
of  the  United  States,  Canada,  etc.,  with  a  courage  and 
energy  which  no  danger  or  difficulty  could  overcome. 
In  1796  he  returned  to  France  with  his  collections,  and 
prepared  his  "  Description  of  the  Oaks  of  North  Amer- 
ica," (1801.)  He  accompanied  Baudin's  scientific  ex- 
pedition to  Australia  in  1800,  and,  while  pursuing  his 
researches  in  Madagascar,  he  died  of  fever  in  1802. 
He  left  a  "  Flora  of  North  America,"  ("  Flora  Boreali- 
Americana,"  2  vols.,  1803,)  which  for  many  years  was 
the  most  complete  that  had  appeared.  Both  of  his  works 
are  adorned  with  excellent  engravings  by  Redoute. 

See  CuBi^RES,  "Notice  sur  F.  A.  Michaux,"  1807;  "  Edijiburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1805  ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  November,  1806; 
"North  American  Review"  for  April,  1858. 

Michee,  the  French  for  Micah,  which  see. 

Michel,  the  French  for  Michael,  which  see. 

Michel,  me^shgK,  (Claude  Etienne, )  a  French 
general  of  division,  born  at  Pointre  in  1 772.  He  was 
killed  at  Waterloo,  June,  1815. 

Michel,  (Francisque  Xavier,)  a  French  archaeolo- 
gist, born  at  Lyons  in  1809.  He  published  editions  of 
the  "  Romance  of  the  Violet,"  (1834,)  "  Song  of  Roland," 
(1837,)  "Anglo-Norman  Chronicle,"  and  other  works 
of  the  middle  ages. 

Michel,  (Jean,)  a  French  physician  and  dramatic 
poet.  He  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  in  his  time,  and 
was  appointed  first  physician  to  the  king,  Charles  VIIL 
Died  about  1493. 

Michel,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  in  1748,  resided  many  years  in  London,  where 
he  enjoyed  a  high  reputation.    Died  in  1804. 

See  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Michel,  (Robert,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  at  Puy 
in  1720,  worked  mostly  in  Spain.  Died  at  Madrid  in 
1785. 


Michel-Ange.    See  Michael  Angelo. 
Michelangelo  or  Michelagnolo.    See  Michael 
Angelo. 

Michel  de  Bourges,  me'shgK  deh  booRzh,  an  elo- 
quent French  advocate,  born  at  Aix  in  1798  ;  died  in  1853. 

Michel  de  Tours,  me'shgK  deh  tooR,  (Guillaume,) 
a  French  poet,  who  lived  about  1500,  was  the  author  of 
a  work  entitled  "The  Forest  of  Conscience,"  (15 16.) 

Michelburne,  mik'el-biirn,  ?  (Sir  Edward,)  an  Eng- 
lish navigator,  born  about  1574.  He  sailed  in  1604,  with 
John  Davis,  on  a  voyage  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Michelet,  m^sh'l^'',  (Jules,)  an  eminent  French  his- 
torian, born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  was  chosen  chief  of 
the  historical  department  of  the  archives  of  France  in 
1830,  before  which  he  had  published  several  historical 
works  for  schools.  About  1832  he  was  appointed  the 
substitute  or  successor  of  Guizot  as  professor  of  history 
at  the  Sorbonne.  He  published  in  1831  a  "Roman 
History:  the  Republic,"  and  in  1833  the  first  volume 
of  his  "History  of  France."  In  1838  he  obtained  the 
chair  of  history  and  moral  science  in  the  College  of 
France,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Moral  and  Political  Sciences.  He  distinguished  himself 
as  an  adversary  of  the  Jesuits  and  of  Romanism.  After  the 
(ri^/^Z-i/VV^z^  of  December,  1851,  refusing  to  take  the  oath, 
he  lost  his  place  in  the  archives,  and  his  chair  in  the 
College  of  France.  His  principal  works  are  a  "His- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution,"  (7  vols.,  1847-53,)  ^ 
"History  of  France,"  (14  vols.,  1833-62,)  "Love," 
("L'Amour,"  1858,)  and  "Woman,"  ("La  Femme," 
1859.)  These  have  been  translated  into  English  and 
often  reprinted.  His  histories  present  a  profusion  of 
poetical  images,  with  a  brilliant  style  and  ingenious 
generalizations.  He  also  published  "The  Sea,"  ("La 
Mer,"  1861,)  and  "The  Bible  of  Humanity,"  ("La  Bible 
de  I'Humanite,"  1864.) 

See  L.  LouvET,  "  fitudes  biographlques :  M.  Michelet;"  "For- 
eign Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1840;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
January,  1844. 

Michelet,  mesh'eh-li',  (Karl  Ludwig,)  a  distin- 
guished German  philosopher  of  the  school  of  Hegel,  was 
born  at  Berlin  in  1801.  He  was  appointed  in  1825  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  and  philology  in  the  French  gym- 
nasium at  Berlin,  and  in  1829  obtained  the  chair  of 
philosophy  in  the  university.  He  published  "  The  Ethics 
of  Aristotle  in  their  Relation  to  the  System  of  Morality," 
(1827,)  "Critical  Examination  of  Aristotle'S'  Metaphys- 
ics," (in  French,  1836,)  which  was  crowned  by  the  Acad- 
emy of  Moral  Sciences  of  Paris,  "  History  of  the  Last 
Systems  of  Philosophy  in  Germany,  from  Kant  to  Hegel," 
(1837,)  and  other  works  of  a  high  reputation. 

Micheli,  me-ka'lee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter, 
called  Andrea  Vicen  tino,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1539.  He 
was  a  good  colorist,  but  lacked  invention.    Died  in  1614. 

Micheli,  (Domenico,)  a  Venetian  statesman,  became 
Doge  of  Venice  in  in 7.  He  conducted  a  fleet  in  a  cru- 
sade to  Palestine  in  1123,  and  took  Tyre  in  1124.  Died 
in  1 130. 

Micheli,  me-ka'lee,  or  Michieli,  me-ke-a'lee,  [Lat. 
Miche'lius,]  (Piero  Antonio,)  an  eminent  Italian 
botanist,  born  at  Florence  in  1679,  was  appointed  by 
Cosimo  de'  Medici  superintendent  of  his  botanical  garden. 
He  gave  particular  attention  to  the  classification  of  the 
mosses,  fungi,  and  lichens.  His  principal  work,  pub- 
lished in  1729,  is  entitled  "  Nova  Plantarum  Genera,"  in 
folio,  with  plates,  and  is  praised  in  high  terms  by  Haller. 
Linnaeus  has  named  the  genus  Michelia  in  honour  of 
this  botanist.    Died  in  1737. 

See  CoccHi,  "  Elogio  di  P.  A.  Micheli,"  1737;  Cuvier,  "  His- 
toire  des  Sciences  naturelles ;"  G.  Marsili,  "  Di  P.  A.  Micheli 
botanico  insigne,"  1845;  Fabroni,  "Vitae  Italorum,"  etc. 

Micheli,  (Vitale,)  a  Venetian  commander,  elected 
Doge  of  Venice  in  1096,  sent  a  large  fleet  to  co-operate 
with  the  leaders  of  the  first  crusade.    Died  in  1102. 
See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Micheli  du  Crest,  m^shOe'  dii  kRi,  (Jacques  Bar- 
th^lemy,)  a  Swiss  mathematician  and  astronomer,  born 
at  Geneva  in  1690,  published,  among  other  works,  a 
"  Description  of  a  Universal  Thermometer,"  of  which 
he  was  the  inventor.  Died  in  1766. 
Michelius.   See  Michell 


a,  e,  \  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


MI  CHE LOT 


1583 


MIDDLETON 


Michelot,  m^sh'lc/,  (Pierre  Marie  Joseph,)  a 
French  actor,  born  in  Paris  in  1785  ;  died  in  1856. 

Michelozzi,  me-ka-lot'see,  or  Michelozzo,  me-ki- 
lot'so,  a  Florentine  sculptor  and  architect,  was  a  pupil 
of  Brunelleschi.  He  furnished  the  design  for  the  Ric- 
cardi  palace  and  for  the  chapel  of  the  Annunciation  at 
Florence.    Died  in  1470. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,  Architects,"  etc. ;  Quatre- 
MERE  DE  QuiNCY,  "  Vles  des  Architectes  illiistres." 

Michelsen,  me'Kel-sen,  (Andreas  Ludwig  Jakob,) 
a  German  jurist  and  historian,  born  in  Sleswick  in  1801, 
became  professor  of  law  at  Jena  in  1842. 

Michelson,  mee'Kel-son,  (Ivan,)  a  famous  Russian 
general,  born  in  Livonia  in  1735  ;  died  in  1807. 

Michiel,  me-ke-^K,  (Giustina  Renier,)  a  learned 
Italian  lady,  born  at  Venice  in  1755.  She  translated 
"  Macbeth"  and  "  Othello"  into  Italian,  and  published 
"  Feste  Veneziane,"  (5  vols,,  1817-27.)    Died  in  1832. 

Michieli.    See  Micheli. 

Michiels,  me'she-^K,  (Joseph  Alfred  Xavier,)  a 
French  litth-ateur,  born  at  Rome  in  1813.  He  published, 
besides  various  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Flemish  and 
Dutch  Painting,"  (4  vols.,  1845.) 

Mi-9ip'sa,  [Gr.  yiiKiipcu:,]  King  of  Numidia,  was  a 
eon  of  Masinissa,  at  whose  death,  in  148  B.C.,  the  king- 
dom was  divided  between  Micipsa  and  his  brothers, 
Gulussa  and  Mastanabal.  After  the  death  of  these  two, 
who  survived  their  father  but  a  short  time,  he  was  king 
of  all  Numidia.  He  was  an  ally  of  the  Romans.  Died 
in  1 18  B.C. 

Mickiewicz,  mhs-ke-a'vitch,  (Adam,)  a  celebrated 
Polish  poet,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1798.  He  studied  at 
the  University  of  Wilna,  where  he  became  intimate  with 
several  distinguished  patriots  and  joined  the  secret 
societies  opposed  to  the  Russian  government.  He  pub- 
lished in  1822  a  collection  of  poems,  which  at  once  es- 
tablished his  reputation  as  the  greatest  poet  his  country 
had  produced.  He  was  banished  in  .1824  to  the  interior 
of  Russia,  on  a  charge  of  conspiring  against  the  govern- 
ment, and  while  residing  at  Odessa  wrote  his  "  Crimean 
Sonnets."  Having  been  permitted  to  leave  Russia,  in 
1828  he  visited  Germany  and  Rome,  and  in  1834  took 
up  his  residence  in  Paris.  He  was  appointed  in  1840 
professor  of  the  Slavonic  language  and  literature  in 
the  College  of  France,  where  he  lectured  for  a  time 
with  great  success.  His  subsequent  connection  with  the 
Polish  fanatic  Towianski,  who  inculcated  the  worship  of 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  deprived  him  of  his  popularity, 
and  he  was  ordered  to  quit  Paris  by  the  government. 
He  was  sent  by  Louis  Napoleon  on  a  mission  to 
Constantinople  in  1855,  and  died  soon  after  his  arrival. 
His  principal  works  are  his  "  Grajina,"  a  historic  pic- 
ture of  Lithuania  in  early  times,  "Konrad  Wallenrod," 
(1830,)  the  "Ancestors,"  ("Dziady,"  1832,) — in  the  first 
part  of  which  he  gives  the  story  of  his  unfortunate  at- 
tachment to  the  sister  of  a  fellow-student,  and  in  the 
latter  describes  his  imprisonment  at  Wilna, — and  "  Pan 
Tadeusz,"  {1833.) 

See  L.  DE  LoM^NiE,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains ;"  George 
Sand,  "  Essai  sur  le  Drame  fantastique ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale  :"  "A.  Mickiewicz;  eine  biographische  Skizze,"  1857; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1838. 

Mickle  or  Meikle,  mik'el,  (William  Julius,)  a 
Scottish  poet  and  translator,  born  in  Dumfriess-shire  in 
1734.  Having  visited  London  in  1763,  he  published 
several  poems,  which  obtained  for  him  the  patronage  of 
Lord  Lyttleton,  and  in  1775  brought  out  his  translation 
of  the  "  Lusiad"  of  Camoens.  It  had  great  popularity 
in  England,  and  procured  for  him  the  honour  of  ad- 
mission to  the  Royal  Academy  of  Lisbon.  This  work, 
however,  is  far  from  being  a  faithful  version  of  the  origi- 
nal ;  and  Hallam  observes  that  Mickle's  "  infidelities  in 
translation  exceed  all  liberties  ever  taken  in  this  way." 
He  also  published  several  popular  ballads,  one  of  which, 
entitled  "  Cumnor  Hall,"  suggested  to  Sir  Walter  Scott 
his  romance  of  "  Kenilworth."    Died  in  1788. 

See  Gary,  J'  Lives  of  English  Poets  from  Johnson  to  Kirke 
White:"  Cham'bers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men;" "Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1771,  and  April,  May, 
and  July,  1776. 

Mi'con,  [Gr.  MZ/cwv,]  an  eminent  Athenian  painter 
and  sculptor,  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth 


century  B.C.  He  was  chosen  by  his  countrymen  to  paint 
the  walls  of  the  temple  of  Theseus  at  Athens.  His 
pictures  representing  the  battles  of  the  Amazons  and 
Centaurs  were  especially  admired  for  the  skill  displayed 
in  the  delineation  of  the  horses.  There  were  several 
other  Greek  artists  named  Micon. 

Micrelius  or  Micraelius,  me-kRa'le-vis,  (Johann,) 
a  German  historical  writer,  born  at  Coslin  in  1597.  He 
taught  philosophy  at  Stettin,  and  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Lexicon  Philosophicum,"  (1653,)  and 
"  Royal  Political  Science,"  ("  Regia  Politica  Scientia," 
1654.)    Died  in  1658. 

Mi'das,  [Gr.  M<(5af,]  a  Phrygian  king,  who,  according 
to  tradition,  requested  of  Bacchus  that  all  he  touched 
might  turn  to  gold,  and  was  gratified  by  the  grant  of  that 
wish.  Being  thus  in  danger  of  starvation,  he  could 
only  escape  the  curse  he  had  brought  upon  himself  by 
bathing  in  the  Pactolus,  which  ever  after  flowed  with 
sands  of  gold.  It  is  also  related  of  him  that,  having 
decided  in  favour  of  Pan  in  his  musical  contest  with 
Apollo,  Midas's  ears  were  changed  to  those  of  an  ass, 
which  he  endeavoured  to  conceal.  They  were  at  length 
discovered  by  a  servant,  who,  unable  to  retain  the  secret, 
whispered  it  in  a  pit  in  the  ground,  and  the  reeds  which 
grew  around  the  spot  revealed  his  disgrace,  murmuring 
in  the  winds  the  words,  "  King  Midas  has  asses'  ears." 
This  fable  was  a  favourite  theme  with  the  Athenian 
dramatists. 

Middelburg,  de,  deh  mid'del-buRH',  (Paul,)  a 
Dutch  mathematician  and  writer,  born  at  Middelburg  in 
1445,  became  professor  of  mathematics  at  Padua.  He 
was  made  Bishop  of  Fossombrone  in  1494.  Died  in 
1534. 

Middendorp,  van,  vtn  mid'den-doRp',  (Jakob,)  a 
Dutch  historian,  born  in  Overyssel  in  1537.  His  his- 
tories are  not  reliable.    Died  in  161 1. 

Mid'dl-man,  (Samuel,)  an  English  engraver,  born 
in  1746.  He  engraved  landscapes  with  success.  Died 
in  1818. 

Mid'dle-ton,  (Arthur,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  South  Carolina,  succeeded  Nicholson  as  governc 
of  that  colony  in  1 725. 

Middleton,  (Arthur,)  an  American  patriot  of  the 
Revolution,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1 743,  was  one 
of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
took  the  degree  of  A.B.  at  Cambridge,  England,  and 
after  his  return  was  a  delegate  from  his  native  State  to 
the  United  States  Congress  in  1776.  He  was  subse- 
quently re-elected  in  1782.    Died  in  1787. 

See  Goodrich,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence." 

Mid'dle-t9n,(CoNYERS,)a  celebrated  English  scholar, 
divine,  and  controversialist,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1683. 
He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he 
became  a  Fellow  in  1706.  He  was  created  D.D.  in  1 71 7, 
on  which  occasion  he  opposed  the  claims  of  Bentley  (then 
regius  professor  of  divinity)  to  an  exorbitant  fee.  A  law- 
suit followed,  in  which  Bentley  was  defeated.  Middleton 
published,  soon  after,  "A  Full  and  Impartial  Account 
of  the  Proceedings  in  the  University  of  Cambridge  against 
Dr.  Bentley,"  which,  though  highly  vindictive  in  its 
tone,  is  esteemed  a  master-piece  of  English  style.  He 
was  appointed  chief  librarian  of  the  university  about 
1720.  Having  visited  Italy  in  1724,  he  published,  after 
his  return,  his  "Letter  from  Rome,"  (1729,)  in  which  he 
maintains  that  "the  religion  of  the  present  Romans  is 
derived  from  their  heathen  ancestors."  Having  brought 
upon  himself  the  charge  of  infidelity  by  this  work  and 
succeeding  publications,  he  wrote  a  pamphlet  in  defence 
of  his  orthodoxy,  which,  however,  failed  to  remove  the 
unfavourable  impression  he  had  made.  He  brought 
out  in  1741  his  "  History  of  the  Life  of  M.  T.  Cicero," 
which,  though  marred  with  some  grave  defects,  was 
received  with  extraordinary  favour.  "Never,"  says 
Macaulay,  "  was  there  a  character  which  it  was  easier  to 
read  than  that  of  Cicero.  Never  was  there  a  mind 
keener  or  more  critical  than  that  of  Middleton.  But  the 
great  Iconoclast  was  himself  an  idolater,  and,  while  he 
disputed  with  no  small  ability  the  claims  of  Cyprian  and 
Athanasius  to  a  place  in  the  calendar,  was  himself  com- 
posing a  lying  legend  in  honour  of  Saint  Tully."  In 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MIDDLETON 


1584 


MIERIS 


1749  he  published  "A  Free  Inquiry  into  the  Miraculous 
Powers  of  the  Christian  Church,"  in  which  he  insists 
that  the  Protestant  clergy  should  deny  the  authority  of 
the  Fathers  entirely,  or  admit  the  truth  of  the  leading 
Catholic  doctrines.    Died  in  1750. 

See  "  Encyclopjedia  Britannica  ;"  E.  Middleton,  "Evangelical 
Biography;"  Chalmers,  "Biographical  Dictionary;"  "  Biographia 
Britaniiica." 

Middleton,  (Edward,)  an  English  gentleman,  born 
at  Twickenham,  settled  in  South  Carolina,  and  was  the 
founder  of  a  family  which  produced  several  distinguished 
statesmen. 

Middleton,  (I^rasmus,)  an  English  writer,  published 
a  "  Dictifjnary  of  Arts  and  Sciences,"  and  a  collection 
of  lives  of  eminent  Protestant  theologians,  entitled 
*' Piograpliia  Evangelica."    Died  in  1805. 

Middleton,  (Hknry,)  son  of  Arthur  Middleton, 
Governor  of  South  Carolina,  was  president  of  Congress 
in  1775. 

Middleton,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  navigator,  born 
about  1570,  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany. In  1610  he  conducted  an  expedition  to  Mocha, 
Surat,  and  Bar.tam.    Died  in  1615. 

Middleton,  (Henry,)  an  American  statesman  under 
the  administration  of  President  Monroe,  was  elected 
Governor  of  South  Carolina,  and  in  1820  was  minister 
to  Russia.  Died  in  1846.  His  son  Henry,  born  in  Paris 
in  1797,  has  published  several  political  treatises. 

Middleton,  (Sir  Hugh,)  a  wealthy  citizen  of  London, 
born  about  1565,  is  chiefly  known  from  the  important 
service  he  rendered  to  London  by  uniting  two  streams  in 
Hertfordshire  and  Middlesex,  for  supplying  the  city  with 
water.  The  stream  formed  by  this  junction,  called  the 
New  River,  was  conveyed  a  distance  of  about  thirty-eight 
miles.    He  was  made  a  baronet  in  1622.    Died  in  163 1. 

See  Lysons,  "  Environs  of  London." 

Middleton,  (John  Izard,)  son  of  Arthur,  noticed 
above,  (1743-87,)  was  born  in  1785.  He  wrote  a  work 
entitled  "The  Cyclopean  Walls."    Died  in  1849. 

Middleton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist,  flou- 
rished during  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth,  James  I.,  and 
Charles  I.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life,  except  that  he 
was  chronologer  to  the  city  of  London  in  1620.  Two 
of  his  principal  plays  are  entitled  "A  Mad  World,  my 
Masters,"  and  "The  Roaring  Girl."  The  latter  is  said 
to  be  a  true  ])icture  of  London  life  at  that  time.  Mid- 
dleton also  assisted  Rowley,  Fletcher,  and  Jonson  in 
the  composition  of  several  of  their  plays.  One  of  his 
dramas,  entitled  "  The  Witch,"  is  supposed  to  have  fur- 
nished Shaksj^eare  with  the  witch-scenes  in  "Macbeth." 
Died  about  1626. 

See  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  Baker, 
"  Bioqraph:a  Dramatica." 

Middleton,  (Thomas  Fanshawe,)  D.D.,  an  English 
prelate,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1769.  He  took  his  degree 
ni  1808,  and  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Huntingdon 
in  1812.  Soon  after  this  the  government  having  decided 
to  constitute  a  bishopric  in  India,  Dr.  Middleton  was 
consecrated  first  Bishop  of  Calcutta,  in  1814.  Having 
previously  been  made  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  he 
set  sail  for  India.  He  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Bishops' 
College  at  Calcutta,  in  1820,  and  established  a  consistory 
court  in  that  city.  While  zealously  engaged  in  his  duties, 
he  was  attacked  with  a  fever,  of  which  he  died  in  1822. 
His  principal  work  is  entitled  "The  Doctrine  of  the 
Greek  Article  applied  to  the  Criticism  and  Illustration 
of  the  New  Testament." 

See  the  "Life  of  Thomas  Fanshawe  Middleton,"  by  C.  W.  Le 
Bas  :  "  Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1810  et  seq. 

Mid'garcTs*  Serpent,  (or  MiSgarcSsormr,  mith'- 
gart-hz-oRnlr^)  called  also  the  World-Serpent,  and 
Jormungind,  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  great  serpent 
which  surrounds  the  world,  the  offspring  of  Loki  and 
the  female  Jotun  Angurboda,  (Angrbo^Sa.)  The  gods, 
having  learned  that  the  children  of  Loki  and  An- 
gurboda were  destined  at  some  future  day  to  be  fatal  to 
them,  determined  to  get  possession  of  those  children 
while  they  were  still  young.    They  were  accordingly 

*  Midgard  ("middle-ward")  was  originally  applied  to  man's 
dwelling-place  in  the  middle  of  the  universe,  and  hence  signifies  the 
"world." 


brought,  and  Midgard's  Serpent  was  cast  into  the 
ocean,  where  it  grew  till  it  encircled  the  world,  biting 
its  own  tail.  At  the  end  of  the  world  (Ragnarock)  the 
world-serpent  will  fight  among  the  enemies  of  the  gods 
and  be  slain  by  Thor,  who,  however,  will  die  immediately 
afterwards  from  the  effect  of  its  venom.  The  myth  of 
the  world-serpent  is  supposed  to  signify  the  deep  or  main 
ocean,  which,  excited  by  Loki,  (subterranean  fire  or  earth- 
quake,) is  thrown  upon  the  land,  thus  proving  scarcely 
less  fatal  to  the  works  of  man  than  the  direct  action  of 
volcanic  fire,  represented  under  the  form  of  Fenrir, 
(which  see.) 

For  fiirtlier  particulars,  the  reader  may  consult  Thorpe's  "  North- 
ern Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  Mallet's  "Northern  Antiquities,"  vol. 
ii  ,  Fables  XVI.,  XXV.,  XXVI.,  XXVIL  ;  Kryser's  "Religion 
of  the  Northmen  :"  and  Pktersen's  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Mieczy.slaw,  me-ltch^is-liv,  |Lat.  Miccisla'us  or 
Micisea'us,]  I.,  surnamed  the  Glorious,  called  also 
Miesko,  (me-gs'ko,)  Duke  of  Poland,  was  born  at  Posen 
in  931.  Having  become  converted  to  Christianity,  he 
showed  great  zeal  in  its  promulgation  and  the  extirpa- 
tion of  paganism.  He  died  in  992.  A  monument,  by 
Ranch,  was  erected  to  his  memory  at  Posen. 

See  Kadlubeck,  "  Annates  ;"  Sridel,  "  Von  dem  ersten  christ- 
lich-en  Polnischen  Fiirsten  Miecislas,"  1752. 

Mieczyslaw  or  Miesko  II.,  King  of  Poland,  born 
in  990,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1025.  He  was  de- 
ficient in  talent  and  energy,  and  lost  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  his  territory  to  the  Germans  and  Hungarians. 
He  died  in  1034,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Casimir  I. 

Miel,  meel,  or  Meel,  mal,  (Jan,)  or  Giovanni  dello 
ViTE,  (jo-vSn'nee  dSKlo  vee'ta,)  a  celebrated  Flemish 
painter,  born  near  Antwerp  in  1599.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Andrea  Sacchi,  but  he  afterwards  adopted  the  style 
of  Bamboccio.  His  favourite  subjects  were  pastoral  and 
hunting  scenes,  gypsies,  beggars,  and  carnivals,  in  which 
he  has  never  been  surpassed.  He  was  patronized  by 
Charles  Emmanuel,  Duke  of  Savoy,  who  made  him  his 
painter  and  presented  him  with  a  diamond  cross  of 
great  value.  Many  of  the  best  works  of  this  artist  are 
in  the  Imperial  Gallery  at  Vienna.    Died  in  1664. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.  ;  C.  Blanc, 
"  Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mielle,  me'^K,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  Htterateicr, 
born  at  Dole  in  1757.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  History 
of  Portugal,"  (10  vols.,  1828,)  in  which  he  was  associated 
with  Fortia  d'Urban.    Died  in  1839. 

Mierevelt  or  Miereveld,  mee'reh-vglt',  (Michiei. 
Jansen,)  a  Dutch  portrait-painter,  born  at  Delft  in  1567, 
was  a  pupil  of  Blocklandt.  His  works  are  esteemed 
master-pieces  of  the  kind,  and,  though  very  numerous, 
are  finished  with  exceeding  delicacy  and  precision.  His 
portraits  are  stated  by  Sandrart  to  have  amounted  to 
more  than  ten  thousand.  Mierevelt  belonged  to  the 
sect  of  Mennonites,  but,  in  consideration  of  his  genius, 
was  allowed  the  free  exercise  of  his  religion.  Among 
his  best  portraits  we  may  name  those  of  Grotius,  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus,  William  the  Silent,  Prince  of  Orange, 
Ambrose  Spinola,  Constantine  Huyghens,  the  grand 
pensionary  Barneveldt,  Admiral  de  Coligny,  INIanrice  of 
Nassau,  the  Dutch  poet  Jacob  Cats,  and  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham.    Died  in  1641. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters:"  Descamps,  "Vies 
des  Peintres  Hollandais ;"  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Mieris,  mee'ris,  (Frans,)  called  the  Elder,  a  cele- 
brated Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  in  1635,  was  a 
pupil  of  Gerard  Douw,  who  called  him  the  prince  of  his 
disciples.  His  works  are  principally  domestic  scenes, 
conversation-pieces,  and  interiors  of  palaces,  and  are 
distinguished  by  great  brilliancy  of  colouring  and  skilful 
imitation  of  velvet,  satin,  and  other  rich  materials. 
Among  his  master-pieces  we  may  name  "The  Silk-Mer- 
chant," which  was  purchased  by  the  archduke  Leopold 
William  of  Austria  for  one  thousand  florins,  a  "  Young 
Girl  Painting,"  an  "Assembly  of  Ladies,"  bought  by  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  for  one  thousand  dollars,  a 
"  Lady  at  her  Toilet,"  "  The  Pearl-Stringer,"  "The  Silk- 
Store,"  "Lady  playing  with  a  Parrot,"  and  "The  Sick 
Woman."    Died  in  1681. 

See  Smith,  "Catalogue  of  the  Most  Eminent  Dutch,  Flemish, 
and  French  Painters;"  Charles  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres;" 
Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. ;  "Nou- 
velle Biographia  Gdn^rale." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MIERIS 


1585 


MIKHAILOFSKI 


Mieris,  (Frans,)  the  Younger,  son  of  Willem, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Leyden  in  1689.  He  was  a 
skilful  artist,  but  is  better  known  as  a  scholar  and  writer. 
Among  his  works  is  his  "  History  and  Ecclesiastical 
Antiquities  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces,"  (1726.) 
Died  in  1763. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Mieris,  (Jan,)  son  of  Frans  the  Elder,  was  born  at 
Leyden  in  1660.  He  painted  portraits  and  historical 
pieces  of  great  merit.    Died  in  1690, 

Mieris,  van,  vtn  mee'ris,  (Willem,)  son  of  Frans 
the  Elder,  was  born  at  Leyden  in  1662.  He  studied 
under  his  father,  whose  style  he  adopted.  Among  his 
best  pictures  are  a  "  Dutch  Kitchen,"  a  "  Game-Mer- 
chant," and  '*  Armida  and  Rinaldo."    Died  in  1747. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Mieroslawski,  me-i-ro-sliv'skee,  (Louis,)  the  son 
of  a  Polish  officer  and  a  French  lady,  was  born  in  France 
in  1813.  He  wrote,  in  French,  a  "  History  of  the  Polish 
Revolution,"  (1837,)  and  a  number  of  historical  and 
political  works  in  Polish. 

Mierre,  Le.    See  Lemierre. 

Mifflin,  (Thomas,)  an  American  patriot  and  officer 
of  the  Revolution,  was  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1744. 
He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1774, 
became  first  aide-de-camp  to  Washington  in  1775,  served 
with  distinction  at  Long  Island  and  Trenton,  and  rose 
to  the  rank  of  major-general  in  1777.  He  succeeded 
Franklin  in  1788  as  president  of  the  supreme  executive 
council  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Convention  which  framed  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  in  1787.  He  was  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  from 
1790  to  1799.    Died  at  Lancaster  in  1800. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Miger,  me'zhi',  (Pierre  Auguste  Marie,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Lyons  in  1771  ;  died  in  1837. 

Migliara,  m^l-y^'ri,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  in  Piedmont  in  1785.  He  excelled  in  landscapes, 
perspective,  and  architectural  views.  Among  his  best 
works  are  the  "Cathedral  of  Milan,"  "Charles  V.  in  a 
Convent,"  and  "  Interior  of  the  Church  of  Saint  Am- 
brose."   Died  in  1837. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri "Westminster 
Review"  for  April,  1841. 

Migliorati.    See  Innocent  VII. 

Mignard,  m^n'ytR',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  painter, 
engraver,  and  architect,  born  at  Troyes  in  1608.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Lyons,  brother 
of  Richelieu,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Rome  in  1644. 
He  painted  portraits  of  Louis  XIV.  and  his  queen,  and 
adorned  the  Tuileries  with  several  historical  pictures  of 
great  merit.  His  engravings  M-e  also  highly  esteemed. 
In  1663  he  was  appointed  professor  in  the  Academy  of 
Painting.  He  died  in  1668,  leaving  two  sons,  Pierre 
and  Paul,  who  were  artists  of  considerable  merit. 

See  R.  DuMESNiL,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  Frangais;"  Renouvier, 
"Des  Types  et  Mani^res  des  Maitres-Graveurs." 

Mignard,  (Pierre,)  surnamed  the  Roman,  one  of 
the  most  eminent  painters  of  the  French  school,  was 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  and  was  born  at  Troyes  in 
1610.  He  studied  in  Paris  under  Simon  Vouet,  and  in 
1635  visited  Rome,  where  he  met  with  Poussin,  Claude 
Lorrain,  Dufresnoy,  and  other  celebrated  artists  residing 
in  that  city.  On  his  return  to  Paris,  in  1658,  he  was  pa- 
tronized by  Louis  XIV.,  whose  portrait  he  painted  many 
times.  He  was  also  employed  to  decorate  the  palaces 
of  Versailles  and  Saint-Cloud.  On  the  death  of  Le  Brun 
he  was  appointed  painter  to  the  king,  and  director  of  the 
Gobelin  Manufactory.  Mignard  was  ennobled  by  Louis 
XTV.,  and  became  successively  rector,  chancellor,  and 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Painting.    Died  in  1695. 

See  De  Monville,  "Vie  de  Mignard;"  Robert  Dumesnil, 
"  Le  Peintre-Graveiir  Frangais ;"  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des 
Peintres  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Riographie  Generale." 

Mignault,  m^n'yS',  (Claude,)  better  known  by  the 
name  of  Minos,*  a  learned  French  writer,  born  near 


*  It  may  be  proper  to  remind  the  reader  that  the  final  j  in  Latin 
and  Greek  names  is  sounded  in  French,  contrary  to  the  general  rule 
of  French  pronunciation. 


Dijon  about  1536.  He  edited  several  Latin  classic 
authors,  and  published  "Alciati  Emblemata  cum  Notis 
Minois,"  (1574,)  often  reprinted.    Died  in  1606. 

Mignet,  m^n'yi',  (Franqois  Auguste  Marie,)  a  dis- 
tinguished French  historian,  born  at  Aix,  May  8,  1796. 
He  was  educated  at  the  College  of  Avignon,  and  studied 
law  in  his  native  city,  where  M.  Thiers  was  his  fellow- 
student.  Having  removed  to  Paris  in  1821,  he  became 
editor  of  the  "  Courrier  Fran9ais."  '  He  brought  out  in 
1824  his  "History  of  the  French  Revolution  from  1789 
to  1814,"  (2  vols.  8vo,)  which  had  extraordinary  success 
and  was  translated  into  the  principal  European  lan- 
guages. In  1830  he  was  associated  with  Thiers  and 
Armand  Carrel  as  editor  of  the  "  National,"  and  was 
one  of  the  journalists  who  protested  against  the  sub- 
version of  the  freedom  of  the  press  by  the  edict  of  July, 
1830.  He  was  soon  after  appointed  archivist  in  the 
ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  and  councillor  of  state.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and 
Political  Sciences  in  1832,  and  in  1837  became  perpetual 
secretary  of  that  institution,  and  succeeded  Raynouard 
in  the  French  Academy.  Mignet  published,  besides  the 
history  above  named,  "  Introduction  to  the  Negotiations, 
relative  to  the  Spanish  Succession  under  Louis  XIV.," 
(1842,)  "Antonio  Perez  and  Philip  II.,"  (1845,)  "His 
tory  of  Mary  Stuart,"  (1851,)  "Charles  Quint,  son  Abdi- 
cation,  son  Sejour  et  sa  Mort  au  Monastere  de  Yuste," 
(1854,)  which  has  been  highly  commended,  and  "  filoges 
historicjues,"  (1864.) 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  for  March,  1845  I 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  Janu- 
ary, 1849;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  October,  1866. 

Mignon,  m^n'y6N',  written  also  Minjon  or  Minion, 

(Abraham,)  a  German  painter,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1639, 
was  celebrated  for  his  exquisite  representations  of  flowers, 
fruit,  insects,  birds,  etc.  His  works  are  esteemed  second 
only  to  those  of  Van  Huysum.  Among  his  master- 
jiieces  is  a  "Cat  overturning  a  Vase  of  Flowers  on  a 
Marble  Table."    Died  in  1679. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Allemands,"  etc. 

Mignot,  m^n'yo',  (Etienne,)  a  learned  French  ec- 
clesiastic, born  in  Paris  in  1698,  published  a  number  of 
works  on  theology  and  church  government.  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in 
1761.    Died  in  1771. 

Mignot,  (Vincent,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris 
about  1725,  was  a  nephew  of  Voltaire.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  from  its  Origin  to  the 
Peace  of  Belgrade  in  1740,"  (1771,)  and  other  historical 
works.    Died  in  1 740. 

See  Grimm,  "  Correspondance." 

Miguel,  me-g^K,  (Dom  or  Don  Maria  Evaristo,) 
a  Portuguese  prince,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1802,  was  a 
younger  son  of  John  VI.  He  became  the  head  of  the 
absolutist  party,  and  in  1828  usurped  the  throne,  the 
lawful  heir  of  which  was  his  niece.  Dona  Maria.  The 
partisans  of  this  queen  maintained  her  title  by  arms, 
and  were  aided  by  her  father,  Don  Pedro,  and  Admiral 
Napier.  Miguel  was  defeated  in  several  actions,  and 
was  expelled  from  Spain  in  May,  1834. 

Mih-Teih,  mih-ta',  or  Me-Teih,  an  eminent  Chinese 
philosopher,  who  lived  about  400  B.C.  Dr.  Legge  says 
of  him  that  he  was  an  original  thinker,  and  exercised  a 
bolder  judgment  on  things  than  Confucius  or  any  of  his 
followers.  He  taught  that  all  the  evils  in  society  arise 
from  the  want  of  mutual  universal  love.  For  example, 
a  prince  loves  only  his  own  state,  and  does  not  love  the 
neighbouring  state.  Therefore  he  makes  war  against  it. 
"If  princes,"  he  asked,  "regarded  other  states  as  their 
own,  who  would  begin  a  war  ?  If  every  one  regarded 
his  neighbour's  person  as  his  own,  who  would  be  found 
to  rob If  universal  love  prevailed,  all  enmities,  usur- 
pations, and  miseries  would  disappear.  Princes,  loving 
one  another,  would  have  no  battle-fields ;  the  chiefs 
of  fanvlies,  loving  one  another,  would  attempt  no  usur- 
pations ;  men,  loving  one  another,  would  commit  no 
robberies." 

See  Dr.  Leggh,  "Chinese  Classics,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  iii. 

Mikhailofski  Danilefski  or  Michailowski  Dani- 
lewski,  me-Kl'e-loFskee  d3.-ne-llfskee,  (Alexander 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  vl, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this,    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

100 


MIKLOSICH 


1586 


MILL 


IVANOVITCH,)  a  Russian  general  and  historical  writer, 
born  in  1790,  served  with  distinction  in  the  principal 
campaigns  against  the  French  from  1812  to  1815,  and  in 
the  Turkish  war  of  1829.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  an  '*  Account  of  the  Campaign  in  France  in  1814." 
Died  in  1848. 

Mlklosich,  niik'lo-ziK',  (Franz,)  a  German  linguist, 
profoundly  versed  in  the  Slavonian  language,  born  at 
Luttenberg,  in  Styria,  in  1813.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  a  "  Lexicon  of  the  Old  Slavonian  Language," 
(in  Latin,  1850,)  and  a  "Comparative  Grammar  of  the 
Slavonian  Language,"  (unfinished,)  which  "promises  to 
be  for  the  Slavonian  what  the  great  work  of  Grimm  is 
for  the  German  dialects."  (Brockhaus.) 

Milani,  me-li'nee,  (Aurelio  or  Aureliano,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1675,  was  a  success- 
ful imitator  of  the  style,      the  Caracci.    Died  in  1749. 

Milano,  da,  d^  me-li'no,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
painter,  was  a  native  of  Milan.  He  was  a  favourite  pupil 
of  Taddeo  Gaddi,  whom  he  assisted  in  several  important 
works.    He  lived  about  1370-90. 

Milbourne,  miKbiirn,  (Luke,)  an  English  writer  and 
divine,  born  in  1667,  published  a  "  Poetical  Translation 
of  the  Psalms,"  (1698,)  "Notes  on  Dryden's  Virgil,"  and 
other  works.  He  is  one  of  the  authors  satirized  in 
Pope's  "Dunciad."    Died  in  1720. 

See  Johnson,  "Life  of  Dryden ;"  Malone's  edition  of  the 
Works  of  Dryden. 

Mil'burn,  (William  Henry,)  a  Methodist  divine, 
known  as  "the  Blind  Preacher,"  born  at  Philadelphia  in 
1823.  Having  visited  England  in  1859,  he  gave  lectures 
in  the  principal  cities,  and  attracted  large  audiences  by 
his  eloquence.  He  published  "Ten  Years  of  Preacher 
Life,"  (1859,)  and  "The  Pioneers  and  People  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley,"  (i860.) 

Mild'may,  (Sir  Walter,)  an  eminent  English  states- 
man and  scholar,  born  in  1522,  was  distinguished  by  the 
favour  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Edward  VI.,  and  held  the 
ofifice  of  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  under  Elizabeth 
for  more  than  twenty  years.  He  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  learning,  and  founded  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge. 
Died  in  1589. 

Miles,  mllz,  (Dixon  H.,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
Maryland  about  1803,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1824. 
He  became  a  colonel  in  1859,  and  served  at  Bull  Run, 
July  21,  1861.  He  commanded  at  Harper's  Ferry,  and 
there  surrendered  about  11,500  men,  September  16, 
1862.  He  was  killed  by  a  shell  thrown  after  the  sur- 
render. "  It  is  impossible,"  says  Greeley,  "  to  resist  the 
conclusion  that  Miles,  in  this  affair,  acted  the  part  of  a 
traitor."    ("American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii.  p.  202.) 

Miles,  (James  Warley,)  an  American  scholar  and 
missionary,  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  about 
18 19.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  and  history  at 
Charleston  College.  He  has  been  a  contributor  to  the 
"  Southern  Review,"  and  published  various  works  in 
prose  and  verse. 

Mil'fort,  (Le  Clerc,)  a  native  of  France,  who  settled 
about  1776  among  the  Creek  Indians  of  Georgia  and 
fought  as  their  ally  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution.  He 
returned  to  France  in  1796,  and  was  created  by  Bona- 
parte a  getieral  of  brigade.  He  published  a  narrative 
of  his  residence  among  the  Creeks,  entitled  "  Sejour 
dans  la  Nation  Creek."    Died  about  1814. 

Milicz,  mee'iitch,  (Johann,)  a  priest  and  reformer, 
born  in  Moravia.  He  preached  at  Prague,  and  wrote  a 
work  "On  Antichrist."    Died  soon  after  1374. 

See  Hodgson,  "Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Milius,  me'le'iis',  (Pierre  Bernard,)  Baron,  a 
French  admiral,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1773  ;  died  in  1829. 

Milizia,  me-l^t'se-a,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  archi- 
tect and  writer,  born  in  Otranto  in  1725,  was  an  intiinate 
friend  of  Raphael  Mengs.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Lives 
of  the  Most  Celebrated  Architects  of  all  Nations,"  (1768,) 
a  revised  edition  of  which  was  entitled  "  Memorie  degli 
Architetti  antichi  e  moderni,"  ("Memoirs  of  Ancient 
and  Modern  Architects,"  2  vols.,  1781,)  which  were  trans- 
lated into  French  and  English,  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Theatre,"  (1772,)  "Principles  of  Civil  Architecture," 
("Elementi  di  Architettura  civile,"  3  vols.,  1781,)  which 
was  highly  esteemed  and  was  translated  into  various  lan- 


guages, a  "Dictionary  of  Fine  Arts,"  (1797,)  and  other 
works.  He  lived  many  years  in  Rome,  where  he  died 
in  1798. 

See  F.  MiLiziA,  "  Notizie  intorno  alia  sua  Vita,"  1804;  L.  Cico- 
gnara,  "  Memoria  intorno  all'  Indole  di  F.  Milizia,"  1808  ;  Tipaldo, 
"  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustri." 

Mill,  (Henry,)  an  English  engineer,  born  in  London 
about  1680.  He  supplied  the  town  of  Northampton  with 
water,  and  was  appointed  principal  engineer  to  the  New 
River  Company. 

Mill,  (James,)  a  British  historian  and  writer  on  po- 
litical economy,  born  at  Montrose,  in  Scotland,  in  1773. 
He  studied  at  Edinburgh,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  attainments  in  the  Greek  language,  metaphysics,  and 
iTJoral  philosophy.  Having  removed  to  London  in  1800, 
he  became  a  contributor  to  the  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
and  other  periodicals.  He  published  (1817-19)  his 
"History  of  British  India,"  (in  5  vols.  8vo,)  a  work  of 
great  merit,  which  procured  for  him  the  office  of  head 
of  the  department  of  Indian  correspondence  in  the  India 
House.  "  We  know  of  no  work,"«ays  Mr.  Grote,  "which 
surpasses  his  '  History  of  British  India'  in  the  main 
excellences  attainable  by  historical  writers, — industrious 
accumulation,  continued  for  many  years,  of  original  au- 
thorities, careful  and  conscientious  criticism  of  their 
statements,  and  a  large  command  of  psychological  ana- 
lysis, enabling  the  author  to  interpret  phenomena  of 
society  both  extremely  complicated  and  far  removed 
from  his  own  personal  experience."  (See  "  Review  of 
J.  S.  Mill's  Examination  of  Sir  William  Hamilton's 
Philosophy,"  London,  1868.)  Among  his  other  pro- 
ductions are  a  series  of  essays  on  "Jurisprudence," 
"Liberty  of  the  Press,"  "Law  of  Nations,"  etc.  These, 
first  published  in  the  "  Supplement  to  the  Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica,"  were  very  favourably  received,  and 
were  followed  by  his  "Elements  of  Political  Econ- 
omy," which  appeared  in  182 1,  and  his  "Analysis  of  the 
Phenomena  of  the  Human  Mind,"  in  1829.  Mill  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Jeremy  Bentham,  and  one  of  the  ablest 
expounders  of  his  system.    Died  in  1 836. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement;)  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  March,  1829;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  August  and  October,  1821. 

Mill,  [Lat.  Mil'lius,]  (John,)  an  English  theologian 
and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  Westmoreland  about  1645. 
He  became  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  Charles  II.  in  1681, 
and  in  1704  was  made  a  canon  of  Canterbury.  He  pub- 
lished a  critical  edition  of  the  New  Testament  in  Greek, 
(1707,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1707. 

See  Chalmers,  "General  Biographical  Dictionary." 

Mill,  (John  Stuart,)  an  eminent  English  philosopher 
and  economist,  son  of  James  Mill,  author  of  the  "  His- 
tory of  British  India,"  was  born  in  London  in  May,  1806. 
He  was  educated  at  home  by  his  father,  and  entered  in 
1823  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company  as  a  clerk 
in  the  India  House.  In  his  early  life  he  contributed  to 
the  "Edinburgh  Review"  and  the  "Westminster  Re- 
view." He  published  in  1843  ^  "System  of  Logic, 
Rationative  and  Inductive,"  (2  vols,,)  and,  in  1844, 
"  Essays  on  some  Unsettled  Questions  in  Political  Econ- 
omy." He  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  a  popular  work 
entitled  "The  Principles  of  Political  Economy,  w'.th 
some  of  their  Applications  to  Social  Philosophy,"  (1848.) 
As  a  writer  he  is  distinguished  by  originality  of  thought 
and  acuteness  in  reasoning.  In  political  principles  he 
is  an  advanced  Liberal,  and  all  his  sympathies  are  in 
favour  of  liberty  and  progress.  About  1850  he  married 
Harriet  Taylor,  a  lady  of  rare  intellectual  powers.  He 
became  examiner  of  Indian  correspondence  in  1856. 
During  the  late  rebellion  in  the  United  States,  Mr.  Mill 
was  among  the  few  prominent  English  writers  who  de- 
fended the  cause  of  the  North  and  of  the  Federal  Union. 
Among  his  more  recent  works  are  an  "  Essay  on  Liberty," 
and  "An  Examination  of  Sir  William  Hamilton's  Phi- 
losophy," (1865,)  of  which  a  highly  favourable  review 
from  the  pen  of  Mr.  Grote,  the  historian,  has  been  pub- 
lished, (London,  1868.)  He  was  for  some  time  editor  of 
the  "Westminster  Review."  In  1865  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  Parliament  for  Westminster.  He  became  an 
able  debater,  and  made  several  speeches  in  favour  of 
reform  and  extension  of  the  elective  franchise  in  1866 
and  1867.    His  career  as  a  legislator  has  been  very  suc- 


i,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  {^11,  f^t;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MILLAIS 


1587 


MILLER 


cessful.  "Mr.  Mill's  success,"  says  the  "New  York 
Commercial  Advertiser,"  August  29,  1867,  "has  been 
the  most  marked  and  decided  in  the  annals  of  Parlia- 
ment. No  man  has  ever  before  acquired  so  high  a  con- 
sideration in  so  short  a  time."  He  was,  however, 
defeated  in  the  general  election  of  1868.  Mr.  Mill  has 
distinguished  himself  as  an  earnest  and  able  advocate  of 
the  rights  of  women.  In  a  recent  work,  entitled  "  The 
Subjection  of  Women,"  (1869,)  he  takes  the  ground 
"that  the  principle  which  regulates  the  existing  social 
relations  between  the  two  sexes — the  legal  subordina- 
tion of  one  sex  to  the  other — is  wrong  in  itself,  and  now 
one  of  the  chief  hindrances  to  human  improvement,  and 
that  it  ought  to  be  replaced  by  a  principle  of  perfect 
equality." 

See  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1848,  and  October, 
1869 ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1848,  and  January,  1866  ,< 
"  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  September,  1848,  and  May,  1859;  "British 
Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1846,  January,  i860,  and  July,  1868 ; 
"Westminster  Review"  for  May,  1843. 

Millais,  miria',  (John  Everett,)  an  English  painter, 
of  French  extraction,  born  at  Southampton  in  1829,  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  what  is  called  the  "  Pre-Raphaelite 
School."  He  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  and  at 
an  early  age  produced  several  works  of  superior  merit, 
among  which  was  "  The  Benjamites  seizing  the  Daugh- 
ters of  Shiloh."  His  "  Return  of  the  Dove  to  the  Ark," 
"Child  of  the  Regiment,"  "Ophelia,"  "The  Order  of 
Release,"  and  "Joan  of  Arc"  are  among  his  most  ad- 
mired productions.  He  was  elected  a  Royal  Acade- 
mician in  1863. 

MiPlar,  (John,)  an  eminent  Scottish  jurist,  born  in 
Lanarkshire  in  1735.  He  studied  at  Glasgow,  where 
he  became  in  1761  professor  of  civil  law.  The  spirited 
and  attractive  style  of  his  lectures,  which,  says  a  critic 
in  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  "gave  to  a  learned  discus- 
sion the  charms  of  an  animated  and  interesting  conversa- 
tion," drew  great  numbers  to  the  university,  and  made 
it  for  the  time  one  of  the  most  flourishing  and  popular 
in  the  kingdom.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Origin  of  the 
Distinction  of  Ranks,"  (1771,)  and  a  "Historical  View 
of  the  English  Government  from  the  Settlement  of  the 
Saxons  to  the  Accession  of  the  House  of  Stuart,"  (1787.) 
The  former  was  translated  into  French,  German,  and 
Italian.    Died  in  1801. 

See  Chambeks,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"Life  of  Millar,"  by  Craig,  prefixed  to  his  "Origin  of  the  Dis- 
tinction of  Ranks;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1806. 

Milliard,  (David,)  an  American  divine,  born  at  Ball- 
ston,  New  York,  in  1794,  published  several  theological 
works,  also  "  Travels  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  the  Holy 
Land,"  (1843.) 

Mil'ledge,  (John,)  an  American  patriot  and  states- 
man, born  at  Savannah,  Georgia,  in  1757,  distinguished 
himself  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  and  in  1802  was 
elected  Governor  of  Georgia.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  University  of  Georgia,  and  the  former  capital  of 
the  State  was  named  in  his  honour.    Died  in  18 18. 

Milledoler,  milMoKar,  (Philip,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  born  at  Far- 
mington,  Connecticut,  in  1775.  became  president 

of  Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick,  in  1825.  Died  in 
1852. 

Mil'ler,  (Edward,)  an  American  physician,  born  in 
Delaware  in  1760,  was  a  brother  of  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Miller,  noticed  below.  He  became  professor  of  the 
theory  and  practice  of  medicine  in  the  College  of  Phy- 
sicians and  Surgeons,  New  York,  and  wrote,  among 
other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Yellow  Fever,"  which  is 
highly  esteemed.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
"  Medical  Repository,"  the  first  medical  journal  of 
America.    Died  in  1812. 

MiPler,  (Edward,)  an  English  musician  and  writer, 
born  at  Norwich,  was  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Burney.  He  was 
the  author  of  "  Institutes  of  Music"  and  "  Elements  of 
Thorough  Bass  and  Composition."    Died  in  1807. 

Miller,  me'yi',  (Emanuel,)  a  French  scholar,  born  in 
Paris  in  1812,  has  published  a  "Catalogue  of  the  Greek 
Manuscripts  in  the  Escurial,"  (1840,)  and  edited  several 
classical  works. 

Mil'ler,  (Hugh,)  an  eminent  Scottish  geologist  and 
writer,  born  at  Cromarty  on  the  loth  of  October, 


1802,  was  a  son  of  a  mariner  and  shipmaster,  who  per- 
ished in  a  storm  in  1807.  He  attended  the  grammar- 
school  of  the  parish,  and  received  instruction  from  two 
maternal  uncles,  James  and  Alexander  Wright,  one  of 
whom  encouraged  his  taste  for  natural  history.  At  an 
early  age  he  began  to  write  verses.  He  learned  the 
trade  of  a  stone-mason,  and  commenced  in  1819  his  life 
of  labour  in  a  quarry  of  old  red  sandstone  at  Cromarty. 
"  It  was  the  necessity  which  made  me  a  quarrier,"  he 
writes,  "  that  taught  me  to  be  a  geologist."  He  worked 
as  a  mason  in  various  parts  of  Scotland,  and  diligently 
improved  the  intervals  of  labour  by  the  cultivation  of 
his  mind.  In  1825  and  1826  he  was  employed  at  Edin- 
burgh as  a  stone-cutter.  He  afterwards  published  a  vol- 
ume of  poems,  and  in  1834  relinquished  his  trade  to 
become  an  accountant  in  a  bank  at  Cromarty.  In  1835 
he  produced  "  Scenes  and  Legends  of  the  North  of  Scot- 
land," which  was  received  with  favour.  He  married 
about  1836. 

In  1839  he  defended  with  much  ability  the  cause  of 
the  Free  Church,  in  a  "  Letter  from  One  of  the  Scotch 
People  to  Lord  Brougham,"  which  was  praised  by  Mr. 
Gladstone.  He  became  in  1840  editor  of  the  "  Witness," 
an  organ  of  the  Free  Church  or  Non-Intrusionists,  pub- 
lished in  Edinburgh  twice  a  week.  He  continued  to 
edit  this  paper  until  his  death,  and  rendered  it  very 
popular  and  influential.  His  reputation  as  a  geologist 
was  increased  by  his  work  entitled  "  The  Old  Red 
Sandstone,  or  New  Walks  in  an  Old  Field,"  (1841,) 
which  is  written  in  an  attractive  style.  He  afterwards 
published  "Footprints  of  the  Creator,"  (1849,)  "First 
Impressions  of  England  and  its  People,"  (1851,)  an  inter- 
esting autobiography  entitled  "  My  Schools  and  School- 
masters, or  the  Story  of  my  Education,"  (1854,)  and 
"The  Cruise  of  the  Betsey."  These  works  mark  an 
important  epoch  in  the  progress  of  geology.  "There 
was  nothing  in  Miller's  works,"  says  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1858,  "which  so  much  surprised  the 
public  as  their  mere  literary  merit.  Where  could  this 
Cromarty  mason  have  acquired  his  style  ?" 

In  consequence  of  excessive  mental  exertion,  his  brain 
became  diseased.  During  a  paroxysm  of  insanity,  he 
killed  himself  with  a  pistol  in  December,  1856.  He  had 
just  finished  a  work  entitled  "The  Testimony  of  the 
Rocks,  or  Geology  in  its  Bearings  on  the  Two  Theologies, 
Natural  and  Revealed,"  (1857.)  In  this  work  he  rejects 
the  theory  that  the  Mosaic  account  of  the  creation  is 
purely  parable,  while  he  censures  those  who  refuse  to 
accept  the  evidences  of  scientific  truths  when  they  seem 
to  clash  with  traditionary  interpretations  of  Scripture. 
His  "Footprints  of  the  Creator"  was  written  to  refute 
the  theory  of  development  advocated  by  the  author  of 
"The  Vestiges  of  Creation."  "Hugh  lililler,"  says  the 
"Edinburgh  Review,"  "must  undoubtedly  be  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  whom  Scotland  has 
produced.  .  .  .  The  interest  of  his  narrative,  the  purity 
of  his  style,  his  inexhaustible  faculty  of  happy  and  inge- 
nious illustration,  his  high  imaginative  power,  and  that 
light  of  genius  which  it  is  so  difficult  to  define  yet  so 
impossible  to  mistake,  all  promise  to  secure  for  the 
author  of  the  'Old  Red  Sandstone'  the  lasting  admira- 
tion of  his  countrymen." 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1858,  article  "  Hugh  Mil- 
ler," (reprinted  in  the  "Living  Age,"  August  21,  1858;)  "North 
British  Review"  for  August,  1854;  "North  American  Review"  for 
October,  1851;  Ai.i.ibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Miller,  (James,)  an  English  dramatist  and  satirical 
writer,  born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1703.  He  published  sev- 
eral political  pamphlets,  a  satire  entitled  "The  Humours 
of  Oxford,"  and  a  number  of  comedies.    Died  in  1744. 

Miller,  (James,)  an  American  officer,  born  at  Peter- 
borough, New  Hampshire,  about  1776.  He  served  as 
colonel  with  distinction  at  the  battles  of  Chippewa  and 
Lundy's  Lane,  July  25,  1814.  His  commander  asked 
him  if  he  could  take  a  certain  battery  at  Lundy's  Lane. 
He  answered,  "  I'll  try,  sir,"  and  captured  the  battery. 
Died  in  1851. 

Miller,  mil'ler,  (Johann  Martin,)  a  German  poet 
and  fictitious  writer,  born  at  Ulm  in  1750.  He  was  the 
author  of"  Correspondence  of  Three  Academic  Friends," 
"  Siegwart,  a  Convent  History,"  (1776,)  which  was  trans- 
lated into  French,  Dutch,  and  Polish,  and  several  other 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MILLER 


1588 


MILMAN 


popular  works.  His  lyric  poems  are  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Klopstock  and  Voss.  Died 
in  1814. 

Miller,  (Joseph,)  a  celebrated  English  comedian, 
whose  appreciation  as  an  actor  of  the  wit  of  Congreve's 
plays  contributed  in  a  great  measure  to  their  success, 
was  born  in  1684.  The  jests  ascribed  to  him  were  in 
reality  compiled  by  John  Motley,  author  of  a  "Life  of 
Peter  the  Great."    Died  in  1738, 

Miller,  (Philii',)  an  English  botanist  and  florist,  born 
in  1691.  He  published  a  "Catalogue  of  Hardy  Trees, 
Shrubs,  etc,  cultivated  near  London,"  (with  coloured 
plates,  1730,)  "Gardener's  Dictionary,"  (1731,)  which 
was  translated  into  several  languages,  and  "  Figures  of 
Plants,"  (2  vols.,  1755,)  adapted  to  the  Dictionary.  The 
genus  Milleria  was  named  by  Dr.  Martyn  in  honour  of 
this  botanist.    Died  in  1771. 

Miller,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  in  Delaware  in  1769.  He  became  pastor 
of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  in  New  York  in  1793. 
In  1813  he  was  appointed  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history  in  the  Theological  Seminary  of  Princeton.  He 
was  the  author  of  numerous  theological  and  controversial 
works,  and  wrote  the  "  Life  of  Jonathan  Edwards,"  in 
Sparks's  "American  Biography."    Died  in  1850. 

See  Samuel  Miller,  "Life  of  Samuel  Miller,"  2  vols.,  1869. 

Miller,  (Stephen  Franks,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
journalist,  born  in  North  Carolina,  became  associate 
editor  of  "De  Bow's  Review"  about  1848.  He  published 
the  "  Bench  and  Bar  of  Georgia,"  and  other  works. 

Miller,  (Sir  Thomas,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born  in  1718, 
was  appointed  lord  advocate  of  Scotland  in  1760.  On 
the  death  of  Dundas  he  became  president  of  the  court 
of  sessions,  (1788.)    Died  in  1789. 

Miller,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet  and  basket-maker, 
born  at  Gainsborough  about  1808.  He  was  patronized 
by  the  poet  Rogers,  by  whose  aid  he  began  business  as  a 
bookseller.  He  wrote,  besides  numerous  poems,  novels 
entitled  "  Royston  Gower"  and  "  Fair  Rosamond." 

Miller,  (William,)  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Miller- 
ites,  was  born  at  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1781. 
About  1833  he  began  to  prophesy  the  end  of  the  world, 
which  he  affirmed  would  be  destroyed  in  1843.  He  died 
in  1849;  his  followers,  who  are  said  to  have  num- 
bered nearly  fifty  thousand,  have  since  greatly  decreased. 

Miller,  (William  Allen,)  an  English  chemist  and 
physician,  born  at  Ipswich  in  181 7.  He  took  his  medical 
degree  in  London,  and  subsequently  studied  in  the  labo- 
ratory of  Liebig  at  Giessen.  He  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  the  Royal  College  in  1845,  ^'"''^ 
assayer  at  the  Mint  and  Bank  of  England  in  185 1.  He 
was  vice-president  of  the  Royal  Society  and  president  of 
the  Chemical  Society,  and  wrote  "  Elements  of  Chemistry, 
Theoretical  and  Practical,"  (3  vols.,  1850;  3d  ed.,  1866.) 

Miller,  (William  Hallows,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent 
English  mineralogist  and  physicist,  was  educated  at 
Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  B.A.  about  1826.  He  became  professor  of 
mineralogy  at  Cambridge  in  1832,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  crystallography.  His  most  important  work 
rs  a  new  and  greatly-improved  edition  of  Phillips's 
"Elementary  Introduction  to  Mineralogy,"  (1852.)  He 
was  a  member  of  a  commission  appointed  by  govern- 
ment in  1843  fo''  the  restoration  of  the  standards  of 
weight  and  measure,  and  he  constructed  and  verified 
the  new  national  standard  of  weight. 

Milles,  milz,  (Jeremiah,)  an  English  divine  and  an- 
tiquary, born  in  1714,  became  Dean  of  Exeter  in  1762. 
He  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Archaeologia,"  and  made 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  vindicate  the  authenticity 
of  Rowley's  poems.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  president  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 
Died  in  1784. 

.    See  Nichols,  "  Literary  Anecdotes." 

Millet,  me'y^',  (  Aim^;,)  a  French  painter  and  sculptor, 
a  sun  of  Frederic  Millet,  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
Paris  about  181 8. 

Millet,  (Fr^d^ric,)  a  French  portrait-painter,  born 
at  Charlieu  in  1786,  was  a  pupil  of  Isabey.  He  executed 
a  number  of  portraits  of  great  merit,  among  which  we 
may  name  that  of  the  empress  Josephine.    Died  in  1859. 


Millevoye,  m^rvwi',  (Charles  Hubert,)  a  French 
poet  and  litterateur,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1782.  He  was 
the  author  of  elegiac  poems  of  great  beauty,  and  ob- 
tained several  prizes  from  the  French  Academy.  Died 
in  1816. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  Litteraires ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Milliii,  me'y^N',*  (AuKiN  Louis,)  a  French  antiquary 
and  naturalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1759.  He  published 
"Elements  of  Natural  History,"  (1794,)  "Dictionary  of 
the  Fine  Arts,"  (3  vols.,  1806,)  "  Mythological  Gallery," 
(1811,)  and  other  works.  In  1795  he  became  editor  of 
the  "  Magasin  Encyclopedique,"  a  journal  of  high  char- 
acter, which  he  conducted  for  twenty  years.  Pie  was  a 
member  of  the  French  Institute  and  of  several  foreign 
Academies,  and  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honour. 
In  1794  he  had  been  appointed  keeper  of  the  medals 
and  antiquities  in  the  Royal  Library.    Died  in  1818. 

See  Krafft,  "Notice  sur  A.  L.  Millin,"  1818 ;  Bon  Joseph 
Daciek,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  M.  Millin,"  1821; 
Qu^.RARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Milliiigen,  mil'ling-gen,  ?  (James,)  an  eminent  anti- 
quary, of  Dutch  extraction,  born  in  London  in  1774.  He 
published  "  Remarks  on  the  State  of  Learning  and  the 
Fine  Arts  in  Great  Britain,"  "  Ancient  Coins  of  Greek 
Cities  and  Kings,"  (1821,)  and  other  similar  works,  which 
have  a  very  high  reputation.    Died  in  1845. 

Millon,  me'y6N',*  (Charles,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Liege  in  1754,  wrote  poems,  histories,  etc.  Died 
in  1839. 

Millon,  (EuGfeNp,)  a  French  chemist,  born  at  Chalons- 
sur-Marne  in  1812.  He  published,  besides  other  chemical 
treatises,  "  Elements  of  Organic  Chemistry,  comprising 
the  Applications  of  this  Science  to  Vegetable  Physi- 
ology," (2  vols.,  1845-48.) 

Millot,  m^'yo',*  (Claude  FRANgois  Xavier,)  a 
French  historian,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1726.  He 
was  the  author  of  "Elements  of  Universal  History," 
"  Political  and  Military  Memoirs  towards  the  History  of 
Louis  XIV.,"  etc.,  (6  vols.,  1777,)  and  other  works  of 
the  kind.  He  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in 
1777,  and  in  1778  was  appointed  preceptor  to  the  Due 
d'Enghien.    Died  in  1785. 

See  Grimm,  "  Correspondance ;"  Lingay,  "  £loge  de  I'Abbd 
Millot,"  1814;  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Mills,  (Charles,)  an  English  writer,  born  at  Green- 
wich in  1788,  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  Moham- 
medanism," (1812,)  "  History  of  the  Crusades,"  (1820,) 
"Travels  of  Theodore  Ducas,"  etc.,  (1822,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1825. 

Mills,  (Clark,)  a  distinguished  American  sculptor, 
born  in  Onondaga  county.  New  York,  in  1815.  Having 
removed  to  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  he  executed 
several  busts  in  marble,  which  won  for  him  a  high  repu- 
tation. In  1848  he  began  his  bronze  equestrian  statue  of 
Jackson,  for  which,  owing  to  its  size,  he  was  obliged  to 
construct  a  foundry.  It  was  completed  in  1853,  and 
placed  in  Lafayette  Square  at  Washington.  His  next 
work  was  the  colossal  equestrian  statue  of  Washington, 
finished  in  i860. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Mills,  (Samuel  John,)  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Torringford,  Connecticut,  in  1 783,  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  Missionary  Society. 
He  also  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  organization  of 
the  American  Colonization  Society,  and  in  181 7  visited 
Africa,  in  company  with  the  Rev.  E.  Burgess,  for  the 
purpose  of  choosing  a  site  for  the  colony.  He  died  in 
1818,  while  on  his  voyage  home. 

MiPman,  (Sir  Francis,)  an  eminent  English  phy- 
sician, born  in  Devonshire  in  1746.  He  published 
"Animadversion^  on  the  Nature  and  Cure  of  Dropsy," 
(1776,)  "  Treatise  on  the  Source  of  the  Scurvy,"  and  other 
works.  He  was  appointed  physician  to  George  III., 
and  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Col- 
lege of  Physicians.    Died  in  182 1. 

Milman,  (Rev.  Henry  Hart,)  an  English  poet, 
historian,  and  divine,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 

*  There  seems  to  be  some  diversity  respecting  the  pronunciation 
of  these  names:  some  speakers  say  me'law',  meloN',  etc.,  omitting 
all  sound  of  the  liquid  /. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MILNE 


1589 


MILT  I  AD 


London  in  1791.  He  graduated  at  Brazienose  College, 
( )xfoid,  where  in  1821  he  became  professor  of  poetry. 
Having  filled  several  inferior  offices  in  the  Church,  he 
was  appointed  Dean  of  Saint  Paul's  in  1849.  His  tragedy 
of  "  Fazio,"  published  in  1815,  was  well  received,  and 
was  followed  by  the  poems  of  "  Samor,  Lord  of  the 
Bright  City,"  (1818,)  "The  Fall  of  Jerusalem,"  {1820,) 
"The  Martyr  of  Antioch,"  and  others.  In  1840  he 
brought  out  his  "  History  of  Christianity  from  the  Birth 
of  Christ  to  the  Extinction  of  Paganism  in  the  Roman 
Empire,"  (3  vols.  8vo,)  and  in  1854  his  "History  of 
Latin  Christianity,  including  that  of  the  Popes  to  the 
Pontificate  of  Nicholas  V."  He  published  excellent 
editions  of  the  works  of  Horace,  with  a  well-written  life 
of  the  poet,  and  of  Gibbon's  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire."    Died  in  September,  1868. 

See  W.  E.  H.  Leckv,  "History  of  European  Morals  from  Au- 
gustus to  Charlemague,"  (Pretace.)  1869;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for 
January,  1S58,  January,  1S64,  and  January,  1869;  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1S16,  July,  i8iS,  May,  1820,  and  April,  1869; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  March  and  July,  1822  ;  "  North  Biiiish 
Review"  for  November,  1854,  and  March,  1869;  "Eraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  October,  1854. 

Milne,  miln,  (Colin,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  naturalist, 
born  at  Aberdeen.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Botanical 
Dictionary,"  "Indigenous  Botany,"  etc.    Died  in  1815. 

Milne,  miln,  (Joshua,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
1776,  was  ajjpointed  actuary  of  the  Sun  Life  Assurance 
Office.  He  published  a  valuable  "  Treatise  on  Annui- 
ties," in  which  he  describes  a  new  system  of  notation  for 
the  calculation  of  life-insurance. 

Milne-Edwards,  miln  ^d'wardz,  [Fr.  pron.  m^ln 
i'doo-tRs',]  (Henri,)  an  eminent  French  naturalist,  of 
English  descent,  born  at  Bruges  in  1800.  After  he  had 
taught  natural  history  for  soine  years  in  the  College 
Henri  IV.  in  Paris,  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1838.  He  published  "The  Natural  His- 
tory of  the  Crustacea,"  (3  vols.,  1834-41,)  which  is 
highly  esteemed.  In  1841  he  obtained  the  chair  of 
entomology  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  and  in  1844  was 
chosen  adjunct  professor  of  zoology  and  comparative 
physiology  at  the  Faculty  of  Sciences.  He  succeeded  I. 
Geofifroy  Saint-Hilaire  as  professor  of  zoology  in  1862. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Elements  of  Zoology,"  (4  vols., 
1834-37,)  which  obtained  considerable  popularity,  and 
"  Researches  into  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of 
Polypi,"  (1842.) 

See  article  "  Milne,"  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mil'ner,  (Isaac,)  an  eminent  English  divine  and 
mathematician,  born  near  Leeds  in  175 1.  He  studied 
at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  became  in 
1783  Jacksonian  professor  of  experimental  philosophy. 
He  was  subsequently  appointed  master  of  his  college, 
(1788,)  Dean  of  Carlisle,  (1791,)  and  Lucasian  professor 
of  mathematics,  (1798.)  He  was  also  twice  elected  vice- 
chancellor  of  his  college.  He  was  the  author  of  a  num- 
ber of  sermons  and  miscellaneous  essays,  and  wrote  a 
continuation  of  his  brother  Joseph's  "Church  History." 
He  numbered  among  his  friends  Pitt  and  Wilberforce. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  Mary  Mii.ner,  "Life  of  Isaac  Milner,"  1842. 

Milner,  (John,)  a  learned  Roman  Catholic  divine, 
born  in  London  in  1752.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  His- 
tory, Civil  and  Ecclesiastical,  and  Survey  of  the  Anti- 
quities, of  Winchester,"  and  was  a  contributor  to  the 
"  Archaeologia."  He  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries.    Died  in  1826. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1810,  and  October, 
1811. 

Milner,  (John,)  an  English  theologian,  born  near 
Halifax  in  1628,  became  canon  of  Ripon.    Died  in  1702. 

Milner,  (Joskph,)  an  English  divine,  born  near  Leeds 
in  1744,  was  a  brother  of  Isaac,  noticed  above.  He 
became  vicar  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  at  Hull 
in  1797.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Church  of  Christ," 
(5  vols.,  1794-1812,)  which  is  esteemed  a  standard  work. 
It  was  completed  by  his  brother,  the  Dean  of  Carlisle. 
Milner  also  published  an  "Answer  to  Gibbon's  Attack 
on  Christianity,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1797. 

See  Isaac  Milner,  "Life of  J.  Milner,"  prefixed  to  his  Sermons. 

Milnes,  mllnz,  (Richard  Monckton,)  Baron  Hough- 
ton, an  English  statesman  and  miscellaneous  writer, 


born  in  Yorkshire  in  1809.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge 
in  1831,  and  in  1837  was  first  elected  a  member  of  Par- 
liament for  Pontefract,  which  he  continued  to  represent 
until  1863,  wher.  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron 
Houghton.  As  a  member  of  the  liberal  conservative 
party,  he  has  been  a  prominent  advocate  of  reform. 
Among  his  principal  publications  are  "  Poems,  Legendary 
and  Historical,"  "Palm-Leaves,"  (1844,)  "Memorials  of 
Many  Scenes,"  and  the  "Life,  Letters,  and  Literary  Re- 
mains of  John  Keats,"  (1848.)  He  contributed  to  the 
"Edinburgh  Review." 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  June,  1847,  article  "  Literary  Legis- 
lators;" "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1839,  and  July, 
1842. 

MiPnor,  (James,)  D.D.,  an  American  Episcopal 
clergyman,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1773,  became  rector 
of  Saint  George's  Church,  New  York,  in  1816.  Died  in 
1845. 

See  "  Memoir  of  James  Milnor,  D.D.,"  by  Rev.  J.  S.  Stone. 

Mi'lo,  [Gr.  MfAwv;  Fr,  Milon,  me'IoN',]  an  athlete, 
celebrated  for  his  prodigious  strength,  born  at  Crotona, 
in  Italy,  was  a  pupil  of  Pythagoras.  He  is  said  to  have 
once  carried  a  bull  on  his  shoulders  to  the  sacrifice,  and 
killed  it  with  a  blow  of  his  fist.  In  509  B.C.  he  gained 
a  signal  victory  over  the  Sybarites.  When  advanced  in 
years,  he  found  one  day,  in  passing  through  a  forest, 
a  tree  partly  cleft  by  wedges.  Having  introduced  his 
hands  for  the  purpose  of  severing  it  entirely,  the  wedges 
fell  out,  but,  his  strength  failing  him,  the  parts  closed 
again,  retaining  him  a  prisoner,  and  in  this  helpless  con- 
dition he  was  devoured  by  wild  beasts. 

Mi'lo,  (Titus  Annius,)  a  famous  Roman  tribune,  was 
a  plebeian,  and  a  man  of  unscrupulous  character.  He 
became  tribune  of  the  people  in  57  B.C.,  and  was  a  par- 
tisan of  Pompey.  By  his  efforts  to  restore  Cicero  from 
exile  he  incurred  the  hostility  of  Clodius,  with  whom  he 
fought  in  several  bloody  affrays.  In  the  year  53  Milo 
was  a  candidate  for  the  consulship.  Before  the  electoral 
contest  was  decided,  Milo  and  Clodius  met,  each  with 
a  band  of  armed  slaves,  and  a  fight  ensued,  in  which 
Clodius  was  killed.  Milo  was  tried  for  homicide,  and, 
though  defended  by  Cicero,  was  condemned,  and  exiled 
himself  to  Marseilles.  Llaving  taken  arms  against 
Caesar  in  the  civil  war,  he  was  killed  in  Lucania,  48  B.C. 

See  Cicero,  "  Oratio  pro  Milone ;"  Drumann,  "Geschichte 
Roms;"  Uion  Cassius,  "History  of  Rome;"  Elberling,  "  Nar- 
ratio  de  T.  A.  Milone,"  1840;  Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Biography." 

Milon.    See  Milo. 

Milonof,  Milonov,  or  Milonow,  mee'lo-nof,  (Mi- 
chael Vassilievitch,)  a  Russian  poet,  born  in  1792, 
was  the  author  of  satires,  epistles,  and  lyric  poems,  which 
enjoy  great  popularity.    Died  in  1821. 

See  Gretch,  "  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Russe." 

Miloradovitch,  me-lo-rSMo-vitch,  (Michael  An- 
DRiE:vncH,)  Count,  a  Russian  general,  born  at  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1770.  He  fought  with  distinction  against 
the  Turks  and  Poles  and  in  the  campaigns  against  the 
French  from  1799  to  1814,  arid  attained  the  rank  of 
general  of  infantry.  He  was  appointed  military  gov- 
ernor of  Saint  Petersburg  in  1819.  He  was  killed  in 
attempting  to  suppress  the  insurrection  in  that  city,  De- 
cember 25,  1825, 

Milosh.    See  Obrenovitch, 

MiProy,  (Robert  H.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Indiana  about  1814.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  of  Union  volunteers  about  September,  1861,  and 
served  at  Cross  Keys,  June  8,  1862.  He  commanded 
about  8000  men  at  Winchester,  was  attacked  June  15, 
1863,  and  retreated,  but  lost  nearly  half  of  his  force. 

Miltiade.    See  Miltiades. 

Mil-ti'a-des,  [Gr.  ULkTtadrig ;  Fr.  Miltiade,  m^K- 
te'td',]  a  celebrated  Athenian  general,  who  flourished 
about  500  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Cimon.  He  became  suc- 
cessor to  his  uncle  Miltiades,  who  had  made  himself  a 
despot  or  master  of  the  Chersonese  in  Thrace,  and  he 
appears  first  in  history  as  an  arbitrary  ruler.  Darius  of 
Persia  having  sent  a  great  armament,  under  Datis  and 
Artaphernes,  to  conquer  Greece,  Miltiades  was  chosen 
one  of  the  ten  generals  of  the  Athenian  army,  which 
awaited  the  enem.y  at  Marathon  in  490  B.C.  The  Grecian 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  Y.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  m  thU,    (2i^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MILTITZ 


1590 


MILTON 


army  numbered  about  10,000  men,  and  the  Persian  prob- 
ably over  100,000.  A  regulation  then  prevailed  that  each 
of  the  ten  generals  should  command  by  turns  for  one  day. 
Some  of  them  were  averse  to  risking  a  battle.  When 
the  command  devolved  on  Miltiades,  he  gained  one  of 
the  most  memorable  and  important  victories  recorded 
in  history.  To  reward  his  patriotism  and  eminent  ser- 
vices to  national  liberty,  the  Athenians  decreed  that  he 
should  have  the  foremost  place  in  a  painting  which  illus- 
trated the  battle.  Having  failed  in  an  attack  on  Paros, 
he  was  fined  fifty  talents,  which  he  could  not  pay,  and 
about  the  year  489  died  in  prison  of  a  wound  received 
in  the  action  just  named.  The  famous  general  Cimon 
was  his  son. 

See  Cornelius  Nepos,  "Miltiades;"  Herodotus,  books  iv.  and 
vi.  ;  Grote,  "History  of  Greece,"  vol.  iv.  ;  Thiri.wall,  "  History 
of  Greece;"  Kikchmaiek,  "  Dissertatio  de  Miitiade,"  1662. 

Miltitz,  von,  fon  miKtits,  (Karl,)  a  German  prelate, 
born  about  1490,  became  chamberlain  to  Leo  X.,  who 
sent  him  in  15 18  as  nuncio  to  Germany,  in  order  to 
conciliate  Luther  or  counteract  his  influence.  On  this 
occasion  he  displayed  much  tact,  and  used  flattery  or 
l)ersuasive  means  with  some  success.  (See  Luther.) 
Died  in  1529. 

Miltitz,  von,  (Karl  Borromaus  Alexander  Ste- 
PHAN,)  a  German  poet  and  musical  composer,  born  at 
Dresden  in  1781.  Among  his  best  compositions  are 
the  operas  of  "Saul"  and  "Georg  Czerny."  Died  in 
1845.  His  brother  Alexander  was  ambassador  to 
Constantinople,  and  wrote  a  valuable  work  entitled 
"The  Manual  of  Consuls."    Died  in  1843. 

MiFton,  [Lat.  Milto'nus  ;  It.  Mil'ton  or  Miltono, 
m^l-to'no,]  (John,)  an  itnmortal  poet,  and,  if  we  except 
Shakspeare,  the  most  illustrious  name  in  English  litera- 
ture, was  born  in  Bread  Street,  London,  on  the  9th  of 
December,  1608.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  John  Milton, 
a  scrivener,  and  Sarah  Bradshaw,  (or  Caston,  according 
to  some  authorities.)  His  early  education  was  directed 
by  a  private  tutor, — Thomas  Young,  a  zealous  Puritan. 
A  portrait  of  his  beautiful  features,  taken  by  C.  Jansen, 
at  the  age  often,  has  been  preserved.  Before  he  entered 
college  he  was  an  excellent  Latin  scholar.  In  severe  and 
systematic  study  he  laid  the  foundations  of  his  fame. 
In  a  letter  to  a  friend,  written  some  years  later,  he  says, 
"It  is  my  way  to  suffer  no  impediment,  no  love  of  ease, 
no  avocation  whatever,  to  chill  the  ardour,  to  break  the 
continuity,  or  to  divert  the  completion  of  my  literary 
pursuits."  His  first  English  poems  were  versions  of  the 
114th  and  136th  Psalms,  (1623.) 

In  February,  1624,  he  was  admitted  as  pensioner  into 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  acquired  distinc- 
tion as  a  Latin  poet.  Dr.  Johnson  expresses  the  opinion 
that  Milton  "was  the  first  Englishman  who,  after  the 
revival  of  letters,  wrote  Latin  verses  with  classic  ele- 
gance." He  took  the  degree  of  Bachelor  in  1628,  and 
that  of  Master  of  Arts  in  1632, — before  which  he  had 
been  subjected  to  a  temporary  rustication  (and,  some  say, 
to  corporal  chastisement)  for  an  unknown  offence,  "  By 
the  intention  of  my  parents,"  says  Milton  himself,  "  I 
was  destined  of  a  child  to  the  service  of  the  Church,  and 
in  my  own  resolutions.  Till  coming  to  some  maturity 
of  years,  and  perceiving  what  tyranny  had  invaded  the 
Church,  that  he  who  would  take  orders  must  subscribe 
Si  AVE,  and  take  an  oath  withal,  ...  I  thought  better 
to  prefer  a  blameless  silence,  before  the  sacred  office  of 
speaking,  bought  and  begun  with  servitude  and  for- 
swearing." 

In  1632  he  left  the  university,  and  retired  to  his 
father's  house  at  Horton,  Buckinghamshire,  where  he 
remained  five  years,  during  which  he  is  said  to  have 
read  all  the  Greek  and  Latin  writers.  He  also  took 
lessons  in  music,  which  he  loved,  and  in  which  he  was 
very  skilful.  In  this  studious  retirement,  it  appears,  he 
wrote  his  beautiful  poems  "  Comus,"  "  L' Allegro,"  "  II 
Penseroso,"  and  "  Lycidas,"  (1637.)  "  Comus" — a  drama 
in  form,  but  essentially  lyrical — was  written  and  per- 
formed at  Ludlow  Castle  in  1634,  but  not  printed  until 
1637.  "It  is  certainly,"  says  Macaulay,  "the  noblest 
performance  of  the  kind  which  exists  in' any  language." 
"Lycidas"  is  contemptuously  depreciated  by  Johnson  as 
a  "pastoral,  easy,  vulgar,  and  therefore  disgusting." 


But  Hallam  approves  the  judgment  of  a  certain  critir 
(whom  he  does  not  name)  that  "Lycidas"  is  "  a  good 
test  of  a  real  feeling  for  what  is  peculiarly  called  poetry." 
Milton  s  "Allegro"  and  "Penseroso"  are  universally 
admired.  "  It  is  impossible  to  conceive,"  says  Macaulay, 
"  that  the  mechanism  of  language  can  be  brought  to  a 
more  exquisite  degree  of  perfection.  These  poems  differ 
from  others  as  ottar  of  roses  differs  from  ordinary  rose- 
water." 

In  1638,  attended  by  a  servant,  he  visited  Florence, 
Rome,  and  Naples,  conversed  with  Galileo,  then  a  "pris- 
oner to  the  Inquisition,"  and  received  testimonials  of 
honour  and  friendship  from  Carlo  Dati,  Francini,  and 
Manso.  He  was  admired  as  a  great  prodigy  by  these 
Italian  celebrities.  He  returned  in  1639,  and  opened  in 
London  a  small  boarding-school,  in  which  he  adopted  a 
new  system  of  education.  His  nephews,  Edward  and 
John  Philips,  were  among  his  pupils.  In  1641  he  pro- 
duced his  first  prose  work, — a  "  Treatise  of  Reforma- 
tion,"— which  was  followed  by  other  arguments  against 
the  Established  Church  and  Prelacy.  He  sympathized 
with  the  popular  party  in  the  great  crisis  of  English 
liberty,  but  took  no  active  part  in  the  civil  war  which 
began  in  1642. 

At  Whitsuntide,  1643,  married  Mary  Powell,  whose 
father  was  a  justice  of  the  peace  and  a  royalist  of  Ox- 
fordshire. "  The  lady,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "  seems  not 
much  to  have  delighted  in  the  pleasures  of  spare  diet 
and  hard  study."  A  month  after  the  marriage,  she  made 
a  visit  to  her  father's  house,  from  which  she  refused  to 
return.  Having  resolved  to  repudiate  her,  Milton  pub- 
lished "The  Doctrine  and  Discipline  of  Divorce,"  (1644,) 
and  other  treatises  on  that  topic,  in  his  own  justification. 
He  also  paid  his  addresses  to  a  Miss  Davis,  until  his 
wife  iinplored  forgiveness  and  was  restored  to  favour. 
She  became  the  mother  of  three  daughters,  who  were  all 
the  children  that  Milton  had. 

He  published  in  1644  his  "  Areopagitica,"  or  "  Plea 
for  Unlicensed  Printing," — probably  his  greatest  prose 
work.  "  Many  passages  in  this  famous  tract,"  says  Hal- 
lam, "  are  admirably  eloquent :  an  intense  love  of  liberty 
and  truth  glows  through  it."  He  had  taken  a  larger 
house  in  Barbican  (about  1645)  for  the  reception  of 
scholars  ;  but  his  wife's  relations,  to  whom,  when  ruined 
by  the  civil  war,  he  generously  gave  refuge,  occupied  his 
rooms.  In  March,  1648-49,  he  was  appointed  Latin 
secretary  to  the  council  of  state,  which  was  the  highest 
executive  power  in  the  new  republic.  As  an  antidote  to 
the  "  Eikon  Basil  ike,"  i.e.  the  "  Image  (or  Portrait)  of  the 
King," — a  work  designed  to  excite  commiseration  for  the 
sufferings  of  Charles  I.,  (see  Gauden,) — Milton  pro- 
duced his  "  Iconoclastes,"  (Eikonoklastes,)  or  "Image- 
breaker,"  and,  by  order  of  the  council,  appeared  as  the 
antagonist  of  the  learned  Salmasius,  in  reply  to  whom 
he  wrote,  in  Latin,  his  celebrated  work  entitled  "  Defence 
of  the  English  People,"  ("Defensio  Populi  Anglicani," 
1650.)    (See  Salmasius.) 

About  1654  he  became  totally  blind.  His  "Defensio 
Secunda"  (1654)  contains  an  eloquent  allusion  to  this 
privation.  His  wife  died  about  1653,  and  in  1656  he  mar- 
ried Catherine  Woodcock,  who  died  in  the  following  year. 
After  serving  the  Protector  Oliver  as  Latin  secretary 
for  four  or  five  years,  he  retired  about  1657  from  public 
life,  with  a  pension  of  ;i^i50.  Before  that  date  he  had 
meditated  the  plan  of  a  great  epic  poem.  One  of  the 
subjects  that  presented  was  the  exploits  of  King  Arthur. 
After  much  deliberation,  "long  choosing  and  beginning 
late,"  he  preferred  the  subject  of  "  Paradise  Lost,"  which 
at  first  he  proposed  to  dramatize.  At  the  restoration, 
(1660,)  his  prosecution  was  ordered,  and  he  concealed 
himself  in  the  house  of  a  friend  until  the  Act  of  Oblivion 
released  him  from  danger.  He  married  his  third  wife, 
Elizabeth  Minshul,  in  1664;  and  when  the  great  plague 
raged  in  London,  (1665,)  he  retired  to  Chalfont,  ]3ucks, 
where  his  friend  EUwood  had  engaged  a  cottage  for  him. 
(See  Ellvvood,  Thomas.)  In  the  course  of  the  same 
year  Milton  showed  to  Ell  wood  the  finished  manuscript 
of  "  Paradise  Lost,"  which  the  latter  took  home  and 
perused.  On  returning  it  to  the  author,  he  remarked, 
"Thou  hast  said  much  here  of  Paradise  Lost;  but  what 
hast  thou  to  say  of  Paradise  found Milton  sold  his 


a,  Cj  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  llr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon. 


MILTON 


MIND 


copy  in  April,  1667,  to  Samuel  Simmons,  for  an  imme- 
diate payment  of  five  pounds  and  the  promise  of  an 
equal  sum  after  the  sale  of  thirteen  hundred  copies.  It 
was  rather  coldly  received,  only  three  thousand  having 
been  sold  in  the  first  eleven  years.  '*  Its  admirers,"  says 
Johnson,  "did  not  dare  to  publish  their  opinion." 

He  published  in  1671  "Samson  Agonistes,"  a  tra- 
gedy, and  "  Paradise  Regained,"  which  he  is  said  to 
have  esteemed  his  most  perfect  production  ;  but  the 
public  and  the  critics  have  not  sanctioned  this  preference. 
Milton  died  in  London,  by  "a  silent  expiration,"  on  the 
8th  of  November,  1674. 

A  manuscript  of  Milton's  "On  Christian  Doctrine," 
("  De  Doctrina  Christiana,")  found  in  the  State-Paper 
Office,  London,  in  1823,  was  translated  and  published 
in  1825.  The  genuineness  of  this  work,  though  some- 
times called  in  question,  is  considered  by  the  great 
majority  of  critics  to  be  established  beyond  reasonable 
doubt. 

Milton  was  not  connected  with  any  church,  but  ap- 
pears to  have  favoured  the  Independents, — a  politico- 
religious  party.  "  He  grew  old  without  any  visible 
worship,"  says  Johnson;  who  adds,  "  His  studies  and 
meditations  were  an  habitual  prayer."  His  favourite 
authors  among  the  Greeks  were  Homer  and  Euripides, 
and  Shakspeare  and  Spenser  among  the  English.  His 
stature  was  rather  below  the  middle  height.  In  his  youth 
he  was  so  eminently  and  delicately  beautiful  as  to  be 
called  "the  Lady"  of  his  college,  though  his  habits  were 
far  from  effeminate.  He  had  a  fair  complexion  and 
auburn  hair.  Portraits  of  him  were  taken  at  the  ages 
of  ten,  twenty-one,  and  about  sixty. 

"  Considered  with  respect  to  design,"  says  Johnson, 
"'Paradise  Lost'  may  claim  the  first  place,  and,  with 
respect  to  performance,  the  second,  among  the  produc- 
tions of  the  human  mind.  .  .  .  His  [Milton's]  great  works 
were  performed  under  discountenance  and  in  blindness  ; 
but  difficulties  vanished  at  his  touch  :  he  was  born  for 
whatever  is  arduous  ;  and  his  work  is  not  the  greatest 
of  heroic  poems,  only  because  it  is  not  the  first."  "  Was 
there  ever  anything  so  delightful,"  says  Cowper,  "  as 
the  music  of  'Paradise  Lost'?  It  is  like  that  of  a  fine 
organ, — has  the  fullest  and  the  deepest  tones  of  majesty, 
with  all  the  softness  and  elegance  of  the  Dorian  flute  ; 
variety  without  end,  and  never  equalled,  unless,  perhaps, 
by  Virgil."  Of  Milton's  prose  writings,  Macaulay  ob- 
serves, "They  are  a  perfect  field  of  cloth  of  gold.  The 
style  is  stiff  with  gorgeous  embroidery." 

"  It  is  certain,"  says  Hume,  "  that  this  author,  when 
in  a  happy  mood  and  employed  on  a  noble  subject,  is 
the  most  wonderfiilly  sublime  of  any  poet  in  any  lan- 
guage. Homer  and  Lucretius  and  Tasso  not  excepted. 
More  concise  than  Homer,  more  simple  than  Tasso, 
more  nervous  than  Lucretius,  had  he  lived  in  a  later 
age  and  learned  to  polish  some  rudeness  in  his  verses, 
had  he  enjoyed  better  fortune  and  possessed  leisure  to 
watch  the  returns  of  genius  in  himself,  he  had  attained 
the  pinnacle  of  perfection  and  borne  away  the  palm  of 
epic  poetry." 

"  It  may  be  doubted,"  says  Walter  S.  Landor, 
"whether  the  Creator  ever  created  one  altogether  so 
great  as  Milton, — taking  into  one  view  at  once  his  manly 
virtues,  his  superhuman  genius,  his  zeal  for  truth,  for 
true  piety,  true  freedom,  his  eloquence  in  displaying  it, 
his  contempt  of  personal  power,  his  glory  and  exultation 
in  his  country's." 

"Milton,"  says  Macaulay,  "did  not  strictly  belong 
to  Any  of  the  classes  which  we  have  described.  He 
was  not  a  Puritan.  He  was  not  a  Freethinker.  He 
was  not  a  Cavalier.  In  his  character  the  noblest  quali- 
ties of  every  party  were  combined  in  harmonious  union. 
.  .  .  We  are  not  much  in  the  habit  of  idolizing  either 
the  living  or  the  dead.  But  there  are  a  few  characters 
which  have  stood  the  closest  scrutiny  and  the  severest 
tests,  which  have  been  tried  in  the  furnace  and  have 
proved  pure,  which  have  been  declared  sterling  by  the 
general  consent  of  mankind,  and  which  are  visibly 
stamped  with  the  image  and  superscription  of  the  Most 
High.  Tliese  great  men  we  trust  we  know  how  to  prize  ; 
and  of  these  was  Milton.  .  .  .  His  thoughts  are  power- 
ful not  only  to  delight,  but  to  elevate  and  purify.  Nor 


do  we  envy  the  man  who  can  study  either  the  life  or  the 
writings  of  the  great  poet  and  patriot  without  aspiring  to 
emulate,  not  indeed  the  sublime  works  with  which  his 
genius  has  enriched  our  literature,  but  the  zeal  with 
which  he  laboured  for  the  public  good,  the  fortitude  with 
which  he  endured  every  private  calamity,  the  lofty  dis- 
dain with  which  he  looked  down  on  temptation  and  dan- 
gers, the  deadly  hatred  which  he  bore  to  bigots  and 
tyrants,  and  the  faith  which  he  so  sternly  kept  with  his 
country  and  with  his  fame."    ("Essay  on  Milton.") 

Those  who  desire  to  know  how  this  great  poet  is 
regarded  by  a  nation  whose  taste  and  habits  of  thought 
differ  most  widely  from  those  of  the  English,  may  con- 
sult the  article  "Milton"  in  the  "  Biographie  Univer- 
selle,"  from  the  pen  of  the  justly-celebrated  French 
critic  Villemain.  He  admits  that  Milton's  picture  of 
our  first  parents  in  Eden  surpasses,  in  graceful  and 
touching  simplicity,  anything  to  be  found  in  the  creations 
of  any  other  poet,  ancient  or  modern,  and  that  the 
human  imagination  has  produced  nothing  more  grand 
or  more  sublime  than  some  portions  of  "  Paradise  Lost." 

See  the  article  "Milton,"  in  Johnson's  "Lives  of  the  Poets;" 
Todd,  "Life  of  Milton,"  1801  ;  Keightlev,  "Life,  Opinions,  and 
Writings  of  John  Milton,"  1855;  Masson,  "Life  and  Times  of 
Milton,"  vol.  i.,  1859;  Toland,  "Life  of  Milton,"  i6g8  ;  Svmmons, 
"  Life  of  Milton  ;"  Havlev,  "  Life  of  Milton,"  1794  ;  Dr.  Channing, 
"Remarks  on  the  Character  and  Writings  of  Milton,"  1828;  Mac- 
aulay, "Essays;"  Hu.me,  "History  of  England,"  chap.  Ixii.  ;  J. 
Mosneron,  "Viede  Milton,"  1804;  Edwin  P.  Hood,  "J.  Milton, 
the  Patriot  and  Poet,"  1851  ;  Joseph  Ivimev,  "J.  Milton,  his  Life 
and  Times,"  1832;  C.  R.  Edmonds,  "J.  Milton:  a  Biography," 
1851  ;  Edward  Philips,  "Life  of  J.  Milton,"  1604;  notice  in  the 
"  North  American  Review"  for  July,  183S,  by  R.  W.  Emerson;  and 
the  excellent  article  in  Allibone's  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Milton,  Lord.    See  Fletcher,  (Andrew.) 

Milutinovics  or  Milutinowitsch,  pronounced 
alike  me-loo-tee'no-vitch,  (Simon,)  a  Servian  poet,  born 
in  1791.  He  was  the  author  of  "Popular  Songs  of  the 
Montenegrins,"  etc.,  "  History  of  Servia  from  1813  to 
181 5,"  and  other  works. 

Manias,  [Gr.  M<//af,]  a  giant  said  to  have  been  de- 
stroyed by  Jujiiter.  The  island  of  Prochyte,  near  Sicily, 
was  believed  to  rest  upon  his  body. 

Mim-ner'mus,  (Gr.  Mlfivepfiog;  Fr.  Mimnerme,  mfem'- 
n^Rm',]  a  Greek  elegiac  and  lyric  poet,  born  at  Colo- 
phon about  630  B.C.,  was  contemporary  with  Solon. 
The  fragments  of  his  poems  have  been  published  in  the 
collections  of  Estienne,  Brunck,  and  Boissonade  ;  and,  in 
a  separate  edition  by  Bach,  Mimnermus  is  said  to  have 
invented  the  pentameter  verse. 

See  K.  O.  Muller,  "  Geschichte  der  Griechen  Literatur,"  etc.; 
Christian  Marx,  "  Dissertatio  de  Mimnermo,"  1831. 

Mina.mee'na,  (Don  Francisco  Espoz  y — §s-p6th'e,) 
a  celebrated  Spanish  general,  sometimes  called  El  Rey 
DE  Navarra,  ("the  King  of  Navarre,")  born  near  Para- 
peluna  in  1782.  As  a  guerilla  chieftain,  he  successfully 
defended  Navarre  against  the  French  in  1808  and  the 
succeeding  campaigns.  Having  been  created  marechal 
del  campo  in  1813,  he  endeavoured  to  excite  an  insur- 
rection against  the  government  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  but, 
failing  in  the  attempt,  took  refuge  in  France.  After  his 
return  to  Spain,  in  1820,  he  became  captain-general  of 
the  armies  of  Navarre,  Galicia,  and  Catalonia.  He  held 
several  high  offices  under  Queen  Christina,  for  whom 
he  fought  against  Don  Carlos.    Died  in  1836. 

See  MiNANO,  "  Examen  critico  de  las  Revoluciones  de  E>para," 
1837;  MoLiNE  de  Saint- Yon,  "  Les  deux  ]\rma:  Chron^.j^^i  Es- 
pagnole  du  XIXe  Siecle,"  3  vols.,  1840;  Burckhardt,  "  Riego  und 
Mina,"  etc.,  1835. 

Mina,  (X.wier,)  a  Spanish  officer,  born  in  Navarre 
in  1789,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  undertook 
to  liberate  Mexico,  which  he  entered  in  April,  181 7,  with 
a  few  hundred  men.  He  gained  several  victories,  but 
was  captured  and  shot  at  Mexico  in  November,  181 7. 

Minano  y  Bedoya,  de,  di  m6n-y^'no  e  bi-Do'e-S, 
(Sebastian,)  a  Spanish  writer,  born  in  the  province  of 
Palencia  in  1779.  He  wrote  "Letters  from  a  Resident 
of  Madrid,"  and  a  "  History  of  the  Spanish  Revolution 
from  1820  to  1823,"  (in  French.) 

Mind,  mint,  (Gottfried,)  a  celebrated  Swiss  painter, 
born  at  Berne  in  1768,  was  surnamed  the  Raphael 
of  Cats.  He  was  the  child  of  indigent  parents,  and 
a  cretin,  and  was  educated  at  Pestalozzi's  institution  for 
poor  boys.    His  favourite  subjects  were  cats  and  bears, 


•c  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (jE^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MINDER ER 


MINUTUNUS 


which  he  delineated  with  unequalled  skill  and  fidelity. 
He  died  in  1814,  leaving  numerous  designs,  which  were 
sold  at  a  high  price. 

See  Naglek,  "  Neues  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon ;"  L. 
Bkightwell,  "  By-Palhs  of  Biograjiliy." 

Minderer,  min'deh-rer,  (Raimond,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, born  at  Augsburg  about  1570,  was  the  discoverer 
of  a  new  chemical  compound,  (acetate  of  ammonia,) 
since  called  Spiritus  Mindereri.  He  published  several 
medical  works  in  Latin,  and  became  physician  to  the 
emperor  Matthias.    Died  in  1621. 

Minderhout,  min'der-howt',  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Antwerp  in  1577,  excelled  in  marine  views,  seaports, 
etc.    Died  in  1663. 

Minelli,  me-neKlee,  [Lat.  Minel'lius,]  (jAN,)aDutch 
scholar,  born  at  Rotterdam  about  1625.  He  translated 
Terence  into  Dutch,  and  published  numerous  editions 
of  the  Latin  classics,  with  notes,  which  had  a  high  repu- 
tation at  the  time.    Died  in  1683. 

Minellius.    See  Minelli. 

Mi'ner,  (Thomas,)  an  American  physician,  born  at 
Middletown,  Connecticut,  in  1777.  He  wrote,  conjointly 
with  Dr.  Tally,  "  Essays  on  Fevers  and  other  Subjects," 
(1823.)    Died  in  1841. 

Mi-ner'va  or  A-the'na,  [  Fr.  Minerve,  me'niRv',] 
one  of  the  greater  divinities  of  the  Roman  mythology, 
corresponding  nearly  to  the  Greek  Athena  or  Athene, 
[Gr.  'Adf/vrj  or  'Adrjvd.]  She  was  regarded  as  the  goddess 
of  wisdom,  arts,  and  sciences,  or  a  personification  of  the 
thinking,  inventive  faculty.  According  to  a  popular  tra- 
dition, she  was  the  offspring  of  the  brain  of  Jupiter,  from 
which  she  issued  in  full  armour.  She  was  always  repre- 
sented as  a  virgin.  In  war  she  was  contradistinguished 
from  Mars  (the  god  of  brute  force)  as  the  patroness  of 
scientific  warfare,  and  hence,  according  to  the  ancient 
poets,  was  always  superior  to  him.  The  favourite  plant 
of  Minerva  was  the  olive,  and  the  animals  consecrated 
to  her  were  the  owl  and  the  serpent.  Athena  was  the 
great  national  divinity  of  Attica  and  Athens,  to  which 
she  is  said  to  have  given  her  name.  Pope,  in  his 
"Temple  of  Fame,"  alludes  to  her  twofold  character  as 
the  patroness  of  arts  and  arms,  where  he  says, 

"There  Cjesar,  graced  with  both  Miiiervas,  shone." 
In  the  Trojan  war  she  fought  for  the  Greeks.  She 
was  sometimes  called  Pallas,  Parthenos,  (i.e.  "virgin,") 
Tritonia  or  Tritogeneia,  and  other  names.  The  poets 
feigned  that  Neptune  and  Minerva  disputed  for  the  pos- 
session of  Attica,  which  the  gods  promised  to  him  or 
her  who  should  produce  the  most  useful  gift  to  mankind. 
Neptune,  striking  the  earth  with  his  trident,  produced  a 
war-horse,  and  Minerva  produced  the  olive,  (the  symbol 
of  peace,)  by  which  she  gained  the  victory.  She  was 
usually  represented  with  a  helmet  on  her  head,  holding 
in  one  hand  a  spear  and  in  the  other  an  aegis,  or  shield, 
in  the  centre  of  which  was  the  head  of  Medusa.  There 
was  a  celebrated  statue  of  Minerva,  called  Palladium, 
which  was  said  to  have  fallen  from  the  sky,  and  on 
which  the  safety  of  Troy  depended. 

See  G.  Hermann,  "  Dissertatio  de  Graeca  Minerva,"  1837; 
GuiGNiAUT,  "Religions  de  FAntiqnite  ;"  Smith,  "Dictionary  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  Mythology;"  "  Biographie  Uni- 
verselle,"  (Partie  mythologiqne.) 

Minga,  del,  d^l  m^n'gl,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter, 
of  the  Florentine  school,  lived  about  1550-70. 

Mingarelli,  m^n-ga-reKlee,  (  Giovanni  Luigi,)  an 
Italian  ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  near  Bologna  in 
1722,  was  a  friend  of  Tiraboschi.    Died  in  1793. 

See  Cavalieri,  "Vita  di  Mingarelli,"  1817. 

Mingotti,  m^n-got'tee,  (Caterina,)  an  Italian  vocal- 
ist, of  German  extraction,  born  at  Naples  in  1728.  She 
studied  under  Porpora,  and  performed  with  brilliant  suc- 
cess in  the  principal  cities  of  Europe.    Died  in  1807. 

Miniana,  me-ne-a'na,  (Josi^  Manuel,)  a  Spanish 
histo'ian,  born  at  Valencia  in  1671.  He  wrote  a  continua- 
tion of  Mariana's  "History  of  Spain,"  (1733.)  Died  in 
1730. 

Mini^,  me'ne-4',  (Claude  Etiennf.,)  a  French  of- 
ficer, born  in  Paris  in  1810,  was  the  inventor  of  the  rifle 
called  by  his  name.  He  was  appointed  by  Napoleon 
III.  su])erintendent  of  the  school  of  ordnance  at  Vin- 
cennes,  and  received  from  him  the  sum  of  20,000  francs. 


The  Minie  rifle  was  an  immense  improvement  on  any- 
thing of  the  kind  that  had  previously  been  invented,  both 
as  regards  precision  and  the  extent  of  its  range. 

Minion.    See  Mignon. 

Minjon.    See  Mignon. 

Mino  da  Piesole,  mee'no  dS  fe-§s'o-l^  an  eminent 
Italian  sculptor,  born  at  F'iesole  about  1430.  Among  his 
works  is  a  tomb  of  Paul  II.  at  Rome.    Died  in  i486. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors." 

Minoochihr,  Minoutchihr,  or  Minuchihr,  min- 

oo'chih'r,  written  also  Manucheher,  an  ancient  Persian 
king,  the  grandson  ((^r,  according  to  some  authorities, 
the  great-grandson)  of  Fereedoon,  (Ferklun,)  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  of  his  nation  who  fortified  cities  with 
ramparts  and  ditches.  With  Minoochihr  ended  the  glory 
and  power  of  the  Peshdadian  dynasty. 

See  "A  Short  History  of  Persia,"  in  vol.  v.  of  Sir  William 
Jones's  Works;  Atkinson,  "Abridgment  of  the  Shah  Nameh  of 
Firdausi,"  1832. 

Mi'nos,  [Gr.  M/vcjf,]  a  celebrated  king  and  lawgiver 
of  Crete,  whose  history  is  much  obscured  or  embellished 
with  fable.  According  to  Homer,  he  was  a  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Europa,  a  brother  of  Rhadamanthus,  and  the  father 
of  Ariadne  and  Deucalion.  He  was  renowned  for  his 
justice  and  moderation,  and  it  was  fabled  that  after  his 
death  he  became  a  judge  of  the  souls  which  entered  the 
infernal  regions.  He  has  by  some  writers  been  identified 
with  Manu,  (or  Menu,)  the  great  Hindoo  lawgiver. 

Minos,  a  king  and  lawgiver  of  Crete,  supposed  to 
have  been  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  with  whom,  how- 
ever, he  has  been  confounded  by  some  writers.  He  was 
the  husband  of  Pasiphae,  and  had  many  children.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  Greek  prince  that  had  an 
important  naval  power.  The  Cretans  ascribed  to  Minos 
their  laws  and  political  institutions,  which  served  as  a 
model  for  the  legislation  of  Lycui  gus.  According  to  one 
tradition,  he  was  cruel  and  tyrannical,  and  compelled  the 
Athenians,  whom  he  vanquished,  to  pay  him  an  annual 
tribute  in  the  form  of  boys  and  virgins,  who  were  devoured 
by  the  Minotaur. 

Min'ot,  >  (George  Richards,)  an  American  jurist 
and  historian,  born  at  Boston  in  1 758.  His  principal 
works  are  a  "  Eulogy  on  Washington,"  "  History  of 
Shays's  Rebellion,"  and  "  History  of  Massachusetts  Bay." 
Died  in  1802. 

Min'ot, }  (Lawrence,)  an  English  poet,  whose  works 
were  discovered  by  Tyrvvhitt  while  he  was  preparing  an 
edition  of  Chaucer.    He  lived  about  1330-50. 

Min'o-taur,  [Gr.  Mtvwravpof;  Lat.  Minotau'rus  ; 
Fr.  Minotaure,  me'no'toR',]  a  monster  of  classic  my- 
thology, represented  as  half  man  and  half  bull.  Accord- 
ing to  the  legend,  he  was  the  offspring  of  Pasiphae  and  a 
bull  which  was  sent  to  Minos  by  Neptune;  he  was  kept 
in  the  great  labyrinth  of  Crete,  was  fed  with  youths  and 
maidens  whom  the  Athenians  sent  to  Minos  as  tribute, 
and  was  finally  killed  by  Theseus. 

Min'tha  or  Men'tha,  [Gr.  MtV^??,]  a  nymph,  fabled 
to  have  been  beloved  by  Pluto  and  changed  by  Ceres 
into  the  plant  known  as  mint. 

Minto,  Lord.    See  Elliot. 

Min'to,  (Walter,)  a  Scottish  mathematician,  born 
in  Edinburgh,  emigrated  to  America  in  1786.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  scientific  works,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Princeton  College,  New  Jersey. 
Died  in  1796. 

Mintrop,  min'trop,  (Theodor,)  a  distinguished 
German  painter  and  designer,  born  at  Heithausen,  in 
Bavaria,  in  1814.  He  produced  designs  in  crayon,  and 
several  oil-paintings  of  religious  subjects.  Among  his 
works  are  "  The  Riches  of  the  Year,"  and  "  The  Apo- 
theosis of  Bacchus." 

Minturni,  m6n-tooR'nee,  (Antonio  Sebastiano,)  an 
Italian  poet  and  canonist,  born  in  Terra  di  Lavoro,  was 
noted  for  his  learning.    Died  in  1574. 

Minut,  de,  deh  me'nii',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  litte- 
rateur, born  at  Toulouse  about  1520.  He  was  patronized 
by  Catherine  de  Medicis,  and  was  a  friend  of  J.  C. 
Scaliger.  He  published  treatises  on  medicine,  theology, 
and  other  subjects.    Died  in  1587. 

Minutianus,  me-nu-she-a'nus,  [It.  Minuziano,  me 
noot-se-d'no,]  (Alessandro,)  a  learned  Italian  printer, 


a,  e,  ^,  0,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,    short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  filr,  ftU,  f4t;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  mooiij 


MINUTIUS 


1593 


MIRABEJU 


born  at  San  Severe  about  1450.  He  published  the  first 
complete  edition  of  Cicero,  and  issued  from  his  press 
numerous  classics  of  great  beauty  and  accuracy.  Died 
about  1525. 

Miuutius  or  Minucius  (mi-nu'she-us)  Fe'lix,  an 
early  Christian  writer,  supposed  to  have  been  a  native 
of  Africa,  lived  in  the  third  century.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  work  entitled  "  Octavius,"  written  in  defence  of 
Christianity.  A  good  edition  of  it  was  published  by 
Gronovius  in  1707. 

See  Bouchard,  "  Dissertatio  de  Minutio  Felice,"  1683;  Hein- 
RICH  Meier,  "  Commentatio  de  Minucio  Felice,"  1825. 

Minutoli,  me-noo'to-lee,  (Heinrich  Menu,)  Baron, 
a  distinguished  writer,  of  Italian  extraction,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1772.  He  served  in  the  Prussian  army,  and 
attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  In  1820  he 
accompanied  the  scientific  expedition  sent  by  the  Prus- 
sian government  to  Egypt,  and  published,  (in  German,) 
after  his  return,  a  "Journey  to  the  Temple  of  Jupiter 
Ammon  and  Upper  Egypt,"  (2  vols.,  1824.)  Among  his 
other  works  is  "  Recollections  of  a  Soldier."  He  was 
a-  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Berlin,  and 
was  appointed  by  the  king,  Frederick  William,  tutor  to 
Prince  Charles.    Died  in  1846. 

Minutoli,  (Julius,)  a  lawyer,  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Berlin  in  1805.  He  was  appointed  in  1851 
consul-general  for  Spain  and  Portugal.  He  published 
a  work  entitled  "  Spain  and  its  Progressive  Develop- 
ment." 

Min'y-as,  [Gr.  Kivvag,'\  a  fabulous  personage,  said 
to  be  a  son  of  Neptune,  a  king  of  Boeotia,  and  the  an- 
cestor of  the  MiNY.«,  {M-Lvvai,)  a  race  of  heroes  cele- 
brated in  the  most  ancient  epic  poetry  of  Greece.  The 
Argonauts  were  mostly  descendants  of  Minyas,  and  were 
called  Minyae. 

Minzocchi,  mJn-zok'kee,  or  Menzocchi,  mgn-zok'- 
kee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Forli  about 
1500,  was  a  pupil  of  Genga.  Among  his  master-pieces 
we  may  name  "The  Sacrifice  of  Melchisedec,"  "The 
Fall  of  Manna,"  and  a  "  Holy  Family."    Died  in  1574. 

Minzoni,  m^n-zo'nee,  (Onofrio,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
Jesuit,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1734,  became  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  Venice.  He  was  the  author  of  a  collection 
of  sonnets  of  great  beauty.    Died  in  181 7. 

See  TiPAi.Do,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Miolan-Carvalho,  me'o'lSN'  ktR'vt'lo',  (Caroline 
FltLlX,)  a  French  vocalist,  born  at  Chateau-Roux  in  1829, 
She  performed  with  success  in  Paris  and  London  as  an 
operatic  singer. 

Miollis,  me'c'l^ss',  (  Sextius  Alexandre  Fran- 
cois,) Count,  a  French  general,  born  at  Aix  in  1759.  He 
was  wounded  at  Yorktown,  Virginia,  in  1781.  He  became 
a  general  of  division  in  1 799,  and  obtained  command  of 
all  the  French  forces  in  Northern  Italy  in  1805.  In  1809 
he  entered  Rome,  where,  having  expelled  the  pope,  he 
remained,  with  the  title  of  governor,  until  1814.  Died 
in  1828. 

Mionnet,  mcVni',  (Theodore  Edme,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1770.  He  wrote  a  "Descrip- 
tive Catalogue  of  (ireek  and  Roman  Medals,"  (7  vols., 
1806-35,)  a  standard  work,  which  still  ranks  among 
the  best  of  its  kind,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Rarity  and 
Value  of  Roman  Medals,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1847,)  and  other 
similar  works.    Died  in  1842. 

Miot,  me^o',  (Andr6  FuANgois,)  Comte  de  Melito,  a 
French  statesman,  born  at  Versailles  in  1762.  He  was 
minister  of  the  interior  at  Naples  under  Joseph  Bona- 
parte. He  died  in  1841,  leaving  "Memoirs  of  the  Con- 
sulate, the  Empire,  and  King  Joseph,"  (3  vols.,  1858.) 

Mirabaud,  me^rS'ho',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
littcratejir,  born  in  Paris  in  1675.  He  made  a  transla- 
tion of  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered,"  which  had  great 
popularity  at  the  time.  He  also  translated  the  "  Orlando 
Furioso,"  and  published  several  treatises  on  various 
subjects.  The  atheistical  work  entitled  "  Systeme  de 
la  Nature"  was  for  a  time  attributed  to  Mirabaud,  biit  is 
now  known  to  have  been  written  by  Baron  d'Holbach. 
Mirabaud  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1726. 
Died  in  1760. 

See  D'Alembert,  "  Histoire  des  Membres  de  rAcademie  Fran- 
faise." 


Mirabeau,  de,  deh  me'rt'bo',  (Boniface  Riquetti,) 
Vicomte,  a  brother  of  Gabriel,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Bignon  in  1754.  He  served  in  the  army  of  the  United 
States  about  1780.  In  1789  he  became  a  royalist  mem- 
ber of  the  States-General,  and  was  opposed  to  his  brother 
in  politics.  He  was  so  bloated  by  drinking  that  he  was 
nicknamed  "Barrel  Mirabeau,"  ("Mirabeau  Tonneau.") 
He  was  noted  for  his  sarcastic  wit.  "In  any  other 
family,"  said  he,  "  I  should  pass  for  a  reprobate  ( maitvais 
sujet)  and  wit;  but  in  mine  I  am  regarded  as  a  fool, 
but  a  sedate  man."  When  his  famous  brother  reproved 
him  for  his  intemperance,  he  wittily  replied,  "Of  all 
the  vices  of  our  family,  that  is  the  only  one  which  you 
have  left  for  me."  He  emigrated  in  1790,  and  joined  the 
royalist  army  on  the  Rhine.    Died  in  1792. 

Mirabeau,  de,  deh  me'rt'bo'  or  m!r'a-bo',  (Honor6 
Gabriel  de  Riquetti,  (deh  re'k^'te',)  originally  Arri- 
ghetti,)  Comte,  a  famous  French  orator  and  states- 
man, was  born  at  Bignon,  near  Nemours,  March  9,  1749. 
His  family  was  of  Italian  extraction.  He  was  the  oldest 
surviving  son  of  the  Marquis  de  Mirabeau  and  Marie 
Genevieve  de  Vassan.  The  last  representative  of  that 
stormy  and  highly-gifted  race,  he  inherited  a  passionate 
nature,  a  frank  and  open  temper,  and  a  mind  of  great 
amplitude  of  grasp  and  prodigious  activity.  The  edu- 
cation which  he  received  under  the  strict  discipline  of 
his  father  was  far  from  judicious.  In  his  fifteenth  year 
he  was  sent  to  a  boarding-school  in  Paris,  where  he 
made  rapid  progress  in  ancient  and  modern  languages 
and  mathematics,  also  in  music  and  the  fine  arts.  In 
compliance  with  his  father's  will,  he  entered  the  army 
in  1767.  The  next  year,  by  an  amorous  intrigue,  he  pro- 
voked the  ire  of  the  marquis,  who  caused  him  to  be 
imprisoned  in  the  Isle  of  Rhe.  In  1769  he  obtained 
liberty  to  serve  in  Corsica  against  Paoli,  where  he  won 
golden  opinions,  and  returned  in  1770  with  the  brevet 
of  captain.  It  puzzled  his  father  to  find  a  proper  sphere 
for  one  whom  he  called  a  windmill,  a  whirlwind,  one 
who  "  had  swallowed  all  formulas."  On  one  occasion 
he  writes,  "  I  pass  my  life  in  cramming  him  with  prin- 
ciples." 

In  1772  young  Mirabeau  married  Marie  fimilie  de 
Covet,  a  daughter  of  the  Marquis  de  Marignan,  and 
became  a  resident  of  Aix.  For  running  into  debt,  he  was 
banished  to  Manosque,  near  the  Alps,  where  he  wrote 
an  "  Essay  on  Despotism."  Having  again  displeased 
the  grim  marquis  by  some  venial  error,  he  was  confined, 
by  a  lettre  de  cachet,  in  the  castle  of  If,  in  1774,  and  was 
finally  separated  from  his  wife,  who  was  not  inconsolable 
on  that  accourt.  He  was  removed  in  1775  to  the  castle 
of  Joux  ;  and,  having  liberty  to  walk  out  on  parole,  he 
formed  an  ardent  attachment  for  Sophie  Monnier,  un- 
hapiMly  married  to  a  man  four  times  older  than  herself. 
With  her  he  eloped  in  1776,  and  went  to  Amsterdam, 
where  he  earned  fair  wages  by  translating  Watson's 
"  Philip  II."  and  doing  other  literary  jobs.  The  parlia- 
ment of  Besan9on  indicted  him  for  abduction,  and  sen- 
tenced him  to  death.  In  May,  1777,  the  police-officers 
arrested  him  in  Holland  and  consigned  him  to  the  prison 
of  Vincennes,  where  he  was  kept  forty-two  months,  ap- 
parently ruined,  but  still  indomitable  in  spirit.  Presenting 
himself  before  the  court  which  had  condemned  him  as 
contumacious,  he  pleaded  his  cause  with  such  power 
that  the  sentence  was  annulled.  He  again  met  his  father 
on  amicable  terms  ;  for  it  is  recorded  among  his  few 
conventional  virtues  that  he  loved  his  father  to  the  end. 
The  marquis,  however,  left  him  to  his  own  resources 
for  a  supply  of  money. 

From  about  1783  to  1788  he  led  a  wandering  life 
in  England,  France,  and  Germany,  supporting  himself 
by  his  wits,  teeming  with  grand  projects,  and  often  en- 
gaging in  questionable  intrigues.  Under  the  auspices 
of  Franklin,  he  published  an  eloquent  essay  "On  the 
Order  of  Cincinnatus,"  (1784,)  which  was  followed  by  a 
tract  "  On  the  Opening  of  the  Scheldt."  A  polemical 
tract  on  the  water-company  of  Paris,  in  reply  to  Beau- 
marchais,  produced  a  prodigious  effect.  In  1786  Calonne 
(partly  from  a  desire  to  remove  him  out  of  the  way)  sent 
him  on  a  secret  mission  to  Berlin,  where  he  met  the 
Great  Frederick,  and  collected  materials  for  an  important 
work, — "  The  Prussian  Monarchy," — which  appeared  in 


€  as  k",  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.  (2i:^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MIRABEAU 


1594 


MIRANDA 


1788.  The  States-General,  which  were  convoked  for 
May,  1789,  offered  to  him  a  congenial  arena  for  the 
exertion  of  his  gigantic  energies  against  the  system  of 
organized  injustice  and  oppression  which  for  ages  had 
afflicted  France.  After  he  had  been  rejected  with  con- 
tempt by  the  noblesse  of^  Provence,  he  was  chosen  tri- 
umphantly by  the  Tiers-Etat  of  Aix  and  Marseilles.  He 
preferred  to  represent  Aix,  Aiming  at  reform  by  mod- 
erate means,  he  made  overtures  for  co-operation  with  the 
ministry,  l)ut  was  coldly  received  by  Necker,  and  went 
away  in  ill  humour.  On  the  23d  of  June,  1789,  he  gave 
a  decisive  direction  to  the  Revolution  by  his  famous 
speech  in  reply  to  the  king's  usher,  De  Breze,  who  re- 
minded the  Assembly  that  the  king  had  ordered  them 
to  disperse  : — "The  Commons  of  France  have  resolved 
to  deliberate.  We  have  heard  what  the  king  has  been 
advised  to  say  ;  and  you,  who  cannot  act  as  his  organ  in 
the  States-General, — you,  who  have  here  neither  seat 
nor  vote  nor  right  of  speech, — you  are  not  the  person 
to  remind  us  of  it.  Go  and  tell  your  master  that  we 
are  here  by  the  will  of  the  nation,  and  that  nothing  but 
the  power  of  bayonets  can  drive  us  hence  !"  The  usher 
quickly  vanished,  and  Mirabeau  became  the  master-spirit 
of  the  National  Assembly.  "  Mirabeau's  spiritual  gift," 
says  Carlyle,  "  will  be  found  to  be  verily  an  honest  and 
great  one  ;  far  the  strongest,  best  practical  intellect  of 
that  time."  His  brief  and  pithy  sentences  became  the 
watchwords  of  the  Revolution  ;  "his  gestures  were  com- 
mands, his  motions  were  coups  d'etat^  Exchanging  the 
role  of  tribune  for  that  of  a  statesman,  he  soared  above 
the  intrigues  of  party  and  the  ideal  abstractions  that 
were  in  vogue.  "  Where  others  grope  darkly,"  says 
Lamartine,  "  he  aims  surely,  he  advances  directly.  .  .  . 
The  philosophy  of  the  eighteenth  century,  modified  by 
prudence  and  policy,  flows  out  all  formulized  from  his 
lips.  His  eloquence,  imperative  as  law,  is  only  the  gift 
of  impassioned  reasoning." 

He  advocated  the  abolition  of  the  double  aristocracy 
of  lords  and  bishops,  the  spoliation  of  the  Church,  and 
the  formation  of  the  national  guard,  but  he  demanded  for 
the  king  an  absolute  veto  and  the  initiative  in  making 
war  and  peace.  One  of  his  greatest  triumphs  as  an  orator 
was  won  over  Barnave,  on  the  latter  question,  in  1790. 
Loud  explosions  of  popular  fury  greeted  him  when  it 
was  known  that  he  favoured  the  royal  veto.  As  he  en- 
tered the  Assembly  to  speak  on  the  question,  he  said  to 
a  friend,  *'  I  will  either  leave  the  House  in  triumph,  or 
be  torn  to  fragments."  He  gained  his  point,  and  re- 
stored his  popularity.  In  the  last  part  of  his  career  he 
became  more  conservative,  and  formed  a  secret  alliance 
with  the  court,  from  which  he  received  large  sums  of 
money.  He  doubtless  cherished  an  ambition  to  be  prime 
minister  of  France. 

In  January,  1 791,  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  Na- 
tional Assembly.  "Never  had  this  office  been  so  well 
filled,"  says  Dumont.  On  parting  with  Dumont,  who 
left  Paris  at  the  date  just  named,  Mirabeau  said,  "  I  shall 
die  at  the  stake,  and  we  shall  never,  perhaps,  meet  again. 
That  base  faction  whom  I  now  overawe  [the  Jacobins] 
will  again  be  let  loose  upon  the  country.  I  have  none 
but  direful  anticipations."  He  died  April  2,  1791. 
A^iong  his  last  words  were,  "  Envelop  me  with  perfumes 
and  crown  me  with  flowers,  that  I  may  pass  away  into 
everlasting  sleep."  His  strong  constitution  had  been 
ruined  by  inordinate  passions  and  immoral  pleasures 
carried  to  the  greatest  excess,  but  veiled  under  a  decorous 
exterior  after  he  had  attained  eminence  as  a  legislator. 
He  had  the  art  of  enlisting  men  of  talents  in  his  service 
and  appropriating  their  productions,  on  which  he  im- 
pressed the  seal  of  his  originality.  Dumont,  Claviere, 
and  Duroverai  were,  perhaps,  the  chief  persons  who  thus 
assisted  him.  Mirabeau  had  given  development  and 
outward  form  to  the  French  Revolution  ;  but  to  control 
it  was  beyond  his  power.  His  indomitable  will  might 
for  a  time  direct  or  overawe  the  fury  of  the  populace  ; 
but  he  possessed  no  virtues  which  could  inspire  the 
better  portion  of  the  people  with  that  trust  and  confi- 
dence without  which  there  can  be  no  stability  for  any 
government. 

Alluding  to  the  resemblance  between  Mirabeau  and 
Chatham,  Macaulay  observes,  "  Sudden  bursts  which 


seemed  to  be  the  effect  of  inspiration,  short  sentences 
which  came  like  lightning,  dazzling,  burning,  striking 
down  everything  before  them,  ...  in  these  chiefly  lay 
the  oratorical  power  both  of  Chatham  and  Mirabeau.  .  .  . 
In  true  dignity  of  character,  in  private  and  public  virtue, 
it  may  seem  absurd  to  institute  any  comparison  between 
them  ;  but  they  had  the  same  haughtiness  and  vehemence 
of  temper.  In  their  language  and  manner  there  was  a 
disdainful  self-confidence,  an  imperiousness  before  which 
all  common  minds  quailed.  .  .  .  There  have  been  far 
greater  speakers  and  far  greater  statesmen  than  either 
of  them  ;  but  we  doubt  whether  any  men  have,  in  modern 
times,  exercised  such  vast  personal  influence  over  stormy 
and  divided  assemblies."  (Article  on  "  Dumont's  Recol- 
lections of  Mirabeau,"  in  Macaulay's  "Essays.") 

See  Mirabeau,  "A  Life- History,"  London,  2  vols.,  1S48  ;  Lamar- 
tine, "History  of  the  Girondists,"  book  i. ;  Carlyle,  "Essays," 
vol.  i.  ;  Brougham,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  IIL,"  2d 
series;  Chaussard,  "  Esprit  de  Mirabeau,"  2  vols.,  1797:  Victor 
Hugo,  "  fitude  sur  Mirabeau,"  1834:  F.  Lewitz,  "Mirabeau,  Bild 
seines  Lebens,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1852-53;  Cadet  de  Gassicourt, 
"  Essai  sur  la  Vie  priv^e  de  Mirabeau,"  1800 ;  J.  Merilhou,  "  Essai 
historique  sur  la  Vie  de  Mirabeau,"  1825;  Louis  de  Montignv, 
"  Memoires  biographiques,  litteraires  et  politiques  de  Mirabeau,"  8 
vols.,  1833-41  ;  Dumont,  "Souvenirs  sur  Mirabeau,"  1832;  Pithou, 
"  Abrege  de  la  Vie  de  Mirabeau,"  1791 ;  "  Memoires  sur  Mirabeau  et 
son  fipoque,"  (anonymous,)  Paris,  4  vols.,  1824;  Schneidewind, 
"  Mirabeau  und  seine  Zeit,"  1831. 

Mirabeau,  de,  (Jean  Antoine  Riquetti,)  Mar- 
quis, surnamed  Silverstock,  a  brave  French  officer, 
born  in  Provence  in  1666,  was  the  grandfather  of  the 
great  orator  Mirabeau.  His  ancestors,  the  Arrighettis, 
were  exiled  from  Florence  in  1267.  He  was  called  "  Ven- 
dome's  right  arm."  At  the  battle  of  Cassano,  in  1706, 
where  he  commanded  a  regiment,  he  received  twenty- 
seven  wounds,  one  of  which  was  in  the  neck.  In  conse- 
quence of  this,  he  wore  a  silver  stock  to  support  his  head. 
He  married,  and  lived  many  years  after  that  action. 

See  " Memoires  de  Mirabeau;"  Carlyle,  "Essays,"  vol.  i. 

Mirabeau,  de,  (Victor  Riquetti,)  Marquis,  the 
self-styled  "Friend  of  Men."  born  at  Perthuis  in  1715, 
was  the  son  of  the  preceding,  and  father  of  the  great 
orator.  A  proud,  eccentric  person,  of  violent  passions 
and  powerful  intellect,  he  was  regarded  as  the  reverse  of 
a  "friend"  by  most  men  who  had  intercourse  with  him. 
His  hobby  was  Political  Economy,  in  which  he  was  a 
disciple  of  Du  Quesnay.  He  published  on  that  science 
able  and  voluminous  works,  some  of  which  were  re- 
ceived with  favour.  His  "Friend  of  Men,"  ("Ami  des 
Homines,")  which  appeared  about  1755,  made  a  great 
sensation,  tliough  its  style  was  extremely  rugged,  quaint, 
and  tortuous.  He  lived  mostly  in  Paris,  and  was  am- 
bitious to  diiect  affairs  of  state.  It  is  reported  that  he 
obtained  from  the  ministry  no  less  than  fifty-four  lettres 
de  cachet,  arbitrary  warrants  to  imprison  his  children  and 
others.  Die£lini789.  "  Out  of  all  which  circumstances," 
says  Carlyle,  "there  has  come  forth  this  Marquis  de 
Mirabeau,  shaped  into  one  of  the  most  singular,  sublime 
pedants  that  ever  stepped  the  soil  of  France.  There 
never  entered  the  brain  of  Hogarth  or  of  rare  old  Ben 
such  a  piece  of  humour  as  in  this  brave  old  Riquetti 
nature  has  presented  us  ready-made.  For  withal  there 
is  such  genius  in  him,  rich  depth  of  character,  inde- 
structible cheerfulness  and  health  breaking  out  in  spite 
of  these  divorce-papers,  like  strong  sunlight  in  thundery 
weather." 

Mirabella,  me-rl-bel'li,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  anti- 
quary, born  at  Syracuse  in  1570.  He  wrote  a  "History 
of  Syracuse,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1624. 

Miraeus.    See  Lemire. 

Miramon,  me-rS-m6n',  (Miguel,)  a  Mexican  general, 
born  about  1832.  He  became  the  leader  of  the  clerical 
party  which  began  to  wage  war  against  Juarez  in  1858. 
He  was  defeated  in  a  decisive  battle  in  December,  i860, 
and  went  into  exile.  He  afterwards  returned,  and 
fought  for  Maximilian,  and  was  executed  with  him  in 
June,  1867. 

Miranda,  me-rin'dS,  (Francisco,)  a  South  American 
patriot,  born  at  Caraccas  about  1750.  Having  entered 
the  French  army,  he  served  in  the  American  campaigns 
of  1779  and  1 781,  and  in  1792  l^ecame  general  of  division 
under  Dumouriez.  In  the  campaign  of  1793  he  was 
defeated  by  the  allies  at  Neerwinden,  and  was  brought  to 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  ai»  e,   o,  obscure;  fSr>  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MIRANDA 


1595 


MITCHELL 


trial  for  mismanagement  on  this  occasion,  but  he  was 
acquitted.  Being  condemned  by  the  Directory  in  1797, 
he  took  refuge  in  England,  and  on  his  return  to  Paris, 
in  1803,  was  a  second  time  banished.  He  sailed  in  1806 
to  Venezuela,  where  he  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  found  a  republic.  He  was  arrested  in  181 2  by  the 
Spanish  government,  and  imprisoned  at  Cadiz,  where 
he  died  in  1816. 

See  J.  Biggs.  "  History  of  Miranda's  Attempt  to  effect  a  Revo- 
lution in  South  America;"  Dumouriez,  "Memoires." 

Miranda,  de,  d^  me-rSu'dS,  (Don  Juan  Garcia,)  a 
Spanish  artist,  born  at  Madrid  in  1677,  became  painter 
to  the  king,  Philip  V.  Died  in  1749.  There  were 
several  other  painters  of  the  same  family. 

See  Cean-Bekmudez,  "  Diccionario  Historico,"  etc. 

Miranda,  de,  da  me-r&n'dl,  (Sa,)  one  of  the  earliest 
Portuguese  poets,  born  at  Coimbra  about  1495.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  Portuguese  literature,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  to  emjjloy  the  metres  of  Dante  and 
Petrarch.  He  was  the  author  of  sonnets  and  dramas, 
but  his  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his  poetical  epistles 
and  eclogues.    Died  in  1558. 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "  Bibliotheca  Lnsitana;"  Bouterwek, 
"  Histoire  litteraire  ;"  A.  deVarnhagen,  "O  Panorama." 

Mirandola.  See  Pico  della  Mirandola, 
Mirbel,  de,  deh  mhWhlV,  (Charles  FRANgois  Bris- 
SEAU,)  an  eminent  French  botanist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1776.  He  was  appointed  by  the  empress  Josephine 
superintendent  of  the  gardens  of  Malmaison  in  1803,  and 
in  1808  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  adjunct  professor  of  botany  and  vegetable  physiology 
to  the  Faculty  of  Sciences.  He  afterwards  held  several 
public  offices,  and  in  1828  was  appointed  professor  of 
culture  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  "Elements  of  Botany  and  Vegetable  Physi- 
ology," (3  vols.,  1 81 5,)  and  "Natural  History  of  Vege- 
tables," etc.,  (15  vols.,  1826,)  written  in  conjunction  with 
Lamarck,  also  "  Researches  on  the  Marchantia  Poly- 
morpha,"  and  other  treatises  of  great  value,  contributed 
to  the  "Journal  de  Physique"  and  various  other  scien- 
tific periodicals.  He  likewise  assisted  Sonnini  in  his 
•*  Natural  History  of  Plants."    Died  in  1854. 

See  Payen,  "  filoge  historique  de  M.  de  Mirbel,"  1858;  "  Noii- 
velle  Bio!;rapliie  Generale." 

Mirbel,  de,  (Lizi.nska  Aim6e  Zot  Ruf,)  the  wife  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Cherbourg  in  1796.  She  ac- 
quired a  high  reputation  as  a  miniature-painter.  Among 
her  best  works  may  be  named  the  portraits  of  Louis 
Philippe,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  Count  of  Paris, 
Madame  Guizot,  and  fimile  de  Girardin.  She  obtained 
several  medals,  and  was  appointed  after  the  restoration 
miniature-painter  to  the  king.    Died  in  1849. 

See  "Journal  des  Beaux- Arts,"  1849. 

Mirecourt,  m^R^kooR',  (Charles  Jean  Baptiste 
Jacquot,)  called  Eugene  de  Mirecourt,  a  French  lit- 
teratejir,  born  at  Mirecourt,  in  Vosges,  in  1812.  He  pro- 
duced a  work  called  "  Portrait-Gallery  of  Contempo- 
raries," ("Galerie  des  Contemporains,"  60  vols.,  1854- 
57,)  in  which  he  iiululged  in  offensive  personalities.  He 
was  prosecuted  bv  Lamennais,  George  Sand,  and  others. 

Mirepoix,  de,  deh  m^R'pwa',  (Charles  Pierre 
Gaston  Franqc^is  de  Levis — deh  Ik've',)  Due,  a 
French  general,  born  in  1699.  He  became  a  marshal  of 
France  in  1757.    Died  in  1 758. 

Mirevelt.    See  Mierfvelt. 

Mir'i-am,  [Heb.  a  prophetess,  a  sister  of 

Moses,  the  Hebrew  lawgiver.  She  sang  a  song  of  tri- 
umph after  the  children  of  Israel  had  passed  through 
the  Red  Sea. 

See  Exodus  xv.  20;  Nnmliers  xii. 

Mirkhond,  mir'Kond',  a  celebrated  Persian  histo- 
rian, horn  in  1433,  ^^^^  '^'"'^  author  of  a  work  entitled 
"  Garden  of  Purity,  or  History  of  Prophets,  Kings,  and 
Caliphs."  There  are  manuscripts  of  this  history  in  the 
libraries  of  Paris,  London,  Berlin,  and  Vienna,  and  por- 
tions of  it  have  been  translated  into  French  and  several 
other  languages.    Died  in  1498. 

Miromesnil,  de,  deh  me'ro'mi'n^K,  (Armand  Tho- 
mas Hue,)  a  French  minister  of  state,  born  in  the  Or- 
leannais  in  1723.  He  was  keeper  of  the  seals  from  1774 
to  1787.    Died  in  1796. 


Mirza.    See  MeerzA. 

Mi-se'nus,  [Gr.  M^ctt^voc;  Fr.  Mis^ne,  me'z^n',]  a 
Trojan  warrior,  distinguished  for  his  valour  and  his  skill 
as  a  trumpeter,  was  called  ^Eoi/ides  by  Virgil.  After 
the  capture  of  Troy,  he  went  to  Italy  with  ^Eneas,  whom 
he  served  as  a  trumpeter.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
drowned  by  a  Triton  who  was  envious  of  his  musical  skill. 

See  Virgil's  "^Eneid,"  book  vi.  162-174. 

Misri-EfFendi,  mis'ree  ^f-fln'dee,  a  Turkish  poet 
and  enthusiast,  born  in  Egypt  about  1660.  He  cele- 
brated in  verse  the  incarnation  of  Jesus  Christ.  Died 
in  1710. 

Missiessy,  me'se'^'se',  (Edouard  Thomas  Bur- 
GUES,)  a  French  admiral,  born  in  Provence  in  1754.  He 
commanded  a  squadron  which,  in  May,  1805,  was  sent 
to  the  Antilles,  and  in  1809  commanded  the  naval  forces 
at  Antwerp.    Died  in  1832. 

Misson,  me's^N',  (Francois  Maximilten,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Lyons,  was  of  a  Protestant  family,  and 
settled  in  England  after  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  Nantes.  Having  visited  Italy  in  1687,  he  published, 
after  his  return,  an  account  of  his  travels,  which  was 
commended  by  Addison  for  its  lively  and  faithful  de- 
scriptions.   Died  in  1721. 

Mitch'el,  (John,)  an  Irish  adventurer,  born  in  the 
county  of  Derry  in  181 5.  He  was  for  a  time  associate 
editor  of  the  Dublin  "  Nation,"  and  subsequently  of 
"  The  United  Irishman,"  which,  however,  was  soon  sup- 
pressed by  the  British  government,  and  Mitchel  was  sen- 
tenced to  fourteen  years'  banishment  to  Australia  in  1848. 
Having  effected  his  escape  in  1854,  he  came  to  New 
York,  and  subsequently  settled  in  Tennessee,  where  he 
edited  "The  Southern  Citizen."  Soon  after  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war  of  1 861,  he  became  editor  of  the  Richmond 
"Examiner,"  one  of  the  most  violent  and  scurrilous 
of  the  secession  journals. 

Mitchel,  (Ormsby  Macknight,)  an  eminent  Ameri- 
can astronomer,  born  in  Union  county,  Kentucky,  in 
1810.  Having  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1829,  he 
became  in  1834  professor  of  mathematics,  philosophy, 
and  astronomy  at  Cincinnati  College,  Ohio.  He  first 
suggested  the  erection  of  an  observatory  at  Cincinnati, 
and  the  successful  accomplishment  of  the  enterprise  was 
chiefly  due  to  his  eff"orts  ;  and  the  institution,  of  which  he 
became  director,  was  provided  through  his  exertions  with 
one  of  the  finest  telescopes  to  be  found  in  the  United 
States.  He  delivered  popular  lectures  on  astronomy 
at  various  places,  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Planetary  and  Stellar  Worlds,"  which  was  very  favour- 
ably received.  In  1859  he  became  director  of  the  Dud- 
ley Observatory  at  Albany.  He  was  appointed  a  briga- 
dier-general in  the  Union  army  in  August,  1861.  He 
moved  with  a  small  army  from  Tennessee  to  Alabama 
in  April,  1862,  surprised  Huntsville,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  energy.  Having  been  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  major-general,  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  department  of  the  South,  about  August,  1862.  He 
died  of  yellow  fever  at  Beaufort,  South  Carolina,  in 
October  of  that  year. 

Mitch'ell,  (Sir  Andrew,)  a  distinguished  diplomatist, 
born  in  Edinburgh  about  1695,  was  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment in  1747,  and  in  1751  was  appointed  resident  min- 
ister at  Brussels.  He  was  ambassador-extraordinary  to 
Berlin  in  1753,  and  acquired  considerable  influence  over 
Frederick  the  Great,  whom  he  succeeded  in  detaching 
from  the  interests  of  France.    Died  in  1 771. 

See  "  Memoirs  and  Papers  of  Sir  Andrew  Mitchell,"  by  A.  Bis- 
.sett,  1850;  Thi^bault,  "Souvenirs  de  vingt  Ans  de  Sejour  ^ 
Berlin." 

Mitchell,  (Andrew,)  a  Scottish  naval  ofiicer,  born 
about  1757,  attained  the  rank  of  vice-admiral  of  the 
white  in  1799,  and  in  1802  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  on  the  coast  of  America.    Died  in  1806. 

Mitchell,  (Sir  David,)  a  naval  commander  under  the 
reign  of  William  HI.,  rose  to  be  rear-admiral  of  the 
blue  in  1693.  He  was  afterwards  employed  in  important 
missions  to  Russia  and  Holland.    Died  in  1710. 

Mitch'ell,  (Donald  Grant,)  a  distinguished  Ameri- 
can writer,  born  at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1822. 
Having  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1841,  he  made  the 
tour  of  Europe,  and  published  after  his  return,  under 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  f  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K^gitttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Jp^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MITCHELL 


MIT FORD 


the  pseudonym  of  Ik  Marvel,  "  Fresh  Gleanings  ;  or,  A 
New  Sheaf  from  the  Old  Fields  of  Continental  Europe," 
(1847.)  Mis  *'  Reveries  of  a  Bachelor"  came  out  in  1850, 
and  "Dream  Life"  in  1851  :  the  former  was  received 
with  great  favour.  lie  has  also  been  a  contributor  to 
the  "  Knickerbocker  Magazine"  and  the  **  Atlantic 
Monthly."  He  was  appointed  in  1853  United  States 
consul  at  Venice.  His  agricultural  writings  have  been 
received  with  much  favour.  One  of  his  latest  works  is 
entitled  "  My  Farm  of  Edgevvood,"  (1863.) 

Mitchell,  (Elisha,)  D.D.,  an  American  chemist  and 
divine,  born  in  Litchfield  county,  Connecticut,  in  1793, 
became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
North  Carolina  in  181 7,  and  subsequently  of  chemistry 
in  the  same  institution.  Heing  appointed  State  surveyor, 
he  first  discovered  the  fact  that  the  mountains  of  North 
Carolina  are  the  highest  in  the  United  States  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  While  exploring  one  of  these 
heights,  in,  1857,  he  was  killed  by  a  fall  from  a  precipice. 
His  name  has  been  given  to  one  of  the  highest  summits. 

Mitchell,  (John  Kearsley,)  M.D.,  an  American 
physician,  born  in  Jefferson  county,  Virginia,  in  1796. 
He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
in  1 841  became  professor  of  the  theory  and  practice  of 
medicine  in  Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadelphia.  He 
published  a  treatise  "On  the  Cryptogamous  Origin  of 
Malarious  and  Epidemic  Fevers,"  (1849,)  and  lectures  on 
scientific  subjects,  which  are  highly  esteemed  and  have 
been  translated  into  foreign  languages.    Died  in  1858. 

Mitchell,  (Joseph,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  dramatist, 
born  about  1685,  was  the  author  of  a  tragedy  entitled 
"The  Fatal  Extravagance,"  "The  Highland  Fair,"  a 
ballad  opera,  and  a  number  of  poems.    Died  in  1738. 

See  Gibber.  "Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Mitchell,  (Maria,)  a  distinguished  American  astron- 
omer, horn  in  the  island  of  Nantucket  in  1818.  She  has 
published,  besides  other  astronomical  treatises,  a  me- 
moir on  a  telescopic  comet  discovered  by  her  in  1847. 
A  gold  medal  was  conferred  upon  her  by  the  King  of 
Denmark  for  this  discovery.  Miss  Mitchell  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  astronomy  at  Vassar  College  soon 
after  the  opening  of  that  institution  in  1865. 

See  "Woman's  Record  of  Distinguished  Women,"  by  Mrs.  S.  J. 
Hale. 

Mitchell,  (Robert  B.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Ohio  about  1825.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of 
the  Union  army  about  April,  1862,  and  commanded  a 
division  at  Perryville,  October  8  of  that  year. 

Mitchell,  (S.  Weir,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  physiologist,  a  son  of  Dr.  J.  K.  Mitchell,  noticed 
above,  vi^as  born  in  Philadelphia,  February  15,  1829.  He 
graduated  at  the  Jefferson  Medical  College  in  1850.  He 
has  particularly  distinguished  himself  by  his  researches 
on  the  chemical  nature  and  physiological  action  of  the 
venom  of  serpents.  Among  his  numerous  contributions 
to  medical  science  we  may  name  "Researches  upon  the 
Venom  of  the  Rattlesnake,"  etc.,  published  among  the 
Smithsonian  Contributions,  (i860,)  "Experiments  and 
Observations  upon  the  Circulation  in  the  Chelonura 
Serpentina,"  (Snapping-Turtle,)  etc.,  published  among 
the  Memoirs  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society, 
1862,  and  "  Researches  on  the  Physiology  of  the  Cerebel- 
lum," (see  the  "American  Journal  of  Medical  Sciences" 
for  April,  1869.)  He  has  also  published  (with  Drs.  Keen 
and  Morehouse)  an  excellent  work  on  the  "Effects  of 
Gunshot  Wounds  and  other  Injuries  of  the  Nerves," 
(1864.)  Dr.  Mitchell  is  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
and  of  numerous  other  scientific  institutions. 

Mitchell,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  scholar, 
born  in  London  in  1783.  He  studied  at  Pembroke  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  in  1813  began  the  publication  of  a 
series  of  essays  on  Aristophanes  and  Athenian  manners, 
in  the  "Quarterly  Review,"  which  won  for  him  a  high 
reputation.  He  afterwards  published  an  excellent  trans- 
lation of  several  comedies  of  Aristophanes  into  English 
verse  ;  also  an  edition  of  Sophocles,  and  five  dramas  of 
Aristophanes,  (with  English  notes.)  He  died  in  1845, 
leaving  unfinished  an  edition  of  his  "  Pentalogia  Aris- 
tophanica." 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1820. 


Mitchell,  (Sir  Thomas  Livingstone,)  a  Scottish 
traveller,  born  in  Stirlingshire  in  1792.  He  served  in 
the  Spanish  campaigns  from  1808  to  1814,  and  in  1827 
sailed  to  Australia,  where  he  was  soon  after  appointed 
surveyor-general.  He  gave  the  name  of  Australia  Felix 
to  a  region  hitherto  unexplored,  and  ascertained  the 
courses  of  the  Glenelg,  the  Darling,  and  other  rivers. 
He  published,  among  other  works,  "  Outlines  of  a  Sys- 
tem of  Surveying  for  Geographical  and  Military  Pur- 
poses," (1827,)  "Three  Expeditions  into  the  Interior  of 
Eastern  Australia,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1838,)  and  "  Australian 
Geography,"  etc.,  (1850.)  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  and  of  the  Geographical  Society.  Died 
in  1855. 

Mitch'ill,  (Samuel  Latham,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can physician  and  naturalist,  born  on  Long  Island  in  1764. 
In  1786  he  graduated  as  doctor  of  medicine  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh.  He  became  in  1792  professor  of 
chemistry,  natural  history,  and  philosophy  in  Columbia 
College,  New  York.  He  was  for  many  years  associate 
editor  of  the  "  Medical  Repository."  He  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1804,  and  in  1820  was 
appointed  professor  of  botany  and  materia  medica  in 
the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New  York. 
He  published  "Observations  on  the  Absorbent  Tubes 
of  Animal  Bodies,"  and  other  scientific  works.  Died  in 
1831. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  i. ;  DuvCKiNCK,  "  Cyclopasdia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Mitelli,  me-teKIee,  or  Metelli,  mk-tel'lee,  (Agos- 
TINO,)  an  Italian  painter  and  engraver  of  great  merit, 
born  near  Bologna  in  1609,  was  a  pupil  of  Dentone  and 
Falcetta.  His  principal  works  are  perspective  and  ar- 
chitectural pieces,  in  which  his  friend  Michael  Angelo 
Colonna  painted  the  figures.  Among  their  master- 
pieces are  the  frescos  in  the  palace  of  Cardinal  Spada 
at  Rome.  Mitelli  died  in  1660,  at  Madrid,  whither  he 
had  been  invited  by  Philip  IV. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Mitelli,  (Giuseppe  Maria,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  1634,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  His 
prints  after  Correggio  and  the  Caracci  are  ranked  among 
his  best  works.    Died  in  1718. 

Mifford,  (John,)  an  English  writer  and  journalist, 
was  editor  of  the  "  Bon-Ton  Magazine,"  "  Quizzical 
Gazette,"  and  other  periodicals  of  the  kind.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  naval  romance  entitled  "Johnny  New- 
come  in  the  Navy,"  and  several  popular  ballads.  Died 
in  183 1. 

See  TiMPERLEV,  "  Encyclopeedia  of  Literary  Anecdote." 

Mitford,  (John  Freeman,)  an  English  statesman 
and  jurist,  born  in  1748,  was  a  brother  of  the  historian, 
noticed  below.  He  studied  at  New  College,  Oxford, 
and,  having  been  admitted  to  the  bar,  was  elected  to 
Parliament  for  Beer- Alston  in  1789.  He  became  attorney- 
general  in  1799,  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons 
in  1801,  and  in  1802  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland,  being 
created  at  the  same  time  a  peer,  with  the  title  of  Baron 
Redesdale.  On  the  death  of  Mr,  Pitt  he  resigned  his 
office  of  chancellor.    Died  in  1830. 

Mitford,  (Mary  Russell,)  a  charming  English  writer, 
born  in  Hampshire  in  1786.  Her  father  was  a  physiciari 
of  more  than  ordinary  talent  and  culture,  whose  improvi- 
dence, however,  and  luxurious  tastes  had  involved  him 
in  pecuniary  embarrassment.  In  order  to  relieve  his 
necessities.  Miss  Mitford  devoted  herself  to  authorship 
at  an  early  age,  and  published  in  1806  three  volumes  of 
poems,  which  met  with  severe  criticism  from  some  of 
the  leading  journals.  Her  next  publications  were  the 
tragedies  of  "Julian,"  (1823,)  "The  Foscari,"  (1826,) 
"  Rienzi,"  (1828,)  and  "Charles  I.,"  several  of  which 
were  favourably  received.  She  had  previously  contrib- 
uted to  the  "  Ladies'  Magazine"  a  series  of  sketches 
of  English  life,  which  appeared  in  1832  under  the  title 
of  "Our  Village,"  etc.,  (5  vols,)  The  genial  spirit, 
graceful  simplicity,  and  freshness  of  feeling  displayed  in 
these  tales  won  for  them  the  favour  of  all  classes,  and 
they  passed  rapidly  through  many  editions.  Among 
Miss  Mitford's  other  works  we  may  name  "  Belford 
Regis;  or.  Sketches  of  a  Country  Town,"  "Stories  of 
American  Life  by  American  Writers,"  "Recollections 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, 


short;  a,  ?,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  n\lv,  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MITFORD 


1597  MITSCHERLICH 


of  a  Literary  Life,"  (3  vols.,  1852,)  and  "  Atherton,  and 
other  Tales,"  (1854.)    Died  in  1855. 

See  the  "  Life  of  Mary  Russell  Mitford,  told  by  herself  in  Letters 
to  her  Friends,"  edited  by  the  Rev.  A.  G.  K.  L'Estrange,  Lon- 
don, 1870;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1824; 
"  Blackwood's  Mai^azine"  for  June,  1854. 

Mitford,  (William,)  an  English  historian,  born  in 
London  in  1 744.  He  entered  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
and  subsequently  studied  law  at  the  Middle  Temple. 
He  was  appointed  in  1769  a  captain  in  the  South  Hamp- 
shire Militia,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Gib- 
bon, the  future  historian,  at  that  time  an  officer  in  the 
same  regitnent.  Mitford  published  in  1774  his  "  Inquiry 
into  the  Principles  of  Harmony  in  Languages,"  which 
was  followed  by  a  "Treatise  on  the  Military  Force," 
etc.  Having  visited  France  and  Italy,  he  was  appointed, 
after  his  return,  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  Hampshire 
Militia,  (1779,)  and  was  subsequently  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment, as  a  Tory,  for  Newport,  Beer- Alston,  and  New 
Romney.  He  brought  out  in  1784  the  first  volume  of 
his  "  History  of  Greece,"  completed  in  five  volumes  in 
1818.  Its  style  is  characterized  by  great  spirit  and 
warmth  of  colouring,  and  displays  uncommon  learning 
and  research,  but  it  is  strongly  tinctured  with  the  anti- 
democratic prejudices  of  the  author.    Died  in  1827. 

"The  Athenian  democracy,"  says  an  able  critic  in  the 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale,"  "  is  treated  by  him 
with  extreme  injustice.  Scarcely  anything  can  be  ima- 
gined more  partial  or  more  false  than  his  picture  of  the 
great  conflict  between  Athens  and  Philip  of  Macedon. 
Philip,  as  he  represents  him,  unites  the  perfections  of  a 
king,  a  hero,  and  an  accomplished  statesman  ;  Demos- 
thenes, on  the  contrary,  is  a  demagogue,  violent,  venal, 
and  dishonest."  "  Mitford's  History  of  Greece  is,"  says 
DeQuincey,  "as  nearly  perfect  in  its  injustice  as  human 
infirmity  will  allow." 

See  Macaulav,  Review  of  "Mitford's  History  of  Greece;" 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  180S  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  April,  1821  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mith'rat  or  Mith'ras,  [Gr.  Wtdpaq ;  Lat.  Mn  h'ras  ; 
Sanscrit,  Mit'ra  or  Mitras,]  a  deity  of  the  ancient 
Persians,  usually  regarded  as  the  god  of  the  sun  ;  but 
he  is  more  properly  the  god  of  day,  and,  in  a  higher  and 
more  extended  sense,  the  god  of  light,  presiding  over 
the  movements  and  influence  of  the  principal  heavenly 
bodies,  including  the  five  planets  and  the  sun  and  moon. 
By  the  followers  of  Zoroaster  he  was  regarded  as  the 
chief  of  the  Izeds,  (a  class  of  angelic  beings,)  and  in  a 
particular  manner  as  presiding  over  the  light  which 
mortals  enjoy  on  earth,  (but  as  distinct  from  the  sun,) 
and  as  a  mediator  between  men  and  Ormuzd.  The 
primary  signification  of  the  Sanscrit  Mitra  is  a  "  friend  ;" 
and  Mithra  would  seem  to  be  the  representative  of 
light  as  the  friend  of  mankind  and  as  the  mediator 
between  earth  and  heaven.  In  this  character  of  medi- 
ator, as  well  as  in  some  other  respects,  he  would  seem 
to  approach  the  character  of  Agni,  (which  see.)  In 
the  time  of  the  emperors  the  worship  of  Mithra  was 
introduced  extensively  into  Italy  and  other  parts  of  the 
Roman  empire.  He  is  usually  represented  as  a  hand- 
some young  man,  seated  or  kneeling  on  a  bull,  into  which 
he  is  thrusting  the  sacrificial  knife  ;  at  his  side  are  the 
evening  and  morning  star,  and  near  at  hand  a  dog,  a 
lion,  and  other  animals,  the  signification  of  which  is  at 
present  very  imperfectly  understood. 

See  GuiGNiAUT,  "Religions  de  I'Antiquite,"  vol.  i.  book  ii.  ; 
"Biographie  Universelle,"  (Partie  mythologique.) 

Mithridate.    See  Mithri dates. 

Mith-ri-da'tes,  [Gr.  'M.LdpLdu.Tri^  or  MLdpaSarTjc;  Fr. 
Mithridate,  me'tRe'dtt',]  a  Persian  name,  borne  by 
several  kings  of  Pontus,  who  were  descended  from 
Artabazes,  a  Persian  noble.  It  is  supposed  to  be  de- 
rived from  Mithra,  (the  sun,)  and  signifies  "given  by 
the  sun."  Little  is  known  of  Mithridates  I.,  who  was 
the  son  of  Ariobarzanes. 

Mithridates  II.,  the  son  of  Ariobarzanes  II.,  began 
to  reign  about  337  b.c.  He  extended  his  dominions  by 
conquest,  and  was  called  the  founder  of  the  kingdom  of 
Pontus.  In  a  war  with  Antigonus  he  was  defeated,  made 
prisoner,  and  put  to  death,  about  303  B.C. 

Mithridates  III.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  succeeded 
his  father,  and  made  conquests  in  Paphlagonia.  He 


died  after  a  reign  of  thirty-six  years,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Ariobarzanes  III. 
See  Clinton,  "  Fasti  Hellenici.' 

Mithridates  IV.,  of  Pontus,  the  son  of  Ariobarzanes 
III.,  began  to  reign  probably  about  245  B.C.,  when  he 
was  a  minor.  He  waged  a  successful  war  against 
Seleucus  Callinicus,  who,  to  obtain  peace,  gave  him  his 
own  sister  in  marriage,  with  one  or  two  provinces  as  a 
dowry.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  in  190  B.C.  His 
successor  was  Pharnaces  I. 

Mithridates  V.,  surnamed  Evergetes,  was  a  grand- 
son of  the  preceding,  and  a  son  of  Pharnaces  I.,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  156  B.C.  He  was  a  steadfast  ally  of 
the  Romans,  who  ceded  to  him  the  province  of  Phrygia. 
After  a  peaceful  reign,  he  died  about  122  B.C. 

Mithridates  VI.,  King  of  Pontus,  surnamed  Eu'pa- 
TOR,  and  more  commonly  called  the  Great,  born  about 
135  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Mithridates  V.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded about  the  age  of  fifteen.  He  had  great  political 
and  military  talents,  and  is  said  to  have  been  master  of 
twenty-five  languages.  In  the  early  part  of  his  reign  he 
found  scope  for  his  ambition  in  the  conquest  of  Colchis 
and  of  the  Scythian  tribes  which  roamed  on  the  north 
of  the  Euxine.  His  attempt  to  acquire  Cappadocia  by 
fraud  and  force  was  resisted  by  the  Roman  senate  about 
93  B.C.  After  forming  an  alliance  with  Tigranes,  King 
of  Armenia, — then  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  Asia, 
— he  took  the  field  in  the  year  88  with  about  250,000 
men,  and  defeated  the  Romans  in  several  actions.  In 
the  same  year  he  instigated  a  general  massacre  of  the 
Romans  resident  in  Asia  Minor,  of  whom  it  was  com- 
puted that  80,000  fell  in  one  day. 

In  the  year  87  he  sent  a  large  army  into  Greece,  where 
he  was  o])posed  by  Sulla  and  defeated  at  Chaeronea,  86 
B.C.  Tiinbria,  with  another  Roman  army,  invaded  Bi- 
thynia  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  in  the  year  85.  The 
next  year  Sulla  and  Mithridates  made  a  treaty  of  peace, 
by  which  the  latter  abandoned  his  recent  conquests. 
Muraena,  who  had  obtained  command  of  the  Roman 
army,  with  some  flimsy  pretext  renewed  hostilities,  and 
was  completely  defeated  on  the  river  Halys  in  82  B.C. 
As  the  Roman  senate  had  not  ratified  the  treaty  which 
he  signed  with  Sulla,  Mithridates  made  great  preparations 
for  war,  which  was  renewed  in  74,  when  two  Roman 
armies,  under  Lucullus  and  Gotta,  entered  Bithynia.  De- 
feated with  great  loss  by  Lucullus  at  Cyzicus  and  Cabiri, 
Mithridates,  retarding  the  pursuit  of  the  Romans  by  the 
riches  he  threw  in  their  way,  took  refuge  in  the  kingdom 
of  Tigranes  (who  was  his  son-in-law)  about  72  B.C.,  and 
gave  orders  that  his  wives  Monima,  Berenice,  etc.  should 
be  jiut  to  death. 

Tigranes,  having  espoused  his  cause,  was  defeated  at 
Tigranocerta  by  Lucullus  in  69,  and  at  Artaxata  in  68  B.C. 
Mithridates  then  entered  Pontus,  and  in  67  B.C.  gained 
a  great  victory  over  the  Romans  under  Triarius,  and  re- 
covered his  kingdom.  Lucullus,  whose  victorious  career 
had  been  interrupted  by  a  mutiny  of  his  troops,  was 
superseded  in  66  by  Pompey  the  Great,  who  soon  ter- 
minated the  war.  After  losing  a  battle,  the  King  of 
Pontus  fled  to  Lake  Masotis,  (now  the  Sea  of  Azov,)  and 
offered  terms  of  peace,  to  which  Pompey  did  not  accede. 
While  he  was  busy  in  raising  a  new  army  among  the 
Scythians  and  other  barbarous  tribes,  his  son  Pharnaces 
conspired  against  him,  so  that,  to  avoid  the  fate  of  a 
caj^tive,  he  took  poison,  in  the  year  63  B.C.  After  Han- 
nibal, Mithridates  was  the  most  formidable  enemy  Rome 
ever  encountered.  Cicero  considered  him  superior  in 
power  and  character  to  any  other  king  against  whom 
the  Romans  ever  waged  war. 

See  Appian,  "  Mithridatica  ;"  Livv,  "  Jfistory  of  Rome  ;"  Jus- 
TW,  "History;"  Woltersdorf,  "  Commertatio  Vitam  Mithridatis 
Magni  per  annos  digestam  sistens,"  1813;  Dion  Cassius,  "  Frag- 
inenta;"  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Lucullus;"  'Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale;"  Clinton,  "Fasti  Hellenici;"  Niebuhr,  "Kleine 
Schriften." 

Mith-ri-da'tis,  [Gr.  Mt^paJanc,]  a  daughter  of  the 
preceding,  died  with  her  father  by  taking  poison,  B.C.  63. 

Mitscherlich,m!tsh'er-liK',  (Christoph  Wilhelm,) 
a  distinguished  German  scholar,  born  in  Thuringia  in 
1760,  was  professor  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric  at  Got- 
tingen.  He  published  in  1800  an  excellent  edition  of 
the  Odes  and  Epodes  of  Horace.    Died  in  1854. 


€  afl  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  ^ttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2l^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MITSCHERLICH 


MODENA 


Mitscherlich,  (Eilard,)  an  eminent  German  chem- 
ist, born  near  [ever  in  1794.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg 
and  Gottnigen,  and  in  1819  was  invited  to  Stockholm  by 
Berzelius,  whose  notice  he  had  attracted  by  his  valuable 
discoveries  in  isomorphism.  After  his  return  to  Ger- 
many (1821)  he  became  professor  of  chemistry  at  the 
University  of  Berlin,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  that  city.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
French  Institute  in  1852.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on 
Chemistry,"  ("Lehrbuch  der  Chimie,"2  vols.,  1829-40,) 
which  has  a  very  high  reputation,  and  wrote  contribu- 
tions to  Poggendorf  s  "  Annalen"  and  to  other  journals. 
Died  in  1863. 

Mittarelli,  m^t-td-reKlee,  (Niccol6  Jacopo,  after- 
wards Giovanni  Benedetto,)  an  Italian  theologian, 
born  in  Venice  in  1707.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the 
Camaldules,"  ("  Annales  Camaldulenses,"  9  vols.,  1755- 
73,)  a  work  of  some  merit.    Died  in  1777. 

Mittermaier,  mit'ter-mi'er,  (Karl  Joseph  Anton,) 
a  celebrated  German  statesman  and  jurist,  born  in 
Munich  in  1787.  He  was  successively  professor  of  law 
at  Bonn  and  Heidelberg,  president  of  the  preparatory 
parliament  at  Frankfort  in  1848,  and  soon  after  member 
of  the  National  Assembly.  He  published  a  number  of 
valuable  legal  treatises,  among  which  we  may  name  "  The 
Common  Civil  Process  of  Germany  compared  with  that 
of  Prussia  and  France,"  (1826.) 

Mitzler  (or  Mizler)  von  Kolof,  mits'ler  fon  ko'lof, 
(LoRENZ  Chrisioph,)  a  German  writer  on  music,  born 
in  Anspach  in  17 11.  He  published  a  "Musical  Library," 
("  Musikalische  Bibliothek,"  4  vols.,  1736-54,)  and  other 
works.    Died  at  Warsaw  in  1778. 

Mjolnir.    See  Thor. 

Mnasalcas,  na-siKkas,  [Gr.  Mi^aoaA/cac]  an  epigram- 
matic poet,  a  native  of  Sicyon,  supposed  by  some  to 
have  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Mnemon,  nee'mon,  a  surname  given  to  Artaxerxes 
on  account  of  his  retentive  memory. 

Mnemosyne,  ne-mos'i-ne,  [Gr.  UvTifioovvrj ;  Fr.  Mne- 
mosyne, na'mo'zen',]  in  the  Grecian  mythology,  the 
goddess  of  memory,  was  the  daughter  of  Uranus,  and 
the  mother  of  the  nine  Muses. 

Mnesicles,  nes'e-klez,  [Gr.  MvijoiKTi^g,]  an  able  Greek 
artist,  of  the  age  of  Pericles,  flourished  about  433  B.C. 
He  was  the  architect  of  the  Propylaea  of  the  Athenian 
Acropolis. 

Mnesimachus,  ne-sim'a-kus,  [Gr.  MvTja'ifiaxoc ;  Fr. 
MnEsimaque,  na'ze'mSk',]  an  Athenian  comic  poet  of 
the  fourth  century  before  the  Christian  era,  was  esteemed 
one  of  the  finest  writers  of  the  so-called  middle  comedy. 
There  are  a  few  fragments  of  his  plays  extant. 

Mnestheus.    See  Menestheus. 

Mnioch,  mnee'oK,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Prussian  poet, 
born  at  Elbing  in  1765,  wrote  a  number  of  popular  lyrics, 
among  which  we  may  name  "The  Song  of  the  Grave," 
and  "  Song  of  the  Masons  at  Saint  John's  Festival." 
Died  in  1804. 

Mo'ab,  [Heb.  3X10,]  the  son  of  Lot,  was  the  father 
of  the  Moabites,  who  inhabited  the  country  east  of  the 
Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan.    (See  Genesis  xix.) 

Mo^weeyah,  Moawiyah,  or  Moawyah,  mo-l^- 
wee'yah,*  written  also  Muawia,  Mauweiah,  and  Mo^- 
veah,  [in  German,  Moawijah,  Muav^ijjah,  or  Moa- 
WIJE,]  a  celebrated  caliph,  born  at  Mecca  in  610  A.D., 
was  the  founder  of  the  Omeyyad  dynasty.  He  was 
the  great-grandson  of  Omeyyah,  who  was  the  head  of  a 
powerful  family  of  the  Koreish,  and  cousin-german  to 
Abd-el-Moottalib,  the  grandfather  of  Mohammed.  He 
subjected  Arabia  to  his  power  about  660,  and  deposed 
Hassan,  the  son  of  Alee,  (Ali.)  He  was  an  able  and 
successful  but  unscrupulous  ruler.  He  died  in  680,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Yezeed,  (Yezid.)  His  grand- 
son, MoAWEEYAH  II.,  born  in  660,  became  caliph  in  683. 
He  abdicated  in  683  or  684  A.D. 

See  Weil,  "  Gescliichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  v. 

Mobius  or  Moebius,  mo'be-Cis,  (August  Ferdi- 
nand,) a  German  astronomer  and  mathematician,  born 

*  There  is  a  great  diversity  in  the  accentuation  as  well  as  in  the 
spelling  of  this  name.  Hammer-Piirgstall,  than  whom  there  is  no 
higher  authority,  places  the  full  accent  on  the  penultima;  and  we 
have  thought  it  safe  to  follow  his  example. 


at  Schulpforte  in  1790.  In  1844  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  astronomy  at  Leipsic.  He  published,  among 
other  scientific  treatises,  "The  Barycentric  Calculus,  a 
New  Expedient  for  the  Analytic  Treatment  of  Geome- 
try," (1827,)  and  "Manual  of  Statics,"  (1837.) 

Mocchetti,  mok-ket'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  physician,  born  at  Como  in  1766,  published 
"Philosophical  Odes."  He  became  in  1815  physician  to 
Caroline,  Princess  of  Wales.    Died  in  1839. 

Mocchi,  mok'kee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  near  Florence  in  1580 ;  died  in  1646. 

Mocenigo,  mo-chi-nce'go,  (Alvisio,)  born  in  1701, 
was  elected  Doge  of  Venice  in  1763.  He  pursued  a 
pacific  policy.    Died  in  1778. 

Mocenigo,  (Giovanni,)  brother  of  Pietro,  noticed 
below,  was  born  in  1408.  He  was  elected  Doge  of  Venice 
in  1478.  The  country  being  devastated  by  famine  and  the 
plague,  and  at  the  same  time  invaded  by  the  Turks, 
he  made  peace  in  1479  with  the  Sultan,  Mahomet  II. 
Died  in  1485. 

See  Marino  Sanuto,  "  Vite  de'  Duchi  di  Venezia." 

Mocenigo,  (Luigi  I.,)  succeeded  Pietro  Loredano 
as  Doge  of  Venice  in  1570.  The  most  important  events 
of  his  rule  were  the  capture  of  the  isle  of  Cyprus  by  the 
Turks,  and  the  victory  of  Lepanto,  gained  by  the  Vene- 
tians and  their  allies  under  Don  John  of  Austria,  (1571.) 
Died  in  1577. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Mocenigo,  (Luigi  II.,)  succeeded  Valieri  as  doge  in 
1700.  He  governed  with  great  wisdom  and  ability,  and 
prevailed  on  the  Venetians  to  keep  a  strict  neutrality 
during  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession.  Died  in  1709. 

See  MuRATORi,  "Annales  d'ltalia." 

Mocenigo,  (Pietro,)  became  Doge  of  Venice  in  1474, 
having  previously  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the 
wars  against  the  Turks.    Died  in  1476. 

Mocenigo,  (Sebastiano,)  brother  of  Luigi  IL,  suc- 
ceeded Cornaco  as  Doge  of  Venice  in  1722.  Died  in  1732. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Mocenigo,  (Tommaso,)  an  able  Venetian  statesman, 
born  in  1343.  He  was  elected  doge  in  1414.  The  Vene- 
tian fleet  defeated  that  of  the  Sultan  in  1416.  During  his 
administration  the  republic  was  prosperous  and  power- 
ful.   Died  in  1423. 

See  Marino  Sanuto,  "Vite  de'  Duchi  di  Venezia;"  Antonio 
QuADRi,  "  Serto  de'  Dogi  Mocenigo,"  1840. 

Mocetto,  mo-chet'to,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  artist, 
had  a  high  reputation  as  an  engraver.  He  lived  about 
1470-1500. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Mochnacki,  moK-nSt'skee,  (Maurice,)  a  Polish 
patriot  and  historian,  born  in  Galicia  in  1804.  He 
became  in  1825  associate  editor  of  the  "  Warsaw  Jour- 
nal," and  in  1830  published  an  excellent  treatise  "On 
the  Polish  Literature  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  which 
was  instrumental  in  founding  a  new  school  of  poetry  in 
Poland.  He  was  a  prominent  leader  in  the  insurrection 
of  1830  against  the  Russian  government.  On  the  fall 
of  Warsaw  he  took  refuge  in  France,  and  began  a 
"  History  of  the  Polish  Revolution,"  which  he  did  not 
live  to  complete.    Died  in  1834. 

Mocquard,  mo'kta',  (Constant,)  a  French  poli- 
tician and  litterateur,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1 79 1.  He 
practised  law  in  his  early  life.  During  the  reign  of 
Louis  Philippe  he  became  a  friend  and  adherent  of 
Louis  Napoleon,  who  in  1848  appointed  him  his  private 
secretary.  He  performed  an  important  part  in  the  coup 
d'etat  of  December,  185 1,  after  which  he  was  chef  du 
cabinet  of  the  emperor  for  many  years.  He  publisiied  a 
collection  of  criminal  trials,  "  Nouvelles  Causes  cele- 
bres,"  (6  vols.,  1847.)    Died  in  1864. 

Mo-deer',  [Sw.  pron.  mo-dnr',]  (Adolf,)  a  Swedish 
naturalist  and  economist,  born  in  1738,  published  several 
works.    Died  in  1799. 

Modena,  mod'^-ni,  (Gustavo.)  a  popular  Italian 
writer  and  tragic  actor,  born  at  Venice  in  1803.  He 
made  his  debut  in  1826  at  Rome.  He  became  an  orator 
of  the  radical  party  during  the  revolutionary  movement 
of  1847,  and  published  "Popular  Dialogues,"  ("Dialo- 
ghetti  popolari.") 


S,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  mSon; 


MODENA 


1599 


MOHAMMED 


Modena,  da,       mod'i-nS,  or  Mutina,  moo'te-nJ, 

(ToMMASu  Barisini,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  born  at  Modena  in  the  early  part  of 
the  fourteenth  century.    Among  his  master-pieces  we 
may  name  an  altar-piece  of  the  Virgin  and  Child. 
See  TiRABoscHi,  "  Notizie  degli  Artifici  Modenesi." 

Mo-des-ti'nus  He-ren'ni-us,  a  Roman  jurist  of  the 
third  century,  was  one  of  the  counsellors  of  the  emperor 
Alexander  Severus,  and  was  appointed  preceptor  to 
Maximinus  the  Younger.  He  wrote  a  number  of  legal 
works,  of  which  only  fragments  are  extant. 

Modi,  mo'de,  or  MotSi,  written  also  Mode,  [that  is, 
*'  the  Courageous,"  from  a  root  cognate  with  the  Danish 
mod  and  German  vtutk,  "  courage,"]  a  son  of  Thor,  des- 
tined to  survive  the  destruction  of  the  world  at  Ragna- 
rock.  In  the  renovated  world  he  will  share  with  Magni 
the  possession  of  their  father's  hammer,  ( mjolnir,)  and 
direct  their  efforts  towards  putting  an  end  to  all  strife. 

See  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  Kevser,  "  Religion 
of  the  Northmen." 

Modigliano,  mo-del-yl'no,  (Gian  Francesco,)  an 
Italian  painter,  sometimes  called  Francesco  da  Forli, 
born  at  Forli  about  1550.  His  works  are  principally 
historical  pieces  of  a  religious  character,  some  of  which 
have  great  merit. 

Mo'di-us,  (Francois,)  a  Flemish  philologist  and 
jurist,  born  near  Bruges  in  1536 ;  died  in  1597. 

Moebius.    See  Mob i us. 

Moehler.    See  Mohler. 

Moehsen.    See  Mohsen. 

Moellendorf.    See  Mollendorf. 

Moeller.    See  Moller. 

Moerike.    See  Morike. 

Moeris,  mee'ris,  or  Myris,  mi'ris,  [Gr.  Mo?pt{-  or 

Mi'pjf,]  a  king  of  Egypt,  who,  according  to  Herodotus, 
reigned  about  1400  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  pa- 
cific monarch,  and  to  have  adorned  the  kingdom  with 
many  monuments  and  temples,  at  Thebes,  Edfou,  fete. 

Moeris  .ffilius,  mee'ris  ee'll-us,  a  Greek  lexicog- 
rapher, surnamed  AiTiciSTA,  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
in  the  time  of  Adrian.  His  only  work  extant  is  a  "Lexi- 
con Atticum,"  or  vocabulary  of  Attic  and  Hellenic 
words. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Mocser.    See  Moser. 

Moffat,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  missionary,  born  near 
Edinburgh  in  1 795,  set  out  for  Africa  about  1816.  He 
spent  more  than  twenty  years  in  the  southern  part  of 
that  country,  and  about  1840  published  Missionary 
Labours  and  Scenes  in  Southern  Africa."  He  also 
translated  the  New  Testament  and  Psalms  into  the 
Bechuana  tongue.  Mr.  Moffat  is  father-in-law  of  the 
African  explorer,  Dr.  Livingstone. 

Mohallal,  mo-hdKlal,  (Ada-Ben-Rebiah,)  an  Ara- 
bian poet,  born  at  Diarbekir,  lived  about  600  A.D.  He 
first  fixed  the  rules  and  metre  of  Arabian  poetry.  He 
was  an  uncle  of  the  poet  Amrool-Kais. 

Mo-ham'med  or  Ma-hom'et,*  written  also  Mo- 
hamed  and  Muhammed,  [Arabic  pron.  mo-ham'- 
med  ;  Fr.  Mahomet,  mSVmy  ;  Ger.  Mohammed,  mo- 
him^mSt,  or  Muhammed,  mdo-hSm'mgt ;  It.  Maometto, 
mi-o-met'to,  or  Macometto,  mS-ko-met'to  ;  Lat.  Mo- 
Ham^'med  or  (rarely)  Moham'medes,  (gen.  of  both,  Mo- 
HAMMEDis,)  or  Muhammed  ;  Port.  Mafoma,  mi-fo'ml ; 
Sp.  Mahomet,  mS-o-m^t',]  a  celebrated  religious  teacher 
and  pretended  prophet,  the  founder  of  one  of  the  most 
widely  diffused  religions  of  the  globe,  was  born  at  Mecca 
about  570  A.D.  The  year  of  his  birth  is  not  positively 
ascertained  ;  the  authorities  are  divided  between  571  and 
569,  but  the  former  date  appears  to  be  generally  regarded 
as  the  more  probable  one.  Both  his  parents  belonged 
to  the  Koreish,  at  that  time  the  most  influential  of  all 
the  Arabian  tribes.  His  father,  Abdallah,  who  was  of 
the  family  of  Hashem,  was  regarded  as  the  handsomest 
youth  of  his  time.  He  married  A'minah,  of  the  noble 
family  Zohrah.    Their  only  child  was  Mohammed,  the 

*  This  name  is  often  pronounced,  especially  by  the  poets,  mah'- 
ho-met'orma'ho-met,  an  accentuation  derived,  in  all  probability,  from 
the  French.  (See  Introduction,  page  13.)  Mahom'et  (with  the  accent 
on  the  penultima)  is  not  only  the  prevailing  English  pronunciation, 
but  it  corresponds  more  nearly  with  the  Arabic. 


future  prophet.  Aminah  possessed,  it  is  said,  a  pecu- 
liarly nervous  temperament,  and  used  to  fancy,  while 
between  sleeping  and  waking,  that  she  was  visited  by 
spirits.  It  is  probable  that  Mohammed  inherited  from 
his  mother  his  constitutional  tendency  to  epilepsy,  as  well 
as  his  most  remarkable  mental  peculiarities.  Many  mar- 
vellous stories  are  told  of  the  circumstances  attending 
his  birth.  It  is  related,  among  other  things,  that  his 
mother  experienced  none  of  the  pangs  of  travail.  As 
soon  as  her  child  was  born,  he  raised  his  eyes  to  heaven, 
exclaiming,  "  There  is  no  God  but  God,  and  I  am  his 
prophet !"  That  same  night  the  fire  of  Zoroaster,  which, 
guarded  by  the  Magi,  had  burned  uninterruptedly  for 
more  than  a  thousand  years,  was  suddenly  extinguished, 
and  all  the  idols  in  the  world  fell  down.t 

When  his  son  was  only  two  months  old,  Abdallah 
died  ;  (according  to  some  accounts,  he  died  two  months 
before  the  birth  of  Mohammed.)  Aminah  for  a  short 
time  nursed  her  infant  herself,  but  sorrow  soon  dried 
the  fountains  of  her  breast,  and  the  young  child  was 
committed  to  the  care  of  Haleemah,  (Halimah,)  a  shep- 
herd's wife,  with  whom  he  remained  about  five  years.  It 
is  related  that  when  Haleemah  showed  the  child  to  a 
celebrated  soothsayer,  (Kahin,)  who  was  an  idolater,  the 
latter  exclaimed,  "  Kill  this  child  !"  Haleemah  snatched 
away  her  precious  charge  and  fled.  Afterwards  the 
Kahin  explained  to  the  excited  multitude  :  "  I  swear  by 
all  the  gods,"  said  he,  "that  this  child  will  kill  those 
who  belong  to  your  faith  ;  he  will  destroy  your  gods, 
and  he  will  be  victorious  over  you."  When  Mohammed 
was  four  years  old,  he  was  seized,  while  at  play,  with  a 
nervous  fit,  which  was  supposed  to  be  epilepsy.  As  this 
disease  was  ascribed  to  supernatural  influence,  his  nurse 
was  alarmed,  and  was  anxious  to  return  him  to  his 
mother  ;  but  she  was  at  last  prevailed  on  to  keep  him 
somewhat  longer.  When  he  had  completed  his  sixth 
year,  his  mother  died.  For  the  next  two  years  he  lived 
with  his  grandfather,  Abd-el-Moottalib,  who  appears  to 
have  regarded  him  with  great  fondness.  At  his  death, 
Abd-el-Moottalib  recommended  the  orphan  to  the  care 
of  his  son,  the  noble-minded  Aboo-Talib. 

When  only  twelve  years  old,  Mohammed  accompanied 
his  uncle  on  a  trading  expedition  to  Syria.  Near  Bostra 
they  met  with  an  Arabian  monk  named  Baheera  or  Ser- 
gius.  It  is  said  that  Aboo-Tilib,  for  some  reason  not 
explained,  found  it  necessary  to  send  the  young  Mo- 
hammed home  again,  and  that  Sergius  took  charge  of 
him  and  accompanied  him  to  Mecca.  Early  Christian 
biographers  assert  that  Mohammed  received  his  revela- 
tions from  this  monk  ;  and  he  himself  tells  us  in  the 
Koran  that  he  was  accused  of  having  been  taught  by  a 
foreigner.  It  is  not  improbable  that  on  his  different 
journeys  to  Syria  he  learned  many  facts  respecting  the 
religions  of  Western  Asia  ;  but  how  far  the  knowledge 
of  such  facts  influenced  his  future  career  must  ever 
remain  a  subject  of  conjecture. 

When  Mohammed  was  twenty-five  years  of  age,  his 
uncle,  Aboo-Talib,  proposed  to  him  that  he  should  take 
charge  of  the  merchandise  which  Khadijah,  (or  Khadee'- 
jah,)  a  rich  widow  of  Mecca,  was  about  to  send  to  the 
markets  of  Syria.  He  accepted  the  proposal,  and  appears 
to  have  fulfilled  his  charge  with  judgment  and  with  entire 
fidelity.  Khadijah  was  so  well  pleased  with  him  on  his 
return  that  she  offered  him  her  hand.  Although  she 
was  forty  (lunar)  years  of  age,  and  he  but  twenty-five,  it 
was  considered  by  the  family  of  Mohammed  as  a  very 
desirable  connection.  Their  nuptials  were  celebrated 
with  a  magnificent  feast  and  great  rejoicings.  This  mar- 
riage raised  Mohammed  to  an  equal  position  with  the 
wealthiest  inhabitants  of  Mecca.  His  moral  character, 
moreover,  appears  to  have  inspired  universal  esteem 
and  confidence,  and  he  was  generally  known  by  the  sur- 
name of  El-Ameen,  (El-Amin,)  or  "the  Faithful."  For 
several  years  after  his  marriage  he  continued  his  com- 
mercial journeys,  visiting,  with  the  caravans,  the  Arabian 
fairs  and  markets  of  Syria.  But,  being  now  above  the 
necessity  of  anxiously  toiling  for  a  subsistence,  he  had 
leisure  to  give  free  scope  to  the  natural  tendency  of  his 

t  It  may  be  proper  to  observe  that  some  of  the  most  wonderful 
of  these  stories  are  not  found  in  the  earlier  accounts  of  Mohammed's 
life,  and  are  clearly  the  inventions  of  a  later  age. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  h,  yl,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MOHJMMED 


1600 


MOHAMMED 


mind,  which  inclined  him  to  religious  meditation  and 
speculation.  **  He  had,"  says  Carlyle,  "  no  school  learn- 
ing ;  of  the  thing  we  call  school  learning,  none  at  all. 
The  art  of  writing  was  but  just  introduced  into  Arabia  ; 
!t  seems  to  be  the  true  opinion  that  Mahomet  never 
could  write.  Life  in  the  desert,  with  its  experiences, 
was  all  his  education." 

Until  his  fortieth  year  Mohammed  appears  to  have 
been  a  devout  worshipper  of  the  gods  of  his  fathers. 
About  this  time  he  began  to  entertain  serious  scruples 
respecting  the  worship  of  idols.  His  followers  ascribe 
the  change  to  a  divine  revelation  ;  but  others  have  sug- 
gested that  his  scruples  were  probably  excited  by  a  more 
extensive  acquaintance  with  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
vScripturc^,  wliich  he  may  have  acquired  from  his  wife's 
cousin,  War'aka,  who  had,  it  is  said,  once  been  a  Jew 
and  afterwards  became  a  Christian,  and  who  made  withal 
some  pretensions  to  astrology.  Supposing  these  con- 
jectures to  have  a  basis  of  truth,  it  was  perhaps  fortunate 
for  the  new  prophet's  claims  to  an  original  revelation 
that  Waraka  died  a  short  time  before  Mohammed  pub- 
licly proclaimed  his  divine  mission.  But,  however  his 
thoughts  may  have  been  first  directed  to  the  subject  of 
religion,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  he  was,  at 
least  in  the  early  part  of  his  career,  sincere  and  unselfish 
in  his  desire  to  convert  his  countrymen  to  a  better  faith. 
He  appears  to  have  thought  long  and  deeply,  and  to 
have  had  many  mental  struggles,  before  he  resolved  to 
announce  himself  as  a  divine  teacher.  He  was  of  a 
nervous  and  melancholic  temperament,  and  there  were 
times,  during  the  period  of  doubt  and  conflict  which 
preceded  the  annunciation  of  his  great  mission,  when 
he  was  strongly  tempted  to  commit  suicide  by  throwing 
himself  down  from  a  precipice.  (See  Sprenger's  "  Life," 
p.  105.)  In  all  his  trials  he  found  a  great  support  in  his 
faithful  wife  Khadijah,  who  was  the  first,  as  he  himself 
declared,  among  all  his  nation  that  believed  in  him. 
"God  thus  ordained  it,"  says  Ibn  Ishak,  "that  his  duties 
might  be  made  easy  to  him  ;  for,  as  often  as  he  had  to 
hear  reproachful  language,  or  was  accused  of  falsehood, 
or  was  cast  down,  she  cheered  him  up  and  inspired  him 
with  courage,  saying,  'Thou  speakest  the  truth.'  "  We 
may  well  suppose,  with  Carlyle,  that  "of  all  the  kind- 
nesses she  had  done  him,  this  of  believing  the  earnest, 
struggling  word  which  he  now  spoke  was  the  greatest." 
For  a  considerable  time  Mohammed  preached  his  new 
doctrines  respecting  the  unity  and  glorious  attributes  of 
God  to  his  household  and  intimate  friends  only.  In  three 
years  he  had  made,  we  are  told,  only  fourteen  converts  ; 
but  among  these  were  the  high-spirited,  devoted,  and 
indomitable  Alee,  (Ali,)  who  was  afterwards  surnamed 
the  "ever-victorious  Lion  of  God,"  (see  Alee,)  and 
Aboo-Bekr,  whose  character  for  good  sense,  benevolence, 
and  straightforward  integrity  contributed  not  a  little  to  the 
respectability  and  ultimate  success  of  the  new  religion. 

In  the  fourth  year  of  his  mission,  in  obedience,  as  he 
alleges,  to  an  express  command  from  heaven,  Mohammed 
resolved  to  make  a  public  declaration  of  his  faith.  He 
addressed  himself  to  the  Koreish  and  others,  asking 
them,  "  If  I  were  to  tell  you  that  there  is  an  army  on  the 
other  side  of  that  mountain,  would  you  believe  me 
"  Yes,"  they  answered,  "  for  we  do  not  consider  thee  to 
be  a  liar."  He  then  said,  "  I  come  to  warn  you  ;  and  if 
you  do  not  believe  me,  a  great  punishment  will  befall 
you  ;"  he  told  them  they  must  renounce  idolatry,  and 
make  a  profession  of  the  one  true  God  ;  that  unless  they 
did  so  they  could  have  no  true  happiness  in  this  life  nor 
salvation  in  the  life  to  come.  He  formally  separated  him- 
self from  the  polytheists,  and  publicly  condemned  their 
religion.  A  powerful  opposition  was  in  consequence 
organized  against  him, — his  uncle,  Aboo-Lahab,  (lih'hab,) 
and  Aboo-Sofian,  (of  the  family  of  Omeyyah,)  the  prin- 
cipal leader  of  the  Koreishites,  being  among  the  number 
of  his  bitterest  enemies.  Not  only  the  prophet  himself, 
but  his  disciples  were  for  a  time  in  extreme  danger ;  he 
owed  his  life  to  the  influence  of  the  powerful  family  of 
Hashem,  and  especially  to  the  magnanimity,  courage, 
and  indomitable  firmness  of  his  uncle,  Aboo-Talib,  who, 
although  he  refused  to  accept  the  new  faith,  resolved,  at 
whatever  cost,  to  protect  his  kinsman.  Every  form  of 
persuasion  and  menace  was  tried  upon  him  in  vain.  To 


the  hostile  Koreishites,  who  urged  him  to  give  up  to 
their  vengeance  the  blasphemer  of  his  country's  gods, 
he  answered  with  indignant  scorn,  and  declared  that  if 
they  should  slay  his  nephew  the  lives  of  the  chiefs  of 
their  tribe  should  pay  for  the  life  of  Mohammed.  They 
were  thunder-struck  at  his  boldness  and  awed  by  his 
invincible  determination.  But,  while  they  hesitated  to 
provoke  the  vengeance  of  the  Hashemites  by  laying 
violent  hands  upon  Mohammed,  they  persecuted  his 
disciples  in  a  hundred  ways,  insulting  and  imprisoning 
those  of  the  better  class,  and  starving  and  torturing  such 
as  had  no  wealth,  position,  or  family  connections  to  pro- 
tect them.  Under  the  pressure  of  this  persecution  many 
converts  to  the  new  faith  apostatized  ;  and  Mohammed, 
fearing  that  others  might  desert  him,  advised  some  of  his 
followers  to  leave  Mecca  and  seek  refuge  in  Abyssinia, 
which  was  ruled,  he  said,  by  a  just  and  pious  king.  The 
subsequent  conduct  of  the  Abyssinian  monarch  proved 
that  the  confidence  of  the  prophet  was  not  misplaced. 

In  spite  of  all  opposition,  the  new  doctrines  continued 
to  spread.  In  the  sixth  year  of  Mohammed's  mission 
two  important  conversions  took  place, — the  prophet's 
kinsman  Hamzah,  surnamed,  on  account  of  his  bravery, 
the  "  Lion  of  God,"  and  Omar,  who  had  at  first  been  a 
bitter  opponent  of  the  Islam,  but  afterwards  became  one 
of  its  most  zealous  and  powerful  defenders.  (See  Omar.) 

Ten  years  after  the  commencement  of  his  mission, 
(that  is,  about  619  a.d.,)  Mohammed  lost  by  death  his 
generous  and  faithful  wife,  Khadijah,  and  his  noble- 
minded  uncle  and  protector,  Aboo-Talib.  He  appears 
to  have  been  greatly  cast  down  by  these  severe  afilictions, 
and  seldom  went  out  of  his  house.  Meanwhile,  his 
enemies  seemed  to  have  become  more  exasperated  than 
ever  by  the  failure  of  all  their  efforts  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  the  new  religion.  In  this  extremity,  his  uncle, 
Aboo-Lahab,  who  had  hitherto  been  one  of  his  most 
determined  and  bitter  opponents,  but  upon  whom  now 
devolved  the  duty  of  protecting  his  kinsman,  came  for- 
ward with  singular  magnanimity  and  said  to  Mohammed, 
"  Go  wheresoever  thou  wilt,  and  do  what  thou  wast  ac- 
customed to,  do  when  Aboo-Talib  was  alive :  I  swear  by 
the  gods  of  my  country  that  no  harm  shall  befall  thee 
while  I  live."  But  a  few  days  afterwards  some  one  said 
to  Aboo-Lahab,  "  Do  you  know  what  your  nephew  says 
of  your  father.?  he  says  he  is  in  hell."  Aboo-Lahab 
asked  Mohammed  if  the  charge  was  true.  The  prophet 
had  the  hardihood  to  answer,  "Your  father  died  an 
idolater ;  and  every  idolater  goes  to  hell."  Upon  this, 
Aboo-Lahab  withdrew  his  protection. 

So  long  as  Khadijah  lived,  Mohammed  maybe  said  to 
have  been  a  strict  monogamist.  Shortly  after  her  death 
the  daughter  of  Hakeem  and  wife  of  Othman  asked  the 
prophet  why  he  did  not  marry.  "Whom  shall  I  marry?" 
said  he.  She  replied,  "If  thou  wishest  a  virgin,  take 
Ayeshah,  the  daughter  of  Aboo-Bekr;  if  a  widow,  take 
Sawdah,  the  daughter  of  Zamah, — she  believes  in  thee." 
He  instantly  replied,  "  I  will  marry  them  both." 

After  Mohammed  was  abandoned  by  Aboo-Lahab, 
another  uncle,  El-Abbas,  (the  brother  of  Aboo-Talib, 
and  ancestor  of  the  Abbasside  caliphs,)  became  his  pro- 
tector. Meanwhile  the  faith  which  had  been  rejected  at 
Mecca  was  eagerly  embraced  in  the  neighbouring  city 
of  Medina.  A  numerous  and  powerful  deputation  from 
the  most  influential  families  of  the  latter  city  waited  on 
the  prophet,  and  in  a  solemn  covenant  promised,  with 
an  oath,  that  if  he  would  come  and  live  with  them  they 
would  protect  him  as  they  would  protect  their  own  wives 
and  children.  The  offer  of  this  powerful  aid  did  not 
come  a  moment  too  soon.  His  enemies,  headed  by 
Aboo-Sofian,  had  been  unremitting  in  their  efforts  to 
procure  his  destruction.  At  length  it  was  formally  and 
])ublicly  resolved  that  he  should  be  slain.  In  order  to 
baffle  the  vengeance  of  the  Hashemites,  and  to  divide 
the  guilt  of  his  death,  it  was  agreed  that  one  man  from 
every  family  should  at  the  same  moment  plunge  his 
sword  into  the  heart  of  their  victim.  Nothing  now  re- 
mained for  him  but  death  or  instant  flight.  At  the  dead 
of  night,  accompanied  by  his  faithful  friend  Aboo-Bekr, 
he  silently  escaped  from  his  house.  The  generous  and  de- 
voted Alee,  covered  with  the  shawl  of  the  prophet,  laid 
himself  down  on  the  bed  of  his  master.  Meanwhile 


a,  e,  T,  6,  %  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  &,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  filll,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


MOHAMMED 


1 60 1 


MOHAMMED 


Mohammed  and  Aboo-Bekr  had  fled  to  the  cave  of  Thor, 
about  a  league  from  Mecca :  there  they  remained  three 
days.  According  to  one  account,  their  enemies,  after 
exploring  every  hiding-place  in  the  vicinity,  came  to  the 
mouth  of  the  cave.  But,  a  spider  having  providentially 
spread  her  web  over  the  entrance,  the  Koreishites,  deem- 
ing it  impossible  that  Mohammed  could  have  entered 
there,  turned  back  from  their  pursuit.  Perhaps  a  more 
probable  explanation  is  that  as  the  Koreishites  knew 
Medina  to  be  the  destination  of  the  fugitives,  they  never 
suspected  that  they  could  be  concealed  in  the  cave  of 
Thor,  which  lay  in  an  opposite  direction.  While  they 
were  in  the  cave,  Aboo-Bekr,  contrasting  their  weakness 
with  the  strength  of  their  enemies,  said,  trembling,  "  We 
are  but  two."  "No,"  replied  Mohammed,  "there  is  a 
third :  it  is  God  himself."  On  the  fourth  night  the 
prophet  and  his  companion  left  their  hiding-place,  and, 
riding  on  camels  which  the  servant  of  Aboo-Bekr  had 
brought,  arrived  safely  at  Medina  sixteen  days  after  his 
flight  from  Mecca.  His  approach  having  been  made 
known,  several  hundred  of  the  citizens  went  out  to  meet 
him.  He  was  welcomed  with  loud  acclamations  ;  and 
he  who  a  few  days  before  had  left  his  native  city  as  a 
fugitive,  with  a  price  upon  his  head,  now  entered  Medina 
more  like  a  king  returning  victorious  from  battle  than 
an  exile  seeking  a  place  of  refuge.  This  separation  or 
flight  of  Mohammed  from  the  city  of  his  nativity  (called 
in  Arabic  Hefrah  or  Hifrah*)  marks  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Mohammedan  era.t 

After  Mohammed's  arrival  at  Medina,  a  marked  change 
took  place  in  his  policy.  He  had  hitherto  asserted  liberty 
of  conscience  and  opposed  religious  violence.  He  now 
maintained  that  the  Islam  should,  if  necessary,  be  de- 
fended and  propagated  by  the  sword.  "  The  sword," 
said  he,  "is  the  key  of  heaven  and  of  hell  :  a  drop  of 
blood  shed  in  the  cause  of  God,  or  a  night  spent  in  arms, 
is  of  more  avail  than  two  months  of  fasting  and  prayer  ; 
whoever  falls  in  battle,  his  sins  are  forgiven  him,  and  at 
the  day  of  judgment  the  loss  of  his  limbs  shall  be  sup- 
plied by  the  wings  of  cherubim."  He  was  not  long  in 
carrying  his  new  principles  into  practice.  His  arch- 
enemy, Aboo-Sofian,  had,  with  only  thirty  or  forty  fol- 
lowers, conducted  a  rich  caravan  of  a  thousand  camels 
to  the  marts  of  Syria.  The  prophet  resolved  to  inter- 
cept it  on  its  return.  Aboo-Sofian,  having  been  informed 
of  his  design,  dispatched  a  messenger  to  Mecca  and 
obtained  a  reinforcement  of  nearly  a  thousand  men.  Mo- 
hammed's troops  amounted  to  considerably  less  than 
half  that  number.  The  hostile  fofces  met  in  the  vale 
of  Bedr,  (or  Bedder,)  about  twenty  miles  from  Medina. 
Mohammed  was  placed  on  a  throne  or  pulpit  whence 
his  eye  could  command  the  field  of  battle.  His  followers, 
being  outnumbered,  were  sorely  pressed.  At  that  critical 
moment  the  prophet  started  from  his  throne,  mounted 
his  horse,  and  threw  a  handful  of  dust  into  the  air  towards 
the  Koreishites,  crying,  "Let  their  faces  be  covered  with 
confusion  !"  Both  armies  heard  his  voice  ;  the  Koreish- 
ites were  stricken  with  terror,  while  the  Mussulmans, 
assured  of  victory,  rushed  forward  with  an  enthusiasm 
that  was  irresistible.  Some  of  the  Moslem  writers  state 
that  when  the  prophet  cast  dust  into  the  air  three  thou- 
sand angelic  warriors  on  white  and  black  steeds  made 
their  appearance  and  swept  his  foes  before  them  like  a 
whirlwind.  Seventy  of  the  Koreishites  were  killed,  and 
about  the  same  number  taken  prisoners.  Among  the 
slain  was  Aboo-Jahl,  perhaps  the  most  bitter  and  fero- 
cious of  all  the  enemies  of  Islam.  His  head  was  brought 
to  Mohammed,  who  exclaimed  with  exultation,  "  This  man 
was  the  Pharaoh  of  our  people."  So  great  was  the  terror 
and  hatred  he  had  inspired  that  even  after  his  death  his 
name  was  never  mentioned,  it  is  said,  by  true  believers 
without  the  addition,  "  May  he  be  accursed  of  God  !" 


*  This  word  is  often,  but  less  correctly,  written  Hegira  :  it  has, 
properly  speaking,  but  two  syllables.  The  vowel  i  has  doubtless 
been  added  by  the  Italians  or  Germans  to  indicate  the  sound  of/,  (or 
£'  soft.)  Reiske,  in  his  Latin  version  of  Aboolfeda's  (Abulfeda's) 
"Moslem  Annals,"  ("Annales  Moslemici,")  invariably  employs  ^'or 
£1  to  represent  the  sound  of  oury.-  thus,  he  writes  for  Khadijah 
Chadigja,  for  Aboo-Jahl  Abu  Gjahl,  etc. 

t  The  era  of  the  Hejrah  is  not  calculated  from  the  very  day  of 
Mohammed's  flight,  but  from  the  beginning  of  the  lunar  year  in 
which  it  occurred,  namely,  July  16,  622  a.d. 


The  prophet's  success  at  Bedr  was  the  first  of  that 
wonderful  series  of  victories  which,  by  spreading  the 
new  faith  to  the  borders  of  China  on  the  east  and  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  west,  were  destined  to  change  the 
face  of  the  world.  The  Islamites  were  less  successful 
in  a  second  encounter  with  their  foes,  near  Mount  Ohod, 
six  miles  north  of  Medina.  Mohammed  himself  was 
wounded  in  the  face  with  a  javelin,  two  of  his  teeth  were 
shattered  with  a  stone,  and  seventy  of  the  faithful,  in- 
cluding Hamzah,  the  prophet's  uncle,  were  left  dead  on 
the  field  of  battle.  But  his  enemies  gained  no  perma- 
nent advantage.  The  Koreishites  signally  failed  in  an 
attempt  to  take  Medina  by  siege.  The  Islam  constantly 
gained  new  adherents.  "  Caled  [Khaled]  and  Amrou," 
says  Gibbon,  "  the  future  conquerors  of  Syria  and  Egypt, 
most  seasonably  deserted  the  sinking  cause  of  idolatry." 
Soon  after,  Mecca  itself  was  taken  by  the  followers  of 
the  prophet,  who,  led  by  Khaled,  (surnamed  afterwards, 
on  account  of  his  valour,  the  "Sword  of  God,")  entered 
the^^ity  in  three  divisions.  The  chiefs  of  the  Koreish 
were  prostrate  at  the  feet  of  the  prophet.  "  What  mercy," 
asked  he,  "can  you  expect  from  the  man  whom  you  have 
so  deeply  wronged  V  "  We  trust  to  the  generosity  of 
our  kinsman."  "  And  you  shall  not  trust  in  vain  :  go ; 
you  are  safe,  you  are  free."  He  who  seven  years  before 
had  left  his  native  city  as  a  hunted  fugitive  was  now 
received  and  honoured  as  prophet  and  king.  But  in  an 
attempt  made  soon  after  to  reduce  the  Arabian  tribes 
who  still  adhered  to  idolatry,  the  army  of  Mohammed 
was  surprised  in  a  mountain-pass,  and  for  a  time  his 
own  life  was  in  imminent  peril.  Several  of  his  devoted 
followers  who  endeavoured  to  shield  him  with  their 
bodies  fell  dead  at  his  feet.  In  his  distress  he  cried, 
"  O  my  brethren,  I  am  the  apostle  of  truth  !  O  man, 
stand  fast  in  the  faith  !  O  God,  send  down  thine  aid  !" 
His  uncle  Abbis,  who  was  distinguished  for  the  strength 
of  his  voice,  called  on  the  flying  Moslems,  repeating  the 
promises  of  God  to  the  faithful.  The  battle  was  soon 
restored,  and  what  threatened  to  be  a  disastrous  defeat 
was  changed  into  a  complete  victory.  About  the  year 
630  Mohammed  sent  an  army,  under  the  command  of 
Zeid,  who  had  formerly  been  his  slave,  to  invade  Pales- 
tine, then  belonging  to  the  Greek  empire.  At  the  battle 
of  Muta,  where  for  the  first  time  the  Moslems  encoun- 
tered a  foreign  foe,  Zeid  and  two  other  of  the  leaders 
were  slain.  It  is  related  of  Jaafar,  who  succeeded  Zeid 
in  the  command  of  the  army,  that  when  his  right  hand 
was  struck  off  he  seized  the  banner  with  his  left ;  this 
also  being  severed  from  his  body,  he  embraced  the  stan- 
dard with  his  bleeding  stumps,  until  at  length  he  fell, 
pierced  with  no  fewer  than  fifty  wounds.  The  day  was 
saved  by  the  valour  of  Khaled,  in  whose  hand  it  is  said 
that  nine  swords  were  broken  before  the  hosts  of  the 
enemy  were  turned  backward.  Mohammed  had  to  be- 
wail, on  this  occasion,  not  only  the  death  of  his  faithful 
servant  Zeid,  but  also  that  of  many  of  his  bravest  fol- 
lowers. We  are  told  that  when,  after  the  battle,  he  first 
saw  the  young  orphaned  daughter  of  Zeid,  he  wept  over 
her  in  speechless  sorrow.  "  What  do  I  see  ?"  said  one 
of  his  astonished  followers.  "  You  see,"  said  he,  "  a  friend 
weeping  the  loss  of  his  most  faithful  friend." 

The  recent  successes  of  the  prophet,  by  inflaming  the 
zeal  of  the  faithful,  confirming  the  wavering,  and  con- 
vincing the  doubtful, — for,  as  it  has  been  well  observed, 
there  is  no  argument  like  success, — contributed  greatly 
to  the  rapid  diffusion  and  final  triumph  of  the  new  faith. 
But  in  the  early  part  of  632,  while  he  was  engaged  in 
organizing  a  formidable  expedition  against  Syria,  he  was 
seized  with  a  violent  malady,  (supposed  by  some  writers 
to  have  been  a  fever,)  which,  before  many  days,  terminated 
fatally.  It  is  related  that  near  the  beginning  of  this  ill- 
ness Mohammed  said  to  one  of  his  attendants,  "  The 
choice  is  given  me  either  to  remain  on  earth  until  the 
end  of  time,  or  soon  to  depart  to  the  presence  of  God  : 
I  have  chosen  the  latter."  When  he  perceived  that  his 
end  was  near,  supported  by  the  arms  of  Alee  and  another 
relative,  he  went  into  the  mosque  and  asked  publicly  if 
he  had  injured  any  one, — if  so,  he  was  ready  to  make 
full  amends,  or  to  suffer  himself  what  he  had  inflicted  on 
others.  As  no  one  answered,  he  asked  again  if  he  owed 
any  man  anything.  A  voice  replied,  "Yes, — to  me,  three 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. \ 

101 


MOHAMMED 


1602  MOHAMMED 


drachms  of  silver."  The  prophet  ordered  the  money  to 
be  paid,  and  thanked  his  creditor  that  he  made  his  com- 
plaint now  instead  of  deferring  it  till  the  day  of  judgment. 
His  last  words  were  the  utterance  of  a  broken  prayer, — 
"  O  God,  pardon  my  sins — yes — I  come  !"  He  died, 
according  to  the  Arabian  historians,  on  his  birthday,  the 
eleventh  year  of  the  Hejrah,  (632  a.d.,)  aged  63,  or,  ac- 
cording to  some  authorities,  65  years.  He  had  ceased 
to  breathe,  but  his  followers  refused  to  believe  that  he 
was  dead.  Omar,  in  his  fierce  zeal,  threatened  to  strike 
off  the  heads  of  the  infidels  who  should  dare  to  assert 
that  the  great  prophet  and  intercessor  with  God  was  no 
more.  The  authority  of  Aboo-Bekr  was  required  to 
appease  the  tumult.  "Is  it  Mohammed,  or  the  God  of 
Mohammed,  whom  you  worship?  God  liveth  forever 
and  ever;  but  Mohammed,  though  his  prophet  and 
apostle,  was  mortal  like  ourselves,  and,  in  dying,  has 
but  fulfilled  his  own  prediction," 

In  person  Mohammed  was  of  middle  stature,  with 
broad  shoulders  and  chest,  square-built  and  strong,'%ith 
large  hands  and  feet.  The  unusual  size  of  his  head  was 
partly  concealed  by  long  and  slightly-curling  locks  of 
hair.  His  forehead  was  broad  and  fair  for  an  Arab,  and 
his  fine  eyebrows  were  separated  by  a  vein  which  swelled 
up  and  became  very  conspicuous  when  he  was  angry. 
His  eyelashes  were  long,  and  his  eyes  dark  and  glowing. 
His  nose  was  large,  prominent,  and  slightly  hooked  ; 
his  mouth  was  wide,  but  adorned  with  a  fine  set  of 
teeth.  According  to  sonie  accounts,  he  stooped,  and  was 
slightly  round-shouldered.  His  natural  disposition  ap- 
pears to  have  been  in  a  high  degree  kindly  and  humane. 
"He  was  naturally  irritable,"  says  Irving,  "but  had 
brought  his  temper  under  great  control."  One  of  his 
servants  said,  "I  served  him  from  the  time  I  was  eight 
years  old,  and  he  never  scolded  me,  though  things  were 
sometimes  spoiled  by  me."  "  He  was,"  says  a  writer* 
who  will  scarcely  be  accused  of  exaggerating  his  virtues, 
"  kind  to  women, — never  beat  one,  and  entertained  more 
respect  for  them  than  is  usual  with  nations  addicted  to 
polygamy.  He  frequently  protected  women  who  came 
to  him  for  refuge.  .  .  .  He  forbade  the  believers  to  beat 
their  wives  ;  but  on  the  remonstrance  of  Omar,  who  said 
that  the  wives  would  have  the  upper  hand  over  their 
husbands,  he  allowed  it."  Nevertheless,  he  insisted  that 
women  should  be  fairly  and  justly  treated,  and  not  beaten 
unless  the  occasion  absolutely  demanded  it.  His  own 
wives,  having  once  become  rebellious,  were  brought  to 
submission  by  a  revelation  from  Heaven  and  the  blows 
of  their  relatives,!  the  prophet  himself  being  disinclined 
to  such  severity,  either  from  kindness  of  heart  or  from 
a  regard  to  his  apostolic  dignity. 

"He  was,"  says  Sprenger,  "affectionate  towards  his 
relations  ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  gravity  of  his  office, 
he  was  playful  with  his  wives.  Ayeshah,  being  only  nine 
years  of  age  when  she  married  him,  brought  her  toys 
into  his  house,  and  he  occasionally  played  with  her.  She 
also  used  to  race  with  him.  .  .  .  He  would  sometimes 
tell  stories  to  his  wives,  such  as  the  adventures  of  the 
man  who  had  been  carried  away  by  the  jinn  (genii)  and, 
after  a  long  stay  with  them,  returned  to  his  family." 

The  intellectual  powers  of  Mohammed  were  of  a  very 
high  order,  and  as  a  poet  he  ranks  far  above  all  others 
who  have  ever  written  in  the  Arabic  tongue.  It  was 
usual  for  his  followers  to  point  to  the  beauty  and  sub- 
limity of  the  Koran  as  an  irrefutable  proof  of  his  divine 
inspiration  ;  and  he  himself,  in  one  of  the  chapters  of 
that  sacred  poem,  boldly  challenges  men  and  angels  to 
produce  anything  to  equal  it,  and  confidently  affirms 
that  God  alone  could  have  dictated  so  incomparable  a 
work.  Probably  no  poet  that  ever  lived  more  fully 
realized  the  state  of  mind  known  as  poetic  furor  than 
Mohammed.  It  is  said  that  while  he  was  composing 
certain  portions  of  the  Koran  he  was  in  a  state  of  such 
intense  excitement  as  amounted  almost  to  frenzy  ;  and, 
if  we  may  believe  those  accounts  of  his  life  which  seem 
best  authenticated,  some  at  least  of  the  revelations  of 
the  Koran  were  actually  communicated  (or  were  believed 
by  him  to  have  been  communicated)  during  his  epileptic 
paroxysms,  while  wholly  unconscious  of  things  around 


See  Sprenger,  "  Life  of  Mohammad,"  p.  93.    t  Idem.,  Ice.  cit. 


him.  With  this  view,  there  may  have  been  no  arrogance 
or  vanity  in  his  claiming  that  to  rival  the  Koran  was 
beyond  the  power  of  men  or  angels.  Referring  to  the 
prophet's  tendency  to  poetic  and  elevated  thought, 
Sprenger  says,  "  His  mind  dwelt  constantly  on  the  con- 
templation of  God :  he  saw  his  finger  in  the  rising  sun, 
in  the  falling  rain,  in  the  growing  crop ;  he  heard  his 
voice  in  the  thunder,  in  the  murmuring  of  the  waters, 
and  in  the  hymns  which  the  birds  sing  to  his  praise ; 
and  in  the  lonely  deserts  and  ruins  of  ancient  cities  he 
saw  the  traces  of  his  anger."  But  combined  with  all  his 
poetic  and  religious  enthusiasm  was  a  vein  of  strong 
common  sense.  He  was  free  from  all  ostentation  and 
parade :  that  he  pretended  to  work  miracles,  is  a  cal- 
umny of  his  enemies.  He  considered  it  miracle  enough 
that  he  was  inspired  with  the  Spirit  of  God:  this  he 
doubtless  believed  in  all  sincerity.  One  whom  Heaven 
had  so  highly  honoured  had  no  need  of  earthly  dignity 
or  worldly  splendour.  He  set  a  praiseworthy^  example 
of  indifference  to  earthly  riches,  of  patriarchal  simplicity 
of  manners,  and  of  frugality  in  his  diet  and  dress.  With 
his  own  hands  he  milked  his  goats,  and  afterwards  at- 
tended to  his  person.  The  costly  presents  which  he 
received  he  gave  to  his  friends.  Tne  riches  which  he 
obtained  from  the  spoils  of  war  and  from  tribute  were 
spent  in  promoting  the  interests  of  religion  and  in  re- 
lieving the  wants  of  the  poor.  "  His  military  triumphs," 
says  Irving,  "awakened  no  pride  nor  vain-glory.  .  .  . 
In  the  time  of  his  greatest  power  he  maintained  the 
same  simplicity  of  manners  and  appearance  as  in  the 
days  of  his  adversity.  So  far  from  affecting  regal  state, 
he  was  displeased  if  on  entering  a  room  any  unusual 
testimonial  of  respect  were  shown  him." 

The  most  glaring  moral  defect  of  Mohammed's  char- 
acter was  his  passion  for  women,  to  justify  which  he  pre- 
tended that  he  had  received  a  special  revelation  from 
heaven  ;f  and,  while  only  four  lawful  wives  were  allowed 
to  his  followers,  he  himself  had  eleven  wives,  besides 
several  concubines,  Mohammed's  conduct  in  this  re- 
spect, viewed  in  connection  with  his  pretended  revela- 
tions, would  seem  to  go  very  far  towards  justifying  those 
who  consider  him  to  have  been  simply  an  artful  and  self- 
ish impostor.  "  But,  however  he  betrayed  the  alloy  of 
earth,"  observes  Irving,  "after  he  had  worldly  power  at 
his  command,  the  early  aspirations  of  his  spirit  con- 
tinually returned  and  bore  him  above  all  earthly  things. 
.  .  .  On  the  mercy  of  God  he  reposed  all  his  hopes  of 
heaven."  His  wife  Ayeshah  once  asked  him  if  it  were 
indeed  true  that  none  could  enter  paradise  except 
through  God's  mercy.  "None — none!"  he  replied,  with 
emphatic  earnestness.  And  when  she  again  asked  if  an 
exception  would  not  be  made  in  his  case,  he  answered, 
with  great  solemnity,  "Neither  can  I  enter  paradise 
unless  God  clothe  me  with  his  mercy." 

Until  recently,  the  belief  has  universally  prevailed  in 
Christendom  that  Mohammed  was  not  merely  the  teacher 
of  a  false  religion,  but  a  conscious  impostor,  an  artful, 
self-seeking  charlatan.  But  such  a  theory  of  his  life  and 
character  will  not  bear  examination.  Not  to  mention 
the  thousand  incidental  proofs  of  his  sincerity  which  are 
scattered  through  the  history  of  his  early  life,  it  is  wholly 
incredible  that  a  mere  self-seeking  charlatan  would  have 
exposed  himself  to  universal  obloquy  and  certain  per- 
secution, in  the  wild  hope  that  he  might  at  last  triumph 
over  those  religious  prejudices  which  had  been  for  so 
many  ages  gaining  strength  among  his  countrymen. 
When  Aboo-Talib,  weary  of  defending  his  nephew 
against  the  implacable  hostility  of  the  Koreishites,  be- 
sought him  to  abandon  a  course  attended  with  so  much 
peril  to  himself  and  his  kinsmen,  he  replied,  "O  uncle, 
I  swear  by  God  that  if  they  put  the  sun  on  my  right 
hand  and  the  moon  on  my  left,  I  will  not  renounce  the 
career  I  have  entered  upon  until  God  gives  me  success, 
or  until  I  perish."  Aboo-Talib,  touched  with  his  heroic 
spirit,  solemnly  promised  that  he  would  not  give  him  up, 
whatever  he  might  preach. 

In  considering  the  question  of  Mohammed's  sincerity, 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  he  possessed  not  only  a 


$  "This  is  a  peculiar  privilege  granted  unto  thee  above  the  rest  of 
the  true  believers."  (See  Sale's  "  Koran,"  chap,  xxxiii.) 


S,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MOHAMMED 


MOHSIN-FANEE 


vivid  and  powerful  imagination,  but  a  very  peculiar  phys- 
ical and  mental  constitution.  It  seems  not  unreasonable 
to  believe,  as  traditions  relate,  that  in  those  nervous 
paroxysms  to  which  he  was  subject  he  had  visions  not 
unlike  those  which  his  mother  saw  between  sleeping  an^ 
waking.  Such  visions  w^ould  be  almost  certain  to  par- 
take of  the  character  of  those  earnest  thoughts  and 
convictions  with  which  his  waking  soul  was  filled;  and 
nothing  could  be  more  natural  than  for  such  a  mind  not 
merely  to  regard  those  visions  as  a  divine  confirmation 
of  his  peculiar  views,  but  to  employ  them,  modified  as 
they  would  necessarily  be  by  his  powerful  imagination, 
to  give  force  and  authority  to  his  public  teachings.  Nor 
will  it  appear  at  all  unreasonable  to  those  conversant 
with  human  nature  that  one  who  was  perfectly  sincere 
at  the  beginning  of  his  career  should  afterwards — under 
the  stimulus  of  fear,  lust,  hatred,  or  ambition — pretend 
to  visions  which  he  never  had,  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
a  divine  sanction  to  his  cherished  opinions,  or,  it  may  be, 
to  his  arbitrary  caprices  or  selfish  desires.  How  often, 
indeed,  have  the  professors  of  a  far  purer  and  higher 
faith  resorted  to  stratagem  and  deceit  to  promote  what 
they  sincerely  believed  to  be  a  good  cause,  which  they 
had  not  faith  enough  to  trust  to  the  care  of  Heaven  or 
to  the  legitimate  operation  of  purely  moral  influences  ! 

While  we  must  admit,  with  one  of  the  prophet's  ablest 
and  most  successful  defenders,  (Carlyle,)  that  in  the 
Moslem  heaven  and  hell  "  there  is  enough  that  shocks  all 
spiritual  feeling  in  us,"  we  must  also  admit,  on  a  candid 
examination,  that  his  religion,  on  the  whole,  made  him 
and  his  followers  better,  and  not  worse.  In  estimating 
the  influence  of  the  Islam  upon  the  nations  which  em- 
braced it,  it  would  be  obviously  unjust  to  take  as  a 
standard  of  comparison  the  highest  forms  of  Christian 
civilization.  We  should  rather  compare  the  condition  of 
those  nations  under  the  sway  of  Mohammedanism  with 
their  condition  as  it  was  before  the  advent  of  the  prophet. 
If  the  religion  of  Mohammed  was  immeasurably  inferior 
to  the  religion  of  Christ,  it  was  in  most  respects  greatly 
superior  to  every  form  of  paganism  of  which  we  have 
any  knowledge,  and  probably  also  to  much  of  that 
spurious  or  half-spurious  Christianity  which  it  displaced 
in  Western  Asia  and  Northern  Africa. 

"The  general  tenor  of  Mahomet's  conduct,"  says 
Irving,  "up  to  the  time  of  his  flight  from  Mecca,  is  that 
of  an  enthusiast  acting  under  a  species  of  mental  de- 
lusion,— deeply  imbued  with  a  conviction  of  his  being  a 
divine  agent  for  religious  reform  ;  and  there  is  something 
striking  and  sublime  in  the  luminous  path  which  his 
enthusiastic  spirit  struck  out  for  itself  through  the  be- 
wildering maze  of  adverse  faiths  and  wild  traditions, — 
the  pure  and  spiritual  worship  of  the  one  true  God, 
which  he  sought  to  substitute  for  the  blind  idolatry  of 
his  childhood.  .  .  .  All  the  parts  of  the  Koran  supposed 
to  have  been  promulgated  by  him  at  this  time — inco- 
herently as  they  have  come  down  to  us,  and  marred  as 
their  pristine  beauty  must  be  in  passing  through  various 
hands — are  of  a  pure  and  elevated  character,  and  breathe 
poetical,  if  not  religious,  inspiration.  They  show  that 
he  had  drunk  deep  of  the  living  waters  of  Christianity; 
and  if  he  had  failed  to  imbibe  them  in  their  crystal 
purity,  it  might  be  because  he  had  to  drink  from  broken 
cisterns  and  streams  troubled  and  perverted  by  those 
who  should  have  been  their  guardians." 

See  Sprenger,  "Life  of  Mohammad,  from  Original  Sources," 
Allahabad,  1.851,  London,  1852,(3  work  of  decided  merit ;)  Weil, 
"  Mohannned  der  Propliet,  sein  Leben  und  sein  Lehre,"  Stuttgart, 
1843;  luviNG,  "Mahomet  and  his  Successors,"  New  York,  2  vols., 
1850;  Gagnier,  "Vie  de  Mahomet;"  Boulainvii.liers,  "Vie  de 
Mahomet;"  "Preliminary  Discourse"  prefixed  to  Sale's  translation 
of  the  Koran;  Pkiueaux,  "  Life  of  Mahomet;"  Maracci's  trans- 
lation of  the  Koran,  (in  Latin.)  with  notes  ;  Reland,  "  De  Religione 
Mohannnedica  ;"  Auulfeua,  "Moslem  Annals,"  ("  Annales  Mos- 
lemici,")  and  translated  into  Latin  by  Reiske;  Abulfeua,  "Life  of 
Mohannned,"  rendered  into  Latin  by  Gagnier,  with  the  title  "  De 
Vita  et  Rebns  gestis  Mohamedis,"  Oxford,  1732:  Gibbon,  "Decline 
and  Fall  ot  the  Roman  Empire,"  chap.  1.  ;  Carlyle,  "  Hero  and 
Hero-Worship,"  etc.,  article  "  Mahomet,"  (one  of  the  best  productions 
of  its  author ;)  Rampoldi,  "Vita  di  Maometto,"  1822;  Noel  des 
Vergers,  "Vie  de  Mahomet,"  1833 ;  George  Bush,  "Life  of  Mo- 
hammed," New  York,  1830:  Samuel  Green,  "Life  of  Mahomet," 
1840;  Charles  M1LL.S,  "  History  of  Mohammedanism,"  etc.,  Lon- 
don, 181 2;  F.  R.  TuRPiN,  "  Histoirede  la  Vie  de  Mahomet,"  2  vols., 
1773  ;  De  Rrequignv,  "  Vie  de  Mahomet,"  1754;  L.  Addlson,  "Life 
ot  Mahomet,"  1678. 


Mo-ham'med  II.,  (commonly  pronounced  in  India 
mo-Hum'm^d,)  Emperor  of  India,  born  about  1 150,  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Gaurian  dynasty.  He  became 
master  of  part  of  Hindostan  in  1 171,  after  which  he  ex- 
tended his  dominions  by  conquest.  He  took  Lahore 
and  Delhi  between  1184  and  1 192,  and  Benares  in  1193. 
He  was  assassinated  in  1206. 

Mohammed  IV.,  Emperor  of  India,  born  at  Delhi 
in  1360,  succeeded  his  father,  Fyroz  (or  Feroze)  III.,  in 
1386.   Died  in  1394. 

Mohammed  V.,  born  at  Delhi  in  1406,  succeeded 
Moobarek  II.  as  Emperor  of  India  in  1434.  Died  in 
1443- 

Mohammed  VI.  of  India.    See  Barer. 

Mohammed  VII.  of  India.    See  Hoomayoon. 

Mohammed  IX.  of  India.    See  Akbar. 

Mohammed  XI.    See  Shah  Jehan. 

Mohammed  XIII.,  Emperor  of  India,  of  the  dynasty 
of  Grand  Moguls,  was  born  at  Agra  about  1685.  He 
began  to  reign  at  Delhi  in  1713.  He  granted  the  East 
India  Company  the  privilege  of  exemption  from  the  pay- 
ment of  duties.  He  was  deposed  in  17 18,  and  died  the 
same  year. 

Mohammed  XIV.,  often  called  Mohammed  Shah, 

Emperor  of  India,  born  at  Delhi  about  1700,  was  a  cousin 
of  the  preceding.  He  began  to  reign  in  1720.  In  1739 
Nadir  Shah  invaded  India,  ca]3tured  Delhi,  massacred 
an  immense  number  of  the  people,  and  robbed  Moham- 
med of  the  celebrated  diamond  Kohinoor.  Died  in  1748. 

Mohammed,  (Sultans  of  Turkey.)    See  Mahomet. 

Mohammed  of  Gazna.    See  Mahmood. 

Mohedano,  mo-i-dcVno,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Antequera  in  1 561,  excelled  in  fresco- 
painting.    Died  in  1625. 

Mohl,  von,  fon  m51,  (Hugo,)  a  German  botanist,  bro- 
ther of  Julius,  noticed  below,  was  a  native  of  Stuttgart. 
He  published  "Contributions  to  the  Anatomy  and 
Physiology  of  Plants,"  (1834,)  and  other  similar  works. 

Mohl,"von,  (Julius,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at 
Stuttgart  in  1800.  He  studied  in  Paris  under  Remusat 
and  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  and  in  1845  became  professor  of 
the  Persian  language  in  the  College  of  France.  In  1852 
he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  having 
previously  been  chosen  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions.  He  made  a  number  of  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  the  "Journal  Asiatique,"  and  published  editions 
of  several  Oriental  works. 

Mohl,  von,  (Moritz,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Stuttgart  in  1802.  He  published  "Results  of 
a  Journey  in  France  for  the  Purpose  of  studying  Arts 
and  Trades,"  (1845.) 

Mohl,  von,  (Robert,)  a  German  jurist,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1799.  He  be- 
came professor  of  law  at  Heidelberg  in  1847,  and  after- 
wards filled  several  important  civil  offices.  He  published 
a  number  of  legal  works. 

Mohler  or  Moehler,  mo'ler,  (Johann  Adam,)  a 
German  Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Igersheim  in  1796, 
published  in  1825  a  work  entitled  "  Unity  in  the  Church  ; 
or,  The  Principle  of  Catholicism."    Died  in  1838. 

Mohn,  mon,  (Gottlob  Samuel,)  a  German  glass- 
painter,  born  at  Weissenfels  in  1789,  His  most  admired 
productions  are  the  painted  windows  of  the  Imperial 
Chapel  at  Laxenburg,  near  Vienna.    Died  in  1825. 

Mohnike,  mo'ne-keh,  (Gottlieb  Christian  Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  writer  and  theologian,  born  in  Pome- 
rania  in  1781,  published  a  "  History  of  the  Literature  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,"  (1813.)    Died  in  1841. 

Mohs,  mos,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  mineralogist, 
born  at  Gernrode  in  1774.  He  succeeded  Werner  as 
professor  of  mineralogy  at  Freiberg  in  181 7,  and  after- 
wards filled  the  same  chair  at  Vienna.  He  became 
counsellor  of  mines  in  1838.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  "Elements  of  the  Natural  History  of  the 
Mineral  Kingdom,"  (1832.)    Died  in  1839. 

Mohsen  "or  Moehsen,  (Johann  Karl  Wilhelm,) 
a  German  medical  writer  and  numismatist,  born  in  Ber- 
lin in  1722.  He  was  physician  to  the  King  of  Prussia. 
Died  in  1795. 

Mohsin-iPanee  or  Mohsm-Fini,  mon'sin  fi'nee, 
or  Muhsin-Fani,  mobn'sin  fi'nee,  (Mohammed,)  a 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yiyguttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Jf^^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MOIGNO 


MOLESCHOTT 


Persian  poet,  born  on  the  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf  in 
1615.  His  principal  work  is  the  "  Dabistan,"  which  gives 
an  account  of  ancient  religious  sects.    Died  in  1670. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Kiographie  Generale ;"  Sir  John  Malcolm, 
"  History  of  Persia,"  vol.  i.  chap.  vii. 

Moigno,  mw^n^yo',  (Fran(;ois  Napoli^ion  Marie,) 
a  French  mathematician,  born  at  Guemene  in  1804,  pub- 
lished "Lessons  in  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus," 
(1840,)  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Electric  Telegraph,"  (1849,) 
and  other  works. 

Moine,  Le.    See  Lemoine. 

Moine,  Le,  leh  mwan,  (Abraham,)  a  French  Protest- 
ant divine,  born  in  the  seventeenth  century,  became 
pastor  of  a  French  church  in  London.  He  translated 
Bishop  Gibson's  "  Pastoral  Letters"  into  French,  and 
published  a  "Sermon  in  Defence  of  the  Sacred  History, 
in  Answer  to  Lord  Bolingbroke."    Died  in  1760. 

Moir,  (David  Macheth,)  a  distinguished  Scottish 
writer  and  physician,  born  near  Edinburgh  in  1798.  He 
became  at  an  early  age  a  contributor  to  Constable's 
and  Blackwood's  Magazines,  and  published  a  number 
of  poems  in  the  latter,  under  the  signature  of  the  Greek 
Delta,  (A.)  Among  his  other  works  may  be  named  his 
"  Autobiography  of  Mansie  Wauch,"  a  novel,  which  had 
great  popularity,  "  The  Bombardment  of  Algiers,  and 
other  Poems,"  (1816,)  "  Outlines  of  the  Ancient  History 
of  Medicine,"  etc.,  (1831,)  "  Practical  Observations  on 
Malignant  Cholera,"  (1832,)  and  "  Domestic  Verses," 
(1843.)    Died  in  1851. 

See  Dr.  T.  Aird,  "  Notice  of  Moir,"  prefixed  to  his  Poetical 
Works  ;  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men," (Supplement ;)  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1851. 

Moira,  Earl  of.    See  Hastings,  Marquis  of. 
Moirae,  moi're,  [Gr.  Mofpat,]  a  name  applied  to  the 
Fates.    See  ParC/^^. 
Moise.    See  Moses. 

Moitte,  mw^t,  (Jean  Guillaume,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor, born  in  Paris  in  1747.  He  executed  the  large 
bas-relief  of  the  front  of  the  Pantheon,  and  statues  of 
Cassini  and  General  Custine.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  and  a  chevalier  of  the  legion 
of  honour.    Died  in  1810. 

See  QuATREM^RE  DE  QuiNCV,  "  £ loge  de  Moitte,"  in  the  "Mo- 
niteur,"  1810. 

Moivre,  de.    See  Demoivre. 

Mojon,  mo'zh6N',  (Bianca  Milesi — me-la'see,)  an 
Italian  lady,  distinguished  for  her  talents,  accomplish- 
ments, and  elevated  character,  was  born  at  Milan  in 
1790.  She  was  married  in  1825  to  Dr.  Mojon,  physician 
to  the  court  in  Paris.  An  interesting  account  of  her  was 
written  by  her  friend  fimile  de  Souvestre.    Died  in  1849. 

See,  also,  Bessie  R.  Parke,  "Twelve  Biographical  Sketches," 
London,  1866. 

Moke,  mo'keh,  (  Henri  Guillaume,  )  a  Belgian 
writer,  born  at  Havre  in  1803.  He  produced,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  Belgium,"  (2  vols.,  1839-40.) 

Moktader-Billah.mok'ti-der  biKlah,orMuktader- 
(m^ok'ta-der)  Billah,  (Abooi-Fadhl-Jaafar,  I'bool 
fid'l  ji'far,)  an  Abbasside  calij^h  of  Bagdad,  was  born  in 
894  A.D.,  and  began  to  reign  in  909.  He  was  defeated 
and  killed  in  932  by  Monnes  or  Mounes. 

Mola,  mo'ii,  (Giambattista,)  a  painter,  of  Italian 
extraction,  called  MoLA  Di  Francia,  born  at  Besan9on 
in  1614.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Vouet,  and  excelled  as  a 
landscape-painter.    Died  in  1661. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Mola,  (PiETRo  Francesco,)  sometimes  called  Mola 
Di  Roma,  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  about  1620, 
was  a  pupil  of  Albano.  He  painted  a  number  of  his- 
torical works  of  great  merit,  but  he  excelled  particularly 
in  landscapes.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  his  "  Saint 
John  in  the  Desert,"""  History  of  Joseph,"  and  "Saint 
Bruno."    Died  in  1666. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Viardot,  "  Musses 
de  r Europe." 

Molai  or  Molay,  de,  deh  mo'iy,*  (Jacques,)  last 
grand  master  of  the  order  of  the  Templars,  was  born  in 
Burgundy.  The  wealth  and  power  to  which  this  order 
had  arisen  having  excited  the  jealousy  of  Philippe  le  Bel, 


*  See  Introduction,  V.,  7  and  9. 

a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y, 


King  of  France,  and  Pope  Clement  IV.,  a  plan  was  laid 
by  the  two  sovereigns  for  their  destruction.  Molai,  being 
invited  to  France  in  1306,  was  arrested  on  his  arrival, 
together  with  all  the  Templars  in  that  country,  and,  011 
yi^irious  criminal  charges,  condemned  to  death.  Nearly 
sixty  of  the  knights  perished  at  the  stake  ;  and  the  grand 
master,  after  seven  years'  imprisonment,  shared  their 
fate,  in  13 14. 

See  Pierre  Dupuv,  "  Histoire  de  la  Condamnation  des  Tem- 
pliers,"  1751 ;  G.  G.  Ardison,  "  The  Knights  Templars,"  1852. 

Molanus.    See  Vermeulen,  (Jan.) 

Molard,  mo'lSii',  (Francois  Emmanuel,)  a  French 
inventor  of  machinery,  born  in  1774;  died  in  1829. 

His  brother  Claude  Pierre  (1758-1837)  also  in- 
vented several  useful  machines. 

Molbech,  moKb^K,  (Christian,)  an  eminent  Danish 
historian,  philologist,  and  bibliographer,  born  at  Soroe 
in  1 783.  After  travelling  in  England  and  other  countries 
of  Europe,  he  became  in  1823  professor  of  the  history 
of  literature,  and  first  secretary  of  the  Royal  Library, 
at  Copenhagen.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a 
"History  of  the  Wars  of  Ditmarschen,"  (1813,)  "Danish 
Dialect-Lexicon,"  (1837,)  and  "  History  of  Erik  Plogpen- 
ning,"  (1846.)  He  published  between  1814  and  1817  a 
literary  journal  of  great  merit,  entitled  the  "Athene," 
and  subsequently  became  editor  of  the  "Nordisk  Tid- 
skrift"  and  "  Historisk  Tidskrift,"  (1840.)  Molbech  also 
had  a  share  in  the  great  "Dictionary  of  the  Danish  Lan- 
guage," (unfinished.)    Died  at  Copenhagen  in  1857. 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon." 

Molbech,  (Christian  Knud  Frederik,)  a  Danish 
poet,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Copenhagen 
in  1821.  Fie  produced  "Dante,"  a  drama,  and  lyric 
poems,  (1846,)  which  are  highly  commended. 

Mole,  mo'Ii',  (FRANgois  Ren^,)  a  celebrated  French 
comedian,  born  in  Paris  in  1734.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Institute,  and  director  of  the  Academy  at  the  Theatre 
Fran9ais.    Died  in  1802. 

Mole,  (Louis  Mathieu,)  Count,  an  eminent  French 
statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1781,  was  descended  from 
Mathieu  Mole,  noticed  below.  He  published  in  1805 
"Moral  and  Political  Essays,"  which  procured  for  him 
the  favour  of  Napoleon,  by  whom  he  was  soon  after  ap- 
pointed master  of  reipiests,  and  prefect  of  the  Cote-d'Or. 
In  1813  he  succeeded  the  Duke  of  Massa  as  minister  of 
justice.  He  was  created  a  peer  by  Louis  XVIII.,  and 
in  1817  became  minister  of  the  marine.  Under  Louis 
Philippe  he  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  August 
to  November,  1830,  and  became  in  April,  1837,  prime 
minister  ;  but,  overcome  by  the  opposition  of  Guizot, 
Thiers,  and  Berryer,  he  resigned  his  post,  March  31, 
1839.  In  1840  he  succeeded  De  Quelen  in  the  French 
Academy.    Died  in  1855. 

See  Louis  de  Lomenie,  "M.  le  Comte  Mole,  par  un  Homme  de 
Rien,"  1840;  A.  de  Cesena,  "  Le  Comte  Mole,"  1842;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Mole,  (Mathieu,)  an  eminent  French  magistrate, 
born  in  1584.  He  was  attorney-general  in  1614,  and  in 
1641  was  appointed  by  Richelieu  first  president  of  the 
Parliament  of  Paris.  During  the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde 
he  was  conspicuous  for  his  intrepidity  and  his  energetic 
measures  in  quelling  the  insurrections  of  Paris.  In  1651 
he  became  keeper  of  the  seals.  He  left  interesting  "  Me- 
moires,"  (published  in  4  vols.,  1855.)    Died  in  1656. 

See  Barante,  "  Vie  de  Mole;"  Henrion  de  Pansev,  "  £!loge 
de  M.  Mole,"  1775;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Moleschott,  mo'les-sKot^  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  natural- 
ist and  physiologist,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc  in  1822,  studied 
medicine  and  natural  science  at  Heidelberg,  and  settled 
as  a  physician  at  Utrecht.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Critical  Examination  of  Liebig's  Theory  of  the  Alimen- 
tation of  Plants,"  (1845,)  "Doctrine  of  Aliments,"  (1850,) 
"Circular  Motion  of  Life,"  (1852,)  and  other  similar 
works.  He  became  professor  of  physiology  and  an- 
thropology at  Heidelberg  in  1847,  and  of  physiology  at 
Zurich  in  1855.  Among  his  works  are  "  Light  and  Life," 
("Licht  und  Leben,"  1856,)  and  one  on  George  Forster, 
entitled  "Georg  Forster  der  Naturforscher  des  Volks," 
(1854.)  He  is  ranked  among  the  most  prominent  ad- 
vocates of  the  materialistic  philosophy,  (although  he 
recognizes  a  mixture  of  spiritual  life  with  the  material 

short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fJlr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


\ 


MOLESWORTH 


MOLINET 


life  of  the  universe.)  He  totally  rejects  the  idea  of  crea- 
tion in  the  ordinary  signification  of  the  term,  referring 
the  origin  of  all  the  species  of  animals  to  the  operation 
of  universal  and  unchangeable  physical  laws. 

Molesworth,  molz'worth,  (Rokert,)  Viscount,  a 
statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Dublin  in  1656.  He 
was  appointed  by  William  III.  a  member  of  his  privy 
council,  and  in  1692  was  envoy-extraordinary  to  Den- 
mark. He  published,  after  his  return,  an  "  Account 
of  Denmark,"  a  severe  criticism  on  the  government  and 
customs  of  the  Danes,  which  gave  great  offence  to  that 
people  but  was  very  popular  in  England.  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  numbered  among  his 
friends  Locke  and  Lord  Shaftesbury.    Died  in  1725. 

See  Walpole,  "  Royal  and  Noble  Authors  ;"  Lodge,  "  Peerage." 

Molesworth,  (Sir  William,)  an  eminent  English 
statesman,  born  in  Surrey  in  1810.  Having  completed 
his  studies  at  a  German  university,  he  was  elected  to 
Parliament  for  East  Cornwall  in  1832.  He  was  for  many 
years  associated  with  John  Stuart  Mill  as  editor  of  the 
*'  Westminster  Review."  He  represented  Southwark  in 
Parliament  in  1850,  and  was  appointed  first  commissioner 
of  public  works  in  1853,  and  secretary  of  the  colonies 
in  July,  1855.  He  died  in  October  of  the  same  year. 
Besides  his  articles  in  the  "  Westminster  Review,"  Sir 
"William  published  a  complete  edition  of  the  works  of 
Hobbes. 

Moleville,  (Antoine  FRANgois  Bertrand.)  See 
Bertrand  de  Molleville. 

Moliere,  mo'le-aiR',  a  celebrated  French  comic  au- 
thor and  actor,  whose  original  name  was  Jean  Baptiste 
Poquelin,  (pok'l^N',)  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  15th  of 
January,  1622.  He  received  instruction  in  private  from 
tlie  philosopher  Gassendi,  and  in  his  youth  assisted  his 
father,  who  was  a  dealer  in  tapestry,  ( marchand tapissier.) 
He  became  valet- de-chambre  to  the  king,  Louis  XHL, 
about  1640.  Having  assumed  the  name  of  Moliere,  he 
adopted  the  profession  of  comic  actor  about  1644,  and 
a  few  years  later  appeared  in  the  provinces  at  the  head 
of  a  small  troupe  which  he  had  formed.  His  first  regular 
drama  was  "The  Giddy-Head,"  ("  L'Etourdi,")  which 
was  performed  with  success  by  his  troupe  at  Lyons  in 
1653.  Attracted  to  the  capital  by  a  growing  ambition, 
and  favoured  with  royal  patronage,  he  opened  there  a 
theatre  in  1658.  His  "  Affected  Ladies,"  ("  Precieuses 
ridicules,")  a  satire  on  the  affected  style  and  euphuism 
which  were  then  in  fashion,  was  performed  with  great 
applause  in  1659.  *' Sganarelle"  came  out  in  1660. 
His  fame  was  increased  by  his  "  School  for  Husbands," 
("ficole  des  Maris,"  1661,)  a  comedy  of  manners,  char- 
acter, and  intrigue.  He  produced  in  1666  "The  Mis- 
anthrope," esteemed  one  of  his  master-pieces.  "The 
dialogue  of  this,"  says  Hallam,  "is  uniformly  of  the 
highest  style  ;  the  female  and  indeed  all  the  characters 
are  excellently  conceived  and  sustained."  Still  more 
popular  was  the  "Hypocrite,"  ("Tartuffe,"  1667,)  an 
original  creation  in  dramatic  poetry,  and  generally  con- 
sidered the  greatest  effort  of  his  genius.  He  was  the 
author  of  about  thirty  other  comedies,  in  verse  or  prose, 
among  which  "The  Bores,"  ("  Les  Facheux,"  1661,) 
the  "School  for  Wives,"  ("ficole  des  Femmes,"  1662,) 
**  Love  (or  Cupid)  as  Physician,"  ("  L'Amour  Medecin," 
1665,)  "Le  Medecin  malgre  lui,"  (1666,)  "The  Miser," 
("  L'Avare,"  1667,)  "  Le  Bourgeois  Gentilhomme," 
(1670,)  "  Learned  (or  Pedantic)  Ladies,"  ("  Femmes  sa- 
vantes,"  1(672,)  and  "The  Imaginary  Invalid,  (or  Hypo- 
chondriac,") ("  Le  Malade  imaginaire,"  1673,)  are  greatly 
admired.    Died  in  1673. 

There  is  perhaps  in  the  whole  history  of  literature  no 
more  remarkable  instance  of  the  triumph  of  genius  than 
is  presented  to  us  in  the  career  of  Moliere.  Seldom,  if 
ever,  were  the  pride  and  tyranny  of  rank  more  predomi- 
nant than  in  France  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Yet  many  of  the  French  nobility  treated  Mo- 
liere as  a  companion  and  equal.  "  Come  to  me  at  any 
hour  you  please,"  said  the  great  Prince  de  Conde  to  our 
author:  "you  have  but  to  announce  your  name:  your 
visit  can  never  be  ill-timed."  (See  Scott's  "Miscellanies.") 
The  success  of  "  Tartuffe"  was  a  signal  victory  achieved  in 
the  face  of  an  all-prevailing  bigotry,  which  was  strongly 
entwined  in  the  very  spirit  of  the  age  and  had  struck 


deep  root  into  the  heart  of  the  king  himself.  But  the 
castle  of  prejudice,  invincible  to  every  other  assault,  was 
fain  to  open  its  reluctant  gates  to  the  transcendent  ge- 
nius of  Moliere.  He  was  remarkable  not  merely  for  his 
wonderful  comic  talent,  but  for  his  admirable  delineation 
of  human  nature  as  it  appears  in  all  countries  and  all  ages. 
"In  the  more  appropriate  merits  of  comedy,"  says  Hal- 
lam, "  in  just  and  forcible  delineation  of  character,  skilful 
contrivance  of  circumstances,  and  humorous  dialogue, 
we  must  award  him  the  prize."  The  same  eminent  critic 
thinks  "that  Shakspeare  had  the  greater  genius,  but 
perhaps  Moliere  has  written  the  best  comedies."  He  was 
not  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  After  Moliere's 
death,  that  learned  body  placed  his  bust  in  their  hall, 
with  this  beautiful  and  appropriate  inscription: 

"  Rien  ne  manque  a  sa  gloire  ;  il  manquait  k  la  notre."* 
See  Grimarest,  "Vie  de  J.  B.  Poquelin  de  Moliere,"  1705; 
Voltaire,  "Vie  de  Moliere,"  etc.,  1739;  La  Harph,  "  Idees  sur 
Moliere  ;"  Caii.hava,  "  Etudessur  Moliere,"  1802  ;  J.  Taschrreau, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  Moiiere,"  1825  ;  Jean  Sylvain 
Baillv,  "  Eloge  de  Moliere,"  1770;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits 
litteraires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biograi')hie  Generale  "  Lives  of  the  Most 
Eminent  French  Writers,"  by  Mrs.  Shelley;"  Essay  on  Moliere, 
in  Scott's  "  Miscellanies,"  vol.  i.,  and  the  same  article  in  the  "  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1828;  Prescott,  "Miscellanies;" 
Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  July,  1845. 

Molieres,  de,  deh  mo'le-aiR',  (Joseph  Privat,)  a 
French  philosopher  and  mathematician,  born  at  Taras- 
con  in  1677,  was  a  friend  and  disciple  of  Malebranche. 
He  succeeded  Varignon  as  professor  of  philosophy  in 
the  College  of  France  in  1723,  and  was  elected  an 
associate  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1729.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  scientific  works.  It  is  related,  as 
an  instance  of  his  abstraction  of  mind,  that  when  a 
robber  one  day  entered  his  apartment,  Molieres  showed 
him  where  his  money  was  kept,  but  begged  him  not  to 
disturb  his  papers.    Died  in  1742. 

Molin,  mo'13.N',  or  Dumoulin,  dii'moo'ldN',  (Jac- 
ques,) a  celebrated  French  physician,  born  near  Mende 
in  1666,  was  patronized  by  Louis  XIV.  and  Louis  XV. 
He  made  free  use  of  the  lancet  in  his  practice,  and  is 
supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  original  of  "  Dr.  San- 
grado"  in  Le  Sage's  "Gil  Bias."  On  his  death-bed  he 
said  to  his  attendants,  "  I  leave  behind  me  three  great 
physicians, — Diet,  Water,  and  Exercise."  Died  in  1755. 

See  "Eloge  de  M.  Molin,"  1761. 

Molina,  mo-lee'nS,  (Giovanni  Ignazio,)  a  naturalist, 
born  in  Chili  in  1740,  lived  many  years  at  Bologna.  He 
wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  Natural  History  of  Chili,"  ( 1 782,) 
and  a  "Civil  History  of  Chili,"  (1787,)  both  in  Italian. 
Died  in  1829. 

Molina,  mo-lee'nS,  (Luis,)  a  celebrated  Spanish 
Jesuit,  born  in  New  Castile  about  1535,  was  professor 
of  theology  at  Ev'ora,  in  Portugal,  for  twenty  years.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "  De  Concordia  Gratiae  et 
Liberi  Arbitrii,"  (1588,)  in  which  he  attempt^  to  reconcile 
the  free  will  of  man  with  predestination.  This  treatise 
was  severely  assailed  by  the  Calvinists,  Dominicans,  and 
Jansenists,  and  a  bitter  controversy  ensued,  which  was 
partially  suppressed  by  Pope  Paul  V.  Died  about  1600. 

See  BossuET,  "  Avertissement  aux  Protestants;"  N.  Antonio, 
"  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Molina,  de.    See  Argote  de  Molina. 

Molina,  de,  Count.    See  Carlos  of  Bourbon. 

Molineeus,  the  Latin  of  Dumoulin,  which  see. 

Molinari.    See  Mulinari,  (Stefano.) 

Molinari,  mo-le-ni'ree,  or  Mulinari,  moo-Ie-ni'ree, 
(Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter,  called  also 
Caraccino,  born  at  Savigliano  in  1577;  died  in  1640. 

Moline  de  Saint-Yon,  mo'l^n'  deh  siNt'y6N', 
(Alexandre  Pierre,)  a  French  general  and  writer, 
bom  in  Lyons  in  1786.  He  was  minister  of  war  from 
November,  1845,  ""'^i'  May,  1847.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  History  of  the  Counts  of  Toulouse,"  (4  vols.,  1859.) 

Molinet,  mo^le'ni',  (Jean,)  a  French  poet  and  histo- 
rian of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  was  appointed  librarian 
to  Margaret  of  Austria,  and  historiographer  to  the  house 
of  Burgundy,  and  wrote  numerous  works  in  prose  and 
verse.    Died  in  1507. 

See  Reiffe-nberg,  "  Memoire  sur  J.  Molinet,"  1835. 

*  "  Nothing  is  wanting  to  his  glory;  but  he  was  wanting  to  ours." 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MOLINET 


1606 


MO  MB R  IS  10 


Molinet,  du,  dii  mo'le'iik',  (Claude,)  a  French  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Chalons  in  1620,  was  the  author  of  a 

History  of  the  Principal  Popes,  taken  from  Medals." 
Died  in  1687. 

Molinetti,  mo-le-net'tee,  (Antonio,)  an  eminent 
Italian  anatomist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Venice.  He 
obtained  the  chair  of  anatomy  at  Padua  in  1649.  He 
wrote  "  On  the  Senses  and  their  Organs,"  ("  De  Sensibus 
et  eorum  Organis,"  1669.)    Died  in  1675. 

Molinier,  mo'le'ne-i',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  celebrated  as  a  pulpit  orator,  was  born  at 
Aries  in  1675.  He  published  a  translation  of  the  Psalms 
into  French  verse,  and  "  Select  Sermons."  Died  in 
1745- 

Moliiios,  mo-lee'n6s,  (Miguel,)  a  Spanish  theologian, 
founder  of  the  sect  of  Quietists,  was  born  at  Saragossa 
about  1630,  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Spiritual 
Guide,"  (1675,)  '^'^^  inculcates,  as  its  leading  doctrines, 
the  abstraction  of  the  mind  from  external  objects,  and 
the  contemplation  of  the  Deity.  The  book  was  con- 
demned by  the  Inquisition,  and  Molinos  sentenced  to 
perpetual  imprisonment,  from  which  he  was  released  by 
death  in  1696. 

See  Hodgson,  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867  ; 
Pluquet,  "  Dictioniiaire  des  Heresies;"  Scharling,  "  Mystikeren 
M.  Molino's  Laere  og  Skjaebne,"  1852. 

Molitor,  mo'le'toR',  (Gabriel  Jean  Joseph,)  a 
French  marshal,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1770.  He  was 
appointed  Governor-General  of  Swedish  Pomerania  in 
1807,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  subsequent  cam- 
paigns from  1808  to  1814.  He  gave  in  his  adhesion  to 
the  Bourbons  after  the  restoration,  and  was  made  cheva- 
lier of  Saint  Louis.  He  commanded  the  second  corps 
of  the  army  in  the  Spanish  campaign  of  1823,  and  by 
his  skill  and  decision  soon  put  an  end  to  the  war.  He 
was  created  a  marshal  by  Louis  XVIII.    Died  in  1849. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais." 

Mollendorf  or  Moellendorf,  von,  fon  moKlen- 
doRf,  (Richard  Joachim  Heinrich,)  a  Prussian  com- 
mander, born  in  1725,  served  under  Frederick  the  Great 
in  the  principal  campaigns  of  the  Seven  Years'  war. 
In  1794  he  succeeded  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Prussian  army.    Died  in  1816. 

MoUer,  moKler,  [Lat.  Molle'rus,]  (Daniel  Wil- 
helm,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Presburg  in  1642. 
He  became  professor  of  history  and  metaphysics  at 
Altorf  in  1674,  and  was  made  a  count  palatine  by  the 
emperor  Leopold.  He  wrote  numerous  Latin  works, 
in  prose  and  verse.  Among  them  are  dissertations  on 
many  Latin  classic  authors.    Died  in  1712. 

See  "  Memoria  Molleri,"  1713. 

MoUer,  (Georg,)  a  German  architect,  born  in  Hano- 
ver in  1784.  Among  his  best  woi  ks  are  the  opera-house 
at  Darmstadt  and  the  theatre  at  Mentz.  He  published 
"Monuments  of  German  Architecture,"  (3  vols.,  1815- 
45,)  and  other  architectural  treatises.    Died  in  1852. 

Moller  or  Moeller,  nioKler,  (John,)  a  Danish  biog- 
rapher, born  at  Flensborg  in  1661.  He  published  "Cim- 
bria  Literata,"  containing  biographies  of  authors  born 
in  Sleswick-Holstein,  (3  vols.,  1744.)    Died  in  1725. 

Moller  or  Moeller,  (Peter  Ludwig,)  a  Danish  poet 
and  critic,  born  at  Aalborg  in  1814.  He  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Paris  in  1851.  Among  his  works  are  "Lyric 
Poems,"  (1840,)  and  "The  Fall  of  the  Leaves,"  (1855.) 

MoUerus.    See  Moller. 

Mollet,  mo'l^'',  (Claude,)  a  French  horticulturist, 
was  first  gardener  to  Henry  IV.  and  Louis  XIIL,  and 
gave  the  designs  for  the  gardens  of  the  Tuileries,  Fon- 
tainebleau,  and  Saint-Germain.    Died  about  1613. 

MoUevaut,  mol'vo',  (Charles  Louis,)  a  French  lif- 
terate2ir,  born  at  Nancy  in  1776.  He  wrote  elegies, 
fables,  and  other  original  poems,  and  made  successful 
translations  from  the  Latin  of  Virgil's  "  /Eneid"  and 
"Georgics,"  Horace's  "Art  of  Poetry,"  and  the  "Ele- 
gies" of  TibuUus  and  of  Catullus,  (all  in  verse.)  Died 
in  1844. 

Molleville,  de.    See  Bertrand  de  Molleville. 

Mollien,  de,  deh  mo'le4,N',  (Nicolas  Francois,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  statesman,  born  at  Rouen  in  1758. 
He  was  created  minister  of  the  treasury  by  Napoleon 
in  1806.    He  published  an  account  of  his  life,  entitled 


Memoires  d'un  Mini3tre  du  Tresor  public,"  (1780* 
1845.)    Died  in  1850. 

See  Prosper  de  Barante,  "  Notice  sur  M.  le  Comte  Molliei^' 
1850;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  July,  1852. 

Mol-loy',  (Charles,)  an  Irish  dramatist  and  political 
writer,  born  in  Dublin,  became  editor  of  the  London 
journal  called  "Common  Sense."  He  wrote  comedies 
entitled  "The  Coquette,"  "  Half- Pay  Officers,"  and 
"The  Perplexed  Couple."    Died  in  1767. 

MoTo-eh  or  MoTe-eh,  [Heb.  a  heathen  deity 

worshipped  by  the  Ammonites  and  other  Oriental  tribes, 
who  offered  to  him  human  sacrifices. 

Molosse.    See  Molossus. 

Mo-los'sus,  [Gr.  Mokoaaoq ;  Fr.  Molosse,  mo''loss',] 
a  son  of  Pyrrhus  and  Andromache,  is  said  to  have 
reigned  in  Epirus.  Molossia  is  supposed  to  have  de- 
rived its  name  from  him. 

Moltke,  molt'keh,  (Adam  Wilhelm,)  Count,  a 
Danish  statesman,  son  of  Joachim  Godske,  noticed 
below,  was  born  in  1785.  He  was  minister  of  finance 
under  Christian  VIII.  for  many  years.  He  resigned 
in  1848,  and  was  president  of  the  ministry  from  1848 
to  1852. 

Moltke,  (Joachim  Godske,)  Count,  a  Danish  states- 
man, and  a  liberal  patron  of  learning,  born  at  Nyegaard 
in  1746,  became  minister  of  state  in  1781.  Died  in  1818. 

Moltke,  (Magnus,)  Count,  a  Danish  jurist  and 
writer,  born  in  1783.  He  published  a  "Journey  in  Upper 
and  Middle  Italy,"  (1833,)  and  several  political  treatises. 

Moltke,  von,  fon  molt'keh,  (Helmuth  Karl  Ber- 
nard,) Baron,  a  Prussian  general,  eminent  as  a  strate- 
gist, was  born  in  Mecklenburg  in  1800.  He  became 
major-general  in  1856,  and  lieutenant-general  in  1859. 
He  was  chief  of  the  royal  staff,  and  planned  the  campaign 
which  resulted  in  the  great  and  decisive  victory  of  Sa-> 
dowa,  July  3,  1866.  He  directed  in  person  the  operations 
of  the  armies  which,  under  the  nominal  command  of  the 
king,  gained  in  France,  in  1870,  a  series  of  great  and 
memorable  victories,  for  a  notice  of  which  see  William  I. 

Moltke,  von,  fon  molt'keh,  (Karl,)  Count,  a  Danish 
absolutist  politician,  born  in  1800 ;  died  in  1858. 

Moltzer,  molt'ser,  (Jakob,)  a  learned  German  writer, 
born  at  Strasburg  in  1503.  He  translated  Tacitus  into 
German,  and  edited  Homer.    Died  in  1558. 

Molyn,  (Peter.)    See  Tempesta. 

Molyneux,  moKe-nooks^,  (William,)  an  eminent 
mathematician,  born  in  Dublin  in  1656,  After  studying 
law  in  the  Middle  Temple,  London,  for  three  years,  he 
returned  to  Ireland  in  1678.  In  1683  he  aided  in  organ- 
izing the  Dublin  Philosophical  Society,  of  which  he 
afterwards  became  president.  For  his  attainments  in 
the  exact  sciences  he  was  elected  in  1685  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society,  whose  "Transactions"  contain  many 
treatises  composed  by  him  on  various  subjects.  In  1692 
he  produced  his  principal  work,  "Dioptrica  Nova,"  a 
treatise  on  optics,  which  was  revised  by  Halley.  It  was 
the  first  English  work  on  optics  that  had  appeared,  and 
was  for  a  long  time  the  principal  manual  of  opticians. 
He  represented  the  University  of  Dublin  in  the  Irish 
Parliament  a  few  years  before  his  death.    Died  in  1698. 

Molza,  moKzS,  or  Molsa,  (Francesco  Maria,)  an 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Modena  in  1489.  He  wrote  Latin 
elegies  of  great  elegance,  and  a  number  of  poems  in 
Italian,  chiefly  of  a  licentious  character.    Died  in  1544. 

Molza,  (Tarquinia,)  an  Italian  lady,  distinguished 
for  her  knowledge  of  mathematics,  philosophy,  and 
languages,  was  a  granddaughter  of  the  preceding.  She 
made  translations  from  Plato,  and  wrote  poems  in  Latin 
and  Italian.  The  Roman  senate  conferred  upon  her  the 
right  of  citizenship,  and  Tasso  gave  the  name  of  Molza 
to  his  "Dialogue  on  Love."    Died  in  161 7. 

See  HiLARioN  de  Coste,  "  filoges  des  Dames  illustres;"  GiN- 
GUENE,  "  Histoire  litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Mombelli,  mom-bel'lee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian 
musician  and  composer,  born  near  Vercelli  in  1 75 1.  He 
was  noted  as  a  tenor  singer.    Died  in  1835. 

Momboir.    See  Mauburne. 

Mombrisio,  mom-bRee'se-o,  [Lat.  Mombri'tius,] 
(Bonino,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Milan 
in  1424.    He  published  several  editions  of  the  classics, 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  llr,  f^ll,  flit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MOMBRITIUS  1607  MONCRIEFF 


which  are  highly  esteemed,  and  "Lives  of  the  Saints," 
("  Sanctuarium.")    Died  about  1482. 

Mombritius.    See  Mombrisio. 

Momiguy,  de,  deh  nio'men'ye^  (Jerome  Joseph,)  a 
Fiench  composer  and  musician,  born  at  Philippeville  in 
1766.  lie  published  several  works  on  the  theory  of 
music.    Died  in  1838. 

Mommsen,  mom'sen,  (Johannes  Tycho,)  a  German 
scholar,  brother  of  the  following,  was  born  in  1819.  He 
produced  a  good  translation  of  Pindar  into  German 
verse,  (1846,)  and  "Essays  on  Shakspeare,"  (1855.) 

Mommsen,  (Theodor,)  a  German  jurist,  historian, 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Sleswick-Holstein  in  1817.  He 
became  professor  of  Roman  law  at  Breslau  in  1854. 
Among  his  principal  works  maybe  named  "The  Mone- 
tary System  of  the  Romans,"  "  Collection  of  Neapolitan 
Inscriptions,"  (1852,)  and  "Roman  History,"  ("  Ro- 
mische  Geschichte,"  3  vols.,  1857.)  He  is  an  associate 
of  the  French  Institute,  and  a  member  of  other  foreign 
Academies. 

Momoro,  mo^mo^ro',  (Antoine  FRANgois,)  a  French 
Jacobin,  born  at  Besan5on  in  1756.  He  was  guillotined 
as  a  Hebertist  in  1794. 

Mo'mus,  [Gr.  Mw//of,]  in  classic  mythology,  was  the 
god  of  mockery,  ridicule,  and  irony,  and  was  called  the 
son  of  Night,  (Nox.)  He  is  said  to  have  criticised  the 
gods  with  great  audacity,  and  to  have  censured  Vulcan 
because,  when  he  (according  to  one  of  the  ancient  myths) 
formed  a  man,  he  did  not  place  a  window  or  door  in  his 
breast,  so  that  his  secret  thoughts  might  be  perceived. 

Mona,  mo'nS,  Moni,  mo'nee,  or  Monio,  mo'ne-o, 
(Domenico,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1550; 
died  in  1602. 

Monagas,mo-n§,'gis,  (Don  Jacinto,)  a  South  Amer- 
ican commander,  born  in  Venezuela  in  1785,  was  one 
of  the  principal  liberators  of  Colombia.  He  was  killed 
in  battle  in  181 9. 

Monantheuil,  de,  deh  mo'n6N'tuI'  or  mo'ndN^tuh'- 
ye,  [Lat.  Monantho'lius,]  (Henri,)  a  French  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Rheims  about  1536.  He  became 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal  College,  Paris, 
where  he  numbered  among  his  pupils  Lamoignon  and 
De  Thou.  He  was  the  author  of  several  scientific  treat- 
ises in  Latin.    Died  in  1606. 

See  NiCEKON,  "Memoires." 

Monantholius.    See  Monantheuil. 

Monardes,  mo-naR'd^s,  (Nicolas,)  a  Spanish  phy- 
sician and  botanist,  was  a  native  of  Seville.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  a  "Treatise  on  the  Medicines  of  the 
New  World."  Linnaeus  named  in  his  honour  the  genus 
Monarda.    Died  in  1578. 

Mon-bod''do,  (James  Burnet,)  Lord,  a  learned 
Scottish  jurist  and  eccentric  writer,  iDorn  in  Kincardine- 
shire in  1714.  He  studied  at  Aberdeen,  and  subsequently 
at  the  University  of  Groningen,  and  was  appointed,  after 
his  return  to  Scotland,  one  of  the  judges  of  the  court  of 
session,  (1767.)  He  published  (1774)  his  "Dissertation 
on  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Language,"  in  which  he 
manifests  an  enthusiastic  admiration  for  the  literature 
and  philosoj^hy  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  advances  the 
theory  that  the  human  race  was  originally  a  species  of 
monkey.  In  his  "Ancient  Metaphysics,  or  the  Science 
of  Universals,"  (1779,)  Lord  Monboddo  has  still  further 
developed  the  same  ideas.  He  was  intimate  with  Dr. 
Johnson  and  other  eminent  men  of  the  time,  by  whom 
he  was  highly  esteemed  for  the  excellence  of  his  charac- 
ter.   Died  in  1799. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  April,  1791,  March,  1796,  and 
January,  1798;  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1799;  Tytler,  "  Life  of 
Lord  Karnes." 

Monbron,  de,  deh  m6N^bR6N',  (N.  Fougeret — 

foozh'ra',)  a  French  litterateitr,  born  at  Peronne,  wrote 
"La  Henriade  travestie,"  (1745,)  and  "  Le  Cosmopol," 
(1750.)  He  was  extremely  censorious  and  misanthrop- 
ical.   Died  in  1761. 

Mcncada,  de,  d^  mon-WiA,  (Don  Francisco,) 
Count  of  Osuna,  a  celebrated  Spanish  general  and  his- 
torian, born  at  Valencia  in  1586,  was  appointed  general- 
issimo of  the  Spanish  forces  in  the  Netherlands,  He 
was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Goch,  in  1635.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  valuable  "History  of  the  Expedition  of  the 


Catalans  against  the  Greeks  and  Turks,"  (1623,)  and  other 
works. 

See  TicKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Moncada,  de,  written  also  Moncade,  (Hugo,)  a 
Spanish  commander,  born  about  1466.  He  served  with 
distinction  against  the  Moors  and  Turks,  was  appointed 
Viceroy  of  Sicily  by  Charles  V.  about  1522,  and  was 
defeated  in  July,  1524,  in  a  naval  battle,  by  Andrew 
Doria,  who  commanded  the  French  fleet.  In  1526  he 
marched  to  Rome  and  liberated  the  imprisoned  pope, 
Clement  VII.,  on  condition  that  he  should  abandon  the 
French  party.  He  was  killed  in  a  sea-fight  near  Naples 
in  1528. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais;"  Robertson,  "  History 
of  Charles  V.,"  vol.  ii.  books  iv.  and  v. 

Moncalvo,  II.    See  Caccia. 

Moiiceaux,  de,  deh  mdN^so',  (Franqois,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Arras,  flourished  about  i57C»-9o.  He 
wrote  "Bucolica  Sacra,"  (1587,)  and  other  works  in 
verse. 

Moncel,  du,  dii  m6N'sgK,  (Th^odose  Achille 
Louis,)  Vicomte,  a  French  savant,  born  in  Paris  in 
1821.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Expose  des 
Applications  de  I'filectricite,"  (3  vols.,  1857.)  He  has 
given  special  attention  to  electro-magnetism,  and  has 
invented  several  sorts  of  electrical  apparatus. 

Moncey,  de,  deh  m6N'si',  (Bon  Adrien  Jeannot,) 
Due  de  Conegliano,  a  French  marshal,  born  at  Besan- 
9on  in  1 754.  He  served  in  the  campaigns  of  1793  and 
1794,  and  attained  the  rank  of  general  of  division.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  subsequent  campaigns  in 
Spain,  Austria,  and  Italy,  and  was  made  a  marshal  in 
1804.  He  soon  after  obtained  the  title  of  Duke  of  Cone- 
gliano, and  the  grand  cordon  of  the  legion  of  honour. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Peers  under  Louis 
XVIII.,  and  was  appointed  gouverneiir  des  Invalides  in 
1834.    Died  in  1842. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  De  Courcelles,  "  Dic- 
tionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais;"  "  loge  du  Mar^chal  Monce>," 
by  Baron  C.  Dupin. 

Monchy.    See  Hocquincourt. 

Monck,  munk,  (Charles  Stanley,)  Viscount,  an 
English  peer,  born  in  Ireland  in  1819.  He  entered  the 
House  of  Commons  as  a  Liberal  in  1852,  became  a  lord 
of  the  treasury  in  1855,  and  was  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  Canada  and  British  America  in  1861.  He 
was  made  a  peer  of  the  United  Kingdom  in  1866. 

Monclar,  de,  deh  m6N'kli;R',  (Jean  Pierre  Fran- 
cois de  Ripert — deh  re^paiR^,)  Marquis,  an  eminent 
French  magistrate  and  writer,  was  born  at  Apt,  in  Pro- 
vence, in  1 711.  He  became  procureur-general  in  1732. 
From  about  1749  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  zealous 
assertion  of  the  liberty  of  the  Protestants,  and  in  1762 
he  exposed  the  tendencies  of  the  Jesuits,  in  a  work 
which  Villemain  pronounces  a  master-piece.  Died  in 
1773- 

Monconys,  m^N'ko'ne',.  (Balthasar,)  a  French 
traveller,  born  at  Lyons  in  1611,  visited  Palestine, 
Egypt,  and  other  parts  of  the  East,  and  published,  after 
his  return,  an  account  of  those  countries.    Died  in  1665. 

Moncornet,  mdN'koR^na',  (Balthasar,)  a  French 
engraver,  born  at  Rouen  about  1615  ;  died  after  1670. 

Moncreiff  or  Moncrieff,  mon-kreef,  (Sir  Henry 
Wellwood,)  a  distinguished  Scottish  divine,  born  in 
Perthshire  in  1750,  became  minister  of  Saint  Cuthbert's, 
Edinburgh,  in  1775.  was  a  zealous  Whig,  and  took 
an  active  part  in  the  ecclesiastical  controversies  of  the 
time,  in  relation  to  which  he  published  several  treatises. 
He  also  wrote  "Discourses  on  the  Evidence  of  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  Revelations,"  (181 5,)  and  an  "Ac- 
count of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  John  Erskine,"  (1818.) 
Died  in  1827. 

See  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1828;  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Moncrieff^  (James,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  son  of  the 
following,  was  born  about  1812.  He  was  lord  advocate 
for  Scotland  from  1851  to  1858,  and  was  re-appointed  in 
1859.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  elected  to  Parliament, 
as  a  Liberal,  by  the  voters  of  Edinburgh. 

Moncrieff,  (Sir  James  Wellwood,)  an  eminent 
Scottish  lawyer  and  judge,  born  about  1776,  was  a  son 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MONCRIF 


1608 


MONK 


of  the  preceding.  He  became  a  judge  of  session,  and 
lord  justiciary.    Died  in  1851. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Moncrif,  de,  deh  m6N'kR^f,  (FRANgois  Augustin 
Paradis,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1687, 
was  a  favourite  at  the  court  of  Louis  XV.,  and  became 
secretary  to  Count  d'Argenson.  He  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1733,  ^'^^1  was  intimate  with  Vol- 
taire, Marniontel,  and  other  celebrated  writers  of  the 
time.  He  was  the  author  of  a  humorous  work  entitled  a 
"History  of  Cats,"  etc.,  "The  Rival  Souls,"  a  romance, 
"  Essay  on  the  Necessity  and  Means  of  Pleasing,"  and  a 
number  of  operas,  songs,  and  ballads.    Died  in  1770. 

See  Grimm,  "  Correspondance  Litteraire  ;"  D'Alembert,  "  His- 
toiie  de  rAcadt*mie  f'raiiyaise." 

Moiidejar,  de,  da  mon-da-HaR',  (Caspar  Ibanez  de 
Segovia,  Persalta  y  Mendoza,)  Marquis,  a  Spanish 
historian,  who  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Cronica  del 
Rey  Don  Alonzo  el  Sabio,"  (1783.)    Died  after  1775. 

Mondejar,  de,  (Inigo  Lopez  de  Mendoza — lo'- 
peth  da  mSn-do'thS,)  Marquis,  a  distinguished  Spanish 
commander  under  the  reign  of  Philip  H.,  was  appointed 
Captain-General  of  Granada,  and  took  an  active  part  in 
the  war  against  the  Moors. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  iii.  book  v. 

Mondino  de  Luzzi.    See  Mundinus. 

Mondonville.    See  Cassanea. 

Mondory  or  Mondori,  m6N'do're',  a  French  actor, 

born  at  Orleans  about  1580,  is  called  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  French  theatre.    Died  in  1651. 

Mondragon,  mon-dRS-gdn',  (Cristobal,)  a  brave 
Spanish  general,  surnamed  THE  good  Mondragon, 
fought  with  distinction  against  the  Netherlanders,  and 
rose  to  be  governor  of  Antwerp.  Died  in  1596. 
See  Motley,  "United  Netherlands,"  chap.  xxxi. 
Mone,  mo'neh,  (Franz  Joseph,)  a  German  writer, 
born  near  Heidelberg  in  1792,  became  professor  of  his- 
tory in  that  city  in  1819.  He  published  a  "History 
of  Paganism  in  Northern  Europe,"  (1822,)  and  other  his- 
orical  works. 

Monet,  xwo'wW  (Philibert,)  a  French  scholar  and 
•philologist,  born  at  Bonneville,  in  Savoy,  in  1566.  He 
wrote  "  Ligatures  des  Langues  Frangoise  et  Latine," 
(1629,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1643. 

Mo-ne'ta,  a  surname  given  by  the  Romans  to  Juno. 
The  temple  of  Juno  Moneta  at  Rome  was  used  as  a 
mint,  which  in  Latin  is  called  moneta. 

See  Smith,  "  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  Mythology." 

Moneti,  mo-na'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Cortona  about  1635  ;  died  in  1712. 

Monfalcon,  rn^N'ftrkoN',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
physician  and  historian,  born  in  Lyons  in  1792.  He 
practised  in  his  native  city,  and  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Code  moral  des  Ouvriers,"  (1835,)  and  a 
"History  of  Lyons,"  (2  vols.,  1846-47.) 

Mongault,  m^N^go',  (Nicolas  Hubert,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1674.  He  made  translations 
of  the  "  History"  of  Herodian  and  the  "  Letters  of  Cicero 
to  Atticus."  The  latter  is  particularly  esteemed,  and  the 
notes  accompanying  it  are  said  to  have  furnished  Mid- 
dleton  with  important  matter  for  his  "  Life  of  Cicero." 
Mongault  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  and 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.    Died  in  1746. 

Monge,  m6Nzh,  (GASPARD,).Comte  de  Peluse,  a  cele- 
brated French  savant,  and  the  creator  of  descriptive 
geometry,  was  born  at  Beaune  in  1746.  Soon  after  he 
left  the  College  of  Lyons  he  obtained  a  place  in  the  col- 
lege of  military  engineers  at  Mezieres.  Having  by  his 
skill  in  geometry  made  an  important  improvement  in 
the  process  used  in  the  art  of  fortification,  he  became, 
about  the  age  of  twenty,  professor  of  mathematics  and 
of  natural  philosophy  at  Mezieres.  While  he  filled 
these  chairs  with  great  credit,  he  gradually  perfected 
the  application  of  geometry  to  the  arts  of  construc- 
tion, which  is  now  called  descriptive  geometry.  In 
1780  he  was  chosen  a  rnember  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences, and  in  1783  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  was 
employed  as  examiner  of  candidates  for  the  marine,  for 
whose  use  he  wrote  an  able  "Treatise  on  Statics."  His 
political  affinities  in  the  Revolution  were  with  the  re- 


publicans, who  appointed  him  minister  of  the  marine  in 
1792.  He  resigned  in  April,  1793,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  zealous  services  in  the  fabrication  of  arms, 
gunpowder,  and  other  materials,  which  were  urgently  re- 
quired for  the  national  defence.  In  1795  he  published 
the  first  edition  of  his  excellent  "  Descriptive  Geometry," 
and  assisted  in  organizing  the  Polytechnic  School,  iu 
which  he  taught  geometry  and  analysis.  Monge,  Fou- 
rier, and  Berthollet  were  the  directors  of  the  scientific 
commission  which  accompanied  Bonaparte  to  Egypt  in 
1798.  Aided  by  pupils  of  the  Polytechnic  School,  they 
executed  the  geodesic  and  monumental  description  of 
that  country.  Having  returned  home  with  Bonaparte, 
he  presided  over  the  arrangement  and  publication  of  the 
great  work  by  which  French  science  and  art  illustrated 
Egypt.  During  the  Napoleonic  regime  he  became  a 
senator.  Count  of  Peluse,  and  grand  officer  of  the  legion 
of  honour.  In  1816  he  was  expelled  from  the  Institute 
on  account  of  his  political  antecedents.  He  died  in  1818. 
He  left  an  important  work  called  "  Application  of  Analy- 
sis to  Geometry."  His  discoveries  in  geometry  form  an 
epoch  in  that  science,  for  which  he  is  said  to  have  done 
more  than  any  one  since  the  time  of  Archimedes. 

See  D.  F.  Arago,  "  Piiographie  de  G.  Monge,"  1853;  Charles 
DuPiN,  "  iSloge  de  Monge,"  1849;  DuPiN  aine,  "  Essai  historique 
surles  Services  de  Monge,"  1819  ;  Walckenaer,  "  Notice  historique 
sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  M.  Monge,"  1849;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Generale." 

Mongez,  m6N''zhi'',  (Antoine,)  a  French  archaeolo- 
gist, born  at  Lyons  in  1747.  He  published  a  treatise 
"On  the  Names  and  Attributes  of  the  Infernal  Deities," 
and  other  works.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions.    Died  in  1835. 

Mongez,  (Marie  Josephine  Ang^lique  Levol,)  a 
French  artist  of  great  merit,  born  near  Paris  in  1775, 
was  the  wife  of  the  preceding.  She  studied  painting 
under  Regnault  and  David.  Among  her  best  works  are 
"The  Death  of  Astyanax,"  "Orpheus  in  Hades,"  and 
"Perseus  and  Andromeda."    Died  in  1855. 

Mongitore,  mon-je-to'ra,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  biog- 
rapher and  priest,  born  at  Palermo  in  1663.  He  pub- 
lished "Bibliotheca  Sicula,"  (2  vols.,  1708-14,)  which 
contains  notices  of  Sicilian  authors,  ancient  and  modern. 
Died  in  1743. 

Monglave,  de,  deh  m^)N'gltv',  (FRANgois  Eugene 
Garay,)  a  French  novelist  and  historian,  born  at  Bayonne 
in  1796. 

Moni.    See  Mona. 

Mon'i-ca,  [Fr.  Monique,  mo'nik',]  Saint,  the  mother 
of  Saint  Augustine,  was  born  in  332  A.D.  She  was  edu- 
cated in  the  Christian  faith,  and  became  eminent  for  her 
virtue  and  piety.  She  lived  at  Tagaste,  in  Numidia,  and 
had  several  children.    Died  at  Ostia  in  387  a.d. 

See  Saint  Augustine,  "  Confessions  ;"  Karl  Braune,  "  Monica 
und  Augustinus,"  1846;  Petit,  "  Histoire  de  Sainte- Monique," 
1848. 

Monier,  mo'ne-i',  (Pierre,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Blois  in  1639  ;  died  in  1703. 

Moniglia,  mo-n^Kyl,  ((Giovanni  Andrea,)  an  Ital- 
ian dramatic  poet  and  physician,  born  at  Florence  about 
1640  ;  died  in  1700. 

Mon'i-ma,  [Gr.  Moi^«^?/,]  a  beautiful  Greek  woman, 
who  became  a  wife  of  Mithridates  the  Great.  She  was 
put  to  death  by  order  of  that  king  in  72  B.C.,  to  prevent 
her  from  being  captured  by  the  victorious  Romans. 

Monino.    See  Florida  Blanca. 

Monio.    See  Mona. 

Monique.    See  Monica. 

Monk,  miink,  (George,)  Duke  of  Albemarle,  a  suc- 
cessful English  general,  born  in  1608,  was  the  son  of 
Sir  Thomas  Monk,  of  Merton,  Devonshire.  After  fight- 
ing in  the  service  of  Holland,  he  returned  to  England 
about  the  age  of  thirty.  In  the  civil  war  he  bore  arms 
for  Charles  I.,  and  had  acquired  some  reputation  as  an 
able  officer  when  he  was  made  prisoner  at  Nantwich  in 
1644  by  the  Roundheads,  who  confined  him  in  the  Tower 
of  London  more  than  a  year.  Having  accepted  a  com- 
mission from  the  Parliament,  he  commanded  a  repub- 
lican army  in  the  north  of  Ireland  between  1646  and 
1650.  Pie  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Cromwell  at 
Dunbar,  in  1650,  and  the  next  year  was  left  in  Scotland 
as  commander  of  an  army,  with  which  he  speedily  com- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MONK 


MONOD 


pleted  tne  reduction  of  that  country.  Hume  states  that 
he  put  to  the  sword  all  the  inhabitants  of  Dundee,  which 
he  had  taken  by  assault ;  though  he  elsewhere  says  his 
temper  was  humane  and  his  moderation  remarkable. 
In  1653  the  government  showed  their  confidence  in  his 
skill  by  selecting  him  to  co-operate  with  Admiral  Blake 
in  a  naval  war  against  the  Dutch.  He  commanded  in 
the  sea-fight  where  V an  Tromp  was  defeated  and  killed. 
In  1654  he  was  successful  in  his  efforts  to  enforce  the 
will  and  authority  of  the  Protector  in  Scotland.  At  the 
death  of  Oliver,  in  1658,  Monk  proclaimed  Richard 
Cromwell  as  his  successor.  When  the  officers  of  the 
army  deposed  Richard  and  restored  the  Long  Par- 
liament, he  acquiesced,  and  retained  command  of  the 
army  in  Scotland.  The  royalists  and  republicans  so- 
licited his  aid  in  the  impending  crisis ;  but  he  kept  all 
parties  in  suspense  by  his  dissimulation  or  irresolu- 
tion. About  the  beginning  of  1660  he  marched  towards 
London,  ostensibly  to  support  the  civil  power  against 
Lambert's  army.  "Cold-blooded  and  taciturn,"  says 
Macaulay,  "zealous  for  no  polity  and  for  no  religion,  he 
maintained  an  impenetrable  reserve"  when  he  was  im- 
plored to  restore  peace  to  the  nation.  Having  cautiously 
removed  from  command  those  whom  he  distrusted,  and 
prepared  the  way  for  the  restoration,  he  declared  for  a 
free  Parliament,  which  soon  assembled,  amidst  general 
joy  and  exultation.  Charles  H.  was  proclaimed  king 
in  May,  1660,  and  rewarded  the  services  of  Monk  by 
creating  him  Duke  of  Albemarle.  In  1666  Monk  main- 
tained his  reputation  in  a  great  naval  battle  against  the 
Dutch.  He  died  in  1670,  leaving  a  son,  at  whose  death 
the  family  became  extinct.  Hume,  after  a  eulogy  of  his 
character,  says,  "  I  confess,  however,  that  Dr.  Douglas 
has  shown  me  an  original  letter  of  his,  containing  very 
earnest  and  certainly  false  protestations  of  his  zeal  for 
a  commonwealth." 

See  "  State  Papers  of  Charles  II.,"  edited  by  Mrs.  Green,  Lon- 
don, 1866:  GuizoT,  "Memdiis  of  Monk:"  "The  Life  of  General 
Monk,"  by  Thomas  Skelton;  T.  Skinner,  "Life  of  General 
Monk:"  GuMBLE,  "Life  of  General  Monk,"  1671  ;  Clarendon, 
"  History  of  the  Rebellion;"  Hallam,  "Constitutional  History;" 
Macaui.ay,  "Histf)ryof  England;"  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol. 
xiii.,  (1826;)  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  British  Admirals." 

Monk,  (James  Henry,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
author,  born  at  Huntingford  in  1784.  He  became  Bishop 
of  Gloucester  about  1830.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Bentley," 
(1831.)    Died  in  1856. 

Monk,  (Mary  Moi.esworth,)  a  distinguished  writer, 
was  a  daughter  of  Robert,  Lord  Molesworth,  and  was 
married  to  George  Monk,  an  Irish  gentleman.  She  died 
in  1715,  leaving  a  collection  entitled  "Marinda:  Poems 
and  Translations  on  Several  Occasions,"  (1716.) 

See  CiBBER,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Monmerque,  mdN^m^R^ki',  (Louis  Jean  Nicolas,) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1780.  He  wrote 
many  articles  for  the  "  Biographie  Universelle"  of  Mi- 
chaud,  edited  the  "  Letters  of  Madame  de  Sevigne," 
(10  vols.,  1819,)  and  published  other  works.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1833.  Died 
in  i860. 

Monmorel,  de,  deh  m^N^mo^rlK,  (Charles  le 
Bourg — leh  booR,)  a  popular  French  preacher,  born  in 
Normandy;  died  in  1719. 

Monmouth.    See  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth. 

Monmouth,  Earl  OF.  See  Mordaunt,  and  Carey, 
(Henry.) 

Monmouth,  mon'muth,  (James  Scott,)  Duke  of, 
born  in  1649,  was  a  natural  son  of  Charles  II.  of  Eng- 
land. His  mother's  name  was  Lucy  Walters.  He  married 
about  1665  Anne  Scott,  Duchess  of  Buccleuch,  said  to 
have  been  the  richest  heiress  in  the  kingdom,  and  as- 
sumed her  name.  He  received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Buc- 
cleuch, and  was  loaded  with  royal  favours.  His  personal 
advantages  and  agreeable  manners  rendered  him  very 
popular.  "Though  a  libertine,"  says  Macaulay,  "  he  won 
the  hearts  of  the  Puritans."  A  rivalry  or  jealousy  arose 
between  him  and  the  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James 
II.,  through  whose  influence  Monmouth  was  discarded 
from  court.  He  was  in  Holland  when  Charles  II.  died, 
(1684.)  A  report  that  Charles  II.  had  married  Lucy  Wal- 
ters privately  was  credulously  received  by  the  populace, 
who  regarded  Monmouth  as  the  rightful  heir  to  the 


throne  and  the  champion  of  the  Protestant  cause.  With 
a  party  of  armed  exiles  he  invaded  England  in  June,  1685, 
and  raised  the  standard  of  rebellion.  He  was  received 
with  enthusiasm  by  the  people,  and  gained  a  victory  over 
the  royal  troops  at  Axminster  ;  but  he  was  completely 
defeated  at  Sedgemoor,  July  6,  and  captured  a  few  days 
later.  Having  been  taken  into  the  presence  of  King 
James,  he  threw  hitnself  at  his  feet,  and,  with  abject 
spirit,  begged  for  life  at  any  price,  but  in  vain.  He  was 
executed  in  July,  1685. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i. ;  George  Roberts, 
"  Life  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,"  1844. 

Monnet,  mo'ni',  (Antoine  Grimoald,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  in  Auvergne  in  1734,  was  appointed  in- 
spector-general of  mines.  He  opposed  and  undervalued 
the  discoveries  of  Lavoisier,  Berthollet,  and  others,  and 
thus  injured  his  own  reputation.  He  published  a  "  Treat- 
ise on  the  Solution  of  Metals,"  (1775,)  "Historical  and 
Political  Memoir  on  tne  Mines  of  France,"  (1791,)  and 
numerous  other  scientific  works.    Died  in  181 7. 

Monnet,  (Louis  Claude,)  Baron,  a  French  general, 
born  in  1766.  He  commanded  at  Flushing  when  it  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1809.  For  this  ill  success  he 
was  condemned  to  death  ;  but  he  was  then  a  prisoner  in 
England.    Died  in  1819. 

Monnier,  mo'ne-a',  (Henri  Bonaventure,  )  a 
French  litterateur,  c^iedian,  and  caricaturist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1805.  He  represented  and  caricatured  the  life 
and  manners  of  the  common  people  with  the  pen,  and 
published  several  volumes  of  "Scenes  populaires  des- 
sinees  a  la  Plume,"  (1830-46.)  Among  his  works  is 
"Memoires  de  M.  Prudhomme,"  (2  vols.,  1854.) 

Monnier,  (Jean  Chari.es,)  Comte,  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  at  Cavaillon  in  1758.  He  led  a  division  at 
Marengo  in  June,  1800.    Died  in  1816. 

Monnier,  (Louis  Gabriel,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Besan9on  in  1733  ;  died  at  Dijon  in  1804. 

Monnier,  de,  deh  mo'ne-^',  (Marie  Th^:rese  Ri- 
chard de  Ruffey — re'shSn^ :leh  riiTa^)  Marquise,  a 
French  lady,  known  under  the  name  of  Sophie,  and 
celebrated  in  consequence  of  her  connection  with  Mira- 
beau,  was  born  at  Pontarlier  in  1754.  Died  in  1789. 
(See  Mirabeau.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Monnier,  Le.    See  Lemon  nier. 

Monnier,  Le,leh  mo''ne-a',  (Pierre,)  a  French  savant, 
born  in  Normandy  about  1675,  published  a  work  en- 
titled "Course  of  Philosophy."  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.    Died  in  1757. 

Monnoie  or  Monnoye,  de  la,  deh  It  mo'nwl', 
(Bernard,)  a  French  poet  and  critic,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1641.  He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "The  Duel 
Abolished,"  which  obtained  the  first  prize  ever  awarded 
by  the  French  Academy.  Pie  was  elected  a  member  of 
that  institution  in  1713.  He  also  published  poems  in 
Latin  and  French,  and  several  critical  treatises.  Died 
in  1728. 

See  R.  DE  JuviGNY,  "Memoire  historique  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  La 
Monnoye." 

Monnoyer,  mo'nwi'yk',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  cele- 
brated painter  of  flowers  and  fruit,  born  at  Lille,  in 
Flanders,  in  1635.  Having  visited  Paris,  he  was  em- 
ployed in  the  decoration  of  Versailles  and  the  Trianon. 
He  afterwards  repaired  to  England,  where  he  executed 
some  of  his  best  works.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
the  flower-border  of  a  mirror  at  Kensington,  and  the 
decorations  of  Montagu  House.  His  flower-pieces  have 
never  been  surpassed  for  brilliancy  of  colouring  and  free 
and  graceful  grouj^ing.  He  died  in  1699,  leaving  a  son, 
An  toine,  who  was  also  a  flower-painter. 

See  R.  DuMESNiL,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  Frangais." 

Monod,  mo'nod',  (Adolphe,  )  an  eminent  Swiss 
Protestant  minister,  born  about  1800.  He  lectured  on 
theology  and  Hebrew  at  the  College  of  Montauban  froiu 
1836  to  1852,  and  became  minister  of  the  Reformed 
Church  of  Paris  in  1853.  He  acquired  a  wide  reputation 
a«  a  preacher  and  moralist,  and  wrote  numerous  religioug 
treatises.  He  belonged  to  the  most  orthodox  school  of 
French  Protestants.    Died  in  1856. 

Monod,  (Frederic,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  miiiister, 
born  at  Monnaz,  in  the  Canton  de  Vaud,  in  1794,  was  a 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MONOD 


1610 


MONROSE 


brother  of  tlie  preceding.  He  became  in  1832  pastor 
of  the  Protestant  sect  called  "fivangelistes  libres,"  in 
Paris.  He  edited  for  many  years  "  The  Archives  of 
Christianity,"  and  published  a  number  of  sermons. 
Died  in  1863. 

Monod,  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  divine,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1765,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
pastor  of  a  church  in  Paris,  and  in  1830  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Consistory  of  the  Reformed  Church.  He 
contributed  to  the  "  Biographic  Universelle"  many 
notices  of  eminent  Swiss  writers,  etc.    Died  in  1836. 

Monpou,  ni6N'poo',  (Hippolytk,)  a  French  com- 
poser and  singer,  born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  composed 
popular  ballads  and  operas,  among  which  is  *'  Les  deux 
Keines,"  (1835.)    Died  in  1841. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mon-ro',  (Alexander,  distinguished  as  Primus,  i.e. 
the  "  first,")  an  eminent  physician  and  anatomist,  born 
in  London  in  1697.  He  studied  successively  in  London, 
Paris,  and  at  Leyden  under  Boerhaave,  and  was  ap- 
pointed, after  his  return,  demonstrator  of  anatomy  to 
the  Surgeons'  Company  at  Edinburgh.  The  lectures  he 
delivered  at  this  time  won  for  him  a  high  reputation, 
and  were  chiefly  instrumental  in  founding  the  Medical 
School  of  Edinburgh.  Under  his  direction  also  was 
established  the  Royal  Infirmary  of  that  city,  in  which 
he  gave  clinical  lectures  on  surgery.  He  published  in 
1726  his  "  Osteology,  or  Treatise  on  the  Anatomy  of  the 
Bones,"  which  passed  through  numerous  editions  and 
was  translated  into  French  and  German.  Among  his 
other  works  are  an  "Essay  on  Comparative  Anatomy," 
(1744,)  and  "Account  of  the  Inoculation  of  Small-Pox 
in  Scotland,"  (1765.)  Dr.  Monro  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Surgery  in  Paris.    Died  in  1767. 

See  A.  Duncan,  "  Account  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Alexander  Monro," 
1780;  "Life  of  Alexander  Monro,"  prefixed  to  his  works ;  Cham- 
bers, "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Monro,  (Alexander  Secundits,  or  the  "second,") 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1732. 
He  succeeded  his  father  in  the  chair  of  anatomy  and 
surgery  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1759.  He 
died  in  181 7,  leaving  a  number  of  medical  treatises  of 
great  merit.  Among  these  we  may  name  "  Observations 
on  the  Structure,  etc.  of  the  Nervous  System,"  (1783,) 
and  "  Structure  and  Physiology  of  Fishes,"  (1785.) 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Monro,  (Alexander  Tertiiis,  or  the  "third,")  a 
physician,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Edin- 
iDurgh  about  1774.  He  was  professor  of  anatomy  at 
Edinburgh,  and  .published  several  works  on  anatomy 
and  medicine.   Died  in  1859. 

Monro,  (Donald,)  brother  of  Alexander,  (1732-1817,) 
was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1729.  He  was  appointed  chief 
physician  to  the  army,  which  he  accompanied  to  Ger- 
many in  1 761.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Means  of  Preserving  the  Health  of 
Soldiers."    Died  in  1802. 

Monro,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  born  at  Green- 
wich in  1 71 5,  was  the  author  of  "Remarks  on  Battle's 
Treatise  on  Madness."    Died  in  1791. 

Monroe,  miin-r5',  (James,)  an  American  statesman, 
and  the  fifth  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born 
in  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  April  28,  1758.  He 
was  a  son  of  Silence  Monroe,  a  planter,  was  educated  at 
William  and  Mary  College,  and  entered  the  army  as  a 
cadet  in  1776.  He  soon  became  a  lieutenant  in  the  army 
of  Washington,  and  served  at  the  battles  of  Harlem 
Heights  and  White  Plains.  He  was  wounded  in  the 
battle  of  Trenton,  December,  1776,  and  for  his  conduct 
there  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain.  As  aide- 
de-camp  to  Lord  Stirling,  he  served  with  distinction  at 
the  battle  of  Brandywine,  September,  1777,  and  at  that 
of  Monmouth,  June,  1778.  Having  lost  his  rank  in  the 
regular  army  by  becoming  an  aide  to  Lord  Stirling,  he 
retired  from  the  service  in  1778,  and  studied  law  under 
Thomas  Jefferson.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Assembly  of  Virginia  in  1782,  and  a  delegate  to  the 
General  Congress  in  1783  for  three  years.  He  married, 
about  1785,  a  Miss  Kortright,  of  New  York. 


As  a  member  of  the  Convention  of  Virginia,  in  1788, 
he  opposed  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  which,  in  his  opinion,  gave  too  much 
power  to  the  Federal  government.  He  accordingly 
united  himself  with  the  Anti-Federalists,  or  Republican 
party,  and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
for  four  years  by  the  legislature  of  Virginia  in  1790.  In 
1794  he  was  sent  to  France  as  minister-plenipotentiary. 
He  offended  the  heads  of  the  home  government  by  the 
open  expression  of  sympathy  with  the  French  repub- 
licans, or  by  a  departure  from  a  neutral  policy,  and 
was  recalled  about  the  end  of  1796.  He  was  Governor 
of  Virginia  three  years,  (i  799-1802.)  In  1802  he  was 
sent  to  France  as  envoy-extraordinary,  to  unite  with 
Edward  Livingston,  then  the  resident  minister  at  Paris, 
in  a  negotiation  for  the  purchase  of  Louisiana, — i.e.  the 
whole  valley  of  the  Mississippi.  They  purchased  that 
vast  territory  from  Bonaparte  for  $15,000,000.  In  1803 
Mr.  Monroe  was  sent  as  minister-plenipotentiary  to 
England,  and  in  1805  performed  a  diplomatic  mission  to 
Spain  in  relation  to  the  boundary  of  Louisiana.  He 
returned  to  London  in  1806,  and,  aided  by  Mr.  Pinck- 
ney,  negotiated  a  treaty  for  the  protection  of  maritime 
interests  and  neutral  rights ;  but  the  government  of 
the  United  States  refused  to  ratify  this  treaty,  because 
it  did  not  provide  against  the  impressment  of  seamen. 
He  returned  home  in  1808,  and  passed  about  two  years 
in  a  private  station. 

In  181 1  he  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia.  He 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  President  Madison 
in  November,  181 1.  He  acted  as  secretary  of  war  during 
the  disastrous  and  gloomy  period  that  followed  the  cap- 
ture of  Washington,  September,  1814-March,  1815,  and 
rendered  important  services  by  his  energetic  measures 
to  restore  the  public  credit  and  reinforce  the  army.  He 
did  not  cease  to  be  secretary  of  state  until  March,  1817, 
He  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for  the  Presidency  in 
1816,  and  was  elected  by  a  large  majority,  receiving  one 
hundred  and  eighty-three  electoral  votes.  His  competi- 
tor was  Rufus  King,  who  received  thirty-four  votes.  He 
appointed  John  Q.  Adams  secretary  of  state,  William 
H.  Crawford  secretary  of  the  treasury,  John  C.  Calhoun 
secretary  of  war,  and  Smith  Thompson  secretary  of  the 
navy.  The  violence  of  party  spirit  abated  during  his 
administration,  which  encountered  no  strong  opposition. 
In  1819  Spain  ceded  Florida  to  the  United  States.  He 
was  re-elected  President  in  1820  without  oppositiori, 
receiving  every  electoral  vote  except  one.  During  hia 
second  term  the  independence  of  the  South  American 
colonies  of  Spain  was  recognized  by  the  United  States. 
In  his  message  of  December,  1823,  he  asserted  the  im- 
portant principle  of  foreign  policy  which  forms  the  cele- 
brated "Monroe  Doctrine,"  in  these  terms:  "We  owe 
it,  therefore,  to  candour  and  to  the  amicable  relations 
existing  between  the  United  States  and  those  powers, 
\i.e.  the  European  powers,]  to  declare  that  we  should 
consider  any  attempt  on  their  part  to  extend  their  sys- 
tem to  any  portion  of  this  hemisphere  as  dangerous  to 
our  peace  and  safety."  He  retired  from  office  in  March, 
1825,  after  which  he  resided  at  Oak  Hill,  Loudon  county, 
Virginia.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  convention 
which  met  in  1829  to  revise  the  Constitution  of  Virginia. 
A  speech  which  he  made  in  that  Convention  contains 
this  incidental  remark  on  slavery  : — "No  imputation  can 
be  cast  on  Virginia  in  this  matter.  She  did  all  that  was 
in  her  power  to  do,  to  prevent  the  extension  of  slavery 
and  to  mitigate  its  evils  so  far  as  she  could."*  He  died 
in  the  city  of  New  York,  at  the  residence  of  his  son-in- 
law,  Samuel  L.  Gouverneur,  on  the  4th  of  July,  183 1, 
leaving  the  reputation  of  a  discreet  and  successful  states- 
man, more  distinguished  for  administrative  talents  than 
for  oratorical  powers. 

See  J.  Q.  Adams,  "Eulogy  on  James  Monroe;"  Hildreth, 
"  History  of  the  United  States,"  vols.  v.  and  vi.  ;  "National  Por- 
trait-Gallery of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iii. 

Monrose,  m6N^roz',  the  assumed  name  of  Claude 
Louis  Barrizain,  (bt're'ziN',)  a  French  comic  actor, 
born  at  Besan9on  in  1783  ;  died  in  1843. 

*  This  remark,  doubtless,  has  reference  to  the  efforts  of  the  English 
government  to  introduce  slaves  into  Virginia  against  the  wishes  of 
many  of  the  colonists. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MONS 


MONTJGU 


Mons,  van,  vtn  m6ns  or  mdNss,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  an 
eminent  Belgian  chemist  and  pomologist,  was  born  at 
Brussels  in  1765.  Having  learned  the  art  of  pharmacy, 
he  was  chosen  in  1797  professor  of  chemistry,  etc.  in 
Brussels.  He  founded  the  "Journal  de  Chimie  et  Phy- 
sique," which  for  many  years  was  a  central  depot  of  the 
progress  of  science  in  Europe.  Having  a  ruling  passion 
for  the  culture  of  fruit,  he  began  at  an  early  age  to  theo- 
rize and  experiment  on  the  production  of  new  varieties. 
About  the  age  of  twenty  he  adopted  the  theory  that 
seedlings  of  new  varieties  have  more  tendency  to  im- 
prove than  those  of  old  varieties,  or,  in  other  words, 
while  good  old  varieties  mostly  produce  inferior  sorts, 
those  which  are  recent  and  bad  tend  to  change  for  the 
better.  Having  planted  a  large  nursery  and  devoted 
his  life  chiefly  to  experiments  on  the  pear,  he  was  suc- 
cessful in  producing  ^^lany  fine  varieties,  among  which 
VMS  the  Beurre  Diel.  Soon  after  1815  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Louvain.  He  published  "  Prin- 
ciples of  Electricity,"  (1802,)  "  Principles  of  Philosophic 
Chemistry,"  (1818,)  "Fruit-Trees  and  their  Culture," 
(1835,)  and  other  works.  He  was  an  associate  of  the 
Institute  of  France.  Died  in  1842.  "The  constant 
springing  up  of  fine  new  sorts  of  fruit  in  the  United 
States,"  says  Downing,  "is  given  with  much  apparent 
force  as  a  proof  of  the  accuracy  of  the  Van  Mons 
theory." 

See  QuETELET,  "  Notice  historique  sur  J.  B.  van  Mons,"  1843  ; 
J.  S.  Stas,  "Notice  sur  J.  B.  van  Mons,"  1843. 

Mons,  van,  (Theodore,)  a  jurist,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Brussels  in  1801.  He  published 
several  legal  works. 

Monselet,  m^N'seh-li',  (Charles,)  a  French  littera- 
teur, born  at  Nantes  in  1825.  He  wrote,  besides  various 
other  works,  "  Statues  et  Statuettes,"  (1851,)  and  "  Figu- 
rines Parisiennes,"  (1854.) 

Mon'sell,  (William,)  M.P.,  was  born  in  Limerick 
county,  Ireland,  in  1812.  He  was  appointed  a  privy 
councillor  in  1855,  president  of  the  board  of  health  in 
1857,  was  vice-president  of  the  board  of  trade  a  few 
months  in  1866,  and  became  under-secretary  for  the 
colonies  in  December,  1868. 

Monsiau,  m6iN'se-5',  (Nicolas  Andr^:,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1754,  worked  with 
remarkable  facility.    Died  in  1837. 

Monsignori,  mon-s^n-yo'ree,  (Francesco,)  some- 
times called  Bonsignori,  a  skilful  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Verona  in  1455.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Andrea  Man- 
tegna,  and  worked  mostly  at  Mantua.    Died  in  15 19. 

See  Vasar[,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Monsigny,  m^N's^n'ye',  (Pierre  Alexandre,)  a 
French  composer,  born  at  Artois  in  1729.  He  produced, 
besides  other  operas,  "  Le  Maitre  en  Droit,"  and  "  Le 
Cadi  dupe,"  (1760,)  the  comic  operas  of  "The  King  and 
the  Farmer"  and  "  Rose  and  Colas,"  and  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Institute,  (1813.)    Died  in  1817. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biograpliie  Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;"  Quatre- 
MERE  DE  QniNcv,  "  filoge  dc  Monsigny,"  i8i8;  Pierre  Hedouin, 
"Notice  historique  sur  P.  A.  Monsigny,"  1821. 

Mon'son,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  naval  com- 
mander, born  in  Lincolnshire  about  1569,  served  with 
distinction  against  the  Spaniards,  Dutch,  and  French, 
and  attained  the  rank  of  vice-admiral.  He  was  the 
author  of  "Naval  Tracts,"  which  were  published  in 
Churchill's  "Collection  of  Voyages."    Died  in  1643. 

See  Campbri.i.,  "Lives  of  British  Admirals;"  J.  Barrow,  "Me- 
moirs of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  Reign,"  1845. 

Monson,  (William  John,)  Lord,  an  English  peer 
and  antiquary,  born  in  1796.  He  entered  the  House  of 
Lords  in  1841.    Died  in  1862. 

Monstrelet,  de,  deh  m6N'streh-li',  (Enguerrand,) 
a  French  chronicler,  born  about  1390,  wrote  an  account 
of  the  wars  of  his  time  between  the  factions  of  Armagnac 
and  Burgundy.  His  "  Chronicles,"  beginning  in  1400 
and  brought  down  to  1444,  fill  the  space  between  the 
histories  of  Froissart  and  Comines,  and  are  highly 
esteemed  for  their  accuracy  and  the  perspicuity  and 
simplicity  of  their  style.    Died  in  1453. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Montagna,  mon-tSn^yS,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Vicenza,  lived  about  1460-1500,  and 


studied  under  Andrea  Mantegna.  Among  his  master- 
pieces we  may  name  the  "  Madonna  on  a  Throne  with 
Saint  Andrew  and  other  Saints,"  at  the  Museum  of 
Milan. 

Montagna,  (Benedetto,)  an  Italian  engraver,  a 
relative  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Vicenza  about  1458 ; 
died  in  1530. 

See  Bartsch,  "Le  Peintre-Graveur." 

Montagne,  mdN'tSfi',  (Jean  Francois  Camille,)  a 
French  botanist,  born  at  Vaudoy  in  1784.  Having 
studied  medicine,  he  was  appointed  in  181 5  surgeon-in- 
chief  of  the  army  of  Murat,  He  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  AcadeiTiy  of  Sciences  in  1852,  and  in  1858  was 
made  an  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  "Archives  de  Botanique"  and  to  other 
scientific  journals  a  number  of  valuable  treatises  on 
the  Cryptogamia,  among  which  we  may  name  "  Notice 
of  the  Cryptogamous  Plants  recently  discovered  in 
France."    Died  in  1866. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Montagny,  m6N'ttn^ye',  (Etienne,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Saint-Etienne  in  1816.  He  obtained  a  medal 
of  the  first  class  for  a  statue  of  Saint  Louis,  in  1859. 

M6n'ta-gu,  (Basil,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer  and 
writer,  born  in  London  in  1770,  was  a  natural  son  of 
John  Montagu,  Earl  of  Sandwich.  Having  graduated 
at  Cambridge,  he  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1798.  He 
practised  with  ability  and  success,  and  extended  his 
reputation  by  numerous  legal  publications,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  is  a  "  Digest  of  the  Bankrupt  Laws, 
with  a  Collection  of  the  Statutes  and  of  the  Cases  de- 
termined upon  that  Subject,"  (1805.)  He  was  associated 
with  Romilly  and  Willjerforce  in  successful  effort  to 
abolish  hanging  for  forgery  and  for  certain  other  crimes. 
In  1825  he  produced  a  valuable  edition  of  Lord  Bacon's 
works,  on  which  he  expended  the  labour  of  many  years ; 
also  a  "Life  of  Bacon,"  in  reference  to  which  Macaulay 
saj's,  "About  his  merit  as  a  collector  of  materials  there 
can  be  no  dispute;  and  we  are  indebted  to  his  minute 
and  accurate  researches  for  the  means  of  refuting  what 
we  cannot  but  consider  his  errors."  He  published 
"  Essays  and  Selections,"  and  various  other  works. 
Died  in  185 1. 

Montagu,  (Charles.)    See  Halifax,  Earl  of. 

Montagu,  (Edw^ard.)   See  Manchester,  Earl  of. 

Montagu,  (Edward  Wortley,)  son  of  Lady  Mary 
Montagu,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1 7 13. 
At  an  early  age  he  manifested  a  propensity  to  low  vices, 
and  great  eccentricity  of  character.  When  placed  at 
school  he  repeatedly  ran  away,  and  at  length  hired  him- 
self as  a  cabin-boy  in  a  ship  bound  for  Spain.  Being 
discovered  and  sent  back  to  his  family,  he  travelled  soon 
after  on  the  continent.  After  his  return  he  was  member 
of  two  successive  Parliaments.  He  next  went  to  Italy, 
where  he  was  converted  to  Catholicism,  and  not  long 
after  visited  Egypt,  and  there  professed  Mohammedanism. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Reflections  on  the  Rise  and  Fall 
of  Ancient  Republics."    Died  in  1776. 

See  "Memoirs  of  E.  Wortley  Montagu,"  2  vols.,  1778;  "Auto- 
biography of  Edward  Wortley  Montagu,"  London,  1869;  Nichols, 
"Literary  Anecdotes." 

Montagu,  (Henry.)    See  Manchester,  Earl  of. 

Montagu,  (Lady  Mary  Wortley,)  a  celebrated 
English  writer,  born  in  Nottinghamshire  about  1690. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Evelyn  Pierrepont,  Duke  of 
Kingston,  and  Lady  Mary  Fielding,  and  cousin  to  the 
novelist  Henry  Fielding.  She  was  early  distinguished 
for  the  brilliancy  of  her  intellect  and  her  rapid  acquisition 
of  knowledge.  In  1712  she  was  married  to  Edward 
Wortley  Montagu,  Esq.,  and  a  few  years  after,  on  his 
appointment  to  a  place  in  the  treasury,  accompanied 
him  to  London.  Here  she  attracted  general  admiration 
by  her  wit  and  remarkable  beauty,  and  became  intimate 
with  Addison,  Pope,  and  other  celebrated  writers  of 
the  time.  In  1716  she  accompanied  her  husband,  on  his 
being  appointed  ambassador,  to  Constantinople.  During 
her  residence  of  two  years  at  the  Porte,  she  wrote  to 
her  friends  in  England  a  series  of  Letters  containing 
shrewd  and  lively  descriptions  of  Oriental  life  and  man- 
ners. On  her  return  to  England  she  became  the  means 
of  introducing  the  Turkish  practice  of  inoculation,  having 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  o,  H,  Yi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (21^=' See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MONTAGUE 


1612  MONTALEMBERT 


had  the  courage  to  have  the  experiment  first  tried  on 
her  own  son.  The  next  remarkalile  event  in  Lady  Mary's 
life  is  her  quarrel  with  Pope,  the  cause  of  which  is  not 
v^ith  certainty  known.  In  1739  she  left  England  for 
Italy,  where  she  resided  upwards  of  twenty  years.  She 
returned  in  1761,  and  died  the  following  year.  Besides 
the  son  mentioned  above,  she  left  a  daughter  Mary,  who 
was  married  to  the  Earl  of  Bute,  minister  of  George  III. 
Lady  Mary  wrote  a  number  of  poems,  of  which  the 
"Town  Eclogues"  only  are  entitled  to  much  notice. 
Her  literary  reputation  is  owing  chiefly  to  her  "  Let- 
ters," which  are  ranked  among  the  finest  specimens  of 
epistolary  composition. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  L.  S.  Costeli.o; 
Mrs.  Ei.wooo,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England;" 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1803,  and  April,  1S04,  (by  Jeffrey  ;) 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1837;  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  July,  1868,  ("  Historical  Sketches  of  the  Reign  of 
George  IL  ;")  "Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1837;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  May  and  June,  1763  et  seq. 

Montague,  m6n'ta-ga,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English 
statesman,  born  in  Northamptonshire.  He  was  ap- 
pointed chief  justice  of  the  court  of  king's  bench  in 
1539,  and  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas  in  1546. 
He  was  one  of  the  counsellors  designated  in  the  will  of 
Henry  VIII.  to  administer  the  government  during  the 
minority  of  Edward  VI.    Died  in  1556. 

See  Fuller,  "Worthies  of  England;"  Collins,  "Peerage  of 
England." 

Montague,  (Edward,)  Earl  of  Sandwich,  an  English 
naval  commander,  born  in  1625.  He  served  for  a  time 
on  the  side  of  the  Parliament,  but  subsequently  went 
over  to  the  royalists,  and  assisted  General  Monk  in  the 
restoration  of  Charles  II.  For  this  service  he  was  suc- 
cessively created  an  earl,  a  knight  of  the  Garter,  mem- 
ber of  the  privy  council,  and  admiral  of  the  Narrow 
Seas.  On  the  renewal  of  the  war  with  Holland,  in  1672, 
Lord  Sandwich  commanded  the  squadron  under  the 
Duke  of  York  against  De  Ruyter,  and  perished  in  the 
burning  of  the  Royal  James. 

See  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Admirals;"  Clarendon,  "Me- 
moirs." 

Montague,  (Elizabeth,)  a  celebrated  English  lady, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1720.  Her  early  studies  were 
directed  by  Dr.  Conyers  Middleton,  who  was  connected 
with  her  family.  In  1742  she  was  married  to  Edward 
Montague,  Esq.  After  the  death  of  her  husband,  in 
1775,  she  resided  in  Portman  Square,  London,  where 
she  numbered  among  her  visitors  the  most  eminent  men 
of  the  day,  including  Burke,  Johnson,  Goldsmith,  and 
Reynolds.  She  was  also  intimate  with  Mrs.  Elizabeth 
Carter  and  Hannah  More.  Mrs.  Montague  contributed 
several  "Dialogues  of  the  Dead"  to  those  published  by 
Lord  Lyttelton  ;  but  her  principal  work  is  an  "Essay  on 
the  Genius  and  Writings  of  Shakespeare,"  which  ob- 
tained for  her  a  high  reputation.  In  this  production 
she  has  ably  refuted  the  false  charges  of  Voltaire  against 
the  great  English  poet.  She  is  said  to  have  been  the 
founder  of  the  literary  society  called  the  "Blue-Stocking 
Club."  Her  correspondence  was  published  after  her 
death.    Died  in  1800. 

See  Mrs.  Ei.wood,  "Memoirsof  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England," 
etc.;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  i8og;  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  1S13;  "Mrs.  Montague  and  her  Friends,"  in 
"Eraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1848 ;""  Monthly  Review"  for 
October,  1814. 

Montague,  (Gf.orge,)  an  English  naturalist,  born  in 
Wiltshire.  In  1802  he  i^ublished  an  "Ornithological 
Dictionary,  or  Synopsis  of  British  Birds,"  and  soon  after 
his  "Testacea  Britannica,"  or  "Natural  History  of 
British  Shells,"  illustrated.  Both  of  these  works  are 
highly  esteemed.  Montague  was  a  member  of  the  Lin- 
naean  Society  of  London.    Died  in  1815. 

Montague,  (John,)  Earl  of  Sandwich,  an  English 
statesman,  born  in  London  in  1718.  He  was  first  lord 
of  the  admiralty  in  1749  and  1750,  and  obtained  the 
same  office  in  1763.  He  supported  the  administration 
of  Lord  North,  under  whom  he  served  as  first  lord  of 
the  admiralty  from  1771  to  1782.  He  was  more  deficient 
in  principle  than  in  capacity.    Died  in  1792. 

See  J.  Cooke,  "Memoir  of  the  Earl  of  Sandwich." 

Montague,  (Richard,)  an  English  scholar  and  theo- 
logian.   See  MouNTAGU. 


Montaigne,  m6n-tan',  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  m^N'tin',] 
(Michel  Eyquem— k'kSN',)  a  celebrated'  French  phi- 
losopher and  essayist,  born  at  the  chateau  de  Mon- 
taigne, in  Perigord,  on  the  28th  of  February,  1533.  His 
father,  who  was  one  of  the  noblesse,  placed  him,  while 
very  young,  under  the  tuition  of  masters  who  were 
ignorant  of  French,  and  who  conversed  with  him  only  in 
Latin,  which  thus  became  his  natural  language.  At  the 
age  of  thirteen  he  had  finished  his  studies  at  a  college 
of  Bordeaux.  Having  studied  law,  he  became  a  judge 
at  Bordeaux  about  1554.  In  1565  or  1566  he  married, 
par  convennnce,  Fran9oise  de  la  Chassaigne.  In  1580  he 
produced  his  celebrated  "Essays,"  which  have  enjoyed 
an  almost  unparalleled  popularity.  Soon  after  that  date 
he  made  a  tour  in  Germany,  Italy,  etc.,  of  which  he 
wrote  a  Journal.  He  often  visited  Paris,  in  order  to 
perform  his  duties  as  gentleman  of  the  king's  (hamber. 
From  1 581  to  1585  he  was  mayor  of  Bordeaux.  During 
the  civil  war  of  the  League  his  impartial  moderation  did 
not  exempt  him  from  danger  and  persecution.  He  died 
in  September,  1592.  "The  Essays  of  Montaigne,"  says 
Hallam,  "make  in  several  respects  an  epoch  in  litera- 
ture, less  on  account  of  their  real  importance  than  of 
their  influence  on  the  taste  and  opinions  of  Europe.  .  .  . 
No  prose  writer  of  the  sixteenth  century  has  been  so 
generally  read,  nor,  probably,  given  so  much  delight. 
Whatever  may  be  our  estimate  of  Montaigne  as  a  phi- 
losopher,— a  name  which  he  was  far  from  arrogating, — 
there  will  be  but  one  opinion  of  the  felicity  and  bright- 
ness of  his  genius."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe.")  "The  author  of  these  '  Essais,' "  says  Leo 
Joubert,  "is  certainly  the  most  independent  spirit  that 
ever  existed, — independent  without  revolt,  and  detached 
from  the  systems  of  others  without  having  any  system 
of  his  own.  .  .  .  We  recognize  in  his  'Essays'  a  nature 
well  endowed,  not  heroic,  perhaps,  but  generous,  exqui- 
sitely sensible,  not  aspiring  to  the  sublime,  capable  of 
devotion,  and  incapable  of  a  base  act, — in  fine,  a  model 
of  what  we  may  call  average  virtue,"  (la  vertu  moyenne.) 
("  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale,")  Sprightly  humour, 
independence,  naivete,  and  originality  are  the  character- 
istics of  his  mind  ;  and  his  style  is  admired  for  its  graceful 
simplicity.  His  works  are  highly  seasoned  with  his  own 
individuality,  and  afford  much  insight  into  his  character. 

"  The  Essays,"  says  Emerson,  "  are  an  entertaining 
soliloquy  on  every  random  topic  that  comes  into  his 
head, — treating  everything  without  ceremony,  yet  with 
masculine  sense.  There  have  been  men  with  deeper 
insight,  but,  one  would  say,  never  a  man  with  such 
abundance  of  thoughts:  he  is  never  dull,  never  insin- 
cere, and  has  the  genius  to  make  the  reader  care  for  all 
that  he  cares  for.  .  .  .  This  book  of  Montaigne  the 
world  has  endorsed  by  translating  it  into  all  tongues 
and  printing  seventy-five  editions  of  it  in  Europe, — and 
that,  too,  a  circulation  somewhat  chosen,  namely,  among 
courtiers,  soldiers,  princes,  men  of  the  world,  and  men 
of  wit  and  generosity."  (See  article  "  Montaigne,"  in 
"  Representative  Men.") 

See  J.  BouHiER,  "  Memoires  sur  la  Vie  de  Montaigne;"  Ville- 
MAiN,  "  filoge  de  Montaigne,"  1812;  Payen.  "Notice  sur  Mon- 
tnigne,"  1837;  Grun,  "La  Vie  publique  de  M.  Montaigne,"  1855; 
Bayle  Saint  John,  "  Montaigne  the  Essayist."  iS!:;S  ;  1)k  Thou, 
"  Historia  sui  Temporis  ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  " Causeries  du  Lundi  ;" 
ViCTORiN  Fadre,  "  l?!oge  de  Montaigne,"  1813:  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale  ;"  Mrs.  Sheli.ey,  "  Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent 
French  Writers  ;"  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  (1S20  :)  "  London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1856;  "Westminster  Review"  for 
July,  1838. 

Montalbani,  mon-t3,l-bcVnee,  (OviDio,)  an  Italian 
naturalist,  born  at  Bologna  about  1602,  became  succes- 
sively professor  of  physical  science,  mathematics,  and 
medicine  in  the  university  of  his  native  city.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  scientific  works  under  the  pseudonym 
of  BuMALDi.  Thunberg  gave  the  name  of  Bumaldia  to 
a  genus  of  Japanese  plants.    Died  in  167 1. 

See  Ghilini,  "Teatro  d'Uomini  letterati ;"  Niceron,  "Me- 
moires." 

Montalembert,  (.\ndr^.)    See  Ess6. 

Montalembert,  de,  deh  mix'tt'lSN^baiR',  (Charles 
FoRi?ES,)  Coi\iTE,  a  distinguished  statesman,  orator,  and 
political  writer,  of  French  extraction,  born  in  London 
in  1810,  was  a  son  of  Marc  Rene  Anne  Marie,  noticed 
below.    His  mother  was  Miss  Forbes,  a  Scottish  lady. 


a,  e,  1,  0,  u,y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


MONTJLEMBERT  1613  MONTAUSIER 


He  studied  in  Paris,  and  in  1830  became  associated  with 
Lamennais  and  Lacordaire  as  editor  of  "  L'Avenir,"  in 
which  post  he  was  conspicuous  as  an  eloquent  champion 
of  democracy  and  the  Catholic  Church.  He  entered  the 
Chamber  of  Peers  in  1831,  and  married,  in  1843,  Made- 
moiselle de  Merode,  a  Belgian  lady.  Devoted  to  the 
Liberal  Catholic  party,  of  which  he  was  regarded  as  the 
most  eminent  leader,  he  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  re- 
ligious toleration,  popular  rights,  and  general  education. 
,JJe  was  a  membrr  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  1848, 
and  in  1849  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  in 
which  he  opposed  Victor  Hugo  in  several  brilliant  efforts 
of  oratory,  especially  during  the  debate  on  the  revision 
of  the  constitution,  in  June,  185 1.  He  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy  in  1852,  and  M'as  a  member  of  the 
legislative  body  from  1852  to  1857,  during  which  period 
he  represented  the  opposition  almost  alone.  In  1858  he 
was  condemned  to  a  fine,  and  imprisonment  for  six 
months,  for  a  political  essay  entitled  "A  Debate  on  Lidia 
in  the  English  Parliament ;"  but  the  penalties  were  not 
actually  inflicted.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a 
•'History  of  Saint  Elizabeth  of  Hungary,"  (1836,)  "On 
Vandalism  and  Catholicism  in  Art,"  (1839,)  "The  Po- 
litical Future  of  England,"  (1855,)  "The  Monks  of  the 
West,  from  Saint  Benedict  to  Saint  Bernard,"  (i860,)  and 
"The  Fre^  Church  in  the  Free  State,"  ("L'figlise  libre 
dans  I'Etat  libre,"  1863.)  He  sympathized  with  the 
Unionists  in  the  American  civil  war.  In  a  letter  to  an 
English  friend,  dated  December,  1869,  he  wrote,  "Tem- 
poral despotism  has  faded  away  in  a  most  unexpected 
manner;  and  I  sincerely  hope  spiritual  despotism  will 
follow,  sooner  or  later.  ...  I  am  more  convinced  than 
ever  that  freedom  in  the  sphere  of  religion,  still  more 
than  in  that  of  politics,  is  the  vital  condition  of  truth." 
A  great  sensation  was  produced  by  his  letter  dated  Feb- 
ruary 28,  1870,  in  which  he  protested — almost  with  his 
latest  breath — against  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility, 
and  those  ultramontanes  "who  have  immolated  justice 
and  truth,  reason  and  history,  in  one  great  holocaust 
to  the  idol  they  have  raised  up  for  themselves  at  the 
Vatican."    Died  in  March,  1870. 

See  L.  DE  LoMENiE,  "M.  de  Montalembert,  par  un  Homme  de 
Rien,"  1841  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  dii  Lundi ;"  Nettement, 
"  Histoiredela  Litterature  Frangaise  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gene- 
rale  ;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1856,  and  July,  1861 ; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1861;  "British  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  July,  1868;  "North  British  Review"  for  August.  1861 ; 
and  an  interesting  article  on  Montalembert  in  "  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  April,  1870. 

Montalembert,  de,  (Marc  Ren6,)  Marquis,  a 
French  general  and  distinguished  military  engineer, 
born  at  Angouleme  in  1 7 14.  His  family  was  noble,  and 
had  produced  several  distinguished  captains.  He  entered 
the  army  in  1732,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1747.  In  the  Seven  Years'  war  (1756-63) 
he  was  attached  to  the  staff  of  the  Russian  and  Swedish 
armies,  of  whose  operations  he  rendered  an  official  ac- 
count to  the  French  ministry.  He  published  in  1776  an 
extensive  and  important  work,  named  "Perpendicular 
Fortification,  or  the  Defensive  Art  superior  to  the  Offen- 
sive," (II  vols.)  He  wrote  several  memoirs  inserted  in 
the  "Collection"  of  the  Academy,  and  other  works,  in 
prose  and  verse.    Died  in  1800. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale;"  "  filoge  historique  du 
General  Montalembert,"  1801. 

Montalembert,  de,  (Marc  Ren6  Anne  Marie,) 
CoMTK,  a  French  nobleman,  born  in  Paris  in  1777,  emi- 
grated in  1792.  From  1800  to  1814  he  served  in  the  Eng- 
lish army,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel. 
He  returned  to  France  in  1814,  and  in  1819  was  created 
%  peer  of  France.  Soon  after  that  date  he  was  appointed 
minister  to  Denmark,  but,  having  offended  the  ministers 
by  a  liberal  speech  in  the  Chamber,  he  was  deprived  of 
that  post.  From  1826  to  the  revolution  of  1830  he  was 
minister  from  France  to  the  court  of  Sweden.  Died  in 
1831.  His  eldest  son,  Charles  Forbes,  noticed  above, 
was  an  eminent  orator. 

See  De  Courceli.es,  "  Ge'n^alogie  de  la  Maison  de  Montalem- 
bert." 

Montalivet,  de,  deh  m6N'tt1e'vk',  (Jean  Pierre 
Bachasson— 1::i|'sht's6N',)  Comte,  a  French  states- 
man, born  near  Sarreguemines  in  1766.    He  was  made 


coimcillor  of  state  in  1805,  and  minister  of  the  interior  in 
1809.  He  entered  the  Chamber  of  Peers  under  the 
ministry  of  Decazes,  in  1819.    Died  in  1823. 

Montalivet,  de,  (Marthe  Camille  Bachasson,) 
Comte,  a  French  minister  of  state,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Valence  in  1801.  He  became  min- 
ister of  the  interior  in  November,  1830,  and  minister  of 
public  instruction  in  March,  183 1.  He  served  as  minister 
of  the  interior  from  April,  1837,  to  March,  1839. 

Montalto.    See  Danedi,  (Giovanni  Stefano.) 

Montalvan,  de,  di  mon-tai-vSn',  (Juan  Perez,)  an 
eminent  Spanish  dramatist,  born  at  Madrid  in  1602,  was 
a  friend  and  disciple  of  Lope  de  Vega.  Among  his  best 
works  are  the  comedies  entitled  "There  is  no  Life  like 
Honour,"  ("  No  hay  Vida  como  la  Honra,")  "  The 
Lovers  of  Teruel,"  ("Los  Amantes  de  Teruel,")  and 
"La  Lindona  de  Galicia."    Died  in  1638. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature A.  F.  voN 
ScHACK,  "  Geschichte  der  dramatischen  Literatur  in  Spanien." 

Montalvo.    See  Galvez,  (Luis  de.) 
Montan.    See  Montanus. 

Montanari,  mon-tS-n^'ree,  (Geminiano,)  an  Italian 
astronomer,  born  at  Modena  in  1632,  was  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Bologna,  and  in  1674  filled  the  chair  ot 
astronomy  at  Padua.  He  wrote  a  number  of  scientific 
treatises,  and  is  said  to  have  discovered  the  method  of 
determining  the  height  of  mountains  by  the  barometer. 
He  was  a  friend  of  the  celebrated  Cassini.  Died  in  1687. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Montanelli,  mon-ti-nel'lee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 
jurist  and  litteratettr,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1813,  became 
professor  of  commercial  law  at  Pisa  in  1839.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  lyric  poems  and  dramatic  works. 
Died  in  1862. 

Montano,  mon-ti'no,  [Lat.  Monta'nus,]  (Giam- 
BATTISTA,)  an  Italian  physician,  of  high  reputation  in  his 
time,  born  at  Verona  in  1488.  He  was  for  many  years 
professor  of  medicine  at  Padua,  and  published  a  number 
of  medical  works  in  Latin.    Died  in  1551. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Montano,  mon-ti'no,  (Reginald  Gonsalvo,)  a 
Spanish  Protestant  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  the  Protestant  martyr  Juan  Ponce 
de  Leon.  He  published  an  account  of  the  Inquisition, 
said  to  be  the  earliest  on  record. 

Montanus.    See  Arias  Montanus. 

Montanus.    See  Montano,  (Giambattista.) 

Mon-ta'nus,  [Fr.  Montan,  mdw'tdN',]  the  founder 
of  the  sect  of  Montanists,  was  a  native  of  Phrygia,  and 
flourished  in  the  second  century.  He  pretended  to  be 
divinely  inspired,  and  that  he  was  commissioned  to  com- 
plete the  reformation  which  the  Saviour  had  begun  on 
earth.  Among  those  who  embraced  this  delusion  were 
Tertullian  and  Theodotus. 

See  EusEBius,  "Ecclesiastical  History;"  Pluquet,  "  Dlction- 
naire  des  Heresies." 

Montarroyo,  de,  di  mon-tar-ro'yo,  {Joz6  Freire,) 
a  Portuguese  writer,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1670.  He  pub- 
lished several  historical  works,  and  commenced  an  annual 
compilation,  entitled  "  Historia  annual  do  Mundo  das 
Gazetas  de  Lisboa,"  (1714-58.)    Died  in  1730. 

Montauban,  m6N'to'b6N',  a  famous  French  captain 
of  buccaneers,  was  born  about  1650.  He  inflicted  great 
damage  on  the  Spaniards  on  the  coasts  of  America. 
Died  in  1700. 

Montausier,  de,  deh  m6N'to'ze-i',  (Charles  de 
Sainte-Maure — deh  s^Nt  moR,)  Due,  a  French  noble- 
man and  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1610.  He  was  loyal 
to  the  king  during  the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde.  He  was 
appointed  by  Louis  XIV.  governor  to  the  dauphin,  in 
1688.  In  conjunction  with  Huet,  he  superintended  the 
editions  of  the  classics  called  "  ad  usum  Delphini,"  ("for 
the  use  of  the  dauphin.")  He  was  distinguished  for  the 
integrity  of  his  character,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  original  of  Moliere's  "Alceste"  in  "  Le  Misanthrope." 
He  died  in  1690,  and  his  funeral  sermon  was  preached 
by  Flechier. 

See  Petit,  "  Vie  du  Due  (Je  Montausier,"  1729 ;  Puget  dh  Saint- 
Pierre,  "  Histoire  du  Due  de  Montausier,"  1784;  Ami^dee  Roux, 
"  Montausier,  sa  Vie  et  son  Temps,"  i860;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^n^rale." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Yi,guttttral;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (gl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MONTJUSIER  1614  MONTEMATOR 


Montausier,  de,  (Julie  I.ucine  d'Angennes — 

db^'zhhV ,)  DuCHKSSE,  the  beautiful  and  accomplished 
wife  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1607.  She  was 
a  daughter  of  the  celebrated  Marquise  de  Rambouillet, 
(see  Rambouillet,)  and  was  an  ornament  of  the  bril- 
liant society  of  authors  and  wits  who  met  in  the  Hotel 
Rambouillet.  She  was  married  in  1645  to  the  Duke 
of  Montausier,  who,  aided  by  several  poets  and  artists, 
had  composed  the  famous  "Garland  for  Julie,"  ("Guir- 
lande  de  Julie.")    Died  in  1671. 

See  A.  Roux,  "Montausier,  sa  Vie  et  son  Temps,"  i860;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Montbarey,  de,  deh  moN'bt'ry,  (Alexandre  Marie 
L^ONOR  de  Saint-Mauris,)  Prince,  a  French  officer, 
born  at  Besan^on  in  1732.  He  became  marechal-de- 
camp  in  1 761,  and  was  minister  of  war  from  September, 
1777,  till  December,  1780.    Died  in  1796. 

Montbel,  de,  deh  m6N''b§K,  (Guillaume  Isidore 
Baron,)  Comte,  a  French  politician  and  royalist,  born 
at  Toulouse  in  1787,  Pie  became  minister  of  public 
instruction  under  Polignac  in  August,  1829,  minister  of 
the  interior  in  November  of  that  year,  and  minister  of 
finance  in  May,  1830,    Died  in  1861. 

Montbeliard  or  Montbeillard.    See  Gu6neau. 

Montboissier,  de,  deh  mdN^bwi'se-i',  (Pierre,) 
called  Pierre  le  Venerable,  a  French  ecclesiastic  and 
writer,  born  in  Auvergne  about  1092.  He  was  chosen 
abbe  of  Cluny  in  1122.  A  translation  of  the  Koran  was 
made  under  his  auspices.    Died  in  1156. 

See  "Gallia  Christiana;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Montbret,  de.    See  Coquebert. 

Montbruii,  m6.\^bRuN',  (Alexandre  du  Puy,)  Mar- 
quis de  Saint-Andre,  a  French  general,  born  in  1600. 
He  entered  the  French  army  as  colonel  in  1638.  He 
declined  the  baton  of  marshal,  which  was  ofifered  to  him 
if  he  would  abjure  Protestantism.    Died  in  1673. 

Montbrun,  (Chari.es  du  Puy,)  a  French  captain 
and  zealous  Protestant,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Gap  about 
1530.  He  performed  several  daring  exploits  in  the  civil 
wars.    He  was  captured  and  executed  in  1575. 

See  Gm  Allard,  "Vie  du  brave  Montbrun,"  1675  ;  J.  C.  Mar- 
tin, "  Histoire  de  Charles  Dupuy,"  1816. 

Montbrun,  (Louis  Pierre,)  Comte,  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  at  Florensac  in  1770,  served  with  distinction 
at  Eckmiihl,  April,  1809,  and  at  Raab,  June,  1809.  He 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  the  Moskwa,  September,  1812. 

Mozitcalm  (mSnt-kSm')  de  Saint-Veran,  de,  [Fr. 
pron.  moN'kttm'  deh  s^N  va'r5N',]  (Louis  Joseph,) 
Marquis,  a  French  general,  born  near  Nimes  in  1712. 
Having  previously  served  in  several  campaigns  in  France 
and  the  Netherlands,  he  was  sent  in  1756  to  defend  the 
French  colonies  in  North  America.  He  gained  a  victory 
over  the  English  forces  commanded  l)y  Lord  Aber- 
crombie  in  1758,  but  was  defeated  by  General  Wolfe 
at  Quebec,  and  mortally  wounded  in  the  engagement, 
(1759.)    (See  Wolfe.) 

See  Montgomery  Martin,  "  History  of  the  British  Colonies;" 
Garneau,  "  Histoire  du  Canada." 

Montchal.    See  Barentin-Montchal. 

Montclial,  de,  deh  m6N'shtK,  (Charles,)  a  French 
prelate,  born  at  Annonay  in  1589,  was  made  Archbishop 
of  Toulouse  in  1627.  He  was  an  accomplished  scholar, 
and  a  generous  patron  of  literary  men,  and  was  the 
author  of  "  Memoires,"  (2  vols.,  1718.)    Died  in  1651. 

Montchiestien,  de,  deh  m6N^kRa'te;i.N',  (Antoine,) 
a  French  poet  and  economist,  born  at  Falaise  about  1570. 
He  wrote  several  dramas,  etc.  He  joined  the  Protestants 
in  revolt  against  the  king,  and  was  killed  in  1621. 

Monteagle,  mSnt-ee'gel,  of  Brandon,  (Thomas 
Spring  Rice,)  Lord,  a  distinguished  statesman  of  the 
Whig  party,  born  at  Limerick,  Ireland,  in  1790.  He 
represented  Limerick  in  Parliament  from  1820  to  1832, 
having  been  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  1830. 
He  was  a  prominent  advocate  of  the  Reform  and  Test 
Acts,  and  other  liberal  measures.  He  became  chancel- 
lor of  the  exchequer  in  1835,  retired  from  that  office  in 
1839,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  the  same  year. 
Died  in  1866. 

Montebello.    See  Lannes. 

Montecatino,  mon-ti-ki-tee'no,  (Antonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian philosopher,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1536,  published 


commentaries  on  the  *'  Politics"  and  "  Physics"  of  Aris- 
totle.   Died  in  1599. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Montecuccoli,  mon-t&-kook'ko-lee,  written  also 
Montecucculi,  (Raimondo,)  Count,  one  of  the  great- 
est military  commanders  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Modena, 
in  Italy,  in  1608.  Having  entered  the  Austrian  service, 
he  distinguished  himself  in  the  campaign  of  1637  against 
the  Swedes  ;  but  he  was  subsequently  defeated  by  the 
Swedish  general  Banner,  (i'639,)  and  made  prisoner. 
He  was  released  after  two  years'  captivity,  and  in  1664 
gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Turks  at  Saint  Gothard, 
for  which  he  was  made  lieutenant-general.  He  was  sent 
in  1673  to  oppose  the  celebrated  Turenne  ;  but,  although 
consummate  skill  was  displayed  by  both  generals  in 
their  manoeuvres,  no  decisive  battle  was  fought.  Mon- 
tecucculi regarded  this  his  last  campaign  as  the  most 
glorious  of  all,  since  he  had  encountered  Turenne  and 
Conde  without  being  defeated.  He  died  in  1681,  leaving 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Art  of  War,"  which  is  highly  es- 
teemed. He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning,  and  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of  Naturalists  at 
Vienna.  He  had  been  created  by  the  King  of  Spain  a 
knight  of  the  golden  fleece,  and  obtained  from  him  the 
principality  of  Amalfi. 

See  Paradisi,  "  Elogio  del  Conte  Montecucculi,"  1776 ;  Pezzl, 
"  Lebensbeschreibung  Montecucculi's,"  1792;  "R.  Montecucculi's 
Leben,"  Leipsic,  1792. 

Montecucculi.    See  Montecuccoli. 

Montefalconius.    See  Montfaucon. 

Montefeltro,  di,  de  mon-ti-f§Ktro,  (Federigo,) 
Count,  and  first  Duke  of  Urbino,  was  born  about  1410. 
He  was  distinguished  as  a  patron  of  learning,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  learned  and  eloquent  princes  of  his 
time.  As  an  ally  of  Alfonso,  King  of  Naples,  he  waged 
war  against  Sigismund  Malatesta  about  1456-60.  In 
1467  he  w^as  chosen  to  command  the  army  of  Florence, 
and  fought  an  indecisive  battle  with  the  Venetian  general 
Coleoni.    Died  in  1482. 

See  ZuccARDi,  "Vita  di  Federigo  Duca d'Urbino,"  3  vols.,  1824; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Montefiore,  mon-ta-fe-o'ri,  (Sir  Moses,)  an  English 
Jew,  distinguished  for  his  philanthropy,  was  born  about 
1786.  He  became  sheriff  of  London  about  1837.  He 
performed  missions  to  several  foreign  countries  for  the 
relief  of  people  who  were  oppressed  on  account  of 
religion. 

Monteggia,  mon-tgd'j^,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an 
Italian  surgeon,  born  at  Laveno  in  1762,  wrote  several 
treatises,  one  of  which,  entitled  "  Institutes  of  Surgery," 
is  highly  commended  by  Scarpa.    Died  in  1815. 

Montegut,  m6N'ti'gu',  (Emile,)  a  French  critic  and 
journalist  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Limoges  in  1826. 
He  became  in  1857  associate  editor  of  the  "  Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes." 

Monteil,  m6N'ti!'  or  mSN^tcVye,  (Amans  Alexis,)  a 
French  historian,  born  at  Rodez  in  1769.  His  princi- 
pal work  is  a  "History  of  the  French,"  etc.,  ("His- 
toire des  Fran^ais  des  divers  fitats,"  3d  edition,  5  vols., 
1848,)  which  the  French  Academy  judged  worthy  to 
share  the  Gobert  prize  with  Augustin  Thierry.  Died 
in  1850. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Monteith,  mon -teeth',  or  Monteth,  (Robert,)  a 
Scottish  historian,  resided  in  Paris,  and  was  patronized 
by  Cardinal  de  Retz.  He  published,  in  French,  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Troubles  of  Great  Britain,"  which  was  trans- 
lated into  English,    Died  about  1660. 

Montelupo.    See  Baccio  da  Monte-Lupo. 

Montemagno,  da,  d^  mon-ti-mln'yo,  (Buonac- 
CORSO,)  an  Italian  poet  of  the  fourteenth  century,  wrote 
sonnets  which  are  greatly  admired  for  the  elegance  and 
purity  of  their  style. 

Montemayor,  de,  dk  mon-ti-m^-yAR',  (Jorge,)  a 
Portuguese  poet  and  novelist,  born  near  Coimbra  about 
1520,  was  patronized  at  the  court  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain. 
His  principal  work  is  a  pastoral  romance  entitled  "  Diana 
in  Love,"  ("Diana  enamorada,")  which  is  written  in 
Spanish.  It  is  praised  by  Cervantes  in  his  "  Don 
Quixote,"  and  has  been  many  times  translated.  Mon- 
temayor is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Spanish  pas- 


i,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  n,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MONTEMOLIN  1615  MONTEZUMJ 


toral ;  and  "  his  prose,"  says  Bouterwek,  "  has  served  as 
a  model  to  all  romance-writers  of  that  kind." 

See  Bouterwek.  "  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Espagnole ;" 
Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  Ticknor,  "History 
of  Spanish  Literature;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1824. 

Montemolin.  See  Carlos,  or,  more  fully,  Carlos 
Luis  Maria  Fernando. 

Montemont,  moN'ta'moN',  (Albert,)  a  French  poet 
and  writer  of  books  of  travel,  born  at  Remiremont  in 
1788.  Among  his  works.is  "Letters  on  Astronomy,"  in 
verse  and  prose,  {4  vols.,  1823.)    Died  about  1862. 

Monten,  mon'ten,  (Dietrich,)  a  German  battle- 
painter,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1799.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  we  may  name  "The  Death  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus."    Died  in  1843. 

Monteuault.    See  Monthenault. 

Montepin,  de,  deh  moN^ta'plN',  (Xavier  Aymon,) 
a  French  novelist,  born  in  Haute-Saone  about  1820. 
He  produced  several  successful  novels,  one  of  which 
was  condemned  in  a  court  of  law  as  subversive  of  good 
morals. 

Montereau,  (Pierre.)  See  Pierre  de  Montereau. 

Montesinos,  mon-tk-see'nos,  (Fernando,)  a  Spanish 
historian,  born  at  Osuna,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Ancient 
Peru,"  which  has  been  translated  by  Ternaux-Compans 
into  French,  under  the  title  of  "  Memoires  historiques 
de  I'ancien  Perou,"  (1849.)    Died  about  1660. 

See  Prkscott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vols.  i.  and  ii. 

Montespan,  mon'tes-p4n',  de,  |Fr.  pron.  deh  m6N  '- 
tls'pSN',  (FRANgots  Ath^nais  de  Rochechouart — 
deh  rosh'shoo-tR',)  Marquise,  a  French  lady,  of  extra- 
ordinary personal  beauty,  born  in  1641,  was  a  daughter 
of  the  Due  de  Mortemart.  She  was  married  in  1663  to 
the  Marquis  de  Montespan.  She  afterwards  succeeded 
Mademoiselle  de  la  Valliere  as  mistress  of  Louis  XIV. 
She  bore  the  king  eight  children,  among  whom  were  the 
Due  de  Maine,  Louis  Cesar,  the  Comte  de  Vexin,  and 
the  Comte  de  Toulouse,  besides  two  sons  who  died 
young.    Died  in  1707, 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  Madame  de  Sevign^,  "Let- 
ters;" Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Montesquieu,  moN't§s'ke-uh',  Baron,  a  grandson 
of  the  following,  was  born  in  1755.  He  served  as  an 
officer,  with  distinction,  in  the  United  States,  (1779-81.) 
In  1792  he  became  a  royalist  emigre.  He  passed  many 
years  in  England,  where  he  died  about  1824. 

Montesquieu,  mSn^tes-kii',  de,  ( Fr.  pron.  deh  m6N'- 
t^s'ke-ul/,]  or,  more  fully,  De  la  Brede  et  (deh  It  bRad 
i)  de~Montesquieu,  (Charles  de  Secondat — deh 
seh-k^N'dt',)  Baron,  a  brilliant,  original,  and  popular 
French  author,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  near  Bor- 
deaux on  the  i8th  of  January,  1689.  In  his  childhood 
he  formed  habits  of  intense  application  to  study,  and 
became  an  insatiable  reader.  lie  has  declared  that  he 
never  felt  a  sorrow  which  an  hour's  reading  would  not 
dissipate  or  relieve.  Having  been  educated  for  the  law, 
he  became  a  conseiller,  or  judge,  in  the  parliament  of 
Bordeaux  in  17 14,  president  a  mortier  of  the  same  in 
1 7 16.  The  favourite  studies  of  his  mature  powers  were 
historical  and  moral  sciences. 

In  1721  he  acquired  a  rather  sudden  celebrity  by  his 
**  Persian  Letters,"  a  work  which  combines  the  attractions 
of  romance  with  the  resources  of  rational  philosophy, 
and  presents  profound  and  luminous  views  of  commerce, 
law,  and  social  phenomena.  Its  prodigious  success  was 
due  partly  to  its  spirited,  keen,  and  witty  satire  on  French 
manners,  and  its  brilliant,  piquant  style,  full  of  happy 
reticences  and  unexpected  contrasts.  In  1726  he  sold 
his  office  of  president,  and  in  1728  was  admitted  into 
the  French  Academy.  He  then  began  a  journey,  in 
which  he  visited  nearly  all  the  countries  of  Europe.  He 
passed  two  years  in  England,  and  was  chosen  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1734  he  produced  an  admired 
work,  "Considerations  on  the  Causes  of  the  Grandeur 
and  Decadence  of  the  Romans,"  the  most  complete 
essay  that  had  appeared  on  that  subject.  He  afterwards 
devoted  fourteen  years  to  the  composition  of  his  greatest 
work,  "  The  Spirit  of  Laws,"  ("  L'Esprit  des  Lois,"  1748,) 
which  excited  almost  universal  admiration.  In  eighteen 
months  it  ran  through  twenty-two  editions.  In  this 
arduous  enterprise  of  exploring  the  labyrinths  of  history 


and  political  science  he  was  in  advance  of  his  age  as  an 
advocate  of  liberty  and  humanity.  In  reference  to  this 
work,  Voltaire  said,  "  The  human  race  had  lost  its  titles  ; 
Montesquieu  found  and  restored  them."  He  died  in 
Paris  in  February,  1755.  He  had  married  Mademoiselle 
de  Lartigues  in  17 15.  His  personal  character  was  in  a 
high  degree  amiable  and  estimable. 

See  Voltaire,  "Siecle  de  Louis  XIV  et  Louis  XV;"  D'Alem- 
BERT,  "  Eloge  de  Montesquieu  ;"  Villemain,  "  Eloge  de  Montes- 
quieu," 1826;  Francois  RiAUX,  "  Notice  sur  Montesquieu,"  1849; 
Maupertuls,  "Eloge  de  Montesquieu,"  1755;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Montesquieu,  de,  deh  m6N't^s'ke-oo',  (Pierre,) 
Comte  d'Artagnan,  a  French  general,  born  at  the  chateau 
of  Armagnac  in  1645.  He  commanded  the  right  wing 
at  the  battle  of  Malplaquet,  (1709,)  soon  after  which  lie 
became  a  marshal  of  France.    Died  in  1725. 

Montesquiou-Fezensac,  de,  deh  m6N't^s'ke-oo' 
feh'zSN^ztk',  (Ambroise  Anatole  Augustin,)  Count, 
a  French  general  and  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1788,  was  a 
grandson  of  Anne  Pierre,  noticed  below. 

Montesquiou-Fezensac,  de,  (Anne  Pierre,) 
Marquis,  a  French  general  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1739.  He  was  admitted  to  the  French  Academy  in  1784, 
and  supported  the  popular  cause  in  the  Revolution.  He 
commanded  the  army  which  conquered  Savoy  in  1792. 
Died  in  1798. 

See  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  Montesquieu,"  Paris,  1847. 

Montesquiou-Fezensac,  de,  (FRANgois  Xavier 
Marc  Antoine,)  Ahr6,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  near 
Auch  in  1757.  He  was  a  deputy  from  the  clergy  of  Paris 
to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  was  twice  elected 
president  of  the  National  Assembly.  During  the  reign 
of  terror  he  took  refuge  in  England,  and,  after  the  second 
restoration,  was  made  a  duke,  and  received  the  title  of 
minister  of  state.    Died  in  1832. 

See  GuizoT,  "  Memoires." 

Montesson,  de,  deh  m6N'ti's6N',  (Charlotte 
Jeanne  Beraud — bi'ro',)  Marquise,  born  in  Paris  in 
1737,  was  married  in  1773  to  Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of 
Orleans.  She  was  the  author  of  numerous  poems  and 
dramas.    Died  in  1806. 

Monteth.    See  Montetth,  (Robert.) 

Monteverde,  mon-ti-v§R'di,  (Claudio,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  composer,  born  at  Cremona  about  1565.  He 
introduced  several  great  improvements  into  the  science 
of  music,  one  of  which  was  the  employment  of  double 
discords.  His  works  include  sacred  music,  operas,  and 
madrigals.  The  last-named  are  especially  admired.  In 
1613  he  was  appointed  chapel-master  of  Saint  Mark,  at 
Venice.    Died  in  1649. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Montez.    See  Lola  Montez. 

Mon-te-zu'ma  I.,  called  also  Moctheuzoma,  Aztec 
emperor  of  Mexico,  ascended  the  throne  about  1437. 
Before  this  event  he  had  been  an  eminent  general.  He 
extended  the  boundaries  of  his  dominions  by  the  con- 
quest of  several  adjacent  nations.  He  was  a  powerful 
and  despotic  monarch,  and  multiplied  human  sacrifices. 
Died  about  1470. 

Montezuma  II.,  the  last  Aztec  emperor  of  Mexico, 
was  born  about  1470.  He  was  elected  sovereign  in  1502 
for  his  superior  merit  as  a  warrior  and  a  priest.  When 
his  election  was  announced  to  him,  he  was  in  the  act  of 
sweeping  the  stairs  of  the  great  temple  Teocalli.  In  the 
former  part  of  his  reign  he  waged  war  with  success 
against  several  peoples,  and  extended  the  limits  of  the 
empire.  He  offended  his  subjects  by  his  haughty  deport- 
ment, and  oppressed  them  by  the  imposition  of  grievous 
taxes  which  were  required  to  support  his  sumptuous  style 
of  living.  In  1519  his  empire  was  invaded  by  Cortez, 
against  whom  he  employed  a  temporizing  policy.  He 
sent  him  a  magnificent  present,  but  forbade  him  to  ap- 
proach the  capital.  "This  was  to  reveal,"  says  Prescott, 
"  both  his  wealth  and  his  weakness."  Cortez  entered  the 
city  of  Mexico,  without  resistance,  in  November,  1 5 19, 
and  found  a  hospitable  reception.  To  secure  himself 
against  contingencies,  the  audacious  Spaniard  next  seized 
Montezuma  and  held  him  as  a  hostage.  His  captors 
tried  to  convert  him  to  the  Roman  Catholic  religion, 
but  without  success.    In  compliance  with  the  demand 


«  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  VL,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MONTFAUCON 


1616 


MONTGOMERT 


of  Cortez,  he  formally  recognized  the  supremacy  of  the 
emperor  Charles  V.,  to  whom  he  sent  an  immense  quan- 
tity of  gold  as  tribute.  In  May,  1520,  Cortez  absented 
himself  from  the  capital  to  fight  his  rival  Narvaez,  and 
during  his  absence  the  Mexicans  revolted  against  the 
Spaniards.  Montezuma  was  persuaded  or  compelled  by 
Cortez  to  address  his  subjects  and  try  to  appease  the 
tumult.  He  was  assailed  with  missiles  by  the  insur- 
gents, was  wounded,  and  died  in  June,  1520.  "Stately 
and  decorous,"  says  Prescott,  "he  v/as  careful  of  his 
own  dignity,  and  might  be  said  to  be  as  great  an  'actor 
of  majesty'  among  the  barbarian  potentates  of  the  New 
World  as  Louis  XIV.  was  among  the  polished  princes 
of  Europe.  .  .  .  Montezuma's  amiable  and  inoffensive 
manners,  together  with  his  liberality, — the  most  popular 
of  virtues  with  the  vulgar, — made  him  generally  beloved 
by  the  Spaniards." 

See  W.  H.  Prescott,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico;" 
Bernal  Diaz,  "  Historia  de  la  Conquista  de  la  Niieva  Espana ;" 
OviEDo,  "Historia  de  las  Indias;"  Clavigero,  "  Storia  antico  del 
Messico, "  1780. 

Montfaucon,  de,  deh  m6N'f5^k6N',  [Lat.  Montefal- 
co'nius,]  (Bernard,)  an  eminent  French  antiquary  and 
philologist,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1655,  was  a  member 
of  the  congregation  of  Benedictines  of  Saint- Maur. 
Having  visited  Italy  in  1698,  he  published,  after  his  re- 
turn, his  "  Diarium  Italicum,"  an  account  of  the  libra- 
ries of  Italy,  "  Palaeographia  Grgeca,"  a  treatise  on  the 
origin  and  progress  of  Greek  letters,  "  Antiquity  Ex- 
plained and  Represented  in  Figures,"  (10  vols,  fol.,  1719, 
in  French  and  Latin,)  and  "The  Monuments  of  the 
French  Monarchy,"  (5  vols.,  1729.)  He  also  published 
excellent  editions  of  Saint  Chrysostom  and  other  Greek 
writers.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions.   Died  in  1741. 

See  D.  Tassin,  "  Histoire  litt^raire  de  la  Congregation  de  Saint- 
Maur." 

Montferrat,  de,  (Conrad.)  See  Conrad,  Marquis 
of  Tyre. 

Montferrat,  de,  deh  mbWi^W,  (Boniface,)  Mar- 
quis, was  a  brother  of  Conrad,  King  of  Jerusalem.  He 
became  King  of  Thessalonica  in  1 183,  and  was  chosen 
the  chief  of  the  fifth  or  fourth  crusade  in  1202.  He 
was  an  able  commander,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the 
conquest  of  Constantinople  in  1204.    Died  in  1207. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Montferrat,  de,  (Guillaume,)  Marquis,  called 
THE  Great,  was  born  in  1243,  and  began  to  reign  in 
1254.  He  was  a  turbulent  prince  and  continually  en- 
gaged in  war  with  the  neighbouring  states.  He  married 
Beatrix,  a  daughter  of  Alfonso  X.  of  Castile,  in  1271. 
Having  been  taken  prisoner  in  1290,  he  was  confined  in 
an  iron  cage,  and  died  in  1292. 

Montferrier,  de,  deh  m6N'fi're-k',  (Alexandre 
Andr6  Victor  Sarrazin,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  in  Paris  in  1792.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Dictionary  of  Mathematical  Sciences,  Pure 
and  Applied,"  (3  vols.,  1834-40.) 

Montfleury,  de,  deh  mdN^fluh're',  (Jean  Le  Petit,) 
a  French  poet,  born  at  Caen  in  1698  ;  died  in  1777. 

Montfort,  Count  de.    See  John,  Duke  of  Brittany. 

Montfort,  mSnt'fort,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  m6N%R',] 
(Simon,)  Count,  a  French  nobleman  and  military  com- 
mander, born  about  11 50,  was  conspicuous  for  his  courage 
and  for  his  cruelty  in  the  wars  against  the  Albigenses, 
(1208.)  He  was  killed  while  besieging  Toulouse,  in  1218. 

Montfort,  de,  (Simon,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  ob- 
tained at  an  early  age  the  patronage  of  Henry  HI.  of 
England,  who  made  him  Earl  of  Leicester  and  gave  to 
him  in  marriage  his  sister,  the  Countess  of  Pembroke. 
He  was  afterwards  appointed  lieutenant-general  in 
Gascony.  In  1258,  a  rupture  having  occurred  between 
Henry  and  his  barons,  the  latter,  headed  by  Montfort, 
compelled  the  king  to  consent  to  the  regulations  called 
the  Provisions  of  Oxford,  which  threw  the  legislative  and 
executive  power  into  the  hands  of  twenty-four  barons. 
In  1264  a  battle  took  place  at  Lewes,  in  Sussex,  in  which 
the  royalists  were  defeated  and  the  king  taken  prisoner. 
Montfort  summoned  a  Parliament  in  1265,  in  which,  in 
addition  to  the  two  knights  returned  from  every  shire, 
representatives  were  sent  from  the  boroughs ;  and  in  this 


way  was  founded  the  English  House  of  Commons.  In 
the  battle  of  Evesham,  the  same  year,  Montfort  was  de- 
feated and  slain  by  the  royal  troops  under  Prince  Edward. 

See  R.  Paulli,  "Life  of  Simon  de  Montfort;"  Hume,  "  His- 
tory of  England  ;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1866. 

Montgaillard,  m6N'gt'ytR',  (Guillaume  Honor6 
RoQUES,)  a  historian,  born  near  Toulouse  in  1772.  He 
wrote  a  "  Chronological  Review  of  the  History  of  France, 
etc.,  1787-1818,"  (1820,)  which  was  once  popular.  Died 
in  1825. 

Montgaillard,  (Jean  Gabriel  Maurice  Roques,) 
a  French  adventurer  and  political  writer,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Toulouse  in  1761.  He  was 
employed  as  a  secret  agent  by  the  Bourbons  and  by 
their  enemies.  He  published  a  "Memoir  concerning 
the  Treason  of  Pichegru,"  etc.,  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1841. 

Montgelas,  m6N'zheh-ia',  (Maximilian  Joseph,) 
Count,  a  German  statesman,  of  Savoyard  extraction, 
born  at  Munich  in  1759,  was  appointed  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  in  1799,  minister  of  the  interior  in  1806, 
and  minister  of  finance  in  1809.    Died  in  1838. 

Montgolfier,  m6nt-g6Kfe-er,  [Fr.  pron.  m6N'goK. 
fe-i',]  (Jacques  £tienne,)  an  ingenious  Frenchman,  who 
invented  the  air-balloon,  was  born  at  or  near  Annonay 
(Ardeche)  in  1745.  After  studying  mathematics  with 
success  at  Paris,  he  became  an  architect.  At  the  request 
of  his  father,  he  quitted  that  profession  in  order  to  take 
charge  of  the  paper-manufactory  at  Annonay.  He  in- 
vented new  machines  and  more  sim)/le  processes  in  this 
art.  On  reading  Priestley's  treatise  "  On  Different  Kinds 
of  Air,"  he  conceived  the  possibility  of  aerial  navigation, 
and  imparted  the  idea  to  his  brother  Joseph,  who  was  as 
another  self  Acting  in  concert  and  community,  they 
contrived  the  means  of  realizing  this  project.  After 
trying  hydrogen  gas  and  other  fluids,  they  made  the  first 
public  experiment  at  Annonay  in  June,  1783,  and  sent 
up  a  balloon  about  thirty-seven  French  feet  in  diameter, 
inflated  with  air  rarefied  by  heat.  This  successful  ex- 
periment made  a  great  sensation,  and  was  soon  repeated 
at  Paris.  The  brothers  were  admitted  into  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.  Their  balloons  were  called  Montgol- 
fih'es.  The  first  who  successfully  used  hydrogen  gas  in 
balloons  was  M.  Charles.  Montgolfier  died  in  1799.  (See 
Charles,  Jacques  Alexandre.) 

See  C.  L.  Brightwell,  "Annals  of  Industry  and  Genius," 
London,  1863. 

Montgolfier,  (Joseph  Michel,)  an  ingenious  French 
mechanician,  born  at  Annonay  in  1740,  was  one  of  the 
inventors  of  the  air-balloon.  In  his  youth  he  assisted 
his  father,  who  was  a  successful  manufacturer  of  paper. 
In  partnership  with  a  brother,  he  carried  on  the  same 
business  at  Voiron  and  Beaujeu.  He  had  made  several 
improvements  in  the  fabrication  of  paper  before  his 
aerostatic  experiments  blazoned  his  name  throughout 
Europe.  (See  the  preceding  article.)  About  1792  he 
made  a  valuable  improvement  in  the  hydraulic  ram. 
He  also  invented  a  hydraulic  press  and  other  mechanical 
instruments.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute  of 
France.    Died  in  1810. 

See  Delambre,  '"  lSlo;j;e  de  Joseph  Montgolfier." 

Montgomerie,  (Archibald  William.)  See  Eglin- 

TON. 

Montgomery,  mont-giim'e-re,  (Alexander,)  a  Scot- 
tish poet  under  the  reign  of  James  VI.,  was  the  author 
of  an  allegorical  piece  entitled  "The  Cherry  and  the 
Slae."    Died  about  1610. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Montgomery,  mont-gum'e-re,  (George  Washing- 
ton,) a  native  of  Spain,  settled  in  America,  where  he 
published  "Bernardo  del  Carpio,"  a  historical  romance, 
and  translated  into  Spanish  Irving's  "Conquest  of 
Granada."    Died  in  1841. 

Montgomery,  (Sir  James,)  a  Scottish  politician,  and 
a  chief  of  the  Covenanters.  He  was  appointed  lord 
justice  clerk  in  1689.  "In  parliamentary  ability  and 
eloquence,"  says  Macaulay,  "he  had  no  superior  among 
his  countrymen  except  Sir  John  Dalrymple."  He  was 
turbulent  and  perfidious.  In  1690  he  joined  the  Jacob- 
ites in  plotting  against  William  III. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iii. 


S,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MONTGOMERT  1617  MONTIGNT 


Montgomery,  (James,)  a  distinguished  poet,  born  in 
Ayrshire,  Scotland,  in  177 1,  was  the  son  of  a  Moravian 
preacher.  He  was  sent  at  an  early  age  to  the  Moravian 
school  at  Fulneck,  in  Yorkshire,  where  his  progress  was 
not  very  satisfactory  to  his  teachers,  as  he  spent  the 
greater  part  of  his  time  in  reading  and  writing  poetry, 
which  was  prohibited  by  the  rules  of  the  school.  After 
leaving  Fulneck,  he  resided  for  a  time,  as  shopman  in  a 
book-store,  in  London,  and  in  1792  began  to  contribute 
political  articles  to  the  "Sheffield  Register,"  edited  by 
Mr.  Joseph  Gales.  He  founded  in  1794  a  reform  jour- 
nal, called  the  "  Sheffield  Iris,"  of  which  he  was  editor 
about  thirty  yfears.  Several  of  his  articles  having  been 
denounced  as  revolutionary,  he  was  twice  fined  and 
imprisoned.  He  published  in  1806  his  "Wanderer  of 
Switzerland,"  which  was  followed  by  "  The  West  Indies," 
(1809,)  "  The  World  before  the  Flood,"  (1812,)  and  "  The 
Pelican  Island,"  (1827.)  These  poems  are  distinguished 
for  depth  and  tenderness  of  feeling,  elevated  moral 
sentiment,  and  graceful  description.  He  also  wrote  a 
number  of  hymns  of  great  beauty,  which  enjoy  exten- 
sive popularity.  One  of  Mr.  Montgomery's  last  works 
was  a  "  History  of  Missionary  Enterprise  in  the  South 
Seas,"  (1830.)    Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  James  Montgomeiy,"  by  J. 
Holland  and  James  Everett;  "Life  of  Montgomery,"  by  Mrs. 
H.  C.  Knight:  Chambers,  "  Biograpliical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen,"  (Supplement ;)  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  Decem- 
ber, 1811;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1827;  "Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  July,  1833,  and  October,  1856. 

Montgomery,  (Richard,)  a  distinguished  general, 
born  in  Ireland  in  1737,  served  in  Canada  under  Wolfe, 
and  subsequently  entered  the  American  army.  Being 
appointed  commander  of  the  forces  in  the  Northern 
department,  he  took  Fort  Chambly  and  Montreal.  He 
was  killed  in  December,  1775,  in  an  assault  upon  Quebec. 

See  "Life  of  Richard  Montgomery,"  by  John  Armstrong,  in 
Sparks's  "American  Biography,"  vol.  i.,  first  series;  "National 
Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iv. 

Montgomery,  mont-giim'e-re,  (Robert,)  an  English 
divine  and  poet,  born  at  Bath  in  1807.  He  was  the 
author  of  a,  poem  entitled  "The  Omnipresence  of  the 
Deity,"  (1828,)  which  had  great  tem]-»orary  success,  eight 
editions  being  sold  in  as  many  months.  He  became  in 
1843  pastor  of  Percy  Street  Chapel,  London.  The  extra- 
ordinary success  of  his  poetry  was  chiefly  to  be  ascribed 
to  the  nature  of  his  subject  and  the  favour  of  a  large 
portion  of  the  religious  community.    Died  in  1855. 

See  Macaulav,  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1830; 
"Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xvii.  ;  "New 
Spirit  of  the  Age,"  by  R.  H.  Horne. 

Montgomery,  (William  R.,)  an  American  officer, 
born  in  New  Jersey,  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  became 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  the  Union  army  in 
1861,  and  military  commandant  of  Philadelphia  in  1862. 

Montgomery,  mont-giim'e-re,  de,  [  Fr.  pron.  deh 
m6N'gom''re',]  (Gabriel,)  a  French  nobleman,  of  Scot- 
tish extraction,  born  about  1530.  Being  present  at  a 
tournament  given  by  Henry  II.  on  the  occasion  of  his 
daughter's  marriage  with  the  King  of  Spain,  Montgomery 
was  summoned  by  the  French  king  to  break  a  lance  with 
him.  He  complied  reluctantly,  and  had  the  misfortune 
to  inflict  a  mortal  wound  on  his  antagonist.  He  subse- 
quently went  to  England,  where  he  became  a  Protestant, 
and,  after  his  return  to  France  in  1562,  distinguished 
himself  as  a  leader  of  the  Huguenots  in  the  civil  war  of 
the  time.  Being  made  prisoner  by  Marshal  Matignon 
at  the  siege  of  Saint-Lo,  in  1574,  he  was  condemned  to 
death  and  executed,  by  order  of  Catherine  de  Medicis. 
"The  queen,"  says  Sismondi,  "had  no  great  affection 
for  Henry  II.,  or  cause  to  regret  him  ;  but  she  wished 
that  a  man  should  not  be  considered  innocent  after 
having,  even  by  accident,  caused  the  death  of  a  king." 

See  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais ;"  BrantSme,  "  Capi- 
taines  illustres." 

Montgon,  de,  deh  m6N'g6N',  (Charles  Alexandre,) 
n  French  priest,  born  at  Versailles  in  1690.  He  entered 
the  service  of  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  who  sent  him  on  a 
secret  mission  to  the  court  of  Paris.  He  published 
"Diplomatic  Memoirs,"  (5  vols.,  1742.)    Died  in  1770. 

Monthenault  or  Montenault  d'l^gly,  miN'teh^no' 
di'gle',  (Charles  Philippe,)  a  French  writer,  born  in 


Paris  in  1696.  His  chief  work  is  a  "History  of  the 
French  Kings  of  the  Two  Sicilies,"  (4  vols,,  1741.)  Died 
in  1749. 

Monthion,  de,  deh  miN'te'AN',  (FRANgois  G6d^on 
Bailly,)  Comte,  a  French  general,  born  in  the  Isle  of 
Bourbon  in  1776;  died  in  1850. 

Montholon,  de,  deh  m6N'to'16N',  (Charles  Tris- 
tan,) Marquis,  a  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1782. 
He  entered  the  army  in  1798,  and  accompanied  Napo- 
leon in  the  subsequent  campaigns  in  Italy,  Austria,  and 
Prussia.  He  was  sent  in  181 1  on  an  important  embassy 
to  the  archduke  Ferdinand  at  Witrzburg,  and  in  1814 
was  made  general  of  brigade.  He  shared  the  emperor's 
exile  at  Saint  Helena,  and  served  him  with  unwearied 
fidelity  till  his  death,  being  appointed  by  him  executor 
of  his  will  and  keeper  of  part  of  his  manuscripts.  After 
his  return  to  France,  Montholon  iniblished,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  General  Gourgaud,  "Memoirs  towards  the 
History  of  France  under  Napoleon,  dictated  by  Hiinself 
at  Saint  Helena,"  (1823.)  He  also  wrote  an  "Account 
of  the  Captivity  of  Napoleon  at  Saint  Helena,"  (1847.) 
Died  in  1853. 

See  "Biographic  du  General  Montholon,"  1849  ;  "  London  Quar 
terly  Review"  for  March,  1848. 

Monthyon.    See  Montyon. 

Monti,  mon'tee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Bologna  in  1688;  died  in  1766. 

Monti,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  botanist,  born  at  Bo- 
logna in  1682.  He  published  several  botanical  works. 
Died  at  Bologna  in  1760. 

Monti,  (Rafaelle,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at 
Milan  in  1818.  Among  his  master-pieces  may  be  named 
the  "  Veiled  Vestal,"  the  "  Boy  catching  a  Grasshopper," 
and  the  "  Circassian  Slave."  He  was  an  active  sup- 
porter of  the  popular  cause  in  1847-48,  since  which  he 
has  lived  as  an  exile  in  London. 

Monti,  (Vincenzo,)  a  celebrated  Italian  poet,  born 
near  Ferrara  in  1753.  He  studied  in  the  university  of 
that  city,  and  began  at  an  early  age  to  write  Latin  and 
Italian  poems.  These  com])ositions  obtained  for  him 
the  notice  and  patronage  of  Cardinal  Borghese,  who  took 
Monti  with  him  to  Rome  in  1778.  He  published  in  1785 
his  tragedy  of  "  Aristodemo,"  which  was  received  with 
great  favour.  His  poem  entitled  "  Bassvilliana,"  (1793,) 
suggested  by  the  murder  of  Hugo  de  Bassville,  envoy  of 
the  French  republic  at  Rome,  had  also  great  popularity, 
and  passed  through  eighteen  editions  in  six  months. 
Upon  the  French  invasion  in  1796,  Monti  repaired  to 
Milan,  where,  accommodating  himself  to  the  new  order 
of  things,  he  wrote  in  favour  of  the  Revolution.  Some 
of  his  writings,  which  originally  contained  bitter  in- 
vectives against  Napoleon,  were  now  altered  so  as 
to  transfer  the  abuse  to  the  allied  sovereigns.  On  the 
Russian  invasion  in  1799  he  took  refuge  for  a  time  in 
France,  and,  soon  after  his  return,  published  his  tragedy 
of  "  Caio  Gracco,"  "  La  Mascheroniana,"  a  poem  on 
the  death  of  his  friend  Mascheroni,  and  his  beautiful 
and  popular  hymn  beginning  "  Bell'  Italia,"  etc.  Monti 
became  in  1803  professor  of  eloquence  at  Pavi'a,  and  on 
the  coronation  of  Napoleon,  in  1805,  was  appointed  his 
historiographer.  He  filled  this  office  rather  as  court 
poet  than  historian,  and  lavished  a  profusion  of  eulogistic 
verses  on  the  emperor  and  his  family.  He  was  created 
by  him  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honour  and  of  the 
iron  crown,  and  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Institute 
of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,    Died  in  1828. 

See  "  Notizie  sulla  Vita  e  sull'Ingegno  di  Vincenzo  Monti,"  1828  ; 
ZuccALA,  "  Elogio  storico  di  V.  Monti,"  1828;  Bozoli,  "  Ragiona- 
mento  della  Vita  e  delle  Opere  di  V.  Monti,"  1837  ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale;"  Tipai.do,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;" 
Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  February,  1826  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1832. 

Montiano  y  Luyando,  de,  di  mon-te-^'no  e  loo- 
yin'do,  (Augustin,)  a  Spanish  dramatist,  born  in  1697  '> 
died  in  1759. 

Monticelli,  mon-te-chel'Iee,  (Andrea,)  a  skilful 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1640,  painted  land- 
scapes, flowers,  fruits,  etc.    Died  in  17 16. 

Montigny,  m^N^t^n^ye',  (Florence  de  Montmo- 
rency— deh  mb'H'mo'xh^'st' ,)  Lord  of,  a  Flemish 
nobleman,  was  ambassador  to  Spain  in  1562.  Being 
sent  on  a  second  mission  in  1566,  he  was  arrested  by 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

102 


MONTIGNT 


1618 


MONTMORENCr 


order  of  Philip  II.,  accused  of  high  treason,  and  exe- 
cuted in  1570. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  i.  book  ii.  and  vol. 
ii.  book  iii. 

Montigny,  m6N't^n'ye',  (Rose  Marie  Cizos,)  a 
po]Hilar  French  actress  of  comedy,  known  as  Rose 
Ch^rie,  was  born  at  fitampes  in  1824. 

Montigny,  de,  deh  m6N't^n'ye',  (Jean,)  a  French 
poet,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1637,  was  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy,  and  Bishop  of  Leon.    Died  in  1671. 

Montjoie,  mdN^zhwi^  (Christophe  F^:lix  Louis 
Ventre  de  la  Touloubke,)  a  French  political  writer, 
born  at  Aix  in  1746.  He  was  a  royalist  in  the  Revo- 
lution of  1789-95.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"  History  of  the  Conspiracy  of  Robespierre,"  (1796.) 
Died  in  1816. 

Montjosieu,  de,  deh  m6N'zho'ze-uh',  (Louis,)  a 
French  scholar  and  writer,  born  in  Rouergue.  He  visited 
Rome  in  1583.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Frenchman 
a  Guest  at  Rome,"  ("  Gallus  Romae  Hospes,"  1585.) 

Montlosier,  de,  deh  moNHo'ze-i',  (FRANgois  Do- 
minique Reynaud — ri^n5',)  Comte,  a  French  journal- 
ist, born  at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1755.  He  was  a  deputy 
to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  was  a  prominent  ad- 
vocate of  the  aristocratic  party.  He  repaired  to  London, 
where  he  edited  an  anti-revolutionary  journal  called  the 
"  Courrier  de  Londres."  On  his  return  to  France, 
during  the  consulate,  he  modified  or  abandoned  his  roy- 
alist views.  He  was  also  for  a  time  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  "  Constitutionnel."  Having  attached  himself  to 
the  new  dynasty  on  the  revolution  of  July,  he  was 
made  a  peer  in  1832.  He  wrote  a  work  "  On  the  French 
Monarchy  from  its  Establishment  to  the  Present  Time." 
Died  in  1838. 

See  Barante,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  le  Comte  de  Montlo- 
sier," 1842;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1823. 

Montluc,  de,  deh  mdN'liik',  (Blaise  de  Lasseran- 
Massencome — deh  ia.s'r8N'  mt's6N'kom^)  Seigneur, 
a  French  marshal,  born  in  Gascony  in  1 501.  He  fought 
against  the  Imperialists  commanded  by  the  emperor 
Cliarles  V.,  and  assisted  at  the  sieges  of  La  Rochelle 
and  Calais.  In  1573  he  was  made  a  marshal  by  Henry 
HI.  He  died  in  1577,  leaving  "Memoirs  of  his  Military 
Lite,"  (1592,)  which  were  praised  by  Henry  IV.  and 
often  reprinted. 

Montluc,  de,  (Jean,)  a  bishop,  the  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1508,  and  was  distinguished 
by  the  favour  of  Francis  I.  and  Henry  II.,  who  employed 
him  in  various  embassies.  He  became  Bishop  of  Valence 
in  1553.  He  is  said  to  have  been  secretly  attached  to 
the  Reformed  religion  ;  but  he  retained  the  favour  of 
Catherine  de  Medicis.    Died  in  1579. 

See  Brantome,  "  Capitaines  illustres." 

Montluc,  de,  (Jean,)  Seigneur  de  Balagni,  and  mar- 
shal of  France,  a  natural  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  about  1545.  After  he  had  fought  for  the  League 
against  Henry  IV.,  he  entered  the  service  of  the  latter, 
who  made  him  a  marshal  of  France  in  1594.  Died 
in  1603. 

Montmaur,  de,  deh  m6N^m5R',  (Pierre,)  a  pedantic 
and  witty  Frenchman,  born  in  Limousin  or  Le  Quercy 
about  1564.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  in  the  College 
de  France,  and  was  notorious  as  a  parasite.   Died  in  1648. 

See  Sai.lengre,  "  Histoire  de  P.  de  Montmaur,"  2  vols.,  1715. 

Montmorency.    See  Luxembourg. 

Montmorency  or  Montmorenci,  m6nt-mo-r§n'se, 
[Fr.  pron.  m6N'mo'r5N'se',]  the  name  of  a  noble  French 
family,  whose  celebrity  dates  as  far  back  as  the  eleventh 
century,  and  which  has  produced  many  famous  princes, 
peers,  and  generals.  Among  them  were  six  constables 
and  eleven  marshals  of  France. 

Montmorency,  de,  deh  miN^mo^rSN^se',  (Anne,) 
Due,  Constable  of  France,  born  at  Chantilly  in  1493, 
was  the  first  of  his  family  that  received  the  title  of  duke. 
He  was  made  a  marshal  in  1522,  and  was  taken  prisoner 
at  Pavia  in  1525.  In  1536,  by  skilful  manoeuvres,  he 
defended  Provence,  which  was  invaded  by  Charles  V.  in 
person.  He  was  appointed  constable  in  1538,  and  was 
chief  minister  of  Francis  I.  from  that  date  until  1541, 
when  he  fell  into  disgrace.    Henry  II.  restored  him  to 


favour  and  power  in  1547.  Montmorency  was  defeated 
and  made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Saint-Quentin,  in  1557. 
The  death  of  Henry  II.,  in  1559,  was  fatal  to  his  am- 
bitious prospects,  and  opened  the  way  for  the  accession 
to  power  of  his  rival  the  Due  de  Guise.  He  fought  for 
the  Catholic  party  in  the  civil  vyar,  and  in  1562  com- 
manded at  Dreux,  where  he  gained  the  victory,  but 
was  made  prisoner.  He  was  mortally  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Saint-Denis,  in  1567.  He  has  been  censured 
for  austerity  and  excessive  rigour,  but  had  several  great 
qualities. 

See  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis;"  Brantome,  "Vies  des 
Hommes  illustres;"  Lesconvrl,  "Anne  de  Montmorency,"  i6g6; 
Davila,  "  History  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  France  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale  ;"  Tavannes,  "  Memoires ;"  Robertson,  "His- 
tory of  Charles  V.,"  vols.  ii.  and  iii. 

Montmorency,  de,  (Charles,)  a  French  general, 
who  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1343.  He  fought 
against  the  English  at  Crecy  in  1346.    Died  in  1381. 

Montmorency,  de,  (Charlotte  Marguerite,)  a 
French  lady,  born  in  1594,  was  the  sister  of  Duke  Henri 
II.  de  Montmorency.  She  was  married  to  Henri,  Prince 
de  Conde,  about  1609.  Her  beauty  made  such  an  im- 
pression on  the  king,  Henry  IV.,  that  her  husband  was 
alarmed,  and  conducted  her  to  a  foreign  country.  She 
was  the  mother  of  the  great  Conde,  of  the  Prince  of 
Conti,  and  of  the  Duchess  of  Longueville.  Died  in  1650. 

See  Bazin,  "  Histoire  de  Louis  XIII  ;"  L'Estoile,  "Memoires," 
etc. 

Montmorency,  de,  (Henry  I.,)  Due,  the  second 
son  of  Anne,  noticed  above,  was  styled  Comte  de 
Damville  in  his  youth.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Admiral 
Coligni.  At  the  battle  of  Dreux,  in  1562,  he  took  the 
Prince  of  Conde  prisoner,  and  in  1566  obtained  a  mar- 
shal's baton.  He  rendered  important  services  to  Henry 
IV,,' who  appointed  him  Constable  of  France  in  1593. 
Died  in  1614.  It  is  stated  that  a  mutual  passion  was 
felt  by  him  and  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  whonj  he  fol- 
lowed to  Scotland  in  1561. 

Montmorency,  de,  (Henri  II.,)  Due,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Chantilly  in  1595.  His  valour, 
generosity,  and  name  rendered  him  a  great  favourite  with 
the  court,  the  army,  and  the  people.  He  commanded 
for  Louis  XIII.  in  the  civil  war  against  the  Huguenots 
which  began  about  1620,  and  defeated  the  Due  de 
Rohan  in  1628.  For  his  victory  over  the  Imperialists  at 
Veillane,  in  1629,  he  was  made  a  marshal.  Seduced  by 
Gaston,  a  brother  of  Louis  XIII.  and  heir-presumptive 
to  the  throne,  and  incited  by  enmity  to  Richelieu,  he  took 
arms  against  the  government,  and  encountered  the  royal 
army  at  Castelnaudary  in  1632.  With  too  impetuous 
valour,  he  exposed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  army,  was 
wounded,  and  made  prisoner.  He  was  tried  for  treason, 
and  beheaded  in  October,  1632.  He  left  no  issue,  and 
the  first  ducal  branch  of  the  Montmorencies  then  became 
extinct.  His  sister  was  the  mother  of  the  great  Prince 
de  Conde  and  of  the  Duchesse  de  Longueville. 

See  Desormeaux,  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Montmorency." 

Montmorency,  de,  (Mathieu  L,)  was  appointed 
Constable  of  France  about  1130,  and  was  the  most  pow- 
erful French  seigneur  of  his  time.  He  married  first 
Aline,  daughter  of  Henry  I.  of  England,  and  secondly 
Alix  or  Adelaide,  the  widow  of  Louis  le  Gros  and 
mother  of  Louis  VII.  of  France.  He  died  in  1160, 
leaving  several  children  by  his  first  wife. 

See  Desormeaux,  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Montmorency." 

Montmorency,  de,  (Mathieu  II.,)  sumamed  le 
Grand,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about 
1174.  He  contributed  greatly  to  the  victory  of  the 
French  at  Bouvines,  in  1214.  In  1218  he  obtained  the 
office  of  constable,  which  his  talents  and  merits  raised 
to  be  the  highest  office  of  the  kingdom.  The  Constable 
of  France  was  thenceforth  ex  officio  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army.  He  had  great  influence  in  the  reign  of 
Louis  VIII.  and  in  that  of  his  successor.  He  was  nearly 
related  to  two  emj^erors  and  six  kings.  His  grand- 
daughter married  Louis  de  Bourbon,  a  great-great- 
grandfather of  Henry  IV.    Died  in  1230. 

See  Desormeaux,  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Montmorency." 

Montmorency,  de,  (  Mathieu  Jean  F^:LieiT6 
de  Montmorency-Laval — deh  m6N'mo'r6N'se'  It'- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mfit;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


MONTMORIN  1619  MONTTON 


viK,)  Due,  a  French  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1766, 
was  a  friend  of  La  Fayette,  in  company  with  whom  he 
served  in  the  war  of  American  Independence.  He  was 
a  deputy  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  was  an  ad- 
vocate of  liberal  reform.  On  the  restoration  he  became 
a  zealous  royalist,  and  was  made  a  peer  by  Louis  XVIIL 
He  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1821, 
president  of  the  cabinet,  and  governor  to  the  Duke  of 
Bordeaux  in  1823.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.    Died  in  1826. 

See  De  Gerando,  "  filoge  de  M.  de  Montmorency,"  1826;  Cha- 
teaubriand, "Menioires  d'Outre-Tombe  ;"  Vetillard,  "Notice 
sur  la  Vie  de  M.  le  Due  de  Montmorency,"  1826. 

Montmorin  Saint-Herem,  de,  deh  miN'mo'r^N'' 
siN-//a'r6N^  (Armand  Marc,)  Comte,  a  French  states- 
man, born  about  1745.  He  succeeded  Count  Vergennes 
as  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1787,  and  became  min- 
ister of  the  interior  in  1 791.  He  was  condemned  to 
death  by  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  and  executed  in 
September,  1792. 

See  Dkoz,  "  Histoire  de  Louis  XVI;"  Lamartine,  "History 
of  the  Girondists." 

Moiitmort,  de,  deh  m^N'moR',  (Pierre  R6mond,) 
a  French  mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  1678,  was  a 
pupil  of  Malebranche.  He  was  the  author  of  a  popular 
work  entitled  "Analytical  Essay  on  Games  of  Chance." 
He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  He  con- 
tributed to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  of  that 
institution  a  valuable  essay  "On  Infinite  Series."  Died 
in  1719. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  ^logcs  dcs  Academiciens." 

Montolieu,  de,  deh  m^x'to'l.e-uh',  (Jeanne  Isabelle 
Pauline  Polier  de  Bottens — po'le-i'  deh  bo'tSN',) 
Dame  de  Crousaz  and  Baronne,  a  Swiss  novelist,  born 
at  Lausanne  in  1751  ;  died  in  1832. 

Montorfano,  mon-toR'fi-no,  (Giovanni  Donato,) 
an  Italian  painter  of  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth 
century. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Montorsoli,  mon-toR'so-lee,  (Fra  Giovanni  An- 
GELO,)  a  celebrated  Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  born 
at  Montorsoli,  near  Florence,  about  1500.  He  was 
employed  in  several  works  by  Michael  Angelo,  whose 
lasting  friendship  he  acquired.  He  was  selected  by 
Pope  Clement  VII.  to  restore  the  famous  group  of 
Laocoon  and  the  Apollo  Belvedere.  Among  his  master- 
pieces we  may  name  the  fountain  in  front  of  the  cathe- 
dral at  Messina,  and  the  grand  altar  of  the  Church  dei 
Servi  della  Nunziata  at  Bologna.    Died  in  1563. 

See  CicoGNARA,  "Storia  della  Scultiira  ;"  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the 
Painters,  Sculptors,"  etc.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Montpensier,  de,  deh  m^N^pfiN'seJ.',  (Anne  Ma- 
rie Louise  d'Ori,6ans,)  Duchesse,  commonly  called 
Mademoiselle,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1627.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  cousin  of 
Louis  XIV,  Of  a  bold  and  energetic  character,  she 
became  a  zealous  adherent  of  the  party  of  Conde  in  the 
wars  of  the  Fronde,  She  rendered  several  important 
services  to  that  faction,  among  which  was  the  capture 
of  the  town  of  Orleans,  About  1670  she  was  married 
to  Count  Lauzim.  She  died  in  1693,  leaving  Memoirs 
which  possess  much  interest. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Saint-Simon,  "Me- 
niDiies  ;"  'Mademoiselle's  Campaigns,"  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly" 
for  July,  1858. 

Montpensier,  de,  (  Antoine  Marie  Philippe  Louis 
D'Orl^:ans,)  Due,  a  younger  son  of  King  Louis  Philippe 
of  France,  was  born  at  Neuilly  in  1824,  He  served  with 
distinction  in  Algeria  in  1844  and  1845,  obtained  the 
rank  of  marechal  de  camp  in  1846,  and  married  in  that 
year  Maria  Luisa  Fernanda  de  Bourbon,  a  sister  of  Isa- 
bella, Queen  of  Spain.  In  1858  Queen  Isabella  gave 
him  the  rank  of  captain-general.  He  was  a  candidate  for 
the  vacant  throne  of  Spain  in  1869.  In  March,  1870,  he 
killed  Prince  Henry  of  Bourbon  in  a  duel  near  Madrid. 

Montpensier,  de,  (Antoine  Philippe  d'Orl^:ans,) 
Due,  a  younger  brother  of  King  Louis  Philippe  of 
France,  was  born  in  1775.  He  was  arrested  in  April, 
1793,  and  imprisoned  until  1796.  Died  near  London 
in  1807. 


Montpensier,  de,  (Catherine  Marie  de  Lorraine 
— deh  lo'rin',)  DueHESSE,  a  French  lady,  born  in  1552, 
was  a  sister  of  Henri,  Due  de  Guise.  She  acted  with 
the  League,  and  fomented  rebellion  against  Henry  III. 
of  France.    Died  in  1596. 

Montpetit,  de,  deh  m6N'peh-te',  (Armand  Vin- 
eENT,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Macon  in  17 13.  He 
was  the  inventor  of  a  method  of  painting  which  he  called 
eludoriqtie,  (elydoric)  He  published  an  account  of  his 
invention  in  a  work  entitled  "Note  interessante  sur  les 
Moyens  de  conserver  les  Portraits  peints  a  I'Huile," 
etc,  (1776.)    Died  in  1800, 

Montreuil,  de,  deh  m6N^tRuI'  or  mdN'tRuh'ye, 
(Bernardin,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  theologian,  born 
in  Paris  in  1596,  wrote  a  "Life  of  Christ  taken  from 
the  Four  Gospels,"  (1637,)  and  other  religious  works. 
Died  in  1646. 

Montreuil,  de,  sometimes  written  Montereul,  (Ma- 

THiEU,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1611 ;  died  in 
1691. 

Montrichard,  m6N're'shtR',  (Joseph  £lie  D6sir6 
PERRUQUET,)a  French  general,  born  in  1760.  He  com- 
manded the  right  wing  at  thef;  battle  of  Trebbia,  June, 
1799.    Died  in  1828, 

Montrond,  de,  deh  mdN'tr^N',  (Clement  MELeniOR 
Justin  Maxime  FouReHEUX,)  a  French  writer,  born  in 
Gard  in  1805.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Crusades,"  (2  vols,,  1841.) 

Montrose,  mont-roz',  (James  Grahame,)  Marquis 
OF,  a  celebrated  Scottish  general,  born  at  Edinburgh  in 
1612,  Having  finished  his  studies  in  France,  after  his 
return  to  Scotland  he  served  for  a  time  in  the  Pres- 
byterian army  ;  but  he  subsequently  went  over  to  the 
royalists.  He  was  appointed  by  Charles  I.,  in  1644, 
Marquis  of  Montrose,  and  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Scottish  forces.  He  signally  defeated  the  Covenanters  at 
Tippermuir  in  1644,  also  at  Inverlochy  and  at  Kilsyth 
in  1645  ;  but  his  army  was  surprised  and  totally  defeated 
by  General  Leslie  at  Philiphaugh  in  September,  1645. 
Montrose  soon  after  went  to  Germany,  where  he  was 
received  with  great  distinction  by  the  Austrian  emperor 
and  made  a  marshal  of  the  empire.  Having  collected 
a  small  but  ill-organized  force,  he  returned  to  Scotland 
in  1650,  but  was  soon  after  defeated  and  taken  pris- 
oner. He  was  executed,  without  a  trial,  at  Edinburgh, 
in  May,  1650. 

See  Clarendon,  "  History  of  the  Rebellion;"  Mark  Napier, 
"Montrose  and  the  Covenanters,"  1838  ;  Grant,  "  Life  of  Grahame, 
Marquis  of  Montrose,"  1859;  George  Wi.shart,  "Memoirs  of 
Grahnme,  Marquis  of  Montrose;"  Sir  Edward  Cust,  "Lives  of 
the  Warriors  of  the  Civil  Wars,"  1867  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  December,  1846;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  June,  1841. 

Montucci,  mon-toot'chee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
philologist,  born  at  Sienna  in  1762,  became  in  1785 
professor  of  the  English  language  in  the  Tolomei  Col- 
lege, and  subsequently  of  Italian  at  Berlin  and  Dresden. 
He  died  in  1829,  leaving  unfinished  a  Chinese  Dictionary. 

Montucla,  m^N'tii'klf,  (Jean  Etienne,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  at  Lyons  in  1725.  Having  studied 
philology  and  natural  science  at  the  Jesuits'  College  at 
Lyons,  he  visited  Paris,  where  he  became  associate  editor 
of  the  "  Gazette  de  France"  and  formed  an  intimacy  with 
Diderot,  D'Alembert,  and  other  savants  of  the  time.  In 
1764  he  accompanied  Turgot  to  Cayenne,  as  first  secre- 
tary and  astronomer  to  the  expedition.  After  his  return 
he  was  appointed  royal  censor  of  mathematical  books 
and  commissioner  of  the  royal  buildings.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin,  and  of 
the  Institute  of  France.  His  most  important  work  is 
his  "History  of  Mathematics,"  (1758,)  which  was  com- 
pleted by  Lalande.  He  also  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Researches  for  Determining  the  Quadrature  of  the 
Circle,"  and  several  other  treatises.    Died  in  1799, 

See  A.  Savinien-Leblond,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  J. 
fi.  Montucla,"  1800. 

Montureux,    See  Bourcier. 

Montyon  or  Monthyon,  de,  deh  miN'te-^N',  (Jean 
Baptiste  Robert  Auget — o'zha^)  Baron,  a  wealthy 
and  philanthropic  French  nobleman,  born  in  Paris  in 
1733.  He  bequeathed  the  greater  part  of  his  large 
fortune  to  benevolent  and  learned  institutions,  and  was 
the  founder  of  the  "  Montyon  Prize  of  Virtue"  given 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  t;  %h  as  in  this.    (^^T^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MONFEL 


1620 


MOORB: 


by  the^French  Academy.  He  published  "  Researches 
and  Cohsiderations  on  the  Population  of  France,"  and 
other  works.  "  His  name,"  says  Lamartine,  "  was  the 
foremost  on  the  roll  of  the  national  nobility."  Died 
in  1820, 

See  B.  V.  Franklin,  "  filoge  historique  de  Montyon,"  Paris, 
1834:  Chazet,  "Vie  de  M.  de  Montyon,"  1829;  Andrieux,  "  if  loge 
de  A.  J.  B.  R.  Auget,"  etc.,  1834;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Monvel,  m6N'v§l',  (  Jacques  Marie  Boutet,)  a 
French  actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  Luneville  in  1745, 
was  the  author  of  numerous  comedies  and  comic  operas. 
Died  in  1812. 

Monville,  de.    See  Botssel. 

Monvoisin,  mAN''vwa''z4N',  (  Raymond  Auguste 
(^uiNSAC,)  a  French  historical  painter,  born  at  Bordeaux 
in  17Q5,  studied  in  Paris  under  P.  Guerin.  Died  in  1870. 

Moojaert,  mS'yaRt,  written  also  Mooyaert,  (Clas,) 
a  Dutch  landscape-painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Am- 
sterdam about  1590.  He  was  the  master  of  Berghem 
and  Jan  Weeninx. 

MooUah-Firooz  (or  Moullah-Firouz)  Ben-Ka- 
woos,  a  Persian  poet,  (horn  at  Bombay  in  1759.  He 
wrote  an  epic  ]')oem,  entitled  "  George-Nameh,"  the 
conquest  of  India  by  the  British.    Died  in  1831. 

Moonen,  mo'nen,  (Arnold,)  a  Dutch  theologian, 
distinguished  as  a  poet  and  grammarian,  was  born  at 
Zwolle  in  1644.  He  became  minister  of  a  Protestant 
church  at  Deventer.  His  poems  were  published  in  2 
vols.,  1720.    Died  in  171 1. 

Moor,  moor,  ?  (Edward,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  writer, 
born  about  1770.  He  served  several  campaigns  in  India, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  major.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Hindu  Pantheon,"  (4to,  1810.)  Died 
in  1848. 

Moor,  van,  vtn  moR,  Moro,  or  More,  (Antonis  or 
Antonio,)  a  celebrated  Dutch  portrait-painter,  born  at 
Utrecht  in  1519,  was  a  pupil  of  Jan  Schooreel.  He  was 
patronized  by  Cardinal  Granvelle,  the  emperor  Charles 
v.,  and  Philip  II.,  and  painted  the  portraits  of  the  prin- 
cipal sovereigns  of  Europe.  His  works  in  this  depart- 
ment are  of  the  highest  order.  He  also  executed  several 
historical  pictures  of  great  merit.    Died  in  1568. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc.  ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Moor,  van,  (Karel,)  a  Dutch  portrait-painter,  of  high 
reputation,  born  at  Leyden  in  1656,  studied  under  Ge- 
rard Douw  and  Mieris.  Among  his  best  works  are  por- 
traits of  Prince  Eugene  and  the  Duke  of  Marlborough 
on  horseback.  He  was  created  a  knight  of  the  empire 
by  the  Austrian  emperor  Joseph  I.  His  "Assembly 
of  Notables,"  in  the  Hotel  de  Ville  at  the  Hague,  is  also 
esteemed  a  master-piece.    Died  about  1738. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters  ;"  Descamps,  "Vies 
des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc.;  Charles  Blanc,  "His- 
toire  des  Peintres." 

Moorad-Alee  or  Mourad-Ali,  moo-rld  i'lee,  called 
also  Moorad  Khan,  (Kan,)  King  of  Persia,  of  the  Zend 
dynasty,  was  born  at  Is])ahan  about  1746.  He  defended 
himself  for  a  time  successfully  against  several  rivals  ;  but 
he  was  at  length  defeated  by  Jaafar  Khan  in  1784.  Died 
in  1785. 

See  Malcolm,  "History  of  Persia." 

Moorad  (Mourad  or  Murad)  Bey,  moo-rld  ba,  a 
celebrated  Mameluke  chief,  born  in  Circassia  in  1750. 
On  the  invasion  of  Egypt  by  the  French,  in  1798,  he 
opposed  them  with  great  bravery,  but  was  at  length 
compelled  to  retreat.  He  subsequently  made  a  treaty 
with  General  Kleber,  by  which  he  became  Prince  of 
Assouan  and  Djirdjeh,  under  the  protection  of  France. 
Died  in  1801. 

See  General  Bertrand,  "  Campagnes  d'^gypte  et  de  Syrie," 
1847;  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Mooravief  or  Mooraviev,  moo-rS-ve-^f,  written 
in  German  Murawiew  or  Murawjew,  but  pro- 
nounced exactly  like  the  preceding  spellings,  (ANDREW,) 
a  Russian  writer  and  traveller,  was  a  younger  brother 
of  General  Nicholas  Mooravief.  He  published,  in  Ger- 
man, a  "  History  of  the  Russian  Church,"  (1845,)  ^ 
"Description  of  Armenia,"  (3  vols.,  1848,)  and  other 
works.  r 


Mooravief  or  Murawiew,  (Michael,)  a  Russian 
engineer  and  general,  born  about  1795,  was  a  brother 
of  the  preceding.  He  became  a  member  of  the  imperial 
council  about  1850.    Died  in  1866. 

Mooravief  or  Murawiew,  (Michael  Nikitich,)  a 
Russian  litterateur,  born  at  Smolensk  in  1757,  was  ap- 
pointed preceptor  to  the  grand  dukes  Alexander  and 
Constantine.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Historical  Pieces," 
"Letters  of  Emilius,"  and  several  moral  and  literary 
essays,  which  are  ranked  among  Russian  classics.  Died 
in  1807. 

See  Gretch,  "  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Russe." 

Mooravief,  Mouraviev,  Muraview,  or  Mura- 
vieff,  (Nicholas,)  an  able  Russian  general,  born  at 
Moscow  in  1793.  He  served  as  general  in  the  war 
against  the  Poles,  (1830.)  In  1854  he  obtained  com- 
mand of  an  army  in  Asia.  He  took  Kars  from  the 
British,  after  a  long  siege,  in  November,  1855.  He 
afterwards  commanded  with  success  against  Schamyl, 
the  Circassian  chief.    Died  in  1866. 

Moorcroft,  moor'kroft, (William,)  an  English  trav- 
eller, born  in  Lancaster  about  1780,  spent  several  years 
in  Hindostan,  and  explored  parts  of  the  country  hitherto 
unknown  to  Eui-opeans.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Travels 
in  the  Himalayan  Provinces  of  Hindostan,"  etc.,  (1841,) 
"  On  the  Purik  Sheep  of  Ladakh,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1825. 

Moore,  m5r,  (Alfred,)  an  American  jurist,  son  of 
Maurice,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Brunswick  county, 
North  Carolina,  in  1755.  He  was  appointed  associate 
justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  in  1799. 
Died  in  1810. 

Moore,  (Benjamin,)  an  American  clergyman,  born 
on  Long  Island  in  1748,  became  Bishop  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  diocese  of  New  York.  Died 
in  1816. 

Moore,  (Clement  C.,)  LL.D.,  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  New  York  in  1779.  He  was  appointed 
in  1821  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Greek  literature  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Seminary  in  New  York.  He 
published  a  "  Hebrew-and-English  Lexicon,"  and  other 
works. 

Moore,  mor,  (Edward,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  in 
Berkshire  in  1712.  He  was  the  author  of  "Fables  foi 
the  Female  Sex,"  which  had  great  popularity,  and  "The 
Gamester,"  a  tragedy,  which  was  also  very  successful. 
He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  "  The  World,"  a  literary 
journal  having  arnong  its  contributors  Horace  Walpole, 
Soame  Jenyns,  and  Lord  Chesterfield.    Died  in  1757. 

See  Walpole,  "  Letters  ;"  Johnson  and  Chalmers,  "  English 
Poets." 

Moore,  (Edward  M.,)  M.D.,  an  American  surgeon, 
born  at  Rahway,  New  Jersey,  July  15,  1814,  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1838.  In  1838,  in 
conjunction  with  Dr.  C.  L.  Pennock,  of  Philadelphia, 
he  performed  a  series  of  original  experiments  on  the 
physiological  action  of  the  heart,  which  excited  much 
attention  among  physiologists.  About  1840  he  removed 
to  Rochester,  New  York,  where  he  soon  acquired  a  high 
reputation  in  his  profession.  For  many  years  he  has 
filled  the  chair  of  surgery  in  the  medical  college  at 
Buffalo. 

Moore,  (Frank,)  son  of  Jacob  Bailey,  noticed 
below,  has  published  "  Songs  and  Ballads  of  the  Amer- 
ican Revolution,"  the  "Rebellion  Record,  a  Diary 
of  American  Events,"  (ii  vols.,  1861-68,)  and  several 
other  works. 

Moore,  (Jacob  Bailey,)  an  American  political  writer 
and  editor,  born  at  Andover,  New  Hampshire,  in  1797. 
He  edited  the  "  New  Hampshire  Statesman,"  a  Whig 
paper,  and  became  librarian  to  the  New  York  Historical 
Society.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Laws  of  Trade  in 
the  United  States."    Died  in  1853. 

Moore  or  More,  (James,)  an  English  writer,  was  the 
author  of  a  comedy  entitled  "The  Rival  Modes,"  and 
was  associated  with  the  Duke  of  Wharton  as  editor  of 
"  The  Inquisitor."  Moore  is  satirized  by  Pope  in  his 
"Dunciad."    Died  in  1734. 

Moore,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  1644,  be- 
came successively  Bishop  of  Norwich  and  of  Ely.  He 
died  in  17 14,  leaving  a  library  of  thirty  thousand  volumes, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MOORE 


1621 


MOOSA 


which  was  purchased  by  George  II.  and  presented  to 
the  University  of  Cambridge. 

Moore,  mor,  (John,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  distin- 
guished writer,  born  at  Stirling  about  1730.  He  studied 
under  Hamilton  and  Cullen  at  Glasgow,  and  afterwards 
spent  several  years  on  the  continent.  He  published, 
after  his  return,  "A  View  of  Society  and  Manners  in 
France,  Switzerland,  and  Germany,"  (1778,)  which  was 
followed  in  1781  by  a  similar  work  on  Italy.  They  are 
written  in  a  lively  and  attractive  style,  and  had  great 
popularity  at  the  time.  His  principal  work  is  his  novel 
of  "Zeluco,"  (4  vols.,  1789,)  which  was  received  with 
great  favour  and  still  enjoys  a  high  reputation.  Died 
in  1802. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Moore,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at  Gloucester 
in  1733.  He  became  Bishop  of  Bangor  in  1776,  and 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1783.    Died  in  1805. 

Moore,  (Sir  John,)  a  celebrated  British  general,  born 
at  Glasgow  in  1761,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Dr.  John 
Moore,  noticed  above.  He  entered  the  army  at  the  age 
of  fifteen,  and  was  sent  in  1794  to  Corsica,  where  he 
acted  in  conjunction  with  Paoli,  and  was  conspicuous 
for  his  courage  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Morello  and  at  the 
siege  of  Calvi.  As  general  of  brigade,  he  served  under 
Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie  in  the  West  Indies  in  1796,  and 
in  1798  assisted  in  quelling  the  Irish  rebellion.  He 
accompanied  General  Abercrombie  to  Egypt  in  1801, 
and  was  severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Alexandria. 
He  was  made  a  knight  of  the  Bath  on  his  return  to 
England,  and,  after  various  services  in  Sicily  and  Sweden, 
was  created  lieutenant-general,  and  sent  in  1808  to  Spain 
to  unite  with  the  forces  in  the  north  against  the  French. 
On  the  news  of  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  troops  along 
the  northern  frontier,  and  of  the  numerous  French  armies 
approaching,  he  made  a  rapid  retreat  to  Coruna,  which, 
being  performed  in  the  depth  of  winter,  was  attended 
with  great  suffering.  On  the  i6th  of  [anuary,  1809,  an 
engagement  took  place  at  Corunna,  in  which  the  English 
claimed  the  victory  but  lost  their  brave  commander. 
His  death  has  been  commemorated  by  the  poet  Wolfe 
in  a  beautiful  and  popular  ode,  which  Byron  pronounced 
the  most  perfect  in  the  English  language. 

See  James  C.  Moore,  "  Life  of  Sir  John  Moore,"  2  vols.,  18:^4  ; 
R.  SouTHEY,  "History  of  the  Peninsular  War ;"  Napirr,  "  His- 
tory of  the  War  in  the  Peninsula;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dic- 
tionary of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Moore,  (Sir  Jonas,)  an  English  mathematician,  born 
in  Lancashire  in  161 7,  was  appointed  tutor  to  Prince 
James,  son  of  Charles  I.,  and  subsequently  became  in- 
spector-general of  artillery.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  the  author  of  several  scientific  works. 
He  was  instrumental  in  founding  a  mathematical  school 
for  sailors  at  Christ's  Hospital,  and  in  the  construction 
of  an  observatory  at  Flamstead  House.    Died  in  1679. 

See  Birch,  "  History  of  the  Royal  Society." 

Moore,  (Maurice,)  an*American  jurist  and  patriot 
of  the  Revolution,  born  in  Brunswick  county,  North 
Carolina  ;  died  in  1777.  His  son  Alfred  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  became  asso- 
ciate justice  of  the  United  States  supreme  court  in  1799. 
Died  in  1810. 

Moore,  (Nathaniel  F.,)  LL.D.,  a  nephew  of  Bishop 
Benjamin  Moore,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Newtown, 
Long  Island,  in  1782.  He  becaine  professor  of  the 
Latin  and  Greek  languages  in  Columbia  College  in 
1820,  and  in  1842  president  of  that  institution.  He  has 
published  "Ancient  Mineralogy,"  and  other  works. 

Moore,  (Richard  Chann'ing,)  D.D.,  an  American 
prelate,  born  in  New  York  in  1762.  He  became  rector 
of  Saint  Stephen's  Church,  in  that  city,  in  1809,  and  in 
18 14  succeeded  Bishop  Madison  as  Bishop  of  Virginia. 
Died  in  1841. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Richard  Channing  Moore,"  by  J.  P. 
K.  Henshaw. 

Moore,  mor,  (Thomas,)  a  celebrated  Irish  poet,  born 
in  Dublin  in  1779.  He  entered  Trinity  College  at  an 
early  age,  but,  being  a  Catholic,  he  was  unable  to  obtain 
any  of  the  university  honours  or  offices.  He  afterwards 
studied  law  at  the  Middle  Temple,  London.  He  pub- 
lished in  1 801  his  translation  of  the  "  Odes  of  Anacreon," 


which  was  very  successful,  and  was  followed  by  "The 
Poetical  Works  of  the  Late  Thomas  Little,"  (1802.)  In 
1804  he  visited  the  United  States  of  America,  on  the 
society  and  institutions  of  which  he  made  many  satirical 
comments  in  his  "Odes  and  Epistles,"  (1806.)  His 
other  principal  works  are  "  Lalla  Rookh,"  (1812,)  an 
Oriental  poem,  "The  Twopenny  Post-Bag,  by  Thomas 
Brown,  Jun.,"  (1813,)  a  witty  satire  directed  against  the 
Tories,  which  had  great  popularity,  "The  Fudge  Family 
in  Paris,"  (1818,)  "Loves  of  the  Angels,"  (1823,)  and 
"  Irish  Melodies,"  (1834.)  In  1830  he  published  a  "  Life 
of  Lord  Byron,"  his  most  important  prose  work,  wliich, 
although  written  entirely  from  the  stand-point  of  friend- 
ship, has  been  highly  commended  by  the  critics.  He 
also  wrote  a  "Life  of  Sheridan,"  (1825,)  "The  Epicu- 
rean," (1827,)  a  prose  romance,  and  a  "  History  of  Ire- 
land," (1835.)  Of  his  poems,  his  "  Lalla  Rookh"  and 
"  Irish  Melodies"  enjoy  the  highest  reputation.  The 
former,  though  deficient  in  the  higher  qualities  of 
poetry,  is  characterized  by  exquisite  melody  of  versifica- 
tion and  splendid  imagery,  and  in  its  moral  tone  affords 
a  striking  contrast  to  the  frivolity  and  licentiousness 
of  his  earlier  productions.  It  obtained  extraordinary 
popi^larity,  and  was  translated  into  many  languages, 
including  Persian.  Hazlitt,  in  his  critique  on  Moore, 
says  that  "his  is  the  poetry  of  the  toilette,  of  the  saloon, 
of  the  fashionable  world, — not  the  poetry  of  nature, 
of  the  heart,  or  of  human  life.  His  imagination  may 
dally  with  insect  beauties,  but  it  should  not  attempt  to 
span  the  great  outlines  of  nature,  or  keep  pace  with 
the  sounding  march  of  events,  or  grapple  with  the  strong 
fibres  of  the  human  heart." 

See  "  Memoirs,  etc.  of  Thomas  Moore,"  by  Lord  Russell  ; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1817,  and  April,  1854;  "Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1853 :  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  September,  1827,  and  January,  1853;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
October,  1830  ;  "Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1806. 

Moore,  (Zephaniah  Swift,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine  and  scholar,  born  at  Palmer,  Massachusetts,  in 
1770,  becatne  president  of  Williams  College  in  1815, 
and  in  1821  of  Amherst  College.    Died  in  1823. 

Moor'som,  (Sir  Robert,)  a  brave  English  admiral, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1760.  Being  appointed  in  1805 
commander  of  the  Revenge,  he  had  a  prominent  part 
in  the  battle  of  Trafalgar.  He  afterwards  represented 
Queensborough  in  Parliament,  and  was  made  an  admiral 
in  1830.    Died  in  1835. 

Moosa.    See  Moses. 

Moosa,  Mousa,  or  Musa,  moo'si,  third  son  of 
Bayazeed  I.,  was  born  at  Brusa  about  1376.  He  was 
made  prisoner  with  his  father  by  Tamerlane  after  the 
battle  of  Angora.  Being  afterwards  appointed  by  the 
latter  governor  of  the  Ottoman  provinces  of  Asia  Minor, 
he  carried  on  a  war  against  his  elder  brother  Solyman, 
whose  capital  Adrianople  he  took  in  1404,  thus  becoming 
master  of  the  European  part  of  the  Ottoman  empire.  In 
1412  he  besieged  Constantinople,  but,  having  been  forced 
to  retire,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  strangled  by  order 
of  Mahomet  I. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Moosa,  Mousa,  or  Musa,  Ibn,  ibn  moo'st,  (Aboo- 
Abdallah-Mohanimecl,  ¥h6b  3.b-dlKlah  mo-him'- 
med,)  an  Arabian  mathematician,  was  the  author  of  a 
treatise  on  algebra  entitled  "  Al  Jebr  e  al  Mokabalah." 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  of  his  countrymen  who 
wrote  on  that  science  ;  and  Europe  is  indebted  to  him 
for  its  introduction  and  its  name. 

Moosa-Ibn-Noseyr,  moo'si  Tb'n  no-sar',  (or  no- 
slr',)  (Aboo-Abd-er-Rahman,  ¥h6b  Wd&v  rih^min,) 
a  celebrated  Arab  conqueror,  was  born  at  Mecca  about 
660  a.d.  He  was  appointed  in  703  Viceroy  of  Africa, 
and,  having  subjected  the  northern  part  of  that  country, 
from  Tripoli  to  Morocco,  he  turned  his  arms  against 
Spain.  In  conjunction  with  his  lieutenant  Tarik,  he  took 
Seville,  Merida,  Saragossa,  and  other  cities  of  Southern 
and  Central  Spain,  to  which  he  subsequently  added  the 
most  important  towns  of  Catalonia.  Among  other  ar- 
ticles of  great  value  of  which  he  had  possessed  himself 
was  the  emerald  table  called  the  table  of  Solomon,  taken 
at  Medina-Celi.  Moosa,  having  been  summoned  to  Da- 
mascus by  the  caliph,  presented  to  him  this  table,  and, 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


MO  OS  A 


1622 


MORANT 


on  his  expressing  his  surprise  that  it  should  have  three 
legs  of  emerald  and  one  of  gold,  Moosa  replied  that  he 
had  found  it  in  this  condition,  Tarik,  however,  imme- 
diately exposed  the  falsehood  of  his  rival  by  producing 
the  fourth  leg  of  the  table.  For  this  offence  he  was 
condennied  to  a  heavy  fine  by  Solyman,  who  afterwards 
caused  his  son  Abd-el-azeez  to  be  assassinated.  Moosa 
died  in  obscurity  in  718. 

See  Abooi.feda,  "  Annales  Moslemici ;"  Makkari,  "  History  of 
the  Mohanimedan  Empire  in  Spain." 

Moosa-  (Mousa-  or  Musa-)  Ibn-Shakir,  moo'sd 
ib'n  sh3.''kir,  an  Arab  writer  of  the  early  part  of  the  ninth 
century,  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  vSources  of  History." 
He  left  three  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom  was  eminent  as 
an  astronomer  and  was  the  author  of  several  valuable 
works. 

Mooyaert.    See  Moojaert. 

Mop'sus,  [Gr.  M6i/;of,]  a  famous  soothsayer  of  classic 
mythology,  was  called  a  son  of  Apollo  and  Manto. 
According  to  tradition,  he  gained  celebrity  by  the  truth 
of  his  prophecies  at  the  siege  of  Thebes  and  at  the 
temple  of  Claros,  and  he  triumphed  over  Calchas  in  a 
trial  of  skill  in  divination. 

Moquin-Tandon,  mo'k^N'  t6N'd6N',  (Horace  Bene- 
dict Alfred,)  a  French  physician  and  botanist,  born  at 
Montpellier  in  1804.  He  was  appointed  in  1853  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  in  the  Medical  Faculty  of  Paris, 
and  in  1854  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences. He  published  a  "History  of  the  Anomalies  of 
Vegetable  Organization,"  (1841,)  and  "Essay  on  the 
Multiplication  of  Organs  in  Vegetables." 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mora,  de,  di  mo'rS,  (Jose  Joaquin,)  a  Spanish  Ht- 
teratenr,  born  at  Cadiz  in  1784.  Having  previously  edited 
a  literary  journal  at  Madrid,  he  repaired  to  South  Amer- 
ica, and  became  editor  of  the  "Cronica  Politica"  at 
Buenos  Ayres.  He  was  appointed  in  1838  consul-general 
of  Bolivia  to  London.  He  published  a  "  History  of 
the  Arabs,"  (1826,)  "Spanish  Legends,"  (1840,)  and  a 
number  of  lyric  poems  and  satires.  He  also  trans- 
lated into  Spanish  Sir  Walter  Scott's  romances  of 
"  Ivanhoe"  and  "The  Talisman." 

See  F.  Wolf.  "  Floresta  de  Rimas  modernas  Castellanas." 

Morabin,  mo^rt^biN^  (Jacques,)  a  French  scholar, 
born  at  La  Fleche  in  1687.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  History  of  Cicero,"  and  translated  into  French  Cicero's 
"Treatise  on  Laws"  and  "Treatise  on  Consolation." 
Died  in  1762. 

Moraes,  de,  da  mo-rl'ls,  (  Cristovam  Alao  — 
§,-16vvn',)  a  Portuguese  writer,  born  in  1632,  was  the 
author  of  a  "Genealogy  of  the  Families  of  Portugal," 
and  a  number  of  sonnets  and  other  poems.  Died  in  1693. 

Moraes,  de,  (Francisco,)  a  Portuguese  writer,  born 
at  Braganza.  He  went  to  Paris  as  secretary  of  legation 
in  the  reign  of  Francis  L  His  chief  work  is  "  Libro 
del  muy  esforyado  Cauallero  Palmerin  de  Inglaterra," 
which  was  translated  into  English  by  Southey.  Moraes 
was  assassinated  at  Evora  in  1572. 

Moraes  Sarmento,  mo-r^'§s  saR-m^n'to,  (Joao 
EvANGELiSTA,)  a  Portuguese  poet  of  the  present  time. 
Among  his  works  is  an  "  Ode  on  War," 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe," 

Morales,  mo-ri'l^s,  (Cristoval,)  a  Spanish  musician, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  composers  of  his  time,  was  a 
native  of  Seville.  He  was  appointed  by  Pope  Paul  HI. 
composer  in  the  pontifical  chapel.   He  lived  about  1550. 

Morales,  (Juan  Bautista,)  a  Spanish  missionary, 
born  in  Andalusia  about  1598.  He  went  to  China  in 
1633,  but  was  compelled  to  quit  that  country  in  1638 
through  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits,  whom  he  censured 
for  permitting  their  converts  to  sacrifice  to  idols.  He 
returned  to  China,  where  he  died  in  1664. 

Morales,  de,  di  mo-rS'l^s,  (Ambrosio,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  historian,  born  at  Cordova  in  1513.  He  studied 
at  Alcala,  where  he  subsequently  became  professor,  and 
numbered  among  his  pupils  Don  John  of  Austria.  In 
1570  he  succeeded  Ocampo  as  historiographer  to  Philip 
II.  His  principal  work  is  a  continuation  of  Ocampo's 
"Cronica  general  de  Espaiia,"  (3  vols.,  1577,)  bringing 
the  history  of  Spain  down  to  1037.    Morales  also  pub- 


lished a  valuable  treatise  "  On  the  Antiquities  of  the 
Spanish  Cities."    Died  in  1591. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Bouterwek, 
"Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Espagnole.'.' 

Morales,  de,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  in  Anda- 
lusia, lived  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  made  admirable 
translations  of  some  odes  of  Horace,  and  wrote  original 
poems  of  much  merit. 

Morales,  de,  (Luis,)  an  eminent  Spanish  painter, 
surnamed  el  Diving,  ("the  Divine,")  born  at  Badajoz 
in  1509.  He  was  employed  by  Philip  II.  to  decorate 
the  Escurial  ;  but  he  subsequently  lost  the  king's  patron- 
age and  was  reduced  to  great  poverty.  He  was  relieved 
a  few  years  before  his  death  by  a  pension  bestowed  upon 
him  by  Philip.  His  "  Via  Dolorosa,"  in  the  church  of  the 
Hieronymites,  at  Madrid,  is  esteemed  one  of  his  master- 
pieces.   Died  in  1586. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols  ;"  Viardot, 
"  Etudes  sur  I'Histoire  des  Beaux- Arts  en  Espagne,"  1835. 

Morali,  mo-r^-'lee,  (Ottavio,)  Abb6,  an  Italian  phi- 
lologist, born  near  Bergamo  in  1763,  became  professor 
of  Greek  at  the  College  of  Brera,  in  Milan.  He  pub- 
lished a  good  edition  of  Ariosto,  (1818.)    Died  in  1826. 

Mo-ran',  (Edward,)  an  American  painter  of  marine 
views  and  landscapes,  born  about  1845.  Among  his  best 
works  are  "The  Swallows'  Cave,  Nahant,"  and  "Pulpit 
Rock."  His  brother  Thomas  is  also  distinguished  as  a 
landscape-painter. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Morand,  mo'rdN',  (Charles  Antoine  Louis  Ale- 
xis,) Comte,  a  French  general,  born  at  Pontarlierin  1771. 
He  served  as  general  at  Austerlitz,  Jena,  Eylau,  Essling, 
and  Wagram,  (1805-09.)    Died  in  1835. 

Morand,  (Jean  Anioine,)  a  French  architect,  born 
at  Brian9on  about  1727.  He  executed  several  important 
works  at  Lyons,  one  of  which  is  a  wooden  bridge  over 
the  Rhone,  which  bears  his  name.  He  was  condemned 
by  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  and  put  to  death  in  1794. 

Morand,  (Jean  Francois  Cl^;ment,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, son  of  Sauveur  Fran9ois,  noticed  below,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1726.  He  became  librarian  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  and  was  a  member  of  several  other  learned 
societies  in  Europe.    Died  in  1784. 

Morand,(SAUVEUR  FRANgois,)adistinguished  French 
surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1697,  was  the  first  who  intro- 
duced into  France  Cheselden's  method  of  lithotomy, 
having  previously  learned  it  in  London.  He  was  a  Fel- 
low of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  was  appointed  in 
1730  royal  censor  and  surgeon -in-chief  of  the  hospital 
of  La  Charite.  He  published  a  number  of  surgical 
treatises.    Died  in  1773. 

See  Eloy,  "Dictionnaire  historique  de  la  Medecine." 

Morand,  de,  deh  mo^rSN',  (Pierre,)  a  French  drama- 
tist, born  at  Aries  in  1 701,  was  the  author  of  a  comedy 
entitled  "The  Spirit  of  Divorce,"  and  several  tragedies. 
Died  in  1757. 

Morande,  de,  deh  mo'rSNd',  (Charles  Thevenot 
or  Theveneau  —  tiv^no',)  a  French  adventurer  and 
political  writer,  born  at  Arnay-le-Duc  in  1748,  was  the 
author  of  "The  Cynic  Philosopher,"  and  other  works 
of  a  libellous  character.    Died  about  1803. 

Morandi-Manzolini,  mo-rSn'dee  mSn-zo-lee'nee, 
(Anna,)  a  celebrated  Italian  anatomist,  born  at  Bologna 
in  1716,  was  the  wife  of  G.  Manzolini,  a  physician,  from 
whom  she  learned  anatomy  and  the  art  of  modelling  in 
wax.  Her  works  in  this  department  were  regarded  as 
the  most  perfect  of  the  kind,  and  obtained  for  her  a 
European  reputation.  She  was  a  member  of  the  Insti- 
tute of  Bologna,  and  in  1758  became  professor  of  anatomy 
in  that  city.    Died  in  1774. 

Morandini,  mo-ran-dee'nee,  (Francesco,)  called  II 
Poppi,  an  able  Italian  painter,  born  at  Poppi  in  1544, 
was  a  pupil  of  Vasari.  ^  He  worked  with  great  facility. 
Died  about  1584. 

Morando,  mo-r^n'do,  (Filippo  Rosa,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Verona  in  1732  ;  died  in  1757. 

Mo-rant',  ?  (Philip,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  the  -v 
isle  of  Jersey  in  1700,  published,  among  other  works, 
"  History  and  Antiquities  of  Colchester,"  and  "History 
of  Essex."    Died  in  1770. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  lon^;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,    short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  till,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MORARD 


1623 


MORE 


Morard  de  Galle,  mo'riR'  deh  gtl,  (Justin  Bona- 
VENTURE,)  a  French  admiral,  born  in  Dauphine  in  1741 ; 
died  in  1809. 

Morata,  mo-rS'ta,  (Olympia  Fulvia,)  an  Italian  lady, 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  learned  women  of  her  time, 
was  born  at  Ferrara  in  1526.  She  was  married  about 
1550  to  Andrew  Gundler,  a  German  physician,  whom 
she  accompanied  to  Germany.  She  died  at  Heidelberg 
in  1555,  leaving  a  number  of  works,  including  Latin 
orations  and  Greek  poems. 

See  TuRNBULL,  "Olympia  Morata,  her  Life  and  Times,"  1846; 
NoLTEN,  "Vita  Olympise  Moratae,"  1775;  J.  Bonnet,  "Vied'Olym- 
pia  Murata,"  1856;  Wildermuth,  "  O.  Morata;  ein  christliches 
Lebensbild,"  1854;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Moratin,  de,di  mo-ra-teen',  (Leandro  Fernandez,) 
an  eminent  dramatist,  sometimes  called  "the  Spanish 
Moliere,"  was  born  at  Madrid  in  1760.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1787,  through  the  influence  of  Jovellanos, 
secretary  to  the  Spanish  embassy  in  Paris,  and  published, 
soon  after  his  return,  his  comedy  of  "The  Old  Man 
and  the  Young  Girl,"  ("El  Viejo  y  la  Nina,")  which 
was  very  successful.  Among  the  most  popular  of  his 
other  works  are  "The  Impostor,"  ("El  Baron,")  "Yes 
of  the  Maidens,"  ("Si  de  las  Ninas,")  "The  Young 
Hypocrite,"  ("  La  Mogigata,")  and  "The  New  Comedy," 
("La  Comedia  nueva.")  His  "Origines  del  Teatro 
Espanol,"  (1838,)  a  critical  treatise,  is  also  highly  es- 
teemed. Moratin  became  first  librarian  to  Joseph  Bona- 
parte in  181 1,  and  during  the  subsequent  troubles  in 
Spain  took  refuge  in  France,  where  he  died  in  1828. 

See  Kennedy,  "  Modern  Poets  and  Poetry^  of  Spain  ;"  Prescott, 
"History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  ii.  part  i. ;  Ochoa,  No- 
tice of  Moratin,  prefixed  to  his  "Origines  del  Teatro  Espanol," 
1838;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  June,  1828. 

Moratin,  de,  (Nicolas  Fernandez,)  a  Spanish  poet 
and  dramatist,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Madrid  in  1737.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Hormesinda," 
and  several  other  dramas  in  the  French  style,  also  of  an 
epic  poem  entitled  "The  Ships  of  Cortez  Destroyed," 
("Las  Naves  de  Cortes  destruidas,")  which  has  a  high 
reputation.    Died  in  1780. 

See  Ticknor,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature  ;"  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
July,  1827. 

Moray,  Earl  of.    See  Murray,  (James  Stuart.) 

Moray  or  Murray,  miir're,  (Sir  Robert,)  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  was  a 
native  of  Scotland.  Having  resided  for  a  time  in  France, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Louis  XIII.  and  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  he  was  appointed,  after  the  restoration,  to 
several  important  offices.  He  was  the  first  president  of 
the  Royal  Society,  which  he  assisted  to  found  in  1661. 
Died  in  1673. 

See  Birch,  "  History  of  the  Royal  Society;"  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Morazan,  mo-rS-s^n',  (Francisco,)  a  Central  Amer- 
ican general,  born  in  Honduras  in  1799.  He  became 
president  or  general-in-chief  of  the  republic  of  Central 
America  about  1830,  was  driven  into  exile  in  1840,  and 
put  to  death  in  1842. 

Morazzone.    See  Mazzuchelli. 

Morcelli,  moR-cheKlee,  (  Stefano  Antonio,)  a 
learned  Italian  antiquary  and  Jesuit,  born  near  Brescia 
in  1737.  Among  his  principal  works  (which  are  mostly 
written  in  Latin)  we  may  name  "Africa  Christiana," 
(3  vols.,  1816-17,)  illustrating  the  history  of  the  Church 
in  Africa,  "Opera  Epigra)>hica,"  (5  vols.,  1818,)  "Opus- 
coli  ascetici,"  (3  vols.,  1820,)  and  a  treatise  "On  the 
Style  of  Latin  Inscriptions,"  (3  vols.,  1819-22.)  He 
founded  an  academy  of  archaeology  at  Rome,  where  he 
passed  many  years.    Died  in  1821. 

See  P.  LoTTiERi,  "  Elogio  storico  di  S.  A.  Morcelli,"  1821 ; 
Baraldi,  "  Notizia  di  Morcelli,"  1825. 

Mordaunt,  mor'dant,  (Charles,)  Earl  of  Peter- 
borough, a  famous  English  general,  of  chivalrous  and 
eccentric  character,  born  in  1658,  was  the  son  and  heir 
of  John,  Lord  Mordaunt.  He  first  appears  ])roniinently 
in  history  as  a  staunch  Whig  and  op])onent  of  James  II. 
In  1689  he  was  created  Earl  of  Monmouth  and  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  treasury,  but  the  next  year  he  retired 
from  that  office,  which  was  ill  suited  to  his  volatile  and 


generous  character.  He  afterwards  inherited  the  title 
of  his  uncle,  the  Earl  of  Peterborough.  During  the 
war  of  the  Spanish  succession  he  commanded  an  Eng- 
lish army  of  5000  men  which  arrived  in  Spain  in  1705 
and  performed  a  series  of  brilliant  exploits,  among  which 
was  the  capture  of  Barcelona  and  Valencia,  (1706.) 
Thwarted  in  his  plans  by  the  archduke  Charles  of 
Austria,  he  obtained  leave  to  retire  from  the  army,  and 
was  recalled  to  England  in  1707.  Through  hostility  to 
Marlborough,  he  supported  the  Tories  in  the  political 
contests  which  ensued,  and  after  the  accession  of  George 
I.  was  consequently  excluded  from  office.  He  died  in 
1735.  His  second  wife  was  Anastasia  Robinson,  a  cele- 
brated singer  and  actress.  In  the  opinion  of  Macaulay, 
he  was  "the  most  extraordinary  character  of  that  age, 
the  King  of  Sweden  not  excepted.  His  fertility  and 
activity  of  mind  were  almost  beyond  belief.  He  loved 
to  dictate  six  or  seven  letters  at  once.  He  was  a  kind 
friend,  a  generous  enemy,  and  a  thorough  gentleman. 
But  his  splendid  talents  and  virtues  were  rendered 
almost  useless  to  his  country  by  his  levity,  his  restless- 
ness, his  irritability,  his  morbid  craving  for  novelty  and 
excitement."  ("Essays.") 

See  Macaulay,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.  chap,  xi.,  and 
his  Review  of  Lord  Mahon's  "  History  of  the  War  of  the  Succes- 
sion in  Spain;"  Friend,  "Account  of  the  Earl  of  Peterborough, 
etc.  in  Spain;"  Burnet,  "History  of  his  Own  Times;"  Lord 
Mahon,  "War  of  the  Succession  in  Spain;"  Walpole,  "Royal 
and  Noble  Authors;"  "Eccentric  Personages,"  by  William  Rus- 
sell, 1866. 

More,  moR,  [Lat.  Mo'rus,]  (Alexander,)  a  French 
Protestant  divine,  of  Scottish  extraction,  born  at  Castres 
in  16 16.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Geneva  in 
1639,  and  of  history  at  Amsterdam  in  1651.  He  was  the 
author  of  Latin  poems  and  other  works.     Died  in  1670. 

See  SvMMONS,  "Life  of  Milton;"  Senebier,  "  Histoire  litte- 
raire  de  Geneve." 

More,  (Antonio.)    See  Moor. 

More,  (Hannah,)  an  English  writer,  whose  moral 
and  religious  works  enjoyed  great  popularity  in  her  time, 
was  born  at  Stapleton,  near  Bristol,  in  1745.  She  pub- 
lished in  1773  a  pastoral  drama,  entitled  "The  Search 
after  Happiness,"  and  in  1774  "The  Inflexible  Cap- 
tive," a  tragedy,  which  introduced  her  to  the  notice  of 
Garrick,  Dr.  Johnson,  and  other  eminent  men  of  that 
period,  by  whom  she  was  greatly  esteemed  for  the  excel- 
lence of  her  character.  She  was  the  author  of  several 
other  dramas,  which  were  very  favourably  received  ;  but, 
owing  to  her  convictions  of  the  immoral  tendency  of 
the  stage,  she  abandoned  dramatic  writing,  and,  while 
her  popularity  was  still  at  its  height,  devoted  herself  to 
compositions  of  a  moral  and  religious  character.  Among 
the  principal  of  these  we  may  name  "Thoughts  on 
the  Manners  of  the  Great,"  (1788,)  "Strictures  on  the 
Modern  System  of  Female  Education,"  (1799,)  "Hints 
towards  Forming  the  Character  of  a  Young  Princess," 
(1805,)  written  for  Charlotte,  Princess  of  Wales,  "  Coelebs 
in  Search  of  a  Wife,"  (1809,)  and  several  contributions 
to  the  "  Cheap  Repository  Tracts,"  one  of  which  is 
entitled  "The  Shepherd  of  Salisbury  Plain."  Died 
in  1833. 

See  William  Roberts,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Hannah 
More  ;"  Mrs.  H.  C.  Knight,  "  A  New  Memoir  of  Hannah  More  ;" 
H.  Thompson,  "Life  of  Hannah  More,"  etc.,  1838;  Mrs.  Elwood, 
"Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England,"  etc.;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  February,  1809,  April,  1813,  and  February,  1820. 

More,  [Lat.  Mo'  rus.]  (Henry,)  an  English  divine 
and  philosophical  writer,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1614. 
He  studied  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he 
was  chosen  a  Fellow.  He  refused  several  high  prefer- 
ments in  the  church,  and  passed  his  life  in  retirement, 
devoted  chiefly  to  the  study  of  philosophy.  He  was  the 
author  of  "  Psychozoia,  or  the  Life  of  the  Soul,"  (1640,) 
"  Enchiridium  Metaphysicum,"  "Conjectura  Cabalis- 
tica,"  "The  Mystery  of  Godliness,"  "Discourse  on  the 
Immortality  of  the  Soul,"  and  other  works,  in  which  he 
favours  the  Platonic  system.  He  was  a  man  of  fine 
genius,  profound  learning,  and  rare  excellence  of  char- 
acter. He  was  one  of  the  first  Fellows  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  was  a  friend  and  correspondent  of  Des- 
cartes.   Died  in  1687. 

See  R.  Ward,  "Life  of  Henry  More,"  1710;  Burnet,  "His- 
tory of  his  Own  Times  ;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  v.,  (1822.) 


«  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MORE 


1624 


MOREAU 


More,  (James.)    See  Moore. 

More,  [Lat.  Mo'rus  ;  It.  and  Sp.  Mo'ro,]  (Sir 
Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  wit,  philosopher,  and 
statesman,  born  in  London  in  1480,  was  a  son  of  Sir 
John  More,  a  judge  of  the  court  of  king's  bench.  He 
received  the  first  rudiments  of  his  education  at  Saint 
Anthony's  School,  London,  where  he  learned  Latin. 
At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  became  a  page  in  the  house  of 
Cardinal  Morton,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  prime 
minister,  who  was  much  pleased  with  the  wit  of  young 
More  and  predicted  that  he  would  prove  "a  marvellous 
man."  In  1497  he  entered  the  University  of  Oxford, 
where  he  studied  Greek  as  a  pupil  of  Grocyn  and  formed 
an  intimate  and  lasting  friendship  with  Erasmus.  He 
gained  distinction  at  Oxford  as  a  writer  of  English  and 
of  Latin  verses.  Having  left  college,  he  studied  law  at 
Lincoln's  Inn.  "He  manifested,"  says  Mackintosh,  "a 
predilection  for  monastic  life,  and  is  said  to  have  prac- 
tised some  of  those  austerities  and  self-inflictions  which 
prevail  among  the  gloomier  and  more  stern  orders." 
He  resolved,  indeed,  at  one  time  to  turn  monk,  and  act- 
ually became  a  lay  brother  of  the  Carthusian  convent 
(the  Charter-House)  in  London,  where  he  is  said  to  have 
passed  several  years,  devoting  himself  at  the  same  time 
to  the  study  of  the  classics,  the  French  language,  and 
music.  He  afterwards  entertained  thoughts  of  becoming 
a  priest ;  but  on  further  reflection,  and  influenced  per- 
haps by  the  general  corruption  of  the  priestly  orders,  he 
abandoned  his  design.  In  the  words  of  Erasmus,  "  Ma- 
luit  maritus  esse  castus  quam  sacerdos  impurus,"  ("he 
preferred  to  be  a  chaste  husband  rather  than  an  impure 
priest.")  About  1502  he  married  Jane  Colt,  the  eldest 
daughter  of  a  gentleman  of  Essex.  He  had  a  slight 
preference  for  her  younger  sister,  but  was  so  good- 
natured  that  he  sacrificed  his  inclination,  that  he  might 
not  wound  the  feelings  of  the  eldest.  This  union  proved 
very  happy,  but  his  wife  died  a  few  years  after  her  mar- 
riage, leaving  him  a  son  and  three  daughters,  of  whom 
Margaret,  the  eldest,  inherited  the  features,  goodness, 
and  genius  of  her  father.  His  graceful  and  varied  learn- 
ing was  only  surpassed  by  his  sprightly,  inexhaustible 
wit.  "With  him,"  says  Erasmus,  "you  might  imagine 
yourself  in  the  Academy  of  Plato."  He  attained  great 
eminence  at  the  bar,  and  about  1502  became  an  under- 
sheriff  of  London, — i.e.  a  judge  of  the  sheriffs  court.  He 
appears  to  have  been  the  first  Englishman  that  cultivated 
oratory  with  any  great  success.  "  He  is,"  says  Mackin- 
tosh, "the  first  person  in  our  history  distinguished  by 
the  faculty  of  public  speaking,  and  remarkable  for  the 
successful  employment  of  it  in  Parliament  against  a 
lavish  grant  of  money  to  the  crown."  He  was  elected 
to  Parliament  about  1504,  and,  by  persuading  the  Com- 
mons not  to  grant  a  supply  to  Henry  VII.  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  marriage  of  his  daughter,  deeply  offended 
that  king.  More  had  in  consequence  resolved  to  leave 
the  country  ;  but  the  death  of  Henry  relieved  him  from 
all  apprehensions. 

Having  lost  his  first  wife,  he  married  a  widow  named 
Alice  Middleton.  In  1513  he  wrote  a  "History  of 
Richard  III.,"  which,  says  Hallam,  "appears  to  me  the 
first  example  of  good  English  language,  pure  and  per- 
spicuous, well  chosen,  without  vulgarisms  or  pedantry." 
("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  He  was 
sent  on  a  mission  to  Flanders  in  I^H'  ^"'^  about  that 
date  became  a  favourite  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  not  only 
consulted  him  in  affiirs  of  state,  but  preferred  him  as 
the  companion  of  his  amusements  and  convivial  hours. 
In  1516  he  produced  his  famous  Platonic  fiction  of 
"Utopia,"  (in  Latin,)  describing  an  imaginary  common- 
wealth in  the  island  of  Utopia,  the  citizens  of  which 
had  all  things  in  common.  He  resigned  the  office  of 
under-sheriff  in  1 5 19,  was  appointed  treasurer  of  the 
exchequer  in  1521,  and  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons  in  1523.  He  gave  proof  of  his  firmness 
and  independence  by  his  answer  to  Cardinal  Wolsey, 
who  demanded  a  very  great  subsidy  for  the  king.  About 
1523  More  began  to  write  tracts  against  I^uther. 

In  October,  1529,  he  was  apjiointed  lord  chancellor 
in  place  of  Cardinal  Wolsev.  Although  the  Protestants 
were  i:)ersecuted  while  he  held  that  office,  it  would  appear 
that  he  was  not  responsible  for  the  persecution.    "  It  is 


a  sufficient  proof  of  his  clemency,"  says  Erasmus,  "  that 
while  he  was  chancellor  no  man  was  put  to  death  for 
these  pestilent  dogmas."* 

Suitors  were  astonished  at  the  contrast  between  the 
affable  More  and  the  haughty  Cardinal  Wolsey.  >3ir 
Thomas  resigned  the  great  seal  in  May,  1532,  because 
his  conscience  refused  to  sanction  the  divorce  of  Queen 
Catherine  and  the  second  marriage  of  the  king.  "  Henry 
had  tried  every  possible  means  to  obtain  at  least  the 
appearance  of  his  spontaneous  approbation."  (Mackin- 
tosh.) In  1533  he  wrote  a  work  called  "The  Apology 
of  Sir  Thomas  More." 

Having  declined  to  take  the  oath  by  which  he  was  re- 
quired to  acknowledge  the  validity  of  the  king's  marriage 
with  Anne  Boleyn,  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower  in 
April,  1534.  After  he  had  been  in  prison  more  than  a 
year,  he  was  charged  with  denying  the  king's  supremacy 
as  the  head  of  the  Church  ;  and,  his  answers  not  having 
been  found  satisfactory,  he  was  pronounced  guilty  of 
treason,  and  was  beheaded  on  the  6th  of  July,  1535. 
"The  scaffold  had  been  awkwardly  erected,  and  shook 
as  he  placed  his  foot  upon  the  ladder.  *  See  me  safe  up,' 
he  said  to  Kingston  ;  *  for  my  coming  down  I  can  shift 
for  myself  .  .  .  The  executioner  offered  to  tie  his  eyes. 
'  I  will  cover  them  myself,'  he  said  ;  and,  binding  them  in 
a  cloth  which  he  had  brought  with  him,  he  knelt,  and 
laid  his  head  upon  the  block.  The  fatal  stroke  was 
about  to  fall,  when  he  signed  for  a  moment's  delay,  while 
he  moved  aside  his  beard.  '  Pity  that  should  l3e  cut,' 
he  murmured  :  '  that  has  not  committed  treason.'  With 
which  strange  words, — the  strangest,  perhaps,  ever  ut- 
tered at  such  a  time, — the  lips  most  famous  through 
Europe  for  eloquence  and  wisdom  closed  forever." 
(Froude's  "  History  of  England,"  chap,  ix.)  Alluding 
to  his  behaviour  on  the  scaffold,  Addison  remarks, 
"  The  innocent  mirth  which  had  been  so  conspicuous  in 
his  life  did  not  forsake  him  at  the  last.  His  death  was 
of  a  piece  with  his  life  ;  there  was  nothing  in  it  new, 
forced,  or  affected.  He  did  not  look  upon  the  severing 
his  head  from  his  body  as  a  circumstance  which  ought 
to  produce  any  change  in  the  disposition  of  his  mind; 
and,  as  he  died  in  a  fixed  and  settled  hope  of  immor- 
tality, he  thought  any  unusual  degree  of  sorrow  and 
concern  improper."  ("  Spectator,"  No.  349.)  According 
to  the  account  of  his  great-grandson.  More  "  was  of  a 
middle  stature,  well  proportioned,  of  a  pale  complexion, 
his  hair  of  chestnut  colour,  his  eyes  gray,  his  counte- 
nance mild  and  cheerful." 

See  "The  Lite  and  De.ith  of  Sir  Thomas  More,"  by  his  great- 
grandson,  C.  More,  1626  ;  William  Roper,  "Vita  T.  Mori,"  1626; 
Sir  Tames  Mackintosh,  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas  More,"  1830;  Fer- 
NANiio  DE  Herrrra,  " T.  Moro,"  ii;q2:  F.  Warner,  "Memoirs 
of  the  Life  of  Sir  T,  More,"  ly-^SlC.  More,  "  Life  of  Sir  T.  More," 
182S:  DoMENico  Rrggi,  "VitadiT.  More,"  1675:  Arthur  Cay- 
ley,  "Memoirs  of  Sir  T.  More,"  2  vols.,  iSoS  ;  C.  Dareste.  "T. 
Morus  et  T.  Campanello,"  1843  ;  Audin,  "  Histoire  de  T.  Morns," 
iS=;2  :  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors  :"  W.  J. 
Walter,  "  Life  and  Times  of  Sir  T.  More,"  1847  ;  J.  Hoddrsdon, 
"T.  Mori  Vita,"  etc.,  1652;  Froude,  "  History  of  England  ;"  Rud- 
HART,  "  T.  Moras,"  1829. 

Moreau,  mo'ro',  (C^sar,)  a  French  economist  and 
writer  on  statistics,  was  born  at  Marseilles  in  1791.  He 
has  i:»ub1ished  several  works  on  commerce,  etc. 

Moreau,  (Franqois  Joseph,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Auxonne  in  1789,  practised  in  Paris.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Traite  des  Accouchements,"  (2  vols.,  1838-41.) 
Died  in  1862. 

Moreau,  (H^g^sippe,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Pans 
in  18 10,  was  the  author  of  songs,  elegies,  and  satires,  of 

*  This  statement  is  contradicted  bv  Froude,  who  says,  "  Soon  after 
the  seals  chanG;ed  hands,  the  Smithfield  fires  recommenced  :  and,  the 
chancellor  acting  in  concert  with  them,  the  bisliops  resolved  to  ob- 
literate, in  these  edifving  spectacles,  the  recollection  of  their  general 
infirmities."  He  afterwards  cites  tlie  case  of  Rainham,  who  was 
bin-ned  in  April,  T532,  a  short  time  before  More  resigned  the  office 
of  chancellor.  The  account  of  Bainham's  execution  appears  to  rest 
upon  the  single  testimony  of  Foxe,  who,  though  generally  trust- 
worthy, might  possibly  be  mistaken,  especially  when  he  was  obliged 
to  depend  wholly  on  the  statements  of  others.  He  was  but  a  boy 
when  Bainham's  death  took  place.  More,  whose  word  is  not  to  be 
lightly  set  aside,  expressly  denies  in  his  "  Av>ology"  (published  the 
next  year)  that  he  was  guilty  of  any  cruel  treatment  of  the  heretics. 
If  the  denial  was  false,  there  were  doubtless  many  then  living  who 
could  prove  it  to  be  so.  It  appears,  however,  never  to  have  been 
contradicted.  How  far  he  was  responsible  for  the  acts  of  the  bishops 
it  is  difficult  to  say. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  Q,  obscure;  flr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


MOREAU 


MORELIUS 


considerable  merit,  and  a  prose  work  entitled  "The 
Mistletoe  of  the  Oak/'  ("  Le  Gui  de  Chene.")  He  died, 
in  crieat  poverty,  in  1838. 

Moreau,  (Jacob  Nicolas,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Saint-FliM-entin  in  1717,  was  appointed  historiographer 
of  France  under  Louis  XVT.  He  wrote  a  "Discourse 
on  the  History  of  France,"  "  Duties  of  a  Prince,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1803. 

Moreau,  (Jeax  Baptiste,)  a  French  musician  and 
Composer,  born  at  Angers  in  1656,  was  patronized  at  the 
court  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  was  employed  by  Racine  to 
compose  the  choruses  for  his  "  Athalie"  and  "Esther." 
Died  in  1733. 

Moreau,  (Jean  Michel,)  a  French  engraver  and 
designer,  born  in  Paris  in  1741,  became  draughtsman  of 
the  royal  cabinet,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Painting.  He  executed  one  hundred  and  sixty  plates 
for  the  "  History  of  France,"  and  upwards  of  one  hun- 
dred for  editions  of  Voltaire  and  Moliere.  Died  in  1814. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Moreau,  (Jean  Victor,)  one  of  the  most  eminent 
generals  of  France,  was  born  at  Morlaix,  in  Brittany, 
August  II,  1763.  He  studied  law,  and  was  provost  of 
law  at  Rennes  just  before  the  Revolution.  In  1792  he 
enlisted  in  the  republican  army,  and,  as  chef  de  bataillon, 
served  under  Dumouriez.  He  became  a  general  of 
brigade  in  1793,  and  a  general  of  division  in  1794.  In 
the  latter  year  he  commanded  with  eclat  the  right  wing 
of  Pichegru's  army,  which  conquered  Holland.  In  the 
spring  of  1796  he  succeeded  Pichegru  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine  and  Moselle,  and  opened 
the  campaign  which  was  the  foundation  of  his  military 
fame.  TTis  passage  of  the  Rhine  at  Strasbourg  was  greatly 
applauded.  He  drove  the  Austrians  back  to  the  Danube, 
and  then,  finding  his  army  outnumbered,  after  several 
indecisive  actions  he  performed  the  famous  and  masterly 
retreat  through  the  Black  Forest,  which  was  one  of  his 
chief  exi^loits.  He  was  suspended  from  the  command 
in  1797  by  the  Directory,  who  probably  suspected  him 
of  comjjlicity  in  the  defection  of  his  friend  Pichegru. 

The  reverses  of  the  French  having  rendered  his  ser- 
vices necessary,  he  was  appointed  general-in-chief  of  the 
army  of  Italy  in  the  spring  of  1799.  At  the  battle  of 
Novi  he  had  three  horses  killed  under  him,  and  made  a 
skilful  retreat,  soon  after  which  he  was  transferred  to 
the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine.  In  the  political 
crisis  of  i8th  Brumaire,  (November  9,  1799,)  Moreau 
was  in  Paris,  and  consented  to  support  Bonaparte  in 
subverting  the  power  of  the  Directory.  Some  suppose 
that  if  he  had  been  less  modest,  or  more  ambitious,  he 
might  have  acted  the  jirincipal  role  in  that  great  drama. 
The  First  Consul  intrusted  to  Moreau  the  command  of 
the  army  of  Germany,  and  dictated  to  him  a  plan  of  the 
campaign,  which  the  latter  refused  to  adopt.  "  Moreau 
would  not  submit,"  says  Alison,  "to  the  indignity  of 
acting  as  second  in  command  to  his  former  rival,  and 
said,  '  T  have  no  notion  of  seeing  a  little  Louis  XIV.  at 
the  head  of  my  army.'"    ("History  of  Europe.") 

After  an  angry  discussion,  he  persisted  in  his  own  plan, 
and,  while  Bonaparte  marched  to  the  conquest  of  Italy, 
he  invaded  the  valley  of  the  Danube  in  May,  1800,  with 
about  100,000  men.  Between  the  ist  and  loth  of  May 
he  defeated  the  Austrians  under  Kray  at  Engen  and 
Biberach.  In  the  next  month  he  gained  a  decisive  vic- 
tory at  Hochstadt,  near  Blenheim,  After  an  armistice 
of  a  few  months,  the  two  armies  met  on  December  3, 
1800,  at  Hohenlinden,  where  Moreau  won  a  very  im- 
portant victory,  which  induced  the  Austrians  to  sue  for 
peace.  The  war  being  thus  ended,  he  went  to  Paris, 
and  became  the  chief  of  a  party  composed  of  royalists 
and  republicans  united  bv  their  enmity  to  Napoleon. 

In  1804  he  was  arrested  as  ai^  accomplice  in  Pichegru's 
conspiracy,  and,  although  they  failed  to  prove  that  he 
had  any  active  part  in  it,  he  was  sentenced  to  two  years' 
imprisonment,  which  was  commuted  to  exile  in  the 
United  States.  He  resided  with  his  wife  at  Morrisville, 
Pennsvlvania,  and  in  the  citv  of  New  York,  until  over- 
tures from  the  Czar  of  Russia  induced  him  to  return  to 
Europe  in  July,  1813.  He  was  caressed  by  the  allied 
sovereigns  and  received  with  triumphal  demonstrations 
by  the  people  of  Germany,    The  Czar  said  to  Moreau, 


(who,  it  appears,  was  still  a  republican,)  "I  know  your 
opinions;  I  will  do  nothing  which  can  thwart  them,  and 
will  leave  France  perfectly  free."  With  these  views,  he 
co-operated  with  the  allies  against  the  French,  and  was 
mortally  woui.ded  at  Dresden,  August  27,  1813.  He 
announced  the  fact  by  letter  to  his  wife  in  these  terms: 
"At  the  battle  of  Dresden,  three  days  ago,  I  had  both 
legs  carried  off  by  a  cannon-ball.  That  rascal  Bonaparte 
is  always  fortunate.    Excuse  my  scrawl,"  etc. 

See  Lemaire,  "  Vie  impartiale  du  General  Moreau,"  1814 ;  "  Me- 
moirs of  General  Moreau,"  by  J.  Philippart;  Garat,  "  Eloge  de 
Moreau,"  1814  ;  "  Life  and  Campaigns  of  Victor  Moreau,"  (translated 
from  the  French  ;)  A.  de  Beauchamp,  "Vie  politique,  militaire  et 
privee  du  General  Moreau,"  1814:  Chateaoneuf,  "  Histoiie  du 
General  Moreau,"  etc.,  1814;  Fauche-Bokel,  "Notices  sur  les 
Generaux  Pichegru  et  Moreau,"  1807;  Hasse,  "Moreau,  sein 
Leben,"  etc.,  1814;  Cousin  d'Avallon,  "  Histoire  du  General 
Moreau,"  1814;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  Thiers,  "His- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January, 
1814. 

Moreau-Christophe,  mo'ro'  kn^s'tof ,  (Louis  Ma- 
THURIN,)  a  French  economist,  born  near  Tours  in  1799. 
He  was  sent  to  foreign  countries  to  examine  prisons, 
and  wrote  several  works  on  the  discipline  and  reform 
of  prisons. 

Moreau  de  la  Rochette,  mo^ro'  deh  It  ro^shlt', 
(FRANgois  Thomas,)  a  French  horticulturist,  born  in 
Champagne  in  1720,  founded  near  La  Rochette  an  agri- 
cultural school.    Died  in  1 791. 

Moreau  de  Jonnes,  mo'ro'  deh  zho'n^s',  (Alexan- 
dre,) a  French  writer,  born  near  Rennes  in  1778,  was 
the  author  of  a  number  of  treatises  on  mineralogy, 
statistics,  and  other  scientific  subjects. 

Moreau  de  la  Sarthe,  mo'r5'  deh  It  stRt,  (Jacques 
Louis,)  a  French  physician  and  able  writer,  born  near 
Le  Mans  in  1771.  He  published  several  professional 
works.    Died  in  Paris  in  1826. 

Moreau  de  I'Yonne,  mo'r5'  deh  le^n',  a  French 
politician,  born  near  Tonnerre  in  1 750,  was  elected  in 
1798  to  the  Council  of  Ancients.    Died  in  1806, 

Moreau  de  Saint-Mery,  mo'r5'  deh  s3.n  ma're', 
(M^d6ric  Louis  Elie,)  born,  of  French  parentage,  in 
the  isle  of  Martinique  in  1750,  was  administrator-general 
of  the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Piacenza  from  1802  to  1806. 
He  wrote  several  descriptive  and  scientific  works.  Died 
in  1819. 

Moreaux,  mo'ro',  (Jean  Ren6,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Rocroi  in  1758.  He  commanded  the  army  of 
the  Moselle  in  1794,  and  took  Treves  and  Coblentz. 
Died  in  February,  1795. 

Moreelze,  mo-raKzeh,  (Paul,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Utrecht  in  1571,  was  a  pupil  of  M.  Mirevelt.  He 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation  as  a  portrait-painter,  and  was 
extensivelv  patronized  by  the  nobility.    Died  in  1638, 

Morel,'mo''r§K,  (Claijde,)  a  French  printer,  born  in 
1574,  was  a  son  of  Federic  the  Elder,  noticed  below. 
Died  in  1626, 

Morel,  (F^D^Ric,)  called  the  Elder,  a  celebrated 
French  printer,  born  in  Champagne  in  1523,  was  ap- 
pointed printer  to  the  king  in  1571.    Died  in  1583. 

Morel,  (Fed^ric,)  the  Younger,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Paris  in  1558,  He  was  distinguished 
as  a  Greek  scholar,  and  the  editions  of  the  classics 
issued  from  his  press  were  conspicuous  for  their  accu- 
racy and  the  beauty  of  the  typography.  He  succeeded 
his  father  as  royal  printer  in  1583.    Died  in  1630, 

Morel,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  printer,  born  at  Til- 
leul  in  1505,  was  noted  for  the  beauty  and  accuracy  of 
his  editions  of  the  classics.  He  became  printer  to  the 
king  in  1555.    Died  in  1564. 

Morel,  (Jean,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Champagne  in 
1539 ;  died  in  1633. 

Morel.  (Jean  Marie,)  a  French  architect  and  gar- 
dener, born  in  Lyons  in  1728.  He  had  a  high  reputation 
as  a  designer  of  gardens.    Died  in  1810. 

See  J.  B.  Dumas,  "  Notice  sur  J.  M.  Morel,"  1825. 

Morel  de  Vinde,  mo'xhV  deh  viN'd^,  (Charles 
Gilbert,)  Vicomte,  a  French  writer  and  agricultui'ist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1759;  died  in  1842. 

Morel-Fatio,  vc^o'xhV  ft'te^o',  (Antoine  Li;oN,)  a 
French  landscape  and  marine  painter,  born  at  Rouen 
in  1810, 

Morelius.    See  Morely. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (gi^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MORELL 


1626 


MORGAGNI 


Morell,  mo^rll',  (Andr^:,)  a  Swiss  antiquary,  distin- 
guished for  his  profound  knowledge  of  numismatics, 
born  at  Ikrne  in  1646.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"Thesaurus  Morellianus,"  being  a  description  of  the 
coins  of  the  Roman  families.  It  was  left  unfinished. 
Died  in  1703. 

Mo-rell',  (Georoe  W.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Cooperstown,  New  York,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1835.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  Union 
volunteers  in  1861.  He  comn)anded  a  division  at  the 
battles  of  Gaines's  Mill  and  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862. 

Mo-rell',  (J.  D.,)  an  English  contemporary  writer, 
has  published  "An  Historical  and  Critical  View  of  the 
Speculative  Philosophy  of  Europe  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century,"  (2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1846,)  "The  Philosophy 
of  Religion,"  (1849,)  ^"cl  other  works.  He  contributed  to 
the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica"  the  article  on  "National 
Education." 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  October,  1846;  "British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  August,  1849;  "North  British  Review,"  vol.  xi. 

Morell,  (Thomas,)  an  English  scholar  and  critic, 
born  at  Eton  in  1703.  He  published  an  edition  of  Hede- 
rich's  "Greek  Lexicon,"  (1762,)  and  was  a  contributor 
to  Hogarth's  "Analysis  of  Beauty."  He  also  edited 
Chaucer's  "Canterbury  Tales,"  and  several  Greek  and 
Latin  classics.    Died  in  1784. 

See  Harwood,  "Alumni  Etonenses." 

Morellet,  mo'ra'li',  (Andr^:,)  Abb6,  an  eminent 
French  litterateur^  born  in  Lyons  in  1727,  was  educated  in 
the  Sorbonne,  at  Paris.  He  became  a  friend  of  Voltaire, 
Rousseau,  Diderot,  and  D'Alembert,  to  whose  "Ency- 
clopedic" he  contributed.  He  translated  into  French 
Beccaria's  treatise  "On  Crimes  and  Penalties,"  (1766,) 
and  wrote  several  treatises  on  political  economy,  and 
many  other  works,  among  which  is  "Melanges  of  Lite- 
rature and  Philosophy  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (4 
vols.,  1818.)  In  1785  he  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy,  the  archives  of  which  he  concealed  at  the  risk 
of  his  life  in  the  reign  of  terror.    Died  in  1819. 

See  Lemontey,  "  filoge  de  Morellet,"  prefixed  to  Morellet's 
"Memoires,"  2  vols.,  1821 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;" 
"  Morellet  and  his  Contemporaries,"  in  the  "  North  American  Re- 
view" for  October,  1822,  (by  A.  H.  Everett.) 

Morelli,  mo-reKlee,  (Cosimo,)  a  distinguished  Italian 
architect,  born  at  Imola  in  1732.  He  was  employed  by 
Pope  Pius  VI.  to  construct  the  cathedrals  of  Macerata 
and  Imola,  and  other  edifices  in  the  Pontifical  States. 
Died  in  1812. 

See  TiPALDo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Morelli,  (Giacomo,)  an  eminent  Italian  critic  and 
bibliographer,  burn  at  Venice  in  1745,  became  a  priest, 
and  was  appointed  librarian  at  Saint  Mark's,  Venice,  in 
1778.  He  published,  among  other  valuable  works,  a 
"Historical  Dissertation  on  the  Library  of  Saint  Mark," 
(1774,)  and  "Library  of  Greek  and  Latin  Manuscripts," 
{1802.)  Many  of  his  minor  works  were  published  in 
1820,  under  the  title  of  "  Operette,"  (3  vols.  Svo.)  Died 
in  1819. 

See  MoscHiNi,  "  Narrazione  della  Vita  di  G.  Morelli,"  1819; 
Zendrini,  "  Elogio  di  Morelli,"  1821  ;  Tipaldo,  "Biografia  degli 
Italiani  illustri ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Morelli,  (Maria  Maddalena,)  an  Italian  poetess 
and  improvisatrice,  born  at  Pistoiain  1740;  died  in  1800. 

Morelly,  mo'ra'le',  a  French  writer  on  socialism, 
born  about  1750.  He  published  an  able  work  entitled 
"The  Code  of  Nature,"  which  was  attributed  to  Diderot, 
"The  Rasiliade,"  a  political  romance,  and  a  number  of 
treatises  on  various  subjects. 

Morelos,  mo-ra'16s,  (Don  Jose:  Maria,)  a  Mexican 
patriot  and  general,  born  in  New  Mexico  in  1780.  He 
joined  the  insurgent  army  under  Hidalgo  in  1810,  and 
subsequently  became  leader  of  a  band  composed  chiefly 
of  negro  slaves,  with  whom  he  carried  on  a  successful 
guerilla  warfare  for  a  time  against  the  Spaniards.  He 
was  made  prisoner  in  1815,  and  soon  after  executed  at 
Mexico. 

See  Don  Jos^  Guerra,  "Historiade  la  Revolucion  de  Nueva 
Espaiia,"  1S13. 

Morely  or  Morelly,  mo'ri'le',  [Lat.  More'lius,] 
(Jean  Baftiste,)  a  French  Protestant,  noted  for  his 
efforts  to  organize  the  Church  on  democratic  principles, 


was  born  in  Paris  about  15 10.  His  "Treatise  on  Chris- 
tian Discipline"  (1561)  was  condemned  by  several  Prot- 
estant synods. 

See  Bavi.e,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Nic^ron, 
"  Memoires." 

Morenas,  mo'reh-nts',  (Joseph  Elz^ar,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  born  near  Carpentras  in  1778.  He  wrote 
"  On  the  Castes  of  India,"  (1822,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  Mingrelia  in  1830. 

Moreno,  mo-ra'no,  (Jos6,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at 
Burgos  in  1642;  died  in  1674. 

See  Cean-Bermudez,  "  Diccionario  Historico,"  etc. 

Moreno,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  admiral,  born  at  Cadiz 
in  1743  ;  died  in  181 7. 

Mor^ri,  mo'ra're',  (Louis,)  a  learned  French  eccle- 
siastic, born  in  Provence  in  1643.  published  in  1674 
his  "  Historical  Dictionary,"  ("  Grand  Dictionnaire  His- 
torique,"  i  vol.  fol.,)  a  work  of  rare  merit.  He  died  in 
1680,  leaving  unfinished  his  great  work,  which  has  been 
extended  by  subsequent  writers  to  ten  volumes,  (Paris, 
I759-) 

Sec  Nic^RON,  "Memoires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mores,  morz,  (Edward  Rowe,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  1730.  He  published  several  works  on  English 
antiquities.    Died  in  1778. 

Moret,  mo-r§t',  (Jos6,)  a  Spanish  historian,  born  at 
Pampeluna  in  1615.  Among  his  works  is  a  History  of 
Navarre,  ("  Annales  del  Regno  de  Navarra,"  5  vols., 
1715.)    Died  in  1705. 

Moret,  de,  deh  mo'ri',  (Antoine  de  Bourbon — 
deh  booR'bdN',)  Count,  a  natural  son  of  Henry  IV.  of 
France,  was  born  in  1607,  and  legitimated  in  1608.  He 
joined  Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans,  in  his  revolt  against 
Louis  XIII.  in  163 1,  and  was  killed  or  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Castelnaudary,  in  September,  1632.  According 
to  some  accounts,  he  survived  till  1691. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Moreto  y  Cabana,  mo-ra'to  e  ki-Bin'yS,  (Don  Au- 
GUSTIN,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  dramatist,  born  about 
1600.  Among  his  best  works  we  may  name  "  The  Brave 
Justiciary,"  ("  El  valiente  Justiciero,")  "  El  Lindo  Don 
Diego,"  and  "Disdain  for  Disdain,"  (" Desden  con  el 
Desden."  The  last  is  said  to  have  been  the  original 
of  Moliere's  "  Princesse  d'Elide."    Died  in  1669. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "Historyof  Spanish  Literature;"  Ochoa,  "  Tca- 
tro  Espanol ;"  A.  F.  von  Schack,  "  Geschichte  der  dramatischen 
Literatur  in  Spanien." 

Moretti,  mo-ret'tee,  (Gaetano,)  an  Italian  astrono- 
mer, born  at  Bologna,  wa»  author  of  several  scientific 
treatises.    Died  in  1697. 

Moretti,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  savant,  born  at  Pavi'a 
in  1783,  became  professor  of  botany  at  that  city  in  1832. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Biblioteca  Agraria."  Died  in  1853. 

Moretto  da  Brescia.    See  Bonvicino. 

Mor'fit,  (Campbell,)  an  American  chemist,  born  at 
Herculaneum,  Missouri,  in  1820.  He  was  associated 
with  Professor  Booth  in  1848  as  editor  of  the  "Ency- 
clopaedia of  Chemistry."  He  has  published,  among 
other  works,  "Applied  Chemistry  in  the  Manufacture 
of  Soap  and  Candles,"  (1847,)  "Chemical  and  Phar- 
maceutic Manipulations,"  (1848,)  and  "Perfumery,  its 
Manufacture  and  Use." 

Morgagni,  moR-gln'yee,  (Giambattista,)  an  eminent 
Italian  physician  and  anatomist,  born  at  Forli  in  1682. 
He  studied  at  Bologna,  where  he  became  the  favourite 
pupil  of  Valsalva,  and  in  17 15  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  Padua.  His  principal  work  is 
entitled  "  On  the  Seat  and  Causes  of  Diseases  discovered 
by  Anatomy,"  ("  De  Sedibus  et  Causis  Morborum  per 
Anatomen  indagatis,"  2  vols.,  1762.)  It  was  translated 
into  French,  Italian,  English,  and  German,  and  still  en- 
joys a  very  high  reputation.  His  "  Adversaria  Anato- 
mica"  is  also  highly  esteemed.  Morgagni  made  several 
valuable  discoveries,  and  he  has  been  called  the  founder 
of  pathological  anatomy.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  and  a  member  of  the  principal 
Academies  of  Europe.    Died  in  1771. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium ;"  FoN- 
TENELLE,  "  Elogc  de  Morgagui ;"  Mosca,  "Vita  di  G.  B.  Mor- 
gagni," 1768;  Torresini,  ""  Elogio  storico  di  G.  B.  Morgagni," 
1844;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


f^  g,   6,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


MORGAN 


1627 


MORILLO 


Mor'gan,  (Charles  W.,)  an  American  commodore, 
born  in  Virginia  in  1790;  died  in  1853. 

Morgan,  (Daniel,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
New  Jersey  in  1736,  served  with  distinction  in  the  war 
of  the  RevoUition.  He  was  present  at  the  capture  of 
Burgoyne,  and  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battle  of 
Cow]:.ens,  (1781,)  where  he  gained  a  signal  victory,  for 
which  a  gold  medal  was  awarded  him  by  Congress. 
Died  in  1802. 

See  the  "Life  of  Daniel  Morgan,"  by  James  Graham,  1856,  and 
the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iii. 

Morgan,  (Edwin  D.,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in 
Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  in  181 1.  He  became 
at  an  early  age  a  merchant  in  the  city  of  New  York. 
He  was  elected  Governor  of  New  York  by  the  Repub- 
licans in  i8«;8,  and  again  in  1860.  He  was  elected  to 
the  United  i»tates  Senate  from  New  York  in  1863  for 
six  years. 

Mor'gan,  (George  Cadogan,)  born  in  Wales  in 
1754,  became  ])astor  of  a  dissenting  church  at  Norwich, 
England,  in  1776,  and  subsequently  professor  of  physics 
at  Hackney.  He  published  "  Lectures  on  Electricity," 
and  other  scientific  works.    Died  in  1798. 

Morgan,  (George  W.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Western  Pennsylvania  about  1820,  practised  law  in 
Ohio  before  the  civil  war.  He  became  a  brigadier-gen- 
eral of  Union  volunteers  about  November,  1861.  He 
took  Cumberland  Gap  in  June,  1862,  and  evacuated  the 
same  in  September  of  that  year. 

Morgan,  (Sir  Henry,)  a  Welsh  buccaneer, born  about 
1637,  commanded  several  expeditions  against  the  Span- 
iards, and  captured  Porto  Bello  and  Panama.  He  was 
afterwards  made  a  knight,  ajid  appointed  Governor  of 
Jamaica  by  Charles  11.    Died  in  1690. 

See  Van  Tenac,  "  Histoire  generale  de  la  Marine." 

Morgan,  (James  D.,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
Boston  in  1810,  removed  in  1834  to  Illinois,  and  in  1862 
became  lirigadier-general  of  volunteers. 

Morgan,  (John  H.,)  an  American  guerilla  chief, 
born  near  Lexington,  Kentucky,  or,  according  to  some 
authorities,  at  Huntsville,  Alabama,  in  1826.  He  took 
command  of  a  troop  of  cavalry  in  1861,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  audacity  in  several  raids  against  the  rail- 
roads and  other  public  works  in  Kentucky  and  Ten- 
nessee. He  was  apj^ointed  a  major-general  in  1862.  In 
July,  1863,  he  crossed  the  Ohio  River  with  about  4000 
men,  and  made  a  raid  into  Lidiana  and  Ohio,  vrhere  he 
destroyed  railroads,  bridges,  etc.  He  was  captured  in 
Ohio  and  confined,  in  the  penitentiary,  from  which  he 
escaped,  by  digging,  about  the  end  of  November,  1863. 
In  September,  1864,  he  was  surprised  in  the  night  at 
Greenville,  Tennessee,  by  the  troops  of  General  Gillem, 
and  was  killed. 

See  a  Sketch  of  his  Life  in  "  Southern  Generals,"  1865. 

Morgan,  (Lady  Sydney,)  a  distinguished  authoress, 
born  at  Dublin  in  1789,  was  the  daughter  of  an  actor 
named  Owenson.  At  an  early  age  she  published  several 
romances,  one  of  which,  "The  Wild  Irish  Girl,"  (1806,) 
was  very  popular.  In  181 2  she  was  married  to  Sir  Charles 
Morgan,  whom  in  1816  she  accompanied  to  France  and 
Italy,  and  the  result  of  her  travels  appeared  soon  after, 
in  her  two  works  entitled  "  France,"  (181 7,)  and  "  Italy," 
(1821.)  Among  her  other  productions  we  may  name 
"Florence  Macarthy,"  (1816,)  "Absenteeism,"  (1825,) 
"The  O'Briens  and  O'Flahertys,"  (1827,)  "The  Book 
of  the  Boudoir,"  (1829,)  and  "Woman  and  her  Master," 
(1855.)  In  1851  she  published  a  "Letter  to  Cardinal 
Wiseman,"    Died  in  1859. 

See  "  Lady  Morc:an,  her  Career,  Literary  and  Personal,'' by  W. 
J.  Fitzpatrick;  "  Autobiographv  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iv.  chap. 
V.  :  "  EdinViurgh  Review"  for  July,  1833;  "Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  February,  1863:  "Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1863;  "  Fra- 
ser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1831,  and  November,  1833;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  December,  1808,  and  October  and  November,  1817. 

Mor'gan,  (Sir  Thomas  Charles,)  M.D.,  an  English 
physician,  born  in  London  about  1783.  In  181 1  he  was 
made  a  baronet,  and  the  next  year  married  Miss  Owen- 
S*n,  who  was  already  known  as  an  authoress.  He  soon 
after  settled  in  Ireland,  where  he  advocated  Catholic 
emancipation.  He  wrote  "  Sketches  of  the  Philosophy 
of  Life,"  and  "  Sketches  of  the  Philosophy  of  Morals." 


He  also  contributed  to  Lady  Morgan's  "France"  and 
"The  Book  without  a  Name."    Died  in  1843. 

Morgan,  (William,)  a  learned  divine,  born  in  Wales, 
was  appointed  in  1601  Bishop  of  Saint  Asaph.  He 
assisted  in  translating  into  Welsh  the  Bible  published 
in  1588.    Died  in  1604. 

Morgan,  (William,)  a  Welsh  mathematician,  born 
in  Glamorganshire,  held  the  office  of  actuary  to  the 
Equitable  Assurance  Company,  London.  He  published 
a  "Review  of  Dr.  Crawford's  Theory  of  Heat,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1833. 

Morgan,  (William,)  an  American  mechanic,  born 
in  Virginia  about  1775,  removed  subsequently  to  Batavia, 
New  York.  In  1826  he  was  abducted  from  his  home  and 
murdered  by  a  band  of  Freemasons  for  having  written  a 
work  professing  to  disclose  the  secrets  of  their  society. 

See  Allen.  "  American  Biographical  Dictionary  ;"  "  New  Amer- 
ican Cyclopasdia;"  "Gazetteer  of  the  State  of  New  York,"  by  J. 
H.  French,  p.  323. 

Morgan,  De.    See  De  Morgan. 

Morghen,  moR'gen,  (Rafaelle  Sanzio,)  an  eminent 
Italian  engraver,  of  Dutch  extraction,  born  at  Florence 
in  1758,  became  professor  of  engraving  in  the  Academy 
of  Arts  in  his  native  city.  His  prints  are  numerous  and 
of  great  excellence.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  his 
"  Transfiguration,"  after  Raphael,  "  The  Last  Supper," 
after  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  Guido's  "Aurora."  He 
was  a  member  of  the  French  Institute.    Died  in  1833. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon Palmerini, 
"  Notice  of  R.  Morghen,"  (in  Italian,)  1824. 

Morgues,  de.    See  Mourgues,  de. 

Morhof,  moR'hof,  [  Lat.  Morho'fius,  J  (Daniel 
Georg,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Wismar  in  1639, 
became  professor  of  poetry  and  eloquence  at  Kiel  in 
1665,  and  obtained  the  chair  of  history  at  that  place  in 
1673.  He  published,  besides  many  other  works  in  prose 
and  verse,  a  valuable  contribution  to  literary  history, 
entitled  "  Polyhistor,  sive  de  Notitia  Auctorum  et  Rerum 
Commentarii,"  (3  vols.,  1688-92.)    Died  in  1691. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "Vita  propria  ab  Anno  1639  ad  1671," 
1699;  J.  MoLLHR,  "  De  Vita,  Meritis  Scriptisque  D.  G.  Morhofii," 
1710;  NiCERON,  "Meinoires." 

Morhofius.    See  Morhof. 

Morice  de  Beaubois,  mo'r^ss'deh  b5^bwl',  (Pierre 
Hyacinthe,)  a  French  Benedictine  monk  and  writer, 
born  at  Quimperle  in  1693.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
Bretagne,"  (2  vols.,  1750-56.)    Died  in  1750. 

Morier,  mo'ri-er,  (James,)  a  popular  English  novelist, 
born  about  1780.  Having  been  appointed  secretary  to 
the  English  embassy  in  Persia,  he  became  versed  in 
the  Oriental  tongues.  He  published,  after  his  return,  a 
"Journey  through  Persia,  Armenia,"  etc.,  (1812,)  "Ad- 
ventures of  Haji  Baba  of  Ispahan,"  (5  vols.,  1824,)  a 
brilliant  and  entertaining  romance,  giving  the  experi- 
ences of  a  Persian  in  England,  which  had  a  wide  popu- 
larity, "Zohrab  the  Hostage,"  (1832,)  and  "  Ayesha,  the 
Maid  of  Kars,"  (1834.)    Died  in  1849. 

See  tlie  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1832,  and 
June,  1S34  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1832;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  April,  1824. 

Morigia,  mo-ree'ja,  (Giacomo  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
cardinal,  born  at  Milan  in  1632.  He  became  Archbishop 
of  Florence  about  1683.    Died  in  1708. 

Morigia,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at  Milan 
in  1525,  wrote  on  the  antiquities  of  Milan,  etc.  Died 
in  1604. 

Morike  or  Moerike,  mo're-keh,  (Eduard,)  a  Ger- 
man poet,  born  at  Ludwigsburg  in  1804.  He  was  the 
author  of  the  "Idyl  of  Lake  Constance,"  (1846,)  and 
several  novels  and  dramatic  tales. 

Morillo,  mo  r^Kyo,  (Don  Pablo,)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  in  the  province  of  Toro  in  1777.  Having  carried 
on  a  guerilla  warfare  against  the  French  for  several 
years,  he  was  sent  in  181 5  to  subdue  the  revolted  prov- 
inces of  South  America.  He  fought  with  varying  suc- 
cess against  Bolivar,  with  whom  he  concluded  a  truce  in 
1820.  After  Morillo's  return  to  Spain  he  served  for  a 
time  in  the  royalist  army.  He  died  in  1838,  leaving 
Memoirs  of  his  campaigns  in  America,  which  were 
translated  into  French. 

See  Morillo's  "  Memoirs,  relating  the  Principal  Events  of  his 
Campaigns,"  translated  into  French  by  E.  D.  Blosseville. 


-€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.   (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MORIN  1628 


Morin,  nio'r^N',  (Arthur  Jules,)  a  French  mathe- 
matician and  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1795,  was  ap- 
pointed in  1852  director  of  the  Conservatory  of  Arts  and 
Trades.  He  pubh'shed  numerous  important  treatises  on 
mechanics,  hydraulics,  mathematics,  etc.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Institute. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Morin,  (firiENNF,,)  a  French  Protestant  divine,  born 
at  Caen  in  1625.  He  studied  at  Leyden,  and  became  in 
1686  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Amsterdam. 
He  published,  among  other  works,  "Exercises  on  the 
Primitive  Language,"  (in  Latin,  1694,)  in  which  he  at- 
tempts to  prove  that  the  Hebrew  was  the  language  of 
Paradise.    Died  in  1700. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires." 

Morin,  (Fr^d^ric,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1823,  published  a  "Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and 
Scholastic  Theology,"  (2  vols.,  1857,)  and  other  works. 
He  also  contributed  to  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Morin,  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Blois 
in  1 591.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  the 
Oriental  tongues  and  biblical  literature.  Among  his 
principal  works  we  may  name  "  Biblical  Exercises," 
("  Exercitationcs  Biblicae,")  and  an  edition  of  the  "Sa- 
maritan Pentateuch,"  with  a  Latin  version.  Died  in  1659. 

See  Perrault,  "  Hommes  illustres;"  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Morin,  (Jean,)  a  French  natural  philosopher,  born 
at  Meung-sur-Loire  in  1705.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Le  Mecanisme  universel,"  (1735.)  Died 
in  1764. 

Morin,  (Jean,)  a  French  painter  and  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  about  1609.  Among  his  best  works  are  prints 
of  the  "Madonna,"  after  Raphael,  and  portraits  of  De 
Thou  and  Marie  de  Medicis.    Died  about  1666. 

Morin,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  savant,  born  at 
Villefranche  in  1583.  was  appointed  in  1630  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  Royal  College.  He  was  devoted  to 
astrology,  and  he  is  said  to  have  been  consulted  by  Car- 
dinal Richelieu  and  other  distinguished  men.  He  wrote 
"  Astrologia  Gallica,"  and  a  number  of  treatises  on 
mathematics  and  astronomy.    Died  in  1656. 

See  Delambre,  "  Histoire  de  I'Astronomie  moderne ;"  Nice- 
Ron,  "  Memoires." 

Morin,  (Louis,)  a  French  physician  and  botanist  of 
high  reputation,  born  at  Mans  in  1636.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  medical  and  scientific  treatises.  In 
1707  he  succeeded  Dodart  as  botanist  to  the  French 
Academy  of  Sciences.    Died  in  1715. 

Morin,  (Pierre,)  a  French  philologist,  born  in  Paris 
in  1 53 1,  was  emploved  by  Gregory  XIIT.  and  Sixtus  V. 
on  editions  of  the  Bible  called  Septuagint  and  Vulgate, 
(1590.)    Died  at  Rome  in  1608. 

Morin,  (Simon,)  a  French  fanatic,  born  near  Aumale, 
in  Normandy,  published  works  of  a  visionary  and  pro- 
fane nature.  He  was  condemned  in  1663  to  be  burned 
alive  for  having  prophesied  the  death  of  the  king. 

See  NiCEROM,  "Memoires." 

Mor'i-son,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  in  Aberdeenshire  in  1791.  He  became  in 
1816  minister  of  Trevor  Chapel,  London,  and  in  1824 
was  appointed  editor  of  the  "  Evangelical  Magazine," 
which  post  he  occupied  for  thirty-two  years.  He  was 
the  author  of  seveial  pojiular  works,  among  which  we 
may  name  "  Lectures  on  the  Reci])rocal  Obligations  of 
Life,"  etc.,  (1822,)  "  Book  of  Familv  Worship,"  (1836,) 
and  "Counsels  to  a  Newly- Wedded  Pair."  Died  in  1859. 

See  Rev.  Robert  Steel,  "Burning  and  Shining  Lights,"  1864. 

Morison,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  emi- 
nent botanist,  born  at  Aberdeen  in  1620,  was  patronized 
by  Charles  II.,  who  made  him  his  physician  and  be- 
stowed on  him  a  pension.  He  became  professor  of 
botany  at  Oxford  in  1669.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Universal  History  of  Plants,"  "New  Distribution  of 
Umbelliferous  Plants,"  (1672,)  and  other  works,  (in 
Latin.)  Plumier  named  in  his  honour  the  genus  Mori- 
sonia.    Died  in  1683. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenje  Oxonienses;"  Cuvier,  "  Histoire  des  Sci- 
ences natnrelles  ;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen." 


MORLIERE 


Morisot,  moWz5',  (Claude  Barth^lemi,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Dijon  in  1592,  wrote  a  historical  romance 
entitled  "  Peruviana,"  or  the  secret  history  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  Marie  de  Medicis,  and  Gaston,  Duke  of  Or- 
leans.   Died  in  1661. 

Moritz,  mo'rits,  (Karl  Philipp,)  known  also  by  his 
pseudonym  of  Anton  Reiser,  a  German  writer  of 
considerable  genius  but  eccentric  and  unsteady  char- 
acter, was  born  at  Hameln  in  1757.  Having  visited 
England  and  Italy,  he  was  appointed,  after  his  return, 
professor  of  archaeology  and  aesthetics  at  the  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts,  Berlin,  (1789.)  Among  his  principal  works 
we  may  name  "Anton  Reiser,"  a  psychological  romance, 
(1785,)  said  to  be  an  autobiography  somewhat  idealized, 
"  Essay  on  German  Prosody,"  (1786,)  and  "Fragments 
from  the  Journal  of  a  Visionary,"  (1787.)  Moritz  was  a 
friend  of  Goethe,  and  was  the  first,  it  is  said,  to  recognize 
and  encourage  the  genius  of  Jean  Paul  Richter.  Died 
in  1793. 

See  Klischnig,  "  Erinnerungen  aus  den  zehn  letzen  Lebensjah- 
ren  meines  Freundes  A.  Reiser,"  1794. 

Mork,  Moerk,  moRk,  or  Moerks,  moRks,  (Jacob 
Henrik,)  a  Swedish  author  and  minister,  born  at  Stock- 
holm in  1 7 14;  died  in  1763. 

Morla,  moR'ia,  (Don  Tomas,)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  in  1752.  He  surrendered  Madrid  to  Napoleon  in 
1808,  and  entered  the  service  of  King  Joseph.  Died 
in  1820. 

Morlacchi,  mor-l^k'kee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
composer  of  sacred  music  and  operas,  born  at  Perugia 
in  1784.   He  lived  many  years  at  Dresden.  Died  in  1841. 

MorTand,  (George,)  an  English  painter,  born  in 
London  in  1764,  excelled  in  delineations  of  rural  land- 
scapes, scenes  in  low  life,  and  domestic  animals,  par- 
ticularly pigs.  He  spent  his  leisure  time  chiefly  in 
ale-houses,  and  died  in  1804,  a  victim  of  intemperance. 
His  works  are  numerous,  and  command  high  prices. 

See  Cunningham,  "  Lives  of  Painters  and  Sculptors;"  G.  Dawe, 
"Life  of  Morland;"'J.  Ha.ssel,  "Memoirs  of  George  Morland  :" 
W.  CoM.iNS,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  George  Morland,"  1806; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  August,  1808. 

Morland,  (Sir  Samuel,)  an  English  mechanician  and 
inventor,  born  in  Berkshire  about  1625.  He  was  sent  in 
1653  on  an  einbassy  to  Sweden,  and  was  subsequently 
employed  by  Cromwell  to  intercede  with  the  Duke  of 
Savoy  on  behalf  of  the  persecuted  Vaudois.  After  the 
restoration  he  was  made  a  baronet  by  Charles  II.,  and 
obtained  other  distinctions.  He  was  the  inventor  of 
the  Tuba  Stentorphonica,  or  speaking-trumpet,  and  an 
arithmetical  machine,  and  effected  great  improvements 
in  the  fire-engine,  steam-engine,  etc.  He  published  a 
"Description  of  the  Tuba  Stentorphonica,"  (1671,)  and 
other  scientific  works  ;  also  a  "  History  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Churches  of  Piedmont,"  (1658.)    Died  in  1695. 

See  Rees,  "Cyclopaedia;"  Clarendon,  "History  of  the  Re- 
bellion." 

MorTey,  (George,)  born  in  London  in  1597,  became 
chaplain  to  Charles  I.  After  the  restoration  he  was 
created  Bishop  of  Worcester  by  Charles  II.  in  1660, 
and  of  Winchester  in  1662.  He  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  learning,  and  bequeathed  large  sums  for  charitable 
purposes.    Died  in  1684. 

See  MiLNER,  "History  of  Winchester Wood,  "Athenae  Ox- 
onienses." 

Morley,  (Henry,)  an  English  author  and  journalist, 
born  in  London  in  1822.  He  published  a  "Life  of 
Palissy  the  Potter,"  (1852,)  a  "  Life  of  Jerome  Cardan," 
(1854,)  "Memoirs  of  Bartholomew  Fair,"  (1857,)  and 
other  works.  He  became  the  editor  of  the  "  Examiner," 
a  weekly  paper. 

Morley,  (Thomas,)  an  English  musician  and  com- 
poser. His  compositions  include  anthems,  madrigals, 
and  canzonets.  He  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  work 
entitled  "  A  Plaine  and  Easie  Introduction  to  Practical 
Musicke,"  (1597.)    Died  about  1604. 

See  BuRNEY,  "  History  of  Music,"  etc. ;  "  Athenas  Oxonienses." 

Morliere,  de  la,  deh  It  moR'le-aiR',  (Charles  Jac- 
ques Louis  Auguste  de  la  Rochette,)  Chevalier, 
a  French  writer  of  romances,  was  born  at  Grenoble  in 
1701.  Among  his  works  is  "Angola,"  (1746.)  Died 
in  1785. 


I,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;    e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


MORLOT 


1629 


MORREN 


Morlot,  moR'lo',  (FRANgois  Nicolas  Madeleine,) 
a  French  prelate  and  writer,  born  at  Langres  in  1795. 
He  became  Archbishop  of  Tours  in  1842,  a  cardinal  in 
1853,  and  Archbishop  of  Paris  in  1857.    Died  in  1862. 

Mormando,  moR-ni^n'do,  (Giovanni  Francesco,) 
an  Italian  architect,  born  at  Florence  about  1455, 
patronized  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  of  Spain,  He 
designed  the  beautiful  church  of  San  Severino,  and  other 
buildings,  in  Naples.    Died  in  1522. 

Moniac,  nioR'ntk',  (Antoine,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
in  1554,  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  in  his  time,  and  pub- 
lished several  legal  works.    Died  in  1619. 

Mornand,  moR'n6N^  (F^lix,)  a  French  writer  and 
journalist,  born  at  Macon  in  1815.  He  became  chief 
editor  of  the  "  Courrier  de  Paris"  in  1857. 

Mornay,  de,  deh  moR^na',  (Philippe,)  Seigneur  du 
Plessis-Marly,  often  called  Du  Plessis-Mornay,  a  noble 
French  Protestant,  eminent  for  virtue  and  talents,  was 
born  at  Ruhy,  in  Vexin,  in  1549.  He  studied  law,  the- 
ology, and  other  sciences  in  Paris,  Germany,  and  Italy. 
In  1572  he  narrowly  escaped  from  the  Massacre  of  Saint 
Bartholomew,  and  in  1575  took  arms  for  the  Huguenots, 
of  whom  he  became  one  of  the  chiefs.  He  married  in 
1576.  About  this  time  he  entered  the  service  of  Henry 
of  Navarre,  who  employed  him  in  important  negotiations 
and  reposed  in  him  entire  confidence.  He  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Ivry  in  1590,  and  then  became  a  member 
of  Henry  TV.'s  council.  Mornay  retained  the  favour  of 
Henry  after  the  latter  had  abjured  his  religion.  In  1598 
he  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Institution  of  the  Eu- 
charist," which  provoked  the  Catholics  to  challenge  him 
to  a  dispute.  At  a  public  conference  before  the  king,  in 
1600,  he  was  foiled  by  Duperron.  It  appears  that  one  of 
his  own  party  had  as  unwisely  as  dishonourably  furnished 
him  with  forged  quotations  from  the  Fathers,  which  his 
antagonist  easily  exposed.  He  was  for  many  years  the 
virtual  chief  or  oracle  of  the  French  Reformed  Church, 
and  was  styled  "the  Pope  of  the  Huguenots."  He  left 
many  able  religious  works.    Died  in  1623. 

See  "  M^moires  de  Plessis-Mornay,"  4  vols.,  1624-52;  M.  Cru- 
sius,  "  Siiigularia  Plessica,"  1724;  De  Thou,  "Historia  sui  Tem- 
poris;"  J.  Impert,  "  Duplessis-Mornay,"  1S47;  Sismondi,  "  His- 
toire  des  Fran^ais  ;"  L'Estoilr,  "Journal ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1834. 

Mor'ning-ton,  (Garret,)  Earl  of  Wellesley,  an  Irish 
nobleman,  distinguished  for  his  musical  talent,  born 
about  1720,  was  father  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  He 
became  professor  of  music  in  the  University  of  Dublin, 
and  composed  a  number  of  glees  which  are  greatly  ad- 
mired.   Died  in  1781. 

Morny,  de,  deh  moR'ne',  (Charles  Auguste  Louis 
Joseph,)  Comte,  a  French  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in 
1811,  was  the  reputed  son  of  Hortense  de  Beauharnois 
and  Count  Flahaut.  He  served  for  a  time  in  Algeria, 
and  subsequently  devoted  himself  to  industrial  and 
financial  sj^eculations.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
coup  d'etat  of  December,  1851,  by  which  his  half-brother, 
Louis  Napoleon,  was  made  president,  and  was  soon  after 
appointed  minister  of  the  interior.  He  resigned  in  1852, 
and  became  president  of  the  legislative  body  in  1854. 
Died  in  1865. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Moro,  (Antonio.)    See  Moor. 

Mo'ro,  (Cristoforo,)  was  an  old  man  when  he  was 
elected  Doge  of  Venice,  in  1462.  He  waged  war  against 
the  Sultan  Mahomet  II.,  who  conquered  Negropont 
from  the  Venetians  in  1470.    Died  in  1471. 

Morogues,  de,  deh  mo'rog',  (S^bastien  Francois 
Bigot — be''go^)  Vicomte,  a  French  naval  officer,  born 
at  Brest  in  1705.  He  wrote  a  good  work  on  naval  tac- 
tics, "Tactique  navale,  ou  Traite  des  Evolutions,"  etc., 
(1763.)    Died  in  1781. 

His  grandson,  Pierre  Marie  S^:bastien,  Baron  de 
Morogues,  (i  776-1 840,)  wrote  numerous  works  on  rural 
and  political  economy. 

Morone,  mo-ro'na,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at  Milan  in  1509,  was  patronized  by  the  popes 
Clement  VII.,  Paul  III.,  and  Julius  IIL,  who  employed 
him  in  several  important  missions.  Suspected  of  favour- 
ing the  Reformation,  he  was  imprisoned  by  Paul  IV.  in 
1557.    Pius  IV.  sent  him  as  his  legate  to  the  Council  of  I 


Trent,  over  which  Morone  presided  when  it  closed,  in 
1563.  He  had  been  appointed  Bishop  of  Novara  about 
1554.    Died  in  1580. 

See  jACOiiELLi,  "Vitadi  Cardinale  Morone  Fri^d^ric  Sclopis, 
"  Le  Cardinal  Jean  Morone,"  1868. 

Morone  or  Moroni,  mo-ro'nee,  (Giovanni  Bat- 
TISTA,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Albino  in  1 5 10,  was  a 
pupil  of  Buonvicino.  He  excelled  in  portraits,  of  which 
he  executed  a  great  number.    Died  in  1578. 

Morone,  (Girolamo,)  a  celebrated  and  adroit  Italian 
diplomatist,  born  in  the  Milanese  about  1450,  was  the 
father  of  Giovanni,  noticed  above.  He  was  employed 
by  the  Dukes  of  Milan.  In  1526  he  became  secretary 
and  chief  counsellor  of  Constable  Bourbon.  He  was  one 
of  the  negotiators  of  the  treaty  between  Charles  V.  and 
Pope  Clement  VII.  in  1527.    Died  in  1529. 

See  Robertson,  "  History  of  Charles  V.,"  vol.  ii.  books  ii.  and  iv. 

Morosi,  mo-ro'see,  (Giuseppe,)  a  skilful  Italian  me- 
chanician, was  born  in  Tuscany  in  1772.  He  invented 
an  automaton  chess-player,  and  constructed,  at  Milan, 
hydraulic  machines  for  spinning  cotton.    Died  in  1840. 

Morosini,  mo-ro-see'nee,  [Lat.  Mauroce'nus,]  (An- 
drea,) a  Venetian  senator,  born  in  1558,  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Council  of  Ten,  and  was  appointed  in  1598 
historiographer  of  the  republic.  His  principal  work  is 
entitled  "  Historia  Veneta,"  being  a  history  of  Venice 
from  1521  to  161 5.  It  is  distinguished  for  its  accuracy 
and  the  elegance  of  its  style.    Died  in  1618. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Morosini,  (Domenico,)  a  Venetian  admiral,  born  in 
1080.  He  took  part  in  the  crusade  in  11 22,  and  captured 
Tyre.    He  was  elected  doge  in  1148.    Died  in  11 56. 

Morosini,  (Francesco,)  Doge  of  Venice,  born  in  1618, 
was  one  of  the  first  military  commanders  of  his  time. 
Having  defeated  the  Turks  in  several  actions,  he  was 
appointed  in  1656  Governor  of  Candia.  He  afterwards 
defended  that  island  for  nearly  two  years  against  the 
grand  vizier  Mehemet  Koprili,  to  whom  he  made  an 
honourable  capitulation  in  1669.  For  his  subsequent 
victories  in  the  Morea  he  obtained  the  title  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesiac.  He  was  elected  Doge  of  Venice  in  1688, 
having  been  previously  appointed  procurator  of  Saint 
Mark.    Died  in  1694. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise  ;"  Marino  Sanuto,  "  Vite  de' 
Duchi  di  Venezia;"  Navagiero,  "  Storia  Veneziana  ;"  A.  Arrighi, 
"Vita  di  F.  Morosini,"  1749;  G.  Graziani,  "  F.  Mauroceni  Gesta," 
etc.,  1698. 

Morosini,  (Paolo,)  a  Venetian  linguist  and  able 
diplomatist,  born  in  1406;  died  in  1483. 

Morozzo,  mo-rot'so,  (Carlo  Luigt,)  Count,  an 
Italian  savant  and  writer  on  physical  science,  was  born 
at  Turin  in  1744;  died  in  1804. 

,  Morpeth,  Lord.    See  Howard,  (George  William 
Frederick.) 
Morphee.    See  Morpheus. 

Mor'pheus,  [Gr.  Mop^fvf ;  Fr.  Morphee,  moR'fy,] 
an  inferior  deity  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  mythology, 
regarded  as  the  son  of  Sleep  and  the  god  of  dreams 
and  also  of  sleep.  The  name  is  derived  from  i^op(p^, 
("  form,")  because  he  was  supposed  to  give  form  to 
the  visions  of  the  sleeper. 

Mor'phy,  (Paul  Charles,)  a  celebrated  American 
chess-player,  born  at  New  Orleans  in  1837.  At  the 
Chess  Congress  in  New  York  in  1857  he  defeated  many 
of  the  best  American  players,  and  in  1858  visited  Lon- 
don and  Paris,  where  the  same  success  attended  him 
in  his  contests  with  the  most  distinguished  players  of 
Europe. 

Morrealese,  II.    See  Novelli,  (Pietro.) 

Mor'rell,  (Benjamin,)  an  American  navigator,  born 
in  Worcester  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1795.  He  be- 
came captain  of  a  whaling-ship,  and  published  "  Narra- 
tives of  Four  Voyages  round  the  World,"  (1832.)  Died 
in  1839. 

Morren,  mor'ren  or  mo'rdN',  (Charles  FRANgois 
Antoine,)  a  Belgian  naturalist,  born  at  Ghent  in  1807. 
He  became  professor  of  physics  in  that  city  in  1833,  and 
obtained  the  chair  of  botany  at  Liege  in  1837.  Among 
his  principal  works  we  may  name  "  Studies  on  Anatomy 
and  Vegetable  Physiology,"  (1841,)  and  "Researches  on 
the  Rubefaction  of  Waters  and  their  Oxygenation  by 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  kard;  g  as j;  o,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MORRES 


1630 


MORRIS 


Animalcules  and  Algae."  He  also  published  valuable 
treatises  on  palaeontology  and  zoology,  and  was  a  liberal 
contributor  to  the  scientific  join-iials  of  his  own  and  other 
countries.    Died  in  December,  1858. 

See  Ed.  Morren,  "  Notice  sur  C.  Morren,"  i860. 

Morres,  mor'riss  ?  (Harvey  Redmond,)  Viscount 
Mountmorres,  an  English  publicist.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  political  and  historical  works,  among  which  we 
may  name  '*  History  of  the  Principal  Acts  of  the  Irish 
Parliament  from  1634  to  1666,"  etc.,  (1792,)  and  "The 
Crisis :  a  Collection  of  Essays  on  Toleration,  Public 
Credit,"  etc.,  (1795.)    He  died  by  suicide  in  1797. 

See  Collins,  "Peerage  of  Ireland." 

Mor'rill,  (Justin  S.,)  an  American  legislator,  born 
in  Strafford,  Vermont,  in  1810.  He  represented  the 
second  district  of  Vermont,  from  1855  to  1865,  in  the 
National  House  of  Representatives,  in  which  he  served 
(1864-65)  as  chairman  of  the  committee  of  ways  and 
means.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
for  Vermont  in  October,  1866.  He  acts  with  the  Re- 
publican party. 

Morrill,  (Lot  M.,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in 
Kennebec  county,  Maine,  in  181 5,  became  a  lawyer. 
He  was  Republican  Governor  of  Maine  three  years, 
(1858-60,)  and  was  chosen  vSenator  of  the  United  States 
in  1 86 1.  He  was  re-elected  Senator  in  1863  for  six 
years,  and  again  in  1869. 

Mor^ris,  (Charles,)  an  American  commodore,  born 
in  Connecticut  in  1784.  He  was  first  lieutenant  of  the 
Constitution  when  that  ship  captured  the  British  frigate 
Guerriere,  in  August,  1812.  He  had  a  high  reputation 
as  a  naval  commander,  commanded  squadrons  at  several 
foreign  stations,  and  became  chief  of  the  ordnance 
bureau.    Died  in  1856. 

Morris,  (Edward  Joy,)  an  American  writer,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  181 7.  He  represented  the  second  dis- 
trict of  Pennsylvania  in  Congress  from  1857  to  i86r, 
and  acted  with  the  People's  party,  which  was  afterwards 
merged  in  the  Re])ublican  party.  About  the  end  of 
1861  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Turkey.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "Tour  through  Turkey,  Greece,  and  Egypt." 

Morris,  (Francis  Orpen,)  an  English  naturalist  and 
clergyman,  born  about  1810.  Pie  published  a  "  History 
of  British  Birds,"  (6  vols.,)  "  Anecdotes  of  Natural  His- 
torv,"  and  other  works. 

Morris,  (George  P.,)  an  American  lyric  poet  and 
journalist,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1802.  He  became 
associate  editor  of  the  "  New  York  Mirror"  in  1823,  and 
in  1844  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "Evening  Mirror,"  a 
literary  journal.  He  founded,  conjointly  with  N.  P. 
Willis,  the  "Home  Journal,"  (1846.)  He  published 
a  number  of  beautiful  and  popular  songs,  among  which 
we  may  name  "My  Mother's  Bible,"  "  Woodman,  Spare 
that  Tree,"  and  "  Long  Time  Ago."  He  also  wrote 
"The  Deserted  Bride,"  and  other  poems,  and  a  drama 
entitled  "  Brierclifif,"  and  edited,  conjointly  with  Mr. 
Willis,  "  The  Prose  and  Poetry  of  Europe  and  America." 
Died  in  1864. 

See  R.  W.  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America,"  p.  281; 
DuYCKTNCK,  "  Cyclopedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ;  Cleve- 
land, "  Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Morris,  (Gouverneur,)  an  able  American  statesman, 
born  at  Morrisiana,  in  Westchester  county.  New  York, 
in  January,  1752,  was  a  half-brother  of  Lewis  Morris, 
noticed  below.  He  studied  law,  and  Was  chosen  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Provincial  Congress  of  New  York  in  1775. 
He  became  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  in 
1777,  and  acquired  distinction  as  an  eloquent  public 
speaker.  About  1780  he  removed  to  Philadelphia.  He 
WAS  appointed  assistant  superintendent  of  finance  by 
Robert  Morris  in  1781,  and  served  in  that  capacity  for 
three  years  or  more.  He  was  one  of  the  Pennsylvania 
delegates  to  the  National  Convention  which  framed  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  in  1787.  His  services 
in  that  convention  were  highly  estimated  by  James 
Madison.  In  December,  1788,  he  went  on  private  busi- 
ness to  Paris,  where  he  passed  several  years  and  kept  a 
diary  which  possesses  much  historical  interest.  He  was 
appointed  minister  from  the  United  States  to  France  early 
in  1792,  and  was  recalled  in  October,  1794.  He  acted 
with  the  Federalist  party,  and  was  a  friend  of  General 


Washington,  whoin  he  is  said  to  have  resembled  in  per- 
sonal appearance.  In  1800  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of  New  York.  Hi.'i 
term  in  the  Senate  expired  in  March,  1803,  after  which 
he  returned  to  private  life.  He  married  Anne  C.  Ran- 
dolph, of  Virginia,  in  1809.  He  was  one  of  the  origin- 
ators or  promoters  of  the  Erie  Canal.  Among  his 
writings  are  a  "Eulogy  on  General  Hamilton,"  and  a 
"Discourse  on  the  Liberation  of  Europe  from  Military 
Despotism,"  (1814.)  Died  at  Morrisiana  in  November, 
1816.  "Morris  was  endued  by  nature,"  says  James 
Renwick,  "with  all  the  attributes  necessary  to  the  ac- 
complished orator, — a  fine  and  commanding  person,  a 
most  graceful  demeanour,  which  was  rather  heightened 
than  impaired  by  the  loss  of  one  of  his  legs,  and  a  voice 
of  much  compass,  strength,  and  richness."  ("Life  of 
Clinton.") 

See  Jared  Sparks,  "  Life  of  Gouverneur  Morris,  with  Selections 
from  his  Correspondence,"  3  vols.,  1832;  "Encyclopaedia  Ameri- 
cana;""  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  Duyckinck,  "  Cyclopae- 
dia of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review" 
for  October,  1832,  and  "North  American  Review"  for  April,  1832. 

Morris,  (Henry  W.,)  Commodore,  an  American 
naval  otificer,  born  in  1805,  was  a  son  of  Thomas  Morris, 
a  member  of  the  New  York  bar.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
a  grandson  of  Gouverneur  Morris.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  captain  in  1856,  and  took  command  in  January,  1862, 
of  the  new  steamer  Pensacola,  with  which  he  contributed 
to  the  victory  gained  by  Captain  Farragut  below  New 
Orleans  in  April  of  that  year.  Died  in  New  York  in 
August,  1863. 

Morris,  (Jacob,)  an  American  officer,  born  in  West- 
chester couiity.  New  York,  in  1755,  ^  son  of  Lewis 
Morris,  (1726-98.)  He  was  aide-de-camp  to  General 
Charles  Lee,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  defence 
of  Fort  Moultrie.    Died  in  1844. 

Morris,  (Lewis,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in  West- 
chester county,  New  York,  became  chief  justice  of  that 
State,  and  was  elected  in  1738  first  Governor  of  New 
Jersey.    Died  in  1746. 

Morris,  (Lewis,)  a  Welsh  poet  and  antiquary,  born 
in  1702,  made  a  valuable  collection  of  ancient  manu- 
scripts, and  published  a  number  of  poems  in  the  Welsh 
language.    Died  in  1765. 

Morris,  (Lewis,)  an  American  patriot  and  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in  Westchester 
county,  New  York,  in  1726,  was  a  grandson  of  Lewis 
Morris,  (the  first  of  the  name,)  and  half-brother  of  Gou- 
verneur Morris,  noticed  above.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Congress  of  1775,  and  resumed  his  seat  the  following 
year.    Died  in  1798. 

Morris,  (Robert,)  a  distinguished  statesman  and 
financier,  born  in  Lancashire,  England,  in  1734.  At  an 
early  age  he  removed  to  America  and  entered  into 
mercantile  business  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  a  delegate 
to  Congress  in  1775,  and  the  following  year  signed 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  finance  in  1781,  being  the  first  who 
had  filled  that  office  in  the  LTnited  States,  and  by  his 
judicious  and  energetic  measures  rendered  the  most 
important  services  to  the  cause  of  the  patriots.  "The 
Americans,"  says  a  distinguished  histor'an,  "owe  as 
much  acknowledgment  to  the  financial  operations  of 
Robert  Morris  as  to  the  negotiations  of  Benjamin 
Franklin,  or  even  the  arms  of  George  Washington." 
He  pledged  his  private  fortune  to  obtain  supplies  for 
the  army,  and  originated  the  Bank  of  North  America  in 
1 781.  He  resigned  his  office  in  1784,  was  a  member  of 
the  Convention  which  framed  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  in  1787,  and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  in  1788.  He  was  imprisoned  for  debt  in 
his  old  age.    Died  in  Philadelphia  in  1806. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Morris,  (Thomas,)  an  American  lawyer  and  states- 
man, born  in  Virginia  in  1776.  Having  removed  to 
Ohio,  he  was  elected  in  1830  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court,  and  in  1832  a  United  States  Senator.  In  this 
post  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition  to  slavery, 
and  in  1843  he  was  nominated  for  Vice-President  by  the 
Liberty  party.    Died  in  December,  1844. 

See  "  Life  of  Thomas  Morris,"  by  his  son,  B.  F.  Morris. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


MORRIS 


MORTIMER 


Morris,  (Thomas  A.,)  D.D.,  an  American  Methodist 
divine,  born  in  Kanawha  county,  Virginia,  in  1794,  was 
for  a  time  editor  of  the  "Western  Christian  Advocate," 
•»nd  in  1836  became  Bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church. 

Morris,  (Thomas  A.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Kentucky  about  1812,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1834. 
He  became  a  citizen  of  Indiana.  He  served  as  brigadier- 
general  of  the  Union  army  in  Western  Virginia  in  June 
and  July,  i86r. 

Morris,  (William,)  an  English  contemporary  poet, 
who  has  published,  among  other  works,  "The  Defence 
of  Guenevere,"  (London,  1858,)  "Life  and  Death  of 
Jason,"  "Cupid  and  Psyche,"  and  "  Earthly  Paradise," 
(1870.) 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1870. 

Mor'ri-son,  (John  Ro]?ert,)  son  of  Rev.  Robert 
Morrison,  noticed  below,  born  at  Macao  in  1814.  He 
succeeded  his  father  as  secretary  and  interpreter  to  the 
British  Factory  at  Canton,  and  was  the  author  of  a  valu- 
able work  entitled  "The  Chinese  Commercial  Guide," 
(1834.) 

Morrison,  (Sir  Richard,)  president  of  the  Irish  In- 
stitute of  Architects,  born  at  Cork  about  1767;  died 
in  1849. 

Morrison,  (Rev.  Robert,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English 
Orientalist  and  missionary,  born  in  Northumberland  in 
1782.  Having  previously  studied  the  Chinese  language, 
he  was  sent  by  the  London  Missionary  Society  in  1807 
to  China,  where  he  became  translator  to  the  East  India 
Company's  Factory  at  Canton.  His  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  came  out  in  1814,  and  was  followed  in 
1815  by  his  "Chinese  Grammar."  In  conjunction  with 
Rev.  Mr.  Milne,  he  next  translated  the  Old  Testament 
into  Chinese.  It  was  completed  in  1818,  (in  21  vols. 
l2mo.)  His  great  "Chinese  Dictionary,"  printed  at  the 
expense  of  the  East  India  Company,  appeared  in  1821. 
He  visited  England  in  1824,  and,  having  remained  there 
two  years,  returned  to  his  missionary  labours  in  China, 
where  he  had  founded  in  1818  an  Anglo-Chinese  Col- 
lege. Among  Dr.  Morrison's  other  works  we  may  name 
"  Horae  Sinicas,"  (1812,)  a  "View  of  China  for  Philo- 
logical Purposes,"  etc.,  (1817,)  and  "Chinese  Miscel- 
lany," (1825.)  He  was  the  first  Protestant  missionary 
to  China,  and  as  a  Chinese  scholar  he^  occupies  the 
highest  rank.    Died  in  1834. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Robert  Morrison,"  by  his  widow,  1839;  A. 
R^MUSAT,  in  the  "Journal  des  Savants,"  1824. 

Mor'row,  (Jeremiah,)  born  in  Pennsylvania  in 
'1770,  became  United  States  Senator  from  Ohio  in  1813, 
and  was  elected  Governor  of  that  State  in  1822.  Died 
in  1852. 

Mors,  [Fr.  La  Mort,  It  moR,]  the  Latin  name  of  the 
personification  of  Death,  [Gr.  Gavarof,]  said  to  be  the 
offspring  of  Night.  According  to  Homer,  Death  was 
the  brother  of  Sleep. 

Morse,  (Jedediah,)  D.D,,  an  American  geographer 
and  divine,  born  at  Woodstock,  Connecticut,  in  1761. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  in  1789  became  pas- 
tor of  the  First  Congregational  Church  at  Charlestown, 
Massachusetts.  He  is  principally  known  by  his  geo- 
graphical works,  which  were  the  first  of  the  kind  pub- 
lished in  America,  and  which  also  obtained  a  European 
reputation.  He  likewise  published  several  historical 
works,  and  a  number  of  sermons.    Died  in  1826. 

Morse,  (Samuel  Finley  Breese,)  an  American  in- 
ventor and  artist,  born  at  Charlestown,  Massachusetts, 
in  April,  1791,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  in  1810,  and  went  to  England, 
where  he  studied  painting  under  Benjamin  West.  He 
returned  home  in  181 5,  and  painted  portraits  at  various 
places.  He  visited  Europe  in  1829,  and  returned  in 
1832.  During  the  passage  homeward  he  suggested  the 
idea  of  an  electric  telegraph,  in  conversation  with  his 
fellow-passengers.  He  constructed  the  apparatus  of  a 
recording  electric  telegraph,  by  which  he  conveyed  de- 
spatches through  a  small  distance,  in  1835.  About  the  end 
of  1837  he  applied  to  Congress  for  aid,  without  success. 
He  went  to  England  in  1838  to  obtain  a  patent,  which 
was  refused.  Wheatstone,  an  Englishman,  had  invented 
a  different  apparatus,  for  the  same  purpose,  about  1837. 


In  the  spring  of  1843,  Congress  voted  thirty  thousand 
dollars  to  enable  him  to  construct  a  line  between  Wash- 
ington and  Baltimore.  His  invention  was  brought  into 
successful  operation  on  that  route  in  1844,  since  which 
it  has  been  rapidly  introduced  into  nearly  all  countries 
of  the  civilized  world.  This  result  has  been  called  the 
greatest  triumph  which  human  genius  has  obtained  over 
space  and  time.  Mr,  Morse  received  gold  medals  and 
insignia  of  honour  from  several  European  sovereigns. 
The  representatives  of  the  principal  European  powers, 
assembled  in  Paris  about  1857,  presented  to  him  the 
sum  of  400,000  francs  as  a  recompense  for  his  invention. 
Morse's  system  is  generally  preferred  to  that  invented 
in  England,  on  account  of  its  greater  simplicity. 

See  DuNLAP,  "  History  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  America,"  vol. 
ii.  chap,  xxiii. ;  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists ;"  "  North  Amer- 
ican Review"  for  January,  1828. 

Morse,  (Sidney  Edwards,)  brother  of  the  nreced- 
ing,  was  born  at  Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  in  1794. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1811,  and  about  1815 
became  editor  of  the  "  Boston  Recorder,"  a  religious 
journal.  In  1823  he  founded,  conjointly  with  his 
brother,  R.  C.  Morse,  the  "  New  York  Observer."  He 
was  the  author  of  several  popular  school  geographies, 
and  invented  a  new  method  of  engraving  maps,  called 
cerography.    Died  in  187 1. 

Mortemart,  de,  deii  moRt'mtR',  (Casimir  Louis 
ViCTURNiEN  de  Rocheohouart — deh  rosh'shoo-tn',) 
Due,  a  French  general  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris 
in  1787.  During  the  revolution  of  July,  1830,  Charles 
X.  requested  him  to  form  a  new  cabinet,  of  which  he 
was  nominated  president;  but  it  was  too  late.  He  was 
afterwards,  in  183 1,  ambassador  to  St.  Petersburg,  and 
was  made  a  senator  in  1852. 

Mortier,  moR'te-i',  (^douard  Adolphe  Casimir 
Joseph,)  afterwards  Duke  of  Treviso,  a  celebrated  marshal 
of  France,  born  at  Cateau-Cambresis  in  1768.  He  served 
with  great  distinction  in  the  principal  campaigns  from 
1792  to  1799,  when  he  was  made  generaV  of  division. 
In  1803  he  was  sent  by  Napoleon  to  Hanover,  of  which 
he  soon  took  possession.  He  was  created  a  marshal  in 
1804,  and  the  year  following  received  the  grand  cordon 
of  the  legion  of  honour.  Being  appointed  in  1805  to 
command  a  corps  of  the  grand  anny  in  Germany,  he 
was  attacked  in  November  by  the  Russian  general  Koo- 
toosof  with  30,000  men,  against  whom  he  made  a  most 
gallant  defence  with  greatly  inferior  numbers  until  rein- 
forcements came  up.  For  the  signal  bravery  he  displayed 
at  the  battle  of  Friedland,  June,  1807,  he  was  made 
Duke  of  Treviso.  In  the  Spanish  campaign  of  1808  he 
assisted  at  the  siege  of  Saragossa,  and  defeated  the 
Spaniards  at  Ocana  and  Gebora.  He  accompanied 
Bonaparte  to  Russia  in  1812,  and  was  commissioned  by 
him  to  blow  up  the  Kremlin.  In  1814,  in  conjunction 
with  Marshal  Marmont,  he  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost 
to  defend  Paris  from  the  allies,  but,  not  succeeding  in 
this,  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  Louis  XVIII.  After  the 
revolution  of  1830  he  entered  the  service  of  Louis 
Philippe,  and  in  1835,  while  accompanying  that  mon- 
arch to  a  review,  was  one  of  the  victims  of  Fieschi's 
"  infernal  machine." 

See  H.  Ris,  "Notice  sur  le  Mar^chal  Mortier;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Mor'ti-mer,  (Edmund,)  Earl  of  March,  an  English 
nobleman,  who  married  Philippa,  only  child  of  Lionel, 
Duke  of  Clarence.  They  had  a  son  Roger,  and  were 
ancestors  of  Eflward  IV.    Died  in  1381. 

Mortimer,  (Edmund,)  fifth  Earl  of  March,  born  about 
1390,  was  the  son  of  Roger,  and  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  the  lawful  heir  to  the  crown  after  the 
death  of  Richard  II.    Died  in  1424. 

Mortimer,  (John  Hamilton,)  an  English  painter  of 
history,  born  at  Eastbourne,  Sussex,  in  1739.  Among 
his  works  are  "Saint  Paul  preaching  to  the  Britons," 
and  "  King  John  signing  Magna  Charta."  He  was  an 
inferior  colorist,  but  his  design  was  admired  by  his 
contemporaries.    Died  in  1779. 

Mortimer,  (Roger,)  Earl  of  March,  the  paramour 
of  Isabella,  Queen  of  England,  born  about  1287.  Having 
been  twice  convicted  of  treason  and  pardoned  by  Ed- 
ward II.,  he  conspired  with  the  queen  against  the  life  of 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (2(^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MORTIMER 


1632 


MORTON 


the  king,  who  was  barbarously  murdered.    The  guilty 
pair  reigned  for  several  years  in  the  name  of  the  young 
prince  Kdward  III.  ;  but  Mortimer  was  at  length  made 
prisoner  by  order  of  the  prince,  and  executed  in  1330, 
See  HuMi!;,  "History  of  England;"  Froissart,  "Chronicles." 

Mortimer,  (Rogf.r,)  fourth  Earl  of  March,  was  a 
son  of  the  third  earl.  He  died  in  1398,  leaving  a  son 
Edmund  and  a  daughter  Anne,  who  was  married  to 
Richard,  Earl  of  Camluidge,  and  was  a  grandmother  of 
Edward  IV. 

Mortimer,  (Thomas,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  in 
London  in  1730.  He  published  "The  British  Plutarch," 
(6  vols.,  1762,)  "Elements  of  Commerce,"  etc.,  (1772,) 
"Compendium  of  History,  Chronology,  and  Biography," 
(1777,)  and  other  valuable  works. 

Morto  da  Feltro.    See  Feltro,  da. 

Mor'tpn,  (Chaulks,)  a  learned  English  Puritan  min- 
ister, born  about  1626.  He  was  ejected  for  noncon- 
formity in  1662,  after  which  he  taught  school  in  London 
about  twenty  years.  He  emigrated  to  New  England  in 
1686,  and  became  minister  at  Charlestown,  Massachu- 
setts.  He  wrote  several  religious  works.    Died  in  1698. 

Morton,  (Charles,)  an  English  physician  and  anti- 
quary, born  in  Westmoreland  in  1716.  Elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1752,  he  became  one  of  its  secre- 
taries in  1760,  and  in  1776  succeeded  Dr.  Maty  as  libra- 
rian of  the  British  Museum.  He  was  also  a  member  of 
the  Imperial  Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg.  He  made 
several  valuable  contributions  to  the  "Transactions"  of 
the  Royal  Society.    Died  in  1799. 

Mor-'tpn,  (James  Douglas,)  Earl  of,  Regent  of 
Scotland,  born  in  1530,  was  a  nephew  of  the  Earl  of 
Angus.  He  married  Elizabeth,  a  daughter  of  James 
Douglas,  third  Earl  of  Morton,  and  inherited  the  earl- 
dom in  1553,  at  the  death  of  the  third  earl,  who  left  no 
male  issue.  He  joined  the  Protestant  party,  and  became 
one  of  the  lords  of  the  congregation  about  1558.  In 
1563  he  was  appointed  lord  high  chancellor  of  Scotland. 
He  lost  that  office  by  his  complicity  in  the  assassination 
of  Rizzio.  He  was  invited  by  Bothwell  to  join  him  in 
the  plot  for  the  murder  of  Darnley.  He  declined  to  act 
in  that  affair,  but  failed  to  inform  against  Bothwell.  For 
this  course  he  afterwards  offered  the  excuse  that  the 
queen  was  already  aware  of  the  plot,  so  that  it  would  be 
useless  to  reveal  the  secret  to  her.  He  fought  against 
Bothwell  and  the  queen  at  Carbery  Hill.  In  1567  he 
was  restored  to  the  office  of  lord  chancellor  by  Regent 
Murray.  He  was  appointed  regent  of  the  kingdom  in 
1572,  and  rendered  himself  odious  by  his  rapacity  and 
oppressive  acts,  but  was  supported  by  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Having  been  accused  as  an  accessory  to  the  murder  of 
Darnley,  he  was  convicted  and  beheaded  in  June,  1581. 

See  Robertson,  "History  of  Scotland;"  Burton,  "History  of 
Scotland." 

Morton,  (James  Douglas,)  Earl  of,  a  Scottish 
astronomer,  born  in  Edinl)urgh  in  1707,  was  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  an  associate  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  Paris.    Died  in  1768. 

Mor'ton,  (James  Saint  Clair,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  1829,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Samuel 
George  Morton,  noticed  below.  He  was  educated  at 
"West  Point,  where  he  graduated  as  second  of  his  class  in 
1851,  after  which  he  was  eitiployed  as  engineer  at  various 
places.  He  was  appointed  chief  engineer  of  the  army 
of  the  Ohio  in  May,  1862,  and  commanded  the  Pioneer 
Brigade  at  the  battle  of  Stone  River,  January  1-2,  1863. 
For  his  services  in  this  action  he  obtaiiied  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general.  He  was  killed  in  an  assault  on 
Petersburg  in  June,  1864. 

Morton,  (John,)  an  English  prelate  and  statesman, 
born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1410.  He  held  several  high 
offices  under  Henry  VI.,  and,  soon  after  the  accession 
of  Edwaid  IV.,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Ely,  and  lord 
chancellor  of  England.  He  was  imprisoned  by  Richard 
HI.,  but,  having  effected  his  escape,  repaired  to  the  con- 
tinent, where  he  is  said  to  have  formed  the  plan,  in  con- 
junction with  Henry,  Earl  of  Richmond,  of  uniting  the 
parties  of  York  and  Lancaster  by  the  marriage  of  Henry 
to  the  daughter  of  Edward  IV.  Under  Henry  VII., 
Morton  was  created  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  (i486,) 
and  a  cardinal,  (1493.)     He  was  distinguished  for  his 


learning  and  munificent  spirit,  and  promoted  several 
public  works  of  great  utility.  He  was  the  patron  of  Sir 
Thomas  More,  who  has  eulogized  him  in  his  "Utopia." 
Died  in  1500. 

See  J.  BuDDEN,  "  Life  of  John  Morton,"  1607;  Collier,  "Ec- 
clesiastical History;"  W.  F.  HooK,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of 
Canterbury,"  vol.  v. 

Morton,  (John,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  born  in  Delaware  county,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  1724.  He  was  for  many  years  a  member 
of  the  General  Assembly  of  his  native  State,  and  was 
elected  to  the  Congress  of  1774.    Died  in  1777. 

Morton,  (Marcus,)  an  American  jurist  and  Governor, 
born  at  Freetown,  Massachusetts,  in  1784.  He  was  a 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Massachusetts  from  1825 
to  1840,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  that  State  by  the 
Democrats  in  1840  and  1843.    Died  in  1864. 

Morton,  (Nathaniel,)  one  of  the  early  settlers  of 
Plymouth,  born  in  England  in  1612,  was  the  author 
of  "New  England's  Memorial,"  and  a  "History  of  the 
Church  at  Plymouth."    Died  in  1685. 

Morton,  (Oliver  P.,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in 
Wayne  county,  Indiana,  in  1823.  He  studied  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1847.  He  was  Governor  of 
Indiana  from  1861  to  1865,  and  was  elected  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of  that  State  in 
January,  1867,  for  a  term  ending  in  March,  1873.  During 
the  civil  war  he  was  conspicuous  for  his  zeal  in  the  cause 
of  his  country.  He  is  a  Republican,  and  an  able  speake«-. 

MtDrton,  (Richard,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Suffolk  about  1635,  had  a  high  reputation  for  skill  and 
learning,  and  became  in  1670  physician  to  the  Prince  of 
Orange.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Exercises  on  Phthisis," 
and  other  medical  works,  in  Latin. 

See  Ree.s,  "Cyclopaedia  of  Medicine." 

Morton,  (Samuel  George,)  an  eminent  American 
naturalist,  ethnologist,  and  physician,  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, January  26,  1799.  His  father,  George  Morton, 
who  was  descended  from  a  large  and  highly  respectable 
family  in  Clonmel,  Ireland,  emigrated  to  America  and 
engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits.  The  subject  of  our 
sketch  early  evinced  a  passionate  fondness  for  books  and 
thirst  for  knowledge,  and  combined  with  these  a  habit 
of  persevering  and  methodical  industry.  He  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  March,  1820,  and 
in  October  of  the  same  year  entered  as  a  matriculate  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  the  diploma  of  which  insti- 
tution was  conferred  upon  him  in  August,  1823.  He 
returned  to  America  in  1824,  commenced  the  practice 
of  medicine  in  1826,  and  in  1827  married  Rebecca  G., 
daughter  of  Robert  and  Elizabeth  Pearsall,  highly  re- 
spected members  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  His  first 
scientific  essay,  entitled  "  Observations  on  Cornine,  a 
New  Alkaloid,"  was  published  in  the  "Medical  and 
Physical  Journal"  for  1825-26.  In  1827  he  communi- 
cated to  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  an  "Analysis 
of  Tabular  Spar  from  Bucks  County,  Pennsylvania,  with 
a  Notice  of  Various  Minerals  found  in  the  same  Locality." 
During  the  same  year  he  contributed  to  the  "Journal 
of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,"  Philadelphia,  a 
"  Description  of  a  New  Species  of  Ostrea  Convexa  of 
Say."  These  papers  were  followed  in  rapid  succession 
by  many  other  scientific  communications,  and  the  Jour- 
nal of  the  Academy  continued  to  be  enriched  by  his 
labours  until  within  a  short  period  of  his  death.  There 
were  not  less  than  forty  of  these  contributions,  besides 
others  published  in  the  "Transactions  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,"  and  the  "  American  Journal  of 
Science  and  Arts,"  edited  by  Professor  Silliman.  These 
articles,  by  their  varied  range,  exhibited  great  versatility 
of  talent,  treating  as  they  did  u])on  subjects  connected 
with  anatomy,  ethnology,  archaeology,  geology,  palaeon- 
tology, zoology,  and  mineralogy.  His  celebrated  mono- 
graph on  the  "Cretaceous  Group  of  the  United  States" 
was  received,  at  the  time  of  its  publication,  with  great 
favour  by  the  inost  eminent  geologists  of  Europe.  In 
1834  he  contributed  to  medical  literature  an  important 
work  on  the  "  Anatomical  Character,  Causes,  Symptoms, 
and  Treatment  of  Pulmonary  Consum])tion."  He  early 
began  to  make  his  now  celebrated  collection  of  crania, 
and  up  to  1840  had,  with  great  labour  and  cost,  succeeded 


a  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long-;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAor^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon ; 


MORTON 


MOSELET 


in  collecting  no  less  than  1468  crania.  In  1839  he  gave 
to  the  world  his  "Crania  Americana,"  and  in  1844  his 

Crania  Egyptiaca,"  both  of  which  were  very  favourably 
received.  He  was  for  some  years  president  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Academy  of  Natural  Sciences.  He  died  in  May, 
185 1.  His  name  is  often  associated  with  Nott  and  Glid- 
don's  "Types  of  Mankind,"  (1854,)  based  to  some  extent 
on  Dr.  Morton's  researches ;  but  that  work,  published 
after  his  death,  and  edited  by  those  who  very  imperfectly 
understood  his  views,  gives  no  just  idea  of  the  modest, 
impartial,  and  thoroughly  scientific  spirit  with  which  he 
conducted  all  his  inquiries.  In  the  annals  of  science  his 
name  will  always  be  associated  with  that  of  Blumenbach, 
the  founder  of  human  "craniography.  To  this  study  he 
gave  a  powerful  impetus,  by  demonstrating  the  precise 
method  in  accordance  with  which  it  should  be  pursued, 
and  by  indicating  its  capability  of  throwing  light  upon 
the  origin  and  affiliations  of  the  various  races  of  men. 
Dr.  Morton  left  several  sons,  of  whom  the  eldest,  an 
officer  of  great  merit,  died  fighting  bravely  for  his  country, 
(see  Morton,  James  Saint  Clair  ;)  another  son, 
Thomas  George,  has  become  justly  distinguished  as 
one  of  the  most  skilful  surgeons  in  the  United  States. 

See  Gross's  "American  Medical  Biography." 

Morton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  in 
Durham  in  1764,  was  the  author  of  numerous  comedies 
and  farces,  which  had  great  popularity  in  his  time.  His 
dramas  entitled  "Town  and  Country"  and  "A  Roland 
for  an  Oliver"  still  retain  their  place  on  the  stage. 
Died  in  1838. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Morton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at  York 
in  1564,  became  successively  Bishop  of  Chester,  of  Lich- 
field, and  of  Durham.  He  published  several  controver- 
sial treatises  against  papists  and  nonconformists.  He 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Casaubon,  to  whose  memory 
he  erected  a  monument  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Died 
in  1659. 

See  Barwick,  "Life  of  Thomas,  Bishop  of  Durham,"  1660; 
Eaddily  and  Navlor,  "  Life  of  Thomas  Morton,"  1669. 

Morton,  (William  Thomas  Green,)  M.D.,  an 
American  dentist  and  physician,  born  at  Charlton,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1819.  He  settled  in  Boston,  as  a  dentist, 
about  1842,  and  made  some  improvements  in  the  fabrica- 
tion of  artificial  teeth.  He  afterwards  studied  medicine 
and  chemistry,  to  which  he  was  attracted  by  a  desire  to 
discover  a  substance  that  would  render  his  patients  in- 
sensible to  painful  operations  on  their  teeth.  He  began 
to  use  sulphuric  ether  as  an  anaesthetic  in  1846.  His 
claim  to  this  invention  was  disputed  by  Dr.  Jackson. 
Died  in  July,  1868.   (See  Wells,  Horace.) 

Mortonval,  moR''t5N'vtK,  the  assumed  name  of 
Furcy  Guesdon,  (fiiR'se'  gi'dAN',)  a  French  novelist, 
born  in  Paris  about  1780.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
novels,  "  The  Count  of  Villamayor,"  (5  vols.,  1825.) 

Morus.  See  More,  (Alexander,  Henry,  and  Sir 
Thomas.) 

Morus,  mo'riis,  (Samuel  Friedrich  Nathanael,) 
a  German  scholar  and  theologian,  born  in  Upper  Lusa- 
tia  in  1736.  He  published  editions  of  Longinus,  Plu- 
tarch, Isocrates,  and  other  classics,  and  wrote  several 
original  works,  among  which  are  "Theological  and  Philo- 
logical Dissertations,"  (1787,)  and  an  "Epitome  of 
Christian  Theology,"  (1789.)    Died  in  1792. 

Morveau.    See  Guyton  de  Morveau. 

Morville,  de,  deh  moR^v^K,  (Charles  Jean  Bap- 
TiSTE  Fleuriau — flu're'6',)  Comte,  a  French  diploma- 
tist, born  in  Paris  in  1686,  was  ambassador  to  Holland 
in  1 7 18,  and  induced  the  States-General  to  sign  the 
Quadruple  Alliance.  He  became  minister  of  foreign 
afiairs  in  1723,  and  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy 
the  same  year.    Died  in  1732. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires." 

Morvillier,  de,  deh  mor've'yk',  (Jean,)  a  French  ne- 
gotiator, born  at  Blois  in  1506.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Orleans  in  1552,  and  was  keeper  of  the  seals  about  two 
years,  (1568-70.)    Died  in  1577. 

Mor'y-spn  or  Mor'i-spn,  (Fynes,)  an  English  travel- 
ler, born  in  1566.  He  visited  the  greater  part  of  Europe, 
and  wrote  an  account  of  his  travels,  which  was  pub- 
lished after  his  death,  under  the  title  of  "  Itinerary, 


containing  his  Ten  Years'  Travel,"  (161 7.)  Died  about 
1614. 

See  Harris,  "  Ireland  ;"  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  xi.,(i82S.) 

Morzillo.    See  Fox,  (Sebastian.) 
Mosbourg  or  Mosburg.  See  Agar,  (Jean  Antotne 
Michel.) 

Mosca,  mos'kl,  (Francesco,)  called  Moschino, 
(mos-kee'no,)  an  Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  born  near 
Florence  about  1520  ;  died  after  1572. 

Moscati,  mos-kl'tee,  (Pif.tro,)  Count,  an  Italian 
physician  and  writer,  born  at  Milan  about  1740,  was 
made  president  of  the  Cisalpine  republic  in  1798.  He 
was  afterwards  created  by  Napoleon  a  count,  and  sena- 
tor of  Italy.    Died  in  1824. 

Moscheles,  mosh^eh-lgs',  (Ignaz,)  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man pianist  and  composer  for  the  piano,  born  at  Prague 
in  1794,  was  the  son  of  a  Jewish  merchant.  After  visit- 
ing Holland,  France,  and  England,  he  became  in  182=; 
professor  of  music  at  the  Academy  in  London.  In  1846 
he  was  associated  with  his  pupil,  Felix  Mendelssohn,  as 
director  of  the  Conservatory  at  Leipsic.  His  principal 
works  are  sonatas,  songs,  and  instrument-pieces  of 
various  kinds.    Died  in  1870. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  MusJeiens." 

Moscheni,  mos-ka'nee,  (Costanza,)  an  Italian  poet- 
ess, born  at  Lucca  in  1786;  died  in  1831. 

Mosoherosch,  mosh'eh-rosh',  (Johann  Michael,) 
a  German  writer,  born  at  Wilstadt  in  1600.  He  was 
the  author  of  "Wonderful  and  True  Visions  of  Phi- 
lander von  Sittewald,"  (1644,)  a  collection  of  allegorical 
satires  in  the  style  of  Quevedo,  which  are  characterized 
by  great  acuteness,  originality,  and  powers  of  humour. 
Died  in  1669. 

See  Gervinus.  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Nationalliteratur." 

Moschini,  mos-kee'nee,  (Giannantonio,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Venice  in  1773.  wrote  a  "  History 

of  Venetian  Literature  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (4 
vols.,  1807-09,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1840. 

Mos'-ehi-on,  [Moa;t:«a»r,]  a  Greek  medical  writer, 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  second  century  of  the 
Christian  era,  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "On  the 
Diseases  of  Women,"  which  was  first  published  in  Wolfs 
"  Gynaeciorum  Commentarii,"  (1566.) 

See  Fabkicius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grasca." 

Moschopule.    See  Moschopulus. 

Mos-eho-pu'lus,  [Gr.  MoaxoTvovAog ;  Fr.  Moscho- 
pule, mo^sho'piiK,]  (Manuel,)  a  Byzantine  grammarian, 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  to 
have  been  a  native  of  Crete,  There  was  another  writer 
of  the  same  name,  said  to  have  been  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  and  born  at  Constantinople.  Among  the  works 
attributed  to  them,  which  are  chiefly  grammatical,  we 
may  mention  "Scholia  on  the  Tragedies  of  Euripides," 
"  Erotemata,  or  Grammatical  Questions,"  and  "  Scholia 
on  Hesiod  and  Pindar." 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grasca ;"  Montucla,  "Histoire 
des  Mathematiques." 

Mos'-ehus,  [Mo(T;^6f,]  a  Greek  pastoral  poet,  born  in 
Syracuse,  flourished  about  200  B.C.  He  was  contempo- 
rary with  Bion,  to  whose  memory  he  wrote  a  beautiful 
elegy.  A  few  idyls  are  the  only  extant  works  of 
Moschus. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1836. 

Moscoso  de  Alvarado,  de,  di  mos-ko'so  d&  il-vS- 
rS-'Do,  (Don  Luis,)  a  Spanish  soldier,  born  at  Badajoz 
in  1505.  He  served  under  Hernando  de  Soto  in  the 
conquest  of  Florida  in  1539  and  1540.  On  the  death  of 
De  Soto,  Moscoso  was  chosen  general  in  his  stead.  He 
died  in  Peru  about  1560. 

Moseley,  moz'le,  (Benjamin,)  born  in  Essex,  Eng- 
land, became  physician  to  Chelsea  Hospital.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Tropics,"  and 
other  works  ;  but  he  is  chiefly  known  from  his  violent 
opposition  to  vaccination.    Died  in  1819. 

Moseley,  (Henry,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  clergyman 
and  scientific  writer,  born  about  1800.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy  in  King's  College,  London, 
and  chaplain  to  Queen  Victoria  in  1855.  Among  his 
works  is  "  Mechanical  Principles  of  Engineering  and 
Architecture,"  (1855.) 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Kyguttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i:^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

103 


MOSELLANUS 


MOSSOP 


Mosellanus,  mo-zgl-lS'nCis,  (Petrus  Schade — 
shS'deh,)  a  German  scholar  and  promoter  of  classical 
learning,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Treves  in  1493.  In 
15 14  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek 
in  the  University  of  Leipsic.  He  was  intimate  with 
Melanchthon  and  Erasmus.    Died  in  1524. 

Mosen,  mo'zen,  (Julius,)  a  German  litteratenr,  born 
in  Saxony  in  1803.  He  wrote  "Andreas  Hofer,"  and 
other  poems,  also  several  novels  and  dramas. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Mosengeil,  mo'zen-gil',  (Friedrich,)  a  popular  Ger- 
man writer,  born  near  Eisenach  in  1773.  He  published 
"  Summer  Evening  Hours,"  "  Liebenstein  and  the  New 
Arcadians,"  and  other  fictitious  works,  which  have  a 
high  reputation.    Died  in  1839. 

Mo'ser,  (George  Michael,)  a  Swiss  artist,  born  at 
Schaffhausen  about  1705.  In  1726  he  settled  in  London, 
where  he  soon  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  his  orna- 
mental gold-work  and  enamelling.  In  1768  he  was  ap- 
pointed keeper  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts.  "  Moser," 
says  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  "  had  a  universal  knowledge 
in  all  branches  of  painting  and  sculpture,  and  may  truly 
be  said  in  every  sense  to  have  been  the  father  of  the 
present  race  of  artists." 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Moser,  mo'zer,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  German  publicist, 
born  at  Stuttgart  in  1 701,  became  in  1727  professor  of 
law  in  the  Imperial  College  at  Tiibingen.  In  1736  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  University  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder.  As  a  writer  he  was  remarkable  for  his 
indefatigable  industry,  the  whole  number  of  his  works 
amounting  to  upwards  of  four  hundred.    Died  in  1785. 

See  J.  J.  Moser's  Autobiography,  ("  Lebensgeschichte  J.  J.  Mo- 
ser's,")  1783  ;  Ledderhose,  "Ziige  aus  dem  Leben  J.  J.  Moser's," 
1843;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Moser  or  Moeser,  mo'zer,  (Justus,)  an  eminent 
German  writer  and  jurist,  born  at  Osnabriick  in  1720, 
was  chief  director  of  the  government  of  Osnabriick  for 
about  twenty  years,  ( 1 761-81,)  and  rendered  important 
services  to  the  state.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
good  "History  of  Osnabriick,"  (1768,)  and  "Patriotic 
Fancies,"  (3  vols.,  1775,)  which  was  very  popular.  His 
complete  works  were  published  in  10  vols.,  1843.  Died 
in  1794. 

See  F.  NicoLAi,  "Leben  J.  Moesers,"  1797:  Abeken,  "  Re- 
liquien  von  J.  Moeser,"  1837;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
April,  1843. 

Moser,  (Mary,)  daughter  of  George  Michael  Moser, 
noticed  above,  acquired  great  celebrity  as  a  flower- 
painter.  A  room  at  Frogmore,  which  she  adorned  with 
flowers,  is  called  "Miss  Moser's  room."  She  was 
chosen  an  Academician  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Lon- 
don, and  was  the  only  lady  besides  Angelica  Kauffman 
who  ever  received  that  honour.  She  became  Mrs.  Lloyd 
by  marriage.    Died  in  1819. 

Moser,  von,  fon  mo'zer,  (Friedrich  Karl,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1723,  was  a  son  of  Johann 
JakolD  Moser,  noticed  above.  He  was  successively  aulic 
councillor  at  Vienna,  and  member  of  the  administration 
of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  (1770.)  He  published  several  legal 
works,  a  "  History  of  the  Waldenses,"  and  "  The  Mas- 
ter and  Servant,"  ("  Der  Herr  und  der  Diener,"  1759.) 
The  last-named  production,  illustrating  the  duties  of  a 
sovereign  and  his  minister,  had  great  popularity.  He 
was  for  some  years  editor  of  the  "  Patriotisches  Archiv." 
Died  in  1798. 

See  H.  VON  Busche,  "  F.  C.  von  Moser  aus  seinen  Schriften  sein 
Geist,"  etc.,  1846. 

Mo'ses,  [Heb.  ni^D  ;  Gr.  Mwcr^f;  Lat.  Mo'sES;  Fr. 
MoYSE  or  MoiSE,  mo'^z' ;  It.  Moisfe,  mo-e-sa' ;  Arabic, 
MoosA,  moo'si,]  an  eminent  Hebrew  legislator  and 
prophet,  born  in  Egypt  about  1570  B.C.,  was  a  son  of 
Amram,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi.  In  consequence  of  a  royal 
edict  that  all  male  infants  of  the  Hebrews  should  be 
killed,  he  was  deposited  by  his  mother  in  an  ark  or 
basket  on  the  border  of  the  Nile,  and  found  by  Pharaoh's 
daughter,  who  adopted  him  as  her  son.  He  became 
"learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians,  and  mighty 
in  words  and  deeds,"  and  about  the  age  of  forty  began 
to  meditate  the  liberation  of  the  oppressed  Hebrews. 
Having  incurred  the  anger  of  the  king  by  his  active 
sympathy  with  his  own  race,  he  fled  to  Midian,  where 


he  served  as  a  shepherd  about  forty  years.  He  received 
a  divine  mission  to  bring  the  children  of  Israel  out  of 
Egypt  to  the  land  of  Canaan.  Under  his  guidance  the 
chosen  people  passed  through  the  Red  Sea  into  the 
Wilderness.  He  was  instrumental  in  composing  for 
them  a  code  of  laws  called  by  his  name,  and  is  the  re- 
puted author  of  the  book  of  Genesis  and  other  books 
of  the  Pentateuch.  The  form  of  government  which  he 
prescribed  to  the  Hebrews  was  a  theocracy.  The  funda- 
mental principles  of  the  Mosaic  law  were  that  man  must 
worship  the  only  true  God  exclusively,  and  love  his 
neighbour  as  himself.  Having  appointed  Joshua  as  his 
successor,  and  obtained  a  distant  view  of  the  promised 
land,  Moses  died  on  Mount  Pisgah,  aged  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty  years.  He  was  pre-eminent  for 
meekness. 

See  Exodus  ii.-xl. ;  Leviticus  i.-xxvii. ;  Numbers  i.-xxxvi.  ; 
Deuteronomy  i.-xxxiv.  :  Matthew  xvii.  3 ;  Luke  xxiv.  27 ;  John  iii. 
14,  V.  45,  viu  19;  Acts  vii.  20-44;  Hebrews  iii.  2,  3,  5,  xi.  23-29; 
Revelation  xv.  3;  Warburton,  "Divine  Legation  of  Moses  De- 
monstrated," 1788;  J.  J.  Hess,  "  Geschichte  Mosis,"  1777  ;  E.  Bous- 
QUET,  "  Histoire  de  sept  Reformateurs,"  1853;  D.  W.  Moller, 
"  Dissertatio  de  Mose  Philosopho,"  1707;  John  Campbell,  "Life 
of  Moses,"  1738. 

Mo'ses  -eho-re-nen'sis,  {i.e.  "of  Chorene,")  an  Ar- 
menian writer  and  bishop,  flourished  about  460  A.D. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Armenia." 

Mosheim,  von,  fon  mos'him,  [Lat.  Moshe'mius  or 
Moshei'mius,]  (Johann  Lorenz,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man theologian,  pulpit  orator,  and  historian,  born  at 
Lubeck  in  1694.  He  studied  at  Kiel,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Helmstedt  in  1725.  In  1747  he 
obtained  the  chair  of  theology  at  Gottingen,  with  the 
title  of  chancellor  of  the  university.  He  was  eminently 
successful  as  a  teacher,  and  acquired  a  wide  celebrity  for 
his  eloquence.  His  great  work  entitled  "  Institutes  of 
Ecclesiastical  History,"  (2  vols.  i2mo,  1726,)  originally 
written  in  Latin,  has  been  translated  into  French,  Ger- 
man, and  English.  Among  his  other  writings  we  may 
name  "  Commentaries  on  Christianity  before  the  Time 
of  Constantine  the  Great,"  (1753,)  and  "Morality  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures,"  (9  vols.)  He  also  translated  into 
Latin  Cudworth's  "Intellectual  System."    Died  in  1755. 

See  F.  Lucke,  "  Narratio  de  J.  L.  Moshemio,"  1837 ;  J.  M. 
Gessner,  "  Memoria  J.  L.  Mosheimii,"  1755;  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie Generale." 

Moshemius  or  Mosheimius.    See  Mosheim. 

Moslemah,  mos'le-mah,  a  famous  Arabian  captain, 
a  son  of  the  caliph  Abd-el-Malek.  He  commanded  the 
armies  of  his  brothers,  Waleed  I.,  Soliman,  Yezeed  II., 
and  Hesham.  He  defeated  the  army  of  the  Greek  em- 
peror in  716  A.D.   Died  about  740  A.D. 

Mosneron-Delaunay,  mos''neh-r6N'  deh-lo^nk', 
(Jean  Baptiste,)  Baron,  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Nantes  in  1 738,  translated  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost" 
into  French.    Died  in  1830. 

Mosquera,  mos-ka'rS,  (Don  RuY  Garcia,)  a  Spanish 
navigator,  born  in  1 501,  sailed  with  Sebastian  Cabot  on 
his  voyage  to  South  America  in  1526,  and  subsequently 
became  one  of  the  founders  of  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres. 

See  Charlevoix,  "  Histoire  du  Paraguay  ;"  Southey,  "  Histoiy 
of  Brazil." 

Moss,  (Charles,)  an  English  theologian,  a  nephew 
of  Robert,  noticed  below,  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Saint 
David's  in  1766.  He  wrote  several  theological  treatises. 
Died  in  1802. 

Moss,  (Robert,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Norfolk 
in  1666.  He  obtained  great  popularity  as  a  preacher, 
and  was  successively  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  William  III. 
and  Queen  Anne.  He  died  in  1729,  leaving  a  number 
of  sermons,  and  some  Latin  and  English  poems. 

Mossen  Jordi  de  San  Jordi,  mos-sSn'  hoR-dee'  di 
sin  hoR-dee',  a  Spanish  poet,  who  wrote  in  the  Catalonian 
dialect,  lived  about  1230. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Mos'som,  (RoRERT,)  an  Irish  prelate,  was  created 
Bishop  of  Londonderry  after  the  restoration.  '  He  wrote, 
among  other  works,  "The  Preacher's  Tripartite,"  and 
"  Zion's  Prospect  in  its  First  View."    Died  in  1679. 

Mos'sop,  (Henry,)  an  Irish  tragedian,  born  in  1729. 
He  obtained  a  high  reputation  as  an  actor,  both  on  the 
Dublin  stage  and  in  London,  where  he  was  regarded  as 
nearly  equal  to  Garrick.    Died  in  1773. 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  \  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,    short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fSll,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MOSTJERT  1635  MOTT 


Mostaert,  mos'tlRt,  (Francis  and  Giles,)  Flemish 
painters,  born  at  Hulst  in  1525,  were  twins,  and  sons  of 
Jan,  noticed  below.  Francis  painted  landscapes  with 
success,  and  died  in  1 556,  Giles,  who  was  a  historical 
painter,  died  in  1601. 

Mostaert,  mos'ttrt,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  paintenf  born  at 
Haarlem  in  1499,  was  a  pupil  of  James  of  Haarlem.  He 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation,  and  was  patronized  by  the 
archduchess  Margaret  of  Austria.  Among  his  master- 
pieces are  a  "  Nativity,"  "  Ecce  Homo,"  and  "  Discord 
throwing  the  Apple."    Died  in  1555. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "  Dictionary  of  Painters ;"  Descamps,  "Vies 
des  Peintres  Flamands,  HoUandais,"  etc. 

Mostaiiser-Billah,  mos'tin'ser  bil'lah,  sometimes 
written  Moiitaser-Billah,  a  caliph  and  patron  of  learn- 
ing, born  at  Cordova,  Spain,  in  910  A.D.  He  began  to 
reign  in  961.  He  founded  several  colleges,  and  a  library 
of  600,000  volumes.    Died  in  976. 

See  RoMEY,  "  Histoire  d'Espagne." 

Mostasem-Billah,  Al,  tl  mos'ti'sem  bil'lah,  ( Aboo- 
Ahmed-Abdallah,  ^'hob  WmM  ab-diKlah,)  the  last 
Abbasside  caliph  of  Bagdad,  was  born  in  1221,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Mostanser  in  1242.  He  was  conquered 
and  put  to  death  in  1258  by  Hoolagoo. 

See  Weil,  "  Geschichte  der  Chalifen." 

Mostowsky,  mos-tov'skee,  (Thaddeus,)  Count,  a 
distinguished  Polish  patriot  and  diplomatist,  born  at 
Warsaw  in  1766.  He  published  a  good  edition  of  the 
Polish  classics,  (25  vols.,  Warsaw,  1803-05.)  He  lived 
many  years  in  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1842. 

Motanebby.    See  Al-Mootenabbee. 

Motasem-  ( or  Motassem- )  Billah,  mo'tis'sem 
biKlah,  Caliph  of  Bagdad,  born  near  Samosata  in  794 
A.D.,  was  a  son  of  Haroun-al-Raschid.  He  succeeded  his 
brother  Mamoon  in  833.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  cruel 
tyrant.    Died  in  842. 

See  Abooi.feda,  "  Annales  Moslemici ;"  Weil,  "Geschichte 
der  Chalifen  Sandenburg  Matthiessen,  "  Historia  Chalifatus 
Al-Motacinii,"  1849. 

Motenabbi.  See  Al-Mootenabbee. 
Motenebbi.  See  Al-Mootenabbee. 
Mothe,  La.    See  La  Mothe. 

Mothe  le  Vayer,  de  la,  deh  It  mot  leh  vt'yi', 
(FkANgois,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1588,  was 
appointed  preceptor  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  (1649,)  and 
to  the  dauphin,  afterwards  Louis  XIV.,  (1652.)  He 
published  a  treatise  "On  the  Virtue  of  the  Pagans," 
(1642,)  in  answer  to  which  Arnauld  wrote  his  tract  "On 
the  Necessity  of  Faith  in  Jesus  Christ."  He  was  the 
author  of  other  works  on  various  subjects,  which  had 
great  popularity  at  the  time.  He  had  been  elected  in 
1639  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1672. 

See  L.  fixiENNE,  "  Essai  sur  La  Mothe  le  Vayer,"  1849  ;  Bayle, 
"Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary,"  Mor^ki,  "  Dictionnaire  His- 
toriqiie  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Motherwell,  muth'er-wel,  (William,)  a  Scottish 
poet,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1798.  He  published  in  1827 
an  interesting  collection  of  ballads,  entitled  "  Minstrelsy, 
Ancient  and  Modern."  He  afterwards  edited  succes- 
sively the  "  Paisley  Magazine,"  "  Paisley  Advertiser," 
and  "Glasgow  Courier."  His  "  Poems,  Narrative  and 
l,yrical,"  published  in  1833,  are  remarkable  for  pathos 
and  ei'-nestness  of  feeling.    Died  in  1835. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement ;)  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  second  series,  1828  ; 
"Democratic  Review"  for  January,  1842. 

Motiii,  mo't^N',  (Pierre,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Bourges,  lived  about  1 570-1600.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  short  poems,  which  are  commended  for  grace  and 
delicacy  of  sentiment. 

Mot'ley,  (John  Lothrop,)  an  eminent  American 
historian,  born  at  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
15th  of  April,  1814.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1831, 
studied  about  a  year  in  the  University  of  Gottingen,  and 
passed  several  years  in  visits  to  various  countries  of 
Europe.  Having  returned  home,  he  studied  law,  which, 
however,  he  never  practised  to  much  extent.  He  pub- 
lished in  1839a  novel  entitled  "Morton's  Hope,  or  the 
Memoirs  of  a  Young  Provincial."  In  1840  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  legation  at  Saint  Petersburg,  where 
he  remained  but  a  short  time.  He  contributed  articles 
to  the  "  North  American  Review"  and  other  periodicals, 


and  produced  in  1849  "Merry  Mount,  a  Romance," 
which  had  little  success.  Having  resolved  to  write  a 
work  on  the  history  of  Holland,  he  went  to  Europe  in 
185 1  to  collect  materials  and  to  make  researches  on 
that  subject.  He  passed  several  years  at  Dresden,  Ber- 
lin, and  the  Hague,  and  published  "The  Rise  of  the 
Dutch  Republic:  a  History,"  (London,  3  vols.  8vo,  1856,) 
a  work  of  great  merit  and  profound  research,  which  ran 
through  several  editions  and  was  translated  into  French, 
Dutch,  and  German.  Commenting  on  Prescott's  "Philip 
II."  and  Motley's  "  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  of  January,  1857,  says,  "They  do 
honour  to  American  literature,  and  they  would  do  honour 
to  any  literature  in  the  world."  His  next  work — a 
continuation  of  the  first — is  entitled  "The  History  of 
the  United  Netherlands  from  the  Death  of  William 
the  Silent  to  the  Synod  of  Dort,"  (4  vols.,  1860-67.) 

"  Mr.  Motley's  History  of  the  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Re- 
public," says  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  Janu- 
ary, 1861,  "is  already  known  and  valued  for  the  grasp 
of  mind  which  it  displays,  for  the  earnest  and  manly 
spirit  in  which  he  has  communicated  the  results  of  deep 
research  and  careful  reflection.  Again  he  appears  before 
us,  rich  with  the  spoils  of  time,  to  tell  the  story  of  the 
United  Netherlands  from  the  death  of  William  the 
Silent  to  the  end  of  the  eventful  year  of  the  Spanish 
Armada;  and  we  still  find  him  in  every  way  worthy  of 
this  'great  argument.'  .  .  .  Many  of  Mr.  Motley's  char- 
acteristics as  a  historian  will  appear  from  the  extracts 
which  we  have  made.  It  will  be  seen  how  vividly  he 
can  depict  the  places,  the  men,  the  deeds,  of  other  days. 
But  the  work  itself  must  be  read  to  appreciate  the  vast 
and  conscientious  industry  which  he  has  so  lavishly 
bestowed  upon  it.  .  .  .  Diligent  and  painstaking  as  the 
humblest  chronicler,  he  has  availed  himself  of  many 
sources  of  information  which  have  not  been  made  use 
of  by  any  previous  historical  writer.  At  the  same  time, 
he  is  not  oppressed  by  his  materials,  but  has  sagacity  to 
estimate  their  real  value  ;  and  he  has  combined  and  ar- 
ranged with  scholarly  power  the  facts  which  they  contain." 

In  1861  he  was  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  to 
Austria.  He  resigned  this  position  early  in  1867,  in 
consequence  of  an  offensive  letter  which  Mr.  Seward, 
secretary  of  state,  addressed  to  him.  In  the  spring  of 
1869  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  England  by  President 
Grant. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  i86t  ;  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  December,  1859,  and  May,  1861  ;  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  i86g  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  April, 
1861  ;  "  North  British  Review"  for  May,  1861. 

Mott,  originally  Coffin,  (Lucretia,)  an  American 
reformer  and  philanthropist,  born  on  the  island  of 
Nantucket  in  1793.  About  1808  her  parents,  who  were 
members  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  or  Quakers,  removed 
to  Philadelphia.  In  1811  she  was  married  to  James 
Mott,  of  New  York,  who  soon  afterwards  came  to  Phila- 
delphia and  entered  into  mercantile  business  with  her 
father.  While  still  very  young,  her  attention  had  been 
called  to  the  iniquity  of  slavery,  and  she  felt  it  her  duty 
to  abstain  from  the  products  of  slave  labour.  She  trav- 
elled extensively  as  a  minister,  preaching  the  peculiar 
doctrines  of  the  society  in  which  she  had  been  educated, 
inculcating  obedience  to  the  Divine  light  within  the 
heart,  and  exposing  the  sinfulness  of  slavery  and  war. 
At  the  time  of  the  separation  in  the  Society  of  Friends, 
in  1827,  she  joined  those  popularly  known  as  "  Hicks- 
ites,"  (see  Hicks,  Elias,)  and  distinguished  herself  by 
the  advocacy  of  Unitarian  views  of  the  most  radical 
kind.  She  took  an  active  part  (1833)  in  the  organization 
of  the  Anti-Slavery  Society  in  Philadelphia,  and  in  1840 
went  as  a  delegate  to  the  World's  Anti-Slavery  Conven- 
tion, held  in  London  ;  but,  though  otherwise  treated  with 
the  greatest  respect  and  courtesy,  she  was  not  admitted 
as  a  delegate,  a  majority  of  the  convention  having  de- 
cided that  women  should  be  excluded  from  any  active 
participation  in  the  business  of  the  assembly. 

Mrs.  Mott  has  long  been  known  as  an  earnest  and 
eloquent  advocate  of  anti-slavery  principles,  of  the  rights 
of  women,  and  of  other  reformatory  movements.  As  a 
speaker  she  is  characterized  by  an  unaffected  simplicity 
and  earnestness  of  manner,  as  well  as  by  clearness  and 
propriety  of  expression.    Her  high  moral  qualities,  her 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2l^^See  Explanations,  p.  2j 


MOTT 


1636 


MOULIN 


uncommon  intelligence,  the  beauty  and  consistency  of 
her  general  character, — illustrated  in  her  domestic  as 
well  as  in  her  public  life, — are  such  as  to  command  the 
respect  even  of  those  who  in  opinion  differ  most  widely 
from  her  in  regard  to  religious  and  social  questions. 

See  "  Eminent  Women  of  the  Age,"  1868. 

Mott,  (Vat.entine,)  a  famous  American  surgeon, 
born  at  Glen  Cove,  Long  Island,  New  York,  in  August, 
1785,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Mott,  of  New  York  City.  He 
graduated  as  M.D.  at  Columbia  College  in  1806,  and 
afterwards  pursued  his  studies  in  London  and  Edinburgh. 
He  became  professor  of  surgery  in  Columbia  College, 
New  York,  about  1809.  In  1826  he  united  with  Dr. 
Hosack  and  others  in  founding  Rutgers  Medical  Col- 
lege. He  acquired  a  wide  celebrity  by  his  skill  as  an 
operator  and  by  the  original  operations  which  he  per- 
formed. It  is  said  that  he  was  the  first  that  exsected 
the  entire  right  clavicle,  and  that  he  tied  the  common 
carotid  artery  forty-six  times.  Sir  Astley  Cooper  ex- 
pressed the  opinion  that  Dr.  Mott  "  had  performed 
more  of  the  great  operations  than  any  man  living."  He 
was  for  many  years  professor  of  surgery  and  relative 
anatomy  in  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New 
York.  Among  his  writings  are  "Travels  in  Europe 
and  the  East,"  (1842,)  and  "  Mott's  Cliniques,"  (i860.) 
Died  in  1865. 

Motte,  de  la,  deh  It  mot,  (Antoine  Houdart — 
/^ooMtR^)  a  French  critic  and  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1672.  He  was  the  author  of  the  dramas  of  "  Semele," 
"The  Triumph  of  the  Arts,"  and  "Inez  de  Castro," 
(172-^.)  The  last-named  was  very  successful.  He  trans- 
lated Homer's  "Iliad,"  which  he  abridged  for  the  sake 
of  improving  it,  and  thus,  in  the  words  of  Voltaire, 
"changed  a  form  glowing  with  youth  and  health  into  a 
fleshless  skeleton."  Among  his  other  works  we  may 
name  his  "Reflections  on  Criticism,"  (1715,)  in  which 
he  maintains  the  superiority  of  the  moderns  over  the 
ancients.  It  caused  a  great  sensation,  and  excited 
against  him  no  little  hostility  among  the  literati.  His 
prose  writings  are  esteemed  models  of  elegant  compo- 
sition. La  Motte  had  been  chosen  in  17 10  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy,  having  Rousseau  as  his  com- 
petitor.   Died  in  1731. 

See  Herissant,  "Vie  de  Houdart  de  la  Motte  ;"  Villemain, 
"Conrs  de  Litterature  Frangaise "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Motte,  du  Bois  de  la,  dii  bw§,  deh  It  mot,  (Em- 
manuel AuGUSTE  de  Cahideuc — deh  kt7^eMuk',) 
Com  I'E,  a  French  admiral,  born  at  Rennes  in  1683  ;  died 
in  1764. 

Motte-Cadillac,  de  la,  deh  It  mot  kt'de'ytk',  (An- 
toine,) a  French  officer,  noted  as  the  founder  of  Detroit, 
was  born  in  Gascony  about  1660.  He  formed  a  settle- 
ment at  Detroit  in  1701,  and  was  appointed  Governor 
of  Louisiana  about  1711.    Died  after  1717. 

Motte-Guyon.  See  Guyon,  (Jeanne  Bouvier  de 
LA  Motte.) 

Motte,  La.    See  Lamotte. 

Motteux,  mo'tuh',  (Pierre  Antoine,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Rouen  in  1660.  On  the  revocation 
of  the  edict  of  Nantes  he  settled  in  London,  where  he 
acquired  a  thorough  knowledge  of  English  and  pub- 
lished a  number  of  dramas.  Among  the  principal  of 
these  we  may  name  "  The  Amorous  Miser,"  and  "  Beauty 
in  T^istress."  He  also  made  an  English  translation  of 
"  Don  Quixote,"  wliich  is  pronounced  by  Lord  Wood- 
houselee  "by  far  the  best  version  we  have  yet  had  of 
the  romance  of  Cervantes."   Died  in  1718. 

See  CiBBER,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dra- 
malica." 

Motteville,  de,  deh  mot'v^K,  (FRANgoiSE  Bertaut 
— b^R'to',)  a  French  lady,  born  in  Normandy  about 
162T,  was  a  favourite  and  companion  of  Anne  of  Austria, 
queen  of  Louis  XHI.  She  was  the  author  of  "  Memoirs 
towards  the  History  of  Anne  of  Austria."  Died  in  1689. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Caiiseries  du  Lundi." 

Mottez,  mo'ti',  (Louis  Victor,)  a  French  painter  of 
historv  and  portraits,  born  at  Lille  in  1809. 

MottTey,  (Torn,)  an  English  dramatic  and  his- 
torical writer,  born  in  1692.  Among  his  works  is  a 
drama  entitled  "  The  Imperial  Captives,"  a  "  Life  of  the 


Czar  Peter  the  Great,"  "  History  of  Catherine  of  Russia,** 
and  the  collection  of  witticisms  called  "Joe  Miller's 
Jests."    Died  in  1750. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Moucheron,  moosh'r^N',  (Frederik,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Emden  in  1633.  His 
pictures  are  remarkable  for  the  graceful  form  and  group- 
ing of  the  trees  and  the  transparency  of  the  water.  The 
figures  and  animals  in  his  landscapes  were  painted  by 
Helmbreeker  and  Adrian  van  der  Velde.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  "The  Setting  Sun,"  and  "Morning." 
Died  in  1686. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Moucheron,  (Izaak,)  a  painter  and  engraver,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1670.  He 
painted  in  the  same  style  as  his  father,  and  was  regarded 
as  his  equal.    Died  about  1740. 

Mouchet,  moo'shi',  (Francois  Nicolas,)  a  skilful 
French  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was  born  in 
Franche-Comte  in  1750;  died  in  1814. 

Mouohon,  moo^shoN',  (Pierre,)  a  Swiss  litterateur, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1733,  was  a  friend  of  J.  J.  Rousseau. 
He  published  "Table  analytique  et  raisonnee  des  Ma- 
tieres  contenues  dans  I'Encyclopedie,"  (2  vols.,  1780.) 
Died  in  1797. 

Mouchy,  de,  deh  moo'she',  (Philippe  de  Noailles 

— deh  no''tl'  or  no't'ye,)  Due,  a  French  marshal,  born 
in  Paris  in  171 5,  was  a  son  of  the  Due  de  Noailles.  He 
served  in  all  the  wars  that  the  French  waged  between 
1733  1759-  He  defended  the  king  when  the  palace 
was  attacked  by  a  mob,  in  1792,  and  was  executed  as  a 
royalist  in  1 794. 

Mouette,  moo'^t',  (Germain,)  a  French  traveller, 
born  near  Dourdan  in  1652,  was  taken  by  the  Algerines, 
and  was  kept  in  captivity  for  eleven  years.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  the  Conquests  of  Mouley  Archy, 
and  his  brother  Mouley  Ismael,  Kings  of  Morocco," 
etc.,  (1683.)    Died  about  1690. 

Moufet,  pronounced,  and  sometimes  written,  Muf- 
fett,  (Thomas,)  an  English  physician  and  naturalist, 
born  in  London  about  1550.  He  was  the  principal 
author  of  the  work  entitled  "  Theatre  of  Insects,"  ("  In- 
sectorum  sive  Minimorum  Animalium  Theatrum,"  1634,) 
which  is  highly  commended  by  Cuvier  and  Haller.  He 
also  published  several  medical  treatises,  among  which 
are  "  Health's  Improvement,"  etc.,  and  "  De  Jure  et 
Prasstantia  Chymicorum  Medicamentorum."  Died  in 
1600. 

See  Wood,  "Athen^e  Oxonienses;"  Cuvier,  "  Histoire  d«s 
Sciences  naturelles." 

Mougin,  moo'zhiN',  (Pierre  Antoine,)  a  French 
astronomer,  born  near  Baume-les-Dames  in  1735;  died 
in  1816. 

Mouhy,  de,  deh  moo'e',  (Charles  de  Pieux— deh 
fe-uh',)  Chevalier,  a  French  novelist,  born  at  Metz  in 
1701.  He  wrote  many  works  of  inferior  quality.  Died 
in  1784. 

Moulac,  moo'ltk',  (Vincent  Marie,)  an  able  French 
naval  officer,  born  at  Lorient  in  1780  ;  died  in  1836. 

Moulin,  (Jean  Francois  Auguste.)  See  Moulins. 

Movilin,  du,  (Charles.)    See  Dumoulin. 

Moulin,  du,  dii  moo'l^N',  (Louis,)  a  son  of  the  fol- 
lowing, was  born  m  1606.  He  studied  at  Leyden,  and 
afterwards  became  a  zealous  partisan  of  Cromwell  and 
the  Independents,  through  whose  influence  he  was  made 
Camden  professor  of  history  at  Oxford.    Died  in  16S3. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Moulin,  du,  [Lat.  Molin^'us,]  (Pierre,)  an  eminent 
French  Protestant  theologian,  born  in  1568,  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Leyden.  He  afterwards  filled  the  chair  of  theology 
at  Sedan.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "On  the 
Recent  Origin  of  Popery,"  and  of  other  works.  Died 
about  1658. 

See  Mkursius,  "Athens  Batavae." 

Moulin,  du,  (Pierre,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Paris  about  1600.  Having  graduated  at  Leyden, 
he  repaired  to  England,  where  he  subsequently  became 
chaplain-in-ordina'ry  to  Charles  TI.  He  is  chiefly  known 
as  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  The  Cry  of  Royal 


e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fSll,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good:  moon; 


MOULINS 


637 


MOXON 


Blood  to  Heaven,"  written  in  reference  to  the  execution 
of  Charles  I.  He  died  in  1680,  leaving  a  number  of 
controversial  treatises. 

See  MM.  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Moulins.    See  Desmoulins. 

Moiilins  or  Moulin,  moo^aN',  (Jean  FRANgois 
AUGUSTE,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Caen  in  1752.  He 
was  appointed  general -in-chief  of  the  army  of  England 
in  October,  1798.  In  June,  1799,  he  was  elected  one  of 
the  Directors  of  the  republic.  He  united  with  Gohier 
to  oppose  Bonaparte  in  the  cotip  d'etat  of  the  i8th  Bru- 
maire,  (November,  1799.)    Died  in  1810. 

See  De  Barante,  "Histoire  du  Directoire." 

Moullah.    See  Moollah. 

Moulton,  moKton,  (Joseph  White,)  an  American 
antiquary  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Stratford,  Con- 
necticut, in  1789,  published  a  "History  of  Early  New 
York,"  (1826,)  and  "New  York  One  Hundred  and 
Seventy  Years  Ago,"  (1849.) 

Moultrie,  moo'tre,  ?  (John,)  an  English  poet,  born 
about  1804.  He  became  rector  of  Rugby,  in  Warwick- 
shire, and  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1837,  and 
other  works,  among  which  is  "The  Dream  of  Life." 

Moultrie,  moo'tre,  (William,)  a  distinguished 
general  of  the  American  Revolution,  born  in  South 
Carolina  in  1731.  In  1776  he  received  the  thanks  of 
Congress  for  his  gallant  defence  of  the  fort  on  Sullivan's 
Island,  which  was  named  Fort  Moultrie  in  his  honour. 
He  assisted  General  Lincoln  in  the  defence  of  Charles- 
ton in  1780,  after  which  he  was  appointed  major-general. 
He  was  elected  Governor  of  South  Carolina  in  1785. 
He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  the  Revolution  in  the  Carolinas 
and  Georgia."    Died  in  1805. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  i. 

Mounier,  moo'ne^i',  (Claude  Edouard  Philippe,) 
Baron,  a  son  of  Jean  Joseph,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Grenoble  in  1784.  In  1809  he  was  appointed  by 
Napoleon  secretary  of  his  cabinet,  and  in  this  capacity 
accompanied  him  in  his  campaigns.  He  was  also 
created  a  baron,  and  in  1812  master  of  requests.  Died 
in  1843. 

See  PoRTALis,  "filoo;e  de  M.  le  Baron  Mounier,"  1844;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mounier,  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  legislator,  eminent 
for  his  talents  and  virtues,  was  born  at  Grenoble  in  1758. 
He  studied  law,  and,  after  he  had  served  as  judge  for 
several  years,  was  elected  in  1789  to  the  States-Gene- 
ral, where  he  distinguished  himself  by  the  moderation 
of  his  liberal  opinions.  He  was  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee appointed  to  form  a  new  constitution,  but  his 
plan  was  rejected.  He  wished  a  legislature  divided 
into  two  chambers.  He  presided  with  credit  over  the 
National  Assembly  from  September  28  to  October  8, 
1789,  during  which  time  the  sessions  of  that  body 
were  disturbed  by  a  mob,  and  then  hastily  retired 
from  the  capital.  Being  denounced  as  a  royalist,  he 
emigrated  in  1790,  and  lived  in  Switzerland,  England, 
and  other  countries,  until  1801.  Having  returned  to 
France,  he  was  appointed  in  1802  prefect  of  Ille-et- 
Vilaine,  and  about  1804  councillor  of  state.  He  died 
in  1806,  leaving  several  able  political  works,  one  of 
which  is  "The  Influence  ascribed  to  the  Philosophers 
and  Free-Masons  on  the  French  Revolution." 

See  Berriat  Saint-Prix,  "  filosre  historique  de  Mounier,"  1806  ; 
Thiers.  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  Mignet,  "History 
of  the  French  Revolution;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mount,  (William  Sidney,)  an  American  painter, 
born  in  Long  Island  about  1808.  His  favourite  subjects 
were  rural  and  domestic  scenes,  and  he  excelled  in 
humorous  and  comic  delineations.  His  "  Farmers  Noon- 
ing," "  Husking  Corn,"  "  Rafifling  for  a  Goose,"  and 
"  Dance  of  the  Haymakers,"  enioy  a  wide  popularity. 
Died  in  1868. 

See  DuNLAP,  "Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in 
America;"  Tuckerman,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Mount'a-gii  or  Mont'a-giie,  (Richard,)  a  learned 
English  prelate,  born  in  Buckinghamshire  in  1578.  He 
was  created  Bishop  of  Norwich  in  1638.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  church  antiquities,  and  was  also 
engaged  in  many  controversies  with  the  Papists  and  the 
Calvinists.    Died  in  1641. 


Mount'ain,  (George  Jehoshaphat,)  a  Protestant 
prelate,  born  at  Quebec,  Canada,  about  1789.  He  be- 
came Bishop  of  Quebec  about  1837.    Died  in  1863. 

Mount'fort,  (William,)  a  distinguished  English 
actor  and  dramatic  writer,  born  in  Staifordshire  in  1659. 
Among  his  principal  plays  are  the  tragedy  of  "  Edward 
III.,"  and  a  farce  entitled  "The  Life  and  Death  of  Dr. 
Faust."    Died  in  1692. 

See  Baker,  "Biographia  Dramatica." 

Moura,  mo'rl,  (Joz6  de  Santo  Antonio,)  a  Portu- 
guese Orientalist,  born  at  Almodovar  ;  died  about  1845, 
Mourad.    See  Moorad. 

Mouradja  d'Ohsson,  moo-ri'jl  dd'son,  (Ignatius,) 
born  at  Constantinople  in  1740,  was  descended  from  an 
Armenian  family.  In  1782  he  was  appointed  ambas- 
sador-extraordinary from  Sweden  to  the  Porte.  He 
published  "A  General  View  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,"  (in 
7  vols,)  a  work  which  is  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1807. 

Mouravief.    See  Mooravief. 

Mouret,  moo'ra',  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  composer, 
born  at  Avignon  in  1682,  produced  a  number  of  popular 
operas  and  songs.    Died  in  1738. 

Mourgues,  mooRg,  (Michel,)  a  learned  French 
Jesuit,  born  in  Auvergne  about  1642,  became  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Toulouse.  Among  his  writings  are 
"  New  Elements  of  Geometry,"  and  a  "  Parallel  between 
Christian  Morality  and  that  of  the  Ancient  Philoso- 
phers."   Died  in  1713. 

Mourgues,  de,  deh  mooRg,  or  Morgues,  moRg, 
(Mathieu,)  Sieur  de  Saint-Germain,  a  French  writer 
and  theologian,  born  in  1582.  He  became  in  1620 
almoner  to  Marie  de  Medicis,  whom  he  accompanied 
in  her  exile  to  Brussels,  England,  and  Cologne.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "  Defence  of  the 
Queen-Mother  and  of  Louis  XIII.,"  (Antwerp,  1637.) 
Died  in  1670. 

Mourlon,  mooR'l6N',  (Fr^d^ric,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Chambon  about  1 8 14.  He  published  several 
legal  works. 

Mousa.    See  Moosa. 

Mouskes,  moosk,  or  Mus,  (Philippe,)  a  Flemish 
historian,  born  at  Ghent  about  121 5,  became  Bishop 
of  Tournay  in  1274.  He  wrote,  in  verse,  a  History  of 
France,  which  was  commended  by  Du  Cange.  It  was 
published  at  Brussels  in  1836-38.    Died  in  1283. 

Moustier,  de,  (Charles  Albert.)  See  Demou.stier. 

Moustier,  de,  deh  moo'te-i',  (Clement  Edou- 
ard,)  Marquis,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  at  Coblentz 
in  1779  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1830. 

Moustier,  de,  (£l6onore  Francois  Elie,)  Mar- 
quis, a  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1751,  was  the  father 
of  the  preceding.  He  was  an  adherent  of  the  Bourbons. 
Died  in  181 7. 

Mouton.    See  Lobau. 

Mouton,  moo'toN',  (Jean,)  a  French  composer  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  a  pupil  of  Josquin  Desprez,  and 
was  patronized  by  Louis  XII.  and  Francis  I. 

Mouton-Fontenille  de  la  Clotte,  moo'toN'  f6Nt'- 
nhV  deh  It  klot,  (Marie  Jacques  Philippe,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1769.  He  wrote  on 
botany  and  ornithology.    Died  in  1837. 

Movers,  mo'vers,  (Franz  Karl,)  a  learned  German 
Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Kosfeld,  in  Westphalia,  in 
1806.  He  became  in  1839  professor  of  the  theology  of 
the  Old  Testament  in  the  Catholic  faculty  at  Breslau. 
His  greatest  work,  entitled  "The  Phoenicians,"  (1850,) 
illustrates  the  religion,  history,  and  antiquities  of  that 
nation.  He  also  published  several  treatises  on  Biblical 
antiquities,  and  wrote  the  article  "  Phoenicia"  in  Ersch 
and  Gruber's  "  Encyclopaedia." 

Mowatt.    See  Ritchie,  (Anna  Cora.) 

Mow'er,  (Joseph  A.,)  an  able  American  general  in 
the  service  of  the  Union.  He  commanded  a  brigade  in 
an  attack  on  Vicksburg,  May,  1863,  and  served  under 
General  Banks  in  Louisiana  in  April,  1864.  He  com- 
manded a  division  of  the  army  of  General  Sherman  in 
its  march  through  the  Carolinas,  1865.  Died  in  Janu- 
ary, 1870. 

Mox'on,  (Joseph,)  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1627,  was 
hydrographer  to  Charles  II.  He  published  several 
treatises  on  mathematics,  navigation,  etc.,  and  carried 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MOT  J 


1638 


MU  CI  AN  US 


on  the  manufacture  of  globes  and  maps.  Died  about 
1700. 

Moya,  de,  di  mo'yS,  (Don  Pedro,)  a  skilful  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Granada  in  1610,  was  a  pupil  of  Juan 
del  Castillo.    He  excelled  as  a  colorist.    Died  in  1666. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Moyle,  inoil,  (Walter,)  an  English  jurist  and  writer, 
born  in  Cornwall  in  1672,  was  a  friend  of  Congreve  and 
Wycherly.  He  was  the  author  of  an  "  Essay  on  the 
Roman  Constitution,"  and  other  works,  and  translated 
Xenophon's  treatise  "  On  the  Revenues  of  Athens." 
Died  in  1721. 

See  "Life  of  W.  Moyle,"  prefixed  to  his  works. 

Moyreau,  mwi'ro',  (Jean,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
at  Orleans  in  1690.  Among  his  best  prints  are  "The 
Lion- Hunt,"  after  Rubens,  and  "  Bacchus  and  Ariadne," 
after  Boullongne.    Died  in  1763. 

See  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Moyse,  the  French  for  Moses,  which  see. 

Moy'ses,  (David,)  a  Scottish  historical  writer,  born 
at  Lanark  in  1573.  He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  the  Affairs 
of  Scotland."    Died  in  1630. 

Mozart,  mo^zart',  [Ger.  pron.  mdt'siRt,]  (Johann 
Chrysostom  Wolfgang  Amadeus,)  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man composer,  born  at  Saltzburg  on  the  27th  of  January, 
1756.  Both  his  parents  were  distinguished  for  personal 
beauty.  He  began  to  perform  on  the  harpsichord  when 
he  was  about  four  years  old,  and  manifested  an  exquisite 
musical  organization.  His  first  teacher  was  his  father, 
who  devoted  much  time  to  his  education.  At  the  age 
of  six  years  he  composed  short  pieces  of  music,  and 
was  regarded  as  a  prodigy  of  musical  genius.  He  had 
a  sister  four  years  his  senior,  who  in  early  childhood 
was  an  excellent  musician.  In  1762  Leopold  Mozart 
took  Wolfgang  and  his  sister  to  Munich,  where  they 
performed  before  the  court  and  excited  great  admira- 
tion. They  also  visited  Vienna,  and  exhibited  their 
skill  before  the  emperor  and  his  family,  by  whom  they 
were  encouraged  and  caressed.  In  1763  young  Mozart 
excited  the  astonishment  of  the  Parisians  by  his  per- 
formance on  the  organ  and  by  his  talent  for  improvisa- 
tion. He  visited  with  his  parents  the  principal  cities  of 
Germany,  and  published  two  of  his  compositions  in  1763. 
The  Mozart  family  passed  the  year  1764  in  London, 
where  they  gave  public  concerts.  About  1766  they 
returned  to  Saltzburg,  where  Wolfgang  continued  his 
studies,  taking  for  models  the  productions  of  Handel 
and  Emanuel  Bach.  He  composed  in  1768  an  opera 
called  "  La  Finta  semplice,"  which  was  not  represented. 
Accompanied  by  his  father,  he  made  the  tour  of  Italy  in 
1769  and  1770,  and  was  received  with  enthusiasm.  He 
produced  at  Milan  the  opera  of  "Mitridate,"  which  was 
performed  with  success  in  1770.  During  his  visit  to 
Rome  the  pope  created  him  a  knight  (cavaliere)  of  the 
Golden  Spur.  His  next  works  were  two  serenatas,  called 
"  Ascanio  in  Alba,"  and  "The  Dream  of  Scipio,"  ("II 
Sogno  di  Scipione,"  1772.)  He  composed  in  1773  an 
opera  entitled  "Lucio  Silla,"  which  was  very  successful. 
He  passed  several  years  in  travel,  and  solicited  employ- 
ment in  various  foreign  countries  without  success. 

In  1779  he  obtained  the  places  of  organist  and  chapel - 
master  to  the  Archbishop  of  Saltzburg.  At  the  request 
of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  he  composed  "Idomeneo,"  an 
opera,  (1781,)  which  was  superior  to  his  former  works 
and  obtained  immense  applause.  "  This  work,"  says 
Denne-Baron,  "was  nothing  less  than  a  complete  trans- 
formation of  the  art."  He  quitted  the  service  of  the 
archbishop, — a  coarse  and  sordid  person,  who  required 
him  to  eat  with  his  menial  servants, — and  in  1781  settled 
in  Vienna.  In  1782  he  composed  a  German  opera, 
"  The  Abduction  from  the  Seraglio,"  ("  Die  Entfiihrung 
aus  dem  Serail,")  and  married  Constance  Weber.  He 
became  a  friend  of  Haydn,  the  great  composer. 

Mozart  composed,  with  unremitting  activity  and  in 
rapid  succession,  symphonies,  sonatas,  quartets,  motets, 
waltzes,  etc.  About  1785  he  produced  "Davidde  peni- 
tente,"  an  oratorio,  which  abounds  in  beauties  of  the 
first  order.  His  comic  opera  "  The  Marriage  of  Figaro" 
("  Le  Nozze  di  Figaro,"  1786)  was  performed  with 
unbounded  applause,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  some  critics, 


formed  an  epoch  in  dramatic  music.  His  master-piece 
is  the  opera  "  Don  Giovanni,"  or  "  Don  Juan,"  which 
was  first  performed  at  Prague  in  1787.  The  King  of 
Prussia  offered  him  3000  crowns  a  year  to  attract  him 
to  Berlin  ;  but  he  declined  to  quit  the  service  of  the  em- 
peror Joseph,  who  paid  him  only  800  florins.  He  was 
often  reduced  to  painful  distress  for  want  of  money  while 
he  lived  in  Vienna.  Among  his  later  works  is  "The 
Magic  Flute,"  an  opera,  (1791.)  Mozart,  as  a  performer 
on  the  piano,  surpassed  all  the  German  musicians  of  his 
time.  His  constitution  was  naturally  delicate,  and  his 
health  rapidly  declined  in  1791,  during  which  he  was 
employed  to  compose  a  requiem  by  a  mysterious  stranger, 
or  a  person  who  wished  his  name  to  be  a  secret.  This 
person  was  an  agent  of  Count  Walsegg.  To  his  morbid 
and  depressed  imagination  this  seenied  as  a  warning  of 
his  own  impending  death.  With  this  presentiment,  he 
composed  his  "  Requiem,"  which  is  considered  his  most 
sublime  work.  He  died  in  Vienna  in  December,  1791 
or  1792,  leaving  several  children. 

"Mozart  occupies,"  says  Denne-Baron,  "a  unique 
place  in  the  history  of  music,  by  the  universality  of  his 
genius.  .  .  .  He  excelled  in  all  departments,  and  the 
products  of  his  radiant  imagination  improved  the  art 
in  all  its  parts.  ...  In  dramatic  music  he  was  un- 
rivalled. His  enlightened  mind  and  his  exquisite  sen- 
sibility enabled  him  to  seize  with  equal  tact  and  sagacity 
the  jiuances  and  the  true  conditions  of  the  lyrical  drama." 
("Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.") 

See  E.  Holmes,  "  Life  of  Mozart,"  2  vols.,  1845;  Niemetschek, 
"Mozart's  Leben,"  1798;  Roechlitz,  "Anecdotes  of  Mozart,"  (in 
German,)  iSoi  ;  Arnold,  "Mozart's  Geist,"  Erfurt,  1S03 ;  G.  N. 
VON  NissEN,  "Biographic  W.  A.  Mozarts,"  1S28;  Fetis,  "  Biogra- 
phie  Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;"  H.  Doring,  "W.  A.  ISIozart," 
and  a  French  version  of  the  same,  Paris,  i860;  Hehr  Otto  Jahn, 
"Mozart's  Leben,"  1856;  Daines  Bakrington,  "  Notice  of  Mo- 
zart," in  the  "Philosophical  Transactions,"  1770;  "Letters  of 
Mozart,"  translated  by  Lady  Wallace,  2  vols.,  1865;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1846. 

Mozart,  (Leopold,)  a  German  musician,  born  at 
Augsburg  in  1719,  was  the  father  of  the  famous  com- 
poser. He  performed  on  the  violin,  and  became  about 
1762  vice-chapel-master  of  the  Prince- Archbishop  of 
Saltzburg.  He  gave  diligent  attention  to  the  education 
and  training  of  his  son.  He  composed  several  oratorios, 
etc.    Died  in  1787. 

Mozier,  mo^zher,  (Joseph,)  an  American  sculptor, 
born  at  Burlington,  Vermont,  in  1812.  He  passed  many 
years  in  mercantile  business  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
and  afterwards  studied  sculpture  in  Italy.  Among  his 
works  are  "Esther,"  "Pocahontas,"  and  "Silence." 

Mozin,  mo'z^N',  (...,)  a  French  grammarian,  born 
in  1 771,  tauL^ht  in  Germany  many  years.  He  published 
several  works  on  grammar,  and  a  good  French-German 
Dictionary,  (1S12.)    Died  in  1840. 

Mozin,  (Charles  Louis,)  a  French  painter,  born  in 
Paris  in  1806,  studied  under  Leprince.  His  works  are 
chiefly  marine  views,  which  have  great  merit.  Among 
the  best  we  may  name  "  The  Capture  of  the  Isle  of 
Bommel  by  the  French  Army  in  1794,"  and  "The  Port 
of  Honfleur." 

Mozzi,  mot'see,  (M.arcan  rONio,)  an  Italian  littera- 
teur and  priest,  born  at  Florence  in  1678;  died  in  1736. 

Muawia  or  Muawias.   See  Moaweeyah. 

Mucianus,  mu-she-a''nus,  [Fr.  Mucien,  moo^se-iw'; 
It.  MuziANO,  moot-se-i'no,]  (LiCiNius,)  an  able  Roman 
general  and  orator,  whose  character  was  compounded 
of  good  and  evil  qualities.  He  was  chosen  consul  in  52 
A.D.,  and  at  the  death  of  Nero,  in  68,  commanded  four 
legions  in  Syria.  To  promote  the  interest  of  his  friend 
Vespasian  in  his  contest  against  Vitellius,  he  made  a 
rapid  march  to  Rome  in  69  A.D.,  and  acted  the  part  of  a 
sovereign  until  the  arrival  of  Vespasian.  Mucianus  was 
consul  in  70  and  in  75  A.D. 

See  Tacitus,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Mucianus,  (P.  LiciniusCrassus  Dives,)  an  eminent 
Roman  jurist  and  orator,  was  a  son  of  P.  Mucins  Scas- 
vola.  He  was  adopted  by  P.  Licinius  Crassus,  suc- 
ceeded Scipio  Nasica  as  pontifex  maximus,  and  became 
consul  in  131  B.C.  Having  led  an  army  into  Asia  to 
oppose  Aristonicus,  who  attempted  to  obtain  Pergamus, 
he  was  defeated  and  killed,  in  130  B.C. 


I,  €,  1,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  skart;  a,    i,  g,  obscure;  fUr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t ;  good;  moon; 


MUCIEN  1639  MUIRHEAD 


Mucien.    See  Mucianus,  (Licinius.) 

Mucius  Scaevola.    See  Sc^vola. 

Miicke  or  Muecke,  niuk'eh,  (Heinrich  Karl  An- 
ton,) a  German  historical  painter,  born  at  Breslau  in 
1806,  was  a  pupil  of  Schadow.  Among  his  master- 
pieces may  be  named  "Saint  Ambrose  and  the  Emperor 
Theodosius,"  *'  Ulysses  and  Leucothea  in  the  Tempest," 
and  a  "  Saint  Catherine." 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Mudee,  mii'dcV,  (Gabriel  van  der  Muyden — vtn 
der  nii'den,)  an  eminent  Flemish  jurist,  born  near  Ant- 
werp in  1500.  He  wrote  "  De  Restitutionibus  in  Inte- 
grum," (1586,)  and  other  works.  Died  at  Louvain  in 
1560. 

See  Spinnael,  "Gabriel  Mudee  et  son  ficole,"  1844. 

Mud'fprd,  (William,)  an  English  editor  and  writer, 
born  in  London  in  1782.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Life  of  Oliver  Goldsmith,"  (1804,)  and  a 
"Life  of  Richard  Cumberland,"  (2  vols.,  1814.)  Died 
in  1848. 

Mudge,  miij,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  optician 
and  surgeon,  was  a  younger  son  of  Zachary,  noticed 
below.  He  practised  many  years  at  Plymouth,  and 
wrote  medical  essays,  some  of  which  were  inserted  in 
the  "  Philosophical  Transactions."  He  was  distinguished 
as  the  improver  of  the  reflecting  telescope,  and  as  author 
of  "  Directions  for  Making  the  Best  Composition  for  the 
Mirrors  of  Reflecting  Telecopes,  with  a  Description  of 
the  Process  forgiving  the  Great  Speculum  the  True  Para- 
bolic Curve."  For  this  he  received  the  Copley  medal 
from  the  Royal  Society.    Died  in  1793. 

Mudge,  (Thomas,)  an  excellent  English  mechanist, 
born  at  Exeter  in  1 716,  was  a  son  of  Zachary  Mudge, 
noticed  below.  He  served  an  apprenticeship  to  Graham, 
the  famous  watchmaker,  and  acquired  great  eminence 
in  that  art.  About  177 1  he  retired  to  Plymouth,  where 
he  employed  several  years  in  perfecting  chronometers. 
In  1793  he  received  from  Parliament  a  recompense  of 
three  thousand  pounds  for  his  improvements  in  these 
instruments.  Died  in  1794.  His  son  Thomas  wrote  a 
"  Description  of  the  Time-Keeper  invented  by  Thomas 
Mudge,"  (Senior.) 

Mudge,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  a  scientific  English  gen- 
eral, born  at  Plymouth  in  1762,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  John 
Mudge,  noticed  above.  He  served  in  the  royal  artil- 
lery, and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant.  About  1798 
he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  grand  trigono- 
metrical survey  of  England  and  Wales,  after  he  had 
been  employed  for  several  years  as  assistant  in  that  work. 
During  the  progress  of  the  survey  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  major-general.  The  results  of  his  survey 
were  published  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions," 
and  procured  him  much  distinction.  In  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  he  was  lieutenant-governor  of  the  Royal 
Military  Academy  at  Woolwich.    Died  in  1821. 

Mudge,  (Zachary,)  an  eminent  clergyman  of  the 
Anglican  Church,  was  the  father  of  John  and  Thomas 
Mudge,  above  noticed,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Dr. 
Johnson.  He  became  master  of  a  free  school  at  Bide- 
ford  about  17 16,  and  rector  of  a  church  in  Plymouth  in 
1736.  He  was  also  prebendary  of  Exeter.  His  ser- 
mons, of  which  a  volume  was  published  in  1727,  were 
highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1769. 

Mu'die,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  naturalist  and  popular 
litterateur,  born  in  Forfarshire  in  1777,  became  a  resi- 
dent of  London.  He  published  "  Conversations  in  Moral 
Philosophy,"  "The  Feathered  Tribes  of  the  British 
Islands,"  "  Popular  Mathematics,"  "The  British  Natu- 
ralist," "  The  Elements  :  The  Heavens,  the  Earth,  the 
Air,  and  the  Sea,"  and  numerous  other  works.  Died 
in  1842. 

Mudo,  El,  gl  moo'Do,  (Juan  Fernandez  Ximenes 
de  Navarete — di  nl-vi-ra'ti,)  a  celebrated  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Logrono  in  1526,  received  the  surname 
of  el  Mudo  ("the  Mute")  because  he  was  deaf  and 
dumb.  He  was  patronized  by  Philip  II.,  and  painted  for 
the  Escurial  a  "Nativity,"  a  "Holy  Family,"  and  other 
works  of  great  merit.  He  has  been  called  "the  Spanish 
Titian."    Died  about  1575. 

Muecke.    See  Mucke. 

Muefiling.    See  Muffling. 


Muegge.    See  Mugge. 

Muehlenbruch.    See  Muhlenbruch, 

Muelenaere,  de,  deh  mu''el-na^reh,  ?  (Felix  Amand,) 
CoMJE,  a  Belgian  statesman,  born  in  1793.  He  was 
appointed  in  1830  Governor  of  West  Flanders,  and 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1834. 

Muellei".    See  Muller. 

Muellner.    See  Mullner. 

Muench.    See  Munch. 

Muench-Bellinghausen.    See  Munch-Belling- 

hausen. 

Muenchausen.    See  Munchausen. 
Muennich.    See  Munnich. 
Muenster.    See  Munster. 

Muenster-Ladenburg.  See  Munster-Ladenburg. 
Muenter.    See  Munter. 
Muenzer.    See  Munzer. 

Muffling  or  Mueffling,  muffling,  (Friedrich  Fer^ 
dinand  Karl,)  Baron,  a  Prussian  field-marshal,  born 
at  Halle  in  1775.  He  was  appointed  in  181 5  governor 
of  Paris.  In  1829  he  negotiated  a  treaty  of  peace  be- 
tween Russia  and  Turkey.  He  became  governor  of 
Berlin  in  1837,  and  president  of  the  state  council  in  1841. 
He  died  in  1851. 

See  "  Passages  from  my  Life,"  etc.,  by  Bakon  Muffling. 

Miigge  or  Muegge,  mug'geh,  almost  muk'keh, 
(Theodor,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  at  Berlin  in  1806, 
wrote  several  romances,  also  political  works  entitled 
"  France  and  the  Last  of  the  Bourbons"  and  "  Eng- 
land and  Reform."  He  became  in  1850  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Berlin  "National  Zeitung,"  of  which  he 
was  afterwards  editor.    Died  in  1861. 

Muggleton,  nuig'g'l-ton,  (Ludowick,)  an  English 
fanatic,  born  in  London  in  1609,  was  the  principal 
founder  of  the  sect  called  by  his  name.^,  Muggleton  and 
his  coadjutor,  John  Reeve,  professed  to  be  the  last  and 
greatest  prophets  of  Jesus  Christ.    Died  in  1697. 

Mugnoz.    See  Munoz. 

Muguet  de  Nanthou,  mu'gl'  deh  nSN^too',  (Fran- 
cois Felix  Hyacinthe,)  a  French  lawyer  and  repub- 
lican, born  at  Besan9on  in  1760.  He  was  an  active  and 
influential  member  of  the  National  Assembly  in  1790-91. 
He  was  one  of  the  commissaries  appointed  to  maintain 
order  in  Paris  on  the  flight  of  Louis  XVI.  to  Varennes 
in  1 791.  He  died  in  1808,  leaving  the  reputation  of  a 
worthy  and  honourable  man. 

Muhammed  or  Muhammad.   See  Mohammed. 

Muhaut,  miiV,  (Etienne,)  a  French  naturalist, 
born  at  Thizy  (Rhone)  in  1797.  He  published  a  "Natu- 
ral History  of  the  Coleoptera  of  France,"  (1839  et  seq.) 

Miihlbach,  Miss.    See  Mundt. 

Muhlenberg,  mii'len-berg,  (Gotthilf  Henry 
Ernst,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine  and  botanist,  son 
of  the  following,  was  born  in  Montgomery  county, 
Pennsylvania,  in  1753.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  a  "  Catalogue  of  the  Plants  of  North  America." 
Died  in  1815. 

Muhlenber.g,  (Henry  Melchior,)  D.D.,  born  in 
Hanover,  Germany,  in  1711,  emigrated  to  America, 
where  he  founded  the  German  Lutheran  Church,  and 
settled  as  pastor  at  Philadelphia.    Died  in  1787. 

See  the  "  Life  and  Times  of  Henry  M.  Muhlenberg,"  by  M.  L. 
Stoever,  1856. 

Muhlenberg,  (Peter,)  a  general,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Montgomery  country,  Pennsylvania, 
in  1746.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  Revolutionary 
war,  and  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States 
in  1 801.    Died  in  1807. 

See  the  "  Life  of  General  Peter  Muhlenberg,"  by  Henry  A. 
Muhlenberg,  1849. 

Miihlenbruch  or  Muehlenbruch,  mii'len-bKooK^ 
(Christian  Friedrich,)  an  eminent  German  jurist, 
born  at  Rostock  in  1785.  He  filled  the  chair  of  law 
successively  at  Konigsberg  and  Halle,  and  in  1833  be- 
came professor  at  Gottingen.  Among  his  most  important 
works  are  a  "  Compendium  of  the  Institutes  of  Roman 
Law,"  and  "Doctrine  of  the  Pandects,  for  the  Use  of 
Schools."  Died  in  1843. 

Muirhead,  nnu'hed,  (James  P.,)  a  British  writer  of 
the  present  age,  was  a  relative  of  James  Watt,  the  great 
inventor.    He  published  "The  Origin  and  Progress  of 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MUIS 


1640 


MULLER 


the  Mechanical  Inventions  of  James  Watt,  illustrated 
by  his  Correspondence,"  etc.,  {3  vols.,  1854,)  and  a  *'  Life 
of  James  Watt." 

Muis,  de,  deh  mli-e',  (Simeon  Marotte — mt'rot',) 
a  French  ecclesiastic  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Orleans  in 
1587,  became  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Royal  College. 
He  published  a  number  of  valuable  works,  including  a 
"  Commentary  on  the  Psalms,"  (1630,)  which  is  esteemed 
one  of  the  best  that  has  appeared,  Muis  enjoyed  the 
reputation  of  one  of  the  most  learned  Hebraists  and 
Biblical  critics  of  his  time.    Died  in  1644. 

See  DupiN,  "  Bibliotheque  des  Auteurs  ecclesiastiques." 

Mul'cas-ter,  (Richard,)  an  English  scholar,  born  at 
Carlisle  about  1535,  became  in  1561  master  of  Merchant 
Taylors'  School,  then  recently  founded  in  London.  He 
wrote  Latin  verses,  some  of  which  were  spoken  before 
Queen  Elizabeth  at  Kenilworth,  also  several  educational 
works.    Died  in  161 1. 

Mal'ci-ber,  [supposed  to  be  derived  from  mtilceo,  to 
"tame,"  to  "soften,"  because  he  softens  iron  and  makes 
it  tractable,]  a  surname  given  by  the  Romans  to  Vulcan, 
which  see. 

Mulder,  miil'der,  (Gerard  Jan,)  a  Dutch  physician 
and  chemist,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1802,  became  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  his  native  city.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  General  Physiological 
Chemistry,"  (1844,)  and  "Chemical  Researches,"  (1847.) 
Died  in  1847. 

Muley  (or  Mouley)  Hassan,  mu'lee  hJs'san  or 
moo'la'  hts'sSn,  King  of  Tunis,  began  to  reign  in  1533. 
He  was  driven  from  the  throne  by  Barbarossa,  but  was 
restored  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  1535.  Died  in 
I54v 

Muley  Ismail,  moo'la'  is-ml'eeK,  Emperor  of  Mo- 
rocco, born  in  1546,  began  to  reign  in  1672.  He  took 
Tangier  from  the  English  about  1680.  In  1697  he 
attacked  the  Algerines,  by  whom  he  was  defeated.  He 
was  extremely  cruel.    Died  in  1727. 

Muley  Soliman,  moo^la'  so-Ii-mSn',  Emperor  of 
Morocco,  began  to  reign  in  1792.  He  abolished  slavery, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  a  prudent  and  able  ruler. 
Under  his  reign  Morocco  enjoyed  unusual  tranquillity. 
Died  in  1822. 

Mulgrave,  Earl  of.    See  Sheffield. 

MuFgrave,  (Constantine  Johnt  Phipps,)  Lord,  a 
distinguished  navigator,  born  about  1740,  was  the 
son  of  an  Irish  peer.  In  1773  made  a  voyage  to 
the  Arctic  regions  in  order  to  discover  the  Northwest 
Passage,  in  which  he  was  not  successful.  After  his 
return  he  was  made  a  privy  councillor,  and  raised  to 
the  peerage  in  1784.  He  published,  in  1774,  "Jour- 
nal of  a  Voyage  towards  the  North  Pole."  Died  in 
1792. 

Mulgrave,  (Henry  Philip  Phipps,)  Lord,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1755.  He  filled  several 
important  offices,  and  became  in  1806  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty.  He  exchanged  this  place  in  1812  for  that  of 
grand  master  of  artillery,  and  received  the  title  of  Earl 
of  Normanby  and  Viscount  Mulgrave.  He  died  in  1831, 
and  left  a  son,  who  became  Marquis  of  Normanby, 
(which  see.) 

Muliuari,  moo-le-nS'ree,  or  Molinari,  mo-le-ni'ree, 

(Stefano,)  a  Florentine  engraver,  executed  a  great 
number  of  prints  after  Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  and 
other  eminent  Italian  masters.  He  published  in  1780 
a  work  entitled  "Essay  on  the  Five  Italian  Schools  of 
Painting." 

Miilier  or  Mueller,  muKler,  (Adam  Heinrtch,)  a 
German  jurist  and  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1 779,  became 
aulic  councillor  at  Vienna.    Died  in  1829. 

MuFler,  (Alisert  A..)  an  American  divine,  born  at 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  about  1800,  published  a 
number  of  lyrics  and  sacred  poems. 

Miilier,  (Alexander,)  a  German  writer,  born  in  the 
bishopric  of  Fulda  in  1780,  was  the  author  of  "Archives 
for  the  most  Modern  Legislation  of  all  the  German 
States."    Died  in  1844. 

Miilier,  (Andreas,)  aGermnn  divine  and  Orientalist, 
born  in  Pomerania  in  1630.  He  assisted  Walton  in  his 
Polyglot  Bible,  and  contributed  to  CastelTs  "Lexicon." 
He  also  published  a  "Treatise  on  Cathay,"  "Japanese 


Alphabet,"  "Chinese  Basilicon," and  other  works.  Died 
in  1604. 

Miilier  or  Mueller,  (August  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man philosopher,  born  in  1684;  died  in  1761. 
See  J.  A.  Ernesti,  "  Memoria  A.  F.  Muelleri,"  1761. 

Miilier,  miilaiR',  (Charles  Louis,)  a  celebrated 
French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  181 5.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  maybe  named  "Christ's  Entry  into  Jeru- 
salem," "Mttrtyrdom  of  Saint  Bartholomew,"  "Lady 
Macbeth,"  "  Marie  Antoinette  at  the  Conciergerie,"  and 
"The  Sleeping  Sylph,"  He  obtained  medals  of  the 
first  class  in  1848  and  1855. 

Miilier,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  poet,  born  at  Kreuz- 
nach  in  1750,  was  the  author  of  "Ulrich  von  Kossheim," 
"Faust,"  and  a  drama  entitled  "Niobe."  He  was  also 
a  painter  and  engraver.    Died  in  1825. 

Miilier,  (Friedrich  August,)  a  German  epic  poet, 
born  in  Vienna  in  1767,  wrote  poems  entitled  "  Alfonso," 
(1790,)  and  "Richard  Lowenherz,"  ("Richard  Coeur-de- 
Lion,"  1790.)    Died  in  1807. 

Miilier,  (Friedrich  Max,)  an  eminent  German 
Orientalist,  a  son  of  the  poet  Wilhelm,  noticed  below, 
was  born  at  Dessau  in  1823.  He  studied  the  Sanscrit 
language  at  Leipsic,  Berlin,  and  Paris,  and  subsequently 
visited  England.  In  1847  he  was  charged  by  the  East 
India  Company  to  publish  an  edition  of  the  "  Rigveda." 
He  became  Taylorian  professor  of  modern  languages  at 
Oxford  in  1854.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Buddhism  and  Buddhist  Pilgrims,"  a  "  History  of  An- 
cient Sanscrit  Literature,"  (1859,)  and  "Lectures  on  the 
Science  of  Language,"  which  were  very  popular.  These 
were  first  delivered  at  the  Royal  Institution  in  London 
in  1861.  He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  All  Souls' College, 
Oxford,  in  1858. 

Miilier,  (Gerhard  Friedrich,)  a  German  traveller 
and  historian,  born  in  Westphalia  about  1705.  Having 
visited  Saint  Petersburg,  he  accompanied  Gmelin  and 
De  risle,  as  secretary,  on  their  expedition  to  Siberia  in 
1733.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  historiographer 
of  Russia,  (1747,)  and  keeper  of  the  archives,  (1766.) 
He  pul)lished  a  "  History  of  Siberia,"  "  Collection  of 
Russian  Histories,"  and  other  works.  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.    Died  in  1783. 

See  Gretch,  "  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Rnsse." 

Miilier,  (  Heinrich,)  a  German  Lutheran  divine, 
born  at  Lubeck  in  1631,  wrote  numerous  theological 
treatises  in  Latin.    Died  in  1675. 

Miilier,  (Jakob  and  Georg,)  brothers,  and  Swiss 
artists,  born  in  Grindelwald,  lived  about  1800,  and  were 
celebrated  for  their  skill  in  painting  on  glass. 

Miilier,  (Jan.)    See  Cadovius. 

Miilier,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  born  at  Amsterdam 
about  1570,  imitated  the  style  of  Goltzius.  His  prints 
are  numerous  and  distinguished  for  great  boldness  and 
facility  of  execution. 

Miilier,  (Johann.)    See  Regiomontanus. 

Miilier,  (Johann,)  a  celebrated  German  physiologist 
and  zoologist,  born  at  Coblentz  on  the  14th  of  July,  1801. 
He  entered  the  University  of  Bonn  abwut  1819,  studied 
medicine  and  other  sciences,  and  graduated  as  M.D.  in 
1822.  In  1826  he  published  a  remarkable  treatise  "On 
the  Comparative  Physiology  of  the  Sense  of  Sight." 
He  became  professor  of  physiology,  etc.  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Bonn  in  1830.  His  work  on  the  secreting  glands, 
"De  Glandularum  secernentium  Structura  penitiori," 
etc.,  (1830,)  is  a  valuable  contribution  to  comparative 
anatomy.  He  succeeded  Rudolphi  as  professor  of 
anatomy  in  Berlin  in  1833,  ^"^^  acquired  a  wide  re])u- 
tation  as  a  lecturer.  He  made  several  anatomical  dis- 
coveries. His  principal  work  is  a  "  Manual  of  Human 
Physiology,"  ("  Handbuch  (or  Lehrbuch)  der  Physiologic 
des  Menschen,"  2  vols.,  1841-44,)  which  is  considered 
one  of  the  best  works  ever  written  on  that  subject. 
There  are  few  points  of  physiology  on  which  he  has  not 
thrown  light  by  numerous  observations  or  new  ideas. 
Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  Latin  treatise  "On 
the  Respiration  of  the  Foetus,"  (1823,)  and  "Grundriss 
der  Vorlesungen  liber  allgemeine  Pathologic,"  (1829.) 
Many  of  his  works  are  illustrated  by  figures  designed 
bv  himself.  He  edited  a  journal  called  "Archives  of 
Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  (1834-40.)    In  the  opinion  of 


2,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  \  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


MULLER  1641  MULLER 


some  critics,  Miiller  was  the  first  physiologist  of  Europe. 
He  died  in  Berlin  in  April,  1858. 

See  RoDOLPH  Virchow,  "Joannes  Miiller,"  1858;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale;"  C.  Dareste,  "Jean  Miiller,  ses  Travaux," 
etc.,  in  the  "Revue  Germanique"  for  February,  April,  and  June, 
1859  ;  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Miiller,  (Johann,)  a  German  natural  philosopher  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  He  was  professor  of  physics 
at  Friburg,  in  Brisgau.  He  published  "Elements  of 
Experimental  Physics,"  (3d  edition,  1852.) 

Miiller,  (Johann  Friedrich  Wilhklm,)  a  German 
engraver,  son  of  Johann  Gotthard  von  Miiller,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1782.  Having  completed 
hio  studies  in  Paris,  he  was  appointed  in  1814  professor 
of  engraving  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Dresden, 
where  he  was  charged  with  the  execution  of  a  plate 
after  Raphael's  "Madonna  di  San  Sisto."  His  severe 
application  to  this  work  caused  his  death  soon  after  the 
completion  of  the  print,  (1816.)  Besides  the  above- 
named,  which  is  esteemed  his  master-piece,  Miiller 
engraved  "The  Four  Seasons,"  after  Jordaens,  "Saint 
John,"  after  Domenichino,  and  portraits  of  Schiller 
and  Hufeland. 

Miiller,  (Johann  Gottwerth,)  a  German  littera- 
tetir,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1744,  was  the  author  of  "  Comic 
Tales  from  the  Papers  of  the  Brown  Man."  Died  in  1828. 

Miiller,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  astronomer 
and  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1671, 
published  many  works  on  astronomy,  etc.    Died  in  1731. 

Miiller,  (Johann  Jakob,)  an  excellent  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Riga  in  1765.  He  worked  at  Stuttgart 
and  in  Italy.    Died  in  1832. 

Miiller,  (Johann  Sebastian,)  a  German  engraver, 
born  at  Nuremberg  in  1715.  His  plates  for  the  "Sexual 
System  of  Linnaeus  Illustrated"  are  among  his  best 
works.    Died  in  1783. 

Miiller,  (Karl  Otfried — ot'fReet,)  a  distinguished 
German  scholar,  historian,  and  antiquary,  was  born  at 
Brieg,  in  Silesia,  in  1797.  He  studied  at  Breslau,  and 
subsequently  devoted  himself  to  philology  at  Berlin 
under  the  celebrated  Bockh.  He  became  in  1817  pro- 
fessor of  ancient  languages  in  the  Magdalenum  at  Bres- 
lau, and  in  1819  obtained  the  chair  of  archaeology  and 
Grecian  art  at  Gottingen.  In  this  post  his  able  and 
eloquent  lectures,  and  the  numerous  admirable  works 
he  jiublished  during  the  fifteen  years  following,  gave  a 
new  intpulse  to  the  study  of  philology  and  antiquities 
in  Germany.  In  1839  Miiller  visited  Italy,  and  the  next 
year  arrived  at  Athens.  Having  greatly  fatigued  himself 
while  making  excavations  at  Delphi,  he  was  soon  after 
attacked  by  a  fever,  of  which  he  died  in  1840.  He  was 
buried  near  the  ruins  of  the  Academy,  and  the  Univer- 
sity of  Athens  erected  a  monument  over  his  grave. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "History  of  the 
Hellenic  Races  and  Cities,"  (1820,)  "The  Dorians," 
("Die  Dorier,"  2  vols.,  1824-30,)  "Introduction  to  a 
Scientific  System  of  Mythology,"  (1825,)  "On  the  Origin 
and  Ancient  History  of  the  Macedonians,"  (1825,) 
"  The  Etruscans,"  (2  vols.,  1828,)  "  Manual  of  the  Archae- 
ology of  Art,"  (1830,)  and  "History  of  the  Literature 
of  Ancient  Greece,"  (1840.) 

See  Rrockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie CSenerale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1839. 

Miiller,  (Ludwig  Christian,)  a  German  engineer 
and  mathematician,  born  in  the  march  of  Pregnitz  in 
1744.  He  served  for  a  time  in  the  Seven  Years' war, 
and  became  in  1786  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
Academy  of  Engineers  at  Potsdam.  He  wrote  several 
valuable  treatises  on  military  tactics.    Died  in  1804. 

Miiller,  muKler,  (Otho  Frederik,)  an  eminent  Danish 
naturalist,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1730.  Being  appointed 
in  1753  tutor  to  a  young  nobleman,  he  availed  himself, 
while  travelling  with  him,  of  the  facilities  for  increasing 
his  knowledge  of  botany  and  zoology.  In  1764  he  pub- 
lished his  "Fauna  Tnsectorum  Friedrichsdaliana,"  and  in 
1767  his  "Flora  Friedrichsdaliana,"  giving  an  account 
of  the  insects  and  plants  of  Friedrichsdal.  The  great 
merit  of  these  productions  caused  him  to  be  appointed 
by  King  Frederick  V.  to  continue  the  publication  of  the 
"  Flora  Danica,"  a  magnificent  work,  surpassing  anything 
of  the  kind  that  had  hitherto  appeared.  Miiller  added 
two  volumes  to  the  three  already  published  by  Oeder. 


In  1773-74  he  brought  out  a  treatise  (in  Latin)  "On 
Earth  Worms  and  Fresh-Water  Worms."  In  the  first 
part  of  this  work  he  describes  the  infusoria,  of  which  he 
discovered  many  new  species  ;  and  he  was  the  first 
naturalist  who  distributed  animalcules  into  genera  and 
species.  In  1781  his  treatise  "On  the  Hydrachnae" 
appeared,  and  in  1785  one  "On  the  Monoculi,"  both 
written  in  Latin  and  illustrated  with  many  plates.  These 
two  works,  together  with  a  treatise  on  the  Infusoria,  (in 
4to,  with  fifty  plates,)  published  in  1786,  are  esteemed 
his  greatest  productions.  Miiller  had  begun  in  1779  a 
"Zoologia  Danica,"  a  superb  work,  of  which  he  pub- 
lished two  parts,  each  with  forty  coloured  plates.  Several 
additions  were  made  to  it  after  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  1784.  Miiller  is  characterized  by  Cuvier  as  one 
of  the  most  laborious  and  accurate  observers  of  the 
eighteenth  century ;  and  the  same  writer  adds,  "  The  In- 
fusoria form,  as  it  were,  a  new  animal  kingdom,  which 
he  revealed  to  the  world." 

See  Hansshn,  "Tal  til  Erindring  af  O.  F.  Muller,"  1787; 
HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Miiller,  (Peter  Erasmus,)  a  learned  Danish  theolo- 
gian and  antiquary,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1776.  Having 
completed  his  studies  in  Germany,  he  was  appointed  in 
1801  professor  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Copen- 
hagen. In  1830  he  succeeded  Miinter  as  Bishop  of 
Seeland.  Among  his  works  are  "Christian  Moral 
System,"  "  Sagabibliothek,"  or  "Library  of  the  Sagas," 
and  "  Critical  Examination  of  the  Traditional  History 
of  Denmark  and  Norway  from  1805  to  1830."  Died 
in  1834. 

See  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "  Almindeligt  Litteraturlexicon,"  etc. 

Miiller,  (Sophie,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated  tragic 
actresses  of  the  German  stage,  born  at  Manheim  in  1803. 
She  visited  successively  Vienna,  Dresden,  and  Berlin, 
where  her  performances  elicited  the  warmest  applause. 
In  private  life  she  was  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1830. 

Miiller,  (Wenzel,)  a  popular  German  opera-com- 
poser, born  in  Moravia  in  1767.  He  was  appointed  in 
1786  chapel-master  at  Vienna.  Among  his  numerous 
works  is  "  The  Magic  Guitar."    Died  in  1835. 

Miiller,  (Wij^helm,)  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
lyric  poets  of  Germany,  born  at  Dessau  in  1794.  Having 
visited  Italy  in  181 7,  he  published,  after  his  return, 
"  Poems  from  the  Papers  left  by  a  Travelling  Bugle- 
Player,"  ("  Gedichten  aus  den  hinterlassenen  Papieren 
eines  reisenden  Waldhornisten,"  2  vols.,  1821,)  "Songs 
of  the  Greeks,"  ("Liedern  der  Griechen,"  1821,)  and 
"Lyrical  Promenades,"  ("  Lyrischen  Spaziergangen.") 
He  also  published  the  "  Library  of  the  German  Poets  of 
the  Seventeenth  Century,"  (1822,)  and  was  a  contributor 
to  Ersch  and  Gruber's  "Encyclopaedia."   Died  in  1827. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Miiller,  (William  John,)  an  eminent  landscape- 
painter,  of  German  extraction,  born  at  Bristol,  in  Eng- 
land, in  1812.  He  studied  under  J.  B.  Pyne,  and  subse- 
quently visited  Egypt  and  Greece,  where  he  executed  a 
number  of  admirable  pictures.  Among  these  we  may 
name  his  "  Memnon  at  Sunset,"  "  Turkish  Merchants," 
etc.,  "  View  of  Athens,"  and  "  Prayer  in  the  Desert." 
Died  in  1845. 

Muller,  von,  fon  m^l'ler,  (Johann  Gotthard,)  a 
celebrated  German  engraver,  born  near  Stuttgart  in  1747. 
He  was  patronized  at  an  early  age  by  Duke  Charles 
of  Wlirtemberg,  by  whose  assistance  he  was  enabled 
to  study  in  Paris  under  Wille.  He  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  1776,  and  sub- 
sequently became  professor  of  engraving  in  the  Academy 
of  Stuttgart,  and  obtained  the  order  of  the  Wiirtemberg 
Crown.  Among  his  master-pieces  we  may  name  the 
"Madonna  della  Seggiola,"  after  Raphael,  "Saint  Ce- 
cilia," after  Domenichino,  and  "The  Battle  of  Bunker's 
Hill,"  after  Trumbull,  also  a  number  of  excellent 
portraits,  including  those  of  Moses  Mendelssohn  and 
Schiller.    Died  in  1830. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Miiller,  von,  fon  mlJKler,  (Johannes,)  an  eminent 
Swiss  historian,  born  at  Schaffhausen,  January  3,  1 752. 
He  studied  history  at  Gottingen  under  Schlozer,  and 
in  1772  published  his  "  Cimbric  War,"  ("Bellum  Cim- 
bricum.")     He  became,  soon  after,  professor  of  Greek 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  Tiard-;  g  as /;  g,  h,  y:.^  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (E^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MULLER 


1642 


MUNCHAUSEN 


in  the  College  of  Schaffhausen,  from  which  he  removed 
to  Geneva  in  1774.  About  this  date  he  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  Victor  de  Bonstetten,  He  published  in  1780 
the  first  volume  of  his  "  History  of  the  Swiss,"  which 
raised  him  to  the  first  rank  of  historians.  The  second 
edition  of  it  was  entitled  "The  History  of  the  Swiss 
Confederation,"  ("Die  Geschichte  der  Schweizerischen 
Eidgenossen,"  1786.)  He  was  appointed  in  1786  aulic 
councillor  to  the  Elector  of  Mentz  and  librarian  of  the 
University  of  Mentz.  About  1790  he  accepted  from 
Leopold  II.  of  Austria  the  position  of  aulic  councillor; 
but,  the  publication  of  his  Swiss  history  having  been 
prohibited  by  the  Austrian  court,  he  entered  the  service 
of  the  King  of  Prussia,  as  privy  councillor,  in  1795.  The 
fourth  volume  of  his  great  work  appeared  in  1805.  In 
November,  1806,  he  had  a  private  interview  with  Napo- 
leon, who  had  invited  him  for  that  purpose,  and  who, 
according  to  some  authorities,  effected  some  change  in 
Miiller's  political  convictions.  Through  the  influence 
of  Napoleon  he  was  appointed  a  councillor  of  state  and 
director  of  public  instruction  by  the  King  of  Westphalia 
in  January,  1808.  He  died  at  Cassel  in  May,  1809. 
Among  his  works  are  his  correspondence  with  Bonstet- 
ten, entitled  "  Letters  of  a  Young  Savant  to  his  Friend," 
(1801,)  and  Twenty-Four  Books  of  Universal  History," 
(3  vols.,  181 1.) 

See  his  Autobiography,  ("  Selbstbiographie,")  1806;  A.  H.  L. 
Heeren,  "J.  von  Miiller  der  Historilter,"  i8og ;  C.  G.  Heyne, 
"Memoria  J.  de  Mueller,"  1810;  Heinrich  Doring,  "  Leben  J. 
von  Miiller's,"  1835 ;  Charles  Monard,  "Biographic  de  J.  de 
Mueller,"  1839;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Miiller  von  KSnigswinter,  mtiKler  fon  ko'niGs- 
^in'ter,  (Wolfgang,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  at 
Konigswinter  in  1816.  He  published  "Ballads  and 
Romances,"  "Voyage  on  the  Rhine,"  "Lorelei,"  a 
charming  collection  of  legendary  ballads,  and  "The 
May  Queen,"  an  interesting  village  story. 

MulTi-gan,  (James  A.,)  an  officer,  born  at  Utica, 
New  York,  in  1830.  He  removed  in  1836  to  Chicago, 
where  he  became  editor  of  the  "  Western  Tablet,"  a 
Catholic  journal.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  brave 
defence  of  Lexington,  Missouri,  in  1861,  and  was  made 
a  brigadier-general  of  Union  volunteers  in  1862. 

Miillner  or  Muellner,  muKner,  (Amadeus  Gott- 
fried Adolf,)  a  German  critic  and  dramatic  writer, 
born  near  Weissenfels  in  1774,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
poet  Burger.  He  became  in  1820  associate  editor  of 
the  "Morgenblatt."  Among  his  most  popular  dramas 
are  "The  Confidants,"  "The  Twenty-Ninth  of  Febru- 
ary," and  "Die  Schuld,"  (1816.)    Died  in  1829. 

See  F.  K.  J.  Schutz,  "Miillner's  Leben  und  Geist,"  1830;  F. 
Wagener,  "Miillner  in  poetischer,  kritischer  und  religibser  Be- 
ziehung,"  1831. 

MuUot  or  Mulot,  miiOo',  (FRANgois  Valentin,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1749.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1791.  Among 
his  works  is  "  Le  Museum  de  Florence,  grave  par  David," 
(6  vols.,  1788-95.)    Died  in  1804. 

MuTo-eh,  (Dinah  Maria,)  an  excellent  and  popular 
English  author,  born  in  Staffordshire  in  1826.  Her 
principal  works  are  entitled  "The  Ogilvies,"  (1849,) 
"Olive,"  "The  Head  of  the  Family,"  "Agatha's  Hus- 
band," (1852,)  "John  Halifax,  Gentleman,"  (1857,)  "A 
Life  for  a  Life,"  "  A  Woman's  Thoughts  about  Woman," 
"Studies  from  Life,"  "A  Noble  Life,"  (1866,)  and  "A 
Brave  Lady,"  (1870.)  MissMuloch  has  written  admirably 
upon  a  variety  of  subjects.  In  1865  she  was  married  to 
George  Lillie  Craik,  (noticed  in  this  work,)  who  died  in 
June,  1866. 

See  the  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1866;  "North 
British  Review"  for  November,  1858. 

Mulot    See  Mullot. 

Mulready,  muKred-e,  (William,)  a  celebrated 
painter,  born  at  Ennis,  in  Ireland,  in  1786.  He  entered 
the  Royal  Academy  at  an  early  age,  and  subsequently 
formed  his  style  on  the  model  of  the  Dutch  and  Flemish 
masters.  His  "Idle  Boys,"  exhibited  in  1815,  caused 
his  election  as  associate  of  the  Academy,  and  a  few 
months  later  he  was  made  a  Royal  Academician.  Among 
his  other  works  are  "The  Fight  Interrupted,"  "The 
Roadside  Inn,"  "Lending  a  Bite,"  "The  Wolf  and  the 
Lamb,"  "Crossing  the  Ford,"  and  "First  Love."  His 


"Choosing  the  Wedding-Gown,"  and  other  illustrations 
of  the  "Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  are  also  master-pieces  of 
the  kind,  and  have  placed  him  in  the  first  rank  of  modern 
British  artists.    Died  in  1863. 

Mulsant,  miil'sdN',  (Martial  Sitenne,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Marnard  (Rhone)  in  1797.  He  pub- 
lished several  works  on  entomology. 

Mum'mi-us,  (Lucius,)  an  able  Roman  general,  sur- 
named  Acha-'icus,  was  noted  for  his  integrity.  He 
became  praetor  in  154  B.C.,  and  consul  in  146.  In  the 
same  year  he  defeated  the  Achaean  League,  destroyed 
Corinth,  and  reduced  Greece  to  a  Roman  province. 
Many  works  of  art  found  at  Corinth  were  carried  to 
Rome  to  adorn  the  triumphal  procession  of  Mummius, 
which  occurred  in  145  B.C.  and  formed  an  epoch  in  the 
history  of  Roman  art.  He  was  censor  in  142  B.C.,  when 
Scipio  Africanus  the  Younger  was  his  colleague. 

See  PoLYBius,  "  History  ;"  Livy,  "  Epitome." 

Mummol.    See  Mummolus. 

Mum'mo-lus,  [Fr.  Mummol,  mii'mol',]  (Ennius,) 
an  able  Gallic  general,  became  Count  of  Auxerre  about 
560  A.D.,  and  commander  of  the  army  of  Gontran  of 
Burgundy.  He  defeated  the  Lombards  near  Embrun 
in  572,  and  Didier,  Count  of  Toulouse,  in  576.  Having 
revolted  against  Gontran,  he  was  killed,  by  order  of  that 
king,  in  585  a.d. 

Mun,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer  on  commerce, 
lived  about  1620-40.  He  was  a  merchant  of  London, 
and  wrote  "England's  Treasure  by  Foreign  Trade  ;  or, 
The  Balance  of  our  Foreign  Trade  is  the  Rule  of  our 
Treasure." 

Munari  degli  Aretusi,  moo-ni'ree  dil'yee  S-rk-too'- 
see,  (Pellegrino,)  an  Italian  painter  of  Modena,  was  a 
pu])il  of  Raphael.    Died  in  1523. 

Munatius  Plancus.    See  Plancus. 

Muncer.    See  Munzer. 

Munch,  moonk,  (Andreas,)  a  Norwegian  poet,  cousin 
of  Peter  Andreas,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1811.  He 
was  author  of  "  Poems,  Old  and  New,"  and  other  works. 

Miinch  or  Muench,  munK,  (Ernst  Hermann  Jo- 
seph,) a  Swiss  historian  and  voluminous  writer,  born  at 
Rheinfelden  in  1798.  He  became  professor  of  ecclesias- 
tical history  and  canon  law  at  Liege,  (1828.)  He  wrote 
(in  German)  a  "  History  of  the  House  of  Orange-Nassau," 
(1831-33,)  "Universal  History  of  Modern  Times,"  (1833 
-35,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1841. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1838. 

Munch,  (Peter  Andreas,)  an  eminent  Norwegian 
antiquary  and  philologist,  born  at  Christiania  in  1810, 
became  professor  of  history  in  the  university  of  his 
native  city,  (1841.)  He  published  Grammars  of  the 
Runic,  the  Gothic,  and  the  so-called  Old  Norwegian 
languages,  "  Historical  and  Geographical  Description 
of  Norway  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1849,)  "  History  of 
the  Norse  Nations,"  ("  Det  Norske  Folks  Historic,"  3 
vols.,  1853-59.)  He  also  edited  the  "Ancient  Laws  of 
Norway,"  and  the  ancient  "  Edda."    Died  in  1863. 

Miinch-BelliEghausen  or  Muench-Bellinghau- 
sen,  munK  bel'ling-how'zen,  (Eligius  Franz  Joseph,) 
Baron,  a  German  poet  and  dramatist,  born  in  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin  in  1806,  was  known  by  the  pseudonym 
of  Friedrich  Halm.  He  was  the  author  of  tragedies 
entitled  "  Griseldis,"  (1835,)  "The  King  and  the  Peas- 
ant," (1841,)  "The  Son  of  the  Wilderness,"  (1842,)  and 
"The  Gladiator  of  Ravenna,"  (1857.)  The  two  last- 
named  were  received  with  great  favour.  In  1845  was 
appointed  keeper  of  the  Imperial  Library  of  Vienna. 

Munchausen  or  Muenchausen,  miinK'how'zen, 
(Gerlach  Adolf,)  Baron,  a  German  statesman,  born 
at  Hanover  in  1688,  was  for  many  years  curator  of  the 
University  of  Gottingen.  He  made  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  the  library  of  that  institution,  and  founded  the 
Society  of  Sciences  at  Gottingen.  He  was  appointed 
first  minister  of  Hanover  in  1765.    Died  mi  1770. 

Munchausen,  commonly  pronounced  in  English 
mun-chaw'sen,  (Hieronymus  Karl  Friedrich,)  Ba- 
ron, a  famous  German  officer,  whose  name  has  become 
proverbial  as  a  synonym  of  extravagant  boasting,  was 
born  in  Hanover  in  1720.  Having  entered  the  Russian 
service,  he  fought  against  the  Turks  in  1737.  After  his 
return,  he  acquired  great  notoriety  by  his  exaggerated 


i,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;    hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  sAort;  a,  9,  i,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


MUNCK 


1643 


MUNTER 


stories  of  adventure,  a  collection  of  which  appeared 
in  England  under  the  title  of  "  Baron  Munchausen's 
Narrative  of  his  Marvellous  Travels  and  Campaigns  in 
Russia."  It  obtained  great  popularity,  and  was  trans- 
lated into  German  by  Biirger.    Died  in  1797. 

See  E1.LISEN,  '■  Nachricht  iiber  den  Freiherrn  von  Munchausen," 
prefixed  to  his  "Adventures,"  Berlin,  1849;  Allibone,  "Diction- 
ary of  Authors,"  article  "Raspe." 

Munck.    See  Munk. 

Mundaiiella,  moon-di-neKlS,  (LuiGi,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician, born  at  Brescia,  published  "Theatrum  Galeni," 
(155 1.)    Died  about  1570. 

Mun'day,  (Anthony,)  an  English  dramatist,  born 
in  1554,  wrote  "The  Downfall  of  Robert,  Earl  of  Hun- 
tingdon," and  "  The  Widow's  Charm,"  and  published 
an  enlarged  edition  of  Stowe's  *'  Survey  of  London." 
Died  in  1633. 

See  Collier,  "History  of  English  Dramatic  Poetry." 

Mun'den,  (Joseph  S.,)  an  English  comedian,  born  in 
London  in  1758;  died  in  1832. 

Mun-di'nus  or  Mondino  da  Luzzi,  mon-dee'no 
dS  loot'see,  an  Italian  physician  and  anatomist,  born  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century,  became  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Bologna.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  among  the  moderns  who  dissected  human 
bodies.    Died  in  1326. 

See  Portal,  "  Histoire  de  TAnatomie." 

Mundt,  moont,  (Theodor,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  at  Potsdam  in  1808.  He  was  appointed  professor 
of  general  literature  and  history  at  Breslau  in  1848,  and 
in  1850  librarian  of  the  University  of  Berlin.  He  has 
published  numerous  tales,  romances,  political  essays, 
and  sketches  of  travel.  His  wife — originally  LuiSE 
Muhlbach,  (muKbSK,) — has  also  written  a  number  of 
historical  romances  of  a  somewhat  extravagant  character. 
Several  of  them  have  been  translated  into  English  and 
have  enjoyed  great  popularity. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mun'dy,  (George  Rodney,)  an  English  naval  officer, 
a  grandson  of  Admiral  Rodney,  was  born  in  1805.  He 
served  as  captain  against  the  pirates  of  Borneo  in  1846, 
and  published  a  "  Narrative  of  Events  in  Borneo,"  (2 
vols.,  1848.) 

Munk  or  Munck,  moonk,  (Han  or  Johann,)  a 
Danish  navigator,  born  about  1589.  He  was  sent  about 
1620  to  search  for  a  Northwest  Passage.    Died  in  1628. 

Munk,  moonk,  (Salomon,)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  at  Glogau  in  1802.  He  studied  in  Paris  under  Sil- 
vestre  de  Sacy,  and  was  appointed  in  1840  one  of  the 
keepers  of  the  Oriental  manuscripts  in  the  Imperial 
Library.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions  in  i860.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Geo- 
graphical, Historical,  and  Archaeological  Description 
of  Palestine,"  (in  French,  1845.) 

Miinnich  or  Muennich,  m^n'niK,  (  Burkhard 
Christoph,)  Count,  a  Russian  general  and  statesman, 
of  German  extraction,  born  in  1683.  Having  served 
against  the  French  in  17 12,  he  was  afterwards  patron- 
ized by  Peter  the  Great,  and  rose  to  be  field-marshal 
under  the  empress  Anna.  He  subsequently  gained  a 
series  of  victories  over  the  Turks.  He  caused  himself 
to  be  made  prime  minister  during  the  minority  of  Prince 
Ivan  ;  but  on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he  was  exiled 
to  Siberia,  in  1 741.  He  was  recalled  by  Peter  III.  in 
1762,    Died  in  1767. 

See  Hempel,  "Leben  Miinnichs,"  1742;  Von  Hammer,  "Ge- 
schichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs  ;"  G.  A.  voN  Halem,  "  Lebensbe- 
schreibung  des  Grafen  von  Miinnich,"  1803;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Mun'nlks,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  anatomist,  born  at  Utrecht 
in  1652  ;  died  in  1711. 

Munniks,  (Winoed,)  a  Dutch  physician,  born  in 
Friesland  in  1744;  died  in  1806. 

Munoz,  nioon-yith',  (Evarista,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
of  high  reputation,  born  at  Valencia  in  1671,  was  noted 
for  his  gallantry  and  adventures.    Died  in  1737. 

See  0  (jilliet,  " Diciionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Munoz,  (Fernando,)  Duke  of  Rianzares,  a  Spanish 
officer,  born  at  Tarancon  about  1808.  He  was  secretly 
married  to  the  queen-regent  Maria  Christina  in  1833. 
They  were  married  publicly  in  1844. 


Munoz,  (Juan  Bautista,)  a  Spanish  historian,  born 
near  Valencia  in  1745,  was  appointed  cosmographer 
to  the  Indies.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  New 
World,"  (1793,)  which  is  highly  eulogized  by  Humboldt. 
Died  in  1799. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Prescott, 
"History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  ii.  part  2. 

Munoz,  sometimes  improperly  written  Mugnoz,  (Se- 
bastian,) a  Spanish  artist,  born  at  Naval  Carnero  in 
1654,  was  one  of  the  best  Spanish  fresco-painters  of  his 
time.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Coello,  and  was  appointed 
painter  to  the  king,  Charles  II.,  in  1688.    Died  in  1690. 

See  Quilliet,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols,"  etc. 

Munoz,  (ToMAS,)  a  Spanish  naval  officer  and  en- 
gineer, born  about  1745.  He  defended  the  foundations 
of  Cadiz  against  the  encroachments  of  the  sea.  Died 
in  1823, 

Mun-ro',  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  able  English  general  and 
governor,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1760  or  1761.  He  went 
to  India  about  1780,  and  entered  the  army  of  the  East 
India  Company.  Having  served  with  distinction  in 
several  campaigns,  he  was  also  employed  in  important 
civil  offices.  In  1819  he  was  appointed  Governor  of 
Madras,  and  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  He 
died  in  India  in  1826  or  1827. 

See  G.  R.  Gleig,  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Munro,"  2  or  3  vols., 
1830;  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1830. 

Mun'sell,  (Joel,)  an  American  printer  and  journalist, 
born  at  Northfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1808,  published 
the  "  Every-Day  Book  of  History  and  Chronology," 
"Annals  of  Albany,"  and  other  works. 

Munster,  von,  fon  moon'ster,  (Ernst  Friedrich 
Herbert,)  Count,  a  Hanoverian  politician,  born  in 
1766.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
in  1814.    Died  in  1839. 

Mun'ster,  (George  Fitzclarence,)  Earl  of,  an 
English  general,  born  in  1794,  was  a  natural  son  of  King 
William  IV.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  Penin- 
sular war,  and  afterwards  in  India.  He  wrote  a  "Journal 
of  Travels  in  India,"  (1819.)    Died  in  1842. 

Munster  or  Muenster,  miin'ster,  (Sebastian,)  a 
German  theologian  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Ingelsheim 
in  1489,  became  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Biblical  litera- 
ture at  Heidelberg.  He  published  a  Latin  translation 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  (with  notes,)  and  a  "  Universal  Cos- 
mography." "  MUnster,"  says  De  Thou,  "  was  so  learned 
in  theology  and  geography  that  he  was  styled  the  Esdras 
and  Strabo  of  Germany."    Died  in  1552. 

Munster  -  Ledenburg,  mun '  ster  la  '  den  -  booRc', 
(Ernst  Friedrich  Herbert,)  a  German  statesman, 
born  at  Osnabriick  in  1766.  He  became  minister  of 
finance  in  1798,  and  was  afterwards  sent  on  missions  to 
England  and  Russia.    Died  in  1839. 

Muntaner  En  Ramon,  moon-tl-naiR'  hv\  rS-m^)n', 
a  Spanish  chronicler,  born  in  Catalonia  in  1265.  His 
principal  work  is  a  "History  of  the  Achievements  of 
the  Princes  of  Aragon,  from  James  the  Conqueror  to 
Alfonso  IV."  The  writer  narrates,  in  a  pleasing,  un- 
affected style,  events  of  which  he  was  a  witness,  and  his 
chronicle  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best  of  the  middle  ages. 

Miinter  or  Muenter,  mun'ter,  (Balthasar,)  a  Ger- 
man pulpit  orator  and  writer  of  sacred  poetry,  born  at 
Lubeck  in  1735.  His  "Collections  of  Spiritual  Songs" 
are  greatly  esteemed  by  his  countrymen.  In  1772  he 
attended  the  unfortunate  Count  Struensee  a  short  time 
before  his  execution,  and  afterwards  wrote  an  account 
of  his  conversion.  This  work  became  widely  celebrated, 
and  was  translated  into  the  principal  European  lan- 
guages.   Died  in  1793. 

See  Friedrich  Munter,  "Leben  und  Character  B.  Miinters," 
1794. 

Miinter,  (Friedrich,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1 761,  became  successively  professor  of  theology  at  Co- 
penhagen (1790)  and  Bishop  of  Seeland,  (1808.)  He 
also  attained  great  distinction  as  an  antiquary  and 
Oriental  scholar.  Among  his  most  important  works  is 
a  treatise  "  On  the  Symbols  and  Art-Representations 
of  the  Early  Christians."  Died  in  1830.  Frederika 
Sophia  Christiana  Brun,  sister  of  the  preceding, 
was  likewise  celebrated  as  an  author. 


€  as    9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z,  %h  as  in  this.    (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MUNTING 


1644 


MURCHISON 


Munting,  mun'ting,  (Abraham,)  a  Dutch  physician 
and  botanist,  born  at  Groningen  in  1626,  was  professor 
of  botany  and  chemistry  in  the  university  of  that  place. 
He  wrote,  among  other  treatises,  a  **  Curious  Descrip- 
tion of  Plants."    Died  in  1683. 

Miinzer,  Muenzer,  or  Miincer,  m^nt'ser,  (Thomas,) 
a  German  fanatic,  who  held  principles  similar  to  the 
Anabaptists.  Having  collected  forty  thousand  followers, 
they  committed  many  outrages ;  but  they  were  at  length 
defeated  by  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  and  his  allies,  and 
Miinzer  was  executed,  (1526.) 

See  Strobel,  "  Leben,  Schriften,  etc.  Thomas  Munzers,"  1785; 
Seidemann,  "Thomas  Munzer,"  1842. 

Mura,  da,  di  moo'rS,  (Francesco,)  sometimes  called 
Franceschetto,  (frin-ch^s-k^t'to,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Naples.  He  painted  several  works  in  the  palace 
of  the  King  of  Sardinia.    Died  about  1 745. 

Miirad.    See  Moorad. 

Murad,  (Sultans  of  Turkey.)    See  Amurath. 

Murad  Bey.    See  Moorad  Bey. 

Muraire,  mu^-3,R',  (Honor^;,)  Count,  a  French  judge 
and  politician,  born  at  Draguignan  in  1 750.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Council  of  Elders  in  1795,  was  banished 
in  1797,  and  was  appointed  first  president  of  the  court 
of  cassation  in  Paris  in  1804.    Died  in  1837. 

Muralt,  de,  deh  moo'rilt,  (B6at  Louis,)  a  Swiss 
litteratem',  born  at  Berne.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great  of  Prussia,"  and  various  other  works. 
Died  in  1760. 

Muralt,  de,  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  physician  and  naturalist, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1645.  He  became  professor  of  physics 
and  mathematics  at  Zurich  in  1645,  and  published  several 
scientific  works.    Died  in  1733. 

Murant,  mii-rint', }  (Emmanuel,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1622.  His  works  are 
finely  finished.    Died  at  Leeuwarden  in  1700. 

Murat,  mii'rt',  (Jean,)  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Felletin  in  1807.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1837 
for  a  picture  of  "  Noah  Offering  Sacrifice." 

Murat,  [sometimes  Anglicized  in  pronunciation  as 
mu-rit',]  (Joachim,)  a  celebrated  marshal  of  the  French 
empire,  and  King  of  Naples,  was  born  near  Cahors,  in 
the  south  of  France,  in  1771.  His  father  was  an  inn- 
keeper. Soon  after  the  Revolution  began,  young  Murat 
entered  the  guard  of  Louis  XVL,  from  which  he  passed 
into  a  regiment  of  chasseurs.  As  he  was  a  warm  parti- 
san of  the  popular  cause,  he  was  rapidly  promoted,  and 
in  the  campaign  of  1796  was  a  favourite  aide-de-camp 
of  Bonaparte,  whose  fortunes  he  thenceforth  followed 
and  shared.  Having  signalized  his  impetuous  bravery 
in  the  campaigns  of  Italy  and  Egypt,  he  was  made  a 
general  of  division  in  1799.  Soon  after  Bonaparte  ob- 
tained the  chief  power,  he  gave  to  Murat  his  sister 
Caroline  in  marriage.  Murat  commanded  the  cavalry  at 
Marengo  in  1800,  and  was  appointed  governor  of  Paris 
in  1804,  with  the  rank  of  general-in-chief.  He  received 
a  marshal's  baton  in  1804,  and  in  1806  was  created  Grand 
Duke  of  Berg  and  Cleves.  At  Austerlitz,  Jena,  and 
Eylau  he  directed  the  cavalry  with  brilliant  effect.  He 
was  pronounced  by  Napoleon  "the  best  cavalry  officer 
in  Europe,"  and  was  admired  for  his  handsome  figure, 
gorgeous  costume,  and  chivalrous  demeanour. 

Murat  commanded  the  army  which  invaded  Spain  in 
1808,  and  in  the  same  year  was  placed  on  the  throne 
of  Naples,  where  he  was  received  with  general  joy,  and 
reigned  liberally  and  peacefully  until  1812.  He  shared 
the  reverses  of  the  Russian  campaign,  (181 2,)  and  in 
1813  again  fought  for  Napoleon,  whose  cause  he  deserted 
after  the  battle  of  Leipsic.  He  made  a  treaty  with  the 
court  of  Vienna  in  January,  1814,  and  engaged  to  sup- 
port the  allies  with  his  army ;  but  he  failed  to  aid  them 
efficiently,  and  was  accused  of  duplicity.  As  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  appeared  indisposed  to  recognize  his 
claim,  he  secretly  renewed  his  relations  with  the  exiled 
emperor,  whose  cause  he  openly  espoused  in  March, 
1815.  Calling  the  Italians  to  rise  for  liberty,  he  com- 
menced hostilities  against  the  Austrians  in  Northern 
Italy,  but  was  repulsed  and  finally  defeated  at  Macerata 
in  May,  and  then  fled  to  France.  In  October,  1815,  he 
landed  with  about  thirty  men  in  his  former  kingdom,  and 
made  a  desperate  attempt  to  recover  it,  but  was  soon 


captured  and  shot.  As  a  ruler,  he  appears  to  have  been 
mild  and  humane,  but  he  was  deficient  in  political  ability 
as  well  as  moral  courage.  His  wife  survived  him  many 
years,  and  took  the  title  of  Countess  of  Lipano.  (See 
Bonaparte,  Caroline.)  Murat  left  two  sons.  Napoleon 
Achille  and  Lucien  Charles  Joseph. 

See  F.  Macirone,  "Interesting  Facts  relating  to  the  Fall,  etc. 
of  J.  Murat;"  A.  de  Beauchamp,  "Catastrophe  de  Murat;"  Leon 
Gai^lois,  "  Histoire  de  Joachim  Murat,"  1828;  A.  Serikys,  "Vie 
publique  et  privee  de  Joachim  Murat,"  1816;  A.  Bruggemans, 
"  Leven  en  Lotgevallen  van  Joachim  Murat,"  1816  ;  C.  Miramont, 
"Vie  de  J.  Murat,  Roi  de  Naples,"  1836;  Thiers,  "  History  of  the 
French  Revolution;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1S26. 

Murat,  (NAPOLifeoN  Achille,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  emigrated  to  Florida 
about  1822.  He  wrote  a  "  Moral  and  Political  View  of 
the  United  States,"  (1832,)  and  several  other  short 
works.    Died  in  Jefferson  county,  Florida,  in  1847. 

Murat,  (Napoleon  Lucien  Charles,)  Prince,  a 
French  senator,  born  at  Milan  in  1803,  was  a  son  of 
Joachim  Murat.  He  married  Miss  Eraser,  an  American, 
about  1827.  After  a  long  exile,  he  was  permitted  to  enter 
France  in  1848.  He  supported  the  policy  of  Napoleon 
III.,  who  appointed  him  a  senator  in  1852. 

Muratori,  moo-ri-to'ree,  (Ludovico  Antonio,)  an 
eminent  Italian  scholar,  historian,  and  antiquary,  iDorn 
near  Modena  in  1672.  He  became  librarian  and  ar- 
chivist to  the  Duke  of  Modena  in  1700,  and  continued  in 
this  office  till  his  death.  He  published  in  1751  his  great 
work  entitled  "  Writers  of  Italian  History,"  ("  Rerum 
Italicorum  Scriptores,"  27  vols,  fob,  1723-38,)  which  was 
followed  by  his  "  Italian  Antiquities  of  the  Middle  Ages," 
(6  vols.,  1738,)  "  New  Treasury  of  Ancient  Inscriptions," 
(6  vols.,  1739,)  and  "Annals  of  Italy,"  (in  Italian,  12  vols., 
1744.)  He  died  in  1750,  with  the  reputation  of  one  of 
the  most  learned  men  of  his  time. 

See  G.  F.  Muratori,  "Vita  del  celebre  L.  A.  Muratori,"  1756; 
Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  Fabkoni,  "Vitae  Italo- 
rum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  Schedoni,  "  Elogiodi  L.  A.  Muratori," 
1818;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Muravief.    See  Mooravief. 

Murawiew  or  Murawjew.    See  Mooravief. 

Murazan,  moo-r^-sSn',  (Juan,)  a  South  American 
patriot,  born  at  San  Salvador  in  1796,  was  president 
of  the  republic  of  Guatemala  from  1831  to  1838.  Died 
in  1852. 

Mur'-ehi-spn,  (Sir  Roderick  Impey,)  an  eminent 
British  geologist,  born  at  Taradale,  Ross-shire,  Scotland, 
on  the  19th  of  February,  1792,  was  a  son  of  Kenneth 
Murchison.  He  was  educated  at  the  Military  College 
of  Marlow,  entered  the  army  in  1807,  and  served  in  seve- 
ral battles  in  the  Peninsula.  He  was  also  on  the  staff  of 
his  uncle.  Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie,  in  Sicily.  He  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  General  Hugonin  in  1815,  and  quitted 
the  army  about  1816.  By  the  advice  of  Sir  Humphry 
Davy,  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  natural  science, 
and  attended  lectures  at  the  Royal  Institution.  About  1 82 5 
he  produced  a  "Geological  Sketch  of  the  Northwestern 
Extremity  of  Sussex."  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Geological  Society  in  1825,  and  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
1826.  In  company  with  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  he  explored 
in  1828  the  geology  of  Auvergne,  Provence,  and  Pied- 
mont, on  which  they  wrote  jointly  three  memoirs.  In 
1830  he  began  to  examine  the  older  sedimentary  strata 
of  England  and  Wales,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
Silurian  system.  He  published  the  results  of  these 
researches  in  an  important  work  entitled  "  The  Silurian 
System."  He  was  the  first  who  discovered  the  relations 
of  these  palaeozoic  strata  and  classified  them  according 
to  the  succession  of  organic  remains.  In  1845  Mr. 
Murchison  and  M.  de  Verneuil  published  "The  Geology 
of  Russia  and  the  Ural  Mountains,"  (2  vols.  4to.)  The 
former  received  the  honour  of  knighthood  in  1846.  He 
was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Geographical  So- 
ciety in  1844  '^•''d  1852,  and  received  the  Copley  medal 
in  1849,  for  the  establishment  of  the  Silurian  system. 
Among  his  numerous  works  is  "  Siluria  :  the  History 
of  the  oldest  known  Rocks  containing  Organic  Remains, 
with  a  Brief  Sketch  of  the  Distribution  of  Gold  over  the 
Earth,"  (1854.)  He  had  been  chosen  president  of  the 
Geological  Society  several  times  between  1830  and  1842. 
In  1855  he  was  appointed  Director-General  of  the  Geo- 
logical Survey  of  the  United  Kingdom.    He  was  elected 


a,  e,  J,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAorf;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


MURDOCH 


MURPHT 


president  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  in  1864, 
and  received  the  Copley  medal  in  1866.    Died  in  1871. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
u!y,  1S60  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1868;  "Eclectic 
lajiazine"  for  December,  1S64,  (with  a  portrait;)  "North  British 
Review"  for  August,  1854;  "  Men  of  the  Time"  for  1868. 

Murdoch,  murMgk,  (James  Edward,)  an  American 
actor  and  elocutionist,  boVn  in  Philadelphia,  January  25, 
181 1.  His  first  public  performance  was  in  Philadelphia 
in  1829.  In  1833  he  appeared  successfully  in  the  charac- , 
ter  of  "Romeo,"  with  Miss  Fanny  Kemble  as  "Juliet," 
and  from  that  time  became  a  leading  actor  in  tragedy 
and  comedy.  About  five  years  later  he  retired  from  the 
stage,  and  opened  a  school  in  Boston  for  mental  and 
physical  training.  He  afterwards  returned  to  the  stage, 
and  in  1853  he  visited  California.  In  1855  he  went  to 
Europe,  and  while  in  London  performed  at  the  Hay- 
market  Theatre  with  great  applause.  He  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  1857.  Mr.  Murdoch's  style  is  strictly 
original,  his  articulation  distinct,  and  his  versatility  and 
range  of  character  remarkable.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  war  of  the  rebellion  he  devoted  his  time  and  atten- 
tion to  his  country,  giving  readings  and  recitations  in 
the  camps,  caring  for  the  sick  and  wounded,  and  rousing 
the  people  to  the  aid  of  the  suffering.  He  served  for 
some  time  on  the  staff  of  General  Rousseau.  Since  the 
close  of  the  war  he  has  devoted  himself  to  his  profession. 

Mur'dock,  (James,)  D.D.,  a  learned  American  Con- 
gregational divine,  born  at  Westbrook,  Connecticut,  in 
1776.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  ancient  languages  at  the  University  of  Ver- 
mont in  181 5,  and  in  1819  of  sacred  rhetoric  and  eccle- 
siastical history  in  the  theological  seminary  of  Andover. 
He  translated  from  the  German  Mosheim's  "Institutes 
of  Ecclesiastical  History,"  and  Miinscher's  "Elements 
of  Dogmatic  History,"  (1830,)  and  published  several 
original  works.    Died  in  1856. 

Mure,  mvir,  (William,)  a  Scottish  critic  and  scholar 
of  great  eminence,  born  at  Caldwell  in  1799.  He  studied 
at  Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  at  Bonn,  in  Germany, 
and  after  his  return  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Ren- 
frew, in  1846.  He  published  in  1850  his  "Critical  Ac- 
count of  the  Language  and  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece," 
(5  vols.  8vo,)  which  is  esteemed  a  standard  work.  He 
was  also  the  author  of  a  "  Calendar  of  the  Zodiac  of 
Ancient  Egypt,"  (1832,)  and  "Journal  of  a  Tour  in 
Greece,"  {1838.)  Pie  was  elected  in  1855  lord  rector 
of  the  University  of  Glasgow.    Died  in  i860. 

Mure,  (Sir  William,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Ayr- 
shire about  1594,  was  the  author  of  traditional  "Ballads 
and  Songs."    Died  in  1657. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1850. 

Mu-re'na,  (A.  Terentius  Varro,)  was  conml  stiffectus 
in  23  B.C.,  and  was  put  to  death  in  22  for  complicity  in 
the  conspiracy  of  Fannius  Caepio. 

Murena,  moo-ra^iS,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  in  1 713,  was  a  pupil  of  Vanvitelli.  He  worked  in 
Rome.    Died  in  1764. 

Murena,  (Lucius  Licinius,)  a  Roman  soldier  and 
consul,  was  one  of  the  lieutenants  of  Sulla,  whom  he 
accompanied  in  his  campaign  against  Mithridates.  After 
Sulla  made  peace  with  Mithridates,  in  84  B.C.,  Murena 
remained  in  Asia  and  renewed  hostilities.  Died  about 
80  B.C. 

Murena,  (Lucius  Licinius,)  a  Roman  general,  who 
served  under  Lucullus  in  Asia.  He  was  elected  praetor 
about  65,  and  consul  in  63  B.C.  Having  been  accused 
of  bribery  in  the  year  last  named,  he  was  defended  by 
Cicero  and  acquitted. 

See  Cicero,  "  Oratio  pro  Murasna." 

Mures,  moo'rSs,  (Alonzo,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
m  1695.   He  worked  at  Badajoz,  where  he  died  in  1 761. 

Muret,  miiW,  [Lat.  Mure'tus,]  (Marc  Antoine,) 
a  French  classical  scholar,  born  at  Muret,  in  Limousin, 
in  1526.  He  lectured  on  philosophy  and  law  at  Paris, 
which  he  quitted  about  1552.  He  afterwards  lived  in 
Venice  and  Rome,  and  was  patronized  by  Ippolito 
d'Este.  In  1563  he  opened  a  course  of  philosophy  at 
Rome,  where  he  became  professor  of  civil  law  about 
1566.    He  was  styled  the  "luminary  and  pillar  of  the 


Roman  school"  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  He  composed 
commentaries  on  Aristotle,  Cicero,  Horace,  Tacitus,  and 
other  classic  authors.  Among  his  various  works  are 
Latin  poems  and  "Variae  Lectiones."  Died  in  Rome 
in  1585. 

See  F.  Benci,  "  Oratio  funebris  Mureti,"  1585  ;  Vogt,  "Apologia 
pro  Mureto  ;"  ViTRAC,  "  filoge  de  Muret,"  1775;  "  Menagiana  ;" 
LuNDBLAD,  "Dissertatio  de  M.  A.  Mureto,"  1819  ;  Niceron,  "Me- 
moires;"  "  Nouveile  Biographie  Generale." 

Muret,  (Theodore  C6sar,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Rouen  in  1808.  He  wrote  a  number  of  dramas  and 
histories,  among  which  is  a  "  History  of  the  Wars  of 
the  West,"  (5  vols.,  1848.) 

Muretus.    See  Muret. 

Murger,  miiR'zh^',  (Henri,)  a  French  littirateur, 
born  in  Paris  in  1822,  contributed  to  the  "Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes"  a  number  of  tales  and  dramas.  His 
most  popular  work  is  entitled  "Scenes  in  Bohemian 
Life."    Died  in  1861. 

See  G.  Planche,  in  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  1853. 

Muriel,  moo-re-^l',  (Andres,)  a  Spanish  litterateur^ 
born  in  Old  Castile  in  1776,  settled  in  Paris  about  1812. 
He  wrote  on  Spanish  history,  and  translated  into  French 
Coxe's  "Memoirs  of  the  Kings  of  Spain  of  the  Plouse 
of  Bourbon,"  (Paris,  6  vols.,  1827.) 

Murillo,  mu-ril'lo,  [Sp.  pron.  moo-r^l'yo,]  (Bar- 
tolom6  Esteban,)  the  most  celebrated  painter  of  the 
Spanish  school,  was  born  at  Seville  in  1618,  and  was  a 
pupil  of  his  uncle,  Juan  del  Castillo.  About  the  age  of 
twenty-four  he  went  to  Madrid,  where  he  derived  ad- 
vantage from  the  friendly  counsels  of  Velasquez  and 
perfected  himself  in  his  art.  Having  returned  to  Seville 
in  1645,  he  soon  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  history, 
portraits,  and  other  branches  of  painting.  He  was  pa- 
tronized by  the  King  of  Spain,  and  adorned  the  churches 
of  Madrid,  Seville,  and  Cadiz  with  his  works.  As  a 
colorist  he  surpassed  all  other  Spanish  artists.  His 
productions  are  remarkable  for  originality,  fidelity  to 
nature,  freedom  of  touch,  and  softness,  splendour,  and 
harmony  of  colour.  He  delighted  and  excelled  in  the 
representation  of  virgin  saints  and  of  beggar-boys  at 
play.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "Moses  Striking 
the  Rock,"  "  The  Marriage  of  Saint  Catherine,"  "  Saint 
Elizabeth  of  Hungary,"  "Christ  Feeding  the  Five 
Thousand,"  a  "Young  Beggar,"  "The  Prodigal  Son,"  a 
"Holy  Family,"  and  "Saint  Anthony  of  Padua."  He 
died,  in  consequence  of  a  fall  from  a  scaffold,  in  1682. 

See  Cean-Bermudez,  "Diccionario  Historico,"  etc.  ;  J.  F.  Boijr- 
GoiNG,  "Tableau  de  I'Espagne  moderne  Quilliet,  "  Diciionnaire 
des  Peintres  Espagnols  ;"  C.  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres ;"  E. 
Davies,  "LifeofB.  E.  Murillo,"  1819 ;  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  ;" 
"Nouveile  Biographie  Generale;"  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  April, 
1846. 

Muris,  de,  deh  mii'r^ss',  (Jean,)  a  learned  French 
ecclesiastic,  sometimes  called  Meurs  or  Murs,  lived 
about  1310-40.  He  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  treat- 
ise on  music,  entitled  "  Speculum  Musicae,"  an  abridg- 
ment of  which  has  been  published.    Died  after  1345. 

Murner,  mooR'ner,  (Thomas,)  a  famous  German 
satirist  and  controversialist,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1475. 
He  possessed  uncommon  abilities  and  caustic  wit,  and 
the  offensive  personalities  in  which  he  indulged  kept 
him  in  constant  warfare  with  his  contemporaries.  His 
satires  are  chiefly  directed  against  Luther  and  his  asso- 
ciate Reformers  ;  and  some  of  them  are  regarded  as  the 
ablest  which  have  been  levelled  at  the  Reformation. 
He  also  wrote  "  The  World  of  Fools,"  and  "  The  Mill 
of  Schwindelsheim,"  in  which  he  keenly  satirized  the 
follies  of  the  time.    Died  about  1536. 

See  Waldau,  "  Nachrichten  von  Murners  Leben,"  1775;  Flo- 
gel,  "  Geschichte  der  komischen  Literatur." 

Mur'phy,  (Arthur,)  a  dramatic  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  in  the  county  of  Roscommon,  in  Ireland, 
about  1728.  He  edited  for  a  time  "The  Gray's-Inn 
Journal,"  and  wrote,  among  other  plays,  a  tragedy 
entitled  "The  Grecian  Daughter,"  and  "The  Way  to 
Keep  Him,"  a  comedy.  He  also  made  a  translation  of 
Tacitus,  and  wrote  the  tives  of  Johnson  and  Garrick. 
Died  in  1805. 

See  J.  Foot,  "Life  of  Arthur  Murphy." 

Murphy,  (James  Cavanagh,)  a  distinguished  archi- 
tect and  writer,  born  in  Ireland  about  1760.    In  1788  he 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^=See  Explanations,  p.  23,) 


MURPHT 


1646 


MURRjr 


visited  Portugal,  and  after  his  return  published  an  ac- 
count of  that  country.  Among  his  principal  works  we 
may  name  "The  Arabian  Antiquities  of  Spain,"  with  97 
plates,  (1813-16.)    Died  in  1816. 

Murphy,  (Robert,)  an  excellent  self-taught  Irish 
mathematician,  born  at  Mallow  in  1806.  In  1825  he 
entered  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  was 
chosen  a  Fellow  in  1829.  He  became  a  resident  of 
London  in  1836.  Among  his  works  are  "Analysis  of 
the  Roots  of  Equations,"  and  "The  Theory  of  Algebraic 
Equations,"  published  by  the  Useful  Knowledge  Society. 
Died  in  1843. 

Murr,  von,  fon  mooR,  (Christoph  Gottlieb,)  a 
German  scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Nuremberg  about 
1734,  published  an  "  Essay  on  the  History  of  the  Greek 
Tragic  Poets,"  (1760,)  "Antiquities  of  Herculaneum," 
(6  vols.,  1777-82,)  and  a  number  of  historical  works, 
among  which  is  "Commentatio  de  Re  diplomatica  Fre- 
derici  II.,"  {1756.)  He  was  noted  for  his  various  and 
extensive  learning.    Died  in  181 1. 

See  Meusel,  "  Gelehrtes  Deutschland ;"  "  Biographic  Univer- 
selle." 

Murray,  mur're  ?  (Adolphus,)  a  Swedish  physician, 
born  at  Stockholm  in  1 750.  He  was  professor  of  anatomy 
at  Upsal.    Died  in  1803. 

Murray,  mur're,  (Alexander,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
linguist,  born  at  Dunkitterick  in  1775.  The  son  of  a 
shepherd,  his  early  instruction  was  very  limited  ;  but, 
with  the  aid  of  a  powerful  memory  and  his  persevering 
exertions,  he  acquired,  before  the  age  of  twenty,  the 
French,  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew  languages.  He 
entered  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1794,  where  he 
studied  theology  and  became  versed  in  the  Oriental 
tongues.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  those  languages 
at  Edinburgh  in  1812,  and  soon  after  was  created  D.D. 
He  died  in"i8i3,  of  consumption.  His  principal  work 
is  a  "  History  of  the  European  Languages,"  etc.,  (1813.) 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men ;"  "  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  i. 

Murray,  miar're,  (Alexander,)  an  American  com- 
modore, born  at  Chestertown,  Maryland,  in  1755.  In 
1802  he  was  commander  of  the  Constellation,  in  the 
Mediterranean,  for  the  protection  of  American  trade. 
Died  in  1821. 

Murray,  miir're,  (Charles,)  an  English  actor  and 
dramatist,  born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1754.  His  principal 
plays  are  entitled  "The  Experiment,"  and  "The  New 
Maid  of  the  Oaks."    Died  in  1821. 

Murray,  (Charles  Augustus,)  an  English  diplo- 
matist, a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Dunmore,  was  born  about 
1806.  He  was  sent  as  envoy  to  Persia  in  1854,  and  as 
minister  to  Saxony  in  1859.  He  wrote  "Travels  among 
the  Indians  of  North  America,"  (1839.)  His  Indian 
tale  or  novel  entitled  "The  Prairie  Bird"  (1844)  has 
been  warmly  praised. 

Murray,  (Sir  George,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
Perthshire  in  1772.  He  served  in  Flanders  and  Egypt 
with  distinction,  and  rendered  important  services  as 
quartermaster-general  in  the  Peninsular  war,  (1808-14,) 
after  which  he  was  employed  in  France  as  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  army  of  occupation.  He  was  appointed 
governor  of  the  Royal  Military  College  at  Woolwich 
about  1819,  and  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies  in 
1828.  In  1 84 1  he  became  master-general  of  the  ord- 
nance.   Died  in  1846. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen.' 

Murray,  (Hugh,)  a  Scottish  geographer  and  miscel- 
laneous writer,  born  in  East  Lothian  in  1779.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  "Discoveries  and  Travels  in 
America,"  (1829,)"  Encyclopaedia  of  Geography,"  (1834,) 
and  "  History  of  British  India."    Died  in  1846. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1821. 

Murray,  (James,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  at  Dunkeld 
in  1702,  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "Aletheia; 
or,  A  System  of  Moral  Truths."    Died  in  1758. 

Murray  or  Moray,  (Jame^Stuart,)  Earl  of,  often 
called  Regent  Murray,  born  about  1533,  was  a  natural 
son  of  James  V.  of  Scotland  and  Margaret  Erskine.  In 
1558  he  joined  the  "  Lords  of  the  Congregation,"  as  the 
Protestant  chiefs  styled  themselves,  and  in  1560  was  sent 
to  France  to  invite  Queen  Mary  (his  half-sister)  to  return 


to  her  kingdom.  She  returned  in  1561,  and  he  became 
her  most  favoured  and  powerful  minister,  and  was  made 
Earl  of  Murray.  His  talents,  firmness,  and  courage  had 
already  caused  the  Reformers  to  regard  him  as  the  head 
of  their  party.  The  marriage  of  Mary  with  Darnley, 
(1565,)  against  the  advice  of  Murray,  caused  a  breach 
between  him  and  the  queen,  which  was  afterwards  greatly 
widened  by  the  countenance  she  showed  to  Darnley's 
murderers.  Mary  having  been  deposed,  he  was  ap- 
pointed regent  of  the  kingdom  in  August,  1567.  In 
1568  she  escaped  from  Lochleven  Castle,  and  raised  an 
army,  which  was  quickly  routed  by  the  regent  at  Lang- 
side.  At  the  trial  of  Mary,  which  Queen  Elizabeth  in- 
stituted, the  regent  appeared  as  evidence  against  the 
captive  queen.  By  this  and  other  acts  he  had  incurred 
the  bitter  hatred  of  the  queen's  party,  and  they  resolved 
upon  his  destruction.  In  January,  1570,  he  was  waylaid, 
shot,  and  mortally  wounded  by  James  Hamilton  of 
Bothwellhaugh,  a  notorious  desperado,  who  was  after- 
wards selected  by  the  agents  of  Philip  II.  to  assassinate 
the  Prince  of  Orange. 

The  character  of  the  regent  Murray  has  been  estimated 
very  dififerently,  according  to  the  temper  or  prejudice  of 
those  who  have  judged  him.  By  his  firmness,  modera- 
tion, humanity,  and  impartial  justice,  he  appears  to  have 
well  deserved  the  title  of  "the  Good  Regent,"  by  which 
he  was  known  among  the  people  of  Scotland.  "Those," 
observes  Froude,  "who  can  see  only  in  the  Protestant 
religion  an  uprising  of  Antichrist,  and  in  the  Queen 
of  Scots  the  beautiful  victim  of  sectarian  iniquity,  have 
exhausted  upon  Murray  the  resources  of  eloquent  vitu- 
peration, and  have  described  him  as  a  perfidious  brother, 
building  up  his  own  fortunes  on  the  wrongs  of  his  in- 
jured sovereign.  .  .  .  But  facts  prevail  at  last,  however 
passionate  the  predilection  ;  and,  when  the  verdict  of 
plain  human  sense  can  get  itself  pronounced,  the  'good 
regent'  will  take  his  place  among  the  best  and  greatest 
men  who  have  ever  lived." 

See  Froude,  "  History  of  England,"  vols.  viii.  and  ix.,  but  more 
particularly  chaps,  viii.,  ix.,  xiii.,  xiv.,  xv.,  xvi.,  and  xviii.  ;  Robert- 
son, "  History  of  Scotland ;"  Knox,  "  History  of  the  Reformation 
MiGNET,  "  Histoire  de  Marie  Stuart." 

Murray,  (Johan  Anders,)  a  Swedish  physician  and 
botanist,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1740,  was  a  pupil  of  Lin- 
naeus. He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
of  Stockholm,  and  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Gottingen, 
and  was  created  a  privy  councillor  by  the  King  of  Eng- 
land. Linnaeus  gave  the  name  of  Miirraya  exotica  to 
an  East  Indian  tree.  He  was  a  brother  of  Adolphus, 
noticed  above.    Died  in  1791. 

See  C.  G.  Hevne,  "  Elogium  J.  A.  Murray,"  1791. 

Murray,  (John,)  a  Scottish  physician,  published  a 
"System  of  Materia  Medica  and  Pharmacy,"  and  "Ele- 
ments of  Chemistry."    Died  in  1820. 

Murray,  (John,)  a  celebrated  divine  and  preacher, 
born  in  Hampshire,  England,  in  1 741,  is  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  Universalism  in  America.  Having  emigrated 
to  the  United  States  in  1770,  he  was  appointed  in  1775 
a  chaplain  in  the  army.  He  took  part  in  the  proceedings 
of  the  Universalist  Convention  in  1785,  and  subsequently 
became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Boston.    Died  in  181 5. 

See  "Records  of  the  Life  of  John  Murray,"  written  by  himself. 

Murray,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  publisher,  born 
in  London  in  1778.  He  commenced  in  1803  a  career 
of  publication  which  is  perhaps  unrivalled  in  the  annals 
of  literature.  About  1807  he  projected  the  "Quarterly 
Review,"  in  which  he  obtained  the  co-operation  of  Can- 
ning and  Scott,  and  published  the  first  number  in  1809. 
His  sagacity  in  discerning  the  merits  or  talents  of 
authors,  and  his  tact  in  anticipating  the  wants  of  the 
public,  rendered  him  very  successful.  He  was  a  liberal 
patron  of  literature,  and  a  generous  friend  to  Byron 
and  other  eminent  authors.    Died  in  1843. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  August,  1843;  "Autobiography 
of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  ii. 

Murray,  (Lindley,)  a  distinguished  American  gram- 
marian and  educational  writer,  born  near  Lancaster, 
Pennsylvania,  in  1745,  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  Having  removed  at  an  early  age  to  New  York, 
he  studied  law,  but  he  subsequently  engaged  in  mercan- 
tile pursuits.    The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  spent  in 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


MVRRAT 


MUSCULUS 


England,  to  which  he  removed  about  1784.  Among  his 
works,  which  obtained  great  popularity  both  in  England 
and  America,  we  may  name  his  "  Power  of  Religion  on 
the  Mind,"  etc.,  (1787,)  "Grammar  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage," (1795,)  "English  Reader,"  "Introduction  to  the 
English  Reader,"  and  "  Duty  and  Benefit  of  a  Daily 
Perusal  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,"  (1817.)  He  also  com- 
piled several  French  readers.  He  died  near  York, 
England,  in  1826. 

See  the  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Lindley  Murray,"  written 
by  himself;  E.  Frank,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  L.  Murray,"  1826; 
"  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iii.  ; 
Cleveland,  "Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Murray,  (Nicholas,)  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine, 
born  in  Ireland  in  1803,  studied  theology  at  Princeton, 
New  Jersey,  and  in  1834  became  pastor  at  Elizabethtown, 
in  that  State.  He  published  several  theological  works. 
His  "Letters  to  Bishop  Hughes,"  (1847-48,)  under  the 
signature  of  Kirwan,  have  enjoyed  a  great  popularity, 
and  have  been  translated  into  several  foreign  languages. 
Died  in  1861. 

Murray,  (Patrick,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  in  1703, 
was  the  fifth  Lord  Elibank.  He  published  an  "  Inquiry 
into  the  Origin  and  Consequence  of  the  Public  Debts," 
"  Thoughts  on  Money,  Circulation,"  etc.,  and  a  "  Let- 
ter to  Lord  Hailes  on  his  Remarks  on  the  History  of 
Scotland."  His  writings  were  highly  esteemed.  Died 
in  1778. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Murray,  (Sir  Robert.)    See  Moray. 

Murray,  (William,)  Earl  of  Mansfield,  lord  chief 
justice,  a  British  lawyer  and  orator  of  great  merit  and 
celebrity,  was  born  at  Perth,  Scotland,  in  1704.  He  was 
a  younger  son  of  Andrew,  Viscount  Stormont.  Having 
gained  distinction  as  a  classical  scholar  at  Oxford,  and 
enlarged  his  mind  by  foreign  travel,  he  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1731.  He  speedily  rose  into  extensive  practice, 
and  in  1743  was  appointed  .solicitor-general.  About  this 
time  he  entered  the  House  of  Commons,  where  he  was 
successful  as  an  elegant  and  persuasive  speaker,  and 
defended  the  government  when  Mr.  Pitt  (Lord  Chatham) 
was  the  leader  of  the  opposition.  "He  surpassed  Pitt," 
says  Macaulay,  "in  correctness  of  taste,  in  power  of 
reasoning,  in  depth  and  variety  of  knowledge  ;  but  he 
wanted  the  energy,  the  courage,  the  all-grasping  and  all- 
risking  ambition  which  make  men  great  in  stirring  times." 
("  Review  of  the  Life  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham.")  He  was 
appointed  attorney-general  in  1754,  and  chief  justice  of 
the  king's  bench  in  1 756.  Over  that  great  court  he  pre- 
sided with  honour  above  thirty  years.  In  1756  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Mansfield.  On  more 
than  one  occasion  he  refused  high  political  positions, 
among  which  was  that  of  lord  chancellor.  He  had, 
however,  a  seat  in  the  cabinet  for  more  than  a  year.  In 
the  trial  of  Woodfall  for  publishing  "  Junius's  Letters," 
Lord  Mansfield  gave  offence  to  the  popular  party,  and 
was  censured  for  leaning  against  the  freedom  of  discus- 
sion in  cases  of  libel.  During  the  riots  of  1780,  his  house 
in  London  was  burned  down  by  a  mob.  He  died,  with- 
out issue,  in  1793.  "His  mind  and  his  habits,"  says 
Lord  Brougham,  "  were  eminently  judicial  ;  and  it  may 
be  doubted  if,  taking  both  the  externals  and  the  more 
essential  qualities  into  the  account,  that  go  to  form  a 
great  judge,  any  one  has  ever  administered  the  laws  in 
this  country  whom  we  can  fairly  name  as  his  equal." 

See  the  "  Life  of  William,  Earl  of  Mansfield,"  by  John  Holli- 
DAY  ;  I'ROUGHAM,  "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  IIL  ;"  Foss, 
"The  Judges  of  England;"  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Chief 
Justices  ;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men." 

Murray,  (William,)  a  Scottish  actor,  born  in  1791, 
performed  in  Edinburgh  for  many  years.    Died  in  1852. 

Murray,  (Rev.  William  H.  H.,)  a  popular  and 
eloquent  Congregationalist  minister,  born  at  Guilford, 
Connecticut,  April  26,  1840,  graduated  at  Yale  in  1862. 
Having  been  licensed  to  preach  in  1863,  he  officiated 
during  several  years  as  minister  at  Greenwich  and  other 
places  in  Connecticut.  In  1868  he  accepted  an  invita- 
tion from  Park  Street  Church,  Boston,  where  he  was 
installed  as  pastor  in  November  of  that  year.  He  pub- 
lished a  work  on  the  Adirondack  Mountains,  which  has 
attracted  a  good  deal  of  attention. 


Murray,  (William  Vans,)  an  American  diplomatist, 
born  in  Maryland  about  1762.  Having  studied  law  in 
England,  he  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1791.  He 
was  afterwards  appointed  by  Washington  United  States 
minister  at  the  Flague.    Died  in  1803. 

Mursinna,  mooR-sin'nl,  (Christian  Ludwig,)  an 
eminent  German  surgeon,  born  at  Stolpe  in  1744.  He 
became  chief  surgeon  in  the  army  in  1787,  and  published 
several  surgical  works.    Died  in  1823. 

Murtola,  mooR'to-lJ,  (Gasparo,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Genoa.  He  wounded,  with  a  pistol,  Marini  the 
poet,  who  had  criticised  one  of  his  poems.  Died  in  1624. 

Mus.    See  Decius  Mus. 

Musa.    See  Moosa. 

Mu'sa,  (Antonius,)  a  celebrated  Roman  physician, 
originally  a  slave  of  the  emperor  Augustus,  and  a  brother 
of  Euphorbus,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  pre- 
scribed the  use  of  the  cold  bath.  Having  cured  the 
emperor  by  this  remedy,  he  received  his  freedom,  and 
was  created  a  knight.  Musa  was  also  distinguished  for 
his  literary  tastes,  and  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Virgil 
and  Horace. 

See  Ackermann,  "De  Antonio  Musa,"  1786;  Atterbury, 
"  Reflections  on  the  Character  of  lapis,  in  Virgil,  or  the  Character 
of  A.  Musa,"  etc.,  1740;  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca  IBotanica." 

Musae,  mu'ze,  [Gr.  Movaai,]  the  Muses,  sometimes 
called  Pier'ides,  in  the  Greek  mythology,  the  daughters 
of  Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne,  (Memory,)  were  supposed  to 
preside  over  poetry,  the  liberal  arts,  and  the  sciences. 
According  to  the  generally  received  opinion,  there  were 
nine  Muses,  namely.  Calliope,  Clio,  Euterpe,  Erato,  Mel- 
pomene, Polyhymnia,  Terpsichore,  Thalia,  and  Urania. 
(See  these  names  under  their  separate  heads.)  The 
places  especially  consecrated  to  the  Muses  were  Mount 
Parnassus,  Mount  Helicon,  and  the  fountains  of  Castalia 
and  Aganippe. 

Musaeus.    See  Musaus. 

Musaeus,  mu-zee'us,  [  Gr.  Mowe^of ;  Fr.  Mus6e, 
mii'zi',]  a  celebrated  and  ancient  Greek  bard,  commonly 
regarded  as  a  semi-fabulous  personage.  He  was  said  to  be 
the  son  of  Eumolpus  and  Selene,  or,  according  to  others, 
of  Orpheus,  of  whom  he  was  a  disciple.  Tradition  in- 
forms us  that  he  presided  over  the  Eleusinian  mysteries 
in  the  time  of  Hercules.  He  was  the  reputed  author 
of  several  poetical  works,  among  which  were  "Oracles," 
and  a  hynm  to  Ceres.  Pausanias  regarded  this  hymn  as 
the  only  genuine  poem  of  Musaeus  that  was  extant  in 
his  time.  Onomacritus  collected  the  Oracles  of  Musaeus 
and  mixed  with  them  some  of  his  own  productions, 
which  he  wished  to  pass  for  the  work  of  Musasus.  For 
this  imposture  he  was  banished  by  Hipparchus,  the  son 
of  Pisistratus. 

See  ViRGit,,  "^neid,"  book  vi.  666;  Ulrici,  "Geschichte  der 
Hellenischen  Dichtkunst." 

Musceus,  surnamed  Grammat'icus,  or  "the  Gram- 
marian," is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  fifth  century. 
He  is  celebrated  for  his  poem  of  "  Hero  and  Leander," 
a  production  of  rare  merit,  of  which  several  good  editions 
have  been  published. 

See  Kromaver,  "De  Musseo  Grammatico." 

Musaus  or  Musaeus,  moo-sa'us,  (Johann  Karl 
August,)  a  celebrated  German  writer,  born  at  Jena  in 
1735.  His  principal  works  are  a  novel  entitled  "The 
German  Grandison,"  ("  Der  Deutsche  Grandison,"  1760,) 
"Physiognomic  Travels,"  (1778,)  a  satire  on  the  theories 
of  Lavater,  "Popular  Legends  of  Germany,"  (1782) 
which  enjoy  great  popularity,  and  "  Friend  Hein's  Ap- 
paritions, in  Holbein's  Manner,"  (1785.)  His  writings 
are  characterized  by  delightful  humour,  simplicity,  and 
genial  satire.  Musaus  was  a  relative  of  Kotzebue,  who 
published  in  1791  his  posthumous  works,  with  an  inter- 
esting notice  of  the  author  prefixed.    Died  in  1787. 

Muschenbroek.    See  Musschenbroek. 

Muscher.    See  Musscher. 

Mus'cu-lus  [Ger.  pron.  moos'koo-liis]  or  Meusel, 
moi'zel,  (Andreas,)  a  German  Lutheran  theologian,  born 
at  Schneeberg  in  1540.  He  preached  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder,  and  wrote  "Compendium  Theologicum." 
Died  in  1581. 

Musculus,  Miisslin,  miis-leen',  orMeusslin,  moiss- 
leen',  (Wolfgang,)  a  German  Reformer  and  scholar,  born 


€  as ^/  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yiyguttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ({J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


MUSEE 


1648 


MUSSO 


in  Lorraine  in  1497,  was  a  monk  in  his  youth.  He 
was  converted  by  Luther  about  1520,  became  minister 
of  a  church  at  Augsburg  in  1531,  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  preacher.  Having  been  banished  from 
Augsburg  in  1548,  he  settled  at  Berne.  He  published 
commentaries  and  other  works.  Died  in  1563. 
See  Craik,  "Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties." 

Mus6e.    See  Mus^'Eus. 

Muselli,  moo-seKlee,  (Giovanni  Giacomo,)  Mar- 
quis, an  Italian  antiquary  and  writer,  born  at  Verona  in 
1697  ;  died  in  1768. 

Musemeci,  moo-si-ma'chee,  (Mario,)  an  Italian 
architect  and  antiquary,  born  at  Catanea  in  1778.  He 
wrote  several  works  on  antiquities  and  art,  among  which 
is  "  Opere  archeologiche  ed  artistiche,"  (2  vols.,  1851.) 
Died  in  1852. 

Mus'grave,  (Rev.  George,)  an  English  writer,  born 
about  1798.  He  published  "Rambles  in  Normandy," 
and  other  books  of  travel. 

Mus'grave,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  Irish  historian,  born 
about  1758,  published  in  1801  a  "History  of  the  Irish 
Rebellions."    Died  in  1818. 

Musgrave,  (Samuel,)  a  grandson  of  the  following, 
was  a  distinguished  classical  scholar.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  an  edition  of  Euripides,  and  a  treat- 
ise on  Grecian  Mythology.    Died  in  1782. 

Musgrave,  (William,)  an  English  physician  and 
antiquary,  born  in  Somersetshire  in  1657.  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  in  1684  became  its 
secretary.  He  wrote  several  treatises  on  the  gout,  and 
a  number  of  dissertations  on  British  and  Roman  An- 
tiquities.   Died  in  1721. 

Mush'et,  (David,)  a  Scottish  metallurgist  and  in- 
ventor, born  at  Dalkeith  in  1772.  He  acquired  distinc- 
tion by  his  improvements  in  the  fabrication  of  iron  and 
steel,  on  which  subject  he  wrote  several  treatises.  He 
originated  the  method  of  assaying  iron  ores  which  is 
now  generally  used.    Died  in  1847. 

Mush'et,  (Robert,)  an  officer  of  the  royal  mint  in 
England,  wrote  able  treatises  on  the  currency  and  mint 
regulations  and  the  state  of  finances.    Died  in  1828. 

Musis  or  Musi,  de,  (Agostino.)  See  Agostino 
Veneztano. 

Musitano,  moo-se-tS'no,  (Carlo,)  a  learned  Italian 
medical  writer,  born  in  Calabria  in  1635;  died  in  1714. 

Musius.    See  Muvs,  (Cornelius.) 

Mu-so'm-us  Ru'fus,  (Caius,)  a  Stoic  philosopher, 
born  in  Etruria,  flourished  about  70  A.D.  He  was 
banished  from  Rome  by  Nero,  but  he  returned  under 
Vespasian,  and  was  excepted  by  him  from  the  sentence 
of  exile  pronounced  against  the  Stoics.  He  was  highly 
esteemed  by  Pliny,  Tacitus,  and  other  eminent  writers. 
Fragments  of  his  works  are  to  be  found  in  Stobaeus. 

See  NiEUWLAND,  "Dissertatio  de  C.  Musonio  Rufo,"  1783; 
Tacitus,  "  Annales,"  books  xiv.  and  xv. 

Muspell,  mus'pgl  or  mdos'p§l,  written  also  Mus- 
pel,  Muspellheim,  and  Muspelheim,  [etymology 
unknown,]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  world  of  light 
and  heat,  situated  in  the  south  part  of  the  universe, — 
Niflheim,  the  habitation  of  mist  and  cold,  being  situated 
in  the  north.  (See  Hela.)  The  inhabitants  of  this 
world  are  called  "  the  sons  of  Muspell,"  among  whom 
Surt,  or  Surtur,  is  chief,  and  the  ruler  of  Muspellheim. 
(See  Surt.) 

Mus'pratt,  (James  Sheridan,)  a  distinguished 
chemist,  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1821.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Professor  Graham  at  Glasgow  and  at  London. 
About  1843  went  to  Giessen  to  pursue  his  studies 
under  Liebig.  He  produced  at  Giessen  a  remarkable 
treatise  on  Sulphites.  He  founded  a  College  of  Chem- 
istry in  Liverpool,  and  married  Miss  Susan  Cushman,  the 
actress,  in  1848.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Dictionary 
of  Chemistry  ;  or,  Chemistry,  Theoretical,  Practical,  and 
Analytical,"  (2  vols.,  i860.) 

Muss,  (Charles,)  a  painter  in  enamel.  Among  his 
works  is  a  picture  of  the  "  Holy  Family."  Died  in  1824. 

Mussato,  moos-sd'to,  (Albertino,)  an  Italian  his- 
torian and  poet,  born  at  Padua  in  1261.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Life  and  Actions  of  Henry  VII.,"  and  a 
number  of  eclogues,  hymns,  and  tragedies.  Died  in  1330. 

See  GiNGUEN^,  "  Histoire  Liiteraire  d'ltalie." 


Musschenbroek,  van,  vtn  miis'Ken-budok',  (Pe- 
ter,) a  celebrated  Dutch  savant,  born  at  Leyden  in  1692. 
He  studied  medicine  in  the  university  of  his  native  citv, 
but  he  subsequently  devoted  hiinself  chiefly  to  experi- 
mental physics,  in  which  he  was  eminently,  successful 
and  made  important  discoveries,  especially  in  magnetism 
and  the  cohesion  of  bodies.  Having  visited  England  in 
1717,  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Newton,  whose  sys- 
tem he  was  one  of  the  first  to  introduce  into  Holland. 
He  became  professor  of  physics  and  mathematics  at 
Duisburg  in  17 19,  and  afterwards  filled  the  same  chair 
at  Utrecht.  In  1740  he  obtained  the  professorship  of 
philosophy  at  Leyden,  where  he  resided  till  his  death, 
in  1761.  Among  his  princij^al  works  are  his  "  Physicoe 
Experimentales  et  Geometric^  Dissertationes,"  (1729,) 
and  Elementa  Physicae,"  or  "  Introduction  to  Natural 
Philosophy,"  (1734.)  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  and  a  member  of  the  principal 
learned  institutions  of  Europe. 

See  Sav^rihn,  "  Vies  des  Philosophes  ;"  Condorcet,  "  filoges  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Musscher  or  Muscher,  van,  vtn  mus'Ker,  (Mi- 
chael,) an  eminent  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Rotterdam 
in  1645.  He  studied  successively  under  Van  Tempel, 
Metzu,  and  Jan  Steen,  and  painted  landscapes,  historical 
subjects,  and  portraits.  The  last-named  are  most  highly 
esteemed.    Died  in  1705. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Musset,  de,  deh  mii'sa',  (Louis  Charles  Alfred,) 
a  celebrated  French  poet,  born  in  Paris  on  the  nth  of 
November,  1810,  was  a  son  of  Musset-Pathay,  noticed 
below.  He  was  educated  at  the  College  Henri  IV.  In 
1830  he  produced  a  volume  entitled  "Tales  of  Spain 
and  Italy,"  ("  Contes  d'Espagne  et  d'ltalie,")  which  at- 
tracted much  attention.  His  reputation  was  increased 
in  1833  by  "The  Cup  and  the  Lips,"  ("  La  Coupe  et  les 
Levres,")  a  drama,  "A  quoi  revent  les  jeunes  Filles?" 
and  "Namouna."  He  fell  into  a  morbid  state  of  mind, 
and  expressed  misanthroj^ic  sentiments  in  several  of  his 
works,  which  are  censured  for  an  immoral  tendency.  He 
published  "  Rolla,"  a  poem,  in  1835,  and  "Confessions 
of  a  Child  of  the  Age,"  (Enfant  du  Sihle,)  in  1836 
He  contributed  to  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  a 
number  of  prose  tales,  which  were  admired.  Under  the 
reign  of  Louis  Philippe  he  was  librarian  to  the  ministry 
of  the  interior.  He  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy  in  1852.  Among  his  finest  works  are  four 
poems  entitled  the  "  Nights,"  etc.,  ("  Nuits  :  La  Nuit  de 
Mai,  La  Nuit  d'Aout,  La  Nuit  d'Octobre,  et  La  Nuit 
de  Decembre,"  18315-37.)    Died  in  Paris  in  May,  1857. 

"None  of  his  illustrious  contemporaries,"  says  Leo 
Joubert,  "has  surpassed  him  in  spontaneity  of  poetical 
genius,  in  the  ardent  and  sincere  expression  of  passion, 
in  vivacity,  grace,  and  eclat  of  soul,  (esprit;)  no  one 
has  represented  with  more  fidelity  the  spiritual  unrest, 
the  melange  of  skepticism  and  religious  aspirations, 
which  characterize  our  epoch."  ("Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  contemporains,"  and  "  Cause- 
ries  du  Lundi ;"  Clement  de  Ris,  "Portraits  k  la  Plume;  A.  de 
Musset,"  etc.,  1853;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1857;  "West- 
minster Review"  for  April,  1869. 

Musset,  de,  (Paul  Edme,)  a  novelist,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  published, 
numerous  novels,  which  are  said  to  be  well  written,  and 
atnong  which  we  notice  "  Lauzun,"  (1835,)  "  The  Brace- 
let," (1839,)  "Mignard  et  Rigaud,"  (1839,)  and  "Les 
Femmes  de  la  Regence,"  (2  vols.,  1841.) 

Musset,  de,  (Victor  Donatien,)  called  Musset- 
Pathay,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  the  Vendomois 
in  1768,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  biographies,  histories,  and  tales,  a  "  Life 
of  lean  Jacques  Rousseau,"  (2  vols.,  1821.)  Died  in 
1832. 

See  "Souvenirs  historiquesde  Musset-Pathay,"  1810;  Qui^rard, 
"  La  France  Litteraire." 

Miisslin.    See  Musculus,  (Wolfgang.) 

Musso,  moos'so,  (Cornelio,)  an  Italian  bishop,  dis- 
tinguished as  a  preacher,  born  at  Piacenza  in  1511.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Bitonto.    Died  at  Rome  in  1574. 

See  G.  Musso,  "  Vita  di  Cornelio  Musso,"  1586. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  fSt;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


MVSTAFA  1649  MTLNE 


Mustafa,  Mustapha,  Moustapha,  or  Moustafa, 

moos'tS-fa,  I.,  succeeded  his  brother,  Ahmed  I.,  as  Sul- 
tan of  Turkey,  in  161 7.  He  was  soon  after  deposed, 
and  his  nephew,  Osman,  raised  to  the  throne.  Though 
re-established  as  Sultan  in  1622,  Mustafa  was  again 
deposed  in  1623,  and  strangled,  in  1639,  by  order  of 
Amurath  IV. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Mustafa,  Mustapha,  or  Moustapha  II.,  son  of 
Mahomet  IV.,  was  born  in  1664,  and  succeeded  Ahmed 
II.  as  Sultan  in  1695.  He  fought  against  the  Austrians 
and  Venetians  with  varying  success,  and  in  1699  con- 
cluded with  those  powers  the  peace  of  Carlowitz.  Being 
deposed  in  1703,  he  died  in  a  few  months,  and  his 
brother,  Ahmed  III.,  became  Sultan. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Mustafa,  Mustapha,  or  Moustapha  III.,  son  of 
Ahmed  III.,  born  in  1717,  succeeded  Osman  III.  in 
1757.  He  began  in  1769  to  wage  war  with  the  Russians, 
who  took  possession  of  the  Crimea  and  Bessarabia.  He 
died  in  1774,  and  his  brother,  Abdool  Hamid,  succeeded 
to  the  throne. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Mustafa,  Mustapha,  or  Moustapha  IV.,  son  of 
Abdool  Hamid,  became  Sultan  on  the  deposition  of  Se- 
lim  III.,  in  1807.  Having  caused  Selim  to  be  strangled, 
Mustafa  was  deposed  by  Bairaktar,  Pasha  of  Rudshuk, 
and  his  brother,  Mahmood,  was  raised  to  the  throne. 
During  the  revolt  of  the  Janissaries,  in  1808,  Mustafa 
was  executed  by  the  orders  of  Mahmood. 

See  F.  Mengin,  "  Histoire  de  I'figypte  sous  Mehemet  All." 

Mustafa,  Mustapha,  or  Moustapha  Ben-Ismail, 
mdos'tl-fS  hhn  is-mS-eeK,  an  Arabian  chief,  born  in 
Algeria  about  1770.  He  became  an  able  adversary  of 
Abd-el-Kader,  against  whom  he  fought  in  co-operation 
with  the  French,  who  gave  him  the  rank  of  general.  He 
was  killed  in  battle  in  May,  1843. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Mustapha.    See  Mustafa. 

Mus-tox'y-dis  or  Mustoxidis,  (Andreas,)  a  dis- 
tinguished modern  Greek  scholar,  born  at  Corfu  in  1785. 
He  studied  at  Pavfa,  and  in  1804  was  appointed  histori- 
ographer for  the  republic  of  the  Seven  Islands.  Among 
his  works,  which  are  chiefly  written  in  Italian,  we  may 
name  "  Considerations  on  the  Present  Language  of 
Greece." 

Mu-su'rus,  (Constantine,)  a  Turkish  diplomatist, 
born  in  1807.  He  became  Turkish  ambassador  at  Lon- 
don about  1856. 

Mu-su'rus,  (Marcus,)  a  learned  modern  Greek,  born 
in  Candia  about  1470,  was  professor  of  the  Greek  lan- 
guage in  the  University  of  Padua.  He  assisted  Aldus 
Manutius  in  the  revision  of  Greek  manuscripts,  and 
published,  among  other  works,  the  *'  Etymologicum 
Magnum  Graecum."  In  1516  he  was  appointed  by  Leo 
X.  Archbishop  of  Malvasia.    Died  in  1517. 

Mu'ta,  (from  mutus,  "silent,")  the  name  of  the  god- 
dess of  silence  among  the  Romans. 

Mutiano.    See  Muziano. 

Mutina.    See  Modena. 

Mutio.    See  Muzio. 

Mutis,  moo't^ss,  ?  (Don  Jos6  Celestino,)  a  cele- 
brated Spanish  botanist  and  physician,  born  at  Cadiz 
in  1732.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Madrid 
in  1757,  and  in  1760  accompanied  the  Spanish  viceroy 
to  South  America  as  his  physician.  He  subsequently 
devoted  himself  to  scientific  explorations,  and  was  ap- 
pointed in  1790  director  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Natural 
History  at  Santa  Fe.  He  died  in  1808,  leaving  un- 
finished his  "  Flora  of  New  Granada,"  one  of  the  most 
valuable  works  of  the  kind  that  had  then  appeared.  He 
was  the  first  who  distinguished  the  various  species  of 
Cinchona,  (Peruvian  bark,)  the  different  properties  of 
which  he  has  described  in  his  "  Historia  de  los  Arboles 
del  Quina." 

See  Humboldt,  "Voyage  dans  les  Regions  ^quinoxiales ;" 
Weddell,  "Monographie  du  Quinquina." 

Muy,  du,  dii  mii-e',  (Louis  Nicolas  Victor  de  F^- 
LTX,)  CoMTE,  a  French  military  commander,  born  at 
Marseilles  in  1711.    He  served  in  Germany  in  the  prin- 


cipal campaigns  from  1741  to  1760.  He  enjoyed  the 
favour  of  Louis  XV.  and  Louis  XVI.,  and  was  appointed 
by  the  latter  minister  of  war,  (1774,)  and  marshal  of 
France,  (1775.)    ^'^^^  in  1775- 

See  Beauvais,  "Oraison  funebre  du  Comte  du  Muy;"  Tressan, 
"  filoge  du  Marechal  du  Muy." 

Muys,  mois,  [Lat.  Mu'sius,]  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch 
priest  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Delft  in  1503.  He  was 
hung  by  some  soldiers  at  Leyden  in  1572. 

Muys,  (Wyer  WiLLEM,)  a  Dutch  savant  and  writer, 
born  at  Steenwyk  in  1682.  He  was  professor  of  medi- 
cine and  chemistry  at  Franeker.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  one  "  On  the  Matter  of  Light,"  ("  De 
Materia  Luminis,"  1722.)    Died  in  1744. 

Muziano,  moot-se-a'no,  or  Mutiano,  moo-te-l'no, 
(Girolamo,)  one  of  the  first  Italian  painters  of  his  time, 
born  near  Brescia  in  1528,  was  the  pupil  of  Romanino. 
At  an  early  age  he  visited  Rome,  where  his  admirable 
landscapes  obtained  for  him  the  name  of  "the  landscape 
youth."  He  also  attained  great  excellence  in  historical 
pictures,  and  his  mosaics  in  the  Gregorian  Chapel  are 
esteemed  the  finest  of  modern  times.  Among  his  best 
productions  are  "  The  Resurrection  of  Lazarus,"  in  the 
Quirinal  palace,  and  "A  Company  of  Anchorites  listen- 
ing to  a  Preacher  in  the  Desert,"  in  the  Church  of  the 
Carthusians.  Muziano  completed  the  drawings  from 
the  Trajan  column  begun  by  Giulio  Romano.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  Academy  of  Saint  Luke.  Died  in 
Rome  in  1592. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Orloff,  "  Histoire  de  la 
Peinture  en  Italic." 

Muzio,  moot'se-o,  or  Mutio,  moo'te-o,  (Girolamo 
Nuzio,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Padua  in  1496. 
He  wrote  polemical  treatises  against  the  doctrines  of 
Luther,  which  procured  him  the  surname  of  the  "  Ham- 
mer of  Heretics,"  ("Malleus  Hereticorum,")  also  vari- 
ous other  works,  in  prose  and  verse.    Died  in  1576. 

See  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Muz'zey,  (Artemas  Bowers,)  an  American  Unita- 
rian divine  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Lexington, 
Massachusetts,  in  1802,  He  published  "The  Young 
Man's  Friend,"  (1836,)  "Moral  Teacher,"  (1839,)  and 
other  works. 

Myconius,  me-ko'ne-iis,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  Re- 
former, born  in  Franconia  in  1491,  was  a  monk  in  his 
youth.  He  became  a  friend  of  Luther,  whose  doctrines 
he  propagated  with  zeal  and  success.  He  preached  many 
years  at  Gotha,  and  wrote  several  religious  works.  Died 
in  1546. 

See  Anton  Probus,  "Vita  F.  Myconii,"  1547;  Lommatzsch, 
"Narratio  de  F.  Myconio,"  1825. 

Myconius,  me-ko'ne-Cis,  (Oswald,)  or  Geisshau- 
ser,  (gis'how'zer,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  divine,  born  at 
Lucerne  in  1488,  was  a  pupil  of  Erasmus.  He  became 
pastor  of  a  church  and  professor  of  divinity  at  Bale. 
He  wrote  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Life  and  Death  of  Zuin- 
glius."    Died  in  1552. 

See  KiRCHHOFER,  "Leben  O.  Myconius  Reformators,"  1814- 

Mydorge,  me'doRzh',  (Claude,)  a  French  geometer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1585,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Des- 
cartes, and  furnished  the  glasses  used  by  that  philosopher 
in  his  optical  experiments.  He  wrote  several  treatises 
on  optics  and  mathematics,  and  a  defence  of  the  works 
of  Descartes  against  the  Jesuits.    Died  in  1647. 

See  Baili.et,  "  Vie  de  Descartes." 

My'ers,  (Abraham  C.,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
South  Carolina  about  1814,  served  in  the  Mexican  war, 
and  became  in  1862  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate 
army. 

Myers,  (Peter  Hamilton,)  an  American  novelist, 
born  in  Herkimer  county.  New  York,  in  1812,  has  pub- 
lished "The  First  of  the  Knickerbockers,"  (1848,)  "  The 
King  of  the  Hurons,"  (1850,)  "The  Van  Veldens,"  and 
several  other  historical  romances. 

Mylius,  mee'le-us,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German 
bibliographer,  born  in  Weimar  in  1710.  He  published 
"  Bibliotheca  Anonymorum  et  Pseudonymorum,"  (1740,) 
and  "Historia  Myliana,"  (1752,)  which  contains  biog- 
raphies of  many  men  named  Mylius.    Died  in  1757. 

Mylne,  m!ln,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  architect,  born  at 
Edinburgh  in  1734.    He  was  appointed  engineer  to  the 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2l^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

104 


MTN 


1650 


NADAVD 


Ne.w  River  Company,  London,  and  surveyor  of  Saint 
Fail's  Cathedral.  His  principal  work  is  Blackfriars' 
Bridge,  completed  in  1769.  Mylne  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Saint 
Luke  at  Rome.    Died  in  181 1. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Myn,  van  der,  vtn  der  min,  (  Herman,  )  a  Dutch 
artist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1684,  visited  London,  where 
he  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  portraits.  His  fruit- 
and  flower-pieces  were  also  admired.    Died  in  1 741. 

Mynsiclit,  von,  fon  min'siKt,  (Adrian,)  a  German 
chemist  and  physician,  flourished  between  1610  and  1650. 

Mynster,  mun'ster  or  minister,  (Jakob  Peter,)  a 
Danish  theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Copenhagen 
in  1775,  became  in  1828  court  chaplain.  He  was  created 
Bishop  of  Seeland  in  1834.  He  published  "Reflections 
on  Christian  Doctrine,"  and  other  theological  works. 
Died  in  1854. 

My-rep'sus,  (Nicholas,)  \^LKokaoq  b  Mvpei/'of,]  a 
Greek  physician  of  the  thirteenth  century,  practised  in 
Rome  or  Constantinople.  He  wrote  a  treatise  **  On  the 
Composition  of  Medicines,"  ("  De  Compositione  Medi- 
camentorum,"  etc.) 

Myrick,  (Sir  Samuel  Rush.)  See  Meyrick. 

Myrmidon,  mir'me-don,  [Gr.  Mup^icJwv,]  in  classic 
mythology,  was  supposed  to  be  a  son  of  Jupiter  and 
Eurymedusa.  According  to  one  tradition,  he  was  the 
ancestor  of  the  Myrmidons,  a  people  of  Thessaly,  some 
of  whom  Achilles  led  to  the  siege  of  Troy. 

My'ron,  [Mwpwv,]  an  eminent  Greek  sculptor,  born  in 
Boeotia  about  480  B.C.,  was  celebrated  for  his  skill  in 
representing  the  varied  forms  of  animal  life.  He  worked 
with  equal  success  in  marble,  brass,  and  wood.  Among 
his  best  productions  are  a  Cow  lowing  for  its  Calf,"  in 
bronze,  which  has  been  celebrated  by  the  Latin  and 
Greek  poets  in  numerous  epigrams,  a  colossal  group  of 


Jupiter,  Athene,  and  Hercules,  the  "Discobolus,  or 
Quoit-Thrower,"  and  "  Perseus  killing  Medusa."  His 
athletes,  dogs,  and  sea-monsters  were  also  greatly  ad- 
mired. 

See  K.  O.  Muller,  "  Handbuch  der  Archaologie  der  Kunst;" 
Goethe,  "Propylaen;"  Winckelmann,  "Werke,"  vol.  vi. 

Myronide.  _  See  Myronides. 

My-ron'i-des,  [Gr.  Wvpi^vl^riq ;  Fr.  Myronide,  me'- 
ro'n^d',]  an  Athenian  general,  who  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Corinthians  in  457,  and  another  over  the  Boeotians 
in  456  B.C. 

Myrtis,  mir'tis,  [Mvpnf,]  a  Greek  lyric  poetess  of  high 
reputation,  was  born  at  Anthedon,  and  flourished  about 
500  B.C.  Pindar  is  said  to  have  received  instruction 
from  her. 

Mytens,  mi't§ns,  (Arnold,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Brussels  in  1541.  Among  his  best  works  is  an  altar- 
piece  representing  the  "  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  with 
the  Apostles,"  at  Naples.    Died  in  1602. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Mytens,  (Daniel,)  the  Elder,  a  Dutch  artist,  born 
at  the  Hague  about  1590.  He  was  patronized  by  James 
I.  and  Charles  L  of  England,  and  painted  the  portraits 
of  a  number  of  the  royal  family  and  of  the  nobility.  He 
was  regarded  as  second  only  to  Van  Dyck  in  portrait- 
painting.    Died  after  1656. 

Mytens,  (Daniel,)  the  Younger,  born  at  the  Hague 
in  1636,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  became  director 
of  the  Academy  at  the  Hague.  His  principal  work  is 
the  ceiling  of  the  Painters'  Hall.    Died  in  1688. 

Mytens,  mii'tens,  (Martin,)  a  Swedish  painter,  born 
at  Stockholm  in  1695.  After  visiting  Rome,  he  settled  in 
Vienna,  where  he  became  painter  to  the  court.  Among 
his  best  pieces  is  the  "  History  of  Esther  and  Ahasuerus." 
Died  in  1755. 


N. 


Na'a-man,  [Heb.  pJ^J.]  a  Syrian  general,  commander 
of  the  army  of  Benhadad,  King  of  Damascus,  lived 
about  890  B.C.  He  was  cured  of  leprosy  by  the  prophet 
Elisha. 

See  II.  Kings  v. 

Nabaj  or  Nabadj,  nS-baj',  a  Hindoo  poet,  flourished 
about  1580-1600.  He  wrote  a  poem  entitled  "Bhakta- 
mala,"  which  treats  of  the  adventures  and  miracles  of 
Jayadeva  and  other  ascetics. 

Nabega  -  Ziad  -  Ibn  -  Moaweeah- Aldobiani,  n 
be-g^  ze-id'  ib'n  mo-S-wee'ah  il-do-be-i'nee,  an  Arabian 
poet,  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century. 
One  of  his  poems,  and  several  fragments,  are  given  in 
the  "  Chrestomathie"  of  Silvestre  de  Sacy. 

Na'bis,  [Gr.  Nu^i^-,]  tyrant  of  Sparta,  succeeded  Ma- 
chanidas  about  206  B.C.,  and  signalized  himself  by  his 
cruelty  and  avarice.  In  conjunction  with  Philip  IL  of 
Macedon,  he  subjected  different  parts  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, but  he  was  afterwards  defeated  by  the  Roman 
consul  Flamininus.  He  was  assassinated  by  his  own 
allies,  (192  B.C.) 

Nab-o-nas'sar,  [Gr.  Nagovacrapof,]  King  of  Babylon, 
lived  in  the  eighth  century  B.C.  He  is  celebrated  for  the 
chronological  era  which  bears  his  name,  and  which  was 
employed  as  a  point  of  departure  in  ancient  astronomical 
tables.    This  era  began  in  747  B.C. 

Nab-o-po-las'sar,  King  of  Babylon,  was  originally 
a  satrap  of  Sardanapalus,  King  of  Assyria.  He  re- 
volted against  that  king,  and,  aided  by  Cyaxares,  King 
of  the  Medes,  took  Nineveh,  the  capital  of  Assyria. 
He  died  in  605  B.C.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Nebuchadnezzar. 

See  EusEBius,  "Chronicles;"  Hoefer,  "La  Ph^nicie,  la  Baby- 
lonie,"  etc. 

Nacchianti,  nak-ke-Sn'tee,  [Lat.  Naclan'tus,  ] 
(GiACOMO,)  an  Italian  theologian,  born  at  Florence. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  wrote 
several  works.    Died  in  1569. 

Nachman,  Ben,  bgn  nSK^mln,  ?  (Moses,)  a  Spanish 
rabbi,  born  at  Girone  in  1194,  was  versed  in  the  science 


of  the  Cabala.    He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Lex 
Hominis,"  (1519,)  and  "Fons  Jacobi,"  (1547.) 
Naclitigall.    See  Luscinius. 

Nachtigall,  naK'te-g3,K,  [Lat.  Luscin'ius,]  (Otmar,) 
a  German  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Strasburg  about 
1487.  He  preached  against  the  doctrines  of  Luther  at 
Augsburg,  and  taught  Greek  at  Strasburg.  Among  his 
works  is  "  Evangelica  Historia  e  Graeco  versa,"  (1523.) 
Died  about  1535. 

See  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Nacke  or  Naecke,  nek'keh,  (Gustav  Heinrich,)  a 
German  historical  painter,  born  at  Frauenstein  in  1 785. 
He  became  professor  of  painting  in  the  Academy  of 
Dresden  in  1824.  His  works  are  highly  commended. 
Died  at  Dresden  in  1835. 

Naclantus.    See  Nacchiantl 

Na'dab,  [Heb.  DIJ,]  son  of  Jeroboam,  King  of  Israel, 
succeeded  him  in  968  B.C.  While  engaged  soon  after  in 
fighting  against  the  Philistines,  he  was  slain  by  Baasha, 
the  son  of  Ahijah,  who  ruled  in  his  stead. 

Nadal,  nt'dtK,  (  Augustin,  )  Abbi^,  a  mediocre 
French  author,  born  at  Poitiers  in  1664,  wrote  tragedies 
in  verse,  criticisms,  and  moral  essays.    Died  in  1740. 

Nadasti,  ni-dis'tee,  written  also  De  Nadzad, 
(Thomas,)  a  Hungarian  general,  was  an  ancestor  of  the 
following.  He  distinguished  himself  by  the  defence  of 
Buda  against  the  Sultan  Solyman  in  1529,  and  afterwards 
rendered  important  military  services  to  Charles  V. 

See  IsTHVANFi,  "  Historia  Hungarorum." 

Nadasti,  de,  deh  nS-dis'tee,  ?  (Francis,)  Count,  a 
patriotic  Hungarian  statesman,  who  opposed  the  des- 
potic policy  of  the  emperor  Leopold.  He  was  accused 
of  a  conspiracy  against  the  life  of  Leopold,  unjustly 
condemned,  and  beheaded  in  167 1.  He  was  author 
of  a  "  History  of  Hungary,"  (1664.) 

See  MailAth,  "  Geschichte  der  Magyaren." 

Nadaud,  nt'd5',  (Gustave,)  a  French  musician  and 
writer  of  songs,  born  at  Roubaix  in  1820.  He  produced 
both  the  words  and  the  music  of  many  popular  songs. 


a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  lor^;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ia,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure:  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


NADAULT 


NAKHIMOF 


Nadault  de  Buflfon,  nt'do'  deh  bu'f6N',  (Benjamin 
Henri,)  a  French  engineer  and  writer,  born  at  Mont- 
bard  in  1804.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Course  of  Agriculture,"  (4  vols.,  1853-56,)  and  "  The 
Correspondence  of  Buffon,"  (2  vols.,  i860.) 

Nadezhdin,  niMezh-din,  written  also  Nadeshdin, 
(Nicholas  Ivanovitch,)  a  Russian  litterateur,  born  in 
Riazan  in  1804,  He  became  a  councillor  of  state  at 
Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  died  in  1856. 

Nadir  Shah,  nSMir  shSh,  written  also  Nader  Chah, 
Nadir  Schah,  and  Nauder  Shah,  also  called  Koolee 
(or  Kouli)  Khan,  koo'lee  kSu,  a  celebrated  Persian 
conqueror,  of  Turkish  extraction,  born  in  Khorassan  in 
1688.  His  courage  and  abilities  early  gained  him  dis- 
tinction in  the  service  of  the  governor  of  that  province  ; 
but,  in  consequence  of  ill  treatment,  he  left  Khorassan 
and  became  the  head  of  a  band  of  robbers.  Being  soon 
after  called  upon  by  Tahmasp,  Shah  of  Persia,  to  oppose 
the  Afghans,  he  succeeded,  within  two  years,  in  expelling 
them  from  the  country,  upon  which  he  was  made  com- 
mander-in-chief, (1729.)  Tahmasp  having  in  1732  made 
a  disadvantageous  treaty  with  Turkey,  Nadir  resolved 
to  prosecute  the  war,  and  gained  such  popularity  by 
the  success  of  his  arms  that  on  his  return  he  dethroned 
the  Shah  and  assumed  the  supreme  power.  In  1738 
he  conquered  Candahar  and  Afghanistan.  Having  soon 
after  invaded  India,  he  entered  Delhi  in  1739,  and  took 
possession  of  the  imperial  treasures.  The  inhabitants, 
on  a  false  report  of  Nadir's  death,  attacked  his  soldiers. 
After  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  restrain  them,  he  ordered 
a  wholesale  massacre,  in  which,  it  is  stated  by  Fraser, 
120,000  perished.  His  many  acts  of  tyranny  and  cruelty 
at  length  caused  him  to  be  assassinated,  (1747.)  In  the 
early  part  of  his  career  Nadir  Shah  appears  to  have  been 
not  only  an  able,  but,  on  the  whole,  a  just  and  humane, 
prince ;  but  later  in  life,  having  become  a  prey  to  avarice 
and  suspicion,  his  acts,  it  is  said,  "exceeded  in  barbarity 
all  that  has  been  recorded  of  the  most  bloody  tyrants." 

See  Fraser,  "History  of  Nadir  Shah,"  1742:  "Life  of  Nadir 
Shah,"  by  his  secretary,  Madhv  Khan,  translated  into  French  by 
Sir  William  Jones  ;  Malcolm,  "  Historj'  of  Persia,"  vol.  ii. 

Naecke.    See  Nacke, 

Naenia,  nee'ne-a,  [Fr.  N^nie,  ni'ne',]  a  Roman  god- 
dess that  presided  over  funerals.  This  word  signifies  a 
"  dirge"  or  "  funeral  song." 

Naerssen,  van,  vtn  nSRs'sen,  [Lat.  Nars'sius,] 
(Jan,)  a  Dutch  writer  of  Latin  poetry,  born  at  Dort  in 
1580.  He  became  physician  to  Gustavus  Adolphus  at 
Stockholm,  and  wrote  "  Gustavidos  Libri  III.,"  (1632.) 
Died  in  1637. 

Naevius,  nee've-us,  (Cneius,)  a  Roman  poet,  born  in 
Campania  about  272  B.C.,  was  the  author  of  an  epic  poem 
on  the  Punic  War,  and  of  several  dramas.  A  few  frag- 
ments only  of  his  writings  are  extant.  He  is  praised 
by  Cicero  as  being  in  some  respects  superior  to  Ennius. 
He  died  about  204  B.C.  "Cneius  Nsevius,"  says  Pro- 
fessor Sellar,  "is  the  first  in  the  line  of  Roman  poets 
and  the  first  writer  in  the  Latin  language  whose  frag- 
ments give  indication  of  original  power." 

See  CiCKRo,  "  De  Oratore ;"  Sellar,  "Roman  Poets  of  the 
Republic,"  cliap.  iii. ;  Klussmann,  "  C.  Nsevii  Poetze  Vita,"  1843. 

Naga,  ni'ga,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "snake,"  and 
forming,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  a  mon- 
ster regarded  as  a  demi-god,  having  a  human  face,  with 
the  tail  of  a  serpent  and  the  expanded  neck  of  a  cobra 
de  capello.  The  race  of  these  beings  is  said  to  have 
sprung  from  Kasyapa,  in  order  to  people  Patala,  or  the 
regions  below  the  earth.    (See  Patala.) 

See  Wilson,  "Sanscrit  Dictionary." 

Nagele,  na'geh-leh,  (Franz  Karl,)  a  German  medi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1778;  died  in  1851. 

Nag'lee,  (Henry  M.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Philadelphia  about  1815,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1835.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  early  in  1862,  and 
commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  May 
31  of  that  year. 

Nagler.'na'gler,  (Karl  Ferdinand  Friedrich,)  a 
Prussian  statesman,  born  at  Anspach  in  1770.  Being 
appointed  in  1823  postmaster-general,  he  effected  a  great 
reform  in  the  postal  system.  He  was  made  minister  of 
state  in  1836.    He  made  a  very  valuable  collection  of 


works  of  art,  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  pictures, 
was  purchased  for  the  Museum  at  Berlin.  Died  in  1846. 

Nagy  Sandor,  nody  (almost  noj)  sSn'dor,  (Joseph,) 
a  Hungarian  general,  born  at  Grosswardein  in  1804.  He 
fought  for  the  national  cause  in  1848,  became  a  general 
about  April,  1849,  served  with  distinction  in  several 
battles.  Having  been  taken  prisoner  at  Vilagos,  he  was 
executed  in  October,  1849. 

Naharro,  ni-ar'ro,  (Bartolom6  de  Torres— di  toR'- 
rls,)  a  Spanish  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Torres,  flourished 
about  1500-20.  He  wrote  comedies,  satires,  epistles,  etc. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Nahl,  nSl,  (Johann  August,)  a  German  sculptor, 
born  in  Berlin  in  1710.  He  adorned  the  public  buildings 
of  that  city  with  his  works.    Died  in  1781. 

Nahl,  (Johann  August,)  a  German  painter,  born 
near  Berne  in  1752,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
worked  at  Rome  and  Cassel.  He  painted  subjects  of 
Greek  mythology,  and  landscapes.    Died  in  1825. 

Nahl,  (Johann  Samuel,)  a  German  sculptor,  born 
at  Anspach  in  1664.  He  settled  at  Berlin,  where  he  was 
appointed  court  sculptor,  and  rector  of  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts.    Died  in  1728. 

Nahl,  (Samuel,)  a  sculptor,  brother  of  Johann  August, 
(1752-1825,)  was  born  at  Berne  in  1748;  died  in  1813. 

Na'hum,  [  Heb.  Dinj,]  one  of  the  twelve  minor 
prophets  of  the  Hebrews,  flourished  under  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah,  about  720  B.C.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
born  at  Elkosh,  in  Galilee,  from  which  he  was  surnamed 
THE  Elkoshite.  He  foretells  the  destruction  of  the 
Assyrian  empire  and  the  city  of  Nineveh  in  the  most 
glowing  and  forcible  language,  and  in  sublimity  is  equal 
if  not  superior  to  any  other  of  the  minor  prophets. 

Nahuys,  n^'hois,  (Hubert  Gerard,)  Baron,  a 
Dutch  writer  and  military  officer,  born  at  Amsterdam 
in  1782.  He  rendered  important  services  in  Java, 
where  he  passed  many  years,  and  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  Considerations  on  Dutch  India,"  (1847.)  Died 
in  1858. 

Naiades.    See  Naiads. 

Naiad.s,  na'yads,  [Gr.  ^atd6eg  or  Nr/Wfc;  Lat.  Nai'a- 
DES,]  in  classic  mythology,  were  fresh-water  Nymphs,  or 
inferior  female  divinities,  supposed  to  preside  over  rivers, 
lakes,  brooks,  and  fountains,  and  to  be  daughters  of 
Jupiter.  They  were  represented  as  young  and  beautiful 
virgins  leaning  upon  an  urn  from  which  flows  a  stream 
of  water. 

Naigeon,  ni'zhiN',  (Jacques  Andr^:,)  a  mediocre 
French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1738.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Diderot,  whose  skeptical  opinions  he  shared, 
and  was  one  of  the  redacteurs  of  the  "  Encyclopedie." 
He  edited  the  works  of  Diderot  and  of  other  French 
authors.  Diedini8io. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  "  Dictionnaire  des  Sci- 
ences philosophiques." 

Naigeon,  (Jean,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Beaune 
in  1757,  was  a  pupil  of  David.    Died  in  Paris  in  1832.  • 

Naigeon,  (Jean  Guillaume  Elzidor,)  a  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1797,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  became  conservator  of  the  Musee  Egyptien 
in  1861. 

Naillac,  de,  deh  nt'ytk',  (Philibert,)  a  French 
chevalier,  born  about  1340,  became  grand  master  of  the 
order  of  Saint  John  of  Jerusalem  in  1396.  He  fought 
against  Bayazeed  (Bajazet)  at  the  siege  of  Nicopolis, 
(1396,)  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Council  of 
Pisa.    Died  in  1421. 

Naima,  ni'mi,  a  Turkish  historian,  flourished  about 
1700.  He  wrote  an  "Ottoman  History  from  1591  to 
1659,"  which  was  published  in  2  vols.,  (1734.) 

Nain,  Le.    See  Tillemont. 

Naironi,  ni-ro'nee,  (Antonius  Faustus,)  a  learned 
Maronite,  born  near  Mount  Libanus  in  1 631,  was  pro- 
fessor of  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac  languages  in  the 
College  della  Sapienza  at  Rome.    Died  in  1711. 

See  DiTpiN,  "  Auteurs  ecclesiastiques,"  etc. 

Naiven,  ni'ven,  (M.,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  in  1570 ; 
died  in  1651. 

Nakhimof,  ni'Ke-mof,  written  alsoNakhimow  and 
Nakhimov,  (Akim  Nikolaevitch,)  a  Russian  poet, 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23J 


NAKE 


1652 


NANTEUIL 


born  at  Kharkof  in  1782.  His  principal  works  are 
satires  in  verse,  fables,  and  a  witty  piece  in  prose  entitled 
"The  Speaking  Monkeys,"  on  the  subject  of  Napoleon's 
attempted  conquest  of  Russia.  He  died  in  1814,  at  the 
early  age  of  thirty-one. 

Nake  or  Naeke,  na'keh,  (August  Friedrich,)  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Frauenstein  in  1788.  He 
produced  "Opuscula  Philologica,"  {2  vols.,  1842-44.) 
Died  in  1838. 

Nakoola  or  Nakoula,  nS-koo'li,  (Mooal'lem,)  sur- 
named  el  Turk,  an  Arabian  historian,  born  in  Syria  in 
176:;  ;  died  in  1828. 

Nakwaska,  nik-vis^ka,  (Anne,)  a  Polish  novelist, 
born  in  1779,  was  the  wife  of  senator  Nakwaska.  Died 
at  Warsaw  in  1851. 

NaPa,  [Hindoo  pron.  niiKa,]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology, 
the  name  of  a  monkey  chief,  who,  according  to  some 
authorities,  built  for  Rama  the  bridge  from  continental 
India  to  the  island  of  Ceylon.    (See  Rama.) 

vSee  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Naldi,  nSKdee,  [Lat.  Nal'dius,]  (Matteo,)  a  learned 
Italian  medical  writer  and  linguist,  born  at  Sienna.  He 
became  chief  physician  to  Pope  Alexander  VII.  Died 
at  Rome  in  1682. 

Naldi,  (Naldo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Florence 
about  1420,  was  a  friend  of  Politian.  He  wrote  the 
*'  Life  of  G.  Manetti,"  and  several  admired  poems. 
Died  about  1470. 

Naldi,  (Sebastiano,)  an  Italian  singer,  performed  in 
London.    Died  in  Paris  in  1819. 

Naldini,  nil-dee'nee,  (Battista,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1537.  He  painted  in  oil 
and  fresco  at  Rome  and  Florence.    Died  after  1590. 

Naldini,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Rome, 
flourished  about  1650.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Luke  in  1654. 

Naldius.    See  Naldl 

Nalian,  n^'le-Sn,  (James,)  an  Armenian  religious 
writer,  born  at  Zimara  about  1695.  He  became  Arme- 
nian Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  1 741,  and  acquired 
a  high  reputation  by  his  writings.    Died  in  1764. 

NaPspn,  (John,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  about 
1638.  He  became  rector  of  Doddington  and  prebendary 
of  Ely.  His  chief  work  is  "  An  Impartial  Collection  of 
the  Affairs  of  State  from  1639  to  the  Murder  of  Charles 
L,"  (1683.)    Died  in  1686. 

Namur,  nt'miiR',  (Jean  Pie,)  a  Belgian  bibliographer, 
born  at  Luxemburg  in  1804,  published  several  works. 

Nana-Sahib,  nl'nS  sl^Hib,  a  Hindoo  chief  of  mu- 
tineers, born  in  Poonah  about  1820.  He  committed 
atrocious  cruelties  on  English  women  and  children  at 
Cawnpore  in  1857. 

See  McLeod  Innes,  "  Rough  Narrative  of  the  Siege  of  Lucknow," 
Calcutta,  1857  ;  E.  D.  Forgues,  "  La  Revoke  des  Cipayes;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Nancel,  de,  deh  nSN^s^l',  [Lat.  Nance'lius,]  (Nico- 
j>AS,)  a  French  physician  and  writer,  born  in  1539.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Life  of  Peter  Ramus," 
(1600.)    Died  in  1610. 

Nancelius.    See  Nancel. 

Nan'di,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  nun'di,]  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  name  of  a  white  bull,  regarded  as  the 
vahan  or  vehicle  of  Siva,  which  see. 

Nanek,  ni'nek,  or  Naiiak,  sometimes  written  Na- 
nuk,  called  also  Yanaka,  (yi'na-ka,)  and  Nirankar, 
the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Sikhs,  was  born  in  Lahore 
about  1468.  He  wrote  a  book  called  "  Adi-Granth," 
and  taught  a  species  of  monotheism.    Died  in  1539. 

Nangis,  de,  deh  nSN'zhe',  (Guillaume,)  a  French 
historian  and  Benedictine  monk.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of 
Saint  Louis,"  a  general  chronicle,  and  a  "Chronicle  of 
the  l<.ings  of  France."    Died  about  1302. 

Nangis,  de,  (Louis  Armand  de  Brichanteau— deh 
bRe'sbdN'to^)  Marquis,  a  French  general,  was  born  in 
1682.  He  served  in  several  campaigns  in  Flanders,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  marshal  of  France  in  1741.  Died 
in  1742. 

Nani,  nl'nee,  (Giambattista  Felice  Gasparo,)  a 
Venetian  historian,  born  in  1616.  He  was  for  twenty- 
five  years  ambassador  at  the  court  of  France,  where  he 
enjoyed  the  confidence  of  Cardinal  Mazarin.    He  was 


successively  appointed  historiographer  and  archivist  of 
the  republic,  and  procurator  of  Saint  Mark,  (1661.)  His 
principal  work  is  a  "History  of  the  Venetian  Republic 
from  1613  to  1671,"  (2  vols.,  1662-79.)    Died  in  1678. 
See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Nani,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at  Morbegno 
in  1757  ;  died  in  1813. 

Nanini,  nS-nee'nee,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Vallerano  about  1540,  served  as  a 
chanter  in  the  pontifical  chapel  in  Rome.  He  composed 
motets,  madrigals,  and  canzonettas.    Died  in  1607. 

Nan'na,  or  nSn'ni,  [etymology  uncertain  ;  according 
to  Keyser,  it  is  derived  from  iienna,  to  "be  inclined  to," 
to  "like,"]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  wife  of  Balder 
"the  Good."  When  her  husband  was  slain,  she  grieved 
so  intensely  that  her  heart  burst,  her  spirit  followed  his 
to  Hela's  realm,  and  her  body  was  laid  on  the  same 
funeral  pile  with  that  of  her  beloved  Balder. 

See  Keyser,  "Religion  of  the  Northmen;"  Thorpe,  "North- 
ern Mythology,"  vol.  i. 

Nanni,  (Giovanni.)    See  Annius  of  Viterbo. 

Nanni,  nSn'nee,  (Giovanni,)  called  also  Giovanni 
DA  Udine,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Udine  about  1490. 
He  was  celebrated  for  the  excellence  of  his  stuccos  and 
grotesque  ornaments.  Many  of  his  best  works  are  at 
Rome  and  Florence.    Died  in  1564. 

Nanni,  (Peter.)    See  Nanning. 

Nanni,  (Remigio,)  [sometimes  called,  in  French, 
Remi  de  Florence,  ri^me'  deh  flo'rSNss',]  an  Italian 
Dominican  monk  and  writer  in  verse  and  prose,  was 
born  at  Florence  about  1 521.  He  edited  Villani's  "  His- 
toric universali,"  and  Guicciardini's  "Istoria  d'ltalia." 
Died  in  1581. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires." 

Nanni  di  Baccio  Bigio,  nSn'nee  dee  bSt'cho  bee'jo, 
a  Florentine  sculptor  and  architect,  worked  at  Rome 
about  1530-50.  He  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his  enmity 
to  Michael  Angelo. 

Nanni  di  Banco,  n^n^nee  dee  bin'ko,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Florence  in  1383  ;  died  after  1421. 

Nanning,  nin'ning,  or  Nanni,  nSn'nee,  [Lat.  Nan'- 
Nius,]  (Peter,)  a  Dutch  philologist  and  critical  writer, 
born  at  Alkmaar  in  1500.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Ob- 
servations on  the  Institutes  of  Civil  Law,"  and  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Psalms  into  Latin  verse.    Died  in  1557. 

Nannini,  n^n-nee'nee,  (Agnolo  or  Giovannini,) 
surnamed  Firenzuola,  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at 
Florence  in  1493,  was  the  author  of  satirical  and  bur- 
lesque poems,  dramas,  and  a  number  of  novels  in  the 
style  of  Boccaccio's  "  Decamerone." 

Nannius.    See  Nanning. 

Nannoni,  nSn-no'nee,  (Angelo,)  an  eminent  Italian 
surgeon,  born  at  Florence  in  171 5.  He  became  pro- 
fessor and  chief  surgeon  in  the  Hospital  of  Florence. 
His  success  as  an  operator  and  as  a  lecturer  attracted 
patients  and  pupils  from  the  most  distant  parts  of 
Europe.  He  wrote  several  esteemed  works,  among 
which  is  "Delia  Semplicita  del  Medicare,"  (1761-67.) 
Died  in  1790. 

See  Agostino  Nannoni,  "  Elogio  del  Professore  A.  Nannoni," 
1790. 

Nannoni,  (Lorenzo,)  a  surgeon,  born  at  Florence  in 
1749,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  on  anatomy 
and  surgery.    Died  in  1812. 

Nansouty,  de,  deh  nSN'soo'te',  (Etienne  Antoine 
Marie  Champion — sh6N'pe-6N',)  Count,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1768.  He  was  made  a 
general  of  brigade  about  1798,  and  a  general  of  division 
in  1803.  According  to  Chateaubriand,  he  was  one  of 
the  best  cavalry  officers  that  the  war  of  the  Revolution 
produced.  The  same  writer  states  that  he  completed 
the  victory  at  Austerlitz,  (1805,)  and  commenced  that  of 
Wagram,  (1809.)  He  was  wounded  at  Borodino,  (1812,) 
and  commanded  the  cavalry  at  Leipsic.  In  18 14  he 
entered  the  service  of  the  restored  Bourbons.  Died  in 
February,  1815, 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  G^n^raux  Frangais." 

Nanteuil,  n5N'tuF  or  n5N'tuh'ye,  (C^lestin,)  a 
French  painter  and  lithographer,  born  in  Rome  in  1813. 
He  became  a  resident  of  Paris. 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f?lr,  fill,  fJt;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


NANTUEIL  1653  NAPIER 


Nanteuil,  (Charles  FRANgois  Leboeuf— leh'buf',) 
a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1792.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1817.  Among  his  works  is  "Eurydice 
Dying." 

Nanteuil,  (Robert,)  a  French  artist,  born  at  Rheims 
in  1630,  painted  excellent  portraits  in  pastel,  but  was 
chiefly  distinguished  as  an  engraver.  Among  his  mas- 
ter-pieces are  the  portraits  of  the  secretary  of  state, 
Simon  Arnaud  de  Pomponne,  and  Van  Steenbergen, 
the  Dutch  advocate.  In  the  department  of  portrait- 
engraving  Nanteuil  has  never  been  surpassed.  He  was 
designer  and  cabinet  engraver  to  Louis  XIV.  Died 
in  1678. 

See  R.  DuMESNiL,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  Frangais ;"  Basan, 
"Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Nanteuil,  de,  deh  nSN'tuI',  (Gaugiran,)  a  French 
dramatist,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1778  ;  died  after  1830. 

Nantier-Didiee,  n6N'te-a'  deMe-k',  Madame,  a 
French  operatic  singer,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Bourbon  in 
1832.  She  performed  with  success  in  Paris  and  London. 

Nantigny  or  Nantigni,  de,  deh  nSw^t^n^ye',  (Louis 
Chasot,)  a  French  writer  on  genealogy,  was  born  in 
Burgundy  in  1692.  He  published  "Historical  Genealo- 
gies of  Kings,  Emperors,  and  Sovereign  Houses,"  and 
other  works  of  the  kind.    Died  in  1755. 

Napseae,  na-pee'e,  [Gr.  NaTratat;  Fr.  Naples,  nt'pk',] 
in  the  classic  mythology,  were  nymphs  of  forests,  groves, 
and  glens.    (See  Nymphs.) 

Napees.    See  Nap.^;^. 

Naper.    See  Napier,  (John.) 

Na''pi-er,  (Sir  Charles  James,)  a  British  general, 
born  at  Whitehall  in  1782,  was  the  son  of  the  Hon, 
George  Napier  and  Lady  Sarah  Lennox,  a  daughter  of 
the  Duke  of  Richmond.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Admiral 
Charles  John  Napier,  and  a  brother  of  Sir  William, 
the  historian.  He  gained  the  rank  of  major  in  1806, 
was  wounded  in  several  actions  in  Spain  between  1808 
and  1812,  became  lieutenant-colonel  in  1811,  and  was 
employed  in  ravaging  the  coasts  of  the  United  States 
in  1813-14.  He  acted  with  credit  for  several  years  as 
Governor  of  Cephalonia,  from  which  he  was  recalled  in 
1830.  Having  risen  to  the  rank  of  major-general,  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  army  in  Bengal  in 
1841.  Pie  increased  his  reputation  by  the  conquest  of 
Sinde,  (1843,)  i'"*  which  he  performed  several  exploits 
that  were  highly  extolled.  His  efforts  to  reform  the 
civil  administration  of  Sinde  are  also  commended.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1847,  and  was  again  sent  to 
India  in  1849,  to  oppose  the  Sikhs,  but  on  his  arrival 
found  that  the  war  was  ended.  In  1850  he  returned 
home.  He  was  the  author  of  "Lights  and  Shadows 
of  Military  Life,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1853. 

See  Sir  W.  F.  P.  Napier,  "Life  and  Opinions  of  Sir  Charles 
J.  Napier  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  July  and  August,  1857. 

Na'pi-er,  (Sir  Charles  John,)  K.C.B.,  an  eminent 
British  admiral,  born  in  Stirling  county,  Scotland,  in 
1786,  was  the  son  of  the  Hon.  C.  Napier,  of  Merchiston 
Hall,  Scotland,  and  a  descendant  of  the  inventor  of 
logarithms.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1799,  and,  after 
fighting  in  several  actions  with  the  French,  distinguished 
himself  at  Baltimore  and  other  places  in  the  United 
States  in  1813  and  1814.  After  1814  he  passed  about 
fifteen  years  in  inaction,  on  half-pay.  He  commanded 
the  Portuguese  fleet  which  in  1833  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  fleet  of  Don  Miguel,  for  which  he  was 
made  a  Portuguese  grandee  of  the  first  class.  As  second 
in  command,  Captain  Napier  served  with  distinction  at 
the  reduction  of  Acre,  in  1840,  and  was  rewarded  with 
the  title  of  knight  commander  of  the  Bath.  In  1841  he 
became  rear-admiral,  and  commanded  the  Channel  fleet 
for  several  years.  He  advocated  naval  reform  in  letters 
which  were  printed,  and  as  a  member  of  Parliament 
supported  liberal,  or  rather  radical,  measures.  After  the 
commencement  of  the  Russian  war,  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  Baltic  fleet,  (1854,)  and  proposed  to 
take  Cronstadt,  but  found  it  too  well  fortified,  and  re- 
turned without  any  remarkable  achievement.  After  his 
return  to  Parliament,  in  1855,  he  imputed  his  failure  to 
the  fault  of  the  ministers.  He  attained  the  rank  of 
admiral  in  1858.  Died  in  November,  i860.  "In  his 
name  is  summed  up  all  that  he  was,   A  Napier  is  a  man 


possessed  of  high  spirits,  immense  courage,  great  in- 
genuity, and  prodigious  egotism,"  ("  London  Times," 
November,  i860.) 

See  General  E.  Napier,  "  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Admiral 
Sir  Charles  J.  Napier,"  1861. 

Napier,  (Francis,)  Lord,  a  British  diplomatist,  a 
son  of  the  eighth  Baron  Napier,  was  born  in  1819.  He 
became  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the  United  States 
about  1856.  In  December,  i860,  he  was  appointed  am- 
bassador-extraordinary to  the  court  of  Russia,  and  in 
1864  was  transferred  to  Berlin.  In  1866  he  became 
Governor  of  Madras. 

Napier,  (Henry  Edward,)  an  English  naval  officer 
and  writer,  born  in  1789,  was  a  brother  of  Sir  Charles 
James  Napier.  He  published  "  Florentine  History  from 
the  Earliest  Authentic  Records,"  (6  vols.,  1847.)  Died 
in  1853. 

Napier,  written  also  Naper,  Neper,  or  Nepair,  [Lat. 

Napie'rus,]  (John,)  Baron  of  Merchiston,  a  Scottish 
mathematician,  celebrated  as  the  inventor  of  logarithms, 
was  born  at  Merchiston  Castle,  near  Edinburgh,  in  1550. 
He  was  the  son  of  Sir  Archibald  Napier,  master  of  the 
mint.  He  entered  the  University  of  Saint  Andrew's 
about  1563,  and  a  few  years  later  travelled  in  France, 
Germany,  and  Italy.  He  appears  to  have  returned 
about  1571,  after  which  he  devoted  himself  to  mathe- 
matics, theology,  and  literature.  In  1593  he  published 
an  ingenious  work  called  "A  Plain  Discovery  of  the 
Revelation  of  Saint  John,"  in  which  he  labours  to  prove 
that  popery  is  antichristian.  It  is  probable  that  prior  to 
1594  he  began  the  train  of  inquiry  which  resulted  in  the 
discovery  of  logarithms.  His  tables  were  first  published 
in  1614,  with  the  title  of  "The  Description  of  the  Won- 
derful Law  of  Logarithms,"  ("Mirifici  Logarithmorum 
Canonis  Descriptio.")  "  The  invention  of  logarithms," 
says  Hallam,  "is  one  of  the  rarest  instances  of  sagacity 
in  the  history  of  mankind  ;  and  it  has  been  justly  noticed 
as  remarkable  that  it  issued  complete  from  the  mind  of 
its  author,  and  has  not  received  any  improvement  since 
his  time."  In  solving  the  problems  of  trigonometry, 
this  invention  is  of  immense  utility,  as  it  reduces  the 
labour  of  months  to  a  few  days,  and  liberates  the  ope- 
rator from  the  errors  which  are  almost  inevitable  in  long 
calculations.  He  died  in  161 7,  leaving  several  sons,  the 
eldest  of  whom,  named  Archibald,  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  in  1627,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Napier. 

See  "Life,  Writings,  and  Inventions  of  John  Napier,"  by  Earl 
OF  BucHAN  and  Walter  Minto,  1787  ;  Mark  Napier,  "  Memoirs 
of  John  Napier,"  1834;   Hutton,  "Mathematical  Dictionary;" 
Chambers,    "  Biographical   Dictionary   of  Eminent  Scotsmen 
"  Westminster  Review"  for  July,  1835. 

Na'pi-er,  (Joseph,)  an  Irish  lawyer  and  politician,  born 
at  Belfast  in  1804.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1831, 
and  elected  to  Parliament  for  the  University  of  Dublin 
in  1848.  He  became  attorney-general  for  Ireland  in 
1852,  and  was  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  from  March, 
1858,  to  June,  1859. 

Napier,  (Macvey,)  a  Scottish  editor,  born  in  the 
county  of  Stirling  in  1776.  He  became  professor  of 
conveyancing  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  He  edited 
the  seventh  edition  of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica," 
and  succeeded  Lord  Jeffrey  as  editor  of  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  in  1829.  He  performed  the  duties  of  this  po- 
sition with  ability  for  about  eighteen  years.  Among  his 
contributions  to  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  is  an  article 
on  "  Raleigh,"  (April,  1840.)    Died  in  1847. 

See  "Notice  of  Macvey  Napier,"  London,  1847;  Chambers, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement.) 

Napier,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  mechanical  engineer, 
distinguished  for  the  construction  of  steamships,  was  born 
at  Dumbarton  in  1791,  He  served  an  apprenticeship  to 
a  blacksmith,  and  in  181 5  became  master  of  a  smithery 
in  Glasgow,  A  few  years  later  he  began  to  make  engines 
for  steamboats  ;  and  he  has  since  become  the  head  of  the 
large  establishment  of  Robert  Napier  &  Sons,  of  Glas- 
gow, He  constructed  the  machinery  of  the  British 
Queen,  and  about  1840  furnished  Mr,  Cunard  with  four 
steamships  which  plied  between  England  and  the  United 
States.  In  1856  he  built  the  Persia,  which  was  perhaps 
unrivalled  in  strength  and  speed.  Since  1859  he  has 
built  several  iron-clad  ships  for  the  royal  navy. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  kard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (JJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23,) 


NJPIER 


NAPOLEON 


Napier,  (Sir  Robert,)  a  British  general,  born  in  Cey- 
lon about  1810.  He  served  as  an  officer  of  the  army 
in  India,  and  became  chief  engineer  of  Bengal.  During 
the  Sepoy  mutiny  of  1857-58  he  rendered  important 
services  as  military  engineer.  He  commanded  an  expe- 
dition sent  against  Abyssinia  about  the  close  of  1867.  He 
gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Magdala  in  April,  1868,  over 
King  Theodore,  (who  was  killed  in  that  action,)  and 
was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  Lord  Napier. 

Napier,  (Sir  William  Francis,)  a  British  general, 
famous  as  the  historian  of  the  Peninsular  war,  was  born 
at  Castletown,  Kildare  county,  Ireland,  in  1785.  He 
was  a  brother  of  General  Charles  James  Napier,  and 
cousin  of  Admiral  Charles  J.  Napier.  He  entered  the 
army  in  1800,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1804. 
From  1808  to  18 14  he  served  in  the  Peninsular  war, 
during  which  he  was  frequently  wounded.  He  received 
medals  for  his  conduct  at  Salamanca,  (1812,)  and  at  the 
battles  of  the  Nivelle  and  Orthes,  etc.,  and  became 
lieutenant-colonel  in  1813.  In  1828  he  produced  the 
first  volume  of  his  "  History  of  the  War  in  the  Penin- 
sula from  1807  to  1814,"  (6  vols.,)  which  was  finished 
in  1840,  and  found  its  way  to  the  summit  of  public 
favour,  although  its  tenor  was  not  in  accordance  with 
the  popular  and  political  prejudices  of  the  times.  He 
disapproved  the  policy  of  the  English  government,  and 
estimated  with  candour  the  acts  of  Napoleon  and  his 
army.  The  work  is  admired  for  dignity  of  tone,  fidelity 
to  truth,  and  beauty  of  style.  He  was  made  major- 
general  in  1841,  and  lieutenant-general  in  185 1.  His 
wife  was  a  daughter  of  General  H.  E.  Fox,  a  relative  of 
Lord  Holland.  Sir  William  published  a  "  History  of 
the  Conquest  of  Scinde,"  and  a  few  other  works.  Died 
in  February,  i860. 

See  Harriet  Martineau,  "  Biographical  Sketches,"  London, 
1869;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1857;  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  December,  1836,  and  April,  1864. 

Napierus.    See  Napier,  (John.) 

Napione,  nl-pe-o'na,  (C.  Antonio  Galeani,)  an 
Italian  mineralogist,  born  at  Turin  ;  died  at  Rio  Janeiro 
in  1814.  His  brother,  J.  Galeani,  Count  de  Napione, 
was  a  dramatist  and  litterateur. 

Napione  da  Coccoiiato,  nS-pe-o'ni  dl  kok-ko-ni'to, 
(Gian  Francesco  Galeani — gS-li-l^nee,)  Count,  a 
learned  Italian  writer  on  various  subjects,  was  born  at 
Turin  in  1748.  He  was  a  cousin-german  of  the  eminent 
author  Joseph  de  Maistre.  He  held  several  high  civil 
offices.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  an  essay  on 
the  Italian  language,  ("  Dell'Uso  e  dei  Pregi  della  Lin- 
gua Italiana,"  2  vols.,  1791,)  and  "Lives  of  Illustrious 
Italians,"  (3  vols.,  1818.)    Died  in  1830. 

See  L.  Martini,  "  Vita  del  Conte  G.  F.  Napione,"  1836  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Napoleon  I.    See  Bonaparte. 

Napoleon  II.    See  Reichstadt,  Duke  of. 

Na-po'le-on  [Fr.  Napoleon,  nt'po'li'oN']  III., 
(Charles  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte,)  Emperor  of 
France,  a  son  of  Louis  Bonaparte  and  Hortense  de  Beau- 
harnais,  was  born  at  Paris,  in  the  Tuileries,  April  20, 1808. 
He  was  inscribed  at  the  head  of  the  register  of  the  family 
of  the  Napoleonic  dynasty,  the  emperor  having  recog- 
nized Louis  and  his  heirs  as  successors  to  the  crown 
in  preference  to  his  elder  brothers.  His  mother,  being 
compelled  to  quit  France  in  181 5,  took  this  son  with  her 
in  her  exile,  and  gave  him  for  preceptors  P.  Lebas 
and  Colonel  Armandi.  He  passed  several  years  of  his 
youth  at  Arenenberg,  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Thurgau. 
On  the  accession  of  Louis  Philippe,  in  1830,  Louis  Napo- 
leon requested  permission  to  return  to  France,  which 
was  not  granted.  He  and  his  brother  then  went  to 
Italy  and  enlisted  in  the  army  of  insurgents,  who  at 
first  gained  some  advantages  over  the  papal  troops,  but 
were  defeated  and  dispersed  by  the  Austrians  in  1831. 
On  the  death  of  the  Due  de  Reichstadt,  in  1832,  Louis 
Napoleon  became  a  pretender  to  the  throne  of  France. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "  Political  Reveries,"  and 
a  "Manual  of  Artillery,"  (1836.)  His  ambition,  his 
name,  and  his  unscrupulous  audacity  urged  him  to  enter 
a  career  which  presents  the  most  wonderful  vicissitudes 
of  fortune.  Having  secured  the  aid  of  Colonel  Vaudrey 
and  other  officers  stationed  at  Strasbourg,  he  made  an 


attempt  on  that  place,  with  a  few  adherents,  in  October, 
1836.  He  failed,  was  arrested,  and  was  banished  or  trans- 
ported to  the  United  States  in  November  of  that  year. 

In  1837  he  returned  to  Europe,  attended  Queen  Hor- 
tense in  her  last  illness  at  Arenenberg,  and  took  refuge 
in  England,  where  he  passed  about  two  years.  In  1839 
he  published  his  "Napoleonic  Ideas,"  ("Idees  Napo- 
leoniennes,")  which  has  been  described  as  a  "melange 
of  liberal  principles  and  praetorian  domination."  It  is 
an  apology  for  the  regime  of  Napoleon  I.  The  unpopu- 
lar measures  of  Louis  Philippe  encouraged  Louis  Napo- 
leon to  engage  in  another  rash  and  desperate  enterprise. 
Attended  by  about  fifty  partisans  and  a  tame  eagle, 
which  was  expected  to  perch  upon  his  banner  as  the 
harbinger  of  victory,  he  sailed  from  England  in  August, 
1840,  and  entered  Boulogne,  where  he  obtained  but  little 
support,  and  was  speedily  arrested  by  the  soldiers  who 
he  had  hoped  would  be  induced  to  join  his  standard. 
He  was  tried  on  a  charge  of  treason  by  the  House  of 
Peers,  and,  after  he  had  made  a  speech  in  his  own  de- 
fence and  professed  his  devotion  to  the  principle  of 
popular  sovereignty,  was  sentenced  to  perpetual  impris- 
onment. He  was  confined  in  the  Castle  of  Ham,  where 
he  pursued  his  political  studies  and  wrote  several  political 
and  historical  treatises.  Aided  by  his  physician.  Dr. 
Conneau,  and  disguised  as  a  labourer,  he  escaped  from 
Ham  in  May,  1846,  and  retired  to  England. 

The  revolution  of  1848  afforded  him  an  opportunity 
to  return  to  France,  and  thus  opened  a  new  field  to  his 
irrepressilile  ambition.  In  June,  1848,  he  was  elected 
to  the  National  Assembly  for  the  department  of  the 
Seine.  He  was  excluded  from  that  body  by  Lamartine 
and  his  colleagues  for  a  time,  but  he  took  his  seat  in 
September,  1848,  and  became  a  candidate  for  the  office 
of  president  of  France.  On  the  loth  of  December,  1848, 
he  was  elected  president  for  four  years,  having  received 
5,562,834  votes.  His  chief  competitor  was  General  Ca- 
vaignac,  who  obtained  1,469,166  votes.  He  soon  became 
involved  in  a  contest  with  the  Constituent  Assembly,  the 
republican  majority  of  which  regarded  him  with  hostility 
or  suspicion.  In  April,  1849,  he  sent  an  army  to  Rome 
to  intervene  in  favour  of  the  pope,  who  had  been  ex- 
pelled by  the  republicans.  The  French  army  took  Rome, 
and  continued  to  occupy  that  city  until  1866. 

The  Constituent  Assembly  dissolved  itself,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  May,  1849. 
The  president  appointed  the  celebrated  De  Tocqueville 
minister  of  foreign  afi'airs  in  June,  1849.  This  minister, 
perceiving  that  the  president  expected  him  and  his  col- 
leagues to  be  the  pliant  instruments  of  his  will,  resigned 
in  October  of  that  year.  De  Tocqueville  afterwards 
remarked,  "  We  were  not  the  men  to  serve  him  on 
those  terms."  Louis  Napoleon  encountered  a  strong 
opposition  in  the  Legislative  Assembly,  which  in  May, 
1850,  restricted  universal  suffrage  and  ordered  that  a 
residence  of  three  years  in  a  commune  must  be  a  qualifi- 
cation of  voters.  A  long  and  violent  struggle  between 
the  president  and  the  representatives  of  the  people 
was  terminated  by  the  coup  d'etat  of  December  2,  185 1. 
Having  secured  the  support  of  the  army,  by  a  reckless 
violation  of  his  plighted  faith  he  raised  himself  to 
the  supreme  power.  The  Assembly  was  forcibly  dis- 
solved, and  the  leading  statesmen  were  arrested.  Legis- 
lators and  felons,  statesmen  and  vulgar  culprits,  were 
huddled  together  in  the  same  vehicle  and  conveyed  to 
prison.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  his  acts  were  ratified 
by  the  form  of  a  popular  election,  and  he  was  chosen 
president  for  a  term  of  ten  years.  A  new  constitution 
was  adopted  in  January,  1852,  and  the  legislative  func- 
tions were  divided  between  two  houses,  the  Senate  and 
the  Corps  Legislatif,  which,  however,  were  so  organized 
that  they  offered  little  or  no  check  to  his  absolute  power. 
The  question  whether  he  should  take  the  title  of  em- 
peror was  submitted  to  the  vote  of  the  people  in  No- 
vember, 1852,  when,  according  to  the  official  report, 
7,824,189  voted  in  the  affirmative.  He  assumed  the 
title  of  Napoleon  III.,  and  married  a  Spanish  lady  of 
great  personal  attractions,  Eugenie  Marie  de  Guzman, 
Countess  de  Teba,  in  January,  1853.  Having  formed 
an  alliance  with  England  and  publicly  announced  that 
his  policy  was  peace,  he,  in  conjunction  with  his  new  ally, 


a.  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;    hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


NAPOLEON 


NJRASINGHA 


declared  war  against  Russia  in  March,  1854,  and  sent  an 
army  to  the  Crimea.  After  a  long  siege,  the  allies  took 
Sevastopol  in  September,  1S55,  and  the  war  was  ended 
by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  March,  1856.  Among  the  events 
of  this  year  was  the  birth  of  the  prince  imperial,  Napo- 
leon Eugene  Louis,  etc. 

One  great  aim  of  Napoleon  III.  appears  to  have  been 
to  reconcile  the  French  people  to  the  loss  of  liberty  by 
promoting  their  material  prosperity,  by  splendid  public 
improvements,  and  by  gratifying  their  passion  for  mili- 
tary glory.  Accordingly,  as  an  ally  of  the  King  of 
Sardinia  in  the  war  caused  by  the  aggressions  of  Aus- 
tria, he  led  a  large  army  into  Italy  in  May,  1859.  He 
commanded  in  person  at  the  battle  of  Solferino,  where 
the  Austrians  were  defeated,  June  24,  1859,  and  in  the 
next  month  concluded  the  peace  of  Villafranca.  (See 
Francis  Joseph.)  Among  the  results  of  this  war  was 
the  cession  of  Nice  and  Savoy  to  France  by  the  King 
of  Sardinia,  who  had  extended  his  own  dominions  by 
the  conquest  of  Lombardy.  In  1861  he  availed  himself 
of  the  opportunity  presented  by  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war  in  America,  to  intervene  in  Mexico,  and  fitted 
out  against  that  republic  an  expedition  which  landed  a 
well-appointed  army  under  General  Forey  early  in  1862. 
After  several  victories  over  the  Mexican  Liberals,  the 
French  forces  entered  the  city  of  Mexico  in  June,  1863. 
Napoleon  offered  the  imperial  crown  of  Mexico  to 
Maximilian  of  Austria,  who  accepted  the  fatal  gift  and 
was  supported  by  a  part  of  the  native  population.  The 
United  States  refused  to  acknowledge  the  Mexican  em- 
peror, and  intimated  to  Napoleon  that  European  powers 
would  not  be  permitted  to  establish  monarchies  by  arms 
in  North  America.  He  accordingly  withdrew  his  army 
from  Mexico  about  the  end  of  1866,  so  that  the  result  of 
the  Mexican  enterprise  was  the  reverse  of  glorious  for 
France.  It  is  well  understood  that  he  sympathized  with 
the  slaveholders  in  their  war  against  the  Union,  at  least 
so  far  as  they  sought  the  disruption  of  the  confederation. 

Before  the  commencement  of  the  American  war,  Napo- 
leon was  justly  regarded  as  the  most  adroit  and  most  suc- 
cessful sovereign  in  Europe.  But  his  prestige  was  greatly 
impaired  by  the  events  of  1866.  He  remained  neutral 
in  the  war  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  which  war  he 
probably  might  have  prevented  ;  but  in  the  diplomatic 
contest  which  ensued  between  France  and  Prussia 
he  appears  to  have  found  more  than  a  match  in  the 
genius  of  Count  Bismarck,  who  suddenly  raised  Prussia 
to  the  rank  of  a  first-rate  power  and  united  the  Germans 
in  a  determined  attitude  against  the  aggressiveness  of 
France.  The  French  felt  themselves  humiliated  by  the 
fact  that  so  great  changes  in  the  map  of  Europe  should 
have  been  effected  without  their  agency  or  concurrence, 
and  condemned  the  policy  by  which  France  was  isolated 
and  excluded  from  the  hope  of  extension  towards  the 
Rhine.  After  the  battle  of  Sadowa,  July  3,  1866,  Napo- 
leon offered  himself  as  a  mediator  between  the  belligerent 
powers.  The  Emperor  of  Austria  ceded  to  him  Venetia, 
instead  of  surrendering  it  to  the  King  of  Italy,  to  whom 
it  seemed  naturally  to  belong.  About  the  loth  of  De- 
cember, 1866,  the  French  army  was  withdrawn  finally 
from  Rome,  and  the  pope,  finding  himself  in  a  critical 
position,  addressed  to  Napoleon  language  which  was  far 
from  complimentary.  Napoleon  and  Bismarck  were  in- 
volved in  a  dispute  about  Luxemburg,  which  the  former 
purchased  of  the  King  of  Holland  ;  but  the  Prussians 
occupied  a  strong  fortress  in  that  province,  which  they 
refused  to  relinquish.  It  was  generally  believed  that 
war  was  imminent ;  but  the  difficulty  was  settled  by  a 
European  Convention  which  met  in  London  in  May, 
1867,  and  decided  that  neither  France  nor  Prussia  should 
retain  possession  of  Luxemburg. 

The  exciting  and  warmly-contested  elections  of  May 
and  June,  1869,  showed  so  great  an  increase  of  votes 
against  imperial  despotism,  that  Napoleon  thought  it 
expedient  to  make  large  concessions  to  the  people  and 
the  legislative  body.  He  gave  the  latter  the  right  to 
elect  its  own  officers,  to  have  partial  control  over  the 
expenditure  of  the  public  money,  the  right  of  interpel- 
lation, and  the  privilege  to  share  with  himself  the  power 
of  initiating  laws.  He  proclaimed  a  general  amnesty 
for  political  offences  in  August,  1869.    In  December  of 


that  year  he  appointed  Emile  Ollivier  prime  minister, 
and  requested  him  to  form  a  cabinet.  "  Designate  per- 
sons," he  said,  "  who  will,  associated  with  yourself,  form 
a  homogeneous  cabinet  faithfully  representing  the  legis- 
lative majority."  This  was  regarded  as  the  end  of  per- 
sonal government  in  France,  and  the  beginning  or  resto- 
ration of  a  constitutional  regime.  He  addressed  to  prime 
minister  Ollivier,  March  22,  1870,  an  important  letter,  in 
which  he  says,  "  I  think  it  opportune,  under  present  cir- 
cumstances, to  adopt  all  the  reforms  required  by  the 
constitutional  government  of  the  Empire,  in  order  to  put 
an  end  to  the  immoderate  desire  for  change  which  pre- 
vails in  certain  minds."  He  afterwards  issued  an  address 
and  appeal  to  the  people,  asking  their  votes,  in  these 
terms:  "Do  the  people  approve  the  liberal  reforms 
which  have  been  effected  in  the  Constitution  since  i860 
by  the  Emperor,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  great  legis- 
lative bodies  of  the  state,  and  ratify  the  senatus-consultum 
of  April  20,  1870?"  On  the  eve  of  the  election  the 
government  detected  or  concocted  an  extensive  plot  to 
assassinate  Napoleon,  and  arrested  many  suspected  per- 
sons. The  result  of  the  plebiscite  of  the  8th  of  May 
was  that  about  7,000,000  voted  yes,  and  1,500,000  voted 
no.  Louis  Napoleon  has  written  a  "History  of  Julius 
Caesar,"  (1867,)  in  which  he  carries  out  the  "Ideas  Na- 
poleoniennes,"  inculcating  the  doctrine  that  certain  gifted 
men  are  appointed  by  Providence  or  destiny  to  rule,  and 
that  it  is  as  necessary  for  the  people  as  for  themselves 
that  this  destiny  should  be  fulfilled. 

Without  a  reasonable  pretext  or  tangible  cause,  he 
declared  war  against  Prussia  about  July  15,  1870,  and, 
having  appointed  the  Empress  regent,  took  the  com- 
mand of  his  army  in  person.  The  Germans  crossed  the 
frontier  early  in  August,  and  assumed  the  offensive.  The 
French  were  outnumbered  and  outgeneralled  in  a  series 
of  great  battles  at  Worth,  Metz,  and  near  Sedan.  On 
the  2d  of  September,  Napoleon,  who  had  displayed  great 
incapacity  as  a  general,  surrendered  himself,  with  about 
100,000  men  as  prisoners  of  war,  at  Sedan.  The  deche- 
ance  of  Napoleon  was  passed  in  the  corps  legislatif,  and 
a  republic  was  formed,  without  violence,  by  the  citizens 
of  Paris,  September  4,  1870. 

See  Amedee  Hennequin,  "  Histoire  de  Louis  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte," 1848  ;  A.  BouDiN,  "  Histoire  politique  du  Prince  Louis  Napo- 
leon," etc.,  1852;  Adrien  Pascal,  "Histoire  de  Napoleon  III," 
1853  ;  Victor  Hugo,  "Napoleon  le  Petit,"  1852;  Paul  Lacroix, 
"Histoire  de  Napoleon  IH,"  1853;  J.  B.  Fellens,  "Louis  Napo- 
leon, sa  Vie,"  etc.,  1853;  W.  L.  Wesche,  "Napoleon  II L  Kaiser 
der  Franzosen,"  1853;  Schoenhuth,  "Napoleon  III.  Kaiser,"  etc., 
1853;  Abbott,  "The  History  of  Napoleon  III.,"  1S69 ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Nap'per-Tan'dy,  (James,)  an  Irish  insurgent,  born 
near  Dublin  in  1747.  He  invaded  Ireland  with  a  body 
of  French  troops  in  1798,  was  taken  prisoner  and  con- 
demned to  death,  but  was  released  after  an  imprisonment 
of  two  years.    Died  in  1803. 

N^rada,  ni'ra-da,  written  also  Nareda,  the  name  of 
a  celebrated  Hindoo  sage  and  lawgiver,  supposed  to  have 
been  the  son  of  Brahma  and  Saraswati.  He  was  the 
inventor  of  the  Vina,  a  sort  of  lute,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  an  intimate  friend  of  Krishna. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Nar'a-siug'ha,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  niir^a-sing'ha 
or  niir'a-sing',  from  the  Sanscrit  tidrdy  a  "  man,"  and 
singhd,  a  "lion,"]  (the  "Man-Lion,")  the  name,  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  of  the  fourth  Avatar  of  Vishnu.  It  is 
related  that  Hiranyakasipu,*  by  his  penances  and  sacri- 
fices in  honour  of  Brahma,  had  obtained  as  a  boon  from 
that  deity  that  he  should  possess  universal  monarchy 
and  be  wholly  exempt  from  death  or  injury  from  every 
god,  man,  or  creature  in  existence.  Having  now  nothing 

*  Pronounced  by  the  modern  Hindoos  hl-run'ya-kiis'a-poo.  By 
some  blunder,  as  it  would  seem,  on  the  part  of  the  writers  from  whoni 
he  has  copied,  Southey  gives  this  name  in  a  strangely  corrupted 
form, — Errenen : 

"  For  often  would  Ereenia  tell 
Of  what  in  elder  days  befell, 
When  other  tyrants  in  their  might 
Usurped  dominion  o'er  the  earth, 
And  Veeshnoo  took  a  human  birth, 
Deliverer  of  the  sons  of  men. 
And  slew  the  huge  Ermaccasen, 
And  piecemeal  rent  with  lion  force 
Er'renen's  accursed  corse." 

Ctirse  of  Kehama,  vol.  i..  x. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


NARATANA 


1656 


NARUSZEfVICZ 


to  fear,  his  arrogance  and  impiety  became  insufferable. 
He  had,  however,  a  son  of  a  wholly  different  character, 
and  remarkable  for  his  piety  and  virtue.  The  son,  re- 
proving his  father's  wickedness,  once  said  to  him  that  the 
Deity  was  present  everywhere.  "Is  he  in  that  pillar.?" 
said  the  angry  tyrant.  "  Yes,"  replied  his  son.  There- 
upon Hiranyakasipu,  in  contempt,  struck  the  pillar  with 
his  sword,  when  the  stony  mass  fell  asunder,  and  a  being, 
half  man  and  half  lion,  issuing  from  its  centre,  tore  to 
pieces  the  impious  wretch  who  had  thus  insulted  and 
defied  the  Divine  Power. 
See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

N^r^yana,  nS-ri'ya-na,  a  Sanscrit  word  of  somewhat 
uncertain  etymology,  commonly  supposed  to  signify 
"  moving  upon  the  waters,"  and  applied,  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  to  the  universal  Divine  Spirit,  which  existed 
before  all  worlds.  {Compare  Genesis  i.  2.)  In  this  sense, 
Narayana  may  be  regarded  as  another  name  for  Brahm, 
(which  see  ;)  but  it  is  also  frequently  used  as  one  of  the 
many  appellations  of  Vishnu. 

See  Moor,."  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Narayani,  ni-ri'ya-nee',  the  consort  (or  sakti)  of  Na- 
rayana, considered  as  Vishnu,  and  hence  a  name  of 
LAKSHMf,  (which  see.) 

Narbonne,  de,  deh  nlR'bon',  (Louis,)  Count,  a 
French  courtier  and  minister  of  state,  was  born  of  the 
noble  family  of  Narbonne-Lara  at  Colorno,  in  Parma, 
in  1755.  Ms  was  taken  to  Paris  in  1760,  and  educated 
at  court,  where  his  mother  was  a  lady  of  honour.  He 
was  handsome,  accomplished,  and  witty,  and  a  favourite 
of  the  royal  family.  In  the  Revolution  he  acted  with 
the  constitutional  party,  and  became  a  confidential  friend 
of  Madame  de  Stael,  who  regarded  him  with  admiration. 
"She  exalted  him  in  her  imagination,"  says  Lamartine, 
"  until  she  raised  him  to  the  height  of  her  ideal."  By 
her  influence,  partly,  he  became  minister  of  war  in  De- 
cember, 1791.  He  tried  with  success  the  policy  of  frank- 
ness and  confidence  towards  the  Assembly,  and  extorted 
applause  even  from  the  stern  and  suspicious  radicals. 
He  performed  prodigies  of  activity  in  raising  armies  and 
preparing  for  war.  Inspired  by  his  fervent,  rapid,  and 
martial  eloquence,  a  glow  of  patriotism  pervaded  France. 
He  was  suddenly  dismissed  from  office  in  March,  1792, 
in  consequence  of  a  difference  with  his  colleague  and 
rival  De  Lessart.  About  the  loth  of  August  he  was 
proscribed  by  the  Assembly,  but,  by  the  efforts  of  Ma- 
dame de  Stael,  escaped  to  England.  He  returned  to 
France  in  1800,  and  was  restored  to  his  rank  as  lieu- 
tenant-general in  1809.  Soon  after  that  he  was  made 
ambassador  to  Bavaria,  He  attended  Bonaparte  as  aide- 
de-camp  in  the  Russian  campaign,  (1812.)  Died  in  1813. 

See  ViLLEMAiN,  "Souvenirs  contemporains  ;"  Bignon,  "His- 
toire  de  France  sous  Napoleon;"  Marmont,  "  Memoires  "  Nou- 
velle  Biograpbie  Generale." 

Narborough,  nar'bur''eh,  ( Sir  John,  )  an  English 
naval  officer,  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  with  the 
Dutch  in  1666.  In  1672  he  served  as  second  captain 
under  the  Duke  of  York  against  De  Ruyter  in  the  en- 
gagement of  Solebay,  where  his  bravery  and  skill  were 
conspicuous.  He  was  created  rear-admiral  and  made  a 
knight  in  1673.  In  1674  he  was  sent  against  the  pirates 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  forced  the  Bey  of  Tripoli  to 
give  up  his  British  captives  and  pay  a  large  sum  of  money 
for  previous  injuries  to  British  trade.    Died  in  1688. 

See  Charnock,  "  Biographia  Navalis." 

Nar-cis'sus,  [Gr.  'NapKLoaog ;  Fr.  Narcisse,  ntR'sfess',] 
a  beautiful  youth,  in  the  Greek  mythology.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  insensible  of  amorous  passion  until  he  saw 
his  own  image  in  the  water,  with  which  he  fell  in  love. 
Having  died  of  disappointed  love,  he  was  changed  into 
the  flower  of  the  same  name. 

Narcissus,  a  profligate  Roman  courtier  and  favourite 
of  the  emi:)eror  Claudius,  was  a  slave  in  his  youth.  He 
acquired  unlimited  influence  over  Claudius,  and  pro- 
cured the  death  of  several  innocent  persons.  He  also 
caused  Messalina  to  be  assassinated.  He  was  put  to 
death,  by  order  of  Agrippina,  in  54  A.D, 

Nardi,  naRMee,  (Jacopo,)  a  distinguished  historian, 
born  at  Florence  in  1476.  His  principal  work  is  a  "His- 
tory of  Florence  from  1494  to  1531,"  (1582.)  He  also 
wrote  a  comedy  entitled  "  L'Amicizia,"  and  made  a 


translation  of  Livy,  (1540,)  esteemed  one  of  the  best  in 
the  Italian  language.    Died  about  1555. 
See  C.  Nardi,  "Vita  di  Jacopo  Nardi." 

Nardin,  ntR'd^N',  (Jean  Frederic,)  a  French  Prot. 
estant  minister,  born  at  Montbeliard  in  1687.  He 
preached  at  Blamont.    Died  in  1728. 

See  DuvERNOY,  "Vie  dej.  F.  Nardin,"  prefixed  to  his  Sermons  ' 
1754- 

Nardin,  (T.,)  a  French  negotiator  and  litterateur^ 
born  at  Besan9on  in  1540;  died  in  1616. 

Nardini,  naR-dee'nee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  musician, 
born  at  Leghorn  in  1725,  was  esteemed  one  of  the  best 
violinists  of  his  time.  He  composed  a  number  of  pieces 
for  the  violin  and  flute.    Died  in  1796. 

Nareda.    See  Narada, 

Nares,  narz,  (Rev.  Edward,)  nephew  of  James  Nares, 
noticed  below,  was  born  in  London  in  1762.  He  became 
professor  of  modern  history  at  Oxford  in  1814.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  novel  entitled  "  Thinks  I  to  Myself,"  and 
of  the  "  Life  and  Administration  of  Lord  Burghley," 
which  is  severely  criticised  by  Macaulay  in  the  "  Edin- 
burgh Review,"  (1832.)    Died  in  1841. 

Nares,  (James,)  an  English  composer,  born  in  Mid- 
dlesex in  1715.  His  principal  compositions  are  anthems 
and  other  church  music ;  he  also  published  "  Lessons 
for  the  Harpsichord,"  and  various  treatises  on  music. 
In  1756  he  succeeded  Green  as  organist  and  composer 
to  the  king.  He  was  the  preceptor  of  the  composer 
Arnold,    Died  in  1783, 

Nares,  (Robert,)  a  distinguished  critic  and  theolo- 
gian, a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1753.  He  be- 
came Archdeacon  of  Stafford,  and  pastor  of  AUhallows 
Church,  London  ;  he  also  held  the  office  of  assistant 
librarian  of  the  British  Museum,  He  published,  among 
other  works,  "Elements  of  Orthoepy,"  (1784,)  and  a 
"Chronological  View  of  the  Prophecies  relating  to  the 
Christian  Church,"  (1805.)  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  "British  Critic."    Died  in  1829. 

Narfi.    See  NoRvr. 

Nariiio,  nS-rin'yo,  (Antonio,)  a  South  American 
general,  born  at  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota  in  1769.  He  fought 
against  the  Spaniards  in  1812-13,  was  made  prisoner, 
and  was  confined  at  Cadiz,  where  he  died  about  1822, 

See  Captain  I^>onnycastle,  "  Spanish  America,"  1818;  Lalle- 
MANT,  "  Histoire  de  la  Colombie,"  1826. 

Narni,  di,  de  naR'nee,  (Girolamo  Mautin — mow- 
teen',)  an  Italian  monk  and  eloquent  preacher,  lived  in 
the  seventeenth  century. 

Nar'ri-en,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  geometer,  born 
at  Chertsey  in  1782,  was  a  maker  of  mathematical  and 
philosophical  instruments  in  his  youth.  He  contributed 
to  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia,"  and  published,  besides 
several  works  on  geometry,  a  "  History  of  the  Origin 
and  Progress  of  Astronomy,"  (1838.) 

Nar'ses,  [Gr.  Napa^f,]  a  celebrated  general  under  the 
emperor  Justinian  I.,  was  a  eunuch,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  native  of  Asia.  He  was  early  distinguished 
by  the  favour  of  the  emperor,  and  in  538  A.D.  was  ap- 
pointed to  a  command  under  Belisarius  in  Italy.  Owing 
to  dissensions  arising  between  them,  Narses  was  recalled 
in  539,  but  he  was  sent  again  in  552  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Italian  army.  He  obtained  a  signal  victory 
over  the  Goths,  led  by  Totila,  and  recovered  Rome. 
Having  driven  the  barbarians  from  the  country,  he  was 
appointed  in  553  Exarch  of  Italy.  On  the  accession  of 
Justinus  II,,  Narses  was  superseded  in  his  command  by 
Longinus.    Died  in  558. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Lb 
Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  Procopius,  "  Bellum  Gothi- 
cum." 

Nar'ses  or  Narsi,  nar'see,  [Gr.  Ndpcrj/f,]  a  Sassanide 
king  of  Persia,  a  son  of  Varanes  II.,  began  to  reign  in 
294  A.D.  He  waged  war  against  the  emperor  Diocletian, 
whose  army  he  defeated  in  Mesopotainia  in  296.  Having 
been  defeated  in  the  second  campaign,  Narses  sued  for 
peace,  and  in  297  made  a  treaty  by  which  he  ceded 
Mesopotamia  and  Armenia  to  Diocletian.  Narses  abdi- 
cated in  favour  of  his  son,  Hormisdas  II.,  in  303  A.D. 

Narssius.    See  Naerssen. 

Naruszewicz,  n5.-roo-sha'vitch,  (Adam  Stanislas,) 
a  Polish  historian  and  poet,  born  in  1733.    He  was  ap- 


5,e,T,  6,u,y,/<7«^;  i,  ^,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,i,  6,u,y,  short;  a,?,i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fSt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


NARVAEZ 


NASMTTH 


pointed  successively  professor  of  poetry  in  the  Jesuits' 
College  of  Nobles  at  Warsaw,  and  Bishop  of  Smolensk. 
His  principal  works  are  a  "  History  of  Poland,"  an  ex- 
cellent translation  of  Tacitus  into  Polish,  and  a  number 
of  lyrics,  fables,  and  satires.    Died  in  1796. 

See  Bentkowski,  "Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Polonaise." 

Narvaez,  de,  di  naR-vi-^th',  (Panfilo,)  a  Spanish 
conmiander,  born  at  Valladolid.  He  went  to  America 
in  or  before  15 10,  and  served  in  the  army.  When  Ve- 
lasquez, Governor  of  Cuba,  learned  that  Cortez  disowned 
his  authority  in  Mexico,  he  sent  an  army  against  him, 
and  gave  the  command  to  Narvaez,  in  1520.  The  latter 
was  defeated  and  made  prisoner  by  Cortez  at  Zampoala. 
He  was  killed  by  the  Indians  in  Florida  about  1527. 

See  Prescott,  "Conquest  of  Mexico." 

Narvaez,  de,  (Ramon  Maria,)  Duke  of  Valencia,  a 
Spanish  general  and  minister  of  state,  born  in  Andalusia 
about  1798.  He  fought  against  the  Carlists  in  1836-38, 
and  was  the  leader  of  the  insurrection  which  drove  Es- 
partero  from  power  in  1843.  He  was  prime  minister 
from  May,  1844,  to  February,  1846,  and  was  restored  to 
power  in  1849.  resigned  in  January,  i85i,was  again 
appointed  president  of  the  council  in  October,  1856,  and 
retired  from  office  in  November,  1857.  About  Septem- 
ber, 1864,  he  again  became  prime  minister.  Died  in 
April,  1868. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Nascimento,  do,  do  nis-se-mgn'to,  (Manoel,)  an 
eminent  Portuguese  poet,  born  in  Lisbon  in  1734.  He 
was  driven  into  exile  by  the  persecution  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion in  1778,  after  which  he  lived  in  Paris  until  his  death. 
Among  his  works,  which  he  published  under  the  assumed 
name  of  "Filinto  Elysio,"  are  a  number  of  odes  and  a 
translation  of  La  Fontaine's  Fables.    Died  in  1819. 

See  A.  M.  Sane,  "  Poesie  lyrique  Portugaise,"  etc.,  1808;  L. 
DE  Mendo^a,  "  Memorias  de  Litteratura  contemporanea." 

Naseef-al-Yazajee  or  Nasif-al-Yazaji,  nd-seef  II 
yl'za-jee,  a  distinguished  Arabic  scholar  and  writer, 
born  in  "the  Lebanon,"  probably  near  the  commence- 
ment of  the  present  century.  Although  a  Christian,  he 
is  said  to  have  devoted  his  life  solely  to  the  study  of  the 
language,  history,  literature,  and  grammar  of  the  Arabs. 
In  his  treatise  on  grammar  he  has  condensed,  with  rare 
ability  and  skill,  the  whole  system  of  the  Arab  gram- 
marians. "  No  more  complete  exposition  of  the  subject," 
says  Mr.  Chenery,  "has  ever  been  brought  into  a  vol- 
ume of  the  same  size."  He  has  also  written  "  Makamat," 
("Assemblies,")  in  imitation  of  Hareeree,  (Hariri.) 
"Nasif,"  says  the  same  critic,  "has  little  of  the  poetical 
power  of  his  great  original,  but  in  curious  learning  he 
almost  equals  him." 

See  "  Assemblies  of  Hariri,"  Introduction,  pp.  q8-ioi. 

Naselli,  na-seKlee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Ferrara.  The  churches  of  Ferrara  contain  many 
of  his  works.    Died  about  1630. 

Nash,  (Abner,)  an  American  statesman  and  lawyer, 
born  in  Prince  Edward  county,  Virginia.  Having  set- 
tled in  North  Carolina,  he  was  elected  in  1779  Governor 
of  that  State.    Died  in  1786. 

Nash,  (Francis,)  an  American  brigadier-general, 
brother  of  Abner  Nash,  noticed  above,  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Germantown,  (1777.) 

Nash,  (Frederick,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Newbern,  North  Carolina,  in  1781,  was  a  son  of  Abner 
Nash.  He  resided  mostly  at  Hillsborough.  He  became 
a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  North  Carolina  in  1844. 
Died  in  1858. 

Nash,  (John,)  an  English  architect,  born  in  London 
in  1752.  He  was  appointed  in  1815  inspector  of  the 
royal  buildings.  He  furnished  the  designs  for  the  Hay- 
Market  Theatre,  Buckingham  Palace,  and  the  Pavilion 
of  Brighton,  also  the  plans  of  Regent  Street  and  Re- 
gent's Park.    Died  in  1835. 

Nash,  (Joseph,)  an  English  painter  and  designer, 
born  about  1812.  He  designed  illustrations  for  "The 
Architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1838.)  He  is  dis- 
tinguished as  a  painter  of  architecture. 

Nash,  (Richard.)  usually  called  Beau  Nash,  was 
born  at  Swansea,  Wales,  in  1674.  He  entered  the  Mid- 
dle Temple  as  a  student  of  law,  but  had  an  invincible 
aversion  to  study  and  business.    He  distinguished  him- 


self as  a  man  of  fashion,  a  master  of  the  science  of 
gentility,  and  a  paragon  of  effrontery.  His  skill  as  a 
gambler  yielded  him  an  ample  revenue.  In  1704  he 
found  Bath  a  vulgar  and  mismanaged  watering-place, 
infested  with  ill-bred  people.  He  got  himself  appointed 
master  of  ceremonies,  and,  by  enforcing  the  rules  of  good 
breeding  at  balls,  public  assemblies,  etc.,  converted  Bath 
into  a  fashionable  and  elegant  place  of  resort.  His 
person  was  coarse  and  ungainly,  but  his  vivacity  and 
benevolent  or  prodigal  habits  rendered  him  popular. 
He  is  said  to  have  taken  measures  to  guard  the  unwary 
youth  from  falling  victims  to  the  designs  of  villains. 
During  a  part  of  his  long  period  of  prosperity  and 
supremacy  at  Bath,  he  rode  in  a  six-horse  coach  with  a 
retinue  of  servants.  In  his  old  age  he  was  impoverished 
by  the  act  of  Parliament  which  suppressed  gaming. 
Died  in  1761. 

See  Oliver  Goldsmith,  "  Life  of  Richard  Nash,"  1763;  "  Ec* 
centric  Personages,"  by  Wm.  Russell,  1866. 

Nash,  (Thomas,)  an  English  wit  and  dramatist,  born 
in  Suffolk  about  1564.  He  was  the  author  of  "The 
Supplication  of  Pierce  Penniless  to  the  Devil,"  (1592,) 
"Dido,"  a  tragedy,  (1594,)  a  comedy  entitled  "Suiii- 
mer's  Last  Will  and  Testament,"  (1600,)  and  several 
other  works,  which  had  great  popularity  in  that  age. 
Died  in  1601. 

See  Warton,  "History  of  English  Poetry;"  Disraeli,  "Ca- 
lamities of  Authors." 

Nash,  (Treadway  Russel,)  an  English  divine  and 
antiquary,  born  in  1725  or  1726.  He  published  "Col- 
lections for  a  History  of  Worcestershire,"  and  a  fine 
edition  of  Hudibras,  and  contributed  several  papers  to 
the  "  Archaeologia."    Died  in  1811. 

Nasif-al-Yazaji.    See  Naseef-al-Yazajee. 

Nasini,  na-see'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Sienna  in  1641 ;  died  in 
1716. 

Nasini,  (Giuseppe  Niccol6,)  a  skilful  painter,  born 
near  Sienna  about  1655,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  painted  in  oil  and  fresco  many  works,  the  subjects 
of  which  are  mostly  religious.    Died  in  1 736. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

N^sir  -  ed  -  Deen  -  Mohammed  -  Ibn  -  Hassan,  or 
Nassir-eddyn-Mohammed-Ibn-Ha9an,  nd'sir  ed- 
deen'  mo-htm'med  ib'n  hd'san,  surnained  Al-Too'see, 
(or  Al-Thousi,)  from  the  place  of  his  birth,  a  celebrated 
Persian  astronomer,  born  at  Toos,  (Tus  or  Thous,)  in 
Khorassan,  about  1200  a.d.,  became  superintendent  of 
an  observatory  in  Azerbaijan.  He  was  the  author  of 
"Ilchanic  Tables,"  which  are  said  by  Delanibre  not  to 
differ  essentially  from  those  of  Ptolemy.    Died  in  1274. 

Nasir-  (or  Nasser-)  Ledeen-  (Ledin-)  lilah,  ni'sir 
le-deen'  iKlah,  (Abool- Abbas- Ahmed,  i'bool  ib-bas' 
^H'med,)  an  Abbasside  caliph,  began  to  reign  at  Bagdad 
in  1 1 80,  as  successor  of  his  father  Mostadee.  He  founded 
many  colleges,  hospitals,  and  mosques.    Died  in  1225. 

Na'smith,  (David,)  a  Scottish  philanthropist,  born 
in  Glasgow  in  1799,  was  distinguished  for  his  zeal  in 
promoting  religious  and  benevolent  associations.  He 
founded  in  1826  the  Glasgow  City  Mission,  and,  having 
subsequently  visited  England,  Ireland,  France,  and  the 
United  States  of  America,  he  established  missions  in 
their  principal  cities.  The  London  City  Mission,  which 
began  its  operations  in  1835  with  four  missionaries, 
numbered  in  1856  upwards  of  three  hundred.  Nasmith 
also  founded  the  London  Female  Mission,  the  Adult 
School  Society,  and  other  similar  institutions.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  Dr.  John  Campbell,  "Memoirs  of  David  Nasmith,"  1844. 

Na'smith,  (James,)  an  English  divine  and  antiquary, 
born  at  Norwich  in  1740,  published  editions  of  the 
"  Itineraries"  of  Simon  and  William  of  Worcester,  and 
Tanner's  "Notitia  Monastica."    Died  in  1808. 

Na'smyth,  (Alexander,)  a  celebrated  Scottish 
painter,  founder  of  the  so-called  Nasmyth  school,  was 
born  at  Edinburgh  in  1758.  He  painted  landscapes  and 
portraits  of  great  merit.  Among  the  latter,  that  of  Burns 
is  highly  esteemed,  and  is  said  to  be  the  only  authentic 
likeness  of  the  poet.    Died  in  1840. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 


€  as    9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Y^, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  I  as  z;     as  in  this.  (S^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NASMTTH 


1658 


NAUBERT 


Nasmyth,  (James,)  a  Scottish  engineer  and  inventor, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1808, 
He  commenced  business  for  himself  as  a  mechanical 
engineer,  at  Manchester,  in  1834.  He  invented  a  steam 
hammer,  a  steam  pile-driver,  and  other  machines. 

See  Samuel  Smiles,  "  Industrial  Biography,"  etc.,  1864. 

Nasmyth,  (Patrick,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1786.  He  enjoyed  a  high 
reputation  as  a  landscape-painter,  and  had  five  sisters 
who  were  distinguished  in  the  same  department  of  the 
art.    Died  in  1831. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Nassare,  nis-si'ri,  (Blas  Antonio,)  a  Spanish  writer 
on  various  subjects,  born  at  Alguezar  in  1689;  died  in 
1751. 

Nassau,  nas'saw,  [Ger.  pron.  nis'sow,]  House  of, 
a  noble  family,  of  German  origin,  which  produced  many 
great  men,  and  derived  its  title  from  Nassau,  on  the 
Rhine.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  family  acquired 
the  principality  of  Orange,  in  the  southeast  of  France, 
after  which  the  Counts  of  Nassau  took  the  title  of  Prince 
of  Orange.  (See  Orange,  and  William  IH.  of  Eng- 
land.) 

See  Kremer,  "  Geschichte  des  Nassauischen  Hauses." 

Nassau,  (Henry,)  Count  of,  a  Flemish  nobleman, 
inherited  from  his  father  large  estates  in  Brabant,  Flan- 
ders, and  Holland.  In  15 15  he  married  the  sister  of 
Philibert,  Prince  of  Orange,  by  whom  he  had  a  son  Rene. 
Henry  was  a  confidential  friend  of  Charles  V.,  whose 
governor  he  had  been  in  that  emperor's  boyhood.  "  It 
was  he,"  says  Motley,  "  whose  influence  placed  the  im- 
perial crown  upon  the  head  of  Charles."  He  was  the 
uncle  of  William  of  Orange,  the  founder  of  the  Dutch 
republic. 

Nassau,  (Maurice  of,)  [Dutch,  Maurits  van  Nas- 
sau, mow'rits  vtn  nis'sow  ;  Ger.  Moritz  von  Nassau, 
mo'rits  fon  nSs'sow,]  one  of  the  greatest  captains  of 
modern  times,  was  born  at  the  castle  of  Dillenburg  in 
November,  1567,  and  was  the  second  son  of  William  the 
Silent,  Prince  of  Orange,  who  founded  the  Dutch  repub- 
lic. About  the  age  of  twenty  he  was  elected  Governor  and 
Captain-General  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces,  which 
were  then  at  war  with  Spain.  In  1591  he  took  Deventer, 
Zutphen,  and  other  fortified  towns.  He  defeated  the 
Spaniards  in  a  great  pitched  battle  at  Turnhout  in  1597, 
and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Archduke  Albert 
of  Austria  at  Nieuwport  in  1600.  In  the  ensuing  cam- 
paigns his  skill  as  a  tactician  was  exerted  with  uninter- 
rupted success  until  1609,  when  Spa-in  recognized  the 
independence  of  the  Dutch,  and  a  truce  of  twelve  years 
was  signed  by  the  two  powers.  The  patriot  Barneveldt, 
by  promoting  this  peace  and  opposing  the  ambitious  pro- 
jects of  Maurice,  incurred  his  enmity,  and  finally  became 
a  victim  of  his  cruelty.  (See  Barneveldt.)  Maurice 
received  the  title  of  Prince  of  Orange  at  the  death  of  his 
elder  brother,  about  1618.  In  1621  he  renewed  the  war 
against  the  Spaniards,  who  opposed  to  him  the  celebrated 
general  Spinola.  "  His  great  capacity  in  the  military 
art,"  says  Hume,  "  would  have  compensated  the  inferior- 
ity of  his  forces,  had  not  the  Spanish  armies  been  com- 
manded by  Spinola."  Maurice  compelled  his  rival  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Bergen-op-Zoom  in  1622,  but  Spinola 
took  Breda  in  1625.  He  died  in  1625,  and  was  succeeded 
in  the  office  of  Stadtholder  by  his  brother,  Frederick 
Henry,  who  was  the  grandfather  of  William  HI.  of  Eng- 
land. Maurice  made  important  improvements  in  the 
military  art,  and  excelled  especially  in  the  reduction  and 
defence  of  fortified  places. 

See  Stolker,  "Prins  Maurits,"  1827;  Oudemans,  "  Het  Leven 
en  de  Daden  van  Maurits  Prins  van  Oranje-Nassau,"  1832;  C.  M. 
VAN  DER  Kemp,  "  Maurits  van  Nassau  Prins  van  Oranje,"  etc., 
1844;  Motley,  "History  of  the  United  Netherlands." 

Nassau-Siegen,  de,  deh  nis'sow  see'gen,  (Charles 
Henri  Nicolas  Othon,)  Prince,  bom  in  Nassau  in 
1745,  gained  distinction  by  his  adventures.  He  served 
in  the  French  army,  and  afterwards  entered  the  service 
of  Russia.  He  gained  a  naval  victory  over  the  Turks 
in  1788.    Died  about  1809. 

Nassau-Siegen,  de,  (Jan  Maurits,)  Prince, 
called  the  American,  a  Dutch  commander,  born  in 
1604,  was  a  grandson  of  John,  Count  of  Nassau.  He 


was  appointed  captain-general  of  the  Dutch  possessions 
in  Brazil  in  1636,  and  gained  several  successes  over  the 
Portuguese.  He  returned  to  Holland  in  1644,  and  was 
made  general-in-chief  of  the  cavalry.  He  left  in  manu- 
script a  work  on  the  Animals  of  South  America.  Died 
in  1679. 

See  Van  Kampen,  "Johann  Moritz  von  Nassau:  eine  Bio- 
graphie,"  1842 ;  L.  Driesen,  "  Leben  des  Fursten  Moritz  von 
Nassau-Siegen,"  1849. 

Nast,  (William,)  D.D.,  a  native  of  Germany,  emi- 
grated  in  1828  to  America,  where  he  became  a  preacher 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  He  has  translated 
numerous  Methodist  works  into  German,  and  published 
several  books  in  that  language. 

Natal,  Bishop  of.    See  Colenso. 

Natale,  nS-ti'li,  [Lat.  Nata'lis,]  (Geronimo,)  a 
Spanish  Jesuit,  born  in  Majorca  in  1507.  He  declined 
the  office  of  general  of  the  order  of  Jesuits  in  1558.  He 
wrote  "Commentaries  and  Meditations  on  the  Gospels," 
("  Adnotationes  et  Meditationes  in  Evangelia,"  1594.) 
Died  at  Rome  in  1580. 

See  H.  Fisquet,  "Notice  sur  Jerome  Natalis,"  1856. 

Natali,  na-ti'Iee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
physician,  born  at  Messina  in  1642  ;  died  about  1730. 

Natali,  (Giuspippe,)  an  Italian  painter,  of  the  school 
of  Cremona,  born  in  1652  ;  died  in  1722. 

Natalis.    See  Natale. 

Natalis,  nS-ti'lis,  (Michael,)  a  Flemish  engraver, 
born  at  Liege  about  1609,  worked  at  Rome  and  Paris. 
He  engraved  some  works  of  Titian,  Rubens,  and  Poussin. 
Died  in  1670. 

Na'than,  [Heb.  \T\1 ;  Gr.  Na^av,]  a  Hebrew  prophet, 
who  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Kings  David  and  Solomon. 
He  wrote  a  Life  of  David,  which  is  not  extant. 

See  II.  Samuel  xii.  ;  I.  Chronicles  xxix.  29;  I.  Kings  i. 

Nathan,  (Isaac,)  called  also  Mordecai,  a  Jewish 
rabbi  of  the  fifteenth  century,  published  the  first  Hebrew 
Concordance  to  the  Bible.  It  is  entitled  "  Mair  Netib," 
or  "Light  to  the  Path." 

Na'than  Ben  Jechiel,  [hln  yDa't-lV,)  a  Jewish  rabbi, 
president  of  the  synagogue  at  Rome.  He  wrote  a  Tal- 
mudical  Lexicon,  which  was  printed  about  1480.  Died 
in  1 1 06. 

Nathanael,  (of  Scripture.)    See  Bartholomew. 

Natoire,  nftw^R',  (Charles,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Nimes  in  1700,  studied  under  Lemoine,  whose  un- 
finished works  he  completed.  Some  of  his  best  pictures 
are  at  Versailles  and  the  Hotel  de  Soubise.  Died  near 
Rome  in  1777. 

See  DuMESNiL,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  Frangais." 

Natter,  n^t'ter,  (Johann  Lorenz,)  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man gem-engraver,  born  in  Suabia  in  1705.  After  re- 
siding for  a  time  at  Rome,  he  visited  the  principal  courts 
of  Europe,  where  his  works  were  in  great  demand.  His 
imitations  of  the  antique  are  so  perfect  as  scarcely  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  original.  Among  his  best  pro« 
ductions  are  a  medal  in  honour  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole, 
and  a  victorious  Britannia,  on  a  gem.  Natter  published 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Antique  Method  of  engraving  Gems, 
compared  with  the  Modern."  Died  at  Saint  Petersburg 
in  1763. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kunstler-Lexikon." 

Natterer,  nit'ter-er,  (Johann,)  a  German  naturalist, 
born  at  Laxenburg,  near  Vienna,  in  1787.  Pie  travelled 
in  Brazil,  and  wrote  several  works  on  reptiles  and  mam- 
mifera.    Died  in  1843. 

Nattier,  nS'te-i',  (Jean  Marc,)  a  French  portrait- 
painter,  born  in^ris  in  1685.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  the  portraits  of  Marshal  Saxe  and  the  Duke  of 
Richelieu.  He  was  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts. 
Died  in  1766. 

Natzmer,  von,  fon  nSts'mer,  (Dubislaw  Gneomar,) 
a  Prussian  general,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1654.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  Blenheim,  (1704,)  and  com- 
manded the  Prussian  corps  at  Malplaquet,  (1709.)  Died 
in  1739. 

Naubert,  now'bgRt,  (Christiane  Benedicte  Eu- 
genie,) a  celebrated  romance-writer  of  Germany,  born 
at  Leipsic  in  1756.  Among  her  most  admired  works 
are  "Conradin  of  Suabia,"  "Walter  of  MOntbarry,"  and 
"  Thekla  of  Thurn."    The  latter,  it  is  said,  suggested  to 


ft,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  g,  obscure;  f^r,  f^U,  fit;  mfet;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


NJUBRIGENSIS  1659  NJFEZ 


Schiller  many  fine  passages  in  '*  Wallenstein."  Her 
*'  Popular  Legends  of  Germany"  are  also  greatly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1819. 

Naiibrigensis.    See  Little,  (William.) 

Nauclerus,  now-kla'rus,  (Johann  Vergen,)  a  chron- 
icler, born  in  Suabia  about  1430.  He  wrote,  in  Latin, 
a  chronicle,  which  was  printed  in  1516.  Died  abouti5io. 

Nau'cra-tes,  [NaD/cpaT??^,]  a  Greek  orator,  was  a  pupil 
of  Isocrates,  and  flourished  about  350  B.C.  He  wrote  on 
rhetoric. 

Nau-cy'des,  \NavKv6r]q,'\  a  celebrated  Greek  sculptor, 
born  at  Argos  about  the  95th  Olympiad.  Among  his 
best  productions  were  two  statues  of  Chimon,  a  Mer- 
cury, and  a  bronze  statue  of  Erinna. 

Naudaeus.    See  Naud6,  (Gabriel.) 

Naude,  n5'da',  [Lat.  Naud.^:'us,]  (Gabriel,)  a  dis- 
tinguished French  bibliographer  and  savant,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1600.  He  was  chosen  physician-ordinary  to 
Louis  XHL  in  1633,  and  librarian  to  Cardinal  Richelieu 
in  1642.  Soon  alter  the  death  of  Richelieu  (1642)  he 
became  librarian  to  Mazarin.  He  had  extensive  learning 
and  an  acute  understanding,  and  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Gassendi.  His  principal  works  are  an  "  Apology  for 
Great  Men  falsely  accused  of  Magic,"  (1625,)  "  Biblio- 
graphia  Politica,"  (1633,)  and  "  Considerations  on  Coups 
d'Etat."  A  collection  of  anecdotes  entitled  "  Naudaeana" 
was  published  in  1701.    Died  in  1653. 

See  Louis  Jacob,  "  Gabrielis  Naudasi  Tumulus,"  1659  ;  Niceron, 
"  Memoires  ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Portraits  litt^raires,"  1855  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biogiaphie  Generale." 

Naude,  (Philippe,)  a  French  mathematician  and 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Metz  in  1654.  Having 
removed  to  Berlin,  he  was  appointed,  in  1696,  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  Academy  of  Arts,  and  subsequently 
in  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  soon  after  its  foundation. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  moral  and  theological 
works,  and  of  "Elements  of  Geometry,"  (1706.)  Died 
in  1729. 

Naudet,  wb'cW,  (Joseph,)  a  French  scholar  and  his- 
torian, born  in  Paris  in  1786.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1817,  and  professor  of 
Latin  poetry  in  the  College  de  France  about  1821. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  the  Monarchy  of  the 
Goths  in  Italy,"  (1811.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Getidrale." 

Naudet,  (Thomas  Charles,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1774.  He  travelled  over  a 
considerable  part  of  Europe,  and  made  a  collection  of 
three  thousand  designs.    Died  in  1810. 

Naugerius.    See  Navagero. 

Naumann,  now'mSn,  (Johann  Andreas,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  near  Kothen  in  1744.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  the  Birds  of  North  Germany,"  (i  795-1804.) 
Died  in  1826. 

Naumann,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  an  ornithologist, 
born  near  Kothen  in  1780,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
His  chief  work  is  a  "  Natural  History  of  German  Birds," 
(1822-44.)    T)\Qd  in  1857. 

Naumann,  (Joh  \nn  Gottlieb  or  Amadeus,)  a  Ger- 
man composer,  born  near  Dresden  in  1741.  He  pro- 
duced several  popular  operas ;  but  his  reputation  rests 
chiefly  on  his  church  music.    Died  in  1801. 

See  Meissner,  "  Bruchstiicke  aus  J.  A.  Naumanns  Lebensge- 
schichte,"  2  vols.,  1804;  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Mu- 
siciens." 

Naumann,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  mineral- 
ogist, born  at  Dresden  in  1797,  was  a  son  of  Johann 
Gottlieb,  noticed  above.  He  published  several  suc- 
cessful works  on  mineralogy. 

Naumann,  (Moritz  Ernst  Adolph,)  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  and  a  medical  writer,  was  born  at  Dresden 
in  1798.  He  wrote  an  important  work  on  clinic  medi- 
cine, "  Handbuch  der  medicinischen  Klinik,"  (8  vols., 
1829-39,)  and  other  works. 

Naun'ton,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  English  statesman,  rose 
to  be  secretary  of  state  and  master  of  requests  under 
James  I.  He  was  the  author  of  '*  Fragmenta  Regalia," 
or  an  account  of  the  court  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  Died 
in  1635. 

Nausea,  now'zi-l,  otherwise  called  Unrath,  oon'rSt, 
and  Eckel,  §k'kel,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  theologian, 


born  near  Wiirtzburg  about  1480.  He  became  preacher 
to  the  court  at  Vienna  in  1534,  and  Bishop  of  Vienna  in 
1 541.  He  published  several  works  on  theology.  Died 
about  1550. 

See  DupiN,  "  Biblioth^que  des  Auteurs  ecclesiastiques." 

Nau-sic'a-a,  [Gr.  Nanci/caa,]  a  daughter  of  Alcinous, 
King  of  the  Phaeacians,  showed  kindness  to  Ulysses 
when  he  was  wrecked  on  the  island  of  Phasacia,  (Corfu.) 
Tradition  adds  that  she  became  the  wife  of  Telemachus. 

Nau-sic'ra-tes,  [NavaLKpdrrj^,]  a  Greek  comic  poet, 
whose  works' are  not  extant.  He  is  classed  by  some 
critics  among  the  writers  of  the  middle  comedy. 

Nauze,  La.    See  La  Nauze. 

Navagero,  na-va-ja'ro,[Lat.  Nauge'rius,] (Andrea,) 
an  Italian  scholar  and  eminent  Latin  poet,  born  in  Venice 
in  1483.  He  passed  about  four  years  (1525-28)  at  Madrid 
as  Venetian  ambassador  to  Charles  V.,  and  exercised  an 
important  influence  on  Spanish  literature.  Having  been 
sent  on  a  mission  to  France,  he  died  at  Blois  in  1529. 
His  Latin  and  Italian  poems  are  admired  for  their  ele- 
gance and  purity  of  style. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  Meneghelli, 
"  Elogio  di  A.  Navagero,"  1813. 

Navagero,  (Bernardo,)  a  Venetian  statesman  and 
cardinal,  born  at  Venice  in  1507.  He  was  sent  as  am- 
bassador to  France  and  Germany,  and  attended  the 
Council  of  Trent.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Pope  Paul  IV." 
Died  in  1565. 

See  L.  Manin,  "Elogio  del  Cardinale  Navagero,"  1814;  Au« 
BERY,  "  Histoire  des  Cardinaux." 

Navailles,  de,  deh  nt'vtl'  or  nt'vt'ye,  (Philippe  de 
Montault  de  Benac — deh  m6N''t5'  deh  ba^ntk',)  Due, 
a  French  general,  born  in  1619.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  marshal  of  France  in  1675.    Died  in  1684. 

See  "Memoires  de  sa  Vie,"  etc.,  written  by  himself,  1691. 

Navarre  or  Navarrese,  Doctor.  See  Azpilcueta. 

Navarre,  ni-vSr'ri,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  captain,  born 
in  Biscay,  was  a  skilful  engineer.  He  invented  or  im- 
proved the  art  of  undermining,  and  took  the  Castello 
del  Ovo  at  Naples  in  1503.  In  15 14  he  entered  the 
service  of  Francis  I.  of  France.    Died  in  1528. 

See  Brant6me,  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaines." 

Navarrete  or  Navarete.    See  Mudo,  El. 

Navarrete,  na-vir-ra'ta,  (Domingo  Fernandez,)  a 
Spanish  Dominican,  born  in  Old  Castile,  was  a  mission- 
ary to  China  in  1646.  After  his  return  he  was  created 
Archbishop  of  Saint  Domingo  in  the  West  Indies.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  valuable  work  on  the  moral,  political, 
and  religious  condition  of  the  Chinese,  entitled  "Tra- 
tados  historicos,  etc.  de  la  Monarchia  de  China,"  (1676.) 
Died  in  1689. 

See  Churchill,  "  Collection  of  Voyages  and  Travels." 

Navarrete,  (Don  Martin  Fernandez,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  historian  and  geographer,  born  at  Abalos  in 
1765.  He  was  appointed  in  1823  director  of  the  Hydro- 
graphic  Institute  at  Madrid,  and  in  1837  was  made  a 
senator  and  director  of  the  Academy  of  History.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  a  "Collection  of  the  Voyages 
and  Discoveries  made  by  the  Spaniards  since  the  Close 
of  the  Fifteenth  Century."  It  is  eulogized  by  Humboldt, 
and  has  furnished  Irving  with  material  for  his  "  Life  of 
Columbus."  He  also  wrote  a  "  Biography  of  Cervantes," 
and  assisted  in  preparing  a  valuable  "Collection  of  Un- 
published Documents  for  the  History  of  Spain,"  (un- 
finished.) He  was  a  member  of  the  Spanish  Academy, 
and  proposed  a  new  system  of  orthography,  which  was 
adopted  by  that  institution.    Died  in  1844. 

See  D.  DE  Mofras,  "Mendoza  et  Navarrete,"  1845. 

Navarro,  ni-vlR'ro,  (Augustin,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  at  Murcia  in  1754;  died  in  1787. 

Navarro,  (Felipe,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Va- 
lencia about  1680. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Nave  or  Naeve,  na'feh,  written  also  Nefe,  (Kaspar,) 
a  German  medical  writer,  born  at  Chemnitz  in  1514; 
died  about  1580. 

Navez,  ntVy,  (FRANgois  Joseph,)  an  eminent  Bel- 
gian historical  painter,  born  at  Charleroi  in  1787,  was 
a  pupil  of  David.    He  worked  mostly  at  Brussels,  and 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S;^=^See  Explanations,  p.  23k) 


NAVIER 


1660 


NEBENIUS 


painted  many  scriptural  subjects.  He  was  regarded  as 
the  chief  of  the  Academic  school  of  Belgian  artists. 

Navier,  wi'vo-kf,  (Pierre  Toussaint,)  a  French 
physician  and  chemist,  born  at  Saint-Dizier  in  1712,  was 
the  discoverer  of  nitrous  ether.  He  was  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  published 
several  scientific  works.    Died  in  1779. 

Navieres,  de,  deh  nt've^iR',  (Charles,)  a  French 
poet,  born  at  Sedan  in  1544 ;  died  in  Paris  in  16 16. 

Naville,  nt^v^K,  (Francois  Marc  Louis,)  a  Swiss 
writer  on  education  and  moral  philosophy,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1784.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on 
Legal  Charity,"  (2  vols.,  1836.)    Died  in  1846. 

Nay'lpr,  (James,)  an  English  enthusiast,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1616.  He  became  an  eloquent  preacher 
of  the  Society  of  Friends,  after  he  had  served  in  the 
army  of  the  Parliament,  which  he  left  in  1649.  Having 
fallen  into  delusions  and  received  acts  of  worship  from 
some  fanatical  persons,  he  was  convicted  of  blasphemy 
by  the  Parliament  in  1656.  He  was  branded,  pilloried, 
and  imprisoned  several  years.    Died  in  1660. 

See  Sewel,  "History  of  the  Quakers;"  and  article  in  the 
"Democratic  Review"  for  March,  1846,  (by  Whittier.) 

Nazianzen.    See  Gregory  Nazianzen. 
Ne  or  Ni,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  Confucius, 
which  see. 

Neagle,  na'gel,  (John,)  an  American  artist,  chiefly 
known  as  a  portrait-painter,  was  born  in  Boston  in  1799. 
He  practised  his  art  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  married 
a  daughter  of  Sully.  Among  his  works  are  portraits  of 
Washington  and  Henry  Clay.    Died  in  1865. 

See  DuNLAP,  "History  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  America;" 
TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Neal,  (Alice  B.)    See  Haven,  (Alice.) 

Neal,  neel,  (Daniel,)  a  celebrated  English  dissenter, 
born  in  London  in  1678.  After  completing  his  studies 
at  Utrecht,  he  became  minister  of  a  congregation  in 
Aldersgate  Street,  London.  His  principal  works  are  a 
•*  History  of  the  Puritans,"  (in  4  vols.,)  and  a  "  History 
of  New  England."    Died  in  1743. 

See  Wilson,  "  History  of  Dissenting  Churches." 

Neal,  (John,)  an  American  poet  and  litterateur,  born 
at  Portland,  Maine,  in  1793.  His  first  publications  were 
a  series  of  essays  on  the  works  of  Byron,  which  ap- 
peared in  "  The  Portico,"  a  monthly  magazine.  These 
were  soon  followed  by  his  novel  entitled  "  Keep  Cool," 
(1817,)  "The  Battle  of  Niagara,"  (1818,)  "  Goldau,  the 
Maniac  Harper,"  and  other  poems ;  also  "  Logan," 
(1822,)  "Seventy-Six,"  (1823,)  and  other  novels.  In 
1824  he  visited  England,  where  he  contributed  a  num- 
ber of  able  and  interesting  articles  on  American  litera- 
♦  ture  to  "Blackwood's  Magazine."  After  his  return,  he 
published  the  novels  of  "  Rachel  Dyer,"  (1828,)  "The 
Down-Easters,"  (1833,)  "True  Womanhood,"  (1859,) 
and  several  other  works.  In  1870  appeared  his  "  Wan- 
dering Recollections  of  a  Somewhat  Busy  Life."  "The 
elements  of  poetry,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "  are  poured 
forth  in  his  verses  with  a  prodigality  and  power  alto- 
gether astonishing ;  but  he  is  deficient  in  the  constructive 
faculty." 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America  ;"  Dt;YCKiNCK,  "  Cy- 
clopsedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ;  Allibone,  "Dictionary 
of  Authors." 

Neal,  (Joseph  C.,)  an  American  journalist  and  hu- 
morous writer,  born  at  Greenland,  New  Hampshire,  in 
1807.  Having  settled  in  Philadelphia,  he  became  in  1831 
editor  of  "The  Pennsylvanian,"  and  in  1844  of  a  literary 
journal  entitled  "  Neal's  Saturday  Gazette,"  which  soon 
acquired  extensive  popularity.  He  published  in  1837 
"Charcoal  Sketches,  or  Scenes  in  a  Metropolis,"  which 
were  received  with  great  favour,  and  were  republished 
in  London.  They  were  followed  by  "  Peter  Ploddy,  and 
other  Oddities,"  (1844,)  and  another  series  of  "Char- 
coal Sketches."    Died  in  1848. 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Ne-al'ges,  [Nm/i/c??c,]  a  Greek  painter,  born  about 
213  B.C.,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Sicyon. 
His  works  were  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries, 
and  are  eulogized  by  Plutarch  and  Pliny.  One  of  his 
principal  pieces  represents  a  battle  between  the  Egyp- 
tians and  the  Persians  on  the  Nile. 


Neale,  neel,  (John  Mason,)  an  English  theologian 
and  historical  writer,  born  about  1818.  He  published, 
besides  several  books  for  children,  a  "  History  of  the 
Holy  Eastern  Church,"  and  other  works. 

Neander,  ni-in'der,  (Christoph  Friedrich,) 
(changed  from  Neumann,)  a  German  divine  and  poet, 
born  in  Courland  in  1724.  He  was  the  author  of 
"  Spiritual  Songs,"  ("  Geistliche  Lieder,")  which  are 
ranked  among  the  best  compositions  of  that  kind  in  the 
language.    Died  in  1802. 

See  "  Bruchstiicke  von  Neanders  Leben,"  Berlin,  1804. 

Ne-an'der,  [Ger.  pron.  ni-ln'der,]  (Johann  August 
WiLHELM,)  an  eminent  German  theologian  and  ecclesi- 
astical historian,  of  Jewish  extraction,  was  born  at  Got- 
tingen  in  1789.  He  became  in  181 2  professor  of  theology 
at  Berlin,  where  he  devoted  himself  zealously  to  the 
duties  of  his  office  and  the  advancement  of  Christianity 
by  his  numerous  writings.  Of  these  the  most  important 
is  his  "Universal  History  of  the  Christian  Religion  and 
Church,"  (in  5  vols.,  1843.)  Among  his  other  produc- 
tions we  may  name  "  The  Emperor  Julian  and  his  Times," 
(1812,)  "Memorable  Occurrences  from  the  History  of 
Christianity  and  Christian  Life,"  (3  vols.,  1822,)  "His- 
tory of  the  Planting  of  the  Apostolic  Church,"  (1832,) 
and  "The  Life  of  Jesus  Christ  in  its  Historical  Rela- 
tions," (1837,)  an  able  refutation  of  the  well-known  work 
of  Strauss.  Neander  was  a  member  of  the  Consistory 
of  the  province  of  Brandenburg.  His  writings  have 
obtained  great  reputation  and  influence  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, as  well  as  in  Germany.  Died  in  Berlin  in  July,  1850. 

"  Neander  still  remains  beyond  doubt  the  greatest 
church  historian,  thus  far,  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Great,  too,  especially  in  this,  that  he  never  suff'ered  his 
renown  to  obscure  at  all  his  sense  of  the  sinfulness  and 
weakness  of  every  human  work  in  this  world.  With  all 
his  comprehensive  knowledge,  he  justly  regarded  him- 
self as,  among  many  others,  merely  a  forerunner  of  a 
new,  creative  epoch  of  ever-young  Christianity.  .  .  . 
'We  stand,'  he  said,  *on  the  line  between  the  old 
world  and  a  new,  about  to  be  called  into  being  by  the 
ever-fresh  energy  of  the  gospel.  For  a  fourth  time 
an  epoch  in  the  life  of  our  race  is  in  preparation  by 
means  of  Christianity.'"  (Dr.  Schaff's  "History  of 
the  Apostolic  Church.") 

See  Krabbe,  "A.  Neander,"  1852;  "  Zum  Gedachtniss  A.  Nean- 
der's,"  Berlin,  1S50;  Herzog,  "  Real-Encyklopadie ;"  W.  Farrell, 
"Memorial  of  A.  Neander,"  1851 ;  "North  British  Review"  for 
February,  1851  ;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1868. 

Neander,  (Michael,)  a  German  Protestant  divine 
and  classical  scholar,  born  in  Lower  Silesia  in  1525,  was 
a  pupil  of  Melanchthon.  He  wrote  a  number  of  Greek 
and  Latin  treatises.    Died  in  1595. 

See  Reinhard,  "  De  Vita  M.  Neander,"  1756:  Niceron,  "M^- 
moires Havemann,  "  Mittheilungen  aus  dem  Leben  M.  Nean- 
der's,"  1841. 

Neander,  (Michael,)  a  learned  German  physician, 
born  in  Misnia  in  1529.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
a  "  Synopsis  of  Weights  and  Measures  according  to  the 
Romans,  Athenians,"  etc.    Died  in  1581. 

Ne-ar'-ehus,  [Gr.  '^seapxo^;  Fr.  N^arque,  nk''tRk',]  a 
celebrated  admiral  of  Alexander  the  Great,  was  a  native 
of  Crete,  or,  as  some  assert,  of  Amphipolis.  About  327 
B.C.  he  set  sail  from  the  Indus  for  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
discovered  on  his  passage  the  mouths  of  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris.  A  detailed  account  of  this  voyage  is 
given  by  Arrian,  the  accuracy  of  which  has  been 
confirmed  by  Vincent  and  other  modern  geographers. 
Nearchus,  on  his  return,  was  received  with  distinguished 
favour  by  Alexander,  who  assured  him  that  he  rejoii:ed 
more  in  the  success  of  the  expedition  than  in  having 
conquered  Asia.  He  also  received  from  his  sovereign 
a  golden  crown.  After  the  death  of  Alexander,  Nearchus 
was  made  governor  of  Pamphylia  and  Lycia. 

See  Plutarch,  "Vita  Alexandri ;"  Vincent,  "Voyage  of  Near- 
chus to  the  Euphrates,"  etc.,  1797;  Gosselin,  "Geographic  des 
Grecs." 

Nearque.    See  Nearchus. 

Nebel,  na'bel,  (Daniel,)  a  German  botanist,  born  at 
Heidelberg  in  1664.  He  published  several  works  on 
botanv.    Died  in  1733. 

Nebenius,  ni-ba'ne-us,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man statesman  and  able  writer  on  political  economy, 


a,e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


NEBI  1661  NECKHJM 


born  near  Landau  in  1784.  He  was  president  of  the 
Council  of  Baden  from  1846  to  1848.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "Treatise  on  Public  Credit,"  (1820.)    Died  in  1857. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Nebi,  n^b'ee,  an  admired  Turkish  poet  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  flourished  under  the  reign  of  Mahomet 
IV. 

Neb-ris-sen'sis,  (Antonius,)  an  eminent  Spanish 
scholar,  whose  proper  name  was  Antonio  DE  Lebrixa, 
(di  la-bRee'HS,)  was  born  at  Lebrixa  in  1444.  He  studied 
the  classics  in  Italy,  and,  returning  to  Spain  in  1473, 
came  to  that  country  what  Erasmus  was  to  Germany  or 
Bude  (Budaeus)  to  France.  As  professor  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Salamanca,  he  initiated  a  reform  in  the  method  of 
teaching  Latin  and  Greek.  He  published  a  Latin  Lexi- 
con, (1492,)  a  "Lexicon  of  Civil  Law,"  (1506,)  which  is 
highly  commended,  and  grammars  of  the  Latin,  Greek, 
and  Hebrew  languages.  About  15 14  he  became  professor 
of  rhetoric  at  Alcala.  "The  men  to  whom  Spain  chiefly 
owes  the  advancement  of  useful  learning,"  says  Hallam, 
"were  Arias  Barbosa  and  the  more  renowned  Antonio 
de  Lebrixa."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Eu- 
rope.")   Died  in  1522. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  part  i. 

Ne'brus,  [Gr.  Ne(5p6f,]  an  eminent  Greek  physician, 
flourished  about  580  B.C.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a  native  of  Cos.  When  the  Amphictyons  besieged  the 
town  of  Crissa,  in  Phocis,  Nebrus  assisted  in  reducing 
the  town  by  poisoning  the  water. 

Neb'u-Ghad-nez'zar,  [Heb.  nj^WnD^J ;  Fr.  Na- 
BUCHODONOSOR,  n  t'boo'ko''do^no^zoR',  or  Naboko- 
DROSSOR,  ufbo^koMRo'soR',]  King  of  Babylon,  succeeded 
his  father  Nabopolassar.  He  took  Jerusalem  in  606 
B.C.,  and  carried  to  Babylon  many  captives,  among  whom 
was  the  prophet  Daniel.  King  Zedekiah  having  revolted, 
Nebuchadnezzar  took  his  capital  in  588,  destroyed  the 
great  temple  by  fire,  threw  down  the  walls  of  the  city, 
and  transported  the  Jewish  people  to  Babylon.  He 
afterwards  captured  Tyre,  conquered  Egypt,  and  became 
probably  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  that  age  in  the 
world.  Having  become  too  much  elated  by  pride  and 
prosperity,  he  was,  by  divine  visitation,  deprived  of  his 
reason  and  deposed  from  his  throne.  Restored  to  reason 
and  power  a  short  time  before  his  death,  he  published 
a  pious  proclamation  of  his  experience  and  of  his  recog- 
nition of  the  King  of  heaven. 

See  II.  Kings  xxv.  i  ;  Daniel  i.,  ii.,  iii.,  and  iv.  ;  also,  Samuel 
Clarke,  "  Life  and  Death  of  Nebuchadnezzar,"  1664. 

Necliam.    See  Neckham. 

Ne'-eho  [Gr.  Ne/cwf,  'Nexau,  or  Nc;\:wf]  or  Pha'ra-oh 
Ne'-elio,  King  of  Egypt,  a  son  of  Psammeticus,  reigned 
from  617  to  601  B.C.  He  was  a  warlike  prince,  and 
defeated  Josiah,  King  of  Judah,  in  battle  at  Megiddo, 
but  was  defeated  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in  606  B.C.  at 
Carchemish. 

See  BuNSEN,  "Egyptens  Stelle  in  der  Weltgeschichte." 

Neck,  van,  vtn  n^k,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Naarden  in  1635.  His  master-piece  is  "  Simeon  in  the 
Temple  holding  the  Infant  Jesus  in  his  Arms."  Died  at 
Amsterdam  in  1714. 

See  Drscamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Necker,nek'ker  or  na'kaiR',  (Albertine  Adrienne 
de  Saussure — deh  so'sur',)  a  Swiss  authoress,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1766,  was  a  daughter  of  the  naturalist,  H.  B. 
de  Saussure.  She  was  married  to  J.  Necker,  a  nephew 
of  the  great  financier,  and  a  cousin  of  Madame  de 
Stael,  of  whom  she  was  an  intimate  friend.  She  wrote  a 
"Notice  of  the  Character  of  Madame  de  Stael,"  (1820,) 
and  "  Progressive  Education,"  (2  vols.,  1828-32.)  Died 
in  1 84 1. 

See  Senebier,  "  Histoire  litt^raire  de  Geneve." 

Necker,  nek'ker,  [Fr.  pron.  n^'kaiR',]  (Jacques,)  an 
eminent  Swiss  financier,  and  prime  minister  of  France, 
born  at  Geneva  in  September,  1732.  On  leaving  col- 
lege he  became  a  clerk  in  a  banking-house  in  Paris,  and, 
having  acquired  a  large  fortune  as  partner  of  the  great 
banker  Thelusson,  he  retired  from  business  in  the  prime 
of  life,  and  aspired  to  public  honours  and  more  brilliant 
financial  achievements.  In  1773  he  gained  the  prize 
offered  by  the  French  Academy  for  a  eulogy  on  Col- 


bert, and  published  a  treatise  on  the  corn-laws,  "  Sur  la 
Legislation  des  Grains."  The  disorder  of  the  finances  was 
so  alarming  that,  without  regard  to  official  routine,  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  treasury  in  1776,  and 
director-general  of  the  finances  in  1777.  By  publicity, 
order,  and  economy,  he  restored  the  public  credit  and 
lightened  the  burdens  of  the  people.  His  famous 
compte  rendtt  of  1781  (which  was  the  first  public  exposi- 
tion of  the  revenue  and  expenses  of  the  State)  was  re- 
ceived with  great  favour  ;  but  his  reforms  made  for  him 
many  enemies  at  court  and  elsewhere.  To  defend  him- 
self against  their  intrigues,  he  asked  for  a  seat  in  the 
council,  which  was  refused  because  he  was  a  Protestant. 
He  iminediately  resigned,  (1781,)  and  retired  to  Coppet, 
on  Lake  Leman. 

In  1784  he  published  his  excellent  work,"  On  the  Ad- 
ministration of  the  Finances,"  of  which  eighty  thousand 
copies  were  sold  in  a  few  days.  The  convocation  of 
the  States-General  was  decreed  by  the  royal  council  in 
August,  1788.  The  court  was  convinced  that  the  skill 
of  Necker  was  indispensable  in  the  political  and  financial 
crisis  that  followed.  He  succeeded  Brienne  as  prime 
minister,  or  controleur-general  of  finances,  about  Sep- 
tember I,  1788,  and  the  next  day  the  funds  rose  30  per 
cent.  He  favoured  the  Revolution  by  granting  to  the 
Tiers-Etat  a  double  number  of  deputies.  He  is  censured 
for  this  concession,  and  for  temporizing  in  the  contest 
between  the  Tiers-Etat  and  the  other  orders  after  the 
meeting  of  the  States-General  in  1789.  The  court  having 
adopted  more  violent  measures  than  he  approved,  he 
tendered  his  resignation,  (June  23,)  which  was  not  ac- 
cepted. On  the  nth  of  July  he  was  suddenly  dismissed 
by  a  note  from  the  king,  who  ordered  him  to  leave  the 
kingdom  privately  ;  and  the  same  night  he  departed  for 
Brussels.  Indignant  at  his  dismissal,  the  populace  of 
Paris  rose  in  arms,  stormed  the  Bastille,  and  obtained  a 
bloody  triumph  over  the  court.  Necker  was  recalled  on 
the  2ist  of  July,  and,  when  he  entered  Paris,  was  received 
with  enthusiastic  demonstrations  by  the  people.  His 
first  act  was  an  amnesty  for  political  offences.  But  he 
was  too  conservative  to  satisfy  the  popular  party,  and 
resigned  his  office  in  September,  1790.  He  passed  the 
rest  of  his  life  at  Coppet,  where  he  wrote  several  political 
and  religious  treatises.  Died  in  1804.  The  highly-gifted 
Madame  de  Stael  was  his  daughter. 

See  Madame  de  Stael,  "  Vie  priv^e  de  M.  Jacques  Necker,' 
1804 ;  Droz,  "  Histoire  du  R^gne  de  Louis  XVI  ;"  Thiers,  "  His- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  Lanjuinais,  "  Etudes  biographiquea 
sur  Antoine  Arnauld,  P.  Nicole  et  J.  Necker,"  1823;  Sainte-Beuve, 
"Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  A.  L.  de  Stael-Holstein,  "Notice  sur 
Necker,"  1821 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  January,  1803,  (by  Sydney  Smith.) 

Necker,  (Louis  Albert,)  a  Swiss  naturalist,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1786,  was  a  son  of  Albertine  A.  de  Saussure- 
Necker.  He  published  "  Le  Regne  mineral  ramene  aux 
Methodes  de  I'Histoire  naturelle,"  (2  vols.,  1835.) 

Nec'ker,  (Noel  Joseph,)  a  botanist,  born  in  Flanders 
in  1729,  gave  special  attention  to  mosses.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  Description  of  the  Wild  Plants 
of  France  and  Belgium,  ("Deliciae  Gallo-Belgicae  Syl- 
vestres,"  2  vols.,  1768,)  and  "  Methodus  Muscorum," 
(1771.)    Died  in  1793. 

See  P.  R.  WiLLEMET,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  N.  J.  Necker,"  1794. 

Necker,  (Susanne  Curchod — kiiR^sho',)  an  accom- 
plished and  literary  Swiss  lady,  born  at  Grassier  in  1739. 
She  was  intimate  in  her  youth  with  Gibbon  the  historian, 
who  wished  to  marry  her ;  but  his  father  opposed  the 
match.  She  was  married  to  M.  Necker  in  1764.  Her 
salon  in  Paris  was  the  resort  of  the  most  eminent  authors, 
including  Buffon,  Diderot,  and  D'Alembert.  She  founded 
a  hospital  in  Paris  which  bears  her  name.  She  died  in 
1794,  leaving  manuscripts  which  her  husband  published 
under  the  title  of  "Melanges,"  (5  vols.,  1798-1802.) 

See  Gibbon,  "  Memoirs ;"  Grimm,  "  Correspondance ;"  Marmon- 
TEL,  "  Memoires." 

Neck'ham  or  Nec'kam,  written  also  Necham, 
(Alexander,)  an  English  monk  and  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Saint  Alban's  or  Hartford  about  1150.  He  wrote,  in 
elegant  Latin,  several  works,  among  which  is  a  long 
scientific  and  descriptive  poem,  "  De  Naturis  Rerum." 
Died  in  1227. 

See  Cave,  "Historia  Literaria,"  etc. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  Y.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^=='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NECTJNABIS 


1662 


NEHER 


Nec-tan'a-bis  or  Nec-tan'e-bes,  [Gr.  ISSeKravafSig  or 
Nefi-aviiSTjc]  King  of  Egypt,  began  to  reign  about  360 
B.C.  He  waged  war  against  Artaxerxes  III.  of  Persia, 
who  invaded  and  conquered  Egypt  about  350  B.C.  Nec- 
tanabis  was  the  last  king  of  the  Sebennite  dynasty. 

Nec-taM-us,  [NsKrapoog,]  a  Greek  prelate,  became 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  381  A.D.  His  moderation 
is  said  to  have  been  exemplary.  He  died  in  397,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Chrysostom. 

Nee,  ni,  (pRANgois  Denis,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  about  1732.  He  engraved  many  landscapes  and 
plates  for  illustrated  works,  among  which  is  "Tableaux 
pittoresques  de  la  Suisse."    Died  in  1818. 

See  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Neeb,  nap,  (Johann,)  a  German  philosopher,  born 
near  Hanau  in  1767.  He  published  several  works  on 
philosophy.    Died  in  1843. 

Needham,  need'am,  (John  Turberville,)  F.R.S., 
an  English  naturalist,  born  in  London  in  1 7 13,  was  a 
Roman  Catholic  priest.  He  published  "New  Micro- 
scopical Discoveries,"  (1745,)  and  a  treatise  on  genera- 
tion, in  French,  "  Idee  sommaire,  ou  Vue  generale  du 
Systeme  physique  et  metaphysique  sur  la  Generation," 
(1780.)  He  became  director  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
at  Brussels,  where  he  died  in  1781. 

See  HuTTON,  "Mathematical  and  Philosophical  Dictionary." 

Needham,  (Marchmont,)  an  English  political  writer, 
born  at  Burford  in  1620.  He  supported  the  cause  of  the 
Parliament  in  his  "  Mercurius  Britannicus,"  a  weekly 
journal,  (1643-47,)  and  that  of  the  king  in  his  "Mercu- 
rius Pragmaticus."  In  1649  he  again  changed  sides, 
and  became  editor  of  the  "  Mercurius  Politicus,"  an 
organ  of  the  Independents.  His  most  remarkable  work 
was  a  "  Discourse  on  the  Excellency  of  a  Free  State 
over  a  Kingly  Government."    Died  in  1678. 

See  Wood,  "Athenze  Oxonienses." 

Needham,  (Walter,)  an  English  anatomist,  studied 
(it  Oxford,  and  practised  medicine  in  London.  He  be- 
came a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  about  1667.  He 
wrote  an  able  treatise  "  De  Formato  Foetu."  Died  in 
11691. 

Neefs,  nafs,  or  Neef,  naf,  (Peter,)  the  Elder,  a 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1 565.  He  excelled 
in  perspective,  and  in  representing  the  interiors  of  Gothic 
churches  and  convents,  illuminated.  The  figures  in  his 
pictures  are  generally  painted  by  Breughel,  Teniers,  and 
others.  His  "  Cathedral  of  Antwerp"  is  esteemed  a 
master-piece.  Died  in  165 1.  His  son,  Peter  Martin, 
the  Younger,  imitated  his  father's  style,  but  did  not 
equal  him. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Neele,  neel,  (Henry,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1798,  was  an  attorney.  He  wrote  "Dramatic 
Scenes,"  "  The  Romance  of  History,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1828. 

Neer,  van  der,  vtn  der  nair,  (Aart  or  Arnold,)  a 
Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  about 
1619.  His  moonlight  scenes,  winter  landscapes,  and 
pictures  into  which  water  is  introduced,  are  ranked 
among  the  finest  productions  of  the  kind.  Died  in 
1683. 

Neer,  van  der,  (Eglon  Hendrik,)  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1643.  He  studied 
under  Vanloo,  and  attained  eminence  as  a  painter  of 
landscapes,  portraits,  and  historical  pieces.  Died  in  1703. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Neercassel,  van,  vtn  naiR'kSs'sel,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch 
bishoj)  and  writer,  born  at  Gorcum  in  1623.  He  was  the 
only  Roman  Catholic  bishop  in  Holland.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "  Amor  Poenitens,  seu  de  recto  Usu 
Clavium,"  (1683.)    Died  in  1686. 

Nees  von  Ijsenbeck,  nas  fon  a'zen-bSk',  (Chris- 
tian Gottfried,)  a  German  botanist,  born  in  1776. 
He  became  professor  of  natural  history  at  Bonn  about 
1819,  and  afterwards  lectured  at  Breslau.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  a  "  Manual  of  Botany,"  (2  vols., 
1821,)  and  "  Bryologia  Germanica,"  (2  vols.,  1823-51.) 
Died  in  1858. 

See  F.  L.  Bi.ev,  "  Leben  und  Wirken  der  Gebriider  Nees  von 
Esenbeck,"  1844. 


Nees  von  Esenbeck,  (Theodor  Friedrich  Lud- 
WiG,)  a  botanist,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
near  Erbach  in  1787.  He  wrote  several  botanical  works. 
Died  in  1837. 

Neff,  nef,  (F^Lix,)  a  meritorious  Swiss  missionary, 
called  "the  Apostle  of  the  Alps,"  was  born  at  Geneva 
in  1798.  He  laboured  as  missionary  among  the  Swiss 
mountaineers.    Died  in  1829. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  Felix  Neff,  Pastor  of  the  High  Alp>s,"  etc., 
by  William  S.  Gillv,  London,  1832  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  April,  1833,  (by  Southey.) 

Nefftzer,  n^ft'ser,  (Auguste,)  a  French  journalist, 
born  at  Colmar  in  1820.  He  was  an  assistant  editor  of 
the  "Presse,"  a  daily  paper  of  Paris,  from  1844  to  1857. 

Nefi,  n^fee,  a  distinguished  Turkish  satirist,  whi> 
flourished  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Negelein,  na'geh-lin'',  (Joachim,)  a  German  theolo- 
gian and  numismatist,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1675  ;  died 
in  1749. 

Neg'ley,  (James  S.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Alleghany  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1826.  In  1861  he 
raised  a  brigade,  which  he  commanded  in  Tennessee  in 
1862.  He  took  command  of  the  post  of  Nashville  in 
September  of  that  year,  and  led  a  division  at  Stone 
River,  December  31,  1862-January  2,  1863.  For  his 
conduct  in  this  battle  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general,  in  which  capacity  he  served  at  the  battle  of 
Chickamauga,  September  19  and  20,  1863. 

Negrelli-Moldelbe,  von,  fon  nk-gRel'lee  mol-dSl'- 
beh,  (Alois,)  an  engineer,  born  in  the  Tyrol  in  1799. 
He  constructed  the  first  railroad  in  Austria,  (finished  in 
1841,)  and  other  railroads.    Died  in  1858. 

Negri.    See  Negro. 

Negri,  na'gRee,  (Francesco,)  a  learned  Italian  eccle- 
siastic of  Ravenna.  He  travelled  in  Denmark,  Sweden, 
and  Norway,  and  returned  home  in  1666.  The  results 
of  his  observations  appeared  in  a  work  entitled  "Travels 
in  the  North."    Died  in  1698. 

Negri,  (Francesco  Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  scholar 
and  writer,  born  at  Venice  in  1769.  He  wrote  a  "Life 
of  Apostolo  Zeno,"  (1816,)  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1827. 

See  TiPALDO,  "Notizie  della  Vita  di  F.  Negri,"  1835;  G.  J. 
FoNTANA,  "Elogio  di  F.  Negri,"  1829. 

Negri,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  Italian  antiquary 
and  artist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1593.  He  founded  two 
Academies, — namely,  the  Indistinti,  devoted  to  the  arts 
of  design,  and  the  Indomiti,  (1640,)    Died  in  1659. 

Negri,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  classical  scholar,  born 
at  Venice  in  1494.  He  died  in  1577,  leaving  "Orationes 
et  Epistolae,"  (1579.) 

Negri,  (Giulio,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  biographer, 
born  at  Ferrara  in  1648.  He  rendered  an  important 
service  to  literary  history  by  his  "Storia  degli  Scrittori 
Fiorentini,"  ("  History  of  the  Florentine  Authors,"  1722.) 
Died  in  1720. 

Negri  or  Neri,  na'ree,  (Pietro  Martine,)  a  skilful 
Italian  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Cremona, 
flourished  in  1600. 

Negrier,  ni'gRe-i',  (Francois  Marie  Casimir,)  a 
French  general,  boirn  at  Mans  in  1788.  He  served  in 
Algeria,  and  was  killed  in  Paris  by  the  insurgents  in 
June,  1848. 

Negro,  na'gRo,  or  Negri,  na'gRee,  (Francesco,)  an 
Italian  philologist  and  Reformer,  born  at  Bassano  in 
1500,  embraced  Protestantism,  and  removed  to  Ger- 
many.   He  published  several  works.    Died  about  1 56c. 

See  G.  B.  Roberti,  "Notizie  della  Vita  e  delle  Opere  di  F. 
Negri,"  1839. 

Negnizzi,  nk-gRoot'see,  (Constantine,)  a  Moldavian 
poet,  born  in  1809.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
historical  poem. 

Ne-he-mi'ah,  [Heb.  H^DHJ ;  Fr.  N^h^mie,  ni'- 
a'me',]  a  Hebrew  governor  and  writer,  was  cup-bearer 
to  Artaxerxes,  King  of  Persia,  who  appointed  him 
Governor  of  Judea  about  445  B.C.  He  probably  wrote 
the  book  of  the  Old  Testament  which  bears  his  name. 

Nehemie.    See  Nehemiah. 

Neher,  na'er,  (Bernard,)  a  German  historical  painter, 
born  at  Biberach  in  1806.  He  painted  frescos  at  Munich 
and  in  the  palace  of  the  grand  duke  at  Weimar.  These 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  \    d,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


NEIDHJRDT  1663 


represent  scenes  from  the  dramas  of  Schiller  and  the 
works  of  Goethe. 
Neidhardt.    See  Gneisenau. 

Neidhart  von  Neuenthal,  nit'haRt  fon  noi'en-tSr, 
one  of  the  principal  German  lyric  poets  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  was  a  native  of  Bavaria.  The  best  collection 
of  his  songs  is  that  published  by  Beneke  in  his  "Contri- 
butions to  the  Knowledge  of  the  Old  German  Language 
and  Literature." 

Neigebaur,  ni'geh-bowR',  (Johann  Daniel  Ferdi- 
nand,) a  German  traveller  and  writer,  born  in  Silesia 
in  1783.  He  published  books  of  travel  and  descriptions 
of  Italy,  France,  and  other  countries  of  Europe,  which 
are  said  to  be  well  written. 

Neikter,  nlk'ter,  (Joseph  Frederik,)  a  Swedish 
archreologist  and  writer,  obtained  the  chair  of  eloquence 
at  Upsal  in  1787.    Died  in  1803. 

Neill,  neel,  (James  George  Smith,)  a  British  general, 
born  about  1810.  He  rendered  important  services  in 
India  during  the  mutiny  of  the  Sepoys,  and  was  killed 
at  the  siege  of  Lucknow,  in  September,  1857. 

Neill,  neel,  (Patrick,)  a  Scottish  naturalist  and  hor- 
ticulturist, born  in  1776.  He  followed  the  trade  of  a 
printer  in  Edinburgh,  and  published  a  "  Tour  through 
some  of  the  Islands  of  Orkney  and  Shetland,"  (1806,) 
and  "The  Fruit,  Flower,  and  Kitchen  Garden,"  (1839.) 
Died  in  1851. 

Neipperg,  von,  fon  nip'p§RG,  (Albrecht  Adam,) 
Count,  an  Austrian  general,  born  about  1774.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  several  campaigns,  and  rose  to  a 
higli  rank  in  the  army.  He  was  appointed  cavalier 
i'honneur  to  the  empress  Maria  Louisa  about  1815. 
He  is  said  to  have  married  her  secretly.    Died  in  1829. 

Neipperg,  von,  (Wilhelm,)  an  Austrian  field-mar- 
shal in  the  service  of  Francis  I.  and  Maria  Theresa,  was 
born  in  1684,  and  was  the  grandfather  of  the  preceding. 
In  1739  he  concluded  the  disadvantageous  peace  of  Bel- 
grade, and  in  1 741  was  defeated  by  Frederick  the  Great 
at  Molhvitz.  He  retained  the  favour  of  his  sovereigns, 
however,  and  was  made  imperial  counsellor  of  war,  and 
commander  of  Vienna.    Died  in  1774. 

Nelaton,  ni'lt't^N',  (Auguste,)  an  eminent  French 
surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1807,  graduated  in  1836,  and 
became  professor  of  surgery  to  the  Faculty  of  Medicine, 
Paris,  in  185 1.  He  published,  besides  other  treatises, 
"Elements  of  Pathological  Surgery,"  (5  vols.,  1844-61,) 
which  is  called  a  capital  work.  He  was  admitted  into 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1867.  He  was  employed 
professionally  by  Napoleon  III.  about  1869. 

Neledinsky  Meletzky,  ni-li-d^n'ske  mk-l&t'skee, 
(YooRiT,)  an  eminent  Russian  lyric  poet,  born  in  Mos- 
cow in  1 75 1.  He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Paul, 
who  conferred  upon  him  a  valuable  estate  and  several 
honorary  distinctions.  His  songs  are  among  the  most 
admired  productions  of  the  kind  in  the  language.  Died 
in  1829. 

See  G RETCH,  "  Essai  historique  sur  la  Litterature  Russe." 
Nelee_^   See  Neleus. 

NeTeus,  [Gr.  Nt/?i£v^  ;  Fr.  N6l6e,  ni'li',]  a  mythical 
personage,  said  to  be  a  son  of  Neptune  (or,  according  to 
some  authorities,  of  Cretheus)  and  Tyro.  Neleus  and 
his  brother  Pelias  disputed  for  the  throne  of  lolchos, 
which  the  latter  obtained.  Neleus  afterwards  became 
King  of  Pylos  and  the  father  of  Nestor  and  other  sons. 
According  to  some  writers,  he  was  killed  by  Hercules. 

Neller,  nel'ler,  (Georg  Christoph,)  a  German  canon- 
ist and  antiquary,  born  in  1710;  died  in  1783. 

Nelli,  neKlee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  satirical  poet  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  native  of  Sienna.  His  satires 
were  published  in  1546. 

Nelli,  de',  di  neKlee,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian 
architect,  born  at  Florence  in  1661.  He  wrote  a  "Treat- 
ise on  Architecture,"  (1753.)    Died  in  1725. 

Nelli,  de',  (Giambattista  Clemente,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Florence  in  1725,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. Among  his  works  is  a  "  Life  of  Galileo,"  (1793.) 
Died  in  1793. 

Nel'son,  (David,)  an  American  Presbyterian  divine 
and  eloquent  preacher,  born  near  Jonesborough,  Ten- 
nessee, in  1793.  He  became  pastor  of  a  church  at  Dan- 
ville, Kentucky,  in  1828,  and  subsequently  assisted  in 


NELSON 


founding  a  college  in  Marion  county,  Missouri,  of  which 
he  was  appointed  president.  His  work  entitled  "  The 
Cause  and  Cure  of  Infidelity"  enjoys  a  high  reputation, 
and  has  passed  through  numerous  editions.  Dr.  Nelson 
was  an  earnest  advocate  for  the  abolition  of  slavery. 
Died  in  1844. 

NePson,  (Horatio,)  Lord,  a  British  naval  hero  and 
admiral  of  the  first  order,  born  at  Burnham  Thorpe,  in 
Norfolk,  on  the  29th  of  September,  1758,  was  the  son 
of  Rev.  Edmund  Nelson  and  Catherine  Suckling.  He 
was  endowed  with  great  intrepidity  and  energy,  and  pos- 
sessed a  generous,  impetuous  temper.  He  went  to  sea 
about  the  age  of  thirteen,  served  a  number  of  years  in 
the  East  Indies,  and  took  part  in  several  actions  of  the 
American  war.  In  1779  he  became  a  post-captain,  and 
in  1787  married  the  widow  of  Dr.  Nisbet,  of  the  island 
of  Nevis.  He  obtained  command  of  a  ship  in  the  Medi« 
terranean  fleet  in  1793,  contributed  to  the  victory  over 
the  Spaniards  at  Saint  Vincent  in  1797,  and  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  the  same  year.  His  next 
enterprise  was  an  attack  on  Teneriffe,  where  he  was 
repulsed,  with  the  loss  of  his  right  arm. 

In  1798  he  attempted  to  intercept  the  passage  of  the 
French  armament  to  Egypt,  but  missed  it,  until  he  over- 
took  it  in  Aboukir  Bay,  where  in  August  he  gained  the 
decisive  battle  of  the  Nile.  For  this  service  he  was  re- 
warded with  the  title  of  Baron  Nelson  of  the  Nile,  and 
a  pension  of  ^3000.  While  he  was  employed  on  the 
coast  of  Naples,  (1799,)  he  became  fascinated  by  the 
pernicious  influence  of  Lady  Hamilton,  and  tarnished 
his  fame  by  executing  Prince  Carraccioli  and  other  re- 
publicans, who  were  sacrificed  to  the  vengeance  of  the 
court  of  Naples.  Soon  after  these  events  he  separated 
from  his  wife,  who  was  supplanted  in  his  affections  by 
Lady  Hamilton,  He  was  second  in  command  under  Sir 
Hyde  Parker  of  the  armament  sent  against  Copenhagen 
in  1801  ;  but  the  honour  of  the  victory  at  the  battle  of 
the  Baltic  is  ascribed  to  Nelson.  In  the  midst  of  the 
battle,  Parker  having  made  a  signal  to  retreat,  Nelson 
put  a  spy-glass  to  his  blind  eye  and  exclaimed,  "  I  really 
don't  see  the  signal."  "  He  had  won  the  day,"  says 
Southey,  "  by  disobeying  orders."  For  this  success  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  viscount. 

War  against  France  having  been  renewed  in  1803,  he 
took  the  command  of  the  Mediterranean  fleet,  hoisted 
his  flag  on  the  Victory,  and  watched  the  French  fleet  off 
Toulon  for  more  than  a  year.  In  May,  1805,  he  sailed 
for  the  West  Indies  in  pursuit  of  Admiral  Villeneuve, 
but  was  disappointed,  and  the  hostile  fleet  returned  safely 
to  Europe,  followed  by  the  English  admiral.  He  then 
went  home  and  proposed  to  suspend  his  active  service, 
but  was  re-appointed  in  September,  1805,  in  accordance 
with  the  general  wishes  of  the  nation,  by  whom  he  was 
more  idolized  than  almost  any  other  man  had  been. 
On  the  2ist  of  October,  (1805,)  with  twenty-seven  sail 
of  the  line  and  four  frigates,  he  attacked  the  combined 
French  and  Spanish  fleets,  of  forty  ships,  under  Ville- 
neuve, near  Cape  Trafalgar.  Before  the  fight  began,  he 
gave  the  famous  signal,  "  England  expects  every  man  to 
do  his  duty."  The  English  gained  a  complete  victory, 
but  Nelson  was  mortally  wounded  by  a  musket-ball  fired 
from  the  Redoutable,  which  was  in  close  proximity  to 
the  flag-ship,  the  Victory.  He  is  eulogized  by  Southey 
as  "  the  greatest  naval  hero  of  our  own  and  of  all  former 
times." 

See  R.  Southey,  "Life  of  Nelson,"  1813;  J.  S.  Clarke,  "Life 
of  Admiral  Lord  Nelson,"  i8og:  Thomas  Pettigrew,  "Memoirs 
of  Lord  Nelson,"  1849;  J.  M.  Tucker,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of 
Lord  Nelson,"  1847;  Joseph  Allen,  "Life  of  Viscount  Nelson," 
1853;  John  Charnock,  "Memoirs  of  Lord  Nelson,"  1806;  Al- 
PHONSE  DE  Lamartine,  "Nelson,"  1853;  E.  Forgues,  "  Histoire 
de  Nelson,"  i860:  Alison,  "  History  of  Europe  ;"  "London  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  Februaiy,  1810,  (by  Southey;)  "  Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  September,  1814  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  r)ecember, 
1844;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1848. 

Nelson,  (Robert,)  an  English  devotional  writer,  born 
in  London  in  1656.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
"The  Whole  Duty  of  a  Christian,"  and  "Practice  of 
True  Devotion."  In  1680  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Arch- 
bishop Tillotson  and  of  Dr.  Halley.    Died  in  1715. 

Nelson,  (Roger,)  an  American  general,  who  served 
in  the  Revolutionary  war.    He  represented  a  district  of 


e  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  g,  h,  k, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    ([J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NELSON 


1664 


NEPOS 


Maryland  in  Congress  for  several  terms,  (1804-10.)  Died 
in  181 5. 

Nel'spn,  (Samuel,)  an  Irish  patriot,  born  in  1759,  was 
editor  of  a  political  journal  called  the  "  Northern  Star," 
He  was  imprisoned  six  years,  and  released  after  the 
treaty  of  Amiens,  in  1802. 

Nelson,  (Samuel,)  an  American  judge,  born  in  the 
State  of  New  York.  He  became  an  associate  justice  of 
the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  in  1845.  He 
concurred  in  the  decision  of  the  court  in  the  Dred  Scott 
case,  (1857.) 

Nelson,  (Thomas,)  an  American  patriot,  and  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  at  York,  in 
Virginia,  in  1738.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  Eng- 
land, and  after  his  return  was  elected  to  the  Congress 
of  1775.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  brigadier- 
general  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  of  the 
commonwealth.  In  1781  he  succeeded  Jefferson  as 
Governor  of  Virginia.    Died  in  1789. 

See  Goodrich,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence." 

Nelson,  (William,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Maysville,  Kentucky,  in  1825.  He  served  in  the  navy, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  master  in  1854.  In  September, 
1861,  he  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  the  Union 
army.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh, 
April,  1862.  He  was  killed  in  a  private  quarrel  at  Louis- 
ville in  September,  1862,  by  Jefferson  C.  Davis. 

Ne-me-si-a'nus,  [Fr.  N^:m6sien,  ni'mi'z^N',] 
(Marcus  Aurelius  Olympius,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  at 
Carthage.  He  lived  at  the  court  of  the  emperor  Carus 
in  283  a.d.  His  works  are  lost,  except  fragments  of  a 
poem  on  hunting,  entitled  "  Cynegetica,"  the  style  of 
which  is  commended  for  purity. 

Nemesien.    See  Nemesianus. 

Nem'e-sis,  [Gr.  Ne/xeaic,  from  vifiu,  to  "deal  out," 
to  "distribute;"  Fr.  N6m^;sis,  n^'mi^s^ss',]  a  personage 
of  Greek  mythology,  represented  as  a  daughter  of  Night 
or  Erebus.  She  was  the  goddess  of  retribution,  and  the 
divinity  who  rectified  the  errors  of  partial  and  capricious 
Fortune.  At  Rhammus,  in  Attica,  there  was  a  celebrated 
temple  dedicated  to  Nemesis. 

Ne-me'si-us,  [Ne/iiaioc,]  a  Greek  philosopher,  who 
lived  probably  between  350  and  450  A.D.  He  is  styled 
Bishop  of  Emesa.  He  wrote  an  ingenious  treatise  on 
physiology  and  psychology,  entitled  "On  the  Nature  of 
Man,"  ( Ilepl  (^vaeog  uvdptjnov.)  It  contains  a  passage 
which  suggests  an  idea  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

See  Haller,  "Bibliotheca  Anatomica." 

Nemours,  de,  (Gaston  de  Foix,)  Due.    See  Foix. 

Nemours,  de,  deh  neh-mooR',  (Henri  de  Savoie — 
d^h  st^vwS',)  Due,  a  French  general,  a  son  of  Jacques, 
noticed  below,  (1531-85,)  was  born  in  Paris  in  1572. 
He  joined  the  League  about  1588,  but  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  Henry  IV.  a  few  years  later.    Died  in  1632. 

Nemours,  de,  (Jacques  d'Armagnac — dtk^mtu'- 
ySk',)  Due,  born  about  1437,  was  a  son  of  Bernard 
d'Armagnac.  In  1465  he  joined  the  league  of  the  Bz'efz 
public  against  Louis  XI.  He  was  executed,  on  a  charge 
of  treason,  in  1477. 

See  SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Fran^ais;"  Barante,  "  Histoire 
des  Dues  de  Bourgogne." 

Nemours,  de,  (Jacques  de  Savoy,)  Due,  a  distin- 
guished French  general,  born  in  Champagne  in  1531, 
was  the  son  of  Philip,  Due  de  Genevois  and  de  Ne- 
mours, whose  sister  Louise  was  the  mother  of  King 
Francis  I.  He  fought  against  the  Protestants  in  the 
civil  war,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Saint-Denis,  in  1567.  He  opposed  the  ambitious  designs 
of  the  Guise  family,  and  took  no  part  in  the  civil  war  be- 
tween the  League  and  the  king.    Died  in  1585. 

See  Brantome.  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaines." 

Nemours,  de,  (Louis  d'Armagnac,)  Due,  a  French 
military  commander,  born  about  1472,  was  a  son  of 
Jacques,  noticed  above.  He  served  in  Italy  against  the 
Spaniards,  and  was  made  Viceroy  of  Naples  by  Louis 
XII.  _  He  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Cerignola,  while 
opposing  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  (1503.)  He  was  the  last 
of  the  family  of  Armagnac,  and  the  duchy  of  Nemours 
was  given  to  Gaston  de  Foix  in  1505. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Fran^ais ;"  Saint-Gelais,  "His- 
toire de  Louis  XII." 


Nemours,  de,  (Louis  Charles  Philippe  Raphael 
d'Orleans — doRli'Sw',)  Due,  a  French  prince,  a  son 
of  King  Louis  Philippe,  was  born  in  1814.  He  was 
chosen  King  of  Belgium  by  a  congress  of  that  nation  in 
1831,  but  was  compelled  by  his  father  to  decline  the 
offer.  He  served  in  the  army  in  Algeria,  and  obtained 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  1837.  After  the  death 
of  his  elder  brother  (1842)  he  was  recognized  as  future 
regent  in  case  the  king  should  die  during  the  minority 
of  his  heir,  the  Count  of  Paris.  On  the  abdication  of 
Louis  Philippe  (1848)  he  waived  his  claim  to  the  re- 
gency in  favour  of  the  Duchess  of  Orleans,  whom  he 
attended  when  she  presented  herself,  with  her  son,  before 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

See  A.  Pascal,  "  Le  Due  de  Nemo  urs,  son  Pass^  et  son  Avenir 
politique,"  1842. 

Nemours,  de,  (Marie  d'Orleans,)  Duchesse, 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Longueville,  was  born  in  1625, 
and  married  in  1657  to  Henry  of  Savoy,  Duke  of  Ne- 
mours. She  died  in  1707,  leavi-ag  interesting  "Memoirs" 
of  her  life  and  times,  which  were  published  in  1709. 

See  ViLLEFORE,  "Vie  de  Madame  de  Longueville;"  Saint- 
Simon,  "Menioires." 

Nen'ni-us,  one  of  the  early  British  chroniclers,  is 
stated  by  some  writers  to  have  lived  in  the  seventh,  and 
by  others  in  the  ninth,  century.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  "  History  of  the  Britons,"  ("  Historia  Britonum,"  or 
"Elogium  Britanniae,")  first  published  in  Gale's  "Col- 
lection of  English  Historians,"  (1691.) 

See  Wright,  "Biographia  Britannica  Literaria." 

Neobar,  niVbtR',  (Conrad,)  a  learned  printer,  of 
German  extraction,  was  patronized  by  Francis  I.  in 
Paris.    Died  in  1540. 

Ne'o-phron,  [Ne6i/»pov,]  an  Athenian  tragic  poet, 
flourished  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  Only  small  frag- 
ments of  his  works  are  extant. 

See  Clinton,  "  Fasti  Hellenici." 

Neoptoleme.    See  Neoptolemus. 

Ne-op-tol'e-mus,  [Gr.  'NeoTTToAefj.og ;  Fr.  N^optq. 
LfeME,  na'op'to'lim',]  also  called  Pyrrhus,  a  fabulous 
Greek  warrior,  was  a  son  of  Achilles.  He  was  one  of 
the  heroes  concealed  in  the  wooden  horse  at  the  siege 
of  Troy.  According  to  Virgil,  he  killed  Priam  at  the 
capture  of  Troy,  ("v^^neid,"  book  ii.  546.)  In  the  dis- 
tribution of  captives,  he  obtained  Andromache,  widow 
of  Hector. 

Neoptolemus,  a  Macedonian  general  in  the  service 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  After  the  death  of  Alexander 
he  became  governor  of  Armenia,  and  united  with  An- 
tipater  in  a  hostile  movement  against  Perdiccas  and 
Eumenes.  He  was  killed  in  battle  by  Eumenes,  whom 
he  encountered  in  single  combat,  about  320  B.C. 

Neoptolemus,  King  of  Epirus,  was  a  cousin-german 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  He  began  to  reign  in  302  B.C. 
He  was  assassinated  by  order  of  the  celebrated  Pyrrhus, 
who  became  king. 

Nepair  or  Neper.   See  Napier,  (John.) 

Nepomucene.   See  Nepomuk. 

Nepomucenus,    See  Nepomuk. 

Nepomuk,  na'po-mook',  or  Nepomucky,  ni-po- 
moots'kee,  [Lat.  Nepomuce'nus  ;  Fr.  Nepomucene, 
ni^po^mii'san',j  (John,)  the  patron  saint  of  Bohemia, 
born  at  Nepomuk  about  1330.  Having  given  offence  to 
King  Wenzel,  he  was  drowned,  by  his  orders,  in  the 
Moldau,  (1383.)  He  was  canonized  by  Pope  Innocent 
XIII.  in  1721. 

See  Balbinus,  "Vita  Nepomuceni,"  1680;  Johanneaud,  "Jean 
Nepomucene,"  1851;  Passi,  "Vita  di  S.  Giovanni  Nepomuceno," 
1729. 

Ne'pos,  (Cornelius,)  a  celebrated  Roman  historian 
of  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Cicero  and  Atticus,  and  dedicated  to  the  latter  his 
"Vitas  Excellentium  Imperatorum,"  ("Lives  of  the  Illus- 
trious Generals.")  This  work,  which  is  his  only  one 
extant,  is  distinguished  for  the  purity  and  graceful  sim- 
plicity of  its  style,  and  has  been  generally  adopted  as  a 
class-book  in  schools  and  colleges. 

See  J.  C.  F.  Baehr,  "  Geschichte  der  Romischen  Literatur ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Nepos,  (Flavius  Julius,)  was  created  Emperor  of  the 
West,  A.D.  473,  by  Leo  X.,  the  Emperor  of  the  East.  He 


a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  Ioh£^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  sAor^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon ; 


NEPTUNE 


NERONI 


concluded  a  peace  with  Euric,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  to 
whom  he  ceded  a  portion  of  Gaul.  In  475  Orestes,  a 
native  of  Pannonia,  marched  against  Nepos,  defeated 
him,  and  proclaimed  his  own  son  Romulus  Emperor  of 
the  West.  In  480  Nepos  was  assassinated  at  Salona. 
See  GiBBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Nep'tune,  [Lat.  Neptu'nus,]  the  god  of  the  sea,  a 
Roman  divinity,  identified  with  the  PoseiMon  of  the 
Greek  mythology.  He  was  said  to  be  a  son  of  Saturn 
and  Rhea,  the  brother  of  Jupiter,  and  the  father  of  Triton. 
His  wife  was  Amphitrite.  He  was  regarded  as  equal  in 
dignity  to  Jupiter,  but  inferior  in  power.  The  poets 
feigned  that  he  once  conspired  with  Apollo  and  Juno 
against  Jupiter,  that  he  built  the  walls  of  Troy  for  Lao- 
medon,  and  that  he  resented  the  perfidy  of  that  king  by 
fighting  against  the  Trojans  at  the  siege  of  Troy.  Nep- 
tune and  Minerva  disputed  for  the  possession  of  Attica, 
or  for  the  honour  of  naming  its  capital,  and  the  gods 
decided  that  the  preference  should  be  given  to  the  one 
who  should  bestow  on  man  the  most  valuable  gift. 
Neptune,  with  a  stroke  of  his  trident,  produced  the  war- 
horse,  and  Minerva  created  the  olive,  which  was  judged 
to  be  the  more  useful  of  the  two.  He  is  also  fabled  to 
have  disputed  with  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva  for  the 
sovereignty  of  several  other  countries.  The  symbol  of 
his  power  was  the  trident,  with  which  he  shook  the  solid 
land  and  controlled  the  stormy  sea.  The  poets  describe 
him  as  riding  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  horses  on  the  surface 
of  the  sea,  the  waves  of  which  subside  at  his  approach, 
and  attended  by  a  retinue  of  marine  monsters  which 
play  around  him.  Besides  his  residence  on  Olympus, 
he  had  a  fine  palace  in  the  depth  of  the  sea  near  JEg?e. 

Neptunus.    See  Neptune. 

Nera'tius  (ne-ra'she-us)  Pris'cus,  a  Roman  jurist 
under  the  reigns  of  Trajan  and  Adrian,  whose  favour 
and  patronage  he  enjoyed.  He  was  the  author  of  nume- 
rous books  on  the  Roman  law,  which  have  been  often 
quoted  by  later  jurists. 

See  SiCKEL,  "De  Neratio  Prisco,"  1788. 

Nerciat,  de,  deh  nSR'se''a',(ANDR6  Robert  Andrea,) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Dijon  in  1739.  He  wrote 
several  licentious  novels.  About  1790  he  emigrated  to 
Na])les,  and  gained  the  favour  of  Queen  Caroline.  Died 
in  1800. 

Neree.    See  Nereus. 

Neree,  x\\'\\',  (R.  J.,)  a  French  poet,  lived  in  the 
time  of  Henry  IV.,  and  wrote  a  drama  entitled  "  The 
Triumph  of  the  League,"  (1607.) 

Ne're-ids,  [Gr.  N??p7?Wec,  sing.  N7?pe<f;  Lat.  Nere'- 
IDES  ;  Fr.  N^R^iiDES,  ni'rk'^d',]  the  daughters  of  Nereus, 
were  sea-nymphs  or  mermaids  of  Greek  mythology.  The 
number  of  the  Nereids  was  fifty.  Among  them  were 
Amphitrite  and  Thetis,  the  mother  of  Achilles.  The  Ne- 
reids were  represented  originally  as  beautiful  maidens, 
and  sometimes  as  half  woman  and  half  fish. 

Ne're-is  or  Ne-re'i-ne,  a  name  given  to  each  of  the 
Nereids,  which  see. 

Ne'reus,  [Gr.  Nvpevc;  Fr.  N6r^e,  ni'ri',]  a  marine 
divinity  of  classic  mythology,  called  a  son  of  Pontus  and 
the  Earth,  and  the  father  of  the  Nereids.  He  was  repre- 
sented as  a  wise  and  prophetic  old  man  of  the  sea,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  he  lived.  The  poets  feigned  that  he 
could  assume  various  forms,  like  Proteus,  and  would  only 
reveal  the  future  when,  having  exhausted  his  powers  of 
transformation,  he  was  reduced  to  his  original  shape. 
Hercules  is  said  to  have  seized  him  and  extorted  from 
him  some  secret  respecting  the  golden  apples  of  the 
Hesperides. 

Neri.    See  Negri,  (Pietro  Martine.) 

Neri,  na'ree,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  chemist,  born  at 
Florence,  lived  about  1570-90.  He  wrote  a  work  "On 
the  Art  of  making  Glass,"  (1592,)  often  reprinted. 

Neri,  [Lat.  Ne'rius,]  (Filippo,)  called  Saint  Philip 
Neri,  an  Italian  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Florence  in  15 15. 
He  founded  about  1548  the  Congregation  of  the  Priests 
of  the  Oratory,  the  members  of  which,  without  taking 
a  monastic  vow,  were  required  to  live  in  the  exer- 
cise of  devotion  and  charity  and  apply  themselves  to 
theological  studies.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce  the 
musical  entertainments  called  oratorios,  from  their  being 
performed  in  a  chapel  or  oratorio.    He  died  in  1595, 


and  Baronius,  afterwards  cardinal,  succeeded  him  as 
general  of  the  order.  Neri  was  canonized  by  Gregory 
XV.  in  1622. 

See  F.  W.  Faber,  "Spirit  and  Genius  of  Saint  Philip  Neri," 
1850;  A.  Gallonio,  "Vita  beat!  Philippi  Nerii,"  Rome,  1600; 
"Vita  Ph.  Nerii,"  Munich,  1611  ;  L.  Bertrand,  "Vida  y  Hechos 
de  S.  Felipe  Neri,"  1613;  P.  G.  Bacci,  "Vita  di  S.  Filippo  Neri," 
1622;  A.  Vasquez,  "  S.  Felipe  Neri  Epitome  de  sua  Vida,"  1651 ; 
D.  M.  Manni,  " Raggionamenti  suUa  Vita  di  F.  Neri,"  1786;  "Vie 
de  Saint-Philippe  de  Neri,"  (anonymous,)  1847. 

Neri,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  dramatic  poet,  born 
at  Bologna  about  1660 ;  died  in  1726. 

Neri,  (Pompeo,)  an  Italian  jurist  and  political  econo- 
mist, of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1707. 
He  was  professor  of  public  law  at  Pisa,  from  which  he 
removed  to  Florence  in  1758.  He  founded  the  Tuscan 
Academy  of  Botany,  and  wrote  on  currency,  etc.  Died 
in  1776. 

See  A.  RiDOLFi,  "Elogio  di  P.  Neri,"  1817. 

Nericault-Destouches.    See  Destouches. 
Nerius.    See  Neri,  (Filippo.) 

Nerii,  ngR'lee,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  historian,  born 
at  Florence  in  1485,  was  a  senator  and  an  adherent  of 
the  Medici.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Florence  from 
1215  to  1537,"  which  was  first  published  in  1728.  Died 
in  1556. 

See  a  "Life  of  Nerii"  prefixed  to  his  History. 

Ne'ro,  [Fr.  N^:ron,  ni'r6N';  It.  Nerone,  ni-ro'ni,] 
(Lucius  Domitius,)  the  sixth  of  the  Roman  emperors, 
born  in  37  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Domitius  Ahenobarbus 
and  Agrippina,  daughter  of  Germanicus.  His  mother, 
after  becoming  a  widow,  having  married  her  uncle  the 
emperor  Claudius,  the  latter  adopted  Nero  and  gave  to 
him  his  daughter  Octavia  in  mtirriage,  adding  to  his 
name  that  of  Claudius  Drusus.  On  the  death  of  Clau- 
dius, who  was  poisoned  by  Agrippina,  a.d.  54,  Nero  was 
proclaimed  emperor,  to  the  exclusion  of  Britannicus,  the 
son  of  Claudius.  The  counsels  of  Seneca  and  Burrus, 
who  were  placed  at  the  head  of  government,  had  for  a 
time  a  salutary  effect  upon  Nero,  and  the  first  years  of 
his  rule  were  marked  l)y  kindness  and  justice  ;  but  his 
evil  passions  eventually  prevailed,  and  the  remainder  of 
his  reign  was  signalized  by  a  series  of  atrocities.  Be- 
coming jealous  of  Britannicus,  he  caused  him  to  be 
poisoned,  and,  having  soon  after  formed  an  attachment 
to  Poppaea,  nmrdered  his  mother  at  her  instigation  and 
made  her  his  wife.  He  next  caused  Octavia,  whom  he 
had  divorced,  to  be  put  to  death.  In  A.D.  64  Rome  was 
nearly  destroyed  by  a  fire  which  Nero  was  accused  of 
having  kindled.  It  was  said  that  he  amused  himself, 
while  viewing  the  conflagration,  with  reciting  verses 
descriptive  of  the  fall  of  Troy.  In  order  to  remove  sus- 
picion from  himself,  he  charged  the  crime  upon  the 
Christians,  many  of  whom  were  in  consequence  subjected 
to  the  most  cruel  tortures.  A  conspiracy  formed  against 
the  tyrant,  A.D.  65,  was  discovered,  and  many  distin- 
guished citizens  were  executed,  among  whom  were 
Lucan  and  Seneca.  Soon  after  this,  Vindex  and  Galba 
revolted  against  the  emperor,  who,  on  hearing  of  their 
defection  and  that  of  the  praetorian  guards,  destroyed 
himself,  with  the  assistance  of  a  servant,  A.D,  68. 

See  Tacitus,  "Annales;"  Suetonius,  "Vita  Neronis  ;"  Tille- 
MONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs  :"  Merivai.e,  "  History  of  the 
Romans  under  the  Empire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate;" 
Denis  Diderot,  "  Essai  sur  les  Regnes  de  Claude  et  de  Neron,' 
2  vols.,  1782. 

Nero,  a  Roman  prince,  born  about  7  A.D.,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Gerrnanicus  and  Agrippina.  After  the 
death  of  Drusus,  the  son  of  Tiberius,  Nero  was  the  next 
heir  to  the  throne.  He  was  put  to  death  in  29  A.D.,  at 
the  instigation  of  Sejanus,  who  contrived  to  excite  the 
suspicion  of  Tiberius  against  Nero, 

Nero,  del,  d§l  na'ro,  or  Negro,  na'gRo,  (Andalone,) 
an  Italian  astronomer,  born  at  Genoa  about  1270,  He 
taught  astronomy  at  Rome  and  Naples.  He  is  highly 
praised  by  Boccaccio,  who  was  his  pupil.  Died  after 
1342. 

See  GiNGUEN^,  "  Histoire  Litt^raire  d'ltalie." 

Neron,    See  Nero. 

Neroni,  ni-ro'nee,  or  Negroni,  nk-gRo'nee,  (Barto- 
lommeo,)  called  Riccio,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Sienna  ;  died  in  1573. 


«  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  H,  K,gutiural;  N,  nasa/;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J2^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23,) 

105 


NEROULOS 


1666  NETTELBLADT 


Neroulos,  ne-roo'los,  (Yakovakis  Rrzos,)  a  modern 
Greek  poet  and  minister  of  state,  was  born  in  Constan- 
tinople in  1778.  He  wrote  several  tragedies,  and  a 
"Modern  History  of  Greece,"  (1828.)  About  1834  he 
became  minister  of  public  instruction  in  Greece,  and  in 
1841  minister  of  foreign  affairs.    Died  in  1850. 

Nerva,  (Cocceius.)    See  Cocceius. 

NerVa,  (Marcus  Cocceius,)  a  Roman  emperor,  born 
in  Uml)ria  in  32  A.D.  He  was  consul  with  Vespasian 
in  71,  and  with  Domitian  in  90  A.D.  On  the  death  of 
Domitian,  in  the  year  96,  he  was  proclaimed  emperor  by 
the  army  and  the  people.  His  administration  was  mild 
and  liberal.  He  recalled  exiles  who  had  been  banished 
by  former  emperors,  and  enforced  penalties  against  in- 
formers. He  made  and  performed  a  vow  that  he  would 
not  put  any  senator  to  death.  His  mutinous  praetorian 
soldiers  compelled  him  to  permit  the  execution  of  the 
assassins  of  Domitian.  He  adopted  Trajan  as  his  son 
and  successor,  and  died  in  98  A.D. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs;"  Aurelius  Victor, 
"  De  Viribus  illustribiis ;"  J.  J.  de  Barrett,  "Histoire  des  deux 
Regnes  de  Nerva  et  de  Trajan,"  1790. 

Nerval,  de,  deh  niR'vtK,  (Gerard,)  or  Gerard 
Labrunie,  (It'bRii'ne',)  a  French  litterateur^  born  in 
Paris  in  1808.  He  made  a  good  translation  of  Goethe's 
"Faust,"  (1828,)  wrote  verses,  comedies,  etc.,  aided 
Alexander  Dumas  in  several  works,  and  contributed  to 
the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."  He  fell  in  love  with 
Jenny  Colon,  an  actress,  and  became  subject  to  a  modi- 
fied form  ot  insanity,  which  did  not  much  impair  his 
genius.  Among  his  works  is  *' Les  Illumines,  ou  les 
Precurseurs  du  Socialisme,"  (1852.)  He  died  by  sui- 
cide in  1855.  "That  which  he  wrote,"  says  lidouard 
Thierry,  "  was  simple  and  excellent,  ingenious  and 
perfectly  natural." 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Nervesa,  niR-va'si,  (Gasparo,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
the  Venetian  school,  born  in  Friuli,  was  a  pupil  of  Titian. 
He  lived  about  1540. 

Nes,  van,  vtn  n^s,  (Jan,)  a  skilful  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Delft  in  1588;  died  in  1650. 

Nes'bit  or  Nis'bet,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  anti- 
quary, born  in  Edinburgh  in  1672.  He  wrote  a  work 
"On  Heraldry,"  (2  vols.,  1722-42.)    Died  in  1725. 

Nesimee  or  Nesimi,  nis'e-mee,  a  celebrated  Turk- 
ish philosopher  and  free-thinker,  flourished  in  the  fif- 
teenth century. 

Nesle,  de.    See  Denesle. 

Nesmond,  de,  deh  ngs'm6N',  (Henri,)  a  French 
prelate  and  eloquent  preacher,  born  at  Bordeaux  about 
1645.  He  became  Bishop  of  Montauban  in  1687,  and 
Archbishop  of  Toulouse  in  1719.  In  1710  he  succeeded 
Ficchier  in  the  French  Academy.  He  wrote  agreeable 
verses.    Died  in  1727. 

See  D'Alembert,  "Histoire  des  Membres  de  I'Acad^mie  Fran- 
Qatse." 

Nesse,  ngss,  (Christopher,)  an  English  noncon- 
formist minister,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1621.  Having 
been  ejected  in  1662,  he  removed  to  London  in  1675, 
and  preached  in  that  city  about  thirty  years.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "The  History  and  Mystery  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament,"  (4  vols.,  1690.)  I3ied 
in  1705. 

See  Wilson,  "History  of  Dissenting  Churches." 

Nessel,  nes'sel,  (Edmond,)  a  distinguished  Flemish 
phvsician,  born  at  Liege  in  1658;  died  in  1731. 

Nessel,  nes'sel,  [Lat.  Nessf/lius,]  (Martin,)  a  Ger- 
man teacher  and  Latin  poet,  born  in  Moravia  in  1607 ; 
died  about  1680. 

Nesselius.    See  Nessel. 

Nesselrode,  von,  fon  nes'sel-ro'deh,  (Charles 
Robert,)  Count,  a  Russian  diplomatist,  of  German 
extraction,  was  born  in  December,  1780,  at  Lisbon,  where 
his  father  was  Russian  minister.  He  acquired  in  the 
early  part  of  his  life  the  confidence  of  Alexander  I.,  and 
was  sent  to  Paris  as  councillor  of  the  embassy  in  1807. 
Soon  after  this  date  he  obtained  a  high  office  in  the  de- 
partment of  foreign  affairs.  He  took  an  important  part 
in  the  negotiations  which  united  Russia  and  other  powers 
in  a  coalition  against  Napoleon.  In  1816  he  became 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.    Having  held  that  post  forty 


years,  under  three  successive  emperors,  he  resigned  in 
1856.    Died  in  March,  1862. 

See  Capefigue,  "  Diploinates  Europeans  ;"  Thiers,  "  History 
of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire  ;"  BAt.LEVDiER,  "  Histoire  de 
I'Enipereur  Nicolas;"  L.  de  Lomenie,  "M.  de  Nesselrode,  par  un 
Homme  de  Rien,"  1844. 

Nessi,  ngs'see,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  physician,  born 
at  Como  in  1741.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
treatise  on  Obstetrics,  which  was  translated  into  several 
languages.    Died  in  1821. 

Nes'sus,  [Gr.  Neaaof,]  a  Centaur,  who,  according  to 
the  fable,  attempted  to  ravish  Dejanira,  the  wife  of  Her- 
cules, by  whom  he  was  killed  with  a  poisoned  arrow. 
The  tunic  of  Nessus  was  said  to  have  caused  the  death 
of  Hercules. 

Nes'tor,  [Gr.  Nearop ;  It.  Nestore,  n§s-to'ra,]  a 
celebrated  Grecian  hero,  said  to  have  been  a  son  of 
Neleus,  a  grandson  of  Neptune,  and  a  king  of  Pylos, 
was  sometimes  called  "  the  Pylian  Sage."  According 
to  tradition,  he  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Hercules,  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  the  Lapithae  against  the  Centaurs, 
in  the  Calydonian  hunt,  and  in  the  Argonautic  expe- 
dition. He  was  a  prominent  leader  in  the  Trojan  war, 
although  he  was  then  past  his  prime  ;  and  he  was  highly 
esteemed  as  a  counsellor  by  Agamemnon  and  the  other 
chiefs.  He  is  described  by  Homer  as  excelling  alike  in 
courage,  wisdom,  and  eloquence,  and  is  said  to  have 
ruled  over  three  generations  of  men.  He  had  several 
sons,  among  whom  was  Antilochus. 

Nestor,  n^s'tor,  a  Russian  chronicler,  called  "the 
father  of  Russian  history,"  was  born  at  Kief  about  1056. 
Several  editions  of  his  "  Chronicle"  have  been  pub- 
lished, the  best  of  which  is  that  of  Schlozer,  entitled 
"  Russian  Annals,"  ("  Russischer  Annalen,"  1802.)  Died 
about  1116. 

See  PoGODiNE,  "  Recherches  historiques  sur  Nestor,"  1839; 
Gretch.  "  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Russe." 

Nestore,  n§s-to'ri,  (Dionisio,)  an  Italian  scholar 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  a  native  of  Novara,  was  the 
author  of  a  vocabulary  of  the  Latin  tongue,  entitled 
"  Onomasticon." 

Nes-to'ri-us,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Nestorians, 
was  born  at  Germanicia,  in  Syria,  near  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century.  Having  become  a  popular  preacher,  he 
was  elected  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  428  a.d.  He 
occasioned  a  schism  by  objecting  to  call  the  Virgin 
Mary  t/ie  mother  of  God.  The  dispute  was  fomented  by 
Cyril  of  Alexandria,  who  became  a  violent  adversary 
of  Nestorius.  A  council  was  called  at  Ephesus  by  the 
emperor  Theodosius  in  431  ;  and,  before  the  arrival  of 
John  of  Antioch  and  several  other  bishops,  Nestorius 
was  deposed,  on  a  charge  of  blasphemy.  He  was  after- 
wards banished  to  an  oasis  in  Egypt.  The  Nestorians 
became  nuinerous  in  the  East,  and  still  exist  as  a  dis- 
tinct sect  in  Koordistan  and  Mesopotamia. 

See  Pluquet,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Heresies  ;"  Sartorius,  "De 
Nestorio  Hasresiarcha  ;"  L.  Doucin,  "  Histoire  du  Nestorianisme," 
1697. 

Netsoher,  ngt'sher,  (Constantin,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1670,  was  a  son  of  the  following. 
He  painted  portraits  with  success.    Died  in  1722. 

Netscher,  ngt'sher,  (Kaspar,)  an  eminent  German 
painter,  born  at  Heidelberg  in  1639.  He  excelled  in 
portraits  and  conversation-pieces,  and  imitated  to  per- 
fection the  lustre  of  velvet  and  satin.  He  is  regarded 
as  equal  in  most  points  to  Terburg  and  Douw.  Died 
in  1684.  His  sons,  Constantin  and  Theodore,  were 
likewise  good  portrait-painters. 

SeeDESCAMPS,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Allemands,  Hollandais,"  etc.  ; 
Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  J.  C.  Weverman,  "  De 
Schilderkonst  der  Nederlanders." 

Netscher,  [Fr.  pron.  nSt^shaiR',]  (Theodore,)  a  por- 
trait-painter, son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Bor- 
deaux about  1664.  He  worked  in  Paris  and  London. 
Died  in  1732. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Nettelbladt,  net'tel-blSt',  (Daniel,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  at  Rostock  in  1719,  became  director  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Halle.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  "  Sys- 
tem of  Universal  Natural  Jurisprudence."  Died  in  1 791. 

See  "Biographie  des  Raths  Nettelbladt,"  Halle,  1791. 


a.  e,  7,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


NETTELBLJDT 


1667 


NEFIL 


Nettelbladt,  von,  fon  net'tel-blSt',  sometimes  writ- 
ten Nettlebladt,  (Christian,)  Baron,  a  Swedish  jurist, 
born  at  Stockholm  in  1696;  died  in  1775. 

Nettement,  n^f'mSN',  (Alfred  FRANgois,)  a  French 
journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1805.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Revolution  of  July,  1830," 
(2  vols.,  1833,)  and  a  "History  of  French  Literature 
under  the  Reign  of  Louis  Philippe,"  (2  vols.,  1854.) 

Net'ter,  (Thomas,)  surnamed  Waldensis,  an  Eng- 
lish monk,  noted  as  an  opponent  of  Wickliff.  He  was 
privy  councillor  and  confessor  to  Henry  V.  He  wrote 
several  theological  works.    Died  in  1430. 

Nettleton,  net'tel-ton,  (Asahel,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  born  at  Killingvvorth,  Connecticut,  in  1783,  was 
distinguished  as  a  preacher  and  revivalist.  Died  in  1844. 

See  Rev.  Robert  Steel,  "Burning  and  Shining  Lights,"  Lon- 
don, 1864. 

Neubauer,  noi'bow'er,  (Ernst  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man Protestant  minister  and  writer,  born  at  Magdeburg 
in  1705  ;  died  about  1748. 

Neubauer,  (Franz  Christian,)  a  German  musician 
and  composer,  iDorn  in  Bohemia  in  1760 ;  died  in  1795. 

Neubeck,  noi'bek,  (Valerius  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
poet  and  physician,  born  at  Arnstadt  in  1765,  was  the 
author  of  a  poem  entitled  "  The  Fountains  of  Health, 
or  Mineral  Springs,"  ("Die  Gesundbrunnen,"  1794,) 
esteemed  one  of  the  best  didactic  poems  in  the  German 
language.  He  practised  for  many  years  at  Steinau.  Died 
in  1850. 

See  ScHLEGEL,  "Charaktere  und  Kritiken;"  Longfellow, 
"  Poets  and  Poetiy  of  Europe." 

Neuenar,  von,  fon  noi'en-aR^  [Lat.  Nuena'rius  or 
Nevena'rius,]  (Hermann,)  Count,  a  learned  German 
prelate,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Juliers  in  1491.  He  was 
a  patron  of  literature,  and  wrote  various  works.  Died 
in  1530. 

Neufchateau.    See  FRANgois  de  Neufchateau. 

Neuhauss,  van,  vtn  noi'howss,  [Lat.  Neuhu'sius,] 
(Edon,)  a  German  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Steinfurt, 
in  Westphalia,  in  1581.  Among  his  works  are  "Manes 
Nassovii,"  a  poem,  (1620,)  and  "  Fatidica  Sacra,"  (1635- 
48.)    Died  in  1638. 

See  Reiner  Neuhusius,  "Vita  E.  Neuhusii,"  1677. 

Neuhauss,  van,  (Regnier,)  a  poet  and  philologist, 
born  at  Leeuwarden  in  1618,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
Died  about  1680. 

Neuhof,  noi'hof,  (Theodor,)  Baron  of,  a  German 
adventurer,  born  in  Westphalia.  In  1735  he  was  in- 
vited by  the  Corsicans,  at  that  time  oppressed  by  the 
Genoese,  to  assume  the  chief  power  in  their  country, 
and  the  following  year  was  crowned  king.  Being  un- 
able, however,  to  maintain  himself  against  the  Genoese 
and  French,  he  took  refuge  in  England,  where  he  died 
in  1756. 

Neuhusius.    See  Neuhauss. 

Neukirch,  noi'k^RK,  (Benjamin,)  a  German  poet, 
born  in  Silesia  in  1665.  He  published  "Select  Poems," 
satires,  and  a  poetical  translation  of  Fenelon's  "  Tele- 
maque."    Died  in  1729. 

Neukomm,  von,  fon  noi'kom,  (Sigismund,)  a  Ger- 
man musician  and  composer,  born  at  Saltzburg  in  1778, 
was  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated  Haydn.  He  passed  several 
years  in  Paris  in  the  service  of  Talleyrand.  He  was  an 
excellent  organist.  He  composed  a  number  of  oratorios, 
operas,  and  other  works.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
the  oratorios  of  "David"  and  "Mount  Sinai."  Died 
in  1858. 

_  See  Fetis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^nerale." 

Neumann,  noi'mSn,  (Balthasar,)  a  German  archi- 
tect, born  at  Eger  in  1687.  He  designed  many  churches 
and  palaces.    Died  in  1753. 

Neumann,  (Caspar,)  a  German  theologian  and  He- 
brew scholar,  born  at  Breslau  in  1648.  He  wrote  "  Gene- 
sis Linguje  Sanctoe  Veteris  Testamenti,"  (1696,)  "Pith 
or  Marrow  of  all  Prayers,"  ("  Kern  aller  Gebete,")  and 
:>ther  works.    Died  in  1715. 

See  Tacken,  "  Leben  Neumanns,"  1741. 

Neumann,  (Franz  Ernst,)  a  German  natural  philos- 
opher, born  in  Ukermark  in  1798.    He  became  professor 


of  physics  at  Konigsberg  in  1826,  and  gained  distinction 
by  his  researches  in  crystallography,  the  theory  of  light, 
etc. 

Neumann,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German  poet 
and  litterateur,  born  in  Berlin  in  1787.  He  was  asso- 
ciated with  his  friend  Varnhagen  von  Ense  in  the  com- 
position of  the  "  Almanac  of  the  Muses,"  and  other 
works.  He  translated  Macchiavelli's  "  History  of  Flor- 
ence."   Died  in  1834. 

Neumann,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  Lutheran 
theologian,  born  at  Hertz,  near  Merseburg,  in  1661.  He 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg.   Died  in  1709. 

See  ScHONBACH,  "Vita  Neumanni,"  1716. 

Neumann,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  Orientalist 
and  historian,  born  near  Bamberg  in  1798.  He  published 
numerous  works,  among  which  are  "  Asiatic  Studies," 
(1837,)  a  "History  of  the  British  Empire  in  India." 
(2  vols.,  1857,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  United  States," 
(Berlin,  3  vols.,  1865.)    Died  in  March,  1870. 

Neumann,  (Karl  Georg,)  a  German  medical  writer 
and  poet,  born  at  Gera  hi  1774.  He  became  professor 
of  medicine  in  Berlin  in  1818.  Among  his  works  is 
"Specielle  Pathologic  uid  Therapie,"  (4  vols.,  1837.) 
Died  in  1850. 

Neumann,  (Kaspar,^  a  German  chemist,  born  in 
1682  or  1683,  became  prolessor  of  chemistry  in  the  Royal 
College  of  Berlin.  He  w>  ote  a  number  of  scientific  treat- 
ises, which  were  transited  into  English.  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.    Died  in  1737. 

See  F.  HoEFER,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Neumark,  noi'maRk  (Georg,)  a  German  poet  and 
musician,  born  at  Miihlhausen  (Thuringia)  in  162 1.  He 
was  living  in  great  destitution  at  Hamburg,  when  his 
talents  attracted  the  notit^e  of  Rosenkrantz,  the  Swedish 
ambassador,  who  made  him  his  secretary.  He  after- 
wards became  librarian  and  secretary  of  the  archives  at 
Weimar,  where  he  died  in  1681.  He  is  chiefly  celebrated 
for  the  beautiful  hymn  "  Wer  nur  den  lieben  Gott  lasst 
walten,"  a  translation  of  which  is  to  be  found  in  the 
"  Lyra  Germanica." 

Neumayr  von  Flessen-Seilbitz,  noi'miR  fon  flSs'- 
sen  sTl'blts,  (Anton,)  a  German  critic  and  able  writer  on 
art,  was  born  in  Vienna  in  1772.  He  passed  many  years 
in  Italy,  and  wrote,  in  Italian,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Historical  and  Critical  Memoir  on  Painting,"  (1811,) 
"The  German  Artists,"  (6  vols.,  1819-23,)  and  a  "Life 
of  Albert  Diirer,"  (1823.)    Died  in  1840. 

Neureuther,  noi'roi'ter,  (Eugen,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man designer,  born  at  Munich  in  1806.  Among  his  works 
are  illustrations  of  the  poems  of  Goethe,  Wieland,  and 
other  German  authors. 

Neuville.    See  Hyde  de  Neuville. 

Neuville.de,  deh  nuh'v^K,(CHARLES  FREY,)a  French 
Jesuit,  eminent  as  a  pulpit  orator,  born  in  the  diocese  of 
Coutances  in  1693;  died  in  1774. 

Neuville,  de,  deh  nuh've'ya',  (Didier  Pierre  Chi- 
CANAU,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Nancy  in  1720.  He 
published  "The  Philosophic  Dictionary,"  (1751,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1781. 

Nevenarius.    See  Neuenar. 

Nevers,  de,  deh  neh-vaiR',  (Louis  de  Gonzague — 

deh  g6N'ztg',)  Due,  a  French  commander,  born  in 
1539.  He  fought  against  the  Huguenots  in  the  civil 
war,  and  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  was  one  of  the 
chiefs  of  the  League.  In  1590  he  entered  the  service  of 
Henry  IV.,  who  gave  him  command  of  an  army.  Died 
in  1595- 

See  Turpin,  "Histoire  de  Louis  de  Gonzague,"  1789;  Bran- 
tome,  "Vies  des  grands  Capitaines." 

Nevers,  de,  (Philippe  Julien  Mancini  Mazarini,) 
Due,  born  in  Rome  in  1641,  was  a  nephew  of  Cardina] 
Mazarin,  and  a  brother  of  Hortense  Mancini.  He  en- 
joyed the  favour  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  appointed  him 
lieutenant-general  of  Nivernais.  He  wrote  agreeable 
verses,  and  was  noticed  by  Voltaire  in  his  Catalogue 
of  the  writers  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV.    Died  in  1707. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires." 

Neveu,  neh-vuh',(MATTHiAS,)  a  skilful  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Leyden  in  1647,  was  a  pupil  of  Gerard  Douw 
Died  after  1718. 

Nevil.    See  Neville. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (^(^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NEFILE 


668 


NEWMAN 


Nevile  or  Nevyle,  ngv'il,  (Alexander,)  an  English 
classical  scholar,  born  in  Kent  in  1544,  was  secretary  to 
Archbishop  Parker.  His  paraphrase  of  the  "QEdipus" 
of  Seneca  is  highly  eulogized  by  Warton.    Died  in  1614. 

See  Warton,  "  History  of  English  Poetry." 

Nevile  or  Neville,  (Henry,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  1620,  embraced  the  republican  cause,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  council  of  state,  but  resigned  on  the 
usurpation  of  Cromwell.  He  was  the  author  of  "Plato 
Redivivus,  or  a  Dialogue  concerning  Government." 
Died  in  1694. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Neville,  (Richard  Cornwallis.)  See  Braybrooke, 

Lord. 

Neville,  n^v'il,  (Richard  Griffin,)  Baron  Bray- 
brooke, an  English  antiquary,  born  in  Berkshire  in  1783. 
He  edited  the  "Diary  of  Samuel  Pepys,"  (1825.)  This 
was  the  first  edition  of  that  work  ever  printed.  Died 
in  1858. 

Neville  or  Nevil,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  at  Canterbury.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  Pembroke 
Hall,  Cambridge,  in  1570,  master  of  Trinity  College  in 
1593,  and  Dean  of  Canterbury  in  1597.  He  expended 
^^3000  or  more  on  a  building  for  Trinity  College,  called 
Nevil's  Court.    Died  in  161 5. 

Nev'in,  (John  Williamson,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Presbyterian  divine  and  theological  writer,  born  in 
Franklin  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1803.  He  became 
president  of  the  theological  seminary  at  Mercersburg  in 
1841.  He  has  published  "The  Anxious  Bench,"  (1843,) 
"The  Mystical  Presence,"  (1846,)  and  "Anti-Christ,  or 
the  Spirit  of  Sect  and  Schism,"  (1848,)  and  translated 
several  theological  works  from  the  German.  He  was 
editor  for  a  time  of  the  "Mercersburg  Review." 

Nevizan,  ni-ved-zSn'  or  r\lv-c-zhV,  (Giovanni,)  an 
Italian  jurist,  born  at  Asti.  He  published  "  Sylvae  Nup- 
tialis  Libri  sex,"  (1521,)  a  curious  work,  often  reprinted. 
Died  in  1540. 

Newborough  or  Newburgh,  nu'biir-eh,  [Lat.  Neu- 
brigensis,]  (William  of,)  an  English  chronicler,  born 
in  Yorkshire  in  1136,  wrote  a  "  History  of  England," 
(in  Latin,)  beginning  with  the  Norman  conquest  and 
brought  down  to  1197. 

Newcastle.    See  Cavendish,  (William.) 

Newcastle,  nu-kas^el,  (Henry  Pelham  Clinton,) 
Duke  of,  born  in  London  in  1811,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  Henry,  Duke  of  Newcastle.  He  was  styled  Earl  of 
Lincoln  until  the  death  of  his  father,  (1851,)  and  entered 
Parliament  in  1832.  For  a  short  time  in  1846  he  was 
chief  secretary  for  Ireland.  In  1852  he  became  secretary 
for  the  colonies  in  Lord  Aberdeen's  coalition  ministry. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  of  war  in  1854.  As  war 
minister  he  was  so  much  censured  for  the  discomforts 
and  disasters  of  the  army  in  the  Crimea  in  1854  that  he 
resigned,  or  was  removed,  in  1855.  In  June,  1859,  he 
accepted  office  as  colonial  secretary  in  the  Liberal  min- 
istry of  Palmerston.  He  was  the  attendant  and  chief 
counsellor  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  his  visit  to  Canada 
and  the  United  States  in  i860.    Died  in  1864. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  December,  1864. 

Newcastle,  (Henry  Pelham  Fiennes  Pelham 
Clinton,)  fourth  Duke  of,  an  English  peer,  born  in 
1785.  He  inherited  the  title  of  duke  at  the  death  of  his 
father.  He  was  a  Tory,  and  an  opponent  of  the  Reform 
bill  of  1832.  He  died  in  1851,  leaving  a  son,  Henry, 
fifth  Duke  of  Newcastle. 

Newcastle,  (Thomas  Pelham,)  Duke  of,  an  Eng- 
lish Whig  minister  of  state,  born  in  1693,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Sir  Thomas  Pelham,  of  Sussex.  His  mother  was 
a  sister  of  John  Hollis,  Duke  of  Newcastle,  who,  dying 
in  171 1,  left  a  princely  fortune  to  the  subject  of  this  article. 
In  1 71 5  he  was  created  Duke  of  Newcastle,  and  in  1724 
appointed  secretary  of  state.  In  1754  he  was  promoted 
to  the  office  of  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  (or  premier,) 
which  was  then  vacated  by  the  death  of  his  brother, 
Henry  Pelham.  He  resigned  reluctantly  in  November, 
1756,  and,  after  a  ministerial  crisis,  formed  a  coalition 
with  Pitt,  and  was  again  prime  minister,  or  co-ordinate 
chief  minister,  from  1757  until  May,  1762,  when  Lord 
Bute  became  premier.    "  His  love  of  influence,"  says 


Macaulay,  (in  his  Review  of  Walpole's  "Letters  to 
Horace  Mann,")  "was  so  intense  a  passion  that  it  sup- 
plied the  place  of  talents,  that  it  inspired  even  fatuity 
with  cunning.  ...  All  the  able  men  of  his  time  ridiculed 
him  as  a  dunce,  a  driveller,  a  child  who  never  knew  his 
own  mind  for  an  hour  together  ;  and  he  overreached  them 
all  round."  He  died,  without  issue,  in  1768,  when  the 
title  passed  to  Henry  Clinton,  Earl  of  Lincoln,  who  had 
married  a  daughter  and  heiress  of  Henry  Pelham. 

See  M  acaulay,  Review  of  Thackeray's  "  History  of  Lord  Chat- 
ham," 1834. 

Newcomb,  nu'kum,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet, 
born  in  1675,  became  rector  of  Stopham,  in  Sussex, 
about  1734.  He  wrote,  besides  other  poems,  "The 
Library,"  (171 8,)  and  "The  Last  Judgment,"  (1723.) 
Died  about  1766. 

New'cpme,  (Peter,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
1656,  was  vicar  of  Aldenham,  in  Hertfordshire.  He  pub- 
lished several  volumes  of  sermons,  etc.    Died  in  1738. 

^  Newcome,  (William,)  a  learned  prelate  and  eminent 
biblical  scholar,  born  in  Bedfordshire  in  1729.  He  be- 
came successively  Bishop  of  Ossory  and  of  Waterford, 
in  Ireland,  and  in  1795  Archbishop  of  Armagh.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Historical  View  of  the  English 
Biblical  Translations,"  and  "  Harmony  of  the  Gospels," 
(1778.)    Died  in  1800. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  October,  1779. 

New-com'en,  (Matthew,)  an  English  nonconform, 
ist,  was  a  member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  of 
divines.  He  was  one  of  the  five  persons  who  wrote 
"  Smectymnus,"  a  controversial  work  against  Bishop 
Hall.    I3ied  at  Leyden  in  1666. 

Newcommen  or  Newcomen,  nu-kom'en,  (Thom- 
as,) an  English  locksmith,  born  in  Devonshire,  was  one 
of  the  inventors  of  the  steam-engine.  In  1705  New- 
commen and  Cawley  (a  glazier  of  that  place)  obtained 
a  patent  for  an  engine  combining  for  the  first  time  the 
cylinder  and  piston,  with  a  separate  boiler.  The  steam 
admitted  below  the  piston  was  condensed  by  the  applica- 
tion of  cold  water,  and  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere, 
forcing  down  the  piston,  moved  a  working-beam,  to  one 
end  of  which  a  pump-rod  was  attached.  This  engine  was 
much  used  in  mines. 

See  J.  RoBisoN,  "System  of  Mechanical  Philosophy." 

New'di-gate,  (Sir  Roger,)  an  English  gentleman  of 
fine  taste  and  classical  attainments,  born  in  Warwick- 
shire in  1 7 19.  He  was  for  inany  years  representative 
in  Parliament  for  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  was  a 
generous  patron  of  that  institution,  to  which  he  gave  the 
Florentine  Museum,  Piranesi's  works,  and  the  cande- 
labra in  the  Radclifife  Library.    Died  in  1780. 

New'ell,  (Harriet,)  wife  of  Samuel  Newell,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Haverhill,  Massachusetts,  in  1793. 
She  accompanied  her  husband  to  India  in  1812,  and  died 
soon  after  their  arrival.  Her  "Memoirs"  were  written 
by  Dr.  Woods,  of  Andover. 

New'ell,  (RoRERT  Hassell,)  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  1780.  He  edited  the  works  of  Oliver  Gold- 
smith, (1811,)  and  wrote  "The  Zoology  of  the  British 
Poets  corrected,"  etc.,  (1845.)    Died  in  1852. 

Newell,  (Samuel,)  an  American  missionary,  born 
at  Durham,  Maine,  in  1784.  Having  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College,  he  was  ordained  in  1812,  and  soon  after 
set  sail  for  Calcutta,  accompanied  by  the  Rev.  Adoniram 
Judson.  He  published,  conjointly  with  Mr.  Hall,  "  The 
Conversion  of  the  World,  or  the  Claims  of  Six  Hun- 
dred Millions,"  (1818.)    Died  in  1821. 

NewTand,  (John,)  an  English  monk  and  diplomatist, 
was  abbot  of  a  monastery  at  Bristol.  He  was  employed 
by  Henry  VIII.  in  diplomatic  missions.    Died  in  1515. 

New'land,  [Dutch,  Nieuwland,  nyo'lSnt,]  (Peter,) 
a  Dutch  mathematician  and  poet,  born  near  Amsterdam 
in  1764.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on 
Navigation."    Died  in  1794. 

New'man,  (Francis  W.,)  an  English  author,  brother 
of  John  Henry,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  London  in 
1805.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and,  after  he  left  col- 
lege, passed  three  years  in  the  Turkish  empire,  (1830- 
33.)  In  1840  he  became  professor  of  languages  at  Man- 
chester New  College.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
Latin  in  University  College,  London,  in  1846.  Among 


ai  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  5?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fUll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


NEWMAN 


\66g 


NEWTON 


his  principal  works  are  a  "  History  of  the  Hebrew  Mon- 
archy," (1847,)  "The  Soul:  its  Sorrows  and  Aspira- 
tions," (1849,)  "  Phases  of  Faith,  or  Passages  from 
the  History  of  my  Creed,"  (1850.)  His  religious  opinions 
differ  widely  from  those  of  his  brother  and  from  those 
of  the  orthodox  churches.  In  1856  he  produced  a 
metrical  translation  of  Homer's  "Iliad." 

See  "Westminster Review"  for  October,  1858. 

Newman,  (John  Henry,)  an  eminent  English  theo- 
logian, born  in  London  in  1801.  He  entered  Trinity 
College,  Oxford,  in  1816,  and  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
Oriel  College  in  1822.  At  Oriel  College  he  formed  a 
friendship  with  John  Keble  the  poet,  and  with  Dr. 
Whately.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1824,  and  became 
vice-principal  of  Alban  Hall  in  1825,  and  a  tutor  of 
Oriel  College  in  1826.  In  1828  he  was  appointed  vicar 
of  Saint  Mary's,  Oxford,  and  of  Littlemore.  In  1833 
Newman,  Keble,  and  Pusey  initiated  the  "  Oxford  move- 
ment" in  favour  of  High-Church  doctrines,  which  they 
advocated  in  a  series  of  "Tracts  for  the  Times."  He 
manifested  a  growing  tendency  to  Roman  Catholicism 
in  his  "  Arians  of  the  Fourth  Century  :  their  Doctrines, 
Temper,  and  Conduct,"  (1833,)  his  "Tract  No.  90," 
{1841,)  and  his  "Essay  on  the  Development  of  Chris- 
tian Doctrine."  He  became  a  member  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  1845,  '^^^  principal  of  the 
Oratory  of  Saint  Philip  Neri  at  Birmingham  from  1848 
to  1852.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  fined  one  hundred 
pounds  for  a  libel  on  Dr.  Achilli.  He  defended  or  ex- 
plained his  religious  course  in  a  work  entitled  "Apology 
for  his  Life,"  ("Apologia  pro  Vita  sua,"  1864.) 

See,  also,  Jules  Condon,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  le  P.  New- 
man," 1853;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1846,  and 
October,  1864;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  September,  1864;  "North 
British  Review"  for  August,  1864. 

New'port,  (Christopher,)  an  Englishman,  com- 
manded the  vessels  which  in  1606  conveyed  the  party 
of  emigrants  that  first  settled  at  Jamestown,  Virginia. 

Newport,  (George,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  comparative 
anatomist  and  entomologist,  born  at  Canterbury  in  1803. 
He  practised  medicine,  and  devoted  much  time  to  the 
study  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  insects,  on  which 
subjects  he  contributed  to  the  "Philosophical  Trans- 
actions" a  number  of  memoirs.  One  of  these  was  "  On 
the  Nervous  System  of  the  Sphinx."  He  was  elected 
president  of  the  Entomological  Society  in  1844.  Died 
in  1854. 

Newport,  (Sir  John,)  an  Irish  Whig  politician,  born 
at  Waterforci  about  1760.  He  became  a  member  of 
Parliament  in  1803,  and  controller  of  the  exchequer. 
Died  in  1843. 

New'ton,  (Gilbert  STUART,)a  distinguished  painter, 
of  English  extraction,  born  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  in 
1794.  He  painted  numerous  small  pictures  of  great 
merit,  among  which  we  may  name  "Shylock  and  Jes- 
sica" and  "Portia  and  Bassanio."   Died  in  1835. 

Newton,  (Sir  Isaac,)  an  illustrious  English  philoso- 
pher and  mathematician,  born  at  Woolsthorpe,  in  Lin- 
colnshire, on  the  25th  of  December,  1642,  (Old  Style.) 
He  was  the  posthumous  and  only  child  of  Isaac  Newton, 
a  farmer,  who  died  in  1642.  His  mother,  whose  original 
name  was  Hannah  Ayscough,  was  married  again  to  the 
Rev.  Barnabas  Smith  in  1645.  He  attended  the  schools 
of  Skillington  and  Stoke  for  several  years,  and  about 
the  age  of  twelve  entered  the  grammar-school  of  Grant- 
ham. There  he  manifested  much  mechanical  ingenuity 
by  the  construction  of  a  windmill,  a  water-clock,  a  sun- 
dial, and  other  pieces  of  mechanism.  He  also  wrote 
verses  in  his  boyhood.  He  entered  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  as  a  sub-sizar,  in  June,  1661,  before  which 
date  it  does  not  appear  that  he  had  been  a  profound 
student  of  mathematics.  It  has  been  stated  that  he 
commenced  the  study  of  Euclid's  "  Elements,"  but  he 
found  the  first  propositions  so  self-evident  that  he  threw 
the  book  aside  as  too  trifling.  "  When  Newton  entered 
Trinity  College,"  says  Brewster,  "  he  brought  with  him 
a  more  slender  portion  of  science  than  at  his  age  falls 
to  the  lot  of  ordinary  scholars."  Among  the  works 
which  he  first  studied  at  Cambridge  were  the  "Optics" 
of  Kepler  and  the  "  Geometry"  of  Descartes.  In  1664  he 
read  Wallis's  "  Arithmetica  Infinitorum,"  and  discovered 


the  method  of  infinite  series,  or  the  binomial  theorem, 
which  enabled  him  to  compute  the  area  of  curves  and 
to  solve  with  ease  problems  which  before  were  insoluble 
or  very  difficult.  He  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1665, 
and  discovered  the  differential  calculus,  or  method  of 
fluxions,  probably  in  the  same  year.  This  important 
method  of  mathematical  investigation  was  discovered 
by  Leibnitz  about  the  same  time,  and  before  Newton 
had  published  anything  on  the  subject.  A  controversy 
arose  between  the  English  and  foreign  mathematicians 
about  the  priority  of  the  discovery.  Sir  David  Brewster 
gives  this  decision  of  the  question  :  i.  That  Newton 
was  the  first  inventor  of  the  method  of  Jluxiojis ;  that 
the  method  was  incomplete  in  its  notation,  and  that  the 
fundamental  principle  of  it  was  not  published  to  the 
world  till  1687.  2.  That  Leibnitz  communicated  his 
differential  calculus  to  Newton  in  1677,  with  a  complete 
system  of  notation,  and  that  he  published  it  in  1684. 

As  a  precaution  against  the  plague,  he  retired  from 
Cambridge  to  his  native  place  in  tlie  summer  of  1665. 
He  then  and  there  began  to  speculate  on  the  subject  of 
gravity.  It  was  in  the  autumn  of  1665  that  the  apple 
which  suggested  to  him  the  idea  of  gravitation  is  said  to 
have  fallen  from  the  tree  at  Woolsthorpe.  "  When  sitting 
alone  in  the  garden,"  says  Brewster,  "and  speculating 
on  the  power  of  gravity,  it  occurred  to  him  that  as  the 
same  power  by  which  the  apple  fell  to  the  ground  was 
not  sensibly  diminished  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the 
centre  of  the  earth  to  which  we  can  reach,  ...  it  might 
extend  to  the  moon  and  retain  her  in  her  orbit  in  the 
same  manner  as  it  bends  into  a  curve  a  stone  or  cannon- 
ball  when  projected  in  a  straight  line  from  the  surface 
of  the  earth."  He  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the 
force  of  gravity  by  which  the  planets  were  retained  in 
their  orbits  varied  as  the  squares  of  their  distances  from 
the  sun  ;  but,  not  being  prepared  to  verify  this  hypothe- 
sis, he  abandoned  or  deferred  the  subject  for  many  years. 

He  returned  to  Cambridge  in  1666,  and  applied  him- 
self to  the  grinding  of  optic  glasses,  and  began  to  study 
the  subject  of  colours  in  connection  with  the  prismatic 
spectrum.  He  was  elected  a  Minor  Fellow  in  October, 
1667,  and  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  in  March,  1668,  as 
twenty-third  on  the  list  of  one  hundred  and  forty-eight 
graduates.  He  made  a  small  reflecting  telescope  in  1668, 
and  succeeded  Dr.  Barrow,  as  Lucasian  professor  of 
mathematics,  in  1669.  About  this  date  he  made  the  grand 
discovery  that  light  is  not  homogeneous,  but  consists  of  rays 
of  different  refrangibility.  He  also  perceived  that  this 
different  refrangibility  was  the  real  cause  of  the  imper- 
fection of  refracting  telescopes.  In  167 1  he  constructed 
with  his  own  hands  a  second  reflecting  telescope,  which 
is  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  Royal  Society.  New- 
ton read  a  course  of  lectures  on  optics,  at  Cambridge,  in 
1669,  1670,  and  167 1.  He  was  the  author  of  the  theory 
of  light  called  the  Emission  theory,  according  to  which 
light  is  composed  of,  or  produced  by,  material  particles 
of  inconceivable  minuteness,  emitted  by  luminous  bodies 
in  all  directions.  On  this  subject  he  was  involved  in  a 
controversy  with  Hooke  and  Huygens,  who  maintained 
the  undulatory  theory.  In  a  letter  to  Leibnitz,  dated 
December  9,  1675,  he  writes,  "  I  was  so  persecuted  with 
discussions  arising  out  of  my  theory  of  light,  that  I 
blamed  my  own  iinprudence  for  parting  with  so  sub- 
stantial a  blessing  as  my  quiet  to  run  after  a  shadow." 
He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  January, 
1672.  In  December,  1675,  he  communicated  to  that 
body  a  discourse  entitled  a  "Theory  of  Light  and  Col- 
ours." "  The  theory  of  Newton,"  says  Sir  John  Hersche), 
"gives  a  complete  and  elegant  explanation  of  what  may 
be  considered  the  chief  of  all  optical  facts, — the  produc- 
tion of  colours  in  the  ordinary  refraction  of  light  by  a 
prism,  the  discovery  of  which  by  him  marks  one  of  the 
greatest  epochs  in  the  annals  of  experimental  science." 
("  Preliminary  Discourse  on  the  Study  of  Natural  Phi- 
losophy.") His  optical  discoveries  are  described  in  a 
work  entitled  "  Opticks,  or  a  Treatise  on  the  Reflexions, 
Refractions,  Inflexions,  and  Colours  of  Light,"  which 
was  published  in  1704,  but  written  many  years  earlier. 
"To  avoid  being  engaged  in  disputes  about  these  mat- 
ters," says  the  author,  "I  have  hitherto  delayed  the 
printing,"    The  only  other  optical  work  by  Newton  was 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  gasj;  g,  h,  K, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NEWTON 


1670 


NEWTON 


his  "Lectiones  Opticze,"  (1728,)  which  contains  the  lec- 
tures he  read  at  Cambridge  in  1669-71. 

Newton  had  abandoned  the  subject  of  gravity  in  1665, 
after  an  attempt  to  verify  his  theory  by  a  calculation 
which  failed  because  he  had  employed  an  erroneous 
measure  of  the  earth's  radius.  About  1684  he  resumed 
his  inquiries  and  calculations  in  relation  to  the  moon, 
and  employed  Picard's  more  accurate  measure  of  the 
earth's  diameter.  He  thus  demonstrated  the  great  truth 
that  the  orbit  of  the  moon  is  curved  by  the  same  force 
which  causes  bodies  to  fall  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
According  to  a  doubtful  tradition,  he  became  so  much 
agitated  as  his  calculations  drew  to  a  close,  that  he  was 
obliged  to  ask  a  friend  to  finish  them.  "This  anec- 
dote is  not  supported  by  what  is  known  of  Newton's 
character."  (Brewster's  "Life  of  Newton.")  He  an- 
nounced this  discovery  to  the  Royal  Society  in  1685  by 
his  treatise  "  De  Motu,"  This  was  the  germ  of  his 
greatest  work,  the  "  Principia,"  (composed  in  1685-86,) 
which  Laplace  regarded  as  "pre-eminent  above  all 
other  productions  of  the  human  intellect."  The  full 
title  of  this  work,  which  was  published  by  the  Royal 
Society  or  by  Halley  in  1687,  is  "The  Mathematical 
Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  ("Philosophise  Na- 
turalis  Principia  Mathematica.")  It  consists  of  three 
Books,  of  which  the  first  and  second  are  entitled  "  On 
the  Motion  of  Bodies,"  and  the  third  "  On  the  System 
of  the  World."  "The  great  discovery,"  says  Brewster, 
"which  characterizes  the  '  Principia'  is  that  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  universal  gravitation,  that  every  particle  of  matter 
in  the  universe  is  attracted  by,  or  gravitates  to,  every  other 
particle  of  matter,  zvith  a  force  inversely  proportional  to  the 
squares  of  their  distances. '''' 

"  The  glory  of  these  men,"  says  Macaulay,  referring  to 
Wallis  and  Halley,  "  is  cast  into  the  shade  by  the  tran- 
scendent lustre  of  one  immortal  name.  In  Isaac  New- 
ton two  kinds  of  intellectual  power,  which  have  little  in 
common,  and  which  are  not  often  found  together  in  a 
very  high  degree  of  vigour,  but  which  nevertheless  are 
equally  necessary  in  the  most  sublime  departments  of 
natural  philosophy,  were  united  as  they  have  never  been 
united  before  or  since.  ...  In  no  other  mind  have 
the  demonstrative  faculty  and  the  inductive  faculty  coex- 
isted in  such  supreme  excellence  and  perfect  harmony." 
("History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap,  iii.) 

In  1687  James  II.  sent  an  illegal  mandamus  to  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  directing  that  a  certain  monk 
should  be  admitted  a  master  of  arts  without  taking  the 
oath  of  allegiance.  Newton  took  an  active  and  influen- 
tial part  in  defending  the  privileges  of  the  university  on 
this  occasion.  He  represented  Cambridge  in  the  Con- 
vention Parliament,  January,  1689-February,  1690,  and 
maintained  the  principles  of  civil  and  religious  liberty 
in  that  critical  period  of  revolution.  In  1689  he  became 
acquainted  with  John  Locke,  with  whom  he  associated 
on  friendly  terms  and  corresponded  until  his  death. 
Newton,  though  satiated  with  fame,  had  gained  no  pecu- 
niary benefit  by  his  writings,  and  had  received  no  mark 
of  national  gratitude  for  his  discoveries.  Locke  and 
Charles  Montague  endeavoured  to  procure  for  him  some 
permanent  appointment,  but  without  success. 

In  1692  and  1693  he  wrote  to  Bentley  four  celebrated 
letters  on  the  formation  of  the  sun  and  the  planets,  etc., 
in  which  he  affirms  that  the  motions  of  the  planets 
could  not  be  produced  by  any  natural  cause  alone, 
but  were  impressed  by  an  intelligent  agent  and  Divine 
power,  A  report  was  circulated,  chiefly  on  the  conti- 
nent, that  Newton  was  insane,  about  1692.  The  story 
that  his  precious  manuscripts  were  burned  through  the 
agency  of  his  little  dog  Diamond,  seems  to  be  equally 
unfounded.  "He  never  had  any  communion  with  dogs 
or  cats."  (Brewster.) 

In  1694  Newton  was  occupied  by  researches  on  the 
lunar  theory,  and  obtained  from  Flamsteed  his  observa- 
tions on  the  moon.  Letters  were  exchanged  between 
them  in  relation  to  these  observations,  which  became  the 
occasion  of  an  intemperate  and  discreditable  controversy. 
Newton  was  appointed  warden  of  the  mint  in  1695  or 
1696  by  his  friend  Montague,  Earl  of  Halifax,  who  had 
resolved  on  an  important  scheme  of  re-coinage  of  clipped 
and  debased  coin.    The  salary  of  this  office  was  about 


;^6oo.  In  1699  he  was  promoted  to  be  master  of  the 
mint,  with  a  salary  of  from  1 200  to  1 500.  In  1703  he 
was  returned  to  Parliament  by  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge, and  was  elected  President  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  continued  until  his  death  to  occupy  the  latter  po- 
sition, to  which  he  was  annually  re-elected.  He  was 
knighted  by  Queen  Anne  in  1705.  Among  his  important 
works  are  "The  Chronology  of  Ancient  Kingdoms 
Amended,"  (1728,)  and  "Observations  upon  the  Pro- 
phecies of  Daniel  and  the  Apocalypse  of  Saint  John," 
(first  published  in  1733.)  "That  the  greatest  philoso- 
pher of  which  any  age  can  boast,"  says  Brewster,  "  was 
a  sincere  and  humble  believer  in  the  leading  doctrines 
of  our  religion* and  lived  conformably  to  its  precepts, 
has  been  justly  regarded  as  a  proud  triumph  of  the 
Christian  faith."  Newton's  religious  opinions,  however, 
were  not  strictly  orthodox:  like  Milton,  he  appears  to 
have  had  a  decided  leaning  towards  Arianism. 

Newton  was  never  married.  His  latter  years  were 
passed  in  London,  where  he  lived  in  a  handsome  style 
and  kept  six  servants.  He  was  extremely  generous  and 
liberal  in  the  use  of  money,  for  which  he  is  said  to  have 
had  a  great  contempt.  On  one  occasion  he  offered  Dr. 
Cheselden,  as  a  fee,  a  handful  of  guineas  out  of  his  coat- 
pocket.  He  was  often  so  absorbed  in  meditation  that 
he  forgot  to  eat,  and  it  was  necessary  for  his  servants 
to  remind  him  of  his  meals.  He  died  at  Kensington  on 
the  20th  of  March,  1727,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  His  collected  works  were  published  by  Bishop 
Horsley  in  5  vols.  4to,  (1779-85.) 

Near  the  end  of  his  life  he  said,  "I  know  not  what  I 
may  appear  to  the  world,  but  to  myself  I  seem  to  have 
been  only  like  a  boy  playing  on  the  sea-shore  and 
diverting  myself  in  now  and  then  finding  a  smoother 
pebble  or  a  prettier  shell  than  ordinary,  whilst  the  great 
ocean  of  truth  lay  all  undiscovered  before  me." 

"Though  there  be  few,"  says  Dr.  Chalmers,  "who 
comprehend  or  follow  Newton  in  his  gigantic  walk,  yet 
all  may  participate  in  his  triumphant  feeling  when  he 
reached  that  lofty  summit  where  the  whole  mystery  and 
magnificence  of  nature  stood  submitted  to  his  gaze, — an 
eminence  won  by  him  through  the  power  and  patience 
of  intellect  alone,  but  from  which  he  descried  a  scene 
more  glorious  far  than  imagination  could  have  formed, 
or  than  ever  had  been  pictured  and  set  forth  in  the 
sublimest  visions  of  poetry."  ("Treatise  on  the  Adap- 
tation of  External  Nature  to  the  Moral  and  Intellectual 
Constitution  of  Man.") 

"  Whichever  way  we  turn  our  view,"  says  Sir  John 
F.  W.  Herschel,  "we  find  ourselves  compelled  to  bow 
before  his  genius,  and  to  assign  to  the  name  of  Newton 
a  place  in  our  veneration  which  belongs  to  no  other  in 
the  annals  of  science.  His  era  marks  the  accomplished 
maturity  of  the  human  reason  as  applied  to  such  objects. 
.  .  .  His  wonderful  combination  of  mathematical  skill 
with  physical  research  enabled  him  to  invent  at  pleasure 
new  and  unheard-of  methods  of  investigating  the  effects 
of  those  causes  which  his  clear  and  penetrating  mind 
detected  in  operation.  Ascending  by  a  series  of  close- 
compacted  inductive  arguments  to  the  highest  axioms  of 
dynamical  science,  he  succeeded  in  applying  them  to  the 
complete  explanation  of  all  the  great  astronomical  phe- 
nomena." ("Preliminary  Discourse  on  the  Study  of 
Natural  Philosophy.") 

See  Sir  David  Brewster,  "Memoirs  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,"  2 
vols.,  1855;  FoNTENELi.E.  "  Eloge  de  Newton,"  1728  ;  Pemberton, 
"Account  of  Newton's  Philosophy;"  Biot,  article  "  Newton"  in 
the  "Biographic  Universelle ;"  Arago,  "Notices  biographiqiies," 
tome  iii.  ;  Birch,  "  History  of  the  Royal  Society,"  vols.  iii.  and  iv.  ; 
Maclaurin,  "Exposition  of  the  Discoveries  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton," 
1748;  RiGAUD,  "Historical  Essay  on  the  Principia  of  Newton  ;" 
"Life  of  Newton"  in  the  "  Biographia  Britannica  :"  Paoi.o  Frisi, 
"  Elogio  storico  del  Cavaliere  I.  Newton,"  1778;  Wm.  Wheweil, 
"Newton  and  Flamsteed."  1836:  Carl  Snell,  "Newton  imd  die 
mechanische  Naturwissenschaft,"  1843:  Voltaire,  "  Elements  de  la 
Philosophic  de  Newton  ;"  "  Encyclopajdia  Britannica  ;"  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1832;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  Octo- 
ber, 1861  ;  "North  British  Review"  for  August,  1855;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1833. 

Newton,  (John,)  an  English  mathematician,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1622,  was  the  author  of  "Geo- 
metrical Trigonometry,"  "  Astronomia  Britannica,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1678. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  ^,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  flr,  fill,  f^t;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


NEWTON  167 1  NICJENETUS 


Newton,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  London 
in  1725.  Having  for  many  years  led  a  profligate  life 
as  a  sailor,  and  engaging  in  the  African  slave-trade,  he 
was  converted,  and  distinguished  himself  thenceforth 
by  his  zeal  in  the  cause  of  religion.  In  1764  he  became 
curate  of  Olney,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of 
Cowper,  and  wrote,  in  conjunction  with  him,  the  "  Olney 
Hymns."  He  also  published  a  "  Review  of  Ecclesiastical 
History,"  (1770,)  "  Cardiphonia,"  etc.,  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1807. 

See  a  "Narrative  of  his  Life,"  by  himself,  1764;  R.  Cecil, 
"Life  of  John  Newton;"  "Autobiography  and  Narrative  of  John 
Newton,"  London,  1869;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  Decem- 
ber, 1824. 

New'ton,  (John,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Vir- 
ginia, graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842.  He  became  a 
brigadier-general  of  Union  volunteers  in  1861,  and  com- 
manded a  brigade  in  the  battles  before  Richmond,  June, 
1862,  and  a  division  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863.  He 
served  under  General  Sherman  in  Georgia  in  1864,  with 
the  rank  of  major-general. 

Newton,  (Richard,)  an  English  divine,  born  about 
1675,  became  canon  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He 
published  a  work  entitled  "  Pluralities  Indefensible," 
(1744.)  He  was  the  founder  of  Hertford  College,  Ox- 
ford.   Died  in  1753. 

See  Chalmers,  "  History  of  Oxford." 

New'ton,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  Methodist  clergyman, 
born  in  1780.  He  preached  in  London  and  Liverpool, 
and  was  appointed  in  1839  a  delegate  to  the  General 
Conference  of  the  United  States.  He  was  a  popular 
preacher.    Died  in  1854. 

Newton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Lich- 
field in  1704,  rose  through  various  preferments  to  be 
Bishop  of  Bristol,  (1761.)  He  published  an  excellent 
edition  of  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost,"  with  notes,  (1749,) 
and  "Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies,"  etc.,  (3  vols., 
1754-58,)  which  were  translated  into  German  and  Danish. 
Died  in  1782. 

See  "Life  of  Thomas  Newton,"  prefixed  to  the  second  edition 
of  his  Works;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  February  and  March,  1783. 

Newton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  in 
Essex,  became  master  of  Macclesfield  School.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "History  of  the  Saracens,"  (1575,)  of  a 
number  of  Latin  poems,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1607. 

See  Warton,  "  History  of  English  Poetry." 

Newton,  (William,)  an  English  architect  and  writer, 
published  an  English  translation  of  Vitruvius,  (2  vols., 
1771.) 

Ney,  n^,  (Franqois,)  a  Flemish  diplomatist,  born  at 
Antwerp,  became  general  of  the  order  of  Saint  Francis, 
in  Spain,  in  1607.  He  was  the  principal  agent  of  the 
Spanish  king  in  the  negotiation  of  the  treaty  of  peace 
which  recognized  the  independence  of  the  revolted  Dutch 
provinces  in  1609.  Watson  the  historian  speaks  highly 
of  his  talents  and  address. 

See  Grotius,  "Histoire  des  Troubles  des  Pays-Bas." 

Ney,  n^,  (Joseph  Napoleon,)  Prince  of  the  Moskwa, 
(in  French,  "de  la  Moskowa,")  a  French  general,  born 
in  Paris  in  1803,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Marshal  Ney.  He 
served  in  Algeria  in  1837-38,  and  entered  the  Chamber 
of  Peers  in  1841.  After  the  revolution  of  1848  he  was 
■elected  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  in  which 
he  was  a  ])artisan  of  Louis  Napoleon,    Died  in  1857. 

Ney,  (Michel,)  Duke  of  Elchingen,  Prince  of  the 
Moskwa,  a  famous  French  marshal,  born  at  Sarre-Louis 
in  January,  1769,  was  the  son  of  a  cooper.  He  entered 
the  army  as  a  private  in  1787,  became  adjutant-general 
in  1794,  and  a  general  of  brigade  in  1796.  As  general 
of  division,  he  acquired  a  high  reputation  under  Massena, 
in  Switzerland  and  Germany,  in  1799.  In  1800  he  passed 
into  the  army  of  Moreau,  and  contributed  to  the  victory 
of  Hohenlinden.  He  obtained  a  marshal's  baton  in  1804. 
For  an  important  victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Elchingen, 
in  October,  1805,  he  received  the  title  of  Duke  of^El- 
chingen.  His  impetuous  courage  rendered  essential  ser- 
vices at  the  battle  of  Jena,  in  1806.  \n  this  year  he  took 
Magdeburg,  the  garrison  of  which  amounted  to  about 
20,000  men.  He  commanded  an  army  in  Spain  in  1809, 
and  obtained  advantages  at  Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  Almeida 
in  1810.    In  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812  he  received 


from  Bonaparte  the  appellation  of  the  "  Bravest  of  the 
Brave."  He  commanded  the  centre  at  the  great  battle 
of  Borodino,  or  the  Moskwa,  from  which  he  derived 
his  title  of  Prince.  In  the  retreat  from  Moscow,  Mar- 
shal Ney  commanded  the  rear-guard,  and  maintained  his 
reputation  by  heroic  conduct  amidst  the  greatest  dis- 
asters. "  It  was  when  danger  was  greatest  and  success 
most  doubtful,"  says  Alison,  "  that  his  courage  was  most 
conspicuous  and  his  coolness  most  valuable."  When 
summoned  to  capitulate,  in  November,  1812,  he  replied, 
"  A  marshal  of  France  never  surrenders  !" 

He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  battles  of  Lutzen, 
Bautzen,  and  Dresden,  in  1813,  and  was  defeated  at  Den- 
newitz  by  Bernadotte  in  September  of  that  year.  On  the 
abdication  of  Napoleon,  in  1814,  Ney  submitted  to  Louis 
XVIIL,  who  permitted  him  to  retain  his  titles  and  mili- 
tary rank.  In  March,  1815,  he  received  orders  to  lead 
an  army  against  Napoleon,  whom  he  promised  to  bring 
back  in  an  iron  cage.  His  moral  courage,  however,  was 
not  proof  against  the  seductive  offers  of  his  former  chief, 
to  whom  he  transferred  the  army,  as  well  as  his  own 
services.  He  fought  with  his  usual  resolution  at  Water- 
loo, where  he  led  several  charges  of  the  Old  Guard  and 
had  five  horses  shot  under  him.  He  was  tried  for  treason 
by  the  court  of  the  peers,  and  shot  on  the  7th  of  De- 
cember, 1815. 

"  When  the  Parisians  awoke,"  says  Lamartine,  "  and 
found  that  Ney  had  been  executed,  bitter  shame  seized 
on  every  soul.  .  .  .  We  must  say,  however,  in  the  de- 
fence of  the  king  and  the  ministers,  that  they  were  re- 
pugnant, from  moderation,  honour,  and  sensibility,  to 
this  useless,  cruel,  and  shameful  sacrifice.  In  their  eyes, 
and  in  those  of  the  impartial  portion  of  the  world,  Ney 
was  a  great  culprit,  but  his  was  a  glorious  life.  His 
fault  was  among  those  which  are  condemned  but  par- 
doned. He  had  redeemed  it  beforehand  by  exploits 
which  will  be  an  eternal  theme  in  the  camps  of  France." 
("  History  of  the  Restoration.") 

See  "Menioiresdu  Marechal  Ney,"  published  by  his  family,  1833; 
RouvAL,  "Vie  du  Marechal  Ney,"  1833:  Dumoulin,  "Histoire 
du  Proces  du  Marechal  Ney,"  2  vols.,  1815;  J.  Nollet-Fabert, 
"filoge  historique  du  Marechal  Ney,"  1852;  Charlemont,  "Vie 
du  Marechal  Ney,"i8i4;  Vergara,  "  Vida  del  Mariscal  Ney," 
1819;  Thiers,  "History  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale  " 

Ney,  (Michel  Louis  F^lix,)  Due  d'Elchingen,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1804.  He  served  several 
campaigns  in  Algeria,  and  became  a  general  of  brigade 
in  1851.    Died  in  1854. 

Ney,  (Napoleon  Henri  Edgar,)  Prince  of  the 
Moskwa,  a  son  of  Marshal  Ney,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1812.  He  entered  the  army  about  1830,  was  elected  to 
the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1850,  became  aide-de-camp 
to  the  emperor  in  1852,  and  general  of  brigade  in  1856. 

Neyen,  ni'en  or  wi'hn',  (Auguste,)  a  Belgian  his- 
torian, born  at  Luxemburg  in  1809.  Among  his  works 
is  "Biographie  Luxembourgeoise,"  (2  vols.,  1861.) 

Neyn,  nin,  (Pieter,)  a  I)utch  painter  and  architect, 
born  at  Leyden  in  1597  ;  died  in  1639. 

Neyra.    See  Mf.ndana. 

Nezahualcoyotl,  ni-zd-whll-ko-yotl',  surnamed  the 
Great,  King  of  Tezcuco,  born  in  1403.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished as  a  legislator  and  a  patron  of  the  sciences. 
Died  in  1470. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico." 

Ni  or  Ne.    See  Confucius. 

Nibby,  n^b'bee,  (Antonio,)  an  antiquary,  born  at 
Rome  in  1792.  He  became  professor  of  archaeology  in 
the  College  of  Rome  in  1820.  He  was  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  French  Institute,  and  the  author  of  several 
antiquarian  works.  He  also  published  a  translation  of 
Pausanias,  with  notes.    Died  in  1839. 

Nibelungen-Lied.    See  Siegfried. 

Niboyet,  ne'bwS'yi',  (Eugenie,)  a  French  authoress, 
born  about  1804.  She  wrote  several  educational  works 
and  novels,  and  founded  in  1844  a  socialist  journal. 

Nicaenetus,  ni-s§n'e-tus,  [Gr.  Nt/caiVerof  ;  Fr.  Nic^:- 
n^te,  ne'si'nit',]  a  Greek  epigrammatic  poet,  born  at 
Abdera  or  Samos,  probably  lived  in  the  third  century 
B.C.  Several  of  his  epigrams  are  inserted  in  Jacobs's 
"  Anthology." 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NICJISE 


1672 


NICE  RON 


Nicaise,  ne'kiz',  (Claude,)  a  French  antiquary,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1623.  He  published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Music 
of  the  Ancients,"  "  On  the  Sirens,"  etc.,  and  other  works. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  principal  Academies  of  Europe. 
Died  in  1701. 

See  "  Menagiana." 

Nicaise,  ne'kaz',  [Lat.  Nica'sius,]  Saint,  a  Christian 
prelate  and  martyr,  became  Bishop  of  Rheims.  ^He  was 
put  to  death  by  the  Vandals  when  they  sacked  that  city, 
in  407  a.d. 

See  FrsQUET,  "  France  pontificale." 

Ni-can'd^r,  [Gr.  Nucavdpog ;  Fr:  Nicandre,  ne'- 
kSNdk',]  a  celebrated  Greek  physician  and  poet,  born 
near  Colophon,  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  about  1 75- 
135  B.C.  Of  his  numerous  works  only  two  have  come 
down  to  us  entire.  These '  are  two  poems,  entitled 
"  Theriaca"  and  "  Alexipharmaca."  The  latter  treats  of 
venomous  animals  and  the  remedies  for  their  wounds. 
As  a  poet,  he  is  eulogized  by  Cicero,  but  severely  criti- 
cised by  other  writers.  His  works  are  said  to  be  obscure 
and  jiedantic.  Among  his  lost  works  was  a  poem  of 
Georgics,  which  Virgil  is  said  to  have  imitated. 

See  Haller,  "  Bibliotlieca  Botanica ;"  Clinton,  "Fasti  Hel- 
lenici." 

Nicander,  a  king  of  Sparta,  of  the  family  of  Pro- 
clidae,  was  a  son  of  Charilaus.   He  reigned  about  780  B.C. 

Nicander,  ne-k^u'der,  (Karl  August,)  a  distin- 
guished Swedish  poet,  born  at  Strengnas  in  1799.  In 
1826  he  obtained  the  first  prize  from  the  Swedish  Acad- 
emy for  his  "Death  of  Tasso."  He  visited  Italy  in 
1827,  and  published  on  his  return  "Recollections  of  the 
South."  Among  his  other  vtorks  we  may  name  "The 
Runic  Sword,  or  the  First  Knight,"  a  tragedy,  in  verse, 
(1821,)  "King  Enzio,"  (1825,)  and  "  Runor."  These  are 
said  to  be  excellent  models,  both  in  style  and  other 
respects.    Died  in  1839. 

See  Crusenstolpe,  "  C.  A.  Nicander,"  1840;  G.  H.  Mellin, 
"K.  A.  Nicander,"  1839. 

Nicandre.    See  Nicander. 

Ni-ca'nor,  [Gr.  Ni«:avwp,]  a  Macedonian  officer,  com- 
manded the  foot-guards  of  Alexander  the  Great  at  the 
battles  of  the  Grani'cus,  Issus,  and  Arbela.  He  died 
about  330.    He  was  a  son  of  the  famous  Parmenio. 

Nicanor,  a  Macedonian  general,  who  became  gov- 
ernor of  Cappadocia  in  321  B.C.  As  a  partisan  or  ally 
of  Antigonus,  he  fought  against  Eumenes.  He  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Media  about  316,  and  was  defeated 
in  battle  by  Seleucus  near  the  Tigris  in  312  B.C. 

Nicanor,  a  Greek  general,  commanded  an  army  which 
Demetrius  I.,  King  of  Syria,  sent  to  subjugate  Judea. 
He  was  defeated  and  killed  by  Judas  Maccabaeus. 

Nicanor,  called  IiTiyfiana^,  an  eminent  Greek  gram- 
marian of  Alexandria  or  Hierapolis,  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Hadrian,  (11 7-1 38  a.d.)  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  Punc- 
tuation, and  annotations  on  Homer. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotlieca  Graeca." 

Nicasius.    See  Nicaise. 

Niccoli,  nfek'ko-lee,  or  Nicoli,  ne'ko-le,  [Lat.  Nico'- 

LUS,J  (NiCCOLO,)  a  learned  Florentine,  born  in  1364, 
who  rendered  important  services  to  literature  by  the 
discovery  of  ancient  authors  and  by  transcribing  manu- 
scripts. At  his  death,  in  1437,  he  bequeathed  his  valuable 
library  to  the  public.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
man  in  modern  times  who  founded  a  public  library. 

See  Vespasiano,  "  Vita  Nicoli ;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Let- 
teratura  Italiana." 

Niccolini,  n^k-ko-lee'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an 
Italian  poet  and  dramatist,  born  near  Pisa  in  1 785.  He 
was  appointed  in  1807  professor  of  history  and  mythol- 
ogy in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Florence.  He  was 
the  author  of  tragedies  entitled  "Antonio  Foscarini," 
(1827,)  "Polissena,"  "Giovanni  da  Procida,"  (1830,)  and 
"Filijipo  Strozzi,"  (1847.)    Died  in  1861. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe:"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  G^nerale  :"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1836. 

Niccolo,  the  Italian  for  Nicholas,  which  see. 

Niccolo,  ne'ko'lo',  or  Nicolas,  we^ko^W,  (Isouard,) 
a  French  dramatic  composer,  born  at  Malta  in  1775.  He 
produced  numerous  operas,  among  which  are  "  Joconde" 
and  "  Jeannot  et  Colin."    He  died  in  Paris  in  1818. 

See  Fetis.  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 


Niccolo  d'Arezzo,  n^k-ko-lo'  d^-rgt'so,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Arezzo  about  1350.  He  worked  at 
Florence  and  Rome.    Died  in  141 7. 

Niccolo  da  Pisa,  n^k-ko-lo'  di  pee'sS,  or  Niccolo 
Pisano,  o^k-ko-lo'  pe-si'no,  an  eminent  Italian  archi- 
tect and  sculptor,  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  church  and 
monastery  of  the  Holy  Trinity  at  Florence,  and  the 
church  of  San  Antonio  at  Padua.  His  bas-reliefs  in  the 
cathedral  of  Sienna  were  esteemed  superior  to  any  sculp- 
tures of  the  kind  since  the  antique.    Died  about  1278. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.;  Quatremere  de 
Quincy,  "Vies  des  plus  illustres  Architectes." 

Niccolo  del  Abate.    See  Abb  ate. 

Niccols.    See  Nichols,  (Richard.) 

Ni'ce  or  Ni'ke,  [Gr.  NIktj,]  the  goddess  of  victory 
in  the  Greek  mythology,  was,  according  to  Hesiod,  the 
daughter  of  Paflas  and  Styx,  and  corresponded  to  the 
Victoria  of  the  Romans. 

Nicenete.    See  Nic.^;netus. 

Nicephore.    See  Nickphorus. 

Ni-geph'o-rus  [Gr.  NiKTjipdpo^ ;  Fr.  Nicephore,  ne'- 
sa'foR'J  I.,  Enijjeror  of  Constantinople,  became  leader 
in  802  of  a  conspiracy  against  the  empress  Irene,  who 
had  usurped  the  throne,  and,  having  banished  her,  was 
made  emperor.  In  811  he  was  slain,  while  fighting  the 
Bulgarians. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Nicephorus  II.,  surnamed  Phocas,  a  distinguished 
Byzantine  commander,  married  about  963  the  widow  of 
Romanus  II.,  and  assumed  the  title  of  emperor.  He 
gained  several  victories  over  the  Saracens  in  Syria  and 
Cilicia,  but  was  assassinated  by  John  Zimisces  in  969. 

Nicephorus  III.,  surnamed  Botani'ates,  a  Byzantine 
officer,  having  in  1078  revolted  against  Michael  Ducas, 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  emperor  in  his  stead. 
He  was,  however,  soon  compelled  to  give  up  the  throne 
to  Alexis  Comnenus,  who  banished  him.    Died  in  1081. 

See  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Nicephorus,  [Fr.  Nicephore,  ne'sSToR',]  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  and  a  Byzantine  historian,  born  about 
758  A.D.,  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  iconoclasts. 
He  obtained  the  office  of  patriarch  in  806,  and  was  de- 
posed in  815  by  Leo  V.  He  wrote,  in  Greek,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Eastern  Empire  from 
602  to  770A.D.,"  the  Latin  title  of  which  is  "  Breviarium 
Historicum."  He  was  one  of  the  best  writers  of  his 
time.    Died  in  828  a.d. 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Ni-geph'o-rus  Blem''mi-das,  a  Greek  ecclesiastic 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  lived  at  Nicasa.  He  wrote 
several  works  "On  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit." 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Ni-geph'o-rus  Cal-lis'tus,  a  learned  Byzantine 
monk  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was  the  author  of  an 
"  Ecclesiastical  History  from  the  Birth  of  Christ  to  911." 

See  Cave,  "Historia  Literaria." 

Ni-geph'o-rus  Greg'o-ras,  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople, flourished  in  the  fourteenth  century.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "  Byzantine  History,"  in  twenty-eight 
books,  twenty-four  of  which  are  extant. 

Ni-ggr'a-tus,  [NiKr^parog,]  a  Greek  physician  who 
flourished  about  40  B.C.  None  of  his  writings  are  extant ; 
but  he  is  mentioned  by  Pliny,  Dioscorides,  and  others. 

Niceron,  n^s'riw',  ?*  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French 
mathematician  and  optician,  born  in  Paris  in  1613. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Descartes.  He  published  "Thau- 
maturgus  Opticus  :  de  iis  quag  spectant  ad  Visionem 
directam,"  (1646.)    Died  at  \\x  in  1646. 

Niceron,  ne'si'r6N'  ?*  (  Jean  Pierre,)  a  noted  French 

*  Some  of  the  best  French  authorities  are  not  consistent  with 
themselves  in  regard  to  the  spelling  of  this  name.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale"  the  name,  whenever  re- 
ferred to,  appears  to  be  invariably' written  with  the  accent  on  the  second 
syllable, —  Niceron, — but  under  the  biographical  notice  it  is  spelled 
Nicekon,  which  is  also  the  spelling  of  the  "  Biographie  Universelle." 
But  tiiis  fact  will  not  by  any  means  be  deemed  decisive  by  those  who 
are  aware  of  the  exceeding  negligence  of  most  French  writers  in  re- 
gard to  marking  the  accent.  It  has  become  very  common  in  France 
to  omit  the  accent  in  certain  names  (<?  Petion)  in  writing,  but  to 
pronounce  the  name  as  if  spelled  with  an  accent.  (See  note  under 
"  Petion"  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gendrale.") 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  /ono-;  k,  b,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,    i,  9,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


NICETJS  1673  NICHOLLS 


litterateur,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1685.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  "  Memoirs  towards  the  History  of 
Illustrious  Writers,"  (43  vols.,  1727-45,)  a  production 
of  great  value,  partly  original  and  partly  compiled.  He 
died  in  1738,  having  published  thirty-nine  volumes,  to 
which  four  were  afterwards  added.  He  was  professor 
of  rhetoric  and  philosophy  in  several  colleges. 

See  GoujET,  "  filoge  de  J.  P.  Niceron,"  in  vol.  xl.  of  his  "  Me- 
moires." 

Ni-9e'tas,  [Gr.  Ni/c^raf,]  a  Byzantine  physician,  sup- 
posed to  have  flourished  in  the  eleventh  century.  He 
left  a  collection  of  surgical  works  in  manuscript,  copies 
of  which  are  preserved  in  Paris  and  Florence. 

Ni-9e'tas  A-com-i-na'tus,  ['A/co/zivarof,]  surnamed 
Choni'ates,  a  Byzantine  historian  of  the  twelfth  century, 
wrote  a  "History  of  the  Greek  Emperors  from  1117 
to  1203,"  in  twenty-one  books  ;  also  a  "  Description  of 
the  Monuments  destroyed  by  the  Franks  at  the  Taking 
of  Constantinople."    Died  about  I2i6. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Ni-eh'ol,  (John  Pringle,)  a  British  astronomer  and 
philosopher,  born  at  Brechin,  in  Scotland,  in  1804,  was 
educated  for  the  ministry.  He  gained  distinction  as  a 
lecturer  on  science,  and  as  a  writer.  About  1836  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  astronomy  in  the  University  of 
Glasgow.  He  published  popular  works  entitled  "  The 
Architecture  of  the  Heavens,"  (1836,)  "The  Stellar 
Heavens,"  "The  Solar  System,"  and  a  "Dictionary 
of  the  Physical  Sciences."  His  style  is  vigorous  and 
attractive.  He  wrote  numerous  articles  for  the  "Im- 
perial Dictionary  of  Biography."    Died  in  1859. 

Ni-eh'o-las  (Lat.  Nicola'us  ;  Fr.  Nicolas,  ne''ko'ia'; 
It.  N1CCOL6,' n^k-ko-lo' ;  Ger.  NiKOLAUS,  nik'o-lowss'] 
I.,  Pope,  succeeded  Benedict  III.  in  858  A.D.  Not  long 
after,  he  was  engaged  in  a  broil  with  Photius,  who  had 
intruded  himself  into  the  patriarchal  see  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  the  result  was  a  schism  between  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Churches.  He  died  in  867,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Adrian  II. 

Nicholas  II.,  Pope,  (called  Gerard  of  Burgundy,) 
succeeded  Stephen  IX.  in  1059.  Under  his  rule  a 
decree  was  passed  concerning  the  method  of  electing 
popes.  Nicholas'  bestowed  upon  Robert  Guiscard  the 
duchy  of  Apulia  and  Calabria  as  a  fief  of  the  Roman  see. 
He  died  in  1061,  and  was  succeeded  by  Alexander  II. 

Nicholas  III.  (Giovanni  Gaetaui — gS-a-ti'nee) 
succeeded  John  XXI.  as  pope  in  1277.  He  obtained 
from  the  emperor  Rudoljih  of  Germany  the  confirma- 
tion of  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna,  and  other  grants  of 
territory,  said  to  have  been  made  by  former  emperors. 
He  died  in  1280,  and  was  succeeded  by  Martin  IV. 

Nicholas  IV.,  Pope,  (called  Jerome  of  Ascoli,) 
succeeded  Honorius  IV.  in  1288.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  conmientaries  on  the  Scriptures.  He  died  in  1292, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Celestine  V. 

See  J.  Rossi,  (Rubeus,)  "  Vita  Nicolai  Papae  IV.,"  1761. 

Nicholas  V.  (called  Thomas  of  Sarzana)  succeeded 
Eugenius  IV.  in  1447.  Having  persuaded  Felix  V.,  who 
had  been  made  pope  by  the  Council  of  Bale  in  1439,  to 
resign  in  his  favour,  he  thus  restored  peace  to  the  West- 
ern Church.  He  was  a  munificent  patron  of  learning, 
and  the  founder  of  the  Vatican  Library.  Died  in  1455, 
aged  about  fifty-seven. 

See  Manetti,  "Vita  Nicolai  V. ;"  Giorgi,  "Vita  Nicolai  V.," 
1742. 

Nicholas  [in  Russian,  Nikolai  Pavlovitch,  ne-ko- 
ll'e  (or  ne-ko-lT')  piv'lo-vitch]  L,  Emperor  of  Russia, 
born  at  or  near  Saint  Petersburg  in  July,  1796,  was  the 
third  son  of  Paul  I.  His  mother  was  Mary  of  Wiirtem- 
berg.  He  was  instructed  in  the  languages,  sciences,  etc. 
by  the  philologist  Adelung  and  the  counsellor  Storch. 
He  learned  to  speak  French  and  German  fluently.  In 
181 7  he  married  a  daughter  of  Frederick  William,  King 
of  Prussia,  who,  on  joining  the  Greek  Church,  changed 
her  name  to  Alexandra.  On  the  death  of  Alexander  I., 
in  December,  1825,  Nicholas  succeeded  him  without  op- 
position from  his  elder  brother,  Constantine,  who  was 
notoriously  unfit  to  reign,  and  who  had  been  induced  by 
Alexander  to  renounce  his  claim  to  the  throne.  His 
accession,  however,  was  the  occasion  of  a  dangerous 


revolt  among  the  troops  of  the  capital,  instigated  by  an 
extensive  conspiracy,  or  secret  society,  the  design  of 
which  was  to  make  a  radical  change  in  the  government 
This  revolt  was  not  suppressed  without  much  blood- 
shed, and  many  nobles  implicated  in  the  conspiracy 
were  exiled  to  Siberia.  This  affair  tended  to  confirm 
his  despotic  propensities. 

Among  the  first  events  of  his  reign  was  a  war  against 
Persia,' from  which  he  conquered  the  province  of  Erivan 
in  i827.'  In  1828  war  broke  out  between  Russia  and 
Turkey.  The  Russian  army,  after  several  successes, 
crossed  the  Balkan  and  took  Adrianople.  Peace  was 
restored  in  September,  1829,  by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople, 
in  accordance  with  which  a  large  territory  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  Black  Sea  was  added  to  the  Russian  empire. 
In  November,  1830,  con\menced  a  great  insurrecti  r.  cf 
the  Poles,  who  were  subjugated  by  the  Russian  armies 
under  Diebitsch  and  Paskevitch  and  were  punished  with 
great  severity.  In  1832  order  again  reigned  in  Warsaw. 
The  ambition  of  Nicholas  also  involved  him  in  a  long 
war  for  the  conquest  of  Circassia,  which  he  did  not  live 
to  complete.  His  disregard  of  the  claims  of  liberty  and 
justice  was  palpably  exhibited  in  his  armed  intervention 
against  the  Hungarians,  who  were  subjugated  by  the 
Russian  and  Austrian  armies  in  1849. 

Nicholas  had  long  entertained  ambitious  designs 
respecting  Turkey,  which  at  length  involved  him  in  a 
disastrous  war.  In  the  spring  of  1853  he  demanded  of 
the  Sultan  the  protectorate  of  all  the  Turkish  subjects 
who  professed  the  Greek  religion.  The  Sultan  refused 
to  submit  to  this  demand,  and  France  and  England 
united  to  defend  him  against  the  aggressions  of  Russia. 
Hostilities  commenced  in  October,  1853.  Nicholas,  who 
probably  did  not  expect  that  France  and  England  would 
fight,  was  ill  prepared  for  a  war  of  such  magnitude. 
The  Russian  army  crossed  the  Danube  in  the  spring  of 

1854,  and  besieged  Silistria  without  success.  The  Eng- 
lish and  French  fleets  entered  the  Black  Sea,  and  landed 
the  allied  armies  in  the  Crimea,  in  September,  1854. 
The  allies  gained  decisive  victories  at  Alma  and  Inker- 
man,  and  commenced  the  long  and  famous  siege  of 
Sebastopol.  In  the  mean  time  another  English  fleet 
gained  victories  in  the  Baltic,  and  threatened  the  capital 
of  Russia.  Nicholas  was  overtasked  by  the  labours 
which  his  im])erious  will  and  despotic  policy  imposed  on 
him  as  sole  director  and  dictator  of  so  vast  an  empire. 
Before  the  end  of  the  war  he  died,  on  the  2d  of  March, 

1855,  succeeded  by  his  son,  Alexander  II.  He 
left  four  sons,  Alexander,  Constantine,  Nicholas,  and 
Michael.  Nicholas  I.  was  a  man  of  tall  stature  and 
imposing  presence,  with  great  capacity  of  endurance. 

See  F.  NoRK,  (anagram  of  Korn,)  "  Kaiser  Nicolaus  I.,"  etc., 
1848;  Adrien  Gii.son,  "  Nicolas  I  et  Abdiii-Medjid,"  1853  ;  "  Nuu- 
velie  Biograpliie  Geiierale ;"  E.  Michei.sen,  "Life  of  Nicholas, 
Emperor  of  all  the  Riissias,"  1S54  ;  Henry  Christmas,  "  Nicholas 
L,  Emperor,"  etc.,  1854;  "Biographical  Sketches,"  by  Harriet 
Martineau;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1855;  "Jahrbuch 
zum  Conversations-Lexikon"  for  1858. 

Ni-eh'o-las,  (Henry,)  a  fanatic,  born  at  Miinster  or 
Leyden,  founded  about  1540  a  sect  called  "The  Family 
of  I.ove."    He  pretended  that  he  was  superior  to  Christ. 

Nich'o-las,  (Wilson  Cary,)  an  American  officer  and 
statesman,  served  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  was 
elected  a  Senator  from  Virginia  in  1799.  He  became 
Governor  of  that  State  in  1814.    Died  in  1820. 

Nicholas  Damascenus.    See  Damascenus. 

Nicholas  de  Cusa.    See  Cusa. 

Nicholas  de  Lyra.    See  Lyra. 

Nicholas  Paulovitch,  (or  Pavlovitch.)  See 
Nicholas  I.  of  Russia. 

Nicholle  de  la  Croix,  ne'shol'  deh  It  kRw^,  (Louis 
Antoine,)  a  French  geographical  writer,  born  in  Paris 
in  1704 ;  died  in  1760, 

Ni-eh'plls,  (Frank,)  a  distinguished  anatomist  and 
physician,  born  in  London  in  1699.  He  married  in 
1743  a  daughter  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Mead,  and  on  the 
death  of  Sir  Hans  Sloane  became  physician  to  George 
II.  He  wrote  several  able  scientific  treatises,  and  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.    Died  in  1779. 

Nicholls,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  economist  and 
writer  on  poor-laws,  was  born  in  Cornwall  in  1781.  He 
became  secretary  of  the  poor-law  commission  about  1847. 


€  as  >6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  =th  as  in  this.    (gl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NICHOLLS 


NICOLAI 


He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Eng- 
lish Poor-Lavv,"  (1854.)    Died  in  1865. 

NichoUs,  (William,/  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
in  Buckinghamshire  in  1664.  Among  his  writings  we 
may  mention  '*  A  Defence  of  the  Church  of  England," 
and  *'  The  Religion  of  a  Prince."    Died  in  1712. 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxoiiienses." 

Ni-eh'ols,  (Ichabod,)  D.D.,  an  American  Unitarian 
divine,  born  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  in  1784. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  On  Natural  Theology," 
and  "  Hours  with  the  Evangelists,"  the  latter  published 
after  his  death.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  mathe- 
matical attainments,  and  was  for  a  time  vice-president 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences.  Died 
in  1859. 

Ni-eh'ols,  (John,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  at 
Islington  in  1 744,  was  a  partner  of  William  Bowyer, 
the  eminent  printer.  He  became  in  1778  one  of  the 
publishers  of  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  and  was 
subsequently  editor  of  that  journal  for  many  years.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  the  "History  and  An- 
tiquities of  Leicestershire,"  (6  vols.,  1795-1811,)  and 
"Literary  Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (8 
vols.,  1812-15.)    Died  in  1826. 

See  A.  Chalmers,  "Memoir  of  J.  Nichols,"  1826;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  October  and  November,  1782,  and  November,  1813. 

Nichols,  (John  Bowyer,)  an  archaeologist,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1780.  He  succeeded 
his  father  in  business,  and  edited  several  volumes  of  the 
"Illustrations  of  the  Literary  History  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,"  which  his  father  commenced.    Died  in  1863. 

Nichols,  (John  Gough,)  an  English  antiquary,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  London  about  1807.  He 
was  editor  of  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  many 
years,  ending  in  1856.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  The  Herald  and  Genealogist." 

Nichols  or  Niccols,  (Richard,)  an  English  poet, 
born  in  London  in  1584.  He  wrote  "The  Cuckow," 
a  poem,  (1607,)  and  published  a  new  edition  of  "The 
Mirror  for  Magistrates,"  (1610,)  to  which  he  added  a 
"  Winter  Night's  Vision,"  and  a  piece  on  the  Life  of 
Queen  Elizabeth. 

Ni-eh'ol-son,  (Alfred  Osborn  Pope,)  an  American 
statesman  and  journalist,  born  in  Williamson  county, 
Tennessee,  in  1808.  He  has  been  successively  editor  of 
the  "Western  Mercury,"  the  "Nashville  Union,"  and 
the  "  Washington  Union,"  an  organ  of  President  Pierce. 
In  1857  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate. 

Nicholson,  (James,)  an  American  naval  officer,  born 
at  Chestertown,  Maryland,  in  1737;  died  about  1804. 
His  brother  Samuel  attained  the  rank  of  commodore, 
and  became  commander  of  the  frigate  Constitution. 
Died  in  181 1. 

Ni-eh'pl-son,  (John,)  a  British  general,  born  in  Ire- 
land in  1 82 1  or  1822.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
war  against  the  Afghans  and  in  the  campaign  against 
the  Sikhs.  In  the  Sepoy  mutiny  he  commanded  a 
column  or  division,  and  performed  an  important  part  in 
the  capture  of  Delhi.  He  died  of  wounds  received  at 
Delhi  in  September,  1857. 

See  J.  W.  Kaye,  "  Lives  of  Indian  Officers,"  vol.  ii.,  London,  1867. 

Nicholson,  (William.)    See  Nicolson. 

Nicholson,  (William,)  an  English  chemist  and  sci- 
entific writer,  born  in  London  about  1755.  He  published, 
ami^ng  other  works,  a  "  Dictionary  of  Chemistry,"  (2  vols., 
1795,)  and  a  "  Journal  of  Natural  Philosophy,  Chemistry, 
and  the  Arts,"  (5  vols.,  1797-1800.)    Died  in  1815. 

Nicias,  nish'e-as,  or  Nik'i-as,  [Nt/cmf,]  a  celebrated 
Athenian  general,  was  the  son  of  Niceratus,  who  left 
him  a  large  fortune.  His  moderate  and  cautious  char- 
acter and  conservative  principles  identified  him  with  the 
aristocratic  party.  On  the  death  of  Pericles  he  became 
a  prominent  opponent  of  Cleon,  the  democratic  leader. 
By  prudence  rather  than  by  skill,  he  generally  obtained 
success  in  his  earlier  military  operations  against  the 
Spartans.  In  426  B.C.  he  commanded  a  successful  ex- 
pedition against  Melos,  and  in  421;  invaded  Corinth, 
the  army  of  which  he  defeated.  Cleon,  his  princij^al 
rival,  having  died,  Nicias  exerted  his  influence  in  favour 
of  peace,  and  a  treaty  was  made  between  Athens  and 
Sparta  in  421  B.C.    This  was  called  the  peace  of  Nicias, 


A  long  contest  ensued  between  him  and  Alcibiades,  the 
leader  of  the  democracy,  who  wished  to  renew  the  war, 
and  who  prevailed  in  415,  when  an  expedition  was  sent 
against  Syracuse,  the  ally  of  Sparta.  Nicias,  Alcibiades, 
and  Lamachus  were  chosen  joint  commanders;  but  the 
second  was  recalled  before  the  fleet  arrived  at  Syracuse. 
In  the  spring  of  414  Nicias  blockaded  the  port  of  Syra- 
cuse, seized  the  heights  of  Epipolae,  and  had  nearly  en- 
closed the  city  on  the  land  side  by  a  wall,  when  Gylippus, 
the  Spartan  general,  arrived.  Nicias  was  disabled  by  ill 
health  and  wished  to  resign,  but  was  compelled  to  retain 
the  command.  The  Athenians  were  defeated  in  several 
actions  on  land  and  water,  and  the  timidity  or  incapacity 
of  Nicias  caused  the  total  loss  of  his  large  army.  He 
was  made  prisoner,  and  put  to  death  in  414  or  413  B.C. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Nicias;"  Grote,  "History  of  Greece," 
vol.  vii.  chaps.  Ivii.,  Iviii.,  lix.,  Ix. ;  Thucyuides,  "  History ;"  Thirl- 
WALL,  *'  History  of  Greece." 

Nicias,  a  celebrated  Greek  painter,  born  at  Athens, 
flourished  probably  between  350  and  300  B.C.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  Antidotus,  and  is  also  called  the  most  eminent 
disciple  of  Euphranor.  According  to  Pliny,  he  was  em- 
ployed by  Praxiteles  to  colour  or  varnish  marble  statues, 
( in  statuis  ciraimlinendis.)  This  was  probably  in  his 
youth,  before  he  had  attained  celebrity.  He  painted  chiefly 
in  encaustic,  and  was  very  skilful  in  representing  female 
figures.  He  excelled  in  design  and  chiaroscuro.  His 
master-piece  was  a  picture  of  the  infernal  regions  as 
described  by  Homer,  "Necromantia  Homeri,"  which, 
says  Plutarch,  he  refused  to  sell  to  Ptolemy  of  Egypt, 
although  he  was  offered  the  enormous  price  of  sixty 
talents.  Among  his  other  works  were  a  "  Calypso,"  a 
"Diana,"  and  a  "  Hyacinthus." 

See  SiLLiG,  "  Catalogus  Artificum ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Nicias,  physician  to  Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus,  pro- 
posed to  Fabricius,  the  Roman  general,  to  poison  his 
master  for  a  sum  of  money.  His  treachery  being  dis- 
closed by  Fabricius,  he  was  put  to  death. 

Ni-co-eh'a-res,  [N(/co;t:ap;yf,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet, 
was  a  son  of  the  poet  Philonides,  and  a  contemporary 
of  Aristophanes.  He  flourished  about  375  B.C.  His 
works  are  lost. 

Nic'o-cles,  [  Gr.  Ni/co/cA^f,]  *King  of  Salamis,  in 
Cyprus,  was  a  son  of  Evagoras  I.  He  began  to  reign 
about  375  B.C.    Isocrates  wrote  a  panegyric  on  him. 

Nicodeme.    See  Nicodemus. 

Nicodemo.    See  Nicodemus. 

Nic-o-de'mus,  [Gr,  NtKodrjfioc ;  Fr.  Nicodeme,  ne'- 
ko'dim' ;  It.  Nicodkmo,  ne-ko-da'mo,]  a  Pharisee  and 
ruler  of  the  Jews. 

See  John  iii.  and  xix,  39. 

Nic-o-de'mus,  [Fr.  Nicodeme,  ne'koMim',]  (Adam 
Burchard  Selly,)  a  Russian  monk  and  historian, 
of  Danish  origin.  His  chief  work  is  "  De  Rossorum 
Hierarchia,"  (5  vols.)    Died  in  1746. 

Nicolai,  nee'ko-li^  (Christoph  Friedrich,)  a  cele- 
brated German  litterateur,  born  at  Berlin  in  1733.  Having 
at  an  early  age  acquired  the  friendship  of  Lessing  and 
Moses  Mendelssohn,  he  published,  conjointly  with  the 
latter,  the  first  four  volumes  of  the  "  Library  of  Belles- 
Lettres,"  (1758.)  "The  Universal  German  Library," 
("  AUgemeine  Deutsche  Bibliothek,")  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  several  eminent  writers,  came  out  in  1792, 
in  106  vols.  A  continuation  of  this  standard  work  was 
published  in  1805,  making  in  all  162  vols.  Among  his 
other  writings  may  be  named  a  "  Description  of  Berlin 
and  Potsdam,"  "  Life  and  Opinions  of  Sebaldus  No- 
thanker,"  (3  vols.,  1773,)  a  "Tour  through  Germany  and 
Switzerland,"  (12  vols.,  1783,)  and  "Anecdotes  of  Fred- 
erick II.,"  (1788.)  The  conservative  spirit  of  Nicolai's 
criticisms,  and  his  hostility  to  all  innovations  in  German 
literature,  exposed  him  to  the  severe  strictures  of  Goethe, 
Schiller,  and  other  writers  of  the  time.    Died  in  1811. 

See  GocKiNG,  "Nicolai's  Leben  und  literarischen  Nachlass;" 
J.  G.  FiCHTE,  "F.  Nicolai's  Leben  und  sonderbare  Meinungen," 
1811;  Meusel,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Nicolai,  (Ernst  Anton,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  at  Sondershausen  in  1722.  He  became  professor 
at  Jena  in  1758,  and  wrote  numerous  works.  Died 
in  1802. 


S,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,    i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  ftt;  mgt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


NICOLJI 


NICOMACHUS 


Nicolai,  ne''kont^e',  (Jean,)  a  French  theologian,  born 
at  Monza  in  1594.  He  wrote  several  polemical  works 
against  the  Jansenists,  and  edited  Thomas  Aquinas, 
(1663.)    Died  in  1673. 

Nicolai,  (Johann,)  a  German  antiquary,  born  at  Ilm 
in  1665.  He  wrote  numerous  works  on  Jewish,  Greek, 
and  Roman  antiquities.    Died  in  1708. 

Nicolai,  (Philipp,)  a  German  Lutheran  theologian, 
born  at  Mengeringhausen  in  1556.  He  preached  at 
Hamburg,  and  published  several  works  on  theology. 
Died  in  1608. 

Nicolai,  de,  deh  ne'koltV,  (Antoine  Chretien,) 
Co.MTE,  a  French  general,  born  in  1712,  commanded  a 
corps  at  Rossbach,  Crefeld,  and  Minden,  (1758.)  He 
became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1775.    Died  in  1777. 

Nicolas,  the  French  for  Nicholas,  which  see. 

Nicolas,  ne'ko'li',  (Auguste,)  a  French  writer  and 
judge,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1807.    His  chief  work  is 

l^hilosophical  Studies  on  Christianity,"  (4  vols.,  1842- 
45,)  which  obtained  great  success. 

Nicolas,  (AuGUSTiN,)  a  French  poet  litterateur, 
born  at  ljesan9on  in  1622;  died  in  1695. 

Nicolas,  (Michel,)  a  learned  French  writer  and 
philosopher,  born  at  Nimes  in  1810,  is  a  Protestant 
minister.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Mon- 
tauban  about  1838.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
a  "Treatise  on  Eclecticism,"  (1840,)  and  a  "Literary 
History  of  Nimes,"  (3  vols.,  1854.)  He  wrote  many, 
articles  for  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Nic'o-las,  (Sir  Nicholas  Harris,)  a  distinguished 
English  antiquary  and  biographical  writer,  born  in  Corn- 
wall in  1799.  Among  his  most  important  works  are 
"Notitia  Historica,"  or  "The  Chronology  of  History," 
(1824,)  a  "Life  of  Chaucer,"  and  the  "History  of  the 
Battle  of  Agincourt."  Pie  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries.  He  left  unfinished  a  "History  of  the 
British  Navy,"  (2  vols.)    Died  in  1848. 

Nicolas,  (Pierre,)  a  French  mathematician  and  Jes- 
uit, born  at  Toulouse  in  1663.  He  wrote  able  works 
on  geometry.    Died  in  1708. 

Nicolas,  (Pierre  Franqois,)  a  French  chemist  and 
medical  writer,  born  at  Saint-Mihiel  in  1743;  died  in 
1816. 

Nicolas  OF  Amiens,  a  French  scholastic  philosopher 
and  writer,  lived  about  1 180-1200. 

Nicolas  OF  Bale,  a  Swiss  reformer,  born  at  Bale. 
He  joined  a  society  called  "Friends  of  God,"  and  was 
an  eminent  witness  to  the  spirituality  of  true  religion. 
About  1340  he  was  instrumental  in  the  conversion  of 
ohn  Tauler.    He  went  to  Rome  in  1377,  and  openly  re- 
uked  the  pope.  He  was  burned  at  the  stake  about  1395. 
See  Hodgson,  "Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Nicolaus.    See  Nicholas  L,  Pope. 

Nicolaiis  Damascenus.    See  Damascenus. 

Nicolaus  Myrepsus.    See  Myrepsus. 

Nic-o-la'us  Prsepositus,  (pre-pos'e-tus,)  surnamed 
Salerni  ta'nus,  a  physician  of  the  twelfth  century,  was 
the  founder  of  a  celebrated  medical  school  at  Salerno. 
His  "  Antidotarium"  has  often  been  confounded  with 
the  work  of  Nicolaus  Myrepsus  on  the  same  subject. 

Nicolay,  nee'ko-lf,  (Ludwig  Heinrich,)  Baron,  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1737.  He  was  ap- 
pointed, in  1769,  preceptor  to  the  grand  duke  Paul,  after- 
wards Emperor  of  Russia,  and  subsequently  became 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Saint  Petersburg. 
He  was  made  a  privy  councillor  in  1801.  His  works 
consist  of  elegies,  epistles,  narrative  poems,  and  fables. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  P.  VON  Gerschau,  "Aus  dem  Leben  des  H.  L.  Nicolay," 
1834. 

Nicole,  ne^col',  (Claude,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Chartres  in  1611,  was  a  cousin-german  of  Pierre  Nicole, 
noticed  below.  He  produced  versions  of  the  Odes  of 
Horace,  the  Elegies  of  Ovid,  and  of  other  classic  poems. 
Died  in  1685. 

Nicole,  (Francois,)  a  French  mathematician,  born 
in  Paris  in  1683.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Calculus  of  Finite  Differences,"  (1727.) 
Died  in  1758. 

Nicole,  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French  theologian  and 
philosopher,  born  at  Chartres  in  1625.  He  was  a  promi- 


nent member  of  the  institution  of  Port-Royal,  and  an 
intimate  friend  of  Arnauld,in  conjunction  with  whom  he 
wrote  the  treatise  entitled  "Perpetuity  of  the  Faith  of 
the  Catholic  Church  concerning  the  Eucharist,"  (1664.) 
His  most  important  work  is  a  collection  of  treatises  called 
"Moral  Essays  and  Theological  Instructions,"  (25  vols., 
1671  et  seq.)  One  of  these,  entitled  "On  the  Means 
of  Preserving  Peace,"  is  styled  by  Voltaire  "  a  master- 
piece of  its  kind,  to  which  we  can  find  nothing  equal  in 
antiquity."  Among  his  other  productions  we  may  name 
his  "Treatise  on  Human  Faith,"  (1664,)  and  "  Les 
Imaginaires  et  les  Visionnaires,"  (2  vols.,  1667.)  Died 
in  1695. 

See  Abb6  GoujET,  "Vie  de  Nicole;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "Port- 
Royal,"  vol.  iv.  ;  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;' 
NicERON,  "Memoires;"  Besoigne,  "Vie  de  Nicole,"  in  his  "  His- 
toire  de  Port-Royal,"  vol.  iv.  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Nicolini,  ne-ko-lee'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  lit- 
terateur, born  at  Brescia  in  1788.  He  wrote  a  didactic 
poem  "  On  the  Culture  of  Cedars,"  and  translated  the 
tragedy  of  "Macbeth"  into  Italian.    Died  in  1855. 

Nic'pll,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Perthshire 
in  1 814.  He  published  in  1835  ^  collection  of  poems, 
which  were  very  well  received.  In  1836  he  became 
editor  of  the  "  Leeds  Times,"  which,  however,  he  did 
not  long  have  charge  of,  as  he  died  the  following  year, 
at  the  age  of  twenty-two. 

See  "Brief  Biographies,"  by  Samuel  Smiles;  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Supplement;) 
"Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1842. 

NicoUe,  ne'koK,  (Charles  Dominique,)  a  French 
teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  in  the  department 
of  Seine-Inferieure  in  1758.  He  was  appointed  in  1821 
rector  of  the  Academy  of  Paris.    Died  in  1835. 

Nicolle,  (Gabriel  Henri,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1767,  and  became  successively  associate 
editor  of  the  "  Journal  Fran9ais,"  "  Courrier  Universel," 
and  "L'Eclair."    Died  in  1829. 

Nicollet,  ne'ko^la',  (Joseph  Nicolas,)  a  French  as- 
tronomer and  explorer,  born  in  Savoy  in  1786,  or,  as  some 
say,  about  1795.  He  obtained  the  place  of  secretary  and 
librarian  of  the  Observatory  of  Paris  in  181 7.  About 
1832  he  emigrated  to  the  United  States.  He  made  a 
scientific  exploration  of  the  region  drained  by  the  Mis- 
souri, Arkansas,  and  Red  Rivers.  He  was  afterwards 
employed  by  the  government  of  the  United  States  to 
explore  the  country  west  of  the  Mississippi,  of  which  he 
produced  a  good  map.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  treatise  on  the  geology  of  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Mis- 
sissippi.   Died  at  Washington  in  1843. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  Quetelet,  "Notice 
sur  J.  N.  Nicollet,"  1844. 

Nic'olls,  (Jasper,)  an  English  officer,  born  about 
1780,  served  with  distinction  in  India  in  the  campaigns 
of  1817  and  1825,  and  was  made  lieutenant-general  in 
1841.    Died  in  1849. 

Nicolls,  (Richard,)  Colonel,  an  English  officer, 
who  in  1664  compelled  the  Dutch  Governor  Stuyvesant 
to  surrender  New  Amsterdam,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  New  York.  He  was  appointed  first  English 
governor  of  that  city.  In  the  same  year  he  took  Fort 
Orange,  (or  Williamstadt,)  which  was  afterwards  called 
Albany,  in  honour  of  the  Duke  of  York  and  Albany. 

Nicolopoulo,  ne^ko-lo-poo^o,  (Constantine,)  a 
philologist,  of  Greek  extraction,  born  at  Smyrna  in  1786. 
He  became  professor  of  Greek  literature  at  the  Athe- 
naeum in  Paris,  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Revue 
encyclopedique."    Died  in  1841. 

Nicolosi,  ne-ko-lo'see,  (Giambattista,)  a  Sicilian 
geographer,  born  at  Paterno  in  1610;  died  in  1670. 

Nic'ol-son,  (William,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Cumberland  in  1655,  rose  through  various  preferments 
to  be  Archbishop  of  Cashel,  in  Ireland.  He  was  the 
author  of  three  works,  entitled  "The  English  Historical 
Library,"  (1696,)  "The  Scottish  Historical  Library," 
(1702,)  and  "The  Irish  Historical  Library,"  (1724.) 
Died  in  1727. 

Ni-com'a-ehiis,  [Gr.  l^iKOfxaxog ;  Fr.  Nicomaque, 
ne'ko'mtk',]  a  Greek  tragic  poet,  born  in  the  Troade, 
wrote  about  450-420  B.C.,  and  was  contemporary  with 
Euripides.    His  works  are  lost,  except  small  fragments. 


€  as  i;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^I^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NICOMACHUS  \6j6  NIEBUHR 


Nicomachus,  a  Greek  physician  of  Macedonia,  who 
flourished  about  400  B.C.,  was  the  father  of  Aristotle, 
and  was  patronized  by  Amyntas  II.,  King  of  Macedonia. 

Nicomachus,  a  son  of  Aristotle,  lived  about  320 
B.C.  Little  is  known  of  his  life.  His  mother  was  a 
slave,  named  Herpyllis.  Some  critics  have  ascribed  to 
him  certain  ethical  treatises  which  are  generally  included 
among  the  works  of  Aristotle. 

Nicomachus,  a  Greek  mathematician,  born  at  Gerasa, 
in  Arabia,  lived  probably  between  50  and  150  A.D.  He 
was  a  Pythagorean.  He  wrote  several  works  on  arith- 
metic, one  of  which  is  extant,  and  a  Life  of  Pythagoras, 
which  is  lost. 

Nicomachus  {^LnofLaxo^]  of  Thebes,  an  excellent 
Greek  painter,  was  a  son  and  pupil  of  the  painter  Aris- 
todenius.  He  flourished  about  350-300  B.C.  His  skill 
is  praised  by  Cicero,  who  classes  him  with  Apelles. 
Among  his  works  noticed  by  Pliny  were  "Apollo  and 
Diana,"  the  " Tyndaridae,"  and  the  "Rape  of  Proser- 
pine." He  was  renowned  for  rapidity  of  execution.  His 
brother  Aristides  was  also  an  eminent  painter. 

See  Cicero,  "Brutus." 

Nicomaque.    See  Nicomachus. 

Nicomede.  _  See  Nicomedes. 

Nic-o-me'des  [Gr.  N//co/z^(5?7f ;  Fr.  Nicomede,  ne'- 
ko'mad']  I.,  King  of  Bithynia,  began  to  reign  at  the 
death  of  his  father,  278  B.C.  He  was  opposed  by  his 
brother  Zipoetes,  and  took  into  his  service  an  army  of 
Gauls,  by  whose  aid  he  gained  the  victory.  He  founded 
the  great  city  of  Nicomedia.    Died  about  250  B.C. 

See  Dkoysen,  "  Hellenismus." 

Nic-o-me'des  II.  E-piph'a-nes  [Fr.  Nicomede 
fipiPHANE,  ne'ko^mad'  a'pe'ftn'j  was  a  son  of  Prusias 
XL,  who  sent  him  to  Rome  as  a  hostage.  He  gained 
the  favour  of  the  Roman  senate,  and  excited  the  jealousy 
of  his  father,  who  sent  an  agent  to  assassinate  him.  In- 
formed of  this  design,  Nicomedes  dethroned  and  killed 
Prusias  in  149  B.C.  He  was  afterwards  an  ally  of  the 
Romans.    Died  about  90  B.C. 

See  Justin,  books  xxxiv.,  xxxvii.,  etc. 

Nicomedes  III.,  surnamed  Philop'ator,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  whom  he  succeeded  in  91  B.C.  In  the 
Mithridatic  war,  which  ensued  soon  after,  he  was  an  ally 
of  Rome,  but,  having  been  defeated,  he  was  driven  from 
his  kingdom.  Bithynia  was  subsequently  restored  to 
Nicomedes,  who,  dying  without  children,  (74  B.C.,)  left  it 
to  the  Romans. 

Nicomedes,  a  Greek  geometer,  the  inventor  of  the 
curve  called  the  "conchoid,"  flourished  about  100  B.C. 

Ni'con  [Nkwv]  of  Pergamus,  a  Greek  architect  and 
geometer,  was  the  father  of  the  celebrated  Galen.  Died 
about  150  A.D. 

Ni'con,  Saint,  a  monk,  who  preached  in  Armenia 
about  960  A.D.,  and  wrote  a  work  "On  the  Impious  Re- 
ligion of  the  Armenians."    Died  about  998. 

Ni-coph'a-nes,  [Ni/co^av?;^,]  a  Greek  painter,  who 
is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  300  B.C.  His  works  are 
praised  by  Pliny  in  high  terms. 

Nic'o-phon  or  Nic'o-phron,  [Ni/co^wv  or  Ni«:60pwv,] 
an  Athenian  comic  poet,  lived  about  400  B.C.  Only 
small  fragments  of  his  plays  are  extant. 

Nicostrate.    See  Nicostratus. 

Ni-cos'tra-tus,  [Gr.  NiKooTparoc ;  Fr.  Nicostrate, 
ne^ko'strSt',]  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  was  a  son  of 
Aristophanes,  and  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth 
century  B.C.    His  works  are  lost. 

Nicostratus,  an  Athenian  general,  commanded  in 
the  war  against  the  Spartans  about  425  B.C.  He  was  a 
colleague  of  Nicias  in  the  expedition  to  Chalcidice. 

Nicot,  ne'ko',  (Jean,)  a  French  scholar,  born  at 
Nimes  in  1530.  By  his  merit  and  talents  he  acquired 
the  confidence  of  Henry  II.  and  his  successor,  and  was 
employed  as  secretary  of  the  king.  On  his  return  from 
an  embassy  to  Lisbon,  about  1 560,  he  brought  the  tobacco- 
plant,  which  was  then  unknown  in  France,  and  which 
was  named  in  his  honour  Nicotiana  by  the  botanists. 
The  honour  of  producing  the  first  model  of  a  French 
dictionary  is  ascribed  to  him.  It  was  entitled  "  Treasure 
of  the  French  Language,"  (1606.)    Died  in  1600. 

See  F.  HoEFER,  "  Dictionnaire  de  Botanique  pratique." 


Nicou-Choron,  ne'koo'sho'r6N',  (Stephano  Louis,) 
a  French  composer,  born  in  Paris  in  1809.  His  worka 
are  chiefly  masses,  oratorios,  and  other  kinds  of  sacred 
music. 

Nicquet,  ne'ki',  (Honorat,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
religious  writer,  born  at  Avignon  in  1585;  died  in  1667. 

Nicuesa,  de,  dk  ne-kwa'si,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  ad- 
venturer, born  in  1464,  accompanied  the  expedition  of 
Amerigo  Vespucci  to  the  Gulf  of  Urata  in  1501. 

See  Irving,  "History  of  Christopher  Columbus;"  Gomera, 
"  Historia  general  de  las  Indias." 

Nidda,  von,  fon  nid'di,  (  Friedrich  Albrecht 
Franz  Krug,)  a  German  poet,  born  near  Querfurt  in 
1776.    He  wrote  tales,  ballads,  etc.    Died  in  1841. 

Nider,  Nieder,  or  Nyder,  nee'der,  (Johannes,)  a 
German  theologian,  was  appointed  by  the  Council  of 
Bale(i53i)  to  labour  for  the  conversion  of  the  Hussites. 
Having  tried  argument  without  success,  he  resorted  to 
violent  persecution,  and  was  responsible  for  the  death 
of  thousands.    Died  about  1440. 

Nid'hogg  (NiShoggr)  or  Nidhoger,  [from  m'd, 
"malignity,"  and  hoggva,  to  "  hew"  or  "cut,"J  in  the 
Norse  mythology,  the  name  of  a  dragon  or  serpent  which 
dwells  in  the  fountain  of  Hvergelmir,*  (or  Vergelmir,) 
in  Niflheim,  and  continually  gnaws  at  the  root  of  the 
life-tree  Yggdrasil.  From  Hvergelmir  flow  the  rivers 
of  Hell.  (See  Hela.)  According  to  some  writers,  Nid- 
hogg  typifies  the  original  evil  principle  which  forms  an 
element  in  the  creed  of  so  many  of  the  Indo-Germanic 
nations. 

See  Thorpe's  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Keyser's  "Re- 
ligion of  the  Northmen." 

Niebelungen-Lied.    See  Siegfried. 

Niebuhr,  nee'booR,  (Barthold  Georg,)  a  cele- 
brated German  historian  and  critic,  born  at  Copenhagen 
on  the  27th  of  August,  1776,  was  the  son  of  Carstens  Nie- 
buhr, noticed  below.  He  had  a  great  facility  for  learning 
languages,  and  he  read  the  works  of  Shakspeare  in  the 
original  about  the  age  of  seven.  In  1794  he  entered 
the  University  of  Kiel,  where  he  profoundly  studied 
Roman  lavir,  history,  philosophy,  and  ancient  languages. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  to  Count  Schimmelmann, 
minister  of  finance  at  Copenhagen,  in  1796,  made  a  tour 
in  Great  Britain  in  1798,  and  became  an  assessor  in  the 
council  of  commerce  at  Copenhagen  in  1800.  In  the 
last-named  year  he  married  Amalie  Behrens.  In  1806 
he  passed  into  the  service  of  Prussia,  as  joint  director  of 
commerce,  and  in  1809  he  became  privy  councillor  and 
member  of  the  commission  of  finances  at  Berlin.  Al- 
though he  performed  these  various  functions  with  much 
ability  and  success,  he  soon  retired  from  political  life, 
and  in  1810  was  chosen  professor  of  history  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Berlin.  His  lectures  on  Roman  history,  pub- 
lished in  1811-12,  announced  the  important  discoveries 
and  original  ideas  which  have  effected  a  great  revolution 
in  the  principles  of  Roman  history,  and  constitute  his 
chief  title  to  durable  celebrity. 

During  the  war  of  liberation  (1813)  he  attended  the 
head-quarters  of  the  allies,  and  was  employed  in  nego- 
tiating loans.  In  1816  he  went  as  Prussian  ambassador 
to  Rome,  where  he  remained  until  1822  and  pursued 
with  ardour  his  researches  in  the  history  of  ancient 
Rome  and  the  study  of  philology.  He  became  a  resident 
of  Bonn  in  1823,  and  in  1825  opened  there  a  course  of 
lectures  on  history  and  Roman  antiquities.  In  1827  he 
published  the  first  volume  of  a  revised  edition  of  his 
"History  of  Rome,"  ("Romische  Geschichte,")  which 
is  considered  the  most  original  and  profound  work  on 
ancient  history  that  any  modern  has  produced.  The  third 
and  last  volume  appeared  in  1832.  The  author  died  at 
Bonn  in  January,  1831,  leaving  a  son,  Marcus,  who  held 
a  high  position  in  the  Prussian  civil  service.  Niebuhr 
had  refused  several  titles  of  nobility.  His  character  was 
eminently  truthful,  upright,  and   generous.    He  had 


*  The  etymology  of  this  name  is  uncertain.  It  is  probably  derived 
from  a  root  cognate  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  hiverfan  or  hweor/att^ 
to  "turn,"  to  "  whirl,"  and  ^^/w.  (or  ^<>/;«r.)a  "  bunch"  or  "  mass," 
thus  signifying  the  "whirling  mass,"  [of waters.  1  According  to  Key- 
ser,  hver  means  a  "hot  spring"  or  "cauldron;"  but  the  etymology 
is  not  improbably  the  same,  the  term  having  been  applied  to  a  boiling 
spring  on  account  of  the  constant  turning  or  whirling  of  its  waters. 


a,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  lo7tg;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


NIEBUHR  1677  NIEMETER 


noble  features,  and  a  graceful  facility  of  elocution.  His 
attainments  as  a  critic  and  philologist  were  of  the  highest 
order.*  He  spoke  all  the  languages  of  Europe,  and  was 
master  of  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  Arabic,  and  Persian, 
Among  his  principal  works  are  an  edition  of  the 
Byzantine  Historians,  (1828,)  "Short  Historical  and 
Philological  Treatises,"  (1828,)  "Lectures  on  Ancient 
Ethnography  and  Geography,''  and  "  Lectures  on  An- 
cient History."  In  1838  appeared  an  interesting  col- 
lection of  his  Letters,  with  memoirs  of  his  life,  edited 
by  Madame  Hensler,  ("  Lebensnachrichten  iiber  B.  G. 
Niebuhr,"  etc.,  3-  vols.)  His  reputation  as  a  historian 
continued  to  increase  after  his  death,  though  several  of 
his  positions  are  controverted  by  eminent  critics.  He 
rejected  as  fabulous  many  stories  which  other  historians 
had  credited,  and  aimed  to  construct  a  fabric  of  rational 
probability  out  of  the  confused  mass  of  traditions,  con- 
jectures, and  mythical  legends.  "  He  would  have  been 
the  first  writer  of  his  time,"  says  Macaulay,  "if  his  talent 
for  communicating  truths  had  borne  any  proportion  to 
his  talent  for  investigating  them."  (Preface  to  "Lays 
of  Ancient  Rome.") 

See  "The  Life  and  Letters  of  B.  G.  Niebuhr,  with  Essays  on  his 
Character  and  Influence,"  by  Chevalier  Bunsen,  London,  2  vols., 
1852;  Francis  Lieber,  "  Reminiscences  of  B.  G.  Niebuhr,"  1835; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1833,  and  July,  1852;  "Quar- 
terly Review,"  article  on  "  Early  Roman  History,"  vol.  xxvii.  and  vol. 
xxxii.,  (by  Arnold  ;)  "  Westminster  Review"  for  May,  1843  ;  "  Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1840:  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  June,  1828,  and  July,  1831  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for 
July  and  December,  1852  :  "  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1823, 
(by  Edward  Everett;)  "North  British  Review"  for  August,  1852; 
"Westminster  Review"  for  December,  1843,  (by  G.  H.  Lewes.) 

Niebuhr,  (Carstens  or  Karstens,)  a  German  trav- 
eller of  distinguished  talent  and  energy,  was  born  at 
Liidingworth,  in  Hanover,  in  1733.  He  entered  the 
Danish  service  as  lieutenant-engineer  in  1760,  and  was 
appointed  by  Frederick  V.  in  1761  to  accompany  a  sci- 
entific expedition  to  Arabia.  Soon  after  their  arrival  at 
Mocha,  Von  Haven,  one  of  the  company,  died,  and  within 
a  year  Niebuhr  had  the  misfortune  to  lose  his  three  re- 
maining companions.  He  now  adopted  the  diet  of  the 
Arabians,  and  his  health,  which  had  previously  suffered, 
continued  good  during  the  rest  of  his  journey.  He  spent 
six  years  in  the  country,  taking  upon  himself  all  the 
labours  of  the  mission,  and  in  1767  returned  to  Den- 
mark. His  "Description  of  Arabia"  came  out  in  1772. 
The  accuracy,  research,  and  freedom  from  exaggeration 
which  characterize  this  production  have  caused  it  to  be 
regarded  as  a  standard  work.  In  1778  he  brought  out 
"Travels  in  Arabia  and  the  Surrounding  Countries." 
In  addition  to  the  above,  he  edited  and  published 
the  "Flora  Egyptiaco-Arabica,"  and  "  Descriptions  of 
Animals"  by  Forskil,  the  naturalist  of  the  expedition. 
Niebuhr  was  a  councillor  of  state,  and  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris.    Died  in  1815. 

See  H.  G.  Niebuhr,  "  Leben  Carstens  Niebuhr's,"  1817; 
"Monthly  Review,"  vol.  liii.,  1776,  (Appendix.) 

Niebuhr,  von,  fon  nee'booR,  (Marcus,)  a  son  of 
Barthold  G.  Niebuhr,  was  born  at  Rome  about  181 7. 
He  was  carefully  educated  by  his  father,  who  declared 
his  determination  that  he  should  believe  in  the  letter  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament,  and  said,  "  I  shall  nurture 
in  him  from  his  infancy  a  firiri  faith  in  all  I  have  lost  or 
feel  uncertain  about."  He  obtained  several  high  offices 
in  the  Prussian  government.  He  was  opposed  to  the 
Liberal  party  in  politics.    Died  in  i860. 

*  It  is  interesting  to  know  that  he  who  was  perhaps  the  most 
thorough  and  searching  of  all  historical  critics,  and  whose  intellect, 
as  he  tells  us  hiniself,  "early  took  a  skeptical  direction,"  felt  himself 
nevertheless  obliged  to  accept  the  Gospel  narratives  as  true  history 
in  all  essential  points.  He  says,  "  He  whose  earthly  life  and  sorrows 
were  depicted  had  for  me  a  perfectly  real  existence,  and  His  whole 
history  had  the  same  reality  even  if  it  were  not  related  with  literal 
exactness  in  any  single  point.  Hence,  also,  the  fundamental  fact  of 
miracles,  which,  according  to  my  conviction,  must  be  conceded,  un- 
less we  adopt  the  not  merely  incomprehensible,  but  absurd,  hypothesis 
that  the  Holiest  was  a  deceiver  and  His  disciples  either  dupes  or  liars, 
and  that  deceivers  had  preached  a  holy  religion,  in  which  self-renun- 
ciation is  everything,  and  in  which  there  is  nothing  tending  towards 
the  erection  of  a  priestly  rule, — nothing  that  can  be  acceptable  to 
vicious  inclinations.  As  regards  a  miracle  in  the  strictest  sense,  it 
really  only  requires  an  unprejudiced  and  penetrating  study  of  nature 
to  see  that  those  related  are  as  far  as  possible  from  absurdity,  and  a 
comparison  with  legends,  or  the  pretended  miracles  of  other  religions, 
to  perceive  by  what  a  different  spirit  they  are  animated."  (Niebuhr's 
"Letters,"  vol.  i.  p.  340,  Letter  148.) 


Niederer,  nee'deh-rer,  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  teacher,  born 
at  Appenzell  in  1778,  published  a  treatise  on  the  system 
of  Pestalozzi.    Died  in  1843. 

Niedermeyer,  neeMer-mi'er,  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  com- 
poser and  musician,  born  in  the  canton  de  Vaud  in  1802. 
Among  his  works  are  the  opera  of  "  La  Fronde,"  and  a 
number  of  songs  and  religious  pieces.    Died  in  1861. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Niel,  ne-^K,  (Adolphe,)  a  French  marshal,  born  at 
Muret  (Haute-Garonne)  in  1802.  He  served  in  the 
expedition  to  Rome  in  1848,  and  became  a  general  of 
brigade  in  1849,  ^rid  general  of  division  in  1853.  As 
general  of  engineers,  he  directed  with  success  the  opera- 
tions at  the  siege  of  Bomarsund,  in  1854.  In  May,  1855, 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  engineers 
and  artillery  at  Sebastopol.  He  commanded  a  corps  at 
the  battles  of  Magenta  and  Solferino,  June,  1859.  For 
his  services  at  Solferino  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
marshal  of  France.  He  became  minister  of  war  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1867,  and  showed  himself  an  able  administrator. 
Died  in  August,  1869. 

See  Baron  de  Bazancourt,  "  Campagnes  de  Crimee  et  d'ltalie  ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Nield,  neeld,  (James,)  an  English  philanthropist,  born 
in  Cheshire  in  1744.  He  devoted  much  time  to  the  cause 
of  prison-reform.    Died  in  1814. 

Nielly,  ne'i^le',  (Joseph  Marie,)  Baron,  a  French 
naval  officer,  born  at  Brest  in  1 751,  served  against  the 
English  in  several  campaigns,  and  became  vice-admiral 
in  1815.    Died  in  1833. 

Nielsen,  neeKsen,  (Johan  Moses  Georg,)  a  Danish 
poet  and  lawyer,  born  near  Nyborg  in  1804;  died  in  1855 

Nielsen,  (Nikolaus  Peter,)  a  popular  Danish  actor, 
born  in  Seeland  in  1795. 

Niem,  neem,  (Thierry,)  a  German  historian,  borr 
near  Paderborn,  became  Bishop  of  Cambray  in  1396 
He  wrote  the  "  Lives  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs,"  and  othei 
historical  works,  in  Latin.    Died  about  141 7. 

Niemann,  nee'min,  (August  Christian  Heinrich,) 
a  Danish  publicist  and  writer  on  political  economy,  born 
at  Altona  in  1761  ;  died  in  1832. 

Niemann,  nee'min,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  Germari 
physician,  born  in  Anhalt-Dessau  in  1764,  was  the  authoir 
of  several  medical  works.    Died  in  1846. 

Niemcewicz,  ne-^m-tsa'vitch,  (Julian  Ursin,)  a 
celebrated  Polish  statesman,  historian,  and  poet,  born 
in  Lithuania  in  1757.  Being  appointed  a  deputy  to  the 
Constitutional  Diet,  he  had  the  principal  share  in  drawing 
up  the  "  Constitution  of  the  3d  of  May,"  1791,  and  about 
the  same  time  became  one  of  the  editors  of  a  popular 
journal  called  "  Gazeta  Narodowa."  After  the  battle  of 
Maciejowice,  he  was  made  prisoner  with  Kosciusko  and 
confined  in  the  fortress  of  Saint  Petersburg,  from  which 
they  were  released  on  the  accession  of  Paul,  in  1796. 
He  accompanied  Kosciusko  to  America  in  1797,  and  in 
1800  married  Mrs.  Livingston  Kean,  a  lady  of  New  York. 
He  returned  to  Europe  on  the  entrance  of  Napoleon 
into  Poland,  and  when  that  country  was  united  with 
Russia  he  was  appointed  by  the  emperor  Alexander 
president  of  the  committee  of  the  constitution,  and  per-  « 
petual  secretary  of  the  senate.  A  short  time  previous 
to  the  fall  of  Warsaw  he  visited  England,  and  then  went 
to  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1841.  His  principal  works 
are  "  Historical  Songs  of  Poland,"  "  History  of  the  Reign 
of  Sigismund  III.,"  "Memoirs  towards  the  Ancient  His- 
tory of  Poland,"  and  "John  of  Tenczyn,"  a  romance. 
He  also  wrote  several  dramas,  which  were  successful, 
and  made  some  translations  from  the  English  poets. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Niemeyer,  nee'mi'er,  (August  Hermann,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  born  at  Llalle  in  1754.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1799  director  of  the  charitable  institutions 
founded  by  A.  H.  Francke,  and  became  in  1808  chan- 
cellor and  perpetual  rector  of  the  University  of  Halle. 
He  wrote  educational  and  religious  works  in  prose  and 
verse,  and  was  highly  esteemed  for  his  virtue  and  learn- 
ing.   Died  in  1828. 

See  Fritsch,  "Ueber  des  verewigten  A.  H.  Niemeyer's  Leben," 
1828;  Jacobs  und  Gruber,  "A.  H.  Niemeyer:  zur  Erinnerung  an 
dessen  Leben,"  1831 ;  A.  H.  Rein,  "  Erinnerungen  an  A.  H.  Nie- 
meyer," 1841. 


€  as  y^-;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  H,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NIEMOJOWSKI 


678 


NIGHTINGALE 


Niemojowski,  ne-§m-o-yov'skee,  (Joseph,)  a  Polish 
patriot,  born  about  1 760,  was  appointed  general  of  the 
palatinate  of  Posnania.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Polotzk,  in  1813. 

Niemojowski,  (Vincent,)  born  near  Kalisch  in 
1784,  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in  the  cause  of 
Poland,  and  held  for  a  time  the  post  of  minister  of  the 
interior  at  Warsaw.    Died  in  1834. 

Niepce,  ne-gps',  (Joskph  Nic^phore,)  a  French 
chemist  and  inventor  of  photography,  born  at  Chalons- 
sur-Saone  in  1765.  He  served  in  the  army  in  1792- 
95.  About  1814  he  began  his  researches  on  the  action 
of  light  on  prepared  surfaces.  In  1822  he  obtained 
copies  of  engravings  from  polished  metallic  plates  cov- 
ered with  a  bituminous  varnish.  He  gave  the  name  of 
Heliographie  to  this  art.  He  formed  a  partnership  with 
Daguerre  in  1829.  It  is  stated  that  Niepce  was  the 
first  to  fix  permanently  images  formed  by  the  camera. 
Died  in  1833. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Niepce  de  Saint-Victor,  ne-§ps'  deh  sIn'  v^k'toR', 
(Claude  F6lix  Abel,)  a  French  chemist  and  pho- 
tographer, a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  near 
Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1805.  He  entered  the  army,  in 
which  he  gained  the  rank  of  captain.  Having  applied 
himself  to  the  task  of  perfecting  the  invention  of  his 
uncle,  he  announced  in  1847  to  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences an  important  discovery  of  a  method  of  obtaining 
images  on  glass  prepared  with  starch  or  albumen.  He 
also  invented  a  j^rocess  of  heliographic  engraving  on 
metal  covered  with  a  varnish  which  consists  chiefly  of 
benzii.e.  In  1854  he  was  appointed  commandant  of  the 
Louvre.  He  explained  his  discoveries  in  numerous 
memoirs,  which  he  published  collectively  under  the 
title  of  "  Photographic  Researches,"  (1855.)  Died  in 
April,  1870. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  Niepce  de  Saint-Victor,"  prefixed  to  the  work 
just  named,  by  M.  E.  Lacan;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;" 
"  Britisli  Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and  October,  1866. 

Nieremberg,nee'rem-b^Rg^  [Lat.  Nierember'gius,] 
(Johann  Eusebius,)  a  learned  Spanish  Jesuit,  of  Ger- 
man extraction,  born  at  Madrid  about  1590.  He  was 
the  author  of  numerous  theological  and  miscellaneous 
works,  in  Latin  and  Spanish  ;  among  the  principal  of 
these  is  his  "  Historia  Naturae  maxime  peregrinae," 
(1635,)  being  an  account  of  the  natural  history  of  the 
Indies.    Died  in  1658. 

See  "Vie  du  P.  de  Nieremberg,"  prefixed  to  his  "Opera  Par- 
thenica;"  A.  de  Andrada,  "Vida  del  P.  J.  E.  Nieremberg,"  1658; 
MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Nierembergius,    See  Nieremberg. 

Nieritz,  nee'rits,  (Karl  Gustav,)  a  German  littera- 
teur, born  at  Dresden  in  1795,  has  published  several 
works  for  children  and  youth. 

Niethammer,  neet'ham'mer,  (Friedrich  Imma- 
NUEL,)  a  German  philosopher,  born  at  Beilstein,  in 
Wiirtemberg,  in  1766.  He  was  associated  with  Fichte 
as  editor  of  the  "  Philosophisches  Journal"  at  Jena. 
Died  in  1846, 

Nieto,  ne-a'to,  (David,)  a  learned  Jewish  rabbi,  born 
at  Venice  in  1654  ;  died  in  1728. 

Nieto,  ne-a'to,  (Don  Vincente,)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  in  1769,  fought  on  the  side  of  the  royalists  in  the 
civil  war  of  1810  in  South  America.  Having  been  made 
prisoner  by  the  patriot  General  Balcarca  in  Upper  Peru, 
he  was  shot  by  his  order  in  1810. 

Nieuhoff,  noi'hof,  (Johann,)  a  German  traveller,  born 
in  Westphalia  in  1630,  visited  China  and  Batavia,  and 
published  in  1666  an  account  of  his  journey,  (in  Dutch,) 
which  was  very  popular  at  the  time  and  was  translated 
into  Latin  and  several  other  languages.  Having  gone 
ashore  at  Madagascar  in  1672,  he  was  lost,  killed,  or 
disappeared  mysteriously. 

See  Macartney,  "Travels  in  India,  China,"  etc. 

Nieulant,  ne-uh'iant,  (Willem,)  a  skilful  Flemish 
painter  and  engraver,  born  in  1584,  studied  at  Rome. 
Among  his  works  are  engravings  of  Italian  landscapes. 
Died  in  1635. 

Nieupoort,ne-uh'p6Rt,(  Willem  HENDRiK,)aDutch 
historian  and  jurist,  born  about  1670,  became  professor 
of  law  at  Utrecht.    Died  about  1730. 


Nieuport,  de,  deh  ne-uh'poR^  (Charles  FRANgois 
Ferdinand  Flokent  Antoine,)  Vicomte,  a  distin- 
guished mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  1746,  was  ap- 
pointed in  1816  director  of  the  Academy  of  Brussels. 
He  died  in  1827,  leaving  numerous  mathematical  works. 

Nieuwelandt,  ne-u^'eh-lSnt',  or  Nieulandt,  ne- 
uh'lint,  (Adrian,)  a  Flemish  painter,  was  a  native  of 
Antwerp.  His  works  are  chiefly  landscapes  and  sea- 
views.    Died  in  1601. 

Nieuwelandt,  (Jan,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Antwerp  in  1579.  He  studied  painting  under  his 
father,  and  produced  a  number  of  landscapes  of  superior 
merit. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Nieuwelandt,  van  den,  vtn  den  ne-uw'eh  iant, 
(Willem,)  a  Flemish  artist  and  dramatic  writer,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1584,  was  a  son  of  Adrian,  noticed  above. 
He  painted  architectural  pieces  of  great  merit,  and 
was  also  a  skilful  engraver.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
popular  tragedy,  entitled  "  Nero,"  and  of  other  works. 
Died  in  1635. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Nieuwentyt,  ne-uh'x^en-tlt'',  (Bernard,)  a  Dutch 
writer  and  mathematician,  born  in  North  Holland  in 
1654,  became  burgomaster  of  Purmerend.  He  wrote 
treatises  against  the  differential  calculus,  and  a  popular 
work  entitled  "The  Right  Use  of  the  Contemplation  of 
the  World,"  ("  Het  regt  Gebruik  der  Wereltbeschou- 
ingen,"  171 5,)  which  was  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages.   Died  in  17 18. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Nieuwerkerke,  de,  deh  ne-uh'^gr-k§R'keh,  (Al- 
fred Emilien,)  Comte,  a  French  sculptor,  of  Dutch 
extraction,  born  in  Paris  in  1811.  He  has  executed 
numerous  busts  and  statues,  among  which  we  may  name 
those  of  Descartes  and  Isabella  the  Catholic. 

Nieuwland,  ne-uh'lint,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  poet  and 
savant,  born  near  Amsterdam  in  1764.  He  displayed  in 
youth  great  precocity  and  aptitude  for  learning  languages 
and  sciences.  He  wrote  several  able  scientific  treatises, 
and  poems  of  great  beauty,  one  of  which  is  entitled 
"Orion."  In  1793  he  became  professor  of  natural  phi- 
losophy, astronomy,  and  mathematics  at  Leyden.  Died 
in  November,  1794. 

See  p.  MiCHELL,  "Jets  ter  Nagedachtenis  van  P.  Nieuwland," 
1794;  J.  H.  van  Swinden,  "Lykredeop  P.  Nieuwland,"  1795;  C. 
L.  Brightwell,  "  Annals  of  Industry  and  Genius,"  London,  1863. 

Nifanius,  ne-f3,'ne-ils,  (Christian,)  a  German  theo- 
logian and  scholar,  born  at  Lelingen  in  1629;  died  in 
1689. 

Niflheim.    See  Hela. 

Nifo,  nee'fo,  [Lat.  Ni'phus,]  (Agostino,)  an  Italian 
scholar  and  philosopher,  born  in  Calabria  about  1473, 
published  several  Latin  treatises  and  commentaries  on 
Aristotle.  He  was  patronized  by  Leo  X.,  and  was  a 
professor  at  Rome  and  Naples.    Died  about  1538. 

See  GiNGUENE,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Nigel,  ni'jel,  ?  an  ecclesiastic,  born  in  Normandy,  be- 
came treasurer  to  Henry  I.  of  England,  who  subsequently 
created  him  Bishop  of  Ely.    Died  in  1169. 

Ni'ger,  (Caius  Pescennius.)  a  Roman  commander, 
and  governor  of  Syria.  On  the  death  of  Pertinax,  193 
A.D.,  he  became  a  competitor  for  the  empire,  with  Sep- 
timius  Severus  and  Clodius  Albinus  for  his  rivals.  Aftei 
his  army  had  been  several  times  defeated  by  the  former 
in  Asia  Minor,  he  was  made  prisoner  and  put  to  death 
in  194  a.d. 

See  T1LI.EMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Nigetti,  ne-jet'tee,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  architect  and 
sculptor,  born  at  Florence  about  1560;  died  in  1646. 

Night'in-gale,  (Miss  Florence,)  a  lady  celebrated 
for  her  philanthropy,  the  daughter  of  William  E.  Night- 
ingale, of  Derbyshire,  England,  was  born  at  Florence 
in  1820.  From  her  childhood  she  took  a  deep  interest 
in  schemes  of  benevolence,  and,  after  having  visited  the 
hospitals  and  other  similar  establishments  of  England, 
she  went  to  Germany,  with  the  view  of  inspecting  the 
institution  at  Kaiserswerth,  founded  in  1833  by  Fliedner. 
In  1849  she  entered  Kaiserswerth,  in  order  to  qualify 
herself  as  a  hospital  nurse  in  the  training-school  which 
forms  a  part  of  that  establishment.    The  Crimean  war 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


NIGHTINGALE 


NISARD 


having  broken  out  soon  after  her  return  to  England, 
Miss  Nightingale,  accompanied  by  a  number  of  volun- 
tary nurses,  set  out  in  1854  for  the  East,  where,  in  the 
military  hospitals  at  Scutari,  they  devoted  themselves  to 
the  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded  soldiers.  In  1856  she 
returned  to  England,  where  the  queen  conferred  upon  her 
various  distinctions  in  acknowledgment  of  her  eminent 
services.  Miss  Nightingale  has  published  a  pamphlet 
entitled  "The  Institution  at  Kaiserswerth  on  the  Rhine, 
for  the  Practical  Training  of  Deaconesses,  under  the 
Direction  of  the  Rev.  Pastor  Fliedner,"  (1850,)  and 
"  Notes  on  Nursing,"  one  of  the  best  works  that  has 
appeared  on  the  subject. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  Sisters  of  Charity;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  i860. 

Nightingale,  (Joseph,)  an  English  dissenting  divine, 
born  in  Lancashire  in  1775.  wrote,  among  other 

works,  "A  Portraiture  of  Catholicism,"  and  "English 
Topography."    Died  in  1824. 

Night'in-gail,  (Sir  Miles,)  K.C.B.,  an  English  officer, 
served  under  Sir  William  Meadows  in  India  in  1791-92, 
and  was  subsequently  engaged  in  the  continental  war. 
About  1820  he  became  a  member  of  Parliament  for  Suf- 
folk.   Died  in  1829. 

Nigidius.    See  Figulus. 

Nigrisoli,  ne-gRe-so'lee,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Ital- 
ian physician,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1648,  became  professor 
of  medicine  in  his  native  city.    Died  in  1727. 

Nigroni,  ne-gRo'nee,  (Giulio,)  a  learned  Jesuit,  born 
at  Genoa  in  1553  ;  died  in  1625. 

Nihus,  nee'us,  (Barthold,)  a  German  Catholic  theo- 
logian, born  in  the  duchy  of  Brunswick  in  1589,  wrote  a 
number  of  controversial  treatises.    Died  in  1657. 

Nikitin,  ne-ke-tin'  or  ne-ke-teen',  (Athanasius,)  a 
Russian  traveller,  who  visited  Persia  and  Hindostan, 
and  wrote  an  account  of  those  countries,  which  was  dis- 
covered and  published  by  Karamzin.    Died  in  1472. 

See  Gretch,  "  Essai  historique  sur  la  Litt^rature  Russe." 

Nike.    See  Nice. 

Nikolai,  nee'ko-lT,  (Tzaak,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Leyden  in  1536.  He  died  in  1619,  leaving  three  sons, 
all  of  whom  were  artists. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  HoUandais,"  etc. 

Nikolaus,  the  German  for  Nicholas,  which  see. 

Nikon  or  Nicon,  nee'kon,  a  Russian  scholar  and 
theologian,  born  near  Novogorod  in  1605.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Patriarch  of  Russia  in  1652  ;  but  he  afterwards 
lost  favour  at  court,  and  was  deposed.  He  rendered 
great  services  to  Russian  literature  by  correcting  the 
Slavonian  ecclesiastical  works  from  the  Greek  originals  ; 
and  he  is  believed  to  have  compiled  the  "  Russian 
Chronicles,"  published  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Saint  Petersburg,  (1792.)    Died  in  1681. 

See  Ivan  Choucherin,  "Vie  du  Patriarche  Nikon,"  1817; 
Apollos,  "Vie  du  Patriarche  Nikon,"  1839. 

Nil,  Saint,  an  ecclesiastic  of  the  fifth  century,  be- 
longed to  a  noble  family  of  Constantinople.  He  was 
author  of  numerous  theological  works,  only  a  part  of 
which  are  extant. 

Nilakantha,  a  surname  of  Siva,  (which  see.) 

Niles,  nllz,  (Hezekiah,)  an  American  journalist,  and 
founder  of  the  "  Register"  called  by  his  name,  which 
he  edited  for  twenty-five  years  at  Baltimore,  was  born 
about  1777;  died  in  1839. 

Niles,  (John  Milton,)  an  American  journalist  and 
statesman,  born  at  Windsor,  Connecticut,  in  1787.  He 
became  editor  in  1817  of  the  "Hartford  Times,"  a 
Democratic  journal,  and  in  1840  was  appointed  post- 
master-general by  President  Van  Buren.  He  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1842.  He  wrote  the 
"Lives  of  Perry,  Lawrence,  Pike,  and  Harrison,"  "His- 
tory of  South  America  and  Mexico,"  etc.,  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1856. 

Niles,  (Nathaniel,)  an  American  divine  and  inventor, 
born  at  South  Kingston,  Rhode  Island,  in  1741,  was  a 
member  of  Congress  from  Vermont  in  1791.  He  was 
the  author  of  religious  and  miscellaneous  works,  and 
wrote  a  popular  war-song,  called  "The  American  Hero." 
Died  in  1828. 

Niles,  (Samuel,)  an  American  divine,  born  at  Brain- 
tree,  Massachusetts,  in  1744.    He  graduated  at  Prince- 


ton College,  and  subsequently  became  minister  of  Abing- 
ton,  Massachusetts.    Died  in  1814. 

Ni'leus  or  Neleus,  [Nci^erf,]  a  Greek  physician  of 
uncertain  epoch,  probably  lived  before  200  B.C.  He 
invented  a  machine  for  the  reduction  of  dislocations. 

Nilson,  niKson,  (Johann  Esaias,)  a  German  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1721  ;  died  ni  1788. 

Nilson,  n!l'son,  or  Nilsson,  (Sven,)  an  eminent 
Swedish  naturalist  and  physician,  born  near  Landskrona 
in  1787.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "Swedish 
Ornithology,"  ("  Ornithologia  Suecica,")  "Scandinavian 
Fauna,"  ("  Skandinavisk  Fauna,"  1820,)  and  an  antiqua- 
rian treatise  "  On  the  Primitive  Inhabitants  of  Northern 
Scandinavia,"  (1838.) 

Nilsson,  niKson,  (Christine,)  a  celebrated  singer, 
born  in  Smaland,  Sweden,  in  1843.  ^'""^  made  her  debut 
in  Paris  in  October,  1864,  appeared  in  London  in  1867, 
visited  the  United  States  in  1870,  and  was  everywhere 
received  with  unbounded  applause. 

Nimeegen,  van,  vtn  ne-ma'nen,  (Elias,)  a  Dutch 
painter  of  landscapes,  history,  and  still  life,  born  at 
Nymwegen  in  1667;  died  about  1737. 

Nina,  nee'nS,  a  Sicilian  poetess  of  the  latter  part  of 
the  thirteenth  century. 

Ninnin,  ne'n^w',  (Henri,)  born  at  Poix,  in  Cham- 
pagne, in  1722,  was  one  of  the  physicians  of  Louis  XV. 
He  published  a  translation  of  the  medical  works  of 
Celsus,  (2  vols.,  1753.)    Died  in  1800. 

Nino,  n^n'yo,  (Andres,)  a  Spanish  navigator,  born 
about  1475,  made  a  voyage  to  the  Moluccas  in  1522. 

Nino,  (Pedro  Alonzo,)  a  Spanish  navigator,  sur- 
named  el  Negro,  ("  the  Black,")  born  in  Andalusia  in 
1468,  was  one  of  the  companions  of  Columbus  in  his 
third  voyage.  He  afterwards  sailed  as  commander  of  a 
caravel,  and  made  several  discoveries  on  and  near  the 
South  American  coast.    Died  about  1505. 

See  Irving,  "  Life  of  Columbus." 

Nino  de  Guevara.    See  Goevara,  de. 
Ninon.    See  L'Enclos,  de. 

Ni'nus,  [Gr.  NZvof,]  a  celebrated  ruler  of  antiquity, 
said  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy, 
flourished  about  2048  B.C.  After  having  conquered  the 
greater  part  of  Asia,  he  built  the  city  of  Nineveh,  and  at 
his  death  left  his  kingdom  to  his  warlike  queen  Semi- 
ramis,  (which  see.) 

Ni'9-be,  [Gr.  Ni6/??7;  Fr.  Niob6,  neVbk',]  a  person- 
age of  classic  mythology,  said  to  have  been  a  daughter 
of  Tantalus,  (or,  according  to  some  authorities,  of  Pe- 
lops,)  and  the  wife  of  Amphi^on.  She  was  celebrated 
for  her  numerous  and  beautiful  offspring,  and  had  seven 
sons  and  seven  daughters,  or,  according  to  some  ac- 
counts, six  of  each.  The  poets  relate  that  she  was  so 
proud  of  her  children  that  she  claimed  superiority  over 
Latona,  (Leto,)  who  had  borne  only  two.  Apollo  and 
Diana,  (Artemis,)  exasperated  by  her  arrogance,  slew 
all  her  children.  The  sons  are  said  to  have  fallen  by 
the  arrows  of  Apollo,  the  daughters  by  those  of  Diana. 
Niobe  was  changed  into  a  stone  by  her  excessive  grief. 
Her  story  was  a  favourite  subject  of  the.  ancient  poets, 
and  has  been  commemorated  by  an  admirable  group 
of  statuary,  which  is  now  at  Florence,  and  which  is 
variously  ascribed  to  Praxiteles  and  Scopas.  (See  tiie 
"  Iliad,"  book  xxiv.) 

Niou,  ne'oo',  (Joseph,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born 
at  Rochefort  in  1 751,  was  elected  to  the  National  Con- 
vention in  1792,  and  voted  for  the  deat^i  of  the  king. 
Died  in  1828. 

Niphus.    See  Nifo. 

Nisami.    See  Nizamee. 

Nisard,  ne^ztR',  (Jean  Marie  Napoleon  D^sir^,) 
a  French  critic  and  litterateur,  born  at  Chatillon-sur- 
Seine  in  1806.  He  became  associate  editor  of  the 
"Journal  des  Debats"  and  of  "Le  National,"  (1831,) 
and  was  subsequently  appointed  master  of  requests  in 
the  council  of  state,  and  professor  of  Latin  eloquence  in 
the  College  of  France,  (1844.)  He  was  elected  in  1850 
to  the  French  Academy,  and  in  1852  succeeded  M.  Vil- 
lemain  in  the  chair  of  French  eloquence  in  the  Faculty 
of  Letters.  Among  his  works  we  may  name  his  "  Studies 
of  Morals  and  Criticism  on  the  Latin  Poets  during  the 
Decline  of  Learning,"  (2  vols.,  1834,)  which  is  highly 


<  as     9  as  s;  |  kard;  g  as     g,  h,    guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NISARD 


1680 


NOAH 


commended  by  Villemain  and  other  critics,  "  History 
of  French  Literature,"  (4  vols.,  1844-61,)  esteemed  his 
best  production,  and  "Studies  on  the  Revival  of  Let- 
ters," (1855.) 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  contemporalns ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Nisard,  (Jran  Marie  Nicolas  Auguste,)  a  French 
scholar,  Ijrother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Chatillon- 
sur-Seine  in  1805.  He  published  a  translation  of  Horace's 
**  Art  of  Poetry"  and  of  Virgil's  works. 

Nisard,  (Marie  L^ionard  Charles,)  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Chatillon-sur-Seine  in  1808.  He 
published  several  original  works,  and  made  translations 
from  Ovid,  Martial,  and  other  Latin  classics.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Les  Ennemis  de  Voltaire,"  (1853,)  a 
"  History  of  Popular  Books  since  the  Fifteenth  Century," 
(2  vols.,  1854,)  and  "  Les  Gladiateurs  de  la  Republique 
des  Lettres  au  quinzieme,  seizieme  et  dix-septieme  Sie- 
cles,"  (i860.) 

Nisbet.    See  Nesbit,  (Alexander.) 

Nissel,  nis'sel,  [Lat.  Nisse'lius,]  (Johann  Georg,) 
a  Gennan  editor,  born  in  the  Palatinate,  lived  mostly  at 
Leyden.  He  published,  at  his  own  expense,  a  Hebrew 
Bible,  (about  1659,)  which  is  said  to  be  accurate.  Died 
in  1662. 

Nisselius.    See  Nissel. 

Nissole,  ne''soK,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  botanist, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1647.  The  genus  Nissolia  was 
named  in  his  honour  by  Tournefort.    Died  in  1734. 

Ni'sus,  [Gr.  Wlooq,]  in  classic  mythology,  a  son  of 
Pandi'on,  and  a  king  of  Megara.  The  poets  relate  that 
Megara  was  taken  by  Minos  through  the  treachery 
of  Scylla,  a  daughter  of  Nisus,  who  died  because  she 
cut  off  the  purple  or  golden  hair  on  which  his  life  de- 
pended. 

Nisus,  a  Trojan  warrior  and  friend  of  Euryalus,  came 
to  Italy  with  ^neas,  and  was  killed  in  the  war  against 
Turnus.  The  story  of  Nisus  and  Euryalus  forms  the 
.subject  of  a  beautiful  episode  of  Virgil's  "  ^Eneid,"  book 
ix.,  175-448. 

Nithard,  ne'ttR',  a  French  historian,  born  in  790  A.D., 
was  the  son  of  Angilbert  and  Bertha,  daughter  of  Charle- 
magne. His  principal  work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Dis- 
sensions between  the  Sons  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire,"  (in 
Latin.)    Died  in  853. 

See  "  Histoire  lilteraire  de  la  France,"  vol.  v. 

Ni-to'cris,  [Gr.  NiTw/cptc,]  a  queen  of  ancient  Egypt, 
lived  before  the  time  of  Herodotus,  who  says  she  was 
the  only  female  in  a  list  of  three  hundred  and  thirty  mon- 
archs  which  the  Egyptian  priests  showed  to  him.  She 
was  celebrated  as  a  heroine  in  the  legends  of  ancient 
Egypt. 

See  BuNSEN,  "^gyptens  Stelle  in  der  Weltgeschichte." 

Nitsch,  nitsh,  (Paul  Friedrtch,)  a  German  archas- 
ologist,  born  at  Glauchau  in  1754,  published  a  "New 
Mythological  Dictionary,"  (1793,)  and  other  learned 
works.    Died  in  1794. 

Nitzsch  or  Nitzch,  n!tsh,  (Gregor  Wilhelm,)  a 
German  philologist  and  antiquary,  born  at  Wittenberg 
in  1790,  was  a  son  of  Karl  Ludwig,  noticed  below.  He 
became  professor  of  ancient  literature  at  Kiel  in  1827, 
and  professor  of  archaeology  at  Leipsic  in  1852.  He 
gained  distinction  by  his  speculations  on  the  Homeric 
poems.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Epic  Poetry  of  the 
Greeks,"  (2  vols.,  1852.)    Died  in  1861. 

Nitzsch,  (Karl  Immanuel,)  a  German  theologian,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Borna,  in  Saxony, 
in  1787.  He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Bonn  in 
1822,  and  obtained  the  high  office  of  Oberconsistorial- 
rath  in  1843.  1847  was  appointed  preacher  to 
the  Utiiversity  of  Berlin.  His  opinions  are  said  to  be 
liberal. 

Nitzsch,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  a  German  theologian,  born 
at  Wittenberg  in  1751,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Wittenberg  about  1790.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  On  the  ^Salvation  of  the  World,"  ("  Ueber  das 
Heil  der  Welt,"  181 7.)  He  favoured  a  compromise  or 
reconcilement  between  orthodoxy  and  rationalism.  Died 
in  1831. 

See  HoppE,  "  Denkmal  des  verewigten  K.  L.  Nitzsch,"  1837. 


Nivelle,  ne'vSK,  (Gabriel  Nicolas,)  a  French  Jan- 
senist,  born  in  1687,  was  the  author  of"  The  Cry  of  the 
Faith,"  and  "The  Constitution  Unigenitus  submitted  to 
the  Universal  Church."    Died  in  1761. 

Nivelle  de  la  Chaussee.    See  Chauss^e,  de  la. 

Nivernais,  de.  deh  ne'vgR'na',  (Louis  Jules  Bar- 
bon  Mancini  Mazarini — btR''b6N'  mSw'se'ne'  mt'- 
zt're'ne',)  Due,  a  distinguished  French  litteraieur ^d,nd 
diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1716.  He  was  employed 
in  several  important  missions,  and  in  1763  negotia'ted 
the  treaty  between  England  and  France.  He  made 
translations  from  the  Latin,  English,  and  Italian,  and  , 
wrote  a  number  of  fables,  which  are  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  Died  in 
1798. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,"  Causeries  du  Lundi  ;"  F.  de  Neufchateau, 
"  Elogedu  Ducde  Nivernais,"  prefixed  to  his  "CEuvres  posthumes,'' 
1807  ;  Andre  Dupin,  "  ^loge  du  Due  de  Nivernois,"  1840. 

Nivers,  ne'vaiR',  (Guillaume  Gabriel,)  a  French 
musician  and  writer  on  music,  born  near  Melun  in  1617. 

Nix'pn,  (John,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revo- 
lution, born  at  Framingham,  Massachusetts,  in  1725. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battles  of  Ticonderoga, 
Lexington,  and  Bunker  Hill,  and  rose  to  be  brigadier- 
general  in  1776.    Died  in  181 5. 

Niza,  di,  de  nkKzS,  (Marco,)  an  Italian  missionary, 
is  said  to  have  first  discovered  the  province  of  Sonora, 
in  New  Mexico,  (1540.) 

Nizam-el-Molouk.    See  Nizam-el-Moolk. 

Nizam-el-Moolk,  ne-zim'  el  moolk,  written  also 
Nizam-el-Mulk  and  Nizam-al-Moulk  or  -Molook, 
a  Persian  statesman,  was  grand  vizier  to  the  Sultan  Alp- 
Arslan.  He  was  a  distinguished  patron  of  learning,  and 
founded  the  College  of  Bagdad.  He  wrote  a  valuable 
work  containing  precepts  for  government.  Died  about 
1092. 

Niz^m-ool- Moolk  or  Nizam  -  ill  -  Mnlk,  (or 
-Moulk,)  ne-zam'  dol  moolk,  a  general  and  politician, 
born  at  Delhi,  in  Hindostan,  about  1650.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  daring,  successful,  and  treacherous.  He 
made  himself  master  of  the  Deccan,    Died  in  1748. 

Nizam-ul-Mulk.    See  Nizam-el-Moolk  and  Ni- 

ZAM-OOL-MOOLK. 

Nizamee,  Nizami,  or  Nisami,  ne-zi'mee,  written 
also  Nidhami,  (Aboo -Mohammed -Ibn-Yoosuf, 

^'boo  mo-h3,m'med  ib'n  yoo'soof  or  yoo'suf,)  a  cele- 
brated Persian  poet  of  the  twelfth  century.  One  of  his 
princi]Dal  poems  furnished  the  subject  of  Gozzi's  drama 
of  "  Turandot,"  which  was  subsequently  imitated  by 
Schiller.    Died  in  1180. 

Niz^mi.    See  Nizamee. 

Nizolius.    See  Nizzoll 

Nizzoli,  n^t'so-lee,  [Lat.  Nizo'lius,]  (Mario,)  an 
Italian  scholar,  and  one  of  the  best  Latin  writers  of  his 
time,  was  born  near  Modena  in  1498.  His  principal 
works  are  "The  Ciceronian  Treasure,"  ("Thesaurus 
Ciceronianus,")  and  an  essay  "  On  the  True  Principles 
of  Philosophising." 

Njord  or  Niord,  nyord,  (Nj6r?$r,)  [etymology  very 
uncertain;  some  derive  it  from  nofdr,  "north,"]  the  god 
of  winds,  and  the  third  in  order  (after  Odin)  among 
the  gods  of  the  Norse  mythology.  He  appears  to  be  a 
personification  of  trade  or  commerce,  and  dwells  in 
Noatun,  (no^i-toon',)  or  "  Ship-town."  His  wife  is  named 
Skadi,  (which  see.)  He  is  particularly  worshipped  by 
sailors  and  fishermen.  He  is  very  rich,  and  can  give 
wealth  in  abundance  to  those  who  invoke  him.  He 
rules  the  course  of  the  wind,  stills  the  ocean,  and 
quenches  fire.  He  was  originally  an  inhabitant  of  Vana- 
heim,  but  was  sent  by  the  Vanir  as  a  hostage  to  the 
^sir,  among  whom  he  is  now  numbered. 

See  Thorpe's  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  Keyser's  "Re- 
ligion of  the  Northmen;"  Petersen's  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

No'ah,  [Heb.  HJ;  Gr.  Nwf ;  Fr.  No^,  no'^,]  the  son 
of  Lam.ech,  a  patriarch  of  the  tenth  generation  from 
Adam,  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  about  2950  B.C. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  integrity  and  piety  in  an 
age  of  almost  universal  corruption.  (Genesis  vi.  9  ;  IT. 
Peter  ii.  5.)  He  was  six  hundred  years  old  when  the 
great  Deluge  destroyed  all  the  human  race  except  Noah 
and  his  family,  who  were  saved  in  the  Ark  (Genesis  vii., 


3,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  \  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f3,ll,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


NOAH 


1681 


NODAL 


viii.,  and  ix.)  and  entered  into  a  new  and  everlasting 
covenant.  He  died  at  the  age  of  nine  hundred  and  fifty. 

No'ah,  (MoRDECAi  Manuel,)  an  American  journalist 
and  politician,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  in  Philadelphia 
in  1785.  He  removed  to  New  York,  where  he  was 
successively  editor  of  "The  National  Advocate,"  "The 
Enquirer,"  "Evening  Star,"  and  "  Sunday  Times."  He 
was  appointed  consul  to  Morocco  in  1813.  He  pub- 
lished "Travels  in  England,  France,  Spain,  and  the 
Barbary  States."    Died  in  1851. 

Noaille,  no'tF  or  no't'ye,  (Jacques  Barth^lemy,) 
a  French  magistrate  and  revolutionist,  of  the  royalist 
party,  born  at  Beaucaire  in  April,  1758  ;  died  in  1828. 

Noailles,  de,  deh  no'tF  or  no't'ye,  {  Adrien 
Maurice,)  Due,  an  eminent  French  general  and  states- 
man, born  in  Paris  in  1678,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Anne 
Jules,  noticed  below.  He  married  Fran9oise  d'Aubigne, 
a  niece  of  Madame  de  Maintenon.  During  the  war  of 
the  Spanish  succession  he  served  with  distinction  as 
general  and  diplomatist  in  Spain  from  1705  to  1712. 
He  was  minister  of  finance  from  171 5  to  1718.  In  1734 
he  became  a  marshal  of  France  and  commander-in-chief 
in  a  war  against  the  Emperor  of  Germany.  He  wrote 
"Political  and  Military  Memoirs,"  (6  vols.,  1777.)  He 
is  represented  as  a  man  of  great  talents  and  many  virtues. 
Died  in  1766. 

See  MiM.OT,  "Memoires  du  Due  de  Noailles,"  1777;  Saint- 
Simon,  "Memoires:"  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Mo- 
RERI,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;" 
Cesena,  "  La  Maison  de  Noailles,"  1842. 

Noailles,  de,  (Anne  Jules,)  Due,  an  able  French 
general,  born  in  1650,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  first 
Duke  of  Noailles,  and  father  of  the  preceding.  He 
commanded  in  Catalonia  between  1689  and  1695,  and 
gained  several  advantages  over  the  Spaniards.  He  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  marshal  of  France  in  1693,  and  became 
Viceroy  of  Catalonia.    Died  in  1708. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  De  Courcelles,  " Dictionnaire 
des  Generaux  Frangais  ;"  Cesena,  "  La  Maison  de  Noailles,"  1842. 

Noailles,  de,  (Antoine,)  a  French  admiral,  born  in 
1504  ;  died  in  1562. 

Noailles,  de,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  diplomatist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  the  department  of 
Limousin  in  15 19.  He  was  employed  by  Henry  H.  in 
missions  to  London,  Venice,  and  Constantinople.  Died 
in  1585. 

Noailles,  de,  (Jean  Paul  Francois,)  Due,  son  of 
Louis,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1739.  He 
served  in  the  last  campaigns  of  th»  Seven  Years'  war, 
was  made  a  knight  of  the  golden  fleece,  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  wrote  several  scientific 
treatises,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  (1777.)  He  was  the  father-in-law  of  General 
La  Fayette.    Died  in  1824. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Histoire  des  Pairs  de  France  ;"  A.  de 
Cesena,  "La  Maison  de  Noailles,"  1842. 

Noailles,  de,  (Louis,)  Due,  born  in  1713,  was  a  son 
of  Adrien  Maurice.  He  was  styled  Due  d'Ayen  before 
his  father's  death.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
campaigns  of  Flanders  and  Germany,  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  marshal  in  1775.  Died  in  1793.  When  Louis 
XV.  said  that  the  fermiers-ghierattx  support  the  state, 
the  Due  de  Noailles  replied,  "  Yes,  as  the  rope  supports 
a  man  who  is  hung." 

See  Voltaire,  "  Precis  du  R^gne  de  Louis  XV,"  chap.  Ixvii. 

Noailles,  de,  (Louis  Antoine,)  a  French  cardinal, 
born  in  165 1,  was  a  son  of  the  first  Duke  of  Noailles, 
and  a  brother  of  Anne  Jules,  noticed  above.  He  suc- 
ceeded Harlay  as  Archbishop  of  Paris  in  1695.  In  the 
controversy  which  broke  out  soon  after  between  the 
Jesuits  and  the  Jansenists,  he  endeavoured  to  act  as 
mediator  ;  but  he  lost  the  confidence  and  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  both  parties.  Having  refused  for  a  long 
time  to  accept  the  papal  bull  Unigenitus,  he  gave  in  his 
submission  to  the  pope  in  1728.    Died  in  1729. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  "Histoire  de  Port-Royal;" 
"Gallia  Christiana,"  tomes  i.,  viii.,  and  ix. ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Noailles,  de,  (Louis  Joseph  Alexis,)  son  of  Louis 
Marie,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1783.  He 
was  a  zealous  adherent  of  the  Bourbons,  and  fought 
against  Napoleon  in  the  army  of  the  allies  in  1813.  At 


the  Congress  of  Vienna  he  was  one  of  the  ministers- 
plenipotentiary  of  France,  and  in  181 5  was  appointed 
minister  of  state  and  a  member  of  the  privy  council. 
Died  in  1835. 

See  De  Courceli.es,  "  Histoire  des  Pairs  de  France  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Noailles,  de,  (Louis  Marie,)  Vicomte,  a  French 
statesman,  born  in  1756,  was  a  son  of  Marshal  de  Mou- 
chy.  As  a  deputy  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  he  pro- 
posed, on  the  4th  of  August,  the  suppression  of  feudal 
rights  and  other  privileges  of  the  aristocracy.  He  mar- 
ried the  sister  of  Madame  La  Fayette.  Soon  after  the 
commencement  of  the  reign  of  terror  he  emigrated  to 
the  United  States.  Having  been  sent  by  Napoleon  to 
Saint  Domingo  as  general  of  brigade  in  1803,  he  was 
killed  in  a  naval  engagement  with  the  English,  in  1804. 

See  Bailly,  "Memoires;"  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French 
Revolution;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Noailles,  de,  (Paul,)  Due,  a  French  litterateur,  born 
in  Paris  in  1802.  He  has  published  a  "History  of 
Madame  de  Maintenon  and  the  Principal  Events  of  the 
Reign  of  Louis  XIV.,"  (1848,)  and  several  other  works. 
In  1849  he  succeeded  Chateaubriand  as  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy. 

See  A.  DE  Cesena,  "  Le  Due  de  Noailles,"  1842. 

Noailles,  de,  (Philippe.)    See  Mouchy. 

Noback,  no'bSk,  (Friedrich  Eduard,)  born  at 
Crefeld,  in  Germany,  in  1815,  published  a  "  Systematic 
Manual  of  the  Science  of  Commerce,"  (1848.) 

Noback,  (Karl  August,)  a  German  writer  on  com- 
merce, brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Kolleda  in 
1810.  He  published  a  treatise  "On  Commercial  Asso- 
ciations," (1842,)  and  other  works  of  the  kind. 

Nobel,  no'bel,  written  also  Noble,  (Constantin,) 
a  Dutch  navigator,  born  about  1616,  obtained  a  high 
rank  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company. 
Died  after  1674.  Van  Hoorn  and  Nobel  went  on  a  mis- 
sion to  Peking  in  1665. 

Nobili,  no'be-lee,  (Leopoldo,)  an  Italian  botanist, 
born  in  1784;  died  in  1834. 

See  V.  Antinori,  "  Elogio  storico  del  Professore  L.  Nobili," 
1836. 

Nobili,  de',  di  no'be-lee,  [Lat.  de  Noril'ibus,] 
(Roberto,)  a  celebrated  Italian  Jesuit  and  missionary, 
born  at  Monte-Pulciano  in  1577,  was  a  nephew  of  Car- 
dinal Bellarmino.  He  resided  many  years  in  Southern 
India,  where  he  converted  great  numbers  to  Christianity. 
He  wrote  several  religious  treatises  in  different  Indian 
dialects.    Died  in  1656. 

See  JouvENCV,  "  Histoire  des  Jesuites;"  Parigi,  "  Notizie  de' 
Cardinale  R.  de'  Nobili,"  etc.,  1836. 

Nobilibus,  de.    See  Nobili,  de'. 

Noble,  no'b'l,  (Mark,)  an  English  divine  and  writer, 
became  rector  of  Barming,  in  Kent.  He  published 
"Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Medici,"  (1797,)  "  Lives  of 
the  English  Regicides,"  (1798,)  and  other  works.  He 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  and  a  con- 
tributor to  the  "  Archgeologia."    Died  in  1827. 

Noble,  (Matthew,)  an  English  sculptor,  born  about 
1820.  Among  his  works  are  a  colossal  statue  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  at  Manchester,  and  a  statue  of 
Lord  Canning. 

Noble,  (Samuel,)  an  English  theologian  and  engraver, 
born  in  London  in  1779.  He  practised  engraving  in  his 
early  life,  and  became  a  Swedenborgian  minister  about 
1820.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Plenary 
Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures,"  and  a  volume  of  Ser- 
mons, (1848.)    Died  in  1853. 

Noble,  Le.    See  Le  Noble. 

Nobleville.    See  Ai^nault  de  Nobleville. 

Noblot,  no'blo',  (Charges,)  a  French  geographer, 
born  in  Burgundy  in  1668;  died  in  1742. 

Nobrega,  da,  di  no-bRa'gS,  (Mangel,)  a  Portuguese 
Jesuit,  was  one  of  the  first  band  of  missionaries  that 
laboured  in  Brazil,  where  they  arrived  about  1550.  Died 
in  1570. 

Nocret,  no^kpi',  (Jean,)  a  French  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Nancy  in  1612;  died  in  1672, 
See  Dumesnil,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  Frangais." 

Nodal,  de,  di  no-diK,  (Gonzalo  and  Bartolom^ 
GAReiA,)  Spanish   navigators,  born  in  Galicia,  were 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (^i^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

106 


NODIER 


1682 


NDINTEL 


brothers.  They  commanded  two  ships  sent  by  the  King 
of  Spain  in  i6r8  to  explore  and  fortify  Le  Maire  Strait, 
near  Cape  Horn.  They  discovered  a  group  of  small 
islands  in  latitude  56°  40',  which  they  called  "Diego 
Ramirez,"  and  which  was  the  most  southern  land  marked 
on  maps  for  a  century  or  more. 

See  De  Brosses,  "  Histoire  des  Navigations  aux  Terres  aus- 
trales." 

Nodier,  no'de-i',  (Charles,)  a  celebrated  French 
litterateur^  was  born  at  Besan9on  in  1783.  He  studied  in 
the  Central  School  of  his  native  city,  and  soon  after 
repaired  to  Paris,  where  he  published  his  "  Painter  of 
Saltzburg,"  (1803,)  and  "The  Exiles,"  romances  in  the 
style  of  Werther.  About  this  time  he  also  wrote  a 
satirical  poem  entitled  "La  Napoleone,"  for  which  he 
was  subjected  to  a  short  banishment.  Having  spent 
several  years  in  Switzerland  and  Illyria,  he  returned  to 
Paris,  where  he  became  associate  editor  of  the  "Journal 
des  Debats,"  and  subsequently  took  charge  of"  La  Quo- 
tidienne."  On  the  accession  of  Louis  XVHI.  Nodier 
obtained  a  title  of  nobility  and  the  cross  of  the  legion 
of  honour.  He  was  appointed  in  1824  librarian  of 
the  Arsenal,  in  Paris.  His  works  are  numerous  and 
on  various  subjects,  including  many  compositions  of  a 
brilliant  and  original  character.  Among  these  may  be 
named  his  "Entomological  Bibliography,"  (1801,)  "  Dic- 
tionary of  French  Onomatopoeia,"  etc.,  ("  Dictionnaire 
raisonne  des  Onomatopees  Frangaises,"  1808,)  an  etymo- 
logical treatise  of  great  merit,  and  the  romances  of 
"Jean  Sbogar,"  (f8i8,)  "  Therese  Aubert,"  (1819,)  and 
"  Picturesque  and  Romantic  Travels  in  Ancient  France," 
(1820.)  H^e  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "Biographic 
Universelle."  Nodier  had  been  elected  to  the  French 
Academy  about  1833.  He  died  in  1844,  leaving  a  volume 
of  "  Souvenirs,"  in  which  he  professes  to  narrate  the 
events  of  his  early  life ;  but  they  are  said  to  be  mixed 
with  fiction. 

See  Merimee,  "  filoge  de  Nodier;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits 
Litteraires  ;"  L.deLomenie,  "  M.  Nodier,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1842;  Querard,  "La  ranee  Litteraire ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale ;"  Nodier,  "Souvenirs,"  etc.,  1832. 

Nodot,  no'do',  (Francois,)  a  French  litterateur,  who 
lived  about  1680-1700. 

Noe,  the  French  for  Noah,  which  see. 

Noe,  de,  deh  no^a',  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French  prel- 
ate, born  in  1724,  was  appointed  in  1802  Bishop  of 
Troyes.    He  died  the  same  year. 

Noel,  no'^K,  (Alexis  Nicolas,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter  and  designer,  born  near  Paris  in  1 792,  was  a 
pupil  of  David.  He  published  in  1818  a  "Picturesque 
Tour  in  France  and  Germany." 

No'el,  (Rev.  Baptist  Wriothesley,)  an  eminent 
English  dissenting  minister,  a  brother  of  the  Earl  of 
Gainsborough,  was  born  in  1799.  He  was  in  his  youth 
a  minister  of  the  Anglican  Church,  which  he  left  and 
joined  the  Baptists  about  1849.  He  became  popular  as 
a  preacher  and  as  a  writer  and  a  prominent  promoter  of 
benevolent  enterprises  and  liberal  movements.  Among 
his  works  are  "Christian  Missions  to  Heathen  Nations," 
an  "Essay  on  Christian  Baptism,"  (1849,)  and  "Letters 
on  the  Church  of  Rome." 

See  the  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1849. 

Noel,  no'SK,  (FRANgois,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit,  born  in 
Hainault  in  165 1,  spent  many  years  as  a  missionary  in 
China.  He  wrote  several  theological  and  scientific 
works,  in  Latin.    Died  in  1729. 

Noel,  (FkANgois  Jean  Bap  i  iste,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1783  ;  died  in  1856. 

Noel,  (FRANgois  Joseph  .  Michel,)  a  French  litte- 
rateur and  diplomatist,  borjiV  at  Saint-Germain-en-Laye 
about  1755.  published  a^'  Mythological  Dictionary," 
(2  vols.,  1801-23,)  "Lessons' in  Literature  and  Morals," 
(2  vols.,  1804,)  several  valuable  dictionaries,  and  nume- 
rous other  compilations.  His  "  French  Grammar"  (1823) 
passed  through  forty-six  editions.  He  became  minister- 
plenipotentiary  to  Venice  in  1 793,  minister  to  the  Hague 
in  1795,  inspector-general  of  public  instruction  in  1802, 
and  inspector-general  of  the  University  in  1808.  He 
retained  the  last  office  under  several  reigns.  Died  in  1841. 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 


Noel,  (Jean  T^apiisie,)  a  member  of  the  French 

National  Convention,  was  born  at  Remiremont  in  1727* 
He  voted  against  the  death  of  the  king,  was  condemned 
to  death  by  the  Jacobins,  and  executed  in  1793. 

Noel,  (Jules,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Quimper 
about  18 18. 

Noel  de  la  Moriniere,  xvo'hV  deh  It  mo're'ne-aiR', 
(Simon  Barth6lemy  Joseph,)  a  French  naturalist,  born 
at  Dieppe  in  1765,  published,  among  other  works,  a 
"  General  History  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Fisheries," 
(1815,)  which  was  translated  into  Russian  and  German. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Saint 
Petersburg.    Died  at  Drontheim,  Norway,  in  1822. 

Noel  des  Vergers,  no'ei'  di  vgR'zhi',  (Joseph 
Marin  Adolphe,)  a  French  Orientalist  and  antiquary, 
born  in  Paris  in  1805.  He  made  a  translation  of  Abool- 
feda's  "Life  of  Mohammed,"  (1837,)  and  contributed 
numerous  articles  to  the  "Nouvelle  Revue  Encyclope- 
dique,"  "Athenaeum  Fran9ais,"  and  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Noelting.    See  Nolting. 

Noet.    See  Noetus. 

No-e'tus,  [Fr.  Noet,  no'i',]  a  schismatic  among  the 
early  Christians,  flourished  about  240  A.D.,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  native  of  Ephesus.  He  opposed 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  his  views  were  afterwards 
promulgated  by  Sabellius,  one  of  his  disciples. 

See  Fleury,  "  Histoire  ecclesiastique." 

Nogaret,  no'gt''ri',  (FRANgois  F6lix,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Versailles  in  1740.  He  was  the 
author  of  poems,  tales,  dramas,  and  prose  essays.  Among 
his  works  are  an  essay  on  natural  history,  entitled 
"L'Apologie  de  mon  Gout,"  (1771,)  which  was  com- 
mended by  Voltaire,  a  translation  or  imitation  of  Aris- 
taenetus,  ("  L'Aristenete  Fran9ais,"  1780,)  and  "Tales 
in  Verse,"  (5th  edition,  1810,)    Died  in  183 1. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Nogaret,  (Henri.)    See  Candale,  (Henrl) 

Nogaret,  de,  deh  no'gt'ri',  (Guillaume,)  a  French 
statesman,  born  about  1260,  became  chancellor  under 
Philippe  le  Bel.    Died  in  1313. 

Nogaret,  de,  (Jacques  Ramel,)  a  French  statesman, 
born  at  Carcassonne  in  1760.  As  a  member  of  the  Na- 
tional Convention,  he  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king. 
He  afterwards  entered  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred, 
and  was  minister  of  finance  under  the  Directory  from 
February,  1796,  to  July,  1799.    Died  in  1819. 

Nogaret,  de,  (JRan  Louis.)    See  Epernon,  de. 

Nogari,  no-gi^ee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Venice  in  1699  ;  died  in  1763. 

Nogari,  (Paride,)  an  Italian  fresco-painter,  born  at 
Rome  about  1535  ;  died  about  1600. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Nogarola,  no-g^-ro'lS,  (Isotta,)  an  Italian  lady,  cele- 
brated for  her  talents  and  learning,  born  at  Verona  about 
1420  ;  died  in  1466. 

See  Ginguene,  "Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Nogarola,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  theologian, 
born  at  Verona  about  1509.  He  translated  several 
Greek  works  into  Latin.  He  took  a  prominent  part  at 
the  Council  of  Trent.    Died  in  1559. 

Noghera,  no-ga'rS,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  lif^i- 
rateur  and  Jesuit,  born  in  the  Valtellina  in  1719.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  translations  of  the  ora- 
tions of  Demosthenes,  (1753.)    Died  in  1784. 

Noguez,  no'ga',  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician  and 
medical  writer,  born  at  Sauveterre  about  1685. 

Nohden  or  Noehden,  no'den,  (Georg  Heinrtch,) 
a  German  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Gottingen  in  1770, 
published  a  "  German-and-English-Grammar,"  (1800,) 
and  a  "  German-and-English-l3ictionary,"  (1814,)  also 
several  antiquarian  treatises.    Died  in  1826. 

Nointel,  de,  deh  nwiN^tgl',  (Charles  Franqois 
Olier — o^le-^',)  Marquis,  a  French  diplomatist  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Turkey 
in  1670.  He  negotiated  a  treaty  favourable  to  French 
commerce  in  1673.  owes  his  celebrity  chiefly  to  the 

medals,  inscriptions,  and  specimens  of  ancient  art  which 
he  collected  in  the  Levant.    Died  in  1685. 

See  D'Arvikux,  "  M^moires." 


2,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mfit;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


NOINriLLE 


1683 


NONNUS 


Noinville,  de,  deh  hwSn'v^I',  (Jacques  Bernard 
DuREY,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Dijon  in  1682.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Opera  in 
France,"  (1753.)    Died  in  1768. 

Noir,  le,  leh  nwSR,  (Jean,)  a  French  Jansenist  priest 
and  writer,  born  at  Alen9on  in  1622  ;  died  in  1692. 

Noirlieu,  de,  deh  nwiR'le-uh',  (Louis  Francois 
Martin,)  a  French  theologian  and  religious  writer,  born 
at  Sainte-Menehould  in  1792.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  a  "  Philosophic  Catechism  for  the  Use  of 
Men  of  the  World,"  (i860.) 

Noirot,  nwi'ro^  (Joseph  Mathias,)  Abb^;,  a  French 
philosopher,  born  at  Latrecey  (Haute-Marne)  in  1793. 
He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Lyons  about  twenty- 
five  years.    His  "  Lectures"  were  published  in  1852. 

Noisette,  nwi'z^t',  (Louis  Claude,)  a  French  horti- 
culturist, born  near  Paris  in  1772,  published  several 
valuable  works  on  pomology,  floriculture,  and  similar 
subjects.    Died  in  1849. 

Nola,  da,  dino'la,  (Giovanni  Marliano,)  an  Italian 
sculptor  and  architect,  born  near  Naples,  lived  about 
1500-50. 

See  CicoGNARA,  "  Storia  della  Scultura." 

No'lan,  (Captain  Lewis  Edward,)  a  brave  English 
officer,  served  under  Sir  Henry  Pottinger  in  India  in 
1839.  He  afterwards  had  a  part  in  the  Russian  cam- 
paign of  1854,  and  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Balaklava. 

No'lan,  (Michael,)  an  Irish  lawyer,  was  the  author 
of  "  Reports  of  Cases  relating  to  the  Duty  and  Office 
of  a  Justice  of  the  Peace,"  and  other  practical  law 
treatises.    Died  in  1827. 

Nolasque.   See  Peter  Nolasque. 

Nolde,  noKdeh,  (Adolph  Friedrich,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Neustrelitz  in  1764,  became  professor 
of  medicine  at  Halle  in  1810.  He  published  several 
medical  works.    Died  in  1813. 

Noldius,  noKde-us,  (Christian,)  a  Danish  divine 
and  biblical  writer,  born  in  Scania  in  1626;  died  in  1683. 

Noli,  da,  di  no'lee,  (Antonio,)  sometimes  called 
Uso  di  Mare,  (oo'so  de  mS'ri,)  a  Genoese  navigator  in 
the  service  of  Prince  Henry  of  Portugal,  made  a  voyage 
to  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  where  he  discovered  the 
Cape  Verd  Islands.  Having  joined  the  fleet  of  Cada- 
mosto,  they  pursued  their  discoveries  together.  Noli 
also  accompanied  Cadamosto  in  his  second  voyage,  in 
1456. 

See  Baron  Humboldt,  "  Histoire  de  la  Geographic  du  nouveau 
Continent ;"  Walckenaer,  "  Histoire  generale  des  Voyages." 

Nolin,  no'liN',  (Denis,)  a  French  biblical  critic,  born 
in  Paris  in  1648  ;  died  in  17 10. 

Nolin,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in 
Paris  in  1657  ;  died  in  1725. 

Nol'le-kens,  (Joseph,)  a  celebrated  English  sculptor, 
born  in  London  in  1737,  was  a  son  of  Joseph  Francis, 
noticed  below.  In  1760  he  visited  Rome,  where  he  re- 
sided many  years  and  executed  several  works  of  great 
merit.  Among  these  were  busts  of  Garrick  and  Sterne, 
and  a  group  representing  "Timocleus  and  Alexander." 
After  his  return  he  was  chosen  a  Royal  Academician,  in 
1772.  He  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  making  portrait- 
busts,  and  was  extensively  patronized  by  the  nobility  and 
the  fashionable  world.  His  monument  to  Mrs.  Howard, 
at  Corby  Castle,  and  his  statue  of  Venus,  are  ranked 
among  his  master-pieces.  Nollekens  was  noted  for  his 
parsimony,  and  amassed  a  large  fortune.    Died  in  1823. 

See  J.  T.  Smith,  "Nollekens  and  his  Times,"  1829;  Cunning- 
ham, "  Lives  of  Painters,  Sculptors,"  etc. 

Nollekens,  noKleh-kens,  (Joseph  Francis,)  a  Flem- 
ish landscape-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1690,  set- 
tled in  London,  where  he  died  in  1748. 
•  Nollet,  no'li',  (Dominick,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 

at  Bruges  in  1640  ;  died  in  1736. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands." 

Nollet,  no'la',  (Jean  Antoine,)  Abb6,  an  eminent 
French  philosopher,  born  at  Pimpre,  in  the  diocese  of 
Noyon,  in  1700.  On  leaving  college  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  studied  natural  philosophy  and  co-operated 
with  M.  Dufay  in  electrical  experiments.  In  1739  he 
was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  repeated 
his  experiments  before  the  Duke  of  Savoy  in  Turin. 
He  published  in  1743  the  first  part  of  his  *'  Lectures  on 


Experimental  Physics,"  ("  Le9ons  de  Physique  experi- 
mentale,")  the  clearest  and  most  methodical  work  that 
had  appeared  on  that  subject.  In  this  he  gave  the  first 
popular  explanation  of  Newton's  discoveries  in  light. 
He  obtained  by  the  favour  of  the  king  the  chair  of  ex- 
perimental philosophy  in  the  College  of  Navarre  in  1756, 
and  a  brevet  of  master  of  philosophy  and  natural  history 
to  the  princes-royal.  He  published  "Researches  on  the 
Causes  of  Electric  Phenomena,"  (1749,)  and  an  "Essay 
on  the  Electricity  of  Bodies,"  (1750.)    Died  in  1770. 

See  "  Necrologe  des  Homines  celebres  de  France;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Nolpe,  noKpeh,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  engraver,  born  at 
the  Hague  in  1601.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  the 
"Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  after  Rubens. 

See  Basan,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Graveurs." 

Nolten,  noKten,  [Lat.  Nolte'nius,]  (Johann  Ar- 
nold,) a  German  theologian,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1683  ; 
died  in  1740. 

Nolten  or  Nolte,  noKteh,  (Johann  Friedrich  )  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Eimbeck  in  1694.  He  pub- 
lished "Lexicon  Latinae  Linguae  Antibarbarum,"  (1740.) 
Died  in  1754. 

Nolten,  (Rudolph  August,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  1 703,  published  "  On  the  Genuine  Sources 
of  Russian  History,"  ("  De  genuinis  Historiae  Russicae 
Fontibus,"  1739,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1752. 

See  Ballenstadt,  "Vita  Noltenii,"  1755. 

Noltenius.    See  Nolten. 

Nolting  or  Noelting,  noKting,  (Johann  Heinrich 
ViNCENZ,)  a  distinguished  scholar  and  philosopher,  born 
at  Schvvarzenbek,  in  Denmark,  in  1735.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  and  eloquence  at  Hamburg. 
Died  in  1806. 

Nominoe,  no-min'o-i',  written  also  Nomenoi,  an 
Armorican  chief,  who  became  King  of  Bretagne,  was 
born  about  790  or  800  A.D.  He  was  created  Duke  of 
the  Bretons  by  the  emperor  Louis  le  Debonnaire  in  826 
A.D.  After  the  death  of  Louis,  (840,)  he  raised  the 
standard  of  independence,  and  defeated  Charles  the 
Bald,  who  led  an  army  to  reduce  him  to  subjection. 
Died  in  851. 

See  A.  DE  CouRSON,  "Histoire  des  Peuples  Bretons,"  1846; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Nomsz,  nomz,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  poet  and  dramatist, 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1738.  He  was  the  author  of  an 
epic  poem  on  William  I.,  Prince  of  Orange,  (1779,)  and 
tragedies  entitled  "  Maria  van  Lalain,"  "Zoroaster,"  and 
"Duchess  de  Coralli."  The  first  of  these  dramas  was 
very  popular.    Died  in  1803. 

See  De  Vries,  "  Histoire  de  la  Poesie  Hollandalse." 

Nonius,  (Louis.)    See  Nunez. 

No''ni-us,  (Marcellus,)  a  Roman  gfammarian  of  the 
fourth  century,  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  De  Proprietate 
Sermonis,"  which  is  valued  for  the  passages  it  contains 
from  Latin  writers  not  extant. 

Nonnos.    See  Nonnus. 

Nonnotte,  no'not'',  (Claude  FRANgois,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1711,  published,  besides 
other  books  of  little  merit,  a  work  entitled  "  Errors  of 
Voltaire,"  (2  vols.,  1762,)  which  elicited  several  bitter 
rejoinders  from  that  writer.    Died  in  1793. 

Nonnotte,  (Donat,)  a  French  painter,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1707  ;  died  in  1785. 

Non'nus  or  Nonnos,  [Nowof,]  a  Greek  poet,  who 
lived  about  410  a.d.,  was  a  native  of  Panopolis,  in  Egypt, 
and  probably  a  Christian.  His  only  extant  works  are 
a  "  Paraphrase  of  Saint  John,"  and  a  long  poem  en- 
titled "  Dionysiaca,"  or  the  History  of  Bacchus.  It  is 
bombastic  in  style,  and  is  chiefly  valued  for  the  infor- 
mation it  contains  on  mythological  subjects  not  to  be 
found  elsewhere. 

See  Weichert,  "  Dissertatio  de  Nonno,"  1810;  S.  Uwarrow, 
"  Nonnos  von  Panopolis,"  1817;  A.  F.  Naeke,  "De  Nonno  I mi- 
tatore  Homeri,"  1835. 

Nonnus  or  No'nus,  (TheophAnes,)  a  Greek  phy- 
sician of  the  tenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  com- 
pendium of  Medicine,  ("Compendium  totius  Artis 
Medicae,")  which  he  dedicated  to  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine  Porphyrogenitus. 

See  Freind,  "  History  of  Physic ;"  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca 
Medica,"  etc. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  /lard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  tl^  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NOODT 


1684 


NORGJTE 


Noodt,  not,  (Geraert,)  one  of  the  most  eminent 
jurists  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Nymwegen  in  1647.  He 
became  successively  professor  of  law  at  Franeker,  (1679,) 
Utreciit,  {1684,)  and  Leyden,  (1686.)  He  was  also  rector 
of  the  University  of  Leyden.  Among  his  principal 
works,  which  are  written  in  elegant  Latin,  we  may  name 
his  "Probabilia  Juris  Civilis,"  (1674-79,)  and  "On  the 
Rights  of  Sovereign  Power,"  ("L)e  Jure  Summi  Im- 
perii," etc.,  1707.)    Died  in  1725. 

See  Barbeykac,  "  Historica  Vitae  Auctoris  Narratio,"  prefixed  to 
the  collected  works  of  Noodt,  1735. 

Nooms,  noms,  (Remi,)  a  Dutch  marine  painter  and 
engraver,  surnamed  Zeeman,  ("  Seaman,")  born  at  Am- 
stei  dam  in  1612  ;  died  about  1672. 

Noor-ed-Deen,  Nour-Eddyn,  Noureddin,  or 
Nureddin,  noor-ed-deen^  ("  Light  of  the  Faith,") 
(Mahmood-  (Mahmoud-  or  Mahmud-)  Malek-al- 
Adel,  niin'mood'  mal'ek-al-iMei,*)  a  celebrated  Sultan 
of  Syria  and  Egypt,  was  born  at  Damascus  in  11 16.  In 
1146  he  successfully  opposed  the  attempts  of  Louis  VII. 
of  France  and  other  crusading  princes  to  recapture 
Edessa  and  possess  themselves  of  Damascus,  which, 
after  he  had  conquered  the  greater  part  of  Syria,  he 
made  the  capital  of  his  dominions.  He  took  advantage 
of  the  dissensions  which  agitated  Egypt  in  1163  to  es- 
tablish his  power  in  that  country,  vvhere  he  apjjointed 
his  general  Shirakoh  governor  in  1168.  The  most  im- 
portant event  in  the  subsequent  part  of  Noor-ed-Deen's 
reign  was  the  extirpation  of  the  Sheeah  heresy  in  Egypt. 
Noor-ed-Deen  was  one  of  the  most  able  and  virtuous 
of  Oriental  rulers,  and  his  piety  and  integrity  made  him 
the  idol  of  his  subjects,  who  gave  him  the  surname  of 
"  Light  of  the  Faith."    Died  in  1173. 

See  MiCHAUD,  Histoire  des  Croisades;"  Guillaume  de  Tvr, 
"  Histoire  des  Croisades." 

Noor-ed-Deen,  Noureddin,  or  Nureddin,  (Ma- 
lek-al-Mansoor,  maK^k-al-mSn'sooR',)  second  Sultan 
of  the  dynasty  of  Tartar  Mamelukes  in  Egypt,  succeeded 
his  father  Ibek  in  1257.  He  was  deposed  at  the  end  of 
two  years,  on  account  of  his  youth  and  inexperience,  and 
the  Emir  Kotuz  ruled  in  his  stead. 

Noor-eddin,  Nour-eddin,  or  Nureddin,  (Arslan 
Shah,  ars-lan' shih,)  Prince  of  Mesopotamia,  was  grand- 
nephew  of  the  celebrated  Noor-ed-Deen,  and  ascended 
the  throne  in  1 193.  He  governed  with  wisdom  and 
ability,  and  recovered  much  of  the  power  of  which  his 
family  had  been  deprived.    Died  in  1210. 

Noort,  van,  vtn  noRt,  sometimes  written  Oort, 
(Adam,)  a  skilful  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1557,  was  a  son  of  Lambert,  noticed  below.  He  was  a 
good  colorist.  His  habits  were  intemperate.  He  was 
the  master  of  Rubens,  who  expressed  a  high  opinion  of 
his  talents.    Died  in  1641. 

See  Weverman,  "De  Schilderkonst  der  Nederlanders." 

Noort,  van,  (  Lambert,  )  a  Flemish  painter  and 
architect,  born  at  Amersfoort  in  1520.  He  settled  at 
Antwerp,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Ant- 
werp in  1547. 

Noort,  van,  (Oliver,)  the  first  Dutch  navigator  who 
sailed  around  the  world,  was  born  at  Utrecht  in  1568. 
An  account  of  his  voyage,  published  in  1602,  was  trans- 
lated into  several  languages.    Died  after  161 1. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Noot,  van,  vtn  n5t,  (Hendrik  Nikolaas,)  leader 
of  the  Belgian  revolution  of  1788,  was  born  at  Brussels 
in  1750.  The  revolt  against  the  Emperor  of  Austria 
being  suppressed  in  1790,  he  was  compelled  to  leave 
the  country.    Died  in  1827. 

See  Dewez,  "Histoire  de  la  Belgique." 

Noowairee  or  Nouwairi,  ndo-wi'ree,  written  also 
Nowairi  and  Nuwayri,  an  eminent  Arabian  historian 
and  scholar,  born  in  Egypt  about  1283.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  valuable  work  on  history,  chronology,  moral 
philosophy,  and  natural  science. 

See  Haji-Khalfa,  "  Bibliographic  Lexicon." 

Nop,  nop,  (Gerrit,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Haarlem 
in  1570. 

See  Descamps,  "  V:es  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Nor.    See  Norvi. 


*  Malek-el-Adel  signifies  "the  Noble  King." 


Nor-ba'nus,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  general,  was  tribune 
of  the  people  in  95  B.C.,  and  praetor  in  Sicily  about 
the  year  90.  In  the  civil  war  between  Sulla  and  Marius 
he  was  a  partisan  of  the  latter.  He  became  consul  in 
83  B.C.,  and  commanded  an  army  which  was  defeated 
by  Sulla  in  Campania.    He  killed  himself  about  8i  B.C. 

See  Cicero,  "  De  Oratore." 

Norberg.    See  Nordberg. 

Norberg,  noR'bgRC,  (Matthias,)  a  Swedish  Orien- 
talist, born  in  1747,  became  professor  of  the  Oriental 
languages  at  Lund.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  the  Re- 
ligion and  Language  of  the  Sabaeans,"  (1780,)  in  Latin, 
and  other  learned  works.    Died  in  1826. 

See  LiNDFORS,  "  Memoria  M.  Norberg,"  1832;  Lindgren,  "  Me- 
moria  M.  Norberg,"  1832. 

Norbert,  Pere.    See  Parisot,  (Pierre.) 

Nor^b^rt,  [Fr.  pron.  noR'baik',]  Saint,  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Santen,  was  created  Archbishop  of 
Magdeburg  in  1126.  He  had  founded  in  1120  a  religious 
association  at  Premontre,  in  the  diocese  of  Laon,  since 
celebrated  as  the  order  of  the  Premonstrants.  He  died 
in  1134,  and  was  canonized  by  Gregory  XIII.  in  1582. 

See  Hugo,  "Vie  de  Saint-Norbert,"  1704;  "Gallia  Christiana." 

Norblin,  noR'bliN',  (Sebastian  Louis  William,) 
son  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Warsaw  in  1796,  and 
studied  painting  under  Regnault.  He  produced  a  num- 
ber of  historical  pictures.  He  gained  the  first  prize  in 
Paris  in  1825. 

Norblin  de  la  Gourdaine,  noR'bl^N'  deh  It  gooR'- 
din',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  skilful  French  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  near  Montereau  in  1745,  worked  in  Warsaw 
from  1774  to  1804.    Died  in  1830. 

Nordberg,  noRd'b^Rg,  or  Norberg,  noR'b^Rg, 
(Georg,)  a  Swedish  historian,  and  chaplain  to  Charles 
XH.  of  Sweden,  was  born  at  Stockholm  in  1677.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "History  of  Charles  XII.,"  (2  vols., 
1740,)  which,  though  unattractive  in  style,  is  valued  for 
its  accuracy.    Died  in  1744. 

Norden,  noR'den,  (Frederick  Louis,)  a  Danish  artist 
and  writer,  born  at  Gliickstadt  in  1708.  Having  studied 
in  Italy,  he  was  sent  by  the  government  in  1737  to  de- 
scribe and  copy  the  monuments  of  Egypt.  After  his 
return  he  entered  the  English  service,  and  fought  against 
Spain  in  the  campaign  of  1740.  He  died  in  1742,  leav- 
ing "  Travels  in  Egypt  and  Nubia,"  which  were  published 
in  French,  (2  vols.,  1755.)  This  work,  containing  one 
hundred  and  fifty-nine  plates,  was  translated  into  Eng- 
lish and  German. 

See  Meusel,  "  Bibliotheca  Historica ;"  Kraft  og  Nyerup, 
"  Litteraturlexicon  ;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1756. 

Nor'den,  (John,)  an  English  engraver  and  writer, 
born  in  Wiltshire  about  1548.  He  published  the  "Spe- 
culum Britanniae,"  etc.,  and  "  The  Surveyor's  Dialogue," 
(1607.)    Died  about  1626. 

See  GouGH,  "Anecdotes  of  British  Topography." 

Nordenflycht,  noR'den-flukt',  (Hedwige  Char- 
lotte,) a  Swedish  authoress,  born  in  1718,  published 
poems  entitled  "  The  Passage  of  the  Belts,"  "Victory 
of  the  Duna,"  *'  Sweden  Emancipated,"  ("  Den  fralsa 
Swea,")  and  "An  Apology  for  Women,  against  J.  J. 
Rousseau."    Died  in  1763. 

See  HowiTT,  "  Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe 
RuHS,  "  Schicksale  der  schonen  Redekiinste  in  Schweden." 

Nordin,  noR-deen',  (Karl  Gustaf,)  a  Swedish  prel- 
ate, born  at  Stockholm  in  1749,  became  Bishop  of  Her- 
nosand.    Died  in  1812. 

Nores,  di,  de  no'rSs,  (Giasone,)  born  at  Nicosia,  in 
the  island  of  Cyprus,  became  professor  of  moral  phi- 
losophy at  Padua.  He  was  the  author  of  several  critical 
and  philosophical  works.    Died  in  1590.  t 

Norfolk,  Duke  of.  See  Howard,  (Thomas,)  and 
Howard,  (Charles.) 

Norfolk,  norTok,  (Henry  Granville  Fitz  Alan 
Howard,)  Duke  of,  was  born  in  London  in  181 5.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons  before  the 
death  of  his  father,  (1856.)  He  was  a  Roman  Catholic, 
and  advocated  the  cause  of  his  fellow-believers  in  Parlia- 
ment.   Died  in  i860. 

Nor'gate,  (Edward,)  an  English  artist,  celebrated 
for  his  skill  in  illuminating  or  colouring  engravings.  His 


S,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mfet;  nSi;  good;  moon; 


NOR  IS 


1685 


NORTH 


performances  are  highly  commended  by  Fuller.  Died 
in, 1650. 

See  Fuller,  "Worthies;"  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Noris,  no'r^ss,  (Henry,)  a  learned  Italian  theologian, 
of  English  extraction,  was  born  at  Verona  in  163 1.  He 
was  appointed  by  Pope  Innocent  XII.  chief  librarian 
of  the  Vatican,  and  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1695.  He 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Pelagianism,"  and  several  valuable 
antiquarian  treatises.    Died  in  1704. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Noris,  (Matteo,)  a  prolific  Italian  dramatic  poet, 
born  in  Venice  about  1640;  died  about  17 10. 

Nor'man-by,  (Constantine  Henry  Phipps,)  Mar- 
quis OF,  an  English  statesman,  son  of  Henry,  first  Earl 
of  Mulgrave,  was  born  in  1797.  He  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1818  became  a  member  of 
Parliament  for  Scarborough.  He  there  distinguished 
himself  as  the  advocate  of  Catholic  emancipation  and 
parliamentary  reform.  In  183 1  he  succeeded  to  the  title 
of  Earl  Mulgrave,  and  in  1832  was  appointed  Governor 
of  Jamaica.  He  became  lord  privy  seal  in  1834,  lord 
lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  1835,  and  was  secretary  of 
state  for  the  home  department  from  1839  to  1841.  He 
received  the  title  of  Marquis  of  Normanby  in  1838. 
He  was  subsequently  employed  on  embassies  to  France 
and  Italy.  He  published  in  1857  "A  Year  of  Revolu- 
tion, from  a  Journal  kept  in  Paris  in  1848."  Lord  Nor- 
manby was  also  the  author  of  novels  entitled  "  Matilda," 
(1825,)  and  "The  Contrast."    Died  in  1863. 

See  Capefigue,  "  Diplomates  Europ^ens." 

Normanby,  Earl  of.  See  Mulgrave,  (Henry 
Philip  Phipps.) 

Normand.    See  Le  Normand. 

Normand,  noR'm6N',  (Alfred  Nicolas,)  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1822.  He  obtained  a  medal 
of  the  first  class  in  1855. 

Normand,  (Charles  Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French 
architect  and  engraver,  born  in  the  department  of 
Somme  in  1765.  He  published  several  professional 
works.    Died  in  1840. 

Normand,  (Claude  Joseph,)  a  French  physician, 
born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1704;  died  in  1761. 

Normand,  (Louis  Marie,)  a  French  engraver,  a  son 
of  Charles  Pierre  Joseph,  noticed  above,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1789.  He  engraved  the  "Marriage  at  Cana," 
after  Paul  Veronese,  and  published  several  illustrated 
works,  among  which  is  "  Monuments  Fran9ais,"  etc.,  (2 
parts,  1830-47.) 

Nor'man-dy,  (Alphonse,)  an  English  chemist  and 
writer,  born  about  1810,  was  a  coadjutor  of  Dr.  Ure. 
He  published  a  "  Hand-Book  of  Chemistry,"  and  "  The 
Chemical  Atlas,"  and  invented  a  valuable  apparatus  for 
the  distillation  of  aerated  fresh  water  from  sea-water. 
Died  in  1864. 

Normann,  noR'mSn,  (Lars,)  a  Swedish  prelate,  born 
at  Strengnas  in  165 1.  He  became  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Upsal  in  1681,  and  in  1703  Bishop  of 
Gothenburg.    He  died  the  same  year. 

See  A.  Norreltus,  "Vita  L.  Normanni,"  1738. 

Normann-Ehrenfels,  noR'm3,n  a'ren-f§ls',  (Karl 
Friedrich  Lebrecht,)  son  of  the  following,  was  born 
in  1784.  He  entered  the  French  service,  and  held  a 
command  in  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812.  He  after- 
wards fought  for  the  Greeks  in  1822,  and  had  a  share 
in  the  victory  of  Kombotti.    Died  in  November,  1822. 

Normann-Ehrenfels,  (Philipp  Christian,)  Count, 
a  distinguished  statesman,  born  in  Swedish  Pomerania 
in  1756,  entered  the  service  of  Duke  Charles  of  Wiirtem- 
berg.  He  rose  to  be  minister  of  state  in  1802,  and  was 
created  a  count  in  1806.    Died  in  1807. 

Normant,  noR^mSN',  (Alexis,)  an  eloquent  French 
advocate,  born  in  Paris  in  1697  ;  died  in  1745. 

Normant,  (Antoine,)  a  benevolent  French  manu- 
facturer, born  at  Romorantin  in  1783.  He  was  propri- 
etor of  a  large  manufactory  of  cloth  at  Romorantin. 

Norn  or  itTorna.    See  Nornas. 

Nor'nas  or  Norns,  sometimes  called  in  the  English 
plural  Nor'nies,  [Norse  plural,  Nornir,*]  three  virgins, 

*  The  etymology  is  unknown.  "  The  word  Norn,"  says  Thorpe, 
"does  not  occur  in  any  kindred  dialect." 


called  Urd,  (Urdr,  or  Urda,)  Verdandi,  and  Skuld,  (or 
Skulld,) — the  Past,  the  Present,  and  the  Future, — whc 
preside  over  the  destiny  of  men  and  gods.  They  corre- 
spond to  the  Parcae  (Molpai)  of  classic  mythology. 

See  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Kevser,  "  Religion 
of  the  Northmen." 

Nornies,  an  English  plural  form  of  Norna  or  Norn. 
See  Nornas. 
Norns.    See  Nornas. 

Norona,  no-rfin'yS,  (Caspar  Maria  de  Nava  Al- 
varez,) a  Spanish  soldier  and  poet,  born  at  Castcllon 
de  la  Plana  in  1760,  served  against  the  French  republic, 
and  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  pub- 
lished an  epic  poem  entitled  "La  Ommiada,"  an  ode  on 
the  death  of  the  poet  Cadalso,  who  fell,  while  fighting 
by  his  side,  at  Gibraltar,  and  a  number  of  lyrics.  Died 
in  1816. 

Noronha,  no-R6n'yl,  (Affonso,)  a  Portuguese  cap- 
tain, born  in  the  fifteenth  century,  was  a  nephew  of 
Albuquerque.  He  captured  Socotora  in  1508.  Died  in 
India  in  1540. 

See  Faria  y  Souza,  "  Asia  Portugueza." 

Nor'ris,  (Edwin,)  an  English  ethnologist  and  linguist, 
born  at  Taunton  in  1795.  He  was  appointed  in  1847 
translator  to  the  foreign  office,  and  in  1856  principal  sec- 
retary to  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  Pie  has  contributed 
a  number  of  valuable  treatises  to  the  "Transactions"  of 
that  society  and  to  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia."  He  is 
also  editor  of  the  "Ethnographical  Library." 

Norris,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  general,  was  a  son  of 
Lord  Norris  of  Rycot.  He  was  distinguished  by  the 
favour  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  sent  him  in  1585  to 
assist  the  Dutch  in  their  war  against  the  Spaniards. 
His  skill  and  bravery  were  conspicuous  in  the  principal 
campaigns,  and  he  won  the  reputation  of  one  of  the 
best  English  soldiers  of  the  time. 

See  Motley,  "  United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i.  chap,  vi.,  and  vol.  ii. 
chap.  xiii. 

Norris,  (John,)  an  English  philosopher  and  mystical 
divine,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1657.  He  was  educated  at 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  became  an  admirer  of  Plato, 
who  was  his  favourite  author.  About  1690  he  was  ap- 
pointed rector  of  Bemerton,  near  Salisbury.  He  was  a 
disciple  of  Malebranche.  He  published  "An  Idea  of 
Happiness,"  (1683,)  "The  Theory  and  Regulation  of 
Love,"  (1688,)  and  other  works  on  religion  and  philoso- 
phy. His  principal  philosophical  work  is  "An  Essay 
towards  the  Theory  of  the  Ideal  or  Intelligible  World," 
(2  vols.,  1701-04,)  in  which  he  develops  the  system  of 
Malebranche  and  controverts  the  opinions  of  Locke. 
Died  in  171 1. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Norris,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  naval  officer  of  high 
rank,  entered  the  navy  in  1689.  He  was  called  Foul- 
Weather  Jack.    Died  in  1749. 

Norris,  (John,)  born  in  Norfolk  in  1734,  bequeathed 
to  the  University  of  Cambridge  one  hundred  and  ninety 
pounds  per  annum  for  the  endowment  of  a  divinity 
professorship  and  prize  essay  which  bear  his  name. 
Died  in  1777. 

Norris,  (Robert,)  an  English  traveller,  visited  Daho- 
mey, and  other  parts  of  Western  Africa,  of  which  he 
published  an  account  in  1789.    Died  in  1792. 

See  Walckenaer,  "  Histoire  generale  des  Voyages." 

Norry,  no're',  (Charles,)  a  French  architect,  born 
near  Paris  in  1756,  accompanied  the  scientific  expedition 
to  Egypt,  and  published  in  1799  a  description  of  some 
of  the  monuments  of  that  country.    Died  in  1832. 

North,  (Christopher.)    See  Wilson,  (John.) 

North,  (Dudley,)  Lord,  an  English  writer  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  1581,  was  an  adherent  of  the  Parliament 
during  the  civil  war.  He  died  in  1666,  leaving  a  collec- 
tion of  poems  and  prose  works. 

North,  (Dudley,)  Lord,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1604,  wrote  the  "Life  of  Edward,  Lord  North,"  and 
several  other  works.    Died  in  1677. 

See  R.  North,  "Lives  of  the  Norths." 

North,  (Sir  Dudley,)  an  English  merchant  and  able 
financier,  born  in  1641,  was  a  brother  of  Lord-Keeper 
Guildford.    In  his  youth  he  passed  many  years  in  mer- 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i;^^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NORTH  1686  NORTHUMBERLAND 


cantile  pursuits  at  Smyrna  and  Constantinople.  Having 
acquired  wealth,  he  returned  home,  (1680,)  and  became 
a  London  merchant.  "  He  had  meditated  deeply  on  the 
philosophy  of  trade,"  says  Macaulay,  "and  thought  out, 
by  degrees,  a  complete  and  admirable  theory,"  substan- 
tially the  same  as  that  of  Adam  Smith.  He  was  chosen 
a  commissioner  of  customs  and  of  the  treasury,  and 
elected  to  Parliament.  About  1685  he  was  the  person 
on  whom  the  lord  treasurer  chiefly  relied  for  the  conduct 
of  financial  business  in  the  lower  House.  He  wrote  a 
"Voyage  from  Smyrna,  with  an  Account  of  Turkey." 
Died  in  1691. 

See  Roger  North,  "Life  of  Sir  Dudley  North,"  1740-42. 

North,  (Sir  Edward,)  a  distinguished  English  lawyer 
under  the  reigns  of  Henry  VHI.  and  Queen  Mary.  Died 
in  1564. 

North,  (Francis,)  Baron  Guildford  or  Guilford,  com- 
monly styled  Lord-Keeper  Guilford,  was  the  son  of 
Lord  Dudley  North,  and  was  born  in  1637.  About  1655 
he  entered  as  a  student  the  Middle  Temple.  Soon  after 
he  was  called  to  the  bar  he  went  on  the  Norfolk  circuit, 
where  his  family  interest  lay,  and  relied  for  success  on 
sycophantic  arts.  He  was  appointed  solicitor-general 
in  1671,  attorney-general  in  1673,  and  chief  justice  of  the 
common  pleas  in  1675.  He  was  the  obsequious  servant 
of  the  court,  and  an  ultra-royaiist,  or  Tory,  in  politics. 
"He  was  a  party,"  says  Macaulay,  "to  some  of  the 
foulest  judicial  murders  recorded  in  our  history."  In 
1682  he  obtained  the  great  seal,  with  the  title  of  lord 
keeper.  On  the  accession  of  James  H.  (February,  1685) 
the  great  seal  was  left  in  his  custody,  but  he  was  super- 
seded in  his  political  functions  by  his  rival.  Lord  Jeffreys. 
Lord  Guilford  died  in  September,  1685,  leaving  his  title 
to  his  son  Francis. 

See  Roger  North,  "  Life  of  Francis  North  ;"  Lord  Campbell, 
"Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii., 
(1820  ;)  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap.  ii. 

North,  (Frederick,)  second  Earl  of  Guildford,  an 
English  Tory  statesman,  better  known  as  Lord  North, 
was  born  in  1733.  ^         of  Francis,  Earl  of 

Guildford,  who  died  in  1790,  and  was  a  great-grandson 
of  the  lord  keeper  of  that  name.  In  1763  he  was  chosen 
one  of  the  lords  of  the  treasury.  He  became  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer  and  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons 
in  1769.  He  was  a  successful  debater,  and,  on  account 
of  his  wit  and  suavity  of  temper,  a  great  favourite  with 
the  House.  He  also  gained  the  extraordinary  favour  of 
the  king  by  his  readiness  to  accept  the  responsibility 
of  prime  minister  in  the  emergency  which  arose  on  the 
resignation  of  the  Duke  of  Grafton  in  1770.  The  prin- 
cipal event  of  his  administration  was  the  American  war, 
■which  he  prosecuted  with  great  pertinacity.  Though 
fiercely  assailed  by  Burke,  Fox,  and  Lord  Chatham,  he 
maintained  his  power  with  eminent  tact  and  ability,  and 
■was  supported  by  large  majorities  in  the  House,  until 
March,  1782,  when  he  resigned,  after  the  surrender  of 
Cornwallis  had  terminated  the  American  war.  He  re- 
tained, however,  the  royal  favour  until  he  entered  into 
the  ill-omened  coalition  with  Fox  against  the  Shelburne 
ministry.  In  March,  1783,  Lord  North  became  secretary 
of  state  in  the  coalition  ministry  of  which  the  Duke  of 
Portland  was  the  nominal  head.  He  was  dismissed  in 
December,  1783,  when  Pitt  became  premier.  In  1790 
he  succeeded  to  the  earldom  of  Guildford.  Died  in  1792. 
"  As  a  statesman,"  says  Lord  Brougham,  "  his  merits 
are  confessedly  far  inferior  to  those  which  clothed  him 
as  a  debater  and  a  man.  The  American  war  is  the  great 
blot  on  his  fame." 

See  Lord  Brougham,  "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  IIL  ;" 
Macaulay,  "Essays,"  article  "Chatham;"  Lodge,  "  Portraits  of 
Illustrious  Personages." 

North,  (George,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
London  in  1710,  published  several  treatises  on  numis- 
matics.   Died  in  1772. 

North,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  son  of  Lord  Dudley  North, 
■was  born  in  1645.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at 
Cambridge,  and  published  editions  of  several  works  of 
Plato.    Died  in  1683. 

-See  Roger  North,  "  Life  of  John  North." 

North,  (Roger,)  a  younger  son  of  Lord  Dudley 
North,  and  a  brother  of  Sir  Dudley  North,  was  born 


about  1650.  He  studied  law,  and  became  steward  of  the 
courts  to  Archbishop  Sheldon.  He  was  author  of  several 
works,  the  most  important  of  which  is  "  The  Lives  of 
Francis  North,  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal,  Sir 
Dudley  North,  and  Rev.  John  North,"  (1740-42.)  This 
is  written  in  an  affected,  pedantic  style,  but  contains 
valuable  matter.    Died  in  1733. 

See  Roger  North,  "Lives  of  the  Norths." 

North,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  translated 
"  The  Dial  of  Princes"  from  the  French,  and  the  "  Moral 
Philosophy"  of  Doni  from  the  Italian.  He  also  made 
the  first  translation  of  Plutarch's  "Lives"  into  English, 
(1579.)    He  died  after  1579. 

Northampton,  Earl  of.    See  Howard,  (Henry.) 

Nor-thamp''t9n,  (Spencer  Joshua  Al'wyne  Comp- 
TON,)  Marquis  of,  an  English  patron  of  science  and 
literature,  was  born  in  1790.  He  became  president  of 
the  Royal  Society.    Died  in  185 1. 

North'cote,  (James,)  an  English  artist,  celebrated  as 
a  portrait  and  hiistorical  painter,  born  at  Plymouth  in 
1746.  Having  studied  under  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  he 
visited  Italy  in  1777,  and,  after  his  return,  was  made  a 
Royal  Academician.  Among  his  best  productions  are 
"Hubert  and  Arthur"  and  "The  Murder  of  the  Princes 
in  the  Tower."  He  also  published  "  The  Life  of  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds,"  (1813,)  and  several  able  treatises  on 
Art.    Died  in  1831. 

See  Cunningham,  "Lives  of  British  Painters,"  etc. 

Northoote,  (Sir  Stafford,)  an  English  conservative 
politician,  born  in  London  about  1818.  He  became 
president  of  the  board  of  trade  in  June,  1866,  and  sec- 
retary for  India  in  March,  1867.  He  resigned  with  his 
colleagues  in  December,  1868. 

Northington,  Lord.    See  Henley,  (Robert.) 

Nor-thum'ber-land,  (  Algernon  Percy,  )  tenth 
Earl  of,  born  in  1602,  was  a  son  of  Henry,  ninth  earl. 
He  was  lord  high  admiral  under  Charles  I.  Died  in  1668. 

Northumberland,  (Algernon  Percy,)  Duke  of, 
a  British  peer,  born  in  1792.  He  entered  the  navy  in 
his  youth,  and  served  against  the  French.  In  1847 
inherited  the  dukedom  at  the  death  of  his  brother  Henry. 
He  obtained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  about  1850.  Died 
in  1865. 

Northumberland,  Duke  of.  See  Dudley,  (John.) 

Northumberland,  (Henry  Percy,)  first  Earl  of, 
an  English  commander,  was  a  son  of  Henry  Percy.  His 
mother  was  Mary,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Lancaster, 
and  a  great-granddaughter  of  King  Henry  III.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Wycliffe,  the  Reformer.  In  1377  he  was 
created  Earl  of  Northumberland  by  Richard  II.  He 
was  one  of  the  chief  agents  of  the  revolution  which 
raised  Henry  IV.  to  the  throne  in  1399.  In  1402  Percy 
defeated  the  Scotch  under  Douglas  at  Homildon  Hill. 
He  tniited  with  his  son  Hotspur  in  rebellion  against  the 
king  in  1403,  and  was  killed  in  battle  in  1408. 

Northumberland,  (Henry  Percy,)  second  Earl 
OF,  was  a  son  of  Hotspur.  He  succeeded  his  grand- 
father, the  first  earl,  in  1408,  and  was  restored  to  the 
earldorn  by  Henry  V.  In  the  civil  war  of  the  Roses  he 
fought  for  the  house  of  Lancaster,  and  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Saint  Alban's,  in  1455.  His  son,  the  third  earl, 
fell  at  the  battle  of  Towton,  in  1460. 

Northumberland,  (Henry  Percy,)  ninth  Earl  of, 
surnamed  the  Wizard,  born  in  1563,  was  a  son  of 
Henry,  the  eighth  earl,  who  died  in  the  Tower  in  1585. 
He  commanded  a  ship  in  the  battle  against  the  Invin- 
cible Armada  in  1588.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Thomas 
Percy,  an  accomplice  in  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  (1605,) 
and,  although  the  earl  himself  was  a  Protestant,  he  was 
confined  many  years  in  the  Tower  on  suspicion.  He 
acquired  the  appellation  of  "  Wizard"  by  his  study  of 
occult  sciences  in  prison.    Died  in  1632. 

See  Lodge,  "  Portraits  of  Illustrious  Personages  ;"  Clarendon, 
"History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Northumberland,  (Hugh  Percy,)  Duke  of,  born 
in  1742,  was  a  son  of  Sir  Hugh  Smithson,  who  was  au- 
thorized to  take  the  name  of  Percy.  He  entered  the 
army,  served  at  Bunker  Hill,  (1775,)  and  gained  the  rank 
of  general.  In  1786  he  inherited  the  title  of  duke.  Died 
in  1 81 7. 

See  Burke,  "  Peerage ;"  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1817. 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  nAt;  good;  moon; 


NORTHUMBERLAND  1687 


NOT  A 


Northumberland,  (Hugh  Percy,)  Duke  of,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1785,  and  inherited  his 
father's  title  in  181 7.  He  favoured  the  Tory  party.  He 
w  as  a  liberal  patron  of  science,  and  was  much  interested 
in  botany  and  horticulture.    Died  in  1847. 

Nor'tpn,  (Andrews,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  American 
theologian  and  scholar,  born  at  Hingham,  Massachusetts, 
in  1786.  He  graduated  in  1804  at  Harvard  College,  and 
in  1813  succeeded  Dr.  Channing  as  biblical  lecturer  in 
that  institution.  He  filled  the  chair  of  Dexter  professor 
of  sacred  literature  at  Harvard  from  1819  till  1830.  His 
most  important  work  is  entitled  "Evidences  of  the  Gen- 
uineness of  the  Gospels,"  (3  vols.,  1837-44.)  He  was 
for  a  time  editor  of  the  "  General  Repository  and  Re- 
view,** published  at  Cambridge,  and  contributed  many 
able  articles  to  the  religious  and  literary  periodicals  of 
the  time.  Among  these  may  be  named  articles  on 
"Franklin"  and  "Byron,"  in  the  "North  American  Re- 
view." In  his  theological  views  Dr.  Norton  was  a 
Unitarian  of  the  conservative  school.  He  married  a 
daughter  of  Samuel  Eliot,  of  Boston.  Died  at  Newport 
in  1853.  ^6  Isft  ^  "Translation  of  the  Gospels,"  pub- 
lished in  1856.  "He  displayed,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold, 
"exact  and  comprehensive  learning  and  a  style  singu- 
larly clear,  compact,  and  beautiful."  ("  Prose  Writers 
of  America.")  He  also  wrote  poems  which  were  much 
admired. 

Norton,  (Asahel  Strong,)  an  American  minister, 
born  at  Farmington,  Connecticut,  in  1766.  He  preached 
at  Clinton,  New  York,  for  many  years.    Died  in  1853. 

Nor'tpn,  (Caroline  Elizabeth  Sarah,)  an  emi- 
nent English  writer,  born  in  1808,  is  a  granddaughter 
of  Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan.  She  received  a  superior 
education,  and  in  her  seventeenth  year  wrote  a  volume 
of  poetry  entitled  "The  Sorrows  of  Rosalie,"  which  was 
published  anonymously,  (1829.)  In  1827  she  was  mar- 
ried to  the  Hon.  George  Chappie  Norton ;  but  this 
union  proved  most  unfortunate,  and  a  divorce  took 
place  between  the  parties  in  1836.  She  had  published 
in  1830  her  poem  of  "The  Undying  One,"  which  was 
received  with  great  favour.  It  was  succeeded  by  "A 
Voice  from  the  Factories,"  (1836,)  "The  Dream,  and 
other  Poems,"  (1840,)  "The  Child  of  the  Islands,"  (1845,) 
and  "Aunt  Carry's  Ballads,"  (1847.)  She  has  also  written 
a  romance,  entitled  "Stuart  of  Dunleith,"  (1847,)  and 
"Tales  and  Sketches  in  Prose  and  Verse,"  (1850,)  many 
of  which  are  remarkable  for  their  fidelity  to  nature, 
pathos,  and  intensity  of  feeling.  Among  her  more  recent 
works  are  a  "Letter  to  the  Queen  on  Lord  Cranworth's 
Marriage  and  Divorce  Bill,"  ( 1855,)  "Lives  of  the  Sheri- 
dans,"  "Lady  of  La  Garaye,"  (1861,)  and  "Lost  and 
Saved,"  (1863.)  Mrs.  Norton  is  described  by  Mrs.  Sedg- 
wick, in  her  "  Letters  from  Abroad,"  as  the  perfection 
of  intellectual  and  physical  beauty,  uniting  masculine 
force  with  feminine  delicacy. 

See  MoiR,  "Sketches  of  the  Poetical  Literature  of  the  Past  Half- 
Century,"  1851  ;  RowTON,  "  Female  Poets  of  Great  Britain,"  (with 
a  portrait ;)  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1831;  "London  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  September,  1840.  and  June,  1845;  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  September,  1830,  (with  a  portrait;)  "Westminster 
Review"  for  June,  1845. 

Norton,  (Lady  Frances,)  an  English  moralist  and 
writer,  born  about  1650,  was  the  wife  of  Sir  George 
Norton.  She  wrote  "  Memento  Mori,"  and  "  The  Ap- 
plause of  Virtue,"  (1705.)    Died  in  1720. 

See  Prudhomme,  "  Biographie  des  Femmes  celebres." 

Norton,  (John,)  an  English  writer  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  published  a  work  entitled  "  The  Scholar's  Vade- 
Mecum." 

Norton,  (John,)  a  learned  Puritan  divine  and  theo- 
logical wtiter,  born  in  Hertfordshire,  England,  in  1606, 
emigrated  in  1635  to  America,  and  became  a  minister  at 
Boston.    Died  in  1663. 

Norton,  (John  P.,)  an  American  chemist,  was  pro- 
fessr)r  of  agricultural  chemistry  at  Yale  College.  Died 
-     in  1 85 1. 

Norton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Calvinistic  writer, 
born  in  Bedfordshire  in  the  sixteenth  century,  published 
some  tracts  against  popery.  He  is  also  said  to  have 
assisted  Sackville  in  his  tragedy  of  "  Ferrex  and  Porrex." 

See  W.ARTON,  "History  of  English  Poetry;"  Ellis,  "Specimens 
of  the  Early  English  Poets." 


Norvi  (nor've)  or  Nor,  written  also  Narfi,  [etymology 
doubtful,]  a  giant  mentioned  in  the  "Edda"  as  the  first 
of  all  the  inhabitants  of  Jotunheim.  He  had  a  daughter 
named  Night,  who  was  married  to  Anar  or  Onar.*  The 
offspring  of  this  union  was  the  Earth.  She  afterwards 
became  the  wife  of  Delling  or  Dellinger,  [i.e.  the  "  Dawn,") 
and  bore  to  him  a  bright  and  beautiful  son  called  Day. 
Then  Odin  took  Night  and  Day  and  placed  them  in 
heaven,  and  gave  them  two  horses  and  two  cars,  that 
they  might  journey  in  succession  round  the  world.  Night 
rides  first  with  her  horse,  called  Rimfaxi  or  Hrimfaxi, 
(hrim-  (or  hreem-)  fdk'se, — that  is,  "Frosty-mane,")  who 
every  morning  bedews  the  earth  with  foam  from  his 
bit.  The  horse  of  Day  is  named  Skinfaxi,  (or  "  Shining- 
mane,")  because  his  radiant  mane  sends  forth  the  light 
which  illuminates  heaven  and  earth. 

See  Mallet,  "  Northern  Antiquities,"  vcd.  ii.  fable  vi. ;  Thorpe, 
"Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. 

Norvins,  de,  deh  noR^•iN^  (Jacques  Marquet — 
mtR'ka',)  Baron  de  Montbreton,  (mdN^bueh-toN',)  a 
French  litterateur  and  politician,  born  in  Paris  in  1769. 
He  wrote  a  "Picture  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (1819,) 
a  "  History  of  Napoleon,"  (9th  edition,  4  vols.,  1839,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1854. 

Nor'wood,  (Richard,)  an  English  geometer,  who 
lived  about  1630-50,  was  the  author  of  several  treatises 
on  trigonometry,  navigation,  etc.  He  is  chiefly  celebrated 
for  having  been  one  of  the  first  who  measured  a  degree 
of  the  meridian. 

See  HuTTON,  "Mathematical  Dictionary." 

Nosselt  or  Noesselt,  nbs'silt,  (Johann  August,)  a 
German  theologian,  born  at  Halle  in  1734  ;  died  in  1807. 

Nos'sis,  a  Greek  poetess,  born  at  Locris  or  Locri, 
in  Southern  Italy,  flourished  about  310  B.C.  She  wrote 
graceful  epigrams,  twelve  of  which  are  in  the  Greek 
Anthology. 

See  Bentley,  "Dissertation  upon  the  Epistles  of  Phalaris." 

Nostitz  und  Janckendorf,  von,  fon  nos'tits  oont 
y^n'ken-doRf,  (Gottlob  Adolf  Ernst,)  a  German 
poet,  known  under  the  pseudonym  of  Arthur  von 
NoRDSTERN,  was  bom  in  Upper  Lusatia  in  1765.  He 
was  the  author  of  "Songs  for  Free-Masons,"  "Christian 
Emblems,"  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1836. 

His  son,  Eduard  Gottlob,  rose  through  various 
oflices  to  be  minister  of  the  interior  for  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony. 

Nos-tra-da'mus  or  Notre-Dame,  not'R-dtm',  (Mi- 
chel,) a  famous  French  astrologer  and  physician,  of  Jew- 
ish extraction,  born  at  Saint-Remi,  in  Provence,  in  1503. 
During  the  prevalence  of  the  plague  at  Aix  and  Lyons 
(1546-47)  he  acquired  a  high  reputation  from  the  cures 
he  effected  with  a  medicine  of  his  own  invention.  In 
1555  he  puljlished  a  collection  of  prophecies,  (in  verse,) 
entitled  "  Centuries,"  which  caused  a  great  sensation 
and  obtained  for  him  the  favour  and  patronage  of  Cathe- 
rine de  Medicis.  He  was  invited  by  her  to  Paris,  loaded 
with  favours,  and  charged  to  draw  the  horoscope  of  the 
princes,  her  sons.  He  afterwards  became  physician-in- 
ordinary  to  Charles  IX.  He  died  in  1556.  Several  of 
his  predictions  are  said  to  have  been  fulfilled.  Owing  to 
his  having  foretold  the  downfall  of  Romanism,  his  works 
were  interdicted  by  the  pope,  (1781.) 

See  E.  Jaubrrt,  "Vie  de  M.  Nostradamus,"  1656;  P.J.  de 
Haitze.  "Vie  de  M.  Nostradamus,"  1712;  "La  Vie  de  Nostra- 
damus," (anonymous,)  Paris,  1789:  E.  Bareste,  "Nostradamus," 
Paris,  1S42  ;  Th.  Bouvs,  "Considerations  sur  les  Sibyles  et  sur 
Nostradamus,"  1806. 

Nota,  no'ta,  (Alberto,)  an  Italian  dramatist,  born  at 
Turin  in  1775,  was  the  author  of  several  popular  plays 
of  the  class  called  sentimental  comedy.  Among  these 
may  be  named  "The  Duchess  of  La  Valliere,"  "The 
Widow  in  Solitude,"  and  "  Domestic  Peace."  They 
have  passed  through  numerous  editions,  and  have  been 
translated  into  French,  German,  Spanish,  Swedish,  and 
Russian.    Died  in  1847. 

See  "  Vie  d'. Alberto  Nota."  prefixed  to  the  tenth  edition  of  his 
works  ;  Schedom,  "  Tratteniinenio  sopra  le  Commedie  di  A.  Nota," 
1826  ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1828. 


*  Probably  allied  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  an  and  the  Norse  einr,  signi- 
fying "origin."  and  hence,  as  an  adjective,  "original,"  "primeval." 
See  Bosworth's  "Anglo-Saxon  Dictionary." 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NOTHNAGEL 


1688 


NO  FA 


Nothnagel,  n5t'ni-gel,  (Johann  Andreas  Benja- 
min,) a  German  painter  and  engraver,  born  in  Saxe- 
Cohurg  in  1729;  died  about  1800. 

Nothomb,  n(/t6N^  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Belgian  states- 
man, born  at  Messancy  in  1805.  He  was  appointed  min- 
ister of  public  works  in  1837,  and  in  1841  minister  of  the 
interior.  His  "  Historical  and  Political  Essay  on  the 
Belgian  Revolution"  (1833)  was  translated  into  German 
and  Italian.  He  was  president  of  the  Council  from  1843 
to  June,  1845. 

See  L.  DE  LoMENiE,  "Galerie  des  Contemporains ;"  *' Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Notker,  not'ker,  surnamed  Phys'icus,  a  learned  Ger- 
man monk  and  physician  of  the  tenth  century,  was  like- 
wise celebrated  as  an  artist  and  poet.    Died  in  975. 

Notker,  a  German  ecclesiastic,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
emperor  Otho  I.  He  became  dean  of  the  convent  of 
Saint  Gall,  and  Bishop  of  Liege,  (972.)    Died  in  1007. 

Notker,  surnamed  La'keo,  and  called  also  Teu- 
ton'icus,  born  about  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century, 
entered  the  monastery  of  Saint  Gall,  where  he  was 
appointed  principal  teacher.  He  had  a  high  reputation 
for  learning,  and  made  numerous  translations  from 
the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew.  His  version  of  the 
Psalms  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  important  monu- 
ments of  early  German  literature.    Died  in  1022. 

Not'man,  (John,)  a  distinguished  architect,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  July  22,  1810,  In  183 1  he  emi- 
grated to  the  United  States,  and  settled  in  Philadel- 
phia, where  he  continued  to  reside  for  the  rest  of  his 
life.  He  laid  out  the  grounds  of  Laurel  Hill  Cemetery, 
designed  all  the  architectural  embellishments,  and  su- 
perintended their  execution.  He  devoted  himself  par- 
ticularly to  church  architecture,  in  which  department  he 
had  few  if  any  superiors  in  the  United  States.  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  thorough  acquaintance  with  me- 
diaeval architecture.  He  possessed  great  enthusiasm  for 
his  art,  as  well  as  poetic  sensibility,  and  in  his  works  he 
seemed  to  address  himself  not  so  much  to  the  senses  as 
to  the  soul.  He  died  March  3,  1865.  Among  his  chief 
works  may  be  mentioned  Saint  Mark's  Church,  in  Lo- 
cust Street,  regarded  as  among  the  very  best  specimens 
of  the  Gothic  style  in  America,  the  facade  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral  on  Logan  Square,  and  the  Church  of 
the  Holy  Trinity,  near  Walnut  and  Nineteenth  Streets, 
of  which  the  noble  doorway  is  especially  admired. 

Notre,  Le.    See  Lenotre. 

Notre-Dame,  (Michel.)    See  Nostradamus. 

Notre-Dame,  de,  deh  not'R'dtm',  (Cesar,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Salon  in  1555,  was  a  son  of  Michel  Nos- 
tradamus. He  obtained  the  title  of  gentleman  of  the 
chamber  to  Louis  XIII.  He  wrote  several  poems,  and 
a  "  History  of  Provence,"  (1614.)    Died  in  1629. 

Nott,  (Abraham,)  an  American  jurist  and  politician, 
born  at  Saybrook,  Connecticut,  in  1767,  settled  in  South 
Carolina,  and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1800.  Died 
in  1830. 

Nott,  (Eliphalet,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  divine, 
born  in  Windham  county,  Connecticut,  in  1773. 
was  for  many  years  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church 
at  Albany,  and  in  1804  became  president  of  Union 
College,  Schenectady,  New  York.  He  filled  this  post 
for  nearly  sixty  years,  and  was  greatly  instrumental  in 
promoting  the  prosperity  and  reputation  of  the  college. 
He  published  "Counsels  to  Young  Men,"  "Lectures 
on  Tem])erance,"  etc.    Died  in  1866. 

Nott,  (Henry  Junius,)  son  of  Abraham  Nott,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  1797.  He  graduated  at  South  Caro- 
lina College,  and  was  afterwards  professor  of  logic 
and  the  philosophy  of  language  in  that  institution.  He 
\  published  "Novelettes  of  a  Traveller,"  etc.,  and  was 
a  contributor  to  the  "Southern  Review."  He  was 
wrecked  in  the  steamer  Home  in  1837. 

_  Nott,  (John,)  an  English  poet,  scholar,  and  physi- 
cian, born  at  Worcester  in  1751.  He  made  translations 
from  the  Latin  and  Italian,  and  from  the  Persian  of 
Hafiz  ;  he  also  published  an  original  poem,  entitled 
"  Alonzo."    Died  in  1826. 

Nott,  (Josiah  Clark,)  brother  of  Henry  Junius, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Columbia,  South  Carolina, 
in  1804,  and  graduated  as  a  physician  in  Philadelphia. 


He  has  published  "  The  Physical  History  of  the  Jewish 
Race,"  "Types  of  Mankind,"  (1854,)  and  "Indigenous 
Races  of  the  Earth,"  (1857,)  the  last  two  conjointly  with 
G.  R.  Gliddon. 

Nott,  (Sir  William,)  a  distinguished  officer,  born  in 
Carmarthen,  in  Wales,  in  1782,  served  in  the  Afghan 
war,  and  attained  the  rank  of  major-general.  Died  in 
1845. 

Nottingham,  Earl  of.    See  Finch,  (Daniel.) 

Nottingham,  not'ting-am,  (Heneage  Finch,)  first 
Earl  of,  an  English  jawyer  and  statesman,  born  in 
Kent  in  1621.  He  entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  about 
1635,  studied  law  in  the  Inner  Temple,  and  became  an 
eloquent  lawyer.  On  the  restoration  of  Charles  II. 
(1660)  he  was  appointed  solicitor-general,  and  took  part 
in  the  prosecution  of  the  regicides.  He  was  chosen  in 
1661  to  represent  the  University  of  Oxford  in  Parlia- 
ment, became  attorney-general  in  1670,  and  lord  chan- 
cellor of  England  in  December,  1675.  In  1681  he  was 
created  Earl  of  Nottingham.    Died  in  1682. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;"  Foss, 
"Tlie  Judges  of  England;"  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Nouailher,  noo'a'li',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
painter  and  enameller,  born  in  1742  ;  died  in  1804. 

Noue,  dela,  deh  It  noo,  (Franqois,)  called  Bras  de 
Fer,  (bR3,  deh  f^R,)  i.e.  "  Iron-arm,"  a  celebrated  French 
commander  and  Huguenot,  was  born  near  Nantes  in  153 1. 
He  commanded  the  rear-guard  at  the  battle  of  Jarnac, 
in  1569,  and  was  taken  prisoner  at  Moncontour.  Having 
lost  his  left  arm  at  the  siege  of  Fontenay,  he  supplied  its 
place  by  an  iron  arm.  In  1573  he  took  command  of  the 
insurgents  at  La  Rochelle,  which  he  defended  for  four 
years.  After  peace  had  been  concluded  between  Henry 
of  Navarre  and  the  Catholics,  La  Noue  went  in  1578  to 
Flanders,  where  he  fought  against  the  Spaniards  and 
soon  became  general-in-chief.  He  was  taken  prisoner 
in  1580,  and  detained  as  such  for  five  years.  Having 
joined  the  army  of  Henry  IV.,  he  fought  at  the  battle 
of  Ivry,  (1590,)  and  was  killed  at  Lamballe  in  159 1.  He 
had  a  high  reputation  for  virtue  and  talents.  His  "  Po- 
litical and  Military  Discourses"  (1587)  entitle  him  to  a 
place  among  the  best  prose  writers  of  his  time. 

See  Brantomk.  "  Vies  des  grands  Capitaines;"  Davila,  "  His- 
tory of  the  Civil  Wars  of  France;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Fran- 
gais;"  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  Haag,  "La  France  protestante ;"  Motley,  "United 
Netherlands,"  vols.  ii.  and  iii. 

Noue,  de  la,  (Odet,)  Seigneur  de  Teligny,  a  French 
officer  and  poet,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  fought 
for  Henry  IV.,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  marechal-de- 
camp,  with  the  title  of  counsellor  to  the  king.  He  wrote 
an  essay  called  a  "  Paradox  that  Adversity  is  more 
necessary  than  Prosperity,"  (1588,)  and  "Christian 
Poems,"  ("  Poesies  chretiennes,"  1594.)    Died  in  1618. 

Noue,  La.    See  Lanoue. 

Nouet,  noo'^',  (Jacques,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Mans  in  1605,  wrote  a  number  of  moral  and  religious 
works.    Died  in  1680. 

Nouet,  (Nicolas  Antoine,)  a  French  astronomer, 
born  in  Lorraine  in  1740;  died  in  1811. 

Nougarede  de  Fayet,  noo'gt'rid'  deh  ft'yi',  (An- 
dr6  Jean  Simon,)  Baron,  a  French  jurist  and  magis- 
trate, born  at  Montpellier  in  1765,  published  several 
legal  and  historical  works.    Died  in  1845. 

Nougarede  de  Fayet,  (Auguste,)  a  French  jurist, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1811.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  legal  and  miscellaneous  treatises. 
Died  in  1853. 

Nougaret,  noo'gt'ri',  (Pierre  Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
voluminous  and  mediocre  French  writer,  born  at  La 
Rochelle  in  1 742,  was  the  author  of  poems,  tales,  dramas, 
and  historical  works.    Died  in  1823. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

NouUeau,  nooOo',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic and  theological  writer,  born  at  Saint-Brieuc  in 
1604 ;  died  in  1672. 

Noureddin  or  Nour-Eddyn.  See  Noor-ed-Deen. 

Nourrit,  noor'e',  (Adolphe,)  a  popular  French  singer 
and  actor,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1802  ;  died  in  1839. 

Nova,  de,  di  no'vi,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  navigator, 
born  in  Galicia,  entered  the  service  of  Emanuel,  King 
of  Portugal.    He  sailed  for  the  Indies  in  1501,  and  dis- 


3,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


NOrALIS 


1689 


NOT 


covered  on  his  route  the  Isle  of  Conception,  and  another 
at  no  great  distance,  to  which  he  gave  his  name.  On  his 
return,  in  1502,  he  discovered  Saint  Helena. 

Novalis,  no-vi'lis,  the  assumed  name  of  (B'riedrich) 
Von  Hardenberg,  (fon  haR'den-b§Rc/,)  a  celebrated 
German  philosopher  and  mystical  writer,  born  at  Wider- 
stadt.  Saxony,  May  2,  1772.  He  was  a  son  of  Baron 
von  Hardenberg,  amember  of  the  Society  of  Herrnhuters 
or  Moravians.  He  studied  successively  at  the  Univer- 
sities of  Jena,  Leipsic,  and  Wittenberg.  Among  the 
intimate  friends  of  his  early  youth  were  Frederick  Schle- 
gel,  Fichte,  and  Schelling.  About  1797  he  produced  his 
*'  Hymns  to  the  Night."  He  was  affianced  to  Julia  von 
Charpentier  in  1798,  but  their  marriage  was  prevented 
by  his  death.  About  this  date  he  wrote  the  "  Disciples 
at  Sais."  His  constitution  had  always  been  delicate.  He 
died  of  consumption,  at  Weissenfels,  in  March,  1801. 
His  most  extensive  work  is  a  mystical  romance  entitled 

Heinrich  von  Ofterdingen,"  which,  however,  he  left 
unfinished.  It  is  enveloped  in  a  rather  obscure  sym- 
bolism, and  displays  a  wild  and  eccentric  imagination. 
He  also  wrote  a  remarkable  work  called  "Christianity 
in  Europe." 

See  a  "  Biography  of  Novalis,"  by  Tieck,  prefixed  to  his  collected 
works,  ("  Novalis  Schriften,")  2  vols.,  1802  ;  Carlvle,  "  Miscel- 
lanies," article  "  Novalis  ;"  Madame  de  Stael,  "  De  rAUemagne  ;" 
Gervinus,  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Dichtung ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Novara,  no-vi'rS,  (Domenico  Maria,)  an  Italian 
astronomer,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1464,  taught  astronomy 
at  Bologna,  and  numbered  among  his  pupils  the  cele- 
brated Copernicus.    Died  in  1 5 14. 

Novarini,  no-vi-ree'nee,  (LuiGi.)  an  Italian  theo- 
logian, born  at  Verona  in  1594,  wrote  "Commentaries 
on  tiie  Gospels,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1650. 

Novat.    See  Novatus. 

Novatian,  no-va'she-an,  [Lat.  Novatia'nus  ;  Fr. 
NoVATiE.v,  no\t^seJ,N',J  the  founder  of  a  sect  called 
Novatians.  He  became  a  presbyter  of  the  Church  at 
Rome,  and  insisted  on  a  rigorous  enforcement  of  the 
discipline  against  the  Lapsi, — i.e.  those  members  of 
the  Church  who  under  the  pressure  of  persecution  had 
relapsed  into  idolatry  or  had  been  guilty  of  apostasy. 
On  this  question  the  Church  was  divided  into  two  par- 
ties, which  in  251  A.D.  elected  two  rival  bishops  of  Rome, 
Novatian  and  Cornelius,  the  latter  of  whom  advocated 
greater  laxity  or  charity  in  the  treatment  of  the  weak 
brethren.  Novatian  was  condemned  by  a  general 
Council  held  at  Rome,  and  his  rival  obtained  the  office. 
The  Novatians  became  numerous,  and  existed  for  more 
than  a  century  as  a  separate  sect.  Some  writers  con- 
found him  with  Novatus,  mentioned  below. 

See  Fleury,  "  Histoire  ecclesiastique ;"  Pluquet,  "Diction- 
naire  des  Heresies." 

Novatianus.    See  Novatian. 
Novatien.    See  Novatian. 

No-va'tus,  [Fr.  Novat,  no'vt',]  a  presbyter  of  Car- 
thage, called  a  heresiarch  by  Catholic  writers,  was  an 
adversary  of  Cyprian.  He  was  excommunicated  in  251 
A.D., — i^robably  because  he  resisted  the  assumption  of 
the  bishops  who  wished  to  domineer  over  the  Church; 
for  he  is  not  charged  with  dogmatical  heresy. 

See  Fleury,  "  Histoire  ecclesiastique." 

Novella,  no-vel'lS,  a  learned  and  beautiful  Italian  lady, 
born  at  Padua  in  13 12,  was  a  daughter  of  the  celebrated 
ju*ist  Giovanni  d'Andrea.  She  was  profoundly  versed 
in  philosophy  and  jurisprudence,  and  was  accustomed, 
in  her  father's  absence,  to  lecture  in  his  place.  She  is 
said  to  have  lectured  with  a  curtain  drawn  before  her, 

"  Lest  the  students 
Should  let  their  young  eyes  wander  o'er  her, 
And  quite  forget  their  jurisprudence." 
Died  in  1366. 

See  GiNGUEN^,  "Histoire  Litt^raire  d'ltalie ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Novelli,  no-vel'lee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  at  Castel-Franco  in  1600,  worked  at  Florence.  A 
statue  of  Mary  Magdalene  is  called  his  master-piece. 
He  also  made  telescopes  so  superior  that  Torricelli  said 
of  him,  "Behold,  another  Galileo  flourishes!"  ("En 
virescit  Galilaeus  alter  !")    Died  in  1662. 

See  Baldinucci,  "Notizie." 


Novelli,  (PiETRO,)  called  II  Morrealese,  {h\  mor- 
ri-i-li'sa,)  an  Italian  painter  and  architect,  born  at  Mor- 
reale  in  1608.  He  adorned  the  churches  of  Palermo 
with  many  oil-paintings.  He  also  painted  some  frescos. 
According  to  E.  Breton,  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale,"  he  was  the  greatest  painter  that  Sicily  ever 
produced.    Died  in  1647. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizio- 
nario." 

Novelli,  (Pietro  Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
poet,  born  at  Venice  in  1729;  died  in  1804.  His  son 
Francesco,  born  in  1764,  was  an  engraver. 

Novell©,  no-veKlo,  (Clara,)  Countess  Gigliucci,  (j^l- 
yoot'chee, )  a  famous  singer,  a  daughter  of  Vincent 
Novello,  was  born  in  London  in  1818.  She  performed 
in  Paris  and  London.  She  was  married  to  Count  Gi- 
gliucci about  1845. 

Novello,  (Vincent,)  an  eminent  musician,  born  in 
London  in  1781,  was  the  son  of  an  Italian.  He  com- 
posed music  for  the  Church,  and  published  several  col- 
lections of  the  works  of  other  composers.  He  was  the 
father  of  Mary  Cowden  Clarke,  and  Clara,  Countess 
Gigliucci.    Died  in  1861. 

See  "Life  of  V.  Novello,"  by  his  daughter,  Mrs.  Clarke. 

.  Noverre,  no'vaiR',  (Jean  Georges,)  born  in  Paris  in 
1727,  is  celebrated  for  the  improvements  he  introduced 
into  the  ballet  and  the  art  of  dancing.  He  was  the 
author  of  "Letters  on  the  Imitative  Arts,"  etc.,  (1807,) 
and  several  dramatic  works,  and  was  appointed  chief 
ballet-master  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  Paris. 
Died  in  1810. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  April,  1786. 

Noves,  de,  deh  nov,  (or  no'v^s,)  (Laura,)  a  French 
lady,  celebrated  as  the  subject  of  Petrarch's  sonnets, 
was  born  near  Avignon  in  1307  ;  died  in  1348. 

See  De  Sade,  "  Memoires  sur  Petrarque,"  1744. 

Novikof,  Novikov,  or  Novikow,  nov'e-kof,  (Ni- 
kolai IvANOViTCH,)  a  Russian  litterateur.,  born  near 
Moscow  in  1744.  He  published  a  "  Lexicon  of  Russian 
Authors,"  and  a  work  entitled  "The  Painter,"  which 
was  very  successful.  He  established  in  Moscow  a  Ty- 
pographical Society  for  the  cheap  printing  of  valuable 
books,  and  contributed  in  many  ways  to  promote  the 
cause  of  education.    Died  in  1818. 

See  Gretch,  "  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Russe." 

No'vi-us,  (Q.,)  a  Latin  comic  poet,  lived  about  80 
B.C.,  and  was  contemporary  with  Sulla  the  dictator.  He 
wrote  plays  called  Atellane. 

Nowell,  n5'el,  (Alexander,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  in  Lancashire  about  1508,  was  a  zealous  pro- 
moter of  the  Reformation.  On  the  accession  of  Queen 
Mary  he  went  into  exile.  He  became  Dean  of  Saint 
Paul's,  London,  in  1560,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  Convocation  of  1563,  at  which  the  articles  of  re- 
ligion were  revised.  His  most  important  work  is  his 
"  Catechism,"  which  was  published  in  Latin  in  1570 
and  in  English  about  1571.  This  is  the  "Larger  Cate- 
chism" adopted  by  the  Anglican  Church.  He  had  a 
high  reputation  for  learning  and  candour.   Died  in  1602. 

See  Churton,  "  Life  of  Alexander  Nowell,"  1809. 

Nowell,  (Lawrence,)  a  younger  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, graduated  at  Oxford  in  1544.  He  became  Dean 
of  Lichfield  in  1559.  He  compiled  a  Saxon  Vocabulary, 
which  he  gave  to  William  Lambarde  in  manuscript.  Died 
in  1576. 

Nox  or  Nyx,  [Gr.  Ni^  ;  Fr.  Nuit,  niiV  ;  It.  Notte, 
not'ta,]  one  of  the  most  ancient  deities  in  classic  my- 
thology, is  a  personification  of  Night. -  She  was  supposed 
to  be  the  daughter  of  Chaos,  the  brother  of  Erebus,  and 
the  mother  of  Day,  (Hemera.)  Among  her  offspring 
were  Death,  Sleep,  Momus,  Nemesis,  and  the  Parcae. 

Noy,  (William,)  a  celebrated  English  lawyer,  born 
about  1577.  He  was  appointed  attorney-general  in  1631, 
and  thenceforth  became  the  advocate  of  the  royal  pre- 
rogative, though  he  had  previously  been  one  of  its 
strongest  opponents.  It  was  at  his  suggestion  that  King 
Charles  I.  levied  the  tax  of  ship-money,  which  was 
one  of  the  exciting  causes  of  the  civil  war.  He  wrote, 
among  other  legal  works,  "The  Complete  Lawyer,"  and 
a  "  Treatise  on  the  Rights  of  the  Crown."  Died  in  1634. 

See  Clarendon,  "Memoirs;"  Fuller,  "Worthies." 


■e  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^=^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


NOTDENS 


1690 


NUNEZ 


Noydens,  no-e-d§ns',  ?  (Benito  Remigio,)  a  Spanish 
philologist,  born  in  Aragon  about  1630,  published  a 
Spanish  Dictionary,  (1674.)    Died  in  1685, 

Noyer,  du.    See  Dunoyer. 

Noyes,  noiz,  (George  Rapall,)  D.D.,  an  American 
scholar  and  divine,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts, 
in  1798.  He  was  elected  in  1840  Hancock  professor  of 
Hebrew  and  Oriental  languages,  and  Dexter  lecturer  on 
Biblical  literature,  at  Harvard  College.  He  published 
translations  of  the  Psalms,  the  book  of  Job,  and  other 
parts  of  the  Bible,  and  contributed  to  the  "  Christian 
Examiner."    Died  in  1868. 

See  the  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1832. 

Noyes,  (William  Curtis,)  an  American  jurist,  born 
in  Rensselaer  county,  New  York,  in  1805.  He  practised 
law  in  the  city  of  New  York,  where  he  died  in  December, 
1864. 

Nucci,  noot'chee,  (Benedetto,)  an  Italian  painter, 
of  the  Roman  school,  was  born  at  Gubbio  about  1520; 
died  in  1587. 

Nuck,  nook,  (Anton,)  a  skilful  German  anatomist 
and  physician,  born  about  1660.  He  was  professor  of 
surgery  and  anatomy  at  Leyden,  and  subsequently  presi- 
dent of  the  College  of  Surgeons.  He  made  several  valu- 
able discoveries  relative  to  the  lymphatic  vessels  and 
glands,  and  published  a  treatise  "On  the  New  Salival 
Duct,"  and  one  "On  the  Motion  of  the  Circular  Bile." 
Died  in  1692. 

Nuenarius.    See  Neuenar. 

Nii'gent,  the  name  of  a  noble  family,  originally  from 
Normandy,  who  settled  in  Ireland  in  the  twelfth  century. 
Richard  Nugent  was  created  by  King  James  I.  Earl  of 
Westmeath  in  1621.  George  Thomas  John  Nugent, 
born  in  1785,  became  Marquis  of  Westmeath  in  1822. 
He  was  a  prominent  leader  of  the  Orange  party.  Sir 
George  Nugent,  grandson  of  Viscount  Clare,  born  in 
1757,  served  in  America  and  the  Netherlands.  He  was 
successively  appointed  Governor  of  Jamaica  and  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  in  the  West  Indies,  and  in 
1846  field-marshal.  Died  in  1849.  His  brother.  Sir 
Charles  Edmund  Nugent,  served  with  distinction 
under  Rodney,  and  was  created  admiral  of  the  blue  in 
r8o8.  In  1833  he  received  the  title  of  admiral  of  the 
fleet.    Died  in  1844. 

Nugent,  (Christopher,)  an  Irish  physician  of  con- 
siderable reputation,  was  father-in-law  of  the  celebrated 
Edmund  Burke.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
His  principal  work  is  an  "Essay  on  Hydrophobia," 
(1753.)    Died  in  1775. 

Nugent,  (George  Nugent  Grenville,)  Lord,  an 
English  writer  and  liberal  statesman,  a  son  of  the  Mar- 
quis of  Buckingham,  was  born  in  1788.  On  entering 
Parliament,  in  1812,  he  became  a  protninent  advocate  of 
the  cause  of  the  Greeks,  and  was  also  conspicuous  in 
the  defence  of  Queen  Caroline.  In  1830  he  was  made 
lord  of  the  treasury,  and  soon  after  lord  high  commissary 
of  the  Ionian  Islands.  He  returned  to  England  in  1835, 
and  died  in  1850  or  1851.  He  published  very  interesting 
"  Memorials  of  John  Hampden,"  and  wrote,  in  conjunction 
with  his  wife,  "  Legends  of  Lilies,  by  the  Lord  and  Lady 
thereof." 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1846. 

Nugent,  (Comte  Laval  de  Westmeath,)  a  general, 
born  in  Ireland  in  1 777.  He  entered  the  Austrian  army 
at  an  early  age.  He  gained  some  advantages  over  the 
troops  of  Murat  in  181 5.  About  1849  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  feld-marechal. 

Nugent,  (Robeijt  Craggs,)  Earl,  a  poet  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  Ireland.  He  married  in  1736  Anne 
Craggs,  a  daughter  of  Secretary  Craggs,  who  was  a 
friend  of  Addison.  He  entered  the  House  of  Commons 
in  1741,  and  became  a  lord  of  the  treasury.  About  1776 
he  obtained  the  title  of  Earl  Nugent.  Died  in  1788. 
He  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1739. 

Nugent,  (Thomas,)  LL.D.,  a  learned  writer  and  com- 
piler, was  a  native  of  Ireland.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  "Travels  through  Germany,"  (1768,)  and 
a  "  French-and-English  Dictionary,"  (1774,)  often  re- 
printed.   Died  in  1772. 

Nu'ma  Pom-piFI-us,  the  second  king  of  Rome, 
celebrated  in  Roman  legends  or  fables  as  the  author  of 


the  religious  ceremonies  of  the  Romans.  According  to 
these  legends,  Numa  was  a  Sabine,  and  was  elected 
king  as  successor  to  Romulus.  Instructed  by  the  Ca- 
mena  Egeria,  he  prescribed  the  rites  of  public  worship, 
and  appointed  pontiffs,  augurs,  flamens,  and  vestals. 
His  reign  was  pacific  and  prosperous.  There  was  a 
prevalent  tradition  among  the  ancients  that  Numa  de- 
rived his  wisdom  from  Pythagoras. 

See  Plutarch,  "Lives;"  Niebuhr,  "  Rbntische  Geschichte ;" 
J.  Meyer,  "Delineatio  Vitje  Numse  Pompilii,"  1765. 

Nu-me'ni-us,  [Noy^^vwf,]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born 
at  Apamea,  in  Syria,  is  called  a  Pythagorean,  or  rather  a 
professor  of  a  Platonico-Pythagorean  philosophy.  He 
lived  in  the  second  century  of  our  era,  and  was  favour- 
ably mentioned  by  Origen.  He  attempted  to  reconcile 
the  great  Greek  schools  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Brah- 
mans.  Magi,  and  Jews,  and  to  restore  the  philosophy  of 
Plato  to  its  original  purity.    His  works  are  not  extant. 

See  J.  Simon,  "  Histoire  de  I'ficole  d'Alexandrie ;"  Ritter, 
"  History  of  Philosophy." 

Nu-me'ri-an,  [Lat.  Numeria'nus  ;  Fr.  Num^rien, 
nii'ma're^N'',]  (Marcus  Aurelius,)  son  of  Carus,  suc- 
ceeded him  as  Emperor  of  Rome  in  284  A.D.,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  his  brother  Carinus.  He  was  afterwards  put 
to  death  in  the  same  year,  as  is  supposed,  by  his  father- 
in-law,  Arrius,  and  Diocletian  was  chosen  emperor. 
Numerianus  was  famed  as  an  orator  and  a  poet.  His 
character  is  said  to  have  been  excellent. 

See  VoPiscus,  "Numerianus." 

Numerien.    See  Numerian. 

Nu-me-si-a'nus  or  No-mis-i-a'nus,  a  physician  of 
Corinth,  flourished  in  the  second  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era.  He  numbered  the  celebrated  Galen  among 
his  pupils. 

Numitor.    See  Romulus. 

Nunes-Barreto,  noo'ngs  bar-ra'to,  (Belchior,)  a 
Portuguese  missionary,  born  at  Oporto  in  1520.  He  was 
employed  many  years  in  India,  and  wrote  interesting 
letters  on  Oriental  affairs.    Died  in  1571. 

Nunez,  noon'y^th,  (Alvarez,)  surnamed  Cabe<;a  de 
Vaca,  (ki-ba'thi  di  vi'kS,)  a  Spanish  explorer,  was  the 
second  in  command  of  a  party  which  discovered  or  ex- 
plored Florida  in  1528.  He  was  appointed  adelantado 
of  Rio  de  la  Plata  about  1540.    Died  in  1564. 

See'GoMARA,  "  Historia  general  de  las  Indias;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Nunez,  [Lat.  No'nius,]  (Fernando  de  Guzman,)  a 
distinguished  Spanish  scholar  and  promoter  of  classical 
learning,  was  born  at  Valladolid  about  1470.  He  was 
descended  from  the  noble  family  of  Guzman,  and  was 
surnamed  Pincianus,  from  Pincium,  the  Latin  name  of 
Valladolid.  After  having  studied  Greek  in  Italy,  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  professors  of  that  language  in  the 
University  of  Alcala.  He  afterwards  filled  the  chair  of 
ancient  lane^i-iages  and  rhetoric  at  Salamanca.  Nunez 
had  a  share  in  the  celebrated  "  Complutensian  Poly- 
glot" of  Cardinal  Ximenes,  and  in  the  Latin  version  of 
the  Septuagint.  He  also  published,  among  other  works, 
an  excellent  edition  of  Seneca.    Died  in  1553. 

Nuiiez,  [Lat.  No'nius  or  Non'nius,]  (Luis,)  a  Flem- 
ish or  Spanish  medical  writer,  born  about  1555,  lived 
at  Antwerp.  He  was  eminent  for  learning,  and  wrote 
several  works,  among  which  is  a  treatise  on  diet,  "  Diae- 
teticon,  sive  de  Re  Cibaria,"  (1627.)    Died  after  1645. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana." 

Nunez,  noo'n^z,  or  No'nI-us,  (Pedro,)  an  eminent 
Portuguese  mathematician,  born  in  1492.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  very  able  treatises  on  navigation,  geometry, 
and  the  projection  of  maps  ;  and  the  improved  scale 
which  he  invented  for  reading  an  observed  angle  is 
still  called  by  his  name.  He  is  also  said  to  be  the  in- 
ventor of  the  loxodromic  curve.  Nunez  was  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Coimbra,  and  royal  cosmographer. 
Died  in  1577. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques ;"  Barbosa  Ma- 
CHADO,  "Bibliotheca  Lusitana." 

Nunez  de  Balboa.    See  Balboa,  de. 

Nunez  de  Villavicencio,  noon'yith  di  v^Ky^-ve- 
thgn'the-o,  written  also  Nunnez  de  Villavicencio,  a 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Seville  about  1635,  was  a  pupil 
ofMurillo.    Died  in  1700. 


€,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  at,  §,  j,  q,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


NUNNJNG 


1691 


O^BEIRNE 


Nunning,  ndoi/ning,  (JoDOCUS  Hermann,)  a  German 
antiquary,  born  at  Schuttorp  in  1675  ;  died  in  1753. 

Nunz'iante,  noon-ze-Sn'ti,  (Vito,)  Marquis,  an  Ital- 
ian general,  born  at  Campagna  in  1775.  He  commanded 
the  army  which  the  King  of  Naples  sent  in  1820  against 
his  insurgent  subjects,  but  was  abandoned  by  that  army. 
He  became  commander-in-chief  of  all  the  Neapolitan 
armies  in  183 1.    Died  in  1836. 

See  F.  Palermo,  "Vita  e  Fatti  di  V.  Nunziante,"  1839. 

Nureddin.    See  Noor-ed-Deen. 

Nus,  nils,  (Eugene,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at 
Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1816. 

Nushirwan  or  Nuschirwan.    See  Khosroo. 

Nuftall,  (Thomas,)  an  English  botanist  of  high  repu- 
tati(ni,  burn  in  Yorkshire  in  1786.  He  emigrated  to  the 
United  States  about  1808,  after  which  he  explored  the 
country  bordering  on  the  Missouri  River,  and  published 
his  valuable  "  Genera  of  North  American  Plants,"  (1818.) 
He  was  professor  of  natural  history  at  Harvard  from 
1822  to  1834.  He  performed  an  excursion  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  Columbia  River  about  1834.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  Manual  of  the  Ornithology  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,"  (2  vols.,  1834.)    Died  in  1859. 

Nuvolone,  noo-vo-lo'ni,  (Carlo  Francesco,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Milan  in  1608.  He  imitated  the 
style  of  Guido  so  successfully  that  he  was  surnamed  the 
GuiDO  of  Lombardy.  Among  his  master-pieces  is 
•'The  Miracle  of  Saint  Peter  at  the  Beautiful  Gate." 
Died  in  1661. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Nuvolone,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Milan  in  1619,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
sometimes  called  Panfilo.    Died  in  1703. 

Nuvolone,  (Panfilo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Cremona,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  worked 
at  Milan.    Died,  at  an  advanced  age,  in  165 1. 

Nuwayri.    See  Noowairee. 

Nuzzi,  noot'see,  (Mario,)  called  Mario  de'  Fiori, 
(mi're-o  di  fe-o'ree,)  a  celebrated  Italian  flower-painter, 
born  near  Naples  in  1603.  His  pictures  enjoyed  a  great 
reputation  in  his  time,  and  commanded  high  prices. 
Died  in  1673. 

Nyberg,  nii'blRg,  (Julia  Christina,)  a  Swedish 
poetess,  whose  assumed  name  is  Euphrosyne,  was 
born  in  1785. 

Nyctee.    See  Nycteus. 

Nyc'teus,  [Gr.  Nv/creyf;  Fr.  Nyctee,  n^k'ti',]  a 
fabulous  king  of  Thebes,  said  to  have  been  a  son  of 
Ne|)tune  and  the  father  of  Antiope. 

Nyder.    See  Nider. 

Nye,  nT,  (Philip,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
born  about  1596,  was  distinguished  for  his  hostility  to 
the  cause  of  Charles  I.  In  1647  he  attended  as  chap- 
lain the  commissioners  sent  to  treat  with  that  monarch 
in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  He  died  in  1672,  leaving  numerous 
controversial  treatises. 


Nyerup,  nii'er-up,  (Rasmus,)  an  eminent  DanisV. 
scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Fiinen  in  1759.  He  was 
appointed  in  1796  professor  of  the  history  of  literature 
and  librarian  of  the  University  of  Copenhagen.  Among 
his  numerous  and  valuable  works  we  may  name  his 
"Symbols  to  Illustrate  Teutonic  Literature,"  (1787,)  and 
"Historical  and  Statistical  Account  of  the  Condition  of 
Denmark  and  Norway  in  Ancient  and  Modern  Times," 
(4  vols.,  1802-06.)  In  conjunction  with  Rahbek  and 
Abrahamson,  he  published  in  1812  an  edition  of  old 
Danish  heroic  songs,  with  historical  explanations.  He 
published,  conjointly  with  Kraft,  a  work  on  Danish,  Nor- 
wegian, and  Icelandic  biography,  entitled  "  Almindeligt 
Litteraturlexicon  for  Danmark,  Norge  og  Island,"  (2 
vols.,  1819.)    Died  in  1829. 

See  C.  Moi.BECH,  "Mindeord  over  R.  Nyerup,"  1830;  "R.  Ny- 
erup's  Levnetslob  beskrevet  af  ham  selv,"  1820:  Kraft  og  Nverup. 
"  Litteraturlexicon  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Nymann,  nee'min,  (Gregor,)  a  German  physiologist, 
born  at  Wittenberg  in  1594.  He  published  "  De  Vita 
Foetus  in  Utero,"  (1628,)  which  is  commended.  Died 
in  1638. 

Nymphae,  nim'fe,  [Gr.  Nv/z^af;  Fr.  Nymphes,  n^Mf,] 
the  name  of  a  numerous  class  of  female  divinities  with 
which  the  imagination  of  the  ancient  Greeks  peopled 
the  groves,  the  mountains,  the  lakes,  the  rivers,  the 
fountains,  and  the  valleys.  They  may  be  described  as 
personifications  of  the  genial  and  beneficent  powers  of 
nature.  Among  their  common  attributes  were  youth 
and  beauty.  They  were  divided  into  several  classes  or 
species,  namely,  Oceanides  and  Nereides,  sea-nymphs  ; 
Oreades,  mountain-nymphs;  Naiades,  fresh-water 
nymphs  ;  Dryades,  wood-nymphs,  or  nymphs  of  trees  ; 
Limniades,  nymphs  of  lakes ;  and  Napaeae,  nymphs 
of  forests  and  groves.  The  poets  feigned  that  the 
Nymphs  were  the  nurses  of  Bacchus,  Jupiter,  and  Pan. 
(See  Oceanides,  Nereides,  Oreades,  etc.) 

Nymphes.    See  Nymph/E. 

Nym'phis,  [Ni'/z^tf,]  a  Greek  historian,  a  native  of 
the  Pontic  Heraclea,  lived  about  250  B.C.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  his  Successors," 
and  two  other  works.    None  of  these  are  extant. 

Nymphodore.    See  Nymphodorus. 

Nym-pho-do'rus,  [Gr.  Nv/nfodupog ;  Fr.  Nympho- 
dore, ndM'fo'doR',]  a  Greek  surgeon,  mentioned  by 
Celsus  and  Galen,  lived  probably  in  the  third  century 
B.C.  He  invented  a  machine  for  the  reduction  of  dislo- 
cations. 

Nymphodorus,  a  Greek  historian  of  Amphipolis, 
whose  epoch  is  unknown.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  lav/s 
and  customs  of  Asia,  called  lS6/j.Lp.a  'Kaiag. 

Nysten,  nis'ten,  (Peter  Hubert,)  a  Dutch  physician, 
born  at  Liege  in  1771.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Dic- 
tionary of  Medicine  and  its  Accessory  Sciences,"  (1810,) 
and  "Researches  in  Physiology  and  Pathological  Chem- 
istry," (1811.)  Diedini8i8. 


O. 


O,  d',  do,  (FRANgois,)  Marquis,  a  French  financier, 
born  in  Paris  in  1535.  He  became  superintendent  of 
the  finances  in  1 578.    Died  in  1594. 

Oakes,  oks,  (Urian,)  a  learned  nonconformist  divine, 
born  in  England  in  163 1,  emigrated  to  America,  and 
settled  as  minister  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1671. 
He  became  president  of  Harvard  College  in  1680.  Died 
in  1681. 

Oates,  ots,  (Titus,)  a  notorious  impostor,  the  in- 
ventor of  the  famous  Popish  Plot,  was  born  in  or  near 
London  about  1620.  He  became  a  clergyman  of  the 
Anglican  Church,  was  deprived  of  his  living  for  vicious 
conduct,  and  turned  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  passed 
some  time  in  a  Jesuit  college  at  Saint-Omer,  from  which 
he  was  expelled  in  1677.  In  1678  he  appeared  as  an 
informer,  and  swore  that  the  pope  and  Jesuits  had  con- 
spired to  massacre  the  prominent  Protestants,  make 
themselves  masters  of  the  kingdom,  and  establish  popery. 
His  story  was  generally  credited,  and  produced  a  furious 


excitement.  Many  Catholics  were  put  to  death  for 
alleged  complicity  in  the  plot.  Oates  received  a  ]Dension 
of  ^1200.  After  the  accession  of  James  II.  he  was 
convicted  of  perjury,  severely  whipped,  and  imprisoned 
from  1685  to  1689.    He  died  in  1705. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England  ;"  Burnet,  "  History  of  his 
Own  Times;"  Hume,  "  History  of  England  ;"  Evelyn,  "  Diary." 

Ob-a-di'ah,  [Heb.  nn3>',]  one  of  the  minor  Hebrew 
prophets,  lived  probably  about  590  B.C.  Nothing  is 
known  respecting  the  events  of  his  life.  His  prophecy 
is  comprised  in  a  single  chapter. 

Obeidah.    See  Aboo-Obeidah. 

O'Beirne,  o-beern',  ?  (Thomas  Lewis,)  an  Irish  prel- 
ate and  writer,  born  in  the  county  of  Longford  in  1748. 
He  accompanied  Lord  Howe  to  America,  as  his  chaplain, 
in  1775,  was  created,  after  his  return.  Bishop  of 
Meath.  He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "The 
Crucifixion,"  (1776,)  and  of  several  prose  works.  Died 
in  1823. 


€  as  /c;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Y.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OBELERIO 


1692 


OCARITZ 


Obelerio,  o-M-la're-o,  a  Venetian  doge,  born  about 
760,  began  to  rule  in  804  A.D.,  soon  after  which  Venice 
was  invaded  by  Pepin,  King  of  the  Lombards.  He  was 
exiled  in  809,  and  died  in  831  A.D. 

Obentraut,  von,  fon  o'ben-tRowt',  (Johann  Mi- 
chael,) a  German  general,  born  in  the  Palatinate  in 
1574,  He  fought  for  Frederick,  Elector  Palatine,  and 
was  second  in  command  of  the  army  which,  under  Ernst 
of  Mansfeld,  gained  advantages  over  Spinola  and  Tilly 
in  Flanders.  He  was  killed  in  battle  at  Kalemberg  in 
1625. 

See  Schiller,  "History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War;"  C.  G.  de 
Koch,  "Tableau  des  Revolutions  de  I'Europe." 

Obereit,  o'beh-rit^  (Jakob  Hermann,)  a  German 
or  Swiss  alchemist  and  mystic,  l)orn  in  Aargau  in  1725, 
practised  medicine  in  his  early  life.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  "Defence  of  Mysticism,"  (1775,)  and 
"Promenades  de  Gamaliel,  Juif  Philosophe,"  (1780.) 
Died  at  Jena  in  1798. 

Oberliauser,  o'ber-hoi'zer,  (Benedict,)  a  German 
canonist,  born  in  Upper  Austria  in  1719  ;  died  in  1786. 

See  "  Memoria  B.  Oberhauseri,"  Saltzburg,  1786. 

Oberhauser,  (Georg,)  a  manufacturer  of  micro- 
scopes, was  born  at  Anspach,  in  Bavaria,  in  1798.  He 
became  a  resident  of  Paris  about  181 5,  and  made  some 
improvement  in  the  form  of  microscopes.  Between  1831 
and  1856  he  constructed  a  great  number  of  these  instru- 
ments, which  were  exported  to  all  civilized  nations. 

Oberkampf,  o'ber-kampf,  (Christoph  Philipp,)  a 
distinguished  German  artisan,  born  at  Weissenbach  in 
1738.  Having  removed  to  France,  he  established  at 
Jouy  the  first  manufactory  of  printed  cottons,  (1759.) 
He  brought  this  art  to  a  degree  of  excellence  hitherto 
unknown,  and  conferred  an  immense  benefit  upon  his 
adopted  country.  He  received  from  Napoleon  the  cross 
of  the  legion  of  honour.    Died  in  181 5. 

Oberlin,  o'ber-lin,  [Ger.  pron,  o'beR-leen' ;  Fr.  pron. 
o'bSk'liN',]  (Jean  Frederic,)  an  eminent  philanthropist 
and  reformer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1740.  In  comi)liance 
with  his  father's  wishes,  he  studied  theology,  instead  of 
embracing  the  military  profession,  for  which  he  had  a 
strong  inclination.  He  became  in  1766  Protestant  pastor 
of  the  Steinthal,  or  Ban  de  la  Roche,  a  barren  and  rocky 
valley  in  Alsace,  the  inhabitants  of  which,  owing  to  their 
country  having  been  repeatedly  laid  waste  during  the 
French  and  German  wars,  were  in  a  state  of  wretched 
poverty  and  ignorance.  Oberlin  now  devoted  himself 
to  the  reform  which  had  been  begun  by  his  predecessor, 
Stouber,  and,  by  his  energy  and  mildness,  succeeded  in 
overcoming  the  prejudices  of  the  people,  who  at  first 
opposed  all  innovations.  Besides  great  improvements 
in  agriculture  and  the  mechanical  arts,  he  introduced 
many  new  employments,  such  as  cotton-spinning,  weav- 
ing, and  straw-plaiting.  He  founded  schools,  to  which 
he  gave  competent  teachers,  originated  infant-schools, 
and  took  upon  himself  the  principal  religious  instruction 
of  his  parishioners.  So  highly  was  Oberlin  esteemed 
for  the  excellence  of  his  character,  and  so  deep  was  the 
sense  of  the  benefits  he  had  conferred,  that  during  the 
troubles  of  the  French  Revolution  the  Ban  de  la  Roche 
remained  undisturbed ;  and  he  received  from  Louis 
XVHL  the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honour,  (1819.)  After 
the  death  of  his  wife,  (1784,)  Oberlin  was  assisted  in  his 
benevolent  labours  by  his  housekeeper,  Louisa  Schepler, 
formerly  a  servant  in  his  family.  She  obtained  from  the 
French  Academy,  in  1829,  one  of  the  Montyon  Prizes 
of  Virtue,  (five  thousand  francs.)  Oberlin  died  in  1826, 
after  a  short  illness,  at  the  age  of  eighty-six. 

See  August  Neander,  "  Ziis^e  aus  dem  Leben  und  Wirken  des 
Pastors  Oberlin,"  1835  Paul  Merlin,  "  Le  Pasteur  Oberlin,"  1833  ; 
RoTHERT,  "  Leben  J.  F.  Oberlins,"  1847:  "The  Ran  de  la  Roche 
and  its  Benefactor,"  London,  1820;  "  Le  Pasteur  Oberlin,  Souvenir 
d'Alsace,"  1824;  H.  Lutteroth,  "  Notice  sur  J.  F.  Oberlin,"  1826; 
D.  E.  Stoeber,  "Vie  de  J.  F.  Oberlin,"  1834:  G  H.  von  Schu- 
bert, "  Ziige  aus  dem  Leben  Oberlins,"  1834  ;  "  Memoirs  of  J.  F. 
Oberlin,"  London,  8th  edition,  1838. 

Oberlin,  (J6r6mie  Jacques,)  a  scholar  and  antiquary 
of  high  reputation,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1735,  was  a 
brother  of  Jean  Frederic,  noticed  above.  He  became 
professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the  university  of 
his  native  city,  (1782.)  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  "  Tables  of  Roman  Rites,"  ("Rituum  Romanorum 


Tabulae,"  etc.,  1774,)  and  "On  the  Amatory  Poets  of 
Alsatia  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  ("  De  Poetis  Alsatise  Ero- 
ticis  Medii  ^vi,"  1786.)  He  also  published  excellent 
editions  of  Horace,  Tacitus,  and  other  Latin  classics. 
Died  in  1806. 

SeeWiNCKLER,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  J.  Oberlin,"  1807  ;  D.  E. 
Stoeber,  "  Biographische  Notiz  iiber  J.  J.  Oberlin,"  1807;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Oberweg.    See  Overweg. 

Obreclit,  o'bRgKt,  (Elias,)  an  antiquary,  brother  of 
Ulrich,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Strasburg  in  1654. 
He  wrote  several  treatises  on  Roman  antiquities.  Died 
in  1698. 

Obrecht,  (Georg,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Stras- 
burg in  1547  ;  died  in  1612. 

Obrecht,  (Ulrich,)  a  learned  jurist,  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Strasburg  in  1646.  He  published 
a  number  of  legal  works,  and  editions  of  Latin  classics. 
Died  in  1701. 

Obregon,  o-bRk-g6n',  (Bernardino,)  a  Spaniard, 
born  near  Burgos  in  1540,  founded  an  order  of  monks 
devoted  to  the  service  of  the  sick  in  hospitals.  Died 
in  1599. 

See  H.  Maldonado,  "  Vida  de  Bernardino  de  Obregon." 

Obrenovitch  or  Obrenowitsch,  o-brk-no'vitch, 
(Milosch,)  styled  Prince  of  Servia,  born  in  1780,  was 
originally  a  Servian  peasant.  He  became  about  1815  a 
leader  of  the  Servian  insurgents,  and  gained  several  vic- 
tories over  the  Turks.  In  i8i6or  1817  he  was  elected 
prince.  He  afterwards  made  a  compromise  with  the 
Sultan,  who  permitted  him  to  govern  Servia  as  tributary 
to  the  Turkish  empire.  His  tyranny  having  provoked 
his  subjects  to  revolt,  he  abdicated  in  1839.  He  was 
restored  in  January,  1859,  and  died  in  i860. 

See  Fossart,  "Das  Leben  des  Fursten  Milosch  und  seine 
Kriege,"  1836. 

O'Bri'en,  an  Irish  family  of  rank,  descended  from  the 
famous  chieftain  Brian  Boroimhe,  who  was  slain  at  the 
battle  of  Clontarf,  in  1014.  Murrough  O'Brien  was 
created  in  1800  Marquis  of  Thomond.  Died  in  1808.  His 
nephew,  James  O'Brien,  Marquis  of  Thomond,  served  as 
a  naval  officer  against  the  French,  and  in  1847  was  made 
an  admiral.  Sir  Lucius  O'Brien,  born  in  1800,  became 
lord  lieutenant  of  Clare  in  1843.  He  was  twice  chosen  a 
member  of  Parliament  for  Clare,  and  was  a  zealous  ad- 
vocate of  conservative  principles.  His  brother,  William 
Smith  O'Brien,  born  in  1803,  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  the  county  of  Limerick  in  1832.  Here  he  became 
an  earnest  coadjutor  of  O'Connell  in  the  Repeal  move- 
ment. He  was  afterwards  the  leader  of  a  party  called 
"  Young  Ireland,"  which,  not  satisfied  with  the  legal 
agitation  of  O'Connell,  advocated  a  forcible  separation 
from  England.  Soon  after  the  French  revolution  of 
1848  he  visited  Paris,  but,  disappointed  in  his  hopes  of 
assistance  from  France,  he  returned  to  Dublin,  where  he 
summoned  a  national  convention  of  three  hundred  mem- 
bers. This  assembly  was  prohibited  by  the  government, 
and  O'Brien,  with  other  leaders,  was  arrested.  He  w^as 
condemned  to  death  ;  but  this  sentence  was  afterwards 
commuted  to  banishment,  and  in  1849  he  was  sent  to 
Australia.  He  was  subsequently  pardoned.  Died  in  1864. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1S61. 

Obry,  o'bRe',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  Orientalist, 
born  at  Albert  (Somme)  in  1793.  resided  for  many 

years  at  Amiens. 

Ob'se-quens,  (Julius,)  a  Roman  writei,  of  whose 
personal  history  nothing  is  known.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  work  entitled  "  De  Prodigiis,"  in  which  he  records 
the  wonderful  occurrences  from  the  foundation  of  Rome 
to  the  time  of  Augustus.  vSome  parts  of  it  which  were 
lost  have  been  supplied  by  Lycosthenes,  (Woolfhart.) 

Obsopoeus.    See  OpsniHKUs. 

Ocana,  de,  dk  o-kin'yS,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  the 
author  of  religious  poems. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Ocaritz,  d',  do-k^-r^ts',  ?  ( Jos6, )  Chevalier,  a 
Spanish  diplomatist,  born  in  the  province  of  Rioxa  in 
1750.  He  was  charge-d'affaires  at  Paris  in  1792,  and 
made  great  efforts  to  save  the  life  of  Louis  XVI.  In 


a.  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  sAorf;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  All,  ftt;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon* 


O' CAROL  AN 


O'CONNOR 


1805  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Turkey.  Died  at 
Varna  in  1805. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

O'Car'o-lan,  (Turlough,)  a  famous  Irish  bard  and 
musical  composer,  born  in  1670,  was  a  skilful  performer 
on  the  harp.    Died  in  1738. 

Oc'cam  or  Ockham,  ok'kam,  (William,)  an  Eng- 
lish philosopher  and  eminent  logician,  surnanied  THE 
Invincible  Docjor,  born  in  Surrey  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  was  the  founder  of  a  sect  called  by  his  name. 
He  studied  theology  under  Duns  Scotus,  whose  tenets 
of  Realism  he  opposed,  and  aimed  to  restore  those  of 
Nominalism.  He  was  excommunicated  by  Pope  John 
XXH.  for  his  bold  defence  of  the  emperor  Louis  of 
Bavaria  against  the  encroachments  of  the  papal  power. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  a  treatise  "  On  the  Power 
of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff."    Died  at  Munich  in  1347. 

See  B.  Haukeau,  "De  la  Philosophie  scolastique." 

Occleve.    See  Hoccleve. 

Occo,  ok'ko,  (Adolf,)  a  German  physician  and  nu- 
mismatist, born  at  Augsburg  in  1524.  He  published 
"The  Coins  of  the  Roman  Emperors,"  (" Imperatorum 
Romanorum  Numismata,"  1579,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1604. 

See  Brucker,  "Vita  A.  Occoni." 

Oc'com,  (Samson,)  a  converted  Indian,  born  in  New 
London  county,  Connecticut,  about  1723,  became  cele- 
brated as  a  preacher  among  his  people,  and  in  1766 
visited  England.    Died  in  1792. 

Ocean.    See  Ocean  us. 

O-ce-an'i-des,  [Gr.  '^iKeavLdeq ;  Fr.  Oc^ anides,  o'si'- 
i^n^d',]  sea-nymphs  or  ocean-nymphs,  daughters  of 
Oceanus  and  Tethys.  They  were  supposed  to  have 
been  several  thousand  in  number.    (See  Nymphs.) 

O-ce'a-nus,  [Gr.  '^iKEavog ;  Fr.  Oc^:an,  o's^'An',]  in 
classic  mythology,  was  the  god  of  the  river  Oceanus,  by 
which  the  ancient  Greeks  supposed  the  earth  to  be  sur- 
rounded. According  to  Hesiod,  he  was  the  first-born 
of  the  Titans,  the  son  of  Uranus  and  Ge,  (or  Coelus  and 
Terra,)  the  husband  of  Tethys,  and  a  parent  of  the 
Oceanides  and  of  several  thousand  rivers. 

O-cel'lus  Lu-ca'nus,  so  named  from  his  birthplace, 
Lucania,  in  Italy,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  disciple  of 
Pythagoras,  and  to  have  flourished  about  500  B.C.  His 
treatise  "On  the  Nature  of  the  Universe"  is  the  only 
one  of  his  works  extant.  It  maintains  the  doctrine  of 
the  eternity  of  the  world. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Oceola.    See  Osceola. 

Ocheda,  o-ka'di,  (Tomxiaso,)  an  Italian  litterateur^ 
born  at  Tortona  in  1757,  became  librarian  to  Lord  Spen- 
cer in  1 790.  He  wrote  essays  on  philosophy.  Died  in  183 1. 

Ochin.    See  Ochino. 

Ochino,  o-kee'no,  [Lat.  Ochi'nus;  Fr.  Ochin, 
o'shiN',]  (Bernardino,)  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
Italian  Protestants,  was  born  at  Sienna  in  1487.  He 
became  a  popular  preacher,  and  was  chosen  general  of 
the  order  of  Capuchins  in  1538.  It  is  also  stated  that 
he  was  confessor  to  Pope  Paul  III.,  and  was  venerated 
as  a  saint.  Having  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Juan 
Valdez,  a  Reformer,  he  avowed  his  conversion  to  the 
Protestant  faith,  and  escaped  to  Geneva  in  1542.  In- 
vited by  Cranmer,  he  went  to  England  in  1547,  and 
preached  in  London  until  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary, 
in  1553,  after  which  he  lived  at  Zurich.  He  became  a 
Unitarian,  and  was  banished  from  Zurich  about  1562. 
Died  in  Moravia  in  1564.  He  had  published  several 
volumes  of  sermons,  and  other  works  on  theology. 

See  Marchand,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  Bavle,  "  Historical 
and  Critical  Dictionary  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  Daniel 
Meyer,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie,  etc.  de  B.  Ochin,"  1851. 

Ochinus.    See  Ochino. 

Ochoa,  de,  di  o-cho'l,  (Don  Eugenio,)  a  Spanish 
writer  and  translator,  born  in  Madrid  about  1812.  He 
wrote  various  works  in  prose  and  verse,  and  translated 
many  from  the  French  and  English. 

Ochosias  or  Ochozias,*  the  French  form  of  the 
name  Ahaziah,  which  see. 

Ochoziah  or  Ochozias.    See  Ochosias. 

*  Cowley — following,  it  would  seem,  the  French  spelling — writes 
the  name,  in  English,  Ochoziah.  (See  "Davideis,"  book  ii.,  line  595.) 


Ochs,  oks,  (Pe'IER,)  a  Swiss  statesman  and  jurist, 
born  at  Bale  in  1749,  was  chancellor  and  grand  tribune 
of  Bale.  He  was  created  by  Napoleon  a  councillor  of 
state,  and  director  of  the  Helvetic  republic.  He  wrote 
a  "  History  of  Bale,"  ("Geschichte  von  Basel,"  6  vols., 
1 785-1 822,)  and  also  published  several  dramas.  Died 
in  1821. 

Ochsenbein,  ok'sen-bin',  (Ulrich,)  a  Swiss  poli- 
tician and  general,  born  in  the  canton  of  Berne  in  1811. 
He  was  a  leader  of  the  radical  party,  and  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Federal  Diet  in  1847.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  war  against  the  seven  Catholic  cantons, 
which  formed  a  separate  confederacy,  called  the  "Sun- 
derbund,"  in  1847. 

Ochterlony,  oK'ter-lo'ne,  (Sir  David,)  a  British  gene- 
ral, born  in  1758.  He  served  in  India,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  campaign  of  Nepaul  in  1815-16.  Died 
in  1825. 

Ockenfuss.    See  Oken. 

Ockenheim.    See  Okeghem. 

OckTey,  (Simon,)  an  English  divine  and  Oriental 
scholar,  born  at  Exeter  in  1678,  became  professor  of 
Arabic  in  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  1711.  He 
published  in  1718  his  "History  of  the  Saracens,"  a  valu- 
able work,  which  is  commended  by  Gibbon.  He  also 
translated  the  second  Apocryphal  Book  of  Esdras  from 
the  Arabic  version,  and  wrote  an  "  Introduction  to  the 
Oriental  Tongues,"  (1706.)    Died  in  1720. 

See  Chalmers,  "Biographical  Dictionary." 

O'Con'nell,  (Daniel,)  a  famous  Irish  orator  and 
political  agitator,  born  near  Cahirciveen,  Kerry,  in  Ah- 
gust,  1775,  was  educated  as  a  Roman  Catholic  at  Saint- 
Omer,  in  France.  He  entered  Lincoln's  Inn  as  a  student 
of  law  in  1794,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1798.  He 
quickly  attained  the  foremost  rank  in  his  profession,  and 
became  pre-eminent  as  the  advocate  of  Catholic  eman- 
cipation,— i.e.  the  relief  of  Catholics  from  political  dis- 
abilities. In  the  promotion  of  this  cause  he  entirely 
discouraged  a  resort  to  physical  force.  He  married  his 
cousin,  Mary  O'Connell,  about  1802.  In  1823  he  founded 
the  Catholic  Association.  He  -was  elected  a  member 
of  Parliament  for  Clare  in  1828,  and  refused  to  take  the 
oath  which  was  designed  expressly  to  exclude  Roman 
Catholics  from  the  House.  This  affair  caused  a  violent 
excitement  and  agitation,  which  resulted  in  the  passage 
of  the  bill  for  Catholic  emancipation  in  1829,  and  O'Con- 
nell then  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Commons.  He 
represented  Dublin  in  Parliament  from  1832  to  1835, 
and  from  1837  to  1841.  Having  given  up  his  lucrative 
practice  to  devote  himself  to  legislative  duties,  he  was 
indemnified  by  an  annual  subscription  raised  by  his  polit- 
ical friends  under  the  name  of  "rent."  About  1840  he 
commenced  an  agitation  for  the  repeal  of  the  union,  on 
which  subject  he  made  speeches  at  monster  meetings  in 
Ireland  in  1842  and  1843.  was  arrested,  tried,  and 

found  guilty  of  sedition  or  conspiracy,  for  which  he  was 
sentenced  in  1844  to  imprisonment  for  one  year,  and 
fined  two  thousand  pounds.  This  judgment  was  reversed 
by  the  House  of  Lords.  He  supported  the  Whig  min- 
istry which  came  into  power  in  1846,  after  which  he 
witnessed  a  decline  of  his  influence  in  Ireland  and  the 
rise  of  dissensions  among  his  followers.  He  died  at 
Genoa  in  May,  1847,  in  the  course  of  a  journey  to  Rome. 

See  "  Life  and  Times  of  Daniel  O'Connell,"  by  his  son  John,  2 
vols.,  1846;  Fagan,  "Life  and  Times  of  Daniel  O'Connell,"  2  vols., 
1848;  Schipper,  "O'Connell's  Leben,"  1844 ;  Gondon,  "  Biographic 
de  D.  O'Connell,"  1847  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  L.  de 
LoMENiE,  "  M.  O'Connell,  parun  Homme  de  Rien,"  1842  ;  "  Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  May,  1841. 

O'Con'nor,  (Arthur,)  an  Irish  general,  born  at  Ban- 
don,  near  Cork,  in  1767,  was  a  Protestant.  He  joined 
the  society  of  United  Irishmen,  who  sent  him  on  a  secret 
mission  to  France,  where  he  negotiated  with  General 
Hoche  about  the  liberation  of  Ireland.  In  1797  or  1798 
he  was  tried  on  a  charge  of  treason,  and  acquitted.  He 
entered  the  French  service,  and  became  a  general  of 
division  in  1804.  About  1807  he  married  Elisa,  a 
daughter  of  the  famous  Condorcet.    Died  in  1852. 

See  Thomas  Moore,  "  Life  and  Death  of  Lord  Edward  Fitz- 
gerald," 1831 ;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

O'Connor,  (Feargus,)  the  celebrated  leader  of  the 
English  Chartists,  was  born  near  Cork,  in  Ireland,  in 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OCT  AVI  A 


1694 


ODIER 


•  1796.  In  1832  he  became  a  member  of  Parliament  for 
the  county,  of  Cork,  and  acquired  great  popularity  with 
the  radicals.  Dissatisfied  with  the  moderate  policy  of 
O'Connell,  he  advocated  the  rights  of  the  working-class, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  uniting  into  a  numerous  party 
called  Chartists.  In  1838  they  summoned  a  national 
convention  in  London,  in  order  to  prepare  for  a  general 
insurrection.  In  November,  1839,  after  a  sanguinary 
conflict  at  Newport,  the  Chartists  were  dispersed  by  the 
government  troops,  and  many  of  their  leaders  taken 
and  transported.  O'Connor,  however,  who  had  carefully 
avoided  any  infringement  of  the  law,  escaped,  and  soon 
after  founded. a  journal  called  "The  Northern  Star," 
which  obtained  an  immense  circulation.  In  1843 
returned  to  Ireland,  where  he  engaged  with  ardour  in  the 
repeal  agitation,  and  in  1847  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  Nottingham.  After  the  French  revolution  of  1848 
he  called  another  convention,  and  presented  to  the 
House  of  Commons  a  monster  petition  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  national  charter,  which  produced  no  effect. 
Disappointed  in  his  hopes  of  reform  both  in  England 
and  Ireland,  O'Connor  fell  into  a  state  of  hopeless 
lunacy,  and  in  1852  he  was  taken  to  an  insane-asylum. 
Died  in  1855. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1848. 

Oc-ta'vi-a,  [Fr.  Octavie,  ok'tt've',]  a  Roman  lady, 
born  about  70  B.C.,  was  a  daughter  of  C.  Octavius,  and 
a  sister  of  the  emperor  Augustus.  She  was  married 
first  to  Marcellus,  who  died  in  41.  Soon  after  his  death 
she  became  the  wife  of  Mark  Antony.  This  marriage 
was  intended  to  confirm  amicable  relations  between 
Antony  and  Augustus.  By  her  beauty  and  virtue  she 
obtained  a  favourable  influence  over  Antony  for  a  short 
time.  She  accompanied  him  in  his  expedition  against 
the  Parthians  as  far  as  Corcyra ;  but,  supplanted  in  the 
affections  of  Antony  by  Cleopatra,  she  was  sent  back  to 
Italy.  In  32  B.C.  he  sent  her  a  bill  of  divorce.  She 
died  in  II  B.C.,  leaving  several  daughters.  Her  son,  M. 
Marcellus,  died  before  her.    (See  Marcellus.) 

See  Plutarch,  "  Lives^"  article  "Antony:"  Dion  Cassius, 
"  History  of  Rome,"  books  xlvii.-li. ;  Saint-Real,  "  Vie  d'Octavie, 
Soeur  d'Auguste,"  1761. 

Octavia,  a  Roman  empress,  born  in  42  A.D.,  was  a 

daughter  of  the  emperor  Claudius  and  Messalina.  She 
was  married  in  53  to  Nero,  who  became  emperor.  He 
divorced  her  in  62  A.D.,  and  a  few  months  later  put  her 
to  death. 

Octavian  or  Octavianus.  See  Augustus,  (Em- 
peror of  Rome.) 

Octavie.    See  Octavia. 
Octavius.    See  Augustus. 

Oc-taVi-us,  (Catus,)  the  father  of  the  emperor  Au- 
gustus. He  married  Atia,  a  daughter  of  Julia,  who  was 
a  sister  of  Julius  Caesar.  He  became  prastor  in  61  B.C., 
and  was  proconsul  in  Macedonia  in  60.  Died  in  58  B.C. 
His  official  conduct  was  highly  commended  by  Cicero. 
Velleius  Paterculus  characterizes  him  as  "gravis,  sanc- 
tus,  innocens,  dives."  He  had  a  daughter,  Octavia, 
noticed  above. 

See  Suetonius,  "Augustus." 

Octavius,  (Cneius,)  a  Roman  officer,  was  elected 
praetor  in  i68  B.C.,  and  commanded  a  fleet  sent  against 
Perseus,  King  of  Macedon,  whom  he  took  prisoner.  He 
was  consul  in  165  with  Manlius  Torquatus,  and  was 
assassinated  at  Laodicea  in  162  B.C. 

Octavius,  (Cneius,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
was  a  partisan  of  Sulla.  He  became  consul  in  87  B.C. 
as  the  colleague  of  L.  Cornelius  Cinna,  who  was  a 
partisan  of  Marius.  The  soldiers  of  Cinna  entered 
Rome  and  killed  Octavius  in  87  B.C. 

See  Appian,  "  Bellum  Civile." 

Octavius,  (Marcus,)  a  Roman  officer,  was  a  partisan 
of  the  senate  in  the  civil  war  against  Caesar.  At  the 
battle  of  Actium  (31  B.C.)  he  commanded  a  division  of 
the  fleet  of  Antony. 

Odazzi,  o-dat'see,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Rome  about  1663,  was  a  pupil  of  Ciro  Ferri. 
Died  in  1731. 

Oddi,  od'dee,  (Muzio,)  an  Italian  geometer,  born  at 
Urbino  in  1569.    He  wrote  "  On  Sun-Dials  or  Clocks," 


("Degli  Orologi  solari  nelle  Superficie  plane,"  1614.) 
Died  in  1639. 

Oddi,  degli,  diKyee  od'dee,  (Marco,)  an  Italian 
medical  writer,  born  at  Padua  in  1526;  died  in  1591. 

Oddi,  degli,  (Odo,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at 
Padua,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Padua,  and  wrote  several  medical 
works.    Died  in  1559. 

Oddi,  degli,  (Sforza,)  an  Italian  poet  and  jurist, 
born  at  Perugia  in  1540;  died  in  161 1. 

O-delF,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  in 
Buckinghamshire,  was  the  author  of  comedies  entitled 
"The  Chimera"  and  "The  Prodigal."    Died  in  1749. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 

Odenath.    See  Odenatus. 
Odenathus.    See  Odenatus. 

Od-e-na'tus  or  Od-e-na'thus,   [  Fr.  Odenath, 

oMeh-nSt',]  Prince  of  Palmyra,  the  husband  of  Zenobia, 
was  an  able  general.  After  the  emperor  Valerian  had 
been  defeated  and  captured  by  the  Persians,  (260  A.D.,) 
Odenatus  raised  an  army,  drove  Sapor,  the  Persian  king, 
from  Syria,  and  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Palmyra. 
He  also  invaded  Persia,  and  pursued  the  King  of  Persia 
to  Ctesiphon.  For  these  services  he  received  the  title 
of  Augustus  from  Gallienus,  who  recognized  him  as  his 
colleague  in  264.  He  was  assassinated  in  266  or  267  a.d. 
(See  Zenobia.) 

See  Trrbelltus  Pollio,  "Triginta  Tyranni;"  G.  Hoyns,  "Dis- 
sertatio  de  Zenobise  atque  Odenathi  Rebus,"  1847. 

Oderborn,  o'der-boRn',  (Paul,)  a  Lutheran  minister, 
born  in  Pomerania,  lived  about  1585.  He  wrote  a  work 
on  the  Russian  religion  and  customs,  "De  Russorum 
Religione,  Ritibus,"  etc.,  (1581.) 

Oderic.    See  Oderico. 

Oderico  (o-di-ree'ko)  [Fr.  Oderic,  oMeh-r^k']  of 
PoRDENONE  or  PoRTENAU,  an  Italian  monk,  born  at 
Pordenone,  in  the  Friuli,  in  1286,  travelled  over  a  con- 
siderable part  of  Asia  as  a  missionary.  His  "Life  and 
Travels"  were  published  after  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  1331. 

See  Venni,  "  Elogio  storico  del  B.  Oderico,"  Venice,  1761. 

Oderico,  (Gasparo  Ludovico,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
and  librarian  of  the  University  of  Genoa,  born  in  1725. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  learned  treatises  on  nu- 
mismatics and  inscriptions,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
French  Institute.    Died  in  1803. 

See  Carrega,  "Elogio  storico  di  G.  L.  Oderico,"  Genoa,  1804. 

Oderigo  da  Gubbio.    See  Gubbio. 

Odescalchi,  (Benedetto.)    See  Innocent  XI. 

Odescalchi,  o-dis-kai'kee,  (Marcantonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian nobleman,  eminent  for  his  philanthropy,  was  a  cousin 
of  Pope  Innocent  XI.  He  founded  several  institutions 
for  the  sick  and  the  friendless,  and  at  his  death,  in  1670, 
left  all  his  property  for  their  benefit. 

Odescalchi,  (Tommaso,)  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
was  almoner  to  Pope  Innocent  XI.  In  1686  he  founded 
an  asylum  for  the  education  and  employment  of  poor 
children.    Died  in  1692. 

Odevaere,  o-deh-va^eh,  (Josephus  Dionysius,)  a 
celebrated  Belgian  painter,  born  at  Bruges  in  1778.  Hav- 
ing studied  under  David  in  Paris,  he  visited  Rome,  where 
he  executed  two  large  frescos  in  the  Quirinal  palace, 
and  the  "  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Lawrence,"  now  in  a 
church  of  Bruges.  He  was  appointed  court  painter  to 
William  I.,  King  of  the  Netherlands,  in  1815.  Among 
his  best  works  may  be  named  the  "  Peace  of  Utrecht" 
and  the  "  Battle  of  Nieuport."    Died  in  1830. 

Odier,  o'de-a',  (Louis,)  a  distinguished  physician, 
born  at  Gene^  in  1748.  He  finished  his  studies  at 
Edinburgh  under  Dr.  Cullen,  and,  on  his  return,  intro- 
duced vaccination  into  France  and  Switzerland.  He 
was  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Institute  of  France, 
and  filled  several  important  offices  in  his  native  city. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Manual  of  Practical  Medicine," 
and  published,  about  1798,  in  the  "  Bibliotheque  Bri- 
tannique,"  a  translation  of  one  of  Jenner's  treatises 
on  vaccination.    Died  in  1817. 

See  Maunoir,  "Notice  de  la  Vie  et  des  ficrits  de  L.  Odier," 
1818  :  PrEKRE  Prevost,  "  Notice  de  la  Vie  de  L.  Odier,"  1818. 

Odier,  (Pierre,)  a  Swiss  jurist,  born  at  Geneva  in 
1803  ;  died  in  1859. 


6,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fa.t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ODILLON  1695 


Odillon  Barrot.    See  Barrot. 

Odilo  (o'de'lo')  or  Odilon  de  Mercoeur,  oMc'IAn' 
deh  meR''kuR',  Saint,  a  French  monk,  born  in  962,  was 
eminent  for  learning.  He  was  elected  Abbot  of  Cluny, 
which,  under  his  direction,  became  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  monasteries  of  Europe.  Died  in  1048  or 
1049. 

See  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  la  France  ;"  *'  Gallia  Christiana." 

Odilon.    See  Odilo. 

O'din  or  OtSinn,  (o'thin,)  written  also  Othin,  [called 
by  the  Germans  Wo'dan  or  Wo'den  ;  Old  German, 
WuoTAX,  derived  from  va'^a,  to  *' wade,"  to  "go,"  to 
"pervade,"]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  greatest  of  all 
the  gods,  corresponding  in  the  main  to  the  Zeus  or 
Jupiter  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  His  name  is  sup- 
posed to  signify  "mind"  or  "spirit."  As  the  father  of 
the  JEs'n,  (the  ruling  gods  of  heaven  and  earth,)  he  is 
styled  All-father,  (Al-fo^5r  or  Al-fa^Sir,)  although  he  him- 
self was  the  son  of  Bor,*  and  the  grandson  of  Buri.t 
He  is  also  called  Val-father,  (Val-fo'Sr,  i.e.  "father  of  the 
fallen,")  because  all  who  fell  in  battle  were  supposed  to 
belong  in  an  especial  manner  to  him.  Hence  his  hall  is 
called" Valhalla,  (or  Valholl,)  the  "hall  of  the  fallen"  or 
"slain."  Valhalla  is  situated  in  Odin's  mansion,  called 
Gladheim  or  Gladsheim,  (the  "home  or  habitation  of 
gladness.")  The  roof  of  the  hall  is  formed  of  spears  and 
shields.  The  hall  itself  is  surrounded  by  a  roaring  river 
called  Thund,  and  has  five  hundred  and  forty  gates, 
through  each  of  which  eight  hundred  men  can  go  abreast. 
Here  are  assembled  all  the  chosen  warriors  ( Einheriai  ) 
who  have  fallen  in  battle  ;  it  is  their  pastime  to  fight  and 
slay  each  other  every  day,  but  the  wounded  are  quickly 
healed,  and  the  dead  are  restored  to  life.  They  then 
ride  back  to  Valhalla,  where  they  refresh  themselves  by 
drinking  mead  (or  beer)  with  the  gods  and  feasting  on 
the  flesh  of  the  boar  Saehrimnir.  The  Valkyries  (Val- 
kyrjur  or  Valkyriur)  wait  upon  the  warriors,  furnish- 
ing them  with  drink  and  food,  (see  Valkyria;)  but 
Odin  himself  lives  on  wine  alone.  Near  Valhalla  is 
Vingolf,  the  hall  where  the  goddesses  assemble.  Odin's 
throne  was  called  Hlidskjalf  (hlid'ske-Slf)  or  Lidskialf, 
whence  his  eye  is  said  to  survey  the  whole  world. 

Regarding  Odin  as  the  living  spirit  which  pervades 
the  universe,  the  Norse  poets  have  represented  living 
nature  under  the  symbol  of  the  ash -tree,  (YggMrasil  or 
IgMrasil,)  that  is,  the  seat  or  abode  of  O^xw.X  "All 
life,"  says  Carlyle,  "is  figured  by  them  [the  Northmen] 
as  a  tree.  Igdrasil,  the  Ash-tree  of  Existence,  has  its 
roots  deep  down  in  the  kingdom  of  Hela,  (or  Death,)  its 
trunk  reaches  up  heaven-high,  spreads  its  boughs  over 
the  whole  universe.  ...  At  the  foot  of  it,  in  the  Death- 
kingdom,  sit  Three  Nomas,  Fates, — the  Past,  Present, 
Future, — watering  its  roots  from  the  sacred  Well.  .  .  . 
Its  boughs  are  histories  of  nations.  The  rustle  of  it  is 
the  noise  of  human  existence.  ...  I  find  no  similitude 
so  true  as  this  of  a  tree.  Beautiful ;  altogether  beautiful 
and  great.  The  'machine  of  the  universe,' — alas,  do 
but  think  of  that  in  contrast !" 

Although  Odin  (Spirit  or  Thought)  was  the  principal 
creator  of  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  he  was  assisted  by 
his  brothers  Vili  (Will)  and  Ve,  (Holiness.)  "  The  gods, 
having  got  the  giant  Ymir  slain,"  says  Carlyle,  "deter- 
mined on  constructing  a  world  with  him.  His  blood 
made  the  sea,  his  flesh  was  the  land,  and  the  rocks  his 
bones ;  of  his  eyebrows  they  formed  Asgard,  ...  his 
skull  was  the  great  blue  vault  of  immensity,  and  the 
brains  of  it  became  the  clouds.  What  a  Hyper-Brob-  : 
dignagian  business  !"  It  is,  however,  only  in  the  creation  : 
of  the  world  that  Vili  and  Ve  are  mentioned  ;  they  ap- 

*  In  like  manner  Jupiter  was  called  "  Father  of  the  gods  and  king 
of  men,"  ("  Divum  pater  atque  hominum  rex,")  although  the  son  of  ( 
Saturn,  (or  Cronos,)  who  again  was  the  son  of  Coekis  (Uranus)  and 
Terra,  (Ge.)  ^  ^ 

t  BuRi,  (boo're,)  written  also  Bure,  ii.e.  "  producing,"  because,  be-  j 
ing  the  first  of  the  gods,  he  was  the  progenitor  of  all  the  others,]  is 
described  as  a  mighty  and  beautiful  being  in  human  form,  who  came 
into  existence  soon  after  the  mythic  cow  Audhumla  began  to  lick  the 
frost-covered  rocks  of  the  primeval  chaos.   He  had  a  son  named  Bor  : 
(boR)  or  Bore,  {i.e.  "born"  or  "produced,"  and  hence  "  son,"]  who  ( 
is  said  to  have  married  the  daughter  of  the  giant  Bolthorn,  and  to 
have  bad  by  her  three  sons,— Odin,  Vili,  and  Ve, 

X  Ygg  or  Yggr  {i.e.  the  "  terrible")  is  one  of  the  many  names  of 
Odin,    Drasill  or  drdsull  is  said  to  signify  "  chariot"  or  "seat." 


ODOACER 


pear  afterwards  to  have  become  blended  or  absorbed 
in  Odin,  the  all-embracing  World-Spirit.  Among  Odin's 
possessions  may  be  mentioned  a  horse  of  wondrous 
powers,  with  eight  legs,  called  Sleipnir,  on  which  he 
rides  over  land  and  sea ;  and  Gungnir,  (gung'nir,)  a 
spear,  which  never  failed  to  strike  whatever  it  was  aimed 
at.  He  has  also  two  ravens,  named  Hugin  and  Munin, 
which  he  sends  forth  over  the  whole  world  to  get  intel- 
ligence. In  addition  to  his  other  attributes,  Odin  was 
supposed  to  possess  marvellous  powers  as  a  magician. 

Odin  is  to  be  considered  to  represent  energy  and 
courage  rather  than  knowledge.  Hence  it  is  said  that 
he  once  went  to  Mimir's§  well,  at  the  root  of  Yggdrasil, 
for  a  drink  from  the  fountain  of  knowledge,  but,  in  order 
to  obtain  it,  it  was  necessary  for  him  to  deposit  one  of 
his  eyes  as  a  pledge,  whence  he  is  usually  represented 
as  one-eyed. 

War  being  almost  the  sole  occupation  of  the  ancient 
Northmen,  Odin,  their  principal  deity,  became  of  neces- 
sity the  god  of  war,  his  character  in  this  respect  nearly 
corresponding  to  that  of  the  Mars  (Ares)  of  classic  my- 
thology.|J  He  is  represented  as  having  first  introduced 
war  and  slaughter  among  mankind.  Again,  he  differed 
from  Jupiter  in  not  wielding  the  thunderbolt,  this  weapon 
belonging  to  Thor ;  but,  in  a  region  where  thunder- 
storms are  comparatively  unfrequent,  the  possession  of 
the  thunderbolt  was  less  essential  to  the  dignity  of  the 
chief  of  the  gods  than  in  the  countries  where  Olympian 
Zeus  was  worshipped.    (See  Thor.) 

Odin  is  not  nnmortal  in  the  fullest  sense ;  at  Ragna- 
rock  (the  final  destruction  of  the  ^sir  and  the  world) 
he  is  fated  to  be  destroyed  by  the  wolf  Fenrir,  the  off- 
spring of  Loki.   (See  Loki.) 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. :  "Religion  of  the 
Northmen,"  by  Rudolph  Keyser,  translated  by  Barclay  Pen- 
nock,  New  York,  1854  ;  Mallet,  "  Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe,"  section  "Icelandic 
Language  and  Poetry ;"  Petersen,  "  Nordisk  Mythologi,"  p.  30 
et  seq. 

O'ding-ton,  (Walter,)  a  learned  English  monk  under 
the  reign  of  Henry  VHI.,  was  called  Walter  of  Eves- 
ham, from  the  monastery  of  that  name  in  Worcester- 
shire. He  was  the  author  of  valuable  works  on  music, 
astronomy,  and  mathematics. 

Odiot,  oMeV,  (Jean  Baptiste  Claude,)  a  French 
goldsmith,  born  in  Paris  in  1763.  His  works  had  a 
European  reputation.    Died  in  1850. 

Odo,  o'Ao\  or  Odon,  oM6n',  [Lat.  Odoar'dus,]  a 
French  prelate  of  great  learning  and  influence,  was  born 
at  Orleans.  He  was  elected  Bishop  of  Cambray  in  1 105. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  theology,  which  have  been 
printed.    Died  in  1 1 13. 

See  "  Gallia  Christiana  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 
O'do,  [Fr.  Odon,  o'd6N',]  Saint,  an  English  ecclesi- 
astic, was  patronized  by  King  Alfred  and  his  immediate 
successors,  and  was  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  by 
King  Edmund  in  944.    Died  in  958. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  i.  ch.  vii. 

Odo  or  Odon,  Saint,  Abbot  of  Cluny  or  Clugny, 
was  born  in  France  about  879  A.D.  He  was  distinguished 
as  a  reformer  of  monastic  discipline.    Died  in  943. 
See  B.  Haur^au,  "Histoire  litteraire  du  Maine." 

Odo  or  Odon  de  Conteville,  o^d6N'  deh  k6Nt'- 
v^K,  born  in  Normandy  in  1032,  was  a  half-brother  of 
William  the  Conqueror.  He  became  Bishop  of  Bayeux 
in  1049.  After  the  conquest  of  England  he  obtained 
the  title  of  Earl  of  Kent  and  Hereford,  and  was  grand 
justiciary.  He  is  said  to  have  been  cruel  and  arrogant. 
Died  in  1097. 

See  Provost,  "  Histoire  de  Guillaume  le  Conquerant ;"  "  Gallia 
Christiana;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Odo  of  Kent,  Abbot  of  Battle,  an  English  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Kent,  was  a  friend  of  Thomas  a  Becket. 
He  wrote  several  works.    Died  in  1200. 

Od-o-a'cer,  [Gr.  'OdoaKpog;  Fr.  Odoacre,  o'do'tkR',] 
a  Gothic  military  commander  in  the  service  of  the  West- 
ern Roman  empire.    Soon  after  the  deposition  of  the 


§  Mimir  signifies  the  "knowing  one." 

11  Saxo  Grammaticus,  writing  in  Latin,  calls  Odin  Mars. 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ODOJCRE 


1696 


(EGIR 


emperor  Julius  Nepos  by  Orestes,  who  had  usurped  the 
throne  in  the  name  of  his  son  Romulus,  Odoacer  ad- 
vanced to  Pavia,  took  Orestes  prisoner,  and  caused  him 
to  be  executed,  in  475  a.d.  Having  banished  Romulus, 
he  was  proclaimed  King  of  Italy  by  his  army;  but  he 
refused  the  imperial  titles,  and  the  Western  Empire  was 
thenceforth  considered  at  an  end.  In  488,  Theodoric, 
King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  invaded  Italy,  and  besieged 
Odoacer  in  Ravenna.  After  a  brave  and  protracted  re- 
sistance, he  was  compelled  to  surrender,  and  was  exe- 
cuted in  493,  by  order  of  Theodoric,  who  proclaimed 
himself  king. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Le 
Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas- Empire;"  Jornandes,  "  De  Rebus  Goth- 
icis;"  Procopius,  "  Bellum  Gothicum;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 

Odoacre.    See  Odoacer. 
Odoardus.    See  Odo. 

O-do-fre'dus,  an  Italian  jurist  of  high  reputation, 
born  at  Bologna;  died  in  1265. 

Odolant-besnos,  oMo'16n'  dk'no',  (Joseph,)  a 
French  savant,  born  at  Alen9on  in  1797,  wrote  several 
scientific  and  descriptive  works. 

Odolant-Desnos,  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French  writer 
on  various  subjects,  born  at  Alen9on  in  1722,  was  grand- 
father of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1801. 

Odon.    See  Odo. 

O'Don'nell,  (Leopold,)  Count  of  Lucena  and  Duke 
of  Tetuan,  a  Spanish  general,  of  Irish  extraction,  was 
born  in  1808  or  1809.  He  fought  for  the  queen  against 
the  Carlists  in  the  civil  war  which  began  about  1833,  and 
defeated  Cabrera  at  Lucena  in  1839.  He  became  the 
enemy  of  Espartero,  whom  he  drove  from  power  in  1843. 
In  1854  he  instigated  a  revolt  which  resulted  in  a  change 
of  the  ministry,  and  he  was  appointed  minister  of  war. 
lie  was  prime  minister  from  July  to  October,  1856,  and 
w.-\s  restored  to  the  same  office  in  June,  1858.  He  com- 
manded with  success  in  a  war  against  Morocco  in  1859- 
6c.    He  died  in  exile  at  Biarritz  in  1867. 

O'Don'nell  or  O'Don'el,  (Roderick,)  was  created 
Earl  of  Tyrconnel  by  James  I.  in  1603.  Several  of  his 
descendants  espoused  the  cause  of  James  II.,  and,  after 
his  defeat  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  settled  in  Austria, 
where  they  rose  to  distinction  in  the  State  and  the  army, 
Charles  O'Donnell  served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war, 
and  became  field-marshal  lieutenant,  and  in  1768  was 
made  Governor-General  of  Transylvania,  Died  in  1770. 
Maurice  O'Donnell  married  Christine,  daughter  of 
the  Prince  of  Ligne,  and  rose  to  be  chamberlain  and 
field-marshal  lieutenant.  Died  in  1843.  Joseph  Henry 
O'Donnell  entered  the  Spanish  service  about  1795, 
and  gained  several  advantages  over  the  French.  For 
his  victory  at  L'Abispal  he  received  the  title  of  Count 
of  Abispal.  Having  subsequently  incurred  the  sus- 
picions of  the  constitutional  party,  he  was  deprived  of 
his  command,  and  took  refuge  in  France,  where  he 
died  in  1834. 

O'Don'o-van,  (John,)  an  Irish  archaeologist  and 
eminent  Celtic  scholar,  born  in  Kilkenny  county  about 
1808,  He  produced,  besides  other  works,  "The  Annals 
of  Ireland,  by  the  Four  Masters,  from  the  Earliest  His- 
toric Period  to  A.D.  1616,"  etc,  (3  vols.  4to,  1848-51.) 
Died  in  1861. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Odoran,  oMo^rSw',  or  Odoranne,  o'do'rtn',  a  French 
monk  of  Sens,  born  in  985.  He  wrote  a  general  chron- 
icle from  675  to  1032.    Died  after  1045. 

Odorico  da  Pordenone.    See  Oderico. 

O-dys'seus,  [Gr.  'Odvaaev^;  Fr.  Odyss^e,  oMe'sk',] 
the  Greek  name  of  the  hero  of  Homer's  "Odyssey." 
(See  Ulysses.) 

CBagre.    See  CEagrus. 

CEagrus,  ee'a-grus,  [  Gr.  Olaypoc ;  Fr.  CEagre, 
i'igR',1  a  semi-fabulous  king  of  Thrace,  was  the  father 
of  Orpheus  and  Linus. 

CBcolampade.    See  CEcolampadius. 

CEcolampadius,  ek-o-lam-pa'de-us,  [Ger.  pron. 
a-ko-lim-p^Me-us ;  Fr.  CEcolampade,  i  ko'lSN^ptd'; 
Ger.  Oekolampad,  o-ko-lim-pit',]  an  eminent  German 
Reformer,  whose  original  name  was  Hausschein  or 
HusGEN,  was  born  in  Franconia  in  1482.  He  studied 
theology  at  Heidelberg,  and  became  in  1515  pastor  of 


a  church  at  Bale,  in  Switzerland,  where  he  strongly  de- 
nounced the  abuses  of  the  Roman  Church.  About  1522 
he  openly  declared  in  favour  of  the  Reformed  faith,  and 
in  1524  was  appointed  professor  of  divinity  at  l^ale.  In 
the  controversy  between  Luther  and  Zuinglius  concern- 
ing the  real  presence,  he  adopted  the  views  of  the  latter. 
He  was  the  author  of  numerous  theological  works,  among 
which  may  be  named  his  Commentaries  on  Isaiah,  Job, 
Daniel,  and  Jeremiah,  a  treatise  "On  the  Passover," 
("  De  Ritu  Paschali,")  and  "Annotations  on  Genesis." 
He  was  one  of  the  most  profound  scholars  of  his  time, 
and  was  remarkable  for  the  moderation  and  general 
excellence  of  his  character.    Died  in  1531. 

See  W.  Capito,  "Vita  J.  Oecolampadii,"  1793;  Gryn>«us,  "Vita 
J.  Oecolampadii,"  1536;  S.  Hess,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  des  Dr.  J. 
Oecolampadius,"  1793 ;  Wagner,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  des  Oeco- 
lampadius,"  1804  ;  J.  J.  Herzog,  "Das  Leben  J.  Oekolampads,"  2 
vols.,  1843;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

OBcumenius,  ek-u-mee'ne-us.  Bishop  of  Tricca,  in 
Thessaly,  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  in  the  ninth  or 
tenth  century.  He  wrote  Commentaries  on  the  Acts, 
on  Saint  Paul's  Epistles,  and  on  the  Apocalypse. 

See  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Oeder,  o'der,  (Georg  Ludwig,)  a  German  exegetical 
writer,  the  lather  of  the  following,  was  born  near  Anspach 
in  1694.  He  published  several  commentaries  on  the 
Scri])tares.    Died  in  1760. 

Oeder,  (Georg  Ludwig,)  a  distinguished  German 
botanist,  born  at  Anspach  in  1728.  He  studied  at  Got- 
tingen  under  Haller,  through  whose  influence  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  botany  at  Copenhagen  in  1752. 
His  most  important  work  is  his  splendid  "  Flora  Danica," 
(3  vols.,  1762-72,)  illustrated  with  upwards  of  sixteen 
hundred  figures  of  plants.  It  was  afterwards  continued 
by  Miiller,  The  9th  and  last  volume  was  issued  in  1814. 
Oeder  also  wrote  several  able  treatises  on  political  econ- 
omy and  finance.    Died  in  1791, 

See  Halem,  "  Andenken  an  Oeder,"  1793;  Kraft  og  Nverup, 
"  Litteraturlexicon  ;"  Hirschjng,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Hand- 
buch." 

CEdipe,    See  CEdipus, 

CEdipus,  Sd'e-pus,  [Gr.  OuYnrovc;  Fr.  CEdipe,  k'dhp',] 
a  son  of  Laius,  King  of  Thebes,  and  Jocasta,  was  cele- 
brated in  Greek  mythology  and  tragic  poetry  as  a  type 
or  instance  of  the  fatality  which  man  cannot  escape. 
According  to  the  legend,  an  oracle  warned  Laius  that  if 
he  ever  had  a  son,  that  son  should  kill  his  father  and 
marry  his  mother,  Laius  therefore  exposed  his  first- 
born son  soon  after  his  birth,  in  order  that  he  might 
perish  ;  but  he  was  found  by  a  shepherd  of  Polybus,  King 
of  Corinth,  was  named  CEdipus,  and  brought  up  as  the 
son  of  Polybus.  Having  consulted  the  oracle  of  Delphi, 
h-e  was  informed  that  he  should  commit  parricide.  In 
the  course  of  a  journey  he  met  Laius  in  the  road,  with 
attendants,  who  provoked  a  quarrel,  in  which  CEdipus 
killed  the  King  of  Thebes,  Soon  after  this  event  the 
throne  of  Thebes  and  the  hand  of  Jocasta,  the  queen, 
were  offered  to  him  who  should  solve  the  riddle  of  the 
Sphinx,  (See  Sphinx.)  CEdipus  solved  the  riddle,  ob- 
tained the  throne,  and  became  father  of  several  children 
by  Jocasta.  He  afterwards  discovered  his  guilt,  and 
suffered  penalties  and  misfortunes  of  which  contradictory 
accounts  are  given  by  different  writers. 

See  Sophocles,  "CEdipus  Tyrannus ;"  "The  Odyssey,"  book 
xi. ;  Euripides,  "  Phoenisss  ;"  S.mith,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Biography  and  Mythology." 

CBdman,  od'mSn,  (Samuel,)  a  Swedish  savant  and 
theologian,  born  in  Smaland  in  1750.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Upsal  in  1806,  and  wrote  com- 
mentaries'on  the  Scriptures.    Died  in  1829. 

Oedumla.    See  Audhumla, 

Oefele,  o'feh-leh,  (Franz  Ignaz,)  a  skilful  German 
painter,  born  at  Posen  in  1721  ;  died  in  1797. 
CEgir.    See  ^^iGiR, 

CEgir,  [from  o^a,  to  "shudder  at,"  to  "dread,"]  or 
Hler,  hlair,  le.  the  "  Shelterer,"  [from  /z//,  "lee,"J  the 
god  of  the  sea  or  ocean.  His  wife  Ran  has  a  net,  with 
which,  it  is  said,  she  catches  seafarers.  Their  nu- 
merous daughters  are  the  waves  of  the  ocean.  CEgir 
and  Hler  appear  to  have  been  originally  regarded  as 
two  distinct  personages, — the  former  ruling  over  the 
stormy,  the  latter  over  the  tranquil,  sea.  Ran  (signifying 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  ^on^-;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  J,  short;  a,  e;,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


OEHLENSCHLAEGER  1697 


OERSTED 


** robbery,"  or  "one  who  robs  or  bereaves")  represents 
the  tendency  of  the  sea  to  rob  men  of  life  and  of  their 
most  precious  treasures.  It  is  related  in  one  of  the  Norse 
legends  that,  the  yEsir  having  once  paid  a  visit  to  CEgir, 
he  was  in  want  of  a  kettle  large  enough  to  brew  beer 
for  them.  Thereupon  Thor  and  Tyr  went  to  the  dwell- 
ing of  the  giant  Hymir,  who  had  a  very  spacious  kettle, 
a  mile  deep.  Thor  grasped  the  kettle  by  the  rim  and 
threw  it  over  his  head,  so  that  the  rings  came  down  to  his 
feet,  almost  hiding  him  from  view.  After  that,  Oigir  and 
the  iEsir  had  an  ample  supply  of  beer  for  their  banquets. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  pp.  67-6(5;  Kevser, 
"Religion  of  the  Northmen;"  Petersen,  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Oehlenschlager  or  Ohlenschlager,  o'len-shla'ger, 
(Ad.am  Gottlob,)  an  eminent  Danish  poet,  born  in  a 
suburb  of  Copenhagen  on  the  14th  of  November,  1779, 
was  the  son  of  a  German  who  had  settled  in  Denmark. 
He  began  at  an  early  age  to  write  plays,  which  he  would 
act  in  company  with  his  sister  and  young  associates.  His 
enthusiasm  for  the  drama  introduced  him  to  the  notice 
and  friendship  of  Rahbek  and  Rosing.  He  was  after- 
wards attracted  to  the  study  of  Scandinavian  antiquities 
and  historical  legends,  which  furnished  material  for 
some  of  his  most  popular  dramas.  He  published  in 
1805  a  collection  of  poems,  including  the  dramatic  tale 
of  "Aladdin,"  which  displays  the  splendid  colouring  of 
Oriental  fiction.  The  same  year  he  visited  Germany, 
where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Goethe,  Tieck,  and 
other  celebrated  writers  of  the  time.  While  there  he 
composed  several  dramas  in  Danish,  which  he  translated 
into  German  and  submitted  to  the  criticism  of  his 
friends.  From  Germany  he  proceeded  to  Paris,  and 
thence  to  Rome,  returning  to  Copenhagen  in  1810.  He 
had  written  during  his  absence  his  tragedies  of  "  Pal- 
natoke,"  (1809,)  "Axel  and  Valborg,"  {1810,)  and  "Cor- 
reggio,"  which  are  ranked  among  his  best  productions. 
He  was  appointed  soon  after  his  return  professor  oi 
aesthetics  in  the  University  of  Copenhagen,  and  the  same 
year  married  Christiana  Heger,  a  sister  of  Rahbek's 
wife.  Among  the  most  important  of  his  other  works  are 
the  dramas  of  "  Hakon  J^^rl,"  "  Staerkodder,"  "  Hagbarth 
and  Signa,"  (1814,)  "The  Normans  at  Byzantium," 
"Charlemagne,"  "  Tordenskiold,"  and  "  Amleth,"  also 
the  poems  entitled  "  Helge,"  (1814,)  "  Hroar's  Saga," 
(i8i7,)and  his  si^lendid  epic,  "The  Gods  of  the  North," 
("  Nordens  Guder,"  1819.)  He  died  in  January,  1850,  and 
his  funeral  was  solemnized  with  great  magnificence  by 
his  countrymen,  by  whotn  he  is  generally  regarded  as 
the  great  national  poet  of  Denmark.  "  Few  men,"  says 
M.  Marmier,  "  have  been  endowed  with  a  genius  as  fer- 
tile and  as  facile  as  that  of  Oehlenschlager.  The  verses 
fall  from  his  pen  like  water  from  a  fountain.  Hence 
his  style  is  charming  in  its  grace,  flexibility,  and  abandon, 
but  it  is  frequently  very  negligent." 

See  his  Autobiography,  "A.  Ohlenschlager's  Levnet,"  2  vols., 
1831  ;  Marmier,  "  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Danoise  ;"  Le  F^ivre- 
Deumiek,  "  Oehlenschlager  le  Poete  national  du  Danemarck,"  1854  ; 
C.  MoLRF.CH,  "  Stiidier  over  Ohlensclilagers  Poesie,"  1850;  Erslew, 
"  Forfatter- Lexicon  ;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  Long- 
FEi.i.nw,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Howitt,  "Literature 
and  Romance  of  Nortliern  Europe;"  ''Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
December  and  April,  1820,  and  March,  1821 ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  June,  1830,  article  "  Danish  and  Norwegian  Literature 
also  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly"  for  July,  1831. 

Oekolampad.    See  CEcolampadius. 

Oelrichs,  ol'riks,  (Johann,)  a  German  writer  and 
clergyman,  born  at  Bremen  in  1724.  Among  his  works 
are  contributions  to  the  literary  history  of  Germany, 
Belgium,  etc.    Died  in  1801. 

Oelrichs,  [Lat.  CElrich'sius,]  (Johann  Karl  Con- 
rad,) a  German  scholar,  born  at  Berlin  in  1722,  was 
appointed  in  1784  counsellor  of  legation  at  the  court  of 
Prussia.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Historical  and  Literary 
Miscellanies,"  (1760,)  and  other  works  on  history  and 
bibliography.    Died  in  1798. 

See  Meierotto,  "Vita  CElrichsii,"  1799. 

GGlrichsius.    See  Oelrichs. 
CEnee.    See  GEneus. 

CEneus,  ee'nus,  [Gr.  Olvevg ;  Fr.  CEnSe,  A'ni',]  a 
king  of  Calydon,  married  Althaea,  and  was  the  father 
of  Meleager,  Tydeus,  and  other  children.  According  to 
the  fable,  he  offended  Diana,  who  sent  a  wild  boar  to 
ravage  his  dominions.    This  boar  was  the  object  of  the 


famous  Calydonian  hunt.    CEneus  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  whom  Bacchus  taught  to  cultivate  the  vine. 
CEnomas.    See  CEnomaus. 

GGnomaus,  e-no'ma-us,  [Gr.  Oivofiaog;  Fr.  CEnomas, 
i^no'mSs',]  a  king  of  Pisa,  in  Elis,  was  called  a  son 
of  Mars.  The  poets  feigned  that  he  promised  to  give 
his  daughter  Hippodami''a  to  the  man  who  should  con- 
quer him  in  a  chariot-race,  with  the  annexed  condition 
that  every  one  who  tried  and  failed  must  suffer  death. 
After  many  suitors  had  failed  and  perished,  Pelops 
gained  the  victory,  and  CEnomaus  killed  himself. 

CEnomaus,  [Olvofiaog,]  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the 
Cynic  school,  born  at  Gadara,  lived  about  120-40  a.D. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise  in  which  he 
exposed  the  impostures  of  Oracles.  His  works  are  not 
extant. 

CEnone,  e-no'ne,  [Gr.  Oivuvij;  Fr.  Oenone,  i'non',] 
a  nymph  of  Mount  Ida,  who  was  said  to  have  received 
from  Apollo  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  to  have  been 
married  to  Paris  before  he  was  known  to  be  a  son  of 
Priam. 

CGnopideS,  e-nop'e-d^z,  [Olvomdi^g,]  a  Greek  astrono- 
mer, born  at  Chios,  lived  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  He  is 
said  to  have  derived  his  knowledge  from  the  Egyptian 
priests,  yf^lian  attributes  to  him  the  invention  of  the 
cycle  of  fifty-nine  years  to  make  the  lunar  year  coincide 
or  accord  with  the  solar  year.  He  was  acquainted  with 
the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic. 

CEnopion,  e-no'pe-on,  [Gr.  Oivomuv ;  Fr.  Oenope, 
i'nop',  or  Oenopion,  i'no'pe^oN',]  in  classic  mythology, 
a  son  of  Bacchus,  and  King  of  Chios,  (Scio.)  His  daugh- 
ter Merope,  it  is  said,  was  ravished  by  Orion.  (See 
Orion.) 

Oernhielm  or  Ornhielm,  oRnHie-glm',  (Claudius 
Arrhenius,)  a  Swedish  historian,  born  at  Linkoping  in 
1627.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "On  the  Mon- 
archies of  the  World,""  ("  De  Monarchiis  Orbis,"  1683.) 
Died  in  1695. 

Oersted  or  Orsted,  oR'st^d,  (Anders  Sandoe,)  an 
eminent  Danish  jurist  and  statesman,  born  at  Rudkjo- 
bing  in  1778.  He  married  Sophia,  a  sister  of  the  famous 
poet  Oehlenschlager,  in  1802.  He  published  numerous 
legal  works,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "  Eunomia,"  (4  vols., 
1815-22.)  In  1841  or  1842  he  became  a  minister  of 
state,  and  opposed  the  liberal  or  popular  measures.  He 
resigned  in  1848,  and  \vas  appointed  prime  minister  in 
1853,  policy  having  been  condemned  by  the  Diet, 

he  was  removed  about  the  end  of  1854.  He  published 
a  "  History  of  my  Life  and  Times,"  (4  vols.,  i85i-$6.) 
Died  in  i860. 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Oersted,  (Anders  Sandoe,)  a  naturalist,  a  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rudkjpbing  in  1816.  He 
travelled  in  the  West  Indies,  and  published  several 
works  on  natural  history. 

Oersted,  (Hans  Christian,)  a  celebrated  Danish 
natural  philosopher,  the  founder  of  the  science  of  electro 
magnetism,  was  born  at  Rudkjobing,  in  the  island  of 
Langeland,  on  the  14th  of  August,  1777.  He  was  edu- 
cated with  his  brother,  Anders  Sandoe,  the  jurist,  at  the 
University  of  Copenhagen.  In  1806  he  obtained  the 
chair  of  physics  in  that  institution.  He  produced  in 
1812  an  "Essay  on  the  Identity  of  Chemical  and  Elec- 
trical Forces."  In  1820  he  announced  his  great  dis- 
covery of  the  relation  between  magnetism  and  electricity, 
in  a  short  work  entitled  "Experimenta  circum  Effectum 
Conflictus  electrici  in  Acum  magneticum."  The  electric 
telegraph  is  one  of  the  most  direct  practical  results  of 
this  discovery.  He  demonstrated  that  the  electric  cur- 
rent, according  to  a  uniform  law,  "exercises  determined 
and  similar  impressions  on  the  direction  of  a  magnetic 
needle"  near  which  it  passes.  This  discovery  was  re- 
ceived with  great  enthusiasm,  as  the  revelation  of  an 
important  fact  which  had  long  escaped  the  researches 
of  so  many  sagacious  minds.  "  Of  all  the  philosophers 
who  had  speculated  on  this  subject,"  says  Sir  John  Her- 
schel,  "none  had  so  pertinaciously  adhered  to  the  idea 
of  a  necessary  connection  between'^  the  phenomena  as 
Oersted.  Baffled  often,  he  returned  to  the  attack,  and 
his  perseverance  was  at  length  rewarded  by  the  complete 
disclosure  of  the  wonderful  phenomena  of  electro-mag- 


«  as  ^/  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as^;  G,  H,  KyguUura/;  N,  nasal;  R,  tril/ed;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  t/its.    (J^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

107 


OERTEL 


1698 


OGGIONE 


netism."  ("  Preliminary  Discourse  on  the  Study  of  Natu- 
ral Philosophy.") 

"Tlie  desideratum  of  a  clear  expression  of  the  manifest 
alliance  between  electricity  and  magnetism,"  says  James 
David  Forbes,  "  had  been  so  long  and  so  universally 
felt  that  the  discovery  placed  its  author  in  the  first  rank 
of  scientific  men.  There  was  not  even,  so  far  as  I  am 
aware,  a  suspicion  that  he  had  been,  however  remotely 
or  dimly,  anticipated.  The  prize  of  the  French  Institute, 
which  had  been  awarded  to  Davy  for  his  galvanic  dis- 
coveries, was  bestowed  upon  Oersted."  (Sixth  Disser- 
tation of  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  vol.  i.)  "I 
scarcely  know,"  says  Niebuhr,  "another  natural  philoso- 
pher with  so  much  intellect  and  freedom  from  prejudice 
and  esprit  de  corps.'''  Oersted  received  for  this  discovery 
the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and 
was  created  a  knight  of  the  order  of  Danebrog.  He 
also  made  discoveries  in  chemistry,  and  wrote  a  number 
of  works  on  that  science.  Among  these  are  "  Materialien 
zu  einer  Chemie  des  igten  Jahrhunderts,"  (1803,)  and 
"Tentamen  Nomenclaturas  chemicee,"  (1814.)  He  wrote 
a  poem  called  "The  Balloon,"  ("  Lufskibet,"  1836.) 
His  writings  have  contributed  greatly  to  popularize 
science.  A  selection  of  his  works  was  published  in  1850, 
under  the  title  of  "The  Spirit  in  Nature,"  ("  Der  Geist 
in  der  Natur,")  preceded  by  a  biographical  notice  of 
Oersted  by  P.  L.  Moller.    Died  in  March,  1851. 

See  "  H.  C.  Oersteds  Leben,"  by  Hauch  and  Forchhammer, 
(from  the  Danish,)  1853;  Hkcquerru  "Resume  de  I'Histoire 
d'fileciricite,"  etc.,  185S  ;  Cai.i.ishn,  "  Medicinisches  Scliriftsteller- 
l,exikon  ;"  *'  Nouvelle  Biographie  (jen(^rale  ;"  "  Memoir  of  Oersted," 
by  Ei.iE  DE  Beaumont,  in  tlie  "Smithsonian  Report"  for  i868. 

Oertel,  van.    See  Ortklius. 

Oeser  or  Oser,  o'zer,  (Adam  Friedrich,)  a  distin- 
guished painter  and  sculj^tor,  of  German  extraction, 
born  at  Presburg,  in  Hungary,  in  1717.  He  studied  in 
1739  at  Dresden,  where  he  formed  an  intimacy  with 
Winckelmann.  He  was  subsequently  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Architecture,  Painting,  and  Design  at  Leip- 
sic.  Among  his  pupils  here  was  the  celebrated  Goethe, 
who  entertained  a  great  regard  for  him.  His  best  paint- 
ings are  in  fresco  ;  and  a  number  of  them  adorn  the 
church  of  Saint  Nicholas  at  Leipsic.  His  monument 
to  Queen  Matilda  of  Denmark  is  one  of  his  most  ad- 
mired pieces  of  sculpture.    Died  in  1799. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Ehcyklopaedie  ;"  Nagler, 
"Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Oeser  or  Oser,  (Johann  Ludwig,)  a  landscape- 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Dresden  in  1 75 1,  was  a 
son  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1792. 

Oesterley  or  Osterley,  os'ter-li^,  (Kari,,)  a  German 
painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Gottingen  in 
1805.    fie  became  court  painter  at  Hanover. 

Oetinger,  o'ting'er,  sometimes  written  Ottinger, 
(Friedrich  Christoph,)  a  learned  German  theologian, 
and  prominent  leader  of  the  Pietists,  was  born  in  WUr- 
lemberg  in  1702.  He  wrote  a  number  of  commentaries 
on  the  Scriptures,  a  treatise  entitled  "The  Age  of 
Gold,"  and  "  Ancient  Philosophy."  He  also  translated 
several  of  the  works  of  Swedenborg,  of  whom  he  was 
a  warm  admirer,  and  whom  he  much  resembled  in  purity 
of  character  and  religious  fervour.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Count  Zinzendorf,  whom  he  assisted  in  a  new  translation 
of  the  Scriptures.    Died  in  1782. 

See  "  Neues  Gelehrtes-Europa  ;"  Auberlen,  "  Die  Theosophie 
F.  C.  Oetinger's  nach  ihren  Grundziigen,"  1847  ;  Hirsching,  "  His- 
torisch-iiterarisches  Handbuch." 

Oetter  or  Otter,  ot^'ter,  (Samuel  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man antiquary,  born  at  Goldcronach  in  1720.  He  wrote 
on  history  and  antiquities.    Died  in  1792. 

See  F.  G.  Oetter,  "  Leben  Getters,"  1792. 

Oettinger  or  Ottinger,  ot'ting'er,  (Eduard  Marie,) 
a  German  journalist  and  novelist,  born  at  Breslau  in 
1808.  He  edited  several  satirical  journals,  and  published 
a  number  of  novels,  among  which  is"Onkel  Zebra,"  (7 
vols.,  1843.)  ^I'^o  vvrote  a  work  entitled  "  Rossini," 

(1847,)  which  is  said  to  be  a  romance  rather  than  a 
biography,  and  "  Bibliographie  biographique  univer- 
selle,"  (2  vols.,  1850-54,)  the  most  complete  work  on 
that  subject. 

See  A.  DE  Reume,  "  Notice  bio-bibliographique  sur  M.  E.  M. 
Oettinger,"  1854;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


Ofalia,  o-fd'le-a,  (Don  Narciso  de  HKRKDfA,) 
Count,  a  Spanish  statesman,  bt)rn  in  1771,  became  min- 
ister of  the  interior  under  Zea  Bermudez  in  1832.  He 
was  appointed  by  Ferdinand  VH.  executor  of  his  will 
and  a  member  of  the  ctnincil  of  regency.  He  was  jiresi- 
dent  of  the  council  of  ministers  in  1837.    Died  in  1843. 

O'Far'rill,  (Don  Gonzai.o,)  a  Spanish  general,  born 
at  Havana  in  1 754,  became  minister  of  war  under  Joseph 
Bonaparte.    Died  in  Paris  in  183 1. 

Orfa,  a  Saxon,  who  succeeded  Ethelbald  as  King  of 
Mercia  in  755  a.d.  Having  murdered  Ethelbert,  King 
of  East  Anglia,  he  took  possession  of  his  kingdom. 

See  Turner,  "History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons:".  Henry  Mac- 
kenzie, "Essay  on  the  Life  and  Institutions  of  Ofifa,"  1840. 

Offenbach,  of'fen-blK',  (Isaac,)  a  popular  composer 
of  comic  operas,  born  at  Cologne  in  1822,  studied  in  Paris. 
Among  his  works  are  the  "  Grand  Duchess  of  Gerolstein," 
"  Orpheus  in  the  Lower  Regions,"("  Orphee  aux  Enfers,") 
"  La  Belle  Helene,"  "  Blue-Beard,"  ("  Barbe  Bleue,")  "  La 
Vie  Parisienne,"  and  "La  Bavarde  de  Saragosse." 

Of'for,  (George,)  an  English  writer,  and  a  bookseller 
ir^  London,  was  born  about  1786.  He  published  a  "Life 
of  John  Bunyan,"  (1853.)    Died  in  1864. 

O'Fihely,  o-fee'le,  }  (Maurice,)  an  Irish  prelate  and 
scholar,  who  w^s  made  Archbishop  of  Tuam  by  Pope 
Julius  II.  in  1506.  He  was  eminent  for  his  learning,  and 
was  surnained  Flos  Mundi,  ("  Flower  of  the  World.") 
Died  in  1513. 

O-fiPi-us,  (AuLUS.)  a  Roman  jurist  of  high  reputa- 
tion, was  a  friend  of  Cicero,  and  a  pupil  of  Sulpicius. 
His  writings  are  cited  in  the  Digest.  Among  his 
pupils  were  Capito  and  Labeo. 

O'Flaherty,  o-fl^her-te,  (Roderic,)  born  at  Moycul- 
lin,  Ireland,  in  1630,  published  in  1685  a  Latin  "  History 
of  Ireland  from  the  Deluge  to  the  Year  1684."  Died 
in  1 718. 

Ofterdingen,  von,  fon  of'ter-ding'en,  (Heinrich,)  a 
famous  German  minstrel  or  minnesiitger  o{  the  thirteenth 
century,  was  a  favourite  of  Leopold,  Duke  of  Austria. 
He  is  supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  been  the  author 
of  the  "  Nibelungenlied  ;"  but  of  this  there  appears  to 
be  little  evidence. 

See  Hagen,  "  Museum  fur  Alt-Deutsche  Literatur  und  Kunst," 
1810. 

Og'den,  (Aaron,)  born  at  Elizabethtown,  New  Jer- 
sey, in  1756,  served  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  and 
was  elected  Governor  of  New  Jersey  in  1812.    Died  in 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  i. 

Ogden,  (David  B.,)  a  distinguished  American  lawyer 
and  resident  of  New  York  City,  was  born  in  1769.  He 
removed  from  New  Jersey  to  New  York  in  1802.  Died 
in  1849. 

Ogden,  (Jacob,)  an  American  physician  and  medical 
writer,  born  at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  in  1721  ;  died  in 
1779. 

Ogden,  (Matthias,)  an  American  bngadier-general 
in  the  Revolutionary  war.  He  died  at  Elizabethtown, 
New  Jersey,  in  1 791. 

Og'den,  (Samuel,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Manchester  in  1716.  He  became  Woodwardian  pro- 
fessor at  Cambridge  in  1764,  and  published  several 
volumes  of  sermons.    Died  in  1778. 

Oge,  o'zhi',  (Vincent,)  a  Creole  of  Saint  Domingo, 
who,  having  in  vain  solicited  the  French  National  As- 
sembly to  grant  equal  rights  to  the  coloured  people, 
became  in  1790  the  leader  of  an  insurrection,  with  a 
view  of  gaining  his  object  by  force  of  arms.  His  party 
were  soon  overpowered  by  the  French  troops,  and 
Oge,  together  with  his  lieutenant,  Chavannes,  who  had 
been  guilty  of  the  principal  outrages,  was  executed  in 
1791. 

See  Dai.mas,  "  RevolutioH  de  Saint-Domingue ;"  Malenfant, 
"  Histoire  des  Colonies." 

Oggione,  d',  d6d-jo'ni,  (Marco,)  written  also  Ug- 
gione,  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  in  the  Milanese 
about  1470,  was  a  pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  whose 
style  he  imitated  successfully.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  his  "  Three  Archangels,"  and  an  altar-piece  at  Milan. 
His  most  important  works  are  two  copies  of  "The  Last 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


OGIER 


OJEDA 


Supper"  of  Da  Vinci,  one  of  which  is  in  the  Academy 
of  Arts  in  London.  The  excellence  of  these  pictures, 
and  the  destruction  by  time  of  the  original,  have  caused 
them  to  be  greatly  prized.    Died  in  1530. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. 

Ogier,  o''zhe-^',  (Charles,)  a  French  scholar,  born 
in  Paris  in  1595.  He  published  notes  of  his  travels  in 
Denmark,  Sweden,  etc.,  "  Ephemerides,  sive  Iter  Dani- 
cum,  Suecicum  et  Polonicum,"  (1656.)    Died  in  1654. 

Ogier,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  writer  and  ecclesiastic, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  published  an 
"Apology  for  M.  de  Balzac,"  (1627,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1670. 

O'gil-by  or  Ogleby,  o'gel-be,  (John,)  a  Scottish  lit- 
terateur and  printer,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1600,  was 
noted  for  the  variety  and  versatility  of  his  talents.  In 
1633  he  accompanied  Wentworth,  Earl  of  Strafford,  to 
Ireland,  in  the  capacity  of  dancing-master  and  copyist. 
After  his  return  to  England  he  published,  in  1650,  a 
poetical  translation  of  Virgil,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
James  Shirley,  afterwards  translated  the  Iliad"  and 
"Odyssey"  into  English  verse,  having  learned  Greek  for 
that  purpose  when  upwards  of  fifty  years  of  age.  These 
versions  were  very  popular  at  that  time,  and  possessed 
great  typographical  beauty.  Ogilby  was  also  appointed 
royal  cosmographer,  and  published  a  number  of  geo- 
graphical works.    Died  in  1676. 

See  Gibber,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets  ;"  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Ogilvie,  o'gil-ve,  (James,)  a  Scottish  orator  and 
teacher  of  elocution,  born  about  1760,  or,  as  others  say, 
1775.  ^6  delivered  lectures  as  models  of  oratory  in 
the  chief  cities  of  the  United  States,  and  received  much 
applause.    He  died  at  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  in  1820. 

Ogilvie,  (John,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  writer,  born 

1733'  Among  his  works  are  "Britannia,"  an  epic 
poem,  (1801,)  and  an  "Examination  of  the  Evidence 
of  Prophecy  in  Favour  of  Christianity,"  (1803.)  Died 
in  1814. 

Oginski,  o-g^n'skee,  (Michael  Casimir,)  a  Polish 
nobleman,  born  at  Warsaw  in  1 73 1.  He  constructed  a 
canal  in  Poland.    Died  in  1803. 

Oginski,  (Michael  Cleophas,)  a  Polish  composer, 
born  at  Warsaw  in  1765,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding. 
He  settled  in  Italy  about  1815,  and  gained  distinction 
as  a  musical  composer.  He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  Poland 
from  1788  to  181 5,"  (2  vols.,  1826.)    Died  in  183 1. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1829. 

Ogive.    See  Edgiva. 
Ogleby.    See  Ogilby. 

Oglesby,  o'gels-be,  (Richard  J.,)  an  American  gene- 
ral, born  in  Kentucky  in  1824.  He  removed  to  Illinois, 
and  practised  law  in  that  State.  He  commanded  a 
brigade  at  Fort  Donelson,  February,  1861,  and  was 
severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Corinth,  October  4, 
1862.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Illinois  for  four 
years,  (1865-68.) 

Oglethorpe,  o'gel-thorp,  (James  Edward,)  an  Eng- 
lish general,  born  in  London  in  1698.  Having  served 
for  a  time  under  Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene  in 
Germany,  he  obtained  in  1733  the  royal  charter  for 
founding  a  colony  in  North  America,  which  he  called 
Georgia  in  honour  of  the  reigning  king.  Having  passed 
several  years  in  Georgia,  he  returned  to  England  in 
1743,  and  commanded  an  army  against  the  Pretender  in 
1745.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament  for  many  years. 
Died  in  1785.  The  virtues  and  talents  of  General  Ogle- 
thorpe have  been  celebrated  by  Pope,  Thomson,  and 
Dr.  Johnson. 

See  "Memoirs  of  James  Oglethorpe,"  by  Robert  Wright, 
London,  1867;  Hildreth,  "History  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  ii. 
chap.  xxiv.  ;  Bancroft,  "  History  of  the  United  States,"  chap.  xxiv. 

Ognibuono  di  Lonigo.    See  Lonicenus,  (Omni- 

BONUS.) 

Og'y-ges  or  Og'y-gus  [Gr.  'Q.yvyr]g,  "Q.yvyog,  or 
Qyvyi/g ;  Fr.  Ogyges,  o'zhe'zhgs']  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  king  or  ruler  of  Thebes,  which  was  sometimes 
called  Ogygia.  According  to  some  writers,  he  was  also 
King  of  Attica,  and  the  father  of  Eleusis.  In  his  reign 
occurred  a  great  inundation  of  Greece  or  Boeotia,  which 
is  called  the  Ogygian  deluge  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  anterior  to  that  of  Deucalion. 


Ogygus.    See  Ogyges. 

O'HalTo-ran,  (Sylvester,)  an  Irish  antiquary  avd 
surgeon,  born  in  1728.  He  became  surgeon  of  the  Lim- 
erick Hospital.  He  published  an  "  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  the  History  and  Antiquities  of  Ireland,"  (1772,) 
and  a  "General  History  of  Ireland,"  (2  vols.,  1772.) 
Died  in  1807. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  January  and  February,  1779. 

O'Hara,  o-hi'ra,  (James,)  a  native  of  Ireland,  emi- 
grated in  1772  to  America,  where  he  became  quarter- 
master-general under  General  Wayne.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  Pittsburg.    Died  in  1819. 

O'Hara,  (Kane,)  a  popular  Irish  dramatist,  wrote, 
among  other  plays,  "The  Golden  Pippin,"  "The  Two 
Misers,"  and  "Midas."    Died  in  1782. 

Ohlenschlager.    See  Oehlenschlager. 

bhlmiiller,  oKmuKler,  (Joseph  Daniel,)  an  eminent 
German  architect,  born  at  Bamberg  in  1791.  Among  his 
best  works  are  the  national  monument  at  Upper  Wittels- 
bach,  the  chapel  at  Kiefersfelden,  and  the  Gothic  church 
near  Munich.  The  last-named  structure  is  esteemed 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  specimens  of  its  style  erected 
in  modern  times.    Died  in  1839. 

Ohm,  om,  (Georg  Simon,)  a  German  natural  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Erlangen  in  1787.  He  became  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  Jesuits'  College  of  Cologne  in 
181 7.  He  gained  distinction  by  the  discovery  of  the 
laws  of  electric  currents,  on  which  he  published  in  1827 
a  work  called  "  Die  galvanische  Kette  mathematische 
bearbeitet."  He  received  the  Copley  medal  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London  in  1841.  Died  at  Munich 
in  1854. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Ohm,  (Martin,)  a  German  mathematician,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Erlangen  in  1792,  and 
became  professor  of  physics  and  mathematics  at  Berlin 
in  1839.  He  was  the  author  of  an  "Essay  on  a  Perfect 
System  of  Mathematics,"  and  other  works. 

Ohmacht,  o'm§.Kt,  (Landolin,)  a  German  sculptor, 
born  near  Rotweil  in  1760,  was  a  friend  of  the  poet  Klop- 
stock,  and  of  Lavater.  Among  his  best  works  are  the 
"Judgment  of  Paris,"  a  "Neptune,"  a  "Flora,"  a 
monument  to  General  Kleber,  and  a  bust  of  Klopstock. 
Died  in  1834. 

See  "Journal  des  Beaux-Arts,"  1831. 

Ohsson,  6'son,  (Constantine,)  Baron  of,  born  at 
Constantinople  about  1780,  was  the  son  of  Mouradja 
d'Ohsson,  an  Armenian,  (see  Mouradja  d'Ohsson.) 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Mongols,"  (1835,)  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Caucasians  in  the  Tenth  Century." 
He  also  finished  his  father's  "  Picture  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire." 

Oicoiiomos  or  CBconomos,  e-kon'o-mos,  (Con- 
STANTIN,)  a  learned  Greek  priest  and  writer,  born  in 
Thessaly  in  1780.  He  taught  Greek  at  Smyrna  for  ten 
years,  and  afterwards  preached  at  Saint  Petersburg  and 
at  Athens.  He  wrote  several  works  on  language,  and 
"De  la  Version  des  Septante,"  (4  vols.,  1843-50.)  Died 
in  1857. 

See  SiviNi,  "Memoire  compose  k  la  Hate  sur  Oiconomos,"  1857. 

Oilee.    See  Oileus. 

Oileus,  o-i^iis,  [Gr,  'OilaV;  Fr.  Oilee,  wi'Ia^]  a 
king  of  the  Locrians,  and  the  father  of  Ajax  the  Less, 
He  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  Argonautae. 

Oisel,  oi'zel,  [Lat.  Oise'lius,]  (Jakob,)  written  also 
Ouzel,  ow'zel,  a  Dutch  critic  and  jurist,  born  at  Dant- 
zic  in  163 1.  He  became  professor  of  public  law  at 
Groningen  in  1667.  He  edited  Aulus  Gellius,  and 
published  a  work  on  numismatics,  called  "  Thesaurus 
selectorum  Numismatum  antiquorum,"  (2  vols.,  1677.) 
Died  in  1686. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  M^moires  ;"  Morhof,  "  Polyhistor." 

Oisel,  (Philip,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Dantzic  in  1671.  He  was  an  excellent  Hebrew 
scholar,  and  a  Protestant  minister.  He  published  sev- 
eral theological  works.  Died  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder 
in  1724. 

Oiselius.    See  Oisel. 

Ojeda,  de,  di  o-Ha'Di,  (Alonzo,)  a  Spanish  explorer 
and  lieutenant  of  Columbus,  was  born  at  Cuenca  about 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  Aarti;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


O'KEEFE 


1700 


OLDENBURG 


1465  or  1470.  He  accompanied  Columbus  in  his  second 
voyage  to  America  in  1493,  '^'^"^  commanded  an  ex- 
pedition which  Columbus  sent  to  explore  the  interior 
of  Hispaniola,  where  he  captured  the  chief  Caonabo. 
Having  returned  to  Spain,  he  obtained  command  of  an  ex- 
ploring expedition  sent  out  in  1499.  Among  his  officers 
or  passengers  was  Amerigo  Vespucci.  He  discovered  a 
part  of  the  new  continent,  which  he  named  Venezuela, 
and  returned  to  Spain  in  1500.  In  1508  he  attempted 
to  colonize  New  Andalusia,  and  to  conquer  the  natives, 
but  was  not  successful. 

See  OviEDO,  "Cronica  de  las  Indias;"  Irving,  "History  of 
Columbus  ;"  Charlevoix,  "  Histoire  de  Saint-Domingue  ;"  Her- 
REKA,  "  Historia  general  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

O'Keefe,  o-keef,  (John,)  an  Irish  dramatist,  born  at 
Dublin  in  1747.  The  number  of  his  plays  amounted  to 
upwards  of  sixty,  and,  though  their  merits  are  not  of  a 
high  order,  they  enjoyed  great  popularity.  Among  the 
most  admired  we  may  name  "  The  Agreeable  Surprise" 
and  "  Wild  Oats."    Died  in  1833. 

See  "  Recollections  of  the  Life  of  John  O'Keefe,"  by  himself, 
1826. 

Okeghem,  o'Keh-h^m,  written  also  Ockenhein, 
(Jan,)  an  eminent  Flemish  musician  and  composer,  born 
in  Hainault  about  1430  ;  died  after  1500. 

Oken,  o'ken,  or  Ockenfuss,  ok'ken-fooss'',(LoRENz,) 
an  eminent  German  naturalist  of  the  transcendental 
school,  was  born  at  Bohlsbach,  in  Wiirtemberg,  in  Au- 
gust, 1779.  He  abridged  the  original  name  of  his  family, 
Ockenfuss,  into  Oken.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and 
became  a  privat-docent  in  that  university.  In  a  remark- 
able work,  entitled  "Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy, 
the  Theory  of  the  wSenses,  and  the  Classification  of  Ani- 
mals," ("Grundriss  der  Naturphilosophie,"  etc.,  1802,) 
he  gave  the  outlines  of  a  scheme  that  he  afterwards  de- 
voted himself  to  perfect,  and  advanced  the  idea  that  "  the 
animal  classes  are  virtually  nothing  else  than  a  represen- 
tation of  the  organs  of  sense."  He  accordingly  divided 
the  animal  kingdom  into  five  classes.  He  was  an  ad- 
vocate of  the  theory  of  develojjment  in  its  largest  sense. 
Among  his  doctrines,  as  quoted  by  Professor  Hitchcock, 
are  the  following  :  "  Plants  and  animals  can  only  be 
metamorphoses  of  infusoria.  No  organism  has  been 
created  of  larger  size  than  an  infusorial  point ;  whatever 
is  larger  has  not  been  created,  but  developed.  .  .  .  The 
mind,  just  as  the  body,  must  be  developed  out  of  these 
animals,  [infusoria.]  .  .  .  Everything  that  is,  is  material." 
("  The  Religion  of  Geology,"  p.  299.)  He  produced  in 
1805  a  treatise  on  Generation,  in  which  he  maintained 
that  "  all  organic  beings  originate  from  and  consist  of 
cells  or  vesicles."  In  1807  he  was  appointed  extraor- 
dinary professor  of  medical  sciences  in  the  University 
of  Jena,  where  he  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  lec- 
tures on  zoology,  physiology,  etc.  He  developed  his 
peculiar  system  of  natural  science  in  his  "Manual  of 
Natural  Philosophy,"  (1809.)  From  i8i6to  1848  he  was 
editor  of  the  "Isis,"  a  journal  of  natural  history.  In  1832 
he  obtained  a  professorship  at  Zurich,  where  he  died  in 
1851.  Among  his  works  is  a  "General  Natural  History," 
(13  vols.,  1833-41.) 

See  Callisen,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon  "  Ency- 
ciopjedia  Britannica  ;"  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Okolampadius.    See  CEcolampadius. 

Okolski,  o-koKskee,  (Simon,)  a  Polish  historian  and 
ecclesiastic  of  the  seventeenth  century.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  "  Orbis  Polonus,"  (3  vols.,  1641-45,) 
which  treats  of  the  origin  of  the  Sarmatians,  etc. 

Okoonef,  Okounev,  Okounef,  Okunev,  Okou- 
new,  or  Okunew,  o-koo-nlf,  (Nikolai  Alexandro- 
viTCH,)  a  Russian  general  and  writer  on  military  science, 
born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1792,  served  in  the  campaign 
of  1829  against  the  Turks.  He  became  in  1840  lieu- 
tenant-general. He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Reflections  on  the  System  of  Modern  War,"  (1823,) 
and  a  "  History  of  the  Second  Epoch  of  the  Polish 
Campaign  of  1831."    Died  in  1851. 

Okounev.    See  Okoonef. 

Okimew.    See  Okoonef. 

Olaf,  o'laf,  or  O-la'iis,  I.,  or  Olof,  o'lof.  King  of 
Norway,  born  in  956,  was  surnamed  Trygvason.  He 
was  a  corsair  or  sea-rover  in  his  youth,  and  became  king 


about  996.  He  is  said  to  have  established  Christianity 
in  his  kingdom.    Died  in  1000. 

See  ToLLSTORp,  "  Norske  Konungen  Olof,"  etc.,  1847. 

Olaf  or  Olaus  II.,  called  the  Saint,  obtained  the 
throne  of  Norway  about  1 01 8.  He  waged  war  against 
Canute,  King  of  Denmark.    Died  in  1030. 

See  Hagerup,  "Om  Oluf  den  Hellige,"  1805. 

Olaf  or  Olaus  III.  became  King  of  Norway  about 
1068.  He  ordered  that  one  slave  should  be  liberated  in 
each  district  every  year,  and  made  other  reforms.  Died 
in  1093. 

Olaf  IV.,  born  in  1098,  was  a  son  of  Magnus  III. 
of  Norway.    Died  in  11 16. 

Olaf  v.,  a  son  of  Haquin  VII.,  King  of  Norway,  was 
born  in  1371,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1380.  Died 
in  1387. 

Olafsen,  o'laf-sen,  (Eggert,)  a  naturalist  of  Iceland, 
born  in  1721.  He  published,  among  other  treatises, 
"  A  Historical  Account  of  the  Nature  and  Constitution 
of  Iceland,"  and  poems  in  Latin  and  Danish.  Died 
about  1770. 

Olahus  or  Olaus,  o-la'us,  (Nicolas,)  a  learned  Hun- 
garian ])relate,  born  at  Hermannstadt  in  1493,  rose  to 
be  chancellor,  and  Archbishop  of  Strigonia,  (1552,)  He 
wrote  a  treatise  "  On  the  Origin  of  the  Hungarians," 
and  a  "History  of  Attila."    Died  in  1568. 

Olaus.    See  Olaf. 

Olaus  Magnus.    See  Magnus,  (Olaus.) 

Olavides,  o-ia-vee'D§s,  or  Olavide,  o-lJ-vee'D^,  [Fr. 
Oi.AViD^,  o'lt've'da',]  (Pablo  Antonio  Jos^,)  Count 
of  Pilos,  was  born  at  Lima,  in  South  America,  about  1725. 
He  was  appointed  intendant-general  of  Andalusia,  and 
colonized  a  part  of  the  Sierra  Morena,  by  introducing  into 
it  an  agricultural  and  manufacturing  population.  He  was 
subsequently  imprisoned  for  a  time  in  the  Inquisition  on 
a  charge  of  heresy,  but,  having  made  his  escape,  he  took 
refuge  in  France.  He  died  in  Spain  in  1803,  leaving  a 
religious  work,  entitled  "Triumph  of  the  Gospel,"  ("El 
Evangelio  en  Triunfo.") 

See  L.  Brightweli.,  "By-Paths  of  Biography ;"  J.  F.  Bour- 
GoiNG,  "Tableau  de  I'Espagne  moderne,"  1807;  A.  Hennings, 
"Olavides,"  1779;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Olbers,  oKbers,  (Heinrich  Wilhelm  Mathias,)  an 
eminent  German  astronomer  and  physician,  born  at 
Arbergen,  near  Bremen,  in  October,  1758.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Gottingen,  and  practised  at  Bremen,  where 
he  constructed  a  private  observatory.  He  gained  dis- 
tinction by  his  observations  on  the  comet  of  1779,  and 
discovered  an  improved  method  of  calculating  the  orbits 
of  comets.  He  published  about  1797  a  treatise  on  this 
method,  which  is  considered  a  very  important  contribu- 
tion to  astronomy.  In  March,  1802,  Olbers  discovered 
a  new  asteroid,  which  he  named  Pallas,  the  orbit  of  which 
is  nearly  as  distant  from  the  sun  as  that  of  Ceres.  He 
adopted  the  hypothesis  that  Ceres  and  Pallas  were  frag- 
ments of  a  large  planet  which  had  been  broken  by  an 
internal  convulsion,  and  predicted  that  other  asteroids 
would  be  found.  In  1804  Harding  discovered  Juno,  and 
in  March,  1807,  Olbers  discovered  the  fourth  asteroid, 
which  he  named  Vesta.  The  mean  distance  of  their 
orbits  from  the  sun  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the 
orbits  of  Ceres  and  Pallas.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  in  1804.  In  181 5  he 
discovered  a  comet  which  is  called  by  his  name,  and 
which  performs  a  revolution  in  about  seventy-four  years. 
Among  the  pupils  of  Olbers  are  Bessel  and  Gauss.  He 
died  at  Bremen  in  1840. 

See  De  Zach,  "  Allgemeine  geographischen  Ephemeiiden ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Oldcastle.    See  Cobham,  Lord. 

Oldenburg,  oKden-booRG^  House  of,  an  ancient 
and  noble  family,  from  which  the  Emperors  of  Russia, 
the  Kings  of  Denmark,  and  one  of  the  dynasties  of 
Sweden  are  descended.  Theodoric  (  Dietrich  )  of 
Oldenburg  obtained  by  marriage  Sleswick  and  Holstein. 
Died  about  1440.  His  son  Christian  became  King  of 
Denmark  in  1448,  and  King  of  Sweden  in  1458.  Adolf. 
a  grandson  of  Christian,  was  the  founder  of  the  house 
of  Holstein-Gottorp,  and  an  ancestor  of  the  present 
imperial  family  of  Russia. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon: 


\ 


OLDENBURG 


1701 


OLIER 


Old'en-burg,  (Henry,)  a  learned  German  writer, 
born  at  Bremen  about  1626.  Having  settled  in  England, 
he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Milton  and  Robert  Boyle, 
with  whom  he  afterwards  corresponded.  On  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Royal  vSociety,  in  1662,  he  was  appointed  one 
of  its  secretaries.  He  published  the  "Transactions"  of 
the  Society  from  1664  to  1677,  and  was  the  author  of 
several  political  and  theological  works.  He  sometimes 
signed  his  name  Grubendol.    Died  about  1678. 

See  Martin,  "  Biographia  Philosophica." 

Oldenburger,  oKden-booR''ger,  (Philipp  Andreas,) 
a  German  jurist  and  publicist,  born  in  Brunswick  or  in 
the  duchy  of  Celle.  He  was  professor  of  public  law 
at  Geneva,  and  published  several  works,  among  which 
is  "Pandects  Juris  publici  Germanici,"  (1670.)  Died 
in  1678. 

Oldendorp,  oKden-doRp',  (Johann,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  at  Hamburg  about  1480.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  An  Introduction  to  the  Law  of  Nature 
and  of  Nations,"  {"  Isagoge  seu  Introductio  Juris  Naturae 
Gentium  et  Civilis,"  1549.)    Died  in  1567. 

Oldermann,  oKder-min,  (Johann,)  a  German  scholar 
and  writer,  born  in  Saxony  about  1686.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  at  Helmstedt.    Died  in  1723. 

Old'field,  (Anne,)  a  celebrated  English  actress,  born 
in  London  in  1683.  She  excelled  both  in  tragedy  and 
comedy,  and  her  talents  are  eulogized  in  the  "Tatler." 
Died  in  1730. 

See  "  Life  of  Anne  Oldfield,"  London,  1731  ;  Baker,  "  Biographia 
Dramatica." 

Oldham,  old'am,  (Hugh,)  an  English  bishop,  born 
probably  near  Manchester,  was  a  patron  of  learning. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Exeter  in  1504.  He  founded  a 
free  school  at  Manchester,  and  added  to  the  endowment 
of  Corj^us  Christi  College,  Oxford.    Died  in  1519. 

Oldham,  (John,)  an  English  satirical  poet,  born  in 
Gloucestershire  in  1653.  He  was  a  friend  of  Dryden, 
who  has  eulogized  him  in  some  of  his  verses.  He  wrote 
"  Pindaric  Odes,"  and  "  Four  Satires  against  the  Jestn'ts," 
and  made  translations  from  Juvenal.  "  His  poems,"  says 
Hallam,  "  are  spirited  and  pointed,  and  he  ranks  perhaps 
next  to  Dryden."    Died  in  1683. 

See  E.  Thompson,  "Life  of  John  Oldham,"  and  a  Memoir,  by 
RoBEKT  Bell,  prefixed  to  Oldham's  Poems,  1854. 

Old'is-wprth,  (William,)  an  English  poet  and  trans- 
lator, born  in  the  seventeenth  century,  was  one  of  the 
first  writers  for  the  "Examiner."  He  translated  the 
Odes  of  Horace  into  verse,  and  wrote  a  few  poems,  and 
other  works,  among  which  is  "  Timothy  and  Philotheus," 
(3  vols.,  1709-10.)    Died  in  1734. 

Old-mix'on,  (John,)  an  English  historical  and  po- 
litical writer,  born  in  Somersetshire  in  1673.  E[e  wrote 
a  "Critical  History  of  England,"  (3  vols.,  1730-39,)  a 
"  History  of  the  Stuarts,"  and  other  works  of  little  merit, 
in  which  he  manifests  a  decided  partiality  to  the  Whigs. 
In  his  "  Prose  Essay  on  Criticism"  he  attacked  Pope, 
who  took  revenge  in  the  "  Dunciad."    Died  in  1742. 

See  CiBBER,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  Baker,  "Biographia  Dra- 
matica." 

Oldoini,  ol-do-ee'nee,  (Agostino,)  an  Italian  biogra- 
pher, born  at  La  Spezia  in  1612.  He  wrote  memoirs 
of  several  popes,  cardinals,  etc.    Died  after  1680. 

Oldys,  oKdis  or  oldz,  (William,)  an  English  biogra- 
pher and  bibliographer,  born  about  1690.  He  wrote  a 
"  Life  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,"  prefixed  to  Raleigh's  "  His- 
tory of  the  World,"  (1738,)  and  a  number  of  Wographies 
in  the  "  Biographia  Britannica,"  under  the  signature  "  G." 
He  also  published  "  The  British  Librarian,  exhibiting 
a  Compendious  View  of  all  Unpublished  and  Valuable 
Books,"  (1737,)  which  is  esteemed  for  its  accuracy.  Died 
in  1761. 

See  Chalmers,  "Biographical  Dictionary." 

Olearius,  o-lk-S^re-us,  or  Olschlager,  oKshla^ger, 
(Adam,)  a  distinguished  German  writer  and  traveller, 
born  at  Aschersleben  about  1600,  was  court  mathema- 
tician and  librarian  to  the  Duke  of  Holstein.  In  1633 
he  accompanied  an  embassy  sent  by  the  Duke  of  Hol- 
stein to  Russia,  and  some  years  after  visited  Persia  in 
the  same  capacity.  After  his  return  he  published,  in 
1639,  a  very  interesting  account  of  his  travels  in  the  East 


He  also  translated  from  the  Persian  the  "  Rose-Garden" 
of  Saadee,  (Sadi.)    Died  in  167 1. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires;"  Mollek,  "Cimbria  Literata;" 
"  Noiivelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Olearius,  (Gottfried,)  a  German  Lutheran  divine, 
born  at  Halle  in  1604.  He  preached  in  his  native  city, 
and  published  several  works  on  theology.  Died  in  1685. 

Olearius,  (Gottfried,)  a  theologian  and  philosopher, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1672,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  Logical  Analysis  of  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews," (1706.)    Died  in  171 5. 

Olearius,  (Johann,)  a  German  divine,  born  in  1639, 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic.  He  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  theological  treatises,  and  was  for  a  time  editor  of 
the  "Acta  Eruditorum."  Died  in  1713.  He  was  a  son 
of  Gottfried,  noticed  above,  (1604-85.) 

Olearius,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German  historian 
and  numismatist,  born  at  Halle  in  1668,  was  a  son  of 
Johann  Gottfried.  He  became  Protestant  Bishop  at  Arm- 
stadt  in  1736.  He  wrote  numerous-works.  Died  in  1747. 

See  J.  C.  Otto,  "  In  Exsequias  Olearii,"  1747  ;  Ersch  und  Gru- 
ber,  "AUgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Olearius,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  born  at  Halle  in 
1635,  was  a  brother  of  Johann,  noticed  above.  He  was 
pastor  at  Halle,  and  author  of  a  work  entitled  "Abacus 
Patrologicus,"  (1673.)    Died  in  1711. 

O'Leary,  o-lee^re,  (Arthur,)  an  Irish  Catholic  clergy- 
man, born  at  Cork  in  1729,  was  the  author  of  several 
controversial  works.    Died  in  1802. 

Oleaster,  o-li-ls'ter,  (Jerome,)  a  Portuguese  monk 
and  linguist,  born  at  Lisbon.  He  was  versed  in  Hebrew, 
Greek,  and  Latin,  and  wrote  a  "  Commentary  on  Isaiah," 
(1623.)    Died  in  1563. 

O'leg,  (Russ.  pron.  o-l§g'  or  o-1§k',]  Prince  of  Russia, 
was  a  native  of  Scandinavia,  from  which  he  emigrated 
about  862  A.D.  He  was  a  relative  of  Rurik,  who,  dying 
in  879,  appointed  Oleg  guardian  of  his  minor  son,  Igor. 
Oleg  usurped  the  sovereignty,  and  extended  his  do- 
minions by  conquest.    Died  in  912. 

See  Karamzin,  "History  of  the  Russian  Empire." 

O'len,  [Gr.  'Qlrjv,']  a  mythical  Grecian  bard,  who  is 
said  to  have  been  the  most  ancient  lyric  poet  of  that 
nation,  and  was  called  a  prophet  of  Apollo,  whose  wor- 
ship he  introduced  into  Delos.  He  was  supposed  to 
have  been  born  in  Lycia,  and  to  have  lived  before  the 
time  of  Orpheus. 

Olenschlager,  von,  fon  o'len-shlS^ger,  (Johann 
Daniel,)  a  German  publicist,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1711. 
He  wrote  on  the  public  law  of  the  German  empire.  Died 
in  1778. 

Oleszczynski,  o-l^sh-chins'kee,  (Antony,)  a  Polish 
engraver,  born  in  Lublin  in  1796.  He  studied  and  worked 
in  Paris.  Among  his  subjects  are  portraits  of  eminent 
Poles. 

Olevianus,  o-li-ve-^'nus,  (Kaspar,)  one  of  the  early 
Reformers,  was  born  in  Treves,  August  10,  1536.  He 
studied  law  at  Paris  and  theology  at  Geneva,  and  adopted 
the  views  of  Calvin.  He  afterwards  resided  successively 
at  Treves,  Heidelberg,  and  Herborn.  He  published  sev- 
eral theological  works,  including  sermons  explanatory  of 
Paul's  Epistles.    Died  in  March,  1587. 

See  Pierer,  "  Universal-Lexikon." 

Ol'ga,  Saint,  a  Russian  lady,  was  married  about  903 
A.D.  to  Igor,  a  son  of  Rurik,  Prince  of  Russia.  On  the 
death  of  Igor  (945)  she  became  regent  She  afterwards 
adopted  the  Christian  religion.    Died  in  969. 

Oli.    See  Olid. 

Olid,  de,  da  o-1^d',  or  Oli,  o-lee',  (Crlstoval,)  a 
Spanish  officer,  born  about  1492.  He  served  under 
Cortez  in  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  (1519-21,)  and  after- 
wards attempted  to  make  himself  independent.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  soldiers  of  Cortez,  and  executed 
in  Honduras  in  1524. 

See  Prescott,  "Conquest  of  Mexico;"  Oviedo,  "  Historia  d« 
las  Indias." 

Olier,  o'lej3',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  reformer,  born  in  Paris  in  1608.  He  founded  the 
congregation  of  Saint-Sulpice,  and  several  charitable 
institutions.    He  also  formed  a  society  for  the  preven- 


«  as  4;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  yl, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (Ji^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OLIN 


1702 


OLIVIER 


tion  of  duels,  and  wrote  a  number  of  devotional  works. 
Died  in  1657. 

See  GiRY,  "Vie  de  M.  Olier,"  1687;  Nagot,  "Vie  de  M.  Olier," 
iSi8;  Dk  Bketonvili.iers,  "Memoires  siir  M.  Olier,"  2  vols., 
1841  ;  "  Noiivelle  Bioj^raphie  Geiieiale." 

O'lin,  (STF.rHKN,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,an  American  Method- 
ist divine  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Leicester,  Vermont, 
in  1797,  became  president  of  the  Wesleyan  University, 
Middletown,  Connecticut.  He  died  in  1851,  leaving  a 
collection  of  sermons,  "Travels  in  the  East,"  "Greece 
and  the  Golden  Horn,"  etc.  His  "Life  and  Letters" 
were  published  in  1853. 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1843,  (by  Edward 
Robinson.) 

Ol'i-phant,  (Lawrence,)  an  English  traveller  and 
writer  of  books  of  travel,  was  born  in  1832.  He  pub- 
lished in  1853  "The  Russian  Shores  of  the  Black  Sea," 
which  was  received  with  favour.  He  afterwards  travelled 
in  North  America  and  the  Caucasus,  and  published 
several  books,  one  of  which  is  called  "Minnesota." 
About  1857  he  went  to  China  as  secretary  of  Lord  Elgin. 
He  wrote  a  "Narrative  of  the  Earl  of  Elgin's  Mission 
to  China  and  Japan,"  (1859.) 

Ol'i-phant,  (Margaret,)  a  Scottish  authoress,  born 
about  1820.  She  published  several  popular  novels, 
among  which  are  "Harry  Muir"  and  "Zaidee,"  also  a 
"Life  of  Edward  Irving." 

See  the  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1869. 

Oliva,  o-lee'vS,  (  Alessandro,)  an  Italian  cardinal  and 
pulpit  orator,  born  in  1408,  preached  at  Rome,  Naples, 
and  Venice.    Died  in  1463. 

Oliva,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at 
Rovigo  in  1689,  was  librarian  to  Cardinal  de  Rohan. 
He  wrote  several  treatises  on  medals  and  on  Roman 
antiquities.    Died  in  1757. 

Oliva,  de,  da  o-lee^S,,  (Fernan  Perez,)  a  Spanish 
scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Cordova  in  1497,  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  University  of  Salamanca,  (1528,)  of 
which  he  subsequently  became  rector.  He  died  about 
1530,  having  previously  been  appointed  by  Charles  V. 
preceptor  to  his  son  Philip.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  Dialogue  on  the  Dignity  of  Man,"  and  other  prose 
essays,  which  are  esteemed  the  first  models  of  a  pure 
and  classical  style  in  the  Spanish  language.  He  was 
not,  however,  according  to  Ticknor,  a  man  of  genius  in 
the  true  sense  of  this  word.  His  works,  including  a 
number  of  poems  and  dramas,  were  published  by  his 
nephew,  Ambrosio  de  Morales,  (1586.) 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova ;"  Ticknor,  "  His- 
tory of  Spanish  Literature." 

Olivares,  de,  da  o-le-v§,'r§s,  (Enrique  de  Guzman 
— di  gooth-min',)  second  Count,  a  vSpanish  general,  born 
in  1530.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Saint-Quentin, 
in  1558,  and  became  major-domo  of  Philip  II.  in  1562. 
He  was  afterwards  Viceroy  of  Naples.    Died  in  1599. 

See  Hkrrera,  "  Historia  general." 

Olivares,  de,  or  Olivarez,  o-le-vi'rgth,  (Gaspar  de 
Guzman,)  Duke  of  San  Lucar  de  Barrameda,  a  cele- 
brated Spanish  statesman,  was  born  at  Rome  in  1587. 
The  heir  of  a  wealthy  family,  he  early  obtained  distinc- 
tion at  the  court  of  Philip  HI.,  and  so  thoroughly  in- 
sinuated himself  into  the  favour  of  his  son  that,  on  the 
accession  of  the  latter  as  Philip  IV.,  in  1621,  Olivares 
soon  found  himself  in  possession  of  the  most  important 
offices  of  the  kingdom.  He  was  appointed  successively 
first  minister  of  state,  grand  chancellor  of  the  Indies, 
treasurer-general  of  Aragon,  captain-general  of  the 
cavalry,  and  Governor  of  Guipuscoa.  I)uring  his  ad- 
ministration Spain  carried  on  war  against  France  and 
the  Netherlands,  and  Olivares  found  in  Richelieu  an 
adversary  who  was  more  than  his  equal.  The  Spanish 
armies  suffered  reverses,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  king- 
dom declined.  He  was  dismissed  from  power  in  1643, 
and  died  in  1645. 

See  CoMTE  DR  LA  RoccA,  "  Histoire  du  Minist^re  du  Comte-Duc 
d'Olivares,"  167.:;:  Mai.vezzi,  "  Ritratto  de'  Conte-Duca  di  San 
Lucar,"  1636;  "  Caduta  del  Conte  d'Olivares,"  Lyons,  1644;  "Life 
of  C«iunt  Olivares,"  London,  1836. 

Olivarez.    See  Olivares. 

Olive,  o'l^v',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  monk  and 
writer,  born  at  Serignan  in  1247.    He  was  zealous  for 


the  enforcement  of  strict  monastic  discipline.  After  his 
death  he  was  condemned  as  a  heretic  by  a  council  held 
in  1312,  and  by  Pope  John  XXII.    Died  in  1298. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Olivecrantz,  o-lee'veh-kRants^  ?  (Johan  Paulin,)  a 
Swedish  statesman  and  I.atin  poet,  born  at  Strengnas  in 
1633.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Revel  in  1680, 
and  supreme  judge  of  Gothland.  He  gained  the  favour 
of  Queen  Christina,  who  corresponded  with  him  after 
her  abdication.    Died  in  1707. 

Ol'i-ver,  (Andrew,)  an  American  magistrate,  born 
in  1707,  was  appointed  in  1770  lieutenant-governor  of 
Massachusetts.  Having  become  obnoxious  to  the  colo- 
nists by  favouring  the  designs  of  the  British  government, 
they  petitioned  for  his  removal,  as  well  as  for  that  of  his 
brother-in-law,  Governor  Hutchinson.    Died  in  1774. 

Oliver,  (Daniel,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  phy- 
sician and  scholar,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1787, 
published  "  First  Lines  of  Physiology."    Died  in  1842. 

OPi-ver,  (George,)  D.D.,  an  English  antiquary  and 
writer,  born  about  1782.  He  published  several  works 
on  Freemasonry.    Died  in  1867. 

Oliver,  (Isaac,)  an  eminent  English  artist,  born  in 
1556,  excelled  in  miniature-painting.  Among  his  mas- 
ter-pieces are  portraits  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  Died  in  161 7.  His 
son  Peter,  born  about  1600,  became  equally  celebrated 
for  his  portraits,  and  also  produced  a  number  of  historical 
pictures.    Died  about  1654  or  1664. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Oliver,  (Peter,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist,  brother 
of  Andrew,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1 7 13,  and  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College.  He  was  appointed  chief 
justice  of  Massachusetts.    Died  in  1791. 

Oliver,  (William,)  of  Bath,  an  English  physician, 
wrote  on  the  Bath  mineral  waters.    Died  in  1764. 

Oliver  of  Malmesbury,  an  English  monk  and  able 
mathematician  of  the  eleventh  century.  His  works,  if 
he  wrote  any,  are  lost. 

Olivet,  d',  do'le'vi',  (Joseph  Thoulier,)  Akbe,  a 
celebrated  French  critic  and  scholar,  born  at  Salins  in 
April,  1682.  He  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits  at  an  early 
age,  but  he  renounced  it  about  1 7 14.  He  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy  in  1723,  and  subsequently  visited 
England,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Pope.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "Treatise  on  French  Prosody," 
"  which,"  says  Voltaire,  "  will  subsist  as  long  as  the  lan- 
guage," and  "  Essays  on  Grammar,"  ( 1 732.)  He  also  wrote 
a  continuation  of  the  "  History  of  the  French  Academy," 
begim  by  Pellisson,  and  made  excellent  translations  of 
Cicero's  "  De  Natura  Deorum"  and  his  "  Orations  against 
Catiline,"  and  of  the  "  Philippics"  of  Demosthenes.  His 
edition  of  Ciceio's  works  (9  vols.  4to,  1742)  is  esteemed 
one  of  the  best  that  has  appeared.  The  Abbe  d'Olivet 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Boileau  and  Voltaire,  the  latter 
of  whom  he  assisted  and  directed  in  his  studies.  Died 
in  1768. 

See  Mairet,  "filoge  historique  de  I'Abbe  d'Olivet,"  1839; 
D'Alembert,  "  Histoire  des  Menibres  de  I'Academie  Francaise  ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Olivetan,  o'lev'tSN',  (Pierre  Robert,)  a  French 
Protestant,  born  at  Noyon  in  the  fifteenth  century,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  first  of  his  countrymen  who 
translated  the  Bible  from  the  original  Greek  and  Hebrew. 
It  is  asserted,  however,  by  some  writers  that  he  only 
retouched  the  version  of  Lefevre  d'Etaples.  This  work 
was  first  published  in  1535,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
revised  by  Calvin,  who  was  a  relative  of  Olivetan.  Died 
in  1538. 

See  Senebier,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  Geneve." 

Oliveyra,  o-le-va^-r^,  (Francisco  Xavier,)  a  Por- 
tuguese gentleman.^was  born  at  Lisbon  in  1702.  Being 
sent  as  secretary  of  the  embassy  to  Vienna  in  1732,  he 
was  converted  to  Protestantism.  He  published  a  "  Dis- 
course to  his  Countrymen  on  the  Earthquake  at  Lisbon," 
(1756,)  and  "Familiar  Letters."    Died  in  1783. 

Olivier,  o'le've-^',  (Claude  Mathieu,)  a  French 
litterateur,  was  bonT'at  Marseilles  in  1701.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  University  of  Marseilles.  As 
counsellor  to  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  he  gained  a  great 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


OLIVIER 


1703 


OLTMPUS 


reputation  as  a  pleader.  He  published  a  "  Dissertation 
on  the  Critias  of  Plato,"  and  a  "  History  of  Philip,  King 
of  Macedon,"  (2  vols.,  1740.)    Died  in  1736. 

Olivier,  (FkA.\gois,)  a  French  judge  and  statesman, 
born  in  Paris  in  1497.  He  became  chancellor  of  France 
in  1545.    Died  in  1560. 

Olivier,  (Guillalime  Antoine,)  an  eminent  French 
naturalist,  born  near  Toulon  in  1756.  In  1792  he  accom- 
panied Bruguiere  on  a  scientific  expedition  to  Persia  and 
Turkey,  where  they  made  a  valuable  collection  of  objects 
in  natural  history.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1800.  He  published  a  "  Dictionary  of  the 
Natural  History  of  Insects,  Butterflies,  Crustaceans," 
etc.,  (7  vols.,  1789-1825,)  "Travels  in  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  Egypt,"  etc.,  (6  vols.,  1801,)  and  several  other 
works.    Died  in  1814. 

See  CuviER,  "  Jfiloges  historiques  ;"  Silvestre,  "  Notice  sur  G. 
A.  Olivier,"  1815. 

Olivier,  o'leVe-a',  (Juste  Daniel,)  a  Swiss  poet, 
born  in  the  cantoiT'of  Vaud  in  1807.  He  became  a 
resident  of  Paris  in  1842,  and  wrote,  besides  other 
poems,  "Chansons  lointaines,"  (1847.) 

Olivier,  (Nicolas  Th^:odore,)  a  French  prelate, 
born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Evreux  in  1841.    Died  in  1854. 

See  A.  DE  BoucLON,  "  Histoire  de  Monseigneur  Olivier,"  1855. 

Olivier,  (S6raphin,)  a  French  cardinal,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1538,  was  auditor  de  rota  at  Rome  for  many 
years.    Died  in  1609. 

Olivier,  d',  do'le've-i',  (Gabriel  Raimond  Jean  de 
Dieu  FKANgois,)  a  F^ich  jurist,  born  at  Carpentras  in 
1753.    He  published  many  legal  works.    Died  in  1823. 

Olivieri,  o-le-ve-a'ree,  (Pietro  Paulo,)  an  Italian 
architect  and  sculptor,  born  at  Rome  in  1551  ;  died  in 
1599- 

Olivieri  degli  Abbati,  o-le-ve-a'ree  dil'yee  Sb-b^'- 
tee,  (Annibale,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Pesaro 
in  1708.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Marmora 
Pisaurensia  Notis  illustrata,"  (1737.)    Died  in  1789. 

See  Marignoni,  "  Elogio  di  A.  Olivieri,"  1789. 

OUivier,  o'le've-i',  (Charles  Prosper,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  boriT^at  Angers  in  1796;  died  in  Paris 
in  1845. 

Ollivier,  (D^MOSTHfeNE,)  a  French  democrat,  born 
at  Toulon  in  1799,  was  the  father  of  Emile,  noticed  be- 
low. He  founded  at  Marseilles  in  183 1  a  journal  called 
"  Le  Peuple  Souverain,"  and  was  elected  to  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  in  1848.  He  was  banished  about  De- 
cember, 1851.    Died  in  1869. 

Ollivier,  (Emile,)  a  French  advocate  and  orator,  born 
at  Marseilles  in  1825.  He  practised  law  with  success  in 
Paris,  and  was  elected  to  the  legislative  body  by  the 
voters  of  that  city  in  1857.  He  was  re-elected  in  1863. 
He  acted  with  the  Liberal  party  for  many  years,  but 
became  in  1869  an  adherent  of  Napoleon,  who  in  De- 
cember of  that  year  appointed  him  prime  minister,  and 
requested  him  "to  name  persons  who  will,  associated 
with  yourself,  form  a  homogeneous  cabinet,  faithfully 
representing  the  legislative  majority."  He  took  the 
position  of  minister  of  justice  in  the  new  cabinet  formed 
(January  2,  1870)  partly  of  the  leaders  of  the  Left  Centre 
and  partly  of  those  of  the  Right  Centre,  The  formation 
of  this  coalition  ministry  was  regarded  as  an  important 
event,  and  as  the  beginning  of  a  constitutional  regime. 
The  Corps  Legislatif,  after  an  excited  debate,  adopted  a 
resolution  of  confidence  in  the  minister,  April  5,  1870, 
by  a  vote  of  227  to  43.  The  most  liberal  members  of 
the  cabinet  resigned  about  the  1st  of  May,  1870;  but 
the  policy  of  Napoleon  and  Ollivier  was  approved  by 
a  majority  of  the  popular  votes,  May  8.  Ollivier  was 
elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  April,  1870.  He 
resigned  the  olifice  of  prime  minister,  August  9,  1870. 

Ollivier,  (FRAxgois  Antoine  Joseph,)  a  French 
judge,  born  at  Loriol  in  1762  ;  died  in  1839. 

Ollivier,  (Jules,)  an  antiquary,  born  at  Valence  in 
1804,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  on  the 
antiquities  of  Dauphine.    Died  in  1841. 

Olmo,  del,  dl\  oVmo,  (Jos6  Vincent,)  a  Spanish 
antiquary,  born  at  Valencia  in  1611.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  curious  account  of  a  grand  auto  de  fe  of 
1680.    Died  in  1696. 


Olmutz,  von,  fon  oKmoots,  (Wenzel,)  a  German 
engraver  and  designer,  flourished  about  1500. 

Olmsted,  Sm'sted  or  ilm'sted,  (Denison,)  LL.D.,  an 
American  chemist  and  geologist,  born  at  East  Hartford, 
Connecticut,  in  1791.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College, 
and  became  in  181 7  professor  of  chemistry,  mineralogy, 
and  geology  in  the  University  of  North  Carolina.  He 
made  the  first  geological  survey  of  that  State.  In  1825 
he  obtained  the  chair  of  mathematics  and  natural  phi- 
losophy at  Yale  College.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"School  Philosophy,"  "Rudiments  of  Natural  Philoso- 
phy and  Astronomy,"  (1842,)  "Letters  on  Astronomy," 
and  other  valuable  text-books.    Died  in  1859. 

Olmsted,  (Frederick  Law,)  an  American  agricul- 
tural writer  and  architect,  born  at  Hartford,  Connecticut, 
in  1822.  He  visited  England  in  1850,  and  published, 
after  his  return,  "  Walks  and  Talks  of  an  American 
Farmer  in  England,"  (1852.)  He  has  also  written  "A 
Journey  in  the  Seaboard  Slave  States,  with  Remarks 
on  their  Economy,"  (1856,)  and  "A  Journey  through 
Texas,"  etc.,  (1857.)  In  1857  Mr.  Olmsted  was  ap- 
pointed chief  engineer  and  architect  of  the  New  York 
Central  Park. 

Olof.    See  Olaf. 

Olozaga,  ol-o-tha'gl,  (Don  Salustiano,)  a  Spanish 
statesman,  born  at  Logrono  about  1803.  He  was  the 
chief  of  the  monarchical  opposition  after  the  fall  of 
Mendizabal  in  1836,  and  chairman  or  reporter  of  the 
committee  on  the  constitution  in  1837.  After  the  re- 
moval of  Lopez,  in  1843,  commissioned  to  form 
a  new  cabinet ;  but  he  was  soon  driven  from  power  by 
Narvaez.  He  was  elected  in  1855  a  deputy  to  the 
Cortes,  in  which  he  voted  with  the  Progresistas.  He 
was  appointed  president  of  the  council  of  state  in 
April,  1870. 

Olschlager.    See  Olearius. 

Olshausen,  ols'how'zen,  (Hermann,)  a  German  Prot- 
estant theologian,  born  at  Oldeslohe  in  1796.  In  1827 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Konigsberg. 
He  published  a  "Biblical  Commentary  on  all  the  New 
Testament,"  (4  vols,,  1830-40,)  Vvhich  has  been  highly 
commended,  and  other  religious  treatises.  Died  at 
Erlangen  in  1839. 

Olshausen,  (Justus,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  • 
Holstein  in  1800,  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Copenhagen  in  1845,  and  be- 
came professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Konigsberg 
in  1853.  He  published  a  work  entitled  "The  Pehlevi 
Legends  on  the  Coins  of  the  Last  Sassanides,"  (1843,) 

Olshausen,  (Theodor,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Gliickstadt  in  1802.  In  1830  he  founded  at 
Kiel  a  patriotic  journal,  entitled  the  "  Correspondenz- 
blatt,"  in  which  he  advocated  the  independence  of  Hol- 
stein. In  1848  he  was  a  deputy  to  the  Assembly,  and 
in  1849  established  the  "North  German  Free  Press"  at 
Hamburg,  He  was  exiled  in  1 85 1  by  the  Danish  gov- 
ernment to  America. 

Oltmanns,  olt'mSns,  (Jabbo,)  a  German  geometer, 
born  at  Wittniund  in  1783.  He  wrote  the  astronomical 
part  of  Humboldt's  "Travels  in  America,"  (1808-10.) 
Died  in  Berlin  in  1833. 

Olug-  (or  Oloog-)  Beg,  o'loog  b§g,  written  also 
Ooloogh-,  Oulough-,  and  Ulugh-Beg,  (Meer'za  Mo- 
ham'med,)  an  eminent  Mongol  astronomer,  a  grandson 
of  Tamerlane,  and  King-  of  Transoxana,  was  born  in 
1394.  He  began  to  reign  in  1446,  and  was  killed  by  his 
son  in  1459. 

O-lyb'ri-us,  (Anicius,)  a  Roman  emperor.  He  be- 
came consul  in  464  a,d,,  and  married  Placidia,  the  widow 
of  Valentinian  III.  Through  the  influence  of  Genseric 
or  Ricimer,  he  succeeded  Anthemius,  who  was  killed  in 
472.    He  died  in  the  same  year. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Olympe.    See  Olympus. 

O-lym'pi-as,  [Gr,  '0/lu/z7rfaf,]  Queen  of  Macedon, 
was  a  daughter  of  Neoptolemus,  King  of  Epirus,  She 
was  married  about  357  B.C.  to  Philip  II,  of  Macedon, 
and  became  the  mother  of  Alexander  the  Great.  She 
is  said  to  have  been  a  woman  of  violent  temper.  Philip 
soon  became  alienated  from  her,  and  divorced  her.  After 
the  accession  of  her  son  Alexander,  she  put  to  death 


€  as  /^■;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N»  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (^^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OLTMPIODORE 


1704 


OMETTADES 


Cleopatra,  the  second  wife  of  Philip.    She  was  put  to 
death  by  Cassander  in  316  B.C. 
See  Plutarch,  "  Vita  Alexandri." 

Olympiodore.    See  Olympiodorus. 

O-lym-pi-o-do'rus,  [Gr.  'OAy/irrwcJwpof ;  Fr,  Olym- 
PIODORK,  o'liN'pe'o'doR',]  a  Greek  historian,  born  at 
Thebes,  in  Egypt,  wrote  a  "  Chronicle"  of  his  time,  from 
407  to  425  A.D.,  being  a  continuation  of  that  of  Eunapius. 
There  are  fragments  of  this  work  extant  in  the  '*  Myrio- 
biblon"  of  Photius. 

See  Fabkicius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grzeca." 

Olympiodorus  II.,  called  the  Younger,  a  Peripa- 
tetic philosopher,  supposed  to  have  flourished  in  the 
sixth  century,  was  a  native  of  Alexandria.  His  chief  work 
is  a  Commentary  on  the  "  Meteorologica"  of  Aristotle. 

Olympiodorus  III.,  a  Platonic  philosopher,  born  in 
Alexandria,  is  said  to  have  lived  in  the  sixth  century. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  "  Phaedon,"  the  "  Phile- 
'  bus,"  the  "  Gorgias,"  and  the  "  First  Alcibiades"  of 
Plato ;  also  a  "  Life  of  Plato."  As  an  interpreter  of 
Plato  he  is  much  esteemed. 

Olympiodorus,  a  Greek  commentator  on  the  Scrip- 
tures, was  a  deacon  of  Alexandria,  and  lived  probably  in 
the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century. 

Olympus,  (the  habitation  of  the  Grecian  gods.)  See 
Zeus. 

O-lym'pus,  [Gr.  'O/Lv/zTrof ;  Fr.  Olympe,  o'13.mp',]  a 

celebrated  Greek  or  Phrygian  musician,  supposed  to 
have  lived  about  650  B.C.  He  naturalized  in  Greece  the 
music  of  the  flute,  and  invented  the  system  or  genus  of 
music  called  enharmonic. 

See  MuLLER,  "History  of  Greek  Literature;"  Plutarch,  "  De 
Musica." 

Olzofski  or  Olzowski,  ol-zofskee,  (Andrew^,)  a 
Polish  prelate,  born  about  1618.  He  wrote  several 
political  treatises.  After  the  election  of  Sobieski  (1674) 
he  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Primate 
of  Poland.    Died  in  1678. 

Omaiadae.    See  Omeyyades. 

Omaides.    See  Omeyyades. 

Omajjaden.    See  Omeyyades. 

Omajjah  or  Omajja.    See  Omeyyah. 

Omalius  d'Halloy,  d',  do^mt'le'iis'  dt'lwl',  (Jean 
Baptiste  Julien,)  a  Belgian  geologist,  born  at  Liege  in 
1783.    He  published  several  works  on  geology. 

O'mar  (or  O'mer)  I.,  written  also  Oomur  or  Umar, 
do'mar,'  ( Aboo-Haifsah-Ibn-ool-Khatab  or  Abu- 
Hafsah-Ibnul-Khattab,  i'boo  hifsah  ib'ndol  K^t- 
tab',)  the  second  caliph  or  successor  of  Mohammed  the 
Prophet,  was  a  cousin  in  the  third  degree  to  Abdallah, 
the  father  of  that  legislator.  After  he  had  attempted  to 
kill  Mohammed,  Omar  was  converted  to  Islamism,  about 
615  a.d.  He  succeeded  Aboo-Bekr  in  the  year  634.  His 
army  took  Damascus  in  635,  defeated  the  Greeks  at  Yar- 
mook  or  Yermuk,  and  besieged  Jerusalem.  This  city  in 
637  or  638  was  surrendered  to  Omar,  who  treated  the 
Christians  with  great  lenity.  On  the  site  of  Solomon's 
temple  he  built  the  magnificent  mosque  which  bears  his 
name.  About  638  he  completed  the  conquest  of  Syria 
and  of  Persia,  (see  Yezdejerd,)  and  founded  the  city  of 
Koofah.  Amroo,  one  of  Omar's  generals,  subdued  Egypt 
in  640  or  641,  and  consumed  by  fire  the  great  library  at 
Alexandria,  after  the  caliph  had  decided,  as  we  are  told, 
that  "if  the  books  accord  with  the  Koran,  they  are  un- 
necessary ;  and  if  they  are  contrary  to  the  Koran,  they 
are  pernicious,  and  should  be  destroyed."  He  was  assas- 
sinated by  a  Persian  slave,  Firooz,  in  his  capital,  Medina, 
in  644  A.D.,  at  the  age  of  sixty-three,  and  was  succeeeded 
by  Othman.  Omar  is  praised  for  wisdom,  justice,  and 
moderation,  and  is  said  to  have  contributed  more  to  the 
progress  of  his  religion  than  Mohammed  himself.  His 
name  is  greatly  venerated  by  the  orthodox  sect  of  Mos- 
lems, called  Sunnites. 

See  Stmon  Ocki.ey,  "  History  of  the  Saracens,"  1708-18:  Gib- 
bon, "  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire," 
vol.  ix.  ;  Irvinc;,  "Mahomet  and  his  Successors;"  Weil,  "  Ge- 
schichte  der  Khalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  ii.  ;  Aroolfrda,  "Annates 
Moslemici  ;"  O.  von  Platen,  "  Geschichte  der  Todtung  des  Cha- 
lifen  Omar;"  "  Nonvelle  P>ioe;raphie  Generale." 

Omar  (or  Omer)  II.,  the  eighth  caliph  of  the  Omeyyade 
dynasty,  was  the  son  of  Abd-el-Azeez,  (Abdelaziz,)  and 


the  nephew  of  Abd-el-Maltk.  He  was  also  a  great-grand- 
son of  Omar  I.,  whom  he  resembled  in  his  virtues.  He 
succeeded  his  cousin  Solyman  in  717  A.D.  He  suppressed 
the  maledictions  which  in  former  reigns  were  pronounced 
in  the  mosques  against  the  descendants  of  Alee.  The 
princes  of  his  own  race,  fearing  that  he  should  bequeath 
the  empire  to  one  of  the  race  of  Alee,  poisoned  him  in 
720  A.D. 

Omar,  a  Moorish  physician,  born  at  Cordova  in  990 
A.D.,  was  celebrated  for  his  skill  in  surgery,  and  was  also 
a  profound  mathematician.    Died  in  1080. 

Omar,  an  eminent  physician,  astronomer,  and  mathe- 
matician, supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Hadramaut, 
in  Arabia.    He  settled  in  Spain,  where  he  died  in  1071. 

Omar,  (Al-Mutawakkel-Billah,  ai  mdo-ii-wak^kel 
bli'lah,)  the  last  king  of  Badajoz  of  the  Beni-al- Aftas, 
began  his  reign  in  1082  A.D.  In  conjunction  with  his 
ally,  Yoosuf,  King  of  Morocco,  he  gained  a  signal  victory 
over  the  Christian  army  at  Zalaca  in  1086  A.D.  Yoosuf 
soon  after  made  war  upon  Omar,  took  him  prisoner,  and 
had  him  put  to  death  about  1090,  after  having  promised 
to  spare  his  life. 

Omar-Ibn-Hafsoon,  (or  -Hafssun,)  o'mar  ib'n  hM'- 
soon',  a  famous  Moorish  chieftain,  was  a  native  of  Ronda, 
in  Spain.  In  859  A.D.  he  headed  a  rebel  army,  with 
which  he  laid  waste  the  kingdom  of  Cordova  and  other 
parts  of  the  empire.  After  having  for  a  long  time  main- 
tained himself  against  Mohammed,  King  of  Cordova,  he 
was  totally  defeated  by  him  at  Aybar  in  882,  and  died 
in  883  A.D. 

O'mar  (or  O'mer)  Pasha,  (pl'shd^)  Dey  of  Algiers, 
began  to  reign  in  April,  1815,  after  a  revolution  in  which 
his  predecessor  had  been  killed.  In  1816  the  English 
admiral  Exmouth,  after  failing  in  his  efforts  to  procure  the 
abolition  of  slavery  in  Algiers  by  negotiation,  bombarded 
that  city  with  success.  Omar  was  forced  to  submit  to 
the  treaty  dictated  by  the  victor.  In  September,  1817, 
he  was  killed  by  his  own  mutinous  troops. 

Omar  (or  Omer)  Pasha,  o'mer  pi'shl',  (Michael 
Lat'tas,)  a  Turkish  commander,  born  in  Croatia  about 
1805.  About  1828  he  removed  to  Turkey,  changed  his 
name  to  Omer,  and  adopted  the  Moslem  religion.  He 
became  a  colonel  in  the  army  in  1839,  and  a  pasha  about 
1845.  suppressed  a  revolt  in  Bosnia  in  1850-51. 

When  the  Crimean  war  broke  out,  he  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Turkish  army.  He  defeated 
the  Russians  at  Oltenitza,  November,  1853,  and  at  Kalafat 
in  1854.  In  the  early  part  of  1855  he  led  an  army  to  the 
Crimea  and  formed  a  junction  with  the  Anglo-French 
army  at  Sebastopol.  In  1868  he  suppressed  a  formidable 
insurrection  in  Crete.    Died  in  187 1. 

O'Meara,  o-ma'ra,  (Barry  Edward,)  the  favourite 
physician  of  Napoleon  at  Saint  Helena,  was  born  in  Ire- 
land about  1780.  Being  on  board  the  Bellerophon  when 
the  emperor  was  made  prisoner,  the  latter  requested  that 
O'Meara  might  accompany  him  as  his  surgeon.  He  re- 
mained in  Saint  Helena  till  181 8,  when  he  was  recalled. 
In  1822  he  published  his  "  Napoleon  in  Exile;  or,  A 
Voice  from  Saint  Helena,"  which  had  great  popularity, 
and,  though  not  entirely  impartial,  it  is  esteemed  a  valu- 
able contribution  to  Napoleon's  history.    Died  in  1836. 

See  La.s  Casas,  "Memorial  de  Sainte-Helene "Monthly  Re- 
view" for  July,  1822. 

Omeiadae.    See  Omeyyades. 
Omer.    See  Omar. 

Omero,  the  Italian  for  Homer,  which  see. 

Omeyyades  or  Omeyyads,  o-ma'yadz,  [Fr.  pron. 
o'mi'ytd',]  sing.  Omeyyade  or  Omeiiade,  o-ma'yad  ; 
written  less  correctly  Ommaiades  and  Ommyiades, 
[Ger.  Omejjaden,  o-mi-y^'den,  or  Om.\tJaden,  o-mi- 
yl'den ;  Lat.  Omei'ad.^  or  Omai'iad.^,]  the  name 
of  a  famous  dynasty  of  caliphs,  founded  (660  A.D.)  by 
Moaweeyeh,  the  great-grandson  of  Omeyyah,  (or  Umey- 
yah,)  who  was  cousin-german  to  Abd-el-Moot^-ilib,  the 
grandfather  of  Mohammed  ;  whence  the  Omeyyade 
princes  are  commonly  styled  "  Benee-  (Beni-)  Omeyyah," 
{i.e.  "  Sons,  or  descendants,  of  Omeyyah.")  The  imme- 
diate successors  of  Moaweeyeh  continued  to  reign  at 
Damascus  until  749  A.D.,  when  their  power  was  over- 
thrown, and  all  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Omeyyah,  (it 
is  said,)  except  two,  were  put  to  death  by  order  of 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \\,  y,  short;    e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  nflt;  good;  moou: 


OMETTAH 


1705 


OORT 


Abool-Abbas-Abdallah,  (surnamed  As-Seffah,  or  "the 
shedder  of  blood,")  the  founder  of  the  new  dynasty  of 
Abbassides.  Of  the  two  Omeyyade  princes  who  escaped 
the  vengeance  of  As-Seffah,  one  fled  to  a  remote  part 
of  Arabia;  the  other,  named  Abd-er-Rahman-I  bn-Moa- 
weeyeh,  went  first  to  Egypt,  thence  to  Spain,  and  estab- 
lished at  Cordova  (756  a.d.)  a  dynasty  which  was  destined 
to  rival  in  splendour  and  magnificence  that  of  the  Ab- 
basside  caliphs  in  the  East.  The  power  and  glory  of 
the  Benee-Omeyyah  in  Spain  culminated  in  the  reign  of 
Abd-er-Rahman  I.,  who  was  the  first  of  his  line  who 
assumed  the  title  of  caliph  ;  but  they  began  soon  after  to 
decline,  and  they  may  be  said  to  have  terminated  with 
the  reign  of  Hisham  II.,  in  1013. 

See  Al-Makkari,  "  History  of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  in 
Spain,"  translated  by  Gayangos,  2  vols.  4to,  London,  1840-43; 
Hammer  Pi'RGSTALL,  "  Literaturgeschichte  der  Araber." 

Omeyyah,  o-ma'yah,  written  also  Omeyyeh,  Om- 
maya,  Umeyyah,  and  in  various  other  modes,  was  a 
cousin  of  Mohammed's  grandfather,  Abd-el-Mo6t'alib. 
His  great-grandson,  Moaweeyeh,  was  the  first  caliph  of 
the  illustrious  dynasty  of  the  Benee-Omeyyah.  (See 
Omeyyades.) 

Ommaides.    See  Omeyyades. 

Ommajjaden,  (more  correctly,  Omajjaden.)  See 
Omeyyades. 

Ommaya.    See  Omeyyah. 

Ommeganck,  om'meh-gSnk^,  (Balthasar  Paul,)  a 
distinguished  landscape-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1755.  He  also  excelled  in  painting  animals,  particularly 
sheep.  He  was  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts  in  Paris,  and  chevalier  of  the  order  of  the 
Belgic  Lion.    Died  in  1826. 

See  A.  VoisiN,  "  filoge  du  Peintre  B.  P.  Ommeganck,"  1826. 

Ommiades  or  Ommiadae.    See  Omeyyades. 
Ommiyades  or  Ommyiades.    See  Omeyyades. 
Ommiyah.    See  Omeyyah. 

Om'pha-le,  [Gr.  '0//^«/l77,]  a  queen  of  Lydia,  cele- 
brated for  her  connection  with  the  story  of  Hercules. 
She  is  said  to  have  been  mistress  of  the  kingdom  after 
the  death  of  Tmolus,  her  husband.  According  to  the 
fable,  Hercules  sold  himself  as  a  slave  to  Omphale, 
assumed  the  female  attire,  and  assisted  her  servants  in 
spinning. 

Om'ri,  [Heb.  "''^^J^'>]  King  of  Israel,  began  to  reign 
about  930  R.C.  He  reigned  eleven  years,  and  founded 
the  capital  city  of  Samaria.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Ahab. 

See  L  Kings  xvi. 

Onar.    See  Norvl 

O-na'tas,  [Gr.  'Ovarac,]  an  eminent  Greek  sculptor 
and  ]>ainter,  born  at  ^gina,  was  the  son  of  Micon,  and 
flourished  about  460  B.C.  Among  his  best  works  were 
statues  of  Apollo,  Hercules,  and  Mercury,  and  a  picture 
of  the  expedition  of  the  Argives  against  Thebes.  His 
skill  as  a  sculptor  is  highly  extolled  by  Pausanias. 

See  K.  O.  MuLLEK,  "  Handbuch  der  Archaeologie  der  Kunst." 

Ondegardo,  de,  di  on-di  gak'do.  (Polo,)  a  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  historian  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  the 
author  of  historical  memoirs  of  Peru,  entitled  "  Rela- 
ciones,"  which  are  still  in  manuscript. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  1.  book  i. 

On'der-donk,  (Benjamin  T.,)  born  in  the  city  of  New 
York  in  1791,  became  Episcopal  Bishop  of  Eastern  New 
York  about  1830,  and  was  suspended  for  disgraceful 
conduct  in  1845.    Died  in  1861. 

O'Neall,  o-neeK,  (John  Belton,)  LL.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can jurist,  born  near  Bush  River,  South  Carolina,  in 
1793,  rose  through  various  offices  to  be  chief  justice  of 
his  native  State.  He  became  in  1841  president  of  the 
State  Temperance  Society.  He  has  written  "Biographi- 
cal Sketches  of  the  Bench  and  Bar  of  South  Carolina," 
and  other  works. 

O'Neil,  o-neel',  (Henry,)  an  English  historical  and 
genre  painter,  born  al)out  1818.  Among  his  works  are 
"  By  the  Rivers  of  Babylon,"  "  A  Scene  from  Hamlet," 
"Eastward  Ho  !  August,  1857,"  "  Home  Again  !  1858," 
and  "  Mary  Stuart's  Farewell  to  France." 

Onesicrite.    See  ONKsicRrrus. 

On-e-sic'rI-tus,  (Gr.  'OvrjolnptToc  ;  Fr.  On^stcrite, 
o'ni^ze^kket',]  a  Greek  historian,  lived  about  350-330  1 


B.C.,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Diogenes  the  Cynic.  He  fol* 
lowed  Alexander  the  Great  in  his  expedition  to  Asia, 
and  was  chief  pilot  of  the  fleet  which  descended  the 
Indus.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Alexander,"  which  is 
lost.  He  was  censured  by  Aulus  Gellius  and  other 
ancient  critics  for  mixing  fables  with  his  narrative. 

See  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Grzecis ;"  Ersch  und  Gruber, 
"Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Suidas,  "  Onesicritus." 

Ongaro,  on-gS'ro,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Padua  or  Adria  about  1569.  He  wrote  "Alceo,"  a 
pastoral  or  piscatorial  poem,  in  which  he  substituted 
fishermen  for  shepherds.    Died  in  1599. 

Onk'e-los,  a  learned  Chaldee  writer,  of  uncertain 
era,  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Babylon  and 
contemporary  with  Gamaliel.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
Targum,  or  Chaldee  paraphrase  of  the  Pentateuch, 
which  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  accuracy. 

Onomacrite.    See  Onomacritos. 

On-o-mac'ri-tos,  [  Gr.  'OvofiuK(nTog ;  Fr.  Onoma- 
crite, o'no'mi'kRet',]  a  celebrated  Greek  poet  and  sooth- 
sayer, lived  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.  He  was  banished 
by  Hipparchus  from  Athens  for  having  falsified  or  inter- 
polated the  oracles  of  Musccus  for  political  purposes. 
He  is  supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  been  the  author 
of  much  that  is  attributed  to  Orpheus. 

See  EiCHHOFF,  "  Commentatio  de  Onomacrito,"  1840;  K.  O. 
MijLLER,  "  History  of  Greek  Literature." 

On-o-mar'-ehus,  [Gr.  'Ov6fj.apxog ;  Fr.  Onomarque, 
o^no^m^Rk',]  a  general  of  the  Phocians  in  the  Sacred 
war.  He  obtained  the  chief  command  in  353  B.C.,  and 
seized  the  sacred  treasures  of  Delphi.  He  defeated 
Philip  of  Macedon  in  two  battles,  but  was  defeated  and 
killed  by  that  king  in  352  B.C. 

Onomarque.    See  Onomarchus. 

On-o-san'der,  [Gr.  'Ovoaai^Spog ;  Fr.  Onosandre, 
o'no'zSNdR',]  one  of  the  principal  military  writers  of 
antiquity,  lived  at  Rome  under  the  reigns  of  Claudius 
and  Nero.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  tactics, 
entitled  "  Strategeticos,"  (written  in  Greek,)  which  has 
been  translated  into  Latin,  French,  and  Italian.  He 
was  a  Platonic  philosopher,  and  wrote  a  commentary  on 
the  "Republic"  of  Plato,  which  is  not  extanL 

See  ScHOELL,  "Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Grecque." 

Ono-sandre.    See  Onosander. 

Ons-en-Bray,  (Louis  L60N  Pajot.)    See  Pajot. 

Onsenoort,  van,  vtn  on'seh-noRt',  (Antoon  Ge- 
raard,)  a  Dutch  surgeon  and  oculist,  born  at  Utrecht 
in  1782.  He  wrote  several  professional  works.  Died 
in  1841. 

See  F.  CuNiER,  "Notice  sur  A.  G.  van  Onsenoort,"  1842. 

OnsTow,  (Arthur,)  an  English  statesman,  born 
about  1690.  He  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1727.  "During  thirty-three  years,"  says 
Lord  Mahon,  "he  filled  that  chair  with  higher  merit, 
probably,  than  any  one  either  before  or  after  him, — with 
unequalled  impartiality,  dignity,  and  courtesy."  He  re- 
tired from  the  chair  and  from  public  life  in  1761.  Died 
in  1768.    His  son  was  created  Earl  Onslow  about  1800. 

Onslow,  (George,)  an  eminent  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Clermont,  in  France,  in  1 784,  was  de- 
scended from  an  English  family  of  rank.  His  works 
include  symphonies,  duets,  quintets,  sonatas,  and  operas. 
His  opera  "  Le  Colporteur"  was  performed  with  great 
success.    Died  in  1853. 

See  Fi4tis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musicians  ;"  "  Ncuvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Onslow,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
1 741.  He  served  with  distinction  against  the  Dutch,  as 
vice-admiral,  in  1797.    Died  in  181 7. 

Onuphrius.    See  Panvinius. 

Ooloogh-Beg.    See  Olug-Beg. 

Oomnr.    See  Omar. 

Oorkh^n  or  Urkhan,  oor'kSn',  written  also  Orkhan, 
(sometimes  surnamed  Ghazee  or  Ghazy,  g^'zee,)  a 
Turkish  Sultan,  was  the  son  of  Osman  (Othman)  I.,  the 
founder  of  the  present  Turkish  dynasty.  He  began  to 
reign  at  Prusa  in  1326,  and  made  extensive  conquests 
from  the  Greeks  in  Asia  Minor.  He  is  said  to  have  had 
superior  military  and  political  talents.  He  died  in  1360, 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  son  Amurath  (or  Moorad,)  I. 

Oort,  van,  (Adam.)    See  Noort,  van. 


€  as    9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OOST 


OPPIAN 


Oost,  van,  vtn  ost,  (Jacob,)  the  Elder,  one  of  the 
most  admired  painters  of  the  Flemish  school,  was  born 
at  Bruges  in  1600.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  formed 
his  style  on  the  model  of  Annibal  Caracci.  His  works 
are  numerous,  and  are  principally  on  sacred  subjects. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  "  Descent  from  the 
Cross,"  a  "Nativity,"  "Virgin  and  Child,  with  Saints," 
and  "The  Descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  the  Virgin 
and  Apostles."  His  copies  of  Rubens  and  Van  Dyck 
are  so  perfect  as  to  deceive  the  most  skilful  connoisseurs. 
Died  in  1671. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.  ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biogiapliie  Generale." 

Oost,  van,  (Jacob,)  the  Younger,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  about  1637.  He  studied  under  his 
father,  and  afterwards  visited  Italy  and  France,  where 
he  resided  many  years.  He  was  esteemed  one  of  the 
best  portrait-painters  of  his  time,  and  also  executed  his- 
torical works  of  great  merit,  one  of  which,  the  "Martyr- 
dom of  Saint  Barbara,"  is  regarded  as  his  master-piece. 
Died  in  17 13. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Oosterwyck,  van,  vtn  os'ter-wik',  (Maria,)  a 
Dutch  painter  of  flowers  and  fruit,  born  near  Delft  in 
1630.  She  is  placed  in  the  first  rank  of  painters  of  the 
subjects  above  named.    Died  in  1693. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Oovarof,  Ouvarof,  or  Uwarow,  00-vi'rof,  written 
also  Ouvarov,  (Theodore,)  a  Russian  general,  born 
about  1770.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Borodino.    Died  in  1824. 

Operman,  o'per-min^.  Count,  a  German  general  and 
engineer,  entered  the  Russian  service  about  1783.  Died 
in  1832. 

O-phe'li-pn,  [^l^eXiov,']  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  sup- 
posed to  have  flourished  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  His 
works  are  not  extant. 

Ophelte.    See  Opheltes. 

O-phel'tes,  [Gr. 'O^eArT/f ;  Fr.  Ophelte,  o'fglt',]  a 
son  of  Lycurgus,  King  of  Nemea,  was  killed  in  infancy 
by  a  serpent,  having  been  left  alone  on  the  grass  by 
his  nurse,  Hypsipyle,  while  she  went  to  guide  Adrastus 
to  a  spring. 

Opie,  o'pe,  (Amelia,)  a  popular  English  writer,  wife 
of  John  Opie,  noticed  below,  and  daughter  of  Dr.  James 
Alderson,  was  born  at  Norwich  in  1769.  Her  first  pub- 
lications were  a  volume  of  poems,  and  a  tale  entitled 
"  Father  and  Daughter,"  which  were  very  well  received, 
and  were  succeeded  by  the  novel  of  "  Adeline  Mow- 
bray," (1804,)  "Simple  Tales,"  (1805,)  "The  Orphan," 
"  Valentine's  Eve,"  "  Madeline,"  and  other  works  of 
fiction,  distinguished  for  their  pathos  and  for  their  ele- 
vated moral  and  religious  tone.  In  1825  Mrs.  Opie 
became  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and  pub- 
lished the  same  year  her  "Illustrations  of  Lying." 
Having  visited  Paris  in  1830,  she  wrote  an  interesting 
account  of  the  revolution  of  July,  Among  the  most 
important  of  her  other  works  may  be  named  "  Detrac- 
tion Displayed,"  (1828,)  and  "  Lays  for  the  Dead,"  (1833.) 
She  had  also  published  her  husband's  "Lectures  on 
Painting,"  with  a  memoir,  (1809.)    Died  in  1853. 

See  Miss  C.  F.rightwell,  "Memorials  of  the  Life  of  Amelia 
Opie,"  1854;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1806;  "Monthly  Re- 
view" for  August,  1820;  H.  Martineau,  "Biographical  Sketches," 
i86g. 

Opie,  (John,)  a  distinguished  English  painter,  born 
near  Truro,  in  Cornwall,  in  1 761.  Some  of  his  portraits 
and  sketches  attracted  the  notice  of  Dr.  Wolcott,  the 
satirist,  who  took  the  young  artist  under  his  protection 
and  introduced  him  into  London  society,  where  he  en- 
joyed for  a  time  the  patronage  of  the  fashionable  world. 
He  married  as  his  second  wife,  in  1798,  Miss  Amelia 
Alderson,  who  afterwards  obtained  great  popularity  as 
a  writer.  Opie  gave  particular  attention  to  historical 
subjects,  and  painted  "The  Death  of  Rizzio,"  "Jeph- 
thah's  Vow,"  and  "  Iklisarius."  He  succeeded  Fuseli 
as  professor  of  painting  in  the  Royal  Academy  in  1806. 
Died  in  1807. 

See  tlie  "  Monthly  Review"  for  February,  1810. 

O-piPl-us,  (Aurelius,)  a  Latin  grammarian,  who 
taught  philosophy  and  rhetoric  at  Rome.    He  went  into 


voluntary  exile  in  92  B.C.  as  a  companion  of  his  intimate 
friend  Rutilius  Rufus,  who  had  been  banished. 

Opilius  Macrinus.    See  Macrinus. 

O-pim'i-us,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  politician,  was  a 
leader  of  the  aristocratic  party,  and  adversary  of  Caius 
Gracchus.  He  became  consul  in  121  B.C.,  and  a  violent 
contest  then  ensued  between  the  senate  and  the  party 
of  Gracchus.  Having  been  authorized  by  the  senate 
to  decide  the  question  by  force,  Opimius  killed  Grac- 
chus and  about  three  thousand  of  his  partisans.  Ac- 
cording to  Cicero,  ("  In  Catilinam,  Oratio  I.,")  Gracchus 
was  killed  on  suspicion  of  sedition.  Opimius  was  cor- 
rupted by  Jugurtha  in  112,  fell  into  disgrace,  and  passed 
his  latter  years  in  exile.    Died  about  100  B.C. 

See  Plutarch,  "  C.  Gracchus;"  Sallust,  "Jugurtha." 

Opis.    See  Ops. 

Opitius.    See  Opitz. 

Opitz,  o'pits,  [Lat.  Opi'tius,]  (Heinrich,)  a  German 
Orientalist,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1642,  was  professor  of 
Greek  and  of  divinity  at  Kiel.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Bible  in  Hebrew,"  ("  Biblia  Hebraica," 
1709.)    Died  in  17 12. 

See  Hetzel,  "  Geschlchte  der  Hebraischen  Sprache." 

Opitz,  [Lat.  Opi'tius,]  (Martin,)  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man critic  and  writer,  born  at  Bunzlau,  in  Silesia,  in 
1597,  is  called  the  founder  of  the  modern  school  of  Ger- 
man poetry.  He  was  crowned  as  poet-laureate  by  the 
emperor  in  1628,  and  was  appointed  in  1638  historiogra- 
pher to  Ladislaus  IV.,  King  of  Poland.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  a  "Poem  of  Consolation  amid  the  Dis- 
asters of  War,"  (162 1.)  He  also  translated  the  Psalms, 
the  "Antigone"  of  Sophocles,  and  other  classics.  Died 
in  1639.  His  essay  on  German  versification  ("  Biichlein 
von  der  Deutschen  Poeterei,"  loth  edition,  1668)  was 
highly  esteemed.  He  contributed  greatly  to  the  purity 
of  the  German  language,  into  which  he  introduced  a 
new  prosody.  "  He  is  reckoned,"  says  Hallam,  "  the 
inventor  of  a.  rich  and  harmonious  rhythm.  .  .  .  No 
great  elevation,  no  energy  of  genius,  will  be  found  in 
this  German  Heinsius  and  Malherbe.  Opitz  displayed, 
however,  another  kind  of  excellence.  He  wrote  the 
language  with  a  purity  of  idiom  in  which  Luther  alone, 
whom  he  chose  as  his  model,  was  superior."  ("  Intro- 
duction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  GoTTscHED,  "Lob-  und  Gedachtnissrede  auf  M.  Opitz," 
1739;  Lindner,  "  Nachricht  von  des  weltberiihmten  Schlesiers  M. 
Opitzen,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1740;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine 
Encyklopaedie." 

Opoix,  o'pwd',  (Christophe,)  a  French  savant,  born 
at  Provins  in  1745,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention 
of  1792-95.  He  wrote  several  scientific  works.  Died 
in  1840. 

See  Ramon,  "Notice  sur  C.  Opoix,"  1841. 

Oporin,  o-po-reen'  or  o'po'riw',  [Lat.  Opori'nus,J 
(Johann,)  a  learned  Swiss  printer,  whose  original  name 
was  Herbst,  born  at  Bale  in  1507.  He  became  professor 
of  Greek  in  his  native  city,  where  he  afterwards  estab- 
lished a  printing-house.  He  published  many  excellent 
editions  of  the  classics,  corrected  by  himself,  and  wrote 
annotations  on  Cicero  and  Demosthenes.   Died  in  1568. 

See  Heinzel,  "De  Ortu,  Vita  et  Obitu  Oporini." 

Oporinus.    See  Oporin. 

Oppede,  d',  do'pad',  (Jean  de  Maynier — deh  ma'- 

ne-a',)  Baron,  a  French  judge,  born  at  Aix  in  1495, 
was  notorious  for  his  cruel  persecution  of  the  Vaudois, 
who  were  massacred,  without  distinction  of  age  or  sex, 
about  1546.    Died  in  1558. 

See  Gauffridi,  "  Histoire  de  la  Provence." 

Oppenord,  op^noR',  (Gilles  Marie,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  in  Paris  in  1672;  died  in  1742. 

Oppert,  op'peat,  (Julius,)  a  German  Orientalist,  of 
Jewish  parentage,  was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1825.  He 
studied  Arabic,  Sanscrit,  etc.,  and  was  naturalized  as  a 
citizen  of  France.  He  was  sent  by  the  French  govern- 
ment, with  F.  Fresnel  and  F.  Thomas,  on  a  scientific 
mission  to  Mesopotamia  in  1 85 1,  and  began  in  1S57  to 
publish  an  account  of  the  same,  entitled  "Expedition 
scientifique  en  Mesopotamie."  He  is  distinguished  as  a 
decipherer  of  cuneiform  inscriptions. 

Op'pi-an  or  Op-pi-a''nus,  [Gr.  'Oivmavog ;  Fr.  Op- 
pien,  o'pe;|,N',]  a  celebrated  Greek  poet,  born  at  Ana- 


a,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mil;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


OPPUNUS 


1707 


ORANGE 


zarba,  in  Cilicia,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  second 
century  of  the  Christian  era.  Two  poems,  entitled  "On 
the  Chase,"  ("  Cynegetica,")  and  "  On  Fishing,"  ("  Ha- 
lieutica,")  are  ascribed  to  him.  The  great  superiority 
of  the  latter  production  to  the  former  has  led  to  the 
supposition  that  they  were  written  by  different  persons. 
The  author  of  the  "  Halieutica"  is  compared  by  Scaliger 
to  Virgil  for  the  harmony  and  graces  of  his  style.  It  is 
said  that  Oppian  was  presented  by  the  emperor  Caracalla 
with  a  gold  piece  for  every  verse  in  his  "Halieutica." 
Both  poems  display  considerable  knowledge  of  natural 
history,  mingled  with  many  errors  and  absurdities. 

See  the  article  "Oppianus"  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  "  En- 
cyklopaedie,"  by  F.  Ritter  ;  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca;" 
FoERTSCH,  "De  Oppiano  ^eta  Cilice,"  1749;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
gra})hie  Generaie." 

Oppianus.  Sc^Oppian. 
Oppien.    See  Oppian. 

Op'pi-us,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  writer,  who  was  an  inti- 
mate friend  of  Julius  Caesar.  It  is  stated  that  he  was 
oOgnizant  of  all  the  projects  and  plans  of  that  dictator, 
whose  private  affairs  he  managed.  He  wrote  biographies 
(which  are  not  extant)  of  several  eminent  Romans.  The 
book  of  Caesar's  "  Commentaries"  which  treats  on  the 
war  in  Africa  is  attributed  to  Oppius  by  some  critics. 

See  Drumann,  "  Gescliichte  Roms ;"  Vossius,  "De  Historicis 
Latinis  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generaie." 

Ops  or  O'pis,  a  Roman  goddess  of  plenty  and  fertility, 
was  identified  with  the  Rhea  of  the  Greek  mythology, 
and  was  also  called  Tellus.  She  was  supposed  to  be 
the  wife  of  Saturn,  and  was  worshipped  as  the  protec- 
tress of  agriculture.  Opes,  the  plural  of  Ops,  signifies 
"  riches,  power,  help." 

Opsopoeus  or  Obsopous,  op-so-po'iis,  (Johann,)  a 
German  physician  and  scholar,  born  at  Bretten  in  1556, 
became  professor  of  physiology  and  botany  at  Heidel- 
berg. He  published  an  edition  of  the  "Sibylline  Ora- 
cles," and  of  several  works  of  Hippocrates.  Died  in 
1596. 

Opsopoeus  or  Obsopous,  (Vincenz,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  in  Franconia  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  Latin  poem  "On  the  Art  of 
Drinking,"  ("  De  Arte  Bibendi,")  and  made  translations 
from  Diodorus  and  other  Greek  writers.    Died  in  1539. 

Opstal,  van,  vtn  op'stSl,  (  Gaspard  Jacques,)  a 
Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1660.  He  painted 
religious  and  mythological  subjects.    Died  about  1724. 

Opstraet,  op'stnlt,  (Jan,)  a  Flemish  ecclesiastic, 
born  at  Beringhen  in  165 1,  was  the  author  of  several 
religious  works,  one  of  which  was  entitled  "The  Chris- 
tian Theologian."    Died  in  1720. 

Optat.    See  Optatus. 

Optatianus,  op-ta-she-a'nus,  [Fr.  Optatien,  op'tf- 
se;^N',]  (PuHi.ius  PoRPHYRius,)  a  degenerate  Latin 
poet,  flourished  about  325  a.d.  He  wrote  a  Panegyric 
on  Constantine  the  Great,  the  style  of  which  is  very  bad. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Optatien.    See  Optatianus. 

Op-ta'tus,  [Fr.  Optat,  op'tt',]  a  saint  of  the  Romish 
calendar,  born  in  Africa  about  315,  He  was  Bishop 
of  Milevia  or  Melevia,  and  is  favourably  mentioned  by 
Saint  Augustine.  He  wrote  a  treatise  against  the  Dona- 
tists,  which  is  extant.    Died  after  386  a.d. 

See  E.  DupiN,  "Vie  de  Saint-Optat,"  prefixed  to  his  works, 
Paris,  1700. 

Opzoomer,  op'zo^mer,  (  Carl  Willem,)  a  distin- 
guished Dutch  jurist  and  philosopher,  born  at  Rotter- 
dam in  1 82 1,  was  the  author  of  a  "Commentary  on  the 
Books  of  Civil  Law  in  Holland,"  and  a  treatise  "On 
Conservatism  and  Reform,"  (1852.)  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Utrecht  in  1846. 

Or'ange,  (Frederik  Hendrik  van  Nassau — vtn 
nis'sow,)  Prince  of,  born  at  Delft  in  1584,  was  the 
youngest  son  of  William  I.  of  Orange,  surnamed  "the 
Silent."  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  Admiral  Co- 
ligni.  He  served  in  the  army  under  his  half-brother, 
Maurice  of  Nassau,  and  succeeded  him  as  Stadtholder 
of  the  United  Provinces  in  1625.  He  prosecuted  with 
ability  the  war  against  the  Spaniards,  from  whom  he 
took  Maestricht  in  1632  and  Breda  in  1637.  As  a  gen- 
eral, he  was  prudent  and  mostly  successful.  He  died  in 


1647,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  William  II.,  who 
died  in  1650,  aged  twenty-four.  The  latter  had  married 
Mary,  a  daughter  of  Charles  I.  of  England,  and  left  a 
son,  who  became  William  III.  of  England. 

See  Arnold  Montanus,  "  Leven  en  Bedrijf  van  Frederik  Hen- 
drik,'" 1652;  CoMMELiN,  "  Leven  van  Fred.  Hendrik  van  Nassauw," 
1651-59;  Zeeman,  "Leven  van  Fr.  Hendrik  Prins  van  Oranje," 
1832;  D'AuBERY,  "Memoires." 

Orange,  (Maurice,)  Prince  of.    See  Nassau. 

Or''ange,  [Fr.  pron.  o'r6Nzl/,j  (Philihekt  de  Cha- 
lons— sha'ldN',)  Prince  of,  a  distinguished  commander, 
born  in  Burgundy  in  1502,  was  the  son  of  the  Baron  of 
Arlay.  He  entered  the  service  of  Charles  V.  about  1521, 
and  fought  against  the  French.  When  Constable  Bourbon 
was  killed  in  the  assault  on  Rome,  in  1527,  he  succeeded 
to  the  command  of  the  army,  and  compelled  the  pope  to 
subscribe  the  conditions  which  he  dictated.  He  became 
Viceroy  of  Naples  in  1528,  and  was  killed  at  the  siege 
of  Florence,  in  1530.  His  nephew,  Rene  of  Nassau,  be- 
came his  heir.  • 

See  La  Pise,  "  Histoire  de  la  Maison  d'Orange." 

Orange,  (William  [Prince]  of,)  [Eat.  Guilhel'- 

Mus  (or  Guiliei/mus)  Auri'acus  ;  Fr.  Guillaume 
d'Orange,  ge^yom'  do'r6Nzh' ;  Ger.  Wilhelm  von 
Oranien,  wiKhelm  fon  o-ri'ne-en ;  Dutch,  Willem 
VAN  Oranje,  wiKl^m  vtn  o-rSn'yeh,]  called  also  Wil- 
liam the  Silent,  [  Fr.  Guillaume  le  Taciturne, 
ge'yom'  leh  t^'se'tiirn',]  the  illustrious  founder  of  tha 
Dutch  republic,  was  born  at  Dillenburg,  in  Nassau,  in 
April,  1533.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  William,  Count 
of  Nassau,  and  was  descended  from  an  ancient  sovereign 
family,  one  of  whose  members,  Adolph  of  Nassau,  had 
occujiied  the  imperial  throne.  From  his  cousin-german 
Rene,  who  died  in  1544,  he  inherited  princely  estates  in 
Brabant,  Flanders,  and  Holland,  besides  the  small  prin- 
cipality of  Orange,  in  the  southeast  of  France.  He  was 
educated  as  a  Protestant  by  his  parents ;  but  about  the 
age  of  fifteen  he  became  a  page  of  the  emperor  Charles 
v.,  who  quickly  discerned  his  excellent  qualities  and 
admitted  him  into  his  secret  councils.  Charles  testified 
his  confidence  in  the  young  prince  by  appointing  him 
general-in-chief  of  the  army  in  1554,  in  the  absence  of 
the  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  leaned  on  his  shoulder  at  the 
ceremony  of  his  own  abdication,  in  1555.  William,  who 
was  regarded  as  the  greatest  Flemish  subject  of  Spain, 
was  one  of  the  hostages  given  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain  to 
Henry  II.  of  France  in  1559  for  the  execution  of  the 
treaty  of  Cateau  Cambresis.  Henry  II.,  in  conversation 
with  his  hostage,  (whom  he  supposed  to  be  a  Catholic 
and  to  be  privy  to  the  secrets  of  the  Spanish  court,)  im- 
prudently revealed  to  him  a  plot  which  those  two  kings 
had  formed  to  massacre  all  their  Protestant  subjects. 
"  William  earned,"  says  Motley,  "  the  surname  of  'The 
Silent,'  from  the  manner  in  which  he  received  these 
communications  from  Henry  without  revealing  to  the 
monarch,  by  word  or  look,  the  enormous  blunder  which 
he  had  committed.  His  purpose  was  fixed  from  that 
hour."  He  was  a  Catholic  nominally  and  in  outward 
observance,  but  had  then  no  dogmatic  zeal, — perhaps 
no  interest  in  questions  of  theology.  Humanity  and 
patriotism,  however,  determined  him  to  counteract  the 
cruel  and  tyrannical  designs  of  the  court  He  acted  with 
characteristic  caution  and  secrecy  in  his  opposition  for 
several  years,  and  continued  to  serve  as  Stadtholder 
of  Holland,  Zealand,  and  Utrecht,  and  councillor  of 
state.  A  mutual  but  dissembled  enmity  existed  between 
him  and  Philip  II.  In  1566  a  great  insurrection  was 
provoked  by  the  attempt  of  Philip  to  establish  the  In- 
quisition in  all  its  rigour  in  the  Netherlands.  William 
refused  to  take  a  new  oath  of  unlimited  obedience,  and 
offered  to  resign  all  his  offices,  in  1567.  In  the  same 
year  the  famous  Duke  of  Alva  was  sent  with  an  army, 
and  with  supreme  civil  power  as  governor,  to  complete 
the  subjection  of  the  revolted  provinces.  In  this  crisis, 
Egmont,  who  had  been  the  friend  of  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
refused  to  co-operate  with  him  in  resistance  to  the  im- 
pending invasion.  By  hastily  retiring  to  Nassau,  Orange 
escaped  the  doom  which  had  been  pronounced  on  him 
at  Madrid.  In  February,  1568,  a  sentence  of  the  Inqui- 
sition condemned  to  death  as  heretics  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Netherlands,  with  a  few  exceptions.  (Motley.) 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this,    (^^="566  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ORBIGNT 


1708 


ORELLANA 


Having  raised  a  large  army,  William  entered  Brabant  in 
1568,  and  offered  battle  to  Alva,  who  declined  to  fight. 
At  the  end  of  the  campaign,  Orange  was  forced  to  dis- 
band his  army  for  want  of  money  to  pay  them.  In  1572 
many  cities  of  Holland  raised  the  standard  of  Orange, 
and  the  contest  was  maintained  with  desperate  resolution 
through  long  years  of  adversity.  He  founded  a  famous 
republic  by  the  union  of  the  seven  Protestant  provinces 
of  Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Friesland,  Groningen, 
Overyssel,  and  Guelderland,  in  1579,  and  was  chosen 
Stadtholder.  In  1584  he  was  assassinated  by  Balthazar 
Gerard,  a  fanatical  Catholic.  He  left  three  sons,  Philip, 
Maurice,  (see  Nassau,)  and  Frederick  Henry,  the  first 
of  whom  was  seized  by  Alva  in  1568,  sent  to  Spain  as  a 
hostage,  and  detained  many  years  in  captivity. 

"His  enemies,"  says  Motley,  "never  contested  the 
subtlety  and  breadth  of  his  intellect,  his  adroitness  and 
capacity  in  conducting  state  affairs,  and  the  profoundness 
of  his  views.  In  many  respects  his  surname  of  'the 
Silent'  was  a  misnomer.  William  of  Orange  was  neither 
*  silent'  nor  '  taciturn  ;' — yet  these  are  the  epithets  which 
will  be  forever  associated  with  the  name  of  a  man  who 
in  private  was  the  most  affable,  cheerful,  and  delightful 
of  companions,  and  who  or.  a  thousand  public  occasions 
was  to  prove  himself,  both  by  pen  and  speech,  the  most 
eloquent  man  of  his  age."  To  William  the  Silent  is 
due  the  honour  of  being  the  first  among  European  states- 
men to  make  a  practical  application  in  government  of 
the  principle  of  religious  toleration. 

See  Motley,  "Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic," (especially 
the  remarks  at  the  close  of  the  third  volume  ;)  Grotius,  "  Annales  ;" 
Strada,  "De  Bello  Belgico ;"  Hooft,  "  Nederlandsche  Historie ;" 
De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis;"  Beaufort,  "  Leven  van  Wil- 
lem  I.,  Prins  van  Oranje,"  3  vols.,  1732;  Eugene  Mahon,  "Guil- 
laume  le  Taciturne,"  1852;  J.  B.  Champagnac,  "  Guillaume  le 
Taciturne  et  sa  Dynastie,"  1851  ;  Spandaw,  "  Lofrede  op  Willem 
den  Ersten,"  etc.,  1821 ;  Amelot  de  la  Houssaye,  "  Histoire  de 
Philippe  Guillaume  de  Nassau,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1754:  Meur.sius, 
"  Guillelmus  Aui  iacus,"  1621  ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio2;raphie  Generaie  ;" 
R.  Burton,  "  History  of  the  House  of  Orange,"  1693. 

Orbigny,  d',  doR'b^n'ye',  (Alcide  Dessalines,)  an 
eminent  French  naturalist,  born  at  Coueron  (Loire-In- 
ferieure)  in  1802.  He  was  sent  on  a  scientific  mission 
to  South  America  in  1826  by  the  managers  of  the  Mu- 
seum of  Natural  History.  He  spent  eight  years  in  the 
exploration  of  Brazil,  Chili,  Peru,  Bolivia,  etc.,  and  pub- 
lished the  results  in  an  important  work  entitled  "  Travels 
in  South  America,"  (9  vols.  4to,  1834-47.)  In  1853  he 
obtained  a  new  chair  founded  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes 
for  the  study  of  organic  remains.  Among  his  chief 
works  is  "The  Palaeontology  of  France,"  ("  Paleonto- 
logie  Fran9ai.se,"  14  vols.,  1840-54,  with  1430  plates,) 
and  "  Cours  elementaire  de  Paleontologie  et  de  Geologie 
stratigraphiques,"  (3  vols.,  1849-52.)   Died  in  1857. 

See  Damour,  "  Discours  aux  Funerailles  d'A.  d'Orbigny :" 
"Notice  analytique  sur  les  Travaux  d' Alcide  d'Orbigny,"  1856; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generaie." 

Orbigny,  d',  (Charles  Dessalines,)  a  French  geolo- 
gist, a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Coueron  in 
1806.  He  published  a  "Universal  Dictionary  of  Natu- 
ral History,"  (24  vols.,  1839-49,)  in  which  he  was  aided 
by  Arago,  Jussieu,  and  other  savants ;  also,  several  works 
on  geology. 

Or-biFi-us  Pu-piFlus,  a  Roman  grammarian  and 
teacher,  famed  for  his  severe  discipline.  He  taught 
languages  at  Rome,  and  numbered  among  his  pupils 
the  poet  Iiorace,  who  has  immortalized  him  under  the 
name  of  "  the  flogging  (plagosum )  Orbilius." 

See  Horace,  "  Epistol^ ;"  Suetonius,  "De  illustribus  Gram- 
maticis." 

Orcagna,  oR-kln'yl,  (Andrea  DI  Cione,)  an  emi- 
nent Florentine  architect,  painter,  and  sculptor,  some- 
times called  OrgaCxNA,  born  about  1325.  He  built  the 
Loggia  di  Lanzi  at  Florence,  which  was  commended  by 
Michael  Angelo  as  a  model  of  elegance.  Among  his 
master-pieces  in  painting  are  the  frescos  of  the  "  Last 
Judgment,"  and  the  "  Triumph  of  Death,"  in  the  Campo 
Santo  at  Pisa.    Died  about  1385. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,  Architects,"  etc. ;  Quatre- 
M^RE  DE  QuiNCY,  "  Vies  des  plus  illustres  Avchitectes ;"  Baldinucci, 
"  Notizie  ;"  Lanzl  "  Histoiy  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Or'cus,  the  Roman  god  of  the  lower  regions,  identi- 
fied with  the  Pluto  or  Hades  of  the  Greek  mythology. 
(See  Pluto.) 


Ord,  (Craven,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  1756. 
He  furnished  materials  to  Gough  and  John  Nichols 
their  works.    Died  in  1832. 

Ord,  (Edward  O.  C.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Maryland  in  i8r8,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1839. 
He  became  a  captain  in  185 1,  and  served  several  years 
in  California  and  Oregon.  He  was  appointed  a  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers  about  September,  1861,  and 
gained  a  victory  at  Dranesville,  Virginia,  December  20 
of  that  year.  In  May,  1862,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  major-general.  He  served  under  General  Grant  at 
the  siege  and  capture  of  Vicksburg,  July,  1863,  soon 
after  which  he  was  sent  to  Louisiana.  He  obtained 
command  of  the  eighteenth  corps  in  July,  1864,  and  led 
the  same  in  a  successful  operation  against  Fort  Harrison, 
near  Richmond,  in  September  of  that  year.  He  suc- 
ceeded General  Butler  as  commander  of  the  department 
of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  in  January,  1865.  He 
commanded  a  corps  in  the  final  assault  on  Petersburg, 
April  2,  1865,  and  his  command  contributed  greatly  to 
the  success  gained  on  the  6th  of  that  month  near  the 
Appomattox.  He  was  commander  of  the  fourth  military 
district,  comprising  Mississippi  and  Arkansas,  from  April 
1867,  to  December  of  that  year. 

Ord,  (John  W.,)  an  English  poet  and  medical  writer 
born  in  181 1.  He  produced,  besides  other  works, 
"  England  :  an  Historical  Poem."    Died  in  1853. 

Ordaz,  oR-dith',  (Don  Diego,)  a  Spanish  captain 
and  explorer,  served  under  Cortez  in  the  conquest  of 
Mexico.  He  was  the  first  white  man  that  ascended 
Popocatepetl.  Having  been  authorized  by  Charles  V. 
to  conquer  the  country  between  Cape  Vela  and  the  Bay 
of  Venezuela,  he  ascended  the  river  Orinoco  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty  leagues  about  153 1.    Died  in  1533. 

See  Prescott,  "Conquest  of  Mexico;"  Las  Casas,  "Historia 
de  las  Indias." 

Ordener,  oRd^nk',  (Michel,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Saint- Avoid  (Moselle)  in  1755.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  general  of  division  for  his  services  at  Austerlitz,  (1805.) 
Died  in  181 1. 

Orderic  Vital.    See  Ordericus  Vitalis. 

Or-de-ri^cus  Vi-ta'lis,  [Fr.  Orderic  Vital,  or'deh- 
rek'  ve'ttK,]  one  of  the  most  distinguished  early  English 
historians,  born  near  Shrewsbury  in  1075,  was  descended 
from  a  French  family.  In  1107  he  was  ordained  a  priest. 
He  was  the  author  of  "The  Ecclesiastical  History  of 
England  and  Normandy"  from  the  birth  of  Christ  to 
1141,  which,  according  to  Guizot,  contains  more  valuable 
information  on  the  history  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries  than  any  other  single  work.   Died  about  1141. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generaie." 

Ordinaire,  orMe'n^R',  (Claude  Nicolas,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Salins  in  1736,  published  a  "Natural 
History  of  Volcanoes,"  (1802,)  which  is  commended. 
Died  in  1808. 

Oreades.    See  Oreads. 

O're-ads,  [Gr.  'OpeLu6eg;  Lat.  Ore'ades  ;  Fr.  Ore- 
ades, o'ra'td',]  mountain-nymphs  of  classic  mythology, 
derived  their  name  from  the  Greek  opof,  a  "mountain." 
They  attended  Diana  in  hunting-excursions. 

Oregio,  o-ra'jo,  [Lat.  Orf/gius,]  (Agostino,)  a 
learned  Italian  cardinal  and  theologian,  born  at  Santa 
Sofia,  in  Tuscany,  in  1577.  He  was  the  author  of 
treatises  "  On  the  Trinity"  and  "  On  the  Work  of  Six 
Days."    Died  in  1635. 

See  Oldoini,  "  Vitae  Pontificum  et  Cardinalium." 

Oregius.    See  Oregio. 

O'Reilly,  o-ri'le,  (Alexander,)  a  Spanish  general,  of 
Irish  descent,  born  near  Chinchilla  in  1725.  He  fought 
for  the  French  at  Minden  (1759)  and  Corbach,  (1760,) 
soon  after  which  he  returned  to  the  Spanish  service.  He 
took  possession  of  Louisiana  in  1768,  and  afterwards 
commanded  an  expedition  against  Algiers.  Died  in  1794. 

See  BouRGOiNG,  "Tableau  de  I'Espagne  moderne." 

O'Reilly,  o-ri'le,  (Andrew,)  a  general,  born  in  Ire- 
land in  1740.  He  entered  the  Austrian  service,  and 
fought  against  the  French  in  many  campaigns.  He 
commanded  a  corps  at  Austerlitz,  (1805.)    Died  in  1832. 

Orellana,  o-rll-yi'nS,  (Francisco,)  a  celebrated  navi- 
gator, born  at  Truxillo,  in  Spain,  in  the  sixteenth  century. 


5,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ORELLI 


1709 


OR  IE  NT  J  US 


In  1 53 1  he  set  sail  with  the  brothers  Pizarro  for  Peru. 
Having  heard  from  the  natives  of  a  country  in  the  east 
producing  gold,  silver,  and  spices,  he  set  out  in  1540,  in 
company  with  Gonsalez  Pizarro,  on  an  exploring  expe- 
dition. After  following  the  course  of  the  Napo,  a  branch 
of  the  Maranon,  for  about  two  hundred  leagues,  their 
provisions  failed,  and  Orellana  was  directed  to  proceed 
down  the  river,  obtain  supplies,  and  return  immediately. 
Instead  of  this,  he  continued  his  course  along  the  main 
stream,  though  suffering  severely  from  famine  and  from 
the  attacks  of  the  Indians.  In  August,  1541,  he  reached 
the  mouth  of  the  Maranon,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  Amazon,  from  the  warlike  women  whom  he  states  he 
encountered  on  its  shores.  On  his  return  to  Spain  he 
obtained  from  Charles  V.  letters  patent  for  colonizing 
the  country  he  had  discovered  ;  but  soon  after  reaching 
the  Amazon,  in  1549,  he  was  attacked  with  fever,  and 
died  in  1550. 

See  A.  VON  Humboldt,  "Voyages  aux  Regions  ^quinoxiales  du 
nouveau  Continent." 

Orelli,  o-reKlee,  (Johann  Caspar,)  a  distinguished 
Swiss  critic  and  scholar,  born  at  Zurich  in  1787.  In 
1819  he  became  professor  of  eloquence  and  hermeneutics 
in  his  native  city.  He  published  excellent  editions  of 
Cicero,  (8  vols.,  1826-37,)  Horace,  (2  vols.,  1844,) 
Tacitus,  (2  vols.,  1846-48,)  and  other  Roman  classics. 
In  conjunction  with  Baiter,  he  published  an  edition  of 
Plato,  (4  vols.,  1839-41.)  His  "Onomasticon  Tulli- 
anum,"  {3  vols.,  1837,)  containing  a  life  of  Cicero,  a 
lexicon  of  proper  names,  several  indexes,  etc.,  is  a  work 
of  great  value  for  the  history  of  the  period  in  which 
Cicero  lived.    Died  in  1849. 

See  "  Lebensabriss  von  J.  C.  von  Orelli,"  Zurich,  1851;  "Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Oresme,  o'rSm',  (Nicolas,)  a  learned  French  prelate, 
was  a  native  of  Normandy.  He  was  appointed  suc- 
cessively grand  master  of  the  College  of  Navarre,  aiid 
Bishop  of  Lisieux,  (1377.)  He  translated  the  "Ethics" 
and  "  Politics"  of  Aristotle  into  French,  and  published 
several  scientific  treatises.    Died  in  1382. 

Oreste.    See  Orestes. 

O-res'tes,  [Gr.  'OpeoTTjg ;  Fr.  Oreste,  o'rSst',]  a  son 

of  Agamemnon  and  Clytemnestra,  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Pylades.  The  poets  relate  that  he  avenged  the  death 
of  his  father  by  killing  his  own  mother  and  ^gisthus  ; 
that  after  this  act  he  became  insane,  and  was  tormented 
by  the  Furies  ;  that  he  consulted  the  oracle  of  Delphi, 
and  was  told  that  he  might  be  relieved  if  he  would 
go  to  Tauris  and  bring  away  the  image  of  Diana ;  that 
he  and  Pylades  went  to  Tauris,  where  they  were  taken 
captives,  and  would  have  been  sacrificed,  but  they  were 
saved  by  Iphigenia,  who  was  a  sister  of  Orestes  and 
was  the  priestess  of  Diana  at  Tauris.  With  her  aid, 
he  succeeded  in  his  enterprise,  and  afterwards  became 
King  of  Mycenae. 

See  Euripides,  "Orestes;"  Sophocles,  "  Electra  ;"  ^Eschylus, 
"  Eiimenides." 

Orestes,  [Fr.  Oreste,  o'rest',]  a  Roman  commander, 
who  became  secretary  to  Attila,  King  of  the  Huns,  about 
446.  Having  deposed  the  emperor  Julius  Nepos,  {475 
A.D.,)  he  assumed  the  chief  power,  as  Regent  of  Italy,  in 
the  name  of  his  infant  son,  Romulus  Augustulus.  Being 
besieged  soon  after  in  Pavia  by  Odoacer,  he  was  made 
prisoner  and  put  to  death  in  August,  476  a.d. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Emigre." 

Orfanel,  oR-fl-n^K,  (Jacinto,)  a  Spanish  missionary, 
born  at  Jana  in  1578.  He  laboured  in  Jajjan  about 
fifteen  years,  and  wrote  an  account  of  the  progress  of 
Christianity  in  thaj:  country,  (1633.)  He  was  put  to 
death  by  the  Japanese  in  1622. 

Orfeo.    See  Orpheus. 

Orffyre,  oR'fe'ri',  or  Orffyreus,  oRf-fe-ra'iis,  (Jo- 
hann Ernst  Eltas,)  a  German  mechanician,  born  at 
Zittau  in  1680.  His  proper  name  was  Bessler.  Died 
in  1745. 

Orfila,  or'fe-la,  [Fr.  pron.  oR^fe'li',]  (Mathieu  Jo- 
seph Bonaventure,)  an  eminent  physician  and  chem- 
ist, born  at  Mahon,  in  the  island  of  Minorca,  in  1787. 
Having  been  made  a  French  citizen  in  1818,  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  medical  jurisprudence  and  toxicology 
m  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  in  Paris  in  1819.    In  1823  he 


obtained  the  chair  of  chemistry  in  the  same  institution, 
which  he  continued  to  occupy  for  thirty  years.  He  was 
created  successively  by  Louis  Philippe  grand  ofiicer  of 
the  legion  of  honour,  dean  of  the  Medical  Faculty,  and 
member  of  the  Council  of  Hospitals.  Among  his  most 
important  works  are  his  "Treatise  on  Poisons,  or 
General  Toxicology,"  (1813  ;  4th  edition,  2  vols.,  1843,) 
"  Elements  of  Chemistry  applied  to  Medicine  and  the 
Arts,"  (2  vols.,  1817-43,)  "Treatise  on  Juridical  Exhu- 
mations," (2  vols.,  1830,)  and  "Treatise  on  Medical 
Jurisprudence,"  (4  vols.,  1847.)  Orfila  was  an  accom- 
plished and  popular  lecturer,  and  enjoyed  the  highest 
reputation  as  a  writer  on  toxicology  and  legal  medicine. 
He  died  in  1853,  leaving  large  sums  to  the  Academy  of 
Medicine  and  the  School  of  Pharmacy,  for  the  promo- 
tion of  science.  He  was  the  principal  founder  of  the 
anatomical  museum  in  Paris  called  the  Musee  Orfila. 

See  Meniere,  "  Necrologie  :  M.  Orfila,"  1853;  Sachaile,  "  Les 
Medecins  de  Paris  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "  Monthly 
Review,"  vol.  Ixxxv.,  1818,  (Appendix.) 

Orford,  Earl  of.    See  Russell,  (Edward. 

Orford,  Earl  of.  See  Walpole,  (Robert,)  and 
Walpole,  (Horace.) 

Or-get'o-rix,  a  rich  and  powerful  chief  of  the  Helvetii, 
whose  intrigues  are  recorded  in  Caesar's  "  Commenta- 
ries," book  i.  He  aspired  to  the  sovereign  power,  and 
persuaded  the  Helvetii  to  emigrate  to  Gaul.  A  judicial 
process  was  instituted  against  him  for  his  ambitious 
projects  ;  but  before  the  decision  he  died, — as  was  sup- 
posed, by  his  own  hand, — about  62  B.C. 

Oriani,  o-re-i'nee,  (Barnaba,)  an  eminent  Italian 
astronomer,  born  near  Milan  in  1752.  Having  visited 
London  in  1786,  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Herschel, 
with  whom  he  afterwards  maintained  a  regular  corre- 
spondence. On  his  return,  he  assisted  Reggio  and  De 
Cesaris  in  measuring  an  arc  of  the  meridian  and  exe- 
cuting the  triangulation  for  a  new  map  of  Italy.  When 
the  astronomer  Piazzi,  in  1801,  discovered  Ceres,  which 
he  mistook  for  a  comet,  Oriani,  by  calculating  its  orbit, 
recognized  it  as  a  planet;  and  he  was  the  first  to  deter- 
mine the  orbit  of  Uranus.  After  Napoleon  was  crowned 
at  Milan,  he  created  Oriani  a  count,  and  senator  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  and  one  of  the  first  members  of  the 
Italian  Institute.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "  Tables 
of  Uranus,"  (1785,)  "Theory  of  the  Planet  Mercury," 
(1798,)  and  "  Spherical  Trigonometry,"  (1806.)  The  last- 
named  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  admirable  treatises 
of  the  kind.  Oriani  was  a  member  of  the  Institute  of 
France  and  the  Royal  Society  of  London.   Died  in  1832. 

See  A.  Gabba,  "  Elogio  di  Oriani,"  1834;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Oribase.    See  Ortbasius. 

Oribasius,  or-e-ba'she-us,  [Fr.  Oribase,  o're'btz',]  a 
celebrated  physician,  was  a  native  of  Sardis,  in  Lydia, 
or  of  Pergamus.  He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  the  em- 
peror Julian,  who  made  him  his  physician  and  in  361 
A.D.  appointed  him  quaestor  of  Constantinople.  On  the 
death  of  Julian,  (363,)  Oribasius  was  banished  by  Valen- 
tinian  and  Valens,  but  was  recalled  about  370  on  account 
of  his  medical  skill.  Of  his  principal  work,  entitled 
"Medicinalia  Collecta,"  (in  seventy  books,)  less  than  half 
is  extant.  It  was  written  at  the  request  of  the  emperor, 
and,  though  principally  a  compilation  from  Galen  and 
other  physicians,  contains  some  important  original  mat- 
ter. It  is  also  highly  valued  for  its  explanations  of  many 
passages  in  Galen's  writings,  and  for  the  extracts  it  con- 
tains from  works  not  extant.  Oribasius  was  the  first  who 
described  the  salivary  glands  ;  he  also  advanced  new  ideas 
on  dietetics  and  gymnastics.    Died  about  400  a.d. 

See  Fkeind,  "History  of  Physics;"  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca 
Medica  ;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Oricellarius.    See  Rucellai. 

Orichovius.    See  Orzechowskl 

O'ri-ent,  [Lat.  Orien'tius,]  Saint,  a  Latin  poet,  who 
became  Bishop  of  Auch  (Augusta)  about  410  A.D.  He 
wrote  a  Latin  poem,  entitled  "  Commonitorium,"  which 
has  been  printed.    Died  in  439  A.D. 

Oriente,  do,  do  o-re-ln'ta,  (Fernao  Alvarez,)  a 
Portuguese  poet,  born  in  Goa  about  1550. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Orientius.   See  Orient. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


0  RIG  EN 


1710 


ORLEJNS 


Or'i-gen,  [Gr. 'Qptyevyc;  Lat.  Orig'enes  ;  Fr.  Ori- 
GfeNK,  o're'zhii/,]  one  of  the  most  remarkable,  eloquent, 
and  influential  of  the  early  Christian  writers  styled  the 
Fathers,  was  born  in  Egypt  about  186  A.D.  He  was  the 
son  of  Leonides,  a  Christian  martyr  of  Alexandria,  and 
bore  the  additional  name  of  Adamantius.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  became  versed  in 
grammar,  rhetoric,  logic,  geometry,  music,  and  philoso- 
phy. At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  was  appointed  by  Bishop 
Demetrius  to  the  office  of  catechist,  the  duties  of  which 
he  performed  with  zeal  and  self-denial.  He  became 
very  ascetic  in  his  course  of  life,  and  mortified  himself 
by  a  form  of  self-mutilation  which  he  supposed  to  be 
recommended  in  Matthew  xix.  12.  Having  learned  the 
Hebrew  language,  he  devoted  himself  to  biblical  studies. 
While  passing  through  Palestine  on  a  journey,  about 
228  or  230,  he  was  ordained  a  presbyter  at  Cassarea. 
This  is  said  to  have  aroused  the  jealousy  of  Deme- 
trius, Bishop  of  Alexandria,  who  excommunicated  him 
and  induced  the  Bishop  of  Rome  and  of  other  churches 
to  concur  in  this  sentence.  In  231  Origen  removed  to 
Caesarea,  where  he  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a 
preacher  and  commentator  on  Scripture. 

That  he  might  be  better  qualified  to  make  proselytes, 
he  studied  the  Greek  philosophy,  of  which  he  adopted 
the  more  noble  and  beautiful  dogmas,  and  attempted  to 
harmonize  Platonism  with  Christianity.  He  made  an 
innovation  (which  many  think  dangerous)  in  the  mode 
of  interpreting  Scripture.  His  desire  to  find  a  mystical 
sense  led  him  frequently  into  a  neglect  of  the  historical 
sense.  In  235  he  sought  refuge  from  persecution  in 
Cappadocia.  He  compiled  about  this  time  a  valuable 
edition  of  the  Old  Testament,  entitled  "  Hexapla,"  which 
exhibits  in  six  columns  the  Hebrew  text  and  various 
Greek  versions.  Fragments  of  the  '*  Hexapla"  have  been 
preserved  in  the  writings  of  the  Fathers.  He  afterwards 
wrote  an  able  defence  of  Christianity  against  Celsus, 
an  Epicurean  philosopher,  which  is  still  extant.  Decius 
having  renewed  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  in  250 
A.D.,  Origen  was  imprisoned  and  subjected  to  torture, 
but  survived,  and  was  released  a  short  time  before  his 
death,  which  occurred  at  Tyre  in  253.  The  greater  part 
of  his  numerous  works  are  lost.  His  opinions  gave 
rise  to  a  great  controversy  long  after  his  death.  He  held 
the  doctrine  of  the  universal  restoration  of  sinners,  and 
was  charged  with  teaching  the  heretical  notions  which, 
after  his  time,  prevailed  under  the  name  of  Arianism. 
His  defenders  afiirmed  that  the  passages  on  which  this 
charge  was  founded  had  been  interpolated  in  his  works. 
About  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  Origenism  prevailed 
in  Egypt  and  Syria ;  but  it  was  condemned  by  the  Council 
of  Constantinople,  in  553  A.D. 

See  EusEBius,  "Ecclesiastical  History;"  Neander,  "History 
of  the  Church;"  Huet,_  "  Origeniana ;"  E._  R.  Redepenning, 
"Origeiies,  Darstellung  seines  Lebens  und  seiner  Lehre,"  2  vols., 
1841-46;  RiNGBERG,  "  Vita  Origenis  Adamantii,"  1792  ;  Karsten, 
"Dissertatio  de  Origene,"  1824;  G.  Thomasius,  "  Origenes  Beitrag 
Eur  Dbgmengeschiclite,"  etc.,  1837  ;  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grasca  ;" 
Dr.  Hoefer,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate ;"  "  Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1851. 

Origen,  a  Platonic  philosopher,  was  a  disciple  and 
friend  of  Porphyry,  and  predecessor  of  Plotinus  in  the 
chair  of  philosophy.  He  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the 
third  century. 

Origene.    See  Origen. 

Origenes.    See  Origen. 

Origny,  d',  do'r^n'ye',  (Abraham  Jean  Baptists 
Antoink,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Rheims  in  1734. 
He  published  '*  Dictionnaire  des  Origines,"  (6  vols., 
1776-78.)    Died  in  1798. 

Origny,  d',  (Pierre  Adam,)  a  French  historian  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Rheims  in  1697.  His  principal  works 
are  entitled  "Ancient  Egypt"  and  "  Chronology  of  the 
Kings_of  the  Egyptian  Empire."    Died  in  1774. 

O^ri'on,  [Gr.  'Op'iup ;  It.  Ortone,  o-re-o'ni,]  a  cele- 
brated giant  and  hunter  of  classic  mythology,  was  a  son 
of  Hyrieus.  He  loved  Merope,  a  daughter  of  CEnopion, 
and  once,  when  intoxicated,  offered  violence  to  her.  Her 
father  resented  this  act  by  depriving  him  of  his  eyes. 
He  was  befriended  by  Vulcan,  was  guided  by  Cedalion 
to  the  Sun-God,  and  recovered  his  sight.  He  was  killed 
by  Diana,  whose  motive  is  variously  represented,  and 


was  placed  among  the  stars.  According  to  one  legend, 
Diana  loved  him,  and  wished  to  marry  him,  against  the 
will  of  Apollo,  who  one  day  questicjned  her  ability  to 
hit  a  distant  object  on  the  sea.  She  discharged  a  shaft 
and  pierced  the  mark,  which  proved  to  be  the  head  of 
Orion,  who  was  swimming  or  wading  in  the  sea. 

Orion,  a  Greek  grammarian  of  Thebes,  in  Egypt, 
lived  about  450  A.D.  He  composed  a  "  Lexicon  Etymo- 
logicum,"  which  was  published  by  Sturz  in  1820. 

Orlandi,  or-l^n'dee,  (Pkllkguino  Antonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian litterateur^  born  at  Bologna  in  1660.  He  published 
a  "Dictionary  of  Artists,"  (1704,)  aiid  a  "History  of 
Bolognese  Writers,"  (1714.)    Died  in  1727. 

Orlandin.    See  Orlandini. 

Orlandini,  oR-ldn-dee^iee,  or  Orlandin,  oR-lin- 
deen',  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and  writer,  born  at 
Florence  in  1554.  He  wrote  a  Life  of  Loyola,  entitled 
"  Ilistoria  Societatis  Jesu  Pars  I.,  sive  Ignatius,"  (1615.) 
Died  at  Rome  in  1606. 

Orlando  di  Lasso.    See  Lasso,  di. 

Orlandus  Lassus.    See  I>asso,  di, 

Orlay,  van,  (Bernard.)    See  Orley. 

Orleans,  (Charles,)  Duke  of.  See  Charles  d'Or- 
leans. 

OrTe-ans,  Duke  of,  [Fr.  Due  d'Orl^ans,  diik 
doR'Ia'SN',]  (Ferdinand  Philippe  Louis  Charles 
Henri,)  a  French  prince-royal,  born  at  Palermo  in 
1810,  was  the  eldest  son  of  King  Louis  Philippe,  He 
was  educated  at  the  College  Henri  IV.,  and  in  1832 
received  a  medal  for  his  services  to  patients  who  had 
the  cholera  in  the  hospital.  In  1837  he  married  Helena 
of  Mecklenburg.  He  served  with  the  rank  of  general  in 
Algeria  in  several  campaigns  between  1835  and  1840.  He 
was  thrown  from  his  carriage  and  killed,  near  Neuilly,  in 
July,  1842.  He  left  two  sons,  the  Count  of  Paris  and  the 
Due  de  Chartres. 

See  Adrien  Pascal,  "Vie  militaire,  politique  et  privee  du  Due 
d'Orleans,"  1842  ;  Jules  Janin,  "  Le  Prince  royal,"  1842  ;  Lindall, 
"  Biographie  du  Due  d'Orleans,"  1842;  J.  Mendelssohn,  "Ferdi- 
nand Pliilipp  Herzog  von  Orleans,"  1S42 ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gen^rale." 

Orleans,  Maid  of.    See  Joan  of  Arc. 

Orleans,  d',  (Gaston  Jean  Baptiste  de  France,) 
Due,  a  younger  son  of  Henry  IV.  and  Marie  de  Medicis, 
was  born  at  Fontainebleau  in  1608.  He  was  created 
Due  d'Orleans  in  1626,  and  married  Mademoiselle  de 
Montpensier.  In  1630  he  was  appointed  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  kingdom.  He  quarrelled  with  Richelieu, 
by  whom,  according  to  Voltaire,  he  was  persecuted.  In 
1632  he  raised  an  army  against  the  king,  Louis  XIII., 
and  was  supported  by  the  Duke  of  Montmorency.  The 
latter  having  been  defeated  in  battle,  Gaston  made  peace 
with  the  court,  and  was  pardoned  ;  but,  when  he  learned 
that  Montmorency  was  punished  with  death,  he  left 
France  in  anger.  In  1642  he  engaged  in  a  conspiracy 
with  Cinq-Mars  and  others  against  Richelieu,  who 
detected  the  plot  and  induced  Gaston  to  betray  his 
accomplices  or  give  evidence  against  them.  At  the 
death  of  Louis  XIII.,  (1643,)  Gaston  was  appointed 
lieutenant-general,  and  he  commanded  in  several  cam- 
paigns against  the  Spaniards.  He  took  Gravelines  in 
1644,  and  Courtrai  in  1646.  In  the  civil  war  of  the 
Fronde  (1648-52)  he  displayed  his  usual  inconstancy, 
and  supported  both  sides  by  turns.  He  died,  without 
male  issue,  in  1660. 

See  Retz,  "  Memoires;"  Richelieu,  "  Memoires." 

Orleans,  d',(H^:LENE  Louise  Elisabeth,)  Duchesse 
born  at  Ludwigslust  in  1814,  was  a  daughter  of  Frederick 
Lewis,  Grand  Duke  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin.  She 
married  the  prince-royal  of  France«in  1837.  After  the 
abdication  of  Louis  Philippe,  February,  1848,  she  pre- 
sented herself,  with  her  minor  son,  the  Count  of  Paris, 
before  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  made  an  unsuccess- 
ful effort  to  obtain  the  regency.  She  died  at  Richmond, 
in  England,  in  1858. 

See  "La  Vie  de  la  Duchesse  d'Orleans,"  (anonymous,)  Paris 
1858. 

Orleans,  d',  (Louis.)    See  D'Orl^:ans. 

Orleans,  d',  (Louis,)  Due,  the  second  son  of  Charles 
V.  of  France,  and  the  head  of  the  first  house  of  Orleans, 
was  born  in  1371.  He  married  Valentina  Visconti,  a 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Milan.    After  his  brother. 


S  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  hy  d,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6>  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fJr,  fill,  fit;  m&t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ORLEANS 


1711 


ORLOF 


Charles  VI.,  was  rendered  by  insanity  incapable  of  reign- 
ing, the  kingdom  was  divided  into  two  factions,  of  which 
the  Duke  of  Orleans  and  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  were 
the  rival  chiefs.  In  1407  the  former  was  assassinated  in 
Paris  by  Jean  Sans  Peur,  Duke  of  Burgundy.  A  civil 
war  followed  between  the  Burgundians  and  Armagnacs, 
the  latter  of  whom  were  partisans  of  the  house  of  Orleans. 
Louis  of  Orleans  left  two  sons,  Charles  and  Jean.  (See 
Charles  d'Orl^ans,  and  Dunois.)  Louis,  third  Duke 
of  Orleans,  the  son  of  Charles  just  named,  became  king, 
as  Louis  XII. 

See  Anselme,  "  Histoire  genealogique  de  la  Maison  de  France 
aux  Dues  d'Orleans." 

Orleans,  d',  (Louis,)  Due,  a  son  of  Philippe,  (1674- 
1723,)  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1703,  and  was  noted 
for  his  Christian  virtues.  He  retired  to  a  monastery  in 
1742,  devoted  much  time  to  literature,  and  died  in  1752, 
leaving  his  title  to  his  son,  noticed  in  the  next  article. 

Orfeans,  d',  (Louis  Philippe,)  Due,  a  grandson  of 
the  regent  d'Orleans,  and  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1 725.  He  was  the  grandfather  of  Louis 
Philippe,  King  of  the  French.  He  served  with  distinc- 
tion at  Dettingen  in  1743,  was  made  lieutenant-general 
in  1744,  and  fought  at  Fontenoy  and  at  Hastenbeck  in 
1757.  He  died  in  1785,  leaving  a  son,  Louis  Philippe 
Joseph,  surnamed  Egalite. 

Orleans,  d',  (Louis  Philippe  Joseph,)  Due,  sur- 
named Egalit^,  born  at  Saint-Cloud  in  1747,  was  the 
son  of  the  preceding,  and  was  the  first  prince  of  the 
blood.  He  was  styled  the  Due  de  Chartres  during  the 
life  of  his  father,  and  married  the  daughter  of  the  Due 
de  Penthievre.  His  fortune  was  immense.  He  courted 
popularity  with  success,  and  became  alienated  from  the 
royal  family,  who  appear  to  have  treated  him  ill.  He 
signalized  his  courage  in  a  sea-fight  against  the  English 
near  Ushant  in  1 778.  His  Palais  Royal  in  Paris  became 
the  focus  of  the  ideas  which  caused  the  Revolution,  and 
he  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  chief  of  the  popular  party. 
In  1789  he  was  elected  to  the  States-General,  and,  with 
the  minority  of  the  noblesse,  joined  the  Tiers-Etat.  The 
insurgents  of  July  assumed  the  colours  of  his  livery, — 
red,  white,  and  blue.  Some  historians  affirm  that  he 
instigated  the  attacks  on  the  royal  palace,  and  as]:)ired 
to  the  throne.  Lamartine  defends  him  from  this  charge, 
but  admits  that  he  remains  an  enigma  to  posterity. 
"Through  lack  of  audacity  or  of  ambition,"  says  he, 
"  the  Duke  of  Orleans  never  took  the  attitude  of  the  role 
that  opinion  assigned  to  him.  He  respected  or  he  de- 
spised the  throne.  Either  of  these  sentiments  exalts  him 
in  the  eyes  of  history."  His  popularity  declined.  Wish- 
ing to  be  reconciled  to  the  king,  he  went  to  court  in  1791, 
but  was  insulted  by  the  courtiers.  He  then  allied  him- 
self with  Danton  for  the  subversion  of  the  monarchy, 
renounced  his  title,  assumed  the  name  of  Egalit^;,  and 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  By  order  of  the  Con- 
vention, he  was  imprisoned  at  Marseilles  in  April,  1793, 
and  in  November  of  that  year  he  was  executed  at  Paris 
by  the  Jacobins,  apparently  without  any  just  grounds. 
His  son,  Louis  Philippe,  became  King  of  the  French. 

See  A.  DucoiN,  "  fitudes  revolutionnaires :  Philippe  d'Orleans 
figalite,"  1S45  ;  F.  Backhaus,  "  Ludwig  Philipp  Joseph  Orleans," 
etc.,  184^  ;  W.  Cooke  Taylor,  "  Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Orleans," 
1849;  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution." 

Orleans,  d',  (Marie.)    See  Marie  d'Orleans. 

Orleans,  d',  (  Philippe,)  Due,  the  founder  of  the 
present  house  of  Orleans,  was  born  in  1640.  He  was 
the  only  brother  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  a  nephew  of  Gas- 
ton, Duke  of  Orleans,  whose  title  he  received  in  1660. 
He  married  Henrietta,  daughter  of  Charles  I.  of  Eng- 
land, in  1661.  In  IJ672  he  joined  the  army,  and  distin- 
guished himself  in  several  campaigns  against  the  Dutch. 
He  defeated  the  Prince  of  Orange  (afterwards  William 
III.)  at  the  battle  of  Cassel,  in  1677.  His  daughter 
Marie  Louise  became  the  queen  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain. 
He  died  in  1701,  leaving  his  title  to  his  son,  Philippe, 
Regent  of  France. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  Voltaire,  "  Si^cle  de  Louis 
XIV  ;"  W.  Cooke  Taylor,  "  Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Orleans," 
3  vols.,  1849. 

Orleans,  d',  (Philippe,)  Due,  Regent  of  France,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Saint-Cloud  in  1674. 
He  received  at  his  birth  the  title  of  Due  de  Chartres. 


He  was  endowed  with  superior  talents,  and  made  much 
progress  in  learning  ;  but  his  heart  was  corrupted  by  his 
tutor,  the  Abbe  Dubois.  He  entered  the  army  at  the 
age  of  seventeen,  and  displayed  courage  and  skill  at 
Steenkerke  and  Neervvinden.  In  1706  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  army  of  Italy,  and  was  defeated  at 
Tinin  by  Prince  Eugene.  He  had  better  success  in 
Spain  in  1707  and  1708.  At  the  death  of  Louis  XIV., 
in  1715,  the  Duke  of  Orleans  became  regent,  with  nearly 
absolute  power,  and  in  many  respects  reversed  the  policy 
of  the  government.  His  regency,  though  less  despotic 
than  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  a  period  of  great 
profligacy  in  politics  and  morals.  (See  Louis  XV.) 
The  regent  himself  set  the  example  of  irreligion  and 
licentiousness.    He  died  in  December  1 723. 

See  L.  B.  Neel,  "Histoire  de  Louis,  Due  d'Orleans,"  1753; 
Saint-Simon,  "Menioires;"  La  Motte,  "Vie  du  Due  d'Orleans," 
1737;  Marmontel,  "  Histoire  de  la  Regence,"  1805;  Capefiguh, 
"  Histoire  de  Philippe  d'Orleans,  Regent  de  France,"  2  vols.,  1838; 
Lemontey,  "Histoire  de  la  Regence,"  2  vols.,  1832;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Orleans,  d',  (Pierre  Joseph.)    See  Dorl^;ans. 

Orley  or  Orlay,  van,  vtn  or'II,  (Bernard,)  also 
called  Barent  of  Brussels,  an  eminent  Flemish  painter, 
born  in  1490.  He  studied  at  Rome  under  Raphael,  in 
several  of  whose  works  he  had  a  part.  On  his  retin  n  to 
Brussels  he  was  employed  by  Charles  V.  to  execute  a 
number  of  models  for  tapestry,  which  were  chiefly 
hunting-scenes  and  landscapes  of  remarkable  beauty. 
Among  his  best  historical  pieces  are  a  "  Holy  Family," 
a  "Last  Judgment,"  and  "The  Saviour  Lamented  by 
his  Friends."    Died  about  1560. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.  ;  Michiels, 
"Histoire  de  la  Peinture  Flamande,"  1845;  Weyerman,  "De 
Schilderkonst  der  Nederlanders." 

Orley  or  Orlay,  van,  (RieHARD,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1652,  was  also  an  engraver.  His 
design  is  said  to  be  correct.  Died  at  Brussels  in  1732. 
His  brother  Jan,  born  about  1656,  was  a  historical 
painter  and  engraver. 

Orlof,  Orlov,  or  Orlow,  oR-lof,  (Alexis,)  Count,  a 
Russian  admiral,  born  about  1736.  He  was  remarkable 
for  his  large  stature,  personal  strength,  and  audacity. 
In  1762  he  was  an  accomplice  in  the  conspiracy  which 
made  Catherine  autocrat  of  Russia  in  place  of  her  hus- 
band, Peter  HI.,  whom  he  strangled  with  his  own  hands. 
He  became  an  admiral,  though  he  had  not  served  in  the 
marine,  and  commanded  a  naval  expedition  sent  against 
the  Turks,  who  were  defeated  by  the  Russians  at  Chesme 
in  1770.  It  is  said  that  he  ordered  a  Russian  frigate  to 
be  blown  up  in  1772,  merely  to  furnish  a  model  to  the 
painter,  Hackert,  whom  he  employed  to  paint  the  battle 
of  Chesme.    He  died  in  1808. 

Orlof,  Orlov,  or  Orlow,  (Alexis,)  Count,  a  famous 
Russian  diplomatist  and  general,  born  in  1787,  was  a 
son  of  Feodor,  noticed  below.  He  entered  the  army 
in  his  youth,  and  served  as  adjutant  to  the  grand  duke 
Constantine  in  the  war  against  Bonaparte.  In  1825  he 
commanded  a  regiment  of  guards  in  the  capital,  and 
gained  the  favour  of  the  Czar  Nicholas  by  his  zeal  and 
efficiency  in  suppressing  a  great  revolt  of  the  troops. 
He  was  created  a  count,  and  received  a  high  command 
in  the  army.  In  1829  he  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Adri- 
anople,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  the  Ottoman 
Porte.  He  was  appointed  commander  of  the  army  sent 
in  1833  to  aid  the  Sultan  against  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt, 
and  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Unkiar-Skelesi.  He  was 
the  intimate  companion  of  Nicholas  in  his  journey  to 
England,  Italy,  and  other  countries.  In  1856  he  was 
the  representative  of  Russia  at  the  Congress  of  Paris, 
and  signed  a  treaty  of  peace  with  France  and  England. 
He  became  in  1856  president  of  the  Grand  Council  of 
the  empire  and  ministry, — the  highest  functionary  of 
Russia.    Died  in  May,  1861.    He  left  one  son. 

Orlof,  Orlov,  or  Orlow,  (Feodor,)  a  Russian  officer, 
born  in  1741,  was  a  brother  of  Alexis  first  above  no- 
ticed, and  father  of  the  preceding.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  the  war  against  the  Turks,  from  whom  he 
took  Navarino  in  1770,  and  afterwards  rose  to  the  rank 
of  general-in-chief.    Died  in  1796. 

Orlof,  Orlov,  or  Orlow,  (Gregory,)  a  Russian  cour- 
tier and  general,  born  about  1734,  was  a  brother  of 


c  as  k;  5  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  y.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ORLOF 


171  2 


ORMUZD 


Alexis  first  above  noticed.  He  served  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  (1755-62,)  and  was  one  of  the  principal 
actors  in  the  revolution  which  ;-aised  Catherine  11,  to 
the  throne  in  July,  1762.  About  that  time  he  became 
the  favourite  paramour  of  Catherine,  and  was  appointed 
grand  master  of  the  artillery.  It  is  stated  that  she  pro- 
posed a  secret  marriage  with  him,  but  his  ambition  to 
reign  with  her  as  her  acknowledged  consort  induced  him 
to  decline  the  offer.  She  was  offended  by  this  refusal, 
and  supplied  his  place  by  a  new  favourite  about  1772. 
Died  in  1783. 

See  Frf.uoenreich,  "Die  Familie  OrlofF  als  Morder  der  Rus- 
sischen  Kaiser,"  1832. 

Orlof,  Orlov,  or  Orlow,  (Gregory,)  Count,  born 
in  1777,  was  a  nephew  of  Alexis  first  above  noticed.  He 
lived  many  years  in  Paris  and  Italy.  He  published,  in 
French,  "Travels  in  Part  of  France,"  (1824,)  and  "Me- 
moirs, Historical,  Political,  and  Literary,  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Naples."    Died  in  1826. 

Orlof,  (Michael,)  born  in  1785,  was  a  son  of  Feodor, 
noticed  above.  He  served  in  several  campaigns  against 
Bonaparte,  and  in  1814  was  one  of  the  allied  generals 
who  received  the  capitulation  of  Paris.  Having  taken 
part  in  the  secret  associations  formed  in  the  Russian 
army  in  the  latter  part  of  Alexander's  reign,  he  was  dis- 
graced in  1825,  and  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in  a  private 
station.    Died  in  184 1. 

Orlofski,  Orlovski,  or  Orlowski,  oR-lofskee, 
(Boris  Ivanovitch,)  a  Russian  sculptor,  born  in  1793, 
was  sent  by  the  government  in  1822  to  Italy,  where  he 
studied  under  Thorwaldsen.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  a  statue  of  "  Paris  with  the  Apple,"  (of  Discord,) 
and  a  colossal  bust  of  the  emperor  Alexander  I.  Died 
in  1837. 

Orlov.    See  Orlof. 

Orlow.    See  Orlof. 

Orme,  orm,  (Rowert,)  a  distinguished  historian,  of 
English  extraction,  born  in  1728  at  Anjengo,  in  Hin- 
dostan.  He  was  appointed  in  1754  a  member  of  the 
Council  at  Fort  Saint  George,  and  was  afterwards  made 
a  commissary  and  accountant-general.  In  this  capacity 
he  contributed  greatly  to  establish  British  power  in 
India,  and  on  his  recommendation  the  celebrated  Clive 
obtained  the  military  command  in  that  country.  He 
became  historiographer  to  the  East  India  Company,  and 
in  1778  published  his  "  History  of  the  Military  Trans- 
actions of  the  British  in  Hindostan."  He  also  wrote 
*'  Historical  Fragments  of  the  Mogul  Empire  of  the 
Mahrattas,"  (1782.)    Died  in  1801. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1807. 

Orme,  orm,  (William,)  a  Scottish  minister  and  biog- 
rapher, born  at  Falkirk  about  1787.  He  published  a 
"Life  of  John  Owen,  D.D.,"  (1820,)  "  Bibliotheca  Bib- 
lica,"  a  select  list  of  books  on  sacred  literature,  etc., 
(1824,)  which  is  highly  esteemed,  and  a  "Life  of  Richard 
Baxter,"  (1830.)    Died  in  1830. 

Ormea,  d',  doR-ma'3.,  (Carlo  Francesco  Vincenzo 
Ferrero — fer-ra'ro,)  Marquis,  an  Italian  statesman, 
born  at  Mondovi.  He  was  the  chief  minister  of  Charles 
Emmanuel,  King  of  Sardinia,  from  1730  until  his  death. 
Died  in  1745. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XV." 

Ormesson,  d',  doR'ma'soN',  (Henri  Franqois  de 
Paule  le  Fi:VRE,)  a  French  financier,  born  in  1 751. 
He  was  appointed  controller-general  of  the  finances  in 
1783,  and  removed  a  few  months  later.  He  was  very 
incompetent  for  that  office.    Died  in  1807. 

Ormesson,  d',  (Louis  Franqois  de  Paule  le 
FivRE,)  a  French  judge,  born  in  1718,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  and  a  nephew  of  Chancellor  d'Aguesseau. 
He  became  first  president  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris 
in  1788.    Died  in  1789. 

Or'mond,  (James  Butler,)  first  Duke  of,  an 
eminent  statesman,  born  of  an  ancient  Irish  family  in 
London  in  1610,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Thomas  Butler, 
Viscount  Thurles.  On  the  death  of  his  grandfather, 
in  1632,  he  succeeded  him  as  Earl  of  Ormond.  The 
next  year  he  went  to  Ireland,  and  became  the  friend  and 
confidential  adviser  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford.  In  1641  he 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  designed 
to  suppress  the  Irish  rebellion.    He  showed  himself  an 


able  general,  and  defeated  the  rebels  at  Kilrush  and 
Ross.  He  adhered  constantly  to  the  king  during  the 
civil  war,  and  in  1644  was  appointed  lord  lieutenant  of 
Ireland,  then  a  prey  to  fierce  factions.  He  was  com- 
pelled to  surrender  Dublin  to  the  English  Parliament  in 
1647,  and  retired  to  France. 

Ormond  was  a  favoured  companion  and  adviser  of 
Charles  II.  in  his  exile,  and  soon  after  his  restoration 
he  was  created  Duke  of  Ormond.  In  1662  he  was  again 
chosen  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  which  he  governed 
with  wisdom  until  1668.  In  1670  he  was  seized  in  Lon- 
don by  a  ruffian  named  Blood,  who  bound  him  and 
designed  to  hang  him  at  Tyburn  ;  but  the  duke  was 
rescued  by  his  servants.  He  died  in  1688.  He  had  a 
son  who  was  Earl  of  Ossory,  and  a  daughter  who  was 
married  to  the  Earl  of  Chesterfield.  "His  claims  on 
the  royal  gratitude,"  says  Macaulay,  "  were  superior 
to  those  of  any  other  subject." 

See  Thomas  Carte,  "  History  of  the  Life  of  James,  Duke  of 
Ormond,"  3  vols.,  1736:  Hume,  "  History  of  England ;"  Claren- 
don, "  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Ormond,  (James  Butler,)  second  Duke  of,  born 
in  Dublin  in  1665,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and 
a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Ossory.  He  succeeded  to  the  duke- 
dom in  1688,  and  in  the  same  year  joined  the  standard 
of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  who  afterwards  treated  him 
with  favour  and  confidence.  He  commanded  the  Life 
Guards  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  (1690,)  and  fought 
several  ensuing  campaigns  in  Flanders.  From  1703 
to  1706  he  was  Viceroy  of  Ireland,  and  in  1712  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  army  in 
place  of  Marlborough.  In  compliance  with  secret  orders 
from  the  ministry,  he  declined  to  co-operate  with  the 
allies  against  the  French  in  Flanders.  For  this  offence 
he  was  impeached  by  the  Whigs  in  171 5,  and,  having 
escaped  to  France,  was  attainted.  He  then  became  a 
partisan  of  the  Pretender,  and  obtained  command  of  an 
armament  which  Spain  sent  against  England,  and  which 
was  dispersed  by  a  storm.    He  died  in  exile  in  1745. 

Ormuzd,  or'miizd  or  or'mdozd,  [Gr.  'Q,pojLiua(h/c  ;  Lat. 
Oromas'des,  the  Ahura-Mazda  of  the  Zend-Avesta,] 
written  also  Ormusd  and  Hormuzd,  in  the  religion 
of  the  ancient  Persians,  the  principle  of  light,  purity, 
truth,  and  goodness,  as  opposed  to  Ahriman,  (MVre- 
min',)  [in  Latin,  Arima'nes  or  Arima'nius,]  the  prin- 
ciple of  evil  and  darkness.  Ormuzd  was  considered  to 
be  the  creator  of  whatever  was  good  or  beautiful  in 
the  universe.  He  not  only  created  the  world  of  light, 
including  the  firmament  and  all  the  heavenly  luminaries, 
but  also  various  orders  of  celestial  or  angelic  beings, 
among  which  were  the  Amshaspands,  presiding  over 
the  various  kingdoms  of  the  universe  :  one,  for  ex- 
ample, is  the  king  of  light,  another  the  spirit  of  fire  and 
of  life  ;  after  these  are  the  king  of  metals,  the  king  of 
the  seasons,  and,  lastly,  the  creator  and  protector  of 
trees,  flocks,  and  herds.  Among  the  Amshas])ands  is 
reckoned  also  Sapandomad,  the  daughter  of  Ormuzd, 
and  the  mother  of  the  human  race.  The  next  order 
of  beings  are  the  Izeds,  who  have  charge  of  particular 
portions  of  nature.  Some  of  these  are  male  and  some 
female.  Of  the  Izeds,  the  most  worthy  of  mention  is 
Mithra  or  Mithras,  the  god  of  day,  who  presides  over 
the  light  which  mortals  enjoy  on  earth.  He  is  often 
identified  with  the  sun  ;  but  he  is  more  properly  regarded 
as  a  being  distinct  and  separate  from  the  latter.  Below 
the  Izeds  are  the  Fervers,  who  may  be  regarded  as  the 
original  patterns  or  prototypes  of  all  inferior  beings. 
They  are  emanations  from  the  essence  of  Ormuzd.  Ac- 
cording to  Zoroaster,  an  incomprehensible  being  named 
Zeruane-  (or  Zervane-)  Akerene  (or  "time  without 
bounds")  created  both  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman.  The  latter 
was  originally  pure,  but,  becoming  envious  of  Ormuzd, 
he  created  orders  of  evil  beings  (Devs,  or  demons)  cor- 
responding to  the  celestial  orders  of  Ormuzd.  And  in 
every  part  of  the  universe,  even  to  the  minutest  particle 
of  matter,  the  principle  of  Evil  opposes  the  principle  of 
Good.  But  after  a  certain  period  the  power  of  Ahriman 
will  be  utterly  overthrown,  and  all  evil  will  come  to  an 
end.  Some  say  Ahriman  will  be  destroyed ;  others,  that 
he  will  continue  to  exist,  without  the  power  to  do  evil. 
See  GuiGNiAUT,  "  Religions  de  I'Antiquitc,"  vol.  i.  book  ii. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  /ou£-;  k,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ia,  y,  s^ort;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  Ell,  fit;  mll\  n6t;  good;  nidot; 


ORNANO 


1713 


ORSINI 


Ornano,  d',  doR-ni'no,  called  Sampierro,  (sSm-pe- 
Sr'ro,)  a  general,  born  in  Italy  in  1497,  entered  the 
French  army  in  1533.  In  1553  he  defeated  the  Genoese 
in  Corsica,  which  was  annexed  to  France  in  1557.  Henr}^ 
II.  having  restored  it  to  the  Genoese  about  1560,  D"Or- 
nano  invaded  that  island  in  1564  and  conquered  part  of 
it.    He  was  assassinated  in  1567. 

See  "  Noiivelie  Biogranhie  Geiierale." 

Ornano,  d',  (Alphonse,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1548.  He  fought  against  the  Huguenots  in  the 
civil  wars  of  France,  and  afterwards  rendered  military 
services  to  Henry  IV.,  who  raised  him  to  the  rank  of 
marshal  of  France.  Died  in  i6io.  His  son,  Jean  Bap- 
TISTE,  born  in  1583,  became  a  marshal  of  France.  He 
was  imprisoned  by  Richelieu,  and  died  in  prison  in  1626. 

See  De  Thou,  "Memoires." 

Ornano,  d',  (Philippe  Antoine,)  Count,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Ajaccio  in  1784.  His  mother  was  Isa- 
belle  Bonaparte.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel  for 
his  conduct  at  Jena,  (1806,)  and  became  a  general  of 
brigade  in  1811.  As  a  general  of  division,  he  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  battle  of  Borodino,  (1812,)  and 
commanded  the  cavalry  of  the  guard  at  Dresden,  Baut- 
zen, and  Leipsic,  in  1813.  He  obtained  the  dignity  of 
senator  in  1852,  and  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1861. 
Died  in  1863. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale.  ' 

Orobio,  o-ro'be-o,  (Baltasar,)  a  learned  Spanish 
few,  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Salamanca.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Certamen  Phiio- 
sophicum,"  being  a  refutation  of  the  doctrines  of  Spi- 
noza.   Died  in  1687. 

O-ro'des  I.,  King  of  Parthia,  a  son  of  Phraates  III., 
began  to  reign  about  56  B.C.  He  is  also  styled  Arsaces 
XIV.  His  dominions  were  invaded  by  the  Roman  gen- 
eral Crassus,  who  was  defeated  with  great  loss  by  the 
Parthians,  near  Carrhae,  in  53  B.C.  About  40  B.C.  he  sent 
an  army  under  his  son  Pacorus  to  fight  against  Mark 
Antony,    (See  P.\coRUS.) 

See  Dion  Cassius.  "History  of  Rome;"  Plutarch,  "Antony;" 
Saint-Martin,  "  Memoires  historiques,  etc  sur  I'Armenie." 

Oromasdes.    See  Or.muzd. 

Oronce.    See  Fine. 

Orontius.    See  Fine. 

Orose,  (Paul.)    See  Orosius  Paulus. 

O-ro'si-us  Pau'lus,  [Fr.  Paul  Orose,  pol  o'roz',]  a 
Latin  historian  and  Christian  presbyter,  who  lived  about 
410-30  A.D.,  was  a  native  of  Tarragona,  in  Spain.  He 
was  a  friend  of  Saint  Augustine  and  Saint  Jerome,  and 
in  several  theological  treatises  opposed  the  doctrines 
of  Origen  and  Pelagius.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"  Historiarum  Libri  VII.  adversos  Paganos,"  being  a 
defence  of  Christianity  against  pagan  writers,  who  as- 
serted that  since  the  overthrow  of  the  old  religion  the 
world  had  suffered  greater  calamities.  This  history, 
though  deficient  in  accuracy,  contains  much  important 
information,  and  quotes  from  various  authors  whose 
writings  are  not  extant.  Among  the  translations  of  this 
work  is  one  made  by  Alfred,  King  of  England. 

See  Ceillier,  "  Histoire  des  Auteurs  ecclesiastiques  ;"  Bahr, 
"Geschichte  der  Romischen  Literatur  ;"  Vossifs,  "  De  Historicis 
Latinis  ;"  Morner,  "De  Orosii  Vita,"  1844. 

Orphee.    See  Orpheus. 

Orpheus,  or'fus  or  or'fe-us,  [Gr.  'OpoeiV  ,•  Fr.  Orphee, 
OR'fi';  It.  Orfeo,  oR-fa'o,]  a  mythical  or  semi-fabulous 
personage,  who  was  celebrated  in  the  legends  of  the 
ancient  Greeks  as  a  poet,  musician,  and  inventor.  His 
name  does  not  occur  in  the  poems  of  Homer  or  Hesiod, 
but  is  mentioned  by  Ibycus,  Euripides,  and  Aristophanes. 
Plato  refers  to  Orpheus  and  his  works,  calls  him  the  son 
of  CEagrus,  and  ascribes  to  him  the  origin  of  religious 
mysteries.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  Thrace  not 
long  before  the  Trojan  war,  or  about  1200  B.C.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition,  Apollo  presented  him  with  a  lyre, 
with  which  he  enchanted  wild  beasts,  trees,  etc.,  lulled 
asleep  the  dragon  that  guarded  the  golden  fleece,  and 
rendered  other  important  services  in  the  Argonautic 
expedition.  Virgil  has  commemorated  in  an  admirable 
episode  of  his  "Georgics"  (book  iv.)  the  descent  of  Or- 
pheus to  the  infernal  regions  after  his  lost  Eurydice. 
(See  Eurydice.)  The  poets  relate  that  he  was  torn  in 
pieces  by  Thracian  women  in  their  Bacchanalian  orgies, 


because  he  neglected  their  sex  or  treated  their  charm."* 
with  contempt. 

See  TiEDEMANN,  "  Griechenlands  erste  Philosophen ;  oder  Le- 
ben  und  Systeme  des  Orpheus,"  etc.,  1780;  Gkote,  "History  of 
Greece  ;"  Ulrici,  "  Geschichte  der  Hellenischen  Dichtkunst." 

Orr,  (James  L.,)  an  American  lawyer  and  politician, 
born  at  Craytonville,  South  Carolina,  in  1822.  He 
represented  a  district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from 
1848  to  i860.  He  was  elected  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  by  the  Democrats  in  December,  1857. 
In  the  Convention  of  South  Carolina  held  December, 
i860,  he  voted  for  secession.  He  was  one  of  three  com- 
missioners sent  by  South  Carolina  to  Washington  to 
negotiate  in  the  winter  of  1860-61.  In  February,  1862,  he 
was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  Confederate  States.  He  was 
elected  Governor  of  South  Carolina  in  October,  1865. 

Orrente,  or-r§n'ti,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
in  Murcia  about  1550.  Among  his  finest  productions 
are  a  "Saint  Sebastian"  and  a  "Nativity."  Died  in  1644. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols." 

Orrery,  Earl  of.  See  Boyle,  (Robert,)  and  Boyle, 

(Charles.) 

Orrizonte.    See  Bloemen,  (John  Francis.) 
Orry,  o're',  (Philibert,)  Count  de  Vignori,  a  French 
;  financier,  born  at  Troyes  in  1689.    He  was  controller- 
I  general  of  the  finances  from  1 730  to  1745.    Died  in  1747. 
I     Orsato,  oR-si'to,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  anti- 
quary and  physician,  born  at  Padua  in  1673  ;  died  in  1720. 

Orsato,  [Lat.  Ursa'tus.]  (Sertorio.)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Padua  in  161 7.  He  published,  among 
other  treatises,  "  De  Notis  Romanorum  Commenta- 
rius,"  (1672,)  or  an  explanation  of  the  abbreviations  used 
by  the  Romans,  and  a  "History  of  Padua,"  (1678.) 
The  former  work  is  highly  esteemed  by  antiquaries. 
Died  in  1678. 

See  Fabkoni,  "Vita;  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Orsay,  d',  dor'sk',  [Fr.  pron.  doR'si',]  (Alfred  Guil- 
laume  Gabriel,)  Count,  an  artist  and  leader  of  fashion, 
distinguished  for  his  rare  accomplishments  and  his  fasci- 
nating manners,  was  born  in  France  in  1801.  He  married 
in  1827  Lord  Blessington's  daughter,  from  whom  he 
separated  a  few  years  later.  He  became  an  intimate 
friend  of  Lady  Blessington,  in  whose  house  he  lived 
many  years,  (in  London.)  His  wit,  his  amiable  temper, 
and  his  brilliant  personal  qualities  rendered  him  a  general 
favourite.  Among  his  friends  were  Lord  Byron,  (of 
whom  he  produced  a  good  portrait,)  Sir  Edward  Bulwer, 
and  Napoleon  III.    Died  in  1852. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  September,  1852:  Dr.  R.  R. 
Madden,  "Literary  Life  and  Correspondence  of  the  Countess  of 
Blessington,"  3  vols.,  London,  1855. 

Orseolo,  oR-si-o'lo,  or  Urseolo,  ooR-si-o'lo,  (Otto,) 
Doge  of  Venice,  was  a  son  of  Piero  II.,  noticed  below. 
He  was  elected  doge  in  1009,  and  was  banished  in  1026. 
Died  in  1032. 

Orseolo  or  Urseolo,  (Piero  I.,)  was  elected  Doge 
of  Venice  in  976.  He  gained  a  victory  over  the  Sara- 
cens in  Apulia,  and  established  a  regular  financial  sys- 
tem.   Died  in  987. 

Orseolo  or  Urseolo,  (Piero  II.,)  an  able  Venetian 
commander,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  became  Doge  of 
Venice  in  991.  He  conquered  Dalmatia,  and  annexed 
it  to  the  republic.    Died  in  1009. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Orsi,  oR'see,  (Giovanni  Giuseppe,)  Marquis,  an 
Italian  author,  born  at  Bologna  in  1652,  wrote  verses 
and  several  prose  works,  among  which  is  "  De  Moralibus 
Criticae  Regulis  Monita,"  (1706.)    Died  in  1733. 

Orsi,  (Giuseppe  Agostino,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born 
at  Florence  in  1692.  His  principal  work  is  an  "Eccle- 
siastical History  of  the  First  Six  Centuries  of  the  Church," 
(20  vols.,  1746  et  seq.)    Died  in  1761. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitje  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Orsi,  (Lelto,.  or  Lelio  da  Novellara — dl  no-vel- 
li'ri,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  in  Lombardy  in  1 511. 
His  copy  of  Correggio's  "  Night"  is  greatly  admired. 
Died  in  1587. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Orsini,  oR-see'nee,  the  name  of  an  illustrious  and 
powerful  Italian  family,  which  for  many  years  was  hos- 
tile to  the  house  of  Colonna.    Giovanni  Gaetani  Or- 


<  asi;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;     as  in  this.  (2l^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

108 


ORSINI 


1714 


OSCEOLA 


SINI  was  made  pope  in  1277,  under  the  name  of  Nicholas 
III.  In  1503  Francesco  and  Paolo  ORSiNiwere  assas- 
sinated by  order  of  Caesar  Borgia,  and  about  the  same 
time  Cardinal  Orsini  was  poisoned  at  Rome  by  Pope 
Alexander  VI. 

Orsini,  (Felice,)  an  Italian  revolutionist,  born  at 
Meldola  in  1819.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  revolu- 
tionary movements  of  1848,  after  which  he  continued  to 
conspire  against  the  government.  He  was  confined  in 
prison  at  Mantua  about  1854,  but  escaped  in  1856  and 
went  to  England.  He  was  the  chief  of  a  band  of  con- 
spirators who  attempted  to  assassinate  Napoleon  III,  in 
January,  1858,  by  bombs  or  explosive  apparatus.  He 
was  executed  in  March,  1858. 

Orsini,  (Fulvio.)    See  Ursinus  Fulvius. 

Orsini,  Pope.    See  Benedict  XIH. 

Orsted.    See  Oersted. 

Orta,  (Garcia  da.)    See  Horto. 

Ortega,  oR-ta'gS,  (Casimtr  Gomez,)  a  Spanish  bot- 
anist, born  at  Madrid  in  1730.  He  published  an  Ele- 
mental Course  of  Botany,"  and  other  treatises  of  the 
kind.  The  name  of  Ortegia  has  been  given  to  a  genus 
of  plants.    Died  in  1810. 

Ortelius,  van,  vtn  or-ta'le-us,  Ortel,  or  Oertel, 
OR'tel,  (Abraham,)  an  eminent  geographer  and  mathe- 
matician, apparently  of  German  extraction,  was  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1527.  After  travelling  in  England  and  on 
the  continent,  he  published  in  1570  his  "Universal 
Geography,"  ("  Theatrum  Orbis  Terrarum,")  and  in 
1575  was  appointed  geographer  to  Philip  II.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Mercator,  Justus  Lipsius,  and  other 
eminent  men  of  the  time.  Besides  the  above-mentioned 
work,  which  is  still  highly  valued,  and  which  obtained 
for  its  author  the  name  of  the  "  Ptolemy  of  his  age," 
Oertel  wrote  several  antiquarian  treatises.  Died  in  1598. 

See  F.  SwEERT,  "  Insignium  ejus  ^vi  Poetariim  Lacrymas  in 
Obitum  A.  Ortelii,"  1601. 

Ortigne,  d',  doR^t^g',  (Joseph  Louis,)  a  French  jour- 
nalist and  writer  on  nmsic,  born  at  Cavaillon  in  1802. 
He  became  professor  de  chant  at  the  College  Henri  IV., 
Paris,  in  1839. 

Ortigue,  d',  (Pierre,)  a  French  novelist,  born  at  Apt 
in  1610.  He  wrote  several  novels,  and  "  The  Art  of 
Pleasing  in  Conversation,"  (1688.)  Died  in  1693. 

Ortiz,  oR-t6th',  (Alonzo,)  a  Spanish  historian  and 
theologian,  born  at  Toledo,  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Ortolan,  oR^to'lSN',  (  Joseph  Louis  Elz^ar,  )  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Toulon  (Var)  in  1802.  He  pub- 
lished in  1827  his  principal  work,  a  "Historical  Expli- 
cation of  the  Institutes  of  Justinian,"  (3  vols.,)  which  is 
considered  classic  in  several  universities  of  Europe. 

Or'ton,  (Job,)  an  English  nonconformist  minister, 
born  at  Shrewsbury  in  171 7.  He  preached  at  Shrews- 
bury about  twenty-four  years,  and  removed  to  Kid- 
derminster about  1766.  He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  Dr. 
Doddridge,"  "  Sacramental  Meditations,"  and  other  re- 
ligious works.    Died  in  1783. 

Orton,  (Reginald,)  an  English  surgeon  and  medical 
writer,  born  in  1810.  He  practised  at  Sunderland, 
where  he  died  in  September,  1862. 

Orts,  oRts,  (Charles,)  a  Belgian  politician,  born  at 
Brussels  about  181 5.  He  is  an  orator  of  the  Liberal  party. 

Orus.    See  Horus. 

Orville,  d',  doR'vel',  (Jacques  Philippe,)  a  distin- 
guished critic  and  scholar,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1696, 
was  descended  from  a  French  family.  After  having 
visited  England,  Italy,  and  Paris,  where  he  acquired  the 
friendship  of  Bentley,  Muratori,  Montfaucon,  and  other 
eminent  men,  he  became  professor  of  humanities  at 
Amsterdam  about  1730.  He  published  a  number  of 
valuable  criticisms  on  the  classics,  and  a  "  Dissertation 
on  the  Inscriptions  of  Delos,"  which  is  particularly 
esteemed.    Died  in  1751. 

Orvilliers,  d',  doR'v^'ye-i',  ( Louis  Guillouet,  ) 
Count,  a  French  admiral,  \vas  born  at  Moulins  in  1708. 
He  commanded  a  large  fleet  which  fought  an  indecisive 
battle  against  the  English  under  Keppel,  near  Ushant, 
in  1778."  Died  after  1791. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Fran^ais." 


Orzechowski,  oR-zi-Kov'skee,  [Lat.  Orich(/vius,] 
(Stanislaus,)  a  Polish  orator  and  historian,  born  in 
1 5 13,  studied  theology  under  Luther  at  Wittenberg. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Annals  of  Poland 
from  the  Death  of  Sigismund,"  ("Annales  Poloniae," 
etc.,  1611.)    Died  in  1567. 

Os,  van,  vtn  oss,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  artist,  born  at  Mid- 
delharnis  in  1744,  excelled  as  a  fruit-  and  flower-painter. 
He  was  regarded  as  the  most  successful  imitator  of  Van 
Huysum,  Died  in  1808,  His  son  Pieter  Gerardus, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1776,  painted  landscapes  with 
animals  of  various  kinds,  which  are  esteemed  master- 
pieces. Died  in  1839.  Georg  Jacob  Jan,  younger 
brother  of  Pieter,  was  born  in  1782,  and  gained  a  high 
reputation  as  a  flower-painter.  He  visited  France  in 
1812,  where  he  painted  for  the  porcelain-manufactory  at 
Sevres.  In  1850  one  of  his  flower-pieces  sold  at  Am- 
sterdam for  four  thousand  five  hundred  florins. 

Osaibia,  o-si'be-a,  or,  more  fully,  Ibn-Abi-Osaibia, 
ib'n  i'bee  o-si'be-J,  written  also  Osaiba,  an  Arabian 
physician,  born  in  1203.  He  practised  at  Sarchad,  in 
Syria,  and  wrote  "  Fontes  Relationum  de  Classibus 
Medicorum,"  which  contains  biographical  notices  of 
many  ancient  physicians,  and  is  highly  commended. 
Died  in  1269. 

Osann,  o-z^n',  (Emil,)  a  German  physician,  born  at 
Weimar  in  1787,  was  a  relative  of  the  celebrated  Hufe- 
land.  After  filling  various  professorships,  he  became  in 
1838  priw  councillor  of  medicine  at  Berlin.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  mineral  waters.    Died  in  1842. 

Osann,  (Friedrich  Gotthilf,)  a  German  antiquary 
and  philologist,  born  at  Weimar  in  1794.  In  1825  he 
became  professor  of  ancient  literature  at  Giessen. 
Among  his  most  important  works  we  may  name  his 
"Contributions  to  the  History  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Literature,"  (2  vols.,  1835-39.)    Died  in  1858. 

Osbeck,  os'blk,  (Peter,)  a  Swedish  naturalist  and 
traveller,  born. near  Gottemburg  in  1723.  He  published 
a  "Journal  of  a  Voyage  to  the  East  Indies,"  (1757,) 
which  is  a  work  of  merit.    Died  in  1805. 

Os'born,  (John,)  an  American  physician,  born  in 
1766.  He  was  professor  of  medicine  in  the  city  of  New 
York.    Died  in  1819. 

Osborn,  (Selleck,)  an  American  poet  and  journalist, 
born  in  Connecticut  in  1783  ;  died  in  1826. 

Os'born,  (Sherard,)  Captain,  a  British  naval  officer 
and  writer,  born  about  1820.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  The  Career,  Last  Voyage,  and  Fate  of  Sir  John 
Franklin." 

Osborne,  oz'burn,  (Francis,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  Bedfordshire  about  1589,  was  an  adherent  of  Crom- 
well in  the  civil  war.  His  "  Advice  to  a  Son,"  published 
in  1659,  was  very  popular  at  the  time.  He  also  wrote 
several  historical  and  biographical  works.   Died  in  1659. 

See  Wood,  "Atliense  Oxonienses." 

Osborne,  oz'burn,  (George,)  a  composer  and  pianist, 
born  at  Limerick,  Ireland,  in  1806, 

Osborne,  (Ralph  Bernal,)  an  English  Liberal  mem- 
ber of  Parliament,  noted  for  his  wit  and  facetious 
speeches.  He  entered  the  House  of  Commons  in  1841, 
was  returned  for  Middlesex  in  1847,  for  Dover  in  1857.. 
for  Liskeard  in  1859,  and  for  Waterford  in  1870. 

Osborne,  (Sir  Thomas.)    See  Danby,  Earl  of. 

Os'car  or  Os'kar  I.,  King  of  Sweden,  born  in  Paris  in 
1799,  was  the  son  of  General  Bernadotte,  (Carl  XIV.  of 
Sweden.)  He  married  Josephine,  a  daughter  of  Eugene 
de  Beauharnais,  in  1823,  and  acted  as  regent  during 
the  illness  of  his  father  in  1828.  He  succeeded  his  father 
in  March,  1844.    His  reign  was  pacific.    Died  in  1859. 

See  G.  H.  Mkllin,  "Oscar  I.  Historia,"  1844;  "  Fraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  February,  1848. 

Os-ge-oTa  or  As-se-ho'lar  Nik-kan-o'chee,  some- 
times written  Oceola,  an  Indian  chief  of  the  Semi- 
noles,  born  in  Florida  in  1803.  His  wife  having  been 
claimed  as  a  slave,  and  carried  off  by  order  of  a  slave- 
holder, in  1835,  Osceola  declared  war  against  the  whites, 
and,  after  fighting  two  years  with  varying  success,  was 
taken  prisoner  and  confined  in  Fort'  Moultrie,  where 
he  died  in  1837. 

See  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Early  Days,  etc.  of  Osceola  Nikkanochee," 
by  his  guardian. 


i,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure]  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon  • 


OSCVLATI 


1715 


OSSAT 


Osculati,  os-koo-li'tee,  (Gaetano,)  an  Italian  natu- 
ralist and  traveller,  born  at  Vedano,  in  Lombardy,  in 
1808.  He  visited  many  countries  of  Asia,  Africa,  and 
South  America,  between  1830  and  1848.  He  published 
a  work  called  "  Exploration  of  the  Equatorial  Region 
near  the  Napo,"  (1854.) 

Osee,  the  French  for  HosEA,  which  see. 

Oserof,  Oserov,  or  Oserow,  o's§r-of,  (Vladtslaf 
Alexandrovitch,)  a  Russian  dramatist,  born  in  1770. 
Among  his  best  works  are  the  tragedies  of  "  Polixena," 
"  Fingal,"  and  "The  Death  of  Olga."  He  also  pub- 
lished a  collection  of  lyric  poems.    Died  in  1816. 

See  Gretch,  "  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Russe." 

Os'good,  (David,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congrega- 
tional divine,  born  at  Andover,  Massachusetts,  in  1747, 
settled  as  pastor  at  Medford,  where  he  preached  many 
years.    Died  in  1822. 

Osgood,  (Frances  Sargent,)  an  American  poetess, 
born  at  Boston  about  1812.  At  an  early  age  she  con- 
tributed a  number  of  poems  to  the  "  Juvenile  Miscellany," 
edited  by  Mrs.  L.  M.  Child,  and  subsequently  wrote  for 
the  "  Ladies'  Magazine."  She  was  married  in  1835  to 
Mr.  S.  S.  Osgood,  a  distinguished  artist.  While  re- 
siding with  her  husband  in  London,  she  published  a  col- 
lection of  poems  entitled  "  A  Wreath  of  Wild  Flowers 
from  New  England,"  which  were  favourably  received. 
After  her  return  she  edited  the  souvenirs  entitled  "  The 
Floral  Offering"  and  "The  Poetry  of  Flowers."  Died 
in  1850. 

See  Griswold,  "  Female  Poets  of  America ;"  Cleveland, 
"Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Osgood,  (Samuel,)  born  at  Andover,  Massachusetts, 
in  1748,  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1781.  He  was  ap- 
pointed first  commissioner  of  the  treasury,  (1785,)  post- 
master-general, (1789,)  and  naval  officer  for  the  port  of 
New  York,  (1803.)    Died  in  1813. 

Osgood,  (Samuei,,)  D.D.,  an  American  Unitarian 
divine,  born  at  Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  in  181 2, 
became  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Messiah,  New 
York,  in  1849.  He  has  published  "  Studies  iif  Chris- 
tian Biography,"  (1851,)  "God  with  Men,"  (1854,)  and 
"  Milestones  in  our  Life-Journey,"  (1855.)  He  has  also 
made  translations  from  the  German,  and  contributed  to 
the  "  North  American  Review,"  "  Christian  Examiner," 
and  "Bibliotheca  Sacra." 

Osiander,  o-ze-in'der,  (Andreas,)  originally  Hose- 
mann,  a  German  theologian,  and  one  of  the  first  schol- 
ars of  his  time,  was  born  near  Nuremberg  in  1498.  He 
was  a  devoted  adherent  of  Luther,  and  was  present  at  the 
Conference  of  Marburg  in  1529,  and  at  the  Diet  of  Augs- 
burg in  1530.  He  became  subsequently  professor  of 
theology  in  the  University  of  Konigsberg.  About  1549 
he  engaged  in  a  controversy  on  the  nature  of  repentance 
and  other  points  of  doctrine  with  Martin  Chemnitz  and 
Melanchthon.  He  died  in  1552,  leaving  a  number  of 
theological  and  controversial  treatises. 

See  WiLKEN,  "  Andreas  Osianders  Leben,"  1844  ;  M.  Adam, 
"Vitje  Theologorum  Germanorimi." 

Osiander,  (Andreas,)  a  son  of  Lucas,  noticed  below, 
was  born  in  1562.  He  was  chancellor  of  the  University 
of  Tubingen,  and  wrote  several  works  on  theology.  Died 
in  1617. 

Osiander,  (Johann  Adam,)  born  at  Tubingen  in 
1626,  was  professor  of  theology  in  that  city.  He  wrote 
a  Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  (1676-78,)  and  on 
other  books  of  Scripture.    Died  in  1697. 

Osiander,  (Johann  Adam,)  a  philologist,  born  at 
Tiibingen  in  1 701,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding. 
Died  in  1756. 

Osiander,  (Lucas,)  the  Elder,  a  son  of  Andreas, 
(1498-1552,)  was  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1534.  He  was 
apjwinted  in  1567  court  preacher  to  Duke- Frederick  of 
Wiirtemberg,  and  published  several  polemical  treatises. 
Died  in  1604. 

Osiander,  (Lucas,)  the  Younger,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Stuttgart  about  1570.  He  became 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Tiibingen.  His  writings 
are  chiefly  controversial.    Died  in  1638. 

Osinski,  o-s^ns'kee,  (Lewis,)  a  distinguished  Polish 
poet  and  litterateur^  born  in  1775.  He  published  in  1804 
an  excellent  translation  of  Corneille's  tragedies  into 


Polish.  Among  his  poems,  which  are  highly  esteemed, 
we  may  name  the  "Ode  to  Copernicus."    Died  in  1838. 

Osio,  o'se-o,  [Lat.  O^'sius,]  (Felice,)  an  Italian  litte- 
rateur^ born  at  Milan  in  1587,  was  professor  of  rhetoric 
in  the  University  of  Padua  in  162 1.  He  pul)lished, 
among  other  works,  a  "Eulogy  of  Illustrious  Writers," 
and  a  number  of  "Orations."    Died  in  1631. 

O-si'ris,  [Gr.  'Oa<ptf,]  the  god  of  the  Nile,  and  one 
of  the  princij^al  divinities  of  Egypt,  was  said  to  be  the 
husband  of  Isis  and  father  of  Horus.  He  was  regarded 
as  the  author  of  Egyptian  civilization,  and  the  first  who 
taught  the  arts  and  sciences  to  that  nation.  Tradition 
adds  that  he  visited  and  civilized  India,  Arabia,  and 
other  countries,  and  after  his  return  was  murdered  by 
Typhon.  He  was  worshipped  under  the  form  of  the 
bull  Apis,  into  which  it  was  supposed  his  soul  migrated 
when  he  was  slain  by  Typhon.  Osiris  and  Isis  are  to 
be  regarded  as  different  manifestations  of  one  divine 
principle,  the  former  representing  the  beneficent  power 
of  nature  in  activity,  the  latter  in  passivity,  so  that 
neither  is  complete  without  the  other  ;  and  hence  Osiris, 
according  to  some,  represented  the  life-giving  power  of 
the  sun,  and  Isis  the  fertility  of  the  earth. 

See  Plutarch,  "Treatise  on  Isis  and  Osiris;"  Guigniaut, 
"Religions  de  I'Antiquite,"  Paris,  1825,  book  iii.  chap.  ii. ;  "Bio- 
graphie  Universelle,"  (^Partie  mythologique.) 

Osius.    See  Osio. 

O'si-us,  Bishop  of  Cordova,  born  in  Spain  in  256  \ 
A.D.,  enjoyed  the  favour  and  confidence  of  Constantine 
the  Great,  who,  on  his  recommendation,  convoked  the 
Council  of  Nice.  He  was  afterwards  induced  by  the 
threats  of  the  emperor  Constantius  to  subscribe  to  the 
Arian  confession  of  faith,  for  which  he  subsequently 
testified  sincere  repentance.    Died  about  358  a.d. 

Oskar.    See  Oscar. 

Osman.    See  Othman. 

Osm^n,  os-mSn',  I.,  written  also  Othman,  Otman, 
and  Ottoman,  the  founder  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  was 
the  son  of  Ortogrul  or  Ertogrul,  a  Toorkoman  chief,  who 
founded  a  colony  near  the  river  Sangar,  in  Asia  Minor. 
Having,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  (1280,)  become  chief 
of  the  tribe,  he  first  invaded  Greece  in  1299,  and  within 
a  few  years  possessed  himself  of  a  large  portion  of  that 
country  and  the  whole  of  the  province  of  Bithynia. 
Osman  never  assumed  the  title  of  Sultan,  though  he  had 
money  coined  and  public  prayers  given  in  his  name. 
As  a  ruler,  he  was  distinguished  for  his  wisdom,  hu- 
manity, and  military  talents.  He  died  in  1326,  leaving  a 
valuable  work  containing  maxims  for  government.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Oorkhan,  (Orkhan.) 

See  Von  Hammer,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Osm^n  or  Othman  II.,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  born  in 
1604,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Ahmed  I.  He  began  to 
reign  in  1618,  and  was  assassinated  in  1622. 

bsm^n  or  Othman  III.,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  born  in 
1696,  was  a  younger  son  of  Mustafa  II.  He  succeeded 
his  brother,  Mahmood  I.,  in  1754.    Died  in  1757. 

Osmond,  d',  dos^m6N',  (Ren6  Eustache,)  Marquis, 
a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  Hayti  in  1751.  He  was 
sent  by  Louis  XVIII.  as  ambassador  to  England  in 
1815.    Died  in  1838. 

Os'mund  or  Os''mond,  Saint,  a  celebrated  ecclesi- 
astic, born  in  Normandy,  accompanied  William  the  Con- 
queror to  England  in  1066,  and  was  created  successively 
chancellor,  and  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  In  1099  he  rebuilt 
the  cathedral  of  Salisbury,  which  had  been  destroyed 
by  fire.  He  was  the  compiler  of  the  liturgy  called  the 
"  Usages  of  Sarum."    Died  in  1099. 

See  Butler,  "Lives  of  the  Saints." 

Osorio,  o-so're-o,  fLat.  Oso'rius,]  (Jeronymo,)  a 
learned  Portuguese  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1506, 
was  Bishop  of  Silves.  Among  his  works  (written  in 
Latin)  are  a  "  History  of  the  Achievements  of  King 
Emanuel,"  and  a  "  Letter  to  Elizabeth,  Queen  of  Eng- 
land," (1555,)  on  the.Catholic  religion.    Died  in  1580. 

See  the  "  Retro?pective  Review,"  vol.  i.,  (1820.) 

Osorius.    See  Osorio. 

Ossa,  de,  (Jacques.)    See  John  XXIT. 

Ossat,  d',  do^st',  [Lat.  Ossa'tus,]  (ARNAUD,)an  able 
French  diplomatist  and  cardinal,  born  near  Auch  in 
1536.    Having  accompanied  the  ambassador  PaUl  de 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


0SS.4TUS 


1716 


OSTEN-SJCKEN 


Foix  to  Rome  as  his  secretary,  (1574,)  he  assisted  in 
promoting  a  reconciliation  between  llenry  IV.  and  the 
j)ope.  He  published  a  collection  of  "Letters,"  which 
are  esteemed  models  of  diplomatic  sagacity,  and  are 
highly  commended  by  Lord  Chesterfield.  De  Thou 
dedicated  to  Cardinal  d'Ossat  his  poem  on  the  death 
of  Henry  III.    Died  in  1604. 

See  D'Arconville,  "Vie  dii  Cardinal  d'Ossat,"  1771 ;"  Gallia 
Christiana;"  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  *' Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Ossatus.    See  Ossat,  d'. 

Osselin,  os'I^n',  (Charles  Nicolas,)  a  French  Ja- 
cobin and  lawyer,  born  in  Paris  in  1754.  He  became  in 
1792  a  member  of  the  Convention,  in  which  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  enacting  laws  against  the  emigrants. 
He  was  guillotined  in  June,  1794. 

Ossenbeeck,  os'sen-bak^,  a  skilful  Dutch  landscape- 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1627.  He 
worked  many  years  in  Italy,  and  adopted  the  Italian 
style.    Died  in  1678. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Ossian,  osh'e-an,  a  semi-fabulous  Scottish  bard  and 
hero  of  the  third  century,  was  said  to  be  the  son  of  Fin- 
gal,  King  of  Morven.  A  pretended  translation  of  his 
poems,  which  was  published  by  James  Macpherson  in 
1765,  gave  rise  to  a  spirited  controversy  among  the 
English  literati  concerning  the  genuineness  of  these 
productions.    (See  Macpherson.) 

Ossoli,  os'so-lee,  (originally  Sarah  Margaret  Ful- 
ler,) Marchioness,  an  American  lady,  whose  talents, 
rare  individuality  of  character,  and  untimely  death  have 
given  to  her  history  a  peculiar  and  tragic  interest,  was 
born  at  Cambridgeport,  in  Massachusetts,  May  23,  1810. 
Under  the  care  of  her  father,  a  lawyer  and  member  of 
Congress,  she  was  early  and  thoroughly  instructed  in 
the  classics.  It  is  related  that  he  used  to  say  of  her, 
while  still  a  child,  that  she  "knew  more  Latin  and  Greek 
than  half  the  professors."  At  a  very  early  age  she 
had  also  made  great  proficiency  in  French  and  Italian. 
After  the  death  of  her  father,  in  1835,  she  became  teacher 
of  languages  in  Boston,  and  subsequently  principal  of 
a  school  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island.  In  1839  she 
published  a  translation  of  Eckermann's  "Conversations 
with  Goethe."  She  became  in  1840  editor  of  "The 
Dial,"  a  periodical  instituted  for  the  advocacy  and  dif- 
fusion of  Transcendentalism  in  America,  and  for  which 
she  wrote  a  number  of  admirable  articles  on  literature 
and  art.  Her  critique  on  Goethe  especially,  in  the 
second  volume  of  the  "Dial,"  has  been  greatly  and 
deservedly  praised.  "  Nowhere,"  says  Mr.  Emerson, 
"did  Goethe  find  a  braver,  more  intelligent,  or  more 
sympathetic  reader."  Her  "  Summer  on  the  Lakes,"  a 
vivid  and  truthful  picture  of  prairie-life,  was  published 
in  1843.  Soon  after,  she  took  charge  of  the  literary 
department  of  the  New  York  "Tribune."  In  1846  she 
visited  England,  where  she  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Carlyle  and  other  eminent  men.  From  London  she 
journeyed  through  France  to  Italy.  At  Rome  she  acci- 
dentally became  acquainted  with  the  Marquis  Ossoli,  to 
whom,  though  many  years  younger  than  herself,  she 
was  married  in  December,  1847.  She  took  the  deepest 
interest  in  the  cause  of  Italian  liberty,  and  during  the 
siege  of  Rome,  in  1849,  devoted  herself  with  untiring 
assiduity  to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded.  In  May, 
1850,  she  and  her  husband  set  sail  for  America;  but,  a 
violent  storm  having  arisen  when  they  were  near  the 
coast  of  the  United  States,  the  vessel  struck  on  Fire 
Island  beach.  Long  Island,  in  the  morning  of  the  i6th 
of  July,  and  a  few  hours  after  went  to  pieces.  Among 
t;hose  who  perished  were  the  Marquis  and  Marchioness 
Ossoli  and  their  child. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Margaret  Fuller  Ossoli,"  by  R.  W.  Emerson, 
Wii.i.iAM  H.  Channing,  and  James  F.Clarke,  Boston,  1851  ;  Al- 
LiBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  Griswoi.d,  "Prose  Writers  of 
America;"  Duyckinck,  " Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature." 

Ossolinski,  os-so-l^n'skee,  (George,)  a  Polish  states- 
man, born  in  1595.  He  rose  to  be  grand  chancellor  of 
the  kingdom  of  Poland,  in  which  capacity  he  presided 
over  the  religious  conference  at  Thorn,  where  Vladislaus 
IV.  sought  to  unite  the  Catholics  and  Protestants.  He 
was  also  created  by  Ferdinand  II.  a  prince  of  the  Aus- 
trian empire.    Died  in  1650. 


Ossolinski,  (Jozef  Maximilian,)  Count  of  Ten- 
czyn,  a  Polish  litterateur,  born  in  1748.  He  removed  to 
Vienna  in  1789,  and  was  appointed  by  Francis  I.  super- 
intendent of  the  Royal  Library.  He  was  the  author  of 
historical  and  critical  treatises,  and  of  a  number  of  tales, 
and  founded  at  Lemberg  the  Institute  called  by  his 
name.    Died  in  1826. 

Ossonne.    See  Ossuna. 

Os'so-ry,  (Thomas  Butler,)  Earl  of,  a  gallant 
commander,  born  probably  in  Ireland  in  1634,  was  a  son 
of  the  first  Duke  of  Ormond.  His  biographer  Lodge 
calls  him  a  "model  of  almost  universal  perfection." 
Soon  after  the  restoration  of  1660  he  obtained  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-general,  and  in  1666  he  was  created  an 
English  peer,  as  Lord  Butler.  Having  served  with 
distinction  in  several  sea-fights  against  the  Dutch,  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  admiral  about  1674.  In 
1677  he  commanded  the  English  troops  that  fought  for 
the  Prince  of  Orange  at  the  battle  of  Mons.  Died  in 
1680.    His  son  became  Duke  of  Ormond. 

See  Lodge,  "Portraits  of  Illustrious  Personages." 

Ossuna  or  Osuna,  os-soon'yi,  [Fr.  Ossonne  or 
Ossone,  o^son',]  (Don  Pedro  Tellez  y  Giron  —  x.h\- 
yhtW  e  He-r6n',)  Duke  of,  a  celebrated  Spanish  states- 
man, born  at  Valladolid  in  1579.  After  completing  his 
studies  at  Salamanca,  he  repaired  to  the  court  of  Philip 
II.,  from  which,  in  consequence  of  indulging  his  caustic 
wit,  he  was  banished.  Having  spent  some  time  in  France 
and  Portugal,  he  returned  to  Spain  on  the  death  of  Philip 
II.,  but  he  again  had  the  misfortune  to  be  exiled  from 
the  court.  He  was  recalled  to  Spain  in  1607,  and  was 
created  a  member  of  the  council  and  knight  of  the 
golden  fleece.  Through  his  influence  the  independence 
of  Holland  was  acknowledged  in  the  treaty  of  1609,  and 
he  opposed  warmly,  though  unsuccessfully,  the  expulsion 
of  the  Moors,  which  took  place  about  this  time.  In 
1611  he  was  sent  as  viceroy  to  Sicily,  and  in  1616  filled 
the  same  office  at  Naples,  where  he  defended  the  people 
against  the  oppressions  of  the  nobles  and  the  clergy. 
He  gained  a  signal  victory  in  161 7  over  the  Venetians, 
who  had  claimed  exclusive  rule  over  the  Adriatic  Sea. 
Having  refused  to  introduce  the  Inquisition  into  Naples 
when  required  to  do  so  by  Philip  HI.,  and  being  sus- 
pected of  aspiring  to  supreme  power,  Ossuna  was  super- 
seded by  Cardinal  Borgia  in  1620.  He  died  in  prison 
in  1624,  after  three  years'  imprisonment  in  Spain. 

See  Gregorio  Leti,  "Vita  di  P.  Giron,  Duca  d'Ossunna,"  3  vols., 
169S  ;  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Ostade,  van,  vtn  os'ti'deh,  (Adrian,)  a  celebrated 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1610,  was  a 
pupil  of  Rembrandt  and  of  Francis  Hals.  His  subjects 
were  generally  taken  from  low  life,  such  as  tavern  scenes, 
peasants  drinking  and  smoking,  and  the  interiors  of  cot- 
tages. His  pictures  are  exceedingly  spirited  and  true  to 
nature,  and  are  distinguished  for  splendour  and  trans- 
parency of  colouring.  Among  his  best  pieces  are  "The 
Fish-Market,"  "A  Sinoker  Lighting  his  Pipe,"  and 
"  The  Family  of  Adrian  van  Ostade."  He  worked  many 
years  at  Amsterdam,  where  he  died  in  1685. 

See  Weyerman,"  De  Schilderkonst  der  Nederlanders  ;"  Charles 
Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres;"  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres 
Hollandais,"  etc. 

Ostade,  van,  (Isaac,)  a  painter,  a  younger  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Lubeck  about  1615.  His 
style  resembled  that  of  Adrian.  He  worked  at  Amster- 
dam, and  painted  landscapes  which  are  greatly  admired. 
He  excelled  in  representing  animals  and  in  village 
scenes.  His  death  is  variously  dated  from  about  1654 
to  1671. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. ; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Osten-Sacken,  os'ten-sSk'ken,  (Dmitri,)  a  Russian 
general,  born  in  1790,  served  under  Paskievitch  in  the 
war  against  the  Persians,  (1826-29,)  and  afterwards  fought 
with  distinction  against  the  Poles  in  1831.  He  defended 
Odessa  with  success  against  the  allies  in  May,  1854. 

Osten-Sacken,  von  der,  fon  der  os'ten-sSk'ken, 
(Fabian  Wilhelm,)  Prince,  a  Russian  field-marshal, 
born  in  Livonia  in  1752.  He  served  under  Suwarow 
against  the  Turks  and  Poles,  and  took  an  active  part  in 
the  campaigns  of  1812-15.    In  1818  he  succeeded  Bar- 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  flr,  f^ll,  fit;  mgt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


OSTERHAUS 


1717 


OTHO 


clay  de  Tolly  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  first  army, 
and  in  1826  was  made  a  field-marshal.    Died  in  1837. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Osterhaus,  os'ter-howss^  (Peter  J.,)  a  general,  born 
in  Prussia,  entered  the  service  of  the  United  States  in 
1861,  commanded  a  division  or  brigade  at  the  battle 
of  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862,  and  became  a  brigadier- 
general  in  June  of  that  year.  He  took  part  in  the  assault 
on  Vicksburg,  May  22,  1863,  and  commanded  a  corps  of 
Sherman's  army  in  the  march  from  Atlanta  to  Savannah, 
November-December,  1864. 

bsterley.    See  Oesterley. 

Ostermann,  os'ter-min',  (Heinrich  Johann  Fried- 
rich,)  a  celebrated  diplomatist,  born  in  Westphalia  in 
1686,  assumed  the  name  of  Andrei  Ivanovitch.  In 
1704  he  entered  the  service  of  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia, 
for  whom  he  negotiated  the  peace  of  Nystadt  in  1721. 
After  filling  various  high  offices  under  Peter,  he  was,  on 
the  death  of  that  monarch,  patronized  by  the  empress 
Catherine  I.,  who  made  him  vice-chancellor,  and  by  her 
will  appointed  him  governor  to  her  son  Peter  II.  and  a 
member  of  the  council  of  regency.  In  1730  he  was 
created  a  count  by  Peter  II.  After  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth  (1741)  he  was  exiled  to  Siberia,  where  he  died 
in  1747. 

See  Hempel,  "  Leben  und  Fall  des  Grafen  von  Ostermann,"  1742. 

Ostermann-Tolstoi,  os'ter-m^n'  toKstoi,  (Alex- 
ander Ivanovitch,)  Count,  a  Russian  general,  born 
at  Saint  Petersburg  about  1770.  He  served  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  1806  and  1812,  and  distinguished  himself 
particularly  at  the  battle  of  Kulm,  (1813.)  He  was 
afterwards  made  general-in-chief  of  engineers  by  the 
emperor  Alexander.    Died  in  1837. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire." 

Ostervald,  os'ter-v51t^  (Jean  Fr6d6ric,)  a  Swiss 
Protestant  divine,  eminent  for  learning  and  piety,  born 
at  Neufchatel  in  1663.  He  published  an  "  Abridgment 
of  the  History  of  the  Bible,"  an  edition  of  the  Bible  in 
French,  which  is  called  by  his  name,  '*  Christian  Ethics," 
and  a  "Catechism."  He  preached  many  years  at  Neuf- 
chatel.   Died  in  1747. 

Ostrog,  os'tRog,  (Constantine,)  Duke  of,  a  Polish 
nobleman,  distinguished  himself  by  his  hostility  to  the 
Jesuits  and  to  the  union  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Churches.  He  endeavoured  at  the  Synod  of  Thorn  to 
effect  a  union  with  the  Protestants  of  Poland.  He  pub- 
lished in  1581  the  old  Slavonian  translation  of  the  Bible 
called  by  his  name.    Died  in  1608. 

Ostrog,  (Constantine  Vasilii,  )  was  created  by 
Sigismund,  King  of  Poland,  grand  commander  of  Lithu- 
ania, and  in  15 14  obtained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the 
Russians  at  Orsza. 

Ostrovsky  or  Ostrowski,  os-trofskee,  (A.  N.,)  a 
popular  Russian  dramatist  of  the  present  age.  He 
began  his  literary  career  about  1850.  His  works  were 
published  in  4  vols.,  1859-67. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1868. 

Osuna.    See  Ossuna. 

Oswald,  os'wilt,  (Erasmus,)  a  German  mathema- 
tician and  biblical  writer,  born  in  Austria  in  1511.  He 
was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Tubingen  and  at  Freiburg. 
He  translated  the  New  Testament  into  Hebrew.  Died 
in  1579. 

Os'wald,  Saint,  King  of  Northumbria,  born  in  604 
or  605  A.D.  He  defeated  Cadwalla,  King  of  Wales,  and 
was  killed  in  a  battle  against  Penda,  King  of  Mercia,  in 
642  A.D. 

Os-y-man'dy-as,  an  ancient  Egyptian  king,  to  whom 
the  Memnonium  and  other  magnificent  structures  of 
Thebes  are  attributed,  is  supposed  to  have  flourished 
about  2000  B.C.  His  name,  according  to  Strabo,  is  only 
a  variation  of  Ismandes.  He  is  also  famed  for  his  con- 
quests over  the  Bactrians,  and  his  exploits  were  repre- 
sented on  the  walls  of  an  immense  temple  which  he  built 
at  Thebes.  This  edifice,  which  was  esteemed  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  antiquity,  contained  the  first  library  of 
which  we  have  any  account. 

Ot-a-ciKi-a  Se-ve'ra,  (Marcia,)  wife  of  the  Roman 
emperor  M.  Julius  Philippus,  lived  about  250  A.D. 

Otfried,  ot'fR^;t,  [Lat.  Otfri'dus,]  a  learned  German 
monk  of  the  ninth  century,  supposed  to  have  been  a 


native  of  Franconia.  His  poetical  version  of  the  Gospels, 
published  about  868,  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
valuable  monuments  of  the  old  German  language. 

Otfridus.    See  Otfried. 

Other.    See  Ottar. 

Othman,  (Sultans  of  Turkey.)    See  Osman. 

Othman-Ibn-Affan,  oth'ml./  ib'n  M'ihV,  the  third 
of  the  caliphs  who  succeeded  Mohammed,  was  a  distant 
relative  and  a  devoted  follower  of  the  prophet.  He 
was  invested  with  the  caliphate  in  644  A.D.  He  made 
extensive  conquests  in  Persia,  Africa,  and  the  island  of 
Cyprus,  but  he  rendered  himself  unpopular  by  the  favours 
he  lavished  upon  his  relatives  and  friends.  Through 
the  intrigues  of  Ayeshah,  widow  of  the  prophet,  and  a 
nutnber  of  disaffected  nobles,  a  conspiracy  was  formed 
against  his  life,  and  he  perished  by  the  hand  of  Mo- 
hammed, son  of  the  caliph  Aboo-Bekr,  in  656  A.D.  Oth- 
man was  married  successively  to  two  daughters  of  the 
prophet  Mohammed. 

See  OcKLEY,  "  History  of  the  Saracens  ;"  Irving,  "  Mahomet  and 
his  Successors:"  Weil,  "  Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  iii. 

Othman-Ibn-Yahya-Alkaisee,  (-Alcaisi,)  oth'- 

mhV  ib'n  yi'he-S  2.1-ki'see,  a  Spanish  Arab  of  distin- 
guished talents  and  learning,  was  born  at  Malaga  in»the 
thirteenth  century,  and  rose  to  be  governor  of  that  city. 
He  wrote  treatises  "  De  Hasreditate"  and  "DeMensuris 
Hispanis,"  and  a  work  entitled  "  Grammatical  Ques- 
tions," ("Quaesita  Grammatica.")    Died  in  1334. 

O'tho,  [Fr.  Othon,  o't6N',]  (Marcus  Salvius,)  Em- 
peror of  Rome,  born  about  32  A.D.,  was  descended  from 
a  patrician  family.  He  was  for  a  time  an  intitnate  asso- 
ciate of  Nero,  until  the  attachment  of  the  latter  for  Pop- 
paea,  Otho's  wife,  caused  a  rupture  between  them.  He 
supported  Galba  in  his  revolt  against  Nero,  in  68  A.D., 
but,  disappointed  that  the  former  did  not  appoint  him 
his  successor,  he  conspired  with  the  guards,  took  the 
life  of  Galba,  and  assumed  the  supreme  power.  He  soon 
after  marched  against  Caecina,  a  general  of  Vitellius, 
who  had  been  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  legions  in 
Germany.  His  army  having  been  totally  defeated  near 
Bebriacum,  Otho  destroyed  himself  in  April,  69  A.D., 
and  was  succeeded  by  Vitellius.  Otho  was  a  man  of 
profligate  character. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Otho;"  Merivale,  "The  Romans 
under  the  Empire  ;"  Suetonius,  "Otho;"  W.  E.  Weber,  "Kaiser 
M.  Salvius  Otho,"  1815;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

O'tho  [Fr.  Othon,  o't6N' ;  Ger.  Ot'to]  I.,  the 
Great,  son  of  Henry  I.,  was  born  in  912  a.d.,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  Emperor  of  Germany  in  936.  Soon 
after  his  accession  he  was  involved  in  a  protracted  war 
with  Boleslavv,  Duke  of  Bohemia,  whom  he  compelled  to 
acknowledge  his  supremacy,  (950.)  He  repressed  the 
arrogance  of  the  feudal  barons,  founded  numerous  bish- 
oprics, and  was  zealous  in  his  efforts  to  propagate  Chris- 
tianity. He  defeated  Harold,  King  of  the  Danes,  whom 
he  obliged  to  be  baptized  and  to  become  tributary  to 
Germany.  In  951  he  went  to  the  assistance  of  the  Ital- 
ians against  the  usurper  Berengarius,  who  had  murdered 
King  Lotharius  and  imprisoned  Adelaide,  his  queen, 
whom  Otho  married  the  same  year.  He  was  crowned 
emperor  at  Rome  by  Pope  John  XII.  in  962,  and  as- 
sumed the  title  of  Caesar.  The  pope,  having  soon  after 
conspired  with  the  enemies  of  Otho,  was  deposed  by  him, 
and  Leo  VIII,  elected  in  his  place.  In  972  his  son, 
Otho  II.,  whom  he  had  previously  caused  to  be  crowned 
at  Rome,  married  the  princess  Theophania,  daughter  of 
Nicephorus  Phocas,  Emperor  of  the  East.  Otho  died 
in  973.  "  He  deserves,"  says  Sismondi,  '*  more  than 
Charlemagne  the  name  of  Great,  because  his  reign  had 
a  much  more  salutary  influence  on  the  nations  whom  he 
subjected."  Other  historians,  however,  have  expressed 
a  different  opinion. 

See  Vehse,  "Leben  Otto  des  Grossen,"  1829;  Boehmer,  "Re 
gesta  Ottonum;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Otho  (Otto)  IL,  Emperor  of  Germany,  born  in  955, 
succeeded  his  father,  Otho  I.,  in  973.  King  Lothaire 
of  France,  having  renewed  his  pretensions  to  Lorraine, 
was  opposed  and  signally  defeated  by  Otho.  In  980  he 
concluded  a  treaty  by  which  the  investiture  of  Lower 
Lorraine  was  given  to  Charles,  the  brother  of  Lothaire, 
on  condition  of  his  doing  homage  to  the  German  em- 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  h,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  I  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OTHO  17 1 8  OTTERBEIN 


peror.  He  afterwards  attempted  the  conquest  of  Cala- 
bria and  Apulia,  but  was  defeated  in  982  by  the  combined 
forces  of  the  Greeks  and  Saracens.  He  died  in  983, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Otho  IH. 

See  DiETMAR,  "  Chronicon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Otho  (Otto)  III.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  three  years  of  age  at  his  father's  death. 
He  was  crowned  at  Rf)me  by  Pope  Gregory  V.  in  996. 
While  he  was  engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Slavi,  Crescen- 
tius,  a  Roman  patrician,  deposed  Gregory  V.  and  elected 
in  his  stead  a  Greek  under  the  name  of  John  XVI.  Otho 
advanced  into  Italy,  (998,)  defeated  Crescentius  and  put 
him  to  death,  and  restored  the  former  pope.  He  died, 
without  issue,  in  1002,  and  was  succeeded  by  Henry  II. 
of  Bavaria. 

See  Richer,  "Chronicon;"  F.  D.  Ring,  "  Kaiser  Otto  III.;" 
BoEHMER,  "Re  gesta  Ottonum  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Otho  (Otto)  IV.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  born  about 
1 1 74,  was  the  son  of  Henry  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Bavaria, 
and  Matilda,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  England.  He  was 
educated  at  the  court  of  his  uncle,  Richard  Coeur-de- 
Lion,  whom  he  assisted  in  his  wars  against  Philip 
Augustus  of  France.  In  1197  he  was  chosen  emperor 
by  a  portion  of  the  electors,  while  others  declared  for 
Philip,  Duke  of  Suabia,  which  gave  rise  to  a  ten  years' 
war.  Pope  Innocent  III.  having  favoured  the  preten- 
sions of  Otho,  he  was  crowned  at  Rome  in  1209,  and  in 
return  for  this  favour  conceded  to  the  papal  see  the  right 
of  investiture.  Otho  soon  quarrelled  with  the  pope,  at 
whose  instigation  many  German  princes  and  prelates 
revolted  in  1212  and  elected  Frederick  of  Hohenstaufen 
as  emperor.  Otho  was  defeated  at  the  great  battle  of 
Bouvines,  in  1214,  by  Philip  Augustus  of  France.  He 
died  in  1218. 

See  Abel,  "  Konig  Philipp,"  1852,  and  "  Kaiser  Otto,"  1856  ;  Wi- 
CHERT,  "  De  Ottonis  IV.  et  Philippi  Suevi  Certaminibus,"  etc.,  1834  ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

O'tho  or  Ot'to,  King  of  Greece,  born  in  181 5,  was 
a  son  of  Lewis  I.,  King  of  Bavaria.  He  was  elected 
king  by  the  Greeks  in  1832,  and  their  choice  was  con- 
firmed by  a  treaty  between  France,  England,  and  Russia. 
He  married  Amalia,  a  daughter  of  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Oldenburg,  in  1836.  His  reign  was  unpopular,  and  was 
disturbed  by  insurrections.  He  abdicated  in  October, 
1862.    Died  in  1867. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1854,  and  November, 
1863. 

O'tho,  (Lucius  Salvius,)  a  Roman  commander,  the 
father  of  the  emperor  Otho,  was  a  favourite  of  Tiberius. 
He  was  consul  in  33  a.d.,  and  afterwards  proconsul  in 
Africa.  He  detected  a  conspiracy  against  the  life  of 
Claudius. 

Otho,  o'to,  (Venius,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Ley- 
den  in  1556,  was  one  of  the  instructors  of  Rubens.  He 
worked  some  years  at  Rome.    Died  in  1634. 

Otho  OF  Brandenburg,  a  German  poet,  and  Mar- 
grave of  Brandenburg,  was  called  Otho  with  the 
Arrow.    Died  in  1304. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Otho  (or  Otto)  von  Freisingen,  o'to  fon  fRi'zing'en, 
one  of  the  early  German  chroniclers,  was  the  son  of 
Leopold  IV.,  Margrave  of  Austria,  and  Agnes,  daughter 
of  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  In  1137  he  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Freisingen  by  his  half-brother,  the  emperor 
Conrad  III.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Chronicle  of  the 
World  from  the  Creation  to  his  Own  Time,"  in  seven 
books.  The  first  part  is  chiefly  a  compilation  from  other 
historians,  but  the  last  contains  information  of  great 
value  relative  to  German  history,  being  drawn  from  the 
most  authentic  sources.  He  also  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa."    Died  in  1158. 

Othon.    See  Otho. 

O'tis,  (Harrison  Gray,)  an  American  statesman  and 
orator,  born  in  Boston  in  October,  1765,  was  a  nephew 
of  James,  noticed  below,  and  a  son  of  Samuel  Allyne 
Otis.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1783,  prac- 
tised law  in  Boston,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  Con- 
gress in  1796.  He  became  a  leader  of  the  Federal  party, 
and  was  highly  distinguished  for  his  graceful  eloquence. 
He  was  president  of  the  senate  of  Massachusetts  for 


several  years  between  1805  and  1812,  was  a  member  of 
the  Hartford  Convention  in  1814,  and  was  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States  from  1817  to  1822.  In  1820  he  made 
a  speech  in  the  Senate  against  the  extension  of  slavery. 
He  retired  from  public  life  in  1832.  Died  in  Boston  in 
October,  1848. 

Otis,  (  James,)  a  celebrated  American  orator  and 
patriot,  born  at  West  Barnstable,  in  Massachusetts, 
on  the  5th  of  February,  1725,  was  a  son  of  James  Otis, 
a  judge  and  lawyer.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College 
in  1743,  studied  law,  and  became  a  resident  of  Boston 
about  1750.  He  was  profoundly  versed  in  classical  litera- 
ture, and  in  1760  published  an  able  work  entitled  "  Rudi- 
ments of  Latin  Prosody,  with  a  Dissertation  on  Letters," 
etc.  He  acquired  distinction  in  1761  by  an  argument 
against  the  writs  of  assistance  for  which  the  officers  of 
the  customs  had  applied.  Referring  to  this  speech,  John 
Adams  said,  "Otis  was  a  flame  of  fire  :  with  a  prompti- 
tude of  classical  allusions,  a  depth  of  research,  a  rapid 
summary  of  historical  events  and  dates,  a  profusion  ot 
legal  authorities,  a  prophetic  glance  of  his  eyes  into 
futurity,  and  a  rapid  torrent  of  impetuous  eloquence, 
he  hurried  away  all  before  him.  American  independence 
was  then  and  there  born.  Every  man  of  an  immense, 
crowded  audience  appeared  to  me  to  go  away,  as  I  did, 
ready  to  take  up  arms  against  writs  of  assistance."  The 
judges  suspended  or  evaded  the  decision  of  the  question. 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  legislature  in  1762,  and 
became  the  leader  of  the  popular  party.  He  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  Congress  which  met  at  New  York  in  1765, 
and  which  was  called  "  the  Stamp-Act  Congress."  He 
wrote  several  pamphlets  in  defence  of  the  colonies  against 
the  arbitrary  measures  of  the  British  ministry.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1769,  he  was  assaulted  by  several  ruffians  of  the 
opposite  party,  and  received  a  severe  wound  in  the  head, 
in  consequence  of  which  he  became  partially  deranged, 
or  permanently  disqualified  for  usefulness.  A  man  named 
Robinson  was  sentenced  to  pay  ;!^2000  for  this  assault, 
but  the  fine  was  remitted  by  Otis.  He  had  married  Ruth 
Cunningham,  of  Boston.  He  was  killed  by  lightning  at 
Andover  in  May,  1783. 

See  William  Tudor,  "Life  of  James  Otis,"  1823;  Francis 
BowEN,  "  Life  of  James  Otis,"  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography," 
vol.  ii.,  2d  series;  "  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1823. 

Otis,  (Joseph,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, born  in  1728,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  Died 
in  1810. 

Otis,  (Samuel  Allyne,)  a  younger  brother  of  James 
Otis,  and  father  of  Harrison  Gray  Otis,  noticed  above, 
became  a  member  of  Congress  in  1788,  and  was  secre- 
tary of  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  for  twenty-five 
years,  from  1789  to  1814.  Died  at  Washington  in  1814, 
aged  seventy-three. 

Otranto,  Duke  of.    See  Fouch^;. 

Ott,  ot,  (Johann  Baptist,)  a  Swiss  Orientalist  and 
antiquary,  born  in  1661.  He  became  professor  of  He- 
brew at  Zurich  about  1702,  and  wrote  several  antiquarian 
treatises. 

Ott,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  Swiss  divine  and  Orien- 
talist, the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  the  canton 
of  Zurich  in  161 7.  He  became  professor  of  eloquence 
and  Hebrew  at  Zurich  about  1654.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  works  on  theology,  etc.    Died  in  1682. 

Ottar,  ot't^r,  written  also  Other  and  Ohther,  a  Nor- 
wegian traveller,  who  flourished  in  the  ninth  century, 
visited  the  court  of  Alfred,  King  of  England.  Having 
given  to  that  monarch  an  account  of  his  voyages  to  the 
Arctic  regions,  it  was  inserted  by  him  in  his 'Anglo- 
Saxon  version  of  Orosius.  This  narrative  possesses 
great  interest,  as  giving  the  earliest  information  respect- 
ing those  countries. 

Otter,  ot'ter,  (Johan,)  a  Swedish  philologist,  born  at 
Christianstadt  in  1707.  After  a  residence  of  ten  years 
in  Asia  and  Turkev,  he  was  appointed  interpreter  for  the 
Oriental  tongues  at  the  Royal  Library  in  Paris,  and  in 
1746  was  made  professor  of  Arabic.  He  published 
"  Travels  in  Turkey  and  Persia."    Died  in  1748. 

Otterbein,  ot'ter-bu/,  (Philip  William,)  born  at 
Dillenburg,  Germany,  in  1726,  emigrated  in  1752  to 
Pennsylvania,  where  he  founded  the  Church  of  the 
United  Brethren  in  Christ.    Died  in  1813. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fS.t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


OTTIN 


1719 


OUDINOT 


Ottin,  o't^N',  (AuGUSTE  Louis  Marie,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1811.  He  gained  the  grand 
prize  in  1836,  and  a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1846. 

Ottinger.    See  Oettinger. 

Ott'ley,  (William  Young,)  an  English  artist,  con- 
noisseur, and  able  writer  on  art,  born  in  1771.  He  re- 
sided for  many  years  in  Italy,  where  he  made  a  large  and 
choice  collection  of  paintings  and  engravings.  After  his 
return  he  published  a  superb  work  entitled  "The  Italian 
School  of  Design  ;  being  Fac-Similes  of  Original  Draw- 
ings by  Eminent  Italian  Painters  and  Sculptors,"  {3  vols., 
1808-23.)  In  1833  he  became  keeper  of  the  prints  in 
the  British  Museum.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  and  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  Among  his 
chief  works  is  "  An  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  and  Early 
History  of  Engraving  on  Copper  and  on  Wood,"  (2 
vols.,  1816.)    Died  in  1836. 

Ottmer,  ot'mer,  (Karl  Theodor,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man architect,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1800.  In  1824  he 
completed  the  new  theatre  at  Berlin,  and  a  few  years 
later  the  Academy  of  Singing  in  the  same  place.  His 
greatest  work  is  the  palace  of  William,  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick, finished  in  1837,  an  edifice  of  great  size  and  re- 
markable elegance,  at  Brunswick.    Died  in  1843. 

Otto,  the  German  for  Otho,  which  see. 

Ot'to,  (Carl,)  a  Danish  medical  writer,  born  in  Saint 
Thomas,  West  Indies,  in  1795.  He  became  professor 
of  pharmacy  at  Copenhagen  in  1840. 

Ot'to,  (Everard,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Hamm 
in  1685.  He  published  "Treasury  of  Roman  Law," 
("Thesaurus  Juris  Romani,"  4  vols.,  1725-29.)  Died 
at  Bremen  in  1756. 

Otto,  (Friedrich  Julian,)  a  German  savant,  born  in 
Saxony  in  1809.  He  was  appointed  successively  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  (1835)  member  of  the  College 
of  Health  at  Brunswick,  (1836.)  He  published  a  "  Manual 
for  the  Rational  Practice  of  Agriculture,"  (1849-50,)  and 
several  chemical  works. 

Otto,  o'to',  (Louis  Guillaume,)  Comte  de  Mosloy, 
(mo'lwS',)  a  distinguished  diplomatist,  born  in  the 
duchy  of  Baden  in  1754.  Having  studied  at  Strasburg, 
he  accompanied  the  French  minister  Luzerne  to  the 
United  States  in  1779.  After  his  return  he  was  sent,  in 
1800,  as  minister-plenipotentiary  to  London,  and  in  1809 
was  appointed  by  Napoleon  to  negotiate  his  marriage 
with  the  archduchess  Maria  Louisa,  having  previously 
been  made  Count  of  Mosloy  and  grand  officer  of  the 
legion  of  honour.  In  1813  he  became  minister  of  state. 
Died  in  1817. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire;" 
BiGNON,  "  Histoire  de  France  sous  Napoleon." 

Ottocar,  ot'to-kiR',  (Ottokar,)  IL,  King  of  Bohemia, 
was  a  son  of  Wenceslas  I.,  and  began  to  reign  in  1253. 
He  obtained  Austria  and  Styria  by  marriage,  and  extended 
his  dominions  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Adriatic.  His 
ambition  to  be  emperor  involved  him  in  a  war  with 
Rudolph  of  Hapsburg.    He  was  killed  in  battle  in  1278. 

Ottokar  or  Ottocar,  ol'to-k^R',  [Lat.  Ottoca'rus,] 
a  German  poet  and  chronicler,  born  in  Styria  about 
1250.  He  wrote,  between  1300  and  13 16,  a  rhymed 
chronicle  of  Austria  and  Styria. 

See  T.  Jacobi,  "De  Ottocaro  Chronico  Austriaco." 

Ottokar,  (Amadeus,)  the  assumed  name  of  Georg 
Friedrich  Daumer,    See  Daumer. 

Ottokar  von  Horneck.    See  Horneck,  von. 

Ot'way,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
1772  ;  died  in  1846. 

Otway,  (Thomas,)  a  celebrated  English  dramatist, 
born  in  Sussex  in  165 1.  Having  been  unsuccessful  as 
an  actor,  he  applied  himself  to  dramatic  writing,  and  in 
1675  published  his  tragedy  of  "  Alcibiades."  This  was 
soon  followed  by  "Don  Carlos,"  which  was  received 
with  great  favour.  In  1677  he  obtained  from  the  Earl 
of  Plymouth  a  situation  as  cornet  of  dragoons  in  the 
army  of  Flanders  ;  but,  soon  becoming  dissatisfied  with 
military  life,  he  again  gave  his  attention  to  the  drama. 
In  1680  the  tragedy  of  "  The  Orphan"  appeared,  and  in 
1682  his  "Venice  Preserved."  These  two  are  charac- 
terized by  Hallam  as  "having  a  deep  pathos,  a  dramatic 
eloquence  rapid  and  flowing,  and  sometimes  very  grace- 
ful poetry ;"  and  he  adds,  "  The  *,  Venice  Preserved'  is 


more  frequently  represented  than  any  tragedy  after  those 
of  Shakspeare."  Among  Otway's  other  plays  we  may 
cite  "Cains  Marius,"and  a  comedy  called  "The  Soldier's 
Fortune."  He  also  translated  and  remodelled  the  "  Titus 
and  Berenice"  of  Racine,  and  Moliere's  "Fourberies  de 
Scapin,"  He  died  in  1685,  in  a  state  of  extreme  desti- 
tution ;  and  some  accounts  state  that  his  death  was 
caused  by  hunger. 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets,"  and  "  Life  of  Otway,"  pre- 
fixed to  the  edition  of  his  works,  1813;  Campbell,  "Specimens  of 
the  British  Poets." 

Oudenaerde.    See  Audenaerde. 

Oudendorp,  van,  vtn  ow'den-doRp',  (Frans,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Leyden  in  1696,  was 
for  many  years  professor  of  history  and  rhetoric  in  his 
native  city.  He  published  excellent  editions  of  Julius 
Obsequens,  Lucan,  Suetonius,  and  other  classics,  and 
was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "  On  the  Use  of  Ancient 
Inscriptions."    Died  in  1761. 

Oudet,  oo'di',  (Jacques  Joseph,)  a  French  officer, 
born  at  Meynal  in  1773,  was  a  zealous  republican.  He 
was  an  active  member  of  the  secret  society  called  Phila- 
delphes.    He  was  killed  at  Wagram  in  1809. 

See  NoDiER,  "  Histoire  des  Societes  secretes,"  1814. 

Oudin,  oo'd^N',  (Casimir,)  a  French  bibliographer, 
born  at  Mezieres  in  1638.  He  published  a  "Commen- 
tary on  Ancient  Ecclesiastical  Writers,"  and  several 
other  works.    Died  in  1 71 7. 

Oudin,  (Francois,)  a  learned  French  Jesuit,  born  in 
Champagne  in  1673.  He  wrote  a  number  of  elegant 
Latin  poems,  and  theological  and  biographical  treatises. 
Died  in  1752. 

Oudine,  oo'de'ni',  (Eugene  Andr^:,)  an  eminent 
French  sculptor  and  engraver  of  medals,  born  in  Paris 
in  1810.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  of  Rome  in  1831,  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  in  1839  for  engraving,  and  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  for  sculpture  in  1843.  Among 
his  engraved  works  is  a  medal  entitled  the  "  Apotheosis 
of  Napoleon  I." 

Oudinet,  oo'de'ni',  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Rheims  in  1643,  was  appointed  keeper 
of  the  medals,  in  the  Royal  Cabinet  in  Paris.  In  1701 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions. 
He  published  several  valuable  treatises  on  medals.  Died 
in  1 7 12. 

Oudinot,  oo'de'no',  (Charles  Nicolas  Victor,) 
Due  de  Reggio,  a  general,  a  son  of  the  following,  was 
born  at  Bar-le-Duc  in  1791.  He  served  as  captain  in 
the  Russian  campaign,  (181 2,)  and  became  a  marechal- 
de-camp  in  1822.  He  commanded  the  French  army  sent 
in  1849  to  Rome  to  protect  the  pope  against  his  subjects. 
Having  occupied  the  city  after  a  short  siege,  July,  1849, 
he  returned  to  France.  He  opposed  Louis  Napoleon  in 
the  coup  d'etat  of  December  2,  185 1,  after  which  he  was 
not  employed  in  public  service.    Died  in  1863. 

Oudinot,  (Nicolas  Charles,)  Due  de  Reggio,  (ri'- 
zho'',)  a  distinguished  French  general,  was  born  at  Bar- 
sur-Ornain  in  1767.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel 
in  1793,  and  resisted  about  10,000  Austrians  with  one 
regiment  for  eight  hours  in  1794.  For  this  service  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  general  of  brigade.  He 
took  Treves  in  1794,  and  received  five  wounds  in  an 
action  near  Mannheim  in  October,  1795.  In  1799  he 
became  a  general  of  division,  and  chief  of  the  staff  in 
the  army  of  Massena,  under  whom  he  served  at  the 
siege  of  Genoa,  in  1800.  Having  received  command  of 
ten  battalions  of  grenadiers  in  1805.  he  performed  a 
prominent  part  in  the  capture  of  Vienna,  and  took  a 
bridge  over  the  Danube  which  was  defended  by  about 
one  hundred  and  eighty  pieces  of  cannon.  He  rendered 
important  services  at  Austerlitz  in  1805,  and  gained  a 
victory  at  Ostrolenka  in  1807.  At  the  battle  of  Fried- 
land,  June,  1807,  he  resisted  for  a  number  of  hours  an 
army  of  about  75,000  Russians,  and  gave  time  to  the 
rest  of  the  French  army  to  gain  the  victory.  He  main- 
tained his  reputation  in  1809  at  Landshut,  Lobau,  Vienna, 
and  Wagram.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  marshal 
of  France  in  July,  1809,  and  received  the  title  of  Due 
de  Reggio  in  the  same  year.  In  1813  he  served  at  Lut- 
zen  and  Bautzen,  and  was  defeated  by  Bernadotte  at 
Gross-Beeren.    During  the  Hundred  Days  he  adhered 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  c,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^=='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


OUDOT 


1720 


OVERBECK 


to  Louis  XVIII.,  who  gave  him  a  high  command  in 
181 5.  He  commanded  a  corps  of  the  army  which  in- 
vaded Spain  and  took  Madrid  in  1823,    Died  in  1847. 

See  "Victoires  et  Conqiietes  des  Frangais ;"  L.  de  Lom^nie, 
"  M.  le  Marechal  Oudinot,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1844;  J-  Nol- 
let-Fabert,  "  Histoire  de  N.  C.  Oudinot,"  1850;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
grapliie  Generale." 

Oudot,  oo'do',  (Francois  Julien,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Ornans  (Doubs)  in  1804.  He  obtained  a  chair 
of  civil  law  in  Paris  about  1837. 

Oudry,  oo'dRe',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  artist, 
particularly  distinguished  as  a  painter  of  animals,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1686.  He  studied  under  Largilliere, 
and  attained  considerable  skill  in  portrait  and  historical 
painting,  but  he  subsequently  devoted  himself  exclu- 
sively to  hunting-scenes  and  animal  pieces.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  King  of  Denmark  and  Louis  XV.  of 
France  ;  and  one  of  his  best  pictures  represents  the  latter 
on  horseback  with  a  dozen  nobles  of  his  court.  Oudry 
was  also  a  skilful  engraver,  and  furnished  one  hundred 
and  fifty  designs  for  the  splendid  edition  of  La  Fontaine's 
Fables  published  in  1755.    Died  in  1755. 

See  DuMESNiL,  "Le  Peiiitre-Graveur  Frangais." 

Ouel  le  Bon,  the  French  for  How^el  the  Good, 
which  see. 

Oughtred,  ot'red,  (William,)  an  English  divine  and 
eminent  mathematician,  born  in  Buckinghamshire  in 
1573.  He  wrote  "The  Description  and  Use  of  the 
Double  Horizontal  Dyall,"  "  Clavis  Mathematica,"  and 
a  "Treatise  on  Trigonometry."  He  is  styled  by  Fuller 
"  the  prince  of  mathematicians."    Died  in  1660. 

Oultreman,  d',  dootn'mSw',  [Lat  Oultreman'nus,] 
(Henri,)  a  Flemish  writer,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1546, 
was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Town  and  County 
of  Valenciennes  from  its  Origin  to  the  End  of  the  Six- 
teenth Century."    Died  in  1605. 

Oultreman,  d',  (Pierre,)  a  historian,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1 591.  He  wrote 
a  "Life  of  Peter  the  Hermit,"  (1632,)  and  a  History 
of  Baldwin  and  Henry,  Emperors  of  Constantinople, 
("  Constantinopolis  Belgica,"  etc.,  1643.)   Died  in  1656. 

Oultremannus,    See  Oultreman. 

Ousel,  (Philipp.)    See  Oisel. 

Ouseley,  ooz'lee,  (Sir  Frederick  Arthur  Gore,) 
an  English  musician,  a  son  of  Sir  Gore  Ouseley,  noticed 
below,  was  born  in  London  about  1825.  He  was  noted 
for  the  precocity  of  his  musical  genius,  and  composed 
several  anthems.  In  1855  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  music  at  Oxford. 

Ouseley,  ooz'lee,  (Gideon,)  an  Irish  Methodist  min- 
ister, born  at  Dunmore  in  1762.  He  laboured  as  a  mis- 
sionary among  the  Irish,  and  wrote  against  popery. 
Died  in  1839. 

Ouseley  or  Ousely,  (Sir  Gore,)  a  diplomatist,  born 
in  Ireland  in  1769.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Persia  about  1810,  and  published  "Biographical  Notices 
of  Persian  Poets,"  (1846.)    Died  in  1844. 

Ouseley  or  Ousely,  (Sir  William,)  Viscount  Clara- 
mont,  an  Orientalist,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1771.  He  published  "Travels  in  Various  Coun- 
tries of  the  East,  more  particularly  Persia,"  (1831.) 
Died  in  1842. 

Outhier,  oo'te-i',  (Reginald  or  Renauld,)  a  French 
astronomer,  bori-Tni  Poligni  in  1694.  In  1736  he  accom- 
panied Maupertuis  and  other  savants  on  a  scientific 
expedition  to  Lapland,  of  which  he  afterwards  published 
an  interesting  account.  He  was  a  corresponding  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  member  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Berlin.    Died  in  1774. 

dutram,  oo'tram,  (Sir  James,)  an  English  general, 
born  in  Derbyshire  in  1803,  was  a  son  of  Benjamin 
Outram,  an  eminent  civil  engineer,  who  died  in  1805. 
He  went  to  India  about  1820,  served  in  the  war  against 
Dost  Mohammed,  and  became  British  resident  at  Hy- 
derabad and  Lucknow.  In  1856  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  a  successful  expedition  against  Persia. 
During  the  Sepoy  mutiny  of  1857  he  returned  to  India, 
and  superseded  Havelock  as  commander  of  the  army 
at  Lucknow.    (See  Havelock.)    Died  in  1863. 

Outram,  written  also  Owtram,  (William,)  a  learned 
English  theologian,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1625.  He 


became  prebendary  of  V/estminster  in  1670.    He  was 
versed  in  rabbinical  learning  and  in  the  writings  of  the 
Fathers.    His  chief  work  is  a  treatise  on  sacrifices,  "De 
Sacrificiis  Libri  duo,"  (1677.)    Died  in  1679. 
Ouvarof.    See  Oovarof. 

Ouvrard,  oo'vrSk',  (Gabriel  Julien,)  a  French 
financier,  born  near  Clisson  in  1770.  He  was  a  bold 
and  successful  speculator,  and  enriched  himself  by  his 
operations  as  contractor  during  the  war  of  the  Revo- 
lution. He  was  prosecuted  by  Napoleon  I.,  and  im- 
prisoned some  years.    Died  in  1846. 

See  his  autobiographic  "  Memoires  sur  ma  Vie,"  3  vols.,  1826; 
"  Biographic  Universelle." 

Ouvrard,  (Ren6,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at 
Chinon  about  1620,  published  treatises  on  music,  the- 
ology, and  mathematics.  He  was  intimate  with  Arnauld 
and  other  writers  of  Port-Royal.    Died  in  1694. 

Ouvrie,  oo'vRe-a',  (Pierre  Justin,)  a  French  land- 
scape-painter, born  in  Paris  in  1806. 

Ouwater,  van,  vtn  ow'wS'ter,  (Albert,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1444,  was  one  of  the  first 
artists  in  Holland  who  painted  in  oil.  Among  his  mas- 
ter-pieces are  "The  Resurrection  of  Lazarus"  and  " The 
Descent  from  the  Cross."  The  latter  was  warmly 
eulogized  by  Albert  Diirer.    Died  in  1515. 

See  Pii-KiNGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters ;"  Descamps,  "Vies 
des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Ovalle,  de,  da  o-viKyk,  (Alfonso,)  sometimes  writ- 
ten Ovaglie,  a  Jesuit,  of  Spanish  extraction,  born  in 
Chili  in  1601.  He  published  in  1646  a  "Historical  Ac- 
count of  the  Kingdom  of  Chili  and  the  Jesuit  Missions 
in  that  Country."    Died  in  165 1. 

Ovando,  o-vin'do,  (Nicolas,)  a  Spanish  officer,  and 
commander  of  the  order  of  Alcantara,  succeeded  Boba- 
dilla  as  governor  of  Hispaniola  in  1501.  While  his  rule 
over  the  Spanish  colonists  was  marked  by  justice  and 
kindness,  he  has  incurred  lasting  reproach  by  the  cruel- 
ties he  perpetrated  on  the  Indians,  a  great  number  of 
whom  were  massacred  at  Xaragua  by  his  orders.  He 
also  treated  Columbus  with  great  injustice,  and  availed 
himself  of  every  opportunity  of  thwarting  his  designs. 
He  was  recalled  to  Spain  in  1508,  and  succeeded  by 
Diego  Columbus,  son  of  the  celebrated  admiral.  Died 
in  1 5 18,  aged  about  fifty-eight. 

See  Charlevoix,  "Histoire  de  Saint-Domingue ;"  Oviedo, 
"  Cronica  de  las  Indias." 

O'ver-all,  (John,)  a  learned  English  prelate,  born  in 
1559.  He  rose  through  several  preferments  to  be  Bishop 
of  Norwich  in  1619.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"  The  Convocation-Book,"  in  which  he  maintains  the 
divine  origin  of  government.  Bishop  Overall  was  es- 
teemed the  best  scholastic  divine  of  his  time  in  England. 
He  was  the  friend  and  correspondent  of  Grotius  and 
Gerard  Vossius.    Died  in  1619. 

Overbeck,  o'ver-b§k^  (Friedrich,)  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  German  painters  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
was  born  at  Lubeck  in  1789.  After  having  studied  for 
a  time  at  Vienna,  in  1810  he  visited  Rome,  where,  with 
Cornelius,  Schnorr,  and  other  German  artists,  he  became 
one  of  the  founders  of  what  has  been  styled  the  roman- 
tic or  symbolic  school  of  painting  in  Germany.  Among 
his  earliest  productions  were  the  frescos  at  the  villa  of 
the  consul-general  Bartholdy,  representing  "Joseph  sold 
into  Captivity,"  and  "The  Seven  Years  of  Famine."  In 
181 7  he  adorned  the  villa  of  Marquis  Massimi  with  five 
large  frescos  taken  from  Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered.'* 
His  magnificent  fresco  at  Assisi,  representing  "The 
Miracle  of  Roses  of  Saint  Francis,"  is  esteemed  his 
master-piece  in  that  department.  Among  his  best  oil- 
paintings  are  "The  Entrance  of  Christ  into  Jerusalem," 
in  the  Marienkirche  at  Lubeck,  "Christ  on  the  Mount 
of  Olives,"  "The  Death  of  Saint  Joseph,"  and  the  large 
picture  in  the  Stadelschen  Institut  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  entitled  "The  Influence  of  Christianity  in  the 
Arts."  He  has  also  produced  a  number  of  elegant  de- 
signs, among  which  are  "  Forty  Illustrations  from  the 
Gospels,"  since  engraved  by  Keller,  Bartoccini,  and 
others.  Regarding  art  as  the  handmaid  of  religion, 
Overbeck  has  almost  exclusively  chosen  scriptural  sub- 
jects, and  his  works  are  characterized  by  deep  devotional 
feeling,  simplicity,  and  touching  sweetness  of  expression. 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged^  a,  e.,  I,  q,  u,  %  short;  ^,    j,  o,  odscurejiir,  flll,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


OFERBEEK 


1721 


OWEN 


According  to  some  writers,  Overbeck's  influence  and 
reputation  in  Germany  have  considerably  declined  of 
latter  time.    Died  in  1869. 

See  Raczynski,  "Histoire  del'Art  Allemand  moderne  ;"  Nagler, 
"  AUgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon ;"  Brocichaus,  "  Conversations- 
Lexikon." 

Overbeek,  van,  vtn  o'ver-bak',  (Bonaventure,)  a 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1660.  He  went 
to  Rome,  and  made  numerous  designs  of  the  antiquities 
of  that  city.  Having  returned  to  Holland,  he  died  in 
1706,  leaving  a  work  entitled  "  Reliquiae  antiquae  Urbis 
Romas,"  (1707-09.) 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc, 

Overbury,  o'ver-ber-e,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English 
author  and  courtier,  born  at  Compton-Scorfen,  Warwick- 
shire, in  1581.  By  his  talents  and  learning  he  acquired 
influence  with  Carr,  who  became  the  favourite  of  James 
I.  and  was  created  Earl  of  Somerset.  For  advising 
against  the  marriage  of  Carr  with  the  infamous  Countess 
of  Essex,  Overbury  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  (1613.) 
After  a  confinement  of  several  months,  he  was  poisoned 
by  order  of  Somerset  and  his  wife,  who  were  convicted 
of  the  crime  but  pardoned.  He  left  a  popular  poem 
called  "The  Wife,"  (1614,)  and  a  prose  work  entitled 
"  Characters,"  which  is  praised  for  wit  and  ingenuity. 
"  '  The  Fair  and  Happy  Milkmaid,'  often  quoted,"  says 
Hallam,  "is  the  best  of  his  characters." 

See  E.  F.  Rimbault,  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Overbury,"  1856; 
Gardiner,  "  History  of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  ch.  xi.  ;  "Re- 
trospective Review,"  vol.  ii.,  (1820.) 

Overskov,  o'ver-skov',  (Thomas,)  a  Danish  drama- 
tist, born  at  Copenhagen  in  1798.  He  produced  nume- 
rous comedies  and  operas  ;  also  a  "  History  of  the  Danish 
Theatre,"  (1854-56.) 

Cver-stone,  (Samuel  Jones  Loyd,)  first  Baron,  an 
English  banker,  born  in  London  in  1796.  He  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  in  1850.  He  had  previously  gained  some 
distinction  as  a  financier. 

Overweg,  o'ver-<^§G',  (Adolf,)  a  German  traveller, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1822.  He  was  associated  with  Mr. 
Richardson  and  Dr.  Barth  in  a  journey  of  exploration 
to  Lake  Tchad,  in  Africa,  They  left  Tripoli  in  March, 
1850,  and  Overweg,  with  Dr,  Barth,  reached  Lake  Tchad 
in  1851.  He  launched  a  boat  on  the  lake  and  visited 
the  islands  in  it.  He  died  of  fever  at  Kuka,  in  Central 
Africa,  in  September,  1852. 

Ov'id,  [Lat.  Ovid'ius  ;  It.  Ovidio,  o-veeMe-o  ;  Fr. 
OviDE,  o'v6d',]  or,  more  fully,  Pub'lius  Ovid'ius 
Na'so,  a  popular  Roman  poet,  was  born  at  Sulmo, 
(Sulmona,)  about  ninety  miles  east  of  Rome,  in  43  B.C. 
He  studied  rhetoric  in  Rome  under  Arellius  Fuscus  and 
Porcius  Latro,  and  made  himself  master  of  Greek  at 
Athens.  His  poetical  genius  was  manifested  in  early 
youth,  and  afterwards  diverted  him  from  the  practice  of 
law,  which,  in  compliance  with  his  father's  will,  he  began 
to  study.  He  held,  however,  several  civil  or  judicial 
offices  at  Rome,  and  became  one  of  the  Decemviri.  He 
sought  and  obtained  the  acquaintance  of  Propertius, 
Horace,  Macer,  and  other  poets.  He  also  enjoyed  for  a 
time  the  favour  of  the  emperor  Augustus.  Among  his 
earliest  productions  were  three  books  of  "Amores," 
Before  the  age  of  fifty  he  had  published  "The  Art  of 
Love,"  ("  Ars  Amatoria,")  "  Medea,"  a  tragedy,  and 
"  Heroic  Epistles,"  ("  Heroides,")  He  had  also  nearly 
finished  his  celebrated  "Metamorphoses,"  ("Metamor- 
phoseon  Libri  XV.,")  which  display  great  poetical 
genius.  In  the  year  8  a,d.  he  was  suddenly  banished 
by  Augustus  to  Tomi,  on  the  Euxine,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Danube.  The  reason  assigned  for  this  penal 
measure  was  the  publication  of  his  immodest  poem 
"  The  Art  of  Love  ;"  but  this  is  believed  to  have  been 
a  mere  pretext,  as  that  poem  was  published  about  ten 
years  earlier.  Ovid  in  his  later  writings  alludes  to  some 
offence  which  he  mysteriously  conceals,  and  for  which 
he  admitted  that  he  deserved  to  suffer.  This  question 
appears  to  have  bafiled  the  ingenuity  and  curiosity  of 
scholars.  He  has'  been  censured  for  the  abject  terms 
in  which  he  petitioned  Augustus  for  a  pardon,  which 
was  inexorably  refused.  He  died  at  Tomi  in  18  A.D,, 
which  was  also  the  year  of  Livy's  death.  His  "  Me- 
dea," which  some  ancient  critics  esteemed  his  most 
perfect  work,  is  lost.   During  his  exile  he  wrote,  besides 


other  minor  poems,  "Twelve  Books  of  Fasti,"  ("Fasto- 
rum  Libri  XH.,")  six  of  which  have  come  down  to  us. 
This  is  a  poetical  Roman  calendar,  and  has  historical 
value  as  well  as  literary  merit,  Ovid  was  thrice  married, 
and  divorced  his  first  wife  and  his  second,  ye  also  loved 
and  courted  a  woman  of  high  rank,  whom  he  celebrated 
under  the  fictitious  name  of  Corinna.  Some  writers 
suppose  she  was  Julia  the  daughter,  or  Julia  the  grand- 
daughter, of  the  emperor  Augustus.  The  best  English 
translation  of  Ovid  is  "  Ovid's  Metamorphoses,  in  Fifteen 
Books,  translated  by  the  Most  Eminent  Hands,"  London, 
1 71 7.  Among  these  translators  were  Dryden,  Addison, 
Congreve,  and  Garth. 

See  Masson,  "Vita  P.  Ovidii  Nasonis,"  1708;  C.  Rosmini, 
"Vitadi  Piiblio  Ovidio  Naso,"  1789;  Villenave,  "Vie  d'Ovide," 
Paris,  i8og;  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Ovide.    See  Ovid. 
Ovidio.    See  Ovid. 
Ovidius.   See  Ovid. 

Oviedo,  de,  di  o-ve-a'oo,  (Andres,)  a  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  missionary,  born  at  Ilhescas.  He  was  sent 
to  Abyssinia  about  1556.    Died  in  1577. 

Oviedo  y  Valdes,  de,  di  o-ve-a'DO  e  vSl-d^s',  (Gon- 
SALO  Fernandez,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  historian,  born 
at  Madrid  in  1478,  became  at  an  early  age  one  of  the 
pages  at  the  court  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  In  15 13 
he  visited  the  West  Indies,  where  he  resided  many 
years,  and  obtained,  among  other  important  offices,  that 
of  historiographer  of  the  Indies.  His  principal  work  is 
entitled  "  General  History  of  the  West  Indies,"  (ist  vol., 
1535,)  which,  though  containing  many  errors,  displays 
extensive  learning  and  has  been  of  great  value  to  sub- 
sequent historians.  The  last  volume  of  it  remains  in 
manuscript.  He  also  published  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Natural  History  of  the  Indies,"  and  wrote  a  valuable 
work,  which  is  still  in  manuscript,  entitled  "  Quinqua- 
genas,"  or  Fifty  Dialogues.    Died  in  1557. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature,"  vol.  i.  :  Pres- 
COTT,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  ii.  book  iv.,  and 
his  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  part  i. 

Ovington,  uv'ing-ton,  1  (John,)  an  English  ecclesi- 
astic and  traveller,  was  chaplain  to  King  James  II,  In 
1689  he  sailed  to  the  East  Indies,  and  spent  several  years 
in  SuraL  He  published  in  1698  his  "  Voyage  to  Surat 
in  the  Years  1689-93,"  ^^c,,  which  was  translated  into 
French. 

Owen,    See  Goronwy-Owen. 

O'wen,  (David  Dale,)  brother  of  Robert  Dale,  no- 
ticed below,  was  born  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  in  1807. 
In  1848  he  was  appointed  to  conduct  the  geological 
survey  of  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Minnesota.  The  result 
of  his  observations  was  published  in  a  quarto  volume, 
with  maps  and  illustrations,  (1852.)  He  was  appointed 
in  1857  State  geologist  of  Arkansas.    Died  in  i860. 

O'wen,  (George,)  an  English  physician,  born  in  Wor- 
cestershire, took  his  degree  in  1527.  He  became  phy- 
sician to  Henry  VIII,    Died  in  1558, 

O'wen,  (Henry,)  a  learned  Welsh  divine  and  theo- 
logical writer,  born  in  Merionethshire  about  1716,  He 
published,  among  other  works,  "  Remarks  on  the  Four 
Gospels,"  and  "An  Introduction  to  Hebrew  Criticism." 
Died  in  1795, 

Owen,  [Lat,  Audoe'nus,]  (John,)  one  of  the  best 
Latin  poets  of  modern  times,  was  born  in  Caernar- 
von.shire,  in  Wales,  about  1560,  His  "  Epigrammata," 
published  in  1612,  are  remarkable  for  elegance  and 
correctness  of  language  and  caustic  wit  They  have 
been  translated  into  several  languages.    Died  in  1622. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Owen,  (John,)  an  excellent  English  nonconformist 
divine  and  Puritan,  born  at  Stadham,  in  Oxfordshire,  in 
1616,  was  a  son  of  Henry  Owen,  a  minister.  He  was 
educated  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  which  he  quitted 
about  1637.  After  that  date  he  was  chaplain  to  Sir 
Philip  Dormer  and  to  Lord  Lovelace.  He  became  a 
resident  of  London  in  1641  or  1642,  and  publi^ihed  his 
"Display  of  Arminianism,"  (1642.)  In  the  civil  war  he 
was  a  constant  adherent  of  the  popular  cause.  He  mar- 
ried early,  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Coggeshall 
about  1644,  and  united  himself  in  fellowship  with  the 
Independents.  He  published  "Salus  Electorum,  San- 
guis Jesu  ;  or  the  Death  of  Death  in  the  Death  of  Christ." 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  I  as  z;     as  in  this.    ((^[^See  Explanations,  p.  23,) 


OWEN 


1722 


OXENSTIERN 


In  January,  1649,  he  preached  a  sermon  before  the  House 
of  Commons  on  tlie  day  after  the  execution  of  Charles  I. 
This  sermon  was  characterized  by  a  more  liberal  and 
tolerant  spirit  than  that  which  prevailed  in  his  time.  He 
was  appointed  chaplain  to  Cromwell  in  1649,  ^.nd  Dean 
of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1651.  He  was  vice-chan- 
cellor of  the  University  of  Oxford  about  five  years,  1652- 
56.  In  1655  he  wrote  a  work  against  Socinianism,  called 
*' Vindiciee  Evangelicae."  After  the  restoration  of  1660, 
Owen  preached  in  London  for  a  number  of  years,  and 
wrote  many  works,  among  which  are  an  "  Exposition  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,"  (1668,)  a  "Discourse  on 
the  Holy  Spirit,"  (1674,)  and  "The  Doctrine  of  Justifi- 
cation," (1677.)    Died  in  1683. 

"  As  a  theological  thinker  and  writer,"  says  the  Rev. 
Andrew  Thomson,  "  he  holds  his  own  distinctly-defined 
place  among  those  Titanic  intellects  with  which  his  age 
abounded.  Surpassed  by  Baxter  in  point  and  pathos, 
by  Howe  in  imagination  and  in  the  higher  philosophy, 
...  he  is  unrivalled  in  his  power  of  unfolding  the  rich 
meanings  of  Scripture.  In  his  writings  he  was  pre- 
eminently the  great  theologian,  and  in  his  practical 
counsels  the  Nestor,  of  the  Puritans."  ("  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica.") 

See  W.  Okme,  "Life  of  John  Owen,"  1820;  Rev.  A.  Thomson, 
"  Life  of  John  Owen,"  new  edition,  1856;  "  Biographia  Britannica  ;" 
Wood,  "Athenge  Oxonienses;"  Wilson,  "Dissenting  Churches;" 
Burnet,  "  History  of  his  Own  Times  ;"  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of 
Authors:"  "North  British  Review"  for  November,  1851. 

Owen,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  London 
about  1765.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  members,  and 
the  principal  secretary  during  his  lifetime,  of  the  Bible 
Society.  He  wrote,  among  other  treatises,  "  The  Chris- 
tian Monitor  for  the  Last  Days,"  and  a  "  Vindication 
of  the  Bible  Society."    Died  in  1822. 

Owen,  (Lewis,)  a  Welsh  theologian,  born  in  Merion- 
ethshire in  1572.  He  wrote  a  book  against  the  Jesuits, 
"  Speculum  Jesuiticum,"  (1629.) 

Owen,  (Richard,)  an  English  zoologist,  anatomist, 
and  palaeontologist  of  great  eminence,  was  born  at  Lan- 
caster in  1804.  He  studied  medicine,  and  entered  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  in  1824.  In  1825  he  became 
a  pupil  of  John  Abernethy,  at  Saint  Bartholomew's 
Hospital,  London.  Through  the  influence  of  Abernethy 
he  was  appointed  assistant  curator  of  the  Hunterian 
Museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons.  He  expended 
immense  labour  in  the  production  of  a  catalogue  of  this 
collection,  and  succeeded  Clift  as  curator  of  the  museum. 
He  published  an  excellent  "Memoir  on  the  Pearly  Nau- 
tilus, (Nautilus  Pompilius,")  (1832,)  and  a  "Descriptive 
and  Illustrated  Catalogue  of  the  Physiological  Series 
of  Comparative  Anatomy  in  the  Hunterian  Museum,"  (5 
vols.,  1833-40.)  He  married  in  1835  a  daughter  of  Mr. 
Clift,  above  mentioned.  About  1836  he  succeeded  Sir 
Charles  Bell  as  Hunterian  professor  at  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Surgeons,  and  gave  a  series  of  lectures  on  com- 
parative anatomy,  which  were  published  in  1843.  He 
contributed  numerous  treatises  or  monographs  on  phys- 
iology and  anatomy  to  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Zoo- 
logical Society"  and  the  "Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and 
Physiology."  Professor  Owen  has  rendered  important 
services  to  palaeontology,  and  has  exhibited  remarkable 
skill  in  the  anatomy  and  reconstruction  of  extinct  ani- 
mals, such  as  the  Cheirotherium,  the  Glyptodon,  Mylo- 
don,  and  Plesiosaurus,  He  discovered  a  gigantic  fossil 
bird,  the  Dinornis.  Among  his  chief  works  are  "  Odon- 
tography," (2  vols.,  1840,)  a  "  History  of  British  Fossil 
Mammals  and  Birds,"  (1846,)  and  "On  the  Archetype 
and  Homologies  of  the  Vertebrate  Skeleton,"  (1848.) 
He  received  the  royal  medal  in  1848,  and  the  Copley 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1851.  In  1856  he  ceased 
to  be  Hunterian  professor,  and  became  director  of  the 
natural  history  departments  of  the  British  Museum. 
He  is  one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates  of  the  French 
Institute.  In  addition  to  the  works  above  named,  he 
has  published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Nature  of  Limbs," 
(1849,)  "On  Parthenogenesis,"  (1849,)  and  "On  the 
Anatomy  of  Vertebrates,"  (3  vols.,  1866-68.)  He  was 
one  of  the  first  who  used  the  microscope  in  the  investi- 
gation of  the  structure  of  animals,  and  was  the  first  who 
employed  the  word  "homology"  or  "homologue"  in  com- 
parative anatomy.    He  admits  the  mutability  of  species, 


but  opposes  the  Darwinian  theory  of  Natural  Selection, 
for  which  he  substitutes  his  "hypothesis  of  Derivation." 
He  says,  "Every  species  changes,  in  time,  by  virtue  of 
inherent  tendencies  thereto.  •  Natural  Selection'  holds 
that  no  such  change  can  take  place  without  the  influence 
of  altered  external  circumstances  educing  or  selecting 
such  change."  ("On  the  Anatomy  of  Vertebrates,"  3d 
vol.  chap,  xl.)  Humboldt  is  said  to  have  expressed  the 
opinion  that  Owen  was  the  greatest  anatomist  of  his 
age.  He  has  been  styled  "  the  Cuvier  of  England"  and 
"the  Newton  of  natural  history." 

See  a  review  of  his  writings  in  the  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  April,  1852,  and  July,  1853;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for 
July,  i860  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1856  ;  "  North  British 
Review"  for  May,  1858. 

Owen,  (Robert,)  a  socialist  and  philanthropist,  born 
at  Newton,  in  Wales,  in  1771,  was  a  son  of  poor  parents. 
He  married  about  1800  a  daughter  of  David  Dale,  who 
owned  cotton-mills  at  New  Lanark,  on  the  Clyde.  Owen 
managed  these  mills  for  a  time  with  success,  and  gave 
much  attention  to  the  comfort  of  the  operatives  and  the 
education  of  their  children.  He  published  in  1812  a 
"New  View  of  Society,"  and  afterwards  "The  Book  of 
the  New  Moral  World,"  in  which  he  advocated  a  modi- 
fied system  of  community  of  property.  About  1824  he 
purchased  a  large  tract  at  New  Harmony,  Indiana,  and 
there  tested  by  experiment  his  socialist  theory,  which 
was  entirely  unsuccessful.  He  returned  to  England  in 
1827,  and  continued  to  propagate  his  projects  of  reform 
by  lectures  and  writings.  His  doctrines  were  adopted 
by  a  large  number  of  people,  who  were  called  Owenites. 
Died  in  1858. 

See  "Robert  Owen  and  his  Social  Philosophy,"  by  W.  L.  Sar- 
gant,  London,  i860;  "Life  of  Robert  Owen,"  (by  F.  A.  Packard,) 
Philadelphia,  1866;  "Biographical  Sketches,"  by  H.  Martineau; 
Revbaud,  "  fitudes  sur  les  Reformateurs  contemporains  ;"  "Robert 
Owen  the  Founder  of  Socialism  in  England,"  1869,  by  Arthur  John 
Booth  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1819;  "Eraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  December,  1830  ;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  October,  i860. 

Owen,  (Robert  Dale,)  a  distinguished  political  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
New  Lanark,  Scotland,  in  1804.  He  came  at  an  early 
age  to  America,  settled  in  Indiana,  and  was  elected  to 
Congress  by  the  Democratic  party  in  1843.  ^'^'^s 
charge-d 'affaires  to  Naples  in  1853.  He  has  published 
"New  Views  of  Society,"  (1825,)  "Hints  on  Public 
Architecture,"  (1849,)  "Footfalls  on  the  Boundaries  of 
another  World,"  (1859,)  "The  Wrong  of  Slavery,  the 
Right  of  Emancipation,"  etc.,  (1864,)  and  "Beyond  the 
Breakers,"  a  novel,  (1870.) 

See  the  "North  British  Review"  for  February,  1861. 

Owen,  (Thomas,)  an  English  judge,  born  in  Shrop- 
shire, gained  a  high  reputation  as  judge  of  the  common 
pleas.  Died  in  1598.  His  Reports  were  published  in 
1656. 

Owen,  (William,)  an  able  English  painter  of  por- 
traits and  history,  born  in  Shropshire  in  1769.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  prince-regent,  afterwards  George  IV. 
Died  in  1824. 

Owen  Glendower.    See  Glendower. 

Owen  Meredith.    See  Bulwer. 

Owenson.    See  Morgan,  Lady. 

Owtram,  (William.)    See  Outram. 

Ox'en-ford,  (John,)  an  English  dramatist  and  trans- 
lator, born  near  London  in  1812.  Among  his  original 
dramas  are  "My  Fellow-Clerk,"  (183S,)  and  "  A^Day 
Well  Spent,"  (1836.)  He  translated  Moliere's  "Tartuffe," 
and  the  "  Conversations  of  Goethe,"  by  Eckermann,  and 
other  works,  from  the  German. 

Oxenham,  ox'en-am,  (John,)  an  English  seaman, 
served  under  Sir  Francis  Drake  in  1572.  He  soon  after 
sailed  with  one  ship  for  the  eastern  shore  of  Darien, 
and  crossed  over  to  Panama  and  the  Pearl  Islands,  where 
he  was  taken  and  put  to  death  by  the  Spaniards. 

See  J.  Barrow,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Reign,"  1845. 

Oxenstiern,  oks'en-stern',  c^-  Oxenstierna,  oks'en- 
sh§R'n^,  (Axel,)  Count,  chancellor  of  Sweden,  and  one 
of  the  greatest  statesmen  of  the  seventeenth  century  or 
of  modern  tin>es,  was  born  at  Fano,  in  Upland,  June 
16,  1583.  He  was  educated  at  Jena  and  Wittenberg. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-six  he  was  chosen  a  senator,  after 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


OXENSTIERN 


1723 


PACCA 


having  been  employed  in  important  negotiations.  In 
161 1  Gustavus  Adolphus  appointed  him  chancellor  of 
Sweden,  or  prime  minister.  The  prudence,  zeal,  and 
profound  combinations  of  Oxenstiern  contributed  greatly 
to  the  success  of  the  Swedish  hero.  After  Gustavus 
was  killed,  in  1632,  the  chancellor  was  invested  with  full 
power  by  the  senate,  and  prosecuted  the  war  against 
the  Emperor  of  Germany.  He  was  recognized  as  the 
head  of  the  Protestant  league,  which  gained  several  vic- 
tories under  his  direction.  During  the  minority  of  Queen 
Christina  he  governed  Sweden  with  ability,  restored  the 
finances  to  good  order,  and  patronized  learning.  He 
was  prime  minister  after  Christina  began  to  reign,  (1645,) 
and  strenuously  opposed  her  abdication.  He  died  in 
August,  1654.  Oxenstiern  was  the  author  of  the  often- 
quoted  observation,  addressed  to  his  son,  "  You  do  not 
know,  my  son,  with  how  little  wisdom  the  world  is 
governed,"  ("  Nescis,  mi  fili,  quantilla  prudentia  homi- 
nes regantur.")  He  was  the  reputed  author  of  the 
second  volume  of  "  Historia  Belli  Sueco-Germanici," 
("  History  of  the  Swedish-German  War,")  of  which 
Chemnitz  wrote  the  first  volume.  He  was  considered 
an  equal  match  for  Richelieu  in  diplomacy.  He  had 
two  sons,  John  and  Erik,  who  obtained  high  offices  in 
the  public  service. 

See  J.  F.  LuNDBLAD,  "  Svensk  Plutarch,"  2d  vol.,  1826-31 ; 
JoHAN  Gezemus,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  A.  Oxenstierna,"  1774; 
C.  P.  Hagberg,  "  Areminne  ofver  A.  Oxenstierna,"  1808;  Puffen- 
DORF,  "De  Rebus  Suecicis ;"  Geijer,  "  Histoire  de  la_  Suede  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  Richelieu,  "  Memoires ;"  E. 
GvLLENSTOLPE,  "  Areminne  ofver  A.  Oxenstierna,"  1777. 

Oxenstiern,  (Benedict,)  an  able  Swedish  statesman, 
of  the  same  family  as  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1623. 
He  was  appointed  governor  of  Warsaw  by  Charles  X., 
after  whose  death  (1660)  he  returned  to  Sweden  and 
had  great  influence  in  the  government.  About  1672  he 
obtained  the  confidence  of  Charles  XL,  who  appointed 
him  chancellor  and  chief  minister.  The  pacific  system 
of  Oxenstiern  was  disturbed  by  the  death  of  Charles  XL, 
in  1697.  After  Charles  XIL  had  defeated  the  Danes 
and  conquered  Poland,  Oxenstiern  advised  him  to  make 
peace,  in  a  memoir  which  is  called  a  master-piece  of 
wisdom.    Died  in  1702. 

See  ScHi.ozER,  "  Schwedische  Biographie." 

Oxenstiern,  (Erik,)  a  son  of  the  celebrated  states- 
man, was  born  in  1624.  He  became  a  senator  in  1652, 
and  vice-chancellor  in  1654,  soon  after  which  he  con- 
ducted negotiations  with  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg. 
Died  in  1656. 

Oxenstiern,  (Johan,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Stockholm  in  161 1.  He  entered  the  army, 
and  oljtained  the  rank  of  colonel.  About  1639  he  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  senator.  He  was  employed  for 
several  years  as  minister-plenipotentiary  in  Germany, 
and  represented  Sweden  in  the  negotiations  which  re- 
sulted in  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  (1648.)  Died  at 
Weimar  in  1657. 


Oxenstierna.   See  Oxenstiern. 

Oxenstierna,  oks'en-shlR'ni,  (Gabriel  Thureson,) 
a  Swedish  diplomatist,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1641.  He 
wrote,  in  French,  a  "  Collection  of  Thoughts,"  ("  Recueil 
de  Pensees,"  1725.)    Died  in  1707. 

Oxford,  Eakl  of.  See  De  Vere,  (Edward,)  and 
Harley,  (Rohert.) 

Ox-y-ar'tes  or  Ox-ar'tes,  [Gr.  'O^yapr??^,]  a  Bactrian 
chief,  whose  daughter  Roxana  was  married  to  Alexander 
the  Great.  This  king  appointed  him  satrap  of  Paropa^ 
misus.     Died  after  316  B.C. 

Ozanam,  o''zt'n6N',  (Antoine  Fr^d^ric,)  a  French 
scholar  and  elegant  writer,  born  at  Milan  in  1813.  He 
became  a  good  classical  scholar,  and  studied  law.  In 
1844  he  succeeded  Fauriel  as  professor  of  foreign  litera- 
tur-e  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris.  He  attained  eminence  as 
a  lecturer,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Dante 
and  the  Catholic  Philosophy  in  the  Thirteenth  Century," 
(1839,)  and  "£tudes  Germaniques  pour  servir  a  I'His- 
toire  des  Francs,"  (2  vols.,  1847-49.)  Died  in  Septem- 
ber, 1853. 

See  Lacordaire,  "Notice  sur  A.  F.  Ozanam,"  prefixed  to  his 
collected  works,  8  vols.,  1S55;  Legeay,  "  fitude  biographique  sur 
Ozanam,"  1854;  J.  J.  Ampere,  "Notice  biographique  sur  A.  F. 
Ozanam,"  1853;  Collombet,  "Biographie  de  F.  Ozanam,"  1853. 

Ozanam,  (J.  A.  F.,)  a  French  physician,  born  in 
Bresse  in  1772,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  Epidemic  Diseases,"  (5  vols., 
1817-23.)    Died  at  Lyons  in  1836. 

Ozanam,  (Jacques,)  a  distinguished  French  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Bouligneux  in  1640.  Among  his  nu- 
merous and  useful  treatises  are  "  Mathematical  Diction- 
ary," (1691,)  "Mathematical  and  Physical  Recreations," 
(1694,)  and  "Theoretical  and  Practical  Perspective," 
(171 1.)  He  taught  mathematics  in  Paris,  where  he  died 
in  1717. 

See  Fontenelle,  "filoge  d'Ozanam." 

Ozaneaux,  o'zt'n5',  (Jean  George,)  a  French  writer 
of  prose  and  verse,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1 795.  He  wrote 
a  "  History  of  France,"  (2  vols.,  1846,)  which  gained  a 
prize  of  the  French  Academy,  and  "Erreurs  poetiques," 
(3  vols.,  1849.)    Died  in  1852. 

Ozanne,  o'ztn',  (Nicolas  Marie,)  a  French  designer 
and  engraver,  born  at  Brest  in  1728  ;  died  in  Paris  in 
1811. 

O-zell',  (John,)  an  English  litterateur,  of  French  ex- 
traction, was  contemporary  with  Pope,  who  has  given 
him  a  place  in  the  "  Dunciad."  He  made  translations 
from  Racine,  Moliere,  and  Boileau,  and  from  several 
Italian  and  Spanish  writers.    Died  in  1743. 

See  Gibber,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Ozeretskofsko  or  Ozeretzkovsko,  o-zeh-ret-skof - 
sko,  sometimes  written  Ozeretzkoffsky,  (Nicholas,) 
a  Russian  scientific  writer,  born  about  1750.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  zoology,  botany,  mineralogy,  etc. 
Died  about  1827. 


P. 


Paalzow,  von,  fon  pSlt'so,  (Auguste,)  a  German 
lady,  born  at  Berlin  in  1788,  was  a  sister  of  the  painter 
Wach.  She  was  the  author  of  a  popular  romance, 
entitled  "Godwie  Castle,"  (1836,)  and  other  fictitious 
works.    Died  in  1847. 

Paas.    See  Pass. 

Paaw,  (Cornelis.)    See  Pauw. 

Paaw,  pS'oo  or  pow,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1564,  was  professor  of 
medicine  at  Leyden,  where  he  also  founded  the  botanic 
garden.  He  published  several  valuable  treatises  on 
botany  and  anatomy.    Died  in  161 7. 

Pabodie,  pal/o-de,  (William  Jewett,)  an  American 
poet,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  about  181 2. 
He  has  published  "  Calidore,  a  Legendary  Poem,"  and 
a  number  of  smaller  pieces. 

Pabst,  pSpst,  (Heinrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
agriculturist,  born  near  Lauterbach,  in  Hesse,  in  1798. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on  Rural 
Economy,"  (5th  edition,  i860.) 


Pabst,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  philosopher, 
born  at  Lindau,  in  Thuringia,  in  1785.  Among  his 
works  is  "Man  and  his  History,"  (1830.)    Died  in  1837. 

Pa'ca,  (William,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Ameri- 
can Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  Harford 
county,  Maryland,  in  1740.  He  was  elected  to  the  Con- 
gress of  1774,  and  continued  in  this  office  till  1778.  He 
became  Governor  of  Maryland  in  1782,  and  in  1789  was 
appointed  judge  of  the  district  court  of  the  United  States 
for  Maryland.    Died  in  1799. 

See  Goodrich,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence." 

Pacatianus,  pa-ka-she-a'nus,  [Fr.  Pacatien,  pt'- 
kt'se4,N^]  (Titus  Claudius  Marcellus,)  a  Roman 
emperor,  whose  existence  is  indicated  only  by  medals. 
It  is  si»pposed  that  he  assumed  the  title  in  249  A.D. 

Pacatien.    See  Pacatianus. 

Pacatus.    See  Drepanius. 

Pacca,  p^k'kS,  (Bar tolommeo,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at  Benevento  in  1756.    He  became  papal  secretary 


€  as  /ft;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (2!:^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PACCARD  1724  PACT  HOD 


of  state  [i.e.  prime  minister)  in  1808,  and  was  imprisoned 
about  three  years  by  Napoleon,  (1809-12.)  Died  in  1844. 
He  wrote  "  Historical  Memoirs,"  which  have  been  pub- 
lished, (London,  1850.) 

See  Aktaud  de  Montor,  "  Notice  sur  le  Cardinal  B.  Pacca," 
1846. 

Paccard,  pt'ktR',  (Alexis,)  a  French  architect,  born 
in  Paris  in  1813.    He  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1841. 

Paochiarotto,  pik-ke-i-rot'to,  (Jacopo,)  an  eminent 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Sienna  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
/He  painted  in  oil  and  fresco  with  equal  success.  His 
'style  resembles  that  of  Perugino.  Among  his  best  works 
in  oil  are  an  "Ascension,"  a  "Nativity  of  the  Virgin," 
and  a  Madonna,  (at  Munich.)  His  frescos  may  be  seen 
at  Sienna.  His  heads  are  greatly  admired.  To  escape 
the  penalty  of  a  political  conspiracy,  he  left  Sienna  in 
1535,  and  fled  to  France. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy." 

Pacchioni,  pik-ke-o'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  able  Italian 
anatomist,  born  at  Reggio  in  1665.  He  removed  to 
Rome  about  1700,  and  was  associated  in  the  scientific 
labours  of  Lancisi.  Died  at  Rome  in  1726.  His  writings 
were  published  under  the  title  of  "  Opera  Omnia,"  ( 1 741.) 

Paccioli,  pat-cho'lee,  or  Pacioli,  pd-cho'lee,  (Luca,) 
an  Italian  mathematician  and  monk,  born  at  Borgo  San 
Sepolcro  about  1450,  was  often  called  LucA  di  Borgo 
or  DE  BuRGO.  He  taught  at  Perugia,  Rome,  Naples, 
Pisa,  and  Venice.  His  chief  work  is  "  Summa  de  Arith- 
metica,  Geometria,  Proportioni,"  etc.,  (1494,) — the  first 
printed  book  in  which  the  method  of  keeping  accounts 
by  double  entry  was  explained.  He  also  wrote  a  work 
"  On  Divine  Proportion,"  ("  De  Divina  Proportione," 
1509,)  the  plates  of  which  were  engraved  by  his  friend 
Leonardo  da  Vinci.    He  was  living  in  1509. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Pace,  [Lat.  Pa'ceus,]  (Richard,)  an  English  nego- 
tiator and  priest,  born  in  or  near  Winchester  about  1482. 
He  was  employed  in  important  missions  by  Henry  VHL, 
and  sent  to  Rome  about  1521  by  Wolsey  to  urge  his 
claims  to  the  papacy.  He  was  a  friend  of  Erasmus,  who 
addressed  several  letters  to  him.  Pace  obtained  the 
deanery  of  Saint  Paul's,  London,  about  1520,  and  other 
benefices.  He  incurred  the  ill  will  of  Wolsey,  by  whom 
he  was  confined  in  the  Tower  for  two  years,  and  became 
insane.    Died  in  1532. 

Pacetti,  p^-chet'tee,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  in  Rome  about  1760,  became  professor  of  sculpture 
in  Milan.    Died  in  1827. 

Paceus.    See  Pace,  (Richard.) 

Pache,  ptsh,  (Jean  Nicolas,)  a  French  revolutionist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1746.  He  was  controller  of  the  king's 
household  under  the  ministry  of  Necker.  In  October, 
1792,  he  was  appointed  minister  of  war  by  the  influence 
of  the  Girondists,  who  removed  him  in  February,  1793, 
because  he  had  joined  the  Jacobin  party.  He  was 
elected  mayor  of  Paris  in  the  spring  of  1793,  and  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  ruin  of  the  Girondists.  Died 
in  1823. 

Pacheco,  pi-cha'ko,  (Francisco,)  an  eminent  Span- 
ish painter  and  writer,  born  at  Seville  in  1 571,  was  a 
pupil  of  Luis  Fernandez.  He  opened  an  academy  in 
Seville  in  1611,  and  was  appointed  painter  to  King 
Philip  IV.  after  1625.  He  designed  well,  and  is  com- 
mended for  simplicity,  but  he  was  not  a  good  colorist. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  "The  Last  Judgment," 
"Daedalus  and  Icarus,"  and  " The  Archangel  Michael 
expelling  Satan  from  Paradise."  He  wrote  a  treatise  on 
the  art  of  painting,  entitled  "  Arte  de  la  Pintura,"  (1649,) 
which  is  highly  esteemed.  Among  his  pupils  were 
Alonzo  Cano  and  Velasquez.    Died  in  1654. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Cean-Ber- 
MUDEZ,  "  Diccionario  Historico." 

Pacheco,  (Maria.)    See  Padilla. 

Pa'-ehes,  [Gr.  na;tW»l  an  Athenian  general,  com- 
manded the  army  which  took  Mitylene  in  427  B.C. 

Pa-eho'mi-us,  [Gr.  Uaxdnioq ;  Fr.  Pacome,  pfkom',] 
an  Egyptian  ascetic  of  the  fourth  century,  was  born  in 
the  Thebaid.  He  is  reputed  the  founder  of  regular 
monastic  communities,  or  the  first  who  prescribed  fixed 
rules  of  life  to  the  monks  and  nuns.    He  founded  a 


monastery  at  Tabenna,  on  the  Nile,  and  became  so  noted 
for  his  piety  that  many  others  were  built  in  the  vicinity 
by  his  disciples.    Died  about  348  A.D. 

Pachymere.    See  Pachymeres. 

Pa-ehym'e-res,  [Gr.  Pewpyiof  6  ^axviimx; ;  Fr. 
Pachymere,  pt'she'maiR',]  one  of  the  most  eminent 
of  the  later  Byzantine  historians,  was  born  at  Nicaea 
about  1242.  He  lived  in  Constantinople,  and  was  chief 
justice  of  the  imperial  court.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
important  works,  a  "  Historia  Byzantina,"  which  com- 
prises the  reigns  of  Michael  Palaeologus  and  his  son 
Andronicus.  It  is  written  with  dignity,  and  is  highly 
prized  for  its  fidelity.    He  died  probably  after  13 10. 

See  Fabkicius,  "  Bibiiotheca  Graeca." 

Pacian,  pa'she-an,  [Sp.  pron.  pl-Z/^e-Sn';  Lat.  Pa- 
CiANUS,  pa-she-a'nus  ;  Fr.  Pacien,  pt'se4,N',]  a  Spanish 
saint  and  writer,  who  flourished  about  375  A.D.,  and  was 
Bishop  of  Barcelona. 

Pacianus.    See  Pacian. 

Paciaudi,  pS-chowMee,  (Paolo  Maria,)  a  learned 
Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Turin  in  17 10,  entered  the 
order  of  Theatines.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  the  Grand  Masters  of  the  Order  of  Malta," 
(3  vols.,  1760,  unfinished,)  and  "  Peloponnesian  Monu- 
ments," ("  Monumenta  Peloponnesiaca,"  1761.)  He 
became  librarian  to  the  Duke  of  Parma  about  1762. 
Died  in  1785. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vltae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale ;"  Dacier,  "  E!loge  de  Paciaudi." 

Pacichelli,  pS-che-keKlee,  (Giamhattista,)  an  Ital- 
ian writer,  born  at  Pistoia  about  1640.  He  wrote  "The 
Kingdom  of  Najjles,"  ("II  Regno  di  Napoli,"  3  vols., 
1703.)    Died  in  1702. 

Pacien.    See  Pacian. 

Pacifico.    See  Pacificus. 

Pa-9iri-cus  Max'i-mus,  [It.  Pacifico  Massimo, 
p3.-chee'fe-ko  mSs'se-mo,]  a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Ascoli 
in  1400.  He  wrote  many  poems,  which  were  published 
in  1489,  under  the  title  of  "Jocose  and  Festive  Elegies," 
("Elegiae  Jocosae  et  Festivas.")    Died  about  1500. 

Pacini,  pS-chee'nee,  (  Giovanni,  )  a  popular  com- 
poser, born  at  Syracuse,  Sicily,  in  1796  or  1790.  He 
composed  with  a  marvellous  facility  many  operas,  among 
which  is  "Adelaide  e  Comingio,"  (1818,)  and  "Niobe," 
(1826.) 

Pacio,  pi'cho,  sometimes  written  Pace,  [Lat.  Pa'- 
cius  A  Ber'iga,]  (Giulio,)  an  eminent  Italian  jurist 
and  classical  scholar,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1550.  Having 
been  converted  to  the  Protestant  religion,  he  went  into 
exile,  and  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Heidelberg 
and  Sedan.  About  1616  he  obtained  a  chair  of  law 
at  Valence,  in  France.  He  wrote  "On  the  Method  of 
Law,"  ("  De  Juris  Methodo,"  1597,)  "On  Contracts," 
("  De  Contractibus,")  and  other  works.  Died  at  Va- 
lence in  1635. 

See  Berriat  Saint-Prix,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  Pacius," 
1840;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Nice- 
ron,  "  Memoires." 

Pacioli,    See  Paccioll 
Pacius  a  Beriga.    See  Pacio. 

Pack,  (Richardson,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Suf- 
folk about  1680.  He  rose  to  the  rank  of  major  in  the 
army.  He  published  a  volume  of  poems,  (1718,)  a  "  Life 
of  Pomponius  Atticus,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1728. 

Pac6me.    See  Pachomius. 

Pac'o-rus,  [Gr.  Ha/copof,]  the  eldest  son  of  Orodes, 
King  of  Parthia,  was  born  about  66  B.C.  At  an  early 
age  he  was  associated  with  his  father  on  the  throne.  In 
51  B.C.  he  led  an  army  into  Syria,  where  he  was  defeated 
by  Caius  Cassius.  After  the  battle  of  Philippi,  the  Par- 
thian king  sent  to  Syria  another  expedition,  commanded 
by  Pacorus  and  Titus  Labienus,  a  Roman,  who  gained  a 
victory  over  an  officer  of  Antony.  After  Pacorus  had 
subjected  Syria,  he  was  defeated  and  killed  by  the  army 
of  Ventidius,  in  38  B.C. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Pacorus,  a  king  of  Parthia,  who  reigned  in  the  time 
of  Domitian  and  Trajan.  Little  is  known  respecting 
him. 

Pacthod,  ptk'to',  (Michel  Marie,)  Count,  a  French 
general,  born  in  Savoy  in  1764.    He  gained  the  rank  of 


fi,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long;      6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  at,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  filr,  fill,  fSt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon* 


PACVVIO  1725  PAGANI 


general  of  division  on  the  field  of  Espinosa,  (1808,)  and 
commanded  in  Naples  and  lllyria  from  1810  to  1812. 
Died  in  1830. 
Pacuvio.    See  Pacuvius. 

Pa-cu^'vi-us,  [It.  Pacuvio,  pl-koo've-o,]  (Marcus,) 
an  eminent  Roman  tragic  poet  and  painter,  born  at 
Brundusium  about  220  B.C.,  was  a  nephew  of  the  poet 
Ennius.  According  to  the  judgment  of  Quintilian  and 
other  ancient  critics,  his  dramas  had  some  merit.  His 
works  are  lost,  except  small  fragments.  He  died  at  the 
age  of  ninety.  His  epitaph,  composed  by  himself,  has 
been  preserved  by  Aulus  Gellius. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Poetis  Latinis;"  Annibale  de  Leo,  "  Dis- 
sertazione  intorno  la  Vita  di  M.  Pacuvio,"  1763;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Generale." 

Paderna,  pS-d^R'nl,  (Paolo  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  history  and  landscapes,  was  born  in  1649. 
His  landscapes  are  highly  praised.    Died  in  1708. 

Padilla,  de,  di  pl-DeKyS,  (Francesco,)  a  Spanish 
historian,  born  at  Antequera  in  1527,  was  a  nephew  of 
the  following.  He  wrote  an  "Ecclesiastical  History  of 
Spain."    Died  in  1607. 

Padilla,  de,  (Don  Juan  Lopez,)  a  Spanish  patriot 
and  general,  born  in  Castile,  was  a  son  of  a  nobleman. 
He  became  in  1520  the  leader  of  the  malcontents  whom 
the  extortions  and  misrule  of  the  Flemish  ministers  of 
Charles  V.  provoked  to  revolt.  The  insurgents  elected 
a  council  called  Junta  de  las  Comunidades.  Padilla  de- 
feated the  royal  troops  at  Segovia,  took  Valladolid,  the 
capital  of  Spain,  and  deposed  the  regent,  Adrian  of 
Utrecht.  Dissensions  arose  among  the  popular  party, 
Padilla  was  deprived  of  the  command,  and  his  successor 
was  defeated.  About  the  end  of  1520  he  was  restored 
to  the  command.  He  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner 
at  Villalar  in  April,  1521,  and  executed  the  next  day. 

See  Robertson,  "  Charles  V.,"  vol.  ii.  book  iii. 

Padilla,  de,  (Lorenzo,)  a  Spanish  historian,  born  at 
Antequera  about  1485.  He  was  eminent  for  learning, 
and  leceived  the  title  of  historiographer  to  Charles  V. 
He  left  in  manuscript  a  "General  History  of  Spain," 
and  a  work  on  the  antiquities  of  Spain,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  1669.    Died  in  1540. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Padilla,  de,  (Dona  Maria  Pacheco,)  the  wife  of 
Juan  Lopez,  noticed  above,  was  a  woman  of  great  energy 
and  talents,  and  devoted  herself  to  the  popular  cause. 
After  her  husband's  death  she  took  his  place  as  leader, 
and  made  heroic  but  unsuccessful  efforts  to  defend 
Toledo  against  the  royalists.  She  escaped  to  Portugal, 
where  she  remained  until  her  death. 

See  Mariana,  "Historia  de  Espaiia." 

Padilla,  de,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Linares, 
was  a  friend  of  Cervantes.  He  published  "Pastoral 
Eclogues,"  (1582,)  and  other  poems.  He  was  one  of 
the  best  pastoral  poets  of  his  time.    Died  about  1600. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Pad'ma',  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  pud''mi',]  written 
also  Pedma,  [from  pddnid,  a  "  lotus,"]  one  of  the  names 
of  Lakshmi,  (which  see.) 

Padouan  or  Padovano.    See  Cavino. 

Padouanino.    See  Leoni,  (Ottavio.) 

Padouanino,  pi-doo-S-nee'no,  (Francesco,)  an  ex- 
cellent Italian  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was  born 
at  Padua  in  1552.  He  was  correct  in  design  and  fertile 
in  invention.  Among  his  works  is  a  picture  of  the  de- 
liverance of  two  persons  who  were  condemned  to  death. 
Died  in  161 7. 

His  son  Ottavio  was  a  skilful  portrait-painter.  He 
died  about  1634,  at  the  age  of  fifty-two. 

Padovano.    See  Leoni,  (Luigi  and  Ottavio.) 

Paean,  pee'an,  [Gr.  Ilamv,  UaiT^uv,  or  Uattjv ;  Fr. 
P6an,  pa'6N',]  a  name  applied  to  Apollo,  and  also  a 
surname  of  ^sculapius,  the  god  who  had  the  power  of 
healing.  It  was  afterwards  applied  to  hymns  sung  in 
honour  of  Apollo,  and  to  martial  songs  by  which  a 
victory  was  celebrated. 

Paelinck,  pi'link,  (Joseph,)  a  Belgian  painter,  born 
near  Ghent  in  1781.  He  worked  at  Rome  five  years. 
Among  his  works  is  "The  Discovery  of  the  Cross." 
Died  at  Brussels  in  1839. 


Paeonius,  pe-o'ne-us,  [TiaiuvLo^,]  of  Ephesus,  a  Greek 
architect,  probably  lived  about  400  B.C.  He  completed 
(with  Demetrius)  the  great  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus. 

Paeonius  of  Mende,  an  eminent  Greek  sculptor,  of 
whom  little  is  known,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about 
430  B.C.  He  adorned  with  statues  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
at  Olympia. 

Paer,  pS-aiR',  (Ferdinando,)  an  eminent  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Parma  in  1771.  Having  produced 
some  successful  operas,  he  was  appointed  chapel-master 
at  Dresden  in  1801.  He  entered  the  service  of  Napoleon 
in  1807  as  imperial  composer,  and  was  employed  to  direct 
the  music  of  the  court  theatre.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Institute  in  1831.  Among  his  most  admired  operas  are 
"Griselda,"  (1796,)  "Achille,"  (1806,)  and  "Agnese," 
(1811.)    Died  at  Paris  in  1839. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "  NouveI3e 
Biographie  Generale." 

Paesiello.    See  Paisiello. 

Paez,  pi-^s',  (Francesco  Alvarez,)  a  Portuguese 
monk,  asserted  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  in  a 
treatise  "  De  Planctu  Ecclesiae."    Died  in  1532. 

Paez,  pS-gth',  (Francisco,)  a  Jesuit  missionary,  born 
at  Olmedo,  in  Spain,  in  1564.  He  entered  Abyssinia  in 
1603,  learned  a  native  dialect,  and  converted  the  king, 
Za-Denghel.  He  is  said  to  have  visited  one  of  the 
sources  of  the  Nile  in  161 8.  He  died  in  Abyssinia  in 
1622,  (as  is  supposed,)  leaving  a  History  of  Abyssinia 
in  manuscript,  and  some  letters. 

Paez,  pS-^th',  (Jos^:  Antonio,)  a  South  American 
general,  born  at  Varinas  about  1785.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  army  of  Bolivar  against  the  Spaniards. 
The  victory  at  the  great  battle  of  Carabobo\  or  Carabolo, 
in  1821,  is  ascribed  to  him.  In  1830  he  was  elected 
President  of  Venezuela  for  four  years.  He  was  re-elected 
in  1838  or  1839,  and  was  appointed  dictator  in  1846. 
Having  failed  in  an  armed  contest  with  Monagas  in 
1848,  he  was  taken  prisoner  and  exiled  in  1850.  He  is 
represented  as  an  able  and  respectable  statesman. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Autobiografia  del  Jose  Antonio  Paez,' 
1867;  "North  American  Review"  for  July,  1827. 

Pagan,  de,  deh  pt'gdN',  (Blaise  Francois,)  Count, 
an  eminent  French  engineer  and  geometer,  was  born  at 
Avignon  in  1604.  He  distinguished  himself  by  skill  and 
courage  in  the  war  against  the  French  Protestants,  and 
directed  the  siege  of  Nancy,  in  1633.  He  had  just  been 
made  a  marechal-de-camp,  in  1642,  when  he  was  deprived 
of  sight  by  disease.  Continuing  to  apply  himself  with 
success  to  mathematics,  he  gained  a  high  reputation  by 
his  writings.  In  1645  published  in  his  "Treatise  on 
Fortifications"  ("Traite  des  Fortifications")  a  new  sys- 
tem of  fortification,  which  quickly  superseded  all  others. 
He  is  reputed  one  of  the  greatest  masters  and  improvers 
of  the  art  on  which  that  work  treats.    Died  in  1665. 

See  Perrault,  "  Hommes  illustres." 

Paganel,  pt'gt'n^K,  (Camille  Pierre  Alexis,)  a 
litterateiir,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  six  times  between  1834  and  1846, 
and  voted  with  the  Centre.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  His- 
tory of  Frederick  the  Great,"  (1830.)    Died  in  1859. 

Paganel,  (Pierre,)  a  French  politician,  the  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Villeneuve  d'Agen  in  1745. 
He  was  a  moderate  member  of  the  Convention  in  1792- 
95.  He  voted,  however,  for  the  death  and  reprieve  of 
the  king.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  French  Revolu- 
tion," (3  vols.,  1810.)    Died  in  1826. 

Pagani,  pS-g&'nee,  (Francesco,)  a  Florentine  painter, 
born  in  1531.  He  painted  frescos  in  his  native  city. 
Died  in  1561. 

Pagani,  (Gregorio,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Florence  in  1558.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Cigoli, 
whose  style  he  imitated,  was  an  excellent  colorist,  and 
was  one  of  the  best  masters  that  Florence  possessed 
at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  His  master-piece, 
"  The  Discovery  of  the  Cross,"  was  destroyed  by  fire. 
His  extant  works  are  not  numerous.    Died  in  1605. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Pagani,  (Paolo,)  a  painter,  born  in  the  duchy  of 
Milan  in  1661.  He  worked  in  Venice  with  success. 
The  gallery  of  Dresden  contains  his  picture  of  a  Mag- 
dalene in  meditation.    Died  in  17 16. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  ((J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PAGJNLCESA 


1726 


PAGNERRE 


Pagani-Cesa.pa-gi'nee  cha'sS,  (Giuseppe  Urbano,) 
an  Italian  poet,  l)orn  at  Belluno  in  1757.  He  wrote  "  La 
Villegiatura  di  Clizia,"  (1802,)  and  other  poems  of  some 
merit.  He  also  produced  a  mediocre  version  of  Virgil's 
"  /Eneid,"  (1822.)    Died  in  1835. 

Paganini,  p^-gl-nee'nee,  (Nrccoi.6,)  a  celebrated  Ital- 
ian performer  on  the  violin,  was  born  at  Genoa  in  1784. 
He  received  lessons  from  RoUa,  Ghiretti,  and  Paer, 
and  is  said  to  have  composed  a  sonata  of  merit  at  the 
age  of  nine,  about  which  time  he  began  to  perform  in 
public  concerts,  and  by  his  wonderful  powers  produced 
the  most  extraordinary  excitement  among  the  audience. 
"When  not  yet  fifteen,  he  escaped  from  the  control  of  his 
father,  and  commenced  business  on  his  own  account. 
But,  unhappily,  the  admiration  and  flatteries  which  he 
received,  and  the  control  of  large  sums  of  money,  which 
he  procured  almost  without  effort,  exerted  a  most  in- 
jurious effect  on  his  moral  character,  and  he  fell  into 
habits  of  gambling  and  into  the  practice  of  other  vices. 
About  1802  he  retired  for  a  time  from  public  view  ;  but 
his  former  habits  of  life,  and  the  necessity  of  excitement, 
soon  induced  or  compelled  him  to  return.  After  he  had 
given  concerts  in  the  great  cities  of  Italy,  he  visited  Vienna 
in  1828,  and  was  received  with  the  wildest  enthusiasm. 
His  performances  created  a  furor  wholly  unparalleled 
in  the  history  of  music.  He  gained  enormous  sums  of 
money  in  Paris  and  London.  His  marvellous  perform- 
ance on  a  single  string  excited  especial  astonishment. 
He  composed  sonatas,  etc.  for  the  violin,  which  display 
an  inventive  genius.  Died  at  Nice  in  1840.  With  all 
his  rare  gifts,  he  is  said  to  have  been  sensual,  extremely 
avaricious,  aiid  excessively  vain. 

See  ScHOTTKY,  "  Paganini's  Leben  und  Treiben,"  Prague,  1830; 
CoNESTABiLE,  "  Vita  del  celebre  N.  Paganini;"  J.  Imbert  de  la 
pHAL^EQUE,  "  Notice  siir  N.  Paganini,"  Paris,  1830;  G.  E.  Anders, 
"Paganini.  sa  Vie,  sa  Personne,"  etc.,  1831  ;  Fr.  Fayolle,  "Paga- 
nini et  Beriot,"  1831 ;  Fetis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musi- 
ciens  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1831. 

Pagano,  pJ-g^'no,  (Francesco  Maria,)  a  political 
writer,  born  at  Brienza,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  in 
1748.  He  obtained  the  chair  of  law  at  Naples  in  1787. 
His  principal  work  is  "Political  Essays,"  ("  Saggi  po- 
litici,"  1792.)  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  Neapolitan  re- 
public formed  in  1798.  Having  been  taken  prisoner  by 
the  royalists,  he  was  executed  in  1800. 

Paganucci,  pi-ga-noot'chee,  (Jean,)  a  French  mer- 
chant, born  at  Lyons  in  1729,  wrote  an  excellent  "Mer- 
chants' Manual,"  ("  Manuel  des  Negociants,"  3  vols., 
1762.)    Died  in  1797. 

Page,  (John,)  an  American  patriot  and  Governor, 
born  in  Gloucester  county,  Virginia,  in  1743.  He  ren- 
dered important  services  during  the  Revolution,  was 
a  member  of  Congress  from  Virginia  for  eight  years, 
(1789-97,)  and  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia  in 
1802.  lie  was  a  personal  friend  of  Thomas  Jefferson. 
Died  at  Richmond  in  1808. 

Page,  (Thomas  Jefferson,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  Virginia  about  1815.  He  was  appointed 
a  commander  in  the  United  States  navy  in  1855. 

Page,  (William,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Harrow 
in  1590,  was  master  of  a  free  school  at  Reading.  He 
wrote  "The  Peace-Maker,  or  a  Brief  Motive  to  Unity." 
Died  in  1663. 

Page,  (William,)  an  American  painter,  born  at  Al- 
bany in  181 1.  He  studied  for  a  time  under  S.  F.  B. 
Morse,  in  New  York,  and  subsequently  produced  several 
portraits  and  historical  pieces  which  established  his 
reputation.  He  visited  Rome  about  1850,  and  returned 
in  i860  to  New  York.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
the  "  Flight  into  Egypt,"  "  Moses  and  Aaron  on  Mount 
Horeb,"  and  "  The  Infant  Bacchus." 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Pagenstecher,  pa'gen-st§K'er>  (Alexander  Ar- 
nold,) a  German  jurisconsult,  born  at  Bentheim  in 
1659.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Groningen,  and 
wrote  many  works.    Died  in  1716. 

Pages.    See  Garnier-Pag£s. 

Pages,  pt'zhls',  (FRANgois  Xavier,)  a  French  litte- 
rateur, born  at  Aurillac  in  1745.  He  published,  besides 
many  novels,  "  Historical  Tableaux  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution," (3  vols.,  1791-1804.)    Died  in  1802. 


Page.s,  (Pierre  Marie  FRANgois,)  a  French  voyager, 
born  at  Toulouse  in  1748,  was  a  captain  in  the  navy. 
He  published  in  1782  "  Voyages  around  the  World  and 
towards  the  Poles  in  1 767-1 776."  He  was  massacred 
be  the  negroes  in  Saint  Domingo  in  1793. 

Pages  de  I'Ari^ge,  pt'zhgs'  deh  irre'izh',  (Jean 
Pierre,)  a  French  political  writer,  born  in  Ariege  in 
1784.  He  was  an  editor  of  several  Liberal  journals  of 
Paris  after  the  restoration.  In  1848  he  was  elected  to 
the  Constituent  Assembly.   He  published  several  works. 

Pag'et,  (Lord  Clarence  Edward,)  a  British  ad- 
miral, a  brother  of  the  Marquis  of  Anglesey,  was  born 
in  181 1.  He  served  as  captain  in  the  navy,  and  com- 
manded the  Princess  Royal  in  the  Baltic  in  1854.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  by  the  Liberals  in  1847, 
again  in  1857.  In  1859  he  was  appointed  secretary  to 
the  Admiralty.    He  became  a  vice-admiral  in  1865. 

Paget  or  Pag'it,  (Eusebius,)  an  English  Puritan 
minister  and  writer,  born  in  Northamptonshire  about 
1542.  He  became  rector  of  Saint  Anne  and  Saint 
Agnes,  London,  in  1604.  His  chief  work  is  a  "History 
of  the  Bible."    Died  in  1617. 

His  son  Ephraim  (1575-1647)  was  noted  as  a  linguist. 
He  wrote  a  "  Christianographia,"  (1635.) 

Paget,  (George  Frederick  Augustus,)  Lord,  a 
brother  of  Clarence  Edward,  noticed  above,  was  born  in 
1818.  He  became  lieutenant-colonel  of  dragoons  about 
1846,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Balaklava,  (1854.) 

Paget,  (Henry  William,)  Lord.    See  Anglesey. 

Paget,  (James,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  physiologist  and 
surgeon  of  high  reputation,  was  born  in  Great  Yarmouth 
in  1814.  He  was  admitted  into  the  College  of  Surgeons 
in  1836,  and  afterwards  became  Hunterian  professor  of 
surgery.  He  wrote  articles  for  several  medical  journals. 
Among  his  works  are  "Lectures  on  Surgical  Pathology," 
(1853-) 

Paget,  (William,)  Baron,  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  London  in  1506.  He  became  one  of  the  secre- 
taries of  state  in  1543.  Designated  by  Henry  VIII.  as 
one  of  the  executors  of  his  will,  Paget  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  events  of  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  and  was 
keeper  of  the  seals  in  the  following  reign.  In  1561  he 
advised  Elizabeth  to  make  an  alliance  with  the  King  of 
Navarre  and  the  Huguenots  rather  than  the  King  of 
Spain.    Died  in  1563. 

Paggi,  pad'jee,  or  Pagi,  pi'jee,  (Giovanni  Battista,) 
an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  1554,  was 
a  pupil  of  Luca  Cambiaso.  He  worked  about  twenty 
years  at  Florence,  and  returned  to  Genoa  in  1600,  after 
which  he  adorned  the  churches  of  that  city  with  many 
paintings.  He  was  the  master  of  a  school  in  which  sev- 
eral able  artists  were  formed,  and  excelled  as  a  colorist. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The  Transfiguration"  and 
"  The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents."    Died  in  1627. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Soprani,  "Vite  de' 
Pittori  Genovesi." 

Pagi,  pt'zhe',  (Antotne,)  a  French  chronologist,  born 
in  Provence  in  1624.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  his 
"  Historical  and  Chronological  Criticism  on  the  Ec- 
clesiastical Annals  of  Baronius,"  ("Critica  historico- 
chronologica  in  Annales  Ecclesiasticos  Baronii,"  4  vols., 
1705.)    Died  in  1699. 

Pagi,  (Francois,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Lam- 
besc  in  1654,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  Died 
in  1 72 1. 

Pagi,  L'Abb^:,  a  French  historian,  born  at  Martigue 
about  1690.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Revolu- 
tions of  the  Low  Countries,"  (1727.) 

Pagit.    See  Paget,  (Eusebius.) 

Paglia,  piKyS,  (  Antonio,  )  a  distinguished  Italian 
painter,  born  in  1680.  He  was  a  skilful  imitator  of  the 
old  masters.  He  worked  in  Brescia,  the  churches  of 
which  contain  many  of  his  pictures.    Died  in  1747. 

Paglia,  (Francesco,)  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Brescia  in  1636,  was  a  pupil  of  Guercino.  He 
excelled  in  portraits  and  in  the  science  of  clair-obscur. 
He  died  soon  after  1700. 

Pagnerre,  ptn'yaiR',  (Laurent  Antoine,)  a  French 
republican,  born  in  Seine-et-Oise  in  1805.  He  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  to  the  mayor  of  Paris,  Garnier-Pages, 
in  February,  1848,  secretary-general  of  the  provisional 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  J?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fSt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon ; 


PJGNEST 


1727 


PAINE 


government  on  the  ist  of  March,  and  director  of  the 
Comptoir  national  d'Escompte  on  the  9th  of  March.  He 
was  the  first  proposer  of  this  institution,  which  rendered 
great  services  to  the  puljlic  in  that  crisis.    Died  in  1854. 

Pagnest,  ptg'ni^  (  Amarle  Louis  Claude,)  a  French 
portrait-painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1790;  died  in  1819. 

Pagiiini,  pSn-yee^iee,  [Lat.  Pagni'nus,]  (Luca  An- 
tonio,) an  Italian  classical  scholar  and  monk,  born  at 
Pistoia  in  1737.  He  wrote  Greek  and  Latin  epigrams-, 
"  Epigrammi  morali  cento,"  (1799,)  which  were  admired, 
and  produced  good  translations  of  Anacreon,  (1766,) 
Theocritus,  (1780,)  Hesiod,  (1797,)  and  Horace's  "  Sa- 
tires and  Epistles,"  (1814.)  He  corresponded  with  Alfieri, 
Frugoni,  and  Cesarotti.  In  1806  he  became  professor  of 
Latin  at  Pisa.    Died  in  1814. 

See  CiAMPi,  "Elogium  L.  A.  Pagnini,"  1814;  Tipaldo,  "  Bio- 
grafia  degli  Italian!  illiistri." 

Pagnino,  pin-yee'no,  [Lat.  Pagni'nus,]  (Sante,)  an 
Italian  Orientalist,  was  born  at  Lucca  about  1470.  He 
entered  the  order  of  Dominicans,  and  became  a  resident 
of  Lyons  in  1525.  He  produced  a  Latin  version  of  the 
Bible  from  the  original  Hebrew  and  Greek,  (1528,)  which 
was  highly  commended  by  Buxtorf,  Huet,  and  other 
critics.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Hebrew-Latin  Dic- 
tionary," (1529.)    Died  about  1538. 

See  A.  Prricaud,  "  Notice  sur  S.  Pagnino,"  1850;  Tiraboschi, 
"Storia  deila  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Pagninus.    vSee  Pagnino. 

Pahlen,  von  der,  fon  d^r  pi'len,  (Peter,)  Baron  or 
Coun  t,  a  Russian  general,  born  about  1744.  He  gained 
the  favour  of  the  Czar  Paul,  who  appointed  him  Gov- 
ernor-General of  Saint  Petersburg.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  assassination  of  Paul,  in  1801,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  the  chief  of  that  conspiracy.  He  retired  to 
his  estate  in  Livonia,  where  he  died  in  1826. 

Pahlen,  von  der,  (Peter,)  Count,  a  Russian  gen- 
eral, and  son  of  the  preceding,  distinguished  himself  in 
the  campaigns  of  1812  and  1813.  He  was  ambassador 
to  Paris  from  1835  to  1842. 

Paice.    See  Pace,  (Richard.) 

Paillet,  pt'ya',  (Alphonse  Gabriel  Victor,)  an 
eminent  French  advocate,  born  at  Soissons  in  1795, 
settled  in  Paris  about  1826,  and  acquired  a  very  high 
reputation  for  eloquence  and  probity.  He  displayed 
consummate  art  in  the  statement  and  exposition  of  facts. 
In  1849  he  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly. 
Died  in  1855.  "Nature  had  given  him,"  says  the  "Bio- 
graphic Universelle,"  "in  a  just  measure  and  in  perfect 
equilibrium,  all  the  qualities  which  are  requisite  to  form 
a  great  advocate." 

See,  also,  J.  Larnac,  "  filoge  de  M.  Paillet,"  1857. 

Pailliet,  pt'ye-i',  or  Paillet,  pt'y^',  (Jean  Bap- 
tists Joseph,)  a^ench  jurist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1789. 
He  published  a  "Manual  of  French  Law,"  (9th  edition, 
1836,)  which  was  perhaps  more  popular  than  any  other 
similar  book.  He  also  wrote  other  works.  Died  about 
i860. 

Paillot  de  Montabert,  pt'yo'  deh  m6N'tt'baiR', 
(Jean  Nicolas,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Troyes  in 
1771.  He  wrote  a  "  Complete  Treatise  on  Painting," 
(9  vols.,  1829.)    Died  in  1849. 

Paine,  pan,  (Eleazar  A.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Ohio  about  181 5,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1839. 
He  became  a  brigadier-general  about  September,  1861, 
and  served  in  Tennessee  and  Mississippi  in  1862-63. 

Paine,  (Elijah,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Brooklyn,  Connecticut,  in  1757.  He  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1794,  and  in  1801  became  judge 
of  the  United  States  court  for  Vermont.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 
and  of  other  learned  institutions.    Died  in  1842. 

Paine,  (Elijah,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
"Williamstown,  Vermont,  in  1796,  and  rose  to  eminence  as 
a  jurist.    He  published,  in  conjunction  with  John  Duer, 

Practice  in  Civil  Actions  and  Proceedings  in  the  State 
of  New  York,"  (1830.)    Died  in  1853. 

Paine,  (Martyn,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Williamstown,  Vermont,  in  1794,  and 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1813.  He  afterwards 
settled  in  New  York,  where  he  gained  a  high  reputation 
and  extensive  practice.  In  1841  he  was  one  of  the  founders 


of  the  University  Medical  College,  in  which  he  filled  the 
chair  of  therapeutics  and  materia  medica.  He  has  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  "  The  Cholera  Asphyxia  of 
New  York,"  "  Medical  and  Physiological  Commentaries," 
(1840,)  and  "Institutes  of  Medicine,"  (1847.)  The  two 
last-named  have  a  very  high  reputation.  He  has  also 
written  a  treatise  on  "Theoretical  Geology." 

Paine,  (Robert  Treat,)  an  American  jurist  and  a 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  at 
Boston  in  1731.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  for  about 
four  years,  (1774-78.)  In  1780  he  was  one  of  the  com- 
mittee which  formed  the  State  Constitution  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  in  1790  became  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  that  State.    Died  in  1814. 

See  Goodrich,  "  Lives  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence." 

Paine,  (Robert  Treat,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Taunton,  Massachusetts,  in  1773.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1792,  and,  having  subsequently 
studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1802.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  very  popular  political  song,  entitled 
"Adams  and  Liberty,"  and  of  other  works,  in  prose  and 
verse.    Died  in  1811. 

See  R.  W.  Gkiswold,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America,"  p.  75 

Paine,  (Thomas,)  a  political  and  deistical  writer, 
born  at  Thetford,  in  Norfolk,  England,  in  January,  1737. 
His  father  was  a  Quaker,  and  brought  up  his  son  to  his 
ow^n  trade,  that  of  stay-maker.  Paine  married  young, 
and  settled  in  1759  at  Sandwich.  Having  lost  his  wife 
about  1 761,  he  removed  to  London,  where  for  a  short 
time  he  was  employed  as  a  school-teacher.  After  seve- 
ral changes  of  business  and  residence,  he  emigrated  to 
America  in  1774,  with  a  letter  of  recommendation  from 
Dr.  Franklin,  whom  he  met  in  London.  He  became 
editor  of  the  "  Pennsylvania  Magazine,"  and  gave  an 
impulse  to  the  Revolution  by  his  famous  pamphlet  called 
"  Common  Sense,"  in  which  he  advocated  the  policy  of 
separation  and  independence.   It  was  issued  in  January, 

1776,  and  appears  to  have  contributed  in  an  extraordi- 
nary degree  to  the  advancement  of  republican  ideas. 
He  enlisted  as  a  volunteer  in  the  army  in  the  autumn 
of  1776.  To  counteract  the  depression  of  spirits  which 
prevailed  in  the  winter  of  1776-77,  he  published  "The 
Crisis,"  a  periodical,  which  appeared  at  irregular  in- 
tervals for  some  years  and  was  very  successful.  The 
phrase  "  These  are  the  times  that  try  men's  souls"  was 
first  used  in  the  "Crisis."  He  was  secretary  to  the 
committee  on  foreign  affairs  in  Congress  from  April, 

1777,  to  January,  1779,  and  went  to  France  in  1781,  with 
Colonel  Laurens,  to  negotiate  a  loan  for  the  United 
States.  His  services  in  the  Revolution  were  rewarded 
by  Congress  in  1785  with  a  present  of  three  thousand 
dollars,  and  the  State  of  New  York  gave  him  three 
hundred  acres  of  land. 

In  1787  he  visited  France,  from  which  he  passed  to 
England.  He  invented  an  iron  bridge,  and  procured  the 
construction  of  such  a  bridge  at  Rotherham,  in  York- 
shire. He  returned  to  Paris  in  1789,  and,  in  answer  to 
Burke's  "Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution,"  wrote 
his  "  Rights  of  Man,"  (1791,)  which  obtained  great  popu- 
larity. In  September,  1792,  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  French  National  Convention  by  the  citizens  of 
the  Pas-de-Calais.  He  acted  with  the  Girondists,  and, . 
in  the  trial  of  the  king,  voted  for  his  banishment.  About 
the  end  of  1793  he  was  expelled  from  the  Convention,  as 
a  foreigner,  by  the  Jacobins,  who  also  issued  a  decree 
that  all  natives  of  England  found  in  France  should  be 
imprisoned.  He  was  accordingly  cast  into  prison,  and 
narrowly  escaped  death  in  the  reign  of  terror.  In 
November,  1794,  he  was  released,  through  the  influence 
of  James  Monroe,  (afterwards  President  of  the  United 
States,)  and  resumed  his  seat  in  the  Convention.  He 
produced  in  1795  a  deistical  work  entitled  "The  Age  of 
Reason,"  which  gave  great  offence  to  many  of  his  polit- 
ical friends.*  This  work,  although  characterized  by  a 
certain  vigour  as  well  as  flippancy  of  style,  and  though 
from  its  very  indecency  calculated  to  obtain  currency 
among  the  less  refined  portion  of  society,  yet,  being 


*  See  an  interesting  letter  from  Franklin  to  Paine  on  this  subject, 
in  Sparks's  edition  of  Franklin's  works,  vol.  x.  p.  281. 


♦  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as J;  g,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PAINTER 


28 


PALJFOX 


conspicuously  wanting  in  a  spirit  of  candour,  and  betray- 
ing an  utter  deficiency  in  true  scholarship,  is  likely  to  exert 
but  little  influence  upon  intelligent  and  reflecting  minds, 
and  least  of  all  on  those  whose  learning  qualifies  them 
to  judge  of  the  ignorance  of  the  writer  and  the  essential 
shallowness  of  most  of  his  arguinents.  He  returned  to 
the  United  States  in  1802,  and  passed  his  latter  years 
in  private  life  and  comparative  obscurity.  He  became 
intemperate  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life.  Died  in  New 
York  in  June,  1809. 

See  Cheetham,  "  Memoirs  of  Thomas  Paine,"  1809  ;  Carlile, 
"Life  of  Thomas  Paine,"  1814;  G.  Chalmers,  "Life  of  Thomas 
Paine,"  1791;  G.  Vale,  "Life  of  Thomas  Paine,"  1841;  W.  T. 
Sherwin,  "Life  of  Thomas  Paine,"  i8ig;  William  Cobbett, 
"Life  of  Thomas  Paine;"  Duyckinck,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American 
Literature,"  vol.  i.  ;  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  North 
American  Review"  for  July,  1843  ;  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  July  and 
December,  1859;  "Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1791,  and  March, 
1792  ;  "  New  American  Cyclopa;dia." 

Paint'er,  (William,)  an  English  writer  or  translator, 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  He  published  "The 
Palace  of  Pleasure,  beautified,  adorned,  and  well  fur- 
nished with  Pleasant  Histories  and  Excellent  Novels," 
etc.,  (2  vols.,  1566-69.)    Died  after  1590. 

Paisiello,  pI-se-eKlo,  or  Paesiello,  pl-^-se-el'lo, 
(Giovanni,)  a  celebrated  Italian  composer,  born  at 
Tarento  in  1741,  studied  five  years  under  Durante  at 
Naples.  About  1764  he  produced  operas  entitled  "La 
Pupilla"  and  "  II  Mondo  alia  Rovescio,"  which  extended 
his  reputation  throughout  Italy.  He  was  chapel-master 
to  the  King  of  Naples  from  1786  to  1798.  Having  been 
invited  by  Bonaparte,  he  went  to  Paris  in  1802,  and 
officiated  as  chapel-master  for  two  years.  He  returned 
to  Naples  in  1804.  Among  his  popular  operas  are  "  King 
Theodore,"  ("  11  Re  Teodoro,")  "  The  Barber  of  Seville," 
"  Frascatina,"  "La  Locanda,"  "Pirro,"  and  "  lo  son 
Lindoro,"  (or  "  Hope  told  a  Flattering  Tale.")  "  He  is 
superior  to  his  rivals,"  says  Denne-Baron,  "in  the 
suavity  of  his  melody  and  the  charm  of  his  expression." 
His  works  display  ve^'ve,  originality,  an  extreme  fertility 
of  invention,  and  a  grace  and  elegance  which  are  almost 
unequalled.    Died  in  1816. 

See  Quatremere  DE  Quincy,  "Notice  sur  Paisiello;"  F^tis, 
"Biograpliie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  Lesueur,  "Notice  sur 
G.  Paisiello,"  i8i6;  ScHizzi,  "  Raggionamento  della  Vita  di  G.  Pai- 
siello," 1837  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Paitoni,  pl-to'nee,  (Giacomo  Maria,)  an  Italian 
monk  and  bibliographer,  born  at  Venice  about  1 7 10. 
His  reputation  is  founded  on  an  accurate  work  entitled 
"Library  of  Ancient  Latin  and  Greek  Authors,"  etc., 
("Biblioteca  degli  Autori  antichi  Greci  e  Latini  vol- 
garizzati,"  5  vols.,  1767.)    Died  in  1774. 

Paixhans,  paks'anz  or  pak'sSN',  (Henri  Joseph,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Metz  in  1783.  He  served  in  the 
campaigns  of  Austria  and  Prussia,  and  at  the  battle  of 
Moskwa,  (1812.)  He  represented  Metz  in  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  many  years,  ending  in  1848,  and  rose  to 
the  rank  of  general  of  division.  He  made  improvements 
in  artillery  and  projectiles,  which  bear  his  name,  and 
published  several  works  on  artillery  and  the  art  of  war. 
The  Paixhan  guns  were  first  used  in  France  about  1824. 
Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  June,  1828. 

Pajol,  pt'zhoK,  (Claude  Pierre,)  Comte,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1772.  He  signalized  him- 
self at  Ulm  and  Austerlitz,  (1805,)  was  made  a  general 
of  brigade  in  1807,  and  became  a  general  of  division 
in  1812.  His  defence  of  Montereau  was  praised  by  Na- 
poleon, who  appointed  him  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honour  in  1814.  He  fought  against  Charles  X.,  and  was 
second  in  command  of  the  Parisian  troops  in  July,  1830. 
Died  in  1844. 

Pajon,  pt'zh^N',  (Claude,)  a  French  Protestant 
minister,  born  at  Romorantin  in  1626.  He  preached  at 
Orleans,  and  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  writings, 
among  which  is  a  defence  of  the  Protestant  faith  against 
Nicole,  entitled  "Examen  des  Prejuges  legitimes,"  (de 
Nicole,)  (1675.)    Died  in  1685. 

Pajot,  pt'zho',  (Louis  L6on,)  Comte  d'Ons-en-Bray, 
(d6N  s6n  bK;\,)  a  French  mechanician  and  collector,  born 
in  Paris  in  1678.  He  collected  a  rich  cabinet  of  machines 
and  rare  works  of  art,  etc.    He  invented  an  anemometer, 


and  wrote  several  scientific  treatises.  In  1708  he  became 
director-general  of  the  post-office.    Died  in  1754. 

Pajou,  pt'zhoo',  (AUGUSTIN,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris  in  1730,  was  a  pupil  of  Lemoyne.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1748,  and  went  as  royal  pensioner  to 
Rome,  where  he  remained  twelve  years.  He  enjoyed 
great  celebrity  in  France  in  his  time.  Among  his  works 
are  statues  ot  Pascal,  Descartes,  Fenelon,  Turenne,  and 
Bossuet.    Died  at  Paris  in  1809. 

See  Lebreton,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Pajou,"  1810 ; 
"Biographie  Universelle." 

Pajou,  (Jacques  Augustin,)  a  historical  painter,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1766  ;  died  in  1828. 

Pakenham,  pa'ken-am,  (Sir  Edward,)  a  British 
general,  who  commanded  the  army  which  attacked  New 
Orleans  and  was  defeated  by  General  Jackson,  January 
8,  181 5.  He  was  killed  in  this  action.  He  was  a  brother- 
in-law  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington. 

Pakenham,  (Sir  Thomas,)  a  British  admiral,  born  in 
1758.  As  captain  of  a  ship  of  seventy-four  guns,  he  took 
part  in  Lord  Howe's  victory  over  the  French  in  June, 
1794.    He  became  admiral  about  1810.    Died  in  1836. 

Pa'king-ton,  (Dorothy,)  a  learned  English  lady, 
was  a  daughter  of  Lord  Coventry,  and  wife  of  Sir  John 
Pakington.  Died  in  1679.  She  was  supposed  to  be  the 
author  of  "The  Whole  Duty  of  Man." 

Pakington,  (Sir  John  Somerset,)  an  English  con- 
servative politician,  a  son  of  William  Russell,  of  Powick 
Court,  Worcestershire,  was  born  in  1799.  He  assumed 
the  name  of  his  uncle  about  1830.  He  entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1837,  and  was  colonial  secretary  for  a  short  time 
in  1852.  From  February,  1858,  to  July,  1859,  he  was 
first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  He  became  secretary  of 
war  in  March,  1867,  and  resigned  in  December,  1868. 

Palacky,  pS-lits'kee,  sometimes  Anglicized  in  pro- 
nunciation as  pci-lak'kee,  (Francis,)  an  eminent  Bohe- 
mian historian  and  critic,  born  at  Hodslawitz  in  June, 
1798,  is  a  Protestant.  He  was  a])pointed  historiographer 
of  Bohemia  about  1830,  and  edited  the  "Journal  of  the 
Bohemian  Museum"  from  1827  to  1837.  He  was  an 
active  supporter  of  liberal  principles  in  1848,  and  pre- 
sided over  a  Congress  of  Slavonians  at  Prague  in  that 
year.  His  principal  work  is  an  excellent  "  History  of 
Bohemia,"  in  German,  (8  vols.,  1836-60.) 

Paladines.    See  Palladines. 

Paladini,  pft-lS-dee'nee,  (Arcangela,)  a  painter  and 
poetess,  born  at  Pisa  in  1599  ;  died  in  1622. 

Paladini,  (Filippo,)  an  able  Florentine  painter,  born 
about  1544,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  His  picture 
of  the  "Death  of  John  the  Baptist"  is  admired.  Died 
in  1614. 

Paleemon,  pa-lee'mon,  [Gr.  UaXaifiuv  ;  Fr.  Pal^:mon, 
pt'la'moN',]  in  the  Greek  mythology,  the  son  of  Athamas 
and  Ino,  was  first  called  Melicerta.  He  was  regarded 
as  a  marine  divinity,  and  the  Isthmian  games  were  insti- 
tuted in  his  honour.  He  was  identified  with  the  Roman 
Portumnus.    (See  Melicerta.) 

Palaemon,  pa-lee'mon,  (Quintus  Remmius,)  a  Ro- 
man grammarian,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Tiberius, 
about  45  a.d. 

Palaeologus,  pa-le-ol'o-gus,  [Gr.  ITaAatoAoyof;  Fr. 
Pal^iologue,  pt'l^'oOog',]  the  name  of  an  illustrious 
Byzantine  family  which  acquired  distinction  in  the  elev- 
enth century.  They  reigned  in  Constantinople  from 
1260  until  1453,  when  that  capital  was  taken  by  the 
Turks.  (See  Andronicus  II.,  Constantinus  XIII., 
Manuel  II.,  John  VI.,  and  John  VII.) 

Palaephatus,  pa-l^f'a-tus,  a  Greek  historian  of  Aby- 
dos,  was  a  friend  of  Aristotle,  and  lived  about  350  B.C. 
According  to  Suidas,  he  wrote  on  Attica,  Arabia,  and 
Cyprus. 

Palaephatus,  a  Greek  writer  of  an  uncertain  period, 
to  whom  Suidas  attributes  an  "  Explanation  of  Things 
related  in  Mythology."  By  some  critics  this  is  identified 
with  an  extant  work  "On  Things  Incredible,"  (-rrspl  to)v 
uTTLOTiJV.)  Suidas  also  mentions  an  Athenian  epic  poet 
of  this  name,  who  lived  before  Homer. 

Palafox,  de,  dk  pl-li-f6H',  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  bishop 
and  writer,  born  in  Aragon  in  1600.  He  became  Bishop 
of  Osma  in  1653.  He  wrote,  besides  works  of  devotion, 
"  The  Shepherd  of  Christmas  Eve,"  ("  Pastor  de  Noche 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lou^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAorf;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f2lr,  fill,  fdt;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


PAIAFOX 


1729 


PAIET 


Buena,"  1655,)  and  "  The  Conquest  of  China  by  the  Tar- 
tars," (1678.)    Died  in  1659. 

See  DiNoUART,  "Vie  de  J.  de  Palafox,"  1767;  Champion, 
"Histcire  de  J.  de  Palafox,"  1688. 

Palafox  y  Melzi,  pS-lS-foH'  e  meK///ee,  (Jos^:,)  com- 
monly called  simply  Palafox,  (which  in  pronunciation 
is  usually  Anglicized  as  p^Ka-foks',)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  in  Aragun  in  1780.  lie  became  in  his  youth  a 
member  of  the  military  household  of  the  king.  When 
an  attack  on  Saragossa  by  the  French  was  expected,  in 
1808,  he  was  nominated  captain-general  by  popular  ac- 
clamation. He  defended  that  city  obstinately  for  sixty 
days,  at  the  end  of  which  term  the  French  retired,  August, 
i8c8.  Another  force,  under  Lannes,  renewed  the  siege 
in  November,  and  Palafox  was  forced  to  capitulate  in 
February,  1809.  He  supported  the  popular  cause  against 
Ferdinand  VII.  in  1820.  About  1836  he  was  made  Duke 
of  Saragossa.    Died  in  1847. 

See  "  NoLivelle  Biographie  Generale." 

PaPa-mas,  [TlaAa/iai-,]  (Gregorius,)  a  Greek  monk 
and  mystical  writer,  lived  about  1350.  He  was  the 
leader  of  a  sect  or  party  called  Palamites,  whose  claims 
to  mystical  light  caused  a  great  controversy. 

Palaniede.    See  Palamedes. 

P51-a-me'des,  [Gr.  na^a/z^Jj/f ;  Fr.  Palam^de,  pt'- 
It'mad',]  a  jiersonage  of  classic  mythology,  supposed  to 
have  been  the  inventor  of  scales,  measures,  chess,  dice, 
and  several  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet.  Having  joined 
the  expedition  against  Troy,  he  exposed  by  an  ingenious 
stratagem  the  feigned  insanity  of  Ulysses,  and  thereby 
incurred  his  enmity.  The  poets  relate  that  Ulysses 
concealed  in  the  tent  of  Palamedes  a  sum  of  money 
and  a  forged  letter  from  Priam,  on  the  evidence  of  which 
Palamedes  was  convicted  of  treason  and  put  to  death. 

See  Virgil,  "iEneid,"  book  ii.  82. 

Paiaprat,  pt'lt^pRt',  (Jean  de  Bigot,)  a  French 
dramatic  poet,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1650.  He  was  sec- 
retary to  the  grand  prior  of  Vendome,  and  was  noted 
for  wit.  He  wrote  dramas  entitled  "The  Secret  Re- 
vealed" and  "The  Prude  of  the  Time,"  ("La  Prude  du 
Temps,")  and  assisted  Brueys  in  the  composition  of 
several  i)lays.    Died  in  1721. 

Pal-a-ti'nus,  a  surname  given  by  the  Romans  to 
Apollo,  to  whom  a  temple  was  erected  on  Mount  Pala- 
tine. 

Palazzi,  pi-lit'see,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Venice  about  1640.  He  wrote  many  mediocre 
works,  among  which  is  a  "  History  of  the  German  Em- 
pire," (9  vols.,  1671-79.)    Died  about  1702. 

Paleario.    See  Palearius. 

Pal-e-a'ri-us  or  Paleario,  pi-li-3.'re-o,  (AoNius  or 
Aon  10,)  a  good  Italian  writer  and  scholar,  was  born  in 
the  Campagna  of  Rome  about  1500.  His  proper  name 
was  Deij.a  Paglia,  (pSl'yi.)  He  acquired  distinction 
as  a  Latin  poet,  and  became  professor  of  eloquence  at 
Milan  in  1 555.  His  Latin  poem  on  the  immortality  of 
the  soul  (1536)  was  commended  by  Sadolet.  Having 
been  converted  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformers,  or 
advocated  religious  liberty,  he  was  tried  for  heresy  and 
hung  at  Rome  in  1570. 

See  "  Life  and  Times  of  Aonio  Paleario,"  by  M.  Young,  2  vols., 
i860;  GuRi.iTT,  "  Leben  des  A.  Palearius,"  1805;  Bayle,  "His- 
torical and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron,  "M^moires." 

Palemon.    See  Pal^mon. 

Palencia,  de,  (Alfonso.)  See  Alfonso  de  Pa- 
lencia. 

Palencia,  de,  di  pi-l^n'the-S,  (Fernando,)  a  Spanish 
soldier  and  writer,  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He 
served  in  the  army  in  Peru,  and  published  in  1571  a 
"  History  of  Peru." 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  ii. 
book  V. 

Paleologue.    See  Pal^ologus. 

Paleotti,  pS  li-ot'tee,  (Gabriel,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1524.  He  was  sent  to  the  Council 
of  Trent  by  Pius  IV.,  and  became  a  cardinal  in  1565. 
Among  his  works  is  "  De  Bono  Senectutis,"  (1598.) 
Died  in  1597. 

PaTes,  [Fr.  Pal^s,  pt'lgs',]  a  divinity  who  presided 
over  cattle,  shepherds,  and  pastures  among  the  ancient 
Romans.    Pales  was  represented  by  some  as  a  male  and 


by  others  as  a  female  deity,  and  was  the  personification 
of  the  same  idea  as  Pan  among  the  Greeks. 

Palestrina,  da,  dS  pi-l^s-tRee'na,  (Giovanni  Pier- 
LUlGl,)  an  Italian  composer  of  great  celebrity,  was  born 
at  Palestrina,  (the  ancient  Przeneste,)  near  Rome,  about 
1524.  He  studied  at  Rome  under  Claude  Goudimel,  a 
Frenchman.  In  1551  he  was  appointed  cha])el-master 
to  Pope  Julius  HI.  He  produced  in  1554  his  first  work, 
four  masses  for  four  voices,  and  obtained  a  place  among 
the  singers  of  the  pontifical  chapel,  from  which  Paul 
IV.  removed  him  because  he  was  married.  From  1561 
to  1571  he  was  chapel-master  of  Santa  Maria  Mag- 
giore.  During  this  i)eriod  the  pope  resolved  to  reform 
the  music  of  the  Church  or  to  banish  it.  Pale^rina 
was  directed  to  compose  a  mass  which  should  be  con- 
formed to  a  pure  orthc^dox  standard.  The  result  was 
the  famous  mass  for  six  voices,  called  the  "Mass  of 
Pope  Marcellus,"  (1565,)  which  was  received  with  great 
admiration  and  determined  his  superiors  to  retain  music 
in  the  Roman  Church.  "  The  unrivalled  genius  of  Pa- 
lestrina," says  Denne-Baron,  referring  to  this  mass, 
"  created  the  only  kind  of  music  which  comports  with 
the  majesty  of  the  Church  ;  and  among  the  productions 
of  succeeding  composers  nothing  has  equalled  the  power, 
the  profound  and  simple  accent,  the  mystic  tenderness, 
the  ravishing  sweetness,  of  his  chants."  ("  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale.")  In  1571  he  was  appointed  chapel- 
master  in  Saint  Peter's.    Died  in  1594. 

See  Wintrrfeld,  "J.  Pierluigi  von  Palestrina,"  etc.,  1832; 
Baini,  "  Memorie  storico  criticbe  della  Vita  e  delle  Opere  di  Pales- 
trina," 182S;  Fetis,  "  Biograpiiie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Paletta,  pi-l^t'tS,  or  Palletta,  pS.l-lgt'ta,  (Giovanni 
Battista,)  an  Italian  anatomist  and  writer,  born  in  the 
valley  of  Ossola,  in  Piedmont,  in  1747.  He  became 
surgeon-in-chief  of  the  grand  hospital  of  Milan  in  1787. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Pathological  Exercises,"  (  "  Exer- 
citationes  Pathologicae,"  2  vols.,  1820.)    Died  in  1832. 

See  G.  Ferrario,  "Vita  del  Professore  G.  B.  Paietta,"  1833. 

PaTey,  (Frederick  Apthorp,)  an  English  scholar, 
a  grandson  of  the  famous  author,  William  Paley,  was 
born  near  York  in  1816.  He  edited  the  works  of  M.'s,- 
chylus  a^id  Euripides,  and  was  the  author  of  several 
works  on  church  architecture. 

Paley,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  writer,  born 
at  Peterborough  in  1743.  He  graduated  in  1763  at 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge, — where  he  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  distinguished  for  his  application,* — took 
holy  orders,  and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  his  college  in 
1766.  He  was  subsequently  employed  as  a  tutor  at 
Cambridge,  and  became  rector  of  Musgrove,  in  West- 
moreland, in  1775,  soon  after  which  date  he  married. 
In  1782  he  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Carlisle.  He 
published  in  1785  "The  Principles  of  Moral  and  Political 
Philosophy,"  regarded  by  some  as  the  most  important 
of  all  his  works.  As  a  writer  he  excels  in  logical  power 
and  in  clearness  of  style.  He  denies  the  existence  of  a 
moral  sense,  and  adopts  the  maxim  that  "  whatever  is 
expedient  is  right."  He  was  liberal  in  theology,  was 
a  friend  of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  and  earnestly 
advocated  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade.  Ir  1790  he 
produced  an  admirable  work  entitled  "  Horce  Paulinae, 
or  the  Truth  of  the  Scripture  History  ox  Saint  Paul 
evinced."  He  was  appointed  a  prebendary  of  Saint 
Paul's  in  1794,  and  was  presented  to  'the  sub-deanery  of 
Lincoln  Cathedral.  About  1795  he  obtained  the  rec- 
tory of  Bishop-Wearmouth.  His  other  principal  works 
are  "  A  View  of  the  Evidences  of  Christianity,"  (3  vols., 
1794,)  one  of  the  best  works  ever  written  on  the  subject 
of  which  it  treats,  and  "  Natural  Theology,  or  Evidences 
of  the  Existence  and  Attributes  of  the  Deity,"  (1802,) 
which  has  a  very  high  reputation  and  has  often  been 
reprinted.    Died  in  1805. 

"  This  excellent  writer,"  says  Mackintosh,  "  who,  after 
Clarke  and  Butler,  ought  to  be  ranked  among  the 

*  It  is  said  that  during  the  early  part  of  his  term  at  Cambridge 
he  spent  his  time  in  agreeable  idleness.  One  of  his  companions 
called  on  him  early  one  morning,  and  told  him  he  had  been  unable  to 
sleep,  from  the  conviction  that  he  (Paley)  was  squandering  talents 
which,  if  properly  directed,  might  be  most  useful  to  himself  and  to 
the  world,  concluding  with  these  words:  "If  you  persist  in  your 
indolence,  I  must  renounce  your  society."  The  result  was  that  Palev 
entirely  changed  his  course  of  life. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Y.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

109 


PALFY 


1730 


PALISOT 


brightest  ornaments  of  the  English  Church  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  is  in  the  history  of  philosophy  naturally 
placed  after  Tucker,  to  whom,  with  praiseworthy  libe- 
rality, he  owns  iiis  extensive  obligations.  .  .  .  His  style 
is  as  near  perfection  in  its  kind  as  any  in  our  language, 
.  .  .  The  most  original  and  ingenious  of  his  writings  is 
the  *  Horae  Paulina;.'  'The  Evidences  of  Christianity' 
are  formed  out  of  an  admirable  translation  of  Butler's 
'Analogy' and  a  most  skilful  abridgment  of  Lardner's 
'Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History.'  .  .  .  His  '  Natural 
Theology'  is  the  wonderful  work  of  a  man  who  after 
sixty  had  studied  anatomy  in  order  to  write  it  ;*  and  it 
could  only  have  been  surpassed  by  a  man  who  to  great 
originality  of  conception  and  clearness  of  exposition 
added  the  advantage  of  a  high  place  in  the  first  class 
of  physiologists.  ...  It  cannot  be  denied  that  Paley 
was  sometimes  rather  a  lax  moralist, — especially  on 
public  duties."  (See  Mackintosh's  "  Progress  of  Ethical 
Philosophy.") 

"On  one  great  topic — that  of  Christian  evidence — 
he  has  shed  new  light.  By  felicity  of  arrangement  and 
illustration,  he  has  given  an  air  of  novelty  to  old  argu- 
ments, whilst  he  has  strengthened  his  cause  by  important 
original  proofs.  His  '  Horae  Paulinae'  is  one  of  the 
few  books  destined  to  live.  Paley  saw  what  he  did 
see  through  an  atmosphere  of  light.  He  seized  on  the 
strong  points  of  his  subject  with  an  intuitive  sagacity, 
and  has  given  his  clear  bright  thoughts  in  a  style  which 
has  made  them  the  property  of  his  readers  almost  as 
perfectly  as  they  were  his  own.  .  .  .  He  was  character- 
ized by  the  distinctness  of  his  vision.  He  was  not,  we 
think,  equally  remarkable  for  its  extent.  He  was  popular 
rather  than  philosophical.  He  was  deficient  in  that 
intellectual  thirst  which  is  a  chief  element  of  the  philo- 
sophical spirit.  He  had  no  irrepressible  desire  to  sound 
the  depths  of  his  own  nature,  or  to  ascend  to  wide  and 
all-reconciling  views  of  the  works  and  ways  of  God. 
Moral  philosophy  he  carried  backward ;  nor  had  he 
higher  claims  in  religious  than  in  ethical  science.  His 
sermons  are  worthy  of  all  praise,  not,  indeed,  for  their 
power  over  the  heart,  but  for  their  plain  and  strong 
expositions  of  duty  and  their  awakening  appeals  to  the 
conscience."  (See  "  Remarks  on  the  Character  and 
Writings  of  Fenelon,"  in  Channing's  "Discourses.") 

See  G.  W.  Meadley,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  W.  Paley,"  i8og  ; 
Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors  :"  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  July,  1813  ;  "Monthly  Review"  for  August  and  December,  1785. 

Pdlfy,  pSKfe,  (Albert,)  a  Hungarian  litterateur  and 
publicist,  born  at  Grosswardein  in  1813.  Soon  after  the 
commencement  of  the  republican  movement  in  1848,  he 
founded  a  daily  paper  called  "The  15th  of  March," 
which  obtained  great  popularity  and  had  a  marked  in- 
fluence on  the  Hungarian  revolution.  In  1849  the  journal 
was  confiscated,  and  its  editor  for  a  time  imprisoned. 
Palfy  is  the  author  of  several  novels,  which  rank  among 
the  best  in  Hungarian  literature. 

Pdlfy,  (JXnos,)  Count  of,  a  Hungarian  field-marshal, 
born  in  1659,  served  under  Prince  Eugene  in  the  Italian 
campaigns  of  1 701-2,  and  subsequently  against  the  Turks. 
He  was  appointed  in  1741  commander-general  in  Hun- 
gary, where  he  was  a  zealous  adherent  of  Maria  Theresa. 
Died  in  1751. 

*  We  do  not  attach  any  very  great  importance  to  the  charge  of 
"stupendous  plagiarism"  brought  against  Paley  for  what  he  has 
borrowed  from  Dr.  Nieuwentyt.  (See  the  article  on  this  subject  in 
the  "  London  AthenjEum,"  published  in  August,  1S48.)  Macaulay 
well  remarks  that  "the  reasoning  by  which  Socrates,  in  Xenophon's 
hearing,  confuted  the  little  atheist  Aristodemus  is  exactly  the  reason- 
ing of  Paley's  '  Natural  Theology.'  "  (See  article  on  "  Ranke's  His- 
tory of  the  Popes,"  in  Macaulay's  "  Essays.")  If,  then,  Paley's  line 
of  argument  is  exactly  like  that  of  Socrates,  and  also  the  same  as 
that  employed  by  Dr.  Nieuwentyt,  it  is  at  least  possible  that  Dr.  Nieu- 
wentyt may  have  derived  some  of  his  ideas  and  arguments — if  not  his 
particular  illustrations — from  Socrates.  We  should  be  very  sorry  to 
say  anything  to  encourage  plagiarism;  but  those  who  are  best  ac- 
quainted with  what  has  been  done  in  this  department  of  philosophy 
will  probably  be  most  ready  to  admit  the  impossibility  of  any  one 
claiming  justly  absolute  originality,  or  anything  near  it,  in  this  great 
field  of  thought.  The  chief  merit  of  Paley,  w-ho  does  not  appear  to 
have  made  any  especial  pretension  to  originality  as  respects  the  in- 
dividual ideas  or  illustrations  of  his  subject,  consists  in  the  admirable 
skill  and  ability  with  which  he  combines  and  presents  the  whole 
argument.  Without  being  the  creator,  or  even  the  first  discoverer, 
of  many  of  the  different  points  of  evidence  adduced  by  him,  he  may 
be  said  to  marshal  them  as  a  consummate  general  marshals  his  forces, 
■o  as  to  render  them  in  combination  irresistible. 


Palfyn,  pal-fn/,  sometimes  written  Palfin,  (Jkan,)  a 
skilful  Flemish  anatomist,  born  at  Ghent  in  1650.  He 
lectured  on  surgery  at  Ghent,  made  some  improvements 
in  that  art,  and  published  a  valuable  work  on  "  Surgical 
Anatomy,"  (1710.)    Died  in  1730. 

See  De  Mersseman,  "  Notice  sur  J.  Palfyn,"  1844. 

Pai'frey,  (John  Gorham,)  LL.D.,  an  American  divine 
and  historian,  born  at  Boston  in  1796.  Having  gradu- 
ated in  181 5  at  Harvard  College,  he  studied  theology, 
and  was  appointed  in  1831  Dexter  professor  of  sacred 
literature  at  Harvard.  He  became  in  1836  editor  of  the 
"  North  American  Review."  He  published  "Lectures 
on  the  Jewish  Scriptures  and  Antiquities,"  (4  vols., 
1838-52,)  "Evidences  of  Christianity,"  (1843,)  "Review 
of  Lord  Mahon's  History  of  England,"  (1852,)  and  "The 
Relation  between  Judaism  and  Christianity,"  (1854.)  He 
was  elected  in  1847  to  Congress,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  as  an  advocate  of  emancipation,  having  pre- 
viously liberated  a  number  of  slaves  bequeathed  to  him 
by  a  relative  in  New  Orleans.  In  185 1  he  became  asso- 
ciate editor  of  "The  Commonwealth,"  a  leading  journal 
of  the  Free-Soil  party.  The  second  volume  of  his  "  His- 
tory of  New  England"  came  out  in  i860. 

See  the  "North  American  Review"  for  April,  1859,  and  October, 
i860;  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Palfrey,  (William,)  an  American  patriot,  born  at 
Boston  in  1741.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  move- 
ments which  preceded  the  Revolution,  and  visited  Eng- 
land in  1771.  In  March,  1776,  he  became  an  aide-de-camp 
to  General  Washington.  He  was  appointed  paymaster- 
general,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  in  April, 
1776.  Having  been  appointed  consul-general  in  France 
by  a  unanimous  vote  of  Congress  in  November,  1780, 
he  embarked  in  a  ship  which  was  never  heard  of  after 
she  left  the  Capes. 

See  "  Life  of  William  Palfrey,"  by  his  grandson,  John  G.  Pal- 
frey, in  Sparks's  "  American  Biography,"  vol.  vii.,  2d  series. 

PdPgrave,  (Sir  Francis,)  F.R.S.,an  English  historian, 
born  in  London  in  1788.  His  family  name  was  Cohen, 
which  he  exchanged  for  that  of  Palgrave.  In  1827  he 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  published  in  the  "  Family 
Library,"  in  1831,  "The  History  of  England:  Anglo- 
Saxon  Period,"  and  in  1832  "  The  Rise  and  Progress  of 
the  English  Commonwealth  :  Anglo-Saxon  Period,"  (2 
vols.,)  which  were  received  with  favour.  A  few  years 
later  he  was  appointed  deputy  keeper  of  her  Majesty's 
public  records.  Among  his  principal  works  is  a  "  His- 
tory of  Normandy  and  England,"  (ist  vol.,  185 1  ;  2d  vol., 
1857.)    Died  in  July,  1861. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1832,  and  October,  1837; 
"  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1851,  and  July,  1857. 

Palice.    See  Chabannes,  de,  (Jacques.) 

Palice,  de  la,  deh  It  pt'less',  (Jacques  de  Cha- 
bannes— deh  sht'btu',)  Seigneur,  an  able  French 
general,  whom  Charles  VIII.  appointed  lieutenant  of 
the  kingdom  of  Naples  about  1498.  He  was  wounded 
at  Agnadel  in  1509.  When  Nemours  fell  at  Ravenna,  in 
1 5 12,  the  army  demanded  La  Palice  for  their  general. 
He  was  defeated  at  Guinegate  in  15 13,  obtained  a  mar- 
shal's baton  in  1515,  and  served  under  Lautrec  in  the 
Milanese  in  1521.  In  1523  he  opposed  Constable  Bour- 
bon with  success  in  Provence.  He  was  killed  at  Pavia 
in  1525. 

Palingenio.    See  Manzolli. 
Palingenius  Stellatus.    See  Manzolll 
Palinure.  See  Palinurus. 

Pal-i-nu^rus,  [Gr.  TIoAn'of/joo;  Fr.  Palinure,  pt'le'- 
niiR',]  the  pilot  or  helmsman  of  the  ship  which  carried 
iEneas  in  his  sea-voyage. 

Palisot  de  Beauvois,  pt'le^zo'  deh  bo\w3.',  (Am- 
broise  Marie  Franqois  Joseph,)  a  French  botanist 
and  zoologist,  born  at  Arras  in  1752.  He  explored  Benin 
and  a  part  of  Guinea  in  1786-87,  after  which  he  visited 
Saint  Domingo.  Escaping  from  the  revolted  slaves,  who 
were  about  to  kill  him,  he'took  refuge  in  Philadelphia  in 
1793,  after  which  he  made  a  scientific  excursion  in  the 
interior.  He  returned  to  France  in  1798,  and  succeeded 
Adanson  in  the  Institute  in  1806.  He  published  a  "  Flora 
of  Owara  and  Benin,"  (2  vols.,  1804-21,)  "Insects  col- 
lected in  Africa  and  America,"  (1805-21,)  and  other 
works.    His  "Flora  of  Owara,"  etc.  is  described  by 


.i,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


PALISSOT  1 73 1  PALLAS 


Depping  as  "  a  beautiful  work,  rich  in  discoveries." 
Died  in  1820. 

See  CuviER,  "  filoge  de  Palisot  de  Beaiivois,"  1820:  Thiebaut 
DE  Berneaud,  "  Eloge  historique  de  Palisot  de  Beauvois,"  1821. 

Palissot,  pt'Ie'so',  (Charles  de  Montenoy — moN'- 
teh-nwi',)  a  French  poet  and  prose  writer,  born  at  Nancy 
in  1730.  A  caustic  and  satirical  temper  involved  him 
deeply  in  literary  quarrels,  especially  against  the  En- 
cyclopedists. He  ridiculed  Rousseau  in  his  comedy 
entitled  "The  Circle,"  ("Le  Cercle,"  1755,)  and  Diderot 
in  "  Little  Letters  on  Great  Philosophers,"  ("  Petites 
Lettres  sur  de  grands  Philosophes,"  1757.)  His  comedy 
of  "The  Philosophers"  ("  Les  Philosophes,"  1760)  was 
very  successful ;  but  his  satirical  poem  the  "Dunciade" 
(1764)  was  a  failure.    Died  in  1814. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Paris-sy,  [Fr.  pron.  pt'le'se',]  (Bernard,)  a  cele- 
brated French  potter  and  enameller,  born  near  Agen 
(Lot-et-Garonne)  about  1506.  He  studied  natural  his- 
tory, chemistry,  and  other  sciences.  He  expended  many 
years  in  experiments  on  the  art  of  enamelling  stone- 
ware or  pottery,  and,  after  great  trials  and  sufferings,  at 
last  succeeded,  in  1555.  During  this  period  he  was 
converted  to  the  Reformed  religion,  for  which  he  was 
arrested  and  imprisoned.  About  1565  he  was  invited  to 
Paris,  employed  by  the  king,  and  lodged  at  the  Tuileries. 
By  the  favour  of  his  noble  or  royal  patrons,  he  escaped 
the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  in  1572.  In  1575  he 
opened  a  course  of  lectures  on  physics  and  natural  his- 
tory at  Paris.  He  was  the  first  in  France  who  applied 
sound  methods  and  demonstrations  in  explaining  the 
phenomena  of  nature.  He  ornamented  his  ware,  called 
rusttques figiilines,  with  accurate  coloured  figures  of  ani- 
mals. Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on  the  Origin 
of  Fountains,  and  on  the  Nature  of  Metals,  Salts,  Stones," 
etc.,  (1580.)  He  died  in  1589,  in  the  Bastille,  where  he 
was  confined  for  his  religious  principles.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished no  less  for  his  virtue  than  for  his  talents. 

See  Alfred  Dumesnil,  "  Bernard  Palissy,"  Paris,  1S51  ;  Henry 
Mqrley,  "The  Life  of  B.  Palissy,  his  Labours  and  Discoveries," 
London,  2  vols.,  1852;  Camili.e  Duplessis,  "  fitude  sur  Palissy," 
1855;  "Biographic  Universellc  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Palitzsch,  p^'litsh,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German 
astronomer,  born  near  Dresden  in  1723,  was  a  cultivator 
of  the  soil.  He  discovered  with  the  naked  eye  Halley's 
comet  in  December,  1758,  before  it  had  been  seen  by 
any  telescopic  observer.    Died  in  1788. 

PaPla-das,  [na/lAaf5ac,]  a  Greek  poet,  lived  about  400 
A.D.  He  wrote  many  epigrams,  preserved  in  the  Greek 
Anthology.  He  ridicules  some  Christians  who  con- 
verted statues  of  the  gods  into  images  of  the  saints. 

Pallade.    See  Palladius. 

Palladines  or  Paladines,  de,  deh  pt'lt'den',  (D'Au- 
RELLES,)  a  French  general,  born  about  1820.  He  served 
in  the  Crimean  war,  and  became  a  general  of  division  in 
1867.  He  commanded  the  army  of  the  Loire,  which  de- 
feated the  Germans  near  Orleans,  November  10,  1870. 

Palladino  da  Teramo.    See  Teramo,  da. 

Palladio,  pil-ia'de-o,  [Lat.  Palla'dius,]  (Andrea,) 
an  illustrious  architect,  born  at  Vicenza,  in  Italy,  in  1518. 
It  is  not  known  who  was  his  master;  but  he  states  in 
one  of  his  works  that  he  chose  Vitruvius  as  his  guide  in 
architecture.  He  found  a  liberal  patron  in  Trissino  the 
poet,  and  visited  Rome  several  times  to  study  the  monu- 
ments of  antiquity.  Having  settled  in  Vicenza,  he  ex- 
hibited his  superior  talents  in  the  design  of  the  Palazzo 
della  Ragione.  He  adorned  his  native  city  with  many 
private  residences  or  villas,  and  built  on  the  Brenta 
the  Foscari  palace,  which  was  much  admired.  The 
Villa  Capra,  or  Rbtonda,  near  Vicenza,  and  the  Teatro 
Olimpico,  in  that  city,  are  considered  among  his  master- 
pieces. He  built  several  fine  edifices  in  Venice,  among 
which  is  the  church  of  II  Redentore,  begun  about  1577. 
In  1570  he  published  a  "Treatise  on  Architecture," 
which  was  often  reprinted.  He  died  in  1580.  "He 
combines,"  says  Castellan,  "in  the  style  of  his  edifices, 
simplicity  and  grandeur.  .  .  .  He  seems  to  have  derived 
from  the  ancients  the  quintessence  of  their  taste." 
("Biographic  Universelle." )  It  is,  however,  proper 
to  observe  that  while  perhaps  no  other  architect  has 
enjoyed  a  higher  or  more  universal  reputation  for  genius 


and  taste,  so  that  the  term  "  Palladian"  has  been  exten- 
sively used  throughout  Europe  as  equivalent  to  beautiful 
and  excellent  in  architecture,  his  designs,  in  the  opinion 
of  many  critics,  are  very  far  from  being  faultless.  For 
some  severe  strictures  on  the  style  of  Palladio,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  article  on  "Architecture,"  by 
Professor  Hosking,  in  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

Sec  P.  GuALDO,  "Vita  di  A.  Palladio,"  1749;  T.  Temanza, 
"Vita  di  A.  Palladio,"  1763;  A.  Rigato,  "  Osservazioni  sopra  A. 
Palladio,"  1811 ;  A,  Magrini,  "Memorie  intorno  la  Vita  e  le  Opere 
di  A.  Palladio,"  1845  ;  Milizia,  "  Memorie  degli  Architetti  antichi  e 
moderni;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario." 

Palladio,  (Biagio  Pallai,)  called  Blosio,  (blo'se-o,) 
a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Castelvetro,  in  Italy.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Foligno  in  1540.    Died  in  1550. 

Palladium.    See  Minerva. 

Palladius.    See  Palladio. 

Pal-laMi-us,  [TlaAAafkof,]  surnamed  Iatrosophis'ta, 
a  Greek  medical  writer  of  an  uncertain  epoch.  As  he 
quotes  Galen,  he  must  have  lived  after  200  A.D.  He  left 
a  short  treatise  on  Fevers,  [Txzpl  nvpercjv  avvTO/xog  cvvoipic,;) 
and  scholia  on  Hippocrates'  book  on  Fractures.  Both 
of  these  are  extant. 

Palladius,  Bishop  of  Helenopolis,  in  Bithynia,  is 
supposed  to  have  flourished  about  400  A.D.  He  wrote 
a  work,  in  Greek,  called  the  "  Lausiac  History,"  which 
contains  biographies  of  some  ascetics  or  saints  of  Pales- 
tine and  Egypt. 

Palladius,  [Fr.  Pallade,  pt'ltd',]  a  bishop,  who 
was  sent  by  Pope  Celestine  to  convert  the  Irish  or 
Scotch  (Scotos)  about  431  A.D.  He  is  honoured  as  a 
saint  both  by  the  Irish  and  the  Scottish  Romanists. 

Palladius  of  Methone,  a  Greek  Sophist,  lived  about 
325  A.D.    He  wrote  on  the  Festivals  of  the  Romans. 

Palladius,(RuTiLius  Taurus  ^milianus,)  a  Roman 
writer  on  agriculture,  lived  probably  between  300  and 
400  A.D.  His  work  "On  Agriculture"  ("De  Re  Rustica") 
was  popular  in  the  middle  ages,  and  is  still  extant 

Pallajuolo.    See  Pollajuolo. 

PaPlas,  [Gr.  naPiXuf,]  an  appellation  of  the  goddess 
Minerva  or  Athena.  (See  Minerva.)  In  Homer  this 
name  always  appears  united  with  Athena,  as  Pallas 
Athena. 

Pal'las,  a  favourite  of  the  Roman  emperor  Claudius, 
was  a  slave  in  his  youth.  He  was  an  accomplice  of 
Agrippina  in  the  crime  of  poisoning  Claudius.  Died 
in  63  A.D. 

Pallas,  a  son  of  Evander,  King  of  Arcadia,  was  an 
ally  of  ^neas  in  the  war  against  Turnus.  He  was  re- 
nowned for  his  courage,  and  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
^neas.    He  was  killed  by  Turnus. 

See  Virgil's  "^neid,"  book  viii.  104,  x.  365-489. 

Pallas,  a  son  of  Pandi'on,  King  of  Athens,  and  a 
brother  of  .^E^geus.  He  was  said  to  have  been  killed  by 
Theseus. 

Pallas,  paKlSs,  (Peter  Simon,)  a  distinguished  Prus- 
sian naturalist  and  traveller,  born  in  Berlin  in  1741.  He 
was  educated  for  the  medical  profession  at  Gottingen 
and  Leyden,  and  made  himself  master  of  Latin,  French, 
and  English.  He  acquired  reputation  by  his  "Miscel- 
lanea Zoologica,"  (1766,)  and  at  the  invitation  of  Cathe- 
rine II.  he  became  professor  of  natural  history  in  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg  in  1767.  He  wrote  for 
the  Academy  a  "  Memoir  on  the  Fossil  Bones  of  the 
Huge  Quadrupeds  found  in  Siberia."  Pallas  was  one  of 
the  many  scientific  men  whom  the  empress  sent  in  1768 
to  explore  Siberia.  He  devoted  his  attention  in  this 
great  enterprise  to  zoology,  botany,  and  geology,  and, 
after  extending  his  researches  to  the  frontier  of  China, 
returned  to  Saint  Petersburg  in  1774.  His  "Travels 
through  Different  Provinces  of  the  Russian  Empire" 
(in  German,  1771-76)  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  exact 
descriptions  and  just  observations.  He  discovered  in 
the  mountain-ranges  of  Siberia  the  general  law  of  the 
succession  of  the  three  primitive  orders  of  rocks, — the 
granitic,  the  schistose,  and  the  calcareous.  "This  great 
fact,"  says  Cuvier,  "expressed  in  his  Memoir  read  to 
the  Academy  in  1777,  has  given  birth  to  all  modern 
geology."  He  displayed  his  superior  geniuJP  in  many 
other  works,  among  which  are  a  "History  of  the  Mon- 
golian Nations,"  "  Essays  on  the  North  in  Relation  to 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PALLAVICINI 


1732 


PALMER 


Physical  Geography,  Ethnography,"  etc.,  (1781-96,)  and 
"Flora  Rossica,"  (a  "Flora  of  Russia,"  1785.)  In  1795 
he  removed  for  his  health  to  the  Crimea,  the  climate  of 
which  had  appeared  pleasant  to  him  as  he  formerly 
passed  through  it.  Although  he  was  disappointed  by 
finding  the  climate  extremely  variable,  he  remained  there 
abuut  fifteen  years,  after  which  he  removed  to  Berlin, 
where  he  died  in  181 1.  He  left  unfinished  a  great  work 
on  the  Zoolog\:^of  the  Russian  Empire,  of  which  3  vols, 
were  published,  entitled  "  Fauna  Asiatico-Rossica."  He 
was  a  foreign  associate  of  the  French  Institute. 

See  RuD«  :,PHi,  "  Essai  historique  sur  Pallas,"  1812;  Cuvier, 
"Elopes  his-.:  Cliques;"  Mkusel,  "  Gelehrtes  Deutsclilaiid  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  l^)i()graphie  Generale ;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1S05. 

Pallavicini,  pil-ia-ve-chee'nee,  or  Pelavicino,  pi- 

lA-ve-chee'no,  (Oberto,)  Marquis,  an  able  general,  born 
at  Piacenza.  He  became  the  ally  of  the  emperor  Fred- 
erick against  Gregory  IX.  in  1234,  after  which  he  gained 
victories  over  the  Guelphs  and  made  himself  master  of 
a  large  part  of  Northern  Italy.  His  power  was  subverted 
by  Charles  of  Anjou  in  1266.    Died  in  1269. 

Pallavicini  or  Pallavicino,  pai-li-ve-chee'no,  (Pie- 
TRO  Sforza,)  an  Italian  historian  and  cardinal,  was  born 
at  Rome  in  1607.  Fie  wrote  a  treatise  on  style,  "Dello 
Stilo,"  (1662,)  and  other  works,  the  best-known  of  which 
is  a  "  History  of  the  Council  of  Trent,"  (2  vols.,  1656, 
and  3  vols.,  1664.)  It  is  said  to  be  well  written.  Died 
in  1667. 

See  Ireneo  Affo,  "Memorie  della  Vita  del  Cardinale  S.  Palla- 
vicino," 1794;  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Pallavicini,  (Stefano  Benedetto,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Padua  in  1672.  He  became  a  resident  of  Dres- 
den in  his  youth.  He  produced  several  original  poems, 
and  a  version  of  the  Odes  of  Horace,  {1736,)  which  is 
elegant,  but  rather  free.    Died  at  Dresden  in  1742. 

Pallavicini  della  Priola,  pil-lS-ve-chee'nee  del'lS 
pRee'o-ia,  (Emilio,)  Marquis,  an  Italian  general,  born 
at  Ceva  in  1823.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  war 
against  Austria  in  1859.  He  commanded  the  force  which 
captured  Garibaldi  at  Aspromonte  in  August,  1862. 

Pallavicino.    See  Pallavicini. 

Pallavicino,  pil-ia-ve-chee'no,  (Ferrante,)  an  Ital- 
ian monk  and  satirical  writer,  born  at  Piacenza  about 
1618.  He  wrote  licentious  works,  and  satires  against 
Pope  Urban  VIII.  and  the  Barberini.  Having  impru- 
dently entered  the  papal  territory,  he  was  seized  and 
beheaded  at  Avignon  in  1644. 

Palliere,  pt'le^iR^  (Vincent  L^on,)  a  French  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1787.  He  gained 
the  first  prize  at  Paris  in  1 81 2,  and  went  to  Rome,  with  a 
pension.  Among  his  works  is  "  Homer  dictating  his 
Poems."    He  died  prematurely  in  1820. 

Palliot,  pt^le'o',  (Pierre,)  a  French  genealogist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1608  ;  died  at  Dijon  in  1698. 

PaFlis-er,  (Sir  Hugh,)  a  British  admiral,  born  about 
1720.  He  was  second  in  command  under  Keppel  at 
the  battle  off  Ushant,  in  1778,  and  was  then  involved 
in  a  dispute  with  Keppel,  which  was  referred  to  a  court 
of  inquiry.  Palliser  was  censured  by  this  court.  Died 
in  1796. 

See  "  Life  of  Sir  Hugh  Palliser,"  by  R.  M.  Hunt,  London,  1844. 

Palloni,  pll-lo'nee,  (Gaetano,)  an  Italian  medical 
writer,  born  in  1770,  was  professor  of  medicine  at  Flor- 
ence. He  was  ennobled  by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany. 
Died  in  1830. 

Palluel.    See  Crett6  de  Palluel. 

Palm,  pilm,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  Lutheran 
divine,  born  at  Hanover  in  1697,  published  several  works. 
Died  in  1743. 

Palm,  (Johann  Philipp,)  a  German  publisher,  born  at 
Schorndorf  in  1766,  lived  in  Nuremberg.  For  the  publi- 
cation of  a  pamphlet  against  Bonaparte,  he  was  tried  by 
a  French  military  commission,  and  shot,  in  August,  1806. 

Palma,  p^Kma,  (Jacopo,)  styled  II  Vecchio,  (el  vek'- 
ke-o,)  or  the  Elder,  an  eminent  painter  of  the  Venetian 
school,  born  near  Bergamo.  His  birth  is  variously  dated 
from  about  1480  to  1520.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a 
pupil  of  Titian.  He  excelled  in  vivacity  and  softness  of 
colouring.  *^rhe  galleries  of  Europe  contain  a  great  many 
works  attributed  to  him.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
a  "  Last  Supper"  and  a  Madonna  at  Vicenza.  His  works 


exhibit  good  taste  in  composition,  and  such  a  union  of 
tints  that  no  trace  of  the  brush  is  perceptible.  Died  at 
the  age  of  forty-eight. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Rodolfi,  "Vite  degli  il- 
lustri  Pittori  Veneti  ;"  Lanzi,  *'  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Palma,  (Jacopo,)  the  Younger,  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Venice  in  1544.  He  imitated 
Titian  and  Tintoretto,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation. 
In  the  opinion  of  some  writers,  he  combined  the  best 
principles  of  the  Roman  and  Venetian  schools.  "The 
distinctive  mark  of  his  talent,"  says  the  "Biographic 
Universelle,"  "is  facility.  His  tints  are  fresh  and  trans-' 
parent,  and  more  agreeable  than  those  of  Tintoretto." 
He  is  charged,  however,  with  depraving  the  style  of  the 
Venetian  school.  Among  his  works  are  an  "  Annuncia- 
tion" and  "The  Plague  of  the  Serpents."   Died  in  1628. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Palmaroli,  pai-ma-ronee,(PiETRO,)  an  Italian  painter, 
distinguished  for  his  skill  in  transferring  frescos  to  can- 
vas. He  practised  this  art  first  with  success  in  1811. 
He  transferred  and  restored  many  pictures  of  the  old 
masters  in  Rome.    Died  in  1828. 

Palmblad,  paim'biad,»(WiLHELM  Fredrik,)  a  Swe- 
dish editor  and  writer,  born  near  Soderkoping  in  1788. 
He  edited  several  literary  periodicals,  one  of  which  was 
the  "  Phosphorus,"  and  became  a  member  of  a  new 
school,  called  Phosphorists,  who  preferred  German  lit- 
erature and  influence  to  the  French.  He  was  professor 
of  history  and  of  the  Greek  language  at  Upsal.  His 
chief  production  is  a  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Emi- 
nent Swedes,"  (23  vols.,)  a  work  of  much  merit,  com- 
menced about  1835  and  finished  in  1857.  He  wrote  a 
successful  novel,  called  "Aurora  Konigsmark,"  (6  vols., 
1846-51.)    Died  in  1852. 

See  "  Biographiskt- Lexicon  ofver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Palmegiani,  pal-mi-ji'nee,  or  Palmezzano,  pil- 
met-s§.'no,  (Marco,)  an  able  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Forli  in  the  fifteenth  century.  His  works  are  dated 
from  1 5 13  to  1537. 

Palmella,  pil-meKlS,  (Pedro  de  Souza-Holstein 
— so'zS  ol-stan',  ?)  Duke  of,  a  liberal  Portuguese  states- 
man, born  at  Turin  in  1786.  He  was  appointed  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs  and  president  of  the  council  by  ' 
John  VI.  of  Portugal  in  1823.  He  was  an  adherent  of 
Don  Pedro  in  his  contest  against  Don  Miguel,  (1830-33.) 
After  the  accession  of  Queen  Maria  (1834)  he  became 
prime  minister.    Died  in  1850. 

See  "Biographie  Universelle." 

Palmer,  pi'mer,  (Erastus  Dow,)  a  distinguished 
American  sculptor,  born  in  Onondaga  county.  New 
York,  in  181 7.  Among  his  principal  works  are  an 
"Indian  Girl  Contemplating  a  Crucifix,"  "The  White 
Captive,"  the  "Sleeping  Peri,"  and  the  "Landing  of 
the  Pilgrims."  He  has  also  executed  a  number  of  por- 
traits, busts,  and  bas-reliefs. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Palmer,  pd'mer,  (Herbert,)  an  English  Puritan  min- 
ister, born  in  Kent  in  1601.  He  preached  at  Canter- 
bury, Cambridge,  and  London,  and  published  a  popular 
work  entitled  "Memorials  of  Godliness,"  (1644.)  Died 
in  1647. 

Palmer,  (Innis  N.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
New  York,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846.  He  fought 
as  brigadier-general  in  the  Union  army  at  Fair  Oaks, 
and  at  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862.  He  commanded  in 
the  district  of  North  Carolina  from  April,  1864,  to 
March,  1865. 

Palmer,  (James  S.,)  an  American  rear-admiral,  born 
in  New  Jersey,  entered  the  navy  in  1825.  He  com- 
manded the  Iroquois  in  the  passage  of  the  batteries  of 
Vicksburg,  June,  1862,  and  was  captain  of  Farragut's  flag- 
ship when  she  ran  past  the  batteries  of  Port  Hudson,  in 
March,  1863.  Having  gained  the  rank  of  cominodore, 
he  was  appointed  commander  of  the  Western  Gulf 
Blockading  Squadron  about  the  end  of  1864.  Died  in 
December,  1867. 

See  J.  T.  Headlev,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders." 

Palmer,  (John,)  an  English  Unitarian  minister,  born 
in  1729,  preached  in  London  many  years.    Died  in  1790. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


PALMER 


1733 


PALSGRAVE 


Palmer,  (John,)  the  projector  of  mail-coaches  in  Eng- 
land, was  born  at  Bath  in  1742.  He  obtained  the  office 
of  controller-general  of  the  post-office,  but  was  removed 
in  1792.    Died  in  1818. 

Palmer,  (John,)  an  English  actor,  born  in  London 
about  1740 ;  died  in  1798. 

Palmer,  (John  McAuley,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Scott  county,  Kentucky,  in  1817,  was  a  lawyer 
before  the  civil  war,  and  practised  in  Illinois.  He  was 
appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  December, 
1861,  and  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Stone 
River,  December  31,  1862-January  2,  1863.  For  his 
services  in  this  action  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
major-general.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Chicka- 
mauga,  September  19  and  20,  1863,  and  commanded  a 
corps  under  Sherman  in  the  campaign  against  Atlanta, 
May-September,  1864.  He  was  elected  Governor  of 
Illinois  by  the  Republicans  in  November,  1868. 

Palmer,  (Sir  Roundet  l,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer 
and  legislator,  born  at  Mixbury,  Oxfordshire,  in  1812. 
He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1837,  elected  to  Parliament 
in  1847,  and  appointed  solicitor-general  in  1861.  He 
was  attorney-general  from  1863  to  June,  1866.  He  is 
one  of  the  ablest  debaters  of  the  Liberal  party  in  Par- 
liament. He  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Richmond 
in  1861,  in  1865,  and  in  1868.  In  1869  he  voted  against 
the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church. 

Palmer,  (Samuel,)  an  English  printer,  published  a 
"General  History  of  Printing,"  (1733.)    Died  in  1732. 

Palmer,  (Whxtam  Pitt,)  an  American  poet,  born  at 
Stockbridge,  Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1805. 
He  passed  a  large  part  of  his  mature  life  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  and  was  successively  a  medical  student,  a 
teacher,  a  writer  for  public  journals,  and  a  clerk  in  a 
public  office.  He  wrote  a  hymn  or  ode  entitled  "  Light," 
and  other  short  poems. 

Palmerston,  pc^'mer-ston,  (Henry  John  Temple,) 
Viscount,  an  eminent  English  prime  minister,  born 
at  Broadlands,  near  Romsey,  in  Hampshire,  on  the  20th 
of  October,  1784.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Henry  Tem- 
ple, second  Viscount  Palmerston,  and  was  descended 
from  an  ancient  family,  of  which  the  famous  Sir  William 
Temple  was  a  member.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow, 
Edinburgh,  and  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge.  At 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1802,  he  succeeded  to  the 
estate  and  title  of  viscount,  (in  the  Irish  peerage.)  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  by  the  Tories  in 
1807,  and  was  appointed  a  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  the 
same  year.  He  soon  distinguished  himself  by  his  talents 
for  business  and  his  political  tact.  In  1809  he  became 
secretary  at  war  in  the  ministry  of  Percival,  and  in  1811 
he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  which  he  continued  to  represent  for  about 
twenty  years. 

He  retained  the  office  of  secretary  at  war  during  the 
long  administration  of  Liverpool  (1812-27)  and  under 
the  ministries  of  Canning  and  Goderich.  As  an  advocate 
of  Catholic  emancipation,  he  declined  to  serve  under  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  and  resigned  office  in  1828.  Before 
this  date  he  had  become  an  eminent  debater,  especially 
on  foreign  affairs,  in  respect  to  which  he  favoured  the 
policy  of  Canning.  Although  he  had  hitherto  been  a 
Tory,  he  accei:)ted  office  as  secretary  of  foreign  affairs  in 
the  Whig  ministry  formed  in  November,  1830.  Having 
resigned  with  his  colleagues  in  November,  1834,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  same  office  in  the  Melbourne  ministry 
in  April,  1835,  and  held  it  until  the  accession  of  Sir 
P.obert  Peel,  in  September,  1841.  During  this  term  of 
official  service  he  had  a  prominent  part  in  the  settlement 
of  the  Eastern  question.  He  induced  Russia,  Austria, 
and  Prussia  to  unite  with  England  in  a  treaty  signed  in 
London  in  July,  1840,  and  to  resist  the  progress  of  Me- 
hemet  Ali  in  Syria.  France,  which  favoured  Mehemet 
Ali,  was  thus  ignored  in  the  settlement  of  the  question. 
He  married  about  1839  the  first  Lord  MellDOurne's 
daughter,  who  was  the  widow  of  Earl  Cowper.  On 
the  formation  of  a  new  ministry  by  Lord  John  Russell, 
in  1846,  Palmerston  again  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs.  He  pursued  the  policy  of  neutrality  towards  the 
revolutionary  movements  by  which  Europe  was  con- 
vulsed in  1848  and  1849,  but  he  promptly  recognized  the 


French  republic,  and  favoured  Napoleon's  coup  d''etat 
in  185 1.  In  consequence  of  a  disagreement  with  Lord 
John  Russell,  he  was  removed  in  December  of  that  year. 
In  December,  1852,  Lord  Aberdeen  formed  a  coalition 
ministry,  in  which  Palmerston  was  secretary  for  the  home 
department,  while  the  ministry  "drifted"  into  war  against 
Russia.  He  succeeded  Lord  Aberdeen  as  prime  min- 
ister in  February,  1855,  and  formed  a  cabinet  chiefly 
of  Whigs  or  Liberals.  Peace  was  restored  with  Ru.^sia 
in  March,  1856.  Having  been  defeated  in  Parliament 
on  the  subject  of  the  Chinese  war  in  March,  1857,  he 
appealed  to  the  country,  which  sustained  his  policy  by 
a  large  majority.  He  failed  in  his  effort  to  pass  the 
Conspiracy  bill  occasioned  by  Orsini's  conspiracy  against 
Napoleon  III.,  and  was  compelled  to  resign  in  February, 
1858.  In  June,  1859,  he  succeeded  Lord  Derby  as  the 
head  of  a  ministry  in  which  Russell  was  foreign  secretary 
and  Gladstone  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  He  con- 
tinued to  be  prime  minister  until  his  death,  October  18, 
1865.  He  had  no  children.  Palmerston  retained  in 
his  old  age  much  of  the  vigour  and  vivacity  of  youth. 
He  was  an  excellent  master  of  parliamentary  science 
and  political  tactics,  and  enjoyed  a  high  degree  of 
popularity.  He  represented  Tiverton  in  the  House 
of  Commons  from  1835  to  his  death. 

See  G.  H.  Fkancis,  "  Opinions  and  Policy  of  Viscount  Palmer- 
ston as  Minister,  Diplomatist,  and  Statesman,"  1852;  "Thirty  Years 
of  Foreign  Policy:  a  History  of  the  Secretaryships  of  Earl  Aberdeen 
and  Lord  Pahiierston,"  1855;  Comte  de  Ficquelmont,  "Lord 
Palmerston,  I'Angleterre  et  le  Continent,"  1852;  L.  de  Lomenie, 
"  Lord  Palmerston,  jiar  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1842  ;  Harriet  Mar- 
TiNEAi',  "  Hiograpliical  Sketches,"  1S70;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  lor 
November,  1865  ;  "Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1866. 

Palmezzano.    See  Palmegianl 

Palmieri,  pal-me-a'ree,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  history  and.  animals,  born  at  Genoa  in  1674;  died 
in  1740. 

Palmieri,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  economist,  born  in 
the  province  of  Otranto  in  172L  He  was  director- 
general  of  the  finances  at  Naples.  He  wrote  a  "  Treatise 
on  the  Art  of  War,"  (1761,)  and  "Thoughts  on  Economy," 
("  Pensieri  economici,"  1789.)    Died  in  1793. 

Palmieri,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at 
Florence  in  1405.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  General  Chroni- 
cle from  the  Creation  to  his  Own  Time."   Died  in  1475. 

Palmieri,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  philologist,  born  at 
Pisa  in  1423.  He  wrote  a  continuation  of  the  chronicle 
of  Matteo  Palmieri  from  1449  to  1481,  (1483.)  Died  in 
1483. 

Palmquist,  pSlm'kwist,  (Frederik,)  a  Swedish  ma- 
thematician, born  in  1720  ;  died  in  1771. 

Palmquist,  (Magnus,)  Baron,  a  Swedish  military 
officer,  born  in  1660.  He  was  very  skilful  in  fortifica- 
tions, and  was  president  of  the  Council  of  Mines.  Died 
in  1729. 

Palombi,  pS-lom'bee,  (Gaetano,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  near  Spoleto  in  1753,  wrote  "II  Medoro  coronato," 
(1828.)    Died  in  1826. 

See  Montana,  "  Elogio  di  G.  Palombi,"  1837. 

Palomino  de  Castro  y  Velasco,  pS-lo-mee'no  di 
kis'tro  e  vi-las'ko,  (Don  AciSLO  Antonio,)  a  celebrated 
Spanish  painter,  born  near  Cordova  in  1653.  His  name 
is  sometimes  written  Palomino  de  Velasco.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  Juan  de  Valdes  Leal.  Having  painted  the 
story  of  Psyche  for  Charles  II.,  he  obtained,  at  an  early 
age,  the  title  of  painter  to  the  king.  His  chief  merits 
are  correct  design,  beautiful  colour,  and  excellence  in 
perspective.  "The  Confession  of  Saint  Peter"  is  called 
one  of  his  best  works.  His  reputation  is  chiefly  founded 
on  his  treatise  on  painting,  entitled  "El  Museo  pictorico 
y  Escala  optica,"  (2  vols.,  1715,)  and  his  "Lives  of 
Spanish  Painters"  contained  in  his  "Parnaso  Espanol 
pictorico,"  (i  vol.,  1724.)    Died  at  Madrid  in  1726. 

See  QuiLLiET,  "  Dictioimaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols;"  Cean- 
Bermudkz,  "  Diccionario." 

P^ls'grave,  (John,)  an  English  grammarian,  born  in 
London.  He  gave  lessons  in  French  to  Mary,  a  sister 
of  Henry  VIII.,  in  15 14,  and  published  a  French  gram- 
mar, (1530.)  This  is  the  most  ancient  printed  work  on 
that  subject  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge,  according 
to  Barbier,  who  praises  his  sagacity  and  taste.  Died 
in  1554. 


€  as  k;  935  j;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Yi^ guttural;  N,  nasal';  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;     as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PJLU 


1734 


PJNCKOUCKE 


Palu,  de  la,  deh  It  pt'lu',  [  Lat.  Paluda'nus,  ] 
(PiKRRE,)  a  French  Dominican  monk,  born  at  Varam- 
bon  about  1280.  He  was  appointed  Patriarch  of  Jeru- 
salem about  1330,  and  wrote  several  works  on  theology. 
Died  in  1342. 

Paludan  -  Miiller,  pai'do-dtn'  muKler,  (Caraps 
Petkr,)  a  Danish  historian,  a  brother  of  Frederic,  was 
born  in  1805.  He  published  several  works  on  Danish 
history,  and  "Researches  on  Machiavel,"  (1839.) 

Paludan-MuUer,  (  Frederic,  )  a  popular  Danish 
poet,  born  in  Fiinen  in  1809.  He  produced  in  1832 
"Cupid  at  Court,"  a  comedy,  and  in  1833  a  poem  called 
"The  Danseuse,"  ("  Dandserinden,")  which  is  much  ad- 
mired. His  most  remarkable  work,  perhaps,  is  "Adam 
Homo,"  (1841-49,)  a  humorous  poem.  He  is  commended 
for  happy  images,  noble  ideas,  and  force  of  sentiment, 
but  is  deficient  in  invention  as  a  dramatist. 

Paludanus.    See  Palu. 

Paludanus,  pa-lu-d^'nus,  (Bernard  Ten  Broek — 
Xh\  IjRook,)  a  Dutch  philosopher  and  traveller,  born  at 
Steenwyk  in  1550  ;  died  in  1633. 

Paludanus,  (  Jean  van  den  Broek,  )  a  Flemish 
theologian,  born  at  Malines  in  1565.  He  was  professor 
at  Louvain,  and  author  of  several  works.    Died  in  1630. 

Pamard,  pt'mtR',  (Jean  Baptiste  Antoine,)  a 
French  surgeon,  born  at  Avignon  in  1763  ;  died  in  1827. 

Pamele,  de.deh  pt'maK,  [Lat.  Pame'lius,]  (Jacques,) 
a  Flemish  priest,  born  at  Bruges  in  1536.  He  edited 
the  works  of  Cyprian  (1568)  and  Tertullian,  (1579,)  and 
w  rote  "  Liturgica  Latinorum,"  (1571.)    Died  in  1587. 

Pamelius.    See  Pamele. 

Pani''me-nes,  [ITa^/zn'r/f,]  a  Theban  general,  was  a 
friend  of  Epaminondas.  Philip  of  Macedon  was  in  the 
custody  of  Pammenes  while  he  was  a  hostage  at  Thebes. 
Pammenes  commanded  an  army  sent  to  Megalopolis 
in  352  B.C. 

Pammenes,  an  Athenian  orator  and  teacher  of 
rhetoric,  lived  in  the  time  of  Cicero,  who  extols  his 
eloquence  in  high  terms. 

Pam'phi-la,  [Gr.  Ila^^i/l?/,]  a  Roman  or  Greek  histo- 
rian, lived  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  She  wrote  a  historical 
work  entitled  vTTOfivriiiara  loropiKu,  which  was  highly  es- 
teemed by  some  ancient  critics.    It  is  not  extant. 

Pamphile.    See  Pamphilus. 

Pam'plii-lus,  [Uuju(l)c?iog,]  one  of  the  most  eminent 
Greek  painters,  was  a  native  of  Amphipolis,  and  riour- 
ished  between  390  and  350  R.c.  He  was  the  pupil  of 
Eupompus,  whom  he  succeeded  as  the  master  of  the 
Sicyonian  school  of  painting.  As  a  teacher  of  art,  he  was 
probably  surpassed  by  none  of  the  ancients.  His  school 
was  remarkable  for  the  importance  which  the  master 
attached  to  general  learning  and  the  great  attention  he 
paid  to  accuracy  in  drawing.  Pliny  says  that  he  was 
the  first  artist  who  was  well  versed  in  all  sciences,  and 
that  he  thought  geometry  necessary  to  the  perfection  of 
his  art.  He  excelled  in  composition,  and  in  what  Quin- 
tilian  calls  rc7fw,  or  proportion.  Pliny  mentions  four  of 
his  works,  among  which  was  "Ulysses  on  his  Raft." 
Apelles  and  Melanthius  were  his  pupils. 

Pamphilus,  a  grammarian  of  Alexandria,  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  first  century  of  our  era.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "Greek  Lexicon." 

Pamphilus,  [Fr.  Pamphile,  pSN^f^l',]  Saint,  an  emi- 
nent martyr,  born  at  Berytus,  (Beyroot,)  in  Syria,  about 
245  A.D.  He  became  presbyter  of  Caesarea,  in  Pales- 
tine, where  he  founded  a  large  and  renowned  public 
library.  He  was  eminent  for  learning  and  piety.  Hav- 
ing a  high  esteem  for  the  works  of  Origen,  he  tran- 
scribed nearly  all  of  them  with  his  own  hand.  Pamphilus 
and  Eusebius  composed  jointly  an  "  Apology  for  Origen." 
He  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  reign  of  Maximin,  at 
Caesarea,  in  309  a.d.  Eusebius  testified  his  friendship 
and  honour  for  him  by  adopting  the  name  of  Pamphili. 

See  Saint  Jerome,  "  De  Scriptoribus  Ecclesiasticis  ;"  Baronius, 
"  Amiales." 

Pan,  [Gr.  Uav,]  the  god  of  flocks,  shepherds,  and 
pastures,  in  classic  mythology,  was  said  to  be  a  son  of 
Mercury,  and  was  sometimes  identified  with  the  Roman 
Lupercus.  He  combined  the  form  of  a  man  with  that  of 
a  goat,  having  horns  and  feet  like  the  latter  animal.  He 
was  fond  of  music  and  riotous  noise,  and  was  the  inventor 


of  the  syrinx,  the  pastoral  pipe  or  flute.  The  principal 
seat  of  his  worship  was  Arcadia.  He  was  regarded  by 
some  philosophers  as  the  symbol  of  the  universe  ;  for 
Pan  signifies  "all."  Panic  terrors  were  ascribed  to 
Pan,  who  sometimes  appeared  to  travellers,  and  sur- 
prised them  with  a  sudden  alarm.  The  Romans  ob- 
served an  annual  festival,  called  Ltipercalia,  in  honour 
of  Pan,  whose  priests  were  styled  Ltiperci. 

See  Smith,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and 
Mythology;"  "  Biographic  Universelie,"  (Partie  mythologique.) 

Pan-a-ge'a,  [Gr.  UavaKEca ;  Fr.  Panacee,  pt'nS'sk',] 
(/.(?.  the  "all-healing,")  a  daughter  of  ^sculapius,  is 
simply  a  personification  of  the  healing  power. 

Panacee.    See  Panacea. 

Panaenus,  pa-nee'nus,  [Uavatvoc,]  an  eminent  Athe- 
nian painter,  who  lived  about  450  B.C.,  was  a  brother  of 
Phidias,  according  to  Pausanias,  or  his  nephew,  accord- 
ing to  Strabo.  He  aided  Phidias  in  the  decoration  of 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  at  Olympia,  in  which  he  painted, 
among  other  subjects,  "Atlas  Upholding  Heaven,"  and 
the  "Combat  of  Hercules  with  the  Nemean  Lion."  His 
master-piece  was  a  series  of  pictures  of  the  battle  of 
Marathon  in  the  Poecile  at  Athens. 

Panaetius,  pa-nee'she-us,  [Uav  air  Log,]  a  Greek  Stoic 
or  Eclectic  philosopher,  was  born  at  Rhodes,  and  was  a 
pupil  of  Diogenes  the  Stoic,  and  perhaps  of  Carneades. 
About  140  or  150  B.C.  he  visited  Rome,  taught  philos- 
ophy to  Scipio  Africanus  and  Laslius,  and  enjoyed  the 
intimate  friendship  of  the  former.  He  was  afterwards 
the  head  of  the  Stoic  school  at  Athens,  and  died,  at  an 
advanced  age,  before  in  B.C.  He  is  the  representative 
of  a  moderate  stoicism,  and  appears  to  have  rejected 
the  principle  of  apathy.  None  of  his  works  are  extant. 
Among  them  was  a  treatise  "  On  Duties,"  to  which 
Cicero  was  indebted  for  many  principles  of  his  book 
"  De  Ofificiis."  Cicero  avowed  this  fact,  and  expressed 
a  very  high  esteem  for  Panaetius. 

See  SuiDAS,  "Panaetius:"  Van  Lijnden,  "  Disputatio  historico- 
critica  de  Panastio,"  1802;  Ritter,  "History  of  Philosophy." 

Panard,  pt'ntR',  (Charles  Francois,)  a  French 
chanson nier  and  dramatist,  born  near  Chartres  about 
1694.  He  wrote  successful  songs,  vaudevilles,  comedies, 
and  pleasant  satires.    Died  in  1765  or  1769. 

Panartz.    See  Pannartz. 

Panchamuki,  one  of  the  names  of  Siva,  which  see. 

Panciroli,  pin-che-ro'lee,  (Guido,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Reggio  in  1523.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  Roman  law  at  Turin  (1571-82)  and  at  Padua. 
Among  his  important  works  is  one  on  illustrious  jurists, 
"  De  Claris  Legum  Literpretibus,"  (1637  ;)  also  one  en- 
titled "Rerum  Memorabilium  Libri  duo,"  (1599,)  which 
treats  of  ancient  arts  and  inventions  of  which  the  secret 
is  lost.    Died  in  1599. 

See  Ersch  imd  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Nic^- 
RON,  "  Memoires." 

Panckoucke,  pdN^kook',  (Andre  Joseph,)  a  French 
bookseller  and  compiler,  born  at  Lille  in  1700.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Philosophic  Manual,"  (2  vols.,  1748,)  a  "Dic- 
tionary of  French  Proverbs,"  (1749,)  and  other  works. 
He  also  wrote  "The  Battle  of  Fontenoy,"  in  burlesque 
verse,  a  parody  on  Voltaire's  poem  on  that  subject. 
Died  in  1753. 

Panckoucke,  (Charles  Joseph,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Lille  in  1736,  was  an  eminent  publisher 
in  Paris,  and  a  writer  of  some  merit.  He  was  the  pro- 
prietor or  editor  of  the  "Mercure  de  France,"  for  which 
he  procured  15,000  subscribers.  About  1781  he  formed 
the  plan  of  the  "  Encyclopedie  Methodique,"  a  very  large 
and  important  work.  He  founded  the  "Moniteur,"  a 
daily  journal,  in  1789.  He  translated  Lucretius,  (1768.) 
and  "Orlando  Furioso,"  (1798.)  He  corresponded  with 
Buffon,  Voltaire,  and  Rousseau.    Died  in  1798. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Panckoucke,  (Charles  Louis  Fleury — fluh're',) 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1780.  He 
was  distinguished  as  a  publisher  and  translator.  He 
was  the  publisher  of  a  "  Dictionary  of  Medical  Sciences," 
(60  vols.,)  and  of  a  collection  of  Latin  classics,  with 
translations,  entitled  "Latin-French  Library,"  ("Biblio- 
theque  Latine-Fran9aise,"  174  vols.,  1828  seq.)  He 
translated  Tacitus,  (7  vols.,  1830-38.)    Died  in  1844. 


a  e,  i,  6,  u»  y,  long;  i,  e,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a»  e,  1, 6,  u,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill, fit; mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon: 


PJNCRJTIUS 


1735 


PANS  E  RON 


Pancratius,  pan-kra'she-us,  one  of  the  early  Chris- 
tians, suffered  martyrdom  under  Diocletian. 
Pandare.    See  Pandarus. 

Pau^da-rus,  [Gr.  I\.dv6apog:  Fn  Pandare,  pSw'dtR',] 
a  semi-fabulous  warrior,  who  fought  against  the  Greeks 
in  the  Trojan  war,  and  was  an  excellent  archer.  He  was 
killed  by  Diomede. 

Pan-di'on,  [Gr.  YLavdiuv,]  a  son  of  Cecrops,  became 
King  of  Athens,  but  was  expelled  from  that  country  and 
afterwards  ruled  over  Megara.  He  was  the  father  of 
yEgeus,  Pallas,  and  other  sons. 

Pandion,  a  mythical  king  of  Athens,  was  a  son  of 
Erichthonius,  and  the  father  of  Erechtheus,  Philomela, 
and  Procne.  It  was  fabled  that  Ceres  and  Bacchus  came 
to  Attica  in  the  reign  of  Pandion. 

Pandolfe.    See  Pandolfo. 

Pandolfi,  pIn-doKfee,  (Giangiacomo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Pesaro,  was  a  pupil  of  F.  Zuccaro.  He 
flourished  about  1630. 

Pandolfini,  pin-dol-fee'nee,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian 
statesman,  economist,  and  writer,  born  at  Florence  in 
1360 ;  died  in  1446. 

Pandolfo,  pan-doKfo,  [Fr.  Pandolfe,  pSNMolf ; 
Lat.  Pandul'phus,]  Prince  of  Benevento  and  Capua, 
began  to  reign  in  961.  He  was  one  of  the  most  power- 
ful princes  of  Italy.    Died  in  981  A.D. 

Pan-do'ra,  [Gr.  Havdupa,  from  ttuv,  "every,"  and 
6upov,  "gift;"  Fr.  Pandore,  pSN^doR',]  the  name  given 
in  the  Greek  mythology  to  the  first  woman,  who  was 
endowed  by  Minerva  and  Venus  with  every  attractive 
quality, — whence  her  name,  which  signifies  possessing 
"every  gift."  Jupiter  gave  her  a  beautiful  box,  which 
she  was  to  present  to  the  man  who  should  marry  her. 
She  became  the  wife  of  Epimetheus,  who  opened  the 
box,  whereupon  there  issued  from  it  the  numerous  evils 
that  have  since  infested  human  life.  Pandora  closed  the 
box  in  time  to  prevent  the  escape  of  Hope.  According 
to  one  account,  Pandora  herself,  prompted  by  curiosity, 
opened  the  box,  though  she  had  been  forbidden  to  do 
so.  Another  legend  tells  us' that  Pandora's  box  con- 
tained various  blessings,  which  escaped  when  she  opened 
it,  and  could  never  be  recovered. 

See  ScHOEMANN,  "  De  Pandora  Commentatio,"  1853;  "Biogra- 
phic Universelle,"  (Partie  mythologique.) 

Pandore.    See  Pandora. 
Pandulphus.    See  Pandolfo. 

Panel,  pt'nIK,  (Alexandre  Xavier,)  a  French  nu- 
mismatist, born  at  Nozeroy  in  1699.  He  became  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  Royal  College  at  Madrid,  and  wrote  many 
works  on  ancient  coins  and  other  antiquities.  Died 
in  1777. 

Panetti,  pS-net'tee,  (Domenico,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1460;  died  in  1530. 
Panfili.    See  Innocent  X. 

Pan-hel-le'ni-us,  [Gr.  IlaveX/l^vwf,]  {i.e.  "  the  god 
worshipped  by  all  the  Hellenes  or  Greeks,")  a  surname 
of  Zeus  or  Jupiter. 

Panicale,  da,  di  p^-ne-ki'lk,  (Masolino,)  a  painter 
of  the  Florentine  school,  born  in  1378.  Some  of  his 
frescos  still  exist  at  Florence.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
artists  that  attained  skill  in  chiaroscuro.  According  to 
Vasari,  he  died  in  1440. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Panigarola,  pS-ne-gl-ro'lS,  (Francesco,)  the  most 
eloquent  Italian  pulpit  orator  of  his  time,  was  born  at 
Milan  in  1548.  He  entered  the  order  of  Cordeliers,  and 
became  Bishop  of  Asti  in  1587.  In  1589  he  perverted 
his  talents  by  advocating  in  Paris  the  cause  of  the  League 
against  Henry  IV.  He  left  many  volumes  of  Italian  and 
Latin  sermons,  which  have  nearly  passed  into  oblivion, 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1594. 

See  BoNGRATiA  DE  Varenna,  "Vita  di  Panigarola,"  1617; 
Ugheli.i,  "  Italia  sacra." 

Panin  or  Panine,  pS-neen',  ?  (Nikita  Ivanovitch,) 
a  Russian  statesman,  born  in  1718.  He  became  governor 
of  the  grand  duke  Paul  in  1760,  and  was  appointed  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs  by  Catherine  on  the  abdication  of 
Peter  HI.,  (1762.)    Died  in  1783. 

See  "Vie  du  Comte  de  Panine,"  London,  1784. 

Panlni,  pa'ni-ni,  the  most  celebrated  of  Sanscrit 
philologists,  lived  at  a  very  remote  and  uncertain  period. 


He  is  said  to  have  been  a  grandson  of  the  legislator 
Devala.  He  is  considered  by  some  as  the  creator  of 
grammatical  science  and  the  inventor  of  the  analytic 
processes  to  which  linguistics  owes  its  discoveries.  The 
rules  of  his  grammar  amount  to  three  thousand  nine 
hundred  and  ninety-six. 

Panini,  pi-nee'nee,  or  Pannini,  pan-nee'nee,  (Gio- 
vanni Paolo,)  an  able  painter  of  the  Roman  school, 
born  at  Piacenza  about  1694.  He  was  very  skilful  in 
perspective,  and  was  an  excellent  painter  of  architecture 
and  landscapes,  which  he  adorned  with  graceful  figures. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Vesta 
at  Tivoli,"  "  The  Traders  driven  from  the  Temple,"  and 
views  of  ruins  at  Rome.    Died  at  Rome  in  1764. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Panis,  pt'ness',  (Etienne  Jean,)  a  French  Jacobin, 
born  in  Perigord  in  1757.  He  was  accessory  to  the 
outrages  of  his  party  in  Paris,  and  was  elected  to  the 
Convention  in  1792.  He  joined  the  enemies  of  Robes- 
pierre on  the  9th  Thermidor.    Died  in  1833. 

Panizzi,  pi-nit'see  or  pi-n^t'see,  (Sir  Antonio,)  an 
Italian  bibliographer  and  litterateur^  born  in  the  duchy 
of  Modena  in  1797.  He  became  assistant  librarian  of 
the  British  Museum  in  1831,  and  principal  librarian  of 
that  institution  in  1856.  He  resigned  this  position  in 
July,  1865.  He  has  published  editions  of  "Orlando 
Furioso,"  (1830-34,)  and  other  poems. 

Panniure,  pan'mur  or  pan-mur',(Fox  Maule,)  Lord, 
and  Earl  Dalhousie,  a  British  politician,  a  son  of  the 
first  Baron  Panmure,  was  born  in  Forfarshire  in  1801. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  by  the  Whigs  about  1835, 
and  was  secretary  of  war  from  July,  1846,  to  February, 
1852.  He  held  the  same  office  under  Palmerston  from 
1855  to  February,  1858.  He  is  a  cousin  of  the  late  Earl 
of  Dalhousie,  whose  title  he  inherited  in  December,  i860. 

Pannard.    See  Panard. 

Pannartz,  pSn'nc^Rts,  (Arnold,)  a  German  printer, 
who  was  emjjloyed  at  Mentz  by  Gutenberg.  He  re- 
moved to  Italy  in  1462,  and  established  a  press  at  Su- 
biaco.    Died  in  1476. 

Pannini.    See  Panini. 

Pannonius.    See  Cisinge,  de. 

Pan-no'ni-us,  (Janus,)  a  Hungarian  bishop  and 
Latin  poet,  born  in  1434  ;  died  in  1472. 

Panofka,  pS-nofki,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  composer 
and  violinist,  born  at  Breslau  in  1808,  has  performed  in 
Paris  with  success. 

Panofka,  (Theodor,)  a  German  archaeologist^  born 
at  Breslau  in  1801.  He  published  numerous  works, 
among  which  are  "  De  Rebus  Samiorum,"  (1822,)  and 
"  Pictures  of  the  Life  of  the  Ancients,"  ("  Bilder  Antiken 
Lebens,"  1843.)  He  became  professor  in  the  University 
of  Berlin  in  1844.    Died  in  1858. 

Pan'o-pe,  [Gr.  ITavoTr?/,]  in  classic  mythology,  was 
one  of  the  Nereids,  and  was  invoked  by  mariners. 

Panormita,  pS-noR-mee'tS,  (Ani'onio  Beccadelli 
— bek-ki-deKlee,)  a  distinguished  Italian  writer,  born 
at  Palermo  (the  Panormus  of  the  ancients)  in  1394.  He 
was  patronized  by  the  Duke  of  Milan,  and  by  Alphonso, 
King  of  Naples,  whom  he  served  as  an  ambassador.  He 
wrote  obscene  epigrams,  which  were  admired  for  wit 
and  elegance  of  style,  and  other  works,  among  which 
is  "Familiar  Letters,"  etc.,  ("Epistolae  familiares  ac 
Campanae,"  1553.)    Died  in  1471, 

See  F.  CoLANGELO,  "Vita  di  A.  Beccadelli,"  1821 ;  Niceron, 
"  Menioires." 

Pan'sa,  (C.  Vibius,)  a  Roman  general,  who  was  a 
partisan  of  Cjesar  in  the  war  against  Pompey.  As  a 
colleague  of  Hirtius,  he  obtained  the  consulship  in  43 
B.C.  Hirtius  and  Pansa  joined  the  party  of  the  senate 
and  marched  against  Antony,  and  were  both  killed  in 
battle  near  Modena  in  43  B.C. 

Pansa,  p^n'sl,  (Muzio,)  an  Italian  philosopher  and 
writer,  born  in  the  Abruzzi  about  1560.  He  wrote  a 
work  on  "The  Library  of  the  Vatican,"  ("Delia  Libre- 
ria  Vaticana,"  1590.) 

Panseron,  pSNss^r^N',  (Auguste,)  a  French  musician 
and  composer,  born  in  Paris  in  1795.  He  gained  the 
grand  prize  in  1813,  and  became  professor  de  chant 
at  the  Conservatory  of  Paris  in  1824.  He  composed 
operas,  masses,  and  requiems.   His  reputation  is  founded 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  li^nasal;  "s^.trilLed;  sa&z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PJNSERON 


1736 


PAPETT 


chiefly  on  a  great  number  of  popular  ballads,  ( romances,) 
among  which  are  **  Au  Revoir,"  "  Vogue  ma  Nacelle," 
and  "  The  Dream  of  Tartini." 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Panseron,  (Fiekrk,)  a  French  architect,  born  near 
Provins  about  1730.  He  published  several  good  works, 
one  of  which  is  entitled  "  New  Elements  of  Architec- 
ture," (3  vols.,  1775-80.) 

Pantaenus,  pan-tee'nus,  [Gr.  Hayraivof;  Fr.  Pan- 
Ti:NE,  pSN'tan',]  a  Christian  philosopher,  born  about 
155  A.D.,  was  a  Stoic  before  his  conversion.  He  became, 
about  i8o,  the  head  of  the  celebrated  school  at  Alexan- 
dria, where  Saint  Clement  was  one  of  his  pupils.  Ac- 
cording to  an  ancient  tradition,  he  preached  in  India. 
His  works,  if  he  wrote  any,  are  not  extant.  Died  about 
216  A.D. 

Pan-tag'a-thus,  (Octavius,)  [It.  Pantagato,  (Ot- 
TAVio,)]  an  Italian  monk  of  great  erudition,  born  at 
Brescia  in  1494.  He  left  some  works  in  manuscript. 
Died  in  1 567. 

Pantaleon,  p6N'ti'la'6N',  written  also  Pantaleo, 
(Henri,)  a  Swiss  historian,  born  at  Bale  in  1522,  became 
professor  of  dialectics  and  physics  in  his  native  city.  He 
obtained  a  wide  reputation  by  his  writings,  among  which 
is  a  work  on  the  illustrious  men  of  Germany,  ("Proso- 
pographia  Virorum  illustrium  Germanise,"  3  vols.,  1566.) 
Died  in  1595. 

Pantene.   See  Pant^nus. 

Pantin,  pdN'tiN',  (Peter,)  a  Flemish  classical  scholar, 
born  at  Thiel  about  1555  ;  died  in  161 1. 

Pantoja,  pin-to'ni,  (Juan  de  Lacruz,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Valencia  about  1550,  was  a  pupil  of 
Coello.  He  worked  at  the  Escurial  for  Philip  II.  He 
excelled  in  design  and  in  the  expression  of  his  figures. 
Among  his  works  is  '*  The  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds." 
Died  in  1610. 

Panvinio,  pin-vee'ne-o,  (Onufrio,)  [Lat.  Panvin'- 
lUS  Onu'phrius,]  an  eminent  Italian  antiquary,  born 
at  Verona  in  1529.  He  collected  many  inscriptions  and 
medals,  and  was  patronized  by  Cardinal  Farnese.  Among 
his  numerous  treatises  are  "  Festivals  and  Triumphs  of 
the  Romans,"  ("  Fasti  et  Triumphi  Romanorum,"  1557,) 
"On  the  Roman  Republic,"  ("De  Republica  Romana," 
1581,)  and  "On  the  Circus  Games,"  ("  De  Ludis  Cir- 
censibus,"  1600.)  He  was  one  of  the  first  who  applied 
criticism  to  history,  and  confirmed  his  statements  by 
medals,  inscriptions,  etc.    Died  at  Palermo  in  1568. 

See  D.  W.  Moli.er,  "  Disputatio  circularis  de  Onuphrio  Pan- 
vinio," 1697  ;  Maffei,  "  Verona  illustra  ;"  Niceron,  "  Memoires." 

Panvinius.    See  Panvinio. 

Pa-ny'si-sis,  [Gr.  Havvaaiq^  a  Greek  poet  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C.,  was,  according  to  Suidas,  an  uncle  of  He- 
rodotus. He  wrote  an  epic  poem  entitled  "  Heraclea," 
which  is  not  extant.  In  the  Alexandrian  canon  he  was 
ranked  among  the  great  epic  poets.   Died  about  460  B.C. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Muller, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Grecque ;"  Funcke,  "  Dissertatio  de 
Panyasidis  Vita  ac  Poesi,"  1837. 

Panzacchia,  p^n-z^k^ke-S,  (Maria  Elena,)  an  Ital- 
ian painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1668;  died  in  1709. 

Panzer,  pint'ser,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  antiquary, 
born  in  Bavaria  in  1794.  He  wrote  "The  Traditions 
and  Customs  of  Bavaria,"  (2  vols.,  1848-55.)  Died  in 
1854. 

Panzer,  (Georg  Wolfgang,)  an  eminent  German 
bibliographer,  born  at  Sulzbach  in  1729.  He  preached 
at  Nuremberg,  to  which  he  removed  in  1760.  His  most 
'important  work  is  one  in  Latin,  entitled  "Annals  of 
Typography  from  the  Origin  of  Printing  to  1536,"  (11 
vols.,  1 793-1 803,)  which  is  said  to  be  the  most  complete 
treatise  on  that  subject.    Died  in  1804. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  Meusel, 
"  Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 

Paoli,  pd'o-lee,  almost  pow'lee,  (Giacinto,)  a  Cor- 
sican  general,  born  at  Bastia  in  1702.  He  commanded 
with  success  against  the  Genoese  about  1734,  and  after- 
wards opposed  the  French  until  1739,  when  he  was  com- 
pelled to  submit.  He  retired  to  Naples,  where  he  died 
in  1768. 

Paoli,  (Paolo  Antonio,)  an  TtaTian  antiquary,  born 
at  Lucca  about  1720,  was  a  nephew  of  Sebastiano. 


Among  his  works  is  an  account  of  the  ruins  of  Paestum, 
(1784.)    Died  about  1790. 

Paoli,  (Sebastiano,)  a  learned  Italian  antiquary  and 
monk,  born  near  Lucca  in  1684.  He'wr(^te,  besides 
many  other  treatises,  "On  the  Poetry  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Fathers  in  the  First  Century,"  (1714,)  and  "On 
the  Diplomatic  Code  of  the  Order  of  Malta,"  ("  Codice 
diplomatico  dell'Ordine  di  Malta,"  2  vols.,  1733-37.) 
Died  in  1751. 

Paoli,  di,  de  p^'o-lee,  (Pasquale,)  a  celebrated  Cor- 
sican  general,  born  at  Rostino  in  1726,  was  a  s(jn  of 
Giacinto,  (noticed  above,)  who  took  him  to  Naples  in 
1740.  In  1755  he  was  chosen  general-in  chief  of  the  Cor- 
sicans,  who  had  revolted  against  the  Genoese.  He  gained 
many  victories,  rendered  himself  master  of  nearly  all  the 
island,  and  organized  a  government  with  a  representative 
system.  In  1768  the  Genoese,  baffled  in  their  efforts  to 
reduce  Corsica,  ceded  it  to  the  French,  whose  army 
Paoli  defeated  twice  in  that  year.  He  was  defeated  in 
a  decisive  battle  at  Ponte  Nuovo  in  1769,  and  retired  to 
England.  In  1789  he  was  recalled  from  exile  by  the 
National  Assembly,  and  received  from  Louis  XVI.  the 
title  of  lieutenant-general,  with  the  command  of  Corsica. 
He  assumed  an  attitude  of  hostility  to  the  dominant 
party  in  France  in  1793,  ^I'^d  became  an  ally  or  partisan 
of  the  English,  to  whom  he  transferred  the  sovereignty 
of  the  island  in  1794.  Having  been  deprived  of  his 
command  by  the  British,  he  left  Corsica  in  1795  or  1796. 
He  died  near  London  in  1807. 

See  BoTTA,  "  Storia  d' Italia  ;"  Boswell,  "  Journal  of  a  Tour  to 
Corsica;"  Arrighi,  "Vie  de  Pascal  Paoli;"  Pompei,  "  fitat  de  la 
Corse,"  1S21  :  Karl  L.  Klose,  "  Leben  P.  Paoli's,"  1853;  "  Nou- 
velle  I3iographie  Gdnerale." 

Paolini,  pow-lee'nee,  (Pietro  or  Luca  Pietro,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Lucca  in  1603.  He  painted 
religious  subjects.    Died  in  1681. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting,"  etc. 

Paolo,  the  Italian  for  Paul,  which  see. 

Paolo  Sarpi.    See  Sarpi. 

Paolo  Veronese.    See  Cagliarl 

Paolucci,  pow-loot'chee,  (Sigismondo,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  in  Umbria  about  1 5 10.  He  wrote  canzoni, 
which  were  admired,  and  celebrated  the  African  expe- 
dition of  Charles  V.  in  "  The  African  Nights,"  ("  Le  Notti 
d'Africa,"  1535.)    Died  in  1590. 

Paon,  du,  dii  pt'6N',  sometimes  called  Le  Paon,  a 
French  painter  of  battles,  born  near  Paris  about  1740. 
He  was  a  pupil  and  rival  of  Casanova,  whom  he  ex- 
celled in  design  and  in  fidelity  as  an  imitator  of  nature. 
Died  in  1785. 

Papa,  del,  d^l  pi'pl,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  medical 
writer,  born  at  Empoli  in  1649.  was  physician  to 

the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.    Died  in  1735. 

Papacino.    See  Anton  i,  d'. 

Papadopoli,  pi-pi-dop'o-lee,  (Niccol6  Comneno,) 
a  learned  priest,  born  in  Candia  in  1655.  He  became 
in  1688  professor  of  canon  law  at  Padua,  and  wrote  a 
"History  of  the  University  of  Padua,"  (2  vols.,  1726.) 
Died  in  1740. 

Pape,  de  la,  deh  It  ptp,  (Gui,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Lyons  about  1400 ;  died  alsout  1475. 

Papebroch,  p^'peh-bRoK^  or  Papebroeck,  pa'peh- 
bRook',  (Daniel,)  a  learned  Flemish  Jesuit,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1628.  He  compiled  a  number  of  volumes 
of  the  "  Acta  Sanctorum"  commenced  by  Bollandis. 
Died  in  1714. 

Papebroeck.    See  Papebroch. 

Papencordt,  pS'pen-koRt^  (Felix,)  a  German  his- 
torian, born  at  Paderborn  in  181 1.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  History  of  the  Domination  of  the  Vandals  in 
Africa,"  (1837,)  and  a  "  Life  of  Cola  di  Rienzo,"  (1841.) 
Died  in  1841. 

Papendrecht,  van,  vtn  pa'pen-dR^Kt',  (Cornelis 
Paul  Hoynck,)  a  Dutch  historian  and  priest,  born  at 
Dort  in  1686.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Church  of 
Utrecht,"  (1725,)  and  "  Analecta  Belgica,"  (3  vols.,  1743.) 
Died  in  1753. 

Papety,  ptp'te',  (Dominique  Louis  Fer6ol,)  a 
French  painter,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1815.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1836.  Among  his  works  is  "Dream 
of  Happiness,"  ("  Reve  de  Bonheur.")    Died  in  1849. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  skort.;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSc;  good;  mu"on; 


PAPI 


^111 


PARACELSUS 


Papi,  pi'pee,  (Lazzaro,)  an  Italian  historian  and 
translator,  born  near  Lucca  in  1763.  He  translated 
"Paradise  Lost"  into  Italian.    Died  in  1834. 

Pa'pi-as,  [Gr,  Tlama^,]  Saint,  was  Bishop  of  Hie- 
rapolis,  in  Phrygia,  in  the  second  century.  He  wrote  an 
"Exposition  of  the  Words  of  the  Lord,"  which  is  not 
extant.  According  to  Irenaeus,  he  had  seen  and  heard 
the  apostle  John.  Several  writers  state  that  he  suffered 
martyrdom  in  163  A.D. 

See  Smith,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Papillon,  pt'pe'y^N',  (  Jean,  )  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1639;  died  in  1710.  His  son  Jean, 
born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1661,  was  a  skilful  engraver 
and  designer.  He  especially  excelled  in  designing  horses. 
Died  in  1723. 

Papillon,  (Jean  Michel,)  an  eminent  engraver  on 
wood,  born  in  Paris  in  1698,  was  a  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  Wood-Engraving," 
(1766.)    Died  in  1776. 

Papillon,  (Philibert,)  a  French  biographer  and 
priest,  born  at  Dijon  in  1666.  He  wrote  a  good  work 
on  Burgundian  authors,  "  Bibliotheque  des  Auteurs  de 
Bourgogne,"  (2  vols.,  1742.)    Died  in  1738. 

Papillon,  (Thomas,)  a  French  jurist,  born  in  15 14, 
gained  distinction  as  a  writer  on  law.   Died  in  1596. 

Papin,  pap'in,  [Fr.  pron.  pt'piN',]  (Denis,)  a  French 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Blois  in  1647.  He  was  the 
associate  of  Robert  Boyle  in  scientific  experiments  in 
England,  and  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
in  1681.  He  invented  an  apparatus  for  softening  bones, 
called  "  Papin's  Digester,"  and  is  ranked  among  the 
inventors  of  the  steam-engine.  "  Papin,"  says  F.  Arago, 
"  first  conceived  the  idea  of  a  steam-engine  with  a  piston." 
To  escape  persecution  as  a  Protestant,  he  went  into  exile 
in  1685,  and  obtained  a  chair  of  mathematics  at  Marburg. 
Died  about  1712. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Papin,  (Isaac,)  a  French  theologian,  born  at  Blois  in 
1657,  was  a  nephew  of  Claude  Pajon,  and  was  educated 
as  a  Protestant.  He  wrote  "  Essays  on  Theology," 
(1687,)  which  subjected  him  to  the  enmity  of  Jurieu. 
In  1690  he  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Died 
m  1709. 

Papineau,  pt'pe-no',  (Lours  Joseph,)  a  Canadian 
revolutionist,  born  near  Montreal  in  1787.  In  1814  he 
represented  Montreal  in  the  Canadian  Parliament,  and 
in  181 5  became  Speaker  of  the  House.  He  was  a  leader 
of  the  liberal  or  radical  party,  which  revolted  in  1837. 
After  the  defeat  and  dispersion  of  the  insurgents,  he 
took  refuge  in  the  United  States. 

Pa-pin'i-an,  [Lat.  ^mil'ius  Papinia'nus  ;  Fr.  Pa- 
Pinien,  pt'pe'ne-^N',]  a  celebrated  Roman  jurist,  born 
about  the  middle  of  the  second  century.  He  was  advo- 
catiis fisci  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  after  the 
accession  of  Severus  was  libellortim  magister  and  preto- 
rian  prefect,  (203  a.d.)  He  was  put  to  death,  by  order 
of  Caracalla,  in  212,  probably  because  he  had  condemned 
the  execution  of  Geta.  The  Digest  contains  extracts 
from  his  "  Quaestiones,"  "  Responsa,"  and  "  Defini- 
tiones."  He  was  considered  by  some  persons  as  the 
greatest  jurist  of  antiquity.  He  had  a  high  reputation 
for  integrity. 

See  EvERHARD  Otto,  "  Papinianus,"  etc.,  1718  ;  Ersch  und 
Grubrr,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie ;"  G.  L.  Mencke,  "Papini- 
anus," 1775. 

Papinianus.    See  Papinian. 

Papinien.    See  Papinian. 

Papire-Masson,    See  Masson,  (Jean  Papire.) 

Pa-plr'i-us,  (Justus,)  a  Roman  jurist,  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  The  Digest  contains  extracts 
from  his  "Constitutions." 

Papirius,  (Sextus,)  the  author  of  a  supposed  collec- 
tion of  the  "  Leges  Regiae,"  (laws  enacted  during  the 
reigns  of  the  Roman  kings,)  which  was  called  "Jus  Pa- 
pirianum."  He  is  said  to  have  lived  in  the  time  of 
Tarquinius  Superbus.  Nothing  certain  is  known  about 
his  compilation. 

See  PvPERs,  "Dissertatio  de  Papirio,"  1825. 

Pa-pir'i-us  Cras'sus,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  commander, 
was  appointed  dictator  in  339  B.C.,  to  conduct  the  war 


against  the  Latins,  and  was  twice  elected  consul,  336 
and  330  B.C. 

Pa-plr'i-us  Cur'sor,  (Lucius,)  a  famous  Roman 
general,  whom  Livy  represents  as  one  of  the  ablest  men 
of  his  time.  He  was  appointed  dictator  to  conduct  the 
war  against  the  Samnites,  in  332  B.C.  Fabius  Maximus, 
whonR'as  master  of  the  horse,  in  the  absence  of  his  chief 
and  in  disobedience  to  his  orders,  attacked  and  defeated 
the  enemy.  For  this  offence  Papirius  ordered  him  to  be 
punished  with  death  ;  but  Fabius  appealed  to  the  people, 
and  was  pardoned  or  acquitted.  Papirius  prosecuted 
the  war  with  success  until  the  Samnites  sued  for  peace. 
He  was  elected  consul  about  320,  and  soon  after  defeated 
the  Samnites  at  Luceria.  In  313  he  was  chosen  consul 
for  the  fifth  time,  and  in  308  B.C.  was  made  dictator  for 
another  war  against  the  Samnites,  over  whom  he  gained 
a  signal  victory.  History  is  silent  respecting  the  sub- 
sequent events  of  his  life.  His  son,  of  the  same  name, 
was  elected  consul  in  293,  and  again  in  272  B.C.  He 
defeated  the  Samnites. 

Papirius  Ma.ssonus.    See  Masson,  (Papire.) 

Papon,  pt'poN',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  historian 
and  priest,  born  near  Nice  in  1734.  He  wrote  a  "His- 
tory of  Provence,"  (4  vols.,  1777-86,)  which  is  com- 
mended, and  a  "History  of  the  French  Revolution  from 
1789  to  the  i8th  Brumaire,  1799,"  (6  vols.,  1815.)  Died 
in  1803. 

Pappenheim,  von,  fon  pSp'pen-him',  (Gottfried 
Heinrich,)  Count,  a  celebrated  German  general,  born 
at  Pappenheim  in  1594,  was  a  zealous  Roman  Catholic. 
After  he  had  served  with  distinction  in  the  army  of 
Bavaria,  and  received  several  wounds  at  Prague,  (1620,) 
he  entered  the  service  of  the  emperor,  about  1630,  as 
field-marshal.  The  victory  of  the  Imperialists  at  Magde- 
burg (1631)  is  ascribed  to  him.  He  commanded  a  corps 
under  Wallenstein  in  1632,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Lutzen,  in  November  of  that  year. 

See  FoRSTER,  "  Wallensteins  Briefe  ;"  Schiller,  "  History  of 
the  Thirty  Years'  War." 

Pap'pus,  [Gr.  TlaTTTro^-,]  an  eminent  Greek  geometer 
of  Alexandria,  flourished  about  380  or  400  a.d.  He  left 
a  work  entitled  "  Mathematical  Collections,"  (Ma<???//«- 
TLKoL  "Zwayuyai,)  which  is  extant,  and  of  which  Com- 
mandino  published  a  Latin  version  in  1588.  Pappus 
first  gave  the  example  of  the  quadrature  of  a  curved 
surface.  He  also  furnishes  important  information  of 
the  analytic  methods  of  the  ancients.  He  wrote  other 
works,  which  are  lost. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Math^matiques  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Pappus,  pd|/pus,  (Johann,)  a  Lutheran  minister  and 
writer,  born  at  Lindau,  on  Lake  Constance,  in  1549.  He 
preached  at  Strasburg.    Died  in  1610. 

Paquot,  pt'ko',  (Jean  Noel,)  a  Flemish  biographer, 
born  at  Florennes  in  1722,  was  a  priest  and  a  professor 
of  Hebrew.  His  chief  work  is  "  Memoirs  towards  the 
Literary  History  of  the  Low  Countries,"  ("Memoires 
pour  servir  a  I'Histoire  litteraire  des  Pays-Bas,"  18 
vols.,  1763-70,)  which  contains  biographies  of  Dutch  and 
Flemish  authors.    Died  in  1803, 

Pa'ra,  called  also  Bab,  King  of  Armenia,  was  the  son 
and  heir  of  Arsaces  HI.,  who  was  deposed  by  Sapor, 
King  of  Persia.  By  the  aid  of  the  Romans,  Para  ob- 
tained the  throne  about  365  a.d.  He  was  killed  by  the 
order  of  the  Roman  emperor  Valens  about  375  a.d. 

Para  du  Phanjas,  j^frt'  dii  fSN^zhis',  (Francois,)  a 
French  lesuit  and  philosopher,  born  in  Dauphine  in 
1724.  He  published  "Elements  of  Metaphysics,  Sacred 
and  Profane,"  (1767,)  and  "  Principes  du  Calcul  et  de  la 
Geometric,"  (1773.)    Died  in  1797. 

Parabosco,  pi-Ra-bos'ko,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  musician,  born  at  Piacenza.  He  was  author  of 
"Progne,"  a  tragedy,  (1548,)  several  comedies,  and  tales 
entitled  "Diversions,"  ("I  Diporti,"  1552.)  His  works 
were  received  with  favour.    Died  at  Venice  in  1 557. 

Paracelse.    See  Paracelsus. 

Par-a-cePsus,  [Fr.  Paracelse,  pt'rt'sllss',]  (Phi- 
Lippus  'Aureolus  Theophrastus  BoMHAsrus  von 
Hohenheim — fon  ho'en-him',)  a  famous  alchemist  and 
charlatan,  supposed  to  have  been  born  at  Einsiedeln,  in 
Switzerland,  in  1493.    In  his  youth  he  acquired  a  pro- 


e  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  kard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Y.y  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  5  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PARADIN 


1738 


PARENT 


ficiency  in  the  jargon  of  alchemists,  magicians,  and 
quacks,  whom  he  consulted  in  nearly  every  part  of 
Europe.  Having  performed  some  famous  cures,  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  medicine  at  Bale  in  1526.  He 
there  burned  the  works  of  Galen,  styled  himself  the  mon- 
arch of  medicine,  and  pretended  to  have  discovered  a 
medicine  capable  of  prolonging  life  indefinitely,  (tailed 
the  Elixir  of  Life.)  He  became  intemperate,  and  in  1527 
or  1528  resumed  a  vagabond  life.  In  his  medical  prac- 
tice he  introduced  mercury  and  opium  into  general  use. 
He  died  poor,  at  Saltzburg,  in  1541.  He  had  published 
but  little  in  his  lifetime.  After  his  death  many  volumes 
ascribed  to  him  appeared  at  various  times  between  1575 
and  1658.  His  medical  reputation  is  founded  on  the 
importance  which  he  gave  to  pharmaceutical  chemistry. 
His  dogmatic  and  fantastic  pseudo-philosophy  found 
many  admirers,  especially  in  Germany. 

See  M.  B.  Lessing,  "Paracelsus;  sein  Leben  und  Denken,"  Ber- 
lin, 1839  ;  Franck,  "  Sur  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de  Paracelse ;"  Marx, 
"Ziir  Wiirdigmig  des  Theo.  von  Hohenheim,"  1842;  Hoefer, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Cliinnie  ;"  Bremer,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  Paracelsi," 
1836;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Paradin,  pfrt'dix',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  priest 
and  historian,  born  near  Chalons  about  15 10.  Among 
is  works  are  a  '*  History  of  his  own  Time,"  (1550,)  and 

Annals  of  Burgundy,"  (1566.)    Died  in  1590. 

Paradis  de  Moncrif.    See  Moncrif. 

Paradis  de  Raymondis,  j^frt'de'  deh  ra'moN'd^ss', 
(Jean  Zacharie,)  a  French  moralist,  born  at  Bourg-en- 
Bresse  in  1746.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Morality  and 
Happiness,"  (2  vols.,  1784.)    Died  in  1800. 

Paradisi,  pi-ri-dee'see,  (Agostino,)  Count,  an  Ital- 
ian poet  and  prose  writer,  born  at  Vignola  in  1736. 
He  was  professor  of  civil  economy  and  of  history  at 
Modena.  He  wrote  versi  sciolti,  ("blank  verse,")  which 
were  received  with  favour,  and  an  excellent  "Eulogy  on 
Montecuccoli,"  (1776,)  in  prose.  He  translated  some 
tragedies  of  Voltaire  into  Italian.    Died  in  1783. 

See  ScHEUONi,  "  Elogio  del  Conte  A.  Paradisi,"  1789. 

Paradisi,  (Giovanni,)  Count,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Reggio  in  1760.  Bonaparte  appointed  him 
a  director  of  the  Cisalpine  republic  in  1797,  and  council- 
lor of  state  in  1804.  He  presided  over  the  Italian  senate 
from  1809  to  1814.    Died  in  1826. 

Paradol.    See  Prevost-Paradol. 

Paraeus.    See  Par6. 

Paramo,  de,  da  pi'ri-mo,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  theo- 
logian, born  near  Toledo  about  1545.  He  wrote  "On 
the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Inquisition,"  (1598,)  said 
to  be  one  of  the  most  curious  works  on  that  subject. 

Parana,  de,  da  pa-ra-na^  (Honorio  Hermeto  Car- 
NEiRO  Leao,)  Marquis,  a  Brazilian  minister  of  state, 
born  in  Minas-Geraes  about  1802.  He  was  a  leader  of 
the  conservative  party,  and  became  president  of  the 
council  in  1853.    Died  in  1856. 

Par-a-su-rI'ma,  [Hindoo  pron.  piir'a-soo-ri'ma  and 
piir'a-soo-rim',  from  the  Sanscrit /amj'z/:  or  pardshu,  an 
"axe,"  and  rdind,  one  "  who  delights  in,"]  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  name  of  the  sixth  avatar  of  Vishnu.  He 
was  born  as  the  son  of  Jamadagni.  His  mission  appears 
to  have  been  to  subdue  or  destroy  the  Kshatriya  (or 
warrior)  race,  who  had  become  arrogant  through  their 
unlimited  power.  He  seems  to  have  used  his  terrible 
battle-axe  with  considerable  effect,  as  some  of  the  ac- 
counts represent  the  whole  earth  as  filled  with  the  blood 
of  his  enemies. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon;"  Wilson,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary." 

Paravey,  de,  deh  pt'rt'v^',  (Charles  Hippolyte,) 
a  French  Orientalist,  born  in  Ardennes  in  1787.  He 
wrote  several  works  on  Oriental  antiquities. 

Paravia,  pa-ri-vee'a,  (Pietro  Alessandro,)  an  Ital- 
ian litterateur^  born  in  Dalmatia  in  1797.  He  became 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Turin  in  1832.  He  gained 
distinction  by  articles  on  national  literature  in  the  jour- 
nals, by  a  version  of  the  "  Letters  of  Pliny  the  Younger," 
(1830,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1857, 

Parcae,  par'se,  or  Moirae,  moi're,  [Fr.  Les  Parques, 
li  ptkk,]  the  Fates  of  classic  mythology,  were  said  to 
be  daughters  of  Night,  (Nox.)  According  to  Hesiod, 
they  were  daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Themis,  and  were 
named  Clotho,  Lachesis,  and  Atropos.    Homer  rec- 


ognizes one  Fate,  (Moira,)  who  spins  out  the  thread  of 
human  life  and  destiny.  Other  mythographers  feigned 
that  Clotho  held  the  distaff,  Lachesis  spun  the  thread 
of  each  person's  life,  and  Atropos  cut  it  off,  as  expressed 
in  the  following  hexameter  line  : 

"  Clotlio  colum  retinet,  Lachesis  net  et  Atropos  occat." 

Parcelles,  ptR^s^K,  (Jan,)  an  able  Dutch  painter  of 
marine  views,  was  born  at  Leyden  in  1597.  He  painted 
storms  at  sea  and  shipwrecks  with  great  success  and 
rapidity.  He  died  at  Leyerdorp  in  1641.  His  son 
Julius,  born  about  1628,  was  a  skilful  marine  painter, 
and  nearly  equalled  his  father. 

Parcieux,  de.    See  Deparcieux. 

Pardessus,  ptR'da'su',  (Jean  Marie,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Blois  in  1772.  He  sat  in  the  Corps 
Legislatif  from  1807  to  181 1.  He  published  a  "Treatise 
on  Servitudes,"  (1806,)  which  has  passed  through  eight 
or  more  editions,  a  capital  work  entitled  "  Lectures  .on 
Commercial  Law,"  (4  vols.,  1813-37,)  and  an  important 
"  Collection  of  Maritime  Laws  anterior  to  the  Eighteenth 
Century,"  (6  vols.,  1828-45.)    Died  in  1853. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pardies,  ptRMe',  (Ignace  Gaston,)  an  able  French 
geometer,  born  at  Pan  in  1636.  He  lectured  at  the 
College  of  Louis  le  Grand,  in  Paris,  and  corresponded 
with  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Among  his  works  are  "  Elements 
of  Geometry,"  (1671,)  and  "Statics,  or  the  Science  of 
Moving  Forces,"  (1673.)    Died  in  1673. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Par'doe,  (Julia,)  an  English  authoress,  born  at 
Beverley,  Yorkshire,  about  1808.  After  a  visit  to  Por- 
tugal, she  produced  a  successful  work  entitled  "Traits 
and  Traditions  of  Portugal."  Among  her  other  popular 
works  are  "The  City  of  the  Sultan,"  (1836,)  "The  Ro- 
mance of  the  Harem,"  (1839,)  "The  City  of  the  Maygar," 
(1840,)  and  novels,  entitled  "  Reginald  Lyle,"  and  "The 
Jealous  Wife,"  (1855.)    Died  in  1862. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1852. 

Pare,  par're,  [Fr.  pron.  ptW;  Lat.  Parte'us,]  (Am- 
BROISE,)  an  excellent  French  surgeon,  born  at  Laval 
(Mayenne)  in  1509,  (or  in  1 51 7,  according  to  some 
authorities,)  is  styled  "the  Father  of  French  surgery." 
His  parents  were  poor,  and  his  education  was  defective. 
Having  studied  in  Paris,  he  became  a  surgeon  in  the 
army  in  1536,  and  surgeon-in-ordinary  to  Henry  II.  in 
1552.  He  reformed  the  treatment  of  gun-shot  wounds, 
which  previously  were  cauterized  with  boiling  oil,  and 
substituted  the  ligature  of  arteries  for  cauterization. 
He  served  Francis  II.,  Charles  IX.,  and  Henry  III.,  as 
chief  surgeon.  Brantome  says  that  during  the  Massacre 
of  Saint  Bartholomew  the  king  sent  for  Pare  (who  was 
a  Protestant)  and  kept  him  in  his  own  room  for  safety. 
He  wrote  many  professional  works,  which  are  highly 
esteemed.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Malgaigne,  (3 
vols.,  1840.)    Died  in  1590. 

See  ViMONT,  "  Eloge  de  Pare,"  1814  :  Willaume,  "  Recherches 
biographiques  sur  A.  Pare,"  183S;  "Retrospective  Review,"  1827; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Paredes.    See  Garcia  de  Paredes. 

Paredes,  p§,-ra.'d§s,  (Mariano,)  a  Mexican  general, 
born  about  1790.  He  fought  against  Santa  Anna  in  1844, 
and  was  elected  President  of  Mexico  in  June,  1845.  I" 
August,  1846,  he  was  driven  from  power  by  Santa  Anna 
and  Bravo.    Died  in  1849. 

Pareja,  de,  dk  pi-ra'Hl,  (Juan,)  an  eminent  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Seville  about  1608,  was  a  pupil  of  Velas- 
quez, whom  he  served  as  a  slave  in  his  youth.  According 
to  some  writers,  he  was  born  in  the  West  Indies.  Having 
acquired  skill  by  secret  study  and  practice,  he  was  libe- 
rated by  Velasquez.  He  painted  portraits  with  success. 
His  master-piece  is  "The  Calling  of  Saint  Matthew." 
Died  in  1670. 

See  Cean-Bermudez,  "Diccionario  Historico." 

Parent,  pt^rSN',  (Antoine,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  in  Paris  in  1666.  He  wrote  "  Researches  into  Phys- 
ics and  Mathematics,"  (2  vols.,  1705,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1716. 

Parent  du  Chatelet,  pt'rdN'  dii  shat'li',  (Alexan- 
dre Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  physician  and  writer  on 
hygiene,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1790.  He  wrote  valuable 
works  entitled  "Essay  on  the  Common  Sewers  of  Paris," 


a,  e,  1,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


PAREPA-ROSA 


^739 


PARIS  ET 


("Essai  sur  les  Cloaques  ou  Egouts  de  Paris,"  1824,) 
"Hygiene  publique,"  (2  vols.,  1836,)  and  "On  Prostitu- 
tion'in  the  City  of  Paris,"  (2  vols.,  1836.)   Died  in  1836. 

Parepa-Rosa,  pa-ra'pA  ro'si,  Madame,  a  distin- 
guished vocalist  and  actress,  born  in  Edinburgh  about 
1830,  has  performed  with  brilliant  success  in  Boston, 
New  York,  and  Philadelphia.  Her  voice  has  extraor- 
dinary compass  and  power. 

Paret  de  Alcazar,  \A-Yli'  da  il-ki'than,  (Luis,)  a 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Madrid  in  1747.  He  was  com- 
missioned by  the  king  to  paint  the  sea-ports  of  Spain 
in  17S0.    Died  in  1799. 

Pareus,  pa-ra'us,  (  Daniel,  )  a  philologist,  born  at 
Neuhausen  in  1605,  was  a  son  of  Philipp,  noticed  below. 
He  published  "  Historia  Palatina,"  (1633,)  and  editions  of 
Lucretius,  Quintilian,  and  other  classics.    Died  in  1635. 

Pareus,  (David,)  an  eminent  German  divine  of  the 
Reformed  Church,  born  in  Silesia  in  1548.  His  German 
name  was  Wangler.  He  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Heidelberg  in  1584.  His  principles  were  Calvinistic. 
He  published  the  "Neustadt  Bible,"  (1587,)  Commen- 
taries on  Scripture,  and  other  works.  Died  at  Heidelberg 
in  1622. 

See  J.  P.  Pareus,  "  Narratio  de  Vita  D.  Parei,"  1633;  Ersch 
und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Pareus,  (Philipp  or  Johann  Philipp,)  a  philologist, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  near  Worms  in  1576. 
He  was  rector  of  the  colleges  of  Neustadt  and  Hanau. 
He  published  "  Selections  from  Plautus,"  ("Electa  Plau- 
tina,"  1597,)  an  edition  of  the  comedies  of  Plautus,  with 
notes,  (1610,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1648. 

Parfaict,  ptn^fa',  (pRANgois,)  a  French  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1698.  He  was  author  of  a  "History  of  the 
French  Theatre,"  (15  vols.,  1734-49,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1753. 

Paride.    See  Paris. 

Parieu,  de,  deh  pt're-uh',  (Marie  Louis  Pierre 
Felix  Esquirou,)  a  French  lawyer,  born  at  Aurillac 
in  1815.  He  was  minister  of  public  instruction  from 
October,  1849,  to  February,  1851.  In  1851  he  became 
president  of  the  section  of  finances  an  conseil  d'etat. 

Parigi,  pl-ree'jee,  (Giulio,)  a  Florentine  architect 
and  etcher,  born  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  designed 
some  public  edifices  of  Florence,  and  opened  an  academy 
of  art  in  that  city.  Among  his  pupils  was  Callot,  the 
engraver.    Died  in  1635.  Alfonso  was  an 

architect.  He  built  the  Scarlati  palace  in  Florence, 
Died  in  1656. 

P^rijata,  p^'ri-ji'ta,  [from  the  Sanscrit /^rz",  "  above," 
and  jatct,  "produced,"]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  one 
of  the  trees  of  the  paradise  of  Indra,  said  to  produce  as 
fruit  whatever  was  desired.  (See  Kurma.) 

Parini,  pi-ree'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  a  popular  Italian 
poet,  born  in  the  Milanese  in  1729.  He  became  a  good 
Greek  scholar,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  critic  by 
his  Examination  of  Bandiera's  work,  "  Pregiudizi  delle 
umane  Lettere,"  (1756.)  His  principal  work  is  "The 
Day,"  ("  II  Giorno,")  an  ironical  didactic  poem,  of  which 
the  first  part,  "The  Morning,"  ("II  Mattino,")  was  pub- 
lished in  1763.  It  is  a  satire  on  the  maimers  and  morals 
of  the  Italian  nobility.  He  also  wrote  lyrical  poems, 
which  are  much  admired.  He  became  professor  of  elo- 
quence at  the  College  of  Brera,  Milan,  in  1769.  Parini 
is  reputed  one  of  the  most  eminent  Italian  poets  of  his 
time.    Died  at  Milan  in  1799. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "Lives  of  the 
Italian  Poets,"  by  tlie  Rev.  Henry  Stebbing  ;  Reina,  "Vie  de 
Parini,"  1801  ;  Cesarr  Canti;,  "  Parini  et  la  Societe  Lombarde  ;" 
PozzETTi,  "Vita  di  G.  Parini,"  1801 ;  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli 
Italian!  illustri." 

Par'is,  [Gr.  Eapic;  It.  Paride,  pi're-di,]  a  son  of 
Priam,  a  Trojan  prince,  was  celebrated  for  his  beauty, 
gallantry,  accomplishments,  and  adventures.  He  was 
sometimes  called  Alexander,  According  to  poetical 
tradition,  he  seduced  Helen,  the  wife  of  Menelaus,  and 
thus  provoked  the  Greeks  to  wage  the  war  which  ended 
in  the  destruction  of  Troy.  The  death  of  Achilles  is 
ascribed  by  some  poets  to  a  shaft  from  the  bow  of  Paris, 
The  decision  by  which  he  awarded  the  prize  of  beauty 
to  Venus,  when  Juno  and  Minerva  were  competitors, 
was  a  favourite  theme  of  ancient  writers,  who  relate  the 
following  story :  All  the  gods  and  goddesses  were  in- 


vited to  the  nuptials  of  Peleus  and  Thetis,  except  Dis- 
cord, who  threw  among  the  guests  a  golden  apple,  on 
which  was  inscribed  "  For  the  most  beautiful,"  Juno, 
Minerva,  and  Venus  disputed  for  this  apple,  and  referred 
the  decision  of  their  claims  to  Paris,  who  was  then  a 
shepherd  on  Mount  Ida.  To  influence  his  judgment, 
Juno  promised  to  give  him  power,  Minerva  martial 
glory,  and  Venus  the  most  beautiful  of  women.  He 
decided  in  favour  of  Venus,  and  received  from  her 
Helen  as  his  reward. 

See  Homer's  "  Ili^d  ;"  Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biography  and  Mythology;"  "Biographic  Universelle,"  (Partie 
mythologique. ) 

Paris,  pt're',  (Alexis  Paulin,)  a  French  antiquary 
and  translator,  born  at  Avenay  (Marne)  in  1800.  He 
wrote  an  "Apology  for  the  Romantic  School,"  (1824,)  and 
several  essays  on  mediaeval  literature.  He  produced  a 
version  of  Byron's  Complete  Works,  (1830-32.)  In  1837 
he  was  elected  to  the  Institute. 

Paris,  Brothers,  French  financiers,  born  in  Dau- 
phine :  they  were  named  Antoine,  Claude,  Jean, 
and  Joseph,  who  was  called  Duverney.  Joseph  was 
born  in  1684.  On  the  collapse  of  Law's  system  they 
were  employed  to  restore  order  in  the  public  finances. 
Voltaire  extols  the  admirable  talent  which  they  exhibited 
in  this  operation.    Duverney  died  in  1770. 

See  Marquis  de  Luchet,  "  Histoire  de  MM.  Paris,"  1776. 

Paris,  (Claude  Joseph,)  a  French  composer,  born 
at  Lyons  in  1804.  He  gained  the  first  prize  at  Paris 
in  1826,    He  has  composed  operas  and  sacred  music. 

Paris,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  priest  and  devotional 
writer,  born  at  Chatillon,  near  Paris.  He  wrote  edify- 
ing works,  among  which  are  a  "  Martyrology,"  (1694,) 
and  "The  Gospel  Explained,"  (4  vols.,  1693-98.)  Died 
in  1718, 

Paris,  (Francois,)  a  French  ascetic  priest,  born  in 
Paris  in  1690;  died  in  1727.  Crowds  resorted  to  his 
tomb,  attracted  by  a  report  that  miracles  were  per- 
formed there. 

Paris,  (FRANgois  Edmond,)  a  French  naval  officer, 
born  at  Brest  in  1806.  He  wrote  several  works  on  navi- 
gation, and  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  Steam  Navy,"  ("  Dic- 
tionnaire  de  Marine  a  Vapeur,"  1848.)  He  became  a 
rear-admiral  in  1858. 

Par'is,  (John  Ayrton,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  physician 
and  chemist,  born  at  Cambridge  in  1785.  He  practised 
some  years  at  Penzance,  from  which  he  removed  to 
London  about  1817.  In  1819  he  published  a  good 
"  Pharmacologia,"  (8th  edition,  1833.)  He  was  elected 
president  of  the  College  of  Physicians  in  1844.  Among 
his  works  are  a  well-written  "Memoir  of  Sir  Humphry 
Davy,"  (1810,)  a  "  Treatise  on  Diet,"  (1821,)  and  "  Med- 
ical Chemistry,"  (1824,)    Died  in  December,  1856. 

Paris,  (Matthew.)'  See  Matthew  Paris. 

Paris,  (Philippe  Nicolas  Marie,)  one  of  the  guards 
of  Louis  XVI.,  born  in  Paris  in  1763.  He  killed  Lepel- 
letierde  Saint-Fargeau  in  1793,  because  he  had  voted  for 
the  death  of  the  king.  When  the  officers  of  justice  were 
about  to  arrest  him,  he  shot  himself,  (January,  1793.) 

Paris,  (Pierre  Adrien,)  a  French  architect,  born  at 
Besan9on  in  1747.  He  was  appointed  designer  to  the 
cabinet  of  the  king  in  1778.  Among  his  works  is  the 
portal  of  the  cathedral  of  Orleans.  He  left  in  manu- 
script a  valuable  "Collection  of  Designs,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1819. 

Paris,  de,  deh  pt're',  (Louis  Philippe,)  Comte,  a 
French  prince,  born  in  1838,  His  father,  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  was  the  eldest  son  of  King  Louis  Philipjje,  who 
abdicated  in  favour  of  the  Count  of  Paris  in  February, 
1848.  His  title,  however,  was  not  recognized  by  the 
revolutionists  who  dethroned  Louis  Philippe.  Since 
that  event  he  has  lived  in  exile.  He  served  a  campaign 
in  Virginia  as  an  officer  of  the  Federal  army  of  the  Po- 
tomac in  the  spring  of  1862,  and  returned  to  Europe 
about  July  i  of  that  year.  He  is  recogrJ.?ed  as  the  head 
of  the  Orleans  family. 

Pariseau,  pt're'z5',  (Pierre  Germain,)  a  French 
dramatic  author,  born  in  Paris  in  1753.  He  wrote 
comedies  which  were  received  with  favour.  He  was 
guillotined  in  1794, 

Pariset,  pt^re'zi',  (  £tienne,  )  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Grand,  a  village  among  the  Vosges,  in 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y^y  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PARISETTI 


1740 


PARKER 


1770.  lie  was  chosen  physician  of  the  Hopital  de 
Bicetre  in  1814.  In  1842  he  became  perpetual  secretary 
of  the  Academy  of  Medicine.  He  wrote  eloquent  eulo- 
gies on  members  of  this  academy,  (printed  in  2  vols., 
1845,)  treatises  on  contagious  diseases,  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1847. 

See  Sachaile,  "Las  Medecins  de  Paris;"  Sainte-Beuve, 
'*  Caaseries  du  Lundi." 

Parisetti,  pd-re-set'tee,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  writer  of 
Latin  poetry,  was  born  at  Reggio  in  1503.    He  wrote 

Theopeia,"  (1550,)  and  other  poems,  which  were  praised 
by  Sadolet  and  Bembo.    Died  in  1570. 

Par'ish,  (Elijah,)  an  American  Congregational  di- 
vine, was  born  at  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  in  1762.  He 
publislied  a  "History  of  New  England,"  "System  of 
Modern  Geography,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1825. 

Parisio.    See  Parrhasius,  (Aulus  Janus.) 

Parisis,  pt're'z^ss',  (Pierre  Louis,)  a  French  prelate, 
born  at  Orleans  in  1795.  He  became  Bishop  of  Arras 
in  185 1.    He  has  published  numerous  theological  works. 

Parisot,  pt're^zo',  (Pierre,)  a  French  monk,  born  at 
Bar-le-Duc  in  1697,  took  the  name  of  Pere  Norbert. 
He  opposed  the  Jesuits,  and  wrote  against  them  "  Me- 
moirs of  the  East  Indian  Missions,"  (1744.)  Died  in  1769. 

Parisot,  (Valentin,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Ven- 
dome  in  1800.  He  became  professor  of  foreign  litera- 
ture at  Grenoble  and  at  Douai,  (1854.)  He  wrote  many 
articles  for  the  "Biographic  Universelle,",  a  "Life  of 
Fourier,"  (1857,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1861. 

Parisot- Valette.    See  Valette. 

Park,  (Edwards  A.,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congre- 
gational divine,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in 
1808,  was  appointed  in  1836  Bartlett  professor  of  sacred 
rhetoric  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  and  in  1847 
Abbott  professor  of  Christian  theology  in  that  institution. 
He  has  made  several  translations  from  the  German,  and 
published  a  number  of  sermons  and  theological  works. 

Park,  (Sir  James  Allan,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
writer  on  marine  insurance,  was  born  in  Surrey;  died 
in  1839. 

Park,  (Mungo,)  an  eminent  and  enterprising  explorer 
of  Africa,  was  born  near  Selkirk,  Scotland,  in  September, 

1 77 1.  He  chose  the  profession  of  surgeon,  and  studied 
botany  in  his  youth.  As  agent  of  the  African  Associa- 
tion, he  undertook  in  May,  1795,  to  explore  the  course 
of  the  Niger.  Departing  from  a  point  on  the  Gambia, 
he  reached  the  Niger  at  Sego  in  July,  1796,  and  ascended 
the  river  to  Bammakoo.  He  returned  to  England  in  the 
autumn  of  1797,  and  published,  in  1799,  "Travels  in  the 
Interior  of  Africa,"  which  excited  great  interest.  Park 
was  chosen  to  command  an  expedition  sent  to  renew  the 
enterprise,  and  left  Pisania,  on  the  Gambia,  about  the  4th 
of  May,  1805,  with  forty-five  men,  intending  to  descend 
the  Niger  in  boats  to  its  mouth.  He  perished  (probably 
by  drowning)  a  short  distance  below  Yaouri,  near  the 
end  of  1805.  The  journal  of  his  last  expedition  was 
published  in  1815. 

See  Rennell,  "Life  of  Mungo  Park,"  1815;  Chambers,  "  Bio- 
grapliical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  February,  1815;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1815  ; 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1799. 

Park,  (Thomas,)  an  English  antiquary  and  poet,  born 
about  1760  ;  died  in  1834. 

Parke,  park,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  musician, 
born  in  1745,  performed  on  the  hautboy  ;  died  in  1829. 

Parke,  park,  (John  G.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Pennsylvania  about  1828,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1849.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Roanoke  Island  and 
Newbern  in  February-March,  1862,  and  served  as  major- 
general  at  the  siege  of  Vicksburg,  May-July,  1863.  He 
commanded  a  corps  which  assaulted  the  defences  of 
Petersburg  on  the  2d  of  April,  1865,  and  carried  the 
main  line  of  the  enemy. 

Par'ker,  (Henry,)  Lord  Morley,was  born  in  North- 
amptonshire in  1476.  He  wrote  verses  and  drainas  in 
his  youth.  He  was  one  of  the  barons  who  by  letter 
warned  Pope  Clement  that  he  would  lose  his  supremacy 
in  England  if  he  opposed  the  divorce  of  Henry  VIII. 
Died  in  1556. 

Par'ker,  (Henry  W.,)  an  American  poet,  born  at 
Danby,  Tomjikins  county.  New  York,  in  1825.  He  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  "  Poems,"  Auburn,  1850,  and  con- 


tributed frequently  to  the  "  North  American  Review." 
He  is,  or  was,  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church  in  Brook- 
lyn, New  York. 

Parker,  (Sir  Hydk,)  an  English  vice-admiral,  served 
with  distinction  against  the  French  and  Spaniards,  and 
in  1 781  defeated  the  Dutch  admiral  Zoutman  at  Dog- 
gerbank.  Being  appointed  in  1783  commander  of  the 
British  fleet  in  the  East  Indies,  he  perished  by  ship- 
wreck on  the  passage. 

Parker,  (Isaac,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at  Boston 
in  1768,  became  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of 
Massachusetts  in  18 14.  He  was  distinguished  as  a 
scholar.    Died  in  1830. 

Parker,  (Matthew,)  a  learned  and  meritorious  Eng 
lish  prelate,  born  at  Norwich  in  1504,  was  educated  at 
Cambridge.  He  became  dean  of  the  College  of  Stoke 
Clare  in  1535,  chaplain  to  Henry  VIII.  in  1537,  master 
of  Bene't  College  in  1544,  and  Dean  of  Lincoln  in  1552. 
On  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary  (1553)  he  was  deprived 
of  his  benefices,  because  he  was  a  Protestant,  or  because 
he  was  married.  He  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury by  Elizabeth  in  1559.  A  revised  version  of  the 
Bible  (called  the  Bishops'  Bible)  was  published  under 
his  direction  in  1568.  He  presented  many  valuable 
manuscripts  to  his  college  at  Cambridge.    Died  in  1575. 

See  J.  Strype,  "Life  of  Archbishop  Parker,"  1711 ;  Burnet, 
"  History  of  the  Reformation  ;"  W.  F.  Hook,  "  Lives  of  the  Arch- 
bishops of  Canterbury." 

Parker,  (Nathan,)  a  Unitarian  minister,  born  in 
Reading,  Massachusetts,  in  1782.  He  became  pastor 
of  a  church  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  in  1808. 
Died  in  1833. 

Parker,  (Sir  Peter,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
1716,  served  in  the  American  war,  and  in  1782  took 
prisoner  the  French  admiral  De  Grasse.  He  was  created 
admiral  of  the  fleet.    Died  in  1811. 

Parker,  (Richard,)  an  English  sailor,  born  at  Exeter, 
was  the  ringleader  of  a  mutiny  at  the  Nore  in  May, 
1797.  He  blockaded  the  port  of  London,  and  received 
the  title  of  admiral  from  the  mutineers.  He  was  hung 
in  June,  1797. 

Parker,  (Robert,)  an  English  Puritan  minister, 
became  Fellow  of  a  college  at  Cambridge  in  1584.  He 
preached  at  Amsterdam  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  and 
wrote  several  works. 

Parker,  (Samuel,)  an  English  bishop,  born  at  North- 
ampton in  1640.  He  was  appointed  prebendary  of 
Canterbury  in  1672,  and  Bishop  of  Oxford  in  1686.  It 
appears  that  he  received  this  preferment  from  James  II. 
because  he  favoured  the  cause  of  popery  and  absolutism. 
He  died  in  1687,  leaving  several  theological  works,  and 
memoirs  of  his  own  times,  entitled  "  De  Rebus  sui  Tem- 
poris  Commentarius,"  (1726.) 

See  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Parker,  (Theodore,)  a  distinguished  American 
scholar  and  rationalistic  theologian,  was  born  at  Lex- 
ington, Massachusetts,  on  the  24th  of  August,  1810. 
His  education  was  begun  on  his  father's  farm,  and  there 
he  continued  to  carry  on  his  studies  even  after  he  had 
entered  his  name  at  Harvard  in  1830.  He  appears  to 
have  visited  Cambridge  only  for  the  purpose  of  partici- 
pating in  the  examinations.  Being  a  non-resident,  he 
was  not  entitled  to  a  degree  ;  but  subsequently  (in  1840) 
the  honorary  title  of  A.M.  was  conferred  upon  him  by 
the  university.  In  1834  he  entered  the  theological 
school,  in  which  he  remained  about  two  years.  He  first 
began  to  preach  at  Barnstable  in  1836.  In  April  of  the 
following  year  he  married  Miss  Lydia  D.  Cabot,  and 
soon  after  was  settled  as  Unitarian  minister  at  West 
Roxbury.  His  views  had  previously  been  but  little  in 
advance  of  the  average  Unitarianism  of  the  time  ;  but 
his  growing  acquaintance  with  the  German  rationalists 
De  Wette,  Eichhorn,  Paulus,  Bauer,  and  others  was  not 
long  in  producing  an  important  change  in  his  theological 
opinions, — 'a  change,  we  need  scarcely  say,  which  he  was 
at  no  pains  to  conceal.  His  new  doctrines  gave  great 
offence  to  some  of  the  more  conservative  of  the  New 
England  Unitarians  ;  and  after  his  discourse  (preached 
at  South  Boston  in  1841)  on  the  "Transient  and  Perma- 
nent in  Christianity,"  in  which  he  assumed  the  absolute 
humanity  of  Christ,  His  inspiration  differing  in  no  essen- 


S,  e,T,  6,  u,  y, long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, 1, 6,  u,    short;  ai,    i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m$t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


1741  PARMENTIER 


PARKER 


tial  respect  from  that  of  other  men,  the  opposition  to 
him  became  much  more  decided.  This  opposition  was 
conspicuously  manifested  on  the  occasion  of  his  ex- 
changing pulpits  with  other  Unitarian  ministers,  some 
of  whom  were  severely  censured  by  many  of  their  breth- 
ren, who  held  that  by  such  an  interchange  of  courtesies 
they  gave  a  direct  sanction  to  the  new  heresies.  Parker's 
translation  of  De  Wette's  "Introduction  to  the  Old 
Testament"  appeared  in  the  early  part  of  1843  '■>  l^^^'" 
in  the  same  year  he  visited  Europe,  returning  in  the 
summer  of  1844.  Soon  after  his  return  he  began  to 
preach  in  Boston,  at  the  Melodeon,  where  he  was  regu- 
larly installed  in  1846.  He  was  the  principal  editor  of 
the  "  Massachusetts  Quarterly,"  which  was  commenced 
in  1847  continued  three  years.  In  addition  to  his 
duties  as  minister,  and  his  laborious  intellectual  pursuits, 
which  extended  to  almost  every  department  of  human 
knowledge,  he  gave  numerous  lectures  on  various  sub- 
jects. But  the  question  which  seems  to  have  enlisted 
most  fully  all  the  faculties  of  his  ardent  and  powerful 
mind  was  Southern  slavery,  with  its  attendant  iniquities 
and  abominations.  His  health  having  become  greatly 
impaired  by  his  unceasing  and  intense  activity,  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1859,  he  visited  the  island  of  Santa  Cruz,  in  the 
"West  Indies,  and  in  the  following  summer  went  to 
Europe,  spending  the  winter  of  1859-60  at  Rome.  He 
left  Rome  in  April,  i860,  and  with  difficulty  reached 
Florence,  where  he  died  on  the  loth  of  May,  Of  his 
extensive  collection  of  books,  he  left  the  principal  part, 
amounting  to  11,190  volumes  and  2500  pamphlets,  to 
the  Boston  Public  Library.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works,  edited  by  Frances  Power  Cobbe,  was  published 
in  London  in  1863-65,  in  12  vols. 

See  "  Life  of  Theodore  Parker,"  by  John  Weiss,  2  vols.,  1864; 
"  Life  of  Theodore  Parker,"  by  Albert  Revim,e,  1861; ;  Almbone, 
'*  Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "  New  American  Cyclop?edia  ;"  "West- 
minster Review"  for  April,  1847,  article  "Dr.  Strauss  and  Theodore 
Parker,"  (by  the  Rev.  James  Martineau  :)  "North  American 
Review"  for  April,  1864;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  foi  February,  1864. 

Parker,  (Thomas,)  Earl  of  Macclesfield,  an  English 
judge,  born  at  Leek  in  1666.  He  became  lord  chancellor 
in  1718.  He  was  accused  of  selling  some  offices  in 
the  court  of  chancery,  and  of  other  corrupt  practices,  of 
which  he  was  convicted  in  1725,  and  was  fined  heavily. 
Died  in  1732. 

Parker,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
Staffordshire  in  1781,  was  a  relative  of  Lord  Macclesfield. 
He  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1830,  and  a  lord  of  the 
admiralty  in  1834.  In  1841  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  operations  against  China.  He 
took  Chusan  and  Ning-po,  entered  the  Yellow  River  or 
Blue  River,  and  compelled  the  Chinese  to  sign  the  treaty 
of  Nanking.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  admiral  of  the 
blue  in  1851.    Died  in  1866. 

Parkes,  parks,  (Joseph,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  at 
Warwick  in  1796.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  the  Court  of  Chancery,"  (1828,)  and  "The 
Equity  and  Real  Property  Laws  of  the  United  States 
of  North  America,"  (1830.)  He  distinguished  himself 
as  an  advocate  of  parliamentary  reform  previous  to  1832. 
Died  in  1865. 

Parkes,  (Josiah,)  a  civil  engineer,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Warwick  in  1793.  He  became 
draining-engineer  under  the  board  of  works,  in  which 
capacity  he  rendered  important  service  to  the  public. 
He  published  "  Essays  on  the  Philosophy  and  Art  of 
Land  Drainage,"  (1848,)  a  "Treatise  on  Climate,  Soils," 
etc.,  and  other  works. 

Parkes,  (Samuel,)  an  English  chemist,  born  in  Wor- 
cestershire in  1759.  He  manufactured  chemical  products 
in  London.  lie  published  a  "Chemical  Catechism," 
(1806,)  and  "Chemical  Essays,  principally  relating  to 
the  Arts  and  Manufactures,"  etc.,  (8  vols.,  1815.)  Died 
in  1825. 

Park'hurst,  (John,)  an  English  bishop,  born  in 
Surrey  in  15 11.  He  adhered  to  the  Reformed  religion, 
and  went  into  exile  in  the  reign  of  Mary.  In  1560  he 
became  Bishop  of  Norwich.  He  wrote  some  Latin  epi- 
grams, (1560  and  1573.)    Died  in  1574. 

Parkhurst,  (John,)  an  English  linguist,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1728.  He  officiated  without  salary 
as  curate  at  Catesby  for  many  years.    In  1762  he  pub- 


lished a  "Hebrew-and-English  Lexicon  without  Points," 
which  was  highly  esteemed.  His  "  Greek-and-English 
Lexicon"  (1769)  was  reprinted  and  extensively  used. 
He  also  wrote  "  The  Divinity  and  Pre-Existence  of  Jesus 
Christ  demonstrated  from  Scripture,"  (1787.)  Died  in 
1797. 

Park'iu-son,  (John,)  a  botanist  and  apothecary,  born 
in  London  in  1567.  He  received  from  Charles  I.  the 
title  of  "Botanicus  Regius  Primarius."  He  published 
"  Paradisus  Terrestris,  or  a  Garden  of  all  Sorts  of  Pleas- 
ant Flowers,"  (1629,)  with  109  figures,  and  "Theatrum 
Botanicum,"  (1640.)    Died  about  1650. 

Parkinson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  mathematician 
and  parson,  born  in  Lancashire  in  1745.  He  published 
a  "  System  of  Mechanics."    Died  in  1830. 

Park'man,  (Francis,)  an  American  writer,  born  at 
Boston  in  1823,  published  "The  California  and  Oregon 
Trail,"  (1849,)  "  History  of  the  Conspiracy  of  P<}ntiac," 
etc.,  (1851,)  "  The  Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World," 
(1865,)  "The  Jesuits  in  North  America,"  (1866,)  and 
"  The  Discovery  of  the  Great  West,"  (1869,)  which  have 
enjoyed  a  great  and  deserved  popularity, 

Par'k^ns,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  born  m 
1636,  was  the  author  of  "  Progymnasmata,  or  a  Treatise 
on  Wrestling,"  (1714.) 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  xi.,  (1825.) 

Parlatore,  paR-ia-to'ri,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  botanist, 
born  at  Palermo  in  1816.  He  obtained  a  chair  of  botany 
at  Florence  in  1842.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Me- 
moir on  Organography,  Vegetable  Morphology,"  etc., 
(1841,)  "Comparative  Botany,"  (1843,)  and  "Travels  in 
Northern  Europe,"  (1854.)  It  is  stated  that  he  is  en- 
gaged on  a  large  work  on  botanical  geography. 

Parma,  Duke  of.    See  Farnese. 

Parma,  Duke  of.  See  CAMBAC^;R]ks,  (Jean  Jacques 
R6gis.) 

Parmenide.    See  Parmenides. 

Par-men''i-des,  [Gr.  Hap^mc^f;  Fr.  Parm6nide, 
pik'ma'n^d',]  a  distinguished  Greek  philosopher  of  the 
Eleatic  school,  was  born  at  Elea,  in  Italy.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  a  disciple  of  Xenophanes.  Plato  informs 
us  that  Parmenides,  at  the  age  of  sixty-five,  visited 
Athens  in  company  with  Zeno,  who  was  twenty-five 
years  younger,  and  became  acquainted  with  Socrates. 
The  date  of  this  event  is  supposed  to  have  been  about 
450  B.C.  He  developed  his  philosophy  in  a  didactic 
poem  "  On  Nature,"  of  which  some  fragments  have 
come  down  to  us.  Plato  speaks  of  him  with  veneration, 
and  Aristotle  preferred  him  to  the  other  masters  of  the 
Eleatic  school.  Zeno  of  Elea  was  one  of  his  disciples, 
among  whom  some  writers  also  reckon  Empedocles. 

See  F.  RiAUX,  "  Essai  sur  Parmenide  d'filee,"  1840;  Ritter, 
"  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  G.  H.  Lewes,  "  Biographical  History  of 
Philosophy;"  Plato,  "Parmenides;"  C.  A.  Brandis,  "Commen- 
tationum  Eleaticarum  Xenophanis,  Parmenidis,  Pars  L,"  1815; 
Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Gmeca." 

Par-me'ni-o,  [Gr.  Jlap/uEVLuv :  Fr.  Parm^nion,  pIr'- 
mi^ne'<!)N',]  an  eminent  Macedonian  general,  the  son 
of  Philotas,  was  born  about  400  B.C.  He  enjoyed  the 
highest  place  in  the  confidence  of  Philip  as  a  councillor 
and  general.  Parmenio  and  Attains  commanded  an  army 
which  Philip  sent  to  invade  Persia  in  336.  He  rendered 
important  services  in  Alexander's  expedition  against 
Persia,  and  appears  to  have  been  regarded  as  second 
in  command  to  the  king.  He  commanded  the  left  wing 
at  the  battles  of  the  Grani'cus  and  Issus,  (333,)  and  of 
Arbela,  (331.)  His  son,  Philotas,  was  accused  of  com- 
plicity in  a  plot  against  the  life  of  Alexander,  and,  though 
he  was  probably  innocent,  he  was  induced  by  torture  to 
make  a  confession  of  guilt  which  implicated  Parmenio, 
who  was  put  to  death  in  330  B.C.  His  death  is  considered 
to  have  left  one  of  the  darkest  stains  on  the  character 
of  Alexander. 

See  Arrian,  "Anabasis;"  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece ;"  Thirl- 
wai.l,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Parmenio  or  Parmenion,  a  Greek  architect,  em- 
ployed by  Alexander  the  Great  at  Alexandria. 
Parmenion.    See  Parmenio. 

Parmentier,  ptR^mdN^te-a',  (Antoine  Augustin,) 
an  eminent  French  philanth^pist  and  writer  on  rural 
economy,  born  at  Montdidier  in  1737.    He  became  an 


«  as^;  9  as g  Aard;  g  as /;  g,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PARMENTIER 


1742 


PJRRHASIUS 


apothecary  of  Paris,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his 
efforts  to  promote  the  cultivation  and  use  of  the  potato, 
against  which  the  people  were  prejudiced.  He  wrote 
treatises  on  the  potato,  chestnut,  and  maize.  In  1790 
he  published  *'  Rural  and  Domestic  Economy,"  (8  vols.) 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute.  About  1803  he 
became  inspector-general  of  health,  ( inspecteur-general dti 
service  de  santi.)  He  rendered  many  important  services 
to  the  public.    Died  in  1813. 

•  See  CuviER,  "  filoge  de  Parmentier,"  1815  ;  A.  F.  de  Silvestre, 
"Notice  sur  Parmentier,"  1815  ;  Mutel,  "Vie  de  Parmentier," 
1819;  ViKEY,  "  De  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  Parmentier,"  1814  ;  L. 
Bkightvvhll,  "  By-Paths  of  Biography." 

Parmentier,  (Jacques,)  a  French  painter,  born  in 
Paris  in  1658.  He  resided  mostly  in  England,  and  was 
employed  by  William  III.  to  adorn  his  palace  at  Loo. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Diana  and  Endymion."  Died 
in  London  in  1730. 

Parmentier,  (Jehan,)  a  French  navigator,  born  at 
Dieppe  in  1494.  He  is  reputed  the  first  European  who 
navigated  to  Brazil,  and  the  first  who  explored  the  In- 
dian Sea  as  far  as  Sumatra.  He  died  at  Sumatra  in  1530. 

Parmesan,  Le.    See  Mazzola. 

Parmigiano,  II.    See  Mazzola. 

Parnell,  (Henry  Brooke.)  See  Congleton,  Lord. 

Par'nell,  (Thomas,)  a  British  poet,  born  in  Dublin 
in  1679.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
and  was  ordained  a  deacon  in  1700.  In  1705  he  became 
Archdeacon  of  Clogher.  He  was  intimate  with  Addison, 
Congreve,  Swift,  and  Pope.  About  1712  he  transferred 
his  support  from  the  Whig  to  the  Tory  party.  He  ob- 
tained the  living  of  Finglass,  near  Dublin,  in  1716,  and 
died  in  July,  171 7.  It  appears  that  after  the  loss  of  his 
wife,  in  1712,  he  became  intemperate.  Among  his  best 
poems  are  a  "  Hymn  to  Contentment,"  "The  Hermit," 
a  night-piece  on  "Death,"  and  an  "Allegory  on  Man." 
He  wrote  several  essays  in  the  "  Spectator,"  and  other 
works  in  prose. 

See  Goldsmith,  "  Life  of  Parnell,"  prefixed  to  Parnell's  Poems; 
Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  R.  Bell,  "Lives 
of  the  British  Poets." 

Parny,  de,  deh  ptR^ne',  (Evariste  D6sir6  Des- 
forges — diToRzh^)  Chevalier  and  Vicomte,  a  popular 
French  poet,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Bourbon  in  1753,  was 
styled  "  the  French  Tibullus."  He  was  educated  in 
France,  chose  the  military  profession,  and  returned  to 
his  native  island  in  1773.  A  disappointed  passion  for  a 
Creole  named  Eleonore  inspired  his  first  and  most  grace- 
ful and  natural  poetical  compositions,  "  Amatory  Poems," 
("Poesies  erotiques,"  1775,)  which  were  received  with 
great  favour.  He  went  to  India  as  aide-de-camp  to  the 
governor-general  in  1785,  but  returned  to  France  in  1786 
and  resigned  his  commission.  After  the  Revolution  he 
served  the  public  as  clerk  in  one  of  the  bureaux  of 
the  government.  His  later  poems,  "  The  War  of  the 
Gods,"  ("  La  Guerre  des  Dieux,"  1799,)  "  Paradise  Lost," 
and  "  Les  Galanteries  de  la  Bible,"  were  generally  cen- 
sured for  their  impiety,  and  have  little  literary  merit. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1803. 
Died  in  1814. 

See  P.  F.  TissoT,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  M.  de 
Parny,"  1826;  Sainte-Eeuve,  "Portraits  litt^raires ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Parodi,  pi-ro'dee,  (Domenico,)  an  eminent  painter 
of  history,  born  at  Genoa  in  1668,  was  also  a  sculptor. 
He  imitated  the  styles  of  Tintoretto  and  Paul  Veronese. 
His  chief  work  is  in  the  Negroni  palace,  Genoa.  It 
represents  "  Hercules  killing  the  Nemean  Lion,"  and 
other  fabulous  subjects.  A  statue  of  Adonis,  which  he 
made  for  Prince  Eugene,  is  admired.    Died  in  1740. 

Parodi,  (Filippo,)  an  able  sculptor,  born  at  Genoa 
about  1640,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  His  works 
may  be  seen  at  Genoa,  Venice,  and  Lisbon.  Died  about 
1708.  His  son  Battista,  born  in  1674,  was  a  distin- 
guished painter  and  a  brilliant  colorist.    Died  in  1730. 

Parodi,  Madame,  a  celebrated  Italian  singer,  born 
about  1830.  She  has  performed  with  great  applause  in 
the  principal  cities  of  Europe  and  the  United  States. 

Paroletti,  de,  di  pj-ro-let'tee,  (Victor  Modeste,) 
CifEVALiER,  an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Turin  in  1 765. 
He  sat  in  the  French  legislative  body  from  1807  to  181 1. 
Ainong  his  works  is  "Turin  and  its  Curiosities,"  (1819,) 


and  "Lives  of  Sixty  Illustrious  Piedmontese,"  (1826.) 
Died  in  1834. 

Parolini,  pa-ro-lee'nee,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  history,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1663,  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo 
Cignani.    Died  about  1735. 

Paroy,  de,  deh  pS'Rwi',  (Jean  Philippe  Guy  le 
Gentil— leh  zhdN't^K,)  Marquis,  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1750.  His  engraving  of 
"La  moderne  Antigone"  (1800)  was  very  successful. 
Died  in  1822. 

Parque-Castrillo,  del,  dgl  paR'kk  kSs-tr^Kyo,  Duke, 
a  Spanish  general,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1755.  He  com- 
manded an  army  which  opposed  the  French  invaders 
in  1809-13.    Died  in  1832. 

Parques,  Les.    See  Parc^. 

Parr,  (Catherine.)    See  Catherine  Parr. 

Parr,  (Richard,)  a  minister  of  the  Anglican  Church, 
born  in  the  county  of  Cork,  Ireland,  in  161 7,  was  chap- 
lain to  Archbishop  Usher,  of  whom  he  wrote  a  Life, 
(1686.)    Died  in  1691. 

Parr,  (Samuel,)  an  English  scholar  and  critic,  re- 
nowned for  his  learning  and  colloquial  powers,  was  born 
at  Harrow-on-the-Hill,  Middlesex,  in  1747.  He  entered 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  in  1765,  but  left  it  with- 
out a  degree,  and  was  an  usher  in  Harrow  School  from 
1767  to  1772.  He  was  afterwards  master  of  schools  at 
Colchester  and  Norwich,  and  obtained  about  1785  the 
living  of  Hatton,  in  Warwickshire.  His  promotion  was 
hindered  by  his  rather  violent  partiality  to  the  Whig 
principles,  and  the  richest  benefice  he  enjoyed  was  a 
prebend  in  Saint  Paul's,  London.  He  published  several 
sermons,  "  Characters  of  the  Late  Charles  J.  Fox,  se- 
lected and  in  part  written  by  Philopatris  Varvicensis," 
(2  vols.,  1825,)  and  other  works,  none  of  which  is  of 
great  extent  or  importance.  Died  in  1825.  Macaulay 
calls  Parr  the  greatest  scholar  of  that  age,  and  speaks 
of  "his  labours  in  that  dark  and  profound  mine  from 
which  he  had  extracted  a  vast  treasure  of  erudition, — a 
treasure  too  often  buried  in  the  earth,  too  often  paraded 
with  injudicious  and  inelegant  ostentation,  but  still 
precious,  massive,  and  splendid."  ("  Essay  on  Warren 
Hastings.") 

See  "  Life  of  S.  Parr,"  by  John  Johnstone;  William  Field, 
"Memoir  of  the  Life  of  Dr.  Parr,"  2  vols.,  1828;  "Dr.  Parr  and  his 
Contemporaries,"  in  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  January,  May, 
and  June,  1831;  "  Parriana,  or  Notices  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Parr," 
London,  1828. 

Parr,  (Thomas,)  an  Englishman  of  great  longevity, 
was  born  in  Shropshire  in  1483.  He  was  a  cultivator  of 
the  soil,  and  was  married  about  the  age  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty.  It  is  said  that  he  was  able  to  work  after 
he  was  one  hundred  and  thirty  years  old.    Died  in  1635. 

Parradin.    See  Paradin. 

Parrenin,  piR'niw',  or  Parennin,  pt'ra'n^N',  (Domi- 
nique,) a  French  missionary,  born  near  Pontarlier  in 
1665.  In  1698  he  went  to  China,  where  he  obtained 
the  favour  of  the  emperor.  He  translated  some  French 
works  into  Chinese.  His  letters  to  Fontenelle  and 
others  were  published.    Died  at  Peking  in  1741. 

Parrhasius,  par-ra'she-us,  [  Ea/^/SaOTOf,  ]  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  Greek  painters,  was  born  at  Ephesus, 
and  was  the  pupil  of  his  father,  Evenor.  Though  he 
belonged  to  the  Ionic  school,  he  practised  his  art  chiefly 
at  Athens.  He  flourished  about  400  B.C.  His  peculiar 
merits  consisted  in  accuracy  of  design,  truth  of  propor- 
tion, and  power  of  expression.  In  pictures  of  gods  and 
heroes  he  established  a  canon  of  proportion  which  was 
recognized  by  succeeding  artists.  Quintilian  styled  him 
the  legislator  of  his  art.  In  a  trial  of  skill  between  him 
and  his  rival  Zeuxis,  the  latter  painted  a  bunch  of  grapes, 
which  the  birds  took  for  reality.  Flushed  with  this  evi- 
dence of  his  success,  Zeuxis  called  on  his  rival  to  draw 
aside  the  curtain  and  show  his  picture.  The  picture  of 
Parrhasius  was  the  curtain  itself,  which  Zeuxis  had  mis- 
taken for  real  drapery.  Among  his  master-pieces  were 
"  Ulysses  Feigning  Insanity,"  and  an  allegorical  picture 
of  the  Athenian  people,  or  the  Demos  personified. 

See  Carlo  Dati,  "Vite  de'  Pittori  antichi,"  1667;  K.  O.  Mul- 
L.ER,  "  Handbuch  der  Archaeologie  der  Kunst;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Generale." 

Parrhasius  or  Parisio,  p^-ree'se-o,  (Aulus  Janus,) 
an  Italian  grammarian,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1470.  He 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ft,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


PARR  IS 


1743 


PARSONS 


taught  eloquence  at  Milan  and  Rome,  and  wrote  notes 
on  Horace,  Cicero,  and  Ovid.  His  chief  work  is  named 
"De  Rebus  per  Epistolam  quaesitis,"  (Paris,  1567,)  in 
which  he  explains  passages  of  ancient  authors.  Died 
in  1534- 

Par'ris,  (  Albion  K.,)  an  American  Governor  and 
judge,  born  in  Oxford  county,  Maine,  in  1788.  He  was 
elected  Governor  of  Maine  five  times,  (1822-27,)  became 
United  States  Senator  in  1827,  and  was  a  judge  of  the 
supreme  court  of  Maine  from  1828  to  1836.   Died  in  1857. 

Par'rish,  (Joseph,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished  physician 
of  Philadelphia,  was  born  in  that  city,  September  2,  1779. 
His  parents  were  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
and  he  was  educated  in  strict  conformity  with  the  princi- 
ples and  habits  of  that  sect.  In  early  life  he  received 
strong  religious  impressions,  by  which  he  was  preserved 
from  the  temptations  incident  to  a  lively  and  ardent 
temperament.  He  had  a  good  English  education,  and 
acquired  some  knowledge  of  Latin  and  French.  Later 
in  life,  like  George  Fox,  he  commenced  the  study  of 
Hebrew,  that  he  might  the  better  understand  the  Scrip- 
tures. But  his  tastes  were  rather  scientific  than  literary, 
and  inclined  him  to  the  medical  profession,  the  study  of 
which  he  commenced,  after  he  had  completed  his  twenty- 
first  year,  in  the  office  of  Dr.  Caspar  Wistar,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania.  He  took  his  degree  of  Doctor 
of  Medicine  in  1805,  and  soon  after  entered  with  zeal 
upon  the  duties  of  his  profession.  In  the  winter  of 
1807-8  he  became  favourably  known  to  the  public  by  a 
popular  course  of  lectures  on  chemistry,  then  a  novelty 
in  Philadelphia.  In  1808  he  married  Susanna  Cox, 
whose  father,  John  Cox,  of  Burlington,  was  a  well-known 
and  estimable  minister  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  There 
has,  perhaps,  been  no  example  in  Philadelphia  of  a  more 
rapid  professional  success  than  that  which  fell  to  the  lot 
of  Dr.  Parrish.  To  this  result  his  devotion  to  his  medical 
duties,  and  the  remarkable  kindliness  of  his  disposition, 
which  showed  itself  not  merely  in  his  manners  but  in  in- 
numerable acts  of  benevolence,  powerfully  contributed. 
Later  in  life  he  greatly  distinguished  himself  as  a  surgeon, 
and  was  deemed  worthy  to  succeed  Dr.  Physick  as  sur- 
geon to  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  to  which  position  he 
was  elected  in  1816,  and  which  he  continued  to  hold,  with 
the  highest  credit  to  himself,  for  thirteen  years.  Apart 
from  his  profession.  Dr.  Parrish  took  a  deep  interest  in 
all  benevolent  enterprises,  and  in  every  movement  cal- 
culated to  relieve  the  distresses  or  promote  the  happiness 
of  mankind.  He  was  long  a  member,  and  ultimately 
president,  of  the  old  Pennsylvania  Abolition  Society,  in 
which  office  he  had  been  preceded  by  Drs.  Wistar,  Rush, 
and  Franklin.  He  died  March  18,  1840.  Among  Dr. 
Parrish's  numerous  pupils  not  a  few  have  become  distin- 
guished in  medicine  or  surgery,  or  in  general  science.  It 
may  suffice  to  cite  the  names  of  Dr.  S.  G.  Morton,  Dr. 
G.  B.  Wood,  Dr.  Carson,  and  Dr.  G.  W.  Norris. 

Of  Dr.  Parrish's  sons,  the  second,  Isaac,  attained  a 
high  reputation  as  a  physician,  and  especially  as  a  surgeon. 
He  died  in  1852. 

See  "Memoir  of  Dr.  Joseph  Parrish,"  read  before  the  Medical 
Society  of  Philadelphia,  by  George  B.  Wood,  M.D.,  October,  1840; 
Jannev,  "History  of  Friends,"  vol.  iv.  pp.  126-129;  and  "Memoir 
of  Dr.  Isaac  Parrish,"  read  before  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Phila- 
delphia, February,  1853,  by  Samuel  Jackson,  M.D. 

Parrocel,  pt'ro's^K,  (Barth^lemi,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Montbrison.  He  worked  in  Spain  and  Rome 
wnth  success.    Died  in  France  in  1660. 

Parrocel,  (Charles,)  a  skilful  painter  of  battles,  born 
in  Paris  in  1688,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  patronized  by  Louis  XV.,  whom  he  attended  in  the 
campaigns  of  1744  and  1745.    Died  in  1752. 

Parrocel,  (Joseph,)  a  distinguished  painter  of  battles, 
father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Provence  in  1648. 
He  worked  at  Paris,  where  he  settled  in  1675,  and  was 
employed  by  Louvois  and  Louis  XIV.  to  adorn  the  royal 
palaces.    He  also  left  many  etchings.    Died  in  1704. 

Parrocel,  (Pierre,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Avignon  in  1664.  He  was  an  able  painter  of 
history,  and  worked  in  Paris.  His  chief  work  is  "The 
Coronation  of  the  Virgin."  Died  in  1739.  His  son, 
Jii&EPH  Ignace,  born  in  1705,  painted  religious  and 
pastoral  subjects,  and  received  the  title  of  painter  to  the 
king.    Died  in  1781. 


Parrot,  pt'ro',  (Christophe  Fr^d^ric,)  a  writer  on 
physical  science,  born  at  Montbeliard,  in  France,  in  1751 ; 
died  about  1810. 

Parrot,  (George  Fr6d6ric,)  a  distinguished  writer, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Montbeliard  in 
1767.  He  became  professor  of  physics  at  Dorpat  in 
1800,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1826.  Among  his  works  is  "Outlines 
( Grundriss)  of  Theoretical  Physics,"  (2  vols.,  1809-11.) 
Died  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1852.  .  ^ 

Parrot,  (Johann  Jakob  Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a 
traveller,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Carlsruhe 
in  1792.  He  published  "Travels  in  the  Crimea  and 
Caucasus,"  (2  vols.,  1815-18,)  a  "Journey  to  Ararat," 
(1834,)  and  other  works.  He  ascended  Mount  Ararat 
about  1830.  He  was  professor  of  medicine  at  Dorpat. 
Died  in  1841. 

Par'ry,  (Caleb  Hillier,)  an  English  physician,  born 
at  Bath  in  1756.  He  practised  many  years  at  Bath,  and 
published  several  works,  among  which  is  "  Elements  of 
Pathology,"  (1816.)  Sir  William  Edward  Parry  was  his 
son.    Died  in  1822. 

Parry,  (Richard,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  London 
in  1722,  was  rector  of  Wichampton.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  "  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels." 
Died  in  1780. 

Parry,  (Sir  William  Edward,)  an  English  navigator, 
(usually  called  Sir  Edward  Parry,)  born  at  Bath  in 
1790,  was  a  son  of  Caleb  H.  Parry,  noticed  above. 
He  served  as  lieutenant  in  the  war  against  the  United 
States  in  1814,  and  accompanied  Captain  Ross  in  an 
exploring  voyage  in  i8i8.  He  obtained  command  of  an 
expedition  for  the  discovery  of  a  Northwest  Passage,  and 
sailed  with  the  Hecla  and  Griper  in  May,  1819.  Having 
passed  through  Lancaster  Sound,  he  explored  a  con- 
tiguous strait,  which  he  named  Barrow's  Strait,  and 
gained  a  reward  of  ;^5ooo  offered  to  the  navigator  who 
should  penetrate  beyond  the  meridian  of  110°  W., 
(within  the  Arctic  circle.)  He  passed  the  winter  at 
Melville  Island,  returned  home  in  November,  1820,  and 
wrote  a  journal  of  his  voyage,  published  in  1821. 

Captain  Parry  renewed  the  enterprise  in  1821,  without 
success.  He  performed  a  third  voyage  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean  in  1824,  with  the  Hecla  and  Fury,  the  latter  of 
which  was  wrecked,  but  failed  to  find  the  Northwest  Pas- 
sage. In  1827  he  attempted  to  reach  the  North  pole 
from  Spitzbergen  by  boats  and  sledges  drawn  over  the 
ice.  Having  advanced  to  a  point  82°  45'  N.,  he  was 
forced  by  an  adverse  current  to  return.  A  journal  of  his 
second  voyage  was  published  in  1824,  a  journal  of  the 
third  voyage  in  1826,  and  a  "Narrative  of  an  Attempt 
to  reach  the  North  Pole"  in  1828.  He  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1852.  Died  at  Ems,  in  Ger. 
many,  in  1855. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Sir  W.  E.  Parry,"  by  his  son,  Edward  Parry 
1857  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1821,  and  October 
1823;  "Monthly  Review"  for  October,  1821. 

Parseval-Deschdnes,  ptRs'viK  da'shin',  (Alex- 
andre Ferdinand,)  a  French  admiral,  born  in  Paris 
in  1790.  He  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1840,  and  vice- 
admiral  in  1846.  In  1854  he  commanded  the  fleet 
which  co-operated  with  the  British  against  the  Russians 
in  the  Baltic.  He  was  made  an  admiral  in  1854.  Died 
in  1806. 

Parseval-Grandmaison,  ptRs'v^l'  gR6N'ma''z6N', 
(Francois  Augusts,)  a  French  poet,  born  in  Paris  in 
1759.  He  went  to  Egypt  with  the  army  in  1798  as  poet 
of  the  expedition,  and  was  one  of  the  friends  whom 
Bonaparte  received  on  board  of  the  ship  which  conveyed 
him  to  France.  He  wrote  a  "  Dithyramb  on  the  Mar- 
riage of  Napoleon,"  (1810,)  "  Philippe  Auguste,"  a  heroic 
poem,  (1825,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1834. 

Par'sons,  (James,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  physician  and 
antiquary,  born  at  Barnstaple  in  1 705.  He  practised  in 
London,  contributed  several  treatises  on  physiology,  etc. 
to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions,"  and  wrote  an  anti- 
quarian work  called  "The  Remains  of  Japhet,"  (1767.) 
Died  in  1770. 

Parsons,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1742.  He  became  professor  of  medicine 
or  anatomy  at  Oxford  about  1780.    Died  in  1785. 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PJRSONS 


744 


PARVATI 


Par'sons,  (Jonathan,)  an  American  Presbyterian 
clergyman  and  scholar,  born  at  West  Springfield,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1705.  He  preached  for  many  years  at  New- 
buryport,  and  published  several  volumes  of  sermons. 
Died  in  1776. 

Parsons,  (Moses,)  an  eminent  American  preacher, 
born  in  Massachusetts  in  1 7 16,  graduated  at  Harvard. 
He  was  minister  at  Byfield,  Massachusetts.  Died  in 
1783. 

Parsons,  (Philip,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Dedham  in  1729,  was  vicar  of  Wye.  He  wrote  "New- 
market, an  Essay  on  the  Turf,"  (1774,)  "Simplicity,"  a 
poem,  (1784,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1812. 

Parsons,  [Lat.  Perso'nius,]  (Robert,)  an  English 
Jesuit,  born  in  Somersetshire  in  1546,  was  remarkable 
for  his  subtlety  as  a  disputant  and  his  talent  for  intrigue. 
As  an  emissary  of  the  court  of  Rome,  he  went  to  Eng- 
land with  Campian  about  1580,  and  attempted  to  foment 
a  rebellion.  He  published  several  seditious  writings. 
He  was  turbulent,  audacious,  and  unscrupulous.  Died 
at  Rome  in  1610. 

Parsons,  (Samuel  Holden,)  an  American  general 
and  lawyer,  born  at  Lyme,  Connecticut,  in  1737,  was  a 
son  of  Jonathan,  noticed  above.  He  is  said  to  have  first 
suggested  a  general  Congress.    Died  in  Ohio  in  1789. 

Parsons,  (Theophilus,)  an  eminent  American  jurist, 
born  in  Essex  county,  Massachusetts,  the  24th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1750.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1769, 
and  studied  law  at  Falmouth,  (now  Portland,)' in  Maine, 
where  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1774;  but  he  after- 
wards removed  to  Newburyport.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  convention  which,  in  1779,  framed  the  State  Consti- 
tution of  Massachusetts,  and  was  also  a  member  of  ,the 
convention  called  to  ratify  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  in  1789.  In  1800  he  removed  to  Boston.  He  was 
appointed  in  1806  chief  justice  of  Massachusetts,  in 
which  office  he  displayed  signal  ability.  As  a  lawyer, 
"he  had,"  according  to  Justice  Story,  "no  equal  in 
Massachusetts ;"  and  he  probably  had  few,  if  any,  supe- 
riors in  the  United  States.  A  collection  of  his  judicial 
opinions  was  published,  under  the  title  of  "Commen- 
taries on  the  Law  of  the  United  States."    Died  in  1813. 

See  "  Memoir  of  Chief  Justice  Parsons,"  by  his  son,  Theophilus 
Parsons,  1859. 

Parsons,  (Theophilus,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Boston  in  1797,  and  rose  to  distinction  as  a 
lawyer  and  writer.  He  graduated  in  181 5  at  Harvard 
College,  where  he  became  in  1847  Dane  professor  of 
law.  He  has  been  a  contributor  to  the  "  North  American 
Review,"  and  other  periodicals,  and  published  a  number 
of  essays  in  favour  of  the  doctrines  of  Swedenborg.  He 
has  also  written  several  legal  works. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Parsons,  (Thomas  William,)  an  American  poet, 
born  in  Boston  in  1819.  He  produced  in  1843  aversion 
of  "The  First  Ten  Cantos  of  Dante's  Inferno,"  which, 
according  to  R.  W.  Griswold,  "is  executed  in  a  very 
masterly  manner.  The  best  critics  have  pronoimced  it 
the  most  successful  reproduction  of  the  spirit  and  power 
of  the  Divina  Commedia  in  the  English  language.  His 
original  poems  are  variously  admirable.  .  .  .  His 'Hud- 
son River'  is  the  noblest  tribute  any  stream  on  this 
continent  has  received  from  a  poet,  and  his  lines  '  On 
the  Death  of  Daniel  Webster'  are  far, better  than  any- 
thing else  ever  written  in  verse  on  the  death  of  an 
American  statesman."  ("Poets  and  Poetry  of  America," 
p.  559.)    He  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1854. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Parsons,  (William,)  an  English  comic  actor,  born 
in  1736,  was  also  a  painter.    Died  in  1795. 

Parthenay,  de.    See  Desroches  de  Parthenay. 

Parthenay,  de,  deh  piRt'n^',  (Catherine,)  Vi- 
comtesse  de  Rohan,  a  spirited  and  gifted  French  lady, 
born  in  Bas-Poitou  in  1554,  was  a  Huguenot.  She  dis- 
tinguished herself  at  the  siege  of  La  Rochelle,  in  16-27. 
She  published  some  poems.  The  famous  Duke  of 
Rohan  was  her  son.    Died  in  1 631. 

See  MoRiiRi,  "  Dictiorinaire  Historique  De  Thou,  "  Historia 
sui  Temporis." 

Par-the'ni-us  [llap^t'wof]  of  Nicsea,  a  Greek  poet, 
who  lived  at  Rome  in  the  first  century  B.C.  Suidas  states 


that  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Romans  in  the  war 
against  Mithridates.  He  was  a  friend  of  Cornelius 
Gallus,  and  a  preceptor  of  Virgil.  He  wrote  "  Meta- 
morphoses," elegies,  and  other  poems,  which  are  all  lost 
except  one  named  -azpl  epuriKuv  iradrifiuTuu,  ("On  Ama- 
tory Affections.") 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grseca ;"  Ersch  und  Gruber, 
"  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Parthenopseus,  par-then-o-pee'us,  [  Gr.  Uapdevo- 
TTalog ;  p>.  Parthenopee,  ptR'ti'no'pi',]  a  mythical 
personage,  called  a  son  of  Milanion  and  Atalanta.  He 
was  one  of  the  seven  heroes  under  the  command  of 
Adrastus  engaged  in  the  expedition  against  Thebes, 
where  he  was  killed. 

Par-then'o-pe,  [Gr.  Uapdevom] ;  Fr.  Parth^nope, 
ptR'ti'nop',]  a  famous  Siren,  from  whom  the  city  of 
Naples  derived  its  ancient  name. 

Parthenopee.   See  Parthengp/eus. 

Par'the-nos,  [Gr.  Uapdevoc;  Fr.  Parth^nos,  ptR'- 
ti'nos',]  {i.e.  "  the  Virgin,")  a  surname  given  by  the 
Athenians  to  Minerva,  in  whose  honour  they  built  the 
Parthenon.    (See  Minerva.) 

Particelli.   See  Emery. 

Par'ton,  (James,)  an  able  and  popular  writer  and 
journalist,  born  at  Canterbury,  England,  in  1822,  became 
a  resident  of  New  York,  where  he  was  for  a  time  asso- 
ciate editor  of  the  "  Home  Journal."  He  published 
a  "Life  of  Horace  Greeley,"  (1855,)  "Life  of  Aaron 
Burr,"  (1857,)  "Life  of  Andrew  Jackson,"  (i860,)  and 
a  "Life  of  General  Butler,"  (1863,)  all  of  which  have 
been  eminently  successful ;  also,  "  Famous  Americans 
of  Recent  Times,"  (1867.)  He  has  contributed  to  the 
"Atlantic  Monthly"  and  the  "North  American  Review." 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1867. 

Parton,  (Sarah  Payson  Willis,)  the  wife  of  the 
preceding,  and  sister  of  the  poet  N.  P.  Willis,  was 
born  at  Portland,  Maine,  in  1811.  She  has  published, 
under  the  pseudonym  of  Fanny  Fern,  "Fern  Leaves," 
(1853,)  "Little  Ferns,"  (1853,)  "Ruth  Hall,"  (1854,) 
"  The  Play-Day  Book,"  (1856,)  "Fresh  Leaves,"  (1857,) 
and  "Rose  Clark,"  (1857,)  which  obtained  great  popu- 
larity in  the  United  States,  and  were  republished  in 
England. 

Partouneaux,  ptR'too'no',  (Louis,)  Count,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Romilly,  on  the  Seine,  in  1770;  died 
in  1835. 

Part'ridge,  (Alden,)  an  American  teacher  of  mili- 
tary schools,  born  at  Norwich,  Vermont,  about  1785. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1806.  He  was  the 
leader  of  a  party  which  surveyed  and  determined  the 
northwest  boundary  of  the  United  States,  in  1819.  He 
opened  a  military  academy  at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  and 
afterwards  established  one  at  Portsmouth,  in  Virginia. 
Died  in  1854. 

Paruta,  pi-roo'tl,  (Filippo,)  an  antiquary,  born  at 
Palermo.  He  wrote  "  Sicily  Described  by  Medals," 
("La  Sicilia  descritta  con  Medaglie,"  1612,)  reprinted 
in  1649  and  1697.    Died  in  1629. 

Paruta,  (Paolo,)  an  eminent  Italian  historian  and 
diplomatist,  born  at  Venice  in  1540.  He  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  the  pope  in  1592,  before  which  he  had 
held  several  high  offices.  In  1596  he  became  procurator 
of  Saint  Mark,  the  highest  functionary  in  the  state  ex- 
cept one.  He  wrote  "  On  the  Perfection  of  Political 
Life,"  ("  Delia  Perfezione  della  Vita  politica,"  1579,) 
which  was  translated  into  English  and  French,  and  a 
"History  of  Venice  from  1513  to  1551,"  ("Storia  Vene- 
ziana,"  1605,)  which  is  highly  commended.  "He  was 
the  first,"  says  Daru,  "who  introduced  the  details  of 
civil  history  into  his  narrative."  His  "  Political  Dis- 
courses" ("  Discorsi  politici,"  1599)  are  judicious,  and 
sometimes  profound.    Died  in  1598. 

See  A.  Zeno,  "Vita  di  P.  Paruta,"  1738;  A.  M.  Meneghhlli, 
"  Elogiodi  P.  Paruta,"  1812  ;  Niceron,  "  Memoires  ;"  A.  Mezieres, 
"  £tudes  sur  les  CEuvres  politiques  de  Paruta,"  1853. 

P&rvati,  paR'va-tee^  {z.e.  the  "mountain  [goddess,"]) 
[from  the  Sanscrit pdrvata,?i  "mountain,"]  in  the  Hin- 
doo mythology,  the  name  of  the  consort  or  Sakti  of  Siva, 
was  supposed  to  be  the  daughter  of  Himala,  the  sove- 
reign of  the  snowy  mountains  in  the  north  of  India. 
She  is  known  by  a  multitude  of  names,  according  to  her 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  s/wri;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PARTS  ATIS 


1745 


PASCAL 


various  characters,  such  as  BHAvANt,  corresponding  to 
the  "  Venus  genetrix"  of  the  Romans  ;  Durga,  so  called 
in  her  character  of  active  or  militant  virtue  ;  KAli,  {i.e. 
"  black"  or  "  terrible,")  applied  to  her  in  her  most  terrible 
form,  when  she  appears  as  the  destroyer  of  the  enemies 
of  the  gods  ;  and  Parvat!,  as  the  devoted  wife  and 
inseparable  companion  of  Siva.  She  (like  Juno)  may  be 
regarded  as  a  personification  of  femineity.    (See  SiVA.) 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  Wilson,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary." 

Pa-rys'a-tis,  [Gr.  liapvaaTi^,]  a.  Persian  queen,  was  a 
daughter  of  Artaxerxes  I.,  and  the  wife  of  her  brother, 
Darius  Ochus,  over  whom  she  had  great  influence.  She 
abused  her  power  by  the  execution  of  a  nuniber  of  per- 
sons, among  whom  were  two  brothers  of  Darius.  She 
was  the  mother  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon  and  of  Cyrus 
the  younger. 

Pas.    See  Pass. 

Pas,  de,  (Antoine.)    See  Feuqui±res,  de. 
Pascal.    See  Paschal  I. 

Pascal,  pts'kiK,  (Adrien,)  a  French  military  writer, 
born  about  181 5.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Military  Life  of  Louis  Philippe,"  (1841,)  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Army,  and  of  all  the  Regiments,  from  the 
Thirteenth  Century  to  our  Times,"  (4  vols.,  1845-49,) 
and  a  "History  of  Napoleon  HI.,"  (1853.) 

Pascal,  pas'kal,  [Fr.  pron.  pts'ktK  ;  Lat.  Pascha'lis,] 
(Blaise,)  a  celebrated  French  philosopher  and  mathe- 
matician, was  born  at  Clermont-Ferrand,  in  Auvergne, 
on  the  19th  of  June,  1623.  He  was  the  only  son  of 
Etienne  Pascal,  president  of  the  court  of  aids,  and  An- 
toinette Begon.  He  was  very  inquisitive  in  his  early 
childhood,  and  showed  an  extraordinary  aptitude  for 
geometry  ;  but  his  father,  who  directed  his  education, 
wished  him  to  study  the  ancient  languages,  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  geometry,  and  carefully  concealed  from  him 
all  works  on  that  science.  In  his  twelfth  year,  however, 
he  was  surprised  in  the  act  of  demonstrating  proposi- 
tions, having  privately  discovered  or  learned  the  elements 
of  geometry  without  the  aid  of  books.  His  father  then 
ceased  to  restrain  him  from  the  study  of  the  science  to 
which  he  was  so  powerfully  attracted.  It  is  stated  that 
at  the  age  of  sixteen  he  wrote  a  treatise  on  Conic  Sec- 
tions which  astonished  Descartes.  He  made  rapid  pro- 
gress in  mathematics,  and  soon  began  to  associate  with 
Mersenne  and  Roberval.  About  the  age  of  eighteen  he 
invented  an  ingenious  calculating-machine.  His  consti- 
tution was  always  delicate,  and  his  health  was  probably 
impaired  by  excessive  application  to  study.  After  the 
age  of  eighteen  he  was  a  continual  sufferer.  In  1648  he 
made  with  the  barometer,  on  the  mountain  called  Puy  de 
Dome,  a  celebrated  experiment,  which  established  the 
theory  of  atmospheric  pressure  and  exploded  the  ancient 
error  that  nature  abhors  a  vacuum.  He  wrote  two  treat- 
ises entitled  "On  the  Equilibrium  of  Fluids,"  and  "  On 
the  Weight  of  the  Atmosphere."  In  the  experiment 
just  mentioned  he  was  assisted  by  M.  Perier,  his  brother- 
in-law.  Impressed  by  powerful  religious  convictions,  he 
renounced  in  1649  the  brilliant  prospect  of  temporal  re- 
nown towards  which  his  genius  was  conducting  him,  and 
turned  his  attention  from  scientific  pursuits.  In  1654  he 
narrowly  escaped  from  a  dangerous  accident  to  which  he 
was  exposed  by  his  unruly  horses  as  he  was  riding  in  a 
carriage  on  the  Pont  de  Neuilly.  This  event  confirmed 
his  resolution  to  devote  himself  to  religious  duties  and 
a  life  of  retirement.  He  became  very  abstemious  in  his 
diet,  denied  himself  many  innocent  enjoyments,  and 
subjected  himself  to  a  severely  ascetic  discipline.  It  is 
stated  that  he  beggared  himself  by  his  prodigal  bene- 
factions to  the  poor,  and  that  he  wore  beneath  his  clothes 
a  girdle  of  iron  armed  with  sharp  points  as  an  instru- 
ment of  self-imposed  penance.  He  entered  the  cloister 
of  Port-Royal,  to  which  his  sister  Jacqueline  had  retired 
several  years  before,  and  there  enjoyed  the  society  of 
Arnauld,  Le  Saci,  Nicole,  Saint-Cyran,  (Duvergier,)  and 
other  Jansenist  writers. 

In  1656  he  produced  his  celebrated  "Provincial  Let- 
ters," the  full  title  of  which  is  "  Lettres  ecrites  par  Louis 
de  Montalte  a  un  Provincial  de  ses  Amis  et  aux  Jesuites 
sur  la  Morale  et  la  Politique  de  ces  Peres,"  ("  Letters 
written  by  Louis  de  Montalte  to  the  Jesuits,"  etc.) 
"Pascal,"  says  Hallam,  "by  his  'Provincial  Letters," 


did  more  to  ruin  the  name  of  Jesuit  than  all  the  con- 
troversies of  Protestantism  or  all  the  fulminations  of 
the  Parliament  of  Paris.  .  .  .  He  has  accumulated  so 
long  a  list  of  scandalous  decisions,  and  dwelt  upon 
them  with  so  much  wit  and  spirit,  and  yet  with  so 
serious  a  severity,  that  the  order  of  Loyola  became  a 
byword  with  mankind."  ("Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  Europe.")  Voltaire  expressed  the  opinion  that 
"  Moliere's  best  comedies  do  not  excel  these  Letters  in 
wit,  nor  the  compositions  of  Bossuet  excel  them  in  sub- 
limity." The  most  competent  French  critics,  including 
Voltaire  and  D'Alembert,  concur  in  the  judgment 
that  the  "  Provincial  Letters"  contributed  more  than 
any  other  composition  to  form  and  polish  the  French 
language.  There  is  not  a  single  word  in  these  Letters 
that  has  become  obsolete.  "The  severely  pure  and 
simple  taste,"  says  Henry  Rogers,  "  which  reigns  in 
Pascal's  style  seems,  when  we  reflect  on  those  vices 
which  more  or  less  infected  universal  letters,  little  less 
than  a  miraculous  felicity.  .  .  .  Upon  all  the  great  fea- 
tures of  his  moral  character  one  dwells  with  the  serenest 
delight.  Greatly  as  he  is  to  be  admired,  he  is  yet  more 
to  be  loved.  His  humility  and  simplicity,  conspicuous 
as  his  genius  and  acquisitions,  were  those  of  a  very 
child."  ("Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1847.)  In 
one  instance  he  relapsed  into  the  study  of  the  abstract 
sciences  which  he  had  renounced.  About  1658  he  di- 
verted his  attention  from  the  pain  which  deprived  him 
of  sleep  by  entertaining  a  luminous  idea  which  presented 
itself  to  him  and  led  him  to  some  important  discoveries 
in  relation  to  the  problem  of  the  cycloid.  Before  he 
made  these  public,  he  challenged  the  mathematicians  of 
Europe  to  solve  the  problem,  and  offered  a  prize  to  him 
who  should  succeed.  Several  persons  competed  for  the 
prize,  but  the  judges  decided  that  none  of  their  solutions 
fulfilled  the  conditions  of  the  challenge.  He  published 
in  1659  a  Treatise  on  the  Cycloid,  ("Traite  general  de 
la  Roulette.")  He  meditated  and  began  to  compose  an 
extensive  and  systematic  work  on  the  fundamental  truths 
of  religion  and  the  evidences  of  Christianity,  which  he 
did  not  live  to  finish  ;  but  he  left  in  manuscript  nume- 
rous detached  sentences  which  are  supposed  to  be  frag- 
ments  of  that  work.  They  were  published  in  1670,  under 
the  title  of  "  Thoughts  of  Pascal,"  ("  Pensces  de  Pascal,") 
not  without  suppressions  and  alterations.  A  more  cor- 
rect edition  was  published  by  M.  Prosper  Faugere  in 
1844.  "The  Thoughts  of  Pascal,"  says  Hallam,  "are 
to  be  ranked,  as  a  monument  of  his  genius,  above  the 
'  Provincial  Letters,  though  some  have  asserted  the 
contrary.  They  burn  with  an  intense  light ;  condensed 
in  expression,  sublime,  energetic,  rapid,  they  hurry  away 
the  reader,  till  he  is  scarcely  able  or  willing  to  distin- 
guish the  sophisms  from  the  truth  they  contain.  For 
that  many  of  them  are  incapable  of  bearing  a  calm 
scrutiny  is  very  manifest  to  those  who  apply  such  a 
test.  The  notes  of  Voltaire,  though  always  intended  to 
detract,  are  sometimes  unanswerable  ;  but  the  splendour 
of  Pascal's  eloquence  absolutely  annihilates,  in  effect 
on  the  general  reader,  even  this  antagonist."  ("  Intro- 
duction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

Among  his  works  are  "  New  Experiments  on  the  Va- 
cuum," ("Nouvelles  Experiences  touchant  le  Vide,") 
"History  of  the  Cycloid,"  ("  Ilistoire  de  la  Roulette,") 
and  "  De  I'Esprit  geometrique."  He  endured  with  for- 
titude the  maladies  which  in  his  latter  years  were 
aggravated  by  his  ascetic  habits,  and  died  in  Paris  on 
the  19th  of  August,  1662.  His  complete  works  were 
published  by  Bossut,  (in  5  vols.  8vo,  1779.)  Prosper 
Faugere  published  in  1844  two  volumes  of  "Thoughts, 
Fragments,  and  Letters  of  Blaise  Pascal,"  many  of 
which  had  never  before  been  printed.  "  His  intellectual 
powers,"  says  Macaulay,  "  were  such  as  have  rarely  been 
bestowed  on  any  of  the  children  of  men  ;  and  the  vehe- 
mence of  the  zeal  which  animated  him  was  but  too  well 
proved  by  the  cruel  penances  and  vigils  under  which 
his  macerated  frame  sank  into  an  early  grave.  His 
spirit  was  the  spirit  of  Saint  Bernard  ;  but  the  delicacy 
of  his  wit,  the  purity,  the  energy,  the  simplicity  of  his 
rhetoric,  had  never  been  equalled,  except  by  the  great 
masters  of  Attic  eloquence.  All  Europe  read  and 
admired,  laughed  and  wept.    The  Jesuits  attempted  to 


«  as     9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2i^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

1 10 


PASCAL 


1746 


PAS  OR 


reply,  but  their  feeble  answers  were  received  with  shouts 
of  mockery."    ("History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.  p.  18.) 

See  BossuT,  "  Discours  siir  la  Vie  de  Pascal,"  1781  ;  Andrieux, 
"  filoge  de  Pascal,"  1813;  Raymond,  "  JSloge  de  Pascal,"  1816; 
FAUcfeRE,  "£loge  de  Pascal;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "Port-Royal;" 
Bordas-Demoumn,  "Genie  et  l^crits  de  Pascal,"  1847;  Cousin, 
"  Des  Pensees  de  Pascal,"  1844  ;  Vinet,  "  jfitudes  siir  Pascal,"  1848  ; 
Abbi^  Maynard,  "Pascal,  sa  Vie  et  son  Caractere,"  2  vols.,  1850; 
"Vie  de  Pascal,"  by  Madame  Perier,  his  sister;  "Lives  of  the 
Most  Eii)ineiit  French  Writers,"  by  Mrs.  Shelley;  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  December,  1840;  "North  British  Review"  for 
November,  1861. 

Pascal,  (FRANgois  Michel,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris  about  1815.  He  gained  a  medal  of  the  second 
class  in  1848. 

Pascal,  (Jacqueltne,)  a  sister  of  Blaise  Pascal,  was 
born  at  Clermont  in  1625.  She  was  beautiful  and  highly 
gifted.  About  the  age  of  ten  she  began  to  write  verses, 
some  of  which  were  printed  in  1638.  The  poet  Corneille, 
who  often  visited  the  family  of  Pascal,  aided  in  the  de- 
velopment of  her  poetic  talent.  She  became  religious  in 
1646,  and  entered  the  convent  of  Port-Royal  in  1652. 
She  wrote  a  powerful  letter  on  the  formulary  which  the 
nuns  were  required  to  sign,  and  which  condemned  Jan- 
senism. She  died  in  1661.  "  To  annihilate  self,"  says 
M.  Vinet,  "  and  then  to  efface  the  most  minute  traces  of 
that  very  annihilation,  had  been  the  task  of  this  heroic 
girl  for  years.  She  had  deemed  it  her  especial  duty  to 
mortify  her  noble  intellect ;  but  she  was  unable  to  destroy 
it:  it  still  clung  to  her.  And,  though  every  thing  which 
she  achieved  or  wrote  bears  the  stamp  of  mental  supe- 
riority, there  is  nothing  comparable  in  this  respect  to 
the  'Letter  on  the  Formulary.'" 

See  "Jacqueline  Pascal,  or  a  Glimpse  of  Convent-Life  at  Port- 
Royal,"  from  the  French  of  Victor  Cousin,  M.  P.  Faug6:re,  and 
M.  Vinet. 

Pascal,  (Jean  Baptiste  Etienne,)  a  French  anti- 
quary and  priest,  born  at  Marvejols  in  1789.  He  wrote 
"  Gabalum  Christianum,"  (1853,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1859. 

Pascal-Valloiigue,  pts'ktK  vtlAwg',  (Joseph  Se- 
cret,) a  French  general,  born  at  Sauve  (Gard)  in  1763. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  Germany  and  Italy  during 
the  empire,  and  was  killed  at  Gaeta  in  1806. 

Pasch,  pish,  [Lat.  Pas'chius,]  (Georg,)  a  German 
philosopher,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1661.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Kiel  about  1702.  Among  his  works 
is  "  Tractatus  de  novis  Inventis  quorum  cultui  facem 
protulit  antiquitas,"  (1695.)    Died  in  1707. 

Pasch,  pash,  (Johan,)  a  Swedish  landscape  and  ma- 
rine painter,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1706  ;  died  in  1769. 

Paschal.    See  Pasqualt. 

Pas'-ehal  [  It.  Pasquale,  pSs-kwS'l^ ;  Fr.  Pascal, 
pis'ktK  ;  Lat.  Pascha'lis]  I.,  Pope,  a  native  of  Rome, 
was  elected  as  successor  to  Stephen  V.  in  817  A.D.  He 
crowned  the  emperor  Lothaire  in  823.    Died  in  824. 

Paschal  II.,  Pope,  (Rainieri,)  born  near  Viterbo, 
succeeded  Urban  II.  in  1099.  He  maintained  a  contest 
on  the  subject  of  investitures  with  the  emperor  Henry 
v.,  who  marched  with  an  army  to  Rome  in  i  no,  arrested 
the  pope  after  a  violent  resistence,  and  extorted  from 
him  a  concession  of  the  right  of  investiture.  This  con- 
cession of  Paschal  was  condemned  by  a  council  which 
he  convoked.  He  was  too  feeble  and  irresolute  to  main- 
tain the  supremacy  of  the  papal  power.  He  died  in  11 18, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Gelasius  II. 

Paschal  III.,  Anti-Pope,  (Guido  di  Crema,  gwee'- 
do  de  kRa'm^,)  was  elected  in  1164  or  1165  in  opposition 
to  Alexander  III.,  and  was  recognized  by  the  emperor 
Frederick  I.    He  died  at  Rome  in  1168. 

Paschalis.    See  Pascal,  (Blaise.) 

Paschalis,  (Popes.)    See  Paschal. 

Paschius.    See  Pasch. 
^  Pascoli,  p^s'ko-lee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician, born  at  Perugia  in  1669.    He  became  professor 
of  anatomy  in  Rome,  and  published  several  works.  Died 
in  1757. 

Pascoli,  (Leone,)  an  Italian  biographer,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Perugia  "in  1674.  He  wrote 
"  Lives  of  Perugian  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects," 
(1732,)  and  "The  Live?  of  Modern  Painters,  Sculptors, 
and  Architects,"  (2  vols.,  1736,)  both  in  Italian.  Died 
in  1744. 


Pas'i-cles,  a  Greek  philosopher,  lived  probably  be- 
tween 400  and  350  B.C.  He  was  at  one  time  the  head 
of  the  school  of  Megara. 

Pasinelli,  pS-se-neKlee,  or  Passinelli,  pSs-se-neKlee, 
(Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1629, 
was  a  pupil  of  Cantarini.  He  imitated  the  noble  man- 
ner of  Paul  Veronese,  whom,  it  is  said,  he  equalled  in 
design.  *'  His  colour  is  so  fresh  and  brilliant,"  says  the 
"Biographic  Universelle,"  "that  one  might  take  his 
works  for  the  productions  of  the  best  time  of  the  Venetian 
school."  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The  Entrance 
of  Christ  into  Jerusalem,"  and  a  "  Holy  Family."  Died 
in  1700. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Pasini,  pS-see'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  linguist, 
born  about  1690.  He  published  a  Hebrew  Grammar, 
(1721,)  and  a  "Latin-Italian  Dictionary,"  ("  Vocabolario 
Italiano  e  Latino,"  1731,)  often  reprinted.  Died  about 
1770. 

Pa-siph'a-e,  [Gr.  Jlaotfaij;  Fr.  Pasipha^;,  pt'zeTt'i',] 
a  fabulous  personage,  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Helios, 
a  sister  of  Circe,  and  the  wife  of  Minos.  Among  her 
children  were  Androgeos,  Ariadne,  Phaedra,  and  the 
Minotaur,  the  last  of  whom  was  fabled  to  be  the  offspring 
of  a  bull. 

Pa-sit'e-les,  lYlaaiTeTiTjc,]  an  excellent  statuary  and 
silver-chaser,  of  Greek  origin,  who  lived  at  Rome.  He 
was  a  minor  when  he  obtained  the  right  of  Roman  citi- 
zenship, about  90  B.C.  He  improved  the  art  of  modelling. 
Pliny  represents  him  as  a  great  artist,  and  mentions  one 
of  his  works, — an  ivory  statue  of  Jupiter.  He  was  also 
an  eminent  writer  on  art.  He  appears  to  have  been 
living  in  30  B.C. 

Paskevitch  or  Paskewitsch,  pSs-ka'vitch,  written 
also  Paskievitch,  (Ivan  Feodorovitch,)  Prince  of 
Warsaw,  (in  French,  "  Prince  de  Varsovie,")  a  cele- 
brated Russian  general,  born  at  Poltava  in  1782.  He 
served  at  Austerlitz,  (1805,)  received  several  wounds 
at  Brailof,  (1809,)  and  obtained  command  of  a  brigade 
in  1811.  In  1812  he  distinguished  himself  at  Borodino, 
and  gained  advantages  over  the  French  in  several  actions. 
Having  been  selected  to  conduct  an  army  against  the 
Persians  in  1825,  he  gained  a  victory  at  Elizabethpol, 
and  took  Erivan  in  1827.  For  his  successes  in  a  war 
against  the  Turks  (1828-29)  he  obtained  the  rank  of 
field-marshal.  In  1831  he  took  the  command  against 
the  revolted  Poles,  and  ended  the  war  by  the  capture 
of  Warsaw.  For  these  services  he  was  created  Prince 
of  Warsaw  and  made  Governor-General  of  Poland.  He 
was  successful  in  his  operations  against  the  Hungarians 
in  1849,  but  failed  at  the  siege  of  Silistria,  in  1854.  Died 
in  1856. 

See  Tolstoi,  "  Essai  biographique  sur  le  Prince  de  Varsovie," 
1835  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pas'ley,  (Sir  Charles  William,)  an  English  en- 
gineer, general,  and  writer,  born  about  1780.  He  served 
at  the  battles  of  Corunna  and  Flushing,  (1809,)  and  be- 
came a  lieutenawt-colonel  about  1814.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  "  A  Course  of  Military  Instruction 
for  the  Royal  Engineer  Department,"  (1817,)  "Obser- 
vations on  Limes,  Calcareous  Cements,  Mortars,"  etc., 
(1838,)  and  "Rules  for  conducting  the  Practical  Opera- 
tions of  a  Siege,"  (1843.)  He  obtained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general  in  185 1.    Died  in  1861. 

Pasolini,  pi-so-lee'nee.  Count,  a  liberal  Italian 
statesman  of  high  reputation.  He  was  minister  of  for- 
eign affairs  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  the  cabinet  of 
Farini  from  December  i,  1862,  until  March  24,  1863. 

Pasolini,  (Serafino,)  an  Italian  friar,  born  at  Ra- 
venna in  1649.  He  wrote  on  the  history  of  Ravenna, 
"Lnstri  Ravennati,"  (7  parts,  1678-1713.)  Died  in  1715. 

Pasor,  p^'zor,  (Georg,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at 
Herborn  in  1570.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at 
Franeker  in  1616,  and  published  a  good  "Greek-Latin 
Lexicon,"  (1622,  often  reprinted.)  He  wrote  other  works 
for  students.    Died  in  1637. 

Pasor,  (Matthaus.)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Herborn  in  1599.  He  was  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Oxford,  England,  from  which  he  removed  to 
Groningen  in  1629.  He  left  a  Journal,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  1658.    Died  in  1658. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /ok^;  k,  b,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  f3.ll,  filt;  m5t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


PASQUJLI 


1747 


PASSIONEI 


Pasquali,  pSs-kw^'lee,  written  also  Paschal,(CARLO,) 

a  negotiator  and  antiquary,  born  at  Coni,  Piedmont,  in 
1547.  He  served  Henry  IV.  of  France  as  ambassador 
to  England  in  1589.  He  wrote  many  works,  among 
which  are  "The  Ambassador,"  ("  Legatus,"  1598,)  and 
"Coronae,"  a  treatise  on  crowns,  (1610.)    Died  in  1625. 

See  Mansueti,  "  C.  Paschal,  illustre  Piemontese,"  1844;  Nic^- 
RON,  "  Memoires." 

Pasqualiiii,  pis-kwi-Iee'nee,  or  Pascalini,  pSs-ka- 
lee'nee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
engraver,  born  near  Bologna  about  1600. 

Pasqualino,  pis-kwi-lee^no,  or  Pasquelino,  pis- 
kwi-lee'no,  (Pasquale  Rossi,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Vicenza  in  1641.  His  design  is  correct  and  his  colour- 
ing true.    Died  in  1700. 

Pasquier,  pts'ke-a',  (Etienne,)  a  French  historian 
and  lawyer,  born  in  1529,  in  Paris.  He  gained  distinction 
by  a  great  speech  for  the  University  of  Paris  in  a  suit  or 
contest  against  the  Jesuits  in  1564.  He  opposed  the  fac- 
tion of  the  League,  and  served  Henry  III.  and  Henry  IV. 
with  honour  as  advocate-general.  His  chief  works  are 
"Researches  on  France,"  ("  Recherches  de  la  France,") 
— in  which  the  origin  and  history  of  civil  and  religious  in- 
stitutions, customs,  etc.  are  traced  with  ability, — and  his 
interesting  Letters.  The  first  part  of  his  "  Recherches" 
appeared  in  1560.    Died  in  1615. 

See  DupiN,  "  Eloge  de  Pasquier,"  1843 :  L-  FEUcfeRE,  "  Essai 
sur  laVieetles  Ouvrages  d'fitienne  Pasquier,"  prefixed  loan  edition 
of  Pasquier's  select  works,  2  vols.,  1849  ;  C.  Giraud,  "  Notice  sur 
fi.  Pasquier,"  1848. 

Pasquier,  de,  deh  pts'ke-i',  (Etienne  Denis,)  Due, 
a  French  statesman,  born  in  1767,  in  Paris.  He  became 
master  of  requests  in  1806,  and  prefect  of  police  in  1810. 
At  the  restoration  of  181 5  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
state  and  privy  councillor,  and  united  with  the  moderate 
royalists.  He  was  keeper  of  the  seals  under  Richelieu 
from  January,  1817,  to  December,  1818,  and  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  from  November,  1819,  to  December,  1821. 
During  this  period  he  made  many  eloquent  speeches  in 
the  Chamber,  and  defended  his  policy  with  admirable 
adroitness  and  sang-froid.  He  was  the  virtual  chief  of 
the  cabinet  after  the  retirement  of  Decazes,  in  February, 
1820.  Pasquier  was  president  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers 
from  1830  to  1848.  In  1837  he  obtained  the  title  of 
Chancellor  of  France.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Aca- 
demic Fran9aise  in  1842,  and  received  the  title  of  duke 
in  1844.    Died,  without  issue,  in  1862. 

See  LoM^NiE,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains,"  tome  vi. ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Pass,  van,  vtn  pSss,  or  Paas,  van,  vtn  pSss,  written 
also  Passe,  (Crispin.)  an  eminent  Dutch  designer  and 
engraver,  born  in  Zealand  about  1536,  or,  as  some  say, 
1560.  He  worked  at  Paris  and  other  foreign  cities.  His 
works  are  highly  finished.  Among  them  are  numerous 
portraits,  and  the  plates  of  the  "Manege  royal,"  (1618.) 
He  was  alive  in  1628.. 

Pass,  van,  (Crispin,)  the  Younger,  born  at  Utrecht 
about  1570,  was  an  able  engraver,  and  a  son  of  the 
preceding.    Died  after  1655. 

Pass,  van,  (Madeleine,)  a  skilful  engraver,  daughter 
of  Crispin  the  Elder,  was  born  in  1576.  "Her  land- 
scapes," says  the  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  "entitle  her 
to  a  rank  among  the  ablest  engravers."  A  print  of  the 
-Wise  and  Foolish  Virgins"  is  called  her  master-piece. 

Pass,  van,  (Simon,)  an  engraver,  a  Tarother  of  the 
preceding,  vt'as  born  about  1580.  He  worked  in  London 
with  a  high  reputation.  "  The  Pilgrims  of  Emmaus"  is 
called  one  of  his  best  works. 

Pass,  van,  (Willem,)  born  at  Utrecht  about  1585, 
was  a  son  of  Crispin  the  Elder,  whom  he  imitated.  He 
removed  to  England,  and  engraved  portraits  after  Van 
Dyck  with  great  success. 

Passaglia,  pSs-saKyS,  (Carlo,)  Abr^;,  an  Italian 
theological  writer  of  the  present  age.  He  wrote  about 
1861  a  pamphlet  in  which  he  advised  the  pope  to  resign 
his  temporal  power.  In  1863  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Italian  Parliament. 

Passarotti,  pSs-sa-rot'tee,  written  also  Passerotti, 
(Bartolommeo,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Bologna  about  1535,  was  a  pupil  of 
Vignola.  He  was  master  of  a  school  in  Bologna,  which 
produced  some  able  artists.    He  excelled  in  portraits. 


Among  his  works  is  "The  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Paul.** 
Died  about  1594. 

His  sons,  TiBURZio,  Ventura,  and  Aurelio,  were 
also  painters.  Tiburzio  was  born  in  1575,  and  died  in 
1612. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Lomazzo,  "Idea  del  Tem- 
pio  della  Pittura." 

Passavant,  pt'st'v6N',  ?  (Johann  David,)  a  German 
painter  and  writer  upon  art,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main  in  1787.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  valua- 
ble memoir  entitled  "On  Raphael  of  Urbino  and  his 
Father,"  (1839,)  "On  Christian  Art  in  Spain,"  (1853,) 
and  a  good  history  of  engraving,  entitled  "  Le  Peintre- 
Graveur,"  (2  vols.,  i860.)  A  French  version  of  his 
"  Life  of  Raphael"  was  published  in  i860.  Died  in  1861. 

See  Nagler,  "  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Passavanti,  pis-sl-vSn'tee,  (Jacopo,  )  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Florence,  gained  celebrity  by  his  "  Mirror 
of  True  Penitence,"  ("  Specchio  della  vera  Penitenza.") 
Died  in  1357. 

Passe.    See  Pass. 

Passemant,  pts''m5N',  (Claude  Simeon,)  a  skilful 
optician  and  mechanician,  born  in  Paris  in  1702.  He 
made  telescopes,  time-pieces,  and  other  astronomical 
instruinents,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  fabrication  of 
telescopes,  (1738.)    Died  in  1769. 

Passerat,  pts'rt',  (Jean,)  a  French  poet  and  excellent 
Latinist,  born  at  Troyes  in  1534.  He  succeded  Ramus 
as  professor  of  Latin  at  Paris,  (1572.)  He  co-operated 
with  Rapin,  Leroy,  Durant,  and  other  friends  in  the 
"Satyre  Menippee,"  a  famous  satire  against  the  League. 
He  composed  graceful  verses  in  French  and  Latin, 
Died  in  1602. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires." 

Passeri,  pSs-sa'ree,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
pointer  and  biographer,  born  at  Rome  about  1610,  was 
a  friend  of  Domenichino.  He  became  president  of  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Luke,  but  was  an  artist  of  only 
moderate  ability.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  his 
"  Lives  of  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects  who  died 
at  Rome  from  1641  to  1673,"  (1772,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed  for  accuracy.    Died  in  1679. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Passeri,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  learned  Italian 
antiquary,  born  near  Rome  in  1694,  chose  the  profes- 
sion of  law.  In  1 741  he  exchanged  that  for  the  church. 
Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Earthen  Lamps," 
("Lucernae  Fictiles,"  3  vols.,  1739-51,)  and  "Pictures 
on  the  Vases  of  the  Etruscans,"  ("  Picturae  Etruscorum 
in  Vasculis,"  3  vols.,  1767-75.)    Died  in  1780. 

See  A.  Olivieri,  "  Memorie  di  G.  B.  Passeri,"  1780. 

Passeri,  (Giuseppe,)  an  able  painter,  born  in  Rome 
in  1654,  was  a  nephew  of  Giovanni  Battista,  (1610-79,) 
and  a  pupil  of  Carlo  Maratta.  He  adorned  many 
churches  of  Rome  with  his  works.  "The  Last  Judg- 
ment" is  called  one  of  his  master-pieces.    Died  in  1715. 

Passeroni,  pis-si-ro'nee,  (Gian  Carlo,)  a  popular 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Condamine,  near  Nice,  in  1713. 
He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1738,  and  lived  mostly  at 
Milan.  Having  learned  to  be  content  with  little,  he 
declined  the  bounty  of  the  rich.  He  wrote  burlesque 
satirical  and  humorous  poems,  which  are  admired  for 
their  graceful  simplicity  and  originality.  They  are  en- 
titled "II  Cicerone,"  (1750,)  and  "  ^sopian  Fables," 
("  Favole  Esopiane,"  6  vols.,  1786.)  Died  at  Milan  in 
1803. 

See  C.  G.  Scotti,  "  Elogio  di  Passeroni,"  1814  ;  Ugoni,  "  Lette- 
ratura Italiana;"  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Passerotti.    See  Passarottl 

Passignano,  da,  di  pis-sen-yi'no,  (Domenico,)  or 
DoMENico  Cresti,  (kR^s'tee,)  Cavaliere,  a  painter  of 
high  reputation,  was  born  in  Tuscany  about  1555.  He 
worked  at  Venice,  Rome,  and  Florence.  At  Rome  he 
painted  "The  Crucifixion  of  Saint  Peter,"  and  other 
works  for  several  popes.  He  contributed  to  reform  the 
Florentine  school  in  respect  to  colouring.  It  is  said  that 
Luigi  Caracci  was  one  of  his  pupils.    Died  in  1638. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Passionei,  pis-se-o-na'ee,  (Domenico,)  a  learned 
Italian  cardinal  and  patron  of  learning,  born  at  Fossom- 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PJSSOS 


PATERS  ON 


brone  in  1682.  He  was  versed  in  classical  literature 
and  in  the  study  of  antiquities,  and  corresponded  with 
many  foreign  scholars,  among  whom  were  Montfaucon 
and  Gronovius.  He  was  appointed  nuncio  to  Vienna  in 
1730,  secretary  for  briefs  in  1738,  and  librarian  of  the 
Vatican  in  1755.  His  hostility  to  the  Jesuits  was  well 
known.  He  wrote  a  funeral  oration  on  Prince  Eugene, 
(1737.)    Died  in  1761. 

See  GoujET,  "  filoge  du  Cardinal  Passionei,"  1763  ;  L.  Galetti, 
Memorie  per  la  Vita  del  Cardinale  Passionei,"  Rome,  1762. 

Passes,  pis'sds,  (Manoel  da  Silva,)  a  Portuguese 
politician,  born  near  Oporto  in  1802.  He  was  the  leader 
of  the  radical  or  liberal  party,  which  made  a  successful 
insurrection  in  September,  1836,  and  then  became  min- 
ister of  the  interior. 

Passot,  pts'so',  (Gabriel  Aristide,)  a  French  min- 
iature-painter, born  at  Nevers  about  1798.  He  gained 
a  first  medal  in  1841,  and  the  second  medals  in  1837 
and  1848. 

Passovius.    See  Passow. 

Passow,  pis'so,  [Lat.  Passo'vius,]  (Franz  Ludwig 
Karl  Friedrich,)  a  distinguished  German  scholar, 
born  at  Ludwigslust,  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  in  1786. 
Pie  studied  at  Leipsic  under  Hermann,  and  in  1815 
became  professor  of  ancient  literature  at  Breslau.  He 
published  "  Elements  of  Greek  and  Roman  Literature 
and  Art-History,"  an  excellent  "Lexicon  of  the  Greek 
Language,"  (1819-24,)  and  editions  of  Persius,  Musaeus, 
and  other  classics.    Died  in  1833. 

See  Wachler,  "  Passows  Leben  und  Briefe,"  1839;  Linge,  "De 
Passovii  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1839;  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "Allgemeine 
Eiicyklopaedie." 

Passy,  pt'se',  (Hippolyte  Philibert,)  a  French 
minister  of  state,  born  in  Seine-et-Oise  in  1793.  He 
entered  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1830,  and  became 
a  leader  of  the  Left  Centre.  Commissioned  by  the 
king  to  form  a  new  cabinet.  May,  1839,  he  reserved  for 
himself  the  portfolio  of  finance  under  the  presidency 
of  Soult.  He  retired  from  office  in  March,  1840,  and 
was  again  minister  of  finance  from  December,  1848,  to 
October,  1849.    He  is  a  member  of  the  Institute. 

Pasta,  pSs'tS,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  physician,  born 
at  Bergamo  in  1706.  He  published  several  professional 
works,  and  *'  The  Celebrated  Pictures  of  Bergamo," 
C*  Le  Pitture  notabili  di  Bergamo.")    Died  in  1782. 

See  A.  Venanzio,  "  Elogio  di  A.  Pasta,"  1843. 

Pasta,  (GiUDETTA,)  a  popular  Italian  vocalist,  of  Jew- 
ish extraction,  born  near  Milan  in  1798.  She  performed 
operas  at  Paris,  London,  Vienna,  etc.  with  great  success 
between  1824  and  1832,  and  displayed  a  superior  dramatic 
talent.    Died  in  1865. 

Pasta,  (Giuseppe,)  a  medical  writer,  born  at  Bergamo 
in  1742,  was  a  cousin  of  Andrea,  noticed  above.  His 
*'Galateo  dei  Medici"  (1791)  was  often  reprinted.  Died 
in  1823. 

Pasteur,  pts'tUR',  (Jan  David,)  a  Dutch  naturalist, 
born  at  Leyden  in  1753.  He  wrote  a  "Natural  History 
of  Mammifera."    Died  in  1804. 

Pasteur,  pts'tUR',  (Louis,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
at  Dole  (Jura)  in  1822.  He  received  the  Rumford  medal 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  in  1856  for  his  dis- 
coveries in  rotary  polarization  and  molecular  chemistry. 
He  became  director  of  the  £cole  Normale  of  Paris  in 
1857.  He  is  a  prominent  opponent  of  the  doctrine  of 
spontaneous  generation.  The  arguments  and  experi- 
ments of  Pasteur  and  his  opponent  Pouchet  on  this 
subject  attracted  much  attention  about  1862-65.  M. 
Pasteur  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  pro- 
fessor of  geology,  physics,  and  chemistry  at  the  Ecole 
des  Beaux- Arts,  in  1863. 

Pastoret,  pts'to'rcV,  (Am6d6e  David,)  a  French 
legitimist  politician,  poet,  and  historian,  born  in  Paris 
in  1 791.  He  became  a  councillor  of  state  in  1824,  and 
senator  in  1852.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  the 
Fall  ot  the  Greek  Empire,"  (1829.)    Died  in  1857. 

Pastoret,  de,  deh  pts'to'rk',  (Claude  Emmanuel 
Joseph  Pierre,)  Marquis,  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
■was  born  at  Marseilles  in  1756.  He  was  a  royalist 
member  of  the  Assembly  in  1791,  emigrated  in  1792, 
and  was  created  a  peer  of  France  in  1814.  In  1820  he 
succeeded  Volney  as  member  of  the  French  Academy. 


He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Legislation,"  (11  vols.,  1817-37,) 
and  other  works.  His  treatise  "On  Penal  Laws"  (1790) 
gained  the  Montyon  prize  of  the  French  Academy.  Died 
in  1840. 

See  Michel  Berr,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  le  Comte  Pastoret," 
1841;  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Pastorius  von  Hirtemberg,  pSs-to^re-us  fon  he^R'- 
tem-bCRG',  (Joachim,)  a  historian,  born  in  Silesia  in 
1610.  He  received  from  Casimir  V.  the  title  of  histo- 
riographer of  Poland.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
an  "Epitome  of  Polish  History,"  in  Latin,  (1641,)  and 
"  Scythian  and  Cossack  War,"  ("  Bellum  Scythico-Cosac- 
cicum,"  1652.)    Died  in  1681. 

Pastrengo,  da,  di  pis-tRen'go,  (Guglielmo,)  a 
learned  Italian  writer  and  jurist,  born  near  Verona,  was 
a  friend  of  Petrarch.  He  wrote  a  biographical  dictionary 
called  "  De  Viris  illustribus,"  which  was  printed  in  1547. 
Died  about  136^. 

Pasumot,  pt'zu^mo',  (Francois,)  a  French  geogra- 
pher and  antiquary,  born  at  Beaune  in  1733.  He  wrote 
"  Geographical  Memoirs  on  some  Antiquities  of  Gaul," 
(1765,)  and  "  Scientific  Travels  among  the  Pyrenees," 
(1797,)  which  are  works  of  much  merit.    Died  in  1804. 

Pataia,  pj-ti^a,  [etymology  obscure,]  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  name  of  the  lower  regions,  or  Hell,  re- 
garded as  the  abode  of  the  dead  and  the  habitation  of 
the  nagas,  or  serpents.    (See  Yama.) 

Patarolo,  pA-tl-ro'lo, (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  littera- 
teur, born  at  Verona  in  1674.  He  founded  the  first 
botanic  garden  of  Venice.    Died  in  1757, 

Pataud,  pt't5',  (Jean  Jacques  FRANgois,)  a  French 
writer  of  history  and  biography,  was  born  at  Orleans  in 
1752  ;  died  in  1817. 

Patel,  pt'tgK,  (Pierre,)  an  excellent  French  land- 
scape-painter,  born  about  1650.  He  imitated  Claude 
Lorrain  with  some  success.  The  forms  of  his  trees  are 
elegant,  the  buildings  are  designed  with  taste,  and  the 
distances  are  admirably  rendered.  His  touch  is  firm 
and  light,  his  colour  generally  clear  and  true.  Accord 
ing  to  some  writers,  he  was  killed  in  a  duel  in  1703. 
Others  date  his  death  about  1676.  His  son  Pierre  was 
a  landscape-painter  of  inferior  ability. 

See  Robert  Dumesnil,  "  Le  Peintre-Graveur  Frangais." 

Patenier,  de,  deh  pt'teh-ne-i',  or  Patiner,  pt'te'na', 
(Joachim,)  a  Flemish  landscape-painter,  born  at  Dinant 
about  1490.  Pie  worked  at  Antwerp,  and  had  a  high 
reputation.  Albert  Diirer  painted  his  portrait  in  1520, 
and  is  said  to  have  admired  his  works.  "  His  perspec- 
tives," says  the  "Biographie  Universelle,"  "are  charm- 
ing, and  his  figures  touched  in  an  exquisite  manner." 
Died  about  1545. 

Pater,  pt'ta',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Valenciennes  in  1695,  was  a  pupil  and  imitator 
of  Watteau.    Died  in  Paris  in  1736. 

Pater,  pi'ter,  (Paul,)  a  mathematician,  born  in  1656, 
was  professor  at  Dantzic.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  art 
of  printing,  (1710,)  and  a  work  "On  the  Caspian  Sea," 
("  De  Mari  Caspio,"  1723.)    Died  in  1724. 

Pa-ter'cu-lus,  (C.  Velleius,)  a  Roman  historian, 
born  about  20  B.C.  He  entered  the  army  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  and  became  a  military  tribune.  He  served 
under  Tiberius,  in  Germany,  as  prefect  or  legatus,  be- 
tween 4  and  12  A.D.,  and  gained  the  favour  of  the  future 
emperor.  On  the  accession  of  Tiberius,  in  the  year  14, 
he  was  chosen  praetor.  He  wrote  a  valuable  historical 
compendium,  ("  Historise  Romanas,")  the  object  of  which 
is  to  give  a  brief  view  of  universal  history,  in  connection 
with  that  of  Rome.  He  is  considered  impartial,  except 
where  he  speaks  of  Augustus  and  Tiberius,  whom  he 
flatters  extravagantly.  His  style  is  admired  for  clear- 
ness, conciseness,  and  energy.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
died  soon  after  30  A.D. 

See  Moi.LER,  "  Disputatio  de  Vellejo  Paterculo,"  1685;  Speck- 
ERT,  "Dissertation  de  la  Sincerite  de  Vellejus  Paterculus,"  1848. 

Pat'er-son,  (Samuel,)  an  English  bibliographer,  born 
in  London  in  1728,  was  librarian  to  Lord  Shelburne. 
He  published  a  "Universal  Library,"  (" Bibliotheca 
Universalis,"  1786.)    Died  in  1802. 

Pat'er-son,  (William,)  a  banker  and  projector,  born 
in  Scotland  about  1658.    He  is  the  reputed  founder  of 


%.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  it,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PJTICCHI 


1749 


PATROCLES 


the  Bank  of  England,  established  in  1694.  He  projected 
the  Darien  expedition,  and  was  one  of  the  directors  of 
a  company  which  planted  a  colony  at  Darien  in  1698. 
This  enterprise  was  a  failure.  He  was  an  advocate  of 
free  trade. 

See  his  "Life,"  by  Bannister. 

Paticchi,  pJ-t^k'kee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Rome  in  1762.  He  had  a  rare  facility  of  in- 
vention, and  a  superior  talent  for  the  imitation  of  the 
great  masters.  Among  his  works  is  "  The  Translation 
of  Elijah."    Died  in  1788. 

Patin,  pa'tix',  [Lat.  Pati'nus,]  (Charles,)  a  phy- 
sician and  numismatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1633,  was  a  son 
of  Gui  Patin,  noticed  below.  He  became  professor  of 
medicine  at  Padua  in  1677.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "History  of  Medals,"  (1665,)  often  reprinted, 
and  '*  Brass  Coins  of  the  Roman  Emperors  Described," 
("  Imperatorum  Romanorum  Numismata  ex  ^re  de- 
scripta,"  1671.)    Died  at  Padua  in  1693. 

Patin,  (Gui,)  a  French  physician  and  writer,  distin- 
guished for  his  learning  and  wit,  was  born  near  Beauvais 
in  1601  or  1602.  He  became  professor  at  the  College  de 
France,  Paris,  in  1654,  and  wrote  several  medical  works. 
His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his  Letters,  (7  vols., 
1692,)  which  contain  curious  details,  bon-mots,  and  anec- 
dotes.   Died  in  1672. 

See  "  Patiiiiana,"  1703;  Reveille  Parise,  "  Biographie  de  Guy 
Patin  ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeriesdu  Liindi  ;"  Bavle,  "  Historical 
and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Patin,  (Henri  Joseph  Guillaume,)  a  French  writer 
and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1793.  He  was  chosen  to 
supply  the  pkce  of  Villemain  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1830, 
and  succeeded  Lemaire  as  professor  of  Latin  poetry  in 
1833.  In  1842  he  was  admitted  into  the  French  Acad- 
emy. His  most  important  work  is  "Studies  on  the 
Greek  Tragic  Poets,"  (3  vols.,  1841-43.) 

Patino  or  Patinho,  p§,-t^n'yo,  (Balthasar,)  Mar- 
quis de  Castellar,  a  Spanish  diplomatist,  born  at  Milan. 
He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Paris  in  1730,  and  died 
there  in  1733. 

Patifio  or  Patinho,  (Jos6,  or  Giuseppe,)  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Milan  in  1667.  He  became 
minister  of  the  marine  and  of  the  Indies  in  1726,  and 
was  the  most  powerful  minister  of  Spain  after  the  death 
of  La  Paz,  in  1734.    Died  in  1736. 

Patinus.    See  Patin. 

Patkvl,  pSt'kul,  (JoHANN  Reinhold,)  a  Livonian 
atriot,  born  about  1660.  He  was  condemned  to  death 
y  the  Swedish  court  for  sedition  or  treason  in  1694,  but 
escaped,  and  entered  the  service  of  the  Russian  Czar,  who 
sent  him  as  ambassador  to  the  King  of  Poland.  He  ob- 
tained in  1702  command  of  a  corps  which  fought  against 
the  Swedes.  In  accordance  with  a  treaty  dictated  by 
Charles  XH.  to  the  King  of  Poland,  Patkul  was  de- 
livered to  the  former,  and  executed  in  1707. 

See  "  Letzte  Stunden  Patkuls,"  Cologne,  1714;  "Anecdotes  con- 
cerning J.  R.  Patkul,"  London,  1761  ;  Voltaire,  "  Histoire  de 
Charles  XII." 

Pat'more,  (Coventry,)  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Woodford,  Essex,  in  1823.  He  published  in  1853  "  Ta- 
merton  Church  Tower,  and  other  Poems."  His  "Angel 
in  the  House"  (2  Parts,  1854-56)  was  very  favourably 
received.  Among  his  later  works  is  "Faithful  Forever," 
(i860.)  "His  'Angel  in  the  House,'"  says  Ruskin, 
"  is  a  most  finished  piece  of  writing,  and  the  sweetest 
analysis  we  possess  of  quiet,  modern  domestic  feeling." 
He  became  assistant  librarian  of  the  British  Museum 
about  1846. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  September,  1844,  and  July,  1863; 
"  North  British  Review"  for  May,  1858. 

Patron,  (Andrew^  A.,)  an  English  traveller,  born 
early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Researches  on  the  Danube  and  the 
Adriatic." 

Pat'on,  (Sir  Joseph  Noel,)  a  Scottish  painter  of  high 
reputation,  born  at  Dunfermline  in  1823.  He  obtained 
a  premium  of  ;^200  for  a  cartoon  of  "  The  Spirit  of  Re- 
ligion," (1845.)  At  the  Westminster  Hall  competition, 
in  1847,  he  received  a  second-class  prize  (£2>'^o)  for  his 
"Christ  bearing  the  Cross"  and  "The  Reconciliation 
of  Oberon  and  Titania,"    Among  his  works,  which  are 


finely  finished,  are  "Luther  at  Erfurt,"  and  "Pursuit  of 
Pleasure,"  (1855,)  which  was  sold  for  two  thousand 
guineas.    He  was  knighted  in  1867. 

Paton,  (Richard,)  an  English  painter  and  etcher, 
born  about  1720.  He  excelled  in  naval  battles  and  other 
marine  pieces.  Among  his  works  is  the  "Defeat  of  De 
Grasse  in  1784" 

Patouillet,  pS'too''yi',  (Louis,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1699,  wrote  several  controversial  treatises 
against  the  Jansenists  and  the  philosophers.  He  was 
one  of  the  Jesuits  against  whom  Voltaire  directed  his 
sarcasm  and  ridicule.    Died  in  1779. 

Patrat,  pt'tRt',  (Joseph,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
at  Aries  in  1732.  He  wrote  comedies  which  were  re- 
ceived with  favour.    Died  in  1801. 

Patrice.    See  Patrick,  Saint. 

Patricius.    See  Patrick,  Saint,  and  Patrizzi. 

Pat'rick,  [Lat.  Patri^'ius  ;  Fr.  Patrice,  pt'tR^ss',] 
Saint,  the  apostle  and  patron  saint  of  the  Irish,  was 
born  at  Bannevan,  a  small  village  of  Tabernia,  in  Scot- 
land, about  372  A.D.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  one 
of  the  first  that  preached  Christianity  in  Ireland.  His 
death  is  variously  dated  from  454  to  493.  A  "  Confes- 
sion" or  autobiography,  supposed  to  have  been  written 
by  him,  is  extant.  The  Irish  observe  the  17th  of  March 
in  his  honour. 

See  Butler,  "Lives  of  the  Saints,"  1779;  J.  H.  Todd,  "Life 
of  Saint  Patrick,"  1863;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of 
Eminent  Scotsmen;"  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  October, 
1867. 

Pat'rick,  (Marsena  R.,)  an  American  officer,  born 
in  Jefferson  county.  New  York,  in  1811.  He  served  in 
the  Mexican  war,  and  in  1862  became  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  in  the  Union  army. 

Pat'rick,  (Samuel,)  an  English  philologist,  was  one 
of  the  masters  of  the  Charter-House.  He  published 
editions  of  Hederich's  "Greek  Lexicon,"  (1727,)  and 
Ainsworth's  "Latin  Lexicon."    Died  in  1748. 

Patrick,  (Simon,)  an  eminent  English  divine,  born 
at  Gainsborough  in  1626.  He  became  rector  of  Saint 
Paul's,  Covent  Garden,  in  1662,  Dean  of  Peterborough 
in  1679,  Bishop  of  Chichester  in  1689,  and  Bishop  of  Ely 
in  1691.  He  wrote  a  Paraphrase  and  Commentaries  on 
the  Old  Testament,  which  are  highly  esteemed,  and 
other  devotional  works,  among  which  are  "  The  Heart's 
Ease,"  (1659,)  "Parable  of  the  Pilgrim,"  (1668,)  and 
"Christian  Sacrifice,"  (1671.)    Died  in  1707. 

See  his  Autobiography,  1839;  Burnet,  "History  of  his  Own 
Times;"  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Patrin,  pt'tR^N',  (Eugene  Louis  Melchior,)  a 
French  mineralogist,  born  near  Lyons  in  1742.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1790,  and  voted  for  the 
exile  of  the  king.  His  chief  works  are  a  "Journey  to 
the  Altai  Mountains,"  (1783,)  and  a  "Natural  History 
of  Minerals,"  (5  vols.,  1801.)    Died  in  1815. 

Patrix,  pftReks',  (Pierre,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Caen  in  1583;  died  in  1671. 

Patrizzi,  pi-tr^t'see,  written  also  Patrizi,  [Lat. 
Patri^'ius,]  an  Italian  historian,  born  at  Sienna,  be- 
came in  1460  secretary  to  Pope  Pius  II.  Among  his 
works  is  an  "Account  of  the  Councils  of  Bale  and 
Florence,"  ("  Summa  Conciliorum  Basiliensis  et  Floren- 
tini.")    Died  in  1496. 

Patrizzi,  [Lat.  Patriq'ius,]  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
philosopher,  born  in  Dalmatia  in  1529.  He  obtained  a 
chair  of  philosophy  at  Rome  about  1592,  and  taught  the 
philosophy  of  Plato  under  the  patronage  of  Pope  Clem- 
ent VIII.  He  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  doctrines 
of  Aristotle.  Among  his  works  are  "  Peripatetic  Dis- 
cussions," ( "  Discussiones  peripateticae,"  1571,)  and 
"Military  Parallels,"  ("  Paralleli  militari,"  1594.)  Died 
in  1597. 

See  GiNGUEN^,  "Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie ;"  Tiraboschi, 
"  Storia  della  Letteraturaftaliana." 

Patrocle.    See  Patroclus. 

Pa-tro'cles,  [HaTpoiikfiq,']  a  Greek  statuary,  mentioned 
by  Pliny  and  Pausanias,  lived  probably  about  400  B.a 

Patrocles,  a  Macedonian  general,  was  appointed 
commander  at  Babylon  by  Seleucus  I.  about  312  B.C. 
He  was  commander-in  chief  of  the  army  of  Antiochus  I. 
about  280  B.C.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  geography  of 
India,  etc.,  which  is  not  extant. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PJTROCLUS 


1750 


PAUL 


Pa-tro'clus,  [Gr.  XldrpoKkog ;  Fr.  Patrocle,  pi'- 
tRokK,  [  a  Greek  hero,  a  son  of  Menoetius,  and  the  dearest 
friend  of  Achilles,  with  whom  he  fought  at  the  siege  of 
Troy.  Having  borrowed  the  armour  of  Achilles,  he  slew 
a  multitude  of  Trojans,  but  was  killed  by  Hector,  aided 
by  Apollo. 

See  the  "  Iliad." 

Pa'tron,  [Gr.  Ilarpwv,]  an  Epicurean  philosopher, 
lived  at  Rome,  associated  with  Cicero,  and  was  a  friend 
of  Atticus.  He  afterwards  went  to  Athens,  and  became 
the  head  of  the  Epicurean  school  in  52  B.C. 

Patru,  pt'tRii',  (Olivier,)  an  eminent  French  advo- 
cate, born  in  Paris  in  1604.  He  made  some  reforms  in 
forensic  eloquence,  and  polished  his  style  with  minute 
attention.  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  critic,  and  has 
been  compared  to  Quintilian.  In  1640  he  was  admitted 
into  the  French  Academy.  The  speech  which  he  made 
at  h's  reception  became  a  precedent  for  all  such  occasions. 
His  VDrks  were  published  in  1681.    Died  in  1681. 

See  Peronne,  "  Barreau  de  Paris;  filoge  d'O.  Patru,"  1851 ; 
N.CERON,  "Memoires." 

Patte,  ptt,  (Pierre,)  a  French  architect,  born  in  Paris 
in  1723.  He  wrote'several  works  on  architecture.  Died 
in  1 814. 

Pat'ten,  (Robert,)  an  English  divine  under  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne,  born  in  Northumberland,  was  the  author 
of  a  "  History  of  the  Rebellion  of  1715,"  (London,  1745.) 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  xi.,  (1825.) 

Patten,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  graduated 
at  Oxford  in  1754.    Died  in  1790. 

Pat'ter-son,  (Daniel  T.,)  a  distinguished  naval  offi- 
cer, born  in  the  State  of  New  York,  served  in  the  war 
of  1812,  and  in  1814  commanded  the  naval  forces  at  New 
Orleans.  He  received  the  thanks  of  Congress  for  the 
part  he  took  in  the  defence  of  that  city.    Died  in  1839. 

Patter.son,  (Francis  Engle,)  an  American  general, 
son  of  General  Robert  Patterson,  noticed  below,  was 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  1821.  He  served  in  the  Mexi- 
can war,  and,  as  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  fought 
under  General  McClellan  in  1862  in  his  campaign  against 
Richmond.  He  was  killed  by  the  accidental  discharge 
of  his  pistol  in  November  of  that  year. 

Patterson,  (Robert,)  LL.D.,  born  in  Ireland  in  1743, 
emigrated  to  America,  and  was  appointed  in  1779  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
He  became  director  of  the  United  States  Mint  in  1805, 
and  was  also  president  of  the  American  Philosophical 
Society.    Died  in  1824. 

Patterson,  (Robert,)  a  general,  born  in  the  county 
of  Tyrone,  Ireland,  in  1792;  emigrated  to  Philadelphia  in 
his  youth,  and  became  a  merchant.  He  commanded  a 
division  at  Cerro  Gordo  in  1847.  I"  June,  1861,  he  ob- 
tained command  of  an  army  of  about  20,000  men,  which 
he  moved  across  the  Potomac  on  the  2d  of  July.  He 
was  instructed  to  defeat  or  hold  in  check  the  army  of 
General  J.  E.  Johnston  near  Winchester,  but  he  failed  to 
effect  this  object,  while  Johnston  marched  to  Bull  Run 
and  decided  the  victory  of  July  21.  General  Patterson 
was,  in  consequence,  severely  censured  by  many.  On 
the  18th  of  July,  General  Scott  had  written  to  him,  "  I 
have  certainly  been  expecting  you  to  beat  the  enemy.  .  .  . 
You  have  been  at  least  his  equal,  and,  I  suppose,  supe- 
rior, in  numbers."  General  Scott,  however,  appears 
not  to  have  been  aware  of  the  actual  strength  of  John- 
ston's army,  which  is  now  admitted  to  have  been  superior 
to  that  of  his  opponent  in  the  field.  General  Patterson 
was  honourably  discharged  from  service  when  the  term 
for  which  his  troops  had  been  enlisted  had  expired. 

Patterson  or  Paterson,  (William,)  an  American 
statesman  and  jurist,  born  in  New  Jersey,  or  at  sea, 
about  1744.  He  was  one  of  the  delegates  representing 
New  Jersey  in  the  Convention  which  formed  the  federal 
Constitution  in  1787.  He  was  a  United  States  Senator 
in  1789-90,  and  was  Governor  of  New  Jersey  from  1791 
to  1794.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of 
the  sui>reme  court  of  the  United  States.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  an  upright  judge.    Died  in  1806. 

Patti,  pat'tee,  (Adelina  Maria  Clorinda,)  a  popu- 
lar operatic  singer,  of  Italian  extraction,  was  born  in 
Madrid  in  1843.  performed  at  New  York  in  1859, 

and  in  1861  made  her  first  appearance  in  London,  and  j 


became  at  once  a  distinguished  favourite  with  the  public. 
She  was  received  with  equal  applause  in  the  chief  cities 
of  the  continent.  Her  vt)ice  is  a  high  soprano.  She  is 
distinguished  for  versatility  and  comic  power.  In  1868 
she  was  married  to  the  Marquis  de  Caux. 

Patti,  (Carloita,)  an  excellent  singer,  a  sister  of  the 
preceding,  has  performed  with  success  at  concerts  in 
the  United  States.  Her  voice  is  said  to  be  the  highest 
soprano  ever  known. 

See  "  Men  of  the  Times,"  London,  1868. 
Pat'ti-son,  (Robert  Everett,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Ba])tist  divine,  born  at  Benson,  Vermont,  in  1800,  became 
in  1846  president  and  professor  of  Christian  theology  at 
the  Baptist  Theological  Institute,  Covington,  Kentucky. 

Pat'ti-son,  (William,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Sus- 
sex in  1706;  died  in  1727.  His  poems  (published  in  2 
vols.,  1728)  are  commended. 

Patu,  pftii',  (Claude  Pierre,)  a  French  dramatic 
poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1729;  died  in  1757. 

Patuzzi,  p^-toot'see,  (Giovanni  Vincenzo,)  an  Ital- 
ian theologian,  born  at  Conegliano  in  1700,  was  a  Do- 
minican friar.  Among  his  works  is  "Moral  Theology," 
(7  vols.,  1790.)    Died  in  1769. 

Patzke,  pats''keh,  (Johann  Samuel,)  a  German  min. 
ister  and  poet,  born  near  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  in  1727. 
He  became  a  popular  preacher  at  Magdeburg.  He 
published  serrnons,  hymns,  dramas,  and  a  translation 
of  Tacitus,  (6  vols.,  1765-77.)    Died  in  1787. 

Paucton,  pok'toN',  (Alexis  Jean  Pierre,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  in  Maine  in  1732  or  1736.  Ho 
wrote  an  excellent  work  named  "  Metrologie,  or  a  Treat- 
ise on  the  Measures,  Weights,  and  Coins  of  Ancient 
and  Modern  Nations,"  (1780.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1798. 

Pauditz,  powMits,  (Christoph,)  a  painter,  born  in 
Lower  Saxony  about  1618,  was  a  pupil  of  Rembrandt, 
He  was  patronized  by  Albert  Sigismund,  Duke  of  Ba- 
varia.   He  painted  history  and  genre.    Died  in  1646. 

Paul,  [Gr.  Jlavlog ;  Lat.  Pau'lus  ;  Fr.  Paul,  p5l ; 
It.  Paolo,  pow'lo ;  Ger.  Paulus,  povv'liis  ;  Sp.  Pablo, 
P^'hIo,]  Saint,  the  great  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  origin- 
ally called  Saul,  was  a  native  of  Tarsus,  a  city  of  Ci- 
licia.  He  was  a  Jew  and  a  Roman  citizen  by  birthright, 
and  a  rigid  Pharisee  by  education.  He  probably  studied 
Greek  literature  at  Tarsus,  which  was  then  a  celebrated 
seat  of  learning,  and  he  learned  the  trade  of  a  tent- 
maker.  He  afterwards  received  instruction  in  the  law 
from  Gamaliel,  an  eminent  rabbi  and  jurist  at  Jerusalem. 
(Acts  xxii.  3.)  He  became  a  zealous  supporter  of  the 
j[ewish  religion  and  a  violent  persecutor  of  the  Christians. 
The  first  passage  of  Scripture  in  which  he  is  mentioned 
is  Acts  vii.  58,  narrating  the  death  of  the  martyr  Stephen, 
to  which  Saul  was  accessory.  During  a  journey  from 
Jerusalem  to  Damascus,  about  36  A.D.,  he  was  miracu- 
lously converted  and  ordained  an  apostle  to  preach  the 
gospel  to  the  Gentiles.  (Acts  ix.)  He  went  from  Damas- 
cus into  Arabia,  and  had  an  interview  with  Saint  Peter 
at  Jerusalem  about  the  year  39,  after  which  he  ])reached 
for  several  years  in  Syria  and  Cilicia.  He  passed  a 
whole  year  at  Antioch,  where  he  "  taught  much  people." 
About  45  A.D.  Saul  and  Barnabas  departed  from  Antioch 
on  an  extensive  mission  to  the  Gentiles.  They  traversed 
the  island  of  Cyprus,  from,  which  they  passed  into  Asia 
Minor,  and  Paul  preached  a  memorable  sermon  at 
Antioch  in  Pisidia.  Though  violently  persecuted,  they 
converted  many  at  Antioch,  Iconium,  and  Lystra,  and 
returned  in  47  a.d.  to  Antioch  in  Syria,  where  they 
abode  a  long  time.  In  the  course  of  a  second  apostolic 
journey  he  founded  churches  at  Philippi  and  Thessa- 
lonica,  and  uttered  a  remarkable  discourse  at  Athens. 
He  also  made  many  converts  at  Corinth,  where  he  re- 
mained a  year  and  a  half,  and  where  he  wrote  the  Epis- 
tles to  the  Thessalonians.  Much  diversity  of  opinion 
prevails  among  the  learned  about  the  date  of  the  prin- 
cipal events  of  his  life.  The  divine  origin  of  his  doctrine 
was  attested  by  many  miracles,  by  "  signs,  and  wonders, 
and  mighty  deeds."    (II.  Cor.  xii.  12.) 

After  he  had  visited  Jerusalem  the  fourth  time  since 
his  conversion,  he  commenced  a  third  apostolic  tour. 
He  laboured  for  about  two  years  at  Ephesus,  and  after- 
wards revisited  the  churches  of  Macedonia  and  Greece. 
About  the  year  59  he  was  again  at  Jerusalem,  the  popu- 


S,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fl,r,  filll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PAUL 


PJULDING 


lace  of  which  assailed  him,  and  would  have  killed  him, 
but  an  officer  took  him  into  custody  and  sent  him  to  the 
Roman  governor  Felix,  at  Caesarea.  He  was  confined 
in  prison  there  for  a  long  time,  defended  himself  by  a 
noble  and  eloquent  speech  before  King  Agrippa,  and 
appealed  to  Caesar.  He  was  taken  by  sea  to  Rome, 
where  he  "dwelt  two  whole  years  in  his  own  hired 
house,"  and  preached  the  gospel  without  hindrance.  We 
have  no  authentic  record  of  his  death  ;  but,  according  to 
tradition,  he  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome  about  66  a.d. 

"In  perusing  the  history  and  writings  of  Saint  Paul," 
says  W.  I..  Alexander,  "  it  is  impossible  not  to  be  struck 
with  the  amazing  energy  of  thought  and  action  by  which 
he  was  characterized.  .  .  .  Removed  alike  from  the 
extremes  of  fanaticism  on  the  one  hand  and.  apathy  on 
the  other,  his  whole  life  was  a  noble  instance  of  the 
consecration,  on  sound  and  elevated  principles,  of  the 
highest  powers  and  the  most  indefatigable  energies  to 
a  work  in  which  he  had  no  personal  interest  apart  from 
that  of  his  fellow-Christians.  ...  In  his  peculiar  ca- 
pacity as  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Christian  Church 
and  an  inspired  expositor  of  divine  truth,  he  stands 
without  a  rival  in  his  claims  upon  our  gratitude  and  rev- 
erence."  ("Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  article  "Paul.") 

See  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  chaps,  xi.,  xiii.-xxviii.  ;  Epistles 
of  Saint  Paul;  Neander,  "History  of  the  Church;"  Lewins, 
"Life  and  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,"  2  vols.,  London,  1851  ;  Cony- 
BEAREand  HowsoN,  "Life  of  Saint  Paul,"  2  vols.,  1850;  Schrader, 
"Der  Apostel  Paulus,"  5  vols.,  1829-36;  Hemshn,  "  Der  Apostel 
Paulus,"  1850 ;  Baur,  "Paulus,"  1845;  Lutzelberghr,  "Paulus 
und  Johannes,"  1839;  Ernest  Renan,  " Saint- Paul,"  1869. 

Paul  [Lat.  Pau'lus  ;  It.  Paolo,  pow'lo]  I.,  a  native 
of  Rome,  was  elected  pope,  as  successor  to  Stephen  III., 
in  757  A.D.  Died  in  767  or  768.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Stephen  IV. 

Paul  II.,  Pope,  (Pietro  Barbo — baR'bo,)  a  native  of 
Venice,  and  a  nephew  of  Eugene  IV.,  was  born  in  1418. 
He  succeeded  Pius  II.  in  1464.  He  was  unfavourable  to 
human  learning,  and  suppressed  an  academy  of  literati 
which  was  formed  in  Rome.  He  was  the  first  who  gave 
the  cardinals  the  privilege  to  wear  purple.  He  died  in 
1471,  and  was  succeeded  by  Sixtus  IV. 

See  Michel  Canese,  "Vie  de  Paul  H,"  1740. 

Paul  III.,  Pope,  (Alessandro  Farnese — far-na'si,) 
was  born  at  Canino  about  1466.  He  succeeded  Clement 
VII.  in  1534.  He  approved  the  newly-formed  order  of 
the  Jesuits  about  1540.  To  oppose  the  progress  of 
Luther,  he  convoked  a  council,  which,  after  a  delay  of 
several  years,  met  at  Trent  in  1545.  Before  the  last 
date  he  excommunicated  Henry  VIII.  of  England.  He 
sent  about  12,000  troops  to  fight  for  ►Charles  V.  against 
the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany,  and  obtained  for 
his  grandson,  Ottavio  Farnese,  the  hand  of  Margaret, 
a  daughter  of  the  emperor.  Paul  protested  against  the 
interim  treaty  of  peace  which  Charles  V.  granted  to  the 
Protestants  in  1547.  He  died  in  November,  1549,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Julius  III. 

See  QuiRiNi,  "  Imago  Pontificis  Pauli  IIL  ;"  Onufrio  Panvinio, 
"Vita  Pauli  III. ;"  Ranke,  "  History  of  the  Popes;"  Robert.son, 
"  History  of  Charles  V.,"  vols.  ii.  and  iii. 

Paul  IV.,  Pope,  (Gian  Pietro  Caraffa— ki-rafm,) 
born  at  Capriglio  about  1476,  was  elected  pope  in  1555. 
He  was  intolerant  and  tyrannical.  He  quarrelled  with 
Philip  [I.  of  Spain,  whose  army  under  the  Duke  of  Alva 
blockaded  Rome  in  1557  and  compelled  the  pope  to 
sue  for  peace.  He  refused  to  recognize  Elizabeth  as 
Queen  of  England,  and  by  his  arrogant  course  promoted 
the  triumph  of  Protestantism  in  England.  He  died  in 
1559,  and  was  succeeded  by  Pius  IV.,  who  put  to  death 
two  nephews  of  Paul  IV.  for  their  crimes. 

See  Hromato,  "Vita  di  Paolo  IV.,"  1748  :  Ranke,  "  History  of 
the  Popes  ;"  Robertson,  "  History  of  Charles  V.,"  vol.  iii.  books 
xi.  and  xii. 

Paul  v.,  Pope,  (Camillo  Borghese — boR-ga'si,) 
born  at  Rome  in  1552,  succeeded  Leo  XI.  in  1605.  He 
was  involved  in  a  contest  with  the  Venetians  respecting 
the  trial  of  ecclesiastics  by  lay  tribunals,  the  foundation 
of  religious  houses,  etc.,  and  placed  Venice  under  in- 
terdict in  1606.  The  senate  of  Venice  retaliated  by 
banishing  the  Jesuits.  Through  the  mediation  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  a  compromise  was  effected  in  1607.  He 
died  in  1621,  and  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  XV. 


Paul  [Russ.  Pavlof,  pSv^lof]  I.,  (Petrovitch,  pi- 

tRo'vitch,)  Emperor  of  Russia,  born  in  1754,  was  the  son 
of  Peter  III.  and  Catherine  II.  After  the  assassination 
of  his  father  by  order  of  Catherine,  Paul  was  treated  by 
her  with  great  severity,  and  deprived  of  all  participation 
in  ]3ublic  affairs.  He  married  Mary  of  Wiirtemberg  in 
1776.  On  his  accession  to  the  throne,  in  1796,  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  for  a  time  by  his  liberal  policy  towards 
Poland,  and  in  1798  joined  the  coalition  against  France. 
He  sent  an  army  under  Suwarow  (Soovorof)  to  Italy 
to  fight  against  the  French.  (See  Suv^arow.)  In  a  fit 
of  caprice,  he  left  his  former  allies,  and  attempted  to  form 
a  coalition  against  England,  in  1800.  His  numerous  acts 
of  folly  and  tyranny  at  length  caused  a  conspiracy  to 
take  his  life,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Count  Pahlen. 
Under  pretence  of  compelling  him  to  sign  an  abdication 
of  the  throne,  the  conspirators  forced  their  way  into  his 
chamber  and  put  him  to  death,  (March,  1801.)  His  death 
was  not  regretted  by  his  subjects.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Alexander  I.  He  left  three  other  sons,  Con- 
stantine,  Nicholas,  and  Michael,  and  several  daughters. 

See  Von  Tannenberg,  "  Leben  Pauls  I.,"  1804;  P.  R.  AuGUis, 
"  Histoire  de  Catherine  II  et  de  Paul  I,"  1813;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Paul,  powl,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  Duke  of  Wiir- 
temberg, a  German  naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at 
Carlsruhe  in  1797.  He  visited  North  America,  the 
southern  parts  of  Europe,  and  Egypt,  and  made  valuable 
collections  of  objects  in  natural  history.    Died  in  i860. 

Paul,  (Gabriel  R.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Missouri  about  1814,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1834. 
He  served  as  captain  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,) 
and  became  a  brigadier-general  of  Union  volunteers  in 

1862.  He  was  severely  wounded  at  Gettysburg,  July, 

1863,  losing  both  his  eyes. 

Paul,  (Saint  Vincent  de.)    See  Vincent. 

Paul  [Sp.  Pahlo,  pi'Klo]  de  Burgos,  (da  booR^gis,) 
or  Paul  de  Santa  Maria,  (di  sSn'ti  mi-ree'S,)  a  Span- 
ish bishop,  born  at  Burgos  about  1350,  was  converted 
from  Judaism  to  Christianity.    Died  in  1435. 

Paul  (or  Paulus)  [Gr.  X\.avkoq\  of  Samosata,  [Fi 
Paul  de  Samosate,  p61  deh  st'mo'ztt',]  a  noted  here 
siarch  of  the  third  century.  He  was  chosen  Bishop  of 
Antioch  about  260  a.d.,  and  soon  provoked  general 
censure  by  his  rapacity,  arrogance,  and  affectation  of 
worldly  pomp.  He  was  also  charged  with  heretical 
opinions  respecting  the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  was  de- 
posed by  a  council  in  269.  According  to  Epiphanius,  he 
denied  the  distinct  personality  of  Christ.  By  the  favour 
of  Queen  Zenobia,  Paul  kept  possession  of  the  church 
at  Antioch  until  about  272  a.d.  His  opinions  were 
afterwards  maintained  by  a  small  sect  called  Pauliani. 

Paul  the  Silentiary,  a  Greek  poet,  who  was  chief 
of  the  Silentiarii  in  the  palace  of  Justinian.  He  wrote, 
about  562  A.D.,  a  description  of  the  church  of  Saint 
Sophia  at  Constantinople,  in  verse. 

Paul  Veronese.  See  Cagliari,  (Paolo.) 

PauTa,  Saint,  a  Roman  lady,  noted  for  ascetic  piety, 
born  in  347  a.d.,  was  descended  from  the  Scipios.  She 
was  a  disciple  of  Saint  Jerome.  Died  in  Palestine  in  404. 

Paul'ding,  (Hir.am,)  an  American  rear-admiral,  a  son 
of  John  Paulding,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Westches- 
ter county.  New  York,  about  1800.  He  became  a  captain 
in  1844,  and  arrested  Walker  the  filibuster  at  Punta 
Arenas  in  1857.  For  this  act  he  was  censured  by  Presi- 
dent Buchanan,  who  released  Walker.  In  April,  1861,  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  navy-yard  of  Norfolk, 
and  burned  the  shipping  and  other  public  property 
which  it  seemed  impossible  to  defend.  The  ships-of-war 
had  been  scuttled  before  he  took  command  there.  He 
connnanded  the  Brooklyn  Navy- Yard  from  1862  to  1865. 

See  Headley,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  1S67; 
Greeley,  "American  Conflict,"  1866. 

Paulding,  (James  Kirke,)  a  popular  American  novel- 
ist and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Pawling,  Dutchess 
county.  New  York,  in  August,  1779.  He  published  in 
1807,  conjointly  with  Washington  Irving,  a  series  of 
witty  and  satirical  papers,  entitled  "Salmagundi,"  which 
were  greatly  admired  at  the  time.  His  satire  entitled 
"The  Diverting  History  of  John  Bull  and  B/other 
Jonathan"  appeared  in  1816,  and  was  followed  by  "  The 


c  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  sas  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PAULDING 


1752 


PAULUS 


Backwoodsman,"  a  poem,  {1818,)  "John  Bull  in  America, 
or  the  New  Munchausen,"  (1824,)  "Merry  Tales  of  the 
Three  Wise  Men  of  Gotham,"  (1826,)  and  "The  Dutch- 
man's Fireside,"  the  most  admired  of  his  novels,  (1831.) 
His  more  recent  works  are  a  "  Life  of  Washington," 
and  the  novel  entitled  "  The  Old  Continental,"  (1846.) 
Mr.  Paulding  was  appointed  in  1837  secretary  of  the 
navy  by  President  Van  Buren.    Died  in  i860. 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America  Duycktnck,  "  Cy- 
clopjEdia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ;  Allibone,  "Dictionary 
of  Authors." 

Paulding,  (John,)  one  of  the  American  soldiers  who 
in  1 780  captured  Major  Andre.  A  monument  was  erected 
to  him  near  Peekskill.    Died  in  1818. 

Paulet,  po'la',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Anduze  in  1740.  Rewrote  a  good  "Treatise 
on  Mushrooms,"  (2  vols.,  1793,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1826. 

Pau'let  or  Paw'lett,  (William,)  Marquis  of  Win- 
chester, an  English  cotirtier,  born  about  1476.  He  held 
a  place  at  court  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  and  his 
successors.    Died  in  1572. 

See  his  "Life,"  by  Rowland  Broughton. 

Pau'lett,  (William,)  Lord,  an  English  politician, 
born  in  1666,  represented  Lymington  in  Parliament. 
Died  in  1729. 

Pauli,  pow'lee,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  his- 
torian, born  at  Saalfeld,  in  Prussia,  in  1723,  became 
professor  of  history  at  Halle.  Among  his  works  is 
"  Preussische  Staatsgeschichte,"  (8  vols.,  1760-69.)  Died 
in  1778. 

Pauli  or  PauUi,  powl'lee,  (Simon,)  a  German  phy- 
sician and  botanist,  born  at  Rostock  in  1603,  became 
first  physician  to  Frederick  III.  of  Denmark.  He  wrote 
"Flora  Danica,"  (1648.)    Died  in  1680. 

Paulian,  po''le-dN',  (Aim^:  Henri,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  at  Nimes  in  1722.  He  wrote  several  works  on 
natural  science.  His  "Dictionary  of  Physics"  ("Dic- 
tionnaire  de  Physique,"  3  vols.,  1 761)  was  often  re- 
printed.   Died  in  1801. 

Paulin.    See  Paulinus. 

Paulin  de  Saint  -  Barth^lemi.    See  Paulinus, 

(JOHANN  PhILIPP  WeREDIN.) 

Pau-li'nus,  [Gr.  HovAirof,]  Bishop  of  Tyre,  was  a 
friend  of  Eusebius  of  Caesarea.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Tyre  before  313  A.D.,  and  was  translated  to  the  see  of 
Antioch  about  325.  He  was  charged  with  being  an  Arian. 

Paulinus  of  Antioch  was  a  leader  of  the  Eusta- 
thian  party.  He  was  ordained  Bishop  of  Antioch  about 
362  A.D.  Meletius  was  at  the  same  time  the  bishop  of 
the  opposite  party.    Died  about  388. 

Pau-li'nus,  an  Italian  missionary,  sent  by  Pope  Greg- 
ory to  England,  is  said  to  have  converted  King  Edwin 
of  Northumbria.  He  became  Archbishop  of  York  about 
627.    Died  in  644. 

Pau-li'nus,  [Fr.  Paulin,  p5'liN',]  (Pontius  Mero- 
rius,)  Saint,  Bishop  of  Nola,  was  born  at  Burdigala 
(Bordeaux)  about  353  a.d.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  poet 
Ausonius,  and  became  consul  at  Rome  in  378.  Having 
been  converted  to  Christianity,  he  renounced  the  world, 
and  was  elected  Bishop  of  Nola  in  409  A  D.  He  wrote 
letters  and  poems,  which  are  extant.    Died  in  431. 

See  F.  A.  Grrvaise,  "Vie  de  S.  Paulin,"  1743;  Rabanis,  "  S. 
Paulin  de  Nole,"  1841  ;  Tillemont,  "  M^moires  acclesiastiques." 

Paulinus,  Saint,  Patriarch  of  Aquileia,  born  in 
Friuli  or  Austrasia  about  728  A.D.,  was  noted  as  a  zeal- 
ous defender  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.   Died  in  804. 

Paulinus,  p6w-lee'nus,  (Johann  Philip?  Weredin,) 
or  Paulin  de  Saint-Barthelemi,  a  German  Orien- 
talist, was  born  at  Hof,  near  Mannersdorf,  in  Austria, 
in  1748.  He  was  sent  as  a  missionary  to  Malabar  in 
1774,  and  learned  the  Sanscrit  language.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Sanscrit  Grammar,"  (1790,) 
and  the  "  Liturgical,  Mythological,  and  Civil  System  of 
the  Brahmans,"  ("  Systema  Brahmanicum  liturgicum, 
mythologicum  et  civile,"  1791.)    Died  at  Rome  in  1806. 

Paulli.    See  Pauli. 

PauUini,  powl-lee'nee,  (Christian  Franz,)  a  Ger- 
man physician  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Eise- 
nach in  1643  ;  died  in  1712. 


Paulmier  de  Grentemesnil,  p6'me-i'  deh  gR^Nt'- 
mi'n^K,  (Julien  le,)  a  Protestant  French  physician, 
born  in  the  Cotentin  in  1520.  He  practised  in"  Paris, 
and  is  said  to  have  cured  Charles  IX.  of  inability  to 
sleep,  (insomnia.)    Died  in  1598. 

Paulmier,  le,  leh  po'me-i',  [  Lat.  Palme'rius,  ] 
(Jacques,)  a  French  philologist,  born  in  Auge  in  1587, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  served  against  the 
Spaniards  under  Maurice  about  eight  years,  (1620-28.) 
He  wrote  "  Exercises  on  the  Best  Greek  Authors," 
("  Exercitationes  in  optimos  Autores  Graecos,"  1668,)  a 
work  of  some  merit,  and  a  "Description  of  Ancient 
Greece,"  (in  Latin,  1678.)    Died  in  1670. 

Paulmy.    See  Argenson,  (Marc  Antoine  Ren6.) 

Paulo,  (Marco.)    See  Polo. 

Paulus.    See  Paul. 

Pau'lus  was  elected  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  by 
the  orthodox  or  Homoousians,  in  336  A.D.  The  Arians 
at  the  same  time  elected  Macedonius.  Paulus  was  ban- 
ished by  the  emperor,  but  was  restored  in  342,  and  was 
supported  by  Julius,  Bishop  of  Rome.  He  died  in  exile 
about  350. 

Paulus,  pow'liis,  (Heinrich  Eberhard  Gottlot},) 
a  German  theologian,  distinguished  as  the  leader  of  the 
old  rationalistic  school  in  Germany,  was  born  near  Stutt- 
gart in  1 761.  He  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
at  Jena  in  1789,  and  subsequently  of  exegesis  and  eccle- 
siastical history  at  Heidelberg.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  "  Philological,  Critical,  and  Historical  Commentary  on 
the  New  Testament,"  (4  vols.,  1800-04,)  "  Exegetic 
Manual  on  the  First  Three  Gospels,"  (1830,)  and  other 
similar  works.  He  died  in  185 1.  His  wife,  Caroline, 
and  his  daughter,  Emilie,  were  also  distinguished  as 
writers.    The  latter  was  married  to  A.  W.  Schlegel. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon." 

Pau'lus,  (Julius,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the 
Roman  jurists.  The  place  of  his  birth  is  not  known. 
Having  been  exiled  by  Elagabalus,  he  was  recalled  by 
Alexander  Severus  about  222  a.d.  and  appointed  pre- 
torian  prefect.  He  was  remarkable  for  fertility  as  a 
writer  and  for  the  extent  of  his  legal  learning.  The 
excerpts  from  Paulus  in  the  Digest  are  more  numerous 
than  those  from  any  other  jurist  except  Ulpian.  His 
great  work  is  "  Ad  Edictam,"  in  eighty  books.  He  also 
wrote  twenty-six  books  of  "  Quaestiones,"  and  twenty- 
three  books  of  "Responsa."    Died  about  235  A.D. 

See  RiTTERHUsius,  "Vita  J.  Pauli;"  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "All- 
gemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Paulus,  (L.  ^milius,)  f  Fr.  Paul-Emile,  pol  iixnhV 
It.  Paolo  Emilio,  pow'lo  i-mee'le-o,]  a  Roman  general 
of  a  patrician  family,  was  consul  for  the  first  time  in 
219  B.C.  He  was  again  elected  consul  for  the  year  216, 
by  the  aristocratic  party.  Against  his  advice,  his  rash 
colleague,  Terentius  Varro,  offered  battle  to  Hannibal 
at  Cannas,  where  ^milius  Paulus  was  killed,  in  216  B.C. 
His  brave  conduct  on  this  occasion  is  applauded  by 
Horace.  ("Carmina,"  Lib.  I.,  Ode  12.)  His  daughter 
^Emilia  was  the  wife  of  Scipio  the  Great,  surnamed 
Africanus. 

See  LiVY,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxii.  and  xxiii. 

Paulus,  (Lucius  ^milius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  about  230  B.C.,  and  was  the  most  celebrated 
member  of  his  family.  He  was  a  fine  specimen  of  the 
old  Roman  aristocracy,  and  was  a  brother-in-law  of 
Scipio  Africanus,  the  conqueror  of  Hannibal.  Elected 
praetor  for  the  year  191  B.C.,  he  obtained  as  his  province 
Farther  Spain,  where  he  defeated  the  Lusitani  in  a  great 
battle.  In  the  year  189  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  in  182 
was  elected  consul,  after  having  been  defeated  at  several 
elections.  With  a  view  to  finish  the  Macedonian  war, 
the  people  elected  him  consul  in  168  B.C.  He  gained  in 
the  same  year  a  decisive  victory  over  Perseus  at  Pydna, 
and  afterwards  took  that  king  prisoner.  He  returned  to 
Rome  in  167,  and  obtained  the  honour  of  a  triumph,  with 
the  surname  of  Macedonicus.  He  died  in  160  B.C., 
leaving  a  high  reputation  for  honour  and  integrity. 
Plutarch  has  written  his  life  and  drawn  a  comparison 
between  him  and  Timoleon.  One  of  his  sons  was  adopted 
by  the  son  of  the  great  Scipio  above  named,  and  became 
afterwards  celebrated  as  Scipio  Africanus  the  younger. 

See  Livv,  "History  of  Rome,"  books  xxxiv.-xl.  ;  Plutarch, 
"  Paulus  ^milius  ;"  AuREi.ius  Victor,  "  De  Viris  illustribiis." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ti,  y,  lon^;    h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  at,  e, },  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,      mSt]  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PAULUS 


1753 


PAWLETT 


Paulus,  pow'lus,  (PiETER,)  a  Dutch  statesman,  born 
at  Axel  in  1754.  He  was  president  of  the  Assembly 
which  abolished  the  office  of  Stadtholder  in  1795.  He 
wrote  a  "Memoir  on  Equality  among  Men,"  (1792.) 
Died  in  1796. 

Pauaus  iEgine'ta,  (gj-e-ne'ta,)  [Fr.  Paul  d'Egine, 
pol  di'zh^n',]  a  celebrated  Greek  medical  writer,  of 
whose  personal  history  little  is  known,  except  that  he 
was  born  in  the  island  of  ^gina.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  the  seventh  century  of  our  era.  He  trav- 
elled extensively,  and  wrote  several  medical  works,  one 
of  which,  called  "  De  Re  Medica  Libri  septem,"  is  still 
extant.  It  is  mostly  compiled  from  Galen  and  other 
writers.  The  sixth  book  ("On  Surgery")  is  the  most 
valuable  and  original  part  of  the  work. 

See  Sprengel,  "Histoirede  la  Medecine;"  Haller,  "  Biblio- 
theca  Medica." 

Paulus  .fflmilius.    See  Emilio,  (Paolo.) 

Pau'lus  Di-ac^o-nus,  [Fr.  Paul  Diacre,  p51  de'- 
tka',]  ("  Paul  the  Deacon,")  a  medizeval  historian,  some- 
times called  Warnefridus,  was  born  at  Friuli  (Forum 
Julii)  about  735  a.d.  He  passed  some  years  at  the  court 
of  Charlemagne.  He  wrote  Latin  verses,  and  a  valuable 
"  History  of  the  Lombards,"  in  a  clear  and  elegant  style. 
Died  about  798  A.D. 

Paumgarten,  von,  fon  powm'gaR'ten,  (Maximilian 
SiGiSMUND  Joseph,)  Baron,  an  Austrian  general,  born 
in  Styria  in  1767.  He  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Aspern 
and  Wagram,  (1809.)    Died  in  1827, 

Paur,  powR,  (  Theodor,)  a  German  writer,  born  at 
Neisse,  in  Silesia,  in  1805.  He  became  professor  in  the 
College  of  Neisse  in  1842. 

Pau-sa'ni-as,  \U.avaaviaq^  a  Spartan  general,  was  the 
son  of  Cleombrotus,  and  a  nephew  of  Leonidas,  who  fell 
at  Thermopylae.  In  479  B.C.  he  became  guardian  of  his 
cousin  Pleistarchus,  for  whom  he  exercised  the  functions 
of  royalty  for  several  years.  He  commanded  the  Greek 
army  which  defeated  the  Persians  under  Mardonius  at 
Plataea  in  479.  In  477  the  confederate  Greeks  sent  out 
a  fleet  under  Pausanias,  who  captured  Byzantium. 
Having  formed  ambitious  and  treasonable  designs,  he 
made  secret  overtures  to  the  King  of  Persia.  He  also 
offended  the  allies  by  his  arrogant  and  domineering  con- 
duct, and  was  recalled  to  Sparta.  His  intrigues  with 
the  Persian  court  were  detected  a  few  years  later  by  the 
Ephori,  who  ordered  his  arrest.  He  then  took  refuge 
in  a  temple,  where  he  died  of  starvation,  about  468  B.C. 

See  Herodotus,  "  History;"  Cornelius  Nepos,  "  Pausanias  ;" 
Thirlwall,  "History  of  Greece." 

Pausanias,  King  of  Sparta,  was  a  son  of  Pleistonax, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  444  B.C.,  being  then  an  infant. 
During  the  contest  between  Thrasybu'lus  and  the  Thirty 
Tyrants  (403  B.C.)  he  intervened  in  favour  of  the  former. 
Died  about  380  B.C. 

Pausanias,  a  Greek  traveller  and  author,  who  flour- 
ished between  150  and  200  A.D.  He  is  sup])osed  to  have 
been  born  in  Lydia  ;  but  nothing  is  known  respecting  him 
except  what  we  learn  from  his  writings.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  a  valuable  "  Itinerary  or  Description  of  Greece," 
('EAA(x(5of  UeptTf-yrjaig.)  His  description  of  places  is  minute 
and  accurate,  but  mainly  relates  to  objects  of  antiquity 
and  works  of  art.  If  he  mentions  mountains  and  rivers, 
it  is  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  legends  or  myths  connected 
with  them.  He  describes  pictures,  statues,  etc.  with 
simplicity,  and  makes  no  pretensions  to  be  a  critic. 
His  work  is  the  more  highly  prized  for  this  reason. 
"  With  the  exception  of  Herodotus,"  says  George  Long, 
"there  is  no  writer  of  antiquity  who  has  comprehended 
so  many  valuable  facts  in  a  small  volume.  The  work  of 
Pausanias  is  full  of  matter, — mythological,  historical, 
and  artistic ;  nor  does  he  omit  matters  physical  and  eco- 
nomical." His  work  has  been  translated  into  English 
by  Thomas  Taylor. 

See  Koenig,  "  De  Pausanis  Fide  et  Auctoritatein  Historia,"  etc,, 
1832  ;  Siebelis,  "  Quaestio  in  Pausaniae  Periegetae  Patrja,"  etc.,  i8ig. 

Pausias,  pau'she^s,  \llav<y'iag,]  an  excellent  Greek 
painter  of  Sicyon,  flTTurished  about  350  B.C.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  PamphiUis,  and  a  contemporary  of  Apelles. 
He  excelled  in  painting  in  encaustic  with  the  cestruniy 
(graving'tool.)  Pliny  calls  him  ''primum  in  hoc  genere 
nobilem,"   The  favourite  subjects  of  Pausias  were  small 


panel-pictures,  chiefly  of  boys.  He  was  the  first  who 
decorated  the  ceilings  and  walls  of  houses  with  encaustic 
paintings.  Among  his  master-pieces  was  "  The  Sacri- 
fice of  an  Ox,"  in  which  the  effects  of  foreshortening 
and  chiaroscuro  were  displayed  with  great  success. 

Pau'son,  [Ilavawv,]  a  Greek  painter  of  uncertain 
epoch,  is  mentioned  by  Aristotle,  who  says  that  Polygno- 
tus  painted  figures  more  beautiful  than  nature,  Dionysius 
represented  them  as  they  are,  and  Pauson  made  them 
appear  inferior  to  the  reality. 

Pautet,  po''ti',  (Jules,)  a  French  writer  of  prose  and 
verse,  born  at  Beaune  in  1 799. 

Pauthier,  p6'te-a',  (Jean  Pierre  Guillaume,)  a 
French  Orientalist,  was  born  at  Mamirolle  in  1801.  He 
published  a  French  version  of"  Childe  Harold,"  (1828- 
30,)  "The  Four  Books  of  the  Moral  and  Political  Philos- 
ophy of  the  Chinese,"  (4th  edition,  1852,)  "  La  Chine," 
(2  vols.,  1837,)  a  "History  of  the  Political  Relations  of 
China  with  the  Western  Powers,"  (1859,)  and  other  works. 

Pautre,  Le.    See  Lepautre. 

Pauw  or  Paaw,  (Pieter.)    See  Pa  aw. 

Pauw,  van,  vtn  pow,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  writer, 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1739,  was  a  great-nei)hew  of  the 
famous  De  Witt.  He  became  canon  of  Xanten.  He 
displayed  ingenuity  and  penetration  in  his  works,  among 
which  are  "  Philosophical  Researches  on  the  Egyptians 
and  Chinese,"  (2  vols.,  1774,)  and  "Philosophical  Re- 
searches on  the  Greeks,"  (2  vols.,  1788.)  Died  in  1799. 
Many  of  his  ideas  are  considered  paradoxical. 

Pauw,  van,  (Jan  Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  philologist, 
born  at  Utrecht.  He  published  editions  of  Anacreon, 
^schylus,  and  Theophrastus ;  also  notes  on  Pindar. 
Died  in  1749. 

Pi.vaka,  pa'va-ka,  \i.e.  "  purifying,"  or  the  "  purifier,"] 
one  of  the  names*of  Agni,  which  see. 

Pav'a-na  or  Pav'an,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  puv'a- 
na  or  piiv'an,]  written  also  Pawana  and  Puwun,  a 
Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "air"  or  "wind,"  and  forming 
in  the  Hindoo  mythology  the  name  of  the  god  or  regent 
of  the  winds,  answering  in  several  respects  to  the  ^olus 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  He  was  also  regarded  as 
the  regent  of  the  northwest  quarter  of  the  heavens. 
According  to  some,  Pavana  was  the  father  of  the  cele- 
brated monkey  king,  Hanuman,  which  see. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Pavesi,  p§,-va''see,  (Stefano,)  an  Italian  composer, 
born  at  Crema  in  1778.  He  composed  many  operas, 
among  which  are  "  Tancredi,"  (1812,)  and  "The  Her- 
mit," ("II  Solitario,"  1826.)    Died  about  1846. 

Pavie,  pt've',  (Theodore,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born 
at  Angers  in  181 1.  He  became  professor  of  Sanscrit  at 
the  College  de  France  in  1852,  published  a  "Voyage  to 
the  United  States,"  (1827,)  and  translated  some  works 
from  vSanscrit,  Chinese,  etc. 

Pavilion,  pt've^yoN',  (Etienne,)  a  French  poet, 
born  in  Paris  in  1632,  was  a  nephew  of  Nicolas.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  French  Academy  in  1691,  although 
his  verses  scarcely  reach  mediocrity.    Died  in  1705. 

Pavilion,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  prelate  and  Jansenist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1597,  was  appointed  Bishop  oif  Aleth  in 
1637.  He  produced  a  Ritual  which  was  condemned  at 
Rome  but  was  widely  used  in  France.    Died  in  1677. 

Pavilion,  du,  dli  pfve^ydN',  (Jean  FRANgois  du 
Cheyron — dU  shi'rdN^)  Chevalier,  a  French  naval 
officer,  born  at  Perigueux  in  1730.  He  made  important 
improvements  in  signals,  and  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
Naval  Tactics,"  (1778,)  which  is  commended.  He  was 
killed  in  battle  with  the  British  near  Dominique  in  1782. 

Pavius.    See  Paaw,  (Pieter.) 

Pavlof,  Pavlov,  or  Pawlow,  pSv'lof,  (Nicholas 
Philippovitch,)  a  Russian  poet  and  novelist,  born  in 
Moscow  in  1802.  He  wrote  lyric  poems  and  dramas. 
Died  in  1854. 

Pavon,  pa-v6n',  (Don  Jos^;,)  a  Spanish  botanist,  born 
in  the  last  century.  He  went  about  1778  to  Peru,  in  the 
exploration  of  which  he  spent  many  years,  and  aided 
Ruiz  in  the  composition  of  a  "  Flora  Peruviana  et  Chi- 
lensis."    Died  in  1844. 

Pawaka.    See  Pavaka. 

Pawana,    See  Pavana. 

Pawlett.    See  Paulett,  (William.) 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilkd;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Sl^^'See  Ejcplanations,  p.  23.) 


PAX 


1754 


PEALE 


Pax,  the  Latin  of  Eirene,  which  see. 

Pax'ton,  (Edward  F.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Rockbridge  county,  Virginia.  He  served  as  brig- 
adier-general of  the  Confederate  army  at  Antietam, 
September,  1862,  and  was  killed  at  Chancellorsville, 
May  2,  1863. 

Pax'ton,  (Sir  Joseph,)  an  English  architect  and 
gardener,  born  near  Woburn,  Bedfordshire,  in  1803. 
Having  entered  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire 
as  a  gardener,  he  remodelled  after  his  own  designs  the 
magnificent  gardens  and  parks  at  Chatsworth,  and 
gained  distinction  as  an  architect  by  the  erection  of  a 
vast  conservatory  at  that  place.  The  Crystal  Palace 
built  for  the  World's  Fair  of  185 1  was  designed  and 
superintended  by  Mr.  Paxton,  who  was  knighted  for 
this  service.  He  was  also  the  architect  of  the  Crystal 
Palace  at  Sydenham,  which  is  much  admired.  He 
published  "  The  Cottage  Calendar,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1865. 

Payen,  pa^ydN',  (Anselme,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1795.  He  became  professor  of  chemistry  in 
Paris,  and  a  member  of  the  Institute.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  Course  of  Elementary  and  Industrial  Chemistry," 
(2  vols.,  1831.) 

Payen,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  medical  writer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1800,  has  given  special  attention  to 
mineral  waters. 

Payer,  pt'ya',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  botanist, 
born  at  Asfeld  (Ardennes)  in  1818.  He  obtained  the 
chair  of  botany  at  the  Normal  School  in  Paris  in  1841, 
and  supplied  the  place  of  Mirbel  at  the  Sorbonne,  (1841- 
48.)  He  was  secretary  to  Lamartine  while  the  latter 
was  in  power  in  1848,  and  succeeded  Adrien  de  Jussieu 
as  professor  of  botany,  etc.  in  1852.  His  chief  work  is 
a  "Treatise  on  Comparative  Vegetable  Organogeny." 

Paykull,  de,  deh  pi'kul,  ?  (Gustaf,)  Baron,  a  Swed- 
ish naturalist,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1757.  He  became 
first  secretary  to  the  king  in  1794,  and  marshal  of  the 
court  in  181 5.  He  wrote  monographs  on  Swedish  cole- 
optera,  and  several  dramas.    Died  in  1826. 

Payne,  pan,  (John,)  an  English  engraver  and  de- 
signer, born  in  London  in  1608.  He  engraved  portraits 
with  success.    Died  in  1648. 

Payne,  pan,  (John  Howard,)  an  American  actor 
and  dramatic  poet,  born  in  New  York  in  1792.  At  the 
age  of  sixteen  he  made  his  first  appearance  at  the  Park 
Theatre,  in  the  character  of  "  Young  Norval,"  with  bril- 
liant success.  He  visited  London  in  1813,  and  founded 
there  a  theatrical  journal  called  "The  Opera-Glass." 
He  was  the  author  of  several  dramas,  but  he  is  chiefly 
known  by  his  beautiful  and  popular  song  of  "  Home, 
Sweet  Home."  Mr.  Payne  was  appointed  in  1851  consul 
to  Tunis.    Died  in  1852. 

See  DuvcKiNCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  January,  i8ig. 

Pays,  (Rene  le.)    See  Le  Pays. 

Pay'son,  (Edward,)  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1783.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  Discourse  iDefore  the  Bible  Society  of 
Maine,"  and  a  number  of  sermons.    Died  in  1827. 

Paz,  de,  da  path,  (Jago  Alvarez,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit 
and  religious  writer,  born  at  Toledo  in  1560;  died  in 
1620. 

Pazmany  or  Pazmani,  poz'mSn,  (Peter,)  a  Hun- 
garian cardinal  and  writer  on  theology,  born  near  Pres- 
burg  in  1570  ;  died  in  1637. 

Pazzi,  pdt'see,  (CosiMO,)  an  Italian  prelate,  born  in 
1467,  was  a  nephew  of  Leo  X.,  and  a  relative  of  Jacopo 
Pazzi.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Florence  in  1508. 
He  translated  Maximus  Tyrius  into  Latin,  (15 17.)  Died 
in  1515-. 

Pazzi,  (Jacopo,)  was  the  head  of  a  rich  Florentine 
family  which  was  hostile  to  the  Medici.  He  was  one 
of  the  chiefs  of  a  conspiracy  formed  (in  the  name  of 
liberty)  against  them  in  1478.  The  attempt  to  kill  Lo- 
renzo de'  Medici  having  failed,  Pazzi  and  his  accom- 
plices were  taken  and  hung. 

Peabody,  pee'bo-de,  (Rev.  Andrew  P.,)  D.D.,  an 
.A.merican  scholar  and  theologian,  born  at  Beverly,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  181 1.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1826, 
and  subsequently  studied  theology  at  Cambridge.  He 


became  in  1833  pastor  of  the  South  Congregational 
Church  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  and  in  1854 
assumed  the  editorship  of  the  "  North  American  Review." 
He  is  the  author  of  "  Lectures  on  Christian  Doctrine," 
(1844,)  of  which  numerous  editions  have  been  published, 
and  "  Sermons  of  Consolation,"  (1846  ;  3d  edition,  1857.) 
He  has  also  contributed  to  the  "New  England  Maga- 
zine," "American  Monthly,"  and  "Christian  Examiner." 
In  i860  he  became  preacher  and  Plummer  professor 
of  Christian  morals  at  Harvard, — a  position  which  he 
has  filled  with  the  highest  credit  to  himself  and  the 
institution. 

See  Allibone's  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Peabody,  (George,)  an  American  philanthropist, 
born  in  Danvers,  Massachusetts,  in  February,  1795,  was 
the  son  of  poor  parents.  He  engaged  in  trade  in  Balti- 
more, and,  after  many  years  of  prosperity,  removed  to 
England  in  1837.  He  became  a  banker  and  broker  in 
London,  and  amassed  an  ample  fortune.  His  banking- 
house  was  for  many  years  the  head-quarters  of  Ameri- 
cans in  London.  About  1856  he  gave  $300,000  or  more 
to  found  a  literary  and  scientific  institute  in  Baltimore. 
In  1862  he  presented  to  the  city  of  London  150,000,  to 
be  expended  in  the  erection  of  lodging-houses  for  the 
working-classes,  for  which  purpose  he  added  150,000 
more  in  1866.  He  also  gave  to  Harvard  University 
$150,000  for  a  museum,  etc.,  and  in  1867  gave  two  mil- 
lion dollars  to  found  common  schools  in  the  Southern 
United  States.  Died  in  London  in  1869.  His  remains 
were  conveyed  with  great  poinp  to  the  United  States 
in  the  British  ship-of-war  Monarch. 

Peabody,  (Nathaniel,)  an  American  patriot  and 
physician,  born  at  Topsfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1 741. 
He  served  as  colonel  of  the  army  in  1778,  and  was  sent 
as  a  delegate  to  Congress  in  1779.  He  filled  several 
other  high  offices.    Died  in  1823. 

Peabody,  (Oliver  W.  B.,)  twin-brother  of  W.  B. 
O.  Peabody,  noticed  below,  was  associate  editor  of  the 
"North  American  Review,"  and  in  1842  became  pro- 
fessor of  English  literature  in  Jefferson  College,  Loui- 
siana.   Died  in  1847,  aged  fifty-seven. 

Peabody,  (Rev.  William  B.  O.,)  an  American  poet 
and  Unitarian  divine,  born  at  Exeter,  New  Hampshire, 
in  1799.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1816, 
and  in  1820  became  pastor  at  Springfield,  Massachu- 
setts. Besides  a  number  of  small  poems,  he  contributed 
many  able  articles  to  the  "  North  American  Review" 
and  the  "Christian  Examiner,"  and  wrote  the  "Life  of 
Alexander  Wilson"  in  Sparks's  "  American  Biography." 
Died  in  1847. 

Peach'am,  (Henry,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
Hertfordshire  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  "Minerva  Britannica,  or  a  Garden 
of  Heroical  Devises,"  (1612,)  and  "The  Complete  Gen- 
tleman," (1622,)  which  was  once  popular. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  i.,  (1853.) 

Pea'cock,  (George,)  an  English  mathematician,  born 
at  Denton  about  ^790.  He  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Cambridge,  and  Dean  of  Ely.  He  wrote  seve- 
ral works.    Died  in  1858. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  December,  1858. 

Peacock  or  Peacock,  (Reynold  or  Reginald,)  a 
liberal  English  prelate,  born  about  1390.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Chichester  in  1449.  Having  questioned  or 
denied  the  infallibility  of  the  pope  or  Church  of  Rome, 
he  was  deposed  in  1457.  He  was  opposed  to  persecu- 
tion for  opinion.    Died  about  1460. 

See  Rev.  John  Lewis,  "Life  of  R.  Peacock,"  1744. 

Peacock,  (Thomas  Love,)  an  English  humourist  and 
poet,  born  at  Weymouth  in  1785.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "  Palmyra,"  a  poem,  (1806,)  "The  Genius 
of  the  Thames,"  (1812,)  "Headlong  Hall,"  a  humorous 
and  satirical  novel,  (1816,)  and  "Crotchet  Castle," 
(1822,)  which  are  highly  commended.  In  1819  he  was 
appointed  to  a  situation  in  the  Examiners'  Office  at  the 
India  House.    Died  in  1866. 

See  "  Recent  Humourists,"  in  the  "  North  British  Review"  for 
September,  1866. 

Peale,  peel,  (Charles  Wilson,)  an  American  painter 
and  naturalist,  born  at  Charlestown,  Maryland,  in  1 741. 


3,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fSU,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PEALE 


175? 


PECQUET 


He  studied  for  a  time  in  England  under  West,  and, 
after  his  return,  settled  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  soon 
acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  portrait-painter.  He 
afterwards  formed  in  that  city  a  museum  of  natural 
curiosities  called  by  his  name  and  containing  the  skele- 
ton of  a  mammoth.  He  was  also  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  to  which  he  contributed 
numerous  pictures.    Died  in  1827. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Peale,  (Rembrandt,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1778,  studied 
jiainting  under  West,  and  subsequently  devoted  him- 
self to  portrait-painting  in  Paris.  After  his  return  to 
Philadelphia,  he  produced,  among  other  works,  the 
"Court  of  Death,"  and  "The  Roman  Daughter."  Died 
in  1S60. 

See  DuNLAP,  "  History  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  America,"  vol. 
ii.  chap.  iv.  ;  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Pean.    See  P^an. 

Pearce,  peerss,  (James  A.,)  an  American  Senator 
and  lawyer,  born  at  Alexandria,  Virginia,  in  1805.  He 
represented  a  district  of  Maryland  in  Congress  from 
1835  to  1839,  and  was  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
from  1843  to  1862.    Died  in  December,  1862. 

Pearce,  peerss,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  traveller  or 
adventurer,  born  at  Acton  in  1780.  He  spent  several 
years  in  Abyssinia,  of  which  he  wrote  an  account.  Died 
in  1820. 

Pearce,  (Zachary,)  an  eminent  English  divine  and 
critic,  born  in  or  near  London  in  1690.  While  he  was 
a  student  at  Cambridge  he  wrote  two  papers  for  the 
"  Spectator,"  (Nos.  572  and  633,)  and  edited  Cicero  "  De 
Oratore,"  (1716.)  He  became  vicar  of  Saint  Martin's- 
in-the-Fields,  London,  in  1723,  Dean  of  Winchester  in 
1739,  Bishop  of  Bangor  in  1748,  and  Bishop  of  Rochester 
in  1756.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  Commentary,  with 
Notes,  on  the  Four  Evangelists  and  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,"  (2  vols.,  1777,)  which  was  received  with  favour. 
He  edited  Longinus  "On  the  Sublime,"  (1724.)  Died 
in  1774. 

Pear'sall,  (Richard,)  an  English  dissenting  minister, 
born  at  Kidderminster  in  1698.  He  preached  many 
years  at  Taunton,  and  wrote  "  Contemplations  on  the 
Ocean."    Died  in  1762. 

Pear'spn,  (Edward,)  an  English  Arminian  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Ipswich  about  1758.  He  became  rector  of 
Rempston,  in  Nottinghamshire,  about  1798,  and  master 
of  Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  in  1808.  He 
wrote  treatises  against  Paley's  theory  of  Moral  Obliga- 
tion, and  others  against  Calvinism.  Some  of  his  sermons 
were  published.    Died  in  181 1. 

See  W.  P.  Hunt,  "  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  E.  Pearson,"  1845. 

Pear'son,  (Eliphalet,)  LL.D.,  an  American  scholar, 
born  in  New  England  in  1752,  became  professor  of  He- 
brew and  Oriental  languages  at  Harvard  College,  and 
subsequently  of  sacred  literature  at  Andover.  Died 
in  1826. 

Pearson,  (George.)  an  English  physician  and  chem- 
ist, born  in  1 75 1.  He  practised  and  lectured  at  Saint 
George's  Hospital,  London,  and  wrote  on  the  cow-pox, 
etc.    Died  in  1828. 

Pearson,  (John,)  an  eminent  bishop  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  was  born  at  Snoring,  Norfolk,  in  1613.  He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  obtained  in  1650  the 
living  of  Saint  Clement,  London.  The  'sermons  which 
he  preached  there  were  published  in  his  Exposition 
of  the  Creed,"  (1658,)  a  work  of  high  reputation,  which 
has  been  reprinted  and  used  as  a  text-book  for  students. 
He  became  professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge  in  1661, 
and  Bishop  of  Chester  in  1672.  Died  in  1686.  He  was 
considered  one  of  the  most  learned  Englishmen  of  his 
time  in  ancient  languages,  history,  etc. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Pearson,  (John,)  an  English  surgeon  and  writer, 
born  in  1758,  practised  in  London.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  "Principles  of  Surgery,"  (1788,)  and 
a  "  Life  of  William  Hey."    Died  in  1826. 

Pearson,  (Margaret  Eglinton,)  an  English  painter 
on  glass,  was  a  daughter  of  Samuel  Paterson,  noticed 
in  this  work.    Died  in  1823. 


Pearson,  (Richard,)  an  English  medical  writer,  born 
in  Birmingham  in  1765.  Among  his  works  is  "The- 
saurus Medicaminum,"  (1810.)    Died  in  1836. 

Pecchia,  pek'ke-S,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Naples  in  1715.  He  wrote  a  "Civil  and  Political 
History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,"  (3  vols.,  1778.) 
Died  in  1784. 

Pecchio,  pek'ke-o,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  writer  and 
political  economist,  was  born  at  Milan  in  1785.  He 
was  councillor  of  state  for  the  section  of  finances  (at 
Milan)  from  1810  to  1814.  He  became  a  political  exile 
in  182 1,  after  which  he  lived  mostly  in  England.  Among 
his  works  are  a  "  History  of  Public  Economy  in  Italy," 
("Storia  dell'Economia  pubblica  in  Italia,"  1829,)  which 
presents  an  able  critical  analysis  of  Italian  works  on 
political  economy,  and  "Observations  of  an  Exile  on 
England,"  (1831.)  He  was  an  elegant  writer,  and  had 
a  good  talent  for  observation.   Died  at  Brighton  in  1835. 

See  Ugoni,  "Vita  di  G.  Pecchio,"  1836. 

Pechantr^,  pk'shdN'tRi',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  dra- 
matic poet,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1638.  He  wrote  trage- 
dies named  "  Geta"  (1687)  and  "Jugurtha,"  (1692.) 
Died  in  1708. 

Pechlin,  p^K'lin,  (Jan  Niklaas,)  an  able  Dutch  phy- 
sician, born  at  Leyden  in  1646.  He  wrote  Latin  poems, 
a  treatise  on  Tea,  entitled  "Theophilus  Bibaculus," 
(1684,)  and  other  works.    Died  at  Stockholm  in  1706. 

Pechmeja,  p^sh''m^d^zh^',  (Jean,)  a  French  writer 
of  fiction,  born  at  Villefranche  in  1 741.  He  wrote  a 
romance  named  "Telephe,"  (1784,)  which  had  a  tran- 
sient vogue.    Died  in  1785. 

Peck,  (Francis,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at  Stam- 
ford, Lincolnshire,  in  1692.  He  obtained  in  1736  a 
prebend  in  the  cathedral  of  Lincoln.  Among  his  works 
are  "Desiderata  Curiosa,"  (2  vols.,  1732-35,)  "Memoirs 
of  the  Life  and  Poetical  Works  of  John  Milton,"  (1740,) 
and  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Oliver  Cromwell,"  (1740.) 
Died  in  1743. 

Peck,  (George,)  D.D.,  an  American  Methodist  divine 
and  theological  writer,  born  in  1797,  has  published 
"Lives  of  the  Apostles  and  Evangelists,"  "Christian 
Perfection,"  and  other  works. 

Peck,  (John  J.,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Onon- 
daga county.  New  York,  in  1821,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1843.  commanded  a  brigade  at  Williams- 

burg and  Fair  Oaks  in  May,  1862,  soon  after  which  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general  of  volunteers. 
He  repulsed  General  Longstreet,  who  attacked  him  at 
Suffolk,  in  April,  1863. 

Peck,  (John  Mason,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist 
divine  and  missionary,  born  at  Litchfield,  Connecticut, 
in  1789.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American 
Baptist  Home  Mission  Society  in  1831,  having  previously 
edited  "The  Pioneer,"  the  first  Baptist  journal  of  the 
West,  (1829.)  In  1835  he  founded  Shurtlefif  College,  at 
Upper  Alton,  Illinois.  He  afterwards  settled  at  Phila- 
delphia as  corresponding  secretary  and  general  agent  of 
the  American  Baptist  Publication  Society.  He  wrote 
the  "  Life  of  Daniel  Boone"  in  Sparks's  "  American  Biog- 
raphy," and  several  other  works.    Died  in  1858. 

Peck,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  in  Zealand  ;  died 
at  Malines  in  1589. 

Peck,  (William  Dandridge,)  an  American  natural- 
ist, born  at  Boston  in  1763.  He  became,  in  1805,  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  at  Harvard  College.  Died  in 
1822. 

Peckham,  pek'am,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born 
about  1240.  He  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury in  1278.  His  "  Perspectiva  Communis"  (1504)  has 
been  often  printed.    Died  in  1292. 

Peclet,  peh-kli',  (Jean  Claude  Eugene,)  a  French 
writer  on  physical  science,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1793.  He 
was  professor  of  physics  at  the  Central  School  of  Arts 
and  Manufactures.  He  wrote  a  "  Course  of  Physics," 
(1826,)  and  a  "  Treatise  on  Heat  and  its  Applications 
to  the  Arts,'"'  (2  vols.,  1829.)    Died  in  1857. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Pecock,  (Reynold.)  .  See  Peacock. 

Pecquet,  pi'k^',  (Antoine,)  a  French  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1704.  Among  his  works  is  a  satire  called 
"  Secret  Memoirs  towards  the  History  of  Persia,"  ("Me- 


■e  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,   (3:^^See  Explanations,  p.  2^.\ 


PECQUET 


756 


PEEL 


moires  secrets  pour  servir  a  I'Histoire  de  la  Perse," 
etc.,  1745.)    Died  in  1762. 

Pecquet,  (Jean,)  a  French  anatomist,  born  at  Dieppe 
in  1622.  He  gained  a  European  reputation  by  the  dis- 
covery of  the  thoracic  duct  and  the  reservoir  of  chyle. 
He  wrote  "  On  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood  and  Motion 
of  the  Chyle,"  ("  De  Circulatione  Sanguinis,"  etc.,  1651,) 
and  "  De  Thoracis  Lacteis,"  (165 1.)    Died  in  1674. 

See  "  Biographic  Medicale." 

Pecqueur,  pi'kUR',  (Constantin,)  a  French  writer 
on  social  and  political  economy,  was  born  at  Arleux 
(Nord)  in  1801.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Saint-Simon  and 
Fourier.  Among  his  works  is  a  prize  essay  entitled 
*'  Social  Economy  of  the  Interests  of  Commerce,  In- 
dustry," etc.,  ("  Economic  sociale  des  Interets  du  Com- 
merce, de  rindustrie,"  etc.,  1838.)    Died  in  1859. 

Pecqueur,  (Onesiphore,)  a  French  mechanician, 
born  in  1792,  invented  an  arithmetical  machine,  a  dyna- 
mometer, and  other  machines.    Died  in  1852. 

Pedianus.    See  Asconius. 

Pedma.    See  Padma. 

Pedo.    See  Albinovanus. 

Pedro,  DoM,  (of  Brazil.)    See  Peter. 

Pedro  of  Aragon.   See  Peter. 

Pedrusi,  pa-dRoo'see,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  numis- 
matist, born  at  Mantua  in  1644  ;  died  in  1720. 

Peel,  (Frederick,)  a  son  of  the  statesman  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  was  born  in  London  in  1823.  He  was  elected  to 
Parliament  for  Leominster  in  1849,  ^'""d  re-elected  for 
Bury  in  1852  and  1859.  In  politics  he  is  called  Liberal 
Conservative.  He  was  under-secretary  for  the  colonies 
from  1852  to  February,  1855,  under-secretary  of  war  from 
the  latter  date  to  1857,  and  secretary  to  the  treasury 
from  i860  to  1865. 

Peel,  (Jonathan,)  a  British  general,  a  younger  son 
of  the  first  Sir  Robert,  was  born  in  1799.  He  entered 
the  army  young,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.  In  1826  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Nor- 
wich. He  was  surveyor-general  of  the  ordnance  from 
1841  to  1846,  and  secretary  at  war  in  the  Derby  ministry 
from  February,  1858,  to  June,  1859,  and  again  from  July, 
1866,  to  March,  1867. 

Peel,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  English  manufacturer  and 
millionaire,  born  near  Lancaster  in  1750,  was  the  father 
of  Robert  Peel,  prime  minister.  He  became  in  1773  a 
partner  in  a  large  manufactory  of  cotton  at  Bury,  By 
his  sagacity,  enterprise,  and  remarkable  aptitude  for 
business,  he  amassed  an  immense  fortune.  He  repre- 
sented Tam worth  in  Parliament  from  1790  to  1820,  and 
was  a  supporter  of  the  ministry  and  Tory  party.  He 
had  six  sons  and  five  daughters.    Died  in  1830. 

Peel,  (Sir  Robert,)  a  celebrated  English  statesman, 
born  near  Bury,  in  Lancashire,  on  the  5th  of  February, 
1788,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
educated  at  Harrow  (where  Lord  Byron  was  his  class- 
fellow)  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  gained 
the  honour  of  "  double  first-class," — i.e.  pre-eminence 
both  in  classics  and  mathematics.  He  left  college  in 
1808,  and  entered  Parliament  as  a  member  for  Cashel, 
and  a  supporter  of  the  Tory  ministry,  in  1809.  In  Janu- 
ary, 1 8 10,  he  seconded  the  address  to  the  throne,  and 
made  his  first  speech.  He  was  appointed  under-secretary 
for  the  colonies  in  181 1,  and  chief  secretary  for  Ireland 
in  1812.  In  1815  he  challenged  O'Connell  for  offensive 
remarks  in  a  public  speech;  but  the  intended  duel  was 
prevented  by  the  police.  His  opponents  nicknamed 
him  Orange  Peel,  in  allusion  to  his  hostility  to  the 
Catholics.  He  made  a  speech  against  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic claims  in  1817.  In  1818  he  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  the  University  of  Oxford,  in  preference  to  Canning, 
and  resigned  his  office  of  secretary.  He  succeeded  Mr. 
Horner  as  chairman  of  the  Bullion  committee  in  1819, 
and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  financier  by  pro- 
curing the  passage  of  an  act  for  the  resumption  of  cash 
payments.  He  married  in  1820  Julia,  a  daughter  of 
General  Sir  John  Floyd. 

In  January,  1822,  he  became  secretary  for  the  home 
department  in  the  ministry  of  Lord  Liverpool.  For 
several  years  ensuing,  Canning  and  Peel  were  the  most 
able  and  prominent  members  of  the  ministry.  Although 
Peel  was  less  brilliant  as  an  orator  than  his  colleague,  he 


was  more  solid  and  practical,  and  had  equal  or  greater 
influence  with  his  party.  When  Canning  became  prime 
minister,  in  April,  1827,  Mr.  Peel  retired  from  office.  He 
accepted  the  place  of  home  secretary  in  the  new  minis- 
try formed  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in  January,  1828, 
and  made  a  powerful  speech  in  favour  of  Catholic  eman- 
cipation (which  he  had  long  opposed)  in  March,  1829. 
By  his  change  on  this  question  he  lost  his  seat  as  repre- 
sentative of  Oxford,  in  1829.  The  obstinate  resistance 
of  the  Tory  ministry  to  parliamentary  reform  caused 
them  to  be  defeated  and  driven  from  power  in  Novem- 
ber, 1830.  Earl  Grey  then  formed  a  Whig  ministry,  and 
Sir  Robert  became  the  leader  of  the  opposition.  At 
the  death  of  his  father,.in  1830,  he  inherited  an  immense 
fortune  and  the  title  of  baronet.  Heopj^osed  the  Rcturm 
bill,  (1831-32,)  but  declined  to  co-operate  with  Welling- 
ton in  the  formation  of  a  new  ministry  when  Lord  Grey 
resigned,  in  1832.  In  1833  he  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  Tamworth,  which  he  continued  to  represent  until  1850. 

Sir  Robert  at  this  period  was  the  recognized  leader  of 
the  Conservative  party,  which  he  had  organized,  and  the 
principles  of  which  were  modified  Toryism.  The  Whig 
ministry  having  been  dismissed.  Peel  and  Wellington 
united  to  form  a  cabinet,  in  which  the  former  became  first 
lord  of  the  treasury,  [i.e.  prime  minister,)  in  December, 
1834.  Failing  to  obtain  the  support  of  a  majority  of  the 
new  Parliament  elected  at  this  period.  Sir  Robert  was 
compelled  to  resign,  in  April,  1835,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Lord  Melbourne.  On  the  resignation  of  Melbourne, 
in  May,  1839,  Sir  Robert  was  sent  for  by  the  queen,  but 
he  failed  to  become  prime  minister,  because  he  insisted 
on  the  removal  of  certain  ladies  of  the  bed-chamber. 
The  general  election  of  1841  gave  the  Conservatives  a 
large  majority  in  Parliament.  Lord  Melbourne  resigned 
in  August  of  that  year,  and  was  succeeded  by  Sir  Robert 
Peel.  In  the  new  cabinet  Lord  Lyndhurst  was  lord 
chancellor.  Lord  Aberdeen  foreign  secretary,  Lord  Stan- 
ley colonial  secretary.  Sir  James  Graham  home  secre- 
tary, and  Lord  Ellenborough  secretary  at  war.  Peel 
himself  was  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  The  important 
events  of  his  administration  were  the  settlement  of  the 
questions  of  the  corn -laws,  tariff,  and  income-tax.  In 
1842  he  proposed  a  sliding-scale,  according  to  which  the 
duty  on  grain  should  be  reduced  in  proportion  as  the 
price  increased.  This  bill  became  a  law.  He  imposed 
an  income-tax  of  "jd.  in  the  pound  to  supply  the  deficit 
in  the  revenue,  and  passed  a  new  tariff  bill,  by  which 
many  articles  were  admitted  free  and  the  duties  on  others 
were  reduced,  (1842.)  A  powerful  pressure  against  the 
duty  on  breadstuffs  was  produced  by  the  Anti-Corn-Law 
League,  whose  interests  were  advocated  by  Cobden  and 
Bright  in  public  speeches.  The  case  was  rendered  more 
urgent  by  the  potato-rot  in  Ireland  in  1845.  ^'"^  Novem- 
ber, 1845,  Sir  Robert  announced  himself  in  favour  of 
the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws ;  but  some  of  his  colleagues 
opposed  the  measure.  Peel  then  resigned,  and  Lord 
John  Russell  was  called  to  form  a  new  cabinet,  but  did 
not  succeed.  About  the  20th  of  December,  Sir  Robert 
resumed  office  with  his  former  colleagues,  except  Lord 
Stanley,  who  retired.  The  Tory  party  was  divided  on 
this  question  into  Peelites  and  Protectionists.  By  the 
united  votes  of  the  Peelites  and  Liberals,  the  corn -laws 
were  repealed,  after  an  eloquent  speech  by  Sir  Robert 
in  favour  of  the  repeal,  in  January,  1846.  Having  been 
defeated  on  the  Irish  Coercion  bill,  he  resigned,  June  29, 
1846,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  John  Russell.  He  had 
acquired  great  popularity,  which  continued  unabated,  and 
he  would  jirobably  have  been  called  again  to  the  direction 
of  affairs  if  he  had  lived  a  few  years  longer.  On  the 
29th  of  June,  1850,  he  was  thrown  from  his  horse  and  re- 
ceived injuries  of  which  he  died  on  July  2  of  that  vear. 

See  Taylor  and  Mackay,  "  Sir  Robert  Peel's  Life  and  Times," 
4  vols.,  1846-51;  Thomas  Doubleday,  "The  Political  Life  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel,"  2  vols.,  1856:  Kuenzhl,  "Das  T/eben  und  die  Reden 
Sir  R.  Peels,"  2  vols.,  1S50:  Guizot,  "Sir  Robert  Peel,"  1859; 
Lawkence  Peel,  "Life  of  Sir  Robert  Peel."  i860;  see,  also,  his 
posthumous  Memoirs,  edited  by  Lord  l\L^HONand  Mr.  Cardwell; 
George  H.  Francis,  "  The  Late  Sir  Robert  Peel ;  a  Critical  Biog- 
raphy," 1852;  L.  DE  Lomenie,  "Sir  Robert  Peel,  par  un  Homme 
de  Rien,"  1842:  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1842, 
and  October,  1846  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  September,  1S50, 
and  September,  i860;  "Westminster  Review"  for  December,  1843, 
and  July,  1852;  "  Macmillan's  Magazine"  for  1869,  (by  Goldwin 
Smith.) 


a,  e,  1, 0,  u,  y,  loftg;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  ^,    i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PEEL 


1757 


PELAVICINO 


Peel,  (Sir  Robert,)  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  London  in  1822.  He  was  returned  to  Par- 
liament for  Tanivvorth  in  1850,  and  voted  with  the  Liberal 
party.  In  1 855  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  lords  of  the 
admiralty  by  Lord  Palnierston.  Having  resigned  this 
place  in  1857,  he  became  secretary  for  Ireland,  without 
a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  in  1861.  lie  retired  from  that 
office  about  1864,  and  voted  with  the  Tories  against  the 
Reform  bill  in  April,  1866. 

Peel,  (Sir  William,)  a  naval  officer,  born  in  1824, 
was  a  younger  son  of  Sir  Robert  Feel,  prime  minister. 
He  served  with  distinction  at  the  siege  of  Sebastopol, 
in  1855.  As  captain  of  the  naval  brigade,  he  fought 
against  the  Sepoy  mutineers  in  India  in  1857.  Died  at 
Cawnpore  in  1858. 

Peel,  (William  Yates,)  born  at  Bury  in  1789,  was  a 
son  of  the  first  Sir  Robert  Peel,  and  brother  of  the  cele- 
brated statesman.  He  was  for  many  years  a  member  of 
Parliament,  which  he  entered  in  181 7.  He  became  a  lord 
of  the  treasury  in  1830,  and  again  in  1834.  Died  in  1858. 

Peele,  peel,  (George,)  an  English  dramatist,  born 
in  Devonshire,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1579.  He  be- 
came a  resident  of  London,  and  had  the  title  of  city 
poet.  His  talent  was  much  inferior  to  that  of  Marlowe. 
Among  his  plays  are  "The  Old  Wives  Tale"  and  "The 
Battle  of  Alcazar,"  Died  about  1598.  His  works  were 
published  by  Dyce  in  1828,  with  a  memoir  of  his  life. 

Peerlkamp,  paRl'kSmp,  (PIofman  Pieter,)  a  Dutch 
philologist  and  critic,  born  at  Groningen  in  1786.  He 
published  several  biographical  works  in  Latin,  and  valu- 
able editions  of  Xenophon  of  Ephesus,  Horace's  "  Odes," 
and  "  Letters  to  Piso." 

Peet,  (Harvey  Prindle,)  LL.D.,  born  in  Litchfield 
county,  Connecticut,  in  1794,  became  president  of  the 
Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  in  New  York,  (1845.) 
He  has  published  a  "  Course  of  Instruction,"  "  Scripture 
Lessons,"  and  other  works  for  deaf-mutes. 

Pegase.    See  Pegasus. 

Peg'a-sus,  [Gr.  Tirjyaaoq ;  Fr.  P6gase,  pk'gtz',]  a 
winged  horse  of  classic  mythology,  was  supposed  to  be 
the  offspring  of  Neptune  and  Medusa.  The  poets  relate 
that  he  carried  Bellerophon  in  his  fight  with  Chimaera, 
that  with  a  stroke  of  his  hoof  he  produced  the  foun- 
tain Hippocrene  on  Mount  Helicon,  that  he  was  the 
favourite  of  the  Muses,  and  that  he  finally  became  a 
constellation  in  the  heavens. 

Pegge,  p§g,  (Samuel,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Staffordshire  in  1704.  He  obtained  the  living  of  God- 
mersham  in  1731,  and  that  of  Whittington  in  1751.  His 
chief  work  is  a  "  Life  of  Robert  Grosseteste,  Bishop  of 
Lincoln,"  (1793.)    Died  in  1796, 

Pegge,  (Samuel,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1 73 1.  He  wrote  "Curialia,"  and  "Anecdotes  of  the 
English  Language."    Died  in  1800. 

Pe'gram,  (John,)  an  American  general,  born  in  South 
Carolina.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1855.  He 
served  in  the  Confederate  army  in  several  battles  in  Vir- 
ginia, and  was  killed  at  Hatcher's  Run,  near  Petersburg, 
February  6,  1 865. 

Peignot,  pin^yo',  (  Stienne  Gabriel,  )  a  learned 
French  bibliographer,  born  at  Arc-en-Barrois  in  1767. 
He  was  principal  of  colleges  at  Vesoul  and  Dijon.  He 
wrote  many  antiquarian  treatises,  biographies,  and  works 
on  bibliography.  His  "  Dictionary  of  Bibliology"  ("  Dic- 
tionnaire  raisonne  de  Bibliologie,"  2  vols.,  1802)  is  said 
to  be  important.    Died  in  1849. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Peile,  peel,  (Rev.  Thomas  W.,)  an  English  classical 
scholar,  born  about  1806,  graduated  at  Cambridge.  He 
published  "  Annotations  on  the  Apostolical  Epistles," 
(6  vols.,  1848-52.)  He  subsequently  obtained  the  living 
of  Saint  Paul's,  Hampstead. 

^  Peirce,  peerss,  (Benjamin,)  LL.D.,  an  able  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  1809,  has  written 
various  works  on  mechanics  and  kindred  subjects. 
See  Alubone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Peirce,  (Bradford  K.,)  an  American  Methodist 
divine  and  reformer,  was  born  at  Royalton,  Vermont,  in 
1819.  He  founded  in  1856,  at  Lancaster,  Massachusetts, 
a  State  Industrial  School  for  Girls,  which  has  succeeded 
in  reforming  great  numbers  of  those  who  had  been  guilty 


of  petty  offences.  He  has  published  a  work  entitled  "  The 
Eminent  Dead,"  and  several  religious  books. 

Peirce,  (Cyrus,)  an  American  teacher,  born  at  Walt- 
ham,  Massachusetts,  in  1790,  became  principal  of  the 
first  American  normal  school,  founded  at  Lexington, 
Massachusetts,  in  1839.  He  published  an  essay  entitled 
"  Crime  :  its  Cause  and  Cure,"  and  a  "  Letter  on  Normal 
Schools."    Died  in  1859. 

Peirce,  peerss,  (James,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  born  in  London  in  1673.  He  published  ser- 
mons and  controversial  works.    Died  in  1726. 

Peiresc,  de,  deh  pa'rgsk',  (Nicolas  Claude  Fabri 
— ft'bRe',)  an  eminent  French  antiquary,  scholar,  and 
patron  of  learning,  was  born  at  Beaugensier,  in  Provence, 
in  1580.  He  studied  law  at  Padua,  and  became  a  coun- 
sellor of  the  parliament  of  Aix.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Gassendi.  In  visits  to  Italy,  England,  etc.,  he 
collected  many  books,  medals,  and  specimens  of  nature 
and  art,  which  he  freely  distributed  to  his  friends.  He 
maintained  an  active  correspondence  with  many  French 
and  foreign  savants.  He  wrote  to  his  friends  at  Rome 
in  favour  of  Galileo  when  the  latter  was  in  prison. 
Many  of  his  letters  have  been  published.  It  was  at 
Peiresc's  suggestion  that  Grotius  wrote  his  work  "  De 
Jure  Belli  et  Pacis."    Died  at  Aix  in  1637. 

See  Gassendi,  "Vita  N.  C.  F.  de  Peiresc,"  1641;  Requier, 
"Vie  de  Peiresc,"  1770;  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Peirithous.    See  Pirithous. 

Peirouse.    See  La  Peyrouse. 

Peisander.    See  Pisander. 

Peisistratus.    See  Pisistratus. 

Pe'kah,  [Heb.  HpD,]  King  of  Israel,  usurped  the 
throne  in  758  B.C.  In  alliance  with  the  King  of  Syria, 
he  waged  war  against  Jotham  and  Ahaz,  Kings  of  Judah. 
He  was  killed  by  Hosea  in  738  or  739. 

Pek-a-hi'ah,  [Heb.  nTipD,]  King  of  Israel,  began  to 
reign  about  760  B.C.     He  was  killed  by  Pekah,  760  B.C. 

Pela_ge.    See  Pelagius. 

Pe-la'gi-us,  [Gr.  XlElayloq  ;  Fr.  Pelage,  p^'ltzh',]  the 
founder  of  the  sect  of  Pelagians,  or  rather  the  chief 
advocate  of  a  system  of  doctrines  called  Pelagianism, 
was  born  probably  in  Britain.  He  began  to  propagate 
his  doctrines  at  Rome  about  400  a.d,,  and  formed  a 
friendship  with  Celestius,  who  became  his  ardent  disciple. 
He  was  an  admirer  of  Origen,  and  an  adversary  of  Saint 
Augustine  in  relation  to  grace  and  election.  Pelagius 
rejected  the  dogmas  of  original  sin  and  absolute  predes- 
tination. He  maintained  that  the  effects  of  Adam's  first 
sin  were  confined  to  himself,  and  that  man's  salvation 
depends  on  his  own  exertions.  He  was  condemned  by 
several  councils,  and  was  banished  from  Italy  in  418. 
The  eminent  purity  of  his  life  was  freely  admitted  by 
his  opponents.  A  system  called  Semi-Pelagianism  pre- 
vailed widely  in  the  middle  ages,  and  has  many  adherents 
at  the  present  day.  As  the  numerous  works  of  Pelagius 
are  nearly  all  lost,  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  exactly  what 
doctrines  he  taught.  His  adversaries  complained  of 
the  haze  of  subtle  dialectics  with  which  he  involved 
every  subject  of  dispute.  Among  his  extant  works  is  a 
"  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul." 

See  NoRKis,  "  Historia  Pelai^iana ;"  L.  Patouillet,  "Vie  de 
Pelage,"  1751  ;  Rayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Saint 
Augustine,  "De  Gratia  Christi"  and  "  De  Peccato  Originali;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Pe-la'gi-us  [Fr.  Pelage,  pi'ltzh']  I.,  a  native  of 
Rome,  became  pope  in  555  a.d.,  after  the  death  of 
Vigilius.  He  died  in  559  or  560,  and  was  succeeded  by 
John  IIL 

Pelagius  II.,  Pope,  a  native  of  Rome,  was  born  about 
520.  He  succeeded  Benedict  I.  in  578  a.d.  He  died 
in  590,  and  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  the  Great. 

Pe-la'gi-us  or  Pelayo,  pi-lS.''yo,  [Fr.  Pelage,  pS.'- 
Itzh',]  King  of  Asturias,  was  a  descendant  of  the  Gothic 
kings  of  Spain.  He  fought  with  success  about  718  a.d. 
against  the  Moors,  who  had  conquered  the  greater  part 
of  Spain,  and  founded  a  small  kingdom,  which  he  left 
to  his  son-in-law,  Alfonso.    Died  about  738  A.D. 

Pelasgue.    See  Pelasgus. 

Pe-las'gus,  [Gr.  Y^Ekaayoi; ;  Fr.  Pelasgue,  pi'ltsg',] 
a  mythical  personage,  supposed  to  have  been  the  ances- 
tor of  the  Pelasgi,  the  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  Greece. 

Pelavicino.    See  Pallavicini. 


•€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as o,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PELAYO 


PELLEGRINI 


Pelayo.    See  Pelagius,  (of  Asturias.) 
Pelee.    See  Peleus. 

Pelet,  peh-lk',  (Jean  Jacques  Germain,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Toulouse  about  1778.  He 
served  with  distinction  as  aide-de-camp  of  Massena  in 
Italy,  Austria,  and  Portugal,  (1805-12,)  and  commanded 
a  brigade  at  Waterloo.  In  1830  he  became  a  lieutenant- 
general.  He  was  appointed  a  senator  in  1852.  He 
published  "  Memoirs  of  the  War  of  1809,"  (4  vols.,  1824,) 
and  other  able  military  works.    Died  in  1858. 

Pelet  de  la  Lozere,  peh-li'  deh  It  lo'zaiR',  (Jean,) 
CoiMTE,  a  French  legislator,  born  at  Saint-Jean-du-Gard 
in  1759,  was  distinguished  for  his  wisdom  and  modera- 
tion. He  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in  1792,  and 
to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  (by  seventy-one  de- 
partments) in  1795.  During  the  empire  he  was  coun- 
cillor of  state.    Died  in  1842. 

His  son,  Privat  Joseph  Claramond,  born  in  1785, 
was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1827.  He 
distinguished  himself  as  an  orator  of  the  Left  Centre. 
He  was  minister  of  finance  under  Thiers  in  1840. 

Peletier,  pel-te-i',  sometimes  written  Pelletier, 
(Jacques,)  a  poet  and  mathematician,  born  at  Mans,  in 
France,  in  1517.  He  lived  at  many  places,  and  followed 
various  pursuits.  In  1572  he  became  principal  of  the 
College  of  Mans.  He  translated  Horace's  "De  Arte 
Poetica"  into  verse,  (1544,)  and  wrote  original  poems 
of  some  merit.    Died  in  1582. 

Peletier,  Le,  leh  pel-te-i',  (Claude,)  a  French  magis- 
trate, born  in  Paris  in  1630  or  163 1.  He  was  provost  of 
the  merchants  in  1668,  and  constructed  the  quai  in  Paris 
which  bears  his  name.  In  1683  he  succeeded  Colbert 
as  controller-general  of  finance.  He  found  •  himself 
unequal  to  the  task  of  raising  funds  for  a  long  war,  and 
resigned  in  1689.  Voltaire  calls  him  a  good  and  just 
man.    Died  in  171 1. 

Peletier  de  Sousi,  Le,  leh  pel-te-i'  deh  soo'ze', 
(Michel,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1640.  He  spoke  many  languages,  ancient  and  modern, 
and  wrote  memoirs  on  medals  and  inscriptions.  He 
served  as  intendant  of  finance  from  1683  to  1701,  and 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  council  of  regency  at  the 
death  of  Louis  XIV.    Died  in  1725. 

Peleus,  pee'lus  or  pee'le^s,  [Gr.  TirjlevQ ;  Fr.  P^l^e, 
pi'li',]  King  of  Thessaly,  was  a  son  of  ^acus,  and 
married  the  sea-nymph  Thetis,  by  whom  he  became  the 
father  of  Achilles.  The  marriage  of  Peleus  and  Thetis 
is  said  to  have  been  attended  by  all  the  gods  and  god- 
desses except  Discord.  According  to  tradition,  he  took 
part  in  the  Argonautic  expedition,  but  was  prevented 
by  his  great  age  from  joining  in  the  siege  of  Troy. 

PeTeus,  [Fr.  Pilieu,  pe'le-uh',]  (Julien,)  a  French 
lawyer,  born  at  Angers.  He  was  appointed  councillor 
of  state  and  historiographer  by  Henry  IV.,  and  wrote  a 
*'  History  of  Henry  the  Great,"  (4  vols.,  1616.)  Died 
about  1625. 

Pelham.    See  Newcastle,  Duke  of. 

Pelham,  pSKam,  (Henry,)  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  1694,  was  a  brother  of  the  Duke  of  Newcastle. 
He  became  payniaster  of  the  army  in  1730,  and  an  op- 
ponent of  Walpole.  On  the  defeat  of  Walpole,  in  1742, 
he  obtained  the  office  of  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  A 
rivalry  between  him  and  Lord  Carteret  resulted  in  the 
removal  of  the  latter  in  1743  or  1744,  after  which  Pelham 
and  his  brother  were  the  chief  ministers  until  1754. 
"Henry  Pelham,"  says  Macaulay,  "was  by  no  means  a 
contemptible  person.  His  understanding  was  that  of 
Walpole  on  a  somewhat  smaller  scale.  Though  not  a 
brilliant  orator,  he  was,  like  his  master,  a  good  debater, 
a  good  parliamentary  tactician,  a  good  man  of  business. 
.  .  .  For  the  first  time  since  the  accession  of  the  Stuarts, 
there  was  no  opposition."    Died  in  1754. 

See  Macaulay's  Review  of  "  Walpole's  Letters  to  Sir  Horace 
Mann,"  1833;  William  Coxe,  "Memoirs  of  the  Administration  of 
the  Rt.  Hon.  Henry  Pelham,"  2  vols.,  1829. 

Pelham,  (Thomas,)  Earl  of  Chichester,  was  born  in 
or  near  London  in  1756.  He  was  elected  about  1780  to 
the  House  of  Commons,  in  which  he  voted  with  the 
Tories.  He  was  home  secretary  from  April,  1801,  to 
1803,  and  inherited  the  title  of  Earl  of  Chichester  at 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1805.    Died  in  1826. 


Pelhestre,  peh-l§stR',  (Pierre,)  a  learned  French 
ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  at  Rouen  in  1635  ;  died  in 
1710. 

Pe-li'a-des,  (singular,  PeTi-as,)  a  name  applied  to 
the  daughters  of  Pelias,  which  see. 

PeTi-as,  [Gr.  TleXLag;  Fr.  P6lias,  pi'le^ts',]  a  son 
of  Neptune  and  Tyro  or  of  Cretheus  and  Tyro,  was  a 
brother  of  Neleus.  He  usurped  the  throne  of  lolcos 
from  ^son,  a  son  of  Cretheus,  and  sent  Jason  to  Col- 
chis to  bring  the  golden  fleece.  He  was  the  father  of 
Acastus,  Alcestis,  and  several  other  daughters.  The 
poets  relate  that  Pelias  was  cut  to  pieces  by  his  daugh- 
ters, called  Peliades,  at  the  instigation  of  Medea,  who 
promised  to  restore  him  to  youth. 

Pelides.    See  Achilles. 

Peligot,  pa'le''go',  (Eugene  Melchior,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  in  Paris  in  1812.  He  became  professor 
of  chemistry  at  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers 
in  1841. 

Pelissier,  pa'le'se-a',  (Amable  Jean  Jacques,)  Dug 
de  Malakoff,  (deh  mt'lt'kof',)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Maromme  (Seine-Inferieure)  in  1794.  He  entered 
the  army  in  181 5,  and  served  as  aide-de-camp  of  General 
Durrieu  in  the  Morea  in  1828-29.  About  the  end  of 
1839  he  was  sent,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  to 
Algeria,  where  he  took  part  in  many  actions.  He  com- 
manded the  left  wing  at  Isly,  in  1844,  and  in  1845  fixed 
an  indelible  stain  upon  his  memory  by  suffocating  a  party 
of  Arabs  in  a  cavern,  at  the  mouth  of  which  he  ordered 
a  large  fire  to  be  built.  In  1850  he  became  a  general  of 
division.  He  was  Governor-General  of  Algeria  ad mterim 
in  185 1.  In  January,  1855,  he  was  ordered  to  the  Crimea, 
to  command  the  first  corps  of  the  army  which  co-operated 
with  the  British  in  the  siege  of  Sebastopol.  He  suc- 
ceeded Canrobert  as  general-in-chief  on  the  i6th  of  May, 
1855.  A  victory  was  gained  by  the  allies  on  the  Tcher- 
naia  in  August,  and  the  French  carried  by  storm  the 
fort  of  Malakoff  on  the  8th  of  September.  For  this 
success  Pelissier  received  a  marshal's  baton  in  1855,  and 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Malakoff  in  1856.  He  was  ambas- 
sador to  England  in  1858,  and  during  the  war  in  Italy 
in  1859  he  commanded  the  army  of  observation  which 
defended  the  eastern  frontier.  In  November,  i860,  he 
became  Governor-General  of  Algeria.    Died  in  1864. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pelisson.    See  Pellisson. 

Pell,  (John.)  an  eminent  English  mathematician,  born 
in  Sussex  in  16 10,  studied  at  Cambridge  and  Oxford. 
He  became  professor  at  Amsterdam  in  1643,  and  was 
sent  by  Cromwell  as  agent  to  the  Protestant  Swiss 
cantons  in  1654.  He  returned  home  in  1658,  became 
rector  of  Fobbing,  Essex,  in  1661,  and  rector  of  Laing- 
don  in  1673.  He  published  a  refutation  of  Longomon- 
tanus's  discourse  "On  the  True  Measure  of  the  Circle," 
("De  vera  Circuli  Mensura,"  1644,)  an  "Idea  of  the 
Mathematics,"  and  other  works.  It  was  to  Pell  that 
Newton  first  explained  his  invention  of  fluxions.  Died 
in  1685. 

See  MoNTUCLA,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques." 

Pellat,  pa'lt^  (Charles  Auguste,)  an  able  French 
jurist,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1793.  He  obtained  the  chair 
of  Pandects  in  Paris  in  1829,  and  published  several  suc- 
cessful works  on  Roman  law. 

Pellegrin,  pirgRaN',(SiMON  Joseph,)  Abb6,  a  French 
poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1663.  He 
gained  a  prize  of  the  French  Academy  for  poetry  in 
1 704.  His  best  works  are  "  The  New  World,"  a  comedy, 
(1723,)  and  "  Pelopee,"  a  tragedy,  (i733>)  which  were  suc- 
cessful.   Died  at  Paris  in  1745. 

Pellegrini,  p§l-li-gree'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  history,  born  at  Venice  in  1675.  He  worked 
in  England  and  Paris,  and  settled  at  Venice.  Among 
his  master-pieces  is  "The  Brazen  Serpent."  "  He  was 
ingenious,"  says  the  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  "and 
painted  with  great  facility.""  Died  in  1741. 

Pellegrini,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at 
Capua  in  1598.  He  spent  much  time  in  collecting  an- 
cient documents  for  the  history  of  Italy,  and  published 
a  valuable  "History  of  the  Princes  of  Lombardy," 
("  Historia  Principum  Longobardorum,"  1643.)  Died 
in  1663. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  5?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m6t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PELLEGRINI 


1759 


PELLISSON 


Pellegrini,  (Domenico,)  an  architect  and  engraver, 
born  in  1541,  was  a  brother  of  Pellegrino,  noticed  below. 
He  designed  the  palace  de  Magnani  at  Bologna,  and 
other  fine  edifices  of  that  city.  His  etchings  are  prized 
by  amateurs.    Died  in  1 582. 

"Pellegrini,  (Giuseppe  Luigi,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
Jesuit,  born  at  Verona  in  1718,  was  distinguished  as  a 
pulpit  orator.  He  published  "  Latin  and  Italian  Poems," 
("  Poesie  Latine  ed  Italiane,"  1 791.)    Died  in  1799. 

Pellegrini,  (Pellegrino,)  called  also  Tibaldi,  te- 
bal'dee,  an  eminent  painter  and  architect,  born  in  the 
Milanese  in  1527.  He  studied  in  Rome,  and  appears  to 
have  taken  Michael  Angelo  as  his  model.  He  acquired 
a  grandeur  of  style  which  was  less  extravagant  than  that 
of  Michael  Angelo.  Among  his  best  paintings  are  the 
frescos  in  the  Poggi  Chapel,  representing  John  the  Bap- 
tist baptizing,  and  other  subjects.  He  was  appointed  in 
1570  chief  architect  of  the  Duomo  (cathedral)  of  Milan, 
and  designed  the  fa9ade  of  that  great  Gothic  structure, 
which  was  commenced  about  1387.  His  design  was 
censured  by  many  artists,  but  was  partially  executed. 
He  worked  for  Philip  II.  of  Spain  in  the  Escurial,  both 
as  painter  and  architect.  He  died  at  Milan  about  1595 
or  1600. 

See  Z  ANOTTi,"  Vita  di  Tibaldi ;"  Vasari,"  Lives  of  the  Painters 
QuATREMERE  DE  QuiNCY,  "  Dictioimaire  d'Architecture." 

Pelleport,  pgKpoR',  (Pierre,)  Vicomte,  a  French 
general,  born  in  Haute-Garonne  in  1773.  He  fought  at 
Jena,  (1806,)  at  Eylau,  (1807,)  obtained  the  rank  of 
colonel  at  Essling,  and  the  title  of  baron  at  Wagram, 
(1809.)    Died  in  1855. 

Pellerin,  pSKraN'',  (Joseph,)  a  French  numismatist 
and  linguist,  born  near  Versailles  in  1684.  He  became 
commissioner  of  the  navy  in  1718,  and  chief  clerk  some 
years  later.  He  formed  a  cabinet  of  32,500  medals, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  the  richest  that  ever  belonged 
to  a  private  person,  and  pul^lished  a  description  of  them, 
entitled  "  Collection  of  Medals  of  Kings,  Nations,  and 
Cities,"  ("  Recueil  de  Medailles  de  Rois,  Peuples  et 
Villes,"  10  vols.,  1762-78.)  He  adopted  an  improved 
system  of  classification.    Died  in  1782. 

See  Chaudon  et  Delandine,  "  Dictionnaire  Universe!." 

Pellet,  pk^li',  (Jean  Franqois,)  a  French  poet  and 
advocate,  born  at  Epinal  in  1782  ;  died  in  1830. 

Pelletan,  pIKtSN',  (Eug^ine,)  an  able  French  littera- 
teur, born  in  Charente-Inferieure  in  1813.  His  father 
was  a  Protestant  minister.  He  wrote  literary  critiques 
for  the  "  Presse"  for  about  ten  years,  (1839-50,)  and  con- 
tributed to  other  journals.  In  1848  he  was  a  republican, 
and  intimate  with  Lamartine.  Among  his  popular  works 
are  "  The  Profession  of  Faith  of  the  Nineteenth  Century," 
(1853,)  and  "  The  Pastor  of  the  Desert,"  (1855.)  He  was 
elected  to  the  corps  legislatif  in  1869,  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  provisional  government  in  September,  1870. 

Pelletan,  (Philippe  Jean,)  a  French  surgeon  of 
high  re])utation,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1747.  He  suc- 
ceeded Desault  as  surgeon-in-chief  of  the  Hotel-Dieu 
in  Paris,  and  was  consulting  surgeon  to  Napoleon  I. 
He  lectured  in  Paris  about  thirty  years,  with  such  elo- 
quence that  he  was  called  the  "  Chrysostom  of  surgeons." 
Died  in  1829. 

See  "  Biographic  Medicalc  ;"  Qu^rakd,  "  La  France  Litt^raire;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pelletan,  (Pierre,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1782,  and  was  a  distinguished  physician.  He 
became  professor  of  physique  medicale  at  Paris  in  1823. 
In  1843  he  resigned  this  chair.  He  published  a  "Dic- 
tionary of  Medical  Chemistry,"  (2  vols.,  1823.)  Died 
in  1846. 

Pelletier.   See  Peletier,  Le,  (Claude.) 

Pelletier,  pSKte-i^  (Bertrand,)  an  eminent  French 
chemist,  born  at  B^yonne  in  1761.  He  became  professor 
of  chemistry  at  the  Polytechnic  School  in  Paris  in  1795, 
and  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  wrote  for  the  "  An- 
nalesde  Chimie,"  and  made  some  important  discoveries. 
"  He  showed  himself  a  man  of  genius,"  says  Fournier- 
Pescay,  "  in  his  researches  on  phosphorus  and  on  its 
combinations  with  metals."  Died  in  1797,  His  col- 
lected works  were  published,  under  the  title  of  "  Me- 
moirs and  Observations,"  (2  vols.,)  in  1798. 


Pelletier,  pirte-i,  (Caspar,)  a  Dutch  physician  and 
botanist,  was  born  at  Middelburg  ;  died  in  1659. 

Pelletier,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Eclaron  (Haute-Marne)  in  1777.  He  became  general 
of  brigade  in  1809,  obtained  command  of  the  artillery, 
and  served  with  credit  at  Moskwa,  (1812.)  Died  in 
1862. 

Pelletier,  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  chemist,  born  in  Paris 
in  1788,  was  a  son  of  Bertrand,  noticed  above.  He  dis- 
played a  rare  talent  for  observation  and  analysis,  and 
discovered  several  vegetable  salifiable  bases.  The  im- 
portant discovery  of  quinine  (1820)  was  made  by  Pelle- 
tier and  Caventou,  who  was  his  associate.  For  this 
service  the  Academy  of  Sciences  gave  him  a  prize  of 
ten  thousand  francs' in  1827.  He  published  a  "Memoir 
on  Quinine,"  (1821,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1842. 

Pelletier,  Le,  (Jean.)    See  Lepelletier. 

Pellew,  (Edward.)    See  Exmouth,  Lord. 

PeFlew,  (George,)  D.D.,  a  younger  son  of  Lord 
Exmouth,  was  born  in  1793.  He  became  Dean  of  Nor- 
wich in  1828.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Seven  Ages 
of  a  Christian  Life,"  (1855.) 

Pellican,  perie-k^n',  [  Lat.  Pelltca'nus  ;  Ger. 
Kurschner,  kiiRsh'ner,]  (Conrad,)  a  learned  Reformer 
and  biblical  critic,  born  at  Ruffach,  in  Alsace,  in  1478. 
He  took  the  monastic  vows,  learned  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew,  and  became  superior  of  the  convent  at  Ruffach 
about  15 17.  Having  been  converted  to  the  doctrines 
of  Luther,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
Zurich  in  1526.  He  was  intimate  with  Erasmus.  Among 
his  works  are  Latin  Commentaries  on  the  Bible,  (5  vols, 
fob,  1534-38,)  which  are  highly  esteemed.  "Pellican," 
says  Richard  Simon,  "is  more  exact  than  the  other 
Protestants.  .  .  .  He  aimed  to  be  useful  to  his  readers 
rather  than  to  display  his  rabbinagey    Died  in  1556. 

See  "Chronicon  Vit^e  ipsiiis  ab  ipso  conscriptum,"  inserted  in 
Melchior  AnAM'.s"Vits  Theologoriim  Germanoriim  ;"  Johann 
Fabricius,  "  Oratio  historica  de  Vita  C.  Pellicani,"  1608;  Salomon 
Hess,  "  C.  Pellicans  Jugendgeschichte,"  1795. 

Pellicanus.    See  Pellican. 

Pellicer,  pgl-ye-thaiR',  (Jos6  de  Ossau — dS.  os- 
s6\v',]  a  Spanish  historian,  born  at  Saragossa  in  1602  ; 
died  in  1679. 

Pellicer,  (Juan  Antonio,)  a  Spanish  antiquary,  born 
at  Valencia  in  1738.  He  wrote  "  Ensayo  de  una  Bibli- 
oteca  de  Traductores  Espanoles,"  ("Library  of  Spanish 
Translations,"  1778,)  and  published  a  good  edition  of 
"Don  Quixote,"  (1797.)    Died  in  1806. 

Pellicier  or  Pellissier,  pa1e'se-i',  (Gutllaume,)  a 
French  diplomatist,  born  in  Laiiguedoc  about  1490. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Montpellier,  and  was  employed 
in  important  missions  by  Francis  I.  His  vast  erudition 
is  extolled  by  De  Thou  and  Turnebus.    Died  in  1568. 

Pellico,  peKle-ko,  (Silvio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Saluzzo,  Piedmont,  in  1789.  He  became  in  1 810  teacher 
of  French  in  a  college  of  Milan,  where  he  formed 
a  friendship  with  Ugo  Foscolo  and  Monti.  He  pro- 
duced "  Francesca  da  Rimini,"  a  tragedy,  which  was 
performed  with  great  applause.  In  Milan  he  became 
acquainted  with  Lord  Byron,  Madame  de  Stael,  and 
Lord  Brougham.  He  was  the  principal  founder  of  "  II 
Conciliatore,"  a  literary  periodical,  first  issued  in  1818, 
which  was  quickly  suppressed  by  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment. In  October,  1820,  he  was  arrested  as  a  member 
of  a  secret  society,  and  in  1822  was  condemned  to  im- 
prisonment for  fifteen  years  carcere  duro.  He  was  con- 
fined at  Spielberg,  in  Moravia,  until  August,  1830,  and 
then  released,  having  suffered  with  great  resignation. 
He  wrote  a  narrative  of  his  sufferings,  entitled  "My 
Prisons,"  ("  Le  mie  Prigioni,"  1831,)  which  excited  great 
sympathy  and  was  translated  into  all  the  languages  of 
Europe.  His  prose  treatise  "  On  the  Duties  of  Man"  is 
praised  for  its  good  morality.    Died  at  Turin  in  1854. 

See  L.  DE  LoMENiE,  "M.  S.  Pellico,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1842  ;  V.  Chiala,  "  Vita  di  S.  Pellico,'"  1852  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  Longfellow^,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April  and  October,  1833. 

Pellisson,  pi'le'sdN',  or  Pellisson-Fontanier,  pi'- 

le's^N'  f6N'tt'ne-k',  (Paul,)  a  French  author,  born, 
of  Protestant  parents,  at  Beziers  in  1624.  He  wrote  a 
"History  of  the  French  Academy,"  (1653,)  which  ob- 
tained such  success  that  this  society  nominated  him  a 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PELLOUTIER 


PENATES 


titular  member  and  voted  that  he  should  be  admitted 
to  the  first  vacant  seat.  In  1657  he  became  chief  clerk 
of  Fouquet,  minister  of  finance.  He  was  confined  for 
four  years  (1661-65)  ""i  ^^"'^  Bastille  on  account  of  his 
connection  with  Fouquet.  Having  been  selected  by 
Louis  XIV.  to  write  the  history  of  his  reign,  he  abjured 
Protestantism  in  1670,  entered  into  holy  orders,  and 
obtained  several  benefices.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
Louis  XIV.,"  (3  vols.,  1749,)  and  other  works.  His 
writings  were  more  admired  in  his  own  time  than  at 
present.    Died  in  1693. 

See  Fenelon,  "  filoge  de  Pellisson;"  Voltaire,  "  Si^cle  de 
Louis  XIV." 

Pelloutier,  p|'loo'te-i',  (Simon,)  a  French  historian, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1694.  He  became  minister  of  a  Prot- 
estant church  at  Berlin  in  1725,  and  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  that  city  in  1743.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Celts,  Gauls,  and  Germans 
from  Fabulous  Times  to  the  Capture  of  Rome  by  the 
Gauls,"  (in  French,  2  vols.,  1740-50,)  which,  says  the 
"Journal  des  Savants,"  "is  extremely  curious  and  agree- 
able."   Died  at  Berlin  in  1757. 

See  Haag,  "  La  France  protestante." 

Pe-lop'i-das,  [  Gr.  Ylelom6ag,  \  an  eminent  Theban 
statesman  and  general,  was  a  son  of  Hippoclus.  He 
inherited  a  large  fortune,  of  which  he  made  a  liberal 
use,  and  became  an  intimate  and  constant  friend  of 
Epaminondas,  who  saved  his  life  at  the  battle  of  Man- 
tinea,  (385  B.C.)  As  a  leader  of  the  popular  party,  he 
went  into  exile  when  the  Spartans  made  themselves 
masters  of  Thebes,  in  382.  He  was  the  master-spirit  of 
the  small  band  of  patriots  who  surprised  by  night  and 
expelled  the  Spartans  and  aristocrats  from  Thebes  in 
379  B.C.  "It  is  not  easy,"  says  Plutarch,  "to  find  an 
instance  so  remarkable  of  the  few  overcoming  the  many, 
merely  by  courage  and  conduct.  .  .  .  The  war  which 
humbled  the  pride  of  the  Spartans  and  deprived  them 
of  empire  took  its  rise  from  that  night."  Pelopidas  was 
chosen  general-in-chief,  and  in  375  gained  at  Tegyrae  a 
decisive  victory  over  the  Spartans,  who  then  lost  their 
prestige  of  invincibility.  He  was  captain  of  the  Sacred 
band  at  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  where  he  gained  as  much 
honour,  says  Plutarch,  as  Epaminondas,  the  commander- 
in-chief.  In  369  B.C.  Pelopidas  and  his  friend  com- 
manded jointly  an  army  which  entered  Peloponnesus, 
forced  Argos  and  Arcadia  to  renounce  the  alliance  of 
the  Spartans,  and  ravaged  a  large  part  of  Laconia  in  a 
winter  campaign.  (See  Epaminondas.)  He  acted  as 
mediator  between  two  sons  of  Amyntas,  King  of  Mace- 
don,  and  carried  as  a  hostage  to  Thebes  another  prince, 
who  w^as  afterwards  famous  as  Philip  of  Macedon.  Having 
been  sent  as  ambassador  to  Persia  in  367,  he  was  re- 
ceived with  great  honour  by  the  king  and  courtiers,  who 
said,  "  This  is  the  man  who  deprived  the  Spartans  of 
the  empire  of  the  sea  and  land ;"  and  he  induced  Ar- 
taxerxes  to  recognize  the  liberty  of  all  the  Greek  states. 
He  commanded  an  expedition  against  Alexander,  tyrant 
of  Pherae,  in  a  battle  with  whom  he  was  killed  in  364  B.C., 
as  he  too  rashly  urged  the  retreating  enemy. 

See  "Life  of  Pelopidas,"  by  Plutarch,  who  compares  him  to 
Marcellus,  and  says  that  Pelopidas  was  "inclined  to  every  virtue  ;" 
Cornelius  Nepos,  "  Pelopidas  ;"  Thirlwall,  "  History  of  Greece." 

PeTops,  [Gr.  ITfAoi/';  Fr.  Pi:LOPS,  pi'lops',]  a  demi-god 
of  Greek  mythology,  said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Tanta- 
lus, a  grandson  of  Jupiter,  and  a  king  of  Pisa.  Among 
his  children  were  Atreus  and  Thyestes,  whose  mother 
was  Hippodami'a,  a  daughter  of  CEnomaus.  (SeeOENO- 
MAUS.)  The  poets  relate  that  Tantalus  once  entertained 
the  gods  at  his  house,  and  offered  them  the  flesh  of 
Pelops,  whom  he  killed  and  boiled,  that  all  the  guests 
refused  to  partake  of  that  dish,  except  Ceres,  who  ate 
one  shoulder,  and  that  Pelops  was  restored  to  life  by 
Mercury,  with  an  ivory  shoulder  in  place  of  that  which 
was  devoured.  Tradition  adds  that  during  the  siege  of 
Troy  an  oracle  declared  that  this  city  could  not  be  taken 
unless  one  of  the  bones  of  Pelops  was  brought  to  the 
camp  of  the  Greeks.  According  to  another  legend,  the 
Palladium  at  Troy  was  made  of  the  bones  of  Pelops. 
The  southern  peninsula  of  Greece  is  supposed  to  have 
derived  from  him  the  name  Peloponnesus,  (or  "island 
of  Pelops.") 


Pelouze,  peh-looz',  (Tii^ophilk  Jules,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  at  Valognes  (Mane  he)  in  1807,  was  a  pupil 
of  Gay-Lussac.  He  obtained  a  chair  of  chemistry  at 
Lille  in  1830,  soon  after  which  he  became  the  assistant 
( siippleant)  of  Gay-Lussac  in  the  Polytechnic  School. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1837,  and  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  Commissit)n  des  Monnaies  (or 
director  of  the  Mint)  in  1848.  His  labours  and  memoirs 
place  him  in  the  first  rank  of  contemporary  chemists. 
Pelouze  and  Fremy  published  a  "Treatise  on  Chem- 
istry," (6  vols.,  1853-56.)    Died  in  1867. 

PeLs,  pgls,  (Andrkas,)  a  Dutch  poet,  who  founded  a 
school  or  literary  society  which  favoured  the  imitation 
of  French  models.  He  wrote  "The  Death  of  Dido,"  a 
tragedy,  (1668,)  and  translated  into  Dutch  verse  Horace's 
"Art  of  Poetry,"  (1667.)    Died  in  1681. 

Peltan,  de,  deh  p^Kt^n,  or  Pelte,  peKteh,  [Lat.  Pel- 
ta'nus,]  (Theodore  Antoine,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit,  born 
at  Pelte.  He  wrote  a  "  Commentary  on  the  Book  of 
Proverbs,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1584. 

Peltanus.    See  Peltan. 

Peltier,  peKte-a',  or  Pelletier,  (Jean  Gabriel,)  a 
French  journalist,  born  at  Nantes.  He  began  to  issue 
in  London,  in  1800,  "  L'Ambigu,"  in  which  he  attacked 
Bonaparte  with  virulence.  He  was  tried  for  libel  in 
1803,  was  defended  in  a  famous  speech  by  Sir  James 
Mackintosh,  and  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  small  fine. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1825. 

Peluse,  de,  Comte.    See  Monge. 

Pelzel,  pglt'sel,  (Frans  Martin,)  a  Bohemian  his- 
torian,  born  at  Reichenau  in  1735,  wrote  a  "History 
of  Bohemia,"  (1774,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  i8oi. 

Pem'ber-tpn,  (Ebenezer,)  an  able  American  divine, 
born  about  1672,  preached  in  Boston.    Died  in  171 7. 

Pemberton,  (  Ebenezer,  )  LL.D.,  an  American 
teacher,  born  in  1746.  He  was  tutor  at  Princeton  Col- 
lege, and  at  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  Massachusetts. 
Died  in  Boston  in  1835. 

Pem'ber-ton,  (Henry,)  an  English  chemist,  anat- 
omist, and  geometer,  born  in  London  in  1694,  was  a 
pupil  and  friend  of  Boerhaave.  He  became  a  professor 
of  physic  in  Gresham  College,  (Oxford,)  where  he  gave 
lectures  on  chemistry,  (published  in  1771.)  Among  his 
works  are  a  "  View  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Philosophy," 
(1728,)  and  "Lectures  on  Physiology,"  (1733.)  He 
edited  Newton's  "  Principia,"  (1726.)    Died  in  1771. 

Pemberton,  (John  C.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Pennsylvania  about  1818,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1837.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  be- 
came a  captain,  and  resigned  his  commission  in  April, 
1861.  Having  taken  arms  against  the  Union,  he  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  and  commanded 
at  Vicksburg  during  the  long  siege  of  that  place.  He 
was  defeated  by  General  Grant  at  Champion  Hill,  May 
16,  and  retired  to  Vicksburg,  which  he  surrendered,  with 
more  than  25,000  prisoners,  on  the  4th  of  July,  1863. 

Pemble,  pem'bel,  (William,)  a  learned  English  Cal- 
vinistic  minister,  born  in  Kent  about  1590.  He  was  an 
able  preacher  and  linguist.  His  works  were  published 
in  1635.    Died  in  1623. 

Pembroke,  (Anne,)  Countess  of.    See  Clifford. 

Pembroke,  Earl  of.    See  Herbert. 

Pembroke,  (Mary,)  Countess  of.  See  Sidney. 
(Mary.) 

Pembroke,  pem' brook,  (Thomas,)  an  English 
painter,  born  in  1702;  died  in  1730. 

Pena,  peh-ni',  (Pierre,)  a  French  botanist  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  born  at  Narbonne,  or  in  the 
diocese  of  Aix.  He  was  intimate  with  Lobel,  to  whom 
he  furnished  materials  for  his  work. 

Penalosa,  de,  di  pan-ya-lo'si,  (Don  Juan,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Baeza  in  1581  ;  died  in  1636. 

Pe-na'tes,  [Fr.  P^;nates,  pi'ntt^]  the  household 
gods  of  the  Roinans,  so  called,  probaljly,  because  their 
images  were  kept  in  the  penetralia,  the  innermost  part 
or  centre  of  the  house.  The  number  of  these  gods  or 
genii  was  indefinite.  The  Lares  were  included  among 
the  Penates,  and  were  sometimes  represented  as  iden- 
tical with  them.  Vesta  was  regarded  as  one  of  the 
Penates,  which,  according  to  some  authors,  were  per- 
sonifications of  the  powers  of  nature. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  mSon; 


PENAUD 


PENN 


Penaiid,  peh-n6',  (Charles,)  a  French  rear-admiral, 
born  in  iSoo,  coninianded  the  squadron  which  operated 
against  Russia  in  the  Baltic  in  1855.    Died  in  1864. 

Pencz  or  Pentz,  pents,  written  also  Pens  and  Peins, 
(Gregor,)  a  German  painter  and  engraver,  was  born 
at  Nuremberg  about  1500.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  a  "Crucifixion,"  in  the  gallery  at  Augsburg,  and  a 
"Judith,  '  in  the  Pinakothek  at  Munich,  His  engravings 
are  numerous  and  of  great  merit.    Died  about  1554. 

Peii'der,  (William  D.,/  an  American  general,  born 
in  North  Carolina,  graduated  at  West  Point  about  1854. 
He  commanded  a  division  of  General  Lee's  army  at  the 
battle  of  Gettysburg,  where  he  was  killed,  July  3,  1863. 

Pendleton,  pei/del-ton,  (Edmund,)  an  eminent 
American  statesman  and  judge,  born  in  Virginia  in  1721. 
He  was  elected  to  the  General  Congress  in  1774  and  in 
1775.  In  1776  he  was  president  of  the  Virginia  Con- 
vention, and  was  the  author  of  the  resolutions  by  which 
that  body  instructed  their  delegates  in  Congress  to  vote 
for  a  declaration  of  independence.  He  was  appointed 
presiding  judge  of  the  court  of  appeals  about  1779.  He 
was  president  of  the  convention  which  met  in  Virginia 
in  1788  to  consider  the  new  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  and  he  advocated  the  adoption  of  the  same.  His 
ability  as  a  debater  was  highly  extolled  by  Thomas 
Jefferson.    Died  at  Richmond  in  1803. 

Pendleton,  (George  H.,)  an  American  poh'tician,  a 
son  of  Nathaniel  Greene  Pendleton,  formerly  a  member 
of  Congress,  was  born  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  July,  1825. 
He  became  a  lawyer,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Senate  of  Ohio  in  1854.  He  represented  the  first  dis- 
trict of  Ohio  in  the  National  House  of  Representatives 
from  December,  1857,  till  March,  1865.  He  acted  in 
Congress  with  the  Democrats  who  opposed  the  coercion 
of  the  secessionists,  and  was  nominated  as  candidate  for 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States  by  the  Democratic 
Convention  in  August,  1864.  He  received  twenty-one 
electoral  votes  out  of  two  hundred  and  thirty-three, 
which  was  the  whole  number.  About  1867  he  began  to 
advocate  the  payment  of  the  public  debt  in  paper  money, 
— "greenbacks."  As  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency  he 
received,  at  the  National  Democratic  Convention,  July 
8,  1868,  one  hundred  and  fifty-six  and  one-half  votes  out 
of  three  hundred  and  seventeen,  on  the  eighth  ballot. 
He  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for  Governor  of  Ohio 
in  1869,  but  was  not  elected. 

Pendleton,  (Henry,)  an  American  jurist,  and  resi- 
dent of  South  Carolina,  was  one  of  the  judges  appointed 
to  make  a  digest  of  the  laws  of  that  State.  Died  in  1788. 

Pene,  de,deh  pin,  (Henri,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
in  Paris  in  1830.  He  wrote  for  the  "  Figaro,"  and 
offended  the  mii'itary  by  some  remarks,  for  which  he  was 
challenged  by  several  subaltern  officers  in  succession, 
(1858.)  In  the  second  duel  he  was  desperately  wounded, 
so  that  for  a  time  he  was  not  expected  to  live. 

Pe-neFo-pe,  [Gr.  UtiveTuotttj  or  UeveXonT) ;  Fr.  P6n6- 
lope,  pa'nalop',]  the  wife  of  Ulysses,  King  of  Ithaca,  and 
a  cousin  of  Helen,  was  renowned  for  conjugal  fidelity. 
During  the  long  absence  of  her  husband  she  evaded 
the  importunity  of  her  suitors  by  a  promise  to  decide 
which  she  would  accept  when  she  had  finished  a  shroud 
for  the  aged  Laertes.  She  ravelled  at  night  what  she 
had  woven  by  day,  and  thus  postponed  the  decision 
until  the  return  of  Ulysses.  She  was  the  mother  of 
Telemachus. 

Penguilly  I'Haridon,  de,  dih  pfiN'ge'ye'  It'reMdN', 
(Octave,)  a  French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  181 1. 

Penhouet,  peh-noo'i',  (Armand  Louis  Bon  Mau- 
det,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1764. 
He  wrote  "  Researches  on  Bretagne,"  (1814,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1839. 

Penicaud,  pa'ne'ko',  (Pierre,)  a  French  enameller 
and  painter  on  glass,  born  in  1515,  worked  at  Limoges. 
He  was  an  able  artist. 

Pen'ing-ton,  (Isaac,)  an  eminent  minister  of  the 
Society  of  Friends,  was  born  about  1618.  His  father 
was  lord  mayor  of  London  and  a  member  of  the  Long 
Parliament.  He  married  Mary,  the  widow  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Springett,  (whose  daughter  became  the  wife  of 
William  Penn,)  and  resided  at  Chalfont,  Bucks.  During 
•he  reign  of  Charles  II.  he  was  imprisoned  six  times 


for  his  religious  principles.  "  He  grew  rich  and  fruitful 
in  all  heavenly  treasure,"  says  William  Penn, — "full  of 
love,  faith,  mercy,  patience,  and  long-suffering.  Insomuch 
that  I  may  say  he  was  one  of  a  thousand;  zealous,  yet 
tender,  wise,  yet  humble.  .  .  .  One  that  ever  loved  power 
and  life  more  than  words."  Died  in  1679.  He  left  "Let- 
ters" and  other  writings,  which  are  highly  prized. 

See  "  The  Penns  and  Peniiigtons  of  the  Seventeenth  Century," 
by  Maria  Webes,  London,  1867. 

Penn,  (Granville,)  an  English  author,  born  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1 76 1,  was  a  son  of  Thomas  Penn,  and  a 
grandson  of  William  Penn.  He  was  a  clerk  in  the  • 
British  war  office.  Among  his  works  are  "Remarks 
on  the  Eastern  Origin  of  Mankind  and  of  the  Arts  of 
Cultivated  Life,"  and  a  "Life  of  Admiral  Penn," 
(1833.)    Died  in  1844. 

Penn,  (John,)  an  American  patriot,  and  a  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  Caroline 
county,  Virginia,  in  1741.  Having  removed  in  1774  to 
North  Carolina,  he  was  elected  in  1775  to  the  Conti- 
nental Congress.    Died  in  1788. 

Penn,  (Sir  William,)  an  able  English  admiral,  father 
of  William  Penn,  was  born  at  Bristol  in  162 1.  He 
became  a  rear-admiral  about  1644,  obtained  the  rank 
of  admiral  in  1653,  and  commanded  the  fleet  which 
co-operated  with  Venables  in  the  capture  of  Jamaica 
from  the  Spaniards  in  1655.  He  promoted  the  restora- 
tion of  Charles  11.  In  1660  he  was  appointed  governor 
of  Kinsale.  He  was  commander-in-chief,  under  the 
Duke  of  York,  of  the  fleet  which  gahied  a  victory  over 
the  Dutch  in  1665,  He  retired  from  the  service  in  1669, 
and  died  at  Wanstead,  Essex,  in  1670. 

See  Granville  Penn,  "  Memorials  of  the  Life  of  Admiral  Sir 
William  Penn,"  1833. 

Penn,  (William,)  the  founder  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
one  of  the  most  illustrious  of  Christian  philanthropists, 
was  born  in  London  on  the  14th  of  October,  1644.  He 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Captain  (afterwards  Admiral)  Penn 
and  Margaret,  the  daughter  of  John  Jasper,  a  merchant 
of  Rotterdam.  At  an  early  age  he  was  sent  to  the  Chig- 
well  School,  in  Essex.  While  here,  before  he  was  eleven 
years  old,  his  nn'nd  was  deeply  impressed  with  the  im- 
portance of  religion,  and  he  believed  that  he  was  even 
then  divinely  called  to  consecrate  his  life  to  the  service 
of  God.  When  about  fifteen,  he  was  sent  to  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  John 
Locke,  afterwards  so  distinguished  as  the  author  of  the 
"Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding."  While  at  the 
university,  Penn  appears  to  have  applied  himself  dili- 
gently to  his  studies,  and  to  have  made  rapid  progress 
not  only  in  the  classics  but  likewise  in  several  of  the 
modern  languages.  He  is  said  also  to  have  devoted 
much  of  his  attention  to  theology  and  history.  Nor  did 
he  neglect  the  cultivation  of  his  physical  powers.  With 
a  handsoine  person,  in  which  were  united  strength  and 
grace,  he  appears  to  have  been  well  fitted  to  excel  in 
those  out-door  exercises  which  were  then  and  are  still 
in  vogue  among  the  students  of  Oxford.  He  was,  we 
are  told,  a  skilful  boatman  as  well  as  an  adventurous 
sportsman.  But,  while  he  was  thus  applying  himself 
with  youthful  zeal  to  the  pursuits  deemed  appropriate  to 
young  gentlemen  of  his  condition,  a  new  influence  arose, 
which  was  destined  to  change  entirely  the  current  of  his 
future  life.  Thomas  Loe,  who  had  formerly  belonged 
to  the  university,  but  now  one  of  the  new  sect  of  Friends 
or  Quakers,  preached  at  Oxford.  The  views  which  he 
promulgated  made  a  powerful  impression  on  the  mind 
of  Penn.  He,  with  several  other  students  who  had 
beheld  with  displeasure  the  recent  attempt  to  intro- 
duce into  the  university  certain  forms  and  observances 
which  they  considered  to  be  little  better  than  papistical 
mummeries,  absented  themselves  from  the  established 
worship,  and  began  to  hold  meetings  among  themselves, 
conducting  their  devotional  exercises  in  their  own  way. 
Thereupon  they  were  fined  by  the  heads  of  the  college 
for  nonconformity  ;  but  this,  instead  of  deterring  them 
from  the  course  they  had  taken,  only  added  fuel  to  their 
zeal.  It  happened  soon  after  that  an  order  came  down 
from  the  king  that  the  surplice  should  be  worn  by  the 
students,  according  to  the  custom  of  former  times.  This 
so  exasperated  some  of  them,  among  whom  Penn  appears 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2l^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.I 

III 


PENN 


1762 


PENN 


to  have  taken  a  leading  part,  that  they  not  only  refused 
to  wear  the  surplice  themselves,  but,  falling  upon  those 
who  appeared  in  surplices,  they  forcibly  tore  off  from 
them  the  offensive  badge.  For  this  flagrant  and  open 
violation  of  the  laws  of  the  university,  Penn  and  sev- 
eral of  his  associates  were  expelled. 

This  disgrace  was  a  bitter  mortification  to  the  admiral, 
a  worldly  and  ambitious  man,  who  had  built  the  greatest 
hopes  on  his  eldest  and  favourite  son.  When  William 
returned  home,  his  father  received  him  with  cold  and 
stern  disapprobation.  His  son,  although  for  the  time 
carried  away  with  a  fanatical  zeal,  was  perfectly  sincere, 
and,  finding  his  conduct  not  disapproved  by  some  men 
of  note  who  were  jealous  of  what  they  considered  the 
encroachments  of  popery,  would  not  admit  that  he  had 
done  wrong  in  resisting  the  authority  of  the  king  with 
respect  to  the  surplice.  His  father,  having  tried  in  vain 
to  reclaim  him  by  argument,  proceeded  next,  like  one 
accustomed  to  arbitrary  power,  to  blows,  and  at  last,  it 
is  said,  turned  him  out-of-doors.  It  was  not  long,  how- 
ever, before  the  admiral,  who  really  loved  his  son  and 
was  proud  of  his  abilities,  began  to  relent ;  and  at  the 
intercession  of  his  mother,  an  amiable  and  excellent 
woman,  William  was  forgiven  and  recalled. 

With  a  view  to  dissipate  his  son's  religious  impres- 
sions, the  admiral  at  length  resolved  to  send  him  to 
France,  in  company  with  some  other  young  gentlemen  of 
rank  who  were  about  to  set  out  on  a  tour  across  the  con- 
tinent. At  Paris  he  was  introduced  to  a  brilliant  circle, 
including  some  of  the  most  distinguished  young  noble- 
men of  England,  and  was  presented  to  the  king,  Louis 
XIV.,  at  whose  court  he  is  said  to  have  been  a  frequent 
and  welcome  guest.  During  his  stay  in  the  French 
capital,  as  he  was  returning  one  night  from  a  party,  a 
man,  who  seems  to  have  been  a  total  stranger,  under 
some  imaginary  affront,  drew  his  rapier  upon  him,  and, 
in  an  angry  tone,  bade  him  defend  himself.  Penn  expos- 
tulated with  him,  but  in  vain  ;  so  that  at  last,  to  protect 
himself,  he  was  fain  to  use  his  sword.  His  hot-headed 
antagonist  was  quickly  disarmed  ;  but,  instead  of  taking 
any  advantage  of  his  vanquished  foeman,  he  courteously 
returned  him  his  rapier,  much  to  the  surprise,  it  appears, 
of  the  bystanders,  who  naturally  enough  supposed  that 
he  would  have  used  the  opportunity  thus  afforded  to 
take  ample  revenge  upon  one  who  had  so  causelessly 
attacked  him. 

After  leaving  Paris  he  spent  several  months  at  Saumur, 
reading  the  works  of  the  Fathers  and  studying  theology 
under  the  instruction  of  Moses  Amyrault,  one  of  the 
ablest  and  most  learned  of  the  French  Protestant  di- 
vines. He  afterwards  commenced  a  tour  through  Italy, 
but  on  reaching  Turin  he  received  a  letter  from  his 
father,  recalling  him  to  England,  that  he  might  take 
charge  of  the  affairs  of  the  family  while  the  admiral  was 
engaged  abroad  in  the  war  against  Holland.  The  ap- 
pearance of  young  Penn  on  his  return  from  his  conti- 
nental tour  was  well  calculated  to  fill  a  father's  heart 
with  joy  and  pride.  He  had  grown  into  a  tall,  graceful, 
and  handsome  man,  with  a  countenance  of  singular  gen- 
tleness and  sweetness,  yet  expressing  both  intelligence 
and  resolution.  His  sojourn  in  the  gayest  and  most 
brilliant  capital  of  Europe  appears  to  have  completely 
effaced  those  serious  impressions  which,  in  his  father's 
judgment,  were  so  unsuited  to  a  youth  of  his  rank  and 
accomplishments.  All  the  hopes  which  the  admiral 
had  formerly  cherished  of  the  future  distinction  of  his 
son  were  now  revived.  That  his  son  might  not  relapse 
into  his  former  seriousness,  he  resolved  to  keep  him 
constantly  employed.  With  this  view,  he  had  him  entered 
at  Lincoln's  Inn  as  a  student  of  law. 

In  the  early  part  of  1665,  Admiral  Penn,  accompanied 
by  the  Duke  of  York,  then  lord  high  admiral  of  Eng- 
landi  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Dutch,  com- 
manded by  Admiral  Opdam.  The  duke  had  the  good 
sense  to  intrust  all  the  important  movements  of  the 
fleet  to  the  direction  of  Admiral  Penn,  who  had  the  title 
of  Great  Captain  Commander.  The  plague  having  broken 
out  in  London,  it  appears  to  have  affected  William  Penn, 
as  it  did  thousands  of  others,  and  to  have  awakened  in 
his  mind  the  most  serious  thoughts.  His  father,  fearing 
lest  he  should  lose  the  fruit  of  all  his  former  care, 


resolved  to  send  his  son  with  letters  to  the  gay  and 
brilliant  court  of  the  Duke  of  Ormond,  Viceroy  of  Ire- 
land, with  whom  Admiral  Penn  was  on  terms  of  intimate 
friendship.  Soon  after  his  son's  arrival,  a  mutiny  occurred 
among  the  troops  at  Carrickfergus.  Penn  volunteered  his 
services  in  reducing  them  to  obedience,  and,  in  the  siege 
that  followed,  won  by  his  courage  and  coolness  general 
applause;  and  the  viceroy  himself  wrote  to  the  admiral, 
expressing  his  great  satisfaction  with  young  Penn's  con- 
duct, at  the  same  time  proposing  that  he  should  join  the 
army.  He  himself  was  at  first  so  much  elated  by  the 
distinction  he  had  acquired,  that  he  resolved  to  become 
a  soldier,  and,  under  the  influence  of  this  new  ambition, 
caused  himself  to  be  painted  in  military  costume.  "It 
is,"  says  Dixon,  "a  curious  fact  that  the  only  genuine 
portrait  of  the  great  apostle  of  peace  existing  represents 
him  armed  and  accoutred  as  a  soldier."  The  admiral, 
however,  disapproving  his  son's  project,  sent  him  to 
take  charge  of  the  large  estates  which  he  possessed  in 
the  south  of  Ireland.  While  on  business  at  Cork,  Wil- 
liam Penn  had  an  opportunity  of  again  hearing  Thomas 
Loe,  by  whose  preaching  he  had  been  so  strongly  im- 
pressed some  years  before.  His  early  convictions  were 
revived;  and  from  that  time  he  felt  it  to  be  his  impera- 
tive duty,  in  defiance  of  ridicule  and  persecution,  to 
join  his  lot  with  the  despised  Quakers.  Being  at  a 
meeting  at  Cork  in  1667,  he  was  arrested,  with  several 
other  Quakers,  and  taken  to  prison.  While  here,  he 
wrote  to  the  Earl  of  Orrery,  setting  forth  the  injustice 
of  his  imprisonment  and  advocating  universal  toleration 
in  faith  and  worship.  On  receiving  his  letter.  Lord  Or- 
rery gave  an  order  for  his  immediate  release.  A  rumour 
that  Penn  had  become  a  Quaker  reached  his  father.  He 
immediately  ordered  him  home.  When  the  admiral,  on 
seeing  his  son,  observed  that  he  was  still  dressed  like  a 
gentleman,  that  he  wore  lace,  plume,  and  rapier,  he  felt 
reassured,  and  began  to  hope  that  he  had  been  misin- 
formed. But  these  hopes  were  soon  dispelled.  His  son 
candidly  acknowledged  to  him  that  his  religious  convic- 
tions had  undergone  a  radical  change,  and  that  he  was 
now  a  Quaker.  The  disappointment  and  vexation  of  the 
admiral  were  extreme.  Yet,  in  the  hope  of  winning 
back  his  son,  he  made  use  of  every  argument,  and  even 
condescended  to  entreat  and  implore  ;  but  all  in  vain. 
The  refusal  of  his  son  to  uncover  in  the  presence  of  his 
superiors  in  rank  was  especially  mortifying  to  him.*  Al- 
though his  arguments  and  entreaties  had  proved  alike 
unavailing,  he  was  unwillitig  to  abandon  all  hope.  As  a 
last  resort,  he  proposed  a  compromise  :  he  would  yield 
to  the  scruples  and  wishes  of  his  son  in  every  other  re- 
spect, if  the  latter  would  only  consent  to  take  off  his  hat 
in  his  father's  presence  and  in  that  of  the  king  and  the 
Duke  of  York.  William  asked  time  to  consider  this 
proposition.  After  some  time  spent  in  reflection  and 
earnest  prayer,  he  announced  to  his  father  that  he  was 
unable  to  comply  with  his  wishes.  Thereupon  the  in- 
dignant admiral  again  expelled  him  from  the  house.  For 
some  months  he  was  dependent  upon  the  hospitality  of 
his  friends,  and  upon  such  pecuniary  aid  as  his  mother 
could  from  time  to  time  find  an  opportunity  of  sending 
him.  At  length  his  father  relented  so  far  as  to  allow 
him  to  return  home  ;  but  he  still  refused  to  see  or  hojd 
any  intercourse  with  him.  About  this  time  (1668)  Wil- 
liam Penn  first  began  to  preach  and  to  write  in  defence 
of  the  new  doctrines  which  he  had  embraced.  His  first 
work,  entitled  "Truth  Exalted,"  was  addressed  to  kings, 
priests,  and  people,  whom  he  earnestly  exhorted  to  re- 
examine the  foundation  of  their  faith  and  worship,  and 
to  inquire  how  far  they  were  built  upon  the  authority  of 
God,  or  whether  they  "did  not  rest  in  a  great  measure  on 
the  mere  notions  of  men.  A  number  of  publications, 
mostly  controversial,  followed.  One  of  these,  entitled 
"The  Sandy  Foundation  Shaken,"  attracted  much  at- 
tention. Pepys  considered  it  too  good  to  be  the  ]>ro- 
duction  of  so  young  a  man.  In  this  work  Penn  had 
attempted,  among  other  things,  to  refute  "the  Notion 
of  one  God  subsisting  in  three  distinct  and  separate 
Persons."    For  this  "  heresy"  he  was  apprehended  and 

*  For  a  brief  explanation  of  tlie  views  of  the  Quakers  with  respect 
to  taking  off  the  hat,  and  some  other  of  their  prominent  peculiarities, 
see  the  article  on  George  Fox. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  ^,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good ;  moon; 


PENN 


1763 


PENN 


sent  to  the  Tower,  where  he  was  kept  in  soh'tary  con- 
finement for  more  than  eight  months.  While  in  the 
Tower,  a  report  reached  him  that  the  Bishop  of  London 
had  resolved  that  he  should  recant,  or  die  in  prison. 
Penn  replied,  with  the  spirit  of  a  martyr  and  a  hero, 
"that  his  prison  should  be  his  grave  before  he  would  re- 
nounce his  just  opinions  ;  for  that  he  owed  his  conscience 
to  no  man."  During  his  confinement  in  the  Tower  he 
comp  sed  "  No  Cross,  No  Crown,"  perhaps  the  most 
popular  of  all  his  larger  works.  He  also  wrote  to  Lord 
Arlington,  then  principal  secretary  of  state,  on  the  in- 
justice and  absurdity  of  attempting  to  coerce  men's 
religious  opinions.  Learning  that  the  views  advanced 
in  his  "  Sandy  Foundation  Shaken"  had  been  misrepre- 
sented, he  wrote  "  Innocency  with  her  Open  Face,"  in 
which  he  showed  that  to  deny  the  existence  in  the  God- 
head of  "three  distinct  and  separate  persons"  did 
not  necessarily  involve  a  denial  of  Christ's  eternal 
divinity,  which  he  acknowledged  to  the  fullest  extent. 
In  this  Penn  took  substantially  the  same  ground  as  was 
afterwards  taken  by  Barclay  and  many  other  of  the  lead- 
ing Quakers.  They  felt  that  in  speaking  of  the  great 
and  awful  mysteries  of  the  Divine  nature  there  was  a 
sort  of  presumption  in  going  beyond  the  words  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  They  accordingly  rejected  the  term 
"Trinity,"  as  not  found  in  the  Scriptures,  and,  on  still 
stronger  grounds,  as  they  conceived,  they  refused  to 
accept  the  doctrine  of  "three  distinct  and  separate 
persons"  in  the  Godhead,  as  being  neither  expressed 
nor  necessarily  implied  in  the  language  of  inspiration. 
The  manly  behaviour  of  his  son  while  in  prison  ap- 
pears to  have  strongly  excited  the  respect  and  sympathy 
of  the  admiral.  lie  used  his  influence  at  court,  and, 
after  a  time,  William  Penn  was  set  at  liberty. 

In  1669,  at  the  desire  of  his  father,  who  intimated  his 
wishes  to  his  son  through  Lady  Penn,  William  went 
pgain  to  Ireland,  to  take  charge  of  the  estates  belonging 
to  the  admiral  in  that  island.  He  remained  there  about 
eight  months,  when  he  was  recalled  on  account  of  his 
father's  failing  health.  His  sister  Margaret  had  been 
married,  and  his  younger  brother  Richard  was  then 
travelling  in  Italy.  Feeling  that  his  days  were  drawing 
to  a  close,  the  admiral  was  anxious  to  be  reconciled  to 
his  eldest  son,  who  appears,  before  the  recent  disagree- 
ment, to  have  always  been  his  favourite.  As  soon  as 
William  returned  to  England,  the  reconciliation  took 
place,  to  the  joy  of  all  parties,  especially  of  his  mother. 
In  August  of  the  same  year,  William  Penn  preached  at 
a  meeting  in  Grace  Church  Street,  where  he  and  William 
Mead  were  arrested  by  warrants  from  the  mayor  of  Lon- 
don. "The  trial  which  followed  was,"  says  Dixon, 
"  perhaps  the  most  important  trial  that  ever  took  place 
in  England.  Penn  stood  before  his  judges,  in  this  cele- 
brated scene,  not  so  much  as  a  Quaker  pleading  for  the 
rights  of  conscience,  as  an  Englishman  contending  for 
the  ancient  and  imprescriptible  liberties  of  his  race." 
The  jury  having  brought  in  a  verdict  favourable  to  the 
prisoners,  the  recorder  said  they  should  be  locked  up, 
without  meat,  drink,  fire,  and  tobacco,  "till  we  have  a 
verdict  the  court  will  accept, — or  you  shall  starve  for  it." 
Though  repeatedly  menaced  with  starvation  and  other 
crurlties,  such  as  slitting  their  noses,  (a  barbarous  but 
not  uncommon  punishment  for  offenders  in  those  days,) 
the  jury  still  persisted  in  their  verdict.  They  were  kept 
for  two  days  and  nights  without  food,  drink,  or  fire ;  but 
this,  as  well  as  the  threats  of  the  court,  proving  in- 
effectual, they  were  at  last  fined  for  their  obstinacy,  and, 
on  refusing  to  pay  their  fines,  were  sent  to  prison.  "  For 
centuries,"  says  Dixon,  "  it  had  remained  an  unsettled 
question  of  law,  whether  the  jury  had  or  had  not  a  right 
so  far  to  exercise  its  own  discretion  as  to  bring  in  a  ver- 
dict contrary  to  the  sense  of  the  court."  This'important 
question  was  now  to  be  decided.  Bushel  and  his  fellow- 
jurors,  at  Penn's  suggestion,  brought  an  action  against 
the  mayor  and  recorder  for  unjust  imprisonment.  The 
case  was  brought  before  the  court  of  common  pleas,  con- 
sisting of  twelve  judges,  and  decided  ail-but  unanimously 
in  favour  of  the  jurymen,  who  were  accordingly  set  at 
liberty  and  left  their  prison  in  triumph.  Although  Penn 
and  Mead  had  been  declared  not  guilty  by  the  verdict 
of  the  jury,'yet  they  were  still  detained  in  prison,  be- 


cause they  refused  to  pay  the  fines  which  the  mayor  and 
recorder  had  arbitrarily  and  most  unjustly  imposed  on 
them  for  contempt  of  court.  At  length,  as  the  admiral, 
from  his  increasing  illness,  became  more  and  more  anx- 
ious to  have  his  son  with  him,  he  sent  privately  and  paid 
the  fines  both  for  him  and  his  friend.  He  also  sent  a 
dying  request  to  the  Duke  of  York  that  he  would  be  a 
friend  to  his  son  in  the  trials  and  sufferings  to  which, 
while  the  persecuting  laws  of  England  continued  in 
force,  he  foresaw  he  would  necessarily  be  exposed.  On 
his  death-bed  the  admiral  expressed  entire  satisfaction 
with  the  course  his  son  had  pursued.  He  said  to  him, 
among  other  things,  "  Let  nothing  in  this  world  temp', 
you  to  wrong  your  conscience.  Have  a  care  of  sin  :  it 
is  that  which  is  the  sting  both  of  life  and  death."  On 
his  father's  decease,  William  Penn  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  an  estate  yielding  an  annual  income  of  about 
fifteen  hundred  pounds,  a  sum  which  was  probably  equal 
to  twice  or  three  times  the  same  numerical  amount  at  the 
present  day.  Rarely,  if  ever,  has  wealth  fallen  into  better 
hands.  "There  is  abundant  evidence,"  says  Janney, 
"that  throughout  life  he  made  use  of  his  wealth  for  the 
benefit  of  others,  rather  than  to  promote  his  own  ease 
and  indulgence." 

The  persecution  against  the  Quakers  continuing,  Penn 
published  a  number  of  books  and  tracts  in  vindication 
of  the  peculiar  views  of  the  society,  and  in  defence  of 
the  great  principle  that  in  matters  of  faith  men  are  ac- 
countable to  Heaven  only,  and,  provided  their  moral 
conduct  is  blameless,  no  human  government  has  a  right 
to  inquire  into  or  exercise  any  control  over  the  religious 
opinions  of  its  subjects.  The  following  are  the  titles  of 
some  of  the  most  important  of  these  publications  :  "  A 
Seasonable  Caveat  against  Popery,"  (1670,)  "The  Great 
Case  of  Liberty  of  Conscience  Debated  and  Defended," 
{1671,)  "Truth  Rescued  from  Imposture,"  (1671,)  "The 
Spirit  of  Truth  Vindicated,"  (1672,)  "  Quakerism  a  New 
Nickname  for  Old  Christianity,"  etc.,  "  England's  Pres- 
ent Interest  Considered,"  (1674,) — a  most  able  work  in 
defence  of  freedom  of  conscience  and  the  rights  of  Eng- 
lishmen. Several  of  his  smaller  works,  as  well  as  "The 
Great  Case  of  Liberty  of  Conscience,"  were  written 
while  he  was  imprisoned  in  Newgate  in  167 1.  In  1672, 
when  Penn  was  in  his  twenty-eighth  year,  he  married 
Gulielma  Maria  Springett,  daughter  of  Sir  William 
Springett,  who  as  a  colonel  had  greatly  distinguished 
himself  in  the  service  of  the  Parliament,  and  who  died 
during  the  civil  wars,  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-three. 
His  widow  was  afterwards  married  to  Isaac  Penington, 
one  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  early  Quakers.  In 
1677,  William  Penn,  accompanied  by  Robert  Barclay  and 
others,  made  a  journey  into  Holland  and  Germany,  and 
visited  the  princess  Elizabeth  of  the  Rhine,  the  grand- 
daughter of  James  I.  and  sister  of  the  famous  Prince 
Rupert.  She  received  them  with  great  kindness.  Hav- 
ing previously  met  with  Penn,  she  was  not  unacquainted 
with  the  religious  views  of  the  Quakers,  which  she 
appears  to  have  regarded  with  much  favour. 

Penn  did  not  think  that  it  was  the  duty  of  a  Christian 
to  withdraw  himself  wholly  from  public  affairs,  but  rather 
to  strive  in  every  way  to  promote  the  freedom,  enlight- 
enment, and  happiness  of  mankind.  The  true  friends 
of  liberty  everywhere  found  in  him  a  sympathizer  and  a 
friend.  A  little  previous  to  the  election  of  1679,  when 
the  celebrated  Algernon  Sidney  offered  himself  as  a 
candidate  for  Parliament,  Penn  issued  a  pamphlet  show- 
ing the  importance  of  electing  to  the  great  legislative 
body  of  the  kingdom  wise  men  and  such  as  feared  God 
and  hated  covetousness.  He  not  only  felt  the  deepest 
interest,  but  he  himself  bore  a  very  active  part,  in  the 
canvass  for  Sidney,  the  representative  and  devoted 
champion  of  political  freedom.  Sidney  was  triumph- 
antly elected,  in  spite  of  much  unfair  opposition.  I)ut 
soon  after  the  assembling  of  the  new  Parliament  it  was 
dissolved  by  the  king,  and  another  election  became 
necessary,  Sidney  was  again  duly  returned,  but  he  was 
prevented  from  taking  his  place  in  Parliament  by  the 
intrigues  of  the  royalist  party.  It  was  a  bitter  disap- 
pointment to  Penn  ;  but,  in  proportion  as  he  lost  hope  of 
freedom  in  England,  he  bent  his  thoughts  more  earnestly 
towards  realizing  the  dream  of  his  youth, — the  founding 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Y.,guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PENN 


1764 


PENN 


of  a  new  and  more  perfect  commonwealth  amid  the 
forests  of  North  America.  In  1675  he  had  been  chosen 
umpire  to  settle  a  dispute  between  Edward  Byllinge  and 
John  Fenwick  (both  Quakers)  respecting  their  claims 
to  a  tract  of  land  known  as  West  Jersey,  He  decided 
in  fa/our  of  Byllinge  ;  but  the  latter,  having  become 
much  embarrassed  in  his  affairs,  in  order  to  satisfy  his 
creditors  gave  up  to  them  his  interest  in  the  territory. 
At  the  earnest  solicitation  of  Byllinge,  Penn  was  asso- 
ciated with  the  creditors  as  a  joint  trustee.  Within  the 
next  two  or  three  years  several  vessels  came  to  West 
Jersey,  with  about  eight  hundred  emigrants,  of  whom  the 
greater  number  were  Quakers.  Through  the  influence 
of  Penn  there  was  adopted  a  very  liberal  constitution, 
among  the  provisions  of  which  were  the  right  of  free 
worship  and  the  right  of  the  people  (with  only  very  slight 
restrictions)  to  legislate  for  themselves.  There  was  to 
be  no  imprisonment  for  debt:  the  property  of  the  debtor 
being  given  up  to  his  creditors,  he  himself  was  to  go 
free.  Penn  had  inherited  from  his  father  a  claim  against 
the  government  of  ^16,000.  In  1680  he  obtained  from 
the  king,  in  jjayment  of  that  claim,  an  extensive  tract  of 
land  immediately  west  of  the  river  Delaware  and  north 
of  Maryland.  In  the  patent  given  by  the  king  the  name 
"Pennsylvania,"  contrary  to  Penn's  wishes,  was  applied 
to  the  territory.  He  had  previously  suggested  Sylvania, 
on  account  of  its  being  then  a  land  of  forests.  Penn 
offered  twenty  guineas  to  one  of  the  secretaries  to  have 
the  name  changed,  but  he  was  refused.  He  even  applied 
to  the  king;  "for,"  says  he,  "  I  feared  lest  it  should  be 
looked  on  as  a  vanity  in  me."  But  the  king  said  it 
should  remain  as  it  was,  the  Penn  having  been  added 
in  honour  of  the  admiral.  The  patent  conferred  upon 
the  people  and  governor  a  legislative  power,  so  that 
no  law  could  be  made  nor  money  raised  without  the 
people's  consent,  and  they  could  pass  what  laws  they 
pleased,  provided  they  did  not  interfere  with  the 
allegiance  which  all  the  colonies  owed  to  the  crown. 
Aided  by  the  counsels  of  Algernon  Sidney  and  others, 
he  drew  up  a  masterly  scheme  of  government,  the  wis- 
dom of  which  has  been  amply  vindicated  by  the  expe- 
rience of  two  hundred  years.  The  constitution  which 
Penn  gave  to  his  colony  will  compare  advantageously 
not  merely  with  the  plan  of  government  formed  by  Locke 
for  Carolina,  but  with  any  of  the  systems  of  the  wisest 
lawgivers  that  have  ever  lived.  "To  understand,"  says 
Dixon,  "  how  much  Penn  was  wiser  than  his  age,  .  .  , 
he  must  be  measured  not  only  against  unlettered  men 
like  Fox,  but  against  the  highest  types  of  learning  and 
liberality  which  it  afforded.  Between  John  Locke  and 
William  Penn  there  is  a  gulf  like  that  which  separates 
the  seventeenth  and  the  nineteenth  century.  Locke 
never  escaped  from  the  thraldom  of  local  ideas." 

About  the  beginning  of  September,  1682,  Penn  set  sail 
in  the  ship  Welcome,  and  on  the  27th  of  October  cast 
anchor  in  Delaware  Bay,  off  New  Castle.  He  was  re- 
ceived by  the  inhabitants  of  that  town  with  the  greatest 
enthusiasm.  Soon  after  he  proceeded  to  the  site  of 
Philadelphia,  then  covered  for  the  most  part  with  lofty 
trees.  About  the  end  of  November,  1682,  was  held  the 
famous  treaty  with  the  Indians,  under  a  magnificent 
elm-tree,  in  what  is  now  Kensington.  Of  this  treaty, 
Voltaire  says  it  was  "the  only  league  between  the  abo- 
rigines and  the  Christians  which  was  never  sworn  to 
and  never  broken," 

Referring  the  reader  to  other  works  for  a  more  particu- 
lar account  of  the  early  colony,  we  shall  for  the  future 
confine  ourselves  chiefly  to  the  personal  history  of  Penn. 
In  1684,  having  committed  the  government  to  the  provin- 
cial council,  he  embarked  for  England,  leaving  behind 
him  in  the  colony  a  white  population  of  about  7000  per- 
sons. He  set  sail  on  the  12th  of  August,  and  on  the  6th 
of  October  landed  in  Sussex,  within  seven  miles  of  his  own 
house,  after  an  absence  from  his  family  of  rather  more 
than  two  years.  He  soon  after  visited  the  king  and  the 
Duke  of  York,  by  both  of  whom,  he  says,  he  was  received 
very  graciously.  The  first  use  he  made  of  his  influence 
at  court  was  to  intercede  for  the  persecuted  Quakers, 
against  whom  the  recent  oppressive  enactments  were  at 
that  time  enforced  with  a  merciless  rigour.  Their  con- 
scientious scruples  against  swearing  exposed  them  to 


peculiar  hardships.  When  evil-disposed  persons  charged 
them  with  being  disaffected  to  the  government,  they 
might  in  many  instances  have  delivered  themselves  from 
the  hands  of  their  persecutors  by  simply  taking  the  oath 
of  allegiance  and  supremacy  ;  but  this  their  religious 
convictions  would  not  permit  them  to  do. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  here  to  do  more  than  allude  to 
the  charges  made  by  Macaulay  against  the  character  of 
Penn,  as  those  charges  have  already  been  completely 
and  unanswerably  refuted,*  and  are  now  rejected  by  all 
candid  and  intelligent  persons  who  have  taken  the  trou- 
ble to  give  them  a  careful  examination.  But  another 
accusation,  scarcely  less  formidable,  though  somewhat 
vague,  has  found  supporters  among  men  of  great  intel- 
ligence and  respectability, — namely,  that  the  fact  that 
Penn  enjoyed  such  favour  with  James  II.,  and  that  he 
continued  at  court  after  he  had  every  opportunity  of 
knowing  the  character  of  that  monarch,  proves  him  to 
have  been  either  lax  in  principle  or  deficient  in  the  firm- 
ness of  true  virtue.  If  this  reasoning  be  correct,  then 
we  ought  to  applaud  the  conduct  of  the  early  Christian 
ascetics,  who  held  that  the  best  mode  of  preserving 
one's  soul  unspotted  and  preparing  it  for  heaven,  was  to 
abandon  all  intercourse  with  a  corrupt  world.  But  the 
most  virtuous  and  enlightened  men  of  modern  times 
have  usually  taught  a  very  different  doctrine, — that  they 
who,  without  partaking  of  its  sins,  mingle  with  the  world  * 
for  the  purpose  of  reforming  it,  are  far  more  praise- 
worthy than  those  who,  leaving  it  to  its  fate,  seek  shelter 
for  their  feeble  virtue  in  inactivity  and  selfish  seclusion. 
If  it  shall  be  clearly  shown  that  while  at  court  Penn  was 
guilty  of  a  single  act  inconsistent  with  the  character  of 
an  honest  man  and  a  true  lover  of  his  country,  we  shall 
then  be  prepared  to  abandon  his  defence  ;  but  if  the 
whole  charge  against  him  limits  itself  simply  to  this, 
that  he  had  favour  and  influence  with  a  corrupt  and 
tyrannical  monarch,  when  it  is  well  known  that  he  often 
exerted  that  influence  successfully  to  restrain  the  injus- 
tice, or  to  soften  the  severity,  of  James,  and  when  there 
is  not  a  shadow  of  evidence  that  he  ever,  even  in  a  soli- 
tary instance,  exerted  it  for  any  unworthy  purpose, — if 
this,  we  repeat,  be  the  whole  extent  of  the  charge  against 
him,  we  cannot  but  regard  such  an  accusation  as  con- 
ferring on  the  accused  the  highest  honour. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  Admiral  Penn  had 
made  a  dying  request  to  the  Duke  of  York  (afterwards 
James  II.)  that  he  would  be  a  friend  and  protector  to 
his  son.  It  is  but  just  to  say  that  James,  who  seems  to 
have  cherished  the  warmest  regard  for  the  admiral,  not 
only  never  forgot  his  friend's  request,  but  appears  to 
have  observed  it  with  the  most  scrupulous  fidelity.  It 
was  but  natural  that  William  Penn  should  be  sincerely 
attached  to  a  prince  who  had  been  his  father's  friend 
and  was  to  him  a  generous  and  faithful  guardian.  He 
doubtless  gave  James  far  more  credit  for  liberality  and 
sincerity  than  he  deserved.  But  his  gratitude  and  affec- 
tion towards  a  bigoted  and,  in  some  respects,  an  un- 
scrupulous prince,  appears  never  for  a  single  moment 
to  have  warped  him  from  the  path  of  rectitude. 

It  would  have  been  indeed  wonderful  if,  in  the  vio- 
lent party  excitements  of  those  times,  his  character  had 
wholly  escaped  suspicion  and  calumny.  But  the  various 
charges  made  against  him  are  found,  on  examination,  to 
be  unsupported  by  a  particle  of  real  evidence.  To  have 
absented  himself  from  court  at  that  time,  when  it  was 
in  his  power  to  do  so  much,  not  only  for  his  persecuted 
brethren,  but  for  all,  of  whatever  name,  who  suftered 
from  unjust  laws  or  from  the  unjust  suspicions  of  the 
government,  would  have  been  a  most  culpable  abandon- 
ment of  duty.  Yet  the  fact  that  he  did  not  thus  absent 
himself  has  been  the  principal,  if  not  the  only,  ground 
of  all  the  charges  which  the  envious  or  the  misinformed 
have  circulated  against  him.  During  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.,  Penn  obtained  for  himself  and  his  friends  many 
favours  from  his  sovereign  through  the  mediation  of  the 


*  For  the  correctness  of  this  statement,  we  confidently  appeal  to  all 
who  liave  dispassionately  and  attentively  read  the  evidence  in  the 
case.  See,  on  this  subject,  Dixon's  "Life  of  Penn;"  VV.  E.  FoR- 
ster's  "  William  Penn  and  Thomas  Babington  Macaulay,"  1850;  J. 
Paget's  "  New  Examen,"  London,  1861  ;  and  the  "  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  April,  1868. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  hng;  4,    6,  same,  less  prolpnged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


PENN 


1765 


PENTHEUS 


Duke  of  York ;  but  after  the  accession  of  James  II.  his 
influence  at  court  became  very  great.  He  removed  his 
residence  to  Holland  House,  at  Kensington.  "  His  in- 
fluence with  the  king,"  says  Dixon,  "  was  well  known, 
and  every  ma?i  with  a  real  grievance  found  in  him  a  coun- 
sellor and  a  friend.'"  "  If  any  fault,"  says  the  same  writer, 
in  another  place,  "can  be  found  with  his  conduct,  it  is 
that  his  charity  was  a  little  too  universal,  a  little  too 
indiscriminate."  As  his  sympathies  were  chiefly  with 
the  liberal  party,  he  had  often  occasion  to  intercede  for 
mercy  or  indulgence  to  those  who  were  regarded  by  the 
king  as  his  most  determined  enemies.  And,  though  he 
often  failed  in  obtaining  his  request,  he  appears  never  to 
have  omitted  an  opportunity  of  interceding  when  there 
was  the  slightest  chance  of  success.  He  sometimes 
excited  the  violent  anger  of  James  by  his  zeal  in  behalf 
of  the  friends  of  liberty.*  But  nothing  could  deter  him 
from  exercising  that  influence  with  his  sovereign  which 
he  believed  Providence  had  given  him  for  the  most  im- 
portant ends, — the  promotion  of  justice  and  mercy. 

In  1686,  chiefly  through  Penn's  influence,  a  proclama- 
tion was  issued  by  which  more  than  twelve  hundred  im- 
prisoned Quakers  were  set  at  liberty.  Another  proclama- 
tion in  1687  gave  liberty  of  conscience  to  all,  unrestricted 
by  any  tests  or  penalties.  After  the  accession  of  William 
III.,  in  1688,  Penn,  having  incurred  suspicion  on  account 
of  his  intimacy  with  James,  was  tried  before  the  royal 
council  for  treason  ;  but,  no  evidence  being  found  against 
him,  he  was  discharged.  He  was  subsequently  tried  for 
conspiracy,  and  was  again  honourably  acquitted.  In  the 
early  part  of  1694  he  lost  his  wife  Gulielma;  about  two 
years  after  he  married,  as  his  second  wife,  Hannah  Cal- 
lowhill.  In  1696  his  eldest  son,  Springett  Penn,  died 
of  consumption.  He  made  in  1699  a  second  visit  to 
America.  But,  learning  not  long  after  his  arrival  in  the 
colony  that  there  was  a  measure  before  the  House  of 
Lords  for  bringing  all  the  proprietary  governments  under 
the  crown,  he  returned  to  England  in  1701.  Happily, 
the  obnoxious  measure  was  soon  after  abandoned. 

In  consequence  of  the  bad  management  and  dishonesty 
of  some  of  the  agents  to  whom  he  had  intrusted  the 
care  of  his  property,  he  sustained  great  losses,  and  be- 
came so  involved  as  to  be  unable  to  pay  the  claims  of 
his  creditors.  He  preferred  to  go  to  prison  rather  than 
attempt  to  satisfy  certain  unjust  and  extortionate  claims 
which  the  very  agent  who  had  mismanaged  his  aff"airs 
brought  against  him.  By  the  intervention  of  some  of 
his  friends,  a  compromise  was  effected,  and  he  was  at 
length  released.  It  was  a  great  sorrow  to  him  in  his 
latter  years  that,  although  he  had  never  spared  himself 
or  his  means  to  promote  the  interests  of  his  colony, 
when  he  desired  of  the  colonial  legislature  a  moderate 
loan  to  relieve  him  from  his  difficulties  it  was  refused. 
Worn  out  at  length  with  the  incessant  labours  and  cares 
of  a  life  spent  almost  wholly  in  the  service  of  others,  he 
died,  from  the  effects  of  paralysis,  in  1718. 

For  a  full  account  of  William  Penn's  writings,  and  of 
those  which  relate  to  him,  see  Joseph  Smith's  "Cata- 
logue of  Friends'  Books,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  282-326. 

See  W.  Hepworth  Dixon,  "  Biographical  History  of  William 
Penn,"  1851  ;  S.  Jannky,  ''  Life  of  William  Penn,"  i  vol.  8vo,  1852  ; 
T.  Ci.ARKsoN,  "  Life  of  William  Penn,"  2  vols.  8vo,  1813;  J.  Mar- 
siLi.AC,  "Vie  de  G.  Penn,"  2  vols.,  1791:  H.  van  Lil,  "  Leven, 
Gevoelens  en  Lotgevallen  van  W.  Penn,"  2  vols.,  1826 ;  Jacob  Post, 
"Popular  Memoir  of  W.  Penn,"  1850:  M.  L.  Weems,  "Life  of  W. 
Penn,"  1829  ;  W.  A.  Teller,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  des  beriibmten 
W.  Penn,"  1779;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1850,  (article 
"  William  Penn  and  Lord  Macanlay  ;")  "  The  Penn  and  Logan  Cor- 
respondence," published  by  the  Pennsylvania  Historical  Society, 
1870. 

Pen'nant,  (Thomas,)  an  English  naturalist  and  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Downing,  in  Flintshire,  in  1726.  He 
published  in  1761  the  first  volume  of  a  large  work  on 
British  Zoology,  which  was  translated  into  Latin  and 
German  and  often  reprinted.  A  tour  on  the  continent 
in  1765  procured  for  him  the  acquaintance  of  Buffon, 
Haller,  and  Pallas.  In  1771  he  published  a  "  Synopsis 
of  Quadrupeds,"  an  enlarged  edition  of  which  appeared 
in  1 781  as  a  "  History  of  Quadrupeds."  This  work  was 
described  by  Cuvier,  about  1823,  as  "still  indispensable." 
Among  |iis  other  works  are  the  "  Genera  of  Birds," 


*  For  a  curious  instance  of  this  kind,  see  Dixon's  "  Life  of  Penn," 
pp.  239-40- 


(1773,  unfinished,)  a  "Second  Tour  in  Scotland  and  a 
Voyage  to  the  Hebrides,"  (2  vols.,  1774-76,)  and  "Arctic 
Zoology,"  (3  vols.,  1784-87,)  which  Cuvier  commends 
as  precieux  to  naturalists.    Died  in  1798. 

See  "The  Literary  Life  of  T.  Pennant,"  by  himself,  1793;  Cuvier, 
"  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  January 
and  February,  1772,  and  September  and  October,  1801. 

Pennecuik  or  Pennicuick,  pen'ne-kuk',  ?  (Alex- 
ander,) a  Scottish  physician  and  writer  on  various 
subjects,  born  in  1652  ;  died  in  1722. 

Pennefather,  pgn'fi-ther,  ?  (Sir  John  Lysaght,)  a 
British  general,  born  in  1800.  He  served  with  distinc- 
tion as  brigadier  in  India  in  1843.  Crimean  war 
he  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  Alma,  and  a  division  at 
Inkerman,  November,  1854. 

Pennethorne,  pin'thorn,  ?  (James,)  an  English  archi- 
tect, born  at  Worcester  in  1801,  was  a  pupil  of  Nash 
and  Pugin.  He  designed  many  public  buildings  of 
London,  among  which  are  the  Museum  of  Practical 
Geology,  the  General  Record  Repository,  and  an  ad- 
dition to  Somerset  House.  He  was  appointed,  several 
years  since,  architect  and  surveyor  of  her  Majesty's 
parks,  palaces,  etc. 

Pennethorne,  (John,)  a  younger  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  studied  the  principles  of  Grecian  architecture 
at  Athens,  and  wrote  a  small  work  on  "  The  Elements 
and  Mathematical  Principles  of  the  Greek  Architects," 
(1844.) 

Penni,  pen'nee,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  painter,  surnamed  IL  Fattore,  ("the  Steward,") 
was  born  at  Florence  in  1488.  He  was  in  his  youth  the 
steward  of  Ra])hael,  who  was  his  friend.  He  aided  Ra- 
phael in  painting  the  cartoons  of  the  Vatican,  and,  after 
the  death  of  his  master,  he  and  Giulio  Romano  finished 
a  "  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  designed  by  Raphael.  He 
excelled  in  landscapes.    Died  at  Naples  in  1528. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Penni,  (Luca,)  a  painter  and  engraver,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Florence  about  1500.  He 
worked  for  Henry  VIII.  in  England,  and  with  II  Rosso 
in  Paris. 

Pennington.    See  Penington. 

Pen'ning-ton,  (William,)  an  American  Governor, 
born  at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  in  1797.  He  was  elected 
Governor  of  New  Jersey  in  1837,  and  re-elected  four  or 
five  times  between  that  year  and  1843.  He  became  a 
member  of  Congress  in  December,  1859,  and,  after  a 
long  contest,  was  elected  Speaker  of  the  House  by  the 
Republicans  in  February,  i860.  Died  in  February,  1862. 

Pen'ny,  (Edward,)  an  English  portrait-painter,  born 
in  Cheshire  in  17 14.  He  was  a  professor  in  the  Royal 
Academy.    Died  in  1 791. 

Pen'rose,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Berk- 
shire in  1743.  He  was  successively  curate  of  Newbury 
and  rector  of  Beckington.  Died  in  1779.  His  poems 
were  published  in  1781. 

Pen-rud'dock,  (John,)  Colonel,  an  English  royal- 
ist, was  one  of  the  leaders  of  an  insurrection  against 
Cromwell  in  1655.    He  was  beheaded  in  the  same  year. 

Penary,  Pen'ri,  or  Ap  Hen'ry,  (John,)  a  Welsh 
religionist,  called  Martin  Mar-Prelate,  was  born 
in  1559.  According  to  Anthony  Wood,  he  became  a 
Brownist  or  Anabaptist,  and  wrote  against  the  Anglican 
Church  a  tract  entitled  "Martin  Mar-Prelate."  He  was 
unjustly  condemned  for  sedition  or  felony,  and  executed, 
in  1593- 

See  "  John  Penry,  the  Pilgrim  Martyr,"  by  J.  Waddington,  1854. 

Penthee.    See  Pentheus. 

Penthesilee.    See  Penthe.sileia. 

Pen-the-si-le'ia  or  Pen-the-si-ie'a,  [Gr.  llexi'toL' 
Tieia;  Fr.  PenthesIl^r,  pSN'ta'ze'la',]  the  queen  of  the 
Amazons.  According  to  some  traditions,  she  fought 
against  the  Greeks  at  the  siege  of  Trov,  and  was  killed 
by  Achilles,  who  admired  too  late  her  beauty  and  valour 
and  lamented  her  fate. 

Pen'theus,  [Gr.  YiEvdevQ ;  Fr.  Penth^ e,  pSN'ti',]  a 
mythical  person,  said  to  be  a  son  of  Echion,  and  King  of 
Thebes.  He  was  killed  by  his  mother  and  other  women 
because  he  opposed  the  worship  of  Bacchus  and  ascended 
a  tree  to  witness  furtively  their  revels  and  orgies. 


e  38  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  o,  h,  K,guttural;  n,  ttasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


0 


PENTHIEl^RE 


1766 


PERCEVAL 


Penthievre,  de,  deh  p6N'te'ivR',(Louis  Jean  Marie 
DE  BoURKON,)  Due,  a  French  nobleman,  born  in  1725, 
was  a  son  of  the  Count  of  Toulouse.  He  served  as 
general  at  Fontenoy,  (1745.)  He  was  noted  for  his  libe- 
rality or  benevolence.  His  daughter  was  the  mother  of 
King  Louis  Philippe.    Died  in  1793. 

Penzel,  pent'sel,  (Abraham  Jacob,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  near  Dessau  in  1749,  was  professor  of 
poetry  at  Laybach.  He  translated  Strabo's  "Geog- 
raphy" into  German,  (1777,)  and  wrote  several  treatises. 
Died  in  1819. 

Pepagomeiius.    See  Demetrius  Pepagomenus. 

Pepe,  pa'pa,  (Florestan,)  a  Neapolitan  general,  born 
at  Squillace  in  1780,  entered  the  French  service  about 
1806,  served  in  Spain  and  Russia,  and  received  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general  from  Murat  in  1815.  Died 
at  Naples  in  1851. 

Pepe,  (Gabriello,)  an  Italian  officer,  cousin  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1781.  He  served  in  the  French 
army  during  the  empire.  About  1822  he  fought  a  duel 
at  Florence  with  Lamartine,  who  had  offended  him  by 
some  verses  which  Pepe  regarded  as  injurious  to  the 
Italian  people.    Died  in  1849. 

Pepe,  (Guglielmo,)  a  general,  born  in  1783,  was  a 
brother  of  Florestan,  noticed  above.  He  joined  the 
French  party  in  1799,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  marechal- 
de-camp  in  1813.  In  1820  he  was  chosen  commander- 
in-chief  by  the  insurgents  who  rose  against  the  King  of 
Naples.  His  army  was  defeated  or  dispersed  by  the 
Austrians  in  1821,  and  he  escaped  to  England.  In 
1848  King  Ferdinand,  constrained  by  public  opinion, 
gave  him  command  of  an  army  sent  to  aid  the  people 
of  Lombardy.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Revo- 
lutions and  Wars  of  Italy  in  1847-49,"  {1850.)  Died 
in  1855. 

Pepin.    See  Pepyn,  (Martin.) 

Pepin,  pep'in  or  pippin,  [Fr.  pron.  peh-p^N',]  a  son 
of  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  was  born  about  802  A.D.,  and 
was  made  King  of  Aquitania  about  817.  He  joined  his 
brothers  Lothaire  and  Louis  in  a  revolt  against  his  father 
in  830.  He  died  in  838  A.D.,  leaving  a  son  Pepin,  who 
contested  the  succession  with  Charles  the  Bald  and  was 
defeated. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biogravihie  Gendrale." 

Pepin,  King  of  Italy,  a  son  of  Charlemagne,  was  born 
in  776  A.D.,  and  crowned  by  the  pope  in  781.  He  died 
in  810,  leaving  a  son  Bernard. 

Pepin,  peii-piw',  (Alphonse,)  a  French  historical 
and  i^olitical  writer,  born  in  Paris.  Among  his  works 
is  "  Two  Years  of  Rule,"  ("  Deux  Ans  de  Regne,"  1830- 
32.)    Died  in  1842. 

Pepin  le  Bref,  peh-pjlw'  leh  bR§f,  King  of  the  Franks, 
was  a  son  of  Charles  Martel,  at  whose  death  he  obtained 
Neustria  and  Burgundy.  Having  propitiated  the  favour 
of  the  pope,  he  confined  the  nominal  king,  Childeric  III., 
in  a  monastery  in  751  A.D.,  and  usurped  the  throne.  He 
assisted  the  pope  in  a  war  against  the  Lombards,  and 
waged  war  with  success  against  the  Saxons.  He  died  in 
768  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charlemagne. 

See  SisMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais;"  "Nouvelle  Biographje 
Generale." 

Pepin  le  Gros,  peh-piN'  leh  gRo,  or  Pepin  d'He- 
ristal,  (dcVr^s^tSK,)  an  ambitious  French  nobleman,  be- 
came Duke  of  Austrasia  in  the  reign  of  Dagobert  II. 
About  680  A.D.  he  assumed  royal  power  as  mayor  of 
the  palace,  and  defeated  Thierri  III.,  King  of  Neustria. 
He  permitted  Thierri  to  retain  the  title  of  king,  and 
the  latter  was  the  first  of  a  succession  of  rois  faineants, 
'"do-nothing  kings.")  Pepin  died  in  714  A.D.,  and 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles  Martel. 

Pepoli,  pa'po-lee  or  pip'o-lee,  (AlessandroErcole,) 
an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Venice  in  1757.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  dramas,  or  dramatic  essays,  entitled 
"  Efforts  of  Italy,"  ("  Tentativi  dellTtalia,"  6  vols.,  1788.) 
Died  in  1796. 

Pepoli,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Bologna 
in  i8or.  He  was  exiled  for  political  reasons,  and  was 
professor  of  Italian  literature  in  the  London  University 
from  1839  to  1848.  He  composed  for  Bellini  the  words 
of  "  I  Puritani,"  an  opera,  and  wrote  other  works,  in 
prose  and  verse. 


Pep'per-ell,  (Sir  William,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Maine  in  1696,  commanded  at  the  siege  of 
Louisburg,  in  1745.  He  was  made  a  baronet  for  his 
services,  and  in  1759  was  appointed  lieutenant-general. 
Died  in  1759. 

See  Parsons,  "  Life  of  Sir  W.  Pepperell,"  1856. 

Pepusch,  pa'poosh,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German 
musical  composer  and  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1667. 
He  settled  in  England  about  1700,  and  received  from 
the  University  of  Oxford  the  degree  of  doctor  in  music. 
He  was  also  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  His 
"Treatise  on  Harmony"  (1731)  still  enjoys  a  high  repu- 
tation.   Died  in  1752. 

Pepyn,  pi-pin',  sometimes  written  Pepin,  (Martin,) 
a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1570.  He 
worked  at  Rome  for  some  years,  and  painted  religious 
subjects.  His  works  are  highly  praised.  Died  at  Rome 
in  1641. 

Pepys,  (Charles  C.)    See  Cottenham. 

Pepys,  pgps,  (Lady  Charlotte  Maria,)  a  daughter 
of  Lord-Chancellor  Cottenham,  is  the  author  of  "  Quiet 
Moments,"  "  Female  Influence,"  and  other  works. 

Pepys,  (Samuel,)  aii  English  gentleman,  gossip,  and 
connoisseur,  celebrated  as  the  writer  of  a  diary,  was 
born  in  1632,  and  educated  at  Cambridge.  He  was 
appointed  clerk  of  the  acts  of  the  navy  in  1660,  and 
retained  this  important  position  until  1673.  His  official 
duties  brought  him  into  the  favourable  notice  of  the 
Duke  of  York,  who  was  lord  high  admiral.  He  was 
secretary  to  the  admiralty  for  about  four  years,  ending 
at  the  revolution,  (1688.)  In  1684  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Society.  He  was  well  versed  in  naval 
affairs,  and  was  a  connoisseur  in  the  fine  arts.  His 
reputation  is  founded  on  his  "  Memoirs,  comprising  a 
Diary  from  1659  to  1669,"  which  was  published  in  1825. 
Died  in  1703. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1825,  and  October, 
1849;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1849. 

Pepys,  (William  Haseldine,)  F.R.S.,  an  English 
chemist  and  philosopher,  born  in  London  in  1775.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Askesian  Society,  and 
an  active  member  of  the  London  Institution  and  of 
the  Geological  Society.  His  skill  in  the  construction 
of  chemical  apparatus  contributed  to  the  progress  of 
science.  He  was  associated  with  William  Allen  in 
successful  researches  on  respiration,  and  was  a  friend 
of  Sir  Humphry  Davy.    Died  in  1856. 

Peranda,  pa-rin'di,  (Santo,)  a  Venetian  painter, 
born  at  Venice  in  1566,  was  a  pupil  of  Jacopo  Palma. 
He  learned  to  design  correctly  at  Rome,  and  painted 
many  good  portraits.  Among  his  best  works  are  "The 
Children  of  Niobe,"  and  a  "Descent  from  the  Cross." 
Died  in  1638. 

Perard-Castel,  peh^rtR'  kts't^K,  (Franqots,)  a 
French  canonist,  born  at  Vire  in  1647;  died  in  1687. 

Perau,  peh-ro',  (Gabriel  Louis  Calabre,)  a  French 
biographer  and  editor,  born  in  Paris  in  1700.  He  edited 
the  works  of  Bossuet,  (20  vols.,  1743-53,)  ^""^  continued 
the  "Lives  of  Illustrious  Men  of  France,"  begun  by 
D'Auvigny,  to  which  Perau  added  thirteen  volumes, 
(1754-60.)    Died  in  1767. 

Perceval.    See  Caussin  de  Perceval. 

Per'ce-val,  (John,)  Earl  of  Egmont,  was  born  at 
Barton,  Yorkshire,  in  1683.  He  was  one  of  the  princi- 
pal founders  of  a  colony  planted  in  Georgia  about  1732. 
He  wrote  several  small  works.    Died  in  1748. 

Perceval,  (John,)  second  Earl  of  Egmont,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1 7 11.  He  entered  the  House 
of  Lords,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Lovel  and  Holland,  in 
1762,  and  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  from  176^  to 
1766.  He  wrote  a  successful  pamphlet  named  "  Faction 
detected  by  the  Evidence  of  Facts."    Died  in  1770. 

Perceval,  (Spencer,)  a  minister  of  state,  born  in 
London  in  1762,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  studied 
law,  and  practised  with  success  on  the  Midland  circuit. 
Having  been  returned  to  Parliament  in  1796,  he  became 
a  supporter  of  Mr.  Pitt,  and  an  able  speaker.  He  was 
appointed  solicitor-general  in  1801,  and  attorney-general 
in  1802.  At  the  death  of  Pitt  (1806)  he  went  out  of 
office.  He  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  1807, 
and  first  lord  of  the  treasury  (prime  minister)  at  the 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  \  4, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  ftt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FERCHERON 


PEREFIXE 


death  of  the  Duke  of  Portland,  (1809.)  He  opposed 
reform  and  liberal  measures,  and  pursued  the  foreign 
policy  of  Pitt.  On  the  nth  of  May,  1812,  he  was  as- 
sassinated with  a  pistol  in  the  lobby  of  the  House  of 
Commons  by  John  Bellingham,  a  merchant,  who  had 
resolved  to  kill  some  member  of  the  ministry  because 
they  had  rejected  or  neglected  a  private  claim  which  he 
had  preferred. 

See  "Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  i.  chap,  xviii.  ; 
Charles  \  .  Willi.^ms,  "Life  of  llie  Ri.ght  Hon.  S.  Perceval," 
1812;  Henri  de  L.^salle,  "  Essai  biographique  sur  M.  Perceval," 
1S12. 

Percheron,  p^Rsh'rdN',  (Achille  Remy,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  published  several 
W(jrks  on  entomology. 

Percier,  p^R'.se-i',  (Charles,)  a  distinguished  French 
architect,  born  in  1764,  in  Paris,  was  a  pupil  of  Gisors. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  gained  a  prize,  which  enabled 
him  to  pursue  his  studies  at  Rome.  He  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  the  architect  Fontaine,  with  whom  he  was 
constantly  associated  in  his  professional  labours  until 
his  death.  They  were  employed  by  Bonaparte  to  restore 
and  complete  the  palaces  of  tlie  Tuileries  and  the  Louvre. 
Among  their  works  are  the  triumphal  arch  of  the  Car- 
rousel, and  the  northern  wing  of  the  court  of  the  Tuile- 
ries. By  their  skill  and  taste  in  design  they  produced 
in  their  art  a  reformation  similar  to  that  which  David 
effected  in  painting.  They  published  some  excellent 
works,  among  which  is  "  The  Palaces,  Mansions,  and 
other  Modern  Edifices  designed  at  Rome,"  (1798.)  (See 
F0.NT.A.INE,  Pierre  Francois.)    Percier  died  in  1838. 

Per'ci-val,  (James  Gates.)  an  eminent  American 
poet  and  scholar,  born  at  Berlin,  Connecticut,  in  1795. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  181 5,  and,  having  sub- 
sequently studied  medicine,  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in 
1823.  He  published  in  1822  his  "Prometheus,"  a  poem 
in  the  Spenserian  stanza,  also  two  volumes  of  miscella- 
neous poetry  and  prose.  He  was  appointed  in  1824 
professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Military  Academy  at  West 
Point.  In  1827  he  was  employed  by  Dr.  Webster  to 
revise  the  manuscript  of  his  large  Dictionary,  and  in 
1835  was  appointed  conjointly  with  Professor  C.  U. 
Shepard  to  make  a  geological  survey  of  Connecticut,  a 
report  of  which  he  published  in  1842.  He  brought  out 
in  1843  "The  Dream  of  a  Day,  and  other  Poems."  He 
was  appointed  in  1854  vState  Geologist  of  Wisconsin  ; 
but  while  preparing  his  second  report  his  health  declined, 
and  he  died  in  May,  1856.  He  had  published  in  1833 
an  excellent  translation  of  Malte-Brun's  "Geography." 

See  "Life  and  Letters  of  James  G.  Percival,"  by  J.  H.  Ward, 
i860;  "North  American  Review"  for  January,  1822,  (by  Edward 
Everett,)  April,  1826,  and  July,  i860. 

Per'ci-val,  (Thomas,)  a  popular  English  medical  and 
moral  writer,  born  at  W'arrington  in  1740.  He  settled 
in  1767  at  Manchester,  where  he  practised  with  success, 
and  founded  the  "  Manchester  Philosophical  Society" 
about  1 780.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Essays, 
Medical  and  Experimental,"  (3  vols.,  1767-78,)  "A 
Father's  Instructions,  consisting  of  Moral  Tales,"  etc., 
(17S8,)  and  "Medical  Ethics,"  (1803.)  He  was  a  dis- 
senter from  the  Anglican  Church.    Died  in  1804. 

See  "  Life  of  T.  Percival,"  by  his  son,  prefixed  to  his  works,  1807. 

Percy.    See  Northumberland. 

Per'cy,  the  name  of  an  ancient  and  noble  English 
family,  descended  from  William  de  Percy,  who,  in  the 
reign  of  William  the  Conqueror,  possessed  several 
manors  in  the  counties  of  Lincoln  and  York.  He  was 
probably  a  Norman.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  a  Henry 
DE  Percy  acquired  Alnwick  and  other  estates  in  North- 
umberland. Another  Henry  de  Percy,  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.,  married  Mary  Plantagenet,  a  great-grand- 
daughter of  King  Henry  III.,  and  had  two  sons,  Henry, 
Earl  of  Northumberland,  and  Thomas,  Earl  of  Worces- 
ter. Henry  Percy,  surnamed  Hotspur,  a  son  of  Henry 
last  nanied,  rebelled  against  Henry  IV.,  and  was  killed 
at  tlie  battle  of  ShrewslDury,  (1403.)  A  son  of  Hotspur 
was  restored  to  the  earldom,  fought  for  the  house  of 
Lancaster,  and  fell  at  Saint  Alban's,  in  1455,  leaving 
several  sons,  who  were  killed  in  the  war  of  the  Roses. 
In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  a  Percy,  Earl  of  Northumber- 
land, was  executed  for  rebellion,  (1572.) 


Percy,  pCR'se',  (Pierre  FRANgois,)  Baron,  an  emi- 
nent French  surgeon,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1754. 
He  became  about  1792  surgeon-in-chief  of  the  armies 
of  the  Rhine  and  the  Moselle,  and  organized  in  concert 
with  Larrey  a  coi'J)s  mobile  of  surgeons  with  ambulances. 
Attached  to  the  grand  army,  he  served  in  all  the  cam- 
paigns of  the  empire,  except  those  of  Russia  and  Saxony. 
He  was  professor  in  the  Faculty  of  Medicine,  Paris,  and 
wrote  several  able  treatises  on  surgery.    Died  in  1825. 

See  A.  F.  Silvestre,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  Percy,"  1825; 
"  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Percy,"  by  his  nephew  Laurent,  1827  ; 
"Biographic  Medicale." 

Percy,  (Thomas,)  an  Englishman  of  noble  family, 
was  one  of  the  leading  conspirators  in  the  famous  Gun- 
powder Plot,  (1604-05.)  He  was  executed  in  the  early 
part  of  1606. 

Percy,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  scholar  and 
writer,  was  born  in  Shropshire  in  1728.  He  became 
vicar  of  Easton  Maudit  in  1756,  chaplain  to  the  king  in 
1769,  Dean  of  Carlisle  in  1778,  and  Bishop  of  Dromore, 
Ireland,  in  1782.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  an  in- 
teresting work,  entitled  "  Reliques  of  Ancient  English 
Poetry,"  (1765,)  which  has  enjoyed  a  great  popularity. 
He  translated  from  the  French  Mallet's  "Northern 
Antiquities,"  (1770.)  Among  his  works  are  a  "Key 
to  the  New  Testament,"  (1765,)  and  "The  Hermit  of 
Warkworth,"  a  poem,  (1770.)  Died  in  181 1.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson. 

See  Nichols,  "  Literary  Anecdotes." 

Perczel,  p^Rt'sel,  (Moricz,)  a  distinguished  Hunga- 
rian general,  born  at  Tolna  in  1814.  He  gained  several 
victories  over  the  Austrians  in  1848,  but  after  the  defeat 
of  Temesvar  he  took  refuge  in  Turkey,  and  afterwards 
settled  in  the  island  of  Jersey. 

Per-dic'cas  [Gr.  Ilepc5k«:af]  I.,  King  of  Macedon,  was, 
according  to  Herodotus,  the  founder  of  the  Macedonian 
monarchy.   He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  750  B.C. 

Perdiccas  II.,  King  of  Macedon,  was  the  son  and 
successor  of  Alexander  I.  He  waged  war  against  the 
Athenians.    Died  about  413  B.C. 

Perdiccas  III.,  a  son  of  Amyntas  II.  of  Macedon, 
began  to  reign  about  364  B.C.  He  was  killed  in  battle 
against  the  Illyrians  in  359,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  Philip  IL 

Perdiccas,  [Gr.  IlepcJk/caf,]  a  prominent  Macedonian 
general,  who  commanded  a  division  of  the  army  of 
Alexander  the  Great  in  his  invasion  of  Asia,  was  a  son 
of  Orontes.  It  is  reported  that  Alexander,  on  his  death- 
bed, gave  his  royal  signet  to  Perdiccas,  as  if  to  designate 
him  for  the  office  of  regent.  Having  obtained  command 
of  the  household  troops  who  guarded  the  young  king, 
he  exercised  the  power  of  regent,  or  chief  minister,  and, 
to  secure  the  succession  of  Roxana's  son,  put  her  rival 
Statira  to  death.  He  also  put  to  death  his  rival  Me- 
leager.  He  failed  in  a  matrimonial  intrigue  in  relation 
to  Cleopatra,  a  sister  of  Alexander,  and  became  the 
enemy  of  Antigonus  and  Antipater,  who  formed  with 
Ptolemy  a  coalition  against  him.  Perdiccas  found  an 
able  adherent  or  ally  in  Eumenes,  (who  opposed  Antip- 
ater and  Antigonus  in  Asia  Minor,)  and  marched  against 
Ptolemy  in  Egypt.  He  met  with  a  reverse  near  the 
Nile,  and  was  killed  by  his  mutinous  soldiers,*  in  321 
B.C.,  leaving  the  reputation  of  a  crafty,  cruel,  and  am- 
bitious man. 

See  Arrian,  "Anabasis;"  Justin,  books  xii.  and  xiii.  ;  Droy- 
SEN,  "Geschichte  Alexanders." 

Per'dix,  [Gr.  HeptJi^,]  a  nephew,  or,  as  some  say,  a 
sister,  of  Daedalus,  was  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the 
saw,  the  compasses,  and  other  implements.  According 
to  the  fable,  Perdix  was  changed  into  a  partridge. 

Pereda,  de,  dk  pi-ra'D^,  (Antonio,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1599.  He  painted 
history  and  genre  with  success,  and  was  patronized 
by  the  Duke  of  Olivarez.  He  excelled  in  colouring. 
Among  his  works  is  a  picture  of  "  Human  Vanity." 
Died  in  1669. 

Perefixe,  de,  deh  pi''ra'fSks',  (Hardouin  de  Beau- 
mont,) a  French  historian,  born  at  Beaumont  in  1605. 
He  was  appointed  preceptor  to  Louis  XIV.  in  1642, 
succeeded  Balzac  in  the  French  Academy  in  1654,  and 
wrote  a  "  History  of  Henry  IV.,"  (1661,)  which,  says 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Y,, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this^  (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PEREGRINO 


1768 


PERIANDER 


M.  Weiss,  will  assure  him  a  durable  reputation.  He 
became  Archbishop  of  Paris  in  1662,  and  required  the 
Port-Royalists  to  subscribe  the  formulary  of  Pope  Alex- 
ander VII.    Died  in  December,  1670,  or  January,  1671. 

See  "Gallia  Christiana,"  tome  vii. 

Peregrino  (or  Peregrini)  da  Cesena,  pi-ri-gRee'- 
no  (or  pi-ri-gRee'nee)  dl  ch^-sa'nd,  a  celebrated  Italian 
engraver  and  worker  in  niello,  flourished  about  1500  or 
1520.  Little  is  known  of  his  life.  Nagler  gives  a  list 
of  many  prints  ascribed  to  him. 

Per-e-gri'nus  Pro'te-us,  a  Greek  Cynic  philosopher, 
notorious  for  his  vices  and  licentious  life,  was  born  at 
Parium,  on  the  Hellespont,  and  lived  in  the  reign  of 
the  Antonines.  He  committed  suicide  by  fire  at  the 
Olympic  games,  in  165  A.D. 

See  "De  Morte  Peregrini,"  by  Lucian,  (who  witnessed  his  death.) 

Pereira,  pi-ra^-rS,  (Bartholomeu,)  a  Portuguese 
epic  ])oet,  flourished  about  1640,  and  wrote  "Paciecis." 

Pereira,  pa-ra^-ri,  (Gomez,)  a  Spanish  physician 
and  writer,  who  lived  about  1570. 

Pereira,  [Fr.  Pereire,  peh-r^R',]  (Jacob  Rodri- 
guez,) a  Spaniard,  born  in  Estremadura  in  1715,  is 
called  tiie  first  instructor  of  deaf-mutes.  He  removed 
to  Bordeaux  about  1742,  and  exhibited  a  pupil  before 
the  king,  who  granted  him  a  pension  in  1 75 1.  Died 
in  1780. 

Pereira,  pe-ree'ra  or  pa-ra'ra,  (Jonathan,)  an  Eng- 
lish physician  and  pharmacologist,  born  in  London  in 
1804.  He  published  an  excellent  work  entitled  "  Ele- 
ments of  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics,"  (2  vols., 
1839,)  regarded  as  the  most  comprehensive  and  com- 
plete treatise  on  materia  medica  in  the  English  language, 
and  a  treatise  "On  Food  and  Diet,"  (1842,)  which  is 
highly  commended.  In  1846  he  was  appointed  assistant 
physician  to  the  London  Hospital.  He  became  full  phy- 
sician to  the  same  hospital  in  185 1.    Died  in  1853. 

Pereira,  (Manoel,)  a  Portuguese  sculptor  of  high 
reputation,  was  born  in  1614.  He  worked  in  Spain, 
and  died  at  Madrid  in  1667. 

Pereira  or  Pereyra,  (Nuno  Alvarez  or  Nunez  Al- 
varez,) a  general  and  statesman,  called  "  the  Portuguese 
Cid,"  was  born  in  1360.  He  gained  victories  over  the 
Spaniards.    Died  in  143 1. 

See  A.  DE  Escobar,  "  Heroe  Portuguez.  Vida  del  Senor  N.  A. 
Pereyra,"  1670;  Da  Costa,  "DeVita  et  Rebus  gestis  N.  A.  Pe- 
reiras,"  1723. 

Pereira  de  Figueiredo,  pk-ra^-ri  dk  fe-gk-e-raMo, 
(Antonio,)  a  learned  Portuguese^riter,  born  at  Macao 
in  1725.  He  was  an  opponent  of  the  Jesuits,  and  he 
wrote  an  able  work  against  the  temporal  power  of  the 
pope,  entitled  "  Theological  Essays,"  ("Tentativa  Theo- 
logica,"  1766.)  He  published  a  Latin  Grammar,  (1752,) 
a  Portuguese  version  of  the  Bible,  (23  vols,,  1778-90,) 
and  other  works.    Died  at  Lisbon  in  1797. 

Pereire.    See  Pereira,  (Jacob  Rodriguez.) 

Pereire,  peh-rS^R',  (Smile  and  Isaac,)  French  finan- 
ciers, grandsons  of  Jacob  Rodriguez,  noticed  above,  were 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1800  and  1806  respectively.  They 
gained  distinction  as  originators  of  the  railway  from 
Paris  to  Saint-Germain  in  1835,  and  other  railroads. 
They  were  the  chief  founders  of  the  Credit  Mobilier,  a 
joint-stock  company,  with  a  capital  of  sixty  million 
francs,  which  was  established  in  1852. 

Perelle,  peh-rSK,  (Gabriel,)  a  French  designer  and 
etcher,  born  at  Vernon-sur-Seine  ;  died  in  1675.  His 
sons,  Nicolas  and  Adam,  were  engravers.  Adam  was 
born  in  1638,  and  died  in  1695. 

Perenna.    See  Anna  Perenna. 

Peres,  pk'rls'',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  litterateur, 
who  wrote  a  curious  work,  entitled  "  How  Napoleon 
never  Existed,"  etc.,  ("Comme  quoi  Napoleon  n'a  ja- 
mais existe,  ou  grand  Erratum,"  etc.,  1817,  often  re- 
printed.)   Died  in  1840. 

Pereyra,  pi-ra;^  ri,  (Diogo,)  a  skilful  Portuguese 
landscape-painterT^as  born  about  1570,  His  favourite 
subjects  were  the  "  Burning  of  Troy,"  and  the  "  Com- 
bustion of  Sodom."    Died  in  1640. 

Pereyra,  (Manoel,  and  Nuno  Alvarez.)  See  Pe- 
reira. 

Perez,  pa'r^th  or  pee'rez,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish 
courtier,  born  about  1 540,  was  a  son  of  Gonzalo  Perez, 


who  was  secretary  of  state  under  Charles  V.  and  Philip 
II.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1567,  and  obtained 
the  confidence  and  favour  of  the  king,  who  used  him 
as  his  instrument  in  the  assassination  of  Escovedo,  the 
intriguing  secretary  of  Don  John  of  Austria,  (1578.) 
Soon  after  this  event,  Perez  and  the  princess  El:)oli  were 
arrested  by  order  of  Philip,  who,  it  appears,  induced 
Perez  to  give  up  all  the  papers  which  would  iinplicate 
him  in  the  death  of  Escovedo.  Subjected  to  the  rack, 
Perez  confessed  his  own  share  in  that  crime,  and  ac- 
cused the  king  of  complicity  in  it.  About  1590  he 
escaped  from  prison,  and  sought  refuge  at  Saragossa, 
the  citizens  of  which  rose  in  arms  to  protect  him  and 
assert  their  own  civil  rights.  He  escaped  to  France, 
published  an  account  of  his  sufferings,  (1594,)  and 
received  a  pension  from  Henry  IV.  Died  at  Paris  in 
1611,  or,  as  others  say,  1616. 

See  Prrscott,  "  History  of  Phih'p  IL  Antonio  Perez, 
"  Memorial  y  Relaciones,"  159S;  S.  Bermudez  de  Castro,  "An- 
tonio Perez,"  Madrid,  1841  ;  Mignet,  "Antonio  Perez  et  Philippe 
II,"  1845;  Motley,  "The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic ;"  "  Fraser's 
Magazine"  for  December,  1867. 

Perez,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish  painter,  who  lived  about 
1550,  was  one  of  the  three  founders  of  the  Academy  of 
Seville. 

Perez,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish  jurist,  born  at  Alfaro,  on 
the  Ebro,  in  1583.  He  became  professor  of  civil  law  at 
Louvain  in  1628,  and  wrote  several  works.  Died  at 
Louvain  in  1672. 

Perez,  pa'redz,  (Davide,)  a  composer,  of  Spanish 
origin,  born  at  Naples  in  1 711.  He  composed  several 
popular  operas,  among  which  is  "  Semiramide,"  Died 
in  1778. 

Perez,  pa'r^s,  (Don  Jos6  Joaquin,)  an  able  Chilian 
statesman,  born  at  Santiago  de  Chili  in  1801.  He  was 
chosen  a  deputy  to  Congress  in  1833,  and  was  appoiirted 
minister  of  finance  in  1844.  In  1849  he  became  foreign 
minister.  He  was  afterwards  a  senator,  and  held  other 
high  offices.  In  the  summer  of  1861  he  was  elected 
president  for  five  years. 

Perez,  [Lat.  Petre'ius,]  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  at  Toledo  in  1 5 12,  wrote  an  admired  Latin  poem 
named  "  Magdalena,"  (1552,)  and  other  works.  Died 
ill  1545- 

Perez  de  Pineda,  pa^  eth  di  pe-na'D^,  (Francisco,) 
a  painter,  born  at  Seville,  was  one  of  the  best  pupils  of 
Murillo.    Died  about  1682. 

Perfetti,  p§R-fet'tee,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  im- 
provisator, born  at  Sienna  in  1681.  He  exercised  in 
public  his  talent  of  extempore  versification  on  all  sub- 
jects. He  is  said  to  have  been  the*  best  improvisator  of 
Italy  in  his  time.    Died  in  1747. 

Pergamini,  pgR-gi-mee'nee,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Fossombrone,  lived  about  1600,  He 
published  a  good  "Treatise  on  Grammar,"  (1602.) 

Pergola,  della,  deKld  pgR'go-U,  (Angelo,)  an  able 
Italian  general,  born  near  the  line  between  Tuscany  and 
the  Romagna.  He  served  the  Duke  of  Milan  against 
the  Florentines.    Died  in  1427. 

Pergolese.    See  Pergolesi. 

Pergolesi,  p^R-go-la'see,  or  Pergolese,  p^R-go-la'si, 
[Fr.  Pergolese,  p^R'go'liz',]  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a 
celebrated  Italian  composer,  born  at  Jesi  about  1708, 
(some  say  in  1704,)  He  studied  at  Naples  under  Gae- 
tano  Greco  and  Durante.  In  1731  he  produced  a  dra- 
matic work  called  "The  Servant  Mistress,"  ("  La  Serva 
Padrona,")  which  was  warmly  applauded.  He  devoted 
himself  chiefly  to  sacred  music.  Among  his  works  is  a 
celebrated  and  pathetic  "  Stabat  Mater,"  for  two  voices, 
"  Dixit  Dominus,"  a  motet,  and  "  Salve  Regina,"  a  motet. 
His  death  is  variously  dated  1736,  1737,  and  1739. 

See  Fi^Tis,  "  Bio.2;rapliie  Universelle  des  Mnsiciens ;"  C.  Blasis, 
"  Biografia  di  Pergolese;"  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illus- 
tri ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Peri,  pa'ree,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  composer,  born 
at  Florence  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century 
He  composed  the  music  of  "  Dafne,"  (1594,)  and  "The 
Death  of  Eurydice,"  lyrical  dramas.  He  entered  the 
service  of  the  Duke  of  Ferrara  in  1601. 

Per-I-an'der,  [Gr.  ITe/Jt (wc5pof ;  Fr.  P^RIAndre,  pi'- 
re^dNdR',]  tyrant  of  Corinth,  began  to  reign  about  625 
B.C.   He  is  usually  reckoned  among  the  Seven  Sages  of 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  k,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  gi,  e,  j,  Q,  obscure;  ftr,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PER  UNDER 


1769 


PERIGNON 


Greece, — probably  on  account  of  his  skill  and  success  in 
kingcraft.  His  rule  was  at  first  mild,  but  became  severe 
and  arbitrary.  It  is  reported  that  he  consulted  the  tyrant 
of  Miletus  in  relation  to  the  best  mode  of  maintaining 
his  power,  and  that  that  tyrant  answered  by  cutting  off 
the  tallest  ears  in  a  field  of  corn.  Periander  followed 
this  advice  by  depressing  the  noble  and  rich.  Died  about 
585  B.C. 

See  Herodotus,  "History;"  Aristotle,  "Politica;"  Schu- 
bert, "  Periander  von  Korinth,"  1765. 

Periander,  pi-re-Sn'der,  (Gilles,)  a  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Brussels  about  1545,  wrote  the  "Mirror  of  the  Owl," 
("  Noctuae  Speculum,"  1567.) 

Periandre.    See  Periander. 

Pericaud,  pi're'ko',  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French 
antiquary  and  biographer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1782.  He 
published  works  on  the  antiquities  of  Lyons,  and  wrote 
articles  for  the  "  Biographie  Universelle."  In  1827  he 
was  made  keeper  of  the  public  library  of  Lyons. 

Per'i-cles,  [Gr.  liepiKlf]^ ;  Ger.  Perikles,  pa're-kl^s,] 
an  illustrious  Athenian  statesman,  and  one  of  the  great- 
est orators  that  ever  lived,  was  a  son  of  Xanthippus,  who 
defeated  the  Persians  at  Mycale.  His  mother,  Agariste, 
was  a  niece  of  Clisthenes.  He  studied  various  arts  and 
sciences  under  Damon  the  musician,  Zeno  of  Elea,  and 
Anaxagoras.  "The  philosopher,"  says  Plutarch,  "who 
gave  him  that  force  and  sublimity  of  sentiment  superior 
to  all  the  demagogues,  who  formed  him  to  that  admi- 
rable dignity  of  manners,  was  Anaxagoras."  He  kept 
himself  aloof  from  public  affairs  for  some  years  after  he 
had  arrived  at  manhood.  About  470  B.C.  he  began  his 
public  career  as  the  leader  of  the  democratic  party,  and, 
lest  he  should  make  himself  too  cheap  among  the  people, 
reserved  himself  for  great  occasions.  He  had  a  grace- 
ful figure,  a  sweet  voice,  and  complete  self-command. 
"Adorning  his  orations  with  the  rich  colours  of  philos- 
o|)hy,"  says  Plutarch,  "adding  the  loftiness  of  imagina- 
tion and  all -commanding  energy  with  which  philosophy 
supplied  him,  to  his  native  powers  of  genius,  and  using 
whatever  he  found  to  his  purpose  in  the  study  of  nature, 
he  far  excelled  all  other  orators." 

He  gained  popularity  by  a  law  that  the  people  should 
enjoy  theatrical  amusements  at  the  public  exjjense,  and 
deprived  the  Areopagus  of  the  judicial  power  which  ren- 
dered it  a  dangerous  engine  of  the  aristocracy,  (461  B.C.) 
About  this  date  he  used  his  influence  to  procure  the 
ostracism  of  Cimon,  the  leader  of  the  conservative  or 
aristocratic  party.  Pericles  displayed  courage  at  the 
battle  of  Taiiagra,  in  457,  and  proposed  the  decree  that 
Cimon  should  be  recalled  from  exile.  After  the  death 
of  Cimon  and  the  ostracism  of  Thucydides,  (444  B.C.,) 
Pericles  directed  the  government  with  undisputed  su- 
premacy. "  He  became  sole  master  of  Athens,"  says 
Plutarch  ;  "he  kept  the  public  good  in  his  eye,  and  pur- 
sued the  strait  path  of  honour,"  He  commanded  in  the 
Samian  war,  which  ended  in  the  conquest  of  Samos  in 
440  B.C.,  and  extended  the  influence  of  Athens  by  plant- 
ing colonies  at  Chalcis,  Sinope,  Thurii,  and  other  places. 
He  expended  the  public  money  profusely  in  the  erection 
of  magnificent  temples  and  monuments,  which  have 
never  been  equalled  as  models  of  art  and  taste.  Under 
his  auspices  the  Parthenon  was  built  and  was  adorned 
with  the  sculptures  of  Phidias.  The  age  of  Pericles  was 
the  most  brilliant  period  of  Grecian  art  and  dramatic 
literature.  He  silenced  those  who  murmured  at  his  ex- 
travagance in  building,  by  an  offer  to  pay  the  expense 
out  of  his  own  purse  on  condition  that  his  name  alone 
should  be  inscribed  on  the  new  edifices. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Pericles  was  not  less  far-sighted 
than  his  internal  policy.  He  constantly  opposed  the 
ambitious  schemes  of  foreign  conquest  which  the  Athe- 
nians were  prone  to  entertain,  and  took  effectual  measures 
to  render  the  maritime  power  of  Athens  superior  to  that 
of  any  other  state.  The  long  walls  which  connected 
Athens  with  the  sea,  and  protected  it  fi'om  the  attack  of 
an  army  by  land,  formed  an  important  part  of  his  foreign 
policy,  continuing  on  a  gigantic  scale  the  plans  of  Themis- 
tocles.  This  measure  excited  great  alarm  among  the  Spar- 
tans and  their  allies.  Under  his  administration  Athens 
became  an  imperial  state,  with  an  extensive  list  of  allies, 
partly  free  and  partly  tributary,  and  attained  the  maxi- 


mum of  her  power.  To  subvert  this  power,  the  Spartans 
organized  a  league  and  involved  all  Greece  in  the  great 
Peloponnesian  war,  which  began  in  431  B.C.  The  mova- 
ble property  of  the  Athenians  was  conveyed  within  the 
walls  of  the  capital,  and,  while  the  enemy  ravaged  Attica, 
the  fleet  of  Pericles  made  reprisals  on  the  coast  of  the 
Peloponnesus. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  campaign,  Pericles  pronounced 
a  long  and  inimitable  funeral  oration  on  those  who  had 
fallen  in  battle.  "The  eleven  chapters  of  Thucydides 
which  comprise  this  funeral  speech,"  says  Grote,  "are 
among  the  most  memorable  relics  of  antiquity,  consider- 
ing that  under  the  language  and  arrangement  of  the 
historian  ...  we  possess  the  substance  and  thoughts 
of  the  illustrious  statesman.  .  .  .  After  a  few  words  on 
the  magnitude  of  the  empire,  and  on  the  glorious  efforts 
as  well  as  endurance  whereby  their  forefathers  and  they 
had  acquired  it,  Pericles  proceeds  to  sketch  the  plan  of 
life,  the  constitution,  and  the  manners  under  which  such 
achievements  were  brought  about."    (Chap,  xlviii.) 

In  the  second  year  of  the  war  a  great  plague  raged  at 
Athens.  The  people  became  so  demoralized  that  they 
deprived  Pericles  of  command  and  punished  him  with 
a  fine.  He  had  recovered  his  influence  a  short  time 
when  he  died,  in  the  autumn  of  429  B.C.  "As  a  military 
commander,"  says  Grote,  "though  noway  deficient  in 
personal  courage,  he  rarely  courted  distinction,  and  was 
principally  famous  for  his  care  of  the  lives  of  the  citizens. 
His  private  habits  were  sober  and  recluse,  .  .  ,  while 
the  tenderest  domestic  attachment  bound  him  to  the 
engaging  and  cultivated  Aspasia."  (See  Aspasia.)  To 
use  the  language  of  a  writer  in  the  "Encyclopaedia 
Britannica,"  "he  wielded  the  powers  of  his  majestic 
intelligence  and  the  stores  of  his  spacious  imagination 
with  consummate  ease  and  mastery." 

See  Plutarch,  "Lives;"  Thucydides,  "History;"  Grote, 
"  History  of  Greece,"  ciiaps.  xlv.,  xlvi.,  xlvii.,  xlviii.,  and  xlix.  ; 
KuFFNER,  "  Perikles  der  Olympier;  biojjraphische  Darstellung,"  2 
vols.,  1809:  Clari.sse,  "Vita  Periclis,"  Utrecht,  1835;  Thirlwall, 
"  History  of  Greece;"  F.  von  Raumer,  "Perikles  und  Aspasia," 
1810  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Pe-ricTy-tus,  a  Greek  sculptor,  of  whom  little  is 
known,  lived  probably  about  420  B.C.  He  is  mentioned 
by  Pausanias  as  a  pupil  of  Polycletus. 

Perier.    See  Perrier. 

Perier,  pi're-i'',  (Auguste  Casimir  Victor  Lau- 
ren r,)  a  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  181 1,  was  a  son  of 
Casimir,  noticed  below.  He  was  elected  a  deputy  in 
1846,  and  sat  in  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  1849.  He 
voted  with  the  majority,  and  protested  against  the  coup 
d'etat  o{  December,  1 85 1.  He  wrote  for  the  "  Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes"  on  finance  and  other  subjects. 

Perier,  (Casimir,)  a  French  minister  of  state,  was 
born  at  Grenoble  in  1777.  He  became  about  1800  a 
partner  of  his  brother  vScipion  in  a  banking-house,  (in 
Paris,)  which  engaged  in  large  industrial  enterprises  and 
was  prosperous.  In  181 7  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  opposition.  He 
gave  an  active  su])port  to  the  popular  cause  in  the  revo- 
lution of  1830,  and  succeeded  Lafitte  as  prime  minister 
(president  of  the  council)  on  the  13th  of  March,  1831. 
He  intervened  with  an  army  to  aid  the  revolted  Belgians, 
but  resisted  the  popular  pressure  which  would  have  in- 
volved France  in  a  war  against  the  allied  powers  for  the 
liberty  of  the  Poles.    Died,  of  cholera,  in  May,  1832. 

See  LoMENiE,  "Galerie  des  Contemporains ;"  GuizoT,  "  Md- 
moires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^uerale  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  July  and  August,  1838. 

P6rier,  (Jacques  Constantin,)  a  French  mechanician 
and  constructor  of  steam-engines,  was  born  in  I'aris  in 
1742  ;  died  in  1818. 

Periers,  des.    See  Desperiers. 

Peries,  pk're'Ss',  (Jean  Vincent,)  a  French  litfpra- 
teiir,  born  in  1785.  He  produced  a  translation  of  the 
complete  works  of  Machiavel,  (12  vols.,  1823-26,)  which 
is  commended.  He  wrote  many  notices  of  artists  for 
the  "  Biographie  Universelle."    Died  in  Paris  in  1829. 

Perignon,  pi'r^n'y6N',  (Alexis,)  a  French  painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1806.  He  gained  a  medal  of  the  first 
class  in  1844. 

Perignon,  (Pierre,)  a  French  monk,  born  at  Saint- 
Menehould  about  1640.  He  was  procureur  of  the  abbey 


€  as  k;  9  as  r;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;     as  in  this.  (2l^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PERIGNON 


1770 


PERON 


of  Hautvilliers,  and  is  said  to  have  rendered  a  great 
service  to  Champagne  by  perfecting  the  quality  of  its 
wine.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  culture  of  the  grape 
and  the  fabrication  of  wine.    Died  in  171 5. 

Perignon,  de,  deh  pi'r^n'ydN',  (Dominique  Cathe- 
rine,) Mar(2U1S,  a  French  general,  born  near  Toulouse 
in  1754.  He  became  a  general  of  division  in  1793,  suc- 
ceeded Dugommier  as  general-in-chief  of  the  army  in 
Spain,  and  gained  a  victory  at  Escola  in  November,  1794. 
He  negotiated  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Spain  at  Madrid 
in  1796.  In  1804  he  became  a  marshal  of  France.  Died 
in  1818. 

Perigord.    See  Talleykand. 
Perikles.    See  Pericles. 

Perin,  pa^riw',  (Henri  Charles  Xavier,)  a  Belgian 
economist,  born  at  Mons  in  1815,  wrote  a  treatise  "On 
Riches  in  Christian  Societies,"  ("De  la  Richesse  dans 
les  Societes  chretiennes,"  2  vols.,  1861.) 

Perin,  pa'riN',  (Li^;  Louis,)  a  French  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Rheims  in  1753,  excelled  in  miniatures.  Died 
in  1 81 7. 

Perin,  (Ren6,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in 
1774.  He  wrote  dramas,  biographies,  and  other  works. 
He  published  "  The  Thoughts  and  Maxims  of  Rousseau," 
(1820,)  and  "The  Thoughts  and  Maxims  of  Voltaire," 
(2  vols.,  1821.]    Died  in  1858. 

Peringskiold,  pu'rings-chold',  (Johan,)  a  Swedish 
antiquary,  born  at  Strengnas  in  1654.  His  original  name 
was  Peringer.  He  published  "Monuments  of  Upland," 
("Monumenta  Uplandica,"  2  vols,,  1710-19,)  and  other 
works,  of  some  value.    Died  in  1720. 

Perino  del  Vaga,  pi-ree^io  dh\  vi'g^,  written  also 
Pierino  (pe-i-ree'no)  del  Vaga,  an  Italian  painter, 
whose  proper  name  was  Pietro  Buonaccorsi,  (boo-6n- 
ik-kor'see,)  was  born  in  Tuscany  in  1500  or  1501.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Raphael,  whom  he  assisted  in  the  decora- 
tion of  the  Vatican.  According  to  Vasari,  he  was  the 
greatest  designer  of  the  Florentine  school  after  Michael 
Angelo.  About  1528  he  removed  from  Rome  to  Genoa, 
where  he  painted  admirable  frescos  in  the  palace  of  Ad- 
miral Doria.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Creation  of 
Eve,"  a  fresco,  a  "Holy  Family,"  (in  oil,)  and  "The 
Combat  of  Horatius  Codes."    Died  at  Rome  in  1547. 

See  Vasart,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Perion,  pa're'6N',  (Joachim,)  a  French  monk  and 
linguist,  born  in  Touraine  about  1500.  He  wrote  "The 
Lives  of  the  Apostles,"  (1551,)  and  translated  the  works 
of  Aristotle,  (7  vols.,  1540-59.)    Died  in  1559. 

Permit,  (Pelatiah,)  an  American  merchant,  born  at 
Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1785.  He  settled  in  the  city 
of  New  York  in  1809,  acquired  a  fortune  by  trade,  and 
became  president  of  the  chamber  of  commerce  in  1853. 
He  was  distinguished  for  active  benevolence.  Died  in 
March,  1864. 

See  Hunt's  "Merchants'  Magazine"  for  April,  1864. 

Perizonius,  pa-re-zo'ne-us,  (James  Voorbroek — 
voR^bkook,)  an  eminent  Dutch  philologist  and  critic, 
born  at  Dam,  in  the  province  of  Groningen,  in  October, 
165 1.  He  studied  under  Graevius  at  Leyden,  became 
rector  of  the  gymnasium  of  Delft  in  1674,  and  professor 
of  history,  etc.  at  Franeker  in  1681.  In  1685  he  pub- 
lished an  excellent  critical  work  on  the  ancient  writers 
of  Roman  history,  entitled  "  Animadversiones  Histori- 
cae,"  etc.  He  was  professor  of  history  and  the  Greek 
language  at  Leyden  from  1693  to  17 15,  and  wrote  many 
dissertations  on  classical  subjects.    Died  in  171 5. 

See  "Life  of  Perizonius,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Opuscula  minora,"  2 
vols.,  1740;  WiLHELM  Kramer,  "  Elogium  J.  Perizonii,"  1828. 

Per'kins,  (Elisha,)  an  American  physician,  known 
as  the  inventor  of  the  "Metallic  Tractors,"  was  born  in 
Connecticut  in  1740.  He  practised  at  Plainfield,  Con- 
necticut. His  metallic  tractors,  and  his  system,  called 
Perkinism,  were  in  high  repute  for  a  time,  but  soon 
sunk  into  neglect.  He  died  in  1799. 

Perkins,  (George  Roberts,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  born  in  Otsego  county. 
New  York,  in  1812,  was  appointed  in  1858  deputy  State 
engineer  and  surveyor  of  the  State  of  New  York.  He 
has  published,  among  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on  Al- 
gebra," (1841,)  "  Elements  of  Geometry,"  (1847,)  "Trigo- 


nometry and  Surveying,"  (1851,)  and  "Plane  and  Solid 
Geometry." 

Perkins,  (Jacob,)  an  American  mechanician  and  in- 
ventor, born  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  1766. 
Among  his  principal  inventions  are  a  machine  for  cut- 
ting and  heading  nails  at  once,  a  gun  in  which  steam 
was  successfully  used  for  propelling  instead  of  powder, 
the  bathometer,  for  measuring  the  depth  of  water,  and 
the  pleometer,  to  mark  the  speed  with  which  a  vessel 
moves.  He  also  substituted  steel  for  copper  plates  in 
engraving  bank-notes.    Died  in  1841. 

See  Henry  Howe,  "Lives  of  Eminent  American  Mechanics," 
1847. 

Perkins,  (James  H.,)  an  American  writer,  born  about 
1810,  was  a  son  of  Samuel  G.  Perkins,  of  Boston.  He 
contributed  to  the  "North  American  Review."  Died  at 
Cincinnati  in  1849. 

Perkins,  (Nathan,)  an  American  theologian,  born 
at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1749.  He  served  as  min- 
ister at  West  Hartford  about  sixty-five  years.  He  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  Sermons,  (1795,)  ^^'^^  other  works. 
Died  in  1838,  aged  eighty-eight. 

Perkins,  (Simon,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Norwich,  Connecticut,  about  1770.  He  served  in  the 
war  of  1812-14.    Died  in  Warren,  Ohio,  in  1844. 

Perkins,  (Thomas  Handasyd,)  a  wealthy  American 
merchant,  born  at  Boston  in  1764.  He  gave  his  house 
and  grounds  on  Pearl  Street,  Boston,  valued  at  fifty 
thousand  dollars,  for  the  Massachusetts  Asylum  for  the 
Blind,  called  also  the  Perkins  Institution.  He  likewise 
gave  large  sums  to  the  Boston  Athenaeum  and  General 
Hospital.    Died  in  1854. 

See  "Memoir  of  T.  H.  Perkins,"  by  T.  G.  Carey. 
■  Per'kins,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  Calvinistic 
divine,  born  at  Marston,  in  Warwickshire,  in  1558.  He 
preached  in  Saint  Andrew's,  a  parish  of  Cambridge. 
Among  his  works,  which  were  highly  praised  by  Bishop 
Hall,  are  "  Foundation  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  and 
commentaries  on  several  books  of  the  New  Testament. 
Died  in  1602.  His  works  were  translated  into  French, 
German,  Italian,  and  Spanish. 

Perkins,  (William,)  an  Englishman,  celebrated  for 
longevity,  died  in  New  Hampshire  in  1732,  at  the  age  of 
one  hundred  and  sixteen  years. 

Permoser,  pgR'mo-zer,  (  Balthasar,  )  a  German 
sculptor,  born  at  Kammer,  in  Bavaria,  in  165 1.  He 
worked  for  the  King  of  Prussia  at  Berlin,  from  which  he 
removed  to  Dresden  in  1710.  Among  his  works  are  an 
"Ecce  Homo,"  and  a  statue  of  Prince  Eugene.  Died 
in  1732. 

See  Ersch  und  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Perne,  pgRn,  (Francois  Louis,)  a  French  musician, 
born  in  Paris  in  1772.  He  was  appointed  inspector- 
general  of  the  Conservatory  in  1816.  He  wrote  on  the 
musical  notation  of  the  Greeks.    Died  in  1832. 

Pernetti,  peR'na'te^  or  Pernety,  pgrn'te',  (Jacques,) 
a  French  priest  and  mediocre  writer,  born  in  Forez  in 
1696  ;  died  in  1777. 

Pernety,  pgRn''te',  (Antoine  Joseph,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Roanne  in  17 16.  He  became  libra- 
rian of  Frederick  the  Great  some  time  after  1766,  and 
returned  to  France  in  1783.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  Dictionary  of  Painting,  Sculpture,  and 
Engraving,"  (1757,)  and  a  "Voyage  to  the  Falkland 
Islands,"  (2  vols.,  1769.)    Died  in  1801. 

Pernety,  (Joseph  Marie,)  Vicomte,  a  French  gene- 
ral, born  at  Lyons  in  1766.  He  served  as  colonel  at 
Austerlitz  and  Jena.  As  general  of  division,  he  con- 
tributed to  the  victories  of  Wagram,  Borodino,  (1812,) 
and  Dresden,  (1813.)    Died  in  1856. 

Pernot,  pgR'no',  (Alexandre  Franqois,)  a  French 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Vassy  (Haute-Marne)  in  1793. 
He  gained  a  first  medal  in  1839. 

Perofski  or  Perowski,  pi-rov'skee,  (Leon  Alexie- 
vitch,)  a  Russian  general  and  politician,  born  in  1 791. 
He  became  minister  of  the  interior  in  1 841,  and  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  Council  of  the  Empire  about 
1852.    Died  in  1856. 

Peron,  pi'r6N',  (Francois,)  a  French  naturalist,  born 
at  Cerilly  (Allier)  in  1775.  He  accompanied  Baudin  in 
his  expedition  to  the  South  Sea  in  1800,  as  physician 


&,  e,  T,  6,  %  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;    e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  f^Il,  fit;  mlt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PER  ONI 


PERRON  ET 


and  zoologist,  collected  more  than  100,000  specimens  of 
animals,  and  wrote  a  "  Voyage  of  Discovery  to  Southern 
Lands,"  ("  Voyage  de  Decouvertes  aux  Terres  aus- 
trales,"  4  vols.,  1811-16,)  a  work  of  much  merit.  Died 
in  1810.  • 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1810, 
Peroni,  pi-ro'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Parma  about  1700 ;  died  in  1776. 

Perotti,  pi-rot'tee,  (Niccol6,)  an  eminent  Italian 
grammarian,  born  in  Uuibria  in  1430.  He  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Siponto,  or  Manfredonia,  in  1458.  He  wrote 
a  Latin  grammar,  ( 1473,)  "  Cornucopia,  or  Commentaries 
of  the  Latin  Language,"  ("Cornucopia,  sive  Commen- 
taria  Linguae  Latinas,"  1489,)  and  other  works.  He 
translated  into  Latin  the  first  five  books  of  Polybius. 
Died  in  1480. 

Perouse,  pa'rooz',  (Jean  FRANgois  Galaup  de  la — 

gt'l5'  deh  Yi.,)  an  eminent  French  navigator,  born  at  or 
near  Albi  (Tarn)  in  1741.  He  entered  the  royal  navy  in 
1756,  became  lieutenant  in  1775,  and  fought  against  the 
English  in  the  American  war,  (1778-83.)  In  1782  he 
took  the  British  fort  York,  on  the  west  coast  of  Hudson 
Bay.  He  was  selected  by  the  government  to  command 
an  exploring  expedition,  and  sailed  with  the  Boussole 
and  Astrolabe  in  August,  1785.  Having  doubled  Cape 
Horn,  he  sailed  northward  to  the  sixtieth  degree,  and 
explored  the  coast  between  that  point  and  California. 
In  the  autumn  of  1786  he  crossed  the  ocean  to  Macao. 
He  explored  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia  from  China  to 
Avatsha  in  Kamtchatka,  from  which  point  he  sailed  to 
Botany  Bay.  The  last  letter  received  from  him  by  his 
friends  was  dated  at  Botany  Bay,  P^bruary  7,  1788. 
About  1826  it  was  ascertained  that  he  and  his  party 
perished  by  shipwreck  at  Vanicoro,  (or  Wanicoro). 

See  PiRRRE  Dillon,  "Relation  de  la  Decouverte  du  Sort  de  La 
Perouse,"  Paris,  2  vols.,  1836;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;" 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  November  and  December,  1798. 

Perowski.    See  Perofski. 

Per-pen'na  or  Per-per'na,  (M.  Vento,)  a  Roman 
officer,  was  a  partisan  of  Marius  in  the  civil  war.  He 
served  under  Sertorius  in  Spain  about  five  years. 
He  was  one  of  the  assassins  of  Sertorius,  who  was 
killed  in  72  B.C.  After  the  death  of  Sertorius  he  was 
defeated  by  Pompey  in  Spain,  taken  prisoner,  and  put 
to  death,  (72  B.C.) 

Perperna.    See  Perpenna. 

Perpinian,  p^R-pe-ne-ln',  [Lat.  Perpinia'nus,]  (Pe- 
dro Juan,)  a  Spanish  scholar,  born  in  the  province  of 
Valencia  in  1530.  He  was  professor  of  eloquence  at 
Rome.  His  "  Eighteen  Orations,"  ("  Orationes  duo- 
deviginti,"  1587,)  arguments  for  the  old  religion,  were 
very  popular.    Died  at  Paris  in  1566. 

See  Lazeki,  "  De  Vita  et  Scriptis  P.  J.  Perpiniani,"  1749. 

Perpinianus.    See  Perpinian. 

Perquit,  p^R^ke',  (S^bastien  Birgy,)  a  French  gene- 
ral, born  in  the  department  of  Bas-Rhin  in  1768.  He 
served  with  distinction  during  the  first  empire.  Died 
in  1856, 

Perrache,  pk'rtsh',  (Michel,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Lyons  in  1686  ;  died  in  1750. 

Perraud,  pcVra',  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Monay  (Jura)  in  1821.  He  obtained  a  medal  of 
the  first  class  in  1855. 

Perrault,  pcVro',  (Charles,)  a  French  author,  born 
in  Paris  in  1628.  Having  obtained  the  favour  of  Col- 
bert, he  was  appointed  controller-general  of  the  king's 
buildings,  (bdthnents.)  He  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy  in  1671.  He  scandalized  the  admirers  of 
ancient  classic  authors  by  his  "  Parallel  between  the 
Ancients  and  Moderns,"  (4  vols.,  1688-98,)  which  was  the 
signal  of  a  long  literary  contest.  This  work  was  refuted 
by  Boileau  in  his  "Reflections  on  Longinus."  Among 
his  other  works  is  one  entitled  "  The  Illustrious  Men  of 
the  Age  of  Louis  XIV.,"  (1696-1701.)  "Perrault  would 
probably  have  been  surprised,"  says  the  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale,"  "if  any  one  had  predicted  to 
him  tliat  he  should  owe  his  immortality  exclusively  to 
his  'Fairy-Tales,'  (' Contes  des  Fees,'  1697,)"  which 
obtained  great  success  in  the  nursery.    Died  in  1703. 

See  "  Memoires  de  Perrault,"  first  published  in  1759;  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  tome  v.;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 


Perrault,  (Claude,)  a  celebrated  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1613,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
His  reputation  is  founded  on  the  design  of  the  fa9ade  of 
the  Louvre.  Colbert  having  invited  the  artists  of  France 
to  compete  for  this  work,  the  design  of  Perrault  was 
preferred.  The  colonnade  of  the  Louvre,  commenced  in 
1666  and  finished  in  1670,  is  considered  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  structures  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  was 
also  the  architect  of  the  Observatory  of  Paris.  He  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  Vitruvius,  (1673,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1688. 

See  FoNTENAY,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes ;"  Cicognara,  "  Storia 
della  Scultura;"  Quatkem^re  de  Quincy,  "Vies  des  plus  illustres 
Architectes." 

Perray.    See  Duperray. 

Perreau,  p^'ro',  (Jean  Andr^;,)  a  French  writer  and 
jurist,  born  at  Nemours  in  1749,  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Tribunal,  (1800-04,)  one  of  the  rapporteurs  of 
the  Code  Civil.  Among  his  works  are  "Elements  of 
Natural  Legislation,"  (1801,)  and  "Elements  of  Roman 
Civil  Law,"  ("Juris  civilis  Romani  Elementa,"  1809.) 
Died  in  1813. 

Perreciot,  p^R^se-o',  (Claude  Joseph,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  at  Roulans  in  1728.  He  wrote  "On  the 
Civil  State  of  Persons,  etc.  among  the  Gauls,  from  the 
Celtic  Times  to  the  Adoption  of  the  Common  Laws," 
( Coutidues,)  (1784-86.)    Died  in  1798. 

Perree,  pa^rk',  (Jean  Baptiste  Emmanuel,)  a  French 
admiral,  born  in  Picardy  in  1761.  He  was  killed  in  a 
battle  against  Nelson  in  1800. 

Perrein,  pa'riw',  (Jean,)  a  French  naturalist,  born 
in  1750.  He  travelled  in  Africa  and  North  America. 
Died  at  New  York  in  1805. 

Perrenot.    See  Granvelle. 

Perret,  pi'ra',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  cutler  and 
writer,  born  at  Beziers  in  1730.  He  invented  surgical 
instruments,  and  wrote  "  On  the  Art  of  Shaving  One- 
self," (1769.)    Died  in  1784. 

Perrier.    See  Perier. 

Perrier  or  Perier,  pa're-i',  (FRANgois,)  a  painter  and 
engraver,  was  born  in  Burgundy  about  1590.  He  worked 
at  Rome  and  Paris,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Academy  of  the  latter  city.  He  painted  the  Hotel  de  la 
Vrilliere,  at  Paris.  His  engravings  of  antique  statues, 
etc.  are  commended.    Died  at  Paris  about  1654. 

Perrimezzi,  per-re-met'see,  (Giuseppe  Maria,)  an  >' 
Italian  prelate  and  writer,  born  in  Calabria  in  1670 ; 
died  in  1740. 

Perrin,  pi'riN',  (Alphonse,)  a  French  painter  of 
history  and  landscapes,  born  in  Paris  in  1798. 

Perrin,  (Claude.)    See  Victor,  Duke  of  Belluno. 

Perrin,  (Jean  Paul,)  a  French  historian  and  Prot- 
estant minister,  born  at  Lyons  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Vaudois,"  (1619.) 

Perrin,  (Maximilien,)  a  French  novelist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1796. 

Perrin,  (Narcisse,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1795.  He  wrote  a  work  on  Persia,  entitled 
"La  Perse,"  (7  vols.,  1823.) 

Perrin,  (Olivier  Stanislas,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Rostrenen  in  1761  ;  died  in  1832. 

Perrin,  (Pierre,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Lyons,  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  writer  of  French  operas.  He 
produced  a  musical  drama,  entitled  "  Pastorale,"  in  1659, 
and  obtained  letters-patent  to  open  an  academy  of  music 
in  Paris  in  1669.    Died  in  1680. 

Perrin  des  Vosge.s,  pk'iiiN'  di  vozh,  (Jean  Bap- 
tiste,) a  Frenchman,  born  at  Epinal.  He  was  elected 
in  1792  to  the  Convention,  in  which  he  opposed  the 
excesses  of  the  royalists  and  terrorists.  He  sat  in  the 
Council  of  Elders  in  1798,  and  was  the  first  president 
of  the  corps  legislatif,  about  1800.    Died  in  1815. 

Perron,  Du.    See  Du  perron. 

Perrone,  pgr-ro'nk,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  Italian 
theologian,  born  at  Chieri  (Piedmont)  in  1794.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Theological  Lessons," 
("  Praelectiones  Theologicse,"  9  vols.,  1835  et  seq.,)  which 
ran  through  twenty-five  editions.  He  became  rector  of 
the  Roman  College  in  1853. 

Perronet,  p^'ro'ni',  (  Jean  Rodolphe,  )  an  able 
French  engineer  and  architect,  born  at  Suresne,  near 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PERROT 


1772 


PERSIUS 


Paris,  in  1708.  He  became  first  engineer  of  the  roads 
and  bridges  of  France  about  1750,  and  organized  the 
ficole  des  Fonts  et  Chaussees,  which  was  frequented  by 
students  from  foreign  countries.  He  was  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  the  bridges  of  Neuilly,  Nemours,  and  Pont  Louis 
XVI,  Paris.  He  invented  a  number  of  machines.  Died 
in  1794.  '*  Perronet,"  says  A.  Jadin,  "was  for  bridges 
one  of  those  creative  geniuses  whose  appearance  makes 
an  epoch."    ("  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale.") 

See  Bertrand,  "Notice  sur  Perronet;"  Prony,  "Notice  histo- 
rique  sur  Perronet,"  1829. 

Perrot.    See  Ablancourt,  d'. 

Perrot,  pi^ro',  (Charles,)  a  French  Protestant  min- 
ister, born  in  1541,  preached  at  Geneva,  and  advocated 
toleration.    Died  in  1608. 

Perrot,  (Ferdinand  Victor,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Paimboeuf  in  1808.  He  removed  in  1840  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  where  he  was  patronized  by  the  imperial 
family.    Died  in  1841. 

Per'rot,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  courtier  or  states- 
man, born  about  1527,  was  appointed  lord  lieutenant  of 
Ireland  in  1583.    Died  in  1592. 

Perrottet,  pi'ro'ti',  (G.  Samuel,)  a  French  bot- 
anist, born  in  1793.  He  wrote  narratives  of  voyages 
to  Senegal  and  other  places,  and  a  "  Flora  of  Sene- 
gambia,"  (1831.) 

Per'ry,  (James,)  an  able  British  journalist,  born  at 
Aberdeen  in  1756.  He  became  a  resident  of  London 
about  1776,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  reporter  for 
the  "General  Advertiser."  He  was  afterwards  editor 
of  the  "Gazetteer"  and  the  "Morning  Chronicle,"  a 
Whig  organ,  which  he  edited  more  than  twenty  years. 
He  improved  the  method  of  reporting  speeches,  by 
employing  a  succession  or  relay  of  reporters  on  the 
same  speech.    Died  in  1821. 

See  William  Jerdan,  "Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1866. 

Perry,  (John,)  an  English  engineer,  born  about  1670. 
He  entered  the  service  of  Peter  the  Great,  as  engineer, 
in  1698,  and  published  a  work  called  "The  State  of 
Russia  under  the  Present  Czar,"  (1716.)  Died  in  Eng- 
land in  1733. 

Per'ry,  (Matthew  Galbraith,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  at  South  Kingston,  Rhode  Island,  in  1795, 
was  a  brother  of  Commodore  Perry.  He  served  in  the 
Mexican  war  of  1847,  and  in  1852  commanded  the  expe- 
dition to  Japan,  which  opened  the  way  to  intercourse 
between  that  country  and  the  United  States.  An  account 
of  this  voyage  was  published,  in  3  vols.,  in  1856.  Died 
in  1858. 

Perry,  (Oliver  Hazard,)  a  distinguished  American 
commodore,  born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1785. 
On  the  13th  of  September,  1813,  as  commander  of  a 
squadron  on  I^ake  Erie,  he  defeated  the  British  under 
Commodore  Barclay,  after  an  engagement  of  three  hours. 
For  this  brilliant  victory  he  was  made  a  captain  and 
received  from  Congress  a  gold  medal.  Having  been 
appointed  commander  of  a  squadron  bound  for  the  coast 
of  Columbia,  he  died  of  yellow  fever,  in  the  island  of 
Trinidad,  in  August,  1819. 

See  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  ofDistinguished  Americans, "vol.  ii. 

Persaeus,  per-see'us,  [liepaatog,]  a  Greek  philosopher, 
surnanied  Cittif/us  because  he  was  born  at  Cittium,  in 
Crete.  He  was  a  favourite  disciple  of  Zeno  the  Stoic, 
and  flourished  about  260  B.C.  He  was  patronized  by 
Antigonus  Gonatas,  who  appointed  him  governor  or 
commander  at  Corinth.  --According  to  Pausanias,  he 
was  killed  at  the  capture  of  Corinth,  in  243  B.C.  He 
wrote  several  works,  which  are  lost. 

Perse.    See  Persius. 

Persee.    See  Perseus. 

Per-seph'o-ne,  [Gr.  Tlspae^ovr] ;  Fr.  Persephone, 
p^R'si'fon',]  the  Greek  name  of  Proserpine,  which  see. 

Perses.    See  Perseus,  King  of  Macedonia. 

Per'seus,  [Gr.  He^oEvg ;  Fr.  PersEe,  p^R^si',]  a 
famous  hero  and  demi-god  of  classic  mythology,  was 
called  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Danae.  (See  DanaS.)  Ac- 
cording to  the  fable.  King  Polydectes  extorted  from 
him  a  rash  promise  to  bring  to  him  the  head  of  Medusa. 
To  equip  him  for  this  enterprise,  Minerva,  Mercury, 
and  the  Nymphs  gave  him  winged  sandals,  a  helmet 


which  rendered  him  invisible,  and  a  mirror  by  means 
of  which  he  could  see  the  image  of  the  Gorgon  and 
avoid  the  petrifying  effect  of  looking  at  the  reality. 
After  he  had  cut  off  her  head,  he  flew  through  the  air 
to  Ethiopia,  where  he  rescued  Andromeda  from  a  sea- 
monster  and  married  her. 

Per'seus  or  Pereses,  [Gr.  Jlepaevg ;  Fr.  Pers6e, 
p^R'si',]  the  last  king  of  Macedonia,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  Philip  v.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  179  B.C.  Before 
this  date,  by  perfidy  and  intrigues,  he  had  procured  the 
death  of  his  brother  Demetrius.  He  began  early  to  pre- 
pare for  a  renewal  of  hostilities  against  the  Romans,  who 
declared  war  against  him  in  171  B.C.  Several  campaigns 
were  fought,  without  decisive  results,  until  L.  ACmilius 
Paulus  took  command,  in  168  B.C.  He  defeated  Per- 
seus with  great  loss  at  Pydna,  in  June,  168,  after  which 
the  whole  kingdom  submitted  to  the  victors.  Perseus 
escaped  from  this  battle,  but  was  soon  taken  prisoner, 
and  was  kept  in  captivity  at  Alba  until  his  death,  about 
164  B.C. 

See  LiVY,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxxvlii.-xlv. 

Perseus,  a  Greek  painter  and  disciple  of  Apelles, 
flourished  about  300  B.C.    He  is  mentioned  by  Pliny. 

Persiani,  pgR-se-i'nee,  (Fanny  Tacchinardi— tlk- 
ke-naR'dee,)  an  Italian  operatic  singer,  born  in  Rome  in 
1818.    She  married  a  composer  named  Persiani  about 

1835.  Died  in  1867. 

Persigny,  (per-seen'ye,)  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  p^R's^n'- 
ye',]  (Jean  Gilbert  Victor  de  Fialin— deh  fe'S'liN',) 
CoMTE,  a  French  minister  of  state,  born  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Loire  in  1808.  He  became  about  1833  a  zealous 
partisan  of  Louis  Napoleon,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the 
instigator  of  the  attempt  made  by  him  at  Strasbourg  in 

1836.  In  1840  he  was  arrested  with  Louis  Napoleon  at 
Boulogne,  and  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  twenty 
years.  He  was,  however,  released  before  the  revolution 
of  1848,  and  renewed  his  intrigues.  In  January,  1852, 
he  obtained  the  office  of  minister  of  the  interior,  which 
he  resigned  in  June,  1854.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  London  in  1855,  was  reappointed  minister  of  the  in- 
terior in  November,  i860,  and  removed  in  June,  1863. 
Died  in  1872.  M.  Delaroa  published  in  1866  a  work 
entitled  "Le  Due  de  Persigny  et  TEmpire." 

See  H.  Castille,  "  Le  Comte  de  Persigny;"  E.  de  Mirecourt, 
"  M.  de  Persigny." 

Persil,  p^r'sM',  (Jean  Charles,)  a  French  politician 
and  advocate,  born  at  Condom  in  1785.  He  was  minister 
of  justice  in  1834  and  1835.  He  published  a  good  work, 
entitled  "Regime  hypothecaire,"  (1809.) 

Persic,  p^R'se-o,  (Ascanio,)  an  Italian  philologist, 
born  at  Matera  about  1550.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Conformity  of  the  Italian  Language  with  the  Greek," 
etc.,  (1592.)  His  brother  Antonio  wrote  several  works 
on  philosophy.    Died  after  1608. 

Persius,  per'she-us,  [Fr.  Perse,  p3,Rss,]  or,  more  fully, 
Au'lus  Per'sius  Flac'cus,  [It.  Aulo  Persio  Flacco, 
ow'lo  plk'se-o  fl^k'ko,]  a  celebrated  Roman  satirical 
poet,  was  born  of  an  equestrian  family  at  Volaterrae, 
in  Etruria,  in  34  A.D.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Cornutus 
the  Stoic,  to  whom  he  became  attached  by  an  intimate 
friendship,  which  lasted  until  the  death  of  Persius.  He 
associated  with  Lucan  and  Seneca.  His  moral  character 
appears  to  have  been  excellent.  He  died  prematurely 
in  November,  62  a.d.,  leaving  six  satires,  extending 
altogether  to  only  six  hundred  and  fifty  hexameter  lines. 
Though  his  language  is  obscure,  his  style  unpolished, 
and  his  delineations  of  men  and  manners  greatly  inferior 
to  those  of  Horace  and  Juvenal,  his  sententious  satires 
have  been  very  popular  in  ancient,  mediaeval,  and  mod- 
ern times.  His  object  is  to  inculcate  the  morality  of 
the  Stoics.  Among  the  chief  merits  of  his  satires  is  * 
the  moral  beauty  of  his  doctrines.  His  dialogues  are 
remarkably  spirited,  and  display  much  dramatic  power. 
The  best  English  versions  of  Persius  are  those  by  Dryden, 
Gifford,  Brewster,  and  Howes.  Among  the  best  editions 
of  the  text  are  those  of  Isaac  Casaubon,  (Paris,  1605,) 
Konig,  (Gottingen,  1803,)  and  O.  Jahn,  (Leipsic,  1843.) 

See  "  A.  Persii  Flacci  Vita,"  attributed  by  some  scholars  to  Sue- 
tonius; G.  Massa,  "Osservazioni  e  Racconto  della  Vita  di  A.  Per- 
sio Flacco,"  1666;  Baylr,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  N.  J.  S^lis,  "Dissertation  sur 
Perse,"  1783. 


8,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,    same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  ftt;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


PERSON 


1773 


PESNE 


Person,  peR'soN',  (Felix,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Caen  in  1795.  published  several  books  on  the  breed- 
ing of  horses,  * 

Persona,  p§R-so'ni,  (Cristoforo,)  an  Italian  Hel- 
lenist, born  at  Rome  in  1416.  He  translated  into  Latin 
some  works  of  Athanasius,  Origen,  and  Chrysostom. 
Died  in  1485. 

Persona,  p§R-so'nS,  (Gorelin,)  a  German  chronicler, 
born  in  Westphalia  in  1358;  died  after  1418. 

Persoon,  pgR-s6n',  (Christian  Hendrik,)  a  Dutch 
botanist  and  physician,  born  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  about  1770.  He  settled  at  Paris  about  1802, 
and  published,  besides  several  interesting  works  on 
cryptogamous  plants,  "Synopsis  of  Plants,"  ("Synopsis 
Plantarum,"  2  vols.,  1805-07.)    Died  in  1836. 

Persoz,  p^r'so',  (Jean  Francois,)  a  chemist,  born  in 
Switzerland  in  1805.  He  obtained  a  chair  in  the  Con- 
servatoire des  Arts  et  Metiers,  Paris,  in  1852.  He  has 
published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Printing  of  Tissues,"  (4 
vols.,  1846,)  and  other  works. 

Persuis,  de,  deh  p^R^sii-e',  (Louis  Luc  Loiseau,)  a 
French  composer,  born  at  Metz  in  1769.  He  composed 
•operas  and  ballet-music.    Died  in  Paris  in  1819. 

Perthes.    See  Boucher  de  Perthes. 

Perthes,  pgR'tIs,  (Friedrich  Christoph,)  a  learned 
German  bookseller  and  publisher,  born  at  Rudolstadt 
in  1772.  He  opened  a  bookstore  in  Hamburg  in  1796, 
married  a  daughter  of  the  editor  Claudius,  and  made 
acquaintance  with  many  literary  men,  among  whom  were 
Voss,  Stolberg,  Niebuhr,  and  the  Schlegels.  In  1822 
he  removed  to  Gotha,  where  he  published  the  "Alma- 
nach  de  Gotha."  He  died  in  1843,  was  succeeded 
in  his  business  by  his  son  Justus. 

See  "  F.  Perthes  Leben,"  by  his  son  Clemens  Theodor,  2  vols., 
1848;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1856. 

Perti,  peii'tee,  (Giacomo  Antonio,)  an  Italian  com- 
poser, born  at  Bologna  in  1661.  He  composed  success- 
ful operas.    Died  in  1756. 

Perticari,  pgR-te-k^'ree,  (Giulio,)  Count,  an  Ital- 
ian writer,  born  in  the  Romagna  in  1779.  He  married 
a  daughter  of  the  poet  Monti  in  1812.  His  works,  which 
form  two  volumes  of  the  "  Biblioteca  Scelta,"  (Milan, 
1831,)  are  commended.    Died  in  1822. 

See  MoNTANARi,  "  Biografia  di  G.  Perticari,"  1836. 

Per'ti-nax,  (Helvius,)  a  Roman  emperor,  born  at 
Alba  Pompeia,  on  the  Tanaro,  in  126  A.D.,  was  a  son 
of  a  dealer  in  charcoal.  He  was  a  teacher  of  grammar 
before  he  entered  the  army.  As  prefect  of  a  cohort,  he 
served  with  distinction  against  the  Parthians.  He  was 
admitted  into  the  senate,  and  obtained  command  of  a 
legion  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  In  179  A.D.  he 
was  consul.  He  suppressed  a  mutiny  in  Britain  in  the 
reign  of  Commodus,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the 
senate  at  the  death  of  Commodus,  in  January,  193  a.d. 
By  the  announcement  of  important  reforms,  and  his 
efforts  to  restore  discipline,  he  made  enemies  among  the 
courtiers  and  praetorians,  who  murdered  him  in  his 
palace  in  March,  193  a.d. 

See  Capitomnus,  "Pertinax;"  Dion  Cassius,  "History  of 
Rome  ;"  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Pertusier,  de,  deh  p§R'tu'ze-i',  (Charles,)  a  ///- 
terateur,  born  at  Baume-les-Dames,  in  France,  in  1779; 
died  in  1836. 

Pertz,  pgRts,  (Georg  Heinrich,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Hanover  in  1 795.  He  became  royal  librarian 
and  councillor  of  the  archives  in  his  native  city,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin.  His 
most  important  work  is  entitled  "  Historical  Monuments 
of  Germany,"  ("  Monumenta  Germanise  historica,"  13 
vols.,  1854.) 

Perugin,  Le.    See  Perugino. 

Perugino,  pi-roo-jee'no,  [called  in  French  Le  Pe- 
rugin, leh  pk^ii'zh^N',]  originally  Pietro  Vanucci, 
(vi-noot'chee,)  written,  also,  Vannucci  and  Vanuzzi, 
an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  at  Castello  della  Pieve 
in  1446.  He  painted  some  frescos  for  Sixtus  V.  in  the 
Sistine  Chapel,  Rome,  about  1480,  after  which  he  worked 
at  Florence  and  Perugia,  from  which  circumstance  he 
received  his  surname  IL  Perugino,  or  "the  Perugian." 
He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  surpassed  most  of  his 
contemporaries  in  the  gracefulness  of  his  heads  and 


figures.  His  style,  however,  is  considered  rather  dry. 
Among  his  best  works  are  an  "Infant  Christ  with  the 
Virgin,"  in  the  Albani  palace,  Rome,  the  frescos  of 
Scriptural  subjects  in  the  Sala  del  Cambio  at  Perugia, 
and  an  oil-picture  of  "The  Holy  Family,"  and  a  "  Dead 
Christ,"  in  the  Pitti  palace,  Florence.  He  was  the 
master  of  Raphael.    Died  in  1524. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  B.  Orsini,  "  Vita  di  Pietro 
Perugino,"  1804;  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Mrs. 
Jameson,  "  Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters  ;"  A.  Mezzanotth, 
"Commentario  storico  della  Vita  di  P.  Vannucci,"  1836. 

Peruzzi,  pi-root^'see,  (Baldassare,)  an  able  Italian 
architect  and  painter,  born  near  Sienna  in  1481.  He 
painted  some  frescos  at  Rome,  and  attained  great  skill 
in  perspective  and  scene-painting.  His  fresco  of  the 
"  Judgment  of  Paris,"  in  the  Villa  Belcaro,  is  called 
his  master-piece.  He  designed  the  beautiful  Palazzo 
Massimi,  Rome,  and  the  celebrated  Palazzo  Farnesina, 
in  which  he  painted  "  Perseus  and  Medusa."  Having 
been  appointed  architect  of  Saint  Peter's  about  1520,  he 
made  a  design  for  that  church  ;  but  it  was  not  executed. 
His  works  are  characterized  by  grandeur,  purity  of  de- 
sign, and  nobleness  of  expression.    Died  in  1 536. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzt,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy  ;"  Quatremi^re  de  Quincy,  "  Vies  des  plus  illus- 
tres  Architectes." 

Peruzzini,  pi-root-see'nee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
historical  painter,  born  in  1629  ;  died  at  Milan  in  1694. 

Pesarese,  II.    See  Cantarini,  (Simone.) 

Pesaro,  pa's§,-ro  or  pgs'J-ro,  (Giovanni,)  an  able 
Venetian  diplomatist,  born  in  1589.  He  was  elected 
doge  in  1658.    Died  in  1659. 

Pescaire,  de.  Marquis.    See  Avalos,  d'. 

Pescara,  de,  Marquis.    See  Avalos,  d'. 

Pescatore,  p§s-kd-to'ri,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Ravenna.  He  wrote  a  continuation  of 
Ariosto's  "Orlando  Furioso,"  (1548,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1558. 

Pesce,  pa'shi,  (Nicola  or  Cola,)  a  Sicilian,  who 
was  noted  as  a  swimmer  and  diver,  lived  about  1360- 
80.  It  is  said  that  he  dived  into  the  whirlpool  of 
Charybdis  and  brought  up  a  gold  cup  which  Frederick 
II.  had  thrown  there  to  test  his  skill. 

Pescennius  Niger.    See  Niger. 

Peselli,  pi-seKlee,  or  Pesellino.pk-sgl-lee'no,(FRAN- 
CESCO,)  a  painter,  born  in  1426,  was  a  son  of  Pesello, 
noticed  below.    Died  in  1457. 

Peselli,  (Francesco  Pesello,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Florence  in  1380.  He  painted  animals  with 
success.    Died  in  1457. 

Peselli,  (Pesello,)  an  Italian  painter  of  history  and 
animals,  born  at  Florence  in  1404;  died  in  1481. 

Pesh-da'di-an  or  Pish-da'di-an;  [from  the  Persian 
phhddd  or  pishddd,  i.e.  "lawgiver,"]  the  name  of  one  of 
the  earliest  of  the  ancient  Persian  dynasties,  so  called, 
according  to  Sir  William  Jones,  from  Hoosheng,  (Hu- 
sheng,)  who  was  distinguished  for  his  justice  and  was 
surnamed  Peshdad,  or  the  "lawgiver."  Kaiobmers, 
the  grandfather  of  Hoosheng,  is  commonly  called  the 
founder  of  the  Peshdadian  dynasty,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  established  a  code  of  laws  and  a  regu- 
lar government  in  Persia.  To  this  line  of  Persian  kings 
belonged  the  famous  Jemsheed,  (or  Jamschid,)  who 
occupies  so  prominent  a  place  in  the  ancient  legends  of 
the  East. 

See  Atkinson,  "  Abridgment  of  the  Shah  Nameh  of  Firdausi," 
London,  1832  ;  "A  Short  History  of  Persia,"  in  vol.  v.  of  the  works 
of  Sir  William  Jones. 

Pesmes,  de,  deh  pfm,  (Francois  Louis,)  a  Swiss 
general,  called  Saint-Saphorin,  (siN  st'fo'riN',)  was 
born  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud  in  1668.  He  was  sent  by 
the  Swiss  government  to  the  Congress  of  Utrecht,  and 
signed  the  treaty  of  alliance  in  17 14.  He  entered  the 
service  of  George  I.  of  England  in  1716  as  a  general, 
and  was  sent  as  minister  to  Vienna.    Died  in  1737. 

Pesne,  pfn,  (Antoine,)  a  French  painter,  born  in 
Paris  in  1683.  He  worked  at  Berlin,  to  which  he  was 
invited  by  the  king.  He  painted  many  portraits  and 
historical  pieces,  and  received  the  title  of  first  painter 
to  the  king.    Died  in  Berlin  in  1757. 

Pesne,  (Jean,)  a  painter  and  engraver,  the  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Rouen  about  1624.    He  en- 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  ^ttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2/  *h  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PESSELIER 


PETER 


graved  many  admirable  prints  after  Nicolas  Poussin, 
whose  style  and  spirit  he  reproduced  with  great  success. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1700. 

Pesselier,  pgs'le-i',  (Charles  Stienne,)  a  French 
litterateur,  was  born  in  Paris  in  17 12.  He  wrote  com- 
edies, fables,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1763. 

Pessuti,  p^s-soo'tee,  (  Giovacchino,  )  an  Italian 
mathematician,  born  at  Rome  in  1743.  He  obtained 
in  1787  the  chair  of  mathematics  at  the  Roman  Col- 
lege of  Sapienza.  He  wrote  treatises  on  hydraulics  and 
oil  the  occultation  of  fixed  stars  by  the  moon,  (1802.) 
Died  in  1814. 

Pestalozzi,  p§s-tS.-lot'see,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a 
Swiss  teacher  and  educational  reformer  of  great  merit 
and  influence,  was  born  at  Zurich  in  1746.  He  received 
a  liberal  education,  and  became  a  cultivator  of  the  soil, 
but  in  this  occupation  he  was  not  successful.  He  wrote 
a  popular  novel,  **  Leinhardt  und  Gertrud,"  (4  vols., 
1 781,)  designed  to  promote  the  better  education  of  the 
poor,  and  "  Inquiries  into  the  Process  of  Nature  for  the 
Development  of  the  Human  Race,"  {1797.)  In  1798  he 
opened  a  school  for  orphans  at  Stanz,  where  he  adopted 
a  system  of  mutual  instruction.  Having  been  driven 
from  Stanz  by  the  Austrians  in  1 799,  he  removed  to 
I')urgdorf,  where  his  school  prospered  and  acquired  a 
wide  reputation.  In  1804  he  removed  to  Yverdun. 
He  was  distinguished  for  energy,  philanthropy,  and 
originality,  but  was  deficient  in  practical  ability  to 
manage  a  large  institution.    Died  in  1827. 

See  his  Autobioerraphy,  entitled  "The  Fortunes  of  my  Life,"  1826  ; 
Oppel.  "J.  H.  Pestaiozzi's  Leben,"  1846;  Life,  by  Von  Raumer, 
1855;  Bandlin,  "Pestalozzi,  seine  Zeit,  seine  Wirkiingen,"  1843; 
Blochmann,  "  H.  Pestalozzi,"  Dresden,  1846;  Ahrends,  "Pesta- 
lozzi, sein  Leben  und  sein  Wirken,"  1846;  E.  Biber,  "  Beitrag  zur 
Biographie  J.  H.  Pestalozzi,"  1827;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^- 
rale ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1828;  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  July,  1849. 

Pestel,  pgs'tel,  (Frtedrtch  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Rinteln  in  1724  ;  died  at  Leyden  in  1805. 

Pestel,  pes'tel,  (Paul,)  a  Russian  revolutionist,  born 
in  1794,  was  a  leader  of  a  secret  society  or  conspiracy 
which  designed  to  substitute  liberal  institutions  for 
absolutism  in  Russia.    He  was  hung  in  1826. 

Petagna,  pa-tSn^ya,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  botanist, 
born  at  Naples  in  1734.  He  was  professor  of  botany 
in  the  University  of  Naples,  and  published  "Botanic 
Institutes,"  ("  Institutiones  Botanicse,"  5  vols.,  1785.) 
Died  in  1810. 

Petau,  peh-to',  or  Petavu,  peh-tt'vu',  [Lat.  Peta'- 

vius,]  (Denis,)  a  French  scholar  and  Jesuit  of  great 
learning,  born  at  Orleans  in  1583.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Paris  from  162 1  to  1644.  He  published  a 
great  work  on  chronology,  "  De  Doctrina  Temporum," 
(2  vols.,  1627,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  Among  his 
other  works  is  "Theologica  Dogmata,"  (5  vols.,  1644-50.) 
He  wrote  against  Salmasius.    Died  in  Paris  in  1652. 

See  Bavi.e,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Henri  de 
Vai.ois,  "Oratio  in  Obitum  D.  Petavii,"  1653;  Leon  Allatius, 
"  Melissolyra  de  Laudibus  D.  Petavii,"  1653;  Niceron,  "Me- 
moires." 

Petau,  (Paul,)  an  antiquary,  born  at  Orleans  in  1568. 
He  wrote  on  medals,  etc.    Died  in  1614. 
Petavius.    See  Petau,  (Denis.) 
Petavu.    See  Petau. 

Pe'ter,  [Gr.  XVhpoq;  Lat.  Pe'trus  ;  Fr,  Pierre,  pe-aiR'; 
Ger.  Peter,  pa'ter ;  Ital.  Pietro,  pe-a'tRo ;  Span. 
Pedro,  pa'oRo,]  Saint,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  was 
born  at  Bethsaida,  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  was  a 
brother  of  Andrew.  His  original  name  was  SiMON  ; 
but  when  he  became  a  disciple  of  Christ  he  received 
the  name  of  Peter,  which  in  Greek  signifies  a  "rock." 
He  was  sometiines  called  Cephas.  His  occupation  was 
that  of  a  fisherman.  He  was  a  man  of  ardent  tempera- 
ment, affectionate  and  generous.  He  was  favoured  with 
special  manifestations  of  his  Master's  confidence,  and 
performed  a  more  prominent  part  in  the  sacred  history 
than  any  other  of  the  twelve  disciples.  Peter  and  An- 
drew were  the  first  of  the  apostles  in  the  order  of  time. 
On  several  occasions  Peter  acted  as  spokesman  for  his 
fellow-apostles  ;  and  it  is  supposed  by  many  that  he 
possessed  some  pre-eminent  authority.  When  the  Lord 
Jesus  was  arrested,  Peter  drew  a  sword  and  cut  off  the 
ear  of  the  high-priest's  servant ;  but,  in  the  severe  crisis 


that  followed,  his  faith  and  courage  failed,  so  that  he 
denied  IJs  Master.  Having  recovered  from  this  lapse 
by  hearty  repentance,  he  became  a  zealous  and  powerful 
minister,  and  spoke  with  great  effect  at  Jerusalem  on  the 
day  of  Pentecost.  He  raised  Tabitha,  or  Dorcas,  from 
the  dead,  and  performed  other  miracles.  He  received  a 
divine  mission  to  preach  the  gospel  to  Cornelius,  a  gen- 
tile. About  44  A.D.  he  was  cast  into  prison  by  Herod 
the  king,  but  he  was  delivered  by  an  angel.  The  last 
passage  of  sacred  history  which  mentions  Saint  Peter 
is  the  account  of  a  council  held  at  Jerusalem  about  50 
A.D.  (Acts  XV.)  Tradition  adds  that  he  preached  in 
Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Bithynia,  and  Pontus,  and  that  he 
suffered  martyrdom  in  Rome  about  65  A.D.  He  wrote 
two  epistles,  which  are  included  in  the  canon  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  are  highly  prized. 

See  Matthew  x.  2,  xvi.  16-19,  xvii.,  xxvi.  33-75 ;  Mark  i.  10,  /,9, 
ix.  2,  5,  X.  28,  xiv.  2g,  33,  54,  66-72;  Luke  v.,  vi.  14,  xviii.  28, 
xxii.  31-34,  54-62,  xxiv.  12;  John  i.  40-44,  vi.  68,  xiii.  6-9,  24,  37, 
xvui.  10,  15-18,  25-27,  XX.  2-6,  xxi.  2-21 ;  Actsi.,  ii.,  iii.,  iv.,  v.,  viii. 
14,  20,  ix.  32-43-  X-  5-48,  xi.  passim,  xii.  3-17,  and  xv.  7.  Also, 
L.  Cuccagni,  "Vita  di  San  Pietro,"  1777. 

Pester,  (or  Pedro,  pa'dRo,)  often  called  Dom  Pedro, 
(Antonio  Joz6  de  Alcantara— dk  il-kin'ti-ra,)  Em- 
peror of  Brazil  and  King  of  Portugal,  a  son  of  John  VI. 
of  Portugal,  was  born  at  Queluz  in  1798.  On  the  con- 
quest of  Portugal  by  the  French,  in  1807,  he  was  taken 
by  his  father  to  Brazil.  He  married  Maria  Leopoldina 
of  Austria  about  1816,  and  became  Regent  of  Brazil 
in  1821.  A  revolution  having  rendered  Brazil  indepen- 
dent of  Portugal,  Dom  Pedro  was  proclaimed  emperor 
on  the  I2th  of  October,  1822.  He  was  recognized  as 
such  by  the  Portuguese  government  in  1825.  At  the 
death  of  his  father  (1826)  he  inherited  the  throne  of 
Portugal,  which  he  soon  abdicated  in  favour  of  his 
daughter.  Donna  Maria  da  Gloria.  The  disaffection  of 
his  subjects  became  so  violent  that  he  abdicated  the 
crown  of  Brazil  in  favour  of  his  son  in  1831,  and  re- 
turned to  Portugal,  from  which  he  expelled  his  brother, 
Dom  Miguel,  who  had  usurped  the  royal  power.  Died 
in  1834. 

See  Eduard  Grosse,  "Dom  Pedro  I.,  oder  Geschichte  der 
neuesten  Revolution  von  Brasilien  und  Portugal,"  1836;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Peter  or  Pedro  II.  de  Alcantara,  Emperor  of 
Brazil,  born  at  Rio  Janeiro  in  December,  1825,  is  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  who  abdicated  in  his  favour  in  1831. 
He  began  to  act  as  emperor  on  the  23d  of  July,  1840, 
when  he  was  declared  of  age.  In  1843  ^""6  married 
Theresa  Christina  Maria,  a  daughter  of  the  King  of 
the  Two  Sicilies.  He  cultivates  literature,  and  has  the 
reputation  of  a  liberal  and  popular  ruler. 

Peter,  Emperor  of  Constantinople.  See  Courtenay, 
DE,  (Pierre.) 

Peter  [Russ.  Petr,  pe-6tr']  I.,  or  Peter  the  Great, 
[Fr.  Pierre  le  Grand,  pe-aiR'  leh  gR6N ;  Ger.  Peter 
DER  Grosse,  pa'ter  d^r  gRos'seh  ;  It.  Pietro  il  Grande, 
pe-a'tRo  h\  gR^n'da ;  Lat.  Pe'trus  Mag'nus,]  Czar  of 
Russia,  born  at  Moscow,  June  10,  1672,  was  the  third  son 
of  Alexis  Mikhailovitch,  His  mother  was  Natalia,  the 
second  wife  of  Alexis.  Feodor,  the  eldest  son  of  Alexis, 
having  died  without  issue,  in  1682,  Peter  was  recognized 
as  his  successor,  in  preference  to  Ivan,  who  was  a  feeble- 
minded youth.  Their  ambitious  sister  Sophia,  however, 
fomented  a  bloody  mutiny  among  the  strelitzes,  and 
procured  the  proclamation  of  Ivan  and  Peter  as  joint 
sovereigns.  Sophia  acted  as  regent  until  1689,  when 
she  was  confined  in  a  convent  and  Peter  began  to  reign 
as  sole  autocrat.  He  married  Eudoxia  Feodorovna  in 
1689.  Some  years  before  this  date  he  had  received 
scientific  instruction  from  Le  Fort,  a  native  of  Geneva, 
who  became  one  of  his  advisers  or  ministers  after  his 
accession. 

Peter  had  received  from  nature  violent  passions  and 
an  indomitable  energy.  In  the  early  part  of  his  reign 
he  determined  to  reform  the  institutions,  governmental 
system,  and  customs  of  Russia,  which  was  far  behind 
other  countries  of  Europe  in  civilization.  His  first  care 
was  to  organize  an  army  with  the  European  discipline  ; 
and  he  set  the  example  by  entering  the  army  himself  as 
a  private  soldier.  He  also  gave  much  attention  to  the 
construction  of  a  navy,  and  learned  practical  seamanship 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fJt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PETER 


PETER 


by  cruising  on  the  White  Sea.  He  procured  the  ser- 
vices of  many  foreign  engineers,  shipwrights,  artisans, 
etc.  In  1696  he  captured  Azof  from  the  Turks  by  the 
aid  of  his  new  navy. 

Prompted  by  an  irrepressible  activity  and  desire  of 
knowledge,  in  1697  he  visited  Western  Europe  incognito, 
accompanied  by  several  of  his  favourite  officers  or  min- 
isters, who  were  accredited  as  ambassadors  to  Holland. 
He  took  a  lodging  in  a  small  house  at  Saardam,  where 
he  worked  for  wages  as  a  ship-carpenter,  under  the  name 
of  Pieter  Timmerman. 

In  January,  1698,  he  went  to  England,  where  he  passed 
about  three  months.  Here,  says  Macaulay,  *'  his  stately 
form,  his  intellectual  forehead,  his  piercing  black  eyes, 
his  Tartar  nose  and  mouth,  his  gracious  smile,  his  frown, 
black  with  all  the  stormy  rage  and  hate  of  a  barbarian 
tyrant,  .  .  .  were  during  some  weeks  popular  topics  of 
conversation."  He  returned  to  his  capital,  Moscow, 
after  an  absence  of  seventeen  months,  and  punished 
with  great  severity  the  strelitzes,  who  had  rebelled  while 
he  was  absent.  He  established  naval  and  other  schools, 
caused  useful  works  to  be  translated  into  Russian,  re- 
quired his  subjects  to  trade  with  foreigners,  and  made 
various  other  innovations,  against  which  a  great  number 
of  his  subjects  were  deeply  prejudiced.  He  also  dis- 
banded the  strelitzes,  who  had  served  as  a  body-guard 
of  the  Czars.  In  1700  he  formed  an  alliance  with  the 
Kings  of  Poland  and  Denmark  against  Charles  XII. 
of  Sweden,  who  defeated  the  Russians  at  Narva  in  the 
same  year.  Peter  founded  Saint  Petersburg  in  1703, 
and  prosecuted  vigorously  the  war  against  Charles,  who 
was  defeated  at  the  decisive  battle  of  Pultowa,  in  1709. 
(See  Charles  XII.)  In  1711  he  married  Catherine, 
a  girl  of  obscure  origin,  who  had  been  taken  prisoner  at 
Marienburg.    (See  Catherine  I.) 

The  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey  having  been  re- 
newed, Peter  conducted  an  army  in  person  across  the 
Pruth  into  the  dominions  of  the  Sultan.  Hemmed  in 
by  the  Turkish  army,  and  unable  to  obtain  a  regular 
supply  of  provisions,  he  was  reduced  to  a  dangerous 
situation,  from  which,  it  is  said,  the  empress  Catherine 
rescued  him  by  overtures  of  peace  and  rich  presents  to 
the  grand  vizier.  Peter  obtained  peace  by  restoring  Azof 
and  Taganrog  in  July,  171 1,  after  which  he  prosecuted 
with  success  the  war  against  the  Swedes  in  Pomerania 
and  conquered  Finland.  He  transferred  the  senate  to 
Saint  Petersburg  in  1 7 13,  soon  after  which  the  imperial 
])alaces  of  that  city  were  finished.  In  1716  he  visited 
Gerniany,  Holland,  Denmark,  and  France.  During  his 
visit  to  Copenhagen  he  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  combined  fleets  of  Russia,  Holland,  England, 
and  Denmark. 

Alexis,  the  eldest  son  of  Peter,  had  constantly  opposed 
his  projects  of  reform,  and  had  selected  his  favourites 
and  advisers  among  the  enemies  of  his  father's  policy. 
Having  remonstrated  without  effect  against  this  conduct, 
Peter  compelled  him,  in  February,  1718,  to  renounce  the 
succession.  Alexis  was  then  tried  for  conspiracy  by  a 
council  of  judges  and  bishops,  who  condemned  him  to 
death.  The  circumstances  attending  the  death  of  Alexis, 
attested  as  they  appear  to  be  by  unimpeachable  wit- 
nesses, seem  to  prove  l^eyond  a  doubt  that  he  was 
poisoned  by  order  of  his  father.    (See  Alexis.) 

In  1719  Peter  was  afflicted  by  the  death  of  his  second 
son,  Peter,  the  heir-apparent  and  the  issue  of  Catherine. 
He  made,  in  September,  1721,  at  Nystad,  (or  Neustadt,) 
a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  King  of  Sweden,  who  ceded 
to  him  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Ingria,  Carlia,  and  Viborg. 
Finland  was  restored  to  Sweden  by  this  treaty.  Having 
thus  fortunately  ended  a  war  of  twenty  years,  he  assumed, 
at  the  request  of  the  senate,  the  titles  of"  Peter  the  Great, 
Emperor  of  all  the  Russias,  and  Father  of  his  Country." 
He  afterwards  directed  his  attention  to  internal  improve- 
ments, and  founded  the  Academy  of  Sciences  about  1724. 
The  public  offices  and  tribunals  had  been  removed  in 
1721  to  Saint  Petersburg,  the  population  of  which  he 
had  rapidly  increased  by  arbitrary  measures.  Among 
his  favourite  ministers  and  courtiers  were  Mentchikof 
and  Galitzin.  He  died  at  Saint  Petersburg  on  the  28th 
of  January  or  the  8th  of  February,  1725,  leaving  two 
daughters,  Elizabeth,  who  became  empress,  and  Anna. 


Catherine  reigned  until  her  death,  in  1727,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Peter  II.,  a  son  of  Alexis. 

See  John  Mottley,  "Life  of  Peter  the  Great,"  3  vols.,  1739; 
Mauvii.i.on-,  "  Histoire  de  Pierre  ler,"  1742  :  Alex.  Gordon,  "  His- 
tory of  Peter  the  Great,"  1755  ;  Voi-taire,  "  Histoire  de  Russia  sous 
Pierre  le  Grand,"  1759-63;  Claudius,  "  Peter  der  Grosse,"  3  vols., 
1798-1818;  GoLiKow,  "Life  of  Peter  the  Great,"  (in  Russian,)  12 
vols.,  17S8-98  ;  Rakener,  "  Leben  Petri  L,"  1725;  Von  Halem, 
"  Leben  Peters  des  Grossen,"  3  vols.,  1803-05;  Grosse,  "Peter 
der  Grosse,"  1836  ;  Ph.  de  Segur,  "  Histoire  de  Russie  et  de  Pierre 
le  Grand,"  1829  ;  Reiche,  "  Peter  der  Grosse  und  seine  Zeit,"  1841  ; 
Benjamin  Bergm ann,  "  Peter  derGrosse  als  Mensch  und  Regent," 
3  vols.,  1S23-26;  "North  American  Review"  for  October,  1845,  (by 
J.  Lothrop  Motley.) 

Peter  II.,  (Alexievitch,)  a  grandson  of  Peter  the 
Great,  was  born  in  1714  or  171 5.  He  began  to  reign  in 
May,  1727.  His  accession  was  promoted  by  Mentchikof, 
who  expected  to  have  great  ])ower  or  influence  during 
his  minority.  Ivan  Dolgoruki,  however,  became  the 
favourite  of  Peter,  who  banished  Mentchikof  to  Siberia. 
Peter  died  in  January,  1730,  and  was  succeeded  by  Anna 
Ivanowna. 

Peter  III.,  (Feodorovitch,)  Emperor  of  Russia, 
born  in  1728,  was  a  grandson  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  a 
son  of  Anna,  who  was  married  to  the  Duke  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp.  He  was  recognized  as  heir  to  the  throne  by 
Elizabeth  in  1742,  and  married,  in  1745,  Sophia  Augusta 
of  Anhalt-Zerbst,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Catherine. 
He  succeeded  his  aunt  Elizabeth  in  January,  1762. 
Among  his  first  acts  was  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Frederick 
the  Great,  Having  provoked  the  enmity  of  the  nobles 
and  clergy  by  some  innovations,  he  was  dethroned  and 
strangled  in  July,  1762,  by  conspirators,  of  whom  his 
wife  was  an  accomplice.    (See  Catherine  II.) 

See  Ranft,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  des  Kaisers  Peter  III.,"  1773; 
Thiebault  de  Laveaux,  "  Histoire  de  Pierre  III,"  3  vols.,  1798; 
Goldern,  "Biographic  Peters  II L,"  1792;  Helbig,  "  Biographie 
Peters  III.,"  2  vols.,  1808-09. 

Peter  (or  Pedro,  pa'DRo)  I.,  King  of  Aragon,  was  a 
son  of  Sancho  Ramirez.    Died  in  1104. 

Peter  (or  Pedro)  II.,  King  of  Aragon,  born  in  11 74, 
was  a  son  of  Alfonso  II.    Died  in  1213. 

Peter  (or  Pedro)  III.,  surnamed  the  Great,  King 
of  Aragon,  was  born  in  1236,  and  succeeded  his  father, 
James  I.,  in  1276.  He  had  married  about  1262  Con- 
stance, a  daughter  of  Manfred,  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily. 
After  the  death  of  Manfred,  Peter  asserted  his  claim  to 
the  kingdom  of  Naples  against  Charles  of  Anjou,  who 
had  possession  of  it  and  who  was  supported  by  the 
pope.  The  interest  of  Peter  was  promoted  by  the  mas- 
sacre of  the  French  at  the  Sicilian  Vespers,  March  30, 
1282,  and  by  several  naval  victories  gained  by  his  ad- 
miral, Roger  di  Loria,  over  the  fleet  of  Charles.  He 
died  in  1285,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Alfonso  III. 

See  ZuRiTA,  "  Anales  de  Aragon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Peter  (or  Pedro)  IV.,  surnamed  the  Ceremonious, 
King  of  Aragon,  born  in  13 17,  was  the  son  of  Alfonso 
IV.    He  began  to  reign  in  1336.    Died  in  1387. 

Peter  (or  Pedro)  1,  surnamed  the  Cruel,  King  of 
Castile  and  Leon,  born  about  1334,  succeeded  his  father, 
Alfonso  XL,  in  1350.  He  married  Blanche  de  Bourbon, 
a  French  princess,  in  1353,  but  he  soon  imprisoned  her 
and  married  Jiiana  de  Castro,  whom  he  also  maltreated. 
The  friends  of  these  ladies  revolted  without  success,  and 
Blanche  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  Peter.  About 
1366  he  was  driven  out  of  Castile  by  Du  Guesclin  and 
others,  who  supported  Pedro's  brother,  Henry  de  Trans- 
tamare,  as  king.  Peter  was  restored  by  the  English 
Black  Prince  in  1367,  and  was  assassinated  by  Henry  de 
Transtamare  in  1369. 

See  Lopez  de  Ayala,  "  Cronica  de  los  Reyes  Pedro  I.,"  etc., 
1591  ;  Count  de  la  Roca,  "  El  Rey  Don  Pedro  defendido,"  1648; 
Dillon,  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Peter  the  Cruel,"  2  vols.,  1788  ; 
Prosper  Merim^e,  "Histoire  de  Don  Pedro,  Roi  de  Castille," 
2  vols.,  1848;  Froissart,  "Chronicles;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Peter  (Pedro)  I.,  King  of  Portugal,  born  in  1320, 
was  a  son  of  Alfonzo  IV.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1357. 
Died  in  1367. 

Peter  (Pedro)  II.,  King  of  Portugal,  a  younger  son 
of  John  IV.,  was  born  in  1648.  Having  deposed  his 
brother,  Alfonzo  VI.,  in  1667,  he  became  regent.  He 
reigned  as  king  from  1683  until  his  death,  in  1706. 


€  as  k;  q  as  s;  g  /lard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal ;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Si^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PETER 


1776 


PETERS 


Peter  or  Pedro  IV.  of  Portugal.  See  Peter  I,, 
Emperor  of  Ikazil. 

Peter  or  Pedro  V.,  King  of  Portugal,  born  at  Lisbon 
in  September,  1837,  was  a  son  of  Queen  Donna  Maria  da 
Gloria,  and  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  succeeded 
his  mother  in  November,  1853,  under  the  regency  of  his 
father,  and  assumed  the  functions  of  royalty  in  Septem- 
ber or  November,  1855.  He  was  a  popular  prince.  He 
died  in  November,  1861,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  Louis  I. 

Peter  (or  Pierre,  pe-aiR')  I.,  surnamed  Mauclerc, 
Duke  of  Brittany,  and  Count  de  Dreux,  was  a  grandson 
of  Louis  VI.  of  France.  He  married,  about  1212,  Alix 
de  Thouars,  the  heiress  of  Brittany.  He  served  under 
Louis  IX.  in  the  crusade  of  1249,  and  died  in  1250. 

Peter  (Pierre)  II.,  Duke  of  Brittany,  succeeded  his 
brotlier,  Francis  t.,  in  1450.    Died  in  1457. 

Peter,  [Gr.  Ilerpof,]  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  succeeded 
Theonas  in  300  a.d.  He  was  beheaded  in  the  reign  of 
Maximinus  H.,  in  311.    He  is  eulogized  by  Eusebius. 

Peter  or  Pe'trus  of  Alexandria,  the  companion 
and  successor  of  Athanasius.  Having  been  designated 
by  the  latter,  he  was  elected  bishop  by  the  orthodox 
party  in  373  a.d.,  but  was  quickly  deposed  by  the  Arians. 
He  was  restored  in  378,  and  died  in  381  a.d. 

Peter  of  Blois,  [Lat.  Pe'trus  Blesen'sis,]  an  emi- 
nent French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Blois.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Archdeacon  of  Bath  by  Henry  II.  of  England. 
He  died  in  1200,  leaving  many  letters  and  other  works, 
which  have  been  printed,  (1519  and  1667.) 

Peter  or  Pe'trus  of  Sebas'te,  a  bishop,  born  in 
Cappadocia  about  350  a.d.,  was  a  brother  of  Basil  the 
Great,  by  whom  he  was  ordained  a  presbyter.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Sebaste,  in  Armenia,  about  380. 
Died  after  390  A.D. 

Peter,  [Lat.  Pe'trus,]  surnamed  Chrysol'ogus,  a 
Bishop  of  Ravenna,  who  died  in  450  A.D. 

Peter  de  Bruys,  (deh  bRii-e',)  a  French  preacher, 
who  began  about  mo  to  speak  against  the  corruptions 
of  the  Church.  He  is  said  to  have  rejected  masses,  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  other  ordinances.  He  was  burned 
at  the  stake  in  1 130. 

See  Hodgson,  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Peter  Comestor.    See  Comestor. 

Peter  the  Deacon,  an  Italian  chronicler,  born  at 
Rome  in  1107  ;  died  after  1159. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  [Fr.  Pierre  l'Ermite,  pe-aiR' 
IgR'm^t';  It.  Pietro  l'Eremita,  pe-a'tRo  la-ri-mee'ti,] 
a  famous  enthusiast,  agitator,  and  crusader,  was  born  in 
the  diocese  of  Amiens  about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh 
century.  He  performed  a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine  about 
1094,  and  was  filled  with  indignation  by  the  oppressions 
to  which  the  pilgrims  were  subjected.  On  his  return 
he  received  a  commission  from  Pope  Urban  II.  to  preach 
a  crusade  against  the  infidels.  He  traversed  France 
and  other  countries  barefoot,  and  by  his  fervent  appeals 
enlisted  a  host  of  crusaders  and  outlaws  estimated  at 
nearly  100,000.  He  led  them  as  far  as  Constantinople, 
and,  after  the  defeat  of  this  rabble  near  Nice,  he  accom- 
panied Godfrey  to  Jerusalem.  Nearly  all  of  the  rabble 
perished  miserably.    He  died  in  Flanders  in  1 1 15. 

See  MiCHAUD,  "  Histoire  des  Croisades;"  H.  Prat,  "Pierre 
rErinite  et  la  premiere  Croisade,"  1840. 

Pe'ter  Lom'bard,  a  distinguished  Italian  theologian, 
born  in  the  district  of  Novara.  He  was  elected  Bishop 
of  Paris  in  1159.  He  produced  a  celebrated  compilation 
of  sentences  from  the  Fathers,  ("  Sententiarum  Libri 
IV.,")  wliich  was  much  used  as  a  text-book,  and  often 
reprinted  and  commented  on.    Died  about  1160. 

Peter  Martyr.    See  Anghiera,  de. 

Pe'ter  Mar'tyr,  [Ital.  Pif;tro  Martire,  pe-a'tRo 
maR^te-rk,]  or  Piepro  Vermigli,  (v^R-m^Kyee,)  an  emi- 
nent Protestant  theologian,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1500, 
and  educated  in  the  Catholic  faith.  Having  been  con- 
verted to  the  Reformed  religion,  he  repaired  in  1542  to 
Zurich,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Bullinger. 
He  afterwards  became  professor  of  theology  at  Stras- 
burg,  having  the  celebrated  Bucer  for  his  colleague.  At 
the  invitation  of  Edward  VI.,  he  visited  England,  and 
was  appointed  in  1549  professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford. 
Soon  after  the  accession  of  Mary,  he  left  England,  and  | 


was  invited  to  fill  the  chair  of  theology  at  Zurich.  As  a 
Protestant  writer  he  is  esteemed  second  only  to  Calvin, 
whom  he  is  said  to  have  surpassed  in  learning,  and  his 
virtues  and  eloquence  were  eulogized  by  Catholics  as 
well  as  Protestants.  He  was  the  author  of  several  com- 
mentaries on  the  Scriptures,  and  other  theological  works. 
Died  at  Zurich  in  1562. 

^  See  M'Crie,  "  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy;"  Schlosser, 
'Leben  Peter  Martyrs,"  1809;  Wood,  "Athense  Oxonienses ;" 
Schmidt,  "Vie  de  Pierre  Martyr  Vermigli,"  Strasbourg,  1S35. 

Pester  Moii'gus,  [Gr.  Ilcrpof  6  Uoyyog,]  became  Mo- 
nophysite  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  in  477  a.d.  Having 
been  deposed  by  the  emperor  Zeno,  he  was  restored  in 
482.  By  a  comproinise  or  temporizing  policy  he  retained 
his  ofifice  until  he  died,  in  490. 

See  Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Peter  Nolasque  (no'lSsk')  or  Nolasco,  (no-lSs'ko,) 
the  founder  of  the  Order  of  Mercy,  (for  the  redemption 
of  captives  taken  by  the  Moors,)  was  born  in  Languedoo 
about  1189;  died  in  1256. 

Peter  the  Venerable,  a  French  monk,  born  about 
1092,  became  Abbot  of  Clugny.    Died  in  1156. 

Peter,  pa'ter,  ( Wenceslaus,)  a  Bohemian  painter, 
born  at  Carlsbad  in  1742.  He  worked  at  Rome,  and 
was  a  skilful  painter  of  animals.  Died  at  Rome  in  1829. 

Peterborough.    See  Mordaunt. 

Peterman,  pa'ter-mSn^  (August  Heinrich,)  a  Ger- 
man geographer,  born  near  Nordhausen  in  1822.  He 
aided  Johnston,  of  Edinburgh,  in  the  "  Physical  Atlas," 
and  T.  Milner  in  the  "  Atlas  of  Physical  Geography." 
He  became  about  1854  editor  of  a  monthly  journal 
devoted  to  geographical  discovery,  published  at  Gotha. 
He  wrote  or  edited  "  An  Account  of  the  Expeditions  to 
Central  Africa." 

Peterneefs.    See  Neefs,  (Peter.) 

Peters,  pa'ters,  (Bonaventure,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1614,  was  the  best  marine  painter 
of  his  time.  His  favourite  subjects  were  storms  and 
shipwrecks.  He  also  painted  views  of  the  sea  in  a 
calm.    Died  at  Antwerp  in  1652. 

Pe'ters,  (Charles,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Corn- 
wall. He  became  rector  of  Saint  Mabyn  in  1727,  and 
wrote  a  "  Critical  Dissertation  on  the  Book  of  fob." 
Died  in  1777.  A  volume  of  his  sermons  was  published 
after  his  death. 

Peters,  (Francis  Lucas,)  a  Flemish  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Mechlin  (Malines)  in  1606;  died  at 
Brussels  in  1654. 

Peters,  (Gerard.)    See  Pieters. 

Peters  or  Peter,  (Hugh,)  an  English  dissenting 
minister,  born  in  Cornwall  in  1599.  He  preached  in 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  several  years,  between  1635 
1641.  On  his  return  to  England  he  became  a  par- 
tisan of  the  Parliament,  acquired  much  influence,  and 
was  a  preacher  to  the  army  which  fought  against  the 
king.  He  was  tried  for  treason  and  hung  by  the  royalists 
in  1660.  His  reputation  is  defended  by  some  respectable 
writers. 

See  S.  Peters,  "  History  of  Hugh  Peters,"  1807  ;  Brook,  "Lives 
of  the  Puritans  " 

Peters,  (Jan,)  an  excellent  Flemish  marine  painter, 
a  brother  of  Bonaventure,  noticed  above,  was  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1625.  His  figures  are  well  designed  and 
his  landscapes  finely  touched.  Among  his  master-pieces 
is  the  "  Port  of  Oran."    Died  in  1677. 

Pe'ters,  (John  Charles,)  M.D.,  an  American  homoe- 
opathic physician,  born  in  New  York  in  1819,  has  pub- 
lished a  "  Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Head,"  a  "  Treatise 
on  Diseases  of  the  Eyes,"  and  other  medical  works,  and 
was  for  a  time  editor  of  the  "  North  American  Journal 
of  Homoeopathy." 

Peters,  (Phillis  Wheatley.)    See  Wheatley. 

Peters,  (Richard,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1744.  He  was  appointed  in  1776  secretary 
of  the  board  of  war,  and  was  afterwards  judge  of  the 
United  States  district  court  for  Pennsylvania.  Died 
in  1828.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  dry  humour,  ready 
wit,  etc. 

Peters,  (Samuel,)  an  Episcopal  divine,  born  at 
Hebron,  Connecticut,  in  1735.  Dm'i'ig  the  Revolution 
he  sided  with  the  Tories,  and  took  refuge  in  England, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ia,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fUll,  ftt;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


PETERS 


^111 


PETIT 


where  he  published  a  "General  History  of  Connecticut," 
He  is  satirized  in  Trumbull's  "  McFingal"  under  the 
name  of  "  Parson  Peter."    Died  in  1826. 

Peters,  (Samuel  Jarvis,)  an  American  merchant, 
born  in  Canada  in  1801,  settled  in  New  Orleans,  and 
became  president  of  the  State  Bank  of  Louisiana.  Died 
in  1855. 

Petersen,  pa'ter-sen,  (  Frederik  Christian,  )  a 
Danish  scholar,  and  professor  of  philology  at  Copen- 
hagen, was  born  in  Seeland  in  1786.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  are  a  "Manual  of  Greek  Literary  History," 
and  an  "  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Archaeology," 
(1825.) 

Petersen,  (Niels  Matthias,)  an  eminent  Danish 
historian  and  antiquary,  born  at  Sanderum,  in  the  isle 
of  Funen,  in  1791.  He  was  a  fellow-student  of  Rask, 
who  became  his  friend.  He  published  in  1829  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Danish,  Norwegian,  and  Swedish  Lan- 
guages," (2  vols.,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  In  1845 
he  became  professor  of  Northern  literature  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Copenhagen.  Among  his  important  works 
are  a  "  History  of  Denmark  in  Heathen  Times,"  (3 
vols.,  1834-38,)  and  "Contributions  to  the  History  of 
Danish  Literature,"  (ist  vol.,  1853.)  He  died  in  Copen- 
hagen in  May,  1862. 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon." 

Pe'ther,  (Abraham,)  an  English  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Chichester  in  1756,  was  a  son  of  William  Pether, 
noticed  below.  He  painted  moonlight  scenes  with  suc- 
cess.   Died  in  1812. 

His  son  Sebastian,  born  about  1790,  was  also  a 
landscape-painter.    Died  in  1844. 

Pether,  (William,)  an  English  engraver  in  mezzotint, 
and  painter,  born  about  1730,  flourished  about  1770. 
He  engraved  some  works  of  Rembrandt,  and  some  of 
his  own  designs. 

Pethion.    See  Petion,  (J6r6me.) 

Petiet,  pi'te-i',  (Claude,)  a  French  administrator, 
born  at  Chatillon-sur-Seine  in  1749.  He  was  minister 
of  war  from  February,  1796,  to  July,  1797,  and  governor 
of  Lombardy,  (1800-02.)    Died  in  1806. 

Petigny,  de,  deh  pi't^n'ye',  (Franqois  Jules,)  a 
French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  received 
a  prize  of  nine  thousand  francs  for  his  "Studies  on  the 
History,  Laws,  and  Institutions  of  the  Merovingian 
Period,"  (2  vols.,  1842-44.)    Died  in  1858. 

Pet'I-gru,  (James  Louis,)  an  eminent  American 
lawyer  and  statesman,  born  in  Abbeville  district.  South 
Carolina,  about  1789.  He  practised  law  at  Charleston, 
and  was  attorney-general  of  South  Carolina  from  1822 
to  1830.  He  differed  from  the  large  majority  of  the 
people  of  his  State  on  the  subject  of  nullification  about 
1831.  He  also  opposed  the  secession  movement  of 
i86o-6r.    Died  in  1863. 

See  Wm.  J.  Grayson,  "James  L.  Petigrn ;  a  Biographical 
Sketch,"  1 866. 

Petion,  pi'te-6N',  (Alexandre,)  the  first  President 
of  the  republic  of  Hayti,  was  born  at  Port-au-Prince  in 
1770.  His  father  was  a  wealthy  colonist,  his  mother  a 
mulatto.  He  was  sent  to  France  to  be  educated,  and 
served  at  an  early  age  in  the  French  army.  Afterwards, 
when  the  Revolution  broke  out,  he  took  an  active  part 
in  the  rising  of  the  coloured  people,  and  distinguished 
himself  as  an  officer  of  artillery.  His  humane  disposi- 
tion and  pleasing  manners  gained  for  him  the  favour  of 
all  classes  ;  and  during  the  period  of  terror  he  succeeded 
in  protecting  many  of  the  colonists.  When  the  blacks, 
under  Toussaint,  began  to  proscribe  the  whites  and 
mulattos,  Petion  resisted  them  by  arms,  but  he  was  soon 
forced  to  fly  from  the  island.  Returning  with  General 
Le  Clerc,  he  fought  for  some  time  under  the  French 
standard  ;  but,  disgusted  at  length  by  the  cruelties  of  the 
French,  and  especially  by  their  treachery  towards  Tous- 
saint and  their  attempt  to  re-establish  slavery,  he  again 
joined  Dessalines,  and  on  the  death  of  the  latter  was 
elected  President  of  the  southern  and  western  portion 
of  the  island,  while  Christophe,  who  had  been  general- 
in-chief  under  Dessalines,  became  ruler  of  the  northern 
part.  Petion  was  a  man  of  sincere  and  deep  religious 
convictions.  As  a  ruler  he  was  distinguished  for  the 
republican  simplicity  of  his  manners  and  mode  of  life, 


as  well  as  for  his  humanity  and  impartial  justice.  But 
the  anxieties  caused  by  the  difficulties  of  his  position,  in 
the  midst  of  a  population  hitherto  wholly  unaccustomed 
to  self-control, — anxieties  which  were  still  further  in- 
creased, on  his  part,  by  an  extreme  and  almost  morbid 
conscientiousness, — proved  too  much  for  his  health.  He 
died,  universally  lamented,  on  the  29th  of  March,  1818. 
As  a  military  officer,  he  was  remarkable  for  skill  and 
serene  courage.  For  some  very  interesting  particulars 
respecting  President  Petion,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
numbers  48  and  49  of  volume  xxxix.  of  "The  Friend," 
(1866,)  published  in  Philadelphia.  The  article  in  ques- 
tion is  from  the  pen  of  Stephen  Grellet. 

See  Saint-Remi,  "Petion  et  Haiti,"  Paris,  5  vols.,  1854-58. 

Petion  (or  Pethion)  de  Villeneuve,  pi'te-^N'* 
deh  v^l'nuv',  (Jerome,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born  at 
Chartres  in  1753.  He  was  a  radical  member  of  the 
National  Assembly  in  1790.  His  abilities  were  mediocre. 
He  was  one  of  the  three  deputies  sent  to  conduct  the 
king  from  Varennes  to  Paris  in  1791,  and  was  censured 
for  his  harshness  or  rudeness  to  the  royal  captives.  In 
November,  1791,  he  was  elected  mayor  of  Paris,  in 
preference  to  La  Fayette,  who  was  supported  by  the 
moderate  reformers.  He  appears  to  have  been  remiss 
in  his  duties  during  the  massacres  of  August  and  Sep- 
tember, 1792.  Having  been  elected  to  the  Convention, 
he  acted  with  the  Girondists,  and  was  proscribed  about 
the  1st  of  June,  1793.  He  escaped  to  the  department 
of  the  Gironde,  where  he  was  found  dead  in  a  field  in 
June,  1794.  The  manner  of  his  death  was  not  ascer- 
tained. 

See  Regnault-Warin,  "Vie  de  J.  Petion,  Maire  de  Paris," 
1796;  Lamartine,  "  History  of  tlie  Girondists." 

Petis  de  la  Croix,  peh-te'  deh  It  kRwS,  (Alexandre 
Louis  Marie,)  a  French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1698,  was  a  son  of  Fran9ois,  (1653-1713.)  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  Arabic  in  the  Royal  College.    Died  in  1 751. 

Petis  de  la  Croix,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  Oriental- 
ist, born  in  1622.  He  was  interpreter  to  the  king,  and 
published  a  "  History  of  Genghiz-Can,"  (Jengis  Khan,) 
(1710.)    Died  in  1695. 

Petis  de  la  Croix,  (Franqols,)  an  Orientalist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1653,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  studied 
Arabic,  Persian,  and  Turkish  at  Aleppo,  Ispahan,  and 
Constantinople.  As  interpreter,  he  rendered  important 
services  in  the  negotiations  between  the  French  court 
and  the  Sultan  and  the  Dey  of  Algiers.  In  1695  he 
became  interpreter  to  the  king.  He  translated  from 
the  Persian  "  The  Thousand  and  One  Days,"  (5  vols., 
1710-12,)  and  a  "History  of  Taimoor,"  (Tamerlane,) 
(4  vols.,  1722.)    Died  in  1713. 

See  Qij^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Petit,  peh-te'  or  p'te,  (Alexis  Th^rese,)  a  French 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Vesoul  in  1791,  was  a 
brother-in-law  of  Arago.  He  became  a  teacher  of  phys- 
ics in  the  Polytechnic  School  in  1810,  and  titular  pro- 
fessor in  the  same  in  181 5.  He  wrote  an  able  "Memoir 
on  the  Use  of  the  Principle  of  Living  Forces  in  the 
Calculation  of  Machines,"  (1818.)    Died  in  1820. 

See  J.  B.  BioT,  "  Notice  sur  Petit,"  1821. 

Petit,  (Antoine,)  an  eminent  French  physician,  born 
at  Orleans  in  1718.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy 
at  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  Paris,  in  1768,  and.  attracted  a 
large  concourse  of  auditors.  He  published  "  Palfyn's 
Surgical  Anatomy,  with  Notes,"  ("Anatomic  chirurgi- 
cale  de  Palfyn,  avec  des  Notes,"  1753.)    Died  in  1794. 

Petit,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  celebrated  surgeon,  born  in 
Paris  in  1674.  He  served  as  army  surgeon  from  1692 
to  1700,  and  then  returned  to  Paris.  His  success  was 
great  as  a  lecturer  and  a  practitioner.  He  was  for  some 
years  the  most  celebrated  surgeon  in  Europe.  "The 
services  which  he  rendered  to  surgery,"  says  a  French 
writer.  "  are  immense."  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Academy  of  Surgery,  (1731.)  His  chief  work  is  an 
excellent  "  Treatise  on  Surgery,"  ("  Traite  des  Maladies 
chirurgicales,"  etc.,  3  vols.,  1774.)    Died  in  1750. 

See  A.  Louis,  "  filoge  de  J.  L.  Petit,"  1750;  "  Biographie  Me- 
dicale." 


*  We  are  informed  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale"  that, 
although  Petion  generally  wrote  his  name  without  the  accent,  it  was 
always  pronounced  Petion. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  v., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PETIT 


1778 


PETRARCH 


Petit,  (Jkan  Louis,)  a  French  historical  and  marine 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1793.  He  gained  a  first  medal 
in  1841. 

Petit,  (Jkan  Martin,)  a  French  general,  born  in 
Paris  in  1772.  He  served  as  lieutenant-general  at 
Waterloo.    Died  in  1856. 

Pet'it,  (Lewis  Hayes,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  gentle- 
man and  patron  of  literature,  was  born  in  1774;  died 
in  1849. 

Petit,  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French  physician  and 
skilful  surgeon,  born  at  Lyons  in  1766.  He  wrote 
"  Essai  sur  la  Medecine  du  Coeur,"  (1806,)  and  several 
poems.    Died  in  181 1. 

See  Baumes,  "  iSloge  de  M.  A.  Petit,"  1812. 

Petit,  (Pierre,)  a  French  mathematician,  born  at 
Montlu9on  (Allier)  about  1596.  He  obtained  the  offices 
of  engineer,  counsellor  to  the  king,  and  intendant-gene- 
ral  of  fortifications.  He  formed  a  friendship  with  Pas- 
cal, whom  he  aided  in  experiments  on  the  vacuum  and 
barometer,  (1646-47.)  Among  his  works  are  a  treatise 
"On  the  Use  of  the  Compass  of  Proportion,"  (1634,) 
and  "Observations  on  the  Vacuum,"  (1647.)  He  was  a 
Cartesian.    Died  in  1677. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  Memnires  ;"  Mor^ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Petit,  (Pierre,)  a  learned  French  writer,  born  in 
Paris  in  1617.  Among  his  poems  (in  Latin)  are  "On 
Tears,"  ("De  Lacryniis  Libri  tres,"  1661,)  "Chinese 
Tea,"  ("  Thea  Sinensis,"  1685,)  "On  the  Amazons," 
("  De  Amazonibus,"  1685,)  and  "On  the  Sibyl,"  ("  De 
Sibylla,"  1686.)  fie  was  one  of  the  Latin  poets  who 
formed  the  "  Pleiade"  of  Paris.    Died  in  1687. 

Petit,  (Samuel,)  a  learned  French  Orientalist,  born 
at  Nimes  in  1594,  was  a  Protestant  minister.  It  is  said 
that  he  could  speak  Hebrew  with  ease.  He  wrote  on 
Jewish  and  Greek  antiquities,  chronology,  etc.  His 
friendship  was  sought  by  Peiresc,  Selden,  Gassendi, 
Vossius,  and  Gronovius.    Died  in  1643. 

Petit,  du,  diip'te',  (Franqois  Pourfour,)  a  learned 
French  physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1664.  He  was  suc- 
cessful in  the  treatment  of  cataract,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  the  eyes.    Died  in  1 741. 

Petit-Didier,  peh-te'  de^e-i',  (Mathieu,)  a  learned 
French  monk,  was  born  in  Lorraine  in  1659.  He  wrote 
"  Remarks  on  the  First  Volumes  of  Dupin's  Biblio- 
theque  Ecclesiastique,"  (3  vols.,  1691-96,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1728. 

Petit-Pied,  peh-te'  pe^',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  Jan- 
senist,  born  in  1665.  He  was  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne, 
and  wrote  many  works  in  favour  of  Jansenism.  Died 
in  1747. 

Petit-Radel,  peh-te'  rt'dgK,  (Louis  Charles  Fran- 
cois,) a  French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  1756.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  keeper  of  the  Mazarin 
Library.  He  published  "Explanations  of  the  Antique 
Monuments  of  the  Museum,"  (4  vols.,  1804-06,)  and 
"Researches  on  Cyclopean  Monuments,"  (1841.)  Died 
in  1836. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litt^raire." 

Petit-Radel,  (Louis  FRANgois,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1740,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
Died  in  1818. 

Petit-Radel,  (Philippe,)  a  surgeon  and  medical 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1749,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  obtained  in  1798  the  chair  of  surgical  clinic. 
He  published  "  Medical  Institutes,"  ("  Institutions  de 
Medecine,"  2  vols.,  1801,)  and  compiled  the  "  Dictionary 
of  Surgery,"  (3  vols.,  1 790,)  which  forms  part  of  the 
"Encyclopedic  Methodique."   Died  in  1815. 

See  "Biographic  M^dicale." 

Petit-Thouars.    See  Du  Petit-Thouars. 

Petitain,  peh-te't^N',  (Louis  Germain,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1 765.  He  wrote  some  works 
of  fiction.    Died  in  1820. 

Petitot,  peh-te'to',  (Claude  Bernard,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Dijon  in  1772.  He  translated  the 
dramatic  works  of  Alfieri,  (4  vols.,  1802,)  and  edited 
the  works  of  Racine,  (5  vols.,  1805,)  and  the  works  of 
Moliere,  (6  vols.,  1813.)    Died  in  1825. 

Petitot,  (Jean,)  an  eminent  painter  on  enamel,  born, 
of  French  parents,  at  Geneva  in  1607.    He  visited  Eng- 


land, where  he  obtained  from  the  chemist  Mayern  some 
important  secrets  respecting  colours,  and  was  patronized 
by  Charles  I.  He  painted  portraits  of  the  royal  family, 
and  copied  some,  works  of  Van  Dyck.  About  1650  he 
returned  to  France.  He  received  a  pension  from  Louis 
XIV.,  whose  portrait  he  painted  many  times.  By  order 
of  the  king,  Bossuet  attempted  to  convert  Petitot  to 
the  Romish  Church,  but  failed.  His  master-piece  is  a 
whole-length  portrait,  in  enamel,  of  the  Countess  of 
Southampton,  the  dimensions  of  which  are  about  nine 
inches  by  five.  His  works  are  remarkable  for  delicacy 
of  design  and  harmonious  richness  of  col6ur.  Died  at 
Vevay  in  1691. 

See  L.  Brightwell,  "  By-Paths  of  Biography ;"  "NouvelleBio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Petitot,  (Louis  Messidor  Lebon,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Paris  in  1794.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in 
1814,  and  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension.  Among  his 
works  are  many  marble  busts  of  Frenchmen.  His  capital 
work  is  a  colossal  monument  to  Louis  Bonaparte  at 
Saint-Leu.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute.  Died 
in  June,  1862. 

Petitot,  (Pierre,)  a  sculptor,  born  at  Langres  in 
1 75 1,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1840. 

Pet'i-ver,  (James,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  botanist,  was 
an  apothecary  of  London.  He  furnished  materials  for 
Ray's  "  History  of  Plants,"  published  "  Pterigraphia 
Americana,"  (1712,)  and  other  works,  and  formed  a 
rich  collection  of  plants,  minerals,  and  animals.  Died 
in  1 718. 

Pe'to,  (Sir  Samuel  Morton,)  an  English  engineer 
and  contractor,  born  in  Surrey  in  1809.  He  constructed 
the  Grand  Trunk  Railway  in  Canada,  with  the  tubular 
bridge  near  Montreal,  and  several  railways  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament  for 
Finsbury  in  1859.  Sir  S.  Morton  Peto  visited  the  United 
States  in  1865,  and  published  "The  Resources  and  Pros- 
pects of  America,"  (1866.) 

Petofi  or  Petoefi,  pgf'o-fee,  (Sandor,  or  Alexan- 
der,) a  Hungarian  poet  and  litterateur,  born  in  Little 
Cumania  in  1822.  He  published  in  1847  a  number  of 
patriotic  songs,  which  enjoyed  great  popularity  and  had 
a  powerful  influence  in  exciting  the  revolutionary  feeling 
of  his  countrymen.  He  also  wrote  several  dramas  and 
prose  works.  His  lyrics  and  odes  display  uncommon 
genius,  and  have  procured  for  him  the  name  of  "the 
Hungarian  Burns."  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Schassburg,  (1849.) 

See  Kertbenv,  "  Petoefy  der  Ungarische  Nationaldichter ;" 
Chassin,  "  Petoefy  et  ses  OEuvres,"  1861. 

Petrarca.    See  Petrarch. 

Pe'trar-eh,  [It.  Petrarca,  pa-tRaR'ki;  Fr.  P^;- 
trarque,  pa'tRiRk';  Lat.  Petrar'cha,]  (Francesco,)  a 
celebrated  Italian  poet,  was  born  at  Arezzo,  in  Tuscany, 
on  the  20th  of  July,  1304.  His  father,  a  friend  of  Dante, 
was  banished  from  Florence  in  1302  for  his  political 
principles,  and  removed  in  13 13  to  Avignon,  which  was 
then  the  residence  of  the  pope.  He  was  sent  to  study 
law  at  Montpellier,  where  he  remained  about  four  years, 
(1318-22;)  but  he  preferred  the  study  of  the  classic  au- 
thors, especially  Cicero  and  Virgil.  lie  made,  however, 
some  progress  in  law  under  Cino  da  Pistoia  at  Bologna. 
His  fine  personal  and  mental  endowments  procured  for 
him  admission  into  the  brilliant  society  of  Avignon.  He 
was  so  handsome  as  to  attract  observation  as  he  walked 
in  the  streets.  He  was  patronized  by  Cardinal  Colonna, 
and  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Giacomo  Colonna,  a 
brother  of  the  cardinal. 

In  1327  his  heart  for  the  first  time  was  touched  by  a 
violent  and  profound  passion.  He  has  recorded  the 
place,  the  day,  and  the  hour  in  which  he  first  saw  Laura 
de  Sade,  a  daughter  of  Audibert  de  Noves,  and  the  wife 
of  Hugh  de  Sade, — a  lady  distinguished  by  her  rank, 
but  more  by  her  beauty  and  modesty.  With  consum- 
mate tact,  she  contrived,  by  a  mixture  of  reserve,  discre- 
tion, and  sympathy,  to  preserve  him  and  herself  from  the 
fatal  consequences  of  his  wayward  passion.  "She  took 
my  heart  into  her  hand,"  he  writes,  "saying,  *  Speak  no 
word  of  this.'  "  By  her  pure  and  excellent  example  his 
passion  appears  to  have  been  purified  and  exalted;  but 


a,  e,  1,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  h,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fJt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PETRARCH 


1779 


PETRIE 


his  admiration  of  her  never  abated,  and  the  whole  tenor 
of  his  life  was  changed  by  her  influence.  He  sought  re- 
lief by  the  composition  of  the  sonnets  and  canzoni  which 
have  rendered  the  name  of  Laura  immortal.  She  ac- 
cepted this  homage,  which  the  usage  of  that  age  sanc- 
tioned, and  was,  perhaps,  proud  of  his  admiration.  He 
passed  much  time  in  collecting,  collating,  and  copying 
ancient  manuscripts.  We  owe  to  him  the  preservation 
of  many  Latin  authors  which  were  buried  in  the  dust  of 
monastic  libraries.  About  1335  he  visited  Rome,  the 
ruins  of  whidh  made  a  deep  impression  on  him.  He 
also  travelled  in  France,  Germany,  and  Spain.  ?Te  dis- 
covered two  orations  of  Cicero  at  Liege,  the  "  Institu- 
tions" of  Quintiiian  at  Arezzo,  and  Cicero's  "  Familiar 
Letters"  at  Verona.  Petrarch  corresponded  with  the 
most  eminent  scholars  of  his  time,  founded  the  library 
of  Saint  Mark  at  Venice,  and  was  one  of  the  principal 
revivers  of  classical  literature  in  Italy. 

About  1336  he  retired  to  Vaucluse,  a  romantic  valley 
near  Avignon,  where  he  passed  several  years  in  solitude 
and  in  vain  efforts  to  forget  his  unhappy  passion.  Here 
he  meditated  a  great  work  which  should  be  worthy  of 
his  genius,  and  commenced  a  Latin  epic  poem,  of  which 
Scipio  Africanus  was  the  hero.  This  poem,  entitled 
"Africa,"  is  inferior  to  his  Italian  sonnets.  In  1340  he 
accepted  an  invitation  from  the  Roman  senate  to  come 
to  Rome  and  receive  the  laurel  crown  of  poetry.  He 
was  crowned  at  the  Capitol  in  1341.  Petrarch  appears 
to  have  had  much  influence  with  several  potentates  of 
his  time.  He  exerted  his  eloquence  to  induce  successive 
popes  to  transfer  the  papal  court  from  Avignon  to  Rome. 
He  was  the  colleague  of  the  famous  Rienzi  in  an  embassy 
sent  by  the  Romans  to  Clement  VI.  for  that  purpose. 
He  became  Archdeacon  of  Parma,  and  canon  of  several 
cathedrals.  His  love  of  independence  caused  hini  to  de- 
cline the  office  of  apostolic  secretary  and  the  dignity  of 
bishop.  In  1342  he  met  Laura,  whose  beauty  had  faded, 
and  who  was  not  happy  in  her  domestic  relations.  Her 
husband  was  jealous  and  ill-tempered.  Laura  sang  to 
Petrarch,  and  parted  from  him  with  emotion  and  regret. 

The  death  of  Laura,  which  occurred  in  1348,  inspired 
a  new  series  of  beautiful  and  exquisite  sonnets,  the 
melody  and  pathos  of  which  have  probably  never  been 
surpassed.  It  is  reported  that  she  died  on  the  anni- 
versary of  the  day  and  hour  that  he  first  saw  her. 
Between  1350  and  1360  he  resided  at  the  court  of  Vis- 
conti.  Lord  of  Milan,  who  employed  him  in  diplomatic 
missions  to  Venice,  to  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  and 
to  the  King  of  France.  Among  his  intimate  friends 
at  this  period  was  Boccaccio.  In  1370,  for  the  sake 
of  retirement  and  the  restoration  of  his  health,  he  fixed 
his  residence  at  Arqua,  among  the  Euganean  Hills, 
north  of  Padua.  He  was  found  dead  in  his  library  at 
Arqua  on  the  19th  of  July,  1374.*  He  left,  besides  other 
prose  works  in  Latin,  a  treatise  "  On  Contempt  of  the 
World,"  ('*De  Contemptu  Mundi,")  and  many  epistles, 
which  are  highly  prized  as  memorials  of  important  events 
which  he  witnessed.  He  had  composed  in  praise  of 
Laura  above  three  hundred  sonnets  and  fifty  canzoni. 
Among  his  most  perfect  productions  is  "  The  Triumph 
of  Death,"  ("Trionfo  della  Morte,")  a  poem,  in  which 
he  describes  the  death  of  Laura.  The  most  complete 
edition  of  Petrarch's  works  is  that  published  at  Bale,  (2 
vols,  fol.,  1581.)  It  contains,  besides  his  Italian  and 
Latin  poems,  and  the  works  already  named  in  this  notice, 
"De  Vera  Sapientia,"  "  De  Officio  et  Virtutibus  Impe- 
ratoris,"  and  "Vitarum  Virorum  lUustrium  Epitome." 

"The  peculiar  charm  of  Petrarch's  character,"  says 
one  of  his  biographers,  "is  warmth  of  heart  and  a  native 
ingenuousness  of  disposition,  which  readily  laid  bare 
his  soul  to  those  around."    He  was  a  believer  in  re- 


*  His  epitaph,  as  given  by  some  writers,  is  a  curious  specimen  of 
Latin  versification, — rliyming  hexameters: 

"  Frigida  Francisci  lapis  hie  tegit  ossa  Petrarchse. 
Suscipe  Virgo  Parens  animam  :  Sate  Virgine  parce  ; 
Fessaque  jam  terris  cceli  requiescat  in  arce." 
(See  "  Bibliotheca  Vetus  et  Nova,"  by  G.  M.  Konig,  Altdorf, 
1678)  .  . 

The  fWlowing  is  a  nearly  literal  translation:  "This  stone  covers 
the  cold  bones  of  Francis  Petrarch.  Virgin  Mother,  receive  his 
soul ;  O  thou  Son  of  the  Virgin,  have  mercy  ;  and  may  [his  soul,] 
neary  with  earth,  now  find  repose  in  the  citadel  of  heaven." 


vealed  religion  ;  but  he  often  protested  openly  agains 
the  corruptions  of  the  papal  court. 

See  L.  Beccadelli,  "  Vita  di  Petrarca,"  (translated  into  English 
by  W.  PvE,  1766;)  L.  Aketino,  "Vita  di  Petrarca,"  1672;  Fernow, 
"'F.  Petrarca,  nebst  dem  Leben  des  Dichters,"  1818;  Tomasini, 
"  Petrarcha  Redivivus,"  1635  and  1650;  Abbe  deSade,  "  Memoires 
pour  la  Vie  de  Pe'trarque,"  3  vols.,  1764-67;  Fabroni,  "  Petrarch ae 
Vita,"  1799;  Levati,  "  Viaggi  di  F.  Petrarca,"  5  vols.,  1820:  Ugo 
Foscoi-o,  "  Essay  on  Petrarch  ;"  LoNGFELt^ow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe,"  1825;  Thomas  Campbell,  "Life  of  Petrarch,"  1841 ; 
"  Lives  of  Eminent  Men  of  Italy,"  in  Lardner's  "  Cabinet  of  Biog- 
raphy ;"  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall,"  chap.  Ixx.  ;  S.  Dobson, 
"Life  of  Petrarch,"  2  vols.,  1775:  Meinart,  "Franc.  Petrarca's 
Biografie,"  1794 ;  Lord  Woodhouselee,  "Essay,  Historical  and 
Critical,  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Petrarch,"  1810;  Ersch  und 
Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  Pre.scott,  "Miscellanies," 
p.  616  ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1843. 

Petrarcha.  See  Petrarch. 
Petrarque.    See  Petrarch. 

Petrazzi,  pi-tR^t'see,  (Astolfo,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  the  Siennese  school,  was  born  in  1579  ;  died  in  1653. 

Petre,  p^t'tr  or  pe'ter,  (Edward,)  an  English  Jesuit, 
born  about  163 1.  He  was  confessor  or  clerk  of  the  closet 
to  James  II.,  over  whom  he  is  said  to  have  exerted  an 
evil  influence  in  political  affairs.    Died  in  1699. 

Petre,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  statesman,  born  in 
Devonshire.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  All  Souls' College, 
Oxford,  in  1523,  and  afterwards  master  of  requests. 
About  1543  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state.  He 
held  a  high  office  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  and  was 
secretary  of  state  during  the  reign  of  Mary.  Died  in  1572. 

Pe-tre'i-us,  (Marcus,)  a  Roman  general,  to  whom 
the  victory  over  Catiline  (62  B.C.)  is  ascribed.  He  was 
a  partisan  of  the  senate  in  the  civil  war,  fought  against 
Caesar  at  Pharsalia,  and  commanded  (with  Afranius) 
in  Spain,  where  he  was  defeated  by  Caesar  in  49  B.C. 
He  killed  himself  in  Africa  in  46  B.C.,  or  was  killed  by 
Juba  in  accordance  with  an  agreement  that  they  should 
kill  each  other. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xli.-xliii. 

Petrettini,  pii-trlt-tee'nee,  (Spiridion,)  an  Italian 
classical  scholar,  born  at  Corfu  in  1777,  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Venice.  He  translated  Velleius  Paterculus  into 
Italian.    Died  in  1833. 

Petri,  pa'tRee,  [in  Flemish,  Peeters,  pa'ters,]  (Bar- 
tholomew,) a  Flemish  theologian,  born  in  Brabant 
about  1545.  He  was  professor  at  Louvain  and  Douai. 
Died  in  1630. 

Petri,  pa'tRee,  (Bernhard,)  a  German  rural  econo- 
mist, born  at  Deux-Ponts  in  1767.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  the  raising  of  sheep,  and  made  improvements 
in  the  rural  economy  of  Germany.    Died  in  1842. 

Petri,  pa'tRee,  (Christiern,)  a  Danish  divine,  who 
published  in  1529  a  Danish  version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

Petri,  pa'tRee,  or  Peterson,  pa'ter-son,  (Lars,)  the 
first  Protestant  Archbishop  of  Upsal,  -was  born  at 
Oerebro  in  1499.  He  studied  under  Luther  at  Witten- 
berg, and  became  archbishop  in  1531.  With  the  aid  of 
his  brother  Olaus  and  L.  Andreae,  he  produced  a  Swedish 
translation  of  the  Bible,  (1541.)  He  published  several 
works  of  theology.    Died  in  1573. 

See  "  Biographiskt-Lexicon  ofver  namnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Petri,  (Olaus,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1497,  and  was  a  zealous  preacher  of  the  Reformed 
religion.  He  became  first  minister  of  Stockholm  in 
1539.  He  published  some  religious  works.  Died  in  1552. 

Petri,  pa'tRee,  (Suffrid  or  Suffridus,)  a  Dutch 
philologist,  born  in  Friesland  in  1527.  He  obtained  a 
chair  of  law  at  Cologne  in  1577.  He  was  very  learned, 
but  was  deficient  in  taste  and  critical  ability.  Among 
his  works  are  "Orations  on  the  Utility  of  the  Greek 
Language,"  (1566,)  and  "On  the  Writers  of  Friesland," 
("De  Scriptoribus  Frisiae  Decades,"  1593.)  Died  at 
Cologne  in  1597. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires  ;"  Vossius,  "De  Historicis  Latinis." 

Petrie,  pee'tre,  ?  (Dr.  George,)  an  Irish  antiquary, 
born  at  Dublin  in  1791,  was  the  author  of  an  "Essay  on 
the  Round  Towers  of  Ireland,"  which  obtained  for  him 
the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy.  He  also 
published  an  "Essay  on  the  Military  Antiquities  of  Ire- 
land."   Died  in  1866. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1845  ;  "  Fra- 
ser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1858. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.   (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PETRIE 


PETRARD 


Petrie,  pee'tre,  ?  (Henry,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  1768,  became  keeper  of  the  chancery  records  in  the 
Tower.  He  collected  materials  for  the  history  of  Great 
Britain,  of  which  two  volumes  were  published,  (1830-48.) 
Died  in  1842. 

Petrini,  pi-tRee'nee,  (Pietro  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
translator,  born  at  Palestrina  in  1722.  Among  his  works 
is  a  good  version  of  Horace's  "De  Arte  Poetica,"  (1777.) 
Died  in  1803. 

Petrof,  Petrov,  or  Petrow,  pa'tRof,  (Vasstli  Pe- 
TROVItch,)  a  Russian  poet,  born  at  Moscow  in  1736.  He 
wrote  odes  and  other  poems,  which  have  some  merit, 
and  translated  Virgil's  "  yEneid"  into  Russian,  (1781-86.) 
He  became  imperial  librarian  about  1775.    Died  in  1799. 

Petrone.    See  Petronius  Arbiter. 

Petroni  or  Petronj,  pa-tRo'nee,  (Stefano  Egidio,) 
an  Italian  poet,  born  near  Perugia  in  1770.  Among  his 
works  is  "The  Napoleonid :  a  Lyrical-Numismatical 
Poem,"  ("La  Napoleonide ;  Poeme  lyrique-numisma- 
tique,"  1810.)    Died  about  1845. 

Pe-tro'ni-us,  [Fr.  Petrone,  pi'tRon',]  or,  more  fully, 
Petro'nius  Ar'biter,  a  licentious  Latin  writer,  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  He  described 
the  vices  of  his  time  in  a  satire  or  novel,  in  mingled 
prose  and  verse,  entitled  "  Satyricon,"  fragments  of 
which  are  extant.  His  style  is  classical,  and  the  work 
displays  much  talent,  but  is  extremely  licentious.  The 
author  of  this  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with  Petronius, 
a  refined  voluptuary  who  figured  at  the  court  of  Nero  as 
arbiter  elegantice,  (umpire  of  fashion  and  taste,)  and  who 
killed  himself  in  66  A.D. 

See  Tacitus,  "  Annales,"  book  xvi.  ;  J.  C.  von  Orelli,  "Lec- 
tiones  Petronianae."  1836;  Dunlop,  "  History  of  Fiction;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Petrunti,  pk-tRoon'tee,  (Francesco,)  a  skilful  Italian 
surgeon,  born  at  Campobasso  in  1785.  He  practised  at 
Naples,  and  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Surgery,"  (2  vols., 
1822.)    Died  in  1839. 

Petrus,  the  Latin  for  Peter,  which  see. 

Petrus  Aponis.  See  Abano,  (Pietro  di.) 

Petrus  Blesensis.    See  Peter  of  Blois, 

Pe'trus  Patricius  (pa-trish'e-us)  et  Mag'is-ter,  a 
Byzantine  historian  of  the  sixth  century,  was  born  at 
Thessalonica.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  history  of  the 
empire  under  Tiberius  and  several  of  his  successors, 
some  portions  of  which  have  been  preserved. 

Petter,  pet'ter,  (Anton,)  a  German  painter  of  history, 
born  at  Vienna  in  1783.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  for 
his  "  Death  of  Aristides,"  and  became  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Vienna  in  1830.  He  painted  many  clas- 
sical subjects.  He  excels  in  harmony  and  brilliancy 
of  colouring. 

Pettigrew,  pet'te-gru,  (Thomas  Joseph,)  an  English 
surgeon,  antiquary,  and  biographer,  born  in  London  in 
1790.  He  was  admitted  to  the  College  of  Surgeons  in 
181 2.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "History 
of  Egyptian  Mummies,"  (1834,)  a  "Medical  Portrait- 
Gallery,  or  Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons," a  "  Life  of  Lord  Nelson,"  and  a  work  "  On 
Superstitions  connected  with  the  Practice  of  Medicine," 
(1844.)    Died  in  1865. 

Pettiti,  pgt-tee'tee,  Count,  an  Italian  general,  was 
second  chief  of  the  staff  in  the  army  led  by  the  king 
against  the  Austrians  in  June,  1866, 

Pettrich,  pSt'tRlK,  (Franz,)  a  Bohemian  sculptor, 
born  in  1770,  became  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts 
at  Dresden.  Died  in  1844.  His  son  Ferdinand,  born 
at  Dresden  in  1798,  studied  under  Thorwaldsen  at  Rome. 
He  has  produced  several  works  of  superior  merit. 

Pet'tus,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Suf- 
folk. He  became  deputy  governor  of  the  royal  mines, 
and  published  "The  History,  Laws,  ai>d  Places  of  the 
Chief  Mines  in  England  and  Wales,"  (1670.)  Died 
about  1690. 

Petty,  (Henry.)    See  Lansdowne. 

Petty,  (William.)    See  Shelburne. 

Pet'ty,  (Sir  William,)  an  eminent  English  political 
economist,  was  born  at  Romsey,  in  Hampshire,  in 
1623.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Oxford  in 
1650,  and  physician  of  the  army  in  Ireland  in  1652.  He 
served  Henry  Cromwell  as  secretary  while  he  was  lord 


lieutenant  of  Ireland,  about  1655.  His  reputation  is 
founded  on  his  writings  on  commerce  and  political 
economy,  on  which  subjects  he  was  in  advance  of  his 
age.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Treatise  on  Taxes  and 
Contributions,"  (1662,)  "Political  Arithmetic,"  (1682,) 
and  "The  Political  Anatomy  of  Ireland,"  (1692.)  One 
of  his  sons  became  Baron  Shelburne,    Died  in  1687. 

See  a  "Notice  of  Sir  William  Petty,"  prefixed  to  his  "Political 
Arithmetic,"  by  his  son  :  Wood,  "  Aihenae  Oxonienses." 

Pet'tyt  or  Pet'yt,  (William,)  an  English  writer  on 
law,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1636.  He  was  keeper  of  the 
records  of  the  Tower.  Among  his  works  is  "  Parliament- 
ary Law,"  ("Jus  Parliamentarium,"  1739.)    Died  in  1707. 

Peucer,  poits'er,  [Lat.  Peuce'rus,]  (Kaspar,)  a 
German  scholar  and  physician  of  high  reputation,  born 
at  Bautzen  in  1625,  married  a  daughter  of  Melanchthon. 
He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Wittenberg  about 
1559.  Having  offended  the  Lutherans  by  advocating 
some  doctrines  of  Melanchthon,  he  was  confined  in  prison 
about  eleven  years,  (1574-85,)  and  treated  with  rigour. 
He  wrote  numerous  works  on  geometry,  theology,  and 
medicine;  also  an  account  of  his  imprisonment,  "His- 
toria  Carcerum  Peuceri,"  (1604.)    Died  in  1602. 

See  Leupold,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  Peucers,"  1745;  Heimburg, 
"  De  Casp.  Peiicero,"  1842;  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  Ersch  und 
Griirer,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Peucerus.    See  Peucer. 

Peu-ges'tas  or  Peii-kes'tas,  [Gr.  ITev/cearaf,]  an  offi- 
cer of  Alexander  the  Great.  He  attended  that  prince's 
person  in  the  expedition  against  Persia,  and  gained  his 
favour  in  a  high  degree.  He  was  appointed  satrap  of 
Persia  in  331  or  330  B.C.,  and  joined  Alexander's  army 
at  Babylon  with  about  20,000  Persians  in  323.  Having 
co-operated  with  Eumenes  against  Antigonus,  he  was 
deprived  of  his  satrapy  by  the  latter  in  316  B.C. 

Peuchet,  puh^shi',  (Jacques,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  in  Paris  in  1758.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Statistics  of  France  and  its  Colonies,"  (7  vols., 
1803,)  "Commercial  Library,"  (" Bibliotheque  commer- 
ciale,"  12  vols.,  1802-06,)  and  a  "Dictionary  of  Political 
Economy,"  (4  vols.,  1810.)    Died  in  1830. 

Peukestas.    See  Peucestas. 

Peurbach.    See  Purbach. 

Peut,  puh,  (Franqois  Marie  Hippolyte,)  a  French 
publicist  and  economist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1809.  He 
published  several  journals  and  pamphlets. 

Peuteman,  puh^'teh-min',  (Niklaas  or  Pieter,)  a 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Rotterdam  about  1654.  He 
painted,  with  success,  still  life,  cemeteries,  and  allegori- 
cal subjects.  His  death  was  hastened  by  fright.  As  he 
was  working  in  an  anatomical  cabinet,  he  fell  asleep 
among  some  skeletons.  On  awaking,  he  was  horrified 
by  seeing  them  move  rapidly  and  jostle  against  each 
other.  This  was  the  effect  of  the  earthquake  of  Sep- 
tember 18,  1692.    He  died  the  same  month. 

Peutinger,  pu'tin-ger,  [Ger.  pron.  poi'ting'er;  Lat. 
Peutinge'rus,]  (Conrad,)  an  eminent  German  scholar 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1465.  He  was  secre- 
tary of  the  city  of  Augsburg,  and  councillor  to  the  empe- 
ror Maximilian.  He  -was  a  diligent  collector  of  statues, 
medals,  inscriptions,  etc.,  and  is  called  the  founder  in 
Germany  of  the  science  of  Roman  and  German  antiqui- 
ties. He  published  "Convivial  Discourses,"  ("Sermones 
conviviales,"  1506,)  "Old  Roman  Inscriptions,"  ("In- 
scriptiones  vetustae  Romanae,"  1520,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1547. 

See  J.  C.  Wendler,  "  De  Vita  et  Mentis  Peutingeri ;"  Lotter, 
"Vita  Peutingeri,"  1729;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Peutingerus.    See  Peutinger. 

Peyer,  pi'er,  (Johann  Conrad,)  a  Swiss  anatomist, 
born  at  Schaffhausen  in  1653.  He  was  professor  of 
logic  and  physical  sciences  at  his  native  place,  and 
wrote  several  works  on  anatomy.  He  was  the  first  who 
described  accurately  the  small  bodies  called  Peyer's 
glands.    Died  in  1712. 

Peyrard,  pi'rtR',  (Francois,)  a  French  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Vial  (Haute-Loire)  in  1760.  He  pub- 
lished a  treatise  "  On  Nature  and  its  Laws,"  (4th  edition, 
1794,)  and  other  works.  His  translations  of  the  works 
of  Archimedes  (1807)  and  of  Euclid  (3  vols.,  1814-18) 
are  said  to  be  the  best  in  the  French  language.  Died 
in  1822. 


3,  e.  1  6  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


FEY RAT 


PFEIFFER 


Peyrat,  pi'rt',  (Alphonse,)  a  French  journalist  and 
political  writer,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1812.  He  became 
an  assistant  editor  of  Girardin's  "  Presse"  about  1844, 

Peyre,  pSR,  (Anioine  Fran(;ois,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1739.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in 
1763,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  pub- 
lished some  works  on  architecture.    Died  in  1823. 

See  QuATREMfeRE  DE  QuiNCY,  "  Notice  sur  A.  F.  Peyre,"  1824. 

Peyre,  (Antoine  Marie,)  an  architect,  born  in  Paris 
in  1770,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  was  ap- 
pointed architect  of  the  Palais  de  Justice  in  1809.  Among 
his  works  are  the  Salle  de  Spectacle  of  Soissons,  and  the 
restorations  or  additions  to  the  Palais  de  Justice  in  Paris. 
Died  in  1843. 

Peyre,  (Marie  Joseph,)  a  French  architect,  father 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1730.  He  pub- 
lished "Architectural  Works,"  ("CEuvres  d'Architec- 
ture,"  1765.)  Peyre  and  Waillywere  architects  of  the 
theatre  of  Paris  called  the  Odeon.    Died  in  1785. 

Peyrere,  de  la,  deh  It  pk^raiR',  (Isaac,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1594.  He  pul)lished,  be- 
sides other  works,  one  entitled  "  Pre-Adamites,"  ("  Prie- 
adamitae,"  1655,)  in  which  he  maintained  that  some  men 
were  created  before  Adam.    Died  in  1676. 

Peyrilhe,  pi'R^F  or  pk-re'ye,  (Bernard,)  a  French 
physician,  was  born  at  PompigiTaTn  in  1737  ;  died  in  1804. 

Peyron,  pi'roN',  (Jean  FRANgois  Pierre,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  at  Aix,  in  Pravence,  in  1744. 
He  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1773,  studied  the  antique 
in  Rome,  and  promoted  the  reformation  of  the  French 
school.    Died  in  1814. 

Peyron,  pi'r6N',  (Victor  Am6d6e,)  Abb6,  an  Ori- 
entalist, born  at  Turin  in  1785.  He  published  a  "  Lexicon 
of  the  Coptic  Language,"  (1835,)  and  other  works. 

Peyronie.    See  La  Peyronie. 

Peyronnet,  de,  deh  pi'ro'n^',  (Charles  Ignace,) 
Count,  a  French  politician  and  lawyer,  born  at  Bor- 
deaux in  1778.  He  was  minister  of  justice  from  1821  to 
January,  1828,  and  became  minister  of  the  interior  in 
May,  1830.  He  procured  in  1825  the  passage  of  a  very 
unpopular  and  odious  law  against  sacrilege.  Having 
been  convicted  of  treason  in  1830,  he  was  imprisoned 
six  years  in  the  fortress  of  Ham.    Died  in  1854. 

Peyssonel,  pi'so'n^K,  (Charles,)  an  antiquary, 
father  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Marseilles  in  1700. 
He  explored  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  where  he  co\- 
lected  marbles.  He  wrote  a  "  Memoir  on  the  Kings 
of  Bosphorus,"  and  "Travels  in  the  Levant."  Died 
in  1757. 

Peyssonel,  (Charles,)  a  French  political  writer, 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1727.  He  was  consul  at  Smyrna 
and  in  the  Crimea.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Numbers,"  ("Les  Numeros,"  4  vols.,  1784,)  and 
"The  Political  Situation  of  France,  and  its  Relations 
with  all  the  Powers  of  Europe,"  (2  vols.,  1790.)  Died 
in  1790. 

Peyton,  pa'ton,  (Baillie,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
orator,  born  in  Sumner  county,  Tennessee.  He  repre- 
sented a  district  of  Tennessee  in  Congress  from  1833  to 
1837,  voted  with  the  Whigs,  and  was  sent  as  minister  to 
Chili  about  1850. 

Pezarese,  II,  a  name  of  the  painter  Cantarini.  (See 
Cantarini.) 

Pezay,  de,  deh  peh-zk',  (Alexandre  Fr^:deric 
Jacques  Masson — mt's6N',)  Marquis,  a  French  writer 
of  prose  and  verse,  born  at  Versailles  in  1741.  He  gave 
lessons  in  tactics  to  Louis  XVI.  Among  his  works  are 
"Series  of  Trifles,"  ("Suite  des  Bagatelles,"  1767,)  and 
"Helvetian  Evenings,"  ("Les  Soirees  Helvetiennes," 
1771.)  Voltaire  addressed  to  him  some  verses.  Died 
in  1777. 

Pezenas,  piz'ni'  or  peh-zeh-ni',  (Esprit,)  a  French 
Jesuit  and  mathematician,  born  at  Avignon  in  1692. 
He  published  "  Memoirs  on  Mathematics  and  Physics," 
(5  vols.,  1756,)  an  "Astronomy  for  Mariners,"  (1766,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1776. 

Pezet,  pi-thgt',  (General  Juan  Antonio,)  a  Peruvian 
statesman,  who  became  vice-president  of  Peru  in  Octo- 
ber, 1862,  and  at  the  death  of  San  Ramon  succeeded  to 
the  presidency,  in  April,  1863.  He  was  removed,  or 
ceased  to  be  president,  about  the  end  of  1865. 


Pezron,  p§z'r6N',  (Paul,)  an  able  French  chronolo- 
gist  and  philologist,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1639.  He  wrote 
"The  Antiquity  of  the  World  (des  Tlv^/jj  Restored 
and  Defended,"  (1687,)  in  which  he  argued  that  the 
world  was  created  5872  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
Died  in  1706. 

Pfaff,  pf^f,  (Christoph  Matthaus,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1686, 
was  a  man  of  great  erudition.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Tubingen  in  171 7,  and  received  the  title  of 
count  palatine  in  1724.  He  wrote  (in  Latin)  numerous 
works,  among  which  are  "  Institutions  of  Dogmatic  and 
Moral  Theology,"  (1719,)  remarkable  for  mental  inde- 
pendence, and  "  Introduction  to  the  Literary  History  of 
Theology,"  (1720.)  He  became  dean  of  the  faculty  at 
Giessen  in  1756.    Died  in  1760. 

See  Leporin,  "  Nachricht  von  C.  M.  Pfaffens  Leben,"  etc.,  1726  ; 
HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Pfaff,  (Johann  Christoph,)  father  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1631.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Tiibingen,  and  wrote  several  works.  Died 
in  1720. 

Pfaff,  (Johann  Friedrtch,)  a  mathematician,  born 
at  Stuttgart  in  1765.  He  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Halle  in  1810.  Among  his  works  are  "Ana- 
lytic Essays  mostly  relating  to  the  Integral  Calculus," 
etc.,  (1797.)    Died  at  Halle  in  1825. 

Pfaff,  (Karl,)  a  German  historian,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, published  a  "History  of  Wiirtemberg,"  (2  vols., 
1818-21,)  and  other  histories. 

Pfanner,  pf^n^ner,  (Tobias,)  a  German  historian,  born 
at  Augsburg  in  1641.  He  was  keeper  of  the  archives  at 
Gotha.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  the  Peace 
of  Westphalia,"  (1679.)    Died  in  1716. 

Pfeffel,  pfgffel,  (Christian  Friedrich  von  Krie- 
gelstein — fan  kRee'gel-stin',)  a  historian,  born  at  Col- 
mar,  Upper  Rhine,  in  1726.  His  chief  work  is  a 
"Chronological  Epitome  of  the  History  of  the  Public 
Law  of  Germany,"  in  French,  (1754;  5th  edition,  1766.) 
Died  in  1807. 

Pfeffel,  (Gottlieb  Konrad,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man fabulist  and  poet,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Colmar  in  1736,  became  blind  while  pursuing  his 
studies  at  Plalle.  He  was  appointed  in  1803  president 
of  the  Evangelical  Consistory  at  Colmar.   Died  in  1809. 

See  RiEDER,  "  G.  C.  Pfeffel;  biog;raphischer  Versuch,"  1820; 
Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Pfeflferkorn,  pf^f  fer-koRn',  (Johann,)  a  German  Jew, 
who  was  converted  to  Christianity,  and,  in  excess  of  zeal, 
advised  the  emperor  to  burn  all  Jewish  books  except  the 
Bible.    He  lived  about  1500. 

Pfeiffer,  pfif fer,  (Augustus,)  a  German  scholar,  and 
professor  of  Oriental  literature  at  Leipsic,  was  born  in 
Lower  Saxony  in  1640.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works 
in  relation  to  Jewish  antiquities  and  Biblical  criticism. 
Died  in  1698. 

See  J.  E.  Pfeiffer,  "  Memoria  A.  Pfeifferi,"  1700. 

Pfeiffer,  (Burchard  Wilhelm,)  a  German  jurist  and 
publicist,  born  at  Cassel  in  1777.  He  published  "Prac- 
tical Deductions  concerning  all  Parts  of  Jurisprudence," 
(8  vols.,  1825-46,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1852. 

Pfeiffer,  fi'fer,  (Carl,)  a  skilful  architect,  born  in 
Brunswick,  Germany,  in  1834.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he 
came  to  the  United  States,  and  passed  several  years  as 
assistant  architect  in  Ohio  and  other  parts  of  the  West. 
He  afterwards  spent  four  years  in  the  same  capacity  in 
the  city  of  New  York.  In  1864  he  commenced  business 
on  his  own  account,  and  soon  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  an  excellent  architect.  Among  the  buildings  designed 
and  erected  by  him  are  the  church  of  the  Messiah,  the 
Roosevelt  Hospital,  and  the  mansion  of  Mr.  Barroda, 
one  of  the  largest  houses  in  New  York,  and,  for  its 
admirable  arrangement,  probably  unsurpassed,  if  not 
unequalled,  by  any  other  private  dwelling  in  the  United 
States.  His  plans  have  recently  been  accepted  for  the 
New  City  Hospital,  and  other  public  buildings  belonging 
to  New  York  City. 

Pfeiffer,  pflffer,  (FRANgois  Louis,)  a  Swiss  general, 
born  at  Lucerne  in  17 16.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  French  army,  (1734-75.)    Died  in  1802. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PFEIFFER 


1782 


PHARNABAZUS 


Pfeififer,  (Ida,)  Madame,  a  celebrated  German  trav- 
eller, born  in  Vienna  about  1795.  ^'^^  March, 
1842,  for  Asia  Minor,  where  she  spent  nearly  a  year,  and 
in  1845  iii^ide  the  tour  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Iceland. 
In  1846  she  undertook  a  journey  round  the  world,  which 
she  accomplished  in  a  little  more  than  two  years,  after 
encountering  great  hardships  and  dangers.  She  pub- 
lished in  1850  "A  Woman's  Journey  round  the  World, 
from  Vienna  to  Brazil,  Chili,  Tahiti,  China,  Hindostan," 
etc.  In  1851  she  entered  upon  a  second  journey,  having 
received  for  this  purpose  a  sum  of  money  from  the  Aus- 
trian government.  Her  account  of  this  expedition  ap- 
])eared  in  1855,  under  the  title  of  **  A  Second  Voyage 
round  the  World,  from  London  to  the  Cape  of  Good 
H()|)e,  Borneo,  the  Moluccas,  California,  Peru,  and  the 
United  States."    Died  in  1858. 

Pfeiffer,  (Johann  J'riedrich,)  a  German  economist, 
born  at  lierlin  in  1718.  He  wrote  many  works  on  rural 
and  political  economy,  among  which  is  a  "  Treatise  on 
all  the  Economical  Sciences,"  (4  vols.,  1770-78.)  Died 
in  1787. 

Pfeiffer,  (Louis,)  a  Swiss  general,  born  at  Lucerne  in 
1530.  He  fought  for  Charles  IX.  of  France  against  the 
Huguenots.    Died  in  1594. 

Pfeiffer,  (Louis  Geokg  Karl,)  a  German  naturalist 
and  physician,  a  son  of  Burchard  Wilhelm,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  Cassel  in  1805.  He  published  a  number 
of  treatises  on  botany  and  conchyliology,  among  which 
may  be  named  "Monograph  of  Living  Snails,"  ("Mono- 
graphia  Heliceorum  Viventium,"  3  vols.,  1847-53,)  ^""^ 
a  "  Flora  of  Hesse,"  (2  vols.,  1847-55.) 

Pfeniiinger,  pfen'ning-er,  (Henri,)  a  Swiss  engraver, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1749.  He  engraved  portraits  for 
Lavater's  '*  Physiognomy,"  which  are  admired.  Died 
in  181 5. 

Pfeniiinger,  (Matthias,)  a  Swiss  designer  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Zurich  in  1739.  He  engraved  Swiss 
landscapes  with  skill.    Died  about  1810. 

Pfinzing  or  Pfintzing,  pffnt'sing,  (Melchior,)  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  148 1.  He  com- 
posed a  dull  poem  called  "  The  Adventures  of  Theuer- 
dank,"  (15 17.)  This  edition  was  adorned  with  more 
than  one  hundred  fine  engravings,  and  was  a  master- 
piece of  typography.    Died  in  1535. 

Pfister,  pfis'ter,  (Albrecht,)  a  German  printer,  born 
about  1420.  He  made  use  of  movable  types  ;  but  it  is 
not  known  whether  he  was  an  assistant  of  Gutenberg  or 
invented  them  himself.  His  i^rincipal  work  is  a  Latin 
36-line  Bible,  in  3  vols.  fol.    Died  about  1470. 

Pfister,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German  historian, 
born  near  Marbach  in  1772.  He  wrote  a  "History  of 
Suabia,"  (5  vols.,  1803-27,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Ger- 
mans," (5  vols.,  1830-35.)  He  became  minister  of  a 
church  at  Stuttgart,  where  he  died  in  1835. 

See  Ersch  iind  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie." 

Pfizer,  pflt'ser,  (Gustav,)  a  German  critic  and  littera- 
tetir,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1807.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  a  "  Life  of  Martin  Luther,"  an  "  Essay  on 
Uhland  and  Ruckert,"  (1837,)  and  a  "History  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  for  the  Young,"  (1846.) 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Pfizer,  (Paul  Achatius,  )  a  German  publicist,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Stuttgart  in 
1801. 

Pforr,  pfoR,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man painter  of  animals,  was  born  at  Upfen,  in  Saxony, 
in  1745.  He  painted  horses,  hunting-scenes,  battles,  etc. 
with  much  skill.    Died  in  1798. 

Phadl.    See  Fade. 

Phaeax,  fee'aks,  [4>am^,]  an  Athenian  orator,  who 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Sicily  in  422  B.C.  He  is  men- 
tioned by  Plutarch  as  one  of  the  two  persons  capable 
of  competing  in  some  degree  with  Alcibiades, — i.e.  when 
the  latter  first  entered  the  public  service. 

Phaedon,  fee'don,  or  Phaedo,  fee'do,  [<i>af(5wv,]  a 
Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Elis.  He  came  to  Athens 
about  400  B.C.,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  after  whose 
death  he  founded  a  school  of  philosophy  at  Elis.  His 
writings  have  not  come  down  to  us.  The  name  of  Phae- 
don  is  the  title  of  a  celebrated  dialogue  of  Plato. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius  ;  Suidas,  "Plijedon." 


Phaedra,  fee'dra,  [Gr  ^ai6pa ;  Fr.  Phedre,  fidR,]  a 
daughter  of  Minos  and  Pasiphae,  was  the  wife  of  The- 
seus, King  of  Athens.  She  is  said  to  have  indulged  a 
guilty  passion  for  her  step-son  Hippolytus,  and  to  have 
caused  his  death  by  a  false  accusation. 

Phaedrus,  fee'drus,  [Gr.  <i>ci(5pof  ;  Fr.  PnfeDRE,  f|dR,] 
a  Greek  Epicurean  philosopher,  was  a  friend  of  Cicero. 
He  was  the  head  of  the  Epicurean  school  at  Athens  from 
80  to  70  B.C.,  and  wrote  a  work  which  Cicero  used  freely 
in  composing  the  first  book  of  his  "  Natura  Deorum." 

Phaedrus,  a  Latin  fabulist,  who  wrote  about  20  or  30 
A.D.,  was  originally  a  slave.  He  was  probably  born  in 
Thrace  or  Macedonia.  It  is  supposed  that  he  belonged 
to  Augustus,  and  was  liberated  by  him.  He  left  ninety- 
seven  fables  in  iambic  verse,  the  subjects  and  ideas  of 
which  are  partly  borrowed  from  /Esop.  They  are  ad- 
mired for  the  purity  and  simplicity  of  the  style. 

See  Lindner,  "  Bemerkungen  iiber  den  Phaedrus,"  1782; 
ScHvvABE,  "Vita  Phjedri,"  1806. 

Phaser,  (Thomas,)  a  Welsh  poet  and  physician,  born 
in  Pembrokeshire.  He  translated  the  first  nine  books 
of  Virgil's  "  yEneid"  into  English  verse.    Died  in  1560. 

Pha'e-thon  or  Pha'e-ton,  [Gr.  ^aeduv;  Fr.  Phae- 
thon,  ft'a't6N',]  a  mythical  personage,  called  a  son  of 
Helios  (the  Sun)  or  Phoebus.  His  name  signifies  "  the 
Shining."  The  poets  feigned  that,  in  his  youthful  pre- 
sumption, he  persuaded  his  father  to  permit  him  to  guide 
for  one  day  the  chariot  of  the  sun,  that  he  was  unable 
to  control  the  fiery  coursers,  which  ran  out  of  the  right 
course  and  came  too  near  the  earth,  that  Jupiter  killed 
Phaethon  with  a  thunderbolt,  and  he  fell  into  the  river  Po. 

Phalanthe.    See  Phai.anthus. 

Pha-lan'thus,  [Gr.  ^uTiavOoc ;  Fr.  Phalanthe,  fl'- 
l6Nt',]  a  Spartan  chief,  who  founded  a  Greek  colony  at 
Tarentum  about  708  B.C.,  and  subdued  the  natives  of  the 
adjacent  country. 

PhaPa-ris,  [Gr.  ^akain^,]  a  ruler  of  Agrigentum,  in 
Sicily,  notorious  for  his  cruelty.  He  began  to  reign 
about  570  B.C.,  according  to  Eusebius  and  Suidas.  He 
rendered  his  name  infamous  by  burning  his  victims  in 
a  brazen  bull.  Tradition  adds  that  he  was  deposed  by 
Telemachus,  the  ancestor  of  Theron,  and  suffered  the 
same  cruel  death  which  he  had  inflicted  on  others.  Cer- 
tain epistles  ascribed  to  Phalaris  were  the  subjects  of 
a  celebrated  controversy  between  Boyle  and  Bentley, 
who  demonstrated  them  to  be  spurious. 

See  Suidas,  "Phalaris  ;"  Cicero,  "  De  Officiis,"  ii.  and  iii. 

Phalereus.    See  Demetrius  Phalereus. 

Pha'ni-as  [<i>avmf]  or  Phaenias,  fee'ne-as,  [$amaf,] 
a  Greek  philosopher,  born  in  Lesbos,  was  one  of  the 
most  eminent  disciples  of  Aristotle,  and  was  a  friend  of 
Theophrastus.  He  wrote  many  works  on  logic,  history, 
etc. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Gr^cis ;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca 
Graeca." 

Phan'o-cles,  [^^avoKl^q,]  a  Greek  elegiac  poet,  who 
lived  probably  between  350  and  300  B.C.  He  wrote  a 
poem  called  "Epwref  r}  Kakoi,  of  which  a  fragment  is 
extant.    This  is  niuch  admired  by  some  critics. 

See  Smith,  "Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Phan-o-de'mus,  [4>aTO(5?7^of,]  an  Athenian  historian 
of  uncertain  period.  He  lived  before  the  Christian  era. 
He  wrote  a  work  on  the  antiquitie?  of  Attica,  entitled 
'kTd'ir,  of  which  fragments  are  extant. 

Pha'on,  [Gr.  <i>a«v,]  a  mariner  or  boatman  of  Lesbos, 
celebrated  as  a  favourite  of  Sappho.  According  to  the 
fable,  Venus  endowed  him  with  youth  and  beauty  because 
he  once  carried  her  across  the  water  without  charge. 

Phar'a-mond,  a  king  of  the  Franks,  who  is  sup- 
posed to  have  reigned  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. His  history  is  involved  in  obscurity,  and  is  the 
subject  of  some  romances.  The  first  historian  who 
mentions  him  is  Prosper  Tyro. 

Pharnabaze.    See  Pharnabazus. 

Phar-na-ba'zu.s,  [Gr.  ^apvuSaCpg  ;  Fr.  Pharnabaze, 
ftR'nt'btz^,]  a  Persian  satrap,  governed  the  provinces 
near  the  Hellespont,  under  Darius  II.  He  was  an  ally 
of  the  Spartans  in  the  war  against  the  Athenians,  and 
was  defeated  by  Alcibiades,  near  Abydos,  in  409  B.C.  He 
was  defeated  in  395  by  the  Spartans,  under  Agesilaus, 
who  had  invaded  his  province.   Pharnabazus  and  Iphic- 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fdt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon^ 


PHARNACE  1783  PHIL  A 


rates  commanded  an  expedition  to  Egypt  in  374,  which 
was  a  failure. 

See  Xenophon,  "  Hellenica,"  books  i.,  iii.,  and  iv. 

Pharnace.    See  Pharnaces. 

Phar^na-ces  [Gr.  ^apvuKjjg ;  Fr.  Pharnace,  flR^- 
nts']  I.,  King  of  Pontus,  was  a  son  of  Mithiidates  IV., 
whom  he  succeeded  about  190  B.C.  He  invaded  Galatia 
in  181,  and  was  opposed  with  success  by  Eumenes.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Mithridates  V. 

Pharnaces  II.,  King  of  Pontus,  was  a  son  of  Mithri- 
dates the  Great.  He  conspired  against  his  father  after  his 
defeat  by  the  Romans,  (about  63  B.C.,)  and  was  supported 
by  the  army.  He  made  peace  with  Pompey,  who  recog- 
nized him  as  King  of  the  Bosphorus.  During  the  civil 
war  of  Rome  he  seized  Pontus,  and  provoked  the  hos- 
tility of  Caesar.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Romans  and 
killed  in  battle  in  47  B.C. 

Phavorinus  Varinus.    See  Guarino. 

Phedre.    See  Ph.-edra  and  Ph^drus. 

Pheidias.    See  Phidias. 

Pheidon.    See  Phidon. 

Phelippeaux,  de,  deh  feh-le'po',  or  Philippeaux, 

fe'le'po,  (Antoine  le  Picard — leh  pe'ktR',)  a  French 
officer,  born  in  Poitou  in  1768.  He  emigrated  in  1791, 
fought  against  the  republic,  and  procured  the  escape  of 
Sir  Sidney  Smith  from  prison,  (1797.)  Having  entered 
the  British  service,  he  distinguished  himself  at  the 
defence  of  Acre,  where  he  directed  the  artillery,  in  1799. 
Died  at  Acre  the  same  year. 

Phelps,  (  Almira  Hart  Lincoln,)  an  American 
teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  at  Berlin,  Connec- 
ticut, in  1793.  She  was  for  many  years  associated  with 
her  sister,  Mrs.  Emma  Willard,  as  teacher  of  the  Female 
Seminary,  Troy,  New  York,  and  in  1841  took  charge  of 
the  Patapsco  Institute,  Maryland.  Among  her  principal 
works  are  "  Familiar  Lectures  on  Botany,"  "  Geology 
for  Beginners,"  (1832,)  "Lectures  on  Natural  Philoso- 
phy," (1835,)  and  "Hours  with  my  Pupils,"  (1859.) 

Phelps,  (Anson  Greene,)  an  American  merchant, 
born  at  Simsbury,  Connecticut,  in  1781,  became  president 
of  the  New  York  Blind  Asylum,  and  of  the  American 
board  of  commissioners  for  foreign  missions.  He  died 
in  1853,  bequeathing  to  various  charitable  institutions 
the  sum  of  $371,000. 

Phelps,  (Elizabeth  Stuart,)  an  American  writer, 
a  daughter  of  Professor  Moses  Stuart,  D.D.,  was  born 
at  Andover,  Massachusetts,  in  181 5.  She  published  a 
number  of  moral  and  religious  tales,  which  obtained 
great  popularity.  Among  these  we  may  name  "The 
Kitty  Brown  Series,"  (1850,)  "The  Sunny  Side,"  (1851,) 
"  Peep  at  Number  Five,"  (1851,)  and  "The  Angel  over 
the  Right  Shoulder,"  (1851.)    Died  in  1852. 

Her  daughter,  of  the  same  name,  has  written,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Gates  Ajar,"  (1868,)  which  has  had 
an  almost  unexampled  popularity,  having  in  less  than 
one  year  passed  through  more  than  twenty  editions. 

Phelps,  (John  S.,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Hartford  county,  Connecticut,  in  1814.  He  emigrated 
to  Springfield,  Missouri,  in  1837,  and  was  elected  to 
Congress  in  1844.  He  also  represented  the  sixth  dis- 
trict of  Missouri  in  Congress  for  several  terms,  ending 
about  1862.  He  was  appointed  military  Governor  of 
Arkansas  by  President  Lincoln  in  1862. 

Phelps,  (John  W.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Guilford,  Vermont,  in  1 813,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1836.  He  became  a  captain  in  1850,  and  resigned  his 
commission  in  1859.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  in  1861,  and  served  under  General  Butler  in  the 
expedition  against  New  Orleans.  In  December,  1861, 
he  issued  a  proclamation  against  slavery,  which  was 
disapproved  by  General  Butler.  He  resigned  in  July 
or  August,  1862. 

Phelypeaux.  See  Maurepas  and  Pontchartrain. 

Pherecrate.    See  Pherecrates. 

Phe-rec'ra-tes,  [Gr.  (^epeKpurrjg ;  Fr.  Pherecrate, 
fk'ri'kktt',]  an  Athenian  poet  of  the  old  comedy,  wrote 
about  430  B.C.,  and  was  a  contemporary  of  Plato  and 
Aristophanes.  Small  fragments  of  his  plays  are  extant. 
He  invented  a  new  metre,  called  Pherecratic.  His  dic- 
tion is  elegant,  and  his  plots  are  ingenious. 

See  Meineke,  "  Fragmenta  Comicorum  Grsecoriim.."^ 


Pherecyde.    See  Pherecyl>es. 

Pher-e-9y'des,  [Gr.  ^epeKvdrig ;  Fr.  PhErEcyde,  fk'- 
rk'sbcV,]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Syros  about  600 
or  570  B.C.,  was  the  teacher  of  Pythagoras.  He  is  said 
to  have  taught  the  doctrine  of  Metempsychosis,  or  the 
transmigration  of  the  soul. 

Pherecydes,  an  Athenian  historian,  a  contemporary 
of  Herodotus,  lived  between  490  and  450  B.C.  His  chief 
work  was  a  mythological  history,  in  ten  books,  sometimes 
entitled  Avroxdove^. 

Phid'i-as,  written  also  Pheidias,  [^eidcac,]  regarded 
by  many  as  the  greatest  sculptor  and  statuary  that  ever 
lived,  was  a  son  of  Charmidas  or  Charmides.  He  was 
probably  born  at  Athens  between  500  and  485  B.C.  The 
details  of  his  personal  history  are  very  deficient,  consid- 
ering his  renown.  His  principal  master  was  Ageladas, 
a  sculptor  of  Argos.  Among  his  earlier  works  were  a 
colossal  bronze  statue  of  Athena  Promachos,  dated  about 
460  B.C.,  which  stood  on  the  Acropolis  for  many  centuries, 
and  an  ivory  or  chryselephantine  statue  of  Athena  at 
Pellene.  Having  formed  a  new  style,  characterized  by 
sublimity  and  ideal  beauty,  he  obtained  the  friendship 
and  patronage  of  Pericles,  who  about  444  B.C.  began  to 
adorn  the  Acropolis  with  works  of  art.  "  Phidias  was 
appointed  by  Pericles  superintendent  of  all  the  public 
edifices,"  says  Plutarch,  "although  the  Athenians  had 
other  eminent  architects." 

The  sculptured  ornaments  of  the  Parthenon,  executed 
by  Phidias  and  his  disciples,  exhibited  a  perfection 
which  has  never  been  surpassed,  if  equalled,  by  other 
artists.  He  formed  with  his  own  hand  the  colossal 
statue  of  Minerva  which  was  enclosed  within  the  Par- 
thenon and  was  dedicated  in  438  B.C.  It  was  chrysele- 
phantine,— that  is,  the  naked  parts  were  made  of  ivory 
and  the  drapery  of  gold.  The  height  of  this  statue  was 
nearly  forty  feet.  It  was  his  most  celebrated  work  at 
Athens.  His  other  master-piece  was  a  colossal  ivory 
and  gold  statue  of  Jupiter  at  Olympia,  (Elis,)  which  was 
enclosed  in  the  temple  dedicated  to  that  god.  He  was 
represented  seated  on  a  throne,  holding  in  his  right 
hand  a  statue  of  Victory.  This  figure,  in  the  opinion  of 
the  Greeks,  expressed  and  realized  their  highest  ideal 
of  supreme  majesty  and  divine  complacency.  It  was 
destroyed  by  fire  at  Constantinople  about  475  a.d. 
Some  of  the  Elgin  marbles  in  the  British  Museum  are 
considered  to  be  works  of  Phidias. 

In  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  Phidias  was  accused  of 
defrauding  the  state  of  part  of  the  gold  appropriated  to 
the  statue  of  Minerva  ;  but,  as  Pericles  ordered  the  gold 
to  be  taken  off  and  weighed,  this  charge  was  abandoned  ; 
for  Phidias,  by  the  advice  of  Pericles,  had  artfully  con- 
trived that  the  gold  could  be  easily  taken  off.  According 
to  Plutarch,  he  died  in  prison,  into  which  he  was  thrown 
on  a  charge  of  impiety,  because  he  had  sculptured  on 
the  shield  of  Minerva  images  of  himself  and  Pericles. 
Some  writers  ascribe  his  death  to  poison,  and  others 
doubt  the  truth  of  the  statement  that  he  was  imprisoned. 
His  death,  however,  occurred  about  432  B.C. 

"The  three  greatest  architects  hitherto  known  in  the 
world," says  Ruskin,  "were  Phidias,  Giotto,  and  Michael 
Angelo, — with  all  of  whom  architecture  was  only  their 
play,  sculpture  and  painting  their  work."  In  the  course 
of  his  remarks  on  Repose  as  a  test  of  greatness  in  works 
of  art,  Ruskin  says,  "We  shall  see  by  this  light  three 
colossal  images  standing  up  side  by  side,  looming  in 
their  great  rest  of  spirituality  above  the  whole  world- 
horizon, — Phidias,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Dante." 

See  K.  O.  Mur.LER,  "  De  Phidi^-e  Vita  et  Operibus  Commenta- 
tiones  tres,"  1827;  Ersch  iind  Gruber,  " Allgemeine  Encyklo- 
paedie;"  "  Nouvelle  ]>io£;raphie  Generale." 

Phi'don  or  Phei'don,  [Gr.  ^eldov,]  a  king  of  Argos 
and  descendant  of  Hercules,  is  said  to  have  changed  the 
government  of  that  state  to  a  despotism  about  750  B.C. 
He  was  the  reputed  inventor  of  weights  and  measures, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  prince  who  coined 
silver  money.  He  was  deprived  of  power  or  defeated 
by  the  Spartans  and  Eleians. 

PhiTa,  [Gr.  $;Za,]  a  daughter  of  Antipater,  the  Re- 
gent of  Macedonia,  was  distinguished  for  her  virtue 
and  wisdom.  She  was  married  to  Craterus,  and  after 
his  death  to  Demetrius,  the  son  of  Antigonus.  Died 
in  287  B.C. 


<  as     9  as  s;  g  /lard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  tkis.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PHIL^NI 


1784 


PHILIP 


Philaeni,  fe-lee'nT,  [Gr.  ^i'kaLvoL,]  two  Carthaginians 
and  brothers,  whose  name  was  rendered  memorable  by 
an  act  of  patriotic  devotion.  When  the  boundary  be- 
tween Carthage  and  Cyrene  was  disputed,  the  parties 
agreed  that  two  men  of  each  state  should  start  at  the 
same  time  and  walk  or  run  towards  the  other,  and  that 
the  place  where  they  met  should  be  the  boundary.  The 
Philaeni  traversed  a  greater  space  than  the  Cyrenians, 
who  accused  the  former  of  unfairness.  The  Philaeni 
then  offered  to  prove  their  honesty  by  a  sacrifice  of  their 
lives,  and  were  buried  alive  in  the  sand. 

Phi-la'gri-us,  [^tXayp^of,]  a  Greek  medical  writer  of 
Thessalonica,  lived  probably  in  the  third  century  of  our 
era.    His  works  are  lost,  except  small  fragments. 

Phi-lam'mon,  [^Lkdn^tov,]  a  mythical  Greek  poet 
and  musician,  was  supposed  to  be  the  son  of  Apollo, 
the  inventor  of  choral  music,  and  the  institutor  of  the 
Delphian  worship  of  Apollo. 

Philander.    See  Philandrier. 

Philandrier,  fe'16NMRe-i',  [Lat.  Philan'der,  ] 
(GuiLLAUME,)  a  French  scholar,  born  at  Chatillon-sur- 
Seine  in  1505.  He  published  "Notes  on  Quintilian," 
(1535,)  and  "Annotations  on  Vitruvius,"  (1544.)  Died 
in  1565. 

Philarete.   See  Philaretus. 

Philar^te,  fe'irrit',  or  Phi-lar'e-tus,  {Vasil  Dro- 
SOF,)  Metropolitan  of  Moscow,  was  born  near  Moscow 
in  1782.  He  became  Bishop  of  Revel  in  181 7.  and 
Archbishop  of  Moscow  in  1820.  He  published  "Com- 
mentaries on  Genesis,"  and  other  works.   Died  in  1867. 

Phi-lar'?-tus,  [Fr.  Philarete,  fe^lS'rit',]  the  reputed 
author  of  a  small  Greek  treatise  "  On  the  Pulse,"  which 
is  sometimes  attributed  to  Philotheus. 

Phi'le  or  Phi'les,  (Manuel,)  a  Byzantine  poet,  born 
at  Ephesus  about  1275.  He  wrote,  in  barbarous  Greek 
verse,  a  curious  work,  Wepl  ^tj(ov  I.6l6tt]toc,  ("  On  the 
Nature  of  Animals,")  which  is  extracted  mostly  from 
Elian's  "Natural  History."    Died  about  1340. 

PhiPe-as,  [4>t/lmf,]  a  Greek  geographer,  born  at 
Athens,  lived  probably  several  centuries  before  Christ. 
He  is  quoted  by  Dicaearchus.  He  wrote  a  "  Periplus." 

Philelphe  and  Philelphus.    See  Filelfo. 

Phi-le'mon,  [^i?iTj/j.(ov,\  an  eminent  Athenian  comic 
poet,  was  born  at  Soli  in  Cilicia,  or  at  Syracuse,  about 
360  B.C.  He  was  a  rival  of  Menander,  and  was  the  first 
poet  of  the  new  comedy  in  order  of  time.  He  began 
to  exhibit  comedies  about  330  B.C.,  and  obtained  great 
favour  with  the  Athenians.  He  gained  several  victories 
over  Menander  in  dramatic  contests.  Fragments  of  his 
works  are  extant.  He  was  a  witty  and  elegant  writer. 
Died  about  262  B.C.  His  son,  Philemon,  was  also  a 
comic  poet,  but  less  famous. 

See  SuiDAS,  "  Philemon  ;"  Meineke,  "  Menandri  et  Philemonis 
Reliquiae,"  and  "  Fragmenta  Comicorum  Grzecorum ;"  Haupt- 
MANN,  "  Dlssertatio  de  Philemone,"  1745. 

Philemon,  a  Greek  grammarian,  who  lived  probably 
between  600  and  700  A. D.,  was  the  author  of  a  "Lexicon 
Technologicon,"  part  of  which  is  extant. 

Philemon,  one  of  the  primitive  Christians,  was  a 
friend  of  the  apostle  Paul,  who  addressed  to  him  an 
epistle,  which  is  included  in  the  canon  of  Scripture. 

Philepicus.    See  Philippicus. 

Philetaerus,  fil-e-tee'rus,  [^I'AeTaipo^,]  an  Athenian 
comic  poet  of  the  middle  comedy.  Little  is  known  of 
his  life  or  works. 

Philetcerus,  the  founder  of  the  kingdom  of  Pergamus. 
He  became  king  about  280  B.C.,  and  died  about  262  B.C., 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  nephew  Eumenes. 

Phi-le'tas  [^iXrjTd^]  of  Cos,  an  eminent  Greek  poet 
and  critic,  who  flourished  between  350  and  290  B.C.  He 
was  the  preceptor  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  He  wrote 
elegies  and  epigrams,  and  prose  works  on  grammar. 
Fragments  of  his  poems  have  come  down  to  us.  He  was 
a  favourite  model  of  the  poet  Theocritus. 

See  Ersch  iind  Gruber,  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie  ;"  N.  Bach, 
"  Piogianima  de  Piiileta  Coo,"  1828. 

PhiPe-us,  sometimes  written  Phiteus,  Pytheus,  or 
Phileos,  an  eminent  Greek  architect,  who  lived  about 
25  B.C.  He  designed  two  magnificent  edifices  in  Asia 
Minor, — viz.,  the  Mausoleum  and  the  temple  of  Athena 
Polias  at  Priene. 


PhiPi-bert  [Fr.  pron.  fe'le'baiR';  It.  Filiberto,  fe-le- 
bgu'to;  Lat.  Philiber'tus]  I.,  Duke  of  Savoy,  a  son 
of  Amadeus  IX.,  was  born  in  1464;  died  in  1482. 

Philibert  II.,  Duke  of  Savoy,  a  son  of  Philip  IL, 
was  born  in  1480.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1497, 
and  died  in  1504,  leaving  the  dukedom  to  his  brother, 
Carlo  IIL 

Philidor.    See  Danican. 

Philieul,  fe'le-uK,  (Vasquin,)  a  French  litterateur, 
was  born  at  Carpentras  in  1522.  He  published  "  Laura 
d' Avignon,"  {1548,)  and  "Toutes  les  CEuvres  vulgaires 
de  F.  Petrarque,"  (1555.)    Died  about  1582. 

Phi-li'nus,  [4>iAZyof,]  a  Greek  physician,  born  in 
Cos,  was  a  pupil  of  Herophilus.  He  lived  about  250 
B.C.,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  botany,  which  is  not  extant. 
He  was  the  reputed  founder  of  the  sect  of  Empirici. 

Philinus,  an  Athenian  orator,  a  contemporary  of 
Demosthenes. 

Philinus,  a  Greek  historian,  who  accompanied  Han- 
nibal in  his  campaign  in  Italy,  and  wrote  a  History  of 
the  First  and  Second  Punic  Wars,  which  is  not  extant. 
He  was  a  native  of  Sicily. 

PhiPip  [Gr.  <J»<ACT7rof]  I.,  King  of  Macedonia,  a  son 
of  Argaeus,  reigned  in  the  ninth  century  B.C.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Aeropus. 

Philip  [Gr.  <&i'A<7r7ro^-;  Lat.  Philip'pus;  Fr.  Philippe, 
fe'l^p';  It.  FiLiPPO,  fe-l^p'po;  Sp.  Felipe,  fi-lee'pi; 
Ger.  Philipp,  fiPip]  II.,  a  famous  king  of  Macedonia, 
a  younger  son  of  Amyntas,  was  born  in  382  B.C.  In  his 
youth  he  passed  several  years  at  Thebes  as  a  hostage, 
and  enjoyed  the  society  of  Epaminondas.  He  succeeded 
his  brother  Perdiccas  in  359,  and  married  Olympias, 
a  daughter  of  the  King  of  Epirus.  During  the  Social 
war,  which  began  in  358  B.C.,  he  extended  his  do- 
minions by  the  capture  of  Amphipolis,  Potidaea,  and 
Pydna  from  the  Athenians.  He  availed  himself  of 
another  civil  war,  called  the  Sacred  war,  to  pursue  his 
ambitious  projects  against  the  independence  of  the 
Grecian  states,  and  became  the  ally  of  the  Thebans 
against  the  Phocians  and  Athenians.  In  347  B.C.  he 
besieged  Olynthus  with  success,  and  made  a  treaty  of 
peace  with  Athens.  By  the  conquest  of  Phocis,  in  346, 
he  acquired  a  vote  in  the  Amphictyonic  Council.  The 
continued  aggressions  of  Philip  again  involved  him  in 
a  war  with  the  Athenians,  who  were  stimulated  by  the 
powerful  appeals  of  Demosthenes,  and  who  in  339  B.C. 
compelled  him  to  raise  the  siege  of  Perinthus  and 
Byzantium.  A  league  was  then  formed  against  him  by 
the  Athenians,  Thebans,  and  others.  The  decisive  battle 
of  Chaeronea,  where  Philip,  commanding  in  person, 
defeated  the  allies  in  338  B.C.,  rendered  him  master  of 
Greece.  He  treated  the  Athenians  with  clemency.  He 
called  a  general  congress  of  deputies  from  the  Greek 
states,  who  resolved  to  unite  in  an  aggressive  war 
against  Persia,  and  appointed  Philip  commander-in-chief. 
During  the  preparations  for  this  enterprise  he  was  as- 
sassinated, in  336  B.C.,  at  the  celebration  of  a  marriage 
between  his  daughter  Cleopatra  and  the  King  of  Epirus. 
The  assassin  was  Pausanias,  a  soldier  of  his  own  body- 
guard, who  had  been  insulted  by  Attains,  an  uncle  of 
Philip's  queen,  and  whose  claim  for  redress  had  been 
neglected  by  the  king.  Philip  possessed  great  military 
and  political  talents,  with  some  virtues,  among  which 
we  may  name  generosity.  He  was,  on  the  other  hand, 
sensual,  unscrupulous,  and  perfidious. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Demosthenes;"  Leland,  "  History  of 
the  Life  and  Reign  of  Philip  of  Macedon,"  1758;  Grote,  "History 
of  Greece,"  vol.  xi.  ;  Bury,  "  Histoire  de  Philippe  et  d' Alexandre  le 
Grand,"  1760;  Bruckner,  "  Konig  Philipp  Sohn  des  Amyntas," 
1837:  Thiri.wall,  "  History  of  Greece;"  Drumann,  "Geschichte 
des  Verfalls  der  Griechischen  Staaten." 

Philip  III.  OF  Macedon.  This  title  was  given  to 
Arrhidaeus,  an  illegitimate  son  of  Philip  II.    (See  Ar- 

RHID/EUS.) 

Philip  IV.  OF  Macedon,  a  son  of  Cassander,  reigned 
only  a  few  months,  and  died  in  296  B.C. 

Philip  V.  OF  Macedon,  born  about  235  B.C.,  was 
a  son  of  Demetrius  II.  He  succeeded  his  uncle,  Anti- 
gonus  Doson,  in  220  B.C.  Having  obtained  command  of 
the  army  of  the  Achaean  league  he  displayed  superior 
military  talents,  and  defeated  the  ^tolians  and  Spartans, 
(218-217.)    The  success  of  Hannibal  at  Cannae  tempted 


i,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  f^t;  mgt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PHILIP  1785  PHILIP 


Philip  to  form  an  alliance  with  him  against  the  Romans 
in  215  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  poisoned  Aratus,  who 
had  been  his  friend.  The  Romans,  having  recovered 
their  ascendency,  sent  an  army  against  Philip,  who  was 
defeated  completely  by  T.  Q.  Flamininus  at  Cynos- 
cephalae  in  197  B.C.  He  died  in  179  B.C.,  leaving  the 
throne  to  his  son,  Perseus.  Philip  was  an  able  monarch, 
but  was  cruel  and  tyrannical. 

See  Livv,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxii.-xl. 

Philip  or  Philip'pus,  a  son  of  Herod  the  Great  and 
Cleopatra,  became  tetrarch  of  Gaulonitis,  Trachonitis, 
and  Batanaea.    Died  about  34  A.D. 

Philip  [Lat.  Philip'pus]  of  Acarnania,  a  physician, 
was  a  friend  of  Alexander  the  Great,  whom  he  cured  of  a 
fever  caused  by  bathing  in  the  river  Cydnus,  333  B.C.  On 
this  occasion  Parmenio  warned  the  king  by  letter  that 
Philip  was  bribed  (by  Darius)  to  poison  him.  The  king, 
however,  confiding  in  his  fidelity,  drank  the  medicine 
as  he  showed  the  letter  to  Philip.    (See  Alexander.) 

Philip,  Emperor  of  Rome.    See  Philippus. 

PhiPip,  [Gr.  ^Lli-nog ;  Lat.  Philip'pus  ;  Fr.  Phi- 
lippe, fe^^p',]  Saint,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  was  a 
native  of  Bethsaida,  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  He  witnessed 
the  miracle  of  the  loaves  and  fishes,  (John  vi.  5-7.)  The 
evangelist  John  records  an  interview  between  him  and 
certain  Greeks,  in  chapter  xii.  21.  According  to  tra- 
dition, he  preached  in  Phrygia,  and  suffered  martyrdom 
at  Hierapolis. 

Philip,  [Ger.  Philipp,  fillip,]  Duke  of  Suabia,  Em- 
peror of  Germany,  a  son  of  Frederick  Barbarossa,  was 
born  about  1170.  He  was  elected  emperor  in  1198,  but 
his  title  was  contested  by  Otho  IV.,  and  a  civil  war  en- 
sued. The  pope  favoured  Otho,  and  excommunicated 
Philip,  but  was  afterwards  reconciled  to  him.  Philip 
was  assassinated  in  1208. 

Philip  [Sp.  Felipe,  fi-lee'pi]  I.,  surnamed  the 
Handsome,  King  of  Castile,  a  son  of  Maximilian  I., 
Emperor  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Bruges  in  1478.  His 
mother  was  Mary  of  Burgundy,  from  whom  he  inherited 
the  seventeen  provinces  of  the  Low  Countries.  He  was 
styled  Archduke  of  Austria  in  his  youth.  In  1496  he 
married  Joanna,  a  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
(of  Castile  and  Aragon.)  On  the  death  of  Isabella 
(1504)  the  crown  of  Castile  was  inherited  by  Joanna, 
but,  in  consequence  of  her  mental  imbecility,  or  insanity, 
Philip  exercised  the  royal  power.  He  died  at  Burgos 
in  September,  1506,  leaving  two  sons,  who  became 
emperors  as  Charles  V.  and  Ferdinand  I. 

See  Mariana,  "  De  Rebus  Hispanicis  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Philip  [Fr.  Philippe,  fe'l^p']  I.,  King  of  France,  a 
son  of  Henry  I.  and  Anne  of  Russia,  was  born  in  1052. 
He  succeeded  his  father  in  1060,  when  Baldwin,  Count 
of  Flanders,  became  regent.  He  abandoned  himself  to 
disgraceful  sensuality.  In  1092  he  married  Bertrade, 
the  wife  of  Foulques,  Count  of  Anjou,  who  was  still 
living.  Philip  was  excommunicated  for  this  offence.  He 
was  involved  in  a  war  with  William  Rufus  of  England 
during  the  first  crusade.  He  died  in  I  loS,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  VI. 

See  SisMONDi.  "  Histoire  des  Fran^ais  ;"  Michelet,  "  Histoire 
de  France  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Philip  II.  OF  France.    See  Philip  Augustus. 

Philip  (Philippe)  III.,  surnamed  the  Bold,  (le 
Hardi,  leh  //ta'de';  Lat.  Philip'pus  Au'dax,]  born  in 
1245,  was  the  second  son  of  Louis  IX.,  whose  eldest  son 
died  in  infancy.  He  married  Isabella  of  Aragon  in  1262, 
and  accompanied  his  father  in  the  crusade  to  Tunis  in 
1269.  At  the  death  of  Louis,  in  1270,  Philip  became 
king.  Having  made  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  King  of 
Tunis,  he  returned  to  Paris  in  1271.  Although  he  was  a 
prince  of  little  talent  and  of  a  weak  character,  the  royal 
domain  and  power  were  increased  during  his  reign. 
Among  the  chief  events  of  his  reign  was  a  war  against 
Peter  of  Aragon.  With  the  sanction  of  the  pope,  who 
had  offered  the  crown  of  Aragon  to  Charles,  a  son  of 
Philip,  the  latter  invaded  Catalonia  in  1285,  but  was 
soon  forced  to  retreat.  He  died  at  Perpignan  in  October, 
1285. 

See  GuiLLAUME  de  Nangis,  "Gesta  Philippi  Autlacis  ;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 


Philip  IV.,  often  called  Philip  the  Fair,  [Fr. 

Philippe  le  Bel,  fe'l^p'  leh  b^l ;  Ger.  Philipp  der 
ScHONE,  fiKip  dir  sho^neh,!  a  son  of  Philip  III.  and 
Isabella  of  Aragon,  was  born  in  1268.  He  succeeded 
his  father  in  1285,  before  which  he  had  married  Jeanne 
of  Navarre  and  acquired  Navarre  as  her  dowry.  He 
was  ambitious  to  increase  the  royal  power,  and  un- 
scrupulous in  the  choice  of  means.  His  favourite  ad- 
visers were  lawyers,  who  taught  him  how  to  substitute 
despotism  for  the  feudal  system.  In  1292  or  1293  he 
summoned  Edward  I.  of  England  to  appear  at  Paris 
and  answer  for  the  hostile  acts  of  some  of  his  sub- 
jects. Edward  sent  his  brother  Edmund,  who  offered 
reparation,  and  delivered  to  Philip  six  fortresses  in 
Guienne,  (1294.)  Having  occupied  all  Guienne  by  his 
troops,  Philip  condemned  Edward  as  contumacious,  and 
declared  his  domains  in  France  confiscated.  In  the 
war  that  ensued,  Edward  recovered  part  of  Guienne. 
To  raise  funds  for  his  wars,  Philip  debased  the  coin,  and 
extorted  money,  by  persecution,  from  the  Jews.  He  in- 
vaded Flanders  about  1300,  but  was  successfully  opposed 
by  the  Flemings.  By  a  treaty  of  1303  he  restored  all 
Guienne  to  Edward  I.  Some  years  before  this  date  a 
quarrel  arose  between  Philip  and  the  pope,  Boniface, 
whose  person  was  outraged  by  the  agents  of  Philip  at 
Agnani  in  1303.  In  consequence  of  Philip's  audacious 
and  successful  efforts  to  humble  the  papacy,  the  court 
of  the  pope  was  transferred  to  Avignon  in  1308.  Among 
the  last  acts  of  his  reign  was  his  cruel  persecution  and 
suppression  of  the  order  of  Templars.  He  died  in  1314, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  X. 

See  Lessmann,  "  Konig  Philipp  der  Schone,"  1829;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Philip  (Philippe)  V.,  surnamed  le  Long,  (leh  16n,) 
the  second  son  of  Philip  IV.,  was  born  about  1293.  He 
became  king  at  the  death  of  Louis  X.,  in  13 16.  Louis 
X.  had  left  a  daughter,  who  was  excluded  from  the 
throne.  The  important  question  of  succession  was 
decided  on  this  occasion,  and  the  Salic  law  became 
thenceforth  one  of  the  bases  of  the  French  consti- 
tution. The  events  of  his  reign  were  not  remarkable. 
He  renewed  the  persecution  of  the  Jews,  many  of 
whom  were  massacred.  He  died  in  1322,  leaving  four 
daughters,  but  no  son,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Charles  IV. 

Philip  (Philippe)  VI.,  or  Philippe  de  Valois,  fe'- 

I6p'  deh  vt^lwa',  born  in  1293,  was  a  son  of  Charles  de 
Valois,  who  was  a  brother  of  Philip  IV.  He  succeeded 
his  cousin,  Charles  IV.  le  Bel,  in  1328,  and  became  the 
founder  of  the  royal  house  of  Valois.  He  was  an  in- 
capable and  prodigal  prince.  His  reign  commenced  a 
period  of  disasters  and  confusion.  He  became  involved 
in  war  with  Edward  III.  of  England,  who  possessed 
Guienne  and  claimed  to  be  the  rightful  heir  of  the 
French  throne,  through  his  mother  Isabelle.  Philip  was 
defeated  with  great  loss  at  Crecy  in  1346,  and  lost  Calais, 
an  important  strategic  point,  in  1347,  soon  after  which  a 
truce  was  concluded.  He  died  in  1350,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  John. 

See  Froissart,  "Chronicles;"  De  Choisy,  "Histoire  de  Phi- 
lippe de  Valois,"  1688;  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Frangais." 

Philip,  [Fr.  Philippe,]  King  of  Navarre,  was  a  grand- 
son of  Philip  III.  of  France.  He  married  in  1318 
Jeanne,  a  daughter  of  Louis  X.,  who  was  heiress  of  the 
throne  of  Navarre.  He  died  in  1343,  leaving  a  son, 
Charles  the  Bad. 

Philip  I.  OF  Spain.    See  Philip  I.  of  Castile. 

Philip  [Sp.  Felipe,  fi-lee'pi;  It.  Filippo,  fe-l^p'po] 
II.,  King  of  Spain,  was  the  son  of  the  emperor  Charles 
V.  and  Isabella  of  Portugal.  He  was  born  at  Valladolid 
on  the  2ist  of  May,  1527.  By  education  and  character,  as 
well  as  birth,  he  was  a  Spaniard,  and  a  thorough-paced 
bigot.  He  married  in  1543  Maria  of  Portugal,  who  died 
about  three  years  later.  In  1548  he  visited  Brussels, 
where  Charles  V.  held  his  court.  In  1554  he  went  to 
London  to  celebrate  his  marriage  with  Mary  Tudor, 
Queen-Regnant  of  England,  who  was  about  eleven  years 
older  than  he.  Having  parted  from  her  in  September, 
1555,  he  went  to  Brussels  to  meet  his  father,  who,  on  the 
25th  of  October,  1555,  abdicated  in  his  favour  the  sove- 
reignty of  the  Netherlands.    Before  the  end  of  the  year, 


€  as    9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  sas  z;  th  as  in  this,    (2l^=*See  Explanations,  p.  33.) 


PHILIP 


1786 


PHILIP  . 


Philip  became  King  of  Spain  and  the  Indies  by  the 
abdication  of  his  father,  and  master  of  an  empire  "  on 
which  the  sun  never  set."  His  favourite  minister,  in  the 
rearly  part  of  his  reign,  was  Ruy  Gomez  de  Silva,  Count 
of  Melito  and  Prince  of  Eboli.  Philip  found  himself, 
against  his  will,  in  a  position  of  hostility  to  the  po])e, 
Paul  IV,,  who  in  December,  1555,  made  a  treaty  with 
the  King  of  France",  in  order  to  drive  the  Spaniards  out 
of  Italy.  In  1557  his  army  gained  a  complete  victory 
over  the  French  at  Saint-Quentin.  This  war  was  ter- 
minated by  the  treaty  of  Cateau-Cambresis,  in  1559,  and 
Philip,  having  appointed  Margaret  of  Parma  Regent  of 
the  Netherlands,  returned  to  Spain,  which  he  never 
quitted  again. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Mary  Tudor  (1558)  he  mar- 
ried Elizabeth  or  Isabelle  of  France,  a  daughter  of 
Henry  IL,  who  had  been  betrothed  to  his  son,  Don 
Carlos.  He  transferred  his  court  from  Toledo  to  Madrid, 
which  became  about  1560  the  permanent  capital  of 
Spain.  One  of  the  first  measures  of  his  reign  was  to 
re-enact  the  atrocious  edict  of  1550,  condemning  to 
death  every  one  who  should  print,  write,  copy,  keep, 
buy,  sell,  or  give  any  book  made  by  Luther  or  Calvin, 
and  all  lay  persons  who  should  read  or  teach  the  Scrip- 
tures. His  systematic  efforts  to  suppress  religious  liberty 
by  the  torments  of  the  Inquisition,  in  all  his  dominions, 
provoked  a  general  revolt  of  the  Flemings  and  Dutch 
in  1566.  (See  Orange,  William  of.)  In  August,  1567, 
the  Duke  of  Alva  arrived  in  Flanders  with  an  army,  and 
with  unlimited  power  to  subdue  and  punish  the  insur- 
gents. Among  the  victims  of  his  bloody  regime  were 
the  Counts  of  Egmont  and  Horn,  executed  in  June,  1568. 
*'  The  execution  of  Egmont,"  says  Motley,  "  remains  an 
enduring  monument  not  only  of  Philip's  cruelty  and  per- 
fidy, but  of  his  dulness.  The  king  had  everything  to 
hope  from  him,  and  nothing  to  fear."  Alva  defeated  the 
insurgents  in  several  battles,  and  massacred  thousands 
of  non-combatants  of  both  sexes  and  all  ages,  but  was 
baffled  by  the  indomitable  spirit  of  the  people,  and  was 
recalled  in  1573.  "  It  was  beyond  the  power  of  man's 
ingenuity  to  add  any  fresh  features  of  horror  to  the 
religious  persecution  under  which  the  provinces  were 
groaning."  (Motley.)  In  1568  the  king's  eldest  son, 
Don  Carlos,  died  mysteriously  in  prison,  where  he  had 
been  confined  for  some  months.  According  to  De  Thou 
and  other  writers,  he  was  put  to  death  by  the  order 
of  Philip. 

The  effort  to  subdue  the  Netherlands  was  continued 
by  Don  John  of  Austria  and  Farnese,  Duke  of  Parma, 
without  success.  This  long  war  exhausted  the  finances 
of  Philip  and  hindered  his  projects  for  the  conquest  of 
France  and  England.  In  1580  he  obtained  the  crown 
of  Portugal  as  successor  of  his  uncle  Henrique,  who  died 
without  issue.  He  instigated  the  French  to  rebel  against 
Henry  IV.,  and  furnished  subsidies  to  the  factious  League. 
For  the  invasion  of  England  he  equipped  a  fleet  of  one 
hundred  and  thirty  or,  according  to  some  writers,  one 
hundred  and  fifty  vessels,  which  sailed  in  May,  1588, 
and  was  called  "the  Invincible  Armada."  After  this 
fleet  had  passed  through  the  Strait  of  Dover,  it  was 
damaged  by  English  fire-ships,  and  attacked  on  the  8th 
of  August  by  Admiral  Howard,  who  sunk  and  captured 
many  ships.  The  Spanish  admiral  retreated  northward, 
and  near  the  Orkneys  encountered  a  violent  storm,  which 
dispersed  his  fleet.  About  fifty  of  his  vessels  were 
wrecked.  (See  Elizabeth.)  The  war  between  Spain 
and  England  continued  many  years.  Philip  died  on  the 
13th  of  September,  1598,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Philip  HI. 

In  person,  Philip  was  meagre  and  below  the  middle 
height.  He  had  a  fair  complexion,  blue  eyes,  aquiline 
nose,  and  a  very  prominent  lower  jaw.  His  temper  was 
morose,  his  manners  reserved  and  repulsive,  but  he  had 
great  ambition  and  indefatigable  industry. 

See  Watson,  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  1777;  Motley,  "History 
of  the  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  1846;  Prescott,  "  History  of 
Philip  n.,"  3  vols.,  1855-58;  Camhana,  "Vita  del  Don  Filippo," 
1605:  Cabreka,  "Felipe  II.  Rey  de  Espaiia."  1619;  C6rdova, 
"  Vida  de  Felipe  II.,"  1662;  A.  Dumesnil,  "  Histoire  de  Philippe 
II,"  1822;  G.  Leti,  "Vita  del  Re  Filippo  II.,"  1679;  San  Miguel, 
"Historia  del  Rey  Felipe  II.,"  4  vols.,  1844-45;  Antonio  de  Her- 
RERA,  "Historia  del  Mundo  en  el  Reynado  del  Rey  Don  Phelipe 
II.,"  3  vols.,  1606;  Cardinal  Gr.\nvelle's  "  State  Papers." 


Philip  (Felipe)  III.  of  Spain,  a  son  of  Philip  IL, 
was  born  at  Madrid  in  April,  1578.  His  mother  was 
Anne  of  Austria.  He  began  to  reign  in  September, 
1598.  He  was  timid,  indolent,  and  incapable,  but  de- 
voted to  the  intolerant  policy  of  his  father.  Passing  his 
time  chiefly  in  hunting,  in  acts  of  devotion,  or  formalities 
of  etiquette,  he  abandoned  the  direction  of  affairs  to  his 
favourite,  the  Duke  of  Lerma.  This  minister  prosecuted 
the  war  against  the  revolted  provinces  of  the  Nether- 
lands until  the  exhaustion  of  his  finances  forced  him, 
in  1609,  to  grant  a  truce  of  twelve  years  (see  Maurice 
OF  Nassau)  and  to  recognize  the  independence  of  the 
Seven  United  Provinces.  The  issue  of  this  long  con- 
test demonstrated  that  Spain  was  no  longer  the  most 
powerful  kingdom  of  Europe.  The  prosperity  of  Spain 
was  greatly  impaired  by  the  cruel  expulsion  of  the  Moors, 
in  1610.  The  number  of  these  exiles  is  estimated  at 
about  one  million.  Philip  had  married  Margaret  of 
Austria.  He  died  in  March,  1621,  leaving  the  throne 
to  his  son,  Philip  IV. 

See  Watson,  "History  of  the  Reign  of  Philip  III.,"  1783; 
Cespedes,  "Historia  de  Don  Felipe  III.,"  1631  ;  Avila,  "His- 
toria de  la  Vida  de  Don  Felipe  III.,"  1660;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gen^rale." 

Philip  (Felipe)  IV.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  April,  1605,  and  ascended  the  throne  at  the  age 
of  sixteen.  He  submitted  himself  to  the  control  and 
ascendency  of  his  favourite  the  Duke  of  Olivarez.  He 
renewed  the  war  against  the  Dutch  United  Provinces 
at  the  expiration  of  the  truce,  (1621,)  and  formed  with 
the  Emperor  of  Germany  a  league  against  the  Protest- 
ants. His  intrigues  involved  Europe  in  a  long  war,  in 
which  the  Spaniards  fought  against  the  Dutch,  Swedes, 
French,  and  English.  In  maritime  war  the  Dutch  ob- 
tained a  decided  superiority.  On  land  the  Spaniards 
were  defeated  by  the  French  at  Rocroy  (1643)  and  other 
places.  Portugal  revolted  in  1640,  and  was  finally  sepa- 
rated from  the  Spanish  monarchy.  By  the  treaty  of 
Westphalia  (1648)  Spain  made  peace  with  her  enemies, 
except  the  French,  who  continued  the  war  until  1659. 
The  results  of  these  wars  were  disastrous  to  Spain, 
which  lost  several  colonies,  islands,  and  cities.  Philip 
was  twice  married;  in  1615  he  espoused  Elizabeth  of 
France,  and  in  1649  Marie  Anne  of  Austria.  He  died 
in  September,  1665,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Charles  II. 

See  Cespedes  y  Menezes,  "  Historia  de  Don  Felipe  IV.,"  1631 ; 
Malvezzi,  "  Successos  de  la  Monarquia  de  Espaiia  en  el  Tiempo  de 
Felipe  IV.,"  1640;  Dunlop,  "Memoirs  of  Spain  during  the  Reign 
of  Philip  IV.,"  2  vols.,  1834. 

Philip  [Fr.  Philippe;  Sp.  Felipe]  V.,  King  of 
Spain,  born  at  Versailles  in  December,  1683,  was  a 
grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  the  second  son  of  Louis, 
Dauphin  of  France.  In  his  youth  he  was  styled  the 
Duke  of  Anjou.  He  was  appointed  heir  to  the  throne 
of  Spain  and  the  Indies  by  the  will  of  Charles  II.,  who 
died,  without  a  direct  heir,  in  November,  1700.  His 
title  was  contested  by  the  archduke  Charles  of  Austria, 
whose  claim  was  enforced  by  the  armies  of  England, 
Holland,  and  Austria  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succes- 
sion, which  began  in  1702.  Philip  was  supported  by  the 
French  and  the  majority  of  the  Spaniards,  who  gained  a 
decisive  victory  at  Almanza  in  1707.  By  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  (1713)  he  was  recognized  as  King  of  Spain  ; 
but  he  gave  up  Flanders  and  Naples  to  the  Emperor  of 
Germany.  He  married  Elizabeth  Farnese  of  Parma  in 
1 7 14,  and  chose  Cardinal  Alberoni  as  prime  minister. 
Under  the  influence  of  a  religious  melancholy,  he  abdi- 
cated in  favour  of  his  son  Louis  in  1724;  but  the  death 
of  Louis  a  few  months  later  induced  him  to  resume  the 
royal  power.  He  died  in  July,  1746,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Ferdinand  VI. 

See  W.  CoxE,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Kings  of  Spain  of  the  House  of 
Bourbon,"  3  vols.,  1813;  Carvajal,  "La  Espaila  de  los  Borbones," 
4  vols.,  1844;  F.  X.  CoNDE,  "  Elogio  de  Felipe  V.,"  1779;  A.  Viol- 
let,  "Histoire  des  Bourbons  en  Espagne,"  1843;  Saint-Simon, 
"Memoires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Philip,  [Ger.  Philip?,  fil'ip,]  Landgrave  of  Hesse, 
surnamed  der  Grossmuthige,  (d§r  gRos-miit'io-eh,) 
("the  Magnanimous,")  born  at  Marburg  in  1504,  was 
an  able  prince,  and  a  constant  friend  of  the  Protestant 
cause.  He  began  to  reign  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and 
introduced  the  Lutheran  religion  into  Hesse  in  1526.  In 


2,  €,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  ^,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,    T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  f^t;  m§t;  nSt;  gdSd;  moon; 


PHILIP 


1787 


PHILIP  PUS 


153 1  he  formed  with  the  Protestant  princes  the  league 
of  Schmalkalden,  which  waged  war  against  Charles  V.  ; 
but  he  was  forced  to  submit  in  1547  to  Charles,  who 
kept  him  a  prisoner  for  five  years.  Philip  was  inclined 
to  toleration  in  religion.    Died  in  1567. 

See  HoFFMEisTER,  "  Leben  Philipp  des  Grossmiithigen,"  1S46  ; 
Rommel,  "  Philipp  der  Grossmiithige,"  4  vols.,  1828-35 ;  Rinck, 
"  Erinnerungen  an  Philipp  den  Grossmiithigen,"  1852. 

Philip,  [It.  FiLiPPO,  fe-l^p'po,]  Duke  of  Parma,  born 
at  Madrid  in  1720,  was  the  second  son  of  Philip  V.  of 
Spain.  He  invaded  Italy  with  a  Spanish  army  in  1742, 
and  attempted  to  obtain  a  throne  by  conquest,  but  failed. 
The  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1748,  gave  him  the 
duchy  of  Parma.    Died  in  1765. 

Philip,  a  celebrated  Indian  chief,  commonly  called 
King  Philip.  He  began  a  war  with  the  English  in 
1675,  but  was  killed  the  following  year. 

Philip  the  Bold,  [Fr.  Philippe  le  Hardi,  fe'l^p' 
leh  /^SR^de',]  Duke  of  Burgundy,  born  in  1342,  was  a 
younger  son  of  John,  King  of  France.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  powerful  French  princes  during  the  minority 
of  Charles  VI.,  and  was  a  rival  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans. 
He  acted  as  regent  while  Charles  VI.  was  disabled  by 
insanity.  He  died  in  1404,  and  left  the  dukedom  to  his 
son,  Jean  Sans  Peur. 

Philip  the  Deacon,  one  of  the  primitive  Christian 
ministers,  was  one  of  seven  men  appointed  to  a  special 
service,  (Acts  vi.  5.)  He  preached  in  Samaria,  and  in- 
structed the  treasurer  of  Queen  Candace  of  Ethiopia. 
(See  Acts  viii.  5-40,  and  xxi.  8.) 

See  John  i.  43-44,  xiv.  8,  9 ;  Matthew  x.  3 ;  Mark  iii.  18 ;  Luke 
vi.  14;  Acts  i.  13. 

Philip  the  Fair.    See  Philip  IV.  of  France. 

Philip  the  Good,  [Fr.  Philippe  le  Bon,  fe'l^p'  leh 
b6N,]  Duke  of  Burgundy,  a  son  of  Jean  Sans  Peur,  was 
born  at  Dijon  in  1396.  As  a  partisan  or  ally  of  Henry 
V.  of  England,  he  fought  against  Charles  VII.  of  France 
from  1422  to  1435.  At  the  latter  date  he  entered  into 
alliance  with  Charles.  Some  years  before  this  event  he 
had  invaded  the  territory  of  Jacqueline,  Countess  of 
Hainault,  and  compelled  her  to  recognize  him  as  her  heir 
in  Holland,  Zealand,  and  Hainault.  He  had  inherited 
Flanders  and  Artois  in  addition  to  Burgundy.  He  in- 
stituted the  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece.  His  wife  was 
Isabella,  a  daughter  of  John  I.  of  Portugal.  He  died  in 
1467  or  1457,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles  the 
Bold.  Philip  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  sovereigns 
of  his  time,  but  had  little  claim  to  the  epithet  of"  Good." 
"  He  was  certainly  neither  a  good  nor  a  great  prince," 
says  Motky  :  "  he  was  an  adroit  dissembler,  a  practical 
politician." 

See  Perneel,  "  Episodes  du  R^gne  de  Philippe  le  P>on,"  1847  ; 
CoMiNES,  "Memoires;"  Froissart,  "Chronicles;"  Barante, 
"  Histoire  des  Dues  de  Bourgogne  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Philip  of  Orleans.    See  Orleans. 

PhiPip  Au-gus'tus,  [Fr.  Philippe  Auguste,  fel^p' 
o'giist'' ;  Lat.  Philip'pus  Augus'tus,]  called  Philip  II., 
King  of  France,  born  in  1165,  was  the  son  of  Louis  VII., 
whom  he'succeeded  in  1180.  He  married  Isabella  of 
Hainault,  a  niece  of  the  Count  of  Flanders.  In  the  first 
part  of  his  reign  he  banished  the  Jews  and  confiscated 
their  property.  He  aided  and  abetted  the  sons  of  Henry 
II.  of  England  in  rebellion  against  their  father.  Having 
taken  the  cross  in  1188,  he  raised  an  army  and  united 
with  Richard  I.  of  England  in  a  crusade.  They  embarked 
at  Genoa  and  Marseilles  in  1190,  passed  the  winter  in 
Sicily,  and  arrived  at  Acre  in  the  spring  of  1191.  Dis- 
sensions or  jealousies  having  arisen  between  Philip  and 
Richard,  the  former,  on  the  pretext  of  ill  health,  aban- 
doned the  enterprise,  and  arrived  at  Paris  in  December, 
1191.  (See  Richard  I.)  A  war  ensued  between  Philip 
and  the  English  king  for  the  possession  of  Normandy, 
and  lasted  until  the  death  of  Richard,  in  1199.  The 
crimes  and  incapacity  of  John  of  England  afforded  a 
favourable  opportunity  to  the  ambition  of  Philip,  who 
extended  his  dominions  by  the  conquest  of  Normandy, 
Anjou,  and  Touraine,  (1204-06.) 

In  1 2 13,  at  the  instigation  of  Pope  Innocent  III.,  who 
had  deposed  John,  Philip  prepared  to  invade  England. 
He  was  forced  to  renounce  this  enterprise  by  the  abject 
submission  of  John  to  the  pope,  and  by  the  loss  of  his 


fleet,  which  was  defeated  by  the  English.  He  invaded 
Flanders,  the  chief  towns  of  which  surrendered  to  his 
army,  and  gained  in  1214  a  decisive  victory  over  the  em- 
peror Otho  IV.  and  the  Flemings  at  Bouvines,  where 
he  commanded  in  person.  He  died  in  1223,  leaving  his 
throne  to  his  son,  Louis  VIII. 

SeeRiGORD,  "  De Gestis  Philippi  Augusti ;"  Baudot  de  Juilly, 
"Histoire  de  Philippe  Auguste,"  1702;  Capefigue,  "Histoire  de 
Philippe  Auguste,"  4  vols.,  1829;  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des  Fran- 
gais;"  Rvmer,  "  Foedera ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Philipon  de  la  Madelaine,  fe''l^'p6N'  deh  It  mtd'- 
lin',  (Louis,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Lyons  in 
1734.  He  published  a  "Dictionary  of  Homonyms," 
("  Dictionnaire  des  Homonymes,"  1 799,)  a  "Dictionary 
of  the  French  Language,"  (1809,)  and  other  works, 
which  were  received  with  favour.    Died  in  1818. 

PhiPi-pot,  (John,)  an  English  antiquary  and  herald, 
born  in  Kent.  Among  the  works  attributed  to  him 
is  "  Villare  Cantianum,  or  Kent  Surveyed."  Died  in 
1645. 

Phi-lip'pa  OF  Hainault,  a  daughter  of  William, 
Earl,  of  Hainault,  was  married  to  Edward  III.  of  Eng- 
land abc-ut  1326.  She  saved  the  lives  of  six  citizens  of 
Calais,  whom  Edward  intended  to  put  to  death.  Died 
in  1369. 

Philippar,  fe'le'ptR',  (FRANgois  Aken,)  a  French 
writer  on  agriculture,  born  at  Peuving,  Austria,  in  1801. 
He  became  director  of  the  botanic  garden  at  Versailles 
in  1841. 

Philippe,  the  French  of  Philippus,  which  see. 

Philippe,  (Kings  of  France.)    See  Philip. 

Philippe  de  Mons,  fe^lep'  deh  m6N,  a  Belgian  com- 
poser, born  at  Mons  about  1522.  He  composed  masses, 
motets,  etc.,  and  was  the  most  famous  Belgian  composer 
of  his  time,  except  Orlando  de  Lasso. 

Philippe  de  NerL    See  Neri. 

Philippe  de  la  Sainte-Trinite,  fe'l^p'  deh  It  siNt 
tRe'ne''t£',  (Esprit  Julien,)  a  French  missionary,  born 
in  the  Comtat  in  1603.  He  preached  in  Syria,  Persia, 
etc.,  and  published  "  Itinerarium  Orientale,"  (1649.) 
Died  in  1671. 

Philippe  le  Bon.    See  Philip  the  Good. 

Philippe  le  Hardi.    See  Philip  the  Bold. 

Philippeaux.    See  Phelippeaux. 

Philippeaux,  feOe'po',  (Pierre,)  a  French  revolu- 
tionist, born  in  the  department  of  Orne  in  1759.  He 
was  elected  in  1792  to  the  Convention,  in  which  he 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  king  and  an  appeal  to  the 
people.  He  was  proscribed  by  Saint-Just,  arrested  as 
an  accomplice  of  Danton  in  March,  1794,  and  guillotined 
in  the  ensuing  month. 

Philippi,  fe'le'pe',  (Henri,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Saint-Hubert,  in  the  Ardennes,  about  1575.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  Chronology.    Died  in  1636. 

Phi-lip'pi-cus  or  Phi-lep'i-cus,  also  called  Bar- 
danes.  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  was  a  son  of  Ni- 
cephorus  Patricius.  He  began  to  reign  in  711  A.D., 
and  was  deposed  in  713.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Mono- 
thelism. 

Philippide.  _  See  Philippides. 

Phi-lip'pi-des,  [Gr.  ^iliTnTLdiK ;  Fr.  Philippide,  fe^- 
le'p^d',]  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  flourished  about  300  or 
330  B.C.  His  works  are  not  extant.  He  was  considered 
one  of  the  best  poets  of  the  new  comedy.  He  is  said  to 
have  died  of  joy  because  one  of  his  plays  had  gained  the 
prize.  His  character  is  eulogized  by  Plutarch  in  the  life 
of  Demetrius. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Philippon.    See  Philipon. 

Philippon,  fe'le^p^N',  (Armand,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Rouen  'in  1761.  He  commanded  at  the  siege 
of  Badajos,  in  1811  and  1812.    Died  in  1836. 

Philipp oteaux,  fe^e^po'to',  (F^lix  Henri  Em- 
manuel,) a  French  historical  painter,  born  at  Sedan 
in  1 81 5.  He  obtained  a  first  medal  in  1840.  Among 
his  works  is  the  "Last  Banquet  of  the  Girondists," 
(1850.) 

Philippus  OF  AcARNANiA.    See  Philip  of  Agar- 

NAN  I  A. 

Phi-lip'pus,  an  impostor,  whose  proper  name  was 
Andriscus,  pretended  to  be  a  son  of  Perseus,  King  of 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PHIL  I  FPUS 


1788 


PHILLIPS  ^ 


Macedon.  He  obtained  some  success,  but  was  expelled 
by  the  Roman  general  Q.  Caecilius  Metellus. 

Philippus,  a  son  of  Antiochus  VIII.,  became  King 
of  Syria  about  88  B.C.,  after  fighting  against  Antio- 
chus X. 

Philippus  OF  Thessaloni'ca,  an  epigrammatic  poet, 
who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  100  a.d.  He  com- 
posed many  epigrams,  which  are  in  the  Greek  Anthol- 
ogy, and  compiled  a  "Greek  Anthology." 

Philippus,  a  physician,  who  lived  about  150  A.D.  and 
belonged  to  the  sect  of  Empirici.  He  is  mentioned  by 
Galen,  his  contemporary. 

Philippus,  [Fr.  Philippe,  fe'l^p',]  (L.  Marcius,)  a 
Roman  general,  who  became  consul  in  186  B.C.  and 
again  in  169.  At  the  latter  date  he  obtained  the  conduct 
of  the  Macedonian  war.  He  invaded  the  territory  of 
Perseus,  King  of  Macedonia,  without  important  results. 
He  was  censor  in  164  B.C. 

Philippus,  (L.  Marcius,)  a  Roman  orator,  who  be- 
longed to  the  popular  party.  He  was  consul  in  91  B.C. 
with  Sextus  Julius  Caesar,  and  was  an  enemy  of  M.  Livius 
Drusus,  the  tribune  of  the  people,  by  whose  order  Philip- 
pus was  dragged  to  prison  in  the  year  just  named.  In 
86  B.C.  he  was  censor.  He  remained  neutral  in  the  war 
between  Marius  and  Sulla,  and  was  afterwards  a  friend 
of  Pompey.  He  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  orators 
of  his  time,  and  was  noted  for  his  sarcastic  wit.  Horace 
refers  to  him  in  his  Epistle  i. :  "  Strenuus  et  fortis  causis- 
que  Philippus  agendis  clarus."    He  died  after  76  B.C. 

Philippus,  (L.  Marcius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  consul  in  56  B.C.  He  married  Atia,  a  niece  of  Julius 
Csesar,  and  thus  became  the  stepfather  of  the  emperor 
Augustus.  He  was  neutral  in  the  civil  war  between 
Caesar  and  Pompey. 

Philippus,  (M.  Julius,)  a  Roman  emperor,  was  a 
native  of  Trachonitis.  He  obtained  the  imperial  power 
by  the  murder  of  Gordian,  in  244  a.d.  The  senate 
confirmed  the  choice  of  the  army.  He  made  peace  with 
Persia  in  244.  In  248  or  247  A.D.  he  celebrated  the 
thousandth  anniversary  of  the  origin  of  Rome.  He  was 
killed  at  Verona  in  249  a.d.,  in  a  battle  against  Decius, 
who  had  usurped  the  title  of  emperor.  According  to 
Eusebius  and  other  writers,  Philippus  was  a  Christian. 

His  son,  M.  Julius  Philippus,  who  had  been  asso- 
ciated with  him  in  the  empire,  (247  a.d.,)  was  killed  by 
the  partisans  of  Decius,  in  249  a.d. 

Philippus  Augustus.    See  Philip  Augustus. 

Phil'ips,  (Ambrose,)  an  English  poet  and  dramatist, 
born  probably  in  Leicestershire  about  1670.  Among 
his  early  productions  were  six  Pastorals,  (about  1708,) 
and  a  "  Letter  from  Copenhagen,"  in  verse,  (1709,)  which 
was  praised  by  Steele  and  others.  His  tragedy  "  The 
Distressed  Mother"  was  performed  with  applause  in 
1712.  It  was  highly  commended  in  the  "  Spectator" 
by  Addison  and  Steele,  who  were  friends  of  the  author. 
He  was  an  adherent  of  the  Whig  party,  and  an  object 
of  Pope's  ill-natured  satire.  He  made  a  translation  of 
Sappho's  "  Hymn  to  Venus,"  which  Addison  printed  in 
the  "  Spectator,"  No.  223.  His  version  of  Sappho's 
"Ode  to  Lesbia"  is  praised  by  Addison,  as  "written  in 
the  very  spirit  of  Sappho."  (See  "  Spectator,"  No.  229.) 
He  became  secretary  to  Dr.  Boulter,  Primate  of  Ireland, 
in  1723,  and  for  some  time  represented  the  county  of 
Armagh  in  the  Irish  parliament.  In  1733  became  a 
judge  of  the  prerogative  court  in  Ireland.  Died  in  1749. 
The  term  "namby-pamby"  is  said  to  have  been  first 
applied  to  his  style. 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets." 

Philips,  (Catherine,)  an  English  poetess,  born  in 
London  in  163 1.  Her  maiden  name  was  Fowler.  She 
translated  Corneille's  tragedy  of  "  Pompey,"  and  wrote 
poems,  which  were  published  in  1667.  She  was  called 
by  her  admirers  "  the  Matchless  Orinda."  Died  in  1664. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  L.  S.  Costello. 

Philips  or  Philipps,  (Fabian,)  an  English  political 
writer,  born  at  Prestbury  in  1601,  was  a  lawyer  and  a 
partisan  of  Charles  I.    Died  in  1690. 

Philips,  (John,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Bampton, 
Oxfordshire,  in  1676.  His  first  successful  work  was 
"The  Splendid  Shilling,"  a  mock-heroic  poem,  (1703.) 
He  produced  in  1705  "Blenheim,"  a  poem  in  imitation 


of  the  style  of  Milton.  His  principal  work  is  a  poem 
"On  Cider,"  (1706,)  in  which  he  imitated  Virgil's 
"Georgics"  with  some  success.    Died  in  1708. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets." 

Phi-lis'cus,  [^lKLgko^,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet  of 
the  middle  comedy,  wrote  probably  about  400  B.C.  The 
titles  of  some  of  his  plays  are  given  by  Suidas. 

Philiscus  OF  ^gina,  a  Cynic  philosopher,  who, 
according  to  Suidas,  was  a  disciple  of  Diogenes  the 
Cynic,  and  taught  grammar  to  Alexander  the  Great. 

Philiscus  OF  Corcyra,  lived  about  290  B.C.,  and  was 
one  of  the  seven  poets  that  formed  the  "Tragic  Pleiad." 
His  works  are  not  extant. 

Philiscus  OF  Rhodes,  a  sculptor,  who  is  believed  to 
have  flourished  about  146  B.C. ;  though  some  suppose 
him  to  have  lived  in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  His  works 
were  placed  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Rome,  for  which 
they  were  probably  originally  designed.  Meyer  identifies 
the  statue  at  Florence  called  Apollino  with  the  Apollo 
of  Philiscus. 

Phl-lis'ti-on,  [^ikiaTLuv,]  a  Greek  physician,  born 
in  Sicily  or  Italy,  lived  in  the  fourth  century  B.C. 
He  was  the  teacher  of  Eudoxus  the  physician  and 
astronomer. 

Phi-lis'tus,  [Gr.  ^iliaTog,]  an  eminent  Syracusan  his- 
torian and  politician,  born  about  4^5  B.C.  He  aided 
Dionysius  to  obtain  power  in  Syracuse  about  405  B.C.. 
soon  after  which  he  was  keeper  of  the  citadel.  About 
396  he  was  banished,  because  he  married  a  niece  of 
Dionysius  without  his  consent.  He  was  recalled  from 
exile  by  Dionysius  the  Younger,  over  whom  he  acquired 
much  influence.  He  used  this  influence  against  Plato 
and  Dion,  and  "employed  his  talents,"  says  Plutarch, 
"  in  defence  of  the  despotic  policy."  Having  been  de- 
feated in  a  naval  battle  by  the  party  of  Dion,  in  356  B.C., 
he  was  killed,  or  killed  himself  to  avoid  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  victors.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Sicily," 
which  is  lost.  His  style  resembled  that  of  Thucydides. 
Cicero  characterizes  him  as  "creber,  acutus,  brevis,  pasne 
pusillus  Thucydides." 

See  Rayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Goeller, 
"Vita  Philisti,"in  his  "  De  Situ  et  Origine  Syracusarum." 

PhiPli-more,  (John  George,)  M.P.,  an  English 
writer  on  law,  born  in  1809.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Law  of  Evidence,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1865. 

PhiPlip,  (Arthur,)  an  English  navigator,  born  in 
London  in  1738,  was  the  first  governor  of  Botany  Bay. 
Died  in  1814. 

PhiPlip,  (John,)  a  Scottish  painter,  born  at  Aberdeen 
about  1815,  became  a  resident  of  London.  Having 
visited  Spain  about  1852,  he  painted  numerous  success- 
ful pictures  of  Spanish  life.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"  Scotch  Fair,"  "  The  Letter-Writer  of  Seville,"  "  El 
Pasco,"  "The  Spanish  Contrabandistas,"  and  "The 
House  of  Commons."  He  was  elected  a  Royal  Acade- 
mician in  1859  or  i860.    Died  in  1867. 

PhiPlips,  (Charles,)  an  Irish  barrister,  born  at 
Sligo  about  1788.  He  practised  with  success  in  criminal 
cases  in  London,  and  gained  a  wide  reputation  by  his 
speeches,  the  style  of  which  is  rather  florid.  He  was 
for  many  years  a  commissioner  of  the  insolvent  debtors' 
court  in  London.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Recollections  of  Curran  and  some  of  his  Contempo- 
raries," (1818.)    Died  in  1859. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1817;  "  Monthly  Re- 
view" for  December,  1819. 

PhiPlips  or  Philipps,  (Edward,)  a  nephew  and 
pupil  of  the  poet  Milton,  was  born  in  London  in  1630. 
He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Milton,"  (1694,)  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  "Theatrum  Poetarum,"  or  a  com- 
plete collection  of  the  most  eminent  poets  of  all  ages, 
with  observations,  etc.,  (1675.)  It  is  supposed  that  he 
was  assisted  by  Milton  in  this  -  work,  which  is  highly 
esteemed.    Died  about  1680. 

See  William  Godwin,  "Lives  of  Edward  and  John  Phillips," 
iSis  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1815. 

Phillips,  fiKlips,  (Georg,)  a  Prussian  historian,  born 
at  Konigsberg  in  1S04.  He  was  a  Roman  Catholic  of 
the  ultramontane  party.  In  185 1  he  became  professor 
of  the  history  of  law  at  Vienna,  Among  his  works  are 
a  "History  of  Germany,"  (1834,)  and  a  "Treatise  on 


S,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  ^,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fllll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


"PHILLIPS 


1789 


PHILO 


Canon  Law,"  ( Kirchenrecht,)  (5  vols.,  1845-51.)  Died 
in  i860. 

Phillips,  (John,)  a  brother  of  Edward,  noticed  above, 
was  a  pupil  of  Milton.  He  wrote  *'  Maronides,"  a  parody 
of  part  of  Virgil's  " /Eneid,"  (1672,)  a  "  Defence  of  Mil- 
ton," ("  Miltoni  Defensio,")  and  a  few  other  works. 

See  "  Lives  of  Edward  and  John  Phillips,  Nephews  and  Pupils 
of  John  Milton,"  by  William  Godwin,  London,  1815. 

Phillips,  (John,)  a  nephew  of  William  Smith  the 
geologist,  was  born  December  25,  1800.  He  assisted  this 
uncle  in  the  explorations  and  surveys  which  he  made 
in  order  to  prepare  geological  maps  of  England.  He 
lectured  on  his  favourite  science  with  success  at  various 
places.  In  1844  he  obtained  the  chair  of  geology  at 
Dublia.  He  wrote  articles  on  geology,  etc.  for  the 
*'  Penny  Cyclopaedia"  and  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica."  Among  his  works  are  a  "Treatise  on  Geology," 
(2  vols.,  1837,)  and  "Palaeozoic  Fossils  of  Cornwall, 
Devon,  and  West  Somerset,"  (1841.)  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  geology  at  Oxford  in  1853,  and  president  of 
the  Geological  Society  in  1858. 

Phil'lips,  (John,)  LL.D.,  an  American  merchant,  born 
at  Andover,  Massachusetts,  in  1 719,  founded  an  academy 
at  Exeter,  New  Hampshire,  called  by  his  name,  and  gave 
a  large  sum  to  Phillips  Academy,  at  Andover.  Died 
in  1795. 

Phillips,  (Morgan,)  or  Philip  Morgan,  a  Welsh 
Catholic  writer,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1537.  He  was 
so  skilful  in  disputation  that  he  was  called  "  Morgan  the 
Sophister."  He  wrote  in  1571  an  answer  to  Knox's 
*'  Blast  of  the  Trumpet  against  the  Regiment  of  Women." 

Phillips,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
London  in  1767  or  1768,  He  published  the  "Monthly 
Magazine,"  which  advocated  liberal  politics,  and  other 
works.    Died  about  1840. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Public  and  Private  Life  of  Sir  Richard 
Phillips." 

Phillips,  (Richard,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  chemist  and 
pharmacist,  born  in  1778.  He  learned  his  profession 
with  William  Allen,  of  Plough  Court,  London,  and  ac- 
quired great  skill  as  an  analytic  chemist.  He  wrote 
articles  on  chemistry  and  mineralogy  for  the  "  Penny 
Cyclopaedia."  He  lectured  on  chemistry  at  the  London 
Hospital,  and  became  president  of  the  Chemical  Society 
about  1850.    Died  in  1851. 

Phillips,  (Samuel,)  nephew  of  John  Phillips,  noticed 
above,  (1719-95,)  was  born  at  North  Andover  in  1751, 
and  rose  through  numerous  offices  to  be  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  the  founder  of 
Phillips  Academy,  Andover.    Died  in  1802. 

Phillips,  (Samuel,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1815.  He  published  "Caleb  Stukely,"  a  novel, 
and  wrote  tales  for  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  and  other 
periodicals.  He  became  an  editor  of  the  London 
"Times,"  for  which  he  wrote  able  literary  criticisms  and 
reviews.  In  1852  and  1854  he  published  two  volumes 
of  "  Essays  from  the  Times."    Died  in  1854. 

Phillips,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Catholic  priest,  born 
in  Buckinghamshire  in  1708.  He  published  a  "Life  of 
Reginald  Pole,"  (1764.)    Died  at  Liege  in  1774. 

Phillips,  (Thomas,)  an  English  portrait-painter,  born 
at  Dudley,  in  Warwickshire,  in  1770.  He  was  professor 
of  painting  in  the  Royal  Academy  from  1824  to  1832. 
Among  his  works  are  portraits  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks, 
Lord  Byron,  the  poets  Scott,  Coleridge,  and  Southey, 
Lord  Brougham,  Sir  Francis  Chantrey,  and  Major  Den- 
ham.    Died  in  1845. 

Phillips,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  Worcestershire  in  1792.  He  formed  a  great  collection 
of  manuscripts,  and  wrote  several  antiquarian  treatises. 

Phillips,  (Wendell,)  an  American  reformer,  dis- 
tinguished for  his  uncompromising  hostility  to  the  in- 
stitution of  slavery  and  to  oppression  in  every  form,  was 
born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  November  29,  1811.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  183 1,  studied  law,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1834.  His  sympathies  were  strongly 
aroused  by  the  persecution  of  the  early  abolitionists, 
more  particularly  during  the  Boston  mob,  headed  by 
"gentlemen  of  property  and  standing,"  in  October,  1835, 
when  Garrison  narrowly  escaped  with  his  life.  In  1836 
he  joined  the  abolitionists,  relinquishing  the  practice  of 


law  because  he  was  unwilling  to  act  under  an  oath  to 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  In  1837  a  meeting 
of  the  citizens  of  Massachusetts  was  called  in  Faneuil 
Hall  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  public  condemnation 
of  the  murder  of  Lovejoy,  who  fell  (November  7)  at 
Alton,  Illinois,  in  defence  of  the  freedom  of  the  press. 
The  pro-slavery  feeling  in  Boston  was  at  that  time  very 
strong,  and  the  object  of  the  meeting  was  in  imminent 
danger  of  being  defeated  through  the  influence  of  Attor- 
ney-General Austin,  who  asked  how  Mr.  Lovejoy  had 
merited  the  distinction  of  being  thus  commemorated,  and 
whether  he  had  not  died  "as  the  fool  dieth."  At  the 
conclusion  of  his  speech,  Wendell  Phillips  arose,  and,  in 
a  burst  of  indignant  and  powerful  eloquence,  rebuked 
the  craven  and  sordid  spirit  of  those  who  sought  to 
defend  or  excuse  that  great  crime  against  the  liberty  of 
the  press  and  the  rights  of  humanity.  Dr.  Channing, 
who  had  been  chiefly  instrumental  in  calling  the  meeting 
on  that  occasion,  often  referred  to  the  speech  of  young 
Phillips  before  that  vast  assembly,  many  of  whom  were 
bitterly  hostile  to  freedom,  as  "morally  sublime."  Be- 
lieving that  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  was 
an  unrighteous  compact  between  freedom  and  slavery, 
Mr.  Phillips  refused  to  recognize  its  authority  by  voting 
or  in  any  other  manner,  and  maintained  that  a  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Union  would  be  the  most  effectual  mode  of 
giving  freedom  to  the  slaves.  In  1865  he  succeeded  Mr. 
Garrison  as  president  of  the  American  Anti-Slavery 
Society,  which  position  he  held  until  the  dissolution  of 
the  society,  April  9,  1870.  Mr.  Phillips  is  an  accom- 
plished scholar,  and  one  of  the  most  eloquent  orators 
in  the  United  States.  In  addition  to  his  labours  in  the 
anti-slavery  cause,  he  has  devoted  no  inconsiderable 
portion  of  his  time  and  attention  to  the  temperance 
movement  and  other  reforms.  His  principal  speeches 
and  lectures  have  been  published  in  an  octavo  volume, 
(Boston,  1863.) 

See  Mrs.  Stowe,  "Men  of  our  Times,"  Hartford,  i868;  "Golden 
Age  of  American  Oratory,"  by  Edward  G.  Parker,  Boston,  1857. 

Phillips,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  mineralogist 
and  geologist,  born  in  London  in  1773,  was  a  brother  of 
Richard,  noticed  above,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  Friends.  He  distinguished  himself  by  the  accurate 
measurement  of  crystals  by  means  of  the  reflective 
goniometer.  He  published  "Outlines  of  Mineralogy 
and  Geology,"  (4th  edition,  1826,)  and  an  "Introduction 
to  the  Knowledge  of  Mineralogy,"  (1816.)  He  aided 
Conybeare  in  an  important  work, — "The  Geology  of 
England  and  Wales,"  (1822.)    Died  in  1828. 

PhilPpptts  or  PhiPpptts,  (Henry,)  an  English 
bishop,  was  born  at  Bridgewater  in  1777  or  1778,  and 
educated  at  Oxford.  He  obtained  the  living  of  Stanhope, 
became  Dean  of  Chester  in  1828,  and  Bishop  of  Exeter 
in  1830.  He  acted  with  the  Tory  party  in  the  House 
of  Lords,  in  opposing  many  measures  of  reform.  He 
wrote  many  controversial  works,  among  which  is  a 
"Letter  on  Catholic  Emancipation,"  (1827.)  He  was 
regarded  as  the  head  of  the  extreme  High-Church  party 
in  the  House  of  Lords.    Died  in  September,  1869. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1852;  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  June,  1827. 

PhiTo  or  Phi'lon,  [4>i/l6jv,]  a  son  of  Anti pater,  a  Greek 
statuary,  who  lived  about  330  B.C.  He  made  a  statue 
of  Zeus  Ourios,  which  stood  on  the  shore  of  the  Black 
Sea,  near  Chalcedon. 

Philo  or  Philon,  an  excellent  Greek  architect,  worked 
at  Athens  about  320  B.C.  He  built  the  portico  of  twelve 
Doric  columns  of  the  great  temple  at  Eleusis. 

Philo,  a  physician  of  the  sect  of  Methodici,  is  men- 
tioned by  Galen.  The  time  in  which  he  lived  is  unknown. 

Philo  or  Philon  the  Academic,  a  philosopher,  born 
at  Larissa,  was  a  disciple  of  Clitomachus.  He  taught 
philosophy  and  rhetoric  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Cicero, 
who  was  one  of  his  auditors  or  pupils. 

Philo,  (Philon,)  [4>4Awi^,]  an  ancient  Greek  physician, 
born  at  Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  lived  probably  about  the  time 
of  Augustus.  He  wrote,  in  Greek  verse,  directions  for 
compounding  an  antidote  called  Philonium,  which  are 
preserved  by  Galen. 

Philo,  (Q.  PuBLiLius,)  a  Roman  general,  who  was 
consul  in  339  B.C.    He  procured  the  passage  in  that 


e  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2(^='See  Explanations,  p.  33.) 


PHILO 


PHILOSTRATUS 


year  of  the  important  Publilian  laws,  which  increased 
the  power  of  the  plebeians.  He  was  re-elected  consul 
in  327  and  in  320  B.C.  In  the  latter  year  he  defeated  the 
Sam  nites. 

Philo,  (Philon,)  [Gr.  «I>awv,]  called  also  Philo  By- 
zantius,  (be-zan'she-us,)  a  Greek  mechanician,  who  lived 
in  the  second  century  B.C.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
Military  Machines  and  Missiles,"  part  of  which  is  ex- 
tant,— i.e.  the  fourth  and  fifth  books, — and  a  treatise  on 
mechanics. 

Philo  [Fr.  Philon,  fe'l6N']  of  Byblos,  (Heren- 
Nius,)  a  Greek  historian  and  grammarian,  who  lived 
between  50  and  125  a.d.  Among  his  numerous  works 
was  an  account  of  the  reign,  or  part  of  the  reign,  of 
Hadrian.  Suidas  says  he  wrote  peri  tes  basileias  Adrianou. 
Philo  made  a  translation  of  the  History  of  Sanchoniathon, 
a  Phoenician. 

Phi'lo(orPIn'lon)  JudaB'us,(ju-dee'us,)fFr.  Philon 
LE  JuiF,  fe'l6N'  leh  zhii-ef',]  ("Philo  the  Jew,")  a  Greek 
philosopher,  born  at  Alexandria,  lived  between  20  B.C. 
and  50  A.D.  He  was  a  member  of  the  sacerdotal  family, 
and  was  distinguished  for  learning  and  eloquence.  He 
was  a  man  of  mature  age  when  he  was  sent  by  the  Jews 
of  Alexandria  on  an  embassy  to  Caligula,  {40  A.D.)  It 
appears  that  he  was  a  believer  in  the  Platonic  philoso- 
phy. He  wrote  many  works  on  the  Jewish  religion,  on 
the  interpretation  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  other  subjects. 
He  is  partial  to  figurative  or  allegorical  interpretations. 

See  J.  Bryant,  "The  Sentiments  of  Philo  Judjeus,"  1798;  Jo- 
SHPHUS,  "Jewish  Antiquities  :"  Fabkicius,  "  Bibliotheca  Gr£eca  ;" 
RiTTER,  "History  of  Philosophy." 

Phi'lo  or  Phrion  Thy-a-nSn'sis,  an  able  geome- 
trician, whose  period  is  unknown.  He  wrote  on  curved 
lines,  and  lived  before  100  A.D. 

Phi-lo-eh'a-res,  a  Greek  painter,  mentioned  by  Pliny. 
He  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  brother  of  M.'i- 
chines,  who  lived  about  340  B.C. 

Phi-lo-eh'o-rus,  S^Ckbxopoq^  a  distinguished  Athenian 
writer,  who  states  that  he  held  an  office  at  Athens  in  306 
B.C.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  antiquities,  legends,  and 
history  of  Athens,  entitled  "  Atthis,"  of  which  many  frag- 
ments are  extant.  Suidas  says  he  was  put  to  death  by 
order  of  Antigonus.  According  to  some  writers,  he 
flourished  between  306  and  260  B.C. 

PhiPo-cles,  [<l»i/lo/f/l^f,]  an  Athenian  tragic  poet,  born 
about  468  B.C.,  was  a  nephew  of  the  poet  ^^ischylus,  whom 
he  imitated.  In  429  he  gained  a  victory  over  Sophocles, 
who  on  that  occasion  exhibited  his  much-admired  "  CEdi- 
pus  Tyrannus."  None'  of  the  works  of  Philocles  have 
come  down  to  us. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Gr^eca." 

Philocles,  an  Athenian  architect,  (of  Acharnae,)  de- 
signed the  admirable  Ionic  temple  of  Athena  Polias, 
built  about  333  B.C. 

Philocrate.    See  Philocrates. 

Phi-loc'ra-tes,  [Gr.  ^i?iOKpaT7]c ;  Fr.  Philocrate, 
fe'lo'kRtt',]  an  Athenian  orator,  who  was  one  of  the 
chief  negotiators  of  the  peace  with  Philip  of  Macedon 
in  346  B.C.  He  was  an  opponent  of  Demosthenes,  and 
favoured  the  Macedonian  party.  Having  been  accused 
of  treason,  he  went  into  exile  about  342  B.C. 

Pliiloctete.  _  See  Philoctetes. 

Phil-oc-te'tes,  [Gr.  ^iXoKTrjTrjg ;  Fr.  PHiLOCT]feTE, 
fe'lok'tat',]  a  celebrated  Greek  archer,  who,  during  the 
Trojan  war,  was  left  on  the  island  of  Lemnos,  because 
he  was  wounded  in  the  foot  by  a  serpent  or  a  poisoned 
arrow.  He  is  the  subject  of  many  legends,  one  of  which 
ascribes  the  death  of  Paris  to  a  shaft  from  his  bow.  Pie 
was  said  to  have  been  a  friend  of  Hercules,  who  be- 
queathed to  him  his  bow  and  his  poisoned  arrows. 

See  Sophocles,  "Philoctetes,"  a  tragedy. 

Philodeme.    See  Philodemus. 

Phil-o-de'mus,  [Gr.  ^addrjiuog;  Fr.  Philodeme,  fe'- 
lo'dim',]  a  Greek  Epicurean  philosopher  and  poet,  born 
in  Palestine.  He  lived  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Cicero, 
who  mentions  him  in  a  speech  against  Piso.  Cicero 
condemns  his  conduct,  but  recognizes  his  literary  merit. 
He  wrote  epigrams,  fragments  of  which  are  extant  in 
the  Greek  Anthology. 

Pliil-o-la'iis,  [Gr.  <i'tX6Aaof,]  a  Pythagorean  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Crotona  or  Tarentum,  was  a  disciple  of 


Archytas.  He  flourished  about  375  or,  according  to 
some  authorities,  450  B.C.,  and  wrote  on  physics.  Plato, 
it  is  said,  purchased  some  of  his  writings  at  a  high  price, 
and  derived  from  them  materials  for  his  "Timaeus." 

See  August  Bockh,  "  Philolaos  des  Pythagoraers  Leben,"  1819; 
Ersch  und  Gkuber,  "Allgemeine  Eiicyklopaedie." 

Phiro-meaa,  [Gr.  ^ih)/ir/la ;  Fr.  PniLOMfeLE,  fe'lo'- 
miV,]  a  daughter  of  Pandi'on,  and  a  sister  of  Procne. 
The  poets  related  that  she  was  ravished  by  Tereus, 
and  afterwards  metamorphosed  into  a  nightingale. 

See  Ovid,  "Metamorphoses." 

Philomele.    See  Philomela. 
Philon.    See  Philo. 

Phi-lon'i-des,  [<Pc'Acjvld'i]c,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet 
of  the  old  comedy,  lived  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  He 
is  chiefly  distinguished  as  one  of  the  persons  in  whose 
name  the  early  plays  of  Aristophanes  were  produced. 
In  the  opinion  of  some  critics,  he  was  one  of  the  actors 
to  whom  Aristophanes  committed  his  chief  characters. 

Philop^men.    See  Philopcemen. 

Philopoemen,  fil-o-pee'men,  [Gr.  ^iTiOirot/iTjv ;  Fr. 
Philop^men,  fe^lo''pi'm6N',]  an  eminent  Greek  general 
and  statesman,  born  at  Megalopolis,  in  Arcadia,  about 
252  B.C.,  was  a  son  of  Craugis.  He  was  instructed  by 
Demophanes  and  Ecdemus,  and  chose  Epaminondas 
for  his  model.  His  favourite  study  was  the  art  of  war. 
His  name  occurs  in  222  B.C.  as  one  of  the  few  who  re- 
sisted Cleomenes,  the  Spartan,  when  he  attacked  Mega- 
lopolis by  night.  The  defeat  of  Cleomenes  at  Sellasia 
(221  B.C.)  was  ascribed  to  Philopoemen.  He  was  ap- 
pointed general  of  the  cavalry  about  210  B.C.,  and  made 
reforms  in  discipline  and  tactics.  In  208  he  was  elected 
stratcgiis  or  general-in-chief  of  the  Achasan  League.  His 
reputation  was  greatly  exalted  by  a  victory  over  the 
Spartan  Machani.das  at  Mantinea.  He  defeated  Nabis, 
tyrant  of  Sparta,  in  201  B.C.,  and  again  about  192.  In 
188  B.C.  he  was  appointed  commander  in  a  war  against 
Sparta,  which  had  seceded  from  the  Achaean  League. 
He  made  himself  master  of  the  Spartan  capital,  razed 
the  walls,  put  to  death  the  prominent  men,  and  abolished 
the  laws  of  Lycurgus.  For  these  acts  of  severity  he  was 
censured  by  the  Roman  senate.  In  an  attempt  to  reduce 
Messene  to  allegiance  by  arms,  he  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  Messenians,  and  compelled  to  drink  poison,  in 
182  B.C.  He  has  been  styled  the  last  of  the  Greeks. 
His  memory  was  cherished  with  great  veneration.  Ac- 
cording to  Pausanias,  "  Miltiades  was  the  first,  and  Phi- 
lopoemen the  last,  benefactor  to  the  whole  of  Greece." 

See  Plutarch,  "Lives;"  Polybius,  "History." 

Phi-lop'o-nus,  (Joannes,)  [Gr.  'Iwaw?;^-  6  ^Ckbixovoq^ 
surnamed  Grammat'icus,  a  grammarian  of  Alexandria, 
whose  reputation  was  greater  than  his  merit.  His  name 
is  chiefly  memorable  for  his  connection  with  the  capture 
of  Alexandria  by  Amroo,  639  A.D.  It  is  reported  that 
he  requested  the  victor  to  grant  him  the  great  library 
of  that  city,  and  that  his  request  was  refused. 

Philostorge.    See  Philostorgius. 

Phil-o-stor'gi-us,  [Gr.  <^Ck)aTb()yLoq ;  Fr.  Philo- 
storge, fe'lo'stoRzh',]  an  Arian  writer,  born  in  Cappa- 
docia  about  360  A.D.  He  wrote  an  ecclesiastical  history 
of  the  period  from  300  to  425  A.D.,  which  is  lost.  An 
extract  from  it  is  preserved  in  a  work  of  Photius. 

Philostrat  and  Philostra.    See  Philostratus. 

Phi-los'tra-tus,  [Gr.  ^C/iboTparoq  ;  Fr.  Philostrate, 
fe^o'stRtt' ;  Ger.  Philostrat,  fee'los-tR^t,]  (Flavius,) 
a  Greek  biographer,  born  in  Lemnos  about  175  or  180 
A.D.  He  became  a  resident  of  Rome,  where  he  taught 
rhetoric  in  the  reign  of  .Septimius  Severus.  At  the  re- 
quest of  the  empress,  Julia  Domna,  he  wrote  a  "  Life  of 
Apollonius  of  Tyana."  This  work,  which  has  exercised 
the  ingenuity  of  many  commentators,  was  printed  in 
1502.  Among  his  extant  works  are  "The  Lives  of  the 
Sophists,"  and  a  description  of  a  collection  of  paintings, 
which  displays  richness  of  fancy  and  beauty  of  style.  He 
was  alive  in  the  reign  of  Philip,  (244-249  a.d.) 

See  Ritter,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca 
Gr£eca;"  Rehfues,  "  Ueber  den  Jiingern  Philostrat,"  etc.,  1800; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Geiierale." 

Philostratus  the  Lemnian,  a  Sophist,  born  about 
190  A.D.  He  is  mentioned  in  the  writings  of  the  Philos- 
tratus noticed  above,  who  was  his  friend  and  praises 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sho7't;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f2.t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PHILOTJS 


PHORMION 


his  rhetorical  skill.  Suidas  ascribes  to  him  a  work  called 

Phi-lo'tas,  [Gr.  ^tAwraf,]  a  general  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  was  a  son  of  Parmenio.  He  commanded  the 
Macedonian  cavalry,  or  royal  guards,  in  the  expedition 
against  Persia,  and  stood  high  in  the  favour  of  the  king. 
Plutarch  extols  his  valour  and  generosity,  but  adds  that 
"the  loftiness  of  his  port  was  altogether  extravagant." 
He  received  information  of  a  plot  against  Alexander,  but 
neglected  to  mention  it.  His  enemy  Craterus  used  this 
circumstance  to  excite  the  suspicion  of  the  king.  Phi- 
lotas  was  tortured  until  he  confessed  his  complicity,  and 
was  put  to  death  in  330  B.C.  His  guilt  may  reasonably 
be  doubted. 

See  Arrian,  "Anabasis." 

Philotas,  a  physician  of  Amphissa,  in  Locris,  born 
about  50  or  60  B.C.  He  once  supped  with  Antyllus,  (a 
son  of  Antony,)  who  was  so  pleased  with  a  syllogism  of 
Philotas  that  he  gave  him  a  rich  present,  {30  B.C.) 

Phi-lo'the-us,  [4»iAo0e6f,]  (Coccinus,)  a  Greek  writer, 
was  chosen  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  1355.  He  had 
a  high  reputation,  and  wrote  a  number  of  works,  some 
of  which  have  been  printed.    Died  about  1373. 

Phil-o-ti'mus,  [*i/l6n//of,]  an  eminent  Greek  phy- 
sician, who  lived  probably  about  300  B.C.,  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Herophilus.  His  works  are  mentioned 
by  Galen. 

Philoxene.    See  Philoxenus. 

Phi-lox'e-nus,  [Gr.  ^ilo^evoc:;  Fr.  PHTLOxfeNE,  fe'- 
loks'an',]  an  eminent  Greek  dithyrambic  poet,  born  at 
Cythera  about  435  B.C.  He  passed  some  time  at  the 
court  of  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  who  treated  him  with 
favour  and  afterwards  sent  him  to  prison.  His  chief 
poems  were  "Cyclops  or  Galatea,"  and  "The  Feast" 
or  "  Dinner,"  {^.el-nvoD,)  which  were  much  admired. 
Fragments  of  them  are  extant.    He  died  in  380  B.C. 

See  Berglein,  "  De  Philoxeno  Cytherio  Poeta,"  1843;  Kling- 
ENDER,  "Dissertatio  de  Philoxeno  Cytherio,"  1845. 

Philoxenus,  an  able  Greek  painter  of  Eretria,  was 
a  pupil  of  Nicomachus  of  Thebes.  He  was  noted  for 
rapidity  of  execution.  His  picture  of  a  battle  of  Alex- 
ander with  Darius  is  highly  praised  by  Pliny.  He  lived 
about  325  B.C. 

Philoxenus,  an  Egyptian  surgeon,  mentioned  by 
Celsus  as  the  author  of  several  valuable  works  on 
surgery.    He  probably  lived  before  the  Christian  era. 

Phil^pot,  (John,)  an  English  Protestant  minister, 
born  at  Compton,  was  tried  for  heresy,  and  burned  at 
Smithfield  in  1555.    He  left  several  works  on  theology. 

Philpotts,  (Henry.)    See  Phillpotts. 

Phinee.    See  Phineus, 

Phi'iieus  or  Phin'e-us,  [Gr.  <^ivevQ ;  Fr.  Phin6e, 
fe'ni',]  a  blind  soothsayer  of  classic  mythology,  supposed 
to  be  a  son  of  Agenor,  (or  of  Neptune.)  According  to  the 
ancient  fabulists,  he  treated  his  children  with  extreme 
severity,  and  the  gods,  to  punish  him,  sent  the  Harpies, 
who  annoyed  him  exceedingly,  by  snatching  and  soiling 
his  food,  until  he  was  relieved  by  the  Argonauts.  In 
return  for  this  service,  he  gave  them  prophetic  counsel  to 
direct  them  in  their  enterprise.  The  story  of  Phineus 
is  related  with  much  variation  by  different  authors,  some 
of  whom  call  him  King  of  Salmydessus  in  Thrace. 

Pliintias.    See  Damon. 

Phipps,  (CoNSTANTiNE.)    See  Mulgrave. 

Phipps,  (CoNSTANTiNE  Henry.)    See  Normanby. 

Phipps  or  Phips,  (Sir  William,)  an  American  ma- 
gistrate, born  in  Maine  in  1651,  became  Governor  of 
Massachusetts  in  1692.  His  "  Life,"  by  Francis  Bovven, 
is  included  in  Sparks's  "  American  Biography,"  vol.  vii. 
He  commanded  an  expedition  against  Port  Royal,  which 
he  captured  in  1690.    Died  in  1695. 

See  Cotton  Mather,  "Life  of  Sir  William  Phipps." 

Phle'gon,  [<J>/l£/(jv,]  a  chronologer,  born  at  Tralles,  in 
Lydia,  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  second  century.  He 
was  a  freedman  of  the  emperor  Hadrian.  His  most  im- 
portant work  is  called  'OXv/iTnoviKuv  koL  ;\;pow«:wv  ovva- 
yciyrj.  It  is  not  extant.  Saint  Jerome  cites  him  as  a  wit- 
ness to  confirm  the  gospel  narrative  in  relation  to  the 
miraculous  darkness  which  occurred  at  the  death  of 
Christ.    Phlegon  states  that  in  the  fourth  year  of  the 


202d  Olympiad  there  was  a  great  eclipse  of  the  sun  at 
the  sixth  hour,  and  an  earthquake  in  Bithynia. 

Phlegyas,  flee'je-as,  [Gr.  <if7.eyva^ ;  Fr.  Phl^gyas, 
fli'zhe''^^,]  a  fabulolis' personage,  said  to  be  a  son  of 
Mars,  a  king  of  the  Lapithse,  and  the  father  of  Coronis. 
Having  set  fire  to  the  temple  of  Apollo,  he  was  killed 
and  doomed  to  a  severe  punishment  in  Tartarus. 

See  Virgil,  "^Eneid,"  book  vi.  618. 

Pho'cas,  [Gr.  <I>w/<af,]  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  usurped 
the  empire  of  Constantinople  in  602  A.D.  He  waged 
war  against  Persia,  in  which  he  suffered  great  losses.  He 
rendered  himself  odious  by  his  cruelty,  and  w-as  deposed 
and  put  to  death  by  Heracli'us  in  610  A.D. 

Phocion,  fo'she-on,  or  Phokion,  fo'ke-on,  [Gr. 
^UKLCJV,]  an  Athenian  statesman  and  general,  born  about 
402  B.C.,  was  a  pupil  of  Plato  and  Xenocrates.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  victory  of  Naxos,  in  376.  In  340  he  com- 
manded an  army  which  operated  with  success  against 
Philip  at  Byzantium.  He  opposed  Demosthenes  on  the 
question  of  war  against  Philip  of  Macedon,  and  was  the 
leader  of  the  conservative  or  aristocratic  party.  Accord- 
ing to  Plutarch,  he  was  elected  general  forty-fi\*^times. 
In  his  speeches  he  was  remarkable  for  conciseness  and 
sententious  brevity.  Demosthenes  used  to  say,  when 
Phocion  arose  to  speak,  "  Here  comes  the  pruner  of  my 
periods."  Many  of  his  witty  sayings  are  recorded  by 
Plutarch.  He  compared  the  speeches  of  a  certain  orator 
"to  cypress-trees,  which  are  high  and  stately,  but  bear 
no  fruit."  He  opposed  the  war  against  Antipater  in 
323  B.C.  Having  been  unjustly  condemned  on  a  charge 
of  treason,  he  was  put  to  death  by  the  popular  party  in 
317  B.C. 

"  The  influence  of  Phokion  as  a  public  adviser,"  says 
Grote,  "  during  the  period  embraced  in  this  volume  down 
to  the  battle  of  Chaeronea,  was  eminently  mischievous 
to  Athens, — all  the  more  mischievous,  partly  (like  that 
of  Nikias)  from  the  respectability  of  his  personal  quali- 
ties, partly  because  he  espoused  and  sanctioned  the 
most  dangerous  infirmity  of  the  Athenian  mind."  ("  His- 
tory of  Greece,"  chap.  Ixxxvii.) 

See  Plutarch,  "  Life  of  Phocion  ;"  Cornelius  Nepos,  "  Pho- 
cion DiODORUs  SicuLus,  books  xvi.-xviii.  ;  Thirlwall,  "  History 
of  Greece ;"  G.  Less,  '*  Res  a  Phocione  in  Republica  Atheniensi 
gestae,"  1787  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pho-9yPI-des  [<^o)KvlL6rig\  of  Miletus,  a  Greek 
poet,  who  flourished  about  540  B.C.  He  wrote  didactic 
and  elegiac  poems,  of  which  small  fragments  are  extant. 

Phoebe,  fee'be,  [Gr.  ^oiliri;  Fr.  Ph6b6,  fa'ba',]  a  sur- 
name of  Artemis  or  Diana,  goddess  of  the  moon.  (See 
Diana.) 

Phoebidas,  fgb'e-das,  [Gr.  ^>of§f(Jaf,]  a  Spartan  gene- 
ral, who  commanded  in  the  Olynthian  war,  (382  B.C.) 
He  seized  by  treachery  the  Cadmeia  of  Thebes.  He  was 
killed  in  a  battle  against  the  Thebans  about  378  B.C. 

PhcBbus,  fee'bus,  [Gr.  *^ol6og;  Fr.  Ph^bus,  f^'biis',] 
a  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  Apollo  as  god  of  the 
sun.    (See  Apollo.) 

Phoenix,  fee'niks,  [Gr.  ^oivi^-,  Fr,  Ph^inix,  fi'n^ks',] 
a  mythological  personage,  whom  tradition  represents  as 
King  of  the  Dolopes,  and  preceptor  of  Achilles,  whom 
he  accompanied  to  the  siege  of  Troy.  The  invention 
of  the  alphabet  was  ascribed  to  him. 

Phoenix,  [Gr.  <J»om^,]  a  son  of  Agenor,  and  brother 
of  Cadmus.  It  was  fabled  that  he  went  to  Africa  to 
search  for  his  sister  Europa,  and  settled  in  a  country 
which  was  from  him  called  Phoenicia. 

Phoenix  is  also  the  name  of  a  fabulous  bird,  cele- 
brated among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Orientals.  Accord- 
ing to  one  tradition,  it  attained  the  age  of  five  hundred 
years  or  more,  and  burned  itself  on  a  funeral  pile,  from 
the  ashes  of  which  another  Phoenix  arose. 

Phokion.    See  Phocion. 

Phor'gys  or  Phor'cus,  [Gr.  ^opKvq  or  ^opKog,]  the 
old  man  of  the  sea,  in  classic  mythology,  was  said  to 
be  the  father  of  the  Gorgons,  the  Grasae,  and  the  Hes- 
perides.  The  first  and  second  of  these  were  called 
Phor'cydes  or  Phor''cides,  [Gr.  ^opKcdeg.] 

Phor'mi-on,  [Gr.  $op/^/wv,]  an  able  Athenian  general, 
who  blockaded  Potidaea  in  432  B.C.  He  gained  a  deci- 
sive victory  over  the  Peloponnesian  fleet  near  Naupactus, 
in  429.    Died  in  428  B.C. 


■e  as  ^;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  Vi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Sl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PHORMION 


PHTSICK 


Phormion  of  Ephesus,  a  Peripatetic  philosopher, 
who  is  said  to  have  excited  the  disgust  of  Hannibal  by 
discoursing  in  his  presence  for  several  hours  on  the 
military  art. 

Phoronee.    See  Phoroneus. 

Pho-ro'neus,  [Gr.  ^opwveuf;  Fr.  Phoron^:e,  fo'ro'- 
ni',]  a  son  of  Inachus,  and  a  king  of  Argolis,  was  the 
father  of  Agenor,  Pelasgus,  and  Niobe.  According  to 
tradition,  he  discovered  the  use  of  fire. 

Photius,  fo'she^s,  [Gr.  4>a>riof,]  an  ambitious  and 
highly-gifted  Byzantine  prelate  and  writer,  was  born  of 
a  noble  family  probably  at  Constantinople.  He  was  a 
man  of  sound  judgment  and  of  profound  and  various 
erudition.  After  he  had  held  several  high  civil  offices, 
he  was  proto-secretarius  under  Michael  HI.  He  be- 
came in  857  or  858  A.D.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in 
place  of  Ignatius,  who  was  deposed  by  Bardas.  The 
cause  of  Ignatius  was  supported  by  Pope  Nicholas,  who 
anathematized  Photius  in  862  or  863.  A  council  as- 
sembled by  Photius  excommunicated  the  pope,  and  thus 
originated  the  great  schism  between  the  Western  and 
Eastern  Churches.  In  867  the  emperor  Basil  I.  ban- 
ished PTaotius  and  restored  Ignatius,  whose  rights  were 
confirmed  by  an  oecumenical  council  in  869.  Photius 
gained  the  favour  of  Basil,  and  on  the  death  of  Igna- 
tius, in  877,  was  restored  to  his  see,  and  was  recognized 
by  the  pope,  John  VIII.  A  dispute  about  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  Bulgaria,  however,  revived  the  schism  between 
the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches.  Photius  was  banished 
by  the  emperor  Leo  VI.  in  886  a.d.,  and  died  in  exile  a 
few  years  later.  He  is  treated  with  more  favour  by  Prot- 
estant writers  than  by  the  Roman  Catholics.  He  was  a 
voluminous  author.  His  most  important  work,  "  Myrio- 
biblion,  seu  Bibliotheca,"  is  a  review  or  critical  analysis 
of  ancient  Greek  authors,  and  is  considered  one  of  the 
most  precious  monuments  of  ancient  literature.  He  also 
left  a  Greek  Lexicon,  which  was  published  in  1808. 

See  Klose,  "  Geschichte  und  Lehre  des  Marcellus  und  Photius," 
1837;  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  J.  G.  Philippi, 
"Commentatio  de  Photio,"  1699;  Ch.  Faucher,  "Histoire  de  Pho- 
tius," 1762;  Maultrot,  "  Histoire  de  Saint-Ignace  et  de  Photius," 
1791  ;  FoNTANi,  "De  Photio  Novse  Romae  Episcopo;"  Jaeger, 
"Histoire  de  Photius,"  1844;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Phraates.    See  Arsaces. 

Phra-a'tes,  King  of  Parthia,  a  son  of  Orodes,  began 
to  reigii  in  37  B.C.  He  restored  to  Augustus  in  20  B.C. 
the  prisoners  and  ensigns  taken  from  Crassus  in  53  B.C. 

Phrad'mon  [^(}u6ijluv\  of  Argos,  a  Greek  statuary, 
who  lived  about  425  B.C.  He  produced  an  Amazon  for 
the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  in  competition  \vith 
other  eminent  artists,  several  of  whom  were  more  suc- 
cessful than  he  in  this  trial  of  skill. 

Phran'za  or  Phran'zes,  [Gr.  ^pavrl^rj  or  4>pavrC??c,] 
the  last  Byzantine  historian,  was  born  in  1401.  He 
served  the  emperor  Constantine  XIII.  as  a  diplomatist 
and  soldier,  and  was  captured  by  the  Turks  in  1453. 
He  wrote  a  "  Chronicon,"  or  History,  of  the  period  from 
1260  to  1477,  which  is  highly  prized. 

Phra-or'tes,  [Gr.  ^paopriij^,]  King  of  Media,  reigned 
from  656  to  634  B.C.  He  conquered  Persia  and  other 
parts  of  Asia.  He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Nineveh, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Cyaxares. 

Phreas  or  Freas,  frees,  ?  (John,)  a  learned  Englis.h- 
man,  born  in  London,  studied  medicine  under  Guarini 
at  Ferrara.  He  produced  some  translations  and  poems. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1465. 

Phry-gilTus,  a  very  ancient  and  celebrated  engraver 
of  precious  stones,  was  probably  a  native  or  citizen  of 
Syracuse. 

Phry'ne,  [^pvvT],]  an  Athenian  courtesan,  born  at 
Thespiae,  in  Boeotia,  lived  in  the  fourth  century  B.C. 
She  was  the  model  of  the  statues  of  Venus  produced 
by  Praxiteles. 

Phryn'i-ehus,  [^pvvixog,]  an  Athenian  tragic  poet, 
was  a  disciple  of  Thespis.  He  exhibited  a  play  in  511 
B.C.,  and  made  important  improvements  in  the  drama. 
He  introduced  masks  representing  females,  but  admitted 
only  one  actor.  The  chorus  retained  the  principal  place 
in  his  dramas.  He  gained  a  prize  in  476  B.C.  for  his 
"Phoenician  Women."    His  works  are  not  extant. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Hibliotlieca  Grc-eca  ;"  K.  O.  Muller,  "History 
of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece  ;"  J.  G.  Droysen,  "  Phrynichos, 
iEschylos  und  die  Trilogie,"  1841. 


Phryniohus,  a  distinguished  Athenian  comic  poet  of 
the  old  comedy,  flourished  about  430  B.C.  His  vigour 
and  elegance  are  attested  by  the  small  fragments  of  his 
works  which  are  extant. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grseca ;"  Meineke,  "  Fragmenta 
Comicorum  Graecorum." 

Phryniohus,  an  Athenian  general,  had  a  high  com- 
mand in  412  B.C.  He  co-operated  with  Theramenes 
and  Antiphon  in  the  revolution  by  which  the  Four 
Hundred  came  into  power,  in  411  B.C. 

Phryniohus,  a  Greek  grammarian,  (called  Arrha- 
Bius  by  Photius,)  lived  about  180  a.d.  He  wrote 
"  Eclogues  of  Attic  Names  and  Verbs,"  ("  Eclogae 
Nominum  et  Verborum  Atticorum,")  in  which  he  taught 
the  use  of  words  as  sanctioned  by  writers  of  the  pure 
Attic  diction.    This  work  has  been  printed. 

Phryn'  nis  [Gr.  ^pvvt^tg]  or  Phry'nis,  an  eminent 
dithyrambic  poet,  born  at  Mitylene,  lived  about  425  B.C. 

Phul  or  Pul,  King  of  Assyria,  reigned  from  759  to 
742  B.C.    Menahem,  King  of  Israel,  was  tributary  to  him. 

See  II.  Kings  xv.  19. 

PhuU,  fool,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  Baron,  born  in  Wiir- 
temberg,  became  a  lieutenant-general  in  the  Russian 
service,  and  was  the  author  of  several  military  works. 
Died  in  1826. 

Phy-lar'-ehus,  [Gr.  <^v?iapxo^;  Fr.  Phylarque,  fe'- 
l$Rk',]  a  Greek  historian,  born  at  Athens  or  Naucratis, 
in  Egypt,  lived  about  215  B.C.  He  wrote  a  History  of 
Greece  from  272  to  220  B.C.,  of  which  only  fragments  are 
extant.  His  style  was  graphic  and  animated.  Plutarch's 
lives  of  Cleomenes  and  Agis  are  said  to  be  copied,  or 
taken  without  much  change,  from  Phylarchus. 

See  J.  F.  Thoms,  "  Dissertatio  de  Phylarchi  Vita  et  Scriptis," 
1835  ;  Voss,  "De  Historicis  Graecis." 

Phylarque.    See  Phylarchus. 

Phyl'lis,  [Gr.  ^uAAfV,]  in  classic  mythology,  a  daugh- 
ter of  Sithon,  King  of  Thrace,  was  betrothed  to  Demo- 
phoon,  a  son  of  Theseus.  The  poets  feigned  that  she 
killed  herself  because  he  failed  to  come  at  the  appointed 
time,  and  she  was  changed  into  an  almond-tree. 

Phy-rom'a-ehus,  [(l?vp6ftaxo^,]  an  able  Athenian 
sculptor,  lived  about  410  B.C.  He  made  the  bas-reliefs 
on  the  frieze  of  the  temple  Athena  Polias.  He  is  prob- 
ably the  same  as  the  Pyromachus  mentioned  by  Pliny. 

Phys'ick,  (Philip  Sing,)  one  of  the  most  eminent 
of  American  surgeons,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1768. 
His  father,  Edmund  Physick,  was  keeper  of  the  great 
seal  under  the  colonial  government  of  Pennsylvania,  and, 
after  the  Revolution,  had  charge  of  the  estates  of  the 
Penn  family.  In  1785  he  took  the  degree  of  A.B.  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  Soon  after,  he  commenced 
the  study  of  medicine  under  Dr.  Adam  Kuhn.  It  is 
said  that  the  first  time  he  witnessed  the  amputation  of  a 
limb  he  fainted,  and  was  obliged  to  be  taken  out  of  the 
room  ;  but  he  afterwards  succeeded  so  completely  in 
conquering  this  weakness  of  the  nerves  as  to  equal,  if 
not  surpass,  any  other  surgeon  of  his  time  in  steadiness 
of  hand  and  perfect  self-possession  while  performing 
an  important  operation.  During  his  attendance  at  the 
Philadelphia  College  of  Medicine,  he  had  for  his  in- 
structors Dr.  Shippen  and  Dr.  Rush,  who,  with  Dr. 
Kuhn,  were  lecturers  in  that  institution.  Early  in  the 
year  1789  Mr.  Edmund  Physick,  accompanied  by  his 
son,  visited  London,  where  the  young  student  was  placed 
under  the  care  of  the  celebrated  John  Hunter,  by  whose 
recommendation  he  was  subsequently  appointed  to  the 
post  of  house-surgeon  at  Saint  George's  Hospital.  In 
one  of  Hunter's  papers  he  compliments  Dr.  Physick  on 
the  accuracy  of  some  physiological  experiments  which 
he  had  performed  while  house-surgeon  at  the  hospital ; 
and  such  were  the  esteem  and  confidence  which  the  great 
anatomist  entertained  for  him  that  he  actually  invited 
him,  we  are  told,  to  remain  in  London  and  take  a  share 
in  his  own  extensive  professional  business.  But  this 
offer  Dr.  Physick  thought  proper  to  decline.  Having 
in  1 791  received  his  license  from  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons,  in  London,  he  repaired  to  Edinburgh,  where 
he  attended  the  medical  lectures  of  the  University,  and 
in  May,  1792,  took  his  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine. 
He  returned  to  Philadelphia  in  September  of  the  same 
year.    He  distinguished  himself  by  his  faithful  atten- 


8,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  /on^-;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^U,  f^t;  mfit;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PU 


1793 


PIC  ART 


Hon  to  his  professional  duties  during  the  frightful  mor- 
tality caused  by  the  yellow  fever  in  1793.  The  alarm 
was  so  great  on  that  occasion  that  not  only  nearly  all 
the  citizens,  who  had  it  in  their  power  to  go  away,  fled 
from  the  city,  but  many  of  the  physicians  left  also.  Dr. 
Physick  himself  had  an  attack  of  fever ;  but  it  appears 
to  have  been  comparatively  light.  In  1798  he  received 
a  flattering  testimonial  to  his  courage  and  faithfulness 
during  the  epidemic*  of  that  and  preceding  years,  from 
the  managers  of  the  Marine  and  City  Hospitals,  ac- 
companied by  a  present  of  plate  valued  at  more  than 
a  th')usand  dollars.  In  1800  he  commenced,  in  Phila- 
delphia, a  course  of  lectures  on  surgery,  which  were 
continued  for  several  years.  His  success  induced  the 
trustees  of  the  University  to  establish  a  professorship 
of  surgery  in  the  medical  department  of  that  institution, 
and  to  appoint  Dr.  Physick  to  the  new  chair.  In  1819 
he  was  transferred  from  the  chair  of  surgery  to  that  of 
anatomy,  made  vacant  by  the  death  of  Dr.  Dorsey.  He 
resigned  this  position  in  1831  ;  and  the  trustees  of  the 
University,  on  accepting  his  resignation,  unanimously 
elected  him  "Emeritus  professor  Of  surgery  and  anat- 
omy." In  1825  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 
Royal  Academy  of  Medicine,  and  was,  it  is  said,  the 
first  American  who  received  this  honour.  He  closed 
his  long  and  useful  life  on  the  15th  of  December,  1837. 
He  had  married  in  1800  Miss  Emlen,  of  Burlington,  by 
whom  he  had  four  children. 

See  Gross,  "Medical  Biography,"  pp.  351-459;  "Memoir  of  Dr. 
Physick,"  by  his  son-ui-law,  Dr.  Jacob  Randolph  ;  "  Necrological 
Notice  of  Dr.  Physick,"  by  Dr.  Wm.  E.  Horner;  "National 
Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iv. 

Pia,  pe't',  (Philippe  Nicolas,)  a  French  chemist, 
born  in  Paris  in  172 1.  He  introduced  reforms  in  public 
hygiene,  and  invented  methods  or  apparatus  for  restoring 
the  drowned.    Died  in  1799. 

Piacentini,  pe-i-chgn-tee'nee,  (Dionisio  Gregorio,) 
an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Viterbo  in  1684.  He  pub- 
lished an  "Epitome  of  Greek  Palaeography,"  (1735.) 
Died  in  1754. 

Piacentino.    See  Placentinus. 

Piacenza,  Duke  of.   See  Lebrun,  (Charles  Fr.) 

Piali  Pasha,  pe-^lee  pl'shi^  an  admiral,  born  in 
Hungary  about  1520.  He  became  capudan  pasha  in 
the  service  of  the  Sultan,  who  sent  him  in  1555  to  aid 
Francis  1.  of  France.  He  gained  in  1560  a  decisive  vic- 
tory over  the  fleet  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain  and  his  allies. 
In  1570  he  commanded  a  fleet  which  Selim  II.  sent 
against  Cyprus.    Died  in  1571. 

Piarron.    See  Chamousset,  de. 

Piazza,  pe-it'sS,  (Andrea,)  a  painter  of  the  Venetian 
school,  born  at  Castelfranco ;  died,  at  an  advanced  age, 
in  1670. 

Piazza,  (Calisto,)  a  painter  of  the  Venetian  school, 
called  Calisto  da  Lodi,  was  born  at  Lodi.  He  was 
a  pupil  and  successful  imitator  of  Titian,  and  was  a 
good  colorist.  His  works  are  dated  1524-56.  He  ex- 
celled in  fresco.  Among  his  best  works  is  "  The  Mar- 
riage at  Cana,"  a  fresco  at  Milan. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy ;"  Ridolfi,  "  Vite  degii 
Pittori  Veneti." 

Piazza,  (Girolamo  Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  Prot- 
estant, who  taught  French  and  Italian  at  Cambridge, 
England,  and  published  "An  Account  of  the  Inqui- 
sition," (1722.)    Died  about  1745. 

Piazza,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Castel- 
franco in  1557.  He  was  employed  by  the  em])eror  Ru- 
dolph II.  and  by  Pope  Paul  V.  Having  become  a 
monk,  he  took  the  name  of  Cosimo.    Died  in  1621. 

Piazza,  (Vincenzo,)  Marquis,  an  Italian  poet,  was 
born  in  the  Romagna  in  1670.  Among  his  works  is  the 
"Capture  ot  Bona,"  ("Bona  espugnata,"  1694.)  Died 
at  Parma  in  1745. 

Piazzetta,  pe-St-set'tJ,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  dis- 
tinguished painter,  born  at  Venice  in  1682.  He  was 
skilful  in  chiaro-oscuro.  His  master-piece  is  "The  Be- 
heading of  John  the  Baptist."  The  shades  of  his  pictures 
have  become  too  dark,  from  the  effect  of  time.  Died 
in  1754. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

*  Yellow  fever. 


Piazzi,  pe-it'see,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  astronomer, 
born  at  Ponte,  in  the  Valtelline,  Switzerland,  in  [uly, 
1746.  He  entered  the  monastic  order  of  Theatms,  and 
studied  under  Tiraboschi  and  Lesueur.  In  1780  he 
became  professor  of  the  higher  mathematics  at  Palermo, 
where  he  founded  an  observatory.  He  visited  Paris 
and  London  in  1787  and  1788.  In  1803  he  published  a 
"Catalogue  of  Fixed  Stars,"  which  obtained  for  him  a 
high  reputation  as  an  accurate  observer.  He  discovered, 
on  the  1st  of  January,  1801,  the  first  of  the  asteroids,  or 
small  planets,  whose  orbit  is  between  the  orbits  of  Mars 
and  Jupiter.  He  gave  it  the  name  of  Ceres.  Among 
his  works  is  a  "Discourse  on  Astronomy,"  (1790.)  He 
became  director  of  an  observatory  at  Naples  in  181 7. 
Died  at  Naples  in  1826. 

See  ScROFANi,  "Elogio  del  Piazzi,"  1826;  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia 
degli  Italiani  illustri,"  vol.  i. 

Pibrac,  de,  deh  pe'bRtk',  [Lat.  Pibra'chius,]  (Gui 
du  Faur — dii  foR,)  Seigneur,  a  French  poet,  orator, 
and  lawyer,  was  born  at  Toulouse  in  1529.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  the  Council  of  Trent  by  Charles 
IX.  in  1562,  and  obtained  the  office  of  president  a  7nor- 
tier  in  1577.  He  wrote  a  popular  poem  called  "Fifty 
Quatrains,  containing  Useful  Precepts,"  etc.,  (1574,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1584. 

See  Paschal,  "  Vidi  Fabricii  Pibrachii  Vita,"  1584;  L:^pine  db 
Grainville  and  L'Abb^  Sepher,  "  Memoires  sur  la  Vie  de  Pi- 
brac," 1761  ;  Mayer,  "Discours  historique  et  critique  sur  Pibrac," 
1778;  De  Thou,  "Historia  sui  Temporis  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Pibrachius.    See  Pibrac. 

Pic  de  la  Mirandole.    See  Pico. 

Picard,  pe'ktR^,  (Ernest,)  a  French  advocate  and 
radical  politician,  born  in  Paris  in  1821.  He  was  elected 
to  the  legislative  body  by  the  voters  of  Paris  in  1858,  in 
1863,  and  in  1869.  He  became  minister  of  finance  Sep- 
tember 4,  1870. 

Picard,  (Jean,)  an  eminent  French  astronomer,  born 
at  La  Fleche,  July  21,  1620.  He  was  a  priest  and  prior 
of  Ville,  in  Anjou,  when  he  observed  with  Gassendi 
the  solar  eclipse  of  August  25,  1645.  He  succeeded 
Gassendi  as  professor  in  the  College  de  France  in  1655. 
He  was  the  first  who  applied  the  telescope  to  the  meas- 
urement of  angles,  and  was  the  inventor  of  the  lunette 
d'epreuve.  He  is  said  to  have  invented  the  transit  in- 
strument. His  most  important  work  was  the  measure- 
ment of  an  arc  of  the  meridian  of  Paris  between  Amiens 
and  Malvoisine  in  1669-70,  of  which  he  wrote  an  account, 
entitled  "LaMesurede  la  Terre,"  (1671.)  "  When  he 
had,"  says  Delambre,  "so  good  reason  to  regard  himself 
as  the  first  astronomer  of  France,  and  even  of  Europe, 
he  used  his  influence  with  Colbert  to  attract  to  France 
Cassini,  whose  reputation  was  already  established." 
Died  in  1682. 

See  CoNDORCET,  "  filoge  de  Picard;"  Arago,  "Notices  bio- 
graphiques,"  tome  iii.  ;  Delambre,  "  Histoire  de  I'Astronomie 
moderne." 

Picard,  (Louis  BENofr,)  a  popular  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1769.  He  produced  in  1792  a  comic 
opera  called  "  Visitandines,"  which  had  great  success. 
Among  his  popular  comedies,  in  verse,  are  "The  Col- 
lege Friends,"  ("  Les  Amis  de  College,"  1795,)  "  Ordi- 
nary and  Mean,"  ("Mediocre  et  Rampant,"  1797,)  and 
"  The  Ambitious  Husband."  He  wrote  dramas,  in  prose, 
entitled  "The  Small  Town,"  ("La  petite  Ville,"  1801,) 
and  "The  Puppets,"  ("Les  Marionnettes,"  1805.)  In 
1807  he  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy.  He 
delineates  the  manners  of  his  time  with  much  success, 
and  displays  a  rich  fund  of  witty  sallies.    Died  in  1828. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Picart,  pe'ktR',  (BENotr,)  a  French  historical  writer 
and  monk,  born  at  Toul  in  1663.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  City  and  Diocese  of  Toul,"  (1707,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1720. 

Picart,  (Bernard,)  a  French  designer  and  engraver, 
born  in  Paris  in  1673.  He  had  a  talent  for  the  imi- 
tation of  various  masters,  and  obtained  a  high  reputation. 
Having  removed  to  Amsterdam  in  1710,  he  worked  for 
the  booksellers,  and  lapsed  into  a  degenerate  manner. 
?Ie  engraved  after  his  own  designs,  and  after  Poussin, 
Le  Brun,  and  others.    Died  in  1733. 


«  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

113 


PIC  ART 


1794 


PICHON 


Picart,  (Etienne,)  an  eminent  engraver,  called  Le 
ROMAIN,  born  in  Paris  in  1631,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  He  worked  some  years  at  Rome,  and  settled 
at  Amsterdam  in  17 10.  His  works,  which  consist  of 
portraits  and  history,  display  more  firmness  than  har- 
mony.   Died  at  Amsterdam  in  1721. 

Piccart,  pik'k^Rt,  (Michael,)  a  learned  German 
philologist  and  philosopher,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1574. 
He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Altdorf.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  a  "Commentary  on  the 
Political  Works  of  Aristotle,"  (1615,)  which  is  com- 
mended.   Died  in  1620. 

Picchena,  p^k-ka'nS,  (Curzio,)  an  Italian  philolo- 
gjst,  born  in  Tuscany  about  1 550.  He  published  a 
good  edition  of  Tacitus,  (1607.)    Died  in  1629. 

Piccini,  p^t-chee'nee,  (Luigi,)  a  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Naples  in  1766,  was  a  son  of  Niccolo.  He 
composed  operas  which  obtained  little  success.  He  was 
chapel-master  to  the  King  of  Sweden  from  1796  to  1801. 
Died  in  1827. 

Piccini,  p^t-chee'nee,  or  Piccinni,  p^t-cheen'nee, 
(Niccol6,)  a  popular  Italian  composer,  born  at  Bari,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  in  1728.  He  studied  under  Leo  and 
Durante  at  Naples.  His  serious  opera  "  Zenobia"  (1756) 
obtained  a  complete  success.  His  reputation  was  widely 
extended  by  the  comic  opera  "Good  Little  Daughter," 
("La  buona  Figliuola,"  1760,)  which  some  consider  his 
master-piece.  In  1776  he  removed  to  Paris,  where  he 
produced  the  operas  of  "  Roland,"  (1778,)  "  Atys,"  etc. 
A  great  commotion  and  wordy  warfare  was  raised  by 
the  rivalry  between  Piccini  and  Gluck.  The  French 
literati  and  the  general  public  were  divided  into  two  par- 
ties, the  Piccinists  and  the  Gluckists.  Piccini  became 
singing-master  to  the  queen  Marie  Antoinette  about 
1780.  He  returned  to  Naples  in  1791.  Among  his 
most  admired  works  are  "  Olimpiade,"  and  the  French 
opera  of  "Didon,"  (1783.)  Died  at  Passy,  near  Paris, 
in  1800. 

See  GiNGUEN^,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Piccinni," 
1800;  F^Tis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musicians;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Piccinino,  p^t-che-nee'no,  (Niccol6,)  an  able  Ital- 
ian general,  born  at  Perugia  in  1375.  Fie  served  some 
years  under  Braccio  da  Montone.  In  1425  he  entered 
the  service  of  Filippo  Maria  Visconti,  of  Milan,  to  whom 
he  remained  loyal  to  his  death.  He  defeated  Carmagnola 
and  the  Venetians  in  143 1,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  Florentines  and  Venetians  near  Imola  in  1434. 
Died  in  1444. 

See  SiSMONDi,  "  Histoire  des  Republlques  Italiennes." 

Piccinni.    See  Piccini. 

Piccinni,  p^t-cheen'nee,  ?  (Alexandre,)  a  French 
composer,  born  in  Paris  in  1779,  was  a  grandson  of 
Niccolo  Piccini,  noticed  above. 

Piccolomini.    See  Pius  II. 

Piccolomini,  p^k-ko-lom'e-nee,  (Alessandro,)  an 
Italian  writer  and  prelate,  eminent  for  learning,  was 
born  at  Sienna  in  1508.  He  was  the  first  who  wrote  on 
philosophy  in  the  Italian  language.  In  1574  he  was 
appointed  Archbishop  of  Patras.  Among  his  w#rks  are 
a  treatise  "On  the  Sphere  of  the  World,"  (1540,)  and 
"Commentaries  on  Aristotle,"  (1575.)    Died  in  1578. 

See  Fabiani,  "Vita  di  Piccolomini,"  1749. 

Piccolomini,  (Alfonso,)  Duke  of  Monte  Marciano, 
an  Italian  condottiere,  born  about  1550.  He  was  the 
leader  of  an  army  of  brigands.  In  1581  he  defeated 
the  army  of  the  pope.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Duke  of 
Tuscany,  and  hung,  in  159 1. 

Piccolomini,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  scholar,  born 
at  Sienna  in  1520,  was  a  professor  of  philosophy.  He 
wrote  "  Universal  Philosophy  of  Morals,"  etc.,  ("  Uni- 
versa  Philosophia  de  Moribus,"  etc.,  1583,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1604. 

Piccolomini,  (Giacomo,)  a  cardinal,  whose  proper 
name  was  Ammanati,  was  born  near  Lucca  in  1422. 
He  left  "Commentaries  and  Epistles,"  ("  Commentarii 
et  Epistolse,"  1506.)    Died  in  1479. 

Piccolomini,  (Maria,)  an  Italian  operatic  singer, 
born  at  Sienna  about  1835.  She  performed  in  London 
about  1856,  and  in  Paris.  In  186 1  she  married  and  re- 
tired from  the  stage. 


Piccolomini,  (Ottavio,)  an  Austrian  general,  of 
Italian  origin,  was  born  in  1599.  He  led  a  regiment  at 
the  battle  of  Lutzen,  in  1632,  and  was  one  of  the  principal 
agents  in  the  conspiracy  which  procured  the  ruin  of 
Wallenstein.  He  contributed  to  the  victory  at  Nord- 
lingen,  (1634,)  and  was  defeated  by  Torstenson  in  Silesia 
in  1641  or  1642.  In  1643  entered  the  service  of 
Spain,  and  obtained  the  chief  command  in  Flanders. 
He  became  a  field-marshal  of  the  Austrian  army  in  1648. 
Died  in  Vienna  in  1656. 

See  Crasso,  "  Elogii  di  Capitani  illiistri ;"  Schiller,  "  History 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,"  and  his  tragedy  of  "Wallenstein." 

Pichat,  pe'shS',  (L^:on  Laurent,)  a  French  poet, 
critic,  and  novelist,  born  in  Paris  in  1823.  He  became 
in  1854  editor  and  proprietor  of  the  "Revue  de  Paris," 
which  was  suppressed  by  government  in  1858.  Among 
his  works  are  political  verses  entitled  "Free  Words," 
("  Libres  Paroles,"  1847,)  and  "La  Paienne,"  a  novel, 
(1857-) 

Pichat,  (Michel,)  a  French  dramatic  poet,  born  at 
Vienne  in  1786.  Among  his  works  is  "Leonidas,"  a 
drama,  (1825.)    Died  in  1828. 

Picliegru,  p^sh'gRoo  or  pJsh'gRii',  (Charles,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Arbois  (Jura)  in  1761.  He  en- 
tered the  army  in  1783,  and  became  a  zealous  partisan  of 
the  Revolution  in  1789.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
general  of  division  in  1793,  obtained  command  of  the 
army  of  the  Rhine  in  October  of  that  year.  About  the  end 
of  the  same  year  he  became  general-in-chief  of  the  united 
armies  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Moselle.  He  was  a  favour- 
ite of  the  Jacobins  at  this  period.  In  February,  1794, 
he  succeeded  Jourdan  as  commander  of  the  army  of 
the  North,  with  which,  by  rapid  and  skilful  movements, 
he  gained  advantages  at  Cassel,  Courtrai,  and  Menin. 
In  the  winter  of  1794-95  he  crossed  the  Waal  on  the 
ice  and  reduced  Holland  to  submission.  Having  taken 
command  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine  in  1795,  he  incurred 
suspicion  of  treason,  and  was  superseded  by  Moreau  in 
1796.  He  continued  to  intrigue  against  the  Directory, 
by  which  he  was  transported  to  Cayenne  in  September, 
1797  ;  but  he  escaped  from  that  place  in  1798.  He  con- 
spired with  Cadoudal  and  others  against  Bonaparte,  and 
was  arrested  by  the  police  in  Paris  in  February,  1804. 
Before  his  trial  was  finished,  he  was  found  dead  in  prison, 
in  April,  1804. 

See  Cousin  d'Avallon,  "  Histoire  du  General  Pichegru,"  1801 ; 
Fauchk-Borel,  "Notices  sur  Pichegru  et  Moreau,"  1807;  Gas- 
sier, "Vie  du  General  Pichegru,"  1814;  Savary,  Due  de  Rovigo, 
"Memoires  sur  la  Mort  de  Pichegru,"  1825;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Picliler,  pfK'ler,  (Caroline,)  originally  named  Von 
Greiner,  (fon  gRi'ner,)  a  popular  German  novelist,  born 
in  Vienna  in  1769.  She  was  married  in  1796  to  Andreas 
Pichler,  and  in  1802  produced  "  Idyllen."  She  illustrated 
the  salutary  influence  of  Christianity  in  "  Agathocles," 
a  novel,  (1808,)  which  was  much  admired.  In  1814 
she  published  "The  Count  von  Hohenburg,"  the  first 
of  numerous  historical  novels,  the  subjects  of  which 
are  taken  from  the  national  history.  Among  her  later 
works  are  "  Pictures  of  the  Times,"  ("  Zeitbilder,"  2 
vols,,  1840,)  and  "Memoirs  of  my  Life,"  (4  vols.,  1844.) 
Died  in  1843. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  February,  1843. 

Pichler  or  Pikler,  (Johann,)  a  son  of  the  following, 
was  born  at  Naples  in  1734,  and  was  probably  the  most 
skilful  engraver  of  gems  of  his  time.  He  lived  at  Rome, 
and  engraved  several  pictures  after  Raphael.  Among 
his  works  are  many  portraits  of  modern  persons,  of  which 
the  resemblance  was  the  least  merit.  He  was  also  a 
painter.    Died  at  Rome  in  1791. 

Sec  Jean  Gerard  de  Rossi,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vic  ds  J  Pikler, 
Rome,  1792. 

Pichler,  (Johann  Anton,)  a  celebrated  engraver  of 
gems,  born  at  Brixen,  in  the  Tyrol,  in  1697.  He  worked 
at  Naples  and  Rome.    Died  in  1779. 

Pichon,  pe'sh^N',  (  Pierre  Auguste,  )  a  French 
painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was  born  at  Sorreze 
(Tarn)  in  1805.  He  received  a  first  medal  (for  history) 
in  1846. 

Pichon,  (Thomas,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Vire 
in  1700.  He  was  the  second  husband  of  Madame  Le 
Prince  de  Beaumont.    He  published  a  work  "  On  the 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  d,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f3r,  fill,  f^t;  mfit;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


PICHON 


J795 


PICTET 


Natural  and  Civil  History  of  Cape  Breton,"  (1760.) 
Died  in  1781. 

Pichon,  (Thomas  Jean,)  a  French  writer  and  priest, 
born  at  Mans  in  1731  ;  died  in  1812. 

Pichot,  pe'sho',  (Am^d^e,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Aries  in  1796.  He  became  in  1843  chief  editor  of  the 
"Revue  Britannique."  Among  his  works  are  "Travels 
in  England,"  (1825,)  and  a  "Chronicle  of  Charles  V.," 
(1853-) 

Pick'en,  (Andrew,)  a  Scottish  writer  of  fiction,  born 
at  Paisley  in  1788.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Domi- 
nie's Legacy."    Died  in  1833. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Pick 'ens,  (Andrew,)  a  distinguished  American 
general,  born  at  Paxton,  Pennsylvania,  in  1739.  He 
co-operated  with  General  Marion  in  his  partisan  warfare 
against  the  British,  and  commanded  the  militia  at  the 
battle  of  Cowpens.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1794.    Died  in  1817. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

Pickens,  (Francis  W.,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Saint  Paul's  parish.  South  Carolina,  in 
1807.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1834  to 
1844.  He  was  appointed  in  1857  minister  to  Russia, 
and  in  December,  i860,  was  elected  Governor  of  South 
Carolina  for  two  years. 

Pick'er-ing,  (Charles,)  M.D.,  an  American  natu- 
ralist, a  grandson  of  Timothy  Pickering,  was  born  in 
Susquehanna  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1805.  Having 
travelled  in  India  and  Eastern  Africa,  he  published,  after 
his  return,  the  "  Races  of  Man  and  their  Geographical 
Distribution,"  (1848,)  and  "Geographical  Distribution 
of  Animals  and  Man,"  (1854.) 

Pickering,  (John,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist  and 
scholar,  born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  1777,  was  a 
son  of  Timothy  Pickering.  He  was  the  founder  and 
first  president  of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  and 
president  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sci- 
ences. He  published  a  "  Greek-and- English  Lexicon," 
(1826,)  "Remarks  on  the  Indian  Languages  of  North 
America,"  (1836,)  and  "Vocabulary  of  Americanisms." 
Died  in  1846. 

Pickering,  (Timothy,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  on  the  17th  of  July,  1745.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1763,  studied  law,  and 
became  a  judge  of  the  common  pleas  in  1775.  In  the 
autumn  of  1776  he  joined  the  army  of  Washington  as 
colonel.  He  was  appointed  adjutant-general  in  1777, 
and  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Brandywine  and  Ger- 
mantown,  October,  1777.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  board  of  war  by  Congress  in  November,  1777,  and 
quartermaster-general  in  August,  1780,  as  successor  to 
General  Greene.  He  performed  the  arduous  duties  of 
this  office  until  1785.  During  the  Revolution  he  kept 
a  journal  of  public  events.  He  was  identified  with  the 
Federal  party,  and  was  appointed  postmaster-general 
by  Washington  in  August,  1791,  and  secretary  of  war  in 
January,  1794.  In  December,  1795,  he  became  secre- 
tary of  state.  He  was  continued  in  the  department 
of  state  by  President  Adams,  but  did  not  obtain  his 
confidence  or  approve  his  measures.  He  was  removed 
from  that  office  in  May,  1800,  and  settled  on  a  farm 
which  was  situated  near  Salem,  and  which  he  cultivated 
with  his  own  hands.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  by  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  in 
1803,  and  continue^  to  serve  in  the  Senate  until  181 1. 
From  1814  to  181 7  he  was  a  member  of  the  national 
House  of  Representatives.  He  had  a  fair  reputation 
for  ability  and  moral  character.  He  died  at  Salem  in 
January,  1829,  leaving  several  sons. 

See  "  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Timothy  Pickering,"  by  his  son 
OcTAVius,  2  vols.,  1867;  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distin- 
guished Americans,"  vol.  i. 

Pick'ers-gill,  (Frederick  Richard,)  an  eminent 
painter  of  history,  born  in  London  in  1820.  He  gained 
a  prize  of  one  hundred  pounds  for  his  "Death  of  King 
Lear,"  (1843,)  ^^'^^  a  prize  of  five  hundred  pounds  for 
his  "  Burial  of  Harold,"  (1847,)  which  was  purchased  for 
the  House  of  Lords.    He  was  elected  a  Royal  Acade- 


mician in  1857.  Among  his  best  works  is  "  Samson 
Betrayed,"  (1850.) 

Pickersgill,  (Henry  William,)  an  English  por- 
trait-painter, born  about  1782.  He  painted  many  emi- 
nent authors,  statesmen,  etc.,  and  won  a  high  reputation. 
He  was  elected  Royal  Academician  in  1825.  Died  in  1861. 

Pick'ett,  (Albert  James,)  an  American  writer,  born 
ua  Anson  county,  North  Carolina,  in  1810,  was  the  author 
df  a  "  History  of  Alabama,"  (1851.)    Died  in  1858. 

Pico  della  Mirandola,  pee'ko  deKli  me-rSnMo-ia, 
[Fr.  Pic  de  la  Mirandole,  p^k  deh  It  me'r6N'doK,J 
(Giovanni,)  an  Italian  theologian  and  philosopher,  born 
in  1463.  He  had  a  prodigious  memory  and  great  learn- 
ing, but  was  rather  superficial  as  a  thinker.  He  offered 
to  dispute  at  Rome  with  all  comers  on  a  great  number 
of  theses,  "  On  all  Things  that  may  be  known,"  ("  De 
Omni  Re  Scibili,")  to  which  Voltaire  added  "  and  Some 
Things  besides,"  ("et  de  Quibusdam  aliis.")  Died  in 
1494.    He  left  several  works  on  theology,  etc. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Pico  della  Mirandola,"  by  his  nephew,  Giovanni 
Francesco  della  Mirandola;  Nic^ron,  "Memoires;"  Gin- 
GUENE,  "Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie ;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Pico(orPicus)  della  Mirandola,  (Giovanni  Fran- 
cesco,) Prince,  an  Italian  writer,  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  about  1469.  He  wrote  several  works 
on  theology,  and  a  "Life  of  Savonarola,"  (1530.)  Died 
if'  ^533- 

Picot,  pe'ko',  (FRANgois  £douard,)  a  French  his- 
torical painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1786.  He  gained  a  first 
medal  in  1819.  The  palaces  of  the  Louvre  and  of  Ver- 
sailles contain  some  of  his  works. 

Picot,  pe'ko',  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  historian,  born  in  1777. 
He  was  for  many  years  professor  of  history  at  Geneva. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Gauls,"  (3  vols.,  1804,) 
and  a  "  History  of  Geneva,"  (3  vols.,  181 1.) 

Picot,  (Michel  Joseph  Pierre,)  a  French  writer, 
born  near  Orleans  in  1770.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Memoir  contributory  to  the  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (3  vols.,  1806.) 
Died  in  1841.  He  wrote  many  articles  for  the  "Bio- 
graphie Universelle." 

Picot,  (Pierre,)  a  Swiss  writer,  and  professor  of  the- 
ology, born  at  Geneva  in  1746,  was  the  father  of  Jean, 
noticed  above.  He  published  "  On  the  Manifold  Utility 
of  Mountains,"  ("  De  multiplici  Montium  Utilitate,"  1790,) 
and  Sermons,  (1823.)    Died  in  1822. 

Pictet,  p^k'ti',  (Benedict,)  an  eloquent  Swiss  Prot- 
estant minister,  born  at  Geneva  in  1655.  He  became 
professor  of  divinity  at  Geneva  in  1702,  and  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Berlin  in  17 14.  His  principal  works 
are  "  Christian  Morality,"  (8  vols.,  1695-98,)  "  Theologia 
Christiana,"  (2  vols.,  1696,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Church 
and  the  World  in  the  Eleventh  Century,"  (1712.)  Died 
at  Geneva  in  1724. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires." 

Pictet,  (FRANgois  Jules,)  a  Swiss  naturalist,  born  at 
Geneva  about  1790.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy 
and  zoology  in  his  native  city.  Among  his  works  are 
"  Itinerary  to  the  Valleys  around  Mont  Blanc,"  (1818; 
3d  edition,  1840,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Palaeontology,"  (4 
vols.,  1845.) 

Pictet,  (Jean  Louis,)  an  astronomer,  born  at  Geneva 
in  1739.  He  was  employed  by  the  Academy  of  Saint 
Petersburg  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus  in  Siberia, 
and  wrote  "  Observations  on  the  Transit  of  Venus  in 
1769."    Died  at  Geneva  in  1781. 

Pictet,  (Marc  Auguste,)  a  Swiss  natural  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Geneva  in  1752,  was  a  brother  of  Charles, 
(de  Rochemont,)  noticed  below.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Saussure,  whom  he  succeeded  as  professor  of  philosophy 
in  1786.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  an  "Essay 
on  Fire,  (or  Heat,")  (1791,)  and  "Travels  in  England 
and  Scotland,"  (1803.)  He  founded  in  1796  a  periodical 
entitled  "  Bibliotheque  Britannique,"  and  changed  the 
name  in  1816  to  "Bibliotheque  Universelle,"  which  still 
exists.  He  gave  special  attention  to  meteorology.  Died 
in  1825. 

See  Vaucher,  "Necrologie  de  M.  A.  Pictet,"  1825. 
Pictet  de  Rochemont,  p^k'ti'  deh  rosh'mdN', 
(Charles,)  a  Swiss  rural  economist,  born  at  Geneva  in 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Viyguttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PICTON  1796  PIERQUIN 


1755.  As  envoy-extraordinary,  he  attended  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  in  1814,  and  tliat  of  Paris  in  181 5.  He  wrote 
a  '*  Picture  of  the  Present  Condition  of  the  United  States 
of  America,"  (1796,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Agriculture." 
He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  '*  Bibliotheque  Univer- 
selle."    Died  in  1824. 

Pic'ton,  (Sir  Thomas,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
Pembrokeshire  about  1758.  He  served  with  distinc^on 
in  Spain,  at  Badajos,  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  and  Vitoria. 
Having  obtained  command  of  a  division,  he  was  killed 
at  Waterloo  in  1815. 

See  H.  B.  Robinson,  "Memoirs  of  Sir  Thomas  Picton,"  1835. 

Pictor.    See  Fabius  Pictor. 

Picumne.    See  Picumnus. 

Pi-cum'nus  and  Pi-lum'nus,  [Fr.  Picumne,  pe'- 
kiimn',  and  Pilumne,  pe'liimn',]  two  Roman  or  Latin 
gods  of  matrimony,  were  regarded  as  brothers.  To  Pi- 
cumnus was  ascribed  the  discovery  of  the  art  of  ma- 
nuring land, 

Pi'cus,  [Gr.  Ili/cof,]  a  fabulous  king  of  Latium  and 
prophetic  divinity,  was  represented  as  a  son  of  Saturn, 
the  husband  of  Canens,  and  the  father  of  Faunus.  Ac- 
cording to  the  fable,  Circe  was  enamoured  of  him,  and 
changed  him  into  a  woodpecker  (picus)  because  her 
passion  was  not  requited, 

Picus  della  Mirandola.    See  Pico. 

Pidou  de  Saint-Olon,  pe'doo'  deh  siNtVl^N', 
(Francois,)  a  French  diplomatist  and  writer,  born  in 
Touraine  in  1646.  He  wrote  "An  Account  of  the  Em- 
pire of  Morocco,"  {1694.)    Died  in  1720. 

Piel,  pe'^K,  (Louis  Alexandre,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Lisieux  in  1808,  He  restored  the  church  of 
Saint-Nicolas  at  Nantes,  and  other  churches,  and  wrote 
several  professional  works.    Died  in  1841. 

Piemont,  pe'i'moN',  (Niklaas  Opgang,)  a  Dutch 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1659,  He 
worked  some  years  in  Rome.    Died  in  1709, 

Pierce,  perss  or  peerss,  (Benjamin,)  born  in  New 
Hampshire  in  1757,  vvas  elected  Governor  of  that  State 
in  1827  and  1829.  He  was  the  father  of  President 
Franklin  Pierce.    Died  in  1839. 

Pierce,  peerss,  (Edward,)  an  English  painter  of  his- 
tory and  portraits,  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Charles  L 
and  Charles  II.  Died  near  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century. 

Pierce,  (Franklin,)  the  fourteenth  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  at  Hillsborough,  New  Hamp- 
shire, on  the  23d  of  November,  1804.  He  was  a  son 
of  General  Benjamin  Pierce,  who  was  Governor  of  New 
Hampshire,  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College,  Maine, 
in  1824,  studied  law  under  Levi  Woodbury,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1827.  He  practised  first  at  Hills- 
borough. In  1833  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress 
by  the  Democrats.  Having  been  re-elected,  he  served 
in  the  House  of  Representatives  until  1837,  and  in  that 
year  was  chosen  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  New  Hampshire.  He  became  a  resident 
of  Concord  about  1838,  and  resigned  his  seat  in  the 
Senate  in  1842,  after  which  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
practice  of  law.  He  had  married  about  1834.  He 
favoured  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  United  States, 
(1844-45,)  served  in  the  Mexican  war  with  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general,  (1846-47.) 

At  the  National  Democratic  Convention,  June,  1852, 
the  prominent  candidates  for  the  Presidency  were  Cass, 
Buchanan,  and  Douglas.  After  thirty-five  ballots  with- 
out decisive  result,  the  name  of  General  Pierce  was  pro- 
posed, and  he  was  nominated  on  the  forty-ninth  ballot. 
His  Whig  competitor  was  General  Winfield  Scott. 
General  Pierce  was  elected  President,  receiving  two 
hundred  and  fifty-four  electoral  votes  out  of  two  hundred 
and  ninety-six,  which  was  the  whole  number.  He  ap- 
pointed W.  L.  Marcy  secretary  of  state,  James  Guthrie 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  Jefferson  Davis  secretary  of 
war,  Robert  McClelland  secretary  of  the  interior,  J. 
Dobbin  secretary  of  the  navy,  and  Caleb  Gushing  attor- 
ney-general. In  his  inaugural  address  he  denounced  the 
agitation  of  slavery.  Among  the  important  events  of  his 
administration  were  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compro- 
mise and  the  passage  of  the  Nebraska-Kansas  bill,  which 
he  approved  and  signed  in  1854,  and  which  produced 


great  excitement  in  the  Free  States,  and  the  bombard- 
ment and  destruction  of  Greytown,  in  Central  America, 
(July,  1854,)  by  Captain  Hollins,  acting  under  the  in- 
structions of  the  United  States  Government.  In  August, 
1854,  Mr.  Pierce  directed  the  American  ambassadors,  J. 
Buchanan,  J,  Y.  Mason,  and  P.  Soule,  to  meet  in  some 
European  city  and  confer  on  the  best  means  of  acquiring 
Cuba.  They  met  at  Ostend  and  issued  a  document  called 
the  "  Ostend  Manifesto,"  the  purport  of  which  was  that  if 
Spain  would  not  sell  Cuba  the  Americans  would  take  it  by 
force.  He  used  his  official  influence  to  promote  the  de- 
signs of  the  pro-slavery  party  in  Kansas.  In  the  National 
Democratic  Convention  of  1856,  J.  Buchanan  and  Presi- 
dent Pierce  were  the  chief  competitors.  Pierce  received 
one  hundred  and  twenty-two  votes  on  the  first  ballot,  but 
failed  to  obtain  the  nomination.  He  retired  to  private 
life  in  March,  1857.  In  a  letter  to  his  friend  Jefferson 
Davis,  dated  January  6,  i860,  he  says,  "I  have  never 
believed  that  actual  disruption  of  the  Union  can  occur 
without  blood  ;  and  if,  through  the  madness  of  Northern 
abolitionists,  that  dire  calamity  must  come,  the  fighting 
will  not  be  along  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  merely.  It 
will  be  within  our  own  borders,  in  our  own  streets, 
between  the  two  classes  of  citizens  to  whom  I  have 
referred.  Those  who  defy  law  and  scout  constitutional 
obligations  will,  if  we  ever  reach  the  arbitrament  of 
arms,  find  occupation  enough  at  home,"  He  delivered 
an  oration  at  Concord  in  the  summer  of  1863,  in  which 
he  opposed  the  coercion  of  the  seceded  States,  and 
called  Vallandigham  "that  noble  martyr  of  free  speech." 
Died  in  1869, 

See  N.  Hawthorne,  "  Life  of  Franklin  Pierce,"  1852. 

Pierce,  (George  Foster,)  D.D.,  an  American  Meth- 
odist divine,  born  in  Greene  county,  Georgia,  in  1811. 
He  was  elected  president  of  Emory  College,  Georgia,  in 
1848,  and  in  1854  was  made  a  bishop. 

Pierer,  pee'rer,  (Heinrich  August,)  a  German 
bookseller,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1794.  His  principal 
publication  was  the  "  Encyclopaedic  Dictionary,"  ("  En- 
cyklopadischen  Worterbuch,"  26  vols.,  1824,)  begun  by 
his  father.  A  fourth  edition  appeared  in  1857-65,  in 
nineteen  vols.,  under  the  title  of  "  Universal-Lexikon." 
Died  in  1850. 

Pierer,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Altenburg  in  1767.  He  founded  the  "General 
Annals  of  Medicine."    Died  in  1832. 

Pi-er'i-des,  [Gr.  Ilicpt^cf  ;  Fr.  Pi^RiDES,  pe'k'r^d',] 
a  surname  of  the  Muses,  which  they  received  because 
they  were  born  in  Pieria. 

Pierino  del  Vaga.    See  Perino. 

Piermarini,  pe-^R-mi-ree'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  architect,  born  at  Foligno  in  1 734.  He  be- 
came architect  to  the  Archduke  of  Milan  in  1769.  He 
designed  at  Milan  many  grand  public  edifices,  among 
which  are  the  magnificent  theatre  Delia  Scala,  the  Monte 
di  Pieta,  the  Porta  Orientale,  and  the  imposing  fa9ade 
of  the  Palazzo  Belgiojoso.    Died  in  1808. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri," 

Pieron,  pe'a'r6N',  (Charles  Philippe  Ren6,)  a 
French  judge,  born  at  Arras  in  1793,  was  a  liberal 
member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1834  to  1848. 

Pierpont,  peer'pSnt,  (John,)  an  American  poet  and 
Unitarian  divine,  born  at  Litchfield,  Connecticut,  in 
April,  1785.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1804, 
and  afterwards  studied  law,  which,  however,  he  soon 
abandoned.  He  published  in  1816  his  "Airs  of  Pales- 
tine," which  immediately  established  his  reputation.  In 
the  same  year  he  studied  theology  at  Harvard,  and  in 
1819  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  HoUis  Street  Church, 
Boston,  In  1835  he  made  the  tour  of  Europe,  also 
visiting  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  Mr.  Pierpont  was 
a  prominent  advocate  of  temperance,  anti-slavery,  and 
other  reforms.  In  1845  he  became  minister  of  the 
Unitarian  church  of  Medford.  "Many  of  his  hymns, 
odes,  and  other  brief  poems,"  says  Griswold,  "are 
remarkably  spirited  and  melodious."    Died  in  1866. 

See  R.  W.  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America  ;"  "  North 
American  Review"  for  October,  1840;  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for 
December,  1866. 

Pierquin,  pe^iR'k^N',  (Jean,)  a  French  priest  and 
writer,  was  born  at  Charleville  in  1672  ;  died  in  1742. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  lo7tg;  \  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f2ir,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  mocm; 


PIERQUIN 


1797 


PIGOREAU 


Pierquin  de  Gerabloux,  pe-aiR'k3,N'  deh  zHSn'- 
bloo',  (Claude  Charles,)  a  French  antiquary  and  mis- 
cellalieous  writer,  born  at  Brussels  in  1798.  He  has 
written  many  works  on  French  antiquities,  medicine, 
philology,  and  other  subjects. 

Pierre,  pe-aiR',  (Jean  Baptiste  Marie,)  a  French 
painter,  who~was  born  in  Paris  in  17 13.  He  became 
first  painter  to  the  king  in  1770.  He  was  remarkable 
for  facility.    Died  in  1789. 

Pierre,  the  French  for  Peter,  which  see. 

Pierre,  Saint.    See  Saint-Pierre. 

Pierre  d'Auvergne,    See  Auvergne,  d'. 

Pierre  de  Montereau,  pe-a.iR  deh  mANt'rS',  a  French 
architect,  was  patronized  by~TLouis  IX.,  for  whom  he 
built  La  Sainte-Chapelle,  (1248.)  His  works  are  mostly 
in  the  flamboyant  ogival  style.    Died  in  1266. 

Pierre  des  Vignes.    See  Pietro  delle  Vigne. 

Pierron,  pe-i'r6N',  (Eugene  Athanase,)  a  French 
actor  and  dramatic  writer,  born  near  Meulan  in  1819. 

Pierron,  (Pierre  Alexis,)  a  French  Hellenist,  born 
in  Haute-Saone  in  1814.  He  produced  a  version  of 
iEschylus,  (1841,)  which  was  crowned  by  the  French 
Academy,  and  a  version  of  Plutarch's  "Lives,"  (1843.) 

Pierrot,  pe-i'ro',  (Jules  Amable,)  a  French  classi- 
cal scholar,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1792.  He  published 
a  "Course  of  French  Eloquence,"  (2  vols.,  1822.)  Died 
in  1845. 

Pierson,  peer'son,  (Abraham,)  an  American  divine, 
and  first  president  of  Yale  College,  born  about  1648. 
He  preached  at  Killingworth  and  Saybrook.  Died  in 
1707. 

.  Pierson,  peeR'son,  (Christoph,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1631.  He  settled  at  Gouda  in 
1679.  His  design  and  colour  are  commended.  He 
painted  history,  still  life,  dead  game,  etc.  with  success. 
Died  in  1714. 

Pierson,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  philologist,  born  in  Friesland 
in  1631.  He  proposed  corrections  of  the  texts  of  Greek 
and  Latin  authors  in  "  Verisimilium  Libri  duo,"  (1752.) 
Died  in  1759. 

Pieters,  (Bonaventure.)    See  Peters. 

Pieters,  pee'ters,  or  Peters,  pa'ters,  (Geraard,)  an 
able  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  about  1580.  He 
worked  at  Rome,  and  returned  to  his  native  city.  He 
painted  portraits,  conversation-pieces,  and  interiors. 

Pieters,  pee'ters,  (Jacob,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1648.  He  removed  to  England,  and  was 
employed  by  Kneller  to  paint  draperies  and  accessories 
of  portraits.  It  is  said  that  he  counterfeited  some  works 
of  Rubens  with  skill. 

Pietri,  pe-a'tRee,  (  Pietro,  )  an  Italian  historical 
painter,  born  about  1665,  worked  in  Rome,  where  he 
died  in  1716. 

Pietro  da  Cortona.    See  Cortona. 

Pietro  della  Franoesca.    See  Francesca. 

Pietro  delle  Vigne,  pe-a'tRo  deKli  xhxVyk,  [Lat. 
Pe'trus  de  Vin'eis  ;  Fr,  Pierre  des  Vignes,  pe-aiR' 
di  vhn,]  a  distinguished  Italian  minister  of  state,  was 
chancellor  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  Died  in  1249. 
His  "Letters,"  printed  in  1566,  have  some  historical 
value. 

Pieyre,  pe-aiR',  (Pierre  Alexandre,)  a  French 
dramatist,  borrTat  Nimes  in  1752.  He  composed  the 
"  School  for  Fathers,"  ("  ficole  des  Peres,")  a  comedy, 
(1782.)  He  was  preceptor  of  the  Due  de  Chartres, 
(Louis  Philippe.)    Died  in  1830. 

Pigafetta,  pe-gl-fet'tl,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  voy- 
ager and  geographer,  born  at  Vicenza  about  1492.  He 
sailed  as  a  volunteer  with  the  expedition  of  Magellan, 
who  departed  from  Seville  in  August,  15 19.  He  wit- 
nessed the  affray  in  which  Magellan  lost  his  life,  and 
wrote  a  daily  journal  of  this  voyage.  In  company  with 
Cano,  he  returned  to  Spain  in  1522,  having  performed  the 
first  voyage  around  the  world.  A  complete  copy  of  his 
narrative,  "First  Voyage  around  the  World,"  ("  Primo 
Viaggio  intorno  al  Globo,")  was  found  by  Amoretti  at 
Milan,  and  was  published  in  1800.  An  abridgment,  in 
French,  had  been  published  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Pigafetta,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  traveller  and  military 
engineer,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1533.  He  was  sent  by 
Sixtus  V.  to  Persia  to  negotiate  an  alliance  against  the 


Turks.  He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  the  History  and  Use 
of  the  Compass,"  (1586,)  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1603. 

Pigalle,  pe'gtK,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  an  eminent  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1 714,  was  a  pupil  of  J.  B. 
Lemoyne.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  after  his  return  to 
Paris  produced  a  statue  of  Mercury,  which  opened  to 
him  the  doors  of  the  Academy  in  1744.  He  was  pa- 
tronized by  Louis  XV.,  and  received  the  title  of  sculptor 
to  the  king.  His  master-piece  is  a  monumental  group 
in  honour  of  Marshal  Saxe  at  Strasbourg.  He  imitated 
nature  with  fidelity,  or,  as  some  say,  with  servility,  and 
had  the  sentiment  of  the  true  rather  than  of  the  beautiful. 
Died  in  1785. 

See  P.  Tarbe,  "  La  Vie  et  les  CEuvres  de  J.  B.  Pigalle ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Piganiol  de  la  Force,  pe'gt'ne-ol'  deh  IS  foRss, 
(Jean  Aimar,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Auvergne 
in  1673.  He  published  a  "  Historical  and  Geographical 
Description  of  France,"  (5  vols.,  1715,)  which  was  the 
best  work  on  that  subject,  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1753- 

Pigault-Lebrun,  pe'gd'  leh-bRuN',  originally  Pigault 
de  L'^pinoy,  (deh  l^pe^nwi',)  (Charles  Antoine 
GuiLLAUME,)  a  popular  French  novelist,  born  at  Calais 
in  1753.  He  wrote  many  successful  novels,  among  which 
is  "  The  Child  of  the  Carnival,"  ("  L'Enfant  du  Carna- 
val,"  1792.)  He  held  an  office  in  the  Custom-Hoiise, 
Paris,  from  1806  to  1824.  Parisot  calls  him  "the  most 
famous  romancer  of  the  imperial  epoch."  His  works 
display  much  fertility  of  imagination  and  an  abundant 
stock  of  gaiety.    Died  in  1835. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Pigeau,  pe'zho',  (Eustache  Nicolas,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  near  Senlis  in  1750.  He  published  "Intro- 
duction a  la  Procedure  civile,"  (1784;  5th  edition,  1833,) 
which  is  regarded  as  a  classic  work.    Died  in  1818. 

Pighius,  pee'ge-us,  (Albert,)  a  Dutch  Catholic  theo- 
logian, born  at  Kempen  about  1490,  was  the  author  of 
several  controversial  works  against  the  Protestants.  He 
also  wrote  on  mathematics.    Died  in  1542, 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron, 
"  Memoires." 

Pighius,  (Stephanus  Vinand,)  a  Dutch  historian 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Kempen  in  1520,  was  a  nephew 
of  Albert.  He  was  librarian  to  Cardinal  Granvelle.  He 
published  a  work  of  great  research,  entitled  "  Roman 
Annals,"  ("Annates  Romanorum,"  1599-1615,)  in  3 
vols.,  only  one  of  which  was  published  during  his 
lifetime.    Died  in  1604. 

Pigna,  pen'yi,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  historian 
and  poet,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1530.  He  wrote  "The 
Prince,"  ("II  Principe,"  1560,)  to  refute  the  famous 
work  of  Machiavel,  a  "  History  of  the  Princes  of  Este," 
(1570,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1575. 

Pignatelli.    See  Innocent  XII. 

Pignone,  p^n-y6'ni,  (Simone,)  a  Florentine  painter, 
born  about  1614.  He  was  a  good  colorist.  Among 
his  works  is  a  picture  of  "  Saint  Louis  of  France." 
Died  in  1698. 

Pignoria,  p^n-yo're-^,(LoRENZO,)  an  Italian  antiquary 
and  priest,  born  at  Padua  in  1 571.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "Egyptian  Characters,"  ( " Characteres 
^igyptii,"  1608,)  and  "The  Origin  of  Padua,"  (1655.) 
Died  in  1631. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires." 

Pignotti,  p^n-yot'tee,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  historian, 
poet,  and  physician,  born  at  Figlini,  in  Tuscany,  in  1739. 
He  became  in  1774  professor  of  natural  philosophy  at 
Pisa,  where  he  remained  many  years.  He  wrote  Fables 
in  verse,  (1779,)  which  were  received  with  much  favour. 
His  chief  work  is  a  "  History  of  Tuscany,  with  Essays 
on  Sciences,  Letters,  and  Arts,"  (9  vols.,  1813,)  which 
has  some  merit.  He  was  chosen  rector  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pisa  in  1809.    Died  in  1812. 

See  Aluobrando  Paolini,  "  Elogio  storico-filosofico  di  Pignotti," 
1817;  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Pigoreau,  pe'go'ro',  (Alexandre  Nicolas,)  born  in 
Paris  in  1765,  published  a  "  Dictionnaire  des  Roman- 
ciers,"  or  a  biographical  and  bibliographical  dictionary  of 
romance-writers  of  all  ages  and  countries.    Died  in  185 1. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  Yiy  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2l^P"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PIGOTT 


1798 


PIN^US 


Pig'ott,  (Sir  Arthur,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
1750.  He  became  attorney-general  in  1805.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Edmund  Burke.    l5ied  in  1819. 

Pigray,  pe'gRi',  (Pierre,)  a  French  surgeon,  who 
received  the  title  of  first  surgeon  to  Henry  IV,  He 
was  the  author  of  several  professional  works.  Died  in 
1613 

Piis  de,  deh  pe'^ss',  (Antoine  Pierre  Augustin,) 
a  French  dramatist  and  song-writer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1755.  He  wrote  some  popular  vaudevilles,  etc.  Died 
in  1832. 

Pike,  (Albert,)  an  American  poet  and  journalist, 
born  at  Boston  in  1809.  At  an  early  age  he  removed  to 
the  Southwest,  and  in  1834  became  editor  of  the  "Ar- 
kansas Advocate"  at  Little  Rock,  Arkansas.  He  has 
published  "  Prose  Sketches  and  Poems,"  "  Hymns  to  the 
Gods,"  etc.  He  commanded  a  body  of  Indians  fighting 
against  the  Union  at  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862. 

SeeGRiswoLD's  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America;"  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  June,  1839. 

Pike,  (Zebulon  Montgomery,)  an  American  officer 
and  traveller,  born  in  New  Jersey  in  1779.  He  set  out 
in  1805  to  explore  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
subsequently  visited  the  interior  of  Louisiana.  He  rose 
to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  the  war  of  181 2,  and 
was  killed  during  the  attack  upon  York,  (now  Toronto,) 
in  1813. 

See  Henry  Whiting,  "Life  of  Zebulon  M.  Pike,"  in  Sparks's 
"American  Biography,"  vol.  v.,  second  series. 

Pikler.    See  Pichler. 

Pilate,  (L^;oNCE.)    See  Leo  Pilatus. 

Pi'late,  (Pontius,  pon'she-us,)  [Lat.  Pon'tius  Pila'- 
Tus  ;  P"r.  Ponce  Pilate,  p6nss  pe'Itt',  a  Roman  governor 
of  Judea,  before  whom  Christ  was  arraigned  by  the  Jews, 
and  who,  against  his  own  convictions,  consented  to  their 
iniquitous  design.  (See  Matthew  xxvii.,  Mark  xv.,  Luke 
xxiii.,  John  xviii.  and  xix.)  According  to  Eusebius  and 
others,  Pilate  was  banished,  and  killed  himself,  about 
38  A.D. 

Pilati,  pe-la'tee,  (Carlo  Antonio,)  an  Italian  pub- 
licist, born  at  Tassulo,  near  Trent,  in  1733.  wrote 
several  treatises  on  natural  and  civil  law,  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  German  Empire  and  Italy  from  the  Time  of 
Carolingi  to  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,"  (2  vols.,  1769-72.) 
Died  in  1802. 

Piiatre  de  Rozier,  pe'lltR'  deh  ro'ze-a.',  (Jean 
Francois,)  a  French  aeronaut,  born  at  Metz  in  1756. 
He  ascended  in  a  balloon  filled  with  heated  air  in  No- 
vember, 1783,  and  attempted  to  cross  the  Channel  in  a 
balloon  of  hydrogen  gas  surmounting  a  cylinder  filled 
with  heated  air.  This  apparatus  fell  to  the  ground  near 
Boulogne,  and  Pilatre  and  his  companion  were  killed,  in 
June,  1785. 

See  TouRNON  de  la  Chapelle,  "Vie  et  Memoires  de  Pilatre 
de  Rozier,"  1786. 

Pilatus.    See  Pilate,  (Pontius.) 

Piles,  de,  deh  p^l,  (Roger,)  a  French  painter,  diplo- 
matist, and  writer  on  art,  born  at  Clameci  (Nievre)  in 
1635.  He  went  with  Amelotde  la  Houssaye  to  Venice, 
as  secretary  of  legation,  in  1682,  and  was  sent  to  the 
Hague  by  Louvois  about  1692,  to  negotiate  in  secret 
while  he  seemed  to  be  employed  in  painting.  He  wrote 
"The  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  (1699,)  and  several  treat- 
ises on  painting,  which  display  good  taste.  He  painted 
good  portraits  of  Boileau  and  Madame  Dacier.  Died 
ir.  1709. 

Pilk'ing-ton,  (James,)  born  in  Lancashire,  England, 
in  1520,  became  Bishop  of  Durham  in  1561,  and  pub- 
lished commentaries  on  Scripture.  He  was  distinguished 
as  a  promoter  of  the  study  of  the  Greek  language.  Died 
in  1575- 

Pilkington,  (Letitia  van  Lew'in,)  an  authoress, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1712,  was  the  wife  of  the  Rev.  Mat- 
thew Pilkington,  noticed  below.  She  wrote  poetry,  and 
"  Memoirs  of  her  own  Life,"  (1749.)    Died  in  1750. 

Pilkington,  (Mary,)  an  English  authoress,  born  at 
Cambridge  in  1766;  died  about  1840. 

Pilkington,  (Matthew,)  an  English  biblical  scholar, 
was  prebendary  of  Lichfield.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  Rational  Concordance ;  or,  An  Index 
to  the  Bible,"  (1749.)    E)ied  in  1765. 


PilTans,  (James,)  a  British  scholar,  born  at  Edin. 
burgh  in  1777.  He  became  professor  of  humanity  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1820,  and  filled  tfcat 
chair  about  forty-three  years.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Lectures  on  the  Proper  Objects  and 
Methods  of  Education,"  (1836,)  and  "Rationale  of  Dis- 
cipline," (1852.)    Died  in  Edinburgh  in  1864. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine,"  1864. 

Pille,  \)h\,  (Louis  Antoine,)  Comte,  a  French  gene- 
ral, born  at  Soissons  in  1749;  died  in  1828. 

Pillement,  pe'ye-m6N',  (Jean,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Lyons  in  1728;  died  in  1808.  His  son 
Victor,  born  at  Vienna  in  1767,  was  a  skilful  engraver 
and  etcher.    Died  in  Paris  in  1814. 

Pillet,  pe'yi^  (Claude  Marie,)  a  learned  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Chambery  in  1771.  He  wrote  articles 
for  the  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  and  acted  as  chief 
editor  of  that  work  from  the  sixth  to  the  forty-fourth 
volume  inclusive.  He  devoted  fourteen  years  to  this 
task.    Died  in  1826. 

Pillet,  (Fabien,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1 772.  He  wrote  dramatical  critiques  for  the  "  Journal 
de  Paris"  for  many  years,  articles  for  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1855. 

Pilliard,  pe'ye-tR',  (Jacques,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Vienne  about  1815.  He  has  worked  in  Rome  for 
many  years. 

Pillon,  pe'yiN',  (Anne  Adrien  Firmin,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1766,  wrote  comedies  and 
poems.    Died  in  1844. 

His  son,  Alexandre  Jean  Baptiste,  was  born  at 
Amiens  in  1792.  He  became  librarian  of  the  Louvre 
in  1858.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Greek-and-French 
Dictionary,"  (1837,)  and  "Greek  Synonyms,"  (1847,) 
which  obtained  the  Volney  prize. 

PilTow,  (Gideon  Johnson,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Williamson  county,  Tennessee,  in  1806.  As  brig- 
adier-general, he  fought  with  distinction  in  the  Mexican 
war,  (1847,)  and  was  promoted  to  be  a  major-general. 
He  was  second  in  command  at  Fort  Donelson  when  it 
was  taken  by  Geiieral  Grant,  in  February,  1862. 

See  Livingston,  "  Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans." 

Pilon,  piKlon,  ?  (Frederick,)  a  mediocre  dramatist, 
born  in  Cork,  Ireland,  about  1750;  died  in  1788. 

Pilon,  pe'l6N',  (Germain,)  an  excellent  French  sculp- 
tor, born  about  15 15,  was  patronized  by  Henry  II.  and 
Catherine  de  Medicis.  His  master-piece  is  a  marble 
group  (now  m  the  museum  of  the  Louvre)  of  three  Graces 
clothed,  and  supporting  on  their  heads  a  gilded  bronze 
urn,  which  contained  the  heart  of  Henry  II.  He  excelled 
in  the  execution  of  drapery.    Died  about  1590. 

Pilot,  pe'lo',  (Jean  Joseph  Antoine,)  a  French  anti- 
quary, born  in  Piedmont  in  1806. 

Pilpay,  piKpi  or  piKpi'e,  Pilpai,  or  Bidpai,  bid'pT,  a 
famous  Oriental  fabulist,  of  whom  little  is  known.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  been  a  Brahman  gymnosophist,  and  to 
have  lived  several  centuries  before  our  era.  Bidpai's 
fables,  originally  written  in  Sanscrit,  were  translated 
into  Arabic  and  afterwards  into  almost  every  other  lan- 
guage. The  Sanscrit  collection  entitled  "  Hitopadesa" 
{i.e.  "  Friendly  Counsel")  was  translated  into  English  by 
Wilkins,  (1787.)  Several  European  fabulists,  including 
La  Fontaine,  have  drawn  largely  from  the  fables  of  Pilpay. 

Pils,  p^l,  (Adrien  Auguste  Isidore,)  a  French  his- 
torical painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1813.  He  gained  the 
grand  prize  of  Rome  in  1838.  Among  his  works  is  "  The 
Battle  of  Alma." 

Pilummis.    See  Picumnus. 

Pimentel,  pe-men-t§l',  (Manoel,)  a  Portuguese  geog- 
rapher, born  in  Lisbon  in  1650.  He  wrote  on  geography 
and  navigation.    Died  in  1719. 

Pin,  p^N,  (Elzi^ar,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Apt  (Vau- 
cluse)  in  1813.  He  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1839. 

Pina,  de,  di  pee'nS,  (Ruy,)  an  eminent  Portuguese 
historian,  who  held  the  office  of  historiographer  in  the 
reigns  of  Emmanuel  and  John  III.  He  wrote  "Chroni- 
cles of  the  Reigns  of  Six  Kings,  from  Sancho  I.  to  Al- 
fonzo  IV.,  inclusive,"  which  were  published  after  his 
death.    Died  about  1520. 

Pinaeus.    See  Pineau,  (S^verin.) 


a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


PINJIGRIER 


1799 


PINEDA 


Pinaigrier,  pe'nk'gRCjJ.',  (Robert,)  a  French  painter 
on  glass,  was  born  in  Touraine  about  1490.  He  worked 
in  several  churches  of  Paris.    Died  about  1550. 

Piuas,  pee'nis,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  landscapes 
and  history,  was  born  at  Haarlem  in  1596.  He  painted 
landscapes  and  figures  with  equal  success.  His  colouring 
is  remarkably  vigorous.  Among  his  works  is  "Joseph 
Sold  by  his  Brethren."  Died  about  1660.  His  brother 
James,  or  Jacob,  was  a  skilful  painter.    Died  in  1659. 

Pinciano,  pin-the-l'no,  (Alonzo  Lopez,)  a  Spanish 
poet,  who  lived  about  1480-1530,  was  physician  to  Charles 
V.  He  wrote  "El  Pelayo,"  an  epic  poem,  and  "Ancient 
Poetical  Philosophy,"  ("  Philosophia  antigua  poetica.") 

Pinck'ney,  (Charles,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1758.  His  father  was 
a  first-cousin  of  Charles  C.  Pinckney.  The  subject  of 
this  article  was  a  member  of  the  Convention  which 
formed  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  in  1787. 
He  was  Governor  of  South  Carolina  from  1789  to  1792, 
and  again  from  1796  to  1798.  In  the  latter  year  he  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  legislature 
of  South  Carolina.  He  acted  with  the  Republican  party, 
and  was  an  eloquent  speaker.  He  was  minister  to  Spain 
from  1802  to  1805.    Died  in  1824. 

Pinckney,  (Charles  Cotesworth,)  an  American 
statesman,  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1746,  was  a  son  of  Chief  Justice  Pinckney.  He 
graduated  at  Oxford,  England,  and  studied  law.  He 
served  as  aide-de-camp  to  Washington  at  the  battles  of 
Brandy  wine  and  Germantown,  September-October,  1777, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel.  In  October,  1779,  he 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Savannah.  He  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Charleston  in  May,  1780,  and  detained  until 
the  end  of  the  war.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Conven- 
tion which  formed  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
(1787,)  advocated  the  adoption  of  the  same  in  the  Con- 
vention of  South  Carolina,  and  became  a  leader  of  the 
Federal  party.  General  Washington  offered  him  a  place 
in  his  cabinet,  in  1795,  as  secretary  of  war,  and  afterwards 
as  secretary  of  state,  both  of  which  positions  he  declined. 
He  was  sent  as  minister  to  France  in  1796,  but  the 
French  Directory  refused  to  receive  him,  and  ordered 
him  to  leave  the  country  in  February,  1797.  He  after- 
wards returned  to  Paris  with  John  Marshall  and  E. 
Gerry,  who  had  been  appointed  his  colleagues  in  an 
embassy.  He  was  appointed  a  major-general  about  1798. 
At  the  presidential  election  of  1800,  General  Pinckney 
and  John  Adams  were  the  Federal  candidates  ;  but  the 
Republicans  were  victorious.  He  died  at  Charleston 
in  1825. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Pinckney,  (Henry  Laurens,)  son  of  Charles  Pinck- 
ney, born  at  Charleston  in  1794,  distinguished  himself 
as  a  lawyer  and  politician.  He  became  in  1819  editor 
of  the  "  Charleston  Mercury,"  an  organ  of  the  "  State- 
rights"  party.  He  published  the  "  Life  and  Services  of 
Andrew  Jackson,"  and  several  political  works.  Died 
in  February,  1863, 

Pinckney,  (Thomas,)  an  American  officer  and  states- 
man, brother  of  Charles  Cotesworth,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1750.  As  aide  of 
General  Lincoln,  he  distinguished  himself  at  the  assault 
on  Savannah,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  Camden, 
August,  1780.  He  became  Governor  of  South  Carolina 
in  1787,  and  was  appointed  by  Washington  minister  to 
London  in  1792.  Having  been  afterwards  sent  on  a 
mission  to  Spain,  he  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Ildefonso, 
and  returned  in  1796.    Died  in  1828. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Pingon,  piN's6N',  (Pierre,)  a  French  bibliographer, 
born  at  Montauban  in  1802.  He  published  a  "Manual 
of  Universal  Bibliography,"  (3  vols.,  1857.) 

Pin'dar,  [Gr.  liivdapog ;  Lat.  Pin'darus  ;  Fr.  Pin- 
Dare,  pdw'dtR' ;  Ger.  Pindar,  pinMSr,  and  Pindaros, 
pinMi-ros  ;  It.  Pindaro,  p^nMS-ro,]  the  greatest  lyric 
poet  of  Greece,  was  born  near  Thebes  about  520  B.C. 
He  was  a  son  of  Daiphantus,  or,  according  to  some 
writers,  of  Pagondas.  It  is  stated  that  he  studied  poetry 
and  music  at  Athens  under  Lasus,  and  that  he  was  a 


pupil  of  the  celebrated  Corinna,  who  advised  him  to 
choose  themes  for  his  muse  from  mythology.  He  after- 
wards composed  an  ode  in  which  all  the  mythical  legends 
of  Thebes  were  inwoven,  and  showed  it  to  Corinna,  who 
reminded  him  that  he  "ought  to  sow  with  the  hand,  and 
not  with  the  whole  sack."  He  became  a  professional 
composer  of  choral  odes,  and  was  employed  by  various 
states  and  princes  of  Greece  to  write  odes  for  special 
occasions.  Among  his  patrons  were  Hiero  of  Syracuse, 
Theron  of  Agrigentum,  and  Alexander  of  Macedon. 
About  473  B.C.  he  visited  the  court  of  Hiero,  where  he 
remained  four  years.  His  rival  Simonides  was  at  Syra- 
cuse at  the  same  time.  Pindar  was  a  favourite  of  the 
Athenians,  whose  city  he  praised  in  an  ode,  and  who 
presented  to  him  ten  thousand  drachmas.  He  appears  to 
have  taken  no  part  in  the  Persian  war  and  other  great 
events  of  his  time.  The  only  poems  of  Pindar  which 
have  come  down  to  us  entire  are  the  "Epinicia,"  or 
triumphal  odes  composed  in  honour  of  victors  at  the 
public  games.  Fragments  of  his  dithyrambs,  paeans, 
encomia,  and  dirges  are  extant.  Horace  attributes  to 
Pindar  unrivalled  skill  in  several  forms  of  verse.  The 
best  translations  of  Pindar  into  English  verse  are  those 
of  H.  F.  Cary  and  Abraham  Moore.  Pindar  excelled  in 
energy,  picturesque  effect,  and  sublimity.  He  had  a  son 
Daiphantus,  and  two  daughters.  His  death  is  variously 
dated  at  439  or  442  B.C. 

See  J.  G.  Schneider,  "  Versuch  iiber  Pindar's  Leben,"  1774; 
MoMMSEN,  "  Pindaros,  zur  Geschichte  des  Dichters,"  etc.,  1845; 
ViLLEMAiN,  "  Essal  sur  le  Gdnie  de  Pindare,"  1857  ;  K.  O.  Mullek, 
"History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece;"  W.  Camenz, 
"  Pindari  Ingenium,"  1804 ;  Clausen,  "  Pindaros  der  Lyriker," 
1834;  BipPARD,  "Pindar's  Leben,"  1S48 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Pindar,  (Peter.)    See  Wolcott,  (John.) 

Pindare.    See  Pindar. 

Pindaro.    See  Pindar. 

Pindarus  or  Pindaros.    See  Pindar. 

Pindemonte,  p^n-di-mon'ti,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
dramatist,  born  at  Verona  in  1 75 1,  produced  several 
tragedies.    Died  in  1812. 

Pindemonte,  (Ippolito,)  an  Italian  poet  of  high 
reputation,  born  at  Verona  in  November,  1753,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  entered  the  order  of  Malta 
in  his  youth,  but  resigned  his  membership  about  the  age 
of  thirty.  He  described  the  delights  of  the  country  in 
poems  entitled  "  Rural  Poems,"  ("  Poesie  campestri," 
1785,)  which  were  received  with  favour.  He  exhibited 
a  contemplative  and  ingenious  philosophy  in  his  "Rural 
Prose,"  ("Prose  campestri,"  1795.)  About  1805  he 
published  a  volume  of  Horatian  satires,  entitled  "  Ser- 
moni."  His  translation  of  the  "  Odyssey,"  in  blank 
verse,  (1809-22,)  is  commended.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Foscolo  and  Monti.  Among  his  works  is  "Eulogies 
of  Literary  Men,"  ("Elogj  di  Letterati,"  2  vols.,  1826,) 
which  contains  biographies  of  Italian  authors.  Died  at 
Verona  in  1828. 

See  Mario  Pieri,  "  Intorno  alia  Vita  ed  agli  Scritti  di  Pinde- 
monte," in  his  "  Elogj  di  Letterati,"  1826;  B.  Montanari,  "Delia 
Vita  e  dalle  Opere  d'Ippolito  Pindemonte,"  1834 ;  Del  Bene, 
"  Elogio  d'L  Pindemonte,"  1829  ;  LoNGFELLf)w,  "  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1825. 

Pindemonte,  (Marco  Antonio,)  a  mediocre  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Verona  in  1694,  was  grandfather  of  the 
preceding.    Died  in  1744. 

Pine,  (John,)  a  skilful  English  engraver,  born  in  1690. 
He  published  an  edition  of  Horace,  illustrated,  (1737.) 
Among  his  works  is  "The  Destruction  of  the  Invincible 
Armada."    Died  in  1756. 

Pine,  (Robert  Edge,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  London  about  1742,  and  was  a  painter  of  history 
and  portraits.  A  picture  of  "  Canute  on  the  Sea-Shore" 
is  one  of  his  best  works.    Died  at  Philadelphia  in  1790. 

Pineau,  pe^no',  [Lat.  Pin^e^us,]  (S:6verin,)  a  French 
surgeon,  born  at  Chartres.  He  wrote  some  works  on 
anatomy,  which  had  a  high  reputation.    Died  in  1619. 

Pineau,  du,  dii  pe'no',  [Lat.  Pinel'lus,]  (Gabriel,) 
a  French  jurist,  born  at  Angers  in  1573.  He  was  noted 
for  integrity,  and  was  called  "the  Cato  of  Anjou."  Died 
in  1644. 

See  Nici^RON,  "Memoires." 

Pineda,  de,  di  pe-na'Dl,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Seville  in  1557,  was  a  monk  or  Jesuit.  He 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PINEL 


1800 


PINTO 


was  a  counsellor  to  the  court  of  the  Inquisition,  and  was 
charged  to  search  out  dangerous  or  unsound  books  in 
the  libraries  of  Spain.  He  wrote  commentaries  on 
Scripture,  and  a  "Universal  History,"  {5  vols.,  1620.) 
Died  in  1637. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Pinel,  pe'nSK,  (Philippe,)  a  distinguished  French 
physician,  born  in  the  department  of  Tarn  in  1745.  He 
published  in  1791  a  "  Treatise  on  Mental  Alienation," 
which  promoted  a  reform  in  the  treatment  of  the  Insane. 
He  became  in  1793  chief  physician  of  the  Bicetre  of  Paris, 
and  was  successful  in  the  treatment  of  insanity  by  sub- 
stituting kindness  for  harshness.  His  most  remarkable 
work  is  "  Philosophical  Nosography,"  ("  La  Nosogra- 
phie  philosophique,"  2  vols.,  1798;  6th  edition,  1818.) 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1803.  Died  in 
1826. 

See  CuviER,  "  filoge  de  Pinel;"  G.  Dupuytken,  "Notice  sur 
Pinel,"  1826;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pinelli,  pe-neKlee,  (  Bartolommeo,  )  an  eminent 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Rome  about  1780.  He 
etched  many  plates  representing  scenery  in  the  vicinity 
of  Rome,  events  in  the  history  of  ancient  Rome,  and 
Roman  costumes.  He  left  designs  which  were  highly 
prized.  Among  his  publications  is  "  Istoria  degli  Im- 
peratori,"  (1829,)    Died  in  1835. 

See  F.  Gerardi,  "Biografia  di  B.  Pinelli,"  1835  ;  C.  Falconieri, 
"  Memoria  intorno  alia  Vita  di  B.  Pinelli,"  1835. 

Pinelli,  (Gian  Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  patron  of  learn- 
ing and  bibliophile,  born  at  Naples  in  1535.  His  house 
at  Padua  was  a  rendezvous  of  the  learned  men  of  all 
countries.  He  was  a  diligent  collector  of  books  and 
manuscripts.    Died  in  1601. 

See  Paolo  Gualdo,  "Vita  J.  V.  Pinelli,"  Augsburg,  1607. 

Pinelli,  (Luca,)  an  Italian  theologian,  born  at  Melfi. 
He  wrote  several  religious  works,  which  were  popular. 
Died  in  1607. 

Pinelli,  (Maffeo,)  an  Italian  bibliophile,  born  at 
Venice  in  1736.  He  collected  medals  and  pictures,  and 
formed  a  rich  library,  of  which  Abbe  Morelli  made  a 
catalogue,  (in  6  vols.,  1787.)  His  library  was  sold  at 
auction  in  London  in  1790.    Died  in  1785. 

Pinellus.    See  Pineau,  (Gabriel.) 

Pinelo,  y,  e  pe-na'lo,  (Antonio  de  Leon,)  a  Span- 
ish writer,  born  in  Peru.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Epitome  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Nautical 
and  Geographical  Library,"  ("  Epitome  de  la  Bibliotheca 
oriental  y  occidental  nautica  y  geografica,"  1629.)  Died 
about  1675. 

Pinet,  Du.    See  Dupinet. 

Pineton  de  Chambrun,  p6n't6N'  deh  sh6N''bRiiN', 
(Jacques,)  a  French  Protestant  minister,  born  at  Orange, 
was  exiled  about  1685.    He  died  in  London  in  1689. 

Pingel,  ping'el,  (Christian,)  a  Danish  naturalist, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1793.  He  contributed  many 
memoirs  to  the  "  Transactions"  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences. 

Pingeron,  piNzh'rdN',  (Jean  Claude,)  a  French 
translator,  born  at  Lyons  about  1730.  He  translated, 
from  the  Italian,  Milizia's  "  Lives  of  the  Architects," 
(1771,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1795. 

Pingre,  piN'gRi',  (Alexandre  Gui,)  a  distinguished 
French  astronomer,  born  in  Paris  in  1711.  He  began 
to  study  astronomy  about  the  age  of  thirty-eight.  His 
observation  of  the  transit  of  Mercury  in  1753  procured 
his  nomination  as  correspondent  of  the  Academy.  In 
1760  he  was  sent  to  the  island  of  Rodrigo  to  observe 
the  transit  of  Venus,  (1761.)  His  most  important  work 
is  "  Cometography,  or  a  Historical  and  Theoretical 
Treatise  on  Comets,"  (1783.)    Died  in  1796. 

See  Ventenat,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  d'A.  G.  Pingre,"  1796. 

Pinheiro-Ferreira,  pen-ya^-ro  f^r-ra/^-ri,  (Silves- 
TRE,)  a  Portuguese  writer,  born^in  LisbcnTin  1769.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works  in  French,  "  Principles  of 
Public  Law,"  (3  vols.,  1834.)    Died  in  1847. 

Pini,  pee'nee,  (Ermenegildo,)  an  Italian  naturalist, 
born  at  Milan  about  1740.  He  was  professor  of  natural 
history  at  Milan,  (1772-1812.)  He  wrote  treatises  on 
mineralogy,  geology,  and  natural  history.    Died  in  1825. 

Pink'er-tpn,  (John,)  a  Scottish  historian,  poet,  and 
antiquary,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1758.    He  became  a 


resident  of  London  about  1780,  and  published  a  volume 
of  verses,  entitled  "Rimes,"  in  1781.  In  1784  he  pro- 
duced an  "  Essay  on  Medals,"  which  was  well  received. 
His  reputation  was  increased  by  the  publication  of  "  An- 
cient Scottish  Poems  never  before  in  Print,"  etc.,  (2 
vols.,  1786.)  He  published  an  ingenious  "Dissertation 
on  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Scythians  or  Goths" 
in  1787.  Among  his  other  works  are  a  "History  of 
Scotland  from  the  Accession  of  the  House  of  Stuart  to 
that  of  Mary,"  (2  vols.,  1797,)  and  "Modern  Geography 
Digested  after  a  New  Plan,"  (2  vols.,  1802,)  both  of 
which  have  some  merit.  He  is  censured  for  his  arro- 
gance and  his  enmity  to  religion.   Died  at  Paris  in  1826. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;" 
"Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1797. 

Pink'ney,  (Edward  Coate,)  son  of  William  Pink- 
ney,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  London  in  1802.  He 
published  in  1825  "  Rodolph,  and  other  Poems."  Died 
in  1828. 

See  Griswold,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Pinkney,  (William,)  an  eminent  American  lawyer 
and  orator,  born  at  Annapolis,  Maryland,  in  March, 
1764.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1786,  and  repre- 
sented a  district  of  Maryland  in  Congress  from  1789  to 
1792.  In  1796  he  was  sent  to  London  as  a  commissioner 
under  Jay's  treaty.  He  remained  in  London  about  eight 
years,  and  was  appointed  minister  to  England  in  1806. 
Having  returned  home  in  1811,  he  settled  in  Balti- 
more. He  was  attorney-general  of  the  United  States 
from  December,  1811,  to  February,  1814,  was  appointed 
minister  to  Russia  in  1816,  and  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  in  1819.  He  advo- 
cated the  Missouri  Compromise  in  the  Senate  in  1820. 
He  was  a  man  of  brilliant  talents,  and  was  generally 
considered  the  foremost  American  lawyer  of  his  time. 
His  wife  was  a  sister  of  Commodore  Rodgers.  He 
died  in  February,  1822. 

See  Henry  Wheaton,  "Life  of  William  Pinkney,"  1826; 
"Golden  Age  of  American  Oratory,"  by  Edward  G.  Parker,  Bos- 
ton, 1857;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. ;  "North  American  Review"  for  January,  1827, 

Pino,  pee'no,  (Domenico,)  Count,  an  Italian  gen- 
eral, born  at  Milan  in  1760.  He  served  in  the  French 
army  as  general  of  division  in  Germany,  Spain,  and 
Russia,  (1805-13.)    Died  in  1826. 

Pino,  da,  di  pee'no,  (Marco,)  an  able  Italian  painter, 
sometimes  called  Marco  da  Sienna.  He  worked  many 
years  at  Naples,  where  he  settled  about  1560.  Among 
his  chief  works  is  a  "  Descent  from  the  Cross." 

Pinon,  pe^n6N',  (Jacques,)  a  French  lawyer  and 
writer  of  Latin  poetry,  wrote  "On  the  Roman  Year," 
("  De  Anno  Romano,")  and  other  poems.  Died,  at  an 
advanced  age,  in  1641. 

Pins,  de,  deh  p^N,  [Lat.  Pi'nus,]  (Jean,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  at  Toulouse  about  1470,  became  Bishop 
of  Rieux  in  1523.  He  wrote,  in  elegant  Latin,  a  number 
of  epigrams,  and  "On  Court  Life,"  ("  De  Vita  aulica.") 
His  style  was  praised  by  Erasmus,  who  said,  "  Potest 
inter  Tullianae  dictionis  competitores  numerari  Johannes 
Pinus."  As  ambassador  to  Venice  and  Rome,  about 
1520,  he  displayed  superior  diplomatic  talents.  Died 
in  1537- 

See  Chardon,  "  Memoires  pour  servir  i  I'Eloge  de  J.  de  Pins," 
1748. 

Pinson,  piN's6N',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Valence  about  1640,  worked  many 
years  in  Italy. 

Pinsson,  p4n's6n',  (Francois,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Bourges  about  1612;  died  in  1691. 

Pintelli,  p6n-teKlee,  (Baccio,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  probably  at  Florence.  He  was  employed  by  Pope 
Sixtus  IV.,  who  reigned  from  147 1  till  1484.  Among  his 
great  works  in  Rome  are  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  del 
Popolo,  the  Sistine  Chapel,  (in  which  Michael  Angelo 
painted  the  fresco  of  the  "  Last  Judgment,")  the  church 
of  Saint  Augustine,  and  a  bridge  called  the  Ponte  Sisto. 
Died  about  1492. 

See  Vasari,"  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc. ;  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario." 

Pinto,  p^n'to,  (  Fernao  Mendez,  )  a  Portuguese 
traveller,  born  near  Coimbra  about  1 5 10.  He  wrote  a 
marvellous  book  of  travels  in  India,  etc.,  (1614,)  which 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fkt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PINTO 


1801 


PIRKHEIMER 


was  translated  into  many  languages.  His  veracity  has 
often  been  questioned.    Died  in  1583. 

Pinto,  (Hector,)  a  Portuguese  monk  or  priest,  be- 
came professor  at  Coimbra  about  1570.  He  wrote  "Pic- 
ture of  Christian  Life,"  ("  Imagem  da  Vida  Christam," 
1565.)    Died  in  1584. 

Pinto,  (Isaac,)  a  Portuguese  Jew,  born  about  1715. 
He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  Luxury,"  (1762,)  and  an  "Apol- 
ogy for  the  Jews,"  (1762.)  He  died  at  the  Hague  in 
1787. 

Pintor,  p^n-toR',  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  physician,  born 
at  Valencia  in  1423  ;  died  in  Rome  in  1503. 

Pinturicchio,  p6n-too-r^k'ke-o,  (Bernardino  Bet- 
Ti,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Perugia  in  1454,  was 
a  pupil  or  assistant  of  Perugino.  He  worked  in  the 
Vatican  for  Alexander  VI.  Among  his  best  works  are 
"Jesus  before  the  Doctors,"  a  portrait  of  Isabella  of 
Castile,  and  "The  History  of  Pius  II.,"  in  the  cathedral 
of  Sienna.  It  is  said  that  Raphael  assisted  him  in  the 
latter  work.  He  painted  portraits  and  landscapes  with 
success.    Died  in  1513. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy." 

Pinu.s.    See  Pins. 

Pinzon,  p^n-th6n',  (Martin  Alonzo,)  a  Spanish 
navigator,  who  commanded  the  Pinta  in  the  first  voyage 
of  Columbus  to  America.  He  is  said  to  have  been  en- 
vious towards  his  chief.    Died  in  1493. 

Pinzon,  (Vincencio  Yanez,)  a  younger  brother  of 
the  preceding,  commanded  the  Nina  in  the  voyage  of 
Columbus,  (1492.)  He  conducted  an  expedition  in  1499, 
and  explored  part  of  the  coast  of  Brazil.  He  was  living 
in  1523. 

Pio.    See  Pius,  Pope. 

Pio,  pee'o,  (Alberto,)  Prince  of  Carpi,  an  Italian 
scholar,  born  about  1475,  "^^^  ^  nephew  of  Pico  della 
Mirandola.  He  was  a  patron  of  literary  men,  and  author 
of  a  treatise  against  Luther.    Died  in  Paris  in  1531. 

Pio,  (Battista,)  an  Italian  philologist,  born  at  Bo- 
logna. He  wrote  notes  on  Horace,  Lucretius,  Ovid, 
and  other  classic  authors.    Died  at  Rome  about  1540. 

Piobert,  peVbaiR',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  general 
and  mathematician,  born  in  1793.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Institute  in  1840,  in  place  of  De  Prony. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  Artil- 
lery," (2  vols.) 

Piola,  pe-o'lS,  (Domenico,)  a  Genoese  painter,  born 
in  1628.  He  painted  infants  with  especial  skill.  Among 
his  works  is  a  "  Repose  of  the  Holy  Family."  Died 
in  1703. 

Piola,  (P.,)  a  painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  161 7,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  was  an  artist  of  high 
promise,  but  died  young,  in  1640. 

Piombino.    See  Bonaparte,  (Marie  Anne  Elisa.) 

Piombo,  del,  d^l  pe-om'bo,  (Sebastiano,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  painter,  born  at  Venice  in  1485,  was  also 
called  Luciano  or  Veneziano.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Giorgione.  In  the  early  part  of  his  life  he  went  to 
Rome,  and  painted  in  the  Farnese  palace  a  fresco  in 
competition  with  Raphael,  and  received  instruction  from 
Michael  Angelo.  He  painted  in  San  Pietro  in  Montorio 
a  fresco  of  the  "Transfiguration,"  which  is  remarkable 
for  beauty  of  colour.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a 
"Raising  of  Lazarus,"  which  now  adorns  the  British 
National  Gallery.  He  excelled  in  portraits.  About 
1531  he  obtained  from  Clement  VII.  the  office  of  keeper 
of  the  seal,  ( nffizio  del  piojnho,)  and  assumed  the  name 
of  Fra  Sebastiano  del  Piombo.    Died  in  1547. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Biagi,  "  Memorie  storiche 
di  F.  Sebastiano  del  Piombo,"  1826;  Ridolfi,  "  Vite  degli  Pittori 
Veneti ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Piorry,  peVre',  (Pierre  Adolphe,)  a  French  medi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Poitiers  in  1794.  He  gained  dis- 
tinction by  a  treatise  "On  Mediate  Percussion,"  ("De 
la  Percussion  mediate,"  1828.)  He  obtained  in  1840 
a  chair  of  internal  pathology  at  Paris.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  Treatise  on  Diagnostics  and  Semeiology," 
(3  vols.,  1836.) 

Piozzi,  pe-oz'ze,  [It.  pron.  pe-ot'see,]  Mrs.,  an  Eng- 
lish authoress,  whose  maiden  name  was  Esther  Lynch 
Salusbury,  was  born  in  Carnarvonshire  in  1739.  She 


became  the  wife  of  Mr.  Thrale,  a  brewer  of  London,  in 
1763,  and  was  intimate  with  Dr.  Johnson.  Having  lost 
her  husband,  she  was  married  in  1784  to  an  Italian 
teacher  of  music,  named  Piozzi.  She  published  in  1786 
"Anecdotes  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  during  the  Last 
Twenty  Years  of  his  Life,"  and  in  1788  "Letters  to  and 
from  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,"  (2  vols.)  Among  her  other 
works  is  a  short  poem,  called  "The  Three  Warnings," 
Died  at  Clifton  in  1821. 

See  "Piozziana;  or,  Recollections  of  the  Late  Mrs.  Piozzi;" 
"Atlantic  Monthly"  for  June,  1861 ;  Mrs.  Elwood,  "Memoirs  of 
the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commencement  of  the  Last 
Century,"  vol.  ii.,  (1843;)  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1861; 
"Eraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1861 ;  "Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  April,  1862. 

Pi'per,  [Sw.  pron.  pee'per,]  (Carl,)  Count,  a  Swed- 
ish minister  of  state,  was  a  man  of  superior  talents. 
He  was  councillor  of  state  in  the  reign  of  Charles  XL, 
and  became  the  principal  minister  of  Charles  XII., 
whom  he  accompanied  in  his  campaigns.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  at  Pultowa  (Poltava)  in  1709,  and  kept 
in  prison  until  his  death,  in  1716. 

See  Gezelius,  "  Biographiskt-Lexicon." 

Pi'per,  Le,  (Francis,)  an  English  comic  painter, 
noted  for  his  skill  in  portraits  of  ugly  and  deformed 
persons.    Died  about  1740. 

Pippi.    See  Giulio  Romano. 

Pipping,  pip'ping,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  theologian 
and  biographer,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1670;  died  in  1722. 

Piquer,  pe-kaiR',  (Andres,)  a  Spanish  medical  writer, 
born  in  Aragon  in  1711.  He  received  the  title  of  first 
physician  of  the  kingdom  in  1752.  Among  his  works  is 
"Medicine  Old  and  New,"  (" Medicina  vetus  et  nova," 
1735.)    Died  in  1772. 

Piranesi,  pe-rJ-na'see,  (  Francesco,)  an  engraver, 
born  at  Rome  in  1748,  was  a  son  of  Giovanni  Battista, 
noticed  below.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  a  dealer  in 
prints.  About  1800  he  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  pub- 
lished a  large  number  of  plates  of  Roman  antiquities, 
partly  executed  by  his  father.    Died  in  1810. 

Piranesi,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  excellent  Italian 
engraver  and  designer,  born  at  Venice  in  1720.  He 
studied  architecture  in  his  youth  at  Rome,  where  he 
passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life.  He  was  unrivalled 
as  an  architectural  draftsman  and  an  engraver  of  archi- 
tecture and  ruins,  and  had  great  facility  of  execution. 
He  etched  nearly  two  thousand  plates,  which  represent 
the  edifices  of  ancient  and  modern  Rome,  antique  bas- 
reliefs,  vases,  monuments,  etc.  Among  the  titles  of  his 
works  are  "  Architectura  Romana,"  (208  plates,)  and 
"  Magnificence  of  the  Romans,"  ("  Magnificenza  dei 
Romani,"  44  plates.)  Died  at  Rome  in  1778.  His 
daughter  Laura  was  an  engraver.    She  died  in  1785. 

See  BiANCONi,  "  Elogio  storico  del  Cavaliere  G.  B.  Piranesi," 
1779;  P.  BiAGi,  "  SuU'incisione  e  sul  Piranesi,"  1820. 

Pirokheimer.    See  Pirkheimer. 

Pire,  de,  deh  peW,  (Hippolyte  Marc  Guil- 
laume de  Rosnyvinen — deh  ros^ne^ve^i6N',)  Comte, 
a  French  general,  born  at  Rennes  in  1778.  He  com- 
manded the  light  cavalry  of  the  left  wing  at  Waterloo. 
Died  in  1850. 

Piringer,  pee'ring-er,  (Benedict,)  a  German  en- 
graver, born  at  Vienna  in  1780.  He  went  with  Count 
A.  de  Laborde  to  Paris  in  1809.  Among  his  works 
are  landscapes  after  Claude  Lorrain  and  Poussin.  Died 
at  Paris  in  1826. 

Pi-rith'o-us  or  Pei-rith'o-us,  [Gr.  YlEipidooq,]  a  son 
of  Ixi'on,  and  a  chief  of  the  Lapithae.  The  celebrated 
fight  of  the  Lapithae  and  the  Centaurs  originated  at 
the  marriage  of  Pirithous  and  Hippodami^a.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Theseus,  whom  he  aided  in  the  abduction  of 
Helen  from  Sparta.  Theseus,  in  return,  abetted  him  in 
an  attempt  to  carry  off  Proserpine  from  the  palace  of 
Pluto;  but  in  this  they  failed,  and  Pirithous  was  killed 
by  Cerberus. 

See  Virgil,  "/Eneid,"  book  vi.  393-397. 

Pirkheimer  or  Pirokheimer,  p^Rk'hi'mer,  (Wili- 
bald,)  a  German  historian  and  philologist,  born  at  Nu- 
remberg in  1470.  He  learned  the  Greek  language,  and 
translated  into  Latin  some  writings  of  Plato,  Xenophon, 
and  others.    He  was  a  friend  of  Erasmus,  and  was  dis- 


€  as  i;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (^l^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


PIROGOF 


1802 


PISO 


tinguished  for  his  efforts  to  diffuse  learning  in  Germany. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Germaniae  perbrevis  Explicatio," 
(1530.)    Died  in  1530  or  1531. 

See  Panzer,  "W.  Pirckheimer  und  Charitas  Pirckheimer,"  etc., 
1802;  Nic^RON,  "M^moires;"  F.  Campe,  "Zuni  Andenken  W. 
Pirckheimer's,"  1828;  '*  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pirogof,  Pirogov,  or  Pirogow,  pee'ro-gof,  (Nicho- 
las,) a  Russian  surgeon,  born  about  1810,  celebrated  as 
the  inventor  of  a  new  method  of  amputating  the  foot  by 
dividing  the  os  calcis.  He  was  for  several  years  chief 
surgeon  in  a  military  hospital  at  Saint  Petersburg. 

Piroli,  pee'ro-lee  or  pe-ro'lee,  (Prospero,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  1761,  worked  several  years  in  Russia, 
and  was  patronized  by  the  Czar.  Died  at  Milan  in  1831. 

Piroli,  (ToMMASO,)  a  skilful  designer  and  engraver, 
born  at  Rome  in  1 750,  engraved  the  Prophets  and  Sibyls 
of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  after  Michael  Angelo,  "Cupid  and 
Psyche,"  after  Raphael,  etc.    Died  in  1824. 

Piromalli,  pe-ro-mai'lee,  (Paolo,)  a  learned  Italian 
missionary,  born  in  1592,  laboured  in  Asia.  He  compiled 
a  "Latin-Persian  Lexicon."    Died  in  1667. 

Piron,  pe'r6N',  (Aim^:,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Dijon 
in  1640 ;  died  in  1727. 

See  AuGusTE  dr  Mastaing,  "  Les  Piron,"  1844. 

Piron,  (Alexis,)  a  French  dramatist  and  poet,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1689,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  had 
a  talent  for  bon-mots  and  epigrams.  In  his  youth  he 
wrote  comedies  and  licentious  odes.  Among  his  works 
are  several  unsuccessful  tragedies.  He  produced  in 
1738  a  drama  entitled  "The  Mania  for  Writing  Verse," 
("  La  Metromanie,")  which  is  considered  a  master-piece 
of  intrigue,  of  style,  and  of  comic  genius.  He  married 
Marie  Therese  Quenaudon  when  she  had  passed  the 
age  of  fifty.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1753,  but  was  rejected  by  the  king.  Died 
in  1773. 

See  RiGOLEY  de  Juvigny,  "Vie  de  Piron,"  1776;  Auguste  de 
Mastaing,  "Les  Piron,"  1844:  Cousin  d'Avallon,  "Pironiana, 
ou  Recueil  des  Aventures  plaisantes,  Bon-mots,  etc.  d'A.  Piron," 
1800;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Piron,  (Bernard,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1718,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1812. 

Piron,  (Marie  Therese  Quenaudon  —  keh-n5'- 
d6N',)  called  Mademoiselle  de  Bar,  born  in  1688,  was 
a  literary  and  witty  lady.  She  was  married  in  1741  to 
Alexis  Piron.    Died  in  1751. 

Pirro,  p^r'ro,  (Rocco,)  a  historian,  born  in  Sicily  in 
1577,  was  chaplain  to  the  king.  He  published  a  his- 
tory of  the  churches  of  Sicily,  entitled  "Sicilia  Sacra," 
(3  vols.,  1644-47,)  which  is  esteemed  valuable.  Died 
in  1651. 

Pisa,  (Leonard  of.)    See  Leonardo  da  Pisa. 

Pisan,  (Christina.)    See  Christine  de  Pisan. 

Pi-san'der  or  Pei-san'der,  [Yleiaav6pog,'\  a  Greek 
poet  of  Rhodes,  flourished  about  650  B.C.  He  wrote  an 
epic  poem  on  the  exploits  of  Hercules,  which  is  lost. 
He  was  received  into  the  epic  canon  with  Homer  by 
the  critics  of  Alexandria. 

Pisander  or  Peisander,  an  Athenian  demagogue, 
who  was  archon  eponymus  in  414  B.C.  He  was  a  promi- 
nent agent  in  the  revolution  which  subverted  the  de- 
mocracy and  raised  the  Four  Hundred  to  power  in 
412  B.C. 

Pisander,  a  Spartan,  who  was  a  brother-in-law  of 
Agesilaus  II.  He  became  admiral  of  the  fleet  in  395, 
and  was  defeated  and  killed  by  the  Athenians  under 
Conon  in  394  B.C. 

Pisanello,  pe-sl-neKlo,  or  Pisano,  pe-s^'no,  (Vit- 
TORE,)  a  celebrated  painter  of  the  Venetian  school, 
flourished  about  1450.  He  surpassed  the  artists  of  his 
time  in  painting  horses  and  other  animals,  and  was  an 
excellent  engraver  of  medals. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Pisani,  pe-si'nee,  (Niccol6,)  a  Venetian  admiral,  who 
acquired  celebrity  in  the  war  against  the  Genoese  which 
began  about  1350.  He  commanded  in  an  indecisive 
battle  against  Paganino  Doria  at  the  outlet  of  the  Bos- 
phorus  in  1352. 

Pisani,  (Veitore  or  Vettor,)  a  famous  admiral,  a 
son  or  nephew  of  the  preceding,  obtained  command  of 
the  fleet  in  1378.    He  displayed  skill  in  the  defence  of 


Venice  against  the  Genoese,  whose  fleet  he  captured  at 
Chiozza  in  1380.    He  died  in  the  same  year. 

See  Giovanni  Molin,  "Memorie  per  servire  alia  Storia  di  Vet- 
tor  Pisani;"  Grassi,  "Vita  di  Vettor  Pisani,"  1837. 

Pisano,  (Andrea.)    See  Andrea  Pisano. 

Pisano,  pe-sa'no,  (Giovanni,)  called  also  Giovanni 
da  Pisa,  an  eminent  sculptor  and  architect,  born  at  Pisa 
about  1238,  was  a  son  of  the  sculptor  Niccolo.  He  was 
architect  of  the  famous  Campo  Santo  (cemetery)  of  Pisa, 
completed  in  1283.  It  is  a  cloister  of  sixty-two  arcades 
or  arches.  He  built  the  Castel  Nuovo  at  Naples.  Among 
his  master-pieces  of  sculpture  are  the  high  altar  in  the 
cathedral  of  Arezzo,  and  a  statue  of  the  Virgin  which 
adorns  the  exterior  of  the  cathedral  of  Florence.  Died 
in  1320. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors ;"  Cico- 
gnara,  "Storia  della  Scultura;"  Ticozzi,  " Dizionario." 

Pisano,  (Giunta,)  an  old  Tuscan  painter,  was  born 
in  the  twelfth  century.  He  was  one  of  the  most  skilful 
artists  of  his  time.  About  1235  he  painted  some  works 
in  a  church  of  Assisi.  His  works  present  the  meagre 
forms  of  the  Byzantine  style.  A  figure  of  Christ  painted 
on  wood  by  Giunta  still  exists. 

Pisano,  (Niccol6.)    See  Niccol6  da  Pisa. 

Pisano,  (Vittore.)    See  Pisanello. 

Pisari,  pe-sS'ree,  (Pasquale,)  an  Italian  composer, 
born  at  Rome  about  1725  ;  died  in  1 778. 

Piscator.    See  Fischer. 

Piscinus.    See  Marso. 

Pise,  (Charles  Constantine,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished 
Catholic  clergyman,  born  at  Annapolis,  Maryland,  in 
1802.  He  was  for  some  time  chaplain  of  the  United 
States  Senate,  and  in  1849  became  pastor  of  the  church 
of  Saint  Charles  Borrotneo,  Brooklyn,  New  York.  He 
has  published  a  "  History  of  the  Church  from  its  Es- 
tablishment to  the  Reformation,"  (1830,)  "Aletheia,  or 
Letters  on  the  Truth  of  the  Catholic  Doctrines,"  "Lives 
of  Saint  Ignatius  and  his  First  Companions,"  and  nume- 
rous hymns  and  other  poems. 

Pishdadian.    See  Peshdadian. 

Pisistrate.    See  Pisistratus. 

PisistratidaB,  pis-is-trat'e-de,  an  appellation  given  to 
the  sons  of  Pisistratus.  (See  Hippias  and  Hipparchus.) 

Pi-sis'tra-tus  or  Pei-sis'tra-tus,  [Gr.  lieLaiaTpaToq  ; 
Fr.  Pisistrate,  pe'ze''stRtt',]  a  tyrant  or  ruler  of  Athens, 
born  about  612  B.C.,  was  a  son  of  Hippocrates,  and  a 
relative  of  Solon.  He  courted  popularity  by  various 
means,  and  obtained  power  by  the  following  artifice. 
Having  inflicted  wounds  on  himself,  he  presented  him- 
self to  the  people,  pretended  that  he  had  been  attacked 
by  his  political  enemies,  and  persuaded  them  to  grant 
him  a  guard  of  fifty  men,  by  whose  aid  he  seized  the 
citadel,  560  B.C.  He  was  the  head  of  the  party  of  the 
highlands,  which  was  the  more  popular  or  democratic 
party.  He  was  twice  expelled  by  a  coalition  of  the  party 
of  the  coast  with  that  of  the  plain,  but  was  restored  as 
often.  He  made  little  or  no  change  in  the  constitution, 
and  left  the  reputation  of  an  able  and  rather  liberal  ruler. 
He  patronized  literature,  formed  a  library,  and  erected 
fine  public  buildings.  It  is  commonly  supposed  that  we 
owe  to  him  the  first  written  text  of  the  whole  of  the 
poems  of  Homer.    Died  in  527  B.C. 

See  Herodotus,  "  History  r'  Gkote,  "  History  of  Greece;" 
Jan  Meursius,  "Pisistratus,  sen  de  ejus  Vita  Liber  singularis," 
1632;  Thirlwall,  "History  of  Greece." 

Pi'so,  [Fr.  PisoN,  pe'z^N',]  (Catus  Calpurnius,)  a 
Roman  orator,  who  became  consul  in  67  B.C.,  and  com- 
manded in  Gallia  Narbonensis  in  66.  He  was  defended 
by  Cicero,  in  63  B.C.,  against  a  charge  of  extortion  pre- 
ferred by  Caesar,  and  urged  the  former  to  accuse  Caesar 
as  one  of  the  conspirators  with  Catiline.  He  probably 
died  before  the  civil  war  began,  (49  B.C.) 

See  Drumann,  "Geschichte  Roms." 

Piso,  (Caius  Calpurnius,)  the  leader  of  a  con- 
spiracy against  Nero  in  65  a.d.  He  was  a  patrician, 
and  very  popular.  Having  been  betrayed  by  one  of  his 
accomplices,  he  killed  himself. 

Piso,  (Cneius  Calpurnius,)  was  consul  in  7  B.C., 
with  I'iberius,  who,  after  his  accession,  used  him  as  an 
instrument  to  impair  the  influence  of  Germanicus.  He 
obtained  command  of  Syria  in  18  A.D.,  and  was  sus- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  skort;  a,  9,  i,  9,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PISO 


PITT 


pected  of  having  poisoned  Germanicus.  He  was  found 
dead  in  his  room  in  20  A.D. 

Piso,  (Lucius  Calpurnius,)  was  the  father  of  Cal- 
purnia,  the  wife  of  Julius  Caesar.  He  was  consul  in  58 
B.C.,  and  promoted  the  banishment  of  Cicero.  He  mis- 
governed Macedonia  from  57  to  55  B.C.  His  public  con- 
duct and  private  character  were  denounced  by  Cicero  in 
a  very  vituperative  speech,  "  Oratio  in  Pisonem,"  in  55 
or  54  B.C.  After  the  death  of  Caesar  (44  B.C.)  Piso  made 
a  speech  which  was  applauded  by  Cicero,  (Philippic  I.) 

SeeAppiAN,  "  Bellum  Civile  ;"  Drumann,  "Geschichte  Roms." 

Piso,  (L.  Calpurnius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
consul  in  15  B.C.  He  was  appointed  prefect  of  Rome  by 
Tiberius.  He  was  one  of  the  persons  to  whom  Horace 
addressed  his  Epistle  "De  Arte  Poetica,"  according  to 
Porphyrion.  Died  in  32  A.D.,  at  the  age  of  eighty.  His 
virtue  and  integrity  are  attested  hy  several  writers. 

Piso,  (Lucius  Calpurnius  Frugi,)  a  Roman  his- 
torian and  consul,  belonged  to  the  aristocratic  party. 
He  became  consul  in  133  B.C.,  and  opposed  the  measures 
of  Caius  Gracchus.  He  wrote  *'  Annals  of  Rome," 
which  are  not  extant. 

Piso,  (Lucius  Calpurnius  Licinianus,)  a  Roman 
whom  Galba  adopted  as  heir  to  the  throne  in  69  A.D. 
He  was  killed  by  the  partisan:!  of  Otho  in  the  same  year, 

Pison.    See  Piso. 

Pi'son,  (Jakob,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  in  Transylvania ; 
died  in  1527. 

Pison,  pee'son,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch  naturalist  and 
physician,  accompanied  the  Prince  of  Nassau  in  a  voyage 
to  Brazil  in  1637.  The  researches  of  Pison  and  his 
companion  Marcgraf  were  published,  under  the  title  of 
"Natural  History  of  Brazil,"  ("  Historia  Naturalis  Bra- 
siliae,"  1648,)  a  work  of  some  merit. 

Pistoia,  da,  (Cino.)    See  Cino. 

Pistoia,  da,  dl  p^s-to'yS,  (Leonardo  Grazia — gR^t'- 
se-S,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Pistoia,  lived  about  1550. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  F.  Penni,  with  whom  he  worked  at 
the  Vatican  and  at  Naples.   He  was  skilful  in  portraits. 

Pistorius,  pis-to're-us,  (Johann,)  a  German  histo- 
rian, born  at  Nidda  (Hesse)  about  1544.  He  was  con- 
verted from  the  Protestant  faith  to  that  of  the  Roman 
Church,  and  was  confessor  to  the  emperor  Rudolph  H. 
He  wrote  "  German  Historical  Writers,"  ("  Rerum  Ger- 
manicarum Scriptores,"3  vols.,  1582-1607.)  Diedini6o8. 

Pitagora.    See  Pythagoras. 

Pitaro,  pe-ta'ro,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  natural  phi- 
losopher and  writer,  born  at  Borgia  in  1774;  died  in 
Paris  after  1830. 

Pitau,  pe'to',  (Nicolas,)  a  skilful  Flemish  engraver, 
born  at  Antwerp  about  1633.  He  worked  at  Paris,  and 
engraved  after  Raphael,  Guercino,  and  L.  Caracci.  His 
master-piece  is  a  "  Holy  Family,"  after  Raphael.  Died 
in  1676.  His  son  Nicolas  was  also  an  engraver.  Died 
at  Paris  in  1724. 

Pitaval,  de.    See  Gayot. 

Pitcairne,  pit'kSrn,  (Archibald,)  a  Scottish  phy- 
sician, born  at  Edinburgh  in  1652.  Having  finished  his 
education  in  Paris,  he  practised  with  great  distinction 
in  his  native  city.  His  medical  system  was  based  partly 
on  mathematics.  He  was  a  zealous  Jacobite.  He  was 
professor  of  medicine  at  Leyden  about  one  year,  (1692,) 
and  was  one  of  the  teachers  of  Boerhaave.  His  principal 
work  is  "Elementa  Medicinae  physico-mathematica." 
He  also  wrote  Latin  verses.    Died  in  1 7 13. 

See  Charles  Webster,  "  Life  of  A.  Pitcairne,"  1781 ;  Cham- 
bers, "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Pitho.    See  Pithon. 

Prthon  or  Pi'tho,  [YlLOoiv,]  a  Macedonian  officer, 
who  had  a  high  comniand  under  Alexander  in  India. 
He  was  appointed  satrap  of  Babylon  by  Antigonus  in 
316  B.C.,  and  was  killed  fighting  for  Demetrius  at  Gaza, 
in  312  B.C. 

Pithon,  [YIlOov,]  an  officer  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
whose  person  he  attended  as  a  guard.  He  was  the 
leader  of  the  mutineers  who  killed  Perdiccas  in  321 
B.C.,  after  which  he  was  joint  regent  with  Arrhidaeus  for 
a  short  time.  He  was  second  in  command  in  the  army 
of  Antigonus,  to  whom  he  rendered  important  services 
in  the  war  against  Eunienes.  He  was  put  to  death,  by 
order  of  Antigonus,  in  316  B.C. 


Pithou,  pe'too',  (FRANgois,)  a  learned  French  jurist, 
born  at  Troyes  in  1543,  was  a  brother  of  Pierre,  noticed 
below.  He  wrote  "Traite  de  la  Grandeur,  des  Droits, 
Pre-eminences  des  Rois  et  du  Royaume  de  France," 
(1587.)    Died  in  1621. 

Pithou,  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French  jurist  and 
scholar,  was  born  at  Troyes  in  1539.  He  was  educated 
as  a  Protestant,  but  became  a  Roman  Catholic  in  1573, 
after  a  narrow  escape  from  the  massacre  of  1572.  He 
supported  the  cause  of  Henry  IV.,  and  was  one  of  the 
authors  of  the  "  Satire  Menip])ee,"  which  had  an  im- 
portant influence  in  the  political  affairs  of  the  time. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Liberties  of  the  Galilean 
Church,"  (1594,)  and  "Body  of  Canon  Law,"  ("Corpus 
Juris  canonici,"  1687.)    Died  in  1596. 

See  Groslev,  "Vie  de  Pierre  Pithou,"  1756:  Loisel,  "Vie  de 
Pierre  Pithou;"  Nic^ron,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Pitiscus,  pe-tis'kiis,  (Bartholomaus,)  a  German 
geometer,  born  near  Griinberg  in  1 561  ;  died  at  Heidel- 
berg in  1613. 

Pitiscus,  pe-tis'kus,  (Samuel,)  a  Dutch  philologist, 
born  at  Zutphen  in  1637.  He  published  a  "Lexicon 
Latino-Belgicum,"  (1704,)  a  "Lexicon  of  Roman  An- 
tiquities," (1713,)  and  good  editions  of  Quintus  Curtius, 
Suetonius,  and  Aurelius  Victor,    Died  in  1727. 

Pit'kin,  (Timothy,)  an  American  lawyer  and  his- 
torical writer,  born  at  Farmington,  Connecticut,  in  1765, 
published  a  "  Political  and  Civil  History  of  the  United 
States,  from  1763  to  the  Close  of  Washington's  Ad- 
ministration," (1828.)    Died  in  1847. 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1830. 

Pitoni,  pe-to'nee,  (Giuseppe  Ottavio,)  an  Italian 
composer  of  sacred  music,  born  at  Rieti  in  1657 ;  died 
at  Rome  in  1743. 

Pitot,  pe'to',  (Henri,)  a  French  geometer,  born  at 
Aramon  in  1695.  He  contributed  several  memoirs  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  published  a  good  work 
on  naval  tactics,  entitled  "Theorie  de  la  Manoeuvre  des 
Vaisseaux,"  (1731.)    Died  in  1771. 

Pit'ri,  [a  Sanscrit  word  signifying  "father,"]  a  title 
applied  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  to  the  deified  pro- 
genitors of  mankind,  supposed  to  inhabit  the  orbit  of 
the  moon. 

Pits,  [Lat.  Pit'seus,]  (John,)  an  English  biographer, 
born  at  Alton  in  1560,  was  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  be- 
came canon  of  Verdun,  in  Lorraine,  and  dean  of  Liver- 
dun.  He  wrote  "The  Lives  of  the  Kings,  Bishops,  and 
Writers  of  England,"  (4  vols.)  The  last  volume  was 
published  in  1619.    Died  in  1616. 

Pitseus.    See  Pits. 

Pitt,  (Christopher,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  Bland- 
ford  in  1699.  He  became  rector  of  Pimpern,  in  Dorset- 
shire, and  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1727.  He 
produced  a  translation  of  Virgil's  "^neid,"  (1740,) 
which  was  received  with  favour.    Died  in  1748. 

Pitt,  (Thomas,)  a  grandfather  of  the  Earl  of  Chat- 
ham, was  born  at  Blandford  in  1653.  He  was  for  some 
years  Governor  of  Madras.  He  purchased  in  India  for 
;^24,ooo  a  large  diamond,  (called  the  Pitt  diamond,) 
which  he  sold  to  the  Regent  of  France  for  ^135,000. 
Died  in  1726. 

Pitt,  (  William,  )  Earl  of  Chatham,  an  illustrious 
English  statesman  and  orator,  was  born  at  Boconnoc, 
in  Cornwall,  November  15,  1708.  He  was  the  second 
son  of  Robert  Pitt,  and  a  grandson  of  Thomas  Pitt, 
Governor  of  Madras,  who  brought  from  India  the  Pitt 
diamond,  which  is  now  esteemed  the  most  precious  of 
the  crown-jewels  of  France.  His  mother  was  Harriet 
Villiers.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  which  he  entered  at  the  age  of  seventeen. 
The  torments  of  the  gout,  to  which  he  was  subject  nearly 
all  his  life,  induced  him  to  leave  college  without  taking 
a  degree,  and  to  travel  in  France  and  Italy  for  his  health. 
On  his  return  home  he  accepted  a  cornet's  commission 
in  the  army,  and  in  1735  was  chosen  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment for  Old  Sarum.  He  began  his  political  life  as  an 
opponent  of  the  Walpole  ministry,  and  addressed  the 
House  for  the  first  time  in  April,  1736,  on  the  subject 
of  the  marriage  of  the  Prince  of  Wales.  Soon  after 
this  date  he  was  appointed  a  groom  of  the  bed-chamber 


€  as     c  as  s,  g  hard;  g  as  /;  o,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal'  r.  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PITT 


PITT 


to  that  prince,  and  he  continued  t&  declaim  against 
Walpole  with  increasing  power.  His  figure  was  re- 
markably graceful  and  commanding,  and  his  manner 
highly  imposing.  "  His  play  of  countenance,"  says  Mac- 
aulay,  "  was  wonderful  :  he  frequently  disconcerted  a 
hostile  orator  by  a  single  glance  of  indignation  or  scorn. 
Every  tone,  from  the  impassioned  cry  to  the  thrilling 
aside,  was  perfectly  at  his  command.  .  .  .  Yet  he  was 
not  a  great  debater.  His  merit  was  almost  entirely 
rhetorical.  He  did  not  succeed  either  in  exposition  or 
refutation ;  but  his  speeches  abounded  with  lively  illus- 
trations, happy  allusions,  passionate  appeals.  His  in- 
vective and  sarcasm  were  tremendous." 

Having  been  excluded  from  the  new  cabinet  which 
was  formed  on  the  resignation  of  Walpole,  in  1742,  he 
continued  to  act  with  the  opposition,  and  fiercely  de- 
nounced Carteret  for  the  favour  shown  to  the  German 
dominions  of  George  H.  The  offence  which  he  thus 
gave  to  the  king  retarded  his  own  promotion  when,  in 
1744,  the  Pelhams  came  into  power.  By  tendering  their 
resignations  in  the  critical  period  of  the  Jacobite  rebel- 
lion, the  ministers  at  last  prevailed  over  the  king,  and 
Pitt  was  appointed  paymaster  of  the  forces  in  1746. 
The  rare  disinterestedness  which  he  showed  in  this 
lucrative  office  convinced  the  public  that  he  was  proof 
against  all  sordid  temptations.  He  married  Hester 
Grenville,  a  sister  of  the  Earl  of  Temple  and  of  George 
Grenville,  in  1754.  In  this  year  the  premier,  Henry  Pel- 
ham,  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  the  Duke 
of  Newcastle.  Pitt,  who  was  perhaps  offended  because 
his  rival  Henry  Fox  was  chosen  secretary  of  state,  be- 
came the  leader  of  the  opposition  in  November,  1755, 
soon  after  which  date  war  broke  out  between  England 
and  France.  Newcastle  having  been  forced  to  resign,  Pitt 
was  premier  about  five  months,  ending  in  April,  1757. 
The  king,  who  disliked  Pitt  and  his  colleague  Temple, 
dismissed  them,  but  found  great  difficulty  in  forming  a 
new  ministry,  as  Pitt  was  the  most  popular  statesman 
in  England.  After  the  nation  had  remained  eleven  weeks 
without  a  ministry,  a  coalition  was  formed  between  Pitt 
and  Newcastle,  the  former  of  whom  became  secretary 
of  state,  with  the  supreme  direction  of  the  war  and  of 
foreign  affairs.  He  infused  new  energy  and  ardour  into 
every  branch  of  the  service,  and  his  fame  was  raised  to 
the  highest  point  by  a  succession  of  victories  in  Canada, 
India,  and  Europe.  About  1760  he  was  almost  idolized 
by  the  people,  who  called  him  "the  Great  Commoner" 
and  regarded  him  as  the  foremost  Englishman  of  his 
time. 

On  the  accession  of  George  III.,  Pitt  was  supplanted 
by  Lord  Bute,  the  royal  favourite,  the  success  of  whose 
intrigues  was  promoted  by  dissensions  and  jealousies 
among  the  ministers,  some  of  whom  were  offended  by 
the  imperious  demeanour  of  the  premier.  Pitt  resigned 
in  October,  1761,  and  received  an  annual  pension  of 
;^3000  for  three  lives,  {i.e.  his  own,  his  wife's,  and  his 
eldest  son's.)  In  1765  the  king  requested  Pitt  to  resume 
the  direction  of  affairs  ;  but  the  latter  declined  the  offer 
because  his  friend  the  Earl  of  Temple  refused  to  take 
office  with  him.  During  the  next  session  of  Parliament 
he  condemned  the  Stamp  Act  in  an  eloquent  speech, 
and  argued  that  England  had  no  right  to  tax  the  colo- 
nies. The  renewed  overtures  and  insidious  smiles  of 
the  court  prevailed  on  him,  in  1766,  to  form  a  new  ad- 
ministration, in  which  he  took  the  office  of  privy  seal. 
At  the  same  time  he  sacrificed  his  popularity  by  accepting 
a  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Earl  of  Chatham.  This  was 
the  cabinet  that  Burke  described  as  a  "  piece  of  joinery 
so  whimsically  dovetailed  ;  a  tesselated  pavement  with- 
out cement,"  etc.  His  mental  and  physical  maladies 
soon  became  so  aggravated  that  he  ceased  to  take  any 
part  in  the  government,  and  he  resigned  in  October, 
1768.  With  improved  health,  he  returned  to  public  life 
about  1771,  and  spoke  often  against  the  ministers.  In 
1775  he  made  a  brilliant  speech  on  the  American  war. 
Alluding  to  the  Boston  Port  bill,  etc.,  he  exclaimed, 
"You  must  repeal  these  acts,  and  you  will  repeal 
them.  I  pledge  myself  for  it  that  you  will  repeal  them. 
I  stake  my  reputation  on  it.  I  will  consent  to  be  taken 
for  an  idiot  if  they  are  not  finally  repealed."  In  1777 
he  ma-de  a  memorable  speech  against  employing  Indians 


to  fight  in  the  United  States.  As  he  rose  to  speak  in 
the  House  of  Lords,  in  1778,  he  was  seized  with  an  apo- 
plectic fit.  He  lingered  a  few  weeks,  and  died  in  May, 
1778,  leaving  three  sons,  the  second  of  whom  was  the 
celebrated  statesman  William  Pitt  the  Younger. 

"  His  eloquence,"  says  Brougham,  "  was  of  the  very 
highest  order :  vehement,  fiery,  close  to  the  subject, 
concise,  sometimes  eminently,  even  boldly,  figurative  ; 
it  was  original  and  surprising,  yet  quite  natural.  The 
fine  passages  or  felicitous  hits  in  which  all  popular  as- 
semblies take  boundless  delight  .  .  .  form  the  grand 
charm  of  Lord  Chatham's  oratory.  ...  A  noble  state- 
ment of  enlarged  views,  a  generous  avcwal  of  dignified 
sentiments,  a  manly  and  somewhat  severe  contempt  for 
all  petty  and  mean  views,  always  pervaded  his  whole  dis- 
course ;  and,  more  than  any  orator  since  Demosthenes,  he 
was  distinguished  by  the  grandeur  of  feeling  with  which 
he  regarded,  and  the  amplitude  of  survey  which  he  cast 
upon,  the  subject-matters  of  debate.  He  is  the  person 
to  whom  every  one  would  at  once  point  if  desired  to 
name  the  most  successful  statesman  and  most  brilliant 
orator  that  this  country  ever  produced.  Some  fragments 
of  his  speeches  have  been  handed  down  to  us  ;  but  these 
bear  so  very  small  a  proportion  to  the  prodigious  fame 
which  his  eloquence  has  left  behind  it,  that  far  more  is 
manifestly  lost  than  has  reached  us."  Several  volumes, 
entitled  "Chatham  Papers:  Correspondence  from  the 
Original  MSS.,"  were  published  in  1838-40,  4  vols. 

See  "  History  of  W.  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham,"  by  Francis  Thack- 
eray, 2  vols.,  1827;  John  Almon,  "Anecdotes  of  W.  Pitt,  Earl  of 
Chatham,"  2  vols.,  1792;  Brougham,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of 
George  III. ;"  MacAULAv's  Review  of  Thackeray's  "  Life  of  Chat- 
ham," 1834;  Macaulay,  "Essay  on  the  Earl  of  Chatham,"  in  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1844;  Louis  de  Vielcastel, 
"  Essai  historique  sur  les  deux  Pitt,"  2  vols.,  1846. 

Pitt,  (The  Right  Honourable  William,)  a  celebrated 
statestnan  and  debater,  was  the  second  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  was  born  at  Hayes,  in  Kent,  in  May,  1759. 
At  the  age  of  seven,  when  he  heard  that  his  father  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  he  said,  "  I  am  glad  that  I  am  not 
the  eldest  son.  I  want  to  speak  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, like  papa."  He  received  the  rudiments  of  educa- 
tion at  hotne,  under  the  diligent  supervision  of  his  father, 
and  acquired  great  proficiency  in  Latin,  Greek,  and 
mathematics,  before  he  entered  Pembroke  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1773.  Having  chosen  the  profession  of  the 
law,  he  took  chambers  in  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1780.  In  1781  he  entered  Parliament  for 
Appleby,  as  an  opponent  of  the  ministry,  and  before  the 
end  of  the  second  session  assumed  his  place  in  the  first 
rank  of  debaters.  His  talents  and  conduct  amply  justi- 
fied and  responded  to  the  partiality  with  which  the  public 
regarded  the  son  of  the  Great  Commoner.  He  acquired 
a  new  claim  to  public  favour  by  a  motion  (in  May,  1782) 
for  a  reform  in  the  representation,  which  was  rejected 
by  a  small  majority.  His  principles  at  that  time  were 
the  same  with  those  of  the  Whigs.  On  the  formation 
of  the  ministry  of  Lord  Shelburne,  in  July,  1782,  Mr. 
Pitt  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  By  a 
coalition  between  Lord  North  and  Mr.  Fox,  this  ministry 
was  forced  to  resign  in  March,  1783,  and  Pitt  became 
the  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  House.  The  king, 
after  procuring  the  defeat  of  Fox's  India  bill,  dismissed 
Fox  and  Lord  North,  whose  coalition  was  very  unpopular, 
and  appointed  Pitt  first  lord  of  the  treasury  (prime  min- 
ister) in  December,  1783.  He  had  to  contend  against  a 
large  majority  in  the  House,  led  by  Fox,  Burke,  North, 
and  Sheridan,  who  triumphed  in  sixteen  divisions.  This 
important  contest  lasted  until  March,  1784,  when  Parlia- 
ment was  dissolved.  His  appeal  to  the  people  resulted 
in  a  great  triumph  of  the  minister,  who,  thus  sustained 
by  the  favour  of  the  court  and  by  that  of  the  nation, 
became  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  the  most  powerful 
subject  of  Europe. 

The  first  eight  years  of  his  adininistration  were  peace- 
ful and  prosperous.  A  new  constitution  for  the  East 
India  Company  was  framed  in  1784,  and  a  new  sinking- 
fund  established  in  1786.  He  changed  his  course  on  the 
question  of  parliamentary  reform,  which  he  opposed  at 
several  periods  after  1792.  He  supported  with  his  elo- 
quence and  his  vote  the  motions  of  Wilberforce  for  the 
abolition  of  the  slave-trade.    "  All  authorities  agree," 


i,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fail,  f^t;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PITT 


PIUS 


says  Brougham,  "in  placing  his  speech  on  the  slave- 
trade,  in  1791,  before  any  other  effort  of  his  genius." 
Yet  he  permitted,  for  many  years,  every  one  of  his  col- 
leagues to  vote  against  the  abolition,  and  thus  furnished 
the  ground  of  the  gravest  charge  to  wrhich  his  memory 
is  exposed.  His  ascendency  was  confirmed  by  the  ex- 
cesses of  the  French  Revolution,  and  by  the  division 
which  that  subject  produced  in  the  Whig  party ;  but  the 
tide  of  his  success  began  to  ebb  when  he  involved  Eng- 
land in  a  war  with  the  French  republic  in  1793, — a  war 
which,  according  to  Alison,  added  three  hundred  millions 
to  the  national  debt.  (See  Bonaparte,  and  George  III.) 
"  His  conduct  of  the  war,"  says  Brougham,  "  betrayed 
no  extent  of  views,  no  commanding  notions  of  policy. 
To  form  one  coalition  after  another  in  Germany,  and 
subsidize  them  with  millions  of  free  gift,  or  aid  with 
profuse  loans,  until  all  the  powers  in  Our  pay  were  de- 
feated in  succession,  and  most  of  them  either  destroyed 
or  converted  into  allies  of  the  enemy, — such  were  all  the 
resources  of  his  diplomatic  policy."  In  1800  an  act  for 
the  union  of  Ireland  with  Great  Britain  was  passed  in 
the  Parliament  of  the  latter.  He  resigned  office  in 
March,  1801,  and  was  succeeded  by  Addington.  The 
ostensible  cause  of  his  resignation  was  that  the  king 
objected  to  the  measures  which  Pitt  proposed  for  the 
relief  of  the  Roman  Catholics.  Alison  intimates  that 
he  retired  to  make  way  for  a  pacific  administration. 

A  combination  of  Whigs  and  Tories  having  been 
formed  against  Addington,  he  resigned,  and  Pitt  was 
again  appointed  prime  minister,  in  May,  1804.  The  new 
ministry  was  formed  exclusively  of  Tories.  The  pre- 
mature death  of  Pitt  appears  to  have  been  hastened  by 
the  vexation  which  he  suffered  from  the  failure  of  the 
new  coalition,  and  the  victories  of  Bonaparte  at  Ulm  and 
Austerlitz.  He  died  on  the  23d  of  January,  1806,  having 
never  been  married. 

"  Unequalled  in  the  ability  with  which  he  overcame 
the  jealousies  and  awakened  the  activity  of  cabinets," 
says  Alison,  "he  was  by  no  means  equally  felicitous  in 
the  warlike  measures  which  he  recommended  for  their 
adoption.  Napoleon  has  observed  that  he  had  no  turn 
for  military  combinations  ;  and  a  retrospect  of  the  cam- 
paigns which  he  had  a  share  in  directing,  must  confirm 
the  justice  of  the  opinion.  By  not  engaging  England  as 
a  principal  in  the  contest,  and  trusting  for  land  operations 
to  the  continental  armies  put  in  motion  by  British  sub- 
r.idies,  he  prolonged  the  war  for  an  indefinite  period." 
("History  of  Europe.")  He  is  admitted  by  all  parties 
to  have  been  a  consummate  debater,  and  almost  un- 
equalled as  a  master  of  sarcasm.  His  declamation  was 
copious,  polished,  and  impressive.  He  poured  forth  a 
long  succession  of  round  and  stately  periods,  with  a  full 
and  sonorous  voice  and  with  an  unbending  dignity  of 
manner.  "  Yet,  with  all  this  excellence,"  says  Brougham, 
"  the  last  effect  of  the  highest  eloquence  was  for  the 
most  part  wanting  :  we  seldom  forgot  the  speaker,  or 
lost  the  artist  in  the  work."  His  private  character  is 
described  as  amiable.  Pride  appears  to  have  been  his 
principal  fault. 

See  Brougham,  "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.  ;"  "  Me- 
moirs of  W.  Pitt,"  by  George  Tomi.ine,  1821 ;  Macaulay,  article 
"William  Pitt,"  in  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica;"  Lord  Stan- 
hope, (Mahon,)  "Life  of  William  Pitt."  1862;  John  Gifford, 
"  History  of  the  Political  Life  of  William  Pitt,"  3  vols.,  1809  ;  Pierre 
Chanin,  "ViedeM.  Pitt,"  1805;  Auguste  Vidalin,  "Etude  sur 
la  Carri^re  de  W.  Pitt,"  1851 ;  Alison,  "  History  of  Europe  ;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1856,  and  "The  Addington  and  Pitt 
Administrations,"  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1858. 

Pit'ta-cus,  [ITiTra/cof,]  a  celebrated  Greek  statesman, 
philosopher,  and  poet,  called  one  of  the  Seven  Wise 
Men  of  Greece,  was  born  at  Mitylene,  in  Lesbos,  about 
650  B.C.  He  distinguished  himself  in  a  battle  against 
the  Athenians  (whose  leader,  Phrynon,  he  killed)  in  606 
B.C.  About  590  he  was  chosen  supreme  ruler  by  the 
popular  party,  which  had  expelled  the  aristocratic  party. 
The  poet  Alcaeus  belonged  to  the  latter,  and  was  exiled 
in  the  time  of  Pittacus.  Having  governed  the  state 
wisely  for  ten  years,  he  resigned  his  office  in  580  B.C. 
He  was  famous  as  an  elegiac  poet ;  but  only  a  few  of  his 
lines  are  extant.    Died  in  569  B.C. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius;  Suidas,  "Pittacus." 

Pitthee.    See  Pittheus. 


Pit'theus,  [Gr.  liLTdevc ;  Fr.  Pitthee,  pe'ti',]  a  son 
of  Pelops  and  Hippodami'a,  was  a  king  of  Troezene,  the 
father  of  Mthrz,  and  grandfather  of  Theseus.  Pausanias 
ascribes  to  him  a  work  on  the  art  of  speaking. 

Pit'tis,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  entered  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  about 
1652.    Died  in  1687. 

Pittoni,  p^t-to'nee,  (Battista,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Vicenza  about  1520  ;  died  after 
1585. 

Pittoni,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Venice  in  1687.  Among  his  best  works  is  "The 
Miracle  of  the  Loaves."    Died  in  1767. 

Pittorio,  p^t-to're-o,  or  Pittori,  p^t-to'ree,  [Lat. 
Picto'rius,]  (Lodovico  Bigi,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  at 
Ferrara  in  1454.  He  wrote  "  Candida,"  (1491,)  "  Moral 
Epigrams,"  ("  Epigrammata  moralia,"  1516,)  and  other 
poems.    Died  about  1524. 

Pitts,  (William,)  an  English  sculptor,  called  "the 
British  Cellini,"  was  born  in  London  in  1790.  He  learned 
the  trade  of  gold-chaser.  He  displayed  a  fine  fancy  for 
design,  and  remarkable  executive  skill.  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Creation  of  Eve,"  (1824,)  "The  Shield 
of  ^neas,"  (1828,)  "The  Shield  of  Hercules,"  (1834,) 
and  the  "  Apotheoses  of  Spenser,  Shakspeare,  and  Mil- 
ton," in  bas-relief.    He  committed  suicide  in  1840. 

Pi'us  [It.  Pio,  pee'o ;  Fr.  Pie,  pee]  I.,  Pope  or 
Bishop  of  Rome,  was  born  at  Aquileia.  He  succeeded 
Hyginus  in  142  A.D.,  and  died  in  157,  His  successor 
was  Anicetus. 

Pius  (or  Pio)  II.,  Pope,  (^ne'as  Syl'vius  Picco- 
lomini — pek-ko-lom'e-nee,)  was  born  at  Corsignano, 
Tuscany,  in  1405.  He  was  liberally  educated,  and  was 
familiar  with  the  ancient  classics.  In  1535  he  produced  a 
history  of  the  Council  of  Bile.  He  was  a  partisan  of 
this  council  in  its  contest  against  Pope  Eugenius  IV., 
and  became  the  secretary  of  Felix  V.,  who  was  elected 
pope  in  place  of  Eugenius,  whom  the  council  deposed. 
About  1442  he  entered  the  service  of  the  emperor  Fred- 
erick III.,  of  whotn  he  wrote  a  history,  "  Historia  Rerum 
Friderici  III."  In  the  pontificate  of  Nicholas  V.,  ^neas 
Sylvius  was  sent  as  nuncio  to  Germany.  He  distin- 
guished himself  as  a  negotiator  and  orator  on  various 
occasions.  He  became  a  cardinal  in  1456,  and  was 
elected  pope  in  1458,  in  place  of  Calixtus  III.  In  1459 
he  procured  the  meeting  of  a  European  congress  on 
the  subject  of  a  crusade  against  the  Turks  ;  but  the 
jealousies  and  dissensions  among  the  Christian  powers 
rendered  his  efforts  abortive.  He  issued  a  bull  in  which 
he  retracted  and  condetnned  what  he  had  formerly  writ- 
ten in  favour  of  the  supremacy  of  councils.  He  died  in 
August,  1464,  and  was  succeeded  by  Paul  II,  Pius  II. 
was  an  eminent  historian  and  scholar.  Among  his  nu- 
merous works  are  "Epistolae,"  (1473,)  and  a  "History 
of  Bohemia,"  (1475,)  which  are  highly  prized. 

See  "  Pii  II.  Commentarii  Rerum  memorabilium,"  an  auto- 
bIos;raphy,  published  by  his  secretary,  Gobelinus,  1477  and  1614; 
Campanus  or  Campmanus,  "Vita  Pii  II.;"  Platina,  "Vita 
Pontificum  ;"  Hei.wing,  "  De  Pii  II.  Rebus  gestis,"  1825; 
VoiGT,  "  Eneas  Piccolomini,"  Berlin,  1859;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generate." 

Pius  III.,  Pope,  (Francesco  Todesohini  Piccolo- 
mini — to-d§s-kee'nee  p^k-ko-lom'e-nee,)  born  at  Sienna 
in  1439,  was  a  nephew  of  Pius  II.  He  succeeded  Alex- 
ander VI.  in  September,  1503,  and  died  in  October  of 
the  same  year.    His  successor  was  Julius  II. 

Pius  IV.,  Pope,  (Giovanni  Angelo  de'  Medici — 
di  m§d'e-chee,)  was  born  at  Milan  in  1499,  and  was  an 
uncle  of  the  eminent  Carlo  Borromeo.  He  was  elected 
pope,  in  place  of  Paul  IV.,  about  the  end  of  1559.  He 
convoked  the  Council  of  Trent  which  reassembled  in 
1 561  and  finished  its  labours  in  1563.  The  decrees  of 
this  council  in  relation  to  discipline,  etc.  were  rejected 
by  the  French.  He  is  represented  by  some  historians 
as  an  able  but  rather  unscrupulous  pontiff.  He  died 
in  December,  1565,  and  was  succeeded  by  Pius  V. 

See  Ranke,  "  History  of  the  Popes." 

Pius  v.,  Pope,  (Michele  Ghislieri — ges-le-a'ree,) 
was  born  at  or  near  Alessandria  in  1504.  He  became 
a  cardinal  in  1557,  and  Inquisitor-General  of  Christen- 
dom.   In  1566  he  was  elected  pope.    He  was  a  rigorist 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  yl,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PIUS 


1806 


PIZARRO 


in  discipline,  and  a  violent  persecutor  of  dissenters. 
Palearius,  Zanetti,  and  other  learned  men  were  put  to 
death  by  his  inquisitors.  He  published  in  1568  the  bull 
"In  Coena  Domini,"  which  asserts  the  extreme  ultra- 
montane doctrines  in  relation  to  the  papal  supremacy. 
The  publication  of  this  bull  was  forbidden  by  the  Kings 
of  France  and  Spain  and  the  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Pius  V.  was  one  of  the  allies  whose  fleet  gained  the 
victory  of  Lepanto  over  the  Turks,  in  1571.  He  died 
in  1572,  and  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  XIH. 

See  Ranke,  '*  History  of  the  Popes  ;"  Agatio  di  Somma,  "  Vida 
di  Pio  Quinto ;"  J.  B.  Feuillet,  "Vie  du  Pape  Pie  V,"  1674;  De 
Falloux,  "  Histoire  de  Saint  Pie  V,"  2  vols.,  1844;  "Life  and 
Pontificate  of  Saint  Pius  V.,"  by  Rev.  Joseph  Mendham,  1832. 

Pius  VI.,  Pope,  (Cardinal  Angelo  Braschi — br^s'- 
kee,)  was  born  at  Cesena  in  1 71 7.  He  succeeded  Clem- 
ent XIV.  in  February,  1775.  He  drained  the  Pontine 
marshes,  and  enriched  the  Museum  of  the  Vatican. 
In  1782  he  went  in  person  to  Vienna  to  treat  with  the 
emperor  Joseph,  who  had  suppressed  convents  and 
meddled  with  spiritual  affairs  in  a  manner  which  dis- 
pleased the  pope.  He  failed  in  his  effort  to  change  the 
purpose  of  the  emperor.  The  French  Revolution  in- 
volved him  in  a  still  greater  trouble.  He  entered  into 
alliance  with  Austria  and  other  powers  against  the 
French  republic.  After  his  states  had  been  invaded  by 
Bonaparte,  he  sued  for  peace,  which  he  obtained  by  the 
treaty  of  Tolentino,  in  1797.  To  avenge  the  death  of 
General  Duphot,  (who  was  killed  by  a  Roman  mob,) 
the  French  army  entered  Rome  in  February,  1798,  and 
deposed  the  pope,  who  was  conveyed  to  Valence,  in 
France,  where  he  died  in  August,  1799. 

See  Ferrari,  "  Vita  Pii  VI.,"  1802  ;  Tavanti,  "  Fasti  del  Papa 
Pio  VI.,"  3  vols.,  1804;  Artaud  de  Montor,"  Histoire  de  Pie 

VI,  "  1847;  "  Nouvelle  Blographie  Generale." 

Pius  VII.,  Pope,  (Cardinal  Gregorio  Barnaba  Chi- 
aramonti — ke-a-ri-mon'tee,)  was  born  at  Cesena  in 
August,  1742.  He  became  a  cardinal,  and  Bishop  of 
Imola,  in  1785.  After  the  French  had  become  masters 
of  Imola,  he  exhorted  his  people  to  submit  to  the  new 
regime.  He  was  elected  pope  by  a  conclave  of  car- 
dinals assembled  at  Venice  in  March,  1800,  and  ap- 
pointed Cardinal  Consalvi  secretary  of  state.  The  first 
important  event  of  his  reign  was  a  treaty  with  Bonaparte, 
by  which  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  was  re-established 
in  France.  This  treaty,  called  the  Concordat,  was  signed 
on  the  15th  of  July,  1801.  In  compliance  with  the  re- 
quest of  Bonaparte,  Pius  went  to  Paris  and  crowned  or 
anointed  him  as  emperor  in  December,  1804.  He  re- 
fused to  comply  with  the  will  of  Napoleon  when  the 
latter  required  him  to  banish  the  English,  Russians,  and 
Swedes  from  the  Papal  States,  (1806,)  and  resisted  him 
in  other  designs.  The  French  army  occupied  Rome  in 
February,  1808,  but  permitted  the  pope  to  retain  some 
temporal  power.  In  May,  1809,  Napoleon  issued  a 
decree  that  the  Papal  States  were  united  to  the  French 
empire.  The  pope,  having  resorted  to  a  bull  of  ex- 
communication against  his  adversaries,  was  seized  and 
abducted  from  Rome  in  July,  1809.  He  was  detained  at 
Savona,  near  Genoa,  until  1812,  and  was  then  removed  to 
Fontainebleau.  In  his  captivity  the  pope  firmly  resisted 
the  will  of  the  emperor,  who  probably  wished  him  to 
transfer  his  court  from  Rome  to  Avignon.  Pius  refused 
to  give  canonical  institution  to  the  bishops  appointed 
by  Napoleon.  In  January,  1813,  he  was  persuaded  to 
sign  a  new  concordat  and  to  make  concessions,  which, 
however,  by  the  advice  of  his  cardinals,  he  soon  re- 
tracted. In  January,  1814,  he  received  an  order  or 
permission  to  return  to  Rome,  which  he  entered  in  May. 
He  afterwards  made  some  laudable  reforms.  He  died 
in  August,  1823,  and  was  succeeded  by  Leo  XII.  Pius 

VII.  left  a  fair  reputation  for  moderation  and  other 
virtues. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  de  Pie  VII,"  2  vols.,  1836  : 
Cohen,  "Precis  historique  sur  Pie  VII,"  1823;  A.  de  Beauchamp, 
"  Histoire  des  Malheurs  de  Pie  VII,"  1814  ;  Guadet,  "  Esquisses 
liistoriqiies  et  politiques  sur  Pie  VII,"  1823;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale  ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1858;  "  Recol- 
lections of  the  Last  Four  Popes,"  by  Cardinal  Wiseman,  Lon- 
don, 1858. 

Pius  VIII,,  Pope,  (Cardinal  Francesco  Castiglioni 

— kis-til-yo'nee,)  was  born  at  Cingoli  in  1761.  He  suc- 
ceeded Leo  XII.  in  March,  1829,  and  issued  an  encyclical 


letter  in  which  he  denounced  religious  toleration,  the 
freedom  of  the  press,  and  civil  marriage,  as  impious. 
He  died  in  November,  1830.  His  successor  was  Greg- 
ory XVL 

Pius  IX.,  [Ital.  Pio  Nono,  pee'o  no^io,]  Pope,  (Gio- 
vanni Maria  Mastai  Ferretti — mis'ti  f^r-ret'tee,) 
was  born,  of  a  noble  family,  at  Sinigaglia,  near  Ancona, 
on  the  13th  of  May,  1792.  He  visited  South  America 
in  1823  on  a  religious  mission,  and  was  made  Archbishop 
of  Spoleto  in  1827.  In  1840  he  obtained  the  dignity  of 
cardinal.  He  was  elected  by  acclamation  the  successor 
of  Pope  Gregory  XVI.  in  June,  1846.  He  granted  an 
amnesty  to  political  transgressors,  and  acqtiired  great 
popularity  by  various  measures  of  reform  which  he 
commenced  soon  after  his  election.  His  first  secretaiy 
of  state,  Cardinal  Gizzi,  was  a  friend  of  progress  and  a 
liberal  policy.  The  expenses  of  the  papal  court  were 
reduced,  the  censorship  of  the  press  was  modified,  and 
the  Jews  were  relieved  from  some  oppressive  regulations. 
His  reforms  were  partly  frustrated  by  the  ill  will  of  many 
of  his  functionaries,  who  opposed  innovation.  His  popu- 
larity began  to  decline  before  the  end  of  1847.  Excited 
and  elated  by  the  French  revolution,  the  Italian  liberals 
required  greater  concessions  than  the  pope  was  willing 
to  grant.  After  several  violent  demonstrations  of  the 
populace,  Pius  IX.  escaped  from  Rome  in  disguise  in 
November,  1848,  and  retired  to  Gaeta.  A  republic  was 
organized  at  Rome  in  February,  1849,  but  was  subverted 
by  a  French  army  which  took  the  city  in  July  of  that 
year  and  restored  the  pope.  Among  the  later  events  of 
his  pontificate  was  the  formal  definition  and  recognition 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  as  a 
part  of  the  Roman  Catholic  creed,  (1854.)  During  the 
war  which  Austria  waged  against  the  French  and  Sar- 
dinians in  1859,  the  people  of  the  Romagna  and  the 
legations  revolted  against  the  pope,  and  the  Papal  States 
were  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Victor  Emmanuel.  In 
January,  i860,  the  pope  issued  an  anathema,  or  bull, 
against  those  who  abetted  the  invasion  of  his  dominions. 
This  was  probably  aimed  at  Napoleon  III.,  who  sup- 
pressed the  journal  in  which  it  was  published.  Rome 
was  declared  the  capital  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy  in 
i860,  since  which  the  question  of  the  pope's  temporal 
power  has  remained  in  suspense,  as  one  of  the  great 
problems  of  European  diplomacy.  The  recognition  of 
the  kingdom  of  Italy  by  the  French  court  (1861)  was 
accompanied  by  the  reservation  that  "  French  troops 
shall  continue  to  occupy  Rome  so  long  as  the  interests 
which  caused  their  presence  shall  not  be  protected  by 
sufficient  guarantees."  The  pope  was  the  only  power 
that  recognized  the  "Confederate  States  of  North  Amer- 
ica." The  results  of  the  war  between  the  Emperor  of 
Austria  and  the  allied  Kings  of  Prussia  and  Italy  in  1866 
were  unfavourable  to  papal  domination.  About  the  loth 
of  December,  1866,  the  French  army  departed  from 
Rome,  and  Italy  was  relieved  from  the  presence  of  for- 
eign soldiery,  for  the  first  time  probably  in  a  thousand 
years.  He  convoked  by  an  encyclical  letter  an  oecu- 
menical council  which  met  at  Rome  in  December,  1869, 
to  assert  or  define  the  dogma  of  the  pope's  infallibility, 
which,  after  a  long  deliberation,  was  finally  established 
in  July,  1870.  The  Italian  army  took  Rome  on  the  20th 
of  September,  without  serious  resistance,  and  the  tem- 
poral power  of  the  pope  was  then  abolished.  Pius  pro- 
tested against  this  innovation,  but  he  remained  in  Rome. 

See  A.  Balleydier,  "Rome  et  Pie  JX,"  1847;  G.  B.  Nic- 
COT. INI,  "History  of  the  Pontificate  of  Pius  IX.,"  London,  1851; 
Bretonneau,  "Notice  sur  Pie  IX,"  1847;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1847. 

Pivati,  pe-vd'tee,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  Ital- 
ian litterateur,  born  at  Padua  in  1689.  He  published 
"Scientific  Dictionary,"  etc.,  ("Dizionario  scientifico 
e  curioso,"  10  vols.,  1750.)    Died  in  1764. 

Pix,  (Mary,)  originally  Griffith,  an  English  drama- 
tist, born  in  Oxfordshire  about  1665;  died  about  1720. 

Pizarre.    See  Pizarro. 

Pizarro,  pe-zdr'ro,  [Sp.  pron.  pe-thir'ro;  Fr.  Pi- 
zarre, pe'ztRM  (Francisco,)  the  conqueror  of  Peru, 
was  born  at  Truxillo,  in  Spain,  about  1475.  ^'^^ 
natural  son  of  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  who  was  a  colonel  in 
the  Spanish  army.  He  was  employed  as  a  swineherd  in 
his  youth,  and  never  learned  to  read  or  write.    The  date 


e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


PIZARRO  1807  PLAN  CHE 


of  his  emigration  to  the  New  World  has  not  been  pre- 
served;  but  in  1 5 10  he  took  part  in  the  expedition  of 
Ojeda  from  Hispaniola  to  Terra  Firma.  He  afterwards 
served  under  Balboa,  with  whom  he  performed  an  ar- 
duous march  across  the  mountains  from  Darien  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  In  1522  Pizarro,  who  had  risen  to  the 
rank  of  captain,  associated  himself,  at  Panama,  with 
Almagro  and  a  rich  priest  named  De  Luque,  in  an  enter- 
prise to  explore  and  conquer  the  region  which  lies  south 
of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien.  Having  enlisted  in  his  service 
about  one  hundred  desperadoes,  he  sailed  from  Panama 
with  one  small  vessel  in  November,  1524.  His  first  ex- 
pedition was  unsuccessful  and  attended  with  great  hard- 
ships. He  renewed  the  enterprise  in  1526,  but  made 
slow  progress  and  lost  many  men.  He  landed  at  the 
city  of  Tumbez  without  opposition,  and  was  stimulated 
to  pursue  his  project  by  the  sight  of  the  gold  trinkets 
and  utensils  which  the  natives  displayed  in  great  pro- 
fusion. Having  explored  the  coast  as  far  as  Truxillo, 
about  9°  south  latitude,  he  found  it  inexpedient  to  pro- 
ceed with  his  reduced  force,  and  returned  to  Panama 
in  1528.  With  the  consent  of  Almagro  and  De  Luque, 
Pizarro  went  to  Spain  to  solicit  aid  from  the  king.  In 
this  mission  he  was  successful.  He  procured  for  himself 
an  appointment  as  governor  and  captain-general* of  the 
region  which  he  might  conquer  for  a  distance  of  two 
hundred  leagues  south  of  vSantiago;  but  he  neglected  to 
obtain  any  high  office  for  Almagro,  who  was  disgusted 
with  this  perfidious  conduct.  In  January,  1531,  Pizarro 
sailed  from  Panama  with  one  hundred  and  eighty  men 
and  about  thirty  horses,  leaving  Almagro  behind  to 
muster  reinforcements.  A  civil  war  which  raged  in  Peru 
between  Atahualpa  and  Huascar  presented  a  favour- 
able opportunity  for  his  design.  Having  marched  across 
the  sierra  of  the  Andes  to  Caxamarca,  he  met  the  Inca 
Atahualpa  in  November,  1532.  The  treacherous  and 
audacious  Spaniard  seized  the  Inca,  who  had  come  to 
the  Spanish  camp  for  a  friendly  interview.  To  obtain 
his  liberty,  the  Inca  offered  to  fill  a  room  twenty-two 
feet  long  and  sixteen  feet  wide  with  golden  vessels  and 
utensils,  etc.  up  to  a  line  as  high  as  he  could  reach. 
Pizarro  assented  to  this  proposal,  and  obtained  about 
1,326,000  pesos  of  gold,  the  value  of  which  Prescott 
estimates  at  over  fifteen  millions  of  dollars  ;  but  he  caused 
Atahualpa  to  be  put  to  death  by  the  garote.  "The 
blood-stained  annals  of  the  conquest,"  says  Prescott, 
"  afford  no  such  example  of  cold-hearted  and  systematic 
persecution,  not  of  an  enemy,  but  of  one  whose  whole 
deportment  had  been  that  of  a  friend  and  benefactor." 
In  November,  1533,  Pizarro  entered  Cuzco,  the  capital, 
and  the  conquest  of  Peru  was  virtually  effected.  Civil 
war  broke  out  in  1537  between  Pizarro  and  Almagro, 
who  was  defeated  and  executed  in  1538.  (See  Almagro.) 
To  avenge  his  death,  a  conspiracy  was  formed  by  Alma- 
gro the  Younger,  and  Pizarro  was  assassinated  at  Lima 
in  June,  1541.  "The  name  of  Pizarro  became  a  by-word 
of  perfidy,"  says  Prescott,  who,  however,  praises  his 
invincible  constancy. 

See  Prescott,  "Conquest  of  Peru;"  Robertsom,  "  Histnrj' 
of  America  ;"  Zarate,  "  Historia  de  la  Conquista  de  Peru  ;"  Her- 
RERA,  "  Novus  Orbis:"  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega,  "  Comentarios 
Reales  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Pizarro,  (Gonzalo,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  about  1506.  He  went  to  the  New  World  in  1530, 
and  served  under  Francisco  Pizarro  in  Peru.  According 
to  Prescott,  he  was  inferior  in  talent  to  his  brother,  but 
quite  as  unscrupulous.  He  was  appointed  governor 
of  Quito  in  1540,  and  discovered  the  river  Napo.  In 
1544  he  became  the  leader  of  malcontents  who  revolted 
against  the  viceroy  Nunez.  About  the  end  of  1545  the 
latter  was  defeated  and  killed  in  battle  by  Pizarro,  who 
remained  master  of  Peru.  He  in  turn  was  defeated  near 
Cuzco  by  the  viceroy  Gasca  in  April,  1548,  and  beheaded 
in  the  same  month. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru;"  Herrera, 
"  Novus  Orbis." 

Pizarro,  (Hernando,)  was  a  half-brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  left  Spain  in  1530,  and  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  conquest  of  Peru.  With  a  force  of  about 
seven  hundred  men  he  defeated  Almagro  at  Las  Salinas 
in  April,  1538.    He  returned  to  Spain  in  1539,  and  was 


imprisoned  twenty  years,  probably  for  the  execution  of 
Almagro.    Died  about  1566. 
See  Herrera,  "  Novus  Orbis." 

Pizarro,  (Juan,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Truxillo  about  1505.  He  assisted  in  the  conquest  of 
Peru,  and  became  governor  of  Cuzco.  He  was  killed 
in  battle  at  Cuzco  in  1535. 

Pizarro,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  historian  and  soldier  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  born  at  Toledo,  was  a  relative  of 
the  celebrated  commander  Francisco  Pizarro.  He  wrote 
a  work  entitled  "Account  of  the  Discovery  and  Ccn- 
quest  of  the  Kingdoms  of  Peru,"  ("Relaciones  del  Des- 
cubrimiento  y  Conquista  de  los  Reynos  del  Pe'u,") 
published  about  1847. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  li.  book 

iii. 

Pizzi,  p^t'see  or  pit'see,  (Gioacchino,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  in  Rome  in  1716.  Among  his  poems  is  "  The 
Vision  of  Eden,"  (1778.)    Died  in  1790. 

Plaas,  van  der,  vtn  der  plSss,  written  also  Plas, 
(David,)  a  Dutch  portrait-painter,  born  at  Amsterdam 
in  1647.  He  passed  some  years  at  Venice.  Died  at 
Amsterdam  in  1704. 

Placaeus.    See  La  Place. 

Placcius,  pllt'se-us,  (Vincenz,)  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1642.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Atlantis  Retecta,"  a  poem,  (1659,)  and  "Treat- 
ise on  Anonymous  and  Pseudonymous  Works  and 
Writers,"  ("De  Scriptis  et  Scriptoribus  anonymis  et 
pseudonymis  Syntagma,"  1674.)    Died  in  1699. 

Place,  (Francis,)  an  English  engraver  and  painter, 
born  in  Durham.  His  etchings  are  highly  commended. 
Died  in  1728. 

Place,  de  la,  (Josu^:.)    See  La  Place,  de. 

Place,  de  la,  deh  Itpltss,  (Pierre,)  a  French  Prot- 
estant'jurist,  born  at  Angouleme  about  1520.  He  wrote 
a  journal  or  history  of  public  events  in  France  from  1556 
to  1561,  (1565,)  and  other  works.  He  became  president 
of  the  ca7ir  des  aides,  Paris,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II. 
He  was  a  victim  of  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew, 
(1572.) 

Place,  de  la,  (Pierre  Antoine,)  a  mediocre  French 
writer  of  fiction  and  dramas,  born  at  Calais  in  1707  ;  died 
in  1793. 

Place,  La,  (Pierre  Simon.)    See  Laplace. 

Pla-cen-ti'nus,  [It.  Piacentino,  pe-a-ch§n-tee'no,] 
an  Italian  jurist  of  the  twelfth  century,  born  at  Piacenza  ; 
died  in  1 192. 

Placentius,  plSt-sgn'se-iis,  (Peter,)  or  Johann  Leo, 

a  German  writer,  who  lived  about  1530,  and  wrote  a 
Latin  poem  entitled  "The  Battle  of  the  Pigs,"  ("Pugna 
Porcoruni,")  in  which  every  word  begins  with  P. 

Placette,  La.    See  La  Placette. 

Pla-cid^i-a,  [Fr.  Placidie,  plt'seMe',]  a  Roman 
princess,  born  about  390  A.D.,  was  a  daughter  of  Theo- 
dosius  the  Great.  She  was  taken  captive  by  the  Goths, 
and  became  the  wife  of  Ataulphus,  King  of  the  Goths, 
(414.)    Died  in  450  a.d.  ^ 

Pla9'i-tus  Pa-p^r-i-en'sis,  (  Sextus,  )  sometimes 
called  Sextus  Platon'icus  or  Sextus  Empir'icus,  a 
physician,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  the 
fourth  century.  He  wrote  a  work  "On  Medicaments 
made  from  Animals,"  ("  De  Medicamentis  ex  Ani- 
malibus.") 

Plaisance,  de,  Due.    See  Lebrun. 

Plana,  pl§.'na,  (Giovanni  Antonio  Amedeo,)  Baron, 
an  Italian  savant,  born  in  1781.  He  became  director 
of  the  observatory  at  Turin,  professor  of  analysis,  and 
senator.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Theory 
of  the  Motion  of  the  Moon,"  (3  vols.,  1832.) 

Planard,  de,  deh  plt'ntR',  (FRANgois  Antoine  Eu- 
G^:ne,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  in  Aveyron  in  1783= 
He  produced  successful  comedies  and  comic  operas. 
Died  in  1855. 

Planche,  ploN'sha',  (James  Robinson,)  an  English 
dramatist,  born  in  London  in  1796.  He  published  about 
1827  "Lays  and  Legends  of  the  Rhine,"  and  "The 
Descent  oi  the  Danube."  He  composed  numerous 
successful  extravaganzas  and  dramas,  among  which  were 
"  Oberon,"  an  opera,  and  "Charles  XIL,"  (1828.)  He 
also  wrote  a  "  History  of  British  Costume,"  (1834.) 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this,   (2[^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PLANCHE 


1808 


PLATNER 


Planche,  plSNsh,  (  Jean  Baptiste  Gustave,  )  a 
French  litterateur  and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1808.  He 
wrote  many  able  criticisms  on  art  and  literature  for  the 
"  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  and  published  "  Literary 
Portraits,"  (4  vols.,  1836-49.)    Died  in  1857. 

Planche,  (Joseph,)  a  French  Hellenist,  born  at  La- 
dinhac  (Cantal)  in  1762,  was  professor  at  the  College 
Bourbon,  at  Paris.  He  published,  besides  other  books 
for  students,  a  "  Greek-French  Dictionary,"  (1809,)  which 
was  successful  and  was  adopted  in  the  university.  Died 
in  1853. 

Plancher,  pldN'shi',  (Urbain,)  a  French  monk  and 
historian,  born  in  Anjou  in  1667.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  Burgundy,"  (3  vols.,  1739-48.)    Died  in  1750. 

Planciades.    See  Fulgentius. 

Plancius,  plin'se-us,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  theologian, 
born  in  Flanders  in  1552,  was  a  zealous  Calvinist.  He 
preached  at  Brussels  and  Amsterdam.  By  his  astro- 
nomical and  nautical  science  he  rendered  good  service 
to  the  commerce  of  Holland.    Died  in  1622. 

Planck,  plink,  (Gottlieb  Jakob,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man theologian  and  church  historian,  born  at  Niirtingen, 
in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1 75 1.  He  was  professor  of  theology 
at  Gottingen  from  1784  to  1833.  His  principal  works 
are  a  '*  History  of  the  Protestant  Doctrinal  System," 
("  Geschichte  der  Bildung  des  Protestantischen  Lehr- 
begriffs,"  6  vols.,  1781-1800,)  and  a  "History  of  the 
Origin  and  Development  of  the  Organization  of  the 
Christian  Church,"  (5  vols.,  1803-05.)    Died  in  1833. 

See  LuECKE,  "  Dr.  G.  J.  Planck;  biographischer  Versuch." 

Planck,  (Heinrich  Ludwig,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Gottingen  in  1785.  He  wrote  several 
theological  and  exegetical  works,  and  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Gottingen,  Died  in  183 1. 
^  Plan9on,  p15n's6n',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Javron,  in  Maine.  He  translated  Galen's 
"  Commentary  on  the  Aphorisms  of  Hippocrates,"(i55i.) 
Died  in  1611. 

Plan'cus,  (Lucius  Munatius,)  a  profligate  Roman 
politician,  who  was  a  partisan  of  Caesar  in  the  civil  war. 
He  took  arms  for  the  senate  in  43  B.C.,  but  soon  deserted 
to  Antony,  and  was  consul  in  42  B.C.  In  32  B.C.  he 
abandoned  Antony  and  became  a  partisan  of  Octavius. 
He  was  the  person  to  whom  Horace  addressed  the 
seventh  ode  of  his  first  book. 

His  brother,  Titus  Munatius  Plancus  Bursa,  was 
tribune  of  the  people  in  52  B.C.  He  was  a  violent 
enemy  of  Milo,  and  caused  a  popular  riot  at  the  funeral 
of  Clodius,  for  which  he  was  prosecuted  by  Cicero,  and 
condemned  about  50  B.C. 

Planer,  pli'ner,  (Johann  Jacob,)  a  German  botanist 
and  physician,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1743.  He  translated 
Linnasus's  "  Systema  Naturae"  into  German,  (1774,)  and 
wrote  several  scientific  treatises.    Died  in  1789. 

Planque,  pl6Nk,  (Francois,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Amiens  in  1696.  He  published  a  good  manual 
of  surgery,  "Chirurgie  complete,"  (2  vols.,  1744,)  and 
"Select  Library  of  Medicine,"  (" Bibliotheque  choisie 
de  Medecine,"  10  vols.,  1748-70.)    Died  in  1765. 

Plant,  plint,  (Johann  Traugott,)  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Dresden  in  1756.  He  wrote  a  "  Biographical 
and  Critical  Treatise  on  the  History  of  German  Poetry," 
(1782,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1794. 

Planta,  plln'ti,  (Joseph,)  a  Swiss  historian  and  phi- 
lologist, born  in  the  Grisons  in  1744.  He  became  in 
1799  principal  librarian  of  the  British  Museum.  He 
was  secretary  of  the  Royal  vSociety  of  London  for  twenty 
years  or  more.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Hel- 
vetic Confederacy,"  (2  vols.,  1800,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1827. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  June,  1800. 

Planta,  de,  deh  pUn'tS,  (Martin,)  a  Swiss  natural 
philosopher,  born  in  1727.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
inventor  of  electrical  machines  with  plates,  (h  plateaux.) 
Died  in  1772. 

Plantade,  de,  deh  plfiN'ttd',  (Francois,)  a  French 
astronomer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1670.  He  wrote 
"Observations  on  the  Aurora  Borealis,"  (1730.)  He 
made  some  good  maps  of  Languedoc.    Died  in  1741. 

Plantagenet.    See  Edmund  Plantagenet. 

Plantagenet.    See  Henry  II.  of  England. 


Plantin,  plSN'tiN',  (Christophe,)  an  eminent  printer, 
born  near  Tours,  in  France,  in  15 14.  He  became  the 
proprietor  of  a  printing-office  in  Antwerp  about  1550. 
His  publications  were  renowned  for  correctness  and 
beauty.  He  employed  Kilian,  Pulmann,  (or  Poelmann,) 
and  other  learned  men  as  correctors  of  the  press.  His 
most  remarkable  performance  was  an  edition  of  a  Poly- 
glot Bible,  superintended  by  Arias  Montanus,  (1568-72.) 
Died  in  1589. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Plantin,  plfiN't^N',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Swiss  histo- 
rian, born  at  Lausanne  about  1625.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  Switzerland,"  ("  Helvetia  antiqua  etnova,"  1656,) 
and  other  works.    Died  about  1680. 

Planude.    See  Planudes, 

Pla-nu'des,  [Gr.  W^vov^q  ;  Fr.  Planude,  plt'niid',] 
(Maximus,)  a  Byzantine  monk,  born  at  Nicomedia,  was 
sent  by  Andronicus  II.  on  a  mission  to  Venice  in  1327. 
He  is  chiefly  noted  as  an  editor  of  a  Greek  Anthology, 
a  collection  of  Greek  epigrams,  some  of  which  he  ex- 
tracted from  an  Anthology  compiled  by  Constantinus 
Cephalas  in  the  tenth  century.  Planudes  was  very 
deficient  in  the  judgment  and  taste  required  to  edit 
such  a  work,  and  is  accused  of  literary  forgeries.  His 
Anthology  was  printed  at  Florence  in  1494. 

See  Fabkicius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Plas,  van  der,  vSn  der  plis,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  in  1578;  died  at  Brussels  in  1634. 
Platao.    See  Plato. 

Platea,  plS-ta'S,  (Francesco  Piazza,)  an  Italian 
canonist,  born  at  Bologna  about  1390  ;  died  in  1460. 

Plateau,  plftS',  (Joseph  Antoine  Ferdinand,)  a 
Belgian  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Brussels  in  1801. 
He  has  written  on  optics  and  on  the  statics  of  liquids 
removed  from  the  effects  of  gravity. 

Platen,  von,  fon  pli'ten,  (Dubislav  Friedrich,)  a 
Prussian  general,  born  in  17 14.  He  served  with  dis- 
tinction against  the  Russians  and  Swedes  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  and  became  a  lieutenant-general  about  1758. 
Died  in  1787. 

Platen-Hallermiinde.pl^'ten  hSKlSr-munMeh,  (Au- 
gust,) Count,  a  German  litterateur,  born  at  Anspach  in 
1796.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  History  of  the  King- 
dom of  Naples  from  1414  to  1443,"  and  a  satirical  poem 
entitled  "  The  Romantic  CEdipus."    Died  in  1835. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Minckwitz, 
"Graf  von  Platen  als  Mench  und  Dichter,"  183S. 

Plater,  pll'ter,  (Emilie,)  a  Polish  heroine,  born  at 
Wilna  in  1806.  She  fought,  with  the  rank  of  captain, 
against  the  Russians  in  the  insurrection  of  1830.  Died 
in  1831. 

See  "  Emilie  Plater,  sa  Vie  et  sa  Mort,"  Paris,  1834,  and  "Life  of 
Countess  E.  Plater,"  New  York,  1842;  "Democratic  Review"  for 
July,  1842. 

Plater,  pli'ter,  (F^lix,)  a  Swiss  physician,  born  at 
Bale  in  1536.  He  lectured  and  practised  with  success 
in  that  place.  He  wrote  "  Medical  Practice,"  ("  Praxis 
Medica,"  1602,)  often  reprinted,  and  other  medical 
works.    Died  in  1614. 

Plater,  (F6lix,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1605,  and  became  a  physician  of  Bale.    Died  in  167 1. 

Plater,  (Stanislas,)  Count,  a  Polish  soldier,  his- 
torian, and  antiquary,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1782.  He 
published,  in  French,  a  "  Historical  Atlas  of  Poland," 
and  several  other  works.    Died  in  185 1. 

Platina.    See  Paul  II. 

Platina,  plS-tee'ni,  (Bartolommeo  de  Sacchis,) 
an  able  Italian  historian,  born  at  Piadena,  near  Cre- 
mona, in  1421.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "The 
Lives  of  the  Popes,"  ("  In  Vitas  Summorum  Pontificum 
Opus,"  1479,)  a  work  of  much  merit,  often  reprinted, 
and  a  "  History  of  Mantua,"  (1675.)  He  became  li- 
brarian of  the  Vatican  about  1472.  Died  in  1481.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Academy  founded  at  Rome  by 
Pomponius  Laetus,  and  as  such  was  persecuted  by  Pope 
Paul  II. 

See  Baylh,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Niceron, 
"Memoires;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Platner,  plSt'ner,  (Eduard,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Leipsic  in  1786.  He  wrote,  besides  many  literary 
essays,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Attic  Races,"  ("  De  Gentibus 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  raSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


PLATNER 


PLATO 


Atticis,"  1811,)  and  "  Questions  on  the  Roman  Criminal 
Law,"  ("Quaestiones  de  Jure  criminum  Romano,"  1842.) 

Platner,  (Ernst,)  a  German  philosopher  and  phy- 
sician, born  at  Leipsic  in  1744,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Leipsic 
in  1770.  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  lecturer  and  a 
writer.  Among  his  works  are  "  Anthropology  for  Phy- 
sicians and  Philosophers,"  (2  vols.,  1774,)  and  "Philo- 
sophic Aphorisms,"  (2  vols.,  1776-82.)  His  style  is 
commended  for  precision  and  elegance.    Died  in  i8i8. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Platner,  (Ernst  Zacharias,)  a  writer,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1773.  He  published 
a  "  Description  of  Rome,"  (3  vols.,  1830-43.) 

Platner,  (Johann  Zacharias,)  a  surgeon,  born  at 
Chemnitz  in  1694,  was  the  father  of  Ernst,  noticed  above. 
He  taught  at  Leipsic,  and  was  a  skilful  oculist.  He 
wrote,  in  elegant  Latin,  "  Surgical  Institutes,"  ("  Insti- 
tutiones  Chirurgiae  rationales,"  1745,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1747. 

Pla'to,*[Gr.ILlar6;v;  Lat.  Pla'to  ;  Fr.  Platon,  plf- 
t6N';  Ger.  the  same  as  the  Latin  ;  It.  Platone,  pl^-to'ni ; 
Sp.  Platon,  pia-t6n' ;  Port.  Platao,  pli-towN' ;  Arab, 
and  Persian,  Aflatoon,  a-flt'toon',]  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  philosophers  of  all  time,  was  born  about  429 
B.C.  He  belonged  to  one  of  the  highest  families  of 
Athens,  being  descended  on  the  side  of  his  father, 
Aris'to,  (or  Aris'ton,)  from  Codrus,  and  on  that  of  his 
mother,  Pericti'one,  he  was  related  to  the  celebrated 
lawgiver  Solon.  As  to  the  place  of  his  birth  there  is 
some  dispute.  Some  writers  say  that  he  was  born  at 
Athens  ;  others,  in  the  island  of  /Egina.  His  original 
name  was  Aris'tocles,  after  his  grandfather  :  he  was  sur- 
named  Plato,  (from  TrAariif,  "broad,")  on  account  of 
the  breadth  of  his  forehead,  or,  as  some  say,  of  his 
shoulders.  Very  little  is  certainly  known  of  the  history 
of  his  life,  and,  as  is  usual  in  such  cases,  the  absence 
of  positive  information  is  liberally  supplied  by  what  is 
legendary  or  fabulous.  It  is  related  that  while  an  infant, 
as  he  was  one  day  sleeping  in  a  bovver  on  Mount  Hymel- 
tus,  a  number  of  bees  dropping  honey  settled  upon  his 
lips,  thus  foreshadowing  the  extraordinary  sweetness  of 
his  eloquence.  According  to  another  story,  his  future 
greatness  was  foreshown  by  a  dream  of  Socrates,  who 
saw  in  his  sleep  a  young  swan  coming  from  the  grove 
of  Academus ;  after  nestling  in  his  bosom,  it  soared 
aloft,  singing  sweetly  as  it  rose.  The  next  morning, 
just  as  Socrates  had  finished  relating  his  dream,  Aristo 
presented  himself,-  leading  by  the  hand  young  Plato, 
whom  he  wished  to  place  under  the  instruction  of  that 
distinguished  sage. 

Plato  was  a  remarkable  example  of  that  universal 
culture  which  characterized  the  best  period  of  ancient 
Greece.  He  appears  to  have  neglected  no  branch  of 
science  or  art  which  was  considered  to  form  any  part 
of  a  liberal  education.  He  studied  music,  rhetoric,  and 
painting,  and,  after  the  manner  of  his  countrymen,  paid 
great  attention  to  gymnastics,  in  which  he  was  so  ex- 
pert, we  are  told,  that  he  contended  at  the  Isthmian  and 
Pythian  games.  In  early  life  he  is  said  to  have  turned 
his  attention  to  poetry,  and  to  have  written  an  epic  poem, 
which,  however,  on  comparing  it  with  the  "  Iliad,"  he 
burned  in  despair.  He  also  composed  some  lyrics  and 
several  tragedies.  But  "having  once,"  as  i^^lian  ex- 
presses it,  "been  captivated  by  the  siren  of  Socrates," 
he  gave  himself  up  wholly  to  the  study  of  philosophy. 
He  was  in  his  twentieth  year,  as  it  appears,  when  he 
began  to  attend  the  school  of  Socrates,  where  he  con- 
tinued until  his  master's  death,  (399  B.C.)  After  this 
event,  in  order  to  escape  the  persecutions  which  threat- 
ened them,  he,  with  several  other  Socratic  disciples, 
withdrew  to  Megara,  where  they  were  received  by  the 
philosopher  Euclid,  who  had  also  been  a  pupil  of  Socra- 
tes. Plato  is  said  subsequently  to  have  travelled  exten- 
sively, visiting  Egypt,  Sicily,  and  Magna  Grascia,  where 
he  became  acquainted  with  the  doctrines  of  Pythagoras. 
Some  writers  speak  of  his  having  journeyed  into  the 
interior  of  Asia  for  the  purpose  of  enriching  his  mind 
with  the  wisdom  of  the  Persians,  Babylonians,  and  other 

*  Chaucer  gives  the  name  Platon,  or  Platone,  and  Plato. 


nations  of  the  East ;  but  of  this  there  is  not  a  particle 
of  trustworthy  evidence.  While  in  Sicily  he  became 
acquainted  with  Dion,  (or  Dio,)  who  introduced  him  to 
Dionysius  the  Elder.  But  the  philosopher,  as  might 
well  be  supposed,  was  not  likely  to  find  much  favour  ii\ 
the  eyes  of  an  unscrupulous  and  reckless  tyrant.  They 
soon  quarrelled,  and  on  one  occasion  Dionysius,  it  is 
said,  was  so  deeply  offended  with  the  freedom  of  some 
of  Plato's  remarks,  that,  had  not  Dion  interposed,  he 
would  have  punished  him  with  death.  Although  the 
tyrant  was  prevailed  on  to  spare  his  life,  he  caused  him  to 
be  sold  as  a  slave.  He  was,  however,  ransomed  and  set 
at  liberty, — some  say  by  Dion,  others,  by  Anniceris  of 
Cyrene.  Having  returned  to  Athens,  he  opened  a  school, 
called  the  Academy,  ( Academia,)  in  a  grove,  which  had 
formerly  belonged  to  a  citizen  named  Academus  or 
Hecademus.  His  school  was  numerously  attended  by 
young  men  of  the  most  distinguished  families  of  Athens 
and  of  all  Greece.  Even  women  were  numbered,  it 
is  said,  among  his  disciples.  After  having  taught  in 
Athens  more  than  twenty  years,  he  again  visited  Sicily, 
at  the  solicitation  of  Dion,  who  hoped  that  Plato's  influ- 
ence might  be  successful  in  winning  to  philosophy  thr 
younger  Dionysius,  and  in  establishing,  through  him,  a 
model  government  in  Syracuse.  (For  a  most  interesting 
account  of  this  experiment  and  its  failure,  see  Grote's 
"  History  of  Greece,"  vols.  x.  and  xi.)  He  afterwards 
visited  Syracuse  for  the  third  time,  in  order  to  effect  a 
reconciliation  between  Dionysius  and  Dion  ;  but  in  this 
attempt  he  was  wholly  unsuccessful.  He  returned  to 
Athens,  where  he  continued  to  write  and  teach  until  his 
death,  which  occurred  347  B.C.,  in  his  eighty-fourth  year. 
According  to  some  writers,  however,  he  died  in  his  eighty- 
first  year.  He  was,  as  Cicero  informs  us,  occupied  in 
writing  at  the  very  moment  of  his  death.  There  is  per- 
haps  in  the  history  of  the  human  intellect  no  example 
of  any  one  having  dedicated  himself  with  a  more  abso- 
lute devotion  to  philosophy  (the  "love  or  study  of  wis- 
dom") than  Plato.  He  was  never  married  ;  and,  from 
the  time  when  he  first  became  acquainted  with  Socrates, 
(about  his  twentieth  year,)  every  moment  of  his  long 
life  appears  to  have  been  spent  in  the  interest  of  his 
favourite  pursuit. 

This  entire  dedication  of  all  his  powers  to  one  grand 
object  has  not  been  without  results  of  the  highest  im- 
portance to  mankind.  Probably  no  other  philosopher, 
of  whatever  age  or  nation,  has  contributed  so  much  as 
Plato  towards  the  moral  and  intellectual  culture  of  the 
human  race.  This  pre-emiiience  is  to  be  ascribed  not 
solely  to  his  transcendent  intellect  or  to  the  marvellous 
depth  and  comprehensiveness  of  his  philosophic  views, 
but  also  in  no  small  measure  to  his  poetic  power,  and 
to  that  unrivalled  grace  and  beauty  of  style  which  led 
the  ancients  to  say  that  if  Jove  should  speak  Greek  he 
would  speak  like  Plato.  Macaulay,  alluding  to  Plato's 
wonderful  power  as  a  writer,  speaks  of  him  as  "the 
finest  of  human  intellects,  exercising  boundless  dominion 
over  the  finest  of  human  languages."  ("Essay  on  Lord 
Bacon.'")  The  charms  of  his  style,  indeed,  by  awakening 
the  interest  and  admiration  of  all  loA'ers  of  literature, 
have  doubtless  been  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  that  state 
of  excellent  preservation  in  which  his  works  have  come 
down  to  us.  For,  by  a  singular  good  fortune,  all  his 
philosophical  writings,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  have 
been  preserved,  not  only  unmutilated  with  respect  to 
the  different  parts,  but  with  the  text,  comparatively 
speaking,  uncorrupted  and  unimpaired. 

With  respect  to  Plato's  character  as  a  man  we  know 
scarcely  anything  except  what  is  revealed  in  his  works. 
"  Despite  the  disposition  of  the  Greeks  for  calumny," 
says  Ritter,  "there  are  but  few  evil  rumours  against 
which  we  have  to  vindicate  the  purity  of  his  moral  con- 
duct." The  same  writer  not  only  rejects  as  unfounded 
the  charges  against  the  purity  of  Plato's  private  char- 
acter, but  regards  as  either  wholly  unjust  or  greatly 
exaggerated  the  imputation  against  him  of  malice  or 
ill  feeling  towards  certain  other  disciples  of  Socrates, 
such  as  Xenophon,  Euclid,  Aristippus,  and  others, 
whose  views  on  many  points  differed  widely  from  his 
own.  Plato  has  been  accused  by  some  modern  writers 
of  being  wanting  in  patriotism  and  in  a  sympathy  for 


€  as^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,gutiural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this,    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

114 


PLATO 


1810 


PLATO 


humanity.  Both  of  these  charges  seem  to  us  unjust. 
The  state  of  political  morals  in  his  time  was  such  that 
he  could  scarcely  hope  to  effect  any  good  by  taking  an 
active  part  in  public  affairs.  By  doing  so,  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe,  he  would  have  only  embroiled  himself 
in  an  endless  conflict  with  men  with  whom  his  standard 
of  right  would  not  permit  him  to  co-operate.  Besides, 
his  talents  do  not  appear  to  have  fitted  him  for  politics  ; 
and  he  is  certainly  not  to  be  censured  for  confining  him- 
self to  that  field  of  labour  for  which  nature  had  best 
qualified  him.  The  charge  that  he  was  wanting  in  a 
sympathy  for  human  nature  appears  to  have  no  other 
foundation  than  the  fact  that  he  had  no  sympathy  with 
vice  and  ignorance,  two  most  conspicuous  features  in 
the  human  nature  which  he  saw  around  him.  Yet  the 
great  object,  and,  we  may  add,  the  tendency,  of  nearly 
all  his  teachings  was  to  make  mankind  happier  by 
making  them  wiser  and  better.* 

With  respect  to  Plato's  philosophic  system,  it  is  im- 
possible to  say  with  any  precision  how  much  of  it  was 
properly  his  own,  and  how  much  was  derived  from  his 
great  master.  (See  Socrates.)  It  is  a  fine  saying  of 
Mr.  Emerson,  that  "  Socrates  and  Plato  are  the  double 
star  which  the  most  powerful  instruments  will  not  en- 
tirely separate."t  The  plan  and  limits  of  the  present 
work  will  permit  us  only  to  glance  at  some  of  the  most 
striking  characteristics  of  Plato's  ])hilosophy  as  we  find 
it  unfolded  in  his  writings.  His  system  may  be  consid- 
ered from  two  points  of  view, — the  one  having  reference 
to  the  method,  the  other  to  the  results,  of  his  philosophic 
investigations.  His  method,  which  appears  to  be  scarcely 
more  than  an  extension  of  that  of  Socrates,  was  undoubt- 
e*lly  a  great  improvement  on  the  methods  of  previous 
philosophers. 

But  the  admirable  lessons  of  his  great  teacher,  re- 
specting the  manner  and  spirit  with  which  the  search 
after  truth  should  be  conducted,  would  in  all  probability 
have  been  quickly  forgotten  and  lost  to  the  world,  had 
not  Plato  made  them  immortal  by  his  writings.  Re- 
ferring the  reader  to  the  article  on  Socratp:s  for  a  brief 
notice  of  the  Socratic  method,  we  shall  here  limit  our- 
selves to  simply  calling  attention  \^  some  of  the  most 
remarkable  points  in  Plato's  philosophic  creed,  without 
attempting,  in  our  narrow  space,  to  give  even  a  complete 
outline  of  his  system.  He  taught  that  God  was  the 
supreme  Idea  or  Essence  of  the  universe,  comprising 
within  himself  all  other  beings,  and  was  the  Cause  of  all 
things,  celestial  and  terrestrial.  He  alone  is  good,  with- 
out envy,  willing  good  to  all  so  far  as  each  is  capable  of 
receiving  it :  God  alone  is  unchangeable.  Plato  strongly 
condemned  the  views,  then  prevalent,  which  represented 
the  gods  as  having  human  passions  and  as  influenced 
by  selfish  human  motives.  While  he  taught  the  exist- 
ence of  one  supreme  God,  the  source  and  upholder  of 
all  things,  he  appears  to  have  recognized,  at  the  same 
time,  a  class  of  inferior  deities,  or  beings  with  godlike 
attributes,  far  superior  to  man.  One  of  the  most  re- 
markable features  of  Plato's  philosophy  is  his  theory  of 
ideas.  With  him,  an  idea  is  not  simply  an  image  or 
conception  formed  by  the  human  mind  :  it  is  rather  an 
eternal  thought  of  the  Divine  mind.    He  held  that  the 


*  We  need  scarcely  say  that  we  utterly  and  totally  dissent  from 
Macaiilay's  estimate  of  Plato's  philosophic  writings,  (see  "  Essay  on 
Lord  Bacon,"  second  part,)  which  he  compares  to  a  magnificent  tree, 
full  of  beautiful  leaves  and  flowers,  but  producing  no  fruit.  Writings 
which  have  inspired  the  souls  of  so  many  thousands  with  loftier  aspi- 
rations and  with  a  more  earnest  love  of  virtue,  may  be  truly  said  to 
have  borne  fruit  of  the  most  precious  kind,  compared  with  which  tlie 
boasted  products  of  the  Baconian  philosophy  are  little  better  than 
the  apples  of  the  Dead  Sea.  That  Plato's  writings  have  often  pro- 
duced the  results  wliich  we  have  ascribed  to  them  will  scarcely  be 
denied,  we  think,  by  any  one  familiar  witli  those  writings  or  with  the 
history  of  antiquity.  To  cite  one  example  out  of  many,  Cato  the 
Younger,  confessedly  one  of  the  noblest  and  most  virtuous  of  all  the 
Romans,  when  surrounded  with  misfortunes  on  every  hand,  and 
amid  the  ruins  of  his  country,  sought  and  found  consolation  and  hope 
in  the  sublime  teachings  of  Plato's  "  Phsdo." 

t  See  "Representative  Men,"  article  "Plato,"  the  whole  of 
which  is  well  worthy  of  perusal  by  those  who  would  have  a  vivid 
conception  of  Plato's  power  as  a  philosopher.  This  essay,  it  seems 
to  us,  is  one  of  Mr.  Emerson's  happiest  efforts  ;  and,  if  he  some- 
times exaggerates  the  greatness  and  worth  of  liis  hero,  the  fault  is 
more  than  atoned  for  by  a  thorough  and  vivid  appreciation  of  his 
subject, — perhaps  the  most  important,  as  it  is  the  rarest,  qualification 
of  a  good  critic. 


human  soul  is  not  only  immortal,  but  that  it  has  always 
existed. I  In  its  pre-existent  state  it  has  had  a  perception 
of  the  eternal  ideas  {i.e.  the  perfect  forms  or  patterns 
of  things)  as  they  exist  in  the  mind  of  God.  A  dim, 
shadowy  remembrance  of  those  celestial  patterns  is  what 
sometimes  enables  us  to  form  a  conception  of  loveliness, 
virtue,  etc.  far  more  perfect,  more  divine,  than  anything 
our  mortal  eyes  have  ever  beheld.  It  is  thus  that  the 
gifted  painter  is  enabled  to  give  us  forms  of  beauty  more 
exquisite  than  any  that  can  be  found  in  this  world.  It 
is  thus,  also,  that  on  hearing  of  a  generous  action  we 
are  enabled  to  form  an  idea  of  generosity ;  for  it  is  ob- 
vious that  such  an  action  could  have  no  significance  to 
one  who  had  never  known  the  feeling  of  generosity  in  his 
soul  :  in  a  perfectly  selfish  man,  if  such  a  one  ci>uld  be 
found,  it  would  not  awaken  admiration,  but  simply  con- 
tempt. Xenophon  tells  us,  in  the  second  book  of  his 
"Anabasis,"  that  Menon  the  Thessalian  considered 
honesty  and  truth  to  be  nothing  else  than  stupidity  or 
folly.  A  Phitonist  would  explain  this  by  saying  that  ail 
traces  of  the  Divine  ideas  of  truth  and  justice  had, 
through  the  love  of  gain  or  love  of  power,  become 
obliterated  from  his  soul.  Plato  taught  that  the  oniy 
way  in  which  men  can  rise  in  wisdoin  and  virtue  is 
by  striving  to  restore  the  lost  ideas  and  to  make  their 
minds  approximate  the  mind  of  God. 

Plato  appears  to  have  made  himself  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  all  the  previous  philosophic  systems  which 
had  appeared  in  Greece.  He  had  not  only  diligently 
studied  the  doctrines  of  Heracli'tus,  Pythagoras,  and 
Socrates,  but  also  those  of  Anaxagoras,  Parmenides,  and 
others  of  less  note.  "He  reduced,"  says  Ritter,  "into 
a  beautiful  whole  the  scattered  results  of  the  earlier 
Greek  philosophy,  reconciling  their  seeming  differences 
and  conflicting  tendencies.  .  .  .  When,  indeed,  we  com- 
pare the  barrenness  of  the  earlier  philosophers  with  the 
fertility  of  Plato,  that  love,  which  he  knows  so  well  how 
to  inspire  in  us,  warms  almost  to  veneration,  so  rich,  so 
varied,  and  so  abundant  are  his  observations,  and  so 
profound  his  knowledge  of  man  and  of  the  world.  .  .  . 
To  such  richness  of  materials  Plato  united  the  rarest 
skill  of  language  and  composition  to  a  degree  which  has 
never  since  been  equalled." 

Respecting  Plato's  intellectual  power  as  a  philosopher, 
Mr.  Emerson  grandly  observes  that  "  his  strength  is  like 
the  momentum  of  a  falling  planet,  and  his  discretion 
the  return  of  its  due  and  perfect  curve."  Again  he  says, 
"The  way  to  know  him  [Plato]  is  to  compare  him,  not 
with  nature,  but  with  other  men.  How  many  ages  have 
gone  by,  and  he  remains  unapproached  !"  ("  Representa- 
tive Men.") 

The  philosophic  writings  of  Plato  are,  with  some 
slight  exce]5tions,  in  the  form  of  dialogues,  in  all  of 
which,  save  one,  ("The  Laws,")  Socrates  is  one  of  the 
chief  interlocutors.  The  different  dialogues  have  been 
distributed  by  Schleiermacher  into  three  divisions. 

The  first  division,  in  which  the  development  of  the 
dialogistic  method  is  the  chief  object,  includes  the 
"Phaedrus,"  "Lysis,"  "Protagoras,"  "Laches,"  "Char- 
mides,"  "Euthyphro,"  and  "Parmenides,"  to  which  are 
added,  by  way  of  appendix  or  supplement,  the  "Apolf)gy 
of  Socrates,"  "  Critos,"  "Ion,"  "  Hippias  Minor,"  "Hip- 
parchus,"  "Minos,"  and  "  Alcibiades  II."  The  second 
division,  in  which  the  predominant  subject  is  the  expla- 
nation of  knowledge,  including  the  difference  between 
philosophical  and  coinmon  knowledge,  comprises  the 
"  Gorgias,"  "  Theaetetus,"  "Meno,"  "  Euthydemus," 
"Cratylus,"  "  Sojihistes,"  "  Politicus,"  ("Statesman,") 
"Symposium,"  ("Banquet,")  "Phasdo,"  (or  "  Ph^edon,") 
and  "Philebus,"  with  an  appendix  containing  the  "The- 
ages,"  "Erastse,"  "Alcibiades  I.,"  "Menexenus,"  "  Hip- 
pias Major,"  and  "Clitophon."  The  third  division 
consists  of  such  as  contain  an  objective  scientific  ex- 
position,— in  other  words,  combine  practical  science 
with  speculative  philosophy:  these  are  the  "Republic," 
"Timasus,"  and  "Critias,"  to  which  may  be  added  "The 


X  He  appears  to  have  believed  not  that  the  soul  has  always  existed 
in  its  present  form  or  condition,  or  anything  like  it,  but  that  as  God 
is  tlie  source  of  all  things,  and  as  His  thoughts  and  purposes  are 
eternal,  the  soul  may  therefore  be  said  to  have  always  liad  an  exist- 
ence in  that  infinite  Being  of  whom  it  is  an  emanation. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  lonp;,  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure:  fir,  fill,  fit;  m&t;  nSt;good;  moon; 


PLATO  1811 


Laws."  The  first  edition  of  Plato's  entire  works  was 
that  published  in  Venice  by  Aldus  in  1513;  the  best 
are  perhaps — first,  that  of  Ast,  published  at  Leipsic,  in 
9  vols.  8vo,  1819-27,  and,  second,  that  of  G.  Stallbaum, 
in  8  vols.  8vo,  Leipsic,  1821-25,  (and  the  same  text  in  8 
vols.  i2mo,  1826.) 

See  Fri'edrich  Ast,  "  Plato's  Leben  und  Schriften,"  Leipsic, 
1816;  Stallbaum,  "Disputatio  de  Platonis  Vita,  Ingenio  at 
Scriptis,"  prefixed  to  his  edition  of  Plato's  works  ;  Ritter,  "  His- 
tory of  Ancient  Philosophy,"  translated  by  A.  J.  W.  Mokison,  4 
vols.  8vo,  Oxford,  1838  ;  Schleiermacher,  "  Introductions  to  the 
Dialogues  of  Plato,"  translated  by  Wm.  Dobson,  i  vol.  8vo,  Cam- 
bridge, 1836;  Conrad  Lagus,  "  Oratio  de  Vita  Platonis,"  1538; 
"Remarks  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Plato,"  Edinburgh,  1660; 
CoMBES-DouNOUS,  Essai  historique  sur  Platon,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1809  ; 
A.  Folker,  "Dissertatio  de  Vita  Platonis,"  1797  ;  Andre  Dacier, 
"  Plato's  Leben,  mit  einer  nahern  Angabe  seiner  philosophischen 
Lehrsatze,  aus  dem  Franzosischen,"  1829;  L  Ogienski,  "Pericles 
et  Plato:  Inquisitio  historica  et  philosopliica,"  183S  ;  T.  van  Swin- 
DEREN,  "Oratio  de  Platone  optimo  in  Legibus  condendis  Principe 
magistro,"  1807;  also  the  articles  on  "Plato"  in  the  "Encyclopaedia 
Britannica,"  in  Smith's  "  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc.,  and  in 
the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale,"  from  the  pen  of  Dr.  Hoefer. 

Plato,  [Gr.  Il/lurwv,]  an  eminent  Athenian  comic 
poet  of  the  old  comedy,  flourished  about  428-390  B.C., 
and  was  contemporary  with  Aristophanes.  He  attacked 
Cleon  and  other  demagogues  in  his  plays,  which  dis- 
played keen  wit,  vigour,  and  purity  of  style.  Many 
fragments  of  them  have  come  down  to  us.  According 
to  some  critics,  he  was  a  writer  of  the  middle  comedy. 

Platof,  Platov,  or  Platow,  pUVtof,  Hetman  of  the 
Cossacks,  was  born  on  the  Don  about  1760.  He  served 
as  general  in  the  Russian  army  which  marched  to  the 
aid  of  Prussia  in  1806.  He  harassed  the  retreating 
French  army  in  181 2,  and  entered  Paris  with  a  troop 
of  Cossacks  in  1814.    Died  in  1818. 

Platon.    See  Plato. 

Platon,  plS'ton,  (LEFSHiNor  Leffschin,)  an  eminent 
Russian  prelate,  born  near  Moscow  in  1737.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  an  eloquent  pulpit  orator,  and  be- 
came court  preacher  to  Catherine  II.  He  was  appointed 
Archbishf)p  of  Moscow  in  1775,  and  Metropolitan  of  the 
Russian  Church  in  1787.  He  published  many  sermons 
and  theological  works,  which  are  highly  commended. 
Died  in  November,  1812. 

Platone.    See  Plai  o. 

Platte-Montagne,  pltt'miN^ttn',  (Matthew  van 
Plathen-Berch  or  Plattenherg,)  a  Flemish  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1606.  He  removed 
to  Paris,  where  he  painted  portraits  and  engraved  land- 
scapes. Died  in  1660.  His  son  Nicolas  (1631-1706) 
was  also  a  painter  and  engraver. 

Plaute.    See  Plautus. 

Plauto.    See  Plautus. 

Plau'tus,  [Fr.  Plaute,  plot ;  It.  Plauto,  plow'to,] 
(Marcus  Acciusor  Attius,)  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
Roman  comic  poets,  was  a  native  of  Sarsina,  in  Umbria. 
It  is  supposed  that  he  was  born  about  254,  or,  as  some 
say,  in  224  B.C.  In  his  youth  he  served  a  baker  by 
grinding  corn  with  a  hand-mill.  Little  is  known  of  his 
history.  According  to  Cicero,  he  died  in  184  B.C.  His 
plays  were  very  popular  in  his  own  time,  and  are  gen- 
erally admired  by  modern  critics.  His  elegance,  re- 
finement, and  wit  are  commended  by  Cicero  and  other 
ancient  critics.  Horace  censures  his  coarse  jests  and 
his  versification.  The  titles  of  his  extant  plays  are 
"Amphitruo,"  "  Asinaria,"  "Aulularia,"  "  Bacchides," 
"  Captivi,"  "Curculio,"  "Casina,"  "  Cistellaria,"'  "  Epi- 
dicus,"  "Menaechmi,"  "  Mercator,"  "Miles  Gloriosus," 
"  Mostellaria,"  "  Persa,"  "  Poenulus,"  "  Pseudolus,"  "  Ru- 
dens,"  "Stichus,"  "Trinummus,"  and  "  Truculentus." 
There  is  a  good  English  version  of  Plautus  by  Bonnel 
Thornton.  The  "Captivi"  was  pronounced  the  most 
perfect  of  comedies  by  Lessing,  who,  as  a  critic,  had 
scarcely  any  superior. 

See  Grondvius,  "  Lectiones  Plautinse,"  1740;  Loman,  "Speci- 
men critico-literarium  in  Plautnm  et  Terentium,"  1845  ;  Andesen, 
"De  Vita  Plauti,"  1843;  Lessing,  "Von  dem  Leben  und  den 
Werken  des  Plautus,''  in  the  third  volume  of  his  works,  Berlin,  1838  ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review" 
for  April,  1843. 

Play'fair,  (John,)  an  eminent  Scottish  mathemati- 
cian and  astronomer,  born  at  Benvie,  Forfarshire,  on  the 
loth  of  March,  1748,  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Saint  Andrew's.  He  became  minister  of  the  parishes  of 


PLEMP 


Lifif  and  Benvie  in  1773,  and  professor  of  mathematics 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1785.  In  1805  he 
succeeded  Professor  Robison  as  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  in  the  same  university.  He  contributed  to 
the  "Edinburgh  Review"  many  articles,  among  which  is 
a  review  of  La  Place's  "Traite  de  Mecanique  celeste," 
(1808.)  He  published  "Elements  of  Geometry,"  (1795,) 
which  was  extensively  used  in  schools,  "Illustrations 
of  the  Huttonian  Theory  of  the  Earth,"  (1802,)  and 
"Outlines  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  (2  vols.,  1812.) 
Among  his  contributions  to  the  "  Transactions"  of  the 
Edinburgh  Royal  Society  are  "  Remarks  on  the  Astron- 
omy of  the  Brahmins,"  and  "  On  the  Solids  of  Greatest 
Attraction."  He  wrote  the  article  "  Physical  Astronomy" 
for  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica."  Died  in  1819. 
"  He  possessed  in  the  highest  degree,"  says  Jeffrey,  "all 
the  characteristics  both  of  a  fine  and  powerful  under- 
standing;, at  once  penetrating  and  vigilant,  but  more 
distinguished  perhaps  for  the  caution  and  sureness  (or 
success)  of  its  march  than  for  the  brilliancy  or  rapidity 
of  its  movements." 

See  a  "Life  of  J.  Playfair,"  prefixed  to  his  collected  works,  4 
vols.,  1822;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary;"  Jeffrey, 
"  Miscellanies." 

Play'fair,  (Lyon,)  an  English  chemist,  born  in  Bengal, 
in  India,  in  1819.  He  studied  at  Saint  Andrew's,  and  at 
Giessen  under  Liebig.  He  became  in  1843  professor  of 
chemistry  in  the  Royal  Institution  in  Manchester.  For 
his  services  as  a  commissioner  of  the  Great  Exhibition 
of  185 1  he  was  made  a  Companion  of  the  Bath.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  in  1858.  He  has  published  a  number  of 
treatises  and  lectures  on  chemistry. 

Playfair,  (William,)  a  Scottish  political  writer  and 
ingenious  inventor,  born  near  Dundee  in  1759,  was  a 
brother  of'  Professor  John  Playfair.  He  made  several 
useful  mechanical  inventions.  About  1814  he  became 
editor  of  Galignani's  "  Messenger,"  in  Paris.  He  after- 
wards resided  in  London.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  a  "History  of  Jacobinism,"  (1795,)  and  "British 
Family  Antiquity,"  (9  vols.,  1809-12.)    Died  in  1823. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Play'ford,  (John,)  an  English  writer  on  music,  born 
in  1613  ;  died  in  1693.  His  son  Henry  published 
"Orpheus  Britannicus." 

Plgas'on-ton,  (Alfred,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Washington,  District  of  Columbia,  in  1824,  graduated 
at  W^est  Point  in  1 844.  He  gained  the  rank  of  captain 
in  1855,  and  became  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers 
in  1862.  He  commanded  a  body  of  cavalry  at  Antietam, 
September,  1862,  and  at  Chancellorsville,  May,  1863,  and 
had  the  chief  command  of  the  Union  cavalry  at  Gettys- 
burg, July  1-3,  1863.  He  served  in  Missouri  when  that 
State  was  invaded  by  General  Price  in  October,  1864. 

Pleas'ants,  (James,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in 
Virginia  in  1769.  He  was  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  from  1819  to  1822,  and  Governor  of  Virginia 
from  1822  to  1825.    Died  in  1836. 

Pleg'mund,  an  English  prelate  under  the  reign  of 
Alfred  the  Great,  was  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
in  890  A.D.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  learning  and 
virtues,  and  was  honoured  with  the  friendship  of  the 
king.  He  is  supposed  to  have  had  a  part  in  the  com- 
pilation of  the  "Saxon  Chronicle." 

See  W.  F.  Hook:,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  i.  chap,  vi.,  i860. 

Pleiades,  plee'ya-d^z,  [Gr.  TlleLade^  or  Tlekeiadeg ;  Fr. 
Pleiades,  pla'e-td' ;  Eng.  Pleiads,  plee'yads,  ]  the 
daughters  of  Atlas  and  Pleione,  were  seven  in  number, 
and  were  said  to  be  sisters  of  the  Hyades.  Their  names 
were  Electra,  Maia,  Taygete,  Alcyone,  Cel^no, 
Sterope,  and  Merope.  According  to  one  legend,  they 
were  attendants  of  Diana,  and,  to  protect  them  from  the 
amorous  pursuit  of  Orion,  were  changed  into  doves  and 
placed  among  the  stars.  They  were  sometimes  called 
Atlantides. 

Plemp,  plSmp,  (Cornelts,)  a  writer  of  Latin  poetry, 
was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1574;  died  in  1638. 

Plemp,  [Lat.  Plem'pius,]  (Vopiscus  Fortunatus,) 
a  physician  and  writer,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1601,  be- 
came professor  at  Louvain  in  1633.    Died  in  1671. 


e  as  ^;  9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  h,  k,  gu^ral;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PLEMPIUS 


1812 


PLOT  IN  US 


Plempius.    See  Plf.mp. 

Plenck,  von,  fon  pl^nk,  (Joseph  Jakob,)  a  German 
surgeon  and  botanist,  born  at  Vienna  in  1738.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  one  "On  Diseases  of  the 
Eyes,"  ("  De  Morbis  Oculorum,"  1777,)  and  "Figures 
of  Medicinal  Plants,"  ("Icones  Plantarum  medicina- 
lium,"  7  vols.,  1 788-1804.)    Died  in  1807. 

See  Mkusel,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 

Plessing,  plgs'sing,  (Friedrjch  Victor  Lebrecht,) 
a  German  philosopher,  born  near  Magdeburg  in  1752. 
He  was  professor  of  philost)phy  at  Duisburg,  and  wrote 
two  works  on  the  philosophy  of  the  ancients,  entitled 
"Osiris  and  Socrates,"  (1783,)  and  "Memnonium,  or 
an  Essay  to  Unveil  the  Mysteries  of  Antiquity,"  (1787.) 
Died  in  1806. 

Plessis.    See  Duplessis  and  Richelieu. 

Plessis  d'Argentre.    See  A  rgentr6,  d'. 

Plessis-Mornay.    See  Mornay. 

Plessis-Praslin.    See  Choiseul. 

Pletho  or  Plethon.    See  Gemis  i  us. 

Pleville  le  Pelley,  pla'v^K  leh  (George 
Rene,)  a  French  admiral,  born  at  Granville  in  1726.  He 
fought  with  distinction  for  the  United  States,  (1778-83.) 
He  was  minister  of  the  marine  in  1797.    Died  in  1805. 

Pleyel,  pla'^K,  (Joseph  Etienne  Camille,)  a  com- 
poser and  pianist,  was  born  at  Strasburg  about  1790. 
He  became  a  partner  of  Kalkbrenner  in  the  fabrication 
of  pianos  in  Paris.    Died  in  1855. 

Pleyl,  pill,  or  Pleyel,  plT'el,  (Ignaz,)  a  celebrated 
composer,  father  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Ruppersthal, 
near  Vienna,  in  1756  or  1757.  Having  studied  under 
Haydn  and  subsequently  visited  Italy,  he  was  appointed, 
after  his  return,  chapel-master  at  Strasburg.  In  1795 
he  settled  in  Paris,  where  he  established  a  piano-manu- 
factory and  published  the  "  Bibliotheque  Musicale."  His 
works  are  chiefly  pieces  of  instrumental  music,  which 
were  very  popular  in  his  time.    Died  in  1831. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Pline.  See  Pliny. 
Plinio.  See  Pliny. 
Plinius.    See  Pliny. 

Plin'i-us  Va-le-ii-a'nus,  the  reputed  author  of  a 
medical  work  called  "  Medicinae  Plinianae  Libri  quinque." 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  compiled  several  centuries 
after  the  Christian  era. 

Plin'y  [Fr.  Pline,  plin  ;  It.  Plinio,  plee'ne-o]  the 
Elder,  (or,  more  fully,  Ca'ius  Plin'ius  Secun'dus,) 
a  celebrated  Roman  naturalist,  was  born  at  Verona,  or, 
according  to  some  authorities.  Novum  Comum,  (the 
modern  Como,)  in  23  a.D.  He  served  in  the  army  in 
Germany,  under  Lucius  Pomponius,  and  returned  to 
Rome  about  the  age  of  thirty.  He  studied  law,  and 
practised  as  a  pleader  for  a  few  years.  He  was  after- 
wards procurator  in  Spain  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  and 
became  a  friend  and  favoured  officer  of  Vespasian.  We 
possess  but  little  other  information  of  his  public  life, 
except  that  at  the  time  of  his  death  he  had  command 
of  a  fleet  stationed  at  Misenum.  In  August,  79  A.D., 
occurred  a  great  eruption  of  Vesuvius.  Observing  the 
immense  cloud  of  smoke  which  arose  in  the  form  of  a 
tree  from  the  volcano,  he  embarked  at  Misenum  on  a 
vessel  and  approached  nearer  to  the  scene  of  danger. 
He  calmly  noted  the  variations  of  the  portentous  phe- 
nomenon, amidst  the  shower  of  cinders  and  pumice- 
stones  which  fell  around  his  vessel,  and  landed  at  Stabia. 
In  the  ensuing  night  he  attempted  to  return  to  the  vessel, 
but  he  perished  on  land,  suffocated  by  ashes  or  sul- 
phurous exhalations.  This  was  probably  the  eruption 
which  destroyed  the  cities  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum. 

He  left  historical  and  grammatical  works,  which  are 
lost.  The  only  work  of  Pliny  that  has  come  down  to  us 
is  his  "  Natural  History,"  ("  Naturae  Historiarum  Libri 
XXXVII.,")  which  is  thus  characterized  by  Cuvier,  (in 
the  "  Biographie  Universelle  :")  "  It  is  at  the  same  time 
one  of  the'i;>iost  precious  monuments  that  antiquity  has  left 
for  us,  and  the  evidence  of  an  erudition  very  wonderful  in 
a  warrior  and  statesman.  In  order  to  appreciate  justly 
this  vast  and  celebrated  composition,  it  is  necessary  to 
direct  our  attention  to  the  plan,  the  facts,  and  the  style. 
The  plan  is  immense.  .  .  .  He  includes  astronomy, 
natural  philosophy,  geography,  agriculture,  commerce, 


medicine,  and  the  arts,  as  well  as  natural  history  properly 
so  called.  .  .  .  Pliny  was  not  an  observer  like  Aristotle ; 
still  less  was  he  a  man  of  genius,  capable,  like  that  great 
philosopher,  of  tracing  the  laws  and  relations  ili  ac- 
cordance with  which  the  works  of  nature  are  formed 
and  arranged,  (co-ordontiee.)  In  general,  he  is  only  a» 
compiler.  ...  A  comparison  of  his  extracts-  with  the 
originals  which  are  extant,  especially  with  Aristotle, 
convinces  us  that  Pliny  did  not  prefer  to  take  from  the 
authors  he  consulted  that  which  was  most  important 
or  most  exact.  In  general,  he  prefers  the  singular  and 
marvellous.  ...  If  Pliny  has  for  us  little  merit  as  a 
naturalist  and  critic,  it  is  far  otherwise  in  respect  to  his 
talent  as  a  writer,  and  the  vast  treasury  of  Latin  terms 
and  locutions  which  have  made  his  work  one  of  the  rich- 
est depositories  of  the  language  of  the  Romans."  He 
was  a  decided  pantheist,  and  had  no  faith  in  the  future 
existence  of  the  human  soul.  His  style  is  vigorous, 
condensed,  pointed,  and  abounds  in  antithesis.  Among 
the  best  editions  of  Pliny  is  that  published  by  Sillig, 
Hamburg.  "  His  profound  erudition,"  says  Buffon,  "is 
enhanced  by  elevation  of  ideas  and  nobleness  of  style. 
He  not  only  knew  all  that  could  be  known  in  his  time, 
but  he  had  that  large  faculty  of  thinking  which  multi- 
plies science,  he  had  that  delicacy  (finesse)  of  reflection 
on  which  depend  elegance  and  taste,  and  he  imparts  to 
his  reader  a  certain  freedom  of  spirit  and  boldness  of 
thought,  which  is  the  germ  of  philosophy." 

See  Salmasius,  "  Exercitationes  Plinianae,"  1629;  A.  Jos.  a 
TUKRE  Rezzonico,  "  Dlsquisitioiies  Plinians,"  2  vols.,  1763-67; 
Paul  Eber,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  C.  Plinii,"  1556;  A.  L.  A.  F6e, 
"  filoge  de  Pline  le  Naturaliste,"  1821  ;  Hahr,  "  Geschichte  der 
Roniischen  Literatur:"  "  Noiivelie  Biographie  Generale." 

Pliny  THE  Younger,  [Fr.  Pline  le  Jeune,  pl^n  leh 
zhun,]  (or,  more  fully,  Cai'us  Plin'ius  Caecil'ius  Se- 
cun'dus,)  a  Latin  author  and  orator,  born  at  Comum, 
(now  Como,)  on  Lake  Larius,  (Lake  Como,)  in  61  or  62 
A.D.,  was  a  nephew  and  adoi)ted  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  a  son  of  Caius  Caecilius  and  Plinia,  a  sister 
of  Pliny  the  Elder.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  wrote  a 
Greek  tragedy.  He  studied  rhetoric  under  Quintilian, 
and  practised  law  at  Rome.  After  he  had  held  other 
high  oflices,  he  became,  in  103,  governor  or  proconsul 
of  Bithynia.  He  wrote  to  Trajan  a  famous  letter,  in 
which  he  bore  testimony  to  the  good  morality  of 
the  Christians  and  requested  directions  in  relation  to 
their  treatment.  Although  he  was  a  man  of  humane 
disposition,  he  enforced  the  law  which  condemned  to 
death  those  who  refused  to  abjure  their  religion.  He 
was  a  friend  of  the  historian  Tacitus.  Pliny  wrote, 
besides  several  works  which  are  lost,  a  "  Panegyric  on 
Trajan,"  which  is  greatly  admired,  and  left  a  collection 
of  Letters,  in  ten  books,  which,  after  those  of  Cicero,  are 
perhaps  the  most  precious  relics  of  Roman  epistolary 
correspondence  that  have  come  down  to  us.  They  have 
been  translated  into  English  by  Lord  Orrery  and  Mr. 
Melmoth. 

See  Masson,  "Vita  Plinii  junioris,"  Amsterdam,  1709;  Cella- 
Rius,  "Vita  Plinii;"  "Life  of  Pliny  the  Younger,"  prefixed  to  E. 
Thierfeld's  German  version  of  his  Epistles,  etc.,  182S ;  Olpe, 
"Commentatio  de  C.  Plinio  Secundo,"  etc.,  1784;  Jules  Janin, 
"  Pline  le  Jeune  et  Quintilien,"  1838;  '*  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Ploos  van  Amstel,pl5s  vtn  Sn/stel,  (Cornelis,)  a 
Dutch  amateur  engraver  and  designer,  born  at  Amster- 
dam in  1726.  He  imitated  many  drawings  of  old  Italian, 
Flemish,  Dutch,  and  German  masters,  and  made  a  rich 
collection  of  the  engravings  of  those  artists.  Died  about 
1800.  A  collection  of  his  imitations  was  published  in 
1821. 

Plot,  (Robert,)  an  English  naturalist  and  antiquary, 
born  in  Kent  in  1641.  He  became  professor  of  chemistry 
at  Oxford  about  1684,  and  historiographer-royal  in  1688. 
He  published  a  "  Natural  History  of  Oxfordshire," 
(1677,)  anda"Natural  History  of  Staffordshire,"  (1686.) 
Died  in  1696. 

Plotin.    See  Plotinus. 

Plo-ti'na,  (Pompeia,)  the  wife  of  the  emperor  Tra- 
jan, is  represented  as  a  woman  of  excellent  character. 
She  died  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  who  erected  a  temple 
in  her  honour. 

Plo-ti'nus,  [Gr.  lIAwn i^of  ;  Fr.  Plotin,  plo^tiN';  Ger. 
Plotin,  plo-teen',]  an  eminent  Greek  philosopher  of  the 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  o^cure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon: 


PLOUCQUET 


PLVTAR CH 


Neo-Platonic  school,  was  born  at  Lycopolis,  in  Egypt, 
in  204  A. D.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Ammonius  Saccas.  In 
order  to  become  versed  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Oriental 
sages,  he  accompanied  the  expedition  of  Gordian  against 
Parthia  in  243.  He  taught  philosophy  at  Rome  from 
245  A.D.  until  his  death,  and  enjoyed  the  favour  of  the 
emperor  Gallienus,  He  had  many  disciples.  He  died 
about  270  A.D.,  leaving  fifty-four  books  on  abstract  sub- 
jects of  philosophy  and  metaphysics,  which  are  extant 
and  have  exerted  an  important  influence  in  modern 
times.  His  life  was  written  by  Porphyry,  who  was  his 
disciple.  Plotinus  was  preferred  by  Longinus,  who  knew 
him  well,  to  all  other  philosophers  of  that  time.  "  He 
was  intensely  religious,"  says  Hallam,  "  and  if  he  had 
come  a  century  later  would,  instead  of  a  heathen  phi- 
losopher, have  been  one  of  the  first  names  among  the 
saints  of  the  Church." 

See  Porphyry,  "  Life  of  Plotinus,"  (in  Greek  ;)  Kirchner,  "Die 
Philosophic  des  Plotin,"  1854;  Daunas,  "  Plotiu  et  sa  Doctrine," 
1848. 

Ploucquet,  ploo^ki',  (Godefroi,)  a  metaphysician, 
born  at  Stuttgart  in  1716.  He  obtained  in  1750  the 
chair  of  logic,  etc.  at  Tubingen.  Among  his  numerous 
works  is  "Ground-Work  of  Speculative  Philosophy," 
("  Fundamenta  Philosophiae  speculativas,"  1759,)  in  which 
he  expounds  the  system  of  Leibnitz.    Died  in  1790. 

See  J.  L.  HuBER,  "Ploucquet's  Denkmal,"  1790. 

Plougoulm,  ploo'goolm',  (  Pierre  Ambroise,  )  a 
French  judge,  born  at  Rouen  in  1796.  He  was  for  many 
years  procu'reur-general,  and  became  a  counsellor  to  the 
court  of  cassation  in  1854. 

P16w'den,  (Edmund,)  an  eminent  English  lawyer, 
born  in  Shropshire  about  15 17,  was  a  zealous  Roman 
Catholic.  He  became  a  serjeant-at-law  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Mary,  and  left  "  Reports  or  Commentaries"  of 
cases  tried  in  the  reigns  of  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and  Eliza- 
beth,— a  work  of  high  reputation.    Died  in  1 585. 

See  Ar.LiBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Plowden,  (Francis,)  an  Irish  historian  and  barrister, 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Ireland," 
(1812.)  Having  been  prosecuted  for  libel,  he  retired  to 
France,  where  he  died  in  1829. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1804;  "  Monthly  Review" 
for  May  and  January,  1796. 

Pluche,  plUsh,  (Noel  Antoinf.,)  an  ingenious  French 
writer  and  naturalist,  born  at  Rheims  in  1688.  He 
became  a  priest  or  abbe,  and  lectured  on  history  and 
geography  at  Paris.  In  1732  he  published  a  description 
of  the  outward  creation,  entitled  "  Spectacle  of  Nature," 
("Spectacle  de  la  Nature,"  9  vols.,)  which  had  great 
success  and  was  often  reprinted.  He  also  wrote  a  work 
on  cosmogony,  entitled  "  History  of  the  Heavens," 
("Histoire  du  Ciel,"  2  vols.,  1739,)  and  other  works, 
and  produced  a  version  of  the  Psalms,  which  is  com- 
mended.   Died  in  1761. 

See  R.  fixiENNE,  "  f-Ioge  de  Pluche." 

Pluk'e-net,  (Leonard,)  an  English  botanist,  born 
in  1642.  Little  is  known  of  the  events  of  his  life,  except 
that  in  his  old  age  he  was  appointed  by  Queen  Mary 
director  of  the  garden  at  Hampton  Court.  He  published 
a  work  of  some  merit,  entitled  "  Phytographia,"  (1691- 
96,)  also  "  Almagestum  Botanicum,"  (1696,)  and  "  Amal- 
theum  Botanicum,"  (1705.) 

Plum'^r,  (William,)  an  American  Governor,  born 
at  Newbury,  Massachusetts,  in  June,  1759.  He  studied 
law,  and  was  elected  a  metnber  of  the  legislature  of 
New  Hampshire  eight  times,  was  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  from  1802  to  1807,  and  was  chosen  Governor  of 
New  Hampshire  in  1812.  He  was  re-elected  in  1816, 
1817,  and  1818.  His  latter  years  were  devoted  to  lite- 
rary pursuits.   Died  at  Epping,  New  Hampshire,  in  1850. 

See  a  "  Life  of  William  Plumer,"  by  his  son  William,  1856. 

Plumer,  (William,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Epping,  New  Hampshire,  in  1790.  He  was  a 
member  of  Congress  from  1819  to  1825.  He  published 
two  volumes  of  Poems.    Died  in  1854. 

Plumier,  plU'me-i',  (Charles,)  a  distinguished 
French  botanist,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1646,  was  a  pupil 
of  Tournefort.  He  explored  the  West  Indies  with  Su- 
rian  in  1689,  and,  soon  after  his  returrt,  published  a 
••Description  of  the  Plants  of  America,"  (1693,  with  108 


good  plates,)  which  was  very  favourably  received.  Ijy 
the  order  of  the  king,  he  revisited  America  in  1693  and 
1695.  In  1703  he  produced  "New  Genera  of  American 
Plants,"("  Nova  Plantarum  Americanarum  Genera.")  He 
was  about  to  sail  for  Peru,  to  make  researches  on  the 
subject  of  quinquina,  (Peruvian  bark,)  when  he  died 
near  Cadiz  in  1704.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Ferns  of  America,"  (1705,  with  172  plates,  ex- 
quisitely engraved.)  "This  magnificent  collection,"  says 
the  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  "is  one  of  the  most 
admirable  monuments  of  skill  and  patience  that  can 
be  named." 

See  NiCERON,"  M^moires;"  Mor^ri,"  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;" 
Haller,  "  Bibliotheca  Botanica." 

Plum'mer,  (John,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  London 
in  183 1,  removed  to  Northamptonshire.  He  published 
a  volume  entitled  "Songs  of  Labour,"  (i860,)  and  is 
author  of  numerous  essays. 

Plum'mer,  (Joseph  B.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Massachusetts  about  1822,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1841.  He  became  a  captain  in  1852,  and  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  in  October,  1861.  He  served  in 
several  actions  in  Missouri.  Died  at  Corinth,  Missis- 
sippi, in  October,  1862. 

Pliimp'tre,  (James,)  an  English  clergyman  and  dram- 
atist, born  in  1770.  He  obtained  the  living  of  Great 
Gransden  in  1812.  He  wrote  "Osway,"  (1795,)  and 
other  dramas,  and  "  Discourses  on  the  Amusements 
of  the  Stage,"  (1810.)    Died  in  1832. 

Plum'ridge,  (Sir  James  Hanway,)  an  English  ad- 
miral, born  in  London  in  1787.  He  served  as  rear- 
admiral  in  the  Baltic  during  the  Russian  war,  (1854-55.) 
Died  in  1863. 

Plunk'et,  (Oliver,)  a  Catholic  prelate,  born  in  the 
county  of  Meath,  Ireland,  about  1630.  He  received 
from  the  pope  the  title  of  Primate  of  Ireland  in  1669. 
He  was  executed  at  Tyburn,  on  a  charge  of  treason,  in 
1681  ;  but  his  innocence  was  afterwards  proved. 

Pliink'ett  or  Plunket,  (William  Conyngham,) 
first  Lord  Plunkett,  an  eminent  Irish  orator  and  judge, 
was  born  at  Enniskillen  in  July,  1764.  He  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1787.  Having  been  elected  to  the  Irish  Parliament,  he 
acquired  distinction  by  his  impassioned  speeches  against 
the  union  with  England,  in  1800.  He  acted  as  consul 
for  the  insurgents  who  were  engaged  in  the  rebellion  of 
1798.  He  became  solicitor-general  for  Ireland  in  1803, 
and  attorney-general  in  1805,  but  retired  from  office 
with  the  Whigs  in  1807.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
elected  to  the  British  House  of  Commons,  in  which  he 
voted  with  the  Whigs  and  made  a.  few  speeches  that 
were  greatly  applauded.  He  was  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment for  the  University  of  Dublin  in  1812,  and  again  in 
1818.  He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  Catholic  emanci- 
pation. He  was  lord  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas 
in  Ireland  for  three  years,  (1827-30.)  About  1827  he 
was  created  a  peer  of  the  United  Kingdom.  He  was 
lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  from  1830  to  1841,  excepting 
an  interval  of  some  months  in  1834-35.  He  died  in  1854, 
leaving  the  title  to  his  son,  who  is  Bishop  of  Tuam. 

See  the  "Life,  Letters,  etc.  of  Lord  Plunkett,"  London,  1867; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July  and  October,  1867  ;  "  Eraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  June,  1867. 

Pluquet,  plii'ki',  (Francois  Andr^  Adrien,)  a 
learned  and  judicious  French  writer,  born  at  Bayeux  in 
1 7 16.  He  published  in  1757  an  "Inquiry  into  Fatalism," 
(3  vols.,)  which  is  commended.  His  best  or  most  popu- 
lar work  is  a  "Dictionary  of  Heresies,"  (2  vols.,  1762.) 
He  obtained  in  1776  a  chair  of  moral  philosophy  in  the 
College  de  France,  Paris.  He  published  a  translation 
of  the  classic  books  of  the  Chinese,  collected  by  Pere 
Noel,  (7  vols.,  1786.)    Died  in  1790. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Pluquet,  (Fr6d6ric,)  an  antiquary,  born  at  Bayeux 
in  1 781,  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote 
many  works  on  French  antiquities.    Died  in  1834. 

Plu'tar-eh,  [Gr.  UlovTapxog ;  Lat.  Plutar'chus;  Fr. 
Plutarque,  plu'ttRk';  It.  Plui  arco,  ploo  taR'ko,]  an 
eminent  Greek  philosopher  or  moralist,  and  the  greatest 
biographer  of  antiquity,  was  a  native  of  Chaeronea,  in 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2[^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PLUTJRCHUS  1 8 


Bceotia,  He  was  born  probably  about  50  a.d.,  as,  ac- 
cording to  his  own  statement,  he  studied  philosophy 
under  Ammonius,  at  Delphi,  in  66  a.d.  He  passed  some 
time  at  Rome,  where  he  lectured  on  philosophy,  in  the 
reign  of  Vespasian  or  of  one  of  his  sons.  "  When  I 
was  in  Rome  and  other  parts  of  Italy,"  says  Plutarch, 
**  I  had  not  leisure  to  study  the  Latin  tongue,  on  account 
of  the  public  commissions  with  which  I  was  charged, 
and  the  number  of  people  that  came  to  be  instructed  by 
me  in  philosophy.  It  was  not,  therefore,  until  a  late 
period  in  life  that  I  began  to  read  the  Roman  authors." 
("Life  of  Demosthenes.")  Plutarch  resided  at  his  native 
place  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  and  filled  several  mu- 
nicipal offices.  "As  to  myself,"  says  he,  "I  live  in  a 
little  town,  and  I  choose  to  live  there,  lest  it  should  be- 
come still  less."  He  had  a  wife  named  Timoxena,  and 
several  children.  On  the  death  of  his  infant  daughter 
he  wrote  to  his  wife  a  consolatory  letter,  in  which  he 
commemorated  her  conjugal  and  maternal  virtues,  with 
an  infusion  of  the  antique  sentiments  and  poetic  allu- 
sions which  render  his  writings  so  attractive.  He  was 
an  admirer  of  the  philosophy  of  Plato,  and  a  decided 
opponent  of  Epicureanism.  The  date  of  his  death 
is  not  known ;  but  it  is  supposed  that  he  attained  the 
age  of  seventy  or  more. 

Plutarch  was  a  very  prolific  writer.  His  works,  by 
their  extent  and  variety,  constitute  perhaps  the  most 
copious  treasury  of  facts,  ideas,  and  traditions  which  we 
have  inherited  from  antiquity.  There  is  no  uninspired 
Greek  prose  author  whose  works  have  found  in  modern 
times  so  many  readers  and  admirers.  His  principal 
work  is  his  "  Parallel  Lives"  (Bfoi  HapuXkrj'AoL)  of  eminent 
Greeks  and  Romans,  arranged  in  pairs.  The  biography 
of  each  Greek  is  accompanied  by  the  life  of  some  Roman 
as  a  pendant,  and  the  latter  is  followed  by  a  rather  minute 
comparison,  in  which  the  two  persons  are  measured 
together,  trait  for  trait.  The  best  English  versions  of 
Plutarch's  "Lives"  are  those  of  Sir  Thomas  North, 
(1612,)  of  Langhorne,  (1771,)  and  of  Arthur  Hugh 
Clough,  {1859.)  Among  the  extant  works  of  Plutarch 
are  many  moral  essays,  which  were  translated  into 
French  by  Amyot.  His  morality,  less  rigid  than  that 
of  the  Stoics  and  less  speculative  than  that  of  Plato,  is 
generally  pure  and  practical.  Among  his  lost  works  are 
a  "  Commentary  on  Homer,"  and  biographies  of  Pindar, 
Hesiod,  Scipio,  Epaminondas,  Augustus,  Tiberius,  Ca- 
ligula, Claudius,  and  Nero. 

Respecting  Plutarch's  merits  as  a  writer,  we  extract 
the  following  passage  from  an  article  in  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle,"  by  M.  Villemain.  Alluding  to  Plutarch's 
truthful  and  naive  minuteness  in  the  delineation  of  his 
characters,  that  great  critic  remarks,  "  Perhaps  this  merit, 
which  all  recognize  in  Plutarch,  has  diverted  attention 
from  the  picturesque  beauty  of  his  style  ;  but  it  is  this 
double  character  of  eloquence  and  truth  which  has  ren- 
dered him  so  powerful  over  all  vivid  imaginations.  .  .  . 
This  immortal  vivacity  of  the  style  of  Plutarch,  seconded 
by  a  happy  choice  of  the  noblest  subjects  that  can  occupy 
the  imagination  and  the  thoughts,  explains  the  prodigious 
interest  excited  by  his  historical  works.  He  has  painted 
man  as  he  is  ;  he  has  worthily  recorded  the  greatest 
characters  and  most  admirable  actions  of  the  human 
species.  The  attraction  of  such  reading  will  never  pass 
away  ;  it  appeals  to  all  ages  and  conditions  of  life  ;  it 
kindles  the  enthusiasm  of  youth,  and  commends  itself 
to  the  sober  wisdom  of  age." 

See  Hheren,  "  De  Fontibus  et  Auctoritate  Plutarchi,"  i8io; 
NiTzscH,  "Disputatio  de  Plutarcho,"  1849;  Ritter,  "  History  of 
Philosophy;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca  ;"  ScHOELr.,  "  flis- 
toire  de  la  Litt^rature  Grecque  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;" 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1861. 

Plutarchus.    See  Plutarch. 

PUitarco.    See  Plutarch. 

Plutarque.    See  Plutarch. 

Pluto,  the  Italian  of  Plutus,  which  see. 

Plu'to,  [Gr.  nXowruv;  Fr.  Pluton,  plu't6N' ;  It. 
Plutone,  ploo-to'ni,]  the  god  of  the  infernal  regions, 
was  also  called  Hades,  Orcus,  Dis,  and  Aidoneus. 
He  was  said  to  be  a  son  of  Saturn  (Cronus  or  Kronos) 
and  Rhea,  and  a  brother  of  Jupiter  and  Neptune.  Ac- 
cording to  the  fable,  these  three  brothers  agreed  to  a 
division  of  the  world,  and  Pluto  obtained  as  his  portion 


14  POCHARD 


the  subterranean  region,  the  realm  of  shades,  which  waa 
called  Erebus  or  Hades,  and  the  entrance  of  which  was 
guarded  by  Cerberus,  a  dog  with  three  heads.  Some 
poets  imagined  that  the  realm  of  Pluto  was  divided  into 
two  regions, — namely,  Tartarus,  in  which  the  wicked 
were  confined  and  punished,  and  Elysium,  or  the  Elysian 
Fields,  the  abode  of  the  good. 

The  most  remarkable  features  in  the  geography  of  the 
infernal  world  were  five  rivers, — namely,  Ach'eron,  Co- 
cy'tus,  Styx,  Phleg'ethon,  and  Le'the,  {Gr.  AtiOt},)  the  river 
of  Oblivion.  Departed  souls  about  to  enter  Elysium 
drank  of  the  river  Lethe  and  forgot  all  their  troubles,  or, 
as  some  say,  forgot  all  the  past : 

"  Securos  latices  et  ionga  oblivia  potant."* 

Vikgil:  ^?ieid,  book  vi.  715. 

The  Styx  was  said  to  encompass  the  kingdom  of  Pluto 
seven  or  nine  times  with  its  circumvolutions,  and  was 
described  as  a  sluggish  stream,  for  which  reason  it  was 
sometimes  called  the  Stygian  pool  or  lake.  The  souls 
of  the  dead  were  carried  across  the  Styx  in  a  boat  by 
Charon.  The  gods  usually  swore  by  the  river  Styx. 
Phlegethon  was  described  as  a  river  of  fire,  and  Cocytus 
as  a  branch  or  affluent  of  the  Styx,  which  see. 

Among  the  most  celebrated  adventures  of  Pluto  was 
the  abduction  of  Proserpine,  whom  he  married.  The 
poets  feigned  that  he  possessed  a  helmet  which  rendered 
the  wearer  invisible.  (See  an  amipie  and  admirable  de- 
scription of  Pluto's  dominions  in  Virgil's  "/Eneid," 
book  vi.  passim.) 

Pluton.    See  Pluto. 

Plutone.    See  Pluto. 

Plu'tus,  [Gr.  n^iovrof;  It.  Pluto,  ploo'to,]  in  the 
Greek  mythology,  the  god  of  riches,  was  said  to  be  a  son 
of  lasion  and  Ceres.  The  poets  relate  that  Jupiter  de- 
prived him  of  sight  in  order  that  he  might  distribute 
riches  blindly  and  bestow  his  favours  indiscriminately 
on  the  evil  and  the  good.  He  was  represented  as  lame, 
because  he  generally  comes  so  slowly  to  those  who  seek 
him  ;  yet  he  had  wings,  to  indicate  how  swiftly  he  often 
forsakes  those  whom  he  seems  most  to  favour.  (See 
KuvfiRA.) 

Pluvinel,  de,  deh  plii've''ngK,  (Antoine,)  a  French- 
man, noted  for  his  skill  in  horsemanship,  was  born  in 
Dauphine  in  1555.  He  was  under-governor  (sons* 
goiwerneiir)  of  the  dauphin,  (Louis  XIII.,)  and  wrote  a 
work  called  "Manege  Royal,"  (1623.)    Died  in  1620. 

Plu'vi-us,  {i.e.  "  the  rainy,")  a  surname  of  Jupiter 
among  the  Romans,  who  invoked  him  during  long 
droughts. 

Pluymer,  ploi'mer,  (Jan,)  a  mediocre  Dutch  poet, 
born  at  Amsterdam,  wrote  during  the  reign  of  William 
HI.  of  England,  and  published  a  volume  of  verses  in 
1691. 

Po,  del,  d&l  po,  (PiETRO,)  an  Italian  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Palermo  in  1610,  was  a  pupil  of  Domeni- 
chino.  Died  at  Naples  in  1692.  His  son  Giacomo, 
born  at  Rome  in  1654,  was  a  painter.  He  worked  at 
Naples  with  success.    Died  in  1726. 

Po-ca-hon'tas,  daughter  of  Powhatan,  an  Indian 
chief  of  ' Virginia,  is  celebrated  for  her  heroism  in  inter- 
ceding for  the  life  of  Captain  Smith,  who  was  con- 
demned to  death  by  her  father.  She  was  afterwards 
converted  to  Christianity,  and  married  to  John  Rolfe, 
an  English  gentleman.  Among  her  descendants  in  Vir- 
ginia was  the  celebrated  John  Randolph.   Died  in  1617. 

Poccetti,  pot-chet'tee,  properly  Bernardino  Bcir- 
batelli,  (bak-ba-teKlee,)  a  skilful  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Florence  about  1542.  He  painted  figures,  landscapes, 
flowers,  and  draperies  with  success,  and  displayed  a 
great  fertility  of  invention.  Among  his  works  is  "  The 
Mission  of  the  Apostles."  "  He  was  considered,"  says 
Peries,  "  the  Paul  Veronese  of  his  school."  Died  at 
Florence  in  1612. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Pocci,  pot'chee,  (Franz,)  Count,  a  poet  and  de- 
signer, of  Italian  origin,  was  born  at  Munich  in  1807. 
He  has  written  verses  and  tales. 

Pochard,  po'shti^',  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  near  Pontarlier  in  1715.    He  wrote  "Method  for 


*  "They  quaff  profound  oblivion,  secure  from  pain  and  woe." 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y, 


r,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fdi;  met;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


POCHOLLE  1815  POGGIO 


the  Guidance  of  Souls,"  ("  Methode  pour  la  Direction 
des  Ames,"  1772.)    Died  in  1786. 

Pocholle,  po'shoK,  (Pierre  Pomponne  Am^dee,)  a 
French  revolutionist,  born  at  Dieppe  in  1764,  was  a 
member  of  the  Convention  of  1792.    Died  in  1832. 

Pockels,  pok'kels,  (Karl  Frieurich,)  a  German 
moralist,  born  near  Halle  in  1757.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  '*  An  Essay  on  the  Character  of  Women," 
(5  vols.,  1799-1802,)  and  "Man,"  ("  Der  Mann,"  4  vols., 
1805-08.)    Died  in  1814. 

Po'cock,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  English  divine  and 
Orientalist,  born  at  Oxford  in  1604,  studied  in  Corpus 
Christi  College.  He  passed  about  six  years  at  Aleppo 
as  chaplain  to  the  English  merchants,  (1630-36,)  and 
learned  Arabic,  Syriac,  Hebrew,  etc.  In  1636  he  be- 
came the  first  professor  of  Arabic  at  Oxford.  Pocock  is 
said  to  have  been  the  best  Arabic  scholar  of  his  time  in 
England.  He  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Childrey 
in  1643,  and  obtained  the  chair  of  Hebrew  at  Oxford  in 
1648.  He  published  in  1648-50  "  Specimen  Historiae 
Arabum,"  consisting  of  extracts  from  the  History  of 
Aboolfaraj,  (Abulpharagius,)  with  a  Latin  version  and 
notes.  His  most  important  work  is  a  Latin  translation 
of  the  entire  History  of  the  same  author,  which  was  pub- 
lished (with  the  original  text)  in  1663,  in  two  volumes. 
Died  at  Oxford  in  1691. 

See  a  "  Life  of  E.  Pocock,"  prefixed  to  his  theological  works,  by 
Leonard  TvvELLS,  1740. 

Pocock,  (Edv^ard,)  an  Oriental  scholar,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  aljout  1646.  He  published  in  1671 
the  Arabic  text,  with  a  Latin  version,  of  a  work  of 
Ibn-Tofayl,  "  Self-Taught  Philosopher,"  ("  Philosophus 
autodidactos.") 

Pocock,  (Isaac,)  an  English  painter  and  dramatist, 
born  at  Bristol  in  1782  ;  died  in  1835. 

Pococke,  po'kok,  (Richard,)  an  English  traveller, 
born  at  Southampton  in  1704.  He  travelled  in  Egypt, 
Palestine,  Syria,  etc.  in  1734-41,  and  published  a  "De- 
scription of  the  East  and  of  Some  Other  Countries,"  (3 
vols.,  1743-45,)  which  was  highly  esteemed.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Ossory  in  1756,  and  Bishop  of  Meath  in  1765. 
Among  his  other  works  is  a  "  Description  of  the  Giants' 
Causeway."    Died  in  1765. 

Poczobut,  de,  deh  potch'o-boot,  (Martin,)  a  Polish 
astronomer,  born  near  Grodno  in  1729  ;  died  in  1810. 

Podest^,  po-dgs-t^',  (  Giambattista,  )  an  Italian 
Orientalist,  born  in  Istria.  He  became  professor  of 
Arabic  at  Vienna  in  1674,  and  published  "Grammatical 
Course  of  Oriental  Languages,"  ("  Cursus  grammaticalis 
Linguarum  Orientalium,"  3  vols.,  1687-170^.) 

Podiebrad,  pod-ya'brkl,  (George,)  King  of  Bo- 
hemia, born  in  1420.  He  commanded  an  army  of 
Hussites  in  the  civil  war  about  1450,  and  was  elected 
king  in  1458,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Catholic 
nobles.  In  1466  he  was  excommunicated  by  Pope  Paul 
II.,  because  he  maintained  the  right  of  communion 
under  two  forms.  The  pope  also  caused  a  crusade  to 
be  preached  against  him.  In  1467  he  was  involved  in 
a  war  against  Matthias  Corvinus,  whom  he  defeated. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  an  able  and  patriotic  ruler. 
He  died  in  147 1,  and  was  succeeded  by  Ladislaus  of 
Poland. 

See  M.  Jordan,  "Das  Kbnigthum  Georgs  Podiebrad,"  1861 ; 
"  Noiivelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Poe,  po,  (Edgar  Allen,)  a  distinguished  American 
poet,  born  at  Baltimore  in  1811.  He  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Virginia  in  1826,  and,  having  spent  a  year 
in  Europe,  became  successively  editor  of  the  "  Southern 
Literary  Messenger"  at  Charleston,  and  the  "Gentle- 
man's Magazine"  and  "Graham's  Magazine"  at  Phila- 
delphia. In  1844  he  took  charge  of  the  "Broadway 
Journal,"  New  York.  He  died  at  Baltimore,  in  1849, 
of  delirium  tremens.  Among  his  princi])al  prose  works 
are  "The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher,"  "Tales  of  the 
Grotesque  and  Arabesque,"  and  "  The  Gold  Bug."  His 
"  Raven"  and  other  small  poems  have  been  much  admired. 
He  also  wrote  a  collection  of  critical  essays.  "  His 
poems,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "are  constructed  with 
wonderful  ingenuity  and  finished  with  consun>mate  art. 
They  illustrate  a  morbid  sensitiveness  of  feeling,  a 
shadowy  and  gloomy  imagination,  and  a  taste  almost 


faultless  m  the  apprehension  of  that  sort  of  beauty  most 
agreeable  to  his  temper." 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America,"  and  a  "  Memoir 
of  Poe,"  prefixed  to  a  collectio*i  of  his  works  published  by  R.  W. 
Griswold,  in  3  vols. ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1858  ;  "  North 
American  Review"  for  October,  1856;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
June,  1857. 

Poel,  van  der,  vin  der  pool,  (Egbert,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Rotterdam  about  1620.  He  painted 
landscapes,  interiors,  and  nocturnal  conflagrations  with 
success.    Died  about  1690. 

Poelemburg,  poo'lem-bviRG',  (Cornelis,)  surnamed 
IL  Brusco  and  IL  Satiro,  an  eminent  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Utrecht  in  1586,  was  a  pupil  of  Abraham  Bloe- 
maert.  After  spending  many  years  at  Rome  and  Florence, 
he  was  invited  to  England  by  Charles  I.,  for  whom  he 
painted  some  works.  He  excelled  in  landscape-painting, 
and  also  produced  several  historical  pictures.  Died  at 
Utrecht  in  1660. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "  La  Vie  des  Peintres." 

Poelitz.    See  Politz. 
Poellnitz.    See  Pollnitz. 
Poeppig.    See  Poppig. 

Poerio,  po-a're-o,  (Carlo,)  a  liberal  Italian  politician, 
born  at  Naples  in  1803.  He  was  minister  of  public  in- 
struction at  Naples  for  a  short  time  in  1848.  He  was 
arrested  by  order  of  the  Neapolitan  government  in 
July,  1849,  and  condemned  to  twenty-four  years'  im- 
prisonment and  hard  labour.  The  cruel  treatment 
inflicted  on  him  and  others  was  denounced  by  Mr. 
Gladstone  in  a  famous  letter  to  Lord  Aberdeen.  He 
escaped,  or  was  released,  about  1858,  after  which  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Italian  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
Died  in  1867. 

Poerio,  (Giuseppe,)  an  eloquent  Italian  advocate, 
born  at  Catanzaro,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  an  active  supporter  of  the  republic  formed  at  Naples 
in  1799.  In  1808  he  was  appointed  procureur-general 
by  Murat.    Died  at  Florence  in  1843. 

Poerner.    See  Porner. 

Poerson,  po'§r's6n',  (Charles  Francois,)  a  French 
painter  of  history,  born  in  Paris  about  1652;  died  at 
Rome  in  1725. 

Pogge,  Le.    See  Poggio. 

Poggendorf,  pog'gen-doRf,  (Johann  Christian,)  a 
German  savant  and  professor  of  natural  philosophy  at 
Berlin,  was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1796.  He  became  in 
1824  editor  of  the  "  Annals  of  Physics  and  Chemistry." 
Among  his  principal  works  is  a  treatise  "On  the  Mag- 
netism of  the  Voltaic  Pile,"  in  which  he  was  the  first 
to  explain  the  principles  of  the  multiplicator  and  its 
application. 

Poggi,  de',  di  pod'jee,  (Giuseppe,)  Chevalier,  an 
Italian  writer,  born  near  Piacenza  in  1761.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  French  legislative  body  from  181 1  to  1814. 
He  wrote  "  On  Sincere  Reformation,"  ("  Delle  Emende 
sincere,"  3  vols.,  1791,)  and  other  works.  Died  in 
France  in  1842. 

Poggiani,  pod-jS'nee,  (GiULio,)  an  Italian  scholar, 
born  at  Suna,  on  Lake  Maggiore,  in  1522.  He  was 
secretary  of  Carlo  Borromeo.  He  left  "  Epistles  and 
Orations,"  in  Latin,  (4  vols.,  1756-62,)  which  are  said  to 
be  elegant.    Died  in  1568. 

Poggio  Bracciolini,  pod'jo  brSt-cho-lee^'nee,  [Fr. 
Le  Pogge,  leh  pozh,]  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  a  dis- 
tinguished Italian  scholar  and  reviver  of  learning,  was 
born  near  Florence  in  1380.  He  was  a  pupil  of  John  of 
Ravenna,  was  appointed  apostolic  secretary  about  1413, 
and  served  several  successive  popes  in  that  capacity. 
He  rendered  important  services  to  literature  by  the  dis- 
covery of  ancient  manuscripts,  for  which  he  searched  in 
monasteries.  He  discovered  seven  orations  of  Cicero, 
twelve  plays  of  Plautus,  the  commentaries  of  Asconius 
Pedianus,  the  history  of  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  and 
other  classic  works.  He  wrote  satires  against  the  monks 
and  clergy,  and  against  Filelfo,  with  whom  he  was  in- 
volved in  a  long  and  acrimonious  controversy.  In  1435 
he  married  a  young  lady  named  Selvaggia  Buondelmonti. 
After  this  event  he  resided  many  years  at  Florence,  and 
published  in  1437  a  collection  of  letters,  which  were 
greatly  admired.   Having  passed  several  years  in  Rome, 


«  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2C^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POHL 


8i6 


POISSONNIER 


ne  returned  to  Florence  about  1450,  and  was  appointed 
chancellor  there  in  1453.  Among  his  works,  which  are 
all  in  Latin,  are  a  "  Dialogue  on  Nobility,"  ("  De  No- 
bilitaie  Dialogus,")  a  "  History  of  Florence  from  1350 
to  1455,"  ("  Historia  Florentina,"  etc.,  1476,)  and  "  On 
the  Mutability  of  Fortune,"  ("  De  Varietate  Fortunae.") 
He  died  in  Florence  in  October,  1459. 

See  William  Shepherd,  "Life  of  Poggio  Bracciolini,"  1802; 
Thorschmidt,  "  Dissertatio  de  F.  Poggii  Bracciolini  Vita,"  1713  ; 
J.  Lenfant,  "Poggiana,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1720;  Niceron,  "  Me- 
moires  ;"  C.  Nisard,  "Le.s  Giadiateurs  de  la  Republique  des  Let- 
tres  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for 
October,  1836. 

Pohl,  p5l,  {JoHANN  Christoph,)  a  German  physician, 
born  near  Liegnitz  in  1706;  died  in  1780. 

Pohl,  (JoHANN  Emanuel,)  a  German  botanist,  born 
at  Vienna  in  1784.  He  published,  in  Latin,  "Descrip- 
tions and  Figures  of  Brazilian  Plants,"  (2  vols.,  1827-31,) 
and,  in  German,  "  Travels  in  Brazil,"  (2  vols.,  1832.) 
Died  in  1834. 

Poilly,  de,  deh  pvvi'ye',  (FRANgois,)  an  eminent 
French  engraver,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1622.  He  worked 
in  Rome  and  Paris,  and  engraved  some  works  of  Raphael, 
Giulio  Romano,  and  Poussin,  In  1664  he  received  the 
title  of  engraver  to  the  king.    Died  in  Paris  in  1693. 

Poilly,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  skilful  engraver,  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1669  ; 
died  in  Paris  in  1728. 

Poilly,  de,  (Nicolas,)  an  engraver,  born  at  Abbe- 
ville in  1626,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
not  equal  to  his  brother  Francois.    Died  in  1696. 

Poin'dex-ter,  (George,)  an  able  American  states- 
man and  jurist,  born  in  Louisa  county,  Virginia.  Hav- 
ing removed  to  Mississippi,  he  was  appointed  in  1813 
United  States  judge  for  that  district,  and  was  elected 
to  Congress  in  181 7.  He  there  distinguished  himself 
by  his  eloquent  defence  of  the  course  of  General  Jack- 
son in  the  Seminole  war.  He  was  afterwards  elected 
Governor  of  the  State,  and  in  1831  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States.  He  became  an  opponent  of  President 
Jackson,  and  ceased  to  be  a  Senator  in  1835.  Died 
m  1853. 

Poin'sett,  (Joel  Roberts,)  a  distinguished  Ameri- 
can statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1779.  Having  been  several  times  elected 
to  Congress,  he  was  sent  in  1825  as  minister  to  Mexico 
by  President  Adams.  In  the  contest  between  the  Nul- 
lification and  Union  parties  he  became  the  leader  of  the 
latter.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  war  by  President 
Van  Buren  in  March,  1837.  He  retired  from  that  office 
in  March,  1841,  after  which  he  was  not  employed  in  the 
public  service.  He  wrote  "  Notes  on  Mexico."  Died 
in  December,  1851. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  i. ;  "  Democratic  Review"  for  February  and  March,  1838,  (with 
a  portrait.) 

Poinsinet,  pwiN'se^ni',  (  Antoine  Alexandre 
Henri,)  a  French  dramatist,  born  at  Fontainebleau  in 
1735.  He  wrote  several  successful  comedies  and  comic 
operas,  among  which  is  ^*The  Circle,  or  Soiree  a  la 
Mode,"  (1771.)  He  was  accidentally  drowned  at  Cor- 
dova, in  Spain,  in  1769. 

Poinsinet  de  Sivry,  pwiN'se'iii'  deh  sd'vRe', 
(Louis,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Versailles  in  1733. 
He  produced  a  popular  tragedy,  named  "  Briseis," 
(1759,)  and  various  other  works  of  little  merit.  He 
translated  Pliny's  "Natural  History,"  (1771-81.)  He 
was  a  brother-in-law  of  Palissot.    Died  in  1804. 

Poinsot,  pwiN^so',  (Louis,)  a  French  geometer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1777.  He  published  in  1803  "Elements 
of  Statics,"  which  presents  new  and  ingenious  ideas. 
Among  his  other  works  is  a  "Memoir  on  the  Applica- 
tion of  Algebra  to  the  Theory  of  Numbers,"  (1820.) 
He  was  elected  to  the  Institute,  in  place  of  La  Grange, 
in  18 13.  In  1852  he  became  a  senator.  Died  iu  De- 
cember, 1859. 

Poiret,  pwi'ri',  (Jean  Louis  Marie,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Saint-Quentin  about  1755.  He  pub- 
lished "Travels  in  Barbary,"  (2  vols.,  1789,)  a  work  of 
merit,  a  "Botanical  Dictionary,"  (20  vols.,  1789-1823,) 
which  forms  part  of  the  "  Encyclopedie  Methodique," 
and   "The   Philosophical,   Literary,  and  Economical 


History  of  the  Useful  Plants  of  Europe,"  (7  vols.,  1825 
-29.)    Died  in  1834. 

See  Querard,  "  La  France  Litteraire.' 

Poiret,  (Pierre,)  a  French  philosopher  and  mystical 
writer,  born  at  Metz  in  1646.  He  became  a  Protestant 
minister,  and  preached  at  Hamburg  and  Amsterdam.  It 
is  stated  that  he  rejected  the  light  and  guidance  of 
reason.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  besides  many  other  works, 
"The  Divine  Economy,"  (7  vols.,  1687.)    Died  in  1719. 

See  Niceron,  "Mdmoires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Poirier,  pw^'re-i',  (Germain,)  a  French  monk,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1724.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the 
Reign  of  Henry  I.  of  France."    Died  in  1803. 

Poirson,  pwiR^s^N',  (Auguste  Simon  Jean  Chry- 
SO.STOME,)  a  French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1795.  He 
was  principal  of  the  College  Charlemagne  from  1837  to 
1853.  chief  works  are  a  "History  of  Rome,"  (2 

vols.,  1824-26,)  and  a  "History  of  Henry  IV.,"  (2  vols., 
1857.) 

Poirson,  (  Jean  Baptiste,  )  a  French  geographer, 
born  in  the  Vosges  in  1760.  He  excelled  in  the  con- 
struction of  terrestrial  globes.    Died  in  1831. 

Pois,  Le,  leh  pwS,  (Antoine,)  a  French  numismatist, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1525  ;  died  in  1578. 

Pois,  Le,  (Charles,)  [Lat.  Caro'lus  Pi'so,]  a  dis- 
tinguished physician,  born  at  Nancy,  France,  in  1563. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "  Book  of  Select  Observa- 
tions and  Counsels,"  ("  Selectiorum  Observationum  et 
Consiliorum  Liber,"  1618,)  which,  says  Weiss,  "assures 
to  him  the  reputation  of  a  great  physician."  Died  in  1633. 

Pois,  Le,  (Nicolas,)  the  father  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1527,  was  a  skilful  physician.  He 
published  a  good  work  "  On  the  Knowledge  and  Cure 
of  Diseases,"  ("  De  Cognoscendis  et  Curandis  Morbis," 
1580.)    Died  in  1587. 

Poiseuille,  pwJ'zuI'  or  pwS'zuh'ye,  (Jean  Louis 
Marie,)  a  French  physician  and  physiologist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1799.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Re- 
searches on  the  Course  of  the  Blood  in  the  Veins," 
(1831.) 

Poissant,  pwS^sftN',  (Thibaut,)  a  French  .sculptor, 
born  near  Crecy  in  1605  ;  died  in  1660. 

Poisson,  pw^'s^N',  (Nicolas  Joseph,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  Paris  in  1637,  was  a  disciple  of  Des- 
cartes. He  published  "Delectus  Actorum  Ecclesiae 
Universalis,"  (2  vols.,  1706.)    Died  in  1710. 

Poisson,  (Raymond,)  a  popular  French  comedian, 
born  in  Paris  in  1633  ;  died  in  1690.  His  grandson, 
FRANgoTS  Arnoul,  (1696-1753,)  was  a  favourite  comic 
actor  of  the  Parisian  stage. 

Poisson,  (Simeon  Denis,)  an  excellent  and  profound 
French  geometer,  born  at  Pithiviers  (Loiret)  on  the  21st 
of  June,  1 781.  He  entered  the  Polytechnic  School  in 
1798,  and  attracted  the  notice  of  La  Grange  and  La 
Place.  He  became  professor  in  the  same  school  in 
1802,  a  member  of  the  Bureau  of  Longitudes  in  1808,  a 
member  of  the  Institute  in  1812,  and  counsellor  of  the 
University  in  1820.  In  t8ii  he  published  an  excellent 
treatise  on  mechanics,  "Traite  de  Mecanique,"  (2  vols.) 
In  his  "New  Theory  of  Capillary  Action"  (1831)  he 
completes  the  researches  of  La  Place  by  superadding 
the  consideration  of  the  variation  of  density.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  Mathematical  Theory  of  Heat,"  (2  vols.,  1835,) 
and  a  treatise  on  the  theory  of  probabilities  ai)plied  to 
judicial  trials,  "  Recherches  sur  la  Probabilite  des  Juge- 
ments,"  etc.,  (1837.)  He  also  contributed  more  than 
three  hundred  memoirs  to  various  journals  and  periodi- 
cals. Among  these  is  a  remarkable  treatise  "On  the 
Invariability  of  the  Mean  Movements  of  the  Grand 
Planetary  Axes."  It  was  in  the  domain  of  mathematical 
physics  that  the  genius  of  Poisson  was  most  signally 
displaved.  He  brought  this  science  to  great  perfection, 
especially  in  its  application  to  static  electricity  and  mag- 
netism. In  1837  he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  peer 
of  France,  although  he  never  was  a  politician.  Died  in 
April,  1840. 

See  Arago,  "Notices  biographiqiies,"  tome  ii. :  "Notice  sur 
Poisson,"  Orleans,  1840;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Poissonnier,  pwi'so^ie-i',  (  Pierre,  )  a  French 
chemist  and  physician,  born  at  Dijon  in  1720.    He  was 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e^  1, 6.,  u,  y, 


r,  short;  a,    i,  9,  obscure;  ilx,  fUll,  fit;  mit;  nftt;  good;  moon: 


POITEFIN 


1817 


POLI 


sent  by  the  king  about  1760  on  a  secret  mission  to  Eliza- 
beth of  Russia,  and,  on  his  return,  received  the  title  of 
councillor  of  state.  He  invented  an  apparatus  or  pro- 
cess to  convert  sea-water  into  fresh  water.  In  1764  he 
became  inspector  and  director  of  medicine  for  all  the 
hospitals  and  maritime  arsenals  of  France.  Died  in  1798. 

Poitevin,  pwit'viN',(jACQUES,)  a  French  astronomer, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1742.  He  published  "  An  Essay 
cm  the  Climate  of  Montpellier,"  (1803.)    Died  in  1807. 

Poitevin,  (Pierre  Alexandre,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1782  ;  died  in  1859. 

Poitevin,  (Robert,)  a  French  physician,  born  proba- 
bly in  Poitou  about  1390.  He  was  employed  by  the 
queen,  and  by  Agnes  Sorel.    Died  in  1474. 

Poitevin  de  Maureillan,  pwitV^N'  deh  mo^ra^ySN', 
(Casimir,)  Vicomte,  a  French  general,  born  at  Mont- 
pellier in  1772.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Austerlitz, 
in  1805,  and  at  Borodino,  in  1812.    Died  in  1829. 

Poitiers,  de,  (Diane.)    See  Diane. 

Poivre,  pwJvR,  (Pierre,)  a  French  traveller,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1 7 19.  He  visited  China  in  1740,  after  which 
he  became  an  agent  of  the  French  East  India  Company, 
and  went  to  the  Moluccas,  from  which  he  transplanted 
the  nutmeg-tree  and  other  spices  to  the  Isle  of  France. 
He  was  intendatit  of  the  Isles  of  France  and  Bourbon 
from  1767  to  1773.  He  is  said  to  have  exhibited  there 
an  almost  perfect  model  of  an  administrator  and  public 
benefactor.    Died  in  1786. 

See  DupoNT  de  Nemours,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Poivre," 
1786;  A.  BouLLEE,  "Notice  sur  Poivre,"  1835. 

Poivre,  Le,  leh  pwSvR,  a  geometer,  born  at  Mons, 
Belgium,  lived  about  1700.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on 
Sections  of  a  Cylinder  and  Cone,"  (1704.) 

Poix,  pwi,  (Antoine  Claude  Dominique  Just,) 
Comte  de  Noailles  and  Prince  de  Poix,  a  French  diplo- 
matist, born  in  Paris  in  1777  ;  died  in  1846. 

Poix,  de,  deh  pwi,  (Louis,)  a  learned  French  monk, 
born  in  the  diocese  of  Amiens  in  17 14.  He  published 
a  new  version  of  the  Psalms,  (1762,)  and  "Principles 
discussed  to  facilitate  the  Study  of  the  Prophetic  Books," 
(i6  vols.,  1755-64.)    Died  in  1782. 

Pojarski.    See  Pozhakski. 

Polain,  po'liN',  (Mathieu  Lambert,)  a  Belgian 
historian,  born  at  Liege  in  1808.  His  chief  work  is  a 
"  History  of  Liege,"  ("  Histoire  de  I'ancien  Pays  de 
Liege,"  2  vols.,  1844-48,)  which  is  commended. 

Polanco,  po-lin'ko,  the  name  of  three  good  Spanish 
painters,  who  were  brothers  and  natives  of  Seville. 
The  latest  work  (jf  Carlos  Polanco  is  dated  1686. 

Pole,  [Lat.  Po'lus,]  (Reginald,)  a  celebrated  Eng- 
lish cardinal  and  scholar,  was  born  in  Staflfordshire  in 
1500.  His  mother,  Margaret  Plantagenet,  was  a  niece 
of  Edward  IV.,  a  daughter  of  George,  Duke  of  Clar- 
ence, and  cousin-german  to  Queen  Elizabeth  who  was 
the  mother  of  Henry  VIII.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  became  Dean  of  Exeter  at  the  age  of  nineteen.  He 
pursued  his  studies  at  Padua,  where  he  formed  friend- 
ships with  Erasmus,  Bembo,  and  Sadolet,  and  returned 
lo  jEngland  in  1525.  About  1531  he  lost  the  favour  of 
[fenry  VIII.  by  his  opposition  to  the  divorce  of  Queen 
Catherine.  Having  retired  to  the  continent  for  safety, 
he  wrote  a  famous  treatise  "For  the  Unity  of  the 
Church,"  ("Pro  Unitate  Ecclesiae,")  printed  at  Rome 
without  date,  in  which  he  controverted  the  pretensions 
of  Henry  to  be  the  head  of  the  Church.  His  mother 
and  brother  were  executed  by  order  of  the  king,  and  he 
was  attainted.  On  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary  (1553) 
he  was  sent  by  the  pope  as  legate  to  England.  He  suc- 
ceeded Cranmer  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1555 
or  1556.  Historians  are  divided  in  opinion  in  relation 
to  his  complicity  in  the  persecutions  of  this  reign  ;  and 
his  character  is  commonly  represented  as  mild  and 
humane.    Died  in  1558. 

See  Bkccadelli,  "Vita  Poli  Cardinalis,"  1533;  an  English  ver- 
sion of  the  same,  published  by  Pve  in  1766;  Froude,  "  History  of 
England;"  Thomas  Phim.ipps,  "Life  of  R.  Pole,"  1764;  Hume, 
"  History  of  England  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Polemburg.    See  Poelemburg. 

PoFe-mo  or  Pol'e-mon,  [Gr.  Wo')^iiu>v;  Fr.  PoLi^- 
MON,  po'li'miw',]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Athens, 
or  in  Attica.  He  succeeded  Xenocrates  as  the  head 
of  the  old  Academy  about  315  B.C.,  and  wrote  several 


works,  which  are  not  extant.  Among  his  disciples 
were  Zeno  the  Stoic,  and  Arcesilaus.  Died  about 
272  B.C. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  Diogenes  Laertius. 

Polemo,  a  Greek  writer,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
lived  between  100  and  250  A.D.  He  left  a  work  on 
Physiognomy,  which  is  extant.   He  is  quoted  by  Origen. 

Polemo  or  Polemon,  surnamed  Periege'tes,  [Fr. 
Pol^:mon  le  P^ri^g^te,  po'lk'm^N'  leh  p^'re'a'zhit',] 
a  Greek  geographer,  born  at  Samos  or  Sicyon,  obtained 
the  citizenship  of  Athens,  and  lived  about  200  B.C.  He 
wrote  many  works  on  geography,  etc.,  of  which  fragments 
are  extant. 

Polemo,  or  Polemo  the  Sophist,  a  cj  Jebiated 
Greek  rhetorician,  born  at  Laodicea,  flourished  about 
130  A.D.  He  taught  rhetoric  at  Smyrna,  and  obtained 
the  favour  of  Trajan  and  Hadrian.  He  wrote  several 
works,  which  are  lost,  except  two  orations.  He  died 
at  the  age  of  fifty-six. 

See  Philostratus,  "  Vitse  Sophistarum  ;"  Fabricius,  "Biblio- 
theca Grsca." 

Polemon.    See  Polemo. 

Poleni,  po-la'nee,  (Giovanni,)  Marquis,  an  Italian 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Venice  in  1683.  He  be- 
came professor  of  physics  at  Padua  in  171 5,  and  suc- 
ceeded N.  Bernoulli  as  professor  of  mathematics  in  1719. 
Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  "Dialogue  on  Celes- 
tial Vortices,"  (1712,)  and  "On  the  Mixed  Motion  of 
Water,"  ("De  Motu  Aquae  mixto,"  1717.)  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.    Died  in  1761. 

See  P.  CossALi,  "  Elogio  del  Professor  Poleni,"  1813;  Fabroni, 
"Vit^  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium ;"  G.  Gennari,  "  Elogio  del 
Marchese  G.  Poleni,"  1839. 

Polenta,  da,  di  po-lSn'ti,  (Guido  Novello,)  became 
Lord  of  Ravenna  in  1275.  He  befriended  the  exiled 
Dante,  who  came  to  his  court  in  13 19  and  remained 
there  until  his  death  in  1321.    Died  in  1323. 

Polentone,  po-l§n-to'ni,  [Lat.  Polento'nus,]  (Sec- 
co  or  Xicco,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  writer,  born  at 
Padua  about  1390.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Life  of 
Seneca,"  and  a  comedy  called  "Catinia,"  (1842.)  Died 
about  1462. 

See  J.  E.  Kapp,  "  Dissertatio  de  X.  Polentono,"  1733. 

Polevoi,  po^llh-voi',  (  Nikolai  Alexievitch,  )  a 
Russian  litterateur  and  journalist,  born  in  Siberia  in  1796, 
became  in  1825  editor  of  the  "Moscow  Telegraph,"  a 
periodical  of  great  ability  and  influence,  which  was  after- 
wards suppressed  by  the  government  on  account  of  its 
liberal  views.  Among  his  works,  which  are  very  nume- 
rous, we  may  name  a  "Life  of  Soovorof,"  (Suwarow,) 
a  "  Life  of  Peter  the  Great,"  (4  vols.,  1843,)  regarded  as 
the  best  life  of  that  sovereign  that  has  been  written,  the 
dramas  of  "  Parasha  the  Siberian  Girl"  and  "The 
Grandfather  of  the  Russian  Fleet,"  and  a  "  History  of 
the  Russian  People,"  a  part  of  which  only  has  been 
published.  He  also  translated  "  Hamlet,"  and  wrote 
a  number  of  valuable  critical  essays  on  Russian  litera- 
ture.   Died  in  1846. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Riographie  Generale." 

Polhem,  poKh^m,  or  Polhelm,  pol'h§lm,  (Kristo- 
FER,)  a  Swedish  engineer  and  mechanician,  born  in 
Gothland  in  1661.  He  invented  several  useful  machines, 
constructed  the  docks  at  Carlscrona,  and  obtained  a  title 
of  nobility.    Died  in  1751. 

Poli,  po'lee,  (Giuseppe  Saverio,)  an  Italian  natural- 
ist and  physiologist,  born  at  Molfetta,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  in  174^.  He  became  professor  of  geography  and 
history  in  a  military  school  at  Naples  about  1776,  after 
which  he  was  sent  by  the  king  to  France  and  England 
to  examine  educational  institutions  and  procure  scientific 
apparatus.  He  was  the  preceptor  of  the  prince  who 
reigned  as  Francis  I.  His  reputation  is  chiefly  founded 
on  an  excellent  work  on  testaceous  mollusca,  "  History 
and  Anatomy  of  the  Testacea  of  the  Two  Sicilies," 
("  Testacea  utriusque  Siciliae  eorumque  Historia  et 
Anatome,"  2  vols.,  1791-95.)  The  third  volume  was 
published  in  1826.  "This  magnificent  work,"  says  Cu- 
vier,  "represents  their  anatomy  with  much  accuracy,  and 
throws  new  light  on  their  physiology."    Died  in  1825. 

See  P.  N.  Giampaolo,  "Elogio  di  S.  Poli,"  1825:  Serafino 
Gatti,  "  Biografiadi  G.  S.  Polj,"  1825;  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli 
Italiani  illustri." 


€  as    9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POLI 


1818 


POLK 


Poli,  (Martino,)  an  Italian  chemist,  born  at  Lucca 
.n  1662  ;  died  at  Paris  in  1714. 

Po'li-as,  [Gr,  YloMag,  from  rroAif,  a  "city,"]  (the  "  protec- 
tress of  cities,")  a  surname  of  Athena,  (Minerva.)  There 
was  at  Athens  a  celebrated  temple  of  Athena  Polias. 

Polibio.    See  Polyhius. 

Polidoro.    See  Cakavaggio. 
■  Poller,  po'le-i',  (Antoine  N06,)  a  Swiss  writer, 
born  in  1 7 13,  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire.    He  became 
pastor  of  Lausanne  in  1754,  and  wrote  articles  for  the 
"Encyclopedic."    Died  in  1783. 

Polignac,  de,  deh  po'l^n'ytk',  (Auguste  Jules  Ar- 
MAND  Marie,)  Prince,  a  French  minister  of  state,  born 
at  Versailles  in  1780.  His  mother,  the  Duchess  of  Po- 
lignac, was  a  favourite  of  Marie  Antoinette.  He  became 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  August,  1829,  and  the  chief 
minister  before  the  end  of  the  year.  His  ultramontane 
and  absolutist  policy  rendered  him  very  unpopular.  In 
consequence  of  the  victory  of  the  liberals  and  insurgents 
over  Charles  X.  in  1830,  he  was  arrested,  tried  for  treason, 
and  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life.  He  was  re- 
leased in  1836,  and  retired  to  England.    Died  in  1847. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1832,  (by  Southey.) 

Polignac,  de,  (Melchior,)  a  French  diplomatist  and 
Latin  poet,  born  at  Puy-en-Velay  (Upper  Loire)  in  1661. 
He  was  sent  in  1695  as  ambassador  to  Poland,  where 
by  his  address  he  induced  a  majority  of  the  electors  to 
choose  the  French  prmce  De  Conti  as  king  in  1697.  He 
succeeded  Bossuet  in  the  French  Academy  in  1704.  In 
1 712  he  was  sent  as  plenipotentiary  to  the  Congress  of 
Utrecht,  He  became  a  cardinal  in  1 7 13.  He  acquired 
a  high  literary  reputation  by  his  Latin  poem  (in  refu- 
tation of  Lucretius)  entitled  "  Anti-Lucretius,  sive  de 
Deo  et  Natura  Libri  novem,"  (1745.)  Died  in  1742. 
Voltaire,  in  his  "  Temple  du  Gout,"  praises  Polignac 
as  a  successful  opponent  of  Lucretius,  and  as  one  who 
combined  the  qualities  of  Virgil  and  Plato  : 
"  Reunissant  Virgile  avec  Platon, 
Vengeur  du  Ciel  et  vainqueur  de  Lucrece." 

See  Chrysostome  Faucher,  "  Histoire  du  Cardinal  de  Po- 
lignac," 2  vols.,  1777;  DoRTOUS  DE  Mairan,  "  filoge  du  Cardinal 
de  Polignac,"  1742;  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Poliniere,  poHe'ne^iR',  (Pierre,)  a  French  natural 
philosopher,  born  near  Vire  in  167 1.  He  gained  dis- 
tinction at  the  College  of  Harcourt  as  a  teacher  of  natural 
philosophy  by  the  experimental  method,  and  published 
"Experiments  in  Physics,"  (1709.)    Died  in  1734. 

Poliorcetes.    See  Demei  rius  Poltorcetes. 

Polit,  po'le',  Polite,  po'l^t',  or  Le  Poli,  leh  poOe', 
[Lat.  Poli'tus,]  (Jean,)  a  Flemish  poet,  born  at  or 
near  Liege  about  1554;  died  after  1601. 

Politi,  po-lee'tee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  scholar, 
born  at  Florence  in  1679.  He  became  professor  of 
eloquence  at  Pisa  in  1733.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  an  edition  of  Eustathius's  "  Commentary  on 
Homer,"  with  a  Latin  version  and  notes,  (3  vols.,  1730- 
35.)    Died  in  1752. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentiuni." 

Politi,  (Lancelot.)    See  Catharinus. 

Politian,  po-lish'e-an,  [It.  Poliziano,  po-l^t-se-i'no ; 
Lat,  Politia'nus  ;  Fr,  Politien,  po'le^se-|,N',]  (An- 
GELO,)  a  celebrated  Italian  classical  scholar  and  poet, 
born  at  Montepulciano,  (Mons  Politianus,)  in  Tuscany,  in 
July,  1454.  His  family  name  was  Ambrogini.  He  studied 
Latin  under  Cristoforo  Landino,  and  Greek  under  An- 
dronicus  of  Thessalonica.  About  1468  he  wrote  stanzas, 
in  Italian,  in  honour  of  Giuliano  de'  Medici,  which  were 
much  admired.  He  was  patronized  by  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  who  employed  him  as  preceptor  of  his  sons  and 
treated  him  as  a  friend  as  long  as  he  lived.  As  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  and  Latin  at  Florence,  he  acquired  a 
high  reputation.  He  produced  elegant  Latin  versions 
of  the  History  of  Herodian,  of  the  Manual  of  Epictetus, 
and  of  the  "  Charmides"  of  Plato.  He  wrote  notes  on 
Ovid,  Catullus,  Pliny  the  Younger,  and  other  Latin 
authors.  Among  his  works  are  Latin  odes  and  epi- 
grams, and  a  Latin  poem  called  "  Rusticus."  "In  his 
Latin  poems,"  says  Ginguene,  "  we  find  the  fire  of  an 
imagination  truly  poetic,  and  that  taste  and  elegance 
which  were  the  natural  attributes  of  his  mind."  Died 
at  Florence  in  1494. 


"  In  1480  or  1483,"  says  Hallam,  "  Politian  was  placed 
in  the  chair  of  Greek  and  Latin  eloquence  at  Florence, 
a  station  perhaps  the  most  conspicuous  and  the  most 
honourable  which  any  scholar  could  occupy.  It  is 
beyond  controversy  that  he  stands  at  the  head  of  that 
class  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  envy  of  some  of  his 
contemporaries  attested  his  superiority.  In  1489  he 
published  his  once  celebrated  'Miscellanea,'  consisting 
of  one  hundred  observations  illustrating  passages  of 
Latin  authors,"  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe,")  He  was  characterized  by  Erasmus  as  "  rarum 
naturae  miraculum,"  ("a  rare  miracle  of  nature,") 

See  Serassi,  "Vita  di  A.  Poliziano  j"  F.  Otto  Mencken,  "  His- 
toria  Vitae  A.  Politiani,"  1736;  William  P.  Greswell,  "  Memoirs 
of  Angelus  Politianus,"  etc.,  1801  ;  Fabroni,  "  Elogj  di  Dante,  di 
A.  Poliziano,"  etc.,  iSoo;  D.  Moller,  "  De  Politiano."  1698  ;  Long- 
fellow, "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  N.  A.  Bonafous,  "  De 
A.  Politiani  Vita  et  Operibus,"  1845;  Bayle,  "Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary,"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Ita- 
liana;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "Lives  of  the  Italian 
Poets,"  by  Rev.  Henry  Stebbing  ;  "Italian  Narrative  Poetry," 
in  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1824,  (by  Prescott.) 

Politianus  or  Politiano.    See  Politian. 
Politien,    See  Politian. 
Politus.    See  Polit, 

Politz  or  Poelitz,  po'lits,  (Karl  Heinrich  Lud- 
WIG,)  a  German  historian,  born  at  Ernstthal  in  1772. 
He  became  professor  of  history  and  statistics  at  Leipsic 
in  1815,  Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  "History 
of  Saxony  and  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw,"  (3  vols,,  1808-10,) 
and  "  Political  Sciences  according  to  the  Ideas  of  our 
Epoch,"  (5  vols,,  1823-28.)    Died  in  1838. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Poliziano,    See  Politian, 

Polk,  pok,  (James  Knox,)  the  eleventh  President 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Mecklenburg  county, 
North  Carolina,  on  the  2d  of  November,  1795,  and  re- 
moved with  his  father  to  Middle  Tennessee  in  1806. 
He  graduated  in  the  University  of  North  Carolina 
about  1 81 6,  and  studied  law.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  Congress  from  Tennessee  in  1825  and  at  several  suc- 
ceeding elections.  In  1835  was  chosen  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  by  the  Democrats,  He 
was  also  Speaker  of  the  twenty-fifth  Congress,  (1837-38.) 
In  1839  he  was  elected  Governor  of  Tennessee  for  two 
years.  At  the  election  of  1841  he  was  defeated  by  the 
Whig  candidate  for  Governor.  In  1844  Polk  and  Dallas 
were  nominated  for  the  offices  of  President  and  Vice- 
President  by  the  Democratic  National  Convention,  which 
on  the  first  ballot  had  not  given  Mr.  Polk  a  single  vote. 
His  competitor  was  Henry  Clay,  The  principal  issue  in 
this  election  was  the  annexation  of  Texas,  which  Mr. 
Polk  was  pledged  to  promote.  He  was  elected,  receiving 
one  hundred  and  seventy  electoral  votes  oat  of  two 
hundred  and  seventy-five,  which  was  the  whole  number. 
He  appointed  James  Buchanan  secretary  of  state,  and, 
after  the  formal  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  Union, 
(1845,)  involved  the  country  in  an  aggressive  war  against 
Mexico,  which  began  in  May,  1846.  The  army  of  the 
United  States,  commanded  by  General  Scott,  after 
several  victories,  took  the  city  of  Mexico  in  September, 
1847,  The  Mexicans  obtained  peace  by  the  cession  of 
Upper  California  and  New  Mexico.  A  dispute  with  the 
British  government  about  the  boundary  of  Oregon  was 
settled  during  his  administration,  by  an  agreement  that 
the  parallel  of  49°  should  be  the  dividing  line.  He  re- 
tired from  office  in  March,  and  died  at  Nashville  in 
June,  1849. 

See  L.  Chase,  "  History  of  the  Administration  of  James  K. 
Polk,"  1850  ;  Levi  Woodbury,  "  Eulogy  on  James  K.  Polk,"  1850, 

Polk,  (Leonidas,)  an  American  who  became  famous 
for  his  twofold  character  of  bishop  and  general,  was 
born  at  Raleigh,  North  Carolina,  in  1806,  and  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1827,  He  was  ordained  an  Episcopal 
clergyman  about  1831,  and  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Loui- 
siana in  1841.  In  1861  he  took  arms  against  the  Union, 
with  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  activity  and  zeal  in  the  Confederate  service. 
He  occupied  Columbus,  Kentucky,  in  September,  i86r, 
and  evacuated  it  about  the  ist  of  March,  1862.  He 
commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April, 
1862,  and  served  as  lieutenant-general  at  the  battle  of 
Stone  River,  which  ended  January  2,  1863.    He  led  a 


a,  e,  T,  6,  vl,  y»  long;  i,  h,  \  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \x,  y,  short;  at,    i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fSt;  m^t;  nfit;  g«3od;  moon; 


POLLJJUOLO  1 8 19 


POLO 


corps  at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  September  19-20, 
1863.  He  was  killed  near  Kenesavv  Mountain,  Georgia, 
in  June,  1864. 

See  a  notice  of  General  Bishop  Polk  in  "Southern  Generals," 
1865. 

Pollajuolo,  pol-li-yoo-o'lo,  (Antonio,)  an  eminent 
Italian  painter  and  sculptor,  born  at  Florence  in  1426  or 
1431,  was  also  a  skilful  goldsmith.  His  master-piece  of 
painting  is  "The  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Sebastian,"  He 
was  invited  to  Rome  by  Innocent  VHI.,  for  whom  (with 
the  aid  of  his  brother  Pietro)  he  made  a  monument  to 
Sixtus  IV.  He  excelled  in  composition  and  in  knowledge 
of  anatomy.    Died  in  1498. 

SeeVASARi,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Pollajuolo,  (Pietro,)  a  painter  and  sculptor,  born  at 
Florence  about  1434,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
whom  he  aided  in  many  of  his  paintings  and  sculptures, 
but  was  less  eminent  than  he.    Died  in  1498. 

Pollajuolo,  (SiMONE.)    See  Cronaca. 

Pollet,  po'lk',  (Joseph  Michel  Ange,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Palermo  in  1814.  He  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Paris  about  1844,  and  obtained  a  first  medal  in 
1850.  His  works  adorn  the  Tuileries  and  other  imperial 
palaces. 

Pollet,  (Victor  Florence,)  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  about  1810.  He  gained  by  his 
engravings  the  prize  of  Rome  in  1838,  and  a  medal  of 
the  first  class  in  1849. 

PoFlfx-fen,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  judge,  born 
probably  in  Devonshire.  He  was  counsel  for  the  bishops 
in  their  famous  trial,  (1688.)  He  was  appointed  chief 
justice  of  the  common  pleas  in  1689.    Died  in  1692. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

PoUich,  poKliK,  (JoHANN  Adam,)  a  German  natural- 
ist, born  at  Lautern  in  1740.  He  published  a  good  Flora 
of  the  Palatinate,  "  Historia  Plantarum  in  Palatinatu 
Electorali  sponte  nascentium,"  (1776.)    Died  in  1780. 

Pollich,  [Lat.  Pollich'ius,]  (Martin,)  a  German 
physician,  eminent  for  learning,  born  at  Mellerstadt, 
was  an  ancestor  of  the  preceding.  He  became  in  1503 
professor  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Wittenberg, 
of  which  he  was  the  first  rector.  He  published  "  La- 
conismi,"  (1504,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1513. 

See  BoERNER,  "  Vita  Pollichii,"  1751  ;  Bismark,  "Vita  Pollichii," 
1614. 

Pollichius.    See  Pollich. 

PoFli-o,  (AsiNius,)  a  sophist  or  philosopher,  born  at 
Tralles,  in  Asia  Minor.  He  taught  at  Rome  about  50 
B.C.,  and,  according  to  Suidas,  wrote  a  commentary  on 
Aristotle's  treatise  "On  Animals." 

Pol'li-o,  [Fr.  PoLLioN,  po'le'^N',]  (Caius  Asiniu.s,) 
an  eminent  Roman  orator,  author,  and  patron  of  litera- 
ture, was  born  at  Rome  in  76  B.C.  He  was  a  partisan 
of  Caesar  in  the  civil  war  which  began  in  49  B.C.,  and 
crossed  the  Rubicon  with  that  chief.  He  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  in  48,  and  commanded  in  Spain 
against  Sexlus  Pompey  at  the  time  of  Caesar's  death,  44 
B.C.  Having  taken  arms  for  Antony  and  Octavius,  he 
obtained  the  office  of  consul  by  their  influence  in  40 
B.C.  and  saved  the  patrimony  of  Virgil  from  confiscation. 
Virgil  addressed  to  him  the  fourth  eclogue  in  40  B.C., 
and  the  eighth  eclogue  soon  after  that  date.  Pollio 
retired  from  the  public  service  about  the  year  38,  and 
remained  neutral  in  the  war  between  Octavius  and  An- 
tony. He  founded  the  first  public  library  at  Rome,  and 
patronized  Virgil,  Horace,  and  other  poets.  He  wrote  a 
valuable  history  of  the  civil  wars  of  Rome,  and  several 
poems,  which  were  praised  by  Virgil.  None  of  these 
works  are  extant.  His  excellence  as  an  orator  is  attested 
by  Quintilian  and  other  ancient  writers.  He  was  also 
distinguished  as  a  critic.  He  had  a  son  named  C.  Asi- 
nius  Gallus.  (See  Gallus.)    Died  in  4  a.d. 

See  Thorbecke,  "  Commentatio  de  C.  A.  Pollionis  Vita  et  Stu- 
diis,"  1820;  Ekerman,  "  Dissertatio  de  C.  A.  Pollione,"  1745; 
Appian,  "De  Bello  Civili;"  De  Bugny,  "  Pollion,  011  le  Siecle 
d'Auguste,"  4  vols.,  1808  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pollio,  (Trebellius,)  a  Roman  historian  who  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Constantine  I.  He  was  one  of  the 
authors  of  the  "  Historia  Augusta,"  to  which  he  con- 
tributed the  lives  of  the  two  Valerians,  of  the  two 
Gallieni,  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  and  of  Claudius. 


Pollion.    See  Pollio. 

Pollnitz  or  Poellnitz,  poKnits,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  a 
German  adventurer  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Isso- 
min  (Prussia)  in  1692.  He  sought  fortune  at  several 
courts  of  Europe,  and  was  appointed  grand  master  of 
ceremonies  by  Frederick  the  Great.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "  Saxe  galante,"  (1737,)  which  narrates  the 
amours  of  King  Augustus,  and  Memoirs  of  his  own 
life  and  times,  ("Memoires  du  Baron  de  Poellnitz,"  3 
vols.,  1734.)    Died  in  1775. 

Pol'lpck,  (Sir  Frederick,)  an  English  judge,  born 
in  London  in  1783.  He  became  attorney-general  in  1834, 
and  lord  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer  in  1844,  which 
position  he  held  until  1866.    Died  in  1870. 

See  Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  ix. ;  "Autobiography 
of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  i.  chaps,  iii.-iv.  ^ 

Pollock,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  general,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  London  in  1786.  He 
commanded  an  army  which  defeated  the  Affghans 
in  1841. 

Pol'lpck,  (James,)  an  American  Governor,  born  in 
Pennsylvania,  graduated  at  Princeton  College  in  183 1. 
He  represented  a  district  of  Pennsylvania  in  Congress 
from  1843  to  1849,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  that 
State  by  the  People's  party,  or  Republicans,  for  three 
years,  (1855-58.) 

PoFlpk,  (Robert,)  a  British  poet,  born  at  Muirhouse» 
in  Renfrewshire,  Scotland,  in  1798  or  1799.  He  studied 
at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  chose  the  profession 
of  minister  of  the  gospel.  He  obtained  a  license  as 
minister  in  the  United  Secession  Church  in  1827,  but 
his  health  was  already  fatally  impaired  by  excessive 
study.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  "  The  Course  of 
Time,"  (1827,)  a  didactic  poem,  which  found  many  ad- 
mirers, especially  among  those  who  take  an  interest  in 
religious  poetry.  It  contains  some  beautiful  and  many 
powerful  passages,  but  it  has  great  defects,  and  is  not 
considered  very  attractive  as  a  poem,  apart  from  its 
religious  and  moral  doctrines.  "The  Course  of  Time," 
says  Moir,  "  is  a  very  extraordinary  poem,  vast  in  its 
conception,  vast  in  its  plan,  vast  in  its  materials,  and 
vast,  if  very  far  from  perfect,  in  its  achievement."  "  The 
Course  of  Time,"  says  Professor  Wilson,  "for  so  young 
a  man,  was  a  vast  achievement.  .  .  .  He  had  much  to 
learn  in  composition.  .  .  .  But  the  soul  of  poetry  is 
there,  though  often  dimly  enveloped  ;  and  many  passages 
there  are,  and  long  ones  too,  that  heave  and  hurry 
and  glow  along  in  a  divine  enthusiasm."  He  wrote, 
in  prose,  "Tales  of  the  Covenanters."  Died  near 
Southampton  in  September,  1827. 

See  "  I>ife  of  R.  Pollok,"  by  his  brother,  1842;  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  June,  1827. 

Polluche,  po''lush',  (Daniel,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  at  Orleans  in  1689.  He  wrote  a  "Description  of 
Orleans,"  (1736.)    Died  in  1768. 

PoPlux,  a  demi-god  of  classic  mythology,  and  a 
brother  of  Castor.    See  Castor  and  Pollux. 

PoPlux,  (Julius,)  a  Greek  grammarian,  whose  proper 
name  was  Polydeuces,  was  born  at  Naucratis,  in  Egypt, 
about  130  A.D.  He  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Marcus  Aure- 
lius  and  Commodus,  and  taught  rhetoric  at  Athens  in 
the  reign  of  the  latter.  His  works  are  all  lost,  except 
his  "  Onomasticon,"  a  kind  of  dictionary  of  Greek  words, 
(not  in  alphabetical  order,)  which  is  highly  prized.  He 
died  at  the  age  of  fifty-eight. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grseca." 

PoPlux,  (Julius,)  a  Byzantine  writer,  who  lived  in 
the  tenth  or  eleventh  century.  He  wrote  a  "Chronicle, 
or  Universal  History  from  the  Creation  to  the  Time  of 
Valens,"  which  is  extant. 

Po'lo,  (Caspar  Gil,)  a  Spanish  poet  and  novelist, 
born  at  Valencia  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  was  a  lawyer  and  a  professor  of  Greek, 
He  gained  celebrity  by  a  poetical  romance,  entitled 
"  Diana  in  Love,"  ("  Diana  enamorada,")  which  was 
translated  into  English,  French,  and  Latin. 
See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 
Polo,  (Jayme,)  called  the  Elder,  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  at  Burgos  in  1560,  was  a  good  colorist.  Died 
in  1600. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (g^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POLO 


1820 


POLTCARP 


Polo,  (Jayme,)  the  Younger,  a  painter,  born  at 
Uurgos  in  1620  ;  died  at  Madrid  in  1655. 

Po'lo,  (Marco,)  [Fr.  Marc  Pol,  m^Kk  pol,  (or  Paul, 
pol,)]  a  famous  Venetian  traveller,  born  about  1252, 
was  a  son  of  Niccolo  Polo,  a  merchant  of  noble  rank. 
About  1255  Niccolo  and  his  brother  Matteo,  or  Maffeo, 
commenced  an  extensive  expedition,  with  a  stock  of 
precious  stones,  which  they  sold  to  a  Tartar  chief  on 
the  Volga.  They  arrived  in  1261  at  Bokhara,  where 
they  learned  the  Mongol  language.  Accepting  the  in- 
vitation of  a  Persian  envoy  whom  they  met  at  Bokhara, 
they  accompanied  him  to  the  court  of  Kooblai  Khan, 
the  Great  Mogul,  who  ruled  over  China  and  Tartary. 
This  prince  received  them  favourably,  and  accredited 
them  as  his  ambassadors  to  the  pope,  whom  he  desired  to 
senri  to  him  a  hundred  learned  men  to  teach  his  Mongol 
subjects.  They  returned  home  in  1269,  and  found  that 
the  pope  had  died  in  1268.  His  successor,  who  was 
not  elected  until  1271  or  1272,  gave  them  letters  to 
Kooblai  Khan,  to  whom  they  returned  accompanied  by 
young  Marco.  They  arrived  at  the  court  of  Kooblai 
in  1275.  Marco  learned  several  Asiatic  languages,  and 
obtained  the  favour  of  the  Khan,  who  sent  him  on  im- 
portant missions  to  China  and  other  provinces.  He 
was  the  first  European  that  entered  China,  in  which 
he  passed  several  years.  Having  obtained  the  consent 
of  Kooblai  Khan,  the  three  Venetians  quitted  his  ser- 
vice about  1292,  and,  embarking  on  the  coast  of  China, 
came  to  Ormuz  by  water,  and  reached  Venice  in  1295, 
with  many  diamonds,  rubies,  etc.  of  great  value.  Marco 
commanded  a  galley  in  a  battle  against  the  Genoese,  by 
whom  he  was  taken  prisoner.  During  his  long  cap- 
tivity he  composed  a  narrative  of  his  adventures,  by  the 
aid  of  notes  which  he  had  written  previously.  It  is  said 
that  a  French  version  of  his  book  was  made  under  his 
direction.  His  narrative  produced  a  great  sensation, 
and  was  translated  into  many  languages,  but  for  several 
ages  was  regarded  as  a  tissue  of  fictions  or  gross  ex- 
aggerations. The  researches  and  revelations  of  suc- 
cessive centuries  have  more  and  more  confirmed  his 
veracity;  and  it  is  now  recognized  that  his  services  had 
great  influence  on  the  progress  of  navigation  and  com- 
merce. "  When  in  the  long  series  of  ages,"  says  M. 
Walckenaer,  "we  search  for  three  men  who  by  the 
grandeur  and  influence  of  their  discoveries  have  con- 
tributed most  to  the  progress  of  geography  or  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  globe,  the  modest  name  of  the 
Venetian  traveller  presents  itself  in  the  same  line  with 
the  names  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  Christopher 
Columbus."  He  died  about  1324.  Among  the  best 
editions  of  his  book  is  that  of  Baldelli,  "  II  Milione  di 
Messer  Marco  Polo,"  (4  vols.,  1827.)  An  English  ver- 
sion, by  Marsden,  was  published  in  1818. 

See  Pi-ACiDO  ZuRLA,  "Di  M.  Polo  e  degli  altri  aiitichi  Viag- 
giatori,"  etc.,  1818  ;  Stein,  "  Ueber  den  Venetianer  M.  Polo,"  1821  ; 
G.  B.  Baldelli,  "Vita  di  M.  Polo,"  1827;  G.  Pauthier,  article 
"Polo,"  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "London  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  January,  1819,  and  July,  1868. 

Polonceau,  pon6N's5',  (Antoine  R6mi,)  a  French 
engineer,  born  at  Rheims  in  1778.  As  engineer-in-chief 
of  the  department  of  Mont  Blanc,  he  constructed  a  road 
over  Mont  Cenis  about  1812.  Among  his  works  is  the 
Pont  du  Carrousel  at  Paris,  (1834.)  He  wrote  several 
professional  works.  Died  in  1847.  His  son,  Jean  Bar- 
th6lemy  Camille,  (1813-59,)  was  distinguished  as  a 
railway  engineer  and  director. 

Poltrot  de  Mere,  pol'tRo'  deh  meh-ri',  (Jean,)  a 
French  fanatic,  who  assassinated  Francis,  Duke  de 
Guise,  in  1563.    He  was  executed  the  same  year. 

Polus.    See  Pole. 

PoTus,  a  Sophist  of  Agrigentum,  lived  about  400  B.C., 
and  was  a  disciple  of  Gorgias.  He  wrote  a  work  on 
rhetoric. 

Polus,  (Matthew.)    See  Poole. 

Polwhele,  poKwheel,  (Rev.  Richard,)  an  English 
antiquary  and  poet,  born  at  Truro  in  1759  or  1760. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  History  of  Cornwall,"  Died 
in  1838. 

Polyaenus,  pol-e-ee'nus,  [Holvaivog,]  of  Lampsacus, 
was  an  eminent  mathematician  ;  but,  having  become  a 
friend  and  disciple  of  Epicurus,  he  renounced  geometry, 
as  unworthy  of  his  notice. 


Polyaenus,  a  Macedonian  writer,  who  lived  about 
150  A.D.  He  wrote  a  work  on  "Stratagems  in  War," 
which  he  dedicated  to  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Verus.  It 
is  extant,  and  is  prized  for  the  numerous  anecdotes  and 
facts  which  he  has  collected,  and  which  are  not  found 
elsewhere. 

Polybe.    See  Polybius. 

Polybius.    See  Polybus. 

Po-lyb'i-us,  [Gr.  UoAvGiog ;  Fr.  Polybe,  po'l^b';  It. 
PoLiBio,  po-lee'be-o,]  a  celebrated  Greek  historian,  born 
at  Megalopolis,  in  Arcadia,  about  206  B.C.  He  was  a 
son  of  Lycortas,  who  succeeded  his  friend  Philopoemen 
as  general  of  the  Achaean  League  in  182  B.C.  Polybius 
obtained  in  169  B.C.  command  of  the  cavalry  raised  to 
fight  for  the  Romans  against  Perseus ;  but  his  ser- 
vices were  declined  by  the  Roman  general.  In  167  the 
Romans  transported  to  Italy,  as  hostages  or  exiles,  one 
thousand  Achaeans,  among  whom  was  Polybius.  He 
found  a  home  in  the  house  of  Paulus  ^milius,  and 
became  the  preceptor  of  his  son  Scipio,  afterwards  the 
famous  Scipio  Africanus  the  younger.  A  warm  friend- 
ship was  formed  between  this  pupil  and  Polybius,  who 
accompanied  him  in  all  his  campaigns.  He  witnessed  the 
conquest  and  destruction  of  Carthage,  (146  B.C.,)  soon 
after  which  he  went  to  Greece  and  exerted  his  influence 
with  some  success  to  procure  favourable  terms  for  the 
conquered  Achaeans.  He  afterwards  devoted  himself 
to  the  completion  of  a  general  history,  for  which  he  had 
been  preparing  himself  for  some  years  by  studies  and 
by  journeys  to  Egypt,  Spain,  Gaul,  etc.  The  exact  date 
of  his  death  is  unknown.  Lucian  states  that  he  died  at 
the  age  of  eighty-two.  His  great  work,  entitled  Kado- 
TiuiT],  KOLVT]  laTopia,  ("Universal  History,")  comprised  the 
period  from  220  to  146  B.C.,  and  consisted  of  forty 
books,  the  greater  part  of  which  are  lost.  We  have  the 
first  five  books  entire,  and  many  fragments  and  extracts 
of  several  other  books.  His  impartiality,  his  love  of 
truth,  his  sound  judgment  and  experience  in  military 
and  civil  affairs,  render  this  one  of  the  most  valuable 
and  reliable  histories  that  have  ever  been  written  by  an 
uninspired  writer.  He  is  thus  briefly  characterized  by 
Cicero :  "  Polybius  bonus  auctor  in  primis."  Livy's 
account  of  events  after  the  second  Punic  war  appears 
to  be  much  like  a  translation  from  Polybius.  The  latter 
despised  or  neglected  rhetorical  ornaments,  and  was 
deficient  in  imagination.  His  style,  consequently,  is 
not  attractive.  He  aimed  only  to  instruct,  and,  accord- 
ing to  some  critics,  carried  too  far  his  didactic  and 
moralizing  tendency.  He  wrote,  also,  a  "  Life  of  Phi- 
loposmen,"  and  a  "  Treatise  on  Tactics."  "  Polybius 
and  Arrian,"  says  Macaulay,  "  have  given  us  authentic 
accounts  of  facts  ;  and  here  their  merit  ends.  They 
were  not  men  of  comprehensive  minds ;  they  had  not 
the  art  of  telling  a  story  in  an  interesting  manner." 
("Essay  on  History,"  1828.)  An  English  version  of 
Polybius,  by  Hampton,  (1772,)  is  commended. 

See  K.  W.  Nitzsch,  "Polybius  7.ur  Geschichte  antiker  Politik," 
etc.,  1842;  L.  F.  Heyd,  "Vita  Polybii,"  1812;  Van  Heii.sde, 
"  School  van  Polybius  of  Geschiedkunde  voor  the  negentiende 
eeuw,"  1841 ;  F.  H.  Bothe,  "Polybiana,"  1844;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

PoFy-bus,  [Gr.  U6lv6og ;  Fr.  Polybe,  po'l^b',]  a 
king  of  Corinth,  who  was  said  to  have  educated  or 
adopted  GEdipus. 

Polybus  [IIoAfffof]  or  Polybius,  a  pupil  and  son-in- 
law  of  Hippocrates,  lived  in  the  island  of  Cos  about  400 
B.C.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  sect  of  Dogmatici. 
Several  treatises  usually  printed  with  the  works  of  Hip- 
pocrates are  ascribed  to  Polybus  by  many  critics. 

Pol'y-carp,  [Gr.  Ro'^mapTrog  ;  Lat.  Polycar'pus  ;  Fr. 
Polycarpe,  po'le''l<iRp',]  an  eminent  martyr  and  Father 
of  the  Christian  Church,  of  whose  early  history  we 
have  no  authentic  record.  Irenaeus  states  that  Polycarp 
had  intercourse  with  John  and  others  of  the  apostles, 
and  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Smyrna  by  the  apostles. 
According  to  some  writers,  he  was  ordained  by  Saint 
John.  He  was  Bishop  of  Smyrna  when  Ignatius  of 
Antioch  passed  through  that  city  on  his  way  to  Rome, 
which  occurred  between  107  and  116  A.D.  Polycarp 
visited  Rome  in  his  old  age,  and  had  a  conference  with 
Anicetus,  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  who  differed  from  the 
Eastern  churches  in  relation  to  the  time  for  the  obser- 


S,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  /on^^;  k,  h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  f,  short;  ai,  ?,  i,  q,  obscure;  ikx,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


POLTCJRPE 


1821 


POLTNICES 


Vance  of  Easter.  He  suffered  martyrdom  by  fire  at 
Smyrna  about  166  a.d.  A  letter  from  the  church  of 
Smyrna  on  the  subject  of  his  death  is  still  extant.  The 
only  work  of  Polycarp  that  remains  is  a  short  Epistle 
to  the  Philippians,  which  is  prized  because  numerous 
passages  of  the  New  Testament  are  quoted  in  it. 

See  TiLLEMONT,  "  Memoires  ecclesiastiques  ;"  Cruciger,  "Ora- 
tio  de  Polycarpi  Vita,"  1543  ;  "  Life  of  Polycarp,  Bishop  of  Smyrna," 
London,  1S47  ;  CoMTE  DE  CoETi-OSQUET,  "  Vie  de  S.  Ignace  et  de 
.S.  Polycarpe,"  1852. 

Polycarpe  or  Polycarpus.    See  Polycarp. 

Pol-y-char'mus,  \U.oAvxapi^o^,]  a  Greek  sculptor  of 
unknown  date.  Pliny  mentions  his  statue  of  "  Venus 
washing  herself,"  which  was  at  Rome  in  his  time. 

Polycleitus.    See  Polycletus. 

PoPy-cles,  [HoAvKlfjg,]  a  Greek  sculptor,  who  lived 
about  370  B.C.,  was  probably  an  Athenian.  He  is  men- 
tioned by  Pliny,  who  says  he  made  a  celebrated  statue 
of  a  hermaphrodite. 

Another  sculptor  named  Polycles  is  mentioned  by 
Pliny  as  flourishing  about  155  B.C.  Pausanias  notices 
some  works  of  Polycles ;  but  it  is  doubtful  which  of  these 
two  he  refers  to. 

Polyclete.    See  Polycletus. 

Pol-y-cle'tus  or  Pol-y-cli'tus,  [Gr.  liolvKleLTog ; 
Fr.  Polyclete,  po'le'kl^t',]  a  Greek  statuary  of  great 
celebrity,  was  also  a  sculptor  and  architect.  He  was  a 
native  of  Sicyon  or  Argos,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Ageladas, 
the  Argive  statuary,  who  was  at  the  same  time  the  mas- 
ter of  Phidias.  The  works  of  Polycletus  were  probably 
executed  between  452  and  412  B.C.  He  surpassed  all 
statuaries  of  his  time  except  Phidias,  and  equalled  the 
latter  in  beauty  if  not  in  sublimity.  He  once  gained 
the  first  prize  for  a  statue  of  an  Amazon,  in  competition 
with  Phidias  and  other  artists.  His  master-pieces  in 
bronze  were  a  statue  of  a  young  man  called  "  Diadu- 
menos"  binding  his  head  with  a  fillet,  "  Doryphorus  the 
Spear-Bearer,"  the  Amazon  noticed  above,  and  a  statue 
called  the  Kavwv,  ("Canon,")  because  it  was  recognized 
as  a  perfect  model  of  the  human  figure.  Some  critics 
maintain  that  this  last  statue  was  the  "  Doryphorus." 
None  of  his  works  was  more  celebrated  than  a  colossal 
ivory  and  gold  statue  of  Juno,  which  adorned  a  temple 
near  Argos.  He  was  architect  of  a  theatre  at  Epidaurus, 
which  was,  according  to  Pausanias,  the  most  beautiful 
in  the  world.  Cicero  and  Pliny  agree  in  the  opinion 
that  Polycletus  brought  the  art  of  statuary  to  perfection. 
Among  his  pupils  were  Aristides,  Canachus,  Atheno- 
dorus,  and  Phrynon. 

See  Pliny,  "Natural  History;"  £meric  David,  "Vies  des 
Artistes  anciens  et  modernes ;"  K.  O.  Muller,  "  Handbuch  der 
Archaologie  der  Kunst." 

Polycletus,  another  statuary  of  Argos,  is  mentioned 
by  Pausanias  as  a  different  person  from  him  "who  made 
the  statue  of  Juno,"  and  as  a  pupil  of  Naucydes,  (who 
flourished  about  410  B.C.)  Several  works  are  variously 
attributed  to  this  Polycletus  and  to  his  more  celebrated 
namesake. 

Polycletus  of  Larissa,  a  Greek  historian  of  un- 
known date.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
which  is  not  extant. 

Polycrate.    See  Polycrates 

Po-lyc'ra-tes,  [  Gr.  liokvapaT-ng ;  Fr.  Polycrate, 
po'le'kRtt',]" tyrant  of  Samos,  usurped  the  royal  power 
about  532  B.C.  He  formed  a  powerful  navy,  and  con- 
quered some  other  islands.  He  patronized  literature 
and  the  arts,  and  constructed  some  grand  public  works. 
His  court  was  the  resort  of  eminent  artists  and  poets, 
among  whom  was  Anacreon.  He  defended  Samos  with 
success  against  an  attack  of  the  Spartans  and  Corinthians. 
In  522  B.C.  he  was  induced  to  go  to  Sardis  by  the  satrap 
Oroetes,  who  treacherously  put  him  to  death. 

See  Hekodotus,  "  History,"  book  iii. ;  Veegens,  "  Dissertatio 
historica  de  Polycrate  Samio,"  1839.  For  a  popular  legend  respecting 
Polycrates,  see  Schiller's  poem  entitled  "  Der  Ring  des  Polykrates." 

Polycrates,  an  Athenian  orator  and  Sophist,  who 
was  a  contemporary  of  Socrates.  He  taught  at  Athens 
and  Cyi^rus. 

Pol-y-dec'tes,  {Hokv^enrriq,]  a  Greek  sculptor,  who 
worked  at  Rome  in  the  first  century  after  Christ. 
Polydeuces.    See  Pollux. 
Polydore.    See  Polydorus. 


Polydore  Vergil.    See  Vergil. 

Pol-y-do'rus,  |Gr.  lioXvdtjpog ;  Fr.  Polydore,  po'- 
le'doR',j  a  son  of  Cadmus  and  Harmonia,  was  King  of 
Thebes,  and  the  father  of  Labdacus. 

Polydorus,  [Eng.  Polydore,  poKe-dor,]  the  youngest 
son  of  Priam,  was,  according  to  the  ancient  poets,  com- 
mitted to  the  care  of  Polymestor,  King  of  Thrace,  by  his 
father,  who  sent  with  him  a  large  sum  of  money.  Poly- 
mestor killed  the  young  prince  and  appropriated  the 
money. 

Polydorus,  a  king  of  Sparta,  was  a  son  of  Alca- 
menes,  and  the  father  of  Eurycrates.  He  lived  about. 
725  B.C. 

Polydorus,  a  sculptor  of  Rhodes,  aided  Agesander 
(who  is  supposed  to  have  been  his  father)  in  the  execu- 
tion of  the  famous  group  of  Laocoon.  He  is  mentioned 
by  Pliny. 

Pol-y-euc'tus,  [Gr.  TiokvevKrog ;  Fr.  Polyeucte,  po'- 
le'ukt',]  an  Athenian  orator,  lived  about  325  B.C.  He 
was  a  political  friend  of  Demosthenes,  and  an  adversary 
of  Phocion. 

Polygnote.    See  Polygnotus. 

Pol-yg-no'tus,  [Gr.  TiokvyvtJToq ;  Fr.  Polygnote, 
po'l^g'not';  Ger.  Polygnotos,  po-lig-no'tos,]  an  excel- 
lent Greek  painter,  born  in  the  island  of  Thasos,  was  a 
son  and  pupil  of  Aglaophon.  He  flourished  from  about 
460  to  430  B.C.,  was  a  contemporary  of  Phidias,  and  was  a 
brother  of  the  painter  Aristophon.  He  became  a  citizen 
of  Athens  and  a  friend  of  Cimon,  who  employed  him  to 
ornament  the  temple  of  Theseus.  He  painted  gratui- 
tously the  Poecile  or  portico  of  Athens.  After  the  death 
of  Cimon  (449  B.C.)  Polygnotus  probably  retired  from 
Athens,  and  applied  himself  to  the  decoration  of  the 
great  temple  at  Delphi.  He  is  styled  "  the  Homer  of 
painting,"  because  he  treated  his  subjects  in  an  epic 
rather  than  a  dramatic  spirit.  Pliny  represents  him  as 
the  first  who  painted  women  with  transparent  or  shining 
drapery,  (lucida  veste,)  and  the  first  who  contributed 
much  to  the  progress  of  the  art.  He  had  imagination 
in  the  highest  degree.  In  allusion  to  the  ideal  charac- 
ter and  moral  expression  of  his  works,  Aristotle  calls 
him  an  et/iic  painter.  The  same  critic  says,  in  another 
passage,  Polygnotus  represented  men  better  than  they 
are,  (or  superior  to  nature.)  Among  his  works  were 
the  "Capture  of  Troy,"  and  the  "Visit  of  Ulysses  to 
the  Lower  World." 

See  Pliny,  "Natural  History;"  Pausanias,  i.,  ix.,  and  x. ; 
SiLLiG,  "Catalogiis  Artificum ;"  Suidas,  "Polygnotus;"  Otto 
Jahn,  "Die  Gemalde  des  Polygnotos  in  der  Lesche  zu  Delphi," 
1841  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpbie  Generale." 

Pol-y-his'tor,  [XloTiviGTup,]  (Alexander,  or  Alex- 
ander  Cornelius,)  a  Greek  geographer  and  historian, 
born  in  Phrygia  or  Miletus,  lived  at  Rome  about  80  B.C. 
He  was  surnamed  Polyhistor  on  account  of  his  great 
learning,  and  is  often  quoted  by  Pliny  the  Elder.  He 
wrote  a  description  of  many  countries,  in  forty  books. 
None  of  his  works  are  extant. 

Polyide.    See  Polyidus. 

Pol-y-hym'ni-a  or  Po-lym'ni-a,  [from  iro'kvg, 
"much,"  or  "many,"  and  vfivoq,  a  "hymn,"  or  "song,"] 
the  name  of  the  muse  who  presided  over  singing  and 
rhetoric,  and  was  supposed  to  be  the  inventress  of 
harmony. 

Pol-;^-i'dus,  [Gr.  HoXvWoq ;  Fr.  Polyide,  po'le'^d',]  a 
soothsayer  of  classic  mythology,  who  was  fabled  to  have 
restored  to  life  Glaucus,  a  son  of  Minos.  This  story 
was  a  favourite  subject  of  ancient  poets  and  artists. 

Polyidus,  [rioAiiidof,]  an  Athenian  poet,  musician,  and 
painter,  lived  about  400  B.C.  His  productions  (dithy- 
rambs) were  very  popular. 

Pol-y-mes'tor  or  Pol-ym-nes'tor,  a  fabulous  king 
of  Thrace,  was  said  to  have  been  a  son-in-law  of  Priam. 
He  murdered  Polydorus,  which  see.  His  story  is  related 
with  much  variation  by  different  writers,  some  of  whom 
say  that  he  killed  his  own  son  by  mistake  instead  of 
Polydorus. 

Pol-ym-nes'tus  \YioXviivriGTog\  or  Pol-ym-nas'tus 

OF  Colophon,  an  epic  and  lyric  poet,  and  musician,  lived 
about  660  B.C. 
Polynice.    See  Polynices. 

Pol-y-ni'ces  or  Pol-y-nei'ces,  [Gr.  TlolvveLKr]g  ;  Fr. 
Polynice,  po'le'n^ss',]  a  son  of  CEdipus,  King  of  Thebes, 


«  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Sl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POLYP  HEME 


1822 


POMPEIUS 


and  Jocasta.  He  made  an  agreement  with  his  brother 
Eteocles  that  they  should  each  reign  one  year  alternately. 
Eteocles,  having  reigned  the  first  year,  refused  to  resign 
the  throne.  The  cause  of  Polynices  was  espoused  by 
Adrastus,  King  of  Argos,  who  led  the  famous  expedition 
against  Thebes.  Polynices  and  Eteocles  killed  each  other 
in  single  combat. 

See  Sophocles,  "OEdipus  et  Colonus;"  Euripides,  "Phce- 
nissas." 

Polypheme.    See  Polyphemus, 

Pol-y-phe'inus,  [Gr.  no/iv(j)T}/j.og ;  Fr.  Polypheme, 
po'leTim',]  a  Cyclops  or  giant  of  Sicily,  who  was  said 
to  have  one  eye  in  his  forehead,  and  was  called  a  son  of 
Neptune.  Homer  relates  in  the  "Odyssey"  a  famous 
adventure  of  Ulysses  in  the  cave  of  Polyphemus.  (See, 
also,  Virgil's  "  yfeneid,"  book  iii.  617-676.) 

Pol-ys-per'-ehon,  [Gr.  YlokvanEpxi^v,]  a  Macedonian 
general,  who  in  332  B.C.  obtained  command  of  a  division 
in  the  phalanx  of  Alexander.  He  served  in  the  cam- 
paign of  India,  and  was  second  in  command  of  a  body 
of  veterans  which  Craterus  conducted  home  in  323  B.C. 
During  the  absence  of  the  regent  Antipater  in  321,  he 
had  the  chief  command  in  Macedonia  and  Greece. 
He  became  regent  in  319  B.C.,  at  the  death  of  Antipater, 
who  designated  him  as  his  successor.  A  coalition  was 
formed  against  him  by  Antigonus  and  Cassander,  who 
expelled  him  from  Macedonia  in  316  B.C.  In  310  he 
raised  an  army  to  obtain  the  crown  for  Heracles,  (a  son 
of  Alexander  and  Barsina,)  but,  having  been  corrupted 
by  Cassander,  he  procured  the  assassination  of  that 
youth.    Died  after  303  B.C. 

See  Grote,  "History  of  Greece;"  Diodorus  Siculus,  books 
xvii.-xx.  ;  Dkoysen,  "  Geschich'e  der  Nachfolger  Alexanders." 

Polystrate.    See  Polystratus. 

Po-lys'tra-tus,  [Gr.  UnlvaTparo^ ;  Fr.  Polystrate, 
po'l^'stRtt',]  a  Greek  Epicurean  philosopher,  who  suc- 
ceeded Hermarchus  as  the  head  of  the  school.  He 
lived  probably  about  2^0  B.C. 

Po-lyx'e-na,  [Gr.  Uohj^evrj;  Fr.  Polyxene,  po'l^k'- 
sin',]  a  daughter  of  Priam,  King  of  Troy,  was  beloved 
by  Achilles.  According  to  one  tradition,  she  was  sacri- 
ficed by  the  Greeks  on  the  tomb  of  Achilles. 

Polyxene.    See  Polyxena. 

Pomarancio,  po-ma-rSi/cho,  the  surname  of  Niccol6 
CiRCiGNANi,  (ch^R-chen-yi'nee,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Pomarancio,  near  Volterra.  He  worked  in  Rome,  and 
aided  Titian  in  the  Belvedere  of  the  Vatican.  One  of 
his  latest  works  is  dated  1 591. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Pomare,  po-m3.'ri,  (Aimata,)  Queen  of  Tahiti,  was 
born  about  1822.  Several  chiefs  having  in  1842  placed 
the  island  under  the  protection  of  France,  she  protested 
against  the  act.  The  French  admiral  Du  Petit-Thouars 
attempted  to  depose  her  by  force,  but  his  act  was  dis- 
avowed by  the  French  court.  She  abdicated  in  favour 
of  her  son,  Tamatoa,  in  1852. 

Pomarius,  po-mi're-us,  the  Latin  name  of  Samuel 
Baumgarten,  (bowm'gaR'ten,)  a  German  Protestant 
minister  and  writer,  born  in  1624;  died  in  1683. 

Pombal,  de,  dk  pom-b3.K  or  p6N-b3.K,  (Dom  Sebas- 
TiAO  Joz6  de  Carvallio — di  kaR-vSKyo,)  Marquis, 
Count  of  Oeyras,  an  eminent  Portuguese  statesman,  born 
at  Soura,  near  Coimbra,  in  1699.  He  studied  law  at 
Coimbra,  and  was  sent  as  envoy-extraordinary  to  London 
in  1739.  He  married  a  niece  of  the  Austrian  general 
Daun,  who  gained  the  favour  of  the  Queen  of  Portugal. 
By  her  influence  Carvalho  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  1750.  He  greatly  increased  the  prosperity  of 
Portugal,  by  the  promotion  of  education,  manufactures, 
commerce,  etc.  He  reduced  the  power  of  the  Inquisition, 
and  banished  the  Jesuits  in  1759.  His  administrative 
talents  appear  to  have  been  of  a  high  order.  In  1770  he 
received  the  title  of  Marquis  de  Pombal.  His  reforms 
and  his  severity  towards  some  of  the  nobility,  who  were 
suspected  of  complicity  in  a  plot  against  the  king's  life, 
rendered  him  unpopular.  He  was  deprived  of  power  at 
the  death  of  Joseph  I.,  in  1777.    Died  in  1782. 

See  "  Life  of  Pombal,"  by  J.  Smith,  1843;  Gusta,  "Vita  di 
Sebastiano  Giuseppe  di  Carvalho,"  4  vols.,  1781;  "  Memoires  du 
Marquis  de  Pombal,"  4  vols.,  1784:  "  Administration  du  Marquis  de 
Pombal,"  4  vols.,  1787;  Oppermann,  "Pombal  und  die  Jesuiten," 
1S45;  Champkobekt,  "Choiseul  et  Pombal,"  1836;  "  Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  Generale." 


Pomerancio.    See  Roncalll 

Pomeranus.    See  Bugenhagen. 

Pomet,  po'mi',  (Pierre,)  a  French  botanist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1658.  He  published  a  "Description  of  Drugs," 
etc.,  (1694,)  which  was  then  the  best^  French  work  on 
materia  medica.    Died  in  1699. 

Pomey,  po'mi',  (FRAwgois  Anne,)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  classical  teacher,  born  at  Pernes  in  1619.  He  pub- 
lished a  work  on  mythology,  "  Mythological  Pantheon," 
(1659,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1673. 

PSm'fret,  (John,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Bedford- 
shire in  1667,  became  rector  of  Maiden.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  poems,  "The  Choice,"  which  was  once 
popular.  "  He  pleases  many,"  says  Dr.  Johnson  ;  "and 
he  who  pleases  many  must  have  merit."    Died  in  1703. 

Pommayrac,  de,  deh  po'mi'rtk',  (Pierre  Paul,)  a 
French  painter  of  miniatures,  was  born  in  Porto-Rico 
about  1818.  He  worked  in  Paris,  and  obtained  a  medal 
of  the  first  class  in  1842. 

Pommer,  pom'mer,  (Christoph  Frtedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man physician,  born  in  1787;  died  in  1841. 

Pommeraye,  pom'ri',  (Jean  Franqois,)  a  French 
monk,  born  at  Rouen  in  1617.  He  wrote  a  "History 
of  the  Archbishops  of  Rouen,"  (1667.)    Died  in  1687. 

Pommereul,  de,  deh  pom'ruK,  (Francois  Ren6 
Jean,)  Baron,  a  French  general  and  politician,  born  in 
Bretagne  in  1745  ;  died  in  1823. 

Pommier,  po''me-i',  (Victor  Louis  Am^d^;e,)  a 
French  ])oet,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1804.  He  obtained 
several  prizes  of  the  French  Academy  for  poeins  on  the 
"Discovery  of  Steam  Power,"  (1848,)  and  other  sub- 
jects. He  published  "Poesies,"  (1832,)  "  Oceanides  et 
Fantaisies,"  (1839,)  and  other  collections.  Died  in  1862. 

See  QuiiRARD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire." 

Po-mo'na,  [Fr.  Pomone,  po'mon';  from  pomtim,  an 
"apple,"]  a  Roman  divinity  supposed  to  preside  over 
the  fruit  which  grows  on  trees. 

Pomone.    See  Pomona. 

Pompadour,  de,  deh  poN^pt'dooR', (Madame  Jeanne 
Antoinette  Poisson,)  Marquise,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1 721.  She  was  married  in  1741  to  M.  d'fitioles,  a 
publican.  About  1744  her  beauty  and  accomplishments 
attracted  the  favour  of  Louis  XV.,  who  gave  her  the  title 
of  Marquise  de  Pompadour  in  1745.  She  retained  a 
dominant  infliuence  over  him  until  her  death,  in  1764. 
She  appointed  ministers  and  generals,  received  ambas- 
sadors, and  maintained  correspondence  with  foreign 
courts.  Among  her  diplomatic  acts  was  the  coalition  of 
France  with  Austria  against  Frederick  the  Great,  in  1756. 

See  "  History  of  the  Marcliioness  de  Pompadour,"  London,  2 
vols.,  1758;  SoULAViE,  "Memoires  de  la  Cour  de  France  pendant 
la  Faveurde  Madame  de  Pompadour,"  1802;  Capefiguk,  "Madame 
de  Pompadour,"  185S;  Voltairk,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XV;"  L.  dk 
Carn^,  "  Le  Gouvernement  de  Madame  de  Pompadour,"  in  tJie 
"Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  January  15,  1859. 

Pompee,  the  French  for  Pompey,  which  see. 

Pompei,  pom-pa'ee,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  Hellenist 
and  translator,  born  at  Verona  in  1731.  He  produced 
some  successful  verses,  entitled  "  Pastoral  Songs,"  ("  Can- 
zoni  pastorali,"  1766,)  and  several  tragedies.  His  repu- 
tation is  founded  chiefly  on  an  Italian  translation  of 
Plutarch's  "Lives,"  (1772,)  which  is  the  best  in  that 
language,  and  probably  equal  to  the  best  version  in  any 
language.    Died  at  Verona  in  1788. 

See  Fontana,  "  De  Vita  et  Scriptis  Hier.  Pompei,"  1790;  Pir»- 
DEMONTE,  "  Elogio  storico  di  G.  Pompei,"  1789;  Tipaldo,  "Bio 
grafia  degli  Italiani  illustri. " 

Pompeius,  (Cnetus.)    See  Pompey  the  Great. 

Pom-pe'ius,  (Quintus,)  a  Roman  general  and  orator, 
was  consul  in  141  B.C.  He  commanded  in  Spain  in  140, 
and  was  defeated.    In  131  B.C.  he  was  elected  censor. 

Pompeius,  (Rufus  Q.,)  a  son  or  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  was  tribune  of  the  people  in  100  B.C.,  and 
praetor  in  91.  He  became  consul  with  L.  Sulla  in  88 
B.C.,  and  was  a  partisan  of  Sulla  in  the  civil  war.  He 
was  killed  by  his  mutinous  soldiers  in  88  or  87  B.C. 

Pompeius  Festus.    See  Festus. 

Pompeius  Magnus.    See  Pompey  the  Great. 

Pom-pe'ius  Stra'bo,  (Cneius,)  an  able  Roman 
general,  was  the  father  of  Pompey  the  triumvir.  He 
gained  several  victories  in  the  Social  war,  and  was  a 
partisan  of  the  aristocracy  in  the  civil  war  between  Sulla 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


POMPEIUS 


1823 


POMPONIUS 


and  Marias.  His  avarice  and  cruelty  rendered  him 
odious.    He  was  killed  by  lightning  in  87  B.C. 

Pompeius  Trogus.    See  Trogus. 

Pompeo.    See  Pompey. 

Pom'pey,  [Lat.  Pompe'ius  ;  Fr.  PompEe,  p6N'pi' ; 
It.  Pompeo,  pom-pa'o,]  (Cneius,)  the  eldest  son  of 
Pompey  the  Great,  was  born  about  78  B.C.  His  mother 
was  Mucia.  He  commanded  a  fleet  for  his  father  in  48 
B.C.,  and  after  the  death  of  the  latter  sailed  to  Spain, 
where  he  raised  an  army  of  thirteen  legions.  In  45  B.C. 
this  army  encountered  at  Munda  another,  commanded 
by  Caesar  in  person,  who  gained  a  complete  but  not  an 
easy  victory.  Pompey  was  overtaken  in  his  retreat 
and  killed. 

Pompey,  (Pompeius,)  (Sextus,)  a  son  of  the  trium- 
vir, was  born  in  75  B.C.  He  waged  war  with  some  suc- 
cess against  Caesar  in  Spain  after  the  battle  of  Munda. 
Soon  after  the  death  of  Caesar  (44  B.C.)  he  was  appointed 
chief  admiral  of  the  fleet  by  the  senate  ;  but  he  was 
proscribed  as  an  outlaw  by  Antony  and  Octavius.  He 
made  himself  master  of  Sicily,  and,  by  means  of  his 
formidable  fleet,  obstructed  the  supply  of  corn  which 
the  Romans  received  by  sea.  The  officers  of  Sextus 
gained  several  victories  over  the  fleet  of  Octavius.  In 
36  B.C.  Agrippa  defeated  Pompey,  who  fled  to  Asia  and 
was  put  to  death  in  35  B.C.  by  the  officers  of  Antony. 

See  Appian,  "  Bellum  Civile." 

Pompey  the  Great,  FLat.  Pompe'ius  Mag'nus  ; 
Fr.  PoMPEE  LE  Grand,  pdN^pk'  leh  gR6N,]  (Cneius,) 
a  famous  Roman  general  and  triumvir,  was  born  on 
the  30th  of  September,  106  B.C.,  in  the  same  year  as 
Cicero.  He  fought  under  his  father  in  the  Social  war, 
(89  B.C.,)  and  saved  his  father's  life  when  Cinna  attempted 
to  assassinate  him  in  87  B.C.  He  raised,  without  a  com- 
mission, three  legioiis  to  fight  for  Sulla  against  the 
party  of  Marius  in  83  B.C.,  and  began  to  display  his 
great  military  talents  in  the  defeat  of  a  hostile  force 
under  Brutus.  For  this  success  Sulla  saluted  him  with 
the  title  of  imperator.  He  gained  another  victory  over 
the  legates  of  Carbo  in  82  B.C.,  reduced  Numidia  in  81, 
and  obtained  the  honour  of  a  triumph,  although  he 
was  but  a  simple  eqiies. 

In  76  B.C.  he  obtained  command  of  an  army  sent  to 
Spain  against  Sertorius,  who  defeated  Pompey  in  two 
battles,  but  was  assassinated  in  the  year  72,  soon  after 
which  Spain  was  reduced  to  subjection.  With  a  high 
degree  of  popularity,  Pompey  returned  to  Italy  in  71  B.C., 
and  was  elected  consul  (with  Crassus)  for  the  year  70, 
although  he  had  not  held  any  of  the  lower  civil  offices 
and  was  not  legally  eligible  for  other  reasons.  Among 
the  important  acts  of  his  administration  was  the  restora- 
tion of  the  power  of  the  tribunes,  by  which  he  signalized 
his  defection  from  the  aristocratic  party.  He  remained 
at  Rome  inactive  during  69  and  68  B.C.  In  the  next 
year  his  friends  procured  the  passage  of  a  law  by  which 
he  was  selected  to  conduct  a  war  against  the  pirates 
(who  infested  the  Mediterranean  in  great  numbers)  and 
was  invested  with  irresponsible  power  for  three  years. 
He  performed  this  service  with  complete  success  in  less 
than  one  year,  and,  it  is  said,  took  20,000  prisoners. 

The  next  enterprise  to  which  he  was  called  by  his  own 
ambition  and  the  favour  of  the  people  was  the  termina- 
tion of  the  Mithridatic  war,  which  had  been  protracted 
for  years.  His  claims  having  been  advocated  by  Cicero 
in  a  long  oration,  ("  Pro  Lege  Manilla,")  he  superseded 
Lucullus  in  66  B.C.  He  defeated  Mithridates  in  Lesser 
Armenia  in  the  same  year,  and  after  that  king  had 
escaped  to  the  Crimea,  which  was  difficult  of  access 
to  the  Roman  army,  Pompey  turned  southward,  and 
reduced  Syria  to  a  Roman  province  in  64  B.C.  After  a 
siege  of  three  months,  he  captured  Jerusalem  in  63,  and 
entered  the  sanctuary  of  the  Temple.  Having  received 
intelligence  of  the  death  of  Mithridates,  and  having  re- 
duced Pontus  and  Bithynia  to  subjection,  he  returned  to 
Italy  in  62  B.C.,  and  was  received  with  general  enthusiasm. 
The  triumph  which  he  obtained  on  this  occasion  was  Ihe 
most  brilliant  which  the  Romans  had  ever  witnessed. 
Offended  by  the  refusal  of  the  senate  to  sanction  his 
public  acts  in  Asia,  he  identified  himself  with  the  popu- 
lar party,  and  formed  with  Caesar  and  Crassus  a  coalition 
)r  triumvirate,  (59  B.C.)  Pompey,  having  divorced  Mucia, 


his  third  wife,  married  Julia,  a  daughter  of  Caesar.  He 
made  no  effort  to  prevent  the  banishment  of  Cicero,  but 
he  supported  the  bill  for  his  restoration,  in  57  B.C.  His 
popularity  was  now  on  the  decline.  He  had  lost  the 
confidence  of  the  senate  by  his  coalition  with  Caesar,  who 
was  his  successful  rival  in  respect  to  the  favour  of  the 
people.  Pompey  could  only  obtain  the  consulship  in  55 
B.C.  by  the  aid  of  Cassar,  with  whom  he  and  Crassus  had 
formed  another  secret  treaty  or  bargain. 

Anticipating  the  open  hostility  of  Caesar  to  his  ambi- 
tious projects,  Pompey  renewed  his  connection  with  the 
aristocracy,  who  accepted  him  as  their  leader  in  51  B.C. 
About  the  end  of  the  next  year  the  friends  of  Pompey 
obtained  a  decree  of  the  senate  that  Caesar  should  dis- 
band his  army.  In  defiance  of  this  decree,  Caesar  marched 
to  Rome  with  a  force  which  Pompey  was  unable  to  resist. 
His  self-confidence  was  such  that  he  had  neglected  to 
levy  troops,  and  he  was  compelled  to  retreat  to  Epirus, 
where  he  collected  an  army.  (See  Ctesar.)  Urged  on 
by  the  civilians  and  nobles  of  his  camp,  against  his  own 
judgment  he  offered  battle  to  Caesar  in  the  plain  of 
Pharsaliain  August,  48  B.C.  and  was  completely  defeated. 
He  escaped  by  sea,  with  his  wife  Cornelia,  and  sought 
refuge  in  Egypt,  but  was  murdered  in  the  act  of  landing, 
by  order  of  Theodotus  and  Achillas,  the  chief  ministers, 
in  September,  48  B.C.  His  moral  character  is  repre- 
sented as  better  than  that  of  the  majority  of  Roman 
generals  in  his  time.  He  was  deficient  in  political 
abilities,  and  was  guided  by  no  fixed  principles  as  a 
statesman. 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Pompey;"  G.  Long,  "The  Decline  of 
the  Roman  Republic;"  Dion  Cassius,  "History;"  Cicero,  "Ora- 
tio  pro  Lege  Manilia;"  Drumann,  "Geschichte  Roms  ;"  Appian, 
"Bellum  Civile;"  J.  Upmarck,  "Dissertatio  de  Pompejo  Magno," 
1709;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpiiie  Generale." 

Pompignan,  de,  deh  p6N'p^n'y6N',  (Jean  Georges 
Le  Franc,)  a  French  prelate,  born  at  Montauban  in 
1715.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Vienne  in  1774,  and 
a  member  of  the  States-General  in  1789.  He  was  the 
head  of  that  party  of  the  clergy  which  united  with  the 
Tiers-fitat.    Died  in  1790. 

Pompignan,  de,  (Jean  Jacques  Le  Franc,)  Mar- 
quis, a  French  poet,  born  at  Montauban  in  1709,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  produced  in  1734  a  suc- 
cessful tragedy  of  "Dido,"  ("  Didon,")  and  in  1740  a 
poem  entitled  "Voyage  de  Languedoc  et  de  Provence." 
His  "  Sacred  Poems"  ( "  Poesies  sacrees  sur  divers 
Sujets,"  1 751)  were  admired.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
French  Academy  in  1759,  and  ])ronounced  a  discourse 
against  the  skeptical  philosophers  which  provoked  the 
satire  of  Voltaire.  He  wrote  various  other  poems, 
among  which  is  a  l^eautiful  "Ode  on  the  Death  of  J. 
B.  Rousseau."    Died  in  1784. 

See  Bertrand  Bareire,  "  Eloge  rle  Le  Franc  de  Pompignan," 
17S5  :  Gabkt,  "  Notice  de  Le  Franc  de  Pompignan,"  prefixed  to  his 
Select  Works,  2  vols.,  1822  ;  M armontf.l,  "  Memoires  ;"  La  Harpe, 
"  Coiirs  de  Littevature  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biopiraphie  Generale." 

Pomponace.    See  Pomponazzi. 

Pomponatius.    See  Pomponazzi. 

Pomponazzi,  pom-po-nSt^see,  [Lat.  Pompona'ttus  ; 
Fr.  Pomponace,  p6N'po'ntss',]  (  Pietro,  )  an  Italian 
philosopher,  born  at  Mantua  in  1462.  He  taught  the 
philosophy  of  Aristotle  at  Padua,  Ferrara,  and  Bf)logna. 
In  his  treatise  "On  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul"  (1516) 
he  gave  offence  by  affirming  that  Aristotle  did  not  teach 
that  doctrine.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on  Fate, 
Free  Will,"  etc.,  (1567.)    Died  about  1524. 

See  J.  G.  Or,EARius,  "  De  Pomponatio,"  Jena.  1705;  Nic^RON, 
"Memoires;"  Bavi.e,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Pompone.    See  Pomponne. 

Pomponio  Leto.    See  Pompon lus  L/etus. 

Pom-po'm-us,  (Sextus,)  a  Roman  jurist,  who  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Hadrian  and 
Antoninus  Pius.  Many  extracts  from  his  works  are 
found  in  the  Digest. 

Pomponius  Atticns.    See  Atttcus. 

Pom-po'm-us  Lae'tus,(lee'tus,)  [  It.  Pomponio  Leto, 
pom-po'ne-o  la'to,]  (Julius,)  an  Italian  antiquary  and 
scholar,  born  in  Upper  Calabria  in  1425,  was  sometimes 
called  Pietro  ni  Calabria.  He  succeeded  Professor 
Lorenzo  Valla  at  Rome  in  1457,  and  founded  there  an 
!  academy  for  the  cultivation  of  Roman  antiquities  and 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Vi^ guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  0;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POMPONIUS 


1824 


PONIATOWSKI 


classic  learning,  which  was  suppressed  by  Paul  II.  in 
1468.  He  and  other  members  of  this  academy  were 
persecuted  by  Paul  11.  on  a  charge  of  treason  and  heresy. 
Pope  Sixtus  IV.  permitted  him  to  resume  his  chair  in 
the  Roman  College  in  147 1.  He  wrote  a  "  Compendium 
of  Roman  History  from  the  Death  of  Gordian  to  Justinus 
III.,"  (1498,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1497. 

See  M.  A.  Sabellicus,  "Vita  Pomponii  Lxti,"  1510;  Tira- 
BoscHi,  •' Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana  ;"  Ginguen^,  "  Hlstoire 
Litteraire  d'ltalie." 

Pomponius  Mela.    See  Mela. 

Pomponne,  de,  deh  pftN'pon',  (Simon  Arnauld,) 
Marquis,  a  French  minister  of  state,  born  in  1618,  was 
a  son  of  Robert  Arnauld  d'Andilly.  He  became  min- 
ister-secretary of  state  for  foreign  affairs  in  1671,  and 
was  removed  in  1679.  He  was  recalled  at  the  death  of 
Louvois,  in  1691.  He  left  a  high  reputation  for  probity 
and  for  skill  in  diplomacy.    Died  in  1699. 

See  Saint- Simon,  "  Memolres ;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des 
Frangais." 

Pona,  po'nS,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  physician  and 
writer,  born  at  Verona  in  1594.  He  gained  distinction 
as  a  writer  of  numerous  works,  among  which  were  some 
romances,  dramas,  scientific  treatises,  etc.  He  received 
the  title  of  historiographer  frcni  the  emperor  Ferdinand 
III.    Died  after  1652. 

Ponce,  poNss,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in 
Paris  in  1746.  He  wrote  notices  of  several  artists  for 
the  "Biographic  Universelle."    Died  in  1831. 

Ponce,  pon'thi,  (  Pedro,  )  a  Spanish  Benedictine 
monk,  born  at  Valladolid  about  1525.  He  is  the  reputed 
inventor  of  the  art  of  teaching  the  dumb  to  converse. 
According  to  Ambrosio  Morales,  he  was  very  successful, 
and  trained  his  pupils  to  speak  viva  voce.  No  account 
of  his  method  is  extant.    Died  in  1584. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  p6n'tha  di  Vk-hW ,  [sometimes 
Anglicized  in  pronunciation  as  p6nss  de  le'on,]  (Juan,) 
a  Spanish  discoverer  of  Florida,  was  born  in  Leon. 
He  accompanied  Columbus  in  his  second  voyage, 
(1493,)  served  in  Hispaniola  under  Ovando.  In 

1508  he  commanded  an  expedition  to  Porto  Rico,  which 
he  conquered.  Having  heard  an  Indian  tradition  of 
a  fountain  of  rejuvenescence  in  one  of  the  Bahama  isles, 
he  searched  for  that  fountain  in  15 12  without  success,  but 
he  discovered  Florida  the  same  year.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  in  a  fight  with  some  natives  of  Florida  in 
1 52 1,  and  died  in  Cuba. 

See  Herrera,  "  Novus  Orbis  ;"  Oviedo,  "  Historia  general." 

Ponce  de  Leon,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  lyric  poet,  born 
at  Granada  in  1528.  He  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Salamanca  about  1562.  He  translated  VirgiTs  "Ec- 
logues," two  books  of  the  "Georgics,"  and  many  odes 
of  Horace.  He  wrote  odes  remarkable  for  beauty  of 
style  and  elevation  of  thought,  which  are  highly  praised 
by  Mr.  Ticknor.  He  is  called  by  a  critic  in  the  "  Edin- 
burgh Review"  "the  greatest  of  the  Spanish  poets  of 
this  age,  and  perhaps  one  of  the  noblest  lyric  poets  that 
ever  existed."    Died  in  1591. 

See  Ticknor,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  "Lyric  Poetry  of  Spain,"  in  the 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1824. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  (Rodrigo,)  Marquis  de  Cadi*,  a 
famous  Spanish  general,  born  in  1443.  served  in 

many  camjjaigns  against  the  Moors,  surprised  the  for- 
tress of  Albania  in  1482,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  conquest  of  Granada,  which  was  effected  in  1492. 
Died  in  1492. 

Ponce  Pilate.    See  Pilate. 

Poncelet,  p6Nss'li',  (Francois  Fr^d^ric,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Mouzay  (Meuse)  in  1790.  He  pub- 
lished several  works  on  Roman  law.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1843. 

Poncelet,  (Jean  Victor,)  an  eminent  French  geom- 
eter and  engineer,  born  at  Metz  in  1788.  He  served  in 
the  army  in  Russia,  (1812.)  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Institute,  and,  about  1834,  professor  of  mechanics  at 
the  Faculty  of  Sciences,  Paris.  In  1848  he  obtained  the 
rank  of  general  of  engineers,  and  was  elected  to  the 
Constituent  Assembly.  Among  his  works  are  "Traite 
des  Proprietes  projectives  des  Figures,"  (1820,)  and 
a  "Course  of  Mechanics  applied  to  Machines,"  (1826.) 


He  rendered  great  service  to  the  industrial  arts  by  his 
improvements  in  hydraulics  and  practical  mechanics. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Poncelet,  (Polycarpe,)  a  French  rural  economist, 
born  at  Verdun,  lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  He  wrote  a  "  Natural  History  of  Wheat," 
(1779,)  and  other  works. 

Poncelin,  p6Nss'iaN',  (Jean  Charles,)  a  French 
editor  and  compiler,  born  in  Poitou  in  1746;  died  in 
1828. 

Poncet  de  la  Grave,  p6N'sy  deh  li  gRSv,  (Guil- 
LAUME,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Carcassonne  in  1725, 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Royal  Navy,"  (2  vols.,  1 780,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1803. 

Poncher,  pow'sha',  (firiENNE,)  a  French  prelate, 
born  at  Tours  in  1446.  He  became  Bishop  of  Paris  in 
1503,  and  keeper  of  the  seals  of  France  in  1 5 12.  He 
was  employed  as  a  diplomatist  by  Francis  I.  Died 
in  1524. 

Ponchino,  pon-kee'no,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an 
Italian  painter,  sometimes  called  Bozzatto  or  Bazzacco, 
was  born  at  Castel-Franco  about  1500.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Titian.    Died  in  1570. 

Pongol,  de,  deh  p6n'soK,  (Henri  Simon  Joseph 
Ansquek,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Kemper  in  1730; 
died  in  1783. 

Poncy,  p6N'se',  (Louis  Charles,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Toulon  in  182 1.  He  worked  at  the  trade  of 
stone-mason,  and  published  "  Les  Marines,"  (1842.) 

Pond,  (Enoch,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Wrentham,  Massachusetts,  in  1791.  In 
1828  he  edited  the  "Spirit  of  the  Pilgrims,"  a  religious 
journal,  in  which  he  engaged  in  a  controversy  with  the 
Unitarians.  He  became  in  1856  president  and  professor 
of  ecclesiastical  history,  etc.  at  Bangor  Theological  Semi- 
nary,  Maine.  He  has  published  a  "  Memoir  of  Count 
Zinzendorf,"  (1839,)  "  Memoir  of  John  Wickliffe,"  (1841,) 
"The  Morning  of  the  Reformation,"  (1842,)  "Plato,  his 
Life,  Works,  Opinions,  and  Influence,"  (1846,)  and 
numerous  other  works. 

Pond,  (John,)  an  English  astronomer,  born  in  Lon- 
don about  1767,  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
After  he  left  college  he  passed  several  years  at  West- 
bury,  near  Bristol,  where  he  made  observations.  He 
was  the  first  astronomer  who  depended  on  masses  of 
observations  for  the  determination  of  all  fundamental 
data.  He  succeeded  Maskelyne  as  astronomer-royal  in 
181 1,  and  directed  his  attention  chiefly  to  a  determina- 
tion of  the  places  of  fixed  stars.  In  1833  he  completed 
a  standard  catalogue  of  1113  fixed  stars.  He  has  a  high 
reputation  as  an  observer.    Died  in  1836. 

Pongerville,  de,  deh  piN^zh^R^veK,  (Jean  Baptiste 
Aim6  Sanson,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Abbeville  in 
1792.  He  produced  in  1823  an  excellent  translation  of 
Lucretius's  "  De  Rerum  Natura"  into  verse,  and  was 
admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1830.  Among 
his  other  publications  are  prose  versions  of  Lucretius, 
(1829,)  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost,"  (1838,)  and  Virgil's 
"  ^neid,"  (1846,)  which  are  commended. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Poniatowski,  po-ne-i-tov'skee,  (Joseph  Antony,) 
Prince,  an  able  Polish  general,  born  at  Warsaw  in  1762, 
was  a  nephew  of  Stanislas  Augustus,  King  of  Poland. 
His  father,  Andreas,  was  a  general  in  the  Austrian  ser- 
vice. He  commanded  the  Polish  army  in  the  war  against 
Russia  in  1792,  and  served  under  Kosciusko  in  1794. 
In  1806  he  raised  an  army  of  Poles  to  fight  for  Napoleon, 
who  had  persuaded  him  that  he  intended  to  restore 
the  independence  of  Poland.  He  and  his  army  of  Poles 
fought  against  the  Russians  in  1807,  and  opposed  the 
Austrians  with  success  in  1809.  He  commanded  a  corps 
of  the  grand  army  which  invaded  Russia  in  1812,  and 
rendered  important  services  in  that  campaign.  In  Oc- 
tober, 1813,  he  became  a  marshal  of  France.  He  was 
wounded  at  Leipsic,  and,  in  the  retreat  from  that  battle, 
was  drowned  in  the  Elster,  (1813.) 

See  BoGUSLAWSKi,  "  Biographic  de  Poniatowski,"  1S31 ;  L. 
Chodzko,  "  La  Pologne  illustree ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Poniatowski,  (Stanislas,)  Count,  a  celebrated 
Polish  statesman,  born  in  1677.    He  espoused  the  cause 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  skorf;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


PONUTOWSKI 


1825 


PONTEDERA 


of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  and  Stanislas  Leszczynski, 
against  Augustus  II.  of  Poland,  and  accompanied  Charles 
in  his  Russian  campaign.  After  the  defeat  at  Poltava 
he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Constantinople,  where  he 
promoted  the  interests  of  the  Swedish  king  by  inducing 
the  Sultan  to  make  war  upon  Russia.  He  was  subse- 
quently appointed  to  several  high  offices  by  Augustus 
III.  of  Poland.    Died  in  1762. 

See  Voltaire,  '*  Histoire  de  Charles  XII ;"  L.  Chodzko,  "La 
Pologne  illustree." 

Poniatowski,  (Stanislas  Augustus.)  See  Stan- 
islas Augustus,  King  of  Poland. 

Poninski,  po-nin'skee,  (A.  L.,)  a  Polish  poet,  born 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  He  wrote  Latin  poems, 
"Opera  Heroica,"  (1739.)    Died  in  1742. 

Ponroy,  piN'RwS',  (Pierre  Gabriel  Arthur,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Issoudun  in  181 6.  He  pro- 
duced several  poems,  dramas,  and  other  works. 

Pons,  p6N,  (Andre,)  Comte  de  Rio,  a  French  his- 
torical writer,  born  at  Cette  in  1772.  He  was  prefect 
of  Lyons  in  1815.  Among  his  works  is  a  "History  of 
the  Residence  of  Napoleon  at  Elba."    Died  in  1853. 

Pons,  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  astronomer,  born  at 
Peyres  (Hautes-Alpes)  in  1761.  He  became  director  of 
the  Observatory  of  Marseilles,  where  (according  to  the 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale")  he  discovered  twenty- 
three  comets.  In  1825  he  was  appointed  director  of  an 
observatory  at  Florence.    Died  in  1831. 

Pons,  de,  deh  p6N,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  ec- 
clesiastic and  writer,  born  at  Marly-le-Roi  in  1683 ; 
died  in  1732. 

Pons  de  Verdun,  p6N  deh  vIrMvIn',  (Robert,)  a 
French  revolutionist,  born  at  Verdun  in  1749,  acquired 
some  distinction  as  a  poet.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Convention,  (1792-95.)    Died  in  1844. 

Ponsard,  p^N'stk',  (FuANgois,)  a  French  dramatic 
poet,  born  at  Vienne  (Isere)  in  1814.  He  produced  a 
successful  tragedy  of  "  Lucrece,"  (1843,)  ^'^^1  another 
called  "Charlotte  Corday,"  (1850,)  which  is  admired. 
Among  his  most  popular  works  is  a  comedy  of  "  Honour 
and  Money,"  ("L'Honneur  et  I'Argent,"  1853,)  which 
opened  to  him  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1867. 

Ponsludon,  de,  deh  p6N'lu'd6N''',  (Joseph  Antoine 
H^DOUIN,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Rheims  in  1739  ; 
died  in  1817. 

Pon'spn-by,  (Sir  Frederick  Cavendish,)  an  Eng- 
lish officer,  born  in  1783,  was  a  brother  of  the  Earl  of 
Be/sborough.  He  distinguished  himself  in  Spain,  and 
led  a  regiment  of  dragoons  at  Waterloo,  where  he  was 
wounded.    Died  in  1837. 

Ponsonby,  (George,)  a  lawyer,  born  in  Ireland  in 
1755.  He  became  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  Irish 
House  of  Commons,  and  in  1806  was  appointed  lord 
chancellor  of  Ireland.  About  1807  he  entered  the  British 
House  of  Commons,  in  which  he  was  the  leader  of  the 
Whig  party.    Died  in  181 7. 

Ponsonby,  (John,)  Baron,  a  diplomatist,  born  in 
1770.  He  entered  the  British  House  of  Lords  in  1806, 
and  acted  with  the  Whig  party.  He  performed  diplo- 
matic missions  to  Brazil,  Belgium,  and  Naples  between 
1828  and  1832,  and  negotiated  a  treaty  of  commerce 
with  Turkey  about  1838.  He  was  minister  at  Vienna 
from  1846  to  1851.    Died  in  1855. 

Ponsonby,  (Sir  William,)  a  British  general,  born 
in  1782,  was  a  younger  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  aide-de-camp  of  Wellington,  and  commanded  a 
brigade  of  cavalry  at  Waterloo,  where  he  was  killed 
in  1 81 5.  ^, 

Pontano,  pon-ti'no,  [Lat.  Ponta'nus,]  (Giovanni 
Gioviano,)  an  eminent  Italian  author  and  statesman, 
born  at  Cereto,  in  Umbria,  in  1426.  He  became  secre- 
tary of  Ferdinand  I.  of  Naples  about  1458,  and  prime 
minister  about  1487.  He  had  the  reputation  of  an  able 
negotiator,  and  an  elegant  writer  in  prose  and  verse. 
His  "  History  of  the  War  between  Ferdinand  I.  and  the 
Duke  of  Anjou"  (1519)  is  called  a  master-piece.  He 
wrote,  in  Latin,  moral  essays,  elegies,  odes,  and  other 
poems,  among  which  is  "Urania,"  an  astronomical 
poem.  Died  in  Naples  in  1503.  "A  far  superior  name," 
says  Hallam,  "  is  that  of  Pontanus,  to  whom,  if  we  attend 
to  some  critics,  we  must  award  the  palm  above  all  the 


Latin  poets  of  the  fifteenth  century."  ("  Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Roberto  daSarno,  "Vita  J.  J.  Pontani,"  1761  ;  F.  Colak- 
GELO,  "Vita  di  G.  G.  Pontano,"  1820;  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della 
Letteratura  Italiana;"  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie Generale." 

Pontanus.    See  Dupont,  Ponte,  and  Pontano. 

Pontanus,  pon-ti'nus,  (Jakob,)  a  Jesuit  and  philolo- 
gist, born  in  Bohemia  in  1542.  He  published  "  Progym- 
nasmata  Latinitatis,"  (4 vols.,  1588,)  "Poetic  Institutes," 
("  Institutiones  Poeticae,"  1594,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1626. 

Pontanus,  pon-ta'nus,  (Johan  Isaac,)  a  Danish  phi- 
lologist and  historian,  born  at  Elsinore  about  1570,  be- 
came professor  of  physics  and  mathematics  at  Harderwyk 
in  1604.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Denmark,"  (in  Latin, 
163 1,)  and  several  criticisms  on  the  classics.  Died  in  1639. 

See  "Vita  Pontani,"  anonymous,  1640;  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Pontas,  p^N'ti',  (Jean,)  a  French  casuist,  born  in 
the  diocese  of  Avranches  in  1638.  His  principal  work 
is  a  "  Dictionary  of  Cases  of  Conscience,"  (3  vols.,  171 5,) 
which  was  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1728. 

Pontault,"de.    See  Beaulieu,  de,  (S^bastien.) 

Pontchartrain,  de,  deh  p^N'shlk'tRiN',  (Louis 
Phelypeaux,)  Comte,  a  French  minister  of  state,  born 
in  1643.  He  was  appointed  controller-general  of  the 
finances  about  1690,  and  chancellor  of  France  in  1699. 
His  talents  and  virtues  are  eulogized  by  Saint-Simon, 
who  says  "  he  performed  more  than  he  promised."  He 
was  grandfather  of  the  prime  minister  Maurepas.  Died 
in  1727. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "  Memoires ;"  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  His- 
torique." 

Pontchartrain,  de,  (Paul  Phelypeaux,)  Seigneur, 
born  at  Blois,  France,  in  1569,  was  grandfather  of  the 
preceding.  He  became  secretary  of  state  in  1610,  and 
wrote  memoirs  of  events  from  1610  to  1620,  (1720.) 
Died  in  1621. 

Pont  de  Veyle,  de,  deh  p6N  deh  val,  (Antoine  db 
Ferriol — fer're'oK,)  Comte,  a  French  dramatist,  born 
in  1697,  was  a  brother  of  the  Count  of  Argental.  He 
wrote  three  successful  comedies,  one  of  which  is  called 
"The  Somnambulist,"  ("La  Somnambule,"  1739.)  He 
was  a  member  of  the  literary  council  of  Voltaire.  Died 
in  1774. 

Ponte,  da.    See  Bassano,  (Francesco  and  Jacopo.) 

Ponte,  da,  di  pon'ti,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  Ital- 
ian architect,  born  in  Venice  in  15 12.  He  built  the 
famous  bridge  of  the  Rialto  across  the  Grand  Canal, 
the  church  of  Santa  Croce,  and  other  fine  edifices  in 
Venice.    Died  in  1597. 

Ponte,  da,  [Lat.  Pon'tico  Viru'nio,]  (Lodovico,) 
an  Italian  scholar,  born  at  Belluno  in  1467.  He  wrote 
a  "  Secret  History  of  Italy,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1520. 

Ponte,  da,  (Lorenzo.)    See  Da  Ponte. 

Ponte,  de,  dk  pon'ta,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  religious 
writer,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1554.  He  wrote  several 
popular  works,  among  which  is  "  Meditations  on  the 
Mysteries  of  the  Faith,"  (1605.)    Died  in  1624. 

Ponte,  de,  deh  p6Nt,  [Lat.  Ponta'nus,]  (Pierre,) 
a  Flemish  philologist,  born  at  Bruges  about  1480,  was 
blind  from  infancy.  He  published  several  works.  Died 
after  1529. 

Pontecoulant,  de,  deh  p6N'ti'koo'16N',  (Gustave 
Doulcet — dooKsi',)  Comte,  a  Frenc'h  astronomer,  born 
about  1795.  He  served  as  an  officer  in  the  army,  from 
which  he  retired  about  1830.  He  published  "Analytic 
Theory  of  the  System  of  the  World,"  (4  vols.,  1829-46,) 
and  other  works  on  astronomy,  etc. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1830. 

Pontecoulant,  de,  (Louis  Gustave  Doulcet,) 
Comte,  a  French  Girondist,  born  at  Caen  in  1766,  was 
the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Convention  in  1792,  was  proscribed  and  outlawed  in 
1793,  became  a  member  of  the  senate  in  1805,  and  a 
liberal  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers  in  1819.  He 
left  "  Memoires,"  which  were  published  in  1862.  Died 
in  1853. 

Pontedera,  pon-ti-da'ri,  (Giulto,)  an  Italian  bota- 
nist, born  at  Vicenza  in  1688.  He  became  in  1719  director 


e  as  k:  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p,  23.) 


1826  POOSHKIN 


PONT  I  AC 


of  the  botanic  garden  and  professor  of  botany  at  Padua. 
He  published  a  "  Compendium  of  Botanical  Plates," 
("Compendium  Tabularum  botanicarum,"  1718,)  and 
•'Anthology,  or,  On  the  Nature  of  the  Flower,"  ("  An- 
thologia,  sive  De  Floris  Natura,"  1720.)  The  genus 
Pontederia  was  named  in  his  honour  by  Linnaeus.  Died 
in  1757. 

See  Fabkoni,  "  Vitse  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  Gennari, 
"  Letteia  intorno  la  Vita  del  fu  G.  Pontedera,"  1758. 

Pon'ti-ac,  a  North  American  Indian  chief,  of  the 
Ottawa  tribe,  born  about  1712,  was  an  ally  of  the  French. 
In  1762  he  formed  a  coalition  of  many  western  tribes, 
which,  at  his  instigation,  attacked  various  English  gar- 
risons and  frontier  settlements.  He  besieged  Detroit 
without  success  in  1763.  He  was  killed  in  Illinois  in 
1769. 

See  Parkman,  "History  of  the  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac,"  1851. 

Pontianus,  pon-she-a'nus,  [Fr.  Pontien,  pow'se'iN',] 
became  Bishop  of  Rome  in  230  a.d.  He  was  banished 
by  Maximin  in  235,  and  died  in  exile  soon  after  that  date. 

PontiQO  Virunio.    See  Ponte,  da,  (Lodovico.) 

Pontien.    See  Pontianus. 

Pontier,  p6N''te-^',  (Pierre,)  an  able  French  surgeon, 
born  at  Aix  (Provence)  in  171 1  ;  died  at  Aix  in  1789. 
His  son,  Pierre  Henri,  was  a  chemist,  and  wrote 
several  scientific  treatises.    Died  at  Aix  in  1826. 

Pontin,  de,  deh  pon-teen',  (Magnus  Martin,)  a  Swe- 
dish physician,  born  at  Askeryd  in  1781.  He  became 
first  physician  to  the  king  in  1825.  He  published  several 
works  in  prose  and  verse. 

Pontis,  de,  deh  p6N'tess',  (Louis,)  a  French  gentle- 
man, born  in  Provence  in  1583,  was  an  officer  in  the 
army.  He  left  interesting  Memoirs,  (2  vols.,  1676,)  often 
reprinted.    Died  in  Paris  in  1670. 

Pontius,  pon'she-us,  a  deacon  of  the  church  of  Car- 
thage, lived  about  250  a.d.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Life  of  Cyprian." 

Pontius,  pon'te-us,  or  Du  Pont,  (dii  p6N,)  (Paul,)  an 
eminent  Flemish  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1596  or 
1603,  was  a  pupil  of  Vosterman.  He  engraved  many 
works  after  Rubens,  among  which  is  the  "Massacre 
of  the  Innocents,"  and  many  portraits  after  Van  Dyck. 
These  prints  are  greatly  admired. 

Pontius  de  la  Fuente,  pon'te-oos'  di  1^  fwln'ti,  [Lat. 
Pon'tius  Fon'tius,]  (Constantinf,,)  a  Spanish  Prot- 
estant, who  wrote  in  defence  of  the  reformed  doctrines, 
and  was  sentenced  to  death,  but  died  in  prison  (before 
the  sentence  was  executed)  in  1559, 

Pontius  Pilate.    See  Pilate. 

Pontmartin,  de,  deh  p6N''mtR^tiN',  (Arm and  Au- 
GUSTiN  Joseph  Marie,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Avignon  in  1811.  He  published  several  novels,  and 
"Causeries  litteraires,"  (1854.) 

Pontoppidan,  pon-to])'pe-din,  (Eric,)  a  Danish 
poet  and  prelate,  born  in  Funen  about  1620.  He  wrote 
many  Latin  poems,  among  which  are  '■  Aucupium  Se- 
landiae,"  (1636,)  "Sacred  Pastorals,"  ("  Bucolica  Sacra," 
1643,)  ^'"'^l  "Florilegium  Cimbricum,"  (1646.)  He  be- 
came Bishop  of  Drontheim  in  1673.    Died  in  1678. 

See  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "  Litteraturlexicon." 

Pontoppidan,  (Erik,)  the  Younger,  a  celebrated 
Danish  prelate,  historian,  and  antiquary,  born  at  Aarhuus, 
in  Jutland,  in  1698.  He  was  successively  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Copenhagen  in  1738,  Bishop 
of  Bergen  in  1748,  and  chancellor  of  the  University 
at  Copenhagen.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his 
"Annals  of  the  Danish  Church,"  "Theatre  of  Denmark, 
Ancient  and  Modern,"  (1730,)  "Achievements  of  the 
Danes  out  of  Denmark,"  (1740,)  and  a  "Description 
of  Copenhagen,"  (all  in  Latin,)  also  a  treatise  on  the 
natural  history  of  Norway,  and  a  "Danish  Atlas," 
("Danske  Atlas,"  in  7  vols,,)  in  the  Danish  language. 
Died  in  1764. 

See  "Danische  Bibliothek,"  vol.  vi.,  (autobiop;raphy :)  "Retro- 
spective Review,"  vol.  xiii.,  (1826;)  "Monthly  Review"  for  July, 
1755;    Kraft    02;   Nyerup,    "  Almindelist  Littera-turlexicon 
HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Pontormo,  da,  d^  pon-toR'mo,  (Jacopo  Carucci  or 
Carrucci,)  an  eminent  Florentine  painter,  born  at  Pon- 
tormo about  1498,  was  a  pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and 
Andrea  del  Sarto.    He  imitated  Michael  Angelo.  He 


had  three  manners,  the  last  of  which  was  an  imitation 
of  that  of  Albert  Diirer.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"  Descent  from  the  Cross,"  a  "  Holy  Family,"  and  "The 
Deluge,"  a  fresco  at  Florence.    Died  in  1558. 

See  Vasari,  "  Livesof  the  Painters  ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario." 

Pontoux,  de,  deh  pdN'too',  (Claude,)  a  French 
poet,  born  at  Chalons-sur-Saone  about  1530  ;  died  in 
1579- 

Ponz,  p6nth,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish  painter,  distin- 
guished as  a  writer  on  the  fine  arts,  was  born  in  Valencia 
in  1725.  He  passed  about  ten  years  at  Rome  (1751-60) 
in  the  study  of  art  and  antiquities.  Having  returned  to 
Madrid,  he  was  commissioned  by  Charles  HI.  to  paint 
portraits  of  Spanish  authors  for  the  Escurial.  He  pub- 
lished a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Viage  de  Espana,"  (18 
vols.,  1771-94,)  which  treats  of  Spanish  works  of  art, 
topography,  etc.    Died  in  1792. 

See  Madoz,  "  Diccionario  geografico." 

Ponzio,  pon'ze-o,  a  Tuscan  sculptor,  called  by  the 
French  Maitre  Ponce,  worked  in  France  from  1530 
to  1571. 

Ponzio,  (Flaminio,)  an  Italian  architect,  born  about 
1575.  He  designed  the  Capella  Borghese  at  Rome,  and 
the  Palazzo  Sciara  on  the  Corso.  Pie  was  employed  by 
Pope  Paul  V.  to  continue  the  works  of  the  Quirinal, 
in  which  he  constructed  the  double  staircase.  Died 
about  1620. 

Poogatclief,  Pougatchef,  Pugatschew,  or  Puga- 
tschev,  poo-gl-chlf,  (Yemelian,)  a  Cossack  rebel  and 
impostor,  born  in  1726.  Having  been  told  that  he  re- 
sembled Peter  HI.,  he  undertook  to  pass  himself  off  for 
that  Czar,  and  incited  the  Cossacks  to  revolt  in  1773. 
He  raised  a  large  army,  took  several  towns,  gained 
some  victories,  and  massacred  thousands  of  people.  He 
was  taken  prisoner  and  executed  in  1775. 

See  PoosHKiN,  "  History  of  the  Rebellion  of  Poogatchef,"  1835. 

Poole,  pool,  [Lat.  Po'lus,]  (Matthew,)  a  learned 
English  nonconformist  divine,  born  at  York  about  1624. 
He  was  rector  of  the  church  of  Saint  Michael-le- 
Querne,  London,  from  which  he  was  ejected  in  1662. 
His  principal  work  is  "  Synopsis  Criticorum  Biblico- 
rum,"  (5  vols.,  1669-76,)  in  which  he  designed  to  present 
a  synopsis  or  abridgment  of  the  writings  and  labours 
of  former  biblical  critics  of  all  ages  and  countries.  It 
is  esteemed  a  valuable  work.  He  also  left  "  Annota- 
tions on  the  Holy  Bible,"  (2  vols.,  1685.)  He  died  at 
Amsterdam  in  1679. 

See  A.  Wood,  "Fasti  Oxoniensis;"  Nic^ron,  "Memoires." 

Pooie,  (Paul  Falconer,)  an  English  historical 
painter,  born  at  Bristol  in  1810.  He  is  accounted  one 
of  the  most  original  and  successful  English  artists  of  the 
present  time.  Among  his  works  are  "  The  Beleaguered 
Moors,"  (1844,)  "The  Suppression  of  Sion  Monastery," 
(1846,)  "  Job  receiving  Tidings  of  his  Losses,"  (1850,)  and 
"The  Goths  in  Italy,"  (1852.)  He  received  in  1847  a 
prize  of  three  hundred  pounds  for  his  picture  of  "  King 
Edward's  Generosity  to  the  People  of  Calais."  He 
was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  about  1861. 

Poole,  van,  vtn  pol,  (Jurian,)  a  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1666;  died  in  1745.  His 
wife,  Rachel,  born  in  1664,  was  an  excellent  painter  of 
flowers,  fruits,  etc.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Ruysch  the 
anatomist.    Died  in  1750. 

Poor,  (Daniel,)  an  American  missionary,  born  at 
Dan  vers,  Massachusetts,  in  1789,  spent  many  years  in 
Hindostan  and  Ceylon,  where  he  established  schools. 
Died  in  1855. 

Pooshkin,  Pushkin,  Pouchekine,  Pusohkin,  or 
Pousclikin,  poosh'kin  or  poosh'k^n,  (Alexander 
Sergeivitch,)  a  celebrated  Russian  poet,  born  at  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1799.  Having  published  several  poems 
of  a  too  liberal  tendency,  he  was  banished  to  Odessa, 
where  he  held  an  office  under  the  governor-general.  Count 
Vorontsof.  During  his  presence  in  Southern  Russia 
he  studied  the  Spanish  and  Italian  languages,  and  the 
works  of  Byron,  upon  whose  model  he  may  be  sai  1  to 
have  formed  himself  His  first  considerable  poem,  en- 
titled "Ruslan  and  Liudmila,"  (1821,)  was  very  well 
received  ;  it  was  followed  by  the  "Prisoner  of  the  C;hi- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  b,  same,  less  prolonged ;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fSt;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


POOST 


1827 


POPHAM 


casus,"  ("  Plennik  Kavkaskoi,"  1822,)  "The  Fountain 
of  Bakhtchisarai,"  (1824,)  which  brought  him  three 
thousand  rubles,  '*  Eugene  Onegin,"  a  metrical  romance, 
the  "  Gypsies,"  ("  Tsigani,")  and  the  narrative  poem  of 
"  Poltava."  After  the  accession  of  Nicholas,  Pooshkin 
was  recalled  to  Moscow  and  appointed  historiographer. 
His  only  historical  production  is  an  account  of  Poo- 
gatchefs  rebellion.  Besides  the  above,  he  published 
"Boris  Godoonof,"  a  dramatic  poem,  esteemed  one  of 
his  master-pieces,  and  a  '*  History  of  the  Iron  Mask." 
He  was  mortally  wounded  in  a  duel  in  1837.  A  critic 
in  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  calls  him  "one  of  that  small 
but  illustrious  band  whose  writings  have  become  part  of 
the  very  household  language  of  their  native  land,  and 
whose  expressions  may  be  said,  like  those  of  Shakspeare, 
of  Moliere,  and  of  Cervantes,  to  have  become  the  natural 
forms  embodying  the  ideas  which  they  have  expressed, 
and,  in  expressing,  consecrated.  In  a  word,  Pooshkin  is 
undeniably  and  essentially  the  great  national  poet  of 
Russia," 

See  Galathof,  "  Chrestomathie  Russe  ;"  Prince  E.  Metcher- 
SKi,  "  Les  Poetes  Russes  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;" 
"Sketch  of  Pushkin's  Life  and  Works,"  by  T/  B.  Shaw,  1845; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1832  ;  "  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  June  and  July,  1845. 

Poost  or  Post,  post,  (Frans,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Haarlem  about  1615.  He  passed  some  years  in  Bra- 
zil, the  scenery  of  which  he  painted.    Died  in  1680. 

Poot,  p5t,  (Hubert,)  an  eminent  Dutch  poet,  born 
near  Delft  in  1689,  was  a  cultivator  of  the  soil.  He 
published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1716.  He  excelled  in 
Anacreontic  poetry.    Died  in  1733. 

See  Paquot,  "Memoires;"  De 'Vries,  "Histoire  de  la  Poesie 
Hollandaise." 

Pope,  (  Alexander,  )  a  popular  English  poet  and 
critic,  born  in  London  on  the  22d  of  May,  1688,  was  a 
son  of  a  linen-draper.  His  parents  were  Roman  Cath- 
olics. In  consequence  of  his  sickly  constitution  and 
deformed  person,  he  was  unfitted  for  active  life.  During 
his  childhood  he  resolved  to  be  a  poet.  His  precocity 
was  remarkable.  He  says  himself  that  he  began  to  write 
verses  farther  back  than  he  could  well  remember.  At 
the  age  of  eight  he  read  with  interest  Ogilby's  transla- 
tion of  Homer.  He  wrote  his  "  Pastorals"  at  the  age 
of  sixteen;  but  they  were  not  published  until  1709. 
Among  his  early  productions  are  the  "  Essay  on  Criti- 
cism," (1710,)  which  was  praised  by  Addison,  and  "The 
Rape  of  the  Lock,"  (171 1,)  a  mock-heroic  poem,  which 
was  much  admired.  His  "Messiah,"  an  exquisite  poem 
in  imitation  of  Virgil's  fourth  eclogue,  appeared  in  Ad- 
dison's "Spectator"  in  1712.  In  1713  he  issued  pro- 
posals for  a  subscription  to  a  translation  of  Homer's 
"Iliad,"  which  was  completed  in  1718-20  and  obtained 
a  great  popularity.  It  is,  however,  far  from  being  a 
faithful  translation.  "It  is  a  fine  poem,"  says  Bentley, 
"but  not  Homer."  About  1715  he  became  estranged 
from  Addison,  whom  he  accused  of  cons]>iring  with 
Tickell,  who  had  produced  (in  part)  a  rival  translation 
of  the  "Iliad."  Pope  revenged  himself  by  writing  the 
keen,  not  to  say  malicious,  satire  on  "  Atticus."  "He 
was,"  says  Macaulay,  "a  great  master  of  invective  and 
sarcasm.  He  could  dissect  a  character  in  terse  and 
sonorous  couplets  brilliant  with  antithesis."  ("Essay 
on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Addison.")  His  talent  for 
satire  is  conspicuous  in  the  "Dunciad,"  (1728,)  a  poetical 
work  of  much  critical  merit.  He  published  in  1733  his 
"Essay  on  Man,"  a  philosophic  poem,  which  has  en- 
joyed an  extraordinary  popularity,  and  which  Bulwer 
pronounces  "  unequalled  in  didactic  solemnity  and  splen- 
dour since  Lucretius  set  to  music  the  false  creed  of  Epi- 
curus." With  the  aid  of  Broome  and  Fenton,  he  translated 
the  "Odyssey,"  (1725.)  He  also  produced  admirable 
*' Imitations  of  Horace."  He  wrote,  in  prose,  a  number 
of  essays  and  letters,  the  style  of  which  is  considered 
excellent.  "Pope's  epistolary  excellence,"  says  Dr. 
Johnson,  "had  an  open  field  :  he  had  no  English  rival, 
living  or  dead."  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  lived  at 
Twickenham,  where  he  had  purchased  a  house.  He  fa- 
voured the  Tory  party  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Among  his  intimate  friends  were  Swift,  Atterbury,  and 
Lord  Bolingbroke.  Died  in  May,  1744.  He  possessed 
little  originality  or  creative  imagination  ;  but  he  had  a 


vivid  sense  of  the  beautiful,  and  an  exquisite  taste.  He 
owed  much  of  his  popularity  to  the  easy  harmony  of  his 
verse,  the  keenness  of  his  satire,  and  the  brilliancy  of 
his  antithesis. 

"The  Essay  on  Man,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "affords  an 
egregious  instance  of  the  predominance  of  genius,  the 
dazzling  splendour  of  imagery,  and  the  seductive  powers 
of  eloquence.  Never  was  penury  of  knowledge  and 
vulgarity  of  sentiment  so  happily  disguised.  The  reader 
feels  his  mind  full,  though  he  learns  nothing,  and,  when 
he  meets  it  in  its  new  array,  no  longer  knows  the  talk 
of  his  mother  and  his  nurse."  The  same  critic  pro- 
nounces the  "Rape  of  the  Lock"  "the  most  airy,  in- 
genious, and  delightful  of  his  compositions,  and  the  most 
exquisite  example  of  ludicrous  poetry.  .  .  .  He  was 
sometimes  wanton  in  his  attacks,  and  before  Chandos, 
Lady  Wortley,  and  Hill,  was  mean  in  his  retreat.  His 
malignity  to  Philips,  whom  he  had  first  made  ridiculous 
and  then  hated  for  being  angry,  continued  too  long." 
He  was  extremely  addicted  to  artifice  and  insidious  de- 
signs. It  has  been  said  that  "he  hardly  drank  tea 
without  a  stratagem."  An  edition  of  his  works,  with  a 
commentary,  was  published  by  Warburton,  (9  vols., 
1751-60.) 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets;"  a  "Memoir  of  Pope,"  by 
Bowles,  1807;  a  "Memoir"  prefixed  to  W.  Roscoe's  edition 
of  Pope's  Works,  1824;  R.  Caruthers,  "Life  of  Alexander  Pope," 
1857  ;  "  Life  of  Pope,"  by  Owen  Ruffhead,  1767  ;  William  Ayre, 
"Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  A,  Pope,"  2  vols.,  1745;  Joseph  Warton, 
"  Essay  on  the  Genius  and  Writings  of  Pope,"  2  vols.,  1756-82  ;  M. 
Mendelssohn,  "Pope  ein  Metaphysiker,"  1757;  Lord  Byron, 
"Letter  to  Murray  on  Bowles's  Strictures,"  1821  ;  Thackeray, 
"The  English  Humourists;"  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;" 
"  Encyclopedia  Britannica,"  article  "  Pope,"  (by  De  Quincey,)  also 
"Biographical  Essays,"  by  the  same;  Campbell,  "  Specimens  of 
the  British  Poets;"  "Works  and  Cliaracter  of  Pope,"  in  the 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1825;  "Pope  and  his 
Contemporaries,"  in  the  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  August, 
1847;  Spence,  "Anecdotes,  Observations,"  etc.,  1820. 

Pope,  (John,)  an  American  general,  born  at  Kas- 
kaskia,  Illinois,  in  March,  1823.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1842,  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and 
commanded  an  expedition  sent  to  survey  the  route  of 
the  Pacific  Railroad  in  1854-59.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  captain  in  1856,  and  became  a  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers  in  May,  1861.  He  ca])tured  New  Madrid  in 
March,  and  Island  No.  10  in  April,  1862,  with  several 
thousand  prisoners.  In  June,  1862,  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  Army  of  Virginia,  composed  of  three 
corps.  He  was  promoted  to  be  a  brigadier-general  in 
the  regular  army  in  July,  1862.  His  army  was  defeated 
by  Stonewall  Jackson  at  Manassas,  or  Bull  Run,  on  the 
29th  and  30th  of  August,  1862.  He  retreated  to  Wash- 
ington, and  resigned  the  command  about  September  3, 
after  which  he  was  employed  against  the  Indians  in 
Minnesota.  He  commanded  in  the  third  military  dis- 
trict, comprising  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Florida,  from 
March  or  April  to  December,  1867. 

Pope,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  politician,  born  at 
Dedington  about  1 506,  was  a  patron  of  learning.  He 
held  several  offices  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  and 
had  the  care  or  custody  of  the  princess  Elizabeth  in  the 
reign  of  Mary.  He  founded  Trinity  College,  Oxford. 
Died  in  1559. 

See  Warton,  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Pope." 

Pope,  (Walter,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Northainptonshire  about  1630.  He  was  professor  of 
astronomy  at  Oxford  from  1660  to  1687,  and  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  He  wrote  "The  Old  Man's  Wish,"  a 
poem,  (1693,)  a  "  Life  of  Seth  Ward,"  (1697,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1 7 14. 

Popeliniere,  de  la,  deh  It  popHe'ne-aiR',  (Lance- 
lot Voisin — vwS'z^n',)  Sieur,  a  Fi-ench  historian, 
born  in  Poitou  about  1540.  He  was  an  officer  in  the 
Huguenot  army,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Civil 
War  which  began  in  1 562,"  ( 1 57 1 ,)  a  work  of  some  merit. 
Died  in  1608. 

Popham,  pop'am,  (Sir  Home  Riggs,)  a  British  naval 
officer,  born  in  1762.  He  commanded  the  naval  forces 
employed  in  the  capture  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and 
Buenos  Ayres  in  1806.  He  became  a  rear-admiral  in 
1814.    Died  in  1820. 

Popham,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
Somersetshire  in  1531,  became  chief  justice  of  the  king's 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  s;  th  as  in  this.    (J[^°See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


POPMA 


1828 


PORSON 


bench  about  1592.  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  lawyer. 
Died  in  1607. 

Popma,  pop'ma,  (Ausonius,)  a  Dutch  philologist 
and  jurist,  born  in  Friesland  in  1563.  He  published  a 
good  work  on  Latin  synonyms,  ('*  De  Differentiis  Ver- 
boruni,"  1635,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1613. 

See  D.  RiCHTER,  "Vita  Aiisonii  a  Popma,"  1746. 

Poppae'a  (pop-pee'a)  Sa-bi'na,  a  Roman  empress, 
the  wife  of  Nero,  was  more  remarkable  for  beauty  than 
modesty.    Died  in  65  a.d. 

Poppe,  von,  fon  pop'peh,  (Johann  Heinrich  Mo- 
RITZ,)  a  German  scientific  writer,  born  at  Gottingen  in 
1776.  He  published  numerous  works,  among  which  are 
a  "Technological  Lexicon,"  (5  vols.,  1816-20,)  and 
"  Neueste  Handwerks- und  Fabrikschule,"  (9  vols.,  1827- 
36.)    Died  in  1852. 

Poppi,  II.    See  Morandini. 

Poppig  or  Poeppig,  pop'pic,  (Eduard,)  a  German 
naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Plauen,  in  Saxony,  in 
1797.  He  visited  the  West  Indies  and  North  and  South 
America,  where  he  made  valuable  zoological  and  botan- 
ical collections.  He  published  in  1835  his  "Travels  in 
Chili,  Peru,  and  on  the  Amazon."  In  1845  he  became 
professor  of  zoology  at  Leipsic.  Died  in  December, 
1868.  Poppig  and  Endlicher  published  a  work  on  the 
plants  of  Chili  and  Peru,  "  Nova  Genera  et  Species 
Plantarum,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1835-45.) 

See  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1836. 

Poppo,  pop'po,  (Ernst  Friedrich,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  Lower  Lusatia  in  1794,  published 
editions  of  Thucydides  and  other  classics,  and  several 
critical  works. 

Poquelin.    See  MoLifeRE. 

Porbus,  poR'bus,  (Frans,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Bruges  in  1540.  He  painted  portraits,  history,  and 
genre  with  success.    Died  about  1582. 

His  father,  Peter,  born  at  Gouda  about  15 10,  was  a 
painter  of  history  and  portraits.    Died  in  1584. 

Porbus,  (Frans,)  the  Younger,  a  skilful  painter  of 
portraits  and  history,  a  son  of  Frans,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1570.  He  worked  mostly  in  Paris. 
"  His  picture  of  the  Last  Supper,"  says  the  "  Biographic 
Universelle,"  "  is  one  of  the  finest  productions  of  the 
Flemish  school."    Died  in  Paris  in  1622. 

See  Felibien,  "  Entretiens  sur  la  Vie  des  Peintres." 

Porcacchi,  poR-kik'kee,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  litte- 
rateur, born  in  Tuscany  about  1530.  Among  his  works 
are  "The  Most  Famous  Islands  of  the  World,"  (1572,) 
and  "  Ancient  Funerals  of  Divers  Nations,"  (1574.)  Died 
at  Venice  in  1585. 

Porcellio,  poR-cheKle-o,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  historian,  was  secretary  of  Alfonso,  King  of  Naples, 
in  1452. 

Porchat,  poR'sht',  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  Swiss  writer 
and  translator,  born  near  Geneva  in  1800.  He  wrote 
"  The  Mission  of  Joan  of  Arc,"  a  drama,  in  verse, 
(1844,)  and  translated  the  complete  works  of  Goethe 
into  French. 

Porcheron,  poRsh^-6N',  (Dom  Placide,)  a  French 
Benedictine  monk,  born  at  Chateauroux  in  1652.  He 
edited  a  few  old  works.    Died  in  1694. 

Porcia  or  Portia,  p5r'she-a,  [Fr.  Porcie,  poR^se',] 
a  Roman  matron,  eminent  for  her  magnanimity,  pru- 
dence, and  fortitude,  was  the  daughter  of  Cato,  and 
the  wife  of  Marcus  Brutus.  Plutarch  relates  that  she 
inflicted  a  wound  on  herself  to  prove  that  she  was 
worthy  to  be  the  confidante  of  her  husband  in  respect 
lo  affairs  of  state.    Died  in  42  B.C. 

Porden,  (Eleanor  Anne.)    See  Franklin. 

Pordenone,  II,  ^1  poR-di-no'n4,  an  excellent  Italian 
painter,  whose  proper  name  was  Giovanni  Antonio 
Licinio  (le-chee'ne-o)  or  Licino,  (le-chee'no,)  born  at 
Pordenone,  in  Friuli,  in  1483.  He  assumed  the  name 
of  Regillo.  He  was  an  imitator  of  Giorgione,  and  a 
rival  of  Titian.  It  is  not  known  who  was  his  master. 
He  was  a  good  colorist,  and  had  great  skill  in  design. 
He  painted  frescos  in  Venice,  Mantua,  Cremona,  and 
Piacenza.  His  frescos  (which  represent  subjects  from 
the  New  Testament)  in  the  cathedral  of  Cremona  are 
highly  praised.  Among  his  best  oil-paintings  is  his  "  San 


Lorenzo  Giustiniani  with  John  the  Baptist,"  etc.,  at 
Venice.    He  died  at  Ferrara  in  1540. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  Ridolfi,  "  Vite  degli  illustri  Pittori  Veneti." 

Pordenone,  (Giulio  Licinio,)  a  skilful  painter,  a 
nephew  and  pupil  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Venice 
in  1500.  He  painted  some  frescos  at  Augsburg,  where 
he  died  in  1561. 

Poree,  po'ri',  (Charles,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  near 
Caen  in  1675,  was  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Paris  for 
thirty  years.  Voltaire  was  his  pupil.  He  published 
Latin  tragedies  and  orations.    Died  in  1741. 

Poree,  (Charles  Gabriel,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Caen  in  1685.  He  wrote  "  Histoire 
de  Don  Ranuccio  d'Aletes,"  (1736,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1770. 

Porfirio.    See  Porphyry. 

Porlier,  poR-le-aiR',  (Don  Juan  Diaz,)  Marquis  de 
Matarosa,  a  Spanish  general,  born  in  1775.  He  fought 
for  the  Cortes  against  the  absolutists,  by  whom  he  was 
taken  prisoner  and  shot  in  1815. 

Porner  or  Poerner,  poR'ner,  (Karl  Wilhelm,)  a 
German  chemist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1732.  He  published 
several  works  on  chemistry  and  the  art  of  dyeing.  Died 
in  1796. 

Porphyre.    See  Porphyry. 

Porphyrins.    See  Porphyry. 

Porphyry,  por'fe-re,  [Gr.  Tlop^vpLog ;  Lat.  Porphyr'- 

lus ;  Fr.  Porphyre,  poR'feR^;  It.  Porfirio,  por-fee're-o,] 
a  celebrated  Neo-Platonic  philosopher,  born  at  Bata- 
naea,  (Bashan,)  in  Syria,  in  233  a.d.  His  original  name 
was  Malchus  or  Melech,  the  Hebrew  and  Syriac 
for  "king."  Porphyrins  signifies  "purple,"  or  "wearer 
of  purple."  He  was  a  pupil  of  Longinus,  and  perhaps 
of  Origen.  About  the  age  of  thirty  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  became  a  disciple  and  friend  of  Plotinus, 
whose  doctrines  and  mysticism  he  adopted.  He  edited 
(or  corrected)  and  arranged  the  works  of  Plotinus,  at 
his  request.  He  wrote  (in  Greek)  a  famous  work,  in 
fifteen  books,  against  the  Christians,  which  is  not  extant, 
the  emperor  Theodosius  having  ordered  it  to  be  burnt 
in  the  fourth  century.  Among  his  extant  works  are  a 
"Life  of  Plotinus"  and  a  "Life  of  Pythagoras."  Died 
at  Rome  about  304  a.d. 

See  HoLSTENius,  "  De  Vitaet  Scriptis  Porphyrii,"  1711 ;  Ritter, 
"History  of  Philosophy ;"  Vai.^rien  Pakisot,  "  Dissertatio  his- 
torica  de  Porphyrio,"  1845  ;  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Gra^ca ;"  F. 
Hoefer,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Porpora,  poR'po-ra,(NiccoL6,)a  distinguished  Italian 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Naples  about  1686.  He 
composed  successful  operas,  among  which  is  "  Ariana  e 
Teseo,"  (171 7,)  also  oratorios,  masses,  symphonies,  and 
cantatas.  About  1730  he  went  to  London  to  direct  the 
Italian  Opera,  and  Ijecame  a  competitor  of  Handel.  He 
obtained  much  success  in  England,  where  he  remained 
several  years.    Died  at  Naples  in  1767. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens ;"  Burney, 
"  Histoi-y  of  Music  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Porporati,  poR-po-ri'tee,  (Carlo  Antonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian engraver  of  high  reputation,  born  near  Turin  in  1740 
or  1 741.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  at  Paris  in 
1773.  He  engraved  some  of  the  works  of  Raphael,  Cor- 
reggio,  and  other  masters.    Died  at  Turin  in  1816. 

Porquet,  poR'ka',  (Pierre  Charles  Franqois,)  a 
mediocre  French  poet,  born  at  Vire  in  1728  ;  died  in  1796. 

Porro,  por'ro,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  engraver,  born 
at  Padua  about  1520,  worked  at  Venice. 

Porro,  (Ignazio,)  an  Italian  engineer,  born  at  Pi- 
gnerol  in  1795.  He  settled  in  Paris  about  1850.  He 
published  a  "Traite  de  Tachometrie,"  (1847.) 

Por'se-na  or  Por-sen'na,  (Lars,)  a  famous  prince  of 
Clusium,  in  Etruria.  According  to  tradition,  he  marched 
against  Rome  to  restore  the  Tarquins  about  508  B.C.,  but 
was  checked  by  Horatius  Codes,  who  defended  a  bridge 
over  the  Tiber.  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  best  historians 
that  Porsena  actually  made  himself  master  of  Rome. 

See  Macaulay,  "  Horatius:  a  Lay  of  Ancient  Rome;"  Niebuhr, 
"  History  of  Rome. " 

Porsenna.    See  Porsena. 

Por'son,  (Richard,)  a  pre-eminent  Greek  scholar 
and  critic,  born  in  Norfolk,  England,  December  25, 


e,  I,  o,  Vi,  y,  long;  ^,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nd:;  good;  moon; 


PORTA  1829 


1759.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  of  which  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  in  1782. 
He  became  regius  professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge  in 
1790  or  1792,  with  a  salary  of  forty  pounds  per  annum. 
His  scruples  against  subscription  to  the  Thirty-Nine 
Articles  induced  him  to  decline  holy  orders,  and  he  was 
compelled  to  resign  his  Fellowship  in  1791.  He  had 
a  prodigious  memory  and  great  critical  acumen,  and  was 
remarkable  for  probity  and  love  of  truth.  About  1795 
he  married  Mrs.  Lunan,  a  widow.  He  edited  "  Seven 
Tragedies  of  vEschylus,"  (1795,)  and  the  "  Ifecuba," 
"Orestes,"  *' Phoenissae,"  and  "Medea"  of  Euripides, 
(1797-1801.)  In  1805  he  was  appointed  librarian  of  the 
London  Institution.  Among  his  works  are  "  Letters  to 
Archdeacon  Travis,"  (1790,)  in  which  he  maintained  that 
the  seventh  verse  of  the  fifth  chapter  of  John's  First  Epistle 
is  an  interpolation,  "  Notes  and  Emendations  on  the 
Greek  Poets,"  (*'  Adversaria  Notse  et  Emendationes  in 
Poetas  Graecos,"  1812,)  and  an  edition  of  the  "  Lexicon" 
of  Photius,  (1822.)  Died  in  London  in  September,  1808. 
He  is  considered  by  the  English  scholars,  and  perhaps 
by  foreigners,  the  greatest  verbal  critic  of  modern  times. 
"  It  may  safely  be  conceded  to  common  fame  and  partial 
friendship,"  says  Dr.  Thomas  Young,  "that  he  was  one 
of  the  greatest  men,  and  the  very  greatest  critic,  of  his 
own  or  any  other  age."  Porson  was,  according  to 
several  authorities,  addicted  to  intemperance  in  drink. 
Like  Dr.  Johnson,  he  could  practise  abstinence  more 
easily  than  a  moderate  use  of  wine  or  ardeiit  spirits. 
Wonderful  stories  are  told  of  his  powers  of  memory. 
He  could  repeat  several  pages  of  a  book  after  he  had 
read  them  once. 

See  "  Life  of  Porson,"  by  J.  S.  Watson,  i86i  ;  article  on  Porson 
in  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  by  Dr.  Thomas  Young;  "A 
Vindication  of  the  Literary  Character  of  Porson,"  by  Crito  Canta- 
BRiGiENSis,  1827  ;  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  Edinbiirgli 
Review"  for  November,  1811,  and  July,  1861  ;  "  Porsoniana."  Lon- 
don, 1814  ;  Stephen  Weston,  "Short  Account  of  the  Late  R. 
Porson,"  i8o8. 

Porta,  poR'tl,  (Berardo  or  Bernardo,)  an  Italian 
composer  of  operas,  was  born  at  Rome  about  1755  ;  died 
in  Paris  in  1829. 

Porta,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Milan  in 
1776,  wrote  several  popular  poems.    Died  in  1821. 

Porta,  (Giovanni  BAmsrA,)  a  skilful  Italian  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Porlizza  in  1542  ;  died  at  Rome  in  1597. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Guglielmo,  noticed 
below. 

Porta,  (Giuseppe  Salviati,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Castel-Nuovo  about  1530,  was  a  pupil  of  F.  Salviati, 
whose  name  he  assumed.  He  settled  at  Venice,  where 
he  painted  frescos  with  success.  He  was  employed  by 
Titian  to  decorate  the  library  of  Saint  Mark.  Among 
his  best  oil-paintings  is  a  "  Descent  from  the  Cross." 
Died  in  1570,  or,  as  some  say,  in  1585. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizio- 
tAario." 

Porta,  (Simon.)    See  Porzio. 
Porta,  della.    See  Baccio. 

Porta,  della,  d^Kli  poR'tS,  (Giacomo,)  a  distin- 
guished Italian  architect  and  sculptor,  born  at  Milan 
about  1525.  He  built  in  Rome  the  portal  of  Saint 
John  Lateran,  (about  1574,)  the  College  della  Sapienza, 
and  the  fa9ade  of  Santa  Maria  de'  Monti,  (1579.)  He 
was  subsequently  employed  to  finish  the  basilica  of 
Saint  Peter's,  and,  with  the  aid  of  Domenico  Fontana, 
constructed  the  vault  (or  roof)  of  the  dome,  after  the 
plans  of  Michael  Angelo,  (1588-90.)  He  died  in  the 
pontificate  of  Clement  VIII.,  (1592-1605,)  aged  about 
seventy-five. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors;"  Fontenav, 
" Dictionnaire  des  Artistes;"  Cicognara,  "  Storia  della  Scultura  ;" 
QuATREMfeRE  DE  QuiNCV,  "  Dictioiinaire  d' Architecture." 

Porta,  della,  (  Giambattista,  )  an  eminent  Italian 
natural  philosopher,  was  born  at  Naples  about  1540. 
He  promoted  the  progress  of  physical  science  by  found- 
ing schools,  and  by  experiments  in  optics,  etc.  He 
was  versed  in  the  ancient  languages.  His  house  was  the 
seat  of  an  academy  called  "  I  Segreti,"  which  he  founded 
for  the  promotion  of  physical  science.  He  invented 
the  camera  obscura,  and  made  improvements  in  lenses. 
His  principal  works  are  "  Perspectiva,"  (1555,)  "Natural 


PORTER 


Magic,"  ("  Magiae  Naturalis  Libri  XX.,"  1558-89,)  "  Phy- 
tognomonica,"  (1583,  a  treatise  on  plants,)  an  able 
"Treatise  on  Physiognomy,"  (1586,  often  reprinted,) 
"  Villae  Libri  XII.,"  (on  rural  economy,  1592,)  and  "  On 
Refraction  a  Part  of  Optics,"  ("  De  Refractione  Optices 
Parte,"  1593.)    Died  at  Naples  in  1615. 

See  NicERON,  "Menioires;"  Ginguenh,  "  Histoire  Litteraire 
d'ltalie;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana :"  G.  H. 
Duchesne,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  J.  R.  Porta," 
1801  ;  Colangelo,  "Vita  di  G.  B.  Porta,"  1818;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Porta,  della,  (Guglielmo,)  an  able  sculptor,  born 
near  Como  about  15 12,  was  a  nephew  of  Giacoino,  noticed 
above.  He  worked  at  Rome  about  1550,  and  made  the 
mausoleum  of  Paul  III.  He  was  a  favourite  pupil  of 
Michael  Angelo.    Died  about  1577. 

Portaels,  poR-tais',  (Jean  Francois,)  a  Belgian 
painter,  born  at  Vilvorde  (Brabant)  in  1820.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  of  Rome  in  1843. 

Portal,  poR''ttK,  (Antoine,)  Baron,  a  distinguished 
French  physician  and  anatomist,  born  at  Gaillac  (Tarn) 
in  1742.  He  began  to  practise  in  Paris  about  1765,  and 
obtained  the  chair  of  medicine  in  the  College  of  France 
in  1770.  He  published  an  important  work  on  the  "  His- 
tory of  Anatomy  and  Surgery,"  (7  vols.,  1770-73,)  and 
became  professor  of  anatomy  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes 
in  1775.  ^v^s  fi''st  physician  to  Louis  XVIII.  and 

Charles  X.  Among  his  chief  works  is  "Course  of 
Medical  Anatomy,"  ("  Cours  d'Anatomie  medicale,"  5 
vols.,  1803.)    Died  in  1832. 

See  Pariset,  "  filoge  de  Portal;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Portal,  (Pierre  Barth^lemi,)  Baron,  a  French 
administrator,  born  near  Montauban  in  1765.  He  was 
minister  of  the  marine  from  December,  1818,  to  Decem- 
ber, 1821.    Died  in  1845. 

Portalis,  poR'tt'l^ss',  (Auguste,)  a  French  writer 
and  liberal  legislator,  born  at  La  Ciotat  in  1801,  was  a 
nephew  of  Jean  fitienne  Marie.  He  wrote  "  Essays  in 
favour  of  Liberty  of  Worship."    Died  in  1855. 

Portalis,  (Jean  Eiienne  Marie,)  a  distinguished 
French  jurist  and  minister  of  state,  was  born  at  Bausset 
(Var)  in  1745.  He  was  an  eloquent  advocate  before 
the  Revolution,  and  was  imprisoned  for  his  moderation 
in  the  reign  of  terror.  In  1795  he  became  a  member  of 
the  Council  of  Elders,  in  which  he  advocated  humane 
measures.  He  was  one  of  the  committee  charged  with 
the  redaction  of  the  Civil  Code  in  1800,  and  became 
minister  of  worship  in  1804.  Before  this  date  he  had 
acquitted  himself  with  credit  in  the  task  of  reorganizing 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  France.  He  published 
several  able  political  and  legal  works,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1807. 

See  Blessig,  "  Gedachtnissrede  auf  den  Minister  Portalis,"  1807  ; 
F.  Hacquin,  "  filoge  historique  de  Portalis,"  1845  ;  Louis  LAi.t,E- 
mant,  "filoge  de  J.  E.  M.  Portalis,"  iS6i  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  Rene  Lavollee,  "  Portalis  et  ses  CEuvres." 

Portalis,  (Joseph  Marie,)  Count,  an  eminent  states- 
man and  judge,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Aix 
in  February,  1778.  He  became  councillor  of  state  in 
1808,  and  director-general  of  the  press  and  book-trade 
(librairie)  in  1810.  In  1819  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage. 
In  the  moderate  ministry  of  Martignac  he  was  keeper 
of  the  seals  from  January,  1828,  to  May,  1829.  Pie  was 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  that  date  to  August  7, 
1829,  and  then  became  first  president  of  the  court  of 
cassation.  He  retained  until  1852  this  office,  (the  highest 
judicial  position  in  France,)  for  which  he  was  qualified 
by  profound  knowledge  of  public  law  and  a  union  of 
dignity  in  manner  with  suavity  of  temper.  Died  in  1858. 

See  Mignet,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  le  Comte  de 
Portalis,"  i860  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Porte,  de  la,  deh  It  poRt,  (Pierre,)  a  French  courtier, 
born  in  1603,  was  a  favourite  agent  of  Anne  of  Austria, 
and  a  valet-de-chambre  of  Louis  XIV.-  He  wrote  "  Me- 
nioires," which  were  printed  in  1756.    Died  in  1680. 

Porte,  La.    See  Laporte  and  La  Porte. 

Por'ter,  (Alexander,)  born  in  Tyrone  county,  Ire- 
land, in  1786,  settled  in  Louisiana,  where  he  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  lawyer.  He  was  appointed  a  judge 
of  the  supreme  court  in  1821,  and  in  1833  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate.    Died  in  1844. 


€  as>e;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  jiasal ;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PORTER  18 


Por't^r,  (Andrew,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Pennsylvania  about  1810.  He  served  as  colonel  at  Bull 
Run,  July  21,  1861,  and  a  few  days  later  was  appointed 
provost-marshal  of  Washington. 

Por'ter,  (Anna  Maria,)  an  English  novelist,  born  at 
Durham  about  1 781,  was  a  sister  of  R.  Ker  Porter. 
She  resided  successively  in  London,  at  Thames  Ditton, 
and  at  Esher.  She  wrote  many  popular  novels,  among 
which  are  "The  Hungarian  Brothers,"  (1807,)  "Don 
Sebastian,"  (1809,)  "The  Recluse  of  Norway,"  (1814,) 
"The  Fast  of  Saint  Magdalene,"  and  "The  Barony." 
Died  in  1832. 

See  Mrs.  Elwood,  "Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England 
from  the  Commencement  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  ii.,  1S43. 

Porter,  (Benjamin  F.,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1808,  translated  the  "  Ele- 
ments of  the  Institutes"  of  Heineccius,  and  published 
a  collection  of  poems. 

Porter,  (David,)  an  American  commodore,  born  at 
Boston  in  1780.  He  became  captain  of  the  frigate  Essex 
in  July,  1812,  and  in  the  same  year  captured  the  vessel- 
of-war  Alert  and  a  number  of  British  trading-vessels. 
He  performed  a  cruise  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  with  the 
Essex  in  1813,  and  took  many  prizes.  In  March,  1814, 
the  Essex  was  attacked  near  Valparaiso  by  two  British 
vessels,  and,  after  a  long  and  desperate  resistance,  was 
captured.  Porter  served  as  a  naval  commissioner  from 
1815  to  1823,  was  sent  as  charge-d'affaires  to  Turkey  in 
1831,  and  became  minister  resident  at  Constantinople 
in  1839.    He  died  at  Pera  in  1843.  ^'^^  ^'^^  father 

of  Admiral  D.  D.  Porter  and  Commodore  William  D. 
Porter. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1815. 

Porter,  (David  D.,)  an  admiral,  a  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  born  in  or  near  Philadelphia  in  June,  1813.  He 
entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in  1829,  and  became  a 
lieutenant  about  1841.  He  served  in  the  naval  operations 
against  the  Mexicans  in  1846-47.  In  1861  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  commander.  He  commanded  the 
mortar-boats,  twenty-one  in  number,  which  bombarded 
Forts  Jackson  and  Saint  Philip,  below  New  Orleans, 
April  18-24,  1862.  These  forts  were  surrendered  to  him 
on  the  28th.  In  September  or  October,  1862,  he  took 
command  of  a  flotilla  of  gunboats  on  the  Mississippi 
River.  He  aided  the  land  army  in  the  capture  of  Arkan- 
sas Post,  January,  1863,  and  co-operated  with  General 
Grant  in  his  operations  against  Vicksburg.  For  his 
services  in  the  reduction  of  the  last-named  place  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  by  a  commission 
dated  July  4,  1863.  Co-operating  with  General  Banks 
in  an  expedition  against  Shreveport,  he  ascended  Red 
River  with  a  fleet  of  iron-clad  gunboats  to  a  ])oint  many 
miles  above  Grand  Ecore,  in  April,  1864.  He  com- 
manded the  naval  forces  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Fisher 
in  December,  1864,  and  bombarded  the  same  fort  with 
success  on  the  14th  and  15th  of  January,  1865.  Ac- 
cording to  General  Grant,  this  was  "  the  most  formidable 
armada  ever  collected  for  concentration  upon  one  given 
pomt."  He  was  appointed  vice-admiral  July  25,  1866, 
and  admiral  in  August,  1870.  He  holds  a  higher  rank 
than  any  other  officer  in  the  navy  of  the  United  States. 

See  J.  T.  Headlev,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,'* 
1867;  Greeley,  "American  Conflict." 

Porter,  (Ebenezer,)  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Cornwall,  Connecticut,  in  1772,  was  ap- 
pointed in  1812  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  at  Andover 
Theological  Seminary,  of  which  he  was  afterwards  presi- 
dent. He  wrote  aii  "Analysis  of  the  Principles  of  Rhe- 
torical Delivery,"  ( 1827,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1834. 

Porter,  (Fitz-John,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
New  Hampshire,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1845.  He 
became  a  captain  in  1856,  and  a  colonel  in  1861.  He 
commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Gaines's  Mill,  June 
27,  and  at  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  1862,  and  for  his  bravery 
in  these  engagements,  in  which  he  had  to  sustain  the 
brunt  of  the  enemy's  attack,  was  appointed  a  major- 
general  of  volunteers  the  same  month.  His  corps  took 
no  part  in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  August  29  and  30, 
1862,  although  it  was  "within  sight  and  sound  of  the 
battle."  For  this  delinquency  he  was  censured  by  Gen- 
eral Pope,  tried  by  a  court-martial,  cashiered  in  January, 


30  PORTE  US 


1863,  and  dismissed  from  the  service.  In  1870  he  ap- 
pealed to  President  Grant  for  a  reversal  of  the  decision 
of  the  court-martial :  the  grounds  for  this  appeal  are 
succinctly  stated  in  "Old  and  New"  for  June,  1870,  pp. 
816-820. 

Porter,  (Francis,)  an  Irish  Catholic  priest  and  writer, 
became  a  resident  of  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1702. 

Porter,  (George  Richardson,)  an  English  writer  on 
trade,  manufactures,  etc.,  was  born  in  London  in  1792. 
He  wrote  a  valuable  work  on  "The  Progress  of  the  Na- 
tion in  its  Social  and  Commercial  Relations,"  (3  vols., 
1836-39.)  In  1841  he  became  a  secretary  to  the  board 
of  trade.  He  was  the  author  or  compiler  of  statistical 
tables  issued  annually  by  that  board,  and  wrote  a  treatise 
"On  the  Manufacture  of  Porcelain  and  Glass,"  (1842.) 
Died  in  1852  or  1855. 

Porter,  (Jane,)  an  English  novelist,  born  at  Durham 
in  1776,  was  a  sister  of  Sir  Robert  Ker  Porter.  She 
lived  with  her  mother  and  her  sister  Anna  Maria  until 
the  death  of  the  former,  in  183 1.  She  published  in  1803 
her  first  novel,  "Thaddeus  of  Warsaw,"  which  was  very 
successful.  Her  historical  novel  of  "The  Scottish 
Chiefs"  (1809)  also  found  many  admirers,, although  it  is 
very  defective  as  a  delineation  of  character  and  manners. 
She  succeeded  in  mystifying  the  public  by  her  anony- 
mous story  "Sir  Edward  Seaward's  Diary,"  (1831.) 
Died  in  1850. 

See  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1835,  (with  a  portrait.) 

Porter,  (Noah,)  D.D.,  an  able  American  writer  on 
psychology,  was  born  in  Farmington,  Connecticut,  in 
1811.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  183 1,  and  in 
1846  became  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  meta- 
physics in  that  institution.  He  has  published,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Human  Intellect :  with  an  Introduc- 
tion upon  Psychology  and  the  Soul,"  (i  vol.  8vo,  1868; 
2d  edition,  1869,)  which  has  been  highly  praised  by 
several  competent  critics,  among  whom  we  may  name 
Dr.  McCosh,  the  distinguished  president  of  Princeton 
College. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Porter,  (Peter  Buel,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Salisbury,  Connecticut,  in  1773.  On  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  of  1812  he  was  appointed  quartermaster- 
general  of  New  York.  He  distinguished  himself  in  tht> 
battles  of  Chippewa,  Lundy's  Lane,  and  the  other  prin 
cipal  actions  of  the  war,  and  obtaii^ed  a  gold  medal  frons 
Congress  for  his  services.  He  was  appointed  secretary 
of  war  in  May,  1828.  General  Porter  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  who  explored  a  route  for  the  Erie  Canal. 
Died  in  1844. 

Porter,  (Sir  Robert  Ker,)  an  English  painter  and 
traveller,  born  at  Durham  about  1775,  was  a  brother  of 
Anna  Mnria  and  Jane  Porter.  He  became  a  student 
of  the  Royal  Academy,  London,  in  1790,  and  acquired 
distinction  as  a  painter  of  battles.  Among  his  works  are 
"The  Siege  of  Acre"  and  "The  Battle  of  Agincourt," 
and  an  "Ecce  Homo."  He  went  to  Russia  in  1804,  and 
received  the  title  of  historical  painter  to  the  emperor. 
Having  traversed  several  countries  of  Asia  from  181 7  to 
1820,  he  published  "Travels  in  Georgia,  Persia,  Arme- 
nia, Ancient  Babylonia,"  etc.,  with  engravings,  (2  vols., 

1822.  )    Died  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1842. 

See  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  July,  1H42;  "Monthly  Re- 
view" for  September,  1821,  and  January  and  February,  1823. 

Porter,  (William  D.,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  New  Orleans  in  1809,  was  a  son  of  Commodore 
David  Porter,  noticed  above.    He  entered  the  navy  in 

1823.  In  1861  he  took  command  of  the  iron-clad  Essex 
on  the  Mississippi  River.  He  fought  at  Fort  Henry, 
where  the  Essex  was  disabled  and  Captain  Porter  was 
severely  scalded,  in  February,  1862.  In  August,  1862, 
having  repaired  the  Essex,  he  destroyed  the  strong 
iron-clad  ram  Arkansas,  between  Baton  Rouge  and  Vicks- 
burg. He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  commodore. 
Died  in  1864. 

See  J.  T.  Headlev,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders," 
1867. 

Portes,  Des.    See  Desportes. 

Por'te-us,  (Beilby,)  an  English  prelate  of  high  repu- 
tation, was  born  at  York  in  173 1.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  where  he  gained  the  Seaton's  prize  for  an 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  /on^;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  "y, 


short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moor.; 


PORTIA 


POSSEFINO 


English  poem  "  On  Death."  He  was  successively  rector 
of  Hunton,  prebendary  of  Peterborough,  and  rector  of 
Lambeth,  (1767.)  In  1769  he  was  appointed  chaplain 
to  George  III.  He  became  Bishop  of  Chester  in  1776, 
and  Bishop  of  London  in  1787.  His  principal  work  is 
a  series  of  "  Lectures  on  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,"  which 
are  highly  esteemed.  His  works  were  published  in  five 
volumes  (181 1)  by  his  nephew,  Robert  Hodgson.  Died 
in  1808. 

See  "Life  of  Bishop  Porteus,"  by  R.  Hodgson,  1811. 

Portia.    See  Porcia. 

Portland,  Duke  of.    See  Bentinck. 

Port'lock,  (Joseph  Ellison,)  Lieutenant-Colo- 
nel, an  English  engineer  and  geologist,  born  about 
1795.  He  assisted  Colby  in  the  trigonometrical  survey 
of  Ireland  commenced  about  1824,  and  produced  an 
able  "  Report  on  the  Geology  of  the  County  of  London- 
derry and  of  Parts  of  Tyrone  and  Fermanagh,"  (1843.) 
He  also  wrote  on  Geognosy  and  Palaeontology.  He 
was  elected  president  of  the  Geological  Society  in  1856. 
Died  in  1864. 

Portogallo,  poR-to-glKlo,  (Marco  Antonio  Simao,) 
a  Portuguese  composer,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1763.  He 
lived  many  years  in  Italy,  and  composed  successful 
operas.  "  Fernando  in  Messico"  is  called  his  master- 
piece.   Died  in  1829. 

Port-Royalists,  a  name  popularly  given  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  celebrated  convent  or  society  of  Port-Royal- 
des-Champs,  near  Versailles.  It  fills  a  prominent  place 
in  the  history  of  the  Jansenist  controversy.  The  nuns 
were  removed  to  Paris  about  1638,  (or  1644,  according 
to  Hallam,)  after  which  the  old  convent  of  Port-Royal- 
des-Champs  became  the  residence  of  a  community  of 
religious  and  learned  men,  who  practised  some  monastic 
austerities  and  were  called  "Les  Solitaires  de  Port- 
Royal."  Among  these  recluses  were  Claude  Lancelot, 
Antoine  Arnauld,  Le  Maistre  de  Sacy,  Pierre  Nicole, 
and  Blaise  Pascal.  They  were  leaders  of  the  Jansenist 
party.  They  opened  a  boarding-school  which  became 
celebrated,  and  published  several  good  works  on  gram- 
mar. The  convent  of  nuns  was  suppressed  by  Louis 
XIV.  in  1709.  The  history  of  Port-Royal  has  been 
written  by  Racine,  Reuchlin,  Sainte-Beuve,  and  others. 

See  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1841;  Sainte-Reuve, 
"Histoire  de  Port-Royal,"  4  vols.,  1840-62;  Mary  Anne  Schim- 
MELPENNiNCK,  "  History  of  Port-Royal." 

Portsmouth,  Duchess  of.    See  Keroual. 

Portugal,  de,  di  poR-too-gSK,  (Francisco,)  Count 
of  Vimioso,  a  Portuguese  nobleman  and  poet,  born  at 
Ev'ora  about  1490;  died  in  1549. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Portumne.    See  Portumnus. 

Por-tum'nus  or  Por-tu'nus,  [Fr.  Portumne,  poR'- 
tiimn',]  a  marine  deity  or  genius  among  the  Romans, 
was  regarded  as  the  protector  of  ports  and  harbours, 
and  was  identified  with  the  PaL/^:mon  of  the  Greek 
mythology. 

Portunus.    See  Portumnus. 

Portus,  poR'toos,  (/Emilius,)  an  eminent  critic  and 
editor,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1550.  He  was  professor  of 
Greek  at  Lausanne  from  1581  to  1591,  soon  after  which 
date  he  obtained  the  chair  of  Greek  at  Heidelberg.  He 
produced  good  editions  (with  Latin  versions)  of  Thu- 
cydides,  Aristotle  on  Rhetoric,  Xenophon,  iLuripides, 
and  other  Greek  authors.  Among  his  works  is  "Lexi- 
con Doricum-Graeco-Latinum,"  (1603.)    Died  in  1610. 

Portus,  (Francis,)  an  eminent  philologist,  father 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Candia  (Crete)  in  15 11. 
He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Modena  in  1536,  and 
teacher  of  the  sons  of  Renee,  Duchess  of  Ferrara,  in 
1542.  Having  been  converted  to  the  Protestant  faith, 
he  removed  to  Geneva  in  1561,  and  obtained  there 
a  chair  of  Greek  in  1562.  He  wrote  commentaries 
on  Aristotle,  Pindar,  Longinus,  Thucydides,  and  other 
Greeks.    Died  at  Geneva  in  1581. 

See  TiRABOsCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana  ;"  Sax, 
"  Onomasticon." 

Po'rus,  [Gr.  Uupo^,]  a  king  of  India,  who  reigned 
between  the  Hydaspes  and  Acesines  when  that  country 
was  invaded  by  Alexander  the  Great,  326  B.C.  He  op- 
posed the  Macedonians  with  an  army  composed  partly 


of  elephants,  was  defeated  in  a  great  battle,  and  taken 
prisoner.  When  asked  by  the  victor  how  he  wished  to  be 
treated,  he  answered,  "  Like  a  king."  (Plutarch.)  He  was 
restored  to  his  kingdom  by  Alexander.  He  was  killed 
by  Eudamus  (or  Eudemus)  in  317  B.C.  Another  Porus 
reigned  at  the  same  time  east  of  the  Acesines,  (Chenab.) 

See  Arrian,  "Anabasis." 

Pory,  por're,  ?  (John,)  an  English  geographer  born 
about  1570.  He  published  a  "Geographical  History 
of  Africa,  translated  from  Leo  Africanus,"  (1600.)  In 
1616  he  went  to  Virginia  and  became  secretary  to  that 
colony.    Died  after  1623. 

Porzio,  poRt'se-o,  (Luc  Antonio,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician, born  near  Amalfi  in  1639.  He  taught  in  Rome, 
and  published  a  work  on  the  diseases  and  treatment  of 
soldiers,  (1685,  often  reprinted.)    Died  in  1723. 

Porzio  or  Porta,  poR''ta,  [Lat.  Por'tius,]  (Simone,) 
an  Italian  philosopher,  born  at  Naples  in  1497.  He  pub- 
lished a  treatise  "  On  the  Human  Mind,"  ("  De  Humana 
Mente,"  1551,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1554. 

Posadas,  de  las,  di  lis  po-sa'DSs,  (Miguel,)  a 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Segorbe  in  171 1  ;  died  in  1753. 

Po-sei'don  or  Po-si'don,  [Gr.  Uoaadcjv,]  the  Greek 
name  of  the  god  of  the  sea.    (See  Neptune.) 

Poseidonius.    See  Posidonius. 

Po'sey,  (Thomas,)  an  American  general,  born  on  the 
banks  of  the  Potomac,  in  Virginia,  in  1750.  He  became 
a  captain  in  1775,  served  with  distinction  at  the 
battles  near  Saratoga  and  Stillwater,  September  19  and 
October  7,  1777.  He  took  part  in  the  capture  of  Stony 
Point,  July,  1779,  and  commanded  a  brigade  of  the  army 
which  General  Wayne  led  against  the  Indians  in  1792. 
He  was  Governor  of  Indiana  from  1813  to  1816.  Died 
in  1818. 

See  James  Hall,  "Memoir  of  Thomas  Posey,"  in  Sparks'3 
"  American  Biography,"  vol.  ix.  of  new  series. 

Posidippe.    See  Posidipfus. 

Pos-i-dip'pus,  [Gr.  UoalSfmrog ;  Fr.  Posidippe,  po'- 
ze'd^p',]  a  Greek  comic  writer,  born  at  Cassandria,  in 
Macedonia.  He  began  to  write  about  290  B.C.  His 
works  are  lost. 

Pos-i-do'ni-us  or  Pos-ei-do'm-us,  [Uoaadcjvtog,] 
a  Greek  Stoic  philosopher,  born  at  Apamea,  in  Syria, 
about  135  B.C.,  was  a  disciple  of  Panaetius,  whoin  he 
succeeded  as  head  of  the  school.  He  taught  at  Rhodes, 
had  a  high  reputation,  and  wrote  works  on  astronomy, 
history,  geography,  moral  philosophy,  etc.,  all  of  which 
are  lost.  He  was  visited  at  Rhodes  by  Pompey  about 
68  B.C.  Cicero,  who  was  one  of  his  pupils,  expresses  a 
very  favourable  opinion  of  him.  Like  many  other  Stoics, 
Posidonius  held  that  pain  is  not  an  evil.  According  to 
Suidas,  he  removed  to  Rome  in  the  consulship  of  M. 
Marcellus,  (52  B.C.)  "  Was  it  not  a  fine  acknowledgment 
of  the  inherent  supremacy  of  wisdom,  when  the  impe- 
ratorial  fasces  were  lowered,  by  command  of  Pompey, 
before  the  person  of  Posidonius  .?■"  (Arthur  H.  Hallam.) 

See  RiTTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca 
Graeca  ;"  Diogenes  Laertius. 

Posidonius  of  Alexandria,  a  mathematician,  often 
confounded  with  the  preceding.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
a  pupil  of  Zeno. 

Possel,  pos'sel,  (Johann,)  a  German  philologist,  born 
at  Parchim  in  1528.  He  published  "  Syntaxis  Graeca," 
(1560,)  and  other  works.    Died  at  Rostock  in  1591. 

Posselt,  pos'sglt,  (Ernst  Ludwig,)  a  German  his- 
torian, born  at  Durlach,  in  Baden,  in  1763.  He  began 
to  issue  in  1795  "The  European  Annals,"  a  periodical, 
which  he  edited  until  1804,  and  which,  says  Depping, 
"  was  the  best  German  periodical  work  on  history  and 
politics."  He  also  published  several  works  on  German 
and  French  history.    Died  in  1804. 

See  ScHUBART,  "  Leben  Posselt's,"  1805;  Gehres,  "  Lebenbe- 
schreibung  Posselts,"  2  vols.,  1827. 

Possevin.    See  Possevino. 

Possevino,  pos-si-vee'no,  [Lat.  Possevi'nus  ;  Fr. 
Possevin,  posVaN'  or  pos^seh-viN',]  (Antonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian Jesuit,  negotiator,  and  writer,  was  born  at  Mantua  in 
1534.  He  was  sent  by  the  pope  on  important  missions 
to  Germany,  Hungary,  Sweden,  Poland,  and  Russia. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  "Select  Library  on  the 
Method  of  Study,"  ("  Bibliotheca  selecta  de  Ratione 
Studiorum,"  2  vols.,  1593,)  and  "Apparatus  sacer,"  (3 


€  as  k;  c  as  s:  g  Aard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural ;:  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled-^  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POSSEFINUS 


1832 


POTTER 


vols.,  1603-06,)  in  which  he  gives  a  list  and  review  of 
the  works  of  all  ecclesiastical  writers.    Died  in  161 1. 

See  Jean  d'Origny,  "Vie  de  Possevin,"  1712  ;  Niceron,  "  M^- 
moires;"  Ginguene,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  Geiierale." 

Possevinus.  See  Possevino. 
Post,  (Francis.)    See  Poost. 

Postel,  pos't^K,  [Lat.  Postel'lus,]  (Guillaume,)  a 
French  visionary,  born  in  Normandy  in  15 10,  is  said  to 
have  been  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time.  He 
became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Paris  in  1539, 
but  soon  resigned,  and  led  a  wandering  life.  It  appears 
that  he  asserted  the  power  of  reason  to  be  sufficient  to 
demonstrate  the  dogmas  of  religion  and  to  convert  all 
nations.  His  book  "  On  the  Harmony  of  the  World" 
("  De  Orbis  Terrae  Concordia,"  1544)  is  called  his  best 
work.    Died  in  Paris  in  1581. 

See  Desbillons,  "  Nouveaux  ficlaircissemens  sur  la  Vie  de  Pos- 
tel," 1773;  Chaufepie,  "Reiiiarques  sur  Postel;"  A.  Pericaud, 
"  F.  Wilson,  G.  Postel  et  Louis  Castelvetro,"  1850;  Niceron, 
"  Memoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Postellus.    See  Postel. 

Postlethwayt,  pos's'l-thwat,  (Malachi,)  an  English 
writer  on  commerce,  of  whom  little  is  known.  It  is 
supposed  that  he  was  born  about  1707.  He  published, 
besides  other  books,  "  The  Merchant's  Public  Counting 
House,"  (1750,)  and  "Great  Britain's  True  System," 
(1757,)  which  are  works  of  merit.    Died  in  1767. 

Pos'tu-mus  or  Post'hu-mus,  a  Roman  general, 
whom  Valerian  appointed  governor  of  Gaul.  He  was 
proclaimed  emperor  by  his  army  in  257  a.d.  He  waged 
war  against  Gallienus,  and  continued  to  rule  Gaul  until 
he  was  murdered  by  his  mutinous  soldiers,  in  267  A.D. 
He  is  represented  as  an  able  and  virtuous  ruler. 

See  Mermet,  "Notice  sur  Posthumus,"  1827. 

Pofa-mo  or  Pot'a-mon,  [lioTa^uv,]  a  Platonic  or 
Eclectic  philosopher  of  Alexandria,  is  supposed  to  have 
lived  in  the  second  or  third  century  after  Christ.  He 
is  sometimes  called  the  founder  of  the  Eclectic  school. 
His  works  are  not  extant. 

Potamon.    See  Potamo. 

Pote,  (Joseph,)  an  English  printer  of  Eton,  wrote  a 
•*  History  of  Windsor  Castle."    Died  in  1787. 

Po-tem'kin,  [Russ.  pron.  pot-yom'kin,]  (Gregor 
Alexandrovitch,)  Prince,  a  Russian  field-marshal  and 
favourite  of  the  empress  Catherine  II.,  was  born  near 
Smolensk  in  1736.  He  rose  rapidly  to  the  highest  offices 
and  honours  of  the  empire,  and  exercised  almost  un- 
bounded influence  in  political  affairs.  He  induced  the 
empress  to  engage  in  the  Turkish  war  of  1771,  and  in 
the  campaign  of  1787  was  appointed  to  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  Russian  army.  As  a  reward  for  his  services 
in  taking  several  provinces  from  the  Turks,  Catherine 
bestowed  upon  him  a  superb  palace  at  Saint  Petersburg, 
which  she  called  Taurida,  the  name  previously  given  to 
the  conquered  provinces.    Died  in  1791. 

See  Madame  de  Cerenville,  "Vie  de  Potemkin,"  1S07-08  ; 
"  Privatleben  des  F'iirsten  von  Potemkin,"  Gratz,  1793;  "Memoirs 
of  Prince  Potemkin,"  London,  1S14  ;  "Monthly  Review"  for 
January,  1813. 

Pot'en-ger  or  Pot'tin-ger,  (John,)  an  English  poet 
and  barrister,  born  at  Winchester  in  1647  ;  died  in  1733. 

Pothier,  po'te-^',  (Robert  Joseph,)  a  celebrated 
French  jurist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1699.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  French  law  at  Orleans  in  1749, 
before  which  he  had  served  as  conseiller  au  chdtelet.  He 
published  a  great  work  on  Roman  law,  entitled  "  Pan- 
dects of  Justinian  digested  into  New  Order,"  ("  Pandectie 
Justinianae  in  Novum  Ordinem  digestas,"  3  vols.,  1748- 
152,)  and  several  treatises  on  contracts.  The  compilers 
of  the  Napoleonic  Civil  Code  availed  themselves  of  the 
works  of  Pothier  to  a  large  extent.  Di^d  at  Orleans 
in  1772. 

See  JoussE,  "filoge  de  Pothier,"  1772:  P.  Bernadeau.  "Vies 
de  Domat,  Furgole  et  Pothier,"  1789  ;  Dupin,  "  Dissertation  sur  la 
Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  Pothier,"  1627;  Fremont.  "  Recherches  bio- 
graphiques  sur  Pothier,"  1859. 

Pothoven,  pot'ho^•en,  (Henri,)  a  Dutch  paJnter  of 
portraits  and  cabinet-pictures,  born  at  Amsterdam  in 
1725;  died  about  1795. 

Potier,  po'te-i'',  (Charles  Gabriel,)  a  French 
comedian,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1774;  died  in  1838. 


Potocki,  po-tots'kee,  (Claudia,)  Countess,  a  patri- 
otic Polish  lady,  born  in  Posen  in  1802,  was  noted  for 
her  benefactions  to  the  sick  and  wounded  during  the 
war  in  1830-33.    Died  in  1836. 

Potocki,  (Ignatius,)  Count,  a  Polish  patriot,  born 
about  1750.  He  was  a  coadjutor  of  Kosciusko  in  1794. 
Died  in  1809. 

Potocki,  (Jan,)  Count,  a  Polish  historian,  born  in 
1761,  was  the  author  of  a  "Primitive  History  of  the 
Russian  People,"  "Chronicles,  Memoirs,  and  Researches 
towards  the  History  of  all  the  Slavic  Nations,"  and 
other  works  of  the  kind,  in  French.    Died  in  181 5. 

Potocki,  (Stanislas  Felix,)  Count,  a  Polish  noble- 
man, born  in  1750,  took  sides  with  Russia  in  the  Polish 
revolution  of  1791,  and  was  made  a  field-marshal  by 
Catherine  II.    Died  in  1803. 

Potocki,  (Stanislas  Kostka,)  Count,  a  Polish 
patriot  and  statesman,  born  in  1757.  As  a  member  of 
the  Diet  of  1788-92,  he  was  celebrated  for  his  eloquence. 
He  was  appointed  in  181 5  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion. He  wrote  an  admired  treatise  "  On  Eloquence  and 
Style."    Died  in  1821. 

See  Lelevvel,  "Histoire  de  Pologne,"  1844. 

Pott,  pot,  (August  Friedrich,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  near  Minden,  in  Hanover,  in  1802.  He  be- 
came professor  of  philology  at  Halle  in  1833.  Among 
his  works  are  *'  Researches  in  the  Etymology  of  the  Indo- 
Germanic  Languages,"  (2  vols.,  1833-36,)  and  "  Personen- 
Namen,"  (a  treatise  on  proper  names,  1853.) 

Pott,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  chemist,  born 
at  Halberstadt  in  1692.  He  was  professor  of  chemistry 
in  Berlin,  and  was  chiefly  noted  for  his  successful  ex- 
periments in  search  of  clay  for  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain.    Died  in  1777. 

Pott,  (Percival,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English  sur- 
geon, born  in  London  in  17 13.  He  was  surgeon  of 
Bartholomew's  Hospital  from  1749  to  1787,  and  made 
important  improveinents  in  the  practice  of  surgery.  He 
wrote  many  aljle  works,  among  which  are  a  "Treatise 
on  Ruptures,"  (1756,)  "Observations  on  Injuries  of  the 
Head,"  (1760,)  "Remarks  on  Fistula  in  Ano,"  (1765,) 
and  "Remarks  on  Fractures  and  Dislocations,"  (1768.) 
The  style  of  his  writings  is  much  admired.  Died  in 
1788. 

See  John  Earle,  "Short  Account  of  the  Life  of  P.  Pott,"  1790. 

Pofter,  (Alonzo,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  Episco- 
pal bishop,  born  in  Dutchess  county.  New  York,  in  1800. 
He  graduated  at  Union  College,  where  he  was  elected  in 
1821  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy. 
Having  been  ordained  the  same  year,  he  became  rector 
of  Saint  Paul's  Church,  Boston,  in  1826,  and  in  1831 
vice-president  and  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at 
Union  College.  He  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1845.  published  "Political  Economy, 
its  Objects,  Uses,  and  Principles  considered,"  (1841,) 
"  Hand-Book  for  Readers  and  Students,"  (1847,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1863. 

Pot'ter,  (Barnabas  or  Barnaby,)  an  English  prelate, 
born  in  Westmoreland  in  1578.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Carlisle  in  1628.  He  was  an  eloquent  preacher, 
but  was  regarded  by  the  high-church  party  as  a  Puritan. 
Died  in  1642. 

Potter,  (Christopher,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  near  Kendal  in  1591.  He  became  Dean 
of  Worcester  in  1635,  and  vice-chancellor  of  Oxford 
University  in  1640.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Charles  I.  in 
the  civil  war.  He  translated  Sarpi's  "  History  of  the 
Quarrels  of  Pope  Paul  V.  with  the  State  of  Venice," 
(1626.)    Died  in  1646. 

Potter,  (Cipriani,)  an  eminent  English  musician 
and  composer,  born  in  London  in  1792.  He  was  prin- 
cipal of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  in  London  for 
many  years.  He  composed  overtures,  symphonies;  duets, 
trios,  and  sonatas  for  the  piano,  on  which  he  was  a  skilful 
performer.  His  style  is  represented  as  purely  classical. 
He  became  professor  of  composition  in  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy soon  after  it  was  founded. 

Potter,  (FRANCis,)an  English  mechanician  and  clergy- 
man, born  in  1594;  died  in  1678. 

Potter,  (Hazard  Arnold,)  an  American  physician 
and  surgeon,  born  in  Yates  county,  New  York,  in  181 1, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6.,  same^  less  proloi:iged;  a,  e,  T,  6.,  it.,  y,  short;  gt,  e,  i,  q,  ohscure;  flr^  fill,  fit^  m€t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


POTTER  1833  POURCHOT 


graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1835.  He  subsequently 
settled  at  Geneva,  New  York,  where  he  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  surgeon. 

Potter,  (Horatio,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  brother  of  Alonzo 
Potter,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Dutchess  county,  New 
York,  in  1802.  He  graduated  at  Union  College,  and  in 
1828  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  and  natu- 
ral philosophy  at  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Connecticut. 
He  became  Bishop  of  the  diocese  of  New  York  in  1861. 

Potter,  (JoiiN,)  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  born 
at  Wakefield,  Yorkshire,  in  1674.  While  a  student  at 
Oxford  he  published  "Antiquities  of  Greece,"  ("Ar- 
chaeologia  Graeca,"  2  vols.,  1698,)  often  reprinted.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Oxford  in  1715,  and  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  in  1737.  He  was  author  of  some  works 
on  theology,  and  editor  of  a  good  edition  of  Clemens 
Alexandrinus,  {1715.)    Died  in  1747. 

See  Anderson  and  Dunbar,  "  Life  of  John  Potter ;"  Hook, 
"  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury." 

Potter,  pot'ter,  (Paul,)  a  celebrated  Dutch  painter 
of  animals,  was  born  at  Enkhuysen  in  1625.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  a  "Herdsman  with  Cattle,"  in  the 
gallery  of  the  Louvre,  a '*  Bear-Hunt,"  in  the  Amster- 
dam Museum,  and  a  landscape  with  cattle  and  figures, 
in  the  collection  of  the  Marquis  of  Westminster.  His 
pictures  are  generally  of  cabinet  size,  and  are  remark- 
able for  accuracy  of  design  and  exquisite  finish.  He 
also  produced  a  number  of  excellent  engravings.  Died 
in  1654. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands;"  Lecarpentier, 
"Paul  Potter,"  i8i8;  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Potter,  (Robert,)  an  English  poet  and  translator, 
born  in  1721.  He  became  vicar  of  Scarning,  prebendary 
of  Norwich,  and  vicar  of  Lowestoft  and  Kessingland. 
He  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1774,  and  a  trans- 
lation of  i^^schylus  in  1777,  which  is  conunended.  He 
also  translated  Euripides  (1782)  and  Sophocles,  (1788.) 
Died  in  1804. 

Potter,  de,  deh  pot'ter,  (Louis  Joseph  Antoine,)  a 
l^elgian  historian  and  liberal  politician,  born  at  Bruges 
in  1786.  He  published  a  rationalistic  history  of  the 
Church,  entitled  "Esprit  de  I'figlise,"  (6  vols.,  1821,) 
which  produced  a  great  sensation.  He  was  a  chief 
promoter  of  the  union  of  Catholics  with  Liberals  which 
secured  the  success  of  the  revolt  against  the  King  of 
Holland  in  1830.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Philosophical, 
Political,  and  Critical  History  of  Christianity,"  (8  vols., 
1836.)    Died  in  1859. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Pottier,  po'te-i',  (Andre  Ariodant,)  a  French  an- 
tiquary and  savant,  born  in  Paris  in  1799,  lived  many 
years  at  Rouen. 

Pottier,  (Francois,)  a  French  missionary,  born  at 
Loches  in  1718,  laboured  in  China.    Died  iii  1792. 

Pot'tin-ger,  (Sir  Henry,)  Bart.,  G.C.B.,  a  British 
administrator,  born  in  Down  county,  Ireland,  in  1789. 
He  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company  in 
his  youth.  About  1840  he  was  sent  to  China  as  am- 
bassador and  superintendent  of  the  British  trade.  He 
negotiated  in  1842  a  treaty  which  ended  the  opium  war 
in  China.  In  1846  he  became  Governor  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  and  in  1847  Governor  and  commander- 
in-chief  of  Madras,  He  returned  to  England  in  1854, 
and  died  at  Malta  in  1856. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  May,  1856. 

Pottinger,  (John.)    See  Potenger. 

Pouchard,  poo'shtR',  (Juli'^.n,)  a  French  classical 
scholar,  born  near  Domfront  in  1656.  He  was  chief 
editor  of  the  "Journal  des  Savants."    Died  in  1705. 

Poiichet,  poo'shi',  (F61.IX  ARCHiMfeDE,)  an  eminent 
French  naturalist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Rouen  in 
1800.  He  acquired  distinction  by  his  numerous  works, 
among  which  are  an  "  Elementary  Treatise  on  Botany," 
(1835,)  a  "Natural  History  of  the  Anitnal  Kingdom," 
(2  vols.,  1841,)  and  a  "  Theory  of  Spontaneous  Ovulation 
and  Fecundation  of  Mammifera,"  (1847.)  He  is  an 
advocate  of  the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  generation,  on 
wliich  he  wrote  "Traite  de  la  Generation  spontanee," 
(1859,)  and  "Nouvelles  Experiences  sur  la  Generation 
spontanee  et  la  Resistance  vitale,"  (1863.)  "  His  works," 
says  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale,"  "are  distin- 


guished for  scrupulous  accuracy,  extent  of  views,  and  an 
excellent  method.  To  him  belongs  the  lionour  of  having 
formulated  in  a  neat  and  precise  manner  the  fundamental 
laws  of  fecundation  among  the  mammifera.  His  experi- 
ments on  spontaneous  generation,  in  opposition  to  those 
of  M.  Pasteur,  had  a  great  celebrity  ( retentissement)  in 
the  scientific  world."  One  of  his  works  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English,  with  the  title  "  The  Universe  :  the 
Infinitely  Great  and  Infinitely  Little,"  (1870.) 
See  the  "  British  Quarterly  Review,"  1869. 

Pouchkin  or  Pouschkin.    See  Pooshkin. 

Pougatclief  or  Pougatchev.    See  Poogatchef. 

Pougens,  de,  deh  poo'zhdN',  (Marie  Charles  Jo- 
seph,) a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1755.  He 
became  blind  at  the  age  of  twenty-four.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Four  Ages,"  a  poem,  (1819,) 
and  "  Philosophical  Letters,"  (1826.)  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.    Died  in  1833. 

See  T.  LoRiN,  "Notice  sur  Charles  de  Pougens,"  1836;  Sil- 
VESTRE  DE  Sacy,  "  Noticc  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  le  Chevalier  de  Pougens," 
1837- 

Pouget,  poo''zh4',  (FRANgois  Aim^,)  a  French  priest, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1666,  was  vicar  of  Saint-Roch, 
in  Paris.  He  published  a  "  Catechisme  de  Montpellier," 
(1702,)  which  was  adopted  in  all  France.    Died  in  1723. 

Pouillet,  poo'ya',  (Claude  Servais  Matthia.s,)  a 
French  natural  philosopher  and  elegant  writer,  born  in 
the  department  of  Doubs  in  1791.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1837,  and  obtained  the 
chair  of  physics  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1838.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "Elements  of  Experimental 
Physics  and  Meteorology,"  (2  vols.,  1827  ;  7th  edition, 
1856,)  which  is  said  to  be  the  most  complete  and  best- 
written  treatise  on  that  subject  in  French.   Died  in  1868. 

Pouilly,  de.    See  L^vesque. 

Poujoulat,  poo'zhoo'la',  (Jean  Joseph  Fran(;ois,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  La  Fare  (Benches  du  Rhone) 
in  1808.  He  accompanied  Michaud  on  a  visit  to  the 
Levant,  (1830,)  and  wrote,  in  partnership  with  him, 
"Oriental  Correspondence,"  ("La  Correspondance 
d'Orient,"  7  vols.,  1832-35.)  He  received  prizes  from 
the  French  Academy  for  his  "  History  of  Jerusalem" 
(1840)  and  "  History  of  Saint  Augustine,"  (3  vols.,  1844.) 

Poullain-Duparc,  poo'l^N'  dii'ptR',  (Augustin 
Marie,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Rennes  in  1703,  was 
a  brother  of  Poullain  de  Saint-Foix.  He  wrote  on  the 
laws  of  Bretagne.    Died  in  1782. 

Poullain  de  Grandprey,  poo'l^N'  deh  gR5N'pRi', 
(Joseph  Clement,)  a  French  politician,  born  near 
Mirecourt  in  1744.  He  was  a  moderate  republican 
member  of  the  Convention,  1792-95.    Died  in  1826. 

Poullain  de  Saint-Foix.    See  Saint-Foix. 

Poulle,  pool,  (  Nicolas  Louis,  )  a  French  pulpit 
orator,  born  at  Avignon  in  1703.  He  obtained  the  title 
of  preacher  to  the  king.    Died  in  1781. 

PouUetier  de  la  Salle,  pooKte-a'  deh  It  stl,  (Fran- 
cois Paul  Lyon,)  a  French  physician  and  chemist,  born 
in  Lyons  in  17 19.  He  founded  three  hospitals  in  Paris, 
and  aided  Macquer  in  a  "Dictionary  of  Chemistry," 
(1766.)    Died  in  1788. 

Poultier-Delmotte,  pooKte-i'  dlKmot',  (FRANgois 
Martin,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born  at  Montreuil-sur- 
Mer  in  1753.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king  in  the 
Convention,  and  edited  the  "Ami  des  Lois,"  a  journal, 
(1795- 1 800.)    Died  in  1826. 

Pounds,  (John,)  an  English  philanthropist,  born  at 
Portsmouth  in  1766,  was  a  shoemaker,  and  the  founder 
of  ragged  schools.  He  collected  a  number  of  poor 
children  in  his  workshop  and  taught  them  gratis.  Died 
in  1839. 

Poupart,  poo'ptR',  (Franqois,)  a  French  naturalist 
and  anatomist,  born  at  Mans  in  1661  ;  died  in  1709. 

Pouqueville,  pook'v^K,  (FRANgois  Charles  Hu- 
GUES  Laurent,)  a  French  writer  of  travels,  was  born 
in  Orne  in  1770.  He  published  a  work  entitled  "Travels 
in  the  Morea,"  etc.,  ("Voyage  en  Moree,  a  Constanti- 
nople et  en  Albanie,"  1805,)  and  "Travels  in  Greece," 
("Voyage  en  Grece,"  5  vols.,  1820-22.)    Died  in  1838. 

Pourchot,  pooR'sho',  (Edme,)  a  French  philosopher, 
born  at  Poilly,  near  Sens,  in  165 1.  He  became  about 
1678  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Paris, 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,giittural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


POURBUS 


POTNET 


of  which  he  was  chosen  rector  seven  times.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Boileau  and  Racine.  He  published  "  Philo- 
sophical Institutes,"  ( "  Institutiones  Philosophicae," 
1695,)  which  was  highly  esteemed.  It  is  said  that  he 
was  one  of  the  first  who  taught  philosophy  by  a  rational 
method.    Died  in  1734. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Pourbus.    See  Porbus. 

Pourfour.    See  Petit,  du. 

Poussin,  (Caspar.)    See  Dughet. 

Poussin,  poo'stlN^,  (Nicolas,)  an  excellent  French 
painter  of  history  and  landscapes,  called  "the  Raphael 
of  France,"  was  born  at  or  near  Andelys,  on  the  Seine,  in 
Normandy,  in  1 594.  He  studied  design  with  Quentin 
Varin,  of  Amiens,  and  at  the  age  of  eighteen  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  received  lessons  from  Ferdinand  Elle. 
His  early  efforts  were  embarrassed  by  poverty.  He  made 
several  attempts  to  visit  Rome,  which  failed  for  want  of 
funds.  His  long-cherished  desire  to  see  that  metropolis 
of  art  was  gratified  in  1624.  He  there  formed  an  inti- 
macy with  the  sculptor  F.  Duquesnoy,  and  studied  the 
works  of  Raphael  with  ardent  admiration.  He  also 
made  designs  or  models  of  antique  statues  and  bas-reliefs. 
For  Cardinal  Barberini,  who  became  his.  patron,  he 
painted  "The  Death  of  Cermanicus,"  and  "The  Capture 
of  Jerusalem  by  Titus." 

Poussin  married  in  1630  Anne  Marie  Dughet,  a  sister 
of  the  eminent  painter  Gaspard  Dughet  surnamed  Pous- 
sin. Among  the  works  which  he  painted  (in  oil)  at  Rome 
are  a  series  of  "The  Seven  Sacraments,"  "The  Rape 
of  the  Sabine  Women,"  "The  Triumph  of  Flora,"  and 
"The  Passage  of  the  Red  Sea."  He  had  acquired  a 
wide  celebrity  when,  about  the  end  of  1640,  he  returned 
to  France  at  the  request  of  the  king,  who  appointed  him 
his  first  painter.  He  painted  for  the  king  a  beautiful 
altar-piece  of  "The  Last  Supper,"  but  soon  became  dis- 
gusted with  the  intrigues  of  the  court  and  the  jealousy 
of  rival  artists.  In  1642  he  returned  to  Rome,  where 
he  remained  until  his  death,  November,  1665. 

"  With  a  laborious  and  mighty  grasp,"  says  Hazlitt, 
"he  put  Nature  into  the  mould  of  the  ideal  and  antique, 
and  was  among  painters  (more  than  any  one  else)  what 
Milton  was  among  poets.  There  is  in  both  something 
of  the  same  pedantry,  the  same  stiffness,  the  same  ele- 
vation, the  same  grandeur,  the  same  mixture  of  art  and 
nature,  the  same  richness  of  borrowed  materials,  the 
same  unity  of  character."  ("Table-Talk.") 

"  His  life,"  says  Delacroix,  "  was  reflected  in  his  works, 
and  accorded  with  the  beauty  and  nobleness  of  his  in- 
ventions." He  is  considered  the  greatest  historical 
painter  that  France  has  produced.  "  Poussin  has  a  far 
greater  power,"  says  Ruskin,  "  and  his  landscapes,  though 
more  limited  in  material,  are  incomparably  nobler,  than 
Claude's."  The  same  critic  calls  him  "  the  principal 
master  of  the  classical  landscape."  ("Modern  Painters.") 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "  fitudes  sur  N.  Poussin;"  Maria  Gra- 
ham, "Memoirs  of  N.  Poussin,"  1820;  Castellan,  "Vie  de  N. 
Poussin,"  iSii  ;  ISmeric-David,  "  Discours  sur  la  Vie  de  Poussin," 
1812;  Raoul-Rochette,  "Discours  sur  N.  Poussin,"  1S43;  Pas- 
SERI,  "  Le  Vite  de'  Pittori,"  1772;  Bouchitte,  "Le  Poussin,  sa 
Vie  et  son  OEuvre  ;"  Gandar,  "Les  Andelys  et  N.  Poussin;"  Fe- 
libien,  "  Entretiens  sur  la  Vie  des  Peintres  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic Generale." 

Poussines,  poo'sfen',  (Pierre,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born 
at  Laurac  in  1609.  He  edited  and  translated  several 
Greek  works,  among  which  was  Anna  Comnena's 
"  Alexias."    Died  in  1686. 

Pouteau,  poo''t5',  (Claude,)  a  French  surgeon,  born 
at  Lyons  in  1724.  He  published  several  volumes  on 
surgery.    Died  in  1775. 

Pow'ell,  (The  Rev.  Baden,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  phi- 
losopher and  geometer,  born  in  or  near  London  about 
1798.  He  became  in  1827  Savilian  professor  of  geometry 
at  Oxford,  of  which  he  was  a  graduate.  He  contributed 
to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  and  "  Philosophical 
Magazine"  able  memoirs  on  optics  and  other  sciences. 
He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1824. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "  A  Historical  View  of 
the  Progress  of  Physical  and  Mathematical  Sciences," 
(i  vol.,  1834,)  "The  Connection  of  Natural  and  Divine 
Truth,"  (1838,)  a  "View  of  the  Undulatory  Theory  as 
applied  to  the  Dispersion  of  Light,"  (1841,)  "The  Unity 


of  Worlds  and  of  Nature  :  Three  Essays  on  the  Spirit 
of  the  Inductive  Philosophy,  the  Plurality  of  Worlds, 
and  the  Philosophy  of  Creation,"  (1856,)  "Christianity 
without  Judaism,"  (1857,)  and  "The  Order  of  Nature 
considered  with  Reference  to  the  Claims  of  Revelation," 
(1859.)    Died  in  i860. 

See  the  "  North  British  Review"  for  November,  1859. 

Pow'ell,  (David,")  a  Welsh  historian,  born  in  Den- 
bighshire about  1552,  was  vicar  of  Ruabon  and  rector 
of  Llanfyllin.  He  published  Caradoc's  "History  of 
Cambria,"  with  notes,  (1584.)    Died  in  1598. 

Powell,  (Edward,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  wrote  against  the  divorce  of  Henry  VIII.  and 
Catherine,  and  was  hung  in  1540  for  that  offence. 

Powell,  (Gabriel,)  a  son  of  David,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  1575.  He  was  distinguished  for  learning, 
and  was  author  of  some  polemical  works  on  theology. 
Died  in  1611. 

Powell,  (George,)  an  English  actor  and  dramatist, 
wrote  "  Alphonso,"  a  tragedy.    Died  in  17 14. 

Pow'ell,  (George,)  an  American  historical  painter, 
born  in  New  York  in  1823.  Among  his  works  is  "The 
Discovery  of  the  Mississippi." 

Powell,  (Griffith,)  was  born  in  Wales  in  1561. 
He  became  principal  of  Jesus  College,  Oxford.  Died 
in  1620, 

Powell,  (Sir  John,)  a  British  judge,  noted  for  his 
honesty,  was  born  in  Carmarthenshire.  He  was  de- 
prived of  office  by  James  II.  about  1688  for  his  conduct 
in  the  trial  of  the  seven  bishops.    Died  in  1696. 

Powell,  (William,)  an  English  actor,  who  performed 
with  success  at  Drury  Lane  from  1763  until  1767.  Died 
in  1769. 

Powell,  (William  Samuel,)  an  English  parson, 
born  at  Colchester  in  171 7,  became  archdeacon  of  that 
place  about  1766.    Died  in  1775. 

Pow'er,  (Tyrone,)  an  Irish  comic  actor,  born  in  the 
county  of  Waterford  in  1795.  He  performed  in  the 
United  States  in  1840,  and  took  passage  in  the  steamer 
President,  which  left  New  York  in  March,  1841,  and 
was  never  heard  of  afterwards. 

Powders,  (Hiram,)  an  eminent  American  sculptor, 
born  at  Woodstock,  Vermont,  in  1805.  Having  re- 
moved to  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  he  employed  himself  for  a 
time  in  modelling  busts  in  plaster,  and  subsequently 
engaged  in  the  same  occupation  at  Washington.  In 
1837  he  was  enabled  to  visit  Italy,  where  he  has  resided 
many  years.  His  statue  of  "  Eve"  was  exhibited  in  1838, 
and  was  at  once  acknowledged  as  a  master-piece.  It 
was  followed  soon  after  by  his  "Greek  Slave,"  which 
became  widely  celebrated  and  has  placed  the  artist  in 
the  first  rank  of  living  sculptors.  Among  his  other 
works  may  be  named  "  II  Penseroso,"  "  The  Fisher- 
Boy,"  "California,"  "America,"  statues  of  Washington 
and  Calhoun,  and  busts  of  Chief-Justice  Marshall, 
Adams,  Webster,  and  Van  Buren. 

See  Tuckerman,  "Book  of  the  Artists;"  "Living  Age"  for 
October,  1847,  by  Edward  Everett. 

P6w'hat-an',  an  Indian  sachem  who  ruled  over  a 
tract  of  country  in  the  vicinity  of  James  River,  Virginia. 
Died  in  1618.    (See  Pocahontas.) 

Pow'is,  (William  Herbert,)  Earl  of,  an  English 
peer,  who  in  his  youth  fought  for  Charles  I.  against  the 
Parliament.  He  was  regarded  as  the  chief  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  aristocracy.  He  was  sworn  of  the  privy  council 
in  1686,  and,  according  to  Macaulay,  gave  James  II. 
judicious  and  patriotic  advice. 

Powlett.    See  Pawlett  and  Pa u  let. 

Pow'nall,  (Thomas,)  an  English  goi-eraor  and  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Lincoln  in  1722.  He  became  Governor 
of  Massachusetts  Bay  in  1757,  and  of  New  Tersey  in 
1759.  He  returned  to  England  in  1761.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  Description  of  the  Antiquities  of  the  Pro- 
vincia  Romana  of  Gaul,"  (1788.)    Died  at  Bath  in  1805. 

Poyet,  pwd'yi',  (Bernard,)  a  French  architect,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1742;  died  at  Paris  in  1824. 

Poy'net  or  Po''net,  (John,)  an  English  bishop,  born 
in  Kent  about  1516,  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  the 
Reformation.  He  became  Bisho])  of  Rochester  in  1549, 
and  Bishop  of  Winchester  in  1551.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  book  called  "  King  Edward's  Catechism," 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  flit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


POTNINGS  1835  PR  AS  LIN 


(1553,)  Having  gone  into  exile  on  the  accession  of  Mary, 
in  1553,  he  died  at  Strasburg  in  1556. 

Poyn'ings,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English  gentleman, 
who  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  performed  an  important 
part  in  the  suppression  of  the  Irish  rebellion  of  which 
Desmond  and  Kildare  were  the  leaders.    Died  in  1512. 

Pozharski  or  Pojarski,  po-zhaR'skee,  (Dmitri,) 
Prince,  a  Russian  general,  born  in  1578,  drove  out  the 
Poles  from  Moscow  in  1612.  He  is  called  by  Prince 
A.  Gallitsin  "  one  of  the  most  popular  heroes  of  Russia.'' 
Died  in  1642. 

See  Malinowsky,  "Life  of  Pozharski,"  (in  Russian,)  1817. 

Pozzetti,  pot-set'tee,  (Pompilio,)  a  Florentine  writer 
of  biography,  etc.,  born  in  1769;  died  in  1816. 

Pozzi,  pofsee,  (  Giovanni  Battista,  )  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Milan,  flourished  about  1585.  Died  at 
the  age  of  twenty-eight. 

Pozzi,  (GiUSEPPK,)  an  Italian  poet  and  physician, 
born  at  Bologna  about  1695  5  ^752. 

Pozzo,  pot'so,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter  and 
architect,  born  at  Trent  in  1642,  was  a  Jesuit.  He 
excelled  in  colouring  and  perspective,  and  adorned  the 
ceiling  of  Sant'  Ignazio,  Rome,  with  pictures,  which 
are  commended.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  Per- 
spective," (2  vols.,  1693-1702.)    Died  at  Vienna  in  1709. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Milizia,  "  Memorie 
degli  Architetti." 

Pozzo,  (Modesta.)    See  Fonte,  (Moderata.) 

Pozzo,  dal,  dil  pot'so,  (Cassianu,)  an  Italian  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Turin  in  1584.  He  formed  at  Rome  a 
rich  cabinet  of  antiquities,  and  was  a  friend  and  patron 
of  N.  Poussin.    Died  in  1657. 

Pozzo,  dal,  (Ferdinando,)  Count,  an  Italian  lawyer 
and  political  writer,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1768.  He  was 
elected  to  the  French  legislative  body  in  1803,  and  be- 
came first  president  of  the  imperial  court  at  Genoa  in 
1809.    Died  at  Turin  in  1843. 

Pozzo,  dal,  (GiROLAMO,)  Count,  an  Italian  archi- 
tect, born  at  Verona  in  1718,  was  a  skilful  amateur. 

Pozzo  di  Borgo,  pot'so  de  boR^go,  (Carlo  An- 
drea,) an  eminent  diplomatist,  born  at  or  near  Ajaccio, 
in  Corsica,  in  1764.  He  entered  the  service  of  Paoli 
about  1790,  and  was  elected  to  the  French  Legislative 
Assembly  in  1 791.  He  was  secretary  of  state  in  the 
new  government  formed  by  Paoli  in  1793.  In  1803  he 
entered  the  service  of  Russia,  and  devoted  himself  to 
diplomacy,  for  which  he  was  qualified  by  his  penetration 
and  address.  He  performed  a  mission  to  Vienna  in 
1804  or  1805,  and  another  to  Turkey  in  1807.  He  re- 
garded Napoleon  as  a  personal  enemy,  and  contributed 
to  his  overthrow.  In  1813  he  took  a  prominent  part  at 
the  Congress  of  Frankfort,  and  composed  the  famous 
declaration  of  the  allies.  He  acted  as  Russian  commis- 
sioner with  the  army  of  the  allies  in  1815,  and  signed 
the  treaty  of  Paris.  He  was  Russian  ambassador  at, 
Paris  from  1815  to  1835.    Died  in  1842. 

See  VuHRER,  "  Notice  biograpliique  sur  Pozzo  di  Borgo,"  1842  ; 
Capefigue,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  du  Comte  Pozzo  di  }5orgo,"  1844  ; 
Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Restoration  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 

Pradel,  de,  deh  pRt'd^K,  (Pierre  Marie  Michel 
CoUTRAY,)  a  French  poet  and  improvisateur,  born  in 
Paris  in  1787.  He  produced  many  short  poems.  Died 
at  Brussels  in  1857. 

Pradier,  prt'de-i',  (Jacques,)  a  French  sculptor  of 
high  reputation,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1792.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  of  Rome  (at  Paris)  in  18 13,  and  studied 
at  Rome  for  five  years.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1827.  His  works  are  remarkable  for  soft- 
ness and  grace.  His  imagination  was  vivid,  his  design 
correct,  his  execution  good  ;  and  with  more  elevation  of 
style  he  would  have  raised  himself  to  the  highest  rank 
of  French  sculptors.  Among  his  best  works  are  a 
*'  Isyche,"  (1824,)  "The  Three  Graces,"  (1831,)  a  mar- 
ble group  of  "Venus  and  Cupid,"  (1836,)  and  a  marble 
statue  of  Sappho,  (1852.)    Died  near  Paris  in  1S52. 

See  Gkorge  Bell,  "Pradier,"  Paris,  1852;  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie Generale." 

Prado,  prS'do,  (Ignacio,)  a  Peruvian  general,  was 
appointed  president  or  dictator  of  Peru  about  the  end 
of  1865. 


Prado,  del,  d^l  pRi'Do,  (Blas,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  at  Toledo  in  1544,  was  patronized  by  Philip  II. 
Died  about  1605. 

Pradon,  pRfd^N',  (Nicolas,)  a  mediocre  French 
tragic  poet,  born  at  Rouen  in  1632.  He  produced  in 
1674  "  Pyramus  and  Thisbe,"  and  attempted  to  rival 
Racine  in  "  Phedre  et  Plippolyte,"  (1677,)  which  was 
applauded  by  a  certain  party  or  cabale.    Died  in  1698. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Pradt,  de,  deh  pRit,  (Abbe  Dominique  Dufour,)  a 
French  diplomatist  and  political  writer,  born  in  Auvergne 
in  1759.  He  became  almoner  of  Napoleon  about  1804, 
Bishop  of  Poitiers  in  1805,  and  Archbishop  of  Malines 
in  1808.  In  1812  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Warsaw, 
and,  according  to  some  writers,  incurred  the  displeasure 
of  Napoleon,  with  whom  he  had  a  curious  conversation 
during  his  retreat  from  Moscow.  He  published  many 
political  and  historical  works,  among  which  is  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Embassy  to  Warsaw,"  (1815.)   Died  in  1837. 

See  QuERAKD,  "  La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1816; 
"Monthly  Review,"  vol.  Ixxx.,  1816,  (Appendix.) 

Praed,  prad,  (Winthrop  Mackwokth,)  an  English 
poet  and  lawyer,  born  in  London  in  1802.  He  was  the 
chief  contributor  to  "The  Etonian,"  a  monthly  paper 
issued  in  1820 ;  after  which  he  entered  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  He  gained  prizes  for  the  Greek  ode  and 
epigram,  and  for  English  poems,  entitled  "  Australia," 
(1823,)  and  "Athens,"  (1824.)  In  1829  he  was  called  to 
the  bar.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament  about  1830, 
opposed  the  Reform  bill,  and  was  re-elected  in  1835. 
He  became  a  successful  debater  and  a  zealous  conserva- 
tive. Died  in  1839.  His  poems  are  highly  commended 
for  wit  and  elegance. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1865;  "British 
Quarterly  Review"  for  1866. 

Praet,  van,  vtn  prat,  (Joseph  Basile  Bernard,)  a 
Belgian  bibliographer,  born  at  Bruges  in  1754.  He 
became  in  1784  an  assistant  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris. 
About  1795  Van  Praet  and  Capperonnier  were  appointed 
keepers  of  the  same.  He  published  a  "  Catalogue  of 
the  Books  printed  on  Vellum  in  the  Royal  Library," 
(5  vols.,  1822-28.)    Died  in  1837. 

See  Daunow,  "  Notice  sur  Van  Praet ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Praj^pati,  pra-jS'pa-ti,  [from  the  Sanscrit  prajd, 
"  people,"  or  the  "  world,"  and  pati,  "  master,"]  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  a  title  given  to  certain  divine  per 
sonages,  called  also  Brahmadikas,  among  whom  are 
Marichi,  Bhrigu,  Daksha,  and  Narada. 

See  Wilson,  "Sanscrit  Dictionary." 

Pram,  pR^m,  (Christian  Henriksen,)  a  distin- 
guished litterateur  and  journalist,  born  in  Guldbrands- 
dal,  in  Norway,  in  1756.  He  founded  at  Copenhagen, 
conjointly  with  Rahbek,  the  periodical  entitled  "The 
Minerva,"  and  in  1811  became  president  of  the  Scandi- 
navian Literary  Society.  Among  his  principal  works, 
which  are  written  in  Danish,  are  "Emilias  Kilde,"  a 
poem,  (1782,)  a  heroic  poem  entitled  "  Starkodder," 
(1785,)  and  the  tragedy  of  "Damon  and  Pythias."  He 
also  published  several  treatises  on  political  economy 
and  statistics.  His  genius  and  character  are  eulogized 
by  Oehlenschlager.    Died  in  1821. 

See  Ersi.ew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon  ;"  J.  K.  Hoest,  "C.  H.  Pram: 
biografisk  Omrids,"  1820;  Howitt,  "  Literature  And  Romance  of 
Northern  Europe." 

Prarond,  pRt'r^N',  (Ernest,)  a  French  writer  of 
verses,  fiction,  etc.,  born  at  Abbeville  in  1821. 

Praslin,  de,  deh  pRt'I^N',  (Cesar  Gakriel  de 
Choiseul — deh  shwd'zuK,)  Due,  a  French  minister  of 
state,  born  in  Paris  in  17 12,  was  a  cousin  of  the  Due 
de  Choiseul.  He  obtained  in  1748  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general,  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1760,  and 
minister  of  the  marine  in  1766.  He  was  removed  in 
1770.    Died  in  1785. 

See  CoNDORCET,  "  filoge  du  Due  de  Praslin." 

Praslin  de  Choiseul,  i)rtiaN'  deh  shw^'zuK, 
(Charles  Raynard  Laure  F^lix,)  Due,  a  French 
peer,  born  in  Paris  in  1778  ;  died  in  1841. 

See  Nestor  Aronssohn,  "  Notice  sur  M.  le  Due  de  Praslin,' 
1844.  . 


*>  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PRAT 


1836 


PRENTICE 


Prat,  du.    See  Duprat. 

Prati,  pRi'tee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  lyric  poet,  born 
at  Dascindo,  in  the  province  of  Trent,  in  1815.  He 
composed  "  Edmenegarda,"  a  poem,  (1841,)  which  was 
received  with  favour.  Among  his  other  popular  poems 
ire  "A  Hymn  to  Italy,"  "The  Song  of  the  Future," 
"Rodolfo,"  and  "Count  Riga,"  ("II  Conte  Riga,"  1856.) 
In  1861  he  published  a  poem  called  "  Ariberto,"  (2  vols.) 

Pratilli,  pRd-t^lMee,  (Francesco  Maria,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Capua  about  1700;  died  about  1766. 

Prat'i-nas,  [Ilparivaf,]  an  Athenian  dramatic  and 
lyric  poet,  lived  about  500  B.C.,  and  made  an  improve- 
ment in  the  tragic  art.  He  is  regarded  by  some  as  the 
inventor  of  the  satiric  drama. 

Pratt,  (Benjamin,)  an  American  judge,  born  at  Bos- 
ton in  1709.  He  gained  distinction  as  a  lawyer,  and 
became  chief  justice  of  New  York.    Died  in  1763. 

Pratt,  (Calvin  E.,)  an  American  lawyer  and  soldier, 
born  near  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  in  1828.  He 
practised  law  for  a  time  in  New  York  City,  and  in  1861 
commanded  the  Thirty-first  regiment  of  New  York 
volunteers  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run.  He  became 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  soon  after  the  battle  of 
Antietam. 

Pratt,  (Charles.)    See  Camden,  Earl  of. 

Pratt,  (Sir  Charles,)  a  British  general,  born  in  1771, 
served  in  the  Peninsular  war  at  Vitoria,  Nivelles,  Or- 
thes,  etc.    Died  in  1839. 

Pratt,  (Samuel  Jackson,)  an  English  poet  and  novel- 
ist, born  in  Huntingdonshire  in  1749.  He  published, 
under  the  assumed  name  of  Courtney  Melmoth, 
"  Sympathy,"  and  other  poems,  and  several  successful 
novels,  among  which  are  "The  Pupil  of  Pleasure," 
(1779,)  and  "Emma  Corbett,"  (1781.)    Died  in  1814. 

Praun,  von,  fon  pRown,  (Georg  Andreas  Septi- 
mus,) Baron,  a  German  numismatist,  born  in  Vienna  in 
1701.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  Coins  or  Numis- 
matics," (1739.)    Died  in  1786. 

Prax-ag'o-ras,  [Hpa^a/opaf,]  an  eminent  Greek  phy- 
sician of  Cos,  lived  about  300  B.C.  He  was  noted  for  his 
skill  in  anatomy,  and  appears  to  have  been  the  first  who 
explained  the  difference  between  veins  and  arteries.  He 
wrote  several  works,  of  which  only  a  few  fragments  are 
extant.    Among  his  pupils  was  Herophilus. 

See  Sprengei,,  "  Histoire  de  la  Medecine." 

Prax-il'la,  [Upa^LKka,]  a  Greek  lyric  poetess,  born  at 
Sicyon,  lived  about  450  B.C.    Her  works  are  lost. 

Praxiphane.    See  Praxiphanks. 

Prax-iph'a-nes,  [Gr.  U.pa^c(f)avT]^ ;  Fr.  Praxiphane, 
pRtks'eTtn',]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Mitylene, 
was  a  pupil  of  Theophrastus,  and  a  teacher  of  Epicurus. 

See  Preller,  "De  Praxiphane,"  1842. 

Praxitele.    See  Praxiteles. 

Prax-it'e-les,  [  Gr.  Upa^LT£?ir]c ;  Fr.  Praxitele, 
pRtks'e'tiK,]  one  of  the  greatest  of  Grecian  sculptors, 
flourished  about  360  B.C.  The  time  and  place  of  his 
birth  are  unknown.  He  was  probably  a  contemporary 
of  Apelles,  and  an  Athenian.  According  to  Pausanias, 
he  lived  three  generations  after  Alcamenes.  The  name 
of  his  master  has  not  been  preserved.  Praxiteles  is 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  a  school,  or  the  author  of  a 
new  style  of  art.  Ancient  writers  represent  him  as  cele- 
brated for  refinement  and  softness  of  contour,  grace  in 
attitude,  and  delicacy  in  the  expression  of  tender  affec- 
tions. Cicero  considered  the  expression  which  animated 
the  heads  of  Praxiteles  as  one  of  the  most  admirable 
and  difiicult  results  which  human  skill  could  attain. 
Among  his  best  works  in  bronze  were  a  statue  of  Bac- 
chus, a  Satyr  or  Faun,  and  a  statue  of  Apollo,  called 
*'  Sauroctonos."  An  ancient  copy  (in  marble)  of  the  last 
work  is  preserved  in  the  Vatican.  His  master-piece  was 
a  marble  statue  of  Venus  (of  Cnidos)  without  drapery, 
which  was  destroyed  by  fire  at  Constantinople  about  475 
A.D.  No  work  of  Grecian  sculptors,  except  the  Jupiter 
of  Phidias,  appears  to  have  been  so  celebrated  as  this 
Venus  of  Cnidos.  He  produced  also  a  statue  of  Venus 
draped,  and  a  marble  statue  of  Cupid,  which  was  praised 
by  Pliny.  He  was  one  of  the  lovers  of  the  celebrated 
courtesan  Phryne. 

See  Pliny,  "Natural  History;"  K.  O.  MiiLLER,  "Archaologie 
der  Kunst ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


Pray,  pRoi,  (George,)  a  Hungarian  historian,  born  at 
Presburg  in  1723  or  1724.  He  published  "  Annals  of  the 
Ancient  Huns,"  ("  Annales  veterum  Hunnorum,"  1761,) 
and  a  "  History  of  Hungary  from  997  to  1564,"  (5  vols., 
1764-70.)    Died  in  1801. 

Preau.    See  Dupr6au. 

Preault,  pRiV,  (Auguste,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris  in  1809.  Among  his  works  are  a  bust  of  N. 
Poussin  in  the  Louvre,  Charlemagne,  (1836,)  and  "  Ophe- 
lia," a  bas-relief,  (1849.) 

Preble,  pr^b'l,  (Edward,)  a  celebrated  American 
commodore,  born  in  Maine  in  1761.  Having  been  made 
a  captain  in  1799,  he  sailed  in  the  Essex  to  Batavia, 
whencq  he  convoyed  home  a  fleet  of  fourteen  merchant- 
vessels.  In  1803  he  was  appointed  to  command  a 
squadron  sent  against  Tripoli,  having  for  his  flag-ship 
the  Constitution.  He  attacked  the  batteries  and  gun- 
boats which  defended  Tripoli  several  times  in  August 
and  September,  1804.  He  captured  three  gun-boats, 
and  sunk  four  others.  For  these  services  he  received  a 
gold  medal  from  Congress.    Died  in  1807. 

See  Sparics,  "American  Biography;"  "National  Portrait-Gal- 
lery of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Precipiano,  di,  de  pRi-che-pe-i.'no,  (  Humbert 
Guillaume,)  Count,  a  prelate,  born  at  Besanjon  in 
1626.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Malines  in  1690,  and 
was  an  opponent  of  Quesnel.    Died  in  1711. 

Precy,  de,  deh  pRa'se',  (Louis  FRANgois  Perrin — 
pi'RiN',)  Comte,  an  able  French  general,  born  near 
Semur  in  1742.  He  was  chosen  general-in-chief  by  the 
insurgents  of  Lyons  who  revolted  against  the  Conven- 
tion in  1793.  He  defended  Lyons  for  about  sixty  days 
against  the  besieging  army,  and  escaped  to  Switzerland. 
Died  in  1820. 

Preisler  or  Preissler,  pRTs'ler,  (Georg  Martin,)  a 
German  engraver  and  painter,  born  at  Nuremberg  in 
1700  ;  died  in  1754. 

Preisler  or  Preissler,  (Johann  Daniel,)  a  German 
painter  and  designer,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Dresden  in  1665.    Died  in  1737. 

Preisler  or  Preissler,  (Johann  Georg,)  an  engraver, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1757,  was  a  son  of  Johann  Justin, 
noticed  below.    Died  in  1808. 

Preisler  or  Preissler,  (Johann  Justin,)  an  engraver 
and  painter,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1698,  was  a  brother 
of  Georg  Martin,  noticed  above.  He  etched  some  works 
of  Rubens.    Died  in  1771. 

Preisler  or  Preissler,  (Johann  Martin,)  a  skilful 
engraver,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Nu- 
remberg in  1 7 15.  He  was  appointed  court  engraver  at 
Copenhagen,  to  which  he  removed  in  1744.  His  en- 
graving of  "  Frederick  V.  on  Horseback"  is  esteemed 
a  master-piece.  He  executed  some  works  of  Raphael 
and  other  masters.    Died  in  1794. 

Preissler.    See  Preisler. 

Preller,  pReKler,  (  Ludwig,  )  a  German  classical 
scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1809.  He 
became  professor  at  Jena  in  1846.  Among  his  works  are 
a  "  History  of  Greek  and  Roman  Philosophy,"  (1838,) 
and  a  "  Greek  Mythology,"  (2  vols.,  1854.)  Died  in  i86r. 

Premare,  pR^'mtR^  (Joseph  Henri,)  a  French  mis- 
sionary, born  about  1670.  He  went  to  China  in  1698, 
and  studied  Chinese  literature  with  success.  He  wr.^te 
"  Account  of  the  Chinese  Language,"  ("Notitia  Lingiiae 
Sinicae,")  and  "  Letters  on  China."  Died  at  Peking 
about  1735. 

Premontval,  pRi'm^N'vtK,  the  assumed  name  of 
Andr6  Pierre  Le  Guay,  (g^,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Charenton  in  1716.  He  removed  to  Berlin  in  1752,  and 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
that  city.  He  wrote  "  Monogamy,"  ("  La  Monogamie," 
3  vols.,  1 75 1,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1764. 

Premier,  von,  fon  pR^n'ner,  (Anton  Joseph,)  a  Ger- 
man painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Wallerstein  in  1683. 
He  engraved  the  pictures  of  the  Belvedere  gallery  of 
Vienna.    Died  in  1743. 

Prenner,  von,  (Georg  Caspar,)  a  painter  and  en- 
graver, a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1708. 
He  worked  at  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1766. 

Prentice,  prgn'tiss,  (George  Denison,)  an  American 
poet  and  journalist,  born  at  Preston,  Connecticut,  in 


5,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  /on^-;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  s/ipr^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  m^t;  n6t;  g<^"od;  moon; 


PRENTISS 


1837 


PRESCOTT 


1802,  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1823.  He 
founded  in  1828  "The  New  England  Review,"  and, 
having  removed  to  Kentucky,  became  in  1831  editor  of 
the  "  Louisville  Journal,"  which  soon  acquired  the  repu- 
tation of  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  brilliant  journals 
in  the  country.  He  published  a  number  of  small  poems 
of  great  beauty.  A  collection  of  his  witticisms,  entitled 
"  Prenticeana,"  appeared  in  i860.    Died  in  1870. 

See  Griswold,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Pren'tiss,  (Benjamin  M.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Wood  county,  Virginia,  in  1819.  He  became  a  citi- 
zen of  Illinois  about  1842,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  in  1861.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  Shiloh,  April 
6, 1862.  About  July  3,  1863,  he  defeated  Generals  Holmes 
and  Price,  who  attacked  him  at  Helena,  Arkansas. 

Prentiss,  (Sergeant  Smith,)  an  American  orator, 
born  at  Portland,  Maine,  in  1808.  He  studied  law,  and 
became  about  1832  a  resident  of  Vicksburg,  Mississippi, 
where  he  practised  with  success.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  by  the  Whigs  in  1837.  In  1840  he 
advocated  the  election  of  General  Harrison  by  several 
public  speeches.  He  had  a  high .  reputation  as  an 
orator,  and  as  an  advocate  in  jury-trials  was  equal  or 
superior  to  any  lawyer  in  the  Southwestern  States. 
Died  near  Natchez  in  1850. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  S.  S.  Prentiss,"  by  his  brother,  1855. 

Pres'cott,  (George,)  Colonel,  an  American  officer, 
born  in  Littleton,  Massachusetts,  in  1829.  He  served 
as  colonel  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863,  and  at  the  great 
battles  in  Virginia  in  May,  1864.  He  was  killed  near 
Petersburg,  June  18,  1864. 

Prescott,  (Oliver,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  patriot  of  the  Revolution,  born  at  Groton,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1 731.  He  served  as  an  officer  in  the 
Revolutionary  war.    Died  in  1804. 

Prescott,  (Oliver,)  an  American  physician,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1762.  He  practised  at  Gro- 
ton, and  wrote  several  medical  treatises.    Died  in  1827. 

Prescott,  (William,)  Colonel,  an  American  officer 
of  the  Revolution,  born  at  Groton,  Massachusetts,  in 
1725,  was  a  brother  of  Oliver,  noticed  above.  He  fought 
with  distinguished  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill, 
where  he  appears  to  have  had  the  chief  command,  and 
in  other  important  engagements.    Died  in  1795. 

Prescott,  (William,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Pepperell  in  1762.  He 
was  appointed  in  1818  a  judge  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas.  He  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  for  legal  attainments. 
He  was  the  father  of  William  H.  Prescott,  the  historian. 
Died  in  1844. 

Prescott,  (William  Hickling,)  an  eminent  American 
historian,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and  grandson  of  Colonel 
Prescott  who  commanded  at  Bunker  Hill,  was  born  at 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  on  the  4th  of  May,  1796.  Both  his 
parents  were  remarkable  for  their  high  moral  qualities. 
His  father  was  distinguished  for  his  manly  beauty,  as 
well  as  for  the  dignity  and  gentleness  of  his  character. 
His  mother,  originally  Miss  Catherine  Greene  Hickling, 
was  a  woman  of  great  energy,  vivacity,  and  active  be- 
nevolence ;  and  to  her  influence  her  son  appears  to  have 
owed  not  only  much  of  the  happiness  of  his  life,  but  also 
some  of  those  admirable  moral  traits  which  formed  the 
crowning  ornament  to  his  rare  intellectual  endowments. 
In  the  summer  of  1808  his  father  removed  to  Boston, 
and  the  following  autumn  sent  his  son  to  what  was  then 
regarded  as  the  best  classical  school  in  New  England.  It 
was  kept  by  Dr.  Gardiner,  an  excellent  scholar,  who  had 
been  educated  in  England  under  the  celebrated  Dr.  Parr. 
In  1811  young  Prescott  entered  the  Sophomore  class 
at  Harvard  College.  In  his  knowledge  of  Greek  and 
Latin  he  was  far  in  advance  of  most  of  the  members  of 
his  class ;  but  he  had  no  fondness  for  mathematics,  and 
never  attained  any  proficiency  in  mathematical  studies. 
During  his  Junior  year  at  college  an  accident  befell  him 
which  was  destined  to  influence  the  whole  of  his  subse- 
quent life.  One  day  in  the  Commons  Hall,  while  the 
students — as  too  often  happened  after  the  professors  had 
left  the  table — were  indulging  in  a  rude  frolic,  Prescott 
rose  to  go  out  of  the  room,  but,  attracted  by  the  tumult 
behind  him,  suddenly  turned  his  head  to  see  what  it 
was.    At  that  instant  a  hard  piece  of  bread,  thrown  at 


random,  struck  him  on  his  left  eye,  which,  under  the 
peculiar  circumstances,  having  no  warning,  was  open, 
so  that  nothing — not  even  the  eyelid — was  interposed 
to  mitigate  the  blow.  He  instantly  fell  prostrate  and 
powerless,  as  if  the  brain  itself  had  received  a  severe 
concussion.  After  some  weeks  he  was  able  to  resume 
his  studies ;  but  the  sight  of  his  left  eye — though  this 
was  to  appearance  unchanged — was  gone  forever. 

This  early  misfortune,  while  it  tended  to  check  his 
somewhat  exuberant  vivacity,  far  from  discouraging  him 
in  the  pursuit  of  his  studies,  seemed  to  excite  in  him 
a  more  earnest  and  determined  resolution  to  become 
a  respectable  scholar.  He  graduated  in  August,  1814, 
and  soon  after  cotnmenced  the  study  of  law.  But  the 
excessive  use  of  his  remaining  eye  induced  a  severe 
inflammation  in  the  organ,  followed  by  opacity  of  the 
cornea,  so  that  for  some  weeks  the  power  of  vision  was 
completely  lost. 

Among  the  many  interesting  and  admirable  traits 
in  Mr.  Prescott's  character,  perhaps  none  is  more  re- 
markable than  the  invincible  cheerfulness  and  heroic 
resignation  with  which  he  bore  the  frequent  and  severe 
suft'ering  and  the  life-long  privations  to  which  he  was 
subjected  in  consequence  of  the  injury  of  his  sight. 

In  the  hope  of  improving  his  general  health,  which 
had  been  seriously  impaired  by  confinement,  and  also  of 
indirectly  benefiting  his  eyes,  he  was  induced  to  under- 
take a  voyage  to  Europe.  He  set  out  in  the  autumn  of 
1 81 5.  He  remained  abroad  nearly  two  years,  visiting 
England,  France,  and  Italy.  His  sight,  though  not 
strong  enough  to  permit  him  to  read  much,  seems  to 
have  been  sufficient  to  give  him  a  vivid  enjoyment  of 
the  various  scenes  and  places  through  which  he  trav- 
elled  ;  but  his  health  appears  not  to  have  been  benefited 
by  his  foreign  tour,  and  in  the  summer  of  181 7  he  re- 
turned  to  his  native  country.  He  now  decided  to  aban- 
don the  law  and  devote  himself  wholly  to  literature. 
His  eye,  however,  was  so  irritable  and  feeble  that  he  was 
obliged  to  pass  much  of  his  time  in  a  darkened  room, 
with  barely  light  enough  to  admit  of  some  one  reading 
to  him, — this  being  now  his  only  means  of  cultivating 
an  acquaintance  with  his  favourite  authors. 

In  May,  1820,  Mr.  Prescott  was  married  to  Miss  Susan 
Amory  ;  and  the  union  appears  to  have  been  a  singularly 
happy  one.  About  182 1  he  commenced  a  systematic 
course  of  reading,  (by  the  ear,)  which  was  to  embrace 
the  works  of  the  best  English  prose  writers  from  Roger 
Ascham  to  the  present  day,  and  afterwards  the  best 
productions  of  the  literatures  of  France  and  Italy.  He 
appears  to  have  enjoyed  with  a  peculiar  zest  the  great 
works  of  Italian  genius,  and  especially  the  "  Divina  Com- 
media"  of  Dante.  He  seems  to  have  taken  less  delight 
in  the  celebrated  authors  of  France,  though  he  admired 
Montaigne  and  Pascal,  and,  above  all.  La  Fontaine  and 
Moliere.  In  the  autumn  of  1824  he  commenced  in 
earnest  the  study  of  that  magnificent  language  and  lite- 
rature which  have  been  immortalized  by  the  genius  of 
Lope  de  Vega  and  Cervantes.  "  This,"  says  Mr.  Tick- 
nor,  "  was  the  opening  of  the  Spanish  campaign,  which 
ended  only  with  his  life."  He  had  at  one  time  enter- 
tained the  design  of  writing  a  sort  of  general  history 
of  Italian  literature  ;  but  this  was  now  abandoned  for 
labour  in  a  different  field.  After  "long  choosing,"  to 
adopt  the  words  of  Milton,  "and  beginning  late,"  he  at 
last  decided,  in  January,  1826,  to  write  the  "  History  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  which,  eleven  years  later,  was 
published,  in  three  8vo  volumes,  simultaneously  in  Bos- 
ton and  in  London.  The  success  of  the  work  was  of  the 
most  flattering  kind,  and  at  once  placed  him  in  the  very 
highest  rank  of  contemporary  historians.  After  six 
years  of  additional  labour,  appeared  his  "  Conquest  of 
Mexico,"  (3  vols.  8vo,  1843.)  Four  years  afterwards  he 
gave  the  world  his  "  Conquest  of  Peru,"  (2  vols.  8vo.) 
In  1845  appeared  a  volume  of  his  "Miscellanies,"  con- 
sisting of  contributions  to  the  "  North  American  Review." 
In  1850  he  made  a  short  visit  to  Europe.  Soon  after  his 
return  he  commenced  the  "  History  of  the  Reign  of 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,"  a  work  which  he  did  not  live  to 
complete,  although  the  first  three  volumes  were  published 
in  his  lifetime,  the  first  two  having  appeared  in- 1855, 
the  third  in  1858.     The  entire  work  was  designed  to 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PRESL 


1838 


PREFILLE 


be  included  in  6  vols.  8vo.  The  third  volume  was  pub- 
lished in  the  summer  of  1858,  after  the  occurrence  of 
his  first  slight  apoplectic  attack,  (February  4,  1858,)  from 
which  he  seemed  speedily  to  recover.  He  resumed  his 
literary  labours,  but  was  forced  to  limit  himself  to  the 
lightest  kind  of  work  ;  and  he  never  afterwards  had  that 
enjoyment  in  his  studies  which  he  had  experienced  in 
previous  years.  On  the  28th  of  January,  1859,  he  was 
seized  with  a  second  attack  of  apoplexy,  of  which  he 
died  in  about  three  hours. 

In  person  Mr.  Prescott  was  tall  and  well  formed,  with 
light-brown  hair,  a  fine  clear  complexion,  and  an  ex- 
pression of  countenance  singularly  bright,  genial,  and 
attractive.  *'  His  smile,"  says  Mr.  Ticknor,  "  was  abso- 
lutely the  most  contagious  I  ever  looked  upon."  His 
disposition  was  in  the  highest  degree  social,  generous, 
and  kindly.  "  Indeed,  take  him  for  all  in  all,"  says  Mr. 
Ticknor,  "  I  think  no  man  ever  walked  our  streets,  as 
he  did  day  by  day,  that  attracted  such  regard  and  good 
will  from  so  many  ;  for,  however  few  he  might  know, 
there  were  very  many  that  knew  him,  and  watched  him 
with  unspoken  welcomes  as  he  passed  along." 

Mr.  Prescott's  merits  as  a  historian  are  of  the  very 
highest  order.  In  vigour  of  thought  and  in  grandeur  of 
style  he  has  undoubtedly  been  surpassed  by  many  of 
the  great  masters  of  historical  composition  ;  but  he  pos- 
sessed other  qualities,  which,  if  less  imposing,  are  far 
more  essential  to  the  character  of  a  perfect  historian. 
In  that  spirit  of  thorough  research  which  never  rests 
satisfied  until  every  field  has  been  explored  and  every 
accessible  source  of  information  consulted  and  ex- 
hausted, he  has  had  few  if  any  superiors  ;  while  in  that 
impartiality  which  proceeds  from  a  high  and  scrupulous 
sense  ■>f  justice  and  unswerving  devotion  to  truth,  he 
has  perhaps  never  been  equalled — certainly  never  sur- 
passed— by  any  historian,  of  whatever  age  or  country. 
His  style,  moreover,  is  for  the  most  part  remarkable  for 
its  animation,  clearness,  and  grace  ;  and  in  the  general 
treatment  of  his  subject  he  exhibits  in  an  eminent  de- 
gree the  "  eloquence"  and  "  lucid  order"  which  the  great 
poet-critic  of  ancient  Rome  tells  us  will  not  be  wanting 
to  him  who  knows  how  to  choose  his  subject  wisely.* 

(For  the  opinions  of  various  eminent  critics  on  the 
works  of  Mr.  Prescott,  the  reader  is  particularly  re- 
ferred to  Allibone's  "Dictionary  of  Authors.") 

See,  also,  the  admirable  "  Life  of  William  Hickling  Prescott,"  by 
George  Ticknor,  Boston,  1864  ;  R.  W.  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers 
of  America;"  Duyckinck,  "  Cyclopedia  of  American  Literature," 
vol.  ii.  ;  "New  American  Cyclopaedia;"  "London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  December,  1843,  and  September,  1847  ;  "  North  American 
Review"  for  January,  1864. 

Presl,  pR§sl,  (Jan  Swatopluk,)  a  Bohemian  botanist, 
born  at  Prague  in  1 791.  He  wrote  "  Symbolae  Botanicas," 
(1832,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1849. 

Presle,  de,  deh  pR§l,  (Charles  Marte  Wladimir 
Brunet,)  a  French  Hellenist,  born  in  Paris  in  1809. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Critical  Inquiry 
into  the  Succession  of  Egyptian  Dynasties,"  (1850,)  and 
"  Greece  since  the  Roman  Conquest,"  ("  La  Grece  depuis 
la  Conquete  Romaine,"  1859.) 

Pressense,  de,  deh  pRa'sSN'si',  (Edmond,)  an  emi- 
nent French  Protestant  divine  and  pulpit  orator  of  the 
present  age.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  History  of  the. 
First  Three  Centuries  of  the  Church,"  "The  Religions 
before  Christ :  being  an  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
the  First  Three  Centuries  of  the  Church,"  (1862,)  and 
"Jesus  Christ:  his  Times,  Life,  and  Work,"  (1866.) 
The  second  and  third  of  these  have  been  translated  into 
English.    With  respect  to  faith  he  is  evangelical. 

Prestel,  pR§s'tel,  (Johann  Gottlieb,)  a  German 
engraver  and  portrait-painter,  born  at  Griinbach,  in 
Suabia,  in  1739.  He  worked  at  Nuremberg  for  some 
years.    Died  in  1808. 

Pres'ter  John  or  Joao,  [Fr.  Le  Pretre  Jean, 
leh  pritR  zh6N,]  ("the  Priest  John,")  the  title  of  an 
imaginary  personage  whom  the  Europeans  of  the  middle 
ages  supposed  to  reign  in  the  interior  of  Asia  and  to 
have  been  converted  to  Christianity.  Rubruquis,  a  friar, 
was  sent  by  Louis  IX.  of  France  to  search  for  Prester 

Cui  lecta  potenter  erit  res, 
Non  facundia  deseret  hunc,  nec  lucidus  ordo." 

Horace  :  De  A  rte  Poetica. 


John,  in  1253,  and  explored  Central  Tartary,  but  did  not 
rind  him.  The  general  belief  in  his  existence  originated 
perhaps  in  a  report  of  some  Nestorian  missionaries  that 
Oong,  (or  Oungh,)  a  Khan  of  Tartary,  had  been  con- 
verted by  them. 

See  S.  Baring-Goui.d,  "Curious  Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Prestet,  pri'ti',  (Jean,)  a  French  mathematician,  born 
at  Cha!ons-sur-Sa6ne  in  1648;  died  in  1690. 

Pres'ton,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  divme  and 
Puritan,  born  at  Heyford,  in  Northamptonshire,  in  1587, 
adopted  Calvinistic  opinions.  He  was  chosen  master  of 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  about  1622.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "Treatise  on  the  Covenant,"  and  other 
works.  By  the  favour  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  he 
obtained  the  lectureship  of  Trinity  Church,  Cambridge. 
According  to  Fuller,  he  was  "an  excellent  preacher,  a 
celebrated  disputant,  and  a  perfect  politician."  Died 
in  1628. 

Pres'ton,  (John  S.,)  an  American  politician,  brother 
of  W.  C.  Preston,  was  born  near  Abingdon,  Virginia,  in 
1809.  He  removed  to  South  Carolina,  where  he  was 
elected  to  the  State  legislature.  Soon  after  the  election 
of  Mr.  Lincoln  to  the  Presidency,  he  joined  the  seces- 
sionists. 

Preston,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist,  was  a 
Fellow  of  King's  College,  Cambridge,  He  wrote  about 
1564  "A  Lamentable  Tragedy,  mixed  full  of  Pleasant 
Mirth,  containing  the  Life  of  Cambyses,  King  of  Persia." 
Died  in  1598. 

Preston,  (William,)  an  American  general,  born  near 
Louisville,  Kentucky,  in  1816.  He  practised  law  in 
Louisville,  and  was  sent  as  minister  to  Spain  in  1858. 
He  joined  the  disunionists  in  1861,  and  was  appointed  a 
brigadier-general. 

Preston,  (William  C.,)  an  American  Senator  and 
orator,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1794.  His  grandrnother 
was  a  sister  of  Patrick  Henry.  He  studied  in  Edin- 
burgh. About  1822  he  removed  to  Columbia,  South 
Carolina,  where  he  practised  law  and  gained  much  dis- 
tinction. He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
by  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina  in  1832.  He  op- 
posed the  policy  of  John  C.  Calhoun,  and  resigned  his 
seat  about  1842.  He  was  afterwards  president  of  the 
South  Carolina  College.    Died  at  Columbia  in  i860. 

Pretender,  The  First.  See  James  Francis  Ed- 
ward. 

Pretender,  The  Second.  See  Charles  Edward 
Stuart. 

Preti,  pRa'tee,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  in 
Tuscany  in  1582  ;  died  in  1626. 

Preti,  (Mattia,)  called  II  Calabrese,  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  Calabria  in  1613,  was  a  pupil  of  Lan- 
franc  and  Guercino.  He  worked  in  Rome,  Naples,  and 
other  places,  preferring  scriptural  and  tragical  subjects. 
Among  his  works  are  frescos  of  the  life  of  Saint  An- 
drew, at  Rome.  His  design  was  vigorous  rather  than 
graceful,  and  his  colouring  sombre.    Died  in  1699. 

See  Pascoli,  "Vita  de'  Pittori  moderni ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Preuschen,  pRoi'shen,  (A.  T.,)  a  German  litfh-ateur 
and  theologian,  born  in  Hesse  in  1734.  Among  his 
works  is  "  Monuments  of  Ancient  Physical  and  Political- 
Revolutions  in  Germany,"  (1787.)  He  invented  typome- 
trie,  or  the  art  of  printing  plans  and  maps  with  movable 
types.    Died  in  1803. 

'  Preuss,  pRoiss,  (Johann  David  Erdmann,)  a  Ger- 
man historian,  born  at  Landsberg,  on  the  Warthe,  in 
1785.  He  published  several  works  relating  to  Frederick 
the  Great  and  his  times,  among  which  is  a  "  Biography 
of  Frederick  the  Great,"  (9  vols.,  1832-34.) 

Preval,  de,  deh  pRi\iK,  (Claude  Antoine  Hip- 
POLYTE,)  VicoM'i'E,  a  French  general,  born  at  Salins 
(Jura)  in  1776.  He  became  a  lieutenant-general  in  1814, 
and  president  of  the  committee  of  war  in  the  council 
of  state  in  1837.  He  gained  distinction  as  a  writer  on 
military  affairs.    Died  in  1853. 

See  Du  Haillan,  "Biographie  du  General  Preval,"  1842; 
QtTERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Preville,  pRi'v^K,  (Pierre  Louis  Dubus,)  a  popular 
French  comic  actor,  born  in  Paris  in  1721.  He  performed 
in  Paris  from  1753  to  1786.    Died  in  1799. 


i,  e,  I,  o,  il,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  skorf;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


PREVITALE 


PRICE 


Previtale,  pRi-ve-t?l']&,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Bergamo,  was  a  pupil  of  Giovanni  Bellini.  He 
painted  Madonnas,  which  are  highly  commended.  Died 
about  1528. 

Prevost,  pRi'v5',  (Claude  Joseph,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1674;  died  in  1753. 

Prevost,  prgv'ost,  }  (Sir  George,)  an  English  gen- 
eral, born  in  1767.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the 
attack  on  Martinique  in  1809,  and  became  Governor- 
General  of  the  British  possessions  in  North  America  in 
1812.  He  was  defeated  at  Plattsburg  in  1814,  soon  after 
which  he  was  recalled.    Died  in  London  in  1816. 

See  "  Some  Account  of  the  Public  Life  of  General  Sir  George 
Prevost,"  London,  1823. 

Prevost,  pRi'vo',  (Isaac  BENofT,)  a  Swiss  natu- 
ral philosopher,  born  at  Geneva  in  1755.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Montauban  in  1810.  His 
chief  work  is  a  "  Memoir  on  the  Cause  of  the  Caries  of 
Wheat,  and  of  other  Diseases  of  Plants,"  (1807.)  Died 
in  1 8 19. 

See  P.  Prevost,  "Notice  sur  L  B.  Prevost,"  1820. 

Prevo.st,  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  medical  writer,  born  near 
Bale  in  1585.  He  succeeded  Alpini  as  professor  of 
botany  at  Padua  in  1617,  and  wrote  many  works,  which 
were  often  reprinted.    Died  at  Padua  in  163 1. 

Prevost,  (Louis  Constant,)  an  eminent  French 
geologist,  born  in  Paris  in  1787.  He  published  in  1820 
an  important  work  "  On  the  Geological  Constitution  of 
the  Basin  of  Vienna,"  (in  Austria,)  and  became  professor 
of  geology  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1831.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Chronology  of  Rocks  and  Synchronism  of  Forma- 
tions," (1845,)  "  Bearing  of  Ancient  Fossils  in  the 
Basin  of  the  Gironde."    Died  in  1856. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Prevost,  (Pierre,)  a  Swiss  natural  philosopher,  born 
at  Geneva  in  1751,  was  eminent  for  the  variety  and  pro- 
foundness of  his  learning.  He  became  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Berlin  in  1780,  and  professor  of  belles- 
lettres  at  Geneva  about  1784.  In  1788  he  published  a 
work  '*  On  the  Origin  of  Magnetic  Forces."  He  obtained 
the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Geneva  in  1793,  and  that  of 
general  physics  in  1810.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Researches  on  Heat,"  (1792,)  "  Radiant  Caloric," 
(1809,)  and  an  "Exposition  of  the  Principles  of  Radiant 
Heat,"  (1832,)  which  were  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1839. 

See  A.  P.  Decandolle,  "Notice  sur  P.  Prevost,"  in  the  "  Bi- 
bliotlieque  universelle  de  Geneve,"  1839. 

Prevost,  (Pierre,)  a  French  painter  of  landscapes 
and  panoramas,  born  near  Chateaudun  in  1764.  He 
designed  or  painted  from  nature  panoramas  of  Rome, 
Naples,  Jerusalem,  Athens,  etc.  "  He  would  perhaps 
have  obtained,"  says  Peries,  "  only  the  second  rank  of 
landscape-painters,  if  a  new  discovery  had  not  induced 
him  to  adopt  a  kind  of  painting  in  which  he  remains  un- 
rivalled." The  invention  of  the  panorama  is  ascribed 
both  to  Prevost  and  to  Robert  Fulton.    Died  in  1823. 

Prevost,  (Zachee,)  an  eminent  French  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  in  1797.  He  obtained  a  medal  in  1827  for 
*'  Corinne  at  Cape  Misenum,"  after  Gerard,  and  a  medal 
of  the  first  class  in  1839.  He  engraved  "The  Wedding 
at  Cana,"  after  Paul  Veronese,  (1852.)    Died  in  1861. 

Prevost  d'Exiies,  pRa'vo'  d^k's^K,  (  Antoine  Fran- 
cois,) a  French  writer,  born  in  Artois  in  1697.  He  took 
the  monastic  vows  in  his  youth,  but  soon  became  dis- 
gusted with  that  life,  and  fled  to  Holland.  He  wrote 
nearly  two  hundred  volumes,  including  many  works  of 
fiction,  among  which  his  novel  entitled  "  Manon  Les- 
caut"  (1733)  was  especially  celebrated.  He  published  a 
"General  History  of  Voyages,"  (20  vols.,  1745-70.)  Died 
in  1763. 

See  Le  Blanc,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  I'Abbe  Pre- 
vost," 1810;  J.  Janin,  "  Notice  sur  Prevost,"  jjrefixed  to  an  edition 
of  "  Manon  Lescaut,"  1838 ;  P.  Bernakd,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  de 
I'Abbe  Prevost,"  1810;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Prevost  d'Exmes,  Le,  leh  pRi'vo'  diksm,  (Fran- 
cois,) a  French  litterateur,  born  near  Argentan  in  1729; 
died  in  1793. 

Prevost-Paradol,  pRi'v5'  pt'rt'doK,  (Lucien  A'na- 
TOLE,)  a  French  litterateur  and  orator  of  great  eminence, 
born  in  Paris  in  1829.  He  obtained  from  the  French 
Academy  in  1851  the  prize  of  eloquence  for  an  "Eloge 


de  Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre."  In  1856  he  began  to 
write  for  the  "Journal  des  Debats,"  of  which  he  was 
for  many  years  one  of  the  ablest  editors.  He  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  French  Academy  in  1865,  in  place  of 
Ampere.  On  this  occasion  Guizot  addressed  him  in  a 
very  complimentary  speech.  He  published  a  volume  of 
"  Essais  de  Politique  et  de  Litterature,"  (1859,)  "  Essais 
de  Politique  et  de  Morale,"  (1862,)  and  "Etudes  sur  les 
Moralistes  Fran9ais,"  (1864.)  He  had  a  great  talent  for 
irony  and  raillery.  In  June,  1870,  he  was  appointed 
minister  to  the  United  States.  He  committed  suicide  at 
Washington,  July  20  of  the  same  year. 

Pri'am,  [Gr.  IT/jm^of ;  Lat.  Pri'amus;  Fr.  Priam, 
pRe'SN^,]  a  fainous  king  of  Troy,  in  whose  reign  occurred 
the  siege  of  Troy,  which  is  the  theme  of  Homer's  "  Iliad." 
He  was  a  son  of  Laomedon,  and  the  father  of  Hector, 
Paris,  and  other  heroes.  According  to  Virgil,  he  was 
killed  by  Pyrrhus  at  the  capture  of  Troy. 

See  the  "^neid,"  book  ii.  506-558. 

Priamus.  See  Priam. 
Priape.    See  Priapus. 

Pri-a'pus,  [Gr.  HpiaTrof;  Fr.  Priape,  pRe'tp',]  an 
obscene  idol  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  mythology,  repre- 
sented as  a  son  of  Bacchus  and  Venus,  and  worshipped 
as  the  protector  of  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats,  of  grape- 
vines and  gardens,  and  as  the  god  of  fertility. 

Price,  (David,)  an  English  Orientalist,  born  in  1762. 
He  served  as  a  major  in  the  army  of  the  East  India 
Company,  and  published  a  "  Chronological  Retrospect ; 
or,  Memoirs  of  the  Principal  Events  in  Mohammedan 
History  from  the  Death  of  the  Arabian  Legislator  to 
the  Accession  of  the  Emperor  Akbar,"  (4  vols.,  i8ii-2i.) 
Died  in  1835. 

Price,  (James,)  an  English  chemist  or  alchemist,  born 
in  1752.    He  committed  suicide  in  1783. 

Price,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  or  Welsh  antiquary, 
wrote  a  "  Defence  of  British  History,"  in  answer  to 
Polydore  Vergil,  (1573.)    Died  about  1553. 

Price,  (John,)  an  English  critic,  born  in  London  in 
1600.  He  published  commentaries  on  Scripture.  Died 
in  a  convent  at  Rome  in  1676. 

Price,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  who  was  chaplain 
to  General  Monk,  and  became  rector  of  Petworth,  in 
Sussex,  under  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  He  published 
"The  Mystery  and  Method  of  his  Majesty's  Happy 
Restauration,"  etc.,  (London,  1660.)    Died  in  1691. 

See  "Monk's  Contemporaries,"  by  Guizot. 

Price,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  English  dissenting  min- 
ister and  speculative  philosopher,  was  born  at  Tynton, 
in  Glamorganshire,  in  1723.  He  was  chaplain  to  Mr. 
Streathfield,  or  Streatfield,  from  1743  to  1756,  after 
which  he  preached  at  Newington  Green  Chapel  and  the 
Gravel-Pit  Meeting-House,  at  Hackney.  He  married 
in  1757  a  Miss  Blundell.  He  advocated  the  cause  of 
American  liberty  in  his  "  Observations  on  Civil  Liberty 
and  the  Justice  and  Policy  of  the  War  with  America," 
(1776,)  which  was  a  popular  work.  In  1778  he  was  in- 
vited by  Congress  to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  ;  but  he  declined.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Dr.  Franklin  and  Dr.  Priestley.  Among  his  chief  works 
are  a  "Review  of  the  Principal  Questions  and  Diffi- 
culties in  Morals,"  (1758,)  "Four  Dissertations,  on 
Providence,  Prayer,  the  State  of  Virtuous  Men  after 
Death,  and  Christianity,"  (1766-68,)  and  Sermons.  Died 
in  London  in  1 791. 

See  "Life  of  R.  Price,"  by  W.  Morgan,  1815. 

Price,  (Sterling,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Virginia.  He  emigrated  to  Missouri,  and  represented  a 
district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from  1845  to  1847.  He 
was  Governor  of  Missouri  from  1853  to  1857,  and  joined 
the  disunionists  in  1861.  He  served  as  major-general  at 
Wilson's  Creek  in  August,  i86r,  took  Lexington,  Sep- 
tember 20,  and  retired  to  Springfield.  He  commanded 
a  division  at  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862,  and  at  Corinth,  in 
October  of  that  year.  In  September,  1864,  he  entered 
Southeastern  Missouri  with  an  army,  made  a  successful 
raid  to  Lexington,  and,  after  several  fights,  returned  by 
a  different  route  to  Arkansas  about  the  end  of  October. 
Died  in  1867. 

See  a  notice  of  Sterling  Price  in  "  Southern  Generals,"  1865. 


€  as  ^;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (JJ^^'See  Explanations,  p,  23. ) 


PRICE  1840 


PRIEUR 


Price,  (Rev.  Thomas,)  a  distinguished  Welsh  scholar, 
born  at  Pencaerelin,  near  Builth,  in  1787.  He  became 
vicar  of  Cwmdu  in  1825.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"A  Critical  Essay  on  the  Language  and  Literature  of 
Wales,"  and  (in  Welsh)  a  "  History  of  Wales  and  the 
Welsh  Nation  from  the  Early  Ages  to  the  Death  of 
Llewelyn  ap  Gruffydd,"  (1836-42,)  which  is  said  to  be 
the  best  work  on  the  subject.    Died  in  1848. 

Price,  (Sir  Uvedale,)  an  English  gentleman,  born  in 
Herefordshire  in  1747.  He  made  some  improvements 
in  landscape-gardening,  and  wrote  a  work  on  that  sub- 
ject, entitled  "An  Essay  on  the  Picturesque  as  compared 
with  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful  ;  and  on  the  Use  of 
Studying  Pictures  for  the  Purpose  of  Improving  Real 
Landscape,"  (1794.)  An  enlarged  edition  was  published 
in  2  vols.,  1797.    Died  in  1829. 

Price,  (William,)  an  English  Orientalist,  born  in 
1780.  He  went  to  Persia  in  18 10  as  secretary  of  the 
British  embassy.  He  published  a  "Grammar  of  the 
Hindostanee,  Persian,  and  Arabic  Languages,"  (1823,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1830. 

Prichard,  prltch'ard,  (James  Cowles,)  an  eminent 
English  ethnologist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Ross, 
Herefordshire,  in  1785.  He  graduated  as  a  physician  at 
Edinburgh,  and  began  to  practise  at  Bristol  about  1810. 
In  1813  he  published  "Researches  into  the  Physical 
History  of  Mankind,"  (i  vol.;  3d  edition,  5  vols.,  1849,) 
a  work  of  high  reputation.  He  wrote  a  more  popular 
treatise  on  the  same  subject,  entitled  "The  Natural  His- 
tory of  Man,"  (1843.)  Among  his  important  works  are 
"The  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System,"  (1822,)  "The 
Eastern  Origin  of  the  Celtic  Nations,"  (1831,)  and  a 
"Treatise  on  Insanity,"  (1834.)  He  removed  from  Bristol 
to  London  in  1845.    Died  in  December,  1848. 

See  Callisen,  " Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon  ;"  "Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1836;  "  Eraser's  Magazine" 
for  November,  1844. 

Prichard,  prftch'ard,  (Rev.  Rees,)  a  Welsh  poet, 
born  in  Carmarthenshire;  died  in  1644. 

Prideaux,  prid'o  or  prid'ux,  (Humphrey,)  a  learned 
English  divine  and  historian,  born  at  Padstow,  in  Corn- 
wall, in  1648.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he 
published  the  inscriptions  of  the  Arundel  marbles  in 
1676.  He  became  prebendary  of  Norwich  in  1681,  rector 
of  Bladen  in  1683,  rector  of  Saham  in  1686,  archdeacon 
of  Suffolk  in  1688,  vicar  of  Trowse  in  1696,  and  Dean 
of  Norwich  in  1702.  He  opposed  the  acts  of  James  II. 
which  caused  the  revolution  of  1688.  His  principal 
works  are  "A  Life  of  Mahomet,"  (1697,)  once  held  in 
high  esteem,  but  now  admitted  to  be  very  deficient  in 
impartiality  as  well  as  in  true  historical  research,  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Connection  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment," (6  vols.,  1715-17,)  which  was  much  esteemed 
and  often  reprinted.    Died  in  1724. 

See  "Life  of  H.  Prideaux,"  anonymous,  1748;  "  Biographia 
Britannica." 

Prideaux,  (John,)  an  English  divine  of  great  learn- 
ing, was  born  at  Stowford,  in  Devonshire,  in  1578.  He 
became  in  161 5  regius  professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford, 
canon  of  Christ  Church,  and  rector  of  Ewelme.  In  1641 
he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Worcester.  He  suffered 
much  loss  in  consequence  of  his  adherence  to  the  royal- 
ist party  in  the  civil  war.  He  left  many  works  on  the- 
ology, logic,  and  other  subjects.    Died  in  1650. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses." 

Prierias.    See  Mazolini. 

Priessnitz,  pRees'nits,  (Vincenz,)  celebrated  as  the 
founder  of  the  system  of  hydropathy,  ( Kalhvasserair, 
"  cold-water  cure,")  was  born  at  Grafenberg,  in  Austrian 
Silesia,  in  1799.  Having  been  severely  injured  by  a 
loaded  cart  passing  over  his  body,  he  was  enabled  to 
effect  a  cure  by  the  application  of  cold  water,  which  he 
subsequently  made  use  of  as  a  healing  agent  in  various 
diseases  when  consulted  by  his  neighbours.  In  1826 
he  opened  a  hydropathic  institution  at  Grafenberg,  which 
was  soon  resorted  to  by  invalids  from  different  parts  of 
Germany  and  other  countries  of  Europe.  The  fame 
of  his  successes  became  at  length  so  great  that  the  num- 
ber of  his  annual  guests  exceeded  one  thousand.  His 
system  excluded  all  medicine  and  stimulants  of  whatever 
kind,  as  well  as  blistering  and  depletion  in  any  form. 


relying  only  on  the  various  applications  of  water,  abun- 
dant out-door  exercise,  wholesome  diet,  etc.  He  died 
in  185 1.  The  water-cure  has  been  received  with  favour 
in  the  principal  countries  of  Europe,  and  in  the  United 
States. 

See  Dhcken-Himmelreich,  "V.  Priessnitz  und  die  Wassercur." 
1845;  Selinger,  "Vincenz  Priessnitz,"  1852. 

Priestley,  preest'le,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  English 
philosopher,  chemist,  and  theologian,  was  born  at  Field- 
head,  near  Leeds,  on  the  13th  of  March,  1733.  He 
studied  at  a  dissenting  academy  at  Daventry  about  three 
years,  (1752-55,)  and  became' versed  in  Latin,  Greek, 
and  Hebrew.  At  an  early  age  he  admitted  doubts  re- 
specting some  doctrines  of  the  orthodox  creed,  though 
he  had  been  educated  as  a  Calvinist.  He  preached  to 
a  small  company  of  dissenters  at  Needham-Market  from 
1755  to  1758,  and  then  removed  to  Nantwich,  Cheshire. 
In  1 761  he  became  tutor  of  languages  and  belles-lettres 
in  the  academy  of  Warrington,  and  published  "The 
Scripture  Doctrine  of  Remission,"  in  which  he  rejects 
the  dogma  of  the  atonement. 

During  a  visit  to  London  he  formed  an  acquaintance 
with  Dr.  Franklin,  who  encouraged  him  to  write  a  "His- 
tory of  Electricity."  He  published  in  1767  a  work  with 
this  title,  which  was  favourably  received.  He  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1766.  In  1767  he  took 
charge  of  a  dissenting  congregation  at  Leeds,  where  he 
wrote  several  works  on  theology  and  found  recreation 
in  experiments  on  pneumatic  chemistry.  He  obtained 
in  1773  the  Copley  medal  for  his  "Observations  on  Dif- 
ferent Kinds  of  Air."  He  discovered  the  effect  of  respi- 
ration  on  the  blood,  and  the  tendency  of  vegetation  to 
restore  to  vitiated  air  its  vivifying  principle.  He  also 
discovered  nitrous  gas,  muriatic  gas,  and  oxygen,  which 
he  called  " dephlogisticated  air."  He  obtained  the  last 
in  1774  from  red  precipitate  of  mercury.  "As  a  physicist 
and  chemist,"  says  Cuvier,  "the  talents  of  Priestley  were 
of  the  first  order.  His  researches  and  writings  have 
contributed  much  to  the  progress  of  the  science." 

He  published  in  1772-74  "Institutes  of  Natural  and 
Revealed  Religion."  He  was  librarian  and  literary 
companion  of  the  Earl  of  Shelburne  from  1773  to  1780, 
during  which  period  he  published  "Experiments  and 
Observations  on  Air,"  (5  vols.,  1774-80,)  a  "Defence  of 
Socinianism,"  and  other  works.  In  1780  he  settled  at 
Birmingham  as  minister  of  the  principal  dissenting  con- 
gregation.  He  incurred  public  odium  by  the  heterodox 
and  liberal  opinions  expressed  in  his  "  History  of  the 
Corruptions  of  Christianity,"  (1782,)  "Familiar  Letters 
to  the  Inhabitants  of  Birmingham,"  (1790,)  and  "Reply 
to  Burke's  Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution,"  (i 791.) 
In  July,  1 79 1,  his  house  was  attacked  and  set  on  fire  by 
a  mob,  who  inflicted  great  damage  on  his  library,  appa> 
ratus,  etc.,  while  he  and  his  family  escaped  by  flight. 
For  the  sake  of  a  more  tranquil  life,  he  emigrated  with 
his  wife  and  children  in  1794  to  Northumberland,  Penn- 
sylvania, where  he  was  coldly  received,  especially  by  the 
Anti-Gallican  party.    Died  in  February,  1804. 

See  John  Corrv,  "Life  of  Priestley,"  1805;  "Autobiographic 
Memoirs,"  1806;  Cuvier,  "  filoge  de  Priestley,"  1805:  Thomson, 
"  Annals  of  Philosophy,"  vol.  i.,  1813  ;  J.  P.  Smith,  "Discourse  on 
the  Death  of  J.  Priestley,"  1805:  English  translation  of  Cuvier's 
eulogy,  in  the  "  Smithsonian  Report"  for  1858,  page  138  ;  Dr.  Hohfer, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Chimie;"  T.  Belsham,  "discourse  on  the  Death 
of  Joseph  Priestley;"  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October, 
1806,  (by  Jeffrey;')  "Monthly  Review"  for  August,  October,  and 
December,  1767,  et  seq. 

Prieur,  pre'UR',  (Barth^lemy,)  a  French  sculptor 
and  Huguenot.  His  chief  work  was  a  monument  to 
Constable  Anne  de  Montmorency.    Died  in  1611. 

Prieur  de  laMarne,  pRe'uR'deh  It  mtun,  a  French 
revolutionist  and  lawyer,  born  in  Champagne  about 
1760.  He  was  an  active  democratic  member  of  the 
Convention,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  In 
June,  1794,  he  became  a  member  of  the  committee  of 
public  safety.    Died  at  Brussels  in  1827. 

Prieur-Duvernois,  pRe'uR'  dii'v^R'nwS',  (Claude 
Antoine,)  a  French  republican,  born  at  Auxonne  in 
1763.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Convention  in 
1792,  and  of  the  committee  of  ])ublic  safety  in  1793. 
He  is  said  to  have  shared  with  his  friend  Carnot  the 
honour  of  having  organized  victory.    The  reform  which 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fJt;  mlx.\ n6t;  good:  moon; 


PRIEUR 


1841 


PRIOLO 


rendered  weights  and  measures  uniform  in  France  is 
ascribed  mostly  to  him.    Died  in  1832. 

Prieur, Le,  leh  pRe''uR',  (Philippe,)  a  French  scholar, 
born  at  Saint-Vaast,  published  a  work  "  On  Canonical 
Letters,"  ("  De  Literis  canonicis,"  1675.)  Died  in  1680. 

Priezac,  de,  deh  pRe'ztk',  (Daniel,)  a  French  advo- 
cate and  writer  on  law,  politics,  etc.,  was  born  in  Bas- 
Limousin  in  1590.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  Died  in  1662.  His  son  Solomon  was  author 
of  numerous  works,  among  which  is  a  "  History  of  Ele- 
phants," (1650.) 

Prilesky,  pRe-l§s'kee,  (John  Baptist,)  a  Jesuit,  born 
in  Hungary  in  1 709.  He  wrote  several  works,  among 
which  is  "  Account  of  the  Holy  Fathers  who  flourished 
in  the  Two  First  Centuries,"  ("Notitia  SS.  Patrum  qui 
duobus  primis  Seculis  floruerunt,"  1753.) 

Prim,  pR^m,  (Juan,)  Count  de  Reus  and  Marquis 
de  los  Castillejos,  a  Spanish  general,  born  in  Catalonia 
about  1814.  He  took  arms  against  Espartero  in  1843, 
and  acted  with  the  party  of  Progresistas.  In  1859  or 
i860  he  obtained  command  of  a  division  of  the  army 
sent  against  Morocco,  and  was  rewarded  for  his  services 
at  Marabout  with  the  title  of  Marquis  de  los  Castillejos, 
He  commanded  the  Spanish  army  which  co-operated 
with  the  French  and  British  in  the  invasion  of  Mexico  in 
1861,  and  returned  to  Spain  in  1862.  He  was  a  leader 
of  the  insurgents  who  deposed  Queen  Isabel  in  Septem- 
ber, 1868,  and  he  became  in  the  next  November  minister 
of  war  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Spain. 
Prim  and  Serrano  were  the  most  powerful  and  promi- 
nent members  of  the  provisional  government  formed  by 
the  insurgents  ;  and  the  former  was  the  virtual  dictator  of 
Spain  in  1869-70.    He  was  assassinated,  December,  1870. 

Primaticcio,  pRe-mS-t^t'cho,  [Fr.  Le  Primatice, 
leh  pRe'mt't^ss',]  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter,  sculp- 
tor, and  architect,  born  at  Bologna  in  1490.  He  studied 
design  under  Innocenzio  da  Imola,  Bagnacavallo,  and 
Giulio  Romano.  In  1531  he  went  to  France,  and  was 
employed  by  Francis  1.  to  adorn  the  chateau  of  Fon- 
tainebleau,  in  which  he  painted  a  number  of  large  frescos. 
Among  these  were  pictures  of  scenes  from  the  "Odys- 
sey," which  were  much  admired.  He  was  patronized 
by  Henry  II.  and  Francis  II.    Died  at  Paris  in  1570. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  Bolognini-Amorini,  "Vita  del  Pittore  F.  Pri- 
maticcio," 1838;  FoNTENAY,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Primatice,  Le.    See  Primaticcio. 

Prime,  (Samuel  IreN/^:us,)  D.D.,  an  American  Pres- 
byterian divine,  born  in  Saratoga  county.  New  York,  in 
1812.  He  became  editor  of  the  "  New  York  Observer" 
in  1840.  He  has  published  "Travels  in  Europe  and  the 
East,"  (2  vols.,  1855,)  "The  Power  of  Prayer,"  (1859,) 
and  various  other  works. 

Prime,  (William  Cowper,)  a  lawyer,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Washingtcjn  county.  New 
York,  in  1825.  He  has  published,  among  other  works, 
"The  Old  House  by  the  River,"  ( 1853,)' "  Boat-Life  in 
Egypt  and  Nubia,"  (1857,)  and  "Tent-Life  in  the  Holy 
Land,"  (1857.) 

Primerose  or  Primrose,  prlm'roz,  (Gilbert,)  an 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  Scotland.  He  became  chaplain  to 
the  king,  and  canon  of  Windsor.    Died  in  1643. 

Primerose,  (James,)  a  physician,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Bordeaux.  He  j^ractised  in  York- 
shire, and  wrote  several  medical  works,  which  are 
commended.    Died  about  1660. 

Pri'mus,  (  Marcus  Antontus,)  a  Roman  general, 
born  at  Tolosa,  (Toulouse,)  in  Gaul.  He  raised  an 
army  for  Vespasian  in  69  a.d.,  and  gained  victories 
over  the  troops  of  Vitellius  at  Verona,  Bedriacum, 
and  Rome. 

Prince,  (Henry,)  an  American  officer,  born  at  East- 
port,  Maine,  in  181 1,  fought  with  distinction  in  the 
Mexican  war,  and  was  made  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers in  the  United  States  army  in  1862. 

Prince,  (John,)  an  English  biographer,  born  at  Ax- 
minsttr  in  1643,  was  vicar  of  Totness.  He  wrote  "The 
Worthies  of  Devon,"  (1710.)    Died  in  1723. 

Prince,  (Oliver  H.,)  an  American  jurist  and  United 
States  Senator  from  Georgia,  perished  in  the  wreck  of 
the  steamboat  Home  in  1837. 


Prince,  (Thomas,)  an  American  divine,  born  in  New 
England  in  1687,  was  the  author  of  several  historical 
and  religious  works.    Died  in  1758. 

Prince  de  Beaumont.    See  Le  Prince. 

Prince,  Le.    See  Le  Prince. 

Pringle,  pring'g'l,  (Sir  John,)  a  British  physician, 
born  in  Roxburghshire,  Scotland,  in  1707.  He  studied 
at  Leyden  and  in  Paris,  settled  in  Edinburgh  about  1734, 
and  became  physician  to  the  Earl  of  vStair,  who  was 
commander  of  the  army  on  the  continent,  in  1742.  In 
1743  he  was  appointed  chief  physician  to  the  army  in 
Flanders.  He  held  this  office  until  the  peace  of  1748, 
after  which  he  resided  in  London.  He  gained  a  Euro- 
pean reputation  by  a  valuable  work  "On  the  Diseases 
of  the  Army,"  (1752.)  In  1763  he  was  appointed  phy- 
sician to  the  queen.  He  was  elected  president  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1772,  and  became  physician-extraor- 
dinary to  George  III.  in  1774.  In  1778  he  succeeded 
Linnaeus  as  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Paris.  He  corresponded  with  the  most  eminent  scien- 
tific men  of  Europe.  Among  his  works  was  a  treatise 
entitled  "Experiments  on  Septic  and  Antiseptic  Sub- 
stances," (1750,)  which  obtained  the  Copley  medal. 
Died  in  1782. 

See  A.  Kippis,  "Life  of  Sir  John  Pringle,"  1783;  Condorcet, 
"filoge  de  Pringle  :"  Vicq-d'Azvr,  "  filoge  de  J.  Pringle,"  1787; 
"Biograpliie  Medicale ;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of 
Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Pringle,  (Thomas,)  a  meritorious  Scottish  poet,  born 
at  Blaiklaw,  in  Teviotdale,  in  January,  1789.  During 
his  infancy  an  accident  occurred  which  compelled  him 
to  use  crutches  for  life.  He  wrote  in  1816  "The  Au- 
tumnal Excursion,"  a  poem,  which  procured  for  him  the 
friendship  of  Sir  Walter  .Scott.  In  181 7  he  united  with 
Lockhart,  Wilson,  and  others  in  founding  the  "  Edin- 
burgh Monthly  Magazine,"  of  which  for  a  short  time 
he  was  the  editor.  During  his  connection  with  it  the 
name  was  changed  to  "Blackwood's  Magazine."  He 
emigrated  in  1820  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where 
he  edited  the  "  South  African  Journal"  and  founded  an 
academy.  His  success  having  been  hindered  by  the 
enmity  of  the  governor,  he  returned  to  England  in  1826, 
and  published  a  very  interesting  "  Narrative  of  a  Resi- 
dence in  South  Africa."  He  wrote  a  number  of  poems, 
which  are  admired  for  elegance.    Died  in  1834. 

See  L.  Ritchie,  "  Life  of  Thomas  Pringle,"  prefixed  to  his  Poems  ; 
Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Snp- 
plement ;)  J.  Conuer,  "  Biographical  Sketch  of  T.  Pringle,"  1835. 

Prins,  pRins,  (J.  H.,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  the 
Hague  in  1758  or  1759.  He  painted  views  of  the  in- 
teriors of  cities.    Died  about  1805. 

Prin'sep,  (Charles  Robert,)  an  English  political 
economist,  born  about  1788,  published  an  "Essay  on 
Money,"  (1818,)  and  translated  Say's  "  Political  Econ- 
omy" from  the  French.    Died  in  1864. 

Prinsep,  (Henry  Thohy,)  an  English  Orientalist, 
born  in  1792,  was  a  son  of  John  Prinsep,  M.P.,  of  Lon- 
don. He  entered  the  civil  service  of  the  East  India 
Company,  and  became  a  director  of  the  same  in  1849. 

Prinsep,  (James,)  an  eminent  English  Orientalist, 
born  in  1800.  He  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India 
Company  in  his  youth,  passed  some  years  at  Benares 
as  assay-master,  and  wrote  "Sketches  of  Benares." 
Having  removed  to  Calcutta,  he  became  in  1832  editor 
of  the  "  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society,"  for  which  he 
wrote  valuable  articles  on  chemistry,  Indian  coins,  and 
Indian  antiquities.  He  succeeded  H.  H.  Wilson  as 
secretary  of  the  Asiatic  Society  in  1832.  He  made  some 
important  discoveries  in  the  history  of  India  by  the  aid 
of  inscriptions,  which  he  deciphered,  and  which  had 
baffled  other  antiquaries.  He  died  at  sea,  during  a 
voyage  to  England,  in  1840. 

Printz,  pidnts,  (  Wolfgang  Caspar,  )  a  German 
composer,  born  in  the  Palatinate  in  1641.  He  published 
a  "Historical  Description  of  Song  and  Music,"  (1690.) 
and  other  works.    Died  at  Sorau  in  1 717. 

Priolo,  pReVlo',  or  Prioli,  pRe'o'le',  (Benjamin,)  a 
French  historian,  of  Italian  extraction,  was  born  in 
Saintonge  in  1602.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  History  (^f 
France  from  the  Death  of  Louis  XIII.,"  (1662,)  which 
is  praised  by  Bayle.    Died  in  1667. 

See  J.  Rhodius,  "De  Vita  B.  Prioli,"  1672. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

116 


PRIOR 


1842 


PROCJCCINI 


Pri'pr,  (Sir  James,)  an  English  biographer  and  sur- 
geon, born  in  1790,  served  many  years  in  the  navy.  He 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Edmund  Burke,"  (1824,)  regarded  as  the 
best  life  of  that  great  statesman  that  has  yet  appeared, 
<»nd  a  *'  Life  of  Oliver  Goldsmith,"  (1836.)  Died  in  1869. 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Prior,  (Matthew,)  an  English  poet  and  diplomatist, 
was  born  in  Dorsetshire  on  the  2 1st  of  July,  1664. 
He  was  educated,  at  the  expense  of  the  Earl  of  Dorset, 
in  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  his  bachelor's  degree  in  1686,  and  obtained  a 
Fellowship.  To  ridicule  Dryden's  "  Hind  and  Panther," 
Prior  and  Charles  Montague  wrote  a  poem  entitled 
"The  City  Mouse  and  Country  Mouse,"  (1687.)  About 
1690  he  was  initiated  into  public  business  as  secretary 
to  the  embassy  which  was  sent  to  the  Congress  of  the 
Hague.  He  was  secretary  to  the  embassy  which  nego- 
tiated the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  in  1697,  and  under-secretary 
of  state  for  a  short  time  in  1699.  In  1700  he  produced 
"Carmen  Seculare,"  a  poetical  panegyric  on  William 
III.,  which  Johnson  calls  "one  of  his  most  splendid 
compositions."  He  entered  Parliament  in  1701,  and, 
deserting  the  Whigs,  joined  the  Tory  party,  which, 
having  attained  power,  sent  Prior  to  Paris  privately  with 
propositions  of  peace  in  July,  171 1.  He  was  accredited 
as  ambassador  at  Paris  in  August,  17 13,  and  obtained 
the  reputation  of  a  skilful  diplomatist.  The  Whigs, 
having  come  into  power,  recalled  him  in  August,  1714, 
and  charged  him  with  treason.  He  was  imprisoned 
about  two  years,  (during  which  he  wrote  "  Alma,"  a 
poem,)  and  was  then  released  without  trial.  He  died  at 
Wimpole  in  September,  1721.  Among  his  poems  are 
"  Solomon,"  an  "  Ode  on  the  Battle  of  Ramillies,"  ( 1 706,) 
and  several  tales.  "  Prior  has  written  with  great  variety," 
says  Dr.  Johnson,  "  and  his  variety  has  made  him  popu- 
lar. .  .  .  If  his  poetry  be  generally  considered,  his  praise 
will  be  that  of  correctness  and  industry  rather  than  of 
compass  of  comprehension  or  activity  of  fancy.  He 
never  made  any  effort  of  invention." 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets  ;"  Campbell,  "  Specimens  of 
the  British  Poets;"  "  Biographia  Britannica  ;"  Thackeray,  "The 
English  Humourists;"  "  North  British  Review"  for  November,  1857. 

Pri'or,  (Thomas,)  an  Irishman,  noted  for  public 
spirit,  was  born  at  Rathdowney,  Queens  county,  in  1679. 
He  founded  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  and  published 
"  A  List  of  Absentees,  with  Observations  on  Trade," 
etc.,  (1729.)    Died  in  1751. 

Priscian,  prish'e-an,  [Lat.  Priscia'nus  ;  Fr.  Pris- 
CIEN,  pRe'se4,N',]  a  distinguished  Roman  grammarian, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Christian,  and  native  of 
Gaesarea.  He  taught  grammar  at  Constantinople  about 
525  A.D.,  and  left  several  works,  which  are  extant.  His 
work  "  De  Arte  Grammatica,"  or  "  Conimentaria  Gram- 
matica,"  is  the  most  complete  and  philosophic  treatise 
on  that  subject  that  has  come  down  to  us  from  antiquity. 
Its  value  is  enhanced  by  many  quotations  from  works 
which  are  lost. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina  ;"  Bahr,  "  Geschichte  der 
Rbmischen  Literatur." 

Priscianus.    See  Priscian. 
Priscien.    See  Priscian. 

Pris-cil'li-an,  [Lat.  Priscillia'nus  ;  Fr.  Prtsctl- 
LIEN,  pRe'se'le^N',]  a  Spanish  ecclesiastic,  born  near 
Corduba,  (Cordova,)  is  said  to  have  professed  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Gnostics  and  Manicheans.  He  was  charged 
with  heresy  and  beheaded  by  Maximus  about  385  a.d. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Priscillianus.    See  Priscilltan. 
Priscillien.    See  Priscillian. 

Pris'cus,  [Gr.  Up'iaKoc,]  an  able  Byzantine  historian, 
born  at  Panium,  in  Thrace.  He  was  sent  by  Theodosius 
on  an  embassy  to  Attila  in  445  a.d.  He  wrote  an 
account  of  this  embassy,  and  of  the  life  of  Attila,  frag- 
ments of  which  are  extant.  His  style  is  commended, 
and  his  history  is  esteemed  for  veracity.  Died  about 
470  a.d. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Grseca." 

Priscus,  (C.  LuTORius,)  a  Roman  poet,  composed  a 
poem  on  the  death  of  Germanicus,  which  was  very  popu- 
lar.   Died  about  21  a.d. 


Priscus,  (Helvidius,)  a  Roman  senator,  distinguished 
for  his  love  of  liberty  and  his  boldness  of  speech.  He 
was  banished  by  Nero  in  66  A.D.,  and  became  prietor  in 
70,  soon  after  which  he  was  put  to  death  by  Vespasian. 

Priscus,  (Tarquinius.)    See  Tarquinius. 

Pritch'ard,  (Andrev^,)  an  English  naturalist  and 
microscopist  of  the  present  century.  He  published  a 
number  of  valuable  works,  among  which  are  "The  Mi- 
croscopic Cabinet,"  (1832,)  a  "  Natural  History  of  Ani- 
malcules," (1834,)  "  Micrographia :  Essays  on  Micro- 
scopes," (1837,)  and  a  "  History  of  Infusoria,  Living  and 
Fossil,"  (1841  ;  4th  edition,  1861.) 

Pritz,  pRits,  (JoHANN  Georg,)  a  German  Lutheran 
minister,  born  at  Leipsicin  1662.  He  preached  at  Leip- 
sic,  Zerbst,  and  Frankfort,  and  published  several  works 
Died  in  1732. 

Proaeresius,  pro-e-ree'she-us,  [Gr.  UpoaLpeato^,]  a 
teacher  of  rhetoric,  born  in  Armenia  about  275  a.d.  He 
taught  at  Athens  with  a  high  reputation.  Died  about 
365  A.D. 

Pro'bus,  (Marcus  Aurelius,)  an  excellent  Roman 
emperor,  born  at  Sirmium  about  235  A.D.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  the  armies  of  Valerian  and  succeeding 
emperors,  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Germany.  He 
received  the  command  of  all  the  legions  in  the  East  from 
Tacitus,  at  whose  death,  in  276  A.D.,  Probus  was  pro- 
claimed emperor  by  his  army.  The  senate  confirmed 
their  choice.  He  defeated  the  Germans  in  Gaul,  and 
his  rivals  Saturninus,  Proculus,  and  Bonosus.  He  was 
killed  by  mutinous  soldiers  in  282  A.D.,  and  left  a  very 
high  reputation  for  virtue  and  ability.  It  is  said  that 
he  had  offended  his  troops  by  the  expression  of  a  hope 
that  the  time  was  near  when  armies  would  be  no  longer 
necessary. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Aure- 
lius Victor,  "De  Csesaribus"  and  "  Epitome." 

Probus,  (Marcus  Valerius,)  a  Roman  grammarian, 
born  at  Berytus,  (Beyroot,)  lived  in  the  first  century  of 
our  era.  He  is  identified  by  some  with  the  Probus  of 
the  next  article. 

Probus,  (Valerius,)  an  eminent  Roman  grammarian, 
who  flourished  probably  about  100  a.d.  He  wrote  a 
commentary  on  Virgil,  often  cited  by  Servius,  and  other 
works. 

Procaccini,  pRo-kit-chee'nee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  in  Rome  about  1675.  He  became  painter 
to  the  King  of  Spain  in  1720.    Died  in  Spain  in  1734. 

Procaccini,  (Camillo,)  a  painter,  born  at  Bologna 
in  1545  or  1546,  was  a  son  and  pupil  of  Ercole  the  Elder. 
He  was  remarkable  for  facility  and  for  fecundity  of  in- 
vention. "He  had,"  says  Lanzi,  "a  simplicity,  grace, 
and  spirit  which  charm  the  eye,  if  they  do  not  always 
satisfy  the  judgment."  Among  his  works  are  a  fresco 
of  "  The  Last  Judgment,"  at  Reggio,  and  an  oil-picture 
of  "Saint  Rocco  curing  the  Sick."    Died  in  1626. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizio- 
nario." 

Procaccini,  (Carlo  Antonio,)  a  painter,  was  a 
younger  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  painted  land- 
scapes, fruits,  and  flowers  with  success.  Some  of  his 
works  are  dated  1605. 

Procaccini,  (Ercole,)  the  Elder,  a  painter,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1520,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  His 
style  was  accurate  and  free  from  mannerism,  but  his 
design  was  rather  minute.  Among  his  disciples  were 
Sabbatini,  Bertoja,  his  three  sons,  and  other  eminent 
artists.    He  was  living  in  1591. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Procaccini,  (Ercole,)  the  Younger,  a  son  of  Carlo 
Antonio,  was  born  at  Milan  in  1596.  He  was  an  able 
painter  of  flowers  and  history.    Died  in  1676. 

Procaccini,  (Giulio  Cesare,)  a  brother  of  Camillo, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1548,  and  was  the 
ablest  painter  of  the  family.  He  was  one  of  the  best 
imitators  of  the  style  of  Correggio.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  Virgin  and  Child"  and  "  The  Passage  of  the  Red 
Sea."  His  design  was  correct,  his  composition  inge- 
nious, and  his  style  noble,  or  grandiose.  He  worked 
mostly  at  Milan,  where  he  died  in  1626. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizio- 
narlo." 


a,  €,  T,  6,  u,  y,  /on^^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/tort;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  filr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


P  ROC  ID  A 


PROKOPOVITCH 


Procida,  di,  de  pRo'che-da,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
conspirator,  born  at  Salerno  about  1225,  was  a  partisan 
of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen.  He  entered  the  service 
of  Pedro  of  Aragon,  and  was  engaged  in  intrigues  or 
conspiracies  against  Charles  of  Anjou,  who  had  made 
hin:iself  master  of  Sicily.  He  is  said  to  have  l>een  the 
master-spirit  of  that  massacre  of  the  French  called  the 
Sicilian  Vespers,  (March  30,  1282.)    Died  after  1302. 

See  N.  BuscEMi,  *' Saggio  della  Vita  di  Giovanni  di  Procida," 
1836;  Amari,  "  La  Guerra  del  Vespro  Siciliano;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Gen^rale." 

Pro-cil'li-us,  a  Roman  historian,  was  a  contemporary 
of  Cicero.    His  works  are  not  extant. 

Pro'cles,  flTpo/cA^f,]  a  skilful  Greek  engraver  of 
medals,  whose  period  is  unknown.  His  name  is  found 
on  coins  of  Naxos  and  Catana. 

Pro'clus,  [Gr.  Ilpo/t/lof ;  Ger.  Pro'khjs,]  an  eminent 
Greek  philosopher  of  the  Neo-Platonic  schdol,  was  born 
at  Constantinople  in  412  a.d.,  and  was  surnamed  DiA- 
DOCHUS,  ("the  Successor.")  He  studied  under  Hero 
and  Olympiodorus  at  Alexandria,  and  under  Plutarchus 
at  Athens,  where  he  afterwards  succeeded  Syrianus  as  the 
head  of  the  Neo-Platonic  school.  He  was  very  deficient 
in  judgment.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  treatise 
"  On  the  Sphere,"  commentaries  on  the  '*  Parmenides" 
and  "Timaeus"  of  Plato,  a  treatise  against  the  Chris- 
tians, and  "  Institutio  Theologica,"  (l^TOixduGiq  Qeo'koytKT],) 
all  of  which  are  extant,  (except  part  of  the  commentary 
on  the  "Timaeus.")  He  died  in  485  a.d.  According  to 
the  extravagant  estimate  of  M.  Cousin,  all  the  philo- 
sophic rays  which  emanated  from  Pythagoras,  Plato, 
Aristotle,  etc.  were  concentrated  in  Proclus. 

See  Brucu;er,  "  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  Rittrr,  "  History  of 
Plulosophy  ;"  Tennemann,  "  Geschichte  der  Philosophic;"  "  Nou- 
velle Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Proclus,  Saint,  was  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
from  434  A.L/.  until  his  death,  in  446.  He  left  homilies 
and  epistles,  which  are  extant. 

Proc'ne,  [Gr.  YipoKvt];  Fr.  Progn^:,  pRog'n^',]  a- 
daughter  of  Pandi'on,  King  of  Athens,  a  sister  of  Philo- 
mela, and  wife  of  Tereus.  She  was  said  to  have  been 
changed  into  a  swallow. 

Procope.    See  Procopius. 

Procope-Couteau,  pRo'kop'  koo'to',  a  French  phy- 
sician and  comic  author,  born  in  Paris  in  1684.  His  real 
name  was  Michel  Coltelli.    Died  in  1753. 

Pro-co'pl-us,  a  Roman  general,  born  in  Cilicia.  He 
aspired  to  supreme  power  in  the  East  in  363  a.d.,  and 
waged  war  against  Valens,  by  whom  he  was  put  to  death 
in  366. 

Pro-co'pl-us,  [Gr.  UpoKomo^ ;  Fr.  Procope,  pRo'- 
kop',]  an  eminent  Byzantine  historian,  born  at  Caesarea, 
in  Palestine,  about  495  a.d.  He  became  in  527  a.d. 
secretary  to  Belisarius,  whom  he  attended  in  his  cam- 
paigns against  the  Persians,  the  Vandals,  (in  Africa,) 
and  the  Goths.  In  the  Gothic  war  he  had  a  high  com- 
mand in  the  navy.  He  returned  to  Constantinople  about 
541  A.D.,  and  obtained  the  favour  of  Justinian,  who  ap- 
pointed him  a  senator  and  in  562  prefect  of  the  capital. 
The  question  whether  he  was  a  Christian  or  a  Pagan  has 
been  disputed  by  many  modern  writers.  His  principal 
work  is  a  "  History  of  his  Own  Times,"  in  eight  books, 
which  is  highly  esteemed  for  veracity.  His  style  is  com- 
mended for  vigour  and  elegance.  There  is  extant  a  secret 
and  scandalous  history  of  the  Byzantine  court,  entitled 
'Ave/c(Wa,  which  is  ascribed  to  him  ;  but  his  authorship 
is  doubted.    Died  about  565  a.d. 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca;"  Cavr,  "  Historia  Lite- 
raria;"  Hankius,  "  Scriptores  Byzantini;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gen^rale." 

Procopius,  (Anthemius.)    See  Anthemtus. 

Procopius,  (Demetrius,)  a  biographer,  born  at  Mos- 
copolis,  in  Macedonia,  lived  about  1730.  He  wrote,  in 
Greek,  a  series  of  biographies  of  Greek  scholars  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  which  is  commended.  It  was 
published  by  Fabricius  in  1722  in  his  "Bibliotheca 
Grffica." 

Procopius  OF  Gaza,  a  biblical  commentator,  flour- 
ished about  550  A.D. 

Pro-oo'pl-us  Ra'sa,  an  able  Bohemian  general,  suc- 
ceeded Ziska  in  1424  as  the  leader  of  the  Hussites  or 
Taborites.    He  defeated  the  Austrians  in  a  number  of 


battles,  and  ravaged  Moravia,  Austria,  and  Saxony.  In 
143 1  he  routed  an  imperial  army  which  had  invaded 
Bohemia.    He  was  killed  in  battle  in  1434. 

Pro-criis'tes,  [Gr.  UpoKovGrriQ  ;  Fr.  Procruste,  pRo'- 
kRiist',]  {i.e.  "the  Stretcher,")  a  surname  of  Damastes 
or  Polypemon,  a  famous  robber,  who  compelled  his 
captives  to  lie  on  a  bed,  and  made  them  coincide  with 
it  in  length  by  cutting  off  their  legs  or  stretching  them 
in  case  they  were  too  long  or  too  short.  He  was  killed 
by  Theseus. 

Proc'ter,  (Adelaide  Anne,)  an  English  poetess, 
born  in  London  in  1825,  was  a  daughter  of  Bryan 
Waller  Procter.  She  became  in  1853  ^  contributor  to 
"  Household  Words"  and  "  All  the  Year  Round,"  and 
published  in  1858  "Legends  and  Lyrics."  A  second 
volume  of  "Legends  and  Lyrics"  came  out  in  1861. 
Died  in  1864. 

See  an  article,  by  Charles  Dickens,  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly" 
for  December,  1865. 

Procter,  (Bryan  Waller,)  an  English  poet,  who 
wrote  under  the  assumed  name  of  Barry  Cornwall, 
was  born  about  1790.  He  studied  law,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1831.  He  acquired  distinction  by  a  volume 
entitled  "Dramatic  Scenes,  and  other  Poems,"  (i8ig.) 
His  tragedy  of  "  Mirandola"  (1821)  was  performed  with 
success.  Among  his  other  works  are  "The  Flood  of 
Thessaly,"  "  English  Songs,  and  other  Small  Poems," 
(1832,)  "Essays  and  Tales  in  Prose,"  (1851,)  and 
"Charles  Lamb:  a  Memoir,"  (1866.)  His  songs  have 
obtained  much  popularity. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January  and  November,  1820; 
"Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  March,  1820,  and  May,  1823. 

Proc-u-le'lus,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  knight,  was  an  in- 
timate friend  of  Octavian,  (Augustus.)  After  the  battle 
of  Actium  he  was  sent  by  the  victor  to  Antony  and 
Cleopatra.  He  is  mentioned  favourably  by  Horace, 
(Carm.  ii.  2.) 

Proc'u-lus,  an  eminent  Roman  jurist,  was  a  contem- 
porary of  Nerva.  He  gave  his  name  to  a  school  or  sect, 
(Proculiani  or  Proculani.)  Among  the  jurists  cited  in 
the  Digest  he  is  the  second  in  order  of  time. 

Proculus,  a  Roman  officer,  who  attempted  to  usurp 
imperial  power  in  Gaul  in  280  A.D.  He  was  defeated 
by  Probus,  and  put  to  death. 

Prod'i-cus,  [ITpoc^^/cof,]  an  eloquent  Greek  Sophist  or 
philosopher,  born  in  Ceos,  lived  about  430  B.C.  He 
lectured  at  Athens  and  other  places.  Among  his  pupils 
or  auditors  were  Isocrates,  Euripides,  and  perhaps  Soc- 
rates. He  was  accused  of  atheism  without  sufficient 
evidence.  He  wrote  a  beautiful  apologue  entitled  "The 
Choice  of  Hercules,"  an  outline  or  abridgment  of  which 
has  been  preserved  by  Xenophon. 

See  Xenophon,  "Memorabilia;"  Hummel,  "Dissertatio  his- 
torica  de  Prodico  Sophista,"  1847;  Plato,  "  Protagoras^ " 

Progn^.    See  Procne. 

Proetides,  pr§t'e-d6z,  the  daughters  of  Proetus,  King 
of  Argolis  or  Argos,  were  named  Lysippe,  Iphinoe,  and 
Iphianassa.  According  to  the  fable,  they  became  insane 
and  imagined  that  they  were  cows. 

Proetus,  pree'tus,  [Gr.  Tipdlrog,]  a  king  of  Argos,  was 
a  twin-brother  of  Acrisius,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  in 
a  contest  for  the  throne.  He  afterwards  recovered  a 
share  of  the  kingdom,  by  the  aid  of  Jobates.  He  is 
said  to  have  given  Melampus  a  part  of  his  kingdom 
for  curing  his  daughter  of  insanity. 

Prokesch-Osten,  von,  fon  pRo'kSsh  os'ten,  (Anton,) 
Baron,  an  Austrian  diplomatist,  general,  and  able  writer, 
born  at  Gratz,  in  Styria,  in  1795.  He  was  sent  as  am- 
bassador to  Athens  in  1834,  to  Berlin  in  1849,  and  to 
Constantinople  in  1855.  He  published  "Memoirs  and 
Souvenirs  of  the  Orient,"  (1836,)  which  is  said  to  be  a 
work  of  much  merit.   Died  in  1867. 

Proklus.    See  Proclus. 

Prokne.    See  Procne. 

Prokofief  or  Prokophief,  pro-ko'fe-?f,  (Ivan  Pro- 
kofievitch,)  a  Russian  sculptor,  born  in  Saint  Peters- 
burg in  1758,  was  a  pupil  of  Julien,  of  Paris.  He  worked 
with  success  at  his  native  place.    Died  in  1828. 

Pro-ko'po-vitch,  (Theophanes,)  a  Russian  prelate, 
born  at  Kiev  in  1681.  He  became  Bishop  of  Pskof  in 
1 71 5,  and  composed,  at  the  request  of  Peter  the  Great, 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  §  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (2i:JP"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PROMETHEE 


PROTOGENE 


an  ecclesiastical  code,  in  which  priests  are  treated  as 
employees  of  the  civil  power.    Died  in  1736. 

See  TcHisTOViTCH,  "Theophane  Prokopovitch  et  Theophilacte 
Lopatinski,"  i86i. 

Promethee.    See  Prometheus. 

Pro-me'the-us,  [Gr.  Upo/n/dsv^ ;  Fr.  Prom^fh^e, 
pRo'mi'ta',]  a  personage  of  the  Greek  mythology,  was  a 
son  of  lapetus.  According  to  one  tradition,  he  stole  fire 
from  heaven,  for  which  offence  Jupiter  chained  him  to 
a  rock  or  pillar,  and  an  eagle  daily  devoured  his  liver, 
which  was  nightly  restored,  ^schylus  represents  him 
as  an  immortal  being,  a  benefactor  of  men,  the  giver  of 
fire,  and  a  heroic  sufferer,  who  was  oppressed  by  the 
power  of  Jupiter,  but  maintained  an  inflexible  spirit 
until  he  was  liberated  by  Hercules,  His  name  signifies 
"forethought."  Some  authors  relate  that  he  created  a 
man  out  of  clay  and  animated  him  with  fire  which  he 
stole  from  heaven,  and  that  he  was  the  husband  of  Pan- 
dora.   (See  ^schylus,  "  Prometheus  Bound.") 

See,  also,  Lassaulx,  "Prometheus;  die  Sage  uiid  ihr  Sinn," 
1843. 

Pro-mo'tus,  {^Elius,)  a  physician  of  Alexandria, 
whose  period  is  unknown.  It  is  supposed  that  he  lived 
before  the  Christian  era.  Some  of  his  works  are  extant 
in  manuscript. 

Prompsault,  pr6n's5',  (Jean  Henri  Romain,)  a 
French  ecclesiastical  writer,  born  at  Montelimart  in 
1798.'  He  published  a  "Dictionary  of  Canon  Law," 
and  several  works  on  grammar.    Died  in  1858. 

Prony,  de,  deh  pRo'ne',  (Gaspard  Clair  FRANgois 
Marie  Riche,)  a  French  mathematician  and  engineer, 
born  at  Chamelet  (Rhone)  in  July,  1755.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1 791  director  of  the  Cadastre,  and  received 
an  order  to  compose  logarithms  or  mathematical  tables 
adapted  to  the  decimal  division  of  the  circle,  a  work  of 
great  labour  and  utility.  In  1791  he  was  appointed  chief 
engineer  of  bridges  and  causeways.  He  became  about 
1794  professor  of  mechanics  in  the  Polytechnic  School,  a 
member  of  the  Bureau  of  Longitudes,  and  a  member  of 
the  Institute.  In  1 798  he  was  invited  by  Bonaparte  to 
join  the  expedition  to  Egypt,  but  declined.  He  received 
the  title  of  baron  in  1S28,  and  became  a  peer  of  France 
in  1835.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Hydraulic 
Architecture,"  (2  vols.,  1790-96,)  "Philosophical  Me- 
chanics," (1800,)  "Lectures  on  Analytical  Mechanics," 
(1810,)  and  a  "  Hydrographic  and  Statistical  Description 
of  the  Pontine  Marshes,"  (1823,)  which  is  a  work  of 
much  merit.  He  wrote  a  number  of  articles  for  the 
"Biographic  Universelle."    Died  in  1839. 

See  Arago,  "  Notices  biographiques,"  tome  iii.  ;  "  filoge  de 
Prony,"  by  C.  Dupin  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Properce.    See  Propertius. 

Propertius,  pro-per'she-us,  [Fr.  Properce,  pRo'- 
plRss';  It.  Properzio,  pRo^^Rt'se-o,]  (Sextus  Aure- 
Lius,)  an  eminent  Roman  elegiac  poet,  born  in  Umbria 
about  50  B.C.  He  informs  us  that  he  was  born  in  Umbria, 
on  the  border  of  Etruria.  His  paternal  estate  was  confis- 
cated by  Octavius  because  his  father  had  been  a  partisan 
of  Antony,  He  began  early  to  write  poetry,  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Rome,  and  obtained  the  patronage  of  Maecenas. 
His  life  appears  to  have  been  that  of  "a  man  of  wit 
and  pleasure  about  town."  His  career  as  a  poet  was 
influenced  by  a  passion  for  Cynthia,  a  poetess  and  lady 
of  superior  talents,  who  furnished  a  theme  for  his  early 
elegies.  He  chose  Callimachus  as  his  model,  and  be- 
came a  rather  pedantic  imitator  of  the  Greeks.  His 
style  is  censured  as  too  artificial.  Both  ancient  and 
modern  critics,  however,  assign  to  him  a  high  rank  as 
a  poet.  He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Ovid.  The  time 
of  his  death  is  unknown.  Four  books  of  elegies  are  the 
only  works  of  Propertius  that  are  now  extant,  A  cor- 
rect English  version  of  his  first  book  was  published 
anonymously  in  1781.  Among  the  best  editions  of  the 
text  is  that  of  Lachmann,  (Leipsic,  1816,) 

See  "Vita  Propertii,"  in  Lachmann's  edition,  1816  ;  Gillet  de 
MoiVRE,  "La  Vie  et  les  Amours  de  Properce,"  1744;  "Nouvelle 
i  iographie  Generale  ;"  "  Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1854. 

Properzio,    See  Propertius. 

Piopiac,  de,  deh  pro'pe'tk',  (Catherine  Joseph 
Ferdinand  Girard,)  a  French  littirateu}-,  born  at 
Dijon  in  1759;  died  in  1823. 


Pros'er-pine,  [Gr.  Il£poe(j)6v7],  ( Perseph^one ;)  Fr 
Proserpine,  pRo'z^R'p^n';  Lat.  Proserpi'na,]  the 
goddess  and  queen  of  the  infernal  regions,  was  said 
to  have  been  a  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Ceres,  and  the 
wife  of  Pluto.  The  poets  feigned  that  as  she  was  gather- 
ing flowers  near  Enna  she  was  abducted  by  Pluto  ;  that 
Ceres,  not  knowing  what  had  become  of  her,  searched 
for  her  with  torches  in  all  parts  of  the  earth  for  nine 
days  ;  that  Helios  revealed  the  secret  of  her  abduction  ; 
that  Jupiter,  induced  by  the  importunity  of  Ceres,  re- 
quested Pluto  to  restore  her,  and  that  Pluto  consented 
that  she  should  spend  two-thirds  of  the  year  with  the 
gods  above,  and  the  other  third  in  the  lower  world. 
Later  writers  say  that  she  was  to  pass  the  half  of  her 
time  in  Hades  and  the  other  half  in  the  regions  of  light. 
She  is  supposed  to  be  a  symbol  of  vegetation,  and  of 
the  creative  and  destructive  power  of  heat. 

Prosper,  pRos'paiR',  surnamed  Aquita'nus,  ("of 
Aquitaine,")  a  theologian,  born  at  Bordeaux,  in  Gaul, 
about  404  a.d.  He  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  Semi- 
Pelagians,  and  wrote  in  defence  of  the  doctrines  of  Saint 
Augustine,  His  works,  among  which  are  some  poems, 
are  still  extant.    Died  after  463  a.d. 

Pros'per  Ti'ro  or  Ty'ro,  a  poet,  who  is  often  con- 
founded with  Prosper  Aquitanus,  was  born  in  Gaul,  and 
lived  about  400  a.d.  He  wrote  a  "  Poem  of  a  Husband 
to  his  Wife,"  ("  Poema  Conjugis  ad  Uxorem,") 

Prost,  pRo,  (Claude,)  Baron,  a  French  general, 
born  at  Auxonne  in  1764;  died  in  1834, 

Prost  de  Royer,  pRo  deh  rw§,'yi^  (Antoine  Fran- 
cois,) a  French  jurist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1729;  died  in 
1784. 

Pro-tag'o-ras,  [Gr,  TlpijiTaybpa^ ;  Fr.  Protagore, 
pRo'tt'goR^,]  an  eminent  Greek  philosopher  and  Sophist, 
born  at  Abdera,  in  Thrace,  flourished  about  440  B.c,  He 
is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Democritus  ;  but  this 
is  doubted  by  some,  because  Protagoras  was  probably 
older  than  his  supposed  master.  According  to  Plato 
and  Diogenes,  he  was  the  first  who  adopted  the  name 
of  Sophist  and  taught  for  pay.  He  taught  oratory  at 
Athens  and  other  cities.  He  was  banished  from  Athens 
because  he  said  that  he  did  not  know  whether  the  gods 
existed  or  not.  His  works,  which  treated  on  ethics, 
physics,  etc.,  are  lost,  but  his  peculiar  doctrines  are  ex- 
plained in  the  "  Theaetetus"  of  Plato.  He  reached  the 
age  of  seventy  or  more,  and  died  about  410  B.C.  It  was 
a  maxim  of  Protagoras  that  "man  is  the  measure  of  the 
universe  or  of  all  things,  and  that  whatever  he  judges  to 
be  true  is  true,"  Cicero  says,  "  Putet  id  cuique  verum 
esse  quod  cuique  videatur,"  ("  Quaestiones  Academicae,") 

See  Plato's  dialogue  entitled  "  Protagoras  ;"  Grote,  "  Plato  and 
the  other  Companions  of  Socrates,"  3  vols.,  1865;  Herbst,  "  Des 
Protagoras  Leben  und  Sophistik,"  etc.,  1832;  J.  Frei,  "Quaestiones 
Protagoreas,"  Bonn,  1845;  Vitring.a,  "  Disquisitio  de  Protagorae 
Vita  et  Philosophia,"  1S53;  C.  Mallet,  "  fitudes  philosophiques," 
tome  ii.  ;  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece,"  chap.  Ixvii. 

Protagore.    See  Protagoras, 

Protain,  pRo't&N',  (Jean  Constantin,)  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1769.  He  was  employed  in 
Egypt  in  1798-99  as  architect  to  the  .commission  of  arts 
and  sciences,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Institute  of 
Cairo  in  1801.    Died  in  1837. 

Protee.    See  Proteus, 

Protet,  pRo'ti',  (Auguste  Leopold,)  a  French  rear- 
admiral,  born  at  Saint-Servan  about  1810.  He  was 
Governor  of  Senegal  from  1850  to  1855,  during  which 
period  he  made  an  exploration  of  that  region.  He  was 
killed  in  a  battle  against  the  Taepingsof  China,  in  1862, 

Pro'te-us,  [Gr,  np«Tfi;f;  Fr,  Prot6e,  pRo'ta',]  a 
divinity  of  the  Greek  mythology,  was  sometimes  called 
a  son  of  Neptune  and  a  king  of  Egypt,  He  was  repre- 
sented as  a  prophetic  old  man,  who  lived  in  the  sea  and 
could  foretell  future  events,  but  eluded  those  who  seized 
and  importuned  him  to  prophesy,  by  transforming  him- 
self into  a  great  variety  of  shapes.  If  his  efforts  to 
escape  were  baffled,  he  resumed  his  original  or  usual  form 
and  revealed  his  secret  knowledge.  His  occupation  was 
to  tend  the  flocks  of  seals  or  sea-calves  belonging  to 
Neptune. 

See  Homer,  "Odyssey,"  book  iv. ;  Virgil,  "Georgics,"  book 
iv.  387-529- 

Protogene.    See  Protogenes. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,    long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  ii,  y,  sAor^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PROTOGENES 


PR  US  US 


Pro-tog'e-nes,  [Gr,  npoToyevTjg ;  Fr.  Pro  togenk, 
pRo'to'zhin',]  a  Greek  painter  of  great  celebrity,  was  a 
native  of  Caunus,  in  Caria.  He  flourished  about  332 
B.C.,  was  a  contemporary  of  Apelles,  and  lived  mostly 
at  Rhodes.  The  name  of  his  master  is  not  known.  His 
advancement  in  fame  and  fortune  was  retarded  by  his 
modesty,  until  Apelles  visited  Rhodes  and  purchased,  at 
the  enormous  price  of  fifty  talenis  each,  several  of  his 
pictures,  which  he  proposed  to  sell  as  his  own  works. 
(See  Apelles.)  In  the  opinion  of  some,  Protogenes 
carried  the  elaboration  of  his  works  to  a  fault  ;  but 
Cicero  speaks  of  his  works  as  perfect  in  every  respect. 
His  master-piece  was  a  picture  of  lalysus,  on  which  he 
is  said  to  have  expended  seven  years.  One  of  the  ad- 
mirable parts  of  this  picture  was  the  foam  at  the  mouth 
of  a  hound,  "  which,"  says  Pliny,  "  he  produced,  after 
many  vain  efforts,  by  throwing  a  sponge  at  the  place, 
under  the  impulse  of  vexation  or  despair." 

See  Pliny,  "Natural  History,"  book  xxxv.  ;  Suidas,  "Proto- 
genes;" K.  O.  MuLLER,  "  Archaologie  der  Kunst." 

Proudhon,  pRoo'ddN',  sometimes  written  Prudhon, 
(Jean  Baptiste  Victor,)  a  French  jurist,  born  in 
Franche-Comte  in  1758.  He  was  for  many  years  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Dijon.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  an  excellent  treatise  on  the  laws  of  Usufruct, 
etc.,  "Traite  des  Droits  d'Usufruit,  d'Usage,  d'Habita- 
tion  et  de  Superficie,"  (9  vols.,  1823-25,)  said  to  be  the 
best  work  on  that  subject.    Died  in  1838. 

See  Lorain,  "  filoge  historique  de  M.  Proudhon,"  1839;  J.  Cu- 
RASSON,  "Eloge  de  M.  Proudhon,"  1839. 

Proudhon,  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French  socialist  and 
political  writer,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1809.  In  1848  he 
became  editor  of  "The  Representative  of  the  People," 
and  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly.  He  made 
a  motion  which  a  large  majority  of  the  Assembly  rejected 
as  "an  odious  attack  on  public  morality  and  subversive 
of  the  rights  of  property."  He  published  several  works 
on  social  and  political  economy.  In  his  essay  entitled 
"What  is  Property.''"  ("Qu'est-ce  que  la  Propriete  .''") 
he  affirms  that  "property  is  robbery,"  ("La  propriete, 
c'est  le  vol.")    Died  in  1S65. 

See  J.  Vrau,  "Proudhon  et  son  ficonomie  politique,"  1853 ; 
Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Geu^- 
rale;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  March,  1849. 

Proust,  pRoo,  (Louis  Joseph,)  a  French  chemist, 
born  at  Angers  about  1760.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Institute  in  1816.  He  contributed  many  memoirs  on 
chemistry  to  various  periodicals,  and  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  supporter  of  the  theory  of  equivalents  or  definite 
proportions.    Died  in  1826. 

Prousteau,  pRoo'to',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  at  Tours  in  1628.  He  founded  a  public  library  at 
Orleans,  and  wrote  legal  works.    Died  in  171 5. 

Prout,  Father,  the  assumed  name  of  Francis  Ma- 
Honey.    (See  Mahoney.) 

Prout,  prowt,  (Samuel,)  a  skilful  English  painter 
of  architecture,  scenery,  etc.,  was  born  at  Plymouth  in 
1783.  He  published  about  1816  "Views  in  the  North 
and  West  of  England,"  "Rudiments  of  Landscape,"  and 
other  successful  works.  He  acquired  distinction  as  a 
painter  in  water-colours,  a  delineator  of  mediaeval  archi- 
tecture, and  a  lithographer.  After  a  tour  on  the  conti- 
nent, he  published  lithographic  "  Fac-Similes  of  Sketches 
made  in  Flanders  and  Germany,"  and  "  Sketches  in 
France,  Switzerland,  and  Italy,"  (1839.)  Died  in  1852. 
Ruskin  pronounces  him  "  a  very  great  man,  who,  though, 
partly  by  chance  and  partly  by  choice,  limited  in  range 
of  subject,  possessed  for  that  subject  the  profoundest 
and  noblest  sympathy.  ...  In  reality  he  is  to  be  num- 
bered among  the  true  masters  of  the  nobler  picturesque." 
("Modern  Painters.") 

See  J.  Ruskin,  "Memoir  of  S.  Prout,"  in  tlie  "Art  Journal," 
1849. 

Prout,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  chemist  and 
physician,  was  born  in  1786.  He  practised  in  Lc^ndon, 
and  was  probably  the  first  physician  who  applied  the 
doctrines  of  chemistry  to  the  explanation  of  the  phe- 
nomena of  disease.  Among  his  important  works  are 
one  "  On  the  Nature  and  Treatment  of  Stomach  and 
Renal  Diseases  ;  being  an  Inquiry  into  the  Connection 
of   Diabetes,   Calculus,   etc.   with    Indigestion,"  and 


"Chemistry,  Meteorology,  and  the  Function  of  Diges- 
tion considered  with  Reference  to  Natural  Theology." 
The  latter  is  one  of  the  "  Bridgewater  Treatises."  Died 
in  London  in  1850. 

Provana,  pRo-v§,^ia,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  admiral, 
born  in  Piedmont  in  1511  ;  died  in  1592. 

Provenzale,  pRo-vdn-zi'la,  (Marcello,)  an  Italian 
painter  in  mosaic,  born  at  Cento  in  1575.  Among  his 
works  is  a  portrait  of  Paul  V.    Died  in  1639. 

Provoost,  pro'vost,  ?  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  born  in  New  York  in  1742,  was  chaplain  to  the 
Continental  Congress  and  subsequently  to  the  United 
States  Senate,  lie  was  elected  Bishop  of  New  York  in 
1786.    Died  in  1815. 

Provostaye,  de  la,  deh  It  pRo'vo^sti',  (Ferdinand 
Herv6,)  a  French  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Redon 
in  1812.    He  has  written  on  optics,  heat,  etc. 

Proyart,  pRwi'ytR',  (Abbe  Lievin  Bonaventure,) 
a  French  historian,  born  at  Arras  in  1743,  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "History  of  Stanislas,  King  of 
Poland,"  (2  vols.,  1782,)  which  is  commended.  Died 
in  1808. 

Prudence.    See  Prudentius. 

Prudent,  prii'ddN',  (Emile,)  a  French  composer  and 
pianist,  born  at  Angouleme  in  181 7.  Among  his  works 
is  "  Fantaisie  sur  Lucie,"  (1842.) 

Prudentius,  pru-d^n'she^ois,  or  Pru'dence,  Saint, 
a  learned  bishop,  born  in  Spain.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Troyes  about  846.  fle  wrote  against  Erigena  on  pre- 
destination.   Died  in  861. 

See  Le  Ci.erc,  "Vie  de  Saint-Prudeno^^"  1689;  Brever,  "Vie 
de  Saint-Prudence,"  1725. 

Pruden'tius  (pru-d§n'she-us)  [Fr.  Prudence,  pRii'- 
dSNss'J  Clem'ens,  (AureliIjs',)  a  Latin  Christian  poet, 
was  born  in  Spain  in  348  a.d.  He  practised  law,  and 
became  a  judge  of  a  civil  and  criminal  court.  He  wrote, 
in  barbarous  or  unclassical  Latin,  hymns,  and  other  re- 
ligious poems,  which  procured  for  him  a  high  reputation 
in  the  middle  ages  and  are  admired  by  some  modern 
critics.  He  visited  Rome  about  405,  and  passed  his 
latter  years  in  Spain.  Erasmus  thought  that  his  piety 
and  learning  entitled  him  to  a  place  among  the  doctors 
of  the  Church. 

See  Ludewig,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  A.  Prudentii  Clementis," 
1692;  TiLLEMONT,  "  Memoires  ecclesiastiques." 

Prudhomme,  piui'dom'',  (Louis  Marie,)  a  French 
revolutionist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1752.  He  issued  an  ultra- 
republican  journal  in  Paris  in  1789.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (6  vols.,  1796,) 
which  is  of  little  value.    Died  in  1830. 

Prudhon,  (Jean  Baptiste  Victor.)  See  Prou- 
dhon. . 

Prud'hon,  prii'diN',  (Pierre  Paul,)  a  French  histor- 
ical painter,  was  born  at  Cluny  (Saone-et-Loire)  in  1758. 
Having  studied  in  Rome,  he  settled  in  Paris  in  1789, 
and  obtained  a  high  reputation.  Among  his  works  are 
"Venus  and  Adonis,"  "The  Abduction  of  Psyche,"  and 
"Justice  and  L)ivine  Vengeance  pursuing  Crime."  The 
gracefulness  of  his  style  has  procured  for  him  the  sur- 
name of  "the  French  Correggio."    Died  in  1823. 

See  Arsene  Houssave,  "Philosophers  and  Actresses,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
VoiART,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  Prud'hon,"  1824  ;  Qua- 
TREMEKE  DK  QujNCY,  "  Notice  sur  P.  P.  Prud'hon,"  1824;  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Prunelle,  pRii'ngK,  (Clement  Francois  Victor 
Ga12RIKL,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  La  Tour  du  Pin 
(Isere)  in  1777.  He  lectured  at  Montpellier  from  1807 
to  1819,  and  published  several  medical  works.  Died 
in  1853. 

See  A.  F.  F.  Potton,  "  Le  Docteur  Prunelle,"  1855. 
Pruner,  pRoo'ner,  (Franz,)  a  German  physician  and 
ethnologist,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1808.  He  became  chief 
physician  of  Abbas  Pasha  of  Egypt  in  1847,  before 
which  he  had  visited  Syria  and  other  parts  of  the  Le- 
vant. He  afterwards  returned  to  Europe.  Among  his 
works  is  "Man  in  Space  and  Time,"  ("  Der  Mensch  im 
Rnnm  und  in  der  Zeit,"  1859.) 

Pru.sias,  pru'she-as,  [Gr.  Upovaiag,]  I.,  King  of  Bithy- 
nia,  was  a  grandsorTof  Nicomedes  I.   He  began  to  reign 
I  about  228  H.c,  and  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Gauls 
I  in  216.    He  aided  Philip  of  Macedon  in  his  first  war 


€  asifc;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as /;  g,  H,  y.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (^^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PR  US  US 


1846 


PTOLEMY 


against  the  Romans,  but  became  the  ally  of  the  latter 
about  190  B.C.  The  power  and  prosperity  of  the  king- 
dom were  increased  by  his  ability  as  a  ruler.  He 
lacked  the  virtue  or  courage  to  refuse  when  the  Romans 
demanded  the  surrender  of  Hannibal,  who  had  taken 
refuge  in  his  dominions. 

See  PoLYBius,  "History;"  Appian,  "  Syiiaca." 

Prusias  II.  of  Bithynia  was  the  son  and  successor 
of  the  preceding.  He  began  to  reign  about  180  B.C.  He 
was  neutral  in  the  war  between  the  Romans  and  Perseus, 
his  brother-in-law.  In  156-154  he  waged  war  against 
Attains  of  Pergamus.  Having  rendered  himself  odious 
by  his  cruelty,  he  was  killed  by  his  subjects  in  149  B.C. 

Prutz,  pRoots,  (Robert  Ernst,)  a  German  poet  and 
prose  writer,  born  at  Stettin  in  1816.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  literary  history  at  Halle  in  1849.  Among  his 
works  are  "Poems,"  {1841,)  "Political  and  Literary 
Essays,"  (2  vols.,  1847,)  and  "Dramatic  Works,"  (4 
vols.,  1847-49,) 

Prynne,  prin,  (William,)  an  English  Puritan  poli- 
tician and  antiquary,  was  born  near  Bath  in  1600.  He 
published  in  1632  a  scurrilous  pamphlet,  entitled  "  His- 
trio-Mastix,  or  a  Scourge  for  Stage-Players,"  for  which 
the  court  of  the  Star-Chamber  sentenced  him  to  pay  a 
large  fine,  to  be  exposed  in  a  pillory,  to  lose  his  ears, 
and  to  be  imprisoned  for  life.  He  was  released  by  a 
warrant  from  the  Speaker  of  the  Commons  in  1641,  and 
elected  to  the  Long  Parliament.  He  was  an  opponent 
of  Cromwell's,  and  was  ejected  from  the  House  of 
Commons  by  the  army  in  1648.  He  compiled  several 
volumes  of  Records.    Died  in  1669. 

See  Anthony  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxonienses ;"  Disraeli,  "Ca- 
lamities of  Authors." 

Pry'or,  (Roger  A.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Richmond,  or  in  Dinwiddie  county,  Virginia,  about  1826. 
He  was  editor  of  several  papers  issued  at  Petersburg 
and  Richmond,  and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1859. 
He  challenged  John  F.  Potter,  M.C.,  in  i860,  but  refused 
to  fight  with  the  weapons  which  the  latter  selected.  He 
fought  against  the  Union,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general,  in  the  civil  war. 

Przipcovius,  pzhip-ko've-us,  (Samuel,)  a  Polish 
Socinian  writer,  born  about  1592;  died  in  1670. 

Przybylski,  pzhip-biKskee,  (Hyacinth,)  a  Polish 
writer  and  translator,  born  at  Cracow  in  1756.  He  pro- 
duced versions  of  Homer,  Milton,  Virgil,  Horace,  etc. 
Died  in  1819. 

Psalmanazar,  sal-ma-na'zar,  (George,)  the  assumed 
name  of  a  literary  impostor,  born  about  1679,  probably 
in  the  south  of  France.  He  passed  his  youth  as  a  vaga- 
bond, pretended  to  be  a  native  of  Formosa,  and  pub- 
lished in  England  a  fictitious  account  of  that  island,(i  704.) 
About  the  age  of  thirty-two  he  renounced  his  evil  habits, 
became  religious,  and  applied  himself  diligently  to  study. 
He  obtained  considerable  success  as  an  English  author. 
He  wrote  for  a  work  entitled  "  Universal  History"  nearly 
all  of  the  ancient  history  except  that  of  Rome,  and  left 
memoirs  of  his  own  life,  (1765.)  His  proper  name  re- 
mains a  secret.    Died  in  London  in  1753  or  1763. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  *  *  *,  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Geore;e 
Psalmanazar,"  1765  ;  "  Nonvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  "Monthly 
Review"  for  November  and  December,  1764. 

Psammeiiitus,  sam-me-nl'tus,  [Gr.  ■^aiifiTjvLTog ;  Fr. 
Psamm^nite,  psS'm^'n^t^]  King  of  Egypt,  succeeded 
his  father,  Amasis,  in  526  B.C.  He  was  conquered  and 
aeposed  in  525  B.C.  by  Cambyses.  Soon  after  this  event 
he  was  accused  of  inciting  the  Egyptians  to  revolt,  and 
was  put  to  death. 

Psammetichus  or  Psametik.  See  Psammitichus, 

Psammis,  sam'mis,  [Gr,  ^a^//ff,]  King  of  Egypt,  a 
son  of  Necho,  reigned  from  601  to  595  B.C.,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Apries. 

Psammitichus,  sam-mit'e-kus,  or  Psammetichus, 
sam-met'e-kus,  [Gr.  -^afifitTixo^  or  ■^a/^firjnxog  ;  Fr.  Psam- 
mitique,  pst'me't^k' ;  Egyptian,  Psametii;,]  a  king  of 
Egypt,  and  founder  of  the  Saitic  dynasty,  began  to  reign 
about  670  B.C.  According  to  Herodotus,  he  reigned  fifty- 
four  years.  During  his  reign,  which  was  an  important 
epoch,  the  Greeks  were  first  introduced  into  Egypt. 

See  Herodotus,  "History;"  Grote,  "History  of  Greece." 

Psammitique.    See  Psa^hmitichus. 


Psellus,  seKlus,  [^eAAof,]  (Michael,)  a  Greek  scholar 
of  the  ninth  century,  was  a  native  of  Andros,  and  emi- 
nent for  learning. 

Psellus,  (Michael  Constantinus, )  a  celebrated 
Greek  writer,  born  at  Constantinople  in  1020  A.D.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  most  excellent  scholar  of  his 
time.  He  wrote  in  prose  and  verse  on  various  subjects, 
and  received  from  several  emperors  the  title  of  "  Prince 
of  Philosophers."    He  was  living  in  1105. 

Psyche,  si'ke,  [Gr.  -fvxv ;  Fr.  Psych^,  pse'ki',]  the 
name  given  by  ancient  Greek  poets  and  fabulists  to  a 
personification  of  the  human  soul.  Having  gained  the 
affections  of  the  god  of  Love,  (Amor,)  she  lived  happily 
with  him  until  her  curiosity  to  know  who  he  was  de- 
prived her  of  his  presence.  Wandering  in  search  of 
Amor,  she  entered  the  palace  of  Venus,  who  reduced 
her  to  slavery,  from  which  she  was  finally  liberated  by 
the  return  of  her  first  love.  According  to  a  beautiful, 
allegory  of  Apuleius,  Psyche  was  a  daughter  of  a  king, 
and  her  beauty  excited  the  jealousy  of  Venus,  who  per- 
secuted her.  She  was  represented  in  works  of  art  as  a 
maiden  with  the  wings  of  a  butterfly. 

See  Thorlacius,  "  Disquisitio  mythologica  de  Psyche  et  Cu- 
pidine,"  1801. 

Psychristus,  si-kris'tus,  or  Psycochristus,  sT-ko- 
kris'tus,  (Jacobus,)  an  eminent  physician  of  the  fifth 
century,  was  a  native  of  Alexandria.  He  became  phy- 
sician to  Leo  the  Great,  who  reigned  at  Constantinople 
from  457  to  474  A.D. 

Ptolemaeus.    See  Ptolemy. 

Ptolemaus  and  Ptolemaer.    See  Ptolemy. 

Ptolemee.    See  Ptolemy. 

Ptolemy,  tol'e-me,  [Gr.  TiToT^alo^ Lat.  Ptole- 
m^'us  ;  Fr.  Ptol6m6e,  pto'lk'mk' ;  Ger.  Ptolemaus, 
pto-leh-ma'us,  plural  Ptolemaer,  pto-leh-ma'er ;  It. 
ToLOMEO,  to-lo-ma'o,  plural  Tolomei,  to-lo-ma'ee,]  L, 
surnamed  Soter,  or  "  Saviour,"  the  son  of  Lagus,  was 
the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Greek  kings  of  Egypt. 
It  is  supposed  that  he  was  a  son  of  Philip  II.  of  Mace- 
don,  as  his  mother  was  a  concubine  of  that  king.  He 
had  a  high  command  in  the  army  of  Alexander,  and 
displayed  great  abilities  as  a  general  in  India,  He  was 
one  of  the  personal  attendants  of  Alexander,  who  ap- 
pears to  have  regarded  him  with  great  favour.  At  the 
distribution  of  provinces  which  followed  the  death  of  the 
king,  (323  B.C.,)  Ptolemy  obtained  the  government  of 
Egypt.  He  raised  a  large  army,  and  formed  a  secret 
alliance  with  Antipater  against  Perdiccas,  who  invaded 
Egypt  in  321  and  was  defeated.  As  the  ally  of  Cas- 
sander,  Seleucus,  and  Lysimachus,  he  waged  by  sea 
and  land  a  long  war  against  Antigonus.  This  war  began 
in  315,  and  was  ended  by  the  defeat  of  Antigonus  at 
Ipsus,  in  301  B.C.  By  his  able  administration  Ptolemy 
rendered  the  kingdom  prosperous  and  powerful.  He 
promoted  commerce,  science,  and  literature,  and  invited 
many  Greek  philosophers  and  authors  to  his  court. 
Historians  generally  represent  him  as  eminent  for  po- 
litical wisdom.  He  died  in  283  B.C.,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 

See  Geier,  "De  Ptolemjei  Lagidae  Vita  et  Scriptis;"  Arrian, 
"  Anabasis,"  books  ii.-vii.  ;  Diodorus  Siculus,  "  History,"  books 
xvii.-xx.  ;  Drumann,  "Dissertatio  de  Rebus  PtolemiEoruni,"  1821. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  II.,  commonly  called  Ptol- 
emy Philadelphus,*  [Fr.  Ptol6m^:e  Philadelphe, 
pto'la'mi'  fe'lt'dSlf,]  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Cos  in  309  B.C.  His  mother  was  Bereni/ce. 
The  partial  favour  of  his  father  secured  the  throne  for 
him  in  preference  to  the  eldest  son,  P.  Ceraunus.  He 
pursued  a  pacific  policy,  promoted  foreign  commerce, 
and  employed  his  vast  resources  in  the  patronage  of 
literature  and  science  and  the  construction  of  public 
works.  He  founded  a  great  library  at  Alexandria,  and 
a  museum  which  was  the  resort  of  eminent  philosophers. 
He  had  received  a  learned  education,  and  manifested  a 
special  interest  in  natural  history.  Among  the  celebrated 

*  I.e.  "brother-loving,"  so  called  in  irony,  because  he  had  ex- 
cluded his  brother  Ceraunus  from  tlie  throne  and  put  to  deatli  two 
other  of  his  brothers.  Some  writers,  however,  suppose  that  he 
received  the  surname  (which  may  also  mean  "loving  one's  sister") 
from  his  having  married  his  sister  Arsinoe,  to  whom  he  appears  to 
have  been  tenderly  attached,  and  to  whose  memory  he  caused  a 
temple  to  be  erected  after  her  death. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  tlr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PTOLEMT 


PTOLEMT 


men  whom  he  attracted  to  his  court  were  the  poet  The- 
ocritus, Hegesias  the  philosopher,  Euclid  the  geometer, 
and  Aratus  the  astronomer.  According  to  a  tradition 
which  is  credited  by  many,  the  Holy  Scriptures  were 
translated  into  Greek  by  his  command.  His  dominions 
included  Cyprus,  Lycia,  Caria,  Ccele-Syria,  and  parts 
of  Arabia  and  of  Libya.  During  his  reign  Egypt  was 
raised  to  a  high  degree  of  power  and  prosperity.  He 
died  in  247  B.C. 

See  Justin,  "  History,"  books  xvii.  ^nd  xviii. ;  Droysen,  "Hel- 
lenismus;"  Georg  Green,  "  Dissertatio  de  Ptolemaeo  (II.)  Phila- 
delpho,"  1676;  Drumann,  "Dissertatio  de  Rebus  Ptolemaeoruin, " 
1821. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  III.,  surnamed  Euer'getes, 
(the  "  Benefactor,")  [Fr.  Ptol^mee  EvERciTE,  pto'la'- 
mi'  i'v^R'zhit',]  was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  247  B.C.  To  avenge  the  death  of  his  sister 
Bereni'ce,  he  invaded  Syria  about  245  B.C.,  defeated 
Seleucus  Callini'cus,  took  Babylon,  and  subjected  many 
large  provinces  of  his  enemy.  His  victorious  career  was 
interrupted  by  a  sedition  in  Egypt,  to  which  he  re- 
turned about  243  B.C.  He  was  distinguished  as  a  patron 
of  literature,  and  made  large  additions  to  the  library  of 
Alexandria.  His  reign  was  eminently  prosperous.  He 
died  in  222  B.C.  According  to  Justin,  he  was  poisoned 
by  his  son,  Ptolemy  Philopator. 

See  Justin,  '*  History,"  book  xxvii. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  IV.,  surnamed  PniLep'A- 
TOR,*  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  began  to  reign  in 
222  B.C.  He  was  greatly  inferior  to  his  predecessors  in 
ability,  and  was  notorious  for  cruelty  and  sensual  vices. 
He  put  to  death  his  mother  and  his  brother  Magas.  His 
army  defeated  Antiochus  the  Great  at  Raphia,  near 
Gaza,  in  217  B.C.  He  died  in  205  B.C.,  leaving  one  son, 
Ptolemy  V. 

See  PoLYBius,  "  History,"  books  v.,  xiv.,  and  xv. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  V.,  surnamed  Epiph'anes, 
(the  "  Illustrious,")  succeeded  his  father  in  205  B.C.,  when 
he  was  only  five  years  old.  During  his  minority  Antio- 
chus the  Great  conquered  Coele-Syria,  Phoenicia,  and 
Judea,  but  was  checked  in  his  encroachments  by  the 
intervention  of  the  Romans.  At  his  coronation,  in  196 
B.C.,  a  decree  was  issued  which  has  been  preserved  in 
the  famous  inscription  of  the  Rosetta  Stone.  In  his 
reign  the  power  of  the  Egyptian  monarchy  declined 
rapidly.    He  died  (it  is  said,  hy  poison)  in  181  B.C. 

See  PoLVBius,  "History,"  books  xv.,  xvi.,  xvii.,  etc. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  VI.,  surnamed  Phtlomf/- 
TOR,  was  an  infant  when  he  succeeded  his  father,  Ptolemy 
v.,  in  181  B.C.  His  mother,  Cleopatra,  was  regent  until 
her  death,  in  173.  Antiochus  of  Syria  invaded  Egypt 
in  171  B.C.,  reduced  several  cities,  and  took  the  young 
king  prisoner.  The  title  of  king  was  then  assumed  by 
a  younger  brother,  Ptolemy  Euergetes  or  Physcon. 
Philometor  was  soon  released,  and  reigned  jointly  with 
his  brother  for  several  years.  Dissensions  having  arisen 
between  them,  about  164  B.C.  Philometor  invoked  the 
mediation  of  the  Roman  senate,  who  restored  him  to  the 
sole  sovereignty  of  Egypt.  As  an  ally  of  Demetrius  II., 
he  led  an  army  into  Syria,  took  Antioch,  and  defeated 
Alexander  Balas,  in  146  B.C.  At  this  battle  he  was  fatally 
injured  by  a  fall  from  his  horse. 

See  P01.VBIUS,     History,"  books  xxvii. -xxxiii. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  VII.,  surnamed  Euer'getes 
or  Phys'con,  obtained  the  throne  in  146  B.C.,  and  put  to 
death  Ptolemy  Eu'pator,  the  infant  heir  of  the  late  king. 
Provoked  by  his  cruelty  and  vices,  the  people  revolted, 
burnt  his  palace,  and  drove  him  out  of  Egypt  in  130  B.C. 
He  recovered  the  throne  in  127,  and  died  in  117  B.C. 

See  Justin,  "  History,"  books  xxxviii.  and  xxxix. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  VIII.,  surnamed  So'ter  II., 
and  more  frequently  called  Lath'yrus,  [Fr.  Ptol^:m6e 
Lathyrk,  pto'li'mV  WihK',]  succeeded  his  father, 
Ptolemy  VII.,  in  117  B.C.  He  reigned  jointly  with  his 
mother,  Cleopatra,  until  107,  when  she  procured  his  ex- 
pulsion in  order  to  raise  to  the  throne  her  favourite  son, 
Alexander.    Ptolemy  reigned  in  Cyprus  until  the  death 

*  I.e.  "  father-loving,"  so  styled  ironically  because  he  was  sus- 
pected (though  probably  without  sufficient  grounds)  of  having  poisoned 
his  father. 


of  his  mother,  (89  B.C.,)  and  was  then  restored  to  the 
throne  of  Egypt.  He  died  in  81  B.C.,  leaving  a  daughter, 
Berenice,  who  succeeded  him,  and  a  natural  son,  Ptolemy 
Auletes. 

The  Alexander  mentioned  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph is  styled  Ptolemy  IX.  by  some  writers. 
See  Justin,  "  History,"  book  xxxix. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  X.,  (sometimes  called  Alex- 
ander II.,)  the  son  of  Ptolemy  VIII.,  was  killed  by  the 
Alexandrians  on  account  of  his  cruelty. 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  XL,  surnamed  Aule'tes, 
(i.e.  the  "Piper,")  [Fr.  Ptol6m6e  AuLfexE,  pto'li'mi' 
o'lit',]  also  surnamed  Ne'us  Diony'sus,  was  a  son  of 
Ptolemy  VIII.  He  began  to  reign  in  80  B.C.  He  was 
one  of  the  worst  kings  of  the  race  of  Ptolemies,  and 
was  dethroned  by  his  subjects  in  58  B.C.  In  55  he  was 
restored  by  the  Roman  proconsul  Gabinius.  He  had 
two  sons  named  Ptolemy,  and  a  daughter,  the  famous 
Cleopatra.    Died  in  51  B.C. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome," 

Ptolemy  (Ptolemaeus)  XII.  of  Egypt  was  the 
eldest  son  of  the  preceding.  According  to  his  father's 
will,  he  reigned  jointly  with  Cleopatra  from  51  to  48  B.C. 
Dissensions  between  the  minister  Pothinus  and  the 
young  queen  resulted  in  her  expulsion.  Ptolemy  was 
involved  in  war  with  Caesar,  who  entered  Egypt  in  48 
B.C.,  and  he  was  drowned  in  a  retreat  from  a  fight  with 
the  Romans  about  the  end  of  that  year. 

His  brother  Ptolemy  received  from  Caesar  the  title 
of  king  in  conjunction  with  Cleopatra  ;  but  his  reign  was 
merely  nominal.  He  was  put  to  death  by  Cleopatra  in 
43  B.C. 

See  CjESar,  "  Bellum  Civile." 

Ptolemy,  (Ptolemaeus,)  a  nephew  of  Antigonus, 
King  of  Asia.  He  obtained  in  315  B.C.  command  of  one 
of  the  armies  of  Antigonus,  and  defeated  the  generals  of 
Cassander  in  Asia  Minor  and  Greece.  He  was  put  to 
death  by  Ptolemy  Soter  in  309  B.C. 

Ptolemy,  (Ptolemaeus,)  a  son  of  Pyrrhus,  King  of 
Epirus,  born  in  295  B.C.,  was  a  prince  of  great  promise. 
He  was  left  in  charge  of  Epirus  when  his  father  led  the 
expedition  against  Italy,  in  280.  He  was  slain  in  a 
combat  against  the  Spartans,  in  272  B.C. 

PtoPe-my  (Ptolemae'us)  QJe-rau'nus,  [Gr.  oKepav- 
vof,]  King  of  Macedonia,  was  a  son  of  Ptolemy  I.  of 
Egypt  by  his  wife  Eurydice.  Having  been  disinherited 
by  his  father,  he  retired  to  Thrace.  He  murdered 
Seleucus  of  Macedonia,  and  usurped  his  throne,  in  280 
B.C.  About  a  year  later  he  was  killed  in  battle  by  the 
Gauls,  who  had  invaded  Macedonia. 

PtoPe-my  (Ptolemae'us)  Clau'di-us,  [Gr.  TItoIe- 
/ualog  K?iavdio^ ;  Fr.  Ptol6m6e  Ci-AUDE,  pto'lk'mi' 
klod,]  a  celebrated  Greek  astronomer  and  geographer, 
was  a  native  of  Egypt,  and  lived  at  Alexandria.  His 
mature  life  probably  extended  from  125  to  about  160 
A.D.  Of  his  personal  history  we  know  nothing.  He 
was  the  most  celebrated,  but  not  the  greatest,  astronomer 
of  antiquity.  His  contemporaries  and  commentators 
usually  added  to  his  name  the  epithet  "  admirable"  or 
"divine."  Pie  was  also  a  great  mathematician.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  a  treatise  on  astronomy,  entitled  MsyulT} 
JiVVTa^L^  TTjq  'AoTfjovofjIag,  to  which  the  Arabian  translators 
gave  the  name  of  "Almagest,"  composed  of  the  Arabic 
article  a/  and  the  Greek  neylarr],  i.e.  "greatest."  In  this 
work  he  availed  himself  of  the  observations  and  dis- 
coveries of  Hipparchus,  to  whom  he  gives  the  credit  with 
commendable  candour.  Indeed,  it  is  chiefly  through  the 
medium  of  the  "Almagest"  that  the  merit  of  Hipparchus 
has  been  recognized  by  the  moderns.  Ptolemy  main- 
tained that  the  earth  is  a  sphere,  and  that  the  sun  and 
stars  revolve  daily  around  the  earth,  which  is  fixed  in 
the  centre  of  the  universe.  "  We  find  in  the  Almagest," 
says  Delambre,  "  a  clear  exposition  of  the  system  of  the 
world,  of  the  arrangement  of  the  celestial  bodies  and 
their  revolutions,  a  complete  treatise  of  rectilinear  and 
spherical  trigonometry,  and  all  the  phenomena  of  diur- 
nal motion  explained  and  calculated  with  remarkable 
precision.  .  .  .  Such  was  the  '  Syntaxis,'  (' Almagest,')  a 
monument  of  great  value  at  the  present  day,  since  it 
alone  contains  the  verified  ( avere)  history  of  the  science, 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Yiyguttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (2^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PTOLEMY 


1848 


PUG  IN 


and  the  whole  astronomical  knowledge  of  his  times." 
His  astronomical  theory  is  called  the  Ptolemaic  system. 
He  also  wrote  a  work  on  general  geography,  (Few- 
ypa(j)iKT/  'T(pf]y7iaig,)  which  for  many  ages  was  the  chief 
authority  on  that  subject,  and  did  not  become  obsolete 
until  the  fifteenth  century.  He  gave  special  attention 
to  the  determination  of  the  latitudes  and  longitudes 
of  places  by  mathematical  processes,  but  neglected  the 
descriptive  part  of  geography. 

See  ScHAUBACH,  "  Ueber  den  Griechischen  Astronomer)  C. 
Ptolemsus,"  1S25;  Fabkicius,  "  Ribliotheca  Grasca ;"  Heeren, 
"  Comiiientatio  de  Fontibus  Geographicorum  Ptolemjei,"  etc.,  1828; 
Dr.  Hoefer,  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Ptoiemy  Lagi,  (or  the  son  of  Lagus.)  See  Ptol- 
emy I.  SOTER. 

Pub-lic'o-la,  (L.  Gellius,)  a  Roman  general,  was 
elected  consul  in  72  B.C.,  and  was  defeated  in  battle  by 
Spartacus.  He  supported  Cicero  in  opposition  to  Cati- 
line.   Died  soon  after  55  B.C. 

Publicola,  (PuBiJU.s  Valerius,)  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Roinan  republic,  was  consul  with  Brutus  in  509 
B.C.,  and  was  author  of  laws  which  protected  the  liber- 
ties of  the  common  people,  who  gave  him  the  surname 
of  Publicola,  "  the  people's  friend."  He  was  re-elected 
consul  in  508  and  507  B.C.,  and  fought  against  Porsena, 
who  attempted  to  restore  the  Tarquins.  It  is  supposed 
that  he  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Regillus,  (496  B.C.) 

See  NiEBUHR,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  Cicero,  "  De  Republica." 

Pub-lil'i-us,  (Vol'ero,)  a  Roman,  who  effected  a 
change  in  the  constitution.  He  was  tribune  of  the 
people  in  472  B.C.,  and  procured  for  the  plebeians 
greater  freedom  in  the  election  of  tribunes. 

Pub'li-us  Sy'rus,  an  eminent  mimographer,  born  in 
Syria,  lived  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Julius  Ccesar.  Pie 
was  a  slave  in  his  youth.  At  games  exhibited  by  Caesar 
in  45  B.C.  Publius  excelled  all  competitors  as  a  composer 
of  mimes.  There  is  extant  a  collection  of  proverbs  or 
moral  sayings  ascribed  to  him. 

Pucci,  poot'chee,  [Lat.  Puc'cius,]  (Francesco,)  an 
Italian  theologian,  born  at  Florence  ;  died  in  1600. 

Puccinelli,  poot-che-neKlee,  (Placido,)  an  Italian 
biographer,  born  in  Tuscany  about  1609;  died  in  1685. 

Puccius.    See  Pucci. 

Pucelle,  pti'sSK,  (Ren^;,)  a  French  lawyer,  born  in 
Paris  in  1655,  was  a  nephew  of  Marshal  Catinat.  Died 
in  1745. 

Pucelle  d'Orleans.    See  Joan  of  Arc. 

Puchta,  pooK^ta,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Cadolzburg  in  1798.  He  published  an 
excellent  work  on  Roman  law,  "  Cursns  der  Institu- 
tionen,"  (3  vols.,  1841-47,)  and  a  "  Manual  of  the  Pan- 
dects," (5th  edition,  1854.)    Died  at  P>er!in  in  1846. 

Puchta,  (Wolfgang  Heinrich,)  a  German  jurist, 
father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  near  Erlangen  in  1769  ; 
died  in  1845. 

Piickler-Muskau,  puk'ler  moos'kow,  (Hermann 
LuDWiG  Heinrich,)  Prince  of,  a  German  writer  of 
travels,  born  at  Muskau,  in  I^tsatia,  in  1785.  He  visited 
England,  France,  Northern  Africa,  and  Asia,  and  gave 
an  account  of  those  countries  in  a  work  entitled  "  Let- 
ters of  a  Defunct,"  ("  Priefe  eines  Verstorbenen,"  1830.) 
This  was  followed  by  "Semilasso  in  Africa,"  (1836,)  and 
other  sketches  of  travel.    Died  i-n  1871.. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June.  1837;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1832,  May,  1834.  and  July,  1836. 

Puech-Dupont,  i>ush  dii'p^N',  (Leonari:),)  a  French 
naturalist  and  anatomist,  born  at  Bayeux  in  1795  ;  died 
in  1828. 

Pufendorf,  poo'fen-doRf,  written  also  Piiffendorf, 

(ESAIAS,)  a  German  writer,  born  in  1628,  was  a  brother 
of  Samuel.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  a  satirical 
work  entitled  "  Anecdotes  of  Sweden."    Died  in  1689. 

Pufendorf,  (Samuel.)    See  PuFFENnoRF. 

Puffen-dorf,  [Ger.  PuFENnoRF,  pof/fen-doRf;  Lat. 
Pufendor'fiu.s,]  (Samuel,)  Baron,  an  eminent  Ger- 
man jurist  and  publicist,  born  near  Chemnitz,  in  Saxony, 
in  1632.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Jena,  giving  his 
attention  chiefly  to  the  political  works  of  Grotius  and 
Hobbes.  He  ]niblished  in  1660  his  "Elements  of  Uni- 
versal Jurisprudence,"  (in  Latin,)  which  was  received 
with  general  favour.  Puffendorf  was  soon  after  ajipointed 
by  the  Elector-Palatine,  Charles  Louis,  professor  of  the 


law  of  nature  and  of  nations  at  Heidelberg,  that  chair 
having  been  created  expressly  for  him.  He  exposed  the 
absurdities  of  the  constitution  of  the  Germanic  empire 
in  his  work  "  De  Statu  Imperii  Germanici,"  published 
under  the  name  of  "Severini  de  Mozambano,"  (1667,) 
which  attracted  great  attention.  On  the  invitation  of 
Cliarles  XI.  of  Sweden,  he  accepted  a  similar  professor- 
ship at  Lund  in  1670.  He  brought  out  in  1672  his 
greatest  work,  entitled  "  On  the  Law  of  Nature  and  of 
Nations,"  ("  De  Jure  Naturae  et  Gentium.")  This  treat- 
ise is  regarded  as  superior  in  some  respects  to  that  of 
Grotius.  The  new  principles  which  he  advocated  were 
violently  opposed  by  some  of  his  contemporaries  ;  but 
the  work  procured  for  him  a  durable  European  reputa- 
tion. He  was  subsequently  appointed  historiographer 
to  the  King  of  Sweden,  and  made  a  baron.  Died  at 
Berlin  in  1694. 

See  Jhnisch,  "Vita  Pufendorfii,"  1802;  Daniel  Muller, 
"  Laudes  Pufendorfii,"  1723;  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  Sax,  "Ono- 
masticon." 

Pugatchef    See  Poogatchef. 

Pugatschew.    See  Poogatchef. 

Puget,  pii'zh^',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  painter  and 
architect,  was  a  son  of  Pierre,  noticed  below.  He  excelled 
in  portraits.    Died  in  1707. 

Puget,  (HiLARioN  Paul  Francois  Bienvenu,)  a 
French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1754.  He  had  a  high 
command  in  the  campaign  against  Spain  in  1793.  Died 
in  1828. 

Puget,  (Louis,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Lyons  in 
1629.  He  gained  distinction  by  researches  on  magnetism. 
Died  in  1709. 

Puget,  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French  sculptor,  archi- 
tect, and  painter,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1622,  was  a  pupil 
of  Pietro  da  Cortona,  with  whom  he  worked  at  Rome. 
He  worked  as  architect  at  Marseilles,  where  he  also 
painted  some  historical  pieces.  About  1655  he  renounced 
painting,  on  account  of  ill  health,  and  devoted  himself  to 
sculpture,  on  which  his  celebrity  is  founded.  At  Genoa, 
where  he  passed  some  years,  he  executed  an  admirable 
statue  of  Saint  Sebastian,  abas-relief  of  the  Assumption, 
and  other  works.  Having  been  invited  by  Colbert,  he 
returned  to  France  in  1669,  after  which  he  produced,  as 
sculptor,  "  Alexander  and  Diogenes,"  and  "  Milo  of  Cro- 
tona,"  which  is  regarded  as  his  master-piece.  He  has 
been  called  "  the  Michael  Angelo  of  France."  Died  at 
Marseilles  in  1694. 

S-^e  CicoGN'ARA,  "  Storia  della  Scultura  Emrric-David,  "Vie 
dp  P.  Puget,  Peintre,"  etc.,  1840:  Feraud,  "  filoge  historique  de 
P.  Puget,"  1807;  A.  Rabre,  "filoge  de  P.  Puget,"  1807;  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Pughe,  pu,  (William  Ow^en,)  a  Welsh  philologist 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Merionethshire  in  1759.  He 
])ublished  a  "  Welsh-and-English  Dictionary,"  (1793- 
1803,)  a  collection  of  old  Welsh  poetry  and  chronicles, 
entitled  "  Myvyrian  Archaiology  of  Wales,"  (1801-07,) 
and  "Cambrian  Biography,"  (1803.)    Died  in  1835. 

Pugin,  pii^zh^N',  (Augustus,)  an  eminent  architec- 
tural draftsman,  born  in  Normandy  about  1765,  emi- 
grated to  London  in  his  youth.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Speciiriens  of  Gothic  Architecture,  se- 
lected from  Various  Ancient  Edifices  of  England,"  (2 
vols.,  1821-23,)  and  "  Specimens  of  the  Architectural 
Antiquities  of  Normandy,"  (1825-28.)    Died  in  1832. 

Pu'giii,  (.Augustus  Northmore  Wei.by,)  an  able 
English  architect,  born  in  London  in  181 1,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  was  a  zealous  Roman  Catholic, 
and  an  admirer  of  the  mediaeval  Gothic  style  of  archi- 
tecture. He  designed  the  Cathedral  of  Saint  Marie  at 
Derby,  and  a  great  number  of  Rornan  Catholic  churches 
at  Liverpool,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Reading,  Newcastle, 
and  other  places.  It  appears  that  his  zeal  would  not 
i:)ermit  him  to  build  a  Protestant  church.  His  writings, 
one  of  which  is  entitled  "  The  True  Principles  of  Pointed 
or  Christian  Architecture,"  (1841,)  contributed  much  to 
the  prevalence  of  the  Gothic  style  of  churches.  He 
ruined  his  constitution  by  excessive  labour,  was  sent  to 
a  lunatic-asylum,  and  died  in  1852. 

See  P>.  Ferrey.  "Recollections  of  A.  N.  Welby  Pugin  and  Au- 
gustus Pugin:"  "  Blackwood'.s  M.igazine"  for  December,  1861. 

Pugin,  i^Edward  Welby,)  an  architect,  and  a  son  of 
the  precedmg,  was  born  in  1834.    He  designed  several 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  ion^;  k,  h,  6,  same^  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  Q,  u,  y,  sAot-t;       i,  %,oksctir£.;  fSr,  fill,  ftt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PUG  L 10 


PULTENET 


large  churches  of  Liverpool,  and  completed  some  works 
which  his  father  had  commenced. 
Puglio.    See  Puligo. 

Pugnani,  poon-yd'nee,  (Gaetano,)  an  Italian  com- 
poser, born  at  Turin  in  1728  ;  died  in  1798. 

Pugnet,  pu^^•i^  (Jean  Franqois  Xavier,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  176!;,  was  chief  phy- 
sician of  a  hospital  at  Dunldrk  from  1805  to  1821.  Died 
in  1846. 

Puibusque,  de,  deh  pii-e'biisk',  (Adolphe  Louis,) 
a  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  obtained 
a  prize  of  the  French  Academy  for  his  "Comparative 
History  of  the  Spanish  and  French  Literatures,"  (2 
vols.,  1843.) 

Puisaye,  de,  deh  pii-e'zJi',  (Joseph  Genevieve,) 
Count,  a  French  royalist  general,  born  in  1754.  He 
commanded  the  army  of  emigrants  and  Chouans  which 
was  completely  defeated  at  Quiberon  in  1794.  .  He  died 
in  England  in  "^1827. 

Puiseux,  pii-e'zuh',  (Victor  Alexandre,)  a  French 
mathematician,  born  at  Argenteuil  in  1820.  He  became 
in  1857  professor  of  astronomy  at  the  Faculty  of  Sciences 
in  Paris.   He  has  written  several  memoirs  on  astronomy. 

Puisieux,  de,  deh  pu-e'ze-uh',  (Madeleine  d'Ar- 
SANT,)  a  French  authoress,  born  in  Paris  in  1720,  wrote 
"  Les  Caracteres,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1798. 

Puisieux,  de,  (Pierre  Brulart,)  Vicomte,  Marquis 
de  Siilery,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1583. 
He  was  employed  in  important  missions  in  the  reign 
of  Louis  XHI.,  with  whom  he  had  much  influence. 
Died  in  1640. 

Puissant,  pii-e's5N',  (Louis,)  a  French  mathemati- 
cian, born  near  Chatelet  (Seine-et-Marne)  in  1769.  He 
devoted  himself  chiefly  to  geodesy,  in  which  he  acquired 
eminence,  and  succeeded  La  Place  in  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1828.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on 
Geodesy,"  (1805.)    Died  in  1843. 

Pujati,  poo-yi'tee,  (Giuseppe  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  in  Friuli  in  1701.  He  became  professor 
at  Padua  in  1754.    Died  in  1760. 

Pujol,  pii'zhoK,  (Alexandre  Denis  Abel,)  called 
AiiEL  DE  Pujol,  a  French  historical  painter,  born  at 
Valenciennes  in  1785,  was  a  pupil  of  David.  He  gained 
the  first  prize  in  i8ii,  and  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension. 
Among  his  best  works  are  "Saint  Stephen  preaching 
the  Gospel,"  "Caesar  on  the  Ides  of  March,"  and  a  large 
picture  of  the  "  Renaissance  of  the  Arts,"  painted  on  a 
ceiling  in  the  Louvre.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Academy  in  1835.    Died  in  1861. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographle  Generale." 

Pujol,  (Alexis,)  a  French  medical  writer,  born  near 
Beziers  in  1739.  His  best  work  is  an  "  Essay  on  Chronic 
Inflammations  of  the  Viscera,"  (1791.)    Died  in  1804. 

Pujoulx,  pii'zhoo',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  mediocre 
French  litterateur,  born  in  Gironde  in  1762  ;  died  in  1821. 

Pulaski,  pu-las'ke,  [Polish  pron.  poo-lSs'kee,]  (Count 
Casimir,)  a  celebrated  Polish  officer,  was  born  in  1747. 
He  was  a  son  of  the  patriotic  Count  Pulaski  who 
formed  the  Confederation  of  Barr  in  1768.  Casimir 
took  arms  in  that  year  against  the  Russian  invaders, 
commanded  in  many  battles  and  sieges,  and  performed 
many  daring  exploits.  "  Never  was  there  a  warrior," 
says  Rulhiere,  "  who  possessed  greater  dexterity  in  every 
kind  of  service,"  He  went  into  exile  in  1772,  and  en- 
tered the  service  of  the  United  States  in  1777.  Four 
days  after  the  battle  of  Brandywine  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  cavalry,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general.  He  resigned  this  command  in  March,  1778,  and 
raised  a  body  called  Pulaski's  Legion,  which  was  ordered 
to  South  Carolina  in  February,  1779.  He  was  killed  in 
the  autumn  of  that  year,  at  the  siege  of  Savannah. 

See  Sparks,  "American  Biography,"  vol.  iv.  of  second  series. 

Pul-che'rf-a,  [Gr.  TlovlxEpia ;  Fr.  Pulch^;rie,  piil'- 
shi're',]  Empress  of  the  East,  born  in  399  A.D.,  was  a 
daughter  of  Arcadius.  She  governed  the  empire  in  the 
name  of  her  brother  Theodosius  from  414  until  his 
death,  in  450  A.D.,  and  in  her  own  name  from  that  event 
until  her  death,  in  453  a.d.  She  was  canonized  as  a 
saint  by  the  Greek  Church. 

See  OiisBON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  Con- 
Tucci,  "Vita  deirimperatrice  Pulcheria,"  1754. 


Pulci,  pooKchee,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Florence  about  1425,  was  a  brother  of  Luigi,  noticed 
below.  He  translated  Virgil's  "  Bucolics,"  (1481,)  and 
wrote  several  elegies.    He  was  living  in  1494. 

Pulci,  (LuCA,)  an  Italian  poet,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  wrote  "II  Ciriffo  Calvaneo,"  and  other 
poems. 

Pulci,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  poet,  was  born  at  Florence 
in  143 1.  He  lived  on  familiar  terms  with  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  to  whom  his  wit  rendered  him  an  agreeable  com- 
panion. His  principal  work  is  "Morgante  Maggiore," 
(1481,)  a  romantic  poem,  in  which  the  serious  and  ludi- 
crous are  blended,  and  which  contains  some  beautiful 
passages.  It  is  sometimes  styled  a  heroico-comic  poem. 
He  employed  the  idioms  and  niceties  of  the  Tuscan 
language  with  much  skill.  His  style  was  commended 
as  a  model  by  Machiavel.    Died  about  1487. 

See  TiRABoscHi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Long- 
fellow, "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Ginguene,  "  Histoire 
Litteraire  d'ltalie  ;"  "  Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by  Rev.  Henry 
Stebbing  ;  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1824,  article 
"Italian  Narrative  Poetry,"  (by  Prescott.) 

Pulgar,  del,  d§l  pool-giR',  (Hernando,)  a  Spanish 
historian  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Pulgar,  near 
Toledo,  about  1436.  He  was  appointed  in  1482  histo- 
riographer of  Castile  by  Queen  Isabella,  whom  he  served 
as  secretary  and  attended  in  various  journeys  and  cam- 
paigns. He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,"  (1565,)  which,  however,  does  not  extend 
quite  to  the  capture  of  Granada,  Among  his  works  is 
a  collection  of  biographies,  entitled  "Claros  Varones  de 
Espana,"  ("Illustrious  Men  of  Spain,"  1524.)  He  died 
about  1490. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Prescott, 
"  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  part  i.  ;  N.  Antonio, 
"  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Puligo,  poo-lee'go,  or  Puglio,  pooKyo,  (Domenico,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1475 ;  died  in 
1527. 

Pul'lus  or  Pul'len,  (Robert,)  an  English  cardinal, 
noted  as  a  promoter  of  learning.    Died  about  11 50. 

Pulmann,  pooKmin,  [written  in  Dutch  Poelmann,] 
(Theodor,)  a  German  philologist,  born  in  the  duchy 
of  Cleves  about  1510;  died  about  1580. 

Pulszky,  pooKske,  (Francis  Aurelius,)  a  Hunga- 
rian writer  and  patriot,  born  at  Eperies  in  1814.  Having 
made  the  tour  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  he  published 
in  1837  "Extracts  from  the  Journal  of  a  Hungarian  trav- 
elling in  Great  Britain,"  (in  German.)  He  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  revolution  of  1848,  and  was  appointed 
under-secretary  of  state  for  Hungary.  After  the  defeat 
of  the  Hungarians  he  accompanied  Kossuth  as  an  inti- 
mate friend  to  America,  and  published  in  185 1  an  account 
of  the  journey,  entitled  "  Red,  White,  and  Black,"  (in 
English,)  in  which  his  wife  had  a  part.  She  was  also  a 
contributor  to  his  "Tales  and  Traditions  of  Hungary," 
(3  vols.,  1851.) 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1851. 

Pulszky,  (Theresa,)  an  authoress,  the  wife  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Vienna  in  181 5.  She  was  mar- 
ried about  1845.  published  "Memoirs  of  a  Hunga- 
rian Lady,"  (in  English,  2  vols.,  185 1.) 

Pulteney,  pult'ne,  (Richard,)  an  English  botanist 
and  physician,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1730.  He  wrote 
a  "General  View  of  the  Writings  of  Linnseus,"  (1782,) 
and  "  Sketches  of  the  Progress  of  Botany  in  England," 
(2  vols.,  1790.)    Died  in  1801. 

Pulteney,  (William,)  Earl  of  Bath,  an  English 
statesman  and  orator,  born  in  1682,  descended  from"  an 
old  family  of  Leicestershire.  He  began  his  public  fife 
as  a  Whig,  entered  Parliament  about  1705,  was  appointed 
secretary  at  war  on  the  accession  of  George  I.,  in  1715, 
and  became  a  brilliant  debater  in  Parliament.  He  ceased 
to  act  with  the  ministry  in  1725,  after  which  he  was  a 
determined  opponent  of  Walpole.  As  the  leader  of 
the  opposition,  or  the  "  patriots,"  he  enjoyed  great 
popularity  for  a  number  of  years.  He  contributed  to 
"The  Craftsman,"  edited  by  Lord  Bolingbroke.  "He 
became,"  says  Lord  Macaulay,  "  the  greatest  leader  of 
opposition  that  the  House  of  Commons  had  ever  seen." 
(Review  of  Thackeray's  "Life  of  Chatham.")  When 
Walpole  was  removed  from  power,  in  1742,  Pulteney 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as //  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


PULTOCK 


1850 


PUTNAM 


might  have  been  his  successor.  The  formation  of  a  new 
ministry  was  intrusted  to  him,  but,  ft  om  timidity  or  some 
other  reason,  he  declined  the  office  of  prime  minister, 
and  recommended  the  incompetent  Lord  Wilmington. 
At  the  same  time  he  sacrificed  his  own  popularity  by 
accepting  the  title  of  Earl  of  Bath.  The  composition 
of  the  new  cabinet  was  unsatisfactory  to  his  party  and 
to  the  public.  His  rival,  Walpole,  meeting  him  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  said,  "  Here  we  are,  my  lord,  the  two 
most  insignificant  fellows  in  England."  "  He  was,"  says 
the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1840,  "one  of  the 
most  accomplished  debaters,  perhaps  one  of  the  finest 
speakers,  that  ever  appeared  in  our  senate.  .  .  .  His 
style  was  correct  and  classical  beyond  that  of  all  other 
men,  and  his  unpremeditated  compositions  were  as 
correct  and  elegant  as  his  most  prepared."  He  died  in 
1764,  and  left  no  issue. 

See  Chalmers,  "Biographical  Dictionary;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Geuerale." 

PuFtock,  (Robert,)  an  English  author  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  Very  little  is  known  of  his  life.  He 
published  in  1750  "The  Life  and  Adventures  of  Peter 
"Wilkins,"  a  romance,  which  was  praised  by  Southey. 

Pulzone,  pool-zo'ni,  (Scipione,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Gaeta  in  1550;  died  about  1590. 

Pu-pi-e'nus  Max'i-mus,  (Clodius,)  a  Roman 
officer,  who  was  elected  (238  A.D.)  emperor  with  Balbinus. 
He  was  killed  in  239  by  his  mutinous  soldiers. 

Purina,  pdo-rd'na,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "  an- 
cient," and  applied  to  certain  sacred  books  of  the  Hin- 
doos, treating  of  the  creation,  destruction,  and  renovation 
of  worlds,  and  of  the  history  of  gods  and  heroes.  There 
are  eighteen  recognized  as  eminently  sacred.  The  pu- 
ranas  are  very  voluminous,  comprising,  according  to 
Professor  Wilson,  four  hundred  thousand  stanzas. 

See  Wilson's  Preface  to  his  translation  of  the  Vishnu  Purana. 

Purbacli,  pooR'biK,or  Peurbach,poiR'baK,(GEORG,) 
an  eminent  German  astronomer,  born  at  Peurbach,  in 
Austria,  in  1423.  He  studied  at  Vienna  and  subsequently 
in  Italy,  and,  after  his  return,  succeeded  Gmunden  as 
professor  of  astronomy  at  Vienna.  He  wrote  an  ex- 
planation of  the  first  six  books  of  the  "Almagest"  of 
Ptolemy,  and  a  work  entitled  "  New  Theories  of  the 
Planets,"  ("Theoriae  novae  Planetarum,")  which  had  a 
high  reputation  in  his  time.  The  celebrated  MUller 
(Regiomontanus)  was  his  pupil.    Died  in  1461. 

Piir'cell,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  English  musician  and 
composer,  born,  probably  in  Westminster,  in  1658,  was 
a  pupil  of  Captain  Cook.  He  became  organist  of  West- 
minster Abbey  in  1676,  and  one  of  the  organists  of  the 
chapel  royal  in  1682.  His  first  compositions  were  an- 
thems, which  were  greatly  admired.  He  displayed 
greater  genius  in  dramatic  music  and  other  secular 
music.  In  1690  he  produced  the  music  of  Lee's  "The- 
odosius ;  or,  The  Force  of  Love,"  and  that  of  the 
"Tempest"  as  altered  by  Dryden.  He  composed  many 
songs,  cantatas,  sonatas,  duets,  glees,  etc.  Among  his 
popular  works  are  the  song  "Genius  of  England," 
"Britons,  strike  Home,"  (in  "  Bonduca,")  the  cantata 
of  "  Mad  Bess,"  and  several  songs  in  Dryden's  "  King 
Arthur."  He  is  considered  by  some  critics  the  most 
excellent  composer  that  England  has  produced.  Died 
in  November,  1695. 

See  BuRNEY,  "  History  of  Music;"  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Univer- 
selle  des  Musiciens." 

Purcell,  (Thomas,)  an  English  musician  and  com- 
poser, was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  He  became  a 
gentleman  of  the  chapel  royal  in  1660.    Died  in  1682. 

Pur'chas,  (Samuel,)  an  English  compiler  of  travels, 
was  born  at  Thaxted,  in  Essex,  in  1577.  He  became 
rector  of  Saint  Martin's,  Ludgate,  in  London,  and  chap- 
lain to  Archbishop  Abbott.  He  published  "  Purchas 
his  Pilgrimage  ;  or.  Relations  of  the  World  and  the  Re- 
ligions observed  in  all  Ages  and  Places,"  etc.,  (1613,) 
and  "Purchas  his  Pilgrimes,"  (1625,)  which  are  collec- 
tions of  great  research  and  some  value.    Died  in  1628. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 
''Purl,  poo'ree  or  pu're',  (David,)  a  Swiss  philanthro- 
pist, born  at  Neufchatel  in  1709.    He  founded  a  hospital 
at  his  native  town,  to  which  he  bequeathed  about  five 
million  francs  for  charitable  objects.    Died  in  1786. 


Puricelli,  poo-re-cheKlee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Milan  about  1657;  died  in  1738. 

Puricelli,  (Giovanni  Pietro,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
priest,  born  in  the  Milanese  in  1589.  He  published 
"  Ambrosianae  Mediolanae  Basilicae  Monumenta,"  (1645.) 
Died  in  1659. 

Pursh,  (Frederick,)  a  distinguished  botanist,  born  at 
Tobolsk,  in  Siberia,  in  1774.  He  resided  in  the  United 
States  from  1799  to  1811,  and  in  the  latter  year  went  to 
England.  He  published  a  valuable  work  on  the  plants 
of  North  America,  entitled  "Flora  Americae  Septentrio- 
nalis,"  (London,  1814.)    Died  at  Montreal  in  1820. 

Pur'ver,  (Anthony,)  an  English  linguist,  born  in 
Hampshire  about  1702,  was  a  minister  of  the  Society 
of  Friends.  He  studied  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  pro- 
duced a  new  version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
which  he  published  (1764)  by  the  aid  of  Dr.  Fothergill. 
Died  in  1777.  Purver's  translation  of  the  Bible  has 
been  pronounced  superior  to  all  others  for  "closeness  to 
the  original."  (For  an  interesting  account  of  Purver's 
life,  see  "  Social  Hours  with  Friends,"  New  York,  1867, 
PP-  75-77.) 

See  "  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  i.,  1839. 
Puschkin.    See  Pooshkin. 

Pu'sey,  (Edward  Bouverie,)  D.D.,  the  founder  of 
Puseyism,  was  born  in  1800.  His  father,  Philip  Bou- 
verie, was  a  brother  of  the  Earl  of  Radnor,  and  assumed 
the  name  of  PusEY.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1822, 
became  Fellow  of  Oriel  College,  canon  of  Christ  Church, 
and  Regius  professor  of  Hebrew  in  1828.  In  conjunction 
with  John  Henry  Newman,  he  wrote  "Tracts  for  the 
Times,"  (1833,)  which  produced  great  excitement.  He 
was  suspended  from  his  pastoral  functions  on  account 
of  a  sermon  on  the  eucharist,  which  he  preached  in  1843. 
He  favours  auricular  confession  and  several  doctrines 
and  practices  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

See  R.  H.  Horne,  "New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1844. 

Pusey,  (Philip,)  an  agriculturist,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1799.  He  inherited  an  estate 
in  Berkshire,  which  county  he  represented  in  Parliament 
from  1834  to  1852.  His  political  principles  were  con- 
servative. He  wrote  several  essays  on  agriculture,  and 
edited  the  "Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society." 
Died  in  1855. 

Pushkin.    See  Pooshkin. 

Puteaiius.    See  Dupuy. 

Puteanus,  pu-ta-§.'nus,  (Erycius,)  originally  Hen- 
DRiK  van  der  Putten,  (vtn  der  piit'ten,)  a  Flemish 
antiquary  and  historian,  born  at  Venloo  in  1574.  He 
became  in  1606  professor  of  ancient  literature  at  Lou- 
vain.    Died  in  1646. 

Puthod,  pu'tod^  (Jacques  Pierre  Marie  Louis 
Joseph,)  a  French  general,  born  in  Bresse  in  1769;  died 
in  1837. 

Putlitz,  poot'lits,  (Gustav  Heinrich  Gans,)  a  Ger- 
man nobleman  and  litterate7ir,  born  in  1821,  has  published 
several  dramas,  and  a  collection  of  charming  tales,  en- 
titled "  What  the  Forest  tells  Itself,"  ("  Was  sich  der 
Wald  erzahlt.") 

Piit'nam,  (Israel,)  a  celebrated  American  general 
of  the  Revolution,  born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in 
1 718.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  French  war  by 
his  reckless  courage  and  adventurous  spirit,  and,  being 
captured  by  the  Indians  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ticon- 
deroga  in  1758.,  was  only  saved  from  being  burned  alive 
by  the  interposition  of  a  French  officer.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Revolutionary  war,  he  embraced  with  ardour 
the  cause  of  the  patriots,  and  was  conspicuous  for  his 
skill  and  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  He 
was  made  a  major-general  in  1775.  In  May,  1777,  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  army  of  the  Highlands 
in  New  York.  He  superintended  the  construction  of 
the  fortifications  at  West  Point.  Died  in  1790.  Among 
his  exploits  was  a  fight  with  a  wolf,  which  he  followed 
into  a  dark  cavern  with  a  torch  and  killed  with  a  gun. 
The  aperture  of  the  cavern  being  very  small,  he  crept 
in  head-foremost,  and  had  a  rope  fastened  to  his  legs,  by 
which  his  companions  drew  him  out.  This  occurred  at 
Pomfret,  Connecticut,  where  he  resided.  According  to 
President  Dwight,  he  was  a  "man  whose  generosity  was 
singular,  whose  honesty  was  proverbial,  who  raised  him- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,    j,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fSll,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


PUTNAM 


PTM 


self  to  universal  esteem  and  offices  of  eminent  distinction 
by  personal  worth  and  a  useful  life." 

See  "  Essay  on  the  Life  of  General  Putnam,"  byD.  Humphreys; 
O.  W.  Peabody,  "Life  of  Israel  Putnam,"  in  Sparks's  "American 
Biography,"  vol.  vii. ;  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished 
Americans,"  vol.  i. 

Putnam,  (Rufus,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revo- 
lution, born  at  Sutton,  Massachusetts,  in  1738,  was  one 
of  the  first  settlers  of  the  State  of  Ohio.  In  1788,  in 
company  with  a  considerable  number  of  colonists  from 
New  England,  he  founded  the  city  of  Marietta.  He 
was  appointed  in  1796  surveyor-general  of  United  States 
lands.    Died  in  1824. 

Putnam,  (William  Lowell,)  an  American  officer, 
born  in  Boston  in  1840,  was  a  nephew  of  the  poet  James 
R.  Lowell.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College,  and  gave 
promise  of  extraordinary  genius.  Having  enlisted  as 
a  lieutenant,  he  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Ball's  Bluff, 
October,  1861. 

Putschius,  piit'sKe-us,  (Elias,)  a  Flemish  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Antwerp  about  1580.  He  published  a 
valuable  work  on  the  ancient  grammarians,  entitled 
"Grammaticae  Latinae  Auctores  antiqui,"  (1605.)  Died 
at  Stade  in  1606. 

Putte,  van,  (Henry.)    See  Dupuy,  (Henry.) 

Puttenham,  piit'ten-am,  (George,)  an  English  poet, 
born  about  1533.  He  wrote  "  Partheniades,"  and  "  The 
Art  of  Poesie,"  (1589.)    Died  about  1600. 

Putter  or  Puetter,  ptit'ter,  (Johanxn  Stephan,)  a 
celebrated  German  publicist,  born  at  Iserlohn,in  West- 
phalia, in  1725.  He  became  in  1757  professor  of  public 
law  at  Gottingen,  where  he  lectured  more  than  forty 
years.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "Institutes 
of  German  Public  Law,"  ("  Institutiones  Juris  publici 
Germanici,"  1770,)  and  a '*  Historical  Development  of 
the  Constitution  of  the  German  Empire,"  (3  vols.,  1786.) 
Died  at  Gottingen  in  1807. 

See  "Putters  Selbstbiographie,"  1798. 

Puvis,  pii\'^ss',  (Marc  Antoine,)  a  French  agricul- 
turist, born  at  Cuiseaux  (Saone-et-Loire)  in  1776.  He 
rendered  important  services  by  his  experiments  and 
writings  on  agriculture.    Died  in  1851. 

Puy,  du.    See  Dupuy. 

Puymaurin,  de,  deh  pii-e'mo'r^N',  (Nicolas  Joseph 
DE  Marcassus,)  a  French  administrator  and  painter, 
born  at  Toulouse  in  1718  ;  died  in  1791.  His  son,  Jean 
Pierre  Casimir,  (i 757-1841,)  was  a  useful  member  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  wrote  some  scientific 
treatises. 

Puysegur,  de,  deh  pii-e^zi'giiR',  (Antoine  Hya- 
CINTHE  Anne,)  a  French  naval  officer,  born  in  1752; 
died  in  1809. 

Puysegur,  de,(  Armand  Marie  Jacques  de  Chaste- 
net — deh  shit'ni',)  Marquis,  a  P>ench  general,  born 
in  1 75 1.  He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  animal  magnet- 
ism, on  w^hich  he  wrote  several  works.    Died  in  1825. 

Puysegur,  de,  (Jacques  Franqois  de  Chastenet,) 
Marquis,  an  able  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in 
1656.  He  was  sent  to  Spain  in  1703,  with  the  title  of 
director-general  of  the  troops,  and  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  1704.  In  1734  he  received 
a  marshal's  baton.  Died  in  1743.  He  left  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Art  of  War."  His  father,  Jacques,  born  in  1602, 
was  a  general  of  some  distinction.    Died  in  1682. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais." 

Puzos,  pii'zo',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  physician,  born 
in  Paris  in  1686,  excelled  in  obstetrics.    Died  in  1753. 

Pyat,  pe't',  (F6lix,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Vierzon  (Cher)  in  1810.  He  has  composed  several 
dramas  and  contributed  to  various  journals.  He  is  a 
radical  in  politics.  He  joined  Ledru-Rollin  in  a  se- 
ditious plot  in  June,  1849,  after  which  he  became  an 
exile.    He  was  one  of  the  Communist  leaders  in  1871. 

Pye,  pi,  (Henry  James,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
London  in  1745.  He  translated  Aristotle's  "Poetics," 
and  wrote  many  poems,  among  which  are  "The  Progress 
of  Refinement,"  (1783,)  and  "Alfred,"  an  epic  poem, 
(1802.)  He  became  poet-laureate  in  1790,  and  was  a 
member  of  Parliament.    Died  in  1813. 

Pye,  (John,)  an  English  engraver  of  landscapes,  was 
born  at  Birmingham  in  1782.   He  engraved  with  success 


some  pictures  of  Turner,  among  which  are  "  Pope's 
Villa"  and  The  Temple  of  Jupiter."  He  published  a 
work  entitled  "  Patronage  of  British  Art,"  (1845.) 

Pyg-maTi-on,  [IIu/jaaAiwv,]  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
king  of  Cyprus,  who  is  said  to  have  fallen  in  love  with 
an  ivory  image  of  a  young  woman  which  he  had  formed, 
and  which  Venus  at  his  request  endowed  with  life. 

Pygmalion,  King  of  Tyre,  and  a  son  of  Bel  us,  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  about  800  K.c,  and  to  have  been 
the  brother  of  Dido,  who  founded  Carthage. 

See  Virgil's  "^neid,"  book  i. 

Pygmees  or  Pygmsei.    See  Pygmies. 

Pyg'mies,  [Gr.  YivymioL ;  Lat.  Pygm^i,  pig-mee'i; 
Fr.  Pygm^;es,  p^g'mi',]  a  fabulous  nation  of  dwarfs, 
whom  the  ancients  supposed  to  live  near  the  sources  of 
the  Nile,  or  in  India.  According  to  Homer,  they  waged 
against  the  cranes  a  warfare  which  was  annually  re- 
newed. Some  writers  relate  that  an  army  of  pygmies 
once  assailed  Hercules  when  he  was  asleep. 

Pylade.    See  Pylades. 

PyFa-des,  [Gr.  Ti.v7Mi]q  ;  Fr.  Pylade,  pe'ltd',]  a  son 
of  Strophius,  King  of  Phocis,  was  a  cousin  and  intimate 
friend  of  Orestes,  whose  sister  Electra  he  married.  The 
friendship  of  Pylades  and  Orestes  was  proverbial.  (See 
Orestes.) 

Pyle,  pil,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
Norfolk  in  1674.  He  was  prebendary  of  Salisbury,  and 
vicar  of  Saint  Margaret,  at  Lynn.  He  wrote  paraphrases 
on  the  Acts,  Epistles,  and  some  other  books  of  the  Bible, 
Died  in  1756. 

Pym,  (John,)  an  eminent  British  statesman  and 
orator,  born  at  Brymore,  in  Somersetshire,  in  1584.  He 
entered  Broadgate  Hall,  now  Pembroke  College,  Oxford, 
in  1599,  and  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1614,  after  he 
had  acquired  financial  skill  by  a  service  of  some  years 
in  the  Exchequer.  He  became  a  leader  of  the  country 
party,  and  so  strenuously  opposed  the  measures  of  the 
court  that  King  James  1.  stigmatized  him  as  "a  very  ill- 
tempered  spirit."  He  represented  Tavistock  in  all  the 
Parliaments  held  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  In  1626  he 
was  one  of  the  managers  of  an  impeachment  against  the 
Duke  of  Buckingham,  and  made  a  speech  for  which  he 
was  imprisoned  by  the  court.  He  was  released  on  his 
election  to  the  third  Parliament.  He  was  once  a  friend 
of  Wentworth,  who,  having  resolved  to  desert  the  pop- 
ular cause,  obtained  a  private  interview  with  Pym  and 
began  to  sound  him  in  a  set  speech.  Pym,  understand- 
ing his  drift,  stopped  him  short  with  these  words  :  "  You 
need  not  use  all  this  art  to  tell  me  that  you  have  a  mind 
to  leave  us  ;  but,  remember  what  I  tell  you,  I  will  never 
leave  you  while  your  head  is  on  your  shoulders !"  In 
the  Parliament  which  met  in  April,  1640,  Pym  made  a 
long  and  celebrated  speech  on  grievances.  "A  more 
massive  document,"  says  Forster,  "was  never  given  to 
history."  Pym  and  Hampden  were  the  most  eminent 
leaders  of  the  popular  party  when  the  Long  Parliament 
met,  in  November,  1640.  He  attacked  Wentworth  (now 
Earl  of  Strafford)  in  a  powerful  speech,  which  had  such 
an  effect  that  he  was  unanimously,  and  without  delay, 
impeached  of  high  treason.  "The  result,"  says  Forster, 
"  proved  this  to  have  been,  what  Pym  anticipated,  the 
master-stroke  of  the  time.  It  struck  instant  terror  into 
every  quarter  of  the  court,  and  left  the  king,  for  a  time, 
powerless  and  alone."  At  the  trial  of  Strafford  he  ap- 
peared as  accuser.  His  influence  is  thus  estimated  by 
Clarendon:  "I  think  Mr.  Pym  was  at  this  time  [1641] 
the  most  popular  man,  and  the  most  able  to  do  hurt, 
that  hath  lived  in  any  time."  On  the  22d  of  November, 
1641,  he  presented  to  the  House  the  Grand  Remon- 
strance, a  final  appeal  to  the  people.  In  January,  1642, 
the  king  attempted  to  arrest  Pym  and  four  other  mem- 
bers of  the  House;  but  they  escaped.  (See  Charles 
I.,  and  Hampden.)  Pym  had  received,  through  Lady 
Carlisle,  timely  notice  of  this  attempt.  At  a  conference 
of  the  two  Houses  on  the  subject  of  grievances,  in  the 
same  month,  Pym  made  a  celebrated  speech.  He  was 
nicknamed  "King  Pym"  by  the  royalists.  He  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant-general  of  the  ordnance  of  the  king- 
dom in  November,  1643.  He  d'ed  in  December  of  that 
year,  leaving  several  children.  Pym  was  a  consummate 
master  of  parliamentary  science  and  political  tactics.  He 


€  as     9  as  j;  g  kard;  g  as/;  o,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


I 


PTM 


1852 


PTRRHUS 


was  net  extreme  in  his  opinions,  and  did  not  partake 
of  the  Puritanic  formality  and  rigorism  which  prevailed 
among  the  members  of  his  party.  "There  is  nothing 
more  remarkable  in  the  speeches  of  Pym,"  says  Forster, 
"than  what  maybe  emphatically  termed  their  wisdom. 
.  .  .  The  wisdom  I  have  spoken  of  was,  as  it  always 
is  with  the  greatest  men,  a  junction  of  the  plain  and 
practical  with  the  profound  and  contemplative ;  to  such 
an  extent,  however,  in  his  case,  and  in  such  perfection, 
as  may  not  be  equalled  in  that  of  any  other  speaker  of 
ancient  or  modern  times,  with  the  single  exception 
of  Burke." 

See  Forster,  "Lives  of  Eminent  British  Statesmen  ;"  Claren- 
don, "History  of  the  Rebellion;"  Hume,  "History  of  England." 

Pym,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Edinburgh  or  in  Warwickshire  about  1775.  He  served 
as  surgeon  in  the  army,  and  was  appointed  inspector- 
general  of  the  army  hospitals  about  1816.  He  wrote 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Yellow  Fever,"  (1815.)  Died  in 
1861. 

Pynacker.    See  Pynaker. 

Pynaker  or  Pynacker,  pi'ni'ker,  (Adam,)  a  skilful 
Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Pynaker,  between  Delft 
and  Schiedam,  in  162 1.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  re- 
turned to  Holland.  "  In  his  small  compositions,"  says 
the  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  "  he  shows  himself  a  skil- 
ful artist.  We  distinguish  the  form  and  aspect  of  the 
different  species  of  trees  ;  his  colour  is  always  beautiful 
and  true  ;  his  distances  and  skies  are  vapory,"  etc. 
Died  about  1676. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Hollandais." 

Pyn'chon,  (William,)  an  Anglo-American  writer 
on  theology,  born  about  1 59 1.  He  emigrated  from 
England  in  1630,  and  was  one  of  the  first  settlers  of 
Springfield,  Massachusetts.  Died  in  Buckinghamshire 
in  1662. 

Pyne,  pin,  (James  B.,)  an  able  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Bristol  in  1800.  He  became  a  resident 
of  London  about  183.5,  '^"^  visited  Italy  and  Switzerland 
in  1846.  In  1853  he  published  some  beautiful  landscai:)es 
in  a  volume  entitled  "The  English  Lake  District."  His 
style  is  vigorous  and  brilliant,  but  not  free  from  manner- 
ism. He  was  vice-president  of  the  Society  of  British 
Artists  for  many  years.    Died  in  1870. 

Pyne,  (William  Henry,)  an  English  painter  and 
writer,  born  in  London  in  1770.  He  painted  portraits 
and  landscapes  with  some  success,  but  gained  more 
distinction  by  his  publications,  viz.,  "The  Microcosm, 
or  a  Picturesque  Delineation  of  the  Arts,  Manufactures, 
etc.  of  Great  Britain,"  (1803,)  a  "History  of  the  Royal 
Residences,"  (3  vols.,  1819,)  and  "  Wine  and  Walnuts," 
(1823.)    Died  in  1843. 

See  "Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  vii. 

Pyn'son,  (Richard,)  an  early  printer,  who  was  born 
in  Normandy,  and  lived  in  England  about  1500.  He  was 
king's  printer  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 

Pyot,  pe'o',  (Jean  Jacques  Richard,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  at  Isomes  (Haute-Marne)  in  1792;  died  in 
1841. 

Pypers,  pi'pers,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at 
Amersfoort  in  1749.  He  wrote  several  short  poems, 
and  produced  many  dramas,  some  of  which  were  trans- 
lated or  imitated  from  the  French.    Died  in  1805. 

See  Van  der  Aa,  "  Biographisch  Woordenboek." 

Pyra,  pee'ri,  (Jacob  Emanuel,)  a  German  poet,  born 
in  Lusatia  in  1715.  He  wrote  "The  Temple  of  True 
Poetry,"  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1744. 

Pyr'a-mus,  |  Fr.  Pyrame,  pe'rtm'.]    See  Thisbe. 

Pyrard,  pe'rtR',  (Franqois,)  a  French  voyager,  born 
at  Laval  about  1570.  He  published  a  "Narrative  of  a 
Voyage  to  the  East  Indies,"  (1611,)  which  is  highly 
commended.    Died  in  1621. 

Py-re'i-cus,  a  Greek  painter  of  unknown  period,  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  after  Alexander  the  Great.  He 
painted  low  subjects  with  success. 

Pyr-got'e-les,  [YlvpyoTElriq,]  an  excellent  Greek  en- 
graver of  gems,  lived  about  330  B.C.  An  edict  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  designated  him  as  the  only  artist  who 
was  permitted  to  engrave  the  royal  seal-rings  or  gems. 
The  extant  works  ascribed  to  him  are  probably  forgeries. 


Pyrker,  pd^R'ker,  (Johann  Ladislaw,)  a  German 
poet,  born  at  Langh,  in  Hungary,  in  1772.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Erlau  in  1821.  Among  his  poems  is  one 
entitled  "  Pearls  of  the  Good  Old  Time,"  ("  Perlen  der 
heiligen  Vorzeit,"  1823.)    Died  in  1847. 

Py-rom'a-ehus,  [  Yivpoiiaxog,  ]  sometimes  written 
Phyromachus  or  Philomachus,  a  Greek  statuary, 
who  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  about  300  or  250 
B.C.    A  famous  statue  of  Asclepius  is  ascribed  to  him. 

Pj^r'rha,  a  daughter  of  Epimetheus  and  Pandora,  was 
the  wife  of  Deucalion.  According  to  tradition,  she  and 
her  husband  were  saved  in  an  ark  when  mankind  were 
generally  drowned  by  a  deluge.    (See  Deucalion.) 

Pyr'rho  or  Pyr'rhon,  [r[t'/>/6wv,]  a  Greek  philosopher 
and  skeptic,  was  a  native  of  Elis,  and  was  born  about 
380  B.C.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Anaxarchus  or  Anaxan- 
drus.  It  is  said  that  he  accompanied  Alexander  the 
Great  to  India.  His  writings,  if  he  left  any,  are  not 
extant.  He  had  numerous  disciples,  and  is  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  a  skeptical  school,  the  doctrines  of  which 
are  called  Pyrrhonism.  He  recommended  a  suspension 
of  judgment,  and  cultivated  a  habitual  composure  or 
tranquillity  of  mind,  {uiradeLa.)  After  his  return  from 
India  he  became  high-priest  at  Elis.  Died  about  the 
age  of  ninety. 

See  C.  Mai.let,  "  fitudes  philosophiques,"  tome  ii.  ;  Diogenes 
Laektius;  Munch,  "  De  Notione  et  Indole  Scepticismi  nominatim 
Pyrrhonism!,"  1797;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Pyrrhon.    See  Pyrrho. 
Pyrrhus.    See  Neoptolemus. 

Pyr'rhus,  [Ilv^l)og,\  King  of  Epirus,  a  son  of  King 
/Eacides  and  Phthia,  was  born  about  318  B.C.  His 
father  was  killed  in  battle  while  Pyrrhus  was  a  child. 
The  young  prince  himself  was  expelled  by  the  Epirotes 
at  the  age  of  seventeen,  and  then  joined  the  army  of 
Demetrius,  who  was  his  brother-in-law.  He  signalized 
his  courage  at  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  (301  B.C.)  Having 
raised  a  small  army,  he  entered  Epirus,  and  obtained 
the  throne  in  295  B.C.  His  courage  and  generosity 
rendered  him  very  popular.  Ambition  appears  to  have 
been  his  ruling  passion.  In  291  B.c  he  was  involved  in 
a  war  against  Demetrius,  his  brother-in-law,  for  the  pos- 
session of  Macedonia,  which  he  invaded  in  287  B.C.  The 
army  which  Demetrius  led  against  him,  impelled  by  ad- 
miration of  the  character  of  Pyrrhus,  deserted  to  him  in 
a  body,  and  Demetrius  fled  from  the  kingdom.  Pyrrhus 
divided  his  conquest  with  his  ally  Lysimachus,  who  soon 
made  himself  master  of  all  Macedonia.  An  irresistible 
temptation  was  presented  to  the  ambition  of  Pyrrhus  by 
the  Tarentines,  who  in  281  B.C.  solicited  his  aid  in  a  war 
against  the  Romans.  His  wise  minister  Cineas  could 
not  prevail  on  him  to  renounce  his  vast  projects  of  for- 
eign conquest.  In  280  B.C.  he  crossed  over  to  Italy  with 
about  25,000  men  and  a  number  of  elephants.  The 
frivolous  and  unwarlike  Tarentines  failed  to  support  him 
with  the  large  army  which  they  had  promised.  He  en- 
countered the  superior  numbers  of  the  Romans  on  the 
river  Siris,  and  defeated  them  after  a  long  and  obstinate 
contest.  His  victory  was  so  dearly  bought  that  he  is 
reported  to  have  said,  "  Another  such  victory,  and  I  must 
return  to  Epirus  alone."  He  made  overtures  of  peace, 
which  were  rejected  by  the  Roman  senate. 

In  279  B.C.  another  battle  was  fought,  near  Asculum, 
where  the  Romans  lost  6000  and  Pyrrhus  3500  n.en. 
Pyrrhus  was  unable  to  improve  his  victory,  and,  having 
received  an  invitation  to  aid  the  Greeks  of  Sicily  against 
the  Carthaginians,  he  concluded  a  truce  with  the  Romans 
in  278  B.C.  He  remained  two  years  in  Sicily,  and  gained 
some  victories,  but  failed  to  conquer  the  island.  Hav- 
ing returned  to  Tarentum  to  renew  the  war  against  the 
Romans,  he  was  defeated  by  M.  Curius  Dentatus  near 
Benevejitum.  He  retired  from  Italy  to  Epirus  in  274 
B.C.,  and  invaded  Macedonia,  of  which  he  soon  became 
master  in  consequence  of  the  desertion  of  the  Macedonian 
army  from  Antigonus  Gonatas.  At  the  request  of  Cle- 
onymus,  he  engaged  in  a  new  enterprise,  a  war  against 
the  Spartans,  who  repulsed  his  attack  on  their  capital. 
He  was  killed  in  Argos,  in  battle,  in  272  B.C.,  after  hav- 
ing been  stunned  by  a  tile  thrown  from  a  house  by  a 
woman.  He  was  the  greatest  general  of  his  time,  and 
Hannibal  is  reported  to  have  said  that  he  was  the  great* 


S,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  9,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  f3.ll,  felt;  mix.;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


PYTHAGORAS  1853  PYTHON 


est  of  any  age.  "He  was  reputed,"  says  Plutarch,  "to 
excel  in  military  experience  and  personal  prowess  all  the 
princes  of  his  time.  But  what  he  gained  by  his  achieve- 
ments he  lost  by  vain  hopes  ;  his  desire  of  something 
absent  never  suffered  him  effectually  to  persevere  in  a 
present  pursuit." 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Pyrrhus;"  J.  B.  Jourdan,  "  Histoire 
de  Pyrrhus,"  2  vols.,  1749,  and  English  version  of  the  same  ;  Livv, 
"History  of  Rome,"  book  xxxv.  ;  Jacob  Abbott,  "History  of 
Pyrrhus,"  1853. 

Py-thag'o-ras,  [Gr.  Ilv^ayopaf ;  Fr.  Pythagore,  pe'- 
tt'goR' ;  It.  PiTAGORA,  pe-tl'go-rl,]  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  philosophers  of  antiquity,  was  born  in  Samos 
about  600  B.C.  Very  little  is  known  with  certainty  re- 
specting his  personal  history.  His  father  was  Mnesar- 
chus,  a  merchant,  and  generally  believed  to  have  been 
a  foreigner,  (not  a  native  of  Samos,)  but  whether  a 
Phoenician  or  Pelasgian  is  uncertain.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  first  instructed  in  his  own  country  by  Creophilus, 
and  afterwards  by  Pherecydes  in  Syros.  There  was  a 
prevailing  belief  among  the  ancients  that  Pythagoras 
travelled  very  extensively,  visiting  Egypt,  Babylon,  and 
even  India.  That  he  visited  Egypt  seems  very  probable, 
and  it  is  perhaps  not  improbable  that  he  journeyed 
as  far  as  Babylonia.  The  notion  that  he  included  India 
in  his  travels  would  seem  to  have  no  other  ground  than 
the  circumstance  that  certain  doctrines  of  his  bear  a 
striking  resemblance  to  some  of  those  held  by  the  Indian 
Brahmans  or  Booddhists.  He  not  only  taught  the  doc- 
trine of  metempsychosis,  (or  transmigration  of  souls,) 
but,  like  the  Hindoos,  made  this  the  ground  for  incul- 
cating the  duty  of  kindness  and  tenderness  towards 
animals,  and  of  abstinence  from  their  flesh.  It  is  related 
that  on  a  certain  occasion  he  interceded  to  prevent  a 
dog  from  being  beaten,  saving  that  he  recognized  in  its 
cries  the  voice  of  one  of  his  friends  who  had  died.  Py- 
thagoras attached  a  great  importance  to  the  study  of 
mathematics.  He  is  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  several 
important  geometrical  theorems,  among  which  may  be 
named  the  following:  that  the  three  angles  of  a  triangle 
are  together  equal  to  two  right  angles,  and  that  in  any 
right-angled  triangle  the  square  formed  on  the  hypo- 
tenuse is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  two 
sides.  He  is  said  also  to  have  been  the  inventor  of 
stringed  musical  instruments. 

It  is  said  that  Pythagoras  first  made  use  of  the  word 
philosopher,  (4>tA6ao0of,)  applying  it  to  himself  He  had, 
we  are  told,  witnessed  the  various  public  games  of 
Greece,  and  came  at  length  to  Phlius,  in  Achaia.  Leon, 
the  king  of  that  country,  was  delighted  with  his  ingenuity 
and  eloquence,  and  asked  him  what  art  or  profession  he 
followed.  He  replied  that  he  was  a  philosopher.  Leon 
asked  him  wherein  philosophers  differed  from  other  men. 
Pythagoras  answered  that  as  at  the  public  games  some 
were  contending  for  glory  and  others  were  buying  and 
selling  for  the  sake  of  gain,  but  there  was  one  class 
who  came  simply  as  spectators,  so  in  human  life  there 
were  those  who,  regarding  as  unworthy  of  a  wise  man 
the  desire  of  fame  or  of  gain,  sought  above  all  to  be- 
come wise  :  those  he  called  philosophers,  or  lovers  of 
wisdom. 

Pythagoras  differed  essentially  from  the  other  cele- 
brated teachers  of  wisdom  among  the  ancient  Greeks, 
in  that  he  combined  the  character  of  priest  with  that  of 
philosopher.  He  appears  to  have  given  great  attention  to 
the  means  of  acquiring  influence  over  the  minds  of  men, 
and  for  this  purpose  established  a  secret  brotherhood 
among  his  disciples  and  followers.  He  had  certain  doc- 
trines of  which  he  spoke  only  to  his  chosen  disciples, 
which,  as  being  strictly  limited  to  those  within  the 


favoured  circle,  were  called  esote/ic,  (hatoTF.pMu.)  Other 
doctrines  were  freely  communicated  to  those  withoitt,  or 
to  the  people  at  large  :  these  were  called  exoter'ic,  (e^ure- 
piKu.)  One  of  the  necessary  parts  of  the  discipline  of  his 
pupils  was  the  practice  of  absolute  silence.  According 
to  some  authorities,  they  were  required  to  maintain 
silence  for  five  years,  aiid  during  that  period  were  not 
allowed  once  to  behold  the  face  of  Pythagoras ;  but  this 
is  probably  an  exaggeration. 

So  great  was  his  authority  with  his  disciples  that  when 
any  one  asked  why  they  believed  this  or  practised  that, 
they  were  wont  to  answer,  avro^  £(prj,  (or  e^a,)  i.e.  "he 
himself  said  so,"  (in  Latin,  ipse  dixit,)  which  was  re- 
garded as  the  most  efficient  mode  of  silencing  all  cavils 
or  doubts. 

Pythagoras,  on  returning  from  his  travels,  settled  at 
Crotona,  in  Italy,  where  for  a  time  he  seems  to  have  pos- 
sessed an  almost  boundless  influence  over  the  minds  of 
the  people.  Many  of  the  most  wealthy  and  influential 
among  the  citizens  of  Crotona  joined  the  brotherhood, 
which  soon  became  the  controlling  power  in  the  state. 
Its  extraordinary  success  appears  to  have  rendered  its 
members  so  arrogant  that  they  became  objects  of  jeal- 
ousy and  bitter  hatred  to  those  who  were  not  admitted 
to  the  favoured  circle, — that  is,  to  the  large  majority  of 
the  populace.  An  attack  was  made  upon  them  while 
assembled  in  one  of  their  general  meetings.  The  building 
in  which  they  met  was  set  on  fire,  so  that  a  great  number 
of  them  perished  in  the  flames :  only  the  younger  and 
more  active,  it  is  said,  were  able  to  escape.  According 
to  one  account,  Pythagoras  himself  perished  with  the 
others  on  this  occasion,  though  some  writers  state  that 
he  died  at  Metapontum  soon  after  the  expulsion  of  his 
disciples  from  Crotona.  A  similar  reaction  took  place 
in  other  parts  of  Italy ;  many  of  the  Pythagoreans  were 
killed,  and  many  others  were  driven  into  exile.  The 
brotherhood  as  an  organization  was  completely  sup- 
pressed. Amid  the  uncertainty  which  prevails  in  regard 
to  the  history  of  Pythagoras  and  his  doctrines,  we  can 
form  only  an  imperfect  conjecture  respecting  the  greater 
number  of  his  religious  and  philosophic  tenets.  None 
of  his  writings  are  extant ;  and  what  we  know  of  his 
philosophy  is  derived  mainly  from  writers  who  under- 
stood it  very  imperfectly. 

See  Andre  Dacier,  "  Vie  de  Pythagore,"  1706;  A.  Postelman, 
"Leven  van  Pythagoras,"  1724;  Hambkrger,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita 
et  Symbolis  Pytliagorje,"  1678;  Eilstock,  "  Historisch-kritisches 
Leben  des  weltweisen  Pythagoras,"  1756;  Tiedemann,  "  Griechen- 
lands  erste  Philosophen,  oder  Leben  des  Orpheus,  Pythagoras,"  etc., 
1780;  Heinkich  Ritter,  "  Geschichte  der  Pythagoraischen  Philo' 
sopliie,"  1826;  Reinhold,  "  Beitrag  zur  Erlaulerung  der  Pythagora- 
isclien  Metaphysik,"  1S27  ;  Rittek,  "  History  of  Philosophy;"  G 
H.  Lewes,  "  Biographical  History  of  Philosophy." 

Pyth'e-as  [Gr.  Uvdrng ;  Fr.  Pyth^e,  pe'ta']  of  Mas- 
silia,  in  Gaul,  an  ancient  Greek  navigator  of  unknown 
period.  He  probably  lived  between  350  and  200  B.c 
He  sailed  to  the  western  and  northern  parts  of  Europe, 
and  wrote  an  account  of  his  discoveries,  which  is  not 
extant.  He  described  a  place  called  Thule,  composed 
of  a  mixture  of  earth,  sea,  and  air.  His  statements  were 
credited  by  Hipparchus,  but  discredited  by  Strabo  and 
others. 

Pythee.    See  Pytheas. 

Pyth'i-a,  the  name  of  the  priestess  of  Apollo  at 
Delphi,  where  she  uttered  oracles. 
Pythias.    See  Damon. 

Pyth'i-us,  [livdiog,]  a  surname  of  Apollo,  applied  to 
him  because  he  was  worshipped  at  Delphi,  the  ancient 
name  of  which  was  Pytho. 

Py^thon,  [livdcoVy]  the  name  of  a  fabulous  dragon  of 
Delphi,  killed  by  Apollo. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as J;  o,  h,  k, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


QUACKENBOS 


1854 


QUATREMERE 


Q. 


Quack'^n-bos,  (George  Payne,)  an  American 
teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  in  New  York  in 
1826,  has  published  an  "Advanced  Course  of  Compo- 
sition and  Rhetoric,"  (1854,)  "Primary  History  of  the 
United  States,"  (i860,)  " English  Grammar,"  (1862,)  and 
other  works. 

Quade,  kwS'deh,  (Michael  Friedrich,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1628.  He  wrote  much 
of  what  the  Germans  call  micrologie, — i.e.  treatises  on 
minute  or  unimportant  subjects.    Died  in  1757. 

See  Oelrichs,  "  Memoria  M.  F.  Quade,"  1758. 

Quaden,  kwS'den,  (Matthias,)  a  German  geogra- 
pher, born  at  Kilkenbach  ;  died  at  Cologne  in  1609. 

Quad-ra'tus,  [Gr.  Ko(5parof,]  an  early  Christian  min- 
ister, who,  according  to  Saint  Jerome,  was  chosen  Bishop 
of  Athens  in  125  A.D.  He  presented  an  Apology  for 
the  Christian  religion  to  Adrian  in  126  A.D. 

Quadri,  kwi'dnee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  writer  on 
statistics  and  political  economy,  was  born  at  Vicenza  in 
1777.  He  obtained  in  1815  the  office  of  secretary  of  the 
government  at  Venice. 

Quadri,  (Giovanni  Lodovico,)  an  Italian  architect 
and  engraver,  born  at  Bologna  in  1700  ;  died  in  1748. 

Quad-ri-ga'ri-us,  (Quintus  Claudius,)  a  Roman 
historian,  lived  about  80  B.C.  He  wrote  Roman  Annals, 
some  extracts  from  which  are  preserved  by  Aulus 
Gellius. 

Quadrio,  kwI'dRe-o,  (Francesco  Saverio,)  a  learned 
Italian  Jesuit  and  critic,  born  in  Valtellina  in  1695.  He 
was  employed  as  professor  at  Padua,  Bologna,  Venice, 
etc.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  general  his- 
tory of  poetry  of  all  nations,  ("  Storia  e  Ragione  d'ogni 
Poesia,"  7  vols.,  1739-591)  a  work  of  great  labour  and 
some  value.  It  contains  extracts  from  a  great  number 
of  poets.    Died  in  1756. 

Quaglio,  kw^Kyo,  ((Angelo,)  an  able  scene-painter, 
was  a  brother  of  the  following.    Died  in  1815. 

Quaglio,  (DoMENico,)  a  painter,  born  at  Munich  in 
1786,  was  surnamed  THE  German  Canaletto.  He 
acquired  a  wide  reputation  as  a  painter  of  architecture. 
Among  his  works  is  a  picture  of  the  Ratisbon  Cathedral. 
He  contributed  much  to  revive  a  taste  for  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  middle  ages.  Died  in  1837.  His  father. 
Giuseppe,  born  in  1747,  was  a  skilful  scene-painter. 
Died  at  Munich  in  1828. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemekies  Kikistler-Lexikon." 

Quaglio,  (GiULio,)  an  Italian  fresco-painter,  born  at 
Laino,  was  the  ancestor  of  several  artists,  noticed  above 
and  below.    Died  in  1800. 

Quaglio,  (Lorenzo,)  an  architect,  born  at  Laino  in 
1730,  was  a  son  of  Giovanni  Maria,  an  architect,  who 
worked  at  Vienna.  Lorenzo  designed  theatres  at  Man- 
heim  and  Frankfort.  He  died  at  Munich  in  1804.  He 
was  an  uncle  of  Giuseppe,  noticed  above,  and  father  of 
Giovanni  Maria,  a  painter  of  architecture  and  dra- 
matic scenery,  who  was  born  in  1772. 

Quain,  kwan,  (Jones,)  a  skilful  anatomist,  born  at 
Mallow,  Ireland,  studied  in  Paris.  He  distinguished 
himself  as  professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  the 
London  University,  now  called  University  College,  and 
resigned  this  position  in  1836.  His  chief  work  is  "Ele- 
ments of  Anatomy,"  (6th  edition,  1856,)  which  is  said  to 
be  better  than  any  English  work  previously  published 
on  systematic  anatomy.    Died  in  1865. 

Quain,  (Richard,)  a  younger  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  a  distinguished  anatomist  and  surgeon,  was 
born  at  Mallow.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at 
University  College,  London,  about  1836.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  clitiical  surgery  at  the  University 
College  Hospital  in  1848.  He  published  an  excellent 
work  entitled  "The  Anatomy  of  the  Arteries  of  the 
Human  Body,"  (1845.) 

Quain,  (Richard,)  a  cousin  of  the  preceding,  became 
a  physician  to  the  Consumption  Hospital,  Brompton,  and 
invented  an  instrument  called  the  Stethometer. 


Quaini,  kwi'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1611,  was  particularly  successful  in 
painting  architectural  views.    Died  about  1680. 

Quaini,  (Lodovico,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom 
at  Bologna  in  1643,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo  Cignani, 
whom  he  imitated.  He  is  said  to  have  painted  the  land- 
scapes and  architecture  of  some  of  Cignani's  great  works. 
He  worked  in  partnership  with  Franceschini  at  Rome, 
Genoa,  etc.,  and  painted  some  historical  pictures  com- 
posed by  himself.    Died  in  1 71 7. 

Quandt,  kwint,  (Johann  Gottlob,)  a  German  writer 
on  fine  arts,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1787,  became  distin- 
guished as  an  amateur  and  collector  of  pictures.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Excursions  in  the  Domain  of  Art,"  and 
"  Lectures  on  Esthetics."    Died  in  1859. 

Quanz,  kwints,  (Johann  Joachim,)  a  German  com- 
poser, born  near  Gottingen  in  1697;  died  in  1773. 

Quarenghi,  kwi-rSn'gee,  (Giacomo  il  Cavaliere,) 
an  Italian  architect,  born  at  Bergamo  in  1744.  Invited 
by  the  empress  Catherine,  he  went  to  Saint  Petersburg, 
and  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  works  erected  in  that 
city.  Among  these  are  the  Exchange,  and  the  Theatre 
of  the  Hermitage.    Died  in  181 7. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstier-Lexikon." 

Quarin,  kw3,-reen',  (Joseph,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Vienna  in  1733.  He  gained  distinction  by 
his  writings  on  Fevers  and  Inflammations,  (1774,)  and 
became  first  physician  to  the  emperor  Joseph  II.  Died 
in  1814. 

Quarles,  kwdrlz,  (Francis,)  a  quaint  but  popular 
English  poet,  born  in  Essex  in  1592.  He  was  secretary 
to  Archbishop  Usher  before  1641,  and  was  then  deprived 
of  his  situation  by  the  Irish  rebellion.  In  the  civil  war 
he  favoured  the  royalist  party.  His  most  popular  poem 
is  entitled  "Emblems,"  (1635,)  and  has  been  often  re- 
printed. Among  his  other  works  are  "Divine  Poems," 
"  Hadassa,"  and  a  "  History  of  Samson."  "  We  find  in 
Quarles,"  says  Headley,  "original  imagery,  striking 
sentiment,  fertility  of  expression,  and  happy  combina- 
tions."   Died  in  1644. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  v.,  (1822:)  Wood,  "Athense 
Oxonienses;"  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Quarles,  (John,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Essex  in  1624.  He  wrote  several  poems.  Died  in 
1665. 

Quarre,  kt'ri',  (Antoinette  Suzanne,)  a  French 
poetess,  born  at  Recey-sur-Ource  in  1813;  died  at  Dijon 
in  1847. 

Quatrefages  de  Breau,  de,  deh  kttR'ftzh'  deh  bRo, 
(Jean  Louis  Armand,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  in  the 
department  of  Gard  in  1810.  He  became  professor  of 
anatomy  and  ethnology  at  the  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory, Paris.  His  favourite  science  is  zoology.  He  has 
written  numerous  works,  among  which  are  "  Souvenirs 
of  a  Naturalist,"  (2  vols.,  1854,)  and  "Anatomical  and 
Zoological  Researches  made  during  a  Voyage  to  Sicily." 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biojjraphie  Generale  ;"  "  North  British  Review" 
for  February,  1858;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1858. 

Quatremere,  kttR'maiR',  (Etienne  Marc,)  an  emi- 
nent French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris,  July  12,  1782.  He 
was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1815, 
and  became  professor  of  Plebrew,  Syriac,  etc.  at  the 
College  of  France  in  1819.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  "  Researches  on  the  Language  and  Literature  of 
Egypt,"  (1808,)  "Geographical  and  Historical  Memoirs 
of  Eg'ypt,"  (2  vols.,  1810,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Mon- 
gols of  Persia,"  (1836.)  Died  in  1857.  He  had  a  library 
of  about  50,000  volumes.  His  father  was  first-cousin 
to  Quatremere  de  Quincy.  "  Few  savants,"  says  Ernest 
Renan,  "can  be  compared  to  him  for  extent  and  accuracy 
of  erudition." 

See  Renan's  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Quatremere  de  Quincy,  kttR'maiR'  deh  kAN'se', 
(Antoine  Chrysostome,)  a  French  archaeologist  and 
art-critic,  was  born  in  Paris  in  October,  1755.    He  pub- 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long,    6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f2lt;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon ; 


QUATREMERE 


1855 


QUESNEL 


lished  the  first  volume  of  his  "  Dictionary  of  Architec- 
ture" in  1788.  In  1 791  he  was  elected  to  the  Legislative 
Assembly,  and  in  1797  was  condemned  to  deportation 
as  a  royalist ;  but  he  escaped.  He  was  appointed  in- 
tendant  of  arts  and  public  monuments  in  1815,  and 
perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  1816. 
Among  his  works  are  "Letters  to  Canova  on  the  Elgin 
Marbles,"  (1818,)  an  "Essay  on  the  Nature,  Object,  and 
Means  of  Imitation  in  the  Fine  Arts,"  (1823,)  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  Raphael,"  (1824.) 
Died  in  1849. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Quatremere-Disjonval,  kttR'maiR'  de'zh6N^'tK, 
(Denis  Bernard,)  a  naturalist,  born  in  Paris  about 
1754,  was  a  brother  of  Quatremere  de  Quincy.  He  was 
very  eccentric,  and  was  confined  for  some  years  in  an 
asylum  for  the  insane.    Died  in  1830. 

Quatremere -Roissy,  kttR'malR'  RwS'se',  (Jean 
Nicolas,)  a  French  writer  of  biography  and  tales,  born 
in  Paris  in  1754,  was  an  uncle  of  Etienne  Marc,  above 
noticed.    Died  in  1834. 

Quattromani,  kw^t-tRo-mi'nee,  (Sertorio,)  an  Ital- 
ian writer,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1541  ;  died  in  161 1. 

Queens'ber-ry,  (William  Douglas,)  fourth  Duke 
OF,  and  Earl  of  March,  a  Scottish  peer,  born  about  1724, 
was  notorious  for  his  vices.  He  became  Duke  of  Queens- 
berry  about  1778,  and  inherited  a  large  fortune.  Died, 
without  issue,  in  1810. 

See  "  Life  of  George  Selwvn,"  by  J.  H.  Jesse. 

Qneiros,  de,  di  ka^-r(i)s,  or  Quiros,  de,  di  kee'r6s, 
(Pedro  Fernandez^T^  Spanish  or  Portuguese  navi- 
gator, born  about  1560,  commanded  an  exploring 
expedition  sent  from  Callao  in  1605.  He  discovered 
Tahiti,  the  New  Hebrides,  and  other  small  islands  of 
the  Pacific,  and  wrote  a  narrative  of  his  voyage.  Died 
at  Panama  in  1614. 

Quekett,  kwek'et,  (John,)  an  English  microscopist, 
born  in  Somersetshire  in  181 5,  He  published  a  "Treat- 
ise on  the  Use  of  the  Microscope,"  and  "  Lectures  on 
Histology,"  (1854.)  He  succeeded  Professor  Owen  as 
conservator  of  the  Hunterian  Museum  in  London.  Died 
in  1861. 

Quelen,  de,  deh  keh'lSN',  (Hyacinthe  Louis,)  a 
French  prelate,  born  in  Paris  in  1778.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Paris  in  1821,  and  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy  in  1824.    Died  in  1839. 

See  Henrion,  "  Vie  et  Travaux  de  M.  de  Quelen,"  1840 ;  Belle- 
mare,  "M.  de  Quelen  pendant  dix  Ans,"  1840. 

Quellinus.    See  Quellyn. 

Quellyn,  kw§l-lin',  (Artus,)  a  Flemish  sculptor,  born 
at  Antwerp  in  1630,  was  a  nephew  of  Erasmus,  noticed 
below.    Died  in  1 71 5. 

Quellyn,  [Lat.  Quelli'nus,]  (Erasmus,)  an  eminent 
Flemish  painter  of  history  and  landscapes,  born  at  Ant- 
werp in  1607.  His  design,  colour,  and  distribution  of 
light  and  shade  are  commended.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "Repose  in  Egypt,"  a  "Last  Supper,"  and  "The 
Guardian  Angel."    Died  in  1678. 

Quellyn,  (Jan  Erasmus,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1629  or  1630,  and  was  a  good 
painter  of  history.  He  worked  in  his  native  city  and 
other  towns  of  Flanders.  A  picture  of  "Christ  healing 
the  Sick"  is  called  his  master-piece.  "Some  of  his 
works,"  says  Descamps,  "may  be  compared  to  those 
of  Paul  Veronese."    Died  in  1 715. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Quenstedt,  kw^n'st^t,  (Johann  Andreas,)  a  Ger- 
man Lutheran  theologian,  born  at  Quedlinburg  in  161 7. 
He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg,  and  pub- 
lished several  works.    Died  in  1688. 

Quental,  do,  do  k^N-tSK,  (Bartholomeu,)  a  Por- 
tuguese theologian,  born  in  one  of  the  Azores  in  1626. 
He  was  the  author  of  works  which  are  said  to  be  well 
written.    Died  in  1698. 

Quentel  or  Quentell,  kwgn'tel,  (Hetnrich,)  a  cele- 
brated printer  of  Cologne,  flourished  in  the  fifteenth 
centiyy. 

Quentin,  kSx'tiN',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Dijon,  where  he  died  in  1636. 


Quer  y  Martinez,  kaiR  e  maR-tee'n§th,  (Jos6,)  a 
Spanish  botanist,  born  at  Perpignan  in  1695.  Pub- 
lished a  Flora  of  Spain  according  to  the  system  of  Tourne- 
fort, — "Flora  Espanola,  o  Historia  de  las  Plantas  que 
se  crian  en  Espana,"  (6  vols.,  1762-84.)  He  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  Spaniard  who  published  a  work  on 
Spanish  plants.    Died  in  1764. 

Querard,  ki'riR',  (Joseph  Marie,)  a  French  bibli- 
ographer, born  at  Rennes  in  1797.  He  published  an 
important  work  on  French  bibliography,  entitled  "La 
France  Litteraire,  ou  Dictionnaire  bibliographique,"  (10 
vols.,  1826-42.)  He  left  several  unfinished  works.  Died 
about  December  i,  1865. 

See  "  Life  and  Works  of  J.  M.  Querard,"  by  O.  Hamst,  London, 
1867;  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire,"  tome  xi. 

Querbeuf,  de,  deh  k^R'buf ,  (Yves  Mathurin  Ma- 
rie,) a  French  litteratetir,  born  at  Landerneau  in  1726; 
died  about  1799. 

Quercetanus,  the  Latin  of  Duchesne,  which  see. 

Querela,  della,  dSKli  kw^R'chS,  (Jacopo,)  an  able 
Italian  sculptor,  born  near  Sienna  about  1378.  He 
decorated  the  Duomo  or  Cathedral  of  Florence  with 
some  bas-reliefs,  and  sculptured  the  ornaments  of  the 
door-way  of  San  Petronio  at  Bologna.    Died  in  1442. 

Querenghi,  kwi-r§n'gee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Padua  in  1546.  He  was  secretary  of  the  Sacred 
College  at  Rome  under  five  popes.  He  wrote  verses  in 
Latin  and  Italian.    Died  in  1633. 

Querini,  kwi-ree'nee,  or  Quirini,  kwe-ree'nee,  [Lat. 
Queri'nus,]  (Angelo  Maria,)  Cardinal,  an  eminent 
Italian  writer,  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Venice  in  1680. 
He  published  on  the  liturgy  of  the  Greek  Church  a 
work  entitled  "  Olficium  Quadrigesimale  Graecorum," 
(1721.)  About  1722  he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Corfii. 
He  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Brescia  in  1728,  soon 
after  which  he  became  librarian  of  the  Vatican.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Specimen  of  Brescian  Literature," 
("Specimen  Literaturae  Brixianae,"  1739,)  and  many 
Latin  Epistles,  (1742-49.)  Voltaire  dedicated  his  "Semi- 
ramis"  to  Querini,  who  was  remarkable  for  his  amiable 
virtues.    Died  in  1755. 

See  his  autobiography,  "  Commentarius  de  Rebus  pertinentibus 
ad  A.  M.  Querinum,"  2  vols.,  1749;  Breithaiipt,  "Geschichte  des 
Cardinal  Querini,"  1752  ;  C.  F.  Hoffman,  "  Programma  de  Quirino 
g;lorioso,"  1753;  Sambuca,  "  Lettera  intomo  alia  Morte  del  Cardinal 
Quirini,"  1757  ;  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  "  Nou- 
velle Biographic  Generale." 

Querlon,  de,  deh  k^R'liN',  (Anne  Gabriel  Meus- 
nier,)  a  French  editor  and  compiler,  born  at  Nantes  in 
1702.  He  edited  the  works  of  many  ancient  and  mod- 
ern authors,  and  was  for  twenty  years  editor  of  a  journal 
entitled  "Les  Petites  Affiches."    Died  in  1780. 

Querno,  kw^R'no,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Monopoli  about  1470.  He  wrote  a  Latin  poem  en- 
titled "Alexias."    Died  at  Naples  in  1528. 

Querouaille.    See  Keroual,  de,  (Louise.) 

Quesnay,  ki'ni',  (Francois,)  a  French  physician, 
distinguished  as  a  political  economist,  was  born  at  Merei, 
near  Montfort  I'Amaury,  in  1694.  He  was  self-educated, 
and  settled  in  Paris  about  1737.  He  purchased  the 
office  of  physician-in-ordinary  to  the  king  about  1745. 
He  advocated  the  abolition  of  corvees,  free  trade  in  grain, 
and  other  reforms,  which  have  been  since  adopted. 
Among  his  works  was  one  entitled  "  Economic  Pic- 
ture," ("Tableau  economique,"  1 758.)  He  was  called 
the  chief  of  the  sect  of  economistes,  whose  favourite  maxim 
was  "  Laissez  faire  et  laissez  passer,"  ("Let  things  take 
care  of  themselves.")  Died  in  1774.  Turgot  was  one 
of  his  disciples. 

See  "Vie  de  Quesnay,"  prefixed  to  his  vi'orks ;  Grandjean  dh 
FoucHV,  "  filoge  de  Quesnay;"  Albon,  "  filoge  historique  de  M. 
Quesnay,"  1775  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Quesne,  ki'ny,  (Jacques  Salbigoton,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Pavilly  in  1778  ;  died  in  1859. 
See  "Confessions  de  J.  S.  Quesne,"  3  vols.,  1828-35. 

Quesne,  du.    See  Duquesne. 

Quesnel,  ki'n^l',  (Francois,)  a  painter,  of  French 
origin,  born  at  Edinburgh  about  1544;  died  in  Paris  in 
1619. 

Quesnel,  (Francois  Jean  Baptists,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Saint-Germain-en-Laye  in  1765  ; 
died  in  1819. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  Vi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


QUESNEL 


1856 


QUINCr 


Quesnel,  (Louis  FRANgois,)  a  French  general,  born 
in  Paris  in  1773.  He  distinguished  himself  in  Spain, 
(1808-11.)    Died  in  1815. 

Quesnel,  (Pasquier,)  a  French  Jansenist  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1634.  He  became  a  priest  of  the  Oratory, 
from  which  he  was  expelled  in  1684  because  he  refused 
to  sign  a  formulary  which  condemned  Jansenism.  To 
escape  persecution,  he  retired  to  Brussels  in  1685,  and 
published  his  work  on  the  New  Testament,  called  "  Re- 
flexions morales,"  etc.,  (1694,)  which  was  condemned 
by  the  spiritual  and  temporal  powers  and  anathematized 
by  the  pope  in  the  famous  bull  **  Unigenitus,"  (1713.) 
Quesnel  wrote  other  works,  and,  after  the  death  of  Ar- 
nauld,  was  regarded  as  the  chief  of  the  Jansenists.  He 
died  at  Amsterdam  in  17 19. 

See  "  Causa  Qiiesnelliaiia,"  ]-5riissels,  1704;  Moreri,  "  Diction- 
naire  Historique  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generals/' 

Quesnel,  (Pierre,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Dieppe 
about  1699.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Jesuits,"  (4 
vols.,  1740,)  in  which  he  shows  himself  hostile  to  that 
society.    Died  about  1774. 

Quesnoy,  du.    See  Duquesnoy. 

Questel,  ki'tSK,  (Charles  Auguste,)  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1807,  He  obtained  medals 
of  the  first  class  in  1852  and  1855. 

Quetant,  keh-t6N^  (Antoine  FRANgois,)  a  French 
dramatic  author,  born  in  Paris  in  1733  ;  died  in  1823. 

Quetelet,  ket-la^  (Lambert  Adolphe  Jacques,)  a 
Belgian  astronomer,  born  at  Ghent  in  1796.  He  became 
director  of  the  Royal  Observatory  of  Brussels  in  1828, 
and  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1834. 
Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Criminal  Statistics 
of  Belgium,"  (1832,)  "Elements  of  Astronomy,"  (4th 
edition,  1848,)  and  "Annals  of  the  Royal  Observatory," 
(14  vols.,  1843-59.)  He  contributed  many  scientific 
articles  to  various  journals. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Quetif,  keh-t^f,  (Jacques),  a  learned  French  Do- 
minican monk,  born  in  Paris  in  161 8.  He  wrote 
"  Scriptores  Ordinis  Praedicatorum  recensiti,"  (2  vols., 
1719-21,)  which  contains  notices  of  many  Dominicans 
who  were  authors.    Died  in  1698. 

Quevedo.    See  Mauzinho. 

Quevedo  y  Villegas,  de,  dk  ki-va'Do  e  v^l-ya'gSs, 
usually  called  simply  Quevedo,  (Francisco  Gomez — 
go'mSth,)  an  eminent  and  original  Spanish  author  and 
satirist,  born  in  Madrid  in  September,  1580.  He  was 
brought  up  in  the  royal  palace  by  his  mother,  who  was  a 
lady  of  the  bed-chamber,  and  learned  the  ancient  lan- 
guages at  Alcala.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  gallantry, 
was  an  expert  swordsman,  and  fought  several  duels.  In 
the  prime  of  life  he  was  employed  in  imjjortant  affairs 
at  Naples  by  the  viceroy,  the  Duke  of  Ossuna.  He 
wrote  in  prose  and  verse  a  variety  of  works,  which  were 
very  popular.  Among  his  prose  works  are  "  Sueiios," 
("Visions,"  or  "Dreams,"  1649,)  which  are  greatly  ad- 
mired for  their  wit  and  humour,  and  "  Life  of  the  Great 
Knave,"  ("  Vida  del  gran  Tacano,")  a  romance.  He 
wrote  dramas,  (which  are  lost,)  odes,  sonnets,  satires,  etc. 
He  is  said  to  have  resembled  Voltaire  in  his  talent 
for  ridicule,  his  versatility,  and  the  skill  with  which  he 
arraigned  abuses  before  the  tribunal  of  public  opinion. 
He  suffered  much  political  persecution,  and  was  im- 
prisoned several  years.    Died  in  1645. 

See  Don  Pablo  Antonio  de  Tarsia,  "Vida  de  Don  Fr.de 
Quevedo  y  Villegas,"  Madrid,  1663;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale;"  TiciCNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Baena, 
"Hijos  de  Madrid,"  vol.  ii. 

Queverdo,  keh-v§RMo',  (FRAwgois  Marie  Isidore,) 
a  French  designer  and  etcher,  born  in  Bretagne  in  1740; 
died  in  1808. 

Quicherat,  k^sh'Rt',  (Jule.s,)  a  French  antiquary, 
born  in  Paris  in  1815,  has  written"  several  works  on 
French  antiquities  and  on  the  history  of  Joan  of  Arc. 

Quicherat,  (Louis,)  a  lexicographer,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1799.  He  published  an 
excellent  "  Poetical  Treasury  of  the  Latin  Language," 
("Thesaurus  poeticus  Linguae  Latinae,"  1836,)  and  a 
Latin-PVench  Dictionary,  (1844,)  which  is  said  to  be  the 
best  work  of  the  kind  published  in  France. 

Quick,  (John,)  an  English  nonconformist  minister, 
born  at  Plymouth  in  1636.    He  wrote,  besides  other 


works,  "  Synodlcon  in  Gallia  reformata,"  (1692.)  He 
preached  in  London  for  many  years.    Died  in  1706. 

Quick,  (John,)  an  English  comedian,  born  in  London 
in  1748  ;  died  in  1831. 

Quien.    See  Lequien. 

Qui-e'tus,  a  Roman,  who  in  260  A.D.  was  supported 
by  part  of  the  army  as  emperor  or  partner  of  his  brother 
Macrianus  in  imperial  power.  He  was  put  to  death  in 
Asia  by  Odenatus  in  262  A.D. 

Quignones.    See  Quinones. 

Quillet,  ke'yi',  (Claude,)  a  French  writer  of  Latin 
poetry,  sometimes  called  Calvidus  L/^tus,  was  born  at 
Chinon,  in  Touraine,  in  1602.  He  wrote  a  poem  entitled 
"  On  the  Method  of  having  Beautiful  Offspring,"  ("  Calli- 
paedia,  seu  de  pulchrae  Prolis  habendae  Ratione,"  1655,) 
which  was  generally  admired.    Died  in  1661. 

Quilliard,  ke'e-ytl<^  (Pierre  Antoine,)  a  French 
painter  and  etcher,  born  in  Paris  in  171 1  ;  died  in  Lisbon 
in  1733- 

Quin,  (James,)  an  eminent  English  actor,  born  in 
London  in  1693,  was  a  grandson  of  Mark  Quin,  a  lord 
mayor  of  Dublin.  He  began  to  perform  at  Drury  Lane 
about  1716,  obtained  great  success  in  the  ro/e  of  "Fal- 
stafif "  in  1720,  and  was  the  most  popular  actor  of  England 
until  he  was  surpassed  by  Garrick.  He  taught  elocution 
to  Prince  George,  (afterwards  George  III.)  On  hearing 
that  king's  first  speech  from  the  throne,  Quin  exclaimed, 
"  I  taught  the  boy  to  speak."  He  once  released  the  poet 
Thomson  from  prison  by  payment  of  the  debt  for  which 
he  was  confined.  He  retired  from  the  stage  in  1748. 
Died  at  Bath  in  1766. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Quin,"  anonymous,  1766. 

Quinault,  ke'nd',  (  Jean  Baptiste  Maurice,  )  a 
French  comic  actor,  born  in  Paris  about  1690 ;  died 
in  1744. 

Quinault,  (  Jeanne  Fran^oise,  )  a  comic  actress, 
a  sister  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1700;  died 
in  1783. 

Quinault,  (Philippe,)  a  French  dramafic  poet,  born 
in  Paris  in  1635.  He  produced  in  his  youth  several 
tragedies  and  comedies,  among  which  is  "La  Mere 
Coquette,"  (1664,)  and  was  admitted  into  the  French 
Academy  in  1670.  His  reputation  is  founded  chieflly  on 
his  operas,  the  music  of  which  was  composed  by  LuUi. 
Between  1672  and  1686  Quinault  and  LuUi  produced 
fourteen  operas,  among  which  "Armide"  (1686)  is  the 
master-piece.  Others  are  entitled  "  Cadmus,"  "  Alceste," 
"Isis,"  "  Persee,"  "Roland,"  etc.  He  is  called  by 
some  the  first  writer  of  French  operas.  "  What  can  be 
more  beautiful,  and  even  sublime,"  says  Voltaire,  "than 
this  chorus  in  *  Alceste,' '  Tout  mortel  doit  ici  paraitre'  ?" 
etc.    Died  in  1688. 

See  "Vie  de  Quinault,"  prefixed  to  his  Works,  5  vols.,  1739; 
Crapelet,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Quinault,"  1824;  Perrault, 
"  Les  Hommes  illustres;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Quinault-Dufresne,  ke'no'  dii'fRiN',  (  Arraham 
Alexis,)  a  popular  French  actor,  born  at  Verdun-sur- 
le-Doubs  in  1693.  He  performed  in  tragedy  and  high 
comedy.  He  was  a  brother  of  Jean  B.  M.  Quinault, 
noticed  above.    Died  in  1767. 

Quin'by,  (Isaac  F.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
New  Jersey,  graduated  at  West  Point  about  1843.  He 
became  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  early  in  1862, 
and  commanded  a  division  of  General  Grant's  army  in 
the  operations  against  Vicksburg  in  1863. 

Quincey,  De.    See  De  Quincey. 

Quinctilianus.    See  Quintiltan. 

Quin'cy,  (Edmund,)  an  American  writer  and  oppo- 
nent of  slavery,  a  son  of  Josiah  Quincy,  noticed  below, 
was  born  in  Boston  in  1808.  He  contributed  to  several 
newspapers  and  periodicals,  and  wrote  "  Wensley,  a 
Story  without  a  Moral,"  (1854.) 

Quin'cy,  (John,)  an  English  medical  writer,  practised 
medicine  in  London.  Among  his  works  is  "Lexicon 
Physico-Medicum."    Died  in  1723. 

Quincy,  (Josiah,)  an  American  orator  and  patriot, 
born  in  Massachusetts  in  1744,  was  a  son  of  Josiah 
Quincy,  a  merchant  of  Boston.  He  became  a  lawyer, 
and  began  about  1767  to  write  political  essays  against 
the  measures  of  the  British  ministry.  He  also  rendered 
important  services  to  the  popular  cause  by  his  fervid 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  /on^^;  h,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure; Qx,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


QUINCr 


1857 


QUINTUS 


and  powerful  eloquence.  His  chief  political  work  is 
"Observations  on  the  Boston  Port  Bill,  with  Thoughts 
on  Civil  Government,"  etc.,  (1774-)  He  gave  proof  of 
moral  courage  by  defending  Captain  Pre.ston  and  several 
soldiers  in  their  trial  for  killing  certain  citizens  in  the 
Boston  massacre  of  March,  1770,  To  promote  the  public 
welfare  and  the  cause  of  liloerty,  he  made  a  voyage  to 
England  in  October,  1774.  He  heard  and  reported  a 
celebrated  speech  made  by  Lord  Chatham  in  defence 
of  the  Americans,  January  20,  1775.  He  conferred  with 
Dr.  Franklin  and  other  friends  of  the  cause  in  England, 
and  hastened  to  return  with  counsels  and  plans  which  it 
was  not  prudent  to  commit  to  writing;  but  before  the 
end  of  his  voyage  he  died  at  sea,  April,  1775.  He  was 
deeply  lamented  by  the  public. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Josiah  Quincy,  Jr.,"  by  his  son  Josiah,  1825. 

Quincy,  (Josiah,)  an  eminent  statesman  and  scholar, 
born  in  Boston  on  the  4th  of  February,  1772,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
1790,  and  studied  law.  He  joined  the  Federalist  party, 
and  represented  Boston  in  Congress  from  1804  to  18 13. 
During  this  period  he  opposed  the  measures  of  the 
dominant  party  with  great  energy  and  decision.  He 
made  a  celebrated  speech  against  the  bill  for  the  admis- 
sion of  Louisiana  in  181 1,  and  opposed  the  war  of  1812. 
"  He  was  equal  to  the  emergency,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold, 
"and  sustained  himself  on  all  occasions  with  manly  in- 
dependence, sound  argument,  and  fervid  declamation." 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Senate  of  Massachusetts  from 
1814  to  1820,  became  a  judge  of  the  municipal  court  of 
Boston  in  1822,  and  served  as  mayor  of  Boston  from 
1823  to  1829.  In  1829  he  was  elected  president  of  Har- 
vard University.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Memoir  of  Josiah  Quincy,  Jr.,"  (1825,)  a  "History 
of  Harvard  University,"  (2  vols.,  1840,)  "Speeches  in 
Congress  and  Orations,"  and  a  "  Life  of  John  Q.  Adams," 
{1858.)  He  resigned  the  presidency  of  Harvard  in  1845. 
In  1856  he  publicly  advocated  the  election  of  Colonel 
Fremont  to  the  Presidency.  He  died  in  July,  1864,  aged 
ninety-two. 

•  See  "Life  of  Josiah  Quincy,"  by  his  son,  Edmund  Quincy;  R. 
W.  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America;"  Duvckinck,  "Cyclo- 
pasdia  of  American  Literature."  vol.  i. 

Quincy,  de,  deh  k^N'se',  (Charles  Sevin — seh- 
viN^,)  Marquis,  a  French  general  and  military  writer, 
born  near  Meaux  in  1666.  He  wrote  a  "Military  His- 
tory of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIV.,"  (8  vols.,  1726.)  Died 
in  1736. 

Quincy,  de,  (QuATREMiRE.)    See  QuATREMfeRE. 

Quinet,  ke'n^',  (Edgar,)  a  French  writer  and  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Bourg  (Ain)  in  1803,  became  a  friend 
of  Michelet.  He  obtained  in  1842  in  the  College  of 
France  a  chair  of  southern  literatures,  (litteratures  meri- 
dionales.)  He  acted  with  the  republicans  ( extreme  gauche) 
in  the  Constituent  and  Legislative  Assemblies  of  1848-9. 
Among  his  various  works  are  "  Prometheus,"  a  poem, 
(1838,)  "Germany  and  Italy:  Philosophy  and  Poetry," 
(1839,)  "The  Genius  of  Religions,"  (1S43,)  and  "The 
Revolutions  of  Italy,"  (3  vols.,  1852.)  He  was  banished 
from  France  in  1852. 

See  Chassin,  "  E.  Quinet,  sa  Vie  et  son  CEuvre,"  1859  ;  G. 
Planche,  "  Portraits  Litleraires  ;"  Bataii.i.ard,  "  QEuvre  philoso- 
phique  et  sociale  d'E.  Quinet,"  1845  ;  Quinet,  "  Histoire  de  mes 
Idees,"  1858;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Quinette,  ke'ngt',  (Nicolas  Marie,)  a  French  revo- 
lutionist, born  at  Soissons  in  1762.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Convention  in  1792,  and  was  one  of  the  four  com- 
missaries sent  to  arrest  Dumouriez,  who  seized  and 
delivered  them  to  the  Austrians,  (April,  1793.)  He  was 
minister  of  the  interior  for  a  short  time  in  1799.  Died 
in  1821. 

Quinones,  de,  di  k^n-yo'n&s,  sometimes  written 
Quignonez,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  cardinal,  born  in 
the  kingdom  of  Leon,  became  confessor  to  Charles  V. 
He  negotiated  the  release  of  Pope  Clement  VII.,  de- 
tained or  1)esieged  by  the  Spanish  army,  in  1527.  He 
published  "Breviarium  Romanum,"  (1535.)  Died  in 
1540. 

Quinsonas,  de,  deh  k^N'so'nls',  (Francois  Dugas,) 
a  French  poet,  born  at  Lyons  in  1 7 19,  wrote  epigrams 
against  Voltaire.    Died  in  1768. 


Quintana,  YhnAllxA,  (Manuel  Jos^,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  poet  and  patriot,  was  born  in  Madrid  in  Apiil, 
1772.  lie  studied  law  at  Salamanca,  where  he  formed 
a  friendship  with  Melendez  and  Cienfuegos.  He  began 
tcf  write  verses  about  1790.  His  "Ode  to  the  Sea" 
(1798)  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  Spanish  lan- 
guage. He  wrote  other  excellent  odes,  one  of  which 
is  "On  the  Battle  of  Trafalgar."  In  1807  he  published 
the  first  volume  of  the  "  Lives  of  Celebrated  Spaniards," 
(3  vols.,  1807-34,)  which  is  highly  commended.  Between 
1808  and  1814  he  employed  his  talents  and  influence 
against  the  French  invaders,  and  wrote  several  eloquent 
manifestoes  for  the  national  party.  These  services  were 
rewarded  with  rigorous  imprisonment  for  six  years 
(1814-20)  by  Ferdinand  VII.,  who  was  offended  because 
Quintana  advocated  liberal  principles.  He  propitiated 
the  king  by  an  ode  in  honour  of  his  marriage  in  1828, 
and  was  permitted  to  return  to  Madrid.  In  1835  he 
was  appointed  director-general  of  public  instruction, 
and  became  a  senator.  He  directed  the  education 
of  the  young  queen  in  1840-43.  He  was  publicly 
crowned  with  laurel  by  the  queen  in  1855.  Died  in 
March,  1857. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature:"  Kennedv, 
"Modern  Poets  of  Spain;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Quinte-Curce.    See  Quintus  Curtius. 
Quin-til'I-an,  [Lat.  Quintilia'nus  or  Quinctilia'- 

Nus  ;  Fr.  Quintilien,  klN'te1e4.N',]  (Marcus  Fabius,) 
a  celebrated  Roman  critic  and  teacher  of  rhetoric,  was 
born  probably  between  40  and  50  a.d.  Jerome  states 
that  he  was  a  native  of  Calagurris,  (Calahorra,)  in  the 
northern  part  of  Spain  ;  but  some  modern  writers  think 
he  was  born  in  Rome.  He  obtained  a  high  reputation 
as  a  pleader,  and  was  the  first  public  instructor  who 
received  from  the  imperial  treasury  a  regular  salary. 
Among  his  pupils  was  the  Younger  Pliny.  He  taught 
rhetoric  for  twenty  years,  and  retired  from  that  pro- 
fession in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  who  appointed  him 
preceptor  of  his  grand-nephews.  His  chief  work  is  a 
treatise  on  the  education  of  an  orator,  "  Institutio  Ora- 
toria,"  divided  into  twelve  books.  This  is  the  most 
complete  and  methodical  treatise  on  rhetoric  that  has 
come  down  to  us  from  antiquity.  An  entire  copy  of  it 
was  found  by  Poggio  at  Saint  Gall  in  141 7.  His  style 
is  clear,  elegant,  and  highly  polished.  His  practical 
ideas  are  good,  but  his  criticisms  are  rather  superficial. 
He  gives  judicious  precepts  for  students,  and  interesting 
details  of  the  education  and  classic  studies  of  the  an- 
cients. His  merit  consists  in  sound  judgment,  propriety, 
and  good  taste,  rather  than  in  originality  or  elevation  of 
mind.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  118  A.D.  He 
wrote  a  work  on  the  corruption  or  decadence  of  elo- 
quence, "De  Causis  Corruptae  Eloquentiae,"  which  is 
not  extant.  His  "Institutio"  has  been  translated  into 
English  by  Guthrie  (1756)  and  Patsall,  (1774.) 

See  RuDiGER,  "De  Quintiliano  Pjedagogo,"  1850 ;  V.  Otto, 
"Quintilian  und  Rousseau,"  1836;  J.  Janin,  "Pline  le  Jeune  et 
Quintilien,"  1838;  Hummel,  "  Quintiliani  Vita,"  1843;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Quintilianus.    See  Quintilian. 
Quintilien.    See  Quintilian. 

Quintinie,  de  la,  deh  It  kiN'te'ne',  (Jean,)  an  emi- 
nent French  gardener  and  writer  on  gardening,  was  born 
at  Chabanais  (Angoumois)  in  1626.  He  was  appointed 
intendant  of  the  fruit-gardens  of  the  king  at  Versailles 
in  1673.  He  made  much  improvement  in  the  cultivation 
of  fruit-trees,  and  left  a  work  which  was  for  a  long  time 
the  guide  of  French  cultivators.  It  is  entitled  "  Direc- 
tions for  Fruit  and  Kitchen  Gardens,"  ("  Instructions 
pour  les  Jardins  fruitiers  et  potagers,"  1690.)  Died  in 
1688. 

Quinto  Curzio.   See  Quintus  Curtius. 

Quin'tus  CaFa-ber  or  Q.  Smyr-nae'us,  (smir- 
nee'us,)  [Fr.  Quintus  De  Calabre,  k^N'tiiss'  deh  kt'- 
ItbR',  or  Quintus  de  Smyrne,  kiN^tiiss'  deh  sm^Rn,] 
a  Greek  poet,  known  only  as  the  author  of  one  poem,  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  about  500  a.d.  He  is  called 
Calaber  because  a  manuscript  of  his  work  was  found 
in  Calabria.  According  to  his  own  statement,  he  was  a 
native  of  Smyrna.  He  wrote  a  continuation  of  Homer's 
"  Iliad,"  {'Ofxr/pov  TiapaTinrdfieva,)  which  contains  some 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

117 


QUINTUS 


1858 


RABELAIS 


beautiful  passages.    The  subjects  of  it  are  those  events 
of  the  Trojan  war  which  are  not  related  by  Homer. 
Quintus  Claudius  Quadrigarius.    See  Quadri- 

GARIUS. 

Quin'tus  Cur'tius  (kur'she-us)  Ru'fus,  [Fr.  Quinte- 
CuRCE,  k^Nt  kiiRss ;  It.  Q^nto  CuRzro,  kw^n'to 
kooRt'se-o,]  a  Roman  historian  of  uncertain  period,  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  after  the  Augustan  age.  Nothing 
is  known  of  his  birthplace  or  personal  history.  We 
find  in  ancient  writers  no  passage  which  certainly  refers 
to  him.  He  is  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great,"  ("  De  Rebus  Alexandri  Magni  Regis 
Macedonum,")  in  ten  books,  of  which  the  first  and  second 
are  lost.  The  merit  of  this  history  is  variously  estimated. 
His  style  is  easy,  clear,  and  rhetorical.  He  is  deficient 
in  critical  judgment  and  in  a  knowledge  of  geography 
and  military  tactics.  Among  his  modern  admirers  are 
Vossius,  Bayle,  Rapin,  Tiraboschi,  and  La  Harpe.  His 
work  has  been  translated  into  English  by  Brende  and 
Digby. 

See  BuTTMANN,  "  Ueber  das  Leben  des  Geschichtschreibers 
Quintus  Curtius  Rufus,"  1820;  J.  E.  Muller,  "  Programma  de 
Q.  Curtio  Rufo,"  1695;  Adolph  Hirt,  "Ueber  das  Leben  des 
Geschichtschreibers  Q.  Curtius  Rufus,"  1820;  Niebuhr,  "Kleine 
Schriften,"  i. 

Quintus  de  Calabre  or  de  Smyrne.  See  Quin- 
tus Calaber. 

Quiot  du  Passage,  ke'o'  dii  pt'stzh',  (J^:r6me 
Joachim,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Alixan  (Drome)  in 
1775  ;  died  in  1849. 

Quirini.    See  Querinl 

Quirinus,  a  surname  of  Romulus,  (which  see.) 


Quiroga,  ke-ro'ga,  (Jos6,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  born  in 
Galicia  in  1707.  About  1745  he  was  sent  by  the  King 
of  Spain  to  explore  Patagonia.  He  wrote  a  journal  of 
his  voyage,  which  was  inserted  by  Charlevoix  in  his 
"  History  of  Paraguay,"    Died  in  1784. 

Quiros,  kee'ris,  (Lorenzo,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
in  Estremadura  in  1 717.  He  worked  at  Seville,  and 
imitated  Murillo  with  success.    Died  in  1789. 

Quiros,  (Pedro.)    See  Queiros. 

Quirot,  ke'ro',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  advocate, 
born  in  Franche-Comte  about  1760,  was  a  moderate 
member  of  the  Convention,  (1792-95.)  In  the  trial  of 
the  king  he  voted  for  imprisonment.    Died  in  1830. 

Quistorp,  kwis'toRp,  (Johann,)  a  German  Lutheran 
divine  and  biblical  commentator,  born  at  Rostock  in 
1584.  He  became  professor  of  divinity  in  his  native 
city  in  1614.    Died  in  1648. 

Quistorp,  von,  fon  kwis'toRp,  (Johann  Christian,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Rostock  in  1737,  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Biitzow.    Died  in  1795, 

Quita,  kee'ta,  (Domingos  dos  Reis,)  a  Portuguese 
poet,  born  in  1728.  He  wrote  "Inez  de  Castro,"  and 
other  tragedies.    Died  in  1770, 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetrj'  of  Europe." 

Quit'man,  (John  Anthony,)  an  American  general 
and  Democratic  politician,  born  in  Dutchess  county, 
New  York,  in  1799.  Appointed  to  the  command  of  a 
brigade  in  1846,  he  fought  with  distinction  in  the  prin- 
cipal engagements  of  the  Mexican  war,  and  was  subse- 
quently elected  Governor  of  Mississippi.  He  was  chosen 
a  member  of  Congress  in  1855  and  in  1857,   Died  in  1858. 

See  Claiborne,  "  Life  of  J.  A.  Quitman,"  i860. 


R. 


Rabanis,  rt'bt'n^ss',  (Jean,)  a  French  historian,  born 
about  1800.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Bordeaux,"  (ist 
vol.,  1837,) 

Raban  Maur,    See  Rabanus. 

Rabanus  Maurus  Magnentius,  rS-bi'nus  mow'- 
rus  mig-n§n'se-us,  [Fr.  Raban  Maur,  rt'bdN'  moR,]  a 
German  theologian,  born  at  or  near  Mentz  about  786  or 
776  A.D.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Mentz  in  847.  He 
wrote  commentaries  on  Scripture,  and  was  regarded  as 
one  of  the  greatest  scholars  and  writers  of  his  time. 
Died  in  856  a.d. 

See  "  GaUia  Christiana  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rabaut,  rt'bo',  (Paul,)  an  eininent  French  Protestant 
minister,  born  at  Bedarieux  in  1718.  He  preached  many 
years  at  Nimes,  and  was  much  persecuted.  Died  at 
Nimes  in  1794. 

See  J.  Pons,  "  Notice  sur  P.  Rabaut,"  1808. 

Rabaut-Pommier,  rt'bo'  po'me^',  (Jacques  An- 
TOINE,)  a  French  Girondist,  born  atTJimes  iii  1744,  was 
.1  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  elected  to  the  Conven- 
tion in  1792,  was  proscribed  in  1793,  and  imprisoned 
until  the  9th  Thermidor,  1794.  In  1801  he  became  pas- 
tor of  the  Protestant  Church  of  Paris.  Some  French 
writers  claim  for  him  the  honour  of  the  discovery  of 
vaccination.    Died  in  1820. 

See  Haag,  "  La  France  protestante." 

Rabaut-Saint-^tienne,  rt'bo'  siN^ti'te-^n',  (Jean 
Paul,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Nimes  in 
1743,  and  was  a  Protestant  minister  before  the  Revolu- 
tion. He  distinguished  himself  by  his  eloquence  in  the 
Constituent  Assembly,  (1789-92,)  and  voted  against  the 
death  of  the  king  in  the  Convention.  Having  taken  side 
with  the  Girondists,  he  was  outlawed  in  July,  and  exe- 
cuted in  December,  1793,  He  left  several  able  historical 
and  political  works. 

See  Collin  de  Plancy,  "  Notice  de  Rabaut-Saint-fitienne," 
prefixed  to  his  works,  1826;  Haag,  "La  France  protestante;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rabbe,  rtb,  (Alphonse,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Riez,  in  Provence,  in  1786.  He  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  "  Biographie  universelle  des  Contemporains,"  by 
Rabbe,  Boisiolin,  and  Saint-Preuve.    Died  in  1830, 

Rabel,  rrb^K,  (Daniel,)  a  French  painter  of  por- 
traits and  flowers,  was  born  about  1578;  died  after  1630, 


Rabel,  (Jean,)  a  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Beau- 
vais,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  painted 
portraits  of  several  kings  and  queens.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1603. 

RabelaBsius.    See  Rabelais. 

Rabelais,  rt'beh-li'  or  rtl/la',  [Lat.  Rabel^'sius,] 
(Francois,)  a  famous  and  humorous  French  satirist, 
born  at  Chinon,  in  Touraine,  in  1495,  '^^^  some  say,  in 
1483,  At  an  early  age  he  joined  the  order  of  Franciscans, 
but,  finding  the  monastic  life  incompatible  with  his  genial 
disposition,  he  quitted  the  convent  without  the  consent 
of  his  superiors.  He  had  made  himself  master  of  Greek, 
Latin,  and  other  languages.  He  was  also  versed  in 
several  sciences.  It  is  difficult  or  impossible  to  distin- 
guish the  real  events  of  his  life  amidst  the  multitude  of 
strange  adventures  and  ludicrous  anecdotes  which  are 
told  respecting  hitn.  He  began  to  study  medicine  at 
Montpellier  alDout  1530,  after  which  he  practised  at 
Lyons.  In  1536  he  accompanied  to  Rome  the  ambas- 
sador Cardinal  Du  Bellay,  who  had  been  his  friend  in 
early  life.  He  obtained  absolution  from  the  pope  for  his 
neglect  of  the  monastic  vows,  and  took  his  degree  in 
medicine  at  Montpellier  in  1537,  His  chief  work  is  a 
humorous  romance,  entitled  "The  Pleasant  Story  of  the 
Giant  Gargantua  and  his  Son  Pantagruel,"  ("  Les  Faits 
et  Diets  du  Geant  Gargantua  et  de  son  Fils  Panta- 
gruel,") in  which  he  satirizes  all  classes  of  society,  es- 
pecially the  monks.  He  obtained  from  Francis  I,  in 
1545  a  privilege  to  print  the  third  part  of  this  work. 
The  first  part  had  been  published  anonymously  in  1535. 
The  work  was  denounced  as  heretical  by  the  clergy  and 
monks,  but  the  author  was  protected  by  Francis  I.  He 
became  curate  of  Meudon  about  1545.  Died  about  1553. 

"The  most  celebrated,"  says  Hallam,  "and  certainly 
the  most  brilliant  performance  in  the  path  of  fiction  that 
belongs  to  this  age  is  that  of  Rabelais.  Few  books  are 
less  likely  to  obtain  the  praise  of  a  rigorous  critic  ;  but 
few  have  more  the  stamp  of  originality,  or  show  a  more 
redundant  fertility  always  of  language  and  sometimes  of 
imagination."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Eu- 
rope.") "  Beyond  a  doubt,"  says  Coleridge,  "  he  was 
among  the  deepest  as  well  as  boldest  thinkers  of  his 
age.  ...  I  class  Rabelais  with  the  great  creative  minds, 
Shakspeare,  Dante,  Cervantes,  etc." 


5,  e,  1,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RABENER 


1859 


RACINE 


A  good  edition  of  his  chief  work  was  published  by 
Burgaud  des  Marets  and  Rathery,  (2  vols.,  1858.) 

See  Delecluse,  "  F.  Rabelais,"  1841;  P.  Lacroix,  "Vie  de 
Rabelais,"  1859;  E.  Noel,  "Legendes  Francaises ;  Rabelais," 
1859;  Almquist,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  F.  Rabelsesii," 
1838;  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  French  Writers,"  by  Mrs. 
Shelley;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1843  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  November, 
1849;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1839. 

Rabener,  r^'beh-ner,  (Gottlieb  Wilhelm,)  a  popu- 
lar German  writer,  born  near  Leipsic  in  17 14,  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Gellert.  He  published  a  collection 
of  satires  in  the  form  of  letters,  (1751,)  also  "Friendly 
Letters."  He  was  employed  many  years  at  Dresden  as 
counsellor  in  the  department  of  customs.    Died  in  177L 

See  MuRR,  "An  Rabeners  Schatten,"  1771  ;  Gervinus,  "  Natio- 
nalliteratur." 

Ra-birl-us,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  poet,  was  a  contem- 
porary of  Virgil.  He  wrote  a  poem  on  the  battle  of 
Actium,  fragments  of  which  are  extant. 

Rabirius,  (Caius,)  a  Roman,  who  was  accused  of 
complicity  in  the  death  of  Saturninus.  He  was  defended 
by  Cicero  (63  B.C.)  in  a  speech,  part  of  which  is  extant. 

Raboteau,  rt'bo't5',  (Piprre  Paul,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1765  ;  died  in  1825. 

Rabou,  ri'boo',  (Charle.s,)  a  French  novelist  and 
journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1803. 

Rabuel,  rt^bii-^K,  (Claude,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  at  Ponte-de-Vesle  in  1669  ;  died  at  Lyons  in  1728. 

Rabus,  ri'bus,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  poet,"  born  at  Rot- 
terdam in  1660.  He  wrote  "Britain  Delivered,"  ("Ver- 
iest Britannie,"  1689,)  and  some  prose  works.  Died  in 
1702. 

Rabutin.    See  Bussy-Rabutin. 

Rabutin,  de,  deh  rfbii'tSx',  (Francois,)  a  French 
historical  writer,  was  a  grandfather  of  Bussy-Rabutin. 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  War  between  Henry  H. 
and  Charles  V.,"  (1555.)    Died  in  1582. 

Racagni,  rS-kin'yee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  pro- 
fessor of  physical  sciences,  born  near  Voghera  in  1741. 
He  wrote  "Theory  of  Fluids,"  ("Teorica  de'  Fluid!," 
1779.)    Died  at  Milan  in  1822. 

Racan,  de,  deh  rS'kSx',  (Honorat  de  Bueil — deh 
bul  or  buh'ye,)  Marquis,  a  French  poet,  born  in  Tou- 
raine  in  1589,  was  a  friend  of  Malherbe.  He  wrote 
"Les  Bergeries,"  ("  Pastorals,"  1628,)  and  other  poems. 
"  Racan  had  more  genius  than  Malherbe,"  says  Boileau, 
"but  he  was  more  negligent."  He  was  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.    Died  in  1670. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Racchetti,  rik-ket'tee,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Milan  in  1639  ;  died  in  1702. 

Ra'chel,  [Heb.  ;  It.  Rachele,  ri-ka'li,]  a  He- 
brew matron,  was  a  daughter  of  Laban,  and  the  favourite 
wife  of  the  patriarch  Jacob. 

See  Genesis  xxix.,  xxx.,  xxxi.,  and  xxxv. 

Rachel,  rt'sh^l',  (  Elisabeth  Rachel  F6lix,  )  a  ! 
French  tragic  actress,  born  in  the  canton  of  Argovie,  j 
Switzerland,  in  1821,  was  a  daughter  of  a  Jewish  ped-  | 
lar.     She  made  her  debut  at  the  Theatre  Fran9ais 
of  Paris  in  1838,  and  performed  parts  in  the  tragedies 
of  Corneille  and  Racine  with  great  success.    Her  gait,  j 
attitudes,  gestures,  and  voice  concurred  to  produce  power-  j 
ful  effects  with  a  great  simplicity  of  means.    She  was  I 
much  applauded  in  the  ro/es  of  "  Marie  Stuart"  and  j 
"Joan  of  Arc."    In  1855  she  performed  in  New  York,  | 
Boston,  and  Philadelphia.    She  died  near  Cannes  (Var) 
in  1858. 

See  EucfeME  deMirecourt,  "  Mademoiselle  Rachel L.  Beau- 
vali.et,  "  Rachel  et  le  Nouveau-Monde,"  1S56;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Rachel,  rSK'el,  (Joachim,)  a  German  satirical  poet, 
born  at  Lunden,  Holstein,  in  1618.  He  was  rector  of 
colleges  at  Norden  and  Sleswick,  and  wrote  ten  satires, 
(1664,)  in  which  he  imitated  Juvenal  and  Persius  with 
some  success.    Died  in  1669. 

See  Gervinus,  "  Nationalliteratur." 

Rachetti,  rl-ket'tee,  or  Racchetti,  rik-ket'tee, 
(Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at  Crema  in 
1777.  He  wrote  a  "  Theory  of  the  Physical  Prosperity 
of  Nations,"  (1802.)    Died  in  1819. 

See  Cornelian!,  "  Elogiodel  Professore  V.  Rachetti,"  1832. 


Racine,  rt's^n',  (Bonaventure,)  a  French  Jansenist 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Noyon  in  1 708,  was  a 
relative  of  the  poet  Racine.  He  published  an  "  Eccle- 
siastical History,"  (13  vols.,  1748-56.)    Died  in  1755. 

Racine,  ras'seen'  or  ri's^n',  (Jean,)  an  excellent 
French  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Ferte-Milon  (Aisne)  De- 
cember 21,  1639.  His  parents,  who  were  bourgeois,  died 
before  he  was  four  years  old.  He  studied  at  the  College 
of  Beauvais,  and  afterwards  at  the  famous  school  of  Port- 
Royal,  in  which  he  passed  three  years,  (1655-58.)  He 
became  a  good  Latin  and  Greek  scholar.  He  began  his 
poetical  career  by  "La  Nymphe  de  la  Seine,"  (1660,)  an 
ode  on  occasion  of  the  marriage  of  Louis  XIV.,  which 
procured  for  him  a  small  pension.  Having  become  dis- 
gusted with  the  study  of  theology,  which  an  uncle  had 
persuaded  him  to  pursue,  he  went  to  Paris,  and  forn^ 
friendships  with  Boileau  and  Moliere.  He  produced^n 
1664  the  tragedy  of  "  La  Thebaide,  ou  les  Freres  enne- 
mis,"  which  had  some  success.  The  first  work  which 
revealed  the  power  and  peculiar  character  of  his  genius 
was  "  Andromaque,"  (1667.)  In  1668  he  surprised  the 
public  by  a  comedy  called  "  The  Litigants,"  ("  Les  Plai- 
deurs,")  which  was  very  successful.  He  afterwards  pro- 
duced the  tragedies  of  "  Britannicus,"  (1669,)  "  Bere- 
nice," (1670,)  "  Bajazet,"  (1672,)  "  Jjfithridate,"  (1673,) 
"Iphigenie,"  (1674,)  and  "  Phedre,*(i677.)  "I  avow," 
says  \^oltaire,  "  that  I  regard  '  Iphigenie'  as  the  chef- 
d'mivre  of  the  stage."  He  was  admitted  into  the 
French  Academy  in  1673. 

At  the  age  of  thirty-eight  he  resolved  to  renounce 
dramatic  composition.  This  resolution  is  variously 
ascribed  to  religious  scruples,  wounded  sensibilities,  or 
disgust  excited  by  envious  intrigues  and  malicious  criti- 
cisms. He  married  in  1677  a  pious  young  woman  of 
Amiens,  named  Catherine  Romanet,  and  was  appointed 
historiographer  by  Louis  XIV.  In  compliance  with  the 
wish  of  Madame  de  Maintenon,  Racine  wrote  "  Esther," 
a  drama,  (1689,)  and  "  Athalie,"  (1691,)  which  was  his 
last,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  Boileau,  his  best,  drama.  In 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  was  geiitleman-in-ordinary 
to  the  king,  who  often  conversed  with  him,  and  treated 
him  with  favour.  Among  his  intimate  friends  were 
Boileau,  La  Fontaine,  and  La  Bruyere.  Racine  wrote 
about  1695  a  "  History  of  Port-Royal,"  the  style  of 
which  is  so  neat  and  perspicuous  that  it  entitles  him  to 
rank  in  the  list  of  those  authors  who  have  succeeded 
both  in  verse  and  prose.  His  natural  disposition  was 
rather  melancholy  and  tender.  During  the  last  twenty 
years  of  his  life  he  was  a  devout  member  of  the  Church. 
He  died  on  the  21st  of  April,  1699. 

It  is  usual  to  compare  Racine  with  Corneille  as  a  rival 
poet.  "Voltaire,  La  Harpe,  and  in  general  the  later 
French  critics,"  says  Hallam,  "have  given  the  prefer- 
ence to  Racine.  I  presume  to  join  my  suffrage  to  theirs. 
Racine  appears  to  me  the  superior  tragedian ;  and  I 
must  add  that  I  think  him  next  to  Shakspeare  among 
all  the  moderns.  The  comparison  with  Euripides  is  so 
natural  that  it  can  hardly  be  avoided.  Certainly  no 
tragedy  of  the  Greek  poet  is  so  skilful  or  perfect  as 
'Athalie'  or  'Britannicus.'  .  .  .  The  style  of  Racine  is 
exquisite.  Perhaps  he  is  second  only  to  Virgil  among 
all  poets.  But  I  will  give  the  praise  of  this  in  the  words 
of  a  native  critic :  '  If  we  consider  that  his  perfection  in 
these  respects  may  be  opposed  to  that  of  Virgil,  and 
that  he  spoke  a  language  less  flexible,  less  poetical,  and 
less  harmonious,  we  shall  readijy  believe  that  Racine  is, 
of  all  mankind,  the  one  to  whom  nature  has  given  the 
greatest  talent  for  versification.'  (La  Harpe.)  " 

See  "  Memoirs  of  J.  Racine,"  by  bis  son  Louis,  1747;  La  Harpe, 
"  filoge  de  Racine,"  1772;  S.-\inte-Bel've,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi;" 
Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale  ;"  L.  A.  C.  Beyle,  "Racine  et  Shakspeare,"  2  vols.,  1823- 
25;  Naigeon,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Racine,"  1783;  Villemain, 
"  Cours  de  Literature ;"  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  Erench 
Writers,"  by  Mrs.  Shelley. 

Racine,  (Louis,)  the  second  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1692,  and  was  a  poet  and  critic  of 
considerable  merit.  Boileau  advised  him  not  to  write 
verse;  for,  said  he,  "since  the  world  began  there  has 
been  no  instance  of  two  great  poets  related  to  each  other 
as  father  and  son."  He  wrote  a  poem  entitled  "La 
Grace,"  (1720,)  and  another  entitled  "La  Religion," 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RACK 


i860 


RADOWITZ 


(1742,)  which  was  highly  praised  by  J.  B,  Rousseau, 
and  passed  through  sixty  editions.  He  was  employed 
for  many  years  as  clerk  or  collector  of  taxes,  (directeur 
des  fervies.)  In  1755  his  son  was  drowned  at  Cadiz  by 
the  earthquake  which  nearly  destroyed  Lisbon.  Died 
in  1763. 

See  Le  Peau,  "filoge  de  Louis  Racine,"  1763;  Adrien  de  la 
RoQUE,  "Vie  de  L.  Racine,"  1852;  "  Nouvelie  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Rack,  (Edmund,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Norfolk 
in  1735  ;  died  in  1787. 

Racle,  rtkl,  (Leonard,)  a  French  architect,  born  in 
Dijon  in  1736.  He  was  employed  at  Ferney  by  Voltaire, 
who  recommended  him  to  the  prime  minister  Choiseul. 
Died  in  1791. 

^Raczynski,  rS-chin'skee,  (Athanasius,)  a  Polish 
■m-iter  on  art,  born  in  1788.  He  was  Prussian  minister 
at  Copenhagen,  Lisbon,  and  Madrid  from  1840  to  1853. 
He  wrote  (in  French)  a  "  History  of  Modern  Art  in 
Germany,"  (3  vols.,  1836-42,)  which  is  a  work  of  some 
merit. 

Raczynski,  (Eduard,)  a  Polish  count  and  writer, 
born  at  Posen  in  1786,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  presented  to  his  native  city  a  library  of  twenty  thou- 
sand volumes.  Aj»ong  his  publications  are  "Travels  in 
the  Ottoman  Empffe,"  (1821,)  and  a  "Cabinet  of  Polish 
Medals,"  (4  vols.,  1841-45.)  He  committed  suicide  in 
1845. 

Rad'bert,  [Fr.  pron.  rtd'baiR',]  (Paschase,)  a  French 
monk,  born  near  Soissons.  He  wrote  several  works, 
one  of  which  is  *'  On  the  Eucharist."  He  advocated 
the  dogma  of  transubstantiation.    Died  in  865  a.d. 

Radcliffe  or  Radclyffe,  rad''klif,  (Ann,)  a  popular 
English  novelist,  born  in  London  in  1764.  Her  maiden 
name  was  Ward.  She  was  married  about  1786  to  Wil- 
liam Radcliffe,  editor  of  the  "English  Chronicle."  Her 
most  successful  works  are  "The  Romance  of  the  Forest," 
(1791,)  and  "The  Mysteries  of  Udolpho,"  (1794.)  The 
terrible,  sombre,  mysterious,  and  marvellous  predomi- 
nate in  her  compositi(Mis.    Died  in  1823. 

See  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works;  Mrs. 
Elwood,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the 
Commencement  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  ii.,  1843:  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1834;  "Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1792,  and 
March,  1797. 

Radcliffe,  (James.)    See  Derwentwater. 

Radcliffe,  (John,)  a  successful  English  physician, 
born  at  Wakefield,  Yorkshire,  in  1650,  was  educated  at 
Oxford.  He  settled  in  London  in  1684,  and  soon  ob- 
tained a  large  practice,  to  which  his  talent  for  pleasantry 
and  witticisms  is  said  to  have  contributed.  He  became 
chief  physician  to  the  princess  Anne  in  1686,  after  which 
date  he  was  employed  professionally  by  King  William, 
whom  he  once  offended  by  his  rudeness  or  freedom  of 
speech.  He  died  in  November,  1 7 14.  He  bequeathed 
;^40,ooo  to  build  or  found  a  library  at  Oxford  which 
bears  his  name,  and  other  large  sums  for  charitable  uses. 

See  W.  PiTTis,  "  Radcliffe's  Life  and  Letters,"  1715  ;  "  Biogra- 
phia  Britannica." 

Radcliffe  or  Ratcliffe,  (Thomas,)  Earl  of  Sussex, 
an  English  statesinan,  born  about  1526,  was  a  son  of 
Henry,  Earl  of  Sussex.  He  was  sent  to  Spain  to  nego- 
tiate the  marriage  between  Queen  Mary  and  Philip  IL, 
and  on  his  return  became  lord  deputy  of  Ireland.  Li 
1569  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  North.  He 
rendered  important  services  in  the  suppression  of  the 
northern  rebellion.  He  became  lord  chamberlain  about 
1572.    Died  in  1583. 

Raddi,  rSdMee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  botanist,  born 
at  Florence  in  1770.  He  was  associated  in  1828  with 
Rosellini  and  Champollion  in  a  mission  to  Egypt.  When 
about  to  return  home,  he  died  at  Rhodes  in  1829. 

See  G.  Savi,  "Alia  Memoria  di  G.  Raddi,"  1S30. 

Radegunde,  rrdeh-goon'deh,  or  Radegonde,  rt'- 

deh-goNd',  a  Thuringian  princess,  whom  Clothaire  I. 
made  captive  and  forced  to  become  his  wife.  She  was 
noted  for  piety,  and  abounded  in  works  of  charity  to  the 
poor.  She  escaped  from  Clothaire  about  544  a.d.,  be- 
came a  nun,  and  founded  a  large  convent  at  Poitiers. 
Died  in  587  a.d. 

See  Ed.  de  Flei;rv.  "Viede  Sainte-Radegonde,"  1843;  "Nou- 
velie Biographic  Generale." 


I    Rademacher,  ra'deh-maK^er,  or  Radermacher,  xV- 

der-maK'er,  (J.  C.  M.,)  a  Dutch  geographer,  born  in  1741. 
j  He  founded  the  Society  of  Sciences  at  Batavia  in  1778. 
Died  at  sea  in  1783. 

Rademacher,  ri'deh-tnSK'er,  (Johann  Gottfried,) 
a  distinguished  German  physician,  born  at  Hamm  in 
1772  ;  died  in  1849. 

Rademacker.    See  Rademaker. 

Rademaker,  ri'deh-mak'er,  written  also  Rade- 
macker, (Abraham,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter  and 
engraver  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1675. 
He  painted  in  oil  and  in  water-colours.  His  landscapes 
are  adorned  with  figures,  ruins,  and  buildings.  He  pro- 
duced after  his  own  designs  many  engravings,  which  are 
highly  prized.    Died  in  1735. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Rademaker  or  Rademacker,  (Gerard,)  an  emi- 
nent painter  of  history  and  architecture,  born  at  Amster- 
dam in  1673,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  studied  in  Rome,  and  returned  to  Holland. 
He  excelled  in  invention,  in  facility  of  execution,  and  in 
perspective.    Died  in  1711. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc. 

Rader,  r^'der,  [Lat.  Rade'rus,]  (Matthaus,)  a 
learned  Jesuit,  born  in  the  Tyrol  in  1561.  He  wrote 
notes  on  Quintus  Curtius  and  Martial,  and  several 
original  works,  among  which  is  "  Bavaria  Sancta,"  (3 
vols.,  1625-27.)    Died  at  Mimich  in  1634. 

Rader  or  Raeder,  ra'der,  (Jacob  Tode,)  a  military 
writer,  born  in  Norway  in  1798.  He  wrote  a  "Military 
and  Political  History  of  Denmark,"  (3  vols.,  1845-52.) 

Raderus.    See  Rader. 

Radet,  ri'di',  (Etienne,)  a  French  general,  born  at 
Stenay  in  1762.  He  was  made  a  general  of  brigade  in 
1800  by  Bonaparte,  who  gave  him  the  chief  command 
of  all  the  gendartnerie,  (armed  police.)  In  1809  he  was 
ordered  to  Rome.  In  July  of  that  year  he  arrested  the 
pope  in  his  palace  and  conducted  him  to  Florence.  He 
received  the  title  of  baron,  (1809,)  and  became  a  general 
of  division  in  1813.    Died  in  1825. 

See  "Nouvelie  Biographie  Generale." 

Radet,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1752.    He  wrote  vaudevilles.    Died  in  1830. 

Radetzky,  rl-d^t'skee,  (Joseph  Wenzel,)  a  cele- 
brated field-marshal  in  the  Austrian  service,  born  in 
Bohemia  in  1766.  He  served  in  the  Turkish  campaigi^s 
of  1788-89,  and  subsequently  against  the  French  on  the 
Rhine  and  in  Italy.  For  his  distinguished  bravery  at 
the  battle  of  Wagrara  he  was  made  lieutenant-field-mar- 
shal, and  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  campaigns  from 
1813  to  181 5.  In  the  revolution  of  1848  he  effected  a 
masterly  retreat  from  Milan,  then  in  open  revolt  against 
Austria,  and,  having  soon  after  gained  several  advantages 
over  the  Sardinians  under  Charles  Albert,  signally  de- 
feated them  at  Novara  in  March,  1849.  He  next  took 
possession  of  Venice,  after  an  obstinate  siege,  and  was 
appointed  governor-general  and  military  commander  of 
Upper  Italy.  He  had  been  created  a  field-marshal  in 
1836,  and  had  received  the  order  of  Maria  Theresa  and 
the  principal  military  orders  of  Euro])e.    Died  in  1858. 

See  Graf  Radetzky,  "  Biographische  Skizze  nach  den  eigenen 
Dictaten,"  etc.,  Stuttgart,  1858;  Prince  Trubetzkoi,  "  Les  Cam- 
pagnes  de  Radetzky,"  1861 ;  "Jahrbuch  zum  Conversations-Lexi- 
kon,"  i860. 

Rad'ford,  (William,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  Virginia.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1825.  He 
adhered  to  the  Union  in  1861,  and  commanded  the 
Ironsides  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Fisher  in  December, 
1864.    He  was  appointed  rear-admiral  in  July,  1866. 

Radier,  du.    See  Dkeux  du  Radier. 

Rad'nor,  (William  Pleydell  Bouverie,)  Earl 
OF,  an  English  peer,  born  in  1779.  He  acted  with  the 
Liberal  party. 

Radonvilliers,  de,  deh  rtM6N've'ye-i',  (Claude 
Franqois  Lysarde,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1709.  He  became  sub-preceptor  of  the  princes  in  1757, 
and  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1763. 
Ainong  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on  Grammar,"  (1768.) 
Died  in  1789. 

Radowitz,  von,  fon  rJMo-^^its',  (Joseph,)  a  Prussian 
statesman  and  general,  born  at  Blankenburg  in  1797, 


a,  e, T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


RADZIWILL 


1861 


RAGNAR 


became  professor  of  mathematics  at  the  military  school 
at  Cassel,  and  was  subsequently  appointed  teacher  to 
Prince  Albert.  He  was  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the 
Diet  at  Frankfort  in  1836.  He  published  several  works 
on  mathematics  and  military  aflfairs.    Died  in  1853. 

Radziwill,  rM'ze-\^il,  (Christopher,)  a  Lithuanian 
general,  born  in  1585.  He  commanded  a  Polish  army 
which  held  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  check  in  Livonia  and 
Courland.    Died  in  1640. 

Radziwill,  (George,)  a  Lithuanian  general,  born  in 
1480.  He  gained  a  number  of  victories  over  the  Mus- 
covites and  Tartars,  and  in  1533  obtained  the  rank  of 
grand  general.    Died  in  1 541. 

Radziwill,  (Nicolas,)  a  Lithuanian  nobleman,  born 
about  1 5 15.  He  was  palatin  of  Wilna,  and  a  zealous 
supporter  of  the  Reformation.    Died  about  1565. 

Rae,  ra,  (Sir  William,)  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born  in 
1772,  was  a  son  of  Sir  David  Rae,  a  judge.  He  became 
a  conservative  member  of  Parliament,  and  lord  ad- 
vocate of  Scotland.    Died  in  1842. 

Raeburn,  ra'burn,  (Sir  Henry,)  a  British  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  or  near  Edinburgh  in  1756.  He  studied 
in  Italy,  from  which  he  returned  to  Edinburgh  in  1787. 
He  was  afterwards  the  most  eminent  porttait-painter 
of  that  city  or  of  all  Scotland.  In  181 5  he  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  London.  Among  his 
works  are  portraits  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Lord  Jeffrey, 
and  James  Watt.  The  heads  of  his  portraits  are  es- 
pecially admired.    Died  in  1823. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Raeder.    See  Rader. 
Raemond.    See  R^mond. 

Raepsaet,  rIp'sSt,  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  Belgian  histo- 
rian, born  in  1750.  He  sat  in  the  corps  legislatif  France 
from  1803  to  1813.  His  chief  work  is  "An  Analysis  of 
the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Civil,  Political,  and  Re- 
ligious Laws  of  the  Belgians  and  Gauls."    Died  in  1832. 

See  CoRNELissEN,  "  Notice  sur  M.  Raepsaet,"  1836. 

Raethel.    See  Rathel. 

Raffaelle  or  Raffaello.    See  Raphael. 

Raffaelli,  rif-fd-eKlee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  advo- 
cate and  jurist,  born  in  Calabria  in  1750.  He  succeeded 
Beccaria  in  the  chair  of  public  law  at  Milan  in  1801.  His 
chief  work  is  "Nomotesia  Penale,"  (5  vols.,  1820-25.) 
Died  at  Naples  in  1826. 

Raffaellino  dal  Colle.    See  Colle,  dal. 

Raffaellino  del  Garbo,  rlf-fa-§l-lee'no  del  gaR'bo,  a 
painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1466.  His  style  is  said  to 
have  degenerated  in  consequence  of  the  haste  with  which 
he  worked  after  he  began  to  be  pressed  with  the  care 
of  a  family.    Died  in  1524. 

Raifei,  rJf-fa'ee,  (Stefano,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born 
in  Tuscany  in  1712  ;  died  in  1788. 

Raffeneau-Delile,  rtfno'  deh-l^K,  (Alire,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1778.  He  was  associated 
with  the  savants  who  accompanied  the  expedition  to 
Egypt  in  1798,  and  performed  a  scientific  mission  to  the 
United  States  in  1803.  He  wrote  a  "Flora  of  Egypt," 
and  other  works.    Died  at  Montpellier  in  1850. 

Raffenel,  rtfnSK,  (Anne  Jean  Kaptiste,)  a  French 
traveller,  born  at  Versailles  in  1809.  He  published 
"Travels  in  Western  Africa,  comprising  the  Exploration 
of  the  Senegal,"  (1846,)  and  a  description  of  Soodan, 
entitled  "  New  Journey  in  the  Country  of  the  Negroes," 
("Nouveau  Voyage  dans  le  Pays  des  Negres,"  2  vols., 
1856.)    Died  in  Madagascar  in  1858. 

Raffenel,  (Claude  Denis,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
in  1797  ;  died  at  Athens  in  1827. 

Raffet,  rt'fi',  '(Denis  Auguste  Marie,)  a  French 
designer  and  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  pub- 
lished many  lithographs  of  battles  and  other  martial 
scenes.    Died  in  i860. 

Raffles,  raf  felz,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  English 
dissenting  minister,  born  in  London  in  1788,  was  a 
cousin  of  vSir  vStamford  Raffles.  He  became  minister 
of  a  Congregational  church  in  Great  George  Street, 
Liverpool,  about  1812,  and  acquired  a  wide  reputation 
as  a  preacher.  He  continued  to  occupy  that  ])ulpit 
about  fifty  years.  He  published  a  number  of  sermons 
and  lectures.    Died  in  Liverpool  in  1863. 

See  BAi.nwiN  Brown,  "  Life  of  Thomas  Raffles,"  1863. 


Raffles,  (Sir  Thomas  Stamford,)  an  English  natu- 
ralist and  administrator,  born  at  sea,  off  Jatnaica,  in 
1 781.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  government 
of  the  East  India  Company  at  Pulo-Penang  about  1806, 
and  became  in  1811  lieutenant-governor  of  Java,  to  the 
capture  of  which  he  had  greatly  contributed.  He  made 
researches  into  the  geography  and  natural  history  of 
that  island,  and  published  a  "  History  of  Java,"  (2  vols., 
181 7.)  In  1818  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-governor 
at  Bencoolen,  in  Sumatra,  in  the  zoology  of  which  he 
made  some  discoveries.  He  made  a  large  collection 
of  animals,  plants,  etc.,  many  of  which,  with  his  papers 
and  drawings,  were  destroyed  by  fire  on  board  of  a  ship, 
(1824.)  His  loss  was  estimated  at  ;,{^20,ooo.  He  re- 
signed in  1824,  and  died  in  England  in  1826. 

See  "Memoir  of  Sir  Thomas  Stamford  Raffles,"  by  his  wife, 
1830;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  March,  1830;  "  Monihly  Review"  for  August,  1818. 

Rafinesque,  rSTe'ngsk',  (C.  S.,)  born  near  Constan- 
tinople, of  French  parents,  in  1784,  became  professor  of 
botany  and  natural  history  at  Transylvania  University, 
Lexington,  Kentucky,  and  subsequently  settled  in  Phila- 
delphia. He  published  a  book  of  travels  and  several 
botanical  works.    Died  about  1840. 

Rafifort,  rt'foR',  (Etienne,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Chalons-sur-Saone  about  1805.  He  painted  land- 
scapes, sea-ports,  etc. 

Rafn,  rSfn,  (Carl  Christian,)  a  Danish  antiquary, 
distinguished  as  a  lover  of  Icelandic  literature,  was 
born  in  the  island  of  Fiinen  in  1796.  He  published 
"  Heroic  Traditions  of  the  North,"  (3  vols.,  1825-30,) 
"Nordlanda,"  (3  vols.,  1829-30,)  and  "American  An- 
tiquities," ("  Antiquitates  Americanae,"  1837,)  which 
contains  evidence  that  the  Icelanders  or  Scandinavians 
discovered  America  in  the  tenth  century.  He  resided 
at  Copenhagen.    Died  in  1865. 

See  Erslew,  "  Udsigt  over  C.  Rafn's  Levnet,"  1840,  and  "For- 
fatter-Lexicon." 

Raggi,  rid'jee,  (Nicolas  Bernard,)  a  sculptor,  born 
at  Carrara  in  1 791,  worked  at  Paris.  Among  his  works 
are  statues  of  Henry  IV.,  "Bayard  dying,"  and  "  Meta- 
bus,  King  of  the  Volsci."    Died  in  1862. 

RagTan,(jAMES  Henry  Fitzroy  Somerset,)  Baron, 
an  English  general,  born  in  1788,  was  a  younger  son  of 
Henry,  fifth  Duke  of  Beaufort.  His  mother  was  a 
daughter  of  Admiral  Boscawen.  He  served  as  aide-de- 
camp to  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in  the  Peninsula  from 
1809  to  1814,  and  at  Waterloo,  where  he  lost  his  right 
arm.  In  1819  he  became  military  secretary  to  the  Duke 
of  Wellington,  whom  he  accompanied  to  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  and  that  of  Verona,  (1822.)  He  was  appointed 
master-general  of  the  ordnance  in  1852,  and  raised  to 
the  peerage  as  Baron  Raglan.  Before  this  promotion 
he  was  styled  Lord  Fitzroy  Somerset.  He  commanded 
the  British  army  in  the  Crimean  war,  which  began  in 

1854,  and  co-operated  with  the  French  at  Alma  in  Sep- 
tember. His  army  suffered  great  disasters  during  the 
long  siege  of  Sebastopol,  (1854-55,)  for  want  of  pro- 
visions, etc.  He  was  painfully  affected  by  the  repulses 
and  losses  of  the  allies,  and  died  in  the  camp  in  June, 

1855,  leaving  his  title  to  his  son,  Richard  Henry  Fitzroy. 
See  E.  Texier,  "  Les  Hommes  de  la  Guerre  d'Orient:  Lord 

Raglan,"  1854;  "Biographical  Sketches,"  by  H.  Martineau; 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1857. 

Ragnar,  rSg'nar,  (or  Ragnar  Lodbrok — lod'brok,) 
written  also  Reg'ner,  a  famous  legendary  hero  of  the 
Northmen,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  son  of  King 
Sigurd  of  Sweden,  and  to  have  lived  about  800  A.3. 
Matthew  Arnold  calls  him* 

"  No  god,  but  of  the  hero  troop  the  chief, — 
Regner,  who  swept  the  northern  sea  vvitli  fleets. 
And  ruled  o'er  Denmark  and  the  heathy  isles ; 
*         *  «  *          «         *  « 

A  king  whose  fame  then  filled  the  vast  of  Heaven; 
Now  time  obscures  it,  and  men's  later  deeds." 

He  is  regarded  as  the  most  striking  type  of  the  ancient 
vikings  of  the  North.  There  is  a  legendary  history  of 
him,  entitled  "  History  of  King  Ragnar  Lodbrok  and  his 
Sons,"  ("  Saga  af  Ragnari  Konungi  LoSbrok  ok  Sonum 
bans,")  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  in  the 


*  In  the  poem  entitled  "  Balder  Dead." 


€  as     g  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Y.,guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (St^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RAGNJROCK 


1862 


RAINS 


fourteenth  century,  although  it  contains  many  poems  of 
an  older  date,  belonging  to  the  golden  age  of  Skaldic 
literature, — that  is,  about  the  tenth  century.  (For  an 
account  of  some  of  the  principal  events  of  the  life  of 
Ragnar,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Thorpe's  "Northern 
Mythology,"  vol.  i.  pp.  108-113;  see,  also,  the  Intro- 
duction to  Keyser's  "  Religion  of  the  Northmen.") 
Ragnarock.    See  LoKi. 

Ragon,  rt'g6N',  (F.,)  a  French  historian,  born  about 
1795.  He  published  a  "General  History  of  Modern 
Times,"  (3  vols.,  1846,)  and  other  works. 

Ragotzky.    See  Rakoczy. 

Ragueau,  rt'go',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Bourges  ;  died  in  1605. 

Raguenet,  rtg'ni',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  priest  and 
litterateur,  born  at  Rouen  about  1660.  He  published  a 
"  Life  of  Cromwell, "(1691,)  "  The  Monuments  of  Rome," 
(1700,)  and  a  "Life  of  Turenne,"  (1738.)    Died  in  1722. 

Raguet,  ri'ga',  ?  (Condy,)  an  American  diplomatist 
and  writer,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1784,  was  appointed 
in  1822  consul  at  Rio  Janeiro.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
treatise  "On  Currency  and  Banking,"  "Principles  of 
Free  Trade,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1842. 

Ragusa,  Duke  of.    See  Marmont. 

Ragusa,  rS-goo'si,  (Geronimo,)  a  learned  Jesuit, 
born  in  Sicily  in  1655  ;  died  about  1715. 

Rahbek,  r^'bek,  (Knud  Lyne,)  a  Danish  author  and 
critic,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1760.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  aesthetics  in  his  native  city  in  1790.  He  wrote 
dramas,  tales,  and  lyric  poems,  and  translated  many 
English  works.  Among  his  best  works  is  "The  Danish 
Spectator,"  a  periodical,  (1791-1806.)  He  was  a  judi- 
cious and  candid  critic.  His  writings  are  said  to  have 
exerted  a  happy  influence  on  Danish  literature  and  the 
public  taste.  He  resigned  the  chair  of  aesthetics  in  1825. 
Died  in  1830. 

See  his  Souvenirs,  "  Erindringer  af  mit  Liv,"  4  vols.,  1824-29;  J. 
P.  MvNSTER,  "  Ved  Etatsraad  Professor  K.  L.  Rahbek's  Jorde- 
faerd,"  etc.,  1830;  Beeken,  "  Etatsraad  Professor  og  Ridder  K.  L. 
Rahbek's,"  etc.,  1838;  Erslew,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon  ;"  Howitt, 
"Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe,"  vol.  ii. ;  "  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1830,  article  "Danish  and  Norwegian 
Literature  ;"  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Rahl,  ril,  (Karl,)  a  historical  painter,  son  of  the 
following,  was  born  at  Vienna  in  1812. 

Rahl,  (Karl  LIeinrich,)  a  German  engraver,  born 
near  Heidelberg  in  1779,  was  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Arts  at  Vienna.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  prints 
after  Raphael's  "  Saint  Margaret,"  Correggio's  "  Night," 
and  the  "Madonna"  of  Perugiiio.    Died  in  1843. 

Rahn,  rSn,  (Johann  Hiclmrich,)  a  Swiss  physician, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1749,  vvas  itoted  for  his  beneficence. 
He  published  numerous  works.    Died  in  1812. 

See  UsTERi,  "  Denkrede  auf  Rahn,"  1812. 

Rahn,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  Swiss  historian,  born 
at  Zurich  in  1646.  He  wrote  in  German,  besides  other 
works,  a  "History  of  Switzerland,"  (1690.)  Died  in 
1708.  _ 

R^hu,  r^'hoo,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  a  mighty 
giant,  the  son  of  Kasyapa  and  Diti,  (or,  according  to 
some  authorities,  the  son  of  Sinhika,)  was  supposed  to 
cause  eclipses  by  swallowing  the  sun  or  moon.  This 
fable  is  doubtless  astronomical  in  its  origin  :  rdhu 
signifies  also  the  "ascending  node." 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon,"  p.  282. 

Raibolini.    See  Francia. 

Raidel,  x\'dh\,  [Lat.  Raide'lius,]  (Georg  Martin,) 
a  German  savant,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1702,  wrote 
a  work  "  On  the  Geography  of  Ptolemy,"  etc.,  ("  De 
Ptolemaei  Geographia  ejusque  Codicibus,"  1737.)  Died 
in  1741. 

See  A.  GoTz,  "Vita  Raidelii,"  1741. 

Raikes,  raks,  (Robert,)  an  English  philanthropist, 
born  at  Gloucester  in  1735  or  1736,  was  a  printer,  and 
the  editor  of  the  "  Gloucester  Journal."  He  is  noted  as 
the  founder  of  Sunday-schools.  In  1781  he  employed 
several  women  to  teach  a  number  of  ragged  children 
found  in  the  streets  of  Gloucester.    Died  in  181 1. 

Raim'ba-eh,  (Abraham,)  an  English  line-engraver, 
born  in  London  in  1776,  was  a  pupil  of  J.  Hall.  He 
became  an  intimate  friend  of  Wilkie,  who  employed  him 


to  engrave  a  number  of  his  paintings,  among  which  are 
"The  Village  Politicians,"  "The  Rent-Day,"  (i8i6,)  and 
"Blindman's  Bufi"."  These  engravings  are  highly  prized. 
Died  in  1843.  He  left  an  autobiography,  published  in 
1843,  entitled  "Memoirs  and  Recollections." 
Raimond.    See  Raymond. 

Raimondi,  ri-mon'dee,  (Annibale,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  born  at  Verona  in  1505.  He  published 
a  "  Treatise  on  the  Flow  and  Ebb  of  the  Sea," 
("Trattato  del  Flusso  e  Reflusso  del  Mare,"  1589.) 

Raimondi,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  Ori- 
entalist, born  at  Cremona  about  1540.  He  was  director 
of  an  establishment  of  Oriental  typography  at  Rome, 
and  printed  in  Arabic  the  Gospels  (1591)  and  Euclid, 
(1594.)    Died  about  1610. 

Raimondi,  (Marcantonio,)  an  excellent  Italian  en. 
graver,  born  at  Bologna  about  1475,  or,  as  some  say,  in 
1488.  He  studied  design  under  Raibolini  called  Francia. 
He  went  to  Rome  about  15 10,  and  formed  a  friendship 
or  acquaintance  with  Raphael,  who  employed  him  to 
engrave  some  of  his  paintings.  He  engraved  for  that 
master  "The  Death  of  Lucretia,"  "The  Judgment  of 
Paris,"  "The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents,"  "Saint  Ce- 
cilia," "  The  Last  Supper,"  "  Parnassus,"  "  Saint  Paul 
preaching  at  Athens,"  and  other  works.  Fie  was  the 
first  Italian  engraver  who  acquired  great  celebrity.  He 
was  a  correct  designer,  and  rendered  the  outlines  with 
fidelity.  When  Rome  was  taken  and  pillaged  by  the 
army  of  Constable  Bourbon,  in  1527,  Raimondi  lost  his 
property  and  removed  to  Bologna,  where  he  continued 
until  his  death,  which  is  variously  dated  1534  and  1546. 
One  of  his  prints  is  dated  1539. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.;  Delessert,  "No- 
tice sur  la  Vie  de  M.  A.  Raimondi,"  1853;  N.  Belloni,  "Vita  di 
M.  Raimondi,"  1815  ;  Malvasia,  "  Felsina  Pittrice  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Rairaund,  ri'moont,  (Ferdinand,)  a  German  litte- 
ratejir,  born  at  Vienna  in  1791,  published  a  number  of 
dramatic  works  and  poems.    Died  in  1836. 

Rainaldi,  rl-nSKdee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Rome  in  1611.  He  designed  the  old  Acade- 
mic de  France  at  Rome,  the  church  of  Saint  Agnes,  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  di  Miracoli,  and  that  of  Santa 
Maria  del  Monte  Santo.  The  last  two  are  on  the  Piazza 
del  Popolo  at  Rome.    Died  in  1691. 

Rainaldi,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  in 
the  march  of  Ancona  in  1600.  He  published  "  Food 
for  the  Sdul,"  ("  Cibo  dell'Anima,"  1637,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1677. 

Rainaldi,  (Gir(jlamo,)  an  architect,  born  at  Rome 
in  1570,  was  the  father  of  Carlo,  noticed  above.  Ainong 
his  works  were  the  ducal  palace  of  Parma,  and  the 
Palazzo  Pamfili  (or  Pamphili)  at  Rome.    Died  in  1655. 

See  Mii-iziA,  "  Meinorie  degli  Architetti." 

Rainaldi,  (Oderic.)    See  Rinaldl 
Rainaud.    See  Raynaud. 

Raine,  ran,  (James,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at 
Ovington,  Yorkshire,  in  1 791,  became  rector  of  Meldon 
in  1822.  He  published  a  "  History  of  North  Durham," 
(1830-52.)    Died  in  1858. 

Raine,  (Matthe;w,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in  1760, 
became  preacher  of  Gray's  Inn  in  1809.    Died  in  1810. 

Rainer,  ri'ner,  (Joseph  Johann  Michael  Franz 
Hieronymus,)  Archduke  of  Austria,  and  seventh  son 
of  the  emperor  Leopold  II.,  was  born  in  1783.  He 
became  Viceroy  of  Austrian  Italy  in  i8i8.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  insurrection  at  Milan  in  1848,  he 
left  Lombardy  for  the  Southern  Tyrol,  where  he  died  in 
1853.  He  had  married  in  1820  Elizabeth,  sister  of 
Charles  Albert,  King  of  Sardinia. 

Rainolds,  rgn'oldz,  (John,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  near  Exeter  in  1549.  He  was  professor  of  divinity 
at  Oxford,  and  favoured  the  Puritan  doctrines.  He  was 
one  of  the  persons  who  assisted  in  translating  the  Bible 
into  English  by  order  of  James  I.    Died  in  1607. 

Rainolds,  (William,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
became  a  Fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford,  in  1562.  He 
was  afterwards  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Rheims,  France. 
Died  in  1594. 

Rains,  (James,)  an  American  general,  born  in  North 
Carolina,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1827.    He  com- 


a, e,  I,  o,  u,  y, long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, 1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  ftt;  mfet;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RAINSSANT  1863  RALEIGH 


tianded  a  division  of  the  army  of  General  Bragg,  when 
he  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Stone  River,  which  ended 
January  2,  1863. 

Raiussant,  riN^sSw',  (Pierre,)  a  French  numis- 
matist, born  at  Rheims  about  1640.  He  became  keeper 
of  the  royal  cabinet  of  medals.    Died  in  1689. 

Rais  or  Retz,  de,  deh  riss,  (Gilles  de  Laval — deh 
li'vtK,)  Lord,  a  French  baron,  notorious  for  his  prodi- 
gality and  crimes,  was  born  about  1406,  and  inherited  a 
great  estate.  He  entered  the  army,  and  became  a  mar- 
shal of  France  about  the  age  of  twenty-three.  He  was 
accused  of  sorcery  and  of  sacrificing  children  in  dia- 
bolical rites.    He  was  executed  in  1440. 

See  Akmand  Gu^raud,  "  Notice  sur  Gilles  de  Rais,"  1855. 

Raisson,  ri's^N',  (Horace  Napoleon,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  published  a  "  His- 
tory of  Napoleon,"  (10  vols.,  1830,)  and  other  works  on 
recent  French  history.    Died  in  1854. 

Ra'itch,  rS'itch  or  ritch,  a  Servian  historian,  born 
at  Karlovitz  in  1726.  He  published  a  "History  of 
the  Slavonians  and  Servians,"  (4  vols.,  1795.)  Died  in 
180 1. 

Rakbczy,  ri'kot-se,  written  also  Racoczi  and 
Ragotzky,  (Franz  Leopold,)  Prince  of  Transylvania, 
born  near  Patak  in  1676.  He  commanded  the  Hun- 
garian insurgents  who  revolted  against  Austria  in  1703. 
He  was  defeated  in  a  decisive  action  in  1708.  Died  in 
exile  at  Rodosto  in  1735. 

See  Horn,  "  Fr.  Rakoczy,"  Leipsic,  1854. 

Rile  or  Rasle,  rll,  (S^bastien,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1658.  He  was 
sent  on  a  mission  to  the  Lidians  of  Canada  in  1689,  and 
laboured  nearly  thirty  years  at  Norridgewock,  on  the 
Kennebec  River.  He  gained  great  influence  over  the 
Indians,  and,  according  to  some  authorities,  instigated 
them  to  hostile  acts  against  the  English  colonists  of 
Massachusetts,  who  regarded  him  as  their  worst  enemy. 
He  was  killed  by  a  party  of  English  soldiers  who  sur- 
prised the  village  at  Norridgewock  in  1724. 

See  CoNVERs  Francis,  "  Life  of  Sebastian  Rale,"  in  Sparks's 
'American  Biography,"  vol.  vii.,  new  series. 

Raleigh,  raw'le,  (Carew,)  a  son  of  Sir  Walter,  was 
born  in  the  Tower  of  London  in  1604.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford.  After  the  accession  of  Charles  I.  an  act  was 
passed  to  "  restore  him  in  blood  but  he  failed  to  obtain 
the  paternal  estate.  He  wrote  a  vindication  of  his  father, 
(1645,)  and  a  "Brief  Relation  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's 
Troubles."  In  1659  he  was  appointed  Governor  of 
Jersey.    Died  in  1666. 

Raleigh  or  Ralegh,  (Sir  Walter,)  a  famous  English 
navigator,  author,  courtier,  and  commander,  was  born 
at  Hayes,  in  Devonshire,  in  1552.  He  was  a  son  of 
Walter  Raleigh,  Esq.,  and  Catherine  Champernon,  who 
by  a  former  marriage  was  the  mother  of  Sir  Humphrey 
Gilbert.  He  studied  for  a  short  time  at  Oriel  College, 
Oxford,  and  in  1569  joined  a  company  of  volunteers, 
with  whom  he  fought  for  the  Huguenots  in  France  for 
five  years.  He  took  part  in  several  great  battles  of  that 
war.  In  1580,  as  commander  of  a  company,  he  served 
with  distinction  against  the  Irish  insurgents.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  gained  the  favour  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
by  an  act  of  gallantry,  of  which  we  have  no  evidence  but 
tradition.  According  to  this  tradition,  the  queen,  in  her 
progress  from  the  royal  barge  to  the  palace,  came  to  a 
spot  where  the  ground  was  so  wet  that  she  hesitated. 
Raleigh  immediately  covered  the  place  with  his  richly- 
embroidered  cloak,  on  which  she  stepped  with  much 
conjplacency.  It  is  stated  that  he  received  a  grant  of 
twelve  thousand  acres  of  forfeited  land  in  Ireland  soon 
after  he  attracted  the  notice  of  the  queen.  One  of  his 
biographers  observes  that  "all  the  more  important  and 
interesting  transactions  and  occurrences  of  his  life  are 
involved  in  obscurity  or  perplexed  with  doubt." 

In  1584  he  obtained  a  royal  patent  investing  him  with 
ample  powers  to  colonize  and  govern  any  territories  he 
might  acquire  in  the  unoccupied  parts  of  North  America. 
An  exploring  party  in  his  service  discovered  in  1584  a 
region  to  which  the  queen  gave  the  name  of  Virginia. 
He  sent  out  in  1585  a  body  of  colonists  who  attempted 
to  settle  on  or  near  Roanoke  Island,  but  failed,  and  re- 
turned before  the  end  of  1586.    He  renewed  the  enter- 


prise in  1587  ;  but  this  colony  did  not  prosper,  and  those 
colonists  who  escaped  disease  and  famine  were  killed 
by  the  natives.  In  1589  he  transferred  his  patent  and 
colonial  privileges  to  a  company  of  merchants.  Accord- 
ing to  some  writers,  he  distinguished  himself  in  several 
contests  with  the  Spanish  Armada  in  1588,  and  rendered 
important  services  to  the  queen  as  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment. The  introduction  of  the  potato  and  tobacco  into 
Europe  is  generally  attributed  to  him. 

About  1590  he  became  intimate  with  the  poet  Spenser, 
and  married  privately  a  daughter  of  Sir  Nicholas  Throg- 
morton.  She  was  a  maid  of  honour  to  the  queen,  who 
showed  her  resentment  by  confining  Raleigh  in  the 
Tower  for  several  weeks.  Being  excluded  from  the 
royal  favour  through  his  marriage,  his  ambitious  and 
adventurous  spirit  was  attracted  by  a  project  for  the 
discovery  and  conquest  of  El  Dorado,  a  fabled  paradise 
of  gold-seekers,  which  was  supposed  to  exist  in  South 
America.  He  sailed  from  Plymouth  with  five  vessels  in 
February,  1595,  and  ascended  the  Orinoco  in  boats  about 
sixty  leagues,  but  his  farther  progress  is  said  to  have 
been  prevented  by  the  sudden  rise  of  the  water.  Having 
returned  to  England  before  the  end  of  1595,  he  published 
a  rather  fabulous  narrative,  entitled  "The  Discovery  of 
the  Large,  Rich,  and  Beautiful  Empire  of  Guiana." 

Raleigh  was  restored  to  the  royal  favour  soon  after 
his  return,  and  served  as  rear-admiral  at  the  capture 
of  Cadiz,  in  1596,  to  which  his  skill  greatly  contributed. 
He  had  the  chief  command  of  the  fleet  which  took  Faya] 
in  1597.  He  was  appointed  Captain  of  the  Guard  and 
Governor  of  Jersey  about  1 597.  It  is  stated  by  some  of 
his  biographers  that  he  received  large  sums  of  money 
from  the  condemned  partisans  of  the  Earl  of  Essex,  who 
bribed  him  to  intercede  for  them  with  the  queen.  The 
death  of  Elizabeth  terminated  the  prosperity  of  Raleigh, 
who  had  rendered  himself  very  unpopular  by  his  enmity 
to  Essex  and  perhaps  by  his  habitual  haughty  demeanour. 
It  appears  that  James  I.  was  prejudiced  against  him  by 
the  insinuations  of  his  rival  Cecil.  Accused  of  com- 
plicity in  Lord  Cobham's  treason.  Sir  Walter  was 
arrested  in  July,  1602,  and  convicted,  without  sufficient 
proof,  in  1603.  During  his  trial  the  public  sentiment 
was  converted  from  hostility  to  warm  sympathy  and 
admiration. 

In  expectation  of  a  speedy  death,  he  wrote  to  his  wife 
an  affecting  letter,  which  is  praised  by  William  Penn. 
Near  the  close  of  it  he  writes  thus  :  "  I  can  say  no 
more  :  Time  and  Death  call  me  away.  The  everlasting 
God,  powerful,  infinite,  and  inscrutable,  God  Almighty,' 
who  is  goodness  itself,  the  true  light  and  life,  keep  thee 
and  thine,  have  mercy  on  me,  and  send  us  to  meet  in  his 
glorious  kingdom."  He  was,  however,  reprieved,  and 
confined  in  the  Tower,  where  he  remained  thirteen  years 
and  wrote  his  chief  work,  "The  History  of  the  World," 
(from  the  creation  to  the  year  150  B.C.)  "The  Greek 
and  Roman  story,"  says  Hallam,  "is  told  more  fully  and 
exactly  than  by  any  earlier  English  writer,  and  with  a 
plain  eloquence  which  has  given  this  book  a  classical 
rejiutation  in  our  language."  Another  eminent  critic 
(Hume)  pronounces  Raleigh  "the  best  model  of  our 
ancient  style."  He  wrote  several  short  poems,  which  are 
admired. 

In  1615  he  obtained  his  release  by  bribery  and  by  an 
offer  to  open  a  mine  of  gold  in  (iuiana.  He  conducted 
a  fleet  of  thirteen  vessels  to  Guiana  in  161 7,  and  sent  an 
exj^loring  party  up  the  Orinoco.  They  encountered  at 
Saint  Thomas  a  body  of  Spaniards,  in  a  fight  with  whom 
Raleigh's  son  Walter  was  killed  ;  but  their  search  for 
the  gold-mine  was  unsuccessful.  Raleigh  sailed  for  New- 
foundland, intending  to  refit  and  to  obtain  provisions  ; 
but  he  was  forced  by  his  mutinous  crew  to  return  to 
England,  where  he  arrived  in  July,  1618.  He  was  soon 
after  arrested,  and  a  demand  was  made  by  the  Spanish 
court  that  he  should  be  punished  for  the  attack  on  Saint 
Thomas.  The  king  at  that  time  courted  the  alliance  of 
the  Spanish  monarch,  and  sacrificed  the  required  victim 
to  promote  his  policy.  He  resolved  to  execute  the 
sentence  which  had  been  passed  on  him  in  1603,  and 
for  which  pardon  had  never  been  granted.  Raleigh  was 
beheaded  in  October,  161 8.  His  stature  was  tall,  his 
features  handsome,  and  his  presence  imposing.  His 


€  as^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal ;  r,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2[^=^See  Explanations,  p.  ^3.) 


RALPH 


1864 


RAM  EL 


moral  character  seems  to  have  been  deformed  by  several 
vices.  Impartial  writers  agree  that  truth  and  probity 
were  not  always  his  guiding  principles. 

"The  name  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,"  says  the  "Edin- 
burgh Review,"  "is  unquestionably  one  of  the  most 
renowned  and  attractive,  and,  in  some  respects,  the  most 
remarkable,  in  English  story.  .  .  .  His  mind  presents  a 
surprising  union  of  strength  and  versatility,  of  intellect- 
ual and  practical  power,  and  of  an  observing,  reflective, 
and  philosophical  with  a  highly  imaginative  or  poetical 
temperament." 

An  able  French  critic  and  geographer,  M.  Walckenaer, 
defends  Raleigh  from  the  charge  of  falsehood  and  ex- 
aggeration :  "The  details  which  he  has  pul)lished  on 
his  voyage  [to  Guiana  in  1595]  include  nothing  which 
has  not  been  confirmed  by  subsequent  explorers  :  they 
are  definite,  exact,  important,  and  do  honour  to  his 
sagacity  as  well  as  his  truthfulness." 

See  Macvev  Napier,  "Lord  Bacon  and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh," 
1853;  Edward  Edwards,  "  Lite  of  Raleigh,"  1868:  Arthur  Cay- 
ley,  "  Life  of  Sir  W.  Raleigh,"  1805  ;  W.  Oldys,  "Life  of  Sir  W. 
Raleigh,"  1740;  Mrs.  A.  T.  Thomson,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir 
W.  Raleigh,"  1830;  P.  Eraser  Tytler,  "Life  of  Sir  AV.  Raleigh," 
etc.,  1833;  J.  Barrow,  "Memoirs  of  the  Naval  Worthies  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Reign,"  1845;  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  British  Ad- 
mirals;" De  Thou,  "  Histoire  universelle  ;"  Hume,  "  History  of 
England,"  particularly  chaps,  xlv.  and  xlviii.  ;  Gardiner,  "  History 
of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  chap.  ii.  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  April,  1840;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1832;  Southey, 
"Lives  of  British  Admirals,"  vol.  iv.,  1837. 

Ralph  OF  EscuRES,  an  English  prelate,  who  was 
elected  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  11 14.  He  had  a 
high  reputation  for  learning  and  virtue.    Died  in  1122. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  ii.  chap.  iv. 

Ralph,  (James,)  an  English  pamphleteer  and  poetas- 
ter, born  at  Philadelphia.  He  emigrated  to  England 
in  1725  in  company  with  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  pub- 
lished a  poem  on  "Night"  in  1728,  which  was  ridiculed 
by  Pope  in  these  lines  of  the  "Dunciad:" 

"  Silence,  ye  wolves,  while  Ralph  to  Cynthia  howls 
And  makes  night  hideous  ;  answer  him,  ye  owls  !" 

He  afterwards  wrote  several  dramas  and  political  pam- 
phlets.    His  continuation  of  Guthrie's  "History  of 
England"  (2  vols.,  1744-46)  is  a  work  of  some  value. 
Died  in  1762. 
Ram.    See  Rama. 

Ram,  de,  deh  r6N,  (Pierre  FRAwgois  Xavier,)  a 
Belgian  historian,  born  at  Louvain  in  1804,  jniblished  "  Sy- 
nodicon  Belgicum,"  (4  vols.,  1828-58,)  and  other  works. 

Rama,  ri'ma,  often  called  R^m  (ram)  by  the  modern 
Hindoos,  [a  Sanscrit  word  signifying  "  pleasing,"  "  dear," 
"beloved,"  from  the  verb  ram,  to  "play,]  called  also 
R^ma  Chandra,  (chvin'dra,)  in  the  Hindoo  mythology, 
the  name  of  the  seventh  avatar  of  Vishnu,  who  on  this 
occasion  appeared  as  a  great  hero  and  warrior.  It  is 
generally  supposed  that,  with  the  exception  of  Krishna, 
this  is  the  most  glorious  of  all  the  manifestations  of  the 
preserving  deity.  The  great  Hindoo  epic  entitled  Ra- 
mayana  (r5-mi'ya-na)  is  chiefly  occupied  with  the  ad- 
ventures and  exploits  of  Rama  and  his  famous  minister 
Hanuman,  the  monkey  king.  The  consort  of  Rama  was 
Sita,  (see'ta,)  eminent  for  her  purity  and  other  virtues. 
Her  deliverance  from  the  power  of  the  great  giant  Ra- 
vana,  and  the  triumphant  issue  of  the  ordeal  by  fire,  by 
which  her  perfect  virtue  was  comjiletely  established,  form 
perhaps  the  most  interesting  portion  of  the  great  poem 
or  romance  above  named.  They  are  also  among  the 
most  popular  subjects  for  pictures  among  the  Hindoos. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Ramage,  ram'ej,  (Adam,)  a  distinguished  mechani- 
cian, born  in  Scotland  in  1770,  settled  in  America.  He 
was  the  inventor  of  a  printing-press  called  by  his  name. 
Died  in  1850. 

Ramanuja  or  Ramanoudja,  r  J-ma-noo'ja,  a  Hindoo 
philosopher,  a  votary  of  Vishnu  and  adversary  of  Bood- 
dhism.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  tenth  century. 

Ramftyana.    See  Rama,  and  Valmiki. 

Ramazziiii,  ri-mit-see'nee,  (Bernardo  or  Bernar- 
dino,) an  eminent  Italian  physician,  born  at  Carpi  in 
1633.  He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Modena 
about  1680,  and  removed  to  Padua  in  1700.  He  ob- 
tained the  first  chair  of  medicine  at  Padua  in  1708.  He 


wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  popular  treatise  "  On  the 
Di.seases  of  Artisans,"  ("  De  Morbis  Artificum,"  1701,) 
which  was  often  reprinted,  and  was  translated  into 
French  by  Fourcroy.    Died  in  17 14. 

See  Ettmuli.er,  "Viede  B.  Ramazzini,"  1711;  a  "Memoir  of 
Ramazzini,"  prefixed  to  his  collected  works  ("Opera  Omnia")  by 
his  nephew,  Bart.  Ramazzini,  London,  1716;  Fabroni,  "  Vitas 
Italorum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Rambaldi,  rim-bil'dee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  painter' 
of  history,  born  at  Bologna  in  1680  ;  died  in  1717. 

Ramberg,  rSm'bgRG,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German 
jjainter  and  engraver,  born  at  Hanover  in  1763,  studied 
in  London  under  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.  He  was  after- 
wards appointed  court  painter  at  Hanover.  He  excelled 
in  caricature,  and  produced,  among  other  works,  illus- 
trations of  "Reineke  Fuchs."    Died  in  1840. 

Ram'bha'  or  Rem'bha',  [modern  Hindoo  pron. 
rumb'hS',]  sometimes  incorrectly  written  Rhemba,  [ety- 
mology obscure,]  the  name,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology, 
of  a  famous  Apsara,  produced  by  the  churning  of  the 
ocean.  (See  Apsara  and  Kurma.)  Rambha  is  some- 
times identified  with  Lakshmi. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Rambouillet,  de,  deh  rSN'boo'yi',  (Catherine  de 
Vivonne — deh  ve'von',)  Marquise,  a  French  lady, 
born  in  1588,  became  mistress  of  the  Hotel  Rambouillet, 
in  which  she  presided  over  a  celebrated  reunion  of  the 
elite  of  Paris,  the  first  which  in  France  united  the  aris- 
tocracy of  rank  and  of  genius  in  one  circle.  Her  house 
was  frequented  by  Malherbe,  La  Rochefoucauld,  Voiture, 
Balzac,  Corneille,  and  many  other  literati  of  successive 
generations.  The  court  over  which  she  presided  was 
recognized  as  the  arbiter  of  taste  and  propriety  in 
language,  manners,  etc.  Died  in  1665.  Her  daughter, 
Julia  d'Angennes,  (dSN'zh^n',)  was  celebrated  for 
her  beauty  and  accomplishments.  She  was  married  to 
the  Duke  of  Montausier.    (See  Montausier.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rambour,  r6N''booR',  (Abraham,)  a  French  Prot- 
estant minister,  born  at  Sedan  about  1590,  He  became 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Sedan  in  1620,  and  published 
several  works.    Died  in  165 1. 

Rambuteau,  de,  deh  rSN^bii'to',  (Claude  Philibert 
Barthelot — btRt'lo',)  Count,  a  French  administrator, 
born  at  Charnay  in  1781.  He  was  prefect  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Seine  from  1833  to  1848. 

Rameau,  rt'mo',  (Jean  Philippe,)  a  celebrated 
French  composer  and  writer  on  music,  was  born  at 
Dijon  in  October,  1683.  He  received  his  first  lessons 
in  music  from  his  father,  and  visited  Milan  in  1701. 
Having  joined  a  company  of  itinerant  actors  or  singers, 
he  performed  on  the  violin  in  various  cities  of  France. 
He  became  organist  of  the  cathedral  of  Clermont  (Au- 
vergne)  about  1718,  and  settled  in  Paris  in  1722.  Pie 
established  his  reputation  as  a  theorist  by  a  "  Treatise 
on  Harmony,"  (1722,)  and  "New  System  of  Theoretic 
Music,"  (1726,)  in  which  he  developed  his  theory  of 
basse  fondamentale.  In  1733  he  composed  the  music 
of  the  opera  "  Hippolyte  et  Aricie,"  which  was  very 
successful  and  produced  a  great  excitement  in  the 
musical  world.  The  partisans  of  Lulli  were  indignant 
at  the  innovations  of  Rameau.  He  produced  in  1737 
the  opera  of  "  Castor  and  Pollux,"  which  is  called  his 
master-piece.  Among  his  numerous  operas  are  "  Dar- 
danus,"  (1739,)  and  "Zoroaster,"  (1749.)   Died  in  1764, 

See  Maret,  "  filoge  historique  de  Rameau,"  1766;  F^tis,  "  Bio- 
graphie Universelle  des  Musiciens :"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Ramee,  rt^m^,  (Daniel,)  an  architect,  born  at  Ham- 
burg in  1806,  was  a  son  of  Joseph  Jacques,  noticed  below. 
He  restored  the  cathedrals  of  Noyon,  Senlis,  and  Beau- 
vais.  He  published  a  "  Manual  of  the  History  of  Archi- 
tecture," (2  vols.,  1843,)  and  other  works. 

Ramee,  (Joseph  Jacques,)  a  French  architect,  born 
at  Charlemont  in  1764.  He  designed  the  Exchange  of 
Hamburg,  and  Union  College,  at  Schenectady,  in  the 
United  States.    Died  near  Noyon  in  1842. 

Ramee,  La.    See  Ramus. 

Ramel.    See  Nogaret,  de,  (Jacques.) 

Ramel,  ri'm^K,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Cahors  in  1768,  was  assassinated  in  August,  181 5, 
at  Toulouse,  of  which  he  was  then  the  commandant. 


a,e,  T,  6,  a,  y,  long;  \,    b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  0,  ii,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RAMELLI 


1865 


RAMSDEN 


Ramelli,  ri-meKlee,  (Agostino,)  an  Italian  mecha- 
nician, born  at  Milan  about  1530,  served  as  engineer  in 
the  army  of  Charles  V.    Died  in  1590. 

Ramelli,  (Felice,)  an  Italian  priest  and  painter  in 
miniature,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1666.  He  worked  at 
Rome.    Died  in  1740. 

Ramenghi.    See  Bagnacavallo. 

Ram'e-ses  or  Ram'ses,  written  also  Ramesses, 
a  name  common  to  several  kings  of  ancient  Egypt. 
Rameses  III.  became  king  about  1550  B.C.,  and 
reigned  nearly  sixty  years.  lie  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Rameses,  (also  called  Amenophis  II.,)  who,  ac- 
cording to  some  historians,  was  the  father  of  Rameses 
the  Great,  otherwise  called  Sesostris. 

See  BuNSEN,  "  Egypt's  Place  in  Universal  History." 

Ramey,  rt'm^',  (Claude,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
at  Dijon  in  1 754.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1782. 
Among  his  works  are  statues  of  Napoleon  and  Riche- 
lieu. Died  in  Paris  in  1838.  His  son,  firiENNE  Jules, 
born  in  1796,  was  also  a  successful  sculptor.  He  adorned 
the  Louvre  with  several  works,  and  was  admitted  into 
the  Institute  in  1829.    Died  in  1852. 

Ramirez,  ri-mee'rith,  (Jost,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
at  Valencia  in  1624  ;  died  in  1692. 

Ramiro  (r^-mee'ro)  I.,  King  of  Asturias,  was  a  son 
of  Eermudez.  He  began  to  reign  in  842  A.D.,  and 
defeated  the  Normans  in  843.    Died  in  850. 

Ramiro  II.,  King  of  Asturias  and  Leon,  began  to 
reign  about  930  a.d.  He  defeated  a  large  army  of  the 
caliph  Abderrahman  III.  in  939  A.D.  on  the  plain  of 
Simancas.    Died  in  950  a.d. 

Ramler,  rSn/ler,  (Karl  Wilhelm.)  a  German  poet, 
born  at  Kolberg,  on  the  Baltic  Sea,  in  1725.  He  was  for 
many  years  professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Berlin.  His 
works  are  chiefly  lyrics,  and  are  remarkable  for  elegance 
of  language.  His  "  Death  of  Jesus,"  one  of  his  most 
esteemed  pieces,  was  set  to  music  by  Graun.  He  also 
translated  Horace,  Martial,  Catullus,  and  Sappho's  odes. 
Died  in  Berlin  in  1798. 

See  HErNsius,  "  Biographisclie  Ski/.ze  Ramlers,"  1798;  Long- 
fellow, "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Euroiie  ;"  Ghrvinus,  "  Geschichte 
der  Deutsciien  Dichtung :"  Hikschinc,  "  Historiscii-literarisches 
f^andbucli  ;"  "  Noiivelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Ram'mo-hun' Roy,  a  Hindoo  reformer  and  linguist, 
was  born  in  Bengal  about  1776.  His  parents  were  Brah- 
mans  of  high  rank.  He  was  master  of  Sanscrit,  Persian, 
Arabic,  Hindostanee,  and  English.  At  an  early  age  he 
renounced  the  Brahmanical  religion.  He  believed  in 
Christ  as  a  divine  teacher,  but  held  Arian  or  Unitarian 
views.  He  wrote  several  works  against  the  prevailing 
superstitions  of  India,  and  published  in  1820  "The 
Precepts  of  Jesus  the  Guide  to  Peace  and  Happiness," 
which  consists  of  selections  from  the  New  Testament. 
In  1830  he  was  sent  by  the  King  of  Delhi  as  ambas- 
sador to  London.    Died  near  Bristol  in  1833. 

See  Lant  Carpenter,  "  Review  of  the  Labours,  Opinions,  and 
Character  of  Rammohun  Roy  ;"  "  Lapt  Days  in  England  of  the 
Rajah  Rammohun  Roy,"  edited  by  Mary  Carpenter,  London, 
1867;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1818. 

Ramond  de  Carbonnieres,  rS^m^N'  deh  ktR^bo'- 
ne-aiR',  (Louis  FRANgois, )  Baron,  a  distinguished 
French  savant  and  politician,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1755. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assenrbly  in  1791, 
and  sat  in  the  corps  legislatif  from  1800  to  1806.  He 
wrote  several  able  scientific  and  descriptive  works, 
among  which  is  "Travels  in  the  Pyrenees,"  (1801,) 
which  treats  of  geology,  etc.  Died  in  1827.  Cuvier 
wrote  a  eulogy  on  him. 

See,  also,  Qui^rard,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Ramondini,  ri-mon-dee'nee,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian 
naturalist,  born  at  Messina  in  1758,  was  professor  at 
Naples.    Died  in  181 1. 

Ramorino.  See  Remorino. 

Ramos,  ri'mis,  (Enrique,)  a  Spanish  writer,  born 
at  Alicante  in  1738,  was  an  officer  of  the  army.  He 
wrote  successful  tragedies,  named  "Guzman,"  (1780,) 
and  "  Pelagius"  or  "  Pelayo,"  (1784.)    Died  in  1801. 

Rampalle,  rSN'ptK,  (N.,)  a  P>ench  poet,  whom  Boi- 
leau,  in  his  "  Art  Poetique,"  mentions  among  authors 
who  were  no  longer  read  in  his  time.    Died  about  1660. 

Rampen,  rSm'pen,  (Hendrik,)  a  Flemish  theologian, 
born  at  Hui  in  1572  ;  died  at  Louvain  in  1641. 


Rampinelli,  rSm-pe-nel'lee,  (Ramiro,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  born  at  Brescia  in  1697  ;  died  at  Milan 
in  .759. 

Rampon,  r6N'p6N',  (Antotne  Guillaume,)  Count, 
a  French  general,  born  at  Saint-Fortunat  (Ardeche)  in 
1759.  He  distinguished  himself  as  general  of  brigade 
at  Montenotte,  Roveredo,  and  Areola,  (1796.)  For  his 
services  at  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids  and  in  Syria  he 
was  made  general  of  division  in  1800.    Died  in  1842. 

Ramsay,  ram'ze,  (Alexander,)  born  in  England 
about  1760,  emigrated  to  America,  where  he  died  in 
1824.  He  published  an  "  Anatomy  of  the  Heart,  Brain, 
etc.,"  (1813.) 

Ramsay,  ram'ze,  (Allan,)  a  distinguished  Scottish 
poet,  born  of  poor  parents  in  Lanarkshire  in  1685.  He 
was  successively  a  barber  and  bookseller  in  Edinburgh. 
He  published  in  1721  a  volume  of  poems,  which  were 
well  received.  His  principal  work  is  a  pastoral  poem 
called  "The  Gentle  Shepherd,"  (1729,)  which  has  been 
greatly  admired.    Died  in  1758. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
Campbell,  "Specimens  of  British  Poets;"  Allibone,  "Dictionary 
of  Authors;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1762. 

Ramsay,  (Allan,)  a  portrait-painter,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1713.  He  became 
principal  painter  to  George  III.  in  1767,  and  surpassed 
most  of  his  British  contemporaries  in  his  art.  He  wrote 
several  political  tracts,  and  visited  Rome  four  times. 
On  his  return  from  his  last  journey  he  died  at  Dover,  in 
1784,  leaving  a  son,  who  became  a  general  in  the  army. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Ramsay,  [Fr.  pron.  rSN^za',]  (Andrew  Michael,) 
called  Chevalier  Ramsay,  was  born  at  Ayr,  in  Scot- 
land, in  1686.  He  was  converted  by  Fenelon  from 
skepticism  to  Roman  Catholicism  about  1709,  and  be- 
came tutor  to  the  Prince  de  Turenne.  He  acquired 
distinction  by  his  writings,  which  are  in  French  and 
are  admired  for  purity  of  style.  His  chief  works  are 
"Travels  of  Cyrus,"  ("Voyages  de  Cyrus,"  1727,)  which 
is  an  imitation  of  Fenelon's  "  Telemachus,"  a  valuable 
"Life  of  Fenelon,"  (1723,)  and  a  "Life  of  Turenne," 
(1735.)    Died  in  France  in  1743. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"  Biographia  Britannica." 

Ramsay,  ram'ze,  (David,)  an  American  historian  and 
physician,  born  in  Lancaster  county,  Pennsylvania,  in 
1749.  Having  graduated  in  1765  at  Princeton  College, 
he  studied  medicine  in  Philadelphia  under  Dr.  Rush. 
He  soon  after  removed  to  Charleston,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina,  and  in  1782 
was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress.  He  published 
in  1785  his  "History  of  the  Revolution  in  South  Caro- 
lina," which  was  followed  in  1790  by  the  "History  of 
the  American  Revolution."  His  "Life  of  Washington" 
ajipeared  in  1801.  He  also  wrote  a  "Eulogium  on  Dr. 
Rush,"  and  other  works  on  various  subjects.  He  was 
mortally  wounded  by  a  lunatic  in  the  streets  of  Charles- 
ton in  1815.  His  work  entitled  "Universal  History 
Americanized"  was  published  after  his  death.  He  wrote 
"  Memoirs  of  Martha  Laurens  Ramsay." 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii.  ;  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Ramsay,  (Edward  Bannerman,)  a  Scottish  writer, 
born  about  1793.  became  an  Episcopal  minister  in 

Edinburgh  in  1830.  Among  his  works  are  "Reminis- 
cences of  Scottish  Life  and  Character,"  (1857,)  and 
"Thomas  Chalmers,  D.D.,  a  Biographical  Notice," 
(1867.) 

Ramsay,  (George  and  James.)    See  Dalhousie. 

Ramsay,  (James,)  a  clergyman,  born  in  Aberdeen- 
shire, Scotland,  in  1733.  He  published  Sermons,  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1789. 

Ramsay,  (William,)  an  eminent  classical  scholar, 
born  at  Edinburgh  in  1806.  He  became  professor  of 
humanity  in  the  University  of  Glasgow  in  183 1,  and 
publis-hed,  besides  other  works,  a  "Manual  of  Roman 
Antiquities,"  (1851.)  He  was  one  of  the  principal  con- 
tributors to  Smith's  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
4^iogra])hy."    Died  in  1865. 

Rams'den,  (Jesse,)  an  eminent  English  optician  and 
maker  of  astronomical   instruments,  was   born  near 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RAMSES 


1866 


RANDOLPH 


Halifax,  Yorkshire,  in  1735.  He  settled  in  London 
about  1755,  married  a  daughter  of  Mr.  Dollond,  and 
became  master  of  a  manufactory  of  instruments  about 
1764.  He  improved  the  sextant,  and  invented  a  dividing 
machine  for  the  graduation  of  instruments,  for  which  he 
received  a  premium  of  six  hundred  and  fifteen  pounds 
from  the  board  of  longitude  in  1777.  Among  his  re- 
markable productions  were  telescopes  erected  at  the 
Observatories  of  Blenheim,  Paris,  Gotha,  and  Dublin. 
He  improved  the  theodolite,  equatorial,  micrometer, 
barometer,  etc.  He  was  elected  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1786.    Died  at  Brighton  in  1800. 

See  Thomson,  "History  of  the  Royal  Society;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Geiierale." 

Ramses.    See  Rameses. 

Ramus,  rt'miis',  (Joseph  Marius,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Aix  in  1805.  He  obtained  a  first  medal  in 
1839.    His  works  are  praised  for  elevation  of  style. 

Ramus,  rt'miis',  (Peter,)  or  Pierre  de  la  Ra- 
mee,  pe-aiR'  deh  IS  rS'ma',  a  French  philosopher  and 
classical  scholar,  born  in  Vermandois  in  15 15,  or,  as 
others  say,  in  1502.  He  was  a  son  of  poor  parents, 
who  employed  him  to  tend  sheep  in  his  boyhood. 
Prompted  by  a  thirst  of  knowledge,  he  ran  away  from 
home  and  entered  the  College  of  Navarre,  in  Paris,  as 
a  servant.  He  showed  his  independence  of  mind  at 
college  by  writing  a  thesis  to  prove  that  Aristotle  was 
not  infallible.  He  incurred  much  persecution  from  the 
partisans  of  Aristotle,  and  was  accused  of  impiety.  In 
1543  he  published  a  *'  Treatise  on  Logic,"  which  ob- 
tained great  success.  He  was  appointed  by  the  king 
professor  of  philosophy  and  eloquence  in  the  College  of 
France  in  1551.  About  1562  he  avowed  his  attachment 
to  the  Reformed  religion.  He  published  many  works 
on  grammar,  mathematics,  philosophy,  theology,  etc., 
among  which  is  "  Dialectique,"  (1555.)  His  disciples, 
called  Ramists,  were  numerous  in  France  and  England. 
He  perished  in  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  at 
Paris,  in  1572.   He  is  called  the  precursor  of  Descartes. 

See  Waddington,  "Ramus,  sa  Vie,  ses  ficrits  et  ses  Opinions," 
1855  ;  Lentz,  "  Historia  P.  Rami,"  1713  ;  Tknnemann,  "  Geschichte 
der  Pliiiosophie ;"  Breithaupt,  "Dissertatio  de  tribus  LogicjE 
Restaiiratoribus,  Ramo,  Verulamio  et  Cartesio,"  1712  ;  E.  Saisset, 
"  Les  Precurseurs  de  Descartes,"  1862  ;  Bayle,  "  Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary  ;"  Nicekon,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Ramusio,  ri-moo'sfe-o,  or  Rannusio,  ran-noo'se-o, 
(GiAMBATTiSTA,)  an  Italian  compiler  and  translator, 
was  born  at  Treviso  in  1485.  He  was  for  many  years 
secretary  to  the  Venetian  Council  of  Ten.  He  pub- 
lished a  valuable  collection  of  narratives  of  voyages  and 
discoveries  made  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  entitled 
"Collection  of  Navigations  and  Journeys,"  ("  Raccolta 
di  Navigazioni  e  Viaggi,"  3  vols.,  1550-59.)  He  trans- 
lated into  Italian  those  narratives  which  were  written  in 
other  languages,  and  inserted  some  prefaces  and  dis- 
courses written  by  himself.    Died  in  1557. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Lettera- 
tura  Italiana;"  De  Thou,  "  filoges." 

Ran.    See  CEgir. 

Ranc,  r6N,  (Jean,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Mont- 
pellier  in  1674.  He  was  patronized  by  Philip  V.  of 
Spain.    Died  at  Madrid  in  1735. 

Ranee,  de,  deh  rSw'si',  (Armand  Jean  le  Bouthil- 
lier — l.eh  boo'te'ye-i',)  a  French  abbe,  born  in  Paris  in 
1626,  was  noted  as  the  reformer  of  the  monks  of  La 
Trappe.  He  subjected  them  to  the  practice  of  great 
austerities  and  the  endurance  of  extreme  privations. 
Died  in  1700. 

See  Le  Nain  de  Tillemont,  "Vie  de  Ranee,"  1719;  Marsol- 
LiER,  "Vie  de  I'Abbe  de  Ranee,"  1703  ;  Chateaubriand,  "Vie  de 
Raiice,"  1844;  Charles  Butler,  "Lives  of  A.  J.  le  Bouthillier, 
Thomas  a  Kenipis,"  etc. 

Ranchin,  r6N'shS.N',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1564;  died  in  1641. 

Ranconet,  de,  deh  rSw'ko'ni',  (Aimar,)  a  learned 
French  jurist,  born  at  Perigueux  about  1498,  was  a 
Greek  and  Latin  scholar.  He  wrote  "Treasure  of  the 
French  Language,"  ("Tresor  de  la  Langue  Fran5aise," 
1606.)    Died  at  Paris  in  1559.  ^ 

Randa,  rSu'dS,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Bologna,  painted  sacred  history.    Died  in  1650. 


Ran'dall,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Bucks. 
He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  in 
1587,  after  which  he  preached  in  London.  He  pub- 
lished Sermons  and  other  works.    Died  in  1622. 

Ran'dolph,  (Edmund,)  a  son  of  John  Randolph, 
(who  left  the  country  with  Lord  Dunmore  at  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Revolution,)  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia 
in  1786,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Convention  which 
formed  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1787.  In  1789  he  was 
appointed  attorney-general.  He  was  a  political  friend 
of  Jefferson,  whom  he  succeeded  as  secretary  of  state  in 
January,  1794.  Having  been  accused  of  bribery  and  a 
corrupt  intrigue  on  the  evidence  of  an  intercepted  de- 
spatch from  Fauchet,  the  French  envoy,  he  resigned  in 
August,  1795,  and  published  a  vindication  of  his  course. 
Died  in  1813. 

Randolph,  (George  W.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  in  King  George  county,  Virginia,  about  1812,  was  a 
son  of  Governor  Thomas  M.  Randolph.  He  was  a 
lawyer  before  the  civil  war,  took  arms  against  the  Union 
in  1861,  and  became  a  brigadier-general.  He  was  secre- 
tary of  war  of  the  Confederate  States  from  March  to 
November,  1862.    Died  in  1867. 

Ran'dolph,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  1749, 
was  a  son  of  Thomas,  (1701-83.)  He  became  Bishop 
of  Oxford  in  1799,  of  Bangor  in  1807,  and  of  London 
(or  York)  in  1809.    Died  in  1813. 

Randolph,  (John,)  of  Roanoke,  an  American  orator, 
born  at  Cawsons,  in  Chesterfield  county,  Virginia,  in 
June,  1773,  was  a  son  of  John  Randolph.  He  claimed  to 
be  a  descendant  of  Pocahontas  the  Indian  princess.  He 
studied  at  Princeton  and  Columbia  College,  New  York, 
for  short  periods.  In  1799  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  to  represent  the  Charlotte  district.  He  was 
a  Democrat,  a  partisan  of  State  rights,  and  a  political 
friend  of  Jefferson.  He  was  re-elected  many  times  to 
Congress,  and  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  debater. 
About  the  end  of  1804  he  was  appointed  chief  manager 
to  conduct  the  trial  of  Judge  Chase,  who  was  impeached 
before  the  Senate.  He  became  estranged  from  Jefferson 
about  1806,  separated  from  his  political  associates,  tried 
to  defeat  the  election  of  Madison,  and  opposed  the  war 
of  1812.  He  was  defeated  at  the  next  election,  (1813,) 
but  was  again  elected  in  1814  or  1815.  He  opposed  the 
charter  of  the  United  States  Bank  in  1816.  In  a  letter 
dated  September,  181 8,  he  says,  "  When  I  speak  of  my 
country,  I  mean  the  commonwealth  of  Virginia."  He 
spoke  against  the  Missouri  Compromise  bill  of  1820, 
because  it  prohibited  the  extension  of  slavery  north  of 
the  line  36°  30^  At  the  same  time  he  stigmatized  the 
Northern  members  who  voted  for  it  as  "  dough-faces," 
a  term  which  has  since  come  into  general  use  in  the 
United  States.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  in  December,  1824,  to  fill  a  vacancy  for  two  years. 
In  a  speech  against  the  President  in  1826,  he  insulted 
Mr.  Clay  by  allusion  to  a  "  combination  of  the  Puritan 
with  the' blackleg."  His  apologist  Garland  admits  that 
"he  indulged  in  language  of  the  grossest  personal  in- 
sult." He  was  challenged  by  Mr.  Clay,  and  a  duel  ensued. 
Randolph's  pistol  went  off  before  the  word.  Clay  fired 
without  effect,  and  his  adversary  then  threw  away  his 
fire.  He  was  defeated  in  the  election  of  Senator  in  1827. 
In  a  letter  dated  May  27,  1828,  he  wrote,  "The  country 
is  ruined,  thanks  to  Mr.  Jefferson  and  Mr.  Ritchie."  He 
supported  General  Jackson  for  the  Presidency  in  1828, 
and  was  appointed  minister  to  Russia  in  1830.  He  re- 
turned home,  in  very  feeble  health,  in  the  autumn  of  183 1. 
He  sympathized  with  the  nullifiers  of  South  Carolina, 
and  in  December,  1832,  denounced  the  proclamation  of 
President  Jackson,  which  he  called  "the  ferocious  and 
bloodthirsty  proclamation  of  our  Djezzar  Pacha."  He 
died,  in  1833,  in  Philadelphia,  to  which  he  went  to  take 
passage  for  Europe.  He  was  never  married.  He  owned 
about  three  hundred  slaves,  whom  he  manumitted  by  his 
last  will.  In  1803,  as  chairman  of  a  committee  of  Con- 
gress, he  reported  against  the  introduction  of  slaves  into 
Indiana,  as  not  calculated  to  promote  the  prosperity  of 
the  territory.  He  was  a  man  of  decided  genius,  and  was 
distinguished  for  his  ready  wit,  which,  joined  to  his 
mastery  of  the  weai)ons  of  sarcasm  and  invective,  ren- 
dered him  a  formidable  opponent  in  debate.    "  He  was 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  lojig;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RANDOLPH 


1867 


RAOUL 


like  an  Ishmaelite,"  says  Garland, — "his  hand  against 
every  man,  and  every  man's  hand  against  him." 

See  Hugh  A.  Garland,  "Life  of  John  Randolph,"  2  vols., 
1850:  James  Parton,  "Famous  Americans  of  Recent  Times," 
1867  ;  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol. 
iv. ;  "  Edinbiirsih  Review"  for  October,  1807  ;  "  North  American 
Review"  for  July,  1866. 

Randolph,  (Peyton,)  an  American  jurist  and  states- 
man, born  in  Virginia  in  1723,  was  first  president  of 
the  American  Congress  w^hich  met  in  1774.  He  was 
re-elected  president  of  that  body  in  May,  1775.  Died 
in  Philadelphia,  October,  1775. 

Randolph,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  able  British  diijloma- 
tist,  born  in  Kent  about  1525.  He  performed  many 
missions  to  Scotland,  France,  and  Russia  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  and  was  an  adept  in  political  intrigues. 
He  married  a  sister  of  Walsingham.  Died  in  1590. 
His  Letters,  which  are  of  great  historical  importance, 
are  preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  and  are  largely 
quoted  by  Froude  in  his  "  History  of  England." 

Randolph,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1605.  On  leaving  college  he  be- 
came a  resident  of  London  and  a  friend  or  protege  of 
Ben  Jonson.  He  wrote,  besides  other  poems,  several 
dramas,  among  which  is  "  The  Muses'  Looking-Glass," 
(1638.)    His  habits  were  dissipated.    Died  in  1634. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  vi.,  (1822.) 

Randolph,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
at  Canterbury  in  1701.  He  became  professor  of  divinity 
at  Oxford  in  1768.  He  published  several  works  on 
theology,  among  which  is  "Christian  Faith,"  (1744.) 
Died  in' 1783. 

Randon,  r6N'd6N',  (Charles  Joseph,)  Comte  de 
Pully,  a  French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1751  ;  died 
in  1832. 

Randon,  (Jacques  Louis  C6sar  Alexandre,) 
Count,  a  French  general,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1795. 
He  became  a  colonel  in  1838,  served  in  Algeria,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  division  in  1847.  He 
was  appointed  minister  of  war  in  January,  1851,  and 
Governor-General  of  Algeria  in  December  of  that  year. 
In  1856  he  was  made  a  marshal  of  France.  He  was 
minister  of  war  from  1859  to  1867,    Died  in  1871. 

Randon-Dulauloy,  r5N'd6N'  du'15'lwa',  (Charles 
Francois,)  Count,  a  French  general,  born  at  Laon  in 
1764.  As  general  of  division,  he  distinguished  himself 
at  Eyiau,  Friedland,  Lutzen,  and  Dresden.  Died  in  1832. 

Rangabe.    See  Rizo  Rangab6. 

Raiiieri,  r3,-ne-a'ree,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Naples  in  1806.  He  wrote  "Ginevra,"  a  tale, 
(1838,)  and  a  "History  of  Italy  from  Theodosius  to 
Charlemagne,"  (1841.) 

Ranieri-Biscia,  ri-ne-a'ree  bee'shS,  (Luigi,)  an  Ital- 
ian poet,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1744.  He  wrote  a  poem 
"On  the  Cultivation  of  Anise,"  (1772,)  and  other  works. 
Died  about  1824. 

Rank,  rink,  (Joseph,)  a  German  writer  of  tales,  born 
near  Neumark,  Bohemia,  in  181 5.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "  Aus  dem  Boehmerwalde,"  (3  vols.,  1851,) 
and  "  Florian,"  (1853.) 

Ranke,  rink'eh,  (Friedrich  Heinrich,)  a  distin- 
guished Protestant  theologian  and  preacher,  brother  of 
the  historian  Leopold,  was  born  in  1707.  He  became 
professor  of  dogmatics  at  Erlangen  in  1840. 

Ranke,  (Karl  Ferdinand,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1802.  He  published  several 
educational  and  philological  works. 

Ranke,  (Leopold,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  German 
historians  of  recent  times,  was  born  at  Wiehe,  in  Thurin- 
gia,  in  1795.  He  published  in  1824  a  "History  of  the 
Roman  and  German  Peo])le  from  1494  to  1535,"  and  was 
appointed  the  following  year  professor-extraordinary  of 
history  at  Berlin.  To  this  succeeded  his  "  Princes  and 
Nations  of  Southern  Europe  in  the  Sixteenth  and  Seven- 
teenth Centuries,"  (1827,)  "The  Servian  Revolution," 
(1829,)  and  "The  Cons])iracy  against  Venice  in  1688," 
(1831.)  His  "Popes  of  Rome,  their  Church  and  State 
in  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries,"  (3  vols., 
1834,)  and  "German  History  during  the  Reformation," 
(5  vols.,  1839-43,)  are  among  his  most  popular  works, 
and  have  become  widely  known  by  the  admirable  trans- 


lations of  Mrs.  Austin.  Besides  the  above-named,  he 
jjublished  "Nine  Books  of  Prussian  History,"  (3  vols., 
1847,)  which  has  been  translated  by  .Sir  Alexander  and 
Lady  Duff  Gordon,  a  "  History  of  France  in  the  Six- 
teenth and  Seventeenth  Centuries,"  (1852,)  and  other 
similar  works.  Ranke  was  appointed  historiographer 
of  Prussia  in  1841.  His  "  History  of  the  Popes"  is 
highly  commended  by  Macaulay. 

See  Macaulay's  review  of  the  same,  first  published  in  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1S40;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale ;"  Brockhai;s,  "  Conversations-Lexikon ;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1840. 

Rankine,  rank'in,  (  William  John  Macquorn,  ) 
F.R.S.,  a  British  civil  engineer,  distinguished  as  a 
writer  on  heat,  elasticity,  mechanics,  etc.  He  became 
professor  of  civil  engineering  and  mechanics  at  Glas- 
gow about  1855.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Manual  of 
Api^lied  Mechanics,"  (1858,)  and  "  On  Energetics," 

Rannequin,  rtn'neh-kin,  Ren'kin,  or  Rennequin, 
(SWALM,)  a  hydraulic  engineer,  born  at  Liege  in  1644, 
He  constructed  the  machine  of  Marly,  near  Versailles, 
in  France.    Died  in  1708. 

Ran^'som,  (Thomas  Edward  Greenfield,)  a  brave 
and  skilful  American  general,  born  at  Norwich,  Ver- 
mont, in  November,  1834.  He  was  a  civil  engineer  in 
Illinois  before  the  civil  war.  In  July,  1861,  he  became 
a  lieutenant-colonel,  and  in  February,  1862,  he  was  se- 
verely wounded  at  Fort  Donelson.  He  commanded  a 
regiment  at  Shiloh  in  April,  1862,  obtained  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general  in  January,  1863,  and  served  under 
General  Banks  in  the  Red  River  expedition.  He  was 
disabled  by  a  wound  at  Sabine  Cross- Roads,  Louisiana, 
in  April,  1864.  He  joined  the  army  of  Sherman  after 
his  wound  had  healed,  and  took  command  of  a  division 
or  corps  just  before  the  capture  of  Atlanta,  (September  2.) 
He  died  at  Rome,  Georgia,  in  October,  1864. 

See  Tenney,  "Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  793; 
"  Sherman  and  his  Campaigns,"  by  Colonels  Bowman  and  Irwin, 

Ransonnette,  rfiN^so'nlt',  (Charles  Nicolas,)  a 
French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  engraved 
plates  for  several  books  of  travel. 

Rantoul,  ran'tool,  (Robert,)  a  distinguished  states- 
man of  the  Democratic  party,  was  born  in  Beverly, 
Massachusetts,  in  1805.  He  studied  law,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1827,  and  was  elected  in  1834  to  the  legis- 
lature, in  which  he  advocated  the  abolition  of  capital 
punishment.  In  1845  was  appointed  a  district  attor- 
ney of  the  United  States  by  the  President,  and  in  185 1 
succeeded  Daniel  Webster  as  Senator  of  the  United 
States  for  a  short  term.  Having  avowed  himself  a 
decided  opponent  of  the  extension  of  slavery,  he  was 
elected  to  Congress  by  the  united  votes  of  the  Demo- 
crats and  Free-Soilers.    Died  in  August,  1852. 

See  "  Memoir"  prefixed  to  a  volume  of  his  speeches,  published 
by  L.  Hamilton  in  1854;  "Democratic  Review"  for  October,  1850, 
(with  a  portrait.) 

Rantzau,  de,  deh  rSNt'so',  (Josias,)  Count,  a  mar- 
shal of  France,  born  in  Denmark  in  1609.  He  com- 
manded a  French  army  with  success  in  Flanders  from 
1642  to  1649.    Died  in  1650. 

Rantzau,  von,  fon  rint'sow,  (Johann,)  Count,  a 
German  general,  born  in  1492.  He  entered  the  service 
of  the  Duke  of  Holstein,  (afterwards  Frederick  I.  of 
Denmark,)  for  whom  he  conquered  Denmark  about 
1525.    Died  in  1565. 

Ranzani,  r§.n-zi'nee,  (Camillo  Abbate,)  an  eminent 
Italian  naturalist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1775.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  university 
of  his  native  city  in  1803.  About  1810  he  visited  Paris, 
where  he  was  treated  with  much  attention  by  Cuvier. 
He  began  in  1819  to  publish  a  great  work  entitled  "  Ele- 
ments of  Zoology,"  which  he  was  not  able  to  finish. 
About  twelve  volumes  of  it  have  been  published.  Died 
in  1841. 

See  CoRRADO  Politi,  "Elogiodi  C.  Ranzani,"  1842;  Tipaldo, 
"  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Raoul,  rS'ooK,  or  Rodolphe,  ro'dolF,  [Lat.  Ra- 
dui/fus,]  Duke  of  Burgundy,  married  Emma,  a  daughter 
of  Robert,  Duke  of  France.  In  923  he  was  chosen  king 
by  the  barons  who  deposed  Charles  IH.  He  waged  war 
against  the  Normans  under  RoUo.    Died  in  936, 


€  as  i,-  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Sf^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RAOUL 


1868 


RAPIN 


Raoul.    See  Roi.i.o. 

Raoul-Rochette.    See  Rochki  te. 

Raoux,  rt'oo',  (Jean,)  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Montpellier  in  1677.  He  obtained  some  vogue  as  a 
portrait-painter.    Died  in  1734. 

Raoux,  (SciPioN  Edouard,)  a  Swiss  litterateur,  born 
at  Mens  (Isere)  in  181 7,  became  professor  at  Lausanne. 

Rapetti,  rJ-pet'tee,  (Louis  Nicolas,)  a  distinguished 
jurist  and  biographer,  born  at  Bergamo  in  1812.  He 
wrote  for  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale"  a  notice 
of  Napoleon  I.,  and  other  articles.  He  lectured  on 
Roman  law  in  the  College  of  France  from  1841  to  1848. 

Raphael  (ra'fi-el  or  rtfa-el)  [It.  Raffaei.i.e,  rSf-fl- 
el'lij  Sanzio,  sin'ze-o,  (Raffaello,)  the  most  illus- 
trious of  modern  painters,  was  born  at  Urbino,  in  the 
Papal  States,  April  6,  1483.  fTe  was  the  only  son  of 
Giovanni  di  Santi  (or  Sanzio)  and  Magia  Ciarla.  After 
he  had  received  the  first  lessons  in  design  from  his 
father,  who  was  a  painter  of  moderate  talents,  he  became 
about  1495  a  pupil  of  Perugino.  whom  he  imitated  so 
well  that  when  that  master  and  Raphael  worked  on  the 
same  canvas  the  result  seemed  to  be  the  product  of  one 
hand.  Among  his  earliest  works  are  a  "  Holv  Family," 
(1500,)  the  "Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  "The  Coronation 
of  the  Virgin,"  (now  in  the  Vatican,)  and  "The  Marriage 
of  the  Virgin,"  ("  Sposalizio,")  dated  1504,  which  is  now 
at  Milan.  "The  Virgin,"  says  Lanzi,  "is  a  model  of 
celestial  beauty."  In  the  autumn  of  1504  he  visited 
Florence,  where  he  painted  several  works  and  formed 
friendships  with  Fra  Bartolommeo  and  Ridolfo  Ghir- 
landaio.  During  the  period  from  1505  to  1508,  which 
he  passed  at  Perugia  and  Florence,  he  produced  a 
Christ  in  glory,  the  "Madonna  del  Gran  Duca,"  and 
other  Madonnas.  These  works  show  that  his  style  had 
been  modified  by  his  studies  in  Florence. 

Having  received  from  Julius  TT.  an  invitation  to  orna- 
ment the  Vatican,  he  went  to  Rome  in  1508.  Here  he 
studied  the  remains  of  Grecian  genius,  associated  with 
eminent  scholars,  among  whom  were  Bembo,  Ariosto, 
and  Sadoleto,  and  entered  into  a  rivalry  with  Michael 
Angelo.  Raphael  painted  in  the  Vatican  (in  fresco)  the 
large  and  noble  composition  called  "Disputa  del  Sacra- 
mento," the  admirable  "  School  of  Athens,"  "  Parnassus," 
(151 1,)  "The  Miracle  of  Bolsena,"  "  Attila  repelled  from 
Rome,"  and  other  frescos.  "In  the  composition  and 
execution  of  the  'School  of  Athens,'"  says  Quatremere 
de  Quincy,  "Raphael  had  recovered,  so  to  speak,  the 
long-lost  thread  of  the  manner  and  taste  of  antiquity, 
and  had  at  length  connected  with  the  eternal  models  of 
the  true  and  beautiful  the  chain  of  modern  inventions." 
He  also  painted  in  oil  numerous  works,  among  which 
are  the  "Madonna  di  Foligno,"  (1511,)  and  a  portrait 
of  Julius  H.  Soon  after  his  arrival  at  Rome  he  adopted 
what  is  called  his  third  style. 

Like  all  great  painters  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
Raphael  was  a  skilful  architect.  In  15 15  the  pope  ap- 
pointed him  chief  architect  of  Saint  Peter's  Church,  in 
compliance  with  the  dying  request  of  Bramante.  Raphael 
made  a  model  or  design  for  this  edifice  ;  but  it  was  not 
executed.  He  designed  the  Pandolfini  palace  at  Flor- 
ence, of  which  an  able  critic  remarks,  "There  is  not  in 
architecture  a  palatial  design  more  noble,  of  a  purer 
style,  of  a  more  judicious  distribution."  About  1^15  he 
produced  the  celebrated  Cartoojis,  ten  designs  for  the 
tapestry  of  the  pope's  chapel,  seven  of  which  are  now 
at  Hampton  Court,  England,  They  represent  "  The 
Charge  to  Peter,"  "  Saint  Paul  preaching  at  Athens," 
and  other  scenes  from  sacred  history. 

Among  his  later  oil-paintings  are  "  Saint  Cecilia,"  (at 
Bologna,)  the  "Madonna  del  Pesce,"  (or  "del  Pez,")  (at 
the  Escurial,)  the  "Madonna  di  San  Sisto,"  (the  glory 
of  the  gallery  of  Dresden,)  and  the  "  Transfiguration," 
which  some  consider  his  master-piece,  and  which  is 
now  in  the  Vatican.  His  great  power  was  in  the  ex- 
pression of  passion  and  character.  He  also  excelled  in 
composition,  invention,  and  design  ;  but  as  a  colorist 
he  was  inferior  to  Titian  and  others.  It  is  asserted  that 
in  all  his  endless  inventions  a  single  repetition  of  him- 
self is  not  to  be  found.  He  died  at  Rome  on  the  6th 
of  April,  1520,  at  the  age  of  thirty-seven.  He  was 
never  married.    He  had  a  delicate  constitution,  brown 


hair  and  eyes,  regular  and  handsome  features.  His 
modest,  amiable,  and  noble  character  rendered  him  a 
general  favourite. 

"The  bent  of  his  genius,"  says  Lanzi,  "led  him  to 
that  ideal  beauty,  grace,  and  expression,  the  most 
refined  and  difficult  province  of  painting.  .  .  .  Rafifaelle 
is  by  common  consent  placed  at  the  head  of  his  art." 
"  Raff;ielle  was  solely  a  painter,"  says  Hazlitt ;  "  but  in 
that  one  art  he  seemed  to  pour  out  all  the  treasures  and 
various  excellence  of  nature, — grandeur  and  scope  of 
design,  exquisite  finishing,  force,  grace,  delicacy,  the 
strength  of  man,  the  softness  of  woman,  the  playfulness 
of  infancy,  thought,  feeling,  invention,  etc.  He  received 
his  inspiration  from  without,  and  his  genius  caught  the 
lambent  flames  of  peace,  of  truth  and  grandeur,  which 
are  reflected  in  his  works  with  a  light  clear,  transparent, 
and  unfading."  "  If  Michael  Angelo  is  the  first  of 
draughtsmen,"  says  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  "  Raphael 
is  the  first  of  painters.  .  .  .  His  'Galatea'  is  a  work 
which  explains,  far  better  than  any  language  of  ours, 
the  diversity  between  Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael, 
manifesting  the  exquisite  refinement  of  the  latter,  and 
his  tendency  towards  that  pure,  noble,  graceful  manner 
which  constituted  the  beau-ideal  of  the  ancient  Greeks." 
Among  the  numerous  eminent  pupils  of  Raphael  were 
Giulio  Romano,  Penni  called  II  Fattore,  Perino  del 
Vaga,  Pellegrino  da  Modena,  Garofalo,  and  Polidoro  da 
Caravaggio. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy;"  Duppa,  "Life  of  Raphael,"  1815;  Passavant,  "Ra- 
pliael  d'Urbino,"  1839;  G.  C.  Bratin,  "Raphael  Sanzio's  Leben," 
1815;  QuATREMfeKE  DE  QuiNcv.  "Vie  de  Raphael,"  1824,  (trans- 
lated into  English  by  Hazlitt,  1846;)  Von  Wolzoghn,  "Raphael 
Santis  Leben,"  (an  English  version  of  which  was  published  in  1866  ;) 
Nacjler,  "  Raphael  als  Mensch  und  Kunstler;"  Landon,  "  Vie  et 
G^iivies  de  Raphael  ;"  C.  F.  von  Rumohr,  "  Ueber  Raphael  von 
Urbino  ;"  PuNGii.EONi,  "  Elogio  storico  di  Raffaello,"  1829:  Baldi- 
Nucci,  "Notizie;"  Adolph  Sirkt,  "Raphael  et  Rubens,"  1849; 
Carlo  Fea,  "  Notizie  intorno  Raffaello  Sanzio,"  1822  ;  F.  Rehberg, 
"  Raphael  Sanzio  aus  Urbino,"  2  vols.,  1824;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Oinerale;"  "Raphael  and  his  Times,"  in  the  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1870. 

Raphael  of  Volterra.    See  Mafff.t,  (Raphael.) 

Raphall,  r^Vf^l,  (Morris  Jacob,)  a  Jewish  rabbi  and 
theological  writer,  born  at  Stockholm,  in  Sweden,  in  1798. 
He  studied  in  Germany,  and  subsequently  resided  many 
years  in  England,  where  he  edited  in  1834  "The  He- 
brew Review,  or  Magazine  of  Rabbinical  Literature." 
Having  removed  to  New  York  in  1849,  he  became 
rabbi-jireacher  of  the  first  Anglo-German  Hebrew  con- 
gregation in  that  city.  He  published  "  Post-Biblical 
History  of  the  Jews,"  (1856,)  and  other  works,  and  made 
translations  from  the  Hebrew. 

Rapheleng,  ri'feh-l^ng',  Rapheling,  rS'feh-ling', 
written  also  Raulengien,  (F'rancis,)  a  learned  printer, 
born  near  Lille  in  1539,  was  a  son  in-law  of  Plantin. 
He  worked  at  Antwerp,  taught  Hebrew  at  Leyden,  and 
published  an  Arabic  Lexicon.    Died  in  1597. 

Rapheling.    See  Raphei-eng. 

Rapin,  \^'\A^',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Fontenay-le-Comte  about  1540.  He  fought  for  Henry 
IV.  against  the  League,  and  wrote  part  of  the  famous 
"Satire  Menippee."  (See  Leroy,  (Pierre,)  and  Du- 
RANT.)  He  produced,  in  Latin  and  French,  a  number 
of  odes,  epigrams,  elegies,  etc.,  which  were  admired. 
Died  in  1608. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "Nouvelle 
Biograpliie  Generale." 

Rapin,  (Ren6,)  a  French  Jesuit,  distinguished  as  a 
Latin  poet,  was  born  at  Tours  in  1621.  He  composed, 
besides  many  other  works,  a  series  of  "  Parallels  of 
Great  Men  of  Antiquity,"  (Homer,  Virgil,  Demosthenes, 
Cicero,  Plato,  and  Aristotle,)  (1669-71.)  His  chief  pro- 
duction is  an  ingenious  Latin  poem  "On  Gardens," 
("  Hortorum  Libri  IV.,"  1665,)  which  was  translated  into 
English  by  Evelyn.  "For  skill  in  varying  and  adorning 
his  subjects,"  says  Hallam,  "  for  a  truly  Virgilian  spirit 
of  expression,  for  the  exclusion  of  feeble,  prosaic,  or 
awkward  lines,  he  may  perhaps  be  equal  to  any  poet, — 
to  Sannazarius  himself"  ("Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  Europe.")    Died  in  Paris  in  1687. 

See  B  WLE,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary:"  Bouhours, 
"Vie  deRanin,"  in  his  "  Poeniata,"  1723;  Nic^ron,  "  Memoires  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon- 


RAP  IN 


1869 


RATHIER 


Rapin,  de,  deh  rap'in  or  rt'piw',  (Paul,)  Sieur  de 
Thoyras,  a  French  historian,  born  of  a  Protestant  family 
at  Castres  in  1661.  He  entered  the  service  of  William, 
Prince  of  Orange,  with  whom  he  went  to  England  in 
1688.  He  served  as  captain  in  the  war  in  Ireland  about 
1690.  In  1724  he  published,  in  French,  a  "History  of 
England  from  the  Roman  Conquest  to  the  Death  of 
Charles  I.,"  (8  vols.,)  a  work  of  considerable  merit. 
According  to  Voltaire,  it  was  the  best  history  of  Eng- 
land that  had  then  appeared.  It  was  translated  into 
English  by  Tindal,  who  also  wrote  a  continuation  of 
Rapin's  work.    (See  Tindal.)    Died  at  Wesel  in  1725. 

See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante ;"  ".Nouveile  Biographic 
G^nerale." 

Rapoport,  rS'po-poRt',  (Solomon  Jehudah,)  a  Jew- 
ish scholar  and  rabbi,  born  at  Lemberg,  in  Germany, 
in  1790.  He  published,  in  Hebrew,  a  number  of  his- 
torical and  antiquarian  treatises,  and  translated  Racine's 
**  Esther'  into  Hebrew. 

Rapp,  (George,)  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Har- 
monists or  Rappites,  born  at  Wiirtemberg,  Germany, 
in  1770.  He  emigrated  in  1803  to  the  United  States, 
and  founded  a  community  at  Economy,  Beaver  county, 
Pennsylvania.    Died  in  1847. 

Rapp,  rtp,  (Jean,)  Count,  an  able  French  general, 
born  at  Colmar  in  1772.  He  was  aide-de-camp  of  De- 
saix  at  Marengo,  and  on  his  death  became  an  aide  to 
Bonaparte,  whose  confidence  he  acquired.  For  his  ser- 
vices at  Austerlitz  (1805)  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a 
general  of  division.  He  received  his  ninth  wound  at 
Golymin,  (1806,)  obtained  the  chief  command  at  Dant- 
zic  in  1807,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Essling  in  1809. 
He  received  four  wounds  at  the  battle  of  Moskwa, 
(1812.)  In  1815  he  was  appointed  by  Napoleon  com- 
mander of  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  and  fought  several 
actions  against  the  allies.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
noted  for  his  humanity  and  moderation.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1821. 

See  "Memoirs  of  General  Count  Rapp,  First  Aide-de-Camp  to 
Napoleon,  by  himself ;"  "  Nouveile  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Ra'rey,  (John  S.,)  a  celebrated  American  horse- 
tamer,  born  at  Madison,  Franklin  county,  Ohio,  about 
1825.  He  was  very  successful  in  subduing  the  most 
vicious  animals  by  substituting  kindness  and  scientific 
skill  for  the  harshness  usually  employed  on  such  occa- 
sions.   Died  in  1866. 

Rasario,  rJ-sl^re-o,  [Lat.  Rasa'rius,]  (Giambat- 
TISTA,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  in  the  province  of 
Novara  in  1 51 7.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  and  rhetoric 
at  Venice  for  twenty-two  years.  He  translated  from 
Greek  into  Latin  some  works  of  Pachymeres,  Oribasius, 
and  Galen.    Died  at  Pavia  in  1578. 

See  Ghh-ini,  "  Teatro  d'Uomini  letterati." 

Rasarius.    See  Rasario. 

Rascas,  rts'kSs',  (Pie3,re  Antoine,)  Sieur  de  Bagar- 
ris,  a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Aix  about  1567.  He 
was  keeper  of  the  cabinet  of  Henry  IV.,  and  wrote  a 
treatise  on  medals.    Died  in  1620. 

Rasche,  rish'eh,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German 
numismatist,  born  near  Eisenach,  in  Saxony,  in  1703. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Lexicon  of  the 
Monetary  Affairs  of  the  Ancients,"  ("Lexicon  universae 
Rei  numariae  Veterum,"  6  vols.,  1785-94.)  Died  in  1805. 

Raschi,  ras^Kee,  ?  (Rabbi  Solomon,)  an  eminent  Jew- 
ish writer,  born  at  Troyes,  in  France,  in  1040.  He 
wrote  commentaries  on  the  Pentateuch  and  Talmud. 
Died  in  1 105. 

Raschid,  Al.    See  Haroun-al-Raschid. 

Rasheed-Eddeen  or  Raschid-Eddin,  rS-sheed' 
ed-deen',  a  Persian  histarian,  born  at  Hamadan  in  the 
thirteenth  century.    Died  about  1320. 

Rasis.    See  Razes. 

Rasis  or  Rases.    See  Razee. 

Rask,  risk,  (Ramus  or  Rasmus  Christian,)  an  emi- 
nent Danish  linguist,  was  born  near  Odense,  in  the  isle 
of  Fiinen,  in  1787.  He  gave  much  attention  to  com- 
parative philology,  in  the  prosecution  of  which  study  he 
visited  Russia,  Persia,  India,  etc.,  (1817-21.)  He  be- 
came professor  of  literary  history  at  Copenhagen  in  1825, 
and  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  the  same  univer- 
sity in  1828.    Among  his  works  are  an  "Anglo-Saxon 


Grammar,"  (1817,)  "Researches  on  the  Origin  of  the 
Icelandic  Language,"  (1818,)  and  "On  the  Age  and 
Authenticity  of  the  Zend-Avesta,"  (1826.)  He  possessed 
a  rare  talent  for  linguistic  researches.    Died  in  1832. 

See  P.  L.  MoELLER,  "  R.  K.  Rask;"  Erslew,  "  Forfatter- Lexi- 
con;"  "Nouveile  Biographic  Generale." 

Rasmussen,  ris'moos'sen,  (Janus  Lassen,)  a  Dan- 
ish Orientalist,  born  at  Vestenkov  in  1785.  He  published 
a  "  History  of  the  Kingdoms  of  the  Arabs,"  ("  Historia 
Arabum  Regnorum," .1817,)  "Annals  of  the  Moslems," 
("Annales  Islamicae,"  1825,)  and  other  works.  Died 
about  1828. 

Rasori,  rS-so'ree,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Parma  in  1766  or  1767.  He  became 
professor  at  Pavia  about  1796,  and  settled  at  Milan  in 
1800.  He  was  author  of  a  new  medical  doctrine,  called 
"theory  of  the  Counter-Stimulus,"  and  wrote  several 
medical  works.    He  died  in  1837. 

See  G.  Perini,  "  Cenni  suUa  Mente  di  G.  Rasori,"  1837;  Chi- 
APPA,  "Delia  Vita  di  G.  Rasori,"  1838;  "Nouveile  Biographic 
Generale." 

Raspail,  rts'pti'  or  ris'pt'ye,  (FRANgois  Vincent,) 
an  able  French  chemist  and  politician,  born  at  Carpen- 
tras  in  1794.  He  took  arms  against  Charles  X.  in  1830, 
and  became  a  leader  of  the  republicans.  In  1831  he 
published  the  first  volume  of  his  able  "  Course  of  Agri- 
culture and  Rural  Economy."  At  the  revolution  of 
February,  1848,  he  proclaimed  a  republic  at  the  Hotel 
de  Ville  before  the  formation  of  a  provisional  govern- 
ment. In  March,  1849,  he  was  condemned  to  six  years' 
imprisonment  for  conspiracy  against  the  new  regime. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "New  System  of  Organic  Chem- 
istry," (2d  edition,  3  vols.,  1838,)  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English,  and  "The  Natural  History  of  Health 
and  Disease  of  Plants  and  Animals,  especially  Man," 
(3  vols.,  1846.)  He  was  elected  to  the  corps  legislatij 
in  1869. 

See  Charles  Marchal,  "Biographic  de  F.  V.  Raspail,"  1848; 
QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "Nouveile  Biographic  Gene- 
rale." 

Raspe,  rSs'peh,  (Rodolph  Eric,)  a  German  anti- 
quary, born  at  Hanover  in  1737  ;  died  in  Ireland  in  1794. 

Rasponi,  rSs-po'nee,  (Cesare,)  an  Italian  cardinal 
and  negotiator,  born  at  Ravenna  in  161 5  ;  died  in  1675. 

Ras'tall  or  Ras'tell,  (John,)  an  English  printer, 
was  a  native  or  citizen  of  London.  One  of  the  first 
books  which  he  printed  is  dated  1 51 7.  He  was  con- 
verted to  the  Protestant  religion  by  J.  Frith.  He  was  the 
reputed  author  of  "  Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of  England," 
("  Anglorum  Regum  Chronicon,"  1529.)    Died  in  1536. 

His  son  William,  born  in  1508,  was  a  printer  and 
lawyer.  He  emigrated  to  Louvain  in  1558,  and  died 
there  in  1565. 

Rast-Maupas,  rSs-m5'p3.',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French 
rural  economist,  born  at  La  Voulte  in  1731.  He  founded 
the  Condition  des  Soies,  and  made  several  useful  inven- 
tions.   Died  at  Lyons  in  1821. 

Rastopchin.    See  Rostopchin. 

Rastrelli,  r^s-tReKlee,  (Joseph,)  a  German  composer 
and  musician,  born  at  Dresden  in  1799.  He  composed 
"  Salvator  Rosa,"  (1832,)  and  other  operas. 

Rataller,  rS-ti'ler,  (George,)  a  Dutch  philologist 
and  jurist,  born  at  Leeuwarden  in  1528.  He  translated 
into  Latin  verse  Hesiod's  great  poem  and  the  tragedies 
of  Sophocles.  He  became  president  of  the  council  at 
Utrecht  about  1570.    Died  in  1581. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Ratazzi.    See  Rattazzi. 

Ratcliffe,  (Thomas,)  Earl  of  Sussex.     See  Rad- 
cliffe. 
Ratdolt.    See  Rathold. 

Rathel  or  Raethel,  ra'tel,  (Wolfgang  Christoph,) 
a  German  scholar,  born  at  Selbitz  in  1663  ;  died  in  1729. 
Ratherius.    See  Rathier. 

Rathery,  rtt're',  (Edme  Jacques  BENotT,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1807.  He  became  assistant 
keeper  of  the  Imperial  Library  in  1859.  He  has  con- 
tributed to  the  "  Nouveile  Biographie  Generale,"  the 
"  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  and  other  periodicals. 

Rathier,  rt'te-i',  [Lat.  Rathe'rius,]  a  learned  ec- 
clesiastic, was  born  at  Liege.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Verona  in  931  a.d.    Died  about  974  a.d. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RATHOLD 


RJFAISSON 


Rathold,  rSfholt,  written  also  Ratdolt,  (Erhard,) 
a  German  printer,  born  at  Augsburg.  He  settled  at 
Venice  in  1475,  where  he  published  excellent  editions 
of  Appian,  Euclid,  and  other  classics.    Died  about  1516. 

Rat'i,  written  alsoReti,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  rut'i,] 
a  Sanscrit  word  signifying  "passion,"  "sexual  desire," 
and  forming,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  the 
consort  of  Kamadeva,  or  the  Indian  god  of  love. 

See  Wilson,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary." 

Ratier,  rt'te-i',  (F6lix  S^verin,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  was  borlTin  Paris  in  1797.  He  published  nu- 
merous works. 

Ratramne,  rt  trtni',  [Lat.  Ratram'nus,]  a  learned 
French  monk  of  the  ninth  century,  belonged  to  the 
abbey  of  Corbie.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "  On  the  Body 
and  Blood  of  the  Lord,"  ("  De  Corpore  et  Sanguine 
Domini,")  which  was  printed  in  1532  and  1712.  He 
is  sometimes  called  Bertram.    Died  after  868  a.d. 

Ratramnus.    See  Ratramne. 

Ratschky,  ritsh'kee,  (Joseph  Franz,)  a  German 
poet,  born  in  Vienna  in  1757.  He  published  a  volume 
of  poems  in  1785,  which  were  somewhat  popular.  He 
became  a  councillor  of  state.    Died  in  Vienna  in  1810. 

Rattazzi,  rSt-tit'see,  or  Ratazzi,  (Urbano,  )  an 
Italian  minister  of  state,  born  at  Alessandria  about  1810. 
He  gained  distinction  as  an  advocate,  was  elected  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  at  Turin  in  1848,  and  became  a 
leader  of  the  democratic  party.  About  the  end  of  1848 
he  was  intrusted  with  the  formation  of  a  new  ministry, 
which  was  dissolved  in  consequence  of  the  disastrous 
battle  of  Novara,  March,  1849.  was  appointed  min- 

ister of  justice  in  1854,  was  prime  minister  a  short  time 
in  1859,  and  succeeded  Ricasoli  as  prime  minister  about 
March  i,  1862.  His  opponents  denounced  him  as  sub- 
servient to  the  policy  of  the  French  emperor.  He  went 
out  of  power  about  December  i,  1862,  and  became  prime 
minister  again  in  April,  1867.  He  is  the  leader  of  the 
"left  centre."    He  resigned  in  October,  1867. 

See  "Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1863;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
grapbie  Generale." 

Ratte,  de,  deh  rtt,  (Etienne  Hyacinthe,)  a  French 
astronomer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1722.  He  wrote 
scientific  articles  for  the  "  Encyclopedie,"  and  observed 
the  transit  of  Venus  in  1761.    Died  in  1S05. 

See  J.  PoiTEViN,  "  ^loge  d'E.  H.  de  Ratte,"  1805. 

Ratti,  r^t'tee,  (Niccola,)  an  Italian  antiquary,  born 
at  Rome  in  1759,  published  several  biographies  and 
antiquarian  treatises.    Died  in  1833. 

Rau,  (Christian.)    See  Ravius. 

Rau,  row,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  German  physician, 
born  at  Baden,  in  Suabia,  in  1668,  was  a  successful 
lithotomist.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Leyden 
in  1713.    Died  in  1719. 

Rau,  (Karl  Heinrich,)  a  German  political  econo- 
mist, born  at  Erlangen  in  1792,  became  in  1822  professor 
of  political  economy  and  financial  science  at  Heidelberg. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "Manual  of  Political  Economy," 
(3  vols.,  1826-32,)  which  is  highly  commended.  Died 
in  1870. 

Rau,  (Sebald,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Herborn 
in  1724.  He  obtained  the  chair  of  Oriental  languages 
at  Utrecht  in  1749.    Died  about  1810. 

Rau,  (Sebald  Foulques  Jan,)  an  Orientalist,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Utrecht  in  1765.  He  be- 
came minister  of  a  church  at  Leyden  in  1788.  Died  in  1807. 

See  Teiss^dre  l'Ange,  "Vie  de  Rau,"  1810. 

Rauch,  rowK,  (Christian,)  one  of  the  most  eminent 
German  sculptors,  born  at  Arolsen,  in  the  principality 
of  Waldeck,  in  1777.  He  studied  for  a  time  under  Pro- 
fessor Ruhl,  at  Cassel,  and  in  1804  was  enabled  to  visit 
Rome,  where  he  was  patronized  by  W.  von  Humboldt 
and  acquired  the  friendship  of  Thorwaldsen.  While  at 
Rome  he  executed  the  bas-reliefs  of  "  Hippolytus  and 
Phcedra,"  and  "  Mars  and  Venus  wounded  by  Diomed," 
also  a  colossal  bust  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  a  life-size 
bust  of  his  queen  Louise,  and  a  portrait  bust  of  Raphael 
Mengs.  In  1813  he  completed  the  moniiment  of  the 
Queen  of  Prussia,  at  Charlottenburg,  which  is  esteemed 
one  of  the  most  admirable  works  of  the  kind.  During 
a  second  visit  to  Ronie  he  executed  statues  of  Generals 
Scharnhorst  and  Biilow,  and  a  great  number  of  busts  of 


celebrated  persons.  After  his  return  to  Prussia  he  pro- 
duced two  colossal  bronze  statues  of  Marshal  Bliicher, 
a  statue  of  Goethe,  regarded  as  the  most  perfect  re- 
semblance to  that  great  writer,  a  monument  to  Albert 
Diirer,  and  statues  of  Luther,  Schiller,  and  other  eminent 
Germans.  In  185 1  he  finished  his  monument  to  Fred- 
erick the  Great,  with  an  equestrian  statue,  at  Berlin, 
upon  which  he  was  employed  more  than  ten  years,  and 
which  is  esteemed  his  greatest  work.    Died  in  1857. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kunstler-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale  ;"  "  Jahrbuch  7,um  Conversations-Lexikon,"  1859. 

Raulengien.    See  Rapheleng. 

Raulin,  ro'liN',  (F6lix  Victor,)  a  French  geologist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1815.  He  has  written  several  treatises 
on  geology. 

Raulin,  (Jean,)  a  French  professor  of  theology  at 
Paris,  born  at  Toul  in  1443  ;  died  in  1 5 14. 

Raulin,  (Joseph,)  a  French  physician,  born  near  Auch 
in  1708.  He  became  physician  to  the  king,  and  wrote 
several  able  medical  works.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London.    Died  in  Paris  in  1784. 

Raumer,  von,  fon  row'mer,  (Friedrich  Ludwig 
Georg,)  an  eminent  German  historian,  born  near  Des- 
sau in  1 781.  He  studied  law  and  financial  science  at 
Halle  and  Gottingen,  and  in  1819  became  professor  of 
history  and  political  economy  at  Berlin.  He  published 
in  1810  a  treatise  "On  the  British  System  of  Taxation," 
and  in  1813  a  "Manual  of  Remarkable  Passages  from 
the  Latin  Historians  of  the  Middle  Ages."  His  "His- 
tory of  the  Hohenstaufen  and  their  Times"  (6  vols., 
1823)  was  very  well  received,  and  is  esteemed  a  standard 
work.  Among  his  other  productions  may  be  named  a 
"  History  of  Europe  from  the  End  of  the  Fifteenth  Cen- 
tury," (1832,)  "  England  in  1835,"  which  was  translated 
by  Mrs.  Austin,  and  "The  United  States  of  North 
America,"  (1845.)    Died  in  1871. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  Brockhaus,  "Conver- 
sations-Lexikon;" "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1835; 
''  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1829,  and  April,  1833. 

Raumer,  von,  (Georg  Wilhelm,)  a  German  jurist 
and  historical  writer,  born  at  Berlin  about  1 790;  died 
in  1856. 

Raumer,  von,  (Karl  Georg,)  a  German  geologist, 
born  at  Worlitz  in  1 783,  became  professor  of  natural 
history  and  mineralogy  at  Erlangen.  He  was  a  brother 
of  the  eminent  historian. 

Raumer,  von,  (Rudolf,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Breslau  in  1 81 5.  He  was  professor  of  the  Ger- 
man language  and  literature  at  Erlangen  in  1852. 

Raupach,  row'piK,  (Ernst  Benjamin  Solomon,)  a 
popular  dramatic  poet,  born  near  Liegnitz,  in  Silesia,  in 
1784.  After  residing  several  years  in  Russia  as  a  teacher, 
he  became  professor  of  German  literature  at  Saint  Peters- 
burg in  1817.  His  works,  which  are  very  numerous 
and  include  both  tragedy  and  comedy,  were  published 
in  18  vols.,  1830-44.    Died  in  1852. 

See  Paui,ine  Raupach,  "  Raupach  ;  biographlsche  Skizze,"  1854; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  1838. 

Rauter,  row'ter  or  r5'taiR',  (Jacques  Fr^id^ric, )  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1784.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  law  in  his  native  city.    Died  in  1854. 

Rauwolf,  row'^olf,  (Leonhard,)  a  German  botanist, 
born  at  Augsburg.  He  visited  the  Levant  in  1573,  in 
order  to  study  and  identify  the  plants  noticed  by  Pliny, 
Galen,  Dioscorides,  etc.  After  his  return  he  published 
a  valuable  "  Narrative  of  a  Journey  in  Syria,  Judea, 
Arabia,  Mesopotamia,"  etc.,  (1582.)    Died  in  1596. 

See  M.  Adam,  "  Vitae  Medicorum ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Ravaillac,  rt'vtl'ytk'  or  rt'vt'ytk',  (Franqois,)  a 
French  assassin  and  fanatic,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1578. 
He  approached  the  royal  carriage,  which  was  stopped 
in  the  street  by  a  number  of  wagons,  and  stabbed  Henry 
IV.  mortally,  in  May,  1610.  At  his  examination  he  de- 
nied that  he  had  any  accomplice.  He  was  executed  in 
May,  1 6 10. 

Ravaisson,  rt'vi's6N',  (Jean  Gaspard  F6lix,)  a 
French  philosopher,  born  at  Namur  in  1813.  He  was 
adinitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1849,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  imperial  council  of  public 
instruction  in  1852.  He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  the  Meta- 
physics of  Aristotle,"  (2  vols.,  1837-46.) 


5,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RAVANA 


RAT 


Ravana  *  li'va-na,  or  Ravanen,  in  the  Hindoo  my- 
thology, the  name  of  a  famous  many-headed  giant,  King 
of  Ceylon,  who  was  killed  by  Rama.    (See  Rama.) 

See  MooK,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Ravenel,  i  tv'neK,  (Jules  AM^DiED^siR^;,)  a  French 
bibliographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He  became  keeper 
of  the  printed  works  of  the  Royal  Library  in  1848. 

Ravenet,  rSv'ni',  (Simon  Francois,)  an  eminent 
French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  about  1708,  removed  to 
England  in  1750.    Died  in  1774. 

Ravenet,  (Simon  FRANgois,)  an  engraver,  born  in 
London  about  1755,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
went  to  Parma,  and  engraved  the  works  of  Correggio. 
Died  about  1812. 

Ravenna,  da,  di  ri-ven'nS,  (Marco,)  an  able  Italian 
engraver,  born  at  Ravenna  about  1496,  was  a  pupil  of 
Raimondi.  He  engraved  some  works  of  Raphael.  Died 
at  Rome  in  1527. 

Ravenna,  di,  de  ri-vln'nS,  (  Giovanni  Malpa- 
GHINO,)  an  Italian  classical  scholar,  born  at  Ravenna. 
He  was  employed  by  Petrarch  as  a  copyist,  and  after- 
wards taught  the  classics  at  Florence.    Died  about  1420. 

Ra'vens-croft,  (John  Stark,)  born  in  Prince  George 
county,  Virginia,  in  1772,  was  elected  in  1823  Bishop  of 
the  diocese  of  North  Carolina.    Died  in  1830. 

Ra'vens-croft,  (Thomas,)  an  English  composer, 
born  in  1592.  He  published  in  1611  a  collection  of 
songs  called  "Melismata,  Musical  Phansies,"  etc.,  and  in 
1621  "The  Whole  Book  of  Psalms,  composed  into  Four 
Parts  by  Sundry  Authors  to  such  Several  Tunes  as  are 
usually  sung  in  England,"  etc.  He  was  the  composer 
of  some  of  these  tunes. 

Ravesteyn,  van,  vtn  ra'veh-stTn',(HuRERT,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Dort  about  1645,  painted  fairs,  interiors 
of  shops,  etc. 

Ravesteyn,  van,  (J.\n,)  a  Dutch  portrait-painter, 
born  at  the  Hague  about  1575.  His  works  are  highly 
praised  by  Descamps  and  others.  Died  at  the  Hague  in 
1657.   His  son  Arnold  ( 1615-67)  was  a  portrait-painter. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Ravesteyn,  van,  (Nikolaas,)  a  relative  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Bommel  in  1661.  He  painted  por- 
traits and  history  with  success,  l^ied  at  Bommel  in  1750. 

Ravignan,  de,  deh  rt'v^n'ySN',  (Gustavk  FRANgois 
Xavier  Delacroix,)  a  French  Jesuit,  noted  as  a  pulpit 
orator,  was  born  at  Bayonne  in  1795.  He  preached  in 
Notre-Dame,  Paris,  for  ten  years,  (1837-48,)  and  wrote 
a  book  in  defence  of  the  Jesuits,  (7th  edition,  1855.) 
Died  in  1858. 

See  P.  DE  PoNLEvoY,  "  Le  P^re  de  Ravignan,"  2  vols.,  1850  ;  H. 
DE  Saint-Albin,  "Vie  du  Pere  de  Ravignan." 

Ra-vis'l-us  Tex'tor,  the  Latin  name  of  Jean  Tixier 
DE  Ravisi,  (te'se-i'  deh  rt've'ze',)  a  French  classical 
scholar,  born  in  Nivernais  about  1480.  He  published 
"Latin  Epithets,"  ("  Epitheta  Latina,"  15 18,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1524. 

Ravius,  rS've-us,  Rave,  ri'veh,  or  Ran,  row,  (Chris- 
tian,) a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Berlin  in  1603,  or, 
as  others  say,  in  1613.  He  went  to  the  Levant  in  1639, 
and  studied  the  Turkish,  Persian,  Italian,  Modern  Greek, 
etc.  at  Smyrna.  In  1644  he  obtained  the  chair  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Utrecht,  and  in  165 1  became  professor  of 
Arabic  at  Upsal.  Among  his  works  are  a  Latin  version 
of  part  of  the  Koran,  "  Primae  tredecim  Partium  Alcora- 
ni,"  etc.,  (1646,)  and  a  "  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew,  Syriac, 
Arabic,  andChaldaic  Languages,"  (1650.)  Died  in  1677. 

See  BuRMANN,  "Trajectum  eruditum ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie 
G^nerale." 

Ravizza,  r3.-v^t'sa  or  ri-vit'sl,  (Domenico,)  an  Ital- 
ian writer,  born  in  the  Abruzzi  in  1707  ;  died  in  1767. 

Rawdon,  Lord.    See  Hastings,  Marquis  of. 

Rawle,  rawl,  (William,)  a  distinguished  American 
jurist,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1759,  was  appointed  by 
Washington  district  attorney  of  Pennsylvania.  He  drew 
up  the  new  civil  code  of  Pennsylvania,  and  wrote  several 
legal  works.    Died  in  1836. 

Rawleigh.    See  Raleigh. 

Raw'ley,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Norwich  about  1588.  He  became  chaplain  to  Lord 
Bacon  and  to  Charles  1.    He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Bacon," 

*  He  is  called  Ravenen  in  Southev's  "  Curse  of  Kehama." 


which  Hallam  calls  "  the  best  authority  we  have,"  and 
edited  the  works  of  Bacon,  (1657.)    Died  in  1667. 

Raw'lins,  (John  A.,)  a  distinguished  American 
general,  born  in  Jo  Daviess  county,  Illinois,  in  1831,  was 
a  lawyer  before  the  civil  war.  He  became  assistant 
adjutant-general  of  General  Grant  in  September,  1861, 
and  served  as  such  in  the  campaigns  of  1862  and  1863. 
In  March,  1865,  he  was  appointed  chief  of  General 
Grant's  staff,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  the 
regular  army.  He  became  secretary  of  war  in  March, 
1869.    Died  in  Septeml^er,  1869. 

Raw'lin-son,  (Christopher,)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  Essex  in  1677.  He  published  an  edition  of  King 
Alfred's  Saxon  version  of  Boethius  "  De  Consolatione 
Philosophise,"  (1698.)    Died  in  1733. 

Rawlinson,  (Rev.  George,)  an  English  scholar,  born 
about  181 5,  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  was  chosen  a 
Fellow  of  Exeter  College  in  1840.  He  became  professor 
of  ancient  history  at  Oxford  in  1861.  He  jniblished  a 
translation  of  Herodotus,  (4  vols.,  1858-60,)  in  which 
he  was  assisted  by  his  brother  Sir  Henry,  and  "The 
Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern  World," 
(4  vols.,  1862-68,)  which  is  highly  esteemed. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  i860  ;  "  North  British 
Review"  for  June,  1866. 

Rawlinson,  (Sir  Henry  Creswick,)  an  English 
Orientalist,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Oxfordshire  in  1810.  He  entered  the  military  service 
of  the  East  India  Company  about  1826,  and  served  in 
Persia  some  years,  during  which  he  studied  the  Persian 
cuneiform  inscriptions  with  success.  In  1843  he  became 
political  resident,  or  agent,  at  Bagdad.  He  deciphered 
the  cuneiform  inscriptions  at  Nineveh,  and  wrote  "  An 
Outline  of  the  History  of  Assyria  as  collected  from 
the  Inscriptions,"  etc.,  (1852.)  He  was  sent  as  British 
ambassador  to  the  court  of  Persia  in  1859,  and  obtained 
the  rank  of  major-general. 

Rawlinson,  (Richard,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  London  about  1690.  He  published  a  "  Life  of  Anthony 
Wood,"  (1711,)  and  "  The  English  Topographer,"  (1720.) 
Died  in  1755. 

Rawlinson,  (Thomas,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  about  1680.  He  was  noted  as  a  collector  of 
books,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  original  of 
Addison's  character  of"  Tom  Folio."  (See  the  "  Tatler," 
No.  158.)    Died  in  1725. 

Raw'son,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  surgeon  and 
oculist,  born  in  Cornwall.  His  family  name  was  Adams, 
which  he  exchanged  for  Rawson  when  he  became  heir 
to  a  person  of  that  name.  He  settled  in  London  in  1810. 
Died  in  1820. 

Raxis,  rtk^s^ss',  (Ga^tan,)  Comte  de  Flassans,  a 
French  publicist,  born  at  Bedouin  in  1760.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  French 
Diplomacy,"  (6  vols.,  1808.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1845. 

Ray,  (Isaac,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician,  born  at 
Beverly,  Massachusetts,  in  1807,  was  appointed  in  1841 
superintendent  of  the.  State  Insane  Hospital  at  Augusta, 
Maine,  and  in  1845  of  the  Butler  Hospital  for  the  In- 
sane at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  He  has  published 
"Medical  Jurisprudence  of  Insanity,"  (1838,)  which  is 
highly  commended. 

Ray  or  Wray,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  botanist 
and  zoologist,  born  near  Braintree,  in  Essex,  on  the 
29th  of  November,  1628,  was  the  son  of  a  blacksmith. 
He  studied  in  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
became  Greek  lecturer  at  the  age  of  twenty-three.  In 
1660  he  published  a  "  Catalogue  of  Plants  growing 
around  Cambridge."  He  was  ordained  as  a  priest,  but 
declined  to  subscribe  to  the  Act  of  Uniformity  of  1662, 
and  never  performed  clerical  functions.  He  found  a 
friend  and  patron  in  Francis  Willoughby,  in  company 
with  whom  he  made  scientific  excursions  in  France, 
Germany,  and  Italy  in  1663-66.  In  1667  he  was  chosen 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  published  a  "Cata- 
logue of  the  Plants  of  England,"  ("Catalogus  Plan- 
tarum  Anglize,"  1670  or  1677,)  and  in  1682  a  "  New 
Method  of  Plants,"  ("Methodus  Plantarum  Nova,")  in 
which  he  proposed  a  new  method  of  classification.  Of 
this  work  Cuvier  and  Du  Petit-Thouars  ("  Biographie 
Universelle")  remark,  "  We  find  the  natural  families  of 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ({J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RAT 


1872 


RJTNAUD 


plants  better  defined,  and  the  grand  division  of  mono- 
cotyledons and  bicotyledons  fully  established  ;  he  gave 
the  characters  of  many  classes  with  much  precision,  and 
introduced  several  technical  terms  which  are  very  use- 
ful ;  finally,  he  established  many  principles  and  general 
laws  of  classification  which  have  since  been  adopted." 
His  principal  or  largest  botanical  work  is  "  Universal 
History  of  Plants,"  (*'  Historia  Plantarum  Universalis," 

3  vols.,  1686-1704.)  Ray  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
modern  zoologist  who  made  use  of  comparative  anat- 
omy. He  published  in  1693  "  Synopsis  of  Quadrupeds 
and  Serpents,"  ("  Synopsis  Animalium  Quadrupedum 
et  Serpentini  Generis.")  "  His  works  on  zoology,"  says 
Cuvier,  "  are  even  more  important  than  those  on  botany, 
for  their  utility  has  been  more  durable.  They  may  be 
considered  as  the  foundation  of  all  modern  zoology.  .  .  . 
His  distribution  of  the  classes  of  quadrupeds  and  birds 
has  been  followed  by  the  English  naturalists  almost  to 
our  own  days."    He  wrote  other  works.    Died  in  1705. 

See  Dr.  Derham,  "Select  Remains  of  J.  Ray,"  1760;  "  Memo- 
rials of  J.  Ray,"  by  Edwin  Lankester,  8vo,  1844;  "  Biograpliia 
Britannica;"  Dr.  Hoefer's  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^nerale  ;"  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Ray,  (Joseph,)  an  American  mathematician,  born  in 
1807.  He  was  an  eminent  teacher,  employed  in  various 
places,  and  published  several  works  on  algebra  and 
arithmetic.    Died  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  1855. 

Ray,  (William,)  an  American  poet,  born  at  Salis- 
bury, Connecticut,  in  1771 ;  died  in  1827. 

Rayer,  rt'yi',  (Pierre  FRANgois  Olive,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Saint-Sylvain  (Calvados)  in  1793.  He 
practised  in  Paris,  and  in  1852  was  comprised  in  the 
medical  service  of  the  household  of  the  emperor.  He 
published  several  works. 

Ray'mond  (or  Raimond)  I.,  Count  of  Toulouse, 
succeeded  his  brother  Fredelon  in  852  a.d.  Died  in 
864  or  865. 

Raymond  (or  Raimond)  II.  succeeded  his  father, 
Eudes,  in  918.  He  gained  a  victory  over  the  Normans 
in  923  A.D.    Died  the  same  year. 

Raymond  III.,  called  Raymond  Pons,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  began  to  reign  in  923.  His  dominions 
included  the  large  territory  extending  from  the  Loire 
to  the  Pyrenees  and  eastward  to  the  Rhone.  Died 
about  950. 

Raymond  IV.,  called  Raymond  de  Saint-Gilles, 
became  Count  of  Toulouse  about  1090,  about  the  age  of 
forty-five.  He  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  princes  of 
Southern  Europe,  and  was  a  famous  leader  in  the  first 
crusade.  In  1096  he  led  a  large  army  (about  100,000 
men)  by  land  to  Asia.  Jerusalem  was  taken  in  1099  by 
the  crusaders,  who  appreciated  so  highly  the  talents  and 
merit  of  Raymond  that  they  offered  him  the  throne ;  but 
he  declined  it.  He  died  at  Tripoli  in  1105,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Bertrand. 

See  MoLiNE  DE  Saint-Yon,  "  Histoire  des  Comtes  de  Toulouse," 

4  vols.,  1862  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Raymond  V.,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
I134,  became  Count  of  Toulouse  in  1148.  He  married 
<.'onstance,  a  sister  of  Louis  VH.  of  France.  Henry  H. 
of  England  invaded  his  dominions  and  besieged  Tou- 
louse about  1160,  but  Raymond,  aided  by  Louis  of 
France,  made  a  successful  resistance.    Died  in  1194. 

Raymond  VI.,  Count  of  Toulouse,  born  in  1156, 
succeeded  his  father,  Raymond  V.,  in  1194.  His  reign 
was  disturbed  by  wars  and  crusades  instigated  by  the 
pope  in  order  to  exterminate  the  Albigenses,  who  were 
very  numerous  in  Provence.  Raymond  was  disposed  to 
protect  or  tolerate  these  subjects,  and  was  excommu- 
nicated several  times.  His  dominions  were  invaded  by 
a  large  army  of  crusaders  under  Simon  de  Montfort 
in  12 10.  Raymond  opposed  them  bravely  in  several 
battles,  but  was  decisively  defeated  in  1213,  and  lost 
his  throne.    He  was  restored  in  1217.    Died  in  1222. 

See  Moi,iNE  de  Saint- Yon,  "  Histoire  des  Comtes  de  Toulouse," 
4  vols.,  1S62  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Raymond,  the  last  Count  of  Toulouse,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  made  peace  with  the  pope  and  became  a 
persecutor  of  the  Albigenses.    Died  in  1249. 

Raymond,  rk'm6N',  (Gp:orge  Marie,)  a  meritorious 
teacher  and  writer,  born  at  Chambery,  in  Savoy,  in  1769. 


He  published  a  variety  of  works  on  education,  morality, 
etc.,  and  wrote  many  articles  for  the  "  Biographic  Uni- 
verselle."    Died  in  1839. 

Ray'mond,  (Henry  Jarvis,)  an  able  American  jour- 
nalist, born  in  Livingston  county.  New  York,  in  1820. 
He  became  associate  editor  of  the  "  New  York  Courier 
and  Enquirer"  in  1843,  founded  the  "New 

York  Times."  He  was  elected  Lieutenant-Governor 
of  the  State  in  1854,  and,  as  a  leader  of  the  Republican 
party,  favoured  the  election  of  Mr.  Lincoln  in  i860. 
The  "  New  York  Times,"  which  he  continued  to  edit 
until  his  death,  was  very  successful.  In  1864  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  Congress  by  the  Republican  voters 
of  New  York  City.  He  published  *'The  Life,  Public 
Services,  and  State  Papers  of  Abraham  Lincoln,"  (1865.) 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  National  Conven- 
tion of  the  friends  of  Andrew  Johnson  which  met  in 
Philadelphia  in  the  summer  of  1866  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  a  new  political  party,  and  wrote  the  address  to 
the  people  of  the  United  States  which  that  convention 
issued.  This  enterprise  proved  a  complete  failure. 
Died  in  June,  1869. 

See  "  Henry  J.  Raymond  and  the  New  York  Press  for  Thirt7 
Years,"  by  Augustus  Maverick,  1870. 

Raymond,  rk'm6N',  (Jean  Arnaud, )  a  French 
architect,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1742,  was  a  member  of 
the  Institute.    Died  in  1811. 

Raymond,  (Jean  Michel,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
at  Saint- Vallier  (Drome)  in  1766.  He  was  professor  of 
chemistry  at  Lyons.  About  1810  he  discovered  a  colour 
called  bleu- Raymond,  for  which  he  received  a  present  of 
8000  francs  from  the  government.    Died  in  1837. 

Raymond,  (Michel  Joachim  Marie,)  an  able 
French  general,  born  near  Auch  in  1755.  He  entered 
the  service  of  the  Nizam  of  Deccan  about  1786,  and 
fought  against  the  English  and  Mahrattas.  Died  at 
Hyderabad  in  1798. 

Raymond,  (Robert,)  Lord,  an  English  judge,  born 
about  1673,  was  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  in 
the  reign  of  George  L,  and  a  privy  councillor.  His 
"Reports"  were  published  in  3  vols.    Died  in  1733. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices.'' 

Raymond,  (Xavier,)  a  French  journalist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1810  or  1812.  He  became  an  editor  of  the 
"Journal  des  Debats"  about  1838,  and  published  works 
entitled  "  L'Afghanistan,"  (1843,)  and  "L'Inde,"  (1845.) 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1863. 

Raymond-Berenger.    See  B6renger. 
Raymond  Lulli.    See  Lulli. 

Raymond  (Raimond,  rT-m5nd'.  orRamon,  r5-mon') 
de  Penafort,  (Pegnafort,)  di  pin'y^-foRt',  a  Spanish 
canonist  and  Dominican,  born  at  Barcelona  in  1175  or 
1186.    He  compiled  the  "Decretals."    Died  in  1275. 

Raymondi.    See  Raimondl 

Raynal,  rk'ntK,  (Guillaume  Thomas  Fran^iois,) 
L'Abb6,  a  French  philosopher  and  historian,  born  at 
Saint-Geniez,  in  Rouergue,  in  1711.  He  was  a  priest  in 
his  youth,  but  renounced  that  profession  soon  after  his 
removal  to  Paris,  (1747.)  He  published  several  mediocre 
histories,  and  became  intimate  with  Helvetius  and  Baron 
Holbach.  He  acquired  temporary  celebrity  by  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Colonies  planted  by  Europeans  in  America 
and  India,  and  of  their  Influence  on  the  Political  Con- 
dition, Commerce,  and  Prosperity  of  Europe,"  ("His- 
toire philosophique  et  politique  des  fitablissements  et 
du  Commerce  des  Europeens  dans  les  deux  Indes,"  4 
vols.,  1770.)  It  is  said  that  Diderot  wrote  some  of  the 
ablest  passages  of  this  work,  which  abounds  in  declama- 
tions against  the  political  and  religious  institutions  of 
France.  The  Parliament  in  1 781  ordered  the  book  to 
be  burnt  and  the  author  to  be  arrested ;  but  he  escaped, 
and  passed  about  six  years  in  exile.  Died  in  Paris  in 
1796. 

See  A.  Jay,  "  Notice  biographique  sur  Raynal,"  1821  ;  Cherhal- 
MoNTREAL,  "  filoge  philosophique  de  Raynal,"  1796;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generalc." 

Raynal,  de,  deh  ri'ntl',  (Louis  Hector  Chaudru,) 
a  French  historian  of  the  present  age.  His  chief  work 
is  a  "History  of  Berri,"  (4  vols.,  1844-47.) 

Raynaud,  x\'wo\  written  also  Rainaud  and  Rai- 
naudo,  (ri-nowMo,)  (Th£ophile,)  an  Italian  Jesuit, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


RJTNEFAL  1873  REAGAN 


born  in  the  county  of  Nice  in  1583.  He  wrote  many 
works  on  theology,  which  obtained  success,  though 
they  are  said  to  be  trivial  and  prolix.    Died  in  1663. 

See  jNIoreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Rayneval,  de,  deh  r^n'vtK,  (Alphonse  Gerard,)  a 
French  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1813.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  represent  the  French  government  at  the  court 
of  Pius  IX.  after  his  flight  to  Gaeta,  (1849,)  and  entered 
Rome  with  the  army  which  restored  the  pope.  He  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  ambassador  in  1851,  and  remained 
at  Rome  in  that  capacity  six  years.    Died  in  1858. 

Rayneval,  de,  (FRANgois  Maximilien  Gerard,) 
the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1778.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Vienna  in  1829,  and  to  Madrid  in 
1832.    Died  at  Madrid  in  1836. 

His  father,  Joseph,  (1746-1812,)  was  author  of  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Nature  and  of  Nations,"  (3d 
edition,  1832,)  and  "On  the  Liberty  of  the  Seas,"  (2 
vols.,  181 1.) 

Raynolds.    See  Rainolds. 

Raynouard,  ri'noo-tR',  (FRANgois  Juste  Marie,)  a 
French  author  and  philologist,  born  at  Brignoles  (Pro- 
vence) in  1 761.  He  practised  law  in  his  youth,  was  im- 
prisoned as  a  Girondist  in  1793,  and  became  a  resident 
of  Paris  about  1800.  He  produced  in  1805  a  tragedy 
(in  verse)  entitled  "The  Templars,"  ("  Les  Templiers,") 
which  was  very  successful,  and  opened  to  him  the  doors 
of  the  French  Academy,  (1807,)  of  which  he  became 
perpetual  secretary  in  181 7.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
legislative  body  from  1806  to  1813.  He  wrote  other 
dramas,  and  philological  treatises,  among  which  is  a 
"  Dictionary  of  the  Language  of  the  Troubadours,"  (6 
vols.,  1838-44.)    Died  in  1836. 

See  C.  Labitte,  notice  of  Raynouard  in  the  "  Revue  des  Deux 
Moiides,"  February  i,  1837;  Reiffenberg,  "A  la  Memoire  de 
F.  J.  M.  Raynouard,"  1839;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Razee  or  Razi,  Al,  ai-rS'zee  or  ar-rJ'zee,  [written  in 
Latin  RA'zis,RA''sis,or  Ra'ses,]  (Ahmed-Ibn-Moham- 
med-Ibn-Moosa,(or-Musa,)  aH'medib'n  mo-hSm^med 
il^ji'n  moo'sa,)  an  Arabian  historian,  born  at  Cordova,  in 
Spain,  about  866  a.d.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Conquest  of  Spain  by  the  Arabs."  Only  portions  of  his 
works  are  extant.  There  appears  to  have  been  another 
Arabian  or  Moorish  historian  bearing  the  same  name. 

See  Al-Makkari,  "History  of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  in 
Spain,"  translated  by  Gavangos,  vol.  i.  p.  314. 

Raizes,  Rha'zes,  or  Ra'sis,  Latin  forms  of  the  sur- 
name Razee,  ri'zee,  (or,  rather,  Ar-Razee  or  Ar-RazJ,) 
of  a  celebrated  Arabian  physician,  whose  proper  name 
was  Mohammed-Ibn-Zakaria-Aboo-Bekr,  (mo-him'- 
raed  ib'n  za-kS-ree'a  i'boo  hhVr'.)  He  was  born  in 
Irak-Ajemee  about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century.  He 
practised  at  Bagdad,  and  travelled  into  several  foreign 
countries.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Al-Hawi," 
or  "  Continens,"  and  a  treatise  on  the  smallpox  and 
measles.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  de- 
scribed the  smallpox  accurately.  Died  about  930  a.d. 

See  Ibn-Khaxlikan,  "Biographical  Dictionary;"  Sprengel, 
"Geschichte  der  Medicin  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Razis.    See  Razee. 

Razoomofski  or  Razoumovski,  rl-zoo-mof'skee, 
written  also  Razumowskij,  (Gregory,)  a  Russian 
savant,  published  in  French  several  works  on  mineralogy, 
and  "  Coup-d'CEil  geognostique  sur  le  Nord  de  I'Europe," 
(1S16.)    Died  in  Moravia  in  1837. 

Razout,  rt'zoo',  (Jean  Nicolas,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Paris  in  1772.  He  distinguished  himself  as 
general  of  division  at  Borodino  (1812)  and  at  Dresden, 
(1813.)    Died  in  1820. 

Razzi,  rSt'see,  or  Bazzi,  (Giovanni  Antonio,) 
Cavaliere,  surnamed  il  Sodoma,  {h\  so-do'ml,)  an 
able  Italian  painter,  born  at  Vercelli,  in  Piedmont,  or  at 
Vergelli,  near  Sienna,  about  1479.  He  painted  in  the 
Vatican  some  works  which  were  effaced  by  order  of 
Julius  IL  to  make  room  for  thosefiof  Raphael.  The 
palace  called  Farnesina,  at  Rome,  contains  his  picture 
of  "The  Marriage  of  Roxana."  He  afterwards  worked 
at  Sienna.  A  picture  of  "The  Scourging  of  Christ"  (at 
Sienna)  is  called  his  master-piece.    Died  about  1550. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy." 


Razzi,  (Girolamo,)  afterwards  called  Silvano,  s^l- 
v^'no,  an  Italian  monk  and  writer,  born  at  Florence 
about  1530.  He  produced  several  dramas  and  biogra- 
phies.   Died  in  161 1. 

Re,  ra,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  agriculturist,  born  at 
Reggio  in  1763.  He  published  in  1798  an  excellent 
work  on  agriculture,  "Elementi  d'Agricoltura,"  (2  vols.,) 
and  became  professor  of  agriculture  at  Bologna  in  1803. 
He  was  author  of  other  works  on  rural  economy,  etc. 
Died  in  1817. 

See  A.  Fappani,  "  Elogio  del  Conte  F.  Re,"  1820. 

Re,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  Italian  botanist  and 
physician,  born  near  Susa  in  1773.  He  published  a 
"Flora  of  Susa,"  (1805,)  and  a  "Flora  of  Turin,"  (2 
vols.,  1825,)  both  in  Latin.    Died  at  Turin  in  1833. 

Reach,  (Angus  Bethune,)  a  Scottish  author  and 
journalist,  born  at  Inverness  in  1821.  He  wrote  a  novel 
entitled  "  Clement  Lorimer,"  and  contributed  to  various 
periodicals.    Died  in  1856. 

Read,  (Abner,)  an  American  naval  officer,  born  in 
Ohio  about  1820.  He  served  in  the  civil  war  with  dis- 
tinction, and  gained  the  rank  of  commander.  He  was 
killed  near  Donaldsonville,  Louisiana,  in  July,  1863. 

See  Tennev,  "  Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  763. 

Read,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  medical  writer,  grad- 
uated  at  Oxford  in  1620  ;  died  about  1680. 

Read,  (George,)  an  American  patriot  and  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in  Maryland  in 
1734.  He  was  elected  to  the  Congress  of  1774,  and 
was  subsequently  a  member  of  the  Convention  which 
framed  the  United  States  Constitution,  and  chief  justice 
of  the  supreme  court  of  the  State  of  Delaware.  Died 
in  1798. 

Read,  (John  Meredith,)  an  American  lawyer,  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1797,  was  a  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1818,  and  became 
a  district  attorney  of  the  United  States.  In  1851  he  was 
associated  with  Thaddeus  Stevens  as  counsel  for  the 
defence  in  the  celebrated  trial  of  C.  Hanway  for  con 
structive  treason.  About  1854  he  began  to  advocate  the 
principles  of  the  Republican  party  by  his  speeches  and 
writings.  About  i860  he  was  elected  a  judge  of  the 
supreme  court  of  Pennsylvania. 

Read,  (Nathan,)  an  American  mechanician,  born  in 
Worcester  county,  Massachusetts,  in  1759.  He  invented 
a  machine  for  cutting  nails  which  formed  heads  on  the 
nails  by  the  same  operation.  In  1800  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress.  He  made  some  improvements 
in  the  steam-engine  about  1790.  Died  in  Maine  in  1849. 

Read,  (Thomas  Buchanan,)  a  distinguished  Amer- 
ican poet  and  artist,  born  in  Chester  county,  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  1822.  He  visited  Italy  in  1850,  and  subsequently 
spent  some  time  in  England,  where  he  published  a  col- 
lection of  poems,  which  were  very  favourably  received. 
He  afterwards  resided  several  years  at  Florence  and 
Rome,  whence  he  returned  in  1858.  Among  his  works 
may  be  named  his  prose  romance  "The  Pilgrims  of  the 
Great  Saint  Bernard,"  and  his  poems  of  "  The  House 
by  the  Sea,"  "  The  New  Pastoral,"  (1855,)  "  Sylvia,  or  the 
Lost  Shepherd,"  etc.,  (1857,)  and  "The  Wagoner  of  the 
Alleghenies,  a  Poem,"  (1862.)  Flis  group  of  "  Longfel- 
low's Children"  is  esteemed  one  of  his  best  pictures. 

See  "Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1857;  "North  British 
Review"  for  August,  1852  ;  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Reade,  reed,  (Charles,)  a  popular  English  novelist, 
born  in  1814,  graduated  at  Magdalene  College,  Oxford, 
in  1835.  He  established  his  reputation  by  "  Peg  Wof- 
fington,"  (1852.)  In  1856  he  published  "Never  too  Late 
to  Mend."  Among  his  other  novels  are  "  Love  me  Little, 
Love  me  Long,"  (1859,)  "  The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth," 
(1861,)  "Very  Hard  Cash,"  (1863,)  "Griffith  Gaunt," 
(1866,)  "Foul  Play,"  (1868,)  (written  conjointly  with 
Boucicault,)  and  "Put  Yourself  in  his  Place,"  (1870.) 

See  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  August,  1864;  "  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  October,  1869. 

Reading,  rgd'ing,  (John,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Buckinghamshire  in  1588.  He  was  chaplain  to  Charles 
I.,  and  favoured  the  royalist  cause  in  the  civil  war.  He 
wrote  several  works  on  theology.    Died  in  1667. 

Reagan,  ree'gan,  ?  (John  H.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  in  Sevier  county,  Tennessee,  in  18^8.    He  emi- 


e  as     9  as  .r;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

118 


REAL 


1874 


RECHBERGER 


grated  to  Texas,  and  became  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1857.  He  was  re-elected  in  1859.  He  was  postmaster- 
general  of  the  Confederate  States  from  March,  1861, 
to  April,  1865. 

Real,  de,  deh  ri'tK,  (Gaspard,)  Seigneur  de  Curban, 
a  French  publicist,  born  at  Sisteron  in  1682.  He  wrote 
an  able  work  "On  the  Science  of  Government,"  (8 
vols.,  1751-64.)    Died  at  Paris  in  1752. 

Real,  de,  (Pierre  FRAwgois,)  Count,  a  French  poli- 
tician and  lawyer,  born  near  Paris  about  1760.  He  was 
a  partisan  of  Danton  in  1793,  and  contributed  actively 
in  1799  to  the  success  of  Bonaparte,  who  appointed  him 
a  councillor  of  state  and  gave  him  in  1808  the  title  of 
count.    Died  in  1834. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Real,  Saint.    See  Saint-R^:al. 

Realino,  ri-S-lee'no,  (Bernardino,)  a  learned  Italian 
Jesuit,  born  at  Carpi  in  1530.  He  wrote  notes  on  Catul- 
lus and  other  ancient  authors.    Died  in  1616. 

Reaumur,  de,  deh  ri'o'miiR',  (Ren^:  Antoine  Fer- 
CHAult,)  a  celebrated  French  natural  philosopher  and 
entomologist,  born  at  Rochelle  in  February,  1683.  He 
inherited  an  easy  or  independent  fortune,  and  became 
a  resident  of  Paris  in  1703.  By  some  memoirs  on 
geometry  he  obtained  admission  into  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1708.  His  favourite  studies  were  general 
physics,  natural  history,  and  the  industrial  arts.  He 
made  important  discoveries  or  improvements  in  the  fab- 
rication of  steel,  and  published  in  1722  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Art  of  Converting  Iron  into  Steel,"  for  which  he  received 
a  pension  of  12,000  livres.  He  made  successful  experi- 
ments on  the  artificial  incubation  of  eggs  and  on  the 
manufacture  of  tin  wares.  His  most  important  contribu- 
tion to  general  physics  was  the  thermometer,  which  he 
invented  in  1 731.  He  divided  the  interval  between  the 
freezing  and  boiling  points  of  water  into  eighty  degrees. 
"The  most  remarkable  of  the  works  of  Reaumur,"  says 
Cuvier,  "are  his  'Memoirs  Illustrating  the  History  of 
Insects,'  ('Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'Histoire  des  In- 
sectes,'  6  vols.,  1734-42.)  The  author  here  exhibits  the 
highest  degree  of  sagacity  in  the  observation  and  dis- 
covery of  all  those  instincts,  so  complicated  and  so 
constant  in  each  species,  which  maintain  these  feeble 
creatures.  He  constantly  excites  our  curiosity  by  new 
and  singular  details.  .  .  .  Unfortunately,  it  is  not  quite 
finished."    Died  in  1757. 

See  Haller,  "Bibliotheca  Botanica "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Rebecque.    See  Constant. 

Rebecqui,  reh-bi'ke',  (  Francois  Trophime,  )  a 
French  Girondist,  born  at  Marseilles  about  1760.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Convention,  was  proscribed  in 
June,  1793,  and  escaped  to  Marseilles.  Having  learned 
the  fate  of  his  colleagues,  he  drowned  himself  in  the  sea 
in  June,  1794. 

Rebentisch,  ra'ben-tish',  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a 
German  botanist,  born  at  Landsberg  in  1772.  He  pub- 
lished a  Catalogue  of  Plants  growing  near  Berlin,  (1805,) 
Died  in  1810. 

Reber,  ri'baiR',  (Napoleon  Henri,)  a  French  mu- 
sician and  composer,  born  at  Mulhouse  in  1807.  He 
composed  melodies  for  a  single  voice,  and  comic  operas, 
entitled  "Christmas  Eve,"  (1848,)  and  " Le  Pere  Gail- 
lard,"  (1852,)  which  are  highly  commended. 

Rebkow  or  Repkow,  von,  fon  rip'ko,  [Lat.  Rep- 
Ko'vius,]  (Eyke,)  a  German  jurist,  born  in  Thuringia, 
flourished  about  1210-40.  He  compiled  a  code  or  col- 
lection of  laws,  entitled  "Speculum  Saxonicum,"  which 
was  extensively  used  in  Germany.  His  German  trans- 
lation of  it,  called  "  Sachsenspiegel,"  was  printed  in  the 
fifteenth  century. 

ReboUedo,' de,  di  ri-bol-ya'Do,  (Bernardino,) 
Count,  a  Spanish  poet  and  commander,  born  at  Leon 
in  1597.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  capture  of 
Nice,  (1626,)  commanded  a  corps  of  lancers  in  Flanders 
in  1632,  and  was  the  leader  of  a  force  sent  in  1636  to 
aid  the  emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  who  rewarded  his  ser- 
vices with  the  title  of  count  of  the  empire.  He  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  the  court  of  Denmark  about  1650  or 
1648.  He  showed  respectable  talents  as  a  poet  in  his 
"Military  aad  Political  Groves,"?  ("Selvas  militares  y 


politicas,"  1652,)  "Selvas  Danicas,"  (1655,)  and  "Selvas 
sagradas,"  (1657.)    Died  at  Madrid  in  1676. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  Bouterwek, 
"  Geschichte  der  Poesie." 

Reboul,  reh-booK,  (Henri  Paul  Ir6n6e,)  a  French 
savant,  born  at  Pezenas  in  1763.  He  assisted  Lavoisier 
in  his  scientific  labours,  and  wrote  several  treatises  on 
geology  and  other  sciences.  He  was  appointed  admin- 
istrator of  Lombardy  by  Bonaparte  about  1798.  Died 
in  1839. 

Reboul,  (Jean,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Nimes  in 
1796.  He  produced  in  1828  a  poem  called  "The  Angel 
and  the  Infant,"  which  was  much  praised.  He  after- 
wards wrote  other  successful  poems.    Died  in  1864. 

See  CoLLOMBET,  "  fitude  biographique  sur  Reboul,"  1839. 

Reboulet,  reh-boo'li',  (Simon,)  a  French  historian, 
born  at  Avignon  in  1687.  He  wrote  a  mediocre  "  His- 
tory of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIV.,"  (3  vols.,  1742-44.) 
Died  in  1752. 

Rebuffi,  reh-biiTe',  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French 
jurist,  born  near  Montpellier  in  1487.  He  lectured  on 
law  at  Kourges  and  Paris,  and  published  several  works. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1557. 

Recamier,  r^'kS'me-a',  (Jeanne  FRANgoiSE  Julie 
Ad^:laide  Bernard,  )~a  beautiful  and  accomplished 
F'rench  lady,  born  at  Lyons  in  1777.  She  was  married 
to  M.  Recamier,  a  rich  banker,  in  1793,  after  which  she 
became  an  intimate  friend  of  Madame  de  Stael.  She 
was  courted  in  vain  by  Napoleon  in  1805.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  bankruptcy  of  her  husband,  (1806,)  she 
went  to  reside  with  Madame  de  Stael  at  Coppet.  There 
she  captivated  the  heart  of  Prince  August  of  Prussia,  and 
gave  him  a  promise  of  marriage  ;  but  her  compassion 
for  her  first  husband,  who  was  living,  prevailed  on  her 
to  break  the  engagement.  In  181 1  she  was  banished 
from  Paris  by  Napoleon,  on  account  of  her  intimacy 
and  sympathy  with  Madame  de  Stael  and  other  enemies 
of  the  emperor.  Having  returned  to  Paris  after  the 
restoration,  she  lived  in  intimate  relations  with  Cha- 
teaubriand until  his  death.  Her  salon  at  L'Abbaye-auX- 
Bois  was  the  most  celebrated  of  those  which  flourished 
between  1815  and  1840.  There  was  a  remarkable  dis- 
proportion between  the  modesty  of  her  life  and  the 
greatness  of  her  fame.  Died  in  1849.  "  We  think  with 
infinite  respect  of  one  who,  having  an  unequalled  in- 
fluence over  the  hearts  and  wills  of  men,  scorned  to  ask 
a  favour,  and  endured  poverty  .  .  .  and  exile,  which  fell 
with  tenfold  severity  on  one  so  beloved  and  admired, 
without  the  smallest  sacrifice  of  dignity  and  independ- 
ence."   ("Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  i860.) 

See  "  Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of  Madame  Recamier,"  trans- 
lated from  the  French  and  edited  by  Miss  Luyster,  Boston,  1867; 
an  eloquently-written  article  on  "Madame  Recamier  and  her 
Friends,"  in  the  "  Christian  Examiner"  for  May,  1867;  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  for  October,  1864;  W.  H.  Adams,  "  Famous  Beauties 
and  Historic  Women  ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  i860  ; 
"  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  September,  1849. 

Recamier,  (Joseph  Claude  Anthelme,)  a  French 
physician,  born  near  Belley  (Ain)  in  1774.  He  was 
physician  (medecin  ordinaire)  at  the  Hotel-Dieu,  Paris, 
for  forty  years,  (1806-46,)  and  succeeded  Laennec  as 
professor  at  the  College  of  France  in  1827.  He  was 
deprived  of  this  place  by  the  revolution  of  1830.  Died 
in  1852. 

See  Sachaile,  "Les  Medecinsde  Paris." 

Reochi,  rek'kee,  (Nardo  Antonio,)  an  Italian  bota- 
nist and  physician,  born  at  Montecorvo,  lived  about 
1550-80.  He  prepared  an  abridgment  of  the  manuscripts 
left  by  Hernandez.  After  the  death  of  Recchi  this  work 
was  published  under  the  title  of  "Treasury  of  the  Ma- 
teria Medica  of  New  Spain,"  ("  Rerum  medicinalium 
Novae  Hispanias  Thesaurus,"  1651.) 

Receveur,  res-vUR',  (Franqois  Joseph  Xavier,)  a 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Longueville  (Doubs)  in  1800. 
He  published,  be|ides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the 
Church  from  its  1^ oundation  until  the  Pontificate  of 
Gregory  XVI.,"  (8  vols.,  1840-47.)    Died  in  1854. 

Rechberger,  rgK^b^Rc/er,  (P^ranz,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man designer,  landscape-painter,  and  etcher,  born  in 
Vienna  in  1771.  His  etchings  of  landscapes  are  said 
to  be  beautiful  and  spirited.    Died  about  1842. 


a,  e.  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  filr,  filll,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


RECKE 


REED 


Recke,  von  der,  fon  der  rgk'keh,  (Elisabeth 
Charlotte  Constantia,)  a  German  authoress,  born 
in  Courland  in  1754.  She  was  for  a  time  a  believer 
in  Cagliostro's  pretensions  of  holding  intercourse  with 
the  dead,  but  subsequently  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"  Cagliostro  Unmasked,"  (1787.)  She  also  published 
"Travels  in  Italy,"  and  several  poems.    Died  in  1833. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Reclam,  r^k'lim,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1734  ;  died  in  1774. 

Reclam,  (Pierre  Chretien  Frederic,)  a  Protest- 
ant minister,  of  French  origin,  born  at  Magdeburg  in 
1 741.  He  became  minister  of  a  church  in  Berlin  in  1767. 
Died  in  1789. 

Recorde,  rek'ord,  ?  (Robert,)  an  eminent  British 
mathematician,  born  in  Pembrokeshire  about  1500.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  and  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1545.  He  also  taught  mathematics  at  Oxford, 
and  published  several  works,  among  which  are  "  The 
Ground  of  Arts,  teaching  the  Work  and  Practice  of 
Arithmetic,"  (1540,)  and  "The  Castle  of  Knowledge," 
(1556.)  The  latter  treats  on  astronomy.  He  was  phy- 
sician to  Edward  VI.  and  to  Queen  Mary.  He  is  said 
to  have  invented  the  sign  of  equality  in  algebra.  Died 
in  1558. 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses  ;"  Hutton,  "Mathematical 
Dictionary." 

Recupero,  ri-koo-pa'ro,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian 
numismatist,  born  at  Catania  about  1740;  died  in  1803. 

Recupero,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  mineralogist,  born 
at  Catania  in  1720,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
wrote  a  "Natural  History  of  Etna,"  (1815.)  Died  in 
1778  or  1787. 

Recurt,  reh-kiiR',  (Adrien  Barnab^:  Athanase,) 
a  French  physician  and  republican,  born  at  Lassalle 
(Hautes-Pyrenees)  in  1797.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Constituent  Assembly  in  1848,  and  became  minister  of 
the  interior  on  the  nth  of  May.  He  was  minister  of 
public  works  from  June  to  October,  1848. 

Red-Beard,  (Barbarossa.)   See  Frederick  L 

Red'ding,  (Cyrus,)  an  English  journalist  and  poet, 
born  at  Penryn  about  1785.  He  was  associated  with  the 
poet  Campbell  in  the  editorship  of  the  "  New  Monthly 
Magazine"  from  1820  to  1830.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "History  of  Modern  Wines,"  (1833,) 
"  Literary  Reminiscences  and  Memoirs  of  Thomas 
Campbell,"  (2  vols.,  1859,)  and  "Past  Celebrities  whom 
I  have  known,"  (2  vols.,  1865.)    Died  in  1870. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1858. 

Reden,  von,  fon  ra'den,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm 
Otto  Ludwig,)  Baron,  an  eminent  German  writer  on 
statistics,  was  born  in  Lippe-Detmold  in  1804.  Among 
his  works  are  "  General  and  Comparative  Statistics  of 
Finances,"  (2  vols.,  1851-56,)  and  "Statistics  of  the 
Products  and  Commerce  of  Prussia,"  (3  vols.,  1854.) 
Died  in  1857. 

See  Brockhaus,  "Conversations-Lexikon." 

Redern,  von,  fon  ra'dern,  (Sigismond  Ehrenreich,) 
Count,  a  Prussian  diplomatist,  born  in  Berlin  in  1755. 
He  became  a  partner  of  Saint-Simon,  the  French  so- 
cialist, in  speculations.    Died  in  1835. 

Redesdale,  reedsMal,  (John  Freeman  Mitford,) 
Baron,  an  English  lawyer,  born  in  1748.  As  solicitor- 
general,  he  conducted  the  state  trials  in  1794.  He 
became  attorney-general  in  1799,  and  Speaker  of  the 
Plouse  of  Commons  in  1801.    Died  in  1830. 

Red'field,  (William  C.,)  an  American  geologist  and 
meteorologist,  born  in  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in 
1789,  became  a  resident  of  New  York  about  1825. 
He  contributed  articles  on  meteorology  to  several 
periodicals,  and  wrote  on  steam-navigation.  Died  in 
February,  1857.  "  The  ingenious  theories  of  Mr. 
Redfield  and  Mr.  Espy,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "  have 
commanded  the  respect  and  admiration  of  scholars." 
("Prose  Writers  of  America,"  p.  27.) 

Red'grave,  (Richard,)  an  English  painter  of  land- 
scapes, domestic  scenes,  etc.,  was  born  in  London  in 
1804.  He  exhibited  in  1837  a  successful  picture  of 
_"  Gulliver  on  the  Farmer's  Table."  His  favourite  subjects 
in  a  subsequent  period  were  illustrations  of  the  trials 


of  the  poor,  such  as  "The  Sempstress"  and  "The  Poor 
Teacher."  He  also  acquired  popularity  as  a  painter  of 
landscapes.  He  was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in 
185 1.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Country  Cousins," 
"  Ophelia,"  and  "  Little  Red-Riding-Hood." 

Redi,  ra'dee,  (Francesco,)  an  eminent  Italian  natu- 
ralist and  poet,  born  at  Arezzo  in  1626.  He  practised 
medicine  at  Florence  with  a  high  reputation,  and  wrote 
poetry  with  success.  In  philosophy  he  belonged  to  the 
school  of  Galileo.  He  is  ranked  among  the  greatest 
observers  of  his  age.  Among  his  works  are  "  Experi- 
ments on  the  Generation  of  Insects,"  (1668,)  a  poem  on 
the  wine  of  Tuscany,  called  "  Bacchus  in  Tuscany," 
("  Bacco  in  Toscana,"  1685,)  and  "Letters  on  Philoso- 
phy, Natural  History,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1724-27.)  "Few 
have  done  so  much  in  any  part  of  science,"  says  Hal- 
lam,  "  who  have  also  shone  so  brightly  in  the  walks 
of  taste.  The  sonnets  of  Redi  are  esteemed  ;  but  his 
famous  dithyrambic  '  Bacco  in  Toscana'  is  admitted  to 
be  the  first  poem  of  that  kind  in  modern  language." 
("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  Died  at 
Pisa  about  1695. 

See  GoRANi,  "  Elogj  di  due  illustri  Scopritori,  (Redi  a  Bandini,") 
1786;  A.  Fabroni,  "Vitas  Italorurh  illustrium  ;"  Longfellow, 
"  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  Niceron,  "  Meinoires  ;"  G.  V.  M. 
Fabroni,  "  Elogio  storico  di  F.  Redi,"  1796;  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia 
della  Letteratura  Italiana  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Redi,  (ToMMASO  or  Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Florence  in  1665,  was  a 
pupil  of  Carlo  Maratta.    Died  in  1726. 

Reding,  von,  fon  ra'ding,  (Aloys,)  a  Swiss  officer, 
born  in  1755.  He  commanded  the  Swiss  troops  that 
checked  the  French  army  at  Morgarten  in  May,  1798, 
and  was  elected  Landamman  in  1801.  He  was  the  chief 
of  the  confederes^  the  aristocratic  and  anti-Gallican  party. 
Died  in  1818. 

Red  Jack'et,  or  Sa-go-ye-wat-ha,  ("Keeper- 
Awake,'')  a  celebrated  Indian  chief  of  the  Senecas,  born 
in  Western  New  York  about  1759.  He  was  noted  for 
his  eloquence,  and  earnestly  opposed  the  treaty  between 
the  Six  Nations  and  the  United  States  for  the  cession 
of  lands.  General  Washington  bestowed  upon  him  a 
silver  medal.    Died  in  1830. 

See  the  "Life  and  Times  of  Sa-go-ye-wat-ha,  or  Red  Jacket," 
1841,  by  William  L.  Stone. 

Red'man  or  Red'mayne,  (John,)  an  English  divine, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1499.  He  was  chosen  master 
of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1547,  and  became 
archdeacon  of  Taunton.  He  wrote  several  works  on 
theology.    Died  in  1551. 

Red'man,  (John,)  an  American  physician,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1722,  graduated  at  Leyden.  He  acquired 
a  high  reputation  in  his  profession,  and  was  the  first 
president  of  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia. 
Died  in  1808. 

Redmayne.    See  Redman. 

Redoute,  reh-doo'ti',  (Pierre  Joseph,)  an  eminent 
French  painter  of  flowers,  born  at  Saint-Hubert,  near 
Liege,  in  1759.  He  worked  mostly  in  Paris,  and  received 
the  title  of  painter  of  the  cabinet  of  Queen  Marie  An- 
toinette. He  published  an  admirable  "Monography  of 
the  Roses,"  ("  Monographic  des  Roses,"  3  vols.,  1817- 
24.)  In  1832  he  became  professor  of  iconography  at 
the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  Paris.    Died  in  1840. 

See  Bouchard,  "  Notice  snr  la  Vie  et  les  Travaux  de  M.  Re- 
doute," 1840  ;  M.  Bonafous,  "  Notice  historique  sur  P.  J.  Redoutd. 

Redschid.    See  Resheed  Pasha. 

Redwitz,  rSd'^^its,  (Oskar,)  Baron,  a  German  poet 
and  litterateur,  born  near  Anspach  in  1823.  He  became 
in  185 1  professor  of  literary  history  at  Vienna.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  the  poem  of  "  The  Amaranth," 
and  "Tales  of  the  Forest-Brook  and  Fir-Tree,"  (1850.) 

Reed,  (Andrew,)  D.D.,  an  English  dissenter  and 
philanthropist,  born  in  London  in  1787.  He  was  sent 
on  amission  to  the  churches  of  the  United  States  in  1834 
by  the  Congregationalists.  He  preached  at  Wycliffe 
Chapel,  Stepney,  for  fifty  years,  and  founded  two  orphan- 
asylums  and  a  hospital  for  incurables.    Died  in  1862. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life,  etc.  of  Andrew  Reed,"  London,  1863. 

Reed,  (Henry,)  a  distinguished  American  scholar 
and  writer,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1808.    He  graduated 


€  as 9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Y^, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


REED 


1876 


REGIS 


in  1825  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  became  assist- 
ant professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  1831,  and  in  1835 
professor  of  rhetoric  and  English  literature,  in  that  insti- 
tution. In  1854  he  visited  Europe,  and,  having  embarked 
in  the  steamship  Arctic,  was  lost  on  the  voyage  home. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Lectures  on  English  Literature 
from  Chaucer  to  Tennyson,"  (1855,)  "Lectures  on  the 
British  Poets,"  (2  vols.,  1857,)  "Lectures  on  English  His- 
tory," etc.,  and  the  "Life  of  Joseph  Reed"  in  Sparks's 
"American  Biography."  He  also  prepared  editions 
of  Graham's  "  English  Synonymes,"  Arnold's  "  Lec- 
tures on  Modern  History,"  Lord  Mahon's  "  History  of 
England,"  and  the  "  Poetical  Works  of  Thomas  Gray." 

See  DuYCKiNCK,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ; 
Ali.ibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Reed,  (Isaac,)  an  English  editor,  critic,  and  biogra- 
pher, born  in  London  in  1742.  He  wrote  biographical 
notices  for  Dodsley's  "Collection,"  (6  vols.,  1782,) 
contributed  to  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,"  and 
edited,  among  other  works,  "  Biographia  Dramatica," 
(1782,)  and  Shakspeare's  Works,  (10  vols.,  1785.)  Died 
in  1807. 

Reed,  (Joseph,)  an  English  dramatist  and  miscella- 
neous writer,  born  at  Stockton-upon-Tees  in  1723. 
Among  his  works  are  "Dido,"  a  tragedy,  (1767,)  and 
"Tom  Jones,"  an  opera,  (1769.)    Died  in  1787. 

Reed,  (Joseph,)  an  American  ofificer  of  the  Revo- 
lution, born  at  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  in  1 741.  He  was 
president  of  the  first  provincial  convention  held  in  Penn- 
sylvania, (1775,)  and  was  subsequently  aide-de-camp 
and  secretary  to  General  Washington.  He  was  made 
adjutant-general  in  1776,  and  in  1778  became  president 
of  the  supreme  executive  council  of  Pennsylvania.  He 
died  in  1785.  His  Life,  written  by  his  grandson.  Pro- 
fessor Henry  Reed,  is  included  in  Sparks's  "American 
Biography." 

Respecting  President  Reed's  character  as  a  man  and  a  patriot, 
very  different  opinions  have  prevailed  from  his  own  time  to  the 
present  day.  See,  on  this  subject,  Bancroft's  "  History  of  the 
United  States,"  vols.  viii.  and  ix.  ;  a  pamphlet  by  William  B.  Reed, 
entitled  "  President  Reed  of  Pennsylvania,  a  Reply  to  Mr.  George 
Bancroft  and  Others,"  February,  1867,  and  Mr.  Bancroft's  re- 
joinder,— "Joseph  Reed,  a  Historical  Essay,"  1867.  See,  also,  Reed, 
(William  B.,)  in  Allibone's  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Reedtz,  rats,  (Holger  Christian,)  a  Danish  min- 
ister of  state,  born  at  Odense  in  1800.  He  was  minister 
of  foreign  affairs  from  August,  1850,  to  December,  1851. 
Died  in  1857. 

Rees,  reess,  (Abraham,)  an  English  encyclopaedist, 
born  in  North  Wales  in  1743.  He  became  minister  of 
a  dissenting  congregation  in  London  about  1768.  He 
edited  "Chambers's  Cyclopaedia,"  (4  vols.,  1778-85,) 
and  used  that  as  the  basis  of  a  more  extensive  and 
extremely  valuable  work  published  under  the  title  of 
"  Rees's  Cyclopaedia,"  (45  vols.,  1802-20.)  Died  in  1825. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  August,  1825. 

Reeve,  reev,  (Clara,)  an  English  authoress,  born 
at  Ipswich  in  1725.  She  produced  in  1778  a  romance 
called  "  The  Old  English  Baron,"  which  was  often 
reprinted.  Among  her  works  is  "The  Progress  of  Ro- 
mance through  Times,  Countries,  and  Manners,"  (2 
vols.,  1785.)    Died  in  1803. 

Reeve,  (Lovell,  )  an  English  conchologist,  born 
about  1814.  He  published  "Conchologia  Systematica, 
or  a  Complete  System  of  Conchology,"  (London,  2  vols. 
4to,  1842,)  and  "Conchologia  Iconica,  or  Figures  and 
Descriptions  of  the  Shells  of  Molluscous  Animals,  with 
Critical  Remarks,"  etc.,  (1856.)    Died  in  1865. 

Reeve,  reev,  (Tapping.)  an  eminent  American  lawyer, 
born  on  Long  Island  in  1744.  He  began  to  practise  at 
Litchfield,  Connecticut,  in  1772,  and  married  a  sister 
of  Aaron  Burr.  In  1792  he  opened  a  law  school,  which 
he  taught  for  many  years  at  Litchfield.  He  became  a 
judge  of  the  superior  court  in  1798.    Died  in  1823. 

Reeves,  reevz,  (John,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
London  in  1752.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"  History  of  English  Laws,"  (1783.)  He  was  a  deter- 
mined opponent  of  reform.    Died  in  1829. 

Reeves,  (Wh.liam,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
1668.  He  was  vicar  of  Saint  Mary's,  Reading.  Several 
volumes  of  his  sermons  were  published,  (1704-29.)  Died 
in  1726. 


Rega,  ra'gi  or  ra'nS,  (Hknri  Joseph,)  a  Flemish 
physician,  born  at  Louvain  in  1690.  His  reputation  is 
founded  on  a  work  "On  Sympathy,"  ("  De  Sympathia," 
1721.)    Died  at  Louvain  in  1754. 

See  Martens,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  H.  J.  Rega,"  1840 ;  Mal- 
CORPS,  "Rega,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Merits,"  1846. 

Reganhac,  de,  deh  reh-gS'ntk',  (G6raud  Valet,)  a 
French  lyric  poet,  born  at  or  near  Cahors  in  1719;  died 

Reggio,  Duke  of.    See  Oudinot.       .  .vr,.  -  .  ( 

Reggio,  rgd'jo,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  astronomer,' 
born  at  Genoa  in  1743.  He  wrote  several  memoirs  on 
astronomy,  and  aided  in  the  triangulation  of  Northern 
Italy,  finished  in  1794.    Died  in  1804. 

Reggio,  da,  (Luca.)    See  Ferrarl 

Regillo.    See  Pordenone. 

Re-gi'no,  [Fr.  R^ginon,  rk'zhe'n6N',]  a  learned  monk 
of  the  ninth  century,  was  Abbot  of  Prum,  in  the  diocese 
of  Treves.  He  wrote  a  chronicle,  which  has  been  printed. 
Died  in  915  a.d. 

Regio,  ra'jo,  (Raffaello,)  an  Italian  classical  scholar, 
born  at  Bergamo  ;  died  in  1520. 

Regiomontan.    See  Regiomontanus. 

Re-gi-o-mon-ta'nus  or  Regiomontan,  ra'ge-o-mon- 
ihV,  a  celebrated  German  astronomer,  whose  proper 
name  was  Johann  Muller,  (mt5l'ler,)  was  born  in  June, 
1436,  probably  near  Konigsberg,  (Saxe-Hildburghausen.) 
The  Latin  name  Regiomontanus  is  derived  from  Konigs- 
berg. Doppelmayer  and  others  give  Konigshofen,  in 
Franconia,  as  the  place  of  his  birth.  He  wrote  his 
own  name  sometimes  Johannes  Germanus  de  Regio- 
monte.  About  the  age  of  fifteen  he  began  to  study 
astronomy  under  Purbach,  in  the  University  of  Vienna. 
In  1462  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  studied  Greek  and 
bought  or  copied  Greek  manuscripts  on  his  favourite 
science.  He  passed  several  years  in  Rome,  Padua,  and 
Venice,  whence  he  returned  to  Vienna  and  became 
professor  of  mathematics.  About  1471  he  removed  to 
Nuremberg,  where,  by  the  liberal  aid  of  a  rich  citizen, 
Bernard  Walter,  he  was  enabled  to  construct  instru- 
ments, and  made  a  series  of  observations.  He  published 
there,  with  his  own  press,  his  "  Ephemerides"  for  thirty, 
years,  (1475-1506,)  and  other  works,  among  which  was  a 
"  New  Calendar"  ("  Kalendarium  Novum")  for  the  years 
1475,  1494,  and  1 5 13.  This  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
first  almanac  published  in  Europe.  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  in- 
vited him  to  Rome  to  reform  the  calendar,  and  offered  him 
the  bishopric  of  Ratisbon.  About  a  year  after  his  arrival 
in  Rome  he  died  there,  in  1476.  "He  was  a  man  of 
great  sagacity  and  enterprise,"  says  Delambre,  "  by  whose 
premature  death  astronomy  sustained  a  loss  which  for  a 
long  time  was  not  repaired."  A  treatise  "  On  Triangles, 
Plane  and  Spherical,"  ("De  Triangulis  Planis  et  Spheri- 
cis  Libri  V.,")  composed  about  1464,  but  not  published 
until  more  than  fifty  years  after  his  death,  is  pronounced 
by  Delambre  his  most  interesting  work. 

See  E.  Riihinholt,  "Oratlo  de  J.  Regiomontano,"  1549;  Pan- 
zer, "  Bruchstiicke  zu  J.  Regiomontan's  Leben,"  1796. 

Regis,  ra'j^ss,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  professor  of 
Greek,  born  near  Mondovi.  He  produced  a  good  Ital- 
ian version  of  Xenophon's  "  Cyropaedia,"  (1809.)  Died 
at  Turin  in  181 1. 

Regis,  ri'zh^ss',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  Jesuit, 
born  about  1665,  was  a  missionary  to  Peking,  in  China. 
He  spent  several  years  in  executing  a  map  of  China  for 
the  emperor.    Died  in  China  in  1737. 

Regis,  (Jean  Franqois,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Narbonne  in  1597.  He  gave  to  the  poor 
large  sums  of  money  which  he  collected  by  begging. 
Died  in  1640.    He  was  canonized  in  1737. 

See  D'AuBENTON,  "  Vie  de  Saint- Franfois-Regis,"  1716  ;  A. 
Bonnet,  "Vita  J.  F.  Regis,"  1692. 

Regis,  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Mont- 
pellier  in  1656  ;  died  at  AiTisterdam  in  1726. 

Regis,  (Sylvain,  or  Jean  Sylvain,)  a  French  Car- 
tesian philosopher,  was  born  near  Agen  in  1632.  He 
propagated  the  doctrines  of  Descartes  by  lectures  at 
Toulouse  and  Paris.  His  chief  work  is  a  "System  of 
Philosophy  according  to  the  Principles  of  Descartes," 
(3  vols.,  1690.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1707.  "No  one  has 
left,"  says  Hallam,  "  so  comprehensive  a  statement  and 


5,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  %  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  hftt;  good;  moon; 


REGIUS 


1877 


REGNIER 


defence  of  Cartesianism  as  Jean  Sylvain  Regis."  ("  In- 
troduction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron, 
"Memoires;"  Fontenelle,  "  filoge  de  Regis." 

Regius.    See  Leroy. 

Regnard,  reh-ntR',  (Jean  FRANgois, )  a  popular 
French  comic  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1655,  was  a  son  of 
a  merchant,  who  left  him  a  handsome  fortune.  On  a 
voyage  between  Civita  Vecchia  and  Toulon,  Regnard 
and  a  lady  whom  he  loved  were  captured  in  1678  by 
Algerine  pirates,  who  sold  them  as  slaves.  They  were 
ransomed  after  a  captivity  of  two  years.  It  is  said  he 
was  on  the  point  of  marrying  the  lady  when  the  fact 
transpired  that  her  first  husband  was  living.  In  1681 
and  1682  he  performed  a  tour  through  Sweden  and  Lap- 
land as  far  as  the  Frozen  Ocean,  Having  returned  to 
Paris,  he  purchased  the  office  of  treasurer,  ( tresorier  de 
France.)  He  was  much  addicted  to  the  vice  of  gambling. 
"Regnard,"  says  Hallam,  "is  always  placed  next  to 
Moliere  among  the  comic  writers  of  France  in  this,  and 
perhaps  in  any,  age.  The  plays,  indeed,  which  entitle 
him  to  such  a  rank  are  but  few.  Of  these  the  best 
is  acknowledged  to  be  'The  Gambler,'  ('Le  Joueur,' 
1696.)  Regnard,  taught  by  his  own  experience,  has 
here  admirably  delineated  the  character  of  an  inveterate 
gamester."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Eu- 
rope.") Among  his  most  admired  works  are  "  The 
Absent-Minded,"  ("  Le  Distrait,"  1697,)  and  "The  Uni- 
versal Legatee,"  (1708.)  His  comedies  are  characterized 
by  an  inexhaustible  fund  of  humorous  sallies.  Died  in 
September,  1709. 

See  Gilbert,  "  £loge  de  Regnard,"  1857;  "Atlantic  Monthly" 
for  June,  1865;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  dn  Lundi ;"  Niceron, 
"Memoires;"  La  Harpe,  "Cours  de  Litterature ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Regnaud,  reh-n5',  (Pierre  Etienne,)  a  French 
political  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1736,  was  a  constant 
adherent  of  the  Bourbons.    Died  about  1820. 

Regnaud  (or  Regnault)  de  Saint-Jean-d'An- 
gely,*  reh'no'  deh  siN  zh6.\  dd.N'zha'le',  (Auguste 
Michel  Etienne,)  Count,  a  French  general,  born  in 
Paris  in  1794.  He  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  Morea 
in  1828,  became  general  of  brigade  in  1841,  and  general 
of  division  in  July,  1848.  He  commanded  the  iinperial 
guard  at  the  battle  of  Magenta,  June  4,  1859,  and  on 
the  next  day  was  made  a  marshal  of  France.  Died  in 
December,  1869. 

Regnaud  (or  Regnault)  de  Saint- Jean-d'Angely, 
(Michel  Louis  Etienne,)  Count,  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Saint-Fargeau  (Yonne)  in  1762. 
He  was  a  moderate  member  of  the  Assembly- in  1790, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  council  of  state  in  1800. 
He  was  employed  in  important  affairs  during  the  em- 
pire as  procureur-general  and  secretary  de  Vetat  of  the 
imperial  family.  In  1803  he  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1819. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Regnauldin  or  Regnaudin,  reh'no'diN',  (Thomas,) 
a  French  sculptor,  born  at  Moulins  in  1627.  He  exe- 
cuted some  works  for  Louis  XIV.  at  Versailles.  Died 
in  1706. 

Regnault.    See  Regnaud. 

Regnault,  reh-no',  (£lias,)  a  French  historian,  born 
in  Paris  about  1802.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  Napoleon,"  (4  vols.,  1847.) 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1850. 

Regnault,  (Henri  Victor,)  a  distinguished  French 
chemist  and  natural  philosopher,  was  born  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  1810.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1840,  and  obtained  a  chair  of  physics  in 
the  College  of  France  in  1841.  He  has  written  memoirs 
on-  the  compressibility  of  elastic  fluids,  on  the  elastic 
forces  of  aqueous  vapour  at  different  temperatures,  and 
on  the  laws  and  numerical  data  which  enter  into  the 
calculations  respecting  the  constructibn  and  power  of 
steam-engines.    He   published   a  good  "Elementary 

*  Authorities  are  divided  in  regard  to  the  proper  mode  of  writing 
this  name  :  formerly  it  was  universally  written  Ang6ly,  but  at  pres- 
ent many  respectable  works  systematically  omit  the  accent,  and  some 
say  that  the  e  should  be  suppressed  in  pronunciation.  (See  note 
under  Petion  (or  Pethion)  de  Villeneuve.) 


Treatise  on  Chemistry,"  (4  vols.,  1849,)  which  has  been 
translated  into  English. 

Regnault,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  Baron,  a  French  painter 
of  history,  born  in  Paris  in  1754.  He  gained  the  first 
prize  in  1776.  Among  his  best  works  are  a  "  Descent 
from  the  Cross,"  and  the  "Education  of  Achilles," 
(1783.)  He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute.  Died  in 
1829. 

See  C.  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Regnault,  (Jean  Baptiste  Etienne,)  a  French  phy- 
sician,  born  at  Niort  in  1759,  was  consulting  phvsician 
to  Louis  XVIII.    Died  in  1836. 

Regnault,  (Noel,)  a  French  natural  philosopher  and 
Cartesian,  born  at  Arras  in  1683.  He  wrote  a  popular 
work  entitled  "  Conversations  of  Ariste  and  Eudoxe  on 
Philosophy,"  ("  Entretiens  physiques  d' Ariste,"  etc.,  3 
vols.,  1729.)    Died  in  1762. 

Regnault-Warin,  reh'no'  vt'riN',  (Jean  Baptiste 
Joseph,)  a  mediocre  French  litterateur.,  born  at  Bar-le- 
Duc  about  1772.  He  wrote  "Memoirs  of  La  Fayette," 
(1824,)  and  many  other  works.    Died  in  1844. 

Regner.    See  Ragner. 

Regner  van  Oosterga,  reo'ner  vSn  5s-tgR'gl,  (or  os- 
tlR^Hl,)  (Cyprian,)  a  Dutch  jurist,  born  in  Friesland  in 
1614;  died  at  Utrecht  in  1687. 

Regnier,  reh-ne-i',  (Claude  Ambroise,)  Due  de 
Massa,  (mt^st',)  a  French  minister  of  state,  born  at 
Blamont,  in  Lorraine,  in  1736.  As  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  Elders,  he  supported  Bonaparte  on  the  i8th 
Brumaire,  1799.  During  the  consulate  he  was  one  of  the 
redacteurs  of  the  Civil  Code.  He  was  appointed  _^r<2;z^/ 
juge  (minister  of  justice)  in  1802,  and  received  the  title 
of  Due  de  Massa  in  1809.    Died  in  1814. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Regnier,  (Edme,)  a  French  mechanician,  born  at 
Seniur-en-Auxois  in  1 751.  He  invented  a  number  of 
machines  or  instruments.    Died  in  Paris  in  1825. 

Regnier,  General.    See  Reynier.' 

Regnier,  (Jacques  Auguste  Adolphe,)  a  French 
philologist,  born  at  Mentz  in  1804.  He  became  in  1843 
preceptor  of  the  Count  de  Paris,  whom  he  followed  into 
exile  in  1848.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in 
18^5.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  German  Dictionary," 
(1841,)  in  which  he  was  aided  by  Shuster,  and  the  "  Pra- 
ti9akya"  of  the  "  Rig-Veda,"  Sanscrit  text,  with  French 
version,  (3  vols.,  1856-58.) 

Regnier,  (Jacques  Augustin,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1787. 

Regnier,  (Louis,)  Sieur  de  la  Planche,  a  French 
Huguenot,  noted  as  a  negotiator  and  writer.  He  wrote 
a  "  History  of  France  in  the  Reign  of  Francis  II.,"  (1576,) 
which  is  commended.    Died  about  1580. 

Regnier,  (Mathurin,)  a  French  satirical  poet,  born 
at  Chartres  in  1573,  was  a  nephew  of  the  poet  P.  Des- 
portes.  He  obtained  a  canonicate  at  Chartres  in  1604, 
but  he  was  licentious  in  morals.  His  works  consist  of  six- 
teen satires,  and  some  elegies,  odes,  etc.,  the  first  edition 
of  which  was  dated  1608.  He  imitated  Horace,  Juvenal, 
and  Martial.  His  style  is  natural  and  remarkable  for 
facility.  "  The  satires  of  Regnier,"  says  Hallam,  "  have 
been  highly  praised  by  Boileau, — a  competent  judge,  no 
doubt,  in  such  matters.  Some  have  preferred  Regnier 
even  to  himself,  and  found  in  this  old  Juvenal  of  France 
a  certain  stamp  of  satirical  genius  which  the  more  pol- 
ished critic  wanted."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe.")    Died  at  Rouen  in  16 13. 

See  Brossette.  "  Notice  sur  Regnier,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of 
his  works,  1729;  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique ;"  Niceron, 
"Memoires:"  Sainte-Beuve,  "Tableau  de  la  Poesie  Frangaise;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Regnier-Desmarais,  reh-ne-i' di'mt'ri',  (Francois 
S^raphin,)  a  French  poet  anT' grammarian,  born  in 
Paris  in  1632.  He  was  appointed  prior  of  Grammont 
by  the  king  in  1668,  and  admitted  into  the  French  Acad- 
emy in  1670.  He  was  one  of  the  principal  authors  or 
editors  of  the  Dictionary  of  the  French  Academy. 
Among  his  works  are  a  good  "Treatise  on  French 
Grammar,"  (1705,)  and  "Poems  in  French,  Italian, 
Spanish,  and  Latin,"  (1707.)    Died  in  1713. 

See  D'Alembert,  "Histoire  des  Membres  de  I'Academie  Fran- 
gaise." 


€  as  /^,-  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.  (Jil^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


REGNIER 


1878 


RE  ID 


Regnier-Destourbet,  reh-ne-i'  di'tooR'bi',  (Hippo- 
LYTE  FRANgois,)  a  French  litierateur,  born  at  Langres 
in  1804,  wrote  dramas,  tales,  etc.    Died  in  Paris  in  1832. 

Reg'u-lus,  (Marcus  Atillius,)  a  Roman  general, 
distinguished  in  the  first  Punic  war.  He  was  consul 
for  the  second  time  in  256  B.C.,  and  gained  a  naval  vic- 
tory over  the  Carthaginians.  Having  invaded  Africa, 
he  defeated  the  enemy  and  advanced  nearly  to  Carthage. 
He  was  defeated  in  turn,  and  taken  prisoner,  in  255. 
The  victors  sent  him  with  some  ambassadors  to  Rome 
to  negotiate  a  peace,  on  condition  that  he  should  return 
if  the  Roman  senate  should  reject  their  terms.  ^  He 
advised  the  senate  not  to  make  peace,  and  returned  to 
Carthage.  This  act  of  patriotism  was  much  celebrated 
by  ancient  writers,  according  to  whom  Regulus  died  a 
victim  to  the  cruelty  of  his  captors. 

See  Ernesti,  "  Dissertatio  de  M.  A.  Regulo,"  1684;  Niebuhr, 
"History  of  Rome;"  J.  Rey,  "Dissertation  sur  Regulus,"  1836; 
Cicero,  "De  Officiis." 

Rehberg,  ra'blRG,  (August  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
publicist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1757;  died  in  1836. 

Rehfues,  von,  fon  ra'fiis,  (Philipp  Joseph,)  a  Ger- 
man writer  and  journalist,  born  at  Tubingen  in  1 779. 
He  was  for  a  time  associate  editor  of  the  "  Morgenblatt." 
He  published  in  1813  his  work  on  Spain,  which  was 
translated  into  French  by  Guizot.    Died  in  1843. 

Rehm,  ram,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  historian,  born 
in  Hesse  in  1792.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Middle 
Ages,"  (8  vols.,  1820-38.)    Died  in  1847. 

Rehnskjold,  ran'chold,  (Carl  Gustav,)  Count 
OF,  a  Swedish  general,  born  at  Stralsund  in  1651.  He 
gained  a  victory  over  the  King  of  Poland  at  Frauen- 
stadt,  (1703,)  and  accompanied  Charles  XH.  in  the 
invasion  of  Russia.  After  Charles  was  wannded  at 
Pultowa,  (1709,)  Rehnskjold  took  command  of  the  army, 
and  was  made  a  prisoner.    Died  in  1722. 

Re-ho-bo'am,  [Heb.  D;r3n"n ;  Fr.  Roboam,  ro'- 
bo'6N',]  King  of  Judah,  succeeded  his  father  Solomon 
in  975  B.C.  By  his  rash  and  ungracious  answer  to  a 
petition  that  he  would  lighten  the  yoke  which  his  father 
had  imposed,  he  provoked  ten  tribes  to  revolt.  He 
waged  a  long  war  against  Jeroboam,  the  leader  of  the 
ten  tribes.    His  reign  lasted  seventeen  years. 

See  I.  Kings  xii.  and  xiv. ;  II.  Chronicles  x.,  xi.,  and  xii. 

Reicha,  rl'KS,  (Anton,)  a  German  composer  and 
eminent  writer  on  music,  was  born  at  Prague  in  1770. 
He  produced  a  symphony  which  was  performed  with 
success  at  Paris  in  1799.  About  1802  he  went  to  Vienna, 
where  he  became  intimate  with  Haydn  and  Beethoven, 
and  composed,  besides  other  works,  thirty-six  fugues  for 
the  piano.  He  resided  in  Paris  from  1808  until  his 
death.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his  "Treat- 
ise on  Melody,"  ("Traite  de  Melodic,"  1814,)  and  his 
"System  of  Harmony,"  ("Traite  complet  et  raisonne 
d'Harmonie  pratique,"  1818.)    Died  in  1836. 

_  See  Fetis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale ;"  Delaire,  "Notice  sur  Reicha,  Musicien," 
1837- 

Reichard,  rl'KiRt,  (Christian  Gottlieb,)  a  Ger- 
man geographer,  born  at  Schleiz  in  1758.  He  published 
a  number  of  valuable  maps  and  charts,  among  which 
we  may  name  the  "Chart  of  the  World  according  to 
Mercator's  Projection,"  and  "Chart  of  Gaul"  for  the 
explanation  of  Caesar's  writings.    Died  in  1837. 

Reichard,  (Heinrich  August,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  at  Gotha  in  1751.  He  wrote  dramas,  political 
treatises,  descriptive  works,  and  a  "Traveller's  Guide" 
for  Europe,  (1793,)  which  was  very  successful.  Died 
in  1828. 

Reichard,  (Heinrich  Gottfried,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Schleiz  in  1742.  He  produced  a  Latin 
version  of  the  New  Testament,  (1799,)  the  style  of  which 
is  praised  for  purity.    Died  in  1801. 

Reichardt,  ri'KaRt,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man composer  and  writer  on  music,  was  born  at  Konigs- 
berg  in  1751.  He  was  patronized  by  Frederick  the 
Great,  who  appointed  him  chapel -master  at  Berlin  on 
the  death  of  Graun.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a 
funeral  hymn  (  Trauercantate )  for  Frederick  the  Great. 
Died  in  1814. 

See  F]6tis,  "Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 


Reichenbach,  rl^Ken-b^K',  (Anton  Benedict,)  a 
German  naturalist,  a  brother  of  the  following,  was  born 
at  Leipsic  in  1807.  He  has  published  several  works  oi\ 
animals,  etc. 

Reichenbach,  (  Heinrich  Gottlieb  Ludwig,  ) 
professor  of  natural  history  in  the  Surgical  Academy  at 
Dresden,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1793.  He  published  a 
"Flora  Germanica,"  (in  15  vols.,  1853,)  and  the  first 
part  of  a  great  work  devoted  to  birds  and  mammalia. 

His  son  Gustav,  born  in  1822,  a  botanist,  aided  in 
the  composition  of  the  "Flora  Germanica." 

Reichenbach,  von,  fon  ri''Ken-baK',  (  Georg,  )  a 
German  mechanician,  born  at  Durlach  in  1772.  He 
established  at  Munich  a  great  manufactory  of  telescopes 
and  other  optical  and  philosophical  instruments  of  su- 
perior quality.  Fraunhofer  was  his  assistant  or  partner. 
Died  in  1826. 

Reichenbach,  von,  (  Karl,  )  Baron,  a  German 
chemist,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1788.  He  discovered 
parafiin  and  creosote,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Geological  Researches  in  Moravia,"  (1834.)  He  main- 
tained the  existence  of  an  imponderable  agent,  which 
he  calls  Od,  and  which  he  supposes  to  be  widely  diffused 
in  nature.    Died  in  1869. 

Reichstadt,  rlK'stit,  Duke  of,  (  Napol^ion  IL,) 
King  of  Rome,  the  only  son  of  Napoleon  L  and  Maria 
Louisa,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  20th  of  March,  1811. 
His  full  name  was  Napoleon  FRANgois  Charles 
Joseph.  In  1814  Napoleon  L  abdicated  in  favour  of  his 
son;  but  Louis  XVIH.  was  preferred  by  the  senate, 
and  the  young  Napoleon  was  taken  to  Austria  by  Maria 
Louisa.  He  received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Reichstadt 
from  the  Emperor  of  Austria  in  1818.  He  entered  the 
Austrian  army,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  1831.  His  physical  organization  was  feeble, 
but  his  intellect  was  active,  and  he  is  said  to  have  pos- 
sessed a  rare  aptitude  for  the  acquisition  of  languages. 
Died  near  Vienna  in  July,  1832. 

See  De  Montbel,  "  Le  Due  de  Reichstadt,"  1832 ;  Fr.  Le- 
COMTE,  "Histoire  de  Napoleon  II,"  1842;  J.  DE  Saint-F^lix, 
"  Histoire  de  Napoleon  II,"  1856. 

Reid,  reed,  (David  Boswell,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish 
chemist  and  writer,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1805.  He 
began  to  lecture  on  chemistry  in  Edinburgh  in  1833. 
He  invented  an  improved  method  of  ventilation,  and 
was  employed  about  five  years  in  the  ventilation  of  the 
new  Houses  of  Parliament.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Text-Book  for  Students  of  Chemistry,"  (1834.) 
About  1856  he  removed  to  the  United  States.  Died  in 
Washington  in  April,  1863. 

Reid,  reed,  (Mayne,)  a  novelist,  born  in  the  north  of 
Ireland  in  1818.  He  began  about  1838  a  tour  in  Mexico, 
Texas,  etc.,  and  passed  some  months  among  the  savages. 
In  1846  and  1847  he  fought  as  captain  in  the  army  of  the 
United  States  against  the  Mexicans.  He  wrote  several 
successful  novels,  among  which  are  "The  Rifle  Rangers," 
(1849,)  and  "The  War-Trail,"  (1857.) 

Reid,  reed,  (Samuel  Chester,)  Captain,  an  Ameri- 
can naval  officer,  born  at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1783. 
He  commanded  the  brig  General  Armstrong  in  a  fight 
against  three  British  vessels  at  Fayalin  September,  1814. 
Died  at  New  York  in  1861. 

Reid,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  eminent  writer 
on  mental  philosophy,  was  born  at  Strachan,  in  Kin- 
cardineshire, in  April,  1710.  He  studied  at  Marischal 
College,  Aberdeen,  and  became  minister  of  New  Machar 
in  1737.  In  1752  he  was  appointed  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen.  He  succeeded 
Adam  Smith  as  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Glas- 
gow in  1763,  and  published  an  "Inquiry  into  the  Human 
Mind,"  (1764,)  which  was  designed  to  neutralize  the 
skeptical  doctrines  which  Hume  had  advocated  as  de- 
ductions from  the  ideal  system  of  Berkeley.  His  other 
principal  works  are  "  Essays  on  the  Intellectual  Powers 
of  Man,"  (1785,)  and  "Essays  on  the  Active  Power  of 
the  Human  Mind,"  (1788.)  Died  atGlasgowin  October, 
1796.  In  reply  to  some  writers  who  are  disposed  to 
deny  the  name  of  philosopher  to  Reid,  Mackintosh 
observes,  "As  there  are  too  many  who  seem  more  wise 
than  they  are,  so  it  was  the  more  uncommon  fault  of 
Reid  to  appear  less  a  philosopher  than  he  really  was." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^,  f^U,  f^t;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


REJD 


REINESIUS 


In  another  place  he  calls  Reid  "a  patient,  modest,  and 
deep  thinker."  Hume  himself  appears  to  have  enter- 
tained a  similar  estimate  of  Reid,  although  differing  from 
him  so  widely  in  his  philosophical  views. 

See  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Reid,"  by  Dugald  Stewart,  prefixed  to  a 
posthumous  edition  of  his  "Essays;"  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;"  Mackintosh,  "View  of  the 
Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy,"  in  his  preliminary  remarks  on 
Dugald  Stewart;  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Monthly 
Review"  for  May  and  July,  1764,  and  February,  1804;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  January,  1804;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  May, 
1847. 

Reid,  (Sir  William,)  Major-General,  F.R.S.,  a 
British  engineer  and  scientific  writer,  born  in  Fifeshire 
in  1791.  He  served  as  an  officer  of  engineers  in  Spain, 
America,  etc.,  became  Governor  of  Bermuda  in  1838, 
and  commanding  engineer  at  Woolwich  in  1849.  He 
published  a  work  entitled  "An  Attempt  to  Develop  the 
Law  of  Storms  by  Means  of  Facts  arranged  according 
to  Place  and  Time,"  (1838,)  which  attracted  much  at- 
tention. In  1849  he  produced  "The  Progress  of  the 
Development  of  the  Law  of  Storms,"  etc.  He  was 
Governor  of  Malta  from  185 1  to  1858.  Died  in  London 
in  October,  1858. 

Reiffenberg,  de,  deh  rlf  fen-b^Rc',  (Fred^iric  Au- 
GUSTE  Ferdinai^d  Thomas,)  Baron,  a  Belgian  litte- 
rateur, born  at  Mons  in  1795.  He  wrote  a  "History  of 
the  Order  of  the  Golden  Fleece,"  (1830,)  and  several 
works  on  the  history  of  Flanders.    Died  in  1850. 

See  Luthereau,  "  Notice  sur  M.  le  Baron  de  Reiffenberg."  1850 ; 
QuETELET,  "Notice  sur  F.  A.  F.  T.  Baron  de  Reiffenberg,"  1852. 

Reigny,  rkn'ye',  (Louis  Abel  Beffroi,  )  called 
Cousin  Jacques,  an  eccentric  French  writer  of  plays 
and  burlesque  works,  was  born  at  Laon  in  1757;  died 
in  1810. 

Reil,  rll,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  Dutch  or  German 
physician,  born  at  Rauden,  in  East  Friesland,  in  1758. 
He  became  professor  of  therapeutics  at  Halle  in  1788. 
He  published  a  number  of  esteemed  medical  works. 
Died  in  1813. 

Reille,  ri!  or  ri'ye,  (Honor^:  Charles  Michel 
Joseph,)  Count,  a  French  general,  born  at  Antibes 
(Var)  in  1775.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battle 
of  Jena,  (1806,)  soon  after  which  he  became  a  general 
of  division,  and  aide-de-camp  to  Napoleon.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  victory  at  Friedland,  (1807,)  distinguished 
himself  at  Wagram,  (1809,)  and  obtained  command  of 
the  army  of  Portugal  in  1812.  In  181 5  he  fought  for 
Napoleon  at  Waterloo,  where  he  commanded  a  corps- 
d'armee.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1847.  Died 
in  i860. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Reimar.    See  Reimarus. 

Reimarus,  rl-m^'rus,  [Fr.  Reimar,  ri'mtR',]  (Her- 
mann Samuel,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Hamburg 
in  1694,  became  professor  of  Hebrew  and  mathematics 
in  his  native  city.  He  was  the  author  of  the  celebrated 
"  Wolfenbiittel  Fragments,"  a  series  of  essays  published 
by  Lessing  in  1777.  (See  Lessing.)  Reimarus  was  a 
son-in-law  of  J.  A.  Fabricius,  whom  he  assisted  in  sev- 
eral of  his  philological  works.  He  also  wrote  a  treatise 
"On  the  Principal  Truths  of  Natural  Religion,"  (1754,) 
and  "Observations  on  the  Instinct  of  Animals,"  (1762.) 
Died  in  1765  or  1768. 

See  J.  G.  BiiscH,  "Memoria  Reimari,"  1769;  Hirsching, 
"  Histonsch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Reimarus,  (Johann  Albrecht  Heinrich,)  a  Ger- 
man philosopher  and  economist,  born  at  Hamburg  in 
1729,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  practised  medi- 
cine at  Hamburg,  and  wrote  several  works  on  commerce 
and  political  economy.    Died  in  1814. 

See  Ebeling,  "  Memoria  Reimari,"  1815  ;  and  "  Autobiography," 
1814. 

Reimer,  ri'mer,  (Georg  Andreas,)  a  German  book- 
seller, born  at  Greifswalde  in  1776,  founded  at  Berlin,  in 
1800,  a  publishing-house  which  rose  to  be  one  of  the 
most  important  in  Germany.  Among  the  works  issued 
from  this  establishment  were  the  writings  of  Jean  Paul, 
Novalis,  W.  von  Humbolf't,  Niebuhr,  Ranke,  Lach- 
mann,  and  other  Germans  most  eminent  in  literature 
and  science,  to  which  we  may  add  Schlegel's  transla- 
tion of  Shakspeare.    Died  in  1842. 


Reimmann,  rim'min,  (Jakob  Friedrich,)  a  German 
bibliographer,  born  at  Groningen  in  1668.  He  became 
minister  of  a  church  at  Hildesheim  in  1 71 7.  Among 
his  works  are  "An  Essay  of  an  Introduction  to  Literary 
History,"  (6  vols.,  1703-13,)  and  "Idea  of  the  Literary 
System  of  Antiquity,"  ("  Idea  Systematis  AntiquitatiSs 
literariae,"  1718.)    Died  in  1743. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  Reimmann,  Autobiog- 
raphy, ("  Eigene  Lebensbeschreibung,"  etc.,)  1745. 

Reina,  ra^-ni, }  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  litterateur, 
born  in  the"~province  of  Como  in  1772.  He  edited  the 
works  of  Ariosto,  Zanotti,  and  other  Italian  authors. 
Died  in  1826. 

Reinagle,  rin'a-gel, }  (George  Philip,)  an  excellent 
English  marine  painter,  born  in  London  about  1802,  was 
a  son  of  R.  Ramsay  Reinagle.  Among  his  works  is 
"  The  Battle  of  Navarino."  He  witnessed  this  action. 
Died  in  1833  or  1835. 

Reinagle,  (Philip,)  an  able  English  painter  of  land- 
scapes, hunting-scenes,  and  animals,  born  about  1750, 
was  a  pupil  of  Allan  Ramsay,  He  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1811.  Among  his  works 
is  the  "  Sportsmen's  Cabinet."    Died  in  1833  or  1834. 

Reinagle,  (Richard  Ramsay,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  about  1772,  painted  portraits  and  landscapes  with 
success.    He  was  elected  Royal  Academician  in  1822. 

Reinaud,  ri'nd',  (Joseph  Toussaint,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  born  at  Lambesc  (Bouches-du-Rhone)  in 
1795.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions in  1832,  and  succeeded  Silvestre  de  Sacy  as  pro- 
fessor of  Arabic  at  Paris  in  1838.  In  1854  he  became 
keeper  of  the  Oriental  manuscripts  of  the  Imperial 
Library,  Among  his  works  is  "The  Invasions  of  the 
Saracens  in  France,  Savoy,  and  Piedmont  in  the  Eighth, 
Ninth,  and  Tenth  Centuries,"  (1836.)  Died  in  June, 
1867. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Reinbeck,  rln'b^k,  (Johann  Gustav,)  a  German 
Lutheran  divine,  born  at  Zell  in  1683.  He  became  first 
minister  of  the  church  of  Saint  Peter,  Berlin,  (or  at  Co- 
logne on  the  Spree,)  in  171 7.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  Considerations  on  the  Divine  Truths  contained 
in  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,"  (4  vols.,  1731-41.)  Died 
in  1742. 

Reindel,  rin'del,  (Albrecht,)  a  German  engraver, 
born  at  Nuremberg  in  1784,  numbered  among  his  pupils 
Wagner,  Miiller,  and  other  distinguished  artists.  He 
was  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  of  Nurem- 
berg.   Died  in  1853. 

Reineccius.    See  Reineck. 

Reineccius,  ri-n§t'se-vis,  (Christian,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  in  the  principality  of  Anhalt-Zerbst  in 
1668.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "  Hebrew  Key  ( yanua)  to 
the  Old  Testament,"  (1733.)    Died  in  1752. 

Reineck,  ri'nSk,  [Lat.  Reinec'cius,]  (Reiner,)  a 
German  historian,  born  at  or  near  Paderborn  in  1541. 
He  taught  belles-lettres  at  Frankfort  and  Helmstedt. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Syntagma  heroicum,  continens 
Historiam  Chaldaeorum,  Assyriorum,"  etc.,  (3  vols., 
1594,)  which  treats  of  the  history  of  the  Chaldeans  and 
Assyrians.    Died  in  1595. 

See  HXberlin,  "  De  Reineccii  Meritis,"  etc.,  1746  ;  Teissier, 
"  filoges." 

Reinecke,  rl'ngk-keh,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  noted 
German  actor,  born  at  Helmstedt  in  1747  ;  died  in  1787, 

Reineggs,  rl'nggs  or  ri'n^ks,  (Jakob,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Eisleben  in  1744.  He  practised  at 
Tiflis,  in  Georgia,  and  wrote  a  "  Description  of  Cau- 
casus."   Died  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1793. 

Reiner,  rl'ner,  (Wenzel  Lorenz,)  a  German  painter, 
born  at  Prague  in  1686.  He  painted  history  and  land- 
scapes with  success,  both  in  oil  and  fresco.  His  design 
and  colour  are  much  praised.    Died  at  Prague  in  1743. 

Reinesius,  rl-na'ze-iis,  (Thomas,)  a  German  phy- 
sician and  scholar,  born  at  Gotha  in  1587,  was  styled  by 
Haller  "a  miracle  of  learning."  He  was  for  several 
years  public  physician  at  Altenburg,  and  subsequently 
removed  to  Leipsic.  About  the  same  time  he  was  made 
a  councillor  by  the  Elector  of  Saxony.  Among  his 
numerous  works  may  be  named  "  On  the  Syrian  Gods," 
(1623,)  "Syntagma  of  Ancient   Inscriptions,"  (1682,) 


<  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  gtittural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Sf^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


REINHARD 


1880 


R EL  AND 


"Critical  Dissertation  on  the  Sibylline  Oracles,"  (1702,) 
and  "Observations  on  Suidas,"  (all  in  Latin.)  He  also 
wrote  an  account  of  his  life,  (in  German.)    Died  in  1667. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron, 
"Memoires." 

Reinhard,  ru/h^Rt,  (Christian  Tobias  Ephraim,) 
a  German  physician,  born  at  Camenz  in  1719;  died  in 
1792. 

Reinhard,  (Franz  Volkmar,)  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian and  distinguished  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Vohen- 
strauss,  in  Bavaria,  in  1753.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Wittenberg  in  1782,  and  iii  1792  chief  court 
preacher  at  Dresden.  He  died  in  i8i2,  leaving  a  num- 
ber of  sermons  and  religious  treatises.  His  "System  of 
Christian  Morality"  (5  vols.,  1788-1815)  is  regarded  as 
a  valuable  and  profound  work. 

See  Karl  August  Bottiger,  F.  V.  Reinhard,"  etc.,  1813; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  Politz,  "  Reinhard  nach  seinem 
Leben  und  Wirken,"  1813. 

Reinhard,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  diplomatist,  born  in 
Wiirtemberg  in  1761.  He  became  French  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  in  July,  1799,  and  was  employed  in  several 
missions  by  Bonaparte  from  1800  to  1814.  He  owed  his 
promotion  to  the  favour  of  Talleyrand.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1837. 

Reinhard,  von,  fon  rin'hiRt,  (Adolf  Friedrich,) 
a  German  philosopher,  born  at  Strelitz  in  1726.  He 
wrote  a  treatise  "On  Optimism,"  (1755,)  and  other 
works.    Died  at  Wetzlar  in  1783. 

Reinhart,  rln^hSkt,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German 
landscape-painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Hof  in  1761. 
Some  of  his  best  pictures  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Massimi 
palace  at  Rome.  His  "  Landscape  in  a  Storm,"  one  of 
his  master-pieces  in  engraving,  was  dedicated  to  Schiller. 
Died  in  1847.  ■ 
Reinhold,  rin'holt,  (Christian  Ernst  Gottlieb 
ENS,)  a  philosopher,  a  son  of  Karl  Leonhard,  noticed 
elow,  was  born  at  Jena  in  1793.  He  became  professor 
of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  his  native  city,  and  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Philosophy,"  (2 
vols.,  1828-29.)    Died  in  1855. 

Reinhold,  [Lat.  Reinhoi/dus,]  (Erasmus,)  a  Ger- 
man astronomer,  born  at  Saalfeld,  in  Thuringia,  in 
October,  1 5 11.  He  taught  astronomy  and  mathematics 
for  some  years  at  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  from 
which  he  removed  in  1552.  He  published  a  "Com- 
mentary on  Purbach's  New  Theory  of  Planets,"  ("  Com- 
mentarius  Theoricae  novas  Planetarum  G.  Purbachii," 
1542,)  and  tables  formed  from  the  observations  of 
Copernicus  compared  with  those  of  Hipparchus  and 
Ptolemy,  "Tables  of  the  Motions  of  the  Heavenly 
Bodies,"  ("  Prutenicae  Tabulae  Ccelestium  Motuum," 
1 55 1,)  in  which  he  clearly  explains  the  equation  of  time. 
Died  in  1553.  His  son,  Erasmus,  was  a  physician  and 
astronomer. 

See  Delambre,  "Astronomic  moderne." 

Reinhold,  (Karl  Leonhard,)  a  German  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Vienna  in  1758.  Having  married  the 
daughter  of  Wieland,  he  became  associated  with  him  as 
editor  of  the  "  Deutschen  Mercur."  In  1794  he  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Kiel.  He  was  the  author  of 
"  Letters  on  the  Philosophy  of  Kant,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1823. 

See  "K.  L.  Reinholds  Leben,"  by  his  son,  1828;  Kuno  Fis- 
cher, "Die  neuere  Philosophic  seit  Kant;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Reinholdus.    See  Reinhold,  (Erasmus.) 

Reinick,  ri'nik,  (Robert,)  a  German  painter  and 
poet,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1805  ;  died  in  1852. 

Reinoso,  ri-e-no'so,  (Antonio  Garcia,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Cabral  in  1623,  was  also  an  architect. 
He  died  at  Cordova  in  1677. 

Reinsberg,  von,  fon  rins'b&RG,  (Ida  von  Diirings- 
feld — fon  dii'rings-f^lt',)  Baroness,  a  German  authoress, 
born  in  Silesia  in  181 5.  She  has  written  many  tales 
and  novels,  which  are  said  to  display  a  rich  imagination 
and  much  knowledge  of  human  nature.  Among  them 
are  "Sketches  of  the  Great  World,"  (1845,)  "Antonio 
Foscarini,"  (1850,)  and  "Clotilda,"  (1855.) 

Reinwardt,  rIn''<^aRt,  (Caspar  Gkorg  Carl,)  a 
naturalist,  born  at  Liittringhausen,  in  Germany,  in  1772.  1 


He  wrote  "  Observations  on  the  Gold-Mines  and  Natural 
History  of  the  Moluccas."    Died  at  Leyden  in  1854. 

Reisch,  rish,  (Geokg,)  a  German  savant  and  ecclesi- 
astic, lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
He  was  confessor  to  the  emperor  Maximilian  I.  He 
wrote  "Margarita  philosophica,"  ("Philosophic  Pearl," 
1496,)  often  reprinted. 

Reisen,  rl'zen,  (Charles  C.,)  an  able  engraver  of 
gems,  born  in  London  about  1695,  was  the  son  of  a 
Danish  artist.    Died  in  London  in  1725. 

Reiser,  (Anton.)    See  Moritz,  (Karl  Philipp.) 

Reiset,  de,  deh  ri'zk',  (Marie  Antoine,)  Vicomte, 
a  French  general,  born  at  Colmar  in  1775.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  battle  of  Dresden,  (1813.)  Died 
in  1836. 

See  "  Notice  sur  Jacques  ct  Antoine  de  Refeet,"  1851. 

Reisig,  rl'zic,  (Karl  Christian,)  a  German  philolr». 
gist,  born  at  Weissensee  in  1792.  He  was  professor  of 
ancient  literature  at  Halle.  He  wrote  "  Vorlesungen 
iiber  Lateinische  Sprachwissenschaft,"  (  "  Praelections 
on  Latin  Philology.")    Died  at  Venice  in  1829. 

Reiske,  ris'keh,  (Johann,)  a  German  teacher  and 
writer  on  various  subjects,  born  at  Gera  in  1641  ;  died 
in  1 701. 

Reiske,  [Lat.  Reis'kius,]  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Ger- 
man physician  and  Orientalist,  born  near  Leipsic  in 
1716.  At  the  University  of  Leipsic  he  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  the  study  of  Arabic,  and  subsequently  visited 
Leyden,  where  he  was  patronized  by  Burmann  and  other 
learned  men.  On  his  return  to  Leipsic  he  obtained 
the  title  of  professor  of  Arabic,  and  became  rector  of 
the  College  of  Saint  Nicholas.  Among  his  works  are 
Latin  translations  of  the  "Geography"  of  Abulfeda,  the 
"Moslem  Annals"  of  the  same  writer,  and  a  German 
translation  of  the  poems  of  Mootenabbee,  (Motenabbi,) 
(unpublished,)  also  editions  of  Theocritus,  (1766,)  "The 
Greek  Orators,"  (12  vols.,  1770-75,)  Plutarch's  Works, 
(12  vols.,  1774-79,)  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  (6  vols., 
1774-77,)  and  other  Greek  and  Latin  classics.  Died 
in  1774. 

His  wife,  Ernestine  Christine  Muller,  born  near 
Wittenberg,  was  distinguished  for  her  love  of  learning, 
and  rendered  him  important  assistance  in  his  literary 
labours.  After  his  death  she  completed  several  of  his 
works.  She  also  published  a  work  entitled  "  Hellas," 
(2  vols.,  1778.)    Died  in  1798,  aged  about  sixty-three. 

See  Reiske's  Autobiography,  Leipsic,  1783;  S.  F.  N.  Morus, 
"Vita  Reiskii,"  1777;  Meusel,  "  Gelehrtes  Deutschland  ;"  Hir- 
SCH(NG,"  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Reiskius.    See  Reiske. 

Reissiger,  ri'sic-er,  (Karl  Gottlieb,)  a  German 
musician  and  composer,  born  near  Wittenberg  in  1798. 
He  was  appointed  first  chapel-master  at  Dresden  in 
1827.  He  composed  religious  music,  and  a  number 
of  operas,  among  which  are  "  Didone,"  (1823,)  and 
"Turandot."    Died  in  1859. 

Reiz,  rits,  (Friedrich  Wolfgang,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Windsheim,  Franconia,  in  1733.  He 
became  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  at  Leipsic  in  1782, 
and  edited  some  works  of  Aristotle,  Persius,  and  other 
classics.    Died  in  1790. 

Reiz  or  Reitz,  rits,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Braunfels  in  1695  ;  died  at  Utrecht 
in  1778. 

Reland,  ra'llnt,  [Lat.  Relan'dus,]  (Adriaan,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  Orientalist,  born  at  Ryp,  near  Alkmaar, 
in  1676.  He  was  versed  in  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities, 
as  well  as  in  many  Oriental  languages.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  languages  and  ecclesiastical  history  at 
Utrecht  in  1700.  His  principal  works  are  an  "Account 
of  the  Moslem  Religion,"  ("  De  Religione  Mohammedica 
Libri  duo,"  1705,)  and  "  Palestine  illustrated  by  Monu- 
ments," ("  Palestina  ex  Monumentis  veteribus  illustrata," 
2  vols.,  1714,)  which  is  highly  commended.  He  died  at 
Utrecht  in  February,  1718. 

See  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  Paquot,  "Memoires;"  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale;"  Serrurier,  "  Oratio  in  Obitura  A. 
Relandi,"  1718. 

Reland,  (Pieter,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  a 
magistrate  of  Haarlem.    He  wrote  a  work  entitled 


a,  e,  I,  6,  ij,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


RELJNDUS 


1881 


REMT 


"Consular  Calendars,"  ("Fasti  Consulares,")  published 
in  1 71 5.    He  died  before  that  date. 
Relandus.    See  Reland. 

Relhan,  (Richard,)  an  English  botanist,  born 

about  1755.  He  became  rector  of  Hunningsby,  Lin- 
colnshire, in  1791.  He  wrote  a  "  Flora  Cantabrigensis," 
(1785.)    Died  in  1823. 

Rellstab,  rel'stSp,  (Ludwig,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  at  Berlin  in  1799,  published  romances,  dramas, 
and  critical  essays.    Died  at  Berlin  in  i860. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1837. 

Rem-ber'tus,  [Ger.  pron.  r^m-b^R'tus,]  Archbishop 
of  Hamburg,  born  in  Flanders,  was  a  disciple  of  Ansgar. 
He  laboured  as  a  missionary  in  Denmaik.    Died  in  888. 

Rembha.    See  Rambha. 

Rembraudt  van  Ryn  or  Rijn,  rgn/bRint  vtn  rin, 
or  Rembrandt  Gerritz,  r^m'bRint  H^r'rits,  (Paul,) 
a  celebrated  Dutch  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was 
born  on  the  Rhine,  near  Leyden,  June  15,  1606.  He  was 
a  son  of  a  miller  named  Hermann  Gerritz.  His  masters 
in  design  were  P.  Lastmann  and  Jacob  Pinus,  to  whom 
some  add  George  Schooten.  He  became  a  citizen  of 
Amsterdam  in  1630,  and  soon  acquired  celebrity  by  the 
originality  of  his  style,  formed  by  the  study  of  nature. 
In  1632  he  painted  "  The  Lecture  on  Anatomy  of  Dr. 
Tulp."  He  married  in  1634.  He  became  the  master 
of  a  numerous  school,  and,  it  is  said,  sold  the  copies 
painted  by  his  pupils  as  original  works,  after  he  had 
retouched  them.  His  biographers  represent  him  as 
avaricious,  and  some  of  them  affirm  that  he  contracted 
the  habits  of  a  miser  ;  but  this  charge  is  not  substantiated. 
He  derived  a  very  large  income  from  the  sale  of  his 
etchings,  the  fees  of  his  pupils,  and  the  sale  of  copies 
of  his  works  made  by  his  pupils;  yet  he  became  insol- 
vent in  1656. 

Rembrandt  was  a  brilliant  colorist,  and  a  consummate 
master  of  chiaroscuro.  He  imitated  the  effects  of  light 
with  great  success,  but  was  deficient  in  design  and  taste. 
He  neglected  or  despised  the  antique.  Among  his  cele- 
brated pictures  are  "Tobit  and  the  Angel  Raphael," 
"The  Woman  taken  in  Adultery,"  "The  Round  of  the 
Night,"  "The  Syndics  of  the  Merchant  Drapers,"  and 
a  portrait  of  himself  with  his  wife.  His  portraits  are 
by  some  critics  considered  more  admirable  than  his  his- 
torical works.  He  produced  a  great  number  ef  etchings, 
some  of  which  command  enormous  prices,  (100  guineas 
each.)  As  an  engraver  in  aquafortis  he  has  never  been 
surpassed.  Arnong  his  engravings  are  a  "  Descent  fronr 
the  Cross,"  "Christ  healing  the  Sick,"  "The  Raising 
of  Lazarus,"  and  portraits  of  Van  Coppenol  and  Van 
Thol.    He  died  at  Amsterdam  in  October,  1669. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Rembrandt,"  by  J.  Burn'et,  184S  ;  P.  Schelthma, 
"Redevoering  over  het  Leven  eu  de  Verdieiisten  van  Rembrandt 
van  Rijn,"  1853;  Drscamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flaniands,"  etc.  ; 
J.  Immekzeel,  "  Lofrede  op  Rembrandt,"  1841  ;  Nagler,  "  Leben 
und  Werke  des  Malers  Rembrandt  von  Ryn,"  1843;  J.  Renouvier, 
"Des  Types  et  des  Manieres  des  Maitres-Graveurs  ;"  Houbraken, 
"Vies  des  Peintres;"  Daui.by,  "Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the 
Works  of  Rembrandt,"  1796;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generaie." 

Rembrantz,  r&m'bRdnts,  (Thierry,)  a  Dutch  as- 
tronomer, born  near  the  Zuyderzee  about  1615;  died 
after  1677. 

Remer,  ra'mer,  (Julius  August,)  a  Gennan  historian, 
born  at  Brunswick  in  1736.  He  published  a  "  Manual  of 
Universal  History,"  (3  vols.,  1783,)  which  was  received 
with  favour.    Died  in  1803. 

Remi,  ra'me,  or  Re-mig'I-us,  Archbishop  of  Rheims, 
converted  Clovis  to  Christianity.    Died  in  533  A.D. 

Remi  or  Remigius,  a  French  prelate,  was  Arch- 
bishop of  Lyons.    Died  in  875  A.D. 

Remi  (or  Remigius)  of  Auxerre,  a  French  monk, 
who  wrote  on  theology  and  grammar.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  doctor  who  taught  publicly  in  Paris. 
Died  about  908. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generaie." 

Remi,  ri'me',  (Joseph  Honor^;,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Remiremont  in  1738;  died  in  Paris  in  1782. 

Remigio,  ri-mee'jo,  (Fiorentino,)  an  Italian  Do- 
minican and  writer,  born  at  Florence  about  15 18.  He 
translated  Ovid's  "Heroic  Epistles,"  and  Cornelius 
Nepos.    Died  in  1580. 

Remigius.    See  Reml 


Remilly,  reh-me'ye',  (Ovide,)  a  French  politician, 
born  at  Versailles  in  1800.  He  was  elected  mayoi  of 
Versailles  seven  times  between  1837  and  1855,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1839  to 

1848.  He  was  a  moderate  republican  in  the  Constituent 
Assembly  of  1848. 

Remond,  ri'miN',  (Francois,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
Latin  poet,  born  at  Dijon  in  1558;  died  at  Mantua  in 
1631. 

Remond,  de,  deh  \\'mh^',  written  also  Raemond, 
(Florimond,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Agen  about 
1540.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Rise  and  Progress 
of  Heresy  in  this  Century,"  (1605.)    Died  in  1602. 

Remond  de  Sainte-Albine,  r^'m6N'  deh  siNt 
tl'b^n',  (Pierre,)  a  French  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1699. 
He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Le  Comedien,"  (1747.) 
Died  in  1778. 

Remond  de  Saint-Mard,  ri'miN'  deh  saN  mtR, 
(ToussAiNT,)  a  mediocre  French  writer,  born  in  Paris 
in  1682 ;  died  in  1757. 

Remondini,  ri-mon-dee^nee,  (Baldassare  Maria,) 
an  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Bassano  in  1698,  was 
Bishop  of  Zante.  He  wrote  a  work  "On  the  Antiqui- 
ties of  Zante,"  (1756.)    Died  in  1777. 

Remorino,  ri-mo-ree'no,  (Giovanni  Pietro,  ) 
sometimes  improperly  written  Ramorino,  (Jerome,) 
an  Italian  general,  born  at  Genoa  about  1790.  He  com- 
manded a  division  of  the  Sardinian  army  at  Novara  in 

1849.  He  was  tried  for  disloyalty  by  a  military  court, 
and  shot,  in  May,  1849. 

Re'mus,  one  of  the  founders  of  Rome,  was  a  brother 
of  Romulus,  which  see. 

Remusat,  \^m\i!zt',  (Jean  Pierre  Abel,)  an  emi- 
nent French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in  September, 
1788.  He  studied  medicine  in  compliance  with  the 
wish  of  his  father,  and  learned  the  Chinese  language 
without  a  teacher.  In  i8ii  he  published  an  "Essay  on 
the  Chinese  Language  and  Literature."  He  obtained  an 
exemption  from  the  conscription  of  1813  by  the  influence 
of  his  friend  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  and  became  professor  of 
Chinese  in  the  College  of  France  in  1814.  In  1822  he 
founded  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Paris.  Among  his  chief 
works  are  "  Researches  into  the  Tartar  Languages," 
(1820,)  and  "  Elements  of  the  Chinese  Grammar,"  (1822.) 
"  This  vast  and  important  work,"  says  Henri  Thiers,  "  is 
the  true  monument  of  the  reputation  acquired  by  Abel 
Remusat."  He  wrote  articles  for  the  "Biographie 
Universelle."    Died  in  1832. 

See  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  "  filoge  d'Abel  Remusat;"  Ampere, 
"Notice  siir  Abel  Remusat"  in  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes," 
November  i,  1832,  and  November  15,  1833;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generaie." 

Remusat,  de,  deh  rk^mii^zS',  (Auguste  Laurent,) 
Count,  a  French  politician  and  advocate,  born  in 
Provence  in  1762.  He  became  first  chamberlain  of 
Napoleon  in  1804.    Died  in  1823. 

Remusat,  de,  (Charles,)  Count,  a  French  philoso- 
pher and  minister  of  state,  born  in  Paris  in  1797,  was  a 
son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  elected  in  1830  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  con- 
servatives. He  was  minister  of  the  interior  from  March 
to  October,  1840.  In  1842  he  published  "Essays  on 
Philosophy,"  which  were  received  with  favour.  He  was 
admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1846,  in  place  of 
Royer-Collard.  In  the  Constituent  and  Legislative  As- 
semblies of  1848  and  1849  he  voted  with  the  friends  of 
order,  ( droite  moderee.)  He  has  been  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."  Among 
his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on  German  Philosophy,"  (1845,) 
"  Abelard,"  (2  vols.,  1845,)  "Bacon,  sa  Vie,  son 

Temps,"  etc.,  (1858.) 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Derniers  Portraits  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generaie." 

Remusat,  de,  (Claire  Elisabeth  Jeanne,)  Count- 
ess, the  mother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1780.  She  was  a  companion  (dame  du  palais)  of  the 
empress  Josephine,  and  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  Edu- 
cation of  Women,"  (1824.)    Died  in  1821'. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Portraits  des  Femmes  celebres." 

Remy,  reh-me',  (Jules,)  a  French  traveller  and 
naturalist,  born  near  Chaions-sur-Marne  in  1826.  He 
spent  several  years  in  the  exploration  of  Brazil,  Peru, 


<  as    9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  yl,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Sl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


REN  AN 


1882 


RENDU 


Chili,  the  Sandwich  Isles,  California,  Utah,  etc.  He 
has  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Journey  to  the 
Country  of  the  Mormons,"  (2  vols.,  i860,)  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Sandwich  Isles,"  (1862.) 

Renan,  reh-ndN',  (Ernest,)  an  eminent  French 
writer.  Orientalist,  and  critic,  born  at  Treguier  (Cotes 
du  Nord)  in  1823.  He  began  to  study  for  the  priesthood, 
but  renounced  that  profession  because  he  doubted  the 
truth  of  the  orthodox  creed.  He  displayed  much  learn- 
ing in  his  "General  History  of  the  Semitic  Languages," 
(1855,)  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions 
in  1856,  and  was  sent  to  Syria  in  i860  to  search  for  relics 
of  ancient  learning  and  civilization.  Soon  after  his  return 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  College  of 
France,  but  he  was  suspended  in  1862,  in  deference  to  the 
will  of  those  who  considered  him  unsound  in  faith.  He 
admits  the  excellence  of  the  Christian  religion,  but  dis- 
credits its  supernatural  origin  and  rejects  the  miracles. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "Life  of  Jesus,"  (1863,)  the  suc- 
cess of  which  is  attributed  partly  to  the  perfection  of  his 
style.  It  has  been  denounced  as  impious  by  several 
French  prelates.  Among  his  later  works  is  "  Histoire 
des  Origines  de  Christianisme,"  "The  Apostles,"  ("Les 
Apotres,"  1866,)  and  "Vie  de  Saint-Paul,"  (1869.)  "It 
is  not  easy,"  says  M.  de  Pressense,  "  to  grasp  the  He- 
gelian atheism  athwart  the  sensibilities,  the  lyric  and 
mystic  effusions,  the  prayers  to  the  Celestial  Father, 
which  abound  in  M.  Kenan's  books ;  but  under  this 
unctuous  surface  is  soon  perceived  the  hollow  void, 
the  abyss  whence  we  have  emerged,  the  impersonal 
ideal  of  which  the  name  of  God  is  a  heavy  and  vulgar 
translation." 

See  ScHERER,  "  Melanges  ;""  Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale;" 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1864:  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
November,  1861  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  July  and  October, 
1863,  and  October,  1866  ;  "Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1866; 
"North  British  Review"  for  February,  1864. 

Renard,  reh-ntR',  (Jean  Augustin,)  a  French  archi- 
tect, born  in  Paris  in  1744.  He  studied  in  Rome,  and 
was  patronized  by  the  king.  Among  his  works  was  the 
glass  roof  ( co^nble )  of  the  Salon  d'Exposition  of  the 
Louvre.    Died  in  1807. 

Renard,  (Jean  Baptiste  Bruno,)  a  Belgian  military 
writer,  born  at  Tournai  in  1804.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"  Political  and  Military  History  of  Belgium,"  (2  vols., 
1847-51-) 

Renard,  (Simon,)  a  diplomatist,  born  at  Vesoul,  in 
France,  entered  the  service  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  who 
employed  him  as  an  ambassador.  He  was  an  enemy  of 
Cardinal  Granvelle.    Died  at  Madrid  in  1575. 

Renata.    See  Ren^:e. 

Renatus.    See  Ren6. 

Renau  d'^li9agaray,  reh-no'  di^le^st'gt'ra',  (Ber- 
nard,) a  French  naval  officer  and  military  engineer, 
born  in  Bearn  in  1652.  He  made  improvements  in  the 
construction  of  vessels,  and  invented  bomb-vessels  or 
mortar-boats,  (galiotes,)  with  which  Algiers  was  bom- 
barded in  1680.  He  directed  the  siege  of  Gibraltar  in 
1704,  m  the  service  of  Philip  V.  of  Spain.  He  published 
a  "Theorie  de  la  Manoeuvre  des  Vaisseaux,"  (1689.) 
Died  in  1719. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV Fontenelle,  "  ^filoges  ;" 
'*  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Renaud.    See  Regnaud, 

Renaudie,  de  la,  deh  It  reh-n5'de',  (Godefroi,)  a 
French  Huguenot,  was  the  leader  of  a  conspiracy  against 
the  family  of  Guise,  called  "the  conspiracy  of  Amboise." 
The  design  having  been  betrayed,  he  was  killed  in  a 
fight  with  the  partisans  of  the  Guises,  in  1560. 

See  Davila,  "The  Civil  Wars  of  France;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Renaudiere,  La.    See  La  RENAUDiiRE. 

Renaudin,  reh-noM^N',  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French 
admiral,  born  in  Saintonge  in  1757.  He  distinguished 
himself  as  captain  of  Le  Vengeur  in  a  battle  against  the 
English  on  the  1st  of  June,  1794.  His  ship  was  sunk 
in  this  action.    Died  in  1809. 

See  Van  Tenac,  "  Histoire  de  la  Marine  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic Generale." 

Renaudin,  (Leopold,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  in 
Lorraine  in  1749,  was  a  partisan  of  Robespierre.  He 
was  guillotined  with  Fouquier-Tinville  in  1 795. 


Renaudot,  reh-n5'do',  (Claude,)  a  French  historian, 
born  at  Vesoul  about  1730,  wrote  "The  Revolutions 
of  Empires,"  (2  yols.,  1769,)  and  other  works.  Died 
about  1780. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Renaudot,  (Eus^be,)  Abb^:,  a  French  Orientalist 
and  writer  on  the  history  of  the  Eastern  Church,  a 
grandson  of  Theophraste,  noticed  below,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1646.  He  was  versed  in  the  Syfiac  and  Arabic 
languages.  In  1689  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a 
"History  of  the  Patriarchs  of  Alexandria,"  (1713, ) 
which  is  said  to  be  the  most  complete  work  on  the 
ecclesiastic  history  of  Christian  Egypt,  and  a  "  Col- 
lection of  Oriental  Liturgies,"  (2  vols.,  1 7 16.)  Died 
in  1720. 

See  Nic^RON,"  Memoires;"  Moreri,"  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Renaudot,  (Th^;ophraste,)  a  French  physician  and 
journalist,  born  at  Loudun  in  1584,  was  the  grandfather 
of  the  preceding.  He  founded  in  1631  the  "Gazette  de 
France,"  the  first  of  French  newspapers,  which  he 
continued  to  publish  in  Paris  until  his  death,  in  1653. 
After  his  death  it  was  published  by  his  sons,  Eusebe 
and  Isaac. 

Sec  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Renauldin,  reh-n5'diN',  (Leopold  Joseph,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Nancy  in  1775.  served  as  phy- 

sician in  the  army  during  the  empire,  and  was  one  of 
the  consulting  physicians  of  King  Louis  Philippe.  He 
wrote  articles  for  the  "Biographie  Universelle,"  and  a 
"Sketch  of  the  History  of  Medicine,"  (1812.)  Died 
in  1859, 

See  Sachaile,  "  Les  Medecins  de  Paris." 

Renazzi,  rk-nSt'see,  (Filippo  Maria,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  at  Rome  in  1742.  He  was  professor  of 
criminal  law  at  Rome  about  thirty-four  years.  He  pub- 
lished "Elements  of  Criminal  Law,"  (3  vols.,  1773-81,) 
which  was  highly  esteemed  and  often  reprinted.  Died 
in  1808. 

See  MoNTANARi,  "Elogio  dell'Avvocato  F.  M.  Renazzi,"  1836; 
Cancellieri,  "Elogio  di  F.  M.  Renazzi,"  1819. 

Ren'del,  (James  Meadows,)  an  English  civil  engi- 
neer, born  near  Dartmoor,  in  Devonshire,  in  1799.  He 
was  distinguished  as  a  constructor  of  bridges,  docks, 
harbours,  and  hydraulic  works.  He  settled  in  London 
in  1838.  Among  his  works  are  the  harbours  of  Holy- 
head and  Portland,  and  the  docks  at  Birkenhead.  In 
1855  he  was  employed  by  the  senate  of  Hamburg  to 
protect  the  port  of  that  city  from  the  accumulation  of 
sand.    Died  in  November,  1856. 

Rendu,  rSN^dii',  (Ambroise  Marie  Modeste,)  a 
Frenchman,  noted  as  the  organizer  of  primary  instruc- 
tion in  France,  was  born  in  1778.  He  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  council  of  the  university  in  1809,  and 
was  for  many  years  superintendent  of  primary  schools. 
He  \j;rote  several  works  on  education,  morals,  etc.  Died 
in  i860. 

See  Eugene  Rendu,  "Ambroise  Rendu  et  I'Universite  de 
France,"  i86i  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rendu,  (Eugene,)  a  publicist,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1824.  He  has  written  on  educa- 
tion, and  on  the  political  relations  of  France,  Italy,  and 
Germany. 

Rendu,  (Jeanne  Marie,)  called  Sister  Rosalie,  a 
French  nun  and  philanthropist,  born  at  Comfort  in  1787. 
She  lived  in  Paris,  and  was  eminent  for  her  charitable 
deeds.  Several  sovereigns  selected  her  as  the  dispenser 
of  their  alms.    Died  in  1856. 

See  Eugene  Rendu,  "Notice  sur  la  Soeur  Rosalie  Rendu," 
1856;  VicoMTE  de  Melun,  "_Vic  de  la  Soeur  Rosalie,"  1857; 
Bessie  R.  Parkes,  "Twelve  Biographical  Sketches;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Rendu,  (Louis,)  a  French  prelate  and  writer,  born 
at  Meyrin  in  1789,  was  a  first-cousin  of  the  preceding. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Annecy  in  1843.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral scientific  works,  and  a  "Treatise  on  the  Influence 
of  Laws  on  Morals,  and  of  Morals  on  Laws,"  (1833.) 
Died  in  1859. 

Rendu,  (Victor,)  a  French  writer  on  rural  economy, 
born  in  Paris  about  1800,  is  a  son  of  Ambroise  Marie, 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  k,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  flll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


RENE 


T883 


RENOU 


noticed  above.  He  wrote  "Nouveau  Spectacle  de  la 
Nature,"  (10  vols.,  1839.) 

Rene,  reh-ni',  [Lat.  Rena'tus,]  of  Anjou,  Duke  of 
Anjou  and  Lorraine,  King  of  Naples,  etc.,  called  "the 
good  King  Rene"  by  his  subjects,  was  born  in  1409. 
He  was  a  son  of  Louis  H.,  Duke  of  Anjou  and  Count  of 
Provence.  He  succeeded  his  brother,  Louis  HL,  in  1434, 
and  by  the  will  of  Queen  Joanna,  who  died  in  1435, 
he  became  heir  to  the  throne  of  Naples.  This  throne, 
however,  was  claimed  by  Alfonso  of  Aragon,  who  drove 
Rene  out  of  Naples  in  1442  and  remained  master  of 
that  kingdom.  Rene  was  an  ally  of  Charles  VH.  of 
France  in  his  war  against  the  English.  He  found  recrea- 
tion in  art  and  literature;  he  was  a  painter  and  a  poet. 
His  daughter  Margaret  was  the  wife  of  Henry  VL  of 
England.  He  died  in  1480,  after  which  Provence  was 
annexed  to  France. 

See  M.  DE  Villeneuve-Bargemont,  "  Histoire  de  Rene  d'An- 
jou,"  3  vols.,  1825;  Cordellier-Delanouk,  "Rene  d'Anjou," 
1851 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Reneaulme,  reh-nom',  (Michel  Louis,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  at  Blois  about  1675.  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  was  charged  by 
his  colleagues  to  revise  and  publish  the  manuscripts  of 
Tournefort,  but  appears  not  to  have  performed  that  task. 
Died  in  1739. 

Reneaulme,  de,  deh  reh-n5m',  (Paul,)  a  French 
botanist  and  physician,  born  at  Blois  about  1560.  He 
published  "  Specimen  of  the  History  of  Plants,"  ("  Speci- 
men Historiae  Plantarum,"  161  l)    Died  in  1624. 

Ren6e,  [It.  Renata,  rk-wlfi^,]  or  Renee  de  France, 
reh-ni'  deh  fR6Nss,  a  daughter  of  Louis  XH.,  was  born 
in  1510,  and  was  married  in  1527  to  the  Duke  of  Ferrara. 
She  was  eminent  for  talents  and  learning,  and  was  a 
liberal  patron  of  literary  men.  She  was  converted  to 
Protestantism  by  Calvin  about  1535.  After  the  death 
of  her  husband  (1559)  she  resided  in  France,  at  Mon- 
targis,  where  she  displayed  firmness  and  courage  in 
protecting  the  persecuted  Huguenots.  Died  in  1575 
or  1576. 

See  Catteau-Cali.eville,  "Vie  de  Renee  de  France,"  1781: 
MiiNCH,  "Renee  von  Est,"  1831  ;  "Memorials  of  Ren^e  of  France, 
Duchess  of  Ferrara,"  London,  185^. 

Renee,  reh-ni',  (Am6d6e,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Caen  in  1808.  He  became  librarian  of  the  Sorbonne 
in  1849,  ^'"'^^  chief  editor  of  the  "  Constitutionnel"  in 
1857.  He  wrote  articles  for  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale,"  and  published  several  works,  one  of  which 
is  oititled  "The  Nieces  of  Mazarin,"  (2  vols.,  1856.) 
Died  in  November,  1859. 

Rent,  (GuiDO.)    See  GuiDo. 

Renier,  reh-ne-i',  (Charles  Alphonse  L^on,)  a 
French  antiquary^born  at  Charleville  (Ardennes)  in 
1809.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  In- 
scriptions in  1856.  His  researches  in  Latin  inscriptions 
were  so  successful  that  a  chair  of  Roman  antiquities  and 
epigraphy  was  founded  for  him  at  Paris  in  1861.  In 
1855  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Imperial  Society 
of  Antiquaries. 

Renier,  r^-ne-aiR',  (Stefano  Andrea,)  an  Italian 
naturalist,  born  at  Chioggia,  near  Venice,  in  1759.  He 
obtained  the  chair  of  natural  history  at  Padua  in  1806. 
He  wrote  "Tables  of  Zoology,"  a  "Catalogue  of  Shell- 
Fish,"  (1802,)  and  "Elements  of  Mineralogy,"  (1825-28.) 
Died  in  1830. 

See  Caixagno,  "Elogio  storico  di  S.  A.  Renier,"  1830. 

Renieri,  ri-ne-a'ree,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  astron- 
omer, was  born  at  Genoa.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Galileo, 
who,  when  his  sight  failed  in  1637,  committed  to  his  care 
some  observations  on  the  satellites  of  Jupiter.  Renieri 
published  these,  under  the  title  of  "Tabulae  Medicese 
universales,"  (2  vols.,  1639-47.)    Died  at  Pisa  in  1648. 

Renkin,  (Sw^alm.)    See  Rannequin. 

Rennefort,  de,  deh  rgn'fok',  (Urbain  Souchu,)  a 
French  traveller,  born  about  1630.  He  published  a 
"Narrative  of  a  Voyage  to  Madagascar,"  (1668,)  and  a 
"History  of  the  East  Indies,"  (1688.) 

Rennel.    See  Rennell. 

Ren'nell  or  Ren'nel,  (James,)  a  British  engineer 
and  eminent  geographer,  was  born  near  Chudleigh,  in 
Devonshire,  in  1742.    As  an  engineer  of  the  East  India 


Company,  he  served  in  the  campaigns  of  Lord  Clive, 
obtained  the  rank  of  major,  and  became  surveyor-gene- 
ral of  Bengal.  Having  returned  to  England  about  1782, 
lie  published  an  excellent  map  of  Hindostan,  accom- 
panied by  a  Memoir,  (1783.)  He  was  elected  about 
1783  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  His  reputation 
was  widely  extended  by  "The  Geographical  System  of 
Herodotus  Examined  and  Explained,"  (1800,)  a  work  of 
great  merit.  Among  his  other  works  are  "  Illustrations, 
chiefly  Geographical,  of  the  History  of  the  Expedition 
of  the  Younger  Cyrus  from  Sardis  to  Babylon,  and  the 
Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand,"  (1816,)  and  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Comparative  Geography  of  Western  Asia,"  with 
an  Atlas,  (1831.)    Died  in  London  in  1830. 

See  Walckenaer,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de 
M.  Rennell,"  1842;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Monthly 
Review"  for  December,  1800. 

Rennell,  (Thomas,)  an  English  portrait-painter,  born 
in  Devonshire  in  17 18;  died  in  1788. 

Rennell,  (Thomas,)  an  eloquent  English  preacher, 
born  in  1753.  He  became  Dean  of  Winchester  in  1805. 
It  is  said  that  William  Pitt  called  him  the  "Demos- 
thenes of  the  pulpit."  A  volume  of  his  sermons  was 
published.    Died  in  1840. 

Rennell  or  Rennel,  (Thomas,)  a  learned  English 
theologian,  born  at  Winchester  in  1787.  He  became 
vicar  of  Kensington  in  1816,  and  prebendary  of  Salis- 
bury in  1823.  He  wrote  several  works  on  theology. 
Died  in  1824. 

Renneville,  de,  deh  xhVvhV,  (Reni^  Auguste  Con- 
STAntin,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Caen  about  1650. 
He  was  confined  in  the  Bastille  from  1702  to  1713,  on  a 
charge  that  he  was  a  spy.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Bastille,"  (1715,)  and  several  poems.    Died  in  1723. 

Rennie,  ren'ne,  (George,)  a  civil  and  mechanical 
engineer,  born  in  Surrey  in  1791,  was  a  son  of  John, 
noticed  below.  He  formed  a  partnership  with  his 
brother  John.  They  built  docks  at  Deptford,  Chatham, 
and  Plymouth,  the  East  and  West  India  Docks  at 
London,  the  harbour  of  Liverpool,  and  other  harbours. 
They  constructed  steam-engines  for  many  vessels-of- 
war  and  for  the  steamers  of  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental 
Navigation  Company.  Among  their  works  are  several 
iron  ships,  the  dock-gates  of  Sebastopol,  and  a  number 
of  railroads.  George  Rennie  wrote  treatises  "  On  the 
Friction  of  Solids,"  and  "On  Hydraulics."  Died  in  1866. 

Rennie,  (John,)  a  distinguished  British  civil  engineer, 
architect,  and  mechanician,  born  at  Phantassie,  in  Had- 
dingtonshire, Scotland,  in  June,  1761.  He  removed  to 
London  about  1782,  and  was  first  employed  in  the  fabri- 
cation of  steam-engines  and  other  machinery.  About 
1800  he  erected  a  fine  bridge  at  Kelso.  He  was  after- 
wards employed  as  engineer  of  many  public  works, 
among  which  are  the  Kennet  and  Avon  Canal,  the  South- 
wark  Bridge  over  the  Thames,  the  London  Docks,  the 
pier  at  Holyhead,  and  the  Waterloo  Bridge,  which  is 
considered  his  best  work  of  that  class.  It  was  finished 
about  1817.    Died  in  1821. 

See  Smiles,  "  Lives  of  the  Engineers;"  Chambers,  "  Biographi- 
cal Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Rennie,  (Sir  John,)  F.R.S.,  a  younger  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1796.  He  was  architect  of 
the  London  Bridge,  which  was  finished  in  1 831.  He 
ceased  to  be  a  partner  of  his  brother  in  1845,  after 
which  he  devoted  his  time  to  architecture. 

Ren'ni-ger,  written  also  Rhanger,  (Michael,)  an 
English  clergyman  and  Latin  poet,  born  in  Hampshire 
in  1529.  Lie  was  one  of  the  chaplains  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, and  Archdeacon  of  Winchester.    Died  in  1609. 

Re'no,  (Jesse  L.,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Vir- 
ginia in  1825,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846.  He 
served  as  an  oliicer  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and 
became  a  captain  in  i860.  He  commanded  a  brigade 
of  the  Union  army  at  Roanoke  Island  and  at  Newbern, 
March,  1862.  He  served  with  the  rank  of  major-gene- 
ral at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  August  29  and  30 
of  the  same  year.  He  rendered  important  services  at 
South  Mountain,  where  he  was  killed,  September  14, 
1862. 

Renou,  reh-noo',  (Antoine,)  a  French  painter  and 
versifier,  born  in  Paris  in  1731.    He  translated  Dufres- 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RENOUARD 


RESENDE 


noy's  Latin  poem  on  Painting,  (1789,)  and  Tasso's  "Je- 
rusalem Delivered."    Died  in  1806. 

Renouard,  reh-noo'tR',  (Antoine  Augustin,)  a 
French  bibliographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1765,  was  a  book- 
seller. He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Annals  of 
the  Printing-Press  of  Aldus,  or  a  History  of  the  Three 
Manutii  and  their  Editions,"  (1803,)  and  a  "  History  of 
the  Family  of  Estienne  (Stephanus)  and  of  their  Edi- 
tions," (1838.)    Died  in  1853. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Renouard,  (Augustin  Charles,)  an  advocate,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1794.  He  became  a 
peer  of  France  in  1846.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on 
the  Rights  of  Authors  in  Literature,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1838,) 
and  other  works. 

Renouard,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  translator,  born  in 
Berry,  lived  about  1615-40.  He  produced  a  version 
of  Ovid's  "Metamorphoses,"  (1615,)  which  was  very 
popular. 

Renouvier,  reh-noo've-i',  (Charles  Bernard,)  a 
French  writer  on  politics  and  philosophy,  born  in  1815, 
joined  the  radical  party.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"Manual  of  Ancient  Philosophy,"  (2  vols.,  1844,)  and 
"  Essays  of  General  Criticism,"  ("  Essais  de  Critique 
generale,"  1854.) 

Renouvier,  (Jules,)  a  French  archasologist,  born  at 
Montpellier  in  1804.  He  was  a  republican  member  of 
the  Constituent  Assembly  of  1848,  and  an  opponent  of 
Louis  Napoleon  in  1850.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  Notes  on  the  Gothic  Monuments  of  Pisa,  Florence, 
Rome,  and  Naples,"  (1841,)  and  a  valuable  treatise  on 
engraving,  entitled  "  Des  Types  et  des  Manieres  des 
Maitres-Graveurs,"  (4  parts,  1853-56.)  Died  in  Paris 
in  i860. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Ren'shaw,  (William  B.,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  New  York  State,  entered  the  navy  in  183 1.  He 
became  a  lieutenant  in  1841,  and  a  commander  in  1861. 
In  the  latter  part  of  i8'''2  he  obtained  command  of  a 
squadron  which  blockaded  Galveston.  He  blew  up 
his  ship,  which  had  run  aground  near  Galveston,  rather 
than  surrender  it,  and  was  killed  by  the  explosion,  in 
January,  1863. 

See  Tenney,  "  Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Renti  or  Renty,  de,  deb  rSN'te',  (Gaston  Jean 
Baptists,)  Baron,  a  French  ascetic,  born  near  Bayeux 
in  1611,  was  noted  for  piety.    Died  in  1648. 

See  P.  DE  Saint-Jure,  "Vie  de  M.  de  Renty,"  1651.  (This 
was  abridged  by  John  Wesley.) 

Renty,  de.    See  Renti,  de. 

Renucci,  ri-noot'chee,  (Francesco  Ottavtano,)  an 
Italian  historian,  born  in  Corsica  in  1767.  He  wrote  a 
"History  of  Corsica  from  1789  to  1830,"  (1834.)  Died 
in  1842. 

Renusson,  de,  deh  reh-nii's^N',  (Philippe,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Mans  in  1632  ;  died  in  1669.  The  French 
biographer  who  gives  the  dates  as  above  says,  "  At  the 
age  of  forty-nine  he  passed  for  one  of  the  ablest  jurists." 

Ren'wick,  (James,)  a  Scottish  preacher,  called  a 
martyr  of  the  Covenant,  was  born  in  Dumfries-shire 
about  1662.  He  was  an  active  and  uncompromising 
promoter  of  the  cause  of  the  Covenanters.  He  was 
executed  in  1688. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Ren'wick,  (James,)  LL.D.,  an  American  savant, 
born  in  1792,  became  in  1820  professor  of  chemistry  and 
physics  at  Columbia  College,  New  York.  He  published 
"Treatise  on  the  Steam  Engine,"  (1830,)  "Outlines 
of  Natural  Philosophy,"  (1832,)  "Outlines  of  Geology," 
(1838,)  a  "Memoir  of  De  Witt  Clinton,"  (1840,)  and 
Lives  of  Robert  Fulton,  David  Rittenhouse,  and  Count 
Rumford,  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography."  Died  in 
New  York  in  1863. 

See  Ai.MBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Renzi,  rgn'zee,  (Antonio.)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
critic,  born  at  Castelsalfi  in  1780.  He  edited  the  works 
of  Dante,  Ariosto,  and  Petrarch.    Died  in  1823. 

Repelaer  van  Driel,  ra'peh-lSR'  vtn  dReel,  (Ok- 
KER,)  a  Dutch  statesman,  born  at  Dort  in  1759  ;  died 
in  1832. 


Repfold,  rgp'folt,(JoHANN  Georg,)  a  German  mecha* 
nician,  born  in  the  kingdom  of  Hanover  in  1770,  became 
noted  for  the  excellence  of  his  astronomical  and  other 
instruments.    Died  in  1830. 

Repnin,  r§p-n^n'  or  r^p-neen',  written  also  Repnine, 
(Nicholas  Vasilievitch,)  Prince,  a  Russian  general 
and  diplomatist,  born  in  1734,  was  a  nephew  of  Count 
Panin.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Poland  in  1764, 
and  gave  much  offence  to  the  Poles  by  his  arrogance 
and  by  his  efforts  to  destroy  their  nationality.  In  1774 
he  signed  with  the  Turkish  vizier  the  treaty  of  Koutchouk- 
Kainardji.  Having  obtained  command  of  the  arm>  of 
the  Ukraine,  he  defeated  the  Turks  at  Matzin  in  1791. 
He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal  in  1796. 
Died  in  1801. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Repp,  rgp,  (Thorleif  Gudmundsson,)  an  Icelandic 
linguist,  born  at  Reykiadal  in  1794.  He  was  versed  in 
nearly  all  the  modern  languages  of  Europe,  and  in 
Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin.  About  1825  he  became 
under-librarian  of  the  Advocates'  Library  of  Edinburgh. 
He  removed  to  Copenhagen  in  1837.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "  Historical  Treatise  on  the  Trial  by  Jury,"  in  Eng- 
lish, (1832,)  and  "  Dano-Hungarian  Discoveries,"  (1843,) 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter-Lexicon." 

Rep'ton,  (Humphry,)  an  English  landscape-gardener, 
born  at  Bury  Saint  Edmund's  in  1752.  He  was  a  mer- 
chant in  his  youth,  but,  having  failed  in  business,  he 
adopted  the  profession  of  landscape-gardener,  in  which 
he  found  little  or  no  competition.  He  was  author  of 
"Sketches  and  Hints  on  Landscape-Gardening,"  (1795,) 
and  other  professional  works.    Died  in  1818. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1804. 

Requeno  y  Vives,  ra-ka^'no  e  vee'vgs,  (Vincencio,) 
a  Spanish  antiquary  and  writer  on  fine  arts,  was  born  at 
:  Granada  about  1730.  (Another  writer  says  he  was  born 
at  Calatraho  in  1743.)  He  became  a  resident  of  Rome 
about  1767.  He  produced  a  treatise  on  ancient  painting, 
entitled  "Essay  on  the  Restoration  of  Ancient  Art," 
("Saggiosul  Ristabilimento  dell'antica  Arte,"  etc.,  1784.) 
Died  about  1805. 

Requesens,  ra-ka-slns',  (Luis  de  Zuniga — thoon- 
yee'gS,)  a  Spanish  commander,  born  in  1522.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  lieutenant  of  Don  John  of  Austria 
at  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  and  succeeded  the  Duke  of 
Alva  in  1573  as  Governor  of  the  Netherlands,  the  people 
of  which  were  then  in  arms  against  the  Spanish  domi- 
nation. His  army  gained  a  victory  over  Louis  of  Nassau 
near  Nymwegen  ;  but  this  advantage  was  neutralized  by  a 
mutiny  of  the  Spaniards.  While  his  army  was  besieging 
Ziriczee,  he  died,  in  1576.  He  was  an  able  general,  and 
inclined  to  moderation  in  the  use  of  power. 

See  Motley's  "  History  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  vol.  ii. 

Requier,  reh-ke-i',  ?  (Augustus  Julian,)  an  Ameri- 
can politician  and  writer,  was  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1825.  On  the  secession  of  Alabama,  in  1861, 
he  was  appointed  district  attorney  for  the  southern 
district  of  that  State.  He  has  written  several  poems 
and  dramas. 

Requier,  reh-ke-i',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  writer 
and  translator,  bonT'at  Pignans  in  1715  ;  died  in  1799. 

Requin,  reh-k^N',  (Achille  Pierre,)  a  French  medi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1803  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1855 

Reresby,  reers'be,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  loyalist 
and  member  of  Parliament,  wrote  "  Memoirs  containing 
several  Private  and  Remarkable  Transactions  from  the 
Restoration  to  the  Revolution  inclusively,"  (1734.) 

See  "  Memoires  de  Sir  John  Reresby,"  Paris;  "Monk's  Con- 
temporaries," by  Guizot;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  viii.,  (1823.) 

Resbecq.  de,  deh  rSs'bSk',  (Adolphe  Charles 
Theodose  Fontaine,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Lille 
in  1813.    He  published  many  juvenile  books. 

Reschid.    See  Resheed. 

Resende,  de,  dk  ri-s^n'di,  (Garcia,)  a  Portuguese 
historian,  born  at  Evora  about  1470.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  John  IT.,"  (1545.)    Died  in  1554. 

Resende,  de,  (L.  Andrea,)  a  Portuguese  antiquary 
and  poet,  born  at  Evora  in  1498.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "Antiquities  of  Portugal,"  ("  Antiquitates 
Lusitaniae,"  1593.)    He  opened  a  school  at  Evora,  in 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  ^,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, !,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f3.r,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RESENIUS 


1885 


REUCHLIN 


which  many  eminent  scholars  were  educated.  According 
to  M.  Weiss,  he  was  "the  restorer  of  learning  in  Por- 
tugal."   Died  in  1573. 

Hesenius,  ri-sa'ne-iis,  (Johan  Paul,)  a  Danish  theo- 
logian, born  in  Jutland  about  1560.  He  was  professor 
of  theology  at  Copenhagen,  and  translated  the  Bible 
into  Danish,    Died  in  1638. 

Resenius,  (Peter,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1625.  He  obtained  a  chair  of  law 
in  the  University  of  that  city  in  1662.  He  published 
"  Copenhagen  Inscriptions,  Latin,  Danish,  and  German," 
('*  Inscriptiones  Hafnienses,  Latinas,  Danicae  et  Germa- 
nic3e,"  1668,)  and  some  legal  works.    Died  in  1688. 

See  Nic^RON,  "M^molres." 

Resheed  (or  Reschid)  Pasha,  reh-sheed'  pS'shS', 
called  also  Mustafa  (moos'ti-f^)  Resheed,  a  Turkish 
grand  vizier  and  reformer,  born  at  Constantinople  about 
1800,  was  a  brother-in-law  of  Alee  Pasha.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  pasha  in  1834,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  Paris  and  London.  He  was  grand  vizier  for  a  short 
time  in  1837,  and  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign 
"affairs  in  1839,  and  afterwards  ably  and  constantly 
promoted  the  political  and  social  reforms  begun  by 
Mahmood  IL    Died  in  1858. 

Resnel  du  Bellay,  du,  dii  rk'nlK  dii  hh'W,  (Jean 
Francois,)  Abb6,  a  French  poet  aild  translator,  born  at 
Rouen  in  1692,  became  canon  of  a  church  in  Paris  in 
1724.  He  produced  poetical  versions  of  Pope's  "  Essay 
on  Criticism"  (1730)  and  "Essay  on  Man,"  (1737,)  in 
which,  it  is  said,  he  was  aided  by  Voltaire.  He  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  French  Academy  in  1742.    Died  in  1761. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Restaurand,  rgs'to'rSN',  (Raymond,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Pont  Saint-Esprit  about  1627  ; 
died  in  1682. 

Restaut,  r§s'to',  (Pierre,)  a  French  grammarian  and 
advocate,  born  at  Beauvais  in  1696.  He  wrote  an  ele- 
mentary "Treatise  on  French  Grammar,"  (1730,)  which 
the  University  adopted  as  classic.    Died  in  1764. 

Restout,  ris'too',  (Jean,)  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Rouen  in  1692,  was  a  pupil  and  nephew  of  Jouvenet. 
His  works  were  more  admired  by  his  contemporaries 
than  they  are  now.    Died  in  1768. 

Restout,  (Jean  Bernard,)  a  painter,  born  in  Paris 
in  1732,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  gained  the 
first  prize  in  1758,  after  which  he  studied  at  Rome. 
Died  in  1796. 

Rethel,  ra'tel,  (Alfred,)  an  eminent  German  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1816.  He 
studied  at  the  Academy  of  Dusseldorf,  and  there  painted 
"  Daniel  in  the  Lions'  Den,"  and  a  picture  of  "  Nemesis," 
both  of  which  were  greatly  admired.  About  1840  he 
removed  to  Frankfort.  Among  his  chief  works  are  a 
series  of  frescos  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  representing  the 
exploits  of  Charlemagne,  and  "The  Passage  of  the  Alps 
by  Hannibal."  He  was  an  excellent  designer.  His  last 
years  were  passed  at  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1859. 

Reti.    See  Ratl 

Retif  or  Restif  de  la  Bretonne,  xhfiW  deh  It  bReh- 
ton',  (Nicolas  Edme,)  a  prolific  and  licentious  French 
writer  of  fiction,  born  near  Auxerre  in  1734 ;  died  poor, 
in  Paris,  in  1806. 

Rettberg,  r^t'blRO,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian  and  professor  of  theology  at  Marburg, 
born  at  Celle  in  1805.  His  principal  work  is  an  "  Eccle- 
siastical History  of  Germany,"  (1846.)    Died  in  1849. 

Retz,  riss,  (N.,)  a  French  medical  writer,  born  at 
^.rras.  He  obtained  the  title  of  physician  to  the  king 
about  1790.    Died  about  1810. 

Retz,  de,  deh  riss,  (Albert  de  Gondi — deh  g^N'- 
de',)  a  French  courtier  and  general,  born  at  Florence  in 
1522,  was  a  grandfather  of  Cardinal  de  Retz.  He  be- 
came a  favourite  of  Charles  IX.,  and  was  one  of  the 
instigators  of  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  (1572.) 
Died  in  1602. 

See  BrantSme,  "Grands  Capitaines;"  Mor^ri,  "  Dictionnaire 
Historique." 

Retz,  de,  (Gilles.)    See  Rais. 

Retz,  rets,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  riss,]  (Jean  FRANgois 
Paul  de  Gondi,)  Cardinal,  an  ambitious  French  prel- 
ate, distinguished  for  his  talents  and  factious  intrigues. 


was  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Montmirail  in  1614.  He 
attempted,  by  debaucheries  and  scandalous  actions,  to 
frustrate  the  purpose  of  his  family,  who  destined  him 
for  the  church.  He  studied,  however,  with  ardour, 
gained  distinction  as  a  disputant,  and  courted  popularity 
by  profuse  donations  to  the  poor.  In  1643  he  was 
nominated  coadjutor  of  the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  who 
was  his  uncle.  The  civil  war  of  the  Fronde,  which 
began  in  1649,  afforded  him  an  opportunity  to  gratify 
his  ambition  to  be  the  chief  of  a  party.  He  became 
the  master-spirit  of  the  Frondeurs,  but  is  said  to  have 
opposed  the  more  violent  tendencies  of  that  faction. 
He  was  nominated  a  cardinal  by  the  queen-regent,  who 
wished  to  conciliate  him.  Mazarin  having  recovered 
his  power  in  Paris,  De  Retz  was  arrested  in  December, 
1652,  and  confined  at  Vincennes.  He  was  transferred 
to  the  chateau  of  Nantes,  from  which  he  escaped  in 
1654.  He  went  to  Rome  and  took  part  in  the  election 
of  a  new  pope.  After  he  had  passed  some  years  in  the 
Low  Countries,  he  was  permitted  to  return  to  France. 
He  paid  his  debts,  which  were  very  large,  and  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  retirement.  It  appears  that  his  moral 
character  was  somewhat  reformed  after  his  imprison- 
ment. He  died  in  1679,  leaving  some  interesting  "  Me- 
moires,"  (1717,)  which  have  been  translated  into  English. 
"Their  animated  style,"  says  Hallam,  "their  excellent 
portraitures  of  character,  their  acute  and  brilliant  re- 
marks, distinguish  their  pages  as  much  as  the  similar 
qualities  did  their  author."  "They  are  written,"  says 
Voltaire,  "with  an  air  of  greatness,  an  impetuosity,  and 
an  inequality  which  are  the  image  of  his  life." 

See  "  Memoires  du  Cardinal  de  Retz,"  first  printed  in  3  vols., 
1717;  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Musset- Pathav, 
"  Recherches  historiques  sur  le  Cardinal  de  Retz,"  1807,  and  4  vols., 
1859;  English  translation  of  Retz's  "Memoires,"  1723;  Saintb- 
Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi :"  Michei.et,  "  Histoire  de  France  ;" 
SisMONDi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene« 
rale." 

Retzius,  rSt'se-iis,  (Anders  Johan,)  a  Swedish  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Christianstadt  in  1742,  was  a  pupil  of 
Linnaeus.  He  became  professor  of  natural  history  at 
Lund  in  1777,  and  published  a  good  work  on  the  plants 
of  Sweden,  Norway,  etc.,  entitled  "Florae  Scandinaviae 
Prodromus,"  (1779.)  His  treatise  on  botany,  "  Obser- 
vationes  botanicae,"  (1779-91,)  is  called  his  capital  work. 
Died  in  1821. 

See  Gezelius,  "  Biographiskt- Lexicon." 

Retzius,  (Anders  Olof  or  Adolf,)  a  Swedish  phy- 
sician,  born  at  Lund  in  1796,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Lund  about  1824. 
He  wrote  important  works  on  medicine  and  natural 
history.    Died  at  Stockholm  in  i860. 

Retzius,  (Magnus  Christian,)  an  able  medical 
writer,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Lund 
about  1794.  He  became  professor  of  chemistry  at 
Stockholtn  about  1820. 

Retzsch,  r^tsh,  (Moritz,)  an  eminent  German  de- 
signer and  painter,  born  at  Dresden  in  1779.  He  studied 
at  the  Academy  of  Arts  in  that  city,  where  he  became 
professor  of  painting  in  1824.  His  etchings  illustrating 
Goethe's  "Faust,"  published  in  1812,  established  his 
reputation  both  irl  Germany  and  other  countries.  They 
were  followed  by  illustrations  of  Schiller  and  Shakspeare, 
of  Burger's  "  Lenore"  and  "  Ballads,"  and  other  popular 
works.  As  a  portrait-painter,  also,  Retzsch  is  highly 
esteemed.  He  was  pre-eminent  as  an  original  designer 
in  outline  among  the  artists  of  his  time  :  his  illustra- 
tions of  Goethe's  "  Faust,"  in  particular,  have  probably 
never  been  surpassed  by  any  works  of  the  kind.  Died 
at  Dresden  in  1857. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler  -  Lexikon  ;"  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1828,  October,  1833,  and  October, 
1836. 

ReubelL    See  Rewbell. 

Reu'ben,  [Heb.  pIX")  ;  Fr.  Ruben,  ru'bSN',]  the 
eldest  son  of  the  Hebrew  patriarch  Jacob,  was  the  an- 
cestor of  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel. 

See  Genesis  xxix.  32,  xxxv.  22,  and  xxxvii. 

Reuchlin,  roiK-leen',[Lat.  Reuchli'nus,]  Hellenized 
as  Capnio,  kSp'ne-o,  (Johann,)  an  eminent  German 
writer,  born  at  Pforzheim  in  1455.  He  became  an 
excellent  Greek  and  Latin  scholar,  and  studied  law  at 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


/ 


REUCHLINUS  1886  REWBELL 


Orleans.  He  was  patronized  by  Eberhard,  Duke  of 
Wiirtemberg,  who  employed  him  as  secretary.  Having 
accompanied  Eberhard  to  Rome,  he  became  acquainted 
with  Politian  and  other  eminent  Italian  literati.  He 
resided  mostly  at  Stuttgart,  where  he  was  appointed 
assessor  of  the  supreme  court  about  1484.  He  was  sub- 
jected to  persecution  because  he  opposed  a  proposition 
to  burn  all  Hebrew  books  except  the  Bible,  and  was 
involved  in  a  long  controversy  with  the  monks  and  bigots 
on  this  subject.  He  defended  his  opinions  in  relation 
to  Hebrew  books  in  his  "Ocular  Mirror,"  ("Speculum 
Oculare,"  151 1.)  Between  1518  and  1522  he  taught 
Hebrew  and  Greek  at  Ingolstadt  and  Tubingen.  He 
published  a  "  Hebrew  Lexicon,"  and  several  other  works. 
He  contributed  much  to  the  revival  of  classical  learning. 
Died  at  Stuttgart  in  1522. 

See  Melanchthon,  "  Histona  Reuchlini,"  1552;  J.  H.  Majus, 
"Vita  Reuchlini,"  1687  ;  Mayerhoff,  "  Reiichlin  und  seine  Zeit," 
1830;  Lamey,  "Johann  Reiichlin,"  1855;  F.  Barham,  "Life  and 
Times  ofReuchlin,"  1843;  Gabi.er,  "  Dissertatio  de  J.  Reuchlino," 
1822:  M.  Adam,  "Vitas  Philosophorum  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Reuchlinus.    See  Reuchltn. 

Reuilly,  ruh'ye',  (Jp:an,)  a  French  traveller,  born  in 
Picardy  in  1780.  He  published  "Travels  in  the  Crimea 
in  1803,"  (1806.)    Died  at  Pisa  in  1810. 

Reumont,  von,  fon  roi'mont,  (Alfred,)  a  German 
diplomatist  and  litterateur,  born  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in 
1808,  was  employed  on  missions  to  Florence  and  Rome. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  Italian  history  and  art,  among 
which  are  "  Roman  Letters,"  ("  Romische  Briefe,"  4  vols., 
1840-44,)  and  "Benvenuto  Cellini,"  (1846.) 

Reusner,  rois'ner,  [Lat.  Reusne'rus,]  (Nikolaus,) 
a  German  poet  and  jurist,  born  at  Lemberg,  in  Silesia,  in 
1545.  He  was  professor  of  law  at  Strasburg  and  at  Jena. 
He  published  numerous  poems  and  treatises  on  law. 
Died  at  Jena  in  1602. 

See  Johann  Weitz,  "Vita  N.  Reusneri,"  i6q3  ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Reuss,  roiss,  (Eduard  Wilhelm  Eugen,)  a  Prot- 
estant theologian,  born  at  Strasburg.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  Christian  Theology  in  the  Apostolic  Age,"  (in 
French,)  and  other  works. 

Reuter,  roister,  (Fritz,)  a  distinguished  German 
poet,  born  at  Stavenhagen,  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
November  7,  1810.  He  studied  jurisprudence  at  Ros- 
tock, and  in  1832  went  to  Jena,  where  he  joined  the 
Biirsckensckaff*  (the  association  of  German  students,) 
and  the  next  year  was  arrested  in  Prussia  and  con- 
demned to  death  ;  but  the  sentence  was  commuted  to 
thirty  years'  imprisonment.  He  was,  however,  released 
in  1840,  having  been  included  in  the  general  amnesty. 
He  has  written,  in  the  Low  German  ( Plattdeutsch ) 
dialect,  various  poems,  comedies,  and  novels,  which  are 
much  admired.  Among  his  works  are  "Lauschen 
un  Riemels,"  (1853;  3d  edition,  1856,)  "  Polterabendge- 
dichte,"  (1855,)  "  Reise  na  Belligen,"  (1855,)  a  poetical 
romance,  "  Bliicher  in  Treptow,"  etc.,  (1857,)  a  comedy, 
"Kein  Hiisung,"  (1858,)  a  poem,  and  "  Olle  Kamellen," 
(i860,)  a  novel. 

See  Pierer,  "  Universal-Lexikon." 

Reuter,  (Julius,)  a  German,  born  about  181 5,  gained 
distinction  as  the  institutor  of  a  telegraphic  system.  He 
was  the  first  who  furnished  telegrams  of  political  or 
general  news  to  the  public  journals  of  Europe.  He 
established  his  office  in  London  in  1 85 1. 

Reuterdahl,  roi'ter-dSr,  (Henrik,)  a  Swedish  theo- 
logian, born  at  Malmo  in  1795.  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Lund  in  1844.  Among  his  works 
are  an  "Introduction  to  Theology,"  (1837,)  and  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Swedish  Church,"  (1838  et  seq.) 

Reuven,  rul/ven,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Leyden  in  1650;  died  in  1718. 

Reuvens,  roi'vens,  (Caspar  Jacob  Christian,)  a 
Dutch  antiquary,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1793.  He 
became  professor  of  history  and  archaeology  at  Leyden 


*  The  Burschenschaft  was  very  obnoxious  to  the  government  on 
account  of  its  political  character,  and  also  on  account  of  some  of  its 
overt  acts.  It  was  as  a  member  of  the  Burschenschaft  that  Sand 
assassinated  Kotzebue,  who  had  shown  himself  a  determined  enemy 
of  the  association. 


in  1818,  and  wrote  several  antiquarian  treatises.  Died 
in  1837. 

See  Leemans,  "  Epistola  de  Vita  Reuvensii,"  1838. 

Reuvens,  (Jan  Everaard,)  an  eminent  Dutch  jurist, 
born  at  Haarlem  in  1763,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  became  a  counsellor  of  the  supreme  court  at  Paris 
about  1810,  and  was  author  of  the  cripiinal  code  of  Hol- 
land.   Died  in  1816. 

Revay,  ra'voi,  (Nicholas,)  a  Hungarian  poet  and 
philologist,  born  in  1751.  He  was  professor  of  litera- 
ture at  Pesth.    Died  in  1807. 

Reveille-Parise,  ri'vk'yi'  pt'r^z/,  (Joseph  Henri,) 
a  French  medical  writer,  born  at  Nevers  in  1782.  He 
practised  in  Paris,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  Researches  on  the  Physique,  Habits,  and  Diseases  of 
Literary  Men,"  (1834,)  which  gained  the  Montyon  prize 
in  1835  and  is  called  a  model  treatise.    Died  in  1852. 

See  Callisen,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 

Revel,  reh-vgl',  (Gabriel,)  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Chateau-Thierry  in  1643  ;  died  in  1712. 

Rev'^-ley,  (Willey,)  an  English  architect  and  an- 
tiquary. According  to  several  authorities,  he  completed 
the  "Antiquities  of  Athens,"  left  unfinished  by  Stuart. 
Died  in  1799. 

Revelliere-Lepaux.    See  Lar^:veillere. 

Rever,  reh-vk^  (Marie  FRANgois  Gilles,)  a  French 
antiquary,  born  at  Dol  in  1753  ;  died  in  1828. 

Reverchon,  reh-vgR'sh6N^  (Jacques,)  a  French 
Jacobin,  born  in  1746,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention, 
(1792-95,)  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  of  the 
Council  of  Elders.    Died  in  1828. 

Revere,  ri-va'ra,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  writer,  born 
at  Trieste  in  1812.  He  published  between  1829  and 
1840  four  dramas,  which  were  popular,  and  one  of  which 
is  entitled  "  Lorenzo  de'  Medici."  He  has  also  written 
some  sonnets. 

Revere,  re-veer',  (Paul,)  an  American  patriot  of 
the  Revolution,  and  one  of  the  earliest  American  en- 
gravers, was  born  at  Boston  in  1735.  Among  his  best 
prints  are  "The  Seventeen  Rescinders,"  and  "The 
Boston  Massacre."  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
destruction  of  the  tea  in  Boston  harbour,  and  was  con- 
spicuous for  his  patriotism  in  the  political  movements 
of  the  time.  His  midnight  expedition  to  Concord,  to 
give  notice  of  the  intended  attack  of  General  Gage, 
forms  the  subject  of  one  of  the  poems  in  Longfellow's 
"  Wayside  Inn."    Died  in  1818. 

Revere,  (Paul  Joseph,)  Colonel,  an  officer,  born 
in  Boston  in  1832,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  severely  wounded  at  Antietam,  September,  1862, 
aind  was  killed  at  Gettysburg,  July  3,  1863. 

See  P.  C.  Headley,  "Massachusetts  in  the  Rebellion,"  p.  634. 

Reveroni,  ri-vi-ro'nee,  (Jacques  Antoine,)  a  French 
military  engineer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1767.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral dramas,  novels,  and  military  works.    Died  in  1828. 

Reves,  de,  deh  ra'vgs,  [Lat.  Re'vius,]  (Jakob,)  a 
Dutch  Protestant  divine,  born  at  Deventer  in  1586.  He 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Leyden  about  1640,  and 
wrote  several  works.    Died  in  1658. 

Rev'ett,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  antiquary  and  archi- 
tect, was  born  in  Suffolk  in  1722.  In  company  with 
James  Stuart,  he  went  to  Greece  about  1750  and  spent 
two  years  in  exploring  and  delineating  the  ruins  of 
Athens.  He  was  a  partner  of  Stuart  in  the  important 
work  entitled  the  "  Antiquities  of  Athens,"  (3  vols., 
1762,  1790,  1794.)  He  also  produced,  with  Chandler, 
"Ionian  Antiquities,"  (1769.)  After  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  practised  as  an  architect.    Died  in  1804. 

Reviczky,  ra'vits-ke,  ?  (Karl  Emerich,)  Count  of, 
a  Hungarian  linguist  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1737.  He 
published  an  edition  of  Petronius,  (1784,)  and  a  Cata- 
logue of  his  own  library,  (Berlin,  1784.)    Died  in  1793. 

'Revius.    See  Reyes,  (Jakob.) 

Revoil,  reh-vwdK,  (Pierre  Henri,)  a  French  painter 
of  history  and  genre,  born  at  Lyons  in  1776,  was  a  pupil 
of  David.  He  was  professor  of  design  in  the  Academy 
of  Lyons.  He  composed  songs  and  other  verses  with 
some  success.    Died  in  1842. 

Rewbell  or  Reubell,  ruh'b^K,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
French  republican  and  Director,  born  at  Colmar,  near 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    h,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  ftt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


RET 


887 


RETNOLDS 


the  Rhine,  about  1746.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  and  of  the  Convention,  in  which  he 
mostly  voted  with  the  radicals  ;  but  after  the  9th  Ther- 
midor  he  became  an  opponent  of  the  Jacobins.  In  1795 
he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Directory,  and  assumed 
control  of  foreign  affairs.  He  acted  with  the  victorious 
party  in  the  coup  d'etat  of  i8th  Fructidor,  1797,  and  was 
dismissed  from  office  by  lot  in  May,  1799.    Died  in  1807. 

See  De  Barante,  "  Histoire  du  Directoire ;"  Thiers,  "History 
of  the  French  Revolution." 

Rey,  rk,  (Antoine  Gabriel  Venance,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  Rouergue  in  1768.  He  became  a  gene- 
ral of  division  in  1793  or  1794,  and  commanded  with 
success  in  several  actions  in  Spain  between  1808  and 
1813.    Died  in  1836. 

Rey,  (GuiLLAUME,)  a  French  medical  writer,  born  in 
1687,  practised  in  Lyons.    Died  in  1756. 

Rey,  (Jean,)  a  French  physician  and  chemist,  born 
at  Bugue,  in  Perigord.  He  published  in  1630  "Essays 
to  ascertain  the  Cause  why  Tin  and  Lead  increase  in 
Weight  when  they  are  calcined."  He  maintains  that 
this  increase  is  the  result  of  a  combination  of  the  metal 
with  atmospheric  air.    Died  about  1645. 

Rey,  (Jean,)  a  French  writer  and  manufacturer,  born 
at  Montpellier  in  1773.  He  substituted  the  forms  of 
flowers  for  the  fantastic  designs  of  the  Orientals  in  the 
fabrication  of  Cashmere  shawls.  Among  his  works  is  a 
*'  Histoire  des  Chiles,"  (1823.)    Died  in  1849. 

Rey,  (Jean  Bapiiste,)  a  French  composer,  born  in 
1734,  became  director  of  the  emperor's  chapel  in  1804. 
Died  in  1810. 

Rey,  (Joseph  Auguste,)  a  French  writer  on  law, 
education,  etc.,  was  born  at  Grenoble  in  1794.  Among 
his  works  is  "Theory  and  Practice  of  Social  Science," 
(3  vols.,  1842.) 

Reybaud,  ri'bo',  (Charles,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Marseilles  in  1800,  was  a  brother  of  Marie  Roch 
Louis,  noticed  below. 

Reybaud,  (Henriette  Arnaud,)  a  French  novel- 
ist, born  at  Aries  about  1800,  became  the  wife  of  the 
preceding. 

Reybaud,  (Marie  Roch  Louis,)  a  popular  French 
author,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1799.  He  began  life  as 
a  merchant,  and  settled  in  Paris  about  1830.  In  1841 
he  gained  the  Montyon  prize  of  the  French  Academy 
(5GXD0  francs)  for  his  "  Studies  on  Modern  Reformers 
or  Socialists,"  (2  vols.,  1840-43.)  His  most  original 
and  po])ular  work  is  a  novel  called  "Jerome  Paturot  in 
Search  of  a  Social  Position,"  (3  vols.,  1843.)  He  has 
written  other  novels. 

See  "Noiivelle  Biographic  G^n^rale ;"  "London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  September,  1848;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  September, 
1843. 

Reyher,  ri'er,  (Samuel,)  a  German  professor  of  law 
and  mathematics,  was  born  in  Saxony  in  1635.  He  pub- 
lished "Mathesis  Mosaico-Biblica,"  (1678,)  and  other 
works.    Died  at  Kiel  in  17 14. 

Reyn,  de,  deh  rin,  (Jean,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Dunkirk  about  1610,  was  a  pupil  of  Van  Dyck,  whom 
he  is  said  to  have  imitated  with  success.  He  worked  in 
JEngland  for  Van  Dyck ;  but  after  the  death  of  the  latter 
he  returned  to  Dunkirk.  "  The  majority  of  his  pictures," 
says  Peries,  "  have  often  passed  for  the  works  of  his 
master."   Died  in  1678. 

Reyna,  de,  di  ra'nl  or  ra^-nS,  (Cassiodorus,)  a 
Spanish  translator  of  the  Bible,  born  at  Seville,  is  said 
to  have  been  a  Protestant.  His  version  of  the  Bible, 
printed  at  Bale  in  1569,  was  the  first  in  the  Spanish 
language.    Died  at  Frankfort  in  1594. 

Reynaud,  ri^no',  (Antoine  Andr6  Louis,)  Baron, 
a  French  mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  1771.  He  was 
employed  about  thirty  years  in  the  Polytechnic  School 
as  teacher  and  examiner.  He  published  a  number  of 
standard  works  on  geometry  and  algebra,  which  were  in- 
troduced as  text-books  into  public  schools.  Died  in  1844. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gdnerale." 

Reynaud,  (Jean  Ernest,)  a  French  philosopher, 
born  at  Lyons  in  1806.  In  1836  he  became  associated 
with  Pierre  Leroux  as  editor  of  the  "  Encyclopedie  Nou- 
velle."   He  was  a  moderate  democrat  in  the  Assembly 


of  1848,  and  supported  Cavaignac.  His  chief  work, 
entitled  "Earth  and  Heaven,"  ("Terre  et  Ciel,"  1854,) 
had  great  success. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Reyneau,  ri'no',  (Charles  Reni^,)  a  French  ge- 
ometer, born  at  Brissac,  in  Anjou,  in  1656.  He  was 
professor  in  a  college  at  Angers.  He  published 
"Analysis  Demonstrated,"  (1708,)  and  "Elements  of 
Mathematics,"  (1714.)    Died  in  1728. 

Reyner,  ra'ner,  ?  (Edward,)  an  English  Puritan 
minister,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1600.  He  preached  at 
Lincoln.    Died  about  1670. 

Reynier,  ri'ne-i',  (Augustin  BenoIt,)  a  Belgian 
poet,  born  at  Liege^n  1759  ;  died  at  Cologne  in  1792. 

Reynier,  r^'ne-i',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  general, 
was  born  at  Lausanne  in  1771.  As  chief  of  the  staff  of  Mo- 
reau,  he  displayed  skill  at  Rastadt,  Friedberg,  Biberach, 
and  in  the  famous  retreat  of  1796.  He  commanded  at 
the  siege  of  Acre  in  the  temporary  absence  of  Bonaparte, 
and  is  said  to  have  decided  the  victory  at  Heliopolis, 
(1799.)  In  1807  he  had  command  of  the  army  of  Joseph, 
King  of  Naples.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  Leipsic, 
(1813.)    Died  in  1814. 

Reynier,  ri'ne-i',  (Jean  Louis  Antoine,)  a  Swiss 
naturalist,  born  at  Lausanne  in  1762,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  accompanied  the  expedition  to 
Egypt  in  1798.  Among  his  works  are  "  Egypt  under  the 
Domination  of  the  Romans,"  (1807,)  and  "Treatises 
on  the  Public  and  Rural  Economy  of  the  Celts  and 
Germans,"  (1808,)  of  the  "  Arabs  and  Jews,"  (1820,)  of  the 
"Persians  and  Phoenicians,"  (1829,)  etc.    Died  in  1824. 

See  La  Harpe,  "Notice  sur  L.  Reynier,"  1825;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Reynold  de  Chauvancy,  de,  deh  ri^noK  deh  sho'- 
v5N'se',  (Charles,)  a  French  naval  officer,  born  at  Pont 
de  Veyle  (Ain)  in  1810.  He  produced  a  work  on  mari- 
time signals,  entitled  "Code  de  Signaux,  Telegraphic 
nautique  polyglotte,"  (1856,)  which  has  been  adopted 
by  seventeen  maritime  powers, 

Reynolds,  rgn'olz,  (Alexander  W.,)  an  American 
officer  in  the  Confederate  service,  born  in  Virginia,  was 
made  a  brigadier-general  in  i86r. 

Reynolds,  rgn'olz,  (Edw^ard,)  an  English  bishop, 
born  at  Southampton  in  1599.  He  favoured  the  Pres- 
byterians during  the  civil  war,  and  took  the  Covenant. 
In  1648  he  became  Dean  of  Christ  Church  and  vice- 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  was  ejected 
from  these  positions  about  1650,  after  which  he  preached 
in  London.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Norwich  in 
1660.  He  published  a  number  of  religious  works,  which 
are  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1676. 

Reynolds,  (John.)    See  Rainolds. 

Reynolds,  (John  Fulton,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania,  in  1820,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1841.  He  served  as  first  lieutenant  in 
the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,)  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
captain  in  1855.  He  commanded  a  brigade  in  the  Seven 
Days'  battles  near  Richmond  in  June,  1862,  and  for  his 
services  there  received  brevets  as  colonel  and  brigadier- 
general  in  the  regular  army.  In  January,  1863,  he  was 
appointed  a  major-general  of  volunteers.  His  corps 
formed  the  vanguard  of  the  army  at  Gettysburg,  where 
he  was  killed  on  the  1st  of  July,  1863. 

See  Tenney,  "Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion," 
p.  760. 

Reynolds,  (John  Hamilton,)  an  English  poet,  born 
in  1795,  was  a  member  of  the  legal  profession.  He 
wrote  a  poem  called  "  Safie."  Died  at  Newport  in  1852. 

Reynolds,  (Sir  Joshua,)  the  most  celebrated  por- 
trait-painter that  England  has  produced,  was  born  at 
Plympton,  in  Devonshire,  on  the  i6th  of  July,  1723.  He 
was  a  son  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Reynolds.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  became  a  pupil  of  Hudson  in  London,  with 
whom  he  remained  about  two  years.  .  He  afterwards 
worked  at  Plymouth  as  a  portrait-painter  until  1746, 
when  he  settled  in  London.  About  1750  he  visited 
Rome,  Florence,  Venice,  and  other  cities  of  Italy. 
When  he  first  saw  the  works  of  Raphael  in  the  Vatican, 
he  felt  much  disappointment, — which  he  attributed  to 
his  own  ignorance.  The  works  of  Titian  and  Tintoretto 
contributed  more  to  the  formation  of  his  style  than  those 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23 .) 


REYNOLDS  1888  RHETICUS 


of  the  Roman  school.  He  returned  to  England  in  the 
autumn  of  1752,  soon  after  which  he  acquired  a  high 
reputation  by  a  portrait  of  Commodore  Keppel.  In 
1760  he  raised  his  price  to  twenty-five  guineas  for  a 
head,  and  one  hundred  guineas  for  a  whole-length  por- 
trait. He  painted  in  1762  a  picture  of  "  Garrick  between 
Tragedy  and  Comedy."  j 

In  1764  Mr.  Reynolds  and  Dr.  Johnson,  who  had 
become  intimate  friends,  founded  the  Literary  Club, 
composed  of  twelve  members,  among  whom  were  Burke 
and  Goldsmith.  He  was  chosen  president  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1768,  and  was  knighted  on  that  occasion. 
He  delivered  before  the  Academy  a  series  of  "  Lectures 
on  Painting,"  which  were  generally  admired  and  were 
translated  into  several  languages.  In  1784  he  produced 
a  beautiful  allegorical  portrait  of  *'  Mrs.  Siddons  as  the 
Tragic  Muse,"  and  received  the  title  of  principal  painter 
to  the  king.  He  painted  for  the  Empress  of  Russia  a 
picture  of  "  The  Infant  Hercules  strangling  the  Ser- 
pents," (1786,)  which  is  one  of  his  best  historical  works. 
He  was  never  married.  His  career  was  a  remarkable 
instance  of  continual  prosperity.  He  died  in  February, 
1792,  leaving  an  estate  of  about  ;i^8o,ooo. 

Sir  Joshua  is  considered  as  the  founder  or  the  head 
of  the  British  school  of  painting.  He  obtained  powerful 
effects  by  a  rich  and  harmonious  colour  and  by  his 
distribution  of  light  and  shade.  His  historical  pieces 
indicate  that  he  was  deficient  in  the  grand  style  of  design. 
"Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  is  the  most  invulnerable  man  I 
know,"  says  Dr.  Johnson, — "the  man  with  whom  if  you 
should  quarrel,  you  will  find  the  most  difficulty  how  to 
abuse."  "  Reynolds,  swiftest  of  painters,  was  gentlest 
of  companions,"  says  Ruskin ;  "so,  also,  Velasquez, 
Titian,  and  Veronese." 

See  James  Northcote,  "  Memoirs  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds," 
1818  ;  Malone,  "Life  of  Sir  J.  Reynolds;"  Thomas  Reynolds, 
"Life  of  Sir  J.  Reynolds,"  by  his  son,  2  vols.,  1839;  "Life  of 
Sir  J.  Reynolds,"  commenced  by  C.  R.  Leslie  and  completed  by 
Tom  Taylor,  2  vols.)  1865;  "Memoirs  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds," 
by  Joseph  Farrington,  London,  1819;  "London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  April  and  July,  1866;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  August,  1820. 

Reynolds,  (Richard,)  an  English  benefactor,  born 
in  Bristol  in  1735,  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  He  married  Hannah  Darby  in  1757,  and  be- 
came a  partner  in  the  iron  and  coal  works  at  Ketley. 
In  1763  he  removed  to  Coalbrook  Dale,  where  he  super- 
intended a  large  manufactory  of  iron.  He  is  said. to  have 
been  the  first  who  employed  iron  instead  of  wood  in  the 
construction  of  railways.  His  business  afforded  him  a 
large  income,  a  great  part  of  which  he  expended  in  deeds 
of  charity.  He  removed  to  Bristol  in  1804.  Died  in  1816. 

See  "Letters  of  Richard  Reynolds,  with  a  Memoir  of  his  Life," 
Dy  his  granddaughter,  Hannah  Mary  Rathbone,  Philadelphia, 
I8SS. 

Reynolds,  (Samuel  William)  an  eminent  English 
engraver  in  mezzotint,  was  born  in  1774.  He  engraved 
many  portraits  and  historical  pieces  after  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds,  also  Rubens's  "  Chapeau  de  Faille,"  and  a 
number  of  the  works  of  Horace  Vernet.    Died  in  1835. 

Reynoso.    See  Reinoso, 

Reyrao,  de,  deh  rk'rtk',  (Francois  Philippe  Du- 
LAURENS,)  a  French  poet  and  priest,  born  in  Limousin 
in  1734.  He  wrote  "Rural  Poems,"  and  a  "Hymn  to 
the  Sun,"  (1777,)  in  poetical  prose,  which  was  often 
reprinted.    Died  in  1782. 

See  Berenger,  "  Eloge  de  Reyrac,"  1783. 

Reyre,  raiR,  (Abbe  Joseph,)  a  French  teacher  and 
writer  of  juvenile  books,  was  born  in  Provence  in  1735  ; 
died  in  1812. 

Reys,  dos,  d6s  ras,  (Antonio,)  a  Portuguese  priest 
and  Latin  poet,  born  near  Santarem  in  1690;  died  in 
1738. 

Rezzano,  rgt-sl'no,  (Francesco,)  a  mediocre  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Como  in  1731  ;  died  in  1780. 

Rezzonico,  rSt-so-nee'ko,  (  Antonio  Giuseppe,  ) 
Count  de  la  Tour,  (or  della  Torre,  deKll  tor'rii,)  an 
Italian  litterateur,  born  at  Como  in  1709,  became  an 
ofiicer  in  the  Spanish  army.  His  chief  work  is  "Re- 
searches into  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Pliny,-"  ("  Disqui- 
sitiones  Plinianae,"  2  vols,  in  fol.,  1763-67,)  which  is 
praised  as  a  model  of  criticism.   Died  at  Parma  in  1785. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  iilustri." 


Rezzonico,  (Carlo.)    See  Clement  XIII. 

Rezzonico,  (Carlo  Gaston  della  Torre,)  Count, 
an  Italian  poet  and  prose  writer,  born  at  Como  in  1742, 
was  a  son  of  Antonio  Giuseppe,  noticed  above.  Among 
his  works  is  a  poem  entitled  "The  Ruin  of  Como,' 
which  is  admired.    Died  at  Naples  in  1796. 

See  G.  B.  Giovio,  "  Della  Vita  di  G.  Rezzonico,"  1802. 

Rhadamante.    See  Rhadamanthus. 

Rhad-a-man''thus,  [Gr.  'Padu/j.avdog ;  Fr.  Rhada- 
mante, rt'dS'mSNt',]  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Europa,  and 
a  brother  of  Minos.  According  to  tradition,  he  married 
Alcmena,  the  mother  of  Hercules,  was  eminent  for  his 
justice,  and  after  death  became  one  of  the  chief  judges 
of  the  lower  world,  or  Elysium. 

Rhallis,  rdKlis,  (George  Alexander,)  a  modern 
Greek  jurist,  born  at  Constantinople  in  1804.  He  be- 
came minister  of  Justice  of  Greece  in  1841,  and  after- 
wards president  of  the  Areopagus,  or  court  of  cassation. 
He  published  several  legal  works. 

Rham,  rSm,  (Rev.  William  Lewis,)  an  eminent 
writer  on  agriculture,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1778.  He  was 
educated  at  Edinburgh  and  at  Cambridge  University, 
and  became  rector  of  Fersfield,  Norfolk.  He  wrote 
many  articles  for  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia,"  which  were 
published  separately  under  the  title  of  " Dictionary  of 
the  Farm."    Died  in  1843. 

Rhangabe.    See  Rizo  Rangab6. 

Rhe'a,  [Gr.  Tda,  Tea,  Tetv,  or  Tej} ;  Fr.  Rh^a,  rk'S',] 
a  goddess  of  classic  mythology,  whom  the  P^omans 
called  Ops  or  Cybele.  According  to  Hesiod,  she  was  a 
daughter  of  Uranus  and  Ge,  or  Coelus  and  Terra,  the 
wife  of  Cronos,  (Saturn,)  and  the  mother  of  Jupiter, 
Neptune,  Pluto,  Juno,  Ceres,  and  Vesta.  She  was 
called  "the  Great  Mother,"  and  "the  Mother  of  tho 
Gods."  The  principal  seat  of  her  worship  was  Pessinus, 
in  Galatia.    (See  Cybele.) 

See  Smith's  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and 
Mythology." 

Rhe'a  SiPvi-a,  or  Jl^-a,  [Fr.  R6a  (or  Rh6a)  Silvia, 
ra'i'  s^l've'S',  or  Ilie,  e'le',]  in  Roman  mythology,  was 
a  daughter  of  Numitor,  and  mother  of  Romulus  and 
Remus,  whose  father  was  supposed  to  be  Mars.  The 
king  Amulius  had  compelled  her  to  become  a  vestal 
virgin  to  prevent  her  from  having  offspring,  and  after 
the  birth  of  her  sons  he  drowned  her  in  the  river.  The 
poets  feigned  that  she  was  changed  into  a  goddess  and 
became  the  wife  of  the  Anio. 

Rheede,  van,  vtn  ra'deh,  (Hendrik  Adriaan 
Draakenstein — dRi'ken-stn/,)  a  Dutch  naturalist,  who 
became  Governor-General  of  the  Malabar  coast.  He 
collected  materials  for  a  costly  work  on  the  plants  of 
India,  entitled  "  Hortus  Indicus  Malabaricus,"  (12 
vols.,  1670-1703,)  in  which  he  was  aided  by  Casearius, 
Commelin,  and  others.    He  died  about  1700. 

Rhegas.    See  Rhigas. 

Rheinek,  ri'n^k,  (Christoph,)  a  German  musical 
composer,  born  at  Memmingen  in  1748,  was  author  of 
several  operas.    Died  in  1796. 

Rheita,  von,  fon  ri'ta,  (Anton  Maria  Schyrle,)  a 
German  astronomer,  born  in  Bohemia  about  1597.  He 
constructed  a  telescope  with  four  lenses.  Died  at  Ra- 
venna in  1660. 

Rhenanus,  (Beatus.)    See  Beatus. 

Rhenferd,  rhVi^Rt,  (Jakob,)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  in  1654.  He  became  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Franeker.    Died  in  171 2. 

Rhese,  rees,  ?  (John  David,)  M.D,,  a  philologist, 
born  in  the  island  of  Anglesey  in  1534.  He  taught 
school  in  Italy,  and  published  a  number  of  works  in  the 
Italian  language.    Died  in  1609. 

Rhet'i-cus,  [Ger.  pron.  ra^te-kus,]  the  surname  of  an 
astronomer,  whose  proper  name  was  George  Joachim. 
He  was  born  at  Feldkirch,  near  the  Rhine,  in  1514.  He 
became  a  pupil  and  assistant  of  Copernicus  in  1539  or 
1540,  and  advocated  the  Copernican  system  in  his  "  Nar- 
ratio  de  Libris  Revolutionum  Copernici,"  (1540.)  In 
1 541  he  obtained  a  chair  of  mathematics  at  Wittenberg. 
He  left  a  work  of  great  labour,  entitled  "  Opus  Palatinum 
de  Triangulis,"  (1596,)  which  contains,  besides  a  treatise 
on  trigonometry,  a  table  of  sines,  cosines,  tangents,  etc. 
Died  in  1576. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ii,  y,  /oh£-;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good:  moon; 


RHETT 


RIBERA 


Rhett,  (Robert  Barnwell,)  an  American  politician, 
born  at  Beaufort,  South  Carolina,  in  1800.  Being  elected 
in  1833  attorney-general  of  the  State,  he  acted  with  the 
Nullification  party,  and  in  1850  became  a  United  States 
Senator.  On  the  election  of  Mr,  Lincoln,  in  i86o,  he  was 
a  member  of  the  State  Convention  which  passed  an 
ordinance  of  secession,  and  drew  up  the  address  giving 
reasons  for  this  measure. 

Rhi-a'nus,  a  Greek  poet,  born  in  Crete,  lived  about 
250  or  225  B.C.  He  wrote  five  or  more  poems,  two  of 
which  are  entitled  '*  Heracleia"  and  "  Thessalica."  Frag- 
ments of  his  works  are  extant. 

Rhigas,  ree'gis,  written  also  Rhegas  and  Rigas, 
a  modern  Greek  patriot  and  writer,  born  in  Thessaly 
about  1760.  He  formed  in  early  life  a  design  to  liberate 
Greece  from  the  Turkish  yoke,  and,  in  order  to  promote 
this  design,  organized  a  secret  society,  wrote  popular 
songs,  founded  a  journal,  published  educational  works, 
etc.  All  these  were  in  the  modern  Greek  language. 
In  1798  he  was  arrested  at  Trieste,  delivered  by  the 
Austrians  to  the  Turks,  and  drowned  in  the  Danube 
by  the  latter. 

See  Revbaud,  "M^moires  sur  la  Grece  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Rhin'thon,  [Ttv^wv,]  a  Greek  dramatic  poet,  born  at 
Syracuse  or  Tarentum,  lived  about  300  B.C.  His  works 
are  not  extant. 

Rhizoa  Rhangavis.    See  Rizo  Rangab^;. 

Rho,  ro,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at 
Milan  in  1543  ;  died  in  1627. 

Rhode,  roMeh,  or  Rhodius,  ro'de-us,  (Johann,)  a 
Danish  medical  writer  and  antiquary,  born  at  Copen- 
hagen about  1587;  died  at  Padua  in  1659. 

Rhode,  ro'deh,  (Johann  Gkorg,)  a  German  Orien- 
talist of  Breslau,  was  noted  for  his  researches  in  the 
antiquities  and  natural  history  of  Iiulia.    Died  in  1827. 

Rhodes,  rodz,  (Robert  E.,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Lynchburg,  Virginia,  commanded  a  division  of 
General  Lee's  army  at  Gettysburg,  July,  1863.  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Winchester,  September  19,  1864. 

Rhodes,  de,  deh  rod,  (Alexandre,)  a  French  mis- 
sionary, born  in  1 591.  He  preached  in  Cochin  China 
and  Tbnquin.  He  published  a  "  History  of  Tonquin," 
(1650,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  Persia  in  i66o. 

Rhodiginus,  ro-de-jee'noos,  (  Ccelius,  )  an  Italian 
philologist,  whose  family  name  was  Ricchieri  (r^k-ke- 
a'ree)  or  Riccheri,  (rfek-ka'ree,)  was  born  at  Rovigo 
about  1450.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin 
at  Milan  in  1515.  His  chief  work  is  "Ancient  Readings," 
('*  Antiquae  Lectiones,"  1 5 16.)    Died  in  1525. 

See  TiRABOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Rhodius.    See  Rhode,  (Johan.) 
Rhodomann.    See  Rhodomannus. 
Rhodomannus,  ro-do-man'nus,  or  Rhodomann, 

ro'do-mdn^  (Laurentius,)  a  German  Hellenist,  born 
at  Sassawerf,  in  Saxony,  in  1546.  He  was  professor  of 
Greek  at  Jena,  and  afterwards  lectured  on  history  at 
Wittenberg.  He  wrote  Greek  verse  with  facility,  and  is 
called  one  of  the  restorers  of  the  Greek  language  in 
Germany.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Life  of  Luther,  in 
Greek  Verse,"  (1579,)  and  "Christian  Poem  on  Pales- 
tine," ("  Poesis  Christiana  Palestinae,"  1589.)  Died  in 
1606. 

See  Lange,  "Vita  Rhodomanni,"  1741  ;  Nic^ron,  " M^moires." 
Rhunken.    See  Ruhnken. 

Rhy'mer,  Thomas  the,  or  Thomas  of  Ercil- 
doune,  a  Scottish  poet,  flourished  between  1250  and 
1300.    He  had  the  reputation  of  a  prophet. 

Rhyndacenus  or  Rhyndaconus.    See  Lascaris. 

Rhyne,  Ten,  t§n  ri'neh,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Deventer  about  1640.  He  practised 
medicine  at  Batavia,  explored  the  plants  of  Java,  and 
aided  Van  Rheede  in  composing  his  "Hortus  Mala- 
baricus." 

Rhyzeliua,  re-za'le-us,  (Andreas,)  a  Swedish  an- 
tiquary, born  in  Westgothland  in  1677.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Linkoping,  and  wrote  several  works  on 
Swedish  antiquities.    Died  about  1758. 

Riancey,  de,  deh  re'dN'si',  (Henri  LlfeoN  Ca- 
MUSAT,)  a  French  historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1816.  He 


published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the 
World,"  (4  vols.,  1838-41.)  In  1852  he  became  chief 
editor  of  "L'Union,"  a  journal. 

Rianzares,  Duke  of.    See  Munoz,  (Fernando.) 

Riario,  re-i're-o,  (Girolamo,)  Seigneur  of  Forli  and 
Imola,  a  nephew  of  Pope  Sixtus  IV.,  was  born  about 
1442.  He  was  an  enemy  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  and  of 
the  family  of  Colonna.  He  was  assassinated  by  his  own 
guards  in  1488. 

Riario,  (Pietro,)  Cardinal,  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1445.  He  was  a  corrupt  favourite 
of  Sixtus  IV.,  who  appointed  him  Archbishop  of  Flor- 
ence. He  had  great  influence  at  the  papal  court,  and  was 
notorious  for  his  debauchery.    Died  in  1474. 

Ribadeneira,  re-Ba-di-na^-rS,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  biographer,  was  iDoi^n  at  Toledo  in  1527.  He 
gained  some  distinction  as  a  preacher,  and  was  employed 
by  Loyola  to  propagate  Jesuitism  in  Flanders  and  Spain. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Life  of  Loyola," 
("  Vida  de  San  Ignacio,"  1570.)  He  is  said  to  have 
iDeen  deficient  in  judgment.    Died  at  Madrid  in  1611. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Ribalta,  re-Bil'tl,  (Francisco,)  an  eminent  Span- 
ish painter,  born  at  Castellon  de  la  Plana  in  155 1.  He 
studied  the  works  of  Raphael  and  Sebastian  del  Piombo 
in  Rome,  and  settled  in  Valencia.  His  design,  colour, 
and  composition  are  highly  commended.  Among  his 
works  are  a  "  Last  Supper,"  a  "  Holy  Family,"  and 
"The  Entombment  of  Christ."  He  was  a  skilful  anato- 
mist.   Died  in  1628. 

Ribalta,  de,  di  re-BSKtl,  (Juan,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Valencia  in  1597.  He  was  a  painter 
of  great  promise,  and  died  prematurely  in  1628. 

Ribas,  de,  deh  ree'bds,  (Joseph,)  born  at  Naples 
about  1735,  entered  the  service  of  Russia,  and  became 
an  admiral.  He  commanded  a  fleet  which  operated 
against  the  Turks  in  1790. 

Ribault  or  Ribaut,  re^jo',  (Jean,)  a  French  Prot- 
estant navigator,  born  at  Dieppe  about  1520.  He  com- 
manded a  party  sent  by  Coligni  in  1562  to  explore  and 
colonize  some  parts  of  North  America.  He  explored 
Port  Royal,  South  Carolina,  built  a  fort  there,  and  re- 
turned to  France.  In  1565  he  obtained  command  of  a 
fort  and  colony  which  the  French  had  planted  on  the 
Saint  John's  River,  Florida.  He  had  seven  vessels  under 
his  command.  The  French  were  attacked  by  a  Spanish 
fleet  just  after  the  arrival  of  Ribault.  He  was  about  to 
bring  his  vessels  into  action,  when  a  storm  drove  them 
ashore.  Ribault  and  his  men  escaped  to  land,  but  were 
massacred  by  the  Spaniards.  "  John  Ribault,"  says 
Sparks,  "  was  the  pioneer  of  a  great  enterprise ;  .  .  . 
and,  although  he  was  assisted  by  brave  and  able  asso- 
ciates, yet  his  energy  and  zeal  were  the  chief  springs  of 
the  whole." 

See  Sparks,  "  Life  of  Ribault,"  in  the  seventh  volume  of  his 
"  American  Biography,"  second  series  ;  Hildreth,  "  History  of  the 
United  States,"  vol.  i.  chap.  iii. 

Ribault,  re'b5',  (J.  F.,)  a  French  engraver,  born  in 
Paris  in  1767  ;  died  in  1820. 

Ribbing  von  Leuven,  rib'bing  fon  loi'ven,  ?  (Adolph 
Ludwig,)  a  Swedish  conspirator,  born  at  Stockholm 
in  1764.  He  was  an  accomplice  of  those  who  killed 
Gustavus  III.,  and  was  banished  for  life.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1843. 

Ribeiro  or  Ribeyro,  re-ba^-ro,  (Bernardin,)  a 
Portuguese  pastoral  poet  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was 
born  at  Torrao,  in  Alemtejo.  He  is  pronounced  by 
Longfellow  "  one  of  the  best  poets  of  Portugal,  and  the 
first  Portuguese  writer  who  gained  a  high  reputation  as 
a  pastoral  poet." 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Ribeiro  dos  Santos,  re-ba^-ro  d6s  sSn'tis,  (Anto- 
nio,) a  Portuguese  poet  of  the^esent  century,  has  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  an  "  Ode  to  the  Infante  Dom 
Henrique,"  which  is  greatly  admired. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Ribera.  -  See  Spagnolei  to. 

Ribera,  re-Ba'r5,  (Carlos  Luis,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
the  son  of  a  distinguished  artist,  was  born  in  Rome 
about  1812. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  H,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

119 


RIB  ERA 


1890 


RICCIARDI 


Ribera,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit  and  commen- 
tator, born  in  Segovia  in  1537.  He  wrote  Commentaries 
on  the  minor  prophets  and  on  the  Gospel  of  John.  Died 
at  Salamanca  in  1 591. 

Ribera,  de,  di  re-Ba'ri,  (Anastasio  Pantaleon,)  a 
Spanish  wit  and  burlesque  poet,  born  at  Saragossa  in 
1580.    He  was  assassinated  at  Madrid  in  1629. 

Ribes,  r^b,  (Francois,)  a  French  surgeon,  born  at 
Bagneres  de  Bigorre  in  1770.  He  succeeded  Uesgenettes 
fis  chief  physician  at  the  Hotel  des  Invalides  in  1837. 
He  wrote  on  anatomy,  etc.    Died  in  1845. 

Ribes,  de,  deh  r^b,  (Anne  Arnaud,)  a  French 
officer  of  engineers,  born  in  1731  ;  died  in  181 1. 

Ribeyro.    See  Ribeiro. 

Riboud,  re'boo',  (Thomas  Philibert,)  a  French 
litterateur  and  judge,  born  at  Bourg-en-Bresse  in  1755. 
He  was  a  member  of  successive  legislative  bodies  be- 
tween 1791  and  1814.    Died  in  1835. 

Riboutte,  re'boo'ty,  (FRANgois  Louis,)  a  French 
dramatist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1770  ;  died  in  1834. 

Ricard,  re'ktk',  (Dominique,)  a  French  abbe  and 
translator,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1741.  He  translated 
Plutarch's  "Moral  Works,"  (17  vols.,  1783-95,)  and  his 
"Parallel  Lives,"  (13  vols.,  1798-1803.)  He  wrote  a 
poem  on  the  Sphere.    Died  in  1803. 

Ricard,  (Etienne  Pierre  Silvestre,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Castres  in  1771.  He  won  the  rank  of 
general  of  division  at  Borodino  in  1812.    Died  in  1843. 

Ricard,  (Jean  Marie,)  an  eminent  French  jurist, 
born  at  Beauvais  in  1622  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1678. 

Ricardo,  re-kar'do,  (David,)  an  eminent  political 
economist,  born  in  London  in  April,  1772,  was  a  son  of 
a  Jewish  broker.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Stock 
Exchange  in  London,  and  a  partner  of  his  father.  In 
consequence  of  his  marriage  with  a  Christian,  in  1793, 
this  partnership  was  dissolved.  He  published  in  1809  a 
pamphlet  called  "  The  High  Price  of  Bullion  a  Proof  of 
the  Depreciation  of  Bank-Notes."  His  reputation  is 
founded  on  "The  Principles  of  Political  Economy  and 
Taxation,"  (1817,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  He  was 
elected  to  Parliament  in  1819,  and  spoke  frequently  on 
financial  subjects.    Died  in  September,  1823. 

See  J.  R.  McCuLLOCH,  "  Life  of  Ricardo,"  prefixed  to  Ricardo's 
Works,  1846;  Allibone,  "  Dictionaiy  of  Authors;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1818 ; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  December,  1820. 

Ricardo,  (John  Lewis,)  an  English  writer  on  inter- 
national law,  born  in  1812.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  Parliament  in  1841,  and  greatly  promoted  the  suc- 
cessful operation  of  the  electric  telegraph.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  History  and  Anatomy  of  the  Navigation 
Laws."    Died  in  London  in  1862. 

Ricardos,  re-kS.R'd6s,  (Don  Antonio,)  a  Spanish 
general,  born  at  Seville  in  1727.  He  commanded  the 
army  which  opposed  with  some  success  the  French 
invaders  in  1793,  and  he  was  promoted  to  be  captain- 
general  in  1794.    Died  in  1794. 

See  J.  M.  Hervas  de  Almenakia,  "  Elogio  historico  del  Gene- 
ral A.  Ricardos."  1798. 

Ricardus  Corinensis.  See  Richard  of  Ciren- 
cester. 

Ricasoli,  re-ki'so-lee,  (Baron  Bettino,)  an  eminent 
Italian  statesman,  born  of  an  ancient  noble  family  in 
Tuscany  about  1805.  He  was  a  prominent  advocate  of 
the  independence  and  unity  of  Italy  in  1848,  and  acted 
as  dictator  of  Tuscany  in  1859.  In  June,  1861,  he  suc- 
ceeded Cavour  as  prime  minister  of  Italy.  The  policy 
of  his  administration  was  similar  to  that  of  Cavour.  He 
resigned  about  the  ist  of  March,  1862,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Ratazzi.  In  June,  1866,  he  again  assumed  the  direc- 
tion of  the  government  as  president  of  the  council  and 
minister  of  the  interior.  He  retired  from  office  about 
April  7,  1867. 

See  F.  dall'Ongaro,  "Bettino  Ricasoli;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie Generale." 

Ricaut.    See  Rycaut. 

Riccaltoun  or  Riccalton,  rik'al-ton,?  (Robert,)  a 
Scottish  divine,  born  near  Jedburgh  in  1691.  He 
preached  for  many  years  at  Hobkirk,  and  wrote  several 
able  and  suggestive  religious  works,  among  which  is  the 
"Sober  Inquiry,"  etc.    Died  in  1769. 


Riccati,  di,  de  r^k-ki'tee,  (Jacopo  Francesco,) 
Count,  an  Italian  mathematician,  born  at  Venice  in 
1676,  was  the  father  of  Vincenzo,  noticed  below.  Died 
in  1754. 

His  son  Giordano,  born  in  1709,  was  a  mathema- 
tician and  writer.    Died  in  1790. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Riccati,  di,  (Vincenzo,)  an  Italian  mathematician, 
born  at  Castel-Franco  in  1707;  died  in  1775. 

Ricchieri,  (Lodovico.)    See  Rhodiginus. 

Ricci,  r^t'chee,  (Antonio,)  called  Barbalunga, 
(baR-ba-loon'gi,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Messina  in 
1600  ;  died  in  1649. 

Ricci,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  Latinist,  born  at 
Lugo  in  1490.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Latin  language,  entitled  "Apparatus 
Latinae  Locutionis,"  (1533.)    Died  in  1569. 

See  G.  DELLA  Casa,  "  Discorso  sulla  Vita  di  B.  Ricci,"  1834. 

Ricci,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Ferrara 
in  1580;  died  at  Ferrara  in  1618. 

Ricci,  (Giovanni  BAiTisrA,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Novara  in  1 545.  He  was  employed  by  Pope 
Sixtus  V.  in  the  Vatican  and  Quirinal.  Died  at  Rome 
in  1620. 

Ricci,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  at  Florence 
in  1703,  was  elected  general  of  the  order  of  Jesuits  in 
1758.  He  opposed  the  proposition  to  reform  that  order, 
which  was  suppressed  by  Pope  Clement  XIV.  in  1773. 
Died  in  prison  at  Rome  in  1 775. 

See  Sainte-Foi,  "Vie  du  Pere  Ricci;"  Caraccioli,  "Vie  du 
Pere  Ricci,"  1776. 

Ricci,  (Marco,)  a  painter,  born  at  Belluno  in  1676. 
He  worked  some  years  as  assistant  of  his  uncle  Se- 
bastian in  England.  According  to  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle."  he  was  one  of  the  most  skilful  landscape- 
painters  of  the  Venetian  school.  Died  at  Venice  about 
1728. 

Ricci,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  at  Macerata 
in  1552.  He  was  one  of  the  first  missionaries  who  went 
to  China,  (1583.)  In  1600  he  was  admitted  into  Peking, 
where  he  gained  the  favour  of  the  emperor.  He  wrote 
interesting  Memoirs  and  Letters  on  China.  Abel  Re- 
musat  calls  him  the  founder  of  the  mission  of  China. 
Died  in  Peking  in  1610. 

See  D'Orleans,  "  Vie  de  M.  Ricci,"  1693  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Ricci,  (Michelangelo,)  an  Italian  cardinal  and 
mathematician,  born  at  Rome  in  1619 ;  died  in  1682. 

Ricci  or  Ricchi,  rfek'kee,  (Pietro,  )  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Lucca  in  1606,  worked  at  Milan  and 
Venice.    Died  in  1675. 

Ricci,  (Scipione,)  an  Italian  reformer,  born  at  Flor- 
ence in  1 741.  He  became  Bishop  of  Pistoia  and  Prato 
in  1780,  and  co-operated  with  the  grand  duke  Leopold 
in  his  projects  of  religious  reform.  He  was  opposed  to 
monastic  orders,  to  indulgences,  and  other  practices  of 
the  Church  of  Rome.  In  consequence  of  the  riotous 
demonstrations  of  the  populace  against  him,  he  resigned 
in  1790.    Died  in  1810. 

See  De  Potter,  "Vie  et  Memoires  de  Scipion  Ricci,"  4  vols., 
1825,  (translated  into  English  by  Thomas  Roscoe,  1829;)  "  Nouvelllf 
Biographie  Generale." 

Ricci  or  Rizzi,  r^t'see,  (Sebastiano,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Cividal  di  Belluno  (Venetia)  in  1660. 
He  worked  at  Rome,  Vienna,  Florence,  and  London,  to 
which  he  was  invited  by  Queen  Anne.  Having  passed 
ten  years  in  England,  he  returned  to  Venice,  and  prac- 
tised his  art  with  success.  He  was  a  skilful  imitator  of 
the  styles  of  many  masters.  Among  his  remarkable 
works  are  "The  Abduction  of  the  Sabines,"  at  Rome, 
and  "The  Assumption  of  the  Virgin."  Died  at  Venice 
in  1734. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizio- 
nario." 

Ricciardi,  r^t-chaR'dee,  (  Francesco,  )  Count  de 
Camaldoli,  an  Italian  statesman,  born  at  Foggia  in  1758. 
He  was  minister  of  justice  under  Murat  from  1809  to 
181 5.  He  made  some  reforms  in  the  penal  code.  Died 
in  1842. 

See  Ceva-Grimaldi,  "  Elogio  storico  del  Conte  F.  Ricciardi," 
1834- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon: 


RICCIARDI  1 891  RICHARD 


Ricciardi,  (Irene,)  an  Italian  poetess,  a  sister  of 
Joseph  Napoleon  Ricciardi.  She  was  married  in  183 1 
to  a  composer  named  Capecelatro. 

Ricciardi,  (Joseph  Napoleon,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  politician,  a  son  of  Francesco,  noticed  above,  was 
born  in  Naples  in  1808.  A  liberal  in  politics,  he  has 
lived  in  exile  since  1848,  He  has  written  a  "History 
of  the  Italian  Revolution,"  (1850,)  and  several  political 
poems. 

Ricciarelli,    See  Volterra,  de,  (Daniele.) 
Riccio,  (Bartolommeo.)    See  Neroni. 
Riccio,  (David.)    See  Rizzio. 

Riccio,  r^t'cho,  (Domenico,)  an  eminent  painter  of 
the  Venetian  school,  surnamed  Brusasorci,  ("Rat- 
Burner,")  was  born  at  Verona  in  1494.  His  father  in- 
vented a  rat-trap  and  burned  rats :  hence  the  Surname. 
He  studied  the  works  of  Titian,  and  perhaps  was  his 
pupil.  He  painted  in  the  Palazzo  Ridolfi,  in  Venice,  a 
fresco  called  the  "Cavalcade  of  Clement  VII.  and 
Charles  V.,"  (in  Bologna.)    Died  in  1567. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Ridolfi,  "Vite  degli 
illustri  Pittori  Veneti ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Riccio,  (Felice,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Verona  in  1540,  was  a  skilful  painter,  especially  of 
portraits.    Died  in  1605. 

Riccioli,  r^t'cho-lee,  (Giovanni  Battista,  )  an 
Italian  astronomer  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1598. 
He  was  professor  of  philosophy,  theology,  etc.  at 
Bologna  and  Parma.  His  superiors  authorized  him  to 
devote  himself  to  astronomy,  that  he  might  confute  the 
Copernican  system.  This  he  attempted  to  do  in  his 
"Almagestum  Novum,"  (2  vols.,  165 1.)  According  to 
his  theory,  the  sun,  moon,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn  revolve 
around  the  earth,  while  Mercury,  Venus,  and  Mars  are 
satellites  of  the  sun.  He  also  published  an  able  treatise 
on  mathematical  geography  and  hydrography,  (1661,) 
and  "Improved  Astronomy,"  ("Astronomia  Reformata," 
1665.)    Died  in  1671. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vitse  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  Tira- 
BOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana:"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^nerale." 

Riccoboni,  r^k-ko-bo'nee,  (Antoine  Francois,)  a 
son  of  Luigi,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Mantua  in 
1707,  and  lived  in  Paris.  He  wrote  an  ingenious  work 
called  "Theatrical  Art,"  ("  L'Art  du  Theatre,"  1750.) 
Died  in  1772. 

His  wife,  Marie  Jeanne  Laboras  de  M^zi^res, 
born  in  Paris  in  1714,  was  a  successful  novelist.  Among 
her  novels  are  "The  Letters  of  Julia  Catesby,"  (1758,) 
"Ernestine,"  and  "Sophie  de  Vailiere,"  (1771.)  M. 
Weiss  calls  her  one  of  the  most  s/>iriiue//e  womeu  of  her 
time.    Died  in  1792. 

Riccoboni,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  philologist,  born 
at  Rovigo  in  1541.  He  translated  into  Latin  Aristotle's 
"  Rhetoric,"  "  Ethics,"  and  "  Poetica,"  (1579,)  and  wrote 
several  works.    Died  in  1599. 

Riccoboni,  (  Luigi,  )  an  Italian  comic  writer  and 
actor,  born  at  Modena  about  1675.  Among  his  works  is 
a  poem  "  On  Representative  Art,"  ("  Delia  Arte  repre- 
sentativa,"  1728.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1753. 

Rice,  (  Luther,)  an  American  Baptist  divine  and 
missionary, -born  at  Northborough.  Massachusetts,  in 
1783.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  board 
of  commissioners  for  foreign  missions,  and  assisted  in 
the  establishment  of  the  Columbian  College,  at  Wash- 
ington, District  of  Columbia.    Died  in  1836. 

Rich,  (Claudius  James,)  an  Orientalist  and  traveller, 
born  at  Dijon,  in  France,  in  1787,  was  educated  at  Bris- 
tol. He  learned  Arabic,  Syriac,  Persian,  etc.  in  his  early 
youth,  became  an  excellent  linguist,  and  entered  the 
service  of  the  East  India  Company  in  1803.  In  1808  he 
married  a  daughter  of  Sir  James  Mackintosh,  at  Bombay, 
and  was  appointed  the  East  India  Company's  resident 
at  Bagdad.  He  collected  in  that  vicinity  many  Oriental 
manuscripts,  medals,  and  coins,  and  wrote  a  "  Memoir 
on  the  Ruins  of  Babylon,"  which  he  had  visited  in  1811. 
A  second  edition  of  it  was  issued  in  1839.  He  visited 
the  ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Persepolis,  and  made  an  ex- 
cursion into  Koordistan.  He  died  of  cholera,  at  Shiraz, 
in  October,  1821,  leaving  a  "Narrative  of  a  Residence  in 
Koordistan,"  (1836.) 

See  a  brief  notice  of  his  life,  prefixed  to  the  work  last  named. 


Rich,  (Richard,)  Baron,  an  English  judge,  born  in 
London  about  1498.  He  became  solicitor-general  in 
1533,  and  lord  chancellor  in  1547.  He  united  with  Pro- 
tector Somerset  in  measures  for  the  conviction  and  exe- 
cution of  Lord  Seymour.  In  1551  he  resigned  his  office 
on  pretext  of  ill  health.  Died  in  1568.  According  to 
Lord  Campbell,  he  was  "a  very  consistent  character 
in  all  that  was  base  and  profligate."  One  of  his  sons 
became  Earl  of  Warwick. 

See  Lord  Campbell's  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,"  vol.  ii. 

Rich'ard  [Lat.  Richar'dus  ;  It.  Ricardo,  re-kaRMo] 
I.,  King  of  Etigland,  surnamed  CcEUR  de  Lion,  (kuR 
deh  le'dN',)  was  the  third  or  second  son  of  Henry  II. 
and  his  queen  Eleanor.  He  was  born  at  Oxford  in 
1 1 57,  and  was  invested  in  the  duchy  of  Guienne.  He 
united  with  his  brother  Henry  in  a  revolt  against  his 
father  in  1 1 73.  On  the  death  of  Prince  Henry,  in  11 83, 
Richard  became  the  heir-apparent  to  the  throne.  He 
formed  in  1188  a  secret  alliance  with  Philip,  King  of 
France,  the  enemy  of  Henry  II.,  and  openly  revolted 
against  the  latter  in  1189.  The  allies  waged  war  with 
success  against  Henry  in  France,  and  induced  him  to 
accept  their  terms  of  peace.  At  this  juncture  Henry 
died,  in  July,  1189.  Richard  showed  compunction  for 
his  undutiful  conduct,  and  chose  for  his  ministers  the 
faithful  servants  of  his  father.  Having  agreed  a  short 
time  before  his  accession  to  join  the  King  of  France  in 
a  crusade,  he  appointed  his  mother  regent  of  the  king- 
dom. "Impelled  more  by  the  love  of  military  glory 
than  by  superstition,"  says  Hume,  "he  acted  from  the 
beginning  of  his  reign  as  if  the  sole  purpose  of  his 
government  had  been  the  relief  of  the  Holy  Land  and 
the  recovery  of  Jerusalem  from  the  Saracens." 

The  combined  army  of  Richard  and  Philip,  amounting 
to  100,000  njen,  began  to  march  in  1190.  They  em- 
barked on  ships  at  Marseilles  and  Genoa,  and  sailed  to 
Sicily,  where  they  passed  the  winter,  during  which  serious 
dissensions  arose  between  Richard  and  Philip,  who  re- 
garded each  other  with  jealous  rivalry.  Richard  married 
Berengaria,  Princess  of  Navarre,  at  Cyprus,  in  1191,  and 
in  the  summer  of  that  year  arrived  at  Acre,  which  had 
been  besieged  by  the  crusaders  for  two  years  and  was 
still  defended  by  Saladin.  The  French  and  English 
kings  were  incited  by  emulation  to  extraordinary  acts 
of  valour  at  this  siege.  "Richard  in  particular,"  says 
Hume,  "animated  with  a  more  precipitate  courage  than 
Philip,  .  .  .  acquired  a  great  and  splendid  reputation." 
Acre  surrendered  in  July,  1191,  soon  after  which  Philip 
returned  to  France.  In  September,  Richard  defeated 
Saladin  in  a  great  battle,  in  which  "  he  performed,"  says 
Hutne,  "the  part  both  of  a  consummate  general  and 
gallant  soldier." 

Having  concluded  a  truce  with  Saladin  for  three  years, 
three  months,  three  weeks,  and  three  days,  he  sailed 
homeward  in  October,  1 192,  and  was  wrecked  on  the 
coast  of  Istria.  Attempting  to  pass  through  Germany 
in  disguise,  he  was  arrested  by  Leopold  of  Austria,  who 
transferred  him  to  the  emperor,  Henry  VI.,  who  was  an 
enemy  of  the  captive  prince.  He  was  confined  in  a 
dungeon,  and  subjected  to  many  insults,  until  February, 
1194,  when  he  obtained  his  liberation  by  paying  a  large 
ransom.  In  the  mean  time  his  brother  John  had  at- 
tempted to  usurp  the  royal  power,  but  was  resisted  with 
success.  The  rivalry  between  Richard  and  Philip  after- 
wards involved  them  in  several  wars,  the  results  of  which 
were  insignificant.  Hostilities  were  suspended  in  1198 
by  a  truce  of  five  years.  At  the  siege  of  the  castle  of 
one  of  his  vassals  near  Limoges,  Richard  was  mortally 
wounded  by  an  arrow,  in  March,  1199.  He  left  no  lawful 
issue,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  John.  "  Of  an 
impetuous  and  vehement  sjDirit,"  says  Hume,  "he  was 
distinguished  by  all  the  good  as  well  as  the  bad  qualities 
incident  to  that  character  :  he  was  open,  frank,  generous, 
sincere,  and  brave ;  he  was  revengeful,  domineering, 
ambitious,  haughty,  and  cruel."  Richard  I.  forms  a 
prominent  and  brilliant  character  in  Scott's  novel  of 
"  Ivanhoe." 

See  P.  J.  Bruns,  "  De  Rebus  gestis  Richardi  Angliae  Regis," 
1780;  J.  White,  "Adventures  of  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,"  3  vols., 
1791  ;  G.  P.R.James,  "  Life  of  Richard  L,"  1843;  Hume,  "History 
of  England,"  diap.  x.  ;  W.  E.  Aytoun,  "Life  of  Richard  L  of 
England,"  1840. 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  |  Aard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  Yiyguttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RICHARD 


1892 


RICHARD 


Richard  II.,  King  of  England,  born  at  Bordeaux  in 
1366,  was  a  son  of  Edward  the  HIack  Prince.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  grandfather,  Edward  III.,  in  June,  1377. 
Among  the  remarkable  events  which  occurred  during 
his  minority  was  the  rel^ellion  of  Wat  Tyler,  (1381,) 
which  was  provoked  partly  by  the  tax  imposed  to  sup- 
port a  war  against  France.  The  insurgents,  who  were 
peasants  or  common  people,  entered  London,  massacred 
many  persons  of  the  higher  class,  among  whom  was  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  committed  other  out- 
rages. Richard  acted  with  much  presence  of  mind,  and 
persuaded  the  rioters  to  disperse.  A  great  number  of 
them  were  afterwards  executed.  Edward  III.  had  left 
the  kingdom  involved  in  wars  against  the  French  and 
the  Scotch.  In  1385  Richard  invaded  Scotland  and 
reduced  to  ashes  Edinburgh,  Perth,  Dundee,  etc.  The 
Scots  offered  no  resistance,  but  at  the  same  time  made 
a  successful  raid  into  England.  The  power  of  Richard, 
who  was  indolent  and  incapable,  was  nullified  for  a  time 
by  his  uncle  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  who  put  to  death 
the  king's  favourites  and  ministers  in  1388.  The  wars 
against  France  and  Scotland  were  conducted  with  little 
vigour,  and  suspended  by  frequent  truces.  In  1396 
Richard  concluded  a  long  truce  with  the  French  court, 
and  was  affianced  to  Isabella  of  France,  who  was  seven 
years  of  age.  In  1398  he  banished  the  Dukes  of  Here- 
ford and  Norfolk,  who  had  met  to  fight  a  duel.  Here- 
ford (who  at  the  death  of  his  father  became  Henry,  Duke 
of  Lancaster)  had  gained  the  favour  of  the  people  by  his 
conduct  and  abilities.  Taking  advantage  of  the  absence 
of  Richard,  who  was  in  Ireland,  Henry  landed  in  Eng- 
land in  July,  1399,  raised  a  large  army,  and  made  him- 
self master  of  the  kingdom  without  serious  opposition. 
The  troops  which  Richard  brought  from  Ireland  nearly 
all  deserted.  "  His  personal  character  had  brought  him 
into  contempt,"  says  Hume.  He  was  deposed  by  Par- 
liament, which  recognized  his  rival  as  King  Henry  IV., 
and  ordered  or  advised  that  Richard  should  be  impris- 
oned in  some  secret  jilace.  He  died  mysteriously  in  the 
thirty-fourth  year  of  his  age.  "  It  is  more  probable," 
says  Hume,  "that  he  was  starved  to  death  in  prison." 
He  left  no  posterity.  Richard  II.  gives  name  to  one  of 
Shakspeare's  tragedies. 

See  J.  Evesham,  "Historia  Richardi  II.,"  1729;  Hume,  "  His- 
tory of  England,"  chap.  xvii.  ;  "Life  and  Reign  of  Richard  II.," 
London,  1681  ;  R.  Howard,  "  History  of  the  Reigns  of  Edward  III. 
and  Richard  II.,"  1690. 

Richard  III.,  King  of  England,  a  younger  son  of 
Richard,  Duke  of  York,  and  a  brother  of  Edward  IV., 
was  born  in  Northamptonshire  on  the  2d  of  October, 
1452,  and  was  styled  the  Duke  of  Gloucester.  He  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Tewksbury,  in  147 1,  and,  according 
to  a  report  which  obtained  currency,  was  instrumental 
in  the  death  of  Henry  VI.  In  1472  he  married  Lady 
Anne  Nevil,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick.  He 
became  regent  or  protector  at  the  accession  of  his 
ne])hew,  Edward  V.,  who  was  a  minor,  (April,  1483.) 
"  His  exorbitant  ambition,"  says  Plume,  *'  unrestrained 
by  any  principle  either  of  justice  or  humanity,  made  him 
carry  his  views  to  the  possession  of  the  crown  itself." 
By  dissimulation  and  professions  of  loyalty  he  obtained 
possession  of  the  king's  person.  He  arrested  and  exe- 
cuted the  Earl  of  Rivers,  Edward's  maternal  uncle  and 
tutor,  with  other  friends  of  the  young  king.  About  the 
end  of  June,  1483,  he  usurped  the  royal  power  openly 
and  without  resistance.  Soon  after  this  date  Edward 
V.  md  his  brother  were  put  to  death  in  the  Tower  by 
the  order  of  Richard.  His  authority  was  recognized  by 
a  Parliament  which  met  in  1484.  "  But  the  crimes  of 
Richard  were  so  horrid  and  so  shocking  to  humanity 
that  the  natural  sentiments  of  men,  without  any  political 
or  public  views,  were  sufficient  to  render  his  government 
unstable."  (Hume.)  Many  nobles  and  malcontents  as- 
sembled in  Brittany  and  offered  their  services  to  Henry, 
Earl  of  Richmond,  who  was  regarded  by  the  Lancas- 
trians as  the  rightful  heir  to  the  crown.  Henry  landed 
at  Milford  Haven  in  August,  1485,  with  a  small  army, 
which  was  increased  to  6000  men.  The  rivals  met  at 
Bosworth  on  the  21st  of  August.  In  number  of  men 
Richard  had  the  advantage  ;  but,  soon  after  the  battle 
began,  Lord  Stanley,  whose  conduct  had  been  equivocal, 


j  joined  Richmond  with  about  7000  men  and  decided  the 
I  victory.  Richard  fought  with  the  energy  of  despair, 
and  was  slain  as  he  was  rushing  forward  to  attack  Henry 
in  person.  Richard  was  of  small  stature,  humpbacked, 
and  had  a  disagreeable  countenance.  Several  modern 
writers  have  appeared  as  his  apologists.  Richard  III. 
furnishes  the  name  to  one  of  Shakspeare's  most  popular 
dramas. 

See  Sir  George  Buck,  "Life  of  Richard  III.  ;"  Jesse,  "Life 
of  Richard  III.,"  i860:  Beai.e,  "Richard  III.  and  his  Times," 
1844 ;  Sir  Thomas  More,  "  History  of  Edward  V.  and  the  Ditke  of 
York,"  1641  ;  Hume,  "  History  of  England,"  ciiap.  xxiii.  ;  Horace 
Walpole,  "Historic  Doubts  on  Richard  III.,"  1768;  J.  Rev, 
"  Essais  historiques  et  critiques  sur  Richard  III,"  1818. 

Richard  (re'shti^')  I.,  Duke  of  Normandy,  surnamed 
San.s  Peur,  ("without  fear,")  was  born  about  933  ;  died 
in  996. 

Richard  II.,  Duke  of  Normandy,  was  the  son  of  the 

preceding,  whom  he  succeeded.  He  died  in  1027  or  1026, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Richard  HI.,  who  died 
in  1028. 

Richard,  a  native  of  Normandy,  was  a  friend  of 
Thomas  a  Becket,  whom  he  succeeded  as  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  in  1 1 74.    Died  in  1184. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "  Lives  of  the  Arclibishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  ii.  chap.  viii. 

Richard,  a  learned  and  liberal  prelate,  whose  family 
name  was  Fitz-Ralph.  He  became  Archbishop  of 
Armagh  in  1347,  and  denounced  the  superstition  and 
licentious  habits  of  the  mendicant  friars.  For  this 
offence  he  was  arraigned  before  Pope  Innocent  VI., 
and  condemned.    Died  at  Avignon  in  1360. 

Richard,  re'shtk',  (Achille,)  a  French  botanist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1794,  was  a  son  of  Louis  Claude  Marie, 
noticed  below.  He  wrote  many  monographs,  and  con- 
tributed greatly  to  popularize  the  science  of  botany. 
His  "  Elements  of  Botany  and  Vegetable  Physiology" 
(1819;  7th  edition,  1846)  is  highly  commended  as  a  text- 
book for  students.  It  has  been  translated  into  many 
languages.    Died  in  1852. 

See  BoucHARDOT,  "  ]filoges  de  Royer-Collard  et  d'A.  Richard," 
1853  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Richard,  (Charles  Louis,)  a  French  theologian, 
born  in  Lorraine  in  1711.  He  published  a  "Diction- 
ary of  Ecclesiastical  Sciences,"  (6  vols.,  1760.)  Died 
in  1794. 

Richard,  (Fleury  Francois,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  in  Lyons  in  1777.  He  received  the  title 
of  painter  to  Charles  X.  about  1824. 

Richard,  (Francois,)  called  Richard  Lenoir,  a 
French  manufacturer,  born  in  Calvados  in  1765.  He 
and  his  partner  Lenoir  introduced  the  manufacture  of 
fine  cotton  stuffs  into  France  about  1795.  Died  in  1839. 

See  his  autobiograpl)ic  "  Memoires,"  1837. 

Richard,  (Francois  Marie  Claude,)  Baron,  a 
French  physician,  born  in  the  eighteenth  century.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  Observations  on  the  Medicine  of  the 
Military  Hospitals,"  ("  Observations  de  Medecine  des 
Hopitaux  militaires,"  1766.)  He  died  in  the  reign  of 
Louis  XVI. 

Richard,  (Jean,)  a  French  moralist  and  religious 
writer,  born  at  Verdun  in  1638.  His  chief  work  is 
"  Universal  Science  of  the  Pulpit,  or  Moral  Dictionary," 
("  La  Science  universelle  de  la  Chaire,  ou  Dictionnaire 
morale,"  etc.,  5  vols.,  1700-12.)    Died  in  1719. 

Richard,  (Joseph  Charles,)  a  French  revolutionist, 
born  at  La  Fleche  in  1752,  was  a  moderate  member  of 
the  Convention.  He  was  specially  excepted  from  the 
operation  of  the  law  which  exiled  regicides  in  1816. 
Died  in  1834. 

Richard,  (Louis  Claude  Marie,)  an  eminent  French 
botanist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1754.  He  passed  about 
eight  years  (1781-89)  in  exploring  the  botanical  and 
other  productions  of  Guiana  and  the  Antilles.  After 
his  return  he  was  admitted  into  the  Institute,  and  was 
professor  of  botany  in  the  ficole  de  Medecine,  Paris.  He 
was  a  good  observer,  and  was  versed  in  various  branches 
of  natural  history.  He  wrote,  besides  several  memoirs 
or  monographs,  an  excellent  "Analysis  of  the  Fruit, 
considered  in  general,"  (1808.)    Died  in  1821. 

See  CuviER,  "  filoge  de  L.  C.  M.  Richard;"  Kunth,  "Notice 
sur  L.  C.  M.  Richard,"  1824;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


RICHARD  1893  RICHARDSON 


Richard,  (Ren6,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Sau- 
mur  in  1654,  obtained  the  office  of  royal  censor,  (of 
books.)    Died  in  1727. 

Richard,  (Theodore,)  a  French  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Milliau  (Aveyron)  about  1805. 

Richard  de  Bury,  an  English  prelate  and  patron  of 
learning,  whose  family  name  was  Richard  Angerville 
or  Angarville,  was  born  at  Bury  Saint  Edmund's  in 
1287.  He  was  tutor  to  Prince  Edward,  (afterwards  Ed- 
ward III.)  Having  been  sent  on  a  mission  to  the  pope, 
he  formed  a  friendship  with  Petrarch,  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Durham  in  1333,  and  chancellor  of  England 
in  1334.  He  collected  a  great  number  of  books,  which 
he  bequeathed  to  a  company  of  scbolars  at  Oxford.  It 
is  stated  that  he  owned  more  books  than  all  the  other 
English  bishops  together.  He  was  eminent  for  learning. 
Died  in  1345. 

See  an  account  of  his  life  in  his  "  Philobiblon,"  an  English  ver- 
sion of  which  was  published  in  London,  1832. 

Richard  de  Saint- Victor,  re'shtR'  deh  sin  v^k'- 
toR',  a  mystical  theologian  and  philosopher,  born  in 
Scotland,  was  a  pupil  of  Hugh  de  Saint-Victor.  He 
became  prior  of  the  abbey  of  Saint- Victor,  at  Paris,  in 
1 164.  He  was  an  eloquent  and  celebrated  writer  on 
theology,  ethics,  etc.  An  edition  of  his  works  was  pub- 
lished by  John  of  Toulouse  in  1650.    Died  in  11 73. 

See  Joannes  de  Tolosa,  "Vita  Richardi,"  prefixed  to  the  edi- 
tion of  his  works,  1650. 

Richard  of  Cirencester,  (sis'e-ter,)  an  English  his- 
torian and  monk,  called  Ricar'dus  Corinen'sis,  or  the 
Monk  of  Westminster.  He  entered  a  monastery  at 
Westminster  in  1350.  He  wrote,  besides  several  works 
on  Saxon  and  British  history,  a  celebrated  "  Description 
of  Britain,"  ("  De  Situ  Britanniae,")  the  manuscript  of 
which  was  first  found  in  1747  by  Charles  Julius  Bertram, 
of  Copenhagen,  The  authenticity  of  this  work  is 
doubted  by  many  critics. 

Richard  of  Hexham.    See  Roger. 

Richard  Plantagenet.   See  Yokk,  third  Duke  of. 

Rich'ard  Plan-tag'e-net,  Earl  of  Cornwall,  a  soi^ 
of  lohn,  King  of  England,  was  born  in  1208.  "His 
ruling  passion  was  to  amass  money, — in  which  he  suc- 
ceeded so  well  as  to  become  the  richest  subject  in  Chris- 
tendom," (Hume.)  According  to  Michaud,  he  fought 
as  a  crusader  in  Palestine  about  1240.  He  was  elected 
King  of  the  Romans  in  1256.  "He  was  tempted,"  says 
Hume,  "to  expend  vast  sums  of  money  on  his  election." 
Though  he  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  his  reign 
was  only  nominal.    He  died  in  England  in  1272. 

See  Rymer,  "  Foedera  ;"  Gebauer,  "  Leben  und  Tliaten  Herrn 
Richards,"  etc.,  1744. 

Richardot,  re'shiR'do',  (FRANgois,)  Bishop  of  Arras, 
a  learned  French  prelate,  born  in  1507;  died  in  1574. 

Rich'ards,  (William,)  an  American  missionary,  born 
at  Plainfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1792.  He  sailed  in  1822 
to  the  Sandwich  Islands,  where  he  became  interpreter 
and  chaplain  to  the  king,  and  in  1845  was  appointed 
minister  of  public  instruction.    Died  in  1847. 

Richards,  (W.  T.,)  a  distinguished  American  land- 
scape-painter, is  a  resident  of  Philadelphia.  He  is  one 
of  the  most  successful  cultivators  of  the  pre-Raphaelite 
style  in  landscape-painting.  His  works  are  remarkable 
for  their  accuracy  of  detail  and  the  perfection  of  their 
finish. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 
Rich'ard-son,  (Charles,)  an  eminent  English  lexi- 
cographer, born  in  1775.  He  published  in  1805  "Illus- 
trations of  English  Philology,"  in  which  he  advocated 
the  philological  opinions  of  Horne  Tooke.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,"  (2 
vols.  4to,  1835-37,  reissued  in  1838,  1839,  1844,  1849,  and 
1855  ;  with  Supplement,  1856  and  1859,)  which  is  very 
highly  esteemed.  It  was  pronounced  by  Dean  Trench 
the  best  dictionary  in  the  language.    Died  in  1865. 

See  Ai.LiBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Autliors." 

Rich'ard-son,  (Israel  B.,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Burlington,  Vermont,  about  1818,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1841.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Mexican  war,  became  a  captain  in  185 1,  and  resigned 
his  commission  in  1855.    He  commanded  a  division  in 


the  Chickahominy  campaign,  (May-July,  1862,)  was  ap- 
pointed a  major-general  in  July,  and  rendered  important 
services  at  Antietam,  September  17,  1862.  He  received 
in  this  battle  a  wound  of  which  he  died,  November,  1862. 

See  Tenney,  "Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion." 

Richardson,  (James,)  an  English  traveller,  horn  in 
Lincolnshire  in  1806.  He  engaged  in  an  expedition  to 
Lake  Tchad,  in  Africa,  and  departed  from  Tripoli  in 
1850  with  Barth.  He  died  at  Ungouratona  in  March, 
185 1,  leaving  a  "Narrative  of  a  Mission  to  Central 
Africa,"  (1853.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Richardson,  (John,)  a  learned  English  theologian, 
born  at  Chester.  He  became  Bishop  of  Ardagh,  Ire- 
land, in  1633.    Died  in  London  in  1654. 

Rich'ard-son,  (Sir  John,)  a  British  naturalist  and 
traveller,  born  at  Dumfries,  Scotland,  in  1787.  He 
served  as  surgeon  to  Captain  Franklin's  expedition  to 
the  Arctic  Ocean  in  1819,  and  to  the  second  expedition 
of  that  navigator  in  1825.  He  published  "Zoology  of 
the  Northern  Parts  of  British  America,"  ("  Fauna  Bo- 
reali-Americana,"  3  parts,  1829-37,)  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  William  Swainson  and  William  Kirby.  In 
1848  he  conducted  an  expedition  sent  to  search  for  Sir 
John  Franklin.  His  route  was  through  the  lakes  of 
British  America  to  Slave  Lake,  and  thence  down  the 
Mackenzie  River,  the  mouth  of  which  he  reached  in 
August,  1848.  After  his  return  he  published  a  "Journal 
of  a  Boat- Voyage  through  Rupert's  Land  to  the  Arctic 
Sea,"  etc.,  (185 1.)    Died  in  1865. 

See  "Life  of  Sir  John  Richardson,"  London,  1868;  "Bio- 
graphical Sketches,"  by  H.  Martineau. 

Richardson,  (John  Peter,)  an  American  statesman, 
grandson  of  Richard,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Sumter 
district,  South  Carolina,  in  1801.  He  was  a  prominent 
leader  of  the  Union  party  in  the  Nullification  contest 
of  1835,  elected  to  Congress  in  1836,  and  became 
Governor  of  the  State  in  1841.    Died  in  1850. 

Richardson,  (Jonathan,  )  an  English  portrait- 
painter  and  writer  on  art,  was  born  about  1665.  He 
painted  heads  with  great  success,  but  failed  in  attitudes, 
draperies,  and  backgrounds.  After  the  death  of  Knel- 
ler  he  was  considered  the  foremost  portrait-painter  of 
England.  His  durable  reputation  is  founded  on  an 
"Essay  on  the  Whole  Art  of  Criticism  as  it  relates  to 
Painting,  and  an  Argument  in  behalf  of  the  Science  of 
a  Connoisseur,"  (1719,)  which  is  highly  commended. 
Died  in  1745. 

Richardson,  (Joseph,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Northumberland.  He  studied  law,  and  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1784.  He  was  one  of  the  writers  of  the 
satires  of  the  "  Rolliad"  and  the  "  Probationary  Odes." 
Died  in  1803. 

Richardson,  (Richard,)  an  American  soldier  and 
patriot,  born  near  Jamestown,  Virginia,  in  1704,  served 
in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  was  made  a  brigadier- 
general.    Died  in  1780. 

Richardson,  (Samuel,)  an  eminent  English  novel- 
ist, born  in  Derbyshire  in  1689,  was  a  son  of  a  joiner. 
At  the  village  school  which  he  attended  he  began  to  dis- 
play his  faculty  for  invention.  He  has  informed  us  that 
in  his  boyhood  he  was  a  favourite  of  young  women,  who 
availed  themselves  of  his  talents  in  the  composition  of 
letters  to  their  lovers.  About  the  age  of  seventeen  he 
was  apprenticed  to  a  printer  of  London,  named  Wilde. 
He  served  as  foreman  in  the  printing-office  about  five 
years,  and  then  became  a  master-printer  in  Fleet  Street. 
He  married  Miss  Wilde,  a  daughter  of  his  former 
master.  In  1740  he  published  his  first  novel,  "Pa- 
mela," which  was  very  popular  and  opened  a  new  era  in 
English  romantic  literature.  Fielding's  novel  "Joseph 
Andrews"  was  an  avowed  burlesque  of  "  Pamela." 
Richardson  acquired  a  European  reputation  by  his 
"History  of  Clarissa  Harlowe,"  (1748,)  which  is  con- 
sidered his  capital  work.  "  His  personages  have  all 
the  reality  possible,"  says  Diderot ;  "his  incidents  are 
realized  in  the  manners  of  all  polished  nations.  What 
fertility  in  the  invention  of  personages  !  what  variety 
in  the  delineation  of  characters !"  He  afterwards 
produced  the  novel  of  "Sir  Charles  Grandison,"  (1753,) 
which  was  less  successful.  Richardson  was  prosperous  in 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RICHARDSON 


RICHELIEU 


business.  By  the  favour  of  Speaker  Onslow  he  obtained 
the  lucrative  privilege  of  printing  the  Journals  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  He  wrote  No,  XCVH.  of  the 
"  Rambler"  of  Dr.  Johnson,  who  was  his  friend  and  a 
warm  admirer  of  his  works.  Died  on  the  4th  of  July, 
1761, 

See  Francis  Jeffrey,  "Swift  and  Richardson,"  1853;  Dide- 
rot, "  £loge  de  S.  Ricliardson,"  1762;  Mrs.  Barbauld,  "  Life  of 
S.  Richardson,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Correspondence,"  6  vols.,  1S03; 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Novelists  ;"  E.  Man- 
gin,  "  Liie  and  Writings  of  S  Richardson,"  181 1  ;  Allibone,  "  Dic- 
tionary of  Authors;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1804; 
"Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  March,  1S69,  article  "Historical 
Sketches  of  the  Reign  of  George  II.  ;"  "Westminster  Review"  for 
>3nuary,  1869  ;  "Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1805. 

Richardson,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  judge,  born 
in  Norfolk  in  1569,  He  was  elected  Speaker  of  the 
<!,'ommons  in  1621,  and  became  chief  justice  of  the  court 
of  common  pleas  in  1625  or  1626,  He  decided  that 
torture  was  an  illegal  mode  of  obtaining  evidence  when 
it  was  proposed  to  apply  it  to  Felton  the  assassin,  (1628.) 
In  1631  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  king's 
bench.    He  was  a  noted  jester.    Died  in  1635, 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices;"  Foss, 
"The  Judges  of  England." 

Richardson,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
near  Bedford  in  1698.  He  became  chaplain  to  the  king 
in  1746.  Some  of  his  sermons  were  published.  Died 
in  1775. 

Richardson,  (William,)  a  British  writer  and  critic, 
born  in  Perthshire  in  1743.  He  was  professor  of  hu- 
manity at  Glasgow  from  1773  1814,  and  was  a 
contributor  to  the  "Mirror."  Among  his  works  are 
"Anecdotes  of  the  Russian  Empire,"  and  "Essays  on 
the  Characters  of  Shakspeare,"  (3  vols.,  1775,)  which 
was  received  with  favour.    Died  in  1814. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Riche,  resh,  (Claude  Antoine  Gaspard,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  in  Beaujolais  in  1762.  He  was  a  coad- 
jutor of  Vicq  d'Azyr  in  the  "  Encyclopedic  Methodique." 
He  accompanied  as  a  naturalist  the  expedition  which 
was  sent  in  search  of  La  Perouse  in  1791.  On  their 
arrival  at  Java,  in  1793,  the  collections  and  journal  of 
Riche  were  seized  by  the  Dutch.  He  died  in  1797, 
leaving  many  memoirs  on  natural  history.  He  was  a 
brother  of  De  Prony,  the  great  engineer  and  geometer. 

See  Cuvier,  "  £loge  du  Citoyen  Riche,"  1798. 

Riche,  re^shy,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  President  of  Hayti, 
was  born  at  Cap-Haitien  about  1780,  He  served  as  a 
general  under  Christoi)he,  and  became  President  in 
March,  1846.    Died  in  February,  1847. 

Riche  de  Prony.    See  Prony,  de. 

Richelet,  r^sh'li',  (Pierre,)  a  French  grammarian, 
born  at  Cheminon  in  163 1.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Dictionary  of  the  French  Language,"  (1680,) 
the  success  of  which  was  promoted  by  many  satirical 
remarks  contained  in  it.    Died  at  Paris  in  1698. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Richelieu,  de,  deh  r^sh'le-uh',  (  Alphonse  Louis 
du  Plessis — dii  plk'se',)  calTecl  Cardinal  de  Lyon, 
born  in  Paris  in  1582,  was  a  brother  of  the  great  states- 
man. He  became  Archbishop  of  Lyons  in  1628,  and 
cardinal  in  1629.  He  meddled  little  with  the  intrigues 
of  the  court.    Died  in  1653. 

See  Abbe  de  Pure,  "Vie  de  Richelieu,  Cardinal  de  Lyon." 

Richelieu,  de,  (Armand  Emanuel  du  Plessls,) 
Duke,  a  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1766,  was  a  grand- 
son of  Marshal  Richelieu,  ( 1 696-1 788.)  He  emigrated 
in  1789  or  1790,  entered  the  Russian  army,  and  became 
governor  of  Odessa  in  1803.  Having  returned  to  France 
in  1814,  he  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and 
president  of  the  council  (i.e.  prime  minister)  in  Sep- 
tember, 1 81 5.  He  negotiated  with  the  allies  a  treaty 
which  secured  the  territorial  integrity  of  France.  He 
resigned  office  about  the  end  of  1818,  and  was  recalled 
to  the  presidency  of  the  council  February  20,  1820.  In 
November,  1821,  he  retired  because  the  majority  of  the 
Chamber  opposed  his  policy.  He  was  a  man  of  estimable 
character.    Died  in  May,  1822. 

See  L.  F.  de  Bau.<^set,  "Notice  sur  M.  le  Due  de  Richelieu," 
1822;  Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Restoration;"  GuizoT,  "  Me- 
moires,"  tome  i. ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


Richelieu,  rfesh'e-loo,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  rish'le-uh^] 
(Armand  Jean  du  Plessis,)  Cardinal,  a  celelxated 
and  ambitious  French  statesman,  born  at  Paris  or  in 
Poitou  on  the  5th  of  September,  1585,  was  a  son  of 
Fran9ois  du  Plessis  and  Susanne  de  la  Porte.  He 
studied  at  the  College  of  Navarre  and  that  of  Lisieux, 
and  chose  the  clerical  profession.  In  1607  he  was 
consecrated  at  Rome  as  Bishop  of  Lu9on.  Having  been 
selected  by  the  States-General  to  harangue  the  king  in 
1614,  he  acquitted  himself  so  well  that  he  was  appointed 
almoner  to  the  queen-regnant.  He  was  secretary  of 
state  for  a  short  time  in  1616,  and  acted  as  mediator 
between  the  king  and  his  mother,  Marie  de  Medicis, 
by  whose  influence  he  obtained  the  dignity  of  cardinal 
in  1622.  About  two  years  later  he  was  admitted  into 
the  royal  council,  which  he  entered  as  a  master  rather 
than  an  adviser.  Even  the  king  was  overawed  by  the 
intensity  of  his  imperious  will.  Richelieu  soon  became 
prime  minister,  and  pursued  a  policy  which  tended 
to  humble  the  powerful  nobility,  to  centralize  the  ad- 
ministration, to  render  the  monarchy  absolute,  and 
to  restore  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe,  which  the 
ascendency  of  the  House  of  Austria  had  disturbed. 
His  most  powerful  opponents  were  Marie  de  Medicis 
and  the  king's  brother  Gaston,  who  incited  an  armed 
revolt,  which  was  suppressed  without  difficulty.  Among 
the  important  achievements  of  Richelieu  was  the  subjec- 
tion of  the  Calvinists,  who  had  attempted  to  gain  their 
independence  or  defend  their  rights  by  arms,  and  whose 
head-quarters  were  at  Rochelle.  He  directed  in  person 
the  siege  of  this  city,  which  surrendered  in  1628  on 
condition  that  a  general  pardon  should  be  granted,  with 
religious  toleration  to  the  Protestants.  A  contest  for 
ascendency  between  Richelieu  and  Marie  de  Medicis 
ended  in  the  exile  of  the  latter  in  1630.  He  maintained 
the  independence  of  the  civil  power  against  the  usurpa- 
tions of  the  Romish  Church.  He  exhibited  excessive 
severity  in  the  execution  of  Marillac,  Montmorency, 
Cinq-Mars,  and  other  noblemen,  who  were  implicated 
in  a  conspiracy  against  him.  The  first  two  of  these 
were  executed  in  1632. 

In  the  pursuance  of  his  design  to  reduce  the  power 
of  Austria,  he  supported  with  a  subsidy  the  Protestants 
of  Germany,  who  were  waging  war  against  the  emperor, 
and  used  his  influence  to  defeat  the  negotiations  for 
peace.  He  also  ordered  a  large  body  of  French  troops 
to  co-operate  with  the  Swedes  on  the  Rhine  in  1635. 
About  this  time  his  armies  opposed  the  Spaniards  in 
Flanders  and  Italy,  but  without  much  success.  In  1635 
he  founded  and  endowed  the  French  Academy,  the  most 
splendid  literary  institution  of  Europe.  In  the  same 
year  he  made  a  treaty  with  Holland,  which  became  his 
ally  in  a  war  against  Philip  IV.  of  Spain.  The  French 
gained  several  victories  in  Germany  and  Italy  in  1640- 
42.  During  his  administration  Alsace,  Artois,  and  Rous- 
sillon  were  annexed  to  France.  Richelieu  detected  a 
dangerous  conspiracy  formed  by  Cinq-Mars  and  Gaston 
of  Orleans,  the  former  of  whom  was  executed  in  Sep- 
tember, 1642.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the  4th  of  December, 
1642.  The  people  expressed  by  bonfires  their  joy  for 
his  death. 

Richelieu  had  some  literary  taste,  and  was  a  liberal 
patron  of  authors,  artists,  etc.  He  was  the  reputed 
author  of  several  works,  among  which  are  "  Memoires 
du  Cardinal  de  Richelieu,"  first  printed  in  1823,  and  his 
"Political  Testament,"  ("Testament  politique,")  the 
authenticity  of  which  was  discredited  by  Voltaire  and 
defended  by  Foncemagne.  Although  Richelieu  was  a 
great  and  successful  statesman,  he  is  not  a  general 
favourite  with  the  French,  like  Henry  IV.  or  Louis  XIV. 
Many  modern  French  writers  argue  that  his  policy  did 
not  conduce  to  the  real  and  durable  prosperity  of  the 
nation.  His  system  is  severely  criticised  by  De  Tocque- 
ville,  (in  his  "Ancien  Regime  et  la  Revolution,")  by 
Quinet,  and  by  Charles  de  Remusat. 

See  AuBERV,  "  Memoires  du  Cardinal  de  Richelieu,"  1660;  Jay, 
"  Histoire  du  Ministere  de  Richelieu;"  Capefigue,  "Richelieu  et 
Mazarin,"  1836;  Henri  Martin,  "Histoire  de  France;"  Miche- 
LET,  "  Histoire  de  France  ;"  Violart,  "  Histoire  du  Ministere  de 
Richelieu,"  1640;  J.  Caili.et,  "  L' Administration  en  France  sous 
Richelieu,"  2  vols.,  1861  ;  "Life  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,"  by  William 
Robson,  1854  ;  Sully,  "  Memoires  ;"  Cardinal  de  Retz,  "  Me- 
moires;" "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


a»  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  ai,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  far,  f^ll,  fit;  met;  n6t;  good;  mocKU 


RICHELIEU  1895  RICHTER 


Richelieu,  de,  (Louis  Francois  Armand  du  Ples- 
Sis,)  a  brilliant  and  profligate  courtier,  born  in  1696,  was 
a  grand-nephew  of  Cardinal  Richelieu.  He  was  a  son 
of  Armand  Jean  Vignerod,  Due  de  Richelieu.  His  in- 
trigues and  libertinism  caused  him  to  be  thrice  confined 
in  the  Bastille.  He  obtained  the  favour  of  Louis  XV., 
and  distinguished  himself  as  a  general  at  Fontenoy  in 
1745.  About  1748  he  was  made  a  marshal  of  France. 
He  disgraced  himself  by  his  cupidity,  arrogance,  and 
scandalous  vices.    Died  in  1788. 

See  Faur,  "Vie  privee  du  Marechal  de  Richelieu,"  1790;  Sou- 
LAViE,  "Memoiresdu  Marechal  de  RicheHeu ;"  Voltaire,  "  Cor- 
respondance  geneiale  :"  Saint-Simon,  "  Memoires  ;"  Capefigue, 
"Le  Marechal  de  Richelieu,"  1857;  Dangeau,  "Journal;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Riohemont,  de,  deh  r^sh'm6N',  (Louis  Auguste 
Camus,)  a  French  general,  born  in  1770;  died  in  1853. 

Richepanse  or  Richepance,  r^sh'pSNss',  (An- 
TOINE,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Metz  in  1770.  He 
became  a  general  of  brigade  in  1796,  and  a  general 
of  division  in  1 799.  Having  obtained  command  of  a 
division  of  the  army  of  Moreau,  he  contributed  to  the 
victory  of  Hohenlinden,  (1800.)  Died  at  Guadeloupe 
in  1803. 

See  Nollet-Fabert,  "  Le  General  Richepance,"  1853. 

Richer,  re'shk',  [Lat.  Richf/rus,]  a  French  chroni- 
cler, who  flourished  about  980-1000.  He  wrote  (in 
Latin)  a«  history  of  the  period  from  888  to  995,  which 
is  highly  prized.  The  manuscript  of  this  work  was  dis- 
covered in  1833  by  Pertz  and  Boehmer. 

Richer,  (Adrien,)  a  French  biographer  and  historian, 
born  at  Avranches  in  1720.  He  wrote  "The  Lives  of 
Celebrated  Mariners,"  (13  vols.,  1780-86,)  and  other 
works.    Died  at  Paris  in  1798. 

Richer,  (Claude,)  a  French  mathematician,  born  at 
Auxerre  in  1680 ;  died  in  1756. 

Richer,  (Edmond,)  a  French  canonist,  born  in  Cham- 
pagne in  1559  or  1560.  He  became  an  adherent  of 
Henry  IV.  about  1590,  and  syndic  of  the  Faculty  of 
Theology  at  Paris  in  1608.  He  defended  the  privileges 
of  the  Gallican  Church,  and  published  a  work  "On 
Ecclesiastical  and  Political  Power,"  (161 1,)  which  sub- 
jected him  to  persecution.  Died  in  1631.  "His  fame," 
says  Hallam,  "has  risen  in  later  times." 

See  Baillet,  "Vie  de  Richer,"  1714;  Perau,  "Vie  d'E. 
Richer,"  1748  ;  Nic^ron,  "Memoires." 

Richer,  (Edouard,)  a  French  author,  born  in  La 
Vendee  in  1792.  He  produced  a  poem  entitled  "Victor 
et  Amelie,"  (1816,)  and  a  "  History  of  Brittany,"  (1821,) 
which  is  commended.  Having  been  converted  to  the 
doctrines  of  Swedenborg,  he  published  a  work  called 
"The  New  Jerusalem,"  (8  vols.,  1832-36.)  Died  at 
Nantes  in  1834. 

See  PiET,  "Mdmoires  sur  la  Vie  de  Richer,"  1836. 

Richer,  (Francois,)  a  French  jurist,  a  brother  of 
Adrien,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Avranches  in  1718. 
He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Civil  Death,"  ("  De  la  Mort 
civile,"  1755,)  "Celebrated  Trials,"  (22  vols.,  1772 
-88.)    Died  in  1790. 

Richer,  (Henri,)  a  mediocre  French  writer,  born  at 
Longueil  in  1685.  Among  his  works  are  "  Fables  in 
Verse,"  (1729,)  and  a  "Life  of  Maecenas,"  (1746.)  Died 
in  1748. 

Richer,  (Jean,)  a  French  astronomer,  was  sent  to 
Cayenne  in  1671  to  observe  the  parallax  of  the  sun. 
Died  in  1696. 

Richer  d'Aube,  re'shi'  d5b,  (Francois,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1686,  was  a  nephew  of  Fonte- 
nelle.    Died  in  1752. 

Richerand,  r^sh'rdN',  (Anthelme,)  an  eminent 
French  physician  and  surgeon,  born  at  Belley,  in  Bugey, 
in  1779.  He  published  "Elements  of  Physiology," 
(1801  ;  loth  edition,  1832,)  which  had  great  success,  and 
became  professor  in  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  in  Paris 
\n  1806.  He  wrote  articles  for  the  "Biographie  Uni- 
verselle."    Died  in  1840. 

See  Dubois  d'Amiens,  "  filoge  de  Richerand,"  1851  ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Richerus.    See  Richer. 

Richier,  re'she-i',  (Ligier,)  a  skilful  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Lorraine  about  1500.     He  studied  in  Rome, 


and  returned  to  Lorraine  while  he  was  still  young. 
Died  about  1572. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

Richmann,  riK'mSn,  or  Rickman,  rik'mSn,  (Georg 
Wilhelm,)  born  in  Livonia  in  171 1,  became  professor 
of  natural  history  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1745.  He  was 
killed  by  lightning,  while  repeating  the  experiment  of 
Dr.  Franklin,  in  1753. 

Rich'mond,  (Charles  Gordon  Lennox,)  Duke 
OF,  born  in  London  in  1791,  was  a  son  of  Charles 
Lennox,  (1764-1819.)  He  was  a  member  of  the  privy 
council,  and  of  the  cabinet  formed  by  Earl  Grey  in  1831. 
Died  in  1861. 

Richmond,  (Charles  Henry  Gordon  Lennox,) 
Duke  of,  an  English  peer,  born  in  1818,  was  educated 
at  Oxford.  He  was  appointed  president  of  the  poor- 
law  board  in  1859,  resigned  the  same  year,  and  succeeded 
his  father  as  duke  in  i860.  He  was  president  of  the 
board  of  trade  in  1867  and  1868.  In  1870  he  became 
leader  of  the  Conservatives  in  the  House  of  Lords. 

Richmond,  (Charles  Lennox,)  Duke  of,  born 
in  1672,  was  a  son  of  Charles  II.  and  the  Duchess  of 
Portsmouth.  He  served  in  the  army  under  William 
III.  in  Flanders.  H«  died  in  1723,  and  left  the  title  to 
his  son  Charles. 

Richmond,  (Charles  Lennox,)  Duke  of,  a  British 
general,  born  in  1735,  was  a  grandson  of  a  natural  son 
of  King  Charles  II.  He  was  a  friend  of  liberty  and 
reform,  and  a  man  of  superior  talents.  In  1778  he  pro- 
posed to  recognize  the  independence  of  the  revolted 
American  colonies.  He  became  master  of  the  ordnance 
in  1782.  Died  in  1806.  His  sister,  Sarah  Lennox, 
became  the  wife  of  George  Napier  and  mother  of  the 
famous  commanders  of  that  name. 

Richmond,  (Charles  Lennox,)  Duke  of,  a  British 
peer,  born  in  1764.  He  entered  the  army  in  his  youth. 
In  1806  he  inherited  the  dukedom  at  thi  death  of  his 
uncle.  He  was  appointed  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  in 
1808,  and  governor-general  of  the  British  possessions  in 
North  America  about  1816.  He  died  in  Canada,  of 
hydrophobia,  in  1819,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Charles. 

Richmond,  Earl  of.  See  Henry  VII.  of  Eng- 
land. 

Richmond,  (George,)  an  English  portrait-painter, 
born  about  1809.  He  became  popular  as  a  painter  in 
water-colours  in  London.  His  more  recent  works  are 
chiefly  portraits  in  oil.  He  was  elected  an  associate  of 
the  Royal  Academy  in  1857. 

Richmond,  (James  Stuart,)  fourth  Duke  of,  born 
in  1612,  was  a  nephew  of  Ludovic  Stuart,  noticed  below. 
He  inherited  the  title  of  duke  about  1641.  He  was  a 
devoted  adherent  of  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war.  Died 
in  1655. 

Richmond,  (Leigh,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
Liverpool  in  1772.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and 
obtained  a  curacy  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  from  which  he 
removed  to  London  in  1805  and  became  chaplain  of  the 
Lock  Hospital.  He  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of 
Turvey,  in  Bedfordshire,  about  1808.  He  published 
"Annals  of  the  Poor,"  containing  "The  Dairyman's 
Daughter"  and  other  narratives,  which  obtained  a  wide 
circulation  ;  also,  "The  Fathers  of  the  English  Church," 
(8  vols.,  1807-11.)    Died  in  1827. 

See  "  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Leigh  Richmond,"  by  Rev.  T.  S. 
Grimshaw. 

Rich'mond  and  Len'nox,  (Ludovic  Stuart,)  sec- 
ond Duke  of,  born  in  1574,  was  a  son  of  the  first  Duke 
of  Lennox,  and  a  cousin  of  James  I.  of  England.  He 
gained  the  favour  of  that  king,  who  created  him  Duke  of 
Richmond  in  1623.    He  died,  without  issue,  in  1624. 

Richomme,  re'shom',  (Joseph  Theodore,)  an  emi- 
nent French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1785.  He  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1806  or  1816.  He  engraved  a  number 
of  works  after  Raphael.    Died  about  1850. 

Richter,  riK'ter,  (Adolph,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Thorn  in  1813. 

Richter,  (Adrian  Ludwig,)  an  eminent  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Dresden  in  1803.  His 
works  are  chiefly  landscapes  representing  German  and 
Italian  scenes. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;     as  in  this,   (Si^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RICHTER  1896  RIDGLET 


Richter,  (/Emilius  Ludwig,)  professor  of  canon  law 
at  Marburg,  born  at  Stolpen  in  1808,  published  a 
"  Manual  of  Catholic  and  Evangelical  Canon  Law," 
(1841.) 

Richter,  (August  GorrLOB,)  a  German  surgeon,  born 
in  Saxony  in  1742.  He  was  professor  of  surgery  at  Got- 
tingen  for  more  than  forty  years,  and  wrote  several  works 
on  that  subject.    Died  in  1812. 

Richter,  (Geokg  Gotilok,)  a  German  phvsician, 
born  at  Schneeburg,  in  Misnia,  in  1694.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Gottingen  in  1736,  and  pub- 
lished many  medical  treatises.    Died  in  1773. 

Richter,  rik'ter,  (Henry,)  an  English  painter  of 
genre  and  occasionally  of  history,  born  in  1772,  was 
of  German  extraction.  He  resided  mostly  in  London, 
where  he  died  in  1857.  His  most  important  historical 
work  is  "Christ  Restoring  Sight  to  the  Blind,"  now  in 
a  church  at  Greenwich,  England. 

Richter,  (tiERMANN  Eherhard,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, born  at  Leipsic  in  1808,  published  a  number 
of  medical  and  botanical  works. 

Richter,  (Jean  Paul  Friedrich,)  commonly  called 
Jean  Paul,  a  popular,  quaint,  and  original  German 
author,  born  at  Wunsiedel,  near  Baireuth,  (Bavaria,)  on 
the  2ist  of  March,  1763.  His  father  was  a  subaltern 
teacher  in  the  gymnasium  of  that  place,  and  afterwards  a 
clergyman.  His  early  education  was  defective.  He  had, 
however,  made  good  progress  in  Latin  and  Greek  when 
he  entered  the  University  of  Leipsic,  in  1780.  He  was 
destined  for  theology,  but  a  strong  predilection  for  poetry 
and  philosophy  caused  him  to  neglect,  and  at  length  to 
abandon,  his  appointed  profession.  During  his  attend- 
ance at  the  university  he  was  reduced  to  extreme  indi- 
gence. To  supply  his  urgent  want  of  funds,  he  wrote  a 
work  entitled  "Greenland  Lawsuits,"  (1783,)  which  but 
slightly  improved  his  pecuniary  affairs.  He  also  wrote 
a  "  Selection  ffom  the  Papers  of  the  Devil,"  ("  Auswahl 
aus  des  Teufels  Papieren,"  1788.)  He  quitted  Leipsic 
in  1785,  after  which  he  lived  some  time  with  his  mother 
at  Hof.  He  was  afterwards  a  tutor  in  a  family  of  rank, 
and  in  1793  became  teacher  of  a  school  at  Schwarzen- 
bach.  He  produced  in  1793  "The  Invisible  Lodge," 
("Die  unsichtbare  Loge,")'  which  was  received  with 
favour.  His  "  Hesperus,"  a  novel,  (4  vols.,  1794,)  was 
greatly  admired.  "  By  degrees,"  says  Carlyle,  "  Jean 
Paul  began  to  be  considered,  not  a  strange  crack-brained 
mixture  of  enthusiast  and  buffoon,  but  a  man  of  infinite 
humour,  sensibility,  force,  and  penetration."  He  changed 
his  residence  frequently,  living  successively  at  Leipsic, 
Weimar,  Meiningen,  etc.  In  1798  he  published  "The 
Valley  of  Campan,  or  a  Discourse  on  the  Immortality 
of  the  Soul,"  ("  Das  Campanerthal,  oder  die  Unsterb- 
lichkeit  der  Seele.")  He  married  Caroline  Mayer,  of 
Berlin,  in  1801,  soon  after  which  he  settled  at  Baireuth. 
The  prince-primate  Carl  von  Dalberg  granted  him  in 
1809  an  annual  pension  of  1000  florins.  According  to 
Carlyle,  he  received  a  pension  from  the  King  of  Bavaria 
in  1802.  Richter  is  represented  as  having  been  eminently 
happy  in  his  domestic  relations.  Died  at  Baireuth  in 
November,  1825. 

Among  his  principal  works  are  novels  entitled  "  Quin- 
tus  Fixlein,"  (1796,)  "Parson  in  Jubilee,"  ("Der  Jubel 
Senior,"  1797,)  "Titan,"  (1800-03,)  '^"cl  "  Flegeljahre," 
(which  may  be  translated  "  Wild  Oats,"  1805.)  "  Titan," 
which  he  considered  his  master-piece,  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English,  (1863.)  He  also  wrote  two  works 
of  high  order,  entitled  "Introduction  to  ^Esthetics," 
("  Vorschule  der  ^sthetik,"  3  vols.,  1804,)  and  "  Le- 
vana,"  (1807,)  a  profound  philosophical  essay  on  educa- 
tion. He  left  an  autobiography,  "  Wahrheit  aus  Jean 
Paul's  Leben,  (8  vols.,  1826-33,)  the  last  part  of  which 
was  written  by  Dr.  Otto.  "  Except  by  name,"  said  Car- 
lyle in  1827,  "Richter  is  little  known  out  of  Germany. 
The  only  thing  connected  with  him,  we  think,  that  has 
reached  this  country  is  his  saying  imported  by  Madame 
de  Stael  and  thankfully  pocketed  by  most  newspaper 
critics:  'Providence  has  given  to  the  French  the  empire 
of  the  land,  to  the  English  that  of  the  sea,  and  to  the 
Germans  that  of — the  air  !'  Of  this  last  element,  indeed, 
his  own  genius  might  easily  seem  to  have  been  a  denizen. 
His  thoughts,  his  feelings,  the  creations  of  his  spirit, 


walk  before  us  embodied  under  wondrous  shapes,  in 
motley  and  ever-fluctuating  groups;  but  his  essential 
character,  however  he  disguised  it,  is  that  of  a  philoso- 
pher and  moral  poet,  .  .  .  whose  delight  and  best 
endeavour  are  with  all  that  is  beautiful  and  tender  and 
mysteriously  sublime  in  the  fate  or  history  of  man."  As 
a  humourist,  he  is  pre-eminent  among  the  Germans. 

See  Carlylk,  "  Essays,"  vols.  i.  and  ii.  ;  E.  Forster,  "  Life  of 
Jean  Paul  Richter,"  1863;  Doking,  "Leben  und  Charakteristik  J. 
P.  Richters,"  1830;  R.  O.  Spaziek,  "Jean  Paul  Richter;  eiu  bio- 
graphischer  Commentar  zu  seincn  Werken,"  5  vols.,  1833;  Z. 
FuNCK,  "Notice  sur  Jean  Paul  Richter."  1839;  L.  Boerne, 
"Denkrede  auf  J.  P.  F.  Richter,"  1826;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Gen^rale;"  Eliza  Lee,  "Life  of  J.  P.  F.  Richter,"  Boston,  1842; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1827;  "British  Quarterly  Review" 
for  November,  1847;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  lor  July,  1847,  and 
September,  1863. 

Richter,  (Jeremias  Benjamin,)  a  Prussian  chemist, 
born  at  Hirschberg,  in  Silesia,  in  1762.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Rudiments  of  the  Art  of  Measuring 
Chemical  Elements,"  (4  vols.,  1792-94.)  It  is  stated  that 
he  discovered  the  law  of  multiple  proportions.  Died 
in  1807. 

See  Meusel,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland." 

Richter,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  at  Freyberg  in  1773  '■>  in  1806. 

Richter,  von,  fon  riK'ter,  (Otto  Friedrich,)  a 
Russian  traveller,  born  in  1792.  He  visited  Egypt, 
Syria,  etc.    Died  at  Smyrna  in  1816  or  1817.  ' 

Rig'i-mer,  an  ambitious  general  of  the  Roman  army, 
was  a  Gothic  chief.  He  deposed  Avitus  about  457  a.d., 
and  raised  to  the  throne  Majorian,  whom  he  put  to 
death  in  461.  He  obtained  imperial  power,  though  he 
did  not  assume  the  title  of  emperor.  In  472  a.d.  he 
captured  Rome,  and  caused  Anthemius  to  be  killed. 
He  died  the  same  year. 

See  Gibbon,  "  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire  ;"Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Rick'etts,  (James  B.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
the  city  of  New  York.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1839,  and  became  a  captain  in  1852.  He  commanded  a 
division  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September,  1862,  and 
at  that  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5  and  6,  1864.  He  was 
disabled  by  a  severe  wound  at  the  battle  of  Cedar  Creek, 
Virginia,  October  19,  1864. 

Rickman,  (Georg  Wilhelm.)    See  Richmann. 

Rick^man,  (John,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  statistician, 
born  in  177 1,  was  assistant  clerk  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons.   Died  in  1841. 

Rickman,  (Thomas,)  an  English  architect  and  emi- 
nent writer  on  Gothic  architecture,  was  born  at  Maiden- 
head in  1776.  He  became  a  clerk  in  the  service  of  an 
insurance-broker  of  Liverpool  about  1808,  after  which 
he  began  to  study  design  in  his  leisure  hours.  Having 
adopted  the  profession  of  architect,  he  removed  to  Bir- 
mingham, and  published  "  An  Attempt  to  discriminate 
the  Styles  of  Architecture  in  England,"  (181 7,)  which 
is  esteemed  a  standard  work.  He  was  the  architect  of 
many  Gothic  churches  erected  at  Bristol,  Birmingham, 
Carlisle,  Liverpool,  etc.  Among  his  best  works  is  the 
New  Court  of  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge.  Died 
in  1841. 

Ricord,  re'koR',  (Philippe,)  a  skilful  physician,  of 
French  parentage,  born  at  Baltimore,  United  States,  in 
1800.  He  became  chief  surgeon  of  the  Hopital  du 
Midi,  Paris,  in  183 1,  and  gave  special  attention  to  vene- 
real diseases,  on  which  he  has  written  with  great  suc- 
cess. His  practice  is  said  to  be  immense  :  it  is  probably 
not  surpassed  by  that  of  any  other  physician  in  Paris. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Letters  on  Syphilis,"  (1854.) 

Ri'der,  (John,)  a  Protestant  bishop,  born  in  Cheshire 
about  1562.  He  became  Bishop  of  Killaloe,  in  Ireland, 
in  1612.  Among  his  works  is  "  An  English-Latin  and 
Latin-English  Dictionary,"  (1589.)    Died  in  1632. 

Rider,  (Rev.  William,)  an  English  historian,  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  England."    Died  in  1785. 

RidgTey,  (Thomas,)  a  dissenting  minister,  born  in 
London  about  1666.  He  succeeded  Thomas  Gouge  in 
London  about  1700,  and  became  tutor  in  an  academy  of 
the  Independents  in  1712.  He  published  a  "Body  of 
Divinity,"  (1731.)    Died  in  1734. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  ?i,    i,  9,  obscure;  ftr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


RID  INGE  R  1897 


Ridiuger.    See  Riedinger. 

Rid'ley,  (Gloucester,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
at  sea,  on  board  the  "Gloucester"  East  Indiaman,  in 
1702.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Nicholas  Ridley,  Bishop 
of  London,"  (1763,)  and  several  poems,  one  of  which 
was  called  "  Psyche,"  (1782.)    Died  in  1774. 

Ridley,  (James,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  a  chap- 
lain in  the  army.  He  wrote  "  Tales  of  the  Genii," 
often  reprinted.    Died  prematurely  in  1765. 

Ridley,  (Nicholas,)  an  eminent  English  Reformer 
and  martyr,  born  in  Northumberland  near  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  educated  at  Pembroke 
College,  Cambridge,  and  obtained  a  high  reputation  as 
a  preacher.  About  1540  he  became  chaplain  to  the 
king.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1547, 
and  succeeded  Bonner  as  Bishop  of  London  in  1550. 
He  assisted  Cranmer  in  composing  forty-one  or  forty- 
two  articles  of  faith  in  1 551,  attempted  to  convert  the 
princess  Mary,  and  induced  King  Edward  to  found 
several  hospitals  in  London.  On  the  death  of  Edward 
VI.  he  advocated  the  claim  of  Lady  Jane  Grey.  He 
was  committed  to  the  Tower  by  Queen  Mary  in  July, 
1553,  and  was  removed  in  1554  to  Oxford,  where  he 
took  part  in  a  disputation  on  the  questions  which  divided 
the  Protestants  from  the  Roman  Catholics.  Having 
been  condemned  as  a  heretic,  he  suffered  death  by  fire 
with  fortitude  on  the  i6th  of  October,  1555. 

See  Gloucester  Ridley.  "  Life  of  Bishop  Ridley,"  1763  ;  Hume, 
"History  of  England;"  '"Monthly  Resiew"  for  December,  1763, 
and  January,  1764. 

Ridley,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  civilian,  born  at 
Ely.  He  wrote  a  "  View  of  the  Civil  and  Ecclesiastical 
Law."    Died  in  1629. 

Ridolfi,  re-dol'fee.  (Carlo,)  an  able  painter  of  the 
Venetian  school,  was  born  at  or  near  Vicenza  about 
1598.  He  avoided  the  degenerate  style  which  prevailed 
among  his  contemporaries.  A  "Visitation"  which  he 
painted  for  a  church  in  Venice  is  especially  admired. 
He  wrote  "The  Lives  of  the  Venetian  Painters,"  (2 
vols.,  1648,)  which  is  a  work  of  much  literary  and  critical 
merit.    Died  about  1660. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Ridolfi,  (Claudio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Ve- 
rona in  1560,  was  a  jjupil  of  Paul  Veronese.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  a  good  colorist.    Died  in  1644. 

Ridolfi,  (Lorenzo,)  a  popular  Florentine  statesman, 
who  in  1425  rendered  an  important  service  to  the  re- 
public by  inducing  the  Venetians  to  form  an  alliance 
with  Florence  against  the  Duke  of  Milan. 

Ridolfi,  di,  "de  re-doKfee,  (Cosimo,)  Marquis,  an 
Italian  agriculturist,  born  at  Florence  in  1794.  He 
founded  an  agricultural  school  at  Meleto,  and  wrote 
articles  for  the  "Journal  of  Agriculture,"  founded  by 
himself  and  a  few^  others  in  1827.  He  was  minister  of 
the  interior  and  president  of  the  council  for  a  short 
time  in  1847  ^"fl  iM^- 

Riedel,  ree'del.  (August,)  a  German  painter,  was 
horn  at  Baireuth  in  1800.  He  worked  some  years  in 
Rome. 

Riedel,  (Friedrich  Justus,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  near  Erfurt  in  1742.  Among  his  works  are  Satires, 
(3  vols.,  1786.)    Died  in  Vienna  in  1785. 

Riedesel,ree'deh-zeK,  (Joseph  Hermann,)  a  German 
traveller,  born  in  1 740.  He  published  an  account  of 
his  travels  in  Greece,  etc.,  ("Remarques  d'un  Voyageur 
au  Levant,"  1773.)    Died  in  1785. 

Riedesel,  von,  fon  ree'deh-/iK,  (Frederika,)  Bar- 
oness, a  German  lady,  born  at  Brandenburg  in  1746. 
She  went  to  the  United  States  in  1777  with  her  husband, 
an  officer  in  the  British  service.  She  wrote  Letters  on 
the  campaign  which  she  witnessed  in  New  York,  Died 
in  Berlin  in  1808. 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1828. 

Riedesel,  von,  (Friedrich  Adolph,)  Baron,  a 
German  officer,  born  in  1738,  was  the  husband  of  the 
preceding.  He  served  in  the  British  army  against  the 
Americans,  (1777-82,)  and  obtained  the  rank  of  general. 
Died  in  1800. 

See  "Memoirs,  Letters,  and  Journals  of  Major-General  Riede- 
Bel,"  translated  from  the  German  by  William  L.  Stone,  (New 
York,  1868.) 


RIENZI 


Riedinger  or  Ridinger,  ree'ding-er,  (  Johann 
Elias,)  an  eminent  German  designer  and  engraver, 
born  at  Ulm  in  1695.  His  delineations  of  animals,  es- 
pecially wild  ones,  are  unsurpassed  for  accuracy  and 
fidelity  to  nature.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  Obser*. 
vations  on  Wild  Animals,"  (40  copper-plates,)  "Fables 
of  Animals,"  (16  plates,)  and  "Paradise,"  (12  plates,) 
He  worked  mostly  at  Augsburg.    Died  in  1767. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon ;"  Hirsching, 
"  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 

Riegger,  von,  fon  reeg'ger,  (Joseph  Anton,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist  and  writer  on  canon  law.  He  became 
professor  of  law  at  Vienna  in  1764.    Died  in  1795. 

Riego  y  Nunez,  del,  d^l  re-a'go  e  noon'y^th,  a  Span- 
ish general  and  patriot,  born  in  Asturias  about  1785. 
He  was  a  leader  of  the  insurgents  who  in  January,  1820, 
took  arms  for  the  Constitution  of  1812.  He  was  after- 
wards appointed  Captain-General  of  Asturias,  or  of 
Aragon,  and  president  of  the  Cortes.  He  resisted  the 
French  army  of  intervention  in  1823,  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  executed  in  November  of  that  year. 

See  Miguel  Riego,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Riego,"  1823  ; 
Nard  y  Pirala,  "  Vida  miiitar  y  politica  de  Riego,"  1844;  Ed. 
BuRCKHARDT,  "  Riego  und  Mina,"  1835. 

Riem,  reem,  (Johann,)  a  German  rural  economist, 
born  at  Frankenthal,  on  the  Rhine,  in  1739.  He  wrote 
on  the  methods  of  raising  bees  and  obtaining  honey. 
Died  in  1807. 

Riemer,  ree'mer,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Glatz  in  1774.  He  was 
employed  as  a  tutor  in  the  family  of  W.  von  Humboldt, 
and  subsequently  in  that  of  Goethe.  He  became  first 
librarian  at  Weimar  in  1828.  He  published  a  "  Greek- 
German  Hand-Lexicon,"  and  a  number  of  poems.  Died 
in  1845. 

Riencourt,  de,  deh  reJ.N'kooR',  (Simon,)  a  French 
historian,  born  about  1605,  in  Paris,  published  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  French  Monarchy  under  the  Reign  of  Louis 
XIV,,"  (2  vols.,  1688,)  and  a  "History  of  Louis  XIIL," 
(1695.)    Died  in  1693. 

Rienzi,  re-ln'zee,  or  Rienzo,  re-§n'zo,  (Nicola  Ga- 
brlni,)  called  Colas  Di  Rienzi,  ko'lasdee  re-en'zee,  an 
eloquent  Roman  tribune,  was  born  probably  at  Rome. 
He  received  a  liberal  education,  and  became  a  friend  of 
Petrarch  about  1340.  At  that  period  anarchy  prevailed 
in  Rome,  the  citizens  of  which  were  robbed  and  out- 
raged by  barons  who  occupied  fortified  castles.  Rienzi 
was  a  colleague  of  Petrarch  in  a  deputation  sent  by  the 
Romans  to  Avignon  in  1342  to  persuade  the  pope  to 
return  to  Rome.  In  1347,  by  the  popular  favour,  he 
obtained  power,  with  the  title  of  tribune,  and  made  some 
reforms.  He  soon  became  elated  with  success,  and  dis- 
gusted the  people  by  his  vain  pomp  and  extravagance. 
"  He  degenerated,"  says  Gibbon,  "into  the  vices  of  a 
king."  He  was  driven  out  of  the  city  about  the  end  of 
1347,  after  he  had  been  anathematized  as  a  rebel  and  a 
heretic  by  the  legate  of  the  pope.  Having  passed  seven 
years  as  a  fugitive  in  Germany,  etc,  he  was  arrested  and 
taken  to  Avignon,  as  a  captive  or  culprit,  in  1352.  In 
1354  he  was  sent  to  Rome,  with  the  title  of  senator,  by  the 
pope,  who  proposed  to  use  the  talents  and  influence  of 
Rienzi  for  the  restoration  of  order  in  that  capital.  Before 
the  end  of  the  year  he  was  killed  in  a  tumult  fomented 
by  the  barons.  "  Never,  perhaps,"  says  Gibbon,  "  has  the 
energy  and  effect  of  a  single  mind  been  more  remarkably 
felt  than  in  the  sudden  though  transient  reformation 
of  Rome  by  the  tribune  Rienzi.  .  .  .  More  eloquent 
than  judicious,  more  enterprising  than  resolute,  the 
faculties  of  Rienzi  were  not  balanced  by  cool  and  com- 
manding reason."    Byron  apostrophizes  Rienzi  as  the 

"  Redeemer  nf  dark  centuries  of  siiame, — 
The  friend  of  Petrarch, — hope  of  Italy, — 
Rienzi !  last  of  Romans  !" 

Childe  Harold,  canto  iv.  stanza  cxiv. 
The  history  of  Rienzi  forms  the  basis  of  one  of  Bul- 
wer's  most  popular  novels. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  vol.  iv, 
chap.  Ixx.  ;  Schiller,  "History  of  Rebellions;"  "  Life  of  Rienzi," 
in  French,  by  Du  Cerceau,  1733:  Gabrini,  "  Osservazioni  sulla 
Vita  di  Rienzo,"  iSq6;  Zefirino  Re,  "  La  Vita  di  Rienzi,"  1828; 
Papen'cokdt,  "Rienzi  et  Rome  a  son  Bpoque,"  1841;  "The  Life 
and  Times  of  Rienzi,"  Philadelphia,  1836:  F.  Benedetti,  "Vita 
di  Rienzi."  1831  ;  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1842, 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (SQ^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RIENZO 


1898 


RIMINALDl 


Rienzo.    See  Rienzi. 

Riepenhausen,  ree'pen-how'z^n,  (Franz,)  an  emi- 
nent German  painter  of  history,  and  engraver,  born  at 
Gottingen  in  1786.  He  went  to  Rome  about  1807  with 
his  brother  Johann.  They  produced  several  oil-paintings, 
and  designs  to  illustrate  the  poems  of  Goethe  and  Schil- 
ler ;  also  a  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy,"  (3  vols.,  1820, 
with  twenty-four  engravings  after  Italian  masters.)  He 
died  at  Rome  in  183 1. 

Riepenhausen,  (Johann,)  a  painter  and  engraver, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Gottingen  in 
1788.  He  worked  many  years  at  Rome.  After  the 
death  of  Franz,  he  published  a  series  of  engravings 
illustrative  of  the  life  of  Raphael,  under  the  title  of 
"Vita  di  Raflfaello,"  (1834.) 

Ries,  reess,  (Ferdinand,)  a  German  composer  and 
pianist,  born  at  Bonn  in  1784,  was  a  pupil  of  Beethoven. 
He  visited  Paris,  Stockholm,  Saint  Petersburg,  and 
London,  and  in  the  last-named  city 'was  received  with 
distinguished  favour.  His  compositions  include  sym- 
phonies, instrument  pieces,  and  operas ;  also  an  oratorio 
called  "David."    Died  in  1838. 

See  Fetis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Rieter,  reenter,  (Henri,)  a  Swiss  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Winterthur  in  1751.  He  worked  at  Berne,  and 
painted  Swiss  scenery  with  success.  He  published  col- 
oured engravings  of  the  same  subjects.    Died  in  1818. 

Rietschel,  reet'shel,  (Ernst,)  an  eminent  German 
sculptor,  and  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Dres- 
den, was  born  at  Pulsnitz  in  1804.  He  studied  under 
Ranch  at  Berlin,  and  subsequently  in  Italy.  Among  his 
master-jiieces  we  may  name  "  Mary  Kneeling  over  the 
Dead  Body  of  Christ,"  a  bust  of  Luther,  a  *'  Ceres," 
colossal  statues  of  Goethe  and  Schiller,  (at  Weimar,) 
and  the  "  Christ-Angel."    Died  at  Dresden  in  1861. 

See  "Biographic  Universelle." 

Rietschoof,  reet'sKof,  (Hendrik,)  a  skilful  Dutch 
painter  of  marine  views,  was  born  in  1678. 

Rietschoof,  (Jan  Klaasz,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  ma- 
rine views,  born  at  Hoorn  in  1652,  was  father  of  the 
preceding.    Died  in  17 19. 

Rieux,  de,  deh  re-uh',  (Jean,)  a  marshal  of  France, 
who  was  born  in  1342.  He  served  with  distinction  under 
Charles  VI.,  and  became  marshal  in  1397.  Died  in  141 7. 

Rieux,  de,  (Pierre,)  a  French  general,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  called  Mar6chal  de  Rochefort,  and 
was  born  at  Ancenis  in  1389.  He  fought  for  Charles 
VII.  against  the  English.    Died  in  1438. 

Riffault,  re''f5^,  (Jean  Ren6  Denis,)  a  French  chem- 
ist, born  at  Saumur  in  1752.  He  improved  the  method 
of  making  gunpowder,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Manual  of  Chemistry,"  (1825.)    Died  at  Paris  in  1826. 

Riffaut  or  Riffault,  re'fo',  (  Adolphe  Pierre,)  a 
French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1821.  He  obtained 
a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1855.    Died  in  1859. 

Rigal,  re^gtK,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  French  surgeon  and 
writer,  born  at  Cussac  in  1755  ;  died  in  1823. 

Rigaltius.    See  Rigault. 

Rigas.    See  Rhigas. 

Rigau  or  Rigaud,  re'gS',  (Antoine,)  a  French  gene- 
ral, born  at  Agen  in  1758.  He  commanded  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Marne  when  Napoleon  returned  from  Elba. 
Having  been  condemned  to  death  for  his  defection  from 
the  cause  of  the  Bourbons  in  1815,  he  escaped  to  the 
United  States.    He  died  in  1820. 

Rigaud,  (Hyacinthe,)  an  eminent  French  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Perpignan  in  1659,  was  a  pupil  of  Ranc 
and  of  other  masters.  He  painted  Philip  V.  of  Spain 
in  1700,  and  Louis  XIV.  in  1701,  soon  after  which  he 
received  the  title  of  court  painter.  Among  his  works 
are  portraits  of  Bossuet  and  Lebrun.  His  touch  is  bold 
and  free  and  his  design  correct.  He  has  been  called 
"the  French  Van  Dyck."  His  portraits  have  been 
engraved  by  Edelinck  and  Audran.    Died  in  1743. 

See  FoNTENAV,  " Dictionnaire  des  Artistes;"  C.  Blanc,  "  His- 
toire  des  Peintres." 

Rigaud,  (Pierre  Augustin,  often  called  Auguste,) 
a  French  fabulist  and  merchant,  born  at  Montpellier  in 
1760.  He  published,  besides  several  poems,  a  volume 
of  Fables,  (1823,)  by  which  he  is  said  to  have  acquired 
a  durable  reputation.    Died  in  1835. 


Rigaud,  re'g5', (Stephen  Peter,)  F.R.S.,  an  able 
English  astronomer,  born  at  Richmond,  Surrey,  in  1774. 
He  became  Savilian  professor  of  geometry  at  Oxford 
in  1810.  In  1827  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Rad- 
cliffe  Observatory,  and  Savilian  professor  of  astronomy 
at  Oxford.  He  wrote  papers  for  several  scientific  pe- 
riodicals on  astronomy  and  other  physical  sciences,  and 
edited  the  "  Miscellaneous  Works  and  Correspondence 
of  Bradley,"  (1831.)  He  was  eminent  as  a  mathematical 
antiquary.    Died  in  1839. 

Rigault,  re'go',  (Ange  Hippolyte,)  an  able  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Saint-Germain-en-Laye  in  1821.  He 
became  an  editor  of  the  "Journal  des  Debats"  in  1853. 
He  wrote  a  "  Histoire  de  la  Querelle  des  Anciens  et 
des  Modernes,"  (1856,)  which  gained  the  prize  of  the 
French  Academy.    Died  in  December,  1858. 

Rigault,  [Lat.  Rigai/tius,J  (Nicolas,)  a  French 
philologist  and  able  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1577.  He 
succeeded  Casaubon  as  keeper  of  the  King's  Library 
about  1610,  and  obtained  the  office  of  procureur-general 
at  Nancy  after  1633.  He  edited  Martial,  Juvenal,  and 
Tertullian.  Among  his  works  are  an  ingenious  satire 
called  "  P'unus  Parasiticum,"  (1601,)  and  a  continuation 
of  the  "History"  of  De  Thou,  (1620.)    Died  in  1654. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Mokeri, 
"Dictionnaire  Historique;"  Niceron,  "  Memoires." 

Rigault  de  Genouilly,  re^o'  deh  zheh-noo'ye', 
(Charles,)  a  French  admiral,  born  in  1807.  He  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1854,  and  served  in 
the  Crimean  war.  He  commanded  the  naval  division 
which  co-operated  with  the  British  in  the  capture  of 
Canton  in  1857. 

Rig'by,  (Edward,)  an  English  physiologist,  born  at 
Norwich  in  1747.  He  produced,  besides  other  works, 
an  "Essay  on  the  Theory  of  the  Production  of  Animal 
Heat,"  (1785.)    Died  in  1821. 

Righini,  re-gee'nee,  (Vincenzo,)  an  able  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Bologna  about  1758.  He  composed, 
besides  other  operas,  "  Armida"  and  "Tigrane,"  which 
are  commended.    Died  in  1812. 

Rigny,  de,  deh  r^n'ye',  (Henri  Gauthier,)  Comte, 
an  able  French  admiral,  born  at  Toul  in  1782.  He 
commanded  the  French  fleet  which  defeated  the  Turks 
at  Navarino  in  October,  1827.  He  became  minister  of 
the  marine  in  March,  1831,  and  was  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  from  April,  1834,  to  March,  1835.    Died  in  1835. 

See  "  Biographic  Universelle." 

Rigoley  de  Juvigny,  recoil' de  zhii'vin'ye',  (Jean 
Antoine,)  a  mediocre  French  litteratetir,  wrote  "  On  the 
Decadence  of  Letters  and  Morals  since  the  Times  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,"  (1787.)    Died  in  1788. 

RigoUot,  re'go''lo',  (Marc  J6rome,)  a  French  anti- 
quary and  physician,  born  at  Douilens  in  1796,  wrote 
several  treatises  on  French  antiquities.    Died  in  1854. 

Rigord,  re'goR',  [Lat.  Rigor'dus,]  a  French  chron- 
icler, born  in  Languedoc,  wrote  a  history  of  the  reign 
of  Philip  Augustus  of  France.    Died  in  1207. 

Rigord,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  at 
Marseilles  in  1656  ;  died  in  1727. 

Ri'ley,  (James,)  an  American  sea-captain,  born  at 
Middletown,  Connecticut.  He  was  wrecked  on  the 
western  coast  of  Africa  in  1815,  and  afterwards  pub- 
lished a  "Narrative"  of  his  captivity  among  the  Arabs, 
which  enjoyed  a  great  popularity.    Died  in  1840. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  181 7. 

RiTey,  (John,)  an  English  portrait-painter,  born  in 
London  in  1646,  took  Van  Dyck  as  his  model.  He 
was  patronized  by  Charles  II.,  James  II.,  and  William 
HI.  He  is  considered  the  best  English  portrait-painter 
before  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.    Died  in  1691. 

Rileyef,  re-la'ef,  written  also  Rylejew,  Rilieff,  and 
Rileef,  (Konrad,)  a  Russian  poet  and  republican,  was 
a  leader  of  a  secret  society  formed  about  1820  to  liberate 
Russia  from  absolute  power.    He  was  hung  in  1826. 

See  the  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1832. 

Rilieff.    See  Rileyef. 

Rimfaxi  or  Rimfaxe.    See  Norvi. 

Riminaldi,  re-me-nil'dee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian 
sculptor  in  wood,  was  born  at  Pisa  in  1595;  died  in 
1637- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  ^,  short;  ^,  ?,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


RIMINALDI 


RIPLEY 


Riniinaldi,  (Orazio,)  an  Italian  painter  of  sacred 
history,  born  at  Pisa  in  1 598,  was  a  promising  artist 
when  he  died,  in  1630. 

Rinaldi,  re-nSKdee,  (Oderico,)  an  Italian  ecclesi- 
astical historian,  born  at  Treviso  in  1595.  He  wrote  a 
continuation  of  Baronius's  "Ecclesiastical  Annals,"  to 
which  he  added  ten  volumes,  (1646-77,)  extending  the 
narrative  to  1564.    Died  in  1671. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Rinck  or  Rink,  rink,  (Friedrich  Theodor,)  a 
German  Orientalist,  born  at  Slave  in  1770;  died  in  181 1. 

Rincon,  del,  dgl  r6n-k6n',  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Guadalaxara  about  1446.  He  aban- 
doned the  Gothic  style,  promoted  a  revolution  in  Spanish 
art,  and  was  considered  the  best  Spanish  painter  of  his 
time.  He  \Aas  court  painter  to  Ferdinand  the  Catholic. 
Died  at  Seville  in  1500.  His  son  Fernando  was  also  a 
skilful  painter. 

See  Palomino,  "  El  Museo  pictorico." 

Ring,  (John,)  an  English  surgeon  and  writer,  born 
near  Salisbury  in  1751.  He  published  a  "Translation 
of  the  Works  of  Virgil,"  partly  original  and  partly 
altered  from  Dryden  and  Pitt,  (1820.)    Died  in  1821. 

Ring,  van,  vtn  ring,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  painter  of 
still  life,  flourished  about  1650. 

Ringelbergh,  van,  vtn  ring'el-blRc/,  [Lat.  Rtngel- 
ber'gius,]  (Joachim  Sterck  or  Joachim  Fortius,)  a 
Flemish  philosopher  and  professor  of  Greek,  born  at 
Antwerp  about  1500.  He  was  the  author  of  various 
well- written  works.    Died  in  1536. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Ringelbergius.    See  Ringelbergh. 

Ring'gold,  (Major  Samuel,)  an  American  officer, 
born  in  Washington  county,  Maryland,  in  1800,  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Mexican  war.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Palo  Alto,  (May  8,  1846,)  and 
died  a  few  days  after. 

Ringli,  ring'lee,  written  also  Ringly  and  Ringgli, 
(GoTHARD,)  a  Swiss  painter  and  engraver,  born  at 
Zurich  in  1575,  passed  most  of  his  life  at  Berne.  His 
works  are  highly  commended.    Died  in  1635. 

Ringwaldt,  ring'Mlt,  (Bartholomaus,)  a  German 
preacher  and  sacred  poet,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder 
in  1530 ;  died  in  1 598. 

Rink  or  Rinck,  rink,  (Eucharius  Gottlieb,)  a 
German  biographer  and  numismatist,  born  in  Saxony  in 
1670.  Among  his  works  are  a  treatise  "On  the  Value 
and  Quality  of  Ancient  Money,"  ("De  veteris  Numis- 
matis  Potentia  et  Qualitate,"  1701,)  and  a  "Life  of 
Leopold  the  Great,"  (1708.)    Died  in  1745. 

See  Heumann,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  E.  G.  Rinkens,"  1749. 

Rink,  (Johann  Christian  Heinrich,)  a  German 
organist  and  composer,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Gotha 
in  1770.  He  became  court  organist  at  Darmstadt  in 
18 13.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  his  compositions 
for  the  organ.    Died  in  1846. 

Rinmann,  rin'mSn,  (Sven,)  a  Swedish  mineralogist, 
wrote  a  "History  of  Iron,"  (1782,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1792,  aged  seventy-three. 

Rintoul,  rin'tool,  (Robert  Stephen,)  a  British  editor, 
born  near  Perth  in  1787,  became  a  resident  of  London 
about  1825.  He  was  the  founder  and  editor  of  the 
"Spectator,"  a  liberal  journal.    Died  in  1858. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1858. 

Rinuccini,  re-noot-chee'nee,  (Alamanno,)  an  Italian 
scholar  and  translator  of  Greek  authors,  was  born  at 
Florence  in  1426;  died  in  1504. 

Rinuccini,  (Ottavio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Flor- 
ence about  1565.  He  was  one  of  the  inventors  of  the 
lyrical  drama,  and  excelled  in  the  anacreontic  verse. 
Among  his  works  are  pastorals  or  operas  entitled  "Eu- 
ridice,"  (1600,)  and  "Arianna,"  (1608.)    Died  in  1621. 

See  GiNGUKNi^,  "  Histoire  Litt^raire  d'ltalie;"  Tiraboschi, 
"Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Rio,  di,  de  ree'o,  (Niccol6,)  Count,  an  Italian 
geologist,  born  in  1765.  He  was  president  of  the  Faculty 
of  Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Padua.    Died  in  1845. 

See  Saint-Mauricr-Cabanv,  "Le  Comte  N.  de  Rio,"  1845. 

Rioja,  de,  di  re-o'na,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  at  Seville  in  1600.    He  was  librarian  to  the  Duke 


of  Olivares  while  he  was  prime  minister.    He  wrote  a 

number  of  short  poems  which  are  regarded  as  modeU 

of  elegance.    Died  in  1658. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe."  ' 
Rioja,  de,  (Pedro  Soto,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at 

Granada  about  1590,  was  a  friend  of  Lope  de  Vega. 

Died  in  1658. 

Riolan,  re'o'lSN',  (Jean,)  a  learned  French  physician 
and  writer,  born  at  Amiens  in  1539.  He  practised  in 
Paris.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Compendium  of  Universal 
Medicine,"  ("  Universas  Medicinae  Compendium,"  1598.) 
Died  in  1606. 

Riolan,  (Jean,)  an  able  anatomist  and  medical  writer, 
born  in  Paris  about  1578,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  chief  physician  to  Queen  Marie  de  Medicis.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Anatomy  of  the  Human 
Body,"  ("Anatome  Corporis  huniani,"  1610,)  and  was 
an  adversary  of  the  doctrine  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood.    Died  in  1657. 

See  "Biographic  Medicale." 

Rions,  de,  deh  re'6N',  (Francois  Hector  d'Albert,) 
Comte,  a  French  naval  officer,  born  at  Avignon  in  1728; 
died  in  1802. 

Rioomantsof  or  Rjumanzow,  ryoo-mSn'tsof, 
sometimes  written  Rioumiantzof,  Romanzof,  and 

Romantzof,  (Alexander,)  a  Russian  diplomatist, 
born  in  1680,  was  a  favourite  of  Peter  I.    Died  in  1749. 

Rioomantsof  or  Romanzof,  (written  in  Polish 
Rumiancow,)  (Nicholas,)  a  minister  of  state  and 
patron  of  learning,  born  in  1754,  was  a  son  of  the  fol- 
lowing. He  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1807. 
At  his  expense  Kotzebue  sailed  on  a  scientific  and 
exploring  expedition  in  1815-18.    Died  in  1826. 

Rioomantsof-Zadoonaiski,  ryoo-min'tsof  zi-doo- 
nl'skee,  written  also  Rioumiantzof-  (or  Rumian- 
COV-)  Zadunaiski,  (Pefer,)  Coun  r,  a  Russian  general, 
born  in  1725,  was  surnamed  the  Russian  Turenne. 
He  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Turks  on  the  Kagool 
in  1770,  and  negotiated  the  famous  treaty  of  Koutchouk- 
Kainardji.    Died  in  1796. 

See  "Vie  du  Comte  Rioumiantzof,"  Moscow,  1803. 

Rioumiantzof    See  Rioomantsof. 

Rios,  de  los,  deh  lis  ree'6s,  (Jean  Franqois,)  a 
Flemish  bibliographer,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1728.  He 
published  notices  of  rare  books  in  a  work  called  "Biblio- 
gra))hie  instructive,"  etc.,  (Lyons,  1777.)    Died  in  1820. 

Rios  y  Rosas,  de  los,  di  16s  ree'6s  e  ro^'s^s,  (An- 
tonio,) a  Spanish  politician  and  minister  of  state, 
born  at  Ronda  in  1812.  He  opposed  Espartero  and 
the  progresistas.  He  became  minister  of  the  interior 
in  1856. 

Riouffe,  re'oof,  (Honor^,)  Baron,  a  French  poli- 
tician, born  at  Rouen  in  1764,  was  a  member  of  the 
Tribunat,  (1800-1804.)    Died  in  1813. 

See  Pariset,  "  Notice  sur  Riouffe  ;"  Bekr,  "  Notice  sur  le 
Baron  Riouffe,"  1823. 

Rioult,  re'oo',  (Louis  Edouard,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Montdidier  in  1790;  died  in  1855. 

Ripamonte,  re-pS-mon'ti,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Tignone  in  1573  ;  died  in  1641. 

Ripault.    See  Desormeaux. 

Ripault,  re''p5',  (Louis  Madeleine,)  a  French  litte- 
rateur and  Orientalist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1775,  was  a 
nephew  of  Desormeaux.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
scientific  commission  of  Egypt  in  1798,  and  wrote  "  An 
Abridged  Description  of  the  Moninnents  of  Upper 
Egypt,"  (1800,)  also  a  "  History  of  Marcus  Aurelius,'* 
(4  V0IS.,  1820.)    Died  in  1823. 

Ripert.    See  Monclar,  de. 

Rip'ley,  (Eleazar  Wheelock,)  an  American  officer, 
born  at  Hanover,  New  Hampshire,  in  1782,  served  with 
distinction  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  was  made  a  major- 
general.    Died  in  1839. 

I  Rip'ley,  (George  or  Gregory,)  an  English  poet  and 
alchemist,  wrote  "A  Compound  of  Alchemic."  Died 
in  1490. 

Ripley,  (George,)  an  able   American  editor  and 
scholar,  born  at  Greenfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1802. 
I  Among  his  publications  are  "Edited   Specimens  of 
I  Foreign  Standard  Literature,"  (14  vols.,  1838-42,)  and 
'  "Hand-Book  of  Literature  and  the  Fine  Arts,"  (1852- 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this,    O^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RIP  LET 


1900 


RITSON 


54,)  conjointly  with  Bayard  Taylor.  In  1849  became 
literary  editor  of  the  New  York  "  Tribune."  He  was 
associated  as  chief  editor  with  Mr.  C.  A.  Dana  in  the 
publication  of  Appleton's  "  New  American  Cyclopaedia," 
(16  vols,  large  8vo,  1858-63.) 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Ripley,  (Henry  Jones,)  D.D.,  an  American  Bap- 
tist divine,  born  at  Boston  in  1798,  became  professor  of 
biblical  literature  at  the  Newton  Theological  Institution, 
Massachusetts.  He  has  published  "  Notes  on  the  Four 
Gospels,"  and  other  theological  works. 

Ripley,  (James  W.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Connecticut  in  1797,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1814. 
He  became  a  captain  in  1825,  a  lieutenant-colonel  in 
1854,  and  a  brigadier-general  in  1861.     Died  in  1870. 

Ripley,  (Roswell  S.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Ohio  about  1824,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1843.  He 
published  "The  War  in  Mexico,"  (2  vols.,  1849.)  He 
fought  against  the  Union  at  Antietam,  September  17, 
1862.    Died  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1863. 

Rip'on,  (Frederick  John  Robinson,)  first  Earl 
OF,  an  English  minister  of  state,  born  in  London  in 
1782,  was  a  younger  son  of  Lord  Grantham.  He  began 
public  life  as  a  moderate  Tory.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  board  of  admiralty  in  1810,  and  vice-president  of 
the  board  of  trade  in  1812.  In  January,  1823,  he  was 
appointed  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  When  Canning 
became  prime  minister,  in  1827,  he  obtained  the  office  of 
colonial  secretary,  and  entered  the  House  of  Lords,  with 
the  title  of  Lord  Goderich.  He  was  prime  minister 
from  the  death  of  Canning,  August,  1827,  to  January, 
1828.  In  the  Whig  ministry  formed  in  1830  he  was 
colonial  secretary  and  lord  privy  seal.  He  was  created 
Earl  of  Ripon  about  1833,  and  resigned  office  in  1834. 
In  1841  he  accepted  the  presidency  of  the  board  of  trade 
from  Sir  Robert  Peel,  who  appointed  him  president 
of  the  Indian  board  in  1843.  He  resigned  with  Peel  in 
1846.    Died  in  1859. 

See  William  Jerdan,  "  Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1866. 

Riposo,  II.    See  Ficherkllt. 

Ripperda,  de,  deh  rip-p§R'da,  (Jan  Willem,)  Duke, 
an  adventurer  and  diploinatist,  was  born  at  Groningen 
(Holland)  in  1680.  He  served  in  the  Dutch  army,  and 
attained  the  rank  of  colonel.  About  1715  he  was  sent 
as  envoy  to  Madrid  to  negotiate  a  commercial  treaty. 
Having  acquired  the  favour  of  Alberoni  and  the  King 
of  Spain,  he  abjured  the  Protestant  religioii  in  1718,  and 
was  appointed  director  of  the  royal  manufactories.  He 
negotiated  a  secret  treaty  between  the  King  of  Spain 
and  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  in  1725,  and  was  rewarded 
with  the  title  of  duke.  He  was  prime  minister  of  Spain 
for  a  few  months  in  1726-27,  and  his  next  step  was  into 
prison,  from  which  he  escaped  about  1729.  He  entered 
the  service  of  the  King  of  Morocco  about  1732.  Died 
at  Tetuan  in  1737. 

See  "Vie  dii  Due  de  Ripperda,"  par  P.  M.  B.,  173Q,  which  was 
translated  into  English  by  John  Campbell.  1739:  "  Vidadel  Duque 
de  Ripperda,"  Madrid,  1740;  G.  Moore,  "Lives  of  Cardinal  Albe- 
roni and  the  Duke  de  Ripperda,"  1806. 

Rippingill,  rip'ing-gil,  ?  (Edward  Villiers,)  an 
English  painter,  born  at  King's  Lynn  in  1798;  died  in 
I8S9.  ■ 

Riquet.    See  Caraman,  de. 

Riquet,  re'ki',  (P(-erre  Paul,)  Baron  de  Bonrepos, 
a  French  engineer,  born  at  Beziers  in  1604,  was  a  rela- 
tive of  the  famous  Mirabeau.  He  acquired  honourable 
distinction  as  the  projector  and  engineer  of  the  great 
canal  of  Languedoc,  which  extends  from  the  Garonne 
to  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  commenced  in  1667  and 
finished  about  1680.    Died  in  1680. 

See  Andreossy,  "  Histoiredu  Canal  du  Midi ;"  Decampe,  "  filoge 
de  P.  Riquet,"  1812. 

Riquetti.    See  Mirabeau. 

Risbeck,  ris'bSk,  (Caspar,)  a  German  publicist,  born 
near  Mentz  in  1749  or  1750.  His  reputation  is  founded 
on  "Letters  of  a  French  Traveller  about  Germany,"  (2 
vols.,  1783,)  in  which  he  exposed  with  ability  the  political 
and  social  evils  which  prevailed  in  that  country.  Died 
in  1786. 

See  J.  Pezzl,  "  Biographisches  Denknial  J.  C.  Risbeck's,"  1786; 
HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch." 


Ris'dpn,  (Tristram,)  an  English  topographer,  born 
in  Devonshire  in  1580;  died  in  1640. 

Rish'i,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  " saint"  or  "sage," 
and  applied  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  to  certain  sages 
or  demi-gods,  among  whom  Kasyapa,  Viswamitra,  and 
Gautama  are  perhaps  the  most  worthy  of  mention. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

RisT^y,  (  Thomas,)  an  English  Puritan  preacher, 
born  near  Warrington  in  1630.  He  was  ejected  as  a 
nonconformist  in  1662.    Died  in  1 7 16. 

Risso,  r^s'so,  (Antonio,)  a  distinguished  Italian 
naturalist,  born  at  Nice  in  1777.  He  made  discoveries 
in  the  zoology  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  "The  Ichthyology  of  Nice,"  (1810,) 
and  a  "  Natural  History  of  the  Principal  Productions 
of  Southern  Europe,"  etc.,  (5  vols.,  1826,)  both  in  French. 
Died  in  1845. 

Rist,  rist,  (Johann,)  a  once  popular  German  poet, 
born  near  Hamburg  in  1607.  He  wrote  dramas  and 
religious  poems,  which  are  said  by  a  French  critic  to  be 
elegant  in  style  but  devoid  of  sentiment.    Died  in  1667. 

Ristori,  r^s-to'ree,  (Adelaide,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
actress,  born  in  Venetia  in  1821.  She  has  performed 
with  great  applause  both  in  tragedy  and  comedy.  She 
visited  the  United  States  in  September,  1866.  "In  ac- 
cording to  Ristori  the  highest  order  of  dramatic  genius, 
we  merely  allow  what  has  long  since  been  decided  beyond 
appeal  by  the  critical  tribunals  of  France,  Italy,  Ger- 
many, England,  and  Spain.  What  Shakspeare  is  among 
dramatists,  Ristori  is  among  actors."  ("  Atlantic  Monthly" 
for  April,  1867.) 

Risueno,  re-swan'yo,  written  also  Risvenno,  (Jos6,) 
a  Spanish  painter  and  sculptor,  born  at  Granada  in 
1652,  was  a  pupil  of  Alonzo  Cano.    Died  in  1 72 1. 

Ritchie,  ritch'e,  originally  Ogden,  (Mrs.  Anna  Cora 
MoWATi',)  an  American  authoress  and  actress,  born  in 
Bordeaux,  France,  of  American  parents,  about  1822. 
She  was  married  first  to  a  Mr.  Mowatt,  and  afterwards 
to  Mr.  W.  Ritchie,  an  editor,  of  Richmond,  Virginia, 
about  1854.  She  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Pelayo,  or  the  Cavern  of  Covadonga,"  a  poem,  a 
comedy  entitled  "Fashion,"  (1845,)  ^"<^  "  Armand,"  a 
drama,  (1847.)  She  made  her  debut  as  an  actress  about 
1845.    Died  in  1870. 

See  "Autobiography  of  an  Actress,"  by  Anna  C.  Ritchie; 
Griswolij,  "Female  Poets  of  America." 

Ritchie,  ritch'e,  (Joseph,)  an  Englishman  who  ac- 
companied Cajjtain  Lyon  in  an  expedition  to  Central 
Africa.     He  died  during  the  journey,  in  1819. 

Ritchie,  ritch'e,  ([>EircH,)  a  British  journalist  and 
novelist,  born  at  Greenock  about  1800.  Among  his 
novels  are  "  Schinderhannes,  or  the  Robber  of  the 
Rhine,"  (1848,)  "The  Game  of  Life,"  (1851,)  and  "The 
Magician,"  (3  vols.,  1853.)  He  contributed  to  several 
London  journals  and  magazines.  In  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  he  was  an  editor  of  "  Chambers's  Journal"  of 
Edinburgh.    Died  in  1865. 

Ritchie,  (Thomas,)  an  American  journalist  and  poli- 
tician of  the  Democratic  party,  was  born  at  Tappahan- 
nock,  Virginia,  in  1778.  In  1804  he  became  editor  of  the 
"  Richmond  Enquirer,"  over  which  he  continued  to 
preside  for  forty  years,  and  which,  under  his  editorship, 
was,  for  a  time,  the  most  influential  journal  of  his  party. 
Died  in  1854. 

Rit'iier,  (Joseph,)  an  American  Governor,  born  near 
Reading,  Pennsylvania,  in  1780.  He  served  in  the  legis- 
lature of  that  State  from  1820  to  1827,  and  was  nomi- 
nated for  the  office  of  Governor  by  the  Anti-Masonic 
party  in  1829,  but  was  not  elected.  In  1835  he  was 
chosen  Governor  for  three  years.  He  was  an  efficient 
promoter  of  common  schools,  and  was  distinguished  for 
his  opposition  to  slavery.    Died  in  1869. 

Ritschl,  ritsh'l,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
philologist,  and  professor  of  classical  literature  at  Bonn, 
was  born  in  Thuringia  in  1806.  He  published  several 
critical  treatises  on  the  classics,  and  a  number  of  anti- 
quarian works.  His  edition  of  Plautus  (3  vols.,  1848- 
53)  is  highly  praised. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Rit'spn,  (Isaac,)  an  English  writer,  born  near  Pen- 
rith in  1 761,  resided  in  London.    Died  in  1789. 


5,e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long-;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  sAorf;  ^,  ?,  j,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


RITSON 


1901 


RirjUD 


Ritson,  (Joseph,)  an  English  antiquary  and  poetical 
critic,  born  at  Stockton  (Durham)  in  1752,  resided  mostly 
in  London.  He  published  many  works,  among  which 
are  "Observations  on  (Warton's)  History  of  English 
Poetry,"  (1782,)  "Ancient  Songs  from  the  Time  of 
Henry  HI.  to  1^88,"  (1790,)  and  "  Robin  Hood,"  (1795.) 
Died  in  1803. 

See  Sir  N.  Harris  Nicolas,  "  Life  and  Letters  of  J.  Ritson," 
1833;  Haslewood,  "'Life  of  J.  Ritson,"  1824;  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" tor  January,  1806 ;  "  F'l  aser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1834 ; 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1803. 

Rit'ten-house,  (David,)  an  eminent  American  as- 
tronomer and  mathematician,  born  at  Germantown,  near 
Philadelphia,  on  the  8th  of  April,  1732.  He  worked  on 
his  father's  farm  in  his  early  youth,  learned  to  make 
c'.ocks  without  instruction,  and  made  himself  master  of 
Newton's  "  Principia"  about  1750.  It  is  stated  that  he 
discovered  the  method  of  fluxions  before  the  age  of 
nineteen.  He  learned  Latin  after  he  was  nineteen  or 
twenty  years  old.  He  worked  for  some  years  at  the 
trade  of  clock-maker  at  Norriton,  in  Montgomery 
county,  Pennsylvania.  About  1767  he  constructed  an 
orrery,  which  was  purchased  by  Princeton  College. 
He  also  made  mathematical  instruments  of  a  superior 
quality.  His  first  communication  to  the  American 
Philosophical  Society  was  a  calculation  of  the  transit 
of  Venus  which  occurred  on  the  3d  of  June,  1769,  and 
which  he  observed  with  success.  In  1764  he  married 
Eleanor  Colston.  He  was  elected  treasurer  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1777,  and  continued  to  fill  that  office  until 
1789.  During  this  period  he  was  employed  to  determine 
the  boundaries  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  in  1791, 
and  became  first  director  of  the  Mint,  at  Philadelphia, 
in  1792.  In  1795  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London.  Having  lost  his  first  wife,  he  mar- 
ried Hannah  Jacobs,  of  Philadelphia,  about  1774.  On 
account  of  ill  health,  he  resigned  in  1795  the  direction 
of  the  Mint,  which  he  had  organized  by  arduous  and 
successful  efforts.  He  contributed  numerous  scientific 
treatises  to  the  "Transactions  of  the  American  Philo- 
sophical Society."  Died  in  Philadelphia,  June,  1796. 
"Were  we  called  upon,"  says  Renwick,  "  to  assign  him 
a  rank  among  the  philosophers  whom  America  has 
produced,  we  should  place  him,  in  point  of  scientific 
merit,  as  second  to  Franklin  alone.  ...  He  had  shown 
himself  the  equal,  in  point  of  learning  and  skill  as  an 
observer,  to  any  practical  astronomer  then  living." 

See  James  Renwick,  "Life  of  David  Rittenhouse,"  in  Sparks's 
"American  Biography,"  vol.  vii.  ;  VV.  Barton,  "Life  of  David 
Rittenhouse,"  1813;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished 
Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Ritter,  rit'ter,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  philosopher 
and  historian,  born  at  Zerbst  in  1791.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Berlin  about  1824,  and  removed 
to  Gottingen  in  1837.  He  published  a  number  of  works 
on  philosophy,  etc.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  History 
of  Philosophy,"  ("  Geschichte  der  Philosophic,"  12  vols., 
1829-53,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.  It  has  been  well 
translated  into  English  by  A.  J.  W.  Morrison,  (4  vols. 
8vo,  1838-46.)    Ritter  is  called  an  Eclectic  philosopher. 

See  Hrockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Rit'ter,  (  Henry,)  an  artist,  born  at  Montreal,  in 
Canada,  about  1 81 5,  studied  painting  at  Hamburg  and 
Dusseldorf.  Among  his  principal  works  may  be  named 
"Indians  Flying  from  a  Burning  Prairie."  Died  in  1853. 

Ritter,  (Johann  Daniel,)  a  German  scholar  and 
writer  on  Roman  antiquities,  etc.,  was  born  near  Bres- 
lau  in  1709  ;  died  at  Wittenberg  in  1775. 

Ritter,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  German  natural  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Samitz,  in  Silesia,  in  1776.  He  wrote 
"Memoirs  on  Physics  and  Chemistry,"  (3  vols.,  1806,) 
and  an  autobiography,  (2  vols.,  1810.)  Died  at  Munich 
in  1810. 

Ritter,  (Joseph  Ignaz,)  a  German  Catholic  theo- 
logian,  born  near  Griineberg  in  1787.  He  became  in 
1823  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at  Bonn.  Died 
in  1857. 

Ritter,  (Karl,)  an  eminent  German  geographer,  born 
at  Quedlinburg  in  1779.  Having  travelled  in  Switzer- 
land, France,  and  Italy,  he  succeeded  Schlosser  as  pro- 
fessor of  history  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1819.  His 


"  Portico  of  a  History  of  the  European  Nations  before 
Herodotus"  came  out  in  1820.  In  1822  he  published 
the  first  volume  of  the  second  and  enlarged  edition  of 
his  "Geography  in  Relation  to  the  Nature  and  Histor) 
of  Man,"  ("Die  Erdekunde  im  Verhaltniss  zur  Natui 
und  zur  Geschichte  des  Menschen,"  18  vols.,  1822-59,) 
which  is  esteemed  his  greatest  work.  Among  his  other 
productions  we  may  name  "A  Glance  at  Palestine  and 
its  Christian  Population,"  "  The  Colonization  of  New 
Zealand,"  (1842,)  and  "The  Jordan  and  the  Navigation 
of  the  Dead  Sea,"  (1850.)  Ritter  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  Berlin,  and  of  the  Royal  So 
ciety  of  London.  He  has  been  called  the  founder  of 
the  science  of  comparative  geography.  Died  in  Berlin 
in  1859. 

See  W.  L.  Gage,  "Life  of  Karl  Ritter,"  New  York,  1867; 
"Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1837;  "  Nouveile  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Rittershuys,  rit'ters-hois',  or  Rittershausen,  rit'- 

ters-how'zen,  | Lat.  Rittershu'sius,]  (Conrad,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist  and  able  critic,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1 560. 
He  became  professor  of  law  at  Altorf.  He  was  a  good 
classical  scholar,  and  wrote  commentaries  on  Phaedrns, 
Oppian,  and  other  authors.    Died  in  1613. 

See  "Vita  C.  Rittershusii,"  by  his  son  Georg  ;  M.  Ada.m, 
"  Vitae  Germanorum  Jurisconsultorum." 

Rittershuys,  (Nikolaus,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Altorf  in  1597.  He  wrote  "Genealogy  of 
Emperors,  Kings,"  etc.,  ("Genealogia  Imperatorum, 
Regum,  etc.,  1400-1664,"  1674.)    Died  in  1670. 

Ritzio.    See  Rizzio. 

Rivail.    See  Rivault. 

Rivallius.    See  Rivault. 

Rivalz,  re'vtK,  (Antoine,)  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1667  ;  died  in  1735. 

His  father,  Jean  Pierre,  born  in  1625,  was  a  painter 
at  Toulouse,  where  he  died  in  1706. 

Rivard,  re'v-ta',  (Denis,)  a  French  surgeon  and 
lithotomist,  born  at  Neufchateau,  practised  at  Luneville. 
Died  in  1746. 

Rivard,  (Dominique  Francois,)  a  French  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Neufchateau  in  1697.  was  professor 
in  the  College  of  Beauvais  for  forty  years,  and  published 
several  valuable  works  on  geometry  and  mathematics. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1778. 

Rivarol,  re'vt'rol',  (Antoine,)  a  witty  and  satirical 
French  writer,  born  at  Bagnols,  in  Languedoc,  in  1753, 
assumed  the  title  of  Count  de  Rivarol.  He  was  cele- 
brated for  his  colloquial  powers,  and  abounded  in  that 
ready  wit  which  goes  far  to  justify  all  pretensions  and 
to  excuse  all  excesses  of  audacity.  He  produced  in 
1784  an  able  "Essay  on  the  Universality  of  the  French 
Language,"  and  a  free  translation  of  Dante's  "Inferno," 
which  had  a  great  success.  His  talent  for  satire,  irony, 
and  persiflage  was  displayed  in  a  series  of  lampoons 
against  living  authors,  entitled  "Little  Almanac  of 
Great  Men,"  ("  Petit  Almanach  des  grands  Hommes," 
1788.)  He  also  gained  distinction  as  a  journalist.  He 
married  an  English  lady  named  Flint.  Having  identi- 
fied himself  with  the  royalist  party,  he  emigrated  in 
1792.    Died  in  Berlin  in  1801. 

See  CuBifeRES-PAi.MEZEAUX,  "Vie  de  Rivarol,"  1803:  Imbert 
DE  i.A  Platiere,  "Vie  de  Rivarol,"  1808;  Leonce-Curnier, 
"Rivarol,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Ouvrages,"  1858:  Sainte-Bkuve,  "Cause- 
ries  du  Lundi,"  tome  v.;  Lescu'RE,  "Rivarol,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Ou- 
vrages," 1862;  "  Notice  sur  Rivarol,"  by  his  wife,  1802;  "Nouveile 
Biographie  Generale." 

Rivarol,  (Claude  Franqois.)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Bagnols  in  1762.  He  was  a  captain 
in  the  army,  and  a  royalist  emigrant  in  1791.  Having 
returned  to  Paris  as  a  secret  agent  of  the  Bourbons, 
he  was  imprisoned  twenty-two  months,  (1795-97.)  He 
wrote  dramas,  verses,  etc.    Died  in  1848. 

Rivarola,  re-vl-ro'll,  (Alfonso,)  a  promising  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1607,  was  a  pupil  of  Carlo 
Bononi.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Brazen  Serpent." 
Died  in  1640. 

Rivas,  de,  Duke.    See  Saavedra. 

Rivaud  de  la  RafBniere,  re'vo'  deh  It  rt'fe'ne-aiR', 
(Olivier  Macoux,)  a  French  general,  born  in  I'oitoii 
in  1766.  He  served  with  distinction  at  Marengo  and 
Austerlitz.    Died  in  1839. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  |  Aard;  g  as j;  G,  h,  k, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


RIFAULT 


1902 


RIZZIO 


Rivault,  re'vo',  [Lat,  Rival'lius,]  (Aymar,)  written 
also  Rivail,  a  French' jurist,  born  about  1490.  He  was 
counsellor  to  the  parliament  of  Grenoble,  and  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Civil  or  Roman  Law,"  ("  Historia  Juris 
civilis,"  1527.) 

Rivault,  (David,)  a  French  writer,  born  at  Laval 
about  1 57 1.  He  was  appointed  preceptor  to  the  young 
king  Louis  XHL  in  1612.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Minerva  Armed,  or  the  Union  of  Literature 
and  Arms,"  ("Minerva  armata,  sive  de  Conjungendis 
Literis  et  Arniis,"  1610,)  and  *'  Archimedis  Opera," 
(1615.)    Died  in  1616. 

Rivaz,  de,  deh  re'vi',  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  Swiss 
mechanist  and  inventor,  born  at  Saint  Gingolph,  on  the 
Lake  of  Geneva,  in  1711  ;  died  in  1772. 

Rive,  r^v,  (Joseph  Jean,)  a  French  bibliographer, 
born  at  Apt  in  1730.  He  wrote  numerous  works,  and 
was  librarian  to  the  Due  de  la  Valliere.    Died  in  1791. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rive,  de  la,  (Auguste.)    See  La  Rive,  de. 

Rivera,  re-va'rS,  (Jos6  Fructuoso,)  a  South  Amer- 
ican general,  born  about  1790,  was  a  Gaucho.  He  was 
elected  president  of  the  republic  of  Uruguay  in  1830 
for  four  years.    Died  in  1854. 

Riverius.    See  Riviere. 

Riv'ers,  (Anthony  Woodville  or  Wydeville,) 
Earl  of,  an  accomplished  English  peer,  born  in  1442, 
was  a  brother  of  the  queen  of  Edward  IV.  After  the 
death  of  that  king  he  had  charge  of  the  young  heir  to 
the  throne.  He  was  beheaded  by  Richard  HL,  without 
a  form  of  trial,  in  1483.  He  left  some  original  poems 
and  translations  from  the  classics,  which  are  commended. 
(Cunningham's  "History  of  England,"  vol.  i.) 

Riv'frs,  (William  J.,)  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1822,  became  professor  of  Greek  literature 
at  South  Carolina  College  in  1856.  He  has  published 
several  works,  in  prose  and  verse. 

Rives,  reevz,  (John  C.,)  an  American  editor,  born 
in  Kentucky  about  1796.  With  F,  P.  Blair,  he  founded 
at  Washington  "The  Congressional  Globe"  about  1830. 
He  continued  to  publish  that  journal  until  his  death, 
in  1864. 

Rives,  (William  C.,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in 
Nelson  county,  Virginia,  in  May,  1793.  He  studied  law, 
and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1823.  He  was 
sent  as  minister  to  France  in  1829,  returned  in  1832,  and 
was  then  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  Virginia.  Having  resigned  his  seat  in  1834, 
he  was  re-elected  in  1835.  I"  ^^4°  ^^'^  elected  a 
Senator  for  a  third  term.  He  was  minister  to  France 
again  from  1849  to  1853.  He  published  the  "  I^ife  and 
Times  of  James  Madison,"  (3  vols.,  1859-68,  unfinished.) 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Confederate  Congress  from 
February,  1862,  until  the  end  of  the  rebellion.  Died  in 
April,  1868. 

See  the  "  Democratic  Review"  for  January,  1838,  (with  a  por- 
trait.) 

Rivet,  re'vi',  [Lat.  Rivf/tus,]  (Andr^:,)  a  French 
Protestant  minister  and  biblical  critic,  born  at  Saint- 
Maxent  in  1572  or  1 573.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Leyden  in  1620,  and  was  governor  of  the 
young  Prince  of  Orange,  (William  III.  of  England.) 
He  wrote  several  works  on  theology.  Died  at  Breda 
in  165 1.  "  Rivet,"  says  Hallam,  "  was  the  highest  name 
among  the  Calvinists,"  [i.e.  in  the  department  of  sacred 
criticism.) 

See  Dauber,  "  Oratio  funebris  in  Excessiim  A.  Riveti,"  1651  ; 
Haac;,  "  La  France  protestante." 

Rivet  de  Champvernon,  re'vi'  deh  shftN'vdR'nAN', 
(GuiLLAUME,)  a  Protestant  minister",  born  at  Saint- 
Maxent  in  1580,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
wrote  on  theology.    Died  in  1651. 

Rivet  de  la  Grange,  re'vi'  deh  It  gR6Nzh,(  A  ntoine,) 
a  learned  French  Benedictine,  born  at  Confolens  in  1683. 
He  was  punished  for  opposition  to  the  bull  "  Unigenitus" 
by  confinement  in  a  monastery  at  Mans.  He  projected 
a  great  work  entitled  "  The  Literary  History  of  France," 
of  which  he  composed  9  vols.,  (1733-50.)  He  died  in 
1749.   His  work  was  continued  by  Clemencet  and  others. 

See  C.  L.  Taillandier,  "  filoge  historique  de  Dom  Rivet,"  in 
the  ninth  volume  of  the  "  Literary  History  of  France." 


Rivetus.    See  Rivet,  (Andr6.) 

Riviere.    See  Mercier  and  Lariviere. 

Riviere,  re-ve-aiR',  [Lat.  Rive'rius,]  (Lazare,)  a 
French  medical  writer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1589. 
His  "Praxis  Medica"  ("Medical  Practice,"  1640)  was 
often  reprinted.    Died  in  1655. 

Riviere,  de,  deh  re've^iR',  (Charles  FRANgois  de 
Riffardeau — deh  re'fSR'do',)  Due,  a  French  royalist 
officer,  born  at  Ferte-sur-Cher  in  1763.  He  was  sen- 
tenced to  death  as  an  accomplice  of  Pichegru  in  1804, 
but  his  life  was  saved  by  the  empress  Josephine.  Died 
in  1828. 

Riviere,  de  la,  deh  It  re've^j-iR',  (Roch  le  P.aillif, 
rosh  leh  btKy^f,)  Sieur,  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Falaise  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1605. 

Rivieren,  van,  vtn  re-vee'ren,  [Lat.  Riv'ius,]  (Jean,) 
a  Belgian  monk,  born  at  Louvain  in  1599.  He  wrote  a 
"Life  of  Saint  Augustine,''  (1646.)    Died  in  1665. 

Riv'ing-ton,  (James,)  an  English  printer  and  book- 
seller, born  in  London  about  1724,  emigrated  to  Amer- 
ica, and  founded  in  New  York  a  journal  entitled  the 
"  New  York  Gazetteer,  or  the  Connecticut,  New  Jersey, 
Hudson's  River,  and  Quebec  Weekly  Advertiser."  In 
consequence  of  his  denunciations  of  the  patriots,  his 
press  was  destroyed  in  1775  by  a  party  of  American 
soldiers.  He  subsequently  resumed  the  publication  of 
his  journal,  under  the  title  of  the  "  Royal  Gazette."  After 
the  evacuation  of  New  York  by  the  British  he  changed 
the  name  of  his  paper  to  "  Rivington's  New  York  Ga- 
zette and  Universal  Advertiser."    Died  in  1802. 

See  DuvcKiNCK,  "Cyclopjedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Rivinus,  re-vee'nus,  (Andreas,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist and  physician,  born  at  Halle  in  1600  or  1601.  His 
proper  name  was  Bachmann.  He  was  professor  of 
poetry  and  medicine  at  Leipsic.    Died  in  1656. 

See  Kromayer,  "  Programma  ad  Funus  A.  Rivini,"  1656. 

Rivinus,  (August  Quirinus,)  an  eminent  botanist 
and  anatomist,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Leipsic 
in  1652.  He  became  professor  of  physiology  and  botany 
in  his  native  city  in  1691.  His  chief  work  is  "General 
Introduction  to  Botany,"  ("  Introductio  generalis  in  Rem 
Herbariam,"  1690,)  in  which  he  proposed  a  classifica- 
tion of  plants  founded  on  the  form  of  the  corolla.  Died 
in  1723. 

See  G.  F.  Jenichen,  "Programma  in  A.  Q.  Rivini  Obitum,' 
1724;"  Biographie  Universelle  ;"  Nic^ron,  "  Memoires  ;"  "Bio- 
graphie Medicale." 

Rivius.    See  Rivieren. 

Rivoli,  Duke  of.    See  Massena. 

Rizi,  re-f/iee',}  (Francisco,)  Don,  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  in  Madrid  in  1608,  was  a  pupil  of  Carduccio.  He 
became  first  painter  to  Philip  IV.  about  1656.  He  had 
great  fertility  of  invention  and  facility  of  execution,  but 
contributed  to  the  decline  of  art  by  his  superficial  habits. 
Died  in  1685. 

Rizi,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Madrid  in 
1595,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1675. 

Rizo-Rhangab^,  ree'zo  rin'gi-be,  (Alexander,) 
also  written  Rhizos-Rhangavis,  an  eminent  Greek 
poet,  orator,  and  statesman,  was  born  about  18 10.  He 
published  in  1837  a  collection  of  poems,  among  which  is 
a  drama  called  "The  Eve,"  ('H  Uapa/nov?},)  and  in  1842 
"Hellenic  Antiquities,"  ("Antiquites  Helleniques,")  in 
French.  In  1845  he  was  appointed  professor  of  archae- 
ology at  Athens.  He  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
from  April,  1856,  to  June,  1859.  The  second  volume 
of  "Hellenic  Antiquities"  appeared  in  1855.  He  was 
appointed  minister  to  the  United  States  in  1867. 

Rizzio  or  Ritzio,  rit'se-o,  written  also  Riccio, 
(David,)  an  Italian  musician,  born  in  Piedmont  about 
1540.  He  went  to  Edinburgh  about  1563,  in  the  train 
of  the  ambassador  from  Savoj^  and  gained  the  favour 
of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  who  employed  him  as  her 
French  secretary.  "  He  became,"  says  Froude,  "  the 
queen's  inseparable  companion  in  the  council-room  and 
the  cabinet.  She  kept  late  hours,  and  he  was  often  alone 
with  her  till  midnight.  He  had  the  control  of  all  the 
business  of  the  state."  The  same  historian,  alluding  to 
the  injurious  influence  of  Rizzio  over  Mary  Stuart,  says, 
"  The  counsels  of  David  Ritzio  were  worth  an  army  to 
English  liberty."   ("  History  of  England,"  vol.  viii.  chap. 


S)  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  /ong;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fSt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ROBBIA 


1903 


ROBERT 


ix.)  He  was  dragged  from  the  queen's  presence  and 
assassinated  by  Lord  Darnley  and  others,  in  1566. 

See  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iv.  chaps,  xliii.  and 
xliv.  ;  Robertson,  "  History  of  Scotland." 

Robbia,  della,  del'ia  rob'be-i,  (Andrea,)  an  Itah'an 
sculptor,  born  at  Florence  in  1444.  He  worked  in 
marble  and  enamelled  terra-cotta.    Died  in  1527. 

His  son  Giovanni,  born  in  1470,  was  a  sculptor. 
Another  son,  Girolamo,  went  to  France,  and  was 
employed  by  Francis  I.  He  made  a  marble  statue  of 
Catherine  de  Medicis  at  Saint-Denis. 

See  Barbet  de  Jouy,  "  Les  Della  Robbia,  fitude." 

Robbia,  della,  (Luca,)  a  famous  sculptor  and 
worker  in  enamelled  terra-cotta,  born  at  Florence  about 
1390  or  1400,  was  a  brother  or  an  uncle  of  Andrea. 
He  adorned  with  bassi-rilievi  the  Campanile  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Florence,  and  made  a  bronze  door  for  the 
sacristy  of  the  same.  He  invented  the  enamelled  terra- 
cotta, and  acquired  a  European  reputation  by  the  fabri- 
cation of  figures  of  this  material,  which  are  called  "  della 
Robbia"  ware.    Died  in  1463,  or,  as  some  say,  1482. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Rob'bins,  (Ashur,)  an  Ameqcan  lawyer  and  states- 
man, born  at  Wethersfield,  Connecticut,  in  1757,  settled 
in  Rhode  Island,  and  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate  in  1825.  He  served  in  the  Senate  fourteen  years. 
Died  in  1845. 

Roberjot,  ro'b^R^zho',  (Claude,)  a  French  diplo- 
matist, born  at  Macon  in  1753,  was  a  republican  member 
of  the  Convention,  (1793.)  With  Bonnier  and  Debry,  he 
represented  France  at  the  Congress  of  Rastadt,  in  1799. 
He  was  assassinated  by  Austrian  soldiers  just  after  he 
departed  from  Rastadt,  in  April  of  that  year. 

Rob'ert  of  Bavaria,  born  in  1352,  was  elected  Em- 
peror of  Germany  in  1400.  He  attempted  to  conquer 
the  Milanese,  but  was  defeated  by  Visconti  in  1401. 
Died  in  1410. 

Rob'ert  [Fr.  pron.  ro'baiR';  Lat.  Rober'tus  ;  It. 
Roherto,  ro-b§R'to]  I.,  King  of  France,  was  the  second 
son  of  Robert  the  Strong,  Duke  of  France.  After  the 
death  of  his  brother  Eudes,  898  A.D.,  the  throne  was 
obtained  by  Charles  the  Sinij^le.  In  922  the  malcontent 
barons  revolted  against  Charles,  and  proclaimed  Robert 
as  his  successor.  In  923  the  army  of  Robert  gained  a 
victory  over  that  of  his  rival ;  but  Robert  was  killed  in 
the  action. 

Robert  II.,  King  of  France,  born  at  Orleans  in  971, 
was  a  son  of  Hugh  Capet,  whom  he  succeeded  in  996. 
He  was  reputed  to  be  very  devout,  but  was  excommu- 
nicated by  the  pope  for  his  marriage  with  a  cousin  in 
the  fourth  degree.  In  1024  he  refused  the  imperial 
crown,  offered  to  him  by  the  Italians.  His  reign  was 
pacific.  He  died  in  1031,  and  left  the  throne  to  his  son 
Henry. 

See  Raoul  Glaber,  "  Chronique ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Robert  of  Anjou,  King  of  Naples,  born  about  1275, 
was  a  son  of  Charles  II.  He  began  to  reign  in  1309, 
and  waged  war  against  the  emperor  Henry  VII.  He 
was  the  judge  selected  to  decide  whether  Petrarch  was 
qualified  to  receive  the  crown  of  poet-laureate.  Died 
1343- 

Robert  I.  of  Scotland.    See  Bruce,  (Robert.) 

Rob'ert  II.,  King  of  Scotland,  born  in  1316,  was  the 
first  king  of  the  House  of  Stewart  or  Stuart.  The  family 
name  was  originally  Allan,  or  Alan.  (See  Stuari' 
Family.)  His  mother,  Marjory,  was  a  daughter  of 
Robert  Bruce,  and  his  father,  Walter  Allan,  was  the 
high  steward  of  Scotland.  He  acted  as  regent  from 
1338  to  1341,  and  again  while  David  II.  was  held  as 
a  prisoner  by  the  English,  (1346-57.)  He  succeeded 
David  II.  in  1371.  Among  the  important  events  of  his 
reign  were  a  war  against  the  English,  and  the  battle  of 
Otterburne,  (1388.)    Died  in  1390. 

See  Burton,  "  Histoiy  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap.  xxvi. 

Robert  III.,  King  of  Scotland,  born  about  1340,  was 
a  son  of  Robert  II.  His  bai:)tismal  name  was  John  ; 
but  John  Baliol  (called  "King  John")  had  rendered  this 
so  unpopular  that  it  was  changed  to  Robert.  He  began 
to  reign  in  1390.    Hostilities  were  renewed  between  the 


Scotch  and  English  in  1399,  and  the  former  were  de 
feated  at  Homildon  Hill,  in  1402.  "  Robert  died  in  1406^ 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  son,  James  I. 

See  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  chap.  xxvi. 

Robert  [Fr.  pron.  ro-baik']  I.,  Duke  of  Normandy, 
surnamed  le  Diable,  leh  de'tbK,  ("the  Devil,")  was  a 
son  of  Richard  II.  He  succeeded  his  brother,  Richard 
III.,  in  1027.  In  1035  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
Holy  Land,  on  his  return  from  which  he  died  at  Nicaea 
in  July,  1035.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  William 
the  Conqueror  of  England. 

See  Depping,  "Histoire  de  Normandie;"  A.  Deville,  "Notice 
historique  sur  Robert  le  Diable,"  1836. 

Robert  II.,  Duke  of  Normandy,  surnamed  Curt- 
Hose  or  Short-Shanks,  born  about  960,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  William  I.  surnamed  the  Conqueror.  He  was 
brave,  but  imprudent  and  unstable.  He  obtained  the 
dukedom  of  Normandy  in  1087.  In  1096  he  went  to 
Palestine  as  a  leader  of  the  first  crusade.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  siege  of  Antioch  and  at  the  battle 
of  Dorylaeum,  (1097,)  and  returned  home  in  iioo.  In 
his  absence  his  younger  brother,  Henry,  obtained  pos- 
session of  the  throne  of  England,  left  vacant  by  the 
death  of  William  Rufus.  In  the  war  that  ensued  between 
Robert  and  Henry,  the  former  was  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner  in  1106.  He  was  confined  at  Cardiff  until  his 
death,  in  1134. 

See  Depping,  "Histoire  de  Normandie;"  Ordericus  Vitalis, 
"  History  of  Normandy." 

Robert  I.,  Count  of  Artois,  born  in  1216,  was  a  son 
of  Louis  VIII.  of  France.  He  accompanied  his  brother, 
Saint  Louis,  in  a  crusade  against  the  Saracens,  and  was 
killed  at  Mansourah  in  1250. 

His  son  Robert,  born  in  1250,  gained  a  victory  over 
the  English  near  Dax  in  1296,  and  over  the  Flemings 
at  Furnes  in  1297.    He  was  killed  in  battle  in  1302. 

Robert  III.,  Count  of  Artois,  a  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1287.  He  was  banished  by  Philip 
VI.  of  France  in  1332,  and  entered  the  service  of  Edward 
III.  of  England.    Died  in  1343. 

Robert,  ro'baiR',  (C6sar  Alphonse,)  a  French  sur- 
geon and  medical  writer,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1801. 
He  became  a  resident  of  Paris. 

Robert,  (Claude,)  a  French  ecclesiastical  historian, 
born  near  Bar-sur-Seine  in  1564  or  1565.  His  chief 
work  is  "Christian  Gaul,"  ("Gallia  Christiana,"  1626,) 
which  was  continued  by  the  Benedictines  and  extended 
to  thirteen  volumes,  (1785.)    Died  in  1637. 

See  E.  SocARD,  "  Notice  historique  sur  Claude  Robert." 

Robert,  ro'b^Rt,  (Ernst  Friedrich  Ludwtg,)  a 
German  litterateur,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Berlin 
in  1778,  was  a  brother  of  Rahel  Varnhagen  von  Ense. 
He  was  the  author  of  poems,  tales,  and  dramas.  Died 
in  1832. 

Robert,  (Francois,)  a  French  geographer,  born  near 
Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1737.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Geographical  Dictionary,"  (1818.)  Died  in 
1819. 

Robert,  (Hubert,)  an  excellent  French  painter  of 
architecture,  etc.,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1733.  He  studied 
in  Rome,  and  passed  twelve  years  in  Italy,  (1753-65,) 
He  painted  views  of  the  monuments  and  ruins  of  Rome. 
After  his  return  to  Paris  he  was  appointed  keeper  of 
the  royal  cabinet  and  dessinateur  of  the  royal  gardens. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1808. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Robert,  (Louts  L^:opold,)  an  eminent  painter,  born 
at  Chaux-le-Fonds,  in  the  canton  of  Neufchatel,  in  1794. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Girardet  and  of  David.  In  1818 
he  went  to  Italy,  in  which  he  passed  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  He  represented  Italian  life  and  scenery  with 
fidelity  in  numerous  works,  among  which  are  "The 
Neapolitan  Improvisator,"  (1824,)  "The  Vintage  in 
Tuscany,"  "  The  Reaj^ers  of  the  Pontine  Marshes,"  and 
"The  Departure  of  the  Fishermen  of  the  Adriatic," 
(1835.)  He  committed  suicide  at  Venice  in  1835.  This 
act  is  ascribed  to  a  passion  for  Charlotte,  a  daughter  of 
Joseph  Bonaparte. 

See  E.  Dei.ecluzh,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  L.  Robert,"  1838; 
Feuillet  de  Conches,  "  L.  Robert,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEuvres,"  1848  ; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal ;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROBERT 


1904 


ROBERTSON 


Robert,  (Louis  Valentin  Elias,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor, born  at  fitampes  about  1818. 

Robert,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  miniature-  and  flower- 
painter,  born  at  Langres  about  1610.  He  commenced  a 
work  called  "Recueil  de  Velins."  Died  in  Paris  in  1684. 

Robert,  (Paul  Ponce  Antoine,)  a  French  painter 
and  engraver,  born  near  Rheims  in  1686;  died  in  1733. 

Robert,  (Pierre  FRANgois  Joseph,)  a  French  regi- 
cide, born  at  Ginniee  in  1763,  was  a  friend  of  Danton. 
He  married  Mademoiselle  de  Keralio,  the  authoress. 
t)ied  in  1826. 

Robert  de  Courtenay,  ro'baiR'  deh  kooRt'ni',  a 
French  prince,  a  son  of  Pierre  de  Courtenay,  became 
Latin  Emperor  of  Constantinople  in  1220.  Died  in  1228. 

Robert  de  Vaugondy,  roHjaik'  deh  v5'g6N'de', 
(Didier,)  a  French  geographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1723. 
He  published  an  "Atlas  of  France  and  Europe,"  (1785,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1786. 

Robert  de  Vaugondy,  (Gilles,)  a  French  geogra- 
pher, born  in  Paris  in  1688,  was  the  father  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  a  grandson  of  Nicolas  Sanson.  He  produced 
a  "Universal  Atlas,"  (1758.)    Died  in  1766. 

Robert  of  Avesbury,  an  English  chronicler,  author 
of  an  unfinished  *' History  of  the  Reign  of  Edward  HL," 
which  comes  down  to  1356.    Died  about  1360. 

Robert  of  Bavaria.    See  Ruperi',  Prince. 

Robert  of  Geneva,  (Anti-Pope,)  born  in  1342,  was 
elected  pope  in  1378,  in  opposition  to  Urban  VI.  He 
took  the  name  of  Clement  VH.,  reigned  at  Avignon, 
and  was  recognized  by  the  French  and  Spaniards.  Died 
in  1394. 

Robert  of  Gloucester,  an  English  chronicler  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  He  wrote,  in  verse,  a  chronicle 
or  history  of  England  from  fabulous  times  down  to 
the  death  of  Henry  HL  De  Quincey  speaks  of  this 
chronicle  as  "the  very  earliest  of  all  English  books." 

See  the  interesting  account  of  De  Quincey's  interview  with  George 
III.,  in  his  "Autobiographic  Sketches." 

Robert  the  Strong,  [Fr.  Robert  le  Fort,  ro'baiR' 
leh  foR,]  Count  of  Anjou  and  Duke  of  France,  was 
noted  as  a  military  chief.  He  was  killed  in  a  fight  with 
some  Normans,  led  by  the  famous  sea-king  Hastings, 
in  866  A.D.    He  was  great-grandfather  of  Hugh  Capet. 

Robert  Grosstete.    See  Grosseteste. 

Robert-Fleury,  ro'baiR'  fluh're',  (Joseph  Nicolas,) 
a  popular  French  historical  painter,  was  born  at  Co- 
logne in  1797.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1850.  Among  his  works  are  "  Benvenuto 
Cellini"  and  "Charles  V.  at  the  Monastery  of  Saint 
Just."  About  1855  he  became  professor  in  the  Ecole 
des  Beaux-Arts. 

Roberti,  ro-b§R'tee,  (Albert,)  a  Belgian  painter, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1811. 

Roberti,  ro-b§R'tee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  me- 
diocre Italian  poet  and  essayist,  born  at  Bassano  in 
1 719.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Bologna.  Died 
in  1786. 

Roberti,  (Jean,)  a  learned  Belgian  Jesuit,  born  at 
Saint-Hubert  in  1569;  died  in  1651. 

Roberto,  the  Italian  for  Robert,  which  see. 

Rob'erts,  (Benjamin  S.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Manchester,  Vermont,  about  1811,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1835.  He  was  serving  with  the  rank  of  major 
in  New  Mexico  when  the  civil  war  began.  In  July,  1862, 
he  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  the 
Union  army. 

Rob'erts,  (David,)  an  eminent  British  painter  of 
landscapes  and  architecture,  was  born  at  Stockbridge, 
Edinburgh,  in  1796.  Between  1838  and  1840  he  travelled 
in  Egypt  and  Syria,  in  which  he  sketched  many  scenes 
which  he  afterwards  reproduced  on  canvas.  He  was 
elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1841.  Among  his  works 
are  "Jerusalem  from  the  Mount  of  Olives,"  (1841,) 
"Pyramids  of  Ghizeh,"  (1844,)  "Ruins  of  the  Great 
Temple  of  Karnak,"  "The  Destruction  of  Jerusalem," 
(1849,)  "  Rome,"  (1855.)  The  splendid  work  entitled 
"  The  Holy  Land,  Syria,  Arabia,  Egypt,  and  Nubia" 
(4  vols.,  1842)  is  illustrated  by  lithographs  of  his 
sketches.    Died  in  1864. 

See  William  Jerdan,  "Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1866; 
"Biographical  Sketches,"  by  Harriet  Maktineau. 


Roberts,  (Emma,)  an  English  authoress,  wrote 
"Memoirs  of  the  Rival  Houses  of  York  and  Lancas- 
ter," and  "Oriental  Scenes,  Sketches,  and  Tales."  Died 
at  Poonah,  in  India,  in  1840. 

Roberts,  (Francis,)  an  English  Puritan  minister  and 
writer,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1609,  became  rector  of 
Wrington  in  1649.  He  wrote  "Key  to  the  Scriptures," 
("Clavis  Bibliorum,"  1649,)  "The  True  Way  to  the 
Tree  of  Life,"  (1673,)  ^"^  other  works.    Died  in  1675. 

Roberts,  (William,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  1768. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "  Life  of  Hannah  More."  Died 
in  1849. 

Robertson,  ro'baiR's6N',  (Etienne  Gaspard  Ro- 
bert,) a  Belgian  aeronaut  and  natural  philosopher,  born 
at  Liege  in  1763.  It  is  stated  that  he  made  fifty-nine 
ascensions  in  balloons.    Died  in  1837. 

Rob'eit-son,  (Frederick  William,)  an  eloquent 
minister  and  original  thinker  of  the  Anglican  Church, 
was  born  in  London  on  the  3d  of  February,  1816.  He 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Captain  Frederick  Robertson,  of 
the  royal  artillery.  After  preparatory  studies  at  Edin- 
burgh, he  entered  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  in  1836. 
Among  his  fellow-students  at  Oxford  was  John  Ruskin, 
in  whom  he  found  a  congenial  spirit.  He  would  have 
preferred  the  profession  of  a  soldier  ;  but,  in  compliance 
with  the  wishes  of  his  father,  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
church.  After  he  left  college  he  improved  his  health  by 
a  pedestrian  tour  among  the  Alps,  and  on  that  occasion 
became  acquainted  with  Miss  Helen  Denys,  whom  he 
married  in  1842.  He  served  as  curate  at  Cheltenham 
about  four  years,  and  became  incumbent  of  Trinity 
Chapel,  Brighton,  in  August,  1847.  Though  he  rather 
shunned  than  courted  popularity,  his  eloquence  and 
originality  soon  excited  general  admiration.  The  libe- 
rality and  independence  of  his  principles,  however, 
subjected  him  to  persecution  from  some  members  of  his 
own  communion.  He  belonged  to  what  is  called  the 
Broad  Church.  Three  series  of  his  sermons  have  been 
published,  and  have  passed  through  about  eight  editions. 
He  delivered  several  "Lectures  and  Addresses  on  Lit- 
erary and  Social  Topics,"  which  have  been  printed.  He 
died  August  15,  1853,  and  was  buried  at  Brighton. 

See  Stopford  A.  Brooke,  "Life  and  Letters  of  F.  W.  Robert- 
son," 2  vols.,  1865  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  January,  1866. 

Robertson,  (George,)  an  English  landscape-painter, 
born  in  London  about  1742;  died  in  1788. 

Rob'ert-son,  (James,)  called  Rabbi  Robertson,  was 
born  at  Cromarty,  in  Scotland.  He  became  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  at  Edinburgh  in  1751.    Died  in  1795. 

Robertson,  (James,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  divine,  born  in 
1803.  He  became  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at 
Edinburgh.    Died  in  i860. 

Robertson,  (Rev.  Joseph,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  1726.  He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  Punctuation,"  and 
translated  "  Telemachus,"  (1795.)    Died  in  1802. 

Robertson,  (Patrick,)  a  Scottish  judge,  versifier, 
and  lawyer,  noted  for  his  wit  and  humour,  was  born  in 
1794.  He  was  elected  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Advocates 
in  1842.    Died  in  1855. 

Robertson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  grammarian,  born 
at  or  near  Wakefield.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  Magda- 
lene College,  Oxford,  in  1532,  and  Dean  of  Durham  about 
1557.    Died  about  1560. 

Rob'ert-son,  (William,)  an  Irish  divine,  born  in 
Dublin  in  1705,  is  reputed  to  have  been  an  Arian  or 
Unitarian.  He  wrote  "An  Attempt  to  Explain  the 
Words  Reason,  Substance,  Person,  Creed,  Orthodoxy," 
etc.    Died  in  1783. 

Robertson,  (William,)  often  called  Principal  Rob- 
ertson, a  celebrated  Scottish  historian,  was  born  at 
Borthwick,in  Edinburghshire,  (Mid-Lothian,)  September 
19,  1 72 1.  His  father,  the  Rev.  William  Robertson,  was 
minister  at  Borthwick  when  his  son  was  born.  He 
afterwards  removed  to  Edinburgh.  Young  Robertson 
manifested  an  ardent  devotion  to  literature  from  a  very 
early  age.  He  began  to  preach  before  he  was  twenty 
years  old.  He  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Gladsmuir, 
in  East  Lothian,  in  1743,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  an  eloquent  pulpit  orator.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  debates  of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  and  obtained  great  influence  in  ecclesiastical 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  loug:  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  skort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fSll,  fit;  mStj  nftt;  good;  moon; 


ROBERT  Ah 


1905 


ROBESPIERRE 


affairs.  He  was  the  leader  of  what  was  called  the  mode- 
rate party,  and  was  more  inclined  to  liberality  and  tole- 
rance than  many  other  members  of  his  church.  He  has, 
however,  been  charged,  perhaps  not  without  reason,  with 
preferring  the  interests  of  literature  to  those  of  religion. 
In  1759  he  published  a  "  History  of  Scotland  during  the 
Reigns  of  Mary  and  of  James  VI.  till  his  Accession  to 
the  Crown  of  England,"  which  was  received  with  great 
and  general  favour.  It  was  extolled  by  Hume,  Burke, 
and  other  eminent  critics.  He  removed  to  Edinburgh 
about  1759,  became  one  of  the  king's  chaplains  in  1761, 
and  principal  of  the  University  of  Ediniiurgh  in  1762. 
His  reputation  was  increased  by  his  "  History  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.,  with  a  Sketch  of  the  Political  and 
Social  State  of  Europe,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1769,)  which  is 
considered  his  capital  work.  He  afterwards  published 
a  "  History  of  America,"  (2  vols.,  1777.)  He  is  gene- 
rally accurate  and  impartial  in  the  narration  of  events 
and  judicious  in  the  estimation  of  character.  His  style 
is  elegant,  clear,  and  vigorous,  with  occasional  passages 
of  great  beauty.  As  a  writer  he  is  remarkable  for  a 
sustained  unimpassioned  dignity  of  manner,  which,  how- 
ever, too  often  approaches  monotony.  In  politics  he 
was  a  Whig,  with  a  strong  leaning  towards  republicanism. 
He  died  in  June,  1793. 

See  DuGAi.D  Stewart,  "Account  of  the  Life  and  Wrhings  of 
W.  Robertson,"  1801  ;  Suard,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de 
Dr.  Robertson;"  "Memoirs  of  Adam  Smith,  W.  Robertson,  and 
Thomas  Reid,"  iSii  ;  Bishop  Gi.eig,  "  Metioir  of  W.  Robertson," 
prefixed  to  his  works  ;  Brougham,  "  Men  of  Letters  in  the  Time  of 
George  IIL;"  Chambers,  "  Biograpliical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen;"  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "'Monthly  Re- 
view" for  July  and  August,  1769. 

Roberval,  de,  deh  ro'b§R^'tI^  (Giles  Personne — 
p^R'son',  or  Fersoiiier,  p^R'so'ne-^',)  a  French  mathe- 
matician, was  born  at  Roberval,  near  Senlis,  in  1602. 
He  removed  to  Paris  in  1627,  and  formed  an  intimacy 
with  Mersenne.  About  1632  he  obtained  the  chair  of 
mathematics  founded  by  Ramus  at  the  College  de 
France.  He  discovered  about  1636  a  method  to  deter- 
mine the  area  of  a  cycloid,  and  a  method  to  determine 
the  direction  of  a  tangent  at  any  point  of  a  curve  line. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "Treatise  on  Indivisibles," 
("Traite  des  Indivisibles,")  and  "On  the  World's  Mo- 
tions and  Parts,  according  to  the  System  of  Aristarchus 
the  Samian,"  ("Aristarchi  Samii  de  Mundi  Systemate 
Partibus  et  Motibus,"  1644.)  It  is  related  that,  having 
been  asked  how  he  liked  a  dramatical  performance 
which  he  had  just  witnessed,  he  answered,  "Qu'est-ce 
que  cela  prouve  ?"  ("  What  does  that  prove  .'"')  Died  in 
Paris  in  1675. 

Robespierre,  ro'b§s'pe-aiR',  (Augustin  Bon  Jo- 
seph,) called  THE  Young,  a  brother  of  the  dictator, 
was  born  at  Arras  in  1764.  He  was  elected  to  the 
National  Convention  in  1792.  When  the  Convention 
ordered  the  arrest  of  his  brother,  he  exclaimed,  "In- 
clude me  with  him  ;  I  partake  his  crimes  !"  He  was 
executed  July  28,  1794. 

Robespierre,  rob'es-peer,  [Fr.  pron.  ro'bls'pe-aiR',] 
(Maxim  I  LIEN  Marie  Isidore,)  a  French  dem^ogue 
and  Jacobin,  was  born  at  Arras  on  the  6th  of  ^iay, 
1758.  He  was  sent  to  the  College  of  Arras,  from  which 
he  passed  in  1770  to  the  College  Louis-le-Grand,  in 
Paris.  His  habits  at  college  were  studious  and  regular. 
He  studied  law,  acquired  some  distinction  as  an  advo- 
cate at  Arras,  and  was  sent  to  the  States-General  in 
Maj ,  1789,  as  one  of  the  sixteen  representatives  of  the 
pro\ince  of  Artois.  He  was  a  person  of  small  stature, 
and  had  nothing  attractive  or  imposing  in  his  aspect. 
His  voice  was  weak,  his  complexion  "  sea-green,"  his 
disposition  reserved  and  timid,  and  his  moral  habits  tem- 
perate and  regular.  According  to  M.  Etienne  Dumont, 
he  had  a  sinister  aspect,  and  a  continual  blinking 
(clignotement)  of  the  eyes.  In  political  opinions  he  was 
a  radical  democrat.  He  spoke  often  in  the  Constituent 
Assembly  and  in  the  Jacobin  Club,  over  which  he 
soon  acquired  a  predominant  influence.  While  men  of 
greater  talents  wasted  their  energies  in  vain  efforts  to 
refoim  the  old  regime  by  half-way  measures  and  tem- 
porizing expedients,  he  seems  to  have  perceived  the 
necessity  of  a  radical  revolution.  "  He  will  go  far,"  says 
Mirabeau  ;  "for  he  believes  all  he  says." 


In  the  Constituent  Assembly  he  maintained  a  position 
somewhat  independent  of  party.  He  defended  with  zeal 
the  interests  of  the  inferior  clergy,  advocated  the  abo- 
lition of  the  death-penalty,  (May,  1791,)  and  made  a 
vehement  speech  against  the  re-election  of  the  members 
of  the  Constituent  Assembly  to  the  Legislative  Assem- 
bly, on  which  question  he  differed  from  the  other  chiefs 
of  thegatiche.  On  critical  occasions  he  usually  presented 
himself  to  the  people  as  a  resigned  and  devoted  victiui 
whom  nefarious  persons  designed  to  immolate  because 
he  loved  the  people  too  well.  Thus,  after  he  had  de- 
nounced the  king,  the  ministry,  etc.,  June  21,  1 791,  he 
said,  "  I  know  that  I  sharpen  against  myself  a  thousand 
daggers  ;  but  if  in  the  first  stage  of  the  Revolution,  when 
I  was  scarcely  known  in  the  National  Assembly,  I  offered 
my  life  as  a  sacrifice  to  truth,  now  that  the  approbation 
of  my  fellow-citizens  has  rewarded  me  for  this  sacrifice, 
I  should  receive  almost  as  a  benefit  a  death  which  shall 
prevent  me  from  witnessing  the  public  calamities  which 
I  foresee  to  be  inevitable."  In  December,  1791,  he 
opposed  in  a  speech  the  declaration  of  war  against 
the  Emperor  of  Germany  which  was  proposed  by  the 
Girondists.  Although  not  a  great  orator,  he  was 
always  plausible,  and  more  logical  than  the  most  of  his 
competitors.  He  never  took  an  active  or  open  part 
in  the  violent  acts  and  outrages  of  the  populace,  such 
as  the  attack  on  the  Tuileries,  August,  1792. 

In  September,  1792,  he  was  elected  to  the  Convention 
as  a  deputy  from  Paris.  A  few  days  after  the  session 
began,  several  Girondist  deputies  accused  him  of  aspiring 
to  a  dictatorship,  and  cast  on  him  the  responsibility  of 
the  recent  massacre  in  the  prisons  of  Paris.  These 
charges  were  repeated  by  Louvet  in  a  long  speech, 
(October  29,)  to  which  Robespierre  read  an  artful 
and  successful  defence.  The  result  of  this  affair  was 
that  Robespierre  becaine  the  accepted  chief  of  the 
Mountain  and  the  implacable  enemy  of  the  Girondists. 
The  first  victim  of  his  unscrupulous  policy  was  the 
king,  whom  the  Girondists  wished  to  save.  He  said, 
(December  2,  1792,)  "I  pronounce  with  regret  this 
fatal  truth  ;  but  Louis  must  die  that  the  country  may 
live,"  ("Louis  doit  mourir  parcequ'il  faut  que  la  patrie 
vive.")  Aided  by  the  commune  of  Paris  and  the  mob, 
he  triumphed  over  the  Girondists  about  June  I,  1793. 
Then  began  the  Reign  of  Terror,  during  which,  as  presi- 
dent of  the  committee  of  public  safety,  (or  salvation,) 
Robespierre  exercised  almost  unlimited  power.  Two 
of  his  partisans,  Couthon  and  Saint-Just,  were  associated 
with  him  in  the  triumvirate  of  Robespierre.  It  is 
just  to  admit  that  they  defended  France  with  great 
vigour  and  ability  against  the  allied  armies  of  nearly 
all  Europe  and  the  Vendean  royalist  insurgents. 

In  March,  1794,  Hebert  and  the  Hebertists  were 
guillotined  as  exageres  or  ultra-revolutionary.  It  is  stated 
that  when  the  committee  of  public  safety  determined 
to  destroy  Danton  and  his  friends,  Robespierre  at  first 
opposed  the  measure  ;  but  he  supported,  by  a  speech  in 
the  Convention,  Saint-Just's  motion  for  their  arrest,  and 
Danton,  with  Desmoulins  and  others,  was  executed  in 
April,  1794.  But  the  death  of  a  powerful  rival  did  not 
render  his  own  position  secure.  His  statesmanship  was 
not  adequate  to  solve  the  enigma  of  the  Revolution.  He 
presided  as  a  high-priest  and  pronounced  an  oration  at 
a  public  ceremony  called  the  Festival  of  the  Supreme 
Being,  in  June,  1794.  In  the  mean  time,  multitudes  of 
innocent  persons,  of  both  sexes,  perished  daily  by  the 
guillotine.  This  excessive  cruelty  provoked  against  him 
a  combination  of  various  parties,  afterwards  called 
"  Thermidoriens,"  including  Tallien,  Barras,  Billaud- 
Varennes,  Fouche,  and  Carnot.  The  Convention  ordered 
the  arrest  of  Robespierre  on  the  9th  Thermidor.  His 
partisans  rallied  in  the  night  and  released  him  from 
arrest.  He  was  then  declared  an  outlaw  by  the  Conven- 
tion, and  was  guillotined,  with  twenty  of  his  partisans,  on 
the  lOth  Thermidor,  (28th  of  July,)  1794.  He  was  sur- 
named  "  the  Incorruptible,"  because  he  was  proof  against 
pecuniary  temptations.  "  Robespierre,"  says  Macaulay, 
in  his  article  on  Barere,  "was  a  vain,  envious,  and  sus- 
picious man,  with  a  hard  heart,  weak  nerves,  and  a 
gloomy  temper.  But  we  cannot  with  truth  deny  that  he 
was,  in  the  vulgar  sense  of  the  word,  disinterested,  tha* 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as G,  H,  y.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

I  20 


ROB  I L  ANT 


1906 


ROBINSON 


his  private  life  was  correct,  or  that  he  was  sincerely 
zealous  for  his  own  system  of  politics  and  morals." 

See  LoDiEU,  "  Biographie  de  Robespierre  ;"  Vii.ate,  "Causes 
secretes  de  la  Revolution  du  9  Thermidor,"  1796  ;  Pkoyart,  "  Vie  de 
Robespierre,"  1794;  George  H.  Lewes,  "History  of  Maximilian 
Robespierre,"  1849;  Lamartine,  "  Histoire  des  Girondins :"  Er- 
nest Hamel,  "  Histoire  de  Robespierre,"  3  vols.,  1867  ;  Carlyle, 
"  History  of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  P.  F.  Tissot,  "  Histoire  de 
Robespierre,"  2  vols.,  1844:  Opitz,  "  Robespierre's  Triumph  and 
Stiirz,"  1850;  MiGNET,  "Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Frangaise  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
September,  1835. 

Robilant,  de,  deh  ro^be'lfiw',  ?  (Esprit  BENof  r  Nico- 
las,) an  engineer  and  writer  on  metallurgy,  etc.,  born  at 
Turin  in  1724.  He  was  a  son  of  Count  Joseph  Robilant, 
author  of  an  able  work  on  Strategy,  (1744.)   Died  in  1801. 

Robin,  ro''biN',  (Charles  PhIlippe,)  a  French  anato- 
mist and  microscopist,  born  at  Jafferon  (Ain)  in  1821. 
He  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Paris  (professeur 
agregehla  Faculte)  in  1847.  He  applied  the  microscope 
to  the  study  of  anatomy  and  the  intimate  structure  of 
tissues.  He  published  a  number  of  professional  works, 
among  which  is  "Traite  de  Chimie  anatomique  et  phy- 
siologique,  normale  et  pathologique,"  (1852.) 

Robin,  (Jean,)  a  French  botanist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1550.  He  was  patronized  by  Henry  IV.,  and  planted  a 
garden  which  was  the  finest  in  Paris,  lie  published  a 
work  on  the  plants  which  grow  near  Paris,  "  Catalogus 
Stirpium  tain  indigenarum  quam  exoticarum,"  etc., 
(1601.)  The  genus  Robinia  was  named  in  his  honour. 
Died  in  1629. 

See  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca  Botanica." 

Robin,  (Vespasien,)  a  botanist,  born  in  Paris  in  1579, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  title  of  arboriste  du  roi,  and  lectured  on  botany  at  the 
Jardin  Royal.    Died  in  1662. 

Robin  Hood.    See  Hood,  (Robin.) 

Robineau.    See  Beaunoir. 

Robinet,  ro'be'ni',  (Edmond,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Saint-Pol-de-Leon  in  i8u.  He  wrote  several 
historical  works. 

Robinet,  (Jean  Baptiste  Ren6,)  a  French  writer 
on  various  subjects,  born  at  Rennes  in  1735  ;  died  in  1820. 

Robinet,  (St^phane,)  a  French  chemist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1796. 

Rob'ins,  (Benjamin,)  an  eminent  English  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Bath  in  1707,  is  called  the  founder  of  the 
science  of  gunnery.  He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  at  the  age  of  twenty.  His  chief  work  is 
"New  Principles  of  Gunnery,"  (1742.)  He  was  ap- 
pointed chief  engineer  of  the  East  India  Company  in 
1749,  and  died  at  Madras  in  1751. 

See  Dr.  Wilson,  "Life  of  Benjamin  Robins;"  "  Biographia 
Britannica,"  (Supplement.) 

Robins  or  Robyns,  (John,)  an  English  astronomer, 
born  in  Staffordshire  about  1500.  He  was  canon  of 
"Windsor,  and  chaplain  to  Henry  VIII.  He  left  in  manu- 
script several  treatises  on  the  Fixed  Stars.  Died  in 
1558. 

Rob'in-son,  (Anastasta,)  an  English  singer,  who 
was  married  to  the  Earl  of  Peterborough  before  1735. 
Died  in  1750. 

Rob'in-spn,  (Edm^ard,)  an  eminent  American  bibli- 
cal scholar,  born  at  Southington,  Connecticut,  in  1794. 
He  graduated  at  Hamilton  College,  New  York,  in  1816, 
and  went  to  Europe  in  1826,  after  which  he  studied 
Oriental  languages  at  Paris  and  Halle.  About  1828  he 
married  a  daughter  of  Professor  Jacobi  or  von  Jakob, 
of  Halle.  He  began  to  edit  the  "  Biblical  Repository" 
in  1831,  was  appointed  professor  of  biblical  literature 
in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  in  1837,  and  travelled  in  Palestine  in  1838.  In 
1841  he  published  his  principal  work,  "Biblical  Re- 
searches in  Palestine,  Mount  Sinai,  and  Arabia  Petraea," 
(3  vols.,)  which  is  considered  the  best  that  had  then 
been  published  on  that  subject.  "  The  work  was  recog- 
nized," says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "as  one  of  the  most 
learned  and  judicious  jiroduced  in  the  world  in  this 
century."  He  received  for  this  work  the  gold  medal  of 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of  London.  Among  his 
other  works  is  "The  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels,"  in 
Greek,  (1845,)  and  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra."    Died  in  New 


York  in  January,  1863.  "The  names  of  Edward  Robin- 
son and  Moses  Stuart,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "  stand 
at  the  head  of  the  catalogue  of  learned  men  who  have 
cultivated  biblical  literature  in  America."  ("  Prose 
Writers  of  America,"  p.  382.) 

See  tiie  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1841; 
"North  American  Review"  for  April,  1851. 

Robinson,  (Frederick  John.)    See  Ripon,  Earl 

OF. 

Robinson,  (Henry  Crabb,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
writer,  born  at  Bury  Saint  Edmund's,  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  and  other  eminent  per- 
sons of  his  time.  He  died  in  London  in  1867,  at  the  age 
of  ninety-one,  leaving  a  very  interesting  "Diary,  Remi- 
niscences, and  Correspondence,"  (3  vols.,  London,  1869.) 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1869  ;  "  British  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  October,  1869;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  October, 
1869;  "Macmillan's  Magazine"  for  August,  1869,  (by  Professor 
Maurice.) 

Robinson,  (John,)  an  English  dissenting  minister, 
born  in  1575,  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  To  escape 
from  persecution,  he  emigrated  to  Holland  with  the  con- 
gregation of  which  he  was  pastor,  in  1608.  He  and  they 
settled  at  Leyden,  where  they  remained  eleven  years. 
A  ])ortion  of  his  society  emigrated  to  Plymouth,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1620,  in  the  Mayflower.  He  intended  to 
follow  them,  but  was  prevented  by  death.  He  was  an 
Independent,  and  a  man  of  superior  talents.  He  wrote 
several  religious  works.    Died  at  Leyden  in  1625. 

Robinson,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  York- 
shire in  1650.  He  became  Bishop  of  Bristol  in  1710, 
and  was  one  of  the  plenipotentiaries  who  formed  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht,  (1713.)  He  was  transferred  to  the  see 
of  London  in  1714.    Died  in  1723. 

Robinson,  (John  C.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Binghamton,  New  York,  in  1817.  He  was  appointed  a 
brigadier-general  about  April,  1862,  and  served  at  the 
battle  of  Gaines's  Mill,  June  27,  and  at  Malvern  Hill, 
July  I,  1862.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle 
of  Gettysburg,  July,  1863,  and  at  that  of  the  Wilderness, 
May,  1864.  In  the  advance  from  the  Wilderness  to 
Spottsylvania  Court-House  he  was  severely  wounded, 
May  7. 

Robinson,  (John  H.,)  an  able  English  line-engraver, 
born  at  Bolton,  Lancashire,  in  1796.  He  engraved  a 
portrait  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  after  Lawrence,  Leslie's 
"Mother  and  Child,"  Murillo's  "  Flower-Girl, "  etc. 

Robinson,  (Mary  or  Maria,)  an  English  poetess 
and  actress,  born  at  Bristol  in  1758.  Her  maiden  name 
was  Darby.  She  was  a  mistress  of  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
(afterwards  George  IV.)    Died  in  1800. 

See  "  Autobiography  of  Mrs.  Robinson,"  London,  1827 ; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  September  and  December,  1801. 

Robinson,  (Richard,)  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  and 
Baron  Rokeby,  was  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1709.  He 
founded  a  public  library  and  a  school  at  Armagh.  Died 
in  1794. 

Robinson,  (Robert,)  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
born  at  Swafifliam,  in  Norfolk,  in  1735.  He  preached 
at  Cambridge  from  1759  to  1773,  and  then  removed  to 
Chesterton.  He  was  an  eloquent  preacher.  In  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  he  adopted  Socinian  doctrines. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  religious  works,  a  "History  of 
Baptism,"  (1790.)    Died  in  1790. 

See  Georgr  Dyer,  "  Life  of  R.  Robinson,"  1796. 

Robinson,  (  Tancred,  )  an  English  physician  and 
writer,  received  the  title  of  physician-in-ordinary  to 
George  I.    Died  in  1748. 

Robinson,  (Therese-  Albertine  Louise,)  wife  of 
Dr.  E.  Robinson,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Halle, 
Germany,  in  1797.  She  published  a  collection  of  tales 
under  the  signature  of  Talvf,  and  translated  a  number 
of  poems  from  the  Servian  language,  entitled  "Volks- 
lieder  der  Serben."  She  has  also  translated  into  Ger- 
man Pickering's  treatise  "  On  the  Indian  Tongues  of 
North  America."  Among  her  other  works  may  be 
named  a  "  Historical  View  of  the  Languages  and  Lite- 
rature of  the  Slavic  Nations,  with  a  Sketch  of  their 
Popular  Poetry."    Died  in  1870. 

Robinson,  (Rev.  Thomas,)  an  English  naturalist, 
wrote  an  "  Essay  toward  the  Natural  History  of  West- 
moreland and  Cumberland."    Died  in  1719. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  ^«^;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  j/if^r/";  z.,^,\,q,  obscure;  ftr.fJII.  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


ROBINSON 


1907  ROCHEFOUCAULD 


Robinson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Wakefield  in  1749.  He  preached  at  Leicester  for  many 
years,  and  published  "The  Christian  System  Unfolded." 
Died  in  1813. 

See  Edward  T.  Vaughan,  "Life  of  T.  Robinson." 

Robiquet,  ro'be'ki',  (Pierre  Jean,)  a  French 
chemist  born  at  Rennes  in  1780.  He  was  professor  of 
chemistry  and  materia  medica  in  Paris,  and  succeeded 
Chaptal  in  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1833.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1840. 

See  "Biographic  Universelle." 

Robl-son,  (John,)  a  Scottish  mathematician  and 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Boghall,  county  of  Stirling, 
or  at  Rosehall,  near  Glasgow,  in  1739.  He  succeeded 
Dr.  Black  as  professor  of  chemistry  at  Glasgow  in  1767, 
and  was  appointed  professor  of  natural  philosophy  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1774.  His  principal 
work  is  "  Elements  of  Mechanical  Philosophy,"  (4  vols., 
1822.)    Died  in  Edinburgh  in  1805. 

See  David  Brewster,  "  Notice  of  J.  Robison,"  prefixed  to  the 
work  above  named;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Emi- 
nent Scotsmen." 

Roboam.    See  Rehoboam. 

Robortello,  ro-boR-teKlo,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
philologist  and  antiquary,  born  at  Udine  in  1516.  He 
was  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Venice,  and  taught  Greek 
and  Latin  at  Padua.  Among  his  works  are  "  Annotations 
of  Various  Passages,"  ("Variorum  Locorum  Annota- 
tiones,"  1543,)  and  "  De  Facultate  historica,"  (1548.) 
Died  in  1567. 

See  Gtrii-iNi,  "Teatro  d'Uomini  letterati ;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia 
della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Rob  Roy,  a  Scottish  adventurer,  whose  original 
name  was  Macgregor,  born  about  1660,  was  a  ]5artisan 
of  the  Pretender  in  the  rebellion  of  1715.  The  Duke 
of  Montrose  having  seized  his  lands,  Koh  Roy  carried 
on  a  war  of  reprisals  for  many  years,  and  became  widely 
celebrated  for  his  exploits.  He  is  the  hero  of  one  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott's  most  popular  novels.    Died  in  1743. 

See  K.  Macleav,  "Historical  Memoirs  of  Rob  Roy,"  iSiS ; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  November,  and  December, 
1817. 

Rob'son,  (Frederick,)  an  English  comic  actor,  born 
at  Margate  in  1821.  He  performed  in  London  and 
Dublin  with  success.    Died  in  1864. 

Robson,  (George  Fennel,)  an  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Durham,  worked  in  London.  Died  in 
1833- 

Robusti.    See  Tintoretto. 

Robusti,  ro-boos'tee,  (Domenico,)  a  painter,  some- 
times called  Tintoretto,  born  at  Venice  in  1562,  was 
a  son  and  pupil  of  the  great  painter  Tintoretto.  He 
painted  history  and  portraits  with  success.  Among  his 
works  are  an  "Annunciation"  and  a  "  Nativity  of  Christ." 
Died  in  1637. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Robusti,  (Marietta,)  an  excellent  Italian  portrait- 
painter,  born  in  1560,  was  a  daughter  of  Tintoretto.  She 
died  in  1590. 

Ro'by,  (John,)  an  English  writer  of  prose  and  verse, 
born  in  Lancashire,  became  a  banker  of  Rochdale.  He 
wrote  "Sir  Bartram,"  a  poem,  (181 5,)  and  "Traditions 
of  Lancashire,"  (2  vols.,  1829.)  He  perished  in  the 
wreck  of  the  Orion,  in  June,  1850. 

Rocaberti,  de,  dk  ro-ki-b^k'tee,  (Juan  Tommaso,) 
a  Spanish  prelate,  born  at  Perelada  about  1625.  He 
advocated  the  infallibility  of  the  pope  in  his  work  "On 
the  Authority  of  the  Roman  Pontiff,"  ("  De  Romani 
Pontificis  Auctoritate,"  1693.)    Died  in  1699. 

Rocca,  ruk'ki,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian  scholar,  born  at 
Rocca  Contrata  in  1545.  He  founded  at  Rome  a  public 
library  called  Bibliotheca  Angelica.    Died  in  1620. 

Roch,  rok,  Saint,  born  at  Montpellier,  in  France,  in 
1295,  was  renowned  for  his  charity  and  his  humane 
attentions  to  the  sick.    Died  in  1327. 

See  De  Saint-Alban,  "  Vie  de  Saint-Roch,"  1849;  CoFFiNifeRES, 
"Saint-Roch,  fitude  historique,"  1855 ;  Mrs.  Jameson,  "History 
of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Rochambeau,  de,  deh  ro'shSN'bo',  (Donatien  (do'- 
nt'seJ^N')  Marie  Joseph  de  Vimeur — deh  ve'muR',) 
VicoMTE,  a  French  general,  born  near  Vendome  in 


1750.  He  went  to  Saint  Domingo  with  Leclerc,  at 
whose  death,  in  1802,  he  became  commander-in-chief. 
He  was  killed  at  Leipsic  in  1813. 

Rochambeau,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste  Donatien  de 
Vimeur,)  a  French  marshal,  born  at  Vendome  in  1725, 
was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  Minorca,  at  Crevelt,  and  at  Minden,  (1759.) 
He  commanded  an  army  of  six  thousand  men  sent  to 
the  United  States  in  1780,  and  contributed  to  the  victory 
at  Yorktown  in  October,  1781.  In  1791  he  obtained  the 
baton  of  marshal.  He  commanded  an  army  against  the 
Austrians  in  1792,  but  resigned  in  the  same  year.  Died 
in  1807. 

See  "Memoires  de  Rochambeau,"  by  himself,  1809;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generate;"  "  Biographie  Universelle  " 

Roche,  rosh,  (Achille,)  a  French  political  and  his- 
torical writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1801,  was  a  republican. 
He  wrote  "  Albert  Renaud,"  (4  vols.,  1825,)  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution,"  (1825.)    Died  in  1834. 

Roche,  (Charles  Louis,)  a  French  medical  writer, 
born  at  Nevers  in  1790.  Among  his  works  is  "  Elements 
of  Medico-Surgical  Pathology,"  (5  vols.,  1825-28.) 

Roche,  rotch,  ?  (Maria  Regina,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  in  1764.  She  wrote  "The  Children  of  the  Abbey," 
and  other  tales.    Died  in  1845. 

Roche-Aymon,  de,  deh  rosh  &'m6N',  (Antotne 
Chart.es  Etiennp:,)  Marquis,  a  French  general  and 
writer  on  the  art  of  war,  born  in  Paris  about  1775.  He 
was  aide-de-camp  of  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  (1794- 
1802.)    Died  in  1862. 

Rochechouart.  See  Montespan,  de,  and  Morte- 
MART,  de. 

Rochefort,  rosh'foR',  (Guillaume,)  Chancellor  of 
France,  was  noted  for  wisdom.    Died  in  1492. 

Rochefort,  (Henri,)  Vicomte  de  Lugay,  (deh  lii'si',) 
a  French  republican  agitator,  born  about  1835.  He  be- 
came editor  of  the  "  Lanterne,"  in  which  he  so  violently 
assailed  the  imperial  policy  that  he  was  banished. 
Having  returned  to  Paris,  he  began  to  issue  a  journal 
called  "The  Marseillaise,"  and  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  legislative  body  in  1869.  He  published  offensive 
remarks  and  lampoons  on  Napoleon  III.,  for  which  he 
was  in  1870  sentenced  to  an  imprisonment  of  six  months. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  provisional  government,  Sep- 
tember 4,  1870,  but  resigned  about  the  ist  of  November. 

Rochefort,  de,  deh  rosh'foR',  (Guillaume  Dubois,) 
a  French  writer  and  translator,  born  at  Lyons  in  1 73 1. 
He  wrote  against  the  Materialists,  and  translated  Ho- 
mer's "  Iliad"  (1770)  and  "Odyssey,"  (1777,)  also  the 
works  of  So])hocles,  (1788.)    Died  in  1788. 

Rochefort,  de,  (Henri  Louis  d'Aloigny,)  Mar- 
quis, a  French  general,  who  became  marshal  of  France 
in  1675.    Died  in  1676. 

Rochefoucauld,  de  la,  deh  It  roshToo'ko',  (Fran- 
cois,) Prince  de  Marsillac,  (maR^se-ytk',)  a  French 
Huguenot  leader,  was  a  brother-in-law  of  the  Prince  of 
Conde.  He  fought  at  Chartres  and  Jarnac,  (1569.)  He 
perished  in  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  in  Paris, 
August  24.  1572. 

Rochefoucauld,  de  la,  (Francois,)  Due,  Prince  de 
Marsillac,  a  celebrated  French  moralist  and  courtier, 
born  in  December,  1613.  He  married  Mademoiselle  de 
Vivonne  about  1637.  In  his  youth  he  was  engaged  at 
court  as  the  confidential  agent  of  the  queen  in  intrigues 
asjainst  Richelieu.  He  formed  in  1646  a  liaison  with 
Madame  de  Longueville,  and  in  the  war  of  the  Fronde 
was  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  party  which  opposed  the 
court.  He  was  severely  wounded  at  the  battle  near 
Paris  in  1652,  after  which  he  renounced  intrigues  and  fac- 
tious enterprises.  He  produced  in  1665  his  "Maxims," 
("  Reflexions,  ou  Sentences  et  Maximes  morales,")  which, 
according  to  Voltaire,  is  one  of  the  works  which  con- 
tributed most  to  form  and  rectify  the  national  taste. 
The  essential  principle  of  this  book  is  that  self-love  or 
interest  is  the  chief  motive  of  huinan  actions.  In  his 
latter  years  he  enjoyed  the  friendshi])  of  Madame  de  La 
Fayette  and  Madame  de  Sevigne.    Died  in  1680. 

See  his  autobiographic  "Memoires,"  1662;  Suard,  "Notice  siir 
La  Rochefoucauld,"  1782 ;  Madame  dr  Si^vign^,"  Lettres ;"  Saixte- 
Heuve,  "  Situdes  sur  La  Rochefoucauld,"  1853;  G.  B.  Depping, 
"Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  La  Rochefoucauld."  1822; 
"Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  French  Writers,"  by  Mrs.  Shelley. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k, gicttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROCHEFOUCJULD  1908 


RODGERS 


Rochefoucauld,  de  la,  (Fr6d6kic  Charles,)  Earl 
of  Lifford,  a  French  general,  born  in  1633,  was  a  zealous 
Protestant.    Died  at  Bath,  England,  in  1690. 

Rochefoucauld,  de  la,  (Louis  Alexandre,)  Due 
de  la  Roche»Guyon,  (deh  It  rosh  ge'iN',)  a  French 
patriot,  born  in  1743.  He  favoured  the  popular  cause  in 
the  Revolution,  and  was  an  active  member  of  the  States- 
General  in  1789.    He  was  massacred  at  Gisors  in  1792. 

Rochefoucauld-Liancourt,  de  la,  deh  It  rosh'- 
foo'ko' le'SN'kooR',  (FRANgois  Alexandre  Frederic,) 
D'.":"  a  libera]  French  peer  and  philanthropist,  born  in 
1747  was  a  cousin  of  the  preceding.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  1789-90,  and  went  into 
exile  in  1792,  after  which  he  travelled  in  the  United 
States.  He  returned  to  Paris  in  1799.  He  founded  the 
school  of  Arts  et  Metiers,  (at  Chalons,)  and  the  first 
saving-fund  in  France.  He  published  "  Travels  in  the 
United  States  of  America,"  (8  vols.,  1800.)  Died  in  1827. 
His  son,  Fr^d^ric  Ga6tan,  Marquis  de  la  Rochefou- 
cauld-Liancourt, born  at  Liancourt  in  1779,  is  author 
of  several  poems,  dramas,  and  historical  works. 

See  Ga^tan  de  i,a  Rochefoucauld,  "Vie  du  Due  de  la  Roche- 
foucauld-Liancourt,"  1827;  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Rochejaquelein,  de  la,  deh  It  rosh'zhtk'liN', 
(Henki  du  Verger — dii  veR'zhi',)  Count,  a  French 
royalist  chief  of  the  Vendean  war,  was  born  in  Poitou  in 
1772.  He  took  command  of  a  band  of  peasants  in  1793, 
and  was  victorious  in  several  small  battles.  He  said  to 
his  men,  "  If  I  advance,  follow  me  ;  if  I  retreat,  kill  me  ; 
if  I  die,  avenge  me."  In  October,  1793,  he  was  appointed 
general-in-chief  of  the  insurgents.  He  gained  a  victory 
at  Entrames,  October  27,  but  was  defeated  with  great 
loss  at  Mans,  December  13.  He  was  killed  in  battle  at 
Nouaille  in  March,  1794. 

See  THioDOKE  Muret,  "Vie  populaire  de  H.  de  la  Rochejaque- 
lein," 1845. 

Rochejaquelein,  de  la,  (Louis,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1777.  He  was  an  officer  in  the 
army,  and  served  against  the  negroes  in  Hayti.  In  May, 
1815,  he  raised  a  body  of  Vendeans  to  fight  for  Louis 
XV HI.  He  was  killed  in  an  action  at  Pont  des  Mathis 
in  June  of  that  year. 

See  Madame  de  la  Rochejaquelein,  "  Memoires ;"  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1816. 

Rochejaquelein,  de  la,  (Marie  Louise  Victoire 
de  Donnissan — deh  do'ne'sfiN',)  Marquise,  was  born 
at  Versailles  in  1772.  She  married  in  1790  the  Marquis 
de  Lescure,  who  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Chollet. 
About  1800  she  became  the  wife  of  Louis  de  la  Roche- 
jaquelein, noticed  above.  She  wrote  "  Memoires"  of 
ner  own  life  and  of  the  exploits  of  those  whose  name 
she  bore,  (181 5.)    Died  in  1857. 

See  Alfrkd  Nettement,  "  Vie  de  Madame  de  la  Rochejaque- 
lein," 1S5Q  ;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  February,  1816. 

Rochers,  Des,    See  Desrochers. 

Roches,  Des.    See  Desroches. 

Rochester.    See  Hyde,  (Lawrence.) 

Rochester,  Bishop  of.    See  Fisher. 

Roch'es-ter,  (John  W^ii.mot,)  Earl  of,  a  witty  and 
profligate  English  courtier,  born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1647, 
was  a  son  of  Henry,  Earl  of  Rochester.  He  became  a 
favourite  of  Charles  II.,  and  indulged  in  debauchery  and 
drunkenness  to  such  excess  that  his  constitution  was 
eventually  ruined.  In  1665  he  entered  the  navy,  and 
signalized  his  courage  in  several  actions.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  songs,  satires,  etc.  He  died  in  1680,  professing 
penitence  for  his  sins. 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets  ;"  Burnet,  "  Some 
Passages  of  the  Life  and  Death  of  John,  Earl  of  Rochester,"  1681. 

Rochet,  ro'shi',  (Louis,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  in 
I'aris  in  1817. 

Rochette,  ro'shJt',  (D6sir6  Raoul,)  an  eminent 
French  archaeologist,  born  at  Saint-Amand  (Cher)  in 
1790.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Houdon  the  sculptor, 
and  succeeded  Guizot  as  professor  of  modern  history  in 
181 5.  He  became  professor  of  archaeology  in  Paris  in 
1826,  and  acquired  much  popularity  as  a  lecturer.  In 
1838  or  1839  he  was  elected  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Critical  History  of  the  Greek  Colonies,"  (4 
vols.,  1815,)  and  "Memoirs  of  Comparative  Archaeology, 


Asiatic,  Greek,  and  Etruscan,"  (1848.)  He  left  unfinished 
a  "  History  of  Ancient  Art."    Died  in  1854, 

See  Querard,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  "Biographie  Universelle." 

Rochlitz,  roK'lits,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1769  or  1770,  published  a  number  of 
tales  and  musical  treatises,  among  which  is  "Blicke  in 
das  Gebiet  der  Kiinste."    Died  in  1842. 

Rochon,  ro'shiN',  (Alexis  Marie,)  a  French  as- 
tronomer and  navigator,  born  at  Brest  in  1741.  He  was 
appointed  astronomer  of  the  marine  in  1766,  and  made, 
a  voyage  to  the  East  Indies,  of  which  he  published  an 
account,  (3  vols.,  1791.)  He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  An- 
cient and  Modern  Coins,"  (1792,)  treatises  on  optics, 
etc.    Died  in  1817. 

See  Delambre,  "Notice  sur  Rochon,"  1818;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Rochon  de  Chabannes,  ro'sh6N'  deh  sht'bSn', 
(Marc  Antoine  Jacques,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1 730.  He  wrote  some  successful  comedies. 
Died  in  1800, 

Rochow,  von,  fon  ro'Ko,  (Gustav  Adolf  Rochus,) 
a  Prussian  statesman,  born  in  Rathenowin  1792,  became 
minister  of  the  interior  and  of  the  police  in  1834.  Died 
in  1847. 

Rockingham,  rok'ing-am, (Charles  Watson  Went- 
worth,)  second  Marquis  of,  an  English  Whig  states- 
man, was  born  in  1730.  He  succeeded  to  the  marquisate 
in  1750,  and  inherited  a  large  fortune,  which,  joined  with 
an  honourable  character,  rendered  him  a  person  of  great 
influence.  He  became  prime  minister  in  July,  1765,  and 
took  Edmund  Burke  into  his  service  as  private  secretary. 
The  notorious  Stamp  Act  was  repealed  by  this  ministry, 
which  by  the  enmity  of  the  king  was  driven  from  power 
in  July,  1766.  He  opposed  the  measures  by  which  Lord 
North  provoked  the  American  colonies  to  revolt.  When 
North  resigned,  (in  March,  1782,)  the  king  was  reduced 
to  the  painful  necessity  of  accepting  a  Whig  ministry, 
of  which  Lord  Rockingham  was  premier.  He  died  July 
I,  1782,  leaving  no  issue. 

See  Lord  ALnEMARLE,  "Memoirs  of  the  Marquis  of  Rocking- 
ham," 2  vols.,  1852:  Lord  Mahon,  "History  of  England;" 
"Edinburgli  Review"  for  July,  1852. 

Rock'well,  (James  Otis,)  an  American  poet,  born 
in  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  in  1807.  He  became  associate 
editor  of  the  Boston  "Statesman,"  and  in  1829  assumed 
charge  of  the  "Patriot,"  a  journal  published  at  Provi- 
dence. He  died  in  183 1,  of  an  illness  caused  chiefly,  it 
is  supposed,  by  pecuniary  embarrassment.  Among  his 
poems  we  may  name  "The  Lost  at  Sea,"  and  lines  "To 
the  Ice-Mountain."  The  former  is  of  remarkable  beauty 
and  pathos.  Rockwell  was  a  friend  of  Whittier,  who 
has  written  an  eloquent  tribute  to  his  memory. 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Rocoles,  de,deh  ro'koK,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Beziers  in  1620.  He  changed  sides 
three  or  four  times  in  religion,  being  a  Catholic  in  France 
and  a  Protestant  in  Holland.    Died  in  1696. 

Rode,  roMeh,  (Christian  Bernhard,)  a  German 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Berlin  in  1725.  He  painted 
history  and  portraits.  Among  his  prints  are  illustrations 
of  Gellert's  "  Fables."    Died  in  1797. 

Rode,  rod,  (Pierre,)  a  French  violinist  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Bordeaux  in  1774.  He  composed  con- 
certos, which  are  much  admired.    Died  in  1830. 

Rod'er-ic  or  Roderick,  [Fr.  Rodrigue,  ro'dR^g'; 
Lat.  RoDERi'cus,]  King  of  the  Visigoths  in  Spain,  re- 
belled against  Witiza  and  usurped  the  throne  in  709  or 
708  a.d.  Soon  after  this  event  his  dominions  were  invaded 
by  an  army  of  Arabs  or  Berbers,  under  Tarik,  whose  aid 
was  perhaps  solicited  by  the  sons  of  Witiza.  Roderic 
was  defeated  and  killed  by  these  invaders  in  711.  He 
was  the  last  of  the  Visigoths  that  reigned  in  Spain.  His 
story  forms  the  subject  of  one  of  Southey's  most  popular 
poems,  entitled  "  Roderick  the  Goth." 

See  Conde,  "Historia  de  la  Dominacion  de  los  Arabes;"  Mas- 
deu,  "  Historia  critica." 

Rodericus.  See  Sanchez  de  Arevalo,  and  Ro- 
driguez. 

Rodg'ers,  (John,)  an  American  commodore,  born  in 
Maryland  in  1 771.   Being  appointed  to  the  conmiand  of 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lo7tg;  \  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure:  fir,  filll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


RODGERS 


1909 


ROGER 


a  squadron  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  1812,  he 
captured  seven  British  merchantmen.  He  was  after- 
wards president  of  the  board  of  navy  commissioners, 
and  commander  of  the  squadron  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Died  in  1838. 

Rodgers,  (John,)  a  brave  American  commodore,  born 
in  Maryland  about  1809.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1825. 
He  served  with  distinction  at  the  battle  of  Port  Royal, 
in  November,  1861.  In  May,  1862,  he  attacked  Fort 
Darling,  or  Drury's  Bluff,  on  the  James  River,  with  the 
iron-clad  Galena  and  other  gun-boats,  but  was  repulsed. 
He  commanded  the  Weehawken  in  the  attack  on  Fort 
Sumter  in  April,  1863,  and  captured  the  iron-clad  At- 
lanta near  Savannah  in  June  of  that  year.  He  was 
complimented  by  the  secretary  of  the  navy  "for  these 
heroic  and  serviceable  acts."  In  1870  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  rear-admiral. 

See  Headlev,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  p.  542. 

Rod'man,  (Isaac  Peace,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  South  Kingston,  Rhode  Island,  in  1822.  He  served 
as  captain  at  Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861,  and  as  colonel  at 
the  cap'  ire  of  Roanoke  Island  and  at  Newbern,  North 
Carolina.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  in  1862,  com- 
manded a  division  at  Fredericksburg,  and  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Antietam,  in  September  of  the  same  year. 

See  Tennev,  "Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  737. 

Rod'ney,  (Caesar,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  American  Independence,  was  born  at  Dover, 
in  Delaware,  about  1730.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress  of  1774,  and  in  1777  was  elected 
President  of  the  State  of  Delaware.    Died  in  1783. 

See  "Lives  of  the  Signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence." 

Rod'ney,  (George  Brydges,)  Lord,  a  British  ad- 
miral, born  at  Walton-upon-Thames  in  1 718.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1759,  and  that  of  admiral  of 
the  white  in  1778.  He  defeated  a  Spanish  fleet  near  Cape 
Saint  Vincent  in  1780.  Having  been  raised  to  the  rank 
of  vice-admiral  of  England,  he  gained  an  important  vic- 
tory over  the  French  admiral  De  Grasse  in  the  West 
Indies,  April  12,  1782.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as 
Baron  Rodney.    Died  in  1792. 

SeeMtiNDV,  "Life  of  Lord  Rodney;"  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the 
British  Admirals." 

Rodolph  OF  Hapsburg.    See  Rudolph. 
Rodolphe,  the  French  for  Rudolph,  which  see. 
Rodon,  de.    See  Derodon. 

Rodrigues,  ro'dR^g',  (Benjamin  Olinde,)  a  French 
socialist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1794.  He  became  a  favour- 
ite disciple  of  Saint-Simon,  who  bequeathed  to  him  his 
manuscripts.    Died  in  i8i^o. 

Rodriguez,  ro-dRee'g^th,  [I.at.  Roderi'cus,]  (Al- 
fonso,) a  Spanish  theologian,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1526. 
He  wrote  a  work  on  "Christian  Perfection,"  (1614,) 
which  was  often  reprinted  and  translated.    Died  in  1616. 

Rodriguez,  (Ventura,)  an  eminent  Spanish  archi- 
tect, born  at  Cienpozuelos  in  1717.  He  designed  or 
constructed  churches,  palaces,  and  colleges  at  Saragossa, 
Toledo,  Malaga,  Granada,  etc.  He  became  professor  of 
architecture  at  Madrid  in  1752.    Died  in  1 785. 

See  PoNZ,  "Viage  de  Espafia." 

Roe,  ro,  (Azel  Stevens,)  an  American  novelist,  born 
in  New  York  in  1798.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"The  Star  and  the  Cloud,"  "  A  Long  Look  Ahead," 
"  Time  and  Tide,  or  Strive  and  Win,"  (1852,)  and  "  True 
to  the  Last,"  (1859.) 

Roe,  ro,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  ambassador,  born 
in  Essex  about  1580.  He  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to 
the  Great  Mogul  in  1614,  and  to  Constantinople  in  1621. 
Died  in  1644. 

Roe'buck,  (John,)  an  English  chemist  and  iron- 
master/ born  in  Sheffield  in  1718,  practised  medicine  in 
Birmingham.  He  invented  a  method  of  procuring  sul- 
phuric acid  at  a  greatly-reduced  cost,  and  about  1760 
established  at  Carron  extensive  iron-works,  in  which  he 
im]iroved  the  method  of  snielting  iron.  He  was  con- 
nected with  James  Watt  in  his  early  experiments  on  the 
steam-engine.    Died  in  1794. 

Roebuck,  (John  Arthur,)  a  British  politician,  a 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Madras  in  1801. 
He  was  elected  member  of  Parliament  for  Bath  in  1832, 


and  again  in  184L  After  1849  he  represented  Sheffield 
in  the  House  of  Commons  until  he  was  defeated  in  1868. 
He  originated  the  motion  on  the  conduct  of  the  Crimean 
war  which  resulted  in  the  defeat  and  removal  of  the 
Aberdeen  ministry.  He  displayed  a  violent  hostility  to 
the  United  States  and  sympathy  with  the  slaveholding 
Confederacy  during  the  great  civil  war. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1852  ;  "  Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  November,  1846,  (article  "Contemporary  Orators.") 

Roederer,  ro'deh-rer  or  ri'deh-raiR',(jEAN  Georges,) 
a  French  physician,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1726.  He 
became  professor  of  midwifery  at  Gottingen  in  1751. 
He  published  "Elements  of  the  Obstetric  Art,"  ("Ele- 
menta  Artis  obstetriciae,"  1752,)  "On  Mucous  Disease," 
("  De  Morbo  mucoso,"  1762,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1763. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Roederer,  (Pierre  Louis,)  Comte,  a  French  states- 
man, was  born  at  Metz  in  1754.  As  a  member  of  the 
National  Assembly,  (1790,)  he  advocated  liberty  and 
equality.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Institute 
in  1796.  promoted  the  accession  of  Bonaparte  to  power 
in  I79>.,  and  became  a  senator  in  1802.  In  1806  Joseph 
Bonaparte  appointed  him  minister  of  finance  in  Naples. 
He  held  no  office  under  the  Bourbons.  He  wrote  an 
able  "Memoir  on  Polite  Society  in  France,"  (1835.) 
Died  in  1835. 

See  MiGNET,  "  Roederer,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Travaux,"  1838:  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi,"  and  "LeComtede  Roederer,"  1853; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate." 

Roelas,  de  las,  di  lis  ro-a'lis,  (Juan,)  an  excellent 
Spanish  painter,  born  at  Seville  about  1560,  was  called 
El  Clerigo  Roelas.  He  worked  for  some  time  in 
Madrid,  and  removed  to  Olivares  about  1624.  The 
churches  of  Seville  are  adorned  with  many  of  his  works. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  El  Transito"  of  San  Isi- 
doro,  a  "  Holy  Family,"  and  "  Santiago."    Died  in  1625. 

See  Cean-Bermudez,  "Diccionario  Historico." 

Roell.    See  Roll. 
Roemer.    See  Romer. 
Roenne.    See  Ronne. 

Roepel,  roo'pel,  (Conrad,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  flowers 
and  fruits,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1679  ;  died  in  1748. 

Roer  or  Roeer,  ro'er,  (Hans  Heinrich  Eduard,) 
a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Bnmswick  in  1805.  In 
1839  he  visited  Calcutta,  and  became  in  1846  one  of 
the  secretaries  of  the  Asiatic  Society.  About  the  same 
time  he  founded  the  "  Bibliotheca  Indica,"  to  which  he 
contributed  a  number  of  translations  from  the  Sanscrit, 
Arabic,  and  Persic. 

Roestraten,  roos'tRi'ten,  (Pieter,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  portraits  and  still  life,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1627.  He 
worked  for  some  years  in  London,  where  he  died  in 
1698. 

Roetscher.    See  Rotscher, 

Roffensis.    See  Fisher,  Bishop  of  Rochester. 

Rog'er,  [It,  Ruggiero,  rood-ja'ro,]  Count  of  Sicily, 
born  in  Normandy  in  103 1,  was  an  enterprising  warrior. 
He  conquered  Sicily  from  the  Saracens.    Died  in  iioi. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Roger  I.,  King  of  Sicily,  born  about  1096,  was  a 
son  and  successor  of  the  preceding.  At  the  death  of 
his  cousin,  Duke  of  Apulia,  he  obtained  possession  of 
Apulia  and  Calabria,  (1127.)  He  took  arms  against 
Pope  Innocent  II.,  and  made  him  prisoner,  in  1139. 
By  recognizing  Roger  as  King  of  Sicily,  etc.,  the  pope 
obtained  his  liberty.  Roger  was  an  able  and  powerful 
prince.    Died  in  1 154. 

See  MuRATORi,  "Annali  d'ltalia  ;"  Ordericus  Vitalis,  "  His- 
toria  Ecclesiastica  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rog'er,  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  a  powerful  English  prel- 
ate, became  prime  minister  of  Henry  I.  about  1107. 
Died  in  1139. 

Roger,  ro'zhi',  (Adolphe,)  a  French  painter  of  his- 
tory, born  at  Palaiseau  (Seine-et-Oise)  about  1797. 

Roger,  (Gustave  Hippolyte,)  a  French  vocalist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1815.    His  voice  is  a  pure  tenor. 

Roger,  (Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
at  Langres  in  1776.  He  produced  "The  Lawyer," 
("  L'Avocat,"  1806,)  and  other  successful  comedies.  In 
i8i6he  became  secretary-general  of  the  post-office.  He 


€  as     c  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  v:.^ guttural ;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROGER 


1910 


ROGNETTA 


was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1817.  Died 
in  1842. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Roger,  (Pierre.)    See  Clement  VI. 

Roger  Ducos.    See  Ducos. 

Roger  di  Loria.    See  Loria,  di. 

Roger  (or  Richard)  of  Hexham,  an  English  chroni- 
cler, was  prior  of  a  convent  at  Hexham  about  1 150. 

Roger  of  Hoveden.    See  Hoveden,  de. 

Roger  of  Weudover,  an  English  chronicler,  wrote 
**  Flowers  of  History,"  ("  Flores  Historiarum,")  which 
commences  at  the  creation.    Died  in  1237. 

Rog'^rs,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  composer  of  sacred 
music,  born  at  Windsor;  died  about  1698. 

Rogers,  (Charles,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Westminster  in  1711  ;  died  in  1784. 

Rogers,  (Daniel,)  an  English  scholar  and  diplo- 
matist, born  at  Aston  about  1540,  was  a  pupil  of  Me- 
ianchthon.  He  was  employed  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in 
embassies  to  Germany,  etc.    Died  in  1590. 

See  Wood,  "Athene  Oxonienses." 

Rogers,  (George,)  an  English  theological  writer, 
born  in  1 741.  He  was  rector  of  Sproughton  for  about 
fifty  years.    Died  in  1835. 

Rogers,  (Henry,)  a  distinguished  English  essayist, 
born  at  Saint  Alban's  in  1806,  was  an  Independent  min- 
ister in  early  life.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  a  number  of  essays  and  biographical  notices, 
which  were  republished  in  1850.  He  is  author  of  "The 
Eclipse  of  Faith,"  (1852,)  and  of  other  works,  some  of 
which  are  designed  to  prove  that  philosophy  and  re- 
vealed religion  are  in  accordance  with  each  other.  He 
became  principal  of  an  Independent  College  near  Man- 
chester in  1857.  In  1866  he  published  "Reason  and 
Faith,  with  other  Essays." 

Rog'ers,  (Henry  Darwin,)  an  eminent  American 
geologist,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1809.  He  made  a 
survey  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  of  which  he  published 
a  report,  and  a  geological  map,  in  1835.  His  report  on 
the  geology  of  Pennsylvania  came  out  in  1858,  (2  vols. 
4to.)  It  enjoys  a  high  reputation  for  thoroughness  and 
accuracy.  He  was  appointed  in  1857  regius  professor 
of  geology  and  natural  history  at  Glasgow,  vScotland. 
He  also  became  associate  editor  of  the  "  New  Philo- 
sophical Journal,"  Edinburgh,  and  contributed  to  various 
other  periodicals.    Died  in  Glasgow  in  May,  1866. 

Rogers,  (James  Blythe,)  M.D.,  an  American  phy- 
sician, brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Philadelphia 
in  1803.  He  was  appointed  in  1847  ])rofessor  of  chem- 
istry in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  author 
of  several  valuable  scientific  treatises.    Died  in  1852. 

Rogers,  (John,)  an  English  martyr,  was  in  his  youth 
a  Roman  Catholic  priest.  Having  been  converted  at 
Antwerp,  he  settled  at  Wittenberg  as  pastor  of  a  Prot- 
estant church.  He  returned  to  England  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  VI.,  and  became  prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's. 
He  was  committed  to  prison  in  1553  or  1554,  condemned 
as  a  heretic  by  Bonner  and  Gardiner,  and  burned  at 
Smithfield  in  1555,  refusing  to  save  his  life  by  apostasy 
from  the  truth. 

See  Chester,  "Life  of  John  Rogers." 

Rogers,  (Rev.  John,)  an  English  writer  on  theology, 
born  at  Ensham,  in  Oxfordshire,  in  1679,  lived  some 
time  in  London.  He  published  a  "Discourse  of  the 
Visible  and  Invisible  Church  of  Christ,"  (1719,)  and 
other  controversial  works.    Died  in  1729. 

See  Samuel  Miller,  "Memoirs  of  John  Rogers." 

Rogers,  (John,)  an  American  sculptor,  born  at  Salem, 
Massachusetts.  Among  his  works  are  the  "  Slave  Auc- 
tion," "  The  Returned  Volunteer,"  "  The  Picket  Guard," 
"  The  Wounded  Scout,"  "  The  Union  Refugees,"  and 
other  spirited  illustrations  of  the  war  of  1861-65,  and 
of  common  life. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "Book  of  the  Artists." 

Rogers,  (Robert  Empie,)  M.D.,  brother  of  Henry 
Darwin,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Baltimore  in  1814. 
He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsvlvania,  where 
he  became  in  1852  professor  of  chemistry.  He  was 
subsequently  appointed  dean  of  the  medical  faculty 
in  that  institution. 


Rogers,  (Samuel,)  an  eminent  English  poet,  born  at 
Newington  Green,  a  suburb  of  London,  on  the  30th  of 
July,  1763.  He  was  the  third  son  of  Thomas  Rogers,  a 
London  banker.  After  leaving  school  he  became  suc- 
cessively a  clerk  and  a  partner  in  his  father's  banking- 
house.  He  published  in  1786  a  volume  entitled  "An 
Ode  to  Superstition,  and  other  Poems,"  which  attracted 
little  notice.  In  1792  he  produced  his  "Pleasures  of 
Memory,"  a  beautiful  and  highly-finished  poem,  which 
was  received  with  much  favour.  He  removed  in  1803 
to  a  fine  house  in  Saint  James  Place,  in  which  he  passed 
the  rest  of  his  long  life.  This  house  was  celebrated  as 
a  resort  of  eminent  literary  and  political  characters, 
including  Scott,  Byron,  Moore,  Wordsworth,  Southey, 
and  Coleridge.  He  retired  from  business  in  the  prime 
of  life,  with  an  ample  fortune,  of  which  he  made  a  gen- 
erous use.  He  gave  liberally  to  artists  and  literary  men 
who  were  in  pecuniary  distress.  His  reputation  was  fully 
maintained,  or  perhaps  increased,  by  "Human  Life," 
a  poem,  (1819.)  In  1822  he  produced  the  first  part  of 
an  admirable  poem,  entitled  "Italy,"  which  is  his  most 
extensive  work.  It  is  stated  that  he  spent  10,000  in 
the  illustration  of  this  poem,  the  complete  edition  of 
which,  with  engravings  after  Prout  and  Turner,  appeared 
in  1836.  He  was  never  married.  Died  in  December, 
1855,  over  ninety-two  years  of  age. 

See  "Recollections  of  the  Table-Talk  of  Samuel  Rogers,"  1856; 
Jeffrey,  "Miscellanies;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "Ed- 
inburgh Review"  for  October,  1S13,  and  March,  1819;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1S13  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine  '  for  April, 
1856;  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "North  British  Review" 
for  August,  1856;  "Biographical  Sketches,"  by  H.  Martineau. 

Rogers,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  entered  a 
college  at  Oxford  in  1 568.    Died  in  1616. 

Rogers,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist  di- 
vine, born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  175 1.  He  was 
appointed  in  1778  a  chaplain  in  the  Continental  army, 
and  in  1792  became  professor  of  English  and  oratory  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania.    Died  in  1824. 

Rogers,  (William  Bartom,)  brother  of  Henry  Dar- 
win, noticed  above,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1805,  was 
appointed  professor  of  natural  philosophy  and  geology 
in  the  University  of  Virginia.  He  has  published,  among 
other  works,  "Elements  of  Mechanical  Philosophy,"  f 
(1852,)  and  has  contributed  to  various  scientific  journals, 
both  American  and  foreign. 

Rogers,  (Woodes,)  Capi'ain,  an  English  navigator 
and  buccaneer,  commanded  an  expedition  against  the 
Spaniards  in  the  South  Sea  about  1709.    Died  in  1732. 

Roget,  ro'zhi',  (Pktkr  Mark,)  F.R.S.,  an  English 
physiologist  and  physician,  of  French  extraction,  born 
in  1779,  graduated  as  M.D.  at  Edinburgh  in  1798.  He 
settled  in  London,  and  was  secretary  to  the  Royal 
Society.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  an  able  work 
entitled  "Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiology,"  (1834,) 
which  is  one  of  the  "  Bridgewater  Treatises."  He  is 
author  of  other  scientific  works,  and  of  a  "Thesaurus 
of  English  Words  and  Phrases,"  (1853.)  Died  in 
September,  1869. 

.See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1834. 

Roggeween,  rog'geh-wan',  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  navi- 
gator, born  in  Zealand  in  1669.  He  commanded  an 
exploring  expedition  sent  from  Holland  to  the  South 
Sea  in  1721.    Died  in  1733. 

Roghman,  roo'mln,  (Roland,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1597.  He  painted  Dutch 
and  German  scenery.  He  also  produced  some  fine 
etchings  of  landscapes.    Died  in  1686. 

Rogier,  ro'zhe-i',  (  Chakles  Latour,  )  a  Belgian 
statesman,  was  born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1800.  He  was 
a  prominent  member  of  the  provisional  government 
formed  in  1830.  In  1833  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
the  interior,  and  in  1840  minister  of  public  works. 
He  became  again  in  1847  minister  of  the  interior  in  a 
cabinet  of  which  the  king  confided  to  him  the  formation. 
Having  retired  in  1852,  he  was  reappointed  to  the  same 
office  in  1857,  and  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in 
1861.    He  is  a  leader  of  the  Liberal  ])arty. 

See  L.  DE  Lomenie,  "  M.  Rogier,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1843. 

Rognetta,  r6n-y^t'ti,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  medical 
writer,  born  about  1805,  practised  in  Paris.  Died  at 
Naples  in  1857. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  4,    b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f3lt;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


ROGNUT 


1911 


ROLAND 


Rogniat,  xo\Vyt^',  (Joseph,)  Baron,  a  French  gene- 
lal  of  engineers,  born  at  Saint-Priest  in  1776.  He  was 
chief  engineer  of  the  grand  army  in  1812.  Died  in  1840. 

Rohan,  de.    See  Soubise. 

Rohan,  de,  deh  ro'dN',  (Anne,)  a  French  Protestant 
lady,  distinguished  for  her  piety  and  learning,  born  in 
1584,  was  a  sister  of  Henri,  Due  de  Rohan.  She  was 
mistress  of  the  Hebrew  and  other  ancient  languages. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1646. 

Rohan,  de,  (Henri,)  Due,  Prince  de  Leon,  an  able 
French  Huguenot  chief,  born  in  Brittany  in  1579,  was  a 
son  of  Renee,  noticed  below.  He  married  in  1605 
Marguerite  de  Bethune,  daughter  of  the  Due  de  Sully. 
He  commanded  an  army  which  fought  for  religious 
liberty  in  the  civil  war  w"hich  began  in  1621,  was  sus- 
pended by  a  treaty  in  1623,  renewed  in  1627,  and  ended 
in  1629.  Having  retired  to  Venice,  he  was  appointed 
general-in-chief  of  the  Venetian  army  in  1630,  and  was 
chosen  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  to  direct  the  war  in  the 
Valtelline.  He  defeated  the  Imperialists  in  1635  at 
Luvino  and  Tirano.  He  was  mortally  wounded  at 
Rheinfelden,  where  he  fought  for  his  friend  Bernard 
of  Saxe-Weimar,  in  1638.  He  left  Memoirs  of  events 
which  occurred  in  France  from  1610  to  1629,  and  a 
treatise  on  war, — "Le  parfait  Capitaine,"  (1636.) 

See  CouRTiLZ  de  Sandras,  "Histoire  secrete  du  Due  H.  de 
Rohan,"  1697;  Haag,  "La  France  protestante ;"  Bazin,  "Histoire 
de  Louis  XIII ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rohan,  de,  (Louis,)  Prince,  a  Frenchman,  noted 
for  his  gallantry  and  intrigues,  was  born  about  1635. 
He  was  a  son  of  Louis  de  Rohan,  Prince  de  Guemene. 
Having  engaged  in  a  conspiracy  against  Louis  XIV.,  he 
was  executed  in  1674. 

Rohan,  de,  (Louis  Ren^  Edouard,)  Prince  Car- 
dinal, was  born  in  Paris  in  1734.  He  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Vienna  in  1772,  but,  having  offended 
Maria  Theresa,  he  was  recalled  in  1774.  He  became 
a  cardinal  in  1778.  He  was  a  patron  of  Cagliostro, 
and  was  scandalously  implicated  in  the  affair  of  the 
"Diamond  Necklace,"  (1784,)  in  which  he  was  the  dupe 
of  Madame  La  Motte,  who,  by  forged  letters,  signed 
"  Marie  Antoinette,"  persuaded  the  cardinal  to  buy  a 
necklace  as  a  present  to  the  queen.  For  this  he  was 
tried  and  acquitted.    Died  in  1803, 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rohan,  de,  (Marie.)    See  Chevreuse,  de. 

Rohan,  de,  (Ren^e,)  Vicomte,  Sieur  de  Pontivy 
et  de  Frontenay,  a  French  Protestant,  born  in  1550, 
was  one  of  the  most  valiant  captains  of  his  time.  He 
married  the  celebrated  Catherine  de  Parthenay-Larche- 
veque.    Died  in  1586. 

See  Bavle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Haag,  "La 
France  protestante." 

Rohault,  ro'o',  (Jacques,)  a  French  natural  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Amiens  in  1620,  was  a  teacher  of  Cartesian 
philosophy.  He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  Physics,"  ("  Traite 
de  Physique,"  1671,)  which  was  for  a  long  time  a  standard 
work  on  that  subject.    Died  in  1675. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Rohault  de  Fleury,  roV  deh  fluh're',  (Charles,) 
a  French  architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  The  govern- 
ment committed  to  him  the  construction  of  the  Museum 
of  Natural  History  about  1830. 

Rohini,  ro'hi-nee',  [etymology  obscure,]  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  one  of  the  daughters 
of  Daksha,  said  to  be  the  favourite  wife  of  Chandra,  (or 
the  moon.*)  She  is  the  bright  star  in  the  bull's  eye, 
called  in  Arabic  Aldebaran,  (or  Al  Dabaran.)  Other 
stars  regarded  as  the  sisters  of  Rohini  are  also  num- 
bered among  the  wives  of  Chandra. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Rohmann,  ro'mSn,  (Jorgen  Lindegaard,)  a  Danish 
historian  and  poet,  born  in  the  island  of  Seeland  in  1797. 
He  published  several  works  on  Danish  history,  and  be- 
came Bishop  of  Fiinen.    Died  in  1855. 

"Rohr  or  Roehr,  roR,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  born  near  Naumburg  in  1777.  He  was 
identified  with  the  rationalistic  school,  and  published 


*  The  moon  in  Sanscrit  (as  in  German)  is  masculine, — not  feminine, 
as  in  the  languages  of  Greece  and  Rome. 


several  works  on  theology.  He  resided  at  Weimar, 
where  he  died  in  1848. 

Rohrbacher,  roR'bt'shaiii',  (Ren6  Franqois,  )  a 
French  ecclesiastical  writer,  born  at  Langatte  in  1789. 
He  wrote  a  "General  History  of  the  Catholic  Church," 
(29  vols.,  1849-53.)    Died  in  1856. 

Rojas  or  Roxas,  de,  di  ro'nis,  (Fernando,)  a  cele- 
brated Spanish  author,  who  flourished  about  1500.  His 
dramatic  romance  "Celestina"  obtained  great  popu- 
larity.   The  first  edition  of  it  was  dated  1500. 

Rojas  or  Roj as-Zorilla,  de,  dk  ro'His  tho-r^Kyl, 
(Francisco,)  an  eminent  Spanish  dramatist,  born  at 
Toledo  in  1601.  Among  his  dramas  are  "  Garcia  del  Cas- 
tanar,"  "El  Desden  vengado,"  ("The  Insult  Avenged,") 
"  Progne  y  Filomena,"  and  "  Entre  Bobos  anda  el  Juego." 

Rokes,  ro'kSs,  (Henry,)  called  Zorg,  a  skilful  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1621,  was  a  pupil  of 
David  Teniers.    Died  in  1682. 

Rokitansky,  ro-ke-tln'ske,  (Karl,)  a  distinguished 
physician  and  pathologist,  born  at  Koniggratz,  in  Bo- 
hemia, in  1804.  He  became  in  1844  professor  of  patho- 
logical anatomy  at  Vienna,  and  subsequently  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  rector  of  the  University 
in  that  city.  He  was  the  projector  of  the  great  Vienna 
Hospital.  He  has  published  a  "  Manual  of  Pathological 
Anatomy,"  (5  vols.,  1842,)  which  is  regarded  as  a  stand- 
ard work  and  has  been  translated  into  English. 

Rokmeny.    See  RukminI 

Rowland,  [Lat  Rutlan'dus;  It.  Orlando  or  Ro- 
lando,] a  hero  celebrated  in  the  romances  of  chivalry, 
was  supposed  to  have  been  a  nephew  of  Charlemagne. 
He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Roncesvalles,  in  778  a.d. 

See  Ariosto,  "Orlando  Furioso." 

Roland,  J-o'ISn',  a  brave  and  able  leader  of  the 
French  Camisards,  was  born  in  Gard  in  1675.  He 
gained  several  victories  about  1702  over  the  royal  forces, 
who  could  not  capture  him  until  he  was  betrayed  by  one 
of  his  party.    He  was  shot  in  1704. 

RoTand,  [Fr.  pron.  ro'l6N',]  Madame,  (originally 
Marie  Jeanne  Phlipon  (fle^p^N')  or  Philipon,  (fe'- 
le'pAw',)  also  called  Manon  Phlipon,)  one  of  the  most 
noble  and  highly-gifted  women  that  France  has  produced, 
was  born  in  Paris,  March  17,  1754.  She  was  the  only 
child  of  an  engraver,  and  was  liberally  educated.  Latin 
and  music  were  included  in  the  list  of  her  studies.  She 
was  fond  of  books  in  early  childhood,  and  received  a 
lasting  influence  from  Plutarch,  who  was  her  favourite 
author  when  she  was  nine  years  of  age.  In  youth  she 
was  an  enthusiastic  devotee  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and 
about  the  age  of  twelve  persuaded  her  jjarents  to  send 
her  to  a  convent  for  one  year.  Her  mature  opinions 
about  religion  are  thus  indicated  in  a  passage  of  her 
Memoirs:  "I  can  still  attend  with  interest  the  celebra- 
tion of  divine  worship  when  it  is  conducted  with  dignity. 
I  forget  the  quackery  of  the  priests,  their  ridiculous 
fables,  and  their  absurd  mysteries.  .  .  .  The  woes  of 
mankind,  the  consoling  hope  of  an  all-powerful  Remune- 
rator,  occupy  my  thoughts  ;  all  other  fancies  vanish  ;  the 
sense  of  duty  is  quickened,"  etc.  After  she  had  arrived 
at  womanhood,  though  her  faith  in  the  Church  was 
shaken,  she  preferred  studious  retirement  to  the  hollow 
and  frivolous  pleasures  of  the  gay  world.  She  rejected 
many  successive  suitors,  whom  her  beauty  attracted  in 
such  numbers  that  she  compared  them  to  -Alevee  en  ?nusse, 
and  resolved  to  marry  none  but  a  philosopher. 

About  1775  she  was  introduced  to  M.  Roland,  whom 
she  characterizes  as  "un  veritable  homme  de  bien,"  ("a 
truly  good  man.")  He  took  several  years  to  consider 
the  subject,  and  when  he  offered  his  hand  her  father 
refused  his  consent,  although  he  (M.  Phlipon)  was  re- 
cently ruined  in  fortune  by  his  dissipated  habits.  Before 
this  time,  it  appears,  she  had  lost  her  mother,  who  was 
an  excellent  woman.  Her  father's  house  having  ceased 
to  be  a  desirable,  or  even  tolerable,  residence,  she  retired 
to  the  convent  in  Paris  in  which  she  had  formerly  )iassed 
a  year.  After  she  had  lived  here  five  months,  M.  Roland 
renewed  his  offer,  which  was  accepted.  They  were  mar- 
ried in  1780,  after  which  thev  resided  successively  at 
Paris,  Amiens,  and  Lyons.  She  visited  England  with 
her  husband  in  1784,  and  Switzerland  in  1787.  She 
was  an  enthusiastic  votary  of  republican  liberty,  and  in 


«  as  /t;  5  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (Sl^See  Explanations,  p.  23:) 


ROLAND 


ROLLI 


the  first  stage  of  the  Revolution  enlisted  in  the  cause 
with  ardour,  although  she  expressed  a  presentiment  that 
she  would  be  placed  in  the  forlorn  hope  of  the  army. 
By  her  fascinating  manners,  commanding  genius,  and 
great  conversational  powers,  she  acquired  such  an  influ- 
ence in  the  councils  of  the  Girondists  that  she  has  been 
called  the  "inspiring  soul"  of  that  party.  She  assisted 
M.  Roland  in  his  official  duties  while  he  was  minister  of 
the  interior,  in  1792.  He  found  that  the  literary  success 
of  his  reports,  etc.  was  in  an  exact  ratio  to  the  part  that 
she  took  in  their  composition,  and  people  were  surprised 
at  the  amount  of  work  which  he  despatched.  She  com- 
posed the  important  letter  addressed  by  her  husband  to 
Louis  XVI.  in  May,  1792. 

About  this  time  she  became  deeply  interested — too 
deeply  for  her  own  peace — in  Buzot,  a  young  Girondist 
of  noble  character  and  handsome  person,  to  whom  she 
alludes  in  this  passage  of  her  "Memoires:"  "I  honour 
and  cherish  my  husband  as  a  sensible  girl  loves  a  vir- 
tuous father,  to  whom  she  would  sacrifice  even  her 
lover  ;  but  I  have  found  a  man  who  might  be  this  lover  ; 
and,  remaining  faithful  to  my  duties,  my  ingenuity  has 
failed  to  conceal  the  feelings  or  passion  which  for  the 
sake  of  duty  I  subdued."  She  adds  that  her  husband 
became  jealous,  and  they  were  both  unhappy. 

M.  Roland,  having  been  proscribed  by  the  Jacobins, 
retired  to  the  country  in  May,  1793;  but  his  wife  pre- 
ferred to  remain  in  Paris,  and  was  committed  to  prison 
about  the  ist  of  June.  She  seems  to  have  considered 
the  prison  as  an  asylum  from  the  suspicion  of  a  jealous 
husband,  and  her  imprisonment  as  a  relief  from  the 
struggle  of  passion  against  duty.  In  a  letter  to  Buzot 
she  says,  '*  I  owe  to  my  persecutors  the  possibility  of 
combining  love  and  duty.  Ah  !  do  not  pity  me  !  Others 
may  admire  my  courage, — you  alone  can  appreciate  my 
joy."  She  improved  her  time  in  prison  by  writing  her 
*'  Memoires,"  which  are  enlivened  by  many  anecdotes 
and  portraits  of  eminent  persons.  Her  style  is  admi- 
rable and  graceful  in  the  highest  degree.  "  I  never 
heard  any  woman,"  said  Count  Beugnot,  "  speak  with 
so  much  accuracy  and  elegance."  In  the  passage  from 
the  prison  to  the  scaffold  she  had  a  full  view  of  the 
house  in  which  she  had  spent  many  happy  years  in 
youth.  There  was  the  window  from  which  she  had  often 
gazed  on  the  sun  setting  behind  the  distant  hills.  Her 
last  words,  according  to  a  popular  statement,  were,  "  O 
LilDerty  !  what  crimes  are  committed  in  thy  name  !"  She 
was  beheaded  on  the  9th  of  November,  1793.  She  left 
one  child,  Eudora,  born  in  1781. 

"  According  to  our  modern  notions,"  says  the  "  Edin- 
buigh  Review"  for  April,  1865,  "  she  was  neither  gentle, 
nor  pious,  nor  delicate,  nor  even  virtuous.  .  .  .  But, 
viewed  by  that  strange  light  of  her  own  times,  she  stands 
out  in  noble  and  lofty  pre-eminence.  Of  her  greatness, 
if  heroism  is  greatness,  there  can  be  no  doubt." 

See  C.  A.  Dauban,  "Etude  sur  Madame  Roland  et  son  Temps, 
suivie  des  Lettres  de  Madame  Roland  k  Buzot,"  1864  ;  "  Memoires 
de  Madame  Roland  ecrites  durant  sa  Captivite,"  nouvelle  Edition, 
revue  et  completee  par  M.  P.  pAUCifeRE,  1864;  Louise  Coi.et, 
"Charlotte  Corday  et  Madame  Roland,"  1842;  "  Memoires  de  Ma- 
dame Roland,"  edition  entierement  conforme  au  manuscrit  auto- 
graphe,  etc.,  publiee  avec  des  notes  par  C.  A.  Dauban,  1864; 
Sai  vite-Beuve,  "  Portraits  ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  Aiiril,  1865  : 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Memoires  de  Madame  Roland," 
by  MM.  BRRVii.LEand  Harriere:  "Appeal  to  Impartial  Posterity," 
etc.,  by  Madame  Roland;  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  French 
Writers,"  by  Mrs.  Shelley. 

Roland,  (Philippe  Laurent,)  an  able  French  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Marcq-en-Baroeul  (Nord)  in  1746.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Institute  of  Paris,  and  was  commissioned 
by  the  government  to  make  statues  of  Homer,  Solon,  and 
Malesherbes.    Died  in  Paris  in  1816. 

Roland  d'Erceville.    See  R()I.l.\nd. 

Roland  de  la  Platiere,  ro'16N'  deh  It  plt'te^iR', 
(Jean  Marie,)  a  French  Girondist  minister  of  stat^was 
born  near  Villefranche  (Beaujolais)  in  1734.  He  was 
inspector-general  of  manufactures  before  the  Revolution. 
His  house  in  Paris  was  the  head-quarters  of  the  party 
of  the  Gironde  in  1791-92.  He  became  minister  of  the 
interior  in  March,  1792,  but  was  dismissed  from  office  in 
June  of  the  same  year,  in  consequence  of  a  famous  letter 
addressed  to  the  king.  This  letter  was  composed  by 
his  wife.    (See  Roland,  Madame,  noticed  above.)  He 


again  acted  as  minister  of  the  interior  from  August  10, 
1792,  to  January  23,  1793,  when  he  resigned,  having 
vainly  striven  against  the  reign  of  anarchy  and  violence. 
He  retired  to  Rouen  in  May,  and,  on  hearing  of  the 
death  of  his  wife,  committed  suicide,  in  November,  1793. 

See  Madame  Roland,  "Memoires;"  Lamartine,  "History 
of  the  Girondists;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rolander,  ro-lSnMer,  (Daniel,)  a  Swedish  natural- 
ist, born  in  Smdland,  explored  the  botany  and  zoology 
of  Surinam  in  1755,  and  returned  home  in  1756.  He  died 
soon  after,  before  he  could  publish  his  manuscripts. 

Rolandino,  ro-lin-dee'no,  an  Italian  chronicler,  born 
at  Padua  about  1200.  He  wrote  a  Latin  chronicle  of 
events  which  occurred  from  1200  to  1260.    Died  in  1276. 

Rolando,  ro-lSn'do,  (Luigi,)  an  eminent  Italian  anat- 
omist, born  at  Turin  in  1773,  became  professor  of  anatomy 
in  the  university  of  that  city  about  1814,  and  wrote 
several  able  works,  etc.    Died  in  1831. 

See  Carlo  Bellingeri,  "  Elogio  storico  del  Professore  L.  Ro- 
lando;" "Biographic  Universelle." 

Roldan,  rol-din',  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  sculptor,  born 
at  Seville  in  1624,  worked  at  Rome,  Madrid,  and  Seville, 
where  he  died  in  1700. 

Rolewinck,  ro'leh-<vink',  (Werner,)  a  German 
monk,  born  in  1425,  wrote  a  popular  history  of  the  world, 
called  "  Fasciculus  Temporum,"  (1474.)    Died  in  1502. 

Rolfe,  (R.  MoNSEY.)    See  Cranworth,  Lord. 

Rolfink,  rol'fink,  (Werner,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1599;  died  at  Jena  in  1673. 

Roll  or  Roell,  rol,  (Hermann  Alexander,)  a  Ger- 
man Protestant  divine,  born  at  Doelberg  in  1653.  He 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Utrecht,  (1704-18,)  and 
wrote  several  commentaries  on  Scripture.  Died  in  1718. 

RoUand  (or  Roland)  d'Erceville,  ro^iSN'  d^Rss'vfei', 
(Barthelemi  Gabriel,)  a  French  writer  and  judge, 
born  in  1734,  was  an  adversary  of  the  Jesuits.  He  was 
executed  by  the  terrorists  in  1794. 

RoUe,  rol,  (Denls,)  M.P.,  an  opulent  Englishman, 
born  in  Devonshire  in  1725.  He  purchased  a  large  tract 
in  Florida,  and  there  planted  a  colony,  (about  1766,) 
which  was  soon  abandoned.    Died  in  England  in  1797. 

Rolle,  (Henry,)  an  English  judge,  born  in  Devon- 
shire in  1589.  He  compiled  a  digest,  which  was  published 
with  the  title  of  "  Roiie's  Abridgment."  In  1648  he  was 
appointed  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  by  the  Parlia- 
ment, which  he  had  supported  in  the  civil  war.  He  re- 
fused to  preside  at  the  trial  of  Charles  I.  Died  in  1656. 
"  He  was,"  says  Sir  Matthew  Hale,  "a  person  of  great 
learning  in  the  common  law,  profound  judgment,  great 
moderation,  justice,  and  integrity."  (Preface  to  "  Rolle's 
Abridgment.") 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices,"  vol.  i.  ; 
Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Rolle,  rol'leh,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  com- 
poser of  church  music,  born  at  Quedlinburg  in  1718. 
He  succeeded  his  father  as  director  of  music  at  Mag- 
deburg in  1752.  Among  his  principal  works  are  the 
oratorios  of  the  **  Death  of  Abel"  and  "  Abraham  on 
Mount  Moriah."    Died  in  1785. 

Rolle,  (John,)  Lord,  an  English  Tory  politician,  born 
in  Devonshire  in  1751.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1796.  He  is  said  to  have  used  a  large  fortune  liberally, 
and  to  have  been  the  subject  of  "The  Rolliad,"  a  political 
satire,  written  by  several  Whigs.    Died  in  1842. 

Rolle,  rol,  (Michel,)  a  French  mathematician,  born 
at  Ambert  in  1652;  died  in  Paris  in  1749.  "He  ren- 
dered," says  Fontenelle,  "great  service  to  science." 

Rolle,  (Pierre  Nicolas,)  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Chatillon-sur-Seine  in  1770,  was  author  of  "  Researches 
into  the  Worship  of  Bacchus,"  (3  vols.,  1824.)  Died  in 
1855.  His  son,  Jacques  Hippolyte,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1804,  became  an  able  journalist  of  Paris. 

RoUenh^en,  roKlen-h^'gen,  (Georg,  )  a  German 
fabulist  and  didactic  poet,  born  at  Bernau  in  1542;  died 
in  1609. 

RoUi,  roKlee,  (Paolo  Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
in  1687.  He  went  to  England  about  1725,  and  taught 
Italian  to  the  princesses  of  the  royal  family.  He  trans- 
lated "Paradise  Lost"  into  Italian  verse,  (1729,)  and 
wrote  some  original  poems,  which  were  popular.  Died 
i  in  Italy  in  1 767. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  f^t;  mfit;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ROLLIN 


ROMBERG 


Rollin,  roKlin  or  lo'IdN',  (Charles,)  an  eminent 
French  historian  and  professor  of  belles-lettres,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  January,  1661.  He  became  professor 
of  rhetoric  at  the  College  du  Plessis  in  1687,  and  ob- 
tained the  chair  of  eloquence  at  the  College  de  France 
in  1688.  He  was  rector  of  the  University  about  two 
years,  (1694-96.)  He  revived  the  study  of  Greek,  and 
made  reforms  in  the  system  of  education.  In  1726  he 
published  a  good  work  on  the  Study  of  Belles-Lettres, 
("Traite  de  la  Maniere  d'etudier  et  d'enseigner  les 
I3elles-Lettres.")  He  also  wrote  a  *'  History  of  Rome," 
(1738,)  and  an  "  Ancient  Eiistory,"  ("Histoire  ancienne," 
12  vols.,  1730-38,)  which  enjoyed  much  popularity,  es- 
pecially with  the  young.  It  has  been  translated  into 
English.  According  to  Voltaire,  Rollin  was  one  of  the 
first  French  authors  who  wrote  a  good  style  in  prose. 
His  character  was  amiable  and  virtuous.    Died  in  1741. 

See  Guenf.au  de  Mussy,  '"Vie  de  Roliin  ;"  Trognon,  "  Eloge 
de  Rollin,"  1818;  Sain  te- Reuve,  "  Caiiseries  du  Liindi,"  tome  vi. ; 
BoussoN  DE  Mairet,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  de  Rollin;"  Nickron, 
"  Memoiies ;"  "  Noavelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Rollin,  (Ledru.)    See  Ledku- Rollin. 

Rol'lo,  Rou,  roo,  or  Hrolf,  (Fr.  Rollon,  ro'I<iN', 
and  Raoul,  rt^ool',]  first  Duke  of  Normandy,  born 
about  860  A.D.  He  was  originally  a  Norwegian  viking  or 
pirate,  and  was  noted  for  strength  and  martial  prowess. 
In  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Bald  he  ascended  the  Seine 
and  took  Rouen,  which  he  kept  as  a  base  of  operations. 
He  gained  a  number  of  victories  over  the  Franks,  and 
extorted  from  Charles  HI.  in  912  the  cession  of  the 
province  since  called  Normandy.  By  the  famous  treaty 
which  Charles  and  Rollo  signed  at  this  time  the  latter 
agreed  to  adopt  the  Christian  religion.   Died  about  930. 

See  Le  Canut,  "Raoul  I,  Due  de  Normandie,"  2  vols.,  1781 ; 
Ordericus  Vitalis,  "  Historia." 

RoFlock,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  scholar, 
born  near  Stirling  in  1555.  He  was  the  first  principal 
of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  founded  about  1582. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  Scripture.    Died  in  1598. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Rollon.    See  Rollo. 

Rolph,  (John  A.,)  an  English  artist  and  engraver 
of  landscapes,  born  in  Essex  in  1798.  He  emigrated 
to  the  United  States  in  1833,  and  worked  in  New  York 
City.    Died  in  Brooklyn  in  1862. 

Rolt,  (Richard,)  an  English  writer  of  history,  biog- 
raphy, etc.,  was  born  in  1724  or  1725.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "  History  of  the  General  War"  which  ended 
in  1748,  4  vols.,  and  "Cambria,"  a  poem,  (1749.)  Died 
in  1770. 

Romagnosi,  ro-mSn-yo'see,  (Giovanni  Domenico,) 
an  eminent  Italian  jurist  and  publicist,  born  near  Pia- 
cenza  in  1761.  He  published  in  1791  an  able  work  on 
penal  legislation,  "  Ge  lesis  of  Penal  Law,"  ("  Genesi 
del  Diritto  penale.")  About  1806  he  and  other  jurists 
formed  a  new  Italian  criminal  code  at  Milan.  He  wrote 
numerous  legal  works,  and  lectured  on  law  at  Milan  for 
many  years.    Died  in  1835. 

See  CANTt;,  "Notiziadi  G.  D.  Romagnosi,"  1835:  Ferrari, 
"Vita  di  Romagnosi,"  1835;  G.  Sacchi,  "  Biografia  di  G.  D.  Ro- 
magnosi," 1835;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Romain.    See  Romanus. 

Romain,  ro^m^N',  (Adrian,)  a  Flemish  geometer 
and  physician,  born  at  Louvain  in  1 561.  He  wrote  on 
geometry,  etc.    Died  at  Mentz  in  1615. 

Romain,  (Jules,)  the  French  name  of  Giulio  Ro- 
mano. 

Romain  de  Hooghe.    See  Hooge. 

Romaine,  ro-man',  (William,)  an  eminent  English 
Calvinistic  theologian  of  the  Anglican  Church,  born  at 
Hartlepool  in  1 7 14.  He  became  a  popular  preacher  in 
London,  married  a  Miss  Price  in  1755,  and  was  appointed 
rector  of  Blackfriars'  in  1764.  He  preached  at  this  place 
about  thirty  years.  Among  his  most  popular  works  are 
"The  Walk  of  Faith."  (1771,)  and  "The  Triumph  of 
Faith,"  (i795.)    Died  in  1795. 

See  W.  B.  Cadogan,  "Life  of  W.  Romaine,"  1796;  Thomas 
Hawies,  "  Life  of  the  Rev.  W.  Romaine,"  1797. 

Roman,  ro'mftN',  (Jean  Baptiste  Louts,)  a  French 
statuary,  born  in  Paris  in  1792,  gained  the  grand  prize 
in  1816.    Died  in  1835. 


Roman,  ro'min,  (Johan  Helmich,)  a  Swedish  mu- 
sician and  composer,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1694 ;  died 
in  1758. 

Romana,  de  la,  di  IS  ro-mS^nS,  (Don  Pedro  Caro 
y  Sureda  —  ki'ro  e  soo-ra'oi,)  Marquis,  a  Spanish 
general,  born  in  Majorca  in  1761.    He  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  war  against  the  French,  (1793-95 
1809-10.)    Died  in  181 1. 

Romanelli,  ro-mi-neKlee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  in  the  Abruzzi  in  1756;  died  in  1819. 

Romanelli,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  an  eminent 
painter  of  the  Roman  school,  born  at  Viterbo  in  1617, 
was  a  pupil  of  Pietro  da  Cortona.  He  was  employed 
at  Paris  by  Louis  XIV.  and  Cardinal  Mazarin.  He 
also  adorned  several  churches  of  Rome  with  his  works. 
Died  in  1663.  His  son  Urbano,  born  in  1652,  was  1 
painter.    Died  in  1682. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Romanet,  ro'mS'ny,  (Antoine  Louls,)  a  French 
line-engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1748.  He  engraved 
successfully  some  works  of  Raphael  and  Titian.  Died 
in  1807. 

Romani.    See  Romanino,  (Girolamo.) 

Romanino,  ro-mi-nee'no,  (Giorgio,)  an  able  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Rome  about  1500.  He  was  invited  to 
France,  and  painted  some  frescos  in  the  Louvre.  His 
design  and  colour  are  highly  praised. 

Romanino  or  Romani,  ro-mi'nee,  (Girolamo,)  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Brescia  about  1490,  inutated 
Titian,  and  was  a  good  colorist.  He  painted  some 
frescos  in  the  Louvre,  Paris.    Died  about  1560. 

Romano.    See  Giulio  Romano. 

Romano,  da,  di  ro-mi'no,  (Ezzelino,  §t-si-lee'no, 
or  Eccelino,  §t-chi-lee'no,)  an  able  commander  and  a 
famous  Ghibeline  leader,  remarkable  for  his  reckless 
courage  and  for  his  cruelty,  was  born  in  1194.  As  an 
ally  or  partisan  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II.,  he  fought 
against  the  Marquis  d'Este,  and  captured  Padua  in  1237. 
He  was  excommunicated  by  the  pope  about  1252,  and  a 
league  was  formed  against  him  by  several  cities  and 
princes  of  Lombardy.  He  died,  or  was  killed  in  battle, 
in  1259. 

Romanof,  Romanov,  or  Roman ow,  ro-mi'nof, 
(Michael  Feodorovitch,)  the  founder  of  the  reigning 
dynasty  of  Russia,  was  a  son  of  the  Metropolitan  of 
Rostof.  He  was  elected  Czar  or  emperor  in  1613,  when 
he  was  only  fifteen  or  sixteen  years  old.  He  made  peace 
with  the  Swedes  by  the  cession  of  Ingria  and  Karelia, 
and  afterwards  waged  against  the  Poles  a  defensive  war, 
which  ended  in  1619.  He  promoted  the  civilization  of 
his  subjects,  and  made  reforms  in  the  laws.  He  died  in 
1645,  '^"'^  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Alexis. 

See  WiCHMANN,  "  Urkunde  iiber  die  Wahl  Michael  Romanows," 
etc.,  1819. 

Ro-ma'nus  I.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  called  Leca- 
penus,  [Fr.  Romain  L6cap£:ne,  xo'm^n'  Wkt'\A\V,] 
was  a  native  of  Armenia,  and  father-in-law  of  Constan- 
tine  VII.,  who  made  Romanus  his  colleague  in  the 
empire  in  919.    Died  in  948. 

Romanus  II.,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  son 
of  Constantine  VII.,  was  born  in  939.  He  poisoned  his 
father  and  obtained  the  throne  in  959.    Died  in  963. 

Romanus  III.,  Argy'rus,  1  Fr.  Romain  Argyrk,  r-  • 
m^N'  tu'zh^R',]  was  born  about  968.  He  married  Zf>e, 
a  daughter  of  Constantine  IX.,  whom  he  succeeded  in 
1028.    He  was  poisoned  by  Zoe,  his  wife,  in  1034. 

Romanus  IV.,  Diogenes,  obtained  the  throne  by 
marriage  with  Eudocia,  the  widow  of  Constantine  Ducas, 
in  1067  or  1068.  He  gained  several  victories  over  the 
Turks  in  Asia  Minor,  but  was  defeated  by  Alp  Arslan 
in  Armenia.  He  was  dej^osed  by  Michael  VII.,  b  •- 
whose  order  he  was  put  to  death  about  1072. 

See  Le  Beau,  "Histoire  du  Bas-Empire;"  Gibbon,  "Declini 
and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Romanus,  (^gidius.)    See  Colonna,  (Egtdio.) 

Ro-ma'nus,  [Fr.  Romain,  ro'm^N',]  Pope,  born  near 
Civita  Castellana,  in  Italy.  He  was  elected  pope  in 
September,  897  a.d.    Died  in  898. 

Romanzof.    See  Rioomantsof. 

Romberg,  rom'bSRC,  (Andreas,)  a  German  violinist 
and  composer,  born  in  1767,  became  director  of  music 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (Sl^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROMBERG 


1914 


ROMNET 


at  Gotha  in  181 5.  He  produced  several  sacred  pieces 
and  operas,  and  set  to  music  Schiller's  "Song  of  the 
Bell"  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1821. 

Romberg,  (Bernhard,)  a  cousin  of  Andreas,  born 
at  Bonn  in  1770,  was  celebrated  for  his  performance  on 
the  violoncello.  He  was  appointed  professor  at  the 
Conservatory  of  Music  in  Paris  in  1801.    Died  in  1841. 

Rombout,  rom'bowt,  (J.,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter, 
lived  about  1670. 

Rombouts,  rom'bowts,  (Theodork,)  an  excellent 
Flemish  painter  of  history,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1597, 
was  a  pupil  of  A.  Janssens.  He  worked  in  Rome  and 
Florence,  from  which  he  returned  to  Antwerp  in  1625. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Sacrifice  of  Abraham," 
"The  Oath  of  Hannibal,"  and  a  "Descent  from  the 
Cross."    Died  in  1637. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Rome  de  Lisle,  (or  de  I'lsle,)  ro'mi'  deh  \h.V,  (Jean 
Baptiste  Louis,)  a  French  mineralogist,  born  at  Grai 
in  1736.  He  visited  India  and  China,  and  returned  to 
France  in  1764.  He  wrote  a  work  on  "Crystallography," 
(4  vols.,  1783,)  and  "  Metrologie,"  (1789.)  Died  in  1790. 
"  He  first  ascertained  the  important  fact  of  the  constancy 
of  the  angles  at  which  the  faces  of  crystals  meet,  and, 
observing  further  that  many  of  them  appear  in  several 
different  shapes,  first  conceived  the  idea  that  these 
shapes  might  be  reducible  to  one,  appropriated  in  a 
peculiar  manner  to  each  substance  and  modified  by  strict 
geometrical  laws."  (Sir  John  F.  W.  Herschel,  "Dis- 
course on  the  Study  of  Natural  Philosophy.") 

See  La  Metherie,  "  filoge  de  Rome  de  Lisle,"  1790;  "  Bio- 
grapliie  Universeile." 

Romegas,  ro'mk'gts',  (Mathltrin  d'Aux-Lescout, 
mt'tu''r£LN'  do'i^s'koo',)  a  brave  French  knight  of  the 
order  of  Malta,  which  he  joined  in  1547.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  battle  against  the  pirates  and  the 
Turks.  He  was  appointed  commander  of  the  galleys, 
and  lieutenant-general.    Died  in  1581. 

Romer  or  Roemer,  roomer,  (Olaf  or  Olaus,)  a 
Danish  astronomer,  born  at  Aarhuus  on  the  25th  of 
September,  1644.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1672,  and  aided 
Picard,  who  procured  for  him  the  office  of  tutor  to  the 
dauphin.  In  1675  he  made  (at  Paris)  the  important 
discovery  of  the  velocity  of  light  by  observations  of  the 
eclipses  of  Jupiter's  satellites.  He  became  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  University  of  Copenhagen  in  1681. 
He  first  applied  the  epicycloidal  curve  in  the  formation 
of  the  teeth  of  wheels.  Romer  held  several  high  civil 
offices.    Died  in  17 10. 

See  a  notice  of  Romer  prefixed  by  Horrebow  to  Romer's 
"Basis  Astronomise,"  1735;  Nyerup,  " Litteraturlexicon ;"  De- 
LAMBRE,  "Histoire  de  rAstronomie  moderne;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Romer  or  Roemer,  von,  fon  ro'mer,  (Friedrich,) 
a  German  statesman,  born  in  the  Wiirtemberg  Alps  in 
1795.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  justice  for  Wiir- 
temberg in  1848,  and  resigned  office  in  October,  1849. 
Died  in  1861. 

Romey,  ro^mi',  (Charles  Octave,)  a  French  his- 
torian, born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  produced,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  Spain,"  10  vols.,  (1838-48.) 

Romeyn,  ro'min,  (Theodoric  D.,)  an  influential 
minister  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  was  born  at 
New  Barbadoes,  New  Jersey,  in  1744.  He  preached 
many  years  at  Schenectady,  New  York,  to  which  he 
removed  in  1784.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  principal 
founder  of  Union  College,  Schenectady.    Died  in  1804. 

Romieu,  de,  deh  ro'me-uh',  (Marie,)  a  French  poet- 
ess and  prose  writer,  lived  at  Viviers.    Died  after  1584. 

Romiguieres,  ro'ine^ge-a i r',  (Jean  Dominique  Jo- 
seph Louis,)  a  French  advocate,  born  at  Toulouse  in 
1775,  was  a  constant  adherent  of  the  liberal  party.  Died 
in  Paris  in  1847. 

Romilly,  ro'me'ye',  (Jean  Edme,  )  a  Swiss  Protest- 
ant minister,  born  at  Geneva  in  1739,  was  a  friend  of 
Rousseau.  Died  in  1779.  His  father,  Jean,  born  in 
1714,  was  a  skilful  watchmaker.    Died  in  Paris  in  1796. 

Rom'il-ly,  (John,)  Baron,  an  English  lawyer,  a  son 
of  Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  was  born  in  London  in  1802. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  in  1832,  was 
appointed  solicitor-general  in  1848,  and  attorney-general 


in  1850.  In  1851  he  became  master  of  the  rolls,  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Romilly,  in  1866. 

See  Foss,  "  The  Judges  of  England,"  vol.  ix. 

Romilly,  (Sir  Samuel,)  a  celebrated  English  lawyer 
and  statesman,  born  in  London  on  the  ist  of  March, 
1757.  He  was  a  son  of  Peter  Romilly,  a  jeweller,  whose 
father  was  a  French  Protestant  exiled  for  his  religion. 
His  education  at  school  was  defective,  but  he  studied 
Latin  after  he  was  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  became  a 
good  self-taught  scholar.  He  entered  himself  at  Gray's 
Inn  as  a  student  of  law  in  1778,  and  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1783.  In  1784  he  became  acquainted  with  the  famous 
Mirabeau,  who  introduced  him  to  a  Mr.  Vaughan.  By  the 
favour  of  the  latter,  Romilly  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Lord  Lansdovvne,  in  whom  he  found  a  friend  and  patron. 
He  obtained  an  extensive  practice  in  the  court  of  chan- 
cery. In  politics  he  was  a  Whig  and  advanced  liberal. 
In  1806  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  and  appointed 
solicitor-general.  He  acquired  great  reputation  by  his 
eloquent  speech  against  the  slave-trade.  In  1807  he  was 
removed  from  office  in  consequence  of  the  dissolution 
of  the  Whig  ministry.  He  afterwards  directed  his  efforts 
to  the  reform  of  the  penal  code,  which  at  that  period  was 
very  severe.  Nearly  three  hundred  crimes  of  various 
grades  were  punishable  by  death.  He  procured  the  pas- 
sage of  a  bill,  about  1809,  to  repeal  the  statute  which 
made  stealing  from  the  person  a  capital  crime.  In  this 
enterprise  he  encountered  strong  opposition  from  igno- 
rance, prejudice,  and  party  spirit.  He  made  an  unsuc- 
cessful effort  in  1810  to  repeal  the  statute  which  punished 
with  death  the  crime  of  stealing  from  a  shop  goods  valued 
at  five  shillings.  He  opposed  in  an  eloquent  speech  the 
declaration  of  war  against  Napoleon  on  his  return  from 
Elba  in  1815.  He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  Roman 
Catholic  Emancipation.  In  his  profession  he  is  said  to 
have  been  more  successful  and  more  distinguished  than 
any  other  Englishman  of  his  time.  Although  his  style 
was  remarkable  for  plainness  and  simplicity,  the  im- 
pressiveness  of  his  speeches  was,  we  are  told,  almost 
unparalleled.  In  1818  he  was  returned,  at  the  head  of 
the  poll,  by  the  voters  of  Westminster.  His  wife  died  in 
October,  1818.  In  a  fit  of  delirium  or  insanity,  he  put 
an  end  to  his  own  life  in  November,  1818.  He  was 
author  of  "  Observations  on  the  Criminal  Law  of  Eng- 
land," (1810.) 

See  "The  Life  of  Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  written  by  himself,"  edited 
by  his  sons,  3  vols.,  1840;  Benjamin  Constant,  "  Eloge  de  Sir 
Samuel  Romilly,"  1819;  R(jscoe,  "Lives  of  Eminent  British  Lav;- 
yers  ;"  "Nouvelle  Bioo;raphie  Generale;"  "Edinburgh  Review" 
for  February,  1812;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  June,  1840;  "Lon- 
don Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1840. 

Romme,  rom,  (Charles,)  a  French  geometer,  born 
at  Riom  about  1744.  He  wrote  several  useful  works  on 
navigation,  etc.    Died  in  1805. 

Romme,  (Gilheri',)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Riom  in  1750,  was  a  Jacobin  and  an  active  member 
of  the  Convention.  Having  been  condemned  to  death 
by  the  Thermidoriens,  he  killed  himself  in  1795. 

Rommel,  rom'mel,  (Dietrich  Christoph,)  a  Ger- 
man historian,  born  at  Cassel  in  1781,  became  in  1815 
professor  of  history  at  Marburg.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  Hesse  since  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,"  (1853.)  Died 
in  1859. 

Rom'ney,  (George,)  an  eminent  English  historical 
and  portrait  painter,  was  born  at  Dalton,  in  Lancashire, 
in  December,  1734.  In  his  youth  he  worked  in  the  shop 
of  his  father,  a  cabinet-maker.  He  married  Mary  Ab- 
bot in  1756.  After  he  had  studied  and  practised  paint- 
ing at  Kendal  for  five  years,  he  settled  in  London  in  1762, 
but  left  his  wife  and  children  in  the  country,  where  they 
remained  neglected  while  he  was  prosperous  and  famous, 
lie  obtained  rapid  success  in  his  profession,  and  became 
thtr  rival  of  Reynolds.  He  passed  about  two  years 
(1773-75)  in  visits  to  several  cities  of  Italy.  At  Rome 
he  painted  a  "  Wood  Nymph,"  which  was  greatly  ad- 
mired. He  gradually  raised  his  price  for  a  portrait  to 
thirty-five  guineas  for  a  head  and  sixty  guineas  for  a 
whole-length.  Among  his  works  are  "Milton  and  his 
Daughters,"  "Nature  unveiling  herself  to  Shakspeare," 
and  portraits  of  Cowper  the  poet,  Warren  Hastings, 
Lord  Chatham,  and  William  Pitt.  About  1798  he  was 
compelled  to  desist  from  work  by  ill  health  and  nervous 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  ^,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  f^t;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ROMNET 


ROOMOFSKI 


dejection.  He  removed  in  1799  to  Kendal,  where  he 
was  nursed  by  his  patient  and  forgiving  wife  until  he 
died,  in  November,  1802. 

See  Havlev,  "Life  of  G.  Romney,"  i8og  ;  J.  Romnev,  (his 
son,)  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  G.  Romney,"  1830; 
Allan  Cunningham,  "Lives  of  British  Painters;"  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1809. 

Romney,  (Henry  Sidney,)  Eakl  of.  See  Sidney. 

Rom'u-lus,  called  also  Qui-ri'nus,  the  founder  of 
Rome,  a  semi-fabulous  personage,  supposed  to  have 
lived  about  750  B.C.  According  to  tradition,  Romulus 
and  Remus  were  the  twin  sons  of  Mars  and  Rhea  Silvia, 
who  was  a  daughter  of  Numitor,  King  of  Alba.  Amu- 
lius  dethroned  Numitor  and  ordered  the  young  twins  to 
be  exposed  to  destruction  ;  but  they  were  suckled  by  a 
wolf  and  educated  by  Faustulus,  a  shepherd  of  the  king. 
After  they  were  grown  up  and  informed  of  the  secret  of 
their  birth,  they  killed  Amulius,  restored  Numitor,  and 
founded  the  city  of  Rome.  Remus  was  punished  with 
death  by  Romulus  for  jumping,  in  derision,  over  the  wall 
of  the  new  city,  and  Romulus  became  the  first  and  sole 
king  of  Rome,  the  population  of  which  was  increased 
by  exiles,  outlaws,  and  fugitive  slaves  invited  from  ad- 
jacent states.  The  deficiency  of  wives  was  remedied 
by  the  abduction  of  Sabine  maidens  who  assembled  at 
Rome  as  spectators  of  a  public  festival.  The  Sabines 
waged  war  against  Rome  on  this  account,  but  peace  was 
restored  by  the  mediation  of  the  Sabine  wives,  and  the 
Romans  and  Sabines  were  united  into  one  state,  which 
Romulus  and  the  Sabine  Tatius  ruled  jointly.  Romulus 
reigned  about  thirty-seven  years,  and,  after  death,  was 
worshipped  under  the  name  of  Quirinus.  According 
to  tradition,  he  disappeared  mysteriously  during  a  thun- 
der-storm which  occurred  as  he  was  reviewing  his  army 
in  the  Campus  Martius,  and  the  opinion  prevailed  that 
he  was  carried  up  to  heaven. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "History  of  Rome:"  Tanneguv-Lkfevre, 
"  Discours  sur  Romulus,"  i666 ;  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Romulus;" 
J.  Gronovius,  "  Oratio  de  Origine  Romuli,"  1684. 

Romulus  Augustulus.    See  Augustulus. 

Roncaglia,  ron-kSKyi,  (Constantino,)  an  Italian 
writer  on  theology,  etc.,  born  at  Lucca  in  1677  ;  died 
in  1737. 

Roncalli,  ron-kSl'lee,  (  Cristoforo,)  called  Pome- 
RANCio  or  Pomarancio,  an  excellent  painter  of  the 
Florentine  school,  born  at  Pomerance  in  1552,  was  a 
pupil  of  N.  Circignani.  He  worked  at  Rome,  Genoa, 
etc.,  and  painted  the  cupola  of  the  church  of  Loretto. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1626. 

Rondani,  ron-dd'nee,  (Francesco  Maria,)  an  Ital- 
ian painter,  born  at  Parma  about  1490,  was  a  pupil  of 
Correggio.    Died  about  1548. 

Rondel,  du,  dii  r6N''deK,  (Jacques,)  a  French  phi- 
losopher, born  about  1630,  was  professor  of  Greek  at 
Sedan  from  1664  to  1681.  He  published  a  "  Life  of 
Epicurus,"  (1679,)  and  other  works.  Bayle,  who  was 
his  friend,  calls  him  (under  the  article  "  Epicurus")  a 
good  poet  and  a  good  Greek  scholar.  Died  at  Maestricht 
in  1715. 

See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Rondelet,  riNd'li'  or  r6N'deh-li',  (Guillaume,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1507.  He 
practised  medicine  and  lectured  in  that  city.  He  pub- 
lished a  treatise  "  On  Sea-Fish,"  ("  De  Piscibus  marinis," 
1554,)  and  several  medical  works.    Died  in  1566. 

See  NiCERoN,  "  Memoires ;"  Sainte-Marthe,  "filoges;" 
"Biographie  Medicale." 

Rondelet,  (Jean,)  a  French  architect,  born  in  Lyons 
in  1734,  or,  as  some  say,  in  1743.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Soufflot,  and  became  in  1781  his  successor  as  architect 
of  the  Pantheon,  or  church  of  Sainte-Genevieve,  at  Paris. 
He  built  the  dome  of  this  edifice.  He  published  an 
important  treatise  on  architecture,  "  Traite  de  I'Art  de 
Batir,"  (5  vols.,  1802-17,)  which  is  called  a  classical 
work.    Died  in  Paris  in  1829. 

See  Vauooykr,  "Discours  sur  la  Tombe  de  J.  Rondelet,"  1829. 

Rondet,  ron'di',  (Laurent  firiENNE, )  a  French 
writer  on  religion  and  morality,  born  in  Paris  in  1717; 
died  in  1785. 

Rondot,  r^N'do',  (Natalis,)  a  French  economist  and 
editor,  born  at  Saint-Quentin  in  1821. 


Ronge,  rong'eh,  (Johannes,)  a  celebrated  reformer 
among  the  Catholics,  born  in  Silesia  in  1813.  He  was 
ordained  a  Catholic  priest  in  1840;  but  he  was  soon 
after  suspended  for  his  heretical  opinions,  and  in  1844 
published  a  letter  denouncing  the  exhibition  of  the 
"holy  coat,"  which  Arnoldi,  Bishop  of  Treves,  had  just 
proclaimed.  Although  excommunicated  by  the  chapter 
of  Breslau,  Ronge  rapidly  gained  adherents,  and  in 
1845  a  German  Catholic  Church,  independent  of  that  of 
Rome,  was  founded.  In  the  revolution  of  1848  he  took 
refuge  in  England,  and  many  of  the  new  societies  were 
suppressed. 

See  "Vindication  of  J.  Ronge,"  translated  from  the  German  by 
Robert  Taylor,  1845;  Eduako  Duller,  "J.  Ronge  und  die  freie 
Kirche,"  1849;  "  Autobiography  of  J.  Ronge,"  translated  from  tlie 
German  by  John  Lord,  London,  1846;  "Westminster  Review"  for 
December,  1845,  (article  "  German  Theology.") 

Ronne  or  Roenne,  von,  fon  ron'neh,  (Ludwig 
Moritz  Peter,)  a  German  jurist,  born  in  Holstein  in 
1804.  He  became  about  1843  ^  ju<^g^  o""  councillor  in 
Berlin.  Among  his  important  works  is  "The  Political 
Law  of  the  Prussian  Monarchy,"  (ist  vol.,  1850.) 

See  "  Jahrbuch  zum  Conversations- Lexikon,"  1857. 

Ronsard,  de,  deh  r^N'stR',  (Pierre,)  an  eminent 
French  poet,  born  in  the  Vendoniois  in  1524.  He  learned 
to  speak  English,  German,  and  Italian,  and  was  instructed 
in  Greek  by  Dorat  and  Turnebe.  He  wrote  odes,  epi- 
grams, hymns,  eclogues,  etc.,  and  was  considered  the 
most  popular  poet  of  his  time.  Malherbe  and  Boi- 
leau,  however,  did  not  appreciate  him  highly.  Ronsard 
conceived  the  idea  of  grouping  seven  French  poets, 
including  himself,  into  a  constellation  called  the  Pleiade. 
The  other  six  were  his  imitators.    Died  in  1585. 

See  Claude  Binet,  "Vie  de  Ronsafd,"  1586;  Guillaume  Col- 
i.ETET,  "Vie  de  Ronsard,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  works,  1854 
Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  E.  Gandak,  "Ron- 
sard considere  comnie  Imitateur  d'Homere  et  de  Pindare,"  1854; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Geiierale." 

Ronsin,  riN's^N',  (Charles  Philippe,)  a  French 
Jacobin  and  dramatist,  born  at  Soissons  in  1752.  He 
became  a  general  in  1793,  and  was  one  of  the  most 
violent  agents  of  his  party.  He  was  executed  with 
Hebert  in  1794. 

Ron'tho,  (Matthew,)  a  monk  and  Latin  poet,  born 
in  Greece,  translated  Dante's  "  Divina  Commedia"  into 
Latin  verse.    Died  at  Sienna  in  1443. 

Roodtseus,rot'se-us,  (Jan  Alhert,)  a  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Hoorn  in  1615  or  1617  ;  died  in  1674. 

Rooke,  rook,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  admiral,  born 
near  Canterbury  in  1650.  He  obtained  the  rank  of 
post-captain  about  1680,  and  that  of  vice-admiral  of  the 
blue  in  1692.  In  this  year  he  burnt  ten  or  more  French 
ships  at  La  Hogue.  He  was  appointed  "vice-admiral 
and  lieutenant  of  the  admiralty"  by  Queen  Anne  in  1702. 
Sir  George  Rooke  and  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  captured 
Gibraltar  in  July,  1704.  He  commanded  the  combined 
English  and  l^utch  fleets  in  the  war  of  the  Sj^anish 
succession,  which  began  about  1702.    Died  in  1709. 

See  Campbell,  "Lives  of  British  Admirals;"  "  Biographia  Bri- 
tannica." 

Rooke,  (Lawrence,)  an  English  mathematician  and 
astronomer,  born  at  Deptford  in  1623,  was  one  of  the 
original  Fellows  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  became 
professor  of  astronomy  at  Gresham  College,  London,  in 
1652.    Died  in  1662. 

Roo'ker,  (Michael  Angelo,)  an  English  landscape- 
painter  and  engraver,  born  in  London  in  1 743,  was  a 
son  of  Edward  Rooker,  an  engraver.    Died  in  1801. 

Rook'wood,  (Ambrose,)  an  accomplice  in  the  Gun- 
powder Plot,  was  the  head  of  an  old  and  wealthy  English 
family.  He  was  induced  by  his  friendship  for  Catesby 
and  by  his  sectarian  zeal  t(j  take  part  in  that  conspiracy. 
He  was  put  to  death  in  1606,  aged  about  twenty-eight. 

Roome,  room,  (Edward,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
satirist.  He  offended  Pope  by  a  satire  entitled  "  Pas- 
quin,"  and  wrote  "The  Jovial  Crew,"  a  drama.  Died 
in  1729. 

Roomofski,  Roumovsky,  or  Rumowsky,  roo- 
mofskee,  (Stephen,)  a  Russian  astronomer,  born  in 
Vladimir  in  1734.  He  became  professor  of  astronomy 
at  Saint  Petersl>urg  in  1763,  and  vice-]jresident  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1800.    He  published  several 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  YL^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^="See  Explanations,  p.  2^.) 


ROON 


1916 


ROSJ 


mathematical  works,  and  translated  the  "  Annals"  of 
Tacitus  into  Russian,  (1808.)    Died  about  1814. 

Roon,  von,  fon  ron,  (Albrkchf  Thkodor  Emil,)  a 
Prussian  general  and  writer,  born  at  Kolberg  about  1803. 
He  became  a  major-general  in  1856,  and  minister  of  war 
in  1859.  He  rendered  important  services  by  the  re- 
organization of  the  army-  The  Prussian  Chambers  in 
1866  voted  1,500,000  thalers  as  a  national  recompense  to 
six  men,  among  whom  was  Von  Roon.  He  has  published 
several  valuable  treatises  on  geography  and  ethnology. 

Roorda  van  Eysinga,  roR^dl  vtn  i'sing-i,  (Pieter 
Theodore,)  a  Dutch  Orientalist,  born  at  Leeuvvarden 
about  1790.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  Dutch- 
Javanese  Dictionary,  (1855.)    Died  in  i860. 

Rooi'e,  de,  deh  ro'reh,  (Jacob,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1686,  was  a  pupil  of  Van  Opstal. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Capitol  besieged  by  Bren- 
nus,"  and  "The  History  of  Pandora."    Died  in  1747. 

Roos,  ros,  (JoHANN  Heinrich,)  a  celebrated  German 
painter  of  landscapes  and  animals,  and  a  skilful  engraver, 
born  at  Otterndorf  in  163 1.  Both  his  prints  and  paintings 
command  high  prices.    Died  at  Frankfort  in  1685. 

Roos,  (JoHANN  Melchior,)  a  painter  of  landscapes 
and  animals,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1659,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  not  equal  to  his  brother  Philip  Peter. 
Died  in  1731. 

Roos,  (Philip  Peter,)  surnamed  Rosa  da  Tivoli,  a 
skilful  painter  of  animals  and  landscapes,  born  at  Frank- 
fort about  1655,  was  a  son  of  Johann  Heinrich,  noticed 
above.  He  worked  many  years  at  Tivoli :  hence  his  sur- 
name. He  painted  with  great  facility.  His  touch  is  said 
to  be  broad  and  mellow.  Among  his  works  are  many 
pastoral  landscapes.  His  backgrounds  and  skies  are 
admirable  for  fidelity  to  nature.    Died  at  Rome  in  1705. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  "  Biographie  Univer- 
selle." 

Roos,  (Theodor,)  a  German  painter,  born  at  Wesel 
in  1638,  was  a  brother  of  Johann  Heinrich,  noticed  above. 
He  painted  portraits  and  landscapes.    Died  in  1698. 

Roose.    See  Liemaecker,  (Nikolaas.) 

Roose,  ro'zeh,  (Theodor  Georg  Augltst,)  a  Ger- 
man medical  writer,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1771.  He 
published  "Principles  of  Legal  Medicine,"  (1802,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1803. 

Roostam,  Roostem,  Roostum,  Rustem,  or  Rus- 
tam,  roos'tem,  written  also  Roustem,  Roustam,  and 
Rostam,  the  most  illustrious  of  Persian  heroes,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  about  600  years  B.C.  He  was  the 
son  of  the  celebrated  warrior  Zal  or  Zalzer  and  an  Indian 
princess  named  Rudaba,  The  exploits  of  Roostam  form 
the  favourite  theme  of  the  Persian  poets  and  romance- 
writers  ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  determine  what  is  historical 
and  what  is  fiction  in  the  accounts  of  him  which  have 
come  down  to  us.  Sir  William  Jones  says,  "  Rostam 
was  certainly  a  commander  under  Cyrus,  [the  Great,]" 
Roostam  forms  the  most  prominent  figure  in  Firdousee's 
great  epic,  the  "Shah  Nameh,"  or  "Book  of  Kings." 

See  "A  Short  History  of  Persia"  in  volume  v.  of  Sir  W.  Jones's 
Works  ;  J.  Atkinson,  "  Abridgment  of  the  Shah  Nameh  of  Firdaiisi," 
London,  1832;  "Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Characters,"  by  Lamar- 
TiNE,  1856. 

Roostam-  (Roustam-  or  Rustam-)  Pasha,  roos'- 
tani  pi'shi',  an  able  and  unscrupulous  Turkish  minister 
of  s'late,  became  grand  vizier  under  Solyman  the  Mag- 
nificent, who  reigned  from  1520  to  1566. 

Root,  (Erastus,)  an  American  politician,  born  at 
Hebron,  Connecticut,  in  1772.  He  removed  to  Delhi, 
New  York,  about  1796,  and  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  four  times  between  1802  and  181 7.  He  was  a 
political  friend  of  De  Witt  Clinton.    Died  in  1846. 

Ro'per,  (William,)  an  English  biographer,  married 
in  1528  Margaret,  a  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  More,  a 
learned  an^i  accomplished  lady.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of 
Sir  Thomas  More,"  which  is  commended. 

Roque,  de  la,  deh  It  rok,  (Antoine,)  a  French 
th-ateur,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1672,  edited  the  "Mercure 
de  France"  from  1721  until  1744.    Died  in  1744. 

Roque,  de  la,  (Gilles  Andr6,)  a  French  genealogist, 
born  near  Caen  about  1598.  Among  his  works  is  a 
valuable  "Treatise  on  the  Nobility,"  ("Traite  de  la 
Noblesse,"  1678.)    Died  in  1686. 


Roque,  de  la,  (Jean,)  a  French  traveller,  born  at 
Marseilles  in  1661,  was  a  brother  of  Antoine,  noticed 
above.  He  published  several  books  of  travels  in  Arabia, 
Palestine,  and  Syria,  (1716,  1717,  1722.)    Died  in  1745. 

Roquefort,  de,  deh  rok'foR',  (Jean  Baptisi-e  Bona- 
venture,)  a  French  philologist  and  antiquary,  born  at 
Mons  in  1777.  He  published  an  "Etymological  Dic- 
tionary of  the  French  Language,"  (1829.)    Died  in  1834. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Roquelaure,  de,  deh  rok'loR',  (Antoine,)  Baron, 
a  French  marshal,  born  in  1544,  was  a  constant  adherent 
of  Henry  IV.  He  was  in  the  carriage  with  that  king 
when  the  latter  was  killed,  (1610.)    Died  in  1625. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique ;"  L'Estoile,  "Journal." 

Roquelaure,  de,  (Gaston  Jean  Baptisie,)  Due,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  161 7.  He  served  in 
the  army,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-generaJ. 
He  was  noted  for  his  facetious  sayings.  Died  in  1683. 
His  son  Antoine  Gaspon  Jean  Baptists,  born  in 
1656,  became  marshal  of  France.    Died  in  1738. 

Roqueplan,  rok'pl6N',  (Camille  Joseph  EriENNE,) 
an  eminent  French  painter  of  landscapes  and  genre,  born 
at  Marie mort  in  1802,  was  a  pupil  of  Gros  and  Abel  de 
Pujol.  He  obtained  a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1828. 
Many  of  his  works  are  illustrative  of  Rousseau's  "Con- 
fessions" and  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Novels.    Died  in  1855. 

Roqueplan,  (Louls  Victor  Nestor,)  a  litterateur, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Marlemort  in 
1804.  He  became  editon  of  the  "  Figaro"  about  1827, 
and  was  director  of  the  Opera  of  Paris  from  1847  to 
1854.    Died  in  1870. 

Roques,  rok,  (Pierre,)  a  French  Protestant  writer, 
born  at  LaCaune  in  1685.  He  became  pastor  of  a  church 
at  Bile  in  1710,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "  The 
Evangelical  Pastor,"  ( 1 723,)  and  a  new  edition  of  Moreri's 
"Dictionary,"  (6  vols.,  1731.)    Died  in  1748. 

See  Frey,  "Vie  de  Pierre  Roques,"  1784. 

Roquette,  de,  deh  ro'kgt',  (Gabriel,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1623,  became  Bishop 
of  Autun  in  1666.  He  was  notorious  as  the  prototype 
of  Moliere's  "Tartuffe."    Died  in  1707. 

Rorario,  ro-rS're-o,  [Lat.  Rora'rius,]  (Girolamo,) 
an  Italian  ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  at  Pordenone  in 
1485.  He  wrote  a  curious  treatise  "  That  Brutes  often 
reason  better  than  Man,"  ("  Quod  Animalia  bruta  saepe 
Ratione  utantur  melius  Homine,"  1648.)    Died  in  1556. 

Rorarius.    See  Rorario. 

Rosa,  ro'sS,  (Cris  foforo,)  a  painter  of  the  Venetian 
school,  born  at  Brescia.  He  excelled  in  perspective, 
and  painted  the  architecture  in  some  works  of  Titian. 
Died  in  1576. 

Rosa,  (PiETRO,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  a  favour- 
ite pupil  of  Titian.  He  was  a  good  colorist.  He  died 
young,  in  1576. 

Rosa,  (Salvator,)  [Anglicized  in  pronunciation  as 
sil-vi'tor  ro'za,]  a  famous  Italian  painter  of  history, 
landscapes,  and  battles,  was  born  at  Arenella,  near 
Naples,  on  the  20th  of  June,  161 5.  He  received  lessons 
in  art  from  F.  Francanzani,  his  brother-in-law,  and  was 
a  diligent  student  of  nature.  About  1635  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  worked  and  attained  a  high  reputation. 
In  1647  he  took  part  in  the  revolt  at  Naples,  and  fought 
for  Masaniello.  After  the  final  defeat  of  the  insurgents, 
Salvator  escaped  to  Florence,  where  he  was  patronized 
by  the  grand  duke.  He  was  partial  to  wild,  romantic, 
and  desolate  scenery.  His  imagination  was  morbid, 
gloomy,  and  extravagant.  After  he  had  worked  at 
Florence  for  several  years,  he  returned  to  Rome,  where 
he  exhibited  some  pictures  in  1663.  He  produced  at 
Rome  his  "  Conspiracy  of  Catiline,"  which  is  accounted 
his  master-piece.  He  made  for  himself  enemies  at 
Rome  by  his  poetical  satires.  Died  in  March,  1673. 
"Salvator  possessed  real  genius,"  says  Ruskin,  "  but 
was  crushed  by  misery  in  his  youth.  ...  In  heart 
disdainful,  in  temper  adventurous,  conscious  of  power, 
impatient  of  labour,  ...  he  fled  to  the  Calabrian  hills, 
seeking  not  knowledge,  but  freedom.  .  .  .  He  had  not 
the  sacred  sense, — the  sense  of  colour  :  all  the  loveliest 
hues  of  the  Calabrian  air  were  invisible  to  liim.  He 
saw  only  what  was  gross  and  terrible.  ...  I  see  in  him, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  9,  i,  0,  obscure:      fSll,  felt*  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon: 


ROSA 


ROSE 


notwithstanding  his  baseness,  the  last  traces  of  spiritual 
'ife  in  the  art  of  Europe." 

See  CANTt;,  "Salvator  Rosa,"  1844;  Lady  Morgan,  "Life  of 
Salvator  Rosa,"  London,  2  vols.,  1824,  wliich  is  said  to  be  a  romance, 
or  romantic  biography  ;  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy  ;" 
RusKiN,  "Modern  Painters;"  Passeri,  "  Vite  de'  Pittori ;"  Do- 
MENici,  "Vite  de'  Pittori  Napoletani ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale  ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1824. 

Rosa  da  Tivoli.    See  Roos,  (Philip  Peter.) 

Rosa,  de  la,  (F.  Martinez.)    See  Martinez. 

Rosalba  Carriera,  ro-sSKbi  kSr-re-a'rS,  a  famous 
Italian  portrait-painter,  often  called  simply  Rosalka,  was 
born  at  or  near  Venice  about  1674.  She  is  said  to  have 
been  the  most  excellent  artist  of  her  time  in  the  use  of 
the  crayon  or  pastel.  Her  Madonnas  were  much  ad- 
mired. She  visited  Paris  in  1 720,  and  obtained  there  great 
success.    About  1746  she  became  blind.    Died  in  1757. 

Rosamel,  de,  deh  ro'st'mhV,  (Claude  Charles 
Marie  Ducampe — dii'kSNp',)  a  French  admiral,  born 
at  Trencq  in  1774.  He  was  minister  of  marine  from 
September,  1836,  to  March,  1839.    Died  in  1848. 

Ros'a-mond,  [Fr.  Rosemonde,  roz'm^Nd',  or  Rosa- 
MONDE,  ro'zt'm6Nd',]  often  called  The  Fair  Rosamond, 
was  a  daughter  of  Walter,  Lord  Clifford.  She  became  a 
favourite  of  Henry  H.  of  England,  and  mother  of  two 
sons,  William  Longsword,  and  Jefifery,  Archbishop  of 
York.    Died  in  1177. 

Rosapina,  ro-s^-pee'nS,  or  Rosaspina,  ro-sS-spee'- 
nl,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  engraver,  born  at  Bologna 
about  1 762.  Among  his  chief  works  is  "  La  Pinacoteca," 
a  series  of  seventy-two  engravings  of  the  finest  pictures 
of  the  gallery  of  iBologna.    Died  in  1841. 

Rosas,  de,  di  ro'sis,  (Juan  Manuel  Ortiz — or- 
t^th',)  a  South  American  dictator,  born  in  Buenos  Ayres 
in  1793.  He  lived  as  a  Gaucho  in  his  youth,  and  was  an 
active  partisan  of  the  Federals  in  the  civil  war  against 
the  Unitarians.  Li  1829  he  was  elected  Governor  of 
the  Argentine  Republic,  or  Buenos  Ayres.  He  became 
dictator  in  1835.  By  some  writers  he  is  represented 
as  a  monster  of  cruelty.  His  administration,  however, 
was  beneficial  in  respect  to  trade  and  finance.  He  was 
defeated  in  battle  by  an  army  under  General  Urquiza 
in  February,  1852,  after  which  he  lived  in  exile. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
May,  1852;  "Democratic  Review"  for  May,  1846. 

Roscelin,  ros'liN',  written  also  Ruzelin,  [Lat.  Ros- 
CELi'nus  or  Roscelli'nus,]  a  famous  French  theologian 
and  schoolman,  born  at  or  near  Compiegne.  He  was  a 
Nominalist,  and  was  for  some  time  regarded  as  the 
inventor  of  Nominalism.  In  1092  he  was  condemned 
as  a  heretic  by  a  council  at  Soissons.    Died  about  1122. 

See  B.  Hauri^au,  "  De  la  Philosophic  scolastique  ;"  Chladen, 
"De  Vita  et  Haeresi  Roscelini,"  1756. 

Roscelinus  or  Roscellinus.    See  Roscelin. 

Roscher,  rosh'er,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  political 
economist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1817.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  political  science,  etc.  at  Leipsic  in  1848.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "The  Life  and  Times 
of  Thucydides,"  (1842.) 

Roschid,  (or  Roschd,)  Ibn.    See  Averroes. 

Roschlaub  or  Roeschlaub,  rosh'lowp,  (Andreas,) 
a  German  medical  writer,  born  in  1768  ;  died  in  1835. 

Roscius,  rosh'e-us,  (Quintus,)  a  celebrated  Roman 
actor,  was  born  near  Lanuvium.  He  am.assed  a  large 
fortune  by  his  performance  on  the  stage.  His  name 
was  so  proverbial  for  excellence  that  Garrick  was  styled 
"the  British  Roscius."  An  oration  which  Cicero  pro- 
nounced for  Roscius  in  a  civil  suit  is  extant.  Died 
about  60  B.C. 

Ros'coe,  (Henry,)  an  English  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  in  1800,  was  a  son  of  the  historian.  He  wrote 
a  "  Life  of  William  Roscoe,"  (1833,)  and  "The  Lives  of 
Eminent  British  Lawyers,"  in  Lardner's  "Cyclopaedia." 
Died  in  1836. 

Roscoe,  (James,)  an  English  poet  and  lawyer,  born 
about  1 791.  He  resided  at  Knutsford,  Cheshire,  for 
nearly  fifty  years.  He  contributed  to  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  and  other  periodicals.    Died  in  May,  1864. 

Roscoe,  (Robert,)  a  barrister,  a  brother  of  Henry, 
noticed  abcve,  was  born  about  1790.  He  wrote  poems 
of  some  merit.    Died  in  1850. 


Roscoe,  (Thomas,)  an  Englfsh  author  and  translator, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1790.  He 
produced  several  poems  and  tales,  a  "Tour  in  the  Isle 
of  Wight,"  and  other  illustrated  works.  Among  the 
works  translated  by  him  are  Sismondi's  "  Literature  of 
Southern  Europe,"  and  Silvio  Pellico's  "Memoirs." 

Roscoe,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  historian 
and  poet,  born  at  or  near  Liverpool  on  the  8th  of  March, 
1753.  -H^fi  practised  as  an  attorney  in  his  early  life,  and 
married  Miss  Grifiiths  in  1781.  He  wrote  several  pam- 
phlets against  the  slave-trade,  and  a  poem  on  the  same 
subject.  His  reputation  is  chiefly  founded  on  his  "  Life 
of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  called  the  Magnificent,"  (2  vols., 
1796,)  which  was  very  successful  and  was  translated  into 
French,  German,  and  Italian.  He  retired  from  business 
as  an  attorney  about  1800,  became  partner  in  a  banking- 
house,  and  purchased  an  estate  in  land.  In  1805  he  pub- 
lished an  interesting  and  popular  work,  "The  Life  and 
Pontificate  of  Leo  X."  He  became  a  Whig  member  of 
Parliament  (for  Liverpool)  in  1806.  He  was  the  prin- 
cipal founder  of  the  Royal  Institution  of  Liverpool. 
In  1816  the  banking-house  with  which  he  was  connected 
failed,  and  he  was  under  the  necessity  of  parting  with 
his  magnificent  library.  He  died  in  June,  1831,  leaving 
four  sons,  noticed  in  this  work.  As  a  historian,  Roscoe 
has  been  censured  by  some  critics  for  a  too  great  indul- 
gence shown  to  the  character  of  Leo  X.  and  to  the  vices 
of  his  court,  and  particularly  for  his  defence  of  Lucretia 
Borgia.  (See,  on  this  subject,  the  "Edinburgh  Review" 
for  January,  1806;  also  Dr.  Hoefer's  article  on  Alex- 
andre VI,  in  the  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale.") 

See  Henry  Roscoe,  "Life  of  William  Roscoe,"  2  vols..  1833; 
"Lives  of  Distinguished  Northerns,"  by  Hartley  Coleridge; 
An.iBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
July,  1833;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  December,  1832,  (with  a 
portrait.) 

Roscoe,  (W.  S.,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  1781,  was 
a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  author  of  a  volume  of 
poems.    Died  in  1843. 

Ros-com'mon,  (Wentworth  Dillon,)  Earl  of, 
an  English  poet,  born  in  Ireland  about  1633,  was  the  son 
of  James  Dillon,  third  Earl  of  Roscommon,  and  a  Ro- 
man Catholic.  His  mother  was  a  sister  of  the  famous 
Earl  of  Strafford.  When  the  latter  was  impeached,  young 
Dillon  was  sent  to  study  at  Caen,  under  Bochart.  He 
returned  to  England  about  1660,  became  master  of  the 
horse  to  the  Duchess  of  York,  and  married  Frances,  a 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Burlington.  He  wrote  odes, 
prologues,  epilogues,  and  an  "  Essay  on  Translated 
Verse,"  (1680.)  He  also  translated  Horace's  "Art  of 
Poetry"  into  blank  verse,  (1680.)    Died  in  1684. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets." 

R5§e,  (George,)  a  British  politician,  born  at  Brechin, 
Scotland,  in  1744,  was  noted  for  business  talents  and 
practical  sagacity.  He  was  secretary  of  the  treasury 
from  1782  to  1801,  and  was  a  constant  adherent  of  Mr. 
Pitt,  who  in  1804  appointed  him  joint  paymaster-general 
of  the  forces.  In  1807  he  became  treasurer  of  the  navy. 
He  was  a  grandfather  of  General  Sir  Hugh  Henry  Rose. 
Died  in  1818. 

See  "Diaries  and  Correspondence  of  George  Rose,"  3  vols., 
i860;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  " 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  i860. 

Rose,  roz,  [Lat.  Ross^/us,]  (Gutlt-aume,)  a  French 
prelate,  notorious  for  his  factious  violence,  was  born  at 
Chaumont  about  1542.  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  League 
against  Henry  III.  and  Henry  IV.    Died  in  1602. 

Rose,  ro'zeh,  (  Gustav,  )  a  distinguished  German 
mineralogist,  a  brother  of  Heinrich,  noticed  below,  was 
born  at  Berlin  in  1798.  He  became  (1822)  keeper  of 
the  mineral  collection  and  professor  of  mineralogy  (1839) 
at  Berlin.  He  wrote  "Elements  of  Crystallography," 
and  contributed  the  geognostic  and  mineralogical  part 
to  the  "Journey  to  the  Ural  and  Altai  Mountains, " 
etc.,  which  he  made  with  Humboldt  and  Ehrenberg 
in  1829. 

Rose,  (Heinrich,)  son  of  Valentin  the  Younger,  born 
at  Berlin  in  1795,  was  a  pupil  of  Berzelius  at  Stockholm. 
He  became,  after  his  return,  professor  of  chemistry  in 
his  native  city,  in  1835.  His  principal  work,  entitled 
"Manual  of  Analytical  Chemistry,"  (2  vols.,  1851,)  has 


<  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  \i,guttural;  n,  nasal:  R,  trilkd;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this.  (2i^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROSE 


1918 


ROSENMULLER 


been  translated  into  several  languages.  As  a  practical 
analyst  in  the  department  of  inorganic  chemistry  he  is 
highly  distinguished.  He  discovered  in  1844  the  sub- 
stance called  Niobium. 

Rose,  (Sir  Hugh  Henry,)  an  able  British  general, 
born  in  1803.  His  father,  Sir  George  H.  Rose,  was 
British  minister  at  Berlin.  He  commanded  a  division 
in  India,  (1857-60,)  and  contributed  to  the  suppression 
of  the  mutiny  of  the  Sepoys.  In  1866  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage,  as  Baron  Strathnairn. 

Rose,  (Hugh  James,)  an  English  divine  and  volumi- 
nous writer,  born  in  Surrey  in  1795.  He  became  vicar 
of  Horsliam  in  182 1,  and  rector  of  Hadleigh  in  1830. 
In  1836  he  was  appointed  principal  of  King's  College, 
London.  He  published  numerous  sermons  and  contro- 
versial works,  and  a  new  edition  of  Parkhurst's  "Greek 
Lexicon."  He  projected  the  "  Biographical  Dictionary" 
which  bears  his  name,  but  did  not  live  to  finish  it.  Died 
at  Florence  in  1838. 

Rose,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  priest  and  writer  on 
morals,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  17 14;  died  in  1805. 

Rose,  (Samuel,)  an  English  lawyer  and  biographer, 
born  at  Chiswick  in  1767.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Oliver 
Goldsmith."    Died  in  1804. 

Rose,  (Valentin,)  the  Elder,  a  German  pharma- 
cist, born  at  Neu-Ruppin  in  1735,  was  assessor  of  the 
medical  college  at  Berlin.    Died  in  1771. 

Rose,  (Valentin,)  the  Younger,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Berlin  in  1762.  He  studied 
chemistry  under  Klaproth,  and  was  author  of  several 
useful  chemical  treatises.    Died  in  1807. 

Rose,  (William  Stewart,)  a  distinguished  scholar 
and  translator,  born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  was  a  friend  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "Naval  History  of  the  Late  War,"  (1802,) 
and  translated  "  Amadis  de  Gaul"  from  the  French, 
and  the  "Orlando  Innamorato"  (1823)  and  "Orlando 
Furioso"  (1823-31)  from  the  Italian.  These  translations 
are  highly  commended.    Died  in  1843. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1823;  "Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  July,  1823  ;  "  North  American  Review"  for 
October,  1824,  (by  W.  H.  Prescott.) 

Rosecrans,  roz'krans,  (William  Stark,)  an  Ameri- 
can general,  born  at  Kingston,  Delaware  county,  Ohio,  in 
September,  1819.  He  was  educated  at  West  Point,  where 
he  graduated  in  1842.  He  was  employed  as  engineer 
until  1854,  when  he  resigned  his  place  in  the  army. 
In  the  summer  of  i86r  he  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  and  sent  to  Western  Virginia.  He  defeated  the 
insurgents  at  Rich  Mountain  in  July,  1861,  after  which 
he  commanded  in  West  Virginia  for  several  months.  He 
obtained  command  of  the  army  of  the  Mississippi  in 
June,  1862,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Corinth 
(October  4)  over  Van  Dorn  and  Price.  He  commanded 
the  Union  army  at  the  great  battle  of  Stone  River,  near 
Murfreesboro',  which  ended  on  the  2d  of  January,  1863. 
General  Bragg  retreated  by  night,  leaving  Rosecrans 
master  of  the  field.  The  Union  loss  was  1533  killed 
and  7245  wounded.  General  Rosecrans  in  June  moved 
his  army  southeastward  in  pursuit  of  Bragg,  who  retired 
into  Georgia,  and  the  Union  army  occupied  Chattanooga 
about  the  9th  of  September.  Bragg,  having  been  rein- 
forced, turned  back  and  attacked  Rosecrans  on  the  19th 
and  20th  of  September  at  Chickamauga.  This  battle 
was  disastrous  to  the  Union  army,  which  retreated  to 
Chattanooga.  Rosecrans  was  relieved  from  the  com- 
mand about  the  20th  of  October,  1863,  and  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  district  of  Missouri  in  January,  1864. 
He  was  sent  as  minister  to  Mexico  in  July,  1868,  but  was 
recalled  a  few  months  later. 

See  "The  Army  of  the  Cumberland;"  Tennev,  "Military  and 
Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  1865. 

Roseingrave,  ro'zin-grav,  ?  (Thomas,)  an  Irish  mu- 
sician, went  to  Rome  to  study  in  17 10.  He  became 
organist  of  the  church  of  Saint  George,  London,  in  1725. 
Died  in  1750. 

Rosel  or  Roesel,  ro'zel,  (August  Johann,)  a  Ger- 
man painter  and  naturalist,  born  near  Arnstadt  in  1705. 
He  received  the  title  of  VoN  Rosenhof.  He  published 
a  periodical  on  insects,  with  good  figures,  (4  vols.,  1746 
-61.)    Died  in  1759. 


Roselli,  ro-sel'lee,  or  Rosselli,  (Cosimo,)  an  emi- 
nent Florentine  painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1439.  He 
painted  frescos  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  at  Rome,  which 
gained  the  prize  offered  by  the  pope,  when  among  his 
competitors  were  Perugino  and  Ghirlandaio.  He  suc- 
ceeded by  a  profuse  use  of  gold  and  ultramarine, 
although  he  was  inferior  to  his  competitors.  Dif*d 
after  1506. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy;"  Baldinucci,  "  Notizie." 

Roselli  or  Rosselli,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Florence  in  1578,  was  a  pupil  of  Pagani.  He 
opened  at  Florence  a  school,  in  which  several  able  artists 
were  formed.    Died  in  1650. 

Rosellini,  ros^el-lee'nee  or  ro-s^l-lee'nee,  (Ippolito,) 
Cavaliere,  an  eminent  Italian  antiquary  and  writer  on 
Egyptian  antiquities,  born  in  August,  1800.  He  became 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Pisa  in  1824.  In  1827 
he  was  commissioned  by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  to 
explore  the  monuments  of  Egypt,  assisted  by  six  com- 
panions, some  of  whom  were  artists.  He  co-operated 
with  Champollion,  who  at  the  same  time  was  sent  to 
Egypt  by  the  French  government.  They  returned  in 
1830,  and,  Champollion  having  died  in  1832,  the  results 
of  their  researches  were  published  by  Rosellini  in  a 
capital  work  entitled  "The  Monuments  of  Egypt  and 
Nubia  Explained  and  Illustrated,"  ("  I  Monmnenti  dell' 
Egitto  e  della  Nubia,"  etc.,  10  vols.,  1832-40.)  He 
obtained  the  chair  of  universal  history  at  Pisa  in  1840. 
Died  in  June,  1843. 

See  Bardei.t.i,  "  Biografia  del  Professore  I.  Rosellini,"  1843; 
G.  Dhi,  "  Biografia  del  Professore  I.  Rosellini,"  1843;  C.  Cavedoni, 
"Biografia  d'l.  Rosellini,"  1845. 

Rosemonde.    See  Rosamond. 

Rosen,  ro'zen,  (Friedrich  August,)  a  celebrated 
German  Orientalist  and  philologist,  born  at  Hanover 
on  the  2d  of  September,  1805.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Leipsic  and  that  of  Berlin,  the  latter  of 
which  he  entered  in  1824.  He  gave  special  attention 
to  Sanscrit  and  the  Semitic  languages,  and  published  an 
important  work  entitled  "Sanscrit  Roots,"  ("Radices 
Sanscritae,"  1827.)  In  1828  he  became  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  in  the  University  of  London,  since 
called  University  College.  He  was  appointed  secretary 
to  the  Oriental  Translation  Committee,  and  in  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  was  professor  of  Sanscrit  in  the  college 
above  named.  He  wrote  the  articles  relating  to  Oriental 
literature  for  the  "Penny  Cyclopedia."  Among  his 
numerous  publications  is  "  Rig-Vedae  Specimen,"  (1830,) 
and  a  valuable  fragment  of  the  "Rig- Veda,"  "Sanhita 
Liber  primus,  Sanscrite  et  Latine."  (1838,  unfinished.) 
He  died  prematurely  in  September,  1837. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Rosen,  (  Georg,  )  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at 
Detniold  in  1821. 

Rosen,  ro'zen,  (Nikolaus,)  a  Swedish  medical  writer, 
born  near  Gothenburg  in  1706.  He  was  ennobled  in 
1762,  and  his  name  was  then  changed  to  Rosenstein. 
Died  in  1773. 

Rosen,  von,  fon  ro'zen,  (George,)  Baron,  a  Russian 
poet,  born  in  Saint  Petersburg  about  1805,  was  an  inti- 
mate friend  of  Pooshkin.  He  produced,  besides  other 
poems,  "Ivan  the  Terrible,"  (1833,)  and  "Basmanof," 
(1836.)    Died  in  i860.  _ 

Rosenblut,  ro'zen-bloot',  (Hans,)  sometimes  calk  I 
RosENER,  a  German  poet  and  dramatic  writer  of  the 
fifteenth  century. 

Rosenhof,  von.    See  Rosel. 

Rosenkranz,  ro'zen-kR^nts^  (Johann  Karl  Fried- 
rich,)  professor  of  philosophy  at  Konigsberg,  was  born 
at  Magdeburg  in  1805.  He  published  a  number  of 
works  in  favour  of  Hegel's  philosophy.  Among  his 
works  is  a  "General  History  of  Poetry,"  (3  vols.,  1833,) 
and  a  "  Life  of  Hegel,"  (1844.) 

Rosenmiiller,  ro'zenm'tiiKler,  (Ernst  Friedrich 
Karl,)  an  eminent  German  Orientalist,  born  near  Hild- 
burghausen  in  1768.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  where  he 
became  in  1813  professor  of  Oriental  literature.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  Scholia  on  the  Old  Testament," 
("  Scholia  in  Vetus  Testamentum,"  23  vols.,  1788-1835,) 
"  Manual  for  the  Literature  of  Biblical  Criticism  and 
Exegesis,"  (4  vols.,  1797-1800,)  "  Institutes  of  the  Arabic 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  vi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon- 


ROSENMULLER  1919 


Language,"  (1818,)  and  "  Manual  of  Biblical  Antiquities," 
(4  vols.,  1823.)    Died  at  Leipsic  in  1835. 
See  "Biographie  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Rosenmiiller,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  distinguished 
anatomist,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Hess- 
berg'in  1771.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  and 
surgery  at  Leipsic,  and  prosector  at  the  Anatomical 
Theatre.  He  published  several  anatomical  and  scientific 
works.    Died  in  1820. 

Rosenmiiller,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  Prot- 
estant theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Ummer- 
stadt  in  1736,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He 
became  successively  professor  of  theology  at  Erlangen, 
at  Giessen,  and  at  Leipsic.  He  published  "  Scholia  in 
Novum  Testamentum,"  (6  vols.,  1 777-1807,)  and  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  Interpretation  of  the  Sacred  Books  in  the 
Christian  Church  from  the  Age  of  the  Apostles  to  the 
Restoration  of  Letters,"  (in  Latin,  5  vols.,  1 795-1814;) 
also  several  religious  treatises  in  German.  Died  at 
Leipsic  in  1815. 

See  Chr.  Dolz,  "J.  G.  Rosenmuller's  Leben,"  i8i6;  "Biogra- 
phie Universelle." 

Rosenstein.    See  Rosen,  (Nikoi.aus.) 

Rosenthal,  ro'zen-tSl',  (Friedrich  Christian,)  a 
German  anatomist  and  writer,  born  at  Greifswalde  in 
1779.  He  published  several  professional  works.  Died 
in  1829. 

Rosenvinge,  ro'zen-ving^eh,  (Janus  Lars  Andreas 
Kolderup — koKder-oop',)  a  Danish  jurist,  born  at 
Copenhagen  in  1792.  He  published  "Elements  of 
the  History  of  Danish  Law,"  (1823.) 

Rosetti.    See  Rossetti. 

Rosetti,  ro-set'tee,  (Constantine,)  a  poet,  born  at 
Bucharest  (Wallachia)  about  1816.  He  was  democratic 
or  liberal  in  politics,  was  exiled  about  1848,  and  took 
refuge  in  Paris. 

Rosetti,  ro-set'tee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Venice  about  1690.  He  is  chiefly 
known  as  an  engraver. 

Roshd,  (or  Roshed,)  Ibn.    See  Averroes. 

Rosier,  ro^ze-i',  (  N.,)  a  Fretich  dramatic  author, 
born  in  Paris  abolTt  1805.  Among  his  works  is  a  comedy 
called  "  Le  Mari  de  ma  Femme,"  (1830.) 

Rosin.    See  Rosin  us. 

Rosini,  ro-see'nee,  (Carlo  Maria,)  an  Italian 
archaeologist  and  bishop,  born  at  Naples  in  1748.  He 
deciphered  and  published  some  manuscripts  of  Hercu- 
laneum,  and  wrote  other  works.    Died  in  1836. 

See  Prospero  della  Rosa,  "Vita  di  C.  M.  Rosini,"  1837. 

Rosini,  (Giovanni,)  a  distinguished  Italian  poet  and 
novelist,  born  at  Lucignano,  in  Tuscany,  in  1776.  He 
was  professor  of  Italian  literature  at  Pisa  from  1803 
until  1849.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Luisa 
Strozzi,"  (4  vols.,  1833,)  "Torquato  Tasso,"  a  drama, 
(1835,)  and  a  "History  of  Italian  Painting,"  (7  vols., 
1838-54.)  He  wrote  an  "Essay  on  the  Life  and  Works 
of  Canova,"  (1825,)  and  published  a  good  edition  of 
Tasso's  works,  (30  vols.,  1820-30.)    Died  in  1855. 

See  Pozzoi.INI,  "Vita  di  G.  Rosini,"  1855;  Alfred  von  Reu- 
MONT,  "G  Rosini's  Leben,"  i860;  "Biographie  Universelle;" 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1829. 

Ro-si'nus,  [Ger.  pron,  ro-zee'nCis  ;  Fr.  Rosin,  ro'- 
z4n',]  (Johann,)  a  German  antiquary,  whose  proper 
name  was  Rossfeld  or  Roszfeld,  was  born  at  Eisenach 
in  1551.  He  published  a  "  Complete  Body  of  Roman 
Antiquities,"  ("Antiquitatum  Romanorum  Corpus  abso- 
lutissimum,"  1583.)    Died  in  1626. 

Roslin,  ros-leen',  (Alexander,)  a  Swedish  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Malmo  about  1718.  He  worked  for 
many  years  in  Paris,  where  he  obtained  great  success. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  of  Art  in 
1753.    Died  in  Paris  in  1793. 

Rosmini,  de',  di  ros-mee'nee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian 
biographer,  born  at  Roveredo  in  1758.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Life  of  Ovid,"  (1789,)  a  "Life 
of  Seneca,"  (1793,)  a  "Life  of  Victorino  da  Feltro,"  (4 
vols.,  1801,)  and  a  "History  of  Milan,"  ("Storia  di  Mi- 
lano,"  4  vols.,  1820.)  His  works  are  commended  as 
accurate  and  impartial.    Died  at  Milan  in  1827. 

See  TiPAi.DO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  A.  M.  Mene- 
GHELLi,  "Rosmini  e  sue  Opere,"  1827. 


ROSS 


Rosmini-Serbati,  ros-mee'nee  sSR-bS'tee,  (Anto* 
Nio,)  an  eminent  Italian  ecclesiastic  and  philosopher, 
born  at  Roveredo  in  1787  or  1797.  He  produced  "New 
Essay  on  the  Origin  of  Ideas,"  ("II  nuovo  Saggio 
suirOrigine  delle  Idee,"  1830,)  and  proj^ounded  a  new 
system  of  philosophy.  He  wrote  numerous  other  works, 
on  ethics,  theology,  education,  etc.    Died  in  1855. 

SeeV.  GioBERTi,  "  Degli  Errori  filosofici  di  A.  Rosmini-Serbati," 
3  vols.,  1844;  "Biographie  Universelle." 

Rosny,  de.    See  Sully. 

Rospigliosi,    See  Clement  IX. 

Ross,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  theologian,  born 
about  1570,  became  minister  at  Aberdeen  in  1636.  He 
was  an  adversary  of  the  Covenanters.    Died  in  1639, 

Ross,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  writer, 
born  at  Aberdeen  in  1590.  He  was  a  zealous  partisan 
of  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war,  (1642-49.)  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  a  "View  of  All  Religions,"  ami 
"  Virgilii  Evangelizantis  Christias,"  (1634.)  Died  in 
1654. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Ross,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  teacher, 
born  in  Aberdeenshire  in  1699.  He  wrote  "  Helenore, 
or  the  Fortunate  Shepherdess,"  (1768.)    Died  in  1784. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Ross,  (Frederick  Augustus,)  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, born  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  in  1796.  He  became 
pastor  of  a  church  at  Huntsville,  Alabama,  in  1855,  and 
published  "  Slavery  ordained  of  God,"  (1857.) 

Ross,  (George,)  an  American  patriot  and  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  at  New  Cas- 
tle, Delaware,  in  1730.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1774  until  1777.  He  was  appointed  in  1779  a  judge 
of  the  court  of  admiralty  for  the  State  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  died  the  same  year. 

Ross,  (Sir  James  Clark,)  Admiral,  F.R.S.,  an  emi- 
nent English  Arctic  navigator,  born  in  London  in  April, 
1800.  He  served  his  uncle.  Sir  John  Ross,  as  midship- 
man in  his  first  voyage  in  search  of  a  Northwest  Passage, 
(1818.)  Between  1819  and  1825  he  made  three  voyages 
under  Captain  E.  Parry.  He  took  a  ])rominent  part  in 
Sir  John  Ross's  second  voyage,  (1829-33,)  '^"'^^ 
raised  to  the  rank  of  post-captain  in  1834.  In  1839  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  an  expedition  sent  with 
two  vessels,  the  Erebus  and  Terror,  to  explore  the  Ant- 
arctic regions  with  special  reference  to  the  science  of 
magnetism.  He  reached  the  seventy-eighth  degree  of 
south  latitude,  and  discovered  an  ice-bound  continent, 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Victoria  Land,  and  the 
coast  of  which  his  party  traced  for  seven  hundred  miles. 
After  a  highly  successful  voyage  of  four  years,  he  arrived 
at  England  in  September,  1843.  He  published  a  "Voy- 
age of  Discovery  and  Research  in  the  Southern  and 
Antarctic  Regions,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1847.)  He  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1856.    Died  in  1862, 

See  William  Jerdan,  "Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1866; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  March,  1819,  and  July,  1835;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1819,  July,  1835,  and  June,  1847; 
"  North  British  Review"  for  November,  1847. 

Ross,  (Sir  John,)  Rear-Admiral,  a  famous  Arctic 
navigator,  born  at  Balsarroch,  (county  of  Wigton,)  Scot- 
land, in  1777,  was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  He  served 
as  an  officer  in  several  naval  actions  against  the  French 
and  Spaniards  between  1800  and  1814.  In  1818  he  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  first  expedition  sent  to 
search  for  a  Northwest  Passage.  Lieutenant  Parry  was 
the  second  in  command.  He  passed  through  Baffin's 
Bay  to  Lancaster  Sound,  where  he  imagined  he  saw 
a  barrier  of  mountains  interposed,  and  he  returned 
home  in  the  same  year.  (See  Parry,  Captain.)  In 
1829  he  renewed  the  enterprise  in  the  Victory,  entered 
Prince  Regent  Inlet,  and  was  frozen  up  in  the  Gulf  of 
Boothia  in  October,  1829.  His  party  passed  about  four 
years  of  privation  and  peril  in  the  Arctic  seas,  and 
abandoned  the  Victory  in  1832.  Captain  Ross  dis- 
covered in  183 1  a  point  which  he  believed  to  be  the 
Northern  Magnetic  Pole.  He  and  his  party  returned 
by  boats  to  Lancaster  Sound,  where  they  were  rescued 
bv  a  whaling-vessel,  and  arrived  home  in  September, 
1833.  He  published  in  1835  a  narrative  of  his  second 
voyage.    Died  in  1856. 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  o,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    {T^^^'S>qq  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROSS 


1920 


ROSSI 


Robs,  written  also  Rouse  and  Rows,  (John,)  known 
as  "the  Antiquary  of  Warwick,"  wrote  "  History  of  the 
Kings  of  England,"  (in  Latin,  1716.)    Died  in  1491. 

Ross,  (John,)  Bishop  of  Exeter,  an  Engiisii  writer, 
born  in  Herefordshire.  He  edited  Cicero's  "  Familiar 
Letters,"  ("Epistolae  Familiares,"  1749.)    Died  in  1792. 

Ross,,  (John,)  [called  Koo'w^s-koo'we  in  the 
Cherokee  language,]  a  noted  halt-breed  Indian,  and 
head  chief  of  the  Cherokees,  was  born  in  Georgia  about 
T790;  died  at  Washington  in  1866. 

Ross,  (Leonard  Fulton,)  an  American  officer,  born 
in  Fulton  county,  Illinois.  lie  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  and  was  made  brigadier-general  of  Union  volun- 
teers in  1862. 

Ross,  ross,  (Ludwig,)  a  German  antiquary,  born  in 
Holstein  in  1806,  became  in  1837  professor  of  archae- 
ology in  the  Otto  University  at  Athens,  in  Greece.  He 
subsequently  filled  the  same  chair  at  Halle. 

Ross,  (Sir  William  Chaklf.s,)  R.A.,  a  popular 
English  miniature-painter,  born  in  London  in  June, 
1794,  was  a  nephew  of  Anker  Smith,  the  engraver.  In 
the  early  part  of  his  career  he  painted  history  and  por- 
traits. He  excelled  in  miniature,  and  became  in  this 
department  the  most  fashionable  artist  of  his  time.  In 
1837  he  was  appointed  miniature-painter  to  the  queen. 
He  gained  a  prize  of  ;^ioo  for  a  picture  of  "The  Angel 
Raphael  discoursing  with  Adam,"  (1843.)  I^'^*^ 

Rossaeus.    See  Rose,  (Guillaume.) 

Rosse,  ross,  (William  Parsons,)  third  Earl  of,  an 
eminent  English  practical  astronomer,  born  in  June,  1800, 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  became 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1831,  and  succeeded 
his  father  in  the  peerage  in  i8'4i.  He  acquired  a  wide 
reputation  by  the  construction  of  a  telescope  which  was 
finished  about  1844  and  is  unrivalled  in  dimensions  and 
space-penetrating  power,  and  by  his  discoveries  in 
sidereal  or  nebular  astronon^y.  This  telescope,  which 
has  an  aperture  of  six  feet  and  a  length  of  fifty-six  feet, 
is  located  near  Parsonstown,  Kings  county,  Ireland.  He 
was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1849. 
Died  in  October,  1867. 

Rossel,  de,  deh  ro's§K,  (Elisabeth  PaulEdouard,) 
Chevalier,  a  French  navigator,  born  at  Sens  in  1765. 
He  accompanied  D'Entrecasteaux  in  his  ex])edition  in 
search  of  La  Perouse,  and  succeeded  to  the  chief  com- 
mand in  1794.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  English 
in  1795,  and  released  about  1802.  In  1809  he  published 
the  "  Voyage  of  D'Entrecasteaux  in  Search  of  La  Pe- 
rouse," (2  vols.,)  containing  a  good  treatise  on  nautical 
astronomy.    Died  in  1829. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Rosselli.    See  Roselll 

Rossellino,  ros-sSl-lee'no,  or  Rossellini,  ros-sil- 
lee'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  able  Italian  sculptor,  whose 
family  name  was  Gambarelli,  was  born  at  Florence 
about  1427.  Among  his  works  are  several  statues  of 
the  Madonna.    Died  in  1490. 

Rossellino  or  Rossellini,  (Bernardo,)  an  architect 
and  sculptor,  born  at  Florence  in  1409,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  patronized  by  Pope  Nicholas 
v.,  and  designed  or  restored  several  churches  of  Rome. 
Died  about  1470. 

Rosset,  ro'si',  (Joseph,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  at 
Saint-Claude  in  1706  ;  died  in  1786. 

Rossetti,  ros-set'tee,  (Christina,)  an  English  con- 
temporary poetess,  sister  of  Dante  Gabriel,  noticed 
below,  has  written  "Goblin  Market,"  (1862,)  "The 
Prince's  Progress,"  (1866,)  and  other  works. 

Rossetti,  (Dante  Gabriel,)  an  English  painter  and 
poet,  born  in  London  about  1828,  is  a  son  of  Gabriel 
Rossetti,  noticed  below.  He  was  the  leader  of  the 
movement  called  Pre-Raphaelitism,  an  attempt  to  revive 
the  style  of  Italian  painters  who  preceded  Raphael.  He 
prefers  religious  subjects,  and  finishes  his  works  with 
great  minuteness.  In  1862  he  produced  "The  Early 
Italian  Poets,  from  Cuillo  d'Alcamo  to  Dante,  (1100-1200 
-1300,)  in  the  Original  Metres,  together  with  Dante's 
'Vita  Nuova,'  translated  by  D.  G.  Rossetti."  He  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  original  poems  in  1870. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1870  ;  "  Putnam's  Magazine" 
for  July,  1870. 


Rossetti  or  Rosetti,  (Gabriel,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
critic,  born  in  1783.  He  became  professor  of  Italian  in 
King's  College,  London,  and  well  known  as  a  commen- 
tator on  Dante.    Died  in  1854. 

Rossetti,  (William  M.,)  an  English  writer,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  London.  He  wrote  an 
article  on  "  English  Opinion  on  the  American  War" 
for  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  February,  1866.  He 
contributed  to  the  "Imperial  Dictionary  of  Universal 
Biography."  Among  his  works  is  a  "Life  of  Percy 
Bysshe  Shelley,"  (2  vols.,  1869.) 

Rossfeld.    See  Rosinus. 

Rosshirt,  ros'he^Rt,  (Konrad  Franz,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Bamberg  in  1793,  was  professor  of  law 
at  Heidelberg.    He  wrote  a  number  of  legal  works. 

Rossi,  ros'see,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Zoldo  about  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  master  of  Titian. 

Rossi,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna 
about  1700  ;  died  about  1750. 

Rossi,  (Francesco.)    See  Salviatl 

Rossi,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Rome  in  1616.  Among  his  works  are  the 
Palazzo  Rinuccini,  and  the  church  of  San  Pantaleon, 
Rome.    Died  in  1695. 

Rossi,  [Lat.  Eryi-hr^'us,]  (Giovanni  Vittorio,) 
an  Italian  scholar,  noted  as  a  Latinist,  was  born  at  Rome 
in  1577.  Among  his  works  is  "Pinacotheca  Imaginum 
illustrium  Virorum,"  ("  Gallery  of  Portraits  of  Illustrious 
Men,"  1643-48.)    Died  in  1647. 

See  NicERON,  "M^moires;"  Tiraboschi,  "Storia  della  Lettera- 
tura  Italiana." 

Rossi,  (GiROLAMO,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at 
Ravenna  in  1539.  His  Latin  name  was  Rubeus  or 
De  Rubeis.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  good  "History  of 
Ravenna,"  (1572.)    Died  in  1607, 

Rossi,  ros'see,  (John  Charles  Felix,)  an  English 
sculptor,  born  at  Nottingham  in  1762,  was  of  Italian 
origin.  He  gained  the  gold  medal  at  London  in  1784, 
after  which  he  studied  at  Rome,  and  returned  in  1788. 
He  became  sculptor  to  William  IV.  His  best  works 
are  monuments  of  Lord  Cornwallis,  Lord  Heathfield, 
Captain  Riou,  Captain  Faulkner,  and  Lord  Rodney,  in 
Saint  Paul's  Cathedral.    Died  in  1839. 

Rossi,  (LuiGi,)  an  Italian  musician,  born  at  Naples 
about  1590.  He  composed  cantatas,  etc.  Died  after 
1640. 

Ros.si,  (OiTAVio.)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Brescia 
in  1570.  Among  his  works  is  "  Brescian  Memoirs," 
("  Memorie  Bresciane,"  1616.)    Died  in  1630. 

Rossi,  (Pasquale.)    See  Pasqualino. 

Rossi,  (Pellegrino  Luigi  Odoardo,)  Count,  an 
Italian  orator,  minister  of  state,  and  writer  on  law,  was 
born  at  Carrara  in  1787.  As  a  partisan  of  the  French 
regime  and  of  Murat,  he  was  exiled  in  181 5.  He  became 
professor  of  Roman  law  at  Geneva  in  1819,  and  estab- 
lished his  reputation  as  a  jurist  by  his  "Treatise  on 
Penal  Law,"  (Paris,  3  vols.,  1825.)  In  1832  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  political  economy  in  the  College 
de  France,  Paris.  He  was  notninated  a  peer  of  France 
in  1839,  and  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome  in  1845.  I" 
September,  1848,  he  was  appointed  chief  minister  of 
state  by  the  pope.  He  was  assassinated,  November  15, 
1848,  by  his  political  enemies. 

See  J.  Garnier,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Rossi,"  1849;  Huber- 
Sai.adin,  "M.  Rossi  en  Suisse  de  1816  h  1833,"  1849;  Mignet, 
"  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Rossi,"  1849;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Rossi,  de',  dk  ros'see,  [in  Latin,  De  Ru'beis,]  (Ber- 
nardo Maria,)  a  learned  Italian  monk,  born  in  Friuli 
in  1687.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "On  the  Life, 
Writings,  and  Doctrine  of  Thomas  Aquinas,"  ("  De 
Gestis  et  Scriptis  ac  Doctrina  Thomae  Aquinatis,"  1750.) 
Died  in  1775. 

See  Fabroni,  "  VitJe  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Rossi,  de',  (Giovanni  Bernardo,)  an  Italian  Ori- 
entalist, born  in  Piedmont  in  1742.  Among  his  numerous 
works  is  "  Various  Readings  of  the  Old  Testament," 
("  Variae  Lectiones  Veteris  Testamenti,"  4  vols.,  1784- 
88.)  He  was  for  many  years  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Parma.    Died  in  183 1. 


§,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  /ou^:  k,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, 6,  u,  %  short;  a,    i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


ROSSI 


1921 


ROSZFELD 


Rossi,  de',  (Giovanni  Gherardo,)  an  Italian  writer 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Rome  in  1754.  He  displayed 
imagination,  learning,  and  taste  in  numerous  works, 
among  which  are  several  comedies,  a  "  Life  of  G.  Pik- 
ler,"  (1792,)  and  "Poetical  and  Pictorial  Sports," 
("  Scherzi  poetici  e  pittorici,"  1795.)    Died  in  1827. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italian!  illustii." 

Rossi,  de',  (Properzia,)  a  skilful  Italian  sculptor  and 
musician,  born  at  Bologna  about  1490.  Her  master- 
piece is  a  bas-relief  of  "  Joseph  rejecting  the  Overtures 
of  Potiphar's  Wife."  She  made  beautiful  cameos  of 
peach -stones.    Died  in  1530. 

Rossi,  de',  (Rosso.)    See  Rosso. 

Rossignol,  ro'sen'yoK,  (Jean  Antoine,)  a  French 
Jacobin,  born  in  Paris  in  1759.  He  obtained  command 
of  an  army  sent  against  the  Vendeans  in  1793,  but  was 
removed  for  incapacity  in  1794.  He  was  banished  in 
1801,  and  died  on  the  African  island  of  Anjouan  in  1802. 

Rossignol,  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
writer,  born  in  1726.  He  wrote  several  scientific  works. 
Died  at  Turin  in  1817. 

Rossignol,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  scholar,  born 
at  Sarlat  about  1805.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1853,  and  professor  of  Greek  in  the  College 
de  France  in  1855.  produced,  besides  other  works, 

**Virgile  et  Constantin  le  Grand,"  (1846,)  and  a  Latin 
poem  called  "Scholastic  Life,"  ("Vita  Scholastica," 
1836.) 

Rossini,  ros-see'nee,  (Gioacchimo,)  the  most  cele- 
brated composer  of  music  of  the  present  time,  was  born 
at  Pesaro,  in  the  Papal  States,  on  the  29th  of  February, 
1792.  His  father  was  a  horn-blower,  and  his  mother 
an  actress  or  singer,  in  an  itinerant  opera-company.  He 
received  some  instruction  in  music  from  Padre  Mattei, 
of  Bologna ;  but  he  formed  his  style  chiefly  by  the  study 
of  Mozart  and  Haydn.  In  181 2  he  produced  "The 
Fortunate  Deceit,"  ("L'Inganno  felice,")  and  several 
other  operas.  His  first  famous  work  was  the  opera  of 
"Tancredi,"  (1813,)  which,  performed  first  at  Venice, 
was  received  with  great  enthusiasm  and  announced  the 
advent  of  a  new  epoch  in  dramatic  music.  In  1815  he  was 
engaged  for  a  term  of  seven  years  as  musical  director 
of  the  theatre  of  San  Carlo  at  Naples.  He  produced 
many  operas  in  rapid  succession.  In  1816  appeared 
"The  Barber  of  Seville,"  ("II  Barbiere  di  Seviglia,") 
which  is  perhaps  the  most  popular  of  all  his  works,  and 
has  been  performed  in  many  languages  and  in  every 
theatre  of  the  civilized  world.  His  "Mose  in  Egitto" 
(18 1 8)  was  performed  with  success.  He  married  Made- 
moiselle Colbran  or  Colbrand,  a  singer,  about  1822, 
and  left  Italy  in  1823.  He  was  director  of  the  Italian 
Opera  in  Paris  from  1824  to  1830.  In  1829  he  produced 
the  original  and  incomparable  opera  of  "  William  Tell," 
which,  says  Dr.  Hoefer,  "was  pronounced  by  all  con- 
noisseurs the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  works  of  Rossini." 
It  was  also  his  last,  except  the  "  Stabat  Mater,"  (1842.) 
He  resolved  to  compose  no  more,  saying,  "Another 
success  would  add  nothing  to  my  celebrity,  and  a  failure 
might  impair  it."  The  revolution  of  1830  deprived  him 
of  the  office  of  director  or  intendant-general  in  Paris, 
for  which  his  indolence  rendered  him  incompetent.  In 
1836  he  returned  to  Italy,  and  resided  for  many  years  at 
Bologna.  After  1855  he  lived  in  Paris,  where  he  died 
in  November,  1868. 

See  Beyle,  (or  Stenoahl,)  "Vie  de  Rossini,"  2  vols.,  1823, 
and  English  version  of  the  same,  1824  ;  "  Life  of  Rossini,"  by  H.  S. 
Edwards,  1869;  Adolphe  Adam,  "Derniers  Souvenirs  d'un  Musi- 
cien,"  1859;  L.  de  Lomenie,  "  M.  Rossini,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1842  ;  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;"  Dr.  Hoefer, 
article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Geiierale;"  "British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1869. 

Rosslyn,  Earl  of.    See  Wedderburn. 

Ross'lj^n,  (James  Saint  Clair  Erskine,)  Earl 
of,  a  general,  born  about  1762,  was  a  son  of  General 
Harry  Erskine,  and  a  nephew  of  A.  Wedderburn,  Earl 
of  Rosslyn.  He  became  a  major-general  in  1798,  and 
lieutenant-general  in  1805,  after  which  he  served  in 
Portugal,  Holland,  etc.  He  inherited  the  title  of  earl 
in  1805.  In  1829  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the 
privy  seal.  He  was  president  of  the  council  in  the 
cabinet  of  Peel  from  December,  1834,  to  April,  1835. 
Died  in  1837. 


Rossmassler  or  Rossmaessler,  ross'mSss'ler, 
(Emil  Adolf,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1806.  He  has  published  "  Iconography  of  the  European 
Land  and  Fresh-Water  Mollusks,"  (with  sixty  plates 
1835-) 

Rosso,  del,  d§l  ros'so,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  archi- 
tect, born  in  Rome  in  1760,  lived  for  many  years  in 
Florence.  He  published  many  works  on  architecture. 
Died  in  183 1. 

Rosso,  del,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Flor- 
ence, was  author  of  "Physics,"  ("La  Fisica,"  1578,)  a 
poem.    Died  in  1569. 

Rosso,  II,  ^1  ros'so,  or  del  Rosso,  d^l  ros'so. 
or  Rossi,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  eminent  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Florence  in  I4q6,  was  called  by  the 
French  MAtxRE  Roux.  He  studied  the  works  of  Mi- 
chael Angelo.  About  1535  he  went  to  France.  He  was 
patronized  by  Francis  I.,  and  adorned  the  palace  of 
Fontainebleau  with  his  works.  His  style  is  remarkably 
bold.    Died  in  France  in  1541. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "History  of 
Paintmgin  Italy;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rossotto,  ros-sot'to,(ANDREA,)an  Italian  biographer, 
born  at  Mondovi  in  1610,  wrote  "  Index  of  Piedmontese 
Writers,"  ("Syllabus  Scriptorum  Pedemontii,"  1667.) 
Died  in  1667. 

Rost,  rost,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm  Ehrenfried,)  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Budissin  in  1768.  He 
became  rector  of  the  "  Thomasschule"  at  Leipsic,  and 
published  several  critical  works  on  the  Greek  and  Latin 
classics.    Died  in  1835. 

Rost,  (JoHANN  Christoph,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  171 7,  published  a  number  of  tales, 
poems,  and  satires.    Died  in  1765. 

Rost,  (Valentin  Christian  Friedrich,)  a  German 
lexicographer,  born  near  Gotha  in  1790.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  a  "Greek  Grammar,"  a  "Greek- 
German  Dictionary,"  and  a  "  German-Greek  Dictionary," 
(1832.)    Died  in  1862. 

Rostan,  ros'tdw',  (Louis  L60N,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Saint-Maximin  (Var)  in  1790.  He  be- 
came professor  of  medicine  in  Paris  in  1833. 

Rostgaard,  de,  deh  rost'goRd  or  rost'gauR,  (Fred- 
eric,) a  learned  Danish  writer,  born  at  Kraagerup  in 
167 1.  He  held  several  high  civil  offices.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Beauties  of  the  Danish  Poets," 
("Deliciae  Poetarum  Danorum,"  2  vols.,  1693.)  Died 
in  1745. 

See  Kraft  og  Nverup,  "  Litteraturlexicon." 

Rostolan,  de,  deh  ros'to'16N',  (Louis,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Aix  in  1791.  He  served  in  several 
campaigns  in  Algeria,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
the  siege  of  Rome  in  1849.    Died  in  1862. 

Rostoptchin,  ros-top-ch^n'  or  ros-top-cheen',  written 
also  Rastopchin  and  Rostoptschin,  (Feodor  Vasi- 
lievitch,)  Count,  a  Russian  general,  born  in  the 
province  of  Orel  in  1765.  He  was  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  for  a  short  time  under  Paul  1.  In  May,  1812,  he 
was  appointed  governor  of  Moscow.  According  to  the 
French  accounts,  he  was  the  author  of  the  conflagration 
of  that  city.  He  disclaimed  his  responsibility  for  that 
event,  and  affirmed  that  it  was  burned  partly  by  the 
French  and  partly,  perhaps,  by  some  Russians  acting 
without  orders.  He  was  removed  from  the  office  of 
governor  in  1814.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Memoirs  of  Count  Rostoptchin,  written  in  Ten  Min- 
utes," (in  PVench,)  and  "Truth  about  the  Burning  of 
Moscow,"  (1823.)    Died  in  1826. 

See  General  Scarrow,  "  Notice  sur  le  Comte  Rostoptchine," 
1854;  Glinka,  "History  of  Russia,"  (in  Russian;)  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Rosweide  or  Rosweyde,  ros'^i'deh,  (Heribert,) 
a  Dutch  Jesuit,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1569."  He  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  "  Lives  of  the  Fathers,"  etc.,  ("  Vit^ 
Patrum,  sive  Historia  eremitica,"  1615,)  and  planned 
the  "Acta  Sanctorum,"  which  was  continued  by  Bolland 
and  others.    Died  in  1629. 

See  FOPPENS,  "Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Rosweyde.    See  Rosweide. 
Roswitha.    See  Hrotsvitha. 
Roszfeld.    See  Rosinus. 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this,    (2i:^="See  Explanations,  p.  73.) 

121 


ROTA 


1922 


ROU 


Rota,  ro'ta,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Naples  in  1509.  He  wrote  Latin  elegies,  Italian  sonnets 
in  imitation  of  Petrarch,  and  eclogues  of  the  sea,  entitled 
*•  Piscatorie,"  (1560.)    Died  in  1575. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Long- 
fellow, "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Rota,  (Martin,)  a  skilful  engraver  and  designer, 
born  at  Sebenico,  in  Dalmatia,  flourished  between  1550 
and  1590.  He  worked  at  Rome  and  Venice,  He  en- 
graved some  works  of  Titian  and  Raphael,  and  "  The 
Last  Judgment,"  after  Michael  Angelo.  Bryan  says  he 
was  born  about  1540. 

Rota,  (ViNCENZO,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Padua  in 
1703  ;  died  in  1785. 

See  F.  Fanzago,  "Memorie  intorno  all'Abbate  V.  Rota,"  1798. 

Rotari,  ro-t^'ree,  (Pietro,)  Count,  an  Italian  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Verona  in  1707.  He 
worked  at  Vienna,  Dresden,  and  Saint  Petersburg. 
Died  about  1762, 

Rotembourg,  ro'tSN^booR',  (  Henri,  )  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Phalsbourg  in  1769.  He  served 
with  distinction  at  Lutzen,  Bautzen,  and  Dresden,  with 
the  rank  of  general  of  brigade,  in  1812-13.   Died  in  1857. 

Rotgans,  rot'g^ns  or  rot'nlns,  (Lucas,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  poet,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1645.  He  wrote 
"The  Life  of  William  III.,"  in  verse,  and  some  other 
poems.    Died  in  17 10. 

See  Chalmot,  "  Biographisch  Woordenboek. " 

Roth,  r5t,  (JoHANN  Rudolf,)  a  German  naturalist, 
born  at  Nuremberg  in  181 5,  travelled  in  Syria  and 
Hindostan,  and  subsequently  accompanied  Harris's 
expedition  to  Abyssinia.  He  contributed  the  botanical, 
geological,  and  zoological  portions  to  "  The  Highlands 
of  Ethiopia,"  published  by  Major  Harris.  He  died  in 
Palestine  in  1858,  while  on  another  journey  to  the  East. 

Roth'a-ris,  King  of  the  Lombards,  began  to  reign 
in  636  A.b.  He  conquered  Genoa  and  Liguria.  Died 
in  652. 

Rothelin,  de,  deh  rot'liN',  (Charles  d'Orl^ans,) 
Abb6,  a  French  antiquary,  noted  as  a  collector  of  medals 
and  manuscripts,  born  in  Paris  in  1691  ;  died  in  1744. 

Rothenhamer.    See  Rottenhammer. 

Roth'er-am,  (John,)  a  minister  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  was'  born  in  Cumberland.  He  wrote  several 
religious  works.    Died  in  1788. 

Rotheram,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  wrote  a 
*•  Philosophical  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Properties 
of  Water."    Died  in  1787. 

Rotherham,  roth'er-am,  alias  Scott,  (Thomas,) 
Archbishop  of  York,  was  born  in  1423.  He  became  lord 
chancellor  of  England  in  1474.    Died  in  1500. 

Roth'er-mel,  (Peter  F.,)  an  eminent  American 
painter,  born  in  Luzerne  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  181 7. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "  De  Soto  discover- 
ing the  Mississippi,"  "Columbus  before  Isabella  the 
Catholic,"  "Christabel,"  and  the  "Christian  Martyrs," 
finished  in  the  early  part  of  1864,  and  exhibited  at  the 
great  Sanitary  Fair  held  in  Philadelphia  in  June  and 
July  of  that  year.  He  was  employed  by  the  legislature 
of  Pennsylvania  to  paint  a  grand  historical  piece,  the 
"Battle  of  Gettysburg,"  (finished  in  1871.) 

Roth'say  or  Rothesay,  (David,)  first  Duke  of, 
born  in  1378,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Robert  III.  of  Scot- 
land. He  contracted  profligate  and  disorderly  habits. 
His  uncle  the  Duke  of  Albany  procured  from  the  aged 
king  an  order  for  his  confinement  in  prison,  where  he 
died  in  1402.    It  is  supposed  that  he  died  of  starvation. 

Roth'say,  Duke  of,  one  of  the  titles  of  Prince  Albert, 
the  heir-apparent  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain. 

Rothschild,  ros'child,  [Ger.  pron.  rot'shilt,]  (Mayer 
(or  Meyer)  Anselm,)  a  famous  Jewish  banker,  and  the 
founder  of  the  great  monetary  house  of  Rothschild,  was 
born  at  Frankfort  in  1743.  He  commenced  business  on 
a  small  scale  as  an  exchange-broker,  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation  for  probity.  He  died  in  1812,  leaving 
five  sons, — Anselm,  who  was  born  in  1773,  settled  at 
Frankfort,  and  died  in  1855;  Solomon,  who  was  born 
in  1774,  became  banker  at  Vienna,  and  died  in  1855; 
Nathan  Mayer,  (see  separate  article;)  Carl,  who  was 
born  in  1788,  and  died  at  Naples  in  1855  ;  and  James, 


born  in  1792,  died  in  November,  1868.  These  brothers 
operated  as  members  of  one  firm. 

See  "  Notice  sur  la  Maison  Rothschild,"  Paris,  1831. 
Rothschild,  (Nathan  Mayer  or  Meyer,)  an  emi- 
nent financier  and  millionaire,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main  in  1777.    He  settled  in  London  about  1800,  and 
after  the  death  of  his  father  was  the  head  of  the  house 
of  Rothschild.    He  engaged  in  large  financial  opera- 
tions, was  very  successful  as  negotiator  of  loans  foi 
:  various  European  powers,  and  became  the  foremost 
I  capitalist  of  the  world.     He  died  in  1836,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Lionel  Nathan,  Baron  de 
Rothschild,  born  in  1808.    Lionel  was  elected  several 
times  a  member  of  Parliament  for  London,  but  was  not 
admitted  to  a  seat  until  1858,  because  the  oath  adminis- 
tered to  members  was  such  as  a  Jew  could  not  take. 

See  Trrrkow,  "  Piiographische  Notizen  iiber  Nathan  Meyer 
Rothschild,"  1837;  MiCHAUD  et  Villenave,  "  Histoire  de  Saint- 
Simonisme  et  de  la  Familie  de  Rothschild,"  1847. 

Rotrou,  de,  deh  ro'tRoo',  (Jean,)  a  popular  French 
dramatic  poet,  born  at  Dreux  in  1609,  is  styled  "  the 
founder  of  the  French  theatre."  He  produced  numerous 
successful  tragedies  and  comedies,  and  was  patronized 
by  Cardinal  Richelieu.  His  tragedy  of  "Venceslas" 
was  highly  commended  by  Voltaire.  Among  his  other 
works  are  "Cosroes"  and  "Antigone."  He  was  a 
friend  of  Corneille,  who  called  Rotrou  his  master.  Died 
in  1650. 

See  Blin  de  Sainmore,  "  Essai  sur-la  Vie  de  J.  Rotrou,"  1805; 
Nic^RON,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Rotscher  or  Roetscher,  rot'sher,  (Heinrich  The- 
odore,) a  German  dramatic  poet  and  critic,  born  in  the 
duchy  of  Brandenburg  in  1804.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Dissertations  on  the  Philosophy  of  Art," 
(4  vols.,  1837-42.) 

Rotteck,  von,  fon  rot't?k,  (Karl,)  an  eminent  Ger- 
man historian,  statesman,  and  jurist,  born  at  Freiburg 
in  1775.  He  studied  in  his  native  town,  where  he 
became  in  1798  professor  of  history.  In  1819  he  repre- 
sented his  university  in  the  first  chamber  of  the  States 
of  Baden,  where  he  distinguished  hiinself  by  his  liberal 
views  and  his  eloquent  advocacy  of  political  reform. 
Having  excited  the  hostility  of  the  conservative  party, 
he  was  forbidden  by  the  government  to  edit  any  news- 
paper for  five  years,  and  to  lecture  in  the  university. 
The  persecution  to  which  he  was  exposed  hastened  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  1840.  Rotteck's  "  Universal 
History"  (9  vols.,  1827)  is  perhaps  the  most  popular 
work  of  the  kind  that  has  yet  appeared,  and  in  1841 
had  reached  fifteen  editions.  It  was  translated  into  the 
principal  languages  of  Europe,  and  a  continuation,  in 
two  volumes,  was  published  by  Hermes  in  1841.  Rot- 
teck also  wrote  a  number  of  valuable  treatises  on  legal, 
historical,  and  political  subjects. 

See  Munch,  "Carl  von  Rotteck  geschildert,"  etc.,  1831 ;  Brock- 
HAUS,  "  Cnnversations-Lexikon  ;"  "  Life  of  Rotteck,"  (in  German,) 
by  his  son  Hermann,  1842. 

Rottenhammer,  rot'ten-hSm'mer,  written  also  Ro- 
thenhamer, (JoHANN,)  a  celebrated  German  painter, 
born  at  Munich  in  1564.  He  studied  for  a  time  under 
Tintoretto  at  Venice,  and  afterwards  visited  Rome, 
where  he  produced  several  historical  pieces  of  great 
excellence.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  "The  Feast 
of  the  Gods,"  painted  for  the  emperor  Rudolph  II. 
Died  about  1620. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Rottmann,  rot'mS.n,  (Karl,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man landscape-painter,  born  near  Heidelberg  in  1798. 
He  adorned  with  frescos  the  arcades  of  the  Hofgarten 
at  Munich,  and  painted  several  works  for  the  Pina- 
kothek.  His  "  Field  of  Marathon"  is  much  admired. 
Died  in  1850. 

Rou,  roo,  (Jean,)  a  French  Protestant  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1638,  lived  in  England  and  Holland.  He 
became  in  1689  secretary  and  interpreter  to  the  States- 
General.  He  publi.'ihed,  besides  other  works,  "  Seduction 
Avoided,"  ("  I.a  Seduction  eludee,")  a  series  of  letters 
exchanged  between  Bossuet,  on  the  one  hand,  and  De 
Vrillac  and  Rou  on  the  other.  Died  in  1711.  He  left 
"Memoires,"  which  were  first  published  in  2  vols.,  1857. 

See  Ha  AG,  "La  France  protestante ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 


5,    i,  6,  ti,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  f^ll,  ftt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ROUBAUD 


1923 


ROUSSEAU 


Roubaud,  rooTjo',  (Pierre  Joseph  Andr6, )  a 
French  writer  on  grammar  and  history,  was  born  at 
Avignon  in  1 730.  Among  his  works  is  "New  French 
Synonyms,"  ("  Nouveaux  Synonymes  Fran^ais,"  4  vols., 
1785,)  which  is  commended.    Died  in  1791. 

Roubiliac,  roo'be^e-^k',  sometimes  written  Rou- 
billac,  (Louis  Francois,)  an  eminent  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Lyons  in  1695.  He  passed  a  large  part  of  his 
life  in  England,  where  he  worked  with  great  success. 
Among  his  works,  which  are  remarkable  for  minuteness 
of  finish,  are  a  statue  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  at  Cambridge, 
the  monument  of  the  Nightingale  family,  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  and  a  statue  of  Shakspeare,  executed  for  Garrick 
and  given  by  him  to  the  British  Museum.  Died  in  Lon- 
don in  1762. 

See  Allan  Cunningham,  "Lives  of  Painters,"  etc.  ;  Walpole, 
"Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Roubiliac.    See  Roubiliac. 

Roucher,  roo'shi',  (Jean  Antoine,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Montpellier  in  1745.  He  published  a  poem  en- 
titled "On  the  Months,"  ("Des  Mois,"  1779.)  He  was 
imprisoned  in  Paris  for  seven  months,  and  guillotined, 
with  his  friend  Andre  Chenier,  in  July,  1794. 

See  RiGAUD,  "  £loge  de  Roucher,"  1807  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Rouelle,  xoo'lV,  (Guillaume  FRANgois,)  a  French 
chemist,  born  near  Caen  in  1703,  was  the  father-in-law 
of  J.  Darcet.  The  celebrated  Lavoisier  was  one  of  his 
pupils.  He  contributed  greatly  to  popularize  chemistry 
hy  his  lectures  in  Paris,  and  exerted,  says  Dr.  Hoefer,  a 
great  influence  on  the  progress  of  that  science.  He  was 
professor  or  demonstratetcr  at  the  Jardin  du  Roi.  Died 
in  1770. 

See  "Biographic  Universelle ;"  Paul  Antoine  Cap,  "  Biogra- 
phic Chimiqiie  ;  Rouelle,"  1842  :  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;" 
Hoefer,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie." 

Rouelle,  (Hilaire  Marin,)  a  French  chemist,  born 
in  1 7 18,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1768  at  the  Jardin  du  Roi.    Died  in  1779. 

Roug6,  de,  deh  roo'zhV,  (Olivier  Charles  Ca- 
MILLE,)  a  French  archaeologist,  born  in  Paris  in  1811. 
He  distinguished  himself  as  an  Egyptologist,  and  was 
admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1853.  Among  his  works 
is  "  Chrestomathie  figyptienne."  He  became  professor 
of  Egyptian  archaeology,  etc.  in  the  College  of  France 
in  i860. 

Rouget,  roo'zhi',  (Georges,)  a  French  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  in  Paris  in  1781.  lie  gained 
a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1855. 

Rouget  de  Lisle,  (or  Delisle,)  roo'zhi'  deh  1^1, 
(Claude  Joseph,)  a  French  poet  and  musician,  born  at 
Lons-le-Saulnier  in  1760.  He  was  an  officer  of  engineers 
in  the  army  when  the  Revolution  began.  Just  after  the 
declaration  of  war  in  April,  1792,  he  dined  with  the 
mayor  of  Strasbourg,  where  a  wish  was  expressed  that 
some  poetical  inspiration  might  respond  to,  or  appeal 
to,  the  national  enthusiasm.  In  the  ensuing  evening 
he  composed  for  this  purpose  the  famous  war-song 
called  the  "Marseillaise."  He  was  imprisoned  during 
the  reign  of  terror,  and  wounded  at  Quiberon,  in  1795. 
He  was  author  of  numerous  ballads,  musical  airs,  etc. 
Died  near  Paris  in  1836. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Miramont, 
"Biographic  de  Rouget-Delisle,"  1842;  Felix  Pvat,  "  La  Mar- 
seillaise, avec  une  Notice  litteraire  sur  Rouget-Delisle,"  1842; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Rougler,  roo'zhe-i',  (Louis  Augustf.,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1793.  He  published 
several  valuable  medical  works.    Died  in  1863. 

Rongier  de  la  Bergerie,  roo'zhe-i'  deh  It  h^Rzh're', 
(Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  writer  on  agriculture,  was 
born  at  Beaulieu  in  1757.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  "French  Georgics,"  a  poem,  (2  vols.,  1804,)  and  a 
"History  of  the  Ancient  Agriculture  of  the  Romans," 
(1834.)  'Died  in  1836. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Rougnon,  roon'yAw',  (Nicolas  Franqois,)  a  French 
medical  writer,  born  in  Franche-Comte  in  1727;  died 
in  1799. 

Rouher,  roo'V,  (Eugene,)  an  eloquent  French  ad- 
vocate and  minister  of  state,  born  at  Riom  in  1814. 


Having  made  profession  of  republican  principles,  he  was 
elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  1848.  He  suc- 
ceeded Odillon-Barrot  as  minister  of  justice  in  October, 
1849,  and  retired  from  otifice  in  October,  1851.  He  was 
afterwards  vice-president  of  the  council  of  state,  and  in 
February,  1855,  was  appointed  minister  of  agriculture, 
commerce,  and  public  works.  In  June,  1863,  he  ex- 
changed that  office  for  the  position  of  president  of  the 
council.  He  became  minister  of  state  October  19,  1863, 
and  as  such  had  precedence  of  all  the  other  ministers. 
In  January  or  February,  1867,  he  was  appointed  minister 
of  finance.  Rouher  was  the  chief  organ  of  the  govern- 
ment in  the  corps  ISgislatif.  In  April,  1867,  he  made 
a  rather  passionate  speech  in  reply  to  Thiers  on  the 
foreign  policy  of  Napoleon  III.  In  July,  1869,  he  ceased 
to  be  minister  of  state,  and  became  president  of  tiie 
senate,  which  was  abolished  in  September,  1870. 

Rouille,  roo'yi',  (Pierre.)  Seigneur  de  Marbeui,  a 
French  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1657.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Portugal  in  1697,  ^'"""^  negotiated 
a  treaty  of  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  between 
France  and  that  power.  In  1709  he  was  sent  to  Holland 
to  treat  secretly  for  a  general  peace  ;  but  he  failed  in 
this  mission.    Died  in  1712, 

Rouille,  (Pierre  Julien,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Tours  in  1681.  He  was  one  of  the  authors  or  compilers 
of  the  "Memoires  de  Trevoux."    Died  in  1740. 

Roujoux,  de,  deh  roo'zhoo',  (Prudence  Guil- 
laume,) Baron,  a  French  historian,  born  at  Lander- 
neau  in  1779.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a 
translation  of  Lingard's  "  History  of  England,"  (14 
vols.,  1825-31.)    Died  in  1836. 

Rouland,  roo'lSw',  (Gustave,)  a  French  minister 
of  state,  born  at  Yvetot  in  1802.  He  was  appointed 
advocate-general  of  the  court  of  cassation  in  1847,  and 
was  minister  of  public  instruction  and  worship  from 
August,  1856,  to  June,  1863. 

Roulin,  roo''liN',  (Fran(;:ois  D6sir6,)  a  French  nat- 
uralist, born  at  Rennes  in  1796.  He  contributed  to 
several  scientific  journals,  and  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  a  new  edition  of  Cuvier's  "  Regne  animal." 

RouUet,  roo'li',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Aries  in  1645.  He  engraved  after  the  Italian 
masters.    Died  in  Paris  in  1699. 

Roulliard,  roo'le-t r',  (S^bastien,)  a  French  lawyer 
and  pedantic  writer,  was  born  at  Melun.  He  died  in 
Paris,  at  an  advanced  age,  in  1639. 

Rouquette,  roo'kSt',  (Adrian,)  an  American  poet, 
born  at  New  Orleans  about  1808,  has  published  poems 
in  French  and  English.  His  brother,  Fran9ois  Domi- 
nique, has  written  a  work  on  the  Choctaw  nation,  and  a 
number  of  poems. 

Rourik.  -See  Rurik. 

Rous  or  Rouse,  (Francis,)  an  English  republican 
legislator  and  writer  on  theology,  was  born  at  Hal  ton 
in  1579.  He  was  a  friend  of  Pym,  the  great  orator,  and 
was  a  member  of  several  Parliaments.  He  became  a 
supporter  of  Cromwell,  and  obtained  a  seat  in  the  House 
of  Lords  in  1657.    Died  in  1659. 

Rouse,  (John.)    See  Ross. 

Roussat,  roo'st',  (Jean,)  a  French  patriot,  born  at 
Langres  in  1543,  was  noted  for  his  devotion  to  Henry 
IV.  and  his  hostility  to  the  League.  Eighty  letter^ 
written  to  him  by  that  king  are  extant,  and  were  printed 
in  1816.    Died  in  1613. 

Rousseau,  roo'so',  (Georg  Ludwig  Claude,)  a 
German  chemist,  born  near  Wiirzburg  in  1724,  was 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Ingolstadt.    Died  in  1794. 

Rousseau,  roo's5',  (Jacques,)  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1630,  was  a  Protestant.  He 
worked  some  years  for  Louis  XIV.  at  Versailles  and 
Saint-Cloud  ;  but  after  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes  (1685)  he  went  into  exile.  Died  in  London  in 
1693  or  1694. 

Rousseau,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  lyric  poet  of 
great  eminence,  was  born  in  Paris  qn  the  6th  of  April, 
1670.  He  was  the  son  of  a  shoemaker,  by  whom  he 
was  liberally  educated.  His  first  productions  were  come- 
dies, which  were  not  successful.  About  1698  he  served 
Marshal  Tallard  as  secretary  in  his  embassy  to  London. 
His  reputation  is  founded  on  his  odes,  sacred  and  pro- 


C  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  y., guttural :  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROUSSEAU 


1924 


ROUSSEAU 


l.itie,  epigrams,  and  cantatas.  He  was  admitted  into 
tiie  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1701.  He  made  many 
enemies  by  his  satires  and  couplets.  In  1712  he  was 
banished  for  life  for  anonymous  satires  against  La  Motte 
and  Saurin.  It  seems  that  he  was  convicted  on  circum- 
stantial evidence  only.  He  passed  the  rest  of  his  life 
in  exile  at  Brussels,  Vienna,  London,  etc.,  and  found 
powerful  patrons,  among  whom  was  Prince  Eugene. 
About  1 71 7  he  declined  the  offer  of  a  pardon  from  the 
French  court,  and  insisted  on  a  formal  recognition  of 
the  injustice  of  his  sentence.  He  died  at  Brussels  in 
March,  1741.  By  some  critics  he  is  considered  the 
greatest  lyric  poet  of  France.  According  to  the  "Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale,"  his  reputation  has  declined 
since  the  eighteenth  century.  "  Rousseau  is  extremely 
skilful  in  versification,"  says  Fournel,  "a  very  adroit 
artisan  of  lyrical  strophes.  It  was  by  calculation  and 
nf»t  by  inspiration  that  he  became  a  lyrical  poet."  ("  Nou- 
ve.lle  Biographie  Generale.") 

See  Seguy,  "Notice  siir  la  Vie  et  les  CEuvres  de  J.  B.  Rous- 
seau," 1743:  Amar-Durivier,  "  Nouvel  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les 
Ecrits  de  J.  B.  Rousseau,"  prefixed  to  his  works,  s  vols.,  1820; 
"  Vie  de  J.  B.  Rousseau,"  1748,  attributed  to  Voltaire;  Valmont 
BdUREY,  "  J.  B.  Rousseau  ;  Etude  litteiaire,"  1852  ;  Sainte-Beuve, 
"  Portraits  litteraires." 

Rousseau,  (Jean  FRANgois  Xavier,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  at  Ispahan  in  1738.  He  was  consul 
at  Bagdad,  and  was  employed  in  negotiations  with  the 
Persian  court.    Died  at  Aleppo  in  1808. 

His  son,  Jean  Baptiste  Louis  Jacques,  born  in 
1780,  was  an  Orientalist.  He  wrote  a  "Historical 
Notice  of  Persia,"  (1818,)  and  other  works.  Died  at 
Tripoli  in  1831. 

Rousseau,  (Jean  Jacques,)  a  celebrated  Swiss  phi- 
losopher and  eloquent  writer,  born  at  Geneva  on  the  28th 
of  June,  1712,  was  a  son  of  Isaac  Rousseau,  a  watch- 
maker. His  mother,  whose  maiden  name  was  Bernard, 
and  who  is  said  to  have  been  amiable  and  highly  gifted, 
died  during  the  infancy  of  the  subject  of  this  article, 
who  was  not  fortunate  in  his  education.  His  favourite 
author  in  childhood  was  Plutarch,  to  whose  influence 
Rousseau  ascribed  his  own  republican  tendencies  and  his 
love  of  independence.  Jean  Jacques  had  one  brother, 
who  in  early  youth  went  to  seek  his  fortune  in  a  foreign 
country  and  was  never  heard  of  afterwards.  In  conse- 
quence of  a  quarrel  with  a  military  officer,  Isaac  Rous- 
seau fled  or  removed  to  Nyon  in  1722,  leaving  his  son  at 
Geneva  in  the  care  of  his  uncle,  M.  Bernard.  About 
1726  he  was  placed  as  an  apprentice  with  an  engraver, 
named  Ducommun,  a  coarse  man  and  harsh  master,  by 
whom  he  was  so  ill  treated  that  in  March,  1728,  he  ran 
away  in  the  direction  of  Savoy.  He  was  received  as  a 
guest  at  the  house  of  Madame  de  Warens,  of  Annecy,  a 
benevolent  and  frail  lady,  to  whom  he  formed  a  lasting 
attachment.  Having  become  an  outcast  and  wanderer 
in  a  strange  country  and  without  resources,  he  changed 
his  relig'on  by  a  formal  abjuration  at  Turin.  He  was 
employed  for  a  short  time  at  Turin  as  a  servant  of  the 
Countess  de  Vercellis  and  the  Count  de  Gouvon  ;  but  his 
success  was  hindered  by  irregular  habits  and  instability. 
He  returned  and  became  a  second  time  an  inmate  in 
the  house  of  Madame  de  Warens,  who  procured  for 
him  a  situation  as  clerk  in  the  bureau  of  the  cadastre. 
Finding  this  employment  uncongenial,  he  soon  aban- 
doned it,  and  adopted  the  profession  of  a  teacher  of 
music,  (of  which  he  was  very  fond,)  although  he  was 
scarcely  qualified  to  teach  it.  He  obtained,  however,  a 
r.  umber  of  pupils. 

In  the  summer  of  1736  Rousseau  and  Madame  de 
Warens  removed  to  a  rural  residence  called  Charmettes, 
near  Chambery,  where  they  passed  two  or  three  years, 
which,  he  informs  us,  were  among  the  happiest  of  his 
life.  His  early  career  presents  a  series  of  bizarre  ad- 
ventures, absurd  vagaries,  and  surprising  vicissitudes,  of 
which  he  has  given  an  extremely  candid  and  unreserved 
narrative  in  his  "  Confessions."  He  was  subject  to  hy- 
pochondria and  morbid  imaginations  even  in  his  youth. 
Having  invented  a  system  of  musical  notation  by  figures, 
(chiffres,)  which  he  hoped  would  promote  his  interest 
and  reputation,  he  went  to  Paris  in  the  autumn  of  1741, 
with  only  a  few  silver  coins  in  his  purse.  He  was 
presented  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  by  Reaumur,  and 


read  a  memoir  on  his  system  of  notation  to  that  body, 
which  decided  that  it  was  neither  new  nor  practicable. 
He  lived  in  great  indigence  until  he  obtained,  in  1743, 
the  place  of  secretary  to  M.  de  Montaigu,  French 
ambassador  to  Venice,  whom  Rousseau  represents  as  an 
incompetent  and  villanous  person.  After  he  had  passed 
about  eighteen  months  at  Venice,  Rousseau  returned 
to  Paris  in  1745,  and  formed  intimacies  with  Diderot, 
Grimm,  Madame  d'fipinay,  and  Therese  Le  Vasseur. 
The  last  was  an  illiterate  woman,  of  low  birth,  whom  he 
married  after  they  had  lived  together  as  husband  and 
wife  for  many  years.  They  had  five  children,  whom 
Rousseau  sent  to  the  foundling-hospital.  He  received 
a  small  legacy  from  his  father,  who  died  in  1747,  after 
which  he  served  as  secretary  to  Madame  Dupin  of  Paris, 
and  her  son,  M.  de  Francueil,  receiver-general  of  finances. 
In  1750  he  gained  the  prize  offered  by  the  Academy  of 
Dijon  for  an  essay  on  the  question  whether  the  progress 
of  the  sciences  and  arts  had  contributed  to  corrupt 
morals.  He  took  the  affirmative ;  and  never  was  a 
paradox  supported  with  greater  eloquence. 

Rousseau's  physical  infirmities,  his  fondness  for  para- 
dox, and  his  hostility  to  conventional  maxims  and  usurp- 
ation, combined  to  render  him  eccentric  and  singular 
in  his  manners  and  mode  of  living.  He  simplified  his 
costume,  renounced  fashionable  and  convivial  parties, 
and  affected  a  stern  and  sententious  tone.  According 
to  his  own  confession,  a  peculiar  contempt  for  the  riches 
and  pleasures  of  the  world  was  one  of  the  prominent 
traits  of  his  character.  About  1750  he  was  appointed 
cashier  to  M.  de  Francueil ;  but  he  soon  resigned  that 
place,  because  it  seemed  fatal  to  his  health  and  incom- 
patible with  his  principles, — "  for  with  what  grace  could 
the  cashier  of  a  receiver-general  preach  disinterest- 
edness and  poverty?"  He  afterwards  earned  a  scanty 
subsistence  by  copying  music.  In  1752  he  produced 
his  opera  "  Le  Devin  du  Village,"  which  was  performed 
before  the  king  at  Fontainebleau  and  had  a  great  success. 
The  king  expressed  a  wish  to  see  the  author ;  but  the 
timidity  of  Rousseau  caused  him  to  decline  the  honour. 

He  produced  in  1753  a  "  Discourse  on  the  Origin  of 
Inequality  among  Men,"  in  which  he  maintains  that  all 
men  are  born  equal.  *'  He  was  the  father  of  modern 
democracy,"  says  Professor  Lowell,  in  the  "  North 
American  Review"  for  July,  1867,  "and  without  him 
our  Declaration  of  Independence  would  have  wanted 
some  of  those  sentences  in  which  the  immemorial  long- 
ings of  the  poor  and  the  dreams  of  solitary  enthusiasts 
were  at  last  affirmed  as  axioms  in  the  manifesto  of  a 
nation,  so  that  all  the  world  might  hear."  He  offended 
the  national  vanity  by  his  "  Letter  on  French  Music," 
(1753,)  '^"'^  many  respects  he  was  a  typical  French- 
man. In  1754  he  visited  Geneva,  where  he  was  received 
with  honour  and  was  formally  admitted  into  the  Prot- 
estant communion.  He  passed  seven  days  in  a  tour  or 
promenade,  by  means  of  a  boat,  around  Lake  Geneva. 

In  1756  he  was  persuaded  by  Madame  d'Epinay  to 
occupy  the  Hermitage,  a  rural  residence  which  she 
built  for  him  in  the  valley  of  Montmorency,  near  Paris. 
He  resided  there  about  two  years,  and  began  to  write  a 
novel  entitled  "  Julie,  or  the  New  Heloise,"  ("  Nouvelle 
Heloise,"  1760,)  which  was  greatly  admired  for  its  elo- 
quence and  sensibility.  Before  this  work  was  finished 
he  became  enamoured  of  Madame  d'Houdetot,  who  was 
a  sister  of  Madame  d'Epinay  and  was  a  married  woman. 
He  was  alienated  from  Diderot,  Grimm,  and  other  friends, 
whom  he  accused  of  perfidious  intrigues  against  his  peace 
and  reputation.  "  It  was  not  so  much  my  literary  celebrity 
as  my  personal  reformation  that  excited  their  jealousy. 
They  could  not  pardon  me  for  giving,  in  my  conduct,  an 
example  which  seetned  to  testify  against  thetn."  (Rous- 
seau, "  Confessions.")  It  appears  certain  that  Grimm 
became  a  malevolent  calumniator  of  Rousseau.  His 
next  important  works  were  "The  Social  Contract," 
("  Du  Contrat  social,  ou  Principes  du  Droit  politique," 
1762,)  and  "Emile,  ou  de  I'Education,"  (4  vols.,  1762,) 
which,  considered  as  a  speculative  philosophical  treatise, 
is  a  work  of  a  high  order.  It  produced  some  useful  re- 
forms in  the  treatment  of  young  children  ;  but  its  tend- 
ency was  considered  so  dangerous  that  it  was  burned  at 
Geneva,  and  the  Parliament  of  Paris  issued  an  order  for 


\  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  \  hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good:  moon; 


ROUSSEAV 


ROUX 


the  arrest  of  Rousseau,  who  escaj^ed  bv  flight.  He  found 
refuge  in  the  principah'ty  of  Neufchatel,  the  governor  of 
which,  Lord  Keith,  received  him  with  kindness.  In  1765 
David  Hume,  who  was  then  in  France,  offered  the  exiled 
author  of  "  fimile"  an  asylum  in  England.  Rousseau 
accepted  the  invitation,  arrived  in  London  in  January, 

1766,  and  went  to  reside  at  Wootton,  in  Staffordshire. 
He  was  annoyed  by  an  offensive  and  libellous  letter  pub- 
lished in  the  journals  with  the  signature  of  the  King  of 
Prussia;  but  the  real  author  of  it  was  Horace  Walpole. 

Having  become  possessed  by  a  suspicion  that  Hume 
was  not  his  true  friend,  he  returned  to  France  in  May, 

1767.  It  is  stated  by  M.  Morin  in  the  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale"  that  Hume  avowed,  in  a  letter  pub- 
lished in  1820,  that  he  co-operated  in  the  redaction  of 
the  forged  letter  from  the  King  of  Prussia.  Rousseau 
married  Therese  Le  Vasseur  in  1768,  resided  in  Paris 
from  1770  until  1778,  and  was  always  on  the  verge  of 
poverty.  Among  his  later  works  were  a  "  Dictionary  of 
Music,"  (1767,)  and  his  autobiographic  "Confessions," 
which  he  began  to  write  about  1766  and  which  were  not 
published  before  1782.  Botany  was  one  of  his  favourite 
pursuits  when  in  the  country.  In  the  spring  of  1778  he 
removed  to  Ermenonville,  where  he  died  on  the  2d  of 
July  in  the  same  year.  He  was  a  man  of  middle  stature 
and  well  proportioned.  "It  was  perhaps  his  sensibility 
to  the  surrounding  atmosphere  of  feeling  and  specula- 
tion which  made  Rousseau  more  directly  influential  on 
contemporary  thought  (or  perhaps  we  should  say  senti- 
ment) than  any  other  writer  of  his  time."  ("  Rousseau 
and  the  Sentimentalists,"  in  the  "  North  American 
Review"  for  July,  1867,  written  by  Professor  Lowell.) 
The  same  critic  observes,  "There  was  a  faith  and  an 
ardour  of  conviction  in  him  that  distinguish  him  from 
most  of  the  writers  of  his  time.  Nor  were  his  practice 
and  his  preaching  always  inconsistent.  He  contrived  to 
pay  regularly,  whatever  his  own  circumstances  were, 
one  hundred  livres  a  year  to  a  maternal  aunt  who  had 
been  kind  to  him  in  childhood."  "  Though  T  see,"  savs 
Hume,  "  some  tincture  of  extravagance  in  all  his  writings, 
I  also  think  I  see  so  much  eloquence  and  force  of 
imagination,  such  an  energy  of  expression,  and  such 
a  boldness  of  conception,  as  entitle  him  to  a  place 
amongst  the  first  writers  of  his  age."  (Quoted  in  the 
"  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.") 

See  Barruel-Bkauvert,  "Vie  de  J.  J.  Rousseau,"  17^(5;  Hem- 
NINGS,  "  Rousseau,"  Berlin,  1797;  Musset-Path ay,  "  Histoire  de 
la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  J.  J.  Rousseau,"  2  vols.,  1S21  ;  Lord 
Brougham,  "Voltaire  and  Rousseau,"  1845:  G.  H.  Morin,  "  Es- 
sai  surla  Vie  et  le  Caractere  de  ].  J-  Rousseau,"  1851  :  P.  H  Azais, 
"Jugement  philosophique  sur  j.  j.  Rousseau."  etc.,  1817:  Zoi.ler, 
"  Pestalozzi  und  Rousseau,"  1851  ;  Sainte- Beuve.  "  Causeries  du 
Lundi ;"  Hrockekhoff,  "J.  J.  Rousseau,"  (in  German,)  3  vols., 
1863;  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  French  Writers,"  by  Mrs. 
Shellev;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  :"  "  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  February.  1822  ;  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October, 
1843  ;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1859  ;  "  North  American 
Review"  for  July,  1822,  (by  A.  H.  Everett.) 

Rousseau,  (Louis  FRANgois  Emmanuel,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Belleville  (Seine)  in  1788. 

Rousseau,  roo^so',  (Lovell  H.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Lincoln  county,  Kentuckv,  about  1820.  He  was  a 
lawyer,  and  a  resident  of  Louisville  before  the  civil  war. 
He  commanded  a  brigade  of  the  Union  army  at  Shiloh, 
April,  1862,  and  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Stone  River, 
which  ended  January  2,  1863.  He  became  a  member 
of  Congress  about  1865.    Died  in  January,  1869. 

Rousseau,  (Philippe,)  a  French  landscape-painter, 
born  in  Paris  about  1808.  He  obtained  a  medal  of  the 
first  class  in  1848. 

Rousseau,  (Samuel,)  an  English  Orientalist,  born 
in  London  in  1765.  He  published  "The  Flowers  of 
Persian  Literature,  in  Prose  and  Verse,"  (1801,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1820. 

Rousseau,  (Theodore,)  an  excellent  French  land- 
scape-painter, born  in  Paris  in  1812.  He  gained  a  medal 
of  the  first  class  in  1849.  His  works  are  commended 
for  harmony  of  colour  and  for  the  transparency  of  the 
skies.   Died  in  1867. 

Roussel,  roo's^K,  [Lat.  Ru'fus,]  (Gerard,)  written 
also  Ruffi,  a  French  Protestant  Reformer,  born  near 
Amiens.  He  became  in  1526  chaplain  to  Marguerite,  a 
•ister  of  Francis  I.,  and  in  1536  Bishop  of  Oleron.  He 


'  wished    to  propagate  Reformed   doctrines  without  a 
j  separation  from  the  old  Church.    Died  in  1550. 
j      See  Cn.   Schmidt,  "Gerard  Roussel,"  1845;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
1  graphie  Generale." 

Roussel,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  Benedictine  and 
writer,  born  at  Conches  in  1658.    He  produced  a  French 
version  of  the  "Letters  of  Saint  Jerome,"  (3  vols.,  1704- 
I  07.)    Died  in  1717. 

Roussel,   (Henri   Pierre   Anselme,)  a  French 
I  medical  writer,  born  near  Domfront  in  1748;  died  at 
Caen  in  1812. 

I     Roussel,  (Napoleon,)  a  French  Protestant  minister, 
j  born  about  1805.    He  preached  for  many  years  at  Saint- 
Etienne,  from  which  he  removed  to  Paris.  He  published 
numerous  works  on  theology. 

Roussel,  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician  and  able 
writer,  born  at  Aqs,  near  Foix,  in  1742.  He  produced 
in  1775  "The  Physical  and  Moral  System  of  Woman," 
which  passed  through  many  editions.  He  explained 
the  organization  of  woman  with  great  penetration 
and  subtlety.  "Roussel  writes  with  elegance  and  in- 
terest," says  La  Harpe :  "his  observations  are  truly 
philosophic."    Died  in  1802. 

See  Alibert,  "  filoges  de  Spallanzani,  Galvani,  Roussel  et 
Bichat,"  1806;  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Rousselet.    See  Chateau-Regnaud. 

Rousselin.    See  Saint- Alb  in. 

Rousselot    de    Surgy,   roosHo'    deh  siiR'zhe', 

(Jacques  Philirert,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Di- 
jon in  1737,  obtained  the  office  of  royal  censor  at  Paris. 

Rousset  de  Missy,  roo'si'  deh  me'se',  (Jean,)  a 
French  historical  writer,  born  at  Laon  in  1686,  was 
exiled  for  his  religion  (Protestantism)  and  settled  in 
Holland  about  1705.  He  published  numerous  mediocre 
works,  among  which  are  "Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of 
Peter  the  Great,"  (4  vols.,  1726.)    Died  in  1762. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Roussin,  roo'siN',  (Albin  Reine,)  Baron,  a  French 
admiral,  born  at  Dijon  in  1781.  He  was  ambassador  at 
Constantinople  from  1832  to  1839,  and  was  minister  of 
marine  from  March  to  October,  1840.    Died  in  1854. 

Roustain,  roo'stiN',  ( Aron  Jean  Baptiste  Pierre,) 
a  French  jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  obtained  a 
chair  of  Roman  law  in  Paris  in  1855.    Died  in  1856. 

Roustam.    See  Roostam. 

Roustaii,  roo'stdx',  (originally  Roustam,  roos'tam,) 
a  Mameluke,  born  probably  in  Georgia  in  1782.  Having 
rendered  some  service  to  Napoleon  in  Egypt,  the  latter 
brought  him  to  France  in  1799.  Roostan  became  a 
favourite  personal  attendant  of  Napoleon,  and  accom- 
panied him  in  his  campaigns  and  journeys.  Died  in 
France  in  1845. 

Roustan,  roo'stSN',  (Antoine  Jacques,)  a  Swiss 
Protestant  minister  and  writer,  born  at  Geneva  in  1734. 
He  was  minister  of  a  Swiss  church  in  London  for  twenty- 
six  years,  (1764-90.)  He  was  author  of  several  religious 
and  moral  works,  which  were  highly  esteemed,  and  of 
an  "Abridgment  of  Universal  History,"  (9  vols.,  1790.) 
Died  at  Geneva  in  1808. 

Roustem.    See  Roostam. 

Routh,  rowth,  (Rev.  Martin  Joseph,)  an  English 
scholar  and  writer,  born  near  Beccles,  in  Suffolk,  in  Sep« 
tember,  1755,  v. as  educated  at  Oxford.  He  became 
president  of  Magdalene  College  in  1791,  and  rector  of 
Tylehurst,  near  Reading,  in  1810.  In  1814  he  published 
a  work  of  superior  merit  on  the  fragments  of  authors 
of  the  second  and  third  centuries,  most  of  whose  writ- 
ings are  lost,  entitled  "Sacred  Relics,"  etc.,  ("Reliquias 
Sacrae,"  etc.,  3  vols.)    Died  in  1854,  aged  ninety-nine. 

Rouviere,  roo've-aiR',  (Philibert,)  a  French  painter 
and  actor,  born  at  Nimes  in  1809. 

Roux,  roo,  (AUGU.STIN,)  a  learned  French  physician, 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1726,  settled  in  Paris  about  1750. 
He  obtained  the  chair  of  chemistry  in  the  Faculty  of 
Medicine  in  1770,  and  published  "Typographic  Annals; 
or,  Account  of  the  Progress  of  Human  Knowledge," 
("Annales  typographiques,  ou  Notice  du  Progres  des 
Connaissances  humaines,"  10  vols.,  1758-62,)  which  is  a 
work  of  merit.    Died  in  1776. 

See  J.  Darcet,  "  filoge  de  Roux,"  1777. 


<  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  Vi^guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROUX 


1926 


ROT 


Roux,  (Joseph  Philibert,)  an  eminent  French  sur- 
geon, born  at  Auxerre  in  April,  1780,  was  a  favourite 
pupil  of  Bichat.  He  published  in  1812  a  "Treatise  on 
Resection,"  ("Traite  sur  la  Resection,")  and  invented 
in  1819  an  operation  called  Staphyloraphy.  In  1820  he 
obtained  the  chair  of  pathology  at  the  ficole  de  Mede- 
cine  in  Paris,  and  in  1835  succeeded  Dupuytren  at  the 
Hotel-Dieu.  He  was  author  of  several  surgical  treatises. 
Died  in  1854.  . 

See  Sachaile,  "Les  Medecins  de  Paris;"  "Biographic  Medi- 
cale  :"  Malgaigne,  "  £loge  de  M.  Roux,"  1855;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Roux,  MAtTRE.    See  Rosso,  II. 

Roux  de  Fazillac,  roo  deh  ft'ze'ytk',  (Pierre,)  a 
French  revolutionist,  born  at  Excideuil  in  1743.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Convention,  and  voted  for  the 
death  of  Louis  XVI.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  War 
j'ai  Germany  in  1756,"  (2  vols.,  1803.)    Died  in  1833. 

Roux-Lavergne,  roo  It'v^Rn',  (Pierre  C^i.estin,) 
a  French  publicist,  born  at  Figeac  in  1802.  He  aided 
M.  Buchez  in  the  "Parliamentary  History  of  the  French 
Revolution,"  (40  vols.,  1833-38.) 

Roux,  Le.    See  Leroux. 

Rovelli,  ro-v§Klee,  (Giuseppe,)  Marquis,  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Como  in  1738.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  Como,"  (5  vols.,  1789  et  seq.)    Died  in  1813. 

Rovere,  de  la.    See  Sixtus  IV.  and  Julius  II. 

Rovere,  della,  del'li  ro'v^-ri,  (Francesco  Maria,) 
Duke  of  Urbino,  an  Italian  general,  born  in  1490, 
was  a  nephew  of  Pope  Julius  II.  He  commanded  the 
papal  army,  and  took  several  towns  frorn  the  P'rench,  in 
1 5 12,  Having  been  appointed  captain-general  of  the 
Venetian  armies  about  1526,  he  displayed  great  military 
skill  in  the  war  against  Charles  V.    Died  in  1538. 

See  Dennistoun,  "Memoirs  of  the  Diikes  of  Urbiiio,"  1851; 
Ugolini,  "Storia  dei  Coiiti  e  Diichi  d'Urbino,"  2  vols.,  1859; 
"  Noavelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Rovere,  della,  (Francesco  Maria,)  born  in  1548, 
was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  was  eminent  as  a 
patron  of  learning.  He  was  the  last  Duke  of  Urbino. 
He  died  in  163 1,  when  Urbino  was  annexed  to  the  Papal 
States. 

See  Ugolini,  "Storia  dei  Conti  e  Duchi  d'Urbino,"  1859. 

Rovigo,  de,  Due.    See  Savary. 

Row,  ro,  (John,)  a  Scottish  divine,  born  near  Stirling 
about  1526.  He  was  agent  of  the  Scottish  clergy  at  the 
Vatican,  Rome,  in  1550,  and  afterwards  became  a  Prot- 
estant minister.  He  was  one  of  the  six  ministers  who 
composed  the  Scottish  Confession  and  "First  Book  of 
Discipline."    Died  in  1580. 

Row,  (John,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Perth  in  1568.  It  is  stated  that  he  could  read  the  Old 
Testament  in  Hebrew  at  the  age  of  seven.  He  was 
minister  of  the  parish  of  Carnock  for  about  fifty  years, 
and  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland  from  1558 
to  1637."    Died  in  1646. 

Row,  (John,)  a  Hebrew  scholar,  born  at  Carnock 
about  1598,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  a 
Covenanter  in  the  civil  war,  and,  while  Cromwell  was 
in  power,  held  the  office  of  principal  of  King's  College, 
Aberdeen.  He  published  a  Hebrew  Grammar  in  1644. 
Died  about  1672. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Rowan,  ro'an,  (Stephen  C.,)  a  rear-admiral,  born  in 
Ireland.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in  early  youth, 
and  entered  the  navy  in  1826.  He  gained  the  rank  of 
commander  about  1855.  In  February,  1862,  he  defeated 
?.nd  destroyed  six  gunboats  near  Elizabeth  City,  North 
Carolina.  He  commanded  the  fleet  which  co-oi^erated 
with  General  Burnside  in  the  capture  of  Nevvbern, 
March  14,  1862.  In  July,  1863,  Captain  Rowan  took 
command  of  the  New  Ironsides,  which  performed  a 
l^rominent  part  in  the  operations  against  the  defences 
of  Charleston  harbour,  August-September,  1863.  It  is 
stated  that  the  New  Ironsides  was  hit  ninety-four  times 
in  the  actions  of  September  7  and  8.  He  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  July,  1866,  and  that  of  vice- 
admiral  in  1870. 

Sec  J.  T.  Headi.ey,  "  Farragnt  and  our  Naval  Commanders." 

Rowe,  10,  (Ei-iZABK'i'H  Singer,)  an  English  authoress, 
born  at  Ilchester  in  1674,  l)ecame  in  1709  the  wife  of 


Thomas  Rowe,  noticed  below.  She  wrote  several  work.-?, 
in  prose  and  verse,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "Friendship 
in  Death,"  (1728.)    Died  in  1737. 

Rowe,  (NiCHoi.A.s,)  an  English  dramatic  poet,  born 
at  Little  Beckford,  in  Bedfordshire,  in  1673.  He  studied 
law  in  the  Middle  Temple,  but  did  not  practise.  In 
1698  he  produced  "The  Ambitious  Step-Mother,"  and 
in  1702  the  tragedy  of  "Tamerlane,"  which  was  very 
popular.  His  other  chief  works  are  "  The  Fair  Penitent," 
(1703,)  "Ulysses,"  (1706,)  "The  Royal  Convert,"  (1708,) 
"Jane  Shore,"  (1714,)  and  "Lady  Jane  Grey,"  (1715.) 
He  was  under-secretary  of  state  for  three  years  while 
the  Duke  of  Queensberry  was  secretary  of  state.  Rowe 
produced  a  version  of  Lucan's  "Pharsalia,"  which  was 
praised  by  Dr.  Johnson,  and  an  edition  of  Shakspeare's 
works,  with  a  life  of  the  author,  (1709.)  He  became 
poet-laureate  in  1714.    Died  in  1718. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets;"  Baker,  "  Bio- 
graphia  Dramatica  ;"  Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;" 
Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Rowe,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet  and  historian, 
born  in  1687,  married  Elizabeth  Singer,  an  authoress. 
He  wrote  a  Supplement  to  Plutarch's  "Lives,"  (1728.) 
Died  in  1715. 

Rowe,  (Thomas,)  an  English  nonconformist  minister, 
born  in  Devonshire,  wrote  "The  Christian's  Work." 
Died  about  1698. 

Row'lands,  (Henry,)  a  Welsh  antiquary,  born  in 
Anglesey.  He  published  an  account  of  that  island, 
called  "Mona  Restored,"  ("  Mona  Restaurata.")  Died 
in  i7_22. 

R6w'land-son,  (Thomas,)  an  English  artist,  noted 
as  a  caricaturist,  was  born  in  London  in  1756.  Among 
his  works  are  the  plates  of  "Doctor  Syntax."  Died 
in  1827. 

Rowley,  row'le,  (Sir  Josias,)  a  British  admiral,  born 
in  Ireland  in  176';  ;  died  in  1842. 

Rowley,  row'le,  (William,)  an  English  dramatist, 
who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  and  was  a 
contemporary  of  Shakspeare.  Among  his  plays  are 
a  "  Match  at' Midnight,"  and  "The  Birth  of  Merlin." 

Rowley,  (William,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
London  in  1743,  wrote  "New  School  of  Universal  Medi- 
cine," ("Schola  Medicinae  universalis  nova,"  1793.) 
Died  in  1806. 

RSw'ning,  (Rev.  John,)  an  English  mathematician, 
born  in  1699.  He  wrote  on  philosophy  and  mathe- 
matics.   Died  in  1771. 

Rox-a'na,  [Fr.  Roxane,  rok'stn',]  a  beautiful  Bac- 
trian  or  Persian  princess,  was  captured  by  the  Macedo- 
nians in  327  B.C.  Soon  after  this  date  she  became  the 
wife  of  Alexander  the  Great.  She  had  a  son,  Alexander, 
(born  in  323,)  who  was  recognized  as  one  of  the  heirs 
of  the  king.  She  procured  the  death  of  Statira,  one 
of  the  wives  of  Alexander,  and  was  put  to  death  by 
Cassander  in  311  B.C.  " 

See  Justin,  books  xii.-xv. ;  Arrian,  "Anabasis,"  books  iv.,  vi., 
and  vii. 

Roxane.    See  Roxana. 
Roxas.    See  Rojas. 

Roxas  or  Rojas,  de,  di  ro'nSs,  (Domingo,)  a 
Spanish  Protestant,  was  originally  a  Dominican  monk. 
Having  been  condemned  to  death  by  the  Inquisition, 
he  was  burned  at  an  auto  de  fe  in  Valladolid  in  1559. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  i.  book  ii. 

Roxburgh,  Duke  of.    See  Ker,  (John.) 

Roxburgh,  rox'bur-eh,  (William,)  an  eminent  bota- 
nist, born  in  Scotland  in  1759,  was  employed  for  many 
years  as  a  physician  in  the  service  of  the  East  India 
Company.  He  introduced  the  culture  of  coffee,  the 
nutmeg,  the  breadfruit-tree,  etc.  into  India.  He  was 
superintendent  of  the  botanic  garden  of  Calcutta  from 
1793  to  1814.  His  chief  works  are  entitled  "  Coroman- 
del  Plants,"  and  "Flora  Indica,"  (3  vols.,  1832.)  Died 
in  1815. 

See  Chamber.s,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Roy,  RwS,  (Antoine,)  Count,  a  French  financier 
and  legislator,  born  at  Savigny  ( Haute-Marne)  in  1764. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
in  1815,  and  was  minister  of  finance  from  November, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure ;^x,  fill,  fiLt;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


ROT 


1927 


ROZIERE 


1819,  to  December,  1821.  He  obtained  the  same  office 
in  January,  1828,  and  resigned  in  August,  1829.  Died 
in  1847. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Roy,  (Pierre  Charles,)  a  French  dramatic  poet  of 
little  merit,  born  in  Paris  in  1683  ;  died  in  1764. 

Roy,  (Rammohun.)    See  Rammohun  Roy. 

Roy,  (Major-General  William,)  F.R.S.,  a  British 
surveyor,  who  acquired  distinction  by  a  trigonometrical 
survey  of  Great  Britain.  He  received  the  Copley  medal 
in  1785  for  his  measurement  of  a  base  on  Hounslow 
Heath.  He  directed  the  triangulation  by  which  a  portion 
of  the  British  arc  of  the  meridian  was  measured  in  1788. 
He  wrote  "The  Military  Antiquities  of  the  Romans  in 
North  Britain,"  (1793.)    Died  in  1790. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Roy,  de,  deh  rwI,  [Lat.  Re'gius,]  (Henri,)  a  Dutch 
writer  on  medicine  and  philosophy,  born  at  Utrecht  in 
1598.  He  published  "  Principles  of  Physics,"  ("  Funda- 
menta  Physices,"  1648,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1679. 

Roy,  de,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Flemish  painter  of  land- 
scape and  cattle,  born  at  Brussels  in  1759;  died  in  1839. 

Roy,  Le.    See  Le  Roy,  (Julien  David.) 

Roy,  Le,  leh  Rwi,  [Lat.  Re'gius,]  (Louis,)  a  French 
scholar,  who  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Paris  in 
1570.    He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Budaeus."    Died  in  1577. 

Roye,  de,  deh  Rwi,  (Guy,)  a  French  prelate,  born 
near  Soissons  about  1345.  He  became  Archbishop  of 
Rheims,  and  founded  the  College  of  Rheims  at  Paris. 
Died  in  1409. 

Royen,  van,  vtn  roy'en,  (Adrian,)  a  Dutch  botanist, 
born  in  1705.  He  succeeded  Boerhaave  as  professor  of 
botany  at  Leyden,  and  published  "  Florae  Leidensis  Pro- 
dromus,"  (1740.)    Died  in  1779. 

Royer,  Rwi'yi',  (  Alphonse,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1803.  He  produced,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Constable  Bourbon,"  (2  vols.,  1838,)  "  Don 
Pasquale,"  an  opera,  (1843,)  "The  janissaries,"  (2  vols., 
1844,)  and  several  comedies. 

Royer,  Rwi'yi',  (Louis,)  a  Belgian  or  Dutch  sculptor, 
born  at  Malines  in  1793.  He  became  director  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Amsterdam. 

Royer,  de,  deh  Rwi'yi',  (Paul  Henri  Ernest,)  a 
French  minister  of  state,  born  about  1808.  He  studied 
law,  and  became  a  partisan  of  Napoleon  HI.,  who  ap- 
pointed him  procureur-general  to  the  court  of  cassation 
in  1853,        minister  of  justice  in  November,  1857. 

Royer-CoUard,  RwS'yi'  ko'ltk',  (Albert  Paul,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1797,  was  a  nephew  of 
the  eminent  statesman  of  that  name.  He  obtained  the 
chair  of  the  law  of  nations  in  Paris  in  1829. 

Royer-CoUard,  (Antoine  Athanase,  )  an  able 
French  physician,  born  at  Sompuis  in  1768,  was  a 
brother  of  Pierre  Paul,  noticed  below.  He  founded  in 
1803  the  "  Bibliotheque  Medicale,"  a  periodical.  Li 
1806  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  institution  for 
the  insane  at  Charenton.  He  became  professor  (jf  legal 
medicine  in  Paris  in  1816,  and  physician-in-ordinary 
to  Louis  XVHL  He  wrote  some  able  treatises  on 
insanity,  etc.    Died  in  1825. 

See  Philippe,  "  Royei-Collard,"  1861  ;  "Biographie  Medicale;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Royer-CoUard,  (Hippolyte  Louis,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  in  Paris  in  1802,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  succeeded  Desgenettes  as  professor  of  hygiene  in 
1838.    Died  in  1850. 

See  BoucHARDOT,  "  filoges  de  Royer-Collard  et  d'A.  Richard," 
1853. 

Royer-CoUard,  (Pierre  Paul,)  an  eminent  French 
philosopher  and  statesman,  born  at  Sompuis  (Marne)  on 
the  2ist  of  June,  1763.  His  father's  family  name  was 
Royer,  to  which  he  joined  the  name  of  his  wife.  Mademoi- 
selle Collard.  He  chose  the  jjrofession  of  an  advocate, 
and  favoured  the  popular  cause  in  the  Revolution,  but 
was  always  a  moderate  royalist.  P'rom  1790  to  1792  he 
acted  as  a  clerk  ( secretaire-greffier )  of  the  nuinicipality 
of  Paris.  He  retired  for  safety  to  the  country  in  June, 
1793,  and  remained  in  privacy  during  the  reign  of  terror. 
About  1810  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  in 
the  University  of  France.  He  adopted  an  eclectic  sys- 
tem of  philosophy,  and  became  the  founder  of  a  school 


called  the  Doctrinaire.  His  system  of  philosophy  is  the 
same  as  the  Spiritualism  of  Reid.  Jouffroy  and  Cousin 
were  his  most  eminent  disciples. 

In  181 5  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  commission 
of  public  instruction,  and  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  in  which  he  supported  liberal  measures.  He 
preferred  a  moderate  and  middle  course  between  that 
of  the  ultra-royalists  and  that  of  the  Bonapartists  and 
democrats.  He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy 
in  1827,  and  was  elected  president  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  1828.  In  1830  he  presented  to  Charles  X. 
the  address  of  two  hundred  and  twenty-one  deputies 
who  protested  against  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the 
court.  He  died  in  September,  1845,  leaving  a  fair  repu- 
tation for  integrity,  firmness,  and  civic  virtues.  His  last 
words  were,  "There  is  nothing  solid  or  substantial  in 
this  world  except  religious  ideas." 

See  Barante,  "Vie  politique  de  Royer-Collard,"  2  vols.,  1861  ; 
Philippe,  "Royer-Collard,"  i86i  ;  De  Remusat,  "  Eloge  de 
Royer-Collard;"  M.  de  Lacombe,  "Vie  de  Royer-Collard,"  1863; 
Genty  de  Bussy,  "  Memoires  sur  Royer-Collard  ;"  L.  de  Lomenie, 
"  M.  Royer-Collard,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1842;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale  ;"  "North  British  Review"  for  August,  1863. 

Royle,  roil,  (John  Forbes,)  M.D.,  an  English  bota- 
nist, born  at  Cawnpore  about  1799.  He  was  educated 
at  Edinburgh,  and  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India 
Company  as  assistant  surgeon.  He  made  a  large  collec- 
tion of  the  plants  of  Hindostan.  Having  returned  to 
England  about  1831,  he  published  an  important  work 
entitled  "  Illustrations  of  the  Botany  and  other  Branches 
of  Natural  History  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains,"  (2  vols., 
1839.)  He  was  professor  of  materia  medica  in  King's 
College,  London,  and  published  a  "Manual  of  Materia 
Medica."    Died  near  London  in  1858. 

Royou,  Rwa'yoo',  (Jacques  Corentin,)  a  French 
historian  and  advocate,  born  at  Quimper  about  1745. 
He  published  a  "Roman  History,"  (4  vols.,  1806,)  a 
"  History  of  France,"  (6  vols.,  1819,)  and  other  histories  ; 
also  the  "  Fault- Finder,"  ("  Frondeur,")  a  comedy, 
(1819.)    Died  in  1828. 

Royou,  (Thomas  Maurice,)  Abbi^,  a  journalist,  born 
at  Quimper  about  1740,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  College  Louis-le- 
Grand  for  twenty  years,  and  editor  of  the  "  Ami  du  Roi," 
a  royalist  journal  of  Paris,  (1790-92.)    Died  in  1792. 

Roze,  roz,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  philanthropist  of 
Marseilles,  born  in  1671,  was  a  merchant  in  his  youth. 
His  name  was  rendered  memorable  by  his  devoted  and 
courageous  conduct  during  the  prevalence  of  the  plague 
at  Marseilles  in  1720,    Died  in  1733. 

Roze,  (Nicolas,)  Abb^;,  a  French  composer  of  sacred 
music,  born  at  Bourg-Neuf  in  1745.  He  was  appointed 
maitre  de  chapelle  to  the  First  Consul,  but  declined  the 
office  because  he  was  an  ecclesiastic.    Died  in  1819. 

Rozee,  ro'zi'.  Mademoiselle,  a  Dutch  artist,  born 
at  Leyden  in  1632.  She  produced  landscapes,  portraits, 
etc.  embroidered  with  silk  floss.    Died  in  1682. 

Rozet,  ro'zi',  (Claude  Antoine,)  a  French  geolo- 
gist, born  at  Chauvart  (Marne)  in  1798.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Travels  in  Algeria,"  (3  vols., 
1833.)    Died  in  1858. 

Rozier,  ro'ze-a',  (Francois,)  Abb^:,  a  French  bota- 
nist and  writer  on  agriculture,  born  at  Lyons  in  1734. 
He  edited  at  Paris  the  "Journal  de  Physique"  for  ten 
years,  (1771-80.)  His  principal  work  is  a  treatise  on 
agriculture,  "  Cours  complet  d'Agriculture  theoriquc  et 
pratique,"  (9  vols.,  1781-93,)  which  was  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  killed  in  his  house  by  a  bomb  during  the  siege 
of  Lyons,  in  September,  1793. 

See  A.  DE  Boissieu,  "  filoge  de  F.  Rozier,"  1832;  Cochard, 
"  Notice  historique  sur  M.  I'Abbe  F.  Rozier,"  1832 ;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Roziere,  de  la,  deh  It  ro'ze3iR',  (Louis  Fran- 
cois Carlet — ktRia',)  Marquis,  a  French  general 
and  writer  on  military  tactics,  was  born  near  Charleville 
in  1735.  served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war  with 

distinction,  became  marechal-de-camp  in  1781,  and 
emigrated  in  1791,  after  which  he  fought  against  the 
French  republic.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "The 
Campaign  of  the  Prince  of  Conde  in  Flanders  in  1674," 
(1765.)    Died  at  Lisbon  in  1808. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


e  as  >6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y^^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this^    (2i;^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ROZOI 


1928 


RUCHRATH 


Rozoi,  de,  deh  ro'zwS',  (  Barnab6  Farmain,  )  a 
mediocre  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1743,  was 
a  royalist  in  tlie  Revolution.  He  was  guillotined  in 
1792. 

Rozoir,  du.    See  Du  Rozoir. 
Rualdus.    See  Ruault. 

Ruar,  roo'Sr,  [Lat.  Rua'rus,]  (Martin,)  a  learned 
German  controversial  writer,  born  in  Holstein  in  1588, 
was  a  Protestant  minister.  Died  near  Dantzic  in  1657. 
"His  ' Epistles,' "  says  Hallam,  "throw  much  light  on 
the  theological  opinions  of  the  age."  ("Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Ruarus.    See  Ruar. 

Ruault,  riiV,  [Lat.  Rual'dus,]  (Jean,)  a  French 
classical  scholar,  born  at  Coutances  about  1575.  He  was 
twice  elected  rector  of  the  University  of  Paris,  and  he 
became  professor  of  belles-lettres  at  the  College  Royal 
in  1629.  He  published  a  good  edition  of  Plutarch, 
(1624.)    Died  in  1636. 

Rubbi,  roob'bee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
mediocre  poet,  born  at  Venice  in  1738.  He  edited 
"  Parnasso  Italiano,"  (56  vols.,  1784-91,)  which  is  a  col- 
lection of  Italian  poetry.  Among  his  best  works  is  a 
"  Dictionary  of  Sacred  and  Profane  Antiquities,"  (16 
vols.,  1793-1805.)    Died  in  1817. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Rubeis  or  Rubeus.    See  Rossi. 

Ruben,  the  French  of  Reuben,  which  see. 

Ruben,  roo'ben,  (Christoph,)  director  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Arts  at  Vienna,  was  born  at  Treves  in  1805.  He 
studied  painting  under  Cornelius. 

Rubens,  roo'benz,  [Fr.  pron.  rii'bdN',]  (Albert,)  an 
antiquary,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1614,  was  a  son  of  the 
great  painter.  He  wrote  "  On  the  Clothing  Material 
of  the  Ancients,"  ("De  Re  Vestiaria  Veterum,"  1665,) 
which  was  edited  by  Graevius.    Died  in  1657. 

Rubens,  (Peter  Paul,)  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
Flemish  painters,  was  born  at  Siegen  (not,  as  often  stated, 
at  Cologne)  in  1577.  His  birth  is  variously  dated  in 
May  and  on  the  29th  of  June.  He  was  the  son  of  John 
Rubens,  a  lawyer,  and  Mary  Pypeling,  both  natives  of 
Antwerp,  to  which,  after  the  death  of  John  Rubens,  his 
widow  returned  with  her  children  in  1587.  His  early 
masters  in  art  were  A.  van  Noort  and  Otto  van  Veen, 
(or  Otto  Venius.)  In  1600  he  went  to  Italy,  where  he 
passed  about  eight  years  at  Venice,  Mantua,  Rome, 
Florence,  and  Genoa,  and  painted  numerous  works. 
He  returned  to  Antwerp  in  1608,  was  appointed  court 
painter  to  the  archduke  Albert,  and  married  Isabelle 
Brant  or  Brandt  in  1609.  Soon  after  this  date  he  pro- 
duced his  "  Descent  from  the  Cross,"  which  is  con- 
sidered by  many  his  master-piece  and  is  now  in  the 
cathedral  of  Antwerp.  He  rose  rapidly  to  fame  and 
afifluence,  and  was  employed  in  diplomatic  missions  by 
the  Flemish  court.  In  1629  he  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  England,  where  he  painted  for  Charles  I.  the  alle- 
gorical picture  of  "  War  and  Peace."  He  succeeded 
in  his  mission,  the  object  of  which  was  to  restore  peace 
between  England  and  Spain.  Having  lost  his  first 
wife,  he  married  Helena  Forman  or  Fourment,  (1630,) 
who  was  only  sixteen  years  of  age.  He  received 
the  honour  of  knighthood  in  1630  from  Charles  I.  of 
England,  and  also  from  Philip  IV.  of  Spain.  He  was 
simple  and  temperate  in  his  habits.  Rising  early,  he 
went  in  the  morning  to  church  to  hear  mass.  In  the 
evening  he  often  took  a  ride  on  horseback. 

Rubens  painted  history,  portraits,  landscapes,  and  ani- 
mals with  equal  success.  He  was  a  magnificent  colorist, 
was  unsurpassed  in  technical  skill  and  facility  of  execu- 
tion, but  was  deficient  in  a  taste  for  form.  Among  his 
famous  productions  are  "The  Last  Judgment,"  at  Mu- 
nich, "The  Battle  of  the  Amazons,"  "The  Rape  of  the 
Sabines,"  and  "The  Judgment  of  Paris,"  in  London.  It 
is  stated  that  the  gallery  of  Munich  contains  no  less  than 
ninety-five  of  his  works.  He  died  at  Antwerp  in  May, 
1640.  tlis  principal  pupils  were  Van  Dyck,  Jordaens, 
Van  Thulden,  Diepenbeck,  and  Quellyn.  "Rubens," 
says  Ruskin,  "was  an  honourable  and  entirely  well- 
intentioned  man.  He  is  a  healthy,  worthy,  kind-hearted, 
courtly-phrased — Animal, —  without   any   clearly  per- 


ceptible traces  of  a  soul,  except  when  he  paints  chil- 
dren. .  .  .  We  saw  how  Veronese  painted  himself  and 
his  family  as  worshipping  tiie  Madonna.  Rubens  also 
painted  himself  and  his  family  in  an  equally  elaborate 
piece.  But  they  are  not  tvorshipping  the  Madonna : 
they  are  performing  the  Madonna  and  her  saintly 
entourage."-  ("Modern  Painters.") 

See  A.  VAN  Hassei  t,  "  Histoire  He  Rubens,"  1840;  G.  Alvin, 
"Vie  de  Rubens,"  1840;  Waagen,  "P.  P.  Rubens,  sein  Leben  und 
Genius,"  i840,Ctranslated  into  English  by  R.  R.  Noel  ;)  A.  Michiels, 
"  Rubens  et  I'Ecole  d'Anveis,"  1854;  G.  Pi.anchh,  "  Rubens,  sa  Vie 
et  ses  CEuvres,"  1854:  A.  Siret,  "  Raphae]  et  Rubens,"  1849:  W. 
Noel  Sainsbury,  "Original  Unpublished  Papers  illustrative  of  the 
Life  of  Sir  Peter  Paul  Rubeus,"  1859;  Wiektz,  "P.  P.  Rubens," 
1840  ;  Michel,  "  Histoire  de  Rubens,"  1771  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographit 
G^nerale  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1841,  and  January, 
1863. 

Rubens,  (Philip,)  a  Flemish  philologist,  born  at 
Cologne  in  1574,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  the  senate  of  Antwerp 
in  1609.    Died  in  16 ii. 

Rubini,  roo-bee^iee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  popu- 
lar Italian  vocalist,  born  at  Romano,  near  Bergamo,  in 
1795.  He  performed  with  success  in  Paris  and  London. 
He  was  reputed  the  first  Italian  tenor  of  his  time.  Died 
in  1854. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Rubini,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  medical  writer,  born  at 
Parma  in  1760.  He  was  professor  of  medicine  at  Parma. 
Died  in  1819. 

Rubio,  roo'be-o,  (LuiGi,)  an  Italian  painter  of  history, 
born  at  Rome  in  1797.  He  settled  at  Geneva  about 
1857. 

Rubruquis,  de,  deh  rii'bRu'k^ss',  (  Guillaume,  ) 
sometimes  called  De  Ruysbroek  (rois'brook)  or  Rys- 
bruck,  (ris'bRook,)  a  mediaeval  traveller  and  missionary, 
born  in  Brabant  about  1220  or  1230.  In  1253  he  and 
two  other  friars  were  sent  to  Tartary  by  Louis  IX.  of 
France,  who  charged  them  to  propagate  Christianity 
among  the  Tartars,  to  search  for  Prester  John,  and  to 
visit  Sartach,  a  Tartar  chief  who  was  reported  to  be  a 
Christian.  Rubruquis  performed  this  arduous  enterprise 
bravely,  and,  returning  through  Persia  and  Asia  Minor, 
reached  home  in  August,  1255.  He  wrote  a  narrative, 
in  which  the  Caspian  Sea  is  correctly  described. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Rucellai,  roo-chgl-lT',  [Lat.  Oricella'rius,]  (Ber- 
nardo,) an  Italian  writer,  born  of  a  noble  family  at 
Florence  in  1449.  He  married  Nannina,  a  sister  of 
Lorenzo  the  Magnificent.  He  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  the  Platonic  Academy.  His  chief  work  is  entitled 
"On  the  City  of  Rome,"  ("De  Urbe  Roma,")  written 
in  elegant  Latin.    Died  in  15 14. 

See  TiRABoscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Rucellai,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  poet,  born  at 
Florence  in  1475,  ^^^^  ^  ^^'^  ^^""^  preceding,  and  a 
cousin-german  to  Pope  Leo  X.  He  wrote  "  Rosmunda," 
a  drama,  (1525,)  and  a  poem  on  bees,  ("  Le  Api,")  which 
is  regarded  as  his  finest  production.  It  was  printed  in 
1539.  He  was  sent  as  nuncio  to  France  by  Leo  X. 
Died  in  1525. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires;"  Gingueni^,  "Histoire  Litteraire 
d'ltalie." 

Ruchat,  rii'shS',  (Abraham,)  a  Swiss  writer,  born 
about  1680,  taught  theology  at  the  Academy  of  Lau- 
sanne. He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Reformation 
of  Switzerland,  1516-56,"  (6  vols.,  1727-40.)  Died 
in  1750. 

Ruchel,  von,  fon  rooK'el,  (Ernst  Friedrich  ^V^L- 
helm,)  a  Prussian  general,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1754. 
He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Jena,  (1806.) 
Died  in  1823. 

Ruchrath,  rooK'rSt,  (called  Johann  von  Wcsel — 
fon  <^a'zel,)  a  German  Reformer,  born  at  Ober-Wesel, 
on  the  Rhine,  about  1410.  He  became  a  professor  of 
divinity  at  Erfurt,  and  afterwards  preached  at  Worms 
for  seventeen  years.  He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  against 
Indulgences,"  and  a  work  "  Concerning  the  Authority, 
Duty,  and  Power  of  Pastors."  He  was  accused  of 
heresy,  tried  before  the  Inquisition  in  1479,  and,  to 
escape  death  or  torture,  recanted.    Died  in  1481. 

See  Hodgson,  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,    i,  9,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSc;  ndt;  good;  moon* 


RUCKERT 


1929 


RUDOLPH 


Riickert,  rtik'kert,  (Friedrich,)  a  popular  German 
lyric  poet  and  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Schweinfurt  in 
1789.  He  studied  at  Jena,  and  in  1818  visited  Rome. 
In  1826  he  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Eriangen.  His  "German  Poems"  came  out  in  1814, 
and  were  followed  by  "  Napoleon ;  a  Political  Comedy," 
(i8i6,)  "The  Crown  of  the  Time,"  (1817,)  and  "Eastern 
Roses,"  (1822.)  He  also  published  "  Legends  and  Tales 
of  the  East,"  (1837,)  "Brahman  Tales,"  (1839,)  and  a 
translation  of  Hareeree's  (Hariri's)  "Makamat,"  under 
the  title  of  "  Metamorphoses  of  Abu-Seid."  His  poems 
are  remarkable  for  beauty  of  versification  as  well  as  the 
great  variety  of  forms  of  which  he  is  a  master,  and  he 
resembles  in  glowing  fancy  and  inventive  power  the 
Eastern  poets  whom  he  made  his  study.  He  was  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Berlin  from  1840  to  1849. 
Died  in  i860. 

See  LoNGFEi,LOW,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  "  Atlantic 
Monthly"  for  July.  1866;  G.  Pfizkr,  "Uh'and  und  Riickert; 
kritisclier  Versuch,"  1837;  "  Biographic  Uiiiverselle." 

Riickert,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  historian,  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Coburg  in  1823.  He  pub- 
lished "Annals  of  German  History,"  (1850,)  and  other 
works. 

Rudbeck,  rood'b^k,  [Lat.  Ritdbeck'ius,]  (Johan,) 
a  learned  and  meritorious  Swedish  prelate  and  Re- 
former, born  at  Oerebro  about  1580.  He  was  chaplain 
to  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  Bishop  of  Westeras.  Died 
in  1646. 

Rudbeck,  [Lat.  Rudbeck'ius,]  (Olaus  or  Olaf,) 
an  eminent  Swedish  anatomist  and  botanist,  born  at 
Westeras  in  1630,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  dis- 
covered the  lymphatic  vessels  about  1650,  after  which 
he  became  professor  at  Upsal.  His  principal  works  are 
*'  Atlantica,"  (4  vols.,  1675-98,)  in  which,  with  great 
learning  and  ingenuity,  he  maintains  that  Sweden  is  the 
"  Atlantis"  of  Plato,  and  a  botanical  treatise  called 
"  Elysian  Fields,"  ("Campi  Elysii,"  2  vols.,  1701.)  He 
was  remarkable  for  versatility  and  activity  of  mind. 
The  genus  Rudbeckia  was  named  in  his  honour.  Died 
in  1702. 

See  Nic^RON,  "Memoires;"  Sax,  "  Onomasticon ;"  "  Biogra- 
phiskt- Lexicon  ofver  nainnkunnige  Svenska  Man." 

Rudbeck,  (Olaus,)  the  Younger,  a  naturalist  and 
philologist,  born  at  Upsal  in  1660,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  succeeded  his  father  as  professor  of  botany 
and  anatomy  at  Upsal,  and  published  some  works  on 
botany,  etc.  He  assisted  his  father  in  writing  the 
"Campi  Elysii."    Died  in  1740. 

See  C.  R.  Berch,  "Olaus  Rudbeck's  Lefvernesbeskrifning," 
1798. 

Rudberg,  rood'b^Rg,  (Fredrtk,)  a  Swedish  natu- 
ral philosopher,  born  at  Norrkjoping  in  1800.  He 
became  professor  of  physics  at  Upsal  about  1828.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  number  of  able  treatises  on  phi- 
losophy, and  ascertained  the  rate  of  the  expansion  of  air 
by  heat.    Died  in  1839. 

Rud'borne  or  Rod'burne,  (Thomas,)  an  English 
prelate  and  skilful  architect.  He  was  chaplain  to  Henry 
v.,  and  became  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in  1433.  He 
built  the  tower  and  gateway  of  Merton  College,  Oxford. 
Died  about  1442. 

Rudder,  de,  deh  rii'daiR',  (Louis  Henri,)  a  French 
painter  of  history,  born  in  Paris  in  1807.  He  gained  a 
medal  of  the  second  class  in  1848. 

Rud'dl-man,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  Scottish  gram- 
marian and  critic,  born  in  the  parish  of  Boyndie,  county 
of  Banff,  in  October,  1674,  was  educated  at  King's  Col- 
lege, Aberdeen.  He  published  in  17 14  his  "  Rudiments 
of  the  Latin  Tongue,"  a  popular  school-book.  Among 
his  other  works  is  "Institutes  of  Latin  Grammar," 
("  Grammaticae  Latinas  Institutiones,"  1725-32.)  Died 
in  1757. 

See  George  Chalmers,  "  Life  of  Ruddiman,"  1794  ;  Chambers, 
"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Rude,  riid,  (Franqois,)  an  eminent  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1784.  He  went  to  Rome  in  1812  to 
pursue  his  studies,  and  returned  to  Paris  about  1827. 
He  adorned  with  some  figures  the  Arc  de  I'fitoile  at 
Paris.  At  the  Exposition  of  1855  he  gained  the  grand 
medal  of  honour.    Among  his  works  are  a  marble 


statue  of  Joan  of  Arc  in  the  Luxembourg,  and  bronze 
statues  of  Monge  and  Marshal  Ney.    Died  in  1855. 

See  "Rude,  sa  Vie,  ses  CEuvres,"  etc., (anonymous,)  Paris,  1856: 
"  Biographie  Universelle. " 

Rudel,  rxa'cMV,  (Geoffrot,)  a  French  poet  of  the 
latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century,  was  Prince  of  Blaye 
and  a  favourite  of  Geoffrey  Plantagenet. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Rudelbach,  roo'del-bSK',  (Andreas,)  a  Danish  the- 
ologian, born  at  Copenhagen  in  1792.  He  published 
a  number  of  dogmatic  works,  in  which  he  advocates  the 
orthodox  Lutheran  creed.  He  became  superintencisnt 
at  Glauchau,  Saxony,  in  1829.    Died  in  1862. 

Riidiger,  riiMic-er,  (Feodor  Vasilievitch,)  Count, 
a  Russian  general,  born  about  1790.  He  commanded  a 
division  in  the  war  against  the  Turks  in  1828,  and  gained 
several  victories  over  the  Poles  in  1831.  Having  obtamed 
command  of  a  corps-d'armee  in  the  Hungarian  war,  he 
defeated  Gorgei,  who  surrendered  to  him  at  Vilagos  in 
August,  1849.    Died  in  1856. 

Ru'ding,  (Rev.  Rogers,)  an  English  antiquary  and 
numismatist,  born  at  Leicester  in  1751.  He  became 
vicar  of  Maldon,  in  Surrey,  in  1793.  He  published  an 
important  work,  entitled  "Annals  of  the  Coinage  of 
Britain  and  its  Dependencies,"  (4  vols,,  1817.)  Died 
in  1820. 

Rudolf.    See  Rudolph. 

Rudolph  or  Rudolf  of  Ems,  a  mediaeval  German 
poet  or  minnesinger,  born  in  Switzerland,  flourished 
between  1220  and  1250.  His  works  are  highly  extolled 
by  some  critics. 

Ru'dolph  (or  Ru'dolf)  [Lat.  Rudol'phus  ;  It.  Ri- 
dolfo,  re-doKfo]  of  Habsburg,  [Fr.  Rodolphe  de 
Habsbourg,  ro'dolf  deh  htbs^)ooR^]  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, and  founder  of  the  Austrian  empire,  was  born  in 
1218.  He  was  the  son  of  Albert  IV.,  Count  of  Habs- 
burg, and  at  an  early  age  fought  under  Frederick  II.  in 
Italy.  In  1255  he  assisted  Ottocar,  King  of  Bohemia, 
in  his  crusade  against  the  pagans  of  Prussia.  On  the 
death  of  his  father,  in  1240,  he  had  succeeded  to  his 
possessions,  and  was  involved  in  many  contests  with  the 
feudal  barons  of  the  country,  in  which  he  was  generally 
victorious.  His  high  reputation  for  courage  and  love 
of  justice  caused  him  to  be  elected  in  1273  Emperor 
of  Germany,  and  he  was  soon  after  crowned  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  He  procured  from  Pope  Gregory  X.  the 
ratification  of  his  right,  which  had  been  contested  by 
Alfonso  of  Castile  and  Ottocar  of  Bohemia;  and,  after 
a  war  with  the  latter,  a  treaty  was  concluded  by  which 
Rudolph  confirmed  him  in  the  possession  of  Bohemia  and 
Moravia.  He  had  previously  given  two  of  his  daughters 
in  marriage  to  Albert,  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  the  Count 
Palatine  Louis  of  Bavaria.  Having  secured  himself  on 
the  throne,  he  gave  his  attention  to  various  reforms  in 
the  government  and  to  restraining  the  power  of  the 
turbulent  nobles,  nearly  seventy  of  whose  castles  in 
Thuringia  he  is  said  to  have  destroyed.  He  afterwards 
gave  one  of  his  daughters  in  marriage  to  Wenzel,  the 
young  king  of  Bohemia.  He  died  in  1291,  having  been 
unable  to  secure  the  election  of  his  son  Albert  as  emperor, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Adolphus  of  Nassau. 

See  J.  J.  Flschek,  "Biographie  Rudolph's  L  von  Habsbirg, " 
1784:  HuNKi.ER,  "  Rodolphe  de  Habsbourg  Empereur,"  etc.,  1^42  ; 
E.  M.  VON  LiCHNOvvs'<v,  "  Gesciiichte  des  Hauses  Habsburg,"  S 
vols.,  1836^42;  L.  Mrister,  "Kaiser  Rudolph  von  HabsL.,'irg," 
1783;  Mailath,  "  Histoire  d'Autriche  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Rudolph  (Rudolf)  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  born 
in  1552,  was  the  son  of  Maximilian  II.,  and  was  educated 
at  the  Spanish  court.  He  ascended  the  throne  in  Oc- 
tober, 1576,  and,  through  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits, 
prohibited  the  exercise  of  the  Protestant  religion  and 
gave  all  the  principal  offices  to  the  Catholics.  He  was 
an  intolerant  and  incapable  ruler.  Absorbed  in  the 
study  of  astrology  and  alchemy,  he  neglected  the  affairs 
of  his  empire,  which  was  subject  to  much  disorder  during 
his  reign.  To  protect  themselves  against  persecution, 
the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany  formed  in  1608  a 
confederation,  of  which  the  Elector  Palatine  Frederick 
IV.  was  the  head.  Between  1608  and  161 1  his  brother 
Matthias  extorted  from  Rudolph  successively  the  sove- 
reignty of  Austria,  Moravia,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  etc. 


€  as  -6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jt^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RUDOLPH 


1930 


RUFUS 


He  died,  without  issue,  in  January,  1612,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Matthias. 

See  P.  Santorio,  "Vite  di  Ridolfo  II.  e  Mattias  Imperatori," 
1664:  F.  S.  KuKZ,  "Oesteireich  unter  Rudolph,"  1821;  Immanuel 
Weber,  "Dissertatio  de  Rudolplio  II.,"  1707. 

Rudolph  von  Rothenberg,  roo'dolf  fon  ro'ten- 
b^Rc',  a  German  soldier  and  minnesinger,  lived  under 
the  reign  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Rudolphi,  roo-dol'fee,  (Carl  Asmund,  )  an  able 
Swedish  naturalist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Stockholm 
in  1 771.  He  became  professor  of  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology at  Berlin  in  1810.  Among  his  numerous  works 
are  "The  Anatomy  of  Plants,"  (1807,)  "The  Natural 
History  of  Entozoa,"  (2  vols.,  1808-10,)  and  "The  Prin- 
ciples of  Physiology,"  (3  vols.,  1821-28.)  Died  in  Berlin 
in  1832. 

See  J.  MuLLER,  "  Gedachtnissrede  auf  C.  A.  Rudolphi,"  1837; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Rudra,  rood'ra,  [etymology  uncertain,]  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  a  name  of  Siva,  also  applied  to  certain  mani- 
festations of  Siva  in  his  character  of  fate  or  destiny. 
The  eleven  Rudras  appear  to  correspond  in  the  main, 
though  not  in  number,  to  the  Parcas  of  the  Romans 
and  the  Moirae  (MoZpat)  of  the  Greeks.    (See  Siva.) 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  Wilson,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary." 

Riid'yard,  (Sir  Benjamin,)  an  English  gentleman 
and  elegant  scholar,  born  in  1572.  He  became  an  influ- 
ential and  eloquent  member  of  the  Long  Parliament,  in 
which  he  acted  with  Hampden  and  Pym.  In  the  civil 
war  which  began  in  1642  he  was  a  moderate  partisan 
of  the  Parliament,  and  often  raised  his  voice  for  peace. 
Some  of  his  speeches  and  poems  have  been  published. 
Died  in  1658. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Sir  Benjamin  Rudyard,"  by  J.  A.  Manning, 
1841. 

Rue,  de  la,  (Charles.)    See  La  Rue. 

Rue,  de  la,  deh  It  rii,  (Charles,)  a  French  Bene- 
dictine and  eminent  scholar,  born  at  Corbie,  Picardy,  in 
1684.  He  published  a  good  edition  of  the  works  of 
Origen,  (3  vols.,  1733.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1739.  His 
nephew,  Vincent  de  la  Rue,  born  in  1707,  published 
the  4th  volume  of  Origen  in  1759.    Died  in  1762. 

Rue,  de  la,  (Gervais.)    See  Delarue. 

Rueda,  de,  (Lope.)    See  Lope  de  Rueda. 

Ruediger.    See  Rudiger. 

Ruehle  von  Lilienstern.    See  Ruhle. 

Ruel,  rii'ei',  [Lat.  Ruel'lius,]  (Jean,)  a  French  phy- 
sician and  botanist,  born  at  Soissons  in  1479.  He  was 
physician  to  Francis  L,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"On  the  Nature  of  Plants,"  ("De  Natura  Stirpium," 
1536.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1537. 

Ruellius.    See  Ruel. 

Rueppell.    See  Ruppell. 

Riite  or  Ruete,  rii'teh,  (Christian  Georg, )  a 
German  medical  writer  and  oculist,  born  near  Bremen 
in  1810.    He  settled  at  Leipsic  in  1852. 

Ruff'head,  (Ov^en,)  an  English  barrister  and  writer, 
born  in  Westminster  about  1723.  Among  his  works  is 
a  "  Life  of  Alexander  Pope."    Died  in  1769. 

Ruffi  or  Ruffy,  de,  deh  rii'fe',  (Antoine,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1607,  wrote  a  "  History 
of  Marseilles,"  (1643.)    ^^'^^  1689. 

Ruffi  or  Ruffy,  de,  (Louis  Antoine,)  a  historian,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Marseilles  in  1657  ; 
died  in  1724. 

Ruffin,  rii'fiN',  (Franqois,)  Count,  a  French  gene- 
ral, born  at  Bolbec  in  1771.  He  served  with  distinc- 
tion at  Austerlitz  in  1805,  and  at  Eyiau.  He  became 
a  ger.eral  of  division  about  1808,  after  which  he  was 
employed  in  Spain.  He  was  mortally  wounded  near 
Cadiz  in  1811. 

Ruffin,  [Lat.  Ruffi'nus,]  (Pierre  Jean  Marie,)  a 
diplomatist  and  linguist,  of  French  extraction,  born  at 
Salonica,  in  Turkey,  in  1742.  He  became  interpreter 
to  the  king  for  Oriental  languages  at  Paris  in  1774, 
and  charge-d'affaires  at  Constantinople  in  1798.  Died 
in  1824. 

See  1?IANCHI,  "  Notice  historique  sur  M.  Ruffin,"  1825. 

Ruffini,  roof-fee'nee,  an  Italian  ])atriot,  known  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Lorenzo  Benoni,  was  born  at  Genoa 


about  1800.  In  1833  he  took  refuge  in  England,  where 
he  wrote  interesting  Memoirs.  He  was  appointed  am- 
bassador to  Paris  by  Charles  Albert  in  1848. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1854;  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  June,  1853;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July.  1853. 

Ruffini,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  mathematician,  born  at 
Valentano  (Papal  States)  in  1765.  He  was  professor 
of  mathematics  and  medicine  at  Modena,  and  author  of 
several  works  on  algebra,  which  were  highly  esteemed. 
Died  at  Modena  in  1822. 

See  LoMBARDi,  "  Notizie  sulla  Vita  di  P.  Ruffini,"  1824. 

Ruffinus.    See  Rufinus,  and  Ruffin. 

Ruffo,  rooFfo,  (DioNiGi  Fabrizio,)  an  Italian  cardinal 
and  general,  born  at  Naples,  or  in  Calabria,  about  1744. 
He  raised  in  Calabria  a  large  body  of  royalists,  called 
the  army  of  the  Holy  Faith,  which,  under  his  command, 
expelled  the  French  and  republicans  from  the  country 
in  1799  and  restored  King  Ferdinand  IV.  to  the  throne. 
He  took  at  Naples  a  number  of  republican  chiefs  as 
prisoners  of  war,  who  were  treacherously  put  to  death 
by  order  of  the  king.    Died  in  1827. 

See  Lacchinelli,  "  Memorie  sulla  Vita  di  F.  D.  Ruffo,"  1836; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ruffo,  (Fabrizio,)  Prince  of  Castelcicala,  an  Italian 
diplomatist,  born  at  Naples  about  1755. 
cessary  to  the  judicial  murder  of  the  republicans  who 
were  taken  prisoners  and  executed  in  1799.  He  was 
Neapolitan  ambassador  at  Paris  from  181 5  until  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  1832. 

Ruffy.    See  Ruffi. 

Rufin.    See  Rufinus. 

Rufino,  roo-fee'no,  (Casimir  Rufino  Ruiz,)  a  Span- 
ish economist,  born  at  Soto  de  Cameros  in  1806.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "The  Universal  History 
of  Commerce,"  ("La  Historia  mercantil  universal,"  2 
vols.,  1852-53.) 

Ru-fi'nus,  [Fr.  Rufin,  rii'fiN',]  an  ambitious  Roman 
courtier,  born  at  Elusa.  in  Gaul,  about  335  a.d.  He 
gained  the  favour  of  the  emperor  Theodosius  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  became  in  394  chief  minister.  He 
rendered  himself  odious  by  his  cruelty,  and  engaged  in 
a  disloyal  intrigue  with  Alaric  the  Visigoth,  in  order  to 
thwart  Stilico,  who  was  his  rival.    He  was  assassinated 

395  a  soldier,  at  the  instigation  of  Gainas,  a  friend 
of  Stilico.  He  was  the  subject  of  Claudian's  poem 
"  In  Rufinum." 

See  GiBRON,  "  Historv  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire:"  Lr  Beau,  "Histoiredu  Bas-Empire;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Rufinus,  surnamed  Tora'nius,  Tora'nus,  Tyran'- 
Nius,  or  Turra'nius,  a  theologian  and  monk,  born 
about  350  A.D.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native 
of  Aquileia.  In  early  life  he  was  a  friend  of  Saint 
Jerome.  He  went  to  Palestine  in  377,  and  built  a  mon- 
astery on  Mount  Olivet,  where  he  passed  many  years, 
and  translated  some  works  of  Origen,  whose  doctrines 
he  favoured.  On  this  subject  he  was  involved  in  a  con- 
troversy with  Saint  Jerome,  who  denounced  him  with 
extreme  animosity.  Rufinus  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
an  "Explanation  of  the  Apostles'  Creed,"  and  translated 
into  Latin  several  works  of  the  Greek  Fathers.  He 
was  an  able  writer.    Died  in  410. 

See  FoNTANiNi,  "Historia  literaria  Aquilejensis ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Rufinus,  (LiciNius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  who  flourished 
about  215  A.D. 

Ru'fus  or  Ru'phus,  an  ancient  Greek  medical  writer 
of  Ephesus,  called  RuFus  Ephesius,  of  whom  little  is 
known.  According  to  Suidas,  he  lived  in  the  reign  of 
Trajan,  (98-117  A.D.)  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
an  interesting  treatise  on  anatomy,  entitled  "On  the 
Names  of  the  Parts  of  the  Human  Body,"  which  is 
extant  and  was  printed  at  Paris  in  1554. 

See  Sprengel,  "  Histoire  dela  Medecine." 

Rufus,  (M.  Ccelius,)  a  Roman  orator,  born  at  Puteoli 
in  82  B.C.,  was  a  friend  of  Cicero,  who  calls  him  "  adoles- 
centem  illustri  ingenio."  In  the  year  56  he  was  accused 
of  an  attempt  to  poison  Clodia,  a  woman  of  depraved 
morals.  He  was  defended  by  Cicero  and  acquitted.  He 
became  tribune  of  the  people  in  52  B.C.,  and  supported 


a,  e,  I,  o,  ia,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;    §,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


RUFUS 


RUM  BOLD 


Milo  against  Clodius.  In  49  B.C.  he  was  a  partisan  of 
Caesar.    Died  in  48  B.C. 

See  Cicero,  "  Oratio  pro  M.  Ccelio." 

Rufus,  (RuTiLius,)  a  Roman  orator,  who  became 
consul  in  105  B.C.  and  was  banished  unjustly  in  92  B.C. 

Rufus  Fes'tus  or  Sex'tus  Ru'fus,  a  Latin  his- 
torian, lived  between  350  and  400  a.d.  He  wrote  an 
Abridged  History  of  Rome,  ("  Breviarium  de  Victoriis 
et  Provinciis  Populi  Romani.") 

Ruge,  roo'geh,  (Arnold,)  a  German  scholar  and 
journalist,  born  at  Bergen,  on  the  island  of  RUgen,  in 
1802,  studied  at  the  University  of  Jena.  During  a  five 
years'  imprisonment  to  which  he  was  condemned  for 
his  liberal  opinions,  he  translated  the  "  CEdipus  in 
Colonos"  of  Sophocles.  After  his  release  he  became 
associated  with  Echtermeyer  as  editor  of  the  "  Halli- 
schen  Jahrbiicher,"  which  was  suppressed  in  1843.  I" 
1848  he  published  at  Leipsic  a  radical  journal  entitled 
*'  Reform,"  and  represented  Breslau  in  the  Frankfort 
Parliament.  In  1850  he  repaired  to  London,  where  he 
wrote  a  German  translation  of  the  "  Letters  of  Junius" 
and  the  works  of  P.  Courier. 

Rugendas,  roo-glnMSs,  (Georg  Philipp,)  one  of 
the  greatest  battle-painters  of  Germany,  was  born  at 
Augsburg  in  1666.  He  visited  Rome  and  Venice,  and 
after  his  return  became  director  of  the  Academy  of 
Augsburg  in  1710.  He  also  produced  a  number  of  en- 
gravings, among  which  is  "The  Siege  of  Augsburg," 
of  which  he  was  an  eye-witness.    Died  in  1742. 

See  J.  C.  FiJssLi,  "  Leben  Georg  Philipp  Rugendas,"  1758;  C. 
Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler- 
Lexikon." 

Rugendas,  (Georg  Philipp,)  a  painter  and  engraver, 
born  at  Augsburg  in  1701,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 
Died  in  1774. 

Rugendas,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  skilful  engraver, 
born  at  Augsburg  in  1708,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding.   Died  in  1781. 

Rugendas,  (Johann  Moritz,)  a  German  painter 
and  designer,  a  relative  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Augsburg  about  1800.  He  spent  many  years  in  South 
America,  and  published  in  1827  "A  Painter's  Journey 
in  Brazil."  His  collection  of  nearly  three  thousand 
pictures  and  designs  was  purchased  by  the  Bavarian 
government.    Died  in  1858. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Ruggieri,  rood-ja'ree,  (Constantin,)  an  Italian  phi- 
lologist and  antiquary,  born  near  Ravenna  in  1714; 
died  in  1766. 

Rug'gle,  (George,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  at 
Lavenham  in  1575,  was  a  Fellow  of  a  college  at  Cam- 
bridge. He  wrote  a  satirical  play  entitled  "  Ignoramus," 
(1614.)    Died  in  1622. 

Ruggles,  rug'gelz,  (Daniel,)  an  American  general  in 
the  Confederate  service,  born  in  Massachusetts  about 
1814. 

Ruhl,  rool,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  German  sculptor 
and  painter,  born  at  Cassel  in  1764;  died  in  1842. 

Ruhl,  riil,  (Philippe  Jacques,)  a  French  Jacobin  and 
member  of  the  Convention,  was  born  near  Strasburg. 
He  killed  himself  in  May,  1795. 

Riihlevon  Lilienstern,  riih'leh  fon  lee'le-en-stgRn'', 
(Johann  Jakob  Otto  August,)  a  Prussian  general  and 
distinguished  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1780,  served  in 
the  campaigns  of  1813-15.  He  published  several  mili- 
tary and  historical  works,  among  which  is  a  "  Historical 
Sketch  of  the  Prussian  Nation,"  (1837.)    Died  in  1847. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Ruhmkorfif,  room'koRf,  (N.,)  a  mechanician,  born  in 
Germany.  He  settled  in  Paris,  and  gained  distinction  as 
a  maker  of  electro-magnetic  apparatus,  coil-machines,  etc. 

Ruhnken,  roon'ken,  or  Ruhneken,  roo'neh-ken, 
[Lat.  Ruhnkf/nius,]  (David,)  an  eminent  German 
philologist  and  critic,  born  at  Stolpe,  in  Pomerania,  in 
1723.  He  studied  history,  law,  and  classical  literature 
at  Wittenberg.  Through  the  influence  of  his  friend 
the  celebrated  Hemsterhuys,  he  was  appointed  in  1757 
lector  of  tl^  Greek  language  in  the  University  of  Ley- 
den,  and  in  1761  succeeded  Oudendorp  as  professor  of 
history,  eloquence,  and  antiquities  in  that  city.  Among 
his  numerous  and  valuable  works  are  editions  of  the 


"Lexicon  ofTimaeus,"  of  Velleius  Paterculus,  Homer's 
"  Hymn  to  Ceres,"  with  a  Latin  translation  and  com- 
mentary, (1780,)  and  the  works  of  Muretus,  (4  vols., 
1789.)  He  also  wrote  several  Latin  essays  of  remark- 
able elegance,  among  which  we  may  name  his  "  Epistolae 
Criticae,"  (1751,)  "Eulogy  on  Hemsterhuys,"  (1768,)  and 
"  Dissertation  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Longinus," 
(1776.)  He  died  at  Leyden  in  1797,  with  the  reputa- 
tion of  one  of  the  first  critics  and  Latin  writers  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

See  D.  Wyttenbach,  "Vita  Ruhnkenii,"  1799;  Rink,  "T. 
Hemsterhuys  und  D.  Ruhneken,"  1801  ;  Meusel,  "  Lexikon ;" 
HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historiscli-literarisches  Handbuch ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Ruhnkenius.    See  Ruhnken. 

Riihs  or  Ruehs,  riis,  (Christoph  Friedrich,)  a 
German  historian,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1780,  became 
professor  of  history  in  Berlin.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  Sweden,"  (5  vols.,  1803-13,)  which 
is  commended,  and  a  "  Manual  of  Mediaeval  History," 
(1816.)    Died  in  1820. 

Ruinart,  rii-e'nSR',  (Thierri,)  Dom,  a  learned  French 
writer  and  Benedictine  monk,  born  at  Rheims  in  1657. 
He  became  a  pupil  and  coadjutor  of  Mabillon.  In  1689 
he  published  the  "  Acts  of  the  First  Martyrs,"  ("  Acta 
primorum  Martyrum."  He  took  a  large  part  in  the 
composition  of  Mabillon's  "Acta  Sanctorum,"  (1700.) 
Died  in  1709. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ruisch  or  Ruysch,  roisK,  (Frederic,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  anatomist,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1638.  He  was 
professor  of  anatomy  at  Amsterdaui  from  1665  until  his 
death.  He  discovered  a  mode  of  preserving  dead 
bodies  for  many  years.  He  made  several  discoveries 
in  anatomy,  and  published  an  "  Anatomical  Treasury," 
("Thesaurus  anatomicus,"  1701-15,)  which  is  said  to 
be  a  capital  work.  Peter  the  Great  purchased  his 
anatomical  collection  for  30,000  florins.    Died  in  1731. 

See  Fontenelle,  "  filoge  de  Ruisch;"  Schreiber,  "Vita  F- 
Ruisch,"  1732;  NiCERON,  "Meinoires." 

Ruisch  or  Ruysch,  (Rachel,)  a  skilful  Dutch 
flower-painter,  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1664,  was  a 
daughter  of  the  preceding.  She  inarried  a  painter 
named  Juriaen  Pool  in  1695.  Her  works  command 
high  prices.    Died  in  1750. 

Ruisdael.    See  Ruysdael. 

Ruiter,  de.    See  Ruvier,  de. 

Ruiz,  roo-^th',  (Juan,)  Archpriest  of  Hita,  a  Spanish 
poet  and  satirist,  born  probably  at  Alcala  de  Henares. 
He  was  imprisoned  thirteen  years,  (1333-47.)  One  of 
his  principal  poems  is  entitled  "  Praise  of  Little  Women." 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Rukmeni.    See  RukminI. 

Rukmini,  rdok'mi-nee',  written  also,  but  less  cor- 
rectly, Rokmeny  and  Rukmeni,  [i.e.  "golden"  or 
"  possessing  gold,"  in  allusion  perhaps  to  Lakshmi 
being  the  goddess  of  riches,]  the  name  of  an  avatar  of 
Lakshmi,  who  under  this  form  was  the  favourite  wife 
of  Krishna,  (an  avatar  of  Vishnu.) 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Ruland,  roo'lint,  (Martin,)  a  German  physician  and 
philologist,  born  at  Freisingen  in  1532;  died  in  1602. 

Rulhiere,  de,  deh  rii'le-aiR',  (Claude  Carloman,) 
a  French  historian,  was  born  at  Bondy,  near  Paris,  in 
1735.  He  accompanied  the  Baron  de  Breteuil  to  Russia 
as  secretary  of  embassy  in  1760,  and  wrote  "Anecdotes 
of  the  Revolution  of  Russia  in  1762,"  (1797.)  In  1787 
he  was  admitted  into  the  PVench  Academy.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Anarchy  of  Poland  and  of 
the  Partition  of  that  Republic,"  (4  vols.,  1807.)  Died 
in  1791. 

See  Daunou,  "  Notice  sur  Rulhiere :"  Querard,  "  La  France 
Litteraire  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

RuUiere,  ru'le-a.iR',  (Joseph  Marcellin,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  Haute-Loire  in  1787.  He  commanded 
an  army  in  Algeria  in  1838,  and  was  minister  of  war 
from  December,  1848,  until  October,  1849. 

Rumancow.    See  Rk^omantsof. 

Rum'bold.  (Colonel  RrcHARD,)  an  English  repub- 
lican, was  implicated  in  the  Rye-House  Plot,  (1683,)  and 
was  owner  of  the  building  from  which  that  plot  derived 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


RUM  FORD 


1932  RUNJEET 


its  name.  He  escaped  to  Holland,  and  in  1685  followed 
Argyll  in  his  expedition  to  Scotland,  where  he  was  mor- 
tallv  wounded,  and,  after  a  hurried  trial,  executed. 

Riim'fprd,  (Benjamin  Thompson,)  Count,  a  cele- 
brated natural  philosopher  and  economist,  born  at 
Woburn,  Massachusetts,  March  26,  1753  or  1752. 
His  mother  was  named  Ruth  Simonds.  After  he  left 
school,  about  the  age  of  fourteen,  he  was  employed  for  a 
short  time  as  a  clerk  by  a  merchant  in  Salem.  In  1770 
he  attended  lectures  on  experimental  philosophy  at 
Harvard  University.  He  was  school-master  at  Rumford, 
(now  Concord,)  New  Hampshire,  for  about  two  years, 
(1770-72.)  In  1772  he  married  a  rich  widow  of  Rum- 
ford,  named  Mrs.  Rolfe,  and  removed  with  her  to  Wo- 
burn. He  was  a  person  of  tall  stature,  a  model  of  manly 
beauty  in  form  and  feature,  and  had  the  manners  of  a 
courtier.  According  to  Renwick,  he  fought  at  Lexington, 
and  ajiplied  for  a  commission  in  the  Continental  army 
in  1775,  but  his  services  were  rejected.  Renwick  speaks 
of  his  "loyalty,  manifested  by  actual  service  at  the 
battle  of  Lexington,"  but  does  not  say  on  which  side 
he  fought.  His  arguments,  however,  seem  designed  to 
prove  that  Rumford  would  have  fought  for  independence 
if  prejudice  and  persecution  had  not  driven  him  into  the 
ranks  of  the  royalists.  He  was  regarded  as  a  tory  by  his 
fellow-citizens,  and  was  pursued  by  a  mob  with  threats 
of  violence.  Having  resorted  for  safety  to  the  royalist 
camp  at  Boston,  he  was  sent  to  England  in  the  autumn 
of  1775  as  a  bearer  of  despatches  to  Lord  George  Ger- 
main, who  appointed  him  a  clerk  in  the  foreign  office. 
In  the  course  of  four  years  he  rendered  such  services 
that  he  obtained  in  1780  the  important  position  of  under- 
secretary of  state.  He  returned  to  the  United  States  in 
1781  or  1782  with  a  commission  as  major  or  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  the  British  army,  but  never  took  part  in  any 
action  of  the  war. 

The  next  scene  of  his  eventful  and  prosperous  career 
opens  at  Munich,  whither  he  went  in  1784.  He  soon 
became  aide-de-camp  and  chamberlain  to  the  reigning 
prince  of  Bavaria.  Having  reformed  the  military  es- 
tablishment and  rendered  important  public  services, 
he  was  rewarded  with'  the  rank  of  major-general,  and 
appointed  a  councillor  of  state.  Rising  by  rapid  gra- 
dations, he  became  successively  lieutenant-general,  com- 
mander-in-chief, minister  of  war,  and  in  1790  a  count  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  On  this  occasion  he  assumed 
the  title  of  Rumford,  from  the  town  where  he  resided  in 
early  life.  He  suppressed  mendicity  at  Munich  by  the 
establishment  of  work-houses  in  which  beggars  were 
compelled  to  earn  their  subsistence.  In  devising  the 
means  to  warm  and  clothe  the  poor  with  economy,  he 
was  led  to  experiments  on  heat  and  light  which  resulted 
in  important  discoveries.  He  proved  that  gases  are 
non-conductors,  and  fluids  very  imperfect  conductors,  of 
heat, — explained  that  heat  is  propagated  in  liquids  only 
by  convection,  or  the  continuous  transposition  of  the 
particles  of  the  liquid,  and  that  a  flame  in  open  air  gives 
but  little  heat  except  to  bodies  placed  above  it.  He  made 
improvements  in  the  construction  of  chimneys  and  in 
the  apparatus  for  heating  and  lighting  houses.  In  1795 
he  visited  London,  where  he  published  some  essays  on 
the  subjects  above  mentioned.  He  returned  to  Munich 
in  1796,  and  was  appointed  ambassador  to  London  in 
1798;  but  the  English  court  would  not  receive  him  in 
that  capacity,  because  he  was  a  British  subject.  He 
formed  the  plan  of  the  Royal  Institution  of  London, 
founded  about  1800.  His  power  and  influence  at  the 
court  of  Munich  having  ceased,  in  consequence  of  the 
death  of  the  Elector,  in  1799,  he  removed  to  France. 
His  first  wife,  whom  he  left  in  the  United  States  when 
he  first  crossed  the  Atlantic,  was  no  longer  living.  He 
married  the  widow  of  Lavoisier,  the  great  chemist,  in 
1805  ;  but  they  soon  separated,  from  mutual  repulsion. 
He  died  at  Auteuil  in  August,  1814.  His  "Essays,  Po- 
litical, Economical,  and  Philosophical,"  were  published 
in  3  vols.,  (1798-1806.)  The  Rumford  medal  of  the  Royal 
Society  derives  its  name  from  him. 

"  It  is  a  matter  of  just  national  pride  that  the  two  men 
who  first  demonstrated  the  capital  propositions  of  pure 
science,  that  lightning  is  but  a  case  of  common  elec- 
tricity, and  that  heat  is  but  a  mode  of  motion, — who  first 


converted  these  conjectures  of  fancy  to  facts  of  science, 
— were  not  only  Americans  by  birth  and  education,  but 
men  eminently  representative  of  the  peculiarities  of 
American  character, — Benjamin  Franklin  and  Benjamin 
Thompson."  (Edward  L.  Youmans,  "The  Correlation 
and  Conservation  of  Forces.") 

See  CuvrER,  "  Eloge  de  Rumford  ;"  James  Renwick,  "  Life  of 
Count  Rumford,"  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography,"  vol.  v., 
second  series ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "  Edinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1804. 

Rumford,  de,  deh  riiN'foR',(MARiE  Anne  Pierrette 
Paulze — pe'i'r^t'  polz,)  Countess,  a  French  lady  of 
superior  talent,  was  born  at  Montbrison  in  1758.  She 
was  married  to  Lavoisier,  the  chemist,  in  1771.  She 
aided  him  in  experiments,  and,  having  learned  the  art 
of  engraving,  she  engraved  plates  for  his  treatise  on 
Chemistry.  In  1805  she  became  the  wife  of  Count 
Rumford,  from  whom  she  separated  in  1809.  Died 
in  1836. 

See  GuizoT,  "  Madame  de  Rumford,"  1841,  and  his  article  in  the 
"  Biographie  Universelle." 

Rumiantzov  or  Rumiaiitzow.  See  Rioomantsof. 

Riimker,  rum'ker,  (Karl.)  a  German  astronomer, 
born  at  Stargard  in  1788.  He  made  observations  at 
Paramatta,  in  Australia,  from  1822  to  1831,  and  was 
afterwards  director  of  the  Observatory  at  Hamburg 
for  many  years.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Manual  of 
Navigation,"  (5th  edition,  1850.)    Died  in  1862, 

Rumohr,  roo'moR,  (Karl  Friedrich  Ludv^^tg  Fe- 
lix,) a  German  writer  on  art,  born  near  Dresden  in 
1785,  was  a  pupil  of  Fiorillo,  a  painter.  He  made  the 
tour  of  Italy  in  1804,  and  revisited  that  country  in  1816 
and  1828.  His  "Italian  Researches"  (3  vols.)  came  out 
in  1827.  It  is  a  critical  history  of  the  origin  and  de- 
velopment of  modern  painting,  composed  from  original 
documents,  and  is  esteemed  a  standard  work.  He  like- 
wise published  a  "  History  of  the  Royal  Collection  of 
Engravings  at. Copenhagen,"  (1835,)  other  treatises 
on  art ;  also  a  number  of  poems  and  prose  essays  on 
various  subjects.    Died  at  Dresden  in  1843. 

See  H.  W.  ScHUi.ZE,  "C.  F.  von  Rumohr,  sein  Leben  und  seine 
Schriften,"  1844;  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Rumowsky.    See  Roomofskl 

Rumph,  roomf,  [Lat.  Rum'phius,]  (Georg  Eve- 
rard,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Hanau  in  1637.  He 
passed  some  years  at  Amboyna,  where  he  was  consul 
or  counsellor  to  the  Dutch  East  India  Company.  He 
was  author  of  a  botanical  work  entitled  "  Herbarium 
Amboinense,"  (7  vols.,  1741-55.)    Died  in  1706. 

Rumphius.    See  Rumph. 

Riim'sey,  (James,)  an  American  mechanician,  born 
in  Cecil  county,  Maryland,  in  1743,  was  the  inventor  of 
a  steamboat,  which  he  exhibited  on  the  Potomac  in  1786. 
A  company  called  by  his  name  was  formed  in  Philadelphia 
for  the  purpose  of  promoting  his  projects.  In  1792  he 
made  a  successful  trial  of  his  steamboat  on  the  Thames, 
and  was  preparing  for  another,  when  he  died  in  Decem- 
ber of  the  same  year. 

Run'ci-man,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  historical 
painter,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1736.  Among  his  works 
are  "The  Ascension,"  "King  Lear,"  and  a  series  of 
pictures  of  scenes  from  Ossian.  His  style  is  extrava- 
gant.   Died  in  1785. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Runeberg,  roo'neh-bgRg',  (Johan  Ludwig,)  a  very 
popular  Swedish  poet,  born  at  Jacobstad,  in  Finland, 
in  1804.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Abo. 
About  1840  he  became  a  teacher  of  Greek  at  Borgi,  (or 
Borgo.)  Among  his  principal  productions  are  "  Na- 
deschda,"  a  poetical  tale,  (1841,)  "Kung  Fialar,"  (1844,) 
and  "Stories  of  Ensign  Stil,"  ("Fanrik  Stils  Sagner.") 
An  edition  of  his  collected  works  appeared  in  1852. 

See  HowiTT,  "Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe." 

Runge,  roong'eh,  (Otto  Philipp,)  a  German  painter, 
born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  fur- 
nished illustrations  to  "Ossian."  His  son,  Otto  Sieg- 
mund,  studied  sculpture  under  Thorwaldsen  at  Rome. 

Runius,  roo'ne-iis.  (Johan,)  a  popular  Swedish  poet, 
born  in  West  Gothland  in  1679  ;  died  in  17 13. 

Runjeet  Singh,  riin-jeet'  sing,  (or  sing'h,)  called 
Maha  Rajah,  ma-hi'  ri'ja,  {i.e.  "Great  Rajah,")  an  am- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  %  y,  long;  k,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,    i,  q,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  f2.t;  m€t;  ndt;  good;  moon. 


RUNNINGTON 


1933 


RUSH 


bitious  East  Indian  prince,  born  at  Gugarinwala,  in  the 
Punjab,  in  1780,  is  called  the  founder  of  the  Sikh  empire. 
By  a  series  of  aggressions  against  feeble  and  unwarlike 
chiefs  he  extended  his  dominions.  He  received  the 
province  of  Lahore  as  a  gift  from  the  Shah  of  Afghan- 
istan in  1799,  and  obtained  Cashmere  by  conquest  in 
1819.  In  1809  he  made  a  treaty  with  the  British,  with 
whom  he  always  maintained  peaceful  relations.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  H.  T.  Prinsep,  "Origin  of  the  Power  of  the  SiUhs  and  the 
Political  Life  of  Riinjeet  Singh,"  i<S39  ;  W.  L.  M acgrrgor,  "  Runjeet 
Singh:  History  of  the  Sikhs;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Run'ning-ton,  (Charles,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
writer,  born  in  Hertfordshire  in  175 1.  He  edited  some 
legal  works  of  Hale,  Gilbert,  etc.    Died  in  1821. 

Rupert,  roo'pert,  [  Ger.  Ruprecht,  roo'pR^Kt,  ] 
Prince,  sometimes  called  Robert  of  Bavaria,  son 
of  the  Elector  Palatine  Frederick  V.  and  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  James  I.  of  England,  was  born  at  Prague  in 
1609.  Having  previously  served  against  the  Imperialists 
in  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  he  entered  the  royalist  army 
in  England,  and  was  appointed  by  his  uncle,  Charles  I., 
commander  of  a  regiment  of  cavalry.  He  distinguished 
himself  by  his  energy  and  headlong  courage  at  Worcester 
and  Edgehill,  and  took  Bristol  ;  but  he  was  signally  de- 
feated at  Marston  Moor  in  1644.  Being  made  general 
of  all  the  royal  forces,  he  commanded  the  left  wing  at 
Naseby  in  1645.  Owing  to  his  rash  pursuit  of  a  part  of 
Cromwell's  ariny  while  the  main  body  remained  on  the 
field,  the  day  was  lost,  and  he  soon  after  surrendered 
Bristol,  after  a  short  defence.  He  was,  in  consequence, 
deprived  of  his  command  by  the  king  ;  but  in  1648  he 
obtained  command  of  the  fleet,  and  assisted  Lord  Or- 
mond  on  the  coast  of  Ireland.  In  1649  he  was  blockaded 
in  the  harbour  of  Kinsale  by  the  parliamentary  squadron 
under  Blake.  Having  forced  his  way  out,  he  steered  for 
Portugal,  where  he  was  protected  by  the  king  of  that 
country.  In  1651  Blake  attacked  his  fleet  and  destroyed 
all  but  five  of  his  vessels.  Rupert  subsisted  for  some 
time  by  piracy  in  the  West  Indies.  After  the  restoration 
of  1660,  he  served  as  admiral  against  the  Dutch.  Died 
in  1682. 

See  "Historical  Memoirs  of  Prince  Rupert,"  London,  1683;  E. 
Warburton,  "Memoirs  of  Prince  Rupert,"  3  vols.,  1849;  Clar- 
endon, "  History  of  the  Great  Rebellion  ;"  Hume,  "  History  of 
England ;"  "  Lives  of  the  Warriors  of  ihe  Civil  Wars  of  France  and 
England,"  by  Sir  Edward  Cust,  London,  1867. 

Ru-per'tus  or  Ruprecht,  roo'pR^Kt,  called  also 
Rhodbert,  one  of  the  early  apostles  of  Christianity 
in  Germany,  was  Bishop  of  Worms,  and  lived  in  the 
seventh  century. 

Riippell  or  Rueppell,  rt!p'pel,  (Wii.het.m  Peter 
Eduard  Simon,)  a  German  natinalist,  born  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main  in  1794.  He  visited  Arabia,  Nubia, 
and  other  parts  of  Africa,  and  published  in  1829  "  Travels 
in  Nubia,  Kordofan,  and  Arabia  Petraea."  He  also  gave 
an  account  of  the  birds  of  Northern  and  Eastern  Africa, 
and  made  valuable  contributions  to  the  Senkenberg 
Museum,  at  Frankfort. 

Rupprecht,  roop'prlKt,  (Friedrich  Karl,)  a  Ger- 
man landscape-painter  and  etcher,  born  near  Anspach 
in  1779  ;  died  in  183 1. 

Ruprecht.    See  Rupert. 

Rurik,  roo'rik,  [Fr.  Rourik,  roo'r^k',]  the  founder 
of  the  Russian  empire,  was  originally  a  Scandinavian. 
He  invaded  Russia  about  862  A.D.,  defeated  the  natives, 
who  were  commanded  by  Vadim,  and  selected  Novogo- 
rod  as  his  capital.  He  died  in  879,  leaving  a  son,  Igor, 
a  minor. 

Rusbroek.    See  Ruysbroek. 

Rusca,  roos'ka,  (Carlo  Francesco,)  an  Italian 
portrait-painter,  born  at  Lugano  in  1701  ;  died  in  1769. 

Rusca,  riis'kt',  (F.  Dominique,)  born  near  Nice  in 
1761,  became  a  general  in  the  French  army.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  victory  at  Lodi,  and  was  made  a  general 
of  division  in  1796.  He  was  commander  of  Elba  frotn 
1802  to  1805,    He  was  killed  at  Soissons  in  1814. 

Rusca,  (Giovanni  Alessandro,)  a  learned  Italian 
monk  and  writer,  born  at  Turin  about  1600  ;  died  in  1680, 

Ruscelli.roo-shel'Iee,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  scholar 
and  prolific  writer,  born  at  Viterbo,  Among  his  works 
are  "On  the  Art  of  making  Verse,"  ("Del  Modo  di 


comporrein  Versi,"  1559,)  and  "Illustrious  Enterprises," 
("Imprese  illustri,"  1566,)    Died  at  Venice  in  1566, 

Ruschenberger,roo'shen-ber^ger,  (William  S.  W.,) 
M.D.,  an  American  physician  and  naturalist,  born  in 
Cumberland  county,  New  Jersey,  in  1807,  was  appointed 
in  1843  superintendent  of  the  United  States  Naval  Hos- 
pital at  Brooklyn,  New  York.  He  has  published  a 
"Voyage  round  the  World,  including  an  Embassy  to 
Muscat  and  Siam,"  (1838,)  also  "Elements  of  Natural 
History,"  (1850,)  and  other  scientific  works. 

Ruscheweyh,  roosh'eh-^I^  (Ferdinand,)  an  emi- 
nent German  engraver,  born  at  Mecklenburg,  commenced 
his  studies  about  1802,  and  went  to  Rome  in  1808.  He 
engraved  some  works  of  Raphael,  Giulio  Romano,  Over- 
beck,  and  others. 

Rusconi,  roos-ko'nee,  (Camillo,)  a  skilful  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Milan  about  1658.  Among  his  works 
is  the  mausoleum  of  Gregory  XIII.  in  Saint  Peter's  at 
Rome.    Died  in  1728, 

Rush,  (Benjamin,)  an  eminent  American  physician 
and  philanthropist,  born  near  Philadelphia,  December 
24,  1745,  He  graduated  at  Princeton  College,  New 
Jersey,  in  1760,  and  afterwards  studied  medicine  in 
Edinburgh,  London,  and  Paris,  He  was  elected  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  the  Medical  College  of  Philadelphia 
in  1769,  He  was  an  active  supporter  of  the  popular 
cause  in  the  Revolution,  was  elected  a  member  of  Con- 
gress in  1776,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, In  the  same  year  he  married  Julia  Stockton,  a 
daughter  of  Judge  Richard  Stockton,  of  New  Jersey. 

In  1777  he  was  appointed  surgeon-general  and  phy- 
sician-general of  the  army.  He  acquired  distinction  as  a 
writer  on  medicine,  philosophy,  political  afl'airs,  etc.  He 
voted  for  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  in  the  State  convention  which  met  in  1787,  In 
1789  he  became  professor  of  the  theory  and  practice  of 
medicine  in  the  medical  college  of  Philadelphia,  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  the  institutes  of  medicine  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1791,  when  the  medical 
college  was  united  with  the  University,  He  was  a  popu' 
lar  lecturer,  and  was  eminently  qualified  as  a  teacher  of 
medical  science  by  his  fluency  of  expression  as  well  as 
his  profound  learning.  His  reputation  was  increased  by, 
his  successful  treatment  of  cases  of  yellow  fever,  which 
prevailed  in  Philadelphia  in  1793,  It  is  stated  that  he 
visited  and  prescribed  for  one  hundred  patients  in  one 
day.  His  remedies  for  yellow  fever  were  purging  and 
bleeding.  He  was  treasurer  of  the  Mint  during  the  last 
fourteen  years  of  his  life,  was  president  of  the  society 
for  the  abolition  of  slavery,  and  vice-president  of  the 
Bible  Society  of  Philadelphia.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  industry,  benevolence,  and  piety.  In  1811  the 
Emperor  of  Russia  sent  him  a  diamond  ring  as  a  testi- 
monial of  respect  for  his  medical  skill.  Among  his 
writings  are  "  Medical  Inquiries  and  Observations,"  (2 
vols.,  1788-93,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the 
Mind,"  (1812.)  He  died  in  Philadelphia  in  April,  1813, 
leaving  about  nine  children,  among  whom  was  Richard 
Rush,  the  statesman. 

See  Thacher,  "Medical  Biosiraphy;"  S.  D.  Gross,  "  Lives  of 
American  Physicians."  1861;  Duvckinck,  "Cyclopaedia  of  Ameri- 
can Literature,"  vol.  i. ;  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished 
Americans,"  vol.  iii. 

Rush,  (Jacob,)  DL.D.,  an  American  jurist,  born  in 
1746,  was  a  brother  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Rush.  He  was 
president  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  for  Philadelphia. 
Died  in  1820. 

Rush,  (James,)  a  son  of  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1786,  was  author  of  a  treatise  entitled 
"Philosophy  of  the  Human  Voice,"  (1827;  6th  edition, 
1867,)  which  has  been  highly  .commended,  and  of  other 
works.  About  i84ohe  married  Miss  Ridgway,  daughter 
of  Jacob  Ridgway,  a  noted  millionaire.  He  died  in  1869, 
leaving  by  his  will  about  one  million  dollars  for  the  pur- 
pose of  establishing  a  free  public  library  in  Philadelphia. 

Rush,  (Richard,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  August,  1780,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Benjamin 
Rush.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  College  in  1797, 
studied  law,  and  was  appointed  comptroller  of  the  treas- 
ury by  President  Madison.  He  was  attorney-general  of 
the  United  States  from  February,  1814,  to  March,  1817. 


e  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


R  USHTON 


1934 


R  USSELL 


Tn  the  latter  year  he  was  sent  to  England  by  President 
Monroe  as  minister-plenipotentiary.  After  he  had  ne- 
gotiated several  important  treaties,  he  returned  iti  1825. 
He  served  as  secretary  of  the  treasury  from  March,  1825, 
to  March,  1829.  He  was  nominated  for  the  Vice-Presi- 
dency by  the  friends  of  John  Quincy  Adams  in  1828,  and 
received  eighty-three  electoral  votes,  but  was  not  elected. 
In  1836  he  was  sent  to  England  as  a  special  agent  or 
commissioner  by  the  President.  He  was  appointed  min- 
ister to  France  in  1847,  was  the  first  of  the  foreign 
ministers  at  Paris  to  recognize  the  French  republic 
formed  in  1848.  He  resigned  his  office  in  1849,  a"*^ 
retired  from  the  public  service.  He  published  in  1833 
"Memorials  of  a  Residence  at  the  Court  of  Saint 
James,"  another  volume  on  the  same  subject  in  1845, 
and  "  Washington  in  Domestic  Life,"  (1857.)  Died  in 
Philadelphia  in  July,  1859. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1833  ;  "  Eclinburgh 
Review"  for  July,  1833,  article  "Ricliard  Rush  at  the  Court  of 
London  ;"  "  Democratic  Review"  for  April,  1840. 

Rush'ton,  (Edward,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  born  in  Lancashire,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1572. 
He  published  Sanders's  work  "  On  the  Anglican  Schism," 
(*'  De  Schismate  Anglicano,"  1585,)  with  additions.  Died 
at  Louvain  in  1586. 

Rush'worth,  (John,)  an  English  lawyer,  distin- 
guished as  a  compiler  of  materials  for  history,  was  born 
in  Northumberland  about  1607.  He  was  assistant  clerk 
to  the  House  of  Commons  during  the  Long  Parliament. 
He  diligently  pursued  the  practice  of  taking  notes  of 
public  transactions,  and  reported,  in  short-hand,  the 
speeches  of  members  of  Parliament.  He  served  Sir  T, 
Fairfax  as  secretary  from  1645  to  1650,  during  which 
period  Fairfax  was  commander-in-chief.  He  published 
"Historical  Collections  of  Private  Passages  of  State, 
Weighty  Matters  in  Law,"  etc.,  (8  vols.,  1659-1701.) 
Died  in  1690. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Rusk,  (Thomas  J.,)  an  American  ofificer  and  politician, 
born  in  South  Carolina  in  1803.  He  removed  to  Texas 
about  1835,  was  the  first  secretary  of  war  of  the  republic 
of  Texas,  and  commanded  the  army  after  General  Hous- 
ton was  wounded  at  San  Jacinto,  April,  1836.  In  1845 
he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  Texas.  He  was  re-elected  Senator  about 
185 1.    Died  at  Nacogdoches  in  1856. 

Rus'kin,  (John,)  an  English  artist  and  eloquent 
writer  on  art  and  nature,  was  born  in  London  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1819.  He  was  the  only  child  of  a  wine-merchant, 
and  inherited  an  ample  fortune.  "  The  first  thing  which 
I  remember  as  an  event  in  life,"  says  he,  "was  being 
taken  by  my  nurse  to  the  brow  of  Friar's  Crag  on  Der- 
wentwater."  In  his  childhood  he  enjoyed  other  excur- 
sions to  the  country,  on  which  subject  he  reinarks,  "  In 
such  journeyings,  whenever  they  brought  me  near  hills, 
and  in  all  mountain  ground  and  scenery,  I  had  a  pleasure, 
as  early  as  I  can  remember,  and  continuing  till  t  was 
eighteen  or  twenty,  infinitely  greater  than  any  which  has 
been  since  possible  to  me  in  anything.  .  ,  .  Although 
there  was  no  definite  religious  sentiment  mingled  with 
it,  there  was  a  continfial  perception  of  sanctity  in  the 
whole  of  nature,  from  the  slightest  thing  to  the  vastest, 
— an  instinctive  awe  mixed  with  delight  ;  an  indefinable 
thrill  such  as  we  sometimes  imagine  to  indicate  the 
presence  of  a  disembodied  spirit."  ("  Modern  Painters," 
vol.  iii.  chap,  xvii.)  He  was  educated  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  gained  the  Newdigate  prize  in  1839  for  an 
English  poem  entitled  "Salsetto  and  Elephanta,"  and 
graduated  in  1842.  He  received  lessons  in  drawing  and 
painting  from  Copley,  Fielding,  and  J.  D.  Harding,  and 
became  an  ardent  admirer  of  Turner.  To  defend  Turner 
from  hostile  critics,  he  wrote  the  first  volume  of  his 
"Modern  Painters,"  (1843,  by  a  Graduate  of  Oxford.) 
This  work,  which  was  expanded  into  a  treatise  on  art, 
nature,  etc.  and  extended  to  five  volumes,  established 
his  reputation  as  the  greatest  art-critic  of  England, 
although  many  of  his  opinions  are  paradoxical.  It  dis- 
plays a  rare  faculty  of  observation,  a  rich  imagination, 
and  great  mastery  of  language.  He  discusses  many 
questions  of  ethics  and  philosophy  in  an  earnest  but 
rather  impulsive  and  wayward  spirit.    He  devoted  sev- 


eral years  to  the  study  of  art  in  Italy,  especially  in  Venice. 
In  1849  he  produced  "The  Seven  Lamps  of  Architec- 
ture," and  afterwards  an  eloquent  and  brilliant  work 
on  "The  Stones  of  Venice,"  (3  vols.,  1851-53.)  He 
advocated  the  cause  of  the  Pre-Raphaelites  in  a  pam- 
phlet entitled  "  Pre-Raphaelitism,"  (1851.)  In  1854  he 
published  "Lectures  on  Architecture  and  Painting," 
(delivered  at  Edinburgh.)  In  i860  he  contributed  to  the 
"  Cornhill  Magazine"  a  series  of  essays  on  political 
economy.  Among  his  recent  works  are  "Sesame  and 
Lilies,"  (1864,)  "The  Ethics  of  the  Dust:  Ten  Lectures 
to  Little  Housewives  on  the  Elements  of  Crystalliza- 
tion," (1865,)  "The  Crown  of  Wild  Olive  :  Three  Lec- 
tures on  Work,  Traffic,  and  War,"  (1866,)  and  "The 
Queen  of  the  Air  :  being  a  Study  of  the  Greek  Myths 
of  Cloud  and  Storm,"  (1869.)  He  built  a  number  of 
model  houses  for  the  poor,  in  London.  He  was  elected 
Slade  professor  of  art  at  Oxford  in  1869. 

"  Mr.  Ruskin,"  said  Charlotte  Bronte,  "  seems  to  me 
one  of  the  few  genuine  writers,  as  distinguished  from 
book-makers,  of  this  age.  .  .  .  He  writes  like  a  con- 
secrated priest  of  the  Abstract  and  Ideal." 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  September,  1851,  and  Novem- 
ber, 1856;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1856;  Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  April,  1854;  "  North  British  Review"  for  February, 
1862:  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1847;  "Westminster 
Review"  for  April,  1856;  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Russ,  (John  Denison,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  philanthropist,  born  at  Essex,  Massachusetts,  in 
1801.  He  was  appointed  in  1832  superintendent  of  the 
New  York  Institution  for  the  Blind.  He  was  also  one 
of  the  vice-presidents  of  the  New  York  Prison  Associa- 
tion, and  was  connected  with  various  other  charitable 
institutions. 

Russ,  rooss,  (Karl,)  a  German  historical  painter, 
born  in  Vienna  in  1779,  was  patronized  by  the  archduke 
John  of  Austria.  He  etched  some  of  his  own  pictures. 
Died  in  1843. 

Rus'sell,  (Alexander,)  F.R.S.,  a  Scottish  physician 
and  naturalist,  born  in  Edinburgh.  He  was  appointed 
physician  to  the  English  Factory  at  Aleppo  in  1740.  In 
1754  he  returned  to  England,  and  published  a  "  Natural 
History  of  Aleppo,"  (1755,)  which  was  received  with 
favour.  He  afterwards  practised  in  London.  Died 
in  1768. 

See  "Essay  on  the  Character  of  Alexander  Russell;"  Chambers, 
"Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Rfls'sell,  (Benjamin,)  an  American  journalist  of  the 
Revolution,  was  born  at  Boston  in  1761.  In  1784  he 
founded  the  "  Columbia  Centinel,"  a  leading  journal  of 
the  Federal  party.    Died  in  1845. 

Russell,  (David  A.,)  an  American  general,  a  son  of 
David  Russell,  M.C.,  of  Salem,  New  York,  was  born 
about  1822.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1845,  served 
in  the  Mexican  war,  and  became  a  captain  in  1854.  He 
commanded  a  division  at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863, 
and  at  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5  and  6,  1864. 
He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Opequan  Creek,  near 
Winchester,  in  September,  1864. 

See  Tennev,  "  Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  790. 

Rus'sell,  (Edward,)  Earl  of  Orford,  an  English 
admiral,  born  in  165 1,  was  a  nephew  of  the  first  Duke 
of  Bedford.  He  was  a  prominent  Whig  chief  in  the 
revolution  of  1688.  About  1690  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  combined  navies  of  England  and 
Holland  ;  but,  not  satisfied  with  this  honour,  he  is  said 
to  have  secretly  conspired  to  restore  James  II.  In 
1692  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  French  off  La 
Hogue.  He  became  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  1693, 
after  which  he  commanded  with  success  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. He  was  created  Earl  of  Orford  and  Viscount 
Barfleur  in  1697.    Died  in  1727. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England." 

Russell,  (Francis,)  seventh  Duke  of  Bedford,  born 
in  1788,  was  a  brother  of  Lord  John  (Earl)  Russell.  He 
was  an  active  supporter  of  the  Whig  measures  in  Par- 
liament. He  devoted  much  attention  to  agriculture,  in 
which  he  is  said  to  have  made  important  improvements. 
Died  in  1861. 

Russell,  (George,)  an  English  poet  and  parson, 
born  in  Minorca  in  1728;  died  in  1767. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  filr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


RUSSELL 


1935 


RUSSELL 


Russell,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
1751.  He  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  Bengal  in 
1797.    Died  in  1836. 

Russell,  (John,)  first  Earl  of  Bedford,  obtained  a 
high  position  at  court  in  1505.  He  served  with  distinc- 
tion in  the  expedition  which  Henry  VIH.  led  against 
France  in  15 13,  and  was  rewarded  with  lands  attached 
to  the  abbey  of  Tavistock  and  the  monastery  of  Woburn. 
He  was  appointed  lord  high  admiral  and  created  Earl 
of  Bedford  in  1550,    Died  in  1555. 

See  J.  H.  WiFFEN,  "  Historical  Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Rus- 
sell," 1833- 

Russell,  (John,)  fourth  Duke  of  Bedford,  an  Eng- 
lish statesman,  born  in  1710,  succeeded  to  the  dukedom 
in  1732.  He  became  secretary  of  state  in  1748,  and  ne- 
gotiated in  1762  a  treaty  of  peace  with  France.  He  was 
president  of  the  council  in  the  Grenville  ministry,  (1763- 
65.)  He  was  a  man  of  good  intentions,  but  was  misled 
by  a  set  of  political  jobbers,  called  the  "  Bloomsbury 
gang."    Died  in  1771. 

See  David  Ross,  "  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  House  of  Rus- 
sell," 1848. 

Russell,  (Lord  John,)  afterwards  Earl  Russell, 
an  eminent  British  Whig  statesman,  born  in  London  on 
the  1 8th  of  August,  1792.  He  was  the  third  son  of  the 
sixth  Duke  of  Bedford.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of 
the  fourth  Viscount  Torrington.  He  studied  first  at  the 
Westminster  School,  from  which  he  passed  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh,  where  he  attended  the  lectures  of 
Dugald  Stewart  and  Thomas  Brown  and  was  a  pupil  of 
Playfair.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Tavistock  in 
1813,  and  began  his  career  as  a  member  of  the  Whig  party, 
which  was  then  in  the  opposition.  He  soon  became 
a  zealous  advocate  of  Parliamentary  reform,  and  made 
motions  for  the  suppression  of  rotten  boroughs,  which 
he  repeated  year  after  year.  In  1821  he  published  "  An 
Essay  on  the  History  of  the  English  Government  and 
Constitution,"  and  in  1822  "Don  Carlos,  or  Persecu- 
tion," a  tragedy.  He  procured  in  1828  the  repeal  of  the 
Test  acts  which  subjected  Protestant  dissenters  to  civil 
disabilities.  On  the  accession  of  the  Whig  party  to 
power  in  1830,  Lord  John  was  appointed  paymaster  of 
the  forces,  and  a  member  of  the  committee  of  four  by 
which  the  celebrated  Reform  bill  was  prepared.  Russell 
is  reputed  to  be  the  principal  author  of  this  bill,  which 
was  introduced  in  March,  1831,  and  was  rejected  by  a 
small  majority.  The  ministers,  having  dissolved  Parlia- 
ment and  appealed  to  the  country,  obtained  a  large  ma- 
jority in  the  new  House  of  Commons,  and,  after  a  long 
and  violent  crisis,  caused  by  the  hostility  of  the  House 
of  Lords,  the  Reform  bill  became  a  law  in  1832.  Lord 
John  was  the  leader  of  the  Whig  party  in  the  House  of 
Commons  after  1834,  and  was  appointed  secretary  for 
the  home  department  by  Lord  Melbourne  in  April,  1835. 
He  married  in  1835  Adelaide,  the  widow  of  Lord  Ribbles- 
dale  and  the  daughter  of  Thomas  Lister.  He  represented 
Stroud  in  Parliament  from  1834  to  184T,  and  was  secre- 
tary for  the  colonies  from  August,  1839,  to  September, 
1841.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  mem- 
bers for  the  city  of  London,  and  resigned  office  with  his 
colleagues.  He  contributed  in  1845  the  repeal  of  the 
Corn  Laws.  The  Whig  party  having  been  restored  to 
power  by  the  defeat  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  Russell  became 
prime  minister  in  July,  1846.  He  resigned  office  in 
February  or  March,  1852,  and  in  December  of  that  year 
entered  the  ministry  of  Lord  Aberdeen  as  secretary  for 
foreign  affairs.  Having  retired  from  this  position  in 
February,  1853,  he  was  president  of  the  council  from 
April  or  June,  1854,  to  January,  1855.  He  served  under 
Palmerston  as  colonial  secretary  for  a  short  time  in  1855. 

On  the  formation  of  a  new  ministry  by  Lord  Palmer- 
ston in  June,  1859,  Lord  John  was  appointed  secretary 
for  foreign  affairs.  In  July,  1861,  he  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  as  Earl  Russell  of  Kingston-Russell,  and  passed 
into  the  House  of  Lords.  During  the  civil  war  in  Amer- 
ica he  pursued  a  policy  of  neutrality  and  non-interven- 
tion. Like  many  other  European  statesmen,  he  hastily 
judged  that  the  Union  was  doomed  to  a  premature 
dissolution.  In  October,  1865,  he  was  called  by  public 
opinion  and  the  will  of  the  queen  to  the  office  of  prime 
minister,  vacated  by  the  death  of  Lord  Palmerston.  The 


cabinet  on  this  occasion  was  reorganized  by  the  admis« 
sion  of  a  few  new  members.  His  principal  colleagues 
were  W.  E.  Gladstone,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer, 
Lord  Clarendon,  secretary  for  foreign  affairs,  Lord  Gran- 
ville, president  of  the  council,  the  Duke  of  Somerset, 
first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  Edward  Cardvvell,  secretary 
for  the  colonies,  and  Milner  Gibson,  president  of  the 
board  of  trade.  In  the  early  part  of  the  session  of  1866 
the  ministry  introduced  a  bill  for  the  extension  of  the 
elective  franchise,  with  which  they  pledged  themselves 
to  stand  or  fall.  In  this  Reform  bill  they  proposed  to 
give  the  franchise  to  every  citizen  of  a  borough  who 
occupied,  as  owner  or  tenant,  a  house  of  the  clear 
yearly  value  of  seven  pounds.  A  long  and  excited 
debate  followed.  Although  the  professed  Liberals 
were  a  large  majority  of  the  House,  the  bill  was  de- 
feated by  a  majority  of  eleven,  June  18,  1866,  and  the 
ministry  resigned. 

See  Alison,  "  History  of  Europe "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale ;"  L.  de  Lomenie,  "  Lord  J.  Russell,  par  un  Homme  de 
Rien,"  1840;  S.  Smiles,  "  Brief  Biographies ;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1S23;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1838,  June, 
1845,  December,  1852;  "Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1848. 

Russell,  (John  Scott,)  F.R.S.,  a  British  engineer 
and  naval  architect,  was  born  in  the  Vale  of  Clyde,  in 
Scotland,  in  1808.  He  settled  in  London  in  1844.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  his  experiments  to  ascertain  the 
form  of  ships  which  will  encounter  the  least  resistance, 
and  adopted  the  theory  that  a  ship  should  resemble  in 
form  a  "  wave  of  translation,"  The  Great  Eastern  is 
constructed  according  to  his  system. 

Russell,  (Michael,)  LL.D.,  Bishop  of  Glasgow,  an 
able  writer,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1781.  He  became 
incumbent  of  Saint  James's  Chapel,  Leith,  about  1810. 
His  principal  work  is  "The  Connection  of  Sacred  and 
Profane  History,"  (3  vols.,  1821-27,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed.  He  became  Bishop  of  Glasgow  in  1837.  Died 
in  1848. 

Russell,  (Patrick,)  M.D.,  born  in  Scotland  in  1726, 
was  a  brother  of  Alexander,  noticed  above.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  in  1754  as  physician  at  Aleppo,  where 
he  witnessed  the  prevalence  of  the  great  plague  of  1760. 
He  published  in  1791  an  excellent  "Treatise  on  the 
Plague."    Died  in  1805. 

Russell,  (Lady  Rachel  Wriothesley — rot'es-le,) 
born  about  1636,  was  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  South- 
ampton, and  one  of  the  most  lovely  and  noble  of  women. 
Her  first  husband  was  Lord  Vaughan.  In  1669  she  was 
married  to  Lord  William  Russell,  at  whose  trial  she 
served  him  as  amanuensis.  Her  conduct  on  this  occa- 
sion excited  general  admiration  and  sympathy.  Died 
in  1723. 

See  "Letters  of  Lady  Russell;"  "Lady  Russell:  an  Historical 
Study,"  translated  from  the  French  of  Guizot,  whose  work  is  entitled 
"  L' Amour  dans  le  Mariage,"  8th  edition,  1862;  "Some  Account  of 
the  Life  of  Rachel  Wriothesley,  Lady  Russell ;"  "  Memoirs  of  Emi- 
nent Englislnvomen,"  by  Louisa  S.  Costello,  1844. 

Russell,  (William,)  fifth  Earl,  and  afterwards  Duke 
of  Bedford,  born  about  1614,  inherited  the  earldom  at 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1641.  He  was  an  adherent 
of  the  Parliament  in  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war,  but 
became  a  royalist  in  1643.  He  was  the  father  of  Lord 
William  Russell  who  was  beheaded  in  1683.  In  1694 
he  was  created  Duke  of  Bedford.    Died  in  1700. 

Russell,  (William,)  Lord,  an  English  patriot,  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1639.  He  entered  Parliament 
in  1660,  and  married  in  1669  the  widow  of  Lord  Vaughan, 
(see  Russell,  Lady,)  with  whom  he  passed  many  happy 
years.  By  his  honourable  character  and  high  rank  he 
acquired  great  political  influence,  which  he  employed  in 
defence  of  civil  and  religious  liberty.  He  was  api^oinled 
by  Charles  II.  a  member  of  a  new  council  of  ministers 
formed  in  1679.  In  1680  he  and  his  friends  procured 
the  passage  of  a  bill  for  the  exclusion  of  the  Duke  of 
York  from  the  throne  because  he  was  a  papist.  The 
bill  was  rejected  by  the  peers.  A  conspiracy  against  the 
king,  called  the  Rye-House  Plot,  was  formed  by  some 
inferior  partisans.  This  plot  having  been  detected,  Lord 
Russell  was  accused  of  complicity  in  it,  and  unjustly 
condemned  to  death.  He  was  beheaded  on  the  22d  of 
July,  1683.  He  left  a  son,  who  became  Duke  of  Bedford. 
"  He  had  given  such  proofs  of  an  undaunted  courage  and 


e  as^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal ;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2^==*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


R  USSELL 


•936 


R UXTON 


unshaken  firmness,"  says  Burnet,  "that  no  man  of  that 
time  had  so  entire  a  credit  in  the  nation  as  he  had." 

See  Lord  John  Russell,  "  Life  of  William  Lord  Russell,"  1819; 
y.  H.  WiFFKN,  "Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Russell,"  2  vols.,  1833; 
"Lord  Russell's  Case,  with  Observations  upon  it,"  by  Hknky 
Lord  de  la  M^re;  Burnkt,  **  History  of  his  Own  Titne;"  D. 
Ross,  "Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  House  of  Russell,"  1848; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1820. 

Russell,  (William,)  LL.D.,  a  British  historian,  born 
in  the  comity  of  Selkirk  in  1741.  He  became  a  resident 
of  London  in  1 767,  and  published  various  works  in 
prose  and  verse.  His  most  popular  work  is  a  "  History 
of  Modern  Europe,"  (5  vols.,  1779-84.)    Died  in  1793. 

See  Irvine,  "Life  of  William  Russell,"  1801;  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  July,  1818. 

Russell,  (William,)  a  teacher  and  educational  writer, 
born  at  Glasgow,  Scotland,  in  1798.  Having  emigrated 
to  the  United  States,  he  became  in  1826  editor  of  the 
"American  Journal  of  Education."  He  has  published 
several  text-books  for  schools. 

Rtts'sell,  (William  Howard,)  an  Irish  writer,  noted 
as  correspondent  of  the  London  "Times,"  was  born  in 
Dublin  in  182 1.  He  accompanied  the  British  army  to 
the  Crimea  in  1854,  and  wrote  letters  on  the  Crimean 
war,  which  attracted  great  attention  and  were  collected 
in  two  volumes,  (1856.)  \w  1861  he  was  sent  to  the 
United  States  to  report  for  the  "  Times"  the  progress 
of  the  rebellion. 

Rust,  (George,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Cam- 
bridge. He  became  Bishop  of  Dromore  in  1667,  and 
published  several  religious  works.    Died  in  1670. 

Rustam  or  Rustem.    See  Roostam. 

Rustici,  roos'tee-chee,  (Francesco,)  an  able  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Sienna  about  1595.  He  died  prema- 
turely in  1625. 

Rustici,  (Giovanni  Francesco,)  a  skilful  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Florence  about  1460  or  1470,  was  a 
pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  He  executed  three  colossal 
bronze  statues — Saint  John,  a  Pharisee,  and  a  Levite — 
for  the  baptistery  of  Florence.  He  removed  to  France 
about  1528.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  worked  in 
Paris  for  Francis  I.  Died  about  1550.  "  He  was  without 
an  equal  for  the  casting  of  works  in  metal,"  says  Vasari, 
who  also  praises  his  character  in  high  terms. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors." 

Rut'gers,  (Colonel  Henry,)  an  American  patriot, 
born  about  1746,  fought  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and 
was  afterwards  a  citizen  of  New  York  City.  He  was  very 
rich,  and  gave  large  sums  for  charity.    Died  in  1830. 

Rutgers,  rCit'gers  or  rvit'Hers,  (John,)  an  able  Dutch 
critic,  born  at  Dort  in  1589,  was  a  brother-in-law  of 
Daniel  Heinsius.  He  was  appointed  a  councillor  of 
state  by  the  King  of  Sweden  in  1614,  after  which  he 
was  employed  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  diplomatic  mis- 
sions. Among  his  works  are  "  Variae  Lectiones,"  (1618,) 
and  an  autobiography,  (1646.)    Died  in  1625. 

See  NicERON,  "Memoires." 

Ruth,  [Heb.  HI"),]  a  Moabite  woman,  who  was  mar- 
ried to  Mahlon,  a  Hebrew,  and  afterwards  to  Boaz.  She 
was  a  great-grandmother  of  King  David.  Her  story  is 
the  subject  of  the  canonical  book  of  Ruth. 

Ruth'er-ford,  (Daniel,)  a  Scottish  physician  and 
botanist,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1749.  He  is  regarded  as 
the  discoverer  of  nitrogen,  on  which  he  wrote  a  thesis, 
"  De  Aere  mephitico,"  (1772.)  He  became  professor  of 
medicine  and  botany  at  Edinburgh  in  1786.  Died  in  1819. 

Rutherford,  (Samuel,)  a  Scottish  minister  and  Cov- 
enanter, born  in  the  parish  of  Nisbet,  Roxburghshire, 
about  1600,  was  an  eloquent  and  zealous  preacher.  He 
was  ordained  minister  at  Anworth  in  1627,  and  became 
professor  of  divinity  at  Saint  Andrew's  in  1639.  He 
wrote  against  the  divine  right  of  kings,  in  a  work  en- 
titled "Law  is  King,"  ("Lex  Rex.'")  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Trial  and  Triumph  of  Faith,"  (1645,) 
and  religious  "  Letters."    Died  in  1661. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;'' 
Charles  Thomson,  "  Letters  and  Life  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Ruther- 
ford," 2  vols.,  1846. 

Riith'^r-fprth,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  an  English 
writer,  born  in  Cambridgeshire  in  17 12.  He  became 
rector  of  Barley  and  Archdeacon  of  Essex.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  religion,  philosophy,  etc.  Died  in  1 77 1. 


Riith'er-furd,  (Andrew,)  a  learned  and  able  Scot- 
tish lawyer  and  judge,  born  in  1 791,  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Lord  Jeffrey.  He  was  ajjpointed  lord  advocate 
of  Scotland  in  1839,  retired  from  that  office  in  1841,  and 
was  restored  in  1846.  In  185 1  he  became  a  lord  of 
session.    Died  in  1854. 

Ruthven.    See  (Cowrie,  Earl  of. 

Ru-til'i-us  Lu'pus,  a  Roman  rhetorician  of  an  un- 
certain epoch.  He  was  author  of  a  work  "  On  the 
Figures  of  Sentences  and  Elocution,"  ("De  Figuris  Sen- 
tentiarum  et  Elocutionis,")  which  is  accounted  valuable. 
Some  suppose  he  was  a  son  of  Rutilius  Lupus  who  was 
tribune  of  the  people  about  55  B.C. 

Rutil'ius  Numatia'nus,  (nu-ma-she-a'nus,)  (Clau- 
dius,) a  Roman  poet,  born  in  Gaul  about  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century,  was  a  pagan.  He  htciixnt  prcefedus  urbi 
at  Rome,  and  described  a  journey  from  Rome  to  Gaul 
in  a  poem  called  "  Itinerarium,"  which  is  a  work  of 
much  merit.    Nearly  half  of  it  is  lost. 

Rutland,  (Charles  Cecil  John  Manners,)  Duke 
of,  eldest  son  of  John  Henry  Manners,  fifth  Duke  of 
Rutland,  was  born  in  181 5.  He  was  styled  Marquis  of 
Granby  before  he  succeeded  to  the  dukedom,  in  1857. 
He  is  a  conservative  in  politics, 

Rutland,  (Charles  Manners,)  fourth  Duke  of,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  the  general.  Marquis  of  Granby.  He 
succeeded  his  grandfather,  the  third  duke,  in  1779.  He 
was  a  personal  and  political  friend  of  William  Pitt,  and 
was  a  patron  of  the  poet  Crabbe.  He  was  eminent  for 
generosity  and  benevolence.    Died  in  1787. 

Rutland,  Earl  of,  an  English  peer,  whose  family 
name  was  Manners,  was  a  favourite  of  Henry  VIII. 
He  held  important  offices  in  the  reign  of  that  king,  and 
was  created  Earl  of  Rutland  in  1525.  One  of  his  de- 
scendants, John  Manners,  the  tenth  earl,  was  created 
Marquis  of  Granby  and  Duke  of  Rutland  about  1702. 

Rut'ledge,  (Edward,)  an  American  jurist,  and  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  at  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  in  1749.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five 
he  was  elected  to  the  Congress  of  1774,  and  in  1798 
became  Governor  of  South  Carolina.  He  enjoyed  a  high 
reputation  as  a  lawyer  and  orator.    Died  in  1800. 

Rutledge,  (John,)  an  American  jurist  and  orator, 
born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1739,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  became  in  1774  a  member 
of  the  General  Congress,  in  which  he  was  a  bold  and 
prominent  supporter  of  independence.  He  was  elected 
president  of  South  Carolina  in  1776,  and  Governor  of 
that  State  in  1779.  In  1787  he  was  a  member  of  the 
National  Convention  which  framed  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  the  adoption  of  which  he  afterwards 
advocated.  He  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States  in  1789,  and  chief  justice  of 
South  Carolina  in  1791.  He  was  nominated  chief  justice 
of  the  United  States  in  July,  1795,  ^^"^  ^'^s  rejected  by 
the  Senate  in  December  of  that  year.  He  was  an  elo- 
quent orator,  and  a  man  of  eminent  talents.  Died  in 
July,  1800. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Rut'ty,  (John,)  a  physician  and  writer,  born  in  Dub- 
lin in  1698,  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends. 
He  practised  in  Dublin,  and  wrote,  besides  some  medical 
works,  a  "  History  of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the 
People  called  Quakers  in  Ireland,"  (1751,)  and  a  "Spir- 
itual Diary  and  Soliloquies,"  (2  vols.,  1776.)  Died  in 
1775- 

Ruvigny,  de,  deh  rii'v^n'ye',  (Henri  de  Massue — 
deh  mt'sii',)  Marquis,  a  French  Huguenot  general  and 
able  diplomatist,  born  in  1610,  was  an  uncle  of  the  excel- 
lent Lady  Rachel  Russell.  He  fought  for  the  king  in  the 
war  of  the  Fronde.  Having  been  sent  by  Louis  XIV.  on  a 
mission  to  Charles  II.  in  1675,  he  induced  the  latter  for 
a  pecuniary  consideration  to  become  subservient  to  the 
designs  of  the  French  king.  He  emigrated  to  England 
in  1686,  and  died  in  1689,  leaving  a  son,  who  was  a 
famous  general.    (See  Galway,  Earl  of.) 

See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Rilx'ton,  (George  Frederick,)  an  English  traveller, 
born  in  1820,  became  a  lieutenant  in  the  British  army. 
He  wrote  "  Adventures  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  \,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  e;,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


RUrSBROEK 


»937 


RTS  BRACK 


Mexico,"  and  •*  Life  in  the  Far  West."  Died  at  Saint 
Louis,  Missouri,  in  1848. 

Ruysbroek.    See  Rubruquis. 

Ruysbroek,  de,  deh  rois'bRook,  (Jan,)  called  the 
Ecstatic  Doctor,  a  Flemish  mystic  and  writer,  born 
about  1294;  died  in  1381. 

See  Engelhardt,  "Richard  von  St.  Victor  und  Jan  Ruysbroek," 
1838. 

Ruysch.    See  Ruisch. 

Ruysdael,  Ruysdaal,  or  Ruisdael,  rois'dll,  (Ja- 
COK,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter  of  high  reputation,  was 
born  at  Haarlem  about  1630.  His  birth  is  variously 
dated  1625,  1630,  and  1635.  He  was  a  friend  of  Nicholas 
Berghem,  from  whom  perhaps  he  received  instruction 
in  art.  He  imitated  nature  with  fidelity.  His  favourite 
subjects  were  sylvan  scenes,  cascades,  and  marine  views. 
Among  his  master-pieces  is  "The  Stag-Hunt,"  in  the 
gallery  of  Dresden.    Died  in  1681. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands, Hollandais,"  etc. 

Ruysdael,  (Solomon,)  a  painter,  born  at  Haarlem 
in  1616,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  invented 
a  composition  which  was  a  good  imitation  of  variegated 
marble.    Died  in  1670. 

Ruyter  or  Ruiter,  de,  deh  rl'ter,  [Dutch  pron.  deh 
roi'ter,]  (Michael  Adriaanzoon,)  a  celebrated  Dutch 
admiral,  born  at  Flushing  in  1607.  He  obtained  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1645,  and  fought  an  indecisive 
battle  against  the  English  near  Plyniouth  in  1652.  In 
1653  he  distinguished  himself  in  a  great  battle  between 
the  Dutch,  under  Van  Tromp,  and  the  English,  under 
Blake.  In  the  service  of  the  King  of  Denmark  he  de- 
feated the  Swedes  in  1659.  He  sailed  up  the  Thames 
in  1667  and  destroyed  the  shipping  at  Sheerness.  In 
167 1  he  commanded  a  fleet  which  the  combined  fleets 
of  England  and  France  were  not  able  to  defeat.  He 
was  mortally  wounded  in  a  fight  against  the  French 
admiral  Duquesne  in  the  Mediterranean  in  1675. 

See  G.  Brandt,  "  Leven  en  Bedrijf  van  M.  van  Ruiter,"  1687: 
Otto  Ki.opp,  "  Leben  und  Tliaten  des  Admirals  de  Ruiter,"  1852; 
Last,  "Leven  van  M.  A.  de  Ruyter,"  1842;  "Life  of  M.  A.  de 
Ruyter,"  London,  1687;  Brand,  "  Huide  aan  den  Adniiraal  de 
Ruyter,"  1827. 

Ruyven,  van,  vtn  roi'ven,  (Peter,)  a  Dutch  his- 
torical painter,  born  in  1650,  was  a  pupil  of  Jordaens. 
Died  in  17 18. 

Ruzeea-  (or  Razia-)  Begum,  ruz-ee'i  ba'giim,  the 
eldest  daughter  of  Altmish  Shems-ood-Deen,  ascended 
the  throne  of  Delhi  in  1236.  On  one  occasion  her  father 
had  appointed  her  regent  during  his  absence  on  a  dis- 
tant campaign.  When  asked  by  his  officers  why  he 
preferred  his  daughter  to  any  of  his  sons,  he  replied  that 
his  older  sons  gave  themselves  up  to  wine  and  every 
excess, — that  she,  though  a  woman,  was  better  than 
twenty  such  sons.  At  first  she  ruled  the  empire  with 
great  prudence  as  well  as  ability.  But  her  partiality  to 
one  of  her  officers,  who  was  an  Abyssinian,  greatly 
offended  her  nobles,  in  consequence  of  which  she  was 
dethroned  and  put  to  death  in  1239,  after  a  reign  of  only 
three  years  and  six  months.  "  She  was,"  says  Ferishta, 
"possessed  of  every  good  quality  which  usually  adorns 
the  ablest  princes  ;  and  those  who  scrutinize  her  actions 
most  severely  will  find  in  her  no  fault  but  that  she  was  a 
woman."  Ruzeea-Begum  was  a  half-sister  of  the  able 
but  eccentric  Mahmood-Nasir-ood-Deen. 

See  Ferishta,  "History  of  the  Mahomedan  Power  in  India," 
translated  by  Briggs,  vol.  i.  pp.  214-222. 

Rybaut  or  Ribaut,  re'bo',  (Paul,)  an  excellent 
French  Protestant  minister,  born  near  Montpellier  in 
1718.  He  lived  in  caves  and  huts  in  the  forest,  where 
he  preached  for  many  years  while  the  law  denounced 
death  as  the  penalty  of  preaching  the  Protestant  doc- 
trines. He  had  great  influence,  and  restrained  his  peo- 
ple from  rash  and  desperate  measures.    Died  in  1795. 

Rycaut  or  Ricaut,  re'ko', }  (Sir  Paul,)  F.R.S.,  an 
English  diplomatist  and  historical  writer,  born  in  London, 
graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1650.  He  was  secretary 
of  embassy  at  Constantinople  from  1661  to  1669.  He 
published  "The  Present  State  of  the  Ottoman  Empire," 
(1670,)  a  "History  of  the  Turkish  Empire  from  1623 
to  1677,"  (1680,)  and  other  works.  In  1690  he  was 
appointed  resident  at  the  Hanse  Towns.    Died  in  1700. 


Ryckaert,  rIk'SRt,  (David,)  a  skilful  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1615.  He  painted  interiors,  fairs, 
rustic  gatherings,  musical  parties,  etc.    Died  in  1677. 

Ryckaert,  (Martin,)  a  landscape-painter,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1 591,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  studied  in  Italy,  and  returned  to  Antwerp.  Died 
in  1636. 

Rycke.de.deh  ri'keh,  [Lat.  Ric'quius  or  Ryc'quius,] 
(JossE,)  a  Flemish  poet  and  antiquary,  born  at  Ghent  in 
1587.  Among  his  works  are  "Two  Books  of  Odes," 
("Odarum  Libri  duo,"  1614,)  and  "On  the  Roman 
Capital,"  ("  De  Capitolio  Romano,"  1617.)  Died  in 
1627. 

Rycke,  van,  vtn  rl'keh,  (Theodore,)  a  Dutch  critic, 
born  at  Arnhem  in  1640.  He  was  professor  of  history 
at  the  University  of  Leyden,  and  published  an  edition 
of  Tacitus,  (1687.)    Died  in  1690. 

Rycquius.   See  Rycke. 

Ry'd^r,  (Sir  Dudley,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
London  in  1694.  He  became  attorney-general  in  1737, 
and  lord  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  in  1754.  He 
was  an  ancestor  of  the  Earl  of  Harrowby.  Died  in  1756. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices;"  Foss, 
"  The  Judges  of  England." 

Ryder,  (Henry,)  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  born 
in  1777,  was  a  younger  son  of  the  Earl  of  Harrowby. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry  in  1824. 
Died  in  1836. 

Rydqvist,  rid'kwist,  (Johan  Erik,)  a  Swedish 
critic  and  writer,  born  at  Gothenburg  in  1800.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  The  Laws  of  the 
Swedish  Language,"  (2  vols.,  1852-57.) 

Ryer,  Du.    See  Du  Ryer. 

Ry'er-son,  (Adolphus  Egerton,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a 
Canadian  Methodist  divine,  born  in  Upper  Canada  in 
1803.  He  was  appointed  in  1844  superintendent  of 
public  schools  in  Upper  Canada. 

Ryk,  rik,  (Julius  Constantine,)  a  Dutch  naval 
officer,  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1787.  He  became  a 
rear-admiral  in  1838,  minister  of  the  marine  in  1842, 
and  vice-admiral  in  1844. 

Ry'land,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  Baptist  minis- 
ter, born  at  Warwick  in  1753,  was  a  son  of  Rev.  J.  C. 
Ryland,  principal  of  the  Enfield  Academy.  He  became 
pastor  of  the  Broadmead  Chapel,  Bristol,  in  1793,  and 
wrote  a  "  Life  of  Andrew  Fuller,"  (1816.)    Died  in  1825. 

Ry'land,  (John,)  a  Baptist  minister,  preached  at 
Northampton.  He  wrote  "The  Christian  Student  and 
Pastor,"  and  other  works,  and  was  principal  of  an 
academy  at  Enfield,  where  he  died  in  1 792. 

Ryland,  (William  Wynne,)  an  able  English  en- 
graver, born  in  London  in  1732,  was  a  pupil  of  Le  Bas, 
of  Paris.  He  was  appointed  engraver  to  George  HI. 
with  a  pension  of  £200  per  annum,  and  engaged  in  busi- 
ness as  a  dealer  in  prints.  He  introduced  the  chalk  or 
stipple  method  into  England.  He  was  convicted  of 
forgery  of  a  bill  of  £210  on  the  East  India  Company, 
and  was  executed  in  1783.  He  asserted  his  innocence 
to  the  last.  According  to  Strutt,  "  he  was  a  man  re- 
spected and  beloved  by  all  that  were  acquainted  with 
him."  He  excelled  in  the  use  of  the  graver  and  needle 
combined. 

See  Strutt,  "  Dictionary  of  Engravers." 

Rylejew.    See  Rileyef. 
Rymer.    See  Hrym. 

Ry'mer,  (Thomas,)  an  English  antiquary  and  editor, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1638  or  1639,  was  a  son  of  Ralph 
Rymer,  who  was  executed  for  insurrection  in  1663.  He 
was  appointed  historiographer  to  William  III.  in  1692, 
with  a  salary  of  £200,  and  was  charged  to  collect  and 
edit,  under  the  auspices  of  Lord  Somers  and  Mr.  Mon- 
tagu, the  documents  relating  to  transactions  between 
England  and  foreign  powers.  The  first  volume  of  this 
important  work,  called  "  Rymer's  Foedera,"  appeared 
in  1703,  and  was  followed  by  sixteen  other  volumes. 
Died  in  1714. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  Chambers,  "Biograph- 
ical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Rysbrack,  rls'bRSk,  written  also  Rysbraeck,  (Mi- 
chael or  John  Michael,)  an  eminent  Flemish  sculp- 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,gutiural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    {2(^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

122 


RTS  BRACK 


SAAVEDRA 


tor,  barn  at  Antwerp  about  1604,  was  a  ?on  of  Peter, 
noticed  beiow.  He  settled  in  London  in  1720,  and  «oon 
became  the  most  popular  or  successful  sculptor  in  Eng- 
land except  Roubiiiac.  Among  his  best  works  are  a 
monument  to  Sir  Isaac  Newton  in  Westminster  Ab!;ey, 
and  a  monument  to  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  at  Blen- 
t    heim.    Died  in  1770. 

Rysbrack,  Rysbraeck,  or  Rysbraech,  some- 
times written  Rysbrechts,  (PfiTER,)  an  able  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1657,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  He  imitated  the  style  of  N.  I'oussin  with 
success.  He  excelled  in  colouring  and  in  boldness  and 
freedom  or  toucn.    Died  in  17 16. 

Rysbraeck.    See  Ryshrack. 

Rysbrechts.    See  Rysbrack. 

Ryves,  rivz,  (Bruno,)  a  minister  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  born  in  Dorsetshire,  became  chaplain  of  Mag- 


J  dalene  Col'ege,  Oxford,  in  1616.  He  was  afterwards 
,  cnaplain  to  Cnarles  1.,  anct  was  persecuted  during  the 
I  civi;  war.    D'ed  in  1677. 

I  Ryves,  (Sir  Thoma.-,)  an  English  civilian,  became  a 
1  Fellcw  of  New  College,  Oxfora,  in  1598.  and  a  master 
'  in  chancery  in  1618.  He  was  in  the  civil  war  a  zealous 
partisan  of  Charles  I.,  wnom  ne  assisted  in  the  featy  of 
the  Isle  of  Wight.  He  wrote  "Ancient  Naval  History," 
("  Historia  navalis  antiqua,")  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1651. 

Rzewuski,  Rzewusky,  zhi-<^oos'ke,  written  also 
I  Rzewiesky,  (  Wenceslas,)  a  Polish  general  and  noble- 
man, born  in  1705,  was  noted  for  his  literary  attainments. 
He  was  imprisoned  six  years  at  Smolensk  and  Kalouga 
for  his  opposition  to  the  election  of  Stanislas  Ponia- 
towski,  in  1767.  He  wrote  poems,  dramas,  etc.  Died 
in  1779. 


S. 


Saa,  de,  di  si,  (Emanuel,)  a  Portuguese  Jesuit,  born 
in  1530,  became  professor  of  divinity  at  Rome,  and  was 
employed  by  Pius  V.  to  superintend  a  new  edition  of  the 
Vulgate.    Died  in  1596. 

Saa  de  Miranda.    See  Miranda. 

Sa  da  Bandeira,  de,  da  si  dS  bin-da^-rS,  (Ber- 
nardo,) a  Portuguese  soldier  and  statesman,  born  in 
1796,  fought  against  the  French  in  the  Peninsular  war, 
and  subsequently  became  a  partisan  of  Dom  Pedro,  who 
made  him  a  peer  and  minister  of  the  marine. 

Saad-ed-Deen  or  Saad-Eddin,  sS'ad  ed-deen', 
(Mohammed  Effendi,  mo-hSm'med  ef-fen'dee,)  an 
eminent  Turkish  historian,  born  in  1536,  was  educated 
at  the  court  of  the  Sultan  Selim  I.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  and  jurisprudence  in  the  college 
attached  to  the  mosque  of  Saint  Sophia,  and  in  1573  was 
appointed  by  Selim  H.  khoja  or  preceptor  to  his  son, 
Amurath  HI.  He  also  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Mohammed 
HI.,  the  successor  of  Amurath,  and  in  1598  was  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  grand  mufti.  He  had  previously  been 
appointed  by  Amurath  imperial  historiographer,  —  an 
ofifice  created  expressly  for  him.  His  principal  work, 
entitled  "The  Crown  of  Histories,"  ( "  Taj-al-Towa- 
rikh,")  is  regarded  by  the  Turks  as  a  model  of  elegance 
in  style,  and  is  highly  commended  by  Sir  William  Jones. 
It  was  translated  into  Italian  by  Vincenzo  Bratutti.  Died 
in  1599. 

Saadee,  Saadi,  or  S^di,  sS'a-dee  or  sd'dee,  (Mus- 
lih-ed-Deen,*  (or  -eddin,)  moos'lin  ed-deen',)  a  cele- 
brated Persian  poet,  born  at  Shiraz  about  1184.  He 
early  manifested  a  remarkable  spirit  of  devotion,  and  he 
is  said  to  have  made  during  his  life  no  fewer  than  fifteen 
pilgrimages  to  Mecca,  besides  which  he  visited  in  his 
travels  Bagdad,  Damascus,  Jerusalem,  Morocco,  Egypt, 
Abyssinia,  Hindostan,  and  other  countries.  Among  his 
other  adventures,  he  was  taken  prisoner  in  battle  with 
the  crusaders,  by  whom  he  was  held  for  some  time  in 
captivity.  On  his  return  from  his  extended  peregrina- 
tions he  took  up  his  abode  in  his  native  city,  where, 
chiefly  on  account  of  his  religious  character,  he  appears 
to  have  been  regarded  with  the  highest  respect  and 
veneration.  Princes  and  nobles  are  said  often  to  have 
visited  him,  bringing  him  presents.  He  died  in  1291, 
having,  it  is  said,  attained  the  extraordinary  age  of  one 
hundred  and  seven  years,  or,  as  the  Moslem  writers 
state  it,  of  one  hundred  and  ten  (lunar)  years.  After  his 
death  he  was  regarded  as  a  saint,  and  tradition  ascribed 
to  him  the  power  of  working  miracles. 

The  works  of  Saadee  are  probably  more  extensively 
read  than  those  of  any  other  Persian  writer,  Firdousee 
(the  Homer  of  Persia)  not  excepted.  His  "  Gulistan" 
C'  Rose-Garden")  is  deservedly  the  most  popular  of  all 
his  works.  It  consists  of  stories,  anecdotes,  and  moral 
observations  and  reflections,  partly  in  prose  and  partly 
In  verse,  and  possesses,  besides  other  merits,  the  charm 


*  Miislih  (or  Moslih)  signifies  "mediator,"  "pacificator."  Mus- 
lih  ed  Deen  may  be  translated  "pacificator,  friend,  or  promoter  of 
the  Faith." 


of  endless  variety.  The  religious  character  of  his  mind 
is  conspicuous  in  his  writings  ;  he  appears,  moreover,  to 
have  possessed  a  kindly  and  humane  spirit,  and  his 
moral  sentiments  may  be  said  to  be  for  the  most  part 
elevated  and  pure,  with  one  important  exception,  his 
encouraging  or  conniving  at  deceit,  which,  like  most 
other  Asiatics,  he  seems  to  have  regarded  as  often  a 
venial  fault  and  sometimes  as  a  virtue  of  high  order. 
Among  Saadee's  other  writings  is  the  "  Bostan,"  ("  Fruit- 
Garden,")  which  is  a  religious  and  moral  poem,  divided 
into  ten  books.  Saadee  is  greatly  admired  by  his  coun- 
trymen as  a  lyric  poet. 

The  style  of  Saadee  is  usually  clear,  simple,  and  ani- 
mated ;  he  is  sometimes  eloquent  and  highly  poetical. 
According  to  the  opinion  of  some  eminent  critics,  he 
makes  a  tnore  sparing  use  of  hyperbole  and  metaphor 
than  most  other  Oriental  writers.  His  language,  how- 
ever, differs  from  that  of  Firdousee  in  containing  fewer 
words  from  the  original  Persian,  and  a  much  larger 
admixture  of  Arabic  terms  and  phrases. 

See  L.  M.  Langl^s,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Oiivrages  de 
Sa'ady,"  about  1820;  D'Herbelot,  "  Bibliotheque  OiieiUale  ;" 
OusEi.EY,  "  Biographical  Notices  of  the  Persian  Poets;"  Silvestre 
DE  Sacy,  "Notices;"  Von  Hammer,  "  Geschichte  der  schonen 
Redekiinste  Persiens." 

Saadia,  s^'dee'l,  (Ben  Joseph,)  a  celebrated  Jewish 
theologian  and  philosopher,  sometimes  called  Saadias- 
Gaon,  born  at  Fayoom,  in  Egypt,  in  892.  He  was  teacher 
of  the  Jewish  academy  at  Sura,  and  made  an  Arabic 
translation  of  the  Pentateuch.  He  also  wrote,  in  Arabic, 
a  treatise  "On  Religions  and  Doctrines."    Died  in  942. 

Saas,  sSs,  (Jean,)  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  bibliogra- 
pher, born  at  Rouen  in  1703  ;  died  in  1774. 

Saavedra,  de.    See  Cervantes. 

Saavedra,  de,  di  sl-va^DRj,  (Angel,)  Duke  of  Rivas, 
a  distinguished  Spanish  poet,  statesman,  and  soldier, 
born  at  Cordova  in  1791.  He  fought  against  the  French 
at  Talavera,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of 
Ocana,  in  1809.  On  the  French  invasion  of  1823,  he 
repaired  to  London,  and  subsequently  to  Malta,  where 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  English  literature. 
Soon  after  his  return  he  was  appointed  procer  of  the 
kingdom,  and  became  a  member  of  the  ministry  under 
Isturiz  in  1836.  He  was  afterwards  ambassador  to 
Naples,  and  filled  other  important  offices.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  the  poem  of  "  The  Moorish  Found- 
ling," ("  El  Moro  Exposito,"  1834,)  the  tragedy  of  "  Don 
Alvaro,"  (1835,)  "La  Morisca  de  Alajuar,"  a  drama, 
(1842,)  and  a  history  of  Masaniello's  insurrection  at 
Naples. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Keni.bdv, 
"Modern  Poets  of  Spain." 

Saavedra  yFajardo,  (or  Faxardo,)  sl-va'DR^e  fS- 
HaR'do,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  diplomatist  and  distinguished 
writer,  born  in  the  province  of  Murcia  in  1584.  He  was 
sent  on  diplomatic  missions  to  several  courts  of  Germany 
and  Italy.  His  principal  works  are  an  "Idea  of  a  Chris- 
tian Prince,"  ("  Idea  de  un  Principe  politico  Christiano," 
etc.,  1640,)  consisting  chiefly  of  a  collection  of  political 


a,€,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lottg;  i,^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


bABA 


1939 


SACADAS 


maxims,  and  an  ingenious  critique  of  ancient  and 
modern  writers,  entitled  **  Republica  Literaria,"  (1670.) 
Died  in  1648. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  G.  Mayans  Y 
SiscAR,  "Oracion  en  Alabanza  de  las  Obras  de  Don  D.  de  Saavedra 
y  Faxardo,"  1725. 

Sa'ba  or  Sa'bas,  [ld6ac,]  a  Greek  monk  of  high 
reputation,  born  in  Cappadocia  about  439  A.D.  He 
founded  a  monastery  near  the  river  Jordan.  He  was  an 
opponent  of  the  Monophysites.    Died  in  532  A.D. 

Sab'a-con  or  Sab'a-co,  [Gr.  laSuKuv,]  King  of 
Ethiopia,  invaded  Egypt,  dethroned  its  king,  and  reigned 
many  years  over  that  country.  He  lived  probably  about 
750  or  800  B.C. 

Sabas.    See  Saba. 

Sabatei  Sevi,  si-bd-ta'ee  sa'vee,  a  Jewish  impostor, 
born  at  Smyrna  in  1626,  claimed  to  be  the  Messiah. 
Being  made  prisoner  by  the  Turks,  he  saved  his  life  by 
embracing  Mohammedanism.    Died  in  1676. 

Sabatier,  st'bt'te-a',  (Andr^;  Hyacinthe,)  a  French 
lyric  poet,  was  born  at  Cavaillon  in  1726;  died  at 
Avignon  in  1806. 

Sabatier  or  Sabbathier,  st'bt'te-^',  (Pierre,)  a 
French  Benedictine  monk,  was  born  at  Poitiers  in 
1682.  He  prepared  an  edition  of  all  the  Latin  versions 
of  the  Scriptures.    Died  in  1742. 

Sabatier,  (Raphael  Bienvenu,)  a  French  surgeon, 
born  in  Paris  in  1732,  was  royal  censor  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  and  received  from  Bonaparte  the  cross  of 
the  legion  of  honour.  He  published  several  able  surgical 
treatises.     Died  in  181 1. 

Sabatier  de  Castres,  st'bS'te-i'  deh  ktstR,  (An- 
TOINE,)  a  French  writer,  was  born  at  Castres  in  1742. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "  The  Three  Ages  of 
French  Literature,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1772,)  in  opposition 
to  the  doctrines  of  Helvetius.  He  also  wrote  "The 
Heathen  Ages,  or  Mythological,  Political,  Literary, 
and  Geographical  Dictionary  of  Pagan  Antiquity,"  (9 
vols.,  1784,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1817. 

See  QuHRARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^nerale." 

Sabatini,  sS-bS-tee'nee,  (Francesco,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  architect,  born  at  Palermo  in  1722,  was  a  son- 
in-law  of  Vanvitelli,  whom  he  assisted  in  building  the 
palace  of  Caserta  near  Naples.  He  afterwards  settled 
at  Madrid,  where  he  built  the  custom-house,  ( Aduana,) 
the  gate  of  Alcala,  and  that  of  San  Vincente.  Died 
in  1798. 

Sabbathier,  sS'bt'te-4',  (Francois,)  a  French  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  boriT^  at  Condom  in  1735.  His 
chief  work  is  "  Dictionnaire  pour  ITntelligence  des 
Auteurs  Grecs  et  Latins,"  (37  vols.,  1 766-181 5,)  which 
treats  of  ancient  history,  geography,  mythology,  etc. 
and  presents  a  copious  analysis  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
historians.    Died  in  1807. 

Sabbathier,  (Pierre.)    See  Sabatier. 

Sabbatini,  sib-b^-tee'nee,  (  Andrea,  )  an  Italian 
painter,  sometimes  called  Andrea  da  Salerno,  born 
about  1480,  was  a  pupil  of  Raphael.  He  settled  at 
Naples,  where  several  of  his  master-pieces  are  to  be 
seen.  He  is  regarded  as  the  best  painter  of  the  Nea- 
politan school.    Died  in  1545. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Sabbatini,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  painter,  called 
LoRKNZA  DA  BoLOGNA,  was  bom  in  that  city  about 
1540  ;  died  in  1577. 

Sabbatini,  (P.  Ludovtco  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
musician  and  writer  of  the  eighteenth  century,  is  some- 
times called  Sabbatini  of  Padua.    Died  in  1809. 

Sa-bePli-cus,  (Marcus  An  tonius  Coccius,)  origin- 
ally Marcantonio  Coccio,  (kot'cho,)  an  Italian  histo- 
rian and  scholar,  born  in  the  Campagna  di  Roma  in 
1436.  He  became  professor  of  eloquence  at  Venice. 
His  principal  work  is  a  "History  of  the  Republic  of 
Venice,"  (in  Latin,  1487.)    Died  in  1508. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis  ;"  Bayle,  "  Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Sa-bePlI-us,  an  African  bishop  or  presbyter,  who 
lived  about  250-270  A.D.  and  dissented  from  the  ortho- 
dox creed  in  relation  to  the  Trinity.  His  doctrines  were 
adopted  by  a  numerous  sect,  called  Sabellians.   Little  is 


known  of  his  personal  history.  He  taught  that  there  is 
only  one  hypostasis^  or  person,  in  the  Divine  nature. 

See  Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography." 

Sa-bi'na,  a  Roman  empress,  was  married  to  the 
emperor  Hadrian  about  100  A.D.,  and  received  the 
title  of  Augusta.  Having  been  ill  treated  by  Hadrian, 
she  committed  suicide  about  137  A.D. 

Sabina,  (Popp^>a.)    See  Popp^a. 

Sab'ine,  (Edward,)  an  English  mathematician  and 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  born  in  October,  178H, 
accompanied  Parry's  expedition  to  the  Arctic  regions 
in  1819.  He  published  in  the  "  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions," after  his  return,  the  result  of  his  observations 
on  the  action  of  the  magnetic  needle.  In  1822  he  made 
a  voyage  to  Africa  and  North  and  South  America,  of 
which  he  gave  an  account  in  his  "  Pendulum  Expe- 
dition," (1825.)  He  has  also  written  "Reports  on 
Magnetic  and  Meteorological  Observations,"  and  other 
similar  works.  He  became  vice-president  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1850,  and  president  of  the  same  in  1861. 

Sabine,  (Joseph,)  an  English  savant,  born  in  1770, 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  filled  the  post 
of  vice-president  of  the  Zoological  Society,  and  other 
important  offices.    Died  in  1837. 

Sa-bin-i-a'nus  [Fr.  Sakinien,  st'be'neJ.N']  suc- 
ceeded Gregory  I.  as  Pope  of  Rome  in  604  A.D.  He 
survived  his  election  only  eighteen  months,  and  Boni- 
face HL  was  his  successor. 

Sa-bi'nus,  (Aulus,)  a  Roman  poet,  was  the  friend 
of  Ovid,  and  the  author  of  P^pistles,  or  "  Heroides,"  in 
reply  to  those  of  Ovid.    Only  three  of  them  are  extant. 

Sabinus,  (Calvisius,)  a  Roman  commander,  was  an 
adherent  of  Caesar  in  the  civil  war.  He  obtained  the 
province  of  Africa  in  45  B.C.,  was  consul  in  39,  and 
commanded  the  fleet  of  Octavius  in  38  B.C. 

Sabinus,  (Ccelius  M.,)  a  Roman  jurist,  flourished  in 
the  reign  of  Vespasian,  and  became  consul  in  69  A.D. 

Sabinus,  (Flavius,)  a  Roman  general  of  high  repu- 
tation, was  a  brother  of  the  emperor  Vespasian.  He  held 
the  high  office  of  prcefectus  urbis  from  58  to  69  A.D. 
Having  been  taken  prisoner  by  the  soldiers  of  Vitellius, 
he  was  massacred  at  Rome  in  69  A.D. 

Sabinus,  sS-bee'nus,  (Georg,)  a  German  scholar  and 
Latin  poet,  whose  original  name  was  SCHULER,  (shii'ler,) 
was  born  at  Brandenburg  in  1508.  He  was  a  son-in-law 
of  Melanchthon.  He  became  professor  of  poetry  and 
eloquence  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  and  in  1544  rector 
of  the  University  of  Konigsberg.  Atnong  his  works  we 
may  name  his  Latin  elegies,  entitled  "  Sabini  Carmina." 
Died  in  1560. 

See  P.  Albinus,  "Vita  G.  Sabini,"  1724;  M.  W.  Heffter, 
"  Erinnerung  an  G.  Sabinus,"  1844 ;  A.  FOkstenhaupt,  "Georg 
Sabinus,"  1849. 

Sabinus,  (Julius,)  a  Gallic  chieftain  of  the  district 
of  the  Lingones,  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  Caesar 
about  70  A.D.,  and  invaded  the  territory  of  the  Sequani. 
He  was  soon  after  arrested  and  put  to  death  by  order  of 
Vespasian. 

Sabinus,  (Massurius  or  Masurius,)  an  eminent 
Roman  jurist,  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Tiberius  and  Ca- 
ligula. He  was  a  pupil  of  Capito,  and  the  founder  of 
a  school  of  jurists  called  Sabiniani.  He  wrote  an  im- 
portant treatise  on  civil  law,  on  which  Pomponius, 
Paulus,  and  Ulpian  wrote  commentaries. 

See  Grotius,  "  Vitae  Jurisconsultorum  ;"  Arntzen,  "  De  Ma- 
surio  Sabino,"  1768. 

Sablier,  si'ble-i,',  (Charles,)  a  French  writer,  born 
in  Paris  in  1693.  He  wrote,  besides  several  dramas, 
"  An  Essay  on  Languages  in  general,  and  the  French 
in  particular,"  (1777.)   Died  in  1786. 

Sabliere,  de  la,  deh  It  st'ble-aiR',  (Antoine  Ram- 
bouillet  —  rSN^boo^yi',)  a  French  poet,  born  about 
161 5,  inherited  a  large  fortune.  He  wrote  a  number  of 
madrigals,  which  were  praised  by  Voltaire,  ("  Siecle  de 
Louis  XIV,"  1751,  tome  ii.)    He  died  in  1680. 

His  wife,  Madame  de  la  Sabli^re,  was  celebrated 
for  her  talents  and  accomplishments.  She  was  a  friend 
and  benefactor  of  La  Fontaine.    Died  in  1693. 

Sac'a-das  [2aKu(^af]  of  Argos,  an  eminent  Greek 
musician  and  poet,  lived  about  600  B.C.  He  excelled  as 
a  flute-player. 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as//  G,  H,  VL^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SACCHETTI 


1940 


SJDE 


Sacchetti,  sSk-ket'tee,  (Franco,)  an  Italian  novelist 
and  poet,  born  at  Florence  about  1335,  was  contempo- 
rary with  Boccaccio.  As  a  novelist,  he  was  regarded 
by  his  countrymen  as  only  second  in  genius  to  that 
celebrated  writer.    Died  in  1410. 

Sacchetti,  (Giamhattista,)  a  distinguished  archi- 
tect, born  at  Turin  in  1736.  He  was  patronized  by 
Philip  V.  of  Spain,  who  employed  him  to  build  the  new 
palace  at  Madrid.  He  afterwards  became  director  of  the 
public  school  of  architecture  in  that  city.    Died  in  1764. 

Sacchi,  sik'kee,  (Andrea,)  an  eminent  Italian 
painter  of  the  Roman  school,  was  born  near  Rome 
about  1598.  He  was  patronized  by  Urban  VIII.,  who 
employed  him  to  paint  one  of  the  great  altar-pieces  of 
Saint  Peter's.  Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  a 
fresco  in  the  Barberini  palace  representing  "Divine 
Wisdom,"  eight  pictures  from  the  life  of  John  the 
Baptist,  the  "Miracle  of  Saint  Anthony,"  and  "Saint 
Roniualdo  relating  his  Vision  to  Five  Monks  of  his 
Order."  The  last-named  is  esteemed  his  master-piece, 
and  one  of  the  best  productions  of  the  Roman  school. 
Sacchi  numbered  among  his  pupils  Carlo  Maratta  and 
N.  Poussin.    Died  in  1661. 

See  Passeri,  "  Vite  de'  Pittori ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in 
Italy." 

Sacchi,  (PiETRO  Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Pavia.  He  began  to  work  in  Milan  about  1460. 
Many  years  after  that  date  he  lived  at  Genoa. 

Sacchi,  or  Sacchini,  sSk-kee'nee,  (Juvenal,)  an 
Italian  writer  on  music,  born  at  Milan  in  1726,  was  a 
monk  or  priest.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  an 
"  Essay  on  the  Music  of  the  Ancient  Greeks,"  (1778.) 
Died  in  1789. 

Sacchini,  sik-kee'nee,  (Antonio  Maria  Gasparo,) 
an  Italian  composer  of  great  celebrity  in  his  time,  born 
at  Naples  in  1735,  was  a  pu])il  of  Durante.  Among  his 
best  works  are  the  operas  of  "CEdipe  a  Colone,"  "  Mon- 
tezuma," "  The  Cid,"  and  "  Olympia."  He  passed  about 
eight  years  in  England,  whither  he  went  in  1772.  He 
wrote  with  purity  and  elegance,  and  accomplished  great 
effects  by  simple  means.    Died  in  Paris  in  1786. 

See  Framery,  "Eloge  de  Sacchini,"  1787;  Fetis,  "Biographie 
Universelle  des  Musicians;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Sacchini,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born 
near  Perugia  in  1570,  was  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the 
Jesuits'  College  at  Rome.  He  wrote  a  continuation 
of  Orlandino's  History  of  his  Order,  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1625. 

Sacheverell,  sa-shlv'e-rel,  (Henry,)  an  English 
churchman,  notorious  as  a  partisan  of  Toryism,  was  born 
about  1672,  and  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  was  ap- 
pointed preacher  at  Saint  Saviour's,  Southwark,  in  1705, 
and  preached  in  1709  two  political  sermons  which  were 
offensive  to  the  ministry  and  the  majority  of  Parliament. 
He  was  impeached  for  libel  by  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  convicted  in  1710  by  the  peers,  who  sentenced  him 
to  suspension  from  the  ministry  for  three  years.  The 
clergy  and  country  squires  sympathized  with  him  as  the 
champion  of  the  Church.  The  excitement  occasioned 
by  his  trial  contributed  to  the  defeat  of  the  Whigs  in  the 
next  general  election,  and  to  the  removal  of  Godolphin 
and  his  colleagues  from  power,  (1710.)  Queen  Anne 
rewarded  him  with  the  valuable  rectory  of  Saint  An- 
drew's, Holborn,  in  17 13.    Died  in  1724. 

See  "The  Life  of  Dr.  H.  Sacheverell,"  London,  1710. 

Sachs.    See  Hans  Sach«, 

Sachsen,  von,  (Moritz.)  See  Saxe,  (Hermann 
Maurice.) 

Sachtleven,  siKt-la'ven,  or  Zachtleven,  zlKt-la'- 
ven,  (Cornri.is,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Rotterdam 
in  1606  or  161 2.  His  subjects  are  generally  taken  from 
low  life,  and  painted  in  the  style  of  Brauwer  and  Teniers. 
Died  in  1685. 

Sachtleven,  (Herman,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter 
of  great  merit,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1609,  was  a  pupil 
of  J.  van  Goyen.  He  painted  many  scenes  on  the  Rhine 
and  Meuse.    Died  in  1685. 

Saci.    See  Lemaistre  de  Saci. 

Sack,  sik,  (Friedrich  Samuel  Gottfried,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1738,  was  the 
author  of  a  treatise  "  On  the  Union  of  the  Two  Prot- 


estant Church  Parties,"  (1812,)  which  was  chiefly  in- 
strumental in  promoting  the  union  of  the  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  Churches  in  Prussia.  He  also  translated  the 
principal  part  of  Blair's  "  Sermons"  into  German.  Died 
in  1817. 

Sack,  (JoHANN  August,)  an  able  Prussian  adminis- 
trator, born  at  Cleves  in  1764.  He  was  appointed  in 
1800  privy  councillor  of  finance  at  Berlin,  ( Oherfinanz- 
rath,)  and  in  1813  became  civil  governor  of  all  the  country 
between  the  Elbe  and  the  Oder.    Died  in  1831. 

Sack,  (Karl  Heinrich,)  a  son  of  Friedrich  Samuel 
Gottfried,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Berlin  in  1790. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Bonn  in  1823,  and 
publi.shed  several  theological  works. 

Sackborn.    See  Saxius,  (Christoph.) 

Sacken.    See  Osten-Sacken. 

Sackville,  (Charlp:s.)    See  Dorset,  Earl  of. 

Sackville,  (Edward.)    See  Dorset,  Earl  of. 

Sack'ville,  (  George,  )  Viscount,  called  Lord 
George  Germain,  son  of  the  Duke  of  Dorset,  was  born 
in  1716.  He  served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  at 
the  battle  of  Minden,  in  1759,  commanded  the  British 
forces  under  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick.  Having 
disobeyed  the  prince's  orders,  he  was  tried  in  England 
by  a  court-martial  and  dismissed  the  service.  Under 
George  III,  he  became  in  1775  secretary  of  state  for 
the  colonies.  In  this  capacity  he  directed  the  milit'ary 
operations  in  the  American  war.  Having  inherited 
the  estates  of  Lady  Germain,  he  assumed  that  name  in 
1770.    Died  in  1785. 

See  R.  Cumberland,  "Character  of  Lord  G.  Gerniain,"  1785; 
Lord  Stanhope,  (Mahon,)  "History  of  England." 

Sacro-Bosco.    See  Holywood. 

Sacy,  de,  deh  st'se',  (Antoine  Isaac  Silvestre,) 
Baron,  often  called  simply  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  an 
eminent  French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  on  the  21st 
of  Septen)ber,  L758.  He  was  a  son  of  J.  Abraham  Sil- 
vestre, a  notary.  After  he  had  become  a  good  classical 
scholar,  he  studied  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Chaldee,  Arabic, 
and  Persian.  He  was  also  versed  in  German,  English, 
Italian,  and  Spanish.  In  1785  he  was  admitted  into 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  wrote  a  "  Memoir  on 
the  History  of  the  Arabs  before  Mohammed."  He  con- 
tributed to  the  Academy  four  able  "  Memoirs  on  Divers 
Antiquities  of  Persia,"  printed  in  1793.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Arabic  in  a  school  founded  at  Paris 
in  1795.  In  1799  he  published  his  "  Principles  of  Gen- 
eral Grammar,"  which  is  one  of  his  best  works.  He 
became  professor  of  Persian  in  the  College  of  France 
in  1806,  and  published  in  the  same  year  a  work  called 
"  Chrestomathie  Arabe,"  consisting  of  extracts  from 
Arabian  authors,  with  French  versions  and  notes.  He 
wrote  many  articles  for  the  "  Biographie  Universelle" 
and  the  "Journal  Asiatique."  In  the  reign  of  Louis 
XVIII.  he  was  a  member  of  the  council  of  public  in- 
struction. S.  de  Sacy  and  Abel  Remusat  founded  the 
Asiatic  Society  in  1822.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Peers  in  1832,  and  perpetual  secretary  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1833.  Among  his  works 
are  an  Arabic  Grammar,  (1810,)  and  "  Pend-Nameh," 
in  Persian  and  French,  (1819.)    Died  in  February,  1838. 

See  Reinaud,  "Notice  historique  et  litteraire  sur  Silvestre  de 
Sacy,"  1838  ;  Daunou,  "  filoge  de  Silvestre  de  Sacy,"  1838;  "  Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
September,  1828. 

Sacy,  de,  deh  st'se',  (Louis,)  a  French  advocate  and 
litterateur,  born  in  1654,  was  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Friendship," 
and  translated  some  works  of  Pliny  the  Younger.  Died 
in  1727. 

Sacy,  de,  (Louis  Isaac.)    See  Lemaistre. 

Sacy,  de,  (Samuel  Ustaza  Silvestre,)  a  French 
journalist,  a  son  of  the  eminent  Orientalist,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1801.  He  was  one  of  the  principal  contributors 
to  the  "Journal  des  Debats."  In  1854  he  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy.  It  is  stated  that  during  a  period 
of  twenty  years  (1828-48)  he  furnished  two-thirds  of  the 
political  articles  of  the  "Journal  des  Debats." 

Sade,  de,  deh  std,  (Donatien  Alphonse  FRANgois,) 
Marquis,  a  profligate  French  novelist,  a  nephew  of  the 
following,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1740 ;  died  in  1814. 


i,e,T,  6,u,y,  A7«jf;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  j>4<7r^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SADE 


S AH AG  UN 


Sade,  de,  (Jacques  Francois  Paul  Alphonse,) 
Abb6,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1705,  wrote  '*  Me- 
moirs of  the  Life  of  Petrarch,"  (3  vols.,  1764,)  which 
is  said  to  be  a  work  of  much  merit.    Died  in  1778. 

Sadeel,  (Antoine.)    See  Chandieu. 

Sadeler,  siMeh-ler,  (Giles,)  a  Flemish  engraver, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1570,  was  a  brother  or  nephew  of 
Jean,  noticed  below.  He  engraved  after  the  Italian 
masters.  Among  his  works  are  "Vestiges  of  Roman 
Anti/juities."  Died  in  1629.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  best  engraver  of  the  family. 

Sadeler,  (Jean,)  an  able  Flemish  engraver  and 
designer,  born  at  Brussels  in  1550.  He  studied  and 
worked  in  Italy,  and  engraved  many  works  of  Italian 
masters.  Among  his  prints  are  scriptural  subjects,  por- 
traits, and  landscapes.  He  died  at  Venice  about  1600 
or  1610. 

Sadeler,  (Raphael,)  a  skilful  Flemish  engraver, 
a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1555;  died 
in  1616. 

Sadi.    See  Saadee. 

Sad'ler,  (Anthony,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Wilt- 
shire, became  chaplain  to  Charles  II.  He  published  a 
number  of  sermons,  and  a  work  entitled  a  "Divine 
Masque."    Died  in  1680. 

Sadler,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Shropshire 
in  1615.  He  pulDlished  "Rights  of  the  Kingdom,  or 
Customs  of  our  Ancestors."    Died  in  1674. 

Sadler,  (Michael  Thomas,)  an  English  philanthro- 
pist and  statesman,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1780.  He 
was  twice  elected  to  Parliament  for  Newark-upon-Trent, 
and  in  183 1  represented  Aldborough,  in  Yorkshire.  He 
laboured  earnestly  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  poor 
and  of  the  children  employed  in  factories.  He  wrote  a 
work  entitled  "  Ireland  :  its  Evils  and  their  Remedies," 
and  "The  Law  of  Population."    Died  in  1835. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  L*ife  of  M.  T.  Sadler,"  1842;  "Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  February,  1831;  "Maltlius  and  Sadler,"  in 
the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1831 ;  "  Eraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  September,  1835. 

Sadler,  (Sir  Ralph,)  was  born  in  Middlesex,  Eng- 
land, in  1507.  At  an  early  age  he  obtained  the  notice 
and  patronage  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  employed  him  in 
various  important  missions.  For  his  courage  at  the 
battle  of  Pinkie  he  was  made  knight-banneret  on  the 
field.  After  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he  became  a 
member  of  her  first  Parliament,  and,  on  the  imprison- 
ment of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  at  Tutbury,  was  appointed 
her  keeper.  He  died  in  1587.  His  "State  Papers  and 
Letters,"  edited  by  Arthur  Clifford,  appeared  in  1809. 

See  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works  ;  Froude, 
"  History  of  England ;"  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland  ;"  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  August,  1810;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
November,  18 10. 

Sadler,  (William  Windham,)  an  English  aeronaut 
and  chemist,  who  crossed  the  Irish  Channel  from  Dub- 
lin to  Wales,  and  made  many  other  voyages  of  the  kind. 
He  was  subsequently  killed  by  a  fall  from  his  balloon,  in 
1824,  at  the  age  of  about  twenty-eight. 

Sadlier,  std'le-i',  ?  (Mary  Anne,)  a  writer  of  fiction, 
whose  original  name  was  Madden,  was  born  in  the 
county  of  Cavan,  Ireland,  in  1820.  Having  emigrated 
to  Canada,  she  married  a  Mr.  Sadlier,  and  published  a 
n-umber  of  tales  in  favour  of  Catholicism. 

Sa'doc  or  Za'dok,  a  learned  Jew,  who  lived  about 
250  K.C.,  was  the  disciple  of  Antigonus  Sochaeus,  and 
became  the  principal  founder  of  the  sect  of  Sadducees. 

Sadolet.    See  Sadoleto. 

Sadoleto,  sS-do-la'to,  or  Sadoletti,  sl-do-let'tee, 
[Fr.  Sadolet,  st'do'lk',]  (Jacopo,)  an  eminent  Italian 
writer  and  cardinal,  born  at  Modenain  1477,  was  a  friend 
of  Bembo.  He  became  secretary  to  Leo  X.  about  15 14, 
and  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Carpentrafis  in  1517.  He  was 
employed  as  secretary  by  Clement  VII.,  and  was  made  a 
cardinal  by  Paul  III.  about  1536,  after  which  he  passed 
the  most  of  his  time  at  Rome.  In  1542  he  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Francis  T.  of  France.  He  is  represented 
as  a  man  of  noble  character,  pious,  modest,  and  liberal. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  a  treatise  on  education, 
entitled  "  De  Liberis  recte  Instituendis,"  (1533,)  "On 
the  Merits  of  Philosophy,"  ("  Phaedrus,  sive  de  I>audibus 
Philosophiae,"  1538,)  and  "  Latin  Poems,"  (1548.)  Died 


at  Rome  in  1547.  "There  were  two,"  says  Hallam, 
"  Bembo  and  Sadolet,  who  had  by  common  confession 
reached  a  consummate  elegance  of  style,  in  comparison 
of  which  the  best  productions  of  the  last  age  seemed 
very  imperfect."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.") 

See  F.  G.  Cancei.lieri,  "  Elogio  storico  di  J.  Sadoletti,"  1828; 
A.  P^ricaud,  "Fragments  biographioues  sur  J.  Sadolet,"  1849; 
JoLY,  "  Etude  sur  Sadolet,"  1857  ;  Niceron,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sadoleto  or  Sadolet,  (Paolo,)  a  poet  and  bishop, 
born  at  Modena  in  1508,  was  a  cousin-german  or  nephew 
of  the  preceding.  He  became  Bishop  of  Carpentras 
in  1547.  He  wrote  Latin  Poems  and  Epistles.  Died 
in  1572. 

Saeed  (or  Said)  Pasha,  sJ'eed'  pS'shS^  Viceroy  of 
Egypt,  and  fourth  son  of  Mehemet  Alee,  was  born.ia 
1822,  and  succeeded  Abbas  Pasha  in  1854.  He  died  in 
January,  1863. 

Saehrimnir,  si-rim'nir,  written  also  Serimner,  the 
boar  on  whose  flesh  the  heroes  who  are  admitted  to 
Valhalla  feast.  Although  boiled  and  served  up  every 
day,  the  boar  is  always  whole  again  at  evening. 

See  Thorpe's  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. 

Saemund.    See  Samund. 

Saenredam,  sSn'reh-dim^  (Jan,)  an  able  Dutch 
designer  and  engraver,  born  at  Leyden  about  1565. 
He  engraved  historical  and  scriptural  subjects  after 
various  masters,  also  some  of  his  own  designs.  Died 
in  1607. 

Saenredam,  (Pieter,)  a  painter,  born  at  Assendelft 
about  1597,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  painted 
architecture  and  interiors  of  churches.  His  works  are 
highly  praised.    Died  in  1666. 

Safarik.    See  Schafarik. 

Saga,  si'ga,  [from  saga  or  saga,  to  "say,"  to  "re- 
late,"] according  to  the  Norse  mythology,  the  goddess 
or  muse  of  history.  She  is  the  intimate  companion  of 
Odin,  (or  "  Mind.") 

Sage,  stzh,  (Balthasar  Georges,)  a  French  chemist 
and  natural  philosopher,  born  in  Paris  in  1740.  He  pub- 
lished numerous  treatises  on  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and 
electricity.  He  was  the  principal  founder  of  the  School 
of  Mines,  (1783,)  and  contributed  much  to  the  art  of 
docimasie  in  France.  In  1801  he  was  admitted  into  the 
Institute.    Died  in  1824, 

See  his  "  Autobiography,"  1818  ;  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Sage,  (John,)  a  bishop  of  the  Scottish  Episcopal 
Church,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1652,  was  eminent  for 
learning  and  talents.  He  preached  at  Edinburgh,  wrote 
several  polemical  works  against  the  Presbyterians,  and 
became  a  bishop  in  1705.    Died  in  1711. 

See  J.  GiM.AN,  "Life  of  John  Sage,"  1714;  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Sage,  Le.    See  Le  Sage. 

Sagittarius.    See  Schutz,  (Heinrich.) 

Sagittarius,  si-git-ti're-us,  (Caspar,)  a  German  his- 
torian and  Lutheran  minister,  born  at  Lunenburg  in 
1643.  became  professor  of  history  at  Jena  in  1674. 

He  wrote  several  works  on  German  history,  and  an 
"  Introduction  to  Ecclesiastic  History,"  (1694.)  Died 
in  1694. 

Sagittarius,  (Johann  Christfried,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Breslau  in  161 7,  became  professor  of 
history  at  Jena.  He  wrote  many  dissertations,  and 
edited  the  works  of  Luther,  (9  vols,  folio,  1661-64.) 
Died  in  1689. 

Sagoskin.    See  Zogoskin. 

Sagra,  de  la,  di  13,  si'gRi,  (Don  Ramon,)  a  Spanish 
writer,  born  at  Corunna  in  1798,  published  "The 
Physical,  Political,  and  Natural  History  of  the  Island 
of  Cuba,"  (1837,)  and  several  treatises  on  political 
economy. 

Sagredo,  s3-gRa'do,  (Giovanni,)  a  Venetian  diplo- 
matist and  historian,  published  "  Historical  Memoirs 
of  the  Ottoman  Monarchs  from  1300  to  1646,"  (1677,) 
said  to  be  well  written.  He  became  procurator  of  Saint 
Mark's  about  1668.    Died  after  1691. 

Sahagun,  de,  di  sS-S-goon',  (Bernardino,)  a  Fran- 
ciscan friar,  born  at  vSahagun,  in  Spain,  was  a  missionary 
to  Mexico  in  1529.  He  wrote  a  valuable  history  entitled 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SJID 


1942 


SAINTE-AULAIRE 


"  Historia  universal  de  Nueva  Espana,"  first  published 
at  Mexico  in  1829.    Died  in  1590. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  i. 
book  i. 

Said.    See  Saeed. 

Said-Ibn-Batric.    See  Eutychius. 

Saigey,  si'zhi',  (Jacques  Fk6i)6ric, )  a  French 
savant,  born  at  Montbeliard  in  1 797,  published  a  num- 
ber of  scientific  treatises. 

Sailer,  si'ler,  (Johann  Michael,)  a  German  Catholic 
theologian,  born  near  Schrobenhausen,  in  Bavaria,  in 
1 75 1.  He  was  successively  professor  of  divinity  at 
Ingolstadt  and  at  Landshut,  and  Bishop  of  Ratisbon, 
(1829.)  He  published  a  "  Prayer-Book  for  Catholic 
Christians,"  (1831,)  and  other  religious  works.  Died 
in  1832. 

See  E.  VON  Schenk,  "Die  Bischofe  J.  M.  von  Sailer  und  G.  M. 
Wittmann,"  1838. 

Saillet,  de,  deh  st'yi',  (Alexandre,)  a  French  litte- 
rateur and  educational  writer,  born  about  1805. 

Saiiictes,  de,  deh  SclNkt,  (Claude,)  a  French  prelate 
and  controversial  writer,  born  in  1525,  became  a  deputy 
to  the  Council  of  Trent.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  fivreux 
in  1575,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in  the  cause 
of  the  Catholic  League.    Died  in  1591. 

Saint-Aignan,  de,  deh  stN'tin'ySN',  (Paul  de 
Beauvillier — deh  b5\e'ya',)  Due,  a  French  nobleman, 
born  at  Saint-Aignan  in  1648.  He  was  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  council  of  finances  in  1685,  and  governor  of 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy  in  1689.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Fenelon,  whom  he  selected  as  preceptor  of  that  prince, 
and  to  whom  he  remained  faithful  after  Fenelon  had 
lost  the  royal  favour.  He  was  a  favourite  counsellor  of 
Louis  XIV.    Died  in  1714. 

Saint-Albizi,  de,  deh  s^w'tiKb^N',  (Alexandre 
Charles  Omer  Rousselin  de  Corbeau — roos'Iiw' 
deh  koR'bo',)  Comte,  a  French  writer  and  epigram- 
matist, born  in  1773.  He  became  in  1816  editor  of  the 
"  Constitutionnel,"  a  liberal  journal  of  Paris.  Among 
his  works  are  lyric  poems,  ej^igrams,  and  a  "Life  of 
General  Hoche,"  (2  vols.,  1798.)    Died  in  1847. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Saint-Aldegonde.    See  Marnix. 

Saint- AUais,  de,  deh  siN'tt'la',  (Nicolas  Viton — 
ve't6N',)  a  French  genealogist  and  litterateur,  born  at 
Langres  in  1773.  He  published,  besides  many  works 
on  genealogy,  a  new  edition  of  "The  Art  of  Verifying 
Dates,"  (6  vols.  4to,  and  23  vols.  8vo,  1818-20.)  Died 
in  1842. 

Saint-Alphonse,  de,  deh  siN'tilT6Ns',  (Pierre 
Wathier,)  born  at  Laon,  in  France,  in  1770,  served 
under  Napoleon  in  several  campaigns,  and  rose  to  be 
general  of  division  in  1811.  He  was  afterwards  made  a 
count  of  the  empire,  and  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honour.    Died  in  1840. 

Saint  Am'and,  (James,)  an  English  scholar,  made 
a  valuable  collection  of  books  and  manuscripts,  which 
at  his  death,  in  1754,  he  bequeathed  to  the  Bodleian 
Library. 

Saint-Amans,  de,  deh  siN^tS^m6N',  (Jean  Flo- 
RIMOND  BouDON,)  a  French  antiquary  and  naturalist, 
■was  born  at  Agen  in  1748.  He  published  numerous 
treatises  on  agriculture,  botany,  and  antiquities.  Died 
in  1831. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Saint-Amant,  siN'tt^nSN',  (Marc  Antoine  Ge- 
rard,) a  French  poet,  born  at'  Rouen  in  1594,  became 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1633.  He  wrote 
odes,  idyls,  satires,  etc.    Died  in  1661. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Saint-Amour,  siN'tS'mooR',  (Louis,)  a  doctor  of 
theology  of  the  Sorbonne,  and  a  distinguished  advocate 
of  Jansenism,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1619;  died  in  1687. 

Saint-Amour,  de,  deh  s^N'tt'mooR',  (Guillaume,) 
a  French  philosopher  and  theologian,  born  at  Saint- 
Amour,  in  Franche-Comte.  He  became  professor  of 
philosophy  in  Paris,  and  rector  of  the  University.  His 
name  is  chiefly  memorable  on  account  of  the  prominent 
part  he  performed  in  defending  the  privileges  of  the 
University  against  the  Dominicans,  who  were  favoured 


by  the  pope.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled 
"Perils  of  the  Latter  Times,"  ("De  Periculis  novissi- 
morum  Temporum.")    Died  in  1272. 

See    DupiN,  "  Histoire  des  Controverses  dans  le  treizifeme 

Siecle." 

Saint- Andre,  (Jean  Bon.)  See  Jean  Bon  Saint- 
Andr6. 

Saint- Andre,  de,  deh  s^N'tftN^Ri',  (Jacques  d'Al- 
bon — dtl'b6N',)  Marshal,  a  French  commander,  who 
united  with  the  Due  de  Guise  and  Constable  Mont- 
morency to  form  a  triumvirate  against  the  Huguenots. 
He  was  killed  in  battle  in  the  civil  war  in  1562. 

Saint- Ange,  de,  deh  siw'tSNzh',  (Ange  FRANgois 
Fariau,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Blois  in  1747.  He 
produced  a  French  version  of  Ovid's  "Metamorphoses," 
(1778-89,)  which  was  received  with  favour.  He  trans- 
lated other  poems  of  Ovid,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1810.    Died  in  Paris  in  1810. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Saint-Arnaud.    See  Leroy  de  Saint-Arnaud. 

Saint-Aubin,  siw^to^biN',  (Jean,)  a  ])hysician  of 
Metz,  assisted  Foes  in  his  translation  of  Hippocrates, 
and  wrote  a  work  on  the  plague.    Died  in  1597. 

Saint-Aubin,  de,  deh  siN^td'b^N',  (Augustin,)  a 
French  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1736.  He  engraved 
fine  portraits  and  vignettes  for  books.  His  works  are 
extremely  numerous.    Died  in  1807. 

Saint-Aubin,  de,  (Charles  Germain,)  a  designer 
and  engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1 721,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.    Died  in  1786. 

Saint-Aubin,  de,  (Gabriel  Jacques,)  a  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1724,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.    Died  in  1780. 

Saint-Aubin,  de,  (Jean,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  in 
1587,  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  City  of  Lyons,  Ancient 
and  Modern."    Died  in  1660. 

Saint-Bris.    See  Lambert,  de,  (Henrl) 

Saint-Chamans,  de,  deh  silN'sht'mSN',  (  Auguste,) 
ViscoUN  r,  a  French  jurist  and  statesman,  born  in  Peri- 
gord  in  1 777,  published  several  political  and  miscel- 
laneous works. 

Saint-Glair,  sent  klclr,  (Arthur,)  a  general,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  in  1735.  He  became  a  citizen  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  served  as  brigadier-general  at  the 
battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton,  in  the  winter  of  1776 
-77.  He  was  appointed  a  major-general  in  February, 
1777,  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1785,  and  Presi- 
dent of  Congress  in  1787.  In  1789  he  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Ohio.  He  commanded  an  army  which 
was  sent  against  the  Miami  Indians,  and  was  defeated 
in  Ohio,  near  the  Miami  River,  with  heavy  loss,  in  No- 
vember, 1 791.  He  ceased  to  be  Governor  of  Ohio  in 
1 802.    Died  in  181 8. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

Saint-Clost,  de,  deh  siN'klost',  or  Saint-Cloud, 

de,  deh  s^N^kloo',  (Perros  or  Pierre,)  a  French  writer 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  whose  principal  work  is  an 
allegorical  poem  entitled  "The  Romance  of  the  Fox." 

Saint-Cyran.    See  Duvergier. 

Saint-Didier.    See  Limojon. 

Sainte-Aulaire,  de,  deh  slLN'tolSR',  (C6me  Joseph 
de  Beaupoil — deh  bo'pwSK,)  Coun  i',  a  French  royal- 
ist, born  about  1742,  served  against  France  during  and 
after  the  Revolution,  and  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general  in  1 814.    Died  in  1822. 

Sainte-Aulaire,  de,  (FRANgois  Joseph  de  Beau- 
poil,) Marquis,  a  French  poet  and  member  of  the 
French  Academy,  born  in  the  Limousin  in  1643.  He 
wrote  madrigals  and  amatory  verses.    Died  in  1742. 

Sainte-Aulaire,  de,  (Louis  Clair  de  Beaupoil,) 
CoMiE,  a  French  writer  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Peri- 
gord  in  1778.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  from  1818  to  1824,  entered  the  Chamber  of 
Peers  about  1830,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Vienna 
in  1833.  In  1841  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.  He  was  minister  at  London  from 
1 841  to  1847.  His  chief  work  is  a  "History  of  the 
Fronde,"  (3  vols.,  1827.)    Died  in  1854. 

See  De  Bar  ante,  "  fitudes  historiqueset  biographiques ;"  "  Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  g,  obscure;  ftr,  f^ll,  fit;  mfit;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


SAINTE^AULAIRE 


'943 


SJINT-GELJIS 


"  Memoirs  of  a  Contemporary,  or  Recollections  of  the 
Principal  Personages  of  the  Republic,  the  Consulate, 
the  Empire,  and  the  Restoration,"  (8  vols.,  1827.)  Died 
in  1845. 

Sainte-Foi,  siNt'fwi',  (fiLOi  Jourdan,)  a  French 
theologian,  born  at  Beaufort  in  1806,  has  published 
several  religious  works. 

Sainte-Marie,  siNt'mt're',  (Etienne,)  a  French 
physician,  born  near  Lyons  in  1777,  published  several 
medical  works.    Died  in  1829. 

Sainte-Maithe,  de,  deh  s^Nt^m^Rt',  (Abel,)  a  French 
lawyer  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Loudun  in  1566,  was 
a  son  of  Scevole,  noticed  below.  He  was  appointed  a 
councillor  of  state  by  Louis  XIIL    Died  in  1652. 

Sainte-Marthe,  de,  (Abel  Louis,)  a  French  theo- 
logian, born  in  Paris  in  1621,  was  a  son  of  Scevole  the 
Younger.  He  became  general  of  the  Oratory  in  1672. 
He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "The  Christian  World," 
("  Orbis  Christianus,"  9  vols.,  manuscript.)  Died  in  1697. 

See  NiCEKON.  "Memoires." 

Sainte-Marthe,  de,  (Charles,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Fontevrault.  He  taught  Hebrew  and  Greek  at  Lyons, 
after  he  had  been  imprisoned  two  years  on  suspicion  of 
being  a  Lutheran.    Died  after  1562. 

Sainte-Marthe,  de,  (Denis,)  a  theologian,  born  in 
Paris  in  1650.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Gallia  Christiana,"  (4  vols.,  1715-28.)    Died  in  1725. 

See  MoR^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 


Sainte-Aulaire,  de,  (Martial  Louis  de  Beau- 
POIL,)  a  French  prelate,  born  in  1720,  became  Bishop  of 
Poitiers,  and  was  a  deputy  of  the  clergy  from  Poitou  to 
the  States-General  in  1789.    Died  in  1798. 

Sainte-Beuve,  s^Nt'buv',  (Charles  Augustin,) 
one  of  the  most  eminent  of  French  critics,  was  born  at 
Boulogne-sur-Mer  on  the  23d  of  December,  1804.  He  was 
educated  in  several  colleges  of  Paris,  and  studied  medi- 
cine, which  he  practised  several  years.  He  was  succes- 
sively a  contributor  to  the  "  Globe,"  the  "  Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,"  and  the  "  National."  He  published  in  1828  his 
"  Historical  and  Critical  Picture  of  French  Poetry  and  the 
French  Theatre  in  the  Sixteenth  Century,"  and  in  1829 
poems  entitled  "Life,  Poetry,  and  Thoughts  of  Joseph 
Delorme."  His  other  principal  works  are  "Consola- 
tions," a  collection  of  poems,  (1830,)  "Literary  Por- 
traits," (8  vols.,  1832-39,)  a  series  of  criticisms  which 
first  appeared  in  the  reviews,  an  excellent  "History 
of  Port-Royal,"  (4  vols.,  1840-62,)  and  a  series  of  able 
critiques  entitled  "Causeries  du  Lundi,"  (13  vols.,  1851- 
57,)  which  first  appeared  in  the  "  Constitutionnel."  He 
was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1845.  I" 
1852  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Latin  poetry  in  the 
College  of  France,  and  in  1857  7?iaitre  des  conferences 
in  the  Normal  School.  In  1865  he  was  raised  to  the 
dignity  of  a  senator.  Among  his  other  works  are  "  fitude 
sur  Virgile,"  (2  vols.,  1857,)  and  "Nouveaux  Lundis," 
(1863.)    Died  in  October,  18 '9. 

"The  peculiarity  and  excellence  of  his  criticism  is 
its  disinterestedness,  its  singular  power  of  appreciating 
whatever  may  be  good  in  the  most  opposite  schools, 
and  its  wonderful  faculty  for  penetrating  into  the  secrets 
of  the  most  strangely  different  natures.  And  now,  if  we 
turn  from  the  man's  works  to  the  man  himself,  we  see 
great  natural  power,  a  mind  originally  pliable,  subtle, 
and  comprehensive  to  the  very  highest  degree,  curious 
and  penetrative,  impartial  to  a  fault."  ("  Quarterly 
Review"  for  January,  1866.) 

See  L.  DE  LoM^NiE,  "  M.  Sainte-Beuve,  par  un  Homme  de 
Rien,"  1841  ;  Planche,  "Portraits  litteraires ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Sainte-Beuve,  (Jacques,)  a  French  casuist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1613.  He  was  professor  of  theology  in  the 
Sorbonne  from  1643  to  1654.    Died  in  1677. 

Sainte  -  Claire  -  Deville,  s^Nt'kliR'  deh-v^l', 
(Charles,)  a  French  geologist,  born  at  Saint  Thomas, 
in  the  Antilles,  in  1814.  He  has  published  a  "Geo- 
logical Voyage  to  the  Antilles  and  the  Island  of  Tene- 
riffe,"  etc.,  and  other  scientific  works. 

Sainte-Claire-Deville,  (Henri,)  a  French  chemist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Saint  Thomas  in 
i8r8.  He  studied  in  France,  and  in  1851  succeeded 
Balard  as  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Normal  School. 
He  is  chiefly  distinguished  for  having  invented  a 
method  of  producing  in  considerable  quantities  the 
metal  aluminum,  first  discovered  by  Wohler  in  1827. 
He  published  an  account  of  his  experiments  in  the  "An- 
nales  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique,"  (vols,  xliii.  and  xlvi.) 

Sainte-Croix,  de,  deh  sdNt'kRwS',  (Guillaume 
Em ANUKL  Joseph  Guilhem  de  Clermont-Lodeve — 
ge'lSx'  deh  klgR'mdw'  lo'div',)  Baron,  a  French  anti- 
quary and  scholar,  born  at  Mormoiron  in  1746.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Historical  Researches 
into  the  Mysteries  of  Paganism,"  (1784,)  and  a  "Critical 
Examination  of  the  Historians  of  Alexander  the  Great," 
(1804,)  which  are  praised  by  Silvestre  de  Sacy.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Institute.    Died  in  1809. 

See  Dacier,  "  filojie  de  Sainte-Croix;"  Silvestre  de  Sacy, 
"Notice  siir  la  Vie  et  les  Onvrages  de  M.  de  Sainte-Croix,"  1809; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sainte-Edme,  siN't^dm',  (properly  Edme  Theo- 
dore Bourg — booR,)  a  French  polkical  writer  and 
biographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1785.  He  wrote  against 
the  Bourbons  and  Louis  Phili])pe.  In  conjunction 
with  Sarrut,  he  published  "  Biography  of  Living  Men," 
("  Biographie  des  Hommes  du  Jour,"  6  vols.,  1835-42.) 
He  committed  suicide  in  Paris  in  1852. 

See  QuitRARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Sainte-Elme,  siN'tllm',  (Ida,)  a  French  courtesan, 
whose  real  name  was  Elzflina  Tolstoi  Vanayl  de 
Yongh,  was  born  in  1778,     She  was  the  author  of 


Sainte-Marthe,  de,  [Lat.  Sammartha'nus,]  (Sce- 
vole or  Gaucher,)  a  French  writer  and  Latin  poet, 
born  at  Loudun  in  1536,  was  a  nephew  of  Charles.  He 
held  several  high  offices  under  Henry  III.  and  Henry 
IV.,  and  was  an  opponent  of  the  League.  He  wrote 
"  Paedotrophia,"  and  other  Latin  poems,  which  were 
much  admired.    Died  in  1623. 

See  La  Roche-M aillet,  "Vie  de  Sainte-Marthe,"  1629;  Leon 
FEUcfeRE,  "  fitude  sur  S.  de  Sainte-Marthe,"  1853;  ''Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Sainte-Marthe,  de,  (Scevole  and  Louis,)  twin 
brothers,  born  at  Loudun  in  1571,  were  sons  of  the  pre- 
ceding. They  produced  an  account  of  French  bishops, 
entitled  "Gallia  Christiana,"  (4  vols.,  1656.)  Scevole 
died  in  1650;  Louis  died  in  1656. 

See  NiCEKON,  "Memoires." 

Sainte-Maure.    See  Montausier,  (Due  de.) 

Sainte-Palaye,  de,  deh  sJNt'pi'l^',  (Jean  Baptiste 
de  Lacurne,)  a  distinguished  writer,  and  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy,  was  born  at  Auxerre  in  1697.  He 
published  "Memoirs  of  Ancient  Chivalry,"  (3  vols., 
1759-81,)  which  was  translated  into  English,  and  col- 
lected materials  for  a  "  History  of  the  Troubadours," 
which  was  published  by  Millot,  (1774.)    Died  in  1781. 

See  Seguier,  "  filoge  de  Lacurne  de  Sainte-Palaye,"  1782; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sainte-Suzanne,  de,  deh  s3,Nt'su'ztn',  (Gilbert 
Joseph  Martin  Bruneteau — bRiin'to^)  Comte,  a 
French  general,  born  near  Poivre  (Aube)  in  1760.  He 
became  a  general  of  division  in  1796,  and  count  in  1809. 
Died  in  1830. 

Saint-Etienne.    See  Rabaut. 

Saint-Eve,  s^N'tiv',  (Jean  Marie,)  a  skilful  Frenc.h 
engraver,  born  in  Lyons  in  1810.  Having  gained  the 
grand  prize  in  1840,  he  went  to  Rome  with  a  pension, 
and  engraved  some  works  of  Raphael,  Andrea  del  Sarto, 
and  Ary  Scheffer.    Died  in  1856. 

Saint-:dvremond.    See  ^vremond. 

Saint-Fargeau.    See  Le  Pellet  ier. 

Saint-Felix,  de,  deh  sSN'ti'leks',  (Jules,)  called 
also  F^:lix  d'Amoreux,  a  French  poet  and  novelist, 
born  at  Uzes  in  1806. 

Saint-Foix,  de,  deh  siNTw^',  (Germain  Franqois 
PouLLAiN,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at  Rennes,  in 
Brittany,  in  1698,  was  the  author  of  "Turkish  Letters," 
(1730,)  and  several  dramas  and  other  works.  He  was  a 
famous  duellist.    Died  in  1776. 

See  DucouDRAv,  "  filoge  de  Saint- Foix,"  1777;  "Nouvelle  Bia 
graphic  Generale." 

Saint-Fond.    See  Faijjas  de  Saint-Fond. 
Saint-Gelais,  de,  deh  saN''zheh-]i',  (Melltn,  )  a 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1491,  pub' 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  Yi,  guttural ;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  sas  z;  th  as  in  this,    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SAINT-GELAIS 


1944 


SAINT  JOHN 


lished  a  number  of  poems  in  Latin  and  French.  Died 
in  1558.  He  was  a  nephew  (or,  as  some  say,  a  son)  of 
Octavien,  noticed  below. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  Memoires  ;"  Castaigne,  "Notice  sur  les  Saint- 
Gelais,"  1836. 

Saint-Gelais,  de,  (Octavien,)  a  French  poet  and 
prelate,  born  at  Cognac  in  1466.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Angouleme  in  1494.  His  principal  work  is 
"The  Abode  of  Honour,"  ("Le  Sejour  d'Honneur.") 
Died  in  1502. 

See  E.  Castaigne,  "  Notice  sur  les  Saint-Gelais,"  1836. 

Saint  -  Genies,  sAN'zheh-ne-i',  (Jean,)  a  French 
scholar  and  Latin  poet,  was  born  at  Avignon  in  1607. 
He  wrote  elegies,  idyls,  and  satires,  (1654,)  which  are 
commended.    Died  in  1663. 

Saint-Georges,  siN'zhoRzl/,  (N.,)  Chevalier,  a 
composer  and  violinist,  born  at  Guadeloupe  in  1745. 
His  mother  was  a  mulatto.  He  was  an  expert  fencer. 
He  composed  several  operas.    Died  in  Paris  in  1799. 

Saint-Georges,  de,  deh  s^N'zhoRzh',  Chevalier, 
a  French  naval  officer,  who,  as  commander  of  the 
Invincible,  was  defeated  by  Lord  Anson  off  the  coast  of 
Spain,  in  1 747,  while  assisting  to  convoy  a  fleet  of 
merchant-vessels.    Died  in  1763. 

Saint-Georges,  de,  (  Jules  Henri  Vernoy,  )  a 
French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1801,  has  published 
numerous  dramatic  works  and  romances. 

Saint-Germain,  siN'zhgk'miN',  Count,  a  notorious 
adventurer,  sometimes  called  the  Marquis  de  Betmar, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Portuguese.  About  1770 
he  appeared  at  the  Parisian  court,  where  he  made  a 
great  sensation  by  his  various  accomplishments  and 
pretended  skill  in  alchemy.  He  professed  to  be  three 
hundred  and  fifty  years  old,  and  to  possess  the  elixir  of 
life  and  the  philosopher's  stone.    Died  in  1795. 

See  "  Nachrichten  vom  Grafen  Saint-Germain,"  1780. 

Saint-Germain,  de,  deh  saN'zh§R'miN',  (Claude 
Louis,)  Comte,  a  French  general,  born  near  Lons-le- 
Saulnier  in  1707.  He  served  as  general  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  (1755-62,)  and  afterwards  passed  several 
years  in  the  Danish  service,  in  which  he  obtained  the 
rank  of  field-marshal.  He  became  minister  of  war  in 
France  in  1775,  and  made  important  reforms  in  that 
department.    He  resigned  in  1777.    Died  in  1778. 

See  Abb^  de  la  Montagne,  "  Memoires  dii  Comte  de  Saint- 
Germain,"  1779;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Geiierale;"  Sismondi, 
"  Histoire  des  Fran^ais." 

Saint-Ger'man  or  Ger'main,  (Christopher,)  an 
English  jurist,  published  a  work  entitled  "The  Doctor 
and  Student,  or  Dialogues  between  a  Doctor  of  Divinity 
and  Student  in  the  Laws  of  England,"  (1523,  in  Latin.) 
Died  in  1540. 

Saint-Haouen,  siN'/5t'w6N',  (Yves  Marie  Gabriel 
Pierre  Lecoat — leh-ko^t',)  Baron,  born  in  Brittany  in 
1756,  entered  the  navy  at  an  early  age,  and  served  against 
the  English  in  several  campaigns  of  the  Revolution.  He 
was  made  an  ofiicer  of  the  legion  of  honour  in  1804,  and 
subsequently  a  rear-admiral.    Died  in  1826. 

Saint-Hilaire.    See  Geoffroy  Sain t-Hilaire. 

Saint-Hilaire,  siN^te'l^k',  (Jean  Henri,)  sometimes 
called  Jaume  Saint-Hilaire,  a  French  botanist,  born 
at  Grasse  in  1772.  A  genus  of  composite  plants  was 
named  Jaumea  in  his  honour.    Died  in  1845. 

Saint-Hilaire,  (Jules  Barth6lemy.)  See  Barth6- 

LEMY. 

Saint-Hilaire,  de,  deh  s^N^telaR',  (Auguste,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1779,  (some  author- 
ities say  1799,)  spent  six  years  in  a  botanical  exploration 
of  Brazil,  to  which  he  went  in  1816.  His  principal 
works  are  his  "  Flora  Brasiliae  Meridionalis,"  (1825, 
with  192  coloured  plates,)  "Travels  in  the  Provinces 
of  Rio  Janeiro  and  Minas  Geraes,"  (1830,)  "History  of 
the  Most  Remarkable  Plants  of  Brazil  and  Paraguay," 
"  Journey  to  the  Diamond  District  of  Brazil,"  (1833,)  and 
"Lectures  on  Botany,"  ("Le9ons  de  Botanique,"  1841.) 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  183D.  Died 
in  1853. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

Saint-Hilaire,  de,  (fiiviiLE  Marc  Hilaire,)  some- 
times called  Marco  de  Saint-Hilaire,  a  French 
writer,  born  about  1790,  became  at  an  early  age  cue 


of  the  pages  of  the  emperor  Napoleon.  He  published 
"  Recollections  of  the  Private  Life  of  Napoleon,"  (1838,) 
"History  of  the  Imperial  Guard,"  (1845,)  and  other 
works  illustrating  the  history  of  his  time. 

Saint-Hilaire,  de,  (Louis  Joseph  Vincent  Le- 
BLOND,)  a  PVench  general  of  division,  born  at  Ribemont, 
in  Picardy,  in  1766,  served  in  the  army  of  Napoleon  in 
Italy,  and  in  the  principal  Austrian  campaigns.  He  died 
of  a  wound  received  at  Essling  in  1809. 

Saint-Huberti,  saNV/U'b^R'te',  (Anne  Antoinette 
Clavel,)  a  favourite  French  actress,  born  about  1756. 
She  performed  operas  with  great  success  in  Paris.  About 
1790  she  was  married  to  the  Count  d'Entraigues.  who 
became  an  exile  in  England.  They  were  assassinated 
near  London  in  1812. 

Saint-Hyacinthe.  See  CHARRifeRE,  de,  (Madame) 

Saint-Hyaointhe,  sAw'te't'siNt',  (Hyac[nthe  Cor- 
donnier,)  called  also  Chevalier  de  Th^miseul,  (deh 
ti'me'zuK, )  a  French  litterateur^  born  at  Orleans  in 
1684.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  satire  called 
"The  Master-Piece  of  an  Unknown  Author,"  ( "  Le 
Chef-d'QIuvre  d'un  Inconnu,"  1714,)  He  was  a  Prot- 
estant, and  an  adversary  of  Voltaire.    Died  in  1746. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale MM.  Haag,  "La  France 
protestante." 

Saintine,  s^N^t^n',  (Joseph  Xavier  Boniface,)  a 
distinguished  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1790.  He 
published  dramas,  poems,  and  romances,  a  collection 
of  philosophical  stories,  entitled  "Jonathan  the  Vision- 
ary," (1827,)  and  "  History  of  the  Wars  in  Italy."  His 
most  popular  work  is  the  tale  of  "  Picciola,"  for  which 
he  received  the  Monthyon  prize  in  1837.  It  passed 
through  ten  editions  in  eight  years,  and  was  translated 
into  several  languages. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1838. 

Saint-Ives  or  Saint- Yves,  s^N't^v',  (Charles,)  an 
eminent  French  oculist,  born  near  Rocroy  in  1667.  His 
principal  work,  entitled  "New  Treatise  on  Diseases  of 
the  Eye,"  (1722,)  was  translated  into  English  and  Ger- 
man.   Died  in  1733. 

Saint-Jacques  de  Sylvabelle,  de,  deh  s^N^zhik' 
deh  s^Kvt'b^K,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  savant,  and 
director  of  the  observatory  at  Marseilles,  was  born  in 
that  city  in  1722.  He  published  numerous  treatises  on 
mathematics,  astronomy,  etc.    Died  in  1801. 

Saint-Jean,  siN'zhdx',  (Simon,)  a  French  flower- 
painter,  born  at  Lyons  in  181 2. 

Saint  John.    See  Bolingbroke. 

Saint  John,  popularly  called  sin'jen,  (Bayle,)  son 
of  James  Augustus,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  London 
in  1822.  He  published,  among  other  works,  "  Adven- 
tures in  the  Libyan  Desert,"  "The  Subalpine  Kingdom," 
"  Purple  Tints  of  Paris,"  and  "The  Turks  in  Europe," 
(1853.)  Died  in  1859.  His  brother  Horace  has  written 
a  "  History  of  British  Conquests  in  India,"  and  several 
other  works. 

Saint  John,  (James  Augustus,)  a  distinguished 
writer  and  traveller,  born  in  Caermarthenshire,  in  Wales, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  He  was 
for  a  time  associated  with  J.  S.  Buckingham  as  editor 
of  the  "Oriental  Herald,"  for  which  he  wrote  a  history 
of  British  dominion  in  India.  Having  visited  Egypt, 
Malta,  and  Italy,  he  published  in  1834  a  "Description 
of  Egypt  and  Nubia."  Among  his  other  works  we  may 
name  "The  Lives  of  Celebrated  Travellers,"  (1830,)  a 
"  History  of  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient 
Greeks,"  (3  vols.,  1842,)  and  "  Philosophy  at  the  Foot 
of  the  Cross,"  (1855  ;)  also  the  novels  of  "  Margaret 
Ravenscroft"  and  "  Sir  Cosmo  Digby." 

Saint  John,  (Oliver,)  an  English  judge  and  re- 
publican, born  in  Bedfordshire  about  1596,  was  an  able 
lawyer.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  about  1628,  and 
became  a  leader  of  the  country  party.  He  was  counsel 
for  Hampden  in  the  Ship-money  case,  (1637,)  and  then 
"  delivered  the  finest  argument  that  had  ever  been  heard 
in  Westminster  Hall."  (Lord  Campbell.)  In  1640  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Long  Parliament.  According 
to  Lord  Campbell,  "  he  was  the  first  Englishman  that 
seriously  planned  the  establishment  of  a  republican  form 
of  government  in  this  country."  He  was  appointed 
solicitor-general  in  1641,  and  was  influential  in  procuring 


i,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;    ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6^  u,  y^  short;  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SAINT-JORRT 


'945 


SJINT^MARTIN 


the  condemnation  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford.  In  1648  he 
became  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas.  He  retained 
that  position  till  the  restoration,  (1660.)  He  was  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  Cromwell's  House  of  Lords  in 
1657.  His  life  was  spared  at  the  restoration,  on  condition 
that  he  should  never  hold  any  office.  He  died  in  1673. 
Clarendon  says  "  he  was  a  man  reserved,  and  of  a 
dark  and  clouded  countenance,  very  proud,  and  con- 
versing with  very  few."  He  was  a  great-grandfather  of 
Henry  Saint  John,  Lord  Bolingbroke. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices,"  vol.  i.  ; 
Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England;"  Clarendon,  "History  of  the 
Great  Rebellion." 

Saint-Jorry,  de,  deh  siw^zho^re',  (Pierre  du  Faur 
— du  foR,)  [Lat.  Pe'trus  Fa'ber,]  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Toulouse  in  1540  ;  died  in  1600. 

Saint-JuUien,  siN'zhu1eJ,N',  (Barth^lemi  fiivi^;,) 
Baron,  a  French  diplomatist,  was  patronized  by  Fran- 
cis L,  who  employed  him  in  several  embassies.  Died 
in  1597. 

Saint-Just.    See  Freteau. 

Saint- Just,  de,  deh  s^N'zhiist',  (Antoine  Louis 
L6oN,)  a  French  revolutionist,  born  at  Decize  in  1767 
or  1768,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Robespierre,  through 
whose  influence  he  became  a  member  of  the  National 
Convention  in  1792.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king 
without  delay  or  appeal  to  the  people,  and  distinguished 
himself  as  one  of  the  most  violent  of  the  Jacobin  party. 
He  had  a  prominent  part  in  the  downfall  of  the  Giron- 
dists, and,  as  a  member  of  the  committee  of  public  safety, 
was  sent  with  Lebas  to  the  Rhine,  where  he  established 
the  guillotine  and  put  to  death  great  numbers  of  the 
people.  Appointed  president  of  the  Convention  in  1794, 
he  contributed  mainly  to  the  defeat  of  Danton's  party, 
and  became,  with  Robespierre  and  Couthon,  one  of  the 
triumvirate  of  the  reign  of  terror.  He  was  involved 
in  the  ruin  of  Robespierre  and  his  associates,  with  whom 
he  was  executed  in  July,  1794.  He  left  a  number  of 
political  works. 

See  Fleurv,  "Saint-Just  et  la  Terreur,"  2  vols.,  1852:  E.  Ha- 
MEL,  "  Histoire  de  Saint-Jiist,"  1859;  Thiers,  "  History  of  the 
French  Revolution;"  Lamartine.  "History  of  the  Girondists;" 
"  Nouveile  Biographie  Generale." 

Saint-Just,  de,  (C.  Godard  d'Aucour— do'kooR',) 
Baron,  a  French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1769,  was 
the  author  of  tragedies,  comedies,  and  comic  operas. 
Among  the  last-named  the  "  Caliph  of  Bagdad"  was 
very  successful.    Died  in  1826. 

Saint-Lambert,  de,  deh  slN'lfiN'baiR',  (Charles 
Francois,)  Marquis,  a  French  poet  and  infidel  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Vezelise,  in  Lorraine,  in  1716  or 
1717.  He  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  EncycloiJedie," 
and  an  intimate  friend  of  Voltaire,  who  commends  his 
poems  in  extravagant  terms.  The  principal  of  these, 
entitled  "The  Seasons,"  (1769,)  procured  for  him  ad- 
mission to  the  French  Academy.  He  also  published 
*'  Universal  Catechism,"  (1798,)  and  other  philosophical 
works.    Died  in  1803. 

See  PuYMAiGRE,  "  Saint-Lambert,"  1840 ;  Querard,  "  La  France 
Litteraire;"  "Nouveile  Biographie  Generale." 

Saint-Laurent,  siN'lo'rfiN',  (NoxMbret,  n^N^bR^',) 
a  French  dramatist,  published  a  number  of  popular 
vaudevilles.    Died  in  1833. 

Saint-L^ger.    See  Mercier. 

Saint-Legier,  de,  deh  siN'li'zhe-i',  (Jean  Georges 
Lauren r,)  a  French  litterateur^  born  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Saint  Leonards,  sent  l^n'ardz,  (Edward  Burten- 
SHAW  Sugden,)  Baron,  an  English  jurist  and  statesman, 
born  in  London  in  1781.  He  became  a  member  of  Par- 
liament for  Weymouth  in  1828,  and  in  1829  was  appointed 
solicitor-general  under  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  made 
a  knight.  He  was  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  from  1841  to 
1846,  and  in  1852  was  created  a  peer  and  lord  chancellor 
of  England.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Practical 
Treatise  on  Powers,"  (1808,)  "  A  Series  of  Letters  to  a 
Man  of  Property  on  Sales,  Purchases,  Mortgages,"  etc., 
(1809,)  and  "Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Property  as  admin- 
istered in  the  House  of  Lords,"  (1849.)    Died  in  1870. 

Saint-Leu,  de,  Duchesse.  See  Horiense  Beau- 
harnais. 


Saint-Lo,  de,  deh  s4n'1o',  (Alexis,)  a  French  Ca- 
puchin friar,  born  in  Normandy,  visited  America  and 
Africa  as  a  missionary,  and  published  in  1637  an  "Ac- 
count of  a  Voyage  to  Cape  Verd."    Died  in  1638. 

Saint  Loe',  (Sir  William,)  an  English  diplomatist, 
born  about  1520,  was  captain  of  the  guard  to  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  held  other  important  offices.  Died  about 
1565- 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  2d  series,  1828. 

Saint  Louis.    See  Louis  IX.  of  France. 

Saint-Luc,  de,  deh  s^N'luk',  (FRANgois  d'Espinay,) 
a  French  soldier  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  appointed 
grand  master  of  artillery  by  Henry  IV.  He  was  killed 
at  the  siege  of  Amiens,  in  1597. 

Saint-Luc,  de,  (TimoliSon  d'Espinay,)  a  French 
marshal,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1580; 
died  in  1644. 

Saint-Marc,  de,  deh  siN'miRk',  (Charles  Hugues 
Lefebvre,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1698.  His 
principal  work  is  a  "Chronological  Abridgment  of  the 
History  of  Italy  from  the  Downfall  of  the  Western 
Empire,"  (6  vols.,  1761-70.)    Died  in  1769. 

Saint-Marc,  de,  (Jean  Paul  Andr6  des  Rasins — 
di  rt'z^N',)  Marquis,  a  French  lyric  and  dramatic  poet, 
born  in  the  province  of  Guienne  in  1728.  His  opera 
ot  "Adele  de  Ponthieu"  met  with  brilliant  success,  and 
was  set  to  music  by  Piccini.    Died  in  181 8. 

Saint  -  Marc  -  Girardin,  siN^mtRk'zhe'rSR^diN',  a 
French  writer  and  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1801.  He 
succeeded  Guizot  as  professor  of  history  in  the  Faculty 
of  Letters  about  1830,  and  was  appointed  minister  of 
public  instruction  in  1848.  He  has  published  "Essays 
on  Literature  and  Morals,"  and  other  works,  and  has 
contributed  to  the  "Journal  des  Debats"  and  the 
"  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."  He  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1844. 

See  "Nouveile  Biographie  Generale." 

Saint-Marcellin,  siN'mtRsHiN',  (Jean  Victor,)  a 
French  officer  and  litterateur,  born  in  1 791,  served  in  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1812.    He  fell  in  a  duel  in  1819. 

Saint-Mard.    See  Remond  de  Saint-Mard. 

Saint-Marsan,  de,  deh  siN^miR'sSN',  (  Antoine 
Marie  Philippe  Asinari— t'ze^iS're',)  Marqlji.s,  born 
at  Turin  in  1761,  was  appointed  by  Napoleon  in  1809 
minister  -  plenipotentiary  to  Berlin,  and  was  subse- 
quently minister  of  war  under  Victor  Emanuel.  Died 
in  1828. 

Saint-Martin,  siN^mtR't^N',  (Antoine  Jean,)  a 
French  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1 791,  was  a  disciple 
of  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  through  whose  influence  he  became 
in  1820  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  He 
was  afterwards  associated  with  Abel  Remusat  as  editor 
of  the  absolutist  journal  "  L'Universel."  He  was  the 
author  of  "  Historical  and  Geographical  Memoirs  on 
Armenia,"  (1818,)  "  New  Researches  on  the  Epoch  of 
the  Death  of  Alexander  and  the  Chronology  of  the 
Ptolemies,"  (1820,)  "Historical  Notice  on  the  Zodiac 
of  Denderah,"  (1822,)  and  several  other  works.  He 
published  a  good  edition  of  Lebeau's  "  Histoire  du  Bas- 
Empire,"  (21  vols.,  1824-36.)    Died  in  1832. 

See  Querard,  "  La  France  Litteraire ;"  "  Biographie  Univer- 
selle. " 

Saint-Martin,  (Jean  Baptiste  Pasinato — pi-se- 

ni'to,)  an  Italian  savant,  born  in  the  province  of  Tre\'iso 
in  1739,  published  a  number  of  treatises  on  agriculture 
and  natural  science.    Died  in  1800. 

Saint-Martin,  de,  deh  siN'mtR'tiN',  (Jean  Didier,) 
a  French  missionary  to  China,  born  in  Paris  in  1743, 
translated  into  Chinese  the  "Imitation  of  Christ,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  180L 

Saint-Martin,  de,  (Louis  Claude,)  Marquis,  a 
French  mystic,  sometimes  called  "the  Unknown  Phi- 
losopher," ("  Le  Philosophe  inconnu,")  was  born  at  Am- 
boise  in  1743.  He  was  a  warm  admirer  of  the  writings 
of  Jacob  Bohme,  a  number  of  which  he  translated  into 
French.  Among  Saint-Martin's  principal  works  are  his 
treatise  "On  Errors  and  on  Truth,"  (1775,)  "Natural 
View  of  the  Relations  which  exist  between  God,  Man, 
and  the  Universe,"  (1782,)  "The  New  Man,"  (1792,) 
and  "On  the  Spirit  of  Things,"  (1800.)    Died  in  1803. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as //  G,  H,  Y.^  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this     ((S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SAINT-MARTIN 


1946 


SAINT-PRIEST 


Chateaubriand  characterized  him  as  "a  man  of  great 
merit." 

See  Gence,  "Notice  sur  L.  C.  de  Saint-Martin,"  1824;  Caro, 
"  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  la  Doctrine  de  Saint-Martin,"  1852;  Matter, 
*'  Saint-Martin,  le  Philosophe  inconnu,"  1862  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G6ndrale." 

Saint-Martin  de  la  Motte,  de,  deh  siN''mtR't4N' 
deh  IS  mot,  (Felix,)  Comte,  a  Piedmontese  jurist  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Turin,  was  created  by  Napoleon  a 
count  and  senator.    Died  in  1818. 

Saint-Maur.    See  Dupk6  de  Saint-Maur. 

Saint-Maurice,  de,  deh  siN^mo'r^ss',  (Charles 
R.  E.,)  a  French  historian  and  novelist,  born  about  1796. 
Among  his  worl<s  is  a  "History  of  the  Crusades,"  (1824.) 

Saint-Mauris,  de,  deh  s&N'mo'r^ss',  (Jean,)  a 
French  jurist,  born  at  Dole  about  1495,  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  in  his  native  city.    Died  in  1555. 

Saint-Morys,  de,  deh  siN^mo're',  ?  (firiENNE  Bour- 
gevin -  Vialart — booRzh'vliN'  vc^S'ISr',  )  Comte,  a 
French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1772,  published  several 
political  and  miscellaneous  works.    Died  in  1817. 

Saint-Non,  de,  deh  siw'ndN',  (Jean  Claude  Ri- 
chard,) Abh^;,  a  French  amateur  artist,  born  in  Paris 
in  1727.  He  published  in  1781  "Voyage  pittoresque 
de  Naples  et  de  Sicile,"  in  5  vols.,  illustrated  with  fine 
engravings.    Died  in  1791. 

Saint-Olon.    See  Pidou. 

Saintonge,  s^N't^Nzh',  (Louise  Genevieve  Gillot 
— zhe'yo',)  born  in  1650,  was  tlie  author  of  dramatic 
works  and  poems  on  various  subjects.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Madame  de  Gomez,  also  a  distinguished 
writer.    Died  in  1718. 

Saint-Ours,  de,  deh  s^N'tooR',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a 
Swiss  painter,  born  at  Geneva  about  1756;  died  in  1809. 

Saint-Pard,  de,  deh  s^N'ptR',  (Pierre  Nicolas 
van  Blotaque  —  vSn  blo'ttk',)  Abh6,  born  near  Liege 
in  1734,  studied  in  Paris,  where  he  was  appointed  hon- 
orary canon.  He  wrote  a  number  of  religious  works. 
Died  in  1S24 

Saint  Paul,  (the  Apostle.)    See  Paul,  (Saint.) 

Saint-Paul,  de.    See  Saint-Pol,  de. 

Saint-Paul,  de,  deh  s^N'pol',  (FuANgois  Paul  Bar- 
LETTI,)  a  French  scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1734,  became 
professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Segovia,  in  Spain,  in  1770. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  educational  works.  Died 
in  1809. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Saint-Pavin,  de,  deh  siN'pS'viN',  (Denis  Sanguin,) 
a  French  poet,  born  in  Paris,  was  a  priest  or  abbe.  His 
works  are  chiefly  sonnets,  epistles,  and  epigrams.  Died 
in  1670. 

Saint-Peravi,  de,  deh  siN'peh-rt've',  (Jean  Nico- 
las Marcellin  Gu^;rineau,)  a  French  poet  and  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  born  at  Janville  in  1732  ;  died  in  1789. 

Saint-Pern,  de,  deh  s^N'p^Rn',  (Bertrand,)  a 
French  soldier,  born  in  Brittany,  was  a  friend  and 
companion-in-arms  of  the  famous  Du  Guesclin.  He 
lived  about  1330-60. 

Saint-Pern,  de,  (Judes  Vincent,)  Marquis,  a 
French  lieutenant-general,  born  in  1694,  served  in  Flan- 
ders under  Marshal  Saxe,  and  subsequently  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war.    Died  in  1761. 

Saint  Philip,  Marquis  of.  See  Baccalar  y  Sanna. 

Saint-Pierre,  de,  deh  siN^pe-aiR',  (Charles  Ike- 
n6e  Castel,)  a  French  writer  "alTd  priest,  born  near 
Barfleur,  in  Normandy,  in  1658,  was  a  friend  of  Fon- 
tenelle.  He  was  eccentric  and  eminently  benevolent. 
It  is  said  that  he  was  the  first  who  used  the  word  bien- 
faisnnce,  ("beneficence.")  In  1695  he  was  admitted  into 
the  French  Academy.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works  on 
politics,  morality,  and  political  economy.  His  favourite 
hobby  was  a  project  to  maintain  perpetual  peace  by 
a  congress  or  European  Diet.  Having  censured  the 
policy  of  Louis  XIV.  in  his  "  Polysynodie,"  (1718,)  he 
was  expelled  from  the  Academy.  J.  J.  Rousseau  ex- 
pressed the  opinion  that  "  he  was  an  honour  to  his  age 
and  to  his  species."    Died  in  1 743. 

See  D'Ai.HMiiERT,  "  filoge  de  I'Abbe  de  Saint-Pierre,"  1775; 
Allktz,  "  Reves  d'un  Honnne  de  Bien,  ou  Viies  utiles  et  praticables 
de  I'Abbe  de  Saint-Pierre,"  1775;  Goumv,  "  fitudes  sur  la  Vie  de 
I'Abbe  de  Saint  Pierre,"  1861 ;  Prevost-Pakadol,  "  filoge  de 
I'Abbe  de  Saint-Pierre;"  Molinari,  "L'Abbe  de  Saint-Pierre," 
j86i. 


Saint-Pierre,  de,  (Eustache,)  a  noble  citizen  of 
Calais,  who,  as  Froissart  relates,  when  that  city  was 
besieged  by  Edward  III.  of  England,  offered  himself 
with  five  others  to  the  English,  on  condition  that  the 
rest  of  the  inhabitants  should  be  spared. 

See  Froissart,  "Chronicles." 

Saint-Pierre,  de,  (Jacques  Henri  Bernardin — 
b^R'ntR'd^N',)  a  celebrated  French  writer,  was  born  at 
Havre  on  the  19th  of  January,  1737.  Having  finished 
his  studies  with  distinction  at  the  College  of  Rouen,  he 
entered  the  army  as  a  military  engineer,  but  he  was  soon 
after  dismissed  the  service  for  an  act  of  insubordination. 
He  subsequently  went  to  Russia,  where  he  remained 
four  years,  emjiioyed  as  an  engineer.  Having  returned 
to  France  in  1766,  he  obtained  a  commission  as  engineer 
for  the  Isle  of  France.  After  a  residence  of  three  years 
in  that  country,  he  set  out  in  1771  for  Paris,  where  he 
resolved  to  devote  himself  to  literature,  and  formed  an 
intimacy  with  Rousseau  and  other  distinguished  writers 
of  the  time.  He  published  in  1773  his  "Voyage  to 
the  Isle  of  France,"  etc.,  and  in  1784  his  "Studies  of 
Nature,"  which  was  very  favourably  received.  It  was 
followed  in  1788  by  the  charming  tale  of  "Paul  and 
Virginia,"  which  passed  rapidly  through  numerous  edi- 
tions and  was  translated  into  the  principal  languages 
of  Europe.  Among  his  other  works  are  "The  Desires 
of  a  Solitary,"  ("  Les  Voeux  d'un  Solitaire,"  1789,) 
"The  Indian  Cottage,"  (1791,)  "Harmonies  of  Nature," 
and  "Essay  on  J.  J.  Rousseau."  Saint-Pierre  enjoyed 
the  patronage  of  Louis  XVI.,  Joseph  Bonaparte,  and 
the  emperor  Napoleon.  He  died  in  January,  1814.  He 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  prose  writers  of  France, 
and  his  "Paul  and  Virginia"  is  pronounced  by  a  French 
critic  not  only  the  chef-d'ceuvre  of  the  author,  but  one 
of  the  chefs-d' oeiivre  of  the  language.  He  married  a 
daughter  of  Pierre  Y.  Didot,  book-publisher  of  Paris, 
and  had  two  children,  named  Paul  and  Virginie. 

See  Louis  AiME  Martin,  "Vie  de  Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre," 
prefixed  to  his  complete  woiks,  12  vols.,  1817-20,  also,  "  Memoires 
sur  la  yie  de  B.  de  Saint-Pierre,"  1826:  Patin,  "  filoge  de  B.  de 
Saint- Pierre,"  1816;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  litteraires ;"  A. 
Fi.EURY,  "  Vie  de  Bernardin  de  Saint  Pierre,"  1844;  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale;"  "North  American  Review"  for  July,  1821, 
(by  A.  H.  Everett;)  "Monthly  Review" for  February  and  March. 
1816. 

Saint-Pol,  de.    See  Luxemhourg,  de,  (Louis.) 

Saint-Pol,  de,  deh  siw'poK,  (Antoine  Montbeton,) 
a  French  marshal  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  an  ad- 
herent of  the  Guises,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
wars  of  the  League.  He  was  treacherously  assassin- 
ated  by  the  Duke  of  Guise,  son  of  Henry  of  Lorraine, 
about  1594. 

Saint-Pol  or  Saint-Paul,  de,  (FRANgois  de  Bour- 
bon-Vendome — deh  booR'b^N'  vdw^om',)  Comte,  a 
F'rench  soldier,  born  in  Picardy  in  1491,  was  a  friend  of 
the  Count  of  Angouieme,  afterwards  Francis  I.,  whom 
he  accompanied  in  his  principal  military  expeditions. 
Died  in  1545. 

Saint-Prest  or  Saint-Pret,  de,  deh  siN'pRi',  (Jean 
Yves,)  a  French  jurist,  was  director  of  the  political 
academy  founded  at  Paris  in  1710  by  M.  de  Torcy.  He 
wrote  for  the  pupils  of  this  institution  a  "History 
of  the  Treaties  made  between  the  Different  European 
Powers,  from  the  Reign  of  Henry  IV.  to  the  Peace  of 
Nymwegen,  in  1679."    Died  in  1720. 

Saint-Priest,  de,  deh  siN'pRe'dai'',  (Alexis,)  Count, 
a  diplomatist  and  litterateur,  of  French  extraction,  born 
at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1805,  was  a  nephew  of  Guillaume 
Emmanuel,  noticed  below.  He  was  successively  French 
ambassador  to  Brazil,  Portugal,  and  Copenhagen  be- 
tween 1833  and  1841.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Fall 
of  the  Jesuits  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (1844,)  "His- 
tory of  the  Conquest  of  Naples  by  Charles  of  Anjou," 
(1847,)  which  procured  him  admission  to  the  French 
Academy  in  1849,  and  "Diplomatic  and  Literary 
Studies,"  (1850.)    Died  at  Moscow  in  1851. 

See  De  Barante,  "  Notice  sur  M.  le  Comte  A,  de  Saint-Priest," 
1852;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Saint-Priest,  de,  (Emmanuel  Louis  Marie  Gui- 
gnard — g^n'ySR',)  Vicomte,  a  general  and  diplomatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1 789,  was  a  son  of  Fran9ois  Emmanuel, 
noticed  below.    He  fought  in  the  Russian  army  at  Aus- 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long-;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  ai,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  f^r,  ftU,  f^t;  mSt;  ndi;  good;  moon. 


SAINT-PRIEST 


»947 


SAINT-SIMON 


terlitz  and  Lutzen.  He  became  French  ambassador  at 
Berlin  in  1825,  and  was  minister  at  Madrid  from  1827 
to  1831. 

See  De  Barante,  "  fitudeshistoriques  et  biographiques ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Geuerale." 

Saint-Priest,  de,  (FRAxgois  Emmanuel,)  Comte,  a 
French  diplomatist  and  statesman,  born  at  Grenoble  in 
1735,  was  employed  before  the  Revolution  in  important 
embassies  to  Portugal,  Constantinople,  and  the  Hague. 
He  succeeded  Villedeuil  as  secretary  of  state  or  minister 
of  the  interior  in  1789,  and  resigned  in  December,  1790. 
Died  in  1831. 

Saint-Priest,  de,  (Guillaume  Emmanuel,)  Comte, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Constantinople  in  1776. 
Having  entered  the  Russian  service,  he  fought  against 
the  French  at  Austerliiz  and  in  other  engagements,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  general.  He  was  mortally  wounded 
at  Rheims  in  1814. 

Saint-Prix,  siN'pRe',  (Jean  Amable  Foucault,)  a 
French  actor,  born  in  Paris  in  1759;  died  in  1834. 
Saint-Prosper,  de,  deh  saN'pKos'paiR',  (Antoine 
EAN  Casse,)  a  French  journalist  and  political  writer, 
orn  in  Paris  in  1790;  died  in  1841, 
Saintrailles  or  Xaintrailles,  de,  deh  siN'tRiF  or 
s^N'tKi've,  (PoTON,)  a  French  warrior,  born  about  1395, 
fought  for  Charles  VH.  against  the  English,  and  became 
marshal  of  France  in  1454.    Died  in  1461. 

Saint-Rambert,  de,  deh  s^N'rdN'baiR',  (Gabriel,) 
a  French  philosopher  of  the  school  of  Descartes,  born 
at  Pontarlier,  was  the  author  of  "  Physical  Explana- 
tions of  the  First  Chapter  of  Genesis,"  (1713.)  Died 
about  1720. 

Saintre,  de,  deh  siN^tRk',  written  also  Xaintre, 
(Jean  or  Jehan,)  a  brave  French  soldier,  born  at 
Vendome  in  1320,  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Poitiers,  where  he  was  severely  wounded.  Died 
in  1368. 

Saint-Real,  de,  deh  sis'ri'tK,  (C6sar  Vichard, 
si'iiR'  ve'shtk',)  Abbe,  a  distinguished  historical  writer, 
born  at  Chambery,  in  Savoy,  in  1639.     He  published  j 
a  treatise  "On  the  Use  of  History,"  (1671,)  the  his-' 
torical  romance  of  "Don  Carlos,"  (1672,)  a  "History! 
of  the  Spanish  Conspiracy  against  the  Republic  of  i 
Venice  in  1618,"  (1674,)  and  several  other  works.  He 
resided  mostly  in  Paris,  and  was  intimate  with  Hor- 
tense    Mancini.     Died   in  1692.     His  work   on  the 
"  Conspiracy  against  Venice"  was  ranked  among  the 
chefs-d'aiivre  of  the  French  language  by  Voltaire,  who 
says  that  "his  style  is  comparable  to  that  of  Sallust." 
("  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV.")    A  large  part  of  this  work 
is  fictitious. 

See  F.  Di  Barolo,  "Memorie  spettanti  alia  Vita  di  Saint-Real," 
1788;  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  Moreri,  " Dictionnaire  Histo- 
rique;"  "  Xuuvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Saint-Remy,  de,  deh  saN'rk'me',  (Pierre  Surirey,) 
a  French  general,  born  about  1650,  was  the  author  of 
"Memoirs  of  Artillery."    Died  in  1716. 

Saint-Ruth,  siN'rut',  a  French  general,  and  perse- 
cutor of  the  Huguenots,  notorious  for  his  cruelty.  He 
was  sent  to  Ireland  in  1691  as  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  which  fought  for  James  II.,  and  was  opposed 
by  General  Ginkell.  He  was  defeated  and  killed  at 
Aughrim  in  1691. 

See  Macaulay's  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv. 

Saint-Samson,  de,  deh  siN''s6N''s6N',  (Jean,)  a 
French  Carmelite  monk  and  devotional  writer,  who 
became  blind  in  infancy,  was  born  at  Sens  in  1571  ; 
died  in  1636. 

Saint- Saphorin,  de,  deh  s^N'st'fo'riN',  (Arm and 
FRANgois  Louis,)  a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  1738, 
entered  the  service  of  Frederick  V.  of  Denmark,  who 
made  him  a  privy  councillor  and  conferi^d  upon  him 
other  distinctions.    Died  in  1805. 

Saint-Silvestre,  de,  deh  s^N's^Kv^stR',  (Ju.ste 
Louis  du  Faure — dii  f5r,)  Marquis,  a  French  lieu- 
tenant-general, born  in  Paris  in  1627.  He  served  under 
Turenne  in  1672,  and  subsequently  in  the  Spanish  cam- 
paign of  1693.    Died  in  1719. 

Saiiit-Simou,  de,  deh  siN'se^mAx',  (  Charles 
FRANgois  Vermandois  de  Rouvroy-Saudricourt 
— v^R'mfiN'dwi'  d?h  roo'vRwi'  s6^''dre'kooR^)  a  French 


prelate,  born  in  Paris  in  1727,  became  Bishop  of  Agde 
and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  He 
was  executed  in  1794,  by  order  of  the  Revolutionary 
Tribunal. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  (Claude  Anne,)  Marquis,  a 
French  commander,  born  in  1743,  entered  the  Spanish 
service,  and  was  created  captain-general  by  Ferdinand 
VII.    Died  about  1820. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  (Claude  de  Rouvroy,)  Due, 
a  French  general,  born  in  1607,  was  the  father  of  the 
famous  writer  of  Memoirs.    Died  in  1693. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  (Claude  de  Rouvroy,)  a  French 
prelate,  of  noble  family,  born  in  Paris  in  1695,  became 
Bishop  of  Metz  in  1733.    E>'ed  in  1760. 

Saint-Simon,  sant  si'mon,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  s^n'- 
se'm6N',j  (Claude  Henri,)  Count,  a  famous  French 
socialist  and  philosopher,  born  in  Paris  in  October, 
1760,  was  a  nephew  of  Charles  Fran9ois,  Bishop  of 
Agde,  and  a  relative  of  the  Due  de  Saint-Simon.  He 
was  endowed  with  great  energy  of  character.  Having 
entered  the  army  young,  he  served  under  Washington 
in  the  United  States.  After  the  end  of  the  American 
war  he  passed  several  years  in  travel.  He  took  little 
part  in  the  French  Revolution,  but,  in  partnership  with 
Count  de  Redern,  speculated  in  confiscated  property. 
They  realized  a  large  fortune  ;  but  Redern  appropriated 
all  of  it  except  $30,000.  Saint-Simon  entertained  or 
professed  a  conviction  that  his  mission  was  to  be  a  social 
reformer,  for  which  he  qualified  himself  by  various 
studies.  In  1801  he  married  Mademoiselle  de  Champ- 
grand,  whom  he  divorced  in  1802  because  he  wished  to 
marry  Madame  de  Stael ;  but  she  declined  his  offer.  He 
soon  dissipated  his  money  in  projects,  experiments,  etc. 
In  1807  he  published  an  "  Introduction  to  the  Scientific 
Labours  of  the  Nineteenth  Century."  With  the  aid 
of  his  disciple  Augustin  Thierry,  he  produced  "  The 
Reorganization  of  European  Society,"  (1814.)  Among 
his  most  remarkable  works  is  "New  Christianity," 
("  Nouveau  Christianisme,"  1825,)  in  which  he  maintains 
that  Christianity  is  progressive.  His  doctrines  exerted 
great  influence  in  France,  and  attracted  many  eminent 
disciples,  among  whom  were  Auguste  Comte,  Michel 
Chevalier,  Hyppolite  Carnot,  and  O.  Rodrigues.  He 
died  in  1825.  After  his  death,  Bazard,  Rodrigues,  and 
Enfantin  were  chief  priests  of  the  Saint- Simonian  sect, 
which  was  very  numerous  until  divergent  tendencies 
produced  its  dissolution. 

See  ViLLEN'AVE,  "  Histoire  du  Saint-Simonisme,"  1847 ;  G- 
Hubbard,  "  Saint-Simon,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Travaux,"  1857  ;  Lo.mexib, 
"  Galerie  des  Conteinporains,"  vol.  x.  ;  F.  W.  Carove,  "Der  Saint- 
SinioTiismus,"  etc.,  1831  ;  "  Noiivelle  Biograplile  Generale  ;"  Doc- 
trines of  Saint-Simon,"  in  "London  Quarterly  Review"  tor  July, 
1831,  (by  SouTHEv;)  "Westminster  Review"  tor  July,  1863. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  (Henri  Jean  Victor  de  Rou- 
vroy,) Marquis,  a  French  general  and  statesman,  born 
at  Prereuil  in  1782.  He  served  under  Marshal  Xey  in 
Spain,  and,  after  the  second  restoration,  was  appointed 
minister-plenipotentiarv  to  Copenhagen,  (1820.)  He 
was  afterwards  createcf  lieutenant-general  and  senator, 
and  obtained  the  grand  cross  of  the  legion  of  honour. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  (Louis  de  Rouvroy,)  Due,  a 
celebrated  French  writer  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1675. 
He  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  took  part  in 
several  important  engagements  under  Marshal  Luxem- 
bourg. At  the  court  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  had  never 
regarded  him  with  favour,  Saint-SinKjn  became  a  partisan 
of  the  Duke  of  Orleans  and  an  opponent  of  the  legiti- 
mate princes.  He  was  also  a  zealous  Jansenist  and  friend 
of  Fenelon.  After  the  death  of  the  king  he  was  appointed 
by  the  regent  Orleans  one  of  his  council,  and  in  1721  was 
sent  to  Spain  to  negotiate  the  marriage  of  Louis  XV. 
with  the  Infanta.  Though  unsuccessful  in  this  affair,  he 
was  made  a  knight  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  and  obtained 
other  distinctions.  On  the  death  of  the  regent,  Saint- 
Simon  applied  himself  to  the  composition  of  his  "Me- 
moires," portions  of  which  were  first  published  in  1788. 
\  complete  edition  came  out  in  1830,  entitled  "  Complete 
and  Authentic  Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of  Saint-Simon  on 
the  Age  of  Louis  XIV.  and  the  Regency,"  (20  vols.) 
They  are  distinguished  by  great  independence  of  thought 
and  expression,  fearless  satire,  and  fine  delineation  of 
character,  and  rank  among  the  most  valuable  and  attract^ 


<  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Kt^ucturai;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  asa;  th  as  in  this.    (3:^^See.  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SJINT-SIMON 


1948 


SALADINUS 


ive  works  of  the  kind.  An  abridged  English  version  was 
published  by  Bayle  Saint  John  in  1857.    Died  in  1755. 

See  A.  Lefevre-Pontalis,  "  Discours  sur  la  Vie  et  les  CEuvres 
de  Saiiit-Siiuon,"  1855;  Saintk-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  V. 
Tremblay,  "  Biographie  du  Diicde  Saint-Simon,"  1850  ;  '*  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January, 
1832  ;  "  Fraser'?  Magazine"  for  November,  1857. 

Saint-Simon,  de,  (Maximilien  Henri,)  Marquis, 
a  French  litterateur,  born  about  1720,  was  a  brother  of 
Charles  Fran9ois,  Bishop  of  Agde.  He  published  sev- 
eral historical  works,  and  translated  Pope's  "Essay  on 
Man."    Died  neai  Utrecht  in  1799. 

Saint-Sorlin.    See  Dh:.smarets  de  Saint-Sorlin. 

Saint-Ursin,  de,  deh  siN'tiiR'siN',  (Marie,)  a  French 
physician  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Chartres  in  1763 ; 
died  in  1818. 

Saint- Vallier,  sWv^'\e^',  (Jean  de  Poitiers,)  a 
French  soldier  of  noble  family,  born  in  Dauphine  about 
1475,  served  in  the  Italian  wars  of  Charles  VHI.  and 
Louis  XH. 

Saint- Venant,  de,  deh  s^N^veh-nSw',  Madame,  a 
French  novelist,  born  in  the  eighteenth  century;  died 
in  1815. 

Saint- Victor,  de,  deh  siw'v^k^toR',  (Jacques  Ben- 
jamin BiNSSE,)  CoMiE,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in 
1772.  He  published  various  works  in  prose  and  verse, 
and  translated  the  Odes  of  Anacreon  into  verse,  (1810.) 
Died  in  1858. 

Saint- Vincens,  de,  deh  siN''viN^s5N',  (Alexandre 
Jules  Antoine  Fauris — fo'r^ss',)  son  of  the  following, 
was  born  at  Aix  in  1750.  He  made  large  additions  to 
the  valuable  collection  of  medals  formed  by  his  father, 
and  wrote  numerous  treatises  on  numismatics  and  the 
ancient  monuments  of  France.    Died  in  18 19. 

Saint-Vincens,  de,  (Jules  Francois  Paul  Fau- 
ris,) a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Aix  in  17 18,  published 
several  treatises  on  numismatics.    Died  in  1798. 

Saint  Vincent,  Earl  of.    See  Jervis,  (John.) 

Saint- Vincent,  siN^iN'sdN',  (Gregory,)  a  Flemish 
mathematician,  born  at  Bruges  in  1584,  was  a  pupil  of 
Clavius.  His  "  Opus  Geometricum  Quadraturae  Circuli," 
etc.  (1647)  is  highly  commended  by  Montucla.  Died  in 
1667. 

Saisset,  sa'sk',  (£mile  Edmond,)  a  French  philo- 
sophical writer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1814.  He  became 
in  1856  professor  of  the  history  of  philosophy  at  the 
Sorbonne.  Among  his  principal  works  is  a  complete 
history  of  skepticism,  entitled  "iEnesideme,"  (1840 ;) 
he  also  contributed  to  the  "  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences 
philosophiques"  and  to  other  periodicals  a  number  of 
philosophical  essays  of  great  merit.    Died  in  1863. 

See  the  "North  British  Review"  for  May,  1863. 

Saisseval,  de,  deh  sis'vSl',  (Claude  Louis,)  Mar- 
quis, born  in  1754,  attained  the  rank  of  marechal-de- 
camp  in  the  French  army.  He  wrote  a  number  of 
treatises  on  politics  and  finance.    Died  about  1820. 

Saissy,  si'se',  (Jean  Antoine,)  a  French  surgeon 
and  anatomist,  born  near  Grasse,  in  Provence,  in  1756; 
died  in  1822. 

Saiva,  si'va,  written  also  Shaiva,  the  name  applied 
by  the  Hindoos  to  the  worshippers  of  Siva,  which  see. 

Saix,du,diisi,  [Lat.  Saxa'nus,]  (Antoine,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Bourg  in  151 5,  wrote  several  re- 
ligious and  moral  works.    Died  about  1579. 

Sakawee,  (Sakawi,)  si-ki'wee, }  written  also  Sa- 
kavi,  an  Arab  writer  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was  the 
author  of  a  "  History  of  Great  Men  from  1340  to  1383." 

SAK'  TI  or  SHAIC  TI,  written  also  SACTI,  [modern 
Hindoo  pron.  siik'tee  or  shuk'tee,]  a  Sanscrit  word  de- 
noting "  power"  or  "  energy,"  often  applied  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology  to  the  wives  or  consorts  of  the  chief  deities  ; 
or,  to  speak  more  definitely,  the  power  of  each  of  the 
male  deities  was  supposed  to  be  personified  in  his  consort. 
Thus,  Lakshmi  was  the  Sakti  ("  power"  or  "energy")  of 
Vishnu  ;  Parvati  or  Kali  was  the  Sakti  of  Siva  ;  and  so  on. 

Sakya  Muni  or  Sakya  Singha.    See  Gautama. 

Sala,  siMi,  (Angiolo,)  an  Italian  chemist,  born  at 
Vicenza,  flourished  about  1610-40.  He  lived  in  Holland 
from  1613  to  1617,  removed  to  Hamburg  about  1620, 
and  became  physician  to  the  Duke  of  Mecklenburg  about 
1632.    He  wrote  numerous  chemical  works,  which  were 


highly  commended  by  Haller.  They  were  published 
collectively  in  1647,  under  the  title  of  "  Opera  Medico- 
Chymica." 

See  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca  Botanica." 

Sa'la,  (George  Augustus,)  an  English  litterateur, 
born  in  London  in  1827,  has  contributed  numerous 
articles  to  "  Household  Words."  Among  his  principal 
works  are  "  Twice  round  the  Clock,  or  the  Hours  of 
the  Day  and  Night  in  London,"  (1859,)  "The  Badding- 
ton  Peerage  ;  a  Story  of  the  Best  and  Worst  Society," 
(i860,)  "The  Seven  Sons  of  Mammon,"  (3  vols.,  1861,) 
"Quite  Alone,"  (3  vols.,  1864,)  "My  Diary  in  America 
in  the  Midst  of  War,"  (2  vols.,  1865,)  and  "Rome  and 
Venice,  with  other  Wanderings,  1866-67,"  (1869.) 

Sala,  (NiccoLO,)  an  Italian  composer  and  writer  on 
music,  born  at  Naples  about  1702.  He  produced  "  Re- 
gole  del  Contrapunto  pratico,"  (1794.)    Died  in  1800. 

Sala,  (Vitale,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  near  Cano  in 
1803  ;  died  in  1835. 

Sala  y  Berart,  sl'li  e  bi-raRt',  (Gaspar,)  a  Spanish 
theologian  and  preacher,  born  at  Saragossa;  died  in 
1670. 

Salaberry,  de,  deh  st'lt'bi're',  (Charles  Marie 
d'Yruniberry — de'ruN'bi're',)  Comte,  a  French  roy- 
alist, born  in  Paris  in  1766,  became  a  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1815.  He  was  afterwards  as- 
sociated with  Chateaubriand  as  editor  of  the  "  Conser- 
vateur."  He  published  several  political  and  historical 
works,  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle."    Died  in  1847. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

SaPa-din,  [Fr.  pron.  st'ItMiN',]  the  common  English 
and  French  form  of  Salah-ed-Deen  or  Salah-eddin 

— sJ'liH  ed-deen', the  "Integrity  of  the  Faith,"  [Lat. 
Saladi'nus;  It.  Saladino,  s^-li-dee^no,]  I.,  (Malek- 
N^sir-Yoosuf,  (or  -Yousouf,)  mSKek  nl'sir  yoo'- 
soof,)  a  famous  Sultan  of  Egypt,  born  at  the  castle  of 
Tekrit,  on  the  Tigris,  in  1137,  was  a  son  of  Aiyoob,  a 
Koord,  who  had  a  high  rank  in  the  army  of  Noor-ed- 
Deen.  In  1 168  he  became  vizier  of  Egypt,  then  under 
Noor-ed-Deen.  Saladin,  however,  refused  to  obey  him, 
and  assumed  the  sovereign  power.  After  the  death  of 
Noor-ed-Deen,  (1173,)  he  made  himself  master  of  South- 
ern Syria.  His  ambitious  efforts  to  extend  his  conquests 
soon  brought  him  into  collision  with  the  Christians  of 
Palestine,  whom  he  defeated  in  the  great  battle  of  Tibe- 
rias or  Hitten  in  July,  1187.  Jerusalem  surrendered  to 
Saladin  in  October  of  the  same  year.  His  victorious 
progress  was  arrested  by  the  armies  of  the  third  crusade, 
led  by  Richard  I.  of  England  and  Philip  Augustus  of 
France.  The  crusaders  commenced  in  1189  the  memo- 
rable siege  of  Acre,  which  was  defended  by  Saladin  with 
great  valour,  but  was  taken  in  July,  1191.  He  excited 
the  admiration  even  of  his  enemies  by  his  chivalrous 
spirit  and  magnanimity.  In  September,  1192,  Saladin 
and  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  suspended  hostilities  by  a 
truce  of  three  years.  The  former  remained  master  of 
Jerusalem.  He  treated  with  humanity  the  numerous 
Christian  prisoners  that  fell  into  his  power.  He  died  at 
Damascus  in  March,  1193,  leaving  three  or  more  sons, 
among  whom  his  vast  dominions  were  divided. 

See  Aboolfeda,  "  Life  of  Saladin  ;"  Bohadin,  "  Saladini  Vita  et 
Res  gestae  ;"  Marin,  "  Histoire  de  Saladin,"  2  vols.,  176.^  ;  Reinaud, 
"Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Saiadin,"  1824:  A.  Schultens,  "Saladini 
Vita,"  1755:  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  iii.  ;  Michaud, 
"  History  of  the  Crusades  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Saladin  or  Salah-ed-Deen  II.,  Sultan  of  Aleppo 
born  in  1229,  was  a  great-grandson  of  the  preceding. 
His  dominions  were  invaded  by  the  Mongols,  who  took 
Aleppo  in  1260.  Saladin  was  killed  by  Hoolagoo,  the 
chief  of  the  Mongols,  in  1261. 

Saladin,  st'it'd^N',  (Jean  Baptiste  Michel,)  a 
French  lawyer,  was  a  member  of  the  Convention,  (1792- 
95,)  and  opposed  the  excesses  of  the  Jacobins.  Died 
in  1813. 

Saladin,  (Nicolas  Joseph,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  at  La  Bassee  in  1743.  He  became  professor  of 
mathematics  and  physics  at  Douai  in  1792.  Died  in 
1829. 

Saladino.    See  Saladin. 
Saladinus.    See  Saladin. 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  il,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  filt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SALAGNT 


1949 


SALFI 


Salagny,  de,  d§h  sS'lSi/ye',  (Geoffroi,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  in  13 16;  died  in  1374. 

Salah-ed-Deen,  (or  -eddin.)    See  Saladin. 

Salai,  si-li',  or  Salaino,  sS-II'no,  (Andrea,)  an 
Italian  painter,  of  remarkable  personal  beauty,  was  born 
at  Milan  about  1475.  "^^^  ^  pupil  of  Leonardo  da 

Vinci,  whom  he  frequently  served  as  a  model.  He  pro- 
duced several  admired  works  in  the  style  of  Da  Vinci. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  Italy." 

Salamanca,  sS-li-mSn'ki,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
dealer  in  prints,  flourished  at  Rome  about  1540-50.  He 
published  many  engravings,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
engraved  a  "  Pieta"  of  Michael  Angelo. 

Saiamee  or  Salami,  sS-li'mee,  (Abool-Hassan- 
Mohammed,)  an  Arab  poet,  born  at  Bagdad  in  915; 
died  in  1002. 

Salamou,  de,  deh  st'It'moN',  (Louis  Sifrein  Jo- 
seph FoNCROS^,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Carpen- 
tras  in  1759,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Belley  in  181 7, 
and  of  Saint-Flour  in  1823.    Died  in  1829. 

Salandri,  si-lSn'dRee,  (Pellegrino,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Reggio  in  1723.  He  wrote  sonnets  and  other 
short  poems,  the  style  of  which  is  said  to  be  pure  and 
elegant.    Died  in  1 771. 

Salas,  si'lSs,  (Gregorio  Francisco,)  a  Spanish  pas- 
toral poet,  born  in  Estremadura  in  1740;  died  in  1808. 

Salat,  sd'iat,  (Jakob,)  a  German  philosopher  and 
Catholic  priest,  born  at  Abbtsgmiind  in  1766.  He  be- 
came professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Landshut  in 
1807,  and  published  numerous  works  on  philosophy, 
psychology,  etc.    Died  in  185 1. 

Salat,  si-lit',  (Don  Jos6,)  a  Spanish  jurist  and  writer, 
born  at  Cervera  in  1762  ;  died  about  1828. 

Salaville,  st'lS'v^K,  (Jean  Bapiiste,  )  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Saint-Leger  in  1755,  published  an 
*'  Essay  on  Duelling,"  and  several  political  works. 
Died  in  1832. 

Salaza,  de,  di  si-li'thS,  (Castro  Luis,)  historiogra- 
pher of  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  lived  about  1680.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "Genealogical  Historv 
of  the  House  of  Silva,"  (1685.) 

Salazar,  de.    See  Mendoza,  de,  (Pedro.) 

Salazar  y  Torres,  de,  di  si-li-thlu'  e  tor'r^s,  (Au- 
GUSTIN,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Soria  in  1642.  He 
wrote  comedies,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "  Segunda 
Celestina,"  and  lyric  poems.    Died  in  1675. 

Saldanha  Oliveira  e  Daun,  sil-din'yS  o-le-va^-ri 
i  down,  (JoAO  Carlos,)  Duke  of,  a  Portuguese  states- 
man and  marshal,  was  born  at  Arinhaga  about  1785.  He 
was  a  grandson  of  the  famous  Marquis  de  Pombal.  In 
1825  he  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and 
subsequently  minister  of  war  under  Dom  Pedro.  After 
the  breaking  out  of  the  insurrection  at  Oporto,  he 
became  conjointly  with  Palmella  commander-in-chief 
of  the  constitutional  army.  With  the  assistance  of  the 
Duke  of  Terceira,  he  gained  several  victories  over  the 
Miguelists  in  1833.  He  was  prime  minister  from  1851 
to  June,  1856.  He  recovered  power  by  a  coup  d'etat  in 
May,  1870. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Salden,  siKden,  [  Lat.  Salde'nus,]  (Willem,  )  a 
Dutch  theologian,  was  a  native  of  Utrecht.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  learned  works  in  Latin  and  Dutch. 
Died  in  1694. 

Saldenus.    See  Salden. 

Saldern,  von,  fon  siKd^Rn,  (Friedrich  Christoph,) 
a  Prussian  general  and  skilful  tactician,  born  in  1 7 19, 
served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  He  published  "In- 
fantry Tactics,"  and  other  military  works.  Died  in  1785. 

Sale,  (George,)  an  English  Orientalist,  born  in  1680. 
His  principal  work  is  an  excellent  English  translation 
of  the  Koran,  (1734,)  with  explanatory  notes  from  the 
most  approved  commentators.  He  also  contributed  to 
the  "Universal  History"  edited  by  Svvinton  and  others, 
and  to  the  "General  Dictionary"  published  in  London 
in  1734.    Died  in  1736, 

Sale,  (Sir  Robert  Henry,)  an  eminent  British  gene- 
ral, born  in  1782.  He  became  a  captain  in  1806,  and  a 
major  in  1813.  After  he  had  served  many  years  in  India, 
he  gained  distinction  in  the  Afghan  war,  which  began 


about  1838,  and  became  a  major-general  in  1840.  He 
commanded  the  army  which  stormed  the  Khoord  Cabool 
Pass  in  1841,  and  defended  Jelalabad  in  a  long  siege, 
from  November,  1841,  till  April,  1842.  For  his  conduct 
at  the  capture  of  Cabool  he  was  knighted.  He  was  killed 
in  a  battle  against  the  Sikhs  at  Mookee  in  1845. 

Saleh-Ibn-Nahala.    See  Salih-Ibn-Nahala. 

Salel,  st'l^K,  (HuGUES,)  a  French  poet  and  ecclesi- 
astic, born  in  1504,  was  patronized  by  Francis  I. 

Salemon  or  Salmon,  sitrm6N',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Nancy  in  1744;  died  in  1814. 

Salemon,  si-l4-m6n',  or  Salmon,  sdl-m6n',  (Don 
Manuel  Gonzales,)  a  Spanish  statesman,  born  at 
Cadiz  in  1778,  was  employed  in  important  missions  to 
Portugal,  France,  and  Saxony,  and  was  appointed  by 
Ferdinand  VIL,  in  1830,  first  secretary  of  state,  and 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.    Died  in  1832. 

Salerne,  si'iiRn',  (Franqols,)  a  French  physician 
and  naturalist,  born  at  Orleans,  translated  Ray's  "  Orni- 
thology."   Died  in  1760. 

Sales,  de,  deh  sti,  (Charles,)  brother  of  the  fol- 
lowing, was  born  at  Thorens  in  1625.  In  1665  he  was 
appointed  by  Louis  XIV.  Viceroy  of  Saint  Christopher 
and  the  adjacent  islands.  He  was  killed  in  an  engage- 
ment with  the  English  in  1666. 

Sales,  de,  (Charles  Auguste,)  nephew  of  Saint 
Francis  de  Sales,  born  in  Savoy  in  1606,  became  Bishop 
and  Prince  of  Geneva.  He  wrote  "The  Life  of  Saint 
Francis  de  Sales,"  (in  Latin  and  French,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1660. 

Sales,  de,  deh  stl  or  si'l§s,  [sometimes  Anglicized 
in  pron.  as  salz,]  (Saint  Francis,)  an  excellent  bishop 
and  writer,  born  at  Sales,  in  Savoy,  on  the  21st  of 
August,  1567,  was  a  son  of  the  Count  de  Sales.  He 
entered  the  College  of  the  Jesuits,  in  Paris,  in  1578, 
and  studied  Greek,  with  philosophy  and  theology.  He 
afterwards  studied  law  at  Padua,  where  he  also  became 
a  pupil  of  Antonio  Possevino.  Having  resolved  to 
renounce  the  world,  he  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1593, 
and  became  not  only  an  eloquent  preacher  but  a  model 
of  humility  and  other  Christian  virtues.  He  was  soon 
employed  as  a  missionary  among  the  Calvinists  of  Ge- 
neva and  Chablais,  many  of  whom  he  is  said  to  have 
converted.  About  1602  he  visited  Paris  and  preached 
before  Henry  IV.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Geneva 
in  1602.  He  enforced  strict  discipline,  reformed  the 
monasteries,  and  abounded  in  works  of  charity  to  the 
poor.  In  1608  he  published  an  "Introduction  to  a 
Religious  Life,"  which  was  highly  esteemed.  He  was 
offered  the  dignity  of  a  cardinal,  but  he  declined  it. 
Among  the  eminent  persons  converted  by  him  was 
Marshal  Lesdiguieres.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Love  of  God,"  ("Traite  de  I'Amouf 
de  Dieu,"  1616.)  He  died  at  Lyons  in  December,  162?, 
and  was  canonized  in  1665. 

See"Histoire  de  Francois  de  Sales,"  by  his  nephew,  Charli  s 
Auguste  de  Sai.es,  16^4;  Jean  Pierre  Camus,  "Esprit  He 
Saint-Frangois  de  Sales,"  1641  ;  Louis  de  la  Riviere,  "Vie  de  35. 
Frangois  de  Sales,"  1634;  Gai.i.izia,  "La  Vita  di  S.  Francesco  -le 
Sales,"  1711;  Marsollier,  "Vie  de  Saint-Frangois  de  Sales." 
1700,  (and  English  version  of  the  same,  1737;)  Rensing,  "  Lebei  s 
geschichte  des  heiligen  Franz  von  Sales,"  1818. 

Sales,  de,  (Louis,)  a  Catholic  theologian,  born  in 
Savoy  in  1564,  was  a  cousin  of  the  celebrated  Saint 
Francis  de  Sales,    Died  in  1625. 

Sales,  de,  (Louis,)  Comte,  a  brother  of  Saint  Fran- 
cis de  Sales,  was  born  in  Chablais  in  1577,  He  ser\eJ 
as  general  of  the  army  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  His 
character  is  represented  as  excellent.    Died  in  1654. 

See  Buffier,  "  Vie  de  Louis  de  Sales,"  1718. 

Salfi,  siKfee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  philosopher 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Cosenza,  in  Calabria,  in  1/59. 
He  became  professor  of  history  and  philosophy  at  Milm 
in  1800,  and  subsequently  of  public  law.  He  published 
a  number  of  dramas,  among  which  are  "Medea,"  "  ido 
meneo,"  and  "  Saul,"  and  critical  essays,  and  wrote  a 
continuation  of  Ginguene's  "Literary  History  of  It;ilv," 
(1834.)  He  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "  Biograpliio 
Universelle."    Died  near  Paris  in  1832. 

See  Angelo  Renzi,  "  Memoire  surlaVie  politique  et  litt^rair.;  da 
F.  Salfi,"  1832;  L.  Greco,  "Vita  letteraria  ossia  Analisi  delle  Oi>eie 
di  F.  Salfi,"  1839. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  o,  H,  Y.,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (jE^^See  Explanations,  p,  23  ) 


SJLGUES 


SJLLENGROS 


Salgues,  sSlg,  (Jacques  Barth6lemy,)  a  French 
littiratetir  and  journalist,  born  at  Sens  about  1760. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Memoirs  towards  the  History  of 
France  under  Napoleon,"  (9  vols.,  1814-28.)  Died  in 
1830. 

Salian,  st'le'fiN',  (Jacques,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  in 
1557,  was  rector  of  the  College  of  Besanfon.  He  wrote 
"Ecclesiastical  Annals,"  (in  Latin.)    Died  in  1640. 

Salicet,    See  Saliceto. 

Saliceti,  sS-le-cha'tee,  (Aurelio,)  an  Italian  jurist, 
born  in  the  Abruzzo  in  1804,  filled  several  important 
offices  under  the  government. 

Saliceti,  [Fr.  pron.  st'le'si'te',]  (Christophe,)  born 
at  Bastxa,  in  Corsica,  in  1757,  was  a  deputy  to  the  French 
National  Convention  in  1792,  and  voted  for  the  death  of 
the  king.  He  was  subsequently  a  member  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Five  Hundred,  and  minister  of  war  at  Naples  under 
Joseph  Bonaparte.    Died  in  1809. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale." 

Saliceto,  sJ-le-cha'to,  [Lat.  Placenti'nus  ;  Fr. 
Salicet,  st'le'si',]  (Guglielmo,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  at  Piacenza,  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "On  Sur- 
gery," (1476.)  and  other  medical  works,  in  Latin,  which 
were  highly  esteemed  in  his  time.  The  celebrated  Lan- 
franc  was  one  of  his  disciples.    Died  in  1280. 

Salieri,  si-le-a'ree,  (Antonio,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Legnano,  in  the  Venetian  States,  in 
1750.  He  studied  under  Gassmann  at  Vienna,  where 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Gluck,  at  whose  request 
he  composed  the  opera  of  "  Les  Danaides,"  for  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music  in  Paris.  This  work  was  received 
with  the  greatest  favour,  and  was  followed  by  "  La  Grotta 
de  Trofonio,"  "Tarare,"  "  Assur  Roi  d'Ormus,"  and 
other  popular  operas.    Died  in  1825. 

See  MosEL,  "Life  and  Works  of  Salieri,"  (in  German,)  1827; 
F^Tis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens ;,"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generalc." 

Salies  or  Saliez,  de,  d?h  st'le-i',  (Antoinette 
Salvan,)  a  French  authoress,  born  at  Alby  in  1638. 
Her  works  comprise  poems,  historical  romances,  and 
religious  essays.    Died  in  1730. 

Salignac,  de,  deh  st'len'ytk',  (Bertrand,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  was  a  great-uncle  of  the  illustrious  Fenelon. 
He  was  ambassador  at  London  from  1572  to  1575,  and 
was  afterwards  sent  on  a  mission  to  Madrid  by  Henry 
IV.    Died  in  1599. 

Saiih-Ibn-Nahala,  sS'lin  ib'n  nt'hi-lS,  sometimes 
written  Salih-  (or  Saleh-)  Ben-Bahleh,  a  celebrated 
physician  of  Bagdad,  lived  in  the  reign  of  Haroun-al- 
Raschid.  According  to  Abulpharagius,  ( Aboolfaraj,)  he 
was  a  native  of  India. 

Salimbeni,  s^-l^m-ba'nee,  written  also  Salimbene, 
(Arcangiolo,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  born  about 
1536,  was  a  native  of  Sienna. 

Salimbeni,  (Ventura,)  a  painter,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  a^  Sienna  in  1557.  He  executed  a 
number  of  fine  frescos  at  Rome.  Among  his  works  is 
"Abraham  and  the  Angels."  He  is  sometimes  called 
Bevilacqua,  after  his  patron  the  cardinal  of  that  name. 
Died  in  1613. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizio- 
nario." 

Salinas,  de,  di  sl-lee'nis,  (Francisco.)  a  Spanish 
musician  and  writer  on  the  theory  of  music,  was  born  at 
Burgos  about  15 12,  and  was  blind  from  his  infancy.  He 
published  in  1577  his  celebrated  treatise  "  De  Musica," 
in  seven  books.    Died  in  1590. 

Salinas  y  Cordova,  de,  di  sJ-lee'nJs  e  koR'do-vS, 
(Bonaventura,)  a  Franciscan  monk,  born  at  Lima,  in 
Peru,  became  vicar-general  of  his  order  for  the  provinces 
of  New  Spain,  Florida,  and  the  Philippines.  Died  in 
1653.  His  brother  Diego  was  historiographer  of  his 
order  in  South  America. 

Sal-i-na'tor,  (M.  Livius,)  a  Roman  general,  was 
consul  with  L.  ^milius  Paulus  in  219  B.C.  He  was 
again  elected  consul  in  207,  as  a  colleague  of  C.  Claudius 
Nero,  who  was  his  personal  enemv.  The  consuls,  how- 
ever, co  operated  in  o])posing  the  Carthaginian  invaders, 
and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Hasdrubal  on  the 
Metaurus,  (207  B.C.)  He  became  censor  in  204  B.C., 
and  put  a  tax  on  salt :  hence  his  surname  Salinator. 


Salins,  de,  deh  sS'Iiw',  (Hugues,)  a  French  phy- 
sician  and  antiquarian  writer,  born  at  Beaune  in  1632; 
died  in  17 10.  . 

Salio,  ScVle-o,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  littirateur,  born 
at  Padua  in  1700.  His  principal  work  is  a  sacred  poem 
on  the  Messiah.    Died  in  1737. 

Salis,  de,  deh  sfl^ss',  (Charles  Ulysse,)  a  Swiss 
writer,  born  at  Marschlins  in  1728.  He  was  appointed 
French  minister  for  the  Grisons  in  1768.  He  published 
several  historical  works.    Died  in  1800. 

Salis,  de,  deh  sS'l^ss',  (Rodolphe  Antoine  Hu- 
bert,) Baron,  born  in  1732,  entered  the  French  service, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  marechal-de-camp.  Died  in 
1807. 

Salis,  de,  (Tatius  Rodolphe  Gilbert,)  a  French 
royalist,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1752,  became  a  member  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  for  Ardennes.    Died  in  1820. 

Salis,  de,  (Ulysse,)  Baron,  a  Swiss  soldier  and 
writer,  born  in  1594,  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege 
of  La  Rochelle  and  in  other  important  engagements. 
He  died  in  1674,  leaving  a  collection  of  "Memoirs," 
written  in  Italian,  which  are  highly  commended  by 
Haller. 

Salisbury,  Earl  of.    See  Cecil,  (Robert.) 
Salisbury,  (John  of,)  the  Elder.    See  John  of 
Salisbury. 

Salisbury,  saulz'ber-e,  (John  of,)  the  Younger, 
an  English  Jesuit,  born  about  1575,  translated  several 
religious  works  into  Welsh.    Died  in  1625. 

Salisbury,  Marquis  of.    See  Cranborne. 

Salisbury,  (Richard  Anthony,)  an  English  bot- 
anist, born  in  1762,  contributed  a  number  of  treatises 
to  the  "  Acts"  of  the  Linnaean  Society,  of  which  he 
was  a  member. 

Salisbury  or  Salesbury,  saulz'ber-e,  ?  (William,) 
a  Welsh  writer,  born  in  Denbighshire,  published  a 
"  Dictionary  in  English  and  Welsh,"  (1547,)  and  assisted 
Bishop  Davies  in  translating  the  New  Testament  into 
Welsh.  He  also  translated  into  that  language  the  Lit- 
urgy of  the  Church  of  England. 

Salis-Seewis,  si'lis  sa'^is  or  st^l^ss'  sa'v^ss',  (Jo- 
HANN  Gaudenz,)  Baron,  bom  at  Malans,  (or  Seewis,) 
in  Switzerland,  in  1762,  published  a  collection  of  lyric 
poems,  (in  German.)  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the 
poet  Matthisson.    Died  in  1834. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Salis-Soglio,  von,  fon  s^'less  siKyo,  (Johann  Ul- 
ric,)  a  general,  born  at  Chur,  Switzerland,  in  1790.  He 
commanded  the  army  of  the  Sunderbund — i.e.  the  league 
formed  by  the  seven  Roman  Catholic  cantons — in  1847. 
He  was  reduced  to  subjection  in  November  of  that  year. 
Died  in  1855. 

Salle,  st'li',  (Jacques  Antotne,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1712,  was  the  author  of  "Spirit  of  the 
Statutes  of  Louis  XV.,"  and  other  legal  works.  Died 
in  1778. 

Salle,  de  la,  deh  5t  stl,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Rheims  in  165 1,  was  founder  of  the 
Institution  of  Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools,  having 
for  its  object  the  gratuitous  instruction  of  the  poor.  Died 
in  1719. 

Salle,  de  la,  (Philippe,)  an  ingenious  French  artisan 
and  mechanician,  born  at  Seyssel  in  1723.  He  obtained 
in  1783  a  gold  medal  for  his  improvements  in  the  silk- 
loom.    Died  in  1804. 

Salle  de  Letang,  de  la,  deh  It  stl  deh  li'tSN',  (Si- 
mon Philiberi',)  a  French  agricultural  writer,  born  at 
Rheims  about  1700;  died  in  1765. 

Salle,  La.    See  La  Salle. 

Sallengre,  sSl-leng'Greh,  ?  (Albert  Hendrtk,)  a 
Dutch  writer,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1694.  He  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  a  "  New  Treasury  of  Roman 
Antiquities,"  (3  vols.,  1716-19,)  and  was  a  contributor 
to  the  "  Literary  Journal  of  the  Hague."  He  died  in 
1723,  leaving  a  "History  of  the  United  Provinces  for 
the  Year  1621,"  which  came  out  in  1728. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires." 

Sallengros,  st'lSN^gRo',  (A.  BENofr  Franqois,)  a 
French  Jacobin,  was  a  deputy  to  the  National  Conven- 
tion in  1792,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  Died 
about  18 1 6. 


a,  e  1.  o,  u,  y,  long;  k,  4,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fSll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SAIM-DYCK 


Salles,  stl.  (EusfeBE  Francois,)  a  French  physician 
and  Criental  scholar,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1799.  He 
was  appointed  in  1835  professor  of  Arabic  at  Marseilles. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  a  "  General  History 
of  Legal  Medicine,"  "  Peregrinations  in  the  East,"  and 
"General  History  of  the  Human  Races,  or  Ethnographic 
Philosophy." 

Salles,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  revolutionist  and 
member  of  the  National  Convention.  During  the  trial 
of  the  king  he  voted  for  the  appeal  to  the  people,  which 
he  was  the  first  to  propose.  He  was  executed  at  Bor- 
deaux in  1794. 

Salles,  de,  deh  stl,  (Chari.es  Marie,)  Comte,  a 
French  general,  born  about  1804.  He  commanded  a 
division  at  Sebastopol  in  May-September,  1855.  Died 
in  1858. 

Sallet,  von,  fon  st'Ii',  (Friedrich,)  a  German  poet 
and  litterateur,  of  French  extraction,  born  at  Neisse,  in 
Silesia,  in  1812.  His  principal  work,  entitled  "Laien- 
evangelium,"  is  a  poem  in  praise  of  Pantheism.  Died 
in  1843- 

Sallier,  st'le-i',  (Claude,)  a  French  philologist, 
born  at  Saulieu  in  1685.  In  1719  he  succeeded  Sarrazin 
as  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Royal  College,  and  was 
afterwards  appointed  keeper  of  the  manuscripts  in  the 
Royal  Library.  He  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy 
in  1729,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Royal  Societies  of 
London  and  Berlin.  His  works  are  chiefly  critical  and 
antiquarian  treatises.    Died  in  1761. 

Sallier-Chamont,  st'le-i'  shfrniw',  (Gui  Marie,) 
a  French  writer,  born  about  1750.  He  was  appointed 
in  1814  master  of  requests,  and  chevalier  of  the  legion 
of  honour.    Died  about  1840. 

Sallin,  st'liiN',  (Maurice,)  a  Savoyard  artist,  skilled 
in  sculpture  and  engraving,  born  in  1760 ;  died  in  1809. 

Sallior,  st'le'oR',  (Marie  FRANgois,)  a  French  poli- 
tician and  writer,  born  at  Versailles  about  1740  ;  died 
in  1804. 

Sallo,  de,  deh  st^lo',  (Denis,)  Sieur  de  La  Coudraye, 
born  in  Paris  in  1626,  is  called  the  founder  of  modern 
literary  journals.  He  brought  out  in  1665,  conjointly 
with  other  writers,  the  "Journal  des  Savants,"  which 
was  at  first  very  successful,  but  subsequently  gave  great 
offence  by  the  freedom  and  severity  of  its  criticisms. 
The  Abbe  Gallois  afterwards  became  editor  of  the 
"  Journal,"  which  was  continued  till  1792.  Died  in  1669. 

See  MoR^Ri,  *' Dictionnaire  Historique ;"  Niceron,  "  Me- 
moires." 

Sal'lust,  [Lat.  Sallus'tius  ;  Fr.  Sali.uste,  sS'liist'; 
It.  vSaixustio,  sil-loos'te-o,]  (or,  more  fully,  Caius  Sal- 
lustius  Crispus,)  a  celebrated  Roman  historian,  who 
was  born  of  a  plebeian  family  at  Amiternum  in  8^  R.C. 
He  was  elected  tribune  of  the  people  in  52  B.C.,  and  was 
expelled  from  the  senate  by  the  censors  in  50  for  alleged 
immoral  conduct.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Caesar  in  the 
civil  war.  In  the  year  47  he  obtained  the  office  of  praetor, 
and  accompanied  Caesar  in  his  African  campaign.  He 
was  appointed  governor  of  Numidia  by  Caesar  in  46  B.C. 
According  to  Dion  Cassius,  he  enriched  himself  by  the 
oppression  and  plunder  of  the  people  of  that  province. 
After  the  death  of  Julius  Caesar  he  returned  to  Rome, 
and  built  a  sumptuous  palace  on  the  Quirinal,  with 
large  gardens,  still  called  Horti  Sallustiani.  Having 
retired  from  public  life,  he  devoted  his  latter  years  to 
literary  pursuits.  He  died  in  34  B.C.  The  scandalous 
charges  against  the  character  of  Sallust,  made  by  several 
ancient  and  modern  writers,  may  have  been  true,  but,  in 
the  opinion  of  some  of  the  best  critics,  they  are  far  from 
having  been  established  by  any  decisive  evidence.  He 
was  much  influenced  by  party  spirit,  and  probably 
hated  the  aristocratic  party  more  than  he  loved  the  ple- 
beians. Sallust  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Conspiracy  of 
Catiline,"  ("Bellum  Catilinarium,")  and  a  "History  of 
the  War  between  the  Romans  and  Jugurtha,"  ("  Bellum 
Jugurthinum.").  The  speeches  which  he  ascribes  to 
Cato,  Caesar,  and  others  in  his  histories,  though  proba- 
bly expressed  in  the  language  of  Sallust,  give  us,  there 
is  reason  to  believe,  the  substance  of  what  was  said  by 
those  eminent  men.  He  also  wrote  a  history  of  Rome 
for  the  period  included  between  78  and  66  B.C.,  which 
is  lost.    "The  ancient  critics,"  says  Macaulay,  "placed 


Sallust  in  the  same  rank  with  Livy;  and  unquestionably 
the  small  portion  of  his  works  which  has  come  down  to 
us  is  calculated  to  give  a  high  opinion  of  his  ta'ents. 
But  his  style  is  not  very  pleasant ;  and  his  most  power- 
ful work,  the  account  of  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline,  has 
rather  the  air  of  a  clever  party  pamphlet  than  that  of  a 
history."  (Essay  on  History  in  the  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view," 1828.) 

See  Des  Brosses,  "Vie  de  Salluste ;"  D.  W.  Moi.ler,  "De  C. 
Salliistio,"  1684;  MULLER,  "  C.  Salliistius,  oder  historische  Un- 
teisuclning,"  etc.,  1817;  F.  D.  Gerlach,  "  Ueber  den  Geschiclits- 
schreiber  C.  Sallustius  Crispus,"  1831  ;  E.  C.  de  Grrlache, 
"Etudes  sur  Sailuste,"  etc.,  1847;  Bregolini,  "Vita  di  C.  C. 
Salluslio,"  1802;  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  "  Frastir's 
Magazine"  for  February,  1846. 

Salluste,  !he  French  for  Sallust,  which  see. 
Sallustio.    See  Sallust. 
Sallustius.    See  Sallust. 

Sal-lus'ti-us  or  Salus'tius.surnamed  the  Philoso- 
pher, a  Roman  officer,  and  a  pagan,  was  pretorian  pre- 
fect under  the  emperor  Julian.  He  dissuaded  the  latter 
from  persecuting  the  Christians.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  author  of  an  extant  work  "  On  the  Gods 
and  the  World." 

Sallustius,  a  Cynic  philosopher,  born  in  Syria,  lived 
probably  between  450  and  500  A.D.  He  gained  distinc- 
tion as  an  orator. 

Sallus'tius  Cris'pus,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  knight  and 
courtier,  was  a  grand-nephew  of  Sallust  the  historian, 
whose  large  fortune  he  inherited.  He  was  a  man  of 
superior  talents  for  public  affairs,  and  became  one  of  the 
most  favoured  and  influential  advisers  of  Augustus.  He 
also  obtained  the  confidence  of  Tiberius.  Died  in  20  A.D. 

Salm,  stlm,  a  French  general,  born  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Vosges  in  1768,  served  under  Pichegru  in  1794, 
and  subsequently  in  Italy  and  Spain.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  siege  of  Olivo,  in  1811. 

Salmanasar.    See  Shalmaneser. 

Salmasius,  sil-ma'she-us,  (Claudius,)  [Fr.  Claude 
DE  Saumaise,  klod  deh  so'miz',]  a  celebrated  French 
scholar,  born  at  Semur  in  1588.  He  is  said  to  have 
written  Latin  and  Greek  verses  and  to  have  read  Pin- 
dar at  the  age  of  ten.  While  pursuing  his  studies  in 
Paris,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Casaubon,  by  whom 
he  was  induced  to  become  a  Protestant.  He  subse- 
quently studied  at  Heidelberg,  where  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  Gruter,  to  whom  he  dedicated  his  edition 
of  Florus,  published  in  1609.  This  was  succeeded  by 
his  "Historias  Augustae  Scriptores  Sex,"  (1620,)  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  "Twelve  Caesars"  of  Suetonius;  edi- 
tions of  Tertullian's  "  De  Pallio,"  of  Achilles  Tatius,  and 
other  classics.  His  greatest  work  is  entitled  "  Plinianae 
Exercitationes  in  C.  J.  Solini  Polyhistoria,"  (2  vols.,  1629.) 
The  immense  and  varied  learning  displayed  in  this 
production  raised  his  reputation  to  the  highest  point, 
and  he  received  invitations  from  several  princes  of 
Europe  to  settle  in  their  respective  countries.  In  1632 
he  became  honorary  professor  at  Leyden,  where  he  con- 
tinued chiefly  to  reside  till  he  visited  Sweden  in  1650  at 
the  invitation  of  Queen  Christina.  At  the  request  of 
Charles  II.,  then  in  Holland,  Salmasius  wrote  his  "  De- 
fensio  Regia  pro  Carolo  I.,"  (1649,)  being  a  defence 
of  monarchy  and  of  the  king  Charles  I.,  who  had  just 
been  put  to  death.  This  called  forth  Milton's  celebrated 
reply  entitled  "  Defensio  pro  Populo  Anglicano,"  which 
Salmasius  was  about  to  answer,  when  he  died,  in  1653. 

"But  the  greatest,"  says  Hallam,  "in  this  province  of 
literature  [philology]  was  Claude  Saumaise,  iSest  known 
in  the  Latin  form  Salmasius,  whom  the  general  suffrage 
of  his  compeers  placed  at  their  head.  An  incredible 
erudition,  so  that  it  was  said  what  Salmasius  did  not 
know  was  beyond  the  bounds  of  knowledge, — a  memory 
such  as  none  but  those  great  scholars  of  former  times 
seem  to  have  possessed, — a  life  passed,  naturally  enough, 
in  solitary  labour, — were  sufficient  to  establish  his  fame 
among  the  learned."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.") 

See  A.  Clement,  "Vita  Salmasii,"  or  "Vie  de  Saumaise,"  1656  ; 
Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^- 
rale." 

Salm-Dyck,  stlm'd^k',  (Constance  Marie,)  Prin- 
cess OF,  a  French  poetess  and  miscellaneous  writer. 


«  as     9  as  J  •  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal ;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SJLMEGGIA 


1952  BAlTOmTALL 


whose  original  name  was  Th6is,  born  at  Nantes  in  1767, 
was  the  author  of  the  lyric  tragedy  of  *'  Sappho,"  set  to 
music  by  Martini,  "  Epistle  to  Women,"  "  Eulogy  on 
Lalande,"  and  "My  Political  and  Literary  Reminis- 
cences," (1833.)    Died  in  1845. 

See  MiCHKt.  Berr,  "  Notice  sur  la  Princesse  de  Salm ;"  A.  Mon- 
T^MONT,  "Notice  sur  la  Princesse  de  Salm-Dyck,"  1845;  "  Nouvelle 
Biogvapliie  Generale." 

Salmeggia,  sSl-mSd'ja,  (Enea,)  an  Italian  painter, 
surnamed  IL  Talpino,  was  a  native  of  Bergamo.  He 
studied  at  Rome  under  Raphael,  and  became  one  of  his 
most  successful  imitators.  Among  his  best  productions 
are  the  altar-pieces  in  the  churches  of  Santa  Marta  and 
Santa  Grata  at  Bergamo.  He  wrote  a  "  Treatise  on 
Painting."    Died  in  1626,  at  an  advanced,age. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Salmeron,  sai-mi-r6n',  (Alfonso,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit, 
born  at  Toledo  in  1515,  was  one  of  the  chief  discijjles  of 
Ignatius  Loyola.  He  published  several  theological  works, 
and  had  a  prominent  part  in  founding  the  order  of  Jesuits. 
He  was  one  of  the  orators  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  to 
which  he  was  sent  by  Pope  Paul  HI.    Died  in  1585. 

See  RiBADENEiRA,  "  Vita  Salmeronis ;"  N.Antonio,  "  Biblio- 
theca  Hispana  Nova." 

Salmeron,  (Crtstoval  Garcia,)  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  at  Cuenca  in  1603;  died  in  1666. 

Salm-Kyrburg,  de,  deh  stlm-keR'biiR',  (Fr^:d6ric 
Ernest  Otto,)  Prince,  born  in  Paris  in  1789,  served 
in  the  army  of  Napoleon  in  the  campaign  of  1807,  and 
afterwards  in  Portugal,  Spain,  and  Italy.    Died  in  1835. 

Salmon,  stl'm6N',  (FRANgors,)  a  doctor  of  the  Sor- 
bonne,  born  in  Paris  in  1677,  published  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Study  of  the  Councils,"  (1724.)    Died  in  1736. 

Salmon,  (Jean,)  surnamed  Maigret  (mcVgRi')  or 
Macri'nus,  a  French  scholar,  born  at  Loudun  in  1490, 
was  the  author  of  Latin  odes,  which  were  highly  esteemed 
in  his  time.  Died  in  1557.  His  son  Charles  was  like- 
wise noted  for  his  learning,  and  was  preceptor  to  Cathe- 
rine of  Bourbon,  sister  of  Henry  IV.  He  perished  in 
the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  in  1572. 

Salmon,  (Louis  Adolphe,)  a  French  engraver,  born 
in  Paris  in  1 806.  Among  his  works  are  plates  after 
Raphael,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Da  Vinci. 

Salmon,  si'mon,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  divine 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Bedfordshire.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  Hertfordshire,"  "  Survey  of  the  Roman 
Stations  in  Britain,  according  to  the  Roman  Itinerary," 
(1721,)  "Survey  of  the  Roman  Stations  in  the  Midland 
Counties,"  (1726,)  "Antiquities  of  Surrey,"  (1736,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1742. 

Salmon,  (Robert,)  an  English  mechanician,  born  in 
"Warwickshire  in  1763;  died  in  1821. 

Salmon,  (Thomas,)  brother  of  Nathaniel,  noticed 
above,  was  the  author  of  "  The  Chronological  Histo- 
rian," "Examination  of  Burnet's  History  of  his  Own 
Times,"  and  other  similar  works.    Died  about  1745. 

Salmon,  (William,)  a  celebrated  English  empiric, 
published  "A  Universal  Herbal,"  "Compendium  of  the 
Theory  and  Practice  of  Physic,"  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1700. 

Salmonee.    See  Salmoneus. 

Sal-mo'neus,  [Gr.  ^ak^iovevg ;  Fr.  Salmonee,  stK- 
mo'ni',]  in  classic  mythology,  a  son  of  /Eolus,  a  brother 
of  Sisyphus,  and  a  king  of  Elis.  The  poets  relate  that  he 
claimed  divine  honours,  imitated  thunder  and  lightning 
by  driving  his  chariot  over  a  brazen  bridge,  and  by 
throwing  burning  torches,  etc.,  for  which  impiety  he  was 
killed  by  a  thunderbolt  from  Jupiter, 

See  ViRcii.,  "iEneid,"  book  vi.,  5S5. 

Salm-Reifferscheidt,  sSlm  ri'fer-shit^  (Nicholas,) 
Count,  a  distinguished  general  in  the  Austrian  service, 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Pavi'a,  and  took  prisoner  the 
French  king,  Francis  I.  In  1530  he  defended  Vienna 
against  the  Turks  under  Solyman  II.,  but  he  was  mor- 
tally vvoimded  during  the  last'attack. 

Salm-Salm,  sSlm  salm,  (Felix,)  Prince,  was  born 
of  a  distinguished  Austrian  family,  December  28,  1828. 
In  1862  he  married  Mademoiselle  Le  Clerq,  of  New 
York,  which  act  offended  his  family  and  caused  his 
exclusion  from  the  Austrian  court.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Federal  army  during  the  civil  war. 


towards  the  close  of  which  he  was  made  post-commander 
at  Atlanta.  He  accompanied  Maximilian  to  Mexico  in 
1864,  and  was  appointed  by  him  aide-de-camp  and  chief 
of  his  household.  After  the  downfall  and  death  of  Maxi- 
milian, to  whom  he  remained  faithful  to  the  last,  he  re- 
turned to  Europe.  Having  entered  the  Prussian  service, 
as.  major  in  the  fourth  regiment  of  grenadiers,  he  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Gravelotte,  August  16-17,  ^870. 

Salnove,  de,  deh  sti'nov',  (Robert,)  a  French  writer 
on  the  art  of  hunting,  was  a  favourite  at  the  court  of 
Louis  XIII.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Venerie 
royale,"  (1655.) 

Sa-lo'me,  [Gr.  Sa/lw/z??,]  an  artful  and  cruel  woman, 
who  was  a  sister  of  Herod  the  Great.    By  calumnious  " 
accusations  she  induced  Herod  to  put  to  death  her  own 
husband,  Josephus,  and  Mariamne  the  wife  of  Herod. 
Died  about  12  a.d. 

Salomon,  the  French  for  Solomon,  which  see. 

Salomon.  st'lo^-niN',  (Franqois  Henri,)  a  French 
litterateur  of  little  merit,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1629,  be- 
came a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1646,  having 
for  his  competitor  the  great  Corneille.    Died  in  1670. 

Sal'o-mon  or  Sol'o-mon,  (Frederick,)  a  general, 
born  in  Prussia  in  1826.  He  emigrated  to  the  United 
States,  and  worked  as  an  engineer  in  Wisconsin  before 
the  civil  war.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
about  July,  1862. 

Salomon,  sS'lo-mon',  (Gotthold,)  a  Jewish  theo- 
logian and  preacher  at  Hamburg,  born  in  1784,  wrote 
commentaries  on  the  prophets  Haggai  and  Zechariah. 

Salomon,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  celebrated  German 
composer  and  violinist,  born  at  Bonn  in  1745.  After 
visiting  Berlin  and  Paris,  he  settled  in  London,  where 
he  began  about  1790  a  series  of  subscription  concerts, 
for  which  Haydn  produced  his  twelve  grand  symphonies, 
generally  known  as  "  composed  for  Salomon's  Concerts." 
Haydn's  oratorio  of  "  The  Creation"  was  brought  out 
in  1798  by  Salomon  at  the  Opera  concert-room.  Died 
in  1815. 

SaPo-mons,  (David,)  a  Jewish  magistrate  and  states- 
man, born  in  London  in  1801.  He  was  elected  to  Par- 
liament for  Greenwicn  in  185 1,  and  in  1855  became 
lord  mayor  of  London,  being  the  first  Jew  who  had 
ever  filled  that  office. 

Sal-o-ni'na,  <Publia  Licinia  Julia  Cornelia,)  a 
Roman  empress,  was  the  wife  of  Gallienus,  to  whom 
she  was  married  about  240  a.d.    Died  about  268. 

Sa-lo'ni-us,  a  French  prelate  of  the  fifth  century,  was 
the  son  of  the  Bishop  of  Lyons. 

Salornay,  de,  deh  st'loR'n^',  (Jean,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic, who  became  Bishop  of  Macon.    Died  about  1445. 

S^lt,  (Henry,)  an  English  antiquary  and  savant,  born 
in  Yorkshire,  accompanied  in  1802  Lord  Valentia  as 
secretary  ;.nd  draughtsman  on  an  expedition  to  Egypt, 
Abyssinia,  and  Hindostan.  He  discovered  the  cele- 
brated inscription  at  Axoom,  in  Abyssinia,  and  gave 
an  accurate  description  of  the  grand  obelisk  and  other 
monuments  of  that  city.  About  181 5  he  was  appointed 
English  consul  in  Egypt,  where  he  prosecuted  his  anti- 
quarian researches,  and  was  treated  with  distinguished 
favour  by  Mehemet  Alee.  He  died  in  1827,  while  en- 
gaged on  a  work  relating  to  Egyptian  antiquities  and 
hieroglyphics.  He  had  previously  published  a  splendid 
atlas  of  engravings,  entitled  "Twenty-Four  Large  Views 
taken  in  Saint  Helena,  the  Cape,  Abyssinia,  Egypt, 
etc.,"  (1809,)  and  an  "Account  of  a  Voyage  to  Abys- 
sinia, and  Travels  in  the  Interior  of  that  Country,"  (1814.) 

See  J.  J.  Ham.,  "The  Life  and  Correspondence  of  H.  Salt," 
1834;  "Monthly  Review"  for  December,  1814,  and  January,  1815. 

Sai't^r,  (Samuel,)  an  English  divine  and  Greek 
scholar,  was  born  at  Norwich.  He  became  rector  of 
Saint  Bartholomew,  London,  in  1756,  and  master  of  the 
Charter-House  in  1761.  He  was  one  of  the  writers  of 
the  "Athenian  Letters."  (See  Yorke,  Charles.)  Died 
in  1778. 

Saifmarsh,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  York- 
shire, wrote  several  treatises  in  favour  of  Antinomianism, 
which  were  replied  to  by  Gataker.    Died  in  1647. 

Sai'ton-stall,  (Gurdon,)  an  American  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  at  Haverhill,  Massachusetts,  in  1666,  was 
elected  Governor  of  Connecticut  in  1707.   Died  in  1724. 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  f4t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SALTONSTALL 


1953 


SALI^OLINI 


Saltonstall,  (Leverett,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist, 
and  member  of  Congress,  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Haverhill,  Massachusetts,  about  1782.  He 
served  in  Congress  from  1839  to  1843.  Died  at  Salem 
in  1845. 

Saltoun,  sSl'toon  or  siKton,  (Alexander  George 
Fraser,)  Lord,  a  British  general,  born  probably  in 
Scotland  in  1785.  He  served  in  the  Peninsula,  1808- 
13,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  defence  of  Hougou- 
mont,  near  Waterloo,  in  June,  1815.    Died  in  1853. 

Saluces.    See  Saluzzo. 

Saluces,  de,  deh  st'liis',  (Dieudonn^:e,)  Countess 
of  Revel,  an  Italian  poetess,  born  at  Turin  in  1774, 
wrote  both  in  French  and  Italian.  Her  principal  work 
is  entitled  "  Hypatia,'*  ("  Ippazia,"  1817.)  Died  in  1840. 

Salutato.    See  Coluccio. 

Saluzzo  di  Menusiglio,  si-loot'so  de  mi-noo- 
s^Kyo,  [Fr,  Saluces,  sS'liis',]  (Giuseppe  Angelo,) 
Count,  an  Italian  chemist  and  general,  born  at  Sa- 
luzzo in  1734.  He  made  discoveries  in  gases,  and  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Turin,  for  which  he  wrote  several  able  memoirs.  Died 
in  1810. 

See  Grassi,  "  Elogio  storico  del  Conte  G.  A.  Saluzzo  di  Menu- 
siglio," 1813. 

Salva,  sSKvS,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  physician,  born 
at  Tortosa  in  1747,  was  the  first  to  introduce  inoculation 
into  Cataloirta.  He  published  several  medical  and  sci- 
entific works.    Died  about  1808. 

Salva  y  Perez,  sSl'va  e  pa'rgth,  (Don  Vincente,)  a 
learned  Spanish  bookseller  of  recent  times,  was  a  native 
of  Valencia.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  the 
University  of  Alcala.  He  published  editions  of  Men- 
doza's  "  History  of  the  Wars  of  Granada,"  and  other 
standard  works  in  Spanish,  and  a  translation  of  Cor- 
nelius Nepos,  with  notes.    Died  in  1851. 

Salvador,  stKvtMoR',  (Joseph,)  a  French  writer,  of 
Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1796,  pub- 
lished a  treatise  "  On  the  Law  of  Moses,  or  the  Reli- 
gious and  Political  System  of  the  Hebrews,"  and  other 
works. 

Salvador,  sJI-vJ-d^r',  (Juan,)  born  at  Barcelona  in 
1683,  wrote  a  number  of  botanical  treatises,  (still  in 
manuscript.)  Died  in  1726.  His  brother  Jos^:  was  also 
a  distinguished  botanist  and  anatomist,  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Medical  Academy  of  Spain.  Died  in 
1771.  The  genus  Salvadora  was  named  in  honour  of 
this  family  of  naturalists,  who  rendered  great  service  to 
botanical  science  in  Spain. 

Salvador  y  Bosca,  si1-vi-D6R'  e  bos'ki,  (Don 
Juan,)  a  Spanish  botanist,  born  in  Catalonia  in  1598, 
was  the  father  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1681. 

Salvador  yPedrol,  sIl-vi-DiR'  e  pi-DR61',  (Jayme,) 
son  of  Don  Juan  Salvador,  the  first  of  that  name,  was 
born  at  Barcelona  in  1649.  He  enjoyed  a  high  reputa- 
tion as  a  naturalist,  and  was  a  friend  of  Tournefort, 
Boerhaave,  and  other  eminent  savants.    Died  in  1740. 

Salvandy,  de,  deh  strvSNMe',  (Narcisse  Achille,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  statesman  and  litterateur,  was  born  at 
Condom  in  1795.  He  became  master  of  requests  in 
the  State  Council  in  1819,  having  previously  j^ublished 
"The  Coalition  and  France,"  and  other  political  pam- 
phlets. He  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1835, 
and  was  minister  of  public  instruction  from  April,  1837, 
to  March,  1839.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Don 
Alonzo,  or  Spain,"  a  political  romance,  (1824,)  a  "His- 
tory of  Poland  before  and  under  the  Reign  of  John 
Sobieski,"  (3  vols.,  1827-29,)  and  "  Sixteen  Months,  or 
the  Revolution  of  1830."    Died  in  1856. 

See  L.  DE  LoM^NiE,  "  M.  de  Salvandy,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1841;  Charles  Robin,  "  Biographie  de  M.  de  Salvandy,"  1848; 
*' Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
June,  1832. 

Salvemini.    See  Castillon,  de. 

Salverte,  stl'v^Rt',  (Anne  Joseph  EusfeBE  Bacon- 
NiiRE,)  a  French  litterateur  and  statesman,  born  in 
Paris  in  1771.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  for  the  department  of  Seine  in  1828,  and 
voted  with  the  opposition.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
•*  Literary  Picture  of  France  in  the  Eighteenth  Century," 
(1809,)  "  Historical  and  Philosophical  Essays  on  the 


Names  of  Men,  Nations,  and  Places,"  etc.,  (1824,)  And 
other  works.    Died  in  1839. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1830. 

Salvi,  sSl'vee,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian  historical 
painter,  surnamed  Sassoferrato,  born  in  that  place  in 
1605.  His  pictures  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  are  particu- 
larly admired  ;  also  the  altar-piece  in  the  cathedral  of 
Montefiascone  representing  the  death  of  Saint  Joseph. 
Died  in  1685. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Salvi,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  architect,  born  in  1699. 
His  greatest  work  is  the  fountain  of  Trevi,  at  Rome, 
executed  by  order  of  Clement  XII.    Died  in  1751. 

Salviani,  sil-ve-^'nee,  (Ippolito,)  an  Italian  natural- 
ist, and  physician  to  Pope  Julius  III.,  was  born  at  Citta 
di  Castello  in  1514.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"  History  of  Water  Animals,"  ("  Aquatilium  Animalium 
Historia,"  1554.)    Died  in  1572, 

See  CuviER,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles. " 

Sal-vi-a'nus,  [Fr.  Salvien,  stKve-S.N',]  a  presbyter 
of  Marseilles,  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Cologne, 
flourished  in  the  fifth  century.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Treatise  against  Avarice,"  and  one  "On  the  Govern- 
ment of  God,"  which  are  written  in  elegant  Latin. 

Salviati,  sSl-ve-i'tee,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian  cardi- 
nal, born  at  Florence  before  1500  ;  died  in  1568. 

Salviati,  (Francesco  Rossi  da — ros'see  dl,)  called 
also  Cecco  (chSk'ko)  Rossi,  an  eminent  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Florence  in  15 10,  was  patronized  by  Cardinal 
Salviati,  who  conferred  upon  him  his  name.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Andrea  del  Sarto  and  of  Bandinelli.  He  was 
also  the  intimate  friend  of  Vasari,  who  was  his  fellow- 
student  at  Rome.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  The 
Battles  and  Triumph  of  Camillus,"  in  the  Palazzo  Vec- 
chio  at  Florence,  "The  Taking  down  from  the  Cross," 
in  the  church  of  the  Celestines  in  Paris,  and  the  frescos 
representing  the  history  of  Psyche  in  the  Palazzo  Gri- 
mani.    Died  at  Rome  in  1563. 

See  Vasaki,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario." 

Salviati,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  at 
Florence  in  1490,  was  a  brother  of  Bernardo,  noticed 
above,  and  a  grandson  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent.  He 
was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts.  Died  in 
1553- 

See  Paolo  Giovio,  "  Elogia." 

Salviati,  (Giuseppe.)    See  Porta. 

Salviati,  (Leonardo,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  littira- 
tetir,  born  at  Florence  in  1540,  was  an  adversary  of 
Tasso,  and  caused  the  Academy  Delia  Crusca  to  share 
his  hostility  against  that  poet.  He  wrote  comedies  and 
treatises  on  language,  rhetoric,  etc.  His  "  Avvertimenti 
della  Lingua  sopra'l  Decamerone"  (2  vols.,  1584-86)  was 
highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1589. 

See  Negri,  "  Scrittori  Fiorentini ;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della 
Letteratura  Italiana  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Salvien.    See  Salvianus. 

Salvini,  sai-vee'nee,  (Antonio  Maria,)  an  Italian 
philologist  and  writer,  born  at  Florence  in  1653.  He 
translated  several  Greek  and  Latin  authors  into  Italian. 
In  1676  he  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Florence.  He 
wrote,  besides  many  other  works,  "  Academic  Dis- 
courses," (3  vols.,  1695-1733,)  "Prose  sacre,"  (1716,) 
and  "Sonetti,"  (1728.)    Died  in  1729. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitae  Italorum,"  etc.;  Peruzzi,  "  Orazione  in 
Morte  di  A.  M.  Salvini,"  1731 ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Salvini,  (Salvino,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Florence  in  1667.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
learned  works,  among  which  is  "  Fasti  consolari  dell' 
Accademia  Fiorentina,"  (1717.)    Died  in  1751. 

Salvino  degli  Armati,  sil-vee'no  diKyee  aR-ml'tee, 
born  at  Florence  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, is  supposed  by  many  to  have  been  the  inventor  of 
spectacles, — though  the  Chinese  appear  to  have  used 
them  ages  before. 

Salvolini,  s3.1-vo-lee'nee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
Orientalist,  born  at  Faenza  in  1809,  was  a  pupil  of  the 
celebrated  Mezzofanti.  He  published  a  "  Grammatical 
Analysis  of  the  Different  Ancient  Egyptian  Texts," 
(1836.)    Died  in  1838. 


•e  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  vi, guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled ;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

123 


SALFONI 


1954 


SANCHES 


Salvoni,  sil-vo'nee,  (Piero  Bernardo,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Parma  in  1723;  died  in  1784. 

Saly,  st'le'',  (Jacques  Franco  is  Joseph,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1717,  worked  about 
twenty  years  at  Copenhagen.  His  chief  work  is  an 
equestrian  statue  of  Frederick  V.  of  Denmark.  Died 
in  1776. 

Salza,  von,  fon  sSlt'sS,  (Hermann,)  a  German  diplo- 
matist and  soldier,  born  about  1180;  died  in  1239. 

Salzmann,  siits'm§.n,  (Christian  Gotthilf, )  a 
German  Protestant  divine  and  educational  writer,  born 
near  Erfurt  in  1744.  He  founded  in  1784,  at  Schnep- 
fenthal,  a  school  on  the  system  of  Basedow  and  Rous- 
seau, which  became  widely  popular.    Died  in  181 1. 

Salzmann,  (Friedrich  Zacharias,)  a  German 
horticulturist,  born  in  1730,  was  gardener  to  Frederick 
the  Great  of  Prussia.  He  published  several  works  on 
gardening  and  fruit-culture.    Died  in  i8or. 

Samacchini,  s3,-m3.k-kee'nee,  (Orazio,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1532,  was  a  pupil  of  Pelle- 
grino.  His  picture  of  the  "  Purification,"  in  the  church 
of  Saint  James  at  Bologna,  is  esteemed  a  master-piece. 
Died  in  1577. 

Saman  or  Samani.    See  Samanides. 

Samanidae.    See  Samanides. 

Samaniden.    See  Samanides. 

Samanides,  sam'a-nidz  or  sS-man'idz,  sing.  Sam'a- 
nide,  [Fr.  pron.  sS'mt'n^d';  Ger.  Samaniden,  si-mi- 
nee'den ;  Lat.  Saman'id.^;,]  the  name  of  a  Persian 
dynastj,  which  ruled  in  the  tenth  century.  Its  founder 
was  Saman,  (si'min',)  who  flourished  about  930.  The 
last  prince  of  this  line  was  assassinated  in  the  reign  of 
Mahmood  the  Gaznevide,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
eleventh  century. 

Samaniego,  s^-mi-ne-a'go,  (Felix  Maria,)  a  dis- 
tinguished fabulist,  sometimes  called  "the  Spanish  La 
Fontaine,"  born  at  Bilbao  about  1742.  His  works  are 
entitled  "Fables  in  Verse."    Died  about  1804. 

See  TiCKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Samary,  st'mt're',  (Philippe,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
poet,  born  at  Carcassonne  in  1731  ;  died  in  1803. 

Sambhu,  a  surname  of  Siva,  (which  see.) 

Sambiasi,  sim-be-i'see,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  mis- 
sionary to  China,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1582  ;  died  in  1649. 

Sambin,  sSN'biN',  (Hugues,)  a  French  architect, 
and  pupil  of  Michael  zA.ngelo,  was  born  at  Dijon.  He 
wrote  "On  the  Terms  used  in  Architecture,"  (1572.) 

Samblan9ai,  de,  deh  s6N'bl6N'sa',  (Jacques  de 
Beaune — bon,)  Baron,  a  French  statesman,  born  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  was  superintendent  of  finance  under 
Charles  VIII.,  Louis  XH.,  and  Francis  I.  Being  ac- 
cused of  peculation  by  the  queen-mother,  the  Duchess 
of  Angouleme,  he  was  executed  in  1527. 

Sam-bu'cus,  (John,)  a  distinguished  scholar,  born 
at  Tyrnau,  in  Hungary,  in  1531.  He  was  historiogra- 
pher to  the  emperor  Maximih'an  II.,  and  was  also 
patronized  by  his  successor,  Rudolph  II.  He  wrote,  in 
Latin,  a  continuation  of  the  "  History  of  Hungary"  of 
Bonfinius  ;  also  commentaries  on  various  classics.  Died 
in  1584. 

See  HoRANYi,  "  Memoria  Hungarorum  ;"  Sax,  "  Onotnasticon." 

Sa-me'ri-us,  (Henry,)  a  Jesuit,  born  in  France  in 
1540,  was  for  a  time  confessor  to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Sacred  Chro- 
nology," (in  Latin.)    Died  about  1610, 

Sammarthanus.    See  Sainte-Marthe. 

Sammartino,  sSm-maR-tee^no,  (Matteo,)  Count  of 
Vische,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1494,  was  the  author  of 
"  Eclogues"  and  other  poems  ;  also  "  Grammatical  and 
Poetical  Observations  on  the  Italian  Language." 

Sammes,  samz,  (Aylett,)  an  English  antiquary,  who 
wrote  "The  Antiquities  of  Ancient  Britain  derived  from 
the  Phoenicians."    Died  in  1679. 

Sammicheli.    See  Sanmichell 

Sa-mon'i-cus  or  Sam-mon'i-cHs,  (Quintus  Se- 
RENUS,)  a  Roman  writer,  of  whom  little  is  known,  ex- 
cept that  he  was  put  to  death  by  Caracalla  about  212 
A.D.  A  medical  treatise,  in  verse,  entitled  "  Carmen  de 
Medicina,"  is  ascribed  to  him. 

See  Reuss,  "Lectiones  Sammoiiicae,*'  1837. 


Sampietro,  sim-pe-a'tRo,  a  Corsican  soldier,  born 
in  the  district  of  Ajaccio  about  1500,  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  French  army  under  Francis  I.  and  Henry 
11.    He  perished  by  assassination  in  1567. 

Samp'son,  (Henry,)  an  English  physician  and  non- 
conformist divine,  born  in  Nottinghamshire,  studied  at 
Leyden  and  Padua,  and  became  a  member  of  the  College 
of  Physicians.    Died  in  1705. 

Sampson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Puritan  divine  and 
theologian,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1517;  died  in  1589. 

Sam  Slick.    See  Halihurton. 

Samsoe,  sSm-so'eh,  (Ole  Johan,)  a  Danish  writer, 
born  at  Nestved  in  1759.  His  principal  works  are 
"  Frithiof  and  other  Scandinavian  tales,  and  the  tragedy 
of"  Dyvecke,"  which  was  very  successful.  Died  in  1796. 

Sam'son,  [Heb.  one  of  the  judges  of  Israel, 

of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  and  the  son  of  Manoah,  was 
born  about  11 55  B.C.,  and  at  an  early  age  gave  proof 
of  supernatural  bodily  strength.  After  performing 
several  wonderful  actions,  he  was  made  prisoner  and 
deprived  of  his  sight  by  the  Philistines,  a  great  number 
of  whom  he  subsequently  destroyed,  along  with  him- 
self, by  pulling  down  the  temple  in  which  they  were 
assembled. 

See  Judges  xiii.,  xiv.,  xv.,  xvi. 

Sam'son,  (George  Whitfield,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Baptist  divine,  born  in  Worcester  county,  Massachusetts, 
in  1819,  was  elected  in  1859  president  of  Columbian 
College,  Washington.  He  has  published  letters  on 
Egypt,  Palestine,  etc.,  and  a  treatise  entitled  "Spiritual- 
ism Tested." 

Samson,  s6n''s6n'',  (Joseph  Isidore,)  a  French  actor 
and  dramatist,  born  at  Saint-Deiiis  in  1793. 

Samuel,  [Heb.  SxiDIi'.]  ^  Hebrew  prophet  and  judge, 
born  about  11 55  or  11 70  B.C.,  was  the  son  of  Elkanah 
and  Hannah.  About  the  age  of  forty  he  became  judge 
or  chief  ruler  of  Israel.  Having  been  urgently  requested 
by  the  elders  to  give  them  a  king,  he  anointed  Saul  to 
reign  over  Israel.  He  afterwards  prophesied  against 
Saul,  and  anointed  David  as  his  successor.  He  died 
about  the  age  of  ninety-five.  His  name  has  been  given 
to  two  historical  books  of  Scripture.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  written  the  first  twenty-four  chapters  of  the  first 
book  of  Samuel,  which  see. 

See  "  Life  and  Times  of  Samuel,"  London,  1843. 

Samund,  sa'mdond,  a  distinguished  scholar  and  his- 
torian, born  in  Iceland  about  1056.  His  principal  work 
was  a  "  History  of  the  Norwegian  Kings  from  Harold 
Haarfager  to  Magnus  the  Good,"  which  was  highly 
esteemed  by  his  contemporaries.  He  is  supposed  by 
some  writers  to  have  been  one  of  the  authors  of  the 
"  Edda."    Died  in  1133. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Sam'well,  (David,)  a  native  of  Denbighshire,  Wales, 
accompanied  Captain  Cook  on  his  last  voyage,  and  was 
a  witness  of  his  murder,  of  which  he  published  an  ac- 
count.   Died  in  1799. 

San,  s6n  or  sin,  (Gerard  Xavier,)  a  Belgian  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Bruges  in  1754;  died  in  1830. 

Sanadon,  st'nt'doN',  (Noel  Etienne,)  a  learned 
French  Jesuit,  born  at  Rouen  in  1676,  was  appcr!nted 
in  1728  librarian  of  the  College  of  Louis  le  Grand  in 
Paris.  He  is  chiefly  known  by  his  French  translation 
of  Horace,  (in  prose,  1728,)  which  was  highly  esteemed 
at  that  time.  He  also  wrote  elegant  Latin  poems.  Died 
i"  1733- 

See  MoRi^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Sanatroces,  (Sanadrug.)  See  Arsaces  XI.  of 
Parthia, 

San  Carlos,  sin  kaR'l6s,  (Josef  Miguel  de  Carva- 
jal — kaR-vi-H3.K,)  Duke  of,. a  statesman  and  diploma- 
tist, born  at  Lima,  in  South  America,  in  1771.  Having 
been  educated  in  Spain,  he  was  appointed  governor  ta 
the  Prince  of  Asturias,  afterwards  Ferdinand  VII.,  and 
in  1807  became  Viceroy  of  Navarre. 

Sanche.    See  Sancho. 

Sanches,  sin'shgs,  (Antonio  Nunhez  Ribeiro,)  a 
Portuguese  physician,  born  in  1699,  studied  at  Leyden 
under  Boerhaave,  and  subsequently  became  physician 
to  the  Empress  of  Russia,  (1731.)    Died  in  1783. 


5,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SANCHEZ 


1955 


SAND 


Sanchez,  sin'chSth,  [Lat.  Sanc'tius,]  (Francisco,) 
an  eminent  Spanish  scholar,  born  at  Las  Brofas,  in 
Estremadura,  in  1523,  became  professor  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  languages  and  rhetoric  at  Salamanca.  He 
published  editions  of  several  Latin  classics,  and  a  num- 
ber of  original  treatises  in  Latin,  among  which  we  may 
name  his  "Minerva,  seu  de  Causis  Linguae  Latinae  Com- 
mentarius,"  ("Commentary  on  the  Principles  of  the 
Latin  Tongue,")  which  was  esteemed  a  standard  work. 
Died  in  1601. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Sanchez,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  physician,  of  Jew- 
ish extraction,  was  the  author  of  a  "  Commentary  on  the 
Physics  of  Aristotle,"  (in  Latin,)  and  several  medical 
works.    Died  in  1632. 

Sanchez,  (Gaspard,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit  and  biblical 
critic,  born  at  Cifuentes  about  1553,  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Alcala.    Died  in  1628. 

Sanchez,  (Pedro  Antonio,)  a  Spanish  ecclesiastic, 
born  in  Galicia  in  1740,  was  celebrated  for  his  eloquence. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  religious  works,  and  filled  the 
chair  of  divinity  in  the  University  of  Santiago  de  Com- 
postella.    Died  in  1796. 

Sanchez,  (Tomas,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit  and  theologian, 
born  at  Cordova  in  1550.  His  principal  work  is  en- 
titled "Disputations  concerning  the  Holy  Sacrament  of 
Marriage,"  ("  Disputationes  de  Sancto  Matrimonii  Sa- 
cramento," 1602.)    Died  in  1610. 

Sanchez,  (Tomas  Antonio,)  a  Spanish  scholar  and 
antiquary,  born  in  1730,  published  a  "Collection  of 
Castilian  Poetry  before  the  Fifteenth  Century."  Died 
in  1798. 

Sanchez  de  Arevalo,  sin'chlth  di  i-ri-vS,'lo,  (Ro- 
DRIGO,)  [Lat.  RoDERi'cus  Sanc'tius,]  a  learned  Spanish 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Segovia  in  1404.  He 
was  appointed  by  Pope  Paul  H.  governor  of  the  castle 
of  Sant'  Angelo,  and  Bishop  successively  of  Zamora, 
Calahorra,  and  Palencia.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works 
in  Latin,  among  which  may  be  named  his  "  Mirror  of 
Human  Life,"  ("Speculum  Vitas  Humanae,")  and  a 
"History  of  Spain."    Died  in  1470. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "Bibliotheca  Hispana  Vetus." 

Sanchez  Coello.    See  Coello. 

Sancho,  sin'cho  or  sln'cho,  [Fr,  Sanche,  s6Nsh,]  I., 
King  of  Leon,  succeeded  his  brother,  Ordono  HI.,  in 
955  A.D.    Died  in  967. 

Sancho  II.,  King  of  Castile  and  Leon,  born  about 
1035.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Ferdinand  L,  in  1065. 
Died  in  1072. 

Sancho  III.,  a  son  of  Alfonso  VHL,  born  about  1 130, 
began  to  reign  over  Castile  in  1157.    Died  in  1158. 

Sancho  IV.,  surnamed  el  Bravo,  ("the  Brave,") 
King  of  Castile  and  Leon,  born  in  1258,  was  a  son  of 
Alfonso  X.  He  revolted  against  his  father  in  1282,  and 
involved  the  country  in  a  long  civil  war.  He  became 
king  at  the  death  of  Alfonso,  in  1284.  Died  in  1295. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Fernando  IV. 

See  Mariana,  "  Historia  de  Espana  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^n^rale." 

Sancho  III.,  King  of  Navarre,  called  the  Great, 
was  born  about  965  A.D.,  and  succeeded  his  father, 
Garcia  II,,  about  1000.  He  was  a  warlike  prince,  and 
extended  his  dominions  by  conquest.    Died  in  1035. 

San'cho  [Port.  pron.  sin'shoj  I.,  King  of  Portugal, 
born  in  1154,  succeeded  his  father,  Alfonso  I.,  in  1185. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  prudent  and  beneficent  ruler. 
Died  in  1212. 

Sancho,  sin'cho  or  sank'o,  (Ignatius,)  a  negro 
poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  on  board  a  slave- 
ship  in  1729,  was  taken  to  England,  where  he  was 
educated,  and  acquired  the  friendshi])  of  Dr.  Johnson, 
Garrick,  and  other  distinguished  persons.  He  published 
poems,  dramatic  works,  and  "  Letters."    Died  in  1780. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  December,  1783. 

San-eho-ni'a-thon  or  San-ehu-ni^'a-thon,  [Gr. 

'Layxowuiduv,]  a  Phoenician  writer,  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Ber'ytus,  and  to  have  flourished  about 
fourteen  centuries  B.C.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  His- 
tory of  Phoenicia,"  which  was  translated  into  Greek  from 
the  Phoenician  by  Philo  of  Byblus.    The  manuscript  of 


this  translation  is  said  to  have  been  found  in  Portugal  in 
1835  ;  but  it  is  now  generally  believed  to  be  spurious. 
It  was  translated  into  German  by  Wagenfeld,  (1836.) 

See  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca ;"  F.  L.  Vibe,  "Commen- 
tatiode  Sanchoniathone,"  1842;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate." 

San  Concordio,  da,  di  sin  kon-koR'de-o,  (Barto- 
LOMMEO,)  an  Italian  ecclesiastic,  born  near  Pisa  in  1262. 
His  work  entitled  "  Ammaestramenti  degli  Antichi"  is  a 
translation  from  the  maxims  of  the  ancient  philosophers, 
and  is  esteemed  a  model  of  elegance  in  style. 

San'croft,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  prelate 
and  nonjuror,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1616,  rose  through 
various  preferments  to  be  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in 
1678.  After  James  II.  had  issued  his  edict  of  toleration, 
Sancroft  and  six  other  bishops  presented  a  petition 
against  it,  and  were,  in  consequence,  imprisoned  for  a 
time  in  the  Tower.  Having  refused  to  take  the  oaths 
on  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary,  (1689,)  he  was 
superseded  in  his  office  by  Archbishop  Tillotson.  Died 
in  1693. 

See  the  "Life  of  William  Sancroft,"  by  George  D'Ovley,  Lon- 
don, 1S66;  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England  ;"  Miss  Strickland, 
"  Lives  of  tlie  Seven  Bishops." 

Sanctius.    See  Sanchez,  (Francisco.) 

Sanc-to'ri-us,  an  eminent  Italian  physician,  whose 
original  name  was  Santorio,  (sin-to're-o,)  was  born  at 
Capo  dTstria  in  1561.  He  was  appointed  in  1611  pro- 
fessor of  the  theory  of  medicine  at  Padua.  He  published 
several  valuable  medical  works,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  entitled  "Ars  de  Statica  Medicina  Sectionibus 
Aphorismorum  Septem  Comprehensa."  This  treatise, 
which  was  translated  into  several  languages,  gives  the 
result  of  a  series  of  experinients  on  insensible  perspira- 
tion.   Died  in  1636. 

See  A.  Capelli,  "  De  Vita  Sanctorii,"  1750;  Hallek,  "Biblio- 
theca Medica  ;"  notice  in  the  "  Biographie  Medicale,"(by  Boisseau.) 

Sancy,  de,  deh  sSn'sc',  (  Nicolas  Harlay,  )  a 
French  statesman,  born  in  1546,  rose  to  be  superintend- 
ent of  finance  under  Henry  III.    Died  in  1629. 

Sand,  sint,  [Lat,  San'dius,]  (Christoph,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1644,  published 
several  works  in  favour  of  Socinianism.    Died  in  1680. 

Sand,  [Fr.  pron.  s6Nd,]  (George,)  the  assumed  name 
of  Amantine*  Lucile  Aurore  Dupin,  (t'mSN'ten' 
lii's^K  6'roR'dii^piN',)  Madame  Dudevant,  (dii'deh-vSN',) 
a  celebrated  French  novelist,  born  in  Paris  on  the  ist 
of  July,  1804.  Her  father,  Maurice  Dupin,  an  officer  of 
the  army,  was  a  son  of  M.  Dupin  de  Francueil,  who  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  the  famous  Maurice  de  Saxe.  The 
subject  of  this  article  is  thus  a  great-granddaughter  of  , 
Maurice  de  Saxe,  who  was  a  natural  son  of  Augustus 
II.  of  Poland.  Her  father  having  died  in  1808,  she  was 
educated  by  her  grandmother,  Madame  Dupin,  at  the 
chateau  de  Nohant,  in  the  department  of  Indre,  where 
she  had  full  liberty  to  indulge  and  develop  her  roinantic 
and  wayward  tendencies.  She  passed  three  years  (1817- 
20)  in  the  convent  of  the  Augustines  Anglaises,  Paris, 
and  was  for  a  time  a  zealous  devotee,  accepting  the 
mysteries  of  Catholicism  with  ecstasy,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  morbid  reaction.  She  tormented  herself 
with  scruples,  accused  herself  of  constant  sin,  and  be- 
came very  despondent.  In  1820  she  left  the  convent 
and  returned  to  Nohant,  where  her  love  and  taste  for 
natural  scenery  were  fostered  and  developed.  She 
delighted  in  horseback-excursions,  and  studied  philos- 
ophy in  the  works  of  Aristotle,  Leibnitz,  and  Locke  ; 
but  Rousseau  was  her  prime  favourite  among  authors. 

She  inherited  the  estate  of  Nohant  on  the  death  of  her 
grandmother,  in  1821,  and  was  married  in  1822  to  M, 
Dudevant,  a  retired  officer  of  the  army.  They  had  two 
children,  Maurice  and  Solange.  After  living  together 
about  ten  years,  they  separated  by  inutual  consent,  be- 
cause their  tastes  or  tempers  were  incompatible.  She 
became  a  resident  of  Paris,  and,  having  given  up  her  for- 
tune to  her  husband,  adopted  the  profession  of  literature 
for  a  subsistence.  In  conjunction  with  her  friend  Jules 
Sandeau,  she  wrote  "  Rose  et  Blanche,"  a  tale,  (5  vols., 
1831.)    She  alone  produced  in  1832  a  novel  called  "  In- 


*  The  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale"  gives  this  name  as 
Armandine;  Pierer's  "  Universal-Lexikon"  has  Amandine  ;  nearly 
all  the  other  authorities,  including  Vapereau,  have  it  as  given  above. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  o,  H,  y.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SAND  1956  3ANDF0RD 


diana,"  which  appeared  under  the  pseudonym  of  George 
Sand  and  had  great  success.  Her  celebrity  was  in- 
creased by  "Valentine,"  (2  vols.,  1832,)  and  a  paradoxi- 
cal work  of  fiction,  entitled  "  Lelia,"  (2  vols.,  1833,)  which, 
says  the  "National  Review,"  "is  the  most  famous  and 
the  most  typical  of  her  novels.  It  is  to  an  English 
reader,  and  judged  of  from  the  point  of  view  of  common 
sense,  one  of  the  most  incoherent,  foolish,  morbid,  blas- 
phemous, and  useless  books  that  have  been  sent  across 
the  Channel  during  the  present  century."  The  same 
critic  remarks,  "  She  has  a  true  and  a  wide  appreciation 
of  beauty,  a  constant  command  of  rich  and  glowing 
language,  and  a  considerable  faculty  of  self-analysis 
and  self-reflection.  ...  In  spite  of  all  her  defects,  she 
awakens  an  admiration  which  cannot  be  reasoned  away." 
(See  article  "George  Sand"  in  the  "National  Review," 
reprinted  in  the  "Living  Age"  of  February  27,  1858.) 

She  afterwards  produced  "Metella,"  (1833,)  "Leone 
Leoni,"  (1834,)  "Jacques,"  (1834,)  and  "Mauprat,"  (2 
vols.,  1836,)  which,  with  other  tales,  ajjpeared  first  in  the 
"Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."  Her  "  Spiridion"  (1839) 
and  "Consuelo"  (1844)  ^I'e  said  to  have  been  written 
under  the  inspiration  of  her  friend  Pierre  Leroux. 
Between  1844  and  i850she  published  pastoral  romances 
entitled  "La  Mare  au  Diable,"  (1846,)  "  Fran9ois  le 
Champi,"  (1849,)  and  "La  petite  Fadette,"  which  were 
much  admired,  as  models  of  a  new  style  of  fiction. 
"  They  are  free,"  says  the  "  National  Review,"  "  from  all 
that  provokes  censure  in  her  other  writings, — from  theo- 
ries, from  declamation,  from  indelicacy.  They  move  as 
with  a  quiet  flow  that  is  irresistibly  fascinating,  and  are 
full  of  beauties  of  language  to  which  it  is  impossible  to 
do  justice." 

George  Sand  is  an  advanced  liberal  in  politics.  About 
the  beginning  of  her  literary  career  she  assumed  the 
costume  of  the  male  sex.  She  professes  to  be  a  socialist, 
and  denounces  the  conventional  system  of  marriage.  She 
was  an  ardent  partisan  of  the  revolution  of  1848,  after 
which  she  edited  a  democratic  weekly  paper  for  a  short 
time.  She  is  author  of  .  a  number  of  dramas,  among 
which  are  "  Claudie,"  (1851,)  "  Moliere,"  (1853,)  "  Fla- 
minio,"  (1854,)  and  "Lucie,"  (1856.)  In  1854  she  pub- 
lished her  autobiography,  "  Histoire  de  ma  Vie,"  (10 
vols.,)  in  which  the  disappointed  public  found  too  little 
of  personalities  and  anecdotes  and  too  much  of  psychol- 
ogy. Among  her  recent  works  are  "  Constance  Ver- 
rier,"  (i860,)  "  Flavie,"  (i860,)  "Tamaris,"  (1861,) 
"  Antonia,"  (1861,)  and  "  Laura,"  (1864.)  "  G.  Sand," 
says  the  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale,"  "stands  in 
the  first  rank  among  contemporary  novelists.  Her  com- 
positions are  in  general  magnificently  planned  or  ar- 
ranged, (ordonnees.)  .  .  .  She  has  had  the  original 
merit  to  perceive  and  express  the  poetry  of  the  land- 
scapes of  France.  .  .  .  But  it  is  by  her  style  that  she 
especially  excels." 

See  R.  Walsh,  "George  Sand,"  1837;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Cau- 
series  du  Liindi ;"  Lomenie,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains ;" 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1834,  January,  1843, 
July,  1844,  and  April,  1846. 

Sand,  sand  or  zint,  (Karl  Ludwig,)  the  murderer  of 
Kotzebue,  born  at  Wunsiedel  in  1795.  While  a  student 
at  Jena  he  embraced  with  ardour  the  cause  of  the  patriots, 
and,  exasperated  by  Kotzebue's  ridicule  of  the  liberal 
party,  stabbed  him  at  his  residence  in  Mannheim  in  1819. 
He  was  executed  in  1820. 

See  "  Memoir  of  Charles  Louis  Sand  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for 
February,  1820. 

Sandberg,  sInd'b&Rg,  (Johan  Gustaf,)  a  Swedish 
historical  painter,  born  in  1782,  worked  at  Stockholm, 
where  he  died  in  1854. 

Sand'by,  (Paul,)  R.A.,  a  celebrated  English  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Nottingham  about  1730.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1768, 
and  the  same  year  appointed  chief  drawing-master  to 
the  Royal  Military  Academy  at  Woolwich.  He  was  the 
first  of  his  countrymen  to  execute  aquatint  engravings  ; 
and  among  his  master-pieces  of  this  kind  are  "  The 
Carnival  at  Rome,"  after  Uavid  Allan,  and  "  Views  of 
Windsor  and  Eton."  As  a  painter  in  water-colours  he 
occupies  a  high  rank,  and  he  is  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  that  school  of  art  in  England.    Died  in  1809. 


Sandby,  (Thomas,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Nottingham  in  1721.  On  the  foundation  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  in  1768,  he  became  first  professor  of 
architecture  in  that  institution.  As  deputy  ranger  of 
Windsor  Great  Park,  he  planned  the  construction  of 
Virginia  Water,  (1754,)  and  in  1775  he  furnished  the 
design  of  Freemasons'  Hall,  London.    Died  in  1798. 

Sande,  van  den,  vtn  den  stn'deh,  (Jan,)  a  Flemish 
jurist  and  historical  writer,  born  in  Gelderland  in  the 
i  sixteenth  century  ;  died  in  1638. 

!  Sandeau,  s6N'd5',  (Leonard  Sylvain  Jules,)  a 
French  novelist,  born  at  Aubusson  in  1811.  He  began 
his  literary  career  as  an  associate  of  George  Sand,  (Du- 
devant,)  in  conjunction  with  whom  he  wrote  "  Rose  et 
Blanche,"  (5  vols.,  1831,)  and  other  novels.  Among 
his  works  are  "Mariana,"  (2  vols.,  1839,)  "Valcreuse," 
(1847,)  "Un  Heritage,"  (1849,)  and  "Olivier,"  (1854.) 
He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1858,  and 
became  keeper  of  the  Mazarin  Library  in  1859. 

Sand'e-man,  (Robert,)  born  at  Perth,  in  Scotland, 
in  i7i8or  1723,  was  the  founder  of  the  sect  called  by 
his  name.  He  emigrated  in  1764  to  New  England, 
where  he  died  in  177 1.  He  was  a  son-in-law  of  John 
Glass,  the  founder  of  the  Glassites. 

Sander,  sin'der,  (Antony,)  a  Flemish  ecclesiastic, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1586,  was  the  author  of  several  re- 
ligious and  historical  works,  (in  Latin.)    Died  in  1664. 

Sander,  sSn'der  or  zSn'der,  (Heinrich,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  in  1754;  died  in  1782. 

See  Feddersen,  "  Leben  H.  Sander's,"  1784;  Goetz,  "  Leben 
H.  Sander's,"  1786. 

San'ders,  (William  P.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Kentucky  about  1833,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1856.  He  fought  for  the  Union  as  an  olficer  of  cavalry 
in  several  campaigns,  and  was  killed  near  Knoxville, 
Tennessee,  in  November,  1863. 

San'ders  or  Saun'ders,  [Lat.  Sande'rus,]  (Nich- 
olas,) an  English  Catholic  theologian,  born  in  Surrey 
in  1527,  published  several  controversial  works.  Died 
about  1580. 

San'ders,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  litterateur,  born  at 
Breadalbane  in  1727.  He  published  "The  Newgate 
Calendar,"  (1764,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1783. 

San'der-son,  (John,)  an  American  litterateur,  born 
at  Carlisle,  Pennsylvania,  in  1785.  He  was  one  of  the 
authors  of  the  "Biography  of  the  Signers  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,"  (1827.)  In  1835  he  visited 
France,  and  published,  after  his  return,  "  Sketches  of 
Paris,"  etc.,  which  was  afterwards  enlarged  and  entitled 
"The  American  in  Paris."  It  was  very  favourably  re- 
ceived, and  was  translated  into  French  by  Jules  Janin. 
About  1836  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  Latin 
and  Greek  languages  in  the  Philadelphia  High  School. 
Died  in  1844. 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America." 

San'der-son,  (Robert,)  an  English  prelate,  born 
at  Rotherham,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1587.  He  graduated 
at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  was  afterwards  appointed 
chaplain  to  Charles  I.,  and  in  1642  became  regius  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Oxford.  He  refused  to  sign  the 
covenant.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Lincoln  in  1660, 
after  the  accession  of  Charles  II.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  his  treatise  "On  the  Obligation  of  Oaths," 
("De  Juramenti  Obligatione,"  1647,)  ^'^d  "Nine  Cases 
of  Conscience  Resolved,"  (1678.)    Died  in  1663. 

See  Isaac  Walton,  "Life  of  Bishop  Sanderson,"  1678. 

Sanderson,  (Robert,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Durham  in  1660.  He  assisted  in  the  compilation  of 
Rymer's  "  Fcedera,"  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  Henry  V." 
Died  in  1741. 

Sanderus.    See  Sanders. 

Sand'ford,  (Sir  Daniel  Keyte,)  a  Scottish  professor 
of  Greek,  born  about  1798,  was  a  son  of  Bishop  Sand- 
ford  of  Edinburgh.  He  was  professor  in  the  University 
of  Glasgow,  also  a  popular  orator  and  advocate  of  the 
Reform^bill.    Died  in  1838. 

Sand'ford,  (Francis,)  an  Irish  writer  and  herald, 
born  in  the  county  of  Wicklow  in  1630,  published  a 
"Genealogical  History  of  the  Kings  of  Portugal,"'  and 
other  similar  works.    Died  in  1693. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f3,r,  fSll,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  rooon; 


SAND  I  FORT 


1957 


SAN  GALLO 


Saudifort,  sin'de-foit',  (Eduard,)  a  Dutch  anato- 
mist, born  at  Dort  in  1742,  became  professor  of  anatomy 
at  Leyden,  and  published  several  works  on  that  science. 
Died  in  1814. 

His  son  Gerard,  born  at  Leyden  in  1779,  was  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  his  native  city. 
Died  in  1848. 

Sandini,  sSn-dee'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  writer, 
and  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at  Padua,  born  at 
Vicentino  in  1692.  He  was  the  author  of  the  "Lives 
of  the  Roman  Pontiffs,"  (in  Latin,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1751. 

Sandius.    See  Sand,  (Christoph.) 

Sandoval,  de,  di  sS.n-do-viK,  (Gonzalo,)  a  brave 
and  able  Spanish  general,  who  fought  under  Cortez  in 
Mexico  and  was  distinguished  by  his  especial  favour. 
"  He  was,"  says  Prescott,  '*  in  many  respects  the  most 
eminent  of  the  great  captains  formed  under  the  eye  of 
Cortez."    Died  in  1528,  soon  after  his  return  to  Spain. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vols.  ii. 
and  iii. 

Sandoval,  de,  (Fray  Prudencio,)  a  Spanish  prelate 
and  historian,  born  at  Valladolid  about  1560.  He  was 
appointed  historiographer  to  Philip  HL,  who  employed 
him  to  continue  the  "Cronica  General"  of  Ambrosio 
Morales,  which  appeared  under  the  title  of  "  History 
of  the  Kings  of  Castile  and  Leon."  Among  his  other 
works  are  a  "  History  of  the  Life  and  Deeds  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.,"  which  is  esteemed  a  standard 
work,  and  has  been  translated  into  English,  and  a 
"Chronicle  of  the  Illustrious  Emperor  of  Spain,  Don 
Alonzo  VII."  Sandoval  was  created  Bishop  of  Pampe- 
luna  in  1612.    Died  in  1621. 

See  TicKNOR,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature;"  N.  Antonio, 
*' Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Sandrart,  von,  fon  san'drirt  or  z3.n'dRiRt,  (Joa- 
chim,) a  German  painter,  engraver,  and  art-historian, 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1606.  He  studied 
painting  at  Utrecht  under  Gerard  Honthorst,  and  sub- 
sequently spent  several  years  in  Italy,  where  he  executed 
a  number  of  works  for  Cardinal  Barberini.  After  residing 
for  a  time  at  Amsterdam,  he  settled  at  Nuremberg,  where 
he  died  in  1688.  Sandrart's  pictures  and  engravings  had 
a  high  reputation  in  his  time  ;  but  his  fame  rests  chiefly 
on  his  work  entitled  "  German  Academy  of  Architecture, 
Sculpture,  and  Painting,"  ("  Die  Deutsche  Academie 
der  Bau,  Bildhauer  und  Malerkunst,"  2  vols.,  1675,)  a 
part  of  which  has  been  translated  into  Latin,  under  the 
title  of  "Academia  Artis  Picturae." 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Lebenslauf  Joachims  von  Sandrart," 
1675;  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres ;"  Nagler,  "  All- 
gemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Sandras.    See  Courtilz. 

Sandras,  sSN'dRts',  (Claude  Marie  Stanislas,)  a 
French  physician,  born  at  Rocroy  in  1802.  He  pub- 
lished a  "History  of  the  Cholera,"  and  other  medical 
works.    Died  in  1856. 

San-dro-cot'tus,  [Gr.  ^avdpoKOTTog ;  Sanscrit, Chan'- 
Dragup'ta,  modern  Hindoo  pron.  chiin-dra-gdop'ta,]  an 
Indian  king,  who  reigned  over  the  region  watered  by 
the  Ganges  about  310-300  B.C.  His  capital  was  Pali- 
bothra.  He  resisted,  with  success,  Seleucus  Nicator, 
who  invaded  his  dominions.  He  is  the  Chandragupta 
of  Sanscrit  writers.  He  was  a  man  of  low  caste,  and 
his  history  is  especially  interesting  as  marking  the 
progress  of  that  great  revolution  which  accon^3anied 
the  introduction  of  Booddhism  into  India.  (See  Gau- 
tama.) 

Sands,  (Robert  Charles,)  a  distinguished  Atneri- 
can  journalist  and  litterateur^  born  in  New  York  City  or 
at  Flatbush,  Long  Island,  in  1799.  He  graduated  at 
Columbia  College,  and  published  in  1820  the  poem  of 
"Yarnoyden,"  written  conjointly  with  his  friend  James 
Wallis  Eastburn.  He  subsequently  became  associated 
with  the  poet  Bryant  and  Mr.  G.  C.  Verplanck  as  a 
writer  for  "The  Talisman,"  a  literary  annual  of  a  high 
character.  He  was  editor  for  a  time  of  the  "Atlantic 
Magazine,"  and  in  1827  became  associate  editor  of  the 
New  York  "  Commercial  Advertiser."  Among  his  other 
works  are  a  "  Historical  Notice  of  Hernan  Cortez,"  and 
the  "Life  and  Correspondence  of  John  Paul  Jones."  He 


was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "Tales  of  Glauber  Spa," 
published  in  1832.    Died  in  1832. 

See  G.  C.  Verplanck,  "Life  of  R.  C.  Sands;"  Griswold, 
"  Poets  of  America  Duvckinck,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Lite- 
rature," vol.  ii. ;  "Knickerbocker  Magazine"  for  March  and  May, 
1834- 

Sandwich,  Earl  of.    See  Montagu,  (Edward.) 

San'dys,  (Edwin,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  Lan- 
cashire in  1 5 19.  He  rose  to  be  vice-chancellor  of  the 
University  in  1553,  but  he  was  deprived  of  this  office  on 
the  accession  of  Queen  Mary,  on  account  of  his  refusal 
to  proclaim  her.  Under  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  he  was 
successively  created  Bishop  of  Worcester,  (1559,)  of 
London,  (1570,)  and  Archbishop  of  York,  (1576.)  He 
assisted  in  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  known  as 
the  Bishops'  Bible,  and  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
appointed  to  revise  the  Liturgy.    Died  in  1588. 

See  Whitaker,  "  Life  of  Edwin  Sandys." 

Sandys,  (Sir  Edwin,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Worcestershire  about  1561.  He  was  employed  by 
James  I.  on  several  missions,  and  was  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "  Europae  Speculum,"  being  an  account 
of  his  travels.    Died  in  1629. 

Sandys,  (George,)  an  English  poet,  born  at  York 
in  1577,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Sandys,  Archbishop  of  York, 
noticed  above.  In  1610  he  visited  Palestine,  Egypt,  and 
Turkey,  of  which  he  published  an  account  after  his  re- 
turn. Among  his  other  works  are  paraphrases  uppn  the 
Psalms,  the  book  of  Job,  Ecclesiastes,  Lamentations,  the 
Song  of  Solomon,  etc.,  and  a  translation  of  Ovid's 
"Metamorphoses."  His  poetry  is  eulogized  by  Dryden, 
Pope,  Warton,  and  other  eminent  writers.  Died  about 
1644. 

See  H.  J.  Todd,  "Memoir  of  the  Life  of  G.  Sandj's,"  1839;  Sir 
E.  Brvdges,  "Censura  Literaria;"  Willmott,  "Lives  of  the 
English  Sacred  Poets." 

Sane,  st'ni',  (Jacques  Noel,)  Baron,  an  eminent 
French  naval  engineer,  born  at  Brest  in  1740.  He  was 
called  "the  Vauban  of  the  navy."    Died  in  1831. 

San'ford,  (Edward,)  an  American  poet,  born  in  the 
city  of  New  York  in  1805,  was  a  son  of  Nathan,  noticed 
below.  He  studied  law,  but  declined  to  practise.  He 
was  editor  of  the  "Standard,"  a  Democratic  journal  of 
New  York,  and  afterwards  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
"Globe"  at  Washington.  Among  his  poems,  which  are 
distinguished  for  grace,  vivacity,  and  delicate  humour, 
we  may  name  the  "Lines  to  a  Mosquito,"  and  the  ad- 
dress "To  Black-Hawk." 

See  Duvckinck,  "Cyclopedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. ; 
Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Sanford,  (Nathan,)  an  American  jurist  and  states- 
man, born  on  Long  Island  in  1779.  He  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate  in  18 16,  and  in  1823  be- 
came chancellor  of  the  State  of  New  York.  Died  in 
1838. 

San  Gallo,  da,  dS,  sin  giKlo,  (Antonio,)  an  eminent 
Italian  architect,  whose  original  name  was  PiccoNi, 
(p^k-ko'nee,)  a  nephew  of  Antonio  Giamberti,  was  born 
at  Mugello  about  1482.  Under  the  patronage  of  Alex- 
ander Farnese,  afterwards  Paul  III.,  he  constructed  a 
number  of  magnificent  edifices  at  Rome,  among  which 
we  may  name  the  Palazzo  Sacchetti,  and  the  church  of 
Madonna  di  Loretto.  In  1536  he  was  appointed  sole 
architect  of  Saint  Peter's,  for  which  he  prepared  a 
model  at  great  cost ;  but  it  was  not  approved  by  Michael 
Angelo,  and  was  finally  rejected.  The  Palazzo  Farnese, 
in  which  he  was  assisted  by  Michael  Angelo,  is  esteemed 
one  of  his  best  works.    Died  in  1546. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.;  Quatremkre  de 
QuiNCV,  "Vies  des  Architectes  ;"  Ticozzi,  "  DIzionario." 

San  Gallo,  da,  (Antonio  Battista  Gobbo,)  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  also  distinguished  as  an  architect, 
and  assisted  in  most  of  the  important  works  of  his 
brother. 

San  Gallo  or  Sangallo,  da,  (Antonio  Giamberti,) 
an  Italian  architect  and  sculptor,  born  at  Florence  in  the 
fifteenth  century.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  church 
of  the  Madonna  at  Montepulciano,  the  fortress  of  Civit^ 
Castellana,  and  the  castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  formerly  the 
mausoleum  of  Hadrian.  He  was  a  brother  of  Giuliano, 
noticed  below.    Died  in  1534. 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SAN  GALLO  1958  SANTA  ANA 


San  G-allo,  da,  (Bastiano,)  an  Italian  painter,  and 
relative  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Florence  in  1481 ; 
died  in  1551. 

San  Gallo,  da,  or  Sangallo,  (Giuliano,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  architect,  whose  proper  name  was  Giuliano 
GiAMHERTi,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1443.  He  was 
patronized  by  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  for  whom  he  built  a 
palace  or  villa  at  Poggio  Cajano,  and  a  large  convent  at 
Florence,  near  the  gate  of  San  Gallo,  from  which  he 
derived  his  name.  Among  his  works  was  a  palace  at 
Savona  for  Pope  Julius  II.  He  was  selected  by  Leo  X. 
to  succeed  Bramante  as  architect  of  Saint  Peter's ;  but 
he  declined  the  honour.  He  was  a  brother  of  Antonio 
Giamberti  da  San  Gallo.    Died  in  15 17. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  Cicognara,  "Storia 
della  Sciiltura;"  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  "  Dictionnaire  d'Ar- 
chitecture." 

Sangro,  da,  dS  sin'gRo,  (Raimondo,)  Prince  of  San 
S?evero,  an  Italian  savant,  born  in  Naples  in  1710.  He 
was  versed  in  various  sciences,  arts,  and  languages,  and 
displayed  much  inventive  genius.    Died  in  1771. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sanlecque,  de,  deh  s6N'l§k',  (Louis,)  a  French 
satirical  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1652,  was  also  a  priest. 
Died  in  1 7 14. 

San  Micheli,  sSn  me-ka'le,  written  also  Sammi- 
cheli  or  San  Michele,  (Gian  Girolamo,)  an  able 
Italian  architect,  born  about  15 14,  was  a  nephew  and 
pupil  of  the  following,  whom  he  aided  in  his  works. 
Died  in  1559. 

San  Micheli,  s^n  me-ka'lee,  or  Sammicheli,  sSm- 
me-ka''lee,  (Michele,)  a  celebrated  civil  and  military 
architect,  born  at  Verona,  in  Italy,  in  1484.  Having 
resided  for  several  years  at  Rome,  where  he  acquired 
the  friendship  of  Michael  Angelo,  Bramante,  and  other 
artists  of  the  time,  he  was  employed  about  1525  to  con- 
struct the  new  fortifications  of  Verona,  in  which  he  first 
introduced  the  angular  bastions,  since  generally  adopted 
by  engineers.  Among  his  other  works  may  be  named 
the  Grimani  and  Cornaro  palaces  at  Venice,  and  the 
Cappella  Pellegrini  and  church  of  the  Madonna  di  Cam- 
pagna  at  Verona.    Died  in  1559. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  A.  Selva,  "  Elogio  di 
M.  Sanniicheli,"  1814;  Milizia,  "  Vite  degli  Architetti ;"  Cico- 
gnara, "  Storia  della  Scultura  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

San  Miguel,  sin  me-g§K,  (Don  Evariste,)  a  Span- 
ish general  and  statesman,  born  in  the  Asturias  in  1780, 
served  in  the  campaigns  of  1808  and  1820,  and  subse- 
quently was  appointed  military  governor  of  Aragon. 
He  was  afterwards  made  captain-general  of  Madrid,  and 
president  of  the  revolutionary  junta.    Died  in  1862. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sannazar.    See  Sannazaro. 

Sannazarius.    See  Sannazaro. 

Sannazaro,  sin-nad-za^ro,  [  Lat.  Sannaza'rius  ; 
Fr.  Sannazar,  st'nt'ztR',]  (Jacopo,)  a  distinguished 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Naples  in  1458,  was  descended 
from  a  noble  family  in  Spain.  While  on  a  visit  in  France 
he  composed  his  "Arcadia,"  (1504,)  a  pastoral  in  prose 
and  verse,  which  is  esteemed  a  model  of  elegance  and 
purity  of  style.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  Latin  poems 
which  were  greatly  admired,  and  several  dramatic  works 
and  sonnets  in  Italian.  Sannazaro  was  i^atronized  by 
Frederick,  King  of  Naples,  and  accompanied  that  mon- 
arch in  his  exile  to  France.  He  died  at  Naples  in  1530, 
having  attained  the  rank  of  one  of  the  best  classics  of 
his  country. 

See  '"Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by  Rev.  H.  Stebbing;  Long- 
fellow, "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Crispo,  "Vita  di  Sanna- 
zaio,"  1585;  J.  A.  VoLPi,  "Sannazaris  Vita;"  T.  Colangelo,  "Vita 
di  G  Sannazaro,"  1819;  Niceron,  "Menioires;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
grapliie  Generale  ;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana ;" 
"Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  x.,  (1824.) 

San-nyr'i-on,  [Sawvpiwr,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet, 
flourished  about  400-375  B.C.,  and  was  a  contemporary 
of  Aristophanes. 

San  Roman,  sSn-ro-mSn',  (Miguel,)  a  Peruvian 
general,  born  in  1802.  He  had  obtained  a  high  rank  in 
the  army,  when  he  was  elected  President  of  Peru  in 
1862.    Died  in  April,  1863. 

San  Severe.    See  Sangro,  da. 

Sans-Malice.    See  Akakia. 


Sanson,  sSn'sAn',  (Adrien,)  a  French  geographer, 
was  a  son  of  Nicolas,  noticed  below.  He  had  the  title 
of  geographer  to  the  king.    Died  in  1708  or  1718. 

Sanson,  (Guillaume,)  a  geographer  of  Paris,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  published  several  works. 
Died  in  1703. 

Sanson,  (Louis  Joseph,)  a  distinguished  French 
surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1790.  He  succeeded  Dupuy- 
tren  as  professor  of  clinical  surgery  in  the  Hotel-Dieu 
in  1836,  He  was  eminent  as  a  practitioner  and  a  writer. 
Among  his  works  are  "New  Elements  of  Medico-Sur- 
gical Pathology,"  (4  vols.,  1825,)  and  "Des  Hemorrhagies 
traumatiques,"  (1836.)    Died  in  1841. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Sanson,  (Nicolas,)  one  of  the  earliest  French  geog- 
raphers, born  at  Abbeville  in  1600.  His  first  work  was 
a  map  of  ancient  Gaul,  which  obtained  for  him  the 
patronage  of  Cardinal  Richelieu  and  Louis  X HI.,  and 
he  was  employed  by  the  latter  as  an  engineer  in  Picardy. 
He  was  treated  with  marked  distinction  by  the  king, 
who  appointed  him  his  geographer  about  1640.  Besides 
his  numerous  maps,  he  published  a  work  entitled  "Bri- 
tannia, or  Researches  concerning  the  Antiquity  of  Abbe- 
ville," (1638.)    Died  in  1667. 

Sanson,  (Nicolas,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
about  1626.  He  rescued  Chancellor  Seguier  from  the 
fury  of  a  mob  in  Paris,  but  was  killed  himself  on  that 
occasion,  in  1648. 

Sansovino,  sin-so-vee'no,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
litterateur,  son  of  Jacopo,  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Rome  in  1521.  Among  the  most  important  of  his  works 
are  his  "  Hundred  Novels  from  the  Most  Eminent  Italian 
Writers,"  ("Cento  Novelle  scelti  de'  piu  nobili  Scrittori 
della  Lingua  volgare,")  "Turkish  Annals,"  (1573,)  and 
a  "Description  of  Venice,"  (1604.') 

See  Fontanini  and  Zeno,  "  Biblioteca  Italiana;"  Niceron, 
"Memoires;"  Tiraboschi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Sansovino,  (Jacopo  Tatti,)  an  eminent  Italian 
sculptor  and  architect,  born  at  Florence  in  1479.  He 
studied  sculpture  under  Contucci  da  Monte  Sansovino, 
whose  surname  he  assumed.  He  afterwards  visited 
Rome,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Bramante 
and  other  artists  and  was  patronized  by  Pope  Julius  II. 
After  the  sack  of  Rome  he  repaired  to  Venice,  where  he 
constructed  numerous  public  and  private  edifices.  Among 
these  may  be  named  La  Zecca,  or  Mint,  the  Palazzo  Cor- 
naro, and  La  Scuola  della  Misericordia.  His  colossal 
statues  of  Mars  and  Neptune  in  the  Doge's  palace,  and 
the  Four  Evangelists  in  the  chapel  of  Saint  Mark,  are 
ranked  among  his  master-pieces  in  sculpture.  Died 
about  1570. 

See  Giorgio  Vasari,  "Vita  di  J.  Sansovino,"  1785;  Temanza, 
"Vita  di  J.  Sansovino,"  1752;  Milizia,  "Vite  desli  Architetti;" 
Quatremere  de  Quincy,  "Vies  des  Architectes  ;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizi- 
onario." 

Sansovino,  da,  dS  sin-so-vee'no,  (  Andrea  Con- 
tucci,) an  eminent  Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  born 
in  1460.  He  worked  at  Rome  and  Loretto.  He  was 
the  master  of  Jacopo  Sansovino.    Died  in  1529. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors;"  Cico- 
gnara, "Storia  della  Scultura." 

Santa  Ana,  (or  Anna,)  de,  di  sSn'ti  Sn'nS,  (Anto- 
nio Lopez,)  a  Mexican  President  and  general,  born  in 
Mexico  or  Jalapa  about  1798.  He  fought  against  Itur- 
bide  in  1823,  against  Pedraza  in  1828,  and  against  Bus- 
tament^in  1830.  He  was  chosen  President  in  1833,  and 
becamd'-dictator  in  1835.  The  Texans  revolted  against 
Santa  Anna,  who  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  at 
San  Jacinto  in  April,  1836,  by  General  Houston.  He 
was  released  in  1837,  and  lost  a  leg  in  a  battle  against 
the  French  in  December,  1838.  He  recovered  power  in 
1841,  was  banished  in  1845,  but  returned  in  1846,  and 
became  general-in-chief.  He  was  defeated  by  General 
Taylor  at  Buena  Vista  in  February,  1847,  ^"^1  at  Cerro 
Gordo  by  General  Scott  in  April  of  that  year.  About 
this  time  he  was  again  chosen  President ;  but,  the 
American  army  having  taken  the  capital  of  Mexico  in 
September,  1847,  he  went  into  exile.  In  1853  he  re- 
turned, and  was  appointed  dictator  for  life.  After  he 
had  ruled  with  despotic  power  about  two  years,  he  was 
compelled  to  abdicate  in  August,  1855,  after  which  he 


i,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  llr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SANTA  CRUZ 


»9S9 


SAPOR 


passed  many  years  in  exile.  Soon  after  the  death  of 
Maximilian,  June,  1867,  Santa  Anna  returned  and  made 
an  attempt  against  the  republic,  but  failed,  and  was  made 
a  prisoner. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale ;"  "North  American  Re- 
view" for  July,  1836. 

Santa  Cruz,  sSn'tS  kRooss,  (or  kRooth,)  (Andres,)  a 
South  American  statesman  and  soldier,  born  in  Peru 
about  1800,  served  in  the  war  of  independence  in  1823, 
and  in  1829  succeeded  General  Sucre  as  President  of 
Bolivia.  He  was  defeated  at  Yungai  in  1839,  and  com- 
pelled to  leave  the  country.  In  1849  he  became  minister- 
plenipotentiary  from  Bolivia  to  London,  Paris,  Rome, 
and  Madrid. 

Santa  Cruz,  de,  dk  sin'tl  kRooth,  or  Sainte-Croix, 

s^Nt^kRw^',  (Don  Alvarez  de  Bassano — da  bS-si'- 
no,)  Marquis,  a  Spanish  admiral,  born  about  15 10, 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Lepanto.  He 
was  appointed  about  1587  to  the  chief  command  of  the 
Invincible  Armada,  but  died  before  it  was  ready  for 
action. 

Santa  Cruz  de  Marzenado,  de,  dk  s^n'tS  kRooth 
di  maR-thi-ni'Do,  (Alvar  de  Navia  Osorio,  il-v^R' 
6k  ni-vee'd  o-so're-o,)  Marquis,  a  Spanish  officer  and 
military  writer,  born  in  1687,  served  in  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession,  and  became  governor  of  Oran.  He 
was  killed  in  an  action  near  that  town  in  1732. 

Santafede,  sin-ti-fa'di,  (Fabrizio,)  a  skilful  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Naples  in  1560.  He  worked  mostly  in 
his  native  city.    Died  in  1634. 

Santander,  sSn-tin-daiR',  (Francisco  de  Paula — 
del  pow'li,)  a  South  American  statesman,  born  in  New 
Granada  in  1792.  He  fought  against  Spain  in  the  war 
of  independence,  and  was  elected  Vice-President  of  the 
republic  of  Colombia  in  1821.  Having  conspired  against 
Bolivar  about  1828,  he  was  banished.  In  1832  he  was 
elected  President  of  New  Granada.    Died  in  1840. 

Santarelli,  san-t^-reKlee,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an 
Italian  engraver,  born  in  the  Abruzzi  in  1759,  worked 
in  Rome  and  Florence.    Died  in  1826. 

Santarem,  san-ti-r^N',  (  Manoel  Francisco  de 
Barros  y  Souza — di  b^R^ris  e  so'zl,)  Viscount,  a 
Portuguese  diplomatist  and  writer,  born  at  Lisbon  in 
1790,  was  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Copen- 
hagen, and  in  1827  became  minister  of  state.  He  was 
the  author  of  an  "  Essay  on  the  History  of  Cosmography 
and  Cartography  during  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1849,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1856. 

Santen,  van,  vin  sin'ten,  (Laurent,)  a  Dutch  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Amsterdam  in  1746.  He  resided  mostly 
at  Leyden.  He  edited  several  ancient  Greek  and  Latin 
works,  on  which  he  wrote  critical  notes.    Died  in  1798. 

See  Bergman,  "  Levensschets  van  L.  van  Santen,"  1840. 

Santerre,  sSN'taiR',  (Antoine  Joseph,)  a  French 
revolutionist  of  the  Jacobin  party,  born  in  Paris  in  1752, 
had  acquired  a  large  fortune  as  a  brewer  in  the  Faubourg 
Saint-Antoine.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  storming 
of  the  Bastille,  and  in  the  subsequent  insurrections  of 
the  20th  of  June  and  the  loth  of  August.  As  com- 
mander of  the  National  Guard,  he  caused  the  king  to  be 
conveyed  to  the  tower,  and  afterwards  presided  at  his 
execution.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Vendeans,  under 
Piron  de  la  Varenne,  in  September,  1793.  Died  in  1808 
or  1809. 

See  Carro,  "  Santerre,  sa  Vie  pnblique  et  privee,"  1847. 

Santerre,  (Jean  Baptiste,  )  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  near  Pontoise  in  1651  ;  died  in  1717. 

Santeul,  s6N''tul',  (Claude,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  Latin  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1628,  was  a  brother  of 
Jean,  noticed  below.    Died  in  1684. 

Santeul,  s5.\'tuK,  or  Santeuil,  de,  deh  sSN'tuI', 
(Jean,)  |Lat.  Santo'lius,]  an  excellent  Latin  poet, 
born  in  Paris  in  1630,  was  a  canon  regular  of  Saint-Vic- 
tor. He  wrote  Latin  hymns  with  great  success.  "  A 
nobleness  of  thought  and  splendour  of  language,"  says 
Hallam,  "distinguished  the  poetry  of  Santeul,  who  fur- 
nished many  inscriptions  for  public  monuments."  ("  In- 
troduction to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")    Died  in  1697. 

See  "  Vie  et  bons  mots  de  Santeul,"  Cologne,  1735;  Dinouart, 
"  Santoliana,"  1764  ;  Montalant-Bdugleux,  "  Santeul,  ou  la  Poesie 
Latine  sous  Louis  XIV,"  1854  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


Santi,  sin'tee,  or  Sanzio,  san''ze-o,  (Giovanni,)  an 
Italian  poet  and  painter,  born  at  Colbordolo,  was  the 
father  of  Raphael.  He  painted  Madonnas  and  other 
religious  subjects.    Died  in  1494. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Passavant,  "  Rafael  von 
Urbino  und  sein  Vater,  G.  Santi." 

Santi  di  Tito  or  Titi.    See  Tito. 

Santillana.    See  Mendoza,  (Inigo  Lopez.) 

Santini,  sin-tee'nee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  savant, 
born  in  Tuscany  in  1786.  He  became  rector  of  the 
University  of  Padua  in  1825,  and  was  afterwards  ap- 
pointed professor  of  astronomy  and  director  of  mathe- 
matical studies  in  that  institution.  He  is  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  French  Institute,  and  has  published 
several  scientific  works. 

Santolius.    See  Santeul. 

Santorini,  sin-to-ree'nee,  (Giovanni  Domenico,) 
an  Italian  anatomist,  born  at  Venice  in  1681.  He  wrote 
several  able  works  on  anatomy  and  medicine.  Died  in 
1736. 

See  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca  Anatomica  ;"  Pollaroli,  "  Notizie 
per  servire  alia  Storia  della  Vita  di  G.  D.  Santorini,"  1763. 

Santorio.    See  Sanctorius. 

Sanuto,  si-noo'to,  (Livio,)  an  Italian  geographer  of 
the  sixteenth  century  ;  died  before  1588. 

Sanuto,  (Marino,)  called  Torsello,  (toR-seKlo,)  a 
Venetian  traveller,  who  visited  the  Levant  and  wrote  the 
"  Book  of  Faithful  Secrets  concerning  the  Recovery 
of  the  Holy  Land,"  (*'  Liber  Secretorum  fidelium  super 
Terrae  Sanctse  Recuperatione.")    Died  after  1330. 

See  PosTANSQUE,  "De  Marino  Sanuto,"  1856;  Tiraboschi, 
"Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Sanuto,  (Marino,)  the  Younger,  an  Italian  his- 
torian, born  in  Venice  in  1466,  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  founded  by  Aldus  Manutius.  He  wrote,  in 
Italian,  a  history  of  the  Republic  of  Venice,  which  was 
published  in  1733  in  Muratori's  "  Italiae  Scriptores," 
under  the  title  of  "  Lives  of  the  Doges  of  Venice," 
("  Vitae  Ducum  Venetorum.")    Died  in  1535. 

See  Rawdon  Brown,  "Ragguagli  sulla  Vita  e  sulle  Opere  di  M. 
Sanuto,"  3  vols.,  1837-38;  Tiraboschi,  "Storia  della  Letteratura 
Italiana." 

Sanvitale,  sin-ve-ti'lk,  (Giacomo  Antonio,)Count, 
an  Italian  poet  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Parma  in  1699. 
He  published  numerous  poems,  one  of  which  is  entitled 

Poema  Parabolica,"  (1746.)    Died  in  1780, 

Sanz,  sinth,  (Augustin,)  a  Spanish  architect,  born 
at  Saragossa  in  1724,  was  appointed  in  1792  director  of 
the  Academy  of  San  Luis.  Among  his  best  works  are 
the  church  of  Santa  Cruz  and  the  theatre  at  Saragossa. 
Died  in  1801. 

Sanzio,  (Raphael.)    See  Raphael. 

Saphir,  sI'fd^R,  (Moritz,)  a  distinguished  writer,  of 
Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Pesth  in  1794,  successively 
edited  the  journals  entitled  "Berliner  Schnellpost," 
"  Der  Deutsche  Horizont,"  and  "  Der  Humorist." 
Among  his  works,  which  are  chiefly  of  a  humorous  and 
satirical  character,  we  may  name  his  "  Humoristische 
Damenbibliothek,"  and  his  "  Dictionary  of  Wit  and 
Humour,"  ("  Conversations-Lexikon  fiir  Geist,  Witz  und 
Humor.")    Died  in  1858. 

See  F.  Forster,  "  M.  G.  Saphir  und  Berlin,"  1828;  Brock- 
HAUS.  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Sapieha,  sip-yk'ha,  (John  Peter,)  a  Polish  military 
commander,  born  in  1569,  distinguished  himself  in  the 
wars  with  Sweden  and  Russia.    Died  in  1611. 

Sapieha,  (Leo,)  high  chancellor  of  Lithuania,  born 
in  1557,  served  against  the  Russians  under  Stephen 
Bathori  in  1579,  and  subsequently  concluded  a  peace  of 
twenty  years  with  the  Czar.  After  the  death  of  Bathori 
he  promoted  the  election  of  the  Swedish  king,  Sigis- 
mund  III.,  to  the  throne  of  Poland.    Died  in  1633. 

Sa'por  [Persian,  Shapoor  or  Shapur,  shl^poor']  I., 
son  of  Artaxerxes,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Persia  in 
238  A.D.  He  conquered  Mesopotamia  and  Syria,  and 
caused  the  emperor  Valerian  to  be  put  to  death.  He 
was  eventually  assassinated  by  his  satraps,  (269  a.d.) 

Sapor  II.  succeeded  Hormisdas  II.  as  King  of  Persia. 
He  was  engaged  in  wars  with  the  Romans,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  persecution  of  the  Christians. 
Died  in  380  A.D. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  H,    guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SAPPHO 


i960 


SJRMIENTO 


Sappho,  saph'o,  [Gr,  Sctt^w,  genitive  SaTr^ovf ;  Lat. 
Sappho,  genitive  Sapphus  ;  Ital.  Saffo,  sif'fo,]  written 
also  Sapho,  a  Greek  lyric  poetess  of  great  celebrity,  was 
born  at  Mitylene  or  Eresos,  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  about 
625  B.C.  We  have  little  positive  knowledge  of  the 
events  of  her  life,  but  it  is  known  that  she  lived  about 
600  B.C.  and  was  a  friend  of  the  poet  Alcaeus.  The 
popular  tradition  that  she  cherished  an  unrequited  love 
for  Phaon,  and  that  she  threw  herself  in  despair  from 
the  Leucadian  rock  into  the  sea,  is  rejected  by  modern 
critics.  She  belonged  to  the  ^olian  race,  the  women 
of  which  were  not  kept  in  so  strict  seclusion  as  the 
lonians.  She  wrote  hymns,  elegies,  and  erotic  odes  of 
exquisite  beauty.  It  is  admitted  that  she  has  never  been 
surpassed  in  sweetness  and  grace  by  any  lyric  poet, 
ancient  or  modern.  Her  works  are  lost,  except  a  hymn 
to  Venus  and  short  fragments  of  other  poems.  "Among 
the  mutilated  poets  of  antiquity,"  says  Addison,  "there 
is  none  whose  fragments  are  so  beautiful  as  those  of 
Sappho.  .  .  .  One  may  see,  by  what  is  left  of  them,  that 
she  followed  nature  in  all  her  thoughts,  without  descend- 
ing to  those  little  points,  conceits,  and  turns  of  wit  with 
which  many  of  our  modern  lyrics  are  so  miserably  in- 
fected. Her  soul  seems  to  have  been  made  up  of  love 
and  poetry.  She  felt  the  passion  in  all  its  warmth  and 
described  it  in  all  its  symptoms.  She  is  called  by  ancient 
authors  the  tenth  muse."  (See  the  "  Spectator,"  No. 
223,  which  contains  an  English  version  of  her  hymn  to 
Venus.)  Versions  of  her  ode  to  Lesbia,  by  Catullus, 
Boileau,  and  A.  Philips,  may  be  found  in  the  "  Spectator," 
No.  229, 

See  F.  G.  Welcker,  Sappho  von  einem  herrschenden  Vorur- 
theil  befreit,"  1816;  Muller,  "Literature  of  Ancient  Greece," 
vol.  i.  ;  E.  Tegner,  "  Sapphus  Vita  et  Carmina,"  1817;  Richter, 
"Sappho  und  Erinna,"  1833;  C.  M.  de  Salm-Dyck,  "  Precis  de  la 
Vie  de  Sapho,"  1810;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Saracino,  sl-ri-chee'no,  or  Saraceni,  s3.-ri-cha'nee, 
(Carlo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Venice  in  1585, 
painted  frescos  in  the  Vatican  at  Rome.    Died  in  1625. 

Sa'rah  or  Sarai,  [Heb.  mLy,  originally  nty,]  a  He- 
brew matron,  was  the  wife  of  Abraham,  and  the  mother 
of  Isaac.    Her  name  signifies  "princess." 

See  Genesis  xi.  29,  xii.,  xvi.,  xvii.  15-21,  xviii.,  xx.,  xxi. 

Sarapis.    See  Serapis. 
Sarasin.    See  Sarrasin. 

Sar'as-wat'i,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  sur''us-wut'ee, 
from  Sdraswat,  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "juicy," 
"racy,"  "flowing,"  also  "elegant,"]  the  name  of  the 
consort  of  Brahma,  and  the  goddess  of  speech,  elo- 
quence, and  music.  She  was  regarded  as  the  inventress 
of  the  Sanscrit  language  and  of  the  Devanagari  alphabet. 
(See  Introduction,  p.  21.)  As  the  patroness  of  music, 
she  has  by  some  writers  been  identified  with  Minerva, 
('A&7?m,)  who  was  sometimes  surnamed  Musice,  (jiovoiKr],) 
and  who  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  the  flute. 
Sir  William  Jones  addressed  to  Saraswati  a  hymn,  in 
which  he  speaks  of  her  as  one 

"  Whose  sigh  is  music,  and  each  tear  a  pearl." 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon,"  p.  125  et  seq. 

Saravia,  sS-rS-vee'^  or  st'rt^e't',  (Hadrian  A.,)  a 
Protestant  theologian,  of  Spanish  extraction,  born  at 
Artois,  in  France,  in  1531,  became  professor  of  divinity 
at  Leyden.  Having  settled  in  England  in  1587,  he  was 
made  prebendary  of  Westminster,  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  the  celebrated  Hooker,  and  was  one  of  the 
divines  employed  by  James  I.  in  the  translation  of  the 
Bible.    Died  in  1613. 

See  Paquot,  "  Memoires ;"  Meursius,  "  Athenae  Batavas." 

Saiazin  or  Sarrazin,  sfrfziw',  (Jacques,)  a  French 
sculptor,  born  at  Noyon  in  1590,  He  resided  many 
years  at  Rome,  where  he  was  patronized  by  Cardinal 
Aldobrandini,  for  whom  he  executed  the  colossal  statues 
of  Atlas  and  Polyphemus  at  the  Villa  Frascati.  Among 
his  master-pieces  in  Paris  may  be  named  the  Mauso- 
leum of  Cardinal  Berulle,  "  Group  of  Children  playing 
with  Goats,"  "The  Four  Cardinal  Virtues,"  in  the 
church  of  Saint  Louis,  and  the  Mausoleum  of  Henri  de 
Bourbon-Conde.    Died  in  1660. 

See  V.  Tkemblav,  "  Notice  sur  Sarrazin,"  1S48  :  "  Biographie  de 
J.  Sarrazi'j,"  Noyon,  1851  ;  Cicognara,  "  Storia  della  Scultura." 

Sarazin,  (Jean.)    See  Sarrazin. 


Sarbievius.    See  Sarkiewski. 

Sarbiewski,  saR-be-^v'skee,  [Lat.  Sarbie'vius,] 
(Matthias  KAsimir,)  a  Polish  Jesuit  and  poet,  born  in 
1595,  became  court  preacher  to  Ladislaus  IV.  He  was 
the  author  of  Latin  lyrics  and  other  poems,  which  ob- 
tained for  him  the  name  of  the  Sarmatian  Horace.  Died 
in  1640. 

See  Langbein,  "Commentatib  de  M.  C.  Sarbievii  Vita,"  1753. 

Sarcey,  sIr'sV,  (Francisque,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Dourdan  (Seine-et-Oise)  in  1828.  Among  his 
works  is  a  collection  of  tales  entitled  "  Le  Nouveau 
Seigneur,"  (1862.) 

Sarcmasius.    See  Schurtzfleisch. 

Sarcone,  saR-ko'na,  (Michele,)  an  Italian  medical 
writer,  born  in  Apulia  in  1732  ;  died  in  1797. 

Sardanapale.    See  Sardanapalus. 

Sar-da-na-pa'lus,  [Gr.  I^apiavlnxakoq ;  Fr.  Sardana- 
pale,* stR''dt'nS'ptK,J  a  king  of  Assyria,  noted  for  the 
weakness  and  efl"eminacy  of  his  character,  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  about  880  B.C.  His  satrap  Arbaces  having 
conspired  with  the  Medes  against  him  and  besieged 
Nineveh,  Sardanapalus  defended  his  capital  with  great 
courage  and  resolution  nearly  two  years.  At  length, 
finding  resistance  vain,  he  is  said  to  have  set  fire  to  his 
palace  and  consumed  himself,  together  with  his  women 
and  his  treasures.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
last  king  of  Assyria.  His  fortunes  have  been  made  the 
subject  of  one  of  Lord  Byron's  best  tragedies.  The 
story  of  Sardana])alus  is  probably  fabulous  :  it  is  sup- 
ported by  no  authority  except  Ctesias.  It  does  not 
seem  probable  that  such  a  man  would  die  like  a  stoic. 

See  KooPMANS,  "  Disputatio  de  Sardanapalo,"  1819. 

Sardi,  saR'dee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  at  Ferrara  about  1520.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"Treatise  on  Coins,"  ("De  Nummis  Tractatus,"  1579.) 
Died  in  1588. 

Sardou,  s^rMoo',  (Victorien,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1831.  He  produced  numerous  suc- 
cessful dramas,  among  which  are  "  Nos  Intimes,"  "Les 
Ganaches,"  (1862,)  and  "La  Patrie,"  (1869.) 

Sar'gent,  (Ei'p:s,  gps,)  an  American  journalist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts, 
in  1812.  He  has  been  successively  editor  of  the  New 
York  "Mirror"  and  the  Boston  "Evening  Transcript." 
He  has  published  "  Velasco,"  a  tragedy,  and  several  other 
dramas,  "Songs  of  the  Sea,  and  other  Poems,"  "Arctic 
Adventures  by  Sea  and  Land,"  (1857,)  and  a  number  of 
excellent  educational  works. 

See  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America." 

Sargent,  (John  Osborne,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  in  18 10.  He 
became  associate  editor  of  the  New  York  "Courier 
and  Enquirer"  in  1837,  and  subsequently  of  the  "Re- 
public" at  Washington. 

Sargent,  (Lucius  Manlius,)  an  able  and  popular 
American  writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1786.  He  pub- 
lished a  series  of  "Temperance  Tales,"  which  were 
very  favourably  received,  a  work  entitled  "  Dealings 
with  the  Dead,  by  a  Sexton  of  the  Old  School,"  (2 
vols.,  1856,)  and  a  number  of  poems.    Died  in  1867, 

Sar'gon,  a  king  of  Assyria,  ascended  the  throne  in 
721  B.C.  He  conquered  several  adjoining  nations,  cap- 
tured Samaria,  and  carried  away  many  Israelites  as 
captives.    Died  in  704  B.C. 

Sar'jeant  or  Serjeant,  (John,)  a  Catholic  priest, 
born  in  Lincolnshire  about  1621,  became  secretary  of 
the  secular  clergy  in  England.  He  published  a  greai 
number  of  controversial  works.    Died  in  1707. 

Sarmiento,  saR-me-gn'to,  (Martin,)  a  Spanish 
scholar  and  teacher,  born  at  Segovia  in  1692.  He  wrote 
several  literary  works.    Died  at  Madrid  in  1 770. 

Sarmiento,  de,  di  saR-me-ei/to,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish 
historian,  who  lived  about  1550,  travelled  in  Peru,  and 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Account  of  the  Government  of 
the  Incas,"  ("  Relacion  de  la  Sncesion  y  Govierno  de  las 
Ingas,"  etc.,  in  manuscript.)  He  is  praised  by  Prescott 
for  his  candour  and  accuracy  and  the  humane  spirit  he 


*  In  Sir  David  Lindsay's  "Three  Estates"  the  name  is  written 
Sardanapall. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  s/iorl;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SARNELLI  1961  SJSSJNIDJS 


manifests  towards  the  natives.  He  held  the  office  of 
president  of  the  Council  of  the  Indies. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  i. 
book  i. 

Sarnelli,  saR-nel'lee,  (Pompeo,)  an  Italian  writer  and 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Polignano  in  1649.  He  wrote  various 
works,  in  prose  and  verse.    Died  in  1724. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  Memoires." 

Saron  o'r  Sarron.    See  Bochart  de  Sarron. 

Sar-pe'don,  [Gr.  I,ap7T7]6u)v  ;  Fr.  Sarp6don,  stR'pk'- 
d6N',]  a  personage  in  the  Greek  mythology,  regarded 
as  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Europa,  and  a  brother  of  Mi- 
nos. Having  been  expelled  from  Crete  by  Minos,  he 
retired  to  Lycia,  of  which  he  became  king. 

Sarpedon,  a  hero  and  prince  of  Lycia,  mentioned 
in  the  "  Iliad,"  supposed  to  have  been  a  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Laodami'a.  According  to  Homer,  he  fought  for  the 
Trojans  and  was  killed  by  Patroclus. 

Sarpi,  saR'pee,  (Paolo,)  an  eminent  Italian  writer 
and  theologian,  born  at  Venice  in  1552,  is  generally 
known  as  Fra  Paolo,  or  Father  Paul.  He  entered 
the  order  of  Servites  at  an  early  age,  was  subsequently 
appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  Venice,  and  in 
1579  was  elected  general  of  his  order.  Being  made 
procureur-general  in  1585,  he  went  to  reside  at  Rome, 
where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Cardinal  Bellarmine 
and  other  distinguished  men  ;  but,  having  been  suspected 
of  heretical  opinions  and  threatened  with  the  Inquisi- 
tion, he  returned  to  Venice:  He  was  chosen  in  1605 
consulting  theologian  of  the  republic  during  its  contest 
with  Pope  Paul  V.,  and  defended  its  cause  with  signal 
ability  and  success.  Repeated  attempts  on  his  life,  and 
the  entreaties  of  liis  friends,  induced  him  to  retire  to  a 
convent,  where  he  died  in  1623.  His  "History  of  the 
Council  of  Trent"  ("  Istoria  del  Concilio  Tridentino," 
1619)  is  his  most  celebrated  work,  and  was  translated 
into  Latin  and  several  other  languages.  In  his  writings 
Father  Paul  has  boldly  attacked  the  infallibility  of  the 
pope  and  condemned  his  usurpations  of  temporal  power. 
He  is  also  supposed  to  have  favoured  Protestantism. 

See  MiCANZio,  "Vita  di  Sarpi,"  1646;  Grisemni,  "  Memorie 
spettauti  alia  Vita  di  Sarpi,"  1760;  Bianchi-Giovini,  "  Biografia 
di  Fra  Paolo,"  2  vols.,  1836;  G.  Fontanini,  "  Storia  arcana  della 
Vita  di  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi,"  1S05;  Dk.  Johnson's  Works,  vol.  xii., 
1812:  "  Nouvelle  Bioniai^Iiie  Generate;"  "Westminster  Review" 
for  April,  1838,  (by  Jame.s  Martineau.) 

Sarrans,  st'rfiN',  (Bernard,)  a  French  journalist  and 
political  writer,  born  near  Toulouse  in  1795,  became 
editor  of  "La  Nouvelle  Minerve"  about  1830.  He 
published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Spanish  War  and  the 
Tyranny  of  the  Bourbons,"  "  History  of  Bernadotte, 
King  of  Sweden,"  etc.,  (1845,)  ^'^^1  other  works. 

Sarrasin  or  Sarasin,  st'rt'z^N',  (Jean  Francois,) 
a  facetious  French  litterateur,  born  near  Caen  in  1603, 
was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Siege  of  Dunkirk," 
(1649,)  "  The  Conspiracy  of  Wallenstein,"  and  other 
works,  in  prose  and  verse.  He  was  secretary  to  the 
Prince  de  Conti,  and  a  literary  rival  of  Voiture.  Died 
in  1654. 

See  Nici^RON,  "Memoires;"  "Menagiana;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phic Generale." 

Sarrazin,  (Jacques.)    See  Sarazin. 

Sarrazin,  st'rt'ziN',  (Jean,)  a  French  general,  born 
in  1770.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade 
about  1800,  after  which  he  served  in  several  campaigns. 
In  1810  he  deserted  to  the  British,    Died  about  1840. 

Sarrus,  st'rlis',  (P.  F.,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  in  the  department  of  Aveyron  about  1795.  He 
became  professor  of  analysis  at  Strasbourg. 

Sarrut,  st^rii'',  (Germain,)  a  French  litterateur  and 
democrat,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1800,  has  published  a 
number  of  political  and  miscellaneous  works, 

Sars,  (Michael,)  an  eminent  zoologist,  born  at  Ber- 
gen, in  Norway,  August  30,  1805.  In  1830  he  was 
pastor  of  Kinn,  and  in  1840  of  Manger,  on  the  coast  of 
Norway,  He  published  in  1846  the  first  part  of  his 
"Fauna  Littoralis  Norvegiae,"  which  established  his 
reputation.  In  1854  he  became  professor  of  geology  in 
the  University  of  Christiania,  which  office  he  filled  with 
great  honour  to  his  country  until  his  death.  His  "  Me- 
moire  pour  servir  k  la  Connaissance  des  Crinoides  vi- 
vants"  attracted  much  attention  by  showing  that  the 


crinoids,  or  "stone-lilies,"  supposed  to  have  been  long 
extinct,  occur  in  a  living  state  in  the  abysses  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.    Died  October  22,  1869. 

Sars'field,  (Patrick,)  an  able  Irish  commander  and 
Roinan  Catholic,  who  was  a  partisan  of  James  II.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  (1690.) 
He  won  the  confidence  of  the  Irish  Jacobites  in  an  emi- 
nent degree,  induced  a  large  part  of  his  army  to  accom- 
pany him  to  France  in  1691,  and  entered  the  service  of 
Louis  XIV.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Landen, 
in  1693. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xvii. 

Sartain,  sar-tan',  (John,)  a  distinguished  engraver, 
born  in  London  in  1808,  emigrated  to  America  in  1830, 
and  settled  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  the  first  to  in- 
troduce mezzotinto  engraving  into  the  United  States. 
In  1849  he  established  "  Sartain's  Union  Magazine,"  (pub- 
lished monthly,)  of  which  he  was  for  some  time  editor. 
Besides  engraving,  Mr,  Sartain  has  given  considerable 
attention  to  painting  in  oil  and  to  architecture.  Among 
his  works  in  the  latter  field  we  may  mention  the  lofty 
granite  monument  in  Monument  Cemetery,  near  Phila- 
delphia, in  which,  also,  the  colossal  medallion  portraits 
of  Washington  and  La  Fayette  were  cast  in  bronze  from 
his  models. 

Sarti,  saR'tee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  composer,  born 
at  Faenza  about  1730.  He  became  successively  chapel- 
master  at  the  court  of  Copenhagen,  the  Conservatorio 
della  Pieta,  at  Venice,  and  the  Conservatory  of  Kate- 
rinoslaf,  in  Russia.  The  empress  Catherine  II.  also 
conferred  upon  him  a  munificent  salary,  and  created  him 
a  noble  of  the  first  rank.  His  works  are  principally 
sacred  music  and  operas :  of  the  latter,  his  "  Giulio  Sa- 
bino"  is  most  esteemed.    Died  in  1802. 

See  Fetis,  "  Biographie  Universelle  des  Musiciens;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Sarti,  (Mauro,)  an  Italian  scholar,  born  at  Bologna 
in  1709,  was  a  monk  of  the  order  of  Camaldules.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Bologna,"  in  Latin,  (2  vols.,  1769-71.)  Died  in 
17^6. 

Sartine,  de,  deh  stR't^n',  (Antoine  Raymond  Jean 
GUALBERT  Garriel,)  Comte  d'Alby,  a  French  adminis- 
trator, born  in  1729.  He  became  lieutenant-general  of 
police  (in  Paris)  in  1759,  and  was  minister  of  marine 
from  1774  until  1780.    l5ied  in  1801. 

Sarto,  del,  dl\  saR'to,  (Andrea  Vanucchi — vi- 
nook'kee,)  a  celebrated  painter  of  the  Florentine  school, 
born  at  Florence  in  1488.  He  studied  under  Pietro  di 
Cosimo,  and  subsequently  visited  Rome.  Among  his 
master-pieces  at  Florence  are  his  "Madonna  di  San 
Francesco,"  in  the  Florentine  gallery,  "The  Last  Sup- 
per," (a  fresco,)  and  "  Descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  in 
the  monastery  of  the  Salvi.  He  also  executed  several 
works  for  the  French  king,  Francis  I,  Sarto  is  distin- 
guished for  correctness  of  design,  harmonious  colouring, 
and  skill  in  chiaroscuro.    Died  in  1530. 

See  Vasart,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.;  Mr.s.  Jameson, 
"  Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters  ;"  A.  Reumont,  "  A.  del  Sarto," 
1835;  L.  Biagi,  "  Notizie  inedite  della  Vita  d'A.  del  Sarto,"  1830. 

Sartorius,  saR-to're-us,  (Ernst  Wilhelm  Chris- 
tian,) a  German  theologian  and  religious  writer,  born 
at  Darmstadt  in  1797  ;  di^ed  in  1859. 

Sartorius,  (Georg,)  Baron  von  Waltershausen,  bo -i 
at  Cassel  in  1765,  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Hanseatic 
League,"  (1802,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1828. 

Sartorius,  saR-to're-oos,  (Luis  Jose,)  Count  de  San 
Luis,  a  Spanish  journalist  and  statesman,  of  German 
extraction,  born  about  1810.  He  was  appointed  in  1847 
minister  of  the  ulterior  in  the  cabinet  of  Narvaez. 

Sas'nett,  (William  J.,)  D.D.,  an  American  Method- 
ist divine  and  writer,  born  in  Ge(jrgia  in  1820. 

Sass,  sds,  (Frederick,)  a  Russian  general,  born  in 
Courland  in  1798;  died  in  1852. 

Sassanid,  (plural  Sassanids.)    See  Sassanid.^^. 

Sassanidee,  sas-san'e-de,  [Fr.  Sassanides,  st'st'- 
v\h(-V ;  Ger.  Sassaniden,  s^s-sS-nee'den :  the  English 
form  Sassan'ids  is  also  used,]  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
dynasty  which  reigned  in  Persia  from  226  to  651  a.D. 
It  was  founded  by  Ardsheer  Babegan,  a  grandson  of 
Sassan,  (or  Sasan,)  from  whom  it  took  its  name.  Among 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  I  hard;  g  as  /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SJSSANIDES 


1962 


SAURJU 


the  chief  rulers  of  this  dynasty  were  Sapor  (Shapoor) 
and  Chosroes  I.,  (Noushirvan.) 

See  Smith,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Sassanides  or  Sassaniden.    See  Sassanid^. 

Sassi,  sas'see,  [Lat.  Sax'(us,J  (Giuseppe  Antonio,) 
an  Italian  scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Milan  in  1673  or 
1675.  He  wrote  on  the  antiquities  of  Milan,  and  aided 
his  friend  Muratori  in  his  great  work.    Died  in  1 75 1. 

Sassi,  (Panfilo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Modena 
about  1455  ;  died  in  1527, 

Sassoferrato.    See  Salvi,  (Giambattista.) 

Sassone,  II.    See  Hasse,  (Johann  Adolf.) 

Sat'i,  Sut'ee,  or  Sut'tee,  [modern  Hindoo  pron. 
siit'ee'',  the  feminine  form  of  the  Sanscrit  adjective  sat, 
"  true,"  "  good,"  "  virtuous,"  "  pure,"]  the  name  given  by 
the  Hindoos  to  those  widows  who  burn  themselves  on 
the  funeral  pile  of  their  husbands,  from  the  belief  not 
merely  that  no  true  or  good  wife  will  marry  a  second 
time,  but  that  no  devoted  wife  ought  to  survive  her  hus- 
band. According  to  one  of  the  Hindoo  legends,  Sati 
was  the  name  of  a  daughter  of  Daksha  and  wife  of 
Siva  :  through  indignation  on  account  of  some  disre- 
spect shown  by  her  father  to  Siva  or  to  herself,  she  cast 
herself  into  a  sacrificial  fire,  and  was  consumed. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Sat'urn,  [Gr.  Kpovog ;  Lat.  Satur'nus  or  Cro'nus; 
Fr.  Saturne,  si^tuRn',]  a  god  of  classic  mythology, 
and  a  mythical  king  of  Italy,  was  called  a  son  of  Uranus 
and  Ge,  (or  Coelus  and  Terra,)  the  husband  of  Rhea, 
and  the  father  of  Jupiter,  Neptune,  Pluto,  Juno,  Ceres, 
and  Vesta.  The  poets  feigned  that  he  dethroned  Uranus, 
and  devoured  his  own  children  as  soon  as  they  were 
born;  but  Rhea  deceived  him  by  giving  him  stones, 
(wrapped  in  a  cloth,)  which  he  swallowed,  and  she  thus 
saved  the  lives  of  those  above  named.  He  was  de- 
throned by  Jupiter,  took  refuge  in  Italy,  and  was  kindly 
received  by  Janus,  the  king  of  that  country,  who  gave 
him  a  share  of  the  royal  power.  Saturn  is  said  to  have 
civilized  the  people  of  Italy  and  to  have  taught  them  agri- 
culture and  useful  arts.  His  reign  was  so  mild,  pacific, 
and  beneficent  that  it  was  called  the  Golden  Age. 

The  Romans,  in  honour  of  Saturn,  celebrated  an  an- 
nual festival  called  Saturnalia,  during  which  general 
mirth  and  license  prevailed  and  slaves  were  waited  on 
at  table  by  their  masters,  with  whom  they  were  allowed 
to  jest  with  impunity.  Saturn  was  represented  as  an 
old  man,  holding  in  his  hand  a  scythe  or  pruning-knife, 
with  a  serpent  biting  its  own  tail,  (the  emblem  of  eternity.) 

Saturnalia.    See  Saturn. 

Saturne.    See  Saturn. 

Saturnin.    See  Saturninus. 

Sat-ur-ni'nus  or  Saturnilus,  one  of  the  earliest 
of  the  Syrian  Gnostics,  flourished  about  125  A.D. 

Sat-ur-ni'nus,  (Claudius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  the  time 
of  whose  birth  is  unknown,  is  the  supposed  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "  De  Poenis  Paganorum." 

Saturninus,  [Fr.  Saturnin,  st^tiiR^niN',]  (Lucius 
Appuleius,)  a  celebrated  Roman  demagogue,  who 
became  a  formidable  enemy  of  the  senate  and  aristo- 
cratic party.  He  was  tribune  of  the  people  in  102  B.C., 
and  again  in  the  year  100.  He  proposed  an  agrarian 
law,  which  was  passed.  His  conduct  was  so  seditious 
and  violent  that  he  was  killed,  by  order  of  the  senate,  in 
99  B.C. 

See  Smith,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 
Saturninus,  (Venulius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander  Severus. 
Saturnus.    See  Saturn. 

Sat'yr,  [Gr.  Sarypof ;  Lat.  Sat'yrus  ;  Fr.  Satyre, 
st't^R^.J  The  Satyrs  were  fabulous  beings,  or  demi-gods, 
associated  with  the  worship  of  Bacchus,  and  supposed 
to  have  been  the  offspring  of  Mercury.  They  were  rep- 
resented as  having  a  body  like  a  man,  with  the  legs  and 
feet  of  a  goat,  and  small  horns  on  the  head.  They  were 
fond  of  wine,  sleep,  and  sensual  pleasure,  and  were  con- 
founded or  identified  by  some  with  the  Fauni  of  the 
Roman  mythology.  The  older  Satyrs  were  called  Sileni. 

Satyre  or  Satyrus.    See  Satyr. 

Saucerotte,  sos'rot',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  surgical 
writer,  born  at  Luneville  in  1 741,  was  chief  surgeon  of 
a  French  army  from  1794  to  1798.    Died  in  18 14. 


His  grandson,  Antoine  Constant  Saucerotte, 
born  at  Moscow  in  1805,  became  a  physician  at  Lune- 
ville. He  wrote  several  works  on  medicine  and  natural 
history. 

Saul,  [Heb.  SlXl^,]  the  son  of  Kish,  and  of  the  tribe 

of  Benjamin,  was  anointed  first  king  of  the  Israelites,  by 
Samuel.  He  waged  war  successfully  against  the  Am- 
monites and  Philistines,  and  in  a  battle  with  the  Amalek- 
ites  took  captive  their  king,  Agag.  Having  through 
disobedience  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Jehovah,  he 
was  killed  in  an  engagement  with  the  Philistines,  to- 
gether with  three  of  his  sons,  B.C.  1056. 
See  \.  Samuel  ix.-xxxi. 

Saul  of  Tarsus.    See  Paul,  Saint. 

Saulcy,  de,  deh  so'se',  (Louis  Felicien  Joseph 
Caignart — kii/ytR',)  a  French  archaeologist,  born  at 
Lille  in  1807.  He  published  in  1836  an  "Essay  on  the 
Classification  of  Byzantine  Coins,"  which  obtained  the 
prize  from  the  French  Institute.  In  1842  he  succeeded 
Mionnet  as  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions, 
and  in  1859  became  a  senator.  Having  visited  Pales- 
tine in  1850,  he  published  his  "Travels  around  the  Dead 
Sea  and  in  the  Biblical  Lands,"  (1852.)  He  has  written 
other  works  on  numismatics,  etc. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Saulx  de  Tavannes.    See  Tavannes. 
Saumaise.    See  Salmasius. 

Saumarez  or   Sausmarez,    de,  deh  so'mt'ri', 

(James,)  Lord,  a  British  admiral,  of  French  extraction, 
born  on  the  island  of  Guernsey  in  1757.  Having  served 
for  a  time  in  America,  and  subsequently  against  the 
Dutch  in  1781,  he  was  appointed  in  1793  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  Crescent,  and  distinguished  himself  in 
several  engagements  with  the  French.  As  commander 
of  the  Orion,  he  assisted  in  gaining  the  victory  over  the 
Spanish  fleet  off  Saint  Vincent  in  1797,  and  was  after- 
wards second  in  .  command  at  the  battle  of  the  Nile. 
Having  been  made  rear-admiral  of  the  blue  in  1801,  he 
was  appointed  to  command  the  squadron  off  Cadiz,  and 
soon  after  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  united  French 
and  Spanish  fleet,  for  which  achievement  the  order  of 
the  Bath  was  conferred  upon  him.  In  the  subsequent 
war  with  Russia  he  commanded  the  Baltic  fleet,  and 
after  peace  was  restored  was  created  in  182 1  vice-ad- 
miral of  Great  Britain.  He  was  made  a  peer,  with  the 
title  of  Baron  de  Sausmarez,  in  1831.    Died  in  1836. 

See  Sir  John  Ross,  "  Memoirs,  etc.  of  Admiral  Lord  de  Sau- 
marez," 1838  ;  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  British  Admirals." 

Saun'ders,  (Sir  Edmund,)  an  English  jurist  under 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  rose  to  be  chief  justice  of  the 
court  of  king's  bench  in  1682.    Died  in  1683. 

Saunders,  (John  Cunningham,)  an  English  sur- 
geon and  oculist,  born  in  Devonshire  in  1773,  published 
treatises  "  On  the  Diseases  of  the  Eye"  and  "  On  the 
Anatomy  and  Diseases  of  the  Ear."    Died  in  18 10. 

Saun'ders,  (Prince,)  an  American  negro,  born  at 
Thetford,  Vermont,  about  1775,  was  for  a  time  teacher 
of  free  coloured  schools  in  Connecticut  and  at  Boston. 
He  afterwards  studied  divinity  and  became  pastor  of  a 
church  at  Philadelphia.  He  was  subsequently  appointed 
attorney-general  of  the  republic  of  Hayti,  where  he  died 
in  1840. 

Saunders,  (William,)  M.D.,  born  in  1743,  was  ap- 
pointed senior  physician  to  Guy's  Hospital,  London. 
He  wrote  several  medical  works.    Died  in  1819. 

Saun'der-son,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  scholar  and 
mathematician,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1682.  He  lost  his 
sight  at  the  age  of  twelve  months,  but,  notwithstanding 
this  misfortune,  he  made  rapid  progress  both  in  the 
classics  and  the  exact  sciences.  In  1711  he  succeeded 
Whiston  as  Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics  at  Cam- 
bridge, having  previously  received  the  degree  of  M.A., 
and  in  1728  he  was  made  Doctor  of  Laws.  He  was  the 
author  of  treatises  on  the  "  Elements  of  Algebra"  and 
"  On  Fluxion^,"  He  was  a  friend  of  Newton  and  other 
eminent  philosophers  of  the  time.    Died  in  1739. 

See  "Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  i.,  1839. 

Savirau,  von,  fon  sc'ro',  (Franz,)  Count,  an  Aus- 
trian statesman,  born  in  Vienna  in  1760.  He  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  the  province  of  Austria  in  1810,  and 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,    i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  niSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SJURIN 


1963 


SAVAGE 


governor  of  Lombardy  in  1S15.  In  the  last-named  year 
he  became  the  chief  of  all  the  chanceries  of  the  empire. 
Died  about  1830. 

Saurin,  so'riN',  (Bernard  Joseph,)  a  French  drama- 
tist, born  in  Paris  in  1706,  was  a  son  of  Joseph  Saurin, 
noticed  below.  He  was  the  author  of  *' Spartacus,"  a 
tragedy,  (1760.)  "The  Manners  of  the  Time,"  ("Moeurs 
du  Temps,")  and  other  comedies.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy,  and  numbered  among  his  friends 
Voltaire  and  Montesquieu.    Died  in  1781. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Geneiale." 

Saurin,  (Elias,)  a  French  Protestant  divine,  born  in 
1639,  was  the  author  of  "  Reflections  on  the  Rights  of 
Conscience,"  and  other  similar  works.    Died  in  1703. 

Saurin,  (Jacques,)  a  French  Protestant  divine  and 
eloquent  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Nimes  in  1677.  Having 
studied  at  Geneva,  he  became  in  1701  pastor  of  the 
Walloon  church  in  London,  and  subsequently  resided 
at  the  Hague,  in  Holland,  where  he  preached  for  twenty- 
five  years  with  the  highest  reputation.  He  published 
a  large  collection  of  sermons,  some  of  which  have  been 
translated  into  English,  a  treatise  "  On  the  State  of 
Christianity  in  France,"  (1725,)  and  "  Discourses,  His- 
torical, Theological,  and  Moral,  on  the  Principal  Events 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments."    Died  in  1730. 

See  Charles  Weiss,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  Saurin,"  1854; 
J.  P.  Roman,  "  Essai  sur  Saurin,"  1836;  Haag,  "  La  France  pro- 
testante  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  March,  1785  ;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Saurin,  (Joseph,)  a  French  mathematician,  brother 
of  Elias,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Courtaison  in  1659. 
In  1707  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  to 
which  he  contributed  a  number  of  valuable  scientific 
essays.  He  was  originally  a  Calvinist  minister,  but  sub- 
sequently became  a  Catholic.    Died  in  1737. 

See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Sau'rin,  (William,)  an  Irish  jurist  and  statesman, 
born  in  1767,  became  attorney-general  for  Ireland  in 
1807.    Died  in  1840. 

Sausmarez.    See  Saumarez. 

Saussay,  s5'si',  (Andr^;,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  born 
in  Paris  about  1595,  was  appointed  preacher-in-ordinary 
to  Louis  Xni.,  and  made  Bishop  of  Toul  in  1649.  He 
published  a  work  entitled  "  Martyrologium  Gallicanum." 
Died  in  1675. 

Saussaye,  La.    See  La  Saussaye,  de. 

Saussure,  (Albertine  Adrienne.)    See  Necker. 

Saussure,  de,  deh  so'sIir',  (Horace  Benedict,)  an 
eminent  Swiss  naturalist,  born  at  Geneva  in  February, 
1740.  He  was  assisted  in  his  scientific  studies  by  his 
maternal  uncle,  Bonnet,  and  by  the  celebrated  Haller, 
and  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  became  professor  of  philos- 
ophy in  the  College  of  Geneva.  Having  made  numerous 
excursions  among  the  Alps,  Jura,  and  other  mountain- 
chains,  with  the  view  of  exjjloring  their  natural  phe- 
nomena, he  ascended  in  1788  to  the  summit  of  Mont 
Blanc.  His  most  important  work,  entitled  "Voyages 
dans  les  Alpes,"  was  published  in  4  vols,  in  1796. 
Among  his  other  writings  we  may  name  a  "  Physical 
Dissertation  on  Fire,"  (1759,  in  Latin,)  "  Essays  on  Hy- 
grometry,"  (1783,)  and  "Relation  abregee  d'un  Voyage 
a  la  Cime  du  Mont  Blanc  en  Aout,  1787,"  (1787.)  He 
was  the  inventor  of  instruments  called  the  cyanometer 
and  the  diaphanometer,  for  ascertaining  the  transparency 
of  the  air  at  different  heights,  and  also  made  improve- 
ments in  the  thermometer,  hygrometer,  etc.  Of  Saus- 
sure, Cuvier  observes,  "The  new  facts  which  he  has 
signalized,  and  the  errors  he  has  destroyed,  will  always 
render  his  labours  infinitely  valuable  to  naturalists,  and 
will  make  of  them  the  principal  base  and  true  touch- 
stone of  the  systems  one  can  imagine  for  the  future." 
Died  at  Geneva  in  1799. 

See  Cuvier,  "  filoge  de  Saussure  ;"  Senebier,  "  Memoires  his- 
toriques  sur  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de  Saussure,"  1801  ;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Saussure,  de,  (Nicolas,)  a  Swiss  rural  economist, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1709,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  published  several  works  on  rural  economy.  Died 
in  1790. 

Saussure,  de,  (Nicolas  Theodore,)  a  chemist  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Geneva  in  1767,  was  a  son  of  Horace 


Benedict,  noticed  above.  He  published  "Chemical  Re- 
searches on  Vegetation,"  (1804,)  and  contributed  many 
memoirs  to  several  scientific  journals.  In  1810  he  was 
elected  a  corresponding  member  of  the  French  Institute. 
Died  in  1845. 

Sautel,  <,o'\.W,  (Pierre  Just,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
Latin  poet,  born  at  Valence  in  1613.  He  wrote  several 
elegant  Latin  poems.    Died  in  1662. 

Sauvage,  s5'vtzh',  (Denis,)  Sieur  Du  Pare,  a  French 
litterateitr,  born  about  1 520,  became  historiographer  to 
Henry  II.  He  edited  the  works  of  Froissart,  Comines, 
and  Monstrelet.    Died  about  1587. 

Sauvage,  so^tzh',  (Etienne  Noel  Joseph,)  a  Bel- 
gian advocate,  born  at  Liege  in  1789.  He  was  minister 
of  the  interior  from  March  to  August,  1831,  and  became 
president  of  the  court  of  cassation  in  1832. 

Saiivages,  de,  deh  s5'vtzh^  (FRANgois  Boissier,)  a 
French  medical  writer  and  botanist,  born  at  Alais  (Gard) 
in  1706.  He  became  professor  at  Montpellier  about 
1740,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "Methodical 
Nosology,"  ("Nosologia  Methodica,"  5  vols.,  1763.) 
Died  in  1767. 

See  Barbaste,  "  fitudc  sur  Boissier  de  Sauvages,"  1791 ;  "  Bio- 
graphic Medicalc  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sauval,  s5'vtK,  (Henri,)  a  French  historian,  born 
in  Paris  about  1620.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  An- 
tiquities of  Paris,"  (3  vols.,  1724.)   Died  in  1669  or  1670. 

Sauveur,  so'vur',  (Joseph,)  a  French  mathematician 
and  philosopher,  born  at  La  Fleche  in  1653.  He  was 
appointed  in  1680  teacher  to  the  pages  of  the  dauphin- 
ess,  and  in  1686  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal 
College  at  Paris.  He  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1696.  He  was  especially  distinguished  for 
his  improvements  in  the  science  of  acoustics,  upon  which 
he  published  a  number  of  essays.    Died  in  1716. 

See  Fontenelle,  "  ]£loges  ;"  Montucla,  "Histoire  des  Mathe- 
niatiques." 

Sauzet,  s5'zi',  (Jean  Pierre  Paul,)  an  eloquent 
French  advocate  and  politician,  born  at  Lyons  in  1800. 
He  gained  distinction  as  counsel  for  the  defence  in 
political  trials,  and  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  1834.  He  was  minister  of  justice  from 
February  to  September,  1836.  Between  1839  and  1848 
he  was  elected  President  of  the  Chamber  of  De])uties 
ten  times.  He  presided  during  the  revolution  of  Febru- 
ary, 1848,  and  resisted  the  insurgents  who  invaded  the 
chamber.  Since  that  event  he  has  taken  no  part  in 
public  life. 

See  CoRMENiN,  "Livre  des  Orateurs  ;"  Louis  Blanc,  "Histoire 
de  dix  Ans  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sav'age,  (Edward,)  an  American  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Princeton,  Massachusetts,  in  1761,  was 
a  pupil  of  Benjamin  West.  He  painted  the  family  of 
Washington.    Died  in  181 7. 

Sav'age,  (Henry,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Wor- 
cestershire about  1604,  was  chaplain-in-ordinary  to 
Charles  II.,  and  rector  of  Bladon,  in  Oxfordshire.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  Baliol  College."  Died  in  1672. 

Savage,  (John,)  an  English  divine  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  published  a  "Collection  of  Letters  of  the  A11- 
cients,  whereby  is  discovered  the  Morality,  Wit,  Hu- 
mour, etc.  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans."    Died  in  1747. 

Savage,  (John,)  an  American  jurist,  born  about  1780. 
He  was  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  New  York 
for  fourteen  years.    Died  at  Utica  in  October,  1863. 

Savage,  (Richard,)  an  English  poet,  noted  for  his 
misfortunes  and  for  his  dissolute  habits,  was  born  in 
London  in  1698.  He  is  believed  to  have  been  a  natural 
son  of  the  Countess  of  Macclesfield  and  the  Earl  of 
Rivers.  He  was  abandoned  by  his  mother  and  placed 
with  a  nurse,  who  was  charged  to  bring  him  up  in  ig- 
norance of  his  birth.  Having  subsequently  discovered 
the  secret  of  his  parentage,  he  made  many  ineffectual 
attempts  to  obtain  recognition  and  support  from  Lady 
Macclesfield.  He  was  befriended  by  Sir  Richard  Steele 
and  Dr.  Johnson.  Among  his  works  were  "The  Wan- 
derer," a  poem,  (1729,)  and  several  dramas.  He  killed 
I  a  man  in  a  brawl  in  1727,  and  was  condemned  to  death, 
but  was  pardoned.  Died  in  1743. 
I      See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y^, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SAVARON  1964 


Savaron,  st''vt'r6N',  (Jean,)  a  French  historian  and 
political  writer,  born  at  Clermont  in  1550.  He  was  an 
advocate  of  the  rights  of  the  tiers-etat,  (third  estate,)  and 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  States- 
General,"  (1615.)    Died  in  1622. 

See  NicERON,"  Memoires  ;"  Mokeri,"  Dictionnaire  Historique;" 
H.  CoCHON,  "fitudes  historiques  et  litt^raiies  sur  J.  Savaron," 
1847. 

Savart,  stVtR',  (F^;lix,)  a  French  savant,  born  at 
Mezieres  in  1791,  was  a  physician.  He  succeeded  Am- 
pere as  professor  of  physical  philosophy  in  the  College 
of  France.  He  wrote  on  the  vibrations  of  bodies  and 
the  laws  of  their  communication.  Died  in  Paris  in  1841. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Savary,  st'vt're',  (Anne  Jean  Marie  Rene,)  Due 
de  Rovigo,  an  able  French  general  and  diplomatist, 
born  at  Marcq  (Ardennes)  in  1774.  He  entered  the 
army  in  1790,  served  as  captain  under  Moreau  in  1796, 
and  was  aide-de-camp  of  Desaix  in  Egypt  in  1 798-1 800. 
He  became  aide-de-camp  to  Bonaparte  in  1800,  a  gen- 
eral of  brigade  in  1803,  and  general  of  division  in  1805. 
Having  obtained  command  of  a  corps,  he  gained  a  vic- 
tory over  the  Russians  at  Ostrolenka  in  1807.  In  1808 
he  received  the  title  of  Due  de  Rovigo,  and  was  sent  on 
a  diplomatic  mission  to  Madrid.  He  succeeded  Fouche 
as  minister  of  police  in  June,  1810.  He  adhered  to  Bona- 
parte after  his  defeat  at  Waterloo,  and  offered  to  accom- 
pany him  to  Saint  Helena,  but  was  detained  in  prison 
at  Malta  seven  months.  He  wrote  autobiographic  "  Me- 
moires," (8  vols.,  1828.)  In  1831  he  obtained  the  chief 
command  of  the  army  in  Algeria.    Died  in  1833. 

See  AcHiLLE  Roche,  "De  MM.  le  Due  de  Rovigo  et  le  Prince 
de  Talleyrand,"  182.-? ;  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  Consulate  and  the 
Empire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1823. 

Savary,  (FRANgois.)    See  BRtvES,  de. 

Savary,  (Jacques,)  a  French  writer  on  commerce, 
born  in  Anjou  in  1622.  He  published  a  work  entitled 
"The  Complete  Merchant,"  ("  Le  parfait  Negociant,") 
which  was  translated  into  the  principal  European  lan- 
guages.   Died  in  1690. 

Savary,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  traveller,  born  at  Vitre, 
in  Brittany,  in  1750.  He  set  out  in  1776  for  Egypt,  where 
he  passed  three  years,  and  subsequently  visited  the 
Grecian  Archipelago.  On  his  return  to  France  he  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  the  Koran,  accompanied  with 
notes,  and  a  Life  of  Mohammed,  which  is  esteemed  the 
best  in  the  French  language.  His  *'  Letters  on  Egypt" 
came  out  in  1785,  and  obtained  great  popularity,  having 
been  translated  into  English,  German,  Dutch,  and  Swed- 
ish. His  "  Letters  on  Greece"  came  out  a  short  time 
after  his  death,  which  took  place  in  1788.  He  also  trans- 
lated from  the  Arabic  a  tale  entitled  "The  Loves  of 
Anas  Eloujoud  and  Ouardi,"  (1789.) 

Savary  des  Brulons,  st^vt^re'  di  bRli'l^N', 
(Jacques,)  a  son  of  Jacques  Savary,  noticed  above,  was 
born  in  1657.  He  was  appointed  inspector-general  of 
manufactures  in  1686.  With  the  aid  of  his  brother 
Philemon  Louis,  he  compiled  a  "  Dictionary  of  Com- 
merce, Arts,  and  Trades,"  (3  vols.,  1723-30.)  Died  in 
1716.  Philemon  Louis  was  born  in  1654  ;  died  in  1727. 

Savelli.    See  Honorius  III. 

Saverien,  stv're^l.N',  (Alexandre,)  a  French  savant 
and  writer,  born  at  Aries  about  1722,  was  a  naval  en- 
gineer, (ingenieur  de  marine.)  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  Marine  Dictionary,"  ("  Dictionnaire  de  Ma- 
rine," 1758,)  and  a  "  History  of  Modern  Philosophers," 
(4  vols.,  1760-73.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1805. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Saverio.    See  Xavier,  (Francis.) 

Savery,  stv're',  (Roland,)  an  eminent  Flemish 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Courtray  in  1 576,  was  a  pupil 
of  his  father.  He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Ru- 
dolph II.,  for  whom  he  worked  at  Prague.  He  removed 
to  Utrecht  in  1612.  Many  of  his  pictures  are  rocky  land- 
scapes adorned  with  figures  of  animals.    Died  in  1639. 

Sa'ver-y,  (Thomas,)  Captain,  an  English  engineer, 
and  one  of  the  inventors  of  the  steam-engine.  He  was 
associated  with  Newcomen  as  patentee  of  the  invention 
for  producing  a  vacuum  under  the  piston.  Died  in  171 5. 


SAVONAROLA 


Savigny,  von,  fon  si'vfen'ye',  (Friedrich  Karl,)  an 
eminent  German  jurist,  of  French  extraction,  born  at 
Frankfort-on-the  Main  in  1779.  He  published  in  1803 
an  important  work  entitled  "  Right  of  Possession," 
("  Rechtdes  Besitzes.")  In  1804  he  married  Miss  Bren- 
tano,  a  sister  of  the  poet  of  that  name.  He  became 
professor  of  law  at  Landshut  in  1808,  and  obtained  in 
1810  a  chair  in  the  University  of  Berlin,  which  he  filled 
thirty-two  years.  He  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
council  of  state  about  181 7.  His  principal  works  are 
a  "  History  of  Roman  Law  during  the  Middle  Ages,"  (6 
vols.,  1815-31,)  and  "System  of  Modern  Roman  Law," 
("  System  des  heutigen  Romischen  Rechts,"  8  vols., 
1840-48.)  In  1842  he  was  appointed  minister  of  justice 
of  Prussia.  "  His  ideas  have  made  the  tour  of  the  world," 
says  Laboulaye  ;  "  they  have  transformed  the  science." 
Died  in  October,  1861. 

See  Laboulaye,  "  F.  C.  de  Savigny,"  1842;  Rudorff,  "  Erin- 
nerung  an  Savigny,"  1862;  Stinzing,  "  F.  C.  von  Savigny,"  1862 ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Savile  or  Saville,  (George.)  See  Halifax,  Mar- 
quis OF. 

Savile,  sav'il,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  mathemati- 
cian and  classical  scholar,  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1549. 
He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1570,  and,  after  his  return 
from  a  tour  on  the  continent,  became  tutor  in  the  Greek 
language  and  mathematics  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  He  was 
made  provost  of  Eton  College  in  1596,  and  was  subse- 
quently knighted  by  James  I.  He  was  the  founder  of  two 
professorships  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  besides  other 
liberal  donations  to  that  institution,  to  which  he  also 
bequeathed  a  valuable  library.  Among  his  principal 
publications  are  "  Lectures  on  the  First  Book  of  Euclid's 
Elements,"  a  collection  of  English  historians,  entitled 
"  Rerum  Anglicarum  Scriptores  post  Bedam,"  (1596,) 
and  an  excellent  edition  of  the  works  of  Saint  Chrys- 
ostom,  (1613.)  He  died  in  1622,  having  acquired  the 
reputation  of  one  of  the  most  profound  and  accomplished 
scholars  of  his  time.  "We  may  justly  deem  him,"  says 
Hallam,  "the  most  learned  Englishman  in  profane  liter- 
ature of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth." 

See  Wood,  "  Athenae  Oxonienses  ;"  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of 
Authors." 

Savioli,  si-ve-o'lee,  (Luigi  Victor,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1729.  He  wrote  Anacreontic  poems, 
entitled  "  Amori,"  (1795.)    Died  in  1804. 

Savonarola,  s3.-vo-nl-ro'll,  (Giovanni  Michele,) 
an  eminent  Italian  physician,  born  at  Padua  in  1384.  was 
a  grandfather  of  Girolamo,  noticed  below.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Ferrara,  and  published  several 
medical  works.    Died  in  1461. 

Savonarola,  [Fr.  Savonarole,  st'vo'nt'roK,]  (Gi- 
rolamo,) a  celebrated  Italian  reformer  and  pulpit 
orator,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1452.  He  became  a  Dominican 
monk  in  1475.  His  first  attempts  to  preach  proved  a 
failure  ;  but  he  persevered  until  he  became  an  eloquent 
and  popular  preacher.  He  boldly  denounced  the  cor- 
ruptions of  the  Church,  and  the  vices  of  priests  and 
monks.  He  also  advocated  republicanism  or  political 
liberty.  In  149 1  he  was  chosen  prior  of  the  convent  of 
Saint  Mark  at  Florence,  where  he  effected  important 
reforms.  He  acquired  great  political  influence  at  Flor- 
ence, and  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Medici  (1494)  was 
the  leader  of  the  liberal  party,  called  "  Piagnoni,"  (pe-Sn- 
yo'nee,)  by  which  a  new  constitution  was  adopted  on 
Christian  principles.  Having  refused  to  submit  to  papal 
authority,  he  was  excommunicated  by  Alexander  VI.  in 
1497.  The  popular  enthusiasm  grew  cool,  a  reaction 
ensued,  and  the  enemies  of  Savonarola  gained  the  ascend- 
ency in  Florence.  He  was  arrested,  tortured,  condemned, 
and  strangled  in  May,  1498.  A  few  years  later,  Raphael 
painted  his  portrait  in  the  Vatican  among  the  saints  and 
doctors  of  the  Church.  Savonarola  published,  besides 
other  works,  "The  Triumph  of  the  Cross,"  etc., 
("Triumphus  Crucis  de  Veritate  Fidei,"  1497.)  "  His 
absolutely  blameless  moral  character,  his  wonderful 
abilities,  his  command  of  all  the  knowledge  of  his  time, 
his  power  of  communicating  his  own  holiness  to  others, 
even  his  rigid  authority  as  regards  the  great  doctrines 
of  his  Church,  who  will  impeach.?"  ("Quarterly  Re- 
view," article  on  Savonarola,  reprinted  in  the  "Living 


S,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  <l,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SAVOT 


1965 


SATOUS 


Age,"  vol.  1.  p.  641,  1856.)  His  complete  works  were 
published  at  Lyons,  (6  vols.,  1633-40.) 

See  T.Neri,  -"Apologia in  Difesa  della  Dottrina  di  G.Savonarola," 
1564;  Pico  DELLA  MiRANDOLA,  "Vita  Savonarols,"  1674;  Spang- 
ENBERG.  "  Leben,  Lelire  und  Tod  Savonarola,"  1557;  Burlamac- 
CHi,  "Vita  di  G.  Savonarola,"  1764;  Rudelbach,  "  Savonarola  und 
seine  Zeit,"  1835;  Fr.  Karl  Meier,  "  G.  Savonarola,"  1836;  E. 
Marion  or  Marin,  "Viede  J.  Savonarola,"  1839;  P.  J.  Carle, 
"  Histoire  de  Savonarole,"  1842;  Madden,  "Life  and  Martyrdom 
of  Savonarola,"  2  vols.,  1853  ;  Perrens,  "  Savonarole,  sa  Vie,"  etc., 
1854;  P.  Villari,  "Storia  di  G.  Savonarola,"  1S60,  (translated  into 
English  by  Horner,  1863;)  W.  Hodgson,  "Reformers  and  Mar- 
tyrs," Philadelphia,  1867;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July, 
1856;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  June,  1863  ;  "  British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  November,  1849. 

Savot,  st'vo',  (Louis,)  a  French  physician  and  anti- 
quary, born  at  Saulieu  in  1579,  was  physician  to  Louis 
Xin.  He  published  several  treatises  on  medicine  and 
numismatics.    Died  in  1640. 

Savoy,  Counts  and  Dukes  of.  See  Amadeus  and 
Charles  Emmanuel, 

Saw'yer,  (Caroline  M.  Fisher,)  wife  of  T.  J.  Saw- 
yer, noticed  below,  was  born  at  Newton,  Massachusetts, 
m  1812.  She  has  published  several  religious  works,  and 
made  numerous  translations  from  the  German  and 
French.  In  1861  she  became  editor  of  the  "Ladies' 
Repository." 

Saw'yer,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
statesman,  rose  to  be  attorney-general  in  1680.  He 
was  afterwards  a  member  of  Parliament  for  the  Univer- 
sity of  Cambridge.  He  was  accessory  to  the  death  of 
Lord  Russell.    Died  in  1692. 

Sawyer,  (Thomas  Jefferson,  D.D.,)  an  American 
Universalist  preacher,  born  in  Windsor  county,  Ver- 
mont, in  1804.  He  published  a  "Discussion  of  the 
Doctrine  of  Universal  Salvation,"  (1854.) 

Sax,  stks,  (Antoine  Joseph  AD(^LrHE,)  a  Belgian 
maker  of  musical  instruments,  born  at  Dinant  in  1814. 
He  invented  the  saxophone  and  other  brass  instruments 
of  military  music.  He  became  professor  of  music  in  the 
Conservatory  of  Paris  in  1857. 

Sax,  siks,  [LaL  Sax'ius,]  (Christoph,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  wSaxony  in  1714.  He  became  in  1753 
professor  of  history  at  Utrecht.  His  chief  work  is  his 
Onomasticon  Literarium,  sive  Nomenclator  historico- 
crfticus  praestantissimorum  omnis  /Etatis,  Populi,  Arti- 
umque  Formulae  Scriptorum,"  etc.,  (8  vols.,  1775-90.) 
This  is  a  dictionary  of  the  eminent  authors  of  all  ages 
and  countries.    Died  in  1806. 

Saxe,  siks,  (Hermann  Maurice,)  [Ger.  Moritz 
von  Sachsen,  mo'rits  fon  siks'en,]  Count  of,  a  fa- 
mous general,  born  at  Goslar  or  Dresden,  in  Saxony, 
October  28,  1696,  was  a  son  of  Augustus  H.,  Elector 
of  Saxony  and  King  of  Poland,  and  the  Countess  von 
Konigsmark.  He  entered  the  army  in  1708,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  several  battles  against  the  Swedes 
and  French.  About  1720  he  entered  the  French  ser- 
vice. He  was  elected  Duke  of  Courland  in  1726,  but 
was  soon  driven  out  of  that  duchy  by  the  Russians  and 
Poles.  He  was  for  a  time  the  favoured  lover  of  Anna 
Ivanovna,  who  became  Empress  of  Russia  in  1730.  In 
1734  he  fought  against  the  Austrians  and  obtained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  the  French  army.  He 
captured  Prague  in  1741,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
marshal  of  France  in  1744,  and  obtained  command  of 
the  army  in  Flanders  in  1745.  He  gained  victories  over 
the  allies  at  Fontenoy,  (1745,)  Raucoux,  (1746,)  and 
Laufeld,  (1747.)  He  had  married  a  Countess  of  Loben 
about  1 712,  iDut  he  obtained  a  divorce  from  her  a  few 
years  later.  He  wrote  a  work  on  military  affairs,  en- 
titled "My  Reveries,"  ("  Mes  Reveries,"  5  vols.,  1757.) 
Died  in  1750.  His  daughter,  Madame  Dupin,  was  a 
grandmother  of  George  .Sand  the  authoress. 

See  Baron  d'Espagnac,  "  Histoire  du  Marechal  Saxe  :"  Ranft, 
"Leben  des  Grafen  von  Sachsen,"  1746;  La  Barre  du  Pakcq, 
"Biographie  et  Maximes  du  Marechal  de  Saxe,"  1851  ;  C.  von 
Weber,  "Moritz  yon  Sachsen,"  1863;  Major-General  J.  Mit- 
chell, "  Biographies  of  Eminent  Soldiers  of  tlie  Last  Four  Cen- 
turies," 1865  ;  A.  Thomas,  "  filoge  de  Maurice  Comte  de  Saxe," 
1759;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
October,  1864;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1841. 

Saxe,  siks,  (John  Godfrey,)  a  distinguished  Ameri- 
can humorous  poet,  born  in  Franklin  county,  Vermont, 
in  1816.  He  graduated  at  Middlebury  College,  Vermont, 
in  1839,  and  subsequently  became  editor  of  the  "Bur- 


lington Sentinel."  He  was  elected  State's  attorney  in 
1851.  A  collection  of  his  poems  appeared  in  1849. 
They  rank  among  the  most  successful  productions  of 
their  kind,  and  have  obtained  extensive  popularity.  A 
new  edition  of  his  collected  poems  A-as  published  in 
1864.  He  produced  in  1866  "The  Masquerade,  and 
other  Poems." 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Saxe-Coburg,  Duke  of.    See  Ernest. 

Saxe-Coburg,  Prince  of.    See  Coburg. 

Saxe- Weimar,  Duke  of.    See  Bernhard. 

Saxius,  (Christoph.)    See  Sax. 

Sax'o  Grram-mat'i-cus,  (genitive,  Saxo'nis  Gram- 
mat'ici,)  an  eminent  Danish  historian,  born  in  the  first 
half  of  the  twelfth  century,  was  a  priest,  and  secretary 
of  Absalom,  Archbishop  of  Lund.  He  wrote  (in  Latin) 
a  "History  of  Denmark,"  which  is  one  of  the  most  cu- 
rious documents  of  the  middle  ages.  It  abounds  in 
traditions  and  romantic  or  fabulous  legends.  Died 
about  1204. 

See  Reimer,  "De  Vita  Saxonis  Grammatici,"  1762;  G.  L. 
Baden,  "  Om  vor  Danske  Histories  Fader  Saxo  Grammaticus," 
1809;  J.  B.  Carpzov,  "Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  Saxonis 
Grammatici,"  1762. 

Sax'tpn,  (RuFUS,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Deerfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1824,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1849.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  about  April,  1862,  and  defended  Harper's 
Ferry  with  success  in  May  of  that  year.  He  was  assigned 
to  the  command  at  Port  Royal  about  the  end  of  1862, 
and  was  employed  in  South  Carolina  until  1865. 

Say,  s4,  (Horace  Emile,)  a  French  writer  on  politi- 
cal  economy,  son  of  Jean  Baptiste,  noticed  below,  was 
born  near  Paris  in  1794.  He  has  published  a  "History 
of  the  Commercial  Relations  between  France  and  Bra- 
zil," etc.,  and  other  works. 

Say,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  distinguished  French  writer 
on  political  economy,  born  at  Lyons  in  1767.  At  an 
early  age  he  visited  England,  where  he  became  conver- 
sant with  the  writings  of  Adam  Smith.  In  1794  he  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  "  La  Decade  philosophique,"  a 
literary  and  political  journal  in  Paris,  of  which  he  was 
principal  editor  for  six  years.  He  was  appointed  in 
1799  a  member  of  the  Tribunate,  but  resigned  on  Napo- 
leon's becoming  emperor.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Saint  Petersburg,  and  of  other 
learned  institutions.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a 
"Treatise  on  Political  Economy,"  (2  vols.,  1803,)  which 
has  been  translated  into  the  principal  European  lan- 
guages, a  "Catechism  of  Political  Economy,"  (1815,) 
and  "On  England  and  the  English."    Died  in  1832. 

See  A.  P.  Decandolle,  "  Notice  sur  J.  B.  Say,"  1832;  Blanqui, 
"  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  B.  Say,"  1841 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Say,  (Samuel,)  an  English  dissenting  divine,  born  in 
1675,  became  pastor  at  Westminster  in  1734.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  number  of  poems  and  prose  essays. 
Died  in  1743. 

Say,  (Thomas,)  an  American  naturalist,  born  at 
Philadelphia  in  1787,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  in  that  city.  In  1819  he 
accompanied  Long's  expedition  to  the  Rocky  Mountains 
as  chief  zoologist.  His  principal  work  is  an  "American 
Entomology,"  illustrated.    Died  in  1834. 

See  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Say,  (William,)  an  English  mezzotinto  engraver, 
born  at  or  near  Norwich  in  1768.  He  engraved  history, 
landscapes,  etc.    Died  in  1834. 

Saye  and  Sele.    See  Fiennes,  (William.) 

Say'ers,  (Frank,)  an  English  physician  and  writer, 
born  in  London  in  1763.  He  published  "Dramatic 
Sketches  of  the  Ancient  Northern  Mythology,"  (1790,) 
"Disquisitions,  Metaphysical  and  Literary,"  (1793,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  181 7. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1827,  (by 

SOUTHEV.) 

Sayous,  sS'yoo',  (Pierre  Andr:^;,)  a  Swiss  littera- 
teur, born  at  Geneva  in  1808.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "History  of  French  Literature  among 
Foreign  Nations,"  (hrjStr anger,)  (2  vols.,  1853.) 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Yi,^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCACCHI 


1966 


SCANDERBEG 


Scacchi,  skSk'kee,  (Fortunato,)  an  Italian  anti- 
quary and  monk,  born  at  Ancona  about  1572.  He  pub- 
lished "  Sacrorum  Elaeochrismatum  Myrothecia,"  (3  vols., 
1625-37.)    Died  in  1643. 

Scaevola,  sSv'o-la,  [Fr.  Sc6vole,  siVoK,]  (C.  Mu- 
Cius,)  a  Roman,  who,  according  to  the  ancient  legends, 
went  to  the  camp  of  Porsena,  then  besieging  Rome, 
and  attempted  to  kill  him  with  a  dagger.  He  was  seized 
by  the  guards  of  the  king,  who  ordered  him  to  be  put  to 
death.  Scasvola,  it  is  said,  held  his  right  hand  in  a  fire, 
which  was  at  hand,  until  it  was  consumed,  so  that  Por- 
sena, struck  with  admiration  at  his  extraordinary  forti- 
tude, spared  his  life.  From  this  circumstance  he  is  said 
to  have  received  the  surname  of  Scaevola,  or  "left- 
handed." 

Scaevola,  (Publius  Mucius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  was 
elected  consul  in  133  B.C.,  and  two  years  after  was  created 
pontifex  maximus.  He  was  the  author  of  several  legal 
works. 

Scaevola,  (Quintus  Cervidius,)  a  Roman  jurist, 
lived  under  the  reign  of  Marcus  Antoninus.  He  num- 
bered among  his  pupils  Septimius  Severus,  afterwards 
emperor.  There  are  extracts  from  his  works  contained 
in  the  Digest  of  Justinian. 

Scaevola,  (Quintus  Mucius,)  surnanied  the  Augur, 
became  a  Roman  consul,  with  L.  Cecilius  Metellus,  117 
B.C.  He  was  eminent  as  a  jurist,  and  was  one  of  the 
teachers  of  Cicero,  who  has  introduced  him  into  his 
treatises  "  De  Oratore,"  "  De  Amicitia,"  and  "  De  Re- 
publica."  His  wife  was  a  daughter  of  C.  Laelius  Sapiens. 
Died  after  88  B.C. 

Scaevola,  (Quintus  Mucius,)  surnamed  Pontifex, 
was  the  son  of  Publius,  noticed  above.  He  was  chosen 
consul  in  95  B.C.,  and  was  subsequently  proconsul  of 
Asia,  and  pontifex  maximus.  He  enjoyed  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  jurist  and  orator,  and  wrote  several  legal 
works,  which  are  not  extant.  Having  been  proscribed 
by  the  younger  Marius,  he  was  killed  in  the  temple  of 
Vesta,  82  B.C.   His  virtues  are  highly  extolled  by  Cicero, 

Scala,  skl'ia,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  in  1430,  published  a  '*  History  of  the  Florentine 
Republic."  His  daughter  Alessandra  was  distinguished 
as  a  classical  scholar,  and  became  the  wife  of  the  poet 
Marullus.    Died  in  1497. 

Scala,  della,  deKia  skiMS,  or  Scaligeri,  skS-le-ja'- 
ree,  (Can  Francesco,)  an  Italian  military  commander, 
born  about  1290,  was  a  prominent  leader  of  the  Ghibe- 
line  faction  in  Lombardy.  He  died  in  1329,  having  been 
ruler  over  Verona  nearly  twenty  years.  He  was  a  liberal 
patron  of  literature  and  the  fine  arts,  and  has  been  cele- 
brated by  Dante,  who  found  an  asylum  at  his  court. 

Scala,  della,  (Mastino,)  an  uncle  of  the  preceding, 
became  Podesta  of  Verona  about  1260.  He  was  assas- 
sinated about  1275. 

Scal'i-ger,  [Lat.  Scai/iger,  genitive  Scal'igeri,] 
(Joseph  Justus,)  a  celebrated  philologist,  a  son  of  Julius 
Caesar,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Agen,  in  France,  in 
August,  1540.  Under  the  instruction  of  his  father  he 
early  became  a  proficient  in  the  Latin  language,  and 
subsequently  studied  Greek  and  the  Oriental  languages 
in  Paris.  He  became  professor  of  belles-lettres  at  the 
University  of  Leyden  in  1593,  and  numbered  among  his 
pupils  the  celebrated  Grotius.  Among  his  numerous 
works,  which  are  characterized  by  the  most  profound 
learning  and  critical  acumen,  we  may  name  his  treatise 
"  De  Emendatione  Temporum,"  (1583,)  being  an  ex- 
planaiion  of  the  Julian  period,  "Thesaurus  Temporum," 
(1606,)  Latin  poems  and  epistles,  a  Latin  translation  of 
Arabian  proverbs,  besides  commentaries  on  Ausonius, 
Varro,  and  other  classics.  He  adopted  the  Protestant 
religion  in  his  youth,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  civil 
war  about  1568.  He  was  generally  recognized  as  the 
most  eminent  scholar  of  h^s  time.  Died  at  Leyden  in 
1609.  ^  "  Scaliger,"  says  Niebuhr,  '*  stood  on  the  summit 
of  universal  solid  philological  learning  in  a  degree  that 
none  have  reached  since  ;  so  high  in  every  branch  of 
knowledge,  that  from  the  resources  of  his  own  mind  he 
could  comj^rehend,  apply,  and  decide  on  whatever  came 
in  his  way."   (Quoted  in  the  "  Quarterly  Review,"  i860.) 

"The  two  greatest  scholars  of  the  sixteenth  century," 
says  Hallam,  "are  yet  unnamed;  Joseph  Scaliger  and 


Isaac  Casaubon.  The  former,  son  of  Julius  Caesar 
Scaliger,  and,  in  the  estimation  at  least  of  some,  his  in- 
ferior in  natural  genius,  though  much  above  him  in 
learning  and  judgment,  was  perhaps  the  most  extraordi- 
nary master  of  general  erudition  that  has  ever  lived.  .  .  . 
He  was,  in  fact,  conversant  with  all  ancient,  and  very 
extensively  with  modern,  literature.  ...  In  the  depart- 
ment of  philology  he  was  conspicuous  as  an  excellent 
critic,  both  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages;  though 
Bayle,  in  his  own  paradoxical  but  acute  and  truly  judi- 
cious spirit,  has  suggested  that  Scaliger's  talents  and 
learning  were  too  great  for  a  good  commentator, — the 
one  making  him  discover  in  authors  more  hidden  sense 
than  they  possessed,  the  other  leading  him  to  perceive 
a  thousand  allusions  which  had  never  been  designed." 
("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Heinsius,  "  Oratioiies  II.  in  Obitum  J.  J.  Scaligeri,"  i6og ; 
J.  Brrnays,  "J.  J.  Scaliger,"  Berlin,  1855;  "  Scaligerana,"  Am- 
sterdam, 1695;  Chari.es  Nisard.  "  Le  Tiiumvirat  litteraire  au 
XVI  Siecle  ;"  Juste  Lipse,  "J.  Scaliger  et  I.  Casaubon,"  1852; 
NiCERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  July,  i860. 

Scaliger,  (Julius  C^sar,  )  a  celebrated  Italian 
scholar  and  critic,  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  on 
Lago  di  Garda  or  at  Padua  on  the  23d  of  April,  1484. 
His  real  name  is  said  to  have  been  Bordone.  He  pre- 
tended to  be  descended  from  the  noble  family  Delia 
Scala.  He  studied  medicine,  and  practised  some  years 
in  Italy.  According  to  his  own  account,  he  served  sev- 
eral campaigns  in  the  army  of  the  emperor  Maximilian 
in  his  youth.  In  1525  he  removed  to  Agen,  France,  to 
which  he  had  been  invited  by  the  bishop  of  that  diocese. 
There  he  practised  medicine  and  passed  the  rest  of  his 
life.  He  married  Andiette  de  Roques-Lobejac  about 
1528.  Scaliger  published,  besides  other  works,  "An 
Oration  against  Erasmus,"  ("Adversus  D.  Erasmum 
Oratio,"  1531,)  "On  the  Principles  of  the  Latin  Lan- 
guage," ("  De  Causis  Linguae  Latinae,"  1540,)  "Seven 
Books  of  Poetry,"  ("  Poetices  Libri  septem,"  1561,)  and 
"On  the  Art  of  Poetry,"  ("De  Arte  Poetica.")  He  was 
an  excellent  classical  scholar,  and  was  considered  one  of 
the  greatest  intellects  of  his  time.  His  stature  was  tall, 
his  presence  dignified  and  imposing.  He  died  at  Agen 
in  October,  1558. 

See  J.  J.  ScAi.iGKR,  "De  Vetustate  et  Splendore  gentis  Scaligerae 
et  Vita  J.  C.  Scaligeri,"  i';94  ;  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dic- 
tionary ;"  Briquet,  "  filoge  de  J.  C.  Scaliger,"  1812;  Niceron, 
"Memoires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Scaligeri.    See  Scala,  della. 

Scam'mon,  (Eliakim  P.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Maine,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1837.  He 
became  a  captain  in  1853,  and  a  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers  in  October,  1862.  He  was  taken  prisoner 
on  the  Kanawha  River  in  February,  1864. 
Scamozzi.  See  Bertotti-Scamozzl 
Scamozzi,  skS-mot'see,  (  Vincenzio,  )  an  Italian 
architect  and  writer,  born  at  Vicenza  in  1552.  Having 
spent  some  time  at  Rome  and  Naples,  he  settled  at 
Venice,  where  he  was  employed  to  finish  some  works 
left  incomplete  by  Sansovino  and  Palladio,  who  had 
recently  died.  He  afterwards  constructed  the  church 
of  San  Niccolo  di  Tolentino,  and  the  range  of  buildings 
called  the  Procuratie  Nuove  at  Venice.  He  was  em- 
ployed in  1604  by  the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg  to  design 
the  cathedral  in  that  city,  which  is  esteemed  one  of  his 
master-pieces.  His  work  entitled  "  Architettura  Uni- 
versale" came  out  in  1616,  a  few  months  before  his  , 
death. 

See  Scolari,  "Vita  di  Scamozzi,"  1837;  Milizia,  "  Memorie 
degli  Arcliitetti ;"  Cicognara,  "  Storia  della  Scultura  ;"  Temanza, 
"Vita  di  V.  Scamozzi,"  1770;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Scan'der-beg,  [from  Scander  or  Iskander*  "  Alexan- 
der," and  beg,  "lord"  or  "chief,"]  a  celebrated  Eastern 
warrior,  born  in  Albania  in  1404,  was  originally  named 
George  Castriota,  (or  Castrioto.)  At  an  early  age 
he  was  sent  by  his  father,  a  prince  of  Albania,  who  was 
tributary  to  the  Turks,  to  the  court  of  Amurath  II., 

*  Byron  speaks  of  him  under  the  name  of  Iskander  : — 
"  Land  of  Albania  !  where  Iskander  rose, 

Theme  of  the  young,  and  beacon  of  the  wise, 
And  he,  his  namesake,  whose  oft-baffled  foes 
Shrunk  from  his  deeds  of  chivalrous  emprise." 

Childe  Harold,  canto  ii.,  stanza  xxxviii. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SCJPINELLI 


1967 


SCHADOW 


where  he  soon  acquired  the  favour  and  confidence  of 
that  monarch.  His  father  having  died  in  1432,  his  prin- 
cipah'ty  was  seized  by  the  Sultan,  upon  which  Scander- 
beg  entered  into  an  agreement  with  Huniades,  com- 
mander of  the  Christian  army  in  Transylvania,  to  betray 
into  his  hand  the  Turkish  forces  under  his  command. 
He  soon  after  took  possession  of  his  hereditary  do- 
minions, and  renounced  Mohammedanism,  in  which  he 
had  been  educated.  He  subsequently  carried  on  a 
successful  war  with  the  Turks,  and.  in  1462  assisted 
Ferdinand,  King  of  Naples,  against  the  Count  of  Anjou. 
Died  in  1467, 

See  Major-General  J.  Mitchell,  "Biographies  of  Eminent 
Soldiers  of  the  Last  Four  Centuries,"  1865  ;  H  ammer-Purgstall, 
"Geschichte  des  Osmanisches  Reiclis ;"  C.  G.  Moore,  "George 
Castriot,  surnamed  Scanderbeg  ;"  Monardo,  "  Vita  di  G.  Castrioto," 
1591 ;  S.  PuFFENDORF,  "  G.  Castriotae  Historia,"  1684;  Paganel, 
"Histoire  de  Scanderbeg,"  1855;  M.  Barlesio,  "  De  Vita,  Mori- 
bus  ac  Rebus  gestis  G.  Castrioti,"  1537;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Scapinelli,  ski-pe-neKlee,  (Lodovico,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Modena  in  1585,  was  blind  from  his  birth. 
Died  in  1634. 

Scapula,  ska'poo-li,  (Johann,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  about  1545,  was  employed  as  a  proof-reader  in  the 
printing-office  of  Henry  Estienne  at  Geneva.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  Lexicon  Graeco-Latinum,"  (1579,)  an  abridg- 
ment of  Stephanus's  (Estienne's)  "Thesaurus." 

Scaramuccia,  ski-rS-moot'cha,  (Lodovico,)  an  Ital- 
ian painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Perugia  in  1616,  was  a 
pupil  of  Guido  Reni.    Died  in  1680. 

Scarborough,  skar'bur-eh,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  Eng- 
lish physician,  born  about  1616.  He  succeeded  Harvey 
as  Lumleian  lecturer  on  anatomy  in  1656.  He  was  after- 
wards appointed  first  physician  to  Charles  II.,  James  II., 
and  William  III.  He  was  the  author  of  several  medical 
and  mathematical  treatises,  and  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
College  of  Physicians.    Died  in  1693. 

Scarcellino.    See  Scarsella. 

Scarlatti,  skaR-lit'tee,  ( Alessandro,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  composer  and  musician,  born  at  Naples  about 
1656,  was  a  pupil  of  Carissimi.  His  productions  are 
very  numerous,  including  one  hundred  operas  and  three 
thousand  cantatas,  and  he  is  said  to  have  originated 
ritornels  and  violin  accompaniments.    Died  in  1725. 

See  F^Tis,  "  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Scarlatti,  (Domenico,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1683.  He  was  appointed  in  1735  chapel-master 
to  the  Queen  of  Spain.  His  |)rincipal  work  is  a  collec- 
tion of  i^ieces  for  the  harpsichord.    Died  about  1755. 

Scarlatti,  (Giuseppe,)  a  composer,  born  at  Naples  in 
1 718,  was  a  son  or  nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  com- 
posed numerous  operas.    Died  at  Vienna  in  1 796. 

Scarlett,  (James.)    See  Abinger. 

Scar'lett,  (Sir  James  Yorke,)  an  English  general, 
born  in  1799.  He  served  in  the  Crimean  war  of  1854, 
and  attained  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  commander 
of  the  cavalry.   Died  in  187L 

Scarpa,  skaR'pS,  (Antonio,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
anatomist  and  surgeon,  born  at  La  Motta,  in  Friuli,  on 
the  13th  of  June,  1747.  He  studied  under  Morgagni, 
at  Padua,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  anatomy  at 
Modena  in  1772.  After  a  journey  to  France  and  Eng- 
land, he  obtained  the  chair  of  anatomy  in  the  University 
of  Pavia  in  1 783.  He  acquired  a  European  reputation 
by  his  researches  and  treatises  on  the  anatomy  of  the 
ear,  the  organs  of  smell,  the  nerves  of  the  heart,  etc. 
In  1801  he  produced  an  able  treatise  on  the  diseases  of 
the  eye.  He  received  the  title  of  surgeon  to  Napoleon 
in  1805.  Among  his  numerous  works  is  an  excellent 
"Treatise  on  Hernia,"  ("SulT  Ernie  Memorie,"  1809.) 
He  was  an  accomplished  scholar,  and  a  very  skilful 
draughtsman.    He  was  never  married.    Died  in  1832. 

See  Tagt,iaferri,  "  Ragionamento  intorno  la  Vita  del  Cavaliere 
A.  Scarpa,"  1834 ;  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Itaiiani  illustri  ;" 
B^GiN,  notice  in  the  "  Biographic  Medicale ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Scarron,  skt'r6N',  (Paul,)  a  French  dramatist  and 
comic  writer,  born  in  Paris  about  16 ro.  After  leading 
a  very  dissolute  life,  he  was  deprived  of  the  use  of  his 
limbs  by  an  accident,  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven,  and 
henceforth  devoted  himself  to  literature.    His  principal 


works  are  "The  Comic  Romance,"  (1651,)  and  the 
"^neid  Travestied."  He  married  in  1652  Mademoi- 
selle d'Aubigne,  afterwards  known  as  Madame  de 
Maintenon.    (See  Maintenon.)    Died  in  1660. 

See  Cousin  d'Avai.on,  "  Scarroniana,"  1801  ;  Baili.et,  "  Juge- 
ments  des  Savants;"   Tali.emant  des  Reaux,   "  Historiettes 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol. 
xii.,  1825. 

Scarsella,  skaR-seKlS,  or  Scarsellino,  skaR-sSl- 
lee'no,  (Ippolito,)  a  skilful  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Ferrara  about  1560.  He  imitated  Paul  Veronese  with 
success.    Died  in  1621. 

Scars'gill  or  Scar'gill,  (W.  P.,)  an  English  writer, 
published,  among  other  works,  "  Provincial  Sketches," 
"The  Usurer's  Daughter,"  and  "The  Puritan's  Grave." 
Died  in  1836. 

Scau'rus,  (M.  tEmilius,)  a  Roman  soldier  and  states- 
man, born  in  163  B.C.  After  serving  for  a  time  in 
Spain,  he  became  successively  praetor  urbanus,  consul, 
and  princeps  senatus.  His  talents  and  virtues  are  eulo- 
gized by  Cicero.  He  died  about  90  B.C.,  and  his  widow 
afterwards  married  the  celebrated  Sulla. 

See  Drumann,  "Geschichte  Roms." 

Scaurus,  (M.  ^milius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
served  as  quaestor  under  Pompey  in  the  Mithridatic 
war,  and  afterwards  filled  several  offices  in  the  republic. 
He  was  chiefly  noted  for  his  profligacy  and  extrava- 
gance, and  was  twice  brought  to  trial  for  his  crimes, 
being  on  both  occasions  defended  by  Cicero. 

Scaurus,  (Mamercus,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
was  distinguished  as  a  poet  and  orator.  Accused  of  high 
treason  and  other  crimes,  he  committed  suicide,  34  a.D. 

Sceve,  siv,  (Maurice,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Lyons, 
was  an  advocate  by  profession.  Among  his  works  are 
"La  Saulsaye,"  (1547,)  and  "  Le  Microcosme,  ou  petit 
Monde,"  (1562.)    Died  in  1564. 

Sc^vole.    See  Sc^.vola. 

Schaaf,  shaf,  (Charles,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born 
in  1646,  became  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages 
at  Leyden.  He  published  several  grammatical  works. 
Died  in  1729. 

Schack,  von,  fon  shik,  (Adolf  Friedrich,)  a 
German  litterateur,  born  near  Schwerin  in  181 5.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  Dramatic  Literature  and  Art 
in  Spain,"  (1845,)  which  has  a  high  reputation,  and  made 
several  translations  from  the  Persian. 

Schad,  shSt  or  shSd,  (Johann  Baptist,)  a  German 
philosopher,  born  at  Mursbach  in  1758.  He  succeeded 
Fichte  as  professor  of  philosophy  at  Jena  about  1800, 
and  obtained  a  chair  of  philosophy  at  Kharkof,  in  Rus- 
sia, in  1804.  He  published  several  esteemed  works 
designed  to  popularize  the  philosophy  of  Fichte.  Died 
in  1834. 

See  his  Autobiography,  2  vols.,  1804. 

Schadow,  shIMo,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  cele- 
brated German  sculptor,  born  at  Berlin  in  1764.  Having 
spent  several  years  in  Italy,  he  returned  to  Berlin  in 
1788,  and  was  subsequently  appointed  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Arts.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  statues 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  Marshal  Blucher,  and  General 
Ziethen,  a  group  of  Queen  Luise  and  her  sister,  the 
Duchess  of  Cumberland,  the  monument  of  Luther  at 
Wittenberg,  and  that  of  Tauenzien  at  Breslau.  He 
numbered  among  his  pupils  Dannecker,  Ranch,  and 
other  eminent  sculptors,  and  he  is  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  the  modern  school  of  sculpture  in  Germ.my. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  valuable  treatises  on  art. 
Died  in  1850. 

See  his  autobiography,  entitled  "  Kunstwerke  und  Kunstan- 
sichten,"  1849;  Nagi.er,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lcxikon." 

Schadow,  (Rudolf,)  a  sculptor,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1785.  He  was  instructed  by  his 
father,  and  afterwards  visited  Rome,  where  he  died  in 
1822.  He  left  several  portrait-busts  and  statues  of  great 
beauty.  Among  the  latter  may  be  named  "  The  Girl  fast- 
ening her  Sandal." 

Schadow-Godenhaus,  von,  fon  shS'do  go'den- 
howss',  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  an  eminent  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Berlin  in  1789.  He  studied  at  Rome  under 
Cornelius  and  Overbeck,  whose  peculiar  views  of  art 


€  as  ;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCHAEFFER 


1968 


SCHEFFER 


he  adopted,  (See  Cornelius  and  Overbeck.)  Having 
joined  the  Catholic  Church  while  at  Rome,  he  returned 
to  Berlin,  where  he  .became  professor  in  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  and  in  1826  succeeded  Cornelius  as  director 
of  the  Academy  at  Dusseldorf.  Among  his  principal 
historical  pictures  are  the  Four  Evangelists,  in  the 
Werder  Church  at  Berlin,  an  "  Ascension  of  Mary,"  in 
the  Paulskirche  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  a  series  repre- 
senting "  Paradise,"  "  Purgatory,"  and  "  Hell."  Schadow 
numbers  among  his  pupils  Lessing,  Schroter,  and  other 
distinguished  German  artists.    Died  in  1862. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler- Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Schaeffer.    See  Schaffer. 

Schaeffer,  shatter,  (Charles  Frederick,)  an  Ameri- 
can divine  and  scholar,  born  at  Germantown  in  1807, 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1827. 
He  has  been  chairman  of  the  faculty  in  the  Lutheran 
Seminary  in  Philadelphia  since  its  organization  in  1864. 
He  has  published,  besides  numerous  other  works,  an 
excellent  translation  from  the  German  of  Lechler's  "Acts 
of  the  Apostles  :  an  Exegetical  Commentary,"  etc.,  (1866.) 

Schafei.    See  Shake  v. 

Schafarik,  sh^'fa-rik,  written  also  Safarik,  (Paul 
Joseph,)  a  distinguished  philologist  and  antiquary,  born 
in  Northern  Hungary  in  1795.  Among  his  works  are  a 
•*  History  of  the  Slavonic  Language  and  Literature," 
etc.,  (in  German,  1826,)  "Slavonic  Ethnology,"  and 
"Bohemian  Antiquities."    Died  in  1861. 

Schaff,  shaf,  (Philip,)  D.D.,  a  theologian  and  divine 
of  the  German  Reformed  Church,  was  born  in  Switzer- 
land in  1819.  He  graduated  at  Berlin  in  1841,  and  in 
1844  emigrated  to  America,  and  was  ai:)pointed  professor 
of  theology  at  Mercersburg,  Pennsylvania.  He  pub- 
lished "The  Principles  of  Protestantism,"  (in  German 
and  English,  1845,)  ^  "  History  of  the  Apostolic  Church," 
(in  German,  1851,)  a  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church 
from  the  Birth  of  Christ  to  the  Reign  of  Constantine, 
A.D.  1-3 1 1,"  {1859,)  "The  Person  of  Christ  the  Miracle 
of  History,"  (1865,)  and  many  other  works.  He  became 
in  1870  professor  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York. 

See  A1.LIBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Schaffer  or  Schaeffer,  shif'fer,  (Jakob  Christian,) 
a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Querfurt,  Prussia,  in  1 7 18. 
He  wrote  on  entomology,  botany,  etc.,  and  was  skilful 
in  the  fabrication  of  optical  instruments.    Died  in  1790. 

See  HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Schaffner,  shif'ner,  (Martin,)  a  German  historical 
and  portrait  painter  of  Ulm,  flourished  from  1508  to 
1539.    His  works  are  highlv  praised. 

Schagen,  van,  vtn  sKi'gen  or  sKt'nen,  (^gidius,) 
a  Dutch  historical  painter,  born  at  Alkmaar  in  1616. 
Among  his  works  are  interiors  and  conversation-pieces. 
Died  in  1668. 

Schalcken,  sK^Kken,  (Godfrey,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  genre,  born  at  Dort  in  1643,  was  a  pupil  of  Gerard 
Dow.  He  painted  the  effects  of  candle-light  with  suc- 
cess.   Died  at  the  Hague  in  1706. 

Schaldemose,  shll'deh-mo'seh,  (Friedrich  Ju- 
lian,) a  Danish  litterateur,  born  in  the  island  of  Fionia 
in  1782,  made  numerous  translations  from  the  German, 
English,  French,  and  other  languages,  and  published 
several  original  works. 

Schall,  shai,  (Johann  Adam,)  a  German  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  at  Cologne  in  1591.  He  went  to  China 
in  1622,  and  obtained  favour  at  the  court  of  Peking  by 
his  skill  in  astronomy  and  other  sciences.  Died  in 
Peking  in  1669. 

Schall,  (Karl,)  a  German  dramatist,  born  at  Breslau 
in  1780,  was  the  founder,  and  for  many  years  the  editor, 
of  the  "Breslau  Zeitung."    Died  in  1833. 

Schaller,  shiKler,  (Anton,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Vienna  in  1772  ;  died  in  1844. 

Schaller,  (Johann,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1777.  He  became  in  1823  professor  of  sculp- 
ture in  the  Academy  at  Vienna.    Died  in  1847. 

Schaller,  (Julius,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Magde- 
burg in  1810,  publishec.  a  "  History  of  Natural  Philos- 
ophy from  Bacon  to  the  Present  Time,"  (1844.) 


Schammai,  sham'mT,  a  celebrated  Jewish  doctor  of 
law,  lived  at  Jerusalem  about  80-50  B.C.,  and  was  a  rival 
of  Hillel  the  Elder. 

See  Geighr  et  Ghissmann,  "  Brevis  Commentatio  de  Hillela  et 
Schammai,"  1707. 

Schamyl.    See  Shamyl. 
Schanfari.    See  Shanfaree. 

Schank,  shank,  t  (John,)  a  Scottish  naval  officer  and 
engineer,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1740.  He  served  in  the 
American  war,  and  was  subsequently  employed  in  the 
defence  of  the  British  coast  against  the  French.  He  was 
made  admiral  of  the  blue  in  1821.    Died  in  1823. 

Schannat,  shSn^nit,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man historian,  born  at  Luxemburg  in  1683.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  German  history.    Died  in  1739. 

Schard,  shaRt,  (Simon,)  a  learned  German  lawyer 
and  compiler,  born  in  Saxony  in  1535,  published  "  Opus 
historicum  de  Rebus  Germanicis,"  (4  vols.,  1574.)  Died 
in  1573- 

Scharling,  shaR'ling,  (Carl  Emile,)  a  Danish  theo- 
logian, born  at  Copenhagen  in  1803.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Theological  Review,"  (1837 
-49) 

Scharling,  (Edward  Augustus,)  a  chemist,  abrother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1807. 

Scharnhorst,  von,  fon  shaRn'hoRst,  (Gerhard 
David,)  a  Prussian  commander  and  military  writer, 
born  at  Hamelsee,  in  Hanover,  in  1756.  He  was  pres- 
ent at  the  battle  of  Auerstadt,  in  1806,  and,  as  chief  of 
Bliicher's  staff,  distinguished  himself  at  Eylau,  in  1807. 
Having  been  made  lieutenant-general,  and  retaining  the 
position  of  chief  of  the  staff  of  Bliicher,  he  was  severely 
wounded  in  the  battle  near  Grossgorchen,  and  died  from 
the  effects  of  his  wound,  in  June,  1813. 

See  BoYEN,  "  Beitrage  ztir  Kenntniss  von  Scharnhorst,"  1833; 
Clausewitz,  "  Leben  von  Scharnhorst,"  1832. 

Schatz,  shSts,  (Georg,)  a  German  writer,  born  at 
Gotha  in  1763,  published  fables,  sonnets,  and  critical 
essays ;  he  also  made  a  translation  of  Machiavelli's 
"  History  of  Florence,"  (unfinished.)    Died  in  1795. 

Schauflein  or  Schauffelein.    See  Scheuffelin. 

Schaumbourg.    See  Lippe-Schaumbourg. 

Schedone.    See  Schidoni. 

Schedoni,  ski-do'nee,  (Pif.tro,)  an  Italian  philoso- 
pher, born  in  the  duchy  of  Modena  in  1759,  published 
several  works  on  moral  philosophy.    Died  in  1835. 

Scheele,  sheel,  [Sw.  pron.  shn'leh,]  (Carl  Wil- 
helm,)  an  eminent  Swedish  chemist,  born  at  Stralsund 
in  December,  1742.  He  served  an  apprenticeship  to  an 
apothecary  of  Gothenburg,  and  devoted  his  leisure  and 
his  nights  to  the  study  of  chemistry.  About  1770  he  re- 
moved to  Upsal,  where  he  formed  friendships  with  Gahn 
and  Bergman.  In  1774  he  produced  a  remarkable  treatise 
on  Manganese.  He  discovered  tartaric  acid,  fluoric  (or 
fluo-silicic)  acid,  barytes,  chlorine,  and  several  other 
substances.  He  settled  as  an  apothecary  at  Koping  in 
1775.  I"  1777  he  published  his  discovery  of"  empyreal 
air,"  (oxygen.)  This  gas  had  been  previously  discovered 
by  Priestley ;  but  Scheele  was  not  aware  of  the  fact. 
He  was  the  first  that  ascertained  the  composition  of 
prussic  acid.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on  Air 
and  Fire,"  (1777.)  He  was  an  excellent  observer  and 
experimenter.    Died  at  Koping  in  1786. 

See  VrcQ-i)'AzYR,  "  filoge  de  Scheele,"  17S7 ;  Gezhi.ius, 
"  Biographiskt-Lexicon  ;"  F.  Hoefer,  "  Histoire  de  la  Chimie  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Scheelstrate,  van,  vtn  sKaKstR^'teh  or  shkl'stRit, 
or  Schelstraate,  sKeKstRS'teh,  (Emanuel,)  a  Flemish 
antiquary  and  priest,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1649,  was  a  zeal- 
ous asserter  of  papal  supremacy.  Died  in  Rome  in  1692. 

Scheemakers,  sKa'm^'kers,  (Pikter,)  a  distin- 
guished sculptor,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1691,  studied  at 
Rome,  and  subsequently  resided  many  years  in  England. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  the  monuments  to  Shak- 
speare  and  Dryden  in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  the  statue 
of  Lord  Clive  in  the  India  House.    Died  about  1770. 

Schefer,  sha'fer,  (Leopold,)  a  German  physician 
and  litterateur,  born  in  Lower  Lusatia  in  1784,  published 
numerous  poems  and  novels.    Died  in  1862. 

Scheffer,  sheffer,  (Arnold,)  a  brother  of  Ary 
Scheffer,  was  born  in  Holland  in  1796.    He  was  for  a 


2,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;     6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \x,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fSt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SCHEFFER 


1969  SCHEMMELPENNINCK 


time  associated  with  Armand  Carrel  as  editor  of  the 
National"  in  Paris.    He  published  (in  French)  "  Po- 
litical Pictures  of  Germany,"  "  Essays  on  Four  Political 
Questions,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1853. 

Scheffer,  (Ary,)  an  eminent  painter,  of  French  ex- 
traction, born  at  Dort,  in  Holland,  in  1795,  studied  under 
Guerin  in  Paris.  He  painted  portraits  of  La  Fayette, 
Beranger,  and  Lamartine.  He  worked  chiefly  in  Paris. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  *'  Francesca  da  Rimini," 
{1835,)  Byron's  "Giaour,"  "Christ  the  Comforter," 
(1836,)  Goethe's  "Faust,"  "Margaret  at  the  Spinning- 
Wheel,"  and  "Margaret  at  Church."  He  married  the 
widow  of  General  Baudrand  about  1850.  His  works 
are  characterized  as  sentimental  and  poetical.  Died 
near  Paris  in  1858. 

See  £tex,  " Ary  Scheffer,"  1859;  Mrs.  Grote,  "Life  of  Ary 
Scheffer,"  1S60;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  i860;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
November,  i860. 

Scheffer,  (Henri,)  a  painter,  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  the  Hague  in  1798.  He  studied  in 
Paris  under  Guerin.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
"  Charlotte  Corday  protected  by  the  Members  of  the 
Section  against  the  Fury  of  the  People,"  and  "  Parents 
Weeping  for  the  Death  of  their  Child,"    Died  in  1862. 

Scheffer,  sheFfer,  (Henry  Theophtlus,)  a  grandson 
of  Johann  Scheffer,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Stock- 
holm in  1 710.  He  acquired  considerable  reputation 
as  a  chemist,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  his  native  city.    Died  in  1759. 

See  Cronstedt,  "Aminnelse  Tal  bfver  H.  T.  Scheffer,"  1760. 

Scheffer,  (Johann,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at 
Strasburg  in  1621,  published  editions  of  numerous 
classics,  and  a  treatise  "  On  the  Naval  Militia  of  the 
Ancients."    Died  in  1679. 

Scheibel,  shl^bel,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Breslau  in  1783.  He  be- 
came professor  of  theology  in  his  native  city  in  181 8. 
Died  in  1843. 

Scheid,  sKit,  [Lat.  Schei'dius,]  (Everard,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Arnhem  in  1742, 
became  professor  of  Oriental  literature  at  Leyden. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  an  Arabic  Grammar, 
"Minerva,  seu  de  Causis  Latinas  Lingure,"  and  "  Ebn- 
Doreydi  Kassida,  sive  Idyllium  Arabicum,"  etc.  Died 
in  1795. 

Scheidius,    See  Scheidt. 

Scheldt,  shit,  (Balthasar,)  a  German  scholar  and 
theologian,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1614,  became  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  in  his  native  city.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  learned  works.    Died  in  1670. 

Scheidt,  [Lat.  Schei'dius,]  (Christian  Ludwig,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Waldenburg  in  1709.  He 
studied  at  Gottingen,  and  became  professor  of  the  law 
of  nature  and  of  nations  at  Copenhagen.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  legal  works,  in  Latin.    Died  in  1761. 

Scheiner,  shi'ner,  (Christoph,)  a  German  Jesuit 
and  savant,  born  near  Mundelsheim,  in  Suabia,  in  1575, 
became  professor  of  m.athematics  and  astronomy  at  Tn- 
golstadt.  He  observed  the  spots  on  the  sun  in  1611, 
wrote  a  number  of  scientific  works,  and  was  the  in- 
ventor of  the  instrument  called  the  pantograph.  Died 
in  1650. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Schelhammer,  shgKhlm'mer,  (Gunther  Chris- 
'lOPH,)  a  German  physician  and  writer,  born  at  Jena  in 
1649,  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Kiel,  in  Holstein. 
Died  in  1716. 

Schelhorn,  shSl'hoRn,  (Johann  Georg,)  the  Elder, 
a  German  theologian  and  scholar,  born  at  Memmingen 
in  1694.  He  became  pastor  of  that  town  in  1734,  and 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Literary  Amenities," 
("  Amcenitates  Literariae,"  7  vols.,  1725.)  He  was  dis- 
tinguished as  a  bibliographer.    Died  in  1773. 

Schelhorn,  (Johann  Georg,)  the  Younger,  born 
at  Memmingen  in  1733,  published  several  historical  and 
theological  works.    Died  in  1802. 

Scheller,  sheKler,  (Immanuel  Johann  Gerhard,) 
a  German  lexicographer,  born  at  Jhlow,  in  Saxony,  in 
1735.  He  published  a  "Complete  Latin-German  and 
German-Latin  Dictionary,"  (3  vols.,  1783,)  a  "Small 


Latin  Dictionary,"  a  "Latin  Grammar,"  and  other  simi- 
lar works.    Died  in  1803. 

Schelling,  von,  fon  sh^Kling,  (Friedrich  Wil- 
helm  Joseph,)  an  eminent  German  philosopher,  born 
at  Leonberg,  near  Stuttgart,  on  the  27th  of  January, 
1775.  His  early  education  was  directed  by  his  father,  a 
distinguished  Orientalist,  who  became  jirelate  at  Maul- 
bronn.  About  1790  he  entered  the  University  of  Tu- 
bingen, where  he  studied  philosophy  and  theology  and 
remained  until  1795.  In  the  latter  year  he  published  a 
treatise  "On  the  Possibility  of  a  Form  of  Philosophy," 
("  Ueber  die  Moglichkeit  einer  Form  der  Philosophie," 
etc.,)  and  "  On  the  Ego  as  the  Principle  of  Philosophy," 
("  Vom  Ich  als  Princip  der  Philosophic.")  He  removed 
about  1795  to  Leipsic,  where  he  was  employed  as  tutor 
to  a  young  nobleman,  and  in  1798  became  professor- 
extraordinary  at  Jena,  which  was  then  the  great  focus 
of  German  philosophy.  Here  he  associated  with  Fichte 
and  Hegel,  and  delivered  lectures  on  philosophy  which 
excited  great  enthusiasm  and  displayed  a  remarkable 
beauty  of  style.  He  produced,  in  rapid  succession, 
"  Ideas  for  a  Philosophy  of  Nature,"  ("  Ideen  zu  einer 
Philosophie  der  Natur,"  1797,)  "On  the  Soul  of  the 
World,"  etc.,  ("Von  der  Weltseele,  eine  Hypothese  der 
hohern  Physik,"  etc.,  1798,)  a  "First  Sketch  of  a  System 
of  the  Philosophy  of  Nature,"  ("  Erste  Entwurf  eines 
Systems  der  Naturphilosophie,"  1799,)  and  a  "System 
of  Transcendental  Idealism,"  ("  System  des  transcen- 
dentalen  Idealismus,"  1800.) 

In  1803  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Wiirzburg,  and  in  1808  became  secretary  to  the  Academy 
of  Arts  in  Munich,  where  he  remained  until  1841.  Ho 
obtained  the  chair  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Munich  about  1826.  His  celebrity  as  a  lecturer  attracted 
multitudes  of  students  from  various  countries  of  Europe. 
He  was  appointed  president  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  was  ennobled  by  the  King  of  Bavaria.  Having  lost 
his  first  wife,  Caroline  Michaelis,  in  1810,  he  married 
Pauline  Gotten  He  succeeded  Hegel  as  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Berlin  in  1841. 

Schelling  is  one  of  the  four  chief  metaphysical  philoso- 
phers of  Germany.  His  system,  like  those  of  Fichte  and 
Hegel,  was  originally  a  sort  of  idealistic  pantheism  ;  but 
in  his  later  writings  his  views  seem  to  approximate  more 
and  more  nearly  to  those  which  may  be  said  to  form 
the  philosophic  basis  of  Christianity.  On  his  succeeding 
Hegel,  in  1841,  he  was  hailed  as  one  who  was  destined 
to  deliver  Philosophy  from  the  logic  of  pantheism  and 
lead  her  back  to  Christ.  Schelling  is  distinguished  from 
the  other  great  philosophers  of  Germany  by  his  com- 
bining with  rare  intellectual  powers  poetic  gifts  of  a 
high  order. 

Among  his  works,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  are 
"  Bruno,  or  the  Divine  and  Natural  Principle  of  Things," 
("Bruno,  oder  iiber  das  gottliche  und  natiirliche  Princip 
der  Dinge,"  1802,)  "  Philosophy  and  Religion,"  ("Phi- 
losophie und  Religion,"  1804,)  and  "On  the  Relation  of 
Art  to  Nature,"  ("Ueber  das  Verhaltniss  der  bildenden 
Kiinste  zu  der  Natur,"  1807.)  He  regarded  art  as  the 
perfect  union  of  the  real  with  the  ideal.  He  also  wrote 
"  Philosophic  Researches  on  the  Essence  of  Human 
Liberty,"  ("  Philosophischen  Untersuchungen  iiber  das 
Wesen  der  menschlichen  Freiheit,"  1809.)  He  died  at 
Ragaz,  in  Switzerland,  in  August,  1854,  leaving  several 
sons  and  daughters.  His  collected  works  were  pub- 
lished at  Stuttgart,  in  14  vols.  8vo,  1856-61. 

See  RosENKRANZ,  "  Schellinor,  Vorlesungen  gelialten  im  Somnier 
1S42,"  etc.,  1843;  Matter,  "Schelling,  ou  la  Philosophie  de  la 
Nature,"  etc.,  1845  :  L.  de  Lomenie,  "  M.  Schelling,  par  un  Homme 
de  Rien,"  1844  ;  Coleridge,  "  Biographia  Literaria  ;"  Ritter, 
"History  of  Philosophy;"  Appleton's  "New  American  Cyclo- 
pasdla." 

Schellinka,  sKgl'links,  (Daniel,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1633  or  1638;  died  in 
1701. 

Schellinka,  sKeKlinks,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  landscapes  and  sea-ports,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1632, 
was  a  brother  of  Daniel.  He  worked  in  England.  Ac- 
cording to  Bryan,  he  was  a  first-rate  artist.    Died  in  1678. 

Schemmelpenninck,  sKem'mel -pen''nink,  or 
Schimmelpenninck,  sKim'mel-pen'nink,  (  Rutgkr 
Jan,)  a  Dutch  statesman,  born  at  Deventer  in  1761, 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  H,  k, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (^J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 

124. 


SCHENCK 


1970 


SCHILLER 


was  grand  pensionary  of  Holland  in  1805.  He  refused 
to  hold  office  under  King  Louis  Bonaparte.  Died  in 
1825. 

See  M.  C.  van  Hall,  "  R.  J.  Schimmelpenninck,"  etc.,  1847; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Geiidrale." 

Schenck,  shSnk,  (Johann,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  in  Brisgau  in  1531,  practised  at  Friburg.  Died  in 
1598. 

Schenck,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  medical  writer,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Friburg;  died  about  1620. 

Schenck,  skink,  (Robert  C.,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  general,  born  in  Warren  county,  Ohio,  in  1809.  He 
represented  a  district  of  Ohio  in  Congress  from  1843 
1851,  and  was  minister  to  Brazil  in  1852-53.  He  com- 
manded a  brigade  at  Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861,  was 
wounded  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  August  30, 
1862,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general  about 
October  of  that  year.  He  was  a  Republican  member 
of  Congress  for  the  third  district  of  Ohio  from  1863  to 
1869,  and  was  chairman  of  the  committee  of  ways  and 
means  in  the  Fortieth  Congress  and  the  Forty-first 
Congress.  He  was  re-nominated  as  a  member  of  Con- 
gress in  1870. 

Schenk,  sK^nk,  (Martin,)  a  Dutch  soldier  of  for- 
tune, noted  for  his  courage  and  ferocity,  was  born  in 
Gelderland  in  1549.  He  served  fc^r  a  time  under  William 
of  Orange,  but  subsequently  went  over  to  the  Duke  of 
Parma.  Dissatisfied,  however,  with  his  treatment,  and 
thinking  his  services  ill  rewarded,  he  joined  the  patriots 
in  1585,  and  performed  many  daring  exjjloits,  among 
which  was  the  capture  of  Bonn.  Having  attempted  to 
take  Nymwegen  in  1589,  he  was  drowned  while  making 
his  retreat. 

See  Motley,  "United  Netherlands,"  vol.  ii.  chaps,  ix.-xx. 

Schenkels,  sh^nk'els,  (Lambert  Thomas,)  a  Dutch 
grammarian,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc  in  1547.  He  wrote  on 
grammar  and  mnemonics.    Died  about  1630. 

Schenkendorf,  von,  fon  sh^nk'en-doRf,  (Max,) 
born  at  Konigsberg  about  1784,  wrote  "Christian 
Poems,"  and  other  poetical  works.    Died  in  1817. 

Scherer,  sha'raiR',  (Barth^lemi  Louis  Joseph,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Delle  (Haut-Rhin)  in  1747.  He 
obtained  the  chief  command  of  the  army  of  the  Pyrenees 
in  1795,  and  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Loano  in  Novem- 
ber of  that  year.  He  was  minister  of  war  from  July, 
1797,  to  February,  1799,  after  which  date  he  commanded 
in  Italy  for  a  few  months.    Died  in  1804. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  De  Courcelles,  "  Dic- 
tionnaire  des  Generaux  Fran^ais." 

Scherr,  sh^R,  (Thomas  Ignaz,)  a  German  teacher 
and  educational  writer,  born  at  Hohenrechberg,  in 
Wurtemberg,  in  1801,  was  the  founder  of  the  Institute 
for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  at  Zurich. 

Scherz,  sh^Rts,  (Joseph  Georg,)  a  German  jurist 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1678,  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Halle  in  17 11.    Died  in  1754. 

Scheuchzer,  shoiK'tser,  (Johann,)  a  Swiss  natural- 
ist, born  at  Zurich  in  1682,  became  professor  of  natural 
history  in  his  native  city.  He  published  a  number  of 
botanical  works,  in  Latin.    Died  in  1738. 

Scheuchzer,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Swiss  naturalist  and 
physician,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Zurich 
in  1672.  He  was  the  author  of  several  scientific  works, 
among  which  we  name  a  "Natural  History  of  Switzer- 
land," (in  German,  3  vols.,  1708,)  and  "Physica  Sacra," 
or  natural  history  of  the  Bible,  (8  vols.,  1732-37,)  written 
in  German  and  translated  into  French  and  Latin.  Died 
in  1733- 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Scheuchzer,  (Johann  Kaspar,)  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Zurich  in  1702.  He  translated 
Kampfer's  "  History  of  Japan"  into  English,  and  pub- 
lished a  "Treatise  on  Inoculation."    Died  in  1729. 

Scheuffelin,  shoiffeh-leen',  or  Scheuffelein,  shoif- 
feh-lin',  (Hans,)  an  eminent  German  painter  and  wood- 
engraver,  born  at  Nuremberg  about  1490,  was  a  favourite 
pupil  of  Albert  Diirer.  His  engravings  resemble  those 
of  Diirer.  He  worked  at  Nordlingen,  where  he  died  in 
1539  or  1540. 

See  Renouvier,  "  Des  Types  et  des  Manieres  des  Maitres- 
Graveurs. " 


Scheuren,  shoi'ren,  (Kaspar,)  a  German  landscape- 
painter  of  the  Dusseldorf  school,  was  born  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  1810. 

Scheutz,  shoits,  (George  and  Edward,)  two  scien- 
tific Swedes  of  the  present  century,  distinguished  as 
inventors  of  a  machine  which  calculates  mathematical 
tables  and  prints  the  results.  Edward  is  a  son  of  George. 
Their  machine  is  said  to  be  a  success.  A  gold  medal 
was  awarded  to  the  inventors  by  a  committee  of  the 
Exposition  of  Paris  in  1855. 

Schiavone,  ske-^-vo'ni,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian 
painter,  surnamed  Medula,  was  born  at  Sebenico,  in 
Dalmatia,  in  1522.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The 
Nativity  of  Christ,"  and  the  "  Assumption  of  the  Virgin." 
He  excelled  as  a  colorist,  and  was  emploved  by  Titian 
in  painting  the  ceilings  of  the  Library  of  San  Marco,  in 
Venice.    Died  in  1582. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  ol" 
Painting  in  Italy;"  Ridolfi,  "  Vite  degli  Pittori  Veneti." 

Schiavonetti,  ske-§.-vo-net'tee,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian 
engraver,  born  at  Bassano  in  1765,  was  a  friend  of  Bar- 
tolozzi,  whose  style  he  imitated  successfully.  He  resided 
many  years  in  London,  where  he  died  in  1810.  Among 
his  best  works  are  a  "  Mater  Dolorosa,"  after  Van  Dyck, 
and  the  "  Nativity  of  Christ,"  after  Correggio. 

Schicht,  shiKt,  (Johann  Goi  tfried,)  a  German 
composer  and  writer  on  music,  was  born  near  Zittau  in 
1753.  His  works  are  principally  oratorios  and  other 
sacred  music.    Died  in  1823. 

Schick,  shik,  (Gottlieb,)  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Stuttgart  in  1779,  studied  in  Paris  under  David.  He 
painted  history  and  portraits,  and  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation.   Died  in  1812. 

Schickard,  shik'kiRt,  or  Schickhard,  shik'hiRt, 
(Wilhelm,)  a  German  Orientalist  and  astronomer,  born 
at  Herrenberg,  near  Tubingen,  in  1592.  He  became 
pastor  at  Nurtingen  in  1616,  and  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Tubingen  in  1619.  He  also  learned  Arabic,  Persian, 
and  Turkish  without  a  master.  He  published  several 
works  on  Oriental  languages  and  on  astronomy.  Died 
at  Tiibingen  in  1635. 

See  ScHNURRER,  "  Schickard's  Leben,"  1792;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Schidoni,  ske-do'nee,  or  Schedone,  ska-do'ni, 
(Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Modena  in 
1560.  He  painted  both  historical  pieces  and  portraits 
with  success,  and  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best  imitators 
of  Correggio.    Died  in  161 5. 

Schikaneder,  shee'ka-ni'der,  (Emanuel,)  a  Ger- 
man dramatist,  born  at  Ratisbon  in  1751.  His  principal 
work,  the  "  Zauberflote,"  ("  Magic  Flute,")  was  set  to 
music  by  Mozart,  and  enjoyed  great  popularity.  Died 
in  1812. 

Schilder,  shil'der,  (Charles  Andreif.vitch,)  a  Rus- 
sian general,  born  about  1795,  was  distinguished  as  a 
military  engineer.    Died  in  1857. 

Schill,  von,  fon  sh!l,  (Ferdinand,)  a  Prussian  par- 
tisan officer,  born  near  Pless  in  1773.  He  commanded 
a  regiment  or  free  corps,  with  which  he  fought  against 
the  French  and  performed  daring  exploits.  He  was 
attacked  by  the  Dutch  and  Danes  at  Stralsund,  and  was 
killed  in  the  defence  of  that  place,  in  1809. 

See  "  Schilliana,"  i8io-iq:  Haken,  "Ferdinand  von  Schill," 
1824;  Daering,  "Leben  Schill's,"  1838. 

Schiller,  von,  fon  shiKler,  (Johann  Christoph 
Friedrich,)  the  great  national  poet  of  Germany,  was  born 
at  Marbach,  November  10,  1 759.  His  father  was  for  a  time 
an  army-surgeon,  and  was  afterwards  employed  by  the 
Duke  of  Wurtemberg  as  inspector  of  his  nurseries  and 
ornamental  gardens.  From  his  mother,  whose  maiden- 
name  was  Kodweis,  the  poet  appears  to  have  inherited 
his  sensitive  and  enthusiastic  temperament  and  his  love 
for  poetry.  His  parents  having  removed  to  Ludwigs- 
burg,  he  was  sent  to  the  Latin  school  of  that  town.  His 
mother  wished  him  to  become  a  minister  ;  but  his  tastes 
led  him  in  a  different  direction.  At  first  he  made  choice 
of  the  legal  profession,  but  soon  after  turned  his  attention 
to  medicine.  Later  the  works  of  Shakspeare,  Rousseau, 
and  Goethe  appear  to  have  determined  the  direction  of 
his  mind  to  the  drama  and  general  literature.  Lessing, 
Herder,  and  Klopstock  seem  to  have  had  no  unimportant 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m&t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SCHILLER 


SCHINKEL 


influence  in  the  formation  of  his  literary  character.  Among 
his  earhest  essays  in  composition  were  an  epic  poem 
entitled  "  Moses,"  and  two  dramas,  "  Der  Student  von 
Nassau"  and  "  Cosmo  von  Medici,"  of  which  only  a  few 
fragments  have  been  preserved.  In  1777,  when  only 
eighteen  years  of  age,  he  wrote  "  The  Robbers,"  ('*  Die 
Rauber,")  a  tragedy  of  extraordinary  power,  though  he 
himself,  at  a  later  day,  characterized  it  as  a  "  monster  for 
which  fortunately  there  was  no  original."  It  was  trans- 
lated and  read  in  every  part  of  Europe,  and,  having  been 
remodelled,  was  brought  out  on  the  stage  at  Mannheim 
in  1782.  The  author,  having  gone  incognito  to  witness 
the  representation,  was  arrested,  and  the  Duke  of  Wlir- 
temberg  sternly  forbade  him  to  write  anything  except 
what  related  to  the  medical  profession.  To  escape  from 
this  intolerable  thraldom,  he  fled  to  Mannheim,  and  after- 
wards spent  some  time  in  Franconia,  near  Meiningen  ; 
subsequently  (in  1783)  he  was  naturalized  as  a  subject  of 
the  Elector-Palatine,  and  was  thus  freed  from  all  control 
of  the  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg.  He  took  up  his  residence 
at  Mannheim,  where  he  became  poet  to  the  theatre.  About 
this  time  he  wrote  his  tragedies  of  "  Fiesco"  and  "  Cabale 
und  Liebe."  He  began  in  1784  to  edit  the  "Thalia," 
a  literary  journal,  chiefly  devoted  to  the  stage,  in  which 
were  published  the  first  parts  of  his  tragedy  of  "Don 
Carlos."  In  1785  he  left  Mannheim  for  Leipsic,  where  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Huber  and  the  elder  Korner, 
and  wrote  his  beautiful  "  Ode  to  Joy,"  ("  Lied  an  die 
Freude.")  His  tale  entitled  the  "  Ghost-Seer"  ("  Geist- 
Sieher")  was  never  finished.  Having  visited  Weimar 
in  1787,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Goethe,  Herder, 
and  Wieland,  and,  on  the  recommendation  of  Goethe, 
was  appointed  in  1789  professor  of  history  at  Jena.  The 
next  year  he  married  Charlotte  von  Lengefeld,  a  lady  of 
fine  intellect  and  culture.  In  1791  he  brought  out  his 
*'  History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,"  (pronounced  by 
Carlyle  in  1824  as  the  best  historical  performance  which 
Germany  could  boast  of,)  and  soon  after  commenced  his 
"  Wallenstein,"  which  was  completed  in  1799.  It  is  per- 
haps his  greatest  work,  and  is  regarded  by  many  as  the 
finest  tragedy  in  the  German  language.  It  consists  of 
three  parts,  "The  Camp  of  Wallenstein,"  ("  Wallen- 
stein's  Lager,")  "The  Piccolomini,"  and  the  "Death  of 
Wallenstein,"  ("  Wallenstein's  Tod.")  The  second  and 
third  parts,  rendered  into  English  blank  verse  by  Cole- 
ridge, constitute  one  of  the  most  admirable  and  perfect 
translations  to  be  found  in  our  language.  In  1799  Schiller 
removed  to  Weimar.  His  growing  intimacy  with  Goethe 
appears  to  have  exercised  a  most  hapi^y  influence  ujion 
the  productions  of  his  genius.  Between  1799  and  1801 
he  composed,  besides  smaller  works,  his  dramas  entitled 
"The  Maid  of  Orleans,"  ("  Die  Juiigfrau  von  Orleans,") 
"Mary  Stuart,"  and  "The  Bride  of  Messina,"  ("Die 
Braut  von  Messina.")  He  was  associated  with  Goethe 
in  contributions  to  the  "  Musen-Almanach,"  of  which 
for  a  time  Schiller  was  the  editor.  Among  his  minor 
poems  "The  Song  of  the  Bell"  ("Das  Lied  von  der 
Glocke,"  1801)  may  claim  the  first  place.  Nothing  more 
admirable  in  its  way  has  ever  been  wnitten  in  any  lan- 
guage, ancient  or  modern.  In  it  the  three  great  events 
of  human  life — Birth,  (or  Christening,)  Marriage,  and 
Death,  all  marked  by  the  ringing  of  the  bell — are  touched 
upon  with  an  exquisite  beauty  and  pathos  which,  had 
the  author  composed  nothing  else  but  this  single  poem, 
would  have  secured  him  a  place  among  those  rare  poets 
whose  fame  seems  destined  to  be  coeval  with  the  exist- 
ence of  the  human  race.  In  1804  Schiller  produced  his 
"William  Tell,"  the  most  popular  of  all  his  dramas. 
He  died  on  the  9th  of  May,  1805,  ot  an  affection  of  the 
lungs,  under  which  he  had  suff"ered  for  many  years.  His 
last  woids,  uttered  a  little  before  he  expired,  were, 
"Many  things  are  growing  plain  and  clear  to  me." 

As  a  poet,  Schiller  is  characterized  by  strong  feeling 
and  intense  ideality.  His  mind  is  eminently  subjective, 
all  his  representations  being  strongly  coloured  with  his 
own  individuality,  and  in  this  one  respect  he  is  much 
inferior  as  a  dramatist  to  Goethe;  but  his  enthusiastic 
faith  in  ideal  excellence,  and  his  deep  and  earnest  sym- 
pathy with  all  human  joy  and  sorrow,  have  given  him 
an  influence  over  the -common  heart  of  mankind  not 
possessed  by  his  many-sided  and  m.ore  gifted  rival. 


There  is  indeed  between  Schiller  and  Goethe  something 
of  the  same  kind  of  difference  that  exists  between  Byron 
and  Shakspeare,  the  one  being  characterized  by  intense 
concentrated  feeling,  the  other  by  endless  variety.  The 
comparison,  however,  fails  to  do  justice  to  Schiller,  who, 
if  he  had  less  passi(jn,  had  far  greater  wealth  of  thought 
and  far  higher  moral  endowments  than  Byron.  On  the 
other  hand,  Goethe,  though  scarcely  yielding  to  Shak- 
speare in  his  profound  knowledge  of  the  human  heart 
or  in  the  inexhaustible  riches  of  his  ideas,  was  yet  infe- 
rior to  the  great  English  dramatist  in  the  very  point  in 
which  he  was  inferior  to  Schiller,  viz.,  in  a  deep  and 
earnest  sympathy  with  universal  humanity;  and  this 
will  explain  why  the  dramatic  works  of  Goethe,  though 
giving  proof  of  genius  of  the  richest  and  rarest  order, 
have  never  possessed  that  strong  hold  upon  the  popular 
heart  for  which  the  dramas  of  Schiller  and  Shakspeare 
are  so  remarkable. 

See  Thomas  Carlyle,  "Life  of  Schiller,"  1825;  E.  Lytton 
BuLVVER,  "Life  and  Works  of  Schiller,"  1847:  H.  Doring,  "  F. 
von  Schiller:  biograpliisches  Denkmal,"  1832;  Viana,  "Schiller's 
Leben  und  Werken,"  1836;  Hoffmeister,  "Schiller's  Leben,"  5 
vols.,  1838-42;  E.  Boas,  "  Schiller  und  Goethe  im  Xenienkanipfe," 
2  vols.,  1851  ;  Caroline  von  Wolzogen,  "  F.  von  Schiller's  Le- 
ben," 2  vols.,  1830;  G.  Schwab,  "Urkunden  iiber  Schiller  und  seine 
Familie,"  1840;  the  article  in  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1831, 
(by  Carlyle;)  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1841  ;  translations 
from  Schiller's  Poems  in  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  September, 
1842,  February  and  April,  1843,  (by  Bulwer;)  "North  American 
Review"  for  October,  1823,  (by  Bancroft.) 

Schilling,  shilling,  (Friedrich  Gustav,)  a  German 
novelist  and  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Dresden  in  1766, 
became  a  captain  in  the  Saxon  army.  His  works  display 
much  originality  and  talent  for  invention.  Died  in  1839. 

Schilling,  (Gustav,)  a  German  writer  on  music,  born 
in  Hanover  in  1805,  published  a  "Universal  Dictionary 
of  Music,"  ("  Universal  Lexikon  der  Tonkunst,")  and 
other  similar  works.    Died  in  i860. 

Schilter,  shiKter,  (Johann,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Pegau  in  1632,  published  a  number  of  legal  and  anti- 
quarian works,  in  Latin.    Died  in  1705, 

Schimnielpenninck.    See  Schemmelpenninck. 

Schimmelpenninck,  shim'mel-pen'nink,  (Mary 
Anne,)  an  English  authoress,  originally  named  Galton, 
was  born  at  Birmingham  in  1778.  Her  mother  was  a 
Barclay,  highly  gifted  and  a  good  scholar.  Mary  Anne 
Galton  was  a  cousin  of  Priscilla  Gurney  and  of  Mrs. 
Fry.  She  was  well  versed  in  Latin,  German,  and  French. 
In  1806  she  married  a  Dutchman  named  Lambert  Schim- 
melpenninck, who  is  said  to  have  been  a  brother  of  the 
pensionary  or  chief  ruler  of  Holland.  She  joined  the 
Moravian  Church  about  1818.  She  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "Memoirs  of  Port-Royal,"  (2  vols.,  1853.)  Died 
in  1856. 

See  "  Life  of  M.  A.  Schimmelpenninck,"  2  vols.,  iSsg,  the  first 
volume  of  which  is  autobiography  ;  "  Living  Age"  for  April  16,  1859. 

Schimper,  shiN'paiR',  (Guii.laume  Philippe,)  a 
French  naturalist,  born  in  Alsace  in  1808,  has  published 
a  number  of  botanical  treatises,  and  "  Pal  aeon  tologica 
Alsatica." 

Schimper,  sh!m'per,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  natu- 
ralist and  traveller,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1804,  visited 
Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Abyssinia,  and  published  in  1834 
his  "  Travels  in  Algeria." 

Schinderhannes,  shln'der-hln'nes,  or  Schinder- 
hans,  shin'der-hinss',  a  German  robber-chief  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  who  for  several  years  infested  with 
his  band  the  shores  of  the  Rhine.  He  was  taken  and 
executed,  with  a  number  of  his  companions,  in  1803. 
His  adventures  form  the  subject  of  a  novel  by  Leitch 
Ritchie. 

Schindler,  shind'ler,  (  Valentine,  )  a  German 
scholar,  and  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Witten- 
berg, was  the  author  of  "  Institutiones  Hebraicae,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  161 1. 

Schinkel,  shlnk'el,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German 
architect  of  great  celebrity,  born  at  Neu-Ruppin,  in 
Brandenburg,  in  March,  1 781,  was  a  pupil  of  David 
Gilly,  of  Berlin.  He  practised  landscape-painting  in 
his  early  life.  About  1804  he  visited  Italy.  Having 
rettirned  to  Berlin  in  1806,  he  became  about  181 5  archi- 
tect of  the  king,  who  employed  him  in  the  erection  of 
public  edifices  in  his  capital.    He  designed  the  Royal 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  v., guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCHINNER 


1972 


SCHLEIERMACHER 


Museum,  a  large  building  of  the  Ionic  order,  which  was 
greatly  admired,  and  the  theatre  in  Berlin.  Among  hi? 
other  works  was  a  theatre  at  Hamburg.  He  preferred 
the  Greek  style  of  architecture.    Died  in  1841. 

See  F.  KuGLER,  "  K.  F.  Schinkel;  eine  Charakteristik,"  etc., 
1842. 

Schinner,  shin'ner,  (Matthew,)  a  German  or  Swiss 
bishop,  called  Cardinal  de  Sion,  was  born  in  the 
Valais  about  1470.  He  became  a  cardinal  in  151 1.  He 
instigated  the  Swiss  to  fight  against  Francis  I.  of  France, 
and  took  an  active  part  in  the  battle  of  Marignano, 
{1515.)    Died  in  1522. 

Schirach,  von,  fon  shee'r^K,  (Gottlob  Benedict,) 
a  German  historian,  born  in  Upper  Lusatia  in  1743. 
In  1770  he  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Helm- 
stedt.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a  "  Biography 
of  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.,"  (1776,)  for  which  he  was 
ennobled  by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa.  He  trans- 
lated Plutarch's  "  Lives"  into  German.    Died  in  1804. 

Schirmer,  shegR'mer,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man landscape-painter  of  great  merit,  and  professor  at 
the  Academy  (jf  Dusseldorf,  was  born  at  Jiilich  in  1807. 

Schischkow.    See  Shishkof, 

Schlagintweit,  shia^gin-twit^  (Adolf,)  a  German 
traveller,  born  at  Munich  in  1829.  Having  explored 
the  Alps  in  company  with  his  brother  Hermann,  he  pub- 
lished in  1850  an  account  of  their  researches.  In  1854  he 
set  out  for  India,  accompanied  by  his  brothers  Hermann 
and  Robert,  for  the  purpose  of  jnaking  scientific  investi- 
gations. Adolf  was  killed  at  Kashgar  in  1857  or  1858. 
An  account  of  their  travels  and  researches  in  India  was 
published  about  1861. 

Schlatter,  shlat'ter,  (Michael,)  a  Swiss  divine  and 
missionary,  born  at  Saint  Gall  in  1716,  emigrated  to 
America,  where  he  assisted  in  organizing  the  synod  of 
the  German  Reformed  Church.    Died  in  1790. 

Schlegel,  shla^'gel,  (Johann  Adolf,)  a  German 
divine  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Meissen  in  1721, 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Zerbst.  He  published 
"Fables  and  Tales,"  in  verse,  and  "  Spiritual  Songs." 
Died  in  1793. 

Schlegel,  (Johann  Elias,)  elder  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Meissen  in  1718.  He  published  the 
tragedies  of  "  Hermann"  and  "  Canute,"  and  the  com- 
edy of  "Dumb  Beauty,"  ("  Stumme  Schonheit.")  Died 
in  1749. 

See  J.  H.  Schlegel,  "  Leben  J.  E.  Schlegels,"  1770. 

Schlegel,  (Johann  Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  son  of 
the  following,  was  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1765,  and 
became  professor  of  law  in  his  native  city  in  1800.  He 
wrote  several  legal  works  in  Danish.    Died  in  1836. 

Schlegel,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  younger  brother 
of  Johann  Adolf,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Meissen  in 
1724.  He  became  professor  of  history  and  royal  his- 
toriographer at  Copenhagen.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  jOanish  Kings  of  the  House  of  Oldenburg,"  and 
translated  several  of  Thomson's  dramas  into  German. 
Died  in  1780. 

Schlegel,  (Johann  Karl,)  fourth  brother  of  August 
Wilhelm  von  Schlegel,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Zerbst 
in  1758.  He  wrote  "Ecclesiastical  History  of  North- 
ern Germany,"  (1828,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1 83 1. 

Schlegel,  (Karl  Gustav  Moritz.)  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Hanover  in  1756.  He  became 
superintendent-general  and  first  preacher  at  Harburg, 
and  wrote  several  theological  works.    Died  in  1826. 

Schlegel,  von,  fon  shla'gel,  (August  Wilhelm,)  a 
celebrated  German  poet.  Orientalist,  and  critic,  born  at 
Hanover  on  the  8th  of  September,  1767,  was  a  son  of 
Johann  Adolf,  noticed  above.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Heyne 
at  the  University  of  Gottingen,  which  he  quitted  in  1793. 
In  1797  he  became  professor  or  teacher  of  Greek  and 
Latin  at  Jena.  In  the  early  part  of  his  life  he  formed  a 
friendship  with  Schiller.  About  1798  Schlegel  and  his 
brother  Friedrich  began  to  edit  the  "  Athenaeum,"  a 
critical  review,  which  had  great  influence  in  propagating 
the  principles  of  the  romantic  school.  He  was  a  warm 
admirer  of  Shakspeare's  works,  of  which  he  produced 
a  translation,  (11  vols.,  1798-1810.)  He  resided  in  Ber- 
lin from  1802  to  1805,  and  became  a  friend  of  Madame 
de  Stael,  whom  he  accompanied  in  her  travels,  as  her 


instructor  and  as  tutor  to  her  children.  He  passed  a 
number  of  years  in  her  society,  and  exercised  a  decided 
influence  over  her  literary  character.  In  1808  he  de- 
livered at  Vienna  a  course  of  lectures  on  dramatic 
literature  and  art,  which  were  greatly  admired  both  in 
Germany  and  foreign  countries.  They  were  translated 
into  English  by  John  Black,  (1840.) 

"  I  was  at  Vienna,"  says  Madame  de  Stael,  "  when  W. 
Schlegel  gave  his  public  course  of  lectures.  I  expected 
only  good  sense  and  instruction,  where  the  object  was 
only  to  convey  information.  I  was  astonished  to  hear  a 
critic  as  eloquent  as  an  orator."  In  another  place  she 
calls  him  "the  first  literary  critic  of  Germany."  (De 
Stael's  "Germany.") 

Schlegel  served  as  secretary  to  Bernadotte,  Crown - 
Prince  of  Sweden,  in  1813-14,  and  wrote  several  polit- 
ical pamphlets.  After  the  end  of  the  war,  in  1815,  he 
remained  with  Madame  de  Stael  until  her  death.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  history  at  Bonn  in  1819,  and 
applied  himself  rather  late  in  life  to  the  study  of  San- 
scrit, in  which  he  became  proficient.  He  founded  about 
1820  the  "  Indische  Bibliothek,"  a  review  devoted  to 
Indian  languages  and  antiquities.  Having  lost  his  first 
wife,  whose  name  was  Michaelis,  he  married  a  daughter 
of  the  eminent  Professor  Paulus,  from  whom  he  was 
soon  divorced.  Among  his  remarkable  productions  are 
a  poem  entitled  "  Arion,"  and  a  German  version  of  some 
of  Calderon's  dramas,  (1803-09.)  He  also  wrote,  in 
French,  "  Literary  and  Historic  Essays,"  ("  Essais  litte- 
raires  et  historiques,"  1842.)  Died  at  Bonn,  in  May,  1845. 
His  complete  works  were  published  by  Bocking,  (13 
vols.,  1846.) 

See  Louis  de  Lomenie,  "M.  A.  W.  de  Schlegel,  par  un  Homme 
de  Rien,"  1842;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1814;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
February,  1816;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1833,  and 
October,  1843. 

Schlegel,  von,  (Karl  Wilhelm  Friedrich,)  an 
eminent  German  scholar  and  writer,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Hanover  on  the  loth  of  March, 
1772.  His  first  important  work  was  "Greeks  and 
Romans,"  ("  Griechen  und  Romer,"  1797,)  which  was 
received  with  favour.  In  1799  he  published  the  first 
volume  of  "  Lucinde,"  a  novel,  which  has  been  cen- 
sured as  immoral.  It  was  never  finished.  About  1800 
he  married  Madame  Veit,  a  daughter  of  Mendelssohn. 
Her  first  husband  was  living,  but  she  obtained  a  divorce 
in  order  to  marry  Schlegel.  In  1802  he  produced  a 
tragedy  called  "  Alarkos."  Having  been  converted  to 
the  Rotnan  Catholic  religion  about  1808,  he  removed  to 
Vienna,  where  he  became  secretary  to  the  archduke 
Charles  in  1809.  He  composed  the  proclamations  which 
were  issued  to  excite  the  Austrians  against  Napoleon. 
He  delivered  at  Vienna  several  courses  of  lectures, 
(which  were  published,)  and  edited  "The  German  Mu- 
seum," (1812-13.)  Among  his  works  are  a  "  History  of 
Ancient  and  Modern  Literature,"  (2  vols.,  1815,)  "Lec- 
tures on  the  Philosophy  of  Life,"  (1828,)  and  "  Lectures 
on  the  Philosophy  of  History,"  (2  vols.,  1829.)  He 
was  an  admirer  of  mediaeval  life  and  institutions,  and 
belonged  to  the  romantic  school  in  literature.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Schleiermacher.  Died  at  Dresden 
in  1829. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  August,  18 1 8. 

Schleiden,  shliMen,  (Matthias  Jakob,)  a  German 
physician  and  botanist,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1804,  pub- 
lished "  Elements  of  Scientific  Botany,"  (1842,)  "  Plants 
and  their  Life,"  (1850,)  and  other  works.  He  became 
professor-extraordinary  at  Jena  in  1839. 

Schleiden,  (Rudolf,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Hamburg.  He  became  in  1853  minister  for 
Bremen  at  Washington. 

Schleiermacher,  shll'er-maK'er,  (Friedrich  Ernst 
Daniel,)  a  distinguished  German  author,  critic,  and 
pulpit  orator,  was  born  at  Breslau  on  the  21st  of  No- 
vember, 1768.  He  was  sent  to  a  Moravian  school  at 
Barby  to  study  for  the  ministry.  About  1786  he  entered 
the  University  of  Halle,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
theology,  philosophy,  and  the  ancient  languages.  He 
quitted  the  university  in  1790,  after  which  he  was  em- 
ployed several  years  as  a  tutor  in  a  private  family  and 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,y,  long;    h,  b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  flr,  flll,  ftt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon* 


SCHLESINGER 


»973 


SCHMID 


in  a  seminary  in  Berlin.  In  1796  he  was  ajipointed 
preacher  to  the  hospital  of  Charite  in  Berlin.  He  pub- 
lished in  1799  an  excellent  work  entitled  "  Discourses 
on  Religion,"  the  doctrines  of  which  were  approved  by 
pious  and  orthodox  readers.  He  removed  to  Stolpe  in 
1802,  with  the  title  of  court  preacher,  and  wrote  there  a 
"Critique  of  all  Past  Systems  of  Ethics,"  (" Grundlinien 
einer  Kritik  der  bisherigen  Sittenlehre,"  1803,)  which  is 
highly  esteemed.  In  1 804  he  became  professor  of  theology 
and  philosophy  at  Halle.  He  acquired  great  influence 
as  a  theologian.  The  conquests  of  Napoleon  having 
separated  Halle  from  the  kingdom  of  Prussia,  Schleier- 
macher  removed  to  Berlin  about  1806.  He  produced  an 
excellent  translation  of  a  large  portion  of  Plato's  works, 
(published  in  3  vols.,  1804-28,)  with  an  introduction, 
which  may  be  pronounced  one  of  the  most  important 
contributions  towards  the  elucidation  of  Plato's  philo- 
sophic system  that  have  been  made  in  modern  times. 
In  1809  he  was  appointed  preacher  of  Trinity  Church, 
Berlin,  and  in  1810  became  professor  of  theology  in  the 
new  university  of  that  capital.  His  profound  learning, 
eloquent  language,  and  original  thoughts  rendered  him 
very  popular  as  a  professor  and  preacher.  He  was 
chosen  secretary  to  the  philosophical  section  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1814. 

Among  his  most  important  works  are  "A  Critical 
Essay  on  the  Writings  of  Luke,"  ("Ueber  die  Schriften 
des  Lukas,  ein  kritischer  Versuch,"  1817,)  and  "Exhibi- 
tion of  the  Christian  Faith  according  to  the  Principles 
of  the  Evangelical  Church,"  ("  Darstellung  des  Christ- 
lichen  Glaubens  nach  den  Grundsatzen  der  Evange- 
lischen  Kirche,"  2  vols.,  1821-22.)  "To  his  vast  sweep 
of  thought,  now  ranging  round  the  outposts  of  theological 
systems,  and  again  darting  upon  the  smallest  detail  and 
opening  it  up  to  the  light,  he  united  immense  learning, 
not  of  the  cumbrous  bibliographical  sort  so  peculiar  to 
the  Germans,  but  of  the  living  facts  and  principles  of 
all  times,  combined  with  a  grand  faculty  of  utterance 
which  gave  the  most  musical  form  to  the  most  golden 
thoughts,  holding  his  hearers  in  raptures  while  he  spoke, 
and  carrying  them  breathless  away  with  him  in  his  airy 
chariot  of  fire."  ("  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.")  Died  in 
Berlin  in  February,  1834. 

See  a  collection  of  his  letters,  entitled  "  Aus  Schleierniaclier's 
Leben  in  Briefen,"  2  vols.,  185S  ;  "Life  of  Schleiermacher,"  trans- 
lated from  the  German;  E.  Bonnell,  "  Erinneriing  an  Schleier- 
macher als  Lehrer,"  1838;  F.  Dei.bkuck.  "Der  verewigte  Schleier- 
macher," 1837;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1849; 
"Eraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1861  ;  "Westminster  Review" 
for  July,  1861. 

Schlesinger,  shla'zing-er,  (Wilhelm  Heinrich,)  a 
German  painter,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  about 
1814.    He  became  a  resident  of  Paris. 

SchlichtegroU,  shliK''teh-gRor,  (Adolf  Heinrich 
Friedrich,)  a  German  antiquary,  born  at  Waltershausen 
in  1765,  became  secretary-general  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Sciences  at  Munich.  He  published  the  "Obituary  of 
the  Germans,"  ("Nekrolog  der  Deutschen,"  28  vols., 
^     1791,)  and  other  similar  works.    Died  in  1822. 

Schlichting,  schliK'ting,  or  Schlichtingius,  shliic- 
ting'ge-us,  (Jonas,)  a  Polish  Socinian,  apparently  of 
German  extraction,  was  born  at  Bucowiec  in  1596.  He 
wrote  a  "Confession  of  Faith,"  for  which  he  was  ban- 
ished, and  the  work  was  publicly  burnt.    Died  in  1664. 

Schlik  or  SchHck,  shlik,'  (Franz,)  an  Austrian 
general,  born  at  Prague  in  1789.  He  served  in  the 
campaign  of  1813  against  the  French,  and  in  the  Hun- 
garian war  of  1849. 

Schloetzer.    See  Schlozer. 

Schlosser,  shlos'ser,  (Friedrich  Christoph,)  a 
celebrated  German  historian,  born  at  Jever  in  1776.  In 
1793  he  entered  the  University  of  Gottingen,  where, 
in  addition  to  theology,  history,  and  mathematics,  he 
applied  himself  to  the  study  of  English,  Italian,  and 
Spanish  literature.  He  published  in  i8i2  his  "  History 
of  the  Iconoclast  Emperors  of  the  East  Roman  Empire." 
In  1817  he  became  professor  of  history  at  Heidelberg. 
His  chief  works  are  a  "  History  of  the  \Vorld  in  a  Con- 
nected Relation,"  (4  vols.,  1817-41,)  and  the  "History 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century  and  Nineteenth  till  the  Fall 
of  the  French  Empire,"  (8  vols.,  1846,)  which  has  been 
translated  into  English.     He  also  wrote  a  "Critical 


Examination  of  Napoleon,"  and  other  works.  As  a  his- 
torian, Schlosser  occupies  a  high  rank  and  has  acquired 
extensive  popularity.    Died  at  Heidelberg  in  1861. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon  ;"  "  Jahrbuch  zum 
Conversations- Lexikon,"  1862;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
April,  1843;  "Westminster  Review"  for  September,  1845;  Gervi- 
Nus,  "Necrolog  Schlosser's,"  1862. 

Schlosser,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1739,  was  a  brother-in-law 
of  Goethe.  He  published  several  prose  essays,  and 
made  translations  from  ^Eschylus,  Plato,  and  Aristotle. 
Died  in  1799. 

See  NicoLovius,  "J.  G.  Schlosser's  Leben,"  1844. 

Schlotheim,  von,  fon  shlot'him,  (Ernst  Fried- 
rich,) Baron,  a  German  savant,  born  in  1764,  published 
several  works  on  mineralogy.    Died  in  1832. 

Schlozer  or  Schloezer,  von,  fon  shlot'ser,  (Au- 
gust LuDWiG,)  an  eminent  German  historian,  born  in 
the  principality  of  Hohenlohe-Kirchberg  in  1735.  He 
studied  theology  at  Wittenberg  and  Gottingen.  In 
1755  he  went  as  a  private  teacher  to  Sweden,  where  he 
wrote  a  "History  of  Commerce,"  (in  Swedish.)  He 
was  appointed  in  1765  professor  of  Russian  history  at 
the  Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg,  and  in  1767  of  political 
science  at  Gottingen,  His  principal  works  are  entitled 
"  General  History  of  the  North,"  (2  vols.,  1772,)  "  Pre- 
paratory History  of  the  World  for  Children,"  (1790,) 
and  "  History  of  the  World  in  Extracts  and  Connection," 
(2  vols.,  1792.)  He  also  translated,  from  the  Russian, 
Nestor's  "  Chronicle"  to  the  year  980,  and  wrote  several 
able  political  treatises.  He  was  ennobled  by  the  Em- 
peror of  Russia  in  1804.  He  died  in  1809.  His  daughter 
Dorothea  was  highly  distinguished  for  her  talents  and 
acquirements,  and  the  degree  of  doctor  was  conferred 
upon  her  in  1787.    Died  in  1825. 

See  "A.  L.  von  Schlozer's  Leben,"  by  his  son,  1828;  Heinrich 
DoRiNG,  "  Leben  A.  L.  von  Schlozer's,"  1836  ;  Adolph  Bock,  "A. 
L.  Schlozer,"  1S44. 

Schlozer  or  Schloezer,  von,  (Christian,)  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  the  author  of  "  Elements  of  Political 
Science,"  (1804,  in  German  and  Russian,)  and  published 
a  life  of  his  father.    Died  in  1831. 

Schliiter  or  Schlueter,  shlii'ter,  (Andreas,)  a 
German  architect  and  sculptor,  born  about  1662,  was 
patronized  by  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia.  He  built  several 
edifices  at  Berlin,  where  he  also  executed  a  number  of 
admirable  works  in  sculpture.    Died  in  17 14. 

Schlyter,  shlu'ter,  (Carl  Johan,)  a  Swedish  jurist 
and  legal  writer,  born  at  Carlscrona  in  1795. 

Schmaltz,  shmilts,  (Moritz  Ferdinand,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  near  Dresden  in  1785,  has 
published  numerous  sermons  and  other  religious  works. 

Schmalz,  (Theodor  Anton  Heinrich,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Hanover  in  1760,  published  treatises  on 
law  and  political  economy.    Died  in  183 1. 

Schmauss,  shmowss,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  distin- 
guished German  writer  on  public  law,  was  born  at 
Landau,  in  Alsatia,  in  1690.  He  became  in  1734  pro- 
fessor of  the  law  of  nature  and  of  nations  at  Gottingen. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "Life  of  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden,"  (1720,)  and  "Corpus  Juris  Gentium  Academi- 
cum,"  (2  vols.,  1730.)    Died  in  1757. 

Schmeller,  shmeKler,  (Johann  Andreas,)  a  Ger- 
man philologist,  born  at  Tirschenreuth  in  1785,  pub- 
lished "The  Dialects  of  Bavaria,"  (1821,)  and  a  "Bava- 
rian Dictionary,"  (1827.)    Died  in  1852. 

Schmerling,  von,  fon  shm§R'ling,  (  Anton,  )  an 
Austrian  jurist  and  statesman,  born  at  Vienna  in  1805, 
rose  to  be  president  of  the  first  tribunal  and  court  of 
cassation  at  Vienna,  (1851,)  and  was  appointed  prime 
minister  in  1861.    He  resigned  or  was  removed  in  1866. 

Schmettau,  von,  fon  shmet'tow,  (Samuel,)  a  Prus- 
sian commander,  born  in  1684.  He  served  under  Prince 
Eugene  and  Marlborough,  and  subsequently  entered 
the  Austrian  army  and  fought  against  the  Spaniards  in 
Sicily.  He  was  made  a  field-marshal  in  1741,  and  was 
afterwards  employed  by  Frederick  the  Great  in  several 
embassies.    Died  in  1751. 

See  "  Lebensgeschichte  des  Grafen  von  Schmettau,"  Berlin,  1806. 

Schmid,  shmit,  (Karl  Christian  Erhard,)  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Jena,  was  born  near  Weimar  in 


€  as  /c;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  a4; J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCHMID 


1974 


SCHNORR 


1 761.  He  wrote  several  works  in  favour  of  the  system 
of  Kant.    Died  in  1812. 

Schmid,  (Karl  Ernst,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Weimar  in  1774.  He  became  professor  of 
law  at  Jena  in  1809,  wrote  a  number  of  legal  treatises,  and 
contributed  to  Brockhaus's  "  Conversations-Lexikon." 
Died  in  1852. 

Schmid,  (Reinhold,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Jena 
in  1800.  He  published  a  work  "On  the  Theory  of 
Civil  Law,"  (1848,)  which  is  esteemed. 

Schmid,  von,  fon  shmit,  (Christoph,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Dinkelsbiihl  in  1768,  published  a  number 
of  moral  and  religious  works  for  children  and  youth. 

Schmidel,shmeeMel,  (Casimir  Christoph,)  a  Ger- 
man botanist,  born  at  Baireuth  in  1718.  He  published 
*'  Icones  Plantarum  et  Analyses  Partium,"  (1747.)  Died 
in  1792, 

Schmidt,  shmlt,  (Christoph,)  a  German  jurist  and 
writer,  born  at  Nordheimer  in  1740,  wrote  "Letters  on 
Russia,"  and  several  historical  works.    Died  in  1801. 

Schmidt,  (Ebkrhard  Karl  Klamer,)  a  German 
poet  and  fabulist,  born  at  Halberstadt  in  1746,  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Gleim.  He  translated  the  "  Odes  and 
I  Epodes"  of  Horace.    Died  in  1824. 

See  "  E.  K.  Schmidt's  Leben." 

Schmidt,  (EraSxMUS,)  a  German  scholar,  born  in 
Misnia  in  1560,  became  professor  of  Greek  and  math- 
ematics at  Wittenberg.  He  published  a  "  Concordance 
to  the  Greek  Testament,"  an  edition  of  Pindar,  with  a 
Latin  version  and  notes,  and  other  works.  Died  in  1637. 

Schmidt,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  a  German  engraver, 
born  at  Berlin,  executed  numerous  portraits  of  great 
merit.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts 
in  Paris.    Died  in  1775. 

Schmidt,  (Isaak  Jakob,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born 
in  1779,  published  a  Grammar  and  a  Dictionary  of  the 
Mongol  Language,  also  a  "  Thibetan  Grammar,"  and 
made  several  translations  from  the  Mongol  and  Thibetic. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg. 
Died  in  1847. 

Schmidt,  (Johann  Andreas,)  a  German  Lutheran 
divine,  born  at  Worms  in  1652,  became  professor  of  the- 
ology and  ecclesiastical  history  at  Helmstedt.  He 
translated  Pat  die's  "Elements  of  Geometry"  from 
French  into  Latin,  and  wrote  several  controversial 
works.    Died  in  1726. 

Schmidt,  (Michael  Ignaz,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Arnstein  in  1736,  was  appointed  director  of  the 
archives  at  Vienna.  He  wrote  a  good  "  History  of  the 
Germans,"  (22  vols.,  1 778-1 808,)  which  was  very  pop- 
ular, and  other  works.  He  was  appointed  aulic  coun- 
cillor at  Vienna  in  1780.    Died  in  1794. 

Schmidt,  (Sebastian,)  a  German  scholar  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Strasburg.    Died  in  1697. 

Schmith,  shmlt,  (Nicholas,)  a  Hungarian  Jesuit 
and  historical  writer,  was  rector  of  the  college  at  Tyr- 
nau.    Died  in  1767. 

Schmitthenner,  shmlt'hgn'ner,  (Friedrich  Jakob,) 
professor  of  political  science  at  Giessen,  was  born  in 
1796.  He  published  several  works  on  philology,  his- 
tory, and  political  economy.    Died  in  1850. 

Schmitz,  shmlts,  (Leonard.)  a  historian  and  philol- 
ogist, born  near  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1807.  He  removed 
to  England  about  1836,  and  became  rector  of  the  High 
School  of  Edinburgh  in  1845.  He  published  a  "  History 
of  Rome,"  a  "  Manual  of  Ancient  History,"  and  other 
works.  He  also  contributed  to  W.  Smith's  "  Classical 
Dictionary  of  Biography." 

Schmuck'er,  (Samuel  M.,)  an  American  writer, 
born  at  New  Market,  Virginia,  in  1823.  He  practised 
law  in  Philadelphia.  He  wrote  a  number  of  historical 
works  and  biographies.    Died  in  186^. 

Schmutzer,  shmdot'ser,  (Jakob  Matthias,)  a  Ger- 
man engraver,  born  at  Vienna  in  1733,  became  director 
of  the  Academy  of  Design  in  that  city,  and  court  en- 
graver. His  prints  after  Rubens  are  highly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1813. 

Schnaase,  shnS'zeh,  (Karl,)  born  at  Dantzic  in 
1798,  published  a  "  History  of  the  Plastic  Arts,"  (1843,) 
and  other  similar  works. 


Schneb'be-lie,  (Jacob,)  an  English  artist,  born  at 
Westminster  in  1760,  was  appointed  draughtsman  to 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries.    Died  in  1792. 

Schneider,  shni'daiR',  (An  roiNE  Virgile,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  1780.  He  was  minister  of  war  from 
May,  1839,  to  March,  1840.    Died  in  1847. 

Schneider,  shnl'der,  (Conrad  Victor,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Bitterfeld,  in  Saxony,  in  1610,  was 
the  author  of  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  De  Catarrhis," 
in  which  he  gives  an  anatomical  description  of  the  in- 
terior structure  of  the  nose.  The  lining  of  the  cavities 
of  the  nose,  which  he  first  described,  has  been  named, 
in  his  honour,  the  Schneiderian  membrane.  Died  in 
1680. 

Schneider,  (Eugene,)  a  French  manufacturer,  born 
at  Nancy  in  1805.  He  became  proprietor  of  a  very 
extensive  manufactory  of  machinery,  locomotives,  etc., 
at  Creuzot.  He  was  elected  in  1852  and  in  1857  a 
member  of  the  legislative  body,  of  which  he  was  presi- 
dent from  1867  until  September  4,  1870. 

Schneider,  shni'der,  (Johann  Christian  Fried- 
rich,) a  German  composer,  born  near  Zittau  in  1786. 
His  works  comprise  oratorios,  operas,  and  instrument- 
pieces.    Died  in  1853  or  1854. 

Schneider,  (Johann  Georg,  called  afterwards  Eu- 
logius,)  a  German  poet  and  monk,  born  at  Wipfeld,  in 
Bavaria,  in  1756.  Having  removed  to  Strasburg  in  1791, 
he  became  a  violent  revolutionist,  and  caused  many 
persons  to  be  put  to  death.  He  was  guillotined  in  Paris 
in  April,  1 794. 

See  Heitz,  "  Notes  sur  la  Vie  d'Euloge  Schneider,"  1862. 

Schneider,  (Johann  Gottlob,)  a  brother  of  Johann 
Christian  Friedrich,  noticed  above,  was  born  near  Zittau 
in  1789.  He  was  appointed  court  organist  at  Dresden 
in  1825,  and  composed  a  number  of  pieces  for  the  organ. 
Died  in  1864. 

Schneider,  (Johann  Gottlob,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist and  naturah'st,  born  near  Wurzen,  in  Saxony,  in 
1750.  He  studied  under  Heyne  at  Gottingen,  and  in 
1776  became  ])rofessor  of  ancient  languages  and  elo- 
quence at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  He  published  edi- 
tions of  Nicander's  "  Alexipharmaca,"  Elian's  "  De 
Natura  Animalium,"  Xenophon's  Works,  the  "  Ar- 
gonautica"  of  Orpheus,  the  "  Politics"  of  Aristotle, 
^sop's  "  Fables,"  and  the  Works  of  Theophrastus. 
He  also  wrote  numerous  treatises  on  natural  history, 
among  which  we  may  name  "  Ichthyology  of  the  An- 
cients," (1782,)  and  "  Physiology  of  Amphibious  Ani- 
mals," (1790.)  His  "  Greek-and-German  Lexicon"  (1797) 
is  esteemed  a  standard  work.    Died  in  1822. 

See  CuviER,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale. " 

Schneider,  (Karl  Ernst  Christoph,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Wiehe,  in  the  duchy  of  Saxony,  in  1786. 
He  translated  some  of  Plato's  works  into  German,  and 
published  an  edition  of  Caesar's  "Commentaries." 

Schneidewin,  shni'deh-vv^in^,  (Friedrich  Wil- 
helm,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Helmstedt  in  1810. 
He  was  a])pointed  in  1842  professor  of  classic  literature 
at  Gottingen.  He  published  "  Critical  Observations  on 
the  Lyric  Poets  of  Greece,"  "  Commentaries  on  Sopho- 
cles," and  other  original  works  ;  also  editions  of  several 
Greek  and  Latin  classics.    Died  in  1856. 

Schneller,  shneKler,  (Julius  Franz  Borgias,)  a 
historian,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1777,  was  the  author  of 
several  historical  and  dramatic  works.    Died  in  1833. 

Schnetz,  shnlts,  (Jean  Victor,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Versailles  in  1787.  He  becatne  director  of  the 
French  school  of  painting  at  Rome  in  1840.  Among  his 
works  we  may  name  "  The  Sack  of  Rome  by  the  Con- 
stable de  Bourbon,"  and  "  Christ  calling  Little  Children," 
for  which,  at  the  Universal  Exposition  of  1855,  he  gained 
a  medal  of  the  first  class. 

Schnitzler,  shnlts'ler,  (Jean  Henri,)  a  litterateur, 
born  at  Strasbourg  in  1802.  He  published,  besides 
other  historical  and  statistical  works,  "  General  Statistics 
of  the  Empire  of  Russia,"  (1829,)  "General,  Methodi- 
cal, and  Complete  Statistics  of  France,"  (4  vols.,  1846,) 
and  "Ancient  and  Modern  Russia,"  (1854.) 

Schnorr,  shnoR,  (Ludwig  Ferdinand,)  an  artist,  a 
brother  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1789. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f  Jr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SCHNORR 


^975 


SCHOMBERG 


He  is  chiefly  known  from  his  illustrations  of  Goethe's 
"  Faust"  in  the  Belvedere  Gallery  at  Vienna.  Died  in 
1853. 

Schnorr  von  Karolsfeld,  shnoR  fon  ki'rols-fSlt^ 
(Julius,)  an  eminent  painter,  son  of  Veit  Hans,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1794.  After  studying  for 
a  time  at  Vienna,  he  visited  Rome  in  1818,  and  durhig 
his  residence  there  executed  the  frescos  in  the  Villa 
Massimi  in  conjunction  with  Cornelius  and  Overbeck ; 
he  also  painted  a  "  Madonna  and  Child,"  "  The  Marriage 
in  Cana,"  "The  Flight  into  Egypt,"  and  other  oil-pic- 
tures of  great  excellence.  In  1827  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  historical  painting  in  the  Academy  of  Arts 
at  Munich,  and  was  commissioned  by  Ludwig,  afterwards 
King  of  Bavaria,  to  decorate  the  new  palace  with  frescos 
illustrating  the  poem  of  the  "  Nibelungen."  His  next 
productions  were  a  series  of  paintings  in  encaustic  in 
the  Fest-Saalbau,  representing  events  from  the  history 
of  Charlemagne,  Frederick  Barbarossa,  and  Rudolph 
of  Habsburg,  He  became  in  1846  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  and  director  of  the  Picture- 
Gallery  at  Dresden.  Schnorr  also  executed  a  series 
of  Bible  pictures,  ("  Die  Bibel  in  Bildern,")  which  have 
been  engraved.  He  has  been  censured  by  some  critics 
for  his  mannerism. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  (new  edition ;)  Bkockhaus, 
**  Conversations-Lexikon." 

Schnorr  von  Karolsfeld,  (Veit  Hans,)  a  German 
painter,  and  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Art  at  Leipsic, 
born  at  Schneeberg  in  1764,  was  the  author  of  "  In- 
struction in  the  Art  of  Design,"    Died  in  1841. 

Schnurrer,  shndor'rer,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  a 
German  Orientalist,  born  at  Cannstadt,  in  Wurtemberg, 
in  1742.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Tiibin- 
gen,  (1770,)  and  chancellor  of  the  university,  (1805.)  He 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "Bibliotheca  Arabica." 
Died  in  1822. 

Schoeffer.    See  Schoffer. 

Schoelcher,  shoKKer  or  sho^^KshaiR',  (Victor,)  a 
French  journalist  and  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1804, 
has  published  several  treatises  on  African  slavery  and 
in  favour  of  emancipation.  He  has  also  written  a  '*  Life 
of  Handel,"  (in  English,)  and  other  works. 

Schoell.    See  Scholl. 

Schoemann.    See  Schomann. 

Schoenbein.    See  Schonbein. 

Schoenlein.    See  Schonlein. 

Schoenning.    See  Schonning. 

Schoepf.    See  Schopf. 

Schoepflin.    See  Schopflin. 

Schoffer  or  Schoeffer,  shoFfer,  (Peter,)  celebrated- 
for  his  improvements  in  the  art  of  printing,  was  born  at 
Gernsheim,  in  Hesse-Darmstadt.  He  invented  punches 
in  types  while  in  the  employ  of  Gutenberg  and  Faust  at 
Mentz,  and  after  their  separation  became  the  partner 
of  Faust,  who  was  his  father-in-law.  Schoffer  continued 
the  business  after  the  death  of  Faust,  and  published, 
among  other  books,  a  Latin  Bible,  the  Institutes  of 
Justinian,  and  some  of  the  works  of  Saint  Thomas 
Aquinas.    Died  about  1502. 

See  A.  F.  Didot's  article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Schoffer,  (Peter,)  a  printer,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
worked  at  Worms  several  years,  (1513-20,)  removed  to 
Strasburg  about  1521,  and  to  Venice  in  1541. 

See  Helbig,  "Notice  sur  P.  Schoffer  fils,"  1846. 

S-eho'field,  (John  McAllister,)  an  American  gene- 
ral, born  in  Chautauqua  county,  New  York,  in  183 1. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point, 
where  he  graduated  in  1853,  in  the  same  class  with 
P.  H.  Sheridan  and  J.  B.  McPherson.  He  obtained  the 
rank  of  captain  in  May,  i86r,  soon  after  which  he  be- 
came the  chief  of  the  staff  of  General  Lyons,  with 
whom  he  served  in  Missouri.  In  November,  1861,  he 
was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and 
in  the  spring  of  1862  he  was  selected  to  command  the 
district  of  Missouri.  He  resigned  this  position  in  Sep- 
tember, but  was  restored  to  it  in  May,  1863,  with  the 
rank  of  major-general.  The  forces  under  his  command 
operated  with  success  in  Arkansas  after  the  capture  of 
Vicksburg,  and  took  Little  Rock.    In  February,  1864, 


Schofield  was  appointed  commander  of  the  army  of  the 
Ohio.  He  contributed  to  the  success  of  Sherman's 
brilliant  campaign  which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  At- 
lanta on  the  2d  of  September,  1864. 

About  the  end  of  October  he  was  sent  with  the 
Twenty-third  corps  to  Chattanooga,  with  orders  to  report 
to  General  Thomas  at  Nashville.  He  commanded  at 
the  battle  of  Franklin,  where  he  was  attacked  by  Hood 
on  the  30th  of  November,  and,  having  repulsed  the 
enemy,  fell  back  towards  Nashville  during  the  night.  In 
this  action  Hood  lost  1750  killed  and  3800  wounded; 
the  entire  loss  of  the  Union  army  was  2300.  This 
campaign  was  ended  by  the  decisive  victory  gained  by 
General  Thomas  near  Nashville  on  the  15th  and  i6th 
of  Decengber.  In  February,  1865,  the  State  of  North 
Carolina  was  constituted  into  a  military  department, 
of  which  General  Schofield  was  appointed  commander, 
with  instructions  to  co-operate  with  General  Sherman, 
He  captured  Fort  Anderson,  occupied  Wilmington  on 
the  22d  of  February,  and  formed  a  junction  with  Sher- 
man at  Goldsborough,  where  he  arrived  on  the  2ist  of 
March.  In  the  spring  of  1867  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  first  military  district,  which  was  created 
by  an  act  of  Congress  passed  in  March,  1867,  and  which 
comprised  the  State  of  Virginia.  He  became  secretary 
of  war  in  May,  1868,  resigned  in  March,  1869,  and  was 
then  promoted  to  be  a  major-general  of  the  regular 
army. 

Scholarius.    See  Gennadius. 

Scholefield,  sk5Kf^ld,  ?  (James,)  an  English  divine 
and  scholar,  born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1789.  He  graduated 
at  Cambridge,  and  in  1825  became  regius  professor  of 
Greek  in  that  university.  Among  his  publications  are 
an  edition  of  ^schylus  with  notes,  an  edition  of  Middle- 
ton's  "Treatise  on  the  Greek  Article,"  and  "Hints  for 
an  Improved  Translation  of  the  New  Testament,"  Died 
in  1853. 

See  "Life  of  J.  Scholefield,"  by  his  widow,  1855. 

Scholl  or  Schoell,  shol,  (Adolf,)  a  German  scholar, 
born  at  Briinn  in  1805,  became  professor  of  archaeology 
at  Halle,  in  1842.  He  published  a  translation  of  Hero- 
dotus, and  of  the  "  Ajax"  of  Sophocles,  and  has  written 
several  critical  essays. 

Scholl  or  Schoell,  (Maximilian  Samson  Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  historian  and  publicist,  born  in  the 
duchy  of  Saarbriick  in  1766.  He  was  Prussian  secre- 
tary of  legation  at  Paris,  (1816-18,)  and  became  privy 
councillor  at  Berlin  in  1819.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  Roman  Literature,"  in 
French,  (Paris,  4  vols.,  1815,)  a  "  History  of  Greek  Lit- 
erature from  its  Origin,"  etc.,  ("Histoire  de  la  Littera- 
ture  Grecque  profane  depuis  son  Origine  jusqu'a  la  Prise 
de  Constantinople,"  8  vols.,  1823-25,)  and  "A  Course 
of  History  of  the  European  States  to  1789,"  (46  vols., 
1830-34,)  which  is  commended  as  accurate  and  impartial. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1833. 

See  PiHAN  DE  i.A  Forest,  "  Essai  stir  la  Vie  de  Schoell,"  1834; 
"Biographie  F.  Schoell's."  Leipsic,  1821  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale  ;"  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Scholz,  sholts,  (Johann  Martin  Augustin,)  a  Ger- 
man Catholic  theologian  and  scholar,  born  near  Breslau 
in  1794.  He  visited  Palestine  and  Syria  in  1821,  and 
published  in  1822  an  account  of  his  journey.  He  became 
professor  of  theology  at  Bonn  in  1823.  Among  his 
other  works  we  may  name  his  "Novum  Testamentum 
Graece,"  (2  vols.,  1830,)  and  "  Manual  of  Biblical  Archae- 
ology," (1834.)    Died  in  1853. 

Schomann  or  Schoemann,  sho'min,  (  Georg 
Friedrich,)  a  German  philologist,  born  at  Stralsund 
in  1793,  became  professor  of  ancient  literature  and  elo- 
quence at  Greifswalde.  He  has  published  a  number  of 
critical  essays  (in  Latin)  on  the  Greek  classics. 

Schomberg,  shom'berg,  (Alexander  Crowcher,) 
an  English  divine,  born  in  1756,  published  a  "Chrono- 
logical View  of  the  Roman  Laws,"  and  other  similar 
works.    Died  in  1792. 

Schomberg,  (Isaac,)  an  English  naval  officer, 
served  under  Admiral  Rodney  in  the  American  war, 
and  subsequently  under  Lord  Howe  in  1794.  He  was 
the  author  of  "Naval  Chronology,"  (5  vols.)  Died 
in  1813. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  o,  H,  Yi^  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this,    (2i^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCHOMBERG  1976  SCHOONJJNS 


Schomberg,  de,  de  shom'berg  or  deh  sh6N'baiR', 
(Charles,)  Due  d'Halluin,  a  marshal  of  France,  born 
in  1601,  was  a  son  of  Henry,  noticed  below.  He  gained 
in  September,  1637,  a  victory  over  the  Spaniards  at 
Lucate.    Died  in  1656. 

Schomberg,  de,  Duchess.    See  Hautefort,  d'. 

Schomberg,  shom'berg,  de,  (Fr.  pron.  deh  shiw'- 
baiR',]  (Henri,)  Count,  an  eminent  French  general 
and  statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1575,  (or,  as  some  say, 
in  1583,)  was  a  son  of  the  following.  He  was  ap- 
pointed superintendent  of  the  finances  in  1619,  soon 
after  which  he  gained  victories  over  the  Huguenots. 
He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1625,  repulsed  the 
English  at  the  Isle  of  Rhe  in  1627,  and  defeated  the 
insurgents  under  Montmorency  at  Castelnaudai^  in  1632. 
Died  in  1632. 

See  Bachot,  "Tombeau  du  Marechal  de  Schomberg,"  1633;  De 
CouRCEi.LES,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Fraiigais  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Schom'berg,  von,  [Ger.  pron.  fon  shom'blRG,]  (Cas- 
par,) a  German  general,  born  in  Saxony  in  1540.  He 
entered  the  service  of  the  French  king,  and  fought 
against  the  Huguenots  about  1567-75.  In  1597  Schom- 
berg and  De  Thou  prepared  the  bases  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes.    Died  in  1599. 

Schomberg,  von,  fon  shom'bgRG,  (Friedrich  Ar- 
mand  Hermann,)  a  celebrated  Protestant  military 
commander,  was  born  at  Heidelberg  in  1616.  Having 
served  in  the  Swedish  army  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war, 
he  fought  successively  in  the  armies  of  the  Netherlands, 
France,  and  Portugal,  and  attained  the  rank  of  marshal 
of  France  in  1675.  He  was  driven  from  France  by  per- 
secution in  1685.  In  1688  he  accompanied  William, 
Prince  of  Orange,  to  England,  and,  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  forces  in  Ireland,  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
the  Boyne,  in  1690.  "  He  was  generally  esteemed,"  says 
Macaulay,  *'  the  greatest  living  master  of  the  art  of  war. 
His  rectitude  and  piety,  tried  by  strong  temptations  and 
never  found  wanting,  commanded  general  respect  and 
confidence.  Though  a  Protestant,  he  had  been  during 
many  years  in  the  service  of  Louis,  and  had,  in  spite  of 
the  ill  offices  of  the  Jesuits,  extorted  from  his  employer, 
by  a  series  of  great  actions,  the  staff  of  marshal  of 
France."    ("  History  of  England.") 

See  Kazner,  "  Leben  F.  von  Schomberg,"  2  vols.,  1789  ;  "  Abrege 
de  la  Viede  F.  von  Schomberg,"  by  Beauchateau,  1690  ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Schomburgk,  shom'booRk,  (Otto,)  a  German  writer, 
born  about  1810,  was  a  brother  of  Sir  Robert  Hermann, 
noticed  below.  He  translated  into  German  his  brother's 
"Description  of  British  Guiana,"    Died  in  1857. 

Schomburgk,  shom'burk,  [Ger.  pron.  shom'bdoRk,] 
(Sir  Robert  Hermann,)  a  celebrated  German  traveller, 
born  at  Freiburg  in  1804.  Having  been  sent  in  1835 
by  the  Geographical  Society  of  London  to  explore  the 
interior  of  Guiana,  he  discovered  the  magnificent  water- 
lily  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  the  Victoria  Regia. 
He  published,  after  his  return,  a  "  Description  of  British 
Guiana,"  which  was  followed  in  1847  by  a  "  History  of 
Barbadoes."  Appointed  in  1848  British  consul  to  Saint 
Domingo,  he  contributed  to  the  Journal  of  the  Geo- 
graphical Society  a  number  of  valuable  articles  on  the 
physical  geography  of  that  island.  Schomburgk  was 
elected  a  member  of  various  learned  societies  in  Europe, 
created  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honour,  and  knight 
of  the  Prussian  order  of  the  Red  Eagle,  and  obtained 
other  similar  distinctions.  Died  in  1865.  The  plant 
called  Schomburgkia  Orchida  was  named  in  his  honour. 

Schon  or  Schoen,  shon,  or  Schongauer,  shon'- 
gow'er,  (Martin,)  an  eminent  German  painter,  was  a 
native  of  Kolmbach  or  Ulm,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  pupil  of  Franz  Stoss.  He  was  called  BuoN  Mar- 
TINO  by  the  Italians,  and  was  a  friend  of  Pietro  Perugino. 
His  principal  works  are  at  Colmar,  Vienna,  Munich,  and 
Nuremberg.  His  "  Madonna,"  in  the  minster  at  Colmar, 
ranks  among  the  most  admirable  productions  of  early 
German  art.  He  also  executed  a  number  of  excellent 
engravings.    Died  in  1488. 

See  Galichon,  "Martin  Schongauer,"  1859;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Schonaeus.    See  Schoon. 


Schonbein  or  Schoenbein,  shon'bin,  (Christian 
Friedrich,)  a  German  chemist,  and  the  inventor  of 
gun-cotton,  born  at  Mitzingen  in  1799.  He  became  pro- 
fessor at  the  University  of  Basle  in  1828.  In  1839  he 
discovered  ozone,  and  subsequently  made  the  discovery 
of  nitro-saccharin  and  nitro-fibrin  or  gun-cotton.  He 
published  "  Contributions  to  Physical  Chemistry,"  (1844,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  September,  1868. 

See  "Smithsonian  Report"  for  1868. 

Schoner,  sho'ner,  (Johann,)  a  German  mathema- 
tician and  astronomer,  born  at  Carlstadt  in  1477,  was 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Nuremberg.    Died  in  1547. 

Schongauer.    See  Schon. 

Schoning  or  Schoening,  sho'ning,  (Gerrard,)  a 
Norwegian  scholar,  born  in  Nordland  in  1722,  became 
professor  of  history  and  eloquence  at  Sorbe.  Died  in 
1780. 

Schonlein  or  Schoenlein,  shon'lTn,  (Johann 
LuKAS,)  an  eminent  German  physician,  born  at  Bam- 
berg in  1793.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  pathology 
and  therapeutics  at  Berlin  in  1840,  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation  by  his  lectures. 

See  G.  W.  Schari.au,  "Dr.  Schonlein  und  sein  Anhang,"  1843; 
Richter,  "Dr.  Schonlein  und  sein  Verhaltniss  zur  neuern  Heil- 
kunde,"  etc.,  1843. 

Schoockius,  sKo'ke-us,  or  Schoock,  sKok,  (Mar- 
tin,) born  at  Utrecht  in  1614,  was  professor  of  languages, 
history,  etc.  in  his  native  city,  and  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Oder.  He  published  several  critical  and  historical 
works.    Died  in  1669. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Schoolcraft,  skool'krift,  (Henry  Rowe,)  LL.D.,  a 
distinguished  American  traveller,  ethnologist,  and  scien- 
tific writer,  born  near  Albany,  New  York,  in  1793.  In 
1818  he  made  a  geological  survey  of  Missouri  and 
Arkansas,  and  published  in  1819  his  "  View  of  the  Lead- 
Mines  of  Missouri,"  etc.  In  1820,  as  geologist,  he  accom- 
panied General  Cass  on  his  expedition  to  the  Lake 
Superior  copper-region,  of  which  he  published  a  narra- 
tive in  1821.  Being  appointed  in  1822  agent  for  Indian 
affairs,  he  resided  several  years  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake 
Superior,  and  in  1832,  while  on  an  embassy  to  some 
Indian  tribes  near  the  head-waters  of  the  Mississippi, 
discovered  the  sources  of  that  river  in  the  Itasca  Lake. 
An  account  of  this  tour  was  published,  entitled  a  "  Nar- 
rative of  an  Expedition  to  Itasca  Lake,"  etc.,  (1834.)  In 
1828  he  founded  the  Michigan  Historical  Society,  of 
which  he  was  afterwards  elected  president.  Among  his 
numerous  and  valuable  works  we  may  name  "Notes 
on  the  Iroquois,  or  Contributions  to  American  History, 
Antiquities,  and  General  Ethnology,"  (1848,)  "  Algic 
Researches,"  etc.,  "  Personal  Memoirs  of  a  Residence 
of  Thirty  Years  with  the  Indian  Tribes  on  the  Ameri- 
can Frontiers,"  (1853,)  and  "The  Myth  of  Hiawatha,  and 
other  Oral  Legends  of  the  North  American  Indians." 
He  married  about  1823  a  daughter  of  John  Johnston, 
of  Saulte  Sainte-Marie.  She  was  the  granddaughter  of 
an  Indian  chief    Died  in  1864. 

"Mr.  Schoolcraft's  ethnological  writings,"  says  R.  W. 
Griswold,  "are  among  the  most  important  contributions 
that  have  been  made  to  the  literature  of  this  country.  .  .  . 
His  works  abound  in  materials  for  the  future  artist  and 
man  of  letters,  and  will  on  this  account  continue  to  be 
read  when  the  greater  portion  of  the  popular  literature 
of  the  day  is  forgotten." 

See  R.  W.  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America,"  "North 
American  Review"  for  July,  1822,  and  October,  1839. 

Schoolcraft,  (L.-vurence,)  Colonel,  an  American 
officer,  born  in  1760,  was  the,  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  fought  in  the  Revolutionary  war.  It  is  stated  that 
the  original  family  name  was  Calcraft.  Died  at  Verona, 
New  York,  in  1840. 

Schoon,  van,  vtn  sKon,  [Lat.  Schon^'us,]  (Corne- 
lius,) a  Dutch  dramatist  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Gouda 
about  1540.  He  published  "  Carminum  Libellus," 
(1570,)  and  "Terentius  Christianus,"  (1614.)  The  latter 
is  a  collection  of  dramas  in  imitation  of  Terence.  Died 
in  1611. 

Schoonjans,  sKon'ySns,  (Anthony,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1650.  He  worked  in 
Vienna  and  England.    Died  in  Vienna  in  1726. 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


SCHOOTEN 


1977 


SCHRODER 


Schooten,  sKo'ten,  (Frans,)  a  Dutch  mathematician, 
and  professor  of  mathematics  at  Leyden.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  "  Principia  Matheseos,"  and  "  Ma- 
thematical Exercises."    Died  in  1659. 

Schopenhauer,  sho'pen-how'er,  (Arthur,)  a  cele- 
brated pessimist  philosopher  of  Germany,  a  son  of 
Johanna,  mentioned  below,  was  born  at  Dantzic  in  1788. 
He  published  "The  World  as  Will  and  Appearance 
or  Representation,"  ("Die  Welt  als  Wille  und  Vor- 
stellung,"  1819,)  "The  Two  Ground-Problems  of  Ethics," 
(1841,)  "On  the  Freedom  of  the  Will,"  and  a  collection 
of  essays  entitled  "  Parerga  und  Paralipomena,"  (1851.) 
According  to  Schopenhauer,  Will  is  the  one  reality  in  the 
universe,  all  else  is  mere  appearance.  He  taught,  among 
other  things,  that  the  world  is  essentially  and  radically 
evil.    Died  in  i860. 

See  GwiNNER,  "Schopenhauer's  Leben  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  February,  1843. 

Schopenhauer,  (Johanna,)  a  German  authoress, 
born  at  Dantzic  in  1770,  published  a  number  of  tales 
and  romances,  the  most  popular  of  which  are  "  Gabri- 
ele,"  "  Die  Tante,"  ("  The  Aunt,")  and  "  Sidonia."  Died 
in  1849. 

See  "Youthful  Life  and  Pictures  of  Travel;  Autobiography  of 
Madame  Schopenhauer." 

Schopf  or  Schoepf,  shopf,  (Alrin,)  a  general,  born 
in  Hungary  about  1822.  He  fought  against  Austria  in 
1848  and  1849,  after  which  he  emigrated  to  the  United 
States.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  1861, 
and  defeated  a  body  of  insurgents  at  Camp  Wild-Cat, 
Kentucky,  October  21  of  that  year. 

Schopflin  or  Schoepflin,  shop'fleen,  (Johann 
Daniel,)  a  German  historian,  born  at  Sulzburg  in  1694, 
became  professor  of  history  and  eloquence  at  Strasburg, 
(1720.)  Pie  was  the  author  of  "  Alsatia  Illustrata,"  (2 
vols.,  1751-61,)  and  other  historical  works.  Died  in  1771. 
"Without  any  close  contact,"  says  Goethe,  "he  had 
had  a  deep  influence  on  me.  .  .  .  He  was  one  of  those 
happy  persons  who  are  able  to  unite  the  past  and  the 
present,  and  know  how  to  knit  the  interests  of  life  and 
historical  knowledge  together.  .  .  .  He  came  into  con- 
tact with  all  the  scholars  of  his  time  ;  he  entertained 
princes;  he  gained  the  confidence  of  statesmen,  elabo- 
rated for  them  the  most  profound  deductions,  and  thus 
found  everywhere  a  theatre  for  his  talents."  ("Auto- 
biography," vol.  ii.  p.  24.) 

See  Ring,  "Vita  J.  D.  Schoepflini,"  1764;  Lob'^trin,  "Leben 
J.  D.  Schopflins,"  1776;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Schopin  or  Chopin,  sho'piN',  (Henri  Fr^d^ric,) 
a  painter,  of  French  extraction,  born  at  Lubeck  in  1804, 
was  a  pupil  of  Baron  Gros.  His  works  are  principally 
historical  pictures. 

Schopp.    See  Scioppius. 

Schoppe,  shop'peh,  (Amalta  Emma,)  born  on  the 
island  of  Femern,  on  the  coast  of  Holstein,  in  1791, 
published  romances,  tales,  and  historical  works.  Died 
in  1858. 

Schoreel,  sKo-raK,  ?  Scoorel,  or  Schorel,  sKo'rel, 
(Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  near  Alkmaar  in  1495. 
Having  previously  visited  Palestine,  he  spent  several 
years  at  Rome  in  studying  the  works  of  the  Italian 
masters.  His  pictures  enjoy  a  high  reputation,  but  they 
are  very  rare,  owing  to  the  destruction  of  many  of  them 
by  the  Iconoclasts' in  the  disturbances  of  1566.  Died 
in  1562. 

Schorel.    See  Schoreel. 

Schorn,  von,  fon  shoRn,  (Johann  Karl  Ludw^ig,) 
a  German  writer  upon  art,  born  in  Franconia  in  1793, 
became  professor  of  aesthetics  and  the  history  of  art  at 
Munich.    Died  in  1842. 

Schorn,  von,  (Karl,)  a  historical  painter,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1802. 

Schotanus,  sKo-ti'mis,  (Christian,)  a  Dutch  divine, 
born  in  Friesland  in  1603,  became  professor  of  Greek  and 
ecclesiastical  history  at  Franeker.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "History  of  Friesland  down  to  1558,"  and  several 
other  works.    Died  in  167 1. 

Schott,  sKot,  (.\ndreas,)  an  eminent  Dutch  scholar, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1552.  He  studied  at  Louvain,  and 
subsequently  visited  Paris  and  Spain.  He  was  appointed 
in  1584  professor  of  Greek  and  rhetoric  at  Saragossa, 


and,  having  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits,  was  afterwards 
invited  to  fill  the  chair  of  rhetoric  in  the  Jesuits'  College 
at  Rome.  His  works  are  very  numerous,  and  display 
profound  learning ;  among  the  most  esteemed  we  may 
name  "  Hispania  Illustrata,"  etc.,  a  collection  of  the  his- 
torians of  Spain,  Portugal,  India,  etc.,  (4  vols.,  1603-08,) 
"Hispania  Bibliotheca,"  (1608,)  being  an  account  of  the 
libraries  and  state  of  letters  in  Spain,  "  Selecta  Variorum 
Commentaria  in  Orationes  Ciceronis,"  (3  vols.,  1621,) 
and  "  Adagia  sive  Proverbia  Graecorum  ex  Zenobio," 
etc.  He  also  edited  the  works  of  Pomponius  Mela, 
Saint  Basil,  and  other  classics.    Died  in  1629. 

See  Nic^RON,  "  Memoires  ;"  F^lix  van  Hulst,  "A.  Schott," 
1847;  FOPPENS,  "Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Schott,  shot,  (Heinrich  August,)  a  learned  writer 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1780,  became  successively  professor 
of  philosophy  and  theology  in  his  native  city,  and  of 
theology  at  Wittenberg  ai\d  Jena.    Died  in  1835. 

Schott,  (Kaspar,)  a  German  Jesuit  and  experimental 
philosopher,  born  in  1608.  He  published  a  numbi^r  of 
scientific  works,  in  Latin.    Died  in  1666. 

Schott,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  Orientalist,  born  at 
Mentz  in  1807. 

Schottgen  or  Schoettgen,  shot'Gen  or  shot'gen, 
(Christian,)  a  German  philologist,  born  in  Saxony  in 
1687,  published  "  Horae  Hebraicae."    Died  in  1751. 

SchouvalofF.    See  Shoovalof. 

Schouw,  skow,  (Joachim  Fredric,)  a  Danish  botan- 
ist, born  at  Copenhagen  in  1789.  He  was  appointed  in 
1821  professor  of  botany  in  his  native  city.  In  1835  he 
represented  the  University  in  the  Danish  Asseml^ly,  of 
which  he  was  afterwards  president.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Elements  of  a  Universal  Geography  of  Plants," 
(1822,)  "  Delineations  of  Nature,"  (1839,)  "Earth,  Plants, 
and  Man,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1852. 

Schrader,  shR§.Mer,  (Heinrich  Adolf,)  a  German 
physician,  botanist,  and  writer,  born  near  Hildesheim  in 
1761  ;  died  in  1836. 

Schrader,  (Heinrich  Eduard  Siegfried.)  a  Ger- 
man jurist  and  writer  on  law,  was  born  at  Hildesheim 
in  1779 ;  died  in  i860. 

Schrader,  (Julius,)  a  German  painter,  born  at  Berlin 
in  1815.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "The  Death 
of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,"  "  The  Temptation,"  and  "  Milton 
Dictating  to  his  Daughter." 

Schramm,  shR3.m,  (Jean  Paul  Adam,)  Comte,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Arras  in  1789.  He  commanded 
an  army  in  Algeria  in  1840,  was  minister  of  war  from  Oc- 
tober to  December,  1850,  and  became  a  senator  in  1852. 

Schraudolph,  shRow'dolf,  (Johann,)  a  German  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Obersdorf  in  1808.  He  painted 
a  number  of  frescos  at  Munich. 

Schreber,  von,  fon  shRa'ber,  (Johann  Christian 
Daniel,)  a  German  naturalist,  born  in  Thuringia  in 
1739,  studied  under  Linnaeus  at  Upsal.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  and  botany  at  Erlangen  in  1769. 
Among  his  works  is  a  "Description  of  the  Grasses,"  (in 
German,  1769-74.)    Died  in  1810. 

Schreiber,  shRi'ber,  (Aloys  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
historian  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  the  grand 
duchy  of  Baden  in  1763  ;  died  in  1841. 

Schreiber,  (Heinrich,)  a  theological  writer,  born  at 
Fribourg,  in  Belgium,  in  1793,  was  appointed  in  1826 
professor  of  moral  theology  in  his  native  city. 

Schrevel.    See  SchrWelius. 

Schrevelius,  skre-vee'le-us,  [Dutch  pron.  sKRk-va'- 
le-us,]  originally  Schrevel,  sKRa'vel,  (Cornelis,)  a 
distinguished  classical  scholar,  born  at  Haarlem,  in  Hol- 
land, about  161 5,  was  rector  of  a  school  at  Leyden.  His 
most  important  work  is  his  "Lexicon  Manuale  Grasco- 
Latinum,"  (1645,)  which  has  passed  through  many 
editions.  He  also  published  editions  of  numerous  Latin 
classics.    Died  about  1665. 

Schrockh  or  Schroeckh,  shRok,  (Johann  Mat- 
thias,) a  German  scholar,  born  at  Vienna  in  1733,  was 
a  contributor  to  the  "Acta  Eruditorum,"  and  wrote  two 
valuable  works  on  ecclesiastical  history.    Died  in  1808. 

Schroder  or  Schroeder,  shRo'der,  (Friedrich 
Ludwig,)  a  celebrated  German  actor  and  dramatist,  born 
at  Schwerin  in  1744.  He  wrote  a  number  of  comedies, 
and  made  translations  from  Shakspeare,  whose  works 


€  as    9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCHRODER  1978  SCHULTZE 


he  contributed  to  make  popular  in  Germany.  Died  in 
1816. 

See  Meyer,  "  F.  L.  Schroder,"  1819;  Lobner,  "  F.  L.  Schroder, 
biografisk  Skizze,"  1847. 

Schroder  or  Schroeder,  (Johann  Joachim,)  a 
German  Orientalist,  born  in  Hesse-Cassel  in  1680.  He 
visited  Armenia,  and  published,  after  his  return,  his 
"Thesaurus  Linguae  Armenicae."    Died  in  1756. 

Schroder  or  Schroeder,  (Sophie,)  a  German 
actress,  born  at  Paderborn  in  1781,  attained  the  highest 
reputation  in  her  profession,  particularly  in  tragic  parts. 
Her  daughter,  Wilhelmine  Schroder-Devrient,  was  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  vocalists  of  Germany,  Sophie 
died  about  1856. 

Schroder-Devrient,  (d&v're-6N',)  (Wilhelmine,)  a 
popular  singer,  a  daughter  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Hamburg  in  1805.  She  was  married  in  1823  to  Karl 
August  Uevrient,  an  actor.  She  performed  in  Paris, 
London,  and  Saint  Petersburg.    Died  in  i860. 

Schroderus.    See  Skytie. 

Schrodter  or  Schroedter,  shRot'ter,  (Adolf,)  a 
German  comic  painter,  born  at  Sclnvedt  in  1805. 
Schroeckh.    See  Schrockh. 
Schroeder.    See  Schroder. 

Schroter  or  Schroeter,  shRo'ter,  (Christoph 
Gottlieb,)  the  inventor  of  the  piano-forte,  was  born  at 
Hohenstein,  in  Saxony,  in  1699.  became  organist 

at  Minden,  and  afterwards  at  Nordhausen,  where  he  died 
in  1782. 

Schroter  or  Schroeter,  (Johann  Hieronymus,) 
a  German  astronomer,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1745.  He  con- 
structed a  telescope  which  Lalande  declared  one  of  the 
best  that  had  been  made,  and  published  several  astro- 
nomical works.    Died  in  1816. 

Schryver,  sKrl'ver,  [Lat.  Scrive'rius,]  (Peter,)  a 
Dutch  writer,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1576,  published  a 
number  of  poems  and  critical  treatises,  in  Latin ;  also 
"  Antiquitatum  Batavicarum  Tabularium,"  (1609.)  Died 
in  1660. 

Schubart,  shoo'biRt,  (Christian  Friedrich  Dan- 
iel,) a  German  litterateur  ^.wA  poet,  born  in  1739,  founded 
in  1774  a  literary  and  political  journal,  entitled  the 
"  Deutsche  Chronik."  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Hymn 
to  Frederick  the  Great."    Died  in  1791. 

See  David  F.  Strauss,  "Schiibart's  Leben  in  seinen  Briefen," 
1849;  L.  A.  Schubart,  "  C.  F.  D.  Schubart's  Charakter,"  1789. 

Schubart  von  Kleefeld,  shoo^b^Rt  fon  kla'fglt, 
(Johann  Christian,)  a  German  agriculturist,  born  at 
Zeitz,  in  Prussia,  in  1734;  died  in  1787. 

See  RocKSTROH,  "J.  C.  Schubart  von  Kleefeld,"  1846. 

Schubert,  shoo'b^Rt,  (Franz,)  an  eminent  German 
composer,  born  at  Vienna  in  1797.  He  became  at  an 
early  age  one  of  the  singers  of  the  court  chapel,  and 
was  subsequently  instructed  in  music  by  Ruziczka  and 
Salieri.  He  exercised  himself  in  almost  every  species 
of  musical  composition  ;  but  his  reputation  rests  chiefly 
on  his  songs  and  ballads,  which  are  ranked  among  the 
most  exquisite  productions  of  the  kind.    Died  in  1828. 

See  "  Franz  Schubert:  a  Musical  Biography,"  by  Dr.  Kreissle 
VON  Hei.lborn,  London,  1866. 

Schubert,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German  writer 
on  history  and  statistics,  was  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1799. 

Schubert,  von,  fon  shoo'b^Rt,  (Friedrich  Theo- 
DOR,)  a  German  astronomer,  born  in  1758.  He  removed 
to  Saint  Petersburg  about  1785,  and  became  in  1805 
director  of  the  observatory  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  that  capital.  In  1816  he  was  appointed  councillor 
of  state  by  the  Czar  of  Russia.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"Treatise  on  Theoretical  Astronomy,"  (in  German,  3 
vols.,  1798.)    Died  in  1825. 

Schubert,  von,  (Gotthilf  Heinrich,)  a  German 
naturalist  and  philosophical  writer,  born  at  Hohenstein, 
in  Saxony,  in  1780.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Jena, 
and  became  professor  of  natural  science  at  Erlangen. 
He  published  "Views  of  the  Night  Side  of  Natural 
Science,"  (1808,)  "History  of  the  Soul,"  (1830,)  and 
Manuals  of  Natural  History,  Mineralogy,  etc.  Died  in 
i860. 

Schiicking  or  Schuecking,  shiik'king,  (Christoph 
Bernhard  Leven,)  a  German  litteratetir,  born  in  1814, 
has  published  poems,  dramas,  and  romances. 


Schuetz.    See  Schutz. 

Schulenburg,  von,  fon  shoo'len-booRc',  or  Schu- 
lemberg,  shoo^em-bgRc',  (Adolf  Friedrich,)  Count, 
a  Prussian  general,  born  at  Wolfenbiittel  in  1685,  was  a 
nephew  of  Johann  Matthias,  noticed  below.  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Mollwitz,  where  he  commanded 
the  cavalry,  in  April,  1741. 

Schulenburg,  Schulenburg,  or  Schulembourg, 
von,  (Johann  Matthias,)  Count,  a  Prussian  general, 
born  at  Magdeburg  in  1661,  served  in  the  Polish  wars 
under  Sobieski,  and  subsequently  became  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Venetian  army,  and  defended  Corfu 
against  the  Turks.    Died  about  1745. 

See  "Eminent  Soldiers  of  the  Last  Four  Centuries,"  by  J. 
Mitchell,  1865  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1840. 

Schiller.    See  Sabinus,  (Georg.) 

Schuler,  shoo'ler,  (Charles  Auguste,)  an  engraver, 
born  at  Strasbourg  in  1804;  died  in  1859. 

Schultens,  sKiiKtens,  (Albert,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
Orientalist  and  theologian,  born  at  Groningen  in  1686. 
He  was  ordained  a  minister  in  1708,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  and  other  Oriental  languages  at  Ley- 
den  about  1720.  He  filled  this  chair  until  his  death. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Hebrew  Roots," 
("Origines  Hebraese,"  2  vols.,  1724-38,)  "Older  Monu- 
ments of  Arabia,"  ("  Monumenta  vetustiora  Arabiae," 
1740,)  and  a  "Life  of  Saladin,"  in  Arabic  and  Latin, 
(1755.)  in  1750. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Schultens,  (Hendrik  Albert,)  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Herborn  in  1749.  He  studied 
the  classics  and  the  Oriental  tongues  at  Leyden,  and 
afterwards  spent  some  time  in  England.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1778  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages  at 
Leyden,  and  became  rector  of  the  university  in  1787. 
He  published  "On  the  Diligence  of  the  Belgians  in  cul- 
tivating Arabic  Literature,"  ("De  Studio  j^elgarum  in 
Literis  Arabicis  Excolendis,"  1779,)  "Part  of  the  Arabic 
Proverbs  of  Meidan,  with  Notes,"  ("Meidanii  Prover- 
bioruin  Arabicorum  Pars,  Latine,  cum  Notis,"  1795,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1793. 

See  F.  T.  Rinck,  "  H.  A.  Schultens,"  1795  ;  Kantelaar,  "  Lof- 
rede  op  H.  A.  Schuhens,"  1794. 

Schultens,  (Jan  Jacob,)  an  Orientalist,  born  at 
Franeker  in  17 16,  was  a  son  of  Albert,  and  the  father 
of  the  preceding.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  professor 
at  Leyden.    Died  in  1778. 

Schultet,  shdoKtgt,  jLat.  Sculte'tus,]  (Abraham,) 
a  German  Protestant  divine,  born  in  Silesia  in  1556  or 
1566,  became  professor  of  theology  at  Heidelberg.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  moral  and  theological  works. 
Died  in  1625. 

Schulting,  sKuKting,  (Antonius,)  a  Dutch  jurist  and 
legal  writer,  born  at  Nymwegen  in  1659.  In  17 13  he  was 
associated  with  Noodt  as  professor  of  law  at  Leyden. 
His  greatest  work  is  entitled  "Jurisprudence  before  the 
Time  of  Justinian,"  ("  Jurisprudentia  Vetus  ante-Justi- 
nianea.")    Died  in  1734. 

Schulting,  (Cornelius,)  a  Dutch  theologian,  born 
at  Steenwyck  about  1540.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Bibliotheca  Catholica  contra  Theologiam  Cal* 
vinianam,"  (2  vols.,  1602.)    Died  in  1604. 

Schultz,  shdolts,  [Lat.  Sculte'tus,]  (Bartholo- 
MAUS,)  a  German  astronomer,  born  at  Gorlitz  in  1540, 
contributed  to  the  reform  of  the  calendar.   Died  in  1614. 

Schultz,  (David,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian, 
born  near  Freistadt  in  1779.  He  published  several 
commentaries  on  the  Scriptures.    Died  in  1854. 

Schultz,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  novelist  and  his- 
torical writer,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1762  ;  died  in  1798. 

Schultz-Schultzenstein,  shoolts-shdolt'sen-stli/, 
(Karl  Heinrich,)  a  German  physiologist,  born  at  Alt 
Ruppin  in  1798.  He  studied  at  Berlin,  where  he  became 
professor  of  medicine  in  1833.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  a  treatise  (in  French)  "  On  the  Circulation  and 
Lactiferous  Vessels  in  Plants,"  (1839,)  and  "Discovery 
of  the  True  Nourishment  of  Plants."  He  has  also 
published  the  "Universal  Doctrine  of  Disease,"  (1844,) 
and  other  valuable  medical  treatises. 

Schultze,  slidolt'seh,  (Johxnn  Abraham  Peter,) 
a  German  composer,  born  at  Liineburg  in  1747.  His 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  il,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ia,  y, 


SCHULZ 


1979 


SCHWANTHALER 


works  include  oratorios,  hymns,  and  songs.  His  ballad 
"Am  Rhein"  enjoys  great  popularity,    l3ied  in  1800. 

Schulz,  shdolts,  (WiLHELM,)  a  German  political 
writer,  born  at  Darmstadt  in  1797. 

Schulze  or  Schultze,  shoolt'seh,  (Ernst,)  a  Ger- 
man poet,  born  at  Celle  in  1789.  While  a  student  at 
Gottingen,  he  published  his  narrative  poem  of  "  Psyche," 
and  subsequently  "  Cecilia,  a  Romantic  Poem,  in  Twenty 
Cantos."  His  "  Enchanted  Rose"  ("  Die  bezauberte 
Rose,"  1818)  is  esteemed  his  master-piece,  and  has 
taken  its  place  among  German  classics.  It  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Caroline  von  Crespigny.  He  died 
in  1817.  A  collection  of  his  works,  with  a  biography 
prefixed,  was  published  in  1822  by  his  friend  Bouterwek. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1827. 

Schulze,  (Friedrich  August,)  a  German  novelist 
and  poet,  born  at  Dresden  in  1770,  assumed  the  syno- 
nym of  Friedrich  Laun.    Died  in  1849. 

Schulze,  (Friedrich  Gottlob,)  a  German  econo- 
mist, born  near  Meissen  in  1795.  He  published  several 
works  on  political  economy.    Died  in  i860. 

Schulze,  (Gottlob  Ernst,)  a  German  philosopher, 
born  at  Heldrungen,  in  Thuringia,  in  1761,  published 
several  treatises  against  the  systems  of  Kant  and  Rein- 
hold.    Died  in  1833. 

Schulze,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  scholar,  and  reformer 
in  education,  born  in  1786.  He  entered  the  Prussian 
civil  service,  and  became  privy  councillor.  He  directed 
for  many  years,  ending  in  1840,  the  administration  of 
the  Prussian  colleges,  universities,  and  public  libraries, 
and  was  the  principal  manager  of  great  scientific  enter- 
prises and  voyages  of  exploration.  In  these  services 
he  displayed  wisdom  and  great  activity. 

Schulze,  (JoHANN  Heinrich,)  a  German  physician 
and  anatomist,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Magdeburg  in  1687, 
wrote  "  Historia  Medicinae  ad  Annum  Romae  535," 
(1728,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1745. 

Schumacher,  shoo'm^K'er,  (Christian  Andreas,) 
a  Danish  mathematician  and  natural  philosopher,  born 
in  Seeland  in  1810,  is  a  nephew  of  Heinrich  Christian, 
noticed  below.  He  translated  Humboldt's  Cosmos" 
into  Danish. 

Schumacher,  (Heinrich  Christian,)  an  able 
astronomer,  born  at  Bramstedt,  Holstein,  in  1780.  He 
became  professor  of  astronomy  at  Copenhagen  in  1 81 5, 
a  few  years  after  which  date  he  was  appointed  director 
of  the  Observatory  of  Altona.  He  edited  for  many 
years  a  valuable  periodical  entitled  "  Astronomische 
Nachrichten."   Died  in  1850. 

See  QuETELET,  "Notice  sur  H.  C.  Schumacher,"  1851. 

Schumann,  shoo'mSn,  (Robert,)  a  German  musician 
and  composer,  born  at  Zwickau  in  1810,  became  in  1850 
chapel-master  at  Dusseldorf.  Among  his  best  works  is 
the  oratorio  of  "  Paradise  and  the  Peri."  He  died  in 
1856.  His  wife,  Clara  Wieck,  is  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished female  pianists  of  the  time. 

Schuppen,  van,  vtn  sKiip'pen,  (Pieter,)  a  Flemish 
designer  and  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1625,  was 
a  pupil  of  Nanteuil.  He  worked  in  Paris,  where  he  died 
in  1702.  His  son  Jacques  (1670-1751)  was  a  portrait- 
painter. 

Schurmann,  von,  fon  shooR'mJn,  (Anna  Maria,)  a 
German  lady,  distinguished  for  her  talents,  learning,  and 
piety,  was  born  at  Cologne  in  1607.  She  became  a  con- 
vert to  the  doctrines  of  the  mystic  Labadie,  and  after  his 
death  retired  to  a  religious  association  near  Leeuwarden, 
where  she  died  in  1678. 

See  NicERON,  "  Memoires ;"  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Histo- 
rique;"  Schotel,  "A.  M.  von  Schurmann,"  1854. 

Schurtzfleisch,  shooRts'fllsh,  [Lat.  Sarcma'sius,] 
(Conrad  Samuel,)  a  German  scholar,  born  in  1641, 
became  professor  of  Greek  and  of  history  at  Wittenberg. 
Died  in  1708. 

Schurz,  shoorts,  (Carl,)  a  German  orator  and  gen- 
eral, born  near  Cologne  in  1829,  was  liberally  educated. 
Pie  took  part  in  the  revolutionary  movements  of  1849, 
and  when  they  were  defeated  he  went  into  exile.  About 
1852  he  emigrated  to  the  United  States,  and  settled  at 
Madison,  Wisconsin.  In  1856  he  advocated  the  election 
of  Fremont  by  public  speeches  in  the  German  language. 


He  afterwards  made  political  speeches  in  English,  and 
acquired  a  high  reputation  as  an  orator.  In  i860  he 
addressed  the  people  of  various  States  in  favour  of  the 
election  of  Lincoln.  He  was  appointed  minister  to  Spain 
in  1861,  and  brigadier-general  in  1862.  He  conmianded 
a  division  at  Chancellorsville,  May,  1863,  and  a  corps  at 
Gettysburg,  July  1-3  of  that  year.  In  1869  he  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  from  Missouri. 

Schuselka,  shoo'zel-k^,  (Franz,)  a  German  publicist, 
born  at  Budweis  in  1811,  has  written  a  number  of  politi- 
cal and  miscellaneous  works. 

Schuster,  shoo'ster,  (Ignaz,)  a  German  comic  actor 
of  great  popularity,  born  about  1780,  was  a  resident  of 
Vienna.    Died  in  1835. 

Schut,  sKiit,  (Cornelius,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Antwerp  about  1600,  was  a  pupil  of  Rubens.  He 
had  a  brilliant  imagination  and  great  facility  of  execu- 
tion.   Died  in  1649. 

Schiitz  or  Schuetz,  shuts,  (Christian  Gottfried,) 
a  German  scholar,  born  at  Duderstadt  in  1747,  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  "  Allgemeine  Literaturzeitung" 
at  Jena,  (1785.)  He  published  editions  of  iEschylus 
and  Cicero.    Died  in  1832. 

Schiitz,  [Lat.  Sagitta'rius,]  (Heinrich,)  a  German 
composer  and  musician,  born  in  Voigtland  in  1585.  He 
studied  at  Venice,  and  became  first  chapel-master  at 
Dresden.  His  church  music  was  highly  esteemed  by 
his  contemporaries,  and  he  is  said  to  have  first  intro- 
duced the  Italian  Opera  into  Germany.    Died  in  1672. 

Schiitze  or  Schuetze,  shut'seh,  (Johann  Ste- 
PHAN,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  near  Magdeburg  in 
1771,  wrote  tales,  travels,  and  dramatic  works.  Died 
in  1839. 

Schuur,  van  der,  vtn  der  sKiiR,  (Theodorus,)  a 
Dutch  historical  painter,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1628. 
He  worked  at  Rotne  fourteen  years,  and  returned  to  the 
Hague  in  1665.    Died  in  1705. 

Schuyler,  skT'ler,  (Philip,)  an  able  American  gen- 
eral and  Senator,  born  at  Albany  in  November,  1733. 
He  served  in  the  war  against  the  French  and  Indians  in 
1756.  In  June,  1775,  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
an  army  in  New  York,  with  the  rank  of  major-general. 
He  was  about  to  move  the  army  into  Canada,  but  he 
was  taken  sick,  and  the  command  devolved  in  Septem- 
ber on  General  Montgomery.  In  August,  1777,  he  was 
superseded  by  General  Gates,  in  consequence  of  the  un- 
reasonable jealousy  with  which  Congress  regarded  him. 
His  conduct  was  vindicated  by  a  court  of  inquiry.  He 
afterwards  rendered  important  services  in  military  affairs, 
although  he  declined  to  take  command  of  an  army.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  General  Congress  from  1778  to 
1 781,  and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by 
the  legislature  of  New  York  in  1789.  He  was  again 
elected  a  Senator,  in  place  of  Aaron  Burr,  in  1797.  One 
of  his  daughters  was  the  wife  of  Alexander  Hamilton. 
Died  at  Albany  in  November,  1804. 

See  Benson  J.  Lossing,  "  Life  and  Times  of  Philip  Schuyler," 
i860;  Bancroft,  "  History  of  the  United  States  ;"  "  National  Por- 
trait-Gallery of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Schwab,  shvx^ap,  (Gustav,)  a  distinguished  German 
litterateur,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1792.  He  became  in 
181 7  professor  of  ancient  literature  in  his  native  city. 
He  published  a  number  of  popular  songs  and  ballads, 
also  prose  essays  on  various  subjects,  and  an  excellent 
"  Life  of  Schiller."  He  was  for  a  time  associated  with 
Chamisso  as  editor  of  the  "  Musenalmanach."  Died  in 
1850. 

See  Wassermann,  "  G.  Schwab,  der  edle  Barde  Schwabens," 
1851. 

Schwanthaler,  shMn'tt^er,  (Ludwig  Michael,) 
an  eminent  German  artist,  born  at  Munich  in  1802. 
He  studied  for  a  short  time  at  Rome,  and  on  his  return, 
in  1826,  executed  two  bas-relief  friezes  for  the  Glypto- 
thek,  and  a  statue  of  Shakspeare  for  the  theatre.  He 
became  in  1835  professor  of  sculpture  at  the  Academy 
of  Munich.  Among  the  numerous  works  which  he 
produced  within  about  twelve  years,  we  may  name  the 
relievo  frieze,  over  two  hundred  feet  long,  in  the  Barba- 
rossa  Hall,  the  twelve  colossal  statues  of  the  ancestors 
of  the  house  of  Wittelsbach,  the  "  Myth  of  Aphrodite," 
and  the  fifteen  statues  of  the  "  Battle  of  Arminius,"  ( Her- 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^[^^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCHWARTZ 


SCIOPPIUS 


manns-schlacht,)  in  the  northern  pediment  of  the  Wal- 
halla  at  Ratisbon.  His  colOvSsal  bronze  statue  of  "  Ba- 
varia," in  the  Hall  of  Fame  at  Munich,  esteemed  one  of 
his  master-pieces,  is  of  greater  magnitude  than  any  other 
group  of  modern  sculpture,  the  main  figure  being  fifty- 
four  feet  high.  Schwanthaler  also  executed  statues  of 
the  emperor  Rudolph,  of  Goethe,  Mozart,  and  Jean  Paul 
Richter,  as  well  as  numerous  subjects  from  Grecian 
mythology.  He  died  in  1848.  Among  his  most  distin- 
guished pupils  are  Brugger,  Widmann,  and  Kriesmeyer. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations- Lexikon  ;"  Pierer,  "  Univer- 
sal-Lexikon." 

Schwartz,  sh^aRts,  (Christoph,)  a  German  painter, 
born  at  Ingolstadt  about  1550,  worked  at  Munich.  Died 
in  1594. 

Schwarz,  sh^Rts,  (Berthold,)  called  also  Con- 
STANTINE  Ancklitzen,  (ink'kii  t'sen,)  a  German  chemist 
and  Franciscan  monk,  born  at  Freiburg,  is  said  to  have 
invented  gunpowder  about  1330.  A  monument  was 
erected  to  him  at  Freiburg  in  1853. 

Schwarz  or  Schwartz,  sh^^^Rts,  (Christian  Fried- 
rich,)  an  eminent  German  missionary,  born  at  Sonnen- 
burg,  Prussia,  in  1726.  He  went  to  India  in  1750,  and 
laboured  many  years  about  Tranquebar,  Tanjore,  and 
Trichinopoly  with  great  success.  He  gained  the  confi- 
dence of  Hyder  Ali.  His  character  was  highly  com- 
mended by  Bishop  Heber.    Died  in  India  in  1798. 

See  Pearson,  "Life  of  Schwarz,"  1834. 

Schwarz,  (Christian  Gottlieb,)  a  learned  German 
writer  and  bibliographer,  born  in  Misnia  in  1675,  ^^^^ 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Altorf.    Died  in  1751. 

Schwarz,  (Friedrich  Heinrich  Christian,)  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Heidelberg,  was  born  at  Giessen 
in  1766.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Jung-Stilling,  and 
published  several  educational  works.    Died  in  1837. 

Schwarzenberg,shMRt'sen-b§RG',  (Felix  Ludwig 
Johann  Friedrich,)  an  Austrian  statesman  and  mili- 
tary commander,  born  at  Krumau,  in  Bohemia,  in  1800. 
He  was  made  lieutenant-field-marshal  in  1848,  and  sub- 
sequently became  prime  minister.    Died  in  1852. 

Schwarzenberg,  von,  fon  sh\^art'sen-beRG^  (Fried- 
rich Johann  Joseph,)  Prince,  an  Austrian  prelate, 
born  in  1809.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Salzburg  in 
1836,  cardinal  in  1842,  and  Archbishop  of  Prague  in 
1850.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Rome  in 
1869-70. 

Schwarzenberg,  von,  (Karl  Philip?,)  Prince, 
an  Austrian  field-marshal,  born  at  Vienna  in  1771.  He 
served  against  the  French  in  the  campaigns  of  1794  and 
1799,  and  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Hohenlinden, 
where  he  succeeded  in  saving  his  own  corps.  In  1808 
he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Saint  Petersburg,  and  in 
1810  became  general  of  the  Austrian  cavalry.  After  the 
peace  of  Vienna  he  was  appointed  to  negotiate  the 
marriage  of  Napoleon  with  Maria  Louisa.  On  the  alli- 
ance of  Austria  with  France,  he  was  placed  by  Napoleon 
at  the  head  of  the  Austrian  forces  in  the  Russian  cam- 
paign of  1812,  and  obtained  for  his  services  the  rank 
of  field-marshal.  In  1813  he  was  made  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  allied  armies,  and,  having  defeated  the 
French  at  Leipsic,  advanced  to  Paris.  After  the  battle 
of  Waterloo  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  imperial 
council  of  war,  and  obtained  many  other  distinctions. 
Died  in  1820. 

See  Prokesch  von  Osten,  "  Leben  des  Feldmarschalls  Karl  zu 
Schwarzenberg,"  1822;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Schwegler,  sh'^gc/ler,  (Albrecht,)  a  German  theo- 
logian and  disciple  of  Baur,  born  at  Michelbach,  in 
Wiirtemberg,  in  1819.  He  published  a  "History  of 
Philosophy,"  and  "Roman  History,"  (1853,)  also  Ger- 
man translations  of  Aristotle's  "Metaphysics"  and  the 
"Church  History"  of  Eusebius.    Died  in  1857. 

Schweidel,  sh^^^I'del,  (Georg  Jakob,)  a  German 
bibliographer,  born  at  Nuremberg  about  1690,  published 
"Thesaurus  Bibliothecalis,"  (4  vols.,  1739.)  Died  in 
2. 

chweigaard,  shwT'gdRd,  (Antony  Martin,)  a 
Norwegian  jurist,  born  at  Krageroe  in  1808,  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  political  economy  and  statistics  at 
the  University  of  Christiania.  He  has  published  several 
works  on  law,  finance,  and  statistics. 


Schweighauser,  sh^ic'hoi'zer,  (Jean  Geoffroi,) 
an  antiquary,  a  son  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Stras- 
burg  in  1776;  died  in  1844. 

Schweighauser  or  Schweighaeuser,  sh^Ic'hoi'- 
zer,  (Johann,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Strasburg  in 
1742,  became  in  1778  professor  of  Greek  and  Oriental 
languages  in  his  native  city.  He  published  editions  of 
Appianus,  Polybius,  Herodotus,  and  other  classics.  Died 
in  1830. 

See  Cuvier,  "  filoge  de  Schweighaeuser,"  1830;  Sti^venart, 
"Elogede  J.  Schweighaeuser,"  1830;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rate." 

Schweinitz,  von,  fon  shwT'nits,  (Lewis  David,)  an 
American  botanist  and  Moravian  minister,  was  born  at 
Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania,  in  1780.  He  discovered  more 
than  a  thousand  new  species  of  plants,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  Fungi.    Died  in  1834. 

Schweizer,  sh^Tt'ser,  (Alexander,)  a  German  the- 
ologian of  the  Reformed  Church,  was  born  at  Murten 
in  1808. 

Schwenkfeld,  shvv'gnk'felt,  (Kaspar,)  founder  of  a 
sect  called  by  his  name,  was  born  at  Ossig,  in  Silesia,  in 
1490.  He  embraced  with  zeal  the  cause  of  the  Refor- 
mation, but  differed  from  the  other  Protestants  in  his 
views  of  the  eucharist,  (he  deified  the  body  of  Christ,) 
and  in  other  points  of  Christian  doctrine.  He  died  about 
1560.  A  number  of  his  followers  took  refuge  in  North 
America  in  1733. 

Schwerin,  von,  fon  sh^§h-reen',  (Kurt  Chris- 
toph,) Count,  a  distinguished  commander,  born  in 
Swedish  Pomerania  in  1684.  He  served  under  Eugene 
and  Marlborough,  and  subsequently  in  the  army  of 
Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  who  raised  him  to  the 
rank  of  field-marshal  and  made  him  a  count.  He  gained 
a  signal  victory  over  the  Austrians  at  MoUwitz,  in  1741. 
He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Prague,  in  1757. 

See  Varnhagf.n  von  Ense,  "Leben  des  Grafen  von  Schwerin," 
1841  ;  KoENiG,  "  Lebeiisbeschreibiuig  des  Grafen  von  Schwerin," 
1790;  Pauli,  "Leben  grosser  Helden  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Schwilgue,  shv^Kgi',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French 
mechanician,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1776.  He  invented 
several  useful  instruments,  and  reconstructed  the  ad- 
mirable mechanism  of  the  clock  of  the  Strasburg  Cathe- 
dral.   Died  in  1856. 

Schwind,  von,  fon  shMnt,  (Moritz,)  professor  of 
painting  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Munich,  was  born 
at  Vienna  in  1804.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Cornelius,  and 
has  produced  a  number  of  frescos  and  oil-paintings. 

Schyrle.    See  Rheita,  von. 

Scialoia,  shi-lo'y^  or  she-3.-lo'yS,  (Antonio,)  an 
Italian  jurist,  born  near  Naj^les  in  1817,  has  published 
"  Principles  of  Social  Economy,"  and  other  works. 

Sciarpelloni.    See  Credi,  di. 

Scin^,  she-ni',  (Domenico,)  an  eminent  Italian 
mathematician  and  scientific  writer,  born  at  Palermo  in 
1765,  became  professor  of  physics  in  his  native  city.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Report  on  the  Fossils  of  Mar- 
dolce,"  etc.,  "  Introduction  to  Experimental  Physics," 
(1803,)  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Philosophy  of  Em- 
))edocles,"  (1813,)  "  Tc^pography  of  Palermo  and  its 
Environs,"  (1818,)  "View  of  the  Literary  History  of 
Italy  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (3  vols.,  1827,)  "Ex- 
periments and  Discoveries  in  Electro-Magnetism,"  and 
other  works,  which  are  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1837. 

See  S.  CosTAN'zo,  "Vida  publica  y  privada  de  D.  Scini,"  1846  I 
Malvica,  "  Elogio  di  D.  Scina,"  1838;  D.  Avella,  "  Eseqaie  alia 
Memoria  di  D.  Scina,"  1838. 

Scioppius,  stse-op'pe-iis,  [Ger.  Schopp,  shop,]  (Cas- 
par,) a  celebrated  classical  scholar,  born  at  Neumark, 
in  the  Palatinate,  in  1576.  Having  visited  Rome,  he 
was  patronized  by  the  pope  and  renounced  the  Prot- 
estant religion.  He  was  afterwards  created  a  count 
palatine  by  the  Emperor  of  Austria.  Among  his  numer- 
ous works  we  may  name  his  "Elements  of  Stoic  Moral 
Philosophy,"  ("Elementa  Philosophise  Stoicae  Moralis,") 
"  De  Arte  Critica,"  etc.,  "  Paradoxa  Literaria/'  and 
"  Grammatica  Philosophica,"  or  Institutes  of  Latin  Gram- 
mar. He  also  wrote  a  number  of  controversia'  w^rks 
against  the  Protestants  and  their  leaders,  particularly 
Henry  IV.  of  France  and  James  I.  of  England.  Sciop- 
pius  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time;  but 


S,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;  \  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure; fir,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SCIPIO 


he  was  equally  conspicuous  for  his  intolerance  and 
quarrelsome  propensities.    Died  in  1649. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Niceron, 
"  Memoires  :"  C.  Nisard,  "  Les  Gladiateurs  de  la  Republique  des 
Lettres  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Scipio,  sip'e-o,  [Gr.  Ikltt'iuv  ;  Fr.  Scipion,  se'pe'6N'; 
It.  SciPiONE,  she-pe-o'ni,]  the  name  of  an  illustrious 
Roman  family  of  the  patrician  gens  Cornelia.  The  word 
Scipio  signifies  a  "staff"  or  "stick."  The  first  member 
of  this  family  that  appears  in  history  was  PuBLius 
Cornelius  Scipio,  who  was  appointed  master  of  the 
horse  by  the  dictator  Furius  Camillus  in  396  B.C.  He 
was  consular  or  military  tribune  in  394,  and  interrex  in 
389  B.C.  A  PuBLius  Cornelius  Scipio,  probably  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  one  of  the  curule  aediles 
appointed  in  366  B.C.  Lucius  Cornelius  Scipio  was 
consul  in  350  B.C.  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  Bar- 
BATUS  was  chosen  dictator  in  306  and  pontifex  maximus 
in  305  B.C.  Lucius  Cornelius  Scipio  Barbatus  was 
consul  in  298  B.C.,  and  defeated  the  Etruscans.  He 
was  the  father  of  Cneius  Cornelius  Scipio  Asina 
(see  separate  article)  and  of  Lucius  Cornelius,  who 
was  consul  in  259  B.C.  and  defeated  the  Carthaginians 
in  Sardinia  and  Corsica. 

Scipio,  [Fr.  Scipion,  se'pe'6N',]  (Publius  Corne- 
lius,) a  Roman  commander,  father  of  the  great  Scipio, 
(surnamed  "  Africanus,")  was  consul  in  the  first  year  of 
the  second  Punic  war,  218  B.C.  He  conimanded  the 
army  of  Northern  Italy  when  Hannibal  crossed  the  Alps 
on  his  way  to  Rome.  Scipio  met  the  enemy  near  the 
Ticino,  where  he  was  defeated  and  severely  wounded. 
Soon  after  this  event  the  other  consul,  Sempronius,  took 
command  of  the  army,  which  was  again  defeated,  with 
great  loss,  on  the  Trebia,  218  B.C.  Scipio  was  sent  to 
Spain  in  217,  and  fought  many  battles  against  the  Car- 
thaginians in  that  peninsula.  He  was  defeated  and 
killed  in  211  B.C. 

See  LiVY,  "History  of  Rome." 

Scipio,  or,  more  fully,  Scipl-o  Af-ri-ca'nus* 
Ma'jor,  [Fr.  Scipion  l'Africain,  se'pe'6N'  ItTne''- 
kiN',]  (Publius  Cornelius,)  an  illustrious  Roman  com- 
mander, a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  235  or  234 
B.C.  After  he  had  assumed  the  togavirilis,  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  pass  several  hours  each  morning  in  the  Capi- 
tol in  solitary  devotion  or  meditation.  He  gained  in  his 
youth  the  confidence  of  the  people,  who  were  persuaded 
that  he  was  a  special  favourite  of  the  gods.  It  is  also 
stated  that  he  professed  to  seek  and  receive  divine  coun- 
sel, by  which  his  public  conduct  was  directed.  He  fought 
at  the  battle  of  the  Ticino,  and  rescued  his  wounded  father 
there,  in  218  B.C.  In  216,  as  military  tribune,  he  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Cannae.  Scipio  and  Appius  Claudius 
were  appointed  commanders  of  the  troops  which  escaped 
from  that  battle.  He  was  elected  aedile  in  212  B.C.,  and 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in  Spain  in 
210.  He  took  New  Carthage  (Cartagena)  in  the  first 
campaign,  and  his  personal  influence  or  liberal  policy 
induced  many  native  chiefs  to  become  allies  of  Rome. 
In  209  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  Hasdrubal  in  the 
south  of  Spain.  Another  decisive  victory  at  Silpia, 
Carmo,  or  Elinga,  in  207,  rendered  him  master  of  nearly 
all  Spain.  Soon  after  this  event  he  crossed  over  to 
Africa  with  a  few  arttendants,  and  attempted  to  gain  the 
alliance  of  Syphax.  Having  completed  the  conquest  of 
Spain,  in  206  B.C.  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  was  elected 
consul  for  205,  although  he  was  under  the  legal  age.  He 
at  once  resolved  to  carry  the  war  into  Africa,  although 
Hannibal  still  remained  in  Italy.  This  plan  was  opposed 
byFabius  Maximus  and  other  senators.  Scipio  obtained 
Sicily  as  his  province,  with  permission  to  cross  into 
Africa;  but  the  senate  refused  to  grant  him  an  army  for 
that  purpose.  He  thereupon  raised  an  army  of  volun- 
teers, invaded  Africa  in  204,  and  was  joined  by  King 
Massinissa.  He  defeated  Hasdrubal  (son  of  Cisco)  and 
Syphax  in  several  battles,  after  which  the  Carthaginians 
recalled  Hannibal  for  the  defence  of  their  capital.  The 
question  of  peace  was  discussed  by  Scipio  and  Hanni- 
bal in  a  personal  interview  ;  but  they  failed  to  agree  on 


*  Cliaucer  calls  him  simply  Affrikan,  obviously  a  corruption  of 
A/ricanus.    (See  "  Assembly  of  Foules.") 


SCIPIO 


the  terms.  In  October,  202,  Scipio  defeated  Hannibal 
in  the  memorable  battle  of  Zama,  which  decided  the 
fkte  of  Carthage.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  in  201,  he 
was  received  with  great  enthusiasm,  and  obtained  the 
surname  of  Africanus.  The  people  proposed  to  make 
him  dictator  for  life  ;  but  he  declined  the  honour.  He 
was  chosen  censor  in  199,  and  consul  in  194  B.C. 

In  the  year  190  he  volunteered  to  serve  as  legate  of 
his  brother,  Lucius  Scipio,  who  was  then  consul,  and 
who  commanded  in  the  war  against  Antiochus  of  Syria. 
The  two  Scipios  defeated  Antiochus,  and  ended  the  war 
by  a  treaty  of  peace.  About  187  B.C.  Afncanus  and  his 
brother  were  publicly  accused  of  receiving  bribes  from 
Antiochus.  Lucius  was  first  tried,  and  condemned  to 
pay  a  large  fine.  Africanus,  in  defiance  of  the  law,  res- 
cued his  brother  from  the  officer  who  was  dragging  him 
to  prison.  He  was  afterwards  prosecuted,  and  made  a 
speech  in  his  defence,  which  was  partially  successful,  as 
his  enemies  and  judges  abandoned  the  case.  Deeply 
affected  by  the  ingratitude  of  the  people,  he  left  Rome, 
never  to  return,  and  died  at  Liternum  in  183  B.C.,  in  the 
same  year  as  Hannibal.  He  had  married  .Emilia,  a 
daughter  of  L.  ^milius  Paulus,  and  left  two  sons  and 
two  daughters,  one  of  whom  was  the  famous  Cornelia. 
With  the  exception  of  Julius  Caesar,  (and  perhaps  of 
Sertorius,)  Scipio  was  probably  the  greatest  military 
genius  that  Rome  ever  produced.  He  cultivated  the 
Greek  language  and  literature.  He  had  a  high  repu- 
tation for  generosity  and  clemency,  but  is  censured  by 
some  for  his  disregard  of  the  forms  of  law. 

See  PoLYBius,  "History,"  books  x.-xxiv.  ;  Livy,  _"  History  of 
Rome,"  books  xxi.-xxxix. ;  Seran  de  la  Tour,  "  Histoirede  Scipion 
l'Africain,"  1738;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Memoirs  of 
the  Life  of  the  Elder  Scipio  Africanus,"  by  Rev.  Edward  Ber- 
wick. 

Scip'io  -aimilia'nus  Africa'nus  Mi'nor,  (Publius 
Cornelius,)  a  famous  Roman  general,  born  about  185 
B.C.,  was  a  son  of  ^milius  Paulus,  and  an  adopted  son 
of  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio,  whose  father  was  the  great 
Scipio.  He  was  liberally  educated,  and  was  well  versed 
in  Greek  literature  and  philosophy.  In  168  B.C.  he  fought 
at  the  battle  of  Pydna,  where  his  father  commanded. 
He  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  the  historian 
Polybius,  who  became  the  companion  of  his  studies  and 
military  expeditions.  As  military  tribune,  he  went  to 
Spain  in  151  B.C.,  and  signalized  his  courage  in  a  single 
combat  with  a  gigantic  Spanish  chief,  whom  he  killed. 
In  the  third  Punic  war,  which  began  about  149,  he  dis- 
played great  military  ability  in  Africa.  Having  returned 
to  Rome  in  148,  he  was  elected  consul  for  147,  and  ob- 
tained Africa  as  his  province.  He  finished  the  Punic  war 
by  the  capture  and  destruction  of  the  city  of  Carthage  in 
146  B.C.,  and  was  granted  a  splendid  triumph  at  Rome  for 
this  victory.  In  the  year  142  he  became  censor  with  L. 
Mummius.  He  endeavoured  to  restrain  the  growing 
love  of  luxury  of  the  Romans  and  to  maintain  the  simple 
habits  and  austere  virtues  of  their  ancestors;  but  in  this 
he  was  not  successful.   Having  been  elected  consul,  134 

B.  C.,  he  obtained  the  chief  command  in  Spain,  and  took 
Numantia,  after  a  long  and  obstinate  defence,  in  133.  He 
was  an  inflexible  supporter  of  the  aristocratic  party,  and 
approved  the  execution  of  Tiberius  Gracchus,  although 
his  wife  Sempronia  was  a  sister  of  that  tribune.  He  lost 
his  popularity  by  his  course  in  this  afl"air.  He  was  found 
dead  in  his  bed  in  129  B.C.  The  public  suspected  that 
he  was  murdered  ;  but  no  person  was  convicted  of  the 
crime.  Scipio  was  eminent  for  his  learning,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  eloquent  Roman  orators  of  his  time. 
Cicero  expresses  a  high  opinion  of  him  in  his  book 
"De  Republica."  A  report  prevailed  among  the  an- 
cients that  he  assisted  Terence  in  the  composition  of 
his  plays. 

See  Polybius,  books  xxxii.-xxxix.  ;  Carlo  SiroNio,  "  De  Vita  et 
Rebus  gestis  P.  Scipionis,"  1569;  F.  D.  Gerlach,  "Tod  des  P. 

C.  Scipio  iEmilianus,"  1839;  L.  Normann,  "  Scipio  Africanus  Mi- 
nor," Upsala,  1688  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale." 

S9ip'I-o  A-si-at'i-cus  or  A-si-ag'e-nes,  [Fr.  Sci- 
pion l'Asiatique,  se'pe'6N'  IS'ze't't^k',]  (Lucius  Cor- 
nelius,) was  a  brother  of  Africanus  Major.  He  was 
chosen  praetor  in  193  B.C.,  and  consul  in  190,  when  he 
obtained  the  province  of  Greece.  With  the  aid  of  his 
brother,  he  defeated  Antiochus  at  Mount  Sipylus  in  190, 


€  as  /t;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (^(^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCIPIO 


SCOTT 


a  few  years  after  which  he  was  fined  for  taking  a  bribe 
ftom  that  king. 

Scipio  Asiaticus,  (Lucius  Cornelius,)  was  a  par- 
tisan of  Marius  in  the  civil  war,  and  became  consul  with 
C.  Norbanus  in  83  B.C.  He  marched  against  Sulla  in 
that  year,  but  was  deserted  by  his  troops,  and  went  into 
exile  in  82  B.C. 

Scip'io  As'I-na,  (Cneius  Cornelius,)  a  Roman 
commander,  was  consul  with  C.  Duilius  in  260  B.C.  He 
obtained  command  of  a  fleet,  and  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Carthaginians.  He  became  consul  again  in  254  B.C. 
His  son  PuBLius  Cornelius  was  consul  in  221  B.C.,  and 
interrex  in  217. 

Scip'io  Cal'vus,  (Cneius  Cornelius,)  a  Roman 
general,  became  consul  with  M.  Claudius  Marcellus  in 
222  B.C.  He  went  to  Spain  in  217  B.C.  as  legate  of  his 
brother,  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio,  with  whom  he  served 
about  eight  years  against  the  Carthaginians  in  the  second 
Punic  war.    He  was  killed  in  Spain  in  211  B.C. 

Scip'io  His-pal'lus,  (Cneius  Cornelius,)  a  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  was  consul  in  171  B.C.  He  had  a  son 
of  the  same  name,  who  was  praetor  in  139  B.C. 

Scip'io  Na-si'ca,  (Publius  Cornelius,)  a  Roman 
consul  and  jurist,  was  a  son  of  Cn.  C.  Scipio  Calvus,  who 
was  killed  in  Spain  in  211  B.C.  He  was  praetor  in  194, 
and  served  with  distinction  in  Spain  in  193.  Having 
been  chosen  consul  for  191  B.C.,  he  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Boii.    He  died  after  171  B.C. 

Scip'io  Nasi'ca  Cor'cu-lum,  (Publius  Corne- 
lius,) a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  an  able  jurist.  He 
married  a  daughter  of  Scipio  Africanus  Major.  He  was 
censor  in  159  B.C.,  and  consul  in  155.  During  his  con- 
sulship he  procured  the  demolition  of  a  new  theatre,  as 
injurious  to  the  public  morals.  He  became  pontifex 
maximus  in  150  B.C. 

Scip'io  Nasi'ca  Se-ra'pi-o,  (Publius  Cornelius,) 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  a  violent  partisan  of  the 
aristocracy.  He  became  consul  in  138  B.C.  with  D. 
Junius  Brutus,  and  was  the  leader  of  the  party  which 
assassinated  Tiberius  Gracchus  in  133. 

His  son,  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  Nasica,  was 
consul  in  in  B.C.  He  was  greatly  distinguished  for  wit 
and  humour.  He  left  a  son  of  the  same  name,  who  was 
praetor  in  94  B.C.  This  last  was  the  father  of  Q.  Metellus 
Pius  Scipio,  the  father-in-law  of  Pompey  the  Great.  (See 
Metellus.) 

Scipioii,  the  French  for  Scipio,  which  see. 

Scla'ter,  (Philip  L.,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  naturalist, 
born  in  1829.  He  published  several  treatises  on  birds, 
and  edited  "The  Natural  History  Review." 

Sclater,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman  and  poet, 
born  in  Somersetshire.  He  obtained  the  living  of  Otter- 
den,  Kent,  and  wrote  verses  in  Latin  and  English.  Died 
in  1647.  Another  William  Sclater  was  vicar  of  Pitmin- 
ster.    Died  in  1626. 

Sclo'pis,  (Count  Federtgo,)  an  Italian  senator  and 
lawyer,  born  in  Turin  in  1798.  He  became  a  senator 
in  1849,  president  of  the  senate  in  1857.  He  pub- 
lished, l3esides  other  works,  a  *'  History  of  Italian  Legis- 
lation," (3  vols.,  1840-57.) 

Scolari,  sko-li'ree,  (Filippo,)  Count  of  Ozora,  called 
PiPPO  Spano,  (p^p'po  spS'no,)  an  Italian  general,  born 
at  Florence  in  1369.  He  rendered  important  services 
to  the  emperor  Sigismund.    Died  in  1426. 

See  Mei.lini,  "Vita  di  F.  Scolari,"  1570. 

Scoorel.    See  Schoreel. 

Sco'pas,  [S/i'OTTGf,]  an  eminent  Grecian  sculptor  and 
architect,  born  in  the  island  of  Paros,  is  supposed  to 
have  flourished  after  400  B.C.  Among  his  master-pieces 
in  sculpture  Pliny  mentions  a  number  of  figures,  repre- 
senting Neptune,  Thetis,  the  Nereids,  etc.,  mounted  on 
dolphins,  and  statues  of  Venus,  Vesta,  and  Apollo.  He 
also  assisted  in  executing  the  celebrated  monument  to 
Mausolus  about  350  B.C.  The  temple  of  Minerva  Alea 
at  Tegea  was  constructed  by  Scopas. 

See  Pliny,  "Natural  History  :"  Sillig,  "  Catalogus  Artificum  ;" 
Nagi.er,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
G^nerale." 

Scopoli,  skop'o-lee,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  a  cele- 
brated naturalist,  was  born  at  Cavalese,  in  the  Tyrol,  in 
1723.    He  became  professor  of  mineralogy  at  Schemnitz 


in  1766,  and  in  1777  filled  the  chair  of  natural  history  at 
Pavia.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Entomologia  Carniolica," 
"Flora  Carniolica,"  (1769,)  "  Crystallogr;iphia  Hunga- 
rica,"  (1776,)  and  other  scientific  works.  He  was  a  friend 
of  Linnaeus,  who  named  a  plant  in  his  honour.  Died 
in  1788. 

See  Maironi  da  Ponte,  "  Elogio  del  Dottore  G.  A.  Scopoli," 
181 1  ;  TiPALDo,  "Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Scores'by,  (William,)  a  celebrated  English  navi- 
gator, born  in  Yorkshire  in  1760.  Having  engaged  in 
the  Greenland  whale-fishery,  he  made  his  first  voyage 
in  1 791.  His  voyages,  amounting  to  thirty  in  all,  were 
eminently  successful, — he  having  returned  from  one  of 
them  with  thirty-six  whales.  He  made  a  number  of 
improvements  in  the  apparatus  for  whale-fishing,  and 
invented  the  cylindrical  observatory  attached  to  the  main- 
top-mast, called  the  "round  top-gallant  crow's-nest." 
Died  in  1829. 

See  a  "  Life  of  W.  Scoresby,"  by  his  son,  1851. 

Scoresby,  (William,)  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  an  Arctic  navi- 
gator, a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1790.  In 
1806  he  served  as  chief  mate  to  his  father  in  a  voyage 
which  extended  to  latitude  81°  12^,  a  point  nearer  the 
north  pole  than  any  other  navigator  had  reached.  He 
published  in  1820  a  valuable  "  Account  of  the  Arctic 
Regions,  with  a  History  of  the  Northern  Whale-Fish- 
ery."  He  ceased  to  follow  the  sea,  studied  at  Cam- 
bridge, graduated  in  1834,  and  was  ordained  a  priest.  He 
became  vicar  of  Bradford,  Yorkshire.  Among  his  works 
are  "  Memorials  of  the  Sea,"  and  "  My  Father  :  being 
Records  of  the  Adventurous  Life  of  William  Scoresby," 
(185 1.)  He  wrote  several  papers  on  magnetism  and  the 
influence  of  iron  ships  on  the  mariner's  compass.  Died 
in  1857. 

See  "Monthly  Review"  for  November  and  December,  1820. 

Scorza,  skoRd'zS,  (Sinibaldo,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Voltaggio  in  1589.  He  painted  landscapes  with 
animals  ;  also  mythological  subjects.    Died  in  1631. 

Scot,  (Reginald,)  a  learned  English  writer  and  Re- 
former, published  a  work  entitled  "  The  Discoverie  of 
Witchcraft,"  in  which  he  boldly  condemns  the  super- 
stitions of  the  time.  It  was  against  this  book,  and  that 
of  Wierus,  that  James  I.  of  England  wrote  his  "  Demon- 
ologie,"  in  which  he  says  that  Scot  "is  not  ashamed  in 
public  print  to  deny  that  there  can  be  such  a  thing  as 
witchcraft."    Died  in  1599. 

Scot,  (Thomas.)    See  Rotherham. 

Scott,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  writer,  born  probably 
in  London  in  1814.  He  published  several  educational 
works,  and  became  chamberlain  of  London  about  1858. 

Scott,  (David,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  in  East  Lo- 
thian in  1675,  was  author  of  a  "  History  of  Scotland." 
Died  in  1742. 

Scott,  (David,)  a  Scottish  painter,  born  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1806.  He  resided  for  a  time  at  Rome,  where 
he  produced  several  large  pictures.  Among  his  best 
works  may  be  named  "  Vasco  da  Gama  encountered  by 
the  Spirit  of  the  Storm  in  passing  the  Cape,"  "The 
Genius  of  Discord,"  and  "  Orestes  pursued  by  Furies." 
He  published  "  Essays  on  the  Characteristics  of  the 
Great  Masters,"  and  other  works  on  art.   Died  in  1849. 

See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmtn," 
(Supplement.) 

Scott,  (Sir  Francis  Edward,)  an  English  writer  on 
art,  born  in  1824,  lived  near  Birmingham.  He  devoted 
much  time  to  the  study  and  promotion  of  art  Died 
in  1863. 

Scott,  (George  Gilbert,)  an  eminent  English  archi- 
tect, born  near  Buckingham  about  181 0.  Among  his 
most  admired  edifices  are  the  Gothic  church  of  Saint 
Nicholas  at  Hamburg,  in  Germany,  and  the  cathedral 
of  Saint  John,  in  Newfoundland.  He  furnished  the 
design  for  the  Hotel  de  Ville  at  Hamburg,  which  when 
completed  will  probably  be  one  of  the  finest  Gothic 
structures  of  recent  times.  Mr.  Scott  was  elected  an 
associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1855.  He  published 
"  A  Plea  for  the  Faithful  Restoration  of  onr  Ancient 
Cathedrals,"  (1850,)  and  "Some  Remarks  on  Secular 
and  Domestic  Architecture,  Present  and  Future,"  (1857.) 

See  the  "  North  British  Review"  for  May,  1858. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lon^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fJr,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SCOTT 


SCOTT 


Scott,  (George  Lewis,)  a  mathematician,  born  at 
Hanover,  was  appointed  one  of  the  preceptors  of  George 
III.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Died  in 
1780. 

Scott,  (Helenus,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  writer, 
who  resided  for  some  time  in  India,  was  the  author  of 
a  romance  entitled  "  The  Adventures  of  a  Rupee."  Died 
in  1821. 

Scott,  (James,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Leeds  in 
1733,  became  rector  of  Simonburn,  in  Northumberland. 
He  was  distinguished  as  a  pulpit  orator,  and  was  the 
author  of  political  essays  published  under  the  signature 
of  "  Anti-Sejanus"  and  "Old  Slyboots."    Died  in  1814. 

Scott,  (John.)    See  Eldon,  Lord. 

Scott,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Wiltshire 
in  1638,  became  prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's,  London. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "The  Christian  Life." 
Died  in  1694. 

Scott  of  Amwell,  (John,)  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Bermondsey,  near  London,  about  1 736,  was  a  member  of 
the  Society  of  Friends.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Amwell,  a  Descriptive  Poem,"  (1776.)    Died  in  1783. 

Scott,  (John,)  an  English  journalist,  and  first  editor 
of  the  "London  Magazine,"  was  killed,  in  1821,  in  a 
duel  resulting  from  a  dispute  with  the  editor  of  "  Black- 
wood's Magazine."  He  published  "  A  Visit  to  Paris  in 
1814." 

Scott,  [Lat.  Sco'tus,]  (Sir  Michael,)  a  Scottish 
writer,  celebrated  for  his  learning,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Fifeshire.  He  passed  several  years 
in  France,  and  at  the  court  of  the  German  emperor 
Frederick  II.  Among  the  principal  works  attributed 
to  him  are  the  "  Philosopher's  Banquet,"  ("Mensa  Phi- 
losophica,")  "  Questio  curiosa  de  Natura  Solis  et  Luna," 
a  treatise  on  the  transmutation  of  silver  and  gold,  and 
a  "  History  of  Animals,"  (in  Latin.)  His  uncommon 
attainments  in  science  caused  him  to  be  regarded  as  a 
magician  by  his  contemporaries  ;  and  Sir  Walter  Scott 
has  introduced  the  legends  concerning  him,  with  great 
effect,  into  his  "  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel."  He  is  also 
alluded  to  in  Dante's  "  Inferno."    Died  about  1290. 

See  G.  Naud^,  "Apologia  des  grands  Hommes  accuses  de  Ma- 
gie  ;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Scott,  (Samuel,)  a  skilful  English  painter  of  land- 
scaj^es  and  marine  views.    Died  in  1772. 

Scott,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dissenting  divine  and 
resident  of  Ipswich,  published  a  poetical  version  of  the 
book  of  Job,  (1774.) 

Scott  or  Scot,  (Thomas,)  an  English  prelate.  (See 
Rotherham.) 

Scott,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Calvinistic  divine  and 
commentator,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1747.  He  became 
curate  of  Olney  in  1781,  and  rector  of  Aston-Sandford  in 
1801.  He  associated  with  Cowper  and  Newton  at  Olney. 
He  published,  besides  other  religious  works,  a  "  Com- 
mentary on  the  Bible,"  (1796,)  which  had  an  extensive 
circulation,  and  a  defence  of  Calvinism,  (2  vols.,  1811.) 
Died  in  1821. 

See  "  Life  of  T.  Scott,"  (partly  autobiographical,)  by  his  son, 
John  Scott,  1822  ;  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Scott,  (Sir  Walter,)  a  celebrated  novelist  and  poet, 
was  born  in  Edinburgh,  August  15,  1771.  He  was  de- 
scended from  Waller  Scott,  the  famous  freebooter,  known 
in  border  story  as  "Auld  Wat."  His  father,  named  also 
Walter  Scott,  was  a  writer  to  the  signet ;  his  mother, 
Anne  Rutherford,  was  the  daughter  of  Dr.  John  Ruther- 
ford, medical  professor  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
Walter  was  the  seventh  child  in  a  family  of  twelve. 
When  he  was  about  eighteen  months  old,  he  was  attacked 
with  a  fever,  which  left  him,  after  a  few  days,  with  a 
lameness  that  proved  incurable.  In  1779  he  was  sent  to 
the  Edinburgh  High  School.  In  addition  to  the  instruc- 
tion received  at  school,  he  had  a  tutor  at  home,  by  whom 
he  was  taught  writing,  arithmetic,  and  French,  and  from 
whom  he  may  be  said  to  have  also  taken  lessons  in  the 
art  of  disputation.  The  pupil  was  a  Tory  and  Cavalier, 
the  tutor  a  Whig  and  Roundhead,  so  that  they  never  were 
at  a  loss  for  subjects  about  which  to  argue.  "  I  took  up 
my  politics  at  that  period,"  says  Scott,  "as  King  Charles 
II.  did  his  religion,  from  an  idea  that  the  Cavalier  creed 
was  the  more  gentlemanlike  persuasion  of  the  two."  He 


studied  Latin  under  the  celebrated  Dr.  Adam,  then  rec- 
tor of  the  High  School  ;  and,  though  he  seems  to  have 
had  but  little  relish  for  the  details  of  syntax  or  prosody, 
he  was  not,  even  at  that  age,  without  an  appreciation  of 
the  beauties  of  the  Roman  classics.  "This  was  really," 
he  observes  in  his  autobiography,  "gathering  grapes 
from  thistles  ;  nor  shall  I  soon  forget  the  swelling  of  my 
little  pride  when  the  rector  pronounced  that,  though 
many  of  my  school-fellows  understood  Latin  better, 
Giialterus  Scott  ^^as  behind  few  in  following  and  enjoying 
the  author's  meaning."  "In  the  intervals  of  my  school- 
hours,"  says  he,  "  I  had  always  perused  with  avidity  such 
books  of  history  or  poetry,  or  voyages  and  travels,  as 
chance  presented  to  me, — not  forgetting  the  usual,  or 
rather  ten  times  the  usual,  quantity  of  fairy-tales.  East- 
ern stories,  romances,  etc."  He  left  the  High  School,  he 
says,  "with  a  great  quantity  of  general  information,  ill 
arranged,  indeed,  and  collected  without  system,  yet 
deeply  impressed  upon  my  mind,  and  gilded,  if  I  may 
be  permitted  to  say  so,  by  a  vivid  and  active  imagina- 
tion." About  this  time  he  read  Hoole's  translation  of 
Tasso's  "Jerusalem  Delivered;"  he  likewise  became 
acquainted  with  Richardson's  novels,  and  other  works 
of  imagination.  Having  spent  some  months  at  the 
house  of  a  relative  living  at  Kelso,  the  beauties  of  that 
romantic  spot,  with  the  neighbouring  ruins,  appear  to 
have  awakened  in  his  mind  that  passionate  love  for  the 
beautiful  and  picturesque  in  nature,  for  which  he  was 
afterwards  so  distinguished. 

In  1783  he  entered  the  university,  and  commenced 
Greek  under  the  learned  and  accomplished  Professor 
Dalzell.  But,  having  no  previous  acquaintance  with  that 
tongue,  he  found  himself  far  behind  the  rest  of  the  class. 
"I  could,"  he  says,  "  hit  upon  no  better  mode  of  vindi- 
cating my  equality  than  by  professing  my  contempt  for 
the  language,  and  my  resolution  not  to  learn  it."  He 
afterwards  excited  the  utmost  indignation  of  the  pro- 
fessor by  writing  a  composition  in  which  he  endeavoured 
to  show  that  Ariosto  was  superior  to  Homer.  In  some 
of  his  other  collegiate  studies  he  appears  to  have  been 
more  successful.  In  moral  philosophy  he  had  the  good 
fortune  to  be  instructed  by  Dugald  Stewart,  "  whose 
striking  and  impressive  eloquence  riveted  the  attention 
even  of  the  most  volatile  student."* 

In  1786  he  was  indentured  as  an  apprentice  to  his 
father,  and  "entered  upon  the  dry  and  barren  wilderness 
of  forms  and  conveyances."  He  did  not,  however,  dis- 
continue the  perusal  of  works  of  imagination.  He  even 
studied  Italian,  and  added  an  acquaintance  with  several 
eminent  authors  in  that  tongue,  as  Dante,  Boiardo,  Pulci, 
etc.,  to  his  previous  stores  of  romantic  and  historic  lore. 
About  the  second  year  of  his  apprenticeship,  in  conse- 
quence of  an  attack  of  hemorrhage,  he  was  for  several 
weeks  confined  to  his  chamber  ;  during  this  time  he 
amused  himself  by  representing  the  battles  and  sieges  of 
which  he  had  read,  by  means  of  shells,  pebbles,  or  other 
objects.  His  recovery,  though  interrupted  by  one  or  two 
relapses,  was  at  length  complete ;  and  from  that  time 
until  near  his  death  he  enjoyed  the  most  robust  health. 

In  1792  Scott  began  the  study  of  German,  in  which  he 
afterwards  made  such  proficiency  that  (in  1796)  he  pub- 
lished poetical  translations  of  Biirger's  "  Lenore"  and 
"  Wild  Huntsman."  This  was  his  first  appearance  be- 
fore the  public  as  an  author. 

In  December,  1797,  he  married  Charlotte  Margaret 
Carpenter,  daughter  of  Jean  Charpentier,  of  Lyons,  a 
devoted  French  royalist.  She  had  been  educated  in  the 
Protestant  religion,  and  when  her  father  died,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  French  Revolution,  she  and  her  mother 
fled  to  England,  where  they  found  a  friend  and  protector 
in  the  Marquis  of  Downshire,  who  had  previously  be- 
come acquainted  with  the  family  during  his  travels  on 


*  The  following  testimony  from  Scott's  autobiography,  in  favour  of 
a  solid  and  thorough  education,  is  too  important  to  be  omitted.  "If," 
says  he,  "  it  should  ever  fall  to  the  lot  of  youth  to  peruse  these  pages, 
let  such  a  reader  remember  that  it  is  with  the  deepest  regret  that  I 
recollect  in  my  manhood  the  opportunities  of  learning  which  I  neg- 
lected in  my  youth  ;  that  through  every  part  of  my  literary  career  I 
have  felt  pinched  and  hampered  by  my  own  ignorance  ;  and  that  I 
would  at  this  moment  give  half  the  reputation  I  have  had  the  good 
fortune  to  acquire,  if  by  doing  so  I  could  rest  the  remaining  part  upon 
a  sound  foundation  of  learning  and  science." 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  ^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCOTT 


1984 


SCOTT 


the  continent.  In  1798  Scott  became  acquainted  with 
M.  G.  Lewis,  by  whom  he  was  prevailed  on  to  furnish 
several  contributions  to  the  "  Tales  of  Wonder,"  a  mis- 
cellany gotten  up  under  the  auspices  of  Lewis.  Scott's 
translation  of  Goethe's  famous  historical  drama,  Goetz 
von  Berlichingen  of  the  Iron  Hand,"  appeared  in  1799. 
The  first  two  volumes  of  the  "  Minstrelsy  of  the  Scot- 
tish Border,"  a  collection  of  ancient  ballads  that  had 
occui)ied  his  attention  for  many  years,  were  published 
in  1802.  In  the  following  year  appeared  the  third  vol- 
ume of  the  "  Border  Minstrelsy,"  consisting  of  original 
ballads  by  Scott  and  others.  He  contributed  during 
the  years  1803-04  several  articles  to  the  "Edinburgh 
Review."  His  poem  "  Sir  Tristrem"  was  given  to  the 
public  in  1804.  The  "  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,"  which 
had  been  commenced  several  years  before,  made  its  ap- 
pearance in  January,  1805,  and  at  once  gave  its  author 
a  place  among  the  most  distinguished  poets  of  the  age. 
Its  popularity  was  so  great  that  more  than  forty  thousand 
copies  were  sold  in  Great  Britain  before  1830.  "In  the 
history  of  British  poetry,"  says  Lockhart,  (writing  about 
1833,)  "nothing  has  ever  equalled  the  demand  for  the 
♦Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel.'"  In  November,  1806,  he 
began  "Marmion  ;"  it  was  finished  and  ready  for  publi- 
cation by  the  middle  of  February,  1808.  "Constable," 
says  Lockhart,  "  offered  a  thousand  guineas  for  the  poem 
shortly  after  it  was  begun,  and  without  having  seen  one 
h'ne  of  it ;  and  Scott,  without  hesitation,  accepted  this 
proposal."  Two  other  booksellers,  however.  Miller  and 
Murray,  were  admitted  to  the  honour  of  sharing  in  the 
publication  of  the  new  poem. 

Scott  was  zealously  engaged,  in  the  latter  part  of  1808, 
in  starting  a  new  review,  which,  while  espousing  different 
political  views  from  those  of  the  "  Edinburgh,"  should,  if 
possible,  rival  that  journal  in  literary  ability  and  surpass 
it  in  moderation  and  impartiality.  The  result  of  these 
efforts  was  the  "  London  Quarterly,"  the  first  number 
of  which  appeared  in  January,  1809.  The  "  Lady  of 
the  Lake,"  the  last  of  Scott's  three  great  poems,  was 
published  in  May,  1 810.  In  a  critical  notice  of  it  in 
the  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  Mr.  Jeffrey  says,  "  Upon  the 
whole,  we  are  inclined  to  think  more  highly  of  the  '  Lady 
of  the  Lake'  than  of  either  of  its  author's  former  publi- 
cations. .  .  .  There  is  nothing  so  fine,  perhaps,  as  the 
battle  in  'Marmion,'  or  so  picturesque  as  some  of  the 
scattered  sketches  of  the  '  Lay,'  but  there  is  a  richness 
and  a  spirit  in  the  whole  piece  which  does  not  pervade 
either  of  those  poems, — a  profusion  of  incident  and  a 
shifting  brilliancy  of  colouring  that  reminds  us  of  the 
witchery  of  Ariosto."  According  to  Lockhart,  "  the 
*  Lay'  is  generally  considered  as  the  most  natural  and 
original,  '  Marmion'  as  the  most  powerful  and  splendid, 
and  the  '  Lady  of  the  Lake'  as  the  most  interesting,  ro- 
mantic, picturesque,  and  graceful,  of  his  great  poems." 
"The  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  says  Prescott,  "was  welcomed 
with  an  enthusiasm  surpassing  that  which  attended  any 
other  of  his  poems.  It  seemed  like  the  sweet  breathings 
of  his  native  pibroch  stealing  over  glen  and  mountain 
and  calling  up  all  the  delicious  associations  of  rural  soli- 
tude, which  beautifully  contrasted  with  the  din  of  battle 
and  the  shrill  cry  of  the  war-trumpet  that  stirred  the 
soul  in  every  page  of  his  '  Marmion.'  "  Twenty  thou- 
sand copies  of  the  "  Lady  of  the  Lake"  were  disposed 
of  within  a  year  after  its  publication,  and  not  less  than 
fifty  thousand  were  sold  in  Great  Britain  before  the  mid- 
dle of  1836.  In  1811,  encouraged  by  the  extraordinary 
success  of  the  "Lady  of  the  Lake,"  Scott  resolved,  in- 
stead of  remaining  a  "  tenant  at  will  under  a  heavy  rent," 
to  purchase  a  freehold  estate  for  himself.  After  some 
deliberation,  he  fixed  upon  Abbotsford,  (in  the  county 
of  Roxburgh,  about  twenty-eight  miles  southeast  from 
Edinburgh,)  a  beautiful  site,  commanding  a  view  of  the 
Tweed,  and  of  Melrose  Abbey,  the  most  graceful  and 
picturesque  of  all  the  monastic  ruins  in  Scotland.  The 
great  expense  which  he  was  tempted  to  incur  in  order 
to  improve  and  beautify  this  place  became  afterwards  the 
chief  source  of  his  pecuniary  difficulties.  The  "  Vision 
of  Don  Roderick,"  a  poem  in  the  Spenserian  measure, 
came  out  in  181 1.  "  Rokeby"  ai^peared  towards  the 
close  of  1812  ;  it  was  followed  within  two  months  by  an- 
other smaller  poem,  entitled  the  "  Bridal  of  Triermain." 


The  latter,  having  been  composed  pari  passu  with 
"  Rokeby,"  was  published  anonymously.  Coming  out  as 
it  did  so  soon  after  the  other,  many  persons  were  led 
to  believe  it  must  be  the  production  of  a  different  author. 
Some  eminent  critics,  indeed,  regarded  it  as  a  very  suc- 
cessful imitation  of  Scott's  style  of  composition,  and, 
while  it  was  admitted  that,  as  a  whole,  it  fell  below  the 
best  works  of  the  great  master,  it  was  pronounced  to  be 
in  some  respects  fully  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  them. 
The  popularity  enjoyed  by  "  Rokeby"  was  far  from  equal- 
ling that  of  Scott's  earlier  poems.  This  was  probably 
due  in  part  to  the  public  having  become,  in  consequence 
of  the  great  number  of  wretched  imitations  which  had 
appeared,  surfeited  with  that  kind  of  poetry,  and  per- 
haps still  more — as  Scott  himself  believed — to  the  rising 
influence  of  Byron's  bolder  and  more  impassioned  genius. 
The  position  of  poet-laureate  was  offered  to  Scott  on 
the  part  of  the  prince  regent  in  August,  1813,  but  was 
respectfully  declined.  In  July,  1814,  was  published 
"  Waverley,  or  'Tis  Sixty  Years  Since,"  the  first  of  that 
marvellous  series  of  novels  which  were  destined  to  form 
a  new  era  in  the  history  of  romance,  and  to  place  the 
name  of  Scott  on  the  highest  pinnacle  of  literary  fame. 

Contrasting  "  Waverley"  with  the  coarse  prosaic  or 
gossiping  character  of  some  of  the  previous  popular 
novels,  Prescott  observes,  "  But  a  work  now  appeared  in 
which  the  author  swept  over  the  whole  range  of  charac- 
ter with  entire  freedom  as  well  as  fidelity,  ennobling  the 
whole  by  high  historic  associations,  and  in  a  style  varying 
with  his  theme,  but  whose  pure  and  classic  flow  was  tinc- 
tured with  just  so  much  of  poetic  colouring  as  suited  the 
purposes  of  romance.    It  was  Shakspeare  in  prose." 

"  Waverley"  had  been  commenced  nine  years  before, 
but,  discouraged  by  the  criticism  of  one  of  his  friends,  Scott 
had  laid  the  work  aside.  He  appears,  however,  not  to 
have  wholly  lost  sight  of  it ;  for  in  1810  he  sent  a  por- 
tion of  it  to  his  friend  James  Ballantyne  the  publisher, 
desiring  his  opinion.  Ballantyne,  although  severely 
criticising  some  parts,  warmly  praised  the  humour  and 
spirit  of  the  work  ;  and  in  reply  to  the  question,  "  Should 
the  author  go  on  ?"  said,  "Certainly:  I  have  no  doubt 
of  success,  though  it  is  impossible  to  guess  how  much." 

In  a  letter  to  a  friend,  Scott  says,  "  I  had  written  a 
great  part  of  the  first  volume,  and  sketched  other  pas- 
sages, when  I  mislaid  the  manuscript,  and  only  found  it 
by  the  merest  accident  as  I  was  rummaging  the  drawers 
of  an  old  cabinet ;  and  I  took  the  fancy  of  finishing  it, 
which  I  did  so  fast  that  the  last  two  volumes  were  written 
in  three  weeks." 

The  work  was  published  anonymously.  Five  editions 
of  it  (in  all,  6000  copies)  were  called  for  within  less  than 
seven  months.  "'Guy  Mannering,'  by  the  author  of 
'Waverley,'"  followed  in  February,  1815.  The  name 
"  Waverley  Novels"  was  afterwards  applied  to  the  en- 
tire series  of  those  wonderful  fictions  ;  and  their  anony- 
mous author  was  popularly  styled  "  the  Great  Unknown." 
The  "Lord  of  the  Isles,"  which  Scott  had  had  for  some 
time  in  preparation,  was  published  a  month  before  "Guy 
Mannering."  This  is  one  of  the  most  delightful  of  his 
minor  poems.  If  in  its  general  tone  it  is  not  equal  to 
"  Marmion"  or  the  "  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  it  has  occasional 
passages  which  are  scarcely  if  at  all  inferior  to  the  finest 
in  those  poems.  "  The  Field  of  Waterloo,"  generally 
considered  as  among  the  least  successful  of  Scott's 
poetical  works,  made  its  appearance  in  October,  1815. 
"  Harold  the  Dauntless,"  another  poem,  published  in 
1817,  maybe  regarded  as  the  last  of  his  efforts  in  this 
line.  He  appears  afterwards  to  have  directed  all  his 
energies  towards  working  the  new  and  richer  mine  of 
prose  fiction,  which  his  genius  had  so  lately  opened. 
Next  to  his  all-but  unrivalled  skill  in  the  delineation  of 
character,  and  the  graphic  power  and  wonderful  vivid- 
ness of  his  pictures, — whether  of  the  scenes  of  tranquil 
nature,  or  of  the  intense  excitement  and  wild  tumult  of 
battle, — what  most  amazes  us  is  the  marvellous  fertility 
of  his  genius.  There  is  in  the  whole  history  of  literature 
no  other  example  of  such  rapid  and  inexhaustible  pro- 
ductiveness, if  we  take  into  consideration  the  character 
as  well  as  the  number  and  extent  of  his  writings, — Lope 
de  Vega  alone  excepted.  "  Guy  Mannering"  was  followed 
by  "The  Antiquary,"  in  May,  1816,  "The  Black  Dwarf" 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  \  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  ia,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;Qii^  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


SCOTT 


1985 


SCOTT 


and  "Old  Mortality"  appeared  in  December  of  the  same 
year,  "Rob  Roy"  was  published  in  1817;  and  thus  for 
more  than  ten  years  he  continued  to  pour  forth,  appa- 
rently without  effort,  those  brilliant  and  fascinating 
fictions  which  quickly  spread  his  fame  not  merely 
wherever  the  English  language  was  spoken,  but  to  the 
utmost  limits  of  the  civilized  world.  A  list  of  his  novels 
and  other  prose  writings  will  be  given  in  another  place. 

In  1820,  without  any  solicitation  on  his  part  or  that 
of  his  friends,  the  rank  of  a  baronet  was  conferred  on 
Scott  by  the  king.  Up  to  his  fifty-fifth  year  Scott  ap- 
pears to  have  experienced  a  degree  of  prosperity  rarely 
vouchsafed  to  mortals.  His  success  as  a  writer  had 
been  without  example  in  the  history  of  literature.  He 
had  enjoyed  in  the  largest  measure  not  merely  the  ap- 
plause of  the  multitude  and  the  friendship  of  the  great, 
but  what  was  far  more, — the  universal  esteem  of  those 
whose  esteem  was  most  to  be  valued.  His  good  sense, 
his  manly  modesty,  his  unaffected  kindness  of  heart, 
and  his  nobleness  of  spirit,  commanded  the  respect 
and  admiration  of  those  who,  from  religious  or  party 
prejudice,  were  the  most  opposed  to  him, — for  personal 
enemies  he  had  none.  Perhaps  the  only  considerable 
weakness  in  his  character  was  his  ambition  to  found  a 
new  family,  which  should  constitute  a  distinct  branch 
of  the  famous  house  or  clan  from  which  he  boasted  his 
descent.  To  accomplish  this  grand  aim  was  the  goal 
of  all  his  aspirations, — the  object  of  all  his  plans  and 
labours.  By  his  friendship  for  the  Ballantynes,  whom  he 
had  known  from  boyhood,  he  was  induced  not  only  to 
intrust  to  them  the  publication  of  his  works,  but  to  be- 
come a  secret  partner  in  their  firm.  He  was  thus  com- 
plicated in  commercial  speculations  which  were  destined 
to  involve  him  in  irretrievable  disaster.  He  appears 
to  have  reposed  unlimited  confidence  in  the  prudence 
and  mercantile  ability  of  the  Ballantynes,  as  well  as  in 
that  of  Constable,  with  whom  they  were  commercially 
connected.  But  Constable,  though  an  able  man,  was 
sometimes  rash;  and  James  Ballantyne  appears  to  have 
been  wanting  in  thorough  business  habits.  The  final 
catastrophe  was  hastened  by  the  commercial  excitement 
of  1825.  After  some  months  of  painful  suspense,  the 
storm  at  length  burst,  in  all  its  fury,  in  January  of  1826. 
On  examining  into  the  state  of  their  affairs,  it  was  found 
that  Constable  &  Co.  were  able  to  pay  only  two  shillings 
and  ninepence  on  the  pound.  The  firm  of  Ballantyne 
&  Co.,  by  allowing  itself  to  be  declared  bankrupt,  might 
readily  have  come  to  a  settlement  with  its  creditors,  had 
not  Scott  been  a  partner.  He  would  listen  to  no  terms 
of  compromise  ;  all  he  asked  for  was  time.  He  was 
resolved  to  devote  the  remainder  of  his  life,  if  necessary, 
to  the  payment  of  his  debts,  even  to  the  uttermost  far- 
thing. His  heroic  purpose  was  at  last  crowned  with 
success  ;  but  it  cost  him  his  life.  To  be  brief,  from  this 
time  forward  he  applied  himself  to  his  literary  labours 
with  an  assiduity  arid  zeal  such  as  even  he  had  never 
exhibited  before.  Neither  the  attacks  of  severe  indis- 
position nor  the  overwhelming  grief  caused  by  the  death 
of  his  wife,  (which  occurred  in  May,  1826,)  in  the  midst 
of  the  other  misfortunes,  were  allowed  to  interpose  more 
than  a  temporary  interruption  to  the  arduous  task  which 
he  had  undertaken.  In  consequence  of  these  unre- 
mitting and  unparalleled  exertions,  he  had  a  severe 
paralytic  attack  on  the  15th  of  February,  1830;  but  he 
recovered  in  a  few  weeks  so  far  as  to  be  able  to  resume  his 
labours.  He  had,  however,  another  attack  in  Novem- 
ber, 1830,  and  one  still  more  severe  in  April,  1 831.  As 
his  health  continued  to  fail,  it  was  at  length  resolved,  in 
the  autumn  of  1831,  that  he  should  pass  the  winter  in 
Italy.  He  arrived  in  Naples  in  December,  and  re- 
mained there  till  the  middle  of  April,  1832.  In  one  of 
his  letters,  written  while  at  Naples,  he  says,  "  My  plan 
of  paying  my  debts  has  been — thank  God — completely 
successful ;  and,  what  I  think  worth  telling,  I  have  paid 
very  near  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  pounds,  with- 
out owing  anyone  a  halfpenny, — at  least,  I  am  sure  this 
will  be  the  case  by  midsummer."  After  spending  a  short 
time  in  Rome,  he  manifested  a  great  anxiety  to  return 
to  his  native  country.  He  reached  London  on  the  13th  of 
June.  Four  weeks  later  he  arrived  at  Abbotsford,  where 
he  died  on  the  21st  of  September,  1832. 


Scott  has  the  rare  distinction  of  uniting  with  his  fame 
as  an  eminently  successful  author  a  character  as  a  man 
remarkable  not  only  for  modesty,  manliness,  and  com- 
mon sense,  but  for  a  genuine  kindliness  towards  all  with 
whom  he  came  in  contact. 

"  As  to  Scott,"  says  Washington  Irving,  '*  I  cannot 
express  my  delight  at  his  character  and  manners.  He 
is  a  sterling,  golden-hearted  old  worthy,  full  of  the 
joyousness  of  youth,  with  an  imagination  continually 
furnishing  forth  pictures,  and  a  charming  simplicity  of 
manner  that  puts  you  at  ease  with  him  in  a  moment.  It 
has  been  a  constant  source  of  pleasure  to  me  to  remark 
his  deportment  towards  his  family,  his  neighbours,  his 
domestics,  his  very  dogs  and  cats ;  everything  that 
comes  within  his  influence  seems  to  catch  a  beam  of 
that  sunshine  which  plays  round  his  heart."  ("  Life  and 
Letters,"  vol.  i.  pp.  381-2.) 

Referring  to  a  conversation  about  Goethe,  which 
Scott  had  with  Mr.  Cheney  in  Rome  in  the  spring  of 
1832,  the  latter  remarks,  '*  He  did  not  seem,  however,  to 
be  a  great  admirer  of  some  of  Goethe's  works  ;  .  .  . 
much  of  his  popularity,  he  observed,  was  owing  to 
pieces  which  in  his  latter  moments  he  might  have 
wished  recalled.  He  spoke  with  much  feeling.  I 
answered,  he  must  derive  great  consolation  in  the  re- 
flection that  his  own  popularity  was  owing  to  no  such 
cause.  .  .  .  He  added,  '  It  is  a  comfort  to  me  to  think 
that  I  have  tried  to  unsettle  no  man's  faith,  to  corrupt 
no  man's  principles,  and  that  I  have  written  nothing 
which  on  my  death-bed  I  should  wish  blotted.'  " 

The  following  is  a  list  of  Scott's  novels,  with  the  dates 
of  their  publication:  "  Waverley,"  July,  1814;  "Guy 
Mannering,"  February,  1815  ;  "The  Antiquary,"  May, 
1816  ;  "  The  Black  Dwarf  and  "  Old  Mortality,"  (forming 
the  first  series  of  the  "Tales  of  my  Landlord,")  Decem- 
ber, 1816;  "Rob  Roy,"  December,  1817;  "The  Heart 
of  Midlothian,"  ("  Tales  of  my  Landlord,"  second  series,) 
June,  1818;  "The  Bride  of  Lammermoor"  and  "Legend 
of  Montrose,"  (third  series  of  "Tales  of  my  Landlord,") 
June,  1819  ;  "Ivanhoe,"  December,  1819;  "The  Mon- 
astery," March,  1820;  "The  Abbot,"  September,  1820 ; 
"  Kenihvorth,"  January,  1821  ;  "The  Pirate,"  December, 
1821  ;  "The  Fortunes  of  Nigel,"  May,  1822;  "  Peveril 
of  the  Peak,"  January,  1823;  "Quentin  Durward," 
June,  1823;  "Saint  Ronan's  Well,"  December,  1823; 
"The  Red  Gauntlet,"  June,  1824;  "The  Talisman"  and 
"The  Betrothed,"  ("Tales  of  the  Crusaders,")  June,  1825  ; 
"Woodstock,"  June,  1826;  "Chronicles  of  Canongate," 
(containing  the  "  Highland  Widow,"  and  other  tales,) 
November,  1827;  "Fair  Maid  of  Perth,"  April,  1828; 
"Anne  of  Geierstein,"  May,  1829;  "Count  Robert  of 
Paris"  and  "  Castle  Dangerous,"  (fourth  series  of  "  Tales 
of  my  Landlord,")  November,  1831.  Scott  had  written 
in  the  department  of  history  "The  Life  of  Buonaparte," 
of  which  two  editions  yielded  to  the  author's  creditors 
the  enormous  sum  of  ;^i8,ooo.  Of  the  "Tales  of  a 
Grandfather,"  a  popularized  history  of  Scotland,  (dedi- 
cated to  his  little  grandson,  John  Hugh  Lockhart,)  the 
first  series  appeared  in  December,  1827,  the  second  was 
completed  in  December,  1828,  and  the  third  in  Decem- 
ber, 1829.  A  "History  of  France,"  constituting  a  fourth 
series  of  the  "Tales  of  a  Grandfather,"  was  published 
in  1830.  In  addition  to  his  poems,  novels,  and  histories, 
Scott  wrote  many  books  of  less  importance,  among 
which  the  following  are  the  principal  :  a  "  Life  of  Dry- 
den,"  prefixed  to  his  works  in  eighteen  volumes,  edited 
by  Scott,  1808;  "Swift's  Life,"  prefixed  to  his  works  in 
nineteen  volumes,  1814;  "Paul's  Letters  to  his  Kins- 
folk, written  from  the  Continent  after  the  Battle  of 
Waterloo,"  January,  1816;  "Letters  of  Malachi  Mc- 
Growther,"  March,  1820  ;  "Letters  on  Demonology  and 
Witchcraft,"  December,  1830;  miscellaneous  writings, 
including  critical  notices  of  various  authors,  etc. 

Among  those  writers,  of  whatever  age  or  country, 
who  have  successfully  attempted  the  delineation  of  char- 
acter, Scott  may  justly  claim  to  stand  in  the  foremost 
rank.  Shakspeare,  it  must  be  confessed,  surpassed  him 
in  versatility  as  well  as  in  depth  and  power  ;  Goethe  was 
undoubtedly  his  superior  in  that  exquisite  art  which 
seems  to  be  only  another  name  for  nature  herself;  Field- 
ing may  perhaps  be  allowed  to  have  excelled  him  in 


•e  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  VL,guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

125 


SCOTT 


1986 


SCOTT 


the  occasional  representation  of  some  individual  char- 
acter; Victor  Hugo,  Bulwer,  and  many  others  may 
sometimes  rise  above  him  in  that  sort  of  interest  which 
is  due  to  an  artfully-devised  plot  or  to  the  eloquent  ex- 
pression of  intense  passion.  But  if  we  take  into  account 
ALL  those  qualifications  which  properly  belong  to  this 
kind  of  writing,  such  as  the  power  of  vivid  description, 
a  just  appreciation  of  the  nice  shades  of  character,  an 
easy  and  exquisite  humour,  a  sustained  interest,  not 
dependent  so  much  on  marvellous  or  startling  occur- 
rences, or  on  unheard-of  and  harrowing  complications  of 
calamity,  as  upon  the  power  and  vividness  of  the  repre- 
sentation and  the  depth  of  genuine  feeling  evinced  by  the 
author, — if  to  such  qualifications  be  added  a  healthy, 
pure,  and  elevated  moral  sentiment,  as  far  removed  from 
narrowness  and  bigoted  austerity  on  the  one  hand,  as 
from  affectation  and  extravagance  on  the  other,  we 
cannot  deny  that,  although  many  writers  may  have  ex- 
celled Scott  in  some  one  or  two  points,  yet,  "take  him 
for  all  in  all,"  few  have  equalled  and  scarcely  any  have 
surpassed  him, 

"Sir  Walter  Scott,"  says  a  writer  in  "Blackwood," 
"did  for  literature  what  Shakspeare  did  for  the  drama, 
— provided  a  long  and  gorgeous  gallery  of  great,  noble, 
and  sublime  characters,  that  live  in  all  memories,  and 
become,  though  they  are  fictitious,  as  real  as  if  we  all 
of  us  had  actually  seen  and  conversed  with  them."  (See 
article  on  Charles  Kean  in  "Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  April,  1868.) 

Scott  has  often  been  called,  on  account  of  his  marvel- 
lous power  of  creating  illusions,  "the  Great  Enchanter." 
"  Great  and  good  enchanter,"  says  Miss  Edgeworth  ;  "  for 
in  his  magic  there  is  no  dealing  with  unlawful  means. 
.  .  .  In  his  writings  there  is  no  private  scandal,  no  per- 
sonal satire,  no  bribe  to  human  frailty,  no  libel  upon 
human  nature.  .  .  .  His  morality  is  not  in  purple  patches 
ostentatiously  obtrusive,  but  woven  in  through  the  very 
texture  of  the  stuff."  (See  Miss  Edgeworth's  "  Helen," 
vol.  i.  chap,  xii.)  It  has  often  been  urged  as  a  reproach 
to  Scott  that  he  had,  on  the  one  hand,  such  a  high  re- 
spect for  royalty  and  aristocracy,  and,  on  the  other, 
such  an  aversion  to  everything  like  democracy.  This 
peculiarity — or  weakness,  as  some  may  call  it — was  due 
in  part  to  an  innate  reverence  for  antiquity,  which  seemed 
indeed  to  be  an  essential  element  of  his  mental  consti- 
tution, and  in  part  to  the  influence  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution, which  occurred  at  that  period  of  his  youth  when 
the  character  is  peculiarly  susceptible  of  being  moulded 
by  external  circumstances.  Indeed,  not  a  few  persons  who 
could  boast  of  a  cooler  temperament,  if  not  of  stronger 
intellect,  were  powerfully  influenced  by  that  strange  and 
terrible  phenomenon,  and  some  who  otherwise  would,  in 
all  probability,  have  been  ardent  republicans,  appear  to 
have  lost  by  that  event  all  confidence  in  the  power  of 
the  common  people  to  govern  themselves. 

Walter  Scott  had  two  sons  and  two  daughters  ;  his 
eldest  daughter,  Sophia,  was  married  in  1820  to  Mr. 
Lockhart,  afterwards  editor  of  the  "Quarterly  Review." 
Their  daughter  was  married  a  few  years  since  to  Mr, 
Robert  Hope,  who,  by  act  of  Parliament,  took  the  name 
of  Scott,  and  whose  daughter,  Miss  Hope  Scott,  is  the 
possessor  of  Abbotsford,  and  the  only  surviving  descend- 
ant of  Sir  Walter.  The  eldest  son,  Walter,  born  in  1799, 
entered  the  army,  and  on  the  death  of  his  father  inherited 
his  title.  He  died  on  his  return  from  India  in  1847,  ^'^d 
with  him  the  title  became  extinct.  His  younger 
brother,  Charles,  born  in  1805,  had  died  previously. 

See  Lockhart,  "  Life  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,"  3  vols.,  1835  :  George 
Allan,  "  Life  of  Sir  W.  Scott;"  James  Hogg,  "  Familiar  Anecdotes 
of  Sir  W.  Scott,"  1834  :  Amedee  Pichot,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  W. 
Scott,"  1821  ;  C.  G.  Jacob,  "  W.  Scott;  biosraphisch-literarischer 
Versiich,"  1820;  Nayi.kr,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  W.  Scott," 
1833;  L.  de  Lomenie.  "Sir  W.  Scott,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1841;  S.  Roberts,  "  W.  Scott's  Jungendleben,"  1837;  C.  P.  Hag- 
berg,  "  Cervantes  et  W.  Scott,"  1838  ;  G.  von  Kramer,  "  Leben  iind 
Werke  W.  Scotts,"  1833;  Prescott,  "  Bio3;raphical  and  Critical 
Miscellanies;"  "  Edinbiirs;h  Review"  for  April,  1808,  February, 
1815,  and  March,  1817,  (by  Jefkrky;)  "Quarterly  Review"  for 
May,  1810,  December,  1812,  April,  1816,  January  and  April,  1868; 
"Westminster  Review"  for  Januaiy,  1838,  (by  Carlvle  ;)  "  North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1838,  (by  Prescott;)  "Domestic 
Manners  of  Sir  W.  Scott,"  in  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  August, 
1834,  (by  James  Hogg.) 

Scott,  (William.)    See  Stowelt,,  Lord. 


Scott,  (Winfield,)  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
of  American  generals,  was  born  near  Petersburg,  Vir- 
ginia, on  the  13th  of  June,  1786.  His  paternal  grands 
father,  a  native  of  Scotland,  took  part  in  the  rebellion 
of  1745,  and,  after  the  disastrous  battle  of  CuUoden,  in 
which  his  elder  brother  was  slain,  emigrated  to  Vir- 
ginia, where  he  married,  and  engaged  in  the  profession 
of  law.  His  son  William  married  Ann  Mason, — a  lady 
of  one  of  the  most  respectable  families  in  the  State.  Of 
the  two  sons  of  William  Scott,  who  died  in  1791,  Win- 
field,  the  subject  of  the  present  article,  was  the  younger. 
He  studied  law  at  William  and  Mary  College,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1806.  In  1807  he  became  a 
volunteer  in  a  troop  of  horse,  called  out  under  the  pro- 
clamation which  President  Jefferson  issued  after  the  at- 
tack on  the  Chesapeake,  forbidding  English  war-vessels 
to  enter  the  harbours  of  the  United  States.  During  the 
next  session  of  Congress  (1807-08)  a  bill  was  passed  for 
increasing  the  army  ;  and  Scott  was  soon  after  appointed 
a  captain  of  artillery.  In  1809  he  was  ordered  to  New 
Orleans,  to  join  the  army  under  General  Wilkinson. 
Having  indiscreetly  censured  the  conduct  of  his  gene- 
ral, and  even  intimated  his  complicity  with  the  treason 
of  Burr,  Scott  was  tried  by  a  court-martial,  and  sen- 
tenced to  be  suspended  for  one  year.  What  was  de- 
signed as  a  punishment  proved,  it  would  seem,  a  real 
advantage  to  him.  He  spent  the  term  of  his  suspension 
in  the  diligent  prosecution  of  studies  connected  with  his 
profession,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  that  thorough 
acquaintance  with  military  science  for  which  he  became 
afterwards  so  distinguished.  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  war  of  1812  he  was  made  a  lieutenant-colonel  and 
ordered  to  the  Canada  frontier.  In  October,  General 
Van  Rensselaer  planned  an  attack  on  the  British  forces 
then  occupying  Queenstown  Heights.  Some  time  after 
the  action  had  commenced,  Scott  crossed  over  from 
Lewiston,  and  arrived  on  the  field.  Colonel  Van  Rens- 
selaer, who  had  the  chief  command  of  the  American 
troops  on  the  Canada  side,  having  been  severely 
wounded,  Scott  succeeded  to  the  command.  His  ex- 
hortations, supported  by  his  heroic  example,  so  in- 
spirited his  men  that  they  drove  back  the  enemy  with 
great  loss  ;  and  even  after  the  British  had  been  largely 
reinforced  by  the  arrival  of  General  SheafTe,  they  still 
for  a  time  bravely  maintained  the  fight,  though  out- 
numbered by  more  than  three  to  one.  Unhappily,  at 
this  critical  juncture,  the  main  body  of  the  American 
army,  which  had  not  yet  crossed  the  river,  was  seized 
with  a  panic,  and  could  not  by  any  considerations  be 
prevailed  upon  to  enter  the  boats.  All  hope  of  succour 
being  thus  cut  off,  Scott  was  compelled  to  surrender  his 
entire  force  ;  which  he  did  with  the  honours  of  war. 
Having  been  exchanged  in  the  early  part  of  1813,  he 
soon  after  joined,  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  the  army 
under  General  Dearborn,  in  the  capacity  of  adjutant- 
general.  He  especially  distinguished  himself  at  the 
capture  of  Fort  George,  Upper  Canada,  in  May,  1813. 
After  braving  incredible  perils,  he  carried  the  place, 
which  he  was  the  first  to  enter,  and  with  his  own  hands 
took  down  the  flag  that  was  waving  over  it.  We  cannot 
here  forbear  to  relate  an  incident  which,  while  it  showSj 
the  magnanimity  of  Scott's  character,  may  serve  to  re- 
lieve for  a  moment  the  harsh  and  repulsive  features  of 
"  grim-visaged  war."  After  Scott  had  been  taken  pris- 
oner at  Queenstown,  a  British  officer  asked  him  if  he 
had  ever  seen  the  neighbouring  Falls.  Scott  answered, 
"Yes  ;  from  the  American  side."  The  other  remarked, 
"You  must  have  a  siicccssful  fight  before  you  can  see 
them  in  all  their  grandeur,"  (the  finest  view  being  from 
the  Canada  shore.)  Scott  rejoined,  "  Sir,  if  it  be  your 
intention  to  insult  me,  honour  should  have  prompted 
you  first  to  return  me  my  sword."  The  officer  was  re- 
buked by  General  Sheaffe,  and  the  subject  was  dropped 
for  the  time.  At  the  capture  of  Fort  George,  this 
same  officer  was  taken  prisoner  in  turn.  Scott  treated 
him  with  every  mark  of  attention  and  kindness,  and  at 
last  obtained  permission  for  him  to  return  to  England 
on  parole.  Overcome  by  this  generosity,  he  said,  with 
feeling,  "  I  have  long  owed  you  an  apology,  sir.  You 
have  overwhelmed  me  with  kindnesses.  You  can  now 
at  your  leisure  view  the  Falls  in  all  their  glory." 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAor^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SCOTT 


1987 


SCRIBJNI 


In  March,  1814,  Scott  was  made  a  brigadier-general. 
Soon  afterwards,  the  troops  of  three  brigades  were 
placed  in  a  camp  of  instruction  at  Buffalo,  under  his 
immediate  supervision,  and  for  three  months  were 
thoroughly  drilled  in  the  modern  French  system  of 
tactics.  The  discipline  thus  acquired  was  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  the  operations  of  the  ensuing  campaign. 
On  the  3d  of  July,  the  American  army,  consisting  of 
Scott's  and  Ripley's  brigades  and  Hindman's  artillery, 
crossed  the  Niagara  River  and  captured  Fort  Erie.  On 
the  5th,  the  battle  of  Chippewa  was  fought,  and  the 
British  army  under  General  Rial)  was  driven  beyond  the 
Chippewa  River.  The  25t.h  of  July  witnessed  the  hard- 
fought  battle  of  Lundy's  Lane,  (otherwise  called  "  the 
battle  of  Niagara,")  on  which  occasion  General  Scott 
had  two  horses  killed  under  him,  and  was  twice  wounded, 
the  second  time  severely,  by  a  musket-ball  passing 
through  the  left  shoulder.  It  was  after  eleven  o'clock 
P.M.  when  the  fighting  ceased,  the  Americans  remaining 
for  the  night  in  possession  of  the  field  of  battle,  al- 
though, unhappily,  for  the  want  of  water,  they  were 
compelled  to  abandon  it  early  the  next  morning.  Several 
months  elapsed  before  Scott  had  recovered  from  his 
wounds.  For  his  eminent  services  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  major-general,  and,  not  long  after,  Congress 
passed  a  vote  of  thanks,  (November  3,  1814,)  at  the 
same  time  requesting  the  President  to  bestow  upon  him 
a  gold  medal  "  for  his  distinguished  services"  and  for 
his  "  uniform  gallantry  and  good  conduct  in  sustaining 
the  reputation  of  the  arms  of  the  United  States."  The 
medal  was  afterwards  presented  to  him  by  President 
Monroe.  The  treaty  of  peace  having  been  ratified  by 
the  Senate  in  February,  1815,  Scott  was  offered  a  seat 
in  the  cabinet  as  secretary  of  war,  which  position,  how- 
ever, he  declined.  In  the  summer  of  1815  he  visited 
Europe  in  a  diplomatic  as  well  as  military  capacity; 
and  he  afterwards  received  a  letter  of  thanks  from  the 
President,  through  the  secretary  of  state,  for  the  success 
with  which  he  had  fulfilled  his  mission.  He  returned 
to  the  United  States  in  1816  ;  and  the  following  year  he 
was  married  to  the  daughter  of  John  Mayo,  Esq.,  of 
Richmond,  Virginia. 

In  1832  a  war  broke  out  between  the  Sac  Indians, 
under  their  chief  Black  Hawk,  and  the  whites  on  the 
northwestern  frontier.  Scott  was  ordered  by  the  war 
department  to  proceed  to  the  scene  of  action  ;  but 
Black  Hawk  was  taken  prisoner  and  the  war  virtually 
brought  to  a  close  before  he  reached  the  place  of  his 
destination.  During  the  passage  the  cholera  broke  out 
among  his  troops  with  a  fearful  fatality.  On  this  oc- 
casion General  Scott  exhibited  traits  of  character  more 
rare,  and  certainly  not  less  glorious,  than  those  which 
had  won  for  him  so  brilliant  a  reputation  on  the  battle- 
field. Not  satisfied  with  merely  making  such  general 
arrangements  as  were  required  for  the  proper  attendance 
of  the  sick,  and  such  as  were  deemed  necessary  to  pre- 
vent the  spread  of  infection,  he  visited  and  comforted 
the  suffering,  and  by  his  courageous  example  sought 
to  inspire  the  well  with  hope  and  confidence, — which 
was  the  more  difificult  because  at  that  time  the  cholera 
was  almost  universally  regarded  as  contagious.  When, 
towards  the  end  of  1832,  the  nullification  difficulties 
began  in  South  Carolina,  General  Scott  was  sent  by 
President  Jackson  on  a  confidential  mission  to  Charles- 
ton, that  he  might  take  the  proper  measures  to  prevent, 
or,  if  need  be,  to  quell,  the  threatened  insurrection.  In 
this  difficult  enterprise  he  displayed  great  tact  as  well  as 
prudence  and  firmness,  and  was  completely  successful. 
On  the  death  of  General  Macomb,  in  June,  1841,  Scott 
succeeded  to  the  position  of  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  of  the  United  States. 

After  the  commencement  of  the  war  with  Mexico,  in 
the  spring  of  1846,  the  first  campaign  was  made,  and 
the  battles  of  Palo  Alto,  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  and 
Buena  Vista  were  fought,  under  the  conduct  of  General 
Taylor.  In  1847  vigorous  preparations  were  made  for 
prosecuting  the  war  on  a  more  extensive  scale,  and 
General  Scott  was  directed  to  take  the  chief  command 
of  the  army  in  Mexico.  A  particular  account  of  the 
operations  which  followed  belongs  rather  to  history  than 
to  a  biography.     Suffice  it  to  say  that  if  Scott  had  ac- 


quired on  the  fields  of  Chippewa  and  Niagara  the  most 
brilliant  reputation  as  a  gallant  and  skilful  soldier,  in  the 
Mexican  war  he  gave  proof  of  strategic  talents  of  the 
highest  order,  and  won  for  himself  a  place  in  the  front  rank 
of  the  most  distinguished  generals  of  the  age.  He  began 
the  campaign  in  March,  1847,  by  investing  the  city  of 
Vera  Cruz,  which,  with  the  Castle  of  San  Juan  d'Uiloa, 
capitulated  on  the  26th  of  that  month, — the  garrison, 
which  consisted  of  about  five  thousand  men,  surren- 
dering on  parole.  The  army  of  the  besiegers  amounted 
to  about  twelve  thousand  men.  On  the  i8th  of  April 
Scott  attacked  and  took  Cerro  Gordo, — a  mountain- 
fastness  of  great  strength,  defended  by  fifteen  thousand 
Mexicans  under  the  command  of  Santa  Anna  himself. 
Subsequently  were  fought  the  battles  of  Churubusco, 
(August  20,)  Molino  del  Rey,  (September  8,)  and  Cha- 
pultepec,  (September  13,) — all  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  city  of  Mexico.  Early  in  the  morning  of  Sep- 
tember 14  the  army  of  General  Scott  entered  the  city 
I  in  triumph  ;  and  at  seven  A.M.  the  American  flag  floated 

1  over  the  National  Palace.  The  treaty  of  Guadalupe 
Hidalgo  was  signed  February  2,  1848,  and  the  Mexican 
capital  was  soon  after  evacuated  by  the  American  forces. 

In  1852,  Scott  was  nominated  by  the  Whig  party  as 
their  candidate  for  the  Presidency  ;  but,  in  the  subse- 
quent election,  General  Pierce,  the  Democratic  nominee, 
was  chosen  President,  Scott  receiving  the  electoral  vote 
of  but  four  States.  In  1855  the  honorary  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-general was  conferred  upon  Scott,  with  the  pro- 
vision that  the  title  should  cease  at  his  death. 

He  worthily  closed  his  long  and  illustrious  public 
career,  by  casting  his  powerful  influence  into  the  trem- 
bling scale  of  his  country's  fortunes,  at  a  time  when  not 
only  his  native  State,  but  a  large  number  of  his  former 
friends  and  comrades,  in  whom  the  nation  once  trusted 
with  unwavering  confidence,  were  doing  everything  in 
their  power  to  strengthen  the  cause  of  rebellion.  In 
November,  1861,  Scott  resigned  his  active  duties  at 
Washington,  and  retired  to  private  life,  though  he  re- 
tained his  full  pay,  according  to  a  special  provision 
passed  by  Congress  in  the  summer  session.  Having 
sailed  to  Europe  for  his  health,  a  few  days  after  he 
landed,  the  news  of  Mason  and  Slidell's  capture  arrived 
in  England.  The  danger  of  a  war  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  appearing  imminent,  that 
his  country  might  not  be  deprived  of  his  counsels  or 
services  at  so  critical  a  moment,  regardless  of  all  merely 
personal  considerations,  he  at  once  returned  to  his 
native  shores.  He  soon  after  retired  to  his  residence 
in  New  York.    He  died  at  West  Point  in  May,  1866. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Lieutenant-General  Scott,  written  by  Himself," 

2  vols.,  1864;  Mansfield,  "  Life  ot  (General  Scott,"  1846;  Headlev, 
"  Life  of  Scott,"  1852  ;  "  National  Portrait  Gallery  of  Distinguished 
Americans,"  vol.  iv.  ;  Mansfiki.d,  "Mexican  War,"  1848. 

Scotti,  skot'tee,  (Giulio  Clemente,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Piacenza  in  1602.  He  joined  the  order 
of  Jesuits,  but  afterwards  became  their  enemy.  Among 
his  works  is  "  Monarchia  Solipsorum,"  (1645,)  directed 
against  the  Jesuits.    Died  in  1669. 

Scotti,  (Marcello,)  a  political  writer,  born  at  Naples 
in  1742  ;  died  in  1800. 

Scotus.    See  Scott  and  Duns  Scotus. 

Scotus,  (Duns.)    See  Duns  Scotus. 

Scotus,  (John.)    See  Erigena. 

Scougal,  skoo'gal,  (Henry,)  a  Scottish  divine  and 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Al)erdeen,  was  born  in  East 
Lothian  in  1650.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "The 
Life  of  God  in  the  Soul  of  Man,"  etc.    Died  in  1678. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Scoutetten,  skoo'ti't5N',  (Robert  Joseph  Henri,) 
a  French  surgeon,  born  at  Lille  in  1799,  has  published  a 
number  of  medical  works. 

Scran'ton,  (George  W.,)  an  American  manufacturer, 
born  in  New  Haven  county,  Connecticut,  in  181 1.  He 
removed  to  Pennsylvania,  and  established  iron-works  at 
Scranton,  which  was  named  in  his  honour.  He  repre- 
sented the  twelfth  district  of  Pennsylvania  in  Congress 
from  1859  until  his  death.    He  died  in  1861. 

Scribani,  skRe-bi'nee,  (Charles,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit, 
born  at  Brussels  in  1561.  He  wrote  many  theological 
and  polemical  works.    Died  in  1629. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  o,  H,  Yi.guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SCRIBE 


1988 


SEB^ 


Scribe,  skR^b,(AuGUSTiN  Eugene,)  a  popular  French 
comic  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1791.  lie  wrote  comic 
operas  and  vaudevilles  in  which  the  character  and  foibles 
of  the  middle  classes  of  Paris  are  well  represented.  He 
employed  many  collaborators  in  the  production  of  his 
works,  which  are  very  numerous.  In  1835  he  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  French  Academy,  where  Villemain  re- 
ceived him  with  a  complimentary  speech.  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Solicitor,"  ("Le  Solliciteur,"  1817,) 
"  Fra  Diavolo,"  (1830,)  "The  Crown  Diamonds,"  (1841,) 
"  The  Glass  of  Water,"  (1842,)  and  "  Bertrand  et  Raton." 
His  plots  are  ingenious,  and  his  dialogues  natural  and 
animated.    Died  in  1861. 

See  L.  DE  LoMENiE,  "  Galerie  des  Contemporains ;"  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "Portraits  contemporains;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1832. 

Scri-bo'ni-us  Lar'gus  Des-ig-na-ti-a'nus,  (des- 
ig-ni-she-a'nus,)  a  Roman  physician  in  the  time  of  Tibe- 
rius and  Claudius,  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled 
"On  the  Composition  of  Medicaments,"  ("  De  Compo- 
sitione  Medicamentorum.") 

Scrim''zeor  or  Scrim''ger,  (Henry,)  a  Scottish 
critic,  eminent  for  learning,  was  born  at  Dundee  in 
1506.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  and  civil 
law  at  Geneva,  where  he  died  in  1571  or  1572. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Scriv'en,  (Edward.)  an  English  engraver  in  the 
chalk  and  dotted  manner,  was  born  at  Alcester  in  1775. 
He  engraved  portraits  and  illustrated  various  expensive 
works  for  the  booksellers.    Died  in  1841. 

Scriver,skRee'ver,(CHRiSTiAN,)  a  German  divine,  born 
at  Rendsburg  in  1629,  was  court  preacher  at  Quedlinburg 
in  1690.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Gotthold's  Emblems," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1693. 

Scriverius.    See  Schryvek. 

Scroggs,  (Sir  Wili-Iam,)  a  English  judge  of  ill  repu- 
tation, born  in  Oxfordshire  in  1623.  lie  was  appointed 
chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  in  1678.  Suspected  of 
collusion  with  Titus  Oates  in  the  Popish  Plot,  he  was 
removed  in  1681.    Died  in  1683. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices." 

Scrope,  (George  Poulett  Thomson,)  an  English 
geologist,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  a  brother 
of  Lord  Sydenham,  was  born  in  1797.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Geology  of  Cen- 
tral France,"  (1827,)  and  a  "Life  of  Lord  Sydenham," 
(1843.)  was  elected  to  Parliament,  as  a  Liberal,  for 
the  borough  of  Stroud,  in  1833. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1847. 

Scud'der,  (Henry,)  an  English  Presbyterian  divine 
of  the  time  of  Cromwell,  was  the  author  of  a  popular 
work  entitled  "The  Christian's  Daily  Walk." 

Scud'der,  (John  M.,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  divine  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  was  born  at 
New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey,  in  1793.  In  1819  he  sailed 
as  a  missionary  to  Ceylon,  where  he  resided  nineteen 
years.  He  was  the  author  of  "  The  Redeemer's  Last 
Command,"  "Letters  to  Children  on  Missionary  Sub- 
jects," and  other  religious  w'orks.    Died  in  1855. 

Scuderi  or  Scudery,  de,  deh  skli'da're',  (George,) 
a  French  dramatist,  was  born  at  Havre  about  1601.  He 
was  patronized  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  his  works 
had  great  popularity  in  his  time,  but  are  now  forgotten. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.   Died  in  1667. 

Scuderi  or  Scudery,  de,  (Madeleine,)  sister  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1607.  She  wrote  numerous  ro- 
mances, which  were  greatly  admired  by  her  contempo- 
raries. Among  these  we  may  name  "  Artamene,  ou  le 
Grand  Cyrus,"  (10  vols.,)  "  Clelie,"  (10  vols.,)  and  "  Ibra- 
ham,  ou  I'illustre  Bassa."  She  also  published  numerous 
tales,  fables,  and  poems.  Mademoiselle  de  Scuderi  was 
the  most  distinguished  member  of  the  society  which 
met  at  the  Hotel  de  Rambouillet,  and  which  has  been 
immortalized  by  Moliere  in  his  "  Precieuses  ridicules." 
Died  in  1701. 

See  Tallemant  DES  Ri^AUX,  "  Historiettes  ;"  Nic^kon,  "Me- 
moires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Scudery.    See  Scud^rl 

Scultetus.    See  Schultet,  Schultz,  and  Scultz. 
Scultz,  skdolts,  [Lat.  Sculte'tus,]  (Johann,)  a 
German  surgeon,  born  at  Ulm  in  1595,  was  a  pupil  of 


Spigelius.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Armamentarium 
Chirurgicum,"  a  surgical  work  highly  esteemed  at  the 
time.    Died  in  1645. 

Scylax,  si'laks,  [S/ciAa^,]  a  Greek  mathematician  and 
geographer,  was  a  native  of  Caryanda,  near  Halicarnas- 
sus,  and  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  500  B.C.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Periplus  of  the  Parts  beyond  the 
Columns  of  Hercules,"  which  was  first  published  by 
Hoeschel  in  1600. 

S9y-lit'zes  or  S9y-lit'za,  [S/cu/LiVCw,]  (John,)  a 
Byzantine  historian,  sometimes  called  Curopala'tes, 
flourished  about  1050-80.  He  wrote  a  valuable  history 
of  the  Greek  Empire,  IiVvoipL^  ioTopLtbv. 

See  Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography." 

Sgyl'la  [Gr.  2/ci'AAa]  and  -CJha-ryb'dis,  of  classic 
mythology,  were  represented  as  two  monsters  which  in- 
fested the  strait  between  Italy  and  Sicily  and  rendered 
the  navigation  of  that  passage  very  dangerous.  They 
were  located  one  on  each  side  of  a  narrow  channel, 
through  which  ships  must  pass,  so  that  the  mariner  who 
avoided  one  was  apt  to  become  a  victim  of  the  other, 
as  the  proverb  says, — 

"  Incidit  in  Scyllam  qui  vult  vitare  Charybdim." 

The  poets  feigned  that  Scylla  was  a  maiden  transformed 
by  Circe  into  a  monster  that  barked  like  a  dog.  Scylla 
is,  perhaps,  the  personification  of  a  rock,  and  Charybdis 
of  a  whirlpool. 

Scymnus,  sim'nus,  [I,KVjLivoc,]  of  Chios,  a  Greek 
geographer,  who  lived  about  80  B.C.,  was  the  author  of  a 
description  of  the  earth,  in  Iambic  verse,  of  which  only 
fragments  are  extant. 

Seabury,  see'ber-e,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  born  at  Groton,  Connecticut,  in  1729.  He  grad' 
uated  at  Yale  College,  and  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Con- 
necticut in  1783.    Died  in  1796. 

Seabury,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine  of 
the  Episcopal  Church,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1801.  He  became  editor  of  the  New  York 
"Churchman"  in  1834.  He  published  "  American  Sla- 
very Justified  by  the  Law  of  Nature,"  (1861,)  and  other 
works. 

Seals'field,  (Charles,)  a  litterateur,  of  German  ex- 
traction, resided  many  years  in  the  United  States,  and  be- 
came associate  editor  of  the  "Courrier  des  Etats-Unis," 
New  York,  in  1829.  He  published  (in  English)  "Tokeah, 
or  the  White  Rose,"  and  "  Sketches  of  Transatlantic 
Travels,"  "Pictures  of  Life  from  both  Hemispheres," 
and  "South  and  North,"  (in  German,  3  vols.,  1842.) 
Translations  of  portions  of  the  three  last-named  works 
appeared  in  "Blackwood's  Magazine."    Died  in  1864. 

See  the  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1846. 

Sea'man,  (Lazarus,)  an  English  dissenter  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  one  of  the  divines  of  the 
Westminster  Assembly.    Died  in  1675. 

Sears,  seerz,  (Barnas,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine 
and  scholar,  born  at  Sandisfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1802. 
Having  studied  at  several  German  universities,  he  be- 
came, after  his  return,  president  of  Brown  University, 
at  Providence,  (1855.)  He  has  published,  among  other 
works,  "  Ciceroniana ;  or.  The  Prussian  Mode  of  In- 
struction in  Latin,"  and  a  "Life  of  Luther,  with  Special 
Reference  to  its  Earlier  Periods,"  etc.,  (1850.)  He  has 
also  contributed  to  the  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra"  and  the 
"Christian  Review." 

Sea'ton,  (John  Colborne,)  Baron,  an  English 
general  and  statesman,  born  in  1776.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Peninsular  war,  and  was  afterwards 
appointed  Governor  of  Canada.  He  obtained  the 
grand  cross  of  the  order  of  the  Bath  in  1838,  was 
made  a  general  in  1854,  and  in  1855  commander  of  the 
military  forces  in  Ireland.    Died  in  1863. 

Sea'tpn,  (William  Winston,)  an  Atnerican  jour- 
nalist, born  in  King  William  county,  Virginia,  in  1785, 
was  editor  successively  of  the  Petersburg  "  Republican" 
and  the  "North  Carolina  Journal,"  and  in  1812  became 
associated  with  his  brother-in-law,  Mr.  Gales,  as  editor 
of  the  "National  Intelligencer,"  at  Washington.  Died 
in  1866. 

Seba,  sa'bS,  (Albert,)  a  Dutch  amateur  naturalist, 
born  in  East  Friesland  in  1665,  acquired  a  large  fortune 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


SEBASTIAN 


1989 


SEDAINE 


in  the  service  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  which 
he  spent  in  forming  a  museum  of  objects  in  natural  his- 
tory. This  collection  having  been  purchased  by  Peter 
the  Great  of  Russia,  Seba  made  another,  still  larger, 
which  was  esteemed  the  finest  in  Europe.  He  pub- 
lished a  description  of  his  museum,  in  Latin  and  French, 
(4  vols,  fol.)  He  died  in  1736,  soon  after  which  his  col- 
lection was  sold  at  auction. 

Sebastian,  se-bast'yan,  [Port.  Sebastiao,  si-bis-te- 
own';  Fr.  S^bastien,  sk'bts'te-|,N';  Sp.  Sebastian, 
si-bls-te-in' ;  Lat.  Sebastia'nus,]  Dom,  King  of  Por- 
tugal, and  grandson  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  was 
born  at  Lisbon  in  1554.  He  manifested  at  an  early  age 
a  passion  for  military  adventure  and  romantic  exploits. 
In  1578  he  took  advantage  of  the  dissensions  which  had 
broken  out  in  Morocco  to  invade  that  country,  under 
the  pretext  of  assisting  Muley  Mohanmied  to  recover  his 
throne,  which  had  been  usurped  by  his  uncle,  Abdul- 
Melek  (or  -Malek.)  He  invaded  Morocco,  and  was  op- 
posed by  Abdul-Melek  in  a  battle  near  Alcazar-quivir, 
where  Sebastian  was  defeated  and  killed  in  1578. 

See  Bernardo  da  Cruz,  "  Chronica  de  Dom  Sebastiao,"  1837  ; 
Barbosa  Machado,  "Memorias  para  a  Historia  de  Portugal,"  4 
vols.,  1736-51;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  Baena  Pareda, 
"  Vida  de  D.  Sebastian,"  1691. 

Sebastian,  [Lat.  Sebastia'nus  ;  Fr.  S^bastien,  si'- 
bts'te^N' ;  It.  Sebastiano,  si-bSs-te-S-'no,]  Saint,  a 
celebrated  Christian  martyr  of  the  third  century,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  native  of  Narbonne,  in  France. 
He  served  as  a  captain  in  the  praetorian  guard  under 
Diocletian.  Having  refused  to  abjure  his  faith,  he  was 
tied  to  a  tree  and  pierced  with  arrows,  A.D.  288.  His 
martyrdom  has  been  a  favourite  subject  with  the  painters 
of  the  middle  ages,  and  his  protection  is  invoked  by  the 
Catholics  against  pestilence. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Sebastian  del  Piombo.    See  Piombo. 

Sebastiani,  si-bis-te-i'nee  or  si'bts'te^t'ne',  (Hor- 
ace Francois,)  Count,  a  distinguished  general  and 
diplomatist  in  the  French  service,  was  born  in  Corsica 
about  1775.  He  took  part  in  the  Italian  campaigns  of 
1796  and  1799,  and  rose  to  be  general  of  brigade  in  1802. 
He  afterwards  served  in  Austria,  Spain,  and  Russia. 
He  was  appointed  minister  of  marine  after  the  revolution 
of  1830  by  Louis  Philippe,  and  subsequently  minister  of 
foreign  affairs.  In  1835  he  was  ambassador  to  London, 
and  was  made  a  marshal  of  France  in  1840.  Died  in  185 1. 

See  L.  DE  LoMENiE,  "  M.  le  Comte  de  Sebastiani,"  1841  ; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sebastiani,  (Jean  Andr6  Tiburce,)  Viscount,  a 
general,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Cor- 
sica in  1788.  He  took  part  in  the  Spanish  campaigns 
from  1808  to  1811,  and  accompanied  the  grand  army  to 
Russia  in  1812.  He  was  made  a  lieutenant-general  after 
the  revolution  of  1830,  and  received  the  grand  cross  of 
the  legion  of  honour  in  1845. 

Sebastiano.    See  Sebastian. 

Sebastianus.    See  Sebastian. 

Sebastiao.    See  Sebastian. 

Sebastien.    See  Sebastian. 

Seber,  sa'ber  or  za'ber,  (Wolfgang,)  a  German 
scholar  and  divine,  born  at  Sula  in  1573,  published  an 
"Index  of  all  the  Words  in  Homer,"  ("Index  omnium 
in  Homero  Verborum,")  and  editions  of  several  Greek 
classics.    Died  in  1634. 

Sebonde,  de,  di  sLbon'di,  or  Sabunde,  si-boon'- 
di,  (Raymond,)  a  Spanish  physician  and  theologian, 
born  at  Barcelona,  became  professor  of  medicine,  phi- 
losophy, and  divinity  at  Toulouse.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Theologia  Naturalis,"  (1496,)  which  was  translated 
into  French  by  Montaigne.    Died  about  1432. 

See  Bavle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  J.  Holberg, 
"De  Theologia  Natural!  R.  de  Sebonde,"  1846. 

Sebron,  s^'bR^N',  (Hippolyte,)  a  French  painter, 
born  in  1801,  was  a  pupil  of  Daguerre. 

Sechelles.    See  H6rault  des  S^chelles. 

Seckendorf,  von,  fon  sek'en-doRf  or  zSk'en-doRf, 
(Christian  Adolf,)  Baron,  a  German  dramatist  and 
poet,  born  in  1767  ;  died  in  1833. 

Seckendorf,  von,  (Friedrich  Heinrich,)  Count, 
a  German  commander  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Konigs- 


berg,  in  Franconia,  in  1673,  was  a  nephew  of  Veit  Lud- 
wig,  noticed  below.  He  served  against  the  Turks  under 
Prince  Eugene,  and  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succes- 
sion, and  subsequently  entered  the  army  of  Augustus 
II.  of  Poland.  As  Polish  ambassador  at  the  Hague,  he 
assisted  in  negotiating  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  iii  1713. 
Created  field-marshal-lieutenant  in  1717,  he  fought  under 
Eugene  at  the  battle  of  Belgrade,  and  was  soon  after 
made  a  count  of  the  empire,  general  of  ordnance,  and 
governor  of  Leipsic.  He  concluded  the  treaty  of  Wus- 
terhausen,  in  1726.  On  the  death  of  Eugene  he  became 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Austrian  army  at  Belgrade. 
Died  in  1763. 

See  Theresius  von  Seckendorf,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  des 
Grafen  von  Seckendorf,"  1792-94 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Seckendorf,  von,  (Gustav,)  Baron,  a  German 
writer,  known  by  the  pseudonym  of  Patrick  Peale, 
born  near  Altenburg  in  1775,  was  author  of  a  number 
of  dramas  and  prose  essays.  He  died  in  America 
in  1823. 

Seckendorf,  von,  (Leo,)  Baron,  a  German  litte- 
rateur, brother  of  Christian  Adolf,  noticed  above,  was 
born  near  Hassfurt  about  1773  ;  died  in  1809. 

Seckendorf,  von,  (Veit  Ludwig,)  an  eminent 
German  statesman,  scholar,  and  theologian,  born  near 
Erlangen  in  1626.  In  1691  he  was  appointed  by  the 
Elector  Frederick  III.  (afterwards  Frederick  I.  of  Prus- 
sia) his  privy  councillor,  and  made  chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Halle.  He  was  the  author  of  a  political 
work  entitled  "Deutsche  Fiirstenstaat,"  (1665,)  "His- 
torical and  Apologetical  Commentary  on  Lutheranism," 
"Compendium  of  Ecclesiastical  History,"  (both  in 
Latin,  1666,)  and  "  Christenstaat,"  a  defence  of  Chris- 
tianity against  the  infidel  philosophers.    Died  in  1692. 

See  ScHREBER,  "Historia  Vitae  V.  L.  a  Seckendorf,"  1733; 
Pipping,  "  Memoriae  Theologorum." 

Seck'er,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  prelate,  born 
at  Nottingham  in  1693.  He  studied  at  an  academy  for 
dissenters  at  Tewkesbury,  where  Butler,  the  author  of 
the  "  Analogy,"  was  one  of  his  fellow-students.  He 
afterwards  conformed  to  the  Church  of  England,  entered 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  was  ordained  in  1723.  He 
was  made  Bishop  of  Bristol,  (1735,)  of  Oxford,  (1737,) 
and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  (1758.)  He  died  in  1768, 
leaving  a  number  of  sermons,  lectures,  etc. 

See  Beilbv  Porteus,  "Review  of  the  Life  and  Character  of 
Archbishop  Seeker." 

Second,  (Jean.)    See  Everard,  (Joannes.) 

Secondat,  de.    See  Montesquieu,  de. 

Secondat,  de,  deh  seh-k6N'dt',  (Jean  Baptiste,) 
Baron,  a  son  of  the  celebrated  Montesquieu,  was  born 
near  Bordeaux  in  1716.  He  wrote  several  scientific 
treatises.    Died  in  1796. 

Secondo,  si-kon'do,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Italian 
lawyer  and  litterateur,  born  at  Lucera  in  171 5.  Among 
his  works  is  a  "  Life  of  Julius  Caesar,"  ("  Storia  della 
Vita  di  C.  Giulio  Cesare,"  3  vols.,  1777.)    Died  in  1798. 

Secousse,  seh-kooss',  (Denis  Franqois,)  a  French 
historical  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1691.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  held  the 
office  of  censor  royal.  He  published  "  Memoires  de 
Conde,"  (5  vols.,  1743,)  "Memoirs  towards  the  History 
of  Charles  the  Bad,"  (1755-58,)  a  "Collection  of  Royal 
Ordinances,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1754. 

Secretan,  sa'kreh-tin' (Louis,)  a  Swiss  writer  and 
politician,  born  at  Lausanne  in  1758.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  executive  directory  in  1799.    Died  in  1839. 

Secundus,  (Joannes.)    See  Everard,  (Joannes.) 

Sedaine,  sk'din',  (Michel  Jean,)  a  popular  French 
dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  17 19.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  the  comedies  entitled  "  The  Philosopher  with- 
out knowing  it,"  ("  Le  Philosophe  sans  le  savoir,") 
"  The  Unexpected  Wager,"  ("  La  Gageure  imprevue,") 
and  "  Raimond,  Count  of  Toulouse;"  also  the  operas 
of  "Aline,  Queen  of  Golconda,"  "Amphitryon,"  "  Rich- 
ard Coeur-de-Lion,"  and  "  William  Tell."  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1786. 
Died  in  1797. 

See  Madame  de  Salm-Dvck,  "  filoge  de  Sedaine,"  1797; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  La  Harpe,  "Coursde  Lit- 
tdrature." 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SEDANO  1990 


SEDLET 


Sedano,  de,  si-dS'no,  (Don  Juan  Jos6  Lopez,) 
a  Spanish  antiquary,  born  at  Alcala  de  Henares  in  1729, 
published  a  "  Dissertation  on  the  Medals  and  Ancient 
Monuments  found  in  Spain,"  a  compilation  of  poems 
entitled  "The  Spanish  Parnassus,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1801. 

Sed'dpn,  (James  A.,)  an  American  politician  and 
lawyer,  born  in  Virginia.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  in  1845  and  in  1849.  He  was  appointed  secre- 
tary of  war  of  the  Confederate  States  about  November, 
1862,  and  retained  that  office  until  January,  1865. 

Sedecias,  the  French  for  Zedekiah,  (King  of  Judah,) 
which  see. 

Sedg'wick,  (Adam,)  an  eminent  English  geologist, 
born  at  Dent,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1785  or  1786.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  became  a  Fellow  of  Trinity 
College  in  1809.  He  obtained  in  1818  the  chair  of 
geology  founded  at  Cambridge  by  Dr.  Woodward,  and 
became  a  canon  of  Norwich  in  1834.  Professor  Sedgwick 
gave  much  attention  to  the  crystalline  and  palaeozoic 
rocks,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  progress  of  geology 
in  England.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Synopsis  of  the 
Classification  of  the  British  Palaeozoic  Rocks."  He  is 
reputed  to  have  written  an  able  criticism  which  appeared 
in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  on  a  book  called  "  Vestiges 
of  Creation." 

Sedgwick,  (Amy,)  (Mrs.  Parkes,)  a  popular  Eng- 
lish actress,  born  at  Bristol  in  1835. 

Sedg'wick,  (Catherine  Maria,)  an  eminent  Amer- 
ican writer  and  moralist,  daughter  of  Judge  Sedgwick, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Stockbridge,  Massachusetts, 
in  1789.  Her  first  publication,  entitled  "  The  New  Eng- 
land Tale,"  (1822,)  was  received  with  great  favour,  and 
was  followed  by  "  Redwood,"  a  novel,  (1824.)  Her  tale 
of  "  Hope  Leslie"  came  out  in  1827,  and  soon  obtained 
a  wide  popularity  in  America  and  Europe,  having  been 
translated  into  German.  Her  other  novels  are  entitled 
"  Clarence,  or  a  Tale  of  our  Own  Times,"  (1830,)  "  The 
Linwoods,"  (1835,)  and  "Married  or  Single,"  (1857.) 
She  also  wrote  numerous  popular  tales  for  the  young, 
which  are  among  the  most  valuable  and  attractive  works 
of  the  kind.  Among  these  may  be  named  the  "  Love- 
Token  for  Children,"  "  Poor  Rich  Man  and  Rich  Poor 
Man,"  "  Live  and  Let  Live,"  "  Means  and  Ends  of  Self- 
Training,"  and  "  Morals  of  Manners."  Having  visited 
Europe,  Miss  Sedgwick  published  in  1841  "  Letters  from 
Abroad  to  Kindred  at  Home."  She  contributed  to 
Sparks's  "American  Biography"  the  "Life  of  Lucretia 
Maria  Davidson,"  and  wrote  a  number  of  tales  for  the 
leading  periodicals.    Died  in  1867. 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America;"  Harriet  Mar- 
TINEAU,  article  in  "  Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1837  ;  "  North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1825,  April,  182S.  January,  1831,  and 
October,  1837  ;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Ameri- 
cans," vol.  i. 

Sedgwick,  (John,)  an  able  American  general,  born 
in  Connecticut  about  181 5,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1837.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war  as  first  lieutenant, 
(1846-47,)  and  was  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  regular 
army  when  the  civil  war  began.  He  obtained  command 
of  a  brigade  in  August,  1861,  distinguished  himself  at 
Fair  Oaks,  May  31  and  June  I,  1862,  and  took  part  in 
the  Seven  Days'  battles,  June  26  to  July  i.  Having 
displayed  great  courage  and  skill  at  Antietam,  Septem- 
ber 16  and  17,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general 
in  December.  He  commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of 
Gettysburg,  July  2  and  3,  1863,  and  in  the  army  which 
(!rant  moved  towards  Richmond.  He  was  killed  near 
Spottsylvania  Court-House  on  the  9th  of  May,  1864. 

See  Tenney,  "Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p. 
777- 

Sedgwick,  (Obadiah,)  an  English  Puritan  divine, 
born  in  Wiltshire  in  1600.  He  was  preacher  at  Saint 
Paul's,  London,  and  a  member  of  the  Westminster 
Assembly.  He  was  the  author  of  "The  Anatomy 
of  Secret  Sins,"  and  other  religious  works.  Died  in 
1658. 

Sedgwick,  (Robert,)  an  ancestor  of  Theodore  Sedg- 
wick, was  a  major-general  in  the  army  of  Cromwell. 
He  was  one  of  the  early  settlers  of  Charlestown,  Mas- 
sachusetts. He  took  Port  Royal  from  the  French.  Died 
in  Jamaica  in  1656. 


Sedgwick,  (Susan  Ridley,)  wife  of  Theodore  Sedg- 
wick, (the  second  of  the  name,)  has  published  several 
fictitious  works  and  juvenile  tales,  among  which  we  may 
name  "The  Young  Emigrants,"  "The  Morals  of  Pleas- 
ure," (1829,)  "The  Children's  Week,"  (1830,)  "Allen 
Prescott,"  (1834,)  and  "  Walter  Thornley,"  (1859.) 

Sedgwick,  (Theodore,)  an  able  American  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  1746. 
He  entered  the  army  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary war,  and  in  1785  was  elected  to  the  Continental 
Congress,  in  which  he  served  until  1796.  He  became  a 
United  States  Senator  in  1796,  and  was  chosen  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  1799.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1802  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Massa- 
chusetts. In  this  post  he  was  conspicuous  for  his  earn- 
est opposition  to  slavery  ;  and  to  his  efforts  was  owing, 
in  a  great  degree,  the  abolition  of  that  institution  in  Mas- 
sachusetts. He  resided  many  years  at  Stockbridge,  to 
which  he  removed  in  1785.  He  was  an  active  member 
of  the  Federal  party,  and  was  a  communicant  in  the 
church  of  Dr.  Channing  in  Boston,  where  he  died  in 
January,  1 81 3. 

Sedgwick,  (Theodore,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Sheffield,  Massachusetts,  in  1780,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "Public 
and  Private  Economy,  illustrated  by  Observations  made 
in  Europe  in  1836-7."  As  a  member  of  the  State  legis- 
lature, he  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  anti-slavery, 
temperance,  and  other  reforms.    Died  in  1839. 

See  the  "Democratic  Review"  for  February,  1840. 

Sedgwick,  (Theodore,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Albany  in  1811.  He  graduated  at  Columbia 
College  in  1829,  and  subsequently  made  the  tour  of 
Europe.  He  obtained  a  high  reputation  and  extensive 
practice  as  a  lawyer,  and  published  several  legal  works 
of  great  merit.  Among  these  we  may  name  his  "Treat- 
ise on  the  Measure  of  Damages,  or  an  Inquiry  into  the 
Principles  which  govern  the  Amount  of  Compensation 
recovered  in  Suits  at  Law,"  (1847.)  In  1858  he  was 
appointed  United  States  attorney  for  the  southern  dis- 
trict of  New  York.    Died  in  1859. 

Sedgwick,  (William,)  an  English  Puritan,  was 
called  "  the  Apostle  of  Ely,"  also  "  Doomsday  Sedgwick," 
from  his  prophecies  of  the  end  of  the  world  being  near. 
Died  about  1669. 

Sedillot,  si'de'yo',  (Charles  Emmanuel,)  a  skilful 
French  physician  and  surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in  1804, 
was  appointed  in  1841  professor  of  surgical  clinics  in  the 
Faculty  of  Medicine  at  Strasbourg.  He  published  a 
"Manual  of  Legal  Medicine,"  (1830,)  and  other  works. 

Sedillot,  (Jean,)  a  French  physician,  born  near 
Rambouillet  in  1757.  He  founded  in  1797  the  "Journal 
of  Medicine,  Surgery,  and  Pharmacy,"  which  he  edited 
for  twenty  years.    Died  in  1840. 

Sedillot,  (Jean  Jacques  Emmanuel,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  the  father  of  Charles  Emmanuel,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Montmorency  in  1777  ;  died  in  1832. 

Sedillot,  (Louis  Pierre  Eugene  Amelie,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1808.  He  was  successively  appointed  professor  of 
history  in  the  Colleges  of  Bourbon  and  Saint  Louis, 
secretary  in  the  College  of  France,  and  of  the  school  for 
living  Oriental  tongues.  Among  his  numerous  works 
we  may  name  "Letters  on  some  Points  of  Oriental 
Astronomy,"  (1834,)  "New  Researches  towards  the 
History  of  Mathematical  Science  among  the  Orientals," 
(1837,)  ^"d  a  "History  of  the  Arabs,"  (1854.) 

Sed'ley,  (Catherine,)  a  daughter  of  Sir  Charles 
Sedley,  "whose  abilities  and  impudence,"  says  Mac- 
aulay,  "she  inherited."  She  became  the  mistress  of 
James  II.,  who  gave  her  the  title  of  Countess  of  Dor- 
chester. She  co-operated  with  the  king's  ministers  in 
resisting  his  infatuated  purpose  to  hazard  the  loss  of  the 
throne  by  his  zeal  for  popery.    Died  in  1692. 

See  Macaulay,  "History  of  England,"  chap.  vi. 

Sedley,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  English  poet  and  drama- 
tist, born  in  Kent  in  1639,  was  distinguished  at  the 
court  of  Charles  IT.  for  his  wit  and  profligacy.  He  was 
a  member  of  Parliament  from  New  Romney,  Kent,  and 
after  the  revolution  of  1688  he  joined  the  party  of  the 


u,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  Kx,  y,  s/iart;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^l,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SEDULIUS 


SEGUIER 


Prince  of  Orange.  He  was  the  author  of  tragedies 
entitled  "Antony  and  Cleopatra"  and  "The  Tyrant 
King  of  Crete,"  also  a  number  of  comedies  and  licen- 
tious poems.    Died  in  1701. 

Se-du'li-us,  (C^lius,)  a  Roman  poet  and  Christian 
of  the  fifth  century,  was  the  author  of  "Mirabilium  Di- 
vinorum,"  being  portions  of  the  history  of  the  Bible,  in 
hexameter  verse,  a  "Hymnus"  in  praise  of  Christ,  and 
other  similar  works. 

Seebach,  sa'bSK  or  za'b^K,  (Marie,)  a  popular  Ger- 
man actress,  born  at  Riga  in  1837.  After  she  had 
acquired  a  European  reputation,  she  visited  the  United 
States  in  1870. 

Seebach,  von,  fon  za'biK,  {Albin  Leo,)  a  German 
diplomatist,  born  at  Langensalza  in  181 1.  He  became 
ambassador  from  Saxony  to  Saint  Petersburg  in  1847, 
and  to  Paris  in  1853. 

Seebeck,  sa'b&k  or  za'bSk,  (Johann  Thomas,)  a 
German  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Reval  in  1770,  be- 
came a  resident  of  Nuremberg  about  1812.  He  afterwards 
removed  to  Berlin,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  that  city.  He  made  discoveries  in  optics,  and 
invented  the  thermo-electric  pile,  (1821.)   Died  in  1831. 

See  "Biographic  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Seebode,  sa'bo'deh  or  za'bo'deh,  (Joachim  Gott- 
fried,) a  German  philologist,  born  in  1792.  He  edited 
the  works  of  Tacitus  and  Thucydides.    Died  in  i860. 

Seed,  (Jeremiah,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Cum- 
berland, published  a  number  of  Sermons,  Letters, 
Essays,  etc.  He  preached  at  Twickenham  and  Enham. 
Died  in  1747. 

Seekatz,  sa'kits  or  za'klts,  (Johann  Konrad,)  a 
German  painter  of  superior  merit,  born  at  Griinstadt  in 
1719 ;  died  in  1768. 

Seelen,  von,  fon  sa'len  or  za'len,  (J.  H.,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Bremen  in  1687;  died  in  1762. 

Seeta.    See  SfTA. 

Seetzen,  sat'sen  or  zat'sen,  (Ulrich  Jasper,)  a 
German  naturalist,  born  near  Oldenburg  in  1767, 
travelled  in  Palestine,  Egypt,  and  Arabia,  and  made  a 
valuable  collection  of  manuscripts  and  objects  in  natural 
history,  now  in  the  museum  at  Gotha.  He  is  said  to 
have  adopted  the  Moslem  religion.  He  died  near  Mocha, 
Arabia,  in  1811. 
^  Seeva.    See  Siva. 

*  Sefi,  sgfee,  written  also  Suffee,  originally  S^m- 
Meerza,  (Mirza,)  sIm  meer'zS,  Sultan  of  Persia,  was 
a  grandson  of  Abbas  the  Great.  He  began  to  reign  in 
1628,  and  committed  great  excesses  of  cruelty.  He  was 
involved  in  war  with  the  Turkish  Sultan  Amurath  IV., 
who  took  Bagdad.    Died  in  1642. 

Sefstrom  or  Sefstroem,  s&f'strom,  (Nils  Gabriel,) 
a  Swedish  chemist,  born  at  Helsingland  in  1787.  He  dis- 
covered the  metal  Vanadium  about  1830.   Died  in  1854. 

Segalas,  si'gt'lts',  (Pierre  Salomon,)  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Saint-Palais  in  1792,  published  a 
number  of  medical  works. 

Se'gar,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  magistrate  and 
writer,  held  the  office  of  Garter  king-at-arms.  He  pub- 
lished a  work  entitled  "  Honour,  Civil  and  Military." 
Died  in  1633. 

Seghers  or  Sogers,  sa'gers  or  sa'ners,  (Daniel,)  a 
Dutch  painter  of  fruit-  and  flower-pieces,  born  at  Antwerp 
in  1590,  was  a  pupil  of  Breughel.  He  attained  great  ex- 
cellence in  his  department  of  the  art,  and  was  employed 
by  Rubens  to  paint  the  flowers  in  some  of  his  historical 
pictures.    Died  in  1660. 

Seghers,  (Geraart,)  brother  or  cousin  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Antwerp  about  1589.  He  studied 
painting  at  Rome,  and  afterwards  visited  Spain,  where 
he  was  patronized  by  the  court.  His  works  are  chiefly 
historical.    Died  in  1651. 

Segneri,  sin-ya'ree,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit  and 
celebrated  pulpit  orator,  born  near  Rome  in  1624.  He 
filled  the  post  of  preacher  to  Pope  Innocent  XII.  His 
"Quaresimale,"  or  sermons  for  Lent,  are  esteemed 
among  the  best  productions  of  the  kind  in  the  language. 
Died  in  1694. 

See  G.  Massei  or  Maffei,  "Vita  del  P.  Segneri,"  1717;  Me- 
NEGHELLi,  "  Elogio  storico  di  P.  Segneri,"  1815;  Niceron,  "Me- 
moires;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 


Segneri,  (Paolo,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Rome  in  1673.  He  was  a  Jesuit  and  a  noted 
preacher.    Died  in  1713. 

See  Galuzzi,  "Vita  del  P.  Segneri  Juniore,"  1716. 

Segni,  san'yee,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Florence  in  the  fifteenth  century.  His  principal 
work,  a  "History  of  Florence  from  1527  to  1555,"  has 
a  high  reputation.  He  also  translated  several  works  of 
Aristotle  into  Italian.    Died  in  1559. 

Segrais,  de,  deh  seh-gRa',  (Jean  Regnauld,)  a 
French  poet  and  novelist,  born  at  Caen  in  1624.  He 
was  secretary  of  Mademoiselle  de  Montpensier  for  many 
years.  He  translated  Virgil  into  verse,  and  wrote  pas- 
toral poems,  the  style  of  which  was  praised  by  Boileau. 
Died  in  1701. 

See  Bredif,  "Segrais,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEuvres,"  1863;  Niceron, 
"Memoires;"  A.  Galland,  "  Segraisiana,"  1720;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Seguier,  sa'ge-i',  (Antoine,)  a  French  judge,  born 
in  Paris  in  I5527^as  a  son  of  Pierre,  (1504-80.)  He 
was  appointed  advocate-general  in  1587,  was  loyal  to 
the  king  during  the  League,  and  defended  the  liberty 
of  the  Galilean  Church  against  Pope  Gregory  XIV. 
Died  in  1624. 

Seguier,  (Antoine  Jean  Mathieu,)  a  French  judge, 
born  in  Paris  in  1768.  He  was  appointed  president  of 
the  court  of  appeal,  Paris,  in  1802,  and  retained  that 
position  more  than  forty  years.    Died  in  1848. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Seguier,  (Antoine  Louis,)  a  celebrated  French  jurist 
and  orator,  born  in  Paris  in  1726,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  Appointed  advocate-general  in  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Paris  in  1755,  he  soon  acquired  the  highest 
reputation  for  eloquence,  legal  knowledge,  and  integrity. 
In  1757  he  succeeded  Fontenelle  as  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.    Died  in  1792. 

See  Portalis,  "Eloged'A.  L.  Seguier,"  1806  ;  Voltaire,  "  Let- 
tres;"  Sapev,  "  Les  Seguier;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Seguier,  (Armand  Pierre,)  Baron,  a  French  ad- 
vocate, a  son  of  Antoine  Jean  Mathieu,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  Montpellier  in  1803.  He  became  about 
1830  a  councillor  at  the  royal  court  of  Paris.  In  1848 
he  resigned  his  functions  and  devoted  himself  to  works  of 
mechanism.  He  is  noted  for  his  mechanical  skill  and 
knowledge  of  machines,  and  is  a  member  of  the  Institute. 

Seguier,  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French  antiquary  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Nimes  in  1703,  was  related  to  the 
eminent  jurists  of  that  name.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Scipio  Maffei,  in  conjunction  with  whom  he  made  a 
large  collection  of  ancient  inscriptions.  He  died  in  1784, 
leaving  his  museum  of  medals  and  objects  in  natural 
history  to  the  Academy  of  Nimes.  He  translated  into 
French  the  "  Memoirs  of  Alexander,  Marquis  of  Maffei," 
and  wrote  a  work  entitled  "Bibliotheca  Botanica." 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Seguier,  (Nicolas  Maximilien  Sidoine,)  Marquis 
de  Saint-Brisson,  a  French  writer,  born  at  Beauvais  in 
1773.  Among  his  works  is  an  "Essay  on  Polytheism," 
(2  vols.,  1840.)    Died  in  1854. 

Seguier,  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French  jurist  and 
magistrate,  born  in  Paris  in  1504.  He  rose  through 
several  important  ofiices  to  be  president  d.  mortier  in 
1554,  and,  while  filling  this  post,  was  chiefly  instrumental 
in  preventing  the  introduction  of  the  Inquisition  into 
France.  He  died  in  1580,  leaving  six  sons,  who  were 
distinguished  for  their  legal  attainments. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Seguier,  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French  statesman 
and  patron  of  learning,  born  in  Paris  in  May,  1588,  was 
a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  a  son  of  Jean  Seguier. 
He  became  chancellor  of  France  in  1635,  and  retained 
that  office  (except  for  short  intervals)  until  his  death. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Richelieu,  with  whom  he  shares  the 
honour  of  being  the  founder  of  the  French  Academy,  of 
which  he  was  president.  Voltaire  praised  his  fidelity  in 
these  terms, — "  Toujours  fidele  dans  un  temps  ou  c'etait 
un  merite  de  ne  pas  I'etre,"  ("  Always  faithful  in  a  time 
when  it  was  a  merit  not  to  be  so.")    Died  in  1672. 

See  Floquet,  "  Diaire  du  Chancelier  Seguier,"  1842;  Sapev, 
"  Les  Seguier  ;"  F.  Tai.lemant,  "  Eloge  funebre  de  P.  Seguier," 
1672;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "  Biographie  Universelle.' 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SEGUR 


1992 


SELDEN 


Segur,  de,  deh  si'guR',  (Henri  FRANgois,)  Comte, 
a  French  soldier,  born  in  1689,  served  with  distinction 
in  Spain  and  Italy,  and  was  made  lieutenant-general  in 
1738.    Died  in  1751. 

Segur,  de,  (Joskph  Alexandre,)  Vicomte,  brother 
of  Count  Louis  Philippe,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1756, 
He  was  the  author  of  "  Romances  and  Songs,"  "  Women  ; 
their  Condition  and  Influence  in  the  Social  Order," 
(1820,)  and  numerous  comedies,  operas,  and  romances. 
Died  in  1805. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire." 

Segur,  de,  (Louis  Philippe,)  Comte,  a  French  diplo- 
matist and  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1753,  was  a  son 
of  Philippe  Henri,  noticed  below.  He  served  under 
Rochambeau  in  the  American  war,  and  after  its  ter- 
mination was  appointed  in  1784  ambassador  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  where  he  was  treated  with  great  distinc- 
tion by  Catherine  II.  He  was  elected  to  the  National 
Assembly  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, and  in  1792  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  the  court 
of  Prussia.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1803,  and  was  subsequently  made  a  peer 
by  Louis  XVIII.  He  published  a  "  Historical  and 
Political  Picture  of  Europe  from  1786  to  1796,"  "  Moral 
and  Political  Tales,"  "  Universal  History,  Ancient  and 
Modern,"  (1819,)  "Moral  and  Political  Gallery,"  and 
"Memoirs,  Souvenirs,  and  Anecdotes,"  (3  vols.,  1824.) 
The  last-named,  a  very  entertaining  and  attractive  work, 
obtained  great  popularity.    Died  in  1830. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  notice  in 
the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  for  May  15,  1843. 

Segur,  de,  (Philippe  Henri,)  Marquis,  son  of 
Henri  Fran9ois,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  1724.  He 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Italian  and  German  cam- 
paigns of  Louis  XV.,  and  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  war  in  1780,  and 
marshal  of  France  in  1783.    Died  in  1801. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Segur,  de,  (Philippe  Paul,)  Comte,  a  general  and 
historian,  born  in  Paris  in  1780,  was  a  son  of  Louis 
Philippe,  noticed  above.  He  became  an  officer  of  Bo- 
naparte's staff,  and  obtained  the  confidence  of  that  chief, 
who  employed  him  in  several  foreign  missions.  He 
served  as  a  general  of  the  imperial  staff  in  the  campaign 
of  Russia.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Napoleon  and  the 
Grand  Army  in  1812,"  (1824,)  which  had  great  success, 
and  a  "  History  of  Russia  and  Peter  the  Great,"  (1829.) 
In  1830  he  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Segur  d'Aguesseau,  de,  deh  sa'giiR'  dt'gi^so', 
(Raymond  Joseph  Paul,)  Comte,  born  in  Paris  in 
1803,  studied  law,  and  became  a  senator  in  1852. 

Seguy,  seh-ge',  (Joseph,)  a  French  preacher  and 
poet,  born  at  Rodez  in  1689,  became  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy  in  1736.    Died  in  1761. 

Seidl,  sid'l  or  zTd'i,  (Johann  Gabriel,)  an  Austrian 
litterateur  and  antiquary,  born  at  Vienna  in  1804,  was 
appointed  in  1840  keeper  of  the  cabinet  of  coins  and 
antiques  at  Vienna. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1852. 

Seignelay,  de.    See  Colbert,  (Jean  Baptiste.) 

Seller,  si'ler  or  zl'ler,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  a  German 
writer,  born  near  Baireuth  in  1733,  became  in  1770  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Erlangen.    Died  in  1807. 

Seiss,  seess,  (Joseph  Augustus,)  D.D.,  a  learned 
Lutheran  divine,  born  near  Emmetsburg,  Maryland,  in 
1823,  became  in  1858  the  pastor  of  Saint  John's  Church, 
Philadelphia.  He  has  published,  besides  many  other 
works,  sermons,  etc.,  "The  Last  Times  and  the  Great 
Consummation,"  (1856  ;  6th  edition,  1864.) 

Seissel,  de,  deh  si'sgK,  (Claude,)  a  French  histo- 
rian, born  in  Savoy  about  1450.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Marseilles  in  1509.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  La 
grande  Monarchic  de  France,"  (1519.)    Died  in  1520. 

Sejan.    See  Sejanus. 

Sejan,  sk'zhSN',  (Nicolas.)  a  French  composer  and 
excellent  organist,  born  in  Paris  in  1745  ;  died  in  1819. 

Se-ja'nus,  [Fr.  S6jan,  si'zhfiN',]  (Lucius  /Elius,) 
a  celebrated  Roman  courtier  and  favourite  of  the  em- 
peror Tiberius,  was  born  at  Vulsinii,  in  Etruria.  He 


rose  through  various  promotions  to  be  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  praitorian  cohorts,  and,  aiming  at  the  im- 
perial power,  soon  after  effected  the  death  of  Drusus,  son 
of  the  emperor,  by  poison,  in  23  A.D.,  having  previously 
seduced  Livia,  the  wife  of  Drusus,  and  made  her  an 
accomplice  in  his  crime.  With  a  view  of  obtaining  the 
sole  direction  of  public  affairs,  he  induced  Tiberius  to 
retire  to  the  island  of  Capreae,  and  subsequently  caused 
Agrippina,  the  widow  of  Germanicus,  and  her  sons,  to  be 
put  to  death.  The  emperor,  aroused  at  length  to  sus- 
picion, deprived  Sejanus  of  his  office,  and  ordered  him 
to  be  arrested  and  executed,  31  a.d. 

See  Tacitus,  "  Annales  ;"  J.  Arrhenius,  "  Dissertatio  de  Se- 
jano,"  1696;  Merivale,  "  The  Romans  under  the  Empire." 

Sejour,  sa'zhooR',  (Victor,)  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris  about  1816. 

SeFby,  (Prideaux  John,)  an  English  ornithologist, 
was  the  author  of  "  Figures  of  British  Birds,"  (Edin- 
burgh, 1821,)  which,  says  Professor  Wilson,  "is  perhaps 
the  most  splendid  work  of  the  kind  ever  published  in 
Britain,"  and  of  a  "  History  of  British  Forest-Trees," 
(London,  1842.)    Died  in  1867. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1826,  and  June, 
1828. 

SeFden,  (Dudley,)  an  American  lawyer,  practised 
his  profession  in  New  York  with  distinction,  and  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1833.    Died  in  Paris  in  1855. 

SePden,  (John,)  a  celebrated  English  lawyer  and 
statesman,  born  at  Salvington,  in  Sussex,  on  the  i6th 
of  December,  1584.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  which 
he  quitted  about  1602,  and  entered  the  Inner  Temple, 
London,  in  1604.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Ben 
Jonson.  He  was  profoundlv  versed  in  history,  lan- 
guages, antiquities,  etc.  His  first  work  was  "  Analectort 
Anglo-Britannicon,"  (1606.)  In  1614  he  published  a 
work  "  On  Titles  of  Honour,"  which  was  highly  esteemed. 
His  reputation  was  augmented  by  a  learned  treatise 
"On  Syrian  Divinities,"  ("  De  Diis  Syris,"  1617.)  In 
1623  he  was  elected  to  Parliament,  in  which  he  acted 
with  the  country  party,  or  opposition.  He  was  one  of 
the  managers  of  the  prosecution  of  the  Duke  of  Buck- 
ingham, in  1626-28.  In  the  session  of  1629  Selden  was 
a  prominent  opponent  of  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the 
king,  who  committed  him,  with  other  leaders,  to  the 
Tower.  After  he  had  passed  eight  months  in  prison,  the 
court  offered  to  release  him  if  he  would  give  security  fqjr 
his  good  behaviour,  which  he  refused  to  do.  He  was 
then  transferred  to  another  place  of  confinement,  and 
detained  until  1634.  In  1635  he  published  a  celebrated 
work  entitled  the  "Closed  Sea,"  ("  Mare  Clausum,")  in 
which  he  claimed  for  England  the  exclusive  use  of  the 
sea.  This  was  written  to  refute  the  work  of  Grotius 
called  "  Open  Sea,"  ("  Mare  Liberum.")  He  represented 
the  University  of  Oxford  in  the  Long  Parliament,  which 
met  in  1640.  In  the  contest  between  the  king  and  the 
Parliament  he  pursued  a  moderate  or  irresolute  course. 
He  opposed  the  execution  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford,  but 
subscribed  the  Covenant  in  1643,  and  was  one  of  the  lay 
members  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  Westminster. 
Among  his  important  works  are  one  "On  the  Law  of 
Nature  and  of  Nations  according  to  the  Teaching  of 
the  Hebrews,"  ("  De  Jure  naturali  et  Gentium  juxta 
Disciplinam  Hebraeorum,"  1640,)  and  "  A  Commentary 
on  English  Law,"  ("  Fleta,  sen  Commentarius  Juris 
Anglicani,"  1647.)  Selden  remained  in  Parliament  until 
1650  or  later.  His  latter  years  were  passed  in  the  house 
of  the  Countess-dowager  of  Kent,  to  whom  it  was  re- 
ported he  was  married.  He  died  in  November,  1654. 
His  character  is  highly  extolled  by  men  of  both  parties, 
including  Clarendon,  who  says,  "Mr.  Selden  was  a 
person  whom  no  character  can  flatter  or  transmit  in  any 
expressions  equal  to  his  merit  and  virtue."  "  His  say- 
ings," says  Hallam,  "are  full  of  vigour,  raciness,  and  a 
kind  of  scorn  of  the  half-learned  far  less  rude  but  more 
cutting  than  that  of  Scaliger.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  Table-Talk  of  Selden  is  worth  all  the  Ana  of  the 
Continent.  In  this  I  should  be  disposed  to  concur." 
("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  WiLKiNS,  "  Life  of  Selden,"  1726  ;  J.  Aikin,  "  Life  of  John 
Selden,"  1812;  G.W.Johnson,  "Memoirs  of  J.  Selden,"  1835  ; 
'•  Selden's  Table  Talk,"  16S9 ;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
January,  1856;  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 


ii,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  tl,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SELDJOUKIDES 


1993 


SELWTN 


Seldjoukides.    See  Seljookides. 
Seldschuken  or  Seldschukideii.    See  Seljoo- 
kides. 

Se-le'ne,  [Gr.  lekrivri ;  Fr.  S^l^ne,  si'lin';  Lat. 
Lu'na,]  the  goddess  of  the  moon,  sometimes  called 
Mene  or  Phcebe.  She  was  said  to  be  a  daughter  of 
Helios  or  Hyperion,  and  by  some  writers  was  identified 
with  Diana,  (which  see.) 

Seleucidse,  se-lu'si-de,  the  name  of  the .  dynasty 
founded  by  Seleucus  Nicator.    (See  next  article.) 

Se-leu'cus  [Gr.  SeAeu/cof]  I.,  surnamed  Nica'tor, 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Seleucidce,  was  the  son 
of  Antiochus,  a  general  in  the  service  of  Philip  of  Mace- 
don.  He  rose  to  the  highest  rank  in  the  army  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  and,  after  the  death  of  that  sovereign, 
became  Satrap  of  Babylonia  about  321  B.C.  He  subse- 
quently carried  on  a  war  against  Antigonus  and  his  son 
Demetrius,  which  resulted  in  his  obtaining  possession 
of  Media,  Bactria,  and  other  large  portions  of  Asia,  and 
forming  thereby  the  Syrian  monarchy.  Having  set  out 
on  an  expedition  against  Macedonia,  he  was  assassinated 
by  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  280  B.C.  He  founded  the  cities 
of  Antioch  and  Seleucia,  (or,  more  correctly,  Seleuceia,) 
and  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning.  He  was  highly 
distinguished  for  military  ability.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Antiochus  I. 

Se-leu'cus  Cal-li-ni'cus,  son  of  Antiochus  TL,  as- 
cended the  throne  of  Syria  in  246  B.C.  He  carried  on 
wars  with  the  Egyptians  and  Parthians.  Died  about 
226  B.C. 

Seleu'cus  III.  ^e-rau'nus,  King  of  Syria,  was  a 
son  of  Seleucus  Callinicus,  whom  he  succeeded  in  226 
B.C.  He  died  in  223,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Antiochus  HI. 

Seleu'cus  IV.  Philop'ator,  a  son  of  Antiochus  HI., 
became  King  of  Syria  in  186  or  187  B.C.  He  paid  a 
large  sum  of  money  to  the  Romans,  who  had  defeated 
Antiochus.    Died  in  175  B.C. 

Seleucus  V.,  a  son  of  Demetrius  Nicator,  began  to 
reign  in  124  B.C.  He  was  put  to  death  by  his  mother, 
Cleopatra,  in  the  same  year. 

Seleucus  VI.,  surnamed  Epiph'anes,  was  a  son  of 
Antiochus  VIII.  He  became  king  in  96,  and  was  killed 
in  95  or  94  B.C. 

Se'lim  [Turk.  Seleem  or  SeiJm,  seh-leem']  I.,  a  son 
of  Bayazeed  (Bajazet)  II.,  was  born  in  1467,  and  became 
Emperor  of  Turkey  in  15 12.  Having  put  to  death  his 
two  brothers,  he  invaded  Persia,  took  its  capital,  and 
subsequently  carried  on  a  successful  war  against  Egypt 
and  Syria.  He  was  preparing  for  another  invasion  of 
Persia,  when  he  died,  in  1520. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Selim  (Seleem)  II.,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and 
son  of  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  was  born  about  1524, 
and  ascended  the  throne  in  1566.  Among  the  principal 
events  of  his  reign  were  the  conquest  of  Cyprus  from 
the  Venetians,  and  the  signal  defeat  of  the  Turks  in  the 
naval  battle  of  Lepanto,  (1571.)    Died  in  1574. 

See  Von  Hammer,  "Geschichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs." 

Selim  (Seleem)  III.,  son  of  Mustafa  HI.,  born  in 
1 761,  became  Sultan  of  Turkey  in  1789.  Having  an 
earnest  desire  to  reform  the  government,  he  had,  before 
his  accession,  corresponded  with  the  French  ambassador. 
Count  Choiseul,  and  with  other  distinguished  statesmen. 
After  the  termination  of  the  wars  in  which  Turkey  had 
been  engaged  with  Russia,  Austria,  and  France,  Selim 
entered  upon  his  various  reforms,  among  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  was  the  Nizam  Jedeed,  (or  Jedid,)  i.e. 
the  "new  order,"  or  organization  of  the  army  after  the 
European  manner.  In  1806  war  again  broke  out  between 
Turkey  and  the  allied  armies  of  Russia  and  England, 
and  the  Janissaries,  availing  themselves  of  the  dissatis- 
faction of  the  army  with  the  new  arrangements,  openly 
revolted,  and  took  possession  of  the  arsenal.  The  Sultan 
was  deposed,  and  succeeded  by  Mustafa  IV.,  who  soon 
after  caused  him  to  be  strangled  in  prison,  (1808.) 

See  Lamartine,  "  Histoire  de  la  Turquie ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generate.'' 

Sells,  si'liss',  (Nicolas  Joseph,)  a  French  poet, 
born  in  Paris  in  1737,  became  professor  of  Latin  poetry 


in  the  College  of  France  in  1796.  He  produced  a  good 
translation  of  the  Satires  of  Persius.  Among  his  works, 
which  are  commended  as  elegant  in  style,  are  "  Epistles 
in  Verse  on  Various  Subjects,"  (1776.)    Died  in  1802. 

Seljookides  or  Seljukides,  s§l-joo'kidz,  sing. 
Seljukide  or  Seljookide,  s^l-joo'kid,  [Fr.  Seldjou- 
kides, s^rjoo'k^d';  Ger.  Seldschuken,  s^l-joo'ken,  or 
Seldschukiden,  s€l-joo-keeMen ;  Lat.  Selgiu^kidtE 
or  SELju'KiDi^,]  the  name  of  a  celebrated  dynasty, 
which  was  established  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eleventh 
century.  Its  founder  was  Togrul  Beg,  whose  grand- 
father Seljook,  (Seljuk,)  having  been  expelled  from 
Toorkistan  by  the  ruling  prince,  accompanied  by  a 
powerful  tribe,  (of  which  he  was  the  head,)  settled  in 
Bokhara  and  embraced  the  Mohammedan  religion. 
Seljook,  when  over  a  hundred  years  of  age,  was  killed 
in  battle,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Togrul 
Beg.  This  chieftain  overran  a  large  part  of  Central 
Asia,  took  Bagdad,  and  obtained  possession  of  the  per- 
son of  the  Caliph,  whom,  however,  he  treated  with 
profound  respect.  The  prince  of  the  faithful  afterwards 
appointed  Togrul  the  lieutenant  of  his  vast  empire,  and 
gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  Togrul  Beg  was 
succeeded  by  his  nephew,  the  famous  Alp-Akslan, 
(which  see.)  Under  him  and  his  son,  Malik  Shah,  the 
Seljookian  empire  attained  its  highest  point  of  power 
and  glory.  It  soon  after  began  to  decline,  and  ended 
with  the  death  of  Togrul  III. 

Seljuk,    See  Seljookides. 

Seljukides.    See  Seljookides. 

Sel'kirk,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  sailor,  born  at 
Largo  in  1676.  Having  in  one  of  his  voyages  quar- 
relled with  his  captain,  he  was  left  on  the  uninhabited 
island  of  Juan  Fernandez  in  1704,  with  only  his  gun, 
axe,  ammunition,  and  a  few  other  necessaries.  Here 
he  remained  more  than  four  years,  living  on  game 
and  clothing  himself  with  the  skins  of  goats.  He  was 
taken  off  in  1709,  by  Captain  Woodes  Rogers,  who  made 
him  his  mate.  He  died  in  1723,  having  attained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant  in  the  navy.  Selkirk's  adventures 
suggested  to  Defoe  the  celebrated  romance  of"  Robinson 
Crusoe." 

See  John  Howell,  "  Life  and  Adventures  of  Alexander  Selkirk." 

Selle,  sel'leh  or  zel'leh,  (Christian  Theophilus,) 
a  German  physician  and  writer,  born  at  Stettin,  in  Pome- 
rania,  in  1748,  became  physician  to  Frederick  the  Great 
of  Prussia.  He  was  the  author  of  several  valuable  medi- 
cal works,  and  treatises  against  the  philosophy  of  Kant. 
Died  in  1800. 

SePler,  (Abednego,)  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Plymouth,  wrote  "  Tracts  against  Popery,"  "  The  Devout 
Communicant,"  and  other  works.    Died  about  1720. 

Sellius,  seKle-us,  (Godfrey,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Dantzic,  published  a  "  Dictionary  of  Monograms," 
"  Geographical  Description  of  Dutch  Brabant,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1767. 

SePlon,  (Baker  John,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in 
1762,  was  the  author  of  an  "Analysis  of  the  Practice  of 
the  Court  of  King's  Bench  and  Common  Pleas,"  which 
is  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1835. 

Sellon,  (Priscilla  Lydia,)  an  English  philanthro- 
pist, born  about  1820,  established  in  1849  a  Protestant 
sisterhood,  corresponding  with  the  religious  orders  of 
the  Catholic  Church,  their  chief  employment  being  the 
care  of  the  sick  and  the  education  of  poor  children. 

Selmer,  sgl'mer,  (Hannibal  Peter,)  a  Norwegian 
writer,  born  at  Gaarden-Mein,  in  Norway,  in  1802. 

Selva,  siKvi,  (Gianantonio,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Venice  in  1753  ;  died  in  1819. 

Selve,  de,  deh  s^lv,  (Jean,)  a  French  judge  and 
negotiator,  born  in  Limousin.  He  was  sent  to  Madrid 
in  1525  to  negotiate  for  the  liberation  of  Francis  I.,  who 
had  been  taken  prisoner  at  Pavia,    Died  in  1529. 

SeFwyn,  (George,)  an  English  gentleman,  distin- 
guished for  his  wit,  was  born  in  17 19.  He  became  a 
member  of  Parliament.    Died  in  1791. 

See  J.  H.  Jesse,  "  George  Selwyn  and  his  Contemporaries," 
1843. 

Selwyn,  (William,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in 
Surrey  in  1774,  published,  among  other  works,  an 
"  Abridgment  of  the  Law  of  Nisi  Prius."    Died  in  1855. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SELWTN 


1994 


SENARMONT 


Selwyn,  (William,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1806.  He  became  Lady  Margaret  professor  of 
divinity  at  Cambridge  in  1855,  and  published  several 
works  on  theology,  etc. 

Selys-Longchamps,  de,  deh  seh-l^ss'  16N^sh6N', 
(Michel  Edmond,)  Baron,  a  naturalist',  born  in  Paris 
in  1813.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Belgian 
Fauna,"  (ist  vol.,  1842.) 

Sem,  the  French  for  Shem,  which  see. 

Sem'e-le,  [Gr.  Se/^eAT;;  Fr.  S6m6l6,  symi^y,]  a 
daughter  of  Cadmus,  and  sister  of  Ino,  was  said  to  have 
been  beloved  by  Jupiter,  and  to  have  been  by  him  the 
mother  of  Bacchus.  The  poets  feigned  that  she  re- 
quested Jupiter  to  appear  to  her  with  his  greatest 
splendour,  and  that  he  came  with  flashes  of  lightning, 
by  which  she  was  consumed,  and  that  Bacchus  rescued 
her  from  Erebus  and  raised  her  to  Olympus,  where  she 
was  called  Thyo^ne. 

Semini,  si-mee'nee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Genoa  in  1 510;  died  in  1594. 

Semini,  (Antonio,)  a  painter,  the  father  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Genoa  in  1485  ;  died  in  1550. 

Semini,  (Ottavio,)  a  painter,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1520;  died  in  1604. 

Semiramide.    See  Semiramis. 

Se-mir'a-mis,  [Gr.  'Lefitpafitg ;  It.  Semiramide,  si- 
me^ri-mee'da,]  a  celebrated  queen  of  Assyria,  whose 
history  is  greatly  obscured  by  fables,  supposed  to  have 
reigned  about  1250  B.C.  She  was,  according  to  Dio- 
dorus,  the  wife  of  Omnes,  a  general  in  the  Assyrian 
army;  but,  having  attracted  the  notice  of  Ninus,  King 
of  Assyria,  he  made  her  his  queen.  Having  succeeded 
to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  Ninus,  she  built  Babylon 
and  several  other  cities,  and  planned  a  number  of  mag- 
nificent works.  She  invaded  Persia  and  Ethiopia,  and 
conquered  large  portions  of  those  countries.  She  was 
less  successful  in  her  invasion  of  India,  where  her  army 
was  overthrown,  chiefly,  as  it  would  appear,  by  means 
of  the  war  elephants  which  her  enemies  possessed.  She 
is  stated  by  some  writers  to  have  been  murdered  by 
her  son  Ninyas,  and  by  others  to  have  been  killed  in 
battle. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "Geschichte  Assurs  und  Babels,"  1857;  Rawlin- 
SON,  "The  Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern  World." 

Semler,  sSm'ler  or  z^m'ler,  (Johann  Salmon,)  an 
influential  and  liberal  German  theologian,  was  born  at 
Saalfeld  in  December,  1721,  (or,  as  some  writers  say, 
1725.)  He  studied  in  the  University  of  Halle,  and 
became  professor  of  theology  there  in  175 1.  He  has 
been  called  "the  father  of  German  rationalism."  In 
1757  he  succeeded  Baumgarten  as  director  of  the  theo- 
logical seminarj/^.  He  acquired  distinction  by  his  method 
of  historical  hermeneutics.  He  wrote,  besides  many 
other  works,  "Apparatus  ad  Liberam  Novi  Testamenti 
Interpretationem,"  (1767,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  the 
Examination  of  the  Canon,"  ("Abhandlung  von  der 
Untersuchung  des  Kanons,"  4  vols.,  1771-75.)  Died 
at  Halle  in  1791. 

See  his  Autobiography,  entitled  "  Semlers  Lebensbeschreibung," 
2  vols.,  1781-82  ;  F.  A.  Wolf,  "  Ueber  Semler's  letzte  Lebenstage," 
1791;  H.  ScHMiD,  "  Theologie  Semler's,"  1858;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic G^nerale." 

Semmes,  s§mz,  (Raphael,)  an  American  naval 
ofiicer,  born  in  Maryland,  entered  the  navy  about  1826. 
He  obtained  the  rank  of  commander  about  1855.  In 
the  summer  of  1861  he  took  command  of  the  steamer 
Sumter,  which  captured  many  merchant-vessels  owned 
by  citizens  of  the  United  States.  In  August.  1862, 
he  became  captain  of  a  swift  war-steamer,  called  the 
"290,"  or  Alabama,  just  built  in  England,  and  manned 
by  British  subjects.  He  inflicted  immense  damage  on 
the  American  mercantile  marine.  On  the  r9th  of  June, 
1864,  he  encountered,  near  Cherbourg,  France,  the 
Kearsarge,  Captain  Winslow.  In  the  battle  that  ensued, 
both  vessels  moved  rapidly  in  circles,  swinging  around 
an  ever-changing  centre.  After  they  had  described 
seven  circles,  the  Alabama  began  to  sink,  and  Semmes 
escaped  in  the  English  yacht  Deerhound.  He  lost  nine 
killed  and  twenty-one  wounded,  while  Captain  Winslow 
lost  only  one  killed  and  two  wounded. 

See  Tennev,  "  Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  pp. 
276-81. 


Semolei.    See  Franco,  (Battista.) 

Semonville,  de,  deh  seh-mdN\6K,  (Charles  Louis 
Huguet — A\i'gk\)  Marquis,  a  French  diplomatist,  borri 
in  Paris  in  1759.  Having  been  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Italy  in  1793,  he  was  imprisoned  by  the  Austrians  for 
two  years.  He  became  a  member  of  the  senate  in  1805, 
and  sat  in  the  Chamber  of  Peers  from  181 5  to  1830. 
Died  in  1839. 

See  MouNiER,  "  filoge  de  Semonville;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Semper,  s^m'per  or  z^m'per,  (Gottfried,)  a  Ger- 
man architect,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1804.  Among  his 
best  works  is  the  new  theatre  at  Dresden.  He  pub- 
lished two  esteemed  works,  entitled  "  The  Four  Elements 
of  Architecture,"  (1851,)  and  "Science,  Industry,  and 
Art,"  (1852.) 

Semple,  s^m'p'l,  (Robert  Baylor,)  an  American 
BajJtist  divine,  born  in  King  and  Queen  county,  Virginia, 
in  1769.  He  published  a  "  History  of  Virginia  Baptists," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1831. 

Sem-pro'ni-a,  a  Roman  lady,  was  the  sister  of  the 
celebrated  Gracchi,  and  the  wife  of  Scipio  Africanus  the 
Younger. 

Sempronia,  the  beautiful  but  profligate  wife  of  D. 
Junius  Brutus,  who  was  consul  in  77  B.C.  She  was 
distinguished  for  her  literary  talents,  and  was  an  ac- 
complice in  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline. 

Sempronia  Gens,  an  ancient  Roman  gens,  was 
divided  into  many  families,  known  as  the  Atratini, 
Gracchi,  Longi,  Rufi,  Tuditani,  etc.  A.  Sempronius 
Atratinus,  who  was  consul  in  497  B.C.,  belonged  to  this 
gens. 

Sem-pro'ni-us  Tu-di-ta'nus,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  his- 
torian, became  consul  in  129  B.C.  His  works  are  not 
extant. 

Senac,  seh-ntk',  (Jean,)  a  French  physician  and 
medical  writer,  born  at  Lombez  in  1693,  became  phy- 
sician to  the  king  in  1752.  He  was  author  of  a  treat- 
ise on  the  structure  and  diseases  of  the  heart,  which 
was  esteemed  a  standard  work  at  the  time.  Died  in 
1770. 

Senac  de  Meilhan,  seh-ntk'  deh  mi^SN',  (Ga- 
briel,) a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1736,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  published  fictitious  "Memoirs 
of  Anne  de  Gonzague,"  (1786,)  and  "Considerations 
on  Mind  (or  Intellect)  and  Manners,"  ("Considerations 
sur  I'Esprit  et  les  Moeurs,"  1787.)  Died  at  Vienna  in 
1803. 

See  Craufurd,  "  Essai  biogvaphique  sur  Senac  de  Meilhan," 
1803;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Generale." 

Sen^n,  s^-nln',  a  celebrated  physician  and  astron- 
omer, born  in  Mesopotomia,  flourished  in  the  tenth 
century.  He  was  appointed  archiater  or  chief  of  the 
physicians  by  Moktader,  Caliph  of  Bagdad.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  geometry  and  astronomy,  and  on  the 
doctrines  of  the  Sabians.    He  died  in  942  a.d. 

Senancour,  de,  deh  seh-n6N'kooR',  (Etienne  Pi- 
vert,)  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1770,  was  a 
melancholy  and  meditative  person.  He  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  "  Reveries  on  the  Primitive  Nature 
of  Man,"  (1799,)  "Obermann,"  a  tale,  (1804,)  and  "Free 
Meditations  of  a  Recluse,"  ("  Libres  Meditations  d'un 
Solitaire,"  1819.)  M.  Villemain  procured  for  him  a 
pension  from  the  state.    Died  in  1846. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  contemporains ;"  Qu^rard, 
"La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Senarmont,  de,  deh  seh-niR'm6N',  (Alexandre 
Antoine  Hureau — /zii'ro',)  Baron,  a  French  general, 
born  at  Strasburg  in  1769.  He  distinguished  himself 
at  Jena,  Eylau,  and  Friedland,  where  he  directed  the 
artillery,  (1807.)  He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Cadiz, 
in  1810. 

See  Marion,  "  Memoires  sur  General  de  Senarmont,"  1846. 

Senarmont,  de,  (Henri  Hureau,)  a  mineralogist 
and  engineer,  born  at  Broue  in  1808,  was  a  nephew  of 
the  preceding.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  the  Modifica- 
tions which  Reflection  at  the  Surface  of  Crystals  produces 
in  Polarized  Light,"  (1840,)  a  "Geological  Description 
of  the  Department  of  Seine-et-Marne,"  (1844,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1862. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  ii,  y,  /ong;  k,  b,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \x,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  filt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SEN  ART 


1995 


SENNERT 


Senart,  si'ntR',  (Antoine  Marie  Jules,)  a  French 
advocate  and  republican,  born  at  Rouen  in  1800.  He 
became  president  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  about 
May,  1848,  and  was  minister  of  the  interior  for  a  short 
time  in  that  year. 

Senault,  seh-no',  (John  Francis,)  a  Flemish  ecclesi- 
astic, born  at  Antwerp  about  1600.  He  settled  in  Paris, 
where  he  became  celebrated  as  a  pulpit  orator.  He 
published  several  moral  and  religious  works.  Died  in 
1672. 

Senebier,  sen'be-i',  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  naturalist  and 
litterateur,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1742.  He  was  ordained 
a  minister  about  1762,  and  preached  several  years  at 
Chancy.  In  1773  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  public 
library  of  Geneva.  He  wrote  numerous  and  various 
works,  among  which  are  "  Essay  on  the  Art  of  Observing 
and  Making  Experiments,"  (2  vols.,  1775,)  a  "  Literary 
History  of  Geneva,"  (3  vols.,  1786,)  and  "Vegetable 
Physiology,"  (5  vols.,  1800.)    Died  in  1809. 

See  Maunoir,  "  !l£loge  de  J.  Senebier,"  1810;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Sen'e-ca,  [Fr.  S^:NfeQUE,*si''ngk',] (Lucius  Ann^us,) 
an  eminent  Roman  Stoic,  philosopher,  and  moralist,  born 
at  Corduba,  in  Spain,  about  5  B.C.  He  was  educated  in 
Rome,  whither  he  was  brought  by  his  parents  in  his  child- 
hood. Having  studied  rhetoric,  philosophy,  and  law,  he 
gained  distinction  as  a  pleader.  Accused  by  Messalina 
of  improper  intimacy  with  Julia,  a  niece  of  Claudius,  he 
was  banished  to  Corsica  in  41  a.d.  During  his  exile  he 
composed  his  "  Consolatio  ad  Helviam."  (Helvia  was 
the  name  of  his  mother.)  Through  the  influence  of 
Agrippina,  he  obtained  permission  to  return  to  Rome  in 
49  a.d.,  was  raised  to  the  praetorship,  and  appointed 
tutor  to  L.  Domitius,  (commonly  known  as  Nero,)  who 
became  emperor  in  54  A.D.  According  to  Tacitus,  Sen- 
eca endeavoured  to  reform  or  restrain  the  evil  propensi- 
ties of  his  pupil.  Some  writers,  however,  censure  his 
conduct  in  this  connection,  by  arguments  which  derive 
plausibility  from  the  immense  wealth  which  Seneca 
amassed.  About  the  year  56  he  wrote  a  treatise  on 
clemency,  addressed  to  Nero,  "  De  Clementia,  ad  Nero- 
nem."  Seneca  consented  to  the  death  of  Nero's  mother, 
Agrippina,  who  was  killed  by  order  of  her  son  in  60  A.D., 
and  wrote  the  letter  which  Nero  addressed  to  the  senate 
in  his  justification.  He  was  afterwards  supplanted  in 
the  favour  of  Nero  by  Tigellinus  and  Rufus,  vvho  sought 
to  ruin  Seneca  by  exciting  the  suspicion  of  the  tyrant 
against  him.  He  was  accused  of  being  an  accomplice 
of  Piso,  (who  had  conspired  against  the  emperor,)  and 
was  ordered  to  put  himself  to  death.  Having  opened 
his  veins,  he  died  in  a  warm  bath  in  65  A.D.  He  was 
an  uncle  of  the  poet  Lucan. 

Seneca  was  an  eloquent  and  popular  writer.  His  style 
is  aphoristic,  antithetical,  and  somewhat  inflated.  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  a  treatise  "On  Anger,"  ("De 
Ira,")  "  A  Book  on  Providence,"  ("  De  Providentia 
Liber,")  "On  Tranquillity  of  Mind,"  ("De  Animi  Tran- 
quillitate,")  "On  the  Brevity  of  Life,"("De  Brevitate 
Vitae,")  essays  on  natural  science,  entitled  "  Quaestiones 
Naturales,"  and  numerous  epistles,  "Epistolae  ad  Lu- 
cilium,"  which  are  a  collection  of  moral  maxims.  We 
have  also  ten  tragedies  in  verse  which  are  attributed  to 
Seneca,  and  which,  though  not  adapted  to  the  stage, 
have  considerable  literary  merit. 

There  has  been  great  diversity  of  opinion  respecting 
the  character  and  writings  of  Seneca.  He  has  been 
quoted  as  an  authority  by  councils  and  fathers  of  the 
Church.  He  was  highly  extolled  as  a  writer  by  Mon- 
taigne. Quintilian  observes  that  his  writings  "  abound 
in  charming  defects,"  ( diilcibiisvitiis.)  Macaulay  is  among 
those  who  take  the  least  favourable  view  of  the  character 
and  influence  of  the  great  Stoic.  He  says,  "  It  is  very 
reluctantly  that  Seneca  can  be  brought  to  confess  that 
any  philosopher  had  ever  paid  the  smallest  attention 
to  anything  that  could  possibly  promote  what  vulgar 
people  would  consider  as  the  well-being  of  mankind. 
.  .  .  The  business  of  a  philosopher  was  to  declaim  in 
praise  of  poverty,  with  two  millions  sterling  out  at 
usury ;  to  meditate  epigrammatic  conceits  about  the 

*  Chancer  usually  has  Senek,  with  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable  ; 
sometimes,  though  rarely,  Senec. 


evils  of  luxury,  in  gardens  which  moved  the  envy  of  sove- 
reigns ;  to  rant  about  liberty,  while  fawning  on  the 
insolent  and  pampered  freedmen  of  a  tyrant."  ("Essay 
on  Lord  Bacon,") 

See  RosMiNi,  "Vita  di  Seneca,"  1793;  Justus  Lipsius,  "Vita 
L.  A.  SenecjE,"  1607;  Klotzsch,  "Seneca,"  2  vols.,  1799-1802; 
Reinhardt,  "De  Seneca  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1817;  Vernier,  "  Vie 
de  S^neque,"  1812;  Am.  Fleury,  "  Seneque  et  Saint-Paul,"  2 
vols.,  1853;  P.  Ekerman,  "Vita  et  Dogmata  L.  A.  Senecae,"  1742; 
RiTTER,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  Hirschig,  "  Dood  en  Gedach- 
tenis  van  Seneca,"  1831;  Denis  Diderot,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  de 
Seneque,"  1779;  F.  Salvadori,  "II  Filosofo  cortigiano,  o  sia 
il  Seneca,"  1674;  Tacitus,  "Annales;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Seneca,  (Marcus  Ann.^;us,)  a  Latin  rhetorician, 
born  at  Corduba  (Cordova)  about  61  B.C.,  was  the  father 
of  the  preceding,  and  the  grandfather  of  Lucan.  He 
wrote  "  Book  of  Persuasives,"  ("  Suasoriarum  Liber,") 
and  "  Ten  Books  of  Controversies,"  ("  Controversia- 
rum  Libri  decern,")  which  are  extant,  but  have  little 
merit. 

Senecai  or  Senece,  de,  deh  sk'neh-si'  or  skn^si', 

(Antoine  Bauderon,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Macon 
in  1643.  He  wrote  "Kaimac;  Les  Travaux  d'Apollon," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1737. 

Senecio,  se-nee'she-o,  (Herennius,)  a  native  of 
Spain,  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  Domitian.  The 
charges  against  him  were  that  he  was  a  candidate  for 
no  public  office,  and  that  he  had  written  the  life  of  Hel- 
vidius  Priscus. 

Senefelder,  sa'neh-fild'er,  (Alois,)  the  inventor  of 
lithography,  was  born  at  Prague  in  1 771.  He  became  a 
play-actor  in  his  youth,  but  did  not  succeed  in  that  pur- 
suit. He  also  wrote  several  dramas.  Being  poor,  he 
meditated  various  new  modes  of  printing  his  works 
cheaply,  and  tried  experiments  in  etching,  and  writing 
backwards  on  calcareous  stone.  One  day  it  was  neces- 
sary to  make  a  memorandum  in  haste,  but  he  had  no 
white  paper  :  so  he  wrote  it  on  a  smooth  stone  with  a 
peculiar  ink.  It  afterwards  occurred  to  him  to  apply 
diluted  nitric  acid,  which  etched  away  the  stone  where 
there  had  been  no  ink,  the  part  on  which  the  ink  had 
been  ])laced  being  protected  from  the  action  of  the  acid, 
so  that  the  letters  were  left  in  relief.  He  invented  about 
1798  the  process  of  lithography  which  is  now  generally 
used,  and  was  appointed  director  of  the  royal  lithographic 
office  at  Munich  in  1809.  He  published  a  "  History  of 
Lithography,"  (1819.)    Died  in  1834. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Senek.    See  Seneca. 

Senior,  seen'yor,  (Nassau  William,)  an  English 
lawyer,  born  in  Berkshire  in  1790,  became  in  1826  pro- 
fessor of  political  economy  at  Oxford.  He  published 
"On  Foreign  Poor-Laws  and  Labourers,"  (1840,)  a 
"Treatise  on  Political  Economy,"  (1850,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1864. 

See  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1859. 

Senkenberg,  von,  fon  sgnk'en-b^RC'  or  zgnk'en- 
b^Rc/,  (Heinrich  Chrisloph,)  Baron,  a  Germati 
jurist,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1704,  became 
professor  of  law  at  Gottingen.    Died  in  1768. 

Senkenberg,  von,  (Johann  Christian,)  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in 
1717.  He  founded  in  that  city  a  hospital,  with  a  library, 
botanical  garden,  anatomical  theatre,  etc.  Died  in  1772. 
The  Senkenberg  Museum  of  Natural  History  was  estab- 
lished in  his  honour  in  1817. 

Sen-na-eh'er-ib,  [Heb.  :i'"injD,]  King  of  Assyria, 
was  a  son  of  Sargon,  whom  he  succeeded  about  702  B.C. 
He  invaded  Judea  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  defeated 
the  Egyptian  allies  of  the  King  of  Judah,  and  extorted 
from  him  a  large  amount  of  gold  and  silver.  His  army 
besieged  Jerusalem,  but  was  overthrown  by  the  angel  of 
the  Lord,  who  "  went  forth  and  smote  in  the  camp  of 
the  Assyrians  an  hundred  and  four  score  and  five  thou- 
sand," so  that  Sennacherib  returned  in  haste  to  Nineveh. 
He  reigned  twenty-two  years. 

See  II.  Kings  xviii.,  xix.  ;  Niebuhr.  "  Geschichte  Assurs  und 
Babels." 

Sennert,  sSn'n^Rt,  [Lat.  Senner'tus,]  (Andreas,) 
a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1606,  was 
a  son  of  Daniel,  noticed  below.    He  became  professor 


€  as  k;  5  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  K^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SENNERT 


1996 


SERGIUS 


of  Hebrew  at  Wittenberg  in  1638.    He  published  a 
number  of  works.    Died  in  1689. 
See  NiCERON,  "M^moires." 

Sennert  or  Sen-ner'tus,  [Fr.  Sennert,  si'naiR',] 
(Daniel,)  a  German  physician,  born  at  Breslau  in  1572, 
became  professor  of  medicine  at  Wiirtemberg.  He  was 
the  author  of  numerous  works,  and  enjoyed  a  high  repu- 
tation in  his  profession.    Died  in  1637. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Nicekon, 
**  Memoires." 

Sennertus.    See  Sennert. 

Senneterre.    See  Fert6-Senneterre. 

Sen'ter,  (Isaac,)  an  eminent  American  physician, 
born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1755.  served  as  surgeon 
in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  afterwards  practised  at 
Newport,  Rhode  Island.    Died  in  1799. 

Seona.    See  Siofn. 

Sepp,  sSp  or  zSp,  (Johann  Nepomuk,)  a  Catholic 
theologian,  born  at  Toltz,  in  Bavaria,  in  1816,  became 
professor  of  history  at  Munich.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of 
Jesus,"  in  answer  to  that  of  Strauss,  and  "  Paganism 
and  its  Signification  for  Christianity,"  (1853,)  in  which 
he  favours  the  system  of  Schelling. 

Sep'pings,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  English  naval  architect, 
born  in  1768,  made  several  important  improvements  in 
ship-building,  among  which  was  the  system  of  diagonal 
bracing  and  trussing.  In  acknowledgment  of  his  ser- 
vices he  was  elected  to  the  Royal  Society  in  1814,  and 
obtained  the  Copley  medal  from  that  institution.  He 
published  a  treatise  "On  a  New  Principle  of  construct- 
ing Ships  in  the  Mercantile  Navy,"  and  other  similar 
works,  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions."  Died  in  1840. 

Septalius.    See  Settala. 

Septimius  Severus.    See  Severus. 

Sepulveda,  de,  6k  sa-pooKva-oS,  (Juan  Ginez,)  a 
celebrated  Spanish  historian  and  scholar,  born  near 
Cordova  about  1490.  He  studied  at  the  University 
of  Alcala,  and  subsequently  at  Rome,  where  he  was 
patronized  by  Cardinal  Carpi.  In  1536  he  became  his- 
toriographer to  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  and  was  after- 
wards appointed  tutor  to  his  son  Philip.  Among  his 
principal  historical  works  are  his  "  History  of  the  Em- 
peror Charles  V.,"  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  and  "  His- 
tory of  the  Spanish  Conquests  in  Mexico,"  all  in  Latin. 
He  also  wrote  a  treatise  entitled  "  Democrates  Se- 
cundus,"  in  which  he  attempts  to  justify  the  barbarous 
treatment  of  the  Indians  by  the  Spaniards,  and  to  refute 
the  arguments  of  Las  Casas  in  their  favour.  The  work 
was  condemned  by  the  principal  Spanish  universities, 
and  was  never  printed.  Sepulveda  translated  portions 
of  Aristotle  into  Latin,  and  published  a  number  of 
learned  essays  in  that  language.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  accomplished  scholars  and  writers  of  his  time. 
Died  in  1574. 

See  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova  ;"  Andre  Schott, 
"  Vita  Sepulvedae,"  prefixed  to  Sepiilveda's  works,  Cologne,  1602; 
NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sepulveda,  de,  (Lorenzo,)  a  Spanish  writer  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  the  author  of  "  Romances  nueva- 
mente  sacadas  de  Historias  antiguas  de  la  Cronica  de 
Espafia,"  and  other  works  of  the  kind,  which  had  a  high 
reputation  at  the  time. 

Sequard.    See  Brown-S6quard. 

Serao,  sk-r¥o,  [Lat.  Sera'us,]  (Francesco,)  an 
Italian  physician,  born  near  Aversa  in  1702.  He  be- 
came professor  of  medicine  at  Naples,  and  chief  physician 
to  Ferdinand  IV.    Died  in  1783. 

See  Fasano,  "  De  Vita  et  Scriptis  Serai,"  1784. 

Se-ra'pi-on,  [Sfpamwv,]  a  physician  of  the  sect  of 
the  Enipirici,  who  lived  at  Alexandria  about  250  B.C. 

Serapioii,  a  Syrian  physician,  called  Serapion  Se- 
nior, is  supposed  to  have  flourished  in  the  tenth  century. 
Two  of  his  medical  works  are  extant. 

Serapion,  an  Arabian  physician,  commonly  called 
Junior,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  eleventh  centurv. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  "  On  Simple  Medicaments^" 
which  has  been  translated  into  Latin. 

Se-ra'pis  or  Sa-ra'pis,  [Gr.  Supamc  ;  Fr.  S^rapis, 
si'rt'p^ss',]  the  name  of  an  Egyptian  divinity,  was 
regarded  by  some  writers  as  another  title  of  Osiris. 
Clemens  of  Alexandria,  Macrobius,  and  others  mention 


Serapis  and  Isis  as  the  great  divinities  of  Egypt.  Ac- 
cording to  Apollodorus,  Serapis  was  a  name  given  to 
Apis  after  his  death. 

Se-ra'ri-us  or  si'rS^re'us',  (Nicolas,)  a  learned 
French  Jesuit,  born  in  Lorraine  about  1550.  He  wrote 
several  works  against  Luther ;  also,  commentaries  on 
Scripture.    Died  in  1609 /)r  1610. 

Serassi,  sk-ris'see,  (Pietro  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
biographer  and  critic,  born  at  Bergamo  in  1721.  He 
became  secretary  to  Cardinal  Furietti  at  Roine  about 
1760.  He  edited  the  poems  of  Petrarch,  Dante,  and 
other  Italian  poets.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  Life  of  Tor- 
quato  Tasso,"  ('*  Vita  di  T.  Tasso,"  1785,)  which  is 
highly  esteemed,  and  presents  a  vivid  picture  of  the 
literary  history  of  Tasso's  time.    Died  in  1791. 

See  TiPAi.DO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Serbelloni,  s^R-bgl-lo'nee,  (Gabriel,)  an  able  Italian 
general,  born  at  Milan  in  1508.  He  fought  for  Charles 
V.  and  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  He  distinguished  himself 
at  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  (1571.)    Died  in  1580. 

Sercey,  de,  deh  sIr's|',  (Pierre  Cesar  Charles 
GuiLLAUME,)  Marquis,  a  French  vice-admiral,  born 
near  Autun  in  1753.  He  commanded  in  the  East  Indies 
with  success  in  1796-99.    Died  in  1836. 

Se-re'nus,  (Aulus  Septimius,)  a  Roman  lyric  poet, 
and  contemporary  of  Martial,  was  the  author  of  "  Opus- 
cula  Ruralia,"  on  the  enjoyments  of  country  life.  A  few 
fragments  only  of  this  work  are  extant. 

Serenu.s,  (Quintus.)    See  Samonicus. 

Sergardi,  sla-gaRMee,  (Lodovico,)  an  Italian  satiri- 
cal poet,  born  at  Sienna  in  1660,  called  himself  QuiNTUS 
Sectanus.  He  attacked  Gravina  in  a  series  of  satires 
entitled  "Satires  of  Quintus  Sectanus  against  Philode- 
mus,"  ("  Quinti  Sectani  Satyrae  in  Philodemum,"  1694.) 
Died  in  1726. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vitse  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium." 

Serge.    See  Sergius. 

Sergeant,  sar'jant,  (John,)  an  eminent  American 
jurist  and  statesman,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1779.  He 
was  a  son  of  Jonathan  Dickinson  Sergeant,  who  was 
attorney-general  of  Pennsylvania.  He  graduated  at 
Princeton  College  in  1795,  and  practised  law  in  Phila- 
delphia. He  was  retained  as  counsel  in  the  most  impor- 
tant cases  in  the  supreme  court  of  his  own  State  and 
in  that  of  the  United  States.  He  represented  a  district 
of  his  native  city  in  Congress  from  1815  to  1823,  from 
1827  to  1829,  and  from  1837  to  1842.  In  1832  he  was 
the  Whig  candidate  for  the  office  of  Vice-President, 
(Henry  Clay  being  the  Presidential  candidate,)  but  re- 
ceived only  forty-nine  electoral  votes.  He  took  an 
important  part  against  the  extension  of  slavery  in  the 
contest  which  resulted  in  the  Missouri  compromise  of 
1820,  and  delivered  on  that  occasion  a  speech  of  rare 
eloquence  and  power.  He  was  a  man  of  high  integrity 
and  great  personal  influence  in  the  community.  Died  in 
Philadelphia  in  November,  1852.  His  "  Select  Speeches" 
were  published  in  Philadelphia  in  1832. 

See  W.  M.  Meredith,  "  Eulogy  on  John  Sergeant,"  1853. 

Sergei  or  Sergell,  s^R^gel,  (Johan  Tobias,)  an  emi- 
nent Swedish  sculptor,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1740.  He 
visited  Rome  in  1767,  where  he  resided  many  years,  and, 
after  his  return,  was  appointed  by  Gustavus  III.  court 
sculptor  and  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  "Cupid  and  Psyche,"  "Othryades 
the  Spartan,"  and  "  Diomedes  carrying  off  the  Palla- 
dium."   Died  in  1814. 

Sergent,  sgR'zhdN',  (Antoine  Francois,)  a  French 
Jacobin,  born  at  Chartres  in  1751.  He  was  a  violent 
member  of  the  Convention,  (1792-95,)  and  published 
several  works.    Died  in  1847. 

See  Noel  Parfait,  "Notice  sur  A.  F.  Sergent,"  1848. 

Ser'gi-us  [Fr.  Serge,  s§Rzh  ;  It.  Sergio,  s§R'je-o  or 
siR'jo]  I.,  Pope  of  Roine,  born  at  Palermo,  succeeded 
Conon  in  687  a.d.  He  sent  missionaries  to  convert  the 
Saxons.  Having  refused  his  consent  to  the  canons 
issued  by  the  council  assembled  in  Constantinople  by 
Justinian  II.,  the  latter  ordered  his  arrest  ;  but,  the 
soldiers  taking  sides  with  the  pope,  he  remained  in  pos- 
session of  his  see.  He  died  in  701,  and  was  succeeded 
by  John  VL 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /ou^;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,    short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  inoon; 


SERGIUS 


1997 


SkRTORIUS 


Sergius  II.,  born  at  Rome,  was  elected  pope  in  844 
A.D.  During  his  pontificate  the  Saracens  invaded  Italy 
and  ravaged  the  country  near  Rome,  but  did  not  enter 
the  city.    Died  in  847. 

Sergius  III.  succeeded  Christopher  as  pope  in  904 
A.D.,  being  eler^ed  through  the  inlluence  of  the  Marquis 
of  Tuscany  and  the  profligate  Theodora  and  her  daugh- 
ter Marozia.  His  son  by  Marozia  was  afterwards  Pope 
John  X.  Sergius  died  in  913,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Anastasius  IV. 

Sergius  IV.  was  elected  successor  to  John  XVIII. 
in  1009  A.D.  He  died  in  1012,  and  Benedict  VIII.  was 
chosen  to  succeed  him. 

Sergius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  born  probably 
in  Syria,  was  a  Monothelite.  He  became  patriarch  in 
610,  and  died  in  639  A.D. 

Serieys,  seh-re-a',  (Antoine,)  a  French  compiler  of 
histories,  etc.,  born  iii  Rouergue  in  1755  ;  died  in  1829. 

Serimnir,    See  Saehrimnir. 

Seripandi,  si-re-pln'dee,  or  Seripando,  sa-re-pSn'- 
do,  (GiROLAMO,)  a  learned  Italian  prelate  and  writer, 
born  at  Naples  in  1493,  distinguished  himself  at  the 
Council  of  Trent.    Died  in  1563. 

Serizay,  de,  deh  seh-re'za^  (Jacques,)  a  French 
poet,  born  in  Paris  about  1590,  was  one  of  the  first 
members  of  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1653. 

Serle,  serl,  (Ambrose,)  an  English  devotional  writer, 
born  about  1740.  Among  his  works  is  "Christian  Hus- 
bandry," (1804.)    Died  in  181 2. 

Serlio,  s^R^le-o,  (Sebasiiano,)  an  Italian  architect 
and  writer  upon  art,  born  at  Bologna  in  1475.  ^^^^ 
appointed  in  1541,  by  Francis  I.,  King  of  P'rance,  archi- 
tect at  the  palace  of  Fontainebleau.  ll~  author  of 
•'Treatises  on  Architecture,"  ("Opere  di  Architettura.") 
Died  in  1552. 

Sermoneta,  da.    See  Siciolante. 

Seroux  d'Agincourt    See  D'Agincourt. 

Serrano,  s^r-ri'no,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  general 
and  politician,  born  in  the  eighteenth  century.  He  was 
appointed  captain-general  of  the  artillery  in  1854.  He 
opposed  Narvaez  in  1857,  and  was  Captain-General 
of  Cuba  from  i860  to  1862.  He  was  president  of  the 
provisional  government  formed  by  the  insurgents  who 
deposed  Isabel  in  September,  1868,  and  was  elected 
Regent  of  Spain  by  the  Cortes  in  June,  1869. 

Serranus.  See  Lambert,  (Francois,)  and  Serres, 
DE,  (Jean.) 

Serrao,  s§r-ri'o,  (Giovan  Andrea,)  a  learned  Ital- 
ian ecclesiastic,  born  in  Calabria  in  1731.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Potenza  in  1782.  In  1799  he  was  massacred 
by  the  royalists  because  he  was  a  Liberal. 

See  Davakzati,  "Vie  d'Andrea  Serrao,"  1S06. 

Serre,  de,  deh  saiR,  (Pierre  Francois  Hercule,) 
Comte,  a  French  orator  and  minister  of  state,  born  near 
Pont-a-Mousson  in  1776.  He  was  appointed  first  presi- 
dent of  the  court  of  Colmar  in  1815,  and  president  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1816.  He  was  a  moderate 
royalist  and  doctrinaire  in  politics.  In  December,  1818, 
he  became  keeper  of  the  seals,  or  minister  of  justice. 
He  resigned  office  in  December,  1821.    Died  in  1824. 

See  GuizoT,  "Memoires,"  tome  i.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^- 
rale." 

Serres,  saiR  or  sairz,  ?  (Dominic,)  a  painter  of  ma- 
rine views  and  naval  battles,  was  born  at  Auch,  in 
France.  He  went  to  England  about  1764,  and  worked 
in  that  country  many  years.    Died  in  1793. 

Serres,  saiR,  (Etienne  Renaud  Augustin,)  a  French 
physiologist,  born  at  Clairac  in  1787.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  comparative  anatomy  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes 
in  1839.  He  produced,  besides  other  works,  *'The 
Laws  of  Osteogeny,"  (181 5,)  and  "The  Comparative 
Anatomy  of  the  Brain  in  the  Four  Classes  of  Vertebrate 
Animals,"  (2  vols.,  1824-26.)  He  discovered  that  the 
development  of  animals  and  their  organs  proceeds  from 
the  circumference  towards  the  centre. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  Callisen,"  Medicinisches 
Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 

Serres,  sairz,  ?  (Olive,)  an  English  artist,  wife  of 
Dominic,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Warwick  in  1772, 
and  was  appointed  landscape-painter  to  the  Prince  of 
Wales.  In  181 5  she  publicly  claimed  the  title  of  Princess 


of  Cumberland,  pretending  that  she  was  the  daughter 
of  Henry  Frederick,  Duke  of  Cumberland,  by  his  mar- 
riage with  a  Miss  Wilmot.  In  1822  a  motion  was  made 
in  the  House  of  Commons  to  investigate  her  claims, 
which  was  successfully  opposed  by  Sir  Robert  Peel. 
She  died  in  poverty  in  1834. 

Serres,  de,  deh  saiR,  [Lat.  Serra'nus,]  (Jean,)  a 
French  Protestant  minister  and  historian,  born  at  Ville- 
neuve  de  Berg  about  1540.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "Memoirs  of  the  Third  Civil  War,"  (1569,)  and 
"  History  of  France  in  the  Reigns  of  Henry  IL,  P'rancis 
II.,  Charles  IX.,  and  Henry  HI.,"  (1595.)  He  received 
from  Henry  IV,  the  title  of  historiographer  in  1597. 
Died  at  Geneva  in  1598. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  MM.  Haag,  "La  France  protes- 
tante;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Serres,  de,  (Marcel,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  at 
Montpellier  in  1782.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
geology  and  natural  history  in  his  native  city  in  1820, 
and  wrote  numerous  works  on  geology,  palaeontology, 
etc.,  among  which  is  "  The  Cosmogony  of  Moses  com- 
pared with  Geological  Facts,"  (1838.)    Died  in  1862. 

Serres,  de,  (Olivier,)  Seigneur  de  Pradel,  a  P>ench 
Protestant  and  writer  on  agriculture,  born  near  Ville- 
neuve  de  Berg  (Ardeche)  about  1539,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  published  a  valuable  work  on  rational 
and  methodical  agriculture,  entitled  "  Le  Theatre  d'Agri- 
culture,"  (1600,)  often  reprinted.  His  style  is  admirable 
and  finely  adapted  to  the  subject.    Died  in  1619. 

See  F.  DE  Neufchateau,  "  Eloge  historique  d'O.  de  Serres," 
1790  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  MM.  Haag,  "La  France 
protestante." 

Serret,  si'rk',  (Joseph  Alfred,)  a  French  mathe. 
matician,  born  in  1819,  has  written  on  analysis,  etc. 

Serrigny,  si'r^n'ye',  (Denis,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Savigny-sur-Beaune  about  1804.  He  published  a 
"  Treatise  on  the  Public  Law  of  the  French,"  (2  vols., 
1845,)  and  other  works. 

Sertorio.    See  Sertorius. 

Ser-to'ri-us,  [It.  Sertorio,  s^R-to're-o,]  (Quintus,) 
a  famous  Roman  general,  born  at  Nursia,  in  the  country 
of  the  Sabines.  He  was  liberally  educated.  He  displayed 
courage  and  capacity  in  the  war  which  Marius  conducted 
against  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones  about  loi  B.C.  Just 
before  the  Marsic  war  began,  he  was  appointed  quaestor 
in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  91  B.C.  "  His  martial  intrepidity  did 
not  abate,"  says  Plutarch,  "  when  he  arrived  at  the  de- 
gree of  general.  His  personal  exploits  were  still  great, 
and  he  faced  danger  in  the  most  fearless  manner  ;  in 
consequence  of  which  he  had  one  of  his  eyes  struck 
out."  He  offered  himself  as  a  candidate  for  the  office 
of  tribune,  but  was  defeated  by  Sulla's  faction,  and 
became  an  enemy  of  that  great  leader.  In  the  civil  war 
which  began  about  88  he  fought  with  Cinna  against  the 
partisans  of  Sulla.  After  Marius  returned  from  Africa, 
the  troops  of  the  popular  party  were  divided  into  three 
equal  parts,  commanded  respectively  by  Marius,  Ser- 
torius, and  Cinna,  who,  acting  in  concert,  defeated  the 
enemy  and  made  themselves  masters  of  Rome.  Ser- 
torius was  the  only  one  of  the  three  that  treated  the 
vanquished  with  humanity,  and  he  reproached  Marius 
for  his  cruelty.  The  return  of  Sulla  with  a  large  army 
from  the  East,  in  83  B.C.,  put  an  end  to  the  ascendency 
of  Marius.  Sertorius,  having  obtained  the  office  of  pro- 
consul, retired  with  a  few  troops  to  Spain,  from  which  he 
soon  passed  over  to  Africa.  Having  been  invited  by 
the  Lusitanians  to  command  their  army,  he  returned  to 
Spain,  where  he  acquired  great  popularity.  He  defeated 
several  Roman  generals,  and  extended  his  power  over  a 
great  part  of  Spain.  "  He  subdued  several  great  nations," 
says  Plutarch,  who  expresses  the  opinion  that  he  was 
not  inferior  to  Hannibal  in  capacity.  About  76  B.C. 
Pompey  arrived  in  Spain  with  a  new  army.  Sertorius 
defeated  Pompey  at  Sucro,  and  again  near  Saguntum. 
"  When  he  was  victorious  he  would  make  an  offer  to 
Metellus  or  Pompey  to  lay  down  his  arms  on  condition 
that  he  might  be  permitted  to  return  in  the  capacity  of 
a  private  man.  He  said  he  would  rather  be  the  meanest 
citizen  in  Rome,  than  an  exile  with  the  command  of  all 
the  other  countries  in  the  world.  .  .  .  The  magnanimity 
of  Sertorius  appeared  in  every  step  he  took."  (Plu- 


«  as  i^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SER  ULLAS 


1998 


SESSI 


tarch.)  He  was  assassinated  by  Perpenna  and  several 
accomplices  in  72  B.C.  It  may  well  be  doubted  whether 
he  had  any  superior  in  military  genius  among  all  the 
great  generals  that  Rome  ever  produced,  with  the  single 
exception  of  Julius  Caesar. 

See  Pr.uTARCH,  "  Life  of  Sertoriiis  ;"  Drumann,  "  Geschichle 
Roms;"  Appian,  "History;"  "  Nouvelle  Bioj^raphie  Generale." 

SeruUas,  si-rii'las',  (written  also  without  the  accent,) 
(Georges  Simon,)  a  French  chemist  and  apothecary, 
born  at  Poncin  (Ain)  in  1774.  He  discovered  some 
compounds  of  iodine  and  bromine,  and  wrote  a  number 
of  memoirs  on  chemistry.  He  succeeded  Vauquelin 
in  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1829.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1832. 

See  ViREV,  "Notice  sur  SeruUas,"  1832;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  "Biographic  UnivcrscUe." 

Serurier,  seh-rii-re-i',  (Jean  Mathteu  Philibert,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  general,  born  at  Laon  in  1742.  He 
became  a  general  of  brigade  in  1793,  a  general  of  di- 
vision in  1795,  and  served  with  distinction  in  the  Italian 
campaigns  of  1796-97.  As  commandant  at  Saint-Cloud, 
he  supported  Bonaparte  on  the  i8th  Brumaire,  1799. 
He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1804.    Died  in  1819. 

See  De  Courceli.es,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Servan,  s^r'vSn',  (Antoine  Joseph  Michel,)  an 
eloquent  French  advocate  and  publicist,  born  at  Romans 
'•^  1737-  wrote  many  works  on  legislation,  politics, 

etc.,  and  promoted  legal  reforms.    Died  in  1807. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Servan  de  Gerbey,  sIr'vSn'  deh  zhgR''ba',(JosEPH,) 
a  French  Girondist  and  general,  born  at  Romans  in  1741, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  was  minister  of 
war  from  May  to  October,  1792,  and  commanded  the 
army  of  the  Pyrenees  from  the  latter  date  to  May,  1793. 
Died  in  1808. 

Servan  de  Sugny,  s§rV6n'  deh  sUn'ye',  (Pierre 
Francois  Jules,)  a  French  poet,  born  at  Lyons  in  1796  ; 
died  in  183 1. 

Servandoni,  s^R-vin-do'nee,  (Jean  Jerome,)  a  dis- 
tinguished painter  and  architect,  born  at  Florence  in 
1695.  At  an  early  age  he  visited  Paris,  where  he  ac- 
quired great  celebrity  as  a  scene-painter.  The  most 
important  of  his  architectural  works  is  the  fa9ade  of  the 
church  of  Saint-Sulpice  in  Paris.    Died  in  1766. 

See  Quatrem^re  de  Quincv,  "Vies  des  Architectes ;"  Ticozzi, 
"  Dizionario ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Servet.    See  Servetus. 

Ser-ve'tus,  [Fr.  Servet,  s§R\k' ;  It.  Serveto,  sSr- 
va'to,]  (Michael,)  a  Spanish  theologian  and  physician, 
born  in  Aragon  in  1509.  His  family  name  is  said  to  have 
been  Reves,  (ra'vSs.)  He  opposed  the  dogma  of  the 
Trinity,  in  a  work  entitled  "  On  the  Errors  of  the  Trin- 
ity," ("  De  Trinitatis  Erroribus,"  1531.)  About  1533  he 
studied  medicine  at  Paris.  He  publt.'ihed  a  treatise  on 
syrups,  "  Universal  Theory  of  Syrups,"  ("  Syruporum 
universa  Ratio,"  Paris,  1537.)  After  he  left  Paris  he 
practised  medicine  at  Lyons,  and  had  a  doctrinal  con- 
troversy with  Calvin.  He  published  anonymously  his 
"Christianity  Restored,"  ("  Christianismi  Restitutio," 
etc.,  Vienne,  1553.)  Calvin  having  informed  against 
him,  Servetus  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  heresy  by 
the  Inquisition  in  France;  but  he  escaped  from  prison 
and  sought  refuge  in  Geneva.  Calvin  caused  him  to  be 
again  arrested,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  prosecu- 
tion which  led  to  the  death  of  Servetus,  who  was  burned 
at  Geneva  in  October,  1553.    (See  Calvin.) 

See  Bovsen,  "  Historia  M.  Serveti,"  1712;  "Impartial  History 
of  Michael  Servetus,"  London,  1724;  Ai.wokden,  "Historia  M. 
Serveti,"  1727;  Mosheim,  "  Geschichte  M.  Serveti,"  1748;  W.  H. 
Drummond,  "Life  of  Michael  Servetus,"  1848  ;  J.  Jaird,  "Life  of 
Servetus,"  1771  :  Paul  Henry,  "  Life  of  Calvin,"  1835;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  1849. 
See,  also,  Coleridge's  "  Table-Talk,"  (January  3,  1834.) 

Servien,  sgRVe-J,N',  (Abel,)  Marquis  de  Sable,  a 
French  diplomatist,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1593.  He  be- 
came secretary  of  state  for  war  in  1630,  and  resigned  in 
1636.  Servien  and  Avaux  represented  France  at  Miin- 
ster  in  1643  '^"'^^  the  ensuing  years.  The  former  signed 
the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  in  1648.    Died  in  1659. 

See  G.  MANAGE,  "  Histoire  de  Sable  ;"  Mokeri,  "  Dictionnaire 
Historique;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale."  I 


Ser-viFi-a,  [Fr.  Servilie,  siR've'le',]  a  Roman  lady, 
was  a  niece  of  the  celebrated  M.  Livius  Drusus,  and  the 
wife  of  Marcus  Junius  Brutus,  and  mother  of  M.  Junius 
Brutus  the  younger,  who  killed  Caesar.  She  was  a  fa- 
vourite mistress  of  that  dictator. 

Servilia  Gens,  a  Roman  gens,  originally  patriciafi, 
was  highly  distinguished  in  the  early  ages  of  the  republic. 
Among  the  families  into  which  it  was  divided  were  Ahala, 
Caspio,  Casca,  and  Priscus. 

Servilie.    See  Servilia. 

Ser-viPi-us,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  statesman,  who  be- 
came praetor  in  206  B.C.,  consul  in  203,  dictator  in  202, 
and  pontifex  maximus  in  183.    Died  in  180  n.C. 

Servin,  sSr'v^n',  (Louis,)  a  French  magistrate,  born 
in  the  Vendomois  in  1555.  He  was  appointed  advocate- 
general  in  1589,  and  was  a  strenuous  asserter  of  the 
liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church,  on  which  subject  he 
wrote  a  work  called  "  Defence  ^f  the  Liberty  of  the 
Gallican  Church,"  ("Vindiciae  secundum  Libertatem 
Ecclesiae  Gallicanae,"  1590.)    Died  in  1626. 

See  "  Le  Tombeau  de  L.  Servin,"  Paris,  1626;  Grangier,  "  Ora- 
tio  in  Laudem  L.  Servini,"i626  ;  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Ser'vi-us,  (Mau'rus  Honora'tus,)  a  Roman  gram- 
marian, supposed  to  have  lived  between  300  and  400 
A.D.  He  wrote,  besides  several  grammatical  works,  com- 
tnentaries  on  the  "  Eclogues,"  "  Georgics,"  and  "  ^Eneid" 
of  Virgil,  which  are  highly  valued  for  the  variety  of  in- 
formation they  contain  relating  to  the  Romans. 

Ser'vi-us  TuPli-us,  the  sixth  King  of  Rome,  began 
to  reign  about  578  B.C.  According  to  tradition,  he  was 
a  son  of  Ocrisia,  a  female  slave  of  Queen  Tanaquil,  and 
was  adopted  as  a  son  by  King  Tarquin,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded. His  reign,  which  lasted  forty-four  years,  was 
pacific.  He  granted  a  new  constitution  to  the  Romans, 
and  formed  a  federal  union  or  league  between  Rome  and 
the  town's  of  Latium.  His  constitution  is  supposed  to 
have  been  beneficial  to  the  plebeians.  He  was  killed 
by  Tarquinius  Superbus,  with  whom  his  own  daughter 
Tullia  was  an  accomplice. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "  History  of  Rome  ;"  Mommsen,  "Histoire  Ro- 
maine  ;"  F.  D.  Gerlach,  "Die  Verfassung  des  Servius  Tullius," 
1837  ;  Cicero,  "  Dc  Repnblica  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

S^sha,  sa'sha,  or  Sh§sha,  sha'sha,  [etymology  ob- 
scure,] in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  a  vast 
thousand-headed  serpent,  the  emblem  of  eternity,  on 
which  Vishnu  is  believed  to  repose.  (See  Vishnu.) 
He  is  often  called  Ananta,  which  signifies  "without 
end."  Sesha  is  regarded  as  the  great  king  of  the  serpent 
race.  He  is  also  called  Vasuki  (vi'soo-ki)  or  Vasoky, 
and  is  fabled  to  have  been  used  as  the  churn-string  when 
the  gods  and  giants  (Asurs)  churned  the  ocean.  (See 
KOrma.) 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Seso,  de,  di  sa'so,  (Carlos,)  a  Protestant  Reformer, 
born  at  Florence,  resided  in  Spain,  where  he  was  pa- 
tronized by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  He  was  one 
of  the  chief  champions  of  the  Reformation  in  Spain, 
and  perished  at  the  stake,  by  order  of  the  Inquisition, 
in  1559- 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  Philip  IL,"  vol.  i.  book  ii. 

Se-sos'tris,  [Gr.  Secrwarpif,]  written  also  Sesoosis, 
a  celebrated  king  of  Egypt,  also  called  Rameses,  is 
supposed  to  have  reigned  about  1400  or  1350  B.C.  He 
was  a  powerful  and  warlike  monarch.  According  to 
tradition,  he  conquered  Ethiopia,  Thrace,  and  several 
countries  of  Southern  Asia.  He  also  made  canals  in 
Egypt,  built  a  great  wall  from  Pelusium  to  Heliopolis, 
and  erected  several  obelisks  and  temples.  Monuments 
bearing  his  name  are  still  extant  in  Egypt,  of  which  he 
was  the  great  national  hero. 

See  Herodotus,  "History;"  Bunsen,  "  Egypt's  Place  in  Uni- 
versal History  ;"  "  Biographic  Universelle." 

Sessa,  s^s'si,  an  Indian  mathematician,  to  whom  is 
attrilnited  the  invention  of  the  game  of  chess,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  in  the  eleventh  century. 

Sessi,  s^s'see,  (Anna  Maria,)  an  Italian  vocalist, 
born  at  Rome  in  1793.  She  performed  with  success  at 
Vienna  and  other  cities  of  Germany,  and  assumed,  after 
her  marriage,  the  name  of  Neumann-Sessi.  Her  sister 
Imperatrice,  born  at  Rome  in  1783,  also  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  vocalist.    Died  in  1808. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  lon^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  n,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


SESTINI 


1999 


SEFER  US 


Sestini,  s^s-tee'nee,  (Domenico,)  an  eminent  Italian 
antiquary  and  traveller,  born  at  Florence  about  1750. 
Having  successively  visited  Constantinople,  the  Levant, 
Germany,  and  France,  he  was  appointed  in  1814  honor- 
ary professor  in  the  University  of  Pisa.  Among  his 
works  on  numismatics,  which  are  ranked  among  the 
most  valuable  of  their  kind,  we  may  name  his  "System 
of  Numismatics,"  ("Sistema  Numismatico,"  14  vols, 
fol.,)  "General  Classes  of  Numismatic  Geography,  or 
Coins  of  the  Cities,  Nations,  and  Kings,  in  Geographical 
Order,"  ("Classes  generales  Geographias  Numismaticas, 
sen  ^Ionet^e  Urbium,  Populorum  et  Regum,  Ordine 
Geographico,"  etc.,  1797,)  and  "Numismatic  Letters  and 
Dissertations,"  (9  vols.,  1813.)  He  also  published  a 
"Journey  from  Constantinople  to  Bucharest,"  (1794,)  a 
"Scientific  and  Antiquarian  Voyage  through  Wallachia, 
Transylvania,  and  Hungary  to  Vienna,"  (1815,)  and 
other  works  of  travels.  Sestini  was  a  member  of  various 
learned  societies  in  Europe.    Died  in  1832. 

See  MoNALDi,  "  Elogio  di  D.  Sestini,"  1835 :  "  Biographic  Uni- 
verselle,"  (new  edition.) 

Sesto,  da,  dIsSs'to,  (Cesare,)  an  able  Italian  painter, 
called  also  Cesare  Milanese,  born  at  Milan,  was  a 
pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  whom  he  imitated  with 
success.    Died  about  1524. 

Sethos,  a  name  of  Sesostris,  which  see. 

Se'thos,  King  of  Egypt,  was  a  son  of  Rameses,  and 
the  father  of  Rameses  the  Great,  (Sesostris.)  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  reigned  about  1425  B.C.,  and  is  said  to 
have  gained  victories  over  several  neighbouring  nations. 
He  adorned  Eg^'pt  with  fine  monuments,  temples,  etc. 

Se'tpn,  (Ann  Eliza,)  an  American  lady,  born  in 
New  York  in  1774,  founded  at  Emmettsburg,  Maryland, 
in  1809,  the  first  establishment  of  Sisters  of  Charity  in 
the  United  States.    Died  in  1821. 

Settala,  sSt-ti'lJ,  [Lat.  Sepi  a'lius,]  (Lodovico,)  an 
Italian  physician,  born  at  Milan  about  1550.  He  pub- 
lished several  medical  works,  and  was  professor  at 
Milan.  Died  in  1633.  His  son  Manfredi,  born  in 
1600,  was  distinguished  for  learning  and  inventive  talent 
as  a  mechanician.    Died  at  Milan  in  1680. 

Settimo,  set'te-mo,  (Ruggiero,)  an  Italian  patriot, 
born  at  Palermo  in  1778,  inherited  a  large  estate.  He 
served  in  the  navy,  and  gained  the  rank  of  admiral.  He 
was  one  of  the  chief  agents  of  the  revolutionary  move- 
ment which  in  1820  extorted  some  reforms  from  the 
king.  In  1848  he  became  the  chief  of  the  Sicilian  in- 
surgents, and  organized  a  provisional  government.  He 
was  chosen  president  by  the  new  parliament,  which  gave 
him  royal  power  to  appoint  ministers,  etc.  He  was  very 
popular,  and  was  saluted  as  the  father  of  his  country. 
On  the  restoration  of  the  king,  Ferdinand  II.,  he  retired 
to  Malta.    Died  in  1863. 

Settle,  set't'l,  (Elkanah,)  an  English  dramatic  poet, 
born  at  Dunstable  in  1648,  is  noted  for  having  been 
for  a  time  the  successful  rival  of  Dryden.  Under  the 
patronage  of  Wilmot,  Earl  of  Rochester,  the  enemy  of 
Dryden,  he  brought  out  his  tragedies  of  "  Cambyses" 
and  the  "Empress  of  Morocco,"  which,  though  pos- 
sessing little  merit,  were  received  with  great  applause. 
He  was  afterwards  engaged  in  a  controversy  with  Dry- 
den, who  satirized  him  under  the  name  of  "  Doeg"  in  his 
"AlDsalom  and  Achitophel."  He  was  also  introduced 
into  Pope's  "  Dunciad."  '  He  died  in  poverty  in  1723. 

Seume,  soi'meh  or  zoi'meh,  (Johann  Gottfried,) 
a  German  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  1763. 
He  travelled  extensively  on  foot.  Among  his  works  is 
''Obolen,"  (2  vols.,  1797.)    Died  in  1810. 

See  his  Autobiography,  "  Mein  Leben,"  1813;  H.  Doring, 
"  Lebensiimrisse  von  Carl  August  von  Sachseii- Weimar,  von  Moe- 
ser,  Falk,  Seume,"  etc.,  1840;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Seun-King.    See  Siun-King. 

Seurre,  sur,  (Bernard  Gabriel,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Paris  in  1795.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  of 
Rome  in  181 8,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Institute  in 
1852.  Among  his  works  is  a  statue  of  Napoleon  I.  for 
the  Colonne  Vendome. 

Seurre,  (Charles  Marie  £mile,)  a  sculptor,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1797. 
He  obtained  the  grand  prize  in  1824.  His  master-piece 
is  a  statue  of  Napoleon  I.    Died  in  1858. 


Sev^jee  or  Siv^ji,  se-vS'jee,  the  founder  of  the 
Mahratta  empire  in  India,  was  born  at  Poonah  in  1627. 
He  was  ambitious  and  warlike.  By  a  series  of  conquests 
he  made  himself  master  of  a  large  part  of  Southern 
India.  About  1670  he  was  involved  in  war  with  Aurung- 
Zeb,  whose  army  he  defeated.    Died  in  1680. 

Severe.    See  Severus,  (Alexander.) 

Severino,  si-vi-ree'no,  (Marco  Aurelio,)  an  emi- 
nent Italian  physician,  born  in  Calabria  in  1580,  is  said 
to  have  been  the  principal  restorer  of  surgery  in  Italy. 
He  became  professor  of  anatomy  and  medicine  at  Na- 
ples, and  published  a  number  of  professional  works. 
Died  in  1656. 

See  Magmari,  "Elogio  di  M.  A.  Severino,"  1815;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Sev-er-i'nus,  [Fr.  S^:verin,  siv'r^N',]  Pope,  was  a 
native  of  Rome.  He  succeeded  Honorius  I.  in  640  a.d., 
and  died  the  same  year. 

Se-ve'rus,  a  Gnostic,  who  lived  about  180  a.d.  and 
founded  a  heretical  sect  called  Severiani.  Their  doc- 
trines were  similar  to  those  of  Tatian,  (which  see.) 

Se-ve'rus,  [Fr.  S^;vere,  si'vaiR^]  (Alexander,)  a 
Roman  emperor,  born  in  Phoenicia  about  205  a.d.,  was 
a  son  of  Gessius  Marcianus  and  Julia  Mammaea.  In 
221  he  was  adopted  by  his  cousin  Elagabalus,  then  em- 
peror, who  also  gave  him  the  title  of  Caesar.  He  was 
called  M.  Aurelius  Alexander  before  his  accession  to 
the  throne.  Elagabalus  soon  became  jealous,  and  made 
several  unsuccessful  efforts  to  destroy  Alexander.  He 
succeeded  Elagabalus  in  March,  222  a.d.,  and  assumed 
the  name  of  Severus.  During  the  first  nine  years  he 
reigned  in  peace,  and  applied  himself  to  the  reform  of 
abuses.  The  King  of  Persia  having  renewed  hostilities, 
Severus  marched  across  the  Euphrates,  defeated  the 
Persians  in  232,  and  returned  to  Rome.  He  was  pre- 
paring to  repel  an  irruption  of  the  Germans,  when  he 
was  killed  by  his  mutinous  troops  in  235  a.d.  He  was 
greatly  distinguished  for  his  wisdom,  justice,  clemency, 
and  other  virtues. 

See  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  Tille- 
MONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empercurs ;"  Lampridius,  "Alexander 
Severus." 

Severus,  (Alexandrinus,)  a  Greek  writer  of  the 
fifth  century,  was  the  author  of  "Narratives"  and 
"  Ethopoeiae,"  or  speeches  attributed  to  supposed  per- 
sons. The  latter  are  contained  in  Gale's  "  Rhetores 
Selecti." 

Severus,  (Cornelius,)  a  Roman  poet  under  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  was  the  author  of  an  epic  poem  on 
the  "  Sicilian  War,"  ("  Bellum  Siculum,")  and  an  account 
of  the  death  of  Cicero,  (in  verse.)  A  fragment  of  the 
latter  is  extant. 

Severus,  [Fr.  Severe,  sk'vaiR',](Lucius  Septimius,) 
a  Roman  emperor,  born  at  Leptis,  in  Africa,  in  146  A.D. 
He  was  educated  at  Rome,  and,  after  filling  various 
offices,  became  proconsul  of  Africa.  While  commander 
of  the  Pannonian  legions  in  Germany,  he  heard  of  the 
death  of  Commodus,  upon  which  he  hastened  to  Rome, 
and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  army  in  193  a.d. 
in  opposition  to  Didius  Julianus,  who  was  soon  after 
assassinated.  He  next  marched  against  Pescennius 
Niger,  commander  of  the  Syrian  legions,  who  had  lately 
been  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  troops.  He  defeated 
Niger  at  Issus  or  Cyzicus  in  194,  after  which  he  waged 
war  with  success  against  the  Parthians.  In  197  he 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Albinus  (a  rival  claimant 
of  the  throne)  near  Lyons.  He  renewed  the  war  against 
Parthia  in  198,  defeated  the  Parthians,  and  took  Ctesi- 
phon,  their  capital.  In  208  he  led  an  army  to  Britain 
to  subdue  the  Caledonians,  and  built  a  rampart,  called 
the  wall  of  Severus,  extending  across  the  island.  He 
died  at  York  in  211  a.d.,  leaving  two  sons,  Caracalla 
and  Geta. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  xxiv.-xxvi. ; 
Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Severus,  (Sulpicius,)  [Fr.  Sulpice  Severe,  sur- 
pass' si'vaiR',]  a  Christian  historian,  born  in  Aquitania, 
Gaul,  about  363  a.d.,  was  the  author  of"  Historia  Sacra," 
and  a  "  Life  of  Saint  Martin,"  in  Latin.  He  has  been 
styled  "  the  Christian  Sallust."    Died  about  410. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SEFIER 


2000 


SEWARD 


Sevier,  se-veer',  (Ambrose  H.,)  an  American  Senator, 
born  in  East  Tennessee  in  1802.  He  removed  to  Ar- 
kansas at  an  early  age,  and  was  elected  to  the  Senate 
of  the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of  that  State 
in  1836.  In  1848  he  resigned  his  seat  in  the  Senate, 
and  went  on  a  special  mission  to  Mexico,  where  he 
negotiated  a  treaty  of  peace.  Died  at  Little  Rock  in 
December,  1848. 

Sevier,  (John,)  an  American  Governor,  born  in  Ten- 
nessee in  1744.  He  served  with  distinction  at  the  battle 
of  King's  Mountain,  in  1780.  He  was  eiected  Governor 
of  Tennessee  in  1796,  and  again  in  1803,  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress  from  181 1  to  1815.    Died  in  1815. 

Sevigne,  de,  deh  si'v^n'yi',  (Marie  de  Rabutin- 
Chantal — deh  rt'bii'tiN'  shdN'tSK,)  Madame,  a  cele- 
brated French  writer  and  beauty,  born  in  Burgundy 
about  1626.  Left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age,  she  re- 
ceived an  excellent  education  from  her  maternal  uncle, 
the  Abbe  de  Coulanges,  and  learned  Latin,  Italian,  and 
Spanish.  She  was  married  in  1644  to  the  dissolute 
Marquis  de  Sevigne,  who  was  killed  in  a  duel  in  165 1, 
leaving  one  son  and  one  daughter.  She  was  courted  by 
Turenne,  the  Prince  of  Conti,  and  the  poet  Menage,  but 
declined  all  overtures  for  a  second  marriage.  She  was 
one  of  the  most  admired  ladies  of  the  circle  of  the  Hotel 
de  Rambouillet,  and  was  celebrated  for  her  epistolary 
talent.  Her  letters  display  a  fertile  imagination,  a  re- 
fined sensibility,  a  graceful  and  naive  vivacity,  and  are 
much  admired  for  their  charming  and  picturesque  style. 
She  has  been  pronounced  the  most  admirable  letter- 
writer  that  ever  lived.  Died  in  1696.  Among  the  best 
editions  of  her  Letters  is  that  of  Adolph  Regnier,  (12 
vols.,  1862-64.) 

See  Madame  AchilI-E  Comtk,  "  filoge  de  Madame  de  Sevigne," 
1840;  J.  A.  Walsh,  "Vie  de  Madame  de  Sevigne,"  1842  ;  Walc- 
KENAER,  "  M&moires  touchant  la  Vie  de  Marie  de  Rabutin-Chantal," 
4  vols.,  1842-48;  AuBENAS,  "  Histoire  de  Madame  de  Sevigne," 
etc.,  1842;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi ;"  Lamaktine, 
"  Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Characters;"  "Edinburgh  Review,"  vol. 
Ixxvi.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "Madame  de  Sevigne 
and  her  Contemporaries,"  London,  1841  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  October,  1842;  "Quarterly  Review"  for  1864. 

Sevin,  seh-viw',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  philologist, 
born  at  Villeneuve-le-Roi  in  1682,  was  a  collector  of 
Oriental  manuscripts.    Died  in  1741. 

Sewall,  su'al,  (Joseph,)  a  clergyman,  born  in  1688, 
was  a  son  of  Samuel,  the  chief  justice  of  Massachu- 
setts. He  preached  in  Boston  for  many  years.  Died 
in  1769. 

Sewall,  (Samuel,)  a  judge,  born  at  Bishop-Stoke, 
England,  in  1652.  He  was  brought  to  America  in  his 
childhood.  He  became  a  judge  in  1692,  and  chief  justice 
of  the  supreme  court  of  Massachusetts  in  1718.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  eminent  for  wisdom  and  learning. 
He  resigned  his  office  in  1728,  and  died  in  1730. 

Sewall,  (Samuel,)  a  jurist,  born  in  13oston  in  1757, 
Avas  a  grandson  of  Joseph  Sewall,  noticed  above.  He 
;'as  a  member  of  Congress  from  1796  to  1800,  and  was 
appointed  chief  justice  of  Massachusetts  in  1813.  Died 
at  Wiscasset,  Maine,  in  1814. 

Sewall,  (Stephen,)  an  American  judge,  born  in 
Massachusetts  about  1702,  was  a  nephew  of  Samuel, 
(1652-1730.)  He  became  chief  justice  of  the  superior 
court  in  1752.    Died  in  1760. 

Sewall,  (Stephen,)  an  American  scholar,  born  at 
York,  Maine,  in  1734.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Harvard  College  about  1765,  and  published  various 
works.    Died  in  1804. 

Sew'ard,  (Anna,)  an  English  writer  of  considerable 
reputation  in  her  time,  was  born  at  Eyam,  in  Derbyshire, 
in  1747.  Her  metrical  novel  entitled  "  Louisa"  (1782) 
was  very  successful,  and  was  followed  by  a  collection  of 
sonnets,  and  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Darwin,"  (1804,)  in  which 
she  claims  to  have  written  the  first  fifty  lines  of  his 
"Botanic  Garden."  She  died  in  1809,  Her  poems 
and  part  of  her  literary  correspondence  were,  at  her 
request,  published  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  (1810.)  Her 
works  possess  little  merit  of  any  kind,  and  are  now 
nearly  forgotten. 

See  Walter  Scott's  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  October  and  November,  i8ii;  Mrs.  Elwood,  "Me- 
moirs of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commencement 
of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  i.,  1843. 

.%  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  !on^;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, 


Seward,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  the  father  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1708.  He  became  canon- 
residentiary  of  Lichfield.    Died  in  1790. 

Seward,  (William,)  an  English  writer,  and  friend 
of  Dr.  Johnson,  born  in  London  in  1747.  He  published 
"  Biographiana,"  and  "Anecdotes  of  Distinguished  Per- 
sons."   Died  in  1799, 

Seward,  su'ard  or  soo'ard,  (William  Henry,)  an 
eminent  American  statesman,  born  at  Florida,  Orange 
county.  New  York,  on  the  i6th  of  May,  1801,  was  a  son 
of  Samuel  S,  Seward,  M.D,  His  mother's  maiden- 
name  was  Mary  Jennings.  He  was  educated  at  Union 
College,  Schenectady,  which  he  entered  in  1816.  His 
favourite  studies  were  rhetoric,  moral  philosophy,  and 
the  ancient  classics.  He  taught  school  in  one  of  the 
Southern  States  for  six  months  in  1819,  and  returned  to 
Union  College  in  1820.  Having  studied  law  under  John 
Duer  and  Ogden  Hoffman,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1822.  He  became  a  resident  of  Auburn,  Cayuga 
county,  in  1823,  and  married  in  1824  Frances  Adeline,  a 
daughter  of  Judge  Elijah  Miller.  He  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  lawyer,  and  in  criminal  trials  acted 
almost  exclusively  as  counsel  for  the  defendant. 

In  1828  he  was  president  of  a  State  Convention  of 
young  men  who  favoured  the  re-election  of  John  Quincy 
Adams  to  the  Presidential  chair.  Soon  after  this  date 
he  joined  the  Anti-Masonic  party,  by  which  he  was 
elected  to  the  Senate  of  New  York,  in  1830,  by  a  large 
majority.  In  the  session  of  1832  he  made  an  able  speech 
in  favour  of  the  United  States  Bank.  He  became  the 
leader  of  the  opposition  party  in  his  own  State,  and  a 
supporter  of  the  national  party  which  afterwards  adopted 
the  name  of  Whig.  In  1833  he  crossed  the  Atlantic, 
and  made  a  rapid  tour  through  Great  Britain,  Ireland, 
Holland,  Germany,  and  France.  He  published  some 
observations  on  those  countries,  in  a  series  of  letters. 

He  was  nominated  as  the  Whig  candidate  for  Governor 
of  New  York  in  1834,  but  was  defeated  by  William  L. 
Marcy.  He  joined  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
1837.  In  1838  he  was  elected  Governor  of  the  State  by 
a  majority  of  10,000,  being  the  first  Whig  that  was  ever 
elected  to  that  office.  In  the  exercise  of  his  official 
power  he  favoured  internal  improvements,  reform  in  the 
courts  of  law  and  chancery,  and  the  extension  of  edu- 
cation among  the  people.  Among  the  events  of  his  ad- 
ministration was  a  controversy  with  the  executive  of 
Virginia,  who  claimed  the  surrender  of  three  coloured 
seamen  charged  with  abetting  a  slave  to  escape  from 
his  master.  Governor  Seward  refused  to  comply  with 
this  requisition,  and  argued  that  no  State  can  force 
a  requisition  on  another  State,  founded  on  an  act 
which  is  only  criminal  according  to  its  own  legislation, 
but  which  compared  with  general  standards  is  humane 
and  praiseworthy.  Through  his  influence  the  legislature 
repealed  the  law  which  permitted  a  slaveholder,  travel- 
ling with  his  slaves,  to  hold  them  for  nine  months  in 
the  State  of  New  York, 

Mr.  Seward  supported  General  Harrison  for  President 
in  1840,  and  at  the  same  time  was  re-elected  Governor 
for  two  years.  He  declined  to  be  a  candidate  in  1842, 
and  resumed  the  practice  of  law  in  the  courts  of  his  own 
State  and  in  those  of  the  United  States.  He  displayed 
much  courage  and  coolness  in  the  defence  of  Free- 
man, a  negro  who  massacred  a  family  near  Auburn  in 
1845,  and  he  provoked  a  violent  explosion  of  popular 
indignation  by  his  effort  to  prove  that  Freeman  was 
insane.  Although  his  argument  failed  to  convince  the 
jury,  it  was  confirmed  by  a  post-mortem  examination 
of  the  brain  of  Freeman.  In  the  Presidential  election 
of  1844  he  was  an  active  supporter  of  Henry  Clay,  and 
opposed  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  United  States. 
He  wrote  a  "Life  of  John  Quincy  Adams,"  (published 
in  1849.) 

In  1848  he  advocated  the  nomination  and  election  of 
General  Taylor  to  the  Presidency.  In  February,  1849, 
Mr.  Seward  was  elected  by  the  State  legislature  to  the 
Senate  of  the  United  States,  receiving  one  hundred  and 
twenty-one  votes  against  thirty  for  all  others.  He  soon 
became  an  intimate  friend  and  favourite  counsellor  of 
President  Taylor,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  firm 
resistance  to  the  extension  of  slavery.    In  March,  1850, 

,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  fit;  u  S:;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SEWARD 


200 1 


SEXTUS 


he  made  a  speech  in  favour  of  the  admission  of  Cali- 
fornia into  the  Union,  in  which  occurs  his  famous  phrase 
"the  higher  law."  "The  Constitution,"  he  said,  "de- 
votes the  national  domain  to  union,  to  justice,  to  defence, 
to  welfare,  and  to  liberty.  But  there  is  a  higher  law 
than  the  Constitution,  which  regulates  our  authority 
over  the  domain,  and  devotes  it  to  the  same  noble  pur- 
poses." He  opposed  the  "Compromise  Bill"  (July, 
1850)  in  an  elaborate  and  eloquent  speech,  asserting 
that  "  the  love  of  liberty  is  a  public,  universal,  and  un- 
dying affection."  For  his  course  on  the  slavery  question 
he  was  denounced  as  a  seditious  agitator.  It  was  his 
habitual  practice  never  to  notice  the  abusive  person- 
alities which  were  often  applied  to  him  by  his  opponents 
in  the  Senate. 

In  1852  he  voted  for  General  Scott,  the  Whig  candi- 
date for  President.  He  constantly  opposed  the  Native 
American  or  Know-Nothing  party,  which  was  secretly 
organized  about  1854,  "  on  a  foreign  and  frivolous  issue," 
and  he  was  one  of  the  chief  founders  of  the  Republican 
party,  which  was  formed  about  the  same  period,  wi-th 
a  view  to  prevent  the  extension  of  slavery.  He  was 
re-elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1855.  In 
a  speech  at  Rochester  in  October,  1858,  he  declared 
that  the  antagonism  between  freedom  and  slavery  "  is 
an  irrepressible  conflict  between  opposing  and  endur- 
ing forces  ;"  but  this  oft-quoted  phrase  ("irrepressible 
conflict")  is  said  to  have  been  first  used  by  Abraham 
Lincoln. 

About  this  time  he  predicted  that  the  Democratic 
party  would  be  fatally  damaged  by  its  support  of  slavery. 
In  a  memorable  speech  delivered  in  the  Senate,  March 
3,  1858,  he  said,  "  All  parties  in  this  country  that  have 
tolerated  the  extension  of  slavery,  except  one,  have 
perished  for  that  error  already.  That  last  one — the 
Democratic  party — is  hurrying  on  irretrievably  to  the 
same  fate." 

Mr.  Seward  visited  Europe  a  second  time  in  1859. 
At  the  Republican  Convention  which  met  in  i860  to 
nominate  a  candidate  for  President,  Seward  received 
one  hundred  and  seventy-three  votes  on  the  first  ballot, 
(more  than  any  other  candidate,)  two  hundred  and 
thirty-three  votes  being  necessary  for  a  choice.  His 
failure  to  obtain  the  nomination  was  attributed  to  the  hos- 
tility of  Horace  Greeley.  During  the  session  of  1860- 
61  he  made  an  able  speech  in  the  Senate  against  dis- 
union. He  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  in  March, 
1861.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  he  displayed  much 
ability  in  the  direction  of  the  foreign  policy  during  the 
civil  war.  Among  the  important  acts  of  his  ministry 
was  the  liberation  of  Mason  and  Slidell,  who  were 
arrested  on  board  the  British  steamer  Trent  in  Novem- 
ber, 1861,  and  were  demanded  by  the  British  govern- 
ment. "To  his  admirable  skill,  foresight,  and  good 
judgment,"  says  the  "  North  American  Review"  for 
April,  1866,  "the  country  owes  its  deliverance  from 
perils  and  embarrassments  such  as  it  never  before 
encountered.  His  fairness  and  good  temper  have  been 
more  than  a  match  for  the  plausible  insincerity  of 
Thouvenel  and  Drouyn  de  Lhuys  and  the  haughty  arro- 
gance of  Earl  Russell.  .  .  .  Some  of  his  despatches, 
especially  that  relating  to  the  Trent  case,  have  a  world- 
wide renown,  and  there  are  sentences  scattered  through 
his  published  volumes  which  deserve  to  live  forever." 
A  different  and  far  less  favourable  view,  however,  is 
taken  of  his  despatches  and  his  policy  in  a  number  of 
the  same  periodical  published  October,  1866. 

The  invasion  of  Mexico  by  the  French  in  1862  raised 
another  important  subject  of  diplomacy.  In  despatches 
dated  September  and  October,  1863,  Mr.  Seward  dis- 
claimed the  right  and  the  disposition  to  intervene  by 
force  in  Mexico.  He  persisted  in  recognizing  the 
government  of  Juarez,  and  after  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives (April,  1864)  declared,  by  a  unanimous  vote, 
against  the  recognition  of  the  Mexican  empire,  he 
affirmed  that  this  resolution  "  truly  interprets  the  unani- 
mous sentiment  of  the  people."  In  November,  1865, 
he  wrote  to  Mr.  Bigelow,  the  American  minister  at 
Paris,  "The  United  Stales  regard  the  effort  to  establish 
permanently  a  foreign  and  imperial  government  in 
Mexico  as  disallowable  and  impracticable."    The  result 


of  this  despatch,  and  of  others  of  the  same  import,  was 
that  the  French  army  was  withdrawn  about  the  end 
of  1866,  and  Napoleon  HI.  witnessed  the  disastrous 
and  humiliating  failure  of  his  costly  and  ill-judged 
enterprise. 

In  the  spring  of  1865  Secretary  Seward  was  thrown 
from  his  carriage  with  such  violence  that  his  arm  and 
jaw  were  broken.  While  he  was  lying  in  this  crippled 
condition,  on  the  14th  of  April,  1865,  Lewis  Payne, 
alias  Powell, — an  accomplice  of  J.  Wilkes  Booth, — pre- 
sented himself  at  the  door  of  his  house,  rushed  past  the 
porter,  broke  the  skull  of  Frederick  Seward,  and  in- 
flicted with  a  knife  several  severe  wounds  on  the  neck 
and  face  of  the  secretary  of  state.  The  assassin  was 
then  grasped  by  Mr.  Robinson,  so  that  he  failed  to  effect 
his  purpose,  but  stabbed  two  other  men  as  he  ran  out 
of  the  house. 

Mr.  Seward  was  retained  in  the  office  of  secretary  of 
state  by  President  Johnson,  and  supported  his  policy  in 
relation  to  reconstruction,  against  the  almost  unanimous 
sentiment  of  the  Republican  party.  In  August  and 
September,  1866,  President  Johnson,  accompanied  by 
his  secretary  of  state,  made  an  extensive  electioneering 
tour,  on  which  occasion  Mr.  Seward  gave  great  offence 
even  to  the  most  moderate  and  impartial  of  his  former 
friends.  At  Niagara,  in  attempting  to  answer  the  charge 
that  he  had  deserted  his  party,  he  said,  in  addition  to 
many  other  things  still  more  objectionable,  "Must  I 
desert  my  course,  my  government,  and  my  country 
to  follow  a  party  divided,  distracted,  weak,  imbecile.?" 
The  next  ensuing  elections,  however,  gave  a  decisive 
and  unanswerable  refutation  to  the  misstatement  that 
the  party  was  weak  and  distracted.  (See,  on  this 
subject,  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  October, 
1866.) 

That  historic  impartiality  which  belongs  to  the  biogra- 
phy of  public  men,  forbids  us  wholly  to  pass  over  those 
errors  and  foibles  which  have  disappointed  so  many  of 
Mr.  Seward's  former  friends ;  but  we  gladly  turn  from 
the  consideration  of  such  topics  to  the  contemplation  of 
his  long  life  of  usefulness,  and  especially  of  his  eminent 
services  to  his  country  in  her  late  hour  of  trial. 

See  '"Memoir  of  W.  H.  Seward,"  prefixed  to  his  works,  by 
George  E.  Bake^j,  3  vols.,  1853;  Baktlett,  "  Modern  Agitators." 

Sew'el,  (William,)  M.D.,  a  historian  and  linguist, 
of  English  extraction,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1654,  was 
a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He  published  a 
"Dictionary  of  the  Dutch  and  English  Languages," 
(1690,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Origin  and  Progress  of 
the  Society  called  Quakers,"  (1717,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed.    Died  about  1725. 

Sew'ell,  (George,)  an  English  physician  and  miscel- 
laneous writer,  born  at  Windsor,  was  a  pupil  of  Boer- 
haave.  He  published  a  "  Vindication  of  the  English 
Stage,"  "  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,"  a  tragedy,  and  trans- 
lations from  Lucan  and  other  Latin  poets.  Died  in 
1726. 

Sewell,  (Rev.  William,)  an  English  writer  and 
teacher,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  about  1805.  He 
was  a  tutor  or  professor  at  Oxford  University.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Christian  Morals," 
(1840,)  "Christian  Politics,"  and  a  version  of  the  Odes 
of  Horace. 

Sex'ti-us,  (Caius,)  was  elected  Roman  consul  in  124 
B.C.,  and  was  afterwards  proconsul  in  Southern  Gaul, 
where  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  Arverni.  Near  the 
warm  springs,  where  one  of  his  battles  was  fought,  he 
founded  the  city  of  Aquae  Sextiae,  now  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Sex'ti-us,  Sex'tus,  or  Six'tii.s,  (Quintus,)  a 
Roman  Stoic  philosopher,  who  lived  about  50  B.C.  and 
is  highly  praised  by  Seneca.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  author  of  a  book  of  moral  aphorisms,  ("  Sen- 
tentias,")  which  Rufinus  translated  from  Greek  into 
Latin. 

Sex'tus  [2e^rof]  of  -eHERON.E'A,  a  Greek  Stoic 
philosopher  of  the  second  century,  was  a  nephew  of 
Plutarch,  and  a  preceptor  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 

Sex'tus  Em-pir'i-cus,  [Se^rof  6  'EinreipvKo^,]  a  cele- 
brated Greek  skeptical  philosopher  and  physician,  whose 
birthplace  is  unknown,  flourished  about  200  a.d.  He 
belonged  to  the  medical  sect  of  Empirici.    He  wrote 


e  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  ;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2!^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

126 


SETBERT 


2  002 


SFORZA 


iwo  works  which  have  come  clown  to  us,  namely,"Against 
the  Mathematicians  or  Dogmatists,"  ('*  Adversus  Mathe- 
maticos,")  and  "  Pyrrhonistic  Sketches,"  ("  Pyrrhonas 
Hypotyposes.")  These  works  are  highly  prized  as  docu- 
ments for  the  history  of  philosophy.  They  contain  all  the 
arguments  and  maxims  of  the  ancient  skeptics,  and  tend 
to  involve  in  doubt  all  the  doctrines  of  science,  religion, 
and  philosophy.  The  former  work  has  been  described 
as  "a  perfect  store-house  of  doubts  regarding  every 
imaginable  phasis  of  human  knowledge."  ("Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica.") 

See  C.  JouRDAiN,  "Sextiis  Empiricus  at  la  Philosophic  scolas- 
tique,"  1S58  ;  Tennemann,  "  Geschichte  der  Philosophie  ;"  "Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Seybert,  sT'bert,  (Adam,)  an  American  mineralogist 
and  physician,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1773,  studied 
in  Paris,  Edinburgh,  and  Gottingen.  He  was  a  member 
of  Congress  from  1809  to  1815.  He  published  "  Statis- 
tical Annals  of  the  United  States  from  1789  to  1818." 
Died  in  Paris  in  1825. 

Seydelmann,  si'del-min'  or  zI'del-mSn',  (Jakob 
Crescenz,)  a  German  artist,  celebrated  for  his  admira- 
ble drawings  in  sepia,  was  born  at  Dresden  in  1750. 
Among  his  master-pieces  is  a  copy  of  Correggio's 
"  Night."    Died  in  1829. 

Seydelmann,  (Karl,)  a  celebrated  German  actor, 
born  at  Glatz,  in  Silesia,  in  1795  ;  died  in  1843. 

Seydlitz,  von,  fon  sTd'lits  or  zTd'lits,  (Friedrich 
WiLHELM,)  a  Prussian  general,  born  near  Cleves  in 
1 721,  served  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  For  his  distin- 
guished bravery  at  the  battle  of  Rossbach,  in  1757, 
he  received  from  his  sovereign  the  order  of  the  Black 
Eagle.  He  became  general  of  cavalry  in  1767.  Died 
in  1773. 

See  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  "  Leben  des  Generals  von  Seydlitz," 
1834;  Count  VON  Bismark,  "Der  General  F.  von  Seydlitz,"  1837; 
Blankenburg,  "Charakter  des  Generals  von  Seydlitz,"  1797. 

SeyfiFarth,  slff^Rt  or  zif'faRt,  (Gustav,)  a  German 
antiquary  and  professor  of  archaeology  at  Leipsic,  was 
born  at  Uebigau,  in  the  duchy  of  Saxony,  in  1796.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  Rudimenta  Hieroglyphices,"  (1826,) 
and  of  "  Principles  of  Mythology,"  and  wrote  a  continua- 
tion of  Spohn's  treatise  "  On  the  Language  and  Letters 
of  the  Ancient  Egyptians."  In  1855  he  became  professor 
in  the  Lutheran  College  of  Saint  Louis,  in  the  United 
States.    Died  in  i860. 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionaiy  of  Authors." 

Seyfried,  sT'fR^t  or  zT'fR^t,  (Tgnaz,)  a  German  com- 
poser, born  at  Vienna  in  1776  ;  died  in  1841. 

Seymour,  (Edward.)    See  Somerset,  Duke  of. 

Seymour,  see'mur,  (Edward,)  an  English  Tory 
politician,  was  a  lineal  descendant  of  the  Duke  of  Som- 
erset, who  was  Protector  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VL 
He  was  one  of  the  most  skilful  debaters  in  the  kingdom. 
He  joined  the  party  of  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  in 
1688.  In  1692  he  was  appointed  a  commissioner  of  the 
treasury  and  member  of  the  cabinet.  He  was  removed 
in  1694.  He  was  factious  in  politics  and  licentious  in 
morals.    Died  in  1707. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i. 

Seymour,  (Sir  George  Hamilton,)  an  English  di- 
plomatist, born  about  1797.  He  was  sent  to  Saint 
Petersburg  in  185 1  as  envoy-extraordinary  and  minister- 
plenipotentiary.  In  1853  Nicholas  T.  made  to  him  over- 
tures on  the  subject  of  Turkey,  offering,  it  is  said,  to 
co-operate  with  England  in  the  spoliation  of  "the  sick 
man."    His  mission  in  Russia  ended  in  1854. 

Seymour,  see'mur,  (Horatio,)  an  American  poli- 
tician, born  in  Onondaga  county.  New  York,  'ux  i8ri. 
He  studied  law,  which  he  practised  for  several  years  in 
Utica.  He  was  nominated  for  the  office  of  Governor  of 
New  York  by  the  Democratic  party  in  1850,  but  was 
defeated  by  Washington  Hunt.  Having  been  nominated 
again  in  1852,  he  was  elected  Governor  for  two  years 
by  a  large  majority.  In  1854  he  was  an  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  the  same  office.  In  the  crisis  of  1861  he 
opposed  the  coercion  of  the  secessionists.  According 
to  Mr.  Greeley,  he  was  understood  to  urge  the  adhesion 
of  New  York  to  the  Southern  Confederacy.  ("  American 
Conflict,"  vol.  i.  p.  438.)  He  was  elected  Governor  of 
New  York  in  1862.    About  the  ist  of  August,  1863, 


he  urged  President  Lincoln  to  suspend  the  draft,  and 
insisted  that  the  enforcement  of  the  draft  should  be 
postponed  till  the  courts  decided  the  question  of  its 
constitutionality.  He  was  president  of  the  National 
Democratic  Convention  which  met  at  Chicago  in  August, 
1864,  and  then  made  a  speech,  in  which  he  declared, 
"This  administration  cannot  now  save  this  Union  if  it 
would.  It  has  by  its  proclamations,  by  vindictive  legis- 
lation, by  displays  of  hate  and  passion,  placed  obstacles 
in  its  own  pathway  which  it  cannot  overcome,  and  has 
hampered  its  own  freedom  of  action  by  unconstitutional 
acts."  He  was  again  presented  as  a  candidate  for  the 
office  of  Governor  in  November,  1864,  and  was  defeated. 
He  was  president  of  the  National  Democratic  Convention 
which  met  in  New  York,  July  4,  1868,  and  was  nomi- 
nated as  the  candidate  for  the  Presidency  of  the  United 
States  on  the  9th  of  that  month,  although  he  had  an- 
nounced his  resolution  to  decline  the  honour,  and  had 
declared  in  that  convention  that  "he  could  not  be  nomi- 
nated without  putting  himself  and  the  Democratic  party 
in  peril."  He  received  only  eighty  electoral  votes,  and 
was  defeated  by  General  Grant. 

Seymour,  (Jane,)  was  a  sister  of  Edward,  Duke  of 
Somerset,  and  the  third  wife  of  Henry  VIII.,  to  whom 
she  was  married  in  1536.  She  was  the  mother  of  Ed- 
ward VI.    Died  in  1537. 

Seymour,  (Sir  Michael,)  an  English  vice-admiral, 
born  in  1802.  He  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1855,  and 
commanded  the  naval  force  which  operated  against 
Canton  in  1857. 

Seymour,  (Thomas,)  Lord  Sudely,  lord  high  ad- 
miral of  England,  was  a  brother  of  Edward,  Duke  of 
Somerset.  He  married  Catherine  Parr,  a  widow  of 
Henry  VHI.,  and,  after  her  death,  became  a  suitor  of 
the  princess  Elizabeth.  He  asjDired  to  be  governor  of  the 
young  king,  and  to  supplant  the  Duke  of  Somerset  as 
regent  or  protector.  Having  been  convicted  of  treason, 
he  was  beheaded  in  1549. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England." 

Seymour,  (Truman,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Burlington,  Vermont,  about  1824,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1846.  He  was  a  captain  in  Fort  Sumter  when  it 
was  bombarded  in  April,  1861,  and  became  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  about  April,  1862.  He  served  at 
the  battle  of  Antietam,  September  17,  1862,  and  com- 
manded a  small  army  which  was  defeated  at  Olustee, 
Florida,  on  the  20th  of  February,  1864. 

Seymour,  (William,)  Duke  of  Somerset,  was  a 
great-grandson  of  Edward  Seymour,  Duke  of  Somerset. 
He  offended  James  I.  by  his  marriage  with  Arabella 
Stuart,  who  was  a  cousin  of  the  king.  In  the  civil  war 
he  foui^ht  for  Charles  I.    Died  in  1660.    (See  Stuart, 

ArM5KI,LA.) 

Seyssel.    See  Seissel. 

Seze,  de,  deh  siz,  (Raymond,)  Count,  a  French  ad- 
vocate and  royalist,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1748.  He  was 
one  of  the  counsel  selected  by  Louis  XVI.  to  defend 
him  in  his  trial,  and  made  an  eloquent  plea  before  the 
Convention.  He  became  first  president  of  the  court  of 
cassation  in  181  5,  and  a  member  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy in  1816.    Died  in  1828. 

See  Chatkaurriand,  "  o'.;e  dn  Comte  de  Saze,"  1861  ;  Mar- 
MONTEi,,  "  Menioires      "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sfondrati,  sfon-dki'tee,  (Celestino,)  an  Italian 
cardinal  and  writer,  born  at  Milan  in  1644;  died  ii\ 
1696. 

Sfondrati,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  cardinal,  born  at 
Cremona  in  1493,  was  an  influential  adviser  of  Pope 
Paul  HI.  He  wrote  a  Latiti  poem  "On  the  Rape  of 
Helen,"  ("  De  Raptu  Helenae,"  1559.)    Died  in  1550. 

Sforce.    See  Sforza. 

Sforza.    See  Bonna  Sforz.a. 

Sforza,  sfoRt'sd,  [Fr.  Sforce,  sfoRss,]  (Francesco,) 
son  of  Giacomuzzo,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1401, 
and  was  equally  distinguished  as  a  warrior.  After  he 
had  for  a  time  assisted  the  Florentines  against  Filippo 
Maria  Visconti,  Duke  of  Milan,  the  latter  gave  him  in 
marriage  his  daughter  Bianca.  On  the  death  of  Visconti 
he  took  possession  of  Milan,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
Venetians,  and  was  proclaimed  duke  in  1450.  He  dis- 
played great  ability  and  moderation  as  a  ruler,  and, 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  skort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


SFORZA 


2003 


SHJFTESBURT 


among  other  valuable  public  works,  constructed  the 
Naviglio  della  Martesana,  or  canal  between  Milan  and 
the  Adda.    Died  in  1465. 

See  Hover,  "  Franz  Sforza,"  2  vols.,  1846;  "The  Life  and  Times 
of  Francesco  Sforza,"  by  W.  P.  Urquhart,  1852  ;  G.  Simonetta, 
"De  Rebus  gestis  F.  Sforzae,"  1480;  Robertson,  "History  of 
Charles  V.,"  vol.  ii.  books  iv.-vi.  ;  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Repub- 
liques  Italiennes;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sforza,  (Francesco  Maria,)  the  last  Duke  of  Milan, 
a  son  of  Ludovico  "il  Moro,"  was  born  in  1492.  He 
obtained  the  dukedom  by  the  aid  of  the  emperor  Charles 
v.,  about  1525,  and  died,  without  issue,  in  1535. 

Sforza,  (Galeazzo  Maria,)  a  son  of  Francesco,  was 
born  in  1444.  He  became  Duke  of  Milan  in  1465. 
Having  made  himself  odious  to  the  people  by  his  tyranny 
and  licentiousness,  he  was  assassinated  in  1476. 

Sforza,  (GiACOMUzzo  Attendolo,  ji-ko-moot'so 
§.t-t§n'do-lo,)  an  Italian  soldier  of  fortune,  born  near 
Faenza  about  1370.  At  an  early  age  he  entered  the 
service  of  Alberico  da  Barbiano,  one  of  the  most  noted 
of  the  "  condottieri,"  or  party  leaders  of  the  time,  who 
were  striving  for  the  deliverance  of  Italy  from  foreign 
mercenaries.  By  his  distinguished  bravery  and  energy 
he  contributed  to  the  success  of  Alberico's  enterprises, 
and  received  from  him  the  surname  of  "  Sforza,"  from 
his  great  strength.  He  afterwards  assisted  the  Floren- 
tines against  the  republic  of  Pisa,  and,  having  entered 
the  service  of  Joanna,  Queen  of  Naples,  attained  the 
rank  of  commander-in-chief.  Having  marched  against 
Braccio  da  Montone,  he  was  drowned  while  attempting 
to  ford  the  river  Pescara,  in  1424. 

See  Ratti,  "Memorie  della  Famiglia  Sforza,"  2  vols.,  1795;  Sis- 
mondi, "Histoire  des  Republiqiies  Italiennes." 

Sforza,  (Giovanni  Galeazzo  Maria,)  Duke  of 
Milan,  the  son  of  Galeazzo  Maria,  noticed  above,  was 
born  in  1468.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1476,  his 
mother  acting  as  regent;  but  the  power  was  usurj^ed 
about  1480  by  his  uncle  Ludovico.    Died  in  1494. 

Sforza,  (Ludovico,)  surnamed  il  Moro,  ("the 
Moor,")  brother  of  Galeazzo  Maria,  was  born  in  145 1. 
He  imprisoned  his  nephew,  the  legitimate  heir,  and 
usurped  the  government  of  Milan,  about  1480.  In  order 
to  strengthen  himself  against  Ferdinand,  King  of  Naples, 
who  had  espoused  the  cause  of  the  young  duke,  he  in- 
vited Charles  VIII.  of  France  to  attem|)t  the  conquest 
of  Naples,  thus  originating  the  devastating  wars  which 
afflicted  Italy  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  French, 
having  taken  Naples,  soon  roused  the  people  to  resist- 
ance hy  their  oppression,  and  were  expelled  from  Italy 
by  the  united  efforts  of  Ludovico,  the  pope,  and  the 
Venetians.  On  the  invasion  of  Italy  by  the  French 
king,  Louis  XII.,  in  1499,  Ludovico,  after  opposing  him 
with  varying  success,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  died  in 
France  in  1 5 10.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning 
and  the  arts,  and  made  numerous  improvements  in  the 
city  of  Milan. 

See  MoNTr,  "Vita  di  Ludovico  Sforza,"  1653;  Sismondi,  "  His- 
toire des  R^publiques  Italiennes  ;"  RoscOE,  "  Pontificate  of  Leo  X.  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sforza,  (Massimiliano,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
enjoyed  for  a  time  the  rank  of  Duke  of  Milan,  but  was 
deposed  by  the  French  king,  Francis  I.,  after  the  battle 
of  Marignano,  in  15 15.  Died  in  1530.  His  brother 
Francesco  was  made  Duke  of  Milan  by  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  to  whom,  on  his  dying  without  issue  in 
1535,  he  bequeathed  the  dukedom. 

Sgravesande.    See  Gravesande. 

Sgricci,  sgR^t'chee,  (Tommaso,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
improvisatore,  born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  His  productions  entitled  "The  Death  of 
Charles  L"  ("La  Morte  di  Carlo  L")  and  "  L'Ettore" 
were  published  in  1825. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Shad'well,  (Thomas,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  in 
Norfolk  in  1640,  was  for  a  time  a  friend  of  Dryden,  who 
subsequently  satirized  him  in  his  poem  of  "  MacFleck- 
noe."  He  succeeded  Dryden  as  poet-laureate  in  1688, 
through  the  influence  of  the  Earl  of  Rochester.  He 
published,  among  other  comedies,  "The  Flumourist," 
"The  Sullen  Lovers,"  "The  Lancashire  Witches,"  and 
"The  Volunteers."    Died  in  1692. 

See  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  second  series,  (1828.) 


Shafey,  sha'fa'  or  sha'fT',  [Lat.  Shafei'us,]  written 
also  Shafay  and  Schafei,  (sometimes  called  Aboo- 
Abdallah- Mohammed -Ibn-Idrees,  (or  -Edris,) 
i'boo  ib-dlKIah  mo-hln/med  ib'n  e-drees',)  a  cele- 
brated Mohammedan  doctor,  born  at  Gaza  in  767  A.D., 
was  the  founder  of  one  of  the  four  orthodox  sects  of 
Moslems,  and  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time. 
He  lived  for  many  years  at  Mecca,  and  wrote  treatises 
on  canon  and  civil  law.    Died  about  820. 

Shaftesbury,  shafs'ber-e,  (  Anthony  Ashley 
Cooper,)  Lord  Ashley,  and  first  Earl  of,  an  English 
politician,  famous  for  his  talents,  intrigues,  and  versa- 
tility, was  born  at  Wimborne  Saint  Giles,  Dorsetshire, 
on  the  22d  or  23d  of  July,  162 1.  He  was  a  son  of  Sir 
John  Cooper,  and  a  grandson  of  Sir  Anthony  Ashley, 
from  each  of  whom  he  inherited  a  large  estate. 

He  was  a  member  of  the  Short  Parliament  of  1640. 
In  the  civil  war  he  first  supported  the  cause  of  the  king, 
but  in  1643  joined  the  popular  party,  and  took  Ware- 
ham  in  1644.  He  became  a  meinber  of  Parliament  in 
1653,  after  which  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  Crom- 
well's council  of  state.  Between  1654  and  1660  he  sat 
in  several  Parliaments,  was  an  opponent  of  Cromwell, 
and  very  efficiently  promoted  the  restoration.  Charles 
II.  rewarded  him  in  1660  with  the  office  of  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer,  and  raised  him  to  the  peerage,  as 
Baron  Ashley,  in  1661.  Lord  Ashley  was  a  political 
opponent  of  Lord  Clarendon  while  the  latter  was  prime 
minister.  He  became  in  1670  a  member  of  the  famous 
and  notorious  Cabal  ministry,  whose  domestic  policy 
was  arbitrary,  and  whose  foreign  policy  was  basely  sub- 
servient to  the  will  of  Louis  XIV.  "  Ashley,  with  a  far 
stronger  head  [than  Buckingham]," says  Macaulay,  "and 
with  a  far  fiercer  and  more  earnest  ambition,  had  been 
equally  versatile  ;  but  Ashley's  versatility  was  the  effect 
not  of  levity,  but  of  selfishness.  He  had  served  and 
betrayed  a  succession  of  governments  ;  but  he  had  timed 
all  his  treacheries  so  well  that  through  all  revolutions 
his  fortunes  had  been  constantly  rising."  ("History 
of  England.")  He  was  created  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  in 
1672,  and  held  the  office  of  lord  chancellor  from  No- 
vember, 1672,  till  November,  1673.  After  the  seals  had 
been  taken  from  him,  he  went  over  to  the  opposition  or 
country  party,  and  signalized  his  zeal  against  popery.  A 
majority  of  the  Commons  having  opposed  the  measures 
of  the  court,  the  king  prorogued  that  House  from  time 
to  time.  When  it  assembled  in  1677,  Shaftesbury  as- 
serted that  it  was  dissolved.  For  this  offence  he  was 
confined  in  the  Tower  for  more  than  a  year.  This  affair, 
and  his  officious  action  in  relation  to  the  Popish  Plot, 
rendered  him  so  popular  that  he  was  appointed  president 
of  the  new  council  formed  in  1679.  While  he  held  this 
high  position,  he  procured  the  passage  of  the  famous 
Habeas  Corpus  act,  of  which  he  was  the  author.  Having 
been  dismissed  from  the  presidency  of  the  council  in 
October,  1679,  he  presented  the  Duke  of  York  to  the 
grand  jury  as  a  popish  recusant.  Suspected  of  conspir- 
ing with  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  he  was  seized  in  July, 
i6Si,  and  confined  in  the  Tower  on  a  charge  of  treason  ; 
but  the  bill  of  indictment  was  ignored  by  the  grand  jury. 
Dryden  satirized  him,  under  the  name  of  "  Achitophel," 
in  his  admirable  poem  of  "Absalom  and  Achitophel." 
It  is  said  that  Shaftesbury  advised  his  party  to  revolt 
openly  against  the  court,  but  the  other  leaders  refused 
to  follow  this  advice.  He  therefore  left  England  in  1682, 
and  died  at  Amsterdam  in  June,  1683,  leaving  one  son. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors ;"  "Life 
of  Lord  Shaftesbury,"  by  B.  Martin  and  Dr.  Kippis,  new  edition, 
by  C.  W.  Cook,  1S36:  also  "Memoirs,  Letters,  and  Speeches," 
edited  by  W.  D.  Christie. 

Shaftesbury,  (Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,)  seventh 
Earl  of,  an  English  philanthropist,  the  eldest  son  of 
the  sixth  Earl,  was  born  in  1801.  He  was  styled  Lord 
Ashley  in  his  youth.  He  graduated  at  Oxford,  as  first 
classin  classics,  in  1822,  and  entered  Parliamentin  1826, 
He  procured  the  passage  of  the  "  Ten  Hours'  Bill,"  which 
requires  that  children  in  factories  shall  not  work  more 
than  ten  hours  in  a  day.  He  distinguished  himself  as 
an  advocate  of  the  "Evangelical  party"  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  and  as  a  promoter  of  benevolent  enterprises. 
At  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1851,  he  inherited  the 
earldom. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  H,  v., guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this.    (2[^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SHAFTESBURT 


2004. 


BEAKS?  E  ARE 


Shaftesbury,  (Anthony  Cooper,)  third  Earl  of, 
a  celebrated  English  writer,  born  in  J^or.don  in  1671, 
was  a  grandson  of  the  first  Earl.  He  was  educated  by 
John  Locke,  the  philosopher,  who  was  a  friend  of  his 
grandfather.  According  to  a  statement  of  the  pupil 
himself,  Locke  "had  the  absolute  direction  of  his  educa- 
tion." Li  1693  he  entered  Parliament,  where  he  acted 
with  the  Whigs.  During  a  residence  in  Holland,  to 
which  he  went  in  1698,  he  became  acquainted  with 
Bayle  and  Leclerc.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1699, 
he  passed  into  the  House  of  Lords.  He  was  a  political 
friend  of  William  HI.,  who  consulted  him  in  important 
affairs.  After  the  death  of  William  (1705)  he  retired 
from  public  service.  He  published  a  "  Letter  on  Enthu- 
.».iasm,"  (1708,)  "Moralists,  a  Philosophical  Rhapsody," 
(1709,)  and  "  Sensus  Communis,  or  Essay  on  Wit  and 
Humour,"  (1709.)  His  style  as  a  writer  was  greatly  ad- 
mired, though  it  is  wanting  in  ease  and  simplicity.  He 
died  at  Naples  in  February,  1713,  leaving  one  son,  An- 
thony. His  collected  works  were  published  in  1713, 
under  the  title  of  "Characteristics  of  Men,  Manners, 
Opinions,  and  Times."  Leibnitz  warmly  applauded  his 
"  Characteristics."  "  His  fine  genius  and  generous  spirit," 
says  Sir  J.  Mackintosh,  "shine  through  his  writings; 
but  their  lustre  is  often  dimmed  by  peculiarities,  and,  it 
must  be  said,  by  affectations,  which  are  peculiarly  fatal  to 
the  permanence  of  fame,"  Referring  to  his  "  Moralists," 
the  same  critic  says,  "  Perhaps  there  is  scarcely  any 
composition  in  our  language  more  lofty  in  its  moral  and 
religious  sentiments  and  more  exquisitely  elegant  and 
musical  in  its  diction.  .  .  .  'The  Inquiry  concerning 
Virtue'  is  nearly  exempt  from  the  faulty  peculiarities  of 
the  author;  the  method  is  perfect,  the  reasoning  just, 
the  style  precise  and  clear.  .  .  ,  This  production  is  un- 
questionably entitled  to  a  place  in  the  first  rank  of 
English  tracts  on  moral  philosophy.  It  contains  more 
intimations  of  an  original  and  important  nature  on  the 
theory  of  ethics  than  perhaps  any  preceding  work  of 
modern  times.  His  demonstration  of  the  utility  of  vir- 
tue to  the  individual  far  surpasses  all  attem|)ts  of  the 
tjame  nature, — being  founded  not  on  a  calculation  of 
outward  advantages  or  inconveniences,  alike  uncer- 
tain, precarious,  and  degrading,  but  on  the  unshaken 
foundation  of  the  delight  which  is  of  the  very  essence 
of  social  affection  and  virtuous  sentiment,  ...  on  the 
all-important  truth  that  to  love  is  to  be  happy  and  to 
hate  is  to  be  miserable,  that  affection  is  its  own  reward 
and  ill  will  its  own  punishment.  .  .  .  The  relation  of 
religion  to  morality,  as  far  as  it  can  be  discovered  by 
human  reason,  was  never  more  justly  or  more  beauti- 
fully stated."  (See  "  General  View  of  the  Progress  of 
Ethical  Philosophy.") 

SHAH,  shih,  a  Persian  word,  signifying  "king,"  and 
forming  part  of  the  name  or  title  of  many  Oriental  sove- 
reigns ;  as.  Shah  Abbas,  i.e.  "King  Abbas,"  Nadir 
Shah,  "  wonderful  king,"  etc. 

Shah-Alam,  shah  ^lam,  ("King  of  the  World,") 
written  also  Schaii-Alam  (-Alem  or  -Alim)  and 
Shah-Alum,  (or  -Allum,)  sometimes  called  Bahadur 
Shah,  ba-hi'door  shah,  ("  Brave  King,")  a  son  of 
Aurung-Zeb,  Emperor  of  India,  whom  he  succeeded  in 
1707.  He  died  in  1712,  while  carrying  on  a  war  against 
the  Sikhs. 

Shah-Alam  (or  Schah-Alem)  II.  ascended  the 
throne  of  India  in  1759.  In  order  to  strengthen  his 
authority  over  his  empire,  he  had  recourse  to  the  British, 
to  whom  he  gave  a  grant  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa, 
in  return  for  the  city  and  district  of  Allahabad  which 
they  assigned  him.    Died  in  1806. 

Shah-Jehan  or  Shahjehan,  shah  je-han',  written 
also  Shah-Jahan  and  Schah-  (or  Chah-)  Djehan, 
("King  of  the  World,")  the  fifth  Mogul  Emperor  of 
India,  the  son  of  Jehan  Geer,  whom  he  succeeded  in 
1627.  His  reign  was  disturbed  by  the  rebellion  of  his 
sons,  one  of  whom,  the  famous  Aurung-Zeb,  put  to  death 
two  of  his  brothers  and  deposed  his  father.  He  died  in 
1666  at  Agra,  where  a  large  establishment  had  been 
granted  him.  The  court  of  Shah-Jehan  was  celebrated 
for  its  splendour.  The  "peacock  throne,"  formed  of 
jewels  valued  at  ;^6, 500,000,  was  constructed  by  him. 
He  also  founded  the  city  of  Shah  Jehanabad,  or  New 


Delhi,  and  erected  many  magnificent  pnblic  buildings, 
among  which  the  Taj-Mahal,  a  mausoleum,  erected  in 
honour  of  his  favourite  wife,  called  Taj-Mahal,  ("the 
Crown  of  the  Palace,")  near  Agra,  is  justly  regarded 
as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world,  and,  in  the  opin- 
ion of  several  competent  judges,  is  the  most  elegant 
and  splendid  edifice  on  the  globe.  It  is  said  to  have 
cost — in  a  country  where  almost  every  kind  of  labour 
is  marvellously  cheap — not  less  than  sixty  millions 
of  dollars. 

Shah-Rokh-Behadur,  shIh  roK  be-hSMoor,  or 
Shah-Rokh-Meerza,  a  son  of  Tamerlane,  succeeded 
him  on  the  throne  in  1405.  He  rebuilt  the  fortress  of 
the  city  of  Herat,  and  constructed  other  public  edifices. 
Died  about  1450. 

Shah-Teman,  shth  te-min',  or  Shah-Temaun, 
("  King  of  the  Age,")  succeeded  his  father,  Timoor  Shah, 
as  King  of  Cabul  and  Afghanistan  in  1793, 

Shaiva.    See  Saiva. 

Shakhovsky  or  Schachowski,  shS-Kov'ske, 
(Alexander  Alexandrovitch,)  Prince,  a  celebrated 
Russian  dramatist,  born  in  the  government  of  Smolensk 
in  1777.  Among  his  numerous  and  popular  works  may 
be  named  his  "Aristophanes,"  a  comedy,  and  "A  Lesson 
to  Coquettes."    Died  in  1846. 

Shakespear,  shak'speer,  (John,)  an  English  Orien- 
talist, born  at  Lount,  Leicestershire,  in  1774.  He  was 
professor  of  Hindostanee  at  the  Royal  Military  College, 
and  published,  among  other  works,  an  excellent  "Dic- 
tionary of  the  Hindustani  Language,"  (1817,)  and  a 
"Grammar  of  the  Hindustani  Language,"  (6th  edition, 
1855,  8vo.)    Died  in  1858. 

Shakspeare  or  Shakespeare,*  shak'speer,  (Wil- 
liam,) the  greatest  dramatic  genius  that  ever  lived, 
was  born  at  Stratford-upon-Avon  in  April,  (probably 
on  the  23d,)  1564.  His  father,  John  Shakspeare,  was  a 
glover.  His  mother's  maiden-name  was  Mary  Arden  ; 
she  belonged  to  a  respectable  and  ancient  family  of 
Warwickshire,  William  was  the  eldest  of  four  brothers  ; 
he  had  four  sisters,  two  of  whom  were  older  and  two 
younger  than  himself.  The  materials  for  writing  the 
life  of  Shakspeare  are  extremely  meagre.  Of  his  child- 
hood, after  his  christening,  (which  took  place  on  the 
26th  of  April,)  and  his  early  youth,  we  know  absolutely 
nothing.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  he  was  married  in 
his  nineteenth  year  to  Anne  Hathaway.  He  apj^ears 
soon  after  his  marriage  to  have  gone  to  London,  where 
he  followed  the  profession  of  an  actor,  and,  if  Aubrey's 
statement  may  be  trusted,  he  "did  act  exceedingly  well." 
There  is  a  pretty  generally  received  tradition  that  he 
fled  from  Warwickshire  in  consequence  of  having  been 
detected  in  deer-stealing.  Rowe,  in  his  Life  of  Shak- 
speare, relates  the  story  as  follows :  "  He  had,  by  a 
misfortune  common  enough  to  young  fellows,  fallen  into 
ill  company ;  and  amongst  them  some  that  made  a  fre- 
quent practice  of  deer-stealing  engaged  him  with  them 
more  than  once  in  robbing  a  park  that  belonged  to  Sir 
Thomas  Lucy,  of  Charlecote,  near  Stratford.  For  this 
he  was  prosecuted  by  that  gentleman,  as  he  thought, 
somewhat  too  severely  ;  and  in  order  to  revenge  that  ill 
usage,  he  made  a  ballad  upon  him.  And  though  this, 
probably  the  first  essay  of  his  poetry,  be  lost,  yet  it  is 
said  to  have  been  so  very  bitter  that  it  redoubled  the 
prosecution  against  him,  to  that  degree  that  he  was 
obliged  to  leave  his  business  and  family  in  Warwickshire 
for  some  time,  and  shelter  himself  in  London."  It 
seems  very  probable  that  the  passage  in  the  first  scene 
of  the  "  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,"  in  which  the  "  luces" 
(or  "louses")  on  Justice  Shallow's  coat  are  spoken  of, 
was  intended  as  a  hit  at  Sir  Thomas  Lucy.  A  similar 
play  upon  the  name  of  Lucy  occurs  in  a  coarse  ballad 
which  tradition  ascribes  to  Shakspeare.  After  having 
taken  up  his  abode  in  London,  he  appears  to  have  acted 
by  turns  at  the  Globe  and  at  Blackfriars'  Theatre. 

Speaking  of  Shakspeare  soon  after  his  arrival  in  Lon- 
don, Rowe  says,  "  He  was  received  into  the  company 
then  in  being,  at  first  in  a  very  mean  rank;  but  his  ad- 
mirable wit,  and  the  natural  turn  of  it  to  the  stage,  soon 


*  Respecting  the  spelling  of  this  name,  see  Allibone's  "  Diction- 
ary of  Authors." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, lo7tg;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SHAKSPEARE  2005 


distinguished  him,  if  not  as  an  extraordinary  actor,  yet 
as  an  excellent  writer.  His  name  is  printed,  as  the 
custom  was  in  those  times,  amongst  those  of  the  other 
players,  before  some  old  plays,  but  without  any  particu- 
lar account  of  what  sort  of  parts  he  used  to  play;  and, 
though  I  have  inquired,  I  could  never  meet  with  any 
further  account  of  him  this  way  than  that  the  top  of  his 
performance  was  the  ghost  in  his  own  '  Hamlet.'" 

It  is  not  known  when  Shakspeare  first  began  to  write 
plays,  or  which  he  wrote  first.  "  He  began  early,"  says 
Aubrey,  "to  make  essays  at  dramatic  poetry,  which  at 
that  time  was  very  low,  and  his  plays  took  well."  In 
his  dedication  of  "Venus  and  Adonis,"  which  appeared 
in  1593,  Shakspeare  calls  this  poem  the  first  heir  of  his 
invention.  It  is,  however,  not  impossible  that  he  might 
have  commenced  the  work  many  years  earlier.  His  first 
published  play  appeared  in  1594,  the  same  year  that  his 
"  Lucrece"  was  given  to  the  world.  From  this  time 
there  is  reason  to  suppose  that,  although  he  may  have 
continued  to  act  occasionally,  his  principal  attention  was 
directed  to  the  composition  of  his  dramas  ;  since,  accord- 
ing to  Meres,  he  had  written  the  "Two  Gentlemen  of 
Verona,"  "Comedy  of  Errors,"  "Love's  Labour's  Lost," 
"Love's  Labour's  Won,"  {i.e.^  perhaps,  "All's  Well 
that  Ends  Well,")  "  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  "  Mer- 
chant of  Venice,"  "Richard  II.,"  "Richard  IH.," 
"Henry  IV.,"  "King  John,"  "Titus  Andronicus,"  and 
"Romeo  and  Juliet"  before  the  end  of  1598. 

There  is  much  evidence  to  show  that  the  genius  of 
Shakspeare  was  greatly  admired  by  his  contemporaries. 
The  Earl  of  Southampton  was  so  captivated  with  his 
accomplishments  that  "  he  gave  him  a  thousand  pounds 
to  enable  him  to  go  through  with  a  purchase  which  he 
heard  he  had  a  mind  to."  (Rowe's  "  Life  of  Shakspeare.") 
In  order  properly  to  appreciate  the  munificence  of  this 
gift,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  thousand  pounds 
at  that  day  was,  in  all  probability,  equal  to  five  or  six 
thousand  at  the  present  time,  if  not  more.  The  poet 
dedicated  to  the  Earl  of  Southampton  his  earliest  works, 
— "  Venus  and  Adonis,"  and  "  Lucrece."  In  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  latter,  he  says,  among  other  things,  "The 
love  I  dedicate  to  your  lordship  is  without  end." 

In  1596  Shakspeare  lost  his  only  son.  In  1598  he 
became  acquainted  with  Ben  Jonson,  as  Rowe  tells  us, 
in  the  following  manner:  "Jonson,  who  was  at  that 
time  altogether  unknown  to  the  world,  had  offered  one 
of  his  plays  to  the  players  in  order  to  have  it  acted,  and 
the  persons  into  whose  hands  it  was  put,  after  turning  it 
carelessly  and  superciliously  over,  were  just  upon  return- 
ing to  him  an  ill-natured  answer,  that  it  would  be  of  no 
use  to  their  company,  when  Shakspeare  luckily  cast  his 
eye  upon  it,  and  found  something  so  well  in  it  as  to 
engage  him  first  to  read  it  through,  and  afterwards  to 
recommend  Mr.  Jonson  and  his  writings  to  the  public. 
After  this  they  were  professed  friends."  The  play 
referred  to  was  "Every  Man  in  his  Humour."  If  any- 
thing could  be  wanting  to  the  honour  thus  conferred 
upon  Jonson's  play  by  the  approbation  of  the  greatest 
dramatic  genius  the  world  ever  saw,  it  was  surely  sup- 
plied in  the  fact  that  Shakspeare  himself  was  one  of  the 
actors  in  the  piece  which  he  had  already  recommended 
to  the  public. 

The  great  dramatist  ajjpears  to  have  enjoyed  a  large 
measure  of  the  favour  of  his  sovereigns,  Queen  Eliza- 
beth and  King  James  I.  "Besides  the  advantages  of  his 
wit,"  says  Rowe,  "he  was  in  himself  a  good-natured 
man,  of  great  sweetness  in  his  manners,  and  a  most 
agreeable  companion.  .  .  .  Queen  Elizabeth  had  several 
of  his  plays  acted  before  her,  and  without  doubt  gave 
him  many  gracious  marks  of  her  favour.  .  .  ,  She  was 
so  well  pleased  with  that  character  of  Falstaff,  in  the 
two  parts  of  '  Henry  IV.,'  that  she  commanded  him  to 
continue  it  for  one  play  more,  and  to  show  him  in  love." 
This  is  said  to  have  been  the  occasion  of  his  writing 
the  "Merry  Wives  of  Windsor."  It  is  stated  that 
King  James  I.,  who  was  fond  of  dramatic  exhibitions, 
had  six  of  Shakspeare's  plays  acted  before  him  at  White- 
hall between  the  beginning  of  November,  1604,  and  the 
end  of  March,  1605,  and  that  the  monarch,  as  a  mark 
of  his  particular  favour,  wrote  the  poet  a  letter  with  his 
own  hand. 


SHAKSPEARE 


Shakspeare  had  lost  his  father  in  1601.  In  1607  his 
daughter  Susanna  was  married  to  Dr.  Hall,  a  highly 
respectable  physician  of  Warwickshire.  In  the  year 
following,  his  mother  died.  The  great  poet  passed,  it  is 
said,  the  last  years  of  his  life  in  his  native  Stratford  in 
honour  and  affluence.  One  writer  (the  Rev.  John  Ward, 
Vicar  of  Stratford)  says  he  had  heard  that  "  in  his  elder 
days  he  lived  at  Stratford,  and  supplied  the  stage  with 
two  plays  every  year  ;  and  for  it  had  an  allowance  so 
large  that  he  spent  at  the  rate  of  £\ooo  a  year."  He 
closed  his  earthly  career  on  the  23d  of  April,  (supposed 
to  be  the  anniversary  of  his  birth,)  1616,  at  the  age  of 
fifty-two. 

In  regard  to  Shakspeare's  intellectual  and  moral 
attributes,  we  have  far  less  difficulty  in  coming  at  the 
truth,  than  we  meet  with  in  seeking  to  trace  the  events 
of  his  life.  Respecting  his  mental  endowments,  indeed, 
the  data  furnished  by  his  dramas,  added  to  the  testimony 
of  Jonson  and  other  writers  living  at  or  near  his  time, 
would  seem  to  be  ample  and  explicit.  We  are  warranted 
in  inferring  from  his  writings  that  he  was,  as  Rowe  in- 
forms us,  not  merely  a  "good-natured"  man,  and  "  of  a 
free  and  open  nature,"  as  we  are  told  by  Jonson,  but 
that  he  was  of  an  extremely  generous  and  forgiving  dis- 
position. In  his  imaginative  dramas  (in  which  he  was 
under  no  obligation  to  follow  the  facts  of  history)  he 
shows  a  disinclination  to  treat  with  severity  even  the 
most  flagrant  offences.  Thus,  for  example,  in  "  The  Tem- 
pest," Pros])ero,  as  it  appears,  not  only  freely  pardons 
Alonzo  and  Antonio,  by  whom  he  had  been  expelled 
from  his  dukedom,  but  the  monster  Caliban,  though 
detected  in  an  attempt  to  take  the  life  of  his  master,  is 
let  off  with  a  very  slight  punishment.  A  similar  example 
of  clemency  occurs  in  the  "  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona," 
in  which  Valentine,  after  freely  forgiving  Proteus,  who 
had  been  the  author  of  all  his  calamities,  uses  these 
words  : 

"  Who  by  repentance  is  not  satisfied, 
Is  nor  of  heaven  nor  eartli." 

But  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  instance  is  found  in 
"  Cymbeline,"  the  plot  of  which  is  from  Boccaccio.  The 
Italian  novelist  makes  the  wretch,  who  has  so  cruelly 
destroyed  the  reputation  of  a  lovely  and  innocent  lady, 
expiate  his  crime  at  last  by  a  death  of  lingering  torture.* 
Shakspeare,  while  taking  many  other  of  the  leading 
incidents  of  his  plot  from  the  Italian  story,  changes  the 
issue  entirely.  When  lachimo  kneels  beseeching  Post- 
humus  to  take  his  life,  the  latter  replies, 

"  Kneel  not  to  me ; 

The  power  that  I  have  on  you,  is  to  spare  you  ; 

The  malice  towards  you,  to  fokgive  you." 

We  have  no  means  of  determining  the  exact  order 
in  which  Shakspeare  composed  his  different  plays.  To 
those  already  mentioned,  on  the  authority  of  Meres, 
as  having  been  produced  before  1598,  we  may  add  the 
second  and  third  parts  of  "  Henry  VI.,"  published  pre- 
viously to  1596.  It  is  probable  that  "Taming  of  the 
Shrew,"  the  "  Twelfth  Night,"  "  Hamlet,"  (as  first  writ- 
ten,) "  Henry  v.,"  "Much  Ado  about  Nothing,"  and 
the  "  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor"  were  composed  before 
i6oo.  His  other  dramas  are  as  follows;  "King  Lear," 
"Macbeth,"  "Timon  of  Athens,"  "Hamlet,"  (altered 
and  enlarged,)  "Cymbeline,"  "The  Winter's  Tale," 
"The  Tempest,"  "  Measure  for  Measure,"  "Antony  and 
Cleopatra,"  "Julius  Caesar,"  "Troilus  and  Cressida," 
"  Coriolanus,"  (and  "Pericles,  Prince  of  Tyre.")  Of 
Shakspeare's  tragedies,  "  Macbeth,"  "  King  Lear,'* 
"Othello,"  "Hamlet,"  and  "Romeo  and  Juliet,"  are 
especially  remarkable  for  the  power  with  which  the 
mightiest  passions  of  the  human  soul  are  portrayed. 
But  he  was  scarcely,  if  at  all,  less  successful  in  comedy. 
Of  the  character  of  Falstaff  in  "  Henry  the  Fourth,"  it 
is  not  too  much  to  say  that  there  is  nothing  superior  to 
it  in  the  whole  range  of  comedy,  ancient  or  modern. 
Among  his  best  comic  pieces  may  also  be  mentioned 
"Twelfth  Night,"  "  Much  Ado  about  Nothing,"  "  Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream,"  "Merry  Wives  of  Wind- 
sor," and  "  Taming  of  the  Shrew."  Of  Shakspeare's 
dramas  which  cannot  properly  be  classed  under  the' 


*  See  Giornata  II.,  Novella  IX. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  Vi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  ({J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SHJKSPEARE 


2006 


SHJKSPEARE 


head  either  of  comedy  or  tragedy,  "The  Merchant  of 
Venice,"  "  The  Tempest,"  and  "  As  You  Like  It"  are 
perhaps  the  most  admirable.  Two  of  the  plays  com- 
monly printed  with  Shakspeare's  works  are  believed  by 
a  large  majority  of  the  best  critics  not  to  be  his,  viz.  : 
"Titus  Andronicus"  and  "Pericles,  Prince  of  Tyre." 
In  "Titus  Andronicus,"  both  the  thoughts  and  the  style 
seem  very  unlike  and  inferior  to  Shakspeare's.  The 
same  is  true,  though  perhaps  not  in  the  same  degree,  of 
"  Pericles,  Prince  of  Tyre."  Some  passages  in  both 
plays  may  probably  have  been  retouched  by  the  great 
dramatist,  and  thus  his  name  may  have  become  asso- 
ciated with  them. 

Shakspeare  appears  to  have  taken  the  plots  of  his 
plays,  for  the  most  part,  from  other  writers,  making  little 
or  no  change  in  the  general  conduct  of  the  story,  but 
exhibiting  the  different  dramatis  personce,  and  their  end- 
less variety  of  character,  with  that  inimitable  grace  and 
power  which  are  so  peculiarly  his  own.  His  historical 
dramas,  generally  speaking,  correspond  very  exactly,  in 
regard  to  the  principal  persons  and  events,  to  the  actual 
histories  from  which  they  are  derived.  There  is  the 
same  exact  conformity  in  some  of  his  plays  which  are 
not  properly  historical.  Thus,  "  All's  Well  that  Ends 
Well,"  taken  from  the  "  Decameron,"  (Giornata  III., 
Novella  IX.,)  not  only  follows  the  plot  of  the  story  as 
related  by  Boccaccio,  but  even  the  names  of  the  chief 
personages  are  the  same,  with  such  modifications  only 
as  the  difference  of  the  languages  requires. 

"  If  ever  any  author,"  says  Pope,  "  deserved  the  name 
of  an  original,  it  was  Shakspeare."  "  He  is  not  so  much 
an  imitator  as  an  instrument  of  nature  ;  and  it  is  not  so 
just  to  say  that  he  speaks  from  her,  as  that  she  speaks 
through  him.  His  characters  are  so  much  nature  her- 
self, that  it  is  a  sort  of  injury  to  call  them  by  so  distant 
a  name  as  copies  of  her." 

"  Widely  excelling,"  says  Warburton,  "  in  the  know- 
ledge of  human  nature,  he  hath  given  to  his  infinitely 
varied  pictures  of  it  such  truth  of  design,  such  force  of 
drawing,  such  beauty  of  colouring,  as  was  hardly  ever 
equalled  by  any  writer,  whether  his  aim  was  the  use,  or 
only  the  entertainment,  of  mankind." 

"  Never,  perhaps,"  says  Schlegel,  the  great  German 
critic,  "was  there  so  comprehensive  a  talent  for  the 
delineation  of  character  as  Shakspeare's.  It  not  only 
grasps  the  diversities  of  rank,  sex,  and  age  down  to  the 
dawnings  of  infancy,  not  only  do  .the  king  and  the  beg- 
gar, the  hero  and  the  pickpocket,  the  sage  and  the  idiot, 
speak  and  act  with  equal  truth,  but  he  opens  the  gates 
of  the  magical  world  of  spirits,  calls  up  the  midnight 
ghost,  peoples  the  air  with  sportive  fancies  and  sylphs  ; 
and  these  beings  existing  only  in  the  imagination  pos- 
sess such  truth  and  consistency  that,  even  when  deformed 
monsters  like  Caliban,  he  extorts  the  conviction  that  if 
there  should  be  such  beings  they  would  so  conduct 
themselves."  The  following  observation,  by  the  same 
writer,  is  not  less  strikingly  just  than  the  foregoing:  "If 
Shakspeare  deserves  our  admiration  for  his  characters, 
he  is  equally  deserving  of  it  for  his  exhibition  of  passion, 
taking  this  word  in  its  widest  signification,  as  including 
every  mental  condition,  every  tone  from  indifference  or 
familiar  mirth  to  the  wildest  rage  and  despair." 

"Of  all  poets,"  says  Lessing,  "perhaps  he  alone  has 
portrayed  the  mental  diseases,  melancholy,  delirium, 
lunacy,  with  such  wonderful  and  in  every  res|)ect  definite 
ti  uth,  that  the  physician  may  enrich  his  observations 
from  them  in  the  same  manner  as  from  real  cases." 

But,  among  all  the  critics  who  have  treated  of  the 
merits  of  Shakspeare,  none  has  portrayed  his  character- 
istics as  a  poet  more  admirably  than  Dryden  : 

"  He  was  the  man  who,  of  all  modern  and  perhaps 
ancient  poets,  had  the  largest  and  most  comjjrehensive 
soul  :  all  the  images  of  nature  were  still  present  to  him, 
and  he  drew  them,  not  laboriously,  but  luckily  :  when 
he  describes  anything,  you  more  than  see  it, — you  feel  it 
too.  Those  who  accuse  him  to  have  wanted  learning, 
give  him  the  greater  commendation  :  he  was  naturally 
,  learned  ;  he  needed  not  the  spectacles  of  books  to  read 
nature, — he  looked  inwards  and  found  her  there.  I  can- 
not say  he  is  everywhere  alike.  .  .  .  But  he  is  always 
great  when  some  great  occasion  is  presented  to  him  ;  no 


man  can  say  he  had  a  fit  subject  for  his  wit  and  did  not 
then  raise  himself  as  high  above  the  rest  of  poets 
"  '  Quantum  lenta  solent  inter  viburna  cupressi.'  "* 
From  the  data,  imperfect  as  they  are,  which  we  pos- 
sess concerning  the  life  of  Shakspeare,  we  seem  war- 
ranted in  inferring  that  his  scholastic  education  must 
have  been  extremely  defective.  This  inference  is  sup- 
ported by  the  direct  testimony  of  Ben  Jonson,  who  says 
that  Shakspeare  had  "small  Latin  and  less  Greek." 
That  one  with  so  little  opportunities  of  learning  should 
have  exhibited  not  merely  a  wonderful  mastery  of  the 
human  heart,  with  its  infinitely  complex  affections  and 
motives,  but  also  a  familiar  acquaintance  with  many  of 
the  operations  of  external  nature,  and,  what  is  perhaps 
still  more  remarkable,  with  some  of  the  nicest  points  of 
English  law,  has  to  not  a  few  ap])eared  strange  and 
inexplicable,  if  not  absolutely  incredible.  In  attempting 
to  solve  the  difficulty,  some  have  adopted  the  extraor- 
dinary hypothesis  that  the  dramas  going  under  the  name 
of  Shakspeare  must  have  been  written  by  some  other 
person.  The  late  Delia  Bacon  appears  to  have  been  the 
first  to  start  this  hypothesis.  She  publicly  announced  the 
idea  in  an  article  published  in  "  Putnam's  Magazine" 
for  January,  1856.  In  the  following  year  appeared  her 
"  Philosophy  of  the  Plays  of  Shakspeare  unfolded,"  in 
which  she  states  in  full  her  reasons  for  believing  that 
Lord  Bacon  was  the  true  "  Shakspeare."  Since  then, 
Mr.  Nathaniel  Holmes,  late  of  Saint  Louis,  Missouri, 
now  professor  of  law  at  Harvard,  availing  himself  of 
the  suggestion  given  by  Miss  Bacon,  but  taking  a  some- 
what different  view  of  the  question,  has  published  a 
well-written  and  highly  readable  book  entitled  "The 
Authorship  of  Shakspeare,"  in  which  he  sets  forth  with 
elaborate  ingenuity  the  various  arguments  against  the 
claims  of  William  Shakspeare  and  in  favour  of  those  of 
Lord  Bacon. 

Here  is  not  the  place  to  enter  into  a  particular  con- 
sideration of  this  question.  We  may,  however,  observe 
that  Mr.  Holmes  adduces  as  by  far  his  strongest  argu- 
ment the  great  number  of  coincidences  which  are  found 
to  exist  between  the  ideas  and  expressions  of  .Shak- 
speare and  those  occurring  in  the  works  of  Bacon, 
(or,  as  he  states  it,  "  that  general,  inwrought,  and  all- 
pervading  identity  which  is  found  in  these  writings  ;")  a 
very  large  proportion  of  these  coincidences  or  proofs  of 
identity  being,  as  it  seems  to  us,  just  such  as  might  by  dili- 
gent search  be  discovered  in  the  voluminous  works  of  any 
two  authors  living  in  the  same  age  and  writing  on  a  great 
variety  of  subjects:  though  some  of  them  are  clearly  the 
creation  of  the  writer's  fancy,  as  when,  in  pointing  out  the 
similarity  between  the  leading  ideas  of  "The  Tempest" 
and  those  of  the  "  New  Atlantis"  of  Bacon,  he  says,  "  Like 
the  island  of  Atlantis,  Prospero's  isle  is  situated  afar 
off  in  the  midst  of  the  ocean,  somewhere  near  the  'still- 
vexed  Bermoothes.' "  Now,  this  supposition  is  not 
improbable  merely, — it  is  simply  impossible.  For,  in 
the  first  place,  there  is  not  the  slightest  intimation  in 
the  words  of  the  poet  of  Prosper©  and  his  daughter 
having  made  a  long  voyage  in  "the  rotten  carcass  of  a 
boat"  without  tackle,  sail,  or  mast;  on  the  contrary, 
the  inevitable  inference  is  that  it  was  a  very  short  one; 
and,  in  the  second  place,  it  was  clearly  impossible  that 
the  brief  storm  which  wrecked  the  king  and  his  com- 
panions on  their  return  from  Tunis  to  Naples,  could 
have  carried  their  fleet  not  only  out  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  but  more  than 
half-way  across  the  Atlantic.  (See  "  The  Tempest,"  Act 
I.  Scene  2,  and  Act  II.  Scene  I.)  Add  to  this  that 
Bacon  distinctly  and  repeatedly  tells  us  that  the  New 
Atlantis  was  in  the  "  South  Sea,"  and  not  in  the  At- 
lantic Ocean. 

But  were  Bacon's  claims  to  the  authorship  of  Shak 
speare's  dramas  a  hundred  times  stronger  than  they  are, 
they  could  scarcely  outweigh  the  direct  and  uniform 
testimony  of  the  contemjjoraries  of  those  illustrious 
men.  Can  it  be  believed  that  Ben  Jonson,  who  was 
personally  and,  as  it  appears,  intimately  acquainted  with 
Shakspeare,  would  have  spoken  of  him  in  the  manner 

*  Literally,  "  As  the  cypresses  are  wont  [to  raise  themselves] 
among  the  pliant  viburnums."    (See  Virgil,  "  Eclogue  I.") 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SHJKSPEJRE 


2007 


SHJO-KANG 


that  he  has  done  had  he  been  a  mere  man  of  straw, 
whose  only  use  was  to  conceal  from  public  view  the 
greatest  genius  the  world  had  ever  known?  For,  in 
addition  to  these  well-known  lines, — 

•  To  draw  no  envy,  Shakspeare,  on  thy  name, 

Am  I  thus  ample  to  thy  book  and  fame  ; 

While  I  confess  thy  writings  to  be  such 

As  neither  Man  nor  Muse  can  praise  too  much. 

******* 

Triumph,  my  Britain  !  thou  hast  one  to  show 

To  whom  all  scenes*  of  Europe  homage  owe. 

He  was  not  of  an  age,  but  for  all  time  ! 

#*#*** 

Nature  herself  was  proud  of  his  designs, 

And  joyed  to  wear  the  dressing  of  his  lines  ; 

Which  were  so  richly  spun  and  woven  so  fit, 

As  since  she  will  vouchsafe  no  other  wit." 
—  Written  in  the  Folio  edition  0/  Shakspeare''  s  Plays,  published  in 
1623.- 

Jonson  says,  in  another  place,  "I  loved  the  man,  and  do 
honour  his  memory — on  this  side  idolatry  —  as  much  as 
any.  He  was  indeed  honest  and  of  an  open  and  free 
nature,  had  an  excellent  phantasy,  [fancy,]  brave  notions, 
and  gentle  expressions,  wherein  he  flowed  with  that  fa- 
-^ity  that  sometimes  it  was  necessary  that  he  should  be 
stopped."  How  strikingly  descriptive  is  this  of  Shak- 
speare's  most  remarkable  peculiarity  !  It  is  this  excess- 
ive "  facility"  or  exuberance  of  expression,  joined  with 
his  "  excellent  phantasy,"  which  perhaps  more  than  any 
other  quality  distinguishes  him  above  all  other  writers, 
ancient  or  modern.  Or  are  we  to  suppose  that  Jonson 
was  in  the  secret,  and  composed  this  lying  eulogy  of 
Shakspeare  for  the  express  purpose  of  deceiving  pos- 
terity, and  also  that  the  poet  Spenser,  Mr.  Meres,  the  Earl 
of  Southampton,  the  queen,  the  managers  of  the  thea- 
tres, besides  many  others,  (see  the  conversation,  reported 
by  Rowe,  between  Ben  Jonson  and  Sir  John  Suckling, 
Sir  William  D'Avenant,  and  others,)  were  all  in  the  same 
conspiracy,  and  kept  the  secret  so  faithfully  that  not  a 
line  or  a  word  tending  to  expose  the  stupendous  decep- 
tion has  come  down  to  us }  But  this  is  not  all ;  the  new 
othesis  would  require  us  to  believe  not  merely  that, 
in  all  the  works  that  go  under  his  name,  Bacon  was  at 
the  pains  to  curb  and  repress  that  "excellent  phantasy" 
and  wonderful  *' facility"  of  expression,  and  to  exhibit 
them  in  his  dramatic  writings  only,  but  that  he  pur- 
posely affected  ignorance  about  things  with  which  he 
must  have  been  perfectly  acquainted,  as,  for  example, 
when  he  makes  Cassius  (in  "Julius  Caesar")  speak 
of  the  "  eternal  devil, "t  when  he  gives  the  names  of 
Bottom,  Quince,  Snug,  and  Snout  (in  "Midsummer 
Night's  Dream")  to  Athenian  mechanics,  or  when  (in 
Winter's  Tale")  he  represents  Bohemia  as  a  maritime 
kingdom  ! 

There  might  be  good  reasons  why  Bacon  should  not 
wish  to  be  known  as  a  dramatic  writer  in  the  early 
part  of  his  career,  when  he  was  aspiring  to  the  highest 
honours  in  the  state  ;  but  it  is  inconceivable  that  he 
should  have  taken  such  extraordinary  pains  to  keep  the 
secret  of  his  poetic  genius  from  posterity.  But  the 
advocates  of  the  new  hypothesis  lose  sight  of  the  most 
essential  point  of  all.  The  great  wonder  is  not  that  a 
man  without  learning  should  have  written  such  plays 
as  those  which  go  under  the  name  of  Shakspeare  :  the 
wonder  is  i\\2i\.  any  man  should  have  written  them.  The 
works  of  a  great  genius  must  always  seem  marvellous  in 
our  eyes  ;  and,  if  the  genius  be  transcendent,  the  con- 
templation of  its  productions  must  fill  us  with  a  sort  of 
bewildering  astonishment.  It  would,  however,  be  still 
more  miraculous  if  it  could  be  proved  tiiat  Bacon,  and 
not  Shakspeare,  had  written  those  wonderful  dramas  ; 
for  examples  have  repeatedly  occurred  of  men  in  whom 
a  rare  genius  has  supplied  the  want  of  almost  every 
external  advantage,  but  no  well-authenticated  instance 
can  be  found  in  the  whole  history  of  the  human  intel- 
lect, of  one  and  the  same  man  belonging  to  the  highest 
rank  of  philosophers  and  the  highest  rank  of  poets. 
Nor  can  a  single  example  be  cited  of  any  one  author 


*  I.e.  all  the  "  Stages"  of  Europe. 

+  The  reader  need  scarcely  be  told  that  not  only  the  word  "devil," 
{diabohts,)  but  all  idea  of  a  devil,  as  understood  in  modern  times,  was 
wholly  unknown  to  the  Romans  before  the  Christian  era. 


writing  in  two  styles  so  totally  different  as  those  of 
Bacon  and  Shakspeare. 

See  M ALONE,  "Life  of  Shakespeare,"  1821 ;  N.  Drake,  "Shak- 
speare and  his  Times,"  2  vols.,  1817;  Charles  Knight,  "Shak- 
spere;  a  Biography,"  1845  ;  J.  O.  Halliwell,  "New  Life  of  W. 
Shakespeare,"  1847;  Georg  G.  Gervinus,  "Shakespeare,"  4  vols., 
1849-50;  R.  G.  White,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  W.  Shakespeare," 
1865;  W.  Hazlitt,  "Characters  of  Shakspeare's  Plays,"  1817; 
GuizoT,  "  Shakspere  et  son  Temps,"  1851;  Richard  Farmer, 
"Essays  on  the  Learning  of  Shakespeare,"  1767;  J.  Britton, 
"  Remarks  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Shakespeare,"  1814  ;  Franz 
Horn,  "Shakespeare's  Schauspiele  erlautert,"  5  vols.,  1822-31  ;  J. 
P.  Collier,  "Life  of  Shakespeare,"  1841;  J.  Meyer,  "  Leben 
Shakespeare's,"  1825;  S.  T.  Coleridge,  "Notes  and  Lectures  on 
Shakespeare,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1849;  S.  Neil,  "Critical  Biography  of 
Shakespeare,"  i86i  ;  P.  Chasles,  "  fitudes  sur  Shakspere,"  1852; 
Victor  Hugo,  "William  Shakespeare,"  1864;  A.  Dyce,  "  Life  of 
Shakespeare,"  1857 ;  A.  Skottowe,  "Life  of  Shakespeare,"  1824; 
R.  Wheler,  "  Life  of  Shakespeare,"  1806;  Joseph  Hunter,  "New 
Illustrations  of  the  Life  of  Shakespeare,"  2  vols.,  1845;  F.  Douce, 
"  Illustrations  of  Shakespeare  and  of  Ancient  Manners,"  2  vols., 
1807;  J.  J.  Eschenburg,  "  Ueber  W.  Shakespeare,"  1787;  Na- 
thaniel Drake,  "  Memorials  of  Shakspeare,  or  Sketches  of  his 
Character  and  Genius,"  1828;  Charles  Knight,  "Studies  and  Il- 
lustrations of  Shakspere,"  etc.,  1850;  Hudson,  "  Lectures  011  Shake- 
speare," 1848;  Hagberg,  "Shakspeare  och  Skalderna,"  Lund, 
1848;  N.  Deliu.s,  "  Der  Mythus  von  W.  Shakspeare,"  1S51  ;  De 
QuiNCEV,  "  Life  of  Shakspeare,"  in  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica," 
republished  in  his  works,  vol.  xv. ;  Hallam,  "  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe;"  A.  W.  von  Schlegel,  "Lectures  on  Dra- 
matic Art  and  Literature,"  (translated  into  English  by  John  Black, 
1815  ;)  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "  Essay  on  the  Drama  ;"  "  Biographia 
Dramatica;"  Cibber,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  article,  by  Lord 
Jeffrey,  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  August,  1817;  "  Shake- 
speariana:  a  List  of  Works  illustrative  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of 
Shakespeare,"  etc.,  by  J.  O.  Halliwell,  1867  ;  Mary  Cowden 
Clarke,  "Complete  Concordance  to  Sliakspeare,"  1844-45;  Dr. 
Johnson,  Preface  to  his  edition  of  Shakespeare,  1765  ;  also  the 
excellent  and  elaborate  article  on  Shakspeare  in  Allibone's  "Dic- 
tionary of  Authors." 

Shaller,  shSKler,  (Ludwig,)  a  German  sculptor,  born 
at  Vienna  in  1804.  He  worked  at  Munich  for  the  King 
of  Bavaria. 

ShalTum,  [Heb.  U''l\£!,]  King  of  Israel,  obtained  the 
throne  by  killing  Zachariah,  in  770  B.C.  He  was  assas- 
sinated by  Menahem  in  the  same  year. 

See  II.  Kings  xv. 

Shambhu.    See  Siva. 

Shamul,  shI-mooK,  written  also  Samoul,  a  learned 
Jewish  physician,  born  in  Spain,  was  converted  to  Mo- 
hammedanism. He  was  the  author  of  treatises  on  medi- 
cine, astronomy,  and  mathematics.    Died  about  11 75. 

Shamyl  or  Schamyl,  sham'il,  a  famous  Circassian 
chief,  born  at  Himry  in  1797,  was  a  man  of  great  energy. 
In  religion  he  was  a  Mohammedan.  He  fought  bravely 
against  the  Russian  invaders  in  1828  and  the  ensuing 
years.  In  1834  he  was  chosen  Imam  of  Circassia.  He 
displayed  much  political  as  well  as  military  ability  in 
the  long  contest  against  Russia.  Avoiding  regular 
battles,  he  wasted  the  enemy  by  ambuscades,  surprises, 
and  partisan  warfare.  After  a  heroic  defence  against 
superior  numbers,  he  surrendered  about  the  end  of  1859. 
From  that  time  the  emperor  assigned  him  a  residence 
(with  a  pension)  at  Kalooga,  in  Russia.    Died  in  187 1. 

See  RoUNOVSKi,  "Schamyl:"  "Schamyl,  the  Sultan,  Warrior, 
and  Prophet  of  the  Caucasus,"  (translated  from  the  German  of  Wag- 
ner and  BoDENSTEDT,  1S54  :)  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Feb- 
ruary, 1855;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1854;  E.  Texier, 
"  Les  Hommes  de  la  Guerre  d'Orient:  Schamyl,"  1854:  Major 
Warner,  "Schamyl,  le  Prophete  du  Caucase,"  1854;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Shanfaree  or  Schanfari,  shin-fa'ree,  an  Arabic 
poet,  who  lived  a  short  time  before  Mohammed,  was 
the  author  of  a  poefn  called  "  Lamayat  el-Arab,"  which 
is  admired  for  richness  of  imagery.  A  French  version 
of  it  was  published  by  Silvestre  de  Sacy  in  1806. 

Shao-Hao  or  Chao-Hao,  sha'o  h3'o,  almost  show- 
how',  second  Emperor  of  China,  was  the  son  of  Hoang- 
Tee,  whom  he  succeeded  in  2597  B.C.  He  is  censured 
for  having  tolerated  the  rise  and  progress  of  idolatry  in 
his  reign,  from  a  lack  of  firmness  and  energy.  He  died, 
it  is  said,  after  a  reign  of  eighty-four  years. 

See  Pauthier,  "Chine." 

Shao-Kang  or  Chao-Kang,  shS'o  kSng,  a  Chinese 
emperor,  supposed  to  have  been  Ix)rn  21 18  B.C.,  was  the 
son  of  Tee-Siang,  who  was  killed  in  battle  the  same  year. 
A  usurper  then  obtained  the  throne,  and  the  young 
prince  lived  disguised  as  a  shepherd  until  he  was  about 
forty  years  old.  He  raised  an  army,  defeated  the  usurper, 
and  reigned  in  peace  until  he  died,  at  the  age  of  sixty-one. 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ( J;^^See  Explanations,  p.  23  J 


SHAPOOR 


2C08 


SHATS 


Shapoor  or  Shapur.    See  Sapor. 

Sharp,  (Ahraham,)  an  English  mathematician  and 
mechanist,  born  near  Bradford  in  165 1,  lie  became  an 
assistant  to  Flamsteed,  royal  astronomer,  about  1688. 
He  graduated,  with  extraordinary  accuracy,  a  mural 
quadrant  or  sector  for  the  Observatory  of  Greenwich, 
and  calculated  excellent  logarithmic  tables.  Died  in  1742. 

Sharp,  (Daniel,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  born  at 
Huddersfield,  England,  in  1783.  He  became  pastor  of 
a  church  at  Boston  in  1812,  and  subsequently  one  of 
the  editors  of  the  "American  Baptist  Magazine."  He 
published  a  number  of  sermons,  etc.    Died  in  1853. 

Sharp,  (Granville,)  an  eminent  English  philanthro- 
pist, born  in  Durham  in  1734,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Thomas 
Sharp,  noticed  below.  He  early  distinguished  himself 
by  his  earnest  opposition  to  negro  slavery,  and  published 
in  1769  "A  Representation  of  the  Injustice  and  Danger- 
ous Tendency  of  tolerating  Slavery  in  England,"  etc. 
About  the  same  time,  having  met  with  a  negro  named 
Somerset,  who,  being  ill,  had  been  turned  into  the 
streets  of  London  by  his  master,  he  took  him  under  his 
care,  and,  on  his  recovery,  procured  him  employment. 
Two  years  after,  Somerset  was  claimed  by  his  former 
owner ;  but,  the  case  being  brought  before  the  lord 
mayor  on  the  application  of  Sharp,  it  was  decided 
against  the  master,  who,  however,  insisted  upon  retain- 
ing his  slave.  After  a  trial  before  the  court  of  king's 
bench  in  1772,  it  was  finally  decided  that  a  slave  could 
not  be  held  in  England.  Granville  Sharp  was  one  of 
the  originators  of  the  Association  for  the  Abolition  of 
Negro  Slavery,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  founding 
the  colony  of  Sierra  Leone,  in  Africa.  He  published, 
besides  numerous  treatises  against  slavery,  a  "Declara- 
tion of  the  People's  Natural  Rights  to  a  Share  in  the 
Legislature,"  etc.,  (1778,)  "Remarks  on  the  Prophecies," 
and  "  Remarks  on  the  Uses  of  the  Definitive  Article  in 
the  Greek  Testament."    Died  in  1813. 

See  Prince  Hoare,  "Memoirs  of  Granville  Sharp,"  1810: 
Charles  Stuart,  "Memoirs  of  G.  Sharp,"  New  York,  1836. 

Sharp,  (James,)  a  Scottish  prelate,  born  in  1618, 
studied  at  the  University  of  Aberdeen,  and  was  after- 
wards professor  of  philosophy  in  Saint  Leonard's  Col- 
lege, at  Saint  Andrew's.  In  1660  he  was  sent  by  several 
leading  Presbyterians  as  their  representative  to  General 
Monk,  and,  after  a  conference  with  Charles  II.  at  Breda, 
went  over  to  the  Church  of  England.  He  was  rewarded 
for  his  apostasy  by  being  created  Archbishop  of  Saint 
Andrew's,  and  obtaining  other  distinctions.  In  1679, 
while  travelling  from  Kennoway  to  Saint  Andrew's,  he 
was  assassinated  by  a  party  of  Presbyterians,  who  were 
lying  in  wait  for  another  person- 
See  Hume,  "  History  of  England ;"  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Sharp,  (John,)  a  learned  English  prelate,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1644.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1669, 
became  Dean  of  Norwich  in  1681,  and  was  subsequently 
chaplain  to  Charles  II.  and  his  successor,  James  11. 
Having  given  great  offence  to  the  latter  by  a  sermon 
which  he  preached  against  popery,  he  was  suspended 
for  a  time  from  his  functions.  In  1689  he  succeeded 
Tillotson  as  Dean  of  Canterbury,  and  was  created  Arch- 
bishop of  York  Ml  1691.  He  died  in  1714,  leaving 
numerous  sermons,  often  reprinted. 

See  "Life  of  Archbishop  Sharp,"  by  his  son,  Thomas  Sharp, 
1829. 

Sharp,  (Richard,)  an  English  litterateur  and  Whig 
member  of  Parliament,  born  about  1759,  obtained  the 
sobriquet  of  "Conversation  Sharp,"  from  his  extra- 
ordinary colloquial  powers.  He  published  "  Letters 
and  Essays  in  Prose  and  Verse."    Died  in  1835. 

Sharp,  (Thomas,)  a  son  of  John  Sharp,  Archbishop 
of  York,  was  born  about  1693.  He  rose  through  several 
preferments  to  be  Archdeacon  of  Northumberland  and 
prebendary  of  Durham.  He  published  "  Discourses  on 
the  Hebrew  Tongue,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1758. 

Sharp,  (William,)  acelebrated  English  line-engraver, 
born  in  London  about  1745.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  the  "  Virgin  and  Child,"  after  Carlo  Dolce,  "  Saint 
Cecilia,"  after  Domenichino,  the  portrait  of  [ohn  Hunter, 
after  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  and  the  "Sortie" from  Gibral- 
tar," after  Trumbull.    Sharp  was  remarkable  for  his| 


credulity,  and  became  a  dupe  to  the  impostures  of  Joanna 
Southcott  and  other  fanatics.    Died  in  1824. 

Sharpe,  sharp,  (Daniel,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  geolo- 
gist, born  in  London  in  1806,  was  a  nephew  of  Samuel 
Rogers  the  poet.  He  visited  Portugal,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  the  geology  of  that  country.  Among  his 
works  are  "  Memoirs  on  the  Silurian  Rocks  and  Old 
Red  Sandstone  of  Wales,"  (1842-44.)    Died  in  1856. 

Sharpe,  (Gregory,)  an  English  divine  and  Orien- 
talist, born  in  Yorkshire  in  1713.  He  published  "Dis- 
sertations on  the  Origin  of  Languages  and  the  Powers 
of  Letters,  with  a  Hebrew  Lexicon,"  "Defence  of  Dr. 
Clarke  against  Leibnitz,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1771. 

Shar'pey,  (William,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  phys- 
iologist,  born  at  Arbroath.  In  1837  he  became  professor 
of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  University  College,  Edin- 
i  burgh.  He  has  contributed  several  valuable  treatises  to 
the  "Cyclopedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology." 

Shars^'wood,  (George,)  an  eminent  jurist,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  July  7,  1810,  graduated  with  the  highest 
honours  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1828.  Ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  183 1,  he  became  in  1845  associate 
judge,  and  in  1848  president  judge,  of  the  district  court 
of  the  city  and  county  of  Philadelphia,  He  was  after- 
wards elected  one  of  the  judges  of  the  supreme  court 
of  the  State,  and  was  for  many  years  professor  of.  law 
in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Judge  Sharswood's 
legal  writings  enjoy  the  very  highest  character  with  the 
profession.  His  "  Byles  on  Bills  of  Exchange"  has 
been  adopted  as  a  text-book  at  Harvard, 

Shaw,  (Cuthkert,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  York- 
shire in  1738.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Odes  on  the  Four 
Seasons,"  "Liberty,"  "The  Race,"  a  satire,  "Address  to 
a  Nightingale,"  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1771, 

Shaw,  (G  eokge,)  an  English  naturalist,  born  in  Buck- 
inghamshire in  1 751.  He  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh, 
and  was  afterwards  appointed  keeper  of  natural  history 
at  the  British  Museum.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1789.  He  wrote  "  General  Zoology,  or 
Natural  History,"  (9  vols.,)  "  The  Naturalist's  Miscel- 
lany," and  other  works.    Died  in  1813. 

See  CuviF.R,  "  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for  September  and 
October,  1802,  et  seq. 

Shaw,  (Sir  James,)  a  British  merchant,  born  in  Ayr- 
shire in  1764,  became  lord  mayor  of  London  in  1805,  and 
was  afterwards  a  member  of  Parliament,    Died  in  1843. 

Shaw,  (Lemuel,)  an  able  American  jurist,  born  at 
Barnstable,  Massachusetts,  in  1781.  He  was  many  years 
a  member  of  the'State  legislature,  and  in  1830  was  ap- 
pointed chief  justice  of  Massachusetts.  He  performed 
the  duties  of  that  office  with  great  credit  for  thirty  years, 
and  resigned  in  1S60.  His  reported  decisions  have  been 
published  by  Pickering,  Cushing,  and  others.  He  died 
in  Boston  in  1861. 

Shaw,  (Peter,)  an  English  physician,  edited  Bacon's 
"  Philosoi)hical  Works."    Died  in  1763. 

Shaw,  (RoBERr  Gould,)  Colonel,  an  American 
officer,  born  about  1836,  was  a  son  of  Francis  G.  Shaw, 
of  Staten  Island.  He  commanded  the  first  coloured 
regiment  organized  in  a  free  State.  He  was  killed  in  the 
assault  on  Fort  Waguer,  South  Carolina,  July,  1863, 

Shaw,  (Stehhing,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Staf- 
fordshire in  1762,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Staffordshire," 
"Tour  in  the  West  of  England,"  and  "The  Topogra- 
pher."   Died  in  1802. 

Shaw,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine  and  scholar,  born 
at  Kendal  about  1692,  became  chaplain  to  the  English 
factory  at  Algiers.  He  was  afterwards  appoin*:ed  regius 
professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford,  and  elected  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society.  He  published  "  Travels  or  Obser- 
vations relating  to  Several  Parts  of  Barbary  and  the 
Levant,"  (1738.)    Died  in  1751. 

Shaw,  (Thomas  Budd,)  an  English  writer,  horn  in 
London  in  1813.  He  became  professor  of  English 
literature  in  the  Imperial  Lyceum  of  Saint  Petersburg  in 
1842.  He  published  "Outlines  of  English  Literature," 
(1848,)  and  translated  several  Russian  works  into  Eng- 
lish.   Died  in  1862. 

Shays,  (Daniel,)  an  American  soldier,  born  in  1740, 
was  the  leader  of  a  rebellion  which  broke  out  in  Massa- 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  flr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SHEA 


2009 


SHELLET 


chusetts  in  1786  and  was  called  by  his  name.  The 
insurgents  gave  as  reasons  for  their  revolt  the  high  taxes, 
tne  extortions  of  the  lawyers,  etc.  The  rebellion  was 
suppressed  by  an  armed  force  in  1787.    Died  in  1825. 

Shea,  sha,  }  (Daniel,)  a  distinguished  Orientalist, 
born  at  Dublin  in  1 772,  became  professor  at  Haileybury 
College.  He  made  a  translation  of  Mirkhond's  "  His- 
tory of  the  Early  Kings  of  Persia."    Died  in  1836. 

Shea,  sha,  (John  Augustus,)  an  Irish  poet,  born  in 
Cork  about  1802,  emigrated  to  New  York  in  1827.  He 
wrote  for  several  journals  and  magazines,  and  several 
volumes  of  poems.    Died  in  1845. 

Shebbeare,  sheb-beer',  }  (John,)  an  English  phy- 
sician and  political  writer,  born  in  Devonshire  in  1709, 
published  "  Letters  on  the  English  Nation,"  "History 
of  the  Sumatrans,"  a  satire,  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1788. 

Shee,  (Sir  Martin  Archer,)  a  distinguished  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Dublin  in  1770.  Having  visited  London 
in  1788,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Burke  and  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds,  and  became  a  student  in  the  Royal 
Academy.  He  was  elected  an  associate  in  1798,  and  in 
1800  ah  Academician.  Though  inferior  as  an  artist  to 
.  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence,  he  obtained  extensive  patronage 
among  the  aristocracy.  In  1830  he  succeeded  Lawrence 
as  president  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Sir  Martin  was 
the,  author  of  "Rhymes  on  Art,  or  the  Remonstrance  of 
a  Painter,"  '*  Alasco,"  a  tragedy,  and  other  poems.  Died 

in  1850. 

See  "Life  of  Sir  Martin  Archer  Shee."  by  his  son,  i860;  '*  Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  April,  1806. 

Sheep'shanks,  (John,)  a  collector  of  books  and 
pictures,  was  a  brother  of  Richard,  noticed  below. 
About  1857  he  presented  to  the  English  nation  his 
large  collection  of  the  pictures  of  British  artists.  Died 
in  1863. 

Sheepshanks,  (Rev.  Richard,)  F.R.S.,  an  English 
astronomer,  born  at  Leeds  in  1794,  inherited  an  easy 
fortune.  He  was  ordained  a  priest,  but  devoted  his  time 
chiefly  to  science.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Penny  Cyclo- 
paedia" several  articles  on  astronomical  instruments,  and 
aided  Professor  Airy  in  his  operations  with  the  pendulum 
in  Cornwall.  Having  been  appointed  a  member  of  a 
commission  for  the  restoration  of  the  standards  of  weight 
and  nieasure,  (which  had  been  destroyed  by  fire,)  he 
expended  the  labour  of  several  years  in  determining  the 
standard  of  measure.    Died  at  Reading  in  1855. 

Sheffield,  (John.)    See  Buckinghamshire,  Duke 

OF. 

Sheil,  sheel,  (Richard  Lalor,)  a  celebrated  Irish 
orator  and  patriot,  born  at  Dublin  in  1793,  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  in  his  native  city.  As  a  member  of  the 
Catholic  Association,  he  was  active  iii  promoting  the 
election  of  Mr.  O'Connell  to  Parliament  for  the  county 
of  Clare.  Mr.  Sheil  was  elected  in  1829  to  represent 
the  borough  of  Milborne  Port,  and  soon  became  con- 
spicuous for  his  brilliant  eloquence.  In  1832  he  was 
returned  to  Parliament  for  the  county  of  Tipperary.  He 
became  vice-president  of  the  board  of  trade,  and  a 
member  of  the  privy  council,  in  1839,  was  appointed 
master  of  the  Mint  under  Lord  Russell's  ministry  in 
1846,  and  British  minister  at  Florence  in  1850.  Mr. 
Sheil  was  the  author  of  several  popular  dramas,  and 
"Sketches  of  the  Irish  Bar."   Died  at  Florence  in  1851. 

See  M'CuLi.AGH,  "Memoirs  of  R.  L.  Sheil,"  1855;  Thomas 
McGee,  "Sketches  of  O'Connell  and  his  Friends;"  Allibone, 
"  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Shel'burne,  (William  Petty,)  Earl  of,  and  Mar- 
quis of  Lansdowne,  an  English  statesman,  born  in  1737, 
was  the  second  son  of  the  Earl  of  Shelburne.  He  in- 
herited the  earldom  at  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1761, 
and  was  appointed  president  of  the  board  of  trade  in 
1763.  He  opposed  the  measures  by  which  the  ministers 
endeavoured  to  coerce  the  American  colonists,  and  soon 
resigned  his  office.  He  became  a  political  friend  of 
Will  iam  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham,  who  in  1766  appointed 
him  secretary  of  state.  In  this  office  he  had  the  direc- 
tion of  the  American  colonies,  and  pursued  a  liberal  or 
conciliatory  policy  ;  but  he  was  counteracted  by  other 
members  of  the  cabinet,  and  by  the  king.  He  was  dis- 
missed from  office  in  October,  1768,  by  the  Duke  of 


Grafton,  who  had  become  prime  minister.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  event  Lord  Chatham  resigned. 

Lord  Shelburne  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  debater, 
and  was  distinguished  for  his  political  knowledge.  He 
opposed  the  administration  of  Lord  North  on  the  most 
important  questions,  and  after  the  death  of  Lord  Chatham 
formed  a  political  connection  with  Rockingham,  who  in 
March,  1782,  succeeded  Lord  North  as  prime  minister. 
Lord  Shelburne  was  secretary  of  state  in  this  ministry, 
which  was  dissolved  by  the  death  of  its  chief,  and  the 
favour  of  the  king  enabled  him  to  become  prime  minister 
about  July  i,  1782.  During  his  administration  Howe  and 
Rodney  gained  decisive  naval  victories  over  the  French, 
and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  negotiated  which  recognized 
the  independence  of  the  United  States.  He  was  driven 
from  power  by  the  coalition  of  Fox  and  Lord  North, 
February,  1783,  after  which  he  never  returned  to  office. 
In  1784  he  received  the  title  of  Marquis  of  Lansdowne. 
He  afterwards  supported  the  ministry  of  Pitt,  but  op- 
posed the  war  against  the  French  republic.  He  was  a 
liberal  patron  of  learned  men,  and  had  one  of  the  finest 
private  libraries  in  the  kingdom.  About  1765  he  had 
married  Sophia  Carteret,  a  daughter,  of  the  Earl  of  Gran- 
ville. He  died  in  May,  1805,  leaving  two  sons,  one  of 
whom  was  an  eminent  statesman.  (See  Lansdowne, 
Marquis  of.) 

See  Brougham,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.;" 
"  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1854. 

Shel'by,  (Isaac,)  an  American  officer  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, born  near  Hagerstown,  Maryland,  in  1750,  became^ 
Governor  of  Kentucky  in  1792,  and  again  in  1812.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  King's  Mountain, 
1780.    Died  in  1826. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  i. 

Shel'don,  (David  Newton,)  D.D.,  an  American 
divine,  born  at  Suffield,  Connecticut,  in  1807,  was  origi- 
nally a  Baptist,  but  subsequently  became  a  Unitarian. 
He  published  a  work  entitled  "Sin  and  Redemption." 

ShePdon,  (Gilbert,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Staffordshire  in  1598.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  in  1620,  and,  having  taken  orders,  rose  through 
various  preferments  to  be  chaplain  -  in  -  ordinary  to 
Charles  I.  On  the  accession  of  Charles  IT.  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  London,  (1660,)  and  in  1663  succeeded  Juxon 
as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Dr.  Sheldon  was  distin- 
guished for  his  liberality  and  his  extensive  charities,  and 
constructed,  among  other  public  works,  the  theatre  at 
Oxford  called  by  his  name.    Died  in  1677. 

ShePley,  (Percy  Bysshe — Wsh,)  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish poet,  born  at  Field  Place,  near  Horsham,  in  the 
county  of  Sussex,  August  4,  1792.  He  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Sir  Timothy  Shelley,  Bart.  At  the  age  of  thir- 
teen he  was  sent  to  school  at  Eton,  where  his  refusal  to 
fag  exposed  him  to  the  anger  and  persecution  of  the 
other  boys.  His  painful  experiences  at  this  period  con- 
tributed much,  no  doubt,  to  the  development  of  that 
intense  hatred  of  established  wrong  which  afterwards 
became  the  ruling  passion  of  his  life.  Shelley  was  early 
distinguished  for  his  romantic  and  speculative  turn  of 
mind,  as  well  as  for  a  remarkable  facility  in  the  acquisi- 
tion of  every  kind  of  knowledge  in  which  he  took  any 
interest.  When  he  was  about  sixteen,  he  composed  two 
romances,  the  one  entitled  "  Zastrozzi,"  the  other  "Saint 
Irvyne ;  or.  The  Rosicrucian."  In  1810  he  went  to 
Oxford,  and  was  entered  at  University  College.  Here 
he  published  a  small  pamphlet  on  the  necessity  of  athe- 
istn.  The  authorities,  in  consideration,  it  would  seem, 
of  Shelley's  youth  and  peculiar  character,  at  first  resolved 
to  take  no  notice  of  it.  But  this  did  not  satisfy  the 
young  enthusiast :  "so  he  sent,"  says  De  Quincey,  "  his 
pamphlet,  with  five-and-twenty  separate  letters,  addressed 
to  the  five-and-twenty  heads  of  colleges,  courteously 
inviting  all  and  every  of  them  to  notify,  at  his  earliest 
convenience,  his  adhesion  to  the  enclosed  unanswerable 
arguments  for  atheism."  Thereupon  he  was  summoned 
before  the  master  and  sotne  of  the  Fellows  of  the  col- 
lege, and,  as  he  could  not  deny  that  he  was  the  author 
of  the  pamphlet,  he  was  expelled.  Shelley  and  some 
of  his  friends  have  bitterly  complained  of  his  expulsion, 
as  an  act  of  injustice  and  cruelty  ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  see, 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SHELLEY 


20  10 


SHE  N  STONE 


if  De  Quincey's  account  of  the  transaction  be  correct, 
how  he  could  with  any  propriety  have  been  treated  with 
greater  lenity  than  was  shown  him  on  that  occasion.  As 
he  refused  to  make  any  concessions,  his  father  also 
rejected  him,  and  forbade  his  appearance  at  Field  Place. 
Shelley  then  went  to  London,  where  he  composed 
"Queen  Mab,"  which,  however,  he  did  not  publish,  but 
only  distributed  a  few  copies  of  it  among  his  friends. 
While  in  London,  money  is  said  to  have  been  furnished 
for  his  support  by  his  sisters,  who  employed  one  of  their 
school-mates,  Harriet  Westbrook,  (the  daughter  of  a  re- 
tired hotel-keeper,)  as  the  medium  of  communication  with 
their  brother.  After  a  very  short  acquaintance,  Shelley 
eloped  with  Miss  Westbrook,  and  married  her  at  Gretna 
Green  in  August,  181 1.  They  soon  discovered  that  they 
were  not  suited  to  each  other,  and  in  1813  they  separated, 
it  is  said,  by  mutual  consent.  The  next  year  Shelley 
visited  the  continent  in  company  with  Miss  Mary  God- 
win, (a  daughter  of  William  Godwin  and  Mary  Woll- 
stonecraft,)  who  all  considered  marriage  a  useless  or 
tyrann'cal  institution.  In  1816  he  learned  that  his  wife 
had  dr  wned  herself.  His  sorrow,  perhaps  not  unmin- 
gled  with  remorse,  is  said  to  have  rendered  him  for  a 
time  almost  insane.  But  the  same  year  he  was  formally 
married  to  Miss  Godwin,  and  settled  at  or  near  Marlow, 
in  Buckinghamshire.  His  first  wife  had  borne  him  two 
children,  of  whom  he  now  claimed  the  custody,  but 
their  grandfather,  Mr.  Westbrook,  refused  to  give  them 
up.  This  led  to  a  suit  in  chancery;  and  in  March, 
1817,  Lord  Eldon  gave  his  decision,  that,  on  account  of 
Shelley's  demoralizing  and  atheistical  opinions,  he  was 
unfit  to  have  charge  of  the  children,  who  were,  accord- 
ingly, committed  to  the  care  of  Mr,  Westbrook, 

While  at  Marlow,  in  1817,  Shelley  wrote  the  "Revolt 
of  Islam,"  the  longest  of  all  his  poems,  and  the  one  in 
which  he  has  most  fully  developed  his  political  senti- 
ments and  his  peculiar  views  respecting  the  regenera- 
tion of  society.  It  abounds  in  passages  of  surpassing 
beauty,  but,  as  a  story,  is  deficient  in  connection,  and, 
we  may  add,  in  human  interest.  Amid  the  wilderness 
of  luxuriant  imagery,  and  of  subtle,  vague,  or  visionary 
though  sometimes  glorious  thoughts,  the  reader  often 
finds  it  difficult  to  trace  his  way  and  retain  the  thread 
of  the  narrative. 

In  1818,  fearing  lest  his  son  by  Mary  Godwin  should 
be  taken  from  him,  as  his  other  children  had  been,  he 
left  England,  never  to  return.  He  went  to  Italy,  where 
he  composed  "The  Cenci,"  (1819,)  perhaps  the  most 
successful  of  all  his  larger  works,  the  "  Witch  of  Atlas," 
(1819,)  "Prometheus  Unbound,"  (1820,)  "Adonais,"  an 
elegy  on  the  death  of  John  Keats.  (1821,)  and  many 
minor  poems,  some  of  which  are  of  exquisite  beauty. 

In  July,  1822,  he  set  sail  from  Leghorn  for  Lerici, 
The  boat,  having  been  overtaken  by  a  sudden  squall, 
disappeared.  Two  weeks  afterwards,  Shelley's  body  was 
washed  ashore,  with  a  copy  of  Keats's  poems  in  one  of 
his  pockets.  The  Tuscan  quarantine  regulations  at  that 
time  required  that  whatever  came  ashore  from  the  sea 
should  be  burned.  Shelley's  body  was  accordingly 
placed  on  a  pile  and  reduced  to  ashes,  in  the  presence 
of  Lord  Byron,  Leigh  Hunt,  and  Mr,  Trelawney,  His 
ashes  were  collected,  and  interred  in  the  Protestant 
burying-ground  at  Rome,  near  the  grave  of  his  friend 
Keats, 

There  is  perhaps  no  writer  (as  De  Quincey  intimates) 
of  whom  it  is  so  difficult  to  speak  with  a  proper  regard 
for  the  interests  of  society,  and  at  the  same  time  making 
that  charitable  allowance  for  his  eccentricities  and  errors 
which  his  peculiar  temperament  and  his  amiable  and 
noble  traits  of  character  seem  justly  to  claim,  as  Percy 
Bysshe  Shelley.  We  cannot,  however,  agree  with  De 
Quincey  in  the  opinion  that  "  harsh  treatment  had  no 
concern  in  riveting  his  fanaticism,"  What  is  more  prob- 
able than  that  his  bitter  experience  at  Eton,  where  he 
was  exasperated  almost  to  madness  by  the  galling 
"chain  of  Custom,"  acting  on  a  mind  so  sensitive  yet  so 
resolute  and  withal  so  speculative  as  his,  should,  at  that 
suscejjtible  and  most  critical  age,  have  led  him  first  to 
question,  and  then  to  deny  and  spurn,  every  custom 
that  would  impose  the  slightest  restraint  upon  his  free- 
dom or  his  pleasure  }    It  was  but  another  step  for  him 


to  reject  or  adopt  opinions  or  systems  according  as  he 
conceived  them  to  favour  or  oppose  the  power  of  the 
hated  tyrant,  which  he  also  styles  the  "  Anarch  Cus- 
torn."  That  he  was  influenced  by  such  motives  in  the 
choice  of  his  pursuits  clearly  appears  from  the  follow- 
ing lines  : 

"And  from  that  hour  did  I  with  earnest  thought 
Heap  knowledge  from  forbidden  mines  of  lore ; 
Yet  nothing-  that  my  tyrants  ktiew  or  taught 
I  cared  to  learn. "  * 

In  his  poetry  he  repeatedly  associates  "Faith"  and 
"  Custom,"  (or  "  Tyranny  ;")  he  evidently  considered 
the  former  the  chief  support  of  the  latter,  and  cherished 
towards  them  both  an  equal  hatred.  Whatever  may 
have  been  his  early  opinions,  he  would  appear  not  to 
have  been  an  atheist  when  he  wrote  the  preface  to  his 
"Revolt  of  Islam;"  for  he  there  says,  "The  erroneous 
and  degrading  idea  which  men  have  conceived  of  a  Su- 
preme Being  is  spoken  against, — not  the  Supreme  Being 
itself.  .  ,  .  The  belief  which  some  persons  entertain  of 
the  Deity  is  widely  different  from  my  own." 

Speaking  of  Shelley's  poetry,  Bulwer  observes,  "  Each 
line  is  a  separate  thought;  the  effort  glitters  on  the  eye 
till  it  aches  with  the  glare  ;  it  is  the  mirror  broken  into 
a  thousand  pieces,  and  the  representation  it  would  give 
is  rendered  confused  and  phantasmagoric  by  the  mul- 
tiplication of  the  images,"  "  La  Cenci,"  however,  is 
expressly  excepted  from  the  above  criticism. 

The  intimacy  that  subsisted  between  Shelley  and 
Byron,  and  the  supposed  similarity  of  their  principles, 
have  led  to  frequent  comparisons  between  these  eminent 
poets.  But  they  had  in  fact  scarcely  anything  in  com- 
mon, except  a  vivid  and  intense  feeling  of  poetic  beauty. 
The  mind  of  Shelley  was  singularly  speculative,  and  he 
had  a  great  facility  in  persuading  himself  of  the  truth  of 
whatever  he  wished  to  believe.  Byron,  on  the  other  hand, 
with  an  equally  intense  ideality,  [i.e.  feeling  or  sentiment 
of  beauty,)  was  by  the  constitution  of  his  mind  restricted 
far  more  within  the  limits  of  the  actual, — or,  it  may  be, 
the  conventional.  It  would  seem  to  have  been  one  of  the 
great  efforts  of  his  life  to  cast  off  the  trammels  imposed 
upon  him  by  his  religious  education  ;  but  in  this  he  was 
never  wholly  successful.  To  this  deep-rooted  respect 
for  the  actual,  or  the  established,  must  be  ascribed  the 
intense  feeling  of  reality  which  pervades  his  poetry,  as 
well  as  the  strong,  practical  common  sense  evinced  in 
his  actions  when  not  under  the  influence  of  passion.  But 
if  we  compare  the  moral  attributes  of  the  two  men, 
Shelley  will  be  found  to  stand  immeasurably  higher  than 
Byron.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  errors  of  his  head, 
his  heart  appears,  by  the  testimony  of  all  who  knew  him, 
to  have  been  eminently  kind,  generous,  and  unselfish. 
And  if  his  conduct  seems  occasionally  to  contradict  this 
view,  it  was  a  rare  exception  to  the  general  rule,  while 
with  Byron  the  reverse  was  true, — pride  and  selfishness 
were  the  rule,  disinterestedness  the  exception. 

See  Thomas  Medwin,  "Life  of  P.  B.  Shelley,"  2  vols.,  1847; 
Charles  S.  Middi.eton,  "  Shelley  and  his  Works,"  i8s8 ;  T.J. 
Hogg,  "Life  of  P.  B.  Shelley,"  1858;  William  M.  Rossetti, 
"The  Life  of  Percy  Bysshe  Shelley,"  2  vols.,  1869;  E.  J.  Tre- 
lawney, "Recollections  of  the  Last  Days  of  Shelley  and  Byron," 
1858  ;  De  Quincey,  "  Essays  on  the  Poets,"  Boston,  1853  ;  "  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  October,  1861  ;  article  on  Shelley  in  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  for  February,  1863,  "  by  one  who  knew  him,"  {i.e.  Thorn- 
ton Hunt  ;)"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1824,  and  July,  1839; 
Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Memoir"  prefixed  to  his 
works  by  Mrs.  Shelley,  1830;  "The  Slielley  Memorials,  from 
Authentic  Sources,"  edited  by  Lady  Shelley,  1859. 

Shel'ton,  (Frederick  William,)  an  American 
writer  and  Episcopalian  divine,  born  at  Jamaica,  Long 
Island,  about  1814,  He  has  |)ublished  "  Salander  and 
the  Dragon,"  a  romance,  "  The  Rector  of  Saint  Bar- 
dolph's,  or  Sui^erannuated,"  (1853,)  and  other  works. 

Shem,  1  Heb,  ;  Gr.  ,•  Fr,  Sem,  s§m,]  a  pa 
triarch,  the  eldest  son  of  Noah,  and  one  of  the  survivors 
of  the  deluge.  He  was  the  ancestor  of  the  Semitic  (or 
Shemitic)  nations. 

See  Genesis  v.  32,  ix.  18-27,  x.  i,  21,  31. 

Shen'stone,  (William,)  an  English  pastoral  poet, 
born  in  Shropshire  in  1 7 14,  He  was  the  author  of  odes, 
elegies,  and  pastorals,  and  a  poem  entitled  "  The  School- 

*  See  the  lines  addressed  to  his  wife,  prefixed  to  the  "Revolt  of 
Islam." 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;    hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SHEPARD 


20 1 1 


SHERIDAN 


mistress,"  which,  Dr.  Johnson  observes,  "  is  the  most 
pleasing  of  Shenstone's  performances."  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  he  became  involved  in  debt,  owing  to 
expenses  incurred  in  the  embellishment  of  his  grounds. 

He  was  always  wishing,"  says  Gray,  "  for  money,  for 
fame,  and  other  distinctions,  and  his  whole  philosophy 
consisted  in  living,  against  his  will,  in  retirement,  and  in 
a  place  which  his  taste  had  adorned,  but  which  he  only 
enjoyed  when  people  of  note  came  to  see  and  commend 
it."    Died  in  1763. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  "Monthly  Review"  for 
May  and  June,  1764. 

Shep'ard,   (Charles  Upham,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an 

American  naturalist,  born  at  Little  Compton,  Rhode 
Island,  in  1804,  graduated  at  Amherst  College.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Charleston  Medi- 
cal College  in  1834,  and  professor  of  natural  history  in 
Amherst  College.  He  wrote  a  "  Report  on  the  Geo- 
logical Survey  of  Connecticut,"  (1837,)  and  other  works. 

Shepard,  (Samuel,)  M.D.,  a  physician  and  Baptist 
divine,  born  at  Salisbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1739,  pub- 
lished a  number  of  controversial  treatises.   Died  in  1815. 

Shepard,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  bora 
in  1605,  emigrated  to  New  England,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  Harvard  College.    Died  in  1649. 

Shep'herd,  (William,)  a  general,  born  in  Massachu- 
setts in  1737,  fought  in  twenty-two  battles.  He  was  a 
member  of  Congress  from  1797  to  1803.    Died  in  181 7. 

Shep'herd Kings,  called  by  the  Egyptians  Hyk'sos, 
[{xom/iyk,  "king,"  and  a  "shepherd,"]  a  race  of  kings, 
probably  of  Tartar  origin,  supposed  to  have  ruled  over 
Egypt  from  about  2200  to  1550  H.c  The  only  account 
we  have  of  them  is  given  in  a  fragment  of  Manetho, 
preserved  by  Josephus. 

See  article  "  Hyksos,"  in  the  "New  American  Cyclopaedia." 

Shep'ley,  (George  F.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Saco,  Maine,  about  1820.  He  served  under  General 
Butler,  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  was  appointed 
military  governor  of  New  Orleans  about  May  i,  1862. 

Shep'pard,  (Elizabeth  Sara,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  at  Blackheath  about  1830.  Siie  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Double  Coronet,"  a  novel,  (2  vols.,  1S56,) 
and  "Rumour,"  a  novel,  (3  vols.,  1858.)    Died  in  1862. 

Shep'reve,  (John,)  an  English  scholar,  became  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  at  Oxford  aijout  1538.    Died  in  1542. 

Sher'ard,  (William,)  an  English  botanist  and  ama- 
teur, born  in  Leicestershire  in  1659.  Having  visited 
various  parts  of  Europe,  he  was  appointed  in  1702  Brit- 
ish consul  at  Smyrna,  where  he  made  collections  for  his 
valuable  "Herbarium."  While  travelling  on  the  con- 
tinent, he  had  acquired  the  friendship  of  Tournefort  and 
Dillenius,  and  on  his  invitation  the  latter  came  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  subsequently  filled  the  chair  of  botany 
at  Oxford,  endowed  by  Mr.  Sherard.  Sherard  died  in 
1728,  leaving  his  Herbarium  of  more  than  12,000  species 
to  the  University  of  Oxford. 

Sher'burne,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English  scholar  and 
writer,  born  in  London  in  1618,  was  clerk  of  the  ord- 
nance under  Charles  L  He  translated  several  works 
from  the  Latin,  among  which  we  may  name  Seneca's 
"  Troades"  and  "  Medea."    Died  in  1702. 

Shereef-ed-Deen-Alee  or  Scheiif-Eddin-Ali, 
sheh-reef  ed-deen'  i'lee,  a  Persian  author,  whose  atyle 
is  compared  to  pearls  and  diamonds  of  the  first  water, 
was^a  native  of  Yezd.  He  composed,  about  1425,  a 
"History  of  Tamerlane." 

See  Petis  de  la  Croix,  "  Histoire  de  Timur  Bey." 

Sher'i-dan,  (Frances,)  wife  of  Thomas  Sheridan, 
(the  second  of  the  name,)  born  in  Ireland  in  1724, 
was  the  author  of  an  Oriental  romance  entitled  "  Nour- 
jahad,"  "  Sidney  Biddulph,"  a  novel,  highly  commended 
by  Dr.  Johnson,  and  the  comedies  of  "  The  Dupe"  and 
"The  Discovery,"  the  latter  of  which  Garrick  pro- 
nounced "one  of  the  best  he  ever  read."    Died  in  1766. 

See  Mrs.  Elwood,  "Memoirs  of  tlie  Literary  Ladies  of  England 
from  the  Commencement  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  i. ;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  April,  1761. 

Sher'I-dan,  (Philip  Henry,)  an  eminent  American 
general,  born  in  Perry  county,  Ohio,  in  1831.  He  en- 
tered the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point  in  1848,  and 
graduated  with  honour  in  1853,  as  a  classmate  of  McPher- 


son  and  Schofield.  He  served  several  years  in  Oregon, 
and,  having  returned  to  the  East,  was  appointed  a  captain 
in  the  regular  army  in  May,  1861.  Li  March  or  May, 
1862,  he  became  chief  quartermaster  under  General 
Halleck.  He  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  Second 
Michigan  cavalry  in  May,  and  obtained  command  of  a 
cavalry  brigade  in  June,  1862.  Having  defeated  a  troop 
superior  in  number  to  his  own,  at  Booneville,  Mississippi, 
he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  July. 
He  took  command  of  a  division  of  the  army  of  the  Ohio 
in  September,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Perryville,  October  8,  1862.  For  his  gallant  conduct  at 
the  great  battle  of  Stone  River,  which  ended  on  the  2d 
of  January,  1863,  he  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of 
major-general  of  volunteers.  He  commanded  a  division 
at  Chickamauga,  .SejJtember  19  and  20,  and  at  the  battle 
of  Chattanooga  or  Missionary  Ridge,  November  25,  1863. 

In  April,  1864,  he  was  appointed  commander  of  all 
the  cavalry  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  which  crossed 
the  Rapidan  and  began  operations  against  Lee's  army 
on  the  4th  of  May.  On  the  9th  Sheridan  started  on  a 
raid  against  the  enemy's  lines  of  communication  with 
Richmond.  He  destroyed  the  depots,  etc.  at  Beaver 
Dam  and  Ashland,  advanced  to  the  outer  defences  of 
Richmond,  defeated  the  rebel  cavalry  under  General 
Stuart,  and  rejoined  the  army  of  General  Grant  on  the 
25th  of  May.  On  the  7th  of  June  he  led  an  expedition 
against  the  Virginia  Central  Railroad,  from  which  he 
returned  to  the  White  House  on  the  19th,  after  he  had 
routed  the  enemy's  cavalry  at  Trevilian  Station  and 
destroyed  part  of  the  railroad.  About  the  7th  of  August 
he  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  "  Middle  Mili- 
tary Division,"  which  was  then  constituted  in  order  to 
oppose  the  incursions  of  the  rebels  from  the  Shenandoah 
Valley  into  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania. 

His  operations  during  the  month  of  August  and  the 
first  part  of  September  were  of  both  an  offensive  and 
defensive  character,  resulting  in  many  severe  skirmishes 
with  the  army  of  General  Early.  On  the  15th  of  Septem- 
ber General  Grant  left  City  Point  to  visit  Sheridan  and 
confer  with  him.  "I  saw,"  says  Grant,  "there  were  but 
two  words  of  instruction  necessary — Go  in  !"  Sheridan 
attacked  Early  on  the  19th  near  Winchester,  defeated 
him,  and  took  several  thousand  prisoners.  He. gained 
another  victory  at  Fisher's  Hill  on  the  20th,  and  pur- 
sued the  enemy  with  great  energy  through  Harrisonburg 
and  Staunton.  Soon  after  this  battle  he  was  appointed 
a  brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army.  During  a  brief 
absence  of  Sheridan,  who  was  called  to  Washington, 
General  Early,  having  been  reinforced,  attacked  suddenly 
the  Union  army  near  Cedar  Creek  and  Strasburg  on  the 
19th  of  October,  and  at  first  was  victorious.  After  the 
Federals  had  retreated  about  three  miles  with  much 
loss,  Sheridan,  riding  at  full  speed,  arrived  on  the  field, 
rallied  his  men  with  words  of  magical  power,  and  con- 
verted the  disaster  of  the  morning  into  a  complete  vic- 
tory. General  Early  lost  here  the  most  of  his  artillery 
and  trains,  besides  1500  prisoners.  In  a  letter  dated 
October  20,  General  Grant  wrote  thus:  "Turning  what 
bid  fair  to  be  a  disaster  into  a  glorious  victory,  stamps 
Sheridan,  what  I  have  always  thought  him,  one  of  the 
ablest  of  generals."  He  was  appointed  a  major-general 
of  the  regular  army  in  place  of  McClellan,  resigned, 
November,  1864. 

Sheridan  moved  from  Winchester  on  the  27th  of 
February,  1865,  took  Staunton  on  the  2d  of  March,  and 
defeated  Early  near  Waynesborough.  Having  inflicted 
much  damage  on  several  railroads  and  the  James  River 
Canal,  he  reached  his  base  at  the  White  House  about 
the  19th  of  March.  On  the  27th  he  joined  the  main 
army  of  General  Grant  near  Petersburg,  and  on  the 
29th  commenced,  with  nine  thousand  cavalry,  a  move- 
ment for  the  destruction  of  the  Danville  and  South  Side 
Railroads,  the  only  remaining  avenues  of  supply  to 
Lee's  army.  He  was  supported  by  a  corps  of  infantry. 
He  encountered  near  Five  Forks  a  superior  force  on 
the  31st  of  March,  and  was  driven  back  towards  Din- 
widdle Court-House.  "  Here,"  says  General  Grant, 
"General  Sheridan  displayed  great  generalship.  In- 
stead of  retreating  with  his  whole  command  on  the  main 
army  to  tell  the  story  of  superior  forces  encountered,  he 


■e  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SHERIDAN 


20  I  2 


SHERMAN 


deployed  his  cavalry  on  foot,  leaving  only  mounted  men 
enough  to  take  charge  of  the  horses."  On  the  ist  of 
April,  Sheridan,  having  been  reinforced,  drove  the  enemy 
back  on  Five  Forks,  assaulted  and  carried  his  strongly 
fortified  position,  and  captured  over  five  thousand  pris- 
oners. He  pursued  Lee's  army  retreating  from  Rich- 
mond and  Petersburg,  attacked  it  near  Sailor's  Creek 
on  the  6th  of  April,  and  took  about  six  thousand  pris- 
oners. A  few  days  after  this  action  the  war  was  virtu- 
ally ended  by  the  surrender  of  General  Lee.  In  the 
spring  of  1867  Sheridan  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  Fifth  Military  District,  comprising  the  States  of 
Louisiana  and  Texas.  He  removed  the  Governors  of 
those  States  because  they  were  impediments  to  recon- 
struction, and  he  supported  Congress  in  its  contest  with 
President  Johnson.  He  was  removed  from  his  command 
by  Johnson  in  August,  1867,  against  the  advice  of  Gene- 
ral Grant,  who  declared  that  Sheridan  "  has  performed 
his  civil  duties  faithfully  and  intelligently,"  and  protested 
against  his  removal,  for  military,  pecuniary,  and  patriotic 
reasons.  Sheridan  was  then  ordered  to  take  command 
of  the  Department  of  the  Missouri.  In  March,  1869,  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general. 

See  a  notice  of  General  Sheridan  in  Rrid's  "Ohio  in  the  War," 
pp.  495-560;  Greklev,  "American  Conflict;"  P.  C.  Headley, 
"  Life  of  Sheridan;"  "Life  of  Sheridan,"  by  G.  W.  Denison. 

Sheridan,  (Richard  Brinsley  Butler,)  a  celebrated 
Irish  orator  and  dramatist,  born  at  Dublin  in  1751,  He 
studied  in  his  native  city,  and  at  Harrow,  where  he  was 
chiefly  noted  for  his  indolence  ;  and  he  left  school  with 
the  reputation  of  an  "  impenetrable  dunce."  He  mar- 
ried Miss  Linley  in  1772.  His  first  important  publica- 
tion was  the  comedy  of  "The  Rivals,"  (1775,)  which, 
though  at  first  coldly  received,  soon  acquired  great  popu- 
larity. It  was  followed  in  the  same  year  by  the  opera 
of  "The  Duenna,"  which  also  met  with  brilliant  success, 
being  acted  seventy-five  times  during  the  season.  His 
*'  School  for  Scandal,"  published  in  1777,  established  his 
reputation  as  a  dramatic  genius  of  the  highest  order. 
He  soon  after  purchased  a  share  in  the  Drury  Lane 
Theatre.  His  farce  of  "The  Critic"  came  out  in  1779. 
In  1780  he  represented  Stafford  in  Parliament,  where  he 
soon  became  conspicuous  as  an  orator,  and  supported 
the  measures  of  Fox  and  the  opposition  party.  He  also 
filled  for  a  time  the  post  of  under-secretary  of  state.  On 
the  impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings,  in  1787,  he  de- 
livered his  celebrated  Begum  speech,  which  made  an 
extraordinary  sensation  at  the  time,  and  is  still  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  splendid  displays  of  eloquence  in 
ancient  or  modern  times.  The  Whigs  having  come  into 
power  on  the  death  of  Pitt,  (1806,)  Sheridan  was  ap- 
pointed treasurer  of  the  navy  and  a  privy  councillor. 
He  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Westminster  in  1806. 
His  style  of  living  was  so  extravagant  that  he  was  much 
embarrassed  by  debts  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life.  Died 
in  July,  1816. 

"  Mr.  Sheridan,"  says  Hazlitt,  "  has  been  justly  called 
a  dramatic  star  of  the  first  magnitude;  and,  indeed, 
among  the  comic  writers  of  the  last  century  he  shines 
like  Hesperus  among  the  lesser  lights.  The  '  School  for 
Scandal'  is,  if  not  the  most  original,  perhaps  the  most 
finished  and  faultless  comedy  which  we  have."  It  must 
be  confessed,  however,  that  the  moral  tone  of  this  drama 
(reflecting,  as  it  doubtless  does,  the  morals  of  the  upper 
classes  of  English  society  at  that  time)  is  not  very  ele- 
vated. Byron  observes,  "  Whatever  Sheridan  has  done, 
or  chosen  to  do,  has  been, /ar  excellence,  always  the  best 
of  its  kind." 

See  Thomas  Moorr,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  R.  B.  Sheridan," 
1825;  W.  Smyth,  "Memoir  of  Mr.  Sheridan,"  1840;  Allibone, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  December, 
1826  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  July,  and  August, 
1826;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1842. 

Sheridan,  (Dr.  Thomas,)  born  in  the  county  of 
Cavan,  Ireland,  in  1684,  studied  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  subsequently  became  teacher  of  a  free 
school  at  Cavan.  He  published  prose  translations  of 
the  "  Satires"  of  Persius,  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Dean  Swift.    Died  in  1738. 

Sheridan,  (Thomas,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and 
the  father  of  R.  B.  Sheridan,  was  born  at  Quilca,  Ire- 
land, in  1721.    He  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  and,  | 


having  embraced  the  profession  of  an  actor,  obtained 
considerable  reputation  and  success.  He  was  after- 
wards for  many  years  manager  of  the  Dublin  Theatre. 
He  published  a  "Course  of  Oratorical  Lectures,"  an 
essay  entitled  "British  Education,"  (1756,)  a  "Pro- 
nouncing Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,"  (2  vols., 
1780,)  and  a  "Life  of  Swift,"  (1784.)    Died  in  1788. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  September  and  October,  1762,  and 
October,  1780. 

SherTock,  (Richard,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Cheshire  in  1613.  He  became  rector  of  Winwick, 
and  published  "The  Practical  Christian."  Died  in  1689. 

Sherlock,  (Thomas,)  a  learned  English  prelate,  born 
in  London  in  1678,  was  a  son  of  William  Sherlock, 
noticed  below.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  became  vice- 
chancellor  of  that  university  in  1 7 14,  and  in  1715  Dean 
of  Chichester.  He  was  afterwards  created  successively 
Bishop  of  Bangor,  Salisbury,  and  London,  (1748.)  He 
published  several  works  in  opposition  to  Dr.  Hoadly 
in  the  Bangorian  controversy;  also  a  number  of  valu- 
able religious  treatises,  among  which  we  may  name  his 
"Use  and  Intent  of  Prophecy"  and  "Trial  of  the  Wit- 
nesses of  the  Resurrection  of  Jesus."    Died  in  1761. 

Sherlock,  (Dr.  William,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  at  Southwark,  London,  in  1641.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge,  became  master  of  the  Temple  in  1684,  and 
Dean  of  Saint  Paul's  in  1691.  "No  name,"  says  Mac- 
aulay,  "was  in  1689  cited  by  the  Jacobites  so  proudly 
and  fondly  as  that  of  Sherlock."  But  in  1690  he  took 
the  oaths  to  William  III.,  and  published  in  his  justifi- 
cation "The  Case  of  Allegiance  to  Sovereign  Powers 
Stated."  "The  sensation  produced  by  this  work  was 
immense.  The  rage  of  the  nonjurors  amounted  almost 
to  frenzy."  ("  History  of  England.")  His  chief  work  is 
a  "  Discourse  on  Death,"  (1690.)    Died  in  1707. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica  ;"  Burnet,  "  History  of  his  Own 
Times." 

Sher'man,  (John,)  an  English  Puritan  minister,  born 
in  1613.  He  emigrated  to  Massachusetts  in  1634,  and 
preached  at  Watertown  from  1644  until  his  death.  He 
was  an  eminent  mathematician.    Died  in  1675. 

Sher'man,  (John,)  an  American  Senator,  a  brother 
of  General  William  T.  Sherman,  was  born  at  Lancaster, 
Ohio,  in  May,  1823.  He  studied  law,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1844.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Con- 
gress in  1854,  in  1856,  and  again  in  1858.  He  was  the 
Republican  candidate  for  Speaker  of  the  House  in  De- 
cember, 1859  ;  but  he  lacked  a  few  votes  of  being  elected, 
and,  after  a  contest  of  eight  weeks,  his  party  elected  an- 
other candidate.  He  served  as  chairman  of  the  commit- 
tee of  ways  and  means  in  1860-61.  In  i860  he  was  again 
chosen  to  represent  the  thirteenth  district  of  Ohio  in  Con- 
gress. He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by 
the  legislature  of  Ohio  for  a  term  of  six  years,  (1861-67.) 
Thaddeus  Stevens  and  Senator  Sherman  were  the  au- 
thors of  the  bill  which  Congress  enacted  in  the  winter 
of  1866-67  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  seceded  States. 
By  this  act  those  States  were  reduced  to  the  condition 
of  territories,  to  be  governed  by  military  power  until 
they  should  have  passed  through  a  certain  process  ot 
restoration  to  the  Union.  He  was  re-elected  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States  in  1867.  He  is  one  of  the  ablest 
debaters  in  the  Senate,  has  acted  a  prominent  part  in 
financial  affairs,  and  is  now  (1870)  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee on  finances. 

Sherman,  (Roger,)  an  American  statesman,  born  at 
Newton,  Massachusetts,  on  the  19th  of  April,  1721.  He 
worked  at  the  trade  of  shoemaker  in  his  youth,  removed 
to  New  Milford,  Conneoficut,  in  1743,  and  soon  after 
that  date  becaine  a  partner  of  his  brother,  who  was  a 
merchant.  He  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1754,  and  settled  at  New  Haven  in  1761.  About  1765 
he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  superior  court  or  com- 
mon pleas.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  General 
Congress  in  1774,  and  continued  to  serve  in  that  body 
for  nineteen  years.  He  signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence in  1776,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Convention 
which  framed  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  in 
1787.  During  the  Revolutionary  war  he  rendered  im- 
portant services  on  committees  of  Congress.  "  Roger 
Sherman,"  said  Mr.  Macon,  "  had  more  common  sense 


a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  5^,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mhv,  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SHERMAN 


2013 


SHERMAN 


than  any  man  I  ever  knew."  He  was  elected  a  Senator 
ot  the  United  States  in  1791.  Died  at  New  Haven  in 
July,  1793. 

See  Sanderson,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,"  1848. 

Sherman,  (Roger  Minott,)  a  lawyer,  born  in  Wo- 
burn,  Massachusetts,  about  1772,  was  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding.  He  practised  law  with  distinction  at  Nor- 
walk  and  Fairfield,  in  Connecticut.    Died  in  1844. 

Sherman,  (Thomas  W.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Rhode  Island  about  1818,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1836.  He  served  as  brigadier-general  at  Bull  Run, 
July  21,  1861,  and  commanded  the  land-forces  which, 
aided  by  the  fleet,  took  Port  Royal  in  November  of  that 
year.  He  commanded  a  division  under  General  Banks 
in  Louisiana  in  1863. 

Sherman,  (William  Tecumseh,)  a  distinguished 
American  general,  born  at  Lancaster,  Ohio,  on  the  8th 
of  February,  1820,  is  a  son  of  Charles  Robert  Sherman, 
once  a  judge  of  the  superior  court  of  Ohio,  and  a  brother 
of  John  Sherman,  a  Senator  of  the  United  States.  His 
mother  was  named  Mary  Hoyt.  After  the  death  of 
his  father,  which  occurred  in  1829,  he  was  adopted  as 
a  son  by  Thomas  Ewing,  M.C.,  through  whose  influence 
he  was  admitted  into  the  Military  Academy  of  West 
Point  in  1836.  He  graduated  there  in  June,  1840,  stand- 
ing sixth  in  the  order  of  general  merit  among  a  class  of 
forty  members,  including  George  H.  Thomas  and  Rich- 
ard S.  Ewell.  Immediately  after  his  graduation  he  was 
appointed  second  lieutenant  in  the  artillery  and  ordered 
to  Florida.  He  became  a  first  lieutenant  in  January, 
1842,  a  few  months  after  which  his  company  was  sta- 
tioned at  Fort  Moultrie,  near  Charleston.  He  went 
with  his  company  to  California  by  sea  in  1846,  returned 
to  the  Atlantic  States  in  1850,  and  in  May  of  that  year 
married  Ellen  Ewing,  a  daughter  of  Thomas  Ewing, 
then  secretary  of  the  interior.  In  1851  he  obtained  the 
rank  of  captain,  and  in  1853  he  resigned  his  commission 
in  the  army  and  engaged  in  the  business  of  banker  at 
San  Francisco. 

In  the  early  part  of  i860  he  accepted  the  position  of 
superintendent  of  a  new  military  academy  founded  by 
the  State  of  Louisiana.  He  proved  himself  so  eminently 
qualified  for  the  duties  of  this  place  that  the  leaders  of 
the  secession  movement  in  Louisiana  wished  to  secure 
his  services  in  the  impending  conflict,  and  made  eff'orts 
to  pervert  his  loyalty  to  the  Union,  but  without  success. 
He  resigned  his  office  in  January,  1861.  In  March  he 
went  to  Washington,  and  endeavoured  in  vain  to  con- 
vince the  authorities,  who  were  then  unable  to  realize 
the  greatness  of  the  crisis,  of  the  necessity  of  preparing 
for  war  on  a  large  scale. 

He  received  a  commission  as  colonel  of  the  thirteenth 
regiment  of  infantry  in  June,  1861,  and  commanded  a 
brigade  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21.  On  the  3d 
of  August  ensuing,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  in  the  next  month 
he  was  ordered  to  Kentucky.  In  consequence  of  the 
ill  health  of  General  Anderson,  the  chief  command  of 
the  department  of  Kentucky  devolved  on  Sherman  in 
October,  1861.  When  asked  by  the  secretary  of  war 
how  many  men  he  should  require,  he  replied,  "  Sixty 
thousand  to  drive  the  enemy  out  of  Kentucky,  and  two 
hundred  thousand  to  finish  the  war  in  this  section." 
His  estimate  was  considered  as  wildly  extravagant,  and 
he  was  removed  from  the  command,  with  orders  to 
report  to  General  Halleck,  who  was  commander  of  the 
department  of  the  West. 

In  March,  1862,  Sherman  obtained  command  of  the 
fifth  division  of  General  Grant's  army  of  the  Tennessee. 
He  displayed  great  coolness,  energy,  and  skill  in  the 
sanguinary  battle  of  Shiloh,  (Pittsburg  Landing,)  on  the 
6th  and  7th  of  April  of  that  year.  His  services  were 
acknowledged  by  General  Grant  in  these  terms:  "At 
the  battle  of  Shiloh,  on  the  first  day,  he  held,  with  raw 
troops,  the  key-point  of  the  landing.  ...  To  his  indi- 
vidual efforts  I  am  indebted  for  the  success  of  that 
battle."  (Letter  to  the  War  Department,  July  26,  1863.) 
He  was  wounded  in  the  hand  on  this  occasion,  and  had 
three  horses  shot  under  him.  His  division  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  siege  of  Corinth,  which  the  enemy 


evacuated  on  the  29th  of  May.  A  few  days  before  that 
date  he  received  a  commission  as  major-general.  He 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  military  post  of 
Memphis  in  July,  1862.  In  the  campaign  against 
Vicksburg,  which  began  in  December,  Sherman,  who 
commanded  the  first  division  of  the  army,  was  ordered 
to  proceed  to  the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo  River  and  attempt 
to  capture  Vicksburg  from  the  north  side.  This  enter- 
prise was  not  successful.  General  Sherman  rendered 
important  services  in  several  battles  which  were  fought 
in  Mississippi  during  the  months  of  April  and  May,  and 
which  preceded  the  siege  of  Vicksburg.  He  commanded 
one  of  the  three  corps  which  made  an  unsuccessful  as- 
sault on  the  works  at  Vicksburg  on  the  22d  of  May. 
After  the  surrender  of  that  fortress,  July  4,  1863,  Sherman 
marched  against  General  Johnson,  and  occupied  Jack- 
son, from  which  the  enemy  were  driven  on  the  17th  of  the 
month.  About  this  date  he  wrote  a  letter  in  which  these 
sentences  occur:  "The  people  of  the  North  must  con- 
quer or  be  conquered.   There  can  be  no  middle  course." 

He  was  appointed  commander  of  the  department  of 
the  Tennessee  in  October,  1863,  ^nd,  moving  his  army 
by  rapid  marches,  joined  the  army  of  General  Grant 
at  Chattanooga  about  the  15th  of  November.  Sher- 
man occupied  Missionary  Ridge  on  the  24th,  rendered 
important  services  at  the  battle  of  Chattanooga  on 
the  25th  of  November,  and,  three  days  later,  began  to 
move  his  army,  with  the  utmost  celerity,  to  the  relief 
of  Burnside,  who  was  besieged  at  Knoxville.  His  cav- 
alry reached  Knoxville  on  the  3d  of  December,  before 
which  date  the  enemy  had  raised  the  siege  and  fled. 
Sherman  returned  to  Chattanooga,  and  thence  to  Mem- 
phis, where  he  arrived  in  January,  1864.  Having  or- 
ganized a  large  column,  he  marched  from  Vicksburg 
eastward,  destroying  the  railroads,  and  entered  Meridian 
about  the  14th  of  February.  After  he  had  destroyed 
the  depots,  arsenals,  etc.  at  Meridian,  he  returned  to 
Vicksburg.  In  March  he  received  a  letter  from  General 
Grant,  who  mentioned  his  own  nomination  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general,  and  said,  "  I  express  my  thanks  to  you 
and  McPherson  as  the  men  to  whom,  above  all  others, 
I  feel  indebted  for  whatever  I  have  had  of  success." 

When  Grant  was  transferred  to  Virginia,  in  March, 
1864,  Sherman  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
military  division  of  the  Mississippi,  embracing  all  the 
armies  between  the  Mississippi  River  and  the  Alleghany 
Mountains.  He  was  instructed  to  move  against  the 
army  of  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  who  occupied  a 
strong  position  at  Dalton,  Georgia,  covering  and  defend- 
ing Atlanta,  which  was  the  objective  point  of  General 
Sherman.  On  the  6th  of  May  he  moved  from  Chatta- 
nooga with  the  armies  of  the  Cumberland,  Tennessee, 
and  Ohio,  commanded  respectively  by  Generals  Thomas, 
McPherson,  and  Schofield.  His  force  amounted  then 
to  98,797  men  and  254  pieces  of  cannon.  He  com- 
menced operations  by  turning  the  enemy's  position  with 
a  part  of  his  army,  so  that  General  Johnston,  finding  his 
retreat  likely  to  be  cut  off",  fell  back  to  his  fortified  post 
at  Resaca,  where  he  was  attacked  on  the  15th  of  May. 
After  a  severe  battle,  Johnston  retreated  during  the 
night  towards  the  south,  and  made  another  stand  at 
Allatoona.  Sherman  again  turned  the  flank  of  the  enemy 
by  moving  his  army  to  Dallas,  through  a  rugged  and 
densely-wooded  country.  Severe  actions  were  fought 
at  Dallas  and  New  Hope  Church  about  the  28th  of 
May,  and  on  the  4th  of  June  the  rebels  retreated  to  the 
strong  positions  of  Kenesaw,  Pine,  and  Lost  Mountains. 
On  the  27th  of  June  the  Union  army  assaulted  the  works 
of  Kenesaw  Mountain,  but  were  repulsed  with  severe 
loss.  In  consequence  of  another  flank  movement  of 
Sherman's  army.  General  Johnston  abandoned  his  posi- 
tion at  Kenesaw  on  the  3d  of  July,  and  retreated  across 
the  Chattahoochee.  After  resting  several  days,  the  Union 
army  crossed  that  river  on  the  17th  of  July,  and  drove 
the  enemy  to  Atlanta.  At  this  date  General  Hood  took 
command  of  the  insurgents  and  assumed  the  offensive- 
defensive  policy.  On  the  22d  of  July  Hood  attacked 
Sherman  near  Atlanta,  and  was  repulsed  with  great  loss. 
In  August,  1864,  Sherman  was  appointed  a  major-general 
in  the  regular  army.  About  the  28th  of  August  he 
moved  his  main  force  round  by  the  enemy's  left  flank. 


€  suj     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  v:., guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SHER-SHAH 


2014 


SHIRLET 


and  gained  victories  at  Jonesborough  and  Lovejoy's. 
These  actions  forced  Hood  to  evacuate  Atlanta  on  the 
1st  of  September.  The  capture  of  Atlanta  excited  great 
exultation  among  the  Unionists.  "General  Sherman's 
movement  from  Chattanooga  to  Atlanta,"  says  General 
Grant,  "was  prompt,  skilful,  and  brilliant." 

By  moving  his  army  northwestward  for  the  inva- 
sion of  Middle  Tennessee,  in  October,  Hood  opened 
the  way  for  Sherman  to  march  through  Georgia  to  the 
sea  without  much  resistance.  Abandoning  his  com- 
munications with  Chattanooga,  and  leaving  Atlanta  in 
ruins,  Sherman  began  his  famous  march  on  the  14th 
of  November,  with  about  65,000  men.  His  plan  was 
to  obtain  subsistence  from  the  country  through  which 
he  passed,  and  to  destroy  the  railroads  and  other  public 
property.  His  army,  moving  in  three  columns,  passed 
between  Macon  and  Augusta,  had  several  skirmishes 
with  the  enemy's  cavalry,  and  arrived,  after  a  very  safe 
and  successful  march,  at  the  outworks  of  Savannah  on 
the  lOth  of  December.  "  We  have  not  lost  a  wagon 
on  the  trip,"  says  Sherman,  "and  our  trains  are  in  a 
better  condition  than  when  we  started."  On  the  20th  of 
December  General  Hardee  evacuated  Savannah,  which 
Sherman  occupied  on  the  21st.  In  this  march  of  three 
hundred  miles  he  had  lost  63  killed  and  245  wounded. 

Sherman  left  Savannah  with  his  veteran  army  on  the 
15th  of  January,  1865,  marched  northward,  and  took 
Columbia  on  the  17th  of  February.  This  operation 
compelled  the  enemy  to  evacuate  Charleston,  which  was 
occupied  by  the  Federal  army  on  the  i8th.  Proposing 
to  co-operate  or  unite  with  the  army  of  Grant,  which 
was  then  near  Petersburg,  Virginia,  Sherman  moved, 
by  way  of  Cheraw  and  Fayetteville,  towards  Goldsbo- 
rough,  North  Carolina.  He  met  and  defeated  a  body 
of  rebels  at  Averysborough  about  the  i6th  of  March. 
On  the  i8th  the  combined  forces  of  the  enemy,  under 
General  J.  E.  Johnston,  attacked  the  Union  army  at  Ben- 
tonville.  Having  repulsed  this  attack,  Sherman  entered 
Goldsborough  on  the  23d  of  March,  and  there  formed 
a  junction  with  the  army  of  Schofield.  After  he  had 
received  the  news  of  the  capture  of  Richmond,  April  3, 
he  moved  against  the  army  of  Johnston,  then  "  the  only 
remaining  strategic  point."  He  entered  Raleigh  on  the 
13th,  had  an  interview  with  General  Johnston  on  the 
17th,  and  agreed  with  him  on  a  memorandum  or  basis 
of  peace,  which  was  disapproved  by  the  President  and 
cabinet.  The  terms  offered  by  Sherman  were  deemed 
too  liberal.  On  the  26th  of  April  Johnston  surrendered 
his  army  on  the  same  terms  as  were  granted  to  Lee,  and 
the  war  ended.  Sherman  was  appointed  lieutenant- 
general  in  place  of  U.  S.  Grant,  promoted,  in  July  or 
August,  1866.  He  was  nominated  general  by  brevet 
in  February,  1868,  by  President  Johnson  ;  but  he  de- 
clined. When  General  Grant  became  President,  in 
March,  1869,  Sherman  succeeded  him  as  general  and 
commander-in-chief  of  the  army.  General  Sherman  is  a 
man  of  nervous  temperament  and  intense  energy.  His 
stature  is  tall,  his  hair  brown  or  auburn,  his  eyes  dark 
hazel,  large,  and  piercing. 

See  "  Sherman  and  his  Campaigns,"  by  Colonel  S.  M.  Bowman 
and  Lieutenant-Colonel  R.  B.  Iitwin,  1865  ;  Reid,  "  Ohio  in  the 
War,"  1868. 

Sher-Shah,  shair  shih,  {i.e.  "the  Lion  King,")  an 
Indian  prince,  whose  original  name  was  Fereed,  (or 
Feryd.)  He  acquired  the  chief  power  in  Bahar  and 
Bengal,  defeated  the  Sultan  Humayoonin  battle  in  1540, 
and  became  master  of  Hindostan.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  an  able  and  popular  ruler.    Died  in  1545. 

Sher'win,  (John  Keyse,)  an  eminent  English  en- 
graver, born  in  Sussex  about  175 1.  H[e  was  of  humble 
parentage,  and  was  employed  in  his  youth  as  a  wood- 
cutter on  the  estate  of  Mr.  Mitford,  near  Petworth. 
Having  produced  a  drawing  which  obtained  the  silver 
medal  from  the  Society  of  Arts,  he  became  a  pupil  of 
Bartolozzi  in  London,  and  soon  attained  great  excellence 
in  his  art.  In  1785  he  succeeded  Woollett  as  engraver 
to  the  king.    Died  in  1790. 

Sher'wood,  (Mrs.  Mary  Martha,)  a  popular  Eng- 
lish writer,  born  in  Worcestershire  in  1775,  published 
tales  of  a  moral  and  religious  character,  among  which 
we  may  name  "The  Lady  of  the  Manor,"  "  Roxobel," 


"Ermina,"  and  "Little  Henry  and  his  Bearer."  She 
also  wrote  "  Chronology  of  Ancient  History,"  and 
"  Dictionary  of  Scripture  Types."    Died  in  185 1. 

See  "Life  of  Mrs.  Sherwood,"  by  her  daughter;  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  May,  1843. 

Shesha.    See  Sesha. 

Shew,  (Joel,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician,  born 
in  Saratoga  county.  New  York,  in  1816,  was  one  of  the 
earliest  hydropathic  practitioners  in  America,  and  the 
founder  of  the  "  Water-Cure  Journal,"  New  York.  He 
published  the  "Water-Cure  Manual,"  (1850,)  "Hydro- 
pathic Family  Physician,"  (1854,)  and  other  similar 
works.    Died  in  1855. 

Shield,  sheeld,  (William,)  an  English  composer 
and  musician,  born  in  the  county  of  "Durham  about 
1750.  Among  his  most  popular  works  are  the  o])eras 
of"  Rosina,"  "Robin  Hood,"  "The  Poor  Soldier,"  and 
"The  Woodman."    Died  in  1829. 

Shields,  sheeldz,  (James,)  a  general,  born  in  Tyrone 
county,  Ireland,  in  1810,  emigrated  to  the  United  States 
about  1826.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  (1846-47,) 
and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  Illinois  in  1849.  I"  1857  he  was  elected 
a  Senator  for  the  State  of  Minnesota.  He  commanded 
the  division  which  defeated  Stonewall  Jackson  near 
Winchester,  March  23,  1862. 

ShiFli-toe,  (Thomas,)  an  English  philanthropist  and 
missionary,  born  in  London  in  1754,  was  a  minister  of 
the  Society  of  Friends.  He  travelled  on  the  continent 
of  Europe  and  in  the  United  States.    Died  in  1836. 

See  the  "Journal  of  the  Life,  Labours,  and  Travels  of  Thomas 
Shillitoe,"  etc.,  London,  1830,  and  "Thomas  Shillitoe,  the  Quaker 
Missionary  and  Temperance  Pioneer,"  London,  1867,  by  William 
Tallack. 

ShipTey,  (Jonathan,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
1 7 14,  rose  through  several  preferments  to  be  Bishop  of 
Saint  Asaph  in  1766.  One  of  his  daughters  was  the 
wife  of  Sir  William  Jones.    Died  in  1788. 

Shipley,  (William,)  the  originator  of  the  Society 
for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts,  and  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1715.  He  was  a  teacher 
of  drawing  in  London.    Died  in  1804. 

Shipley,  (Wilijam  Davies,)  born  in  Berkshire  in 
1745,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Shipley,  Bishop  of  Saint  Asaph, 
and  a  brother-in-law  of  Sir  William  Jones.  He  became 
Dean  of  Saint  Asaph  in  1774.    Died  in  1826. 

Ship'pen,  (Edward,)  a  native  of  England,  who  emi- 
grated to  Massachusetts  and  settled  at  Boston  about 
1669.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and 
was  driven  from  Boston  by  persecution.  He  removed 
to  Philadelphia,  of  which  city  he  became  the  first  mayor. 

Ship'pen,  (Edward,)  an  able  American  lawyer  and 
jurist,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1729.  He  became  chief 
justice  of  Pennsylvania  in  1799.    Died  in  1806. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  1. 

Shippen,  (William,)  an  American  physician,  born 
in  Pennsylvania  in  1734,  vvas  a  descendant  of  Edward 
Shippen,  (the  first  of  the  name.)  He  studied  medicine 
in  Edinburgh,  and  commenced  in  1764  a  course  of  lec- 
tures on  anatomy  at  Philadelphia.  In  1765  he  became 
professor  of  anatomy  in  the  medical  school  of  which  he 
was  one  of  the  founders.    Died  in  1808. 

Shippen,  (William,)  an  English  Jacobite  member 
of  Parliament,  was  a  son  of  the  rector  of  Stockport. 
He  was  an  opponent  of  Walpole,  and  was  characterized 
by  Pope  as  "downright  Shippen."    Died  about  1742. 

ShirTey  or  SherTey,  (Sir  Anthony,)  an  English 
traveller  and  navigator,  born  in  1565.  In  1598  he  visited 
Persia,  where  he  was  treated  with  great  distinction  by 
Shah  Abbas,  by  whom  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  the 
different  European  courts,  to  induce  them  to  form  a 
league  with  him  against  the  Turks.  He  died  in  Spain 
about  1630,  having  been  previously  created  admiral  of 
the  Levant  Seas,  by  the  King  of  Spain.  His  principal 
works  are  entitled  "  A  True  Relation  of  the  Voyage 
undertaken  by  Sir  Anthony  Shirley,  Knight,  in  1596," 
etc.,  and  "  Relation  of  Sir  Anthony  Shirley's  Travels  in 
Persia,"  (1632.) 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  (1820.) 

Shirley,  (James,)  an  English  dramatist,  born  in  Lon- 
don about  1594.    Among  his  plays,  which  amount  in  all 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  ^i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f4t;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SHIRLET 


20 1 5 


SHUTTLEWORTH 


to  about  forty,  we  may  name  "The  Traitor,"  a  tragedy. 
He  also  wrote  a  poem,  entitled  "  The  Echo,  or  the  Un- 
fortunate Lovers."    Died  in  1666. 

See  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica ;"  "Wood,  "  Atheuae  Oxo- 
nienses;"  Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Shirley,  (Robert,)  brother  of  Sir  Anthony,  noticed 
above,  was  born  about  1570.  He  served  for  a  time  in 
the  army  of  Shah  Abbas,  and  was  afterwards  employed 
by  him  in  several  missions.    Died  in  1628. 

Shirley,  (Thomas,)  eldest  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1564.  He  visited  Turkey,  and  published  an 
account  of  his  travels  in  that  country. 

Shirley,  (William,)  an  Anglo- American  Governor, 
born  in  England  about  1705.  He  became  Governor  of 
Massachusetts  in  1741,  and  was  commander-in-chief  of 
the  British  forces  in  America  in  1755.  He  ceased  to  be 
Governor  in  1757.    Died  in  1771. 

Shishkof,  Schischkow,  or  Chischkof,  shish'kof, 
(Alexander  Semenovitch,)  a  Russian  writer  and 
minister  of  state,  born  in  1754.  He  rose  gradually  in 
the  navy  to  the  rank  of  admiral.  He  published  a  "Mari- 
time Dictionary,  English,  French,  and  Russian,"  an  ex- 
cellent "Treatise  on  the  Old  and  New  Russian  Style," 
(1802,)  and  other  works.  In  1816  he  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  Russian  Academy,  which  he  enriched  with 
philological  essays.  He  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  council  of  the  empire  in  1820,  and  was  minister  of 
public  instruction  from  1824  to  1828.    Died  in  1841. 

See  "Memoiren  des  Admirals  A.  Schischkoff  iiber  die  Zeit  seines 
Aufenthaltes,"  etc.,  1832. 

Shiva.    See  Siva. 

Shoovalof,  Chouvalof,  or  Schuwalow,  shoo-vi'- 
lof,  (Andrei  Petrovitch,)  a  Russian  poet  and  courtier, 
who,  in  the  reign  of  Catherine  II.,  became  a  member  of 
the  imperial  council  and  a  senator.  He  was  intimate 
with  Voltaire  and  other  French  authors.  He  wrote,  in 
French  verse,  an  "Epistle  to  Voltaire"  and  an  "Epistle 
to  Ninon  de  Lenclos."    Died  in  1789. 

His  son  Paul,  born  about  1775,  became  a  general  at 
the  age  of  twenty-five.  In  the  campaign  of  18 13  he  was 
a  personal  attendant  of  the  Czar  Alexander,  and  in  1814 
he  accompanied,  in  the  name  of  Russia,  Bonaparte  to 
Elba.    Died  in  1823. 

See  L^vESQUE,  "  Histoire  de  Russie  ;"  Voltaire,  "  Correspon- 
dance  Generale." 

Shoovalof  or  Chouvalof,  (Peter,)  a  Russian  gene- 
ral, was  the  inventor  of  a  kind  of  cannon  which  bears 
his  name.  He  was  the  father  of  Andrei  Petrovitch, 
noticed  above.    Died  in  1762. 

Shore,  (Jane,)  the  wife  of  a  London  jeweller,  subse- 
quently became  the  mistress  of  Edward  IV.,  King  of 
England.  After  his  death  she  formed  a  connection  with 
Lord  Hastings.  She  was  tried  for  witchcraft  by  order 
of  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  afterwards  Richard  III. 
Died  about  1525. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England." 

Shore,  (John.)    See  Tetgnmouth,  Lord. 

Short,  (James,)  a  Scottish  mathematician  and  op- 
tician, born  at  Edinburgh  in  17 10,  was  employed  to 
make  a  survey  of  the  Orkney  Islands.  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
a  constructor  of  telescopes.    Died  in  1768. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Short,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  physician,  was  the  au- 
thor of  the  "Natural  History  of  Mineral  and  Medicinal 
Waters,"  and  other  similar  works.    Died  in  1772. 

Shovel,  shuv'el,  (Sir  Cloudesley,)  a  distinguished 
English  admiral,  iDorn  in  Norfolk  in  1650.  In  1688  he 
became  an  adherent  of  William  HI.,  who  made  him  a 
knight  for  his  services  at  the  battle  of  Bantry  Bay.  He 
had  a  prominent  share  in  the  victory  of  La  Hogue,  and 
was  soon  after  appointed  vice-admiral  of  the  red.  In 
1705  he  commanded  the  fleet  sent  against  Spain,  and 
subsequently  assisted  at  the  siege  of  Toulon  in  1707, 
but,  while  on  his  voyage  home,  was  wrecked  off  the 
Scilly  Isles,  and  all  on  board  perished. 

See  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  British  Admirals;"  Hume,  "  His- 
tory of  England." 

ShSw'er,  (Sir  Bartholomew,)  an  English  lawyer 
under  the  reign  of  James  II.,  was  a  native  of  Exeter. 


He  became  recorder  of  London,  and  published  a  work 
entitled  "  Cases  in  Parliament  Resolved." 

Shower,  (John,)  a  Puritan  divine,  born  at  Exeter  in 
1657,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  "  Re- 
flections on  Time  and  Eternity,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1715. 

Shrap'nel,  (Henry,)  an  English  general,  entered  the 
army  about  1779.  He  invented  the  case-shot  called 
shrapnel-shells.    Died  in  1842. 

Shrewsbury,  shr6z'ber-e  or  shruz'ber-e,  (Charles 
Talbot,)  Duke  of,  an  English  peer  and  scholar,  born 
in  1660,  was  educated  as  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  became 
a  Protestant  and  Whig,  promoted  the  revolution  of 
1688,  and  was  appointed  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state 
in  1689.  He  resigned  about  1691.  In  1694  he  was  again 
appointed  to  that  office,  and  was  created  Duke  of  Shrews- 
bury. He  was  very  popular.  "Before  he  was  of  age," 
says  Macaulay,  "  he  was  allowed  to  be  one  of  the  finest 
gentlemen  and  finest  scholars  of  his  time.  He  was 
early  called  the  king  of  hearts,  and  never,  through  a 
long,  eventful,  and  checkered  life,  lost  his  right  to  that 
name."  ("History  of  England,"  vol.  ii.)  He  resigned 
office  in  1700,  became  Viceroy  of  Ireland  in  1 713,  and 
lord  treasurer  in  1714.    Died  in  1718. 

See  "Life  of  Charles,  Duke  of  Shrewsbury,"  1718. 

Shrewsbury,  Earl  of.    See  Talbot,  (John.) 

Shu'brick,  (John  Templar,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1778.  He  served  as 
first  lieutenant  under  Commodore  Decatur  against  the 
Algerines  in  1815.  After  peace  was  concluded  with  Al- 
giers, he  sailed  as  commander  of  the  Epervier  for  the 
United  States,  and  the  vessel  was  lost  at  sea  in  the 
same  year. 

Shuok'burgh-Ev'e-lyn,  (Sir  George,)  F.R.S.,  an 
English  classical  scholar  and  natural  philosopher,  born 
in  1750,  resided  in  Warwickshire.  He  determined  the 
relation  between  the  British  unit  of  measure  [i.e.  the 
yard)  and  the  length  of  a  pendulum  which  makes  a  cer- 
tain number  of  vibrations  in  a  given  time.  He  also 
wrote  on  the  measurement  of  altitudes  by  the  barome- 
ter, etc.    Died  in  1804. 

Shiick'ford,  (Samuel,)  an  English  divine,  became 
prebendary  of  Canterbury.  He  published  a  "  History 
of  the  World,  Sacred  and  Profane."    Died  in  1754. 

Shukowski.    See  Zhookofskl 

Shun  or  Chun,  shtiN,  an  ancient  Chinese  sage  and 
ruler,  who,  according  to  Pauthier,  was  raised  to  the  im- 
perial throne  2285  B.C.  (See  Yao.)  On  account  of  his 
rare  wisdom  and  virtue,  he  was  selected  by  Yao  to  be 
his  successor;  but  Shun,  deeming  himself  unworthy,  at 
first  declined  the  proffered  honour,  and  was  with  diffi- 
culty prevailed  on  to  accept  it.  Like  Yao,  he  introduced 
many  useful  regulations,  encouraged  science  and  the 
arts,  and  was  particularly  distinguished  by  the  attention 
which  he  paid  to  music.  He  materially  modified  the 
penal  code  of  China,  rendering  it  more  humane,  and 
making  the  various  punishments  bear  a  just  proportion 
to  the  grade  of  the  offence.  Every  three  years  he  made 
an  examination  into  the  conduct  of  his  officers,  punishing 
the  culpable  and  rewarding  those  who  had  pro]:)erly  per- 
formed their  duties.  He  died  (according  to  Pauthier, 
2208  B.C.)  after  a  long  and  prosperous  reign,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Yu. 

See  Pauthier's  "Chine,"  pp.  36-42. 

Shun-Tchee  or  Chun-Tchi,  shuN-chee,  the  first  Chi- 
nese emperor  of  the  present  Tartar  or  Mantchoo  dynasty, 
obtained  the  throne  in  1644  in  consequence  of  a  revolu- 
tion. He  was  the  heir  of  the  Khan  of  Tartary,  and  was 
born  about  1637.  He  retained  the  ancient  laws  and 
institutions  of  the  Chinese.  To  the  Dutch  embassy, 
which  came  in  1656  to  open  commercial  intercourse,  he 
accorded  permission  to  enter  his  ports  once  only  in  eight 
years.  He  died  in  1691,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Kang-Hee,  (or  Kang-Hi.) 

Shute,  (JosiAS,)  an  English  clergyman,  became  Arch- 
deacon of  Colchester.  He  published  a  volume  of  Ser- 
mons on  Genesis  xvi.    Died  in  1643. 

Shu'ter,  (Edward,)  a  popular  English  comedian, 
died  in  1776. 

Shuftle-wprth,  (Philip  Nicholas,)  an  English 
prelate,  born  in  1782.     He  was  appointed  Bishop  of 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SIBAUTEH 


2016 


SICKLE  R 


Chichester  in  1840.  He  published  several  works  on 
theology.    Died  in  1842. 

Sibauyeh,se-b6w'yeh,  or  Sibooyeh,  (or  Sibiiyeh,) 
se-boo'yeh,  written  also  Sibouieh  or  Sibouyeh,  (Am- 
roo  (Amru)  Ibn  Othman,  in/roo  ib'n  oth-man^)  a 
celebrated  Arabian  grammarian,  born  in  Farsistan  about 
750  A.D.  ;  died  about  800.  He  is  sometimes  called  Al- 
Farske,  (-FARsf,)  i.e.  "  the  Persian." 

Sib'bald,  (Sir  Robert,)  a  Scottish  physician,  born 
in  Fifeshire,  was  one  of  the  founders,  and  the  first  presi- 
dent, of  the  College  of  Physicians  at  Edinburgh.  He 
was  the  author  of  "Scotia  Illustrata,"  and  other  works, 
and  filled  the  post  of  physician  and  geographer  to 
Charles  II.  Sibbaldia,  a  genus  of  plants,  was  so  named 
i  •  his  honour.    Died  in  1712. 

See  "Autobiography  of  Sir  R.  Sibbald,"  1833;  Chambers, 
*' JBiograpliical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Sibbern,  sib'bern,  (Frederik  Christian,)  a  Danish 
jurist  and  philosophical  writer,  born  at  Copenhagen  in 
1785.  After  visiting  Germany,  he  was  appointed  in  1813 
professor  of  philosophy  in  his  native  city.  Among  his 
numerous  works,  which  favour  the  system  of  Schelling, 
we  may  name  his  *'  Psychology  introduced  through  Bi- 
ology," (1849,)  and  "On  Poetry  and  Art,  or  Discourses 
on  Universal  .(^^sthetics  and  Poetry,"  (1853.)  Died  in 
1859. 

Sibbes  or  Sibbs,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  English 
Puritan  minister,  born  in  Suffolk  in  1577,  was  a  Fellow 
of  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge.  He  became 
preacher  of  Gray's  Inn  in  1618,  and  master  of  Cathe- 
rine's Hall  about  1625.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  The  Bruised  Reed."    Died  in  1635. 

Sibbs.    See  Sibbes. 

Sibert,  de,  deh  se'baiR',  (Gautier,)  a  French  his- 
torian, born  at  Tonnerre  about  1720.  Among  his  works 
is  "The  Variations  of  the  French  Monarchy  in  its  Po- 
litical, Civil,  and  Military  Government,"  (4  vols.,  1765.) 
Died  in  1798. 

Sibilet,  se'be'li',  (Thomas,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  in  Paris  about  1512.  His  chief  work  is  "  L'Art 
poetique  Fran9ois,"  (1548.)    Died  in  1589. 

Sib'ley,  (Henry,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Louisiana  about  1815,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838. 
He  took  arms  against  the  Union  in  1861.  He  com- 
manded a  small  army  which  invaded  New  Mexico, 
attacked  Fort  Craig,  in  February,  1862,  and  was  re- 
pulsed. 

Sibley,  (Henry  H.,)  an  American  Governor,  born  at 
Detroit,  Michigan,  in  181 1.  He  was  elected  Governor 
of  Minnesota  in  1857,  and  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
in  1862.  He  led  an  expedition  against  the  Sioux  In- 
dians in  June  and  July,  1863. 

Sibley,  (Mark  H.,)  an  eloquent  American  lawyer, 
born  at  Great  Barrington,  Massachusetts,  in  1796.  He 
practised  at  Canandaigua,  New  York,  and  was  elected 
to  Congress  in  1837.    Died  in  1852. 

Sib'ly,  (Manoah,)  an  English  Orientalist  and  Swe- 
denborgian  divine,  born  in  London  in  1757;  died  in 
1840. 

Sibooyeh.  See  Sibauyeh. 
Sibouieh.    See  Sibauyeh. 

Sibour,  se'booR',  (Marie  Dominique  Auguste,)  a 
I'Vench  prelate,  born  in  the  department  of  Drome  in 
1792.  He  studied  at  Avignon  and  Paris,  and  became 
successively  Bishop  of  Digne  (1840)  and  Archbishop  of 
Paris,  (1848.)  He  was  afterwards  made  a  senator,  and 
officer  of  the  legion  of  honour,  (1854.)  He  was  assas- 
sinated in  1857,  by  a  priest  named  Jean  Verger,  who 
I         had  been  suspended,  (interdit) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sibrecht,  see'bR^Kt,  or  Sibrechts,  see'bR^Kts, 
(Jan,)  a  Flemish  landscape-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1625,  worked  in  London.    Died  in  1703. 

Sib'thorp,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  botanist, 
born  at  Oxford  in  1758.  Having  studied  medicine  at 
Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  visited  France,  he  was 
appointed,  after  his  return,  to  succeed  his  father  in  the 
chair  of  botany  at  Oxford.  In  1786  he  set  out  on  a 
scientific  expedition  to  Greece  and  the  adjacent  regions, 
and  in  1794  revisited  those  countries.  His  principal 
works  are  his  "  Flora  Oxoniensis,"  (1794,)  and  "  Flora 


Graeca,"  (10  vols,  fol.)  He  died  in  1796,  leaving  to  the 
University  of  Oxford  two  hundred  pounds  a  year  for  the 
publication  of  his  "Flora  Graeca,"  a  magnificent  work, 
with  plates. 

Sibuyeh.    See  Sibauyeh. 

Sibyl.    See  Sibylla. 

Si-byl'la,  [Gr.  Yi^vXka  ;  Fr.  Sibylle,  se'b^K ;  Eng- 
lish, Sib'yl,]  the  name  of  several  ancient  prophetesses, 
the  most  celebrated  of  whom  was  the  Cumsean  Sibyl, 
sometimes  called  Deipl/obe,  Amalthe'a,  or  Demoph'ile. 
According  to  Virgil,  she  accompanied  yEneasin  his  visit 
to  the  infernal  regions.    (See  "^Eneid,"  book  vi.) 

See  Isaac  Vossius,  "Tractatiis  de  Sibyllarum  Oraculis,"  1680; 
R.  Voi.KMANN,  "  De  Oraculis  Sibyllinis  Dissertatio,"  1854;  O- 
Panvinio,  "Tractatus  de  Sibyllis,"  1673. 

Sibylle.    See  Sibylla. 

Sicard,  se'ktk',  (FRAwgois,)  a  French  military  writer, 
born  at  Thionville  (Meurthe)  in  1787.  He  entered  the 
army,  and  became  a  captain.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"History  of  the  Military  Institutions  of  the  French," 
(4  vols.,  1830-31.) 

Sicard,  (Roch  Ambroise  Cucurron,)  a  French 
abbe,  distinguished  as  a  teacher  of  the  deaf  and  dumb, 
was  born  at  Fousseret,  near  Toulouse,  in  1742.  He 
went  to  Paris  to  learn  the  method  of  the  Abbe  I'Epee, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1789  as  director  of  the  Institution 
in  Paris.  During  the  Revolution  he  was  arrested  and 
confined  in  prison,  from  which  he  was  released  in  Sep- 
tember, 1792,  after  a  narrow  escape  from  massacre. 
He  became  professor  of  grammar  in  the  normal  school 
about  1795,  ^  member  of  the  Institute.  He  had 
great  success  as  a  teacher  of  grammar.  In  1800  he 
established  a  printing-press  for  the  use  of  the  deaf-mutes. 
He  improved  or  perfected  the  method  of  instructing 
such  persons,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  The- 
ory of  Signs  for  the  Instruction  of  Deaf-Mutes,"  (1808.) 
Died  in  1822. 

See  DuviviER,  "Notice  sur  I'Abbe  Sicard;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Sichel,  slK'el  orzfK'el,  (Julius,)  a  skilful  oculist,  born 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  about  1800,  graduated  at  Ber- 
lin in  1825.  He  began  to  practise  in  Paris  about  1833, 
and  published  several  treatises  on  ophthalmy.  "He  is, 
says  Vapereau,  "the  most  popular  oculist  of  Paris." 

Si-9in'i-us  Den-ta'tus,  a  Roman  warrior,  who  is 
said  to  have  fought  in  one  hundred  and  twenty  battles, 
and  to  have  decided  the  victory  in  many  of  them,  was  a 
champion  of  the  plebeians  in  the  contest  against  the 
patricians.  He  was  a  tribune  of  the  people  in  454  B.C., 
and  was  assassinated  in  450  by  the  opposite  party. 

Siciolante,  se-cho-lln'tk,  or  Da  Sermoneta,  dS 
s§R-mo-na'ta,  (Giroi.amo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Sermoneta  in  1504.  He  was  employed  by  Pope  Gregory 
XIII.    Died  in  1550. 

Sickingen,  von,  fon  sik'king''en  or  zik'king'en, 
(Franz,)  a  celebrated  German  soldier  and  Protestant 
Reformer,  born  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden  in  148 1. 
He  enjoyed  the  favour  of  the  emperor  Maximilian,  and 
of  Charles  V.,  whom  he  accompanied  in  several  of  his 
expeditions.  He  distinguished  himself  on  all  occasions 
as  the  champion  of  the  oppressed,  and  the  patron  of 
learned  men  ;  he  gave  an  asylum  to  CEcolampadius, 
Bucer,  and  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  and  protected  Reuchlin 
from  the  persecution  of  the  monks  of  Cologne.  Having 
become  involved  in  a  feud  with  Hesse  and  the  Palatinate, 
he  was  mortally  wounded  while  defending  his  castle  of 
Neustall,  in  1523. 

See  BuDUEUs,  "  Franz  von  Sickingen,"  1794;  Munch,  "  Franz 
von  Sickingen,"  3  vols.,  1827;  Bouteiller,  "  Histoire  de  F.  von 
Sickingen,"  Metz,  i860;  Karl  Lang,  "Ritter  F.  von  Sickingen," 
1825;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sickler,  sik'ler  or  zik'ler,  (Friedrich  Karl  Lud- 
wig,)  a  German  antiquary,  son  of  Johann  Volkmar, 
noticed  below,  was  born  near  Gotha  in  1773.  He  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  "The  Political  History  and 
Antiquities  of  Rome."    Died  in  1836. 

Sickler,  (Johann  Volkmar,)  a  German  pomologist, 
born  at  Gotha  in  1742,  published  "The  German  Fiuit- 
Cultivator,"  ("Deutscher  Obstgartner,")  "  Pomological 
Cabinet,"  (1796,)  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in 
1820. 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SICKLES 


20 1 7 


SIDNET 


Sickles,  sik'elz,  (Daniel  E.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  New  York  City  in  1822.  He  studied  law,  and 
was  elected  to  Congress  by  the  Democrats  of  New 
York  in  1856.  He  killed  Philip  Barton  Key  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1859,  for  criminal  connection  with  his  wife.  In 
i860  he  was  re-elected  to  Congress  by  the  voters  of  the 
third  district  of  New  York.  He  commanded  a  brigade 
in  the  battles  near  Richmond  in  June,  1862,  a  division 
at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September  17,  and  a  corps 
at  Chancellorsville,  May  2  and  3,  1863.  At  the  battle 
of  Gettysburg  he  directed  the  third  corps,  and  lost  a  leg 
on  the  2d  of  July,  1863.  He  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  Second  Military  District,  comprising  North  and 
South  Carolina,  about  April,  1867.  Having  supported 
the  policy  of  Congress  in  preference  to  that  of  Presi- 
dent Johnson,  he  was  removed,  August  26,  1867.  He 
was  appointed  minister  to  Spain  in  May,  1869. 

Siddharta.    See  Gautama. 

Sid'dpns,  (Sarah,)  a  celebrated  English  tragic  act- 
ress, born  at  Brecon,  South  Wales,  in  July,  1755,  was 
a  daughter  of  Roger  Kemble.  She  was  married  in  1773 
to  an  actor  named  Siddons,  and  made  her  first  appear-' 
ance  at  Drury  Lane  in  December,  1775.  Her  form  was 
exquisitely  symmetrical,  her  countenance  beautiful,  and 
her  deportment  majestic.  She  was  for  many  years  the 
most  popular  tragic  actress  on  the  English  stage.  Her 
performance  of  the  partof"  Lady  Macbeth"  was  especially 
admired.  She  retired  from  the  stage  in  1812.  Her  private 
character  is  said  to  have  been  irreproachable.  She  is, 
by  general  consent,  admitted  to  have  been  the  greatest 
actress  that  England  has  produced.    Died  in  183 1. 

A  critic  of  rare  taste,  and  one  not  likely  to  be  swayed 
by  the  opinions  of  the  multitude,  speaks  thus  of  Mrs. 
Siddons  as  an  actress,  although,  when  he  saw  her,  she 
had  been  long  past  her  prime  :  "  What  a  wonderful 
woman  !  The  very  first  time  I  saw  her  perform,  I  was 
struck  with  admiration.  .  .  .  Her  looks,  her  voice,  her 
gestures,  delighted  me.  She  penetrated  in  a  moment  to 
my  heart.  She  froze  and  melted  it  by  turns  ;  a  glance 
of  her  eye,  a  start,  an  exclamation,  thrilled  through  my 
whole  frame.  The  more  I  see  her,  the  more  I  admire 
her.  I  hardly  breathe  while  she  is  on  the  stage.  She 
works  up  my  feelings  till  I  am  like  a  mere  child."  (See 
"The  Life  and  Letters  of  Washington  Irving,"  vol.  i. 
P-  159) 

See  Thomas  Campbell,  "Life  of  S.  Siddons,"  2  vols.,  1834; 
Jamks  lioADKN,  "Memoirs  of  tlie  Life  of  Mrs.  Siddons,"  1832; 
"London  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1834. 

Sidi-Mohanimed,  sid'i  mo-h^rn'med.  Emperor  of 
Morocco,  born  about  1702,  succeeded  his  father,  Muley 
Abdallah,  in  1757.  Adopting  a  pacific  policy,  he  made 
treaties  of  peace  with  England,  France,  Spain,  and  other 
powers.  During  his  reign  Morocco  enjoyed  an  unusual 
degree  of  prosperity.    Died  in  1790. 

Sidmouth,  Lord.   See  Addington,  (Henry.) 

Sid'ney  or  Syd'ney,  (Algerno.n,)  an  eminent 
English  republican  patriot,  born  in  1622,  was  a  younger 
son  of  Robert,  Earl  of  Leicester,  and  a  grand-nephew 
of  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  His  mother  was  Dorothy  Percy, 
a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Northumberland.  He  served 
against  the  Irish  insurgents  in  1642,  while  his  father 
was  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  entered  the  army  of  Par- 
liament in  1643,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel  in 
1645.  In  1646  he  served  as  lieutenant-general  of  the 
horse  under  his  brother,  Lord  Lisle,  who  was  lieutenant- 
general  of  Ireland.  He  was  appointed  one  of  the  judges 
for  the  trial  of  the  king  in  1648,  but  was  not  present 
when  he  was  condemned.  He  held  no  office  under 
Cromwell.  In  May,  1659,  he  was  appointed  a  member 
of  the  council  of  state.  He  was  absent  on  a  mission  to 
the  court  of  Denmark  when  Charles  II.  was  restored  to 
the  throne  in  1660,  and  thought  it  most  prudent  to  re- 
main on  the  continent.  About  1666  he  solicited  Louis 
XIV.  to  co-operate  with  him  and  his  friends  in  estab- 
lishing a  republic  in  England.  By  the  permission  of 
the  English  government,  he  returned  home  in  1677  to 
see  his  aged  father,  who  left  him  a  legacy  of  ;i^5ioo. 
He  afterwards  acted  in  concert  with  Lord  Russell  and 
Shaftesbury,  leaders  of  the  popular  party.  According 
to  the  statement  of  the  French  minister  Barillon,  Sidney 
and  other  leaders  of  his  party  received  bribes  or  presents 


from  Louis  XIV.*  In  June,  1683,  Sidney  and  Russell 
were  arrested  as  accomplices  in  the  Rye-House  Plot. 
He  was  tried  before  Jeffries,  convicted  without  good 
evidence,  and  beheaded  in  December,  1683.  His  sen- 
tence was  declared  unjust  by  Parliament  about  1690. 
He  left  "Discourses  on  Government,"  which  were  pub- 
lished in  1698.  Burnet,  who  knew  Sidney,  represents 
him  as  "a  man  of  most  extraordinary  courage,  a  steady 
man  even  to  obstinacy,  sincere,  but  of  a  rough  and  bois- 
terous temper  that  could  not  bear  contradiction." 

See  George  W.  Meadi.ey,  "Life  of  Algernon  Sidney,"  1813; 
R.  C.  Sidney,  "  Brief  Memoirs  of  A.  Sidney,"  1S35;  G.  van  Sant- 
vooRD,  "Life  of  A.  Sidney,"  New  York,  ;  Buknet,  "  History 
of  his  Own  Time;"  Arthur  Collins,  "Memoirs  of  the  Lives  and 
Actions  of  the  Sydneys,"  1746;  Winthrop,  "Algernon  Sidney:  a 
Lecture;"  "North  American  Review"  for  January,  1822. 

Sidney,  (Edwin,)  a  popular  English  preacher  of  the 
Anglican  Church.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge  about 
1820.  He  published  a  "Life  of  General  Lord  Hill,"  a 
number  of  sermons,  and  other  works. 

Sidney,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  statesman,  and  the 
father  of  Sir  Philip.  He  was  a  favoured  companion  of 
Edward  VI.,  who  sent  him  as  ambassador  to  France.  In 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth  he  was  lord  deputy  of  Ireland 
He  had  a  high  reputation  for  ability  and  integrity.  Died 
in  1586. 

Sidney,  (Henry,)  Earl  of  Romney,  an  English  Whig," 
was  a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  and  a  younger  brother 
of  Algernon  Sidney.  He  was  an  efficient  promoter  of 
the  revolution  of  1688,  and  enjoyed  the  confidence  of 
William  HI.,  who  gave  him  the  title  of  Earl  of  Romney. 
He  was  secretary  of  state  in  1690-92.  "  Sidney,"  says 
Macaulay,  "with  a  sweet  temper  and  winning  manners, 
seemed  to  be  deficient  in  capacity  and  knowledge,  and 
to  be  sunk  in  voluptuousness  and  indolence.  His  face 
and  form  were  eminently  handsome."  The  same  writer 
adds  that  he  had  a  rare  political  tact,  and  "the  conse- 
quence was  that  he  did  what  Mordaunt,  with  all  hia 
vivacity  and  invention,  or  Burnet,  with  all  his  multi- 
farious knowledge  and  fluid  elocution,  never  could  have 
done."    ("  History  of  England.")    Died  in  1700. 

Sidney,  (Mary,)  Countess  of  Pembroke,  "Sidney's 
sister,  Pembroke's  mother,"  an  accomplished  lady,  and 
sister  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  was  married  to  Henry,  Earl 
of  Pembroke,  in  1576.  She  wrtite  "An  Elegy  on  Sir 
Philip  Sidney,"  and  a  "Pastoral  Dialogue  in  Praise  of 
Astraea,"  (Queen  Elizabeth.)  She  translated  many  psalms 
from  the  Hebrew  into  English  verse,  and  several  works 
from  the  French.  Died  in  1621.  Ben  Jonson  wrote  for 
her  a  well-known  epitaph. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  Louisa  S.  Cos- 
TELLO,  London,  1844. 

Sidney,  (Sir  Philip,)  an  English  gentleman,  soldier, 
and  author,  possessed  of  rare  accomplishments,  born 
at  Penshurst,  in  Kent,  on  the  29th  of  November,  1554, 
was  a  son  of  Sir  Henry  Sidney,  and  a  nephew  of  the 
famous  Robert  Dudley,  Earl  of  Leicester.  ?Iis  mother 
was  Mary  Dudley,  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  North- 
umberland. He  entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1568 
or  1569,  and  commenced  a  tour  on  the  continent  in  1572. 
He  was  in  Paris  during  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholo- 
mew, and  afterwards  visited  Germany  and  Italy.  During 
this  tour  he  formed  a  friendship  with  Hubert  Languet, 
who  was  afterwards  a  regular  correspondent  of  Sidney. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1575,  and  became  a  lover  of 
Penelope,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Essex  ;  but  she  was 
compelled  to  marry  another.  She  was  the  "  Stella"  of 
his  amatory  poems.  Sir  Philip  gained  the  favour  and 
confidence  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  in  1577  was  sent  to 
Vienna  on  a  diplomatic  mission,  ostensibly  to  condole 
with  the  emperor  on  the  death  of  his  father,  but  with 
instructions  to  promote  union  among  the  Protestant 
princes.  His  first  literary  production  was  "The  Lady 
of  the  May,"  a  masque,  performed  in  1578.  He  had. 
the  courage  to  address  to  the  queen  a  letter  of  remon- 
strance against  her  proposed  marriage  with  the  Duke 
of  Anjou  about  1580.  He  retired,  or  was  exiled,  from 
court  for  a  time,  and  resided  at  Wilton  with  his  sister 
Mary,  Countess  of  Pembroke,  and  there  composed  his 


*  This  charge,  if  admitted,  does  not  necessarily  convict  him  of  any 
infidelity  to  his  principles. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;g2iS j;  G,  H,  Yi^ guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.     (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

127 


SIDONIUS 


20 


SIETES 


"Arcadia,"  a  pastoral  romance  of  nuich  celebrity,  pub- 
lished in  1590.  In  1583  he  was  knighted,  and  married 
Frances,  a  daughter  of  Sir  Francis  VValsingham,  secre- 
tary of  state.  According  to  some  writers,  the  crown  of 
Poland  was  offered  to  him,  but  he  declined  it.  lie  was 
about  to  accompany  Sir  Francis  Drake  in  his  expedition 
against  the  Spaniards,  when  the  queen  interposed,  and 
sent  him,  in  1585,  as  Governor  of  Flushing,  to  the  seat 
of  war  between  the  Dutch  and  the  King  of  Spain.  The 
troops  under  his  command  took  Axel,  and  again  encoun- 
tered tlie  enemy  at  Zutphen,  where  he  was  mortally 
wounded,  in  September,  1586.  After  he  was  wounded 
he  called  for  some  drink,  which  was  brought,  but,  before 
he  had  tasted  it,  gave  the  bottle  to  a  wounded  soldier, 
saying,  "Thy  necessity  is  greater  than  mine."  He  died 
at  Arnhem  in  October,  1586.  He  left  one  child,  Eliza- 
beth, Countess  of  Rutland.  Among  his  principal  works 
is  "The  Defence  of  Poesie,"  (1595,)  an  admirable  pro- 
duction, displaying  great  erudition  and  taste.  "The 
first  good  prose  writer,"  says  Hallam,  "in  any  positive 
sense  of  the  word,  is  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  .  .  .  The  'Ar- 
cadia' displayed  a  superior  mind  rather  complying  with 
a  temporary  taste  than  affected  by  it.  ...  I  think  it,  never- 
theless, on  the  whole,  inferior,  in  sense,  style,  and  spirit, 
to  the  '  Defence  of  Poesie.'  "  ("  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe.")  "The  highest  testimony  to  his 
merits,"  says  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Kritannica,"  "  was  his 
having  won  the  esteem  and  affection  of  William,  Prince 
of  Orange,  probably  the  most  wise  and  politic  chief  of 
his  time.  He  enjoined  it  to  be  told  to  the  queen  that, 
if  he  were  a  judge,  she  had  in  Philip  Sidney  one  of 
the  ripest  and  greatest  councillors  of  state  in  that  day 
in  Europe." 

See  F.  Greville,  (Lord  Brooke,)  "  Life  of  Sir  Piiilip  Sidney," 
1652;  Thomas  Zouch,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir  Philip  Sid- 
ney," 1808;  H.  R.  F.  Bourne,  "Memoir  of  Sir  Pliilip  Sidney," 
1862;  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  1820:  "British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  February,  1847,  and  January,  1S63  ;  Allibone,  "  Dic- 
tionary of  Authors."  . 

Sidonius.    See  Apollinaris  Sidonius. 

Siebenkees,  see'ben-kas''  or  zee'ben-kas',  (Johann 
Phii.ipp,)  a  German  antiquary  and  Hellenist,  born 
at  Nuremberg  in  1759.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "History  of  the  State  Inquisition  at  Venice," 
(1 791,)  and  a  good  edition  of  Strabo.  Died  at  Altdorf 
in  1796. 

See  KoENiG,  "  Memoria  J.  P.  Siebenkees,"  1796. 

Siebold,  von,  fon  see'bolt  or  zee'bolt,  (Adam  Ei.tas,) 
the  fourth  son  of  Karl  Kaspar,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  WUrzburg  in  1775.  became  i^rofessor  of  medicine 
in  his  native  city,  and  subsequently  at  Berlin.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  Manual  for  the  Knowledge  and  Cure  of  the 
Diseases  of  Wotnen,"  (181 1.)    Died  in  1828. 

Siebold,  von,  (Eduard  Kaspar  Jakob,)  a  German 
physician,  a  son  of  the  following,  was  born  at  WUrzburg 
in  1801.  He  became  in  1833  professor  of  medicine  and 
surgery  at  Gottingen.  He  published  several  works  on 
obstetrics.    Died  in  1861. 

Siebold,  von,  (Karl  Kaspar,)  a  German  surgeon, 
born  in  the  duchy  of  Jlilich  in  1736,  became  professor 
of  anatoiny,  surgery,  and  obstetrics  at  WUrzburg,  and 
was  ennobled  in"i8oi.  Died  in  1807,  His  sons  Johann 
Georg  Christoph,  Johann  Theodor  Damian,  and 
Johann  Barthel  were  likewise  distinguished  physi- 
cians and  surgeons. 

Siebold,  von,  (Karl  Theodor  Ernst,)  a  German 
physiologist,  a  son  of  Adam  Elias,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  WUrzburg  in  1804.  He  became  successively 
professor  of  zoology  and  comparative  anatomy  at  Er- 
langen,  Freiburg,  and  Munich.  He  wrote,  among  other 
works,  a  "Manual  of  the  Comparative  Anatomy  of  the 
Invertebrate  Animals,"  (1848,)  which  has  been  translated 
into  English  and  French. 

Siebold,  von,  (Philh'p  Franz,)  a  celebrated  German 
nat,uralist,  a  grandson  of  Karl  Kaspar,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  WUrzburg  in  1796.  He  accompanied  the 
Dutch  embassy  to  Japan  as  physician  and  naturalist  in 
1823,  and  spent  about  seven  years  in  scientific  researches 
in  that  country.  He  published  after  his  return  a  num- 
ber of  valuable  works,  among  which  we  may  name 
"  Epitomeof  the  Japanese  Language,"  (1824,)  "  Flora  Ja- 
ponica,"  (1835,)  "  Catalogue  of  Japanese  Books,"  (1845,) 


"  Atlas  of  Land  and  Marine  Charts  of  the  Jai)anese 
Empire,"  also  "Fauna  Japonica,"  (1833,)  in  which  he 
was  assisted  by  Temminck  and  other  savants.  His 
"Archives  towards  the  Description  of  Japan"  is  still 
unfinished. 

Siegen,  von,  fon  see'gen,  (Ludwig,)  a  celebrated 
artist,  of  German  extraction,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1609, 
was  the  inventor  of  mezzotint  engraving.  His  first 
production  in  the  new  art  was  a  portrait  of  Amelia 
Elizabeth,  mother  of  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  which  he 
executed  about  1640.  Siegen  subsequently  imparted 
his  discovery  to  Prince  Rupert,  who  introduced  it  into 
England,  and  who  has  been  generally  regarded  as  the 
inventor  of  mezzotinto.  Among  Siegen's  other  engrav- 
ings may  be  named  a  "  Holy  Family,"  after  Annibal 
Carracci,  and  a  portrait  of  Ferdinand  HI.  of  Austria. 
Died  about  1680, 

See  EvEi.YN,  "  Sculptura,  or  History  of  Chalcography  ;"  Nagi.kr, 
"  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon. " 

Siegenbeek,  see'gen-bak'  or  see'nen-bak',  (Mat- 
THijs,)  a  Dutch  writer  and  divine,  born  at  Amsterdam 
in  1774,  was  preacher  to  the  Mennonite  congregation  at 
Leyden,  and  became  in  1797  professor  of  eloquence  in 
the  university  of  that  city.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Dictionary  for  Dutch  Orthography,"  ("  Woordenboek 
voor  de  Nederduitsche  Spelling,")  and  other  works. 
Died  about  1850. 

Siegfried,  seeg'freed,  [Ger.  pron.  zeeo^fReet,]  [from 
siegen,  to  "conquer,"  and  Friede,  "peace."  In  the 
Norse  legends  the  name  is  usually  written  Sigurd, 
(which  see,)]  the  name  of  a  legendary  or  semi-fabulous 
personage  who  occupies  a  conspicuous  place  in  many 
of  the  ancient  tales  of  the  Teutonic  nations.  He  is 
especially  distinguished  as  the  hero  of  the  famous 
German  epic  known  as  the  "  Niebelungen  -  Lied," 
(nee'beh-ld6ng''en  leet,)  or  the  "Lay  of  the  Niebe- 
lungen."* For  an  account  of  this  ])oem,  and  the  ex- 
ploits of  Siegfried,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Carlyle's 
"Miscellanies"  and  Longfellow's  "Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe,"  pp.  217-227. 

Siena,  da.    See  Maiteo. 

Sienna,  Simon  of.    See  Martini,  dl 

Sieveking,  see'veh-king'  or  zee'veh-king^,  (Amalte 
Wilhelmine,)  born  at  Hamburg  in  1794,  was  celebrated 
for  her  philanthropy,  and  founded  several  charitable 
institutions  for  the  poor  in  Hamburg  and  other  cities. 
Died  in  1859. 

See  the  "  Life  of  Amelia  Sieveking,"  translated  from  the  German, 
London,  1863. 

Sieveking,  (Karl,)  a  German  diplomatist,  born  at 
Hamburg  in  1787,  was  sent  in  1819  as  resident  minister 
to  Saint  Petersburg.    Died  in  1847. 

Sieyes,  se'^ss'  or  se'i'ySs',  (Emmanuel  Joseph,) 
CoMTE,  commonly  called  Abbe  Sieves,  a  French  poli- 
tician and  publicist,  born  at  Frejus  in  May,  1748.  He 
was  educated  in  the  seminary  of  Saint-Sulpice,  in  Paris, 
and  in  1780  went  to  Chartres,  where  he  became  canon, 
vicar-general,  and  chancellor.  He  advocated  the  popular 
cause  in  his  famous  jjamphlet  entitled  "  What  is  the 
Third  Estate.^"  ("  Qu'est-ce  que  le  Tiers-Etat  1789,) 
which  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  publicists  who 
favoured  the  Revolution.  Having  been  sent  to  the 
States-General  by  the  electors  of  Paris,  he  was  the  chief 
promoter  of  the  union  of  the  orders,  and  one  of  the 
most  radical  leaders  of  the  Constituent  Assembly.  He 
opposed,  however,  the  abolition  of  tithes,  and  on  that 
question  used  the  famous  ])hrase,  "  They  would  be  free, 
and  they  do  not  know  how  to  be  just."  He  became  in 
1792  a  member  of  the  Convention,  in  which  he  pursued 
a  cautious  and  silent  course  ;  but  he  voted  for  the  death 
of  the  king.  He  was  elected  to  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred  in  1795,  vvas  sent  as  ambassador  to  Berlin  in 

1798,  and  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Directory  in  May, 

1799.  He  formed  a  coalition  with  Bonaparte,  promoted 
the  revolution  of  the  iSth  Brumaire,  and  was  one  of  the 
three  consuls  of  the  new  regime.  His  power  and  in- 
fluence ended  about  the  end  of  1799;  and  his  plan  of  a 
new  constitution  was  not  adopted.    He  held  no  office 

*  The  name  Niebelungen  is  said  to  be  derived  from  an  ancient 
Biirgundian  race  or  family,  whose  downfall  forms  the  subject  of  the 
poem. 


I,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


SIF 


2019 


SIGORGNE 


1 


under  the  empire,  and  he  lived  in  exile  from  181 5  to 
1830.    Died  in  Paris  in  1836. 

See  CElsner,  "  Des  Opinions  politiques  de  Sieyes  et  de  sa  Vie," 
1800;  Von  Seida,  "Sieyes  und  Napoleon,"  1824;  E.  de_  Beau- 
verger,  "  fitude  sur  Sieyes,"  1851  ;  Mignet,  "  Notices  liistoiiques ;" 
Thiers,  "  Histoiy  of  the  French  Revolution;"  Lamartine,  "  Les 
Constituants ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogiaphie  Generale." 

Sif,  seef,  [probably  allied  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  s//i, 
"  pure,"  "  chaste,"  "inviolate,"]  in  the  Norse  mythology, 
the  wife  of  Thor,  and  the  goddess  of  harvests.  She  is 
said  to  have  a  head  of  hair  of  pure  gold, — in  allusion, 
doubtless,  to  the  golden  fields  of  ripening  grain.  Her 
connection  with  Thor,  the  great  warrior-god  of  the 
Northmen,  may  denote  the  dependence  of  the  arts  of 
peace,  and  of  agriculture  in  particular,  on  the  protecting 
arm  of  war. 

See  Kevser,  "Religion  of  the  Northmen,"  translated  by  Pen- 
nock,  p.  131 ;  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. 

Sigalon,  se'gt'loN',  (Xavier,)  a  French  painter  of 
history,  born  at  Uzes  about  1790,  was  a  pupil  of  Guerin. 
He  worked  in  Paris  for  many  years.  In  1833  he  went 
to  Rome,  and  painted  for  M.  Thiers  a  copy  of  Michael 
Angelo's  "  Last  Judginent,"  for  which  he  received  eighty- 
eight  thousand  francs.    Died  at  Rome  in  1837. 

See  Ch.  Saint-Maurice,  "  I^loge  de  Xavier  Sigalon,"  1848; 
Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Sigaud-Lafond,  se'go'  la'foN',  (Joseph  Aignan,)  a 
French  surgeon  and  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Bourges 
in  1730  or  1740,  wrote  treatises  on  electricity,  and  pub- 
lished a  "  Dictionary  of  Physics,"  (5  vols.,  1780-82.)  He 
became  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1796.  Died  in  1810. 

See  Mechin-Desquins,  "Notice  sur  Sigaud-Lafond;"  J.  P. 
Chevalier,  "  Notice  sur  Sigaud-Lafond,"  1841  ;  Querard,  "  La 
France  Litteraire." 

Sig'e-bert  [Fr.  pron.  se'zhe'baik' ;  Lat.  SfGKiiF.R'- 
Tus]  I.,  King  of  Austrasia,  born  about  535  a.d.,  was  a 
son  of  Clotaire  I.,  King  of  the  Franks.  He  obtained  in 
561  the  kingdom  of  Austrasia,  which  included  Germany 
and  the  northeast  of  Gaul.  He  was  involved  in  war 
with  his  brother  Chilperic,  whom  he  defeated.  In  575 
he  was  killed  by  assassins  who  were  hired  by  Frede- 
gunda,  the  wife  of  Chilperic. 

Sigebert  II.,  King  of  Austrasia,  born  about  601  a.d., 
was  a  son  of  Thierry  II.  He  was  killed  by  order  of 
Clotaire  II. 

Sigebert  III.,  born  in  630  A.n.,  was  a  son  of  Dagobert 
I.,  at  whose  death,  about  634,  the  kingdom  was  divided 
between  Sigebert  and  his  brother  Clovis.    Died  in  654. 

Sig^'e-bert  of  Gemhlours,  [Lat.  Sigkhkr'tus  Gkm- 
BLACen'sis,]  a  learned  monk  and  historian,  born  in  Bra- 
bant about  1030,  wrote  a  "Chronicon"  (or  "History") 
"of  Germany  from  381  to  11 12."    Died  in  11 12. 

Sigebertus.    See  Sigehert. 

Sigel,  see'gel,  (Franz,)  a  general,  born  in  Baden, 
Germany,  in  1824.  He  became  minister  of  war  of  the 
government  formed  by  the  revolutionists  of  Baden  in 
June,  1848.  About  1850  he  emigrated  to  the  United 
States.  He  enlisted  as  a  colonel  in  the  Union  army 
early  in  1861,  defeated  a  superior  force  at  Carthage, 
Missouri,  July  5,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
in  August,  of  that  year.  He  commanded  a  division  at 
Pea  Ridge,  March  6  and  7,  1862,  and  a  corps  under 
General  Pope  in  Virginia,  July-Septemher  of  that  year. 
He  was  defeated  at  New  Market,  May  15,  1864. 

Sigismond.    See  Sigismljnd. 

Sig'is-mund,  [Fr.  Sigismond,  se'/Ji^.ss'm<5)N',]  writ- 
ten also  Sigmund,  Emj^eror  of  Germanv,  born  in 
1368,  was  the  son  of  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  Having 
married,  in  1386,  Maria,  daughter  of  Lewis,  King  of 
Poland,  he  was  crowned  King  of  Hungary  in  1387.  In 
1396  he  was  signally  defeated  by  the  Turks  under 
Bayazeed  (Bajazet)  at  Nicopolis.  He  was  elected  Em- 
peror of  Germany  in  1410,  and  crowned  in  1414.  In 
consequence  of  his  treachery  in  consenting  to  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  John  Huss  after  he  had  granted  him  a  safe- 
conduct,  Sigismund  was  involved  in  a  war  with  the 
Bohemians,  and  was  several  times  defeated  by  the 
celebrated  Ziska.  The  treaty  of  Iglau  was  concluded 
between  them  in  1435.    Died  in  1437. 

See  Aschbach,  "  Geschichte  Sigismur.ds,"  4  vols.,  i838-4"; ;  Ka- 
tona,  "  Historia  Rerum  Hungariorum ;"  Engel,  "  Geschichte  von 
Ungarn  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biogi-aphie  Generale." 


Sig'is-mund  [Polish  Zygmuni',  zfg^moont]  I.,  King 
of  Poland,  son  of  Casimir  IV.,  was  born  in  1466.  He 
ascended  the  throne  in  1507.  He  was  involved  in  wars 
with  the  Russians,  Moldavians,  and  Wallachians,  against 
whom  he  was  eventually  successful.    Died  in  1548. 

See  Lelewel,  "Histoire  de  Pologne;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Genera'e." 

Sigismund  (called  also  Augu.stus)  II.,  a  son  of  the 

preceding,  was  born  in  1 5 18.  He  was  elected  king 
during  his  father's  lifetime,  and  came  to  the  throne  in 
1548.  During  his  reign  Lithuania  was  united  to  Poland, 
to  which  Livonia  was  also  annexed.  Sigismund  is  sup- 
posed to  have  secretly  favoured  the  Reformed  religion, 
which  made  great  progress  under  his  rule  ;  he  was  also  a 
liberal  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts.  Died  in  1572. 
See  Lelewel,  "Histoire  de  Pologne." 

Sigismund  III.,  King  of  Poland  and  Sweden,  born 
in  1566,  was  the  son  of  John  III.  of  .Sweden  and  Cathe- 
rine, sister  of  Sigismund  H.  of  Poland.  He  was  elected 
in  1587  to  the  throne  of  Pciland,  and  in  1594  crowned 
King  of  Sweden.  His  zeal  in  behalf  of  Catholicism 
having  made  him  unpopular  with  the  Swedes,  his  uncle, 
the  Duke  of  Sudermania,  caused  himself  to  be  made 
king,  in  1604,  under  the  name  of  Charles  IX.,  and  thus 
laid  the  foundation  of  a  protracted  strife  between  the 
two  countries.  In  1610  he  invaded  Russia,  and  placed 
his  son  Vladislaf  on  the  throne,  which,  however,  he  was 
subsequently  compelled  to  resign  to  Michael  Feodoro- 
vitch.  He  was  also  involved  in  wars  with  the  Turks, 
Tartars,  and  Cossacks,  and  was  obliged  to  yield  to 
Gustavus  Adolphus  a  considerable  part  of  Livonia  and 
Prussia.  He  died  in  1632,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Vladislaf  IV. 

See  NiEMCEWicz,  "  Histoiie  du  Regne  de  .Sigismond  IIL,"  3 
vols.,  1S19. 

Sig'is-miind  or  Sigismond,  King  of  Burgundy, 
was  a  son  of  Gondebaud,  (Gundibald,)  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  516  A.d. .  Having  been  defeated  in  battle  by 
the  sons  of  Clovis,  he  was  killed,  by  order  of  Clodomir, 
in  524. 

Sigmund.    See  Sigismu.xd. 

Signol,  s^n^■6l',  (Cmili'-.,)  a  French  historical  painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1804.  He  gained  a  medal  of  the  first 
class  in  1835. 

Signorelli,  stn-yo-reKlee,  (Liica,)  an  eminent  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Cortona  in  1439,  was  a  nephew  of  Vasari. 
His  frescos  of  "The  Last  Judgment,"  in  the  cathedral 
of  Orvieto,  are  esteemed  master-pieces,  and  were  highly 
con\mended  by  Michael  .Angelo.    Died  in  1521. 

See  Mrs  Jameson.  "Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters;" 
Vasari,  "Lives  of  tlie  Painters,"  etc. 

Signorelli,  (Pietro  Napoli,)  an  Italian  critic  and 
historical  writer,  born  at  Naples  in  1731.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  literary  history  of  Naples  and 
.Sicilv,  entitled  "  Vicende  della  Coltura  nelle  Due  .Sicilie," 
(5  vols.,  1784-86.)    Died  in  1815. 

See  F.  M.  Avellino,  "  Elogio  storico  di  P.  N.  Signorelli,"  1815  ; 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  CJenerale." 

Sigonio,  se-go'ne-o,  [Lat.  Skjo^nius,]  (Carlo,)  an 
eminent  Italian  historian  and  antiquary,  born  at  Modena 
about  1520.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  literature 
in  his  native  city  in  1546,  and  obtained  in  1560  the  chair 
of  eloquence  at  Padua.  Among  his  ])rincipal  works  are 
his  treatise  "  On  the  Ancient  Law  of  Roman  Citizens," 
("  De  antiquo  Jure  Civium  Romanorum,"  1560,)  "His- 
tory of  the  Western  Empire,"  ("  Historia;  de  <Dccidentali 
Imperio,"  1577,)  and  "Ecclesiastical  History,"  ("  His- 
toriae  Ecclesiasticae.")  Sigonio  was  one  of  the  first 
scholars  of  his  tiine,  and  his  Latin  style  is  remai  kable 
for  clearness  and  elegance.  He  also  wrote  "On  the 
Athenian  Republic,"  ("  De  Republica  Atheniensiuni," 
1564,)  and  a  "Life  of  Scipio  Africanus  Minor,"  (1569.) 
Died  in  1584. 

See  MuRATOur,  "  Vita  C.  Sigonii,"  prefixed  to  Sigonio's  works- 
6  vols.,  iy^2-T,7 :  J.  P.  Krebs,  "Vita  C.  Sigonii,"  1837;  J.  P- 
Krp;rs,  "  C.  Sigonius,  einer  der  grossten  Humanisten,"  etc.,  1840; 
Gingukne,  "  Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Sigonius.    See  Sigonio. 

Sigorgne,  se'goRfi',  (Pierre,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  natural  philosopher,  born  in  Lorraine  in  1719.  He 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  /lard;  g  as /;  o,  H,     guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SIGOURNET 


2020 


SILL  I  MAN 


advocated  the  Newtonian  philosophy.  Died  at  Macon 
in  1809. 

Sigourney,  sig'ur-ne,  (Lydia  Huntley,)  an  Ameri- 
can poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Norwich, 
Connecticut,  in  1791.  She  pul)lished,  in  1815,  "Moral 
Pieces  in  Prose  and  Verse."  Having  visited  Europe  in 
1840,  she  brought  out  in  1842  a  work  entitled  "  Pleasant 
Memories  of  Pleasant  Lands."  She  was  married  in 
1819  to  Charles  Sigourney,  a  merchant  of  Hartford. 
Among  her  numerous  poems  are  "The  Aborigines  of 
America,"  (1822,)  and  "Pocahontas,"  (1841.)  She  also 
wrote  many  works  in  prose.    Died  in  1865. 

See  Griswoi.d,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America;"  "National 
Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  x'\mericans,"  vol.  iv.  ;  "  North 
American  Review"  for  October,  1835. 

Sigiienza,  de,  da  se-gwen'zJ,  (Jos6,)  a  Spanish  monk 
and  historical  writer,  born  about  1545,  jjublished  a  "  Life 
of  Saint  Jerome,"  (1595,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1606. 

Sigurd,  see'gdord  or  see'gilrd,  [from  a  root  cognate 
with  the  German  Sieg  and  Swedish  Seger,  victory,]  the 
name  of  a  hero  celebrated  in  the  legends  of  the  North 
as  the  greatest  of  human  warriors.  He  may  be  styled 
the  Roostam  of  the  Northmen.  He  had  a  sword  with 
which  he  could  cleave  an  anvil  and  cut  througli  floating 
wool.  Sigurd  appears  to  be  another  name  for  Sifxifried, 
(which  see.)  For  the  particulars  of  Sigurd's  lineage  and 
history,  see  Thorpe's  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  pp. 
91-108. 

Sike  or  Siecke,  see'keh  or  zee'keh,  (Heinrich,)  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Bremen  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  became  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Utrecht,  and  subsequently  at  Cambridge, 
England.    He  committed  suicide  in  17 12. 

Si-la'ni-on,  [S^Xfm'wv,]  a  Greek  statuary  in  bronze, 
lived  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  According  to  Pliny,  he 
was  a  contemporary  of  Lysippus,  and  excelled  in  the 
imitation  of  strong  passions.  Among  his  works  was  a 
statue  of  Sappho,  which  was  highly  praised  by  Cicero,  a 
statue  of  Plato,  and  a  statue  of  Jocasta  dying. 

Si-la'nus,  (Decimus  Junius,)  a  Roman  senator,  was 
elected  consul  in  63  B.C.  In  the  trial  of  Catiline's  ac- 
complices, he,  as  consul  elect,  was  the  first  to  express 
his  opinion.    He  advocated  severe  measures. 

Silaiius,  (M.  Junius,)  an  orator,  was  a  grandson  of 
D.  Junius  Silanus.  He  became  consul  in  19  a.d.  His 
daughter  Claudia  was  the  wife  of  Caligula,  who  caused 
Silanus  to  be  put  to  death. 

Silbermann,  siKber-mSn'  or  ziKber-mSn',  (Gott- 
fried,) a  German  organ-builder,  born  near  Frauenstein, 
in  vSaxony,  in  1683  ;  died  in  1753. 

Silberschlag,  siKber-shllc^or  ziKber-shllG',(JoHANN 
Jesaias,)  a  German  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Aschers- 
leben  in  1721.  He  was  pastor  at  Magdeburg,  and  rector 
of  the  Real-Schule  in  Berlin.    Died  in  1791. 

See  his  Autobiography,  1788. 

Silene.  See  Silenus. 
Sileno.    See  Silenus. 

Si-le'nus  or  Sei-le'nus,  fGr.  "LeLki]vbq ;  Fr.  Silene, 
serial/;  It.  Sileno,  se-la'no,]  in  the  classic  mythology, 
one  of  the  Satyrs,  supposed  to  be  a  son  of  Mercury,  and 
the  preceptor  and  inseparable  attendant  of  Bacchus. 
He  was  represented  as  a  jovial  old  man,  corpulent,  bald, 
always  intoxicated,  and  carrying  in  his  hand  a  wine-bag, 
and  often  riding  on  an  ass.  Like  the  other  Satyrs,  he 
was  fond  of  sleep,  music,  and  dancing.  He  was  also 
renowned  for  his  prophetic  insight  into  the  future. 

See  Virgil's  Sixth  Eclogue,  entitled  "Silenus." 

Silhon,  de,  deh  sc'Ion',  (Jean,)  a  French  author,  born 
near  Nerac  about  1596.  He  was  one  of  the  first  mem- 
bers of  the  French  Academy,  and  was  employed  by 
Richelieu  in  political  affairs.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul,"  (1662.) 
Died  in  1667. 

Silhouette,  de,  deh  se'loo'^t',  (Etienne,)  a  French 
financier  and  writer  on  politics,  etc.,  was  born  at  Li- 
moges in  1709.  He  became  controller-general  of  the 
finances  in  1759,  practised  excessive  economy,  but  was 
found  to  be  incompetent,  and  resigned  before  the  end  of 
the  year.  Died  in  1767.  His  name  is  applied  to  an 
economical  sort  of  portrait,  (commonly  called  a  profile.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


SiFI-us  I-taFi-cus,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  poet  and  imi- 
tator of  Virgil,  whose  birthplace  is  unknown,  lived  under 
the  reign  of  Nero,  and  in  68  A.D.  was  elected  consul. 
He  was  afterwards  proconsul  in  Asia.  His  only  work 
extant  is  an  epic  poem  entitled  "  Punica,"  in  seventeen 
books,  giving  an  account  of  the  second  Punic  war.  It 
is  a  long  and  very  dull  poem.    Died  about  100  a.d. 

See  C.  Celi.arius,  "  Dissertatio  de  C.  Silio  Italico,"  1712: 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Siljestrom,  seeKyes-tRom',  (Pehr  Adam,)  a  Swedish 
writer,  born  at  Calmar  in  181 5,  became  professor  of  ex- 
perimental physics  at  Upsal.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
report  on  the  educational  svstem  of  the  United  States. 

Sill,  (Joshua  W.,)  born  at  Chillicothe,  Ohio,  in  1831 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1853.  He  became  a  briga- 
dier-general in  the  Union  army  in  July,  1862,  and  was 
killed  at  Stone  River,  December  31  of  that  year. 

Silla,  the  Italian  of  Sulla,  (which  see.) 

Sillery,  de,  deh  s^l're',  (Charles  Alexis  Brulart 
— bRii'lSk',)  Marquis,  and  Count  de  Genlis,  a  French 
officer,  born  in  Paris  in  1737,  was  the  husband  of  Ma- 
dame de  Genlis  the  authoress.  He  served  as  captain  in 
the  navy  in  his  youth,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
States-General  in  1789.  He  was  a  follower  of  the  Duke 
of  Orleans  in  politics,  and  was  guillotined  in  October, 
1793- 

Sillery,  de,  (Nicolas  Bruslart — brii'ltR',)  Mar 
QUis,  an  able  French  diplomatist,  born  in  Champagn 
in  1544.     He  was  employed  in  foreign  missions  bj 
Henry  IV.,  and  became  chancellor  of  France  in  1607, 
Died  in  1624. 

See  BouTRAYS,  "  Breviarium  Vitje  N.  Brulartii,"  1624;  Sully 
"  Memoires." 

Sillig,  siKlio  or  ziKlic,  (Karl  Julius,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Dresden  in  1801,  published  an  editior, 
of  the  "Natural  History"  of  Pliny,  (1851,)  and  a  valu- 
able "  Catalogue  of  Greek  and  Roman  Artists,"  ("  Cata- 
logus  Artificum  Graecorum  et  Romanorum,")  which 
has  been  translated  into  English.    Died  in  1857. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1838. 

SiPli-man,  (Benjamin,)  an  eminent  American  natu- 
ralist and  professor,  born  in  North  Stratford,  (now 
Trumbull,)  Connecticut,  on  the  8th  of  August,  1779. 
He  was  a  son  of  Gold  Selleck  Silliman,  a  general  who 
served  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution.  He  entered  Yale 
College  in  1792,  graduated  in  1796,  and  was  appointed 
tutor  in  that  institution  in  1799.  About  1802,  Dr. 
Dwight  offered  him  a  chair  of  chemistry  in  Yale  Col- 
lege. To  prepare  himself  for  that  position,  he  studied 
chemistry  at  Philadelphia  for  two  years.  He  began  to 
lecture  to  the  students  of  Yale  College  in  1804,  and 
performed  a  voyage  to  Europe  about  the  end  of  1805. 
Having  returned,  after  an  absence  of  fourteen  months, 
he  resumed  the  chair  of  chemistry,  and  published  a 
"Journal  of  Travels  in  England,  Holland,  and  Scot- 
land," (2  vols.,  i8ro,)  which  was  a  very  interesting  and 
popular  book.  Soon  after  his  return  he  made  a  geo- 
logical survey  of  a  part  of  Connecticut.  In  1809  he 
married  Harriet,  a  daughter  of  Governor  Trumbull,  of 
Connecticut.  He  made  a  chemical  analysis  of  a  famous 
meteorite  which  fell  at  Weston,  Connecticut,  in  1807. 
In  1818  he  founded  "The  American  Journal  of  Science 
and  Arts,"  usually  called  "  Silliman's  Journal,"  which 
was  recognized  at  home  and  in  Europe  as  the  chief 
repository  of  American  science.  He  was  the  sole 
editor  of  this  journal  for  twenty  years,  and  maintained 
it  at  his  own  pecuniary  risk. 

He  attained  great  eminence  as  a  lecturer  and  teacher 
of  science.  "The  professor's  chair,  in  the  laboratory 
or  the  lecture-room,  was  the  place  above  all  others  in 
which  his  enthusiasm,  his  sympathy  with  youthful  aspira- 
tions, his  varied  acquisitions,  and  his  graceful  utterance, 
exerted  their  highest  and  most  enduring  influence." 
("American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,"  May,  1865.) 
He  applied  the  blowpipe  to  the  fusion  of  a  variety  of 
bodies  which  were  before  regarded  as  infusible.  About 
1822  he  demonstrated  the  transfer  of  particles  of  carbon 
from  one  charcoal  point  to  the  other  in  the  galvanic 
battery.  He  published  a  text-book  on  chemistry  in  1830. 
Between  1835  and  1850  he  delivered  popular  lectures 
on  chemistry  and  geology  in  Boston,  Lowell,  New  York, 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  f^t;  mfit;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SILLIMAN 


202 1 


SIMLER 


Philadelphia,  Saint  Louis,  and  New  Orleans.  He  was 
one  of  the  few  men  in  the  country  that  could  hold  a 
popular  audience  with  a  lecture  on  science.  In  1853  he 
resigned  his  professorship,  and  published  "  A  Visit  to 
Europe  in  1851,"  (2  vols.,)  which  was  often  reprinted. 
He  felt  a  deep  interest  in  the  cause  of  liberty,  and  when 
Kansas  became  the  scene  of  conflict,  about  1857,  he 
came  out  with  all  his  youthful  ardour  as  the  opponent  of 
the  slave-power.  He  died  at  New  Haven  on  the  24lh 
of  November,  1864.  In  the  language  of  the  writer  already 
quoted  above,  "  he  was  a  man  of  vigorous  understanding 
and  sound  judgment,  led  on,  but  never  carried  away,  by 
an  enthusiastic  disposition,  glowing  and  constant.  .  .  . 
Blending  with  and  ennobling  all  these  virtues  was  the 
childlike  simplicity  of  his  Christian  faith." 

See  "American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,"  May,  1865  ;  George 
P.  Fisher,  "Life  of  Benjamin  Siliiman,"  2  vols.,  1866;  "North 
American  Review"  for  January,  1832. 

Siliiman,  (Benjamin,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  New  Haven  in  1816,  and  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege in  1837.  He  was  employed  as  teacher  of  chemistry 
in  that  college  for  a  number  of  years,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  applied  to  the  arts  in  1846.  About 
1838  he  became  associate  editor  of  the  "American  Jour- 
nal of  Science  and  Arts,"  of  which  he  and  Professor 
J.  D.  Dana  are  now  the  chief  editors.  He  succeeded  his 
father  as  professor  of  general  and  applied  chemistry  in 
Yale  College  in  1854.  He  i^ublished  "  First  Princi- 
ples of  Chemistry,"  (1846,)  and  "Principles  of  Physics," 
(1858.) 

Silly,  de,  deh  se'ye',  (Jacques  Joseph  Vipart — 
ve'ptR'',)  Marquis,  a  French  general,  born  in  Normandy 
in  1671.  He  was  a  friend  of  Madame  de  Stael.  Died 
in  1727. 

Silva,  shVvV,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Bordeaux  in  1682.  He  practised  in  Paris,  and 
received  the  title  of  consulting  physician  to  Louis  XV. 
in  1724.    Died  in  1742. 

Silva  y  Figueroa.    See  Figueroa,  de. 

Silvaiii,  s^l-vd'nee,  (Gherardo,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Florence  in  1579.  He  built,  besides  other 
edifices  in  his  native  city,  the  magnificent  Palazzo  Maru- 
celli  and  the  Palazzo  Ricardi.  His  design  for  the  fa9ade 
of  the  cathedral  of  Florence  was  adopted  and  executed. 
Died  in  1675. 

Sil-va'nus  or  Syl-va'nus,  [Fr.  Syi.vain,  s^I'v^n',] 
[^from  silva  or  syha,  a  **wood"  or  "grove,"]  a  rural  deity 
In  Roman  mythology,  was  the  guardian  of  groves,  fields, 
and  cattle.  He  was  supposed  to  be  the  protector  of  the 
boundaries  of  fields  or  farms.  By  some  mythographers 
he  was  identified  with  Faunus  and  with  Pan. 

Sil-ve'ri-us  or  Sylverius,  [Fr.  Silvere,  siKvaiR',] 
a  native  of  Frosinone,  near  Rome,  became  pope  in  536 
A.D.  He  was  a  son  of  Pope  Hormisdas.  In  537  he 
was  banished  to  Lycia  by  Belisarius,  who  chose  Vigilius 
is  his  successor.    Died  in  538. 

Silvester,  Pope.    See  Sylvester. 

Silvestre,  s^l-v^s'tRi,  (Gregorio,)  born  at  Lisbon 
in  1520,  was  the  author  of  numerous  poems  published 
in  1592,  under  the  title  of  "Obras  poeticas."  Died  in 
1570. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Silvestre,  s^Kv^stR',  (Israel,)  a  French  designer  and 
engraver,  born  at  Nancy  in  1621.  He  worked  in  Paris, 
and  received  the  title  of  engraver  to  the  king  in  1662. 
He  engraved  views  of  French  and  Italian  scenery.  Died 
in  1691. 

Silvestre,  de,  deh  s^l'v^stR',  (Augustin  Francois,) 
Barcnt,  a  French  savant  and  rural  economist,  born  in 
1762,  was  descended  from  the  preceding.  He  was  chief 
of  the  bureau  of  agriculture  during  the  first  empire.  He 
contributed  to  several  scientific  journals,  and  wrote 
biographies  of  many  French  savants.    Died  in  1851. 

See  PiOUCHARD,  "  Notice  sur  Baron  de  Silvestre,"  1852  ;  Quer.ard, 
"La  France  Litteraire." 

Silvestre,  de,  (Louis,)  a  painter,  born  in  Paris  in 
1675,  was  a  son  of  Israel  Silvestre,  noticed  above.  He 
was  patronized  by  Augustus,  King  of  Poland,  and  be- 
came director  of  the  Academy  of  Dresden.  Died  in 
1760.  His  nephew,  Nicolas  Charles,  (1698-1767,) 
was  a  painter  and  engraver. 

Silvestre  de  Sacy.    See  Sacy,  de. 


Silvia.    See  Rhea  Silvia. 

Siniart,  se'miR',  (Pierre  Charles,)  a  French  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Troyes  in  1806,  was  a  pu])il  of  Pradier.  He 
gained  the  grand  prize  of  Rome  in  1833.  He  was  em- 
ployed by  the  government  to  execute  statues  and  bas- 
reliefs  for  the  Louvre  and  other  public  buildings.  Among 
his  works  is  an  imitation  of  Phidias'  statue  of  Pallas 
Athene,  composed  of  gold  and  ivory.    Died  in  1857. 

See  C.  Levequk,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Simart,"  1857  ;  G.  Ey- 
ries, "  Simart  Statuaire,"  i860;  Halevy,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les 
Ouvrages  de  Simart,"  1S61. 

Sim'e-on,  [Heb.  p^Diy,]  the  second  son  of  Jacob  and 
Leah,  received  his  father's  curse  on  account  of  his  share 
in  the  treacherous  murder  of  the  Shechemites. 

See  Genesis  xxxiv. 

Sim'e-on  of  Durham,  an  English  chronicler  of  the 
eleventh  century,  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the 
Kings  of  England  from  616  to  1130." 

Simeon  of  Polotzk,  a  Russian  poet  and  XirwV  birn 
at  Polotzk  in  1628.  He  was  the  preceptor  of  F'eodor, 
who  became  Czar  of  Russia  in  1676.  He  wrote  dramas 
and  religious  treatises.    Died  in  1680. 

Sim'e-oii  surnamed  Styli'tks,  [Gr.  I,v/j.etjvr]g  6  ItvM- 
rrjg ;  Fr.  Simeon  Stylite,  se'mk'oN'  ste^l^t',]  an  ascetic 
or  fanatic,  born  near  the  boundary  of  Syria  and  Cilicia 
about  390  A.D.  He  acquired  a  sort  of  celebrity  by  stand- 
ing or  living  for  many  years  on  the  top  of  a  pillar,  and 
attracted  crowds  of  spectators,  who  came  from  a  great 
distance,  and  to  whom  he  preached.  He  was  venerated 
as  a  saint.    Died  about  460. 

See  Lautensach,  "  De  Simeone  Stj'lita,"  1700;  Uhlemann, 
"Simeon  der  erste  Saulenheilige  in  Syrien,"  1846;  Krebs,  "Disser- 
tatio  de  Stylitis,"  1753. 

Sim'e~on,  (Rev.  Charles,)  an  English  divine,  born 
at  Reading  in  1759,  became  rector  of  Trinity  Church, 
Cambridge.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  theo- 
logical and  devotional  works,  which  are  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  earnest  piety  and  zeal  in 
the  cause  of  religion,  and  gave  large  sums  to  the  Society 
for  Promoting  Christianity  among  the  Jews,  and  other 
similar  associations.    Died  in  1836. 

See  W.  Carus,  "  Life  of  Charles  Simeon,"  1847  :  Rev.  Erskine 
Neale,  "Christianity  and  Infidelity  Contrasted;"  "North  British 
Review"  for  August,  1S47. 

Simeon,  se'mk'iN',  (Joseph  Balthasar,)  Comte,  a 
French  politician,  born  at  Aix  in  1 781,  was  a  son  of  the 
following.  He  was  prefect  of  several  departments  be- 
tween 1815  and  1824,  and  entered  the  Chamber  of  Peei~s 
in  1835.    Died  in  1846. 

Simeon,  (Joseph  Jerome,)  Count,  a  French  min- 
ister of  state,  born  at  Aix  in  1749.  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  council  of  state  in  1804,  and  minister  of  the 
interior  in  Westphalia  in  1807.  He  was  French  minister 
of  the  interior  from  February,  1820,  to  December,  1821. 
Died  in  1842. 

See  Mignet,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  le  Comte 
Simeon,"  1844;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sim'e-on  Met-a-phras'tes,  a  theologian,  who  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus.  He  was 
the  author  of  "  Lives  of  the  Saints."    Died  in  976. 

Sim'e-on  Se'thus  or  Simeon  Seth,  a  learned 
Greek  writer  of  the  eleventh  century,  was  a  resident 
of  Constantinople.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise 
on  edible  things  and  their  properties,  which  has  been 
translated  into  Latin  under  the  title  of  "  Syntagma 
de  Cibariorum  Facultate."  He  translated  into  Greek 
the  Arabic  Fables  of  Pilpay;  and  the  translation  of  a 
fabulous  history  of  Alexander  the  Great,  from  the  Per- 
sian, is  also  ascribed  to  him. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Simeoni,  se-mi-o'nee,  (Gahriello,)  an  Italian  writer 
on  various  subjects,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1509.  He 
led  a  wandering  life.  Among  his  works  is  "  Devices 
and  Emblems,"  ("  Devises  et  Emblemes,"  in  French, 
1559.)    Died  in  1575. 

Simiane,  de,  deh  se^me'tn',  (Pauline  d'Adhemar 
de  Monteil  de  (Grrignan — (MWk'm'tv.'  deh  m^N'til' 
deh  gR^n'ySN^,)  Marquise,  a  French  lady,  born  in  Paris 
in  1674,  was  a  granddaughter  of  Madame  de  Sevigne. 
Died  in  1737.    Her  Letters  were  published  in  1773. 

Simpler,  (Josias,)  a  Swiss  Protestant  minister  and 
historian,  born  at  Cappel,  near  Zurich,  in  1530.   He  was 


€  as  /J;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  Vi^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Sl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SIMMUS 


2022 


SIMONIDES 


professor  of  theology  at  Zurich,  and  wrote,  besides 
treatises  on  theology,  a  "  History  of  the  Swiss  Republic," 
("De  Helvetiorum  Republica,"  1574.)    Died  in  1576. 

See  Stuck,  "  Vita  J.  Simleri,"  1577;  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Sim'mi-as,  [S<|U///2f,]  a  Greek  grammarian,  born  at 
Rhodes,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  300  B.C.  Some 
fragments  of  his  poems  are  contained  in  the  "Anthologia 
Graeca."  Another  writer  of  this  name  was  the  author  of  a 
historical  work,  not  extant. 

Simmias  of  Thehes,  a  Greek  philosopher,  was  a 
disciple  and  friend  of  Socrates,  at  whose  death  he  was 
present.  He  and  his  brother  Cebes  are  the  chief  speakers 
(besides  Socrates)  in  the  "  Phsedon"  of  Plato.  His 
works  are  not  extant. 

Sim'mons,  (Samuel  Foart,)  an  English  physician, 
born  in  Kent  in  1752,  studied  at  Edinburgh,  and  took 
his  medical  degree  at  Leyden.  Having  settled  in  Lon- 
don, he  was  aj^pointed  physician  of  Saint  Luke's  Hos- 
pital and  to  George  HI.,  and  elected  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  He  published  several  medical  works. 
Died  in  1813. 

Simms,  (William  Gilmore,)  an  American  novelist 
a. id  voluminous  writer,  born  at  Charleston,  South  Caro- 
lina, in  1806.  Lie  published  a  number  of  poetical  pieces 
at  an  early  age,  and  brought  out  in  1833  his  "  Atalantis, 
a  Story  of  the  Sea,"  which  is  esteemed  his  finest  poem. 
Among  his  numerous  romances  may  be  named  "  Guy 
Rivers,"  (1834,)  "The  Yemassee,"  (1835,)  "The  Parti- 
san," (1835,)  "Mellichampe,"  (1836,)  "  Pelayo,"  (1838,) 
"The  Wigwam  and  the  Cabin,"  and  "Katherine  Wal- 
ton," (1851.)  He  also  wrote  a  "  History  of  South  Caro- 
lina," (1840,)  a  "Life  of  Marion,"  (1844,)  and  other 
biographical  works,  and  was  a  frequent  contributor  to 
various  Reviews.    Died  in  June,  1870. 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America ;"  Duyckinck, 
"Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Ali-ibone,  "Dic- 
tionary of  Authors;"  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1846. 

Sim'nel,  (Lambert,)  an  English  impostor,  born  at 
Oxford  about  1472,  was  the  son  of  a  joiner  or  baker.  In 
i486  he  assumed  to  be  Edward  Plantagenet,  Earl  of 
Warwick,  a  nephew  of  Richard  HI.,  and  was  supported 
by  many  partisans  of  the  House  of  York.  The  army 
of  Simnel  was  defeated  by  the  royal  army  at  Stoke  in 
1487.  Simnel  was  taken  prisoner,  but  his  life  was 
spared. 

Siniolin,  see^mo-leen', JJohann  Mathtas,)  an  emi- 
nent diplomatist,  born  at  Abo,  in  Finland,  was  employed 
by  the  Russian  empress  Catherine  on  fmportant  mis- 
sions to  Austria,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  England.  Died 
in  1799. 

Simolin,  (Karl  Gustav,)  Baron,  a  Russian  diplo- 
matist, born  at  Abo  in  171 5.  He  was  ennobled  by 
Stanislas  Augustus,  King  of  Poland.    Died  in  1777. 

Simon.    See  Peter,  Saint. 

Simon,  se^m6N',  (Edouard  Thomas,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Troyes  in  1740;  died  in  1818. 

Simon,  (Jean  Franqois,)  a  French  antiquary,  born 
in  Paris  in  1654;  died  in  1719. 

Si'mon,  (John,)  an  English  surgeon  and  anatomist, 
born  in  1810,  studied  at  King's  College,  became  in  1844 
a  Fellow  of  the  College  of  Surgeons,  London,  and  was 
subsequently  appointed  medical  officer  to  the  general 
board  of  health.  He  published  a  treatise  "On  the  Phys- 
iology of  the  Thymus  Gland,"  (1845,)  ^^^'^  "Lectures  on 
General  Pathology,"  (1850.)  The  former  obtained  the 
Astley  Cooper  prize. 

Simon,  (Jules,)  sometimes  called  Jules  Simon- 
SuissE,  a  French  philosopher  and  legislator,  born  at 
Lorient  in  1814.  He  was  chosen  in  1839  by  M.  Cousin 
to  supply  his  place  as  professor  at  the  Sorbonne,  where 
he  lectured  about  twelve  years.  In  1848  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Studies  on  the  Theodicea  of 
Plato  and  Aristotle,"  (1840,)  a  "History  of  the  School 
of  Alexandria,"  (2  vols.,  1844-45,)  ^"d  "Natural  Re- 
ligion," (1856.)  "  His  works,"  says  the  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale,"  "give  proof  of  profound  study,  and 
are  remarkable  for  elevation  of  thought."  In  1863  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  legislative  body  by  the 
voters  of  Paris,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of 
Moral  and  Political  Sciences,  He  is  an  advanced  liberal 


in  politics.  In  1869  he  was  re-elected  to  the  legislative 
body,  and  in  September,  1870,  became  minister  of  public 
instruction  under  the  republic. 

Simon,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  and  liberal  French 
theologian  and  critic,  born  at  Dieppe  in  May,  1638,  was 
a  man  of  profound  learning.  He  entered  the  congrega- 
tion of  the  Oratory,  studied  the  Oriental  languages,  and 
became  professor  of  philosoj^hy  in  the  College  of  Juilly. 
His  princii^al  work  is  a  "Critical  History  of  the  Old 
Testament,"  (1678,)  which  was  condemned  as  unsound 
and  suppressed.  Pie  was  proscribed  by  Bossuet  as  a 
heretic,  and  was  expelled  from  the  Oratory.  He  was 
much  addicted  to  controversy,  and  was  very  tenacious 
of  his  opinions.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Critical  His- 
tory of  the  New  Testament,"  (1689.)  Died  at  Dieppe 
in  1 7 12. 

See  NiCF.RON,  "Memoires:"  Morhri,  "  Dictionnaire  Histo- 
rique  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Simon,  (Thomas,)  an  English  engraver  of  medals, 
born  about  1612.  He  was  employed  as  engraver  to 
the  Mint  during  the  Commonwealth.    Died  in  1665. 

Simmon  Maccabae'us  (mak-ka-bee'us)  or  Mat'thes, 
[Fr.  Simon  Mach.'^bee,  se'moN''  mt'sht'bi^]  called 
also  Tha'si,  was  the  brother  of  Judas  Maccab?eus.  He 
succeeded  his  brother  Jonathan  in  143  B.C.  as  high- 
priest  and  ruler  of  the  Jews.  He  formed  an  alliance 
with  Demetrius  Nicator,  of  Syria,  who  recognized  the 
independence  of  the  Jews.  Judea  was  invaded  in  139 
by  an  army  of  Antiochus  Sidetes,  which  Simon  defeated. 
He  was  assassinated  by  his  son-in-law  Ptolemaeus,  in 
135  B.C. 

Si'mon  Ma^'gus,  [Fr.  Simon  le  Magicien,  se^m^N' 
leh  mt'zhe^se^^N',]  a  magician  of  Samaria,  and  a  pre- 
tended convert  to  Christianity,  who  offered  money  to 
the  apostles  Peter  and  John  to  obtain  from  them  the 
power  of  conferring  the  Holy  Ghost.  For  this  he  was 
severely  rebuked  by  Peter. 

See  Acts  viii.  r8,  19,  20,  etc. 

Simon  de  Montfort.    See  Montfort,  de, 

Simond,  se'mdN'',  (Philibert,)  a  Jacobin,  born  in 
Savoy  in  1755,  was  a  member  of  the  French  Convention 
of  1792.  He  was  proscribed  as  a  fi  iend  of  Danton,  and 
executed  in  A])ril,  1794. 

Simonde  de  Sismondi.    See  Sismondi. 

Simone  da  Pesaro.    See  CAN  rARiNi. 

Simonet,  se'mo^n^'',  (Edmond,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
writer  on  theology,  born  at  Langres  in  1662  ;  died  in 
1773- 

Simonetta,  se-mo-net'ti,  (Bonifazio,)  an  Italian 
historian,  born  about  1430.  He  wrote  "  De  Persecu- 
tionibus  Christianae  Fidei  et  Romanorum  Pontificum," 
(1492.) 

Simonetta,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  politician,  an 
uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Calabria  in  1410, 
He  became  the  chief  adviser  or  minister  of  Galeazzo 
Maria  Sforza,  Duke  of  Milan,  and  had  much  power 
during  the  minority  of  that  prince's  son.  He  was  be- 
headed, by  order  of  Ludovico  Sforza,  in  1480. 

Simonetta,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  historian,  a  bro- 
ther of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Calabria.  He  wrote, 
in  Latin,  a  "  History  of  Francesco  Sforza,"  (1480.)  Died 
about  1491. 

Simonide.    See  Simonides. 

Si-nion'i-des  [Gr,  I,Lfiuv'id}]c ;  Fr.  Simonide,  se'mo'- 
ned'l  OF  Amorous,  a  Greek  poet,  born  at  Samos, 
flourished  about  690-665  B.C.  lie  wrote  satires  in  the 
Iambic  metre.    His  satire  on  women  is  extant. 

See  K.  O.  MuLi.ER,  "History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient 
Greece." 

Simonides  of  Ceos,  a  famous  Greek  lyric  poet, 
born  at  Julis,  in  the  island  of  Ceos,  about  556  B.C.  He 
became  a  resident  of  Athens  in  the  reign  of  Hipparchus, 
by  whom  he  was  patronized,  and  there  associated  with 
Anacreon,  After  the  death  of  Hipparchus  (about  514) 
he  retired  to  Thessaly,  He  returned  to  Athens  about 
the  time  of  the  Persian  invasion,  celebrated  the  victory 
of  Marathon  in  verse,  489  B.C.,  and  acquired  great  popu- 
larity. He  was  employed  by  the  Amphictyons  to  write 
inscriptions  for  the  tombs  of  those  who  fell  in  defence 
of  Greece  against  the  Persians.  For  those  who  fell  at 
Thermopylae  he  composed  an  inscription  which  may  be 


Z,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAor^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SIMONNEAU 


2023 


SINCLAIR 


translated,  "Stranger,  tell  the  Lacedaemonians  that  we 
lie  here  in  obedience  to  their  laws."  He  was  intimate 
with  Themistocles,  and  was  a  rival  of  Pindar.  His  lat- 
ter years  were  passed  at  the  court  of  Hieron  of  Syra- 
cuse, where  he  died  in  467  B.C.  His  works  are  lost, 
except  small  fragments.  He  excelled  in  epigram  and 
in  pathetic  poetry.  Many  witty  sayings  are  ascribed  to 
him.  He  was  victorious  over  /Eschylus  in  a  contest  for 
the  prize  which  was  offered  for  the  best  elegy  on  those 
who  fell  at  Marathon.  He  was  greatly  distinguished 
for  his  moral  wisdom  and  moderation. 

Sie  BoissY,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Simonide,"  1755  ;  Schn'ei- 
DEWIK,  "De  Vita  at  Carminibus  Sinionidis  Cei,"  1.S35  :  Duckek, 
"De  Simonide,"  1768;  F.  W.  Richter,  '•  Simonides  der  Aeltere 
von  Keos  nacJi  seinem  Leben,"  etc.,  1836;  K.  O.  Muller,  "  History 
of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece;"  "  Noiivelle  Biograpliie  Gene- 
rale;"  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1830. 

Simonneau,  se'mo^io',  (Charles,)  a  French  en- 
graver, born  at  Orleans  in  1645.  He  engraved  the  works 
of  several  French  masters.    Died  in  1728. 

Simonneau,  (Louis,)  an  engraver,  born  at  Orleans 
in  1654,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1727. 

Simplicius,  sim-plish'e^s,  (2i//7rAk<of,)  a  Neo-Pia- 
tonic  philosopher  and  commentator  on  Aristotle,  was 
born  in  Cilicia.  He  was  persecuted  as  a  pagan  in  the  reign 
of  Justinian,  who  closed  the  school  at  Athens  in  529  a.d. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  Aristotle's  "  Categcn-ies," 
"De  Ccelo,"  and  "  De  Anima"  and  "  Physica  Ausciilta- 
tio."  These  are  esteemed  the  most  valuable  of  all  the 
Greek  commentaries  on  Aristotle  that  are  extant. 

See  Hoffmann,  "  Bibliographicum  Lexicon;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale;"  Buhle,  "  Dissertatio  de  Simplicii  Vita,"  etc., 
1816. 

Simplicius,  sim-plish'e-us,  an  Italian  prelate,  born  at 
Tivoli,  (Tibur,)  became  Bishop  of  Rome  in  467  A.D.  Died 
in  483. 

Simp'spn,  (Christopher,)  an  English  composer, 
born  about  1610  ;  died  about  1668. 

Simpson,  (Edward,)  an  English  writer  on  chro- 
nology and  theology,  born  at  Tottenham  in  1578.  He 
became  rector  of  Eastling,  Kent.  Among  his  works  is 
"Universal  Chronology,"  ("Chronicon  Catholicum," 
1652.)    Died  in  1651. 

Simpson,  (Sir  James,)  a  British  general,  born  at 
Edinburgh  in  1792.  He  served  against  the  French  in 
the  campaigns  of  1812  and  181 5,  and  subsequently 
under  Sir  Charles  Napier  in  India.  In  1855  he  suc- 
ceeded Lord  Raglan  as  commander  of  the  British  forces 
in  the  Crimea.  He  received  from  Napoleon  HI.  the 
grand  cross  of  the  legion  of  honour.    Died  in  1868. 

Simp'son,  (Sir  James  Young,)  a  Scottish  physician, 
born  in  Linlithgowshire  in  181 1,  graduated  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1832.  He  became  professor  of  midwifery  in 
the  university  of  that  city  in  1840,  and  was  the  first  who 
employed  anaesthetics  in  obstetric  practice,  (1847.)  In 
1856  he  received  from  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences 
the  Monthyon  prize  of  two  thousand  francs.  He  was 
elected  president  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians, 
Edinburgh,  and  a  foreign  associate  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy of  Medicine  and  of  other  similar  institutions.  He 
was  author  of  "Contributions  to  Obstetric  Pathology," 
"Essays  on  Anaesthesia,"  and  other  medical  works. 
Died  in  1870. 

Simp'son,  (Matthew,)  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  Cadiz,  Ohio,  June  21, 
1810.  While  he  was  still  an  infant,  his  father  died,  and 
the  care  of  his  education  devolved  upon  his  mother. 
In  addition  to  the  ordinary  English  branches,  he  began 
the  study  of  German  when  he  was  eight  years  of  age, 
and  the  following  year  read  the  Bible  through  in  the 
German  language.  He  afterwards  studied  Latin,  Greek, 
and  Hebrew.  He  graduated  as  a  physician  in  1833. 
He  had  joined  the  Church  in  1829,  and  in  1839  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Indiana  Asbury  University, 
(Methodist,)  and  did  much  to  promote  the  usefulness 
and  success  of  that  institution.  In  1848  he  was  ap- 
pointed editor  of  "  The  Western  Christian  Advocate." 
He  was  elected  bishop  in  1852.  He  took  a  deep  in- 
terest in  the  national  cause  during  the  war  of  the  rebel- 
lion, and  by  his  zeal  and  eloquence  contributed  much  to 
strengthen  the  confidence  of  the  people  and  to  uphold 
the  hands  of  the  government  during  that  great  crisis  in 


our  country's  history.  Bishop  Simpson  was  an  intimate 
personal  friend  of  President  Lincoln. 

Simpson,  (Thomas,)  an  able  English  mathematician, 
born  at  Market-Bosworth  in  1710.  He  learned  the  trade 
of  a  weaver,  and  practised  astrology  or  fortune-telling 
in  his  early  life.  About  1736  he  removed  to  London, 
where  he  became  a  teacher  of  mathematics.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  New  Treatise  on  Fluxions,"  (1737,)  and  seve- 
ral works  on  mathematics.  In  1743  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Military  Academy  at 
Woolwich.    Died  in  1761. 

See  HuTTON,  "Mathematical  Dictionary;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Simrock,  sim'rok  or  zin/rok,  ("Kart.,)  a  distinguished 
German  poet  and  translator,  born  at  Bonn  in  1802.  He 
published  in  1827  a  translation  of  the  "  Nibekmgenlied," 
and  in  1831  a  work  entitled  "Sources  of  Shaksj^eare's 
Plots  in  Novels,  Tales,  and  Legends,"  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  Echtermeyer  and  Henschel.  ?Ie  also  trans- 
lated "Twenty  Songs  of  the  Nibelungen,"  (1840,)  pro- 
nounced genuine  by  Lachmann,  and  several  other  Ger- 
man poems  of  the  middle  ages.  Among  his  ]>rincipal 
original  w^orks  are  his  poem  of  "  Wieland  the  Smith," 
"  Legends  of  the  Rhine,  from  the  Mouths  of  the  People 
and  the  German  Poets,"  (1850,)  and  "Manual  of  Ger- 
man Mythology."  Pie  became  professor  of  the  German 
language  and  literature  at  Bonn  in  1850. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Sims,  (James,)  an  English  physician  and  botanist, 
born  at  Canterbury.  He  j^ublished  "  Observations  on 
Epidemic  Disorders,"  (1773,)  "Principles  and  Practice 
of  Midwifery,"  and  other  medical  works.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Linnasan  Society.    Died  in  1831. 

Sims,  (James  Marion,)  a  distinguished  American 
surgeon,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1813.  He  removed 
in  1853  to  New  York,  where  he  was  instrumental  in 
founding  a  hospital  for  the  treatment  of  the  diseases  of 
women. 

Simson,  sin/son  or  zin/son,  (Martin  Eduard,)  a 
German  jurist  and  statesman,  born  at  Konigsberg.  In 
1810  he  studied  at  Bonn  under  Niebuhr,  and  in  1836 
became  professor  of  law  at  Konig.sberg.  In  1848  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  National  Assembly  at 
Frankfort. 

Sim'son,  (Robert,)  an  eminent  Scottish  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Kirton  Hall,  Ayrshire,  in  1687.  He 
became  ])rofessor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
Glasgow  in  171 1,  and  continued  to  fill  that  chair  about 
fifty  years.  He  produced  an  edition  of  Euclid's  "Ele- 
ments," which  was  highly  esteemed,  and  made  some 
discoveries  in  relation  to  the  porisms  of  the  ancients. 
Died  in  1768. 

See  William  Trail,  "  Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  R. 
Simson,"  1812;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen." 

Sina,  Ibn.    See  Avicenna. 

Sinan,  se-nin',  (Scipione  Cicale,)  an  Italian  rene- 
gade, born  about  1515.  He  became  a  Turkish  general 
and  grand  vizier.    Died  in  1595. 

Sin'clair,  (Catherine,)  a  daughter  of  Sir  John  Sin- 
clair, noticed  below,  was  born  in  1800.  She  published 
numerous  tales  and  novels,  which  have  had  an  extensive 
circulation  :  among  these  we  may  name  "  Modern  Soci- 
ety," "Beatrice,"  "Business  of  Life,"  and  "James  Bou- 
verie."  She  also  wrote  several  books  for  children,  the 
"Kaleidoscope  of  Anecdotes  and  A]5horisms,"  "  Shet- 
land and  the  Shetlanders,"  etc.    Died  in  1864. 

Sinclair,  sinHclair,  }  (Charles  Gideon,)  Baron,  a 
Swedish  general  and  military  writer,  born  about  1730. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  many  campaigns  in  France, 
Prussia,  and  Saxony.    Died  in  1803. 

Sinclair,  (Sir  John,)  a  Scottish  statesman  and  phi- 
lanthropist, born  in  the  county  of  Caithness  in  1754. 
He  studied  at  Edinburgh  and  Oxford,  and  in  1780  rep- 
resented his  native  county  in  Parliament,  being  several 
times  re-elected.  He  was  conspicuous  for  his  efforts  to 
promote  internal  improvements  in  his  country,  originated 
the  board  of  agriculture,  of  which  he  became  first  presi- 
dent, and  founded  a  society  for  the  improvement  of  wool. 
Among  his  numerous  and  valuable  treatises,  which  em- 
brace a  great  variety  of  subjects,  may  be  named  his 


e  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SIN  CLARE 


2024 


SISENNA 


•*  History  of  the  Revenue  of  Great  Britain,"  "  Considera- 
tions on  Militias  and  Standing  Armies,"  "  Essays  on 
Agriculture,"  and  "Statistical  Account  of  Scotland." 
The  last-named  is  esteemed  a  standard  work.  Died 
in  1835. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionaryof  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
"Memoir  of  Sir  Jolin  Sinclair,"  by  his  son,  1837  ;  "  Edinbin-gh  Re- 
view" for  April,  1803  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  July,  1837  > 
"Monthly  Review"  for  June,  1S08,  and  September,  1814. 

Sin^'clare  or  Sinclair,  (George,)  a  Scottish  mathe- 
matician and  philosopher,  was  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Glasgow.  He  published  several  scientific  treatises, 
and  a  work  entitled  "  Satan's  Invisible  World  dis- 
covered."   Died  in  1696. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionaryof  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Sin'di-a  or  Sgin'di-ah,  (Dow'lut  Row,)  a  Mah- 
ratta  chief,  born  about  1780,  was  a  grand-nephew  of 
Madajee,  noticed  below,  whon)  he  succeeded  in  1794. 
He  was  involved  in  war  against  the  British,  who,  under 
Sir  A.  Wellesley,  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  him  at 
Assaye  in  1803.  His  army  was  defeated  in  several 
battles  in  the  same  year,  and  he  was  forced  to  cede  a 
large  part  of  his  territories.    Died  in  1827. 

Sindia,  (Madajee  or  Madhajee,  mi-d^'jee,)  a  cele- 
brated Mahratta  chief,  born  in  tlindostan  about  1741. 
He  was  a  warlike  and  energetic  prince,  made  extensive 
conquests,  and  became  master  of  Delhi.  His  dominions 
extended  from  the  Ganges  to  the  Nerbudda.  Died  in 
1794. 

Singh,  (Runjeet.)    See  Runjep:t  Singh. 

Sin'gle-ton,  (Henry,)  an  English  painter,  born  in 
London  in  1766.  He  produced  both  historical  pictures 
and  portraits ;  among  his  master-pieces  are  a  series  of 
illustrations  from  Shakspeare,  "Christ  Healing  the 
Blind,"  "  Coriolanus  and  his  Mother,"  and  "  The  Storm- 
ing of  Seringapatam."    Died  in  1839. 

Singlin,  sIlN'gUN',  (Antoine,)  a  French  theologian, 
born  in  Paris,  was  confessor  to  the  nuns  of  Port-Royal. 
He  preached  with  much  unction.  It  is  stated  that  Pascal 
had  so  high  an  opinion  of  the  solidity  of  his  judgment 
that  he  read  all  his  works  to  Singlin  before  he  published 
them.    Died  in  1664. 

See  GoujET,  "Vie  de  Singlin,"  prefixed  to  Singlin's  "Instruc- 
tions chretiennes,"  12  vols.,  1736. 

Sinnamus.    See  Cinnamus. 

Sinner,  sin'ner  or  zin'ner,  [Fr.  pron.  se'naiR',]  (Jo- 
Hann  Rudolf,)  a  Swiss  philologist,  born  at  Berne  in 
1730  ;  died  in  1787, 

Sinner,  de,  deh  se'naiR',  (R.  G.  Louis,)  a  Swiss  Hel- 
lenist, born  in  the  canton  of  Berne  in  1801.  He  published 
good  editions  of  Aristophanes,  Plato,  Euripides,  Sopho- 
cles, and  Xenophon,  (1829-47.) 

Si'non,  [Gr.  a  semi-fabulous  or  fictitious  per- 

son, who,  according  to  Homer  and  Virgil,  acted  an  in- 
sidious part  in  the  siege  of  Troy.  They  relate  that  he 
presented  himself  to  the  Trojans  as  a  deserter  from  the 
Greek  army,  affirming  that  the  Greeks  had  abandoned 
the  siege,  and  that  he  ran  away  because  they  were  about 
to  offer  him  as  a  sacrifice.  By  his  artful  tale  and  well- 
feigned  passion  he  imposed  on  the  credulous  Trojans, 
and  persuaded  them  to  introduce  the  wooden  horse  into 
Troy. 

See  Virgil's  "  vEneid,"  book  ii.,  57-198. 

Sintenis,  sin'teh-nis  or  zin'teh-nis,  (Christian 
Frieurich,)  a  German  theologian  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  at  Zerbst  in  1750.  His  voluminous  works 
comjjrise  sermons,  educational  treatises,  and  moral  and 
religious  romances.    Died  in  1820. 

Sintenis,  (Karl  Friedrich  Ferdinand,)  a  German 
jurist,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Zerbst 
in  1804. 

Siofn,  se-ofn',  written  also  Se-o'na,  [etymology 
doubtful,]  a  goddess  in  the  Norse  mythology,  whose 
office  it  is  to  inspire  the  passion  of  love.  She  may  be 
said  to  be  a  sort  of  female  Cupid.  From  her  name  a 
lover  is  called  Siafni. 

See  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Mallet,  "  North- 
ern Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.  Fable  XVllL 

Sionita,  (Gahriel.)    See  GAimiEL. 
Sirani,  se-rd'nee,  (Elisahetta,)  an  Italian  historical 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1638,  was  a  daughter  of 


Giovanni  Andrea,  noticed  below.  She  imitated  the 
second  manner  of  Guido  with  success,  and  accpiired  a 
high  reputation.    Died  in  1665. 

.See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  C.  Bonafede, 
"  Elisabetta  Sirani  Azione  storico-drammatica,"  1856. 

Sirani,  (Giovanni  Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1610,  was  a  successful  imitator  of  the  style 
of  Guido.    Died  in  1670. 

Si'rens,  singular  Si'ren,  [Gr.  letpf/ve^,  (singular 
leipf/v ;)  Lat.  Sire'nes  or  Seire'nes;  Fr.  Sirenes, 
se'rin',]  mythical  beings,  who  were  supposed  to  have 
the  ]>ower  of  enchanting  all  who  heard  them  sing.  Ac- 
cording to  Homer  and  other  poets,  they  lived  in  an 
island  near  the  coast  of  Italy,  where  they  sat  in  a  meadow 
near  the  shore  and  allured  those  who  were  sailing  past 
the  island  ;  and  whoever  listened  to  their  song  forgot 
his  home  and  remained  with  the  Sirens  until  he  perished 
or  became  brutalized. 

Siret,  se'ra^  (Adolphe,)  a  Belgian  litterateur,  born 
at  Beaumont,  in  Hainault,  about  1805.  He  published, 
besides  several  poems  and  dramas,  a  "  Historical  Dic- 
tionary of  Painters  of  all  Schools,"  (1848.) 

Siret,  (Louis  Pierre,)  a  French  grammarian,  born 
at  Evreux  in  1745,  ])ublished  good  works  on  English 
and  Italian  grammar  for  French  students.  Died  in 
1797. 

Siret,  (Pierre  Hubert,)  a  French  preacher,  born  at 
Rheims  in  1754;  died  in  1834. 

Sirey,  se'ra',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Sarlat  (Perigord)  in  1762,  published  several  legal 
works.    Died  in  1845. 

Siri,  see'ree,  (Vittorio,)  an  Italian  monk  and  his- 
torian, born  at  Parma  about  161 5,  was  patronized  by 
Louis  XIV.  of  France,  who  made  hiin  his  almoner  and 
historiographer.  He  conducted  for  many  years  a  jour- 
nal entitled  "  Mercurio  Politico,"  (15  vols.,)  which  treats 
of  events  that  occurred  from  1635  to  1655.  He  also 
published  "Secret  Memoirs,"  ("Memorie  recondite,") 
a  journal  in  8  vols.    Died  in  1685. 

Siricius,  se-rish'e-us,  [Fr.  Si  rice,  se'r^ss',]  born  at 
Rome  about  324  A.D.,  was  elected  Pope  or  Bishop  of 
Rome  in  384.  He  issued  decrees  against  the  Mani- 
cheans,  Donatists,  and  other  heretics.    Died  in  398. 

Siries,  see're-ls'',  (Violante  Beatrice,)  an  Italian 
portrait-painter,  born  in  1710;  died  about  1760. 

Sirleto,  seR-la'to,  [Lat.  Sirle'tus  ;  Fr.  Sirlet,  s^r'- 
li',]  (GuGLiELMO,)  a  learned  Italian  cardinal,  born  in 
Calabria  in  15 14.  He  became  keeper  of  the  library  of 
the  Vatican  in  1549.  He  acted  as  intermediary  between 
the  pope  and  the  Council  of  Trent  about  1560.  Died 
in  1585. 

Sirietus,    See  Sirleto. 

Sirmond,  seR'm^N',  [Lat.  Sirmond'u-s,]  (Jacques,) 
a  learned  French  Jesuit  and  antiquary,  born  at  Riom  in 
1559,  was  for  a  time  professor  of  rhetoric  in  Paris.  He 
subsequently  examined  the  archives  of  the  convents, 
where  he  obtained  many  valuable  manuscripts.  Among 
these  he  published  editions  of  Apollinaris  Sidonius,  the 
"Chronicles"  of  Idatius  and  Marcellinus,  the  "Opus- 
cules" of  Geoffroi,  Abbe  de  Vendome,  and  other  writers 
of  the  middle  ages.  Sirmond  was  appointed  in  1637 
confessor  to  Louis  XIH.  He  wrote  several  valuable 
antiquarian  treatises.    Died  in  165 1. 

See  Briet,  "  Eulogium  J.  Sirmondi,"  1653;  Coi.omies,  "Vie  du 
Pere  Sirmond,"  1671  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sirmond,  (Jean,)  a  writer,  born  at  Riom  about  1589, 
was  a  nephew  "of  the  preceding.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy,  and  received  a  pension  from  Riche- 
lieu.   Died  in  1649. 

See  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Sis'e-but  [Lat.  Siseiju'tus]  was  elected  King  of  the 
Visigoths  in  Spain  in  612  A.D.  He  was  a  zealous  pro- 
fessor of  the  Christian  religion,  and  was  an  able  ruler. 
Died  in  620  A.D. 

Si-sen'na,  (Lucius  Cornelius,)  a  Roman  annalist, 
born  about  1 18  B.C.  He  was  praetor  about  78  B.C.  He 
wrote  a  work  on  Roman  history,  entitled  "Historiae," 
which  was  praised  by  Cicero,  ("  Brutus"  and  "De  Legi- 
bus.") 

See  Karl  L.  Roth,  "L.  C.  Sisennae  Vita,"  1834. 


a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m£t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SISIFO 


2025 


Sisifo.    See  Sisyphus. 

Si-sin'ni-us,  a  native  of  Syria,  became  pope  at  the 
death  of  John  VII.,  in  708.    He  died  in  the  next  month. 

Sismoiidi,  sis-mon'dee,  [It.  pron.  s^s-mon'dee,]  de, 
[Fr.  pron.  deh  s^s'md)N^de',]  (Jean  Charles  Leonard 
SiMONDE,)  an  eminent  Swiss  historian  and  publicist,  of 
Tuscan  extraction,  was  born  at  Geneva  on  the  9th  of 
May,  1773.  He  was  educated  in  the  College  of  Geneva, 
and  became  a  clerk  in  the  counting-house  of  a  merchant 
or  banker  in  Lyons.  In  consequence  of  the  civil  war,  he 
left  this  position  in  1792  and  visited  England,  the  lan- 
guage and  institutions  of  which  he  appears  to  have 
studied  with  much  attention.  In  1795  he  removed  with 
his  father  to  Val  Chiusa,  Tuscany,  where  he  was  employed 
as  a  farmer  for  five  years.  He  returned  to  Geneva  in 
1800,  and  published  a  work  "On  Commercial  Riches," 
(2  vols.,  1803,)  in  which  he  advocated  the  doctrines  of 
Adam  Smith.  Soon  after  this  event  he  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  Madame  de  Stael,  with  whom  he  travelled  in 
Italy  and  Germany,  (1804-08.)  By  the  advice  of  his 
mother,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  composition  of  history. 
In  1807  he  published  the  first  and  second  volumes  of  an 
important  work,  "The  History  of  the  Italian  Repub- 
lics," which  was  received  with  favour.  The  sixteenth 
and  last  volume  appeared  in  1818.  "  Sismondi,"  says 
Mignet,  "has  traced  this  history  with  vast  learning,  a 
noble  spirit,  a  vigorous  talent,  sufficient  art,  and  much 
eloquence."  He  contributed  many  articles  to  the  "  Bio- 
graphic Universelle"  of  Michaud.  In  1819  he  married 
Miss  Allen,  an  English  lady  and  a  sister-in-law  of  Sir 
ames  Mackintosh.  About  this  time  Guizot  offered  to 
im  a  professorship  in  the  College  of  France,  but  he 
declined  it.  He  expended  many  years  in  writing  his 
*'  History  of  the  French,"  ("  Histoire  des  Fran9ais,"  30 
vols.,  1821-44,)  which  some  critics  consider  his  best 
work.  Sismondi  was  a  Protestant  and  a  republican. 
His  moral  character  is  highly  commended.  He  died  at 
Geneva  in  1842,  leaving  no  children. 

See  "Vie  de  Sismondi,"  Paris,  1845:  Lomenie,  "Gaierie  des 
Contemporaiiis,"  tome  vii. ;  F.  A.  A.  Mignet,  "Notice  liistoriqiie 
sur  la  Vie  de  M.  de  Sismondi,''  1845  ;  "  Noiivelle  Biogranhie  Gene- 
rale ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1S12,  and  .September, 
1843;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  June,  1815;  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1829. 

Sisto,  the  Italian  of  SiXTUS,  which  see. 

Sisto  Rosa.    See  Badalocchio. 

Sis'y-phus,  [Gr.  Stcru^of;  Fr.  Sisvphe,  se's^f  ;  It. 
Sisifo,  see'se-fo,]  a  fabulous  king  of  Corinth,  was  called 
a  son  of  /Eolus,  a  brother  of  Cretheus,  Athamas,  and 
Salmoneus,  and  the  husband  of  Merope.  He  was  ex- 
tremely crafty  and  deceitful.  The  poets  feigned  that 
when  Death  was  sent  to  take  him  he  outwitted  Death 
and  bound  him  in  fetters  ;  and  that  for  his  various  crimes 
he  was  doomed  in  the  infernal  regions  to  roll  up  hill  a 
large  stone,  which,  as  soon  as  it  reached  the  top,  rolled 
down  again.  According  to  one  tradition,  he  was  the 
father  of  Ulysses, 

Siti,  see'ta,  written  also  Seeta,  in  the  Hindoo  my- 
thology, the  name  of  the  beautiful  and  spotless  wife  of  the 
god  Rama.  As  Rama  was  an  avatar  of  Vishnu,  so  Sita 
is  regarded  as  an  avatar  of  Lakshmi.    (See  Rama.) 

Siun-  (or  Seun-)  King,  se3N  king,  a  Chinese  phi- 
losopher, regarded  by  many  as  the  ablest  of  all  the  fol- 
lowers of  Confucius,  flourished  from  about  270  to  220 
B.C.  He  wrote  a  refutation  of  the  doctrine  of  Mencius 
that  man  is  naturally  good.  He  maintained,  on  the 
contrary,  that  "the  nature  of  man  is  evil  ;  that  the  gocjd 
which  it  shows  is  factitious,  (or  artificial.")  He  supports 
his  position  with  great  ingenuity  and  force  of  reasoning. 
He  says,  if  man's  nature  were  good,  men  would  not  need 
to  be  continually  taught  and  governed;  would  do 
right  spontaneously.  To  live  properly  and  virtuously 
requires  continual  self-denial ;  but  why  deny  our  natural 
inclinations,  if  these  are  good  ?  "  A  straight  piece  of 
wood,"  he  says,  "  does  not  need  the  pressing-boards  to 
make  it  straight :  it  is  so  by  its  nature.  A  crooked 
piece  of  wood  must  be  submitted  to  the  pressing-boards 
to  soften  and  straighten  it,  because  it  is  not  straight  by 
its  nature."  As  man  is  naturally  crooked  and  perverse, 
his  nature  needs  to  be  corrected  by  the  government  of 
wise  rulers  and  the  restraints  of  just  laws.  (See  Legge's 
"Chinese  Classics,"  vol.  ii.  page  2  and  pages  81-91.) 


Siva,  see'vi,  the  goddess  of  harvests  among  the 
Wends  and  some  other  northern  nations.  She  is  called 
in  the  Norse  mythology  SiF,  which  see. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  p.  179. 

Siv'a  or  Qiva,  commonly  pronounced  (in  English) 
and  sometimes  written  See'va,  spelled  also  Shiva,  [from 
the  Sanscrit  adjective  sJnvds,  shiva^  shivdni,  "prosper- 
ous," "  happy,"J  the  usual  name  of  one  of  the  gods  of 
the  Hindoo  triad  ;  also  popularly  known  as  Mah^ddva, 
ma-hi'  da'va,  (generally  called  by  the  common  people 
of  India  Mahadeo,  ma-hi'  da'o,)  or  the  "great  god." 
Mahesa  (ma-ha'sa)  is  another,  and  one  of  the  most 
common,  of  his  many  names.  He  may  be  said  to  repre- 
sent the  destructive  powers  of  nature  ;  and  since,  in  tiie 
present  order  of  things,  destruction  seems  necessary  to 
prepare  the  way  for  a  renewal  of  life,  he  is  also  believed 
to  preside  over  generation  or  reproduction.  In  this  lat- 
ter character  his  power  is  typified  by  the  phallic  emblem 
called  in  Sanscrit  the  Linga  (ling'ga)  or  Lingam  ;  which 
is  commonly,  if  not  invariably,  found  in  temples  or  places 
dedicated  to  his  worship.  Among  the  gods  of  classic 
mythology  the  character  of  Saturn,  or  Time,  (who  both 
produces  and  destroys,)  would,  in  its  leading  features, 
seem  most  to  resemble  that  of  Siva  ;  but  the  attributes 
and  offices  of  the  Hindoo  deity  are  so  multitudinous 
that  we  must  seek  his  counterpart,  not  in  one,  but  in 
several,  of  the  Western  divinities.  As  being  the  might- 
iest of  all  the  gods,  as  he  is  usually  regarded  at  least  by 
the  common  people,  and  as  his  name  Mahadeva  would 
appear  to  imply,  he  may  be  said  to  correspond  to  the 
Zeus  (or  Jupiter)  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans ;  and,  if  we 
take  simply  the  radical  part  of  the  two  names,  Zeu.  or 
Zev*  and  Siv\  or  SJiiv^\  the  resemblance  might  well 
seem  to  be  something  more  than  a  mere  accident.  Add 
to  this  that  Siva  is  represented  with  three  eyes,  (one  in 
the  middle  of  his  forehead,)  whence  he  was  surnamed 
in  Sanscrit  trilochdnd,  (or  "  three-eyed,")  and  that  the 
Greek  triophthalmos,  having  exactly  the  same  meaning, 
was  also  an  epithet  of  Zeus.J  It  is,  moreover,  expressly 
stated  by  Hindoo  authorities  that  Siva  had  a  thousand 
separate  names.  Zeus  also  had  a  multitude  of  names; 
in  the  noble  hymn  to  Jupiter  by  Cleanthes  the  god  is 
addressed  as  Tzo/ivtovv/ue,  "thou  many-named."  (See, 
on  this  subject,  Sir  William  Jones's  article  "On  the 
Gods  of  Greece,  Italy,  and  India,"  in  vol.  i.  of  "  Asiatic 
Researches.") 

In  India,  a  country  where  the  vegetation  is  so  often 
destroyed  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  it  would  be  natural  to 
associate  not  only  fire  or  heat,  but  the  sun  itself,  with 
the  destroying  power.  Accordingly,  not  only  fire§  in 
general,  but  the  sun  in  particular,  is  considered  to  be 
one  of  the  many  forms  of  Siva.  Again,  cold,  another 
cause  of  the  destruction  of  life,  would  seem  to  be  an 
especial  favourite  with  Mahadeva,  who  is  said  to  have 
selected  the  inaccessible  snows  of  Mount  Kailasa  (or 
Cailasa)  as  his  permanent  abode.  There  his  devoted 
consort  Parvati  (i.e.  the  "mountain-born")  is  ever  at 


*  As  it  may  have  been  pronounced  by  tlie  ancients,  and  as  it  is 
pronounced  by  the  modern  Greeks. 

t  So  called  in  tlie  common  dialect  of  India. 

t  We  are  told  by  Pausanias  tiiat  a  statue  of  Zeus  had  been  found 
having  a  third  eye  in  his  forehead. 

§  There  is  in  one  of  the  Puranas  a  singular  legend,  which  runs 
substantially  as  follows:  One  day,  as  Brahma  and  Vislinu  were  dis- 
puting which  was  the  elder,  Siva  came  between  them  in  great  wrath, 
saying,  "  It  is  I  who  am  truly  the  first  born  ;  but  I  will  yield  my  pre- 
tensions to  either  of  you  wiio  shall  be  able  to  reach  or  behold  the 
summit  of  my  head  or  the  soles  of  my  feet."  Brahma  instantly 
ascended,  but,  having  searched  in  vain  in  the  regions  of  imnier-sity, 
he  returned  and  falsely  declared  tliat  he  liad  seen  the  crown  of 
Siva's  iiead.  When  Vishnu  came  back  from  his  search,  he  frankly 
acknowledged  he  had  not  been  able  to  find  the  feet  of  Siva.  There- 
upon Mahadeva  cut  off  the  fifth  head  of  Brahma  for  his  falsehood, 
leaving  him  only  four.  This  story  seems  at  first  sight  sufficiently 
absurd;  but  if  we  may  suppose  that  the  Hindoos  were  acquainted 
with  the  internal  heat  of  the  earth,  (and  why  may  not  the  nation 
which  was  in  advance  of  all  others  in  some  departments  of  mathe- 
matics and  astronomy  have  known  something  also  of  geology?)  the 
explanation  of  tlie  fable  is  simple  enough.  Brahma  is  the  earth  ; 
Vislinu,  water,  (including  the  sea  ;)  Siva,  fire  in  all  its  forms.  As  the 
highest  parts  of  the  earth  (the  mountains)  can  never  reach  the 
heavenly  fire,  (the  sim,)  so  the  sea  can  never  reach  the  feet  or  lowest 
part  of  the  internal  fire  of  the  earth.  Brahma's  four  heads  are  doubt- 
less the  four  corners  of  the  earth  ;  the  fifth  head  may  possibly  have 
been  some  mountain  whose  summit  (like  that  of  Vesuvius  in  the  year 
79  A.D.)  was  carried  away  by  volcanic  fire. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SIVAJI 


2026 


SKELTON 


his  side.  It  is  related  that  on  a  certain  occasion,  in 
beseeching  a  favour  of  her  lord, — or,  as  some  say,  in 
mere  playfulness, — she  placed  one  of  her  hands  upon 
his  forehead  ;  his  middle  eye  (the  sun)  was  completely 
eclipsed,  and,  although  she  instantly  took  her  hand 
away,  the  period  of  darkness  seemed  an  age  to  the  in- 
habitants of  the  earth.  When  she  removed  her  hand, 
it  was  covered  with  the  perspiration  from  Siva's  temples. 
Shaking  off  the  moisture,  she  produced  the  Ganges.  The 
fable  is  related  variously,  but  the  universal  tradition  is 
that  the  Ganges  sprang  from  Siva's  hair  ;  and  in  many  of 
his  pictures  it  is  seen  tlowing  from  the  top  of  his  head. 

As  the  destroying  power,  the  office  of  Siva  is  to  rid  the 
world  of  monsters,  wicked  men  or  evil  giants;  although 
in  this  capacity  his  Sakti  (Kali  or  Durga)  is  more  usually 
employed.  (See  Kali  and  PakvatI.)  As  presiding  over 
generation,  he  is  worshipped  with  offerings  by  those  who 
are  desirous  of  obtaining  offspring.  In  this  character 
he  is  sometimes  represented  as  Ardha-Nari,  or  Ardha- 
Narisha,  (see  ViRAj,)  a  being  combining  the  two  sexes 
or  two  principles,  male  and  female,  of  which  the  Linga 
(or  Ling)  and  Yoni  are  the  respective  symbols. 

Siva  has  a  great  multitude  of  names,  as  Sanibhu,*  (or 
Shambhu,)  Rudra,t  (rood'ra,)  and  Nilakantlia,  (nee'la- 
kiin't'ha,)  i.e.  the  "blue-throated,"  because,  when  the 
gods  and  Asurs  churned  the  ocean,  there  came  forth  a 
poison  of  such  deadly  power  that  it  would  have  destroyed 
all  the  inhabitants  of  the  world  had  not  Siva  come  to  the 
rescue  and  swallowed  it ;  its  only  effect  was  to  leave  a 
dark-blue  mark  on  his  neck  or  throat,  whence  he  is  often 
called  the  "  blue-throated."  He  is  also  styled  Is  war  a  or 
Isa,  (or  19a,)  i.e.  "  ruler."  Mahesa  is  a  contraction  of 
Maha  Isa,  i.e.  the  "  Great  Ruler. 

A  worshipper  of  Siva  is  called  by  the  Hindoos  Saiva, 
(si'va.)  It  may  be  remarked  that  while  the  ])ious  Hindoos 
render  a  sort  of  homage  to  all  the  gods,  they  have  certain 
favourites  to  whom  they  dedicate  an  especial  worship. 

In  pictures,  Siva  is  sometimes  represented  with  one, 
and  sometimes  with  five  heads,  usually  riding  on  a  white 
bull  called  Nandi.  Like  his  consort  Kali,  he  is  generally 
adorned  with  a  necklace  of  human  skulls,  and  often  has  a 
U\<\tnt  ( trtsiVd)  in  his  hand.  He  frequently  holds  an 
antelope  in  one  of  his  hands,  typical  perhaps  of  his  skill 
as  a  hunter.  His  son  Ganesa  is  usually  near  at  hand, 
sometimes  as  an  infant  in  the  arms  of  Parvati,  and  some- 
times as  an  attendant  waiting  on  his  parents. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon;"  Guigniaut,  "Religions  de 
I'Antiquite,"  vol.  i.  book  i.  chap.  ii. 

Sivaji.    See  Sevajee. 

Six,  six,  (John,)  a  Dutch  dramatic  poet,  born  in  1618 
in  Amsterdam,  of  which  he  became  burgomaster.  His 
tragedy  of  "Medea"  was  much  admired.    Died  in  1700 

See  De  Bosch,  "  Histoire  de  la  Poesie  Hollandaise." 

Sixte.    See  Sixtus. 

Six'tus  [Fr.  Sixte,  sikst ;  It.  Sisto,  s^s'to]  I.,  a 
bishop  of  Rome,  of  whom  little  is  known,  succeeded 
Alexander  I.  He  is  supi)osed  to  have  died  about  128  a.d. 

Sixtus  II.  became  Bishop  of  Rome  in  257  A.D.,  and 
suffered  martyrdom  under  Valerianus  in  258  A.D. 

Sixtus  III.  succeeded  Celestine  I.  as  Bishop  of  Rome 
in  431  A.D.    Died  in  440. 

Sixtus  IV.,  (Francesco  della  Rovere — deKia  ro- 
va'ra,)  Pope,  born  about  1414,  succeeded  Paul  II.  in 
1471.  He  was  an  accomplice  or  abettor  of  the  Pazzi, 
who  conspired  against  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  and  he  ex- 
communicated Lorenzo  for  hanging  the  Archbishop  of 
Pisa.  The  clergy  of  Florence  supported  Lorenzo  and 
openly  condemned  the  conduct  of  the  pope.  He  ren- 
dered himself  unpopular  by  his  nepotism,  simony,  and 
other  vices.    Died  in  1484. 

See  Pi.ATiNA,  "  De  Vitis  Pontificum ;"  Artaud  de  Montor, 
"Histoire  des  Pontifes  Roniains." 

Sixtus  v.,  [Fr.  Sixte-Quint,  s^jkst'k^N' ;  Lat.  Six'- 
Tus  Quin'tus,]  whose  original  name  was  Felix  Pe- 
retti,  was  born  near  Montalto  in  1521,  and  in  1585 
succeeded  Gregory  XHI.  as  pope.  As  a  ruler  he  was 
distinguished  for  his  energy  and  munificent  spirit :  he 
constructed  the  Vatican  Library,  the  obelisk  in  the  piazza 

*  From  the  Sanscrit  shdinbhll,  "prosperous." 

t  Signifying  a  "storm,"  or  "  stormy,"  according  to  some  writers. 


of  Saint  Peter's  Church,  the  great  aqueduct  called  by 
his  name,  and  other  magnificent  public  works.  He  also 
founded  several  colleges,  published  editions  of  the  Vul- 
gate and  the  Septuagint,  and  edited  the  works  of  Saint 
Ambrose.  Died  in  1589.  He  was  succeeded  by  Urban 
VII.  It  is  reported  that  Sixtus  V.,  before  his  election, 
simulated  the  infirmities  of  old  age  so  artfully  that 
the  cardinals  thought  he  had  not  long  to  live;  but  as 
soon  as  he  became  pope  he  threw  away  his  crutch  and 
astonished  them  by  his  vigour. 

See  Tkmpksti,  "  Storia  della  Vita  e  Gesti  di  Sisto  V.,"  1754; 
Ranke,  "  History  of  the  Popes;"  V.  Robakdi,  "  Sixti  V.  Gesta," 
1590;  J.  LoRENiz,  "Sixtus  V.  und  seine  Zeit,"  1S52:  G.  Rogeri, 
"Vita  di  Sisto  V.  ;"  "Life  of  Sixtus  V.,"  by  G.  Leti,  (translated 
from  the  Dalian;)  Skgretain,  "Sixte  Vet  Henri  IV,"  1861 ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sixtus  OF  Sienna,  an  Italian  monk  and  popular 
preacher,  born  at  Sienna  in  1520.  He  wrote  "  Sacred 
Library,"  ("  Bibliotheca  Sancta,"  1586.)    Died  in  1569. 

Sjoberg  or  Sjoeberg,  sho'bgRg,  (Erik,)  a  Swedish 
poet,  born  in  Sodermanland  in  1794.  He  published  in 
1819  a  collection  of  lyrics  under  the  signature  of  Vi  talis, 
which  gave  him  a  high  reputation.  He  also  translated 
into  Swedish  some  of  the  works  of  Washington  Irving. 
Died  in  1828. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Sjogren  or  Schoegren,  sho'gR^n,  (Andreas  Jo- 
HAN,)  a  distinguished  philologist,  born  in  Finland  in 
1794.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Abo,  and  sub- 
sequently resided  in  Russia.  He  was  appointed  in  1833 
adjunct  librarian  of  the  Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg, 
and  in  1845  director  of  the  Ethnographical  Museum  of 
that  institution.  He  published  an  "  Ossetic  Grammar 
and  Vocabulary,"  (1844,  in  German,)  a  treatise  "On 
the  Finnish  Language  and  Literature,"  and  other  similar 
works  of  a  high  character.    Died  in  1855. 

Skadi,  ski'de,  or  SkaSi,  ska'the,  |from  skada,  to 
"injure,"  cognate  with  the  Danish  skade,  the  German 
schaden,  and  the  English  scath^  in  the  Norse  mythol- 
ogy, the  daughter  of  the  Jotun  Thiassi,  (or  Thjassi,) 
and  the  wife  of  Njord,  with  whom,  however,  she  does 
not  live  harmoniously.  Njord  prefers  the  fertile  plains 
near  the  sea,  or  the  ocean  ruled  by  gentle  winds,  (see 
Njord  ;)  but  Skadi  delights  in  the  storms  of  the  moun- 
tains. Her  dwelling  is  called  Thrymheim,  (the  "home 
or  habitation  of  storms.")  She  excels  in  running  on 
snow-shoes,  and  in  shooting  with  her  bow  the  wild  beasts 
of  the  mountain. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Keyser,  "Re- 
ligion of  the  Northmen." 

Skanda.    See  Kartikeya. 

Skaiiderbeg.    See  Scanderbeg. 

Skarbek,  skaR'bSk,  (Fredrik  Florian,)  Count,  a 
popular  Polish  writer,  born  at  Thorn  in  1792,  was  ap- 
pointed in  1818  professor  of  political  economy  at  the 
University  of  Warsaw.  Among  his  ]Drincipal  works  are 
his  "  Theory  of  Financial  Science,"  (1824,)  "Theory  of 
Social  Wealth,"  (in  French,)  and  a  collection  of  "Tales 
and  Humorous  Writings,"  (6  vols.,  1840,)  which  have 
won  for  him  a  high  reputation. 

Skarga,  skaR'ga,  (Piotr  Pawelski,)  a  celebrated 
pulpit  orator  and  theologian,  surnamed  the  Polish 
Chrysostom,  born  in  Masovia  in  1536.  Having  entered 
the  order  of  Jesuits  at  Rome,  he  contributed  greatly  by 
his  eloquence  to  the  establishment  of  Catholicism  in 
Poland.  He  was  for  many  years  court  ])reacher  to 
Sigismund  HI.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  ser- 
mons, and  of  "Lives  of  the  Saints,"  which  is  esteemed 
a  model  of  elegance  in  style,  and  has  passed  through 
many  editions.    Died  in  1612. 

Skeleton,  (John,)  an  English  poet  and  scholar,  born 
about  1460.  Having  studied  at  Cambridge  and  taken 
holy  orders,  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  Duke  of 
York,  afterwards  Hemy  VIII.  He  was  the  author  of 
satires,  elegies,  and  religious  pieces.  His  learning  is 
highly  commended  by  Erasmus,    Died  in  1529. 

See  article  entitled  "  Satirical  Laureate  of  the  Sixteenth  Century," 
in  the  "Dublin  University  Magazine"  for  January,  1S67 ;  "Retro- 
spective Review,"  vol.  vi.,  1822  ;  "  Quarterly  Review"  for  Marcii, 
1844. 

Skeleton,  (Philip,)  an  Irish  divine,  born  in  1707, 
was  the  author  of  "  Deism  Revealed,"  and  "  Proposals 


e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;    ^,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SKINFAXI 


2027 


SLINGELANDT 


for  the  Revival  of  Christianity."  The  latter  was  ascribed 
to  Dean  Swift.    Died  in  1787. 
Skinfaxi.    See  Norvi. 

Skin'ner,  (Ezekiel,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician 
and  Baptist  divine,  born  in  Connecticut  in  1777;  died 
in  1855. 

Skin'ner,  (John,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  poet,  born 
in  the  county  of  Aberdeen  in  1721.  He  published  an 
"Ecclesiastical  History  of  Scotland,"  and  a  number  of 
popular  lyrics.    Died  in  1807. 

Skinner,  (John  Stuart,)  an  American  journalist 
and  agricultural  writer,  born  in  Maryland  in  1788.  In 
1819  he  became  editor  of  the  "American  Farmer,"  the 
first  agricultural  journal  published  in  the  United  States. 
He  afterwards  edited  successively  the  "  Turf  Register," 
"The  Farmer's  Library  and  Agricultural  Journal,"  and 
*  The  Plough,  The  Loom,  and  The  Anvil."  Died  in  1851. 

Skinner,  (Richard,)  an  American  jurist  and  states- 
rrian,  born  at  Litchfield,  Connecticut,  in  1778.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1812,  and  in  1817  chief  justice 
of  Vermont,  and  was  subsequently  twice  elected  Gov- 
ernor of  that  State.    Died  in  1833. 

Skin'ner,  (Stephp:n,)  an  English  philologist  and 
physician,  born  in  London  in  1623.  He  studied  at  Ox- 
ford, and  took  his  medical  degree  at  Heidelberg.  He 
died  in  1667,  leaving  unfinished  an  etymological  dic- 
tionary of  the  English  language,  which  was  published, 
with  additions,  by  Thomas  Henshaw,  under  the  title  of 
"Etymologicon  Linguse  Anglicanae." 

Skinner,  (Thomas  Harvey,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Harvey's  Neck,  North 
Carolina,  in  1 791.  He  became  in  1848  professor  of 
sacred  rhetoric  and  pastoral  theology  at  the  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  New  York.  He  has  published 
"Hints  to  Christians,"  and  other  religious  works. 

Skoda,  sko'dS,  (Joseph,)  a  distinguished  physician, 
born  at  Pilsen,  in  Bohemia,  in  1805.  He  became  in 
1846  professor  of  clinics  at  Vienna,  and  in  1848  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 

Skovoroda,  sko-vo-ro'dA,  known  also  as  Gregory 
Savitch,  a  Russian  ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  ne*- 
Kief  about  1730.  He  studied  theology  at  Halle,  and, 
after  his  return  to  the  Ukraine,  devoted  himself  to  the 
work  of  reconciling  the  so-called  United  Greeks  with  the 
national  Church.  He  died-in  1778,  leaving  a  number  of 
poems,  moral  fables,  and  a  prose  work  entitled  "  Sym- 
phonon,"  also  some  translations  from  the  Homilies  of 
Saint  Chrysostom.  He  is  regarded  as  the  greatest 
writer  the  Ukraine  has  produced. 

Skrym'nir,  Skrym'ner,  or  Skrym'er,  [supposed 
to  be  so  called  from  Skriim,  "show,"  "feint,"  on  account 
of  the  illusions  which  he  practised,]  the  name  of  a 
mighty  giant,  (mentioned  in  the  Edda,)  who  baffled, 
with  his  magic  illusions,  all  the  prowess  of  Thor.  The 
god  of  thunder  is  said  to  have  struck,  with  his  terrible 
Miolnir,  the  sleeping  Skrymnir  on  his  head,  putting  forth 
all  his  might.  The  giant  awoke,  and  asked  whether 
some  small  leaf  or  a  grain  of  dust  had  not  fallen  on  his 
head.  The  myth  of  Skrymnir  is  supposed  to  typify  the 
unconquerable  might  of  a  Northern  winter. 

For  a  particular  account  of  Thor's  adventures  witli  Skrymnir,  see 
Mallet,  "Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.  Fables  XXIII.-XXVl.  ; 
Thokpe,  "  Nortliern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  pp.  57-65. 

Skrzynecki,  skzhe-net'skee,  (John,)  a  Polish  gene- 
ral, born  in  Galicia  in  1787,  served  with  distinction  in 
the  army  of  Napoleon  against  the  Austrians  and  Rus- 
sians, and,  soon  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution 
of  1830,  succeeded  Prince  Radzivvill  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Polish  forces.  After  'the  defeat  of  the  Poles 
at  Ostrolenka,  (1831,)  he  was  deprived  of  his  command, 
and  retired  to  Belgium,  where  he  resided  till  a  short 
time  before  his  death,  in  i860. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Skytte,  skut'teh  or  skit'teh,  (JoHAN,)  called  also 
Schroderus,  a  Swedish  statesman  and  writer,  born  at 
Nykoping  in  1577.  He  was  the  preceptor  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  who  appointed  him  president  of  the  chamber 
of  accounts  in  1620.  He  was  employed  in  several 
foreign  missions,  and  obtained  the  dignity  of  senator. 
Died  in  1645. 

See  Neikter,  "  Monumenta  et  Liters  Historiain  J.  Skytte  illus- 
•jantes,"  1802. 


Slade,  (Adolphus,)  an  English  naval  officer,  born 
about  1804.  He  entered  the  Turkish  naval  service, 
in  which  he  effected  several  reforms.  He  published 
"  Recf)rds  of  Travels  in  Turkey." 

Slade,  (William,)  an  American  Governor,  born  in 
Cornwall,  Vermont,  in  1786.  He  served  in  Congress 
from  1 83 1  to  1843,  distinguished  himself  by  his  oppo- 
sition to  slavery,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  Vermont 
in  1844.    Died  in  1859. 

Sla'ter,  (Samuel,)  an  English  artisan  and  mecha- 
nician, born  in  Derbyshire  in  1768.  Having  emigrated 
to  America,  he  established  at  Pawtucket,  Rhode  Lsland, 
in  1790,  one  of  the  first  cotton-factories  in  the  United 
States.    Died  in  1835. 

Slater  or  Slatyer,  (William,)  Rev.,  an  English 
poet,  born  in  Somersetshire  in  1587.  He  became  rector 
of  Otterden,  in  Kent.  Among  his  works  is  "  Palae- 
Albion  ;  or,  A  History  of  Great  Britain,  in  Latin  and 
English  Verse."    Died  in  1647. 

Slee^man,  (Sir  William  Henry,)  an  English  officer 
and  writer,  born  in  Cornwall  in  1788.  He  served  in  the 
Indian  campaign  of  1812,  and  was  appointed  in  1820 
agent  for  the  districts  of  Nerbudda  and  Saugur.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Review  and  Analysis  of  the  Pe- 
culiar Doctrines  of  the  System  of  Political  Economy 
Ibunded  by  Ricardo,"  "Rambles  and  Recollections  of 
an  Lidian  Officer,"  (1843,)  '^''"^1  other  works.  Sir  William 
was  made  a  knight  commander  of  the  Bath  for  his 
services  in  suppressing  the  Thugs,  and  for  other  reforms 
in  India.    Died  in  1856. 

Sleidan,  sliMan  or  sI^MSn',  [Lat.  Sleida'nus,] 
(JoHANN,)  an  eminent  historian  and  diplomatist,  whose 
original  name  was  Philipsohm,' was  born  at  Sleida,  near 
Cologne,'  in  1506.  He  studied  law  at  Liege,  Lou  vain, 
Paris,  and  Orleans,  and  was  subsequently  employed  by 
Francis  I.  of  France  as  his  delegate  to  the  Diet  of  Ratis- 
bon.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Strasburg  in  1542, 
and  in  1545  was  sent  on  an  embassv  to  England  by 
the  Protestant  princes,  who  had  ]:)ieviously  appointed 
him  historiographer  of  the  Schmalkaldic  League.  He 
was  a  deputy  from  Strasburg  to  the  Council  of  Trent 
in  1551.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "Commentaries 
on  the  State  of  Religion  and  of  the  Republic  under 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.,"  ("De  Statu  Religionis  et  Rei- 
publicae  Carolo  V.  Cajsare  Commentarii,"  in  25  books, 
1555.)  It  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  accuracy  and  im- 
l^artiality,  and  for  the  purity  of  its  style,  and  has  been 
translated  into  several  languages.    Died  in  1556. 

See  D.  W.  Mom.eu,  "  Disputatio  circularis  de  J.  Sltidano," 
1697;  Am  Endh.  "  Verniisclite  Anmerkuugen  den  beriilimten  J. 
Sleidan,"  1780;  Throdor  Paur,  "  Conimentatio  de  J.  Sleidano," 
1842;  "Nouvelle  Bio-raphie  Generale." 

Sleidanus.    Se.e  Sleidan. 

Sleipnir  or  Sleipner,  slTp'nir,  [from  sleip7',  "smooth," 
"gliding,"  cognate  with  the  English  "slippery,"]  a 
wondrous  horse  belonging  to  Odin,  on  which  the  god 
rode  over  land  and  sea.  He  had  eight  legs,  which,  ac- 
cording to  some  writers,  are  simply  expressive  of  his 
extraordinary  fleetness  ;  others,  with  much  plausibility, 
suggest  that  the  myth  is  intended  to  represent  the  wind 
blowing  from  the  eight  principal  points  of  the  compass. 
Sleipnir  is  occasionally  spoken  of  as  four-footed. 

See  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mytholoc,}',"  vol.  i.  :  M  allet,  "  North- 
ern Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.  Fable  XXL  ;  also  Matthew  Arnold's 
poem  entitled  "  ]5alder  Dead." 

Sli-delF,  (John,)  an  American  lawyer  and  ]3olitician, 
born  in  New  York  in  1793.  Having  removed  to  New 
Orleans,  he  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1843,  and  in 
1845  was  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Mexico. 
He  was  subsequently  elected  (1853)  to  the  United  States 
Senate,  from  which  he  withdrew  after  the  ordinance  of 
secession  was  passed  in  1861.  During  a  voyage  to 
France,  to  which  he  was  sent  by  Jefferson  Davis,  he 
was  captured  from  the  steamer  Trent,  in  November, 
1861,  by  Captain  Wilkes,  of  the  United  States  navy. 
(See  Mason,  James  Murray.) 

Slingelandt,  van,  vSn  sling'eh-lant^  (Pieter,)  a 
celebrated  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  in  1640,  was 
a  pupil  of  Gerard  Dow,  whose  works  he  imitated  suc- 
cessfully in  exquisite  finish  and  minuteness  of  detail. 
Among  his  master-pieces  may  be  named  the  portraits 
of  the  Meerman  family,  in  the  Louvre,  upon  which  he 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  y., guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SLINGENETER 


SMERDIS 


is  said  to  have  been  employed  three  years.  Died  in 
1691. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Slingeneyer,  sh"ng'en-i'er,  (Ernest,)  a  Belgian  his- 
torical painter,  born  near  Ghent  in  1823.  Among  his 
works  are  "  The  Death  of  Jacobsen,"  "  The  Battle  of 
Lepanto,"  and  "The  Death  of  Nelson." 

Sloan,  slon,  (Samuel,)  an  American  architect,  born 
in  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  March  7,  1815.  He  es- 
tablished himself  in  Philadelphia,  and  published,  besides 
other  works,  the  "Model  Architect,"  (1850-51,)  "City 
and  Suburban  Architecture,"  (1859,)  and  "Homestead 
Architecture,"  (i860.)  He  also  publishes  the  "Archi- 
tectural Review,"  (commenced  in  1868.)  Some  of  the 
most  important  edifices  in  Pennsylvania  and  other  States 
have  been  built  after  his  designs.  Among  these  we 
may  name  the  Blockley  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  near 
Philadelphia,  and  the  State  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  at 
Montgomery,  in  Alabama. 

Sloane,  slon,  (Sir  Hans,)  a  celebrated  physician  and 
naturalist,  of  Scottish  extraction,  born  in  the  county 
of  Down,  Ireland,  in  1660.  He  studied  medicine  and 
the  natural  sciences  in  London,  and  subsequently  visited 
France,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Tournefort 
and  other  distinguished  savants.  Having  returned  to 
London  with  a  large  collection  of  plants,  he  settled  as  a 
physician  in  that  city,  and  was  elected  in  1685  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society.  He  afterwards  spent  some  time 
in  Jamaica  and  other  West  India  islands,  where  he 
collected  a  great  number  of  plants.  After  his  return, 
he  became  successively  secretary  to  the  Royal  Society, 
(1693,)  physician-general  to  the  army,  (1716,)  president 
of  the  College  of  Physicians,  (1719,)  and  physician  to 
the  king,  (1727.)  About  the  same  time  he  succeeded 
Newton  as  president  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  filled 
for  thirty  years  the  post  of  physician  to  Christ's  Hos- 
pital, London,  devoting  his  salary  entirely  to  charitable 
purposes,  and  assisted  in  establishing  the  Foundling 
Hospital.  He  died  in  1753,  leaving  his  library  of  fifty 
thousand  volumes,  a  cabinet  of  two  hundred  volumes 
of  dried  plants,  and  an  immense  collection  of  other 
objects  in  natural  history,  chiefly  accumulated  by  him- 
self, to  be  offered  to  the  nation  for  twenty  thousand 
pounds.  This  purchase  being  made  by  the  govern- 
ment, originated  the  British  Museum.  Besides  numer- 
ous contributions  to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions," 
Sir  Hans  Sloane  published  the  "  Natural  History  of 
Jamaica,"  (2  vols,  fob,  1725,)  a  work  of  high  reputation. 

See  "  Biograpbia  Britannica  ;"  Grandjean  de  Fouchy,"  ]£loges," 
tome  i.  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Slo'cum,  (Henry  Wadsworth,)  an  American  gene- 
ral, born  at  or  near  Syracuse,  New  York,  in  1827.  He 
entered  the  Academy  at  West  Point  in  1848,  and  gradu- 
ated there  in  1852.  In  1856  he  resigned  his  commission 
in  the  army,  and  adopted  the  profession  of  lawyer.  Soon 
after  the  civil  war  began,  he  became  colonel  of  a  regi- 
ment of  volunteers,  and  was  sent  to  Virginia.  He  was 
appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  the  autumn  of  1861, 
commanded  a  division  in  the  battles  of  Gaines's  Mill, 
While  Oak  Swamp,  and  Malvern  Hill,  and  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  major-general  in  July,  1862.  He 
commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville, 
and  at  Gettysburg,  July  2  and  3,  1863.  In  August,  1864, 
he  obtained  command  of  a  corps  in  the  army  of  Gene- 
ral Sherman.  He  led  one  of  the  wings  or  columns  of 
that  army  in  the  great  march  from  Atlanta  to  Savannah, 
November-December,  1864. 

Slodtz,  slos  or  slots,  (Paul  Ambrotse,)  a  painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1702,  was  a  son  of  Sebastien,  noticed 
below.    Died  in  1758. 

Slodtz,  (Ren6  Michel,)  a  French  sculptor,  called 
Michael  Angelo,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1705.  His 
chief  work  is  "The  Tomb  of  the  Curate  Languet." 
Died  in  1764. 

Slodtz,  slAts,  (Sebastien,)  a  Flemish  sculptor,  born 
at  Antwerp  in  1655,  was  the  father  of  Paul  Ambroise, 
noticed  above.    Died  in  Paris  in  1726. 

Slowacki,  slo-vits'kee,  (Julius,)  a  popular  Polish 
poet,  born  at  Wilna  in  1809.  He  took  an  active  part 
as  a  soldier  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  published  a 


number  of  spirited  lyrics  in  favour  of  the  patriotic 
cause.  He  also  wrote  epic  poems,  entitled  "Jan  Bie- 
lecki,"  "  Lambro,"  and  "Hugo;"  also  "  Mazeppa," 
"  Maria  Stuart,"  and  other  dramas.    Died  in  1851. 

Sluse,  sliiz,  (R.  F.  Walter,)  a  Flemish  Orientalist 
and  mathematician,  born  at  Vise  in  1622,  was  canon  of 
Liege,    Died  in  1685. 

Sluys,  van  der,  vtn  der  slois,  (Jacob,)  a  skilful 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  in  1660.  His  favourite 
subjects  were  festivals,  conversation-pieces,  and  assem- 
blies.   Died  in  1736. 

Smalbroke,  smawKbrook,  (Richard,)  an  English 
theologian,  born  at  Birmingham  in  1672  or  1673.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry  in  1730,  and 
wrote  a  "  Vindication  of  Our  Saviour's  Miracles,"  (1729,) 
Died  in  1749. 

Smalcius,  sm^lt'se-us,  or  Smalz,  smilts,  (Valen- 
tin,) a  German  Unitarian  minister  and  writer,  born  at 
Gotha  in  1572.  He  preached  at  Racow,  in  Poland.  Died 
in  1622. 

Smai'ridge,  (George,)  a  learned  English  prelate, 
born  at  Lichfield  in  1663.  He  became  Bishop  of  Bristol 
in  1714.  He  published  a  volume  of  Sermons,  (1717.) 
Died  in  1719. 

Smalz.    See  Smalcius. 

Smart,  (Christopher,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Kent  in  1722.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  where  he  be- 
came noted  for  his  classical  knowledge,  and  subsequently 
made  prose  translations  from  Horace  and  Phaedrus. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson,  who  wrote  his  biogra- 
phy.   Died  in  1770, 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Smea'ton,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  civil  engineer 
and  mechanic,  born  at  Austhorpe,  near  Leeds,  in  1724. 
He  commenced  business  as  a  maker  of  mathematical 
instruments.  He  had  great  mechanical  ingenuity,  and 
made  improvements  in  hydraulic  machinery.  In  1759 
he  received  a  gold  medal  from  the  Royal  Society  for  his 
treatise  "  On  the  Natural  Power  of  Wind  and  Water  to 
drive  Mills,"  His  greatest  work  is  the  Eddystone  Light- 
House,  finished  in  1759.  He  constructed  Ramsgate 
harbour,  and  was  the  engineer  of  the  great  canal  of 
Scotland,  extending  from  the  Clyde  to  the  Forth.  Died 
in  1792. 

See  Smii.ks,  "Lives  of  the  Engineers;"  "Monthly  Review"  for 
July,  August,  and  September,  1791. 

Smed'ley,  (Rev.  Edward,)  an  English  divine  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  about  1790.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  obtained  suc- 
cessively four  Seatonian  jirizes  for  English  poems.  He 
also  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Reformed  Religion  in 
France,"  and  was  editor  for  a  time  of  the  "Encyclo- 
paedia Metropolitana,"    Died  in  1836. 

Smedley,  (Francis  E.,)  an  English  novelist,  born 
about  1820.  He  published  "  Lewis  Arundel,"  (1852,)  and 
"The  Fortunes  of  the  Colville  Family,"  (1856.)"  Died 
in  1864, 

Sniee,  (Alfred,)  an  English  surgeon  and  scientific 
writer,  born  in  1818,  published,  among  other  works, 
"  Lectures  on  Electro-Metallurgy"  (1841)  and  "Electro- 
Biology,"  (1849.)  He  became  a  member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  in  1840,  and  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1841, 

SmeFlie,  (William,)  a  Scottish  surgeon  and  writer 
on  midwifery.  He  practised  for  some  years  in  Scotland, 
and  afterwards  in  London,  He  gave  many  courses 
of  lectures  on  midwifery  in  London,  and  published  a 
"Treatise  on  Midwifery"  in  1752.    Died  in  1763. 

Smellie,  (William,)  a  Scottish  naturalist,  printer, 
and  writer,  born  in  Edinburgh  about  1740.  He  printed 
a  good  edition  of  Terence,  wrote  "The  Philosophy  of 
Natural  History,"  (2  vols.,  1790-95,)  and  translated 
Buffon's  "  Natural  History,"  He  printed  the  first  edi- 
tion of  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  to  which  he 
contributed  several  articles.    Died  in  1795, 

See  Robert  Kerr,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  W.  Smellie,"  2 
vols.,  181 1 ;  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men." 

Smer'dis,  [Gr.  'Liiepik^,']  a  Persian  prince,  was  a 
younger  son  of  Cyrus  the  Great.  He  went  to  Egypt 
with  his  brother  Cambyses,  who  sent  him  back  to  Persia 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SMET 


2029 


SMITH 


and  caused  him  to  be  secretly  put  to  death.  A  Magian 
who  resembled  Smerdis  pretended  that  he  was  the  son 
of  Cyrus,  and  usurped  the  throne.  The  false  Smerdis 
was  killed  by  seven  conspirators,  in  521  B.C. 

See  Grote,  "History  of  Greece;"  Herodotus,  "History." 

Smet,  de,  deh  smgt  or  smi,  (Joseph  Jean,)  a  Belgian 
writer,  born  at  Ghent  in  1794.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"History  of  Belgium,"  (1822.) 

Smet  van  der  Ketten,  sm§t  vtn  der  ket'ten,  [Lat. 
Sme'tius,]  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  antiquary,  born  in  Gelder- 
land  about  1585  ;  died  in  165 1. 

Smi'bert  or  Smy'bert,  (John,)  a  Scottish  painter, 
born  at  Edinburgh  about  1680,  emigrated  in  1728  to 
America,  and  followed  his  profession  in  Boston.  Died 
in  1751. 

Smidt,  smit,  (Johann,)  a  German  diplomatist,  born 
at  Bremen  in  1773  ;  died  in  1857. 

Smiedel,  smee'del,  or  Schmeidel,  shmiMel,  (Ul- 
rich,)  a  German  traveller,  born  at  Straubingen.  He 
was  one  of  a  party  which  went  to  South  America 
about  1534  and  founded  Buenos  Ayres.  He  explored 
the  river  Paraguay  and  visited  Peru.  An  account  of 
his  travels  was  published  in  1554. 

Smiglecius  or  Smigletius,  smi-glee'she-us,  (Mar- 
tin,) a  Polish  Jesuit  and  logician,  born  in  1562.  He 
wrote  several  works  against  Protestantism,  and  a  "  Sys- 
tem of  Logic,"  (1618.)    Died  in  1618. 

Smiles,  (Samuel,)  a  British  biographer,  born  at 
Haddington  about  1816.  He  was  editor  of  the  Leeds 
"Times,"  and  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Life 
of  George  Stephenson,"  (1859,)  and  "The  Lives  of  the 
Engineers,"  (3  vols.,  1861.) 

See  Ai.LiBONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Smin'theus,  [Gr.  ^(xivdEvg  ;  Fr.  Sminth^:e,  smiN^ta',] 
a  surname  of  Apollo,  (which  see.) 

Smirke,  smirk,  (Robert,)  a  distinguished  English 
painter,  born  in  1 75 1.  Among  his  master-pieces,  which 
are  principally  domestic  and  rural  scenes  and  comic 
subjects,  we  may  name  "The  Combat  between  Don 
Quixote  and  the  Giants,"  "  Sancho's  Audience  of  the 
Duchess,"  "The  Gypsy,"  and  "Prince  Henry  and  Fal- 
staff."    He  was  elected  an  Academician  in  1792.  Died 

iu  1845. 

Smirke,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  architect,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1780.  Having  visited  Italy, 
Germany,  and  Greece  in  1805,  he  published,  after  his 
return,  "  Specimens  of  Continental  Architecture,"  (1806.) 
He  constructed  a  number  of  public  edifices  in  London, 
among  which  the  British  Museum  is  the  most  celebrated. 
It  is  of  the  Ionic  order,  and  is  regarded  as  the  most 
superb  Grecian  structure  in  the  city.  His  other  princi- 
pal works  are  the  new  Post-Office,  the  Mint,  the  College 
of  Physicians,  and  the  restoration  of  York  Minster.  He 
was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1812.  Died  in  1867. 

Smirke,  (Sydney,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  also 
distinguished  as  an  architect,  executed  several  works  in 
conjunction  with  Sir  Robert.  The  New  Reading-Room 
of  the  British  Museum  is  esteemed  his  master-piece.  • 

Smith,  (Adam,)  a  celebrated  Scottish  philosopher 
and  political  economist,  born  at  Kirkaldy,  in  Fifeshire, 
June  5,  1723.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Glasgow,  where  he  remained  from  1737  to  1740,  and 
at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  which  he  quitted  about  1747. 
Having  returned  to  Scotland,  he  formed  friendships 
with  Hume  and  Lord  Kame.s.  In  1751  he  obtained  the 
chair  of  logic  in  the  University  of  Glasgow.  He  became 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  the  same  university  in 
1752,  and  published  his  "Theory  of  Moral  Sentiments" 
in  1759.  He  was  very  popular  as  a  lecturer.  In  1763 
he  resigned  his  professorship,  and  accepted  the  place 
of  companion  to  the  young  Duke  of  Buccleugh,  with 
whom  he  travelled  on  the  continent  two  or  three  years. 
He  associated  in  Paris  with  D'Alembert,  Necker,  Tur- 
got,  and  Quesnay.  In  1766  he  returned  to  Kirkaldy, 
where  he  passed  ten  years  in  the  composition  of  the 
work  on  which  his  reputation  is  chiefly  founded,  "An 
Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Causes  of  the  Wealth  of 
Nations,"  (2  vols.,  1776.)  He  maintains  that  labour 
rather  than  money  or  land  is  the  true  source  of  national 
wealth.  He  also  advocated  free  trade  and  opposed  the 
policy  of  those  governments  which  attempt  to  control 


the  laws  of  supply  and  demand.  After  the  publication 
of  this  work  he  passed  two  years  in  London.  He  was 
appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  of  customs  for 
Scotland  in  1778,  after  which  date  he  resided  in  Edin- 
burgh until  his  death.  He  never  married.  Died  in 
July,  1790. 

"  Perhaps,"  says  Mackintosh,  "  there  is  no  ethical 
work  since  Cicero's  '  Offices,' of  which  an  abridgment 
enables  the  reader  so  inadequately  to  estimate  the  merit, 
as  the  '  Theory  of  Moral  Sentiments.'  This  is  not  chiefly 
owing  to  the  beauty  of  diction,  as  in  the  case  of  Cicero, 
but  to  the  variety  of  explanations  of  life  and  manners 
which  embellish  the  book  often  more  than  they  illustrate 
the  theory.  Yet,  on  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  owned 
that  for  philosophical  purposes  few  works  more,  need 
abridgment ;  for  the  most  careful  reader  frequently  loses 
sight  of  principles  buried  under  illustrations.  .  .  .  That 
Smith  is  the  first  who  has  drawn  the  attention  of  phi- 
losophers to  one  of  the  most  curious  and  important  parts 
of  human  nature — who  has  looked  closely  and  steadily 
into  the  workings  of  sympathy,  its  sudden  action  and 
reaction,  its  instantaneous  conflicts  and  its  emotions,  its 
minute  play  and  varied  illusions — is  sufficient  to  place 
him  high  among  the  cultivators  of  mental  philosophy." 
The  same  writer  speaks  of  Smith's  "  Wealth  of  Nations" 
as  "perhaps  the  only  book  which  produced  an  imme- 
diate general  and  irrevocable  change  in  some  of  the 
most  important  parts  of  the  legislation  of  all  civilized 
nations." 

See  DuGALD  Stewart,  "Life  and  Writings  of  Adam  Smith;" 
Lord  Brougham,  "Memoir  of  Adam  Sniitli,"  in  "Lives  of  Men 
of  Letters  and  Science;"  ^LACKlNTosH,  "General  View  of  the 
Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy ;"  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dic- 
tionary of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Au- 
thors;" "Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1759,  and  April,  1776. 

Smith,  (Albert,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  at 
Chertsey  in  1816.  Among  his  principal  works  arc 
novels,  entitled  "The  Scattergood  Family,"  "The  Pot- 
tleton  Legacy,"  "  Marchioness  of  Brinvilliers  ;"  also  the 
"National  Histories  of  Stuck-up  People,"  "The  Idler 
upon  Town,"  and  other  humorous  sketches.  In  1851; 
he  ascended  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc,  which  adven^ 
ture  he  afterwards  made  the  subject  of  a  popular  dramatic 
entertainment.    Died  in  i860. 

Smith,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at  Kilmar- 
nock, Ayrshire,  in  1829  or  1830.  He  learned  the  business 
of  pattern-drawer.  About  1852  he  produced  a  poem 
entitled  "The  Life  Drama,"  which  was  greatly  admired 
by  many.  He  was  elected  secretary  of  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  in  1854,  and  married  Flora  Macdonald  in 
1858.  He  contributed  articles  in  prose  to  the  "  North 
British  Review,"  "Blackwood's  Magazine,"  and  other 
periodicals.  Among*his  chief  works  were  "  City  Poems," 
(1857,)  and  "Edwin  of  Deira,"  a  historical  poem,  (1861.) 
His  style  is  censured  as  spasmodic  by  some  critics.  His 
poetry  abounds  in  beautiful  images  ;  but  he  is  deficient 
in  sustained  power.  His  prose  writings  have  been  much 
and  generally  admired.    Died  in  January,  1867. 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "  Eraser's  Magazine" 
for  October,  185,^;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  March,  1854; 
"North  British  "Review"  for  August,  1853;  "Good  Words"  for 
March,  1867;  "London  Review"  for  January,  1867. 

Smith,  (Andrew  J.,)  an  American  major-general, 
born  in  Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania,  about  1814,  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1838.  He  commanded  two  divis- 
ions which  were  sent  by  General  Sherman  to  aid  General 
Banks,  and  took  Fort  de  Russy,  on  Red  River,  March 
14,  1864.  He  defeated  the  enemy  at  Tupelo,  Mississippi, 
about  July  14,  and  aided  to  drive  General  Price  out  of 
Missouri  in  October,  1864.  He  commanded  a  corps  at 
the  great  battle  of  Nashville,  December  15  and  16,  1864, 
and  in  the  operations  against  Mobile,  March-April,  1865. 
He  became  a  colonel  of  cavalry  in  the  United  States 
army  in  1866. 

See  Greeley,  "American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii. 

Smith,  (Anker,)  an  English  engraver,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1759.  Among  his  best  works  may  be  named 
the  "  Death  of  Wat  Tyler,"  after  Northcote,  and  the 
"  Apotheosis  of  Handel."  He  was  elected  an  associate 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1797.    Died  in  1819. 

Smith,  (Caleb  B.,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  1808.  He  removed  to  Indiana, 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  YL^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SMITH 


2030 


SMITH 


and  represented  a  district  of  tliat  State  in  Congress  from 
1843  to  1849.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  in- 
terior in  March,  1861,  and  resigned  in  December,  1862. 
Died  in  January,  1864. 

Smith,  (Charles  Ferguson,)  an  American  general, 
born  about  1806.  He  graduated  at  the  Academy  of 
West  Point  in  1825,  and  was  employed  there  for  many 
years  as  instructor  in  tactics  and  commandant  of  cadets. 
For  his  services  in  the  Mexican  war  he  received  three 
brevets,  as  major,  lieutenant-colonel,  and  colonel.  He 
was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  August,  1861,  and 
rendered  important  services  at  Fort  Donelson,  February, 
1862,  soon  after  which  he  was  promoted  to  be  a  major- 
general.  He  died  at  Savannah,  Tennessee,  in  Aj^ril, 
1862.  "  The  more  perfect  bean-ideal  o{  a  soldier,"  says 
Coi)pee,  "  never  existed  in  any  army  than  General 
Smith." 

Smith,  (Lieutenant-Colonel  Charles  Hamilton,)  an 
English  officer  and  naturalist,  born  about  1790,  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Races 
and  Varieties  of  Man,"  and  "  Observations  on  some 
Animals  of  America  allied  to  the  Genus  Antilope." 

Smith,  (Charlotte,)  a  popular  English  novelist,  i 
born  in  Sussex  in  1749.  She  was  the  author  of  "The 
Old  Manor-House,"  "  Marchmont,"  "Desmond,"  "The 
Romance  of  Real  Life,"  and  other  novels  ;  r.lso  "  Elegiac 
Sonnets,"  and  various  other  poems.  Her  life  was 
written  by  Sir  Walter  Scott.    Died  in  1806. 

See  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works;  Mrs. 
Elwood,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England,"  etc. 

Smith,  (Christopher  W.,)  an  English  ornithologist, 
born  about  1794.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  "  Ornithology 
of  Hindostan." 

Smith,  (Edmund  Kirby,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Saint  Augustine,  Florida,  about  1825,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1845.  He  becante  a  captain  in  1855, 
resigned  his  commission  in  1861,  and  commanded  a 
division  of  General  Bragg's  army  which  invaded  Ken- 
tucky in  August,  1862.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general,  and  directed  a  corps  at  the  battle  of 
Stone  River,  which  ended  January  2,  1863.  He  had  the 
command  of  all  the  forces  in  Texas  and  Arkansas  from 
April,  1863,  till  April,  1865. 

See  a  notice  of  General  E.  K.  Smith  in  "  Southern  Generals," 
1865. 

Smith,  (Edmund  Neale,)  an  English  jioet,  born  in 
1668.  His  family  name  was  Neale,  to  which  he  added 
Smith.    Died  in  1710. 

Smith,  (Elt,)  an  American  missionary  and  accom- 
plished Arabic  scholar,  born  near  New  flaven,  Con- 
necticut, in  1801.  He  went  to  Syria  in  1826,  studied 
Arabic,  and  settled  at  Beyroot.  In  1838  he  explored 
Palestine  in  company  with  Dr.  Edward  Robinson.  He 
translated  portions  of  the  Bible  into  Arabic.  Died  at 
Beyroot  in  January,  1857. 

Smith,  (Elizabeth,)  an  English  lady,  distinguished 
for  her  attainments  in  the  languages,  mathematics,  and 
the  natural  sciences,  was  born  near  Durham  in  1776. 
Besides  Latin  and  Greek  and  the  principal  European 
languages,  she  was  versed  in  the  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and 
Persian.  She  wrote  a  "Life  of  Khjpstock,"  and  trans- 
lated the  book  of  Job.    Died  in  1806. 

See  Miss  Bowdi.er,  "Life  of  E';i/.abeth  Smitli ;"  Mrs.  Ei.vvood, 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Coniinence- 
ment  of  tlie  Last  Century,"  vol.  ii.,  1843;  "Monthly  Review"  for 
January  and  June,  181 1. 

Smith,  (Mrs.  Elizabeth  Oakes,)  an  American  poet 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  wife  of  Seba  Smith,  noticed 
below,  was  born  near  Portland,  Maine.  She  has  pub- 
lished "The  Sinless  Child,  and  other  Poems,"  "Jacob 
Leisler,"  a  tragedy,  "  Woman  and  her  Needs,"  (1S51,) 
and  other  works.  Mrs.  Smith  has  been  a  prominent 
advocate  of  the  rights  of  woman,  both  as  a  writer  and 
lecturer. 

See  Gkiswoi.d,  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

Smith,  (Francis  Petttt,)  an  English  inventor,  born 
at  Hythe,  Kent,  in  1808.  He  invented  the  mode  of  pro- 
pelling steamboats  by  the  screw,  which  was  employed 
in  the  royal  navy  about  1838. 

Smith,  (Gabriel,)  an  English  engraver,  born  in 
London  in  1724;  died  in  1783. 


Smith,  (Georce,)  an  English  landscape-painter,  born 
in  1714 ;  died  in  1776. 

His  brothers  John  and  William  were  also  distin- 
guished as  painters. 

Smith,  (Gerrtt,)  a  distinguished  American  philan- 
thropist, born  at  Utica,  New  York,  in  1797.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  New  York,  and 
studied  law.  After  a  temporary  connection  with  the 
American  Colonization  Society,  he  withdrew  from  it  in 
1835,  and  became  a  prominent  and  active  member  of  the 
Anti-Slavery  Society.  He  has  also  been  an  earnest  advo- 
cate of  temperance  and  other  reforms,  and,  having  in- 
herited one  of  the  largest  landed  estates  in  the  country, 
has  distributed  nearly  two  hundred  thousand  acres  of 
it  among  the  poor,  without  distinction  of  colour.  Mr. 
Smith  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1852. 

Smith,  (GoLDWiN,)  an  English  teacher  and  writer, 
born  at  Reading  in  1823.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  became  regius  professor  of  modern  history  at  that 
university  in  1858.  Among  his  works  are  "Irish  His- 
tory and  Irish  Character,"  (1861,)  and  "Three  English 
Statesmen,  (Pym,  Cromwell,  and  Pitt),"  1867.  In  poli- 
tics he  is  an  advanced  Liberal.  He  visited  the  United 
States  in  1864,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  English 
history  in  Cornell  University,  at  Ithaca,  in  1868. 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "North  British  Re- 
view" for  August,  1862. 

Smith,  (Green  Clay,)  an  American  general  and 
lawyer,  born  at  Richmond,  Kentucky,  about  183 1.  He 
was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  the  Union  army 
about  June,  1862,  and  served  in  several  actions.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1863. 

Smith,  (GusTAVUS  W.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Kentucky  about  1822,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1842.  He  was  a  street  commissioner  in  New  York  City 
when  the  civil  war  began.  About  September,  1S61,  he 
became  a  major-general  of  the  Confederate  army.  He 
succeeded  to  the  command  at  Fair  Oaks  when  General 
J.  E.  Johnston  was  wounded.  May  31,  1862. 

Smith,  (Henry,)  called  "the  Silver-Tongued,"  an 
English  Puritan  minister,  born  in  Leicestershire  in  1550. 
He  preached  in  London,  and  was  patronized  by  Lord 
Burleigh.  He  wrote  several  religious  works.  Died 
about  1595. 

See  Fuller,  "Life  of  H.  Smith." 

Smith,  (Henry  Boynton,)  D.D.,an  American  Con- 
gregational minister  and  scholar,  born  at  Portland,  Maine, 
in  1815.  He  was  appointed  in  1855  professor  of  sys- 
tematic theology  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York.  He  published  "The  Relations  of  Faith 
to  Philosophy,"  (1849,)  "The  History  of  the  Church 
of  Christ,  in  Chronological  Tables,"  etc.,  (1859,)  and 
other  similar  works.  He  became  in  1859  editor  of  the 
"American  Theological  Review,"  and  contributed  a 
number  of  able  articles  to  Appleton's  "  Cyclopaedia." 

Smith,  (Sir  Henry  George  Wakelyn,)  an  English 
general,  born  at  Whittlesea,  in  the  isle  of  Ely,  in  1788. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  the  principal  battles  of  the 
Peninsular  war,  and  afterwards  in  the  American  war  of 
1812.  He  commanded  as  adjutant-general  in  the  Indian 
campaigns  of  1840  and  1846,  and  had  a  prominent  share 
in  the  signal  victory  over  the  Sikhs  at  Aliwal.  For 
these  services  he  was  made  a  baronet  and  received  the 
grand  cross  of  the  order  of  the  P)ath.  Appointed  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1847,  he  brought 
the  Cafifir  war  to  a  successful  close  in  1852.  He  was 
created  lieutenant-general  in  1854. 

Smith,  (Horace  and  James,)  English  humorists  and 
miscellaneous  writers,  born  in  London,  the  former  about 
1780,  the  latter  in  1775.  They  first  became  known  by 
their  contributions  to  "The  Pic-Nic,"  the  "  London  Re- 
view," and  the  "Monthly  Mirror;"  the  poems  entitled 
"  Horace  in  London,"  in  the  last-named  periodical, 
being  mostly  written  by  James  Smith.  In  1812  they 
brought  out  their  "Rejected  Addresses,"  c(nnposed  on 
the  occasion  of  the  opening  of  the  new  theatre  at  Drury 
Lane,  the  committee  of  which  had  requested  a  number 
of  addresses  to  be  sent  in,  one  of  which  should  obtain 
the  |)rize.  These  poems,  which  are  humorous  imitations 
of  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  Byron,  Scott,  Crabbe,  and 
other  prominent  writers  of  the  time,  met  with  brilliant 


a,  e,  i,  0,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SMITH 


203 1 


SMITH 


success,  and  passed  rapidly  through  numerous  editions. 
James  Smith  wrote  for  the  so-called  "entertainments" 
of  Charles  Mathews  "Trips  to  Paris,"  "Country 
Cousins,"  and  other  comic  sketches.  He  died  in  1839, 
and  his  "Memoirs,  Letters,"  etc.  were  published  by  his 
brother  in  1840.  Among  the  other  works  of  Horace 
Smith  we  may  name  the  novels  of  "  Brambletye  House," 
"  The  Moneyed  Man,"  and  "  Love  and  Mesmerism." 
Died  in  1849. 

See  tlie  "London  Quarterly'  Review"  for  September,  1812; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1812;  "  Eraser's  Magazine" 
for  July,  1S33,  and  November,  1834. 

Smith,  (James,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration 
of  American  Independence,  born  in  Ireland  about  1719. 
Having  emigrated  to  Pennsylvania,  he  was  elected  in 
1776  to  the  Continental  Congress.    Died  in  1806. 

See  Sanderson,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence." 

Smith,  (James,)  of  Deanston,  a  Scottish  agriculturist 
and  mechanician,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1789.  He  pub- 
lished in  1831  a  treatise  "  On  Thorough  Draining  and 
Deep  Ploughing,"  which  improvements  he  was  the  first 
to  bring  into  general  use.  He  was  the  inventor  of  a 
reaping-machine,  for  which  he  obtained  'a  gold  medal 
from  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Saint  Petersburg.  He 
invented  other  useful  machines.    Died  in  1850. 

Smith,  (Sir  James  Edward,)  an  English  physician 
and  botanist,  born  at  Norwich  in  1759.  He  studied  at 
Edinburgh,  and  graduated  at  Leyden,  and,  after  his 
return,  became  in  1788  one  of  the  founders  and  first 
president  of  the  Linnasan  Society.  He  had  previously 
purchased  the  natural  history  collections  and  library  of 
Linnreus.  He  was  appointed  in  1792  teacher  of  botany 
to  Queen  Charlotte  and  the  princesses,  and  in  1814 
received  the  honour  of  knighthood.  His  principal  works 
are  his  "English  Flora,"  (4  vols.,)  "Flora  I^ritannica," 
(3  vols.,  1S04,)  "English  Botany,"  (36  vols.,  1807,)  with 
more  than  2000  coloured  plates  by  Sowerby,  and  "  Flora 
Graeca,"  (1808.)  He  also  wrote  the  principal  articles  on 
botany  in  Rees's  "Cyclopaedia."    Died  in  1828. 

See  "Memoir  and  Correspondence  of  Sir  James  Edward  Smitli," 
by  Ladv  Smith  ;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1S33. 

Smith,  (Jeremiah,)  an  American  jurist  and  states- 
man, born  at  Peterborough,  New  Hampshire.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1 791,  served  in  that 
body  until  1 797,  and  was  chosen  Governor  of  New 
Hampshire  in  1809,  after  which  he  held  the  office  of 
judge.  His  ability  and  merit  are  highly  extolled.  Died 
in  1842. 

See  J.  H.  Morrison,  "Life  of  Jeremiah  Smith,"  1845. 

Smith,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Warwick- 
shire in  1563,  was  lecturer  in  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral. 
Died  in  1616. 

Smith,  (John,)  an  English  writer  on  theology,  born 
in  Northamptonshire  in  1618,  was  a  Fellow  of  Queen's 
College,  Cambridge.    Died  in  1 652. 

Smith,  (John,)  Captain,  the  founder  of  Virginia,  was 
born  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  in  1579.  He  began  at 
an  early  age  to  display  a  propensity  to  daring  adven- 
tures. About  1600  he  enlisted  in  the  Austrian  army, 
and  performed  bold  and  successful  exploits  against  the 
Turks.  He  was  taken  prisoner,  reduced  to  slavery, 
killed  his  master,  and  escaped  into  Russia.  Having 
returned  to  England,  he  accompanied  a  party  of  emi- 
grants who  formed  a  colony  at  Jamestown,  Virginia,  in 
April,  1607.  He  was  captiued  by  the  Indians,  and  was 
condemned  to  death  by  Powhatan,  but  his  life  was  saved 
by  Pocahontas,  a  daughter  of  that  chief.  He  became 
the  principal  person  of  the  colony,  which  was  saved 
from  ruin  by  his  energy  and  fortitude.  In  1608  he  ex- 
plored the  coasts  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  of  which  he  con- 
structed a  map.  He  made  a  voyage  to  England  in  1609, 
and  explored  the  coast  of  New  England  in  1614.  The 
latter  part  of  hisjife  was  passed  in  England.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  a  "General  History  of  Vir- 
ginia, New  England,  and  the  Summer  Isles,"  (1627,)  and 
"The  True  Travels  and  Adventures  of  Captain  John 
Smith  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,"  (1630.) 
Died  in  London  in  163 1. 

See  HiM.ARD,  "Life  of  John  Smith,"  in  Sparks's  "American 
Biography,"  vol.  ii.  ;  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1867. 


Smith,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  diplomatist  and  sol- 
dier in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  sent  in  1576 
on  an  embassy  to  Philip  II.  of  S[)ain.    Died  in  1600. 

Smith,  (John,)  an  English  physician,  born  in  1630, 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "The  Portrait  of  Old  Age."  Died 
in  1679. 

Smith,  (John,)  a  learned  English  divine  and  anti- 
quary, born  in  1659,  published  an  edition  of  the  his- 
torical work.s  of  the  Venerable  Bede.    Died  in  171 5. 

Smith,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  mezzotint  en- 
graver, born  about  1654.  He  executed  numerous  por- 
traits after  Kneller.    Died  about  1720. 

Smith,  (John,)  of  Chichester,  an  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  17 17,  was  a  brother  of  George,  noticed 
above.    Died  in  1764. 

Smith,  (John  Blair,)  born  at  Pequea,  Pennsylvania, 
about  1756,  was  a  brother  of  Samuel  Stanhope,  noticed 
below.  He  became  in  1795  first  president  of  Union 
College,  Schenectadv.    Died  in  1799. 

Smith,  (John  Pye,)  D.13.,  LL.D.,  a  learned  English 
divine  and  theologian,  born  at  Sheffield  in  1774,  became 
pastor  of  the  Independent  chinch  at  Homerton.  He 
received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  Yale  College,  Con- 
necticut, in  1807.  Among  his  numerous  and  valuable 
works  may  be  named  "The  Scripture  Testimony  to 
the  Messiah,"  (2  vols.,  1821,)  "  F<3ur  Discourses  on  the 
Sacrifice  and  Priesthood  of  Jesus  Christ,"  (1827,)  and 
"The  Mosaic  Account  of  the  Creation  and  the  Deluge 
illustrated  by  the  Discoveries  of  Modern  Science," 
(1837.)  Dr.  Smith  was  also  distinguished  as  a  geologist, 
and  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Geological  Society  and  the  Royal 
Society.    Died  in  185 1. 

See  John  Mhdwav,  "  Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Jolm 
Pye  Smith,"  1853. 

Smith,  (John  Raphael,)  an  English  engraver  and 
portrait-j^ainter,  born  at  Derby  about  1750.  He  was 
chiefly  noted  for  his  mezzotint  engravings,  among  which 
is  a  full-length  portrait  of  Charles  James  Fox.  Died 
in  1812. 

Smith,  (John  Stafford,)  an  English  composer  of 
great  merit,  was  born  at  Gloucester  about  1750,  and 
succeeded  Dr.  Arnold  in  1802  as  organist  of  the  chapel 
royal.  He  produced  a  number  of  admired  glees  and 
madrigals,  and  published  "Antient  Songs  of  the  Fif- 
teenth Century."    Died  in  1836. 

Smith,  (John  Thomas,)  an  English  engraver  and 
amateur,  born  in  London  in  1766.  He  studied  draw- 
ing with  the  sculi)tor  Nollekens,  and  subsequently 
entered  the  Royal  Academy.  He  published  in  1800 
his  "  Antiquities  of  London  and  its  Environs,"  which 
was  followed  by  "Antiquities  of  Westminster,"  (1807,) 
"Ancient  Topography  of  London,"  (1815,  4to,  with 
thirty-two  plates,)  and  "Nollekens  and  his  Times," 
(1828.)  He  was  appointed  in  1S16  keeper  of  the  prints 
in  the  British  Museum.    Died  in  1833. 

Smith,  (Joseph,)  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Mormons, 
was  born  in  Sharon,  Windsor  county,  Vermont,  in  1805. 
He  was  taken  by  his  parents  to  Palmyra,  New  York, 
about  181 5,  and,  according  to  his  own  account,  worked 
on  his  father's  farm  in  his  youth.  The  residents  of  that 
vicinity,  however,  testified  that  tlie  Smith  family  avoided 
honest  labour,  had  a  bad  reputation,  and  spent  much 
time  in  digging  for  hidden  treasures.  He  i)retended 
that  he  received  in  1827  a  divine  revelation  written  011 
golden  plates  which  were  brought  to  him  by  an  angel, 
and  that  the  "  liook  of  Mormon,"  which  he  published 
in  1830,  was  translated  from  those  golden  plates.  The 
real  author  of  the  "Book  of  Mormon"  was  Solomon 
Spaldhig,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  who  at  his  death  left 
in  manuscript  an  absurd  story  of  his  invention,  purport- 
ing to  be  a  narrative  of  the  migration  of  the  ten  lost 
tribes  of  Israel  to  America,  and  maintaining  the  hy- 
pothesis that  the  American  Indians  are  desce.nded  from 
the  Hebrews.  Smith  obtained  possession  of  this  manu- 
script, and  published  it  with  some  additions.  Having 
made  a  number  of  converts,  he  removed  with  them  to 
Kirtland,  Ohio,  in  1831,  and  afterwards  to  Independence, 
Missouri.  The  number  of  his  disciples  increased  rapidly, 
but  they  came  into  violent  collision  with  the  "Gentiles," 
and  were  expelled  from  Missouri  about  1838,  after  they 
had  defied  the  officers  of  the  law  and  committed  many 


€  as  ife,  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  ;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^"See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SMITH 


2032 


SMITH 


outrages.  They  next  settled  in  Illinois  and  fonnded  the 
town  of  Nauvoo,  where  they  began  to  build  a  great  tem- 
ple in  1841.  Smith  amassed  a  large  fortune,  assumed 
the  title  of  lieutenant-general  and  president  of  the  Church, 
and  exercised  absolute  authority  over  his  "saints."  He 
provoked  the  popular  indignation  by  attempts  to  seduce 
the  wives  of  other  men,  and  was  arrested  and  confined  in 
jail  at  Carthage.  In  June,  1844,  a  mob  broke  into  the 
jail  and  killed  Joseph  Smith.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Brigham  Young.    (See  Young,  Brigham.) 

See  " Autobiograpliy  of  Joseph  Smith;"  "Mormonism;  its 
Leaders  and  Designs,"  by  John  Hyde,  Jr.,  1857;  J.  B.  Turner, 
"  Lite  of  Joseph  Smith;"  also  article  "  IMormons,"  in  the  "  New 
American  Cyclopaedia." 

Smith,  (Melancthon,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1810.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  commander  in  1855.  He  commanded  the 
steamer  Mississippi  in  the  battle  by  which  Captain  Far- 
ragut  took  New  Orleans  in  April,  1862.  On  the  5th 
of  May,  1864,  he  fought  an  indecisive  battle  against  the 
iron-clad  ram  Albemarle  at  the  mouth  of  the  Roanoke 
River. 

See  J.  T.  Headley,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders," 
1867. 

Smith,  (Miles,)  an  English  bishop,  born  at  Hereford 
in  1568,  was  one  of  the  principal  translators  of  the  Bible. 
Died  in  1624. 

Smith,  (Richard,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic  priest, 
born  in  Worcestershire  in  1500.  He  became  a  professor 
of  divinity  at  Oxford,  and  chaplain  to  Queen  Mary.  At 
the  execution  of  Ridley  and  Latimer,  Smith  preached  a 
sermon  on  the  text,  "  Though  I  give  my  body  to  be 
burned,  and  have  not  charity,  it  profiteth  me  nothing." 
Died  in  1563. 

Smith,  (Richard,)  an  English  poletnical  writer,  born 
in  Lincolnshire  in  1566.  He  wrote  in  defence  of  popery. 
Died  in  1655. 

Smith,  (RoKERT,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and  dis- 
tinguished mathematician,  born  in  1689,  was  preceptor 
to  the  Duke  of  Cumberland.  He  became  Plumian  pro- 
fessor of  astronomy  at  Cambridge  in  1 7 16,  and  in  1742 
succeeded  Bentley  as  master  of  Trinity  College.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  treatise  entitled  "  Harmonics,  or 
the  Philosophy  of  Musical  Sounds,"  and  a  "  Complete 
System  of  Optics,"  (2  vols.  4to,  1738:)  the  latter  is  es- 
teemed a  standard  work.  Dr.  Smith  was  a  cousin  of 
Roger  Cotes,  some  of  whose  writings  he  published.  He 
had  been  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1718. 
Died  in  1768. 

Smith,  (Robert,)  of  Maryland,  an  American  minister 
of  state,  born  about  1757.  He  was  secretary  of  the  navy 
from  January,  1802,  to  March,  1805,  and  secretary  of 
state  from  March,  1809,  to  November,  1811.  Died  in 
Baltimore  in  1842. 

Smith,  (RoKERT  Angus,)  F.R.S.,  a  Scottish  chemist, 
born  near  Glasgow  about  181 7.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  *'  Life  of  Dalton  and  a  History  of  the  Atomic 
Theory." 

Smith,  (Robert  Payne,)  an  English  clergyman,  dis- 
tinguished as  a  Hebraist  and  Arabic  scholar,  was  born 
in  1818.  He  became  in  1865  regius  professor  of  divinity 
in  the  University  of  Oxford,  of  which  he  was  a  graduate. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "The  Authenticity 
and  Messianic  Interpretation  of  the  Prophecies  of  Isaiah 
vindicated  in  a  Course  of  Sermons,"  (Oxford,  1862.) 

Smith,  (Robert  Vernon.)    See  Lyveden,  Lord. 

Smith,  (Samuel,)  a  ])opular  English  writer  of  re- 
ligious tracts,  born  in  Worcestershire  in  1588,  was  a 
Presbyterian  preacher  during  the  civil  war  which  began 
in  1642.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "The  Great 
Assize."    Died  after  1660. 

Smith,  (Samuel,)  an  American  historian,  born  at 
Burlington,  New  Jersey,  in  1720.  He  published  a  "His- 
tory of  New  Jersey,"  (1755.)    Died  in  1776. 

Smith,  (Samuel,)  an  English  engraver  of  great  merit, 
lived  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

Smith,  (S.AMUEL  Francis,)  D.D.,  an  American  Bap- 
tist divine,  born  at  Boston  in  1808.  He  became  in  1842 
editor  of  the  "Christian  Review,"  at  Newton,  Massa- 
chusetts. He  has  published  a  number  of  popular  lyrics 
and  hymns. 


Smith,  (Samuel  J.,)  an  American  ])oet,  born  near 
Burlington,  New  Jersey,  in  1771.  He  died  in  1835,  and 
his  "Miscellaneous  Writings"  were  published  in  1836. 

See  Ci,evei.and'.s  "Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Smith,  (Samuel  Stanhope,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Amer- 
ican Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Pequea,  Pennsylvania, 
in  1750.  He  was  appointed  in  1779  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  in  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  and  in  1794 
succeeded  his  father-in-law,  Dr.  Witherspoon,  as  presi- 
dent of  that  institution.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Lec- 
tures on  the  Evidences  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1819. 

Smith,  (Se15A,)  an  American  writer,  born  at  Buck- 
field,  Maine,  He  published  in  1833,  under  tlie  name  of 
"  Major  Jack  Downing,"  a  series  of  humorous  letters  on 
political  subjects,  which  became  widely  popular.  His 
other  principal  works  are  "  Powhatan,"  a  i)oem,  "Away 
Down  East,  or  Portraitures  of  Yankee  Life,"  (1855,)  and 
"New  Elements  of  Geometry."    Died  in  1868. 

Smith,  (Rev.  Sydney,)  a  celebrated  English  divine 
and  writer,  was  born  at  Woodford,  in  Essex,  in  177 1.  He 
studied  at  New  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a 
Fellow  in  1790.  Having  taken  holy  orders,  he  obtained 
the  curacy  of  Netherhaven,  in  Wiltshire,  al)out  1 795.  He 
became  tutor  to  the  son  of  a  Mr.  Beach,  with  whom  he 
passed  about  five  years  in  Edinburgh,  where  he  asso- 
ciated  with  Jeffrey,  Brougham,  and  other  Whigs.  H« 
was  one  of  the  founders  and  the  first  editor  of  the 
"  Edinburgh  Review,"  the  first  number  of  which  was 
issued  in  1802.  He  married  about  1800  a  lady  named 
Pybus,  and  removed  to  London  in  1804.  In  1806  he 
was  presented  to  the  living  of  Foston-le-Clay,  in  York- 
shire. He  greatly  promoted  the  cause  of  Catholic  eman. 
cipation  by  an  anonymous  work,  entitled  "  Letters  on 
tlie  Subject  of  the  Catholics  to  my  Brother  Abraham, 
by  Peter  Plymley,"  (1807-08,)  which  had  a  very  large 
circulation.  In  1809  he  published  two  volumes  of  Ser- 
mons. For  many  years  he  was  a  regular  contributor 
to  the  "Edinburgh  Review."  He  was  appointed  preb- 
endary of  Bristol,  and  rector  of  Combe-Florey,  (near 
Taunton,)  in  1828,  and  obtained  a  prebendal  stall  in 
Saint  Paul's,  London,  in  183 1.    Died  in  February,  1845. 

Sydney  Smith  was  greatly  distinguished  for  his  wit, 
humour,  and  conversational  powers.  Among  his  works 
is  "Elementary  Sketches  of  Moral  Philosophy,"  (1850.) 

See  a  "Memoir  of  Sydney  Smith,"  by  his  daughter.  Lady  Hol- 
land, 2  vols.,  1855:  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Autiiors;"  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  April,  1850,  and  July,  1S55  ;  "  Quarterly  Review," 
vol.  xcvii.,  jiublished  in  June  and  September,  1855;  "Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  July,  1855;  "North  American  Review"  for  July, 
1844,  (by  E.  P.  Whipple.) 

Smith,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  statesman  and 
scholar,  born  in  Essex  about  15 12.  He  studied  at 
Queen's  College,  Cambridge.  Having  spent  several 
years  in  France  and  Italy,  and  taken  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
at  Padua,  he  was  appointed,  after  his  return,  regius 
professor  of  law  at  Cambridge.  After  the  accession  of 
Edward  VI.,  he  was  appointed  in  1548  secretary  of  state, 
and  subsequently  sent  on  missions  to  Brussels  and  to 
the  cotu  t  of  Henry  II.  of  France.  He  was  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "The  English  Commonwealth,"  (1584,) 
a  treatise  "On  the  Correct  Pronunciation  of  the  Greek 
Language,"  (in  Latin,)  and  other  w^orks.    Died  in  1577. 

See  .Strypk,  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Smith,"  169S ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Smith,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
London  in  1638,  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Credibility  of 
the  Mysteries  of  the  Christian  Religion."   Died  in  1710. 

Smith,  (Thomas  Southvvood,)  M.D.,  an  English 
physician  and  writer  of  great  merit,  born  about  1790. 
He  studied  at  Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  settled  in 
London,  where  he  became  physician  to  the  Fever  Hos- 
pital. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  tlie  "  Westminster 
Review,"  to  which  he  contributed  several  excellent 
treatises,  one  of  which,  entitled  "The  Use  of  the  Dead 
to  the  Living,"  obtained  extensive  popularity.  His  other 
principal  works  are  an  essay  on  the  "  Divine  Govern- 
ment," "The  Philosophy  of  Health,"  (1834,)  and  a 
"  Treatise  on  Fever,"  esteemed  one  of  the  most  valua- 
ble that  has  appeared  on  the  subject. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionaiy  of  Authors;"  "New  Spirit  of  the 
Age,"  by  R.  H.  Horne. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SMITH 


2033 


SMYTH 


Smith,  (William,)  an  English  herald  and  antiquary, 
wrote  a  "Description  of  Cheshire."    Died  in  1618. 

Smith,  (William,)  of  Chichester,  an  English  por- 
trait-painter, born  in  1707,  was  a  brother  of  George, 
noticed  above.    Died  in  1764. 

Smith,  (William,)  an  English  translator,  born  at 
Worcester  in  1 711.  He  translated  Longinus  and  Thu- 
cydides  into  English.  He  became  Dean  of  Chester 
about  1758.    Died  in  1787. 

Smith,  (William,)  an  English  statesman,  was  elected 
to  Parliament  from  Sudbury  in  1784,  and  was  a  repre- 
sentative from  Norwich  in  1802.  He  was  an  earnest 
advocate  of  the  cause  of  the  dissenters,  and  of  other 
reforms.    Died  in  1835. 

Smith,  (William,)  an  English  geologist,  born  at 
Churchill,  in  Oxfordshire,  in  1769,  is  called  the  father 
of  English  geology.  He  was  the  first  in  England  to 
discover  the  constancy  in  the  order  of  the  superposition 
of  strata.  In  1799  he  published  a  treatise  "On  the 
Order  of  the  Strata  and  their  Imbedded  Organic  Re- 
mains in  the  Vicinity  of  Bath."  He  published  the  first 
"Geological  Map  of  England,"  (1801,)  and  a  larger  map 
of  the  same  about  1815.  He  was  ar  ncle  of  John 
Phillips  the  geologist.    Died  in  1839. 

See  John  Phillips,  "Memoirs  of  William  Smith,"  1844. 

Smith,  (William,)  LL.D.,an  English  philologist  and 
jurist,  born  in  London  in  1814.  He  studied  in  the 
University  of  London,  and  afterwards  became  professor 
of  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  German  languages  at  the  in- 
dependent colleges  of  Homerton  and  Highbury.  He 
published  in  1842  his  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Antiquities,"  (i  vol.  8vo,)  in  which  he  was  assisted  by 
other  distinguished  scholars.  This  was  followed  by  the 
"  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  My- 
thology," (3  vols.  8vo,  1849.)  and  the  "Dictionary  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Geography,"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1857.) 
These  excellent  works  are  probably  the  most  valuable 
of  the  kind  in  the  language,  and  are  illustrated  by 
numerous  engravings.  13r.  Smith  has  also  written  a 
"School  History  of  Greece,  from  the  Earliest  Tinies  to 
the  Roman  Conquest,"  etc.,  a  "  Latin-English  Diction- 
ary," (1855,)  and  other  educational  books.  He  is  the 
chief  editor  of  a  "Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  comprising 
its  Antiquities,  Biography,  Geography,  and  Natural  His- 
tory." (3  vols.  8vo,  1860-63.)  In  1867  he  became  editor 
of  the  "Quarterly  Review." 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Quarterly  Review" 
for  July,  1854,  and  October,  1864. 

Smith,  (Sir  William  Cusack,)  a  distinguished  Irish 
jurist,  and  friend  of  Edmund  Burke,  born  in  1766.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  and  rose  through  several  high  offices 
to  be  solicitor-general  for  Ireland  in  1800,  and  baron  of 
the  exchequer  in  1802.  He  had  a  high  reputation  for 
eloquence,  legal  knowledge,  and  moral  rectitude,  and 
was  an  advocate  of  Catholic  emancipation  and  other 
im]>ortant  reforms.    Died  in  1836. 

Smith,  (William  F.,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Saint  Alban's,  Vermont,  in  1824,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1845.  commanded  a  division  in  the  Chick- 
ahominy  campaign,  became  a  major-general  about  July, 
1862,  and  served  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  September  17 
of  that  year.  He  led  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Fredericks- 
burg, r3ecember  13,  1862,  and  at  that  of  Cold  Harbour, 
June  3,  1864.  His  corps  made  an  unsuccessful  attack 
upon  the  defences  of  Petersburg,  June  15,  1864.- 

Smith,  (William  Loughton,)  an  American  diplo- 
matist and  statesman,  was  elected  to  Congress  from 
South  Carolina  in  1789,  and  in  1800  was  appointed 
minister  to  Spain.  He  published  several  ]3olitical  works 
and  essays,  under  the  signature  of  "  Phocion."  Died 
in  1812. 

Smith,  (Sir  William  Sidney,)  a  celebrated  English 
admiral,  born  at  Westminster  about  1764.  He  entered 
the  navy  at  an  early  age,  attained  the  rank  of  captain, 
and  commanded  a  flotilla  against  the  French  in  the 
campaign  of  1 796,  in  which  he  was  taken  prisoner. 
Having  effected  his  escape  in  1798,  he  was  appointed  to 
couunand  a  squadron  on  the  coast  of  Egypt,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  skill  and  bravery  in  the  defence 
of  Saint  Jean  d'Acre  against  Napoleon's  army.  After 
signing  a  treaty  with  Kleber  for  the  evacuation  of  Egypt 


by  the  French,  he  returned  to  England,  and  was  elected 
to  Parliament  for  the  city  of  Rochester  in  1802.  He 
became  vice-admiral  in  1810,  and  admiral  in  1821.  Died 
in  1840  or  1841. 

See  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  British  Admirals;"  John  Bar- 
KOW,  "Life  and  Correspondence  of  Sir  Wm.  Sidney  Smith,"  1848; 
Captain  Marrvat,  "Memoirs  of  Sir  Wm.  Sidney  Smith,"  1839; 
La  Roquette,  '"Notice  liistorique  sur  Sidney  Smith,"  1850; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
March,  1848. 

Smith'son,  (James,)  an  English  chemist  and  scien- 
tific writer,  born  in  the  eighteenth  century.  He  studied 
at  Oxford,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  chemical  analysis 
and  experimental  physics.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  a  treatise  "  On  the  Comi)osition  and  Crystalliza- 
tion of  Certain  Sulphurets  from  Huel  Boys  in  Cornwall," 
"  On  a  Saline  Substance  from  Mount  Vesuvius,"  and 
"  Facts  relating  to  the  Colouring-Matter  of  Vegetables." 
He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  a  friend  of  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  and  other  eminent  philosophers  of  the 
time.  He  died  in  1829,  leaving  the  whole  of  his  property 
to  found  at  Washington,  in  the  United  States,  an  insti- 
tution, called  by  his  name,  for  the  increase  and  diffusion 
of  knowledge. 

Smits,  (Dirk,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Rotterdam  in 
1702.  His  productions,  among  which  is  "  De  Rotte 
Stroom,"  (1750,)  are  eulogized  by  Gravenweert.  Died 
in  1752. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Gravem- 
WEERT,  "  Litteratnre  Neerlandaise." 

Smitz  or  Smits,  smits,  (Caspar,)  a  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  who  worked  in  England  and  Ireland.  He  ex- 
celled in  painting  Magdalens,  and  was  called  Magdalen 
Smi  th.    Died  in  1689. 

Smitz,  (Louis,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  flowers  and  fruit, 
born  at  Dort  in  1635;  died  in  1675. 

Smol'lett,  (Tohias  George,)  a  distinguished  British 
novelist  and  historian,  born  in  the  vale  of  Leven,  Dum- 
bartonshire, Scotland,  in  1721.  He  studied  medicine  at 
Glasgow,  and  entered  the  royal  navy  as  surgeon's  mate 
about  1 741.  Having  quitted  the  naval  service  in  disgust 
about  1744,  he  settled  in  London.  He  produced  coarse 
satires,  entitled  "  Advice,"  (1746,)  and  "Reproof."  In 

1747  he  married  a  Creole  named  Miss  Lascelles,  and  in 

1748  published  "Roderick  Random,"  a  novel,  which 
was  successful  and  displayed  a  great  talent  for  humour. 
His  next  work  was  "Peregrine  Pickle,"  a  coarse  and  li- 
centious tale,  (1751.)  "Count  Fathom," another  romance, 
similar  in  character  to  the  preceding,  appeared  in  1753. 
He  was  not  successful  in  obtaining  practice  as  a  phy- 
sician. In  1758  he  published  a  "Complete  History  of 
England  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Treaty  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,"  (6  vols.,)  which  was  received  with  favour, 
although  it  has  little  merit  except  the  style.  He  after- 
wards wrote  a  "  Continuation  of  the  History  of  England" 
to  the  year  1764.  During  the  administration  of  Lord 
Bute,  Smollett  edited  "The  Briton,"  a  political  paper 
which  supported  the  ministry  and  was  denounced  by 
John  Wilkes  in  the  "North  Briton."  Among  his 
numerous  works  is  "The  Expedition  of  Humphrey 
Clinker,"  (1771.)  He  went  to  Italy  for  his  health  in 
1770,  and  died,  near  Leghorn,  in  October,  1771. 

See  R.  Anderson,  "Life  of  T.  Smollett,"  1803;  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  "  Biograpliical  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Novelists;"  Dr.  Moore, 
"  Life  of  Smollett ;"  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen;"  Hazlitt,  "  Comic  Writers  ;"  "  Inedited  Memorials  of 
Smollett,"  in  tlie  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  June.  1859  ;  Cauv,  "'Lives 
of  English  Poets  from  Johnson  10  Kirke  White  ;"  Allibone,  "  Dic- 
tionary of  Authors  ;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  Januaiy,  1858. 

Smybert.    See  Smibert. 

Smyth,  (James  Carmichael,)  a  Scottish  physician, 
born  in  1741,  published  several  medical  works,  and  dis- 
covered a  method  of  preventing  contagion  by  the  use 
of  nitrous  vapour.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety.   Died  in  1821. 

Smyth,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  born  at  Belfast,  Ireland,  in 
1808,  emigrated  to  the  United  States,  and  in  1832  be- 
came pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Charleston,  South  Carolina.  He  has  published  "The 
Life  and  Character  of  Calvin  Defended,"  and  other 
theological  and  controversial  works. 

Smyth,  (Thomas  A.,)  a  general,  born  in  Ireland, 
emigrated  to  the  United  States.    For  his  conduct  at 


e  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  asy;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ({J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

128 


SMYTH 


2034 


SOBIESKI 


Cold  Harbour,  June,  1864,  he  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general.  He  was  killed  near  Farmville,  Virginia,  in 
April,  1865. 

Smyth,  (William,)  an  English  poet  and  scholar, 
born  at  Liverpool  in  1766.  He  took  his  degree  at 
Cambridge,  where  he  was  appointed  in  1809  professor 
of  modern  history.  He  published  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Evidences  of  Christianity,"  "  English  Lyrics,"  and  a 
collection  of  "  Lectures."    Died  in  1849. 

Smyth,  (William  Henry,)  an  English  naval  officer, 
born  in  Westminster  in  1 788,  was  employed  in  1823 
in  a  survey  of  the  coast  of  Sardinia.  He  published 
a  **  Sketch  of  the  Present  State  of  the  Island  of  Sar- 
dinia," and  "  The  Mediterranean  :  a  Memoir,  Physical, 
Historical,  and  Nautical,"  (1854.)  He  was  made  a 
rear-admiral  in  1853.    Died  in  1865. 

His  son,  Charles  P.  Smyth,  has  published  a  work 
entitled  "  Teneriffe  :  an  Astronomer's  Visit,"  giving  an 
account  of  his  scientific  observations. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1S66. 

Snape,  (Andrew,)  an  English  theologian,  born  at 
Hampton  Court  about  1670.  He  wrote  against  Hoadly. 
Died  in  1742. 

Snayers,  sni'ers,  (Henry,)  a  skilful  Flemish  en- 
graver, born  at  Antwerp  in  1612.  He  eiigraved  some 
works  of  Rubens. 

Snayers,  (Pierre,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Ant- 
werp in  1593.  He  painted  landscapes  and  battles.  Died 
in  1670. 

Snell,  (Ludwig,)  born  at  Idstein,  in  the  duchy  of 
Nassau,  in  1785,  became  professor  of  political  science 
at  Berne,  in  Switzerland.    Died  in  1854. 

Snell,  (Rudolph,)  a  Dutch  mathematician  and  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Oudenarde  in  1547,  became  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Leyden.    Died  in  1613. 

Snell,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  jurist,  brother  of  Lud- 
wig, noticed  above,  was  born  at  Idstein  in  1789.  He 
became  successively  professor  of  law  at  Bale,  Zurich, 
and  Berne,  in  Switzerland.    Died  in  1851. 

Snell,  [Lat.  Snel'lius,]  (  Willehrod,  )  a  Dutch 
mathematician,  born  at  Leyden  in  1591,  was  a  son  of 
Rudolph,  noticed  above.  He  discovered  the  law  of  the 
refraction  of  light,  that  the  sines  of  the  angles  of  incidence 
iind  refraction  have  to  each  other  a  constant  ratio.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  Cvclometricus,"  ( 162 1,) 
a  treatise  on  the  measurement  of  a  circle.    Died  in  1626. 

See  FoppENS,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica  ;"  Montucla,  "  Histoire  des 
Mathematiques." 

Snellaert,  sneKllRt,  (Ferdinand  Augustyn,)  a 
distinguished  Belgian  writer,  born  at  Courtrai  in  1809. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  an  essay  on  the  history 
of  Flemish  poetry,  entitled  "  Over  de  Nederlandsche 
Dichtkunst  in  Belgie,"  (1838,)  and  "A  Brief  Sketch  of 
Dutch  and  Flemish  Literature,"  ("  Kort  Begrip  eener 
Geschiedenis  der  Nederlandsche  Letterkunde,"  1849.) 
He  has  founded  a  society  for  the  cultivation  of  the 
Flemish  language, 

Snellincks,  sn^Klinks,  or  Snellinx,  (Jan,)  a  Flem- 
ish painter  of  history  and  battles,  born  at  Mechlin  in 
1544.    He  worked  at  Antwerp.    Died  in  1638. 

Snellius.    See  Snell. 

Sne'then,  (Nicholas,)  an  American  Methodist  di- 
vine, born  on  Long  Island  in  1769,  settled  in  Maryland, 
and  was  elected  chaplain  to  Congress.  He  was  an 
eloquent  and  popular  preacher,  and  one  of  the  principal 
founders  of  the  Methodist  Protestant  Church.  Died  in 
1845- 

Sneyders.    See  Snyders. 

Sniadecki,  sne-i-d§ts'skee,  (Andrew.)  a  Polish 
physiologist,  born  in  1768,  studied  at  Pavi'a  under  Gal- 
vani  and  Volta,  and  subsequently  at  Edinburgh.  He 
became  professor  of  chemistry  and  pharmacy  at  Wilna 
in  1797.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Theory  of  Organic 
Existences,"  (in  Polish,)  which  is  regarded  as  a  standard 
work  and  has  been  translated  into  French  and  German. 
Died  in  1838. 

See  Balinski,  "  Biographie  d'A.  Sniadecki,"  1846. 

Sniadecki,(JoHN,)  a  celebrated  Polish  mathematician 
and  astronomer,  born  in  Gnesen  in  1756,  was  a  brother 
of  Andrew,  noticed  above.  He  studied  at  Cracow,  and 
subsequently  visited  Paris,  where  he  made  the  acquaint- 


ance of  D'Alembert,  Laplace,  and  other  eminent  savants, 
and  on  his  return  to  Poland  became  professor  of  astron- 
omy and  mathematics  at  Cracow.  Having  resided  for  a 
tiine  in  England,  and  made  another  tour  on  the  continent, 
he  was  appointed  in  1806  rector  of  the  University  of 
Wilna,  which  under  his  direction  obtained  the  highest 
reputation  for  the  culture  of  the  exact  sciences.  Snia- 
decki was  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Saint  Peters- 
burg Academy,  to  which  he  contributed  a  number  of 
valuable  astronomical  observations.  He  published  a 
"  Physical  and  Mathematical  Description  of  the  Globe," 
"  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind,"  in  which  he  opposes 
the  system  of  Kant,  "Spherical  Trigonometry,"  (1820,) 
"Miscellaneous  Writings,"  2  vols.,  (1822-24,)  other 
works,  which  are  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1830. 

Snorri-Stm-liLSOn,  snoR'ree  stur'lu-son,  written  also 
-Sturleson  or  -Sturulson,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
poets  and  scholars  of  Iceland,  was  born  in  1178.  He 
was  educated  by  the  learned  Ion,  and  soon  distinguished 
himself  by  his  attainments  in  almost  every  department 
of  knowledge.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  to  the  high 
office  of  interpreter  of  the  law,  and  obtained  the  rank 
of  jarl,  (a  word  etymologically  related  and  nearly  corre- 
si)onding  to  our  "earl.")  His  avarice  and  his  turbulent 
disposition,  however,  involved  him  in  a  quarrel  with  his 
own  family,  several  of  whom  joined  a  faction  of  his  ene- 
mies, and  he  was  murdered  by  his  own  sons-in-law,  (1241.) 
His  greatest  work  is  a  collection  of  sagas,  entitled  the 
"  Heimskringla,"  which  has  been  translated  into  Latin, 
Swedish,  and  Danish  ;  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  writ- 
ten the  first  part  of  the  Snorra-Edda,  entitled  "The 
Gylfa-Ginning,"  the  Scaldic  songs  called  "  Kanningar," 
and  "  Hattalykill,"  (the  "Key  of  the  Wise.") 

See  Cronuoi.m,  "  Dissertatio  de  Snononis  Sturlonidis  Historia, " 
1841  ;  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Snoy,  snoi,  (Regnier  or  Renier,)  a  Dutch  historian 
and  physician,  born  at  Gouda  in  1477.  He  wrote  a 
Latin  history  of  Holland,  "  De  Rebus  Batavicis,"  (1620.) 
Died  in  1537. 

Snyders  or  Sneyders,  sni'ders,  or  Snyers,  snl''ers, 
(Francis,)  an  eminent  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Ant- 
werp in  1579,  studied  fruit-  and  flower-painting  under 
Henry  van  Balen.  He  afterwards  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  the  delineation  of  animals  and  hunting-scenes, 
which  are  among  the  most  admirable  works  of  their 
kind.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Rubens  and  Jor- 
daens,  for  whose  pictures  he  frequently  painted  the 
animals  and  still  life.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
a  stag-hunt,  and  other  similar  productions,  painted  for 
Philip  HI.  of  Spain.    Died  in  1657. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Soane,  (Sir  John,)  a  celebrated  English  architect, 
born  at  Reading  in  1753.  Having  studied  for  a  time 
under  Dance  and  Holland,  he  was  enabled,  through  the 
influence  of  Sir  William  Chambers,  to  visit  Italy  as 
a  student  of  the  Royal  Academy.  After  his  return  to 
England  he  was  successively  appointed  architect  to  the 
royal  woods  and  forests,  surveyor  to  Chelsea  Hospital, 
and  professor  of  architecture  at  the  Royal  Academy, 
(1806.)  Among  his  principal  works  are  the  Free- 
masons' Hall,  Dulwich  Gallery,  and  the  State  Paper 
Office  in  Saint  James's  Park,  London.  He  died  in 
1837,  bequeathing  to  the  nation  his  valuable  collections 
of  ancient  and  modern  art. 

Soanen,  so^i'ndN',  (Jean,)  a  French  prelate,  born  at 
Riom  in  1647,  was  an  eloquent  preacher.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Senez  in  1695,  and,  having  identified  himself 
with  the  Jansenists,  was  suspended  in  1727.  Died  in 
1740. 

See  Abbe  Gaultier,  "Vie  de  Soanen,"  1750. 

Soave,  so-i'vi,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  teacher  and 
writer,  born  at  Lugano  in  1743.  He  was  professor  of 
])hilosophy  at  Milan,  and  professor  of  ideology  at  Pavia. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Moral  Tales," 
("  Novelle  morali,")  which  are  highly  commended.  Died 
at  Pavia  in  1806. 

See  Savioli,  "  Elogio  di  Soave,"  1806;  "Vita  di  Fr.  Soave," 
(anonymous,)  1815. 

Sobieski,  so-be-§s'kee,  (James  Louis,)  a  Polish 
nobleman,  a  son  of  the  following,  was  born  in  Paris  in 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f2.t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SOBIESKI 


SOCRATES 


1667.  He  displayed  great  courage  in  the  campaign 
against  the  Turks  in  1683.  After  the  death  of  his  father, 
in  1696,  he  aspired  to  the  throne;  but  the  Poles  pre- 
ferred Augustus  of  Saxony.    Died  in  1734. 

Sobieski,  (John  III.,)  a  celebrated  Polish  warrior 
and  king,  born  of  a  noble  family  in  Galicia  in  1629.  At 
an  early  age  he  distinguished  himself  by  repelling  the 
invasions  of  the  Cossacks,  Tartars,  and  Russians,  and 
in  1665  was  made  grand  marshal  and  hetman  of  Po- 
land. In  1671  he  defeated  the  Turks  under  Mahomet 
IV.,  and  took  the  fortress  of  Kotzim.  On  the  death  of 
Michael,  King  of  Poland,  in  1674,  John  Sobieski  was 
elected  his  successor.  The  Turks,  having  again  invaded 
Poland,  were  soon  after  driven  out  by  Sobieski,  and  a 
peace  was  concluded  between  the  nations.  In  1683  he 
marched  to  the  relief  of  the  Austrians  besieged  in  Vi- 
enna by  a  numerous  army  under  the  grand-vizier  Kara 
Mustafa,  and,  with  the  assistance  of  his  French  aiid 
German  allies,  raised  the  siege  of  the  city  and  expelled 
the  Turks  from  the  country.  He  died  in  1696,  having 
earned  the  reputation  of  one  of  the  truest  patriots  his 
country  has  produced. 

See  Cover,  "  Kistoire  de  Jean  Sobieski,"  3  vols.,  1761 ;  Sal- 
VANDV,  "  Histoiie  de  Polop;ne  sous  Jean  Sobieski,"  3  vols.,  182(3; 
L.  RoGALSKi,  '■  Histoire  dii  Regne  de  Sobieski,"  1S47  ;  "Authentic 
Memoirs  of  Jolin  Sobieski,"  by  A.  T.  Palmer;  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Geiierale." 

Socin.    See  Socinus. 

So-ci'nus,  (Faustus,)  the  Latin  name  of  Fausto 
SozziNi,  (fows'to  sot-see'nee,)  [Fr.  Fauste  Socin,  fost 
so's^n',]  an  eminent  Italian  theologian,  born  at  Sienna 
i'^  '539-  ])assed  twelve  years  at  Florence  in  the 

service  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  adopted 
anti-trinitarian  opinions.  In  1574  he  removed  to  Swit- 
zerland. After  he  had  spent  three  years  at  IJale  in  the 
study  of  theology,  he  visited  Transylvania,  and  in  1579 
began  to  jiropagate  his  doctrines  in  Poland,  where  he 
made  many  converts.  He  rejected  the  doctrines  of  pre- 
destination, atonement,  and  original  sin.  In  1594  he 
published  a  work  "On  Clirist  the  Saviour,"  ("  De  Jesu 
Christo  Servatore,'")  for  which  he  was  violently  perse- 
cuted.   Died  in  Poland  in  1604. 

See  J.  Toui.MiN,  "Life  of  F.  Socinus,"  1777;  Samhri.  Pnzvp- 
covius,  "Vita  Fausti  Socini,"  1636 ;  Bavue,  "  Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary :"  Pisarski,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  F.  Socini,"  178S; 
"  Ndiiveile  Biographic  Cenerale." 

Socinus,  (L^Liu.s,)  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  and 
the  first  teacher  of  Socinian  doctrines,  was  born  at  Sienna 
in  1525.  He  was  versed  in  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  lan- 
guages. About  1545  he  emigrated  from  Italy,  probably 
to  avoid  persecution.  He  travelled  or  wandered  in 
France,  England,  Germany,  and  Poland.  He  appears 
to  have  acted  with  mucli  circumspection  and  reserve  in 
the  assertion  of  his  opinions,  which  were  similar  to 
those  of  Faustus  Socinus,  and  which  neither  Catholics 
nor  Protestants  would  then  tolerate.  Died  at  Zurich 
in  1562. 

See  C.  F.  Ih.gen,  "  Vita  F.  Socini,"  1814  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Socquet,  so'k^',  (Joseph  M.a.rie,)  a  chemist,  born 
in  Savoy  in  177 1,  became  professor  of  chemistry  at 
Lyons  in  1809.  He  published  several  works.  Died 
in  1839. 

Soc'ra-tes,  [Gr.  luKpuTj^^ :  Lat.  Soc'ratk.s  ;  Fr.  So- 
CRAi  K,  so'kKai' ;  It.  SocRATK,  so-kR.Vti,]  the  illustrious 
founder*  of  Grecian  jihilosophy,  was  born  at  Athens 
about  470  B.C.  Several  modern  writers,  on  the  author- 
ity of  Demetrius  Phalereus  and  others,  have  given  the 
fourth  year  of  the  seventy-seventh  Olympiad — that  is, 
468  B.C. — a-s  the  date  of  his  birth  ;  but  this  can  scarcely 
be  correct,  as  we  are  told  in  the  "Apology"  of  vSocrates 
that  he  was  then  (399  B.C.)  more  than  seventy  years  old  : 
hence  he  could  not  have  been  born  later  than  469  H.c. 
His  father,  Soi)hroniscus,  was  a  sculptor,  his  mother, 
Phaenarete,  a  midwife.  He  was  educated  to  his  father's 
art,  by  which  he  supported  himself  after  he  was  grown 
to  manhood.  Subsequently  Crito,  a  wealthy  and  gener- 
ous Athenian,  admiring  the  zeal  for  knowledge  and  the 
genius  evinced  by  Socrates,  furnished  him  with  the  means 


*  "  He  may  be  justly  called,"  savs  Cicero,  "  the  father  of  Philoso- 
phy)" {parens  PhilosophicB  jitre  did  potest.')  ("  De  Finibus,"  ii.  i.) 


to  procure  books  and  pay  his  teachers  in  the  various 
branches  of  art  and  science  then  taught  at  Athens,  and 
afterwards  became  one  of  his  most  faithful  and  devoted 
disciples.  According  to  some  writers,  Socrates  was  a 
pupil  of  Anaxagoras;  but  this  is  very  doubtful,  as  Plato 
represents  hiin  in  the  "  Phsedo"  as  saying  that  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  doctrines  of  Anaxagoras  from 
a  book  written  by  this  philosopher. 

Socrates  served  as  a  soldier  during  the  Peloponnesian 
war  in  three  different  campaigns.  He  was  remarkable 
for  the  fortitude,  or  rather  indifference,  with  which  he 
bore  the  severest  privations  and  hardships  of  a  military 
life.  In  one  of  the  actions  during  his  first  campaign  he 
saved  the  life  of  his  pupil  Alcibiades,  for  which  exploit 
he  would  have  received  the  prize  of  bravery,  (ufuarsta ;) 
but,  at  Socrates'  own  request,  it  was  transferred  to  Alci- 
biades. In  the  second  campaign,  at  the  battle  of  Delium, 
in  which  the  Athenians  were  defeated,  he  saved  the  life 
of  Xenophon,  another  of  his  pupils.  On  this  occasion, 
when  everywhere  around  him  was  fear  and  flight,  he 
exhibited  a  calm,  determined  courage  which  inspired  his 
pursuers  with  such  respect  and  fear  that  they  gladly 
permitted  him  to  retreat  unirtolested.  He  afterwards, 
as  senator,  displayed  a  far  higher  and  rarer  courage. 
He  was  ordered  by  the  Thirty  Tyrants  to  assist  in 
bringing  back  to  Athens  Leon,  who,  to  escape  their 
tyranny,  had  fled  to  Salamis.  Socrates  firmly  refused 
to  take  any  part  in  the  affair,  for  which  he  would  per- 
haps have  suffered  death  had  not  the  gr)vernment  of 
the  Thirty  been  soon  after  overthrown.  On  a  ))revious 
occasion,  when  ])resident  (epis'tates)  of  the  Prytanes, 
his  inflexible  devotion  to  I'ustice  was  still  more  signally 
shown.  The  question  before  the  assembly  was  the  sen- 
tence to  be  passed  on  the  admirals  who  had  neglected 
to  bury  the  dead  after  the  battle  of  Arginusse.  The 
burial  of  the  dead  was  regarded  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
as  among  the  most  important  and  sacred  of  all  duties. 
It  was,  however,  clearly  proved  that,  owing  to  a  violent 
storm,  it  was  impossible  to  recover  the  bodies  of  the 
slain.  Had  the  question  then  been  put  to  vote,  the  ad- 
mirals would  beyond  doubt  have  been  acquitted.  But 
the  accusers  succeeded  in  adjourning  the  assembly,  on 
the  pretext  that  it  was  then  too  dark  to  count  the  hands 
of  the  voters.  Meanwhile,  everything  possible  was  done 
to  inflame  the  minds  of  the  people  against  the  accused. 
In  their  pity  for  the  dead,  the  multitude  lost  sight  of 
their  duty  to  the  living.  The  votes  were  to  be  given  on 
the  general  question  whether  the  admirals  had  been 
guiltv  in  omitting  the  recovery  of  the  bodies  of  those 
who  fell  at  Arginus^e.  If  they  should  be  found  guilty, 
the  penalty  for  all  was  death  and  the  confiscation  of 
their  proj^erty.  But  it  was  contrary  to  law  to  condemn 
all  by  one  vote  of  the  assembly.  Socrates,  as  epistates, 
refused  to  put  the  question  to  vote  ;  he  would  in  no  wise 
sanction  what  was  illegal  and  unjust.  The  populace  be- 
came furious,  and  demanded  that  those  who  opposed 
their  will  should  themselves  be  punished.  The  other 
prytanes  yielded ;  Socrates  alone  remained  firm  and 
unmoved  by  the  menaces  of  the  angry  multitude.*  So 
the  question  could  not  be  put  to  vote  that  day,  and  the 
assembly  was  again  adjourned.  Afterwards,  however, 
another  epistates  was  chosen,  and  the  admirals  were 
condemned.  (See  Wigger's  "Life  of  Socrates,"  pp.  lii.- 
Iv.)  Socrates  appears  to  have  held  no  office  in  the  gov- 
ernment except  that  of  senator,  already  referred  to.  He 
believed  that  he  was  called  by  Heaven  to  a  different 
class  of  duties, — to  be  a  teacher  of  wisdom  and  virtue, 
— and,  therefore,  the  voice  of  the  diviiMtyt  within  him  had 


*  It  seems  more  than  probable  that  Horace  liad  before  his  mind 
the  example  of  Socrates  braving  the  fury  of  the  Athenian  mob,  and 
resisting  the  tyrannical  command  of  the  Thirty,  when  he  wrote  those 
well-known  lines  "  On  the  Just  Man,"  (lib.  iii.,  ode  3.) 

"  Justum  et  tenacem  projiositi  virum 
Non  civium  ardor  prava  jubentium, 
Non  vultus  instantis  tyranni 
Mente  qiiatit  solida. " 
t  It  may  not  be  improper  to  caution  the  reader  against  a  mistake 
tliat  lias  sometimes  arisen  from  the  use  of  the  term  "deinon"or 
"  dsmon"  in  speaking  of  the  divine  intimations  which  Socrates  be- 
lieved were  sometimes  given  him.  The  primary  signification  of  the  ex- 
pression TO  oai/uono^,  (from  Satjaor,  "god,")  which  Socrates  applied 
to  his  supernatural  monitor,  is  "the  divinity,"  or  "the  divine  one." 
He  doubtless  meant  simply  to  say  that  some  divine  power  admonished 


€  as c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Vi^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23,) 


SOCRATES 


2036 


SOCRATES 


warned  him  against  engaging  in  the  contests  of  a  political 
life.  He  availed  himself  of  every  opportunity  of  awaking 
in  the  minds  of  the  young  the  love  of  wisdom  ;  and,  if 
we  may  trust  the  accounts  that  have  come  down  to  us, 
he  was  endowed  not  only  with  a  talent  for  subtle  and 
profound  reasoning,  which  rendered  him  more  than  a 
match  for  the  ablest  sophists  and  rhetoricians  of  that 
age,  but  there  was  also  a  marvellous  and  irresistible 
fascination  in  his  talk,  of  which  history  furnishes  per- 
haps no  other  example.  /Elian  calls  this  peculiar  power 
"the  Siren  of  Socrates."  "When  I  hear  him  speak," 
says  Alcibiades,*  "  my  heart  leaps  up  more  than  the 
hearts  of  those  who  celebrate  the  Corybantic  mysteries  ; 
my  tears  are  poured  out  as  he  talks, — a  thing  I  have  seen 
happen  to  many  others  besides  myself.  I  have  heard 
Pericles  and  other  excellent  orators,  and  I  have  been 
pleased  with  their  discourses,  but  I  suffered  nothing  of 
this  kind  ;  nor  was  my  soul  ever  on  these  occasions 
disturbed  and  filled  with  self-reproach.  .  .  .  But  he  has 
often  affected  me  in  the  way  I  describe,  until  the  life 
which  I  lead  seemed  hardly  worth  living.  ...  I  stop 
my  ears,  therefore,  as  from  the  Sirens,  and  flee  away  as 
fast  as  possible,  that  I  may  not  sit  down  beside  him  and 
grow  old  in  listening  to  his  talk.  .  .  .  But  I  know  not 
if  any  one  of  you  have  ever  seen  the  divine  images 
which  are  within  when  he  is  serious  and  opens  himself. 
I  have  seen  them  ;  and  they  are  so  supremely  beautiful, 
so  golden,  so  divine  and  wonderful,  that  everything  which 
Socrates  commands  surely  ought  to  be  obeyed,  even  like 
the  voice  of  a  God." 

It  is  impossible  to  state  precisely  at  what  time  Socra- 
tes first  began  to  teach  ;  but  from  the  manner  in  which 
he  is  spoken  of  in  the  "Clouds"  of  Aristophanes,  (repre- 
sented for  the  first  time  423  B.C.,)  he  must  have  been 
already  well  known  as  a  teacher  of  philosophy.  vSome 
hav5  assumed  that,  as  the  representation  of  that  comedy 
occurred  twenty-four  years  before  the  death  of  Socrates, 
it  could  have  had  no  share  in  producing  his  condemna- 
tion ;  but  the  truth  of  this  is  very  questionable.  It  is 
by  no  means  improbable  that  a  popular  drama  addressed 
to  the  prejudices  of  the  masses  should  leave  upon  their 
minds  a  j^ermanently  unfavourable  impression,  which 
any  fresh  cause  might  excite  into  active  hostility. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  about  400  u.c.  an  orator  named  Lycon, 
with  Meletus,  a  poet,  and  Anytus,  an  influential  dema- 
gogue, brought  an  accusation  against  Socrates  that  he 
disljelieved  the  gods  of  his  country  and  sought  to  intro- 
duce new  deities,  and  that,  moreover,  he  was  guilty  of 
corrupting  the  Athenian  youth.  The  judges  declared 
him  guilty,  leaving  the  punishment  as  yet  undetermined. 
When  called  upon  to  offer  what  he  could  in  mitigation 
of  the  sentence,  he  would  make  no  concession.  Con- 
scious of  innocence,  he  would  not  confess  himself  guilty. 
His  calm,  dignified,  and  almost  haughty  manner  a])- 
pears  to  have  irritated  and  incensed  the  judges,  who 
were  accustomed  to  the  most  humble  and  even  abject 
behaviour  from  those  whom  they  had  condemned.  lie 
closed  his  defence,  or  "apology,"  with  these  meniorable 
words  :  "  We  must  now  depart,  I  to  die,  and  you  to 
live  ;  but  which  of  us  has  the  happier  destiny  is  known 
only  to  God."  He  was  sentenced  to  death  by  a  majority 
far  greater  than  that  by  which  he  had  bee.n  pronounced 
guilty.  By  a  law  of  Athens,  the  sentence  could  not  be 
carried  into  execution  until  the  return  from  Delos  of  the 
vessel  which  had  been  sent  thither  on  the  periodic  reli- 
gious embassy  or  mission  called  Theoria.  This  obtained 
for  him  a  rej^rieve  of  thirty  days,  which  he  spent  in  con- 
versation with  his  friends  on  the  highest  and  most  im- 
portant subjects, — among  others,  on  the  duty  of  obeying 
the  laws,  and  not  seeking  to  escape  from  them,  even  in 
cases,  like  his  own,  where  they  might  seem  to  be  applied 
unjustly;  and  on  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  for  his 
own  belief  in  which  he  gave  perhaps  the  most  admiral)le 
arguments  that  have  ever  yet  been  offered  by  the  human 
intellect  in  support  of  that  sublime  doctrine. 

him  to  do  or  not  to  do  certain  thiiiQ;s.  The  sn_<?gestion  of  some  modern 
writers  that  Socrates  used  to  ^o.iix6vi.ov  merely  to  express  certain 
intuitions  or  practical  jud3;ments  which  he  could  not  readily  explain, 
will  scarcely  bear  examination.  It  appears  to  be  quite  evident  that 
he  himself  considered  these  intimations  to  be  not  merely  inexplicable, 
but,  in  the  strictest  sense,  supernatural  and  divine. 
*  See  Plato's  "  Banquet,"  (or  •'Symposium.") 


When  at  length  the  sacred  vessel  had  returned  from 
Delos,  and  the  order  was  sent  for  his  execution,  he 
drank  the  fatal  hemlock  with  the  utmost  composure,  as 
one  who  was  setting  out  on  a  happy  journey  might  drink 
to  the  health  of  the  friends  he  left  behind.  In  the  clos- 
ing scene  of  his  life  he  was  serene  and  even  cheerful, 
but  in  his  manner  there  was  nothing  like  bravado,  no- 
thing in  his  conduct  or  language  that  was  not  indicative 
of  simplicity  and  entire  sincerity.  He  approached  his 
death  not  as  one  who  demanded  of  the  gods  a  happy 
futurity  in  return  for  a  virtuous  life,  but  rather  as  one 
who  had  a  firm  though  humble  hope  that  the  Great 
Being,  whom  he  believed  to  exercise  a  benevolent  and 
constant  care  for  man,  would  free  him  from  the  disease 
and  darkness  incident  to  his  earthly  life,  and  give  hiiti 
an  inheritance  in  a  divine  and  spiritual  kingdom.  He 
died  in  399  or,  as  some  say,  400  B.C. 

Socrates  has  been  regarded  by  almost  universal  con- 
sent as  the  most  perfect  example  of  a  wise  and  virtuous 
man  that  pagan  antiquity  presents  to  us.  Pope  but  ex- 
presses the  prevailing  sentiment  when  he  assigns  to  him 
the  first  place  among  the  heroes 

"  Of  less  noisy  and  less  guilty  fame, 
Fair  Virtue's  silent  train  :  suj^reme  of  these 
Here  ever  shines  the  godlike  Socrates." — Temple  of  Fame. 

His  character  is  thus  given  by  his  friend  and  disciple 
Xenophon  :  "As  to  myself,  knowing  him  to  be  such  a 
man  as  I  have  described  ;  so  pious  towards  the  gods  as 
never  to  undertake  anything  without  first  consulting 
them  ;  so  just  towards  men  as  never  to  do  the  slightest 
injury  to  any  one,  while  he  conferred  the  greatest  bene- 
fits on  all  who  came  in  contact  with  him  ;  so  temperate 
and  chaste  as  never  to  prefer  i^leasure  to  what  was  right  ; 
so  wise  as  never  to  err  in  judging  of  good  and  evil,  nor 
needing  the  aid  of  others  in  order  properly  to  discrimi- 
nate between  them  ;  so  able  to  discourse  upon,  and 
accurately  define,  such  points  as  those  of  which  we  have 
been  speaking;  so  skilful  in  penetrating  the  hidden 
characters  of  men,  and  seizing  the  fittest  time  to  reprove 
the  erring  and  turn  them  to  the  paths  of  virtue;  being 
such,  I  cannot  but  consider  him  as  the  most  excellent 
and  most  happy  of  mankind.  But  if  any  one  thinks 
differently,  let  him  compare  the  character  of  Socrates 
with  that  of  any  other  man  whatsoever,  and  then  let 
him  decide." 

Socrates  is  commonly  believed  to  have  been  very 
unfortunate  in  his  d(Miiestic  relations.  It  is,  however, 
probable  that  there  is  much  exaggeration  in  the  reports 
that  have  come  down  to  us  of  Xanthipj^e's  intolerable 
temper.  Socrates  evidently  entertained  for  her  a  sincere 
regard,  and  speaks  highly  of  her  domestic  virtues.  (See 
Xenophon's  "Memorabilia,"  lib.  ii.  2,  7.) 

Socrates  committed  nothing  to  writing;  he  taught  his 
disciples  by  oral  instruction  only.  Almost  all  that  we 
know  of  his  philosophic  views,  as  well  as  of  his  personal 
character,  is  derived  from  the  works  of  his  disciples 
Plato  and  Xenophon.  Of  all  whom  he  taught,  Plato 
alone  api:)ears  to  have  fully  understood  the  essential 
character,  the  depth  and  extent,  of  his  philosophy.  But 
although  Plato  makes  Socrates  the  chief  interlocutor  in 
his  dialogues,  we  are  not  therefore  warranted  in  as- 
suming that  the  master  taught  every  doctrine  which  the 
disciple  has  attributed  to  him.  Plato,  doubtless,  often 
puts  his  own  thoughts  into  the  mouth  of  Socrates,  either 
from  motives  of  modesty  f)r  for  the  purpose  of  clothing 
them  with  greater  authority.  As  Mr.  Emerson  has  aptly 
remarked,  "Socrates  and  Plato  are  the  double  star  which 
the  most  powerful  instruments  will  not  entirely  separ- 
ate."* By  a  comparison,  however,  of  the  writings  of 
Xenophon  and  Plato,  we  are  enabled  to  conjecture  with 
a  good  degree  of  confidence  the  essential  characteristics 
of  Socrates'  philosophy.  That  which  cannot  fail  to 
strike  every  thoughtful  reader  is  the  prominence  which 
he  gives  to  morality  in  all  his  teachings.  He  may  be 
said,  indeed,  to  contemplate  the  universe  from  an  ex- 
clusively moral  stand-point.  Anaxagoras  had  previously 
taught  that  there  was  an  infinite  autocratic  Intelligence 
or  Soul,  that  created  and  governed  all  things  ;  but  he 
ascribed  to  this  Intelligence  no  distinctly  moral  attri- 


*  See  article  "Plato,"  in  his  "Representative  Men." 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/ior^;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^lt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SOCRATES 


2037 


SOLE 


butes.  Socrates  likewise  recognized  an  infinite  creative 
Intelligence  as  the  Soul  of  the  universe,  but  he  also 
taught  that  this  power  was  invariably  exerted  in  con- 
formity to  certain  moral  attributes  which  constituted,  so 
to  speak,  the  basis  of  the  Divine  character. 

In  the  opinion  of  some  able  critics,  (of  Schleiermacher 
among  others,)  the  world  is  less  indebted  to  Socrates 
for  the  truths  which  he  arrived  at  or  discovered  than 
for  his  improved  method  of  philosophic  investigation. 
Socrates  employed  with  remarkable  success  a  mode  of 
reasoning  first  introduced  by  Zeno  of  Elea.  He  would 
ask  Some  person,  the  errors  of  whose  opinions  he  wished 
to  expose,  a  simple  question,  the  answer  to  which  would 
seem  to  be  quite  obvious,  then  gradually  lead  him  on 
from  one  admission  to  another,  till  it  was  too  late  to 
retreat,  and  impossible  to  advance  without  ending  in 
some  absurdity.  It  is  often  difficult  to  determine  (as 
already  intimated)  how  much  of  the  improved  method, 
or  of  the  great  doctrines  which  we  discover  in  the  writings 
of  Plato,  are  to  be  ascribed  to  Socrates,  and  how  much  to 
his  illustrious  disciple.  (See  Plato.)  We  have,  however, 
the  direct  testimony  of  Aristotle  that  Socrates  must  be 
regarded  as  the  author  of  inductive  reasoning  and  of  ab- 
stract definitions.  In  Socrates  inductive  reasoning  is  seen 
in  its  incipient  and  simplest  form.  Subsequently  Aris- 
totle improved  greatly  on  the  idea  of  Socrates,  and  he 
has  given  us  a  definition  of  induction  so  complete  and 
perfect  that  it  could  scarcely  be  bettered  even  in  the  light 
of  modern  science,  (See  Aristotle.)  But  philosophy 
is  under  the  greatest  obligation  to  Socrates  for  teaching 
so  clearly  and  impressively  the  manner  and  spirit  with 
which  the  search  after  truth  should  be  conducted.  By 
pointing  out  the  importance  of  thoroughly  and  accurately 
defining  our  ideas  before  we  proceed  to  reason  upon 
them,  he  has  done  much  to  remove  the  most  fruitful 
and  most  universal  source  of  error  connected  with  human 
thought.  While  ex]3osing  the  pretended  knowledge  of 
the  Sophists,  who  claimed  to  be  so  wise,  he  taught  how 
necessary  were  modesty  and  a  just  appreciation  of  the 
limits  and  weakness  of  the  human  intellect,  as  well  as 
of  its  powers,  for  the  successful  pursuit  of  truth.  So 
great,  so  transcendent  are  his  merits  in  these  respects, 
that,  as  has  justly  been  observed,  his  life  forms  an  era 
not  merely  in  the  history  of  philosophy,  but  in  that  of 
the  human  race. 

See  WiGGER,  "  Life  of  Socrates  ;"  Ritter,  "  History  of  Ancient 
Pliilosopliy,"  (translated  by  A.  J.  W.  Morrison,  Oxford,  183S  ;) 
G.  H.  Lewes,  "  Biographical  History  of  Philosophy  ;"  the  excellent 
article  on  "  Socrates"  in  tlie  "  Encyclopaedia  Hritannica  ;"  Schleier- 
macher on  tlie  "Wortli  of  Socraies  as  a  Philosopher,"  (translated 
by  Thiri.wali.,  and  included  in  the  recent  English  version  of  Wig- 
crr's  "Life  of  Socrates;")  F.  Charhentier,  "Vie  de  Socrate," 
1650;  Gilbert  Cooper,  "  Life  of  Socrates,"  1740:  1".  D.  Geri.ach, 
"Socrates  und  die  Sopliisten,"  1827;  J.  A.  Eberhakd,  "  Neue 
Apoiogie  des  Socrates,"  1772;  H.  W.  Heller,  "S<.crates,"  2 
vols.,  1789  ;  J.  G.  Hamann,  "  Socratisclie  Denkwiirdigkeiten,"  1759  '< 
Knokr,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita,  Fatis  atqiie  Philosophia  Socvatis," 
1720 ;  A.  Win  BOM,  "  Dissertatio  de  Socrate,"  1734  ;  Xknophon,  "  Me- 
morabilia ;"  Plato,  "Dialogues;"  Groth,  "History  of  (Greece," 
chap.  Ixvii.  ;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1850. 

Socrates,  a  Greek  painter,  mentioned  by  Pliny,  and 
sup|K)sed  to  have  lived  about  320  15. c. 

Socrates  surnamed  Sciiolas'ticus,  [Fr.  Socr.\te  le 
ScH(JLASriQiJE,  so'kRtt'  leh  sko'its't^k',]  a  Greek  eccle- 
siastical historian,  born  at  Constantinojile  about  379  A.D. 
He  was  an  advocate  or  lawyer.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  Church  from  306  to  439  A.D.,"  which  is  a  continua- 
tion of  the  history  of  Eusebius,  and  is  highly  esteemed 
for  accuracy,  moderation,  and  impartiality.  He  was  op- 
posed to  all  persecution  for  religious  opinions.  Died 
after  440. 

See  Valesius  or  Valois,  "  De  Vita  et  Scrlptis  Socratis  ;"  Voss, 
"  De  Historicis  Grjecis." 

Soden,  soMen  or  zo'den,  (Friedrich  Julius  Hein- 
RICH,)  Count,  a  German  writer,  born  at  Anspach  in 
1754.  He  published  several  dramas,  and  treatises  on 
political  economy.    Died  in  1 83 1. 

Soderini,  so-di-ree^iee,  (Giovanni  Vettorio,)  an 
Italian  writer  on  agriculture,  was  born  at  Florence  in 
1526  ;  died  in  1596. 

Soderini,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  magistrate,  born  at 
Florence  about  1450.  He  was  elected  gonfalonier  for 
life  in  1502,  but  was  deposed  in  1512.    Died  in  1513. 

See  S.  Razzi,  "Vita  di  P.  Soderini,"  1737. 


Sodoma,  II.    See  Razzl 
Soemmering.    See  Sommering. 
Soest.    See  Sosr. 

Soeur,  Le,  leh  sur,  sometimes  written  Le  Sueur, 
(Huber  t,)  an  able  French  sculptor,  born  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  removed  to  London  about  1630.  Among  his 
works  is  a  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Charles  I.,  now 
at  Charing  Cross. 

Sogaro,  II.    See  Gatti,  (Bernardino.) 

Sogliani,  sol-yi^iee,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
painter  of  the  Florentine  school,  lived  about  1530. 

Sografi,  so-gR^'fee,  (Antonio  Simone,)  an  Italian 
dramatist,  born  at  Padua  in  1760.  He  produced  suc- 
cessful comedies,  among  which  is  "  Olive  and  Pascal." 
Died  in  1825. 

Sohn,  son  or  zon,  (Karl  Ferdinand,)  a  German 
painter  of  the  Dusseldorf  school,  and  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  that  city,  was  born  at  Berlin  in  1805. 

Soiron,  von,  fon  swS'rdN^,  (Alexander,)  a  German 
politician,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1805.  Devoted  to  the 
cause  of  the  unity  of  Germany,  he  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  movements  of  1848. 

Soissons,  de,  deh  sw^'sdN',  (Charles  de  Bour- 
bon— deh  booR^idN^,)  Count,  born  in  1566,  was  a  son 
of  Louis  I.,  Prince  of  Conde.  He  fought  for  Henry  IV. 
against  the  League,  and  was  appointed  grand  master  of 
France  in  1589.  He  was  turbulent  and  inclined  to 
treachery.    Died  in  1612. 

Soissons,  de,  Countess.  See  Mancini,  (Olympia.) 

Soissons,  de,  (Louis,)  Count,  a  son  of  Charles, 
noticed  above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1604.  He  rebelled 
against  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  was  killed  in  battle 
in  1641. 

Solander,  so-lin'der,  (Daniel  Charles,)  an  enii- 
nent  Swedish  naturalist  and  physician,  born  in  Nordland 
in  1736,  was  a  pupil  of  Linnjeus.  He  took  his  medical 
degree  at  the  University  of  U[)sal,  and  afterwards  visited 
Russia  and  England,  where  he  subsequently  became  an 
assistant  in  the  natural  history  department  of  the  Brit- 
ish Museum,  and  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1764.  He  sailed  in  1768,  accompanied  by  Sir 
Joseph  Banks,  with  Captain  Cook  on  his  first  voyage 
round  the  world.  They  returned  in  1771,  having  made 
a  large  and  valuable  collection  of  objects  in  natural  his- 
tory, and  in  1773  Solander  was  appointed  under-librarian 
at  the  British  Museum.  He  contributed  several  valuable 
articles  to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions,"  and  other 
scientific  journals.    Died  in  1782. 

Solari,  so-li'ree,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter,  called 
also  Andrea  del  Gobbo,  an  Italian  painter,  flourished 
at  Milan  about  1500-20. 

Solari,  (Cristcjforo,)  called  iL  Gorbo,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  a  brother  of  Andrea,  noticed  above,  worked 
at  Milan  about  1500. 

Solario,  da,  di  so-li're-o,  or  Solari,  so-lS'ree,  (An- 
tonio,) an  Italian  painter,  surnamed  IL  Zingaro,  ("the 
Gypsy,")  born  about  1382,  was  originally  a  blacksmith. 
He  became  the  son-in-law  of  Colantonio  del  Fiore,  who 
gave  him  his  daughter  on  condition  of  his  acquiring 
distinction  as  a  painter.    Died  in  -1455. 

See  G.  A.  Moschini,  "  Memorie  della  Vita  di  A.  de  Solario,"  1828. 

Soldani,  sol-di'nee,  (Ambrogio,)  an  Italian  natural- 
ist, born  at  Foppi,  in  Tuscany,  in  1733.  He  gained 
distinction  by  his  researches  in  microscopic  fossil  shells, 
and  published  "  Testaceography  and  Zoophytography," 
etc.,  ("  Testaceographia  ac  Zoophytographia  parva  et 
microscopica,"  3  vols.,  1789-98.)    Died  in  1808. 

See  G.  BiANCHi,  "  Elogio  storico  di  A.  Soldani,"  i8o8  ;  Ricca, 
"Discorso  .sopra  le  Opere  di  A.  Soldani,"  1810;  Tipaldo,  "  Bio- 
grafia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Soldani,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Florence 
in  1579.  He  wrote  seven  Satires,  which  the  Acadeniy 
Delia  Crusca  approved  as  testi  di  lingua.    Died  in  1641. 

Soldani,  (Massimiliano,)  an  Italian  sculptor  and  en- 
graver of  medals,  born  at  Florence  in  1658  ;  died  in  1740 

Sole,  del,  dgl  so'lk,  (Antonio  Maria,)  an  Italian 
landscape-painter,  born  about  1600  ;  died  about  1680. 

Sole,  del,  (Giangioseffo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1654,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
painted  some  frescos  at  Milan.  His  works  (part  of 
which  are  in  oil)  are  highly  praised.    Died  in  1719. 


€  as  (6;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SOLEIL 


20 


38 


SOLON 


Soleil,  sc/liF  or  so'lVye,  (N.,)  a  Frenchman,  dis- 
t'liguished  for  his  skill  in  the  fabrication  of  optical  in- 
struments and  philosophical  apparatus,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1798.  He  was  a  coadjutor  of  Fresnel  in  his 
scientific  labours. 

Solger,  soKger  or  zoKger,  (Karl  Wilhklm  Ferdi- 
nand,) a  German  writer  on  philosophy  and  aesthetics, 
born  at  Schwedt  in  1780;  died  in  1819. 

Solie,  s(/le-i',  or  Soulier,  soo'le-i',  (Jean  Pierre,) 
a  French  actor  and  composer  of  operas,  was  born  at 
Nimes  in  1755  ;  died  in  1S12. 

Solignac,  so'l^n'yak^  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French 
writer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1687,  became  secretary  to 
Stanislaus,  King  of  Poland.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Irlistory  of  Poland,"  (6  vols.,  1751.)    Died  in  1773. 

Solim^n,  (Sultans  of  Turkey.)    See  Solyman. 

Soliman  or  Solyman,  so'le-mSn',  Sultan  of  Persia, 
born  in  1646,  was  the  son  of  Abbas  H.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1666.  He  was  a  weak  and  depraved  prince, 
and  abandoned  the  control  of  the  emj^ire  to  his  able 
minister,  Sheik  Alee  Khan.    Died  in  1694. 

See  Malcolm,  "  History  of  Peisia." 

Soliman,  so^e-mtn',  or  Suleym^n,  soo-la-min', 
written  also  Solyman,  (Ibn-Abd-el-MaIek,  ib'n  Sbd- 
el  mtKek,)  seventh  Caliph  of  the  Omeyyade  dynasty, 
succeeded  to  the  throiie  in  715  a.d.    Died  in  717. 

See  Weil,  "  Geschiclite  der  Chalifen,"  vol-  i.  cliap.  xi. 

Soliman  or  Suleym^n,  (Ibn-Al-H^kem,  ib'n  al- 
h^'kem,)  a  Moorish  soldier,  who  took  possession  of 
Coidova,  and  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  king,  in 
1009  a.d.    He  was  defeated  and  slain  in  1016. 

Solimena,  so-le-ma'nS,  (Francesco,)  a  Neajjolitan 
painter  and  poet,  sometimes  called  L' Abate  Ciccio, 
(ch^t'cho,)  was  born  in  1657.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  his  oil-paintings  in  the  chapel  of  San  Felij^po  Neri, 
and  the  frescos  of  the  sacristy  of  the  Theatines  of  San 
Paolo  Maggiore.  He  was  a  friend  of  Luca  Giordano, 
whom  he  equalled  in  genius  and  reputation.  He  pub- 
lished a  collection  of  sonnets.    Died  in  1747. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Domenici,  "  Vite 
de'  Pittori  Napoletani." 

Solin.    See  Soli n us. 

So-li^nus,  [Fr.  Solin,  so''1^n',]  (Caius  Julius,)  a 
Latin  writer,  of  whom  little  is  known,  lived  probably  in 
the  third  ceniury.  He  left  a  work  called  "  Polyhistor," 
which  describes  the  world  known  to  the  ancients,  and 
is  a  compilation  from  Pliny's  "Natural  History."  Sal- 
masius  published  an  edition  of  the  "Polyhistor,"  in 
1629. 

Solis,  de,  di  so'l6ss,  (Juan  Diaz,)  a  Sjjanish  navi- 
gator, born  in  the  province  of  Seville,  sailed  in  company 
with  Pinzon  to  the  northern  coast  of  South  America,  and 
discovered  Yucatan.  In  1512  Solis  set  out  on  another 
voyage,  in  which  he  discovered  Cape  Frio  and  obtained 
inforination  from  the  Indians  of  gold  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Paraguay.  Having  returned  with  this  account,  he 
sailed  again,  in  15 15,  with  three  vessels,  but  was  mur- 
dered, with  a  great  part  of  his  crew,  by  the  Indians,  soon 
after  landing. 

Solis  y  Ribadeneira,  de,  di  so'l^ss  e  re-b.^-Dk- 
na/e-rS,  (Antonio,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  dramatist  and 
historian,  born  at  Alcala  de  Henares  in  1610.  While 
studying  law  at  Salamanca,  he  published  a  comedy  en- 
titled "  Love  and  Duty,"  which  was  very  successful. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  to  Philip  IV.,  and,  after  his 
death,  historiographer  of  the  transactions  of  the  Span- 
iards in  the  Indies.  Among  his  dramas  we  may  name 
the  co.nedies  of  "  The  Gypsy-Girl  of  Madrid,"  ("  La 
Gitanilla"  (or  "  Preciosa")'  "  de  Madrid,")  "One  Fool 
will  make  a  Hundred,"  ("  Un  Bobo  hace  Ciento,")  and 
"  The  Castle  of  Mystery,"  ("  El  Alcazar  de  Secreto.") 
His  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  ("  Con- 
quista  de  Mejico,"  5  vols.,  1684,)  though  not  reliable  in 
point  of  accuracy  and  impartiality,  possesses  merit  of  a 
very  high  order,  and  has  been  translated  into  several 
languages.  Prescott  observes,  "  In  the  judgment  of 
eminent  Spanish  critics,  the  style  of  Solis  claims  the 
merits  of  j^erspicuity,  copiousness,  and  classic  elegance;" 
and  he  adds,  "such  is  the  charm  of  its  composition  and 
its  exquisite  finish  as  a  work  of  art,  that  it  will  doubtless 
be  as  imperishable  as  the  language  in  which  it  is  written, 


or  the  memory  of  the  events  which  it  records."  Died 
in  1686. 

See  Prescott,  "  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  iii.  book  vi.  ;  Tick- 
NOR,  "  History  of  Spanisli  Literature  ;"  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca 
Hispana  Nova;"  Nicrron,  "  Menioires." 

Sollohub  or  SoUogub.    See  Zollogub. 

SoPo-mon,  [Heb.  r^:2^^'n  ;  Gr.  I,o'AonC)v ;  Fr.  Salo- 
mon, sS'lo'm^N' ;  Ger.  Sai.omo,  zj'lo-mo,]  a  Jewish 
king,  whose  name  is  prf)verliial  for  wisdom,  was  a  son 
of  King  David  and  Bathsheba.  He  was  born  about 
1033  R.C.,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1015.  He  formed 
an  alliance  with  Pharaoh,  King  of  Egypt,  whose  dau'j;hter 
he  married.  Soon  after  his  accession  he  began  to  build 
the  magnificent  Temple  which  bore  his  name.  He  founded 
the  cityofTadmor  or  Palmyra.  In  his  pacific  reign  the 
Jewish  kingdom  rose  to  its  highest  pros])erity  and  great- 
est power.  He  wrote  or  compiled  the  collection  of 
Proverbs  which  form  one  of  the  canonical  l)ooks  of  the 
Bible  ;  also  the  Book  of  Ecclesiastes,  and  the  I'ook  of 
Canticles.  He  married  a  large  number  of  "strange 
women,"  who  seduced  him  into  idobtry.  He  died,  after 
a  reign  of  forty  years,  aiid  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Rehoboam. 

See  I.  Kings  i,-xi.  ;  IL  Chronicles  i.-x.  ;  Thomas  Thomas, 
"  Histoiy  of  the  Reign  of  Solomon,"  1813;  J.  L  Ewai.d,  "  Saloino  ; 
Versncli  einer  psychologisch  biographischen  Darstellnng,"  1800. 

SoPo-mon,  (Arraham,)  an  English  i^ainter,  born 
about  1823.  Among  his  works  is  "  Waiting  for  the 
Verdict."    Died  at  Biarritz  in  December,  1862. 

SoPo-mon  Ben  Fsaac,  a  learned  Jewish  rabbi, 
sometimes  called  Rashi,  born  at  Troyes,  in  France, 
about  1040,  was  the  author  of  Commentaries  on  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  and  the  Taltnud.    Died  in  1105. 

SoPo-mon  Ben  Vir'ga,  a  Spanish  physician  aiid 
rabbi  of  the  sixteenth  century,  wrote  a  history  of  the 
Jews. 

SoPo-nios,  (Denys,)  Count,  a  modern  Greek  poet, 
born  in  the  island  of  Zante  in  1798.  Besides  other  poems, 
he  wrote  about  1825  a  "  Hymn  to  Liberty,"  which  was 
very  popular.    Died  in  1857. 

So'lon,  fGr.  loXcov ;  It.  Solone,  so-h/ni,]  an  illus- 
trious Athenian  legislator,  born  in  the  island  of  Salamis 
about  638  B.C.,  was  a  son  of  Execestides  and  a  descend- 
ant of  Codrus.  In  his  youth  he  was  a  merchant  and 
visited  foreign  countries.  Some  say,  however,  that  he 
travelled  rather  to  gratify  his  curiosity  and  extend  his 
knowledge  than  to  iini^rove  his  fortune.  He  gained 
distinction  by  his  poetical  talents  in  the  early  part  of 
his  life,  and  cultivated  chiefly  that  part  of  moral  phi- 
loso])hy  which  treats  of  civil  oblicjatioiis.  Frngments 
of  his  poetry  are  still  extant  and  highly  i->rized.  The 
first  recorded  public  service  of  Solon  wns  his  successfiil 
expedition  to  Salamis,  which  he  recovered  from  the  Me- 
garians.  When  he  began  his  career,  the  Athenian  state 
was  demoralized  by  discordant  factions  and  oppressive 
laws.  A  large  portion  of  the  people  were  insolvent 
delators,  liable  to  be  reduced  to  slavery.  There  were 
three  political  parties,  thus  described  by  Plutarch  :  "The 
inhabitants  of  the  mountains  were,  it  seems,  for  a  de- 
mocracy, those  of  the  plains  for  an  oligarchy,  and  those 
of  the  sea-coast  contended  for  a  mixed  kind  of  govern- 
ment." In  594  B.C.  he  was  elected  archon,  and  was 
accepted  as  mediator  and  lawgiver  by  the  opjiosing 
parties,  "the  rich  accepting  him  readily  as  one  of  f//em, 
and  the  pooy  as  a  good  and  worthy  man."  (Plutarch.) 
He  relieved  debtors  l)y  a  reduction  of  the  rate  of  interest, 
and,  according  to  some  authorities,  cancelled  debts  and 
liberated  lands  from  mortgage.  "This  was  the  first  of 
his  public  acts,"  says  Plutarch,  "that  debts  should  be 
forgiven,  and  that  no  man  should  take  the  body  of  his 
debtor  for  security."  He  refused  to  make  himself  King 
of  Athens,  although  both  parties  ur^ed  him  to  accept 
the  supreme  power.  He  repealed  the  bloodv  laws  of 
Draco,  except  those  made  for  the  ])unishment  of  murder. 
He  established  the  council  or  court  of  the  Areopagus  to  be 
inspectors  and  guardians  of  the  laws,  and  he  remodelled 
the  political  constitution  by  dividing  the  people  into  four 
classes,  the  influence  or  privilege  of  which  was  projjor- 
tioned  to  their  income.  The  lowest  class  could  vote,  but 
could  not  hold  office.  He  ordained  that  new  measures 
should  be  first  considered  in  the  senate,  and,  if  they  were 
approved  by  that  body,  should  be  proposed  to  the  popular 


a,e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  /o»£-;  ii,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sJiori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SOLON 


2039 


SOMERS 


assembly,  which  had  power  to  adopt  or  reject  them. 
Having  been  asked  whether  he  had  given  the  Athenians 
the  best  of  laws,  he  answered,  "  The  best  they  were 
capable  of  receiving."  After  he  had  finished  his  great 
legislative  task,  he  obtained  leave  of  absence  for  ten 
years,  and  visited  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor.  He  returned 
to  Athens  in  his  old  age,  and  opposed  the  ambitious 
designs  of  Pisistratus.  He  began  a  poem,  the  subject 
of  which  was  the  fabulous  island  of  Atlantis,  but  did  not 
live  to  finish  it.  Solon  was  ranked  among  the  Seven 
Sages  of  Greece.    Died  about  558  H.C. 

See  Plutakch,  "  Life  of  Solon  ;"  Meuksius,  "  Solon,  sen  de  ejus 
Vita,  Legibus,"  etc.,  1632;  G.  Schmidt,  "  De  Solone  Legislatore," 
16S8  ;  H.  ScHEi.i.iNG,  "  De  So'onis  Lesihus,"  1842  ;  Grote,  "  History 
of  Greece;"  Bockh,  "Cconomie  politique  des  Atlieiiiens ;"  Kleine, 
"  Qiizestiones  de  Solonis  Vila  et  Fragnientis,"  1832. 

•Solon,  a  Greek  gem-engraver,  who  flourished  proba- 
bly about  I  A.D.,  and  was  a  contemporary  of  Dioscorides. 
His  name  occurs  on  several  gems. 

Soltikof,  soKte-kof,  written  also  Soltikow,  Sol- 
tikov,  and  Ssaltykow,  (Nicolai  Ivanovi  ich,)  a  Rus- 
sian general  and  statesman,  born  in  1736,  was  tutor  to 
the  grand  duke  Alexander,  afterwards  emperor.  He  was 
appointed  field-marshal  in  1796,  president  of  the  Impe- 
rial Council  in  1812,  and  made  a  prince  in  1814.  Died 
in  1816.  His  grandson  Alexei  has  published  "Travels 
in  India,"  (1849,)  and  "Travels  in  Persia,"  {1851,)  in 
French  and  Russian. 

See  SviNiNi,  "  Histoire  du  Feld-Mareclial  Soltikof,"  1818. 

Soltikof,  Soltikow,  or  Ssaltykow,  (Pkter  Se- 
MENOViTCH,)  a  Russian  general,  born  about  1700,  became 
in  1759  commander-in-chief  of  the  Russian  army  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  and  shared  in  the  victory  of  Kuners- 
dorf  over  Frederick  the  Great.  He  was  created  a  field- 
marshal,  and  appointed  governor-general  of  Moscow. 
Died  in  1772. 

Soltikof  or  Soltikow,  (Prascovia  Fedorovna,) 
was  married  to  the  Czar  Ivan  Alexeievitch,  and  was  the 
mother  of  the  empress  Anna. 

Soltyk,  soKtik,  (Roman,)  a  Polish  nobleman  and 
patriot,  born  at  Warsaw  in  1 791,  served  in  the  French 
army  in  the  campaigns  of  1810-12,  and  afterwards  took 
an  active  ]5art  in  the  insurrection  of  1830.  He  died  in 
1843,  leaving  a  work  entitled  "  Napoleon  in  1812." 

Soltyk,  (Stanislas,)  a  Polish  patriot,  born  in  1751, 
was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was  exiled  about 
1794,  and  was  marshal  of  the  Diet  in  181 1.  Died  in 
1830. 

Solvyiis,  sol-vTns',  (Francis  Balthasar,)  a  Flemish 
writer  and  artist,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1760.  He  spent 
many  years  in  Hindostan,  and  i^ublished,  after  his  re- 
turn, a  work  entitled  "The  Hindoos,  or  a  Picturesque 
Description  of  the  Manners,  Customs,  and  Religious 
Ceremonies  of  this  People,"  (4  vols.,  in  French.)  Died 
in  1824. 

SoPy-man  or  Soliman  [Turk.  pron.  so'lee-tnii/  or 
so-la-mln'l  I,,  written  also  Suleym^n,  soo-la-man',  an 
Ottoman  Sultan,  eldest  son  of  Bayazeed,  (Bajazet,)  was 
involved  in  a  contest  with  his  brother  Moosa,  and  was 
killed  in  battle  in  1410. 

Solyman  or  Soliman  II.,  surnamed  the  Magnifi- 
cent, Sultan  of  Turkey,  born  in  1496,  was  the  son  of 
Selim  I.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1520  a.d.  Soon  after 
his  accession  he  invaded  Hungary  and  took  Belgrade, 
and  in  1522  besieged  Rhodes,  which  surrendered  after 
an  obstinate  defence.  In  1526  he  defeated  Louis  II., 
King  of  Hungary,  at  the  battle  of  Mohacz.  Having 
bestowed  the  crown  of  Hungary  u]3on  John  Zapolya, 
Solyman  roused  the  opposition  of  Ferdinand  of  Austria, 
against  whom  he  subsequently  turned  his  arms.  He 
also  subjected  a  large  portion  of  Persia  and  Arabia,  and 
in  1537  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Austrians  at 
Essek,  resulting  in  the  conquest  of  Croatia.  In  1560  his 
general,  Piali,  defeated  the  combined  fleet  of  the  Chris- 
tian powers  at  Jerbeh,  and  a  truce  was  concluded  with 
Austria  in  1562,  leaving  Turkey  in  possession  of  her 
conquests  in  Hungary.  The  Turks,  having  besieged 
Malta  in  1565,  were  repulsed  with  a  heavy  loss,  and  in 
1566  Solyman  died,  while  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Szi- 
geth  in  Hungary.  He  was  one  of  the  ablest  rulers  of  his 
country  and  his  time,  and  equally  eminent  in  the  arts  of 


war  and  of  ])eace.  He  constructed  numerous  magnifi- 
cent public  edifices,  enc(juraged  learning  and  the  arts, 
and  was  distinguished  for  his  literary  attainments.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Selim  II. 

See  C.  Ancu.i.on,  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Soliman  II,"  1706; 
Von  Hammer,  "  Geschichte  des  Osmanisclien  Reiclis  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale  Rubertson,  "  Histoi  y  of  Cliarles  V.,"  vol.  ii. 
book  ii. 

Solyman  or  Soliman,  son  of  Ibraheem,  became 
Sultan  of  Turkey  in  1687,  his  brother,  Mahomet  IV., 
having  been  deposed.  During  his  reign  the  Austrians 
regained  a  gieat  part  of  Hungary,  previously  conquered 
by  the  Turks.  He  died  in  1691,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother,  Ahmed  II. 

So'ma,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  a  name  for  the 
m(K:)n.    (See  Chandra.) 

Sombreuil,  de,  deh  s6n15RuF,  (Charles  Virot,)  a 
French  officer,  distinguished  for  his  zeal  and  courage  in 
the  defence  of  the  royal  cause,  was  born  in  1769.  He 
commanded  a  party  of  royalist  emigrants  who  took  arms 
against  the  republic.  He  was  captured  at  Quib6ron,  and 
shot,  in  1795. 

Sombreuil,  de,  (Marie  Maurille  Virot,)  a  sister 
of  the  preceding,  was  hovn  near  Limoges  in  1774.  She 
saved  the  life  of  her  father  from  the  massacre  of  Sep- 
tember, 1793,  after  he  had  been  imprisoned  in  Paris. 
Died  in  1823. 

Somer,  van.    See  Vansomkr,  (Paul.) 

Somer,  van,  vtn  so'mer,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  mezzotinl 
engraver,  flourished  about  1675. 

Someren,  van,  vSn  so'mer-en,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  lawyer 
and  poet,  born  at  Dort  in  1622,  was  a  friend  of  Huy- 
ghens.  He  was  noted  for  learning  and  eloquence.  Died 
in  1676. 

Somers,  silm'erz,  (John,)  Lord  Somers,  an  excellent 
English  statesman  and  lawyer,  born  at  Worcester  about 
1650,  was  a  son  of  [ohn  Somers,  an  attorney.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxf(jrd,  studied  law  at  the 
Middle  Temple,  and  was  called  to  tiie  bar  in  1676.  He 
continued  to  reside  for  about  five  years  at  the  university, 
where  he  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "A  Brief  History 
of  the  Succession  of  the  Crown  of  England,"  (1681,)  and 
"The  Security  of  Englishmen's  Lives;  or,  The  Trust, 
Power,  and  Duty  of  the  Grand  [uries  of  England."  He 
also  translated  into  verse  some  of  Ovid's  "  Epistles."  In 
1682  he  began  to  practise  law  in  London.  His  success 
as  a  pleader  was  remarkably  rapid.  He  was  selected  in 
1688  as  one  of  the  counsel  for  the  defence  in  the  impor- 
tant trial  of  the  seven  bishops.  He  spoke  briefly  in  this 
case,  "but  every  word,"  says  Macaulay,  "was  full  of 
weighty  matter  ;  and  when  he  sat  down,  his  reputation 
as  an  orator  and  a  constitutional  lawyer  was  established." 

He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury, 
and  was  a  constant  adherent  of  the  Whig  party.  He 
represented  Worcester  in  the  Parliament  or  Conven- 
tion which  met  in  January,  1689,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  first,  and  chairman  of  the  second,  of  the  two  com- 
mittees which  prepared  the  memorable  Declaration  of 
Rights.  In  1689  he  was  appointed  solicitor-general,  and 
knighted.  He  became  attorney-general  in  May,  1692,  and 
lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  in  March,  1693.  "Neither 
in  forensic  nor  in  jjarliamentary  eloquence,"  says  Mac- 
aulay, "had  he  any  superior.  The  consistency  of  his 
public  conduct  had  gained  for  him  the  entire  confidence 
of  the  Whigs;  and  the  urbanity  of  his  manners  had 
conciliated  the  Tories.  It  was  not  without  great  reluc- 
tance that  he  consented  to  quit  an  assembly  over  which 
he  exercised  an  immense  influence  for  an  assembly  where 
it  would  be  necessary  for  him  to  sit  in  silence."  ("  His- 
tory of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chaji.  xix.) 

In  1697  he  was  appointed  lord  chancellor,  and  received 
the  title  of  Baron  vSomers  of  Evesham.  The  great  seal 
was  taken  from  him  in  1700,  in  consequence  of  a  reso- 
lution of  the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  impeached 
by  the  Tory  majority  of  the  lower  House,  but  was 
acquitted  by  the  Lords,  (1701.)  While  he  was  in  power 
he  patronized  Locke  and  Addison,  the  latter  of  whom 
dedicated  to  Lord  Somers  the  first  volume  of  his  "  Spec- 
tator," and  said,  "I  know  that  the  homage  I  now  pay 
you  is  offering  a  kind  of  violence  to  one  who  is  as 
solicitous  to  shun  applause  as  he  is  assiduous  to  deserve 


€  as^;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SOMERSET 


204c 


S0NNERJ7' 


it."  He  wa?  appointed  president  of  the  council  in  1708, 
when  the  Whig  party  returned  to  power.  He  died  in 
April,  1716.  Lord  Somers  was  never  married.  "  He  was 
equally  eminent,"  says  Macaulay,  "as  a  jurist  and  as  a 
politician,  as  an  orator  and  as  a  writer.  His  speeches 
have  perished;  but  his  state  papers  remain,  and  are 
models  of  terse,  luminous,  and  dignified  eloquence." 
("History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chap,  xx.) 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;"  Cook- 
i;ey,  "Essay  on  the  Life  and  Cliaracter  of  Lord  Sonieis,"  1791; 
Henry  Maddock,  "Life  of  Lord  Somers,"  1812;  "Westminster 
Review"  for  October,  1847. 

Somerset,  siim'er-set,  (Charles,)  was  an  illegitimate 
son  of  Henry  Beaufort,  Duke  of  Somerset,  who  was 
executed  in  1463.  He  was  a  man  of  eminent  talents, 
and  performed  important  diplomatic  missions  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VH.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Worcester 
in  1513  or  1514.    Died  in  1526. 

Somerset,  (Charles  Seymour,)  Duke  of,  called 
"  the  Proud  Duke  of  Somerset,"  was  the  second  in  rank 
among  the  temporal  peers  of  the  realm.  He  acquired 
the  greatest  estate  in  England  by  his  niarriage  with  the 
heiress  of  the  noble  family  of  Percy.  He  was  a  Prot- 
estant and  a  Whig.  In  1687  he  offended  James  H.  by 
his  refusal  to  officiate  in  a  procession  of  the  papal  nuncio. 
He  was  an  adherent  of  William  HI.  in  1688,  and  acted 
a  prominent  part  in  the  reign  of  Anne.  Died  in  1748, 
aged  eighty-seven. 

Somerset,  Earl  of,  (favourite  of  James  I.)  See 
Carr,  Robert. 

Somerset,  (Edward.)  See  Worcester,  Marqulsof. 

Somerset,  (Edward  Adolphus  Saint  Maur,) 
Duke  of,  an  English  Liberal  statesman,  the  eldest  son 
of  the  eleventh  Duke,  was  born  in  1804.  He  was  styled 
Lord  Seymour  previous  to  1855,  when  he  succeeded  to 
the  dukedom.  He  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  from 
June,  1859,  to  June,  1866. 

Somerset,  (Edward  Seymour,)  Earl  of  Hertford, 
Duke  of  Somerset,  and  Protector  of  England,  was  a 
brother  of  Jane  Seymour,  queen  of  Henry  VI H.,  and 
an  uncle  of  iEdward  VI.  He  commanded  an  army  which 
invaded  Scotland  in  1544  and  committed  great  devas- 
tation. On  the  death  of  Henry  VHI.,  in  1547,  he  re- 
seived  the  title  of  Duke  of  Somerset,  and  became  lord 
treasurer  and  Protector  of  the  realm.  He  favoured  the 
Protestant  cause.  In  1547  he  undertook  to  coerce  Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots,  to  marry  Edward  VI.,  and  defeated  the 
Scotch  at  Pinkie  Cleugh.  He  found  a  rival  in  his  own 
brother,  Thomas  Seymour,  who  conspired  against  the 
Protector  and  was  executed  for  treason  in  1549.  Som- 
erset made  many  enemies  by  his  ambition,  his  severity, 
and  his  zeal  against  popery.  His  most  powerful  enemy 
was  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  by  whose  agency  he  was  de- 
prived of  his  high  office  in  1549.  He  was  tried  on  the 
charges  of  treason  and  felony,  convicted  of  the  latter 
crime,  and  beheaded  in  January,  1552.  He  left  several 
sons,  one  of  whom,  named  Edward,  was  created  Earl 
of  Hertford  about  1558,  and  married  Catherine  Grey,  a 
sister  of  Lady  Jane. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England." 

Somerset,  (Fitzroy.)    See  Raglan,  Lord. 

Somerset,  (Sir  Henry,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
1794,  was  a  grandson  of  the  Duke  of  Beaufort.  He 
served  with  distinctian  in  the  Caffre  war.  Died  in  1862. 

Somerset,  (Henry  de  Beaufort,)  Duke  of,  was 
a  descendant  of  John  of  Gaunt.  He  fought  for  the  Lan- 
castrians in  the  war  of  the  Roses,  was  taken  prisoner  at 
Hexham  and  beheaded  in  1463. 

Somerset,  (John  de  Beaufort,)  Earl  of,  a  son 
of  John  of  Gaunt,  and  a  grandson  of  Edward  HI.,  was 
created  Earl  of  Somerset  about  1396.    Died  in  1410. 

Somerville,  siim'er-vil,  (Mrs.  Mary,)  an  eminent 
astronomer  and  scientific  writer,  the  daughter  of  Sir 
William  Fairfax,  was  born  at  Jedburgh,  in  Scotland, 
about  1780.  At  the  request  of  Lord  Brougham,  she 
wrote  for  the  "  Library  of  Useful  Knowledge"  a  summary 
of  the  "  Mecanique  Celeste"  of  Laplace,  which  appeared 
in  1832  under  the  title  of"  Mechanism  of  the  Heavens." 
Her  other  principal  works  are  a  treatise  "  On  the  Con- 
nexion of  the  Physical  Sciences,"  (1834,)  and  "  Physical 
Geography,"  (2  vols.  i2mo,  1848.)    She  was  elected  an 

a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  /on£-;  i,  b,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y 


honorary  member  of  the  Royal  Astron(>niical  Society, 
and  received  a  pension  of  three  hundred  pou  uls  a  year 
in  acknowledgment  of  her  great  services  to  science. 

See  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1832;  "Blackwood's  Mag- 
azine" for  October,  1H49;  and  a  notice  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly" 
for  May,  i860,  (by  Miss  Maria  Mitchell.) 

Somerville,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  his- 
torian, was  born  at  Hawick  in  1741.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  the  Reign  of  William  HI.,"  (1792,)  and  a 
"  History  of  Great  Britain  under  the  Reign  of  Queen 
Anne,"  (1798.)    Died  in  1830. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  1861. 

Somerville,  silm'er-vil,  (William,)  an  English  poet, 
born  in  Warwickshire  in  1692.  His  ])rincipnl  work  is 
a  poem  in  blank  verse,  entitled  "The  Chase."  He  also 
wrote  lyrics,  tales,  and  fables,  and  a  poem  called  "Field 
Sports."    Died  in  1742. 

Sommariva,  som-ma-ree'va,  (Giovanni  Battista,) 
an  Italian  statesman  and  celebrated  collector  of  pictures, 
was  born  at  Milan.  He  was  one  of  the  directors  of  the 
Cisalpine  republic  in  1800-1802.    Died  in  1826. 

Sommer,  so'maiii',  (Jean  Edouard  Albert,)  a 
French  writer,  born  at  Nancy  in  1822.  He  published 
several  dictionaries. 

Sommerard.    See  Du  Sommerard. 

Sommering  or  Soemmering,  von,  fon  som'meh- 
ring  or  zom'meh-ring,  (Samuel  Thomas,)  a  celebrated 
German  anatomist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Thorn  in 
1755.  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  became  ])rofessor 

of  anatomy  at  Mentz  in  1784.  Among  his  numerous  and 
valuable  works  we  may  name  his  treatise,  in  German,  "  On 
the  Brain  and  Spinal  Marrow,"  (1788,)  "On  the  Struc- 
ture of  the  Human  Body,"  (5  vols.,  1791,)  "On  the  Organ 
of  the  Soul,"  (1796,)  and  (in  Latin)  "On  the  Diseases 
of  the  Absorbing  Vessels  of  the  Human  Body."  He 
maintained  the  theory  that  the  nerves  act  independently 
of  the  brain,  which  he  considered  not  essential  to  the 
continuance  of  life.    Died  in  1830. 

See  Rudolph  Wagner,  "  Soemmering's  Leben  und  Verkehr  mil 
seinen  Zeitgenossen,"  2  vols.,  1844;  I.  Doli.inger,  " Gedachtniss- 
rede  anf  S.  T.  von  Soemmering,"  1830;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale," 

Sommier,  so'me-i',  (Jean  Claude,)  a  French  prel- 
ate and  writer,  bom^at  Vauvillers  in  1661,  published 
"Dogmatic  History  of  Religion,"  ("  Histoire  dogmatique 
de  la  Religion,"  6  vols.,  1 708-11,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1737. 

Somner,  sum'ner,  (William,)  an  English  antiquary 
and  philologist,  born  at  Canterbury  in  1606.  He  pub- 
lished "  The  Antiquities  of  Canterbury,"  (1640,)  a  "  Saxon 
Dictionary,"  (1659,)  a  "  Treatise  on  Gavelkind,"  one  "  On 
the  Roman  Ports  and  Forts  in  Kent,"  and  other  valuable 
works.  He  was  a  friend  of  Archbishoj)  Usher  and  other 
learned  men  of  the  time.    Died  in  1669. 

Som'nus,  [Gr.  "Tnvo^;  Fr.  Sommeil,  so'mal'  or  so''- 
mi'ye,]  in  classic  mytholog,',  the  god  of  sleej),  was  called 
a  son  of  Erebus  and  Nox,  and  a  brother  of  Death, 
(Mors  or  Thanatos.)    (See  Morpheus.) 

Sonderland,  son'der-lint^  or  zon'der-lant^  (Johann 
Baptist,)  a  German  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Dus- 
seldorf  in  1804,  was  a  pupil  of  Schadow.  Among  his 
best  works  are  etchings  illustrating  Burger's  "Lenore," 
and  "The  Magician's  Pupil,"  by  Goethe. 

Sonnenberg,  son'nen  -  b^RC^  or  zon '  nen  -  b§Rc/, 
(Franz  Anton  Joseph  Ignaz  Maria,)  Baron,  a 
German  poet  and  imitator  of  Klopstock,  was  born  at 
MUnster,  in  Westphalia,  in  1779.    Died  in  1805. 

See  Gruber,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  Sonnenbergs,"  1806. 

Sonnenfels,  von,  fon  son'nen-f§ls'  or  zpn'nen-fgls', 
(Joseph,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Nikolsburg,  in 
Moravia,  in  1733.  became  professor  of  political 

science  at  Vienna  in  1763,  and  filled  several  high  offices 
under  Maria  Theresa  and  the  emperor  Francis  II.  He 
published  in  1775  ^  treatise  "On  the  Abolition  of  the 
Torture,"  which  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  abolishing 
that  barbarous  practice  in  Austria.    Died  in  1817. 

Sonnerat,  son'rt',  (Pierre,)  a  French  naturalist, 
born  at  Lyons  about  1746.  He  spent  al-»out  seven  years 
in  exploring  Hindostan,  Malacca,  the  Philippine  Islands, 
etc.,  and  published  an  account  of  his  travels,  entitled 
"  Travels  in  the  East  Indies  and  China,"  ("  Voyage  aux 

short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SONNINI  2041 


Indes  Ofientales  et  a  la  Chine,"  2  vols.,  1782,)  which  is 
esteemed  valuable.    Died  in  Paris  in  1814. 

Sonnini  de  Manoncourt,  so'ne'ne'  deh  nifniw'- 
kooR^  (Charles  Nicolas  Sigisbert,)  a  celebrated 
French  naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Luneville  in 
1 75 1.  He  studied  at  the  Jesuits'  College  at  Pont-a- 
Mousson,  and  in  1772  was  sent  as  an  officer  of  marine 
engineers  to  Cayenne,  where  he  spent  several  years  in 
scientific  researches.  In  1777  he  accompanied  Baron 
de  Tott  on  his  African  expedition,  visiting  Egypt, 
Greece,  and  Asia  Minor.  He  returned  to  France  in 
1780,  and  was  imprisoned  in  the  reign  of  terror.  Among 
his  chief  works  are  "Travels  in  Egypt,"  (3  vols.,  1799,) 
"Travels  in  Greece  and  Turkey,"  (2  vols.,  1801,)  and 
"Natural  History  of  Fishes  and  Cetace^e,"  (14  vols., 
1804.)  He  jDublished  a  complete  edition  of  the  works 
of  Pufifon,  (127  vols.,  1798-1807.)  Died  in  Paris  in  1812. 
He  had  been  employed  by  Buffon  to  describe  many 
species  of  birds  for  his  "Natural  History." 

SeeTHiEBAUT  de  Berneaud,  "  filoge  historiqiie  de  Sonnini," 
1812;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  "Monthly  Review"  for 
January,  1S02. 

Sontag,  son^'tag  or  zon'tic,  (Henriette,)  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  female  vocalists  of  Germany,  was  born  at 
Coblentz  in  1805.  Having  studied  at  the  Conservatory 
of  Music  at  Prague,  she  visited  successively  the  principal 
cities  of  Germany,  Paris,  and  London,  being  received 
everywhere  with  enthusiastic  applause.  In  1830  she 
was  married  to  Count  Rossi,  ambassador  of  Sardinia  at 
the  Hague,  and  retired  from  the  stage.  Owing  to  pecu- 
niary embarrassments,  she  appeared  again  in  public  in 
1848,  and  in  1853  set  out  for  America,  where  she  also 
met  with  brilliant  success.  She  died  in  1854,  while  on 
the  way  to  Mexico. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Countess  de  Rossi,"  London,  1849;  T. 
Gautier,  "  L'Ambassadrice ;  Biograi>Iiie  de  la  Comtesse  de  Rossi," 
1850;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  June,  1850. 

Sonthonax,  s6N'to'ntks',(LEGER  F^lici  t^:,)  aFrench 
political  agent,  born  in  Bugey  (Ain)  in  1763.  He  was 
sent  in  1792  as  commissary  to  Hayti  to  restore  order, 
and  liberated  the  slaves  of  that  island  in  1793,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  pro-slavery  party  commenced  a 
civil  war.    Died  in  1813. 

Soodra  or  Siidra,  written  also  Qudra,  soo'dra, 
called  Soo'der  by  the  modern  Hindoos,  [etymology 
uncertain.]  The  Soodras  are  the  lowest  of  the  four  prin- 
cipal Hindoo  castes.    (See  BRA^I^IANIS^L) 

Soomarokof  or  Suniarokow,  soo-mi-ro'kof,  writ- 
ten also  Somarokof  and  Sumarokov,  a  Russian 
poet  and  dramatist,  called  the  fomider  of  the  Russian 
drama,  was  born  at  Moscow  in  17 18  or  1727.  He  was 
the  author  of  both  comedies  and  tragedies.  Among 
the  latter  we  may  name  his  "Demetrius,"  and  "  Sinov 
and  Truvor."  He  also  wrote  numerous  lyrics,  elegies, 
sonnets,  epigrams,  and  satires.    Died  in  1777. 

Soora.    See  Suras. 

Soorya.    See  Surya. 

Sop'a-ter  ['LcjiraTpog]  of  Apamea,  a  Greek  Sophist, 
and  a  pupil  of  Jamblichus.  He  enjoyed  for  a  time  the 
favour  of  Constantine  the  Great,  but  was  afterwards  put 
to  death  by  him,  about  334  a.d. 

So-ph^a,  [Ger.  Sophie,  zo-fee'eh  ;  Fr.  Sophie,  so^- 
fe',]  Etectressof  Hanover,  born  about  1630,  was  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  Elector-Palatine.  Her  mother  was  Elizabeth, 
a  daughter  of  James  I.  of  England.  Sophia  was  married 
in  1658  to  Ernest  Augustus,  Duke  of  Brunswick-Liine- 
burg,  who  became  Elector  of  Hanover.  She  was  intimate 
with  Leibnitz.  In  1701  she  was  recognized  as  the  heir 
to  the  English  crown  (next  to  the  princess  Anne)  by 
Parliament,  which  preferred  her  to  other  members  of 
the  royal  family  because  she  was  a  Protestant.  Her  son 
became  George  I.  of  England.    She  died  in  17 14. 

See  Feder,  "Sophie  Churfiirsten  von  Hannover,  im  Umriss," 
i8io. 

So-phi^a  Al-ex-i-ev'na,  a  Russian  princess,  daugh- 
ter of  the  Czar  Alexis  Mikhailovitch,  and  half-sister  of 
Peter  the  Great,  was  born  in  1657.  She  was  ambitious  and 
energetic.  At  the  death  of  Feodor  (1682)  she  instigated 
the  Strelitzes  to  revolt  against  Peter  I.,  and  caused  her 
brother  Ivan  to  be  recognized  as  joint  sovereign  with 
Peter.  She  acted  as  regent  from  1682  to  1689,  and  then 
was  confined  in  a  convent.    Died  in  1704. 


SOPHRON 


So-pln''a  Dor-o-the'a  [Ger.  Sophie  Dorothea,  zo- 
fee'eh  do-ro-ta'd  ;  Fr.  Sophie  Dokoth^:e,  so'fe'  do'ro'- 
OF  Brunswick,  born  in  1666,  was  a  daughter  of 
George  William,  Duke  of  Zell.  She  was  married  in  1682 
to  her  cousin  George,  afterwards  George  I.  of  England, 
who  treated  her  ill.  Having  been  suspected  of  a  passion 
for  the  Count  de  Konigsmarck,  she  was  divorced  in  1694, 
and  confined  in  prison  until  she  died,  in  1726. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  Sophia  Dorothea,  Consort  of  George  I.,"  Lon- 
don, 2  vols.,  1845;  Henri  Blaze,  "Les  Koenigsmark,"  1856. 

Sophia  Dorothea,  Queen  of  Prussia,  born  in  1687, 
was  a  daughter  of  George  I.  of  England.  She  was  mar- 
ried to  FVederick  William  I.  of  Prussia.    Died  in  1757. 

Sophie.    See  Sophia. 

Soph'o-cles,  |Gr.  I^o(poK?if/g ;  Fr.  Sopiiocle,  so'fok'K,] 
a  celebrated  Greek  tragic  poet,  born  at  the  village  of 
Colonus,  near  Athens,  in  495  B.C.  He  received  a  liberal 
education.  His  first  drama  was  represented  in  468,  when 
he  appeared  as  a  rival  of  A^^schylus,  and  gained  the  first 
prize,  which  was  awarded  by  Cimon  and  other  judges. 
The  drama  which  he  exhibited  at  this  time  is  supposed 
to  have  been  "  Triptolemus,"  which  is  not  extant.  We 
have  no  record  of  the  events  of  his  life  between  the  years 
468  and  440  B.C.,  when  he  ]3roduced  his  "Antigone," 
which  was  very  successful.  The  Athenians  were  so  well 
pleased  with  it  that  they  elected  Sophocles  one  of  the 
ten  strategi,  or  generals.  The  illustrious  Pericles  was 
one  of  the  strategi  chosen  at  the  same  time.  Sophocles 
acted  as  a  general  in  the  war  against  Samos  hi  440- 
439,  but  did  not  distinguish  himself  in  military  affairs. 
His  conduct  appears  to  have  been  consistent  with 
the  patriotic  sentiments  expressed  in  his  writings.  He 
was  invited  to  their  courts  by  several  monarchs,  but 
always  refused  to  abandon  his  native  country  or  accept 
their  patronage. 

He  composed  more  than  a  hundred  tragedies,  of  which 
seven  are  extant,  namely,  "Antigone,"  "Electra,"  "  Tra- 
chinias,"  "  CEdipus  Tyrannus,"  "  Ajax,"  "  Philoctetes," 
and  "  CEdipus  at  Colonus."  He  is  said  to  have  gained 
the  first  prize  twenty  times  or  more.  His  son  lophon 
was  distinguished  as  a  dramatic  poet.  Sopln^cles  was 
remarkable  for  jiersonal  beauty  and  symmetry,  and 
excelled  in  music  and  gymnastics.    He  died  in  405  B.C. 

"  By  the  universal  consent  of  the  best  critics,"  says 
Professor  Philip  Smith,  "both  of  ancient  and  of  modern 
times,  the  tragedies  of  Sophocles  are  not  only  the  per- 
fection of  the  (jreek  drama,  but  they  approach  as  nearly 
as  is  conceivable  to  the  perfect  ideal  model  of  that 
species  of  poetry."  (See  Smith's  "Dictionary  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Biography,"  etc.) 

"  Sophocles  was  the  high-priest  of  humanity.  He 
chose,  as  he  phrased  it,  'to  put  away  the  pomp  of  /Fls- 
chylus  along  with  his  childish  things  ;'  and  he  exhibited 
that  mild  grandeur  and  matchless  refinement  in  which 
he  excels  all  the  dramatists  of  Greece.  He  made  tragic 
poetry  a  true  mirror  of  the  passions  of  the  soul  of 
man,  and  exhibited,  as  has  seldom  !)een  done,  the  true 
moral  significance  of  human  action."  ("Encyclopaedia 
Britannica.") 

See  Lessing,  "  Leben  des  Sophocles,"  lygo;  Scholi.,  "  Sopho- 
kles,  sein  Leben  uud  Wii ken,"  etc.,  1S42;  Bekgk,  De  Vita  So- 
lilioclis,"  1S58;  K.  O.  Miji.i.ER,  "History  of  the  Literature  of 
Ancient  Greece;"  \Vp:i.cker,  "Die  Griechischen  'I'tagodieii,"  3 
vols.,  18.^9-41  ;  F.  ScHUi-TZ.  "  ("ommentatio  de  Vita  Soplioclis 
Poetas,"  1836;  Rkuter,  "  Dissertatio  de  yEschylo,  Sophocle  et 
Euripide,"  1831. 

Sophocles,  the  son  of  Ariston,  an  Athenian  tragic 
poet,  was  a  grandson  of  the  great  Sophocles.  He  flour- 
ished al)out  390  B.C.,  and  produced  numerous  dramas, 
some  of  which  gained  prizes. 

Sophonie  or  Sophonias.    See  Zephaniah. 

Soph-o-nis'ba,  [Gr.  I,o(p6viG6a  :  Fr.  Sophonisbe,  so'- 
fi/n^sb',]  a  Carthaginian  ladv,  became  the  wife  of  Syi^hax, 
King  of  Numidia,  about  206  B.C.  She  was  taken  pris- 
oner in  203  by  Masinissa,  who  had  formerly  been  her 
lover.  He  married  her,  or  resolved  to  marry  her;  but 
Scipio  would  not  permit  him  to  keep  her,  because  he 
feared  she  would  convert  him  into  an  ally  of  Carthage. 
She  died  by  poison  given  to  her  by  Masinissa. 

Sophonisbe.    See  Sophonisha. 

So'phron,  [Sw^pwr',]  a  Greek  comic  poet,  born  at 
Syracuse  about  450  or  425  B.C.    He  is  considered  to  be 


€  as  /c,-  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SOPRANI 


2042 


SOUBISE 


the  inventor  of  "mimes."  His  works,  which  are  lost, 
except  small  fragments,  were  greatly  admired  by  Plato, 
who  is  said  to  have  been  largely  indebted  to  them.  So- 
phron  wrote  in  the  Doric  dialect. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grreca ;"  Grysar,  "DeComoedia 
Doi-iensniin  ;  de  Soplirone  mimographo,"  1838. 

Soprani,  so-pr^'nee,  (Raffaello,)  an  Italian  biogra- 
pher, born  at  Genoa  in  1612.  He  wrote  "The  Lives  of 
the  Genoese  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects,"  (in 
Italian,  1674.)    Died  in  1672, 

So-ra^nus,  [Swpavof,]  a*celebrated  Greek  physician, 
born  at  Ephesus,  v^as  the  son  of  Menander,  and  lived 
under  the  reigns  of  Trajan  and  Hadrian.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  treatise  "  On  the  Obstetric  Art,"  etc.,  a  por- 
tion of  which  is  extant,  and  of  other  medical  works. 

Soraiizo,  so-rii/zo,  (Giovanni,)  a  Venetian  states- 
man, was  elected  doge  in  13 12.  He  is  said  to  have 
governed  wisely.    Died  in  1327. 

Sorbait,  soR^ba'  or  soR'bIt,  (Paul,)  a  medical  writer, 
born  in  llainault,  practised  in  Vienna.    Died  in  1691. 

Sorbier,  soR^be-a',  (Jfan  Bartholom^,)  a  French 
general  of  artillery,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1762.  He  served 
at  Borodino,  Lutzen,  and  Leipsic.    Died  in  1827. 

Sorbiere,  soR^be^iR^,  (Samuel,)  a  French  littera- 
teur, born  at  Saint-Ambroix  in  1615.  He  studied  medi- 
cine, and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Letters  on  Divers 
Curious  Matters,"  (1660,)  and  a  "Life  of  Gassendi," 
(1662.)  He  received  the  title  of  historiographer  to  the 
kiif^  in  1660,    Died  in  1670. 

See  "  Soiberiana,"  Toulouse,  1691  ;  Niceron,  "  Memoires." 

Sorbin  de  Sainte-Foi,  soR'biw'  deh  s^NtTwl', 
(Arnaud,)  a  Frencj;  priest  and  polemical  writer,  born 
in  1532.  He  became  court  preacher  to  Charles  IX.  and 
Henry  HI.,  the  latter  of  whom  appointed  him  Bishop 
of  Nevers  in  1578.    Died  in  1606. 

See  Rey,  "  Vie  d'A.  Sorbin,"  1S60  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale,."  « 

Sorbon,  de,  deh  soR^biw',  (Robert,)  a  French  ec- 
clesiastic, born  near  Rethel  in  1201,  was  confessor  to 
Saint  Louis,  and  founded  about  1250  the  College  of  the 
Sorbonne  in  Paris.    Died  in  1274. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Sor'by,  (Henry  Clifton,)  an  English  geologist, 
born  at  Sheffield  in  1826.  He  has  contributed  numerous 
scientific  articles  to  the  "Edinburgh  New  Philosophical 
Journal,"  and  other  periodicals  of  the  kind,  and  has  been 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Geo- 
logical Society. 

'Sordello,  soR-deKlo,  an  Italian  poet,  born  near 
Mantua  in  the  twelfth  century.  He  was  patronized  by 
Charles  of  Anjou,  and  wrote  amatory  and  satirical 
poems.  He  is  eulogized  by  Dante  in  his  "  Purgatorio." 
Died  after  1266. 

Sorel,  so^-^K,  (Agnes,)  a  beautiful  Frenchwoman, 
born  in  Touraine,  became  the  mistress  of  King  Charles 
VII.,  over  whom  she  exercised  great  influence.  She 
incited  him  to  greater  resolution  and  activity  in  resisting 
the  English  invaders,  who  had  conquered  a  large  part 
of  France.  She  was  a  woman  of  superior  talents.  Died 
in  1450. 

Sorel,  (Charles,)  a  French  novelist  and  historian, 
born  in  Paris  about  1597.  Among  his  works  were  a 
"Comic  History  of  Francion,"  ("  Histoire  comique  de 
Francion,"  1622,)  a  "  History  of  the  French  Monarchy," 
(1636,)  and  "French  Library,"  ("  Bibliotheque  Fran- 
9oise,"  1664.)    Died  in  1674. 

Sorgh.    See  Zorgh. 

Sorri,  sor'ree,  (Pip:rRO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Sienna  in  1556.  He  painted  history,  landscapes,  and 
portraits.    His  works  are  highly  praised.    Died  in  1622. 

Sor-tain',  (Joseph,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  1809, 
was  for  many  years  minister  of  an  Independent  chmxh 
at  Brighton.  He  jiublished,  besides  other  works,  "  Lec- 
tures on  Romanism  and  Anglo-Catholicism,"  (1841,) 
and  a  "  Life  of  Lord  Bacon,"  (1851.)    Died  in  i860. 

See  "Life  of  J.  Sortain,"  by  his  widow,  1861. 

So-sib'i-us,  [S(j(Ji(?ioc.]  an  Athenian  sculptor  of  un- 
known date.  Among  his  works  is  a  vase  adorned  with 
figures  of  Artemis  and  Hermes.  This  vase  is  now  in  the 
Louvre,  at  Paris. 


So-sig'e-nes,  [Gr.  luotyivrjg ;  Fr.  Sosigene,  so'ze'- 
zh^n',]  a  Greek  or  Egyptian  astronomer,  born  in  Egypt, 
was  a  Peripatetic  in  philosophy.  He  was  employed  by 
Julius  Caesar  (46  15. c.)  to  ref(jrm  the  calendar,  and  de- 
fined a  year  to  be  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days  and 
five  or  six  hours. 

So-siph'a-nes,  [Gr.  I,ijaL(pavTjg  ;  Fr.  Sosiphane,  so'- 
zc'ftn',]  a  Greek  tragic  poet  of  Syracuse,  lived  about 
300  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  seven 
poets  called  the  "Tragic  Pleiad." 

Sosithee.    See  Sositheus. 

So-sith'e-us,  [Gr.  Xtjo'ideog  ;  Fr.  SosnTi^;E,  so'ze't^,] 
a  Greek  poet  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  lived  in  the 
third  century  li.c. 

Sost,  sost,  Soest,  or  Zoest,  (Gerard,)  a  German 
portrait-painter,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1637.  He  worked 
in  England.    Died  in  1681. 

Sostrate.    See  Sostratus. 

Sos'tra-tus,  [Gr.  IcoarpaTog;  Fr.  Sostrate,  so'strtt',''' 
a  Greek  architect,  born  at  Cnidos,  lived  about  300  B.C. 
Among  his  works'  was  the  Pharos  of  Alexandria. 

Sostratus  of  Chios,  a  Greek  statuary,  the  master 
of  Pantias,  is  snj^posed  to  have  lived  about  400  B.C. 

Sot'a-des,  [Gr.  lurddrj^;  Fr.  Sotade,  so'ttd',]  a 
Greek  poet,  who  flourished  at  Alexandria  about  280 
B.C.  His  poems  were  extremely  lascivious.  He  was 
imprisoned  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  against  whom  he 
had  written  a  lampoon. 

Softer,  was  elected  Bishop  of  Rome  about  165  A.D. 
He  is  said  to  have  opposed  the  doctrines  of  Montanus. 
Died  in  177. 

Sotheby,  suth'be,  (Samuel  Leigh,)  an  English 
antiquary  and  bibliographer  of  London,  born  in  1805; 
died  in  1861. 

Sotheby,  (William,)  an  English  scholar  and  poet, 
born  in  London  in  1757.  He  made  a  number  of  trans- 
lations from  the  Gernian  and  other  languages,  among 
which  we  may  name  the  "  Oberon"  of  Wieland,  Virgil's 
"  Georgics,"  and  Homer's  "Iliad"  and  "Odyssey."  He 
was  also  the  author  of  a  tragedy  entitled  "  Orestes," 
and  of  "  Constance  de  Castile,"  and  other  poems.  He 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries.    Died  in  1833. 

See  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1S07;  "  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  April  and  May,  1831,  and  February,  1832. 

Soto,  so'to,  (Domingo,)  a  Spanish  Dominican  monk, 
born  at  Segovia  in  1494,  became  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Alcala  in  15 19.  He  was  sent  in  1545  by  Charles  V. 
as  his  first  theologian  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  where  he 
was  conspicuous  for  learning  and  ability.  He  afterwards 
became  confessor  to  Charles  V.  He  wrote  "Summulae," 
or  a  treatise  on  the  Dialects  and  Physics  of  Aristotle, 
and  other  works  in  Latin.    Died  in  1560. 

Soto,  so'to,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  monk,  who  went  to 
England  with  Philip  II.  He  was  afterwards  a  member 
of  the  Council  of  Trent.    Died  in  1563. 

Soto,  de,  (Hernando.)    See  De  Soto. 

Sotomayor,  de,  da  so-to  m^-ydR^,  (Luis,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Valencia  in  1635  ;  died  in  1673. 

Sotzmann,  sots'min,  (Daniel  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man geographer,  born  at  Spandau  in  1754,  i^ublished  a 
number  of  valuable  maps  and  charts.    Died  in  1840. 

Soubeiran,  soo''b^'r6N',  (Eugene,)  a  French  writer 
on  pharmacy,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  became  pro- 
fessor in  the  School  of  Pharmacy,  Paris.    Died  in  1858. 

Soubeyran,  (Pierre,)  a  Swiss  engraver,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1709,  worked  in  Paris.    Died  in  1775. 

Sonbise,  soo^'b^z',  (Jean  de  Parthenai — deh  ptRt'- 
ni',)  Lord  of,  a  Huguenot  leader,  born  of  a  noble 
fami'y  of  Poitou  about  1512.  Sent  by  the  Prince  of 
Conde  to  defend  Lyons,  he  compelled  the  Duke  of  Ne- 
mours to  raise  the  siege  of  that  place.    Died  in  1566. 

Soubise,  de,  deh  s"oo'b^z^  (Benjamin  de  Rohan — 
deh  ro'SN^,)  Seigneur,  a  French  nobleman  and  soldier 
of  the  Huguenot  party,  born  about  1585,  was  a  brother 
of  the  Duke  de  Rohan.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
religious  wars  of  the  time,  and  fought  with  varying  suc- 
cess against  Louis  XIII.  and  the  Catholic  faction.  He 
was  noted  for  his  turbulence  and  audacity.  In  1626  a 
peace  was  concluded,  and  Soubise  was  created  a  duke. 
Soon  after  this  date  he  induced  the  Duke  of  Bucking- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  /on^;-  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SOUBISE 


2043 


SOUMET 


ham  to  aid  the  Huguenots  with  an  English  fleet.  He 
passed  his  latter  years  in  England,  and  died  in  London 
in  1642. 

See  Haag,  "  La  France  protestante;"  "Nouvelle  Biogiaphie 
Generale." 

Soubise,  de,  (Charles  de  Rohan,)  Prince,  a 
French  general,  born  in  Paris  in  1715.  He  became  a 
favourite  courtier  of  Louis  XV,  In  1757  he  was  de- 
feated by  Frederick  the  Great  at  Rossbacli.  He  gained 
two  victories  in  175S,  at  Sondershausen  and  Lutzelberg, 
and  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of  marshal  of  France. 
Died  in  1787. 

See  De  Courcei.les.  "  DIctionnaire  des  Generaux  Fian9ais ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Souchay  or  Soiichai,  soo'sha',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
French  writer  and  editor,  born  near  Vendome  in  1688. 
He  edited  tiie  works  of  Boileau  (1735)  ^^^^  other  authors. 
Died  in  1746. 

Souchon,  soo'sh6N',  (Franqots,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Alais  (Gard)  in  1785  ;  died  in  1857. 

Souciet,  soo'se-i',  or  Souchiet,  soo'she-i',  (£ri- 
ENNE,)  a  learned  French  priest,  born  at  Bourges  in 
167 L  He  wrote  on  theology,  chronology,  etc.  Died 
in  1744. 

Souciet,  (Etienne  Augustin,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Bourges  in  1685,  was  an  elegant 
LatinisL  He  wrote  a  Latin  poem  on  comets,  ("  Co- 
metae,"  1710.)    Died  in  1744. 

Soufflot,  soo^flo',  (Jacques  Germain,)  a  celebrated 
French  architect,  born  near  Anxerre  in  1713.  He  spent 
several  years  at  Rome  in  the  study  of  his  i:)rofession, 
and  after  his  return  constructed  the  Great  flospital  at 
Lyons,  also  a  theatre  of  uncomnion  size  and  elegance. 
Having  settled  in  Paris,  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy 
of  Arcliiteclure,  and  in  1757  was  employed  to  rebuild 
the  church  of  Saint  Genevieve,  since  called  the  Pan- 
theon, a  superb  edifice,  which,  however,  he  did  not  live 
to  complete.    Died  in  178L 

See  QuATREMfeRE  DE  QuiNCV,  "  Vles  des  plus  celebres  Archi- 
tectes  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Souham,  soo'6n',  (Joseph,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Lubersac  in  1760.  He  became  a  general  of  division 
in  1793,  and  served  under  Pichegru  in  Flanders.  Sus- 
pected of  complicity  with  Moreau,  he  was  im])ris()nefl 
in  1804,  but  was  restored  to  his  rank  in  tiie  army  in 
1807.  He  rendered  important  services  at  Lutzen  (1813) 
and  Leipsic.    Died  in  1837. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale.' 

Soulange-Bodin,  ^oo'lfiN/J/  bo'dAN',  (Etienne,)  a 
French  horticulturist  and  writer,  born  at  Tours  in  1774. 
He  planted  a  botanic  garden  at  Fromont,  (vSeine-et-Oise.) 
Died  in  1846. 

Soulange-Teissier,  soo'l6Nzh'  t^'se-i',  (Louis  Ema- 
nuel,) a  French  lithographer,  was  bom  at  Amiens  in 
181 5. 

Sotilas.    See  Fi.oridor. 

Soulavie,  soo'lS've',  (Jean  Louis  Giraud,)  a  French 
historical  writer,  born  in  Ardeche  in  1752.  He  was 
appointed  French  resident  at  Geneva  in  1793.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "Memoirs  of  Marshal 
Richelieu,"  (9  vols.,  1791,)  and  "Historical  Memoirs  of 
the  Reign  of  Louis  XVL,"  (6  vols.,  1802.)  Died  in  1813. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Soule,  sool,  (Joshua,)  D.D.,  an  American  Method- 
ist divine,  born  at  Bristol,  Maine,  in  1781,  rose  through 
several  promotions  to  be  senior  bishop  of  the  Meth(jdist 
Ejiiscopal  Church  in  1843. 

Soule,  soo'iy,  (Pierre,)  a  diplomatist  and  politician, 
born  in  the  department  of  Ariege,  France,  about  1802, 
emigrated  to  America  in  1825,  and  settled  in  New  Or- 
leans, where  he  rose  to  distinction  as  a  lawyer.  He  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1849.  and  in  1853 
appointed  minister  to  Spain.  He  was  one  of  the  authors 
of  the  "  Ostend  Manifesto"  in  relation  to  Cuba,  (1854.) 
He  returned  home  in  1855.  In  1862  he  was  arrested  for 
disloyalty  in  New  Orleans.    Died  in  1870. 

Soulie,  soo'le^',  (Melchior  Fk^deikic,)  a  French 
novelist  and  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Foix,  in  the  de- 
partment.of  Ariege,  in  1800.  Among  his  numerous  ro- 
mances, which  appeared  originally  in  the  journals  as 


feuilletons,  we  may  .  name  the  "  Vicomte  de  Be^ier.s," 
(1834,)  "Le  Magnetiseur,"  "Diane  et  Louise,"  (1836,) 
"The  Man  of  Letters,"  (1838,)  and  "Memoirs  of  the 
Devil,"  (1842.)  The  last-named  had  an  inuiiense  sale 
and  great  popularity.  His  drauia  of  "Clotilde"  was 
also  highly  successful.    Died  in  1847. 

SeeM.  Champion,  "  F.  Soulie,  saVieetsesOiivrages,"i847  ;  Que- 
RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  I'iographie  Generale." 

Soulouque, soo'look^  (Faustin,)  Emperor  of  Hayti, 
a  negro,  born  about  1785,  was  originally  a  slave.  He 
entered  the  army,  and  attained  the  rank  of  general.  He 
was  elected  president  in  1847,  and  Aisurped  the- title  of 
emperor  in  1849.  His  reign -is  said  to  have  been  tyran- 
nical and  cruel.  He  was  deposed  in  1859,  and  retired 
to  France.   Died  in  1867. 

See  G.  d' Ai.Aiiy,  "  Soulouque  et  son  Empire;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graj^iiie  Generale." 

Soult,  soolt,  (Napoleon  Hector,)  Duke  of  Dalma- 
tia,  a  diplomatist,  born  in  1801,  was  a  son  of  Marshal 
Soult.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Turin  in  1839, 
and  to  Berlin  in  1843.  He  was  recalled  in  1848.  Died 
in  1857. 

Soult,  (Nicolas  Jean  de  Dieu,)  Duke  of  I^almatia, 
a  celebrated  French  general,  born  at  Saint-Amans  la 
Bastide  (Tarn)  in  March,  1769.  He  entered  the  army 
in  1785,  became  general  of  brigade  in  1794,  gained  sev- 
eral victories  in  Germany,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  a 
general  of  division  in  1799.  -  He  shared  with  Mass^nn 
the  honour  of  defending  Genoa  in  1800,  was  appoinl:ed 
a  colonel  of  the  consular  guard  in  1802,  and  became  a 
marshal  of  France  in  1804.  He  Vendered  imj^ortant 
services  at  Austerlitz,  in  1805,  and  at  Jena,  in  1806.  In 

1807  he  received  the  title  of  Due  de  Dalmatie,  and  in 

1808  was  sent  to  Spain.  He  commanded  the  army  which 
attacked  Sir  John  Moore  at  Corunna  in  January,  1809, 
and  was  repulsed.  In  March  ensuing  he  took  Oporto. 
Having  succeeded  Jourdan  as  ^onnnander-in-chief  of 
the  arnjies  in  Spain,  he  gained  a  victory  at  Ocana  in 
Nc  /ember,  1809,  and  occupied  .Andalusia  in  1810.  He 
was  defeated  by  General  J^eresf^id  at  Albuera  in  May, 
1811.  Dissension  arose  in  1812  between  Soult  and 
King  Joseph,  who  preferred  Jourdan  as  his  second  in 
C(Miimand.  In  March,  1813,  Soult  joined  the  grand 
army  in  Germany.  He  commanded  the  Old  (juard  at 
Lutzen,  and  the  centre  at  Bautzen.  In  the  summer  of 
1813  he  was  sent  as  commander-in-chief  to  oppose  the 
victorious  progress  of  Wellington  in  vSpain.  He  dis- 
]:)layed  great  skill  in  this  campaign,  but  was  defeated  at 
Orthez,  February,  1814.  The  l£nglish  also  claimed  the 
victory  at  the  great  battle  of  Toulouse,  fought  in  April, 
1814,  after  the  allies  had  taken  Paris. 

Soult  was  appointed  minister  of  war  by  Louis  XA^III. 
in  December,  1814,  but  he  joined  the  standard  of  Napo- 
leon in  March,  181 5,  and  fought  at  Waterloo.  He  was 
banished  in  January,  1816,  recalled  in  1819,  and  restored 
to  the  rank  of  marshal  in  1820.  He  became  minister  ot 
war  in  November,  1830,  and  prime  minister  in  October, 
1832,  with  Guizot  as  one  of  his  colleagues.  In  July, 
1834,  he  retired  from  otifice,  and  was  succeeded  by  M. 
'I'hiers.  Soult  was  president  of  the  council  from  May, 
1839,  to  March  i,  1840.  In  October,  1840,  Guizot  and 
Soult  were  requested  bv  the  king  to  form  a  new  ministry, 
in  which  Soult  was  president  of  the  council  and  minister 
of  war,  but  the  former  was  the  real  chief  He  resigned 
in  September,  1847,  and  died  in  November,  1851. 

See  Thiers,  "  Histoiy  of  the  French  Revolution,"  and  "  His- 
toire  de  I'Empire  :"  Southev,  "  History  of  the  Peninsular  War;" 
W.  Napier,  "  History  of  the  War  in  the  Peninsiiln."  6  vols.,  182S- 
40:  Sai.i.e,  "  Vie  politique  dii  Marechal  Soult."  i^^4;  Lomenie, 
"  Galerie  des  Conteinporains ;"  Guizot,  Menioii  es  ;"  GufiZE- 
i.iHR,  "  Le  Marechal  Soult,  sa  Vie  militaire,"  1.S52  ;  "Nouvelle 
I^.iographie  Genera'e ;"  "  Forei?»n  Quarterly  Review"  for  June, 
1833  ;   "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1844. 

Soult,  (Pierre  Benoit,)  Baron,  a  brother  of  the 
l^receding,  was  born  at  Saint- Amans  in  1770.  He 
became  a  general  of  brigade  in  1807,  and  a  general  of 
division  in  181 3.    Died  in  1843. 

Soumarokof.    See  Soomarokof. 

Soumet,  so(/mi',  (  Ai.kxandre,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Castelnaudary  in  1788.  He  produced,  in  1822,  trage- 
dies entitled  "  Clytemnestra"  and  "  Saul,"  which  were 
successful,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (TC^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SOURDIS 


2044 


SOUTHET 


Ajademy  in  1824.  Among  his  other  woiks  are  "The 
Divine  Epopee,"  ("La  divine  fipopee,"  1840,)  and 
•'Joan  of  Arc,"  an  epic  poem,  (1845.)    Died  in  1845. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sourdis,  de,  deh  soorM^ss',  (FRANgois  d'Escou- 
BLEAU,)  a  French  cardinal,  born  in  1575.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  13ordeaux  in  1599.    Died  in  1628. 

Sourdis,  de,  (Henri,)  a  prelate,  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1593.  He  became  Archbishop  of 
Bordeaux  in  1629.    Died  in  1645. 

Sousa.    See  B'aria  y  Souza. 

South,  (Sir  James,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  astronomer, 
born  probably  in  London.  He  practised  medicine  or 
surgery  in  his  early  life.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  organized  about 
1820,  and  he  distinguished  himself  as  an  observer.  In 
1826  he  obtained  the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Died  in  October,  1867. 

South,  (Robert,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  divine, 
born  in  Middlesex  in  1633.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  where  John  Locke  was  one  of  his  fellow-students. 
He  graduated  in  1657,  was  ordained  in  1658,  and  in  1660 
became  university  orator.  He  was  made  a  canon  ot 
Christ  Church,  C)xford,  in  1670.  He  subsequently  ac- 
companied Lawrence  Hyde,  son  of  Chancellor  Claren- 
don, on  his  mission  to  John  Sobieski,  King  of  Poland. 
After  his  return  he  was  appointed  rector  of  Islip,  in 
Oxfordshire,  and  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  Charles  H.  He 
was  repeatedly  offered  the  highest  i^refernients  in  the 
Church  by  that  sovereign  and  his  successor,  James  H., 
but  he  declined  them  all.  Dr.  South  was  a  zealous  ad- 
vocate of  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  right  of  kings,  and 
strongly  opposed  to  Roman  Catholics  and  dissenters, 
whom  he  frequently  assailed  in  his  sermons  with  all  the 
powers  of  his  brilliant  wit  and  keen  sarcasm.  He  wrote 
a  polemical  work  on  the  Trinity  against  Dr.  Sherlock 
about  1693.    Died  in  1716. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ix.,  1824  ;  "  Loudon  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1868. 

Southampton,  siith-ham'ton,  (Henry  Wriothes- 
LEY,)  Earl  of,  an  English  peer,  noted  as  a  patron  of 
Shakspeare,  was  born  about  1573.  Shakspeare  dedi- 
cated his  "Venus  and  Adonis"  to  him  in  1593.  South- 
ampton was  implicated  in  the  conspiracy  of  the  Earl  of 
Essex,  (1601,)  and  was  imprisoned  for  that  offence,  but 
v/as  released  in  1603,  and  became  a  favourite  of  James 
L    Died  about  1624. 

Southard,  siith'ard,  (Samuel  L.,)  an  American 
statesman,  born  at  Baskingridge,  New  Jersey,  in  June, 
1787.  He  acquired  eminence  as  a  lawyer,  was  elected 
a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  182 1,  and  was  apjiointed 
secretary  of  the  navy  in  December,  1823,  by  l^resident 
Monroe.  He  was  retained  in  that  office  by  President 
Adams  from  1825  to  1829,  became  Governor  of  New 
Jersey  in  1832,  and  was  again  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  by  the  legislature  of  that  State  in  1833. 
He  continued  to  serve  for  nine  years  in  the  national 
Senate,  of  which  he  was  president  in  1842.  Died  in 
Virginia  in  June,  1842. 

South'cott  or  South'cote,  (Joanna,)  a  religious 
fanatic  and  pretended  prophetess,  born  in  Devonshire 
about  1750,  was  originally  a  domestic  servant  at  Exeter. 
About  1792  she  claimed  to  have  received  divine  revela- 
tions, and  afterwards  published  "A  Warning  to  the 
Whole  World  from  the  Sealed  Prophecies  of  Joanna 
Southcott,"  (1803,)  "The  Book  of  Wonders,  in  Five 
Parts,"  (1813,)  and  other  pamphlets  of  absurd  and  nearly 
unintelligible  contents.  She  died  in  1814,  having  pre- 
viously announced  that  she  would  give  birth  to  the 
"second  Shiloh"  or  the  "Prince  of  Peace."  Her  fol- 
lowers were  very  numerous,  and  are  not  yet  quite  extinct. 

See  David  Hughson,  "  Life  of  J.  Southcott,"  1814;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  February,  1815. 

Southern,  suth'ern,  (Thomas,)  an  Irish  dramatist, 
born  in  the  county  of  Dublin  in  1660,  was  a  friend  of  Pope 
and  Dryden.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  tragedies  of 
"  Oronooko"  and  "Isabella,  or  the  Fatal  Marriage."  He 
also  wrote  comedies  entitled  "The  Rambling"  Lady," 
"  The  Disappointment,"  and  "  The  Wives'  Excuse."  His 
denunciations  of  the  slave-trade  in  "Oronooko"  are  said 


to  have  been  the  first  occurring  in  any  English  writer. 
Died  in  1746. 

See  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets." 

Southey,  sow'the,  (Caroline  Anne  Bowles,)  an 
authoress,  born  at  P)uckland,  Hampshire,  in  1787.  She 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Ellen  Fitz-Arthur,"  a 
poem,  (1820,)  "The  Widow's  Tale,  and  other  Poems," 
(1822,)  and  "Solitary  Hours,"  prose  and  verse,  (1826,) 
which  were  received  with  favour.  In  1839  she  was 
married  to  Robert  Southey,  whose  mental  faculties  soon 
after  failed.  She  nursed  him  with  patient  devotion  to 
the  end  of  his  life.    Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  March,  1837. 

Southey,  (Henry  Herhert,  or  Thomas,)  an  Eng- 
lish medical  writer,  born  about  1784,  was  a  brother  of 
the  poet,  Robert  Southey.  He  was  physician-in-ordinary 
to  George-IV.,  and  examiner  of  lunatics  under  the  court 
of  chancery.  He  wrote  "On  Pulmonary  Consumption," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  June,  1865. 

Southey,  (Robert,)  an  eminent  English  author,  was 
born  at  Bristol  on  the  12th  of  August,  1774.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  linen-draper,  who  failed  in  business  and  left 
him  little  or  nothing.  During  his  childhood  he  lived  in 
the  house  of  his  maiden  aunt.  Miss  Tyler,  an  eccentric 
lady,  who  often  took  him  to  the  theatre  before  he  was 
seven  years  of  age,  but  subjected  him  to  a  rigid  disci- 
pline. He  began  to  write  verse  before  he  was  ten  years 
old,  and  was  placed  at  Westminster  School  in  1788,  with 
the  assistance  of  his  mother's  brother,  the  Rev.  Herbert 
Hill.  In  1792  he  was  expelled  from  Westminster  for 
writing  an  essay  against  corporal  punishment,  which  was 
printed  in  a  school  periodical  called  "The  Flagellant." 
His  political  ])rinciples  at  this  period  were  republican 
or  radical.  He  entered  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  in  1792, 
and  there  adopted  Unitarian  doctrines.  In  1793  he 
wrote  "Wat  Tyler,"  a  drama,  and  "Joan  of  Arc,"  an 
epic  poem,  which  was  first  published  in  1796.  In  June, 
1794,  he  was  introduced  at  Oxford  to  S.  T.  Coleridge, 
with  whom  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship.  As  he 
had  no  definite  prospect,  and  was  much  perplexed  in 
relation  to  the  choice  of  a  profession,  he  resolved  to  join 
Coleridge  in  his  visionary  project  to  emigrate  to  Penn- 
sylvania and  found  a  Pantisocracy  on  the  banks  of  the 
Susquehanna.  His  aunt  Tyler,  who  was  a  staunch  Tory 
and  abhorred  dissenters,  on  Ijeing  informed  of  his  pro- 
ject and  opinions,  turned  him  out  of  her  house  in  a 
rainy  night  of  October,  1794.  He  left  Oxford  in  the 
same  year,  received  from  Joseph  Cottle  fifty  guineas  for 
his  "Joan  of  Arc,"  and  married  Edith  Fricker  in  Novem- 
ber, 1795.  About  the  same  date  the  project  of  Pantisoc- 
racy was  abandoned,  for  want  of  money.  Immediately 
after  his  marriage  he  sailed  for  Lisbon  with  his  uncle 
Mr.  Hill,  who  was  chaplain  to  the  British  embassy  in 
that  city.  He  remained  about  six  months  in  the  penin- 
sula, and  laid  the  foundation  of  that  acquaintance  with 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  literature  in  which  he  was  sur- 
passed by  few,  if  any,  Englishmen.  After  his  return,  he 
published  "Letters  written  during  a  Short  Residence  in 
Spain  and  Portugal,"  (1797,)  and,  having  entered  Gray's 
Inn,  London,  began  to  study  law,  which  he  found  so 
uncongenial  that  he  soon  abandoned  it.  Reading  law 
seemed  to  him  "like  thrashing  straw." 

He  published  in  1801  "Thalaba  the  Destroyer:  a 
Metrical  Romance."  After  various  adventures,  and  sev- 
eral changes  of  occupation  and  residence,  he  settled  in 
1803  at  Greta  Hall,  near  Keswick,  with  Coleridge,  who 
was  his  brother-in-law.  Here  he  enjoyed  the  societ\  of 
Wordsworth  and  the  most  beautiful  scenery  of  England, 
— the  lake  country.  The  subsequent  part  of  his  life 
aft'ords  an  example  of  almost  unequalled  literary  indus- 
try, combined  with  a  faithful  performance  of  his  domestic 
duties.  After  his  youthful  enthusiasm  had  cooled,  he 
became  a  conservative  in  politics,  and  a  zealous  member 
of  the  Anglican  Church.  In  1805  he  published  "Met- 
rical Tales,  and  other  Poems;"  and  "Madoc,  a  Poem,  in 
Two  Parts,"  which  was  not  received  with  much  favour. 
He  became  a  contributor  to  the  "Quarterlv  Review" 
about  1808,  published  a  Indian  poem  entitled  "The  Curse 
of  Kehama"  in  1810,  and  was  appointed  ]:)oet-lanreate  in 
1813.  He  generously  supported  the  family  of  Coleridge, 
whom  the  latter  left  dependent  on  him  at  Greta  Hall. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


SOUTHGATE 


2045 


SPADA 


In  1835  he  received  a  pension  of  three  hundred  pounds 
a  year  from  the  government.  Having  lost  his  wife  in 
1837,  he  married  Caroline  Bowles  in  1839.  About  this 
time  his  overtasked  faculties  became  prostrated,  and  he 
sank  into  a  state  of  mental  imbecility.  He  died  at  Greta 
Hall,  March  21,  1843.  Besides  the  poems  above  named, 
he  wrote  "Roderick,  the  Last  of  the  Goths,"  (1814.) 
Among  his  numerous  prose  works  are  an  excellent 
"Life  of  Lord  Nelson,"  (2  vols.,  1813,)  a  "Life  of  John 
Wesley,"  (2  vols.,  1820,)  a  "History  of  the  Peninsular 
War,"  (3  vols.,  1822-32,)  "Essays,  Moral  and  Political," 
(1832,)  "The  Doctor,"  (7  vols.,  1834-37,)  and  a  "Life 
of  William  Cowj^er." 

"Mr.  vSouthey's  prose  style,"  says  Hazlitt,  "can 
scarcely  be  too  much  praised.  It  is  plain,  clear,  pointed, 
familiar,  ])erfectly  modern  in  its  texture,  but  with  a  grave 
and  sparkling  admixture  of  archaisms  in  its  ornaments 
and  occasional  phraseology."  ("  Spirit  of  the  Age.")  "It 
is  Southey's  almost  unexampled  felicity,"  sa)'s  Coleridge, 
"to  possess  the  best  gifts  of  talent  and  genius,  free  from 
all  their  characteristic  defects.  ...  As  son,  brother,  hus- 
band, father,  master,  friend,  he  moves  with  firm  yet  light 
steps,  alike  unostentatious  and  alike  exemplary.  As  a 
writer,  he  has  uniformly  made  his  talents  subservient 
to  the  best  interests  of  humanity,  of  public  virtue,  and 
domestic  piety."  ("Biographia  Literaria.") 

See  "The  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Robert  Soathey,"  edited 
by  bis  son,  tbe  Rev.  Charles  Cuthbert  Southev,  6  vols.,  i84q- 
50;  Joseph  Cottle,  "Reminiscences  of  S.  T.  Coleridge  and  R. 
Soiitbey,"  1S47;  Charles  T.  Browne,  "The  Life  of  R.  Southey," 
1854;  "Selections  from  the  Letters  of  R.  Soiithey,"  edited  by  his 
son-in-law,  J.  W.  Warter,  4  vols.,  1856;  "  Edinburgh  Revievv-"  for 
April,  1851;  Macaulav's  essay  entitled  "Southey's  Colloquies  on 
Society,"  1830;  Jeffrey's  critiques  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  February,  181 1,  (vol.  xvii.,)  and  for  June,  1815,  (vol.  xxv.  ;)  Al- 
libone,  "Dictionaiy  of  Authors." 

South'gate,  (Richard,)  Rkv.,  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  Huntingdonshire  in  1729.  He  became  an  assist- 
ant librarian  of  the  British  Museum.    Died  in  1795. 

South'well,  ( N.vi  HANiEL, )  was  secretary  to  the 
general  of  the  order  of  Jesuits  at  Rome  about  1650.  He 
wrote  a  continuation  of  the  "Bibliotheca  Scriptorum 
Societatis  Jesu,"  or  "Jesuits'  Library,"  down  to  1676,  in 
wbich  year  he  died. 

South'well,  (Robert,)  an  English  Catholic,  born  in 
1560,  became  prefect  of  the  English  Jesuits'  College  at 
Rome,  and  was  afterwards  sent  as  a  missionary  to  Eng- 
land. Having  admitted  that  he  came  for  the  purpose 
of  making  converts,  he  was  tried  and  executed  in  1595. 
He  was  the  author  of  hymns  and  religious  treatises. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  November,  179S;  "Retro- 
spective Review,"  vol.  iv.,  (1821  ;)  Cleveland,  "Compendium  of 
English  Literature." 

South^worth,  (Mrs.  Emma  D.  E.  Nevitt,)  an 
American  novelist,  born  at  Washington,  District  of 
Columbia,  in  1818.  She  contributed  a  number  of  tales 
and  sketches  to  the  "  National  Era"  at  Washington,  and 
subsequently  published  in  that  journal  her  novel  entitled 
"  Retribution."  Among  her  other  works  may  be  named 
"The  Deserted  Wife,"  "The  Lost  Heiress,"  and  the 
"Curse  of  Clifford." 

Soutman,  sowt'mSn,  (Peter,)  a  Dutch  painter  of 
history,  born  about  1 590;  died  in  1653. 

Soutzo,  soot'zo,  or  Sutzos,  soot'zos,  (Alexander,) 
a  modern  Greek  poet  and  historian,  born  at  Constanti- 
nople about  1800.  He  wrote  political  satires  against 
various  parties  which  divided  Greece  after  1824.  In 
1829  he  published,  in  French,  a  "  History  of  the  Greek 
Revolution."  He  is  considered  by  some  writers  as  the 
greatest  poet  of  modern  Greece. 

Soutzo,  (P.,)  a  modern  Greek  poet,  was  a  younger 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  became  councillor  of 
state  at  Athens. 

Souvarof.    See  Suwarow. 

Souvestre,  soo'v^stR',  (Emile,)  a  French  writer  and 
journalist  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Morlaix,  in  Brit- 
tany, in  i8g6.  He  published  in  1836  a  work  entitled 
"Les  derniers  Bretons,"  an  admirable  description  of  the 
manners,  customs,  etc.  of  Brittany.  About  the  same 
time  he  became  associate  editor  of  the  "  Revue  de  Paris" 
and  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."  Among  his  best 
productions,  many  of  which  appeared  first  in  the  leading 
Parisian  journals,  we  may  name  "The  Confessions  of  a 


Workman,"  ("  Les  Confessions  d'un  Ouvrier,")  "  Pierre 
et  Jean,"  "Travels  in  Finisterre,"  (1836,)  "The  Greased 
Pole,"  ("LeMat  de  Cocagne,"  1842,)  and  "  Le  Philo- 
sophe  sous  les  Toits."  His  works  are  highly  commended 
for  their  moral  purity.  Died  in  jfaris  in  1854. 
See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale.*' 

Souvorof  or  Souvorov.    See  Suw^arow. 
Souza.    See  Faria  y  Souza. 

Souza,  de,  di  so'zS,  (Ad^le,)  Marchioness,  a 
French  romance-writer,  whose  original  name  was  FiL- 
LEUL,  was  born  in  Normandy  in  1760.  She  was  first 
married  in  1784  to  Count  Flahault,  who  perished  under 
the  guillotine  in  1793,  and  in  1802  became  the  wife  of 
the  Portuguese  ambassador  Souza-Botelho,  noticed  be- 
low. She  published  several  popular  romances,  among 
which  we  may  name  "Eugene  de  Rathelin,"  (1808,)  and 
"  Adele  de  Senanges."    Died  in  1836. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "Cri- 
tiques et  Portraits." 

Souza,  de,  (Joao,)  a  learned  monk,  born  at  Damas- 
cus, in  Syria,  about  1730,  settled  in  Portugal,  where  he 
became  professor  of  Arabic.  He  was  the  author  of  an 
Arabic  Grammar.    Died  in  1812. 

Souza,  de,  (Ped«o  Lopez,)  a  Portuguese  navigator, 
who  ex])lored  the  coast  of  Brazil  about  1532.  He  was 
drowned  on  the  coast  of  Madagascar  in  1539. 

Souza-Botelho,  so'zS  bo-tlKyo,  (Dom  Joz6  Maria,) 
a  Portuguese  diplomatist  and  writer,  born  at  Oporto  in 
1758,  was  employed  in  important  embassies  to  Sweden, 
Denmark,  England,  and  France.  He  published  in  181 8 
a  valuable  edition  of  the  works  of  Camoens.  Died  in 
1819. 

S6w'er-by,  (George  Brettingham,)  an  English 
naturalist,  born  in  1788,  was  a  son  of  James,  noticed 
below.  He  gave  special  attention  to  conchology  and 
entomology.    Died  in  1854. 

Sowerby,  (George  Brettingham,)  an  artist  and 
naturalist,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1812. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "Popular  British 
Conchology,"  (1854,)  and  "Illustrated  Index  of  British 
Shells,"  (1859.) 

Sowerby,  (James,)  an  English  naturalist  and  artist, 
born  at  Lambeth  about  1760.  He  published  "English 
Botany,"  (1790,)  in  conjunction  with  Sir  James  Smith; 
also,  "Exotic  Mineralogy,"  a  treatise  "On  the  Eng- 
lish Fungi  or  Mushrooms,"  (3  vols.,  1797-1803,)  "Brit- 
ish Mineralogy,"  (5  vols.,  1804-17,)  and  the  "Mineral 
Conchology  of  Great  Britain,"  (6  vols.,  1812-30.)  These 
works  are  beautifully  illustrated  by  himself  with  coloured 
plates.  Died  in  1822.  His  son,  James  de  Carle,  born 
in  1787,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Botanical 
Society,  of  which  he  was  appointed  secretary. 

Soyer,  swi'yi',  (Alexis,)  a  celebrated  French  cook 
and  writer  on  gastronomy,  born  about  1800  ;  died  in 
1858. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1851. 

Soz'o-meii,  [Gr.  2(jfo//£vof;  Lat.  Sozom'enus  ;  Fr. 
SozoMENE,  so'zo'min',]  or,  more  fully,  So-zom'e-nos 
Her'mi-as,  a  Greek  ecclesiastical  historian,  born  at 
Bethel,  in  Palestine,  about  400  a.d.  He  practised  law 
at  Constantinople,  and  wrote  a  History  of  the  Church 
from  323  to  439  A.D.,  which  is  extant.  He  is  deficient 
in  judgment,  compared  with  Socrates,  (who  lived  at  the 
same  time  and  wrote  on  the  same  subject,)  but  his  style 
is  commended. 

See  Valesius,  "  De  Vitis  et  Scriptis  Socratis  et  S.'  (Omeni ;" 
Voss,  "  De  Historicis  Grjecis;"  Fabricius,  "Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Sozomeiie  and  Sozomenus.    See  Sozomen. 
Sozzini.    See  Socinus. 

Spach,  sptk,  (liDOUARD,)  a  French  naturalist,  born 
at  Strasburg  in  1801.    He  wrote  several  botanical  works. 

Spada,  spJ'dS,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  cardinal, 
born  in  the  Romagna  in  1594,  was  a  patron  of  literature 
and  the  fine  arts.    Died  in  1661. 

Spada,  (LiONELLO,)  a  celebrated  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1576.  He  studied  at  Rome  under 
Caravaggio,  whose  manner  he  adopted  and  refined. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  his  "  San  Domenico  burn- 
ing the  Proscribed  Books  of  the  Heretics,"  at  Bologna, 
"  Return  of  the  Prodigal  Son,"  at  Modena,  and  "The 


<.  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,gtitiural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2!:^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SPADAFORA 


2046 


SPARKS 


Miracle  of  Saint  Benedict,"  in  tlie  monastery  of  San 
Michele  at  Bosco.  He  excelled  as  a  colorist,  and  was 
esteemed  one  of  the  best  artists  of  his  time.  Died  in 
1622. 

See  Mai,vasia,  "  Felsiua  pittrice." 

Spadafora,  spd-da-fo'r^,  (Placido,)  an  Italian  gram- 
marian, born  at  Palermo  in  1628.  Among  his  works  is 
"  Prosodia  Italiana,"  (1682.)    Died  in  1691. 

Spaendonck,  van,  vtn  spln'donk,  (Geraart,)  a 
celebrated  Dutch  flower-painter,  born  at  Tilburg  about 
1750.  He  became  miniature-painter  to  the  King  of 
France  in  1774,  and  professor  of  iconography  at  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes.    Died  in  Paris  in  1822. 

Spagnoletto,  span-yo-let'to,  [Fr.  Espagnolet,  ^s'- 
ptn''yo'l4',]  an  eminent  Spanish  painter,  whose  proper 
name  was  JosE  Ribera,  (re-Ba'ra,)  was  born  at  San 
Felipe  de  Xativa  in  15S8.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Michael 
Angelo  de  Caravaggio.  He  worked  at  Rome,  Naples, 
and  Madrid,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  painter  to 
the  court  of  Spain.  Among  his  master- pieces  are  "The 
Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,"  and  a  "Mater  Dolorosa." 
His  favourite  subjects  were  martyrdoms,  executions,  and 
other  tragical  scenes.    Died  at  Naples  in  1656. 

Spagiiuoli,  sp&n-yoo-o'lee,  or  Spagnoli,  spSn-yo'lee, 
(Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  poet  and  monk,  born 
at  Mantua.  He  wrote  Latin  verses  which  were  admired 
by  his  contemporaries.    Died  in  15 16. 

Spalatiii,  spi'ia-teen',  [Lat.  Spalati'nus,]  (Georg,) 
a  German  scholar  and  Reformer,  whose  original  n^ime 
was  Burckhard,  was  born  at  Spalt,  in  the  bishopric  of 
Eichstadt,  in  1484.  Having  become  a  convert  to  the 
doctrines  of  Luther,  he  was  appointed  in  15 14  by  P'red- 
erick  the  Wise,  Elector  of  Saxony,  iiis  court  chaplain 
and  ])rivate  secretary.  Aniong  his  works  we  may  name 
his  biographies  of  Frederick  the  Wise  and  John  the 
Constant,  and  "  History  of  the  Popes  and  Emperors  of 
the  Time  of  the  Reformation."    Died  in  1545. 

See  ScHLEGEL,  "  Historia  Vits  G.  Spalatini;"  P.  Ekerman, 
"Dissertatio  de  G.  Spalatiiio,"  1760;  J.  Wagner,  "G.  Spalatin 
unci  die  Reformation  der  Kirchen,"  etc.,  1S30;  IjERTHEL,  "  G. 
Spalatini  in  Emendationem  sacrorum  Merita,"  1840. 

Spalatinus.    See  Spalatin. 

Spalding, spaKding,  (Georg Ludwig,)  adistinguished 
philologist,  a  son  of  Johann  Joachim,  noticed  below,  was 
born  at  Barth  in  1762.  He  prepared  an  excellent  edi- 
tion of  the  works  of  Quintilian,  published  after  his  death. 
He  also  wrote  (in  Latin)  "Vindication  of  the  Megaric 
Philosophers."  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Berlin,  and  councillor  in  the  ministry  for 
public  instruction.    Died  in  181 1. 

See  Georg  Ludwig  Spalding,  "  Memoria  G.  L.  Spaldingii," 
1822. 

Spalding,  (Johann  Joachim,)  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian and  religious  writer,  born  in  Swedish  Pomerania  in 
1714  ;  died  in  1804. 

SpaFding,  (John,)  a  Scottish  historian,  lived  in  Aber- 
deen. He  wrote  "  Memorials  of  the  Troubles  in  Scot- 
land."   Died  about  1670. 

Sp§.Fdiug,  (Lyman,)  an  eminent  American  jDhysician, 
born  at  Cornish,  New  Hampshire,  in  1775.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College  in  1797,  and  settled  at  "Ports- 
mouth in  1799.  He  published  a  "New  Nomenclature 
of  Chemistry,"  (1799.)  In  1812  he  became  president  of 
the  College  of  Physicians  at  Fairfield,  New  York,  and 
professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery.  He  removed  to  the 
city  of  New  York  in  1813.  He  originated  the  "Phar- 
macopoeia of  the  United  States,"  the  plan  of  which  he 
formed  about  1818.    He  died  in  October,  1821. 

See  Thachek,  "Medical  Biography." 

SpaFding,  (Samuel,)  an  English  theologian  and  dis- 
senting divine,  born  in  London  in  1807.  He  died  in 
1844  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  whither  he  had  gone 
on  account  of  his  health.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
"The  Philosophy  of  Christian  Morals." 

Spalding,  (William,)  a  Scottish  critic  and  writer, 
born  at  Aberdeen  about  1809.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  Italy  and  the  Italian  Islands  from  the  Earliest 
Ages,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1841,)  and  became  professor  of  logic 
in  the  University  of  Saint  Andrew's  in  1845.  He  con- 
tril)uted  to  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica."  Died  in 
1859. 


Spallanzani,  spil-ian-z^'nee,  (Lazzaro,)  an  eminent 
Italian  anatomist,  born  at  Scandiano,  in  the  duchy  of 
Modena,  in  1729,  was  educated  at  Bologna.  He  became 
professor  of  logic  and  Greek  at  Reggio  in  1754,  and  ob- 
tained a  chair  at  Modena  in  1761.  In  1768  he  published 
"  On  the  Action  of  the  Heart  in  Hie  Hlood-Vessels," 
("  Dell'  Azione  del  Cuore  ne'  Vasi  sanguigni.")  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  natural  history  at  Pavia  about 
1770.  He  wrote  treatises  on  respiration,  digestion,  re- 
prcxluction,  etc.    Died  in  1799. 

See  J.  TouKUES,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Spallanzani,"  1799  :  Pnz- 
ZETTi,  "  Elogio  di  L.  Spallanzani,"  1800;  J.  L.  Alibert,  '•  filoge 
historique  de  Spallanzani,"  1S06;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  GeneraleT" 

Spangenberg,  sping^gen-berg'  or  spSng^en-bgRG', 
(AuGU.ST  Gottlieb,)  founder  of  the  Moravi^an  Church 
in  America,  was  born  at  Klettenberg,  in  Germany,  in 
1704.  In  1735  he  visited  America  and  founded  a  Mo- 
ravian settlement  in  Georgia.  Having  been  made  a 
bishop  in  1744,  he  continued  to  reside  nearly  twenty 
years  in  America,  where  he  was  instrumental  in  estab- 
lishing Moravian  colonies  at  Bethlehem  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  iji  North  Carolina.  He  returned  to  Germany  in 
1762,  and  died  in  1792.  He  wrote,  among  other  works, 
a  "Life  of  Count  Zinzendorf,"  (1772,)  and  "Exposition 
of  the  Doctrine  of  the  United  Brethren,"  ("Idea  Fidei 
Fratrum.") 

Spangenberg,  sp^ng^en-blRG',  (Cyriacus,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Herden 
in  1528,  was  the  author  of  "Chronicles  of  Henneberg, 
Holstein,  etc."    Died  in  1604. 

Spanheim,  spdnMiIm,  (Ezekiel,)  an  eminent  Swiss 
diplomatist,  scholar,  and  numismatist,  born  at  Geneva 
in  1629.  He  studied  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  theology  at 
Leyden.  In  1659  he  was  sent  by  the  Elector-Palatine  to 
Italy  on  a  diplo'matic  mission.  He  published  at  Rome  a 
work  on  ancient  coins,  "  De  Prasstantia  et  Usu  Numis- 
matum  antiquoruni,"  (1664.)  He  returned  to  Heidelberg 
in  1665,  after  which  he  was  emjiloyed  by  the  Elector  as 
minister  to  England.  About  1680  he  entered  the  service 
of  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  who  sent  him  as  ambas- 
sador to  Paris.  Among  his  works  is  "  The  Roman 
World,"  etc.,  ("  Orbis  Romanus,"  etc.,  1697.)  Died  in 
London  in  1710. 

See  NicERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  Senerier,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de 
Geneve;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Spanheim,  spSn'hIm,  (Friedrich,)  a  theologian, 
born  at  Amberg,  in  Bavaria,  in  1600,  was  the  father  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  theology 
at  Leyden  in  1642.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Gospel  Doubts,"  ("  Dubia  Evangelica,"  1639,)  and 
a  "Treatise  on  Universal  Grace,"  (1646.)  Died  in  1649. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary." 

Spanheim,  (Friedrich,)  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Geneva  in  1 632.  He  became  professor  of 
divinity  at  Heidelberg  in  1655,  and  obtained  the  chair 
of  theology  and  sacred  history  at  Leyden  in  1670. 
Among  his  works  is  "  A  Summary  of  Ecclesiastical 
History,"  ("  Summa  Ilistorias  ecclesiasticae,"  1689.) 
Died  in  1701. 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires." 

Spark  or  Sparke,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clergy- 
man, born  in  1655,  became  prebendary  of  Lichdeld  and 
Rochester.  He  published  an  edition  of  Lactantius, 
(1684.)    Died  in  1692. 

Sparke,  (Thomas,)  a  learned  English  Puritan  inin- 
ister,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1548.  He  became  preb- 
endary of  Lincoln  in  1582.  He  wrote  several  religious 
works.    Died  in  1616. 

Sparks,  (Jared,)  a  distinguished  American  historian 
and  biographer,  born  at  Willington,  Connecticut,  in 
May,  1789,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  181  5.  He 
studied  theology,  and  was  ordained  minister  of  the  First 
Unitarian  Church  of  Baltimore  in  1819,  after  which  he 
wrote  several  treatises  on  theology.  He  became  in  1823 
the  editor  of  the  "North  American  Review,"  which  he 
conducted  (in  Boston)  until  1830.  He  published  "The 
Life  of  John  Ledyard,"  (1829,)  and  "  The  Life  of  Gouver- 
neur  Morris,"  (3  vols.,  1832,)  and  expended  much 
labour  on  "The  Life  and  Writings  of  George  Wash- 
ington ;  being  his  Correspondence,  Addresses,  Mes- 


5,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


SPJRR 


2047 


SPENCE 


sages,  etc.,"  (12  vols.  8vo,  1833-40,)  which,  says  R.  W. 
Griswold,  is  "a  work  in  all  respects  as  nearly  perfect 
as  possible."  He  published  a  good  edition  of  the  com- 
plete works  of  Franklin,  (10  vols.,  1835-40.)  In  1839 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  ancient  and  modern  history 
in  Harvard  University.  He  edited  "  The  Library  of 
American  Biography,"  (First  Series,  10  vols.,  1835-39, 
and  Second  Series,  15  vols.,  1844-48.)  For  this  valuable 
collection  he  wrote  the  biographies  of  Ethan  Allen,  Ben- 
edict Arnold,  Marquette,  Count  Pulaski,  La  Salle,  Ri- 
bault,  and  General  Charles  Lee.  He  was  president  of 
Harvard  University  from  1849  to  1852.  It  is  stated  that 
he  was  engaged  for  many  years  on  a  History  of  the 
American  Revolution.    Died  in  1866. 

"The  great  merits  of  Mr.  Sparks,"  says  Griswold, 
"are  reverence  for  truth,  soundness  of  judgment  in  re- 
gard to  evidence,  and  exhausting  fulness  of  detail  and 
illustration."  (See  "Prose  Writers  of  America.") 

See  Rrantz  Meyer,  "Memoir  of  Jared  Sparks,"  1869;  Rev. 
Ghokge  E.  Ei.lis,  "  Memoirs  of  Jared  Sparks,"  1869;  Ai.libone, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "North  American  Review"  for  July, 
1S44. 

Sparr,  spaK,  (Otto  Christoph,)  Baron,  a  German 
commander,  born  in  1593,  served  against  the  Swedes  in 
1655,  and  was  made  field-marshal-general  in  1657.  Died 
in  1668. 

Sparre,  spSr'reh,  (Eric  Larsson,)  a  Swedish  states- 
man and  writer,  born  in  1550.  He  was  an  adherent  of 
Sigismund  in  a  civil  war  which  resulted  in  the  de- 
thronement of  that  king.  He  was  executed  for  treason 
in  i6co. 

Sparre,  (Geiir  Georg,)  a  Swedish  novelist,  born 
near  Kronoberg  in  1790.  He  entered  the  army  in  1807, 
and  became  a  colonel  in  1832. 

Sparrmann,  spaR'mSn,  (Andreas.)  a  Swedish  natu- 
ralist, born  in  the  province  of  Upland  about  1747.  He 
studied  at  Upsal  under  Linnaeus,  and  in  1772  visited 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  He  afterwards  accompanied 
the  Forsters  in  their  voyage  round  the  world  with  Cap- 
tain Cook  in  1772.  In  1775  he  set  out  for  the  interior 
of  Africa,  where  he  made  a  valuable  collection  of  plants, 
animals,  etc.  After  his  return  to  Sweden,  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Stockholm, 
and  appointed  conservator  of  the  Museum.  His  travels 
are  highly  esteemed  for  their  accuracy,  and  have  been 
translated  into  several  languages.    Died  in  1820. 

Spar'row,  (Anthony,)  an  English  prelate  under  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.,  became  Bishop  of  Norwich.  He 
]nibiished  a  "  Rationale  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer." 
Died  in  1685. 

Spar''ta-cus,  a  Thracian  soldier,  who  was  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Romans,  reduced  to  slavery,  and  trained 
as  a  gladiator.  Having  escaped  with  a  number  of  his 
associates,  he  became  leader  of  a  numerous  band,  and 
defeated  Claudius  Pulcher,  who  was  sent  against  him 
about  73  15. c.  Having  proclaimed  freedom  to  all  slaves 
who  should  join  him,  he  raised  a  powerful  army  and  de- 
feated several  times  the  consuls  sent  against  him.  He 
was  prudent  as  well  as  brave.  His  army  amounted  to 
about  100,000  men,  and  was  invincible  until  dissensions 
arose  among  them.  In  71  B.C.  he  was  blockaded  by 
M.  Liciiiius  Crassus  at  Rhegium,  and  killed  in  a  battle 
which  ended  the  great  Servile  war.  Si)artacus  was  an 
extraordinary  man,  and  had  the  qualities  of  a  hero. 

See  Livv.  "  Epitome;"  Merimee,  "  Guerre  sociale;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biogiaphie  Generale." 

Spartianus,  spar-she-a^ius,  [Fr.  Spartien,  s])tR^- 
se-5j,N',l  (/Elius,)  a  Roman  historian,  who  lived  about 
300  A.D.,  wrote  a  "  History  in  Single  Biographies  of  the 
Roman  Emperors  from  Caesar  down  to  his  Own  Time." 
Only  fragments  of  it  are  extant. 

Spartien.    See  Spartan  us. 

Sparwenfeldt,  spaR'wen-felt^  (Johan  Gabriel,)  a 
Swedish  linguist,  born  in  1655.  He  left,  in  manuscript, 
a  "  Lexicon  Slavonicum  "    Died  in  1727. 

Speckbacher,  sp^k'biK'er,  (Joseph,)  a  Tyrolese 
patriot,  and  friend  of  Hofer,  was  born  near  Innspruck  in 
1768  ;  died  in  1820. 

Speckter,  sp^k'ter,  (Erwin,)  a  German  painter, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1806,  was  a  pupil  of  Cornelius  at 
Munich.    He  visited  Italy  in  1824,  and  while  at  Rorne 


produced  his  picture  of  the  "  vSleeping  Samson,"  es- 
teemed one  of  his  master-pieces.  He  died  in  1835. 
His  interesting  "  Letters  of  a  German  Artist  from  Italy" 
were  published  in  1846. 

Speckter,  (Otjo,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1807.  He  acc|uired  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  painter  of  landscapes  and  animals,  and  exe- 
cuted a  number  of  lithographs  and  etchings,  among 
which  we  may  name  "Twelve  Etchings  to  Puss  in 
Boots." 

Spedalieri,  spi-di-le-a'ree,  (Niccolo,)  an  Italian 
l^riest  and  writer,  born  in  Sicily  in  1740.  He  pub- 
lished a  work  on  the  Rights  of  Man,  "De'  Diritti  del 
Uomo,"  (179 1,)  which  gave  offence  to  the  clergy.  Died 
in  1795. 

Bpee,  von,  fon  spa,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  Jesuit, 
bom  near  Kaiserswerth,  on  the  Rhine,  about  1595, 
wrote  devotional  poems  of  great  beauty,  and  an  able 
treatise  against  the  belief  in  witchcraft.    Died  in  1635. 

Speed,  (John,)  an  English  historian,  born  in  Che- 
shire about  1550.  He  was  the  author  of  a  chronicle 
entitled  "The  History  of  Great  Britain  under  the  Con- 
quests of  the  Romans,  Saxons,  Danes,  and  Normans," 
(1611,)  "The  Theatre  of  the  Empire  of  Great  Britain," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1629. 

Spegel,  spii''gel,  (Haquin,)  a  Swedish  prelate,  born 
at  Ronneby  in  1645.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  the  Sw-eidish  Church,"  ("Svenska  Kyrke- 
historie,"  2  vols.,  1708.)  In  1711  he  became  Archbishop 
of  Upsal.    Died  in  1713  or  1714. 

Speke,  speek,  (Captain  John  Hanning,)  an  English 
officer,  distinguished  as  an  explorer  of  Africa,  was  born 
in  1827.  He  served  in  the  army  in  India  several  years. 
About  1855-57  he  was  a  companion  of  Captain  Burton 
in  a  journey  in  Africa.  He  discovered  Lake  Victoria 
Nyanza  in  1858.  In  company  with  Mr.  Grant,  he  per- 
formed another  journey  to  that  part  of  Africa  in  i86o-6r, 
and  discovered  the  sources  of  the  Nile  in  1862  by  tracing 
that  river  to  Lake  Nyanza.  He  was  killed  in  England 
in  1864  by  the  accidental  discharge  of  his  own  gun. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  November,  1864;  "Black- 
wood's Majra/.ine"  for  November,  1859,  'ind  May,  i860;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1864. 

SpePman,  (Edward,)  an  English  scholar  and  trans- 
lator, was  a  descendant  of  Sir  Henry,  noticed  below. 
He  translated  Xenophon's  "  Cyropaedia,"  and  Dionysius 
of  Halicarnassus.    13ied  in  1767. 

Spelman,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  eminent  English  anti- 
quary, born  in  Norfolk  in  1562.  He  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and  afterwards  settled  in  London. 
He  i^ublished  in  1626  the  first  \)7\.ri  of  his  "Glossarium 
Archaiologicum,"  a  standard  work  of  its  kind,  which  he 
left  unfinished  ;  the  remaining  part  was  brought  out  by 
his  friend  Sir  William  Dugdale.  He  also  wrote  "  Coun- 
cils, Decrees,  Laws,  etc.  of  Britain  in  Ecclesiastical 
Affairs,"  (in  Latin,  unfinished.)    Died  in  1641. 

His  son.  Sir  John  Spelman,  wrote  a  "Critical  Life 
of  King  Alfred,"  and  another  son,  Clement,  became 
baron  of  the  exchequer  under  Charles  II.  Sir  John 
died  in  1643. 

Spelta,  speKti,  (Antonio  Maria,)  an  Italian  littera- 
tan\  born  at  Pavi'a  in  1 559.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Istoria  de'  Fatti  notabili  occorsi  nell'  Universo," 
etc.,  (1603.)    Died  in  1632. 

Spence,  (Joseph,)  an  English  divine  and  critic,  born 
in  Hampshire  in  1699.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  entered 
into  orders,  and  in  1728  became  professor  of  poetry  in 
that  college.  Having  travelled  on  the  continent,  he  was 
appointed  after  his  return  professor  of  modern  history 
at  Oxford.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Polymetis  ; 
or,  An  Enquiry  concerning  the  Agreement  between  the 
Works  of  the  Roman  Poets  and  the  Remains  of  the 
Ancient  Artists,"  etc.,  which  was  very  well  received. 
He  also  wrote  an  "Essay  on  Pope's  Translation  of  the 
Odyssey,"  which  procured  for  him  the  friendship  of 
that  poet,  and  "Anecdotes,  Observations,  and  Charac- 
ters of  Books  and  Men,"  a  valuable  and  interesting 
work.  Mr.  Spence  was  made  a  prebendary  of  Durham 
Cathedral  in  1754.  He  was  accidentally  drowned  in 
1768. 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1820. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  VL^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this.    (3:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


V 


SPENCE 


2048 


SPENSER 


Speiice,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  entomolo- 
gist, born  in  1 783,  published  a  number  of  treatises  on 
natural  history,  'among  which  we  may  name  "Obser- 
vations relative  to  Dr.  Carus's  Discovery  of  the  Circu- 
lation of  Blood  in  Insects."  He  also  assisted  the  Rev. 
William -Kirby  in  his  "Introduction  to  Entomology, 
or  Elements  of  the  Natural  History  of  Insects."  He 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  other  learned 
institutions.    (See  Kirby.)    Died  in  i860. 

Speii'cer,  (Ambrose,)  LL.D.,  an  able  American 
jurist,  born  at  Salisbury,  Connecticut,  in  1765.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  College,  and  subsequently  rose 
through  various  offices  to  be  chief  justice  of  the  State 
of  New  York  in  1810.  He  retired  from  the  bench  in 
1823.  He  married  successively  two  sisters  of  De  Witt 
Clinton.    Died  in  1848. 

Spencer,  (Charles.)    See  Sunderland,  Earl  of. 

Speii'cer,  (Charles,)  Duke  of  Marlborough,  born 
in  1707,  was  a  son  of  Charles  HI.,  Earl  of  Sunderland, 
and  a  grandson  of  the  famous  Duke  of  Marlborough, 
whose  title  he  inherited  in  1733.  He  served  in  the  army, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  Died  in 
1759- 

Spencer,  (Frederick,)  Earl  of  Spencer,  an  English 
peer,  born  in  London  in  1798.  He  served  in  the  navy, 
and  gained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  In  1845  entered 
the  House  of  Lords. 

Spencer,  (George,)  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  born 
in  1799,  was  a  younger  brother  of  Viscount  Al thorp. 
He  joined  the  order  of  Passionists,  and  assumed  the 
name  of  P\ither  Ignatius.    Died  in  1864. 

Spencer,  (George  John,)  Earl  Spencer,  born  about 
1758,  was  a  grandson  of  the  third  Earl  of  Sunderland. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  cabinet  under  Pitt  about  1795- 
1801.  He  died  in  1834,  leaving  a  son  John  Charles, 
Lord  Althorp. 

Spencer,  (Henry.)    See  Sunderland,  Earl  of. 

Spencer,  (Herbert,)  a  distinguished  English  philos- 
opher and  author,  was  born  at  Derby  about  1820.  He 
learned  the  business  of  civil  engineer,  which  he  aban- 
doned about  1845.  published  "Social  Statics;  or 
the  Conditions  essential  to  Human  Happiness  Speci- 
fied," etc.,  (1851,)  and  "The  Principles  of  Psychology," 
(1855.)  His  contributions  to  the  "Westminster  Re- 
view" and  other  periodicals  were  reprinted  in  a  volume 
entitled  "  Essays,  Scientific,  Political,  and  .Speculative," 
(1857.)  Among  his  principal  works,  which  have  attracted 
much  attention,  are"  Education,  Intellectual,  Moral,  and 
Physical,"  (1861,)  "Progress,  its  Law  and  Course," 
"  First  Principles,"  (1862,)  "  The  Principles  of  Biology," 
(1863,)  and  "  Illustrations  of  Universal  Progress,"  (1864.) 
Some  of  these  are  portions  of  an  extensive  work  entitled 
a  "  wSystem  of  Philosophy,"  the  prospectus  of  which  was 
issued  in  i860. 

See  the  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1863. 

Spencer,  (Hugh.)    See  Despencer. 

Spencer,  (Jesse  Ames,)  D.D.,  an  American  Episco- 
palian divine  and  theologian,  born  in  Dutchess  county. 
New  York,  in  1816.  He  was  appointed  in  1850  professor 
of  Latin  and  Oriental  languages  at  Burlington  College, 
New  Jersey.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  English 
Reformation,"  (1846,)  "Egypt  and  the  Holy  La'nd," 
(1849,)  and  other  works. 

Spencer,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and  scholar, 
born  in  Kent  in  1630,  was  created  Dean  of  Ely.  He 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "  De  Legibus  Hebraeorum  Ritu- 
alibus  et  eorum  Rationibus."    Died  in  1695. 

Spencer,  (John  Canfield,)  an  American  lawver 
and  statesman,  born  at  Hudson,  New  York,  in  I7'88, 
was  a  son  of  Ambrose,  noticed  above.  He  practised 
for  many  years  at  Canandaigua,  to  which  he  removed  in 
1809.  ile  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1816,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  Senate  of  New  York  from  1824  to  1828. 
He  gained  a  high  reputation  by  his  revision  of  the  statutes 
of  New  York,  on  which  he  wrote  a  series  of  essays.  In 
.1839  he  became  secretary  of  state  for  New  York,  He 
was  secretary  of  war  under  the  national  government 
from  October,  1S41,  to  March,  1843,  ^^^^  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  treasury  at  the  latter  date.  He  resigned 
in  1844  because  he  was  opposed  to  the  annexation  of 
Texas  to  the  Union.    About  1845  he  removed  from 


Canandaigua  to  Albany,  where  he  died  in  May,  1855. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  powerful  intellect  and 
intense  energy. 

Spencer,  (John  Charle.s.)    See  Ali  horp,  Lord. 

Spencer,  (Joseph,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Connecticut  about  1714.  He  was  appointed  a  major- 
general  in  August,  1776,  resigned  in  1778,  and  was 
elected  to  the  General  Cong  ress  in  that  year.  Died 
in  1789. 

Spencer,  (Hon.  William  Robert,)  an  accomplished 
English  writer,  son  of  Lord  Charles  Spencer,  was  born 
in  1770.  He  produced  a  translation  of  "  Lenore."  Died 
in  1834. 

Spener,  spa'ner,  (Jakob  Karl,)  a  German  writer  and 
jurist,  a  son  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Frankfort  in 
1684.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "General 
History  of  Germany,"  ("  Historia  Germanise  Universalis 
et  Pragmatica,"  2  vols.,  1717.)    Died  in  1730. 

Spener,  (Philipp  Jakob,)  an  eminent  German  Prot- 
estant minister,  born  at  Rappoltsweiler,  now  Ribeauville, 
in  Alsace,  in  January,  1635.  He  is  called  the  founder 
of  the  sect  of  Pietists.  He  studied  theology,  Hebrew, 
etc.  at  Strasburg,  and  began  to  preach  in  that  city  in 
1663.  Having  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher, 
he  became  in  1666  first  pastor  of  the  Lutheran  church 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  He  instituted,  about  1670, 
meetings  for  religious  instruction  and  prayer,  which  were 
called  collegia pietatis.  In  1675  he  published  a  small  work 
entitled  "  Pious  Desires,"  ("  Pia  Desideria,")  which  was 
highly  esteemed.  He  was  appointed  court  preacher  at 
Dresden  in  1686,  and  removed  in  1691  to  Berlin,  where 
he  obtained  the  office  of  provost  of  the  church  of  Saint 
Nicholas  and  enjoyed  great  influence.  He  was  eminent 
for  charity  and  tolerance.  His  efforts  were  directed  to 
the  promotion  of  vital  and  practical  religion.  The  chairs 
of  theology  in  the  new  University  of  Halle  were  filled 
by  disciples  of  Spener.  A  controversy  arose  between 
his  friends  and  the  faculty  of  Wittenberg,  who  censured 
as  heretical  two  hundred  and  sixty-four  propositions 
found  in  his  writings.  He  died  in  Berlin  in  February, 
1705,  leaving  numerous  works,  among  which  are  "The 
Interior  and  Spiritual  Peace,"  (1686,)  and  "The  Duties 
of  the  Evangelical  Lite,"  (1692.) 

See  Canstein,  "  Lebensbeschreibune;  Speners,"  1740  ;  Hossbach, 
"Spener  iind  seine  Zeit,"  2  vols.,  1828;  W.  Tww.o,  "Spener  als 
Katecliet,"  1840:  Wii.denhahn,  "P.  J.  Spener,"  1S42  ;  A.  Stein- 
METZ,  "  Leben  P.  J.  Spener's,"  1741  ;  Pfannenberg,  "P.  J.  Spe 
ner  der  Kirchenvaterdes  Evanaelischen  Deutsclilands,"  1S33;  Haag, 
"La  France  protestante  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Spen'ser,  [Lat.  Spense'rus,]  (Edmund,)  an  illus- 
trious English  poet,  was  born  in  East  Smithfield,  Lon- 
don, about  1553.  His  early  history  is  involved  in  much 
obscurity  ;  he  is  supposed,  however,  to  have  been  of  a 
good  family,  though  probably  in  indigent  circumstances, 
as  he  entered  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  as  a  sizar,  in 
1569.  Having  taken  the  degree  of  A.M.  in  1576,  he 
resided  for  a  time  in  the  North  of  England,  where  he 
wrote  his  "  Shephearde's  Calendar,"  a  pastoral  poem, 
dedicated  to  his  friend  and  patron  Sir  Philip  Sidney, 
and  first  published  in  1579.  He  became  secietary  to 
Lord  Grey  de  Wilton,  Viceroy  of  Ireland,  in  1580,  and 
obtained  for  his  services  a  grant  of  3028  acres  of  land 
from  the  forfeited  estate  of  the  Earl  of  Desmond.  Soon 
after  he  had  fixed  his  residence  in  this  ])lace,  which  was 
situated  in  the  county  of  Cork,  he  acquired  the  friend- 
ship and  patronage  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  to  whom  he 
dedicated  his  poem  entitled  "  Colin  Clout's  come  Home 
Again,"  (1591.)  About  the  same  time  he  jiublished  the 
first  three  books  of  his  "  Faerie  Queene,"  and  in  1595 
his  "  Astrophel,"  an  elegy  on  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  He 
married  the  same  year  an  Irish  lady,  sup])osed  to  have 
been  a  Miss  Nagle,  and  wrote  on  the  occasion  an  epi- 
thalamium,  which  Hallam  styles  a  "  splendid  little  poem, 
.  .  .  an  intoxication  of  ecstasy,  ardent,  noble,  and  jnire." 
The  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  books  of  "  The  Faerie 
Queene"  came  out  in  1596.  Si')enser  was  appointed  in 
1798  sheriff  of  the  county  of  Cork.  The  rebellion  of 
the  Earl  of  Tyrone  having  broken  out  soon  after,  he 
was  compelled  to  leave  his  estate,  which  was  plundered 
by  the  rebels,  and  the  house  burned,  with,  it  is  said,  an 
infant  child  in  it.  He  did  not  long  survive  this  severe 
calamity,  and  died  in  great  destitution.    He  was  buried 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  vi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SPENSER  US 


2049 


SPILLER 


in  Westminster  Abbey,  near  Chaucer,  in  compliance  with 
his  own  request.  He  left  two  sons.  Sylvan  us  and  Pere- 
grine. Of  Spenser's  poetry  Campbell  observes,  "  He 
threw  the  soul  of  harmony  into  our  verse,  and  made  it 
more  warmly,  tenderly,  and  magnificently  descriptive 
than  it  ever  was  before,  or,  with  a  few  exceptions,  than 
it  has  ever  been  since  ;"  and  Hazlitt  says,  "  There  is  an 
originality,  richness,  and  variety  in  his  allegorical  per- 
sonages and  fictions  which  almost  vies  with  the  splen- 
dour of  the  ancient  mythology.  If  Ariosto  transports 
us  into  the  regions  of  romance,  Spenser's  poetry  is  all 
fairy-land." 

See  J.  P.  Collier,  "Life  of  E.  Spenser,"  1862;  Dr.  John 
AiKiN,  ''Life  of  E.  Spenser,"  i8o6;  H.  J.  Todd,  "Life  of  E. 
Spenser,"  1805;  Prescott,  "Miscellanies;"  Warton,  "Observa- 
tions on  the  Faerie  Queen  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Novem- 
ber, 1833;  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Spenserus.    See  Spenser. 

Speransky  or  Speranski,  spi-rdn'ske,  (Michael,) 
Count,  an  eminent  Russian  statesman  and  mathemati- 
cian, born  in  the  government  of  Vladimir  in  1772.  He 
became  secretary  to  the  privy  council  in  1801,  and  col- 
league of  the  minister  of  justice  in  1808.  He  made 
important  reforms  in  several  departments  of  the  gov- 
ernment. In  1812  he  was  removed  from  office,  but  in 
1819  he  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  Siberia.  He 
enjoyed  in  a  high  degree  the  confidence  of  the  emperor 
Nicholas,  and  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  commission 
appointed  to  make  a  digest  or  code  of  Russian  laws, 
which  was  published  in  45  vols,,  1830.  For  these 
services  he  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  count.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  Baron  von  Korf,  "  Vie  dii  Comte  Speranski,"  2  vols., 
1861 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sperling,  sp^R'ling,  (Otto,)  a  German  naturalist, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1602.  He  practised  medicine  at 
Copenhagen  and  at  Hamburg.  He  wrote  on  botany. 
Died  in  1681. 

See  MoLLER,  "  Cimbria  Literata." 

Sperling,  (Otto,)  an  antiquary,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Christiania  in  1634.  He  became 
professor  of  history  and  law  at  Copenhagen  in  1692, 
and  published  several  works  on  numismatics  and  North- 
ern antiquities,  among  which  is  "  Monumentum  Ham- 
burgense  Benedictinum,"  (1675.)    Died  in  1715. 

See  MoLLER,  "Cimbria  Literata." 

Speroni,  spi-ro'nee,  (Sperone,)  an  eminent  Italian 
writer  and  orator,  born  at  Padua  in  1500.  He  passed 
for  the  foremost  orator  of  Italy  in  his  tiine.  He  wrote 
several  works  in  verse  and  prose,  among  which  are 
moral  dialogues,  ("  Dialoghi,"  1542,)  and  an  admired 
tragedy,  called  "Canace,"  (1546.)  His  style  is  highly 
praised.  Died  in  1588.  His  complete  works  were  pub- 
lished at  Venice  in  5  vols.  4to,  1740. 

See  De  Thou,  "filoges;"  Nic^ron,  "Memoires;"  Gingurne, 
"Histoire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Lettera- 
tura  Italiana." 

Speusippe.    See  Speusippus. 

Speii-sip'pus,  [Gr.  l-nevanmog ;  Fr.  Speusippe,  spuh'- 
z^p',]  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  in  Attica  about  380 
B.C.,  was  a  disciple  and  nephew' of  Plato.  Plis  mother, 
Potone,  was  a  sister  of  Plato,  whom  he  accompanied  in 
his  third  journey  to  Syracuse.  Having  been  selected 
by  Plato  as  his  successor,  Speusippus  directed  the 
Academy  from  347  to  339  B.C.  He  adopted  the  Platonic 
philosophy,  with  slight  modifications.  Aristotle  testified 
his  respect  for  the  ability  of  Speusippus  by  writing  a 
refutation  of  his  doctrines.  His  works  are  not  extant. 
Died  in  339  B.C. 

See  RiTTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy;"  Ravaisson,  "Speusippi 
de  Primis  Rerum  Principiis  Placita,"  1838  ;  M.  A.  Fischer,  "  Scrip- 
tio  Academica  de  Speusippi  Vita,"  1845. 

Sphaerus,  sfee'rus,  [20a?pof,]  a  Greek  Stoic  philoso- 
pher, was  a  pupil  of  Zeno,  and  lived  at  Alexandria  in 
the  reigns  of  Ptolemy  I.  and  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 

Sphinx,  sflnks,  [S^^y^,]  a  monster  of  the  Greek 
mythology,  was  said  to  have  the  face  of  a  woman, 
the  wings  of  a  bird,  and  the  breast,  feet,  and  tail  of  a 
lion.  According  to  some  writers,  the  Sphinx  was  the 
offspring  of  Typhon  and  Chimaera.  The  poets  feigned 
that  this  monster  appeared  near  Thebes,  in  Boeotia, 


proposeal  a  riddle  to  every  person  that  passed,  and  de- 
stroyed all  that  failed  to  solve  the  enigma.  After  many 
had  failed  and  had  perished,  GEdipus  came,  and  the 
Sphinx  demanded,  "  What  animal  is  that  which  goes  on 
four  feet  in  the  morning,  on  two  at  noon,  and  on  three 
at  evening  ?"  He  answered,  "  That  is  Man,  who  creeps  in 
infancy,  walks  on  two  feet  in  manhood,  and  uses  a  staff 
in  old  age."  The  Sphinx  then  killed  herself,  or  disap- 
peared. This  was  a  favourite  emblem  among  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  with  whom  it  probably  originateck  At  the 
present  time  there  may  be  seen  near  the  pyramid  of 
Ghizeh  a  colossal  figure  of  a  sphinx,  cut  out  of  a  solid 
rock,  and  probably  as  old  as  the  pyramids. 

See  "Biographie  Universelle,"  (Partie  mythologique ;)  Smithj 
"Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  Mythology." 

Spiegel,  spee'gel,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  near  Wiirzburg  in  1820,  has  published  a  "  Chres- 
tomathia  Persica,"  and  an  edition  of  the  "  Zend  Avesta," 
or  the  sacred  books  of  the  Parsees,  with  a  translation. 
He  became  in  1849  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Erlangen. 

Spiegel,  spee'gel  or  spee'nel,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch 
poet  and  merchant,  called  the  Dutch  Ennius,  born 
at  Amsterdam  in  1549.  He  wrote  "The  Mirror  of  the 
Heart,"  ("Hart  Spieghel,"  1614.)    Died  in  1612. 

Spieghel,  van  den.    See  Spigeltus. 

Spieker,  spee'ker,  (Christian  Wilhelm,)  a  Ge'i- 
man  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Brandenburg,  on 
the  Havel,  in  1780.  He  wrote  a  number  of  religious 
and  educational  works,  which  were  very  popular. 

Spielberg.    See  Spilberg. 

Spielbergen,  van,  vtn  speeKbgR'gen,  or  Spilber- 
gen,  (George,)  a  Dutch  navigator,  who  made  a  voyage 
to  the  East  Indies  in  1601.  In  1614  he  commanded  a 
flotilla  of  six  vessels  which  sailed  through  the  Strait  of 
Magellan  to  the  Moluccas. 

Spielmann,  speeKmin,  (Jakob  Reinhold,)  born  at 
Strasburg  in  1722,  became  professor  of  chemistry  in  his 
native  town.  He  published  "  Elements  of  Chemistry," 
and  other  scientific  works.    Died  in  1782. 

Spierings  (spee'rings)  of  Antwerp,  (Henry,)  an 
able  landscape-painter,  born  about  1633.  He  worked 
in  France  for  Louis  XIV.,  and  in  Italy.    Died  in  171 5. 

Spierings,  (Nicholas,)  a  Flemish  landscape-painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1633,  imitated  Salvator  Rosa  with 
success.    Died  at  Antwerp  in  1691. 

Spiers,  van,  vtn  speeRs,  (Albert,)  a  Dutch  his- 
torical  painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1666.  He  worked 
at  Rotne  and  Venice,  and  returned  to  Amsterdam  in 
1697.    Died  in  1718. 

Spieshammer.    See  Cuspinian. 

Spiess,  speess,  (Christian  Heinrtch,)  a  German 
novelist  and  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Freiberg,  in  Sax- 
ony, in  1755  ;  died  in  1799. 

Spifame,  spe'ftm',  (Jacques  Paul,)  a  Frenchman, 
born  in  Paris  in  1502.  He  became  Bishop  of  Nevers 
in  1548,  abjured  Catholicism  in  1559,  and  was  ordained 
a  minister  by  Calvin  at  Geneva.  Charged  with  calumny 
and  other  offences,  he  was  executed  at  Geneva  in  1566. 

See  Bayi.e,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Spifame,  (Raoul,)  a  lawyer,  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, having  become  deranged,  imagined  that  he  was 
King  Henry  II.  of  France,  whom  he  resembled  in 
features.  He  was  confined  by  that  king,  who  ordered 
him  to  be  treated  as  a  sovereign.    Died  in  1563. 

Spi-geTi-us,  (or  spe-Ha'le-us,)  (Adrian,)  a  Flemish 
anatomist  and  physician,  whose  original  name  was  Van 
den  Spieghel,  was  born  at  Brussels  in  1 578.  He  studied 
at  Louvain  and  Padua,  where  he  graduated  in  medicine, 
and  became  professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery  in  1616. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  work  "On  the  Struc- 
ture of  the  Human  Body,"  (1627,)  and  other  treatises. 
One  of  the  lobes  of  the  liver  has  been  called  by  his 
name.    Died  in  1625. 

Spilberg  or  Spielberg,  speeKb^RG,  (Johann,)  a 
German  paintei  of  history,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1619, 
was  a  pupil  of  Flink.  He  was  patronized  by  the  Count- 
Palatine.  Died  in  1690. 

Spilbergen,  van.    See  Spielbergen,  van. 

SpilTer,  (John,)  an  English  sculptor,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1763,  was  a  pupil  of  Bacon.    His  principal  work 


€  as  ^;  9  as s;  g  hard;%^j;  o,  H,  Yi.guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

129 


SPINCKES 


2050 


SPIRITO 


is  the  statue  of  Charles  IT.  in  the  centre  of  the  Royal 
Exchange.    He  died  soon  after  its  completion,  in  1794. 

Spinckes,  splnks,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  non- 
juror, born  at  Castor  in  1653  or  1654.  He  became 
prebendary  of  Salisbury  about  1687,  and  was  ordained 
a  bishop  of  the  nonjurors  in  17 13.    Died  in  1727. 

Spindler,  sp!nd'ler,(KARi.,)  a  popular  and  voluminous 
German  novelist,  born  at  Breslau  about  1795.  Among 
his  works  we  may  mention  "The  Jew,"  (1827,)  "The 
Jesuit,"  (1829,)  "The  Invalid,"  and  "The  Bird-Fancier 
of  Imst,"  {"  Der  Vogelhandler  von  Imst.")  His  writings, 
including  several  dramatic  pieces,  amount  to  one  hun- 
dred volumes.    Died  in  1855. 

See  the  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1833. 

Spinelli.    See  Spinelt.q. 

Spinelli,  spe-neKlee,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born 
at  Naples  about  1325.  He  was  appointed  chancellor 
of  the  kingdom  by  Queen  Joan  I.  of  Naples.  Died 
after  1394. 

Spinelli,  (PARki,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Arezzo 
about  1390,  was  the  son  of  the  artist  Spinello  Aretino, 
by  whom  he  was  instructed  in  painting.  His  frescos 
were  distinguished  for  their  richness  of  colouring.  His 
death  is  variously  dated  about  1410,  1426,  or  1444. 

Spinello,  (Aretino.)    See  Aretino. 

Spinello,  spe-neKlo,  or  Spinelli,  spe-nel'lee,  (Mat- 
TEO,)  an  Italian  chronicler,  born  in  the  province  of  Bari 
in  1230,  wrote  a  chronicle  of  events  of  his  time  in  Italy. 
Died  after  1285. 

Spin'ner,  (Francis  E.,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Herkimer  county.  New  York,  in  1802.  He  repre- 
sented the  seventeenth  district  of  New  York  in  Congress 
from  1855  to  1861,  and  was  then  appointed  treasurer  of 
the  United  States. 

Spinola,  spee'no-lS,  (Ambrosio,)  Marquis  of,  a 
celebrated  military  commander,  born  at  Genoa  in  1569. 
In  conjunction  with  his  brother  Frederick,  at  that  time 
admiral  of  the  Spanish  fleet  on  the  coast  of  Holland, 
he  fought  against  the  Flemish  insurgents  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1602.  His  brother  having  been  killed  in  an 
engagement  with  the  Dutch  in  1603,  Spinola  became 
general-in-chief  of  the  Spanish  army  in  the  Nether- 
lands, and  in  1604  took  the  city  of  Ostend,  which  had 
been  besieged  more  than  three  years  by  the  Spaniards. 
He  afterwards  opposed  Maurice,  Prince  of  Orange, 
without,  however,  gaining  any  decided  victory  ;  and,  the 
Spanish  fleet  near  Gibraltar  having  been  defeated  by 
Admiral  Heemskerk  in  1607,  a  truce  was  concluded 
with  Maurice  for  twelve  years,  (1609.)  Hostilities  being 
renewed  in  1621,  Spinola  was  again  the  opponent  of 
Maurice,  over  whom  he  gained  several  important  vic- 
tories, among  which  was  the  capture  of  Jaliers,  Wesel, 
and  Aix-la-Chapelle.  In  1625,  after  a  siege  of  ten 
months,  he  took  the  city  of  Breda,  Maurice  having  died 
of  a  fever  during  the  progress  of  the  siege.  Spinola 
afterwards  commanded  against  the  French  in  Italy  ;  but 
he  died  in  1630. 

See  Adolphe  Siret,  "A.  Spinola,  fipisode,"  etc.,  1851  ;  J.  Ba- 
LINUS,  "  De  Bello  Belgico  Auspitiis  A.  Spinolje,"  i6og;  P.  Casoni, 
"Vita  d'Ambrogio  Spinola,"  1691  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale;"  Motley,  "Historjf  of  the  Netherlands,"  chap.  xlii. 

Spinosa.    See  Spinoza. 

Spinoza,  spe-no'zS,  or  Spinosa,  spe-no'si,  (Bene- 
dict,) a  celebrated  pantheistical  philosopher,  born  at 
Amsterdam  on  the  24th  of  November,  1632.  His  parents 
were  Spanish  or  Portuguese  Jews,  who  gave  him  the 
name  of  Baruch,  which  he  exchanged  for  its  equivalent 
Benedict.  He  learned  Hebrew  and  other  ancient  lan- 
guages, and  read  with  avidity  the  works  of  Descartes, 
who  was  one  of  his  favourite  authors.  At  an  early  age 
he  announced  opinions  which  were  considered  heretical 
and  for  which  he  was  excommunicated  by  the  Jews. 
One  of  them  also  attempted  to  assassinate  him  in  the 
night,  about  1656;  but  he  escaped  with  a  slight  wound. 
To  avoid  persecution,  he  retired  to  Leyden  or  Ryns- 
berg,  and  gained  a  subsistence  by  making  lenses  for 
telescopes  and  microscopes.  He  passed  his  life  as  a 
solitary  recluse,  and  practised  great  frugality.  About 
1668  he  settled  at  the  Hague,  where  he  remained  until 
his  death.  He  published  a  "Theological  and  Political 
Treatise,"  ("Tractatus  theologico-politicus,"  1670,)  and 


left  several  works,  which  were  published  in  1677  under 
the  title  of  "Opera  Posthuma." 

Spinoza  was  never  married.  In  1673  the  Elector- Pal- 
atine, Charles  Louis,  offered  him  a  chair  of  philosophy 
at  Heidelberg,  promising  to  allow  him  liberty  of  thought 
and  discussion  provided  he  should  not  speak  or  write 
against  the  established  religion.  He  politely  declined 
this  offer.  His  constitution  was  naturally  frail  and 
delicate.  He  died  in  February,  1677.  For  more  than 
a  century  after  his  death  he  was  generally  stigmatized  as 
an  atheist,  a  monster,  and  a  blasphemer.  A  reaction 
followed,  especially  in  Germany,  and  he  became  a  great 
favourite  with  Goethe,  Lessing,  Novalis,  and  Schleier- 
macher.  His  most  important  work  is  "  Ethics  De- 
monstrated by  a  Geometrical  Method,"  ("  Ethica  More 
Geometrico  demonstrata.")  "  Spinosa  was  truly,"  says 
Hallam,  "what  Voltaire  has  with  rather  less  justice 
called  Clarke, — a  reasoning  machine.  A  few  leading 
theorems,  too  hastily  taken  up  as  axiomatic,  were  sufficient 
to  make  him  sacrifice,  with  no  compromise  or  hesitation, 
not  only  every  principle  of  religion  and  moral  right,,  but 
the  clear  intuitive  notions  of  common  sense.  .  .  .  Spi- 
nosa does  not  essentially  differ  from  the  Pantheists  of 
old.  He  conceived,  as  they  had  done,  that  the  infinity 
of  God  required  the  exclusion  of  all  other  substance." 
("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

"Bayle's  article  'Spinoza,'"  says  Goethe,  "excited 
displeasure  and  mistrust  in  me.  In  the  first  place,  the 
man  was  represented  as  an  atheist,  and  his  opinions  as 
most  abominable ;  but  immediately  after  it  was  con- 
fessed that  he  was  a  calm,  reflective,  diligent  scholar,  a 
good  citizen,  a  sympathizing  neighbour,  and  a  peaceable, 
domestic  man.  They  seemed  to  have  quite  forgotten 
the  words  of  the  gospel :  '  By  their  fruits  you  shall 
know  them.'*''''  ("Autobiography,"  book  xvi.  p.  2.)  The 
same  critic  says  in  another  place,  "The  mind  which 
worked  upon  me  so  decisively,  and  which  was  destined 
to  affect  so  deeply  my  whole  mode  of  thinking,  was 
Spinoza.  After  looking  through  the  world  in  vain  to 
find  a  means  of  development  for  my  strange  nature,  I 
at  last  fell  upon  the  '  Ethics'  of  this  man.  .  .  .  Here 
I  found  a  sedative  for  my  passions,  and  a  free  wide  view 
over  the  material  world  seemed  to  open  before  me.  But 
what  especially  bound  me  to  him  was  the  great  disin- 
terestedness that  shone  from  every  sentence.  .  .  .  The 
all-composing  calmness  of  Spinoza  was  in  striking  con- 
trast with  my  all-disturbing  activity,  his  mathematical 
method  was  the  opposite  of  my  poetic  imagination  and 
way  of  writing,  and  the  very  precision  which  was  thought 
ill  adapted  to  moral  subjects,  made  me  his  enthusiastic 
disciple,  his  most  decided  worshipper."  ("  Autobiog- 
raphy," book  xiv.  p.  170.)  From  the  article  "Spinoza," 
in  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  by  John  Downes, 
we  extract  the  following  :  "The  character  of  Spinoza  is 
naturally  one  of  the  most  devout  on  record,  for  his  life 
was,  in  a  manner,  one  unbroken  hymn.  He  was  not  a 
pious  man,  as  that  word  is  now  usually  understood,  for 
he  was  not  a  Christian,  at  least  in  profession."  Among 
the  numerous  biographies  of  Spinoza,  that  of  J.  Colerus, 
"Vie  de  B.  Spinosa,"  (1706,)  is  said  to  be  the  best. 

See,  also,  Lucas  Vr^se,  "  La  Vie  et  I'Esprit  de  Spinoza,"  1719; 
H.  F.  VON  DiETZ,  "  Spinoza  nach  Leben  nnd  Lehre,"  1783  ;  Pierre 
Bavle,  "Het  Leven  van  B.  de  Spinoza,"  1698;  jACOBr,  "  Briefe 
ueber  die  Lehre  des  Spinoza,"  17S6;  Philippson,  "Leben  von 
Spinoza,"  1790;  Kari,  Thomas,  "Spinoza  als  Metaphysiker,"  1840; 
A.  Saintes,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  de  Spinoza,"  1842;  Conrad  von 
Orelli,  "  Spinozas  Leben  und  Lehre,"  1843;  Von  Vloten,  "  Ba- 
ruch d'Espinoza,"  1862.  For  an  excellent  (popular)  notice  of  the 
philosophic  system  of  Spinoza,  see  Froude,  "Short  Studies  on 
Great  Subjects,"  1868;  see,  also,  Matthew  Arnold,  "Essays  in 
Criticism;"  "Westminster  Review"  for  May,  1843,  (by  G.  H. 
Lewes;)  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1848;  "North 
British  Review"  for  May,  1863,  article  "  Saisset  and  Spinoza." 

Spira,  de,  deh  spee'ri,  (Johannes,)  or  John  of 
Speyer,  a  German  printer,  who  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century  removed  to  Venice,  where  he  founded 
the  first  printing-establishment.  Among  the  works 
issued  from  his  press  were  editions  of  Cicero's  "  Epistles" 
and  Pliny's  "Natural  History,"  (1469.) 

Spiriti,  spee're-tee,  (Salvatore,)  Marquis,  an  Ital- 
ian litterateur,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1712  ;  died  in  1776. 

Spirito,  spee're-to,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  satirical 
poet,  born  at  Perugia  about  1430.    He  wrote  "  Sorti," 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  yyshort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  ol>scure;{^r,  fill,  (kt;  mgt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SPITTJ 


2051 


SPRJGUE 


(1473,)  other  works,  which  were  once  popular.  He 
died  about  1495. 

Spitta,  spit'tS,  (Karl  Johann  Philipp,)  a  German 
devotional  poet,  born  at  Hanover  in  1801. 

Spittler,  spit'ler,  (Ludvvig  Timotheus,)  Baron, 
born  at  Stuttgart  in  1752,  became  in  1779  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Gottingen.  He  published  several  his- 
torical and  ecclesiastical  works.    Died  in  1810. 

Spitzel.    See  Spizelius. 

Spix,  von,  fon  spiks,  (Johann  Baptist,)  a  German 
naturalist,  born  at  Hochstadt,  in  Bavaria,  in  1781.  Hav- 
ing published  in  181 1  his  "History  and  Review  of  all 
Systems  of  Zoology,"  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  and  made  conservator  of  the  Zoological  Mu- 
seum at  Munich.  In  1817  he  accompanied  Von  Martins 
on  his  scientific  expedition  to  Brazil.  He  died  in  1826, 
having  with  some  assistance  completed  five  splendidly 
illustrated  works  on  the  birds,  apes,  bats,  and  reptiles 
of  Brazil. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1830 ; 
"  Monthly  Review"  for  December,  1824. 

Spizelius,  spit-sa'le-us,  or  Spitzel,  spit'sel,  (Theo- 
PKILUS,)  a  German  scholar  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at 
Augsburg  in  1639,  wrote  a  "Commentary  on  the  State 
of  Literature  among  the  Chinese,"  (1660,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1691. 

Spof'fprth,  (Reginald,)  an  English  composer  of 
great  merit,  born  in  Nottinghamshire  in  1768.  He  is 
chiefly  known  by  his  glees,  which  are  esteemed  master- 
pieces of  their  kind.    Died  in  1826. 

Spohn,  spon,  [Lat.  Spoh'nius,]  (Friedrich  Au- 
gust WiLHELM,)  an  eminent  German  scholar,  born  at 
Dortmund  in  1792.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  where  he 
became  in  1819  professor  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  lan- 
guages. He  published  editions  of  the  "  Panegyricus" 
of  Isocrates,  the  two  geographical  works  of  Nicephorus 
Blemmida,  and  the  "Opera  et  Dies"  of  Hesiod.  He 
died  in  1824,  leaving  a  work  on  hieroglyphics,  entitled 
"De  Lingua  et  Literis  veterum  /Egyptiorum,"  which 
was  continued  and  published  by  Seyffarth  in  1825. 

See  G.  Seyffarth,  "  Memoria  F.  A.  G.  Spohnii,"  1825. 

Spohnius.    See  Spohn. 

Spohr,  spoR,  (Louis,)  one  of  the  greatest  composers 
and  musicians  of  recent  times,  was  born  at  Brunswick  in 
1784.  He  was  instructed  in  violin-playing  by  Maucourt 
and  Eck,  and  subsequently  made  a  professional  tour  in 
Russia,  France,  and  Italy,  being  everywhere  received 
with  distinguished  favour.  In  1813  he  became  chapel- 
master  at  Vienna,  where  he  produced  his  opera  of 
"Faust,"  and  several  other  admired  works.  He  was 
appointed  in  1822  chapel-master  to  the  Duke  of  Hesse- 
Cassel,  and  soon  after  composed  his  popular  operas  of 
"Jessonda,"  "The  Alchymist,"  "  Pietro  of  Abano,"  and 
"The  Crusader."  His  oratorios  of  "The  Crucifixion," 
**  The  Last  Judgment,"  and  the  "  Fall  of  Babylon"  are 
entitled  to  a  very  high  rank  among  works  of  the  kind  ; 
the  last-named  was  composed  for  a  musical  festival  in 
England,  where  Spohr's  music  enjoys  great  popularity. 
He  also  produced  numerous  symphonies,  cantatas, 
and  pieces  for  the  violin  and  other  instruments.  Died 
in  1859. 

See  "  Autobiography  of  Louis  Spohr,"  1865  ;  Ebers,  "  Spohr  und 
Hal^vy,"  etc.,  1837;  Choron  et  Fayolle,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Mu- 
siciens  ;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "  Jahrbuch  zum  Con- 
versations-Lexikon,"  1863. 

Spolverini,  spol-vi-ree'nee,  (Giambattista,)  Mar- 
quis, an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Verona  in  1695.  wrote 
a  poem  "  On  the  Cultivation  of  Rice,"  ("  La  Coltivazione 
del  Riso,"  1758,)  which  was  much  admired.  Died  in 
1762. 

Spolverini,  (Hilarion,)  an  Italian  painter  of  battles, 
was  born  at  Parma  in  1657;  died  in  1734. 

Spon,  sp6N,  (Charles,)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1609.  He  practised  at  Lyons,  and  translated 
into  Latin  verse  the  "Prognostics"  of  Hippocrates, 
(1661.)    Died  in  1684. 

Spon,  (Jacob,)  a  celebrated  French  antiquary  and 
physician,  born  at  Lyons  in  1647,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. In  1676  he  explored  Greece,  from  which  he 
brought  several  thousand  inscriptions.  He  published 
"Researches   on   the  Antiquities  of  Lyons,"  (1673,) 


"  Travels  in  Italy,  Dalmatia,  Greece,  and  the  Levant," 
(3  vols.,  1678,)  which  was  highly  esteemed,  a  "History 
of  the  Republic  of  Geneva,"  (1680,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1685. 

See  MoRERi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  Haag,  "  La  France 
protestante  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Spondanus.    See  Sponde,  de. 

Sponde,de,dehsp6Nd,  [Lat.  Sponda'nus,]  (Henry,) 
a  French  prelate,  born  at  Mauleon  in  1568,  became 
Bishop  of  Pamiers  in  1626.  He  published  an  abridgment 
of  the  "  Annals"  of  Baronius,  and  wrote  a  continuation 
of  them  from  1197  to  1640,  (2  vols.,  1639.)  Died  in 
1643. 

See  MoR^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  ;"  Niceron,  "  Memoires." 

Sponde,  de,  [Lat.  Sponda'nus,]  (Jean,)  a  French 
scholar,  born  at  Mauleon  in  1557,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  published  a  Latin  version  of  Homer's 
poems,  with  notes,  (1583.)    Died  in  1595. 

Sponneck,  von,  fon  spon'n^k,  (Wilhelm  Carl 
Eppingen,)  Count,  a  Danish  economist  and  financier, 
born  at  Rinkjobing  in  1815.  He  published  a  systematic 
treatise  on  customs,  or  tariffs,  (2  vols.,  1840.)  He  was 
appointed  minister  of  finance  in  1848. 

Spontini,  spon-tee'nee,  (Gasparo  Luigi  Pacifico,) 
an  Italian  musician  and  composer,  born  at  Jesi  in  1778 
or  1779.  He  produced  in  1796  an  opera  called  "  I  Pun- 
tigli  delle  Donne."  About  1803  he  removed  to  Paris, 
where  his  "  Finta  Filosofa"  was  performed  in  1804.  He 
composed  "  La  Vestale,"  an  opera,  (1807,)  which  had 
great  success.  In  1820  he  became  director  of  the  Royal 
Opera  in  Berlin,  and  chapel-master  to  the  king.  Among 
his  chief  works  are  "  Olympie"  and  "  Fernand  Cortez." 
Died  in  1851. 

See  L.  DE  LoMENiE,  "  M.  Spontini,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1841 ;  E.  M.  Oettinger,  "  Spontini,"  1843  ;  Raoul-Rochette, 
"  Notice  liistorique  siir  la  Vie  de  M.  Spontini,"  1852;  Fetis,  "  Bio- 
graphie Universelle  des  Musiciens  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Spontone,  spon-to'ni,  (Ciro,)  an  Italian  litterateur, 
born  at  Bologna  about  1552.  He  wrote  many  works,  in 
prose  and  verse.    Died  about  1610. 

Spork,  von,  fon  spoRk,  (Johann,)  Count,  a  Ger- 
man general,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1597.  He  fought 
for  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  and  afterwards  for  the  em- 
peror Ferdinand  III.    Died  in  1679. 

See  Rosenkranz,  "Johann  Spork,"  1845. 

His  son,  Franz  Anton,  also  a  count,  born  in  1662, 
was  a  philanthropist  in  Bohemia.  He  founded  hospitals 
and  public  libraries.    Died  in  1738. 

See  Stili.enau,  "  Lebensgeschichte  des  Grafen  Spork,"  1725. 

Spots'wood  or  Spoftis-wood,  (John,)  an  ambi- 
tious Scottish  prelate,  born  at  Mid-Calder  in  1565.  He 
became  Archbishop  of  Glasgow  in  1603,  and  Archbishop 
of  Saint  Andrew's  in  161 5.  He  was  the  object  of  popu- 
lar odium  among  the  Scotch.  In  1635  he  was  appointed 
lord  chancellor  of  Scotland.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland,"  (1655.)  In  1638  he  was  de- 
posed and  declared  infamous.    Died  in  1639. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Spotswood,  (Sir  Robert,)  a  lawyer,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1596.  He  was  appointed 
lord  president  of  the  court  of  session  by  Charles  I.  In 
the  civil  war  he  was  a  royalist,  fought  under  Montrose, 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  executed  in  1646. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen.' 

Spottiswood.    See  Spotswood. 

Spragg  or  Spragge,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English  ad- 
miral under  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  distinguished  him- 
self in  several  engagements  with  the  Dutch  in  1666-67, 
and  subsequently  fought  Van  Tromp  in  three  successive 
battles.  During  the  last  he  was  drowned,  while  going 
from  one  boat  to  another,  (1673.) 

Sprague,  sprag,  (Charles,)  an  American  poet,  born 
in  Boston  on  the  26th  of  October,  1791.  He  left  school 
at  an  early  age,  to  acquire  a  practical  knowledge  of  mer- 
cantile business,  which  he  pursued  for  some  years. 
About  1825  he  was  elected  cashier  of  the  Globe  Bank 
of  Boston.  He  produced  in  1823  an  ode  in  honour  of 
Shakspeare,  "  which,"  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "  is  one  of 
the  most  vigorous  and  beautiful  lyrics  in  the  English 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  vl, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (g^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


S  PR  AGUE 


2052 


SQUARCIONE 


language."  His  most  extensive  work  is  "Curiosity," 
a  didactic  and  satirical  poem,  delivered  before  the  Phi 
Beta  Kappa  Society  of  Harvard  University  in  1829. 
Among  his  other  works  are  a  centennial  ode  on  the  foun- 
dation of  Boston,  pronounced  in  1 830,  and  short  poems 
entitled  "  The  Winged  Worshippers,"  "  Art,"  and  "The 
Family  Meeting,"  which  exhibit  much  skill  in  the  use 
of  language. 

See  R.  W.  Griswold,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  America  ;"  "  North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1830. 

Sprague,  (William,)  an  American  Senator,  a  nephew 
of  William  Sprague  who  was  chosen  Senator*  of  the 
United  States  in  1842,  was  born  at  Cranston,  Rhode 
Island,  September  12,  1830.  He  was  elected  Governor 
of  Rhode  Island  in  i860.  In  1861  he  raised  a  regiment, 
with  which  he  fought  at  Bull  Run,  July  21.  He  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States,  by  the  legislature 
of  Rhode  Island,  for  six  years,  (1863-69,)  and  re-elected 
in  June,  1868.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Chief-Justice 
Chase. ' 

Sprague,  (William  Buel,)  D.D.,  an  American  Pres- 
byterian divine,  born  at  Andover,  Connecticut,  in  1795. 
He  published  "Lectures  to  Young  People,"  (1825,) 
"Hints  on  Christian  Intercourse,"  (1834,)  "Visits  to 
European  Celebrities,"  (1855,)  and  "Annals  of  the 
American  pulpit,"  (9  vols.,  1856-69.)  Of  this  valuable 
work,  vols.  i.  and  ii.  treat  of  Trinitarian  Congregationalist 
divines;  vols.  iii.  and  iv.,  Presbyterian  ;  vol.  v.,  Epis- 
copalian ;  vol.  vi.,  Baptist ;  vol.  vii.,  Methodist ;  vol.  viii., 
Unitarian,  and  vol.  ix.,  Lutheran;  Dutch  Reformed,  etc. 
He  also  contributed  a  "  Life  of  Timothy  Dwight"  to 
Sparks's  "American  Biography." 

See  the  "North  American  Review"  for  April,  1857;  Allibone, 
"Dictionary  of  Anthors." 

Spranger  or  Sprangher,  spRSng'er  or  spidng'Her, 
(Bartholomew,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp 
in  1546,  studied  in  Italy,  and  while  at  Rome  was  patron- 
ized by  Pius  V.  and  Cardinal  Farnese.  He  painted  for 
the  former  a  "Last  Judgment,"  containing  nearly  five 
hundred  heads.    Died  about  1625. 

Sprat,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Devon- 
shire in  1636.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1657,  was 
appointed  successively  chaplain  to  Charles  II.,  Dean  of 
Westminster,  (1683,)  and  Bishop  of  Rochester,  (1684.) 
He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  "  On  the  Death  of  Oliver 
Cromwell,"  and  other  poetical  pieces,  and  an  account 
of  the  Rye-House  Plot,  entitled  "A  True  Account  and 
Declaration  of  the  Horrid  Conspiracy  against  the  Late 
King,"  etc.  He  also  published  a  "  Life  of  Cowley,"  and 
a  "  History  of  the  Royal  Society,"  of  which  he  was  one 
of  the  original  members  ;  and  he  is  said  to  have  been 
associated  with  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  Butler,  and 
others  in  writing  "The  Rehearsal."    Died  in  17 13. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  Poets,"  and  a  "Life  of  Thomas 
Sprat,"  London,  1715. 

Spreng,  (James,)  called  Pr^pos'itus,  a  Flemish  theo- 
logian, born  at  Ypres  about  1485.  He  adopted  the  prin- 
ciples of  Luther,  and  became  in  1524  pastor  of  a  church 
at  Bremen.    Died  in  1562. 

See  J.  H.  VON  Seelen,  "Vita  J.  Praepositi,"  1747;  Janssen, 
"Jacobus  Praepositus, "  1862. 

Sprengel,  spR^ng'el,  (Karl,)  professor  of  agricultural 
science  at  Brunswick,  was  born  near  Hanover  in  1787. 
Pie  published  "Chemistry  for  Farmers,"  (1831,)  and 
other  similar  works.    Died  in  1859. 

Sprengel,  (Kurt,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  phy- 
sicians and  botanists  of  Germany,  was  born  near  Anklam, 
in  Pomerania,  in  1766.  He  studied  at  Halle,  where  he 
took  his  medical  degree  in  1787,  and  in  1797  became 
professor  of  botany.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
his  "Manual  of  Pathology,"  (3  vols.,  1795,)  "  Institu- 
tiones  Medicae,"  (6  vols.,  1809,)  a  "History  of  Botany," 
(181 7,)  "New  Discoveries  in  the  Entire  Circuit  of  Bot- 
any," (3  vols.,  1819,)  "Pragmatic  History  of  Medicine," 
(5  vols.,  1828,)  "Historia  Rei  Herbariae,"  and  "Flora 
Halensis,"    Died  at  Halle  in  1833. 

See  Lerov  DuPR^,  "Notice  historique  sur  Sprengel,"  1850; 
Cai.lisen,  "  Medicinisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon,"  (Supplement;) 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^raie." 

Sprengel,  (Maithaus  Christian,)  an  uncle  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Rostock  in  1746,  and  became 


professor  of  history  at  Halle  in  1779.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,"  a  "  History  of  the 
Mahrattas,"  (1786,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1803. 

Sprenger,  spRgng'er,  (Aloys,)  a  distinguished  Ori- 
entalist, born  in  the  Tyrol  in  1813.  After  a  residence 
of  several  years  in  Hindostan,  he  became  in  1850  inter- 
preter of  the  government  at  Calcutta  and  secretary  of 
the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal.  He  translated  from  the 
Arabic  into  English  Masoodee's  "  Meadows  of  Gold," 
(1849,)  wrote  a  valuable  "Life  of  Mohammad,"  (1851,) 
and  published  several  translations  of  English  works  into 
Hindostanee. 

Sprenger,  (Placidus,)  a  German  monk  and  writer, 
born  at  Wurzburg  in  1735.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  The  Literature  of  Catholic  Germany,"  (11  vols., 
1775-90-)    I^ied  in  1806. 

Spreti,  spRa'tee,  (Desiderio,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Ravenna  in  1444,  wrote  (in  Latin)  a  "  History 
of  Ravenna,"  (1489.)    Died  about  1474. 

Spring,  (Gardiner,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  son  of  Samuel 
Spring,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Newburyport,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1785.  Having  graduated  at  Yale  College, 
he  became  in  18 10  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church 
in  New  York.  He  published,  among  other  works, 
"  Obligations  of  the  World  to  the  Bible,"  (1844,)  "The 
Attraction  of  the  Cross,"  (1845,)  "Discourses  to  Sea- 
men," and  "  The  Power  of  the  Pulpit,"  (1848.) 

See  "  Personal  Reminiscences  of  the  Life  and  Times  of  Gardiner 
Spring,"  1866. 

Spring,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  at  Northbridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1746, 
became  a  chaplain  in  the  Continental  army  in  1775. 
He  published  a  number  of  religious  and  controversial 
works.    Died  in  1819. 

Spruner,  von,  fon  spRoo'ner,  (Karl,)  a  German 
historian  and  geographer,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1803. 
He  published  a  "District  Map  of  East  Franconia,  ' 
(1835,)  a  "  Historical-Geographical  Hand-Atlas,"  (1837,) 
which  is  esteemed  a  standard  work,  a  "  Universal  His- 
torical School-Atlas,"  and  other  works  of  the  kind. 

Spurgeon,  spiir'jon,  (Charles  Haddon,)  a  popula- 
and  eloquent  English  Baptist  preacher,  born  at  Kelve- 
don,  Essex,  in  1834.  He  began  to  preach  in  London 
about  1853,  and  attracted  large  audiences  in  Exeter 
Hall  and  Surrey  Music-Hall.  A  new  chapel,  of  vast 
dimensions,  was  erected  for  him,  and  opened  in  1861, 
He  has  published  several  religious  works. 

See  "  Life  of  C.  H.  Spurgeon,"  New  York,  1857. 

Spu-rin'na,  (Vf.stricius,)  a  Roman  poet  and  soldier, 
was  a  contemporary  of  Tacitus  and  Pliny  the  Younger. 
He  gained  several  victories  over  the  Germans  on  the 
Rhine,  and  held  various  offices  under  the  government. 
His  lyric  poems,  in  Latin  and  Greek,  are  praised  by  Pliny. 

Spiirs'tow,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
writer,  was  minister  of  Hackney,  from  which  he  was 
ejected  for  nonconformity  in  1662.    Died  in  1666. 

Spurzheim,  spdoRts'hTm,  (Johann  Kaspar,)  a  Ger- 
man physician,  and  one  of  the  earliest  advocates  of  phre- 
nology, was  born  at  Longwich,  near  Treves,  in  1776.  He 
studied  medicine  at  Vienna,  and  there  met  Dr.  Gall,  of 
whom  he  became  a  disciple.  About  1805  he  left  Vienna, 
and  accompanied  Dr.  Gall  in  visits  to  various  cities  of 
Germany,  France,  etc.  As  partners,  they  lectured  in 
Paris  from  1807  to  1813,  and  published  "The  Anatomy 
and  Physiology  of  the  Nervous  System  in  general,  and 
of  the  Brain  in  particular."  Spurzheim  is  reputed  to 
have  discovered  the  fibrous  structure  of  the  brain.  Pie 
lectured  in  England  several  years,  and  returned  to  Paris 
in  1 81 7.  He  published  a  number  of  works  on  phre- 
nology, etc.  He  visited  the  United  States  in  1832,  and 
died  at  Boston  in  the  same  year. 

See  "Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Philosophy  of  Spurzheim,"  by  A. 
Cakmichael,  1833;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale ;"  "Monthly 
Review"  for  October,  1815. 

Squarcione,  skwdR-cho'ni,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  amateur,  born  at  Padua  in  1394.  He  enjoyed 
a  very  high  reputation  as  a  teacher,  and  numbered  among 
his  pupils  Bellini,  Marco  Zoppo,  and  Andrea  Mantegna. 
He  possessed  great  wealth,  and  was  the  owner  of  a  large 
and  choice  collection  of  works  of  art.    Died  in  1444. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Selvatico,  "  II  Pittore  F. 
Squarcione,"  1839. 


a,  e,  1,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SQUIER 


2053 


STAEL-HOLSTEIN 


Squi'er,  (Ephraim  George,)  an  American  archee- 
ologist,  born  in  Albany  county,  New  York,  in  1821.  He 
became  in  1843  editor  of  the  "Hartford  Daily  Journal," 
an  organ  of  the  Whig  party,  and  in  1844  took  charge 
of  the  "Scioto  Gazette,"  Ohio.  In  1S48  he  published 
in  the  "Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge"  a 
description  of  the  ancient  monuments  of  the  Mississippi 
valley,  and  in  1849  ^''^  account  of  the  aboriginal  monu- 
ments .of  the  State  of  New  York.  He  was  soon  after 
appointed  charge-d'affaires  to  Guatemala.  In  1851  he 
furnished  the  plan  for  an  inter-oceanic  railway  through 
Honduras,  the  survey  of  which  road  he  subsequently 
conducted.  Among  his  principal  works  may  be  named 
"  Nicaragua,  its  People,  Scenery,  Ancient  Monuments," 
etc.,  {1852,)  "Notes  on  Central  America,"  etc.,  (1854,) 
"  Monograph  of  Authors  who  have  written  on  the  Abo- 
riginal Languages  of  Central  America,"  and  "Tropical 
Fibres  :  their  Production  and  their  Economic  Extraction," 
(1861.)  Mr.  Squier  has  been  a  contributor  to  the 
"Encyclopaedia  Britannica"  and  Appleton's  "American 
Cyclopaedia,"  and  has  been  admitted  to  the  London 
Society  of  Antiquaries,  and  other  learned  institutions 
of  Europe. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1852. 

Squire,  (Samuel,)  an  English  writer  and  scholar, 
born  in  Wiltshire  in  1714.  He  studied  at  Cambridge, 
and  rose  through  several  preferments  to  be  Bishop  of 
Saint  David's  in  1761.  He  was  the  author  of  "  An  En- 
quiry into  the  Origin  of  the  Greek  Language,"  (1741,) 
"The  Ancient  History  of  the  Hebrews  Vindicated," 
(1741,)  and  other  learned  works,  also  a  number  of  ser- 
mons.   Died  in  1766. 

Sree.    See  SrI 

Sri,  sree,  or  Shri,  shree,  (sometimes  written  Sree,) 
a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "prosperity,"  "wealth," 
"splendour,"  is  often  applied  as  an  epithet  to  Lakshmi, 
the  consort  of  Vishnu,  and  is  sometimes  given  as  a  name 
to  Saraswati,  the  wife  of  Brahma,  and  the  goddess  of 
music  and  eloquence.   (See  Lakshmi  and  SaraswatI) 

Sse-ma-Kwang,  (or  -Kouang,)  si  mi  kw^ng,  writ- 
ten also  Sze-ma-K'wang,  an  eminent  Chinese  his- 
torian, born  in  the  province  of  Shen-see  about  1018 
A.D.  He  enjoyed  the  favour  of  several  successive  sove- 
reigns. About  the  year  1084  he  was  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Han-lin,  the  highest 
literary  institution  in  China.-  He  died  in  1086.  He  left 
a  great  historical  work,  entitled  "  Universal  Mirror," 
("  Toong-Kian,")  which  has  been  translated  into  French 
by  Pere  Mailla, 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sse-ma-Tsien,  si-m^-tse-en  (or  -tse-an,)  or  Sse-ma- 
Tsian,  written  also  Sze-ma-Ts'een  and  Se-ma-Tsien, 

a  celebrated  Chinese  historiographer,  scholar,  and  critic, 
born  in  the  province  of  Shen-see  about  145  B.C.  His 
father,  who  held  the  office  of  historiographer  to  the  em- 
peror Woo-tee,  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal 
in  collecting  and  arranging  the  writings  of  the  ancients. 
After  his  death  the  son  succeeded  to  his  office,  and  ap- 
plied himself  with  equal  industry  and  zeal  to  collecting 
and  preserving  the  writings  of  antiquity.  Having  by 
his  freedom  and  boldness  incurred  the  anger  of  the  em- 
peror, he  was  banished.  While  in  exile,  he  wrote  his 
principal  work,  entitled  "Historical  Memoirs,"  ("  Sse- 
Kee  or  -Ki,")  which  was  not  published  until  after  his 
death.  Having  recovered  the  favour  of  his  sovereign,  he 
was  recalled  from  banishment  and  treated  with  distin- 
guished regard.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about 
80  B.C. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Staal,  von,  fon  sttl,  (Karl,)  a  Russian  general,  of 
German  extraction,  born  at  Reval  in  1777,  served  under 
Suwarow  in  Italy  in  1799,  and  subsequently  in  the  princi- 
pal Austrian  and  German  campaigns  against  the  French. 
He  was  afterwards  appointed  by  the  emperor  Nicholas 
commandant  of  Moscow  and  general  of  cavalry,  (1843.) 
Died  in  1853. 

Staal,  von,  fon  sttl,  (Marguerite  Jeanne  Cordier 
— koR'de-i',)  Baroness,  an  accomplished  French  writer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1693,  was  the  daughter  of  the  painter 
Launai,  and  was  married  to  Baron  von  Staal,  a  Swiss 


officer.  She  was  the  author  of  poems,  letters,  and 
"  Memoirs,"  (3  vols.,  1755,)  which  are  remarkable  for 
the  elegance  of  their  style.    Died  in  1750. 

Staben,  sti'ben,  (HENDRiK,)a  Flemish  painter,  born 
in  1578,  was  a  pupil  of  Tintoretto.  He  worked  at  Venice, 
and  excelled  in  pictures  of  small  dimensions.  Died  in 
1658. 

Stabili.    See  Cecco  d'Ascoll 

Stace,  the  French  for  Statius,  which  see. 

Stackelberg,  stik'el -b^Rc',  (Otto  Magnus,) 
Baron,  a  distinguished  archaeologist,  of  German  extrac- 
tion, born  near  Reval,  in  Russia,  in  1787.  His  principal 
works  are  entitled  "The  Sepulchres  of  the  Greeks," 
and  "Greece,  Picturesque  and  Topographic  Views," 
(1830.)    Died  in  1834. 

Stack'house,  (stak'iis,)  (John,)  an  English  botanist, 
was  a  nephew  of  Thomas  Stackhouse,  noticed  below.  He 
published  in  1801  a  description,  in  English  and  Latin, 
of  the  Algse,  Fuci,  and  Confervae  of  England,  entitled 
"  Nereis  Britannica,"  (fob,  with  coloured  plates.)  Among 
his  other  works  are  "Illustrations  of  Theophrastus,"  (in 
Latin,  181 1,)  and  contributions  to  the  "Transactions" 
of  the  Linnaean  Society,  of  which  he  was  a  member. 
Died  in  1819. 

Stackhouse,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine  and  the- 
ological writer,  born  in  1681,  became  vicar  of  Benham, 
in  Berkshire.  He  published  "Memoirs  ol*  Bishop  At- 
terbury,"  (1723,)  a  "History  of  the  Holy  Bible,"  (2 
vols.,  1732,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1752. 

Stadion,  st§.'de-on,  (Johann  Philipp  Karl  Joseph,) 
CcjUNT,  an  Austrian  diplomatist  and  statesman,  born  at 
Mentz  in  1 763,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Stockholm, 
London,  and  Saint  Petersburg,  and  succeeded  Cobenzl 
as  minister  of  foreign  aifairs  in  1806.  He  relinquished 
this  post  to  Count  Metternich  in  1809.  Pie  was  restored 
to  power  in  1813,  and  signed  the  peace  of  Paris  in  1814. 
Died  in  1824. 

Stadiu.s,  sti'de-us,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  astronomer  and 
astrologer,  born  in  Brabant  in  1527,  wrote  "Roman 
Calendars,"  ("  Fasti  Romanorum,")  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1579. 

Stadler,  stid'ler,  (Maximilian,)  a  German  organist 
and  composer  of  church  music,  born  at  Melk  in  1748. 
Among  his  works  we  may  name  his  oratorio  of  "The 
Deliverance  of  Jerusalem."    Died  in  1833. 

Stael-Holstein,  de,  deh  stil-hoKstIn,  [Fr.  pron. 
stt'^K  koVs\.^^\]  (Anne  Louise  Germaine  Necker,) 
Baronne,  commonly  called  Madame  de  Stael,  a 
French  lady  of  great  genius,  and  the  most  celebrated 
authoress  of  modern  times,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  22d 
of  April,  1766.  She  was  the  only  child  of  Necker,  the 
eminent  financier.  Her  education  was  directed  by  her 
mother,  whose  nature  was  far  less  genial  and  expansive 
than  that  of  the  daughter.  Madame  Necker  subjected  her 
to  a  strict  and  rigid  regime  of  formalism,  adapted  rather 
to  contract  than  to  develop  her  genius.  Her  character 
was  better  appreciated  by  her  father,  for  whom  she  always 
felt  the  most  ardent  affection  and  even  adoration.  In  her 
early  youth  she  listened  with  interest  to  the  conversation 
of  Marmontel,  Raynal,  and  other  authors,  who  frequented 
her  father's  house.  To  restore  her  health,  impaired  by 
hard  study,  she  was  sent  to  the  country  at  about  the  age 
of  fourteen,  and  enjoyed  more  liberty.  Her  favourite^ 
author  at  this  period  of  her  life  was  J.  J.  Rousseau. 
"She  was  from  the  first  the  very  incarnation  of  genius 
and  of  impulse.  Her  precocity  was  extraordinary,  and 
her  vivacity  and  vehemence,  both  of  intellect  and  tem- 
perament, baffled  all  her  mother's  efforts  at  regulation 
and  control."  ("North  British  Review"  for  November, 
1853.)  I'""  ^7^6  she  was  married  to  Eric,  Baron  de  Stael, 
a  Swedish  diplomatist,  and  received  from  her  father  an 
immense  dowry.  It  appears  that  she  did  not  love  De 
Stael,  but  that  she  or  her  parents  preferred  him  to  other 
suitors  because  he  was  a  Protestant  and  intended  to 
reside  permanently  at  Paris.  Her  first  literary  produc- 
tion was  "Letters  on  the  Writings  and  Character  of 
J.  J.  Rousseau,"  (1788.)  During  the  reign  of  terror  she 
made  courageous  and  successful  efforts  to  save  the  lives 
of  a  number  of  proscribed  persons,  among  whom  was  the 
Count  de  Narbonne, 

In  1793  she  retired  to  England,  and  resided  for  a  time 


€  as  /^r;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  YL^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (2^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STJHL 


near  Richmond  with  M.  Talleyrand,  the  Count  de  Nar- 
bonne,  and  other  French  exiles.  She  returned  to  Paris  in 
1795,  and  passed  her  time  happily  for  the  next  four  years. 
She  was  an  advocate  of  constitutional  liberty,  and  during 
the  Directory  was  the  leading  spirit  of  a  party  whose 
chief  orator  was  Benjamin  Constant.  Her  influence  was 
so  great  as  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  Bonaparte,  to  whom 
she  constantly  refused  to  offer  homage.  A  mutual  and 
invincible  antipathy  arose  between  her  and  the  First 
Consul,  who  not  only  persecuted  her  but  bullied  and 
banished  others  because  they  sympathized  with  her. 
She  published  in  1800  a  work  "On  Literature  consid- 
ered in  its  Relations  with  Social  Institutions."  In  1802 
she  was  banished  from  Paris  and  forbidden  to  reside 
within  forty  leagues  of  that  capital,  the  social  charms 
of  which  she  deemed  indispensable  to  her  happiness. 
She  published  in  1802  a  novel  entitled  "  Delphine,"  and 
visited  Germany,  where  she  associated  with  Goethe, 
Schiller,  and  A.  W,  Schlegel,  (1803-04.)  Some  of  these 
are  said  to  have  listened  to  her  brilliant  conversation 
"with  vast  admiration  and  not  a  little  fatigue."  "To 
philosophize  in  society,"  observes  Goethe,  "  means  to 
talk  with  vivacity  about  insoluble  problems.  This  was 
her  peculiar  pleasure  and  passion,  .  .  .  More  than  once 
I  had  regular  dialogues  with  her,  with  no  one  else  pres- 
ent :  in  these,  however,  she  was  likewise  burdensome  ; 
never  granting,  on  the  most  important  topics,  a  mo?nent 
of  reflection,  but  passionately  demanding  that  we  should 
despatch  the  deepest  concerns  as  lightly  as  if  it  were  a 
game  at  shuttlecock."  ("  Uichtung  und  Wahrheit.") 

After  a  tour  in  Italy,  she  produced  in  1807  her  "  Co- 
rinne,"  a  novel,  which  displays  profound  insight  and 
equal  sensibility.  It  had  immense  success,  which  irri- 
tated Napoleon  to  renew  his  persecution  of  the  author. 
She  was  ordered  to  leave  France.  She  afterwards 
travelled  in  Germany,  and  settled  at  Coppet  in  Switzer- 
land, where  a  number  of  her  friends  came  to  console 
her.  Among  these  were  Sismondi,  Schlegel,  Madame 
Recamier,  and  B.  Constant.  In  1810  she  published  her 
capital  work  on  Germany,  ("De  I'Allemagne,")  which,  in 
the  opinion  of  Goethe,  "  ought  to  be  considered  a  power- 
ful battery  which  made  a  wide  breach  in  the  sort  of 
wall  raised  up  between  the  two  nations  by  superannuated 
prejudices."  "Thus  terminates,"  says  Sir  J.  Mackin- 
tosh, "  a  work  which,  for  variety  of  knowledge,  flexi- 
bility of  power,  elevation  of  view,  and  comjDrehension  of 
mind,  is  unequalled  among  the  works  of  women,  and 
which  in  the  union  of  the  graces  of  society  and  litera- 
ture with  the  genius  of  philosophy  is  not  surpassed  by 
many  among  those  of  men."  ("Edinburgh  Review"  for 
October,  1813.)  Among  her  other  works  are  her  auto- 
biographic memoirs,  entitled  "  Ten  Years  of  Exile,"  and 
"  Considerations  on  the  French  Revolution,"  ("  Con- 
siderations sur  la  Revolution  Fran9aise,"  1818.)  She 
was  privately  married  to  M.  Rocca,  a  young  Italian 
officer,  in  1810  or  1812.  In  1813  she  visited  Saint 
Petersburg  and  England,  and  after  the  abdication  of 
Napoleon  she  returned  to  Paris,  where  she  died  in  July, 
181 7.  She  was  rather  deficient  in  personal  beauty,  but 
she  is  said  to  have  had  magnificent  eyes.  She  had  two 
sons  and  one  daughter,  who  became  the  Duchess  de 
Broglie. 

See  Madame  de  StaBl,  "  Dix  Ans  d'Exil ;''  Madame  Neckrr 
DE  Saussure,  "  Notice  sur  le  Caiactere  et  les  liciits  de  Madame  de 
Stael,"  1820;  F.  Schlosser,  "Madame  de  Stael  et  Madame  Ro- 
land," 1830;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  de  Femmes;"  Maria 
NoRRi.s  "The  Life  and  Times  of  Madame  de  Stael."  i8<;3  ;  Marc 
Antoine  Puvrs,  "Notice  sur  Madame  de  Stael-Holsteni,"  1828; 
Vii.i.emain,  "Tableau  du  dix-huiti^me  Siecle  :"  Chateaubriand, 
"Memoiresd'Outre-Tombe;"  Baudrii.lart,  "filoge  de  Madame  de 
Stael,"  1850:  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Bio.graphie  Generale;"  articles  by  Jeffrey  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  February,  1813,  September,  1818,  and  October,  1821  ; 
'London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1814:  "Foreign  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  July,  1834;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Sep- 
tember, 1818. 

Stael-Holstein,  de,  (Auguste  Louts,)  Baron, 
born  in  Paris  in  1790,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  His 
education  was  directed  by  August  W.  Schlegel  at  Cop- 
pet.  He  was  a  Protestant,  and  a  distinguished  philan- 
thropist. He  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  abolition 
of  the  slave-trade,  and  gave  much  attention  to  the  im- 
provement of  rural  economy.  His  character  is  said  to 
have  been  highly  honourable.     Died  in  1827.  His 


writings,  "  GEuvres  diverses,"  were  published  in  5  vols., 
1829. 

See  C.  Mounard,  "Notice  sur  Aug.  de  Stael-Holstein,"  1827. 

Stael-Holstein,  de,  (Eric  Magnus,)  Baron,  a 
Swedish  diplomatist,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  appointed  ambassador  at  Paris  about  1783,  and 
married  the  daughter  of  M.  Necker  in  1786.  He  was 
many  years  older  than  his  wife,  and  was  very  prodigal 
of  money.  They  were  not  compatible,  and  soon  sepa- 
rated by  mutual  consent.  He  ceased  to  be  ambassador 
at  Paris  in  1799.  Died  in  1802. 
Staeudlin.    See  Staudlin. 

Staf  fprd,  (Anthony,)  a  learned  English  writer,  born 
in  Northamptonshire,  took  his  degree  at  Oxford  in  1623. 
He  wrote  "  Niobe  dissolved  into  Nilus,"  "  The  Life  and 
Death  of  Our  Blessed  Lady,  the  Holy  Virgin  Mary," 
(1635,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1641. 

Stafford,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  1443.  He  was  also  lord  chan- 
cellor for  nearly  eighteen  years.    Died  in  1452. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  V.  chap.  xix. 

Stafford,  (William  Howard,)  Viscount  of,  born 
in  16 1 2,  was  a  son  of  Thomas  Howard,  the  Earl  of 
Arundel.  He  married  a  sister  and  heiress  of  Baron 
Stafford.  He  was  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  a  royalist  in 
the  civil  war.  Having  been  accused  by  Titus  Oates 
of  complicity  in  the  Popish  Plot,  he  was  convicted  of 
treason  and  executed  in  1680.  He  was  probably  in- 
nocent. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England;"  Burnet,  "History  of  his 
Own  Times." 

Stafford,  de,  (Henry,)  Duke  of  Buckingham,  was  a 
son  of  Humphrey,  noticed  below.  He  gained  the  favour 
of  Richard  HL,  and  was  accessory  to  his  crimes,  but 
revolted  against  him,  and  was  beheaded  in  1483. 

See  A.  Stafford,  "Life  of  Henry,  Lord  Stafford,"  1640;  Shak- 
speare,  "Richard  IIL" 

Stafford,  de,  (Humphrey,)  an  English  peer,  was 
an  adherent  of  the  house  of  Lancaster  in  the  war  of 
the  Roses.  He  was  created  Duke  of  Buckingham  about 
1465. 

Stagemann  or  Staegemann,  von,  fon  sta'geh- 

man^,  (Friedrtch  August,)  a  Prussian  statesman  and 
writer,  born  in  1763.  He  published  a  number  of  poems 
and  political  treatises.    Died  in  1840. 

Stagnelius,  stag-nii'le-iis,  (Erik  Johan,)  an  eminent 
Swedish  poet,  born  in  1793  at  Colmar,  where  his  father 
was  bishop.  He  studied  at  the  Universities  of  Lund 
and  Upsal.  His  epic  poem  entitled  "Wladimir  the 
Great"  ("Wladimir  den  Store,"  1817)  obtained  the 
|)rize  from  the  Swedish  Academy.  This  was  followed 
by  "The  Lilies  of  Sharon,"  ("Liljor  i  Saron,"  1821,) 
and  tragedies  entitled  "The  Bacchanals,"  and  "The 
Martyrs."  He  became  a  clerk  in  the  office  or  depart- 
ment of  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  1815.    Died  in  1823. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  Howitt, 
"Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe  ;"  H  ammerskoeld, 
"  E.  J.  Stagnelius,"  1823. 

Stahel,  sta'el,  or  Stahl,  stSl,  (Julius,)  a  general, 
born  in  Hungary  in  1825.  He  fought  against  Austria  in 
1848-49,  and  afterwards  emigrated  to  the  United  States. 
He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  Union  volunteers 
about  November,  1861,  and  commanded  a  brigade  at 
Cross  Keys,  June  8,  1862. 

Staheliii  or  Staehelin,  sta'el-leen',  (Benedict,)  a 
Swiss  botanist  and  ])hysician,  born  at  Bale  in  1695.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  his  researches  in  cryptogamous 
plants,  and  i')ublished  several  works.    Died  in  1750. 

Stahl,  stSl,  (Friedrich  Julius,)  a  German  jurist,  of 
Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Munich  in  1802,  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Berlin  in  1840.  He  published  several 
political  and  philosophical  works.  Died  in  1861. 
See  "  Jahrbuch  zum  Conversations- Lexikon,"  1S62. 
Stahl,  (Georg  Ern.st,)  an  eminent  German  physician 
and  chemist,  born  at  Ans])ach  in  1660.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Halle  in  1694,  and  in  1716 
physician  to  the  King  of  Prussia.  His  principal  medical 
work  is  entitled  "  Theoria  Medica  Vera,"  (1707,)  in 
which  he  opposes  Hoffmann's  theories  and  advances  a 
new  doctrine  of  physical  influence.    He  made  several 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  skort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ar,  fill,  fit;  mlv,  ndt;  good;  moon; 


STAHR 


2055 


STJNHOPE 


valuable  discoveries  concerning  the  alkalies,  acids,  etc., 
originated  the  theory  of  phlogiston,  and  contributed 
more  than  any  other  of  his  contemporaries  to  give  to 
chemistry  a  scientific  form.  He  published,  among  other 
works  on  this  subject,  "  Experimenta  et  Observationes 
Chemicae,"  (1731,)  and  "  Fundanienta  Chymise  Dog- 
maticas,"  (3  vols.,  1723.)    Died  in  1734. 

See  Sprengel,  "History  of  Medicine;"  Hoefer,  "  Histoire  de 
la  Chimie  ;"  Strebel,  "  Programma  de  Vita  Stahl,"  1759;  A.  Le- 
MOiNE,  "  Le  Vitalisme  et  rAnimisme  de  Stahl,"  1864;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Stahl,  (P.  J.)    See  Hetzel. 

Stahr,  stSR,  (Adolf  Wilhelm  Theodor,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Prenzlau,  in  the  Uckermark,  in  1805.  He 
published  "  Aristotelia,"  (1832,)  or  an  explanation  and 
criticism  of  Aristotle's  works,  "The  Republicans  in  Na- 
ples," a  romance,  (3  vols.,  1849,)  ^"d  various  other  works,  j 
He  married  Fanny  Lewald,  the  authoress,  about  1854. 

Stahremberg.    See  Starhemberg. 

Stai'ner  or  Stayner,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English 
naval  officer,  who  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Blake 
over  the  Spaniards  at  Santa  Cruz  in  1657.  For  this 
service  he  was  knighted  by  Cromwell.  He  became  a 
rear-admiral.    Died  in  1662. 

Stair,  Lord.    See  Dalrymple,  (James.) 

Stalbent,  stSKbgnt,  (Adrian,)  of  Antwerp,  a  skilful 
Flemish  landscaj^e-painter,  born  in  1580.  He  worked 
in  England  for  Charles  H.    Died  at  Antwerp  in  1660. 

Stallbaum,  stdKbowm,  (Gottfried,)  a  distinguished 
German  scholar,  born  near  Delitzsch  in  1793.  His 
editions  of  the  works  of  Plato  are  particularly  esteemed. 
He  was  professor  of  classics  in  the  University  of  Leipsic, 
and  wrote  several  works  on  education. 

Stam'ford,  (Henry  William,)  a  general  and  poet, 
born  at  Bourges,  France,  in  1742.  He  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  Holland,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.    Died  at  Hamburg  in  1807. 

Stam'fprd,  (Thomas  Grey,)  Earl  of,  an  English 
peer,  accused  of  a  share  in  the  Rye- House  Plot,  was 
committed  to  the  Tower  in  1685,  and  liberated  the  same 
year,  having  turned  king's  evidence.  He  joined  William 
IH.  in  1688. 

Stampa,  stam'pS,  [Fr.  Estampes,  gs'tSMp',]  (Gas- 
para,)  an  Italian  poetess,  born  at  Padua  about  1524, 
wrote  under  the  assumed  name  of  Anasilla.  She  was 
a  victim  of  unrequited  love".    Died  at  Venice  in  1554. 

Stanipart,  stam'p^rt,  (Francis,)  a  Flemish  por- 
trait-painter, born  at  Antwerp  in  1675.  He  worked  in 
Vienna,  and  was  painter  to  the  emperor  Leopold.  Died 
in  1750. 

Stampfli  or  Staempfli,  stimpf'lee,  (Jakob,)  a 
Swiss  politiciatT,  born  in  the  canton  of  Berne  in  1820. 
He  became  about  1845  ^  leader  of  the  radical  party,  was 
elected  president  of  the  canton  of  Berne  in  1849,  ^'id 
federal  president  in  1858. 

Stan'bridge,  (John,)  an  English  schoolmaster,  born 
in  Northamptonshire,  became  a  Fellow  of  New  College, 
Oxford,  about  1480.  He  wrote  several  school-books. 
Died  after  1522.  « 

Stancari,  stSn-k^'ree,  [Lat.  Stanca'rus,]  (Fran- 
cesco,) an  Italian  theologian,  born  at  Mantua  in  1501. 
He  became  a  Protestant,  and  emigrated  to  Poland.  He 
taught  Hebrew  at  Cracow,  and  published  several  works. 
Died  in  1574. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Stancari,  (Vittorio  Francesco,)  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Bologna  in  1678,  was  director  of  the 
Observatory  of  that  city.    Died  in  1709. 

Stancel,  stin'sel,  [Port.  Estancel,  es-tan-s§K,] 
(Valentin,)  a  German  astronomer  and  Jesuit,  born  near 
Briinn,  in  Moravia,  in  1621.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  San  Salvador,  in  Brazil,  about  1663.  Died 
in  1715. 

Stand'ish,  (Frank  Hall,)  an  English  writer  and 
connoisseur  of  art,  was  born  in  1798.  He  wrote  a  "  Life 
of  Voltaire,"  a  volume  of  poems,  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1840. 

Standish,  (Miles,)  an  English  officer,  born  in  Lan- 
cashire about  1584.  He  was  one  of  the  emigrants  that 
arrived  at  Plymouth  in  the  "Mayflower"  in  1620,  and 
became  the  military  leader  of  the  pilgrims  in  their  war 


against  the  Indians.    His  adventures  form  the  subject 
of  one  of  Longfellow's  poems.    Died  in  1656. 

Stan'field,  (Clarkson,)  an  eminent  English  marine 
painter,  born  at  Sunderland  in  1798.  He  served  for  a 
time  as  a  sailor,  and  subsequently  employed  himself  in 
scene-painting  at  the  London  theatres,  where  he  brought 
that  branch  of  the  art  to  a  perfection  hitherto  scarcely 
known.  He  was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1835. 
He  contributed  to  the  exhibitions  of  the  Academy  a 
great  number  of  pictures  of  marine  and  coast  scenery, 
which  he  delineated  with  a  beauty  and  fidelity  per- 
haps never  surpassed.  Among  these  are  views  on  the 
Adriatic,  the  Italian  lakes,  and  the  coasts  of  Holland, 
Normandy,  and  England.  He  also  executed  several 
admirable  works  of  a  different  character,  such  as  "  Saint 
Sebastian  during  the  Siege  under  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton,"' and  "  Port  na  Spana,  near  the  Giant's  Causeway, 
with  the  Wrecked  Vessels  of  the  Armada."  Died  in 
May,  1867. 

Stanfield,  (George,)  a  landscape-painter,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  about  1822. 

Stan'fprd,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  born  in 
England  in  1754,  emigrated  to  the  United  States,  and 
settled  as  a  pastor  at  New  York.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  religious  works.    Died  in  1834. 

Stanhope,  (Charles.)  See  Harrington,  Earl  of. 

Stanhope,  stin'op  or  stin'up,  (Charles,)  third 
Earl,  a  liberal  English  nobleman,  distinguished  for  his 
mechanical  inventions,  born  in  1753,  was  a  son  of  Philip, 
the  second  Earl.  He  married  Hester  Pitt,  a  daughter  of 
the  great  Earl  of  Chatham.  He  invented  the  printing- 
press  which  bears  his  name,  a  calculating  machine,  etc.  ^ 
In  politics  he  was  radical.  He  opposed  the  American 
war  and  the  war  against  the  French  republic.  He  was 
the  f;\ther  of  Lady  Hester  Stanhope,  and  grandfather  of 
Lord  Mahon  the  historian.    Died  in  1816. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Stanhope,  (George,)  an  English  divine  and  pulpit 
orator,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1660.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge,  and  became  Dean  of  Canterbury  in  1701. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "Paraphrase  and  Comment  on 
the  Epistles  and  Gospels  as  they  are  read  in  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer,"  (4  vols.  8vo,)  which  passed  through 
numerous  editions  ;  he  also  translated  Charron's"  Three 
Books  of  Wisdom,"  "  Pious  Breathings,"  from  Saint 
Augustine,  and  other  devotional  works.    Died  in  1728. 

Stanhope,  (Lady  Hester,)  an  eccentric  English- 
woman, born  in  London  in  1 766,  was  a  daughter  of 
Charles,  Earl  Stanhope,  and  a  niece  of  William  Pitt  the 
eminent  statesman.  She  lost  her  mother  in  her  infancy, 
and  her  education  was  consequently  neglected.  About 
the  age  of  twenty  she  went  to  reside  with  her  uncle, 
then  prime  minister,  whom  she  aided  in  his  corre- 
spondence. She  was  energetic,  impulsive,  and  disdainful 
of  conventionality.  The  death  of  Pitt,  in  1806,  was  felt 
by  her  as  a  great  disaster.  In  i8ioshe  abandoned  Eng- 
land in  disgust,  and  entered  on  a  career  of  Oriental  ad- 
venture. She  arrived  in  Syria  in  1812,  adopted  Oriental 
customs,  and  excited  the  admiration  of  the  natives,  who 
were  disposed  to  receive  her  as  a  queen.  She  resided 
many  years  on  or  near  Mount  Lebanon,  with  a  large 
retinue  of  servants  or  subjects,  and  acquired  great  pres- 
tige as  a  magician  and  mistress  of  mystical  lore.  Died 
in  Syria  in  1839. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Lady  Hester  Stanhope,"  by  her  physician,  3 
vols.,  1845;  Lamartink,  "Souvenirs  d'un  Voyage  en  Orient;"  W. 
RussKi.L,  "Eccentric  Personages,"  2  vols.,  1864;  "Memoirs  of  a 
Babylonian  Princess,"  2  vols.,  1845;  A.  F.  Didot,  article  in  the 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August, 
184s;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1845. 

Stanhope,  (James  Stanhope,)  first  Earl,  a  British 
general  and  statesman,  born  in  1673,  was  a  son  of  Alex- 
ander Stanhope,  and  a  grandson  of  Philip,  Earl  of  Ches- 
terfield. He  became  a  brigadier-general  in  1704,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  Spain  in  1705.  In  1708  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in  Spain. 
He  gained  victories  at  Almenara  and  Saragossa  in  1710, 
but  was  compelled  to  surrender  his  army  to  the  Duke 
of  Vendome  before  the  end  of  that  year.  He  became  a 
leader  of  the  Whig  party,  and  was  appointed  one  of  the 
chief  secretaries  of  state  in  17 14.    He  was  first  lord  of 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  Aar^l;  g  as  j;  Q,  H,ic,^//«nz/;  N,  nasal.;  R,  trilled;  s  asg;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ST JN HOPE 


2056 


STAN  LET 


the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  from  April, 
1717,  to  March,  1718.  About  this  date  he  received  the 
title  of  Earl  Stanhope,  and  resumed  the  office  of  secre- 
tary of  state.  He  died  in  1721,  leaving  a  fair  reputation 
as  a  statesman. 

See  Lord  Mahon,  "History  of  England  ;"  Coxe,  "  History  of 
Spain." 

Stanhope,  (Philtp,)  second  Earl,  born  about  1712, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  the  father 
of  Charles,  above  noticed,  and  was  a  patron  of  learning. 
Died  in  1786. 

Stanhope,  (Captain  Philip,)  an  English  naval  officer, 
brother  of  James,  first  Earl  Stanhope,  was  commander 
of  the  Milford  at  the  siege  of  Ostend,  and  subsequently 
served  in  the  Mediterranean.  He  was  killed  in  the 
attack  on  Port  Mahon,  in  1708. 

Stanhope,  (Philip  Dormer.)  See  Chesterfield, 
(Lord.) 

Stanhope,  (Philip  Henry,)  fifth  Earl  of,  an  Eng- 
lish statesman  and  historian,  born  in  Kent  in  1805.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  and  was  elected  in  1832  member  of 
Parliament,  as  Lord  Mahon,  for  Wotton  Basset.  In  1835 
he  was  returned  for  Hertford,  which  he  continued  to 
represent  until  1852.  He  was  appointed  under-secretary 
of  state  for  foreign  affairs  in  1834,  and  was  afterwards 
secretary  to  the  board  of  control  under  Sir  Robert  Peel. 
He  introduced  and  carried,  while  in  Parliament,  the 
copyright  act  known  by  his  name.  He  has  published  a 
"History  of  the  War  of  the  Succession  in  Spain,"  (8vo, 
1832,)  "  Spain  under  Charles  H.,"  (1840,)  "  Life  of  Louis, 
Prince  of  Conde,"  "Life  of  Joan  of  Arc,"  (1853,)  "His- 
tory of  England  from  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  to  the  Peace 
of  Versailles,  1713-1783,"  (1854,)  which  is  regarded  as  a 
standard  work,  and  "Historical  Essays"  contributed  to 
the  "  Quarterly  Review." 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  183:?,  and  October, 
1836;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1836,  and  January, 
1839;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1847. 

Stan'is-las  or  Stan'is-laus,  Saint,  a  Polish  prelate, 
born  in  1030,  became  Bishop  of  Cracow  in  1071,  He 
was  killed  in  1079  by  King  Boleslaus,  because  he  had 
rebuked  the  wickedness  of  that  monarch. 

Stan'is-las  (or  Stan'is-laiis)  Augustus,  King  of 
Poland,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1732,  was  the  son  of  Count 
Stanislas  Poniatowski.  He  was  in  his  youth  a  favour- 
ite of  Catherine  H.  of  Russia.  Through  the  influence 
of  his  uncles  the  princes  Czartoryski,  assisted  by  Russia, 
he  was  elected  to  the  throne  of  Poland  in  1764.  The 
first  partition  of  that  country,  which  took  place  in  1772, 
was  in  vain  opposed  by  him  ;  and  he  subsequently  de- 
voted himself  to  internal  improvements  and  promoted 
various  reforms,  the  most  important  of  which  was  the 
new  constitution  of  1792.  Overawed  by  the  power  of 
Russia,  he  afterwards  joined  the  Confederation  of  Tar- 
gowicz,  formed  for  the  overthrow  of  the  constitution, 
and  which  was  followed  by  a  second  partition  of  Poland, 
in  1793.  After  the  entire  dismemberment  of  his  country, 
in  1795,  Stanislas  abdicated  the  throne  and  retired  to 
Saint  Petersburg,  where  a  pension  was  assigned  him  by 
the  emperor  Paul.    Died  in  1798. 

See  Rut.HifeRE,  "  Histoire  de  I'Anarchie  de  Pologne  ;"  Lelewel, 
"Regne  du  Roi  Stanislas  Auguste,"  i8i8;  Chodzko,  "La  Pologne 
illustree  ;"  De  Ferrand,  "  Histoire  des  trois  Demembreinents  de 
la  Pologne,"  3  vols.,  1820;  "  Nouvelle  F»iographie  Generale." 

Stanislas  Leszczynski,  (llsh-chin'skee,)  written 
also  Leszinski,  King  of  Poland,  born  at  Lemberg  in 
1677,  was  a  son  of  the  grand  treasurer  of  Poland.  Having 
been  sent  in  1704,  by  the  Diet  of  Warsaw,  to  Charles  XH. 
of  Sweden,  to  consult  him  on  the  election  of  a  king  to 
succeed- Augustus  H.,  he  made  so  favourable  an  impres- 
sion upon  Charles  that  he  recommended  him  as  a  can- 
didate, and  he  was  elected  the  following  year.  Being 
compelled  to  abdicate  after  the  battle  of  Poltava,  (Pui- 
towa,)  in  1709,  he  was  again  called  to  the  throne  on  the 
death  of  Augustus  H.,  in  1733  ;  but  he  was  finally  forced 
to  resign  the  crown  in  favour  of  Augustus  HL,  whose 
claims  were  supported  by  Austria  and  Russia.  He  was 
afterwards  invested  with  the  duchies  of  Lorraine  and 
Bar,  in  1737,  retaining  the  title  of  King  of  Poland.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  talents  and  literary  attain- 
ments, and  published,  in  French,  "The  Works  of  the 
Benevolent  Philosopher,"  (1765.)    His  daughter  Maria 


became  the  wife  of  Louis  XV.  of  F"rance.  Died  in 
February,  1766. 

See  A.  Ai;bert,  "Vie  de  Stanislas  Leszczynski,"  1769;  Sevler, 
"  Leben  Stanislai  I.,"  1737  ;  Bombart,  "  Jiloge  du  Roi  Stanislas  I," 
1766  ;  Abbe  Maury,  "  Eloge  du  feu  Roi  Stanislas,"  1766  ;  Provart, 
"Stanislas  I,"  2  vols.,  1784;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Stan'ley,  (Anthony  D.,)  an  American  mathema- 
tician, born  in  181 2.  He  was  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Yale  College,  and  published  a  "Treatise  on  Spherical 
Trigonometry."    Died  in  1853. 

Stan'ley,  (Rev.  Arthur  Penrhyn,)  commonly 
known  as  Dean  Stanley,  son  of  the  Bishop  of  Nor- 
wich, noticed  below,  was  born  in  Cheshire  in  181 5.  He 
studied  at  Rugby  under  Dr.  Arnold,  and  subsequently 
graduated  at  Oxford.  He  published  in  1844  "The 
Life  and  Correspondence  of  Thomas  Arnold,  D.D.," 
which  obtained  wide  popularity  and  has  been  trans- 
lated into  several  languages.  He  was  appointed  chap- 
lain to  Prince  Albert,  and  in  1856  was  elected  regius 
professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at  Oxford,  Among 
his  other  works  may  be  named  "Historical  Memorials 
of  Canterbury,"  etc.,  (1855,)  "Sinai  and  Palestine  in 
Connection  with  their  History,"  (1856,)  "Lectures  on 
the  Eastern  Church,"  (1861,)  "Lectures  on  the  History 
of  the  Jewish  Church,"  (1863,)  and  numerous  Sermons, 
published  at  different  times.  He  became  a  canon  of 
Christ  Church  in  1858,  and  Dean  of  Westminster  in 
1864,  He  has  contributed  to  the  "Quarterly  Review" 
and  "Edinburgh  Review." 

See  Allibone.  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Stanley,  (David  S.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Wayne  county,  Ohio,  in  1828,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1852.  He  was  a  captain  of  cavalry  when  the  civil 
war  began,  served  in  several  actions  in  Missouri,  and 
was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  September,  1861. 
He  commanded  a  division  of  the  army  of  General  Rose- 
crans  at  the  battle  of  Corinth,  October  4,  1862,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  commander  of  all  the  cavalry  at 
the  great  battle  of  Stone  River,  which  ended  on  the  2d 
of  January,  1863.  He  was  afterwards  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  major-general  of  volunteers.  About  the  ist  of 
August,  1864,  he  obtained  command  of  the  fourth  corps 
in  the  army  of  Sherman,  then  near  Atlanta.  General 
Stanley  and  his  corps  were  sent  back  to  Chattanooga  in 
October  or  Novetnber,  with  orders  to  report  to  General 
Thomas  at  Nashville.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Franklin,  November  30,  1864.  He  obtained  the  rank  of 
colonel  in  the  United  States  army  in  1866. 

Stanley,  (Edward.)    See  Derby,  Earl  of. 

Stanley,  (Rev,  Edward,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine 
and  naturalist,  born  in  London  in  1779.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Cambridge  in  1805,  was  subsequf?iitly  appointed 
rector  of  Alderley,  and  in  1837  Bishop  of  Norwich.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  A  Familiar  History  of  Birds,  their 
Nature,  Habits,  and  Instincts,"  (2  vols.,  1835,)  and 
contributed  a  number  of  treatises  on  natural  history  to 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine,"  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.    Died  in  1849. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1851. 

Stanley,  (Edward  Henry,)  Earl  of  Derby,  formerly 
styled  Lord  Stanley,  an  able  English  statesman,  born 
at  Knowsley  in  1826,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  Earl  of 
Derby.  He  was  educated  at  Rugby  and  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  as  first-class  in 
classics  in  1848.  He  entered  Parliament  in  1848,  and 
became  under-secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs  in  1852. 
He  gained  distinction  as  a  social  reformer,  and  became 
one  of  the  most  liberal  and  popular  members  of  the 
Conservative  party.  In  February,  1858,  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies,  and  in  May  of  that 
year  became  commissioner  for  the  affairs  of  India.  He 
resigned  office  in  1859.  On  the  formation  of  a  new  min- 
istry by  his  father,  in  June,  1866,  he  was  appointed  sec- 
retary for  foreign  affairs.  He  presided  at  the  European 
Conference  which  met  at  London  and  settled  the  dis- 
pute between  France  and  Prussia  in  May,  1867.  Lord 
Stanley  retired  with  his  colleagues  from  office  in  Decem- 
ber, 1868,  and  became  Earl  of  Derby  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  in  1869. 

Stanley,  (Edward  John,)  Lord  Stanley  of  Alderley, 
an  English  statesman  of  the  Liberal  party,  was  born  in 
Cheshire  in  1802.    He  was  a  relative  of  the  Earl  of 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  lo?io-;  i,  h,  ^,  same^  less  proloi^ged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  f^^f^ll,.fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


STAN  LET 


2057 


STAFFER 


Derby.  He  entered  Parliament  about  1831,  after  which 
he  became  secretary  of  the  treasury,  (1835-41,)  and 
under-secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  (1846-52.)  In 
1848  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Eddisbury. 
He  inherited  the  title  of  Baron  Stanley  of  Alderley  at 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1850,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  cabinet,  as  postmaster-general,  from  1859  to  June, 
1866.    Died  in  June,  1869. 

Stanley,  (John,)  an  English  musician  and  composer, 
born  in  17 13.  He  became  blind  at  the  age  of  two  years, 
but,  notwithstanding  this  misfortune,  made  such  pro- 
gress in  music,  under  the  tuition  of  Dr.  Greene,  that 
he  was  appointed  organist  of  Saint  Andrew's,  Holborn, 
London,  at  the  age  of  thirteen.  He  was  appointed  mas- 
ter of  the  king's  band  in  1779.  His  compositions  are 
chiefly  voluntaries  for  the  organ,  songs,  cantatas,  etc. 
Died 'in  1786. 

Stanley,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  scholar  and 
writer,  born  at  Cumberlow,  in  Herts,  in  1625,  was  a  son 
of  Sir  Thomas  Stanley,  a  poet  of  some  note.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge.  His  reputation  is  founded  on  a 
*'  History  of  Philosophy,  containing  the  Lives,  Opinions, 
Actions,  and  Discourses  of  the  Philosophers  of  every 
Sect,"  (3  vols.,  1655-60,)  which  was  highly  esteemed, 
and  a  good  edition  of  yEschylus,  (1663.)  He  also  pub- 
lished *'  Poems  and  Translations,"  (1647.)  Died  in  1678. 

See  Egerton  Brydges,  "Memoir  of  Stanley,"  prefixed  to  an 
edition  of  Stanley's  Poems,  1814-15;  Wood,  "Athense  Oxonienses." 

Stanley,  (William,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Lei- 
cestershire in  1647.  He  became  Archdeacon  of  London 
in  1692,  and  Dean  of  Saint  Asaph  in  1706.  Died  in  1731. 

Stannina.    See  Starnina. 

Stansel.    See  Stancel. 

Stans'feld,  (James,)  an  English  lawyer  and  radical, 
born  at  Halifax  in  1820.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
Parliament  for  Halifax  in  1859,  was  appointed  a  lord  of 
the  admiralty  in  April,  1863,  and  resigned  in  April,  1864. 
He  was  under-secretary  of  state  from  February  to  July, 
1B66,  and  became  third  lord  of  the  treasury  in  1868,  and 
financial  secretary  in  October,  1869. 

Stan'ton,  (Edwin  M.,)  an  American  statesman  and 
\i.\vytr,  born  at  Steubenville,  Ohio,  in  181 5.    He  studied 
law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  about  1836,  and  practised  i 
for  some  time  at  Steubenville  with  success.    In  1847  OJ"  i 
1S48  he  removed  to  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  where  he  ' 
became  the  leader  of  the  bar.    He  was  frequently  em- 
ployed in  the  supreme  court  at  Washington,  of  which  | 
city  he  became  a  resident  about  1857.    In  1858  he  was 
engaged  by  the  government  to  conduct  an  important  \ 
case  in  relation  to  some  land  in  California.    He  was  | 
appointed  attorney-general  of  the  United  States  in  De-  j 
cember,  i860,  and  in  the  great  crisis  that  ensued  op- 
posed the  designs  of  the  disunionists  with  energy  and  j 
efficiency.    He  retired  from  office  on  the  4th  of  March, 
ll6\,  and  was  appointed  secretary  of  war  about  the  12th  1 
of  January,  1862.    In  this  position,  which  he  occupied 
through  all  the  subsequent  portion  of  the  civil  war,  he 
displayed  great  administrative  abilities  and  rendered 
important  services  to  the  cause  of  the  Union.    After  j 
the  death  of  President  Lincoln,  Mr.  Stanton  continued  1 
to  conduct  the  department  of  war.    In  the  controversy 
which  arose  about  the  reconstruction  of  the  seceded 
States  between  President  Johnson  and  Congress,  he 
took  no  prominent  part.    During  the  years  1865  and 
1866  he  did  not  appear  as  a  decided  partisan  or  oppo- 
nent of  the  policy  of  Johnson.    To  prevent  the  removal 
of  Mr.  Stanton  and  others,  the  Senate  passed  the  Tenure-  \ 
of-Office  Bill.    He  was  invited  to  resign  by  the  Presi- 
dent, August  5,  1867,  but  he  refused  to  comply,  assigning 
as  his  motive  important  public  considerations.  About 
the  I2th  of  August,  1867,  he  was  suspended  by  the 
President,  who  appoiivted  General  Grant  secretary  of 
war  ad  interim.    The  President  expected,  with  the  co- 
operation of  General  Grant,  to  render  his  suspension 
permanent ;  but  that  general  defeated  his  design  by 
surrendering  the  office  on  the  14th  of  January,  1868,  to 
Mr.  Stanton,  who  had  been  reinstated  by  the  Senate  on 
the  13th.    Great  excitement  was  produced  by  the  pub- 
licatifjn,  in  February,  1868,  of  the  letters  exchanged  on 
this  subject  between  the  President  and  General  Grant. 
The  public  then  learned  that  the  general-in-chief  recog- 


nized Mr.  Stanton  as  secretary  of  war,  although  he  was 
directed  by  the  President  to  disobey  his  orders.  On  the 
2 1st  of  February,  General  Lorenzo  Thomas  was  appointed 
secretary  of  war  ad  interim,  and  attempted  to  get  pos- 
session of  the  department  of  war,  but  was  not  successful. 
Mr.  Stanton  retired  from  the  office  of  secretary  of  war 
on  the  26th  of  May,  1868,  in  consequence  of  the  decision 
of  the  Senate  that  Johnson  was  not  guilty  of  the  crimes 
for  which  he  had  been  impeached.  In  December,  1869, 
he  was  appointed  an  associate  justice  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States.    Died  in  December,  1869. 

Stanton,  (Mrs.  Elizabeth  Cady,)  distinguished 
as  an  advocate  of  "  Women's  Rights,"  was  born  at 
Johnstown,  Fulton  county.  New  York,  in  1816.  Her 
father,  Daniel  Cady,  was  for  many  years  an  able  and 
prominent  lawyer,  and  afterwards  judge,  in  Fulton 
county.  In  her  early  years  she  was  accustomed  to 
spend  much  time  in  her  father's  office,  and  her  attention 
was  first  drawn  to  the  wrongs  of  women  by  hearing  the 
complaints  which  they  made  to  her  father  of  the  injus- 
tice of  the  laws  towards  their  sex.  She  had  been  deeply 
mortified  to  notice  how  little  regard  was  shown  to  girls 
compared  with  boys,  and  she  formed  a  resolution  to 
prove  herself  not  inferior  in  courage  and  ability  to  the 
more  favoured  half  of  the  human  family,  to  whom  an 
unjust  and  arbitrary  usage  had  given  a  monopoly  of 
privilege  and  power.  She  studied  mathematics,  Latin, 
and  Greek.  In  the  last-named  study  she  strove  for  and 
won,  as  her  first  prize,  a  Greek  Testament.  She  after- 
wards, we  are  told,  graduated  at  the  academy  in  her 
native  place  at  the  head  of  her  class.  But,  though  boys 
who  were  far  behind  her  in  ability,  or  at  least  in  appli- 
cation, could  be  sent  to  college,  no  such  privilege  existed 
for  her.  This  excited  her  utmost  indignation.  In  1839 
she  was  married  to  Mr.  Henry  B.  Stanton,  then  a  popu- 
lar and  eloquent  anti-slavery  lecturer,  and  soon  after 
set  out  with  him  for  Earope  to  attend  the  "  World's 
Anti-Slavery  Convention,"  (held  in  London  in  1840,)  to 
which  Mr.  Stanton  was  a  delegate.  Many  female  dele- 
gates also  left  their  homes  in  America  to  attend  the 
convention ;  but  they  were  not  admitted,  because  they 
were  women.  In  the  number  of  these  was  Lucretia 
Mott,  with  whom  Mrs.  Stanton  formed  an  intimate 
friendship.  After  her  return  to  her  native  country,  she 
resolved  to  devote  the  energies  of  her  life  to  resisting, 
in  all  its  forms,  the  time-honoured  tyranny  against  her 
sex.  In  July,  1848,  chiefly  through  Mrs.  Stanton's  in- 
fluence, "  the  first '  Women's  Rights  Convention,'  (known 
to  history  by  that  name,)"  says  Mr.  Tilton,  "was  held 
at  Seneca  Falls,  in  New  York."  Since  that  time  no  one 
has  been  more  active  than  she  in  promoting  the  move- 
ments in  this  cause  which  have  recently  attracted  so 
much  attention  both  in  England  and  America. 

See  article  on  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton  in  the  Eminent 
Women  of  the  Age,"  by  Theodore  Tilton. 

Stanton,  (Henry  B.,)  an  American  lawyer,  distin- 
guished as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  was  born  in  New 
London  county,  Connecticut,  in  1810.  In  1839  he  mar- 
ried Miss  Elizabeth  Cady.  (See  preceding  article.)  He 
has  published  "  Sketches  of  Reforms  and  Reformers  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,"  (1849,)  and  other  works. 

Stan'y-hurst,  (Richard,)  an  Irish  poet,  historian, 
and  Roman  Catholic  priest,  born  in  Dublin  in  1545  or 
1546,  was  an  uncle  of  Archbishop  Usher.  Died  in  1618. 

Stanzioni,  st§,n-ze-o'nee,  (Massimo,)  a  Neapolitan 
painter,  sometimes  called  "  the  Guido  of  Naples,"  was 
born  in  1585.  His  works  are  principally  frescos  and 
portraits.    Died  in  1650. 

Stapel,  st^'pel,  (John  Bod^us,)  a  Dutch  botanist 
and  physician,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  He  studied  at  Leyden  under  Vorstius.  His 
principal  work  is  an  edition  of  the  botanical  writings  of 
Theophrastus,  which,  however,  he  did  not  live  to  com- 
plete, dying  in  1636.  An  edition  of  the  ten  books  of 
Theophrastus,  entitled  "  De  Historia  Plantarum,"  was- 
published  in  1644.  The  genus  Stapelia  was  named  in 
his  honour  by  Linnaeus. 

Stapfer,  stap'fer,  (Jean,)  a  Swiss  preacher  and 
writer,  born  in  17 19.  He  produced  a  metrical  version 
of  the  Psalms,  which  was  used  in  the  churches  of 
Berne  ;  also  several  volumes  of  sermons.  Died  in  iSci. 


«  as  i^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STAFFER 


2058 


STJUNTON 


Stapfer,  (Jean  Frederic,)  a  theologian,  born  at 
Brugg  in  1708,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
preached  at  Diesbach,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Principles  of  True  Religion,"  (12  vols., 
1746-53-)    Died  in  1775. 

Stapfer,  (Philip  Albert,)  a  Swiss  litterateur,  born 
at  Berne  in  1766.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  De  Philosophia  Socratis,"  (1786,)  and  "  De  Republica 
Ethica,"  (1797.)  He  was  professor  of  philosophy  and 
theology  at  Berne,    Died  in  Paris  in  1840. 

Stapleaux,  slt'pld',  (Michel  Ghislain,)  a  Belgian 
painter,  born  in  Brussels  in  1798,  was  a  pupil  of  David. 
He  gained  the  grand  prize  at  Antwerp  and  Brussels  in 
1822  and  1823.  His  works  are  mostly  portraits  and 
historical  pictures. 

Sta'ple-don,  (Walter,)  an  English  prelate,  founded 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  became  Bishop  of  Exeter 
in  1307  ;  died  in  1326. 

Sta^ple-ton,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  English  officer,  of  the 
royalist  party,  served  with  distinction  in  the  army  of 
Charles  I.  He  published  several  dramas,  and  a  trans- 
lation of  Juvenal.    Died  in  1669. 

Stapletoii,  (Thomas,)  an  English  controversialist, 
born  in  Sussex  in  1535,  was  a  Roman  Catholic  priest. 
Died  at  Louvain  in  1598. 

Starck  or  Stark,  staRk,  (Johann  August,)  Baron, 
a  German  divine  and  scholar,  born  in  Mecklenburg  in 
1 741.  He  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Konigsberg  in  1769,  and  in  1781  chief  court  preacher  at 
Darmstadt.  He  published  several  theological  works. 
Died  in  1816, 

Starhemberg  or  Stahremberg,  st^'rem-b^RG', 
(Ernst  Rudiger,)  Count,  an  Austrian  field-marshal, 
born  in  1635,  distinguished  himself  in  the  defence  of 
Vienna  against  the  Turks  in  1683.  For  his  services  on 
that  occasion  he  was  made  a  marshal  and  a  minister  of 
state  by  the  emperor  Leopold,  who  also  gave  him  a  ring 
worth  100,000  thalers.    Died  in  1701. 

Starhemberg  or  Stahremberg,  (Guido,)  Count, 
an  Austrian  field-marshal,  born  in  1657,  was  a  cousin  of 
the  preceding.  He  assisted  in  the  defence  of  Vienna  in 
1683,  and  served  in  the  subsequent  campaigns  against 
the  Turks.  He  afterwards  took  part  in  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession,  and  gained  a  signal  victory  over 
the  French  at  Almenara  in  17 10.  He  became,  in  the 
absence  of  Prince  Eugene,  president,  of  the  imperial 
council  of  war  at  Vienna.    Died  in  1737. 

See  Alfred  Arneth,  "  Leben  des  Feldmarschalls  Grafen  G. 
Starhemberg,"  1853;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Stark,  (John,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, born  at  Londonderry,  New  Hampshire,  in  1728. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  the  war  against  the  French 
in  1754,  and  subsequently  fought  at  Bunker  Hill,  Tren- 
ton, and  Princeton.  In  August,  1777,  he  gained  a  signal 
victory  over  the  British  at  Bennington,  for  which  he  was 
made  a  brigadier-general  and  received  the  thanks  of 
Congress.  He  joined  the  army  of  General  Gates  in 
September,  1777,  served  in  Rhode  Island  in  1779,  and 
in  New  Jersey  in  1780.  He  had  the  command  of  the 
Northern  department,  with  his  head-quarters  at  Saratoga, 
in  1 78 1.    Died  in  1822. 

See  the  "  Life  of  General  Stark,"  by  Edward  Everett,  in 
Sparks's  "American  Biography,"  vol.  i.  of  second  series;  "Me- 
moirs, etc.  of  General  John  Stark,"  by  Caleb  Stark,  1S60. 

Stark,  (William,)  M.D.,  an  English  physician,  born 
at  Birmingham  in  1740.  He  graduated  at  Leyden  in 
1767,  and  after  his  return  made  a  series  of  experiments 
on  diet  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  effect  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  food  on  the  human  body.  He  died  in 
1769,  in  consequence  of  illness  brought  on  by  his  experi- 
ments.   He  was  the  author  of  several  medical  works. 

Starke,  staR'keh,  (Gotthelf  Wilhelm  Chrfs- 
TOPH,)  a  German  theologian,  born  at  Bernburg  in  1762. 
He  published  a  number  of  hymns,  and  other  poems. 
Died  in  1830. 

Stamina,  staR-nee'nS,  or  Stannina,  stSn-nee'na, 
(Gherardo,)  a  Florentine  painter,  born  about  1350. 
He  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  art.    Died  about  1405. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Starowolski,  sti-ro'-^ol'skee,  [Lat.  Starovol'- 
scius,]  (Simon,)  a  Polish  historian  and  biographer,  born 


in  1585.  He  wrote  numerous  works  on  Polish  history. 
Died  in  1656. 

Stas'a-nor,  [Gr.  Iixaaavup,]  an  officer  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  was  born  in  Cyprus.  He  was  Satrap  of 
Drangiana  during  Alexander's  campaign  in  India,  and 
in  321  i?.c.  became  Governor  of  Bactriana  and  Sogdiana. 

Sta-si'nus  [Sraoivof]  of  Cyprus,  a  Greek  epic  poet, 
who  lived  about  700  B.C.,  or  earlier.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "  Cypria," 
(KvTTpia,)  which  was  one  of  the  poems  of  the  epic  cycle 
relating  to  the  Trojan  war,  and  was  ascribed  to  Homer 
by  some  ancient  critics. 

Stassart,  de,  deh  stt'stR'  or  stSs'sIrt,  (Goswin  Jo- 
seph AuGUSTiN,)  Baron,  a  Belgian  litterateur  and  sen- 
ator, born  at  Mechlin  in  1780.  He  became  Governor  of 
Brabant  in  1834,  and  was  a  member  of  the  senate  from 
183 1  to  1847.  wrote  various  works.    Died  in  1854. 

See  "  Notice  sur  M.  le  Baron  de  Stassart,"  Brussels,  1852. 

Stassart,  de,  (Jacques  Joseph,)  Baron,  a  Belgian 
judge  and  statesman,  born  at  Charleroi  in  1 711,  was  a 
grandfather  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1801. 

Staszyc,  sti'shfts,  (Xavier  Stanislas,)  a  Polish 
philanthropist  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Pila  in 
1755.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Gottingen,  and  after- 
wards visited  Paris,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
D'Alembert  and  Bufifon,  whose  *'  Epochs  of  Nature"  he 
translated  into  Polish.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  "  Geography  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains,"  "  The 
Political  Balance  of  Europe,"  and  "  Statistics  of  Poland." 
He  died  in  1806,  leaving  large  bequests  to  various  chari- 
table and  educational  institutions. 

Sta-ti'ra,  [Gr.  l,TaTupa,\  a  Persian  lady,  celebrated 
for  her  beauty,  was  the  wife  of  Darius  Codomannus. 
She  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Issus,  333  B.C., 
and  treated  with  much  courtesy  by  Alexander.  She 
died  about  331  B.C. 

Statius,  (Achilles.)    See  Esta^o. 

Statius,  sta'she-us,  [Fr.  Stage,  sttss,]  (Publius 
Papinius,)  a  RomaVpoet,  born  at  Naples  alDout  60  A.D., 
was  a  son  of  an  eminent  grammarian  of  the  same  names. 
He  wrote  a  heroic  poem  entitled  "  Thebais,"  ("  Thebaid," 
in  12  books,)  "Sylvae,"  a  collection  of  poems  on  various 
subjects,  and  "  Achilleis,"  an  unfinished  epic  poem.  His 
poems  were  received  by  his  contemporaries  with  warm 
applause,  to  which  Juvenal  refers  in  his  Satire  VII. 
Modern  critics  prefer  his  "  Sylvae"  to  the  "Thebaid," 
which  is  deficient  in  creative  energy.    Died  about  100  A.D. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sta'tor,  \i.e.  "he  who  stops  or  stays,"]  a  surname 
given  to  Jupiter  by  the  Romans,  because  he  stopped  or 
stayed  them  when  they  were  retreating  from  the  Sabines. 
Romulus  erected  a  temple  to  Jupiter  Stator  at  Rome. 

Staudenmaier,  stow'den-ml'er,  (Franz  Anion,)  a 
German  theologian  and  philoso]>her,  born  at  Danzdorf, 
in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1800,  was  a  Roman  Catholic  priest. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Giessen  about  1830. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "The  Spirit  of 
Christianity,"  (1835,)  and  a  systematic  treatise  on  the- 
ology, entitled  "Die  Christliche  Dogmatik,"  (4  vols., 
1844-52.)    Died  in  1856. 

Staudigel,  stow'de-gel,  or  Staudigl,  (Ulrich,)  a 
learned  German  monk,  born  at  Landsberg  in  1644.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Logica  Practica,"  (1686.) 
Died  in  1720. 

Staudlin  or  Staeudlin,  stoid-leen',  (Karl  Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Stutt- 
gart in  1761,  became  professor  at  Gottingen  in  1790.  He 
published  numerous  works  on  religion,  morals,  and 
ecclesiastical  history.    Died  in  1826. 

Staughton,  staw'ton,  (William,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist 
divine  and  popular  preacher,  born  in  Warwickshire, 
England,  in  1770.  Having  emigrated  to  America,  he 
became  in  1805  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church  at 
Philadeljihia,  and  in  1823  was  appointed  president  of 
Columbian  College,  Washington.    Died  in  1829. 

Staun'ford  or  Stan'fprd,  (Sir  William,)  an  Eng- 
lish lawyer,  born  at  Hadley  in  1509.  He  became  a  judge 
of  common  pleas  in  1554,  and  wrote  "Placita  Coronae." 
Died  in  1558. 

Staun'ton,  (Sir  George  Leonard,)  a  distinguished 
diplomatist  and  writer,  born  at  Cargin,  in  Ireland,  in 


\  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


STAUNTON 


2059 


STEFJNO 


1737.  Having  studied  medicine  at  Montpellier,  he. re- 
sided for  some  years  at  Granada,  in  the  West  Indies, 
where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Lord  Macartney, 
Governor  of  the  island.  He  accompanied  that  noble- 
man, who  had  been  appointed  Governor  of  Madras,  as 
his  secretary,  and  while  in  India  negotiated  a  treaty  of 
peace  with  Tippoo  Sultan,  (1784,)  and  was  employed  in 
other  important  missions.  In  1792  Lord  Macartney  and 
Sir  George  were  sent  on  an  embassy  to  the  court  of 
Peking.  He  published  "An  Authentic  Account  of  an 
Embassy  from  the  King  of  Great  Britain  to  the  Emperor 
of  China,"  which  is  still  regarded  as  a  standard  work. 
Died  in  1801. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir  G.  L.  Staunton,"  1823,  by 
G.  T.  Staunton;  "Monthly  Review"  for  September,  October,  and 
November,  1797. 

Staunton,  (Sir  George  Thomas,)  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Salisbury  in  1781.  In  1816  he 
accompanied  Lord  Amherst  on  his  embassy  to  China, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Chinese 
language.  He  published  "  Miscellaneous  Notices  re- 
lating to  China,"  etc.,  (1822,)  and  translated  the  criminal 
code  of  China  into  English.    Died  in  1859. 

Staupitius.    See  Staupitz. 

Staupitz,  stow'pits,  [Lat.  Staupi'tius,]  (John,)  cel- 
ebrated as  the  friend  and  patron  of  Luther,  was  vicar- 
general  of  the  order  of  the  Augustines  in  Germany,  He 
was  the  author  of  Latin  treatises  "  On  the  Love  of 
God"  and  "On  Christian  Faith."    Died  in  1524. 

See  Arnold,  "  Ketzer-Historie ;"  Geudkr,  "Vita  J.  Staupitii," 
1837  ;  L.  W.  Grimm,  "Dissertatio  de  J.  Staupitio,"  1837. 

Stavely,  stav'le,  (Thomas,)  an  English  antiquary 
and  lawyer,  wrote  a  "  History  of  Churches  in  England," 
(1712.)    Died  in  1683. 

Stay,  sti,  (Benedetto,)  a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Ra- 
gusa  in  17 14,  was  a  priest.  He  wrote  poems  on  natural 
philosophy,  entitled  "  Modern  Philosophy,"  ("  Philoso- 
phia  recentior,"  3  vols.,  1655-92,)  and  "Philosophy  in 
Verse,"  ("Philosophia  Versibus  tradita,"  1744.)  Died 
in  1 801. 

Stayner.    See  Stain er. 

Steb'bing,  (Henry,)  an  English  divine  and  theolo- 
gian, was  engaged  in  the  Bangorian  controversy.  Died 
in  1763. 

Stebbing,  (Henry,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
about  1800.  He  published  "  Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets," 
(3  vols.,  1831,)  a  '*  History  of  the  Christian  Church,"  (2 
vols.,  1833-34,)  a  "History  of  the  Reformation,"  (2  vols., 
1836,)  and  other  works.  He  became  rector  of  Saint 
Mary  Somerset,  in  or  near  London,  about  1857. 

Sted'man,  (John  Gabriel,)  a  Scottish  officer,  born 
in  1745,  served  in  the  Dutch  army,  and  wrote  a  "  Nar- 
rative of  an  Expedition  against  the  Revolted  Negroes 
of  Surinam."    Died  in  1797. 

Steed'man,  (James  B.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Union  county,  Pennsylvania,  about  1820.  He  became 
a.  brigadier-general  in  the  summer  of  1862,  served  at 
the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  September,  1863,  and  com- 
manded a  corps,  or  several  detachments,  at  the  battle 
of  Nashville,  December  15  and  16,  1864. 

Steele,  (Frederick,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Delhi,  New  York,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1843. 
He  commanded  a  division  of  the  army  which  assaulted 
Vicksburg,  May  22,  1863.  He  took  Little  Rock  on  the 
9th  or  loth  of  September.  In  March,  1864,  he  moved 
his  army  from  Little  Rock  towards  Shreveport,  designing 
to  co-operate  with  General  Banks ;  but  that  design  was 
frustrated. 

Steele,  (Sir  Richard,)  a  popular  essayist  and  dram- 
atist, was  born  in  Dublin  in  1671.  He  was  educated 
at  Merton  College,  and  became  in  early  life  a  friend  of 
Addison.  After  he  left  college  he  was  an  ensign  in  the 
guards.  He  produced  "The  Christian  Hero"  in  1701, 
and  a  comedy  called  "  The  Funeral,  or  Grief  a  la  Mode," 
(1702.)  His  comedy  of  "The  Tender  Husband"  was 
performed  in  1703.  In  1709  he  began  to  publish,  under 
the  assumed  name  of  "Isaac  Bickerstaff,"  "The  Tatler," 
a  series  of  periodical  essays,  to  which  Addison  was  a 
frequent  contributor.  The  "Tatler"  was  issued  three 
times  a  week,  with  great  success,  until  January,  1711. 
In  politics  Steele  was  a  zealous  Whig.    Steele  and  Ad- 


dison were  associated  as  editors  of  the  "  Spectator," 
which  was  published  daily  from  March  i,  171 1,  to  De- 
cember 6,  1 712.  They  afterwards  produced  another 
series  of  essays,  under  the  title  of  "  The  Guardian," 
(1713.)  Steele  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1713,  and 
expelled  in  1713  or  17 14  for  writing  "The  Crisis,"  a 
political  pamphlet.  He  was  appointed  surveyor  of  the 
royal  stables  in  171 5,  and  commissioner  of  forfeited 
estates  in  Scotland.  In  1722  he  produced  a  successful 
comedy  called  "The  Conscious  Lovers."  He  involved 
himself  in  debt  and  trouble  by  his  improvidence  and 
expensive  habits.  "He  was,"  says  Mrs.  Barbauld,  "a 
character  vibrating  between  virtue  and  vice."  He  was 
a  sprightly  and  genial  writer,  rather  negligent  in  style. 
Died  in  1729. 

See  H.  R.  Montgomery,  "  Life  of  Sir  Richard  Steele,"  1864 ; 
Macaulav,  "Essays,"  article  "Addison;"  Drake,  "Essays;" 
John  Forster,  "  Historical  and  Biographical  Essays,"  1858;  "  Bio- 
graphia  Britannica ;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1855;  "Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  June,  1866;  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Au- 
thors." 

Steell,  (John,)  a  Scottish  sculptor,  born  at  Aberdeen 
in  1804.  Among  his  works  are  a  marble  statue  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  a  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  at  Edinburgh,  and  a  marble  statue  of  Lord 
Jeffrey. 

Steen,  stan,  (Jan,)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Leyden  in  1636.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Brouwer,  and 
subsequently  of  Van  Goyen,  whose  daughter  he  married. 
Many  of  his  master-pieces  are  tavern-scenes,  which  he 
represented  with  unrivalled  fidelity,  and  with  which  his 
occupation  as  landlord  made  him  familiar.  He  died 
in  1689,  in  extreme  poverty,  caused  by  his  dissipated 
habits. 

See  Van  Westrheenen,  "Jan  Steen,"  1856. 

Steen,  van  den,  (Cornelis.)    See  Lapide. 

Steenbock,  (Magnus,)  Count.    See  Stenbock. 

Steenstrup,  stan'strup,  (Johann  Japhet  Smith,)  a 
Danish  naturalist,  born  at  Vang  in  1813.  He  published 
several  works. 

Steenwyk  or  Steenwijk,  stan'wTk,  (Hendrik,) 
the  Elder,  a  celebrated  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Steen- 
wyk  in  1550.  He  was  a  pupil  of  De  Vries.  His  inte- 
riors of  Gothic  churches  are  exceedingly  admired  for 
the  perfect  disposition  of  light  and  shade  and  the  know- 
ledge of  chiaroscuro  which  they  display.    Died  in  1604. 

Steenwyk,  (Hendrik,)  the  Younger,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1588.  He  was  instructed  in 
painting  by  his  father,  and,  like  him,  excelled  in  archi- 
tectural views  and  interiors  of  churches  and  palaces. 
He  was  introduced  by  his  friend  Van  Dyck  to  the  court 
of  England,  where  he  was  extensively  patronized.  His 
wife  was  also  celebrated  as  a  painter.    Died  after  1642. 

Steers,  (George,)  an  American  naval  constructor, 
born  in  1 82 1.  He  built  the  famous  yacht  America,  the 
steam-packet  Adriatic,  and  the  United  States  steam- 
frigate  Niagara.    He  died  on  Long  Island  in  1856. 

Stee'vens,  (George,)  an  English  critic,  born  at 
Stepney  in  1736.  He  published  in  1766  "Twenty  of 
the  Plays  of  Shakspeare,  being  the  Whole  Number 
printed  in  Quarto  during  his  Lifetime,"  etc.  He  was 
afterwards  associated  with  Dr.  Johnson  in  preparing  an 
edition  of  Shakspeare,  which  came  out  in  1773.  He 
was  also  a  contributor  to  Nichols's  "  Biographical  Anec- 
dotes of  Hogarth"  and  the  "  Biographia  Dramatica." 
Died  in  1800. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1780. 

Stefaneschi,  st§f a-nSs'kee,  (Giovanni  Battista,) 
a  Florentine  historical  painter,  born  in  1582;  died  in 
1659. 

Stefani,  de,  di  stgf'i-nee  or  sta'fi-nee,  (Tommaso,) 
one  of  the  earliest  Neapolitan  painters,  was  born  about 
1230.    None  of  his  works  have  been  preserved. 

Stefano,  st^fi-no,  an  Italian  painter,  surnamed  Fio- 
RENTINO,  born  at  Florence  in  1301,  was  a  grandson  and 
pupil  of  Giotto.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  artist 
who  attempted  foreshortening.    Died  in  1350. 

Stefano,  di,  dee  st^fS-no,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian 
painter,  surnamed  Giottino,  born  in  1324,  is  supposed 
to  have  been  a  son  of  the  preceding.  His  style  strongly 
resembles  that  of  Giotto.    Died  in  1356. 


•e  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  Yi^  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STEP FAN I 


2060 


STELLA 


Steflfani,  steffl-nee,  (Agostino,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Castel-Franco  about  1650.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  father  of  George 
I.  of  England,  who  appointed  him  manager  of  the  Opera 
in  Hanover.  He  composed  operas,  madrigals,  and  duets. 
The  last-named  are  esteemed  master-pieces  of  their 
kind.    Died  in  1729. 

See  F^Tis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens." 

Steffens,  steffens,  (Heinrich,)  an  eminent  Norwe- 
gian writer  and  philosopher,  born  at  Stavanger  in  1773. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen,  and  after- 
wards visited  Jena,  where  he  became  an  earnest  advo- 
cate of  the  doctrines  of  Schelling,  who  intrusted  him 
with  the  revision  of  his  works  on  natural  philosophy. 
While  on  a  visit  to  Freiberg,  he  acquired  the  friend- 
ship of  Werner,  and  wrote  his  "  Geognostic-Geological 
Essays,"  which  in  1819  he  expanded  into  a  "Manual 
of  Oryctognosy,"  ('*  Handbuch  der  Oryktognosie.")  In 
1804  he  was  offered  a  professorship  at  Halle,  where  he 
soon  after  embraced  the  cause  of  the  patriots  in  their 
resistance  to  French  domination,  and  entered  the  Prus- 
sian army  as  a  volunteer.  On  his  return,  in  1813,  he 
became  professor  of  physics  and  natural  history  at  Bres- 
lau,  and  in  1831  filled  the  same  chair  at  Berlin.  Among 
his  works  not  yet  mentioned,  we  may  name  "  Elements 
of  Philosophical  Natural  Science,"  (1806,)  "On  False 
Theology  and  True  Faith,"  (1824,)  "On  the  Secret  So- 
cieties of  the  Universities,"  (1835,)  and  "Caricatures  of 
the  Holiest,"  ("  Caricaturen  des  Heiligsten.")  He  also 
published  religious  essays  of  a  Pietistic  character,  one 
of  which  is  entitled  "  How  I  became  again  a  Lutheran, 
and  what  Lutheranism  is  to  me,"  {1831.)  Steffens  like- 
wise wrote  several  novels  of  a  high  character,  entitled 
"The  Four  Norwegians,"  ("Die  vier  Norweger,"  6 
vols.,)  "The  Families  of  Walseth  and  Leith,"  (3  vols.,) 
and  "  Malcolm."  They  contain  fine  delineations  of  Nor- 
wegian character  and  manners,  and  beautiful  descriptive 
passages,  and  are  imbued  with  deep  religious  feeling. 
Died  in  1845. 

See  his  Memoirs,  called  "What  I  have  seen,"  (or  "experienced,") 
("Was  ich  erlebte,")  10  vols.,  1840-44;  H.  Gelzer,  "  Znr  Erinne- 
riins:  an  H.  Steffens,"  1845:  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;" 
"Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1843;  "North  American 
Review"  for  October,  1843. 

Stefonio,  stS.-fo'ne-o,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian 
Jesuit  and  Latin  poet,  born  in  the  Papal  States  in  1560. 
He  was  the  author  of  tragedies,  orations,  and  epistles. 
Died  in  1620. 

Steibelt,  stl'bglt,  (Daniel,)  a  celebrated  German 
pianist  and  composer  for  the  piano,  was  born  at  Berlin 
in  1756.  He  was  patronized  by  Frederick  the  Great, 
and  became  imperial  chapel-master  at  Saint  Petersburg. 
Died  in  1823. 

Steigentesch,  sti'gen-tlsh',  (August,)  Baron,  a 
German  dramatist,  born  at  Hildesheim  in  1774;  died 
in  1826. 

Stein,  stTn,  (Christian  Gottfried  Daniei,,)  a  Ger- 
man geographer,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1771,  published  a 
"Manual  of  Geography  and  Statistics,"  (1809,)  and 
other  works  of  the  kind.    Died  in  1830. 

Stein,  (JoHANN  Andreas,)  a  German  organist  and 
maker  of  musical  instruments,  born  in  the  Palatinate  in 
1728  ;  died  in  1792. 

Stein,  (LuDWiG,)  a  distinguished  German  jurist  and 
writer,  born  in  Sleswick  in  1813.  Having  studied  at 
Kiel  and  Jena,  he  visited  Paris,  where  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  doctrines  of  Fourier,  and  published  a 
work  entitled  "The  Socialism  and  Communism  of 
France  at  the  Present  Time,"  (1844.)  In  1846  he  be- 
came professor  at  Kiel,  and  the  same  year  brought  out, 
in  conjunction  with  Warnkonig,  a  "  History  of  French 
Jurisprudence."  He  also  wrote  a  "  System  of  Political 
Science,"  {1854.) 

Stein,  von,  fon  stin,  (Heinrich  Friedrich  Karl,) 
Baron,  a  celebrated  Prussian  statesman,  born  at  Nassau 
in  October,  1757.  He  studied  law  at  Gottingen,  and 
entered  the  service  of  Prussia  in  1778  as  director  of 
mines.  In  1786  he  visited  England,  the  institutions  of 
which  he  studied  with  much  interest.  Having  been 
appointed  president  of  the  Westphalian  Chambers  at 
Wesel,  Hamm,  and  Minden  in  1796  or  1797,  he  dis- 


played superior  administrative  talents.  He  was  minister 
of  commerce,  customs,  etc.  at  Berlin  from  180410  1807, 
and  became  prime  minister  after  the  peace  of  Tilsit, 
July,  1807.  He  resolved  to  "compensate  the  kingdom's 
loss  in  extensive  greatness  by  intensive  strength,"  and 
reorganized  the  political  system  of  Prussia  on  a  more 
liberal  basis.  Serfdom  and  feudal  privileges  were  abol- 
ished. These  and  other  reforms  constituted  what  was 
called  "  Stein's  system."  The  enmity  of  Napoleon  caused 
him  to  be  removed  from  office  in  November,  1808,  and 
exiled.  He  founded  the  Tugend-Bund,  ("League  of 
Virtue,")  a  secret  society  to  promote  the  liberation  of 
Germany.  In  1813  he  was  chief  of  the  council  for  the 
administration  of  the  German  territories  which  had  been 
reoccupied  by  the  allies.  He  lost  his  influence  in  1815, 
and  retired  from  public  life.    Died  in  183 1. 

See  Pertz,  "  Leben  des  Freiherrn  von  Stein,"  5  vols.,  iSss; 
"  Leben  des  Freiherrn  von  und  zum  Stein,"  Leipsic,  2  vols.,  1841  ; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale;"  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
September,  1845. 

Steinbach,  yon.    See  Erwin  von  Steinbach. 

Steinbart,  stn/bSRt,  (Gotthelf  Samuel,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian  of  the  rationalistic  school,  born  at  ZUl- 
lichau  in  1738;  died  in  1809. 

Steinbock.    See  Stenkock. 

Steinbriick,  stIn'bRuK,  (Eduard,)  a  German  painter, 
born  at  Magdeburg  in  1802.  He  worked  at  Dusseldorf 
from  1833  to  1846,  and  then  removed  to  Berlin. 

Steinla,  stin'li,  (Moritz  Muller,)  a  German  en- 
graver, born  at  Steinla  in  1 791.  His  proper  name  was 
MUUer.  He  engraved  Raphael's  "Massacre  of  the  In- 
nocents" and  "  Madonna  di  San  Sisto  ;"  also  some  works 
of  Titian  and  Holbein.    Died  at  Dresden  in  1858. 

Steinle,  stin'leh,  (Johann  Eduard,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Vienna  in  1810. 

Steinmar,  stin'mar,  a  German  minnesinger,  of  a 
Tyrolese  family,  lived  ai)out  1250, 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Steinmetz,  von,  fon  stTi/mgts,  (Karl  Friedrich,) 
a  German  general,  born  at  Eisenach  in  1796.  He  served 
as  lieutenant  in  France  in  1814,  and  entered  Paris  with 
the  army  of  the  allies.  In  1866  he  commanded  an  army 
corps  which  gained  victories  over  the  Austrians  at  Ska- 
litz  and  other  places.  The  Prussian  Chambers  in  the 
autumn  of  1866  voted  1,500,000  thalers  as  a  national 
recompense  to  six  men,  among  whom  was  General  von 
Steinmetz.  He  commanded  the  first  army  which  in- 
vaded France  in  August,  1870,  and  contributed  to  the 
great  victory  near  Metz  in  that  month.  He  was  re- 
moved from  command  about  the  ist  of  September, 

Steinwehr,  von,  fon  stin'waR,  (Adolph  Wilhelm 
August,)  Baron,  a  general,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Bruns- 
wick in  1822.  He  emigrated  to  the  United  States  about 
1854,  and  became  a  brigadier-general  of  Union  volun- 
teers in  October,  1861.  He  commanded  a  division  at 
Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863. 

Stella.    See  Johnson,  (Esther.) 

Stella,  sta'lt',  (ANTOiNEBouzonnet — boo'zo'ni',)  a 
French  painter,  a  nephew  of  Jacques,  noticed  below,  was 
born  at  Lyons  in  1637;  died  in  1682. 

Stella,  (Claudine  BouzoNNET,)a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Lyons  in  1636,  was  sister  of  the  preceding. 
She  died  at  Paris  in  1697. 

Stella,  stk'lt',  (FRANgois,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
at  Malines  in  1563,  was  tlie  father  of  Jacques,  noticed 
below.    Died  at  Lyons  in  1605. 

Stella,  (Franqois,)  a  painter,  born  at  Lyons  about 
1602,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  worked  in  Paris, 
where  he  died  in  1647. 

Stella,  steKll,  (Giulio  Cesare,)  a  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Rome  in  1564.  He  was  author  of  an  unfinished  poem 
on  the  discovery  of  Columbus,  (1585.)    Died  about  1624. 

Stella,  (Jacques,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1596.  He  resided  many  years  in  Florence,  where  he 
was  patronized  by  the  grand  duke  Cosimo  II.  After 
his  return  to  Paris  he  was  appointed  painter  to  the  king, 
and  obtained  the  cross  of  Saint  Michael,  and  other  dis- 
tinctions. He  was  a  friend  of  Poussin,  whose  style 
he  imitated.    Died  in  1657. 

See  Fi^LiBiEN,  "  Entretiens ;"  Fontenav,  "  Dictionnalie  des 
Artistes;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \5,  y,  short;  a,    i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fSll,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


STELLINI 


2061  STEPHEN 


Stellini,  stgl-lee'nee,  (Jacopo  or  Giacopo,)  a  learned 
Italian  ethical  writer,  born  at  Cividale  di  Friuli  in  1699. 
He  was  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Padua,  and 
wrote  several  works.    Died  in  1770. 

See  Caronelli,  "Vita  del  J.  Stellini,"  1784;  P.  Cossam, 
"  Elogio  di  G.  Stellini,"  181 1  ;  Fabroni,  "Vitae  Italorum  doctrina 
excellentium." 

Stelliola,  st^l-le-o'lS,  (Niccol6  Antonio,)  an  Italian 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Nola  in  1547.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  in  the  University  of  Naples,  and 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "II  Telescopio,"  (1627.) 
Died  in  1623. 

Stelluti,  st§l-loo'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  naturalist,  born  at  Fabriano  in  1 577,  was  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Lincei.  Among  his  works  is  "  II 
Parnasso,"  a  canzone,  (1631.)    Died  after  1651. 

Stenbock,  sten'bok,  or  Steenbock,  (Magnus,)  a 
Swedish  commander  under  Charles  XII.,  was  born  at 
Stockholm  in  1664.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  Narva,  and  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the 
Danes  at  Helsingborg  in  1710.  Being  afterwards  be- 
sieged in  the  fortress  of  Tonningen  by  the  Russian, 
Danish,  and  Saxon  army,  he  was  forced  to  capitulate, 
and  was  made  prisoner  by  the  King  of  Denmark.  He 
died  in  prison  in  1717,  leaving  a  narrative  of  his  life. 

See  Geijer,  "  History  of  Sweden  ;"  Gezelius,  "  Biographiskt- 
Lexicon;"  Loenbom,  "  M.  Stenbocks  Lefverne,"  4  vols.,  1757-65; 
Enberg,  "Areminne  bfver  M.  Stenbock,"  1817;  Oxenstierna, 
"M.  Stenbock  och  Villars  Sammanstallde,"  1790. 

Stendahl  or  Stendhal.    See  Beyle. 

Steno,  sta'no,  (Michele,)  a  Venetian  ruler,  born  in 
1331.  He  was  elected  Doge  of  Venice  in  1400.  Verona, 
Padua,  and  other  places  were  added  to  the  state  during 
his  administration.    Died  in  1413. 

See  Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise." 

Steno,  sta'no,  (Nicholas,)  an  eminent  Danish  anat- 
omist, born  at  Copenhagen  in  1638.  He  studied  three 
years  in  the  University  of  Leyden,  which  he  entered  in 
1661,  and  afterwards  pursued  his  researches  in  Paris. 
About  1662  he  discovered  and  described  the  duct  of  the 
parotid  gland,  called  Steno's  duct.  He  made  other  dis- 
coveries, and  published  several  works,  (in  Latin,)  among 
which  are  a  "Treatise  on  the  Muscles  and  Glands," 
(1664,)  and  one  "On  the  Anatomy  of  the  Brain,"  (1669.) 
He  became  a  Catholic  priest  in  1675,  ^^^^r  which  he 
wrote  works  on  theology.  Haller  called  him  "  magnus 
inventor."    Died  at  Schwerin  in  1687. 

See  Manni,  "Vita  del  litteratissimo  Stenone,"  1775;  Fabroni, 
"Vitas  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium;"  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca 
anatomica;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale." 

StSn'tor,  [Srfvrwp,]  a  Grecian  warrior  or  herald, 
who  served  in  the  Trojan  war,  and  whose  voice,  accord- 
ing to  Homer,  was  as  loud  as  the  combined  voices  of 
fifty  men. 

Stenzel,  stSnt'sel,  (Gustav  Adolf  Harald,)  a  Ger- 
man historian,  born  at  Zerbst  in  1792.  He  wrote,  among 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  Germany  under  the  Frank- 
ish  Emperors,"  (1827.)    Died  in  1854. 

Stephani,  sta'fd-nee,  (Hetnrich,)  a  German  educa- 
tional writer,  born  near  Wiirzburg  in  1761  ;  died  in  1850. 

Stephanie,  sta'fl-nee,  (Christian  Gottlob,)  a  Ger- 
man actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  Breslau  in  1733  ;  died 
in  1798. 

Stephanus,  the  Latin  of  Stephen  and  Etienne, 
which  see. 

Steph'a-nus  [Sre^avof]  A-the-ni-en'sis,  a  Greek 
physician,  the  time  and  place  of  whose  birth  are  un- 
known. Among  his  extant  works  are  a  commentary  on 
the  "  Prognostics"  of  Hippocrates,  and  a  commentary  on 
one  of  the  works  of  Galen. 

Steph'anus  By-zan-ti'nus,  or  Stephen  of  By- 
zantium, [Fr.  Etienne  de  Byzance,  k'te-ln'  deh 
be'zftNss',]  a  Greek  writer,  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the 
fifth  century.  He  was  the  author  of  a  geographical  dic- 
tionary, entitled  "  Ethnica,"  of  which  only  an  abridgment 
is  extant,  and  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first 
work  of  the  kind  ever  written. 

Stephen,  stee'ven,  [Fr.  Etienne,  k'te-§n' ;  It.  Ste- 
FANO,  st^f'i-no,]  the  first  Christian  martyr,  was  one  of 
the  seven  deacons  of  the  Christian  Church  at  Jerusalem. 
Being  charged  by  the  Jews  with  blasphemy,  he  was 


stoned  to  death.    The  time  of  this  event  is  variously 
estimated  at  from  35  to  37  a.d. 
See  Acts  vi.,  vii. 

Stephen  [Lat.  Steph'anus]  I.  succeeded  Lucius  as 
Bishop  of  Rome  in  253  A.D.  He  was  engaged  in  a  con- 
troversy with  Cyprian  on  the  baptism  of  heretics.  He 
died  in  257  A.D, 

Stephen  II.,  chosen  pope  in  752  a.d.,  died  three 
days  after  his  election,  and  is  not  generally  mentioned  in 
the  series  of  the  popes. 

Stephen  III.,  sometimes  called  Stephen  II.,  (see 
preceding  article,)  was  elected  pope  in  752  A.D.  Astol- 
phus.  King  of  the  Longobards,  having  threatened  Rome, 
Stephen  solicited  the  aid  of  Pepin,  King  of  the  Franks, 
who  marched  into  Italy,  defeated  Astolphus,  and  com- 
pelled him  to  give  up  the  district  (Exarchate)  of  Ravenna, 
and  other  provinces  previously  conquered  by  him.  In 
755  Astolphus,  with  a  recruited  army,  again  attacked 
Rome,  but  was  finally  driven  back  by  Pepin,  who  con- 
ferred upon  the  Roman  See  Pentapolis  and  the  Exarch- 
ate of  Ravenna.  Stephen  died  in  757,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Paul  I. 

Stephen  IV.,  a  native  of  Sicily,  became  pope  in  768 
A.D.  During  his  pontificate  the  Longobards  again  took 
possession  of  portions  of  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna. 
He  died  in  772,  and  was  succeeded  by  Adrian  I. 

Stephen  V.  was  elected  pope  in  816  a.d.  His  pon- 
tificate was  marked  by  no  important  events,  and  he  died 
within  a  year  after  his  consecration. 

Stephen  VI.  succeeded  Adrian  III.  as  Pope  of  Rome 
in  885.  In  the  quarrel  between  Guido,  Duke  of  Spoleto, 
and  Berengarius,  Duke  of  Friuli,  he  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  former,  whom  he  crowned  King  of  Italy  in  891. 

Stephen  VII.  succeeded  Benedict  VI.  in  896.  lie 
annulled  the  acts  and  decrees  of  Formosus,  one  of  his 
predecessors,  and  a  political  opponent,  and  caused  his 
remains  to  be  treated  with  dishonour.  In  897  he  was 
thrown  into  prison,  and  strangled  by  the  friends  of 
Formosus. 

Stephen  VIII.  succeeded  Leo  VI.  in  928.  He  died 
in  930,  and  was  followed  by  John  XL,  son  of  Marozia, 
Duchess  of  Tuscany.    (See  Marozia.) 

Stephen  IX.  was  elected  pope  in  939,  and  died  in 
942.    He  was  succeeded  by  Martin  III. 

Stephen  X.,  brother  of  Godfrey,  Duke  of  Lorraine, 
was  elected  pope  in  1057.  Under  his  rule  occurred  the 
schism  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches,  and  a 
long  controversy  was  carried  on  concerning  the  celibacy 
of  the  clergy.    Died  in  1058. 

Stephen,  Saint,  King  of  Hungary,  born  at  Gran 
about  979,  was  the  son  of  a  chief  named  Geysa.  He 
was  instructed  in  the  Christian  faith,  and  in  995  married 
the  sister  of  the  emperor  Otho  III.  He  was  crowned 
in  1000  first  King  of  Hungary,  with  the  sanction  of  the 
pope.  During  his  reign  Christianity  was  firmly  estab- 
lished in  his  country.    Died  in  1038. 

Stephen  II.,  King  of  Hungary,  was  the  son  of  Kolo- 
man,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  11 14.  He  carried  on 
unsuccessful  wars  with  Poland,  Austria,  and  Russia,  and 
in  1131  abdicated  his  throne  in  favour  of  a  relative 
named  Bela.    He  died  in  a  monastery  in  the  same  year. 

Stephen  III.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  crowned  in 
1161,  but  he  was  soon  forced  to  resign  in  favour  of  his 
uncle  Ladislaus,  whose  claims  were  supported  by  the 
Emperor  of  Constantinople. 

Stephen  IV.  became  King  of  Hungary  on  the  death 
of  Ladislaus,  in  1161.  His  subjects,  however,  soon  re- 
volted against  him,  and  restored  Stephen  III.  to  the 
throne.  Stephen  IV.  died  in  1163,  and  his  nephew, 
Stephen  III.,  in  1173. 

Stephen  V.  succeeded  his  father  Bela  in  1270  as 
King  of  Hungary.  He  carried  on  war  with  the  Bohe- 
mians and  Bulgarians,  and  died  in  1272. 

Stephen,  stee'ven,  [Lat.  Steph'anus;  Fr.  £tienne, 
i^te-gn',]  King  of  England,  born  in  France  in  1105,  was 
a  son  of  Stephen,  Count  of  Blois.  His  mother,  Adela, 
was  a  daughter  of  William  the  Conqueror.  He  ren- 
dered himself  popular  in  England  by  his  martial  courage, 
and  became  a  competitor  for  the  crown  at  the  death 
of  Henry  I.,  in  1135,  although  that  king  had  designated 
his  daughter  Matilda  as  his  successor.    Stephen  was 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  Vi^guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this,   (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STEPHEN 


2062 


STEPHENSON 


recognized  as  king  by  a  large  portion  of  the  people,  and 
a  civil  war  began  in  1139.  In  11 53  Prince  Henry,  a  son 
of  Matilda,  came  from  Normandy  with  an  army.  The 
contest  was  decided  by  an  agreement  that  Stephen 
should  retain  the  throne  until  his  death,  and  that  Henry 
should  succeed  him.  Died  in  1 1 54. 
See  Hume,  "  History  of  England,"  chap.  vii. 

Stephen,  King  of  Poland.    See  BAthori. 

Stephen  of  Muret,  [Fr.  Etienne  de  Muret, 
hiit-hV  deh  mii'rk',]  Saint,  a  French  monk,  born  in 
Auvergne  in  1048.  He  founded  a  monastery  at  Muret. 
Died  in  1 124. 

Stephen  of  Tournay.  See  £tienne  de  Tournay. 

Ste^'phen,  (Sir  George,)  brother  of  Sir  James,  no- 
ticed below,  was  born  about  1794.  He  published  "The 
Jesuit  at  Cambridge,"  "  Adventures  of  an  Attorney," 
and  several  other  works. 

Stephen,  (James,)  an  English  lawyer  and  philan- 
thropist, born  in  Dorsetshire.  He  was  an  earnest  advo- 
cate of  African  emancipation,  and  he  is  said  to  have 
planned  the  system  of  the  continental  blockade  during 
the  French  war.  He  published  a  treatise  entitled  "  War 
in  Disguise,  or  the  Frauds  of  Neutral  Flags."  He  be- 
came a  member  of  Parliament  for  Tralee,  and  for  many 
years  held  the  post  of  a  master  in  chancery.  Died  in 
1832. 

Stephen,  (Sir  James,)  K.C.B.,  an  English  writer  and 
statesman,  born  in  London  about  1790.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge,  and  rose  through  various  offices  to  be  per- 
manent under-secretary  to  the  colonial  department,  which 
post  he  filled  with  eminent  ability.  He  was  appointed 
in  1849  regius  professor  of  modern  history  at  Cambridge. 
He  published  "  Essays  in  Ecclesiastical  Biography," 
originally  published  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  "Lec- 
tures on  the  History  of  France,"  (1851,)  and  other  works, 
which  enjoy  a  high  reputation.    Died  in  1859. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1859. 

Stephen,  sta'pen,  (John,)  a  Danish  professor  of  his- 
tory, born  at  Copenhagen  in  1599;  died  in  1650. 

Stephens,  (celebrated  printers.)    See  Etienne. 

Stephens,  stee'venz,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  writer, 
born  at  Elgin  in  1757,  published  "Memoirs  of  Home 
Tooke,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1821. 

Stephens,  stee'vens,  (Alexander  H.,)  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  Taliaferro  county,  Georgia,  in  1812. 
He  was  elected  to  Congress  by  the  Whig  party  in  1843, 
and  continued  in  office  till  1859.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  advocates  of  the  annexation  of  Texas,  and  was 
active  in  promoting  the  passage  of  the  Kansas  and 
Nebraska  Act  of  1854.  He  subsequently  joined  the 
Democratic  party,  and  supported  the  measures  of  Presi- 
dent Buchanan.  He  opposed  the  secession  of  Georgia 
in  i860,  but,  having  subsequently  joined  the  secession- 
ists, was  elected  in  1861  Vice-President  of  the  Confede- 
rate States.  He  published  "A  Constitutional  View  of 
the  War  between  the  States,"  (1870.) 

Stephens,  (Mrs.  Ann  Sophia  VV.,)  a  popular  Ameri- 
can novelist,  born  at  Derby,  Connecticut,  in  1813.  She 
has  published  "  The  Heiress  of  Greenhurst,"  "The  Old 
Homestead,"  "Fashion  and  Famine,"  (1854,)  and  con- 
tributed numerous  tales  to  "Graham's  Magazine"  and 
other  periodicals. 

Stephens,  (Henry,)  a  Scottish  writer  on  agriculture, 
born  in  Bengal  in  1795,  was  educated  at  Edinburgh. 
He  published  "The  Book  of  the  Farm,"  (3  vols.,  1844,) 
and  other  works. 

See  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1849;  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  May,  1851. 

Stephens,  stee'vens,  (James  Francis,)  an  English 
entomologist,  born  in  Sussex  in  1792.  He  was  the 
author  of  "The  Systematic  Catalogue  of  British  Insects," 
"A  Manual  of  the  British  Coleoptera,"  and  "Illustra- 
tions of  British  Entomology,"  (10  vols  )  The  last-named 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  valuable  works  of  the 
kind.  He  was  president  of  the  Entomological  Society, 
and  a  Fellow  of  the  Linnaean  Society,    Died  in  1852. ' 

Stephens,  (Jeremy,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
Shropshire  in  1592.  He  became  rector  of  Wotton,  and 
published  several  works.    Died  in  1665. 

Stephens,  (John  Lloyd,)  an  American  traveller, 
born  at  Shrewsbury,  New  Jersey,  in  1805.   He  published 


in  1837  "Incidents  of  Travel  in  Egypt,  Arabia  Petraea, 
and  the  Holy  Land,"  which  was  followed  in  1838  by 
"Travels  in  Greece,  Turkey,  Russia,"  etc.  Being  ap- 
pointed in  1839  ambassador  to  Central  America,  he 
brought  out,  after  his  return,  "  Incidents  of  Travel  in 
Central  America,  Chiapas,  and  Yucatan,"  (1841,)  and 
"Incidents  of  Travel  in  Yucatan,"  (1843,)  illustrated  by 
Catherwood.  These  works  obtained  great  popularity 
both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  and  the  two  last- 
named  are  esteemed  among  the  most  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  American  antiquities.  Mr.  Stephens  was  elected 
president  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  about  1850. 
Died  in  1852. 

See  Ar.LiBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  December,  1841  ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1842; 
"North  American  Review"  for  October,  1841,  and  July,  1843. 

Stephens,  (Robert,)  an  English  antiquary,  entered 
a  college  at  Oxford  in  1681,  and  was  appointed  royal 
historiographer.  He  published  the  "  Letters"  of  Lord 
Bacon.    Died  in  1732. 

Stephenson,  stee'ven-son,  (George,)  an  eminent 
English  erigineer,  and  inventor  of  the  locomotive  engine, 
was  born  at  Wylam,  in  Northumberland,  June  9,  1781. 
His  father  was  a  fireman  of  a  colliery,  and  was  unable 
to  give  his  children  an  education  at  school.  At  the  age 
of  fourteen,  George  became  an  assistant  fireman  in  the 
colliery.  He  learned  to  read  and  write  at  a  night-school. 
Having  been  promoted  to  the  office  of  brakesman,  he 
tnarried  Fanny  Henderson  about  1802.  He  exercised 
his  inechanical  skill  in  mending  clocks,  studied  me- 
chanics, and  acquired  a  knowledge  of  steam-engines. 
In  1812  he  became  chief  engineer  of  Killingworth  Col- 
liery. His  first  locomotive  engine  was  completed  in 
July,  18 14,  and  drew  eight  loaded  cars  four'  miles  an 
hour.  He  made  another,  with  important  improvements, 
and  applied  the  steam  blast-pipe,  in  1815,  and  soon  after 
that  date  improved  the  construction  of  the  railway.  In 
1822  he  was  employed  to  construct  a  railway  from  Stock- 
ton to  Darlington,  which  was  opened  in  1825  and  was 
the  first  railway  made  for  public  use.  About  1824  Mr. 
Stephenson  and  Edward  Pease,  of  Darlington,  established 
a  manufactory  of  locomotives  at  Newcastle.  He  was 
chief  engineer  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway, 
finished  in  1830,  not  without  violent  opposition  from 
land-owners  and  others.  A  prize  of  five  hundred  pounds, 
offered  by  the  directors  of  this  railway  for  the  best  loco- 
motive, was  awarded  to  the  "  Rocket,"  made  by  George 
Stephenson  and  his  son  Robert,  {1830.)  This  engine  is 
said  to  have  run  at  the  rate  of  thirty  miles  an  hour,  to 
the  great  amazement  of  the  public.  He  was  employed 
as  engineer  of  the  Grand  Junction  Railway,  of  that  which 
connects  London  with  Birmingham,  and  of  others.  His 
latter  years  were  spent  in  the  superintendence  of  exten- 
sive coal-mines  which  he  owned.  Died  at  Tapton  in 
August,  1848. 

"  By  patient  industry,"  says  Smiles,  "  and  laborious 
contrivance,  he  was  enabled  to  do  for  the  locomotive 
what  James  Watt  had  done  for  the  condensing  engine. 
He  found  it  clumsy  and  inefficient;  and  he  made  it 
powerful,  efficient,  and  usefiil."  "  Men  in  the  best  ranks 
of  life  have  said  of  him  that  he  was  one  of  Nature's 
gentlemen." 

See  Smfi-es,  "Life  of  George  Stephenson,"  1859;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1857. 

Stephenson,  (Robert,)  a  distinguished  engineer,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Willington  in  October, 
1803.  He  studied  for  one  session  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  (1820-21,)  after  which  he  assisted  his  father 
in  the  construction  of  the  Stockton  and  Darlington  Rail- 
way, and  in  the  manufacture  of  locomotives.  In  1824 
he  was  employed  in  South  America  as  inspector  of  gold- 
and  silver-mines.  He  returned  to  England  in  1827,  and 
became  associated  with  his  father  in  the  fabrication  of 
locomotives.  He  was  engineer  of  the  Leicester  and 
Swannington  Railway,  and  of  the  London  and  Birming- 
ham Railway  which  was  opened  in  1838.  He  acquired 
a  high  reputation  as  a  railway  engineer,  and  was  em- 
ployed as  such  in  various  foreign  countries.  Among  his 
greatest  works  are  the  viaduct  over  the  Tweed  at  Ber- 
wick, the  high  level  bridge  at  Newcastle,  the  Britannia 
tubular  bridge  over  Menai  Straits,  (1850,)  the  Victoria 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n3t;  good;  moon; 


STEPNET 


2063 


STEFENS 


tubular  bridge  at  Montreal,  finished  about  i860,  and  a 
railway  connecting  Cairo  with  Alexandria,  in  Egypt.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  for  Whitby  in  1847. 
Died  in  October,  1859. 

See  Smiles,  "Lives  of  the  Engineers;"  J.  C.  Jeaffreson, 
"Life  of  Robert  Stephenson,"  1864;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for 
December,  1859. 

Step'ney,  (George,)  an  English  diplomatist  and 
poet,  born  at  Westminster  in  1663.  He  was  employed 
in  embassies  to  Germany,  Poland,  and  the  States-Gene- 
ral, (Netherlands.)  He  was  the  author  of  several  origi- 
nal poems,  and  assisted  Dryden  in  his  translation  of 
Juvenal.  "  He  is,"  says  Johnson,  "  a  very  licentious 
translator,  and  does  not  recompense  the  neglect  of  his 
author  by  beauties  of  his  own."    Died  in  1707. 

Sterbeeck,  van,  vtn  stik'bak,  (Francis,)  a  Flemish 
botanist  and  priest,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1631.  He  pub- 
lished "Theatrum  Fungorum."    Died  in  1693. 

Ster'ling,  (Edward,)  a  journalist,  born  at  Waterford, 
in  Ireland,  in  1773.  He  was  a  captain  in  the  army  in  his 
early  life.  He  began  about  1812  to  write  for  the  London 
"Times,"  of  which  he  became  editor.  He  wrote  many 
political  editorials  for  that  journal,  and  supported  the 
Reform  bill  of  1832.  Died  in  1847. 
«lSter'ling,  (John,)  a  British  poet  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  the  island  of 
Bute  in  1806.  He  finished  his  studies  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Mr. 
(afterwards  Archdeacon)  Hare,  Monckton  Milnes,  and 
other  distinguished  men.  Having  taken  holy  orders, 
he  became  curate  of  Hurstmonceaux,  in  Sussex,  in  1834. 
He  was  the  author  of  "Arthur  Coningsby,"  a  novel, 
{1833,)  "The  Election  ;  a  Poem,  in  Seven  Books,"  (1841,) 
"Strafford,"  a  tragedy,  (1843,)  and  "Essays  and  Tales." 
He  numbered  among  his  friends  Coleridge  and  Thomas 
Carlyle,  and  his  Life  has  been  written  by  the  latter. 
Died  in  1844. 

See  T.  Carlyle,  "Life  of  John  Sterling:,"  1851;  "  Brief  Biogra- 
phies," by  Samuel  Smiles;  "Fraser's  Magazine"  for  February, 
1848  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1848. 

Stern,  (Daniel.)    See  Agoult,  d'. 

Stern,  (Marie  de  Flavigny.)    See  Agoult,  d'. 

Sternberg,  st^Rn'b^RG,  (Alexander,)  Baron,  a 
celebrated  novelist,  born  in  Esthonia,  in  Russia,  in  1806, 
studied  at  Dorpat,  and  in  1830  settled  in  Germany, 
Among  his  most  popular  works,  which  are  written  in 
German,  we  may  name  "  The  Missionary,"  "  Diana," 
and  "  Saint  Sylvan." 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1837. 

Sternberg,  (Kaspar  Maria,)  Count,  a  German 
naturalist,  and  president  of  the  Bohemian  National 
Museum,  born  in  1761  ;  died  in  1838. 

Sterne,  stern,  (Laurence,)  a  celebrated  humorist, 
born  at  Clonmel,  Ireland,  in  1713,  was  a  great-grandson 
of  Richard  Sterne,  Archbishop  of  York.  His  father 
was  a  lieutenant  in  the  army.  He  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  which  he  entered  in  1733,  took  holy  orders, 
and  became  vicar  of  Sutton  about  1738.  He  was  marrried 
in  1 741.  Through  the  influence  of  an  uncle,  he  obtained 
a  prebend  in  York  Cathedral.  He  remained  nearly 
twenty  years  at  Sutton,  and  acquired  a  sudden  celebrity 
by  the 'publication  of  two  volumes  of  "Tristram  Shandy," 
(1759,)  a  humorous  story,  which  had  a  great  success.  In 
1760  he  published  two  volumes  of  sermons,  and  was 
appointed  curate  of  Coxwold,  Yorkshire.  The  poet 
Gray  praises  his  sermons,  as  showing  "a  strong  imagi- 
nation and  a  sensible  heart,"  but  adds,  "you  see  him 
[the  preacher]  often  tottering  on  the  verge  of  laughter, 
and  ready  to  throw  his  periwig  in  the  face  of  his  audi- 
ence." (.See  Gray's  "  Letters.")  Sterne's  promotion  in 
the  Church  was  hindered  by  his  dissipated  or  irregular 
habits.  He  visited  Paris  and  other  parts  of  France  in 
1762-63,  and  published  the  ninth  volume  of  "Tristram 
Shandy"  in  1767.  Having  made  another  tour  in  France 
and  Italy,  he  produced  in  1768  his  "Sentimental  Jour- 
ney," which  enjoyed  a  great  popularity.  He  died  in 
London  in  1768,  leaving  one  child,  a  daughter. 

Sterne  is  considered  one  of  the  most  humorous  and 
original  writers  in  the  language.  "His  wit,"  says  Haz- 
litt,  "is  poignant,  though  artificial;  and  his  characters 
("■-hough  the  groundwork  of  some  of  them  had  been  laid  | 


before)  have  yet  invaluable  original  differences  ;  and  the 
spirit  of  the  execution,  the  master-strokes  constantly 
thrown  into  them,  are  not  to  be  surpassed."  ("Lectures 
on  the  English  Comic  Writers.") 

See  Medalle,  "Letters  of  Laurence  Sterne,  to  which  are  pre- 
fixed Memoirs  of  his  Life,  written  by  himself,"  3  vols.,  1775;  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  "Memoirs  of  Eminent  Novelists;"  Thackeray, 
"  Lectures  on  the  English  Humourists;"  Percy  Fitzgerald,  "  Life 
of  Laurence  Sterne,"  2  vols.,  1864 ;  John  Ferriar,  "Illustrations 
of  Laurence  Sterne,  with  other  Essays,"  1798;  Allibone,  "Dic- 
tionary of  Authors  ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1854  ; 
"  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1864. 

Sterne,  (Richard,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  Not- 
tinghainshire  in  1596,  rose  to  be  Archbishop  of  York  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  He  assisted  in  revising  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer.    Died  in  1683. 

Stern'hold,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
Hampshire,  was  groom  of  the  robes  to  Henry  VIII. 
and  his  successor  Edward  VI.  He  is  chiefly  known 
from  his  English  version  of  the  Psalms,  of  which  he 
translated  fifty-one.  The  principal  part  of  the  remainder 
were  translated  by  John  Hopkins,  the  whole  being  pub- 
lished in  1562,  and  annexed  to  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  under  the  title  of  "  The  Whole  Booke  of  Psalmes, 
collected  into  English  Metre,  by  T.  Sternhold,  J.  Hop- 
kins, and  others,"  etc.    Died  in  1549. 

Stesichore.    See  Stesichorus. 

Ste-si-eh'o-rus,  [Gr.  I,Trjolxopog ;  Fr.  Stesichore, 
stk'ze'koR';  It.  Stesicoro,  sta-se-ko'ro,]  a  celebrated 
Greek  poet,  born  at  Himera,  in  Sicily,  is  supposed  to 
have  floiJirished  about  600  B.C.  He  is  styled  the  inventor 
of  choral  songs,  and  his  original  name  of  Tisias  was 
changed  to  Stesichorus  on  account  of  his  directing  the 
choruses  at  religious  festivals.  His  works,  of  which  only 
fragments  remain,  were  composed  in  the  language  of  the 
epic  poets,  with  a  mixture  of  Doricisms,  and  combine 
the  material  of  the  epic  poem  with  the  lyric  form.  They 
are  warmly  eulogized  by  Cicero,  Quintilian,  and  other 
eminent  writers  of  antiquity.  He  died  about  555  B.C., 
aged  about  85. 

See  Kleine,  "  De  Stesichori  Vita,"  1825 ;_  Fabricius,  "Biblio- 
theca  Graeca ;"  F.  de  Beaumont.  "  Memoria  sopra  Xanto,  Aris- 
tossene  e  Stesicoro,"  1835  :  K..  O.  Muller,  "  History  of  the  Litera- 
ture of  Ancient  Greece  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Steuart.    See  Stew^art,  (Sir  James.) 

Steuben,  stu'ben,  [Ger.  pron.  stoi'ben,]  (Frederick 
William  Augustus,)  Baron,  a  celebrated  general 
of  the  American  Revolution,  was  born  at  Magdeburg, 
Prussia,  in  1730.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  and  rose  to  be  adjutant-general  in 
the  king's  staff"  in  1762.  In  1777  he  offered  his  services 
to  General  Washington  as  a  volunteer  in  the  American 
army.  He  was  appointed  major-general  in  1778,  and 
subsequently  took  an  active  part  in  the  battle  of  Mon- 
mouth and  the  siege  of  Yorktown.  A  life-annuity  of 
$2500  was  voted  him  by  Congress  in  1790,  and  he  also 
received  16,000  acres  of  land  in  Oneida  county.  New 
York,  where  he  died  in  1794.  His  life,  written  by 
Francis  Bowen,  is  included  in  Sparks's  "  American 
Biography." 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1864. 

Steuben,  von,  fon  stoi'ben,  (Karl  Wilhelm  Au- 
gust,) Baron,  a  German  historical  painter,  born  near 
Mannheim  about  1790,  worked  in  Paris  and  in  Russia, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Nicholas. 
Among  his  works  are  "Napoleon's  Return  from  Elba," 
and  "  Esmeralda  and  Quasimodo."  Died  in  Paris  in  1856. 

Steuco,  stg-oo'ko,  [Lat.  Steu'chus,]  (Agostino,)  an 
Italian  scholar,  born  at  Gubbio  in  1496.  He  succeeded 
Aleandro  as  prefect  of  the  Vatican  Library  in  1542.  He 
wrote  several  theological  works.    Died  in  1549. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires." 

Ste'vens,  (Abel,)  an  American  Methodist  divine, 
born  at  Philadelphia  in  1815.  He  has  edited  succes- 
sively several  religious  journals,  and  published,  among 
other  works,  "Memorials  of  the  Introduction  of  Meth- 
odism into  New  England,"  and  "  Plistory  of  the  Re- 
ligious Movement  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  called 
Methodism,"  (1859.) 

Ste'vens,  (Alexander,)  an  English  architect,  con- 
structed the  bridge  over  the  Liffey  at  Dublin,  and  other 
important  works.    Died  in  1796. 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  Aarci;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  yl, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (J^I^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STEFENS 


2064 


STEriN 


Ste'vens,  [Belgian  pron.  sta'vens,]  (Alfred,)  a  Bel- 
gian painter,  born  at  Brnssels  about  1822.  He  gained 
a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1 851. 

Stevens,  (Edward,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Virginia.  He  was  connnended  by  General  Washington 
for  his  conduct  at  the  battles  of  Brandywine  and  Ger- 
mantown,  September-October,  1777.    Died  in  1820. 

Stevens,  (George  Alexander,)  an  iLnglisb  actor 
and  dramatic  writer,  born  in  London,  was  the  author  of 
a  novel  entitled  *'  Tom  Fool,"  and  other  works  of  a 
comic  and  satirical  character.  Among  these  may  be 
named  a  "  Lecture  on  Heads,"  "  Distress  upon  Dis- 
tress," a  burlesque  tragedy,  and  "  The  Adventures  of  a 
Speculist."  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  popular  songs. 
Died  in  1784. 

Stevens,  (Isaac  Ingat,ls,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  or  near  Andover,  Massachusetts,  in  1818,  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1839,  at  the  head  of  his  class. 
He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Washington  Territory 
in  1853,  and  resigned  in  1857.  In  September,  186 1,  he 
became  a  brigadier-general  of  Union  volunteers.  He 
served  in  the  army  which  captured  Port  Royal,  South 
Carolina,  in  November,  1861,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
major-general  in  the  ensuing  summer,  and  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Chantilly,  September  i,  1862. 

See  Tennev,  "Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion," 
P-  734. 

Stevens,  (John,)  an  American  mechanician,  born 
at  New  York  in  1749,  was  the  inventor  of  a  steamboat, 
which  he  exhibited  in  1804.  He  also  wrote  a  pamphlet 
giving  plans  for  a  railway  and  steam-carriages.  Died 
in  1838. 

His  son,  Robert  Livingston  Stevens,  born  in 
1788,  also  distinguished  himself  as  an  inventor,  and 
made  numerous  improvements  in  steamboats.  Died 
in  1856. 

Stevens,  (Joseph,)  a  Belgian  painter,  a  brother  of 
Alfred,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Brussels  about  1819. 
He  has  resided  alternately  in  Brussels  and  Paris.  He 
excels  in  the  painting  of  animals,  especially  dogs. 

Stevens,  (Richard  James  Samuel,)  an  English 
composer,  borii  in  London  about  1750,  published  nu- 
merous songs  and  glees,  which  are  ranked  among  the 
master-pieces  of  their  kind.    Died  in  1837. 

Stevens,  (Thaddeus,)  an  eminent  American  legis- 
lator, distinguished  as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  was  born 
in  Caledonia  county,  Vermont,  on  the  4th  of  April, 
1793.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1814, 
removed  to  Pennsylvania,  and  studied  law.  He  was 
elected  to  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  in  1833,  and 
re-elected  four  times  between  that  date  and  1841.  In 
April,  1835,  he  made  a  powerful  speech  for  common 
schools,  and  secured  the  triumph  of  a  system  to  which 
the  majority  of  the  legislature  had  been  hostile.  In 
1836  he  was  a  member  of  the  Convention  which  revised 
the  Constitution  of  the  State.  He  settled  at  Lancaster 
about  1842,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  by 
the  voters  of  the  ninth  district  in  1848.  He  acted  with 
the  Whig  party  while  that  party  survived,  and  was  re- 
elected to  Congress  in  1850.  About  1855  he  joined  the 
Republican  party,  which  was  at  first  called  in  Pennsyl- 
vania the  People's  party.  He  represented  the  ninth  dis- 
trict, i.e.  Lancaster  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  Congress 
from  1858  to  1868.  He  was  chairman  of  the  committee 
of  ways  and  means  in  the  Thirty-seventh  Congress, 
1861-63,  and  in  several  subsequent  terms.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1861,  he  offered  a  resolution  that  all  slaves  who 
shall  leave  their  masters  or  aid  in  quelling  the  rebellion 
shall  be  declared  free.  After  the  end  of  the  civil  war 
he  became  the  most  prominent  and  influential  member  of 
the  House  of  Representatives,  and  a  strenuous  opponent 
of  President  Johnson's  policy.  He  advocated  the  exten- 
sion of  the  right  of  suffrage  to  the  freedmen,  and  other 
measures  of  the  Radical  party.  Mr.  Stevens  and  Sena- 
tor Sherman  were  the  authors  of  the  bill  for  the  recon- 
struction of  the  seceded  States  which  was  passed  by 
Congress  in  the  session  of  1866-67  and  became  a  law 
notwithstanding  the  veto  of  the  President.  By  this  act, 
ten  of  the  Southern  States  were  divided  into  five  mili- 
tary districts,  and  each  district  was  subjected  to  the 
authority  of  a  military  commander  until  the  people  of 


those  districts  should  adopt  new  Constitutions  conceding 
impartial  suffrage.  Mr.  Stevens,  who  was  chairman  of 
the  joint  committee  on  reconstruction,  reported  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1867,  the  original  bill,  which  Senator  Sherman 
modified  by  an  important  amendment.  He  advocated 
the  impeachment  of  Andrew  Johnson  in  a  speech  on  the 
24th  of  February,  1868,  and  was  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee of  seven  then  appointed  to  prepare  and  report 
articles  of  impeachment.  He  was  also  one  of  the  seven 
members  elected  March  2,  1868,  as  managers  to  conduct 
the  impeachment  of  President  Johnson.  He  was  never 
married.    Died  at  Washington  in  August,  1868. 

"  He  was  one  of  the  few  who  are  not  afraid  to  grasp 
first  principles  and  lay  hold  of  great  truths,  or  to  push 
them  to  their  remotest  logical  result."  (New  York 
"Times"  for  August  13,  1868.) 

Stevens,  (William,)  an  English  writer  on  religion, 
born  in  London  in  1732,  was  a  cousin  of  George  Horne, 
Bishop  of  Norwich.  He  wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  Nature 
and  Constitution  of  the  Christian  Church,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1807. 

Stevens,  (William  Barshaw,)  an  English  divine, 
born  at  Abingdon  about  1755.  He  was  the  author  of 
"  Retirement,"  a  poem,  and  of  a  collection  of  sermons. 
Died  in  1800.  » 

Ste'ven-spn,  (Andrew,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Culpepper  county,  Virginia,  in  1784.  He  studied 
law,  became  eminent  as  a  pleader,  and  represented  a 
district  of  Virginia  in  Congress  from  1821  to  1834, 
During  this  period  he  was  thrice  elected  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Representatives,  in  1827,  1829,  and  1 83 1. 
He  was  minister  to  England  from  1836  to  1841.  He 
acted  with  the  Democratic  party.    Died  in  1857. 

Ste'ven-son,  (Sir  John  Andrew,)  an  Irish  composer, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1 761.  He  produced  numerous  duets, 
songs,  and  anthems,  and  an  oratorio,  entitled  "The 
Thanksgiving."    Died  in  1833. 

Ste^ven-son,  (John  Hall,)  an  English  satiric  poet, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1718,  was  a  friend  of  Laurence 
Sterne,  who  has  described  him  in  his  "Tristram  Shandy" 
under  the  name  of  "  Eugenius."  He  published  "Lyric 
Epistles,"  "  Fables  for  Grown  Gentlemen,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1785. 

Ste'ven-son,(RoKERT,)an  eminent  Scottish  engineer, 
born  at  Glasgow  in  1772.  About  1796  he  became  en- 
gineer to  the  Northern  Light-House  Commissioners.  He 
began  in  1807  the  construction  of  the  Bell  Rock  Light- 
House,  off  Arbroath,  in  Forfarshire,  which  was  completed 
in  1811.  He  built  upwards  of  twenty  light-houses,  and 
was  employed  in  various  other  important  works  in  Scot- 
land and  England.  To  him  is  ascribed  the  suggestion 
of  malleable  iron  instead  of  the  cast-iron  rails  hitherto 
used.    Died  in  1850. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Stevenson,  (Thomas  G.,)  an  American  general,  born 
about  1836,  was  a  son  of  the  Hon.  J.  Thomas  Stevenson, 
of  Boston.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  about 
the  end  of  1862.  He  commanded  a  division  when  he 
was  killed,  near  Spottsylvania,  May  10,  1 864. 

See  Tenney,  "Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion," 
p.  778. 

Stevenson,  (William,)  an  English  writer,  born 
about  1772,  held  a  situation  in  the  Treasury.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Pro- 
gress of  Discovery,  Navigation,  and  Commerce."  Died 
in  1829. 

Stevenson,  (William,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  Nottinghamshire,  was  proprietor  of  the  "  Norfolk 
Chronicle"  for  thirty-five  years.    Died  in  1821. 

Stev'in  [Fr.  pron.  sta'viN']  or  Stevinus,  stk-vee'- 
niis,  (Simon,)  an  able  Flemish  engineer  and  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Bruges  about  1550.  He  was  employed  as 
civil  engineer  and  inspector  of  dykes  by  the  government 
of  Holland.  He  made  important  improvements  in 
arithmetic,  algebra,  and  mechanics.  Among  his  works 
are  a  "Treatise  on  Arithmetic,"  (1585,)  a  "Treatise  on 
Statics  and  Hydrostatics,"  (1586,)  and  a  "Treatise  on 
Navigation,"  (1599.)    Died  about  1620. 

See  GoETHALS,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  S.  Stevin,"  1841 ; 
Quetelet,  "Simon  Stevin,"  1845;  Steichen,  "  M^moire  sur  la 
Vie  de  Stevin,"  1846;  "  Nouvelle  iiiographie  Generate." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f<lt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


STEFINUS 


2065 


STIGAND 


Stevinus.    See  Stevin. 

Stew'art,  (Charles,)  a  distinguished  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Philadelpliia  in  1778.  He  served 
as  lieutenant  in  the  operations  against  Tripoli  in  1804, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1806.  In  1812  the 
government  of  the  United  States  adopted  the  over- 
cautious policy  of  withdrawing  all  their  vessels  of  war 
from  the  ocean,  but  Captain  Stewart  and  W.  Bainbridge 
induced  them  to  abandon  that  policy.  The  former, 
in  the  summer  of  1813,  took  command  of  the  frigate 
Constitution,  which  carried  fifty-two  guns.  He  cap- 
tured in  February,  181 5,  the  British  ship  Cyane  and 
the  sloop  Levant,  for  which  service  he  received  a  gold 
medal  from  Congress.  He  afterwards  rendered  impor- 
tant services  in  the  organization  of  the  navy,  and  during 
the  civil  war  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral. 
])ied  in  1869. 

Stewart,  (Charles  William.)  See  Londonderry. 

Stew'art,  (Dugald,)  an  eminent  Scottish  professor 
of  moral  philosophy,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  on  the  22d 
of  November,  1753.  He  was  a  son  of  Matthew,  noticed 
below,  was  educated  at  the  High  School  of  Edinburgh, 
and  attended  the  lectures  of  Reid  at  Glasgow.  In  1772 
he  wrote  an  "Essay  on  Dreaming,"  and  became  an  as- 
sistant or  substitute  of  his  father  in  the  chair  of  mathe- 
matics. He  was  appointed  joint  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Edinburgh  in  1775,  and  succeeded  Dr.  Ferguson  as 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  the  same  university  in 
1785.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  didactic  orator, 
and  his  lectures  were  attended  by  many  students  from 
England,  and  even  from  the  continent.  He  promoted 
the  triumph  of  liberal  opinions  in  politics  by  his  influ- 
ence over  such  men  as  Lord  Brougham,  Lord  Jeffrey, 
and  Lord  John  Russell,  who  were  his  pupils.  In  1792 
he  published  the  first  volume  of  his  "Elements  of  the 
Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind,"  which,  being  written 
in  an  elegant  and  attractive  style,  enjoyed  a  great  popu- 
larity. The  second  volume  appeared  in  1814,  and  the 
third  in  1827.  He  produced  "Outlines  of  Moral  Phi- 
losophy" in  1793,  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Robertson"  in  1796, 
and  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Reid"  in  1802.  On  account  of  his 
feeble  health,  he  resigned  the  -active  duties  of  his  pro- 
fessorship in  1810.  Among  his  chief  works  are  a  "Phi- 
losophical Essay,"  (i  vol.,  1810,)  and  his  preliminary 
dissertation  to  the  "  Encyclo])aedia  Britannica,"  entitled 
a  "General  View  of  the  Progress  of  Metaphysical, 
Ethical,  and  Political  Science  since  the  Revival  of  Let- 
ters," which  is  highly  esteemed.  He  married  Helen 
Bannatyne  about  1783,  and  after  her  death  a  Miss  Crans- 
toun.    Died  at  Edinburgh  in  June,  1828. 

Referring  to  Stewart  as  a  lecturer.  Sir  Walter  Scott 
says,  his  "striking  and  impressive  eloquence  riveted  the 
attention  even  of  the  most  volatile  student."  "Perhaps 
few  men  ever  lived,"  says  Mackintosh,  "who  poured 
into  the  breasts  of  youth  a  more  fervid  and  yet  reason- 
able love  of  liberty,  of  truth,  and  of  virtue.  How  many 
are  still  alive  in  different  countries,  and  in  every  rank 
to  which  education  reaches,  who,  if  they  accurately 
examined  their  own  minds  and  lives,  would  not  ascribe 
much  of  whatever  goodness  and  happiness  they  possess 
to  the  early  impressions  of  his  gentle  and  persuasive 
eloquence!  .  .  .  Without  derogation  from  his  writings, 
it  may  be  said  that  his  disciples  were  among  his  best 
works."  Respecting  his  style,  the  same  able  writer 
observes,  "  He  reminds  us  not  unfrequently  of  the 
character  given  by  Cicero  to  one  of  his  contemporaries, 
'  who  expressed  refined  and  abstruse  thoughts  in  soft  and 
transparent  diction.'  ...  It  would  be  difficult  to  name 
works  in  which  so  much  refined  philosophy  is  joined 
with  so  fine  a  fancy, — so  much  elegant  literature  with 
such  a  delicate  perception  of  the  distinguishing  excel- 
lences of  great  writers,  and  with  an  estimate  in  general 
so  just  of  the  services  rendered  to  knowledge  by  a  suc- 
cession of  philosophers." 

See  "General  Review  of  the  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy;" 
Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen;" 
Cousin,  "Cours  de  Philosophic  et  Fragments  philosophiqiies,"  also 
the  same  writer  in  the  "Journal  des  Savants,"  1817;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  November,  1810,  September,  1816,  and  October,  1821  ; 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1815,  and  January,  1822; 
"North  P.ritish  Review"  for  May,  1858;  article  in  the  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1830,  (by  Sik  Willi  am  Hamilton;)  "Black- 
wood's Magazine,"  1828;  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 


Stewart  or  Steuart,  (Sir  James,)  a  Scottish  political 
economist,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1713,  was  a  Jacobite. 
He  married  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Wemyss.  Having 
joined  the  army  of  the  Pretender  in  1745,  he  was  exiled 
for  many  years.  He  returned  about  1763,  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Principles  of 
Political  Economy,"  (1767.)    Died  in  1780. 

Stew'art,  (James  Haldane,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  in  1775,  was  rector  of  Limpsfield,  in  Surrey.  He 
published  several  religious  works.    Died  in  1854. 

See  a  "  Life  of  J.  H.  Stewart,"  by  his  son,  1856. 

Stewart,  (John,)  called  Walking  Stewart,  an 
English  traveller,  born  in  London  before  1750.  He  per- 
formed journeys  on  foot  through  Hindostan,  Persia, 
Nubia,  etc.,  and  walked  back  to  England.  Died  in  Lon- 
don in  1822. 

See  De  Quincey's  interesting  account  of  Stewart  in  his  "  Literai-y 
Reminiscences,"  vol.  ii. 

Stewart,  (Matthew,)  a  Scottish  mathematician, 
born  at  Rothsay,  in  the  Isle  of  Bute,  in  1717,  was  the 
father  of  Dugald  Stewart.  He  was  miixister  of  the  parish 
of  Rosneath,  in  the  west  of  Scotland,  in  his  early  life. 
In  1747  he  succeeded  Maclaurin  as  professor  of  mathe-  1 
matics  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  He  published 
"General  Theorems,"  etc.,  (1746,)  "Tracts,  Physical 
and  Mathematical,"  (1761,)  and  "Propositions  demon- 
strated by  the  Method  of  the  Ancients,"  (1762.)  He 
was  well  versed  in  Greek  geometry.    Died  in  1785. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Stewart,  "(Robert.)    See  Castlereagh,  Lord. 

Stewart  (or  Steward)  Family.    See  Stuart. 

Sthen'e-lus,  [Gr.  ^develog ;  Fr.  Sth^nele,  sta'nal',] 
a  king  of  Mycenae,  was  a  son  of  Perseus  and  Andromeda, 
and  the  father  of  Eurystheus. 

Sthenelus,  a  son  of  Capaneus,  was  one  of  the  Epi- 
goni,  {i.e.  the  sons  of  the  seven  chiefs  who  led  the  expe- 
dition against  Thebes.)  He  was  a  friend  of  Diomede, 
under  whom  he  served  in  the  Trojan  war,  and  was  one 
of  the  band  inclosed  in  the  wooden  horse. 

Stiefel  or  Stifel,  stee'fel,  [Lat.  Stifz'lius,]  (Mi- 
chael,) a  German  mathematician,  born  at  Esslingen,  in 
Saxony,  in  i486.  He  was  a  Lutheran  minister,  and 
preached  at  various  places,  including  Lochau  and  Holts- 
dorf,  near  Wittenberg.  He  made  discoveries  in  algebra. 
His  principal  work  is  "  Arithmetica  Integra,"  (1544.) 
Died  in  1567. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Stieglitz,  steec'lits,  (Christian  LuDWiG,)a  German 
writer  upon  art,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1756,  published, 
among  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Architecture  from 
the  Earliest  Antiquity  to  Modern  Times,"  (1827,) 
"  Archaeology  of  the  Architecture  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,"  and  "On  the  Pigments  used  by  Ancient 
Artists."  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  war  lyrics.  Died 
in  1836. 

Stieglitz,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  at 
Arolsen,  in  Waldeck,  in  1803,  was  the  author  of  poems 
and  dramatic  works.    Died  in  1849. 

Stieglitz,  (Johann,)  a  German  physician,  of  Jewish 
extraction,  was  born  at  Arolsen  in  1767,  He  published 
a  treatise  "On  Animal  Magnetism,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1840. 

Stieler,  stee'ler,  (Adolf,)  a  German  geographer, 
born  at  Gotha  in  1775  5         ^'^  1836. 

Stier,  steeR,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  architect,  born  • 
near  Warsaw  in  1799.    He  became  professor  at  the 
Academy  of  Architecture  at  Berlin,  and  the  founder  of 
a  new  school  of  architects.    He  designed  the  cathedral 
of  Berlin  and  the  Athenaeum  of  Munich. 

Stiernhielm.    See  Stjernhjelm. 

Stifel.    ^ee  SriEfEL. 

Stifelius.    See  Stiefel. 

Stifter,  stifter,  (Adalbert,)  a  German  litteratetir, 
born  in  Southern  Bohemia  in  1806,  wrote  novels,  poems, 
and  prose  essays.  "  He  is,"  says  Vapereau,  "one  of  the 
best  prose-writers  of  his  country." 

Stig'and,  a  Saxon  prelate  under  the  reigns  of  Ed- 
ward the  Confessor  and  William  the  Conqueror,  be- 
came Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1052.  Having  been 
convicted  of  several  misdemeanours,  he  was  deprived  of 


€  as  k;  9  as    g  kard;g2.sj;  o,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled ;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.     (2i:^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

130 


STIGANT 


2066 


STIRLING 


his  office  and  condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment, 
but  lie  died  soon  after  the  sentence  was  passed. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "  Lives  of  tlie  Archbishops  of  Canterbury." 

Stig'ant,  (William,)  an  English  writer  and  lawyer, 
born  in  1827.  He  contributed  to  the  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view," and  published  a  collection  of  poems,  including  the 
"Vision  of  Barbarossa,"  (i860.) 

Stigliani,  st^l-y^'nee,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Matera  in  1545.  Among  his  works  is  "The 
New  World,"  ("II  Mondo  nuovo,"  1617.)  Died  at 
Rome  in  1625. 

Stiglmaier  or  Stiglmayer,  stlgKmi'er,  (Johann 
Baptist,)  a  celebrated  German  brass-founder,  born  near 
Munich  in  1791.  He  visited  Italy  in  1819,  with  a  view 
of  perfecting  his  knowledge  of  the  art,  and  soon  es- 
tablished his  reputation  by  his  bust  of  Lewis,  King  of 
Bavaria,  after  Thorwaldsen's  model.  After  his  return 
he  was  appointed,  in  1824,  superintendent  of  the  bronze- 
foundry  at  Munich.  Among  the  numerous  works  which 
he  executed  during  the  twenty  years  following,  are  the 
monument  of  Schiller  at  Stuttgart,  after  Thorwaldsen, 
the  fourteen  colossal  statues  of  the  Bavarian  princes  in 
the  new  palace  at  Munich,  after  Schwanthaler,  the  eques- 
trian statue  of  the  Elector  Maximilian,  after  Thorwald- 
sen, and  Schwanthaler's  colossal  statue  of  "  Bavaria,"  in 
front  of  the  Ruhmeshalle  at  Munich.    Died  in  1844. 

Stiles,  (Ezra,)  D.D.,  an  American  theologian  and 
scholar,  born  at  North  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1727. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  in  1756  became 
pastor  of  the  Second  Congregational  Church  at  Newport, 
Rhode  Island.  He  was  elected  in  1777  president  of 
Yale  College,  and  subsequently  professor  of  ecclesias- 
tical history.  He  was  well  versed  in  the  Hebrew,  Greek, 
and  Oriental  tongues,  and  was  esteemed  one  of  the  most 
learned  of  American  divines.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Dr.  Franklin,  and  was  the  first  one  in  New  England 
who  made  experiments  in  electricity.  He  published  an 
"Account  of  the  Settlement  of  Bristol,"  (1785,)  "His- 
tory of  Three  of  the  Judges  of  Charles  I.,"  and  a  num- 
ber of  sermons  and  orations.    Died  in  1795. 

See  the  "Life  of  Ezra  Stiles,"  in  Sparks's  "American  Biogra- 
phy," by  J.  L.  KiNGSLEY,  vol.  vi.,  second  series  ;  Sprague,  "  Annals 
of  the  American  Pulpit,"  vol.  i. 

StiFi-eho,  [Gr.  SnA^^wf  ;  Fr.  Stilicon,  ste'le'k^N',] 
(Flavius,)  an  eminent  commander  of  the  Roman  armies, 
was  a  son  of  a  Vandal  officer.  He  rose  rapidly  in  the 
reign  of  Theodosius,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Persia  in  384  a.d.,  at  which  date  he  was  a  young  man. 
On  his  return  he  married  Serena,  a  niece  of  Theodosius 
I.,  and  became  commander-in-chief  of  the  army.  He 
found  a  rival  and  dangerous  enemy  in  Rufinus,  the  chief 
minister  of  Theodosius.  In  394  Theodosius  appointed 
Stilicho  guardian  of  his  young  son  Honorius,  to  whom 
he  gave  the  Western  Empire.  Rufinus  at  the  same  time 
was  chief  minister  of  Arcadius,  Emperor  of  the  East. 
After  the  death  of  Theodosius,  (395,)  Stilicho  ruled 
with  unlimited  authority  at  Rome.  He  marched  against 
the  Goths,  who  had  invaded  'J'hrace,  and  who  were 
aided  by  the  treacherous  intrigues  of  Rufinus.  This 
rival  was  removed  by  assassination  in  395  A.n.  Stilicho 
drove  Alaric  out  of  the  Peloponnesus  in  396  A.D.  ;  but 
his  victorious  progress  was  checked  by  the  jealousy  of 
Arcadius,  who  made  a  treaty  with  Alaric  and  took  him 
into  his  own  service.  The  war  was  renewed  by  Alaric, 
who  invaded  Italy  about  402.  Stilicho  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  him  at  Pollentia  (or  Polentia)  in  403,  soon 
after  which  the  Goths  retired  from  Italy.  It  is  stated 
that  he  formed  an  alliance  with  Alaric  against  Arca- 
dius, with  a  design  to  make  himself  master  of  both  the 
Eastern  and  Western  Empires.  In  406  he  defeated  a 
host  of  barbarians  who  invaded  Northern  Italy  under 
Radagaisus.  The  enemies  of  Stilicho  excited  the  fears 
and  suspicion  of  Honorius  against  him,  and  procured 
an  order  for  his  death.  He  was  massacred  at  Ravenna 
in  408  A.D. 

See  Ci-AUDiAN,  "De  Laudibus  Stilichonis ;"  Gibbon,  "History 
of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  C.  F.  Schui.ze, 
"  F.  Stilicho  ein  Watlenstein  der  Vorzeit,"  1805;  Le  Beau,  "  His- 
toire  du  Bas-Empire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Stilicon.    See  Stilicho. 

Stilke,  stlKkeh,  (Hermann,)  a  German  historical 
painter,  born  in  Berlin  in  1803,  was  a  pupil  of  Cor- 


nelius at  Dusseldorf.  He  painted  many  religious  and 
mediaeval  subjects,  and  was  employed  by  the  King  of 
Prussia  to  adorn  with  frescos  a  hall  in  the  castle  of 
Stolzenfels. 

Still,  (John,)  a  learned  English  prelate,  born  in  Lin- 
colnshire in  1543.  He  became  Lady  Margaret  professor 
at  Cambridge  in  1570,  and  was  afterwards  master  of 
Saint  John's  and  Trinity  Colleges,  He  was  made 
Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  1592.  He  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  author  of  one  of  the  earliest  comedies  in 
the  English  language,  entitled  "A  Ryght  Pithy,  Pleas- 
aunt,  and  Merie  Comedie,  intytuled  Gammer  Gurton's 
Nedle."    Died  in  1607. 

Stille,  stiKle,  (Charles  Janeway,)  LL.D.,  an  Amer- 
ican writer  and  scholar,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1819. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1839.  He  published 
in  1862  a  well-timed  and  able  pamphlet,  entitled  "  How 
a  Free  People  Conduct  a  Long  War,"  (republished  in 
Littell's  "  Living  Age"  and  "  Harper's  Monthly  Maga- 
zine.") Among^  his  other  works  we  may  name  his 
"  History  of  the  United  States  Sanitary  Commission," 
etc.,  (1866.)  In  May,  1866,  he  was  elected  professor 
of  the  English  language  and  literature  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1868  provost  of  the  same 
institution. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Stille,  (Karl.)    See  Demme. 
Stilling.    See  Jung. 

StiPling-fleet,  (Benjamin,)  grandson  of  Edward 
Stillingfleet,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1702.  He 
studied  at  Cambridge,  and  subsequently  travelled  on 
the  continent.  Among  his  publications  may  be  named 
"Miscellaneous  Tracts  on  Natural  History,"  being 
chiefly  translations  from  Linnaeus,  and  an  abridgment 
of  Tartini's  "Treatise  on  Music."    Died  in  1771. 

See  William  Coxe,  "  Life  and  Works  of  Benjamin  Stilling- 
fleet," 1811. 

Stillingfleet,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  English  prel- 
ate and  polemical  writer,  born  at  Cranbourn,  in  Dorset, 
in  April,  1635,  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  He  became 
rector  of  Sutton  in  1657.  His  reputation  is  chiefly 
founded  on  his  "Origines  Sacras,  or  Rational  Account 
of  the  Christian  Faith  as  to  the  Truth  and  Divine  Au- 
thority of  the  Scriptures,"  (1662.)  He  wrote  a  number 
of  works  against  popery  and  the  nonconformists.  He 
was  one  of  the  chaplains  of  Charles  II.,  and  was  ap- 
pointed Dean  of  Saint  Paul's  in  1678.  In  answer  to 
Baxter,  Howe,  and  Owen,  he  published  "The  Unrea- 
sonableness of  Separation,"  (1681.)  "Stillingfleet,"  says 
Macaulay,  "  was  renowned  as  a  consummate  master 
of  all  the  weapons  of  controversy."  ("  History  of  Eng- 
land," vol.  ii.)  In  1685  he  produced  "Origines  Bri- 
tannicas,  or  Antiquities  of  the  British  Churches."  He 
became  Bishop  of  Worcester  in  1689.    Died  in  1699. 

See  Goodwin,  "Life  of  E.  Stillingfleet,"  1710. 

StilPman,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist 
divine,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1737.  He  settled  at 
Boston  as  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church,  and 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  Brown  University,  and  was 
conspicuous  for  his  benevolence.    Died  in  1807. 

StiPpo,  [Gr.  SrtATTwv;  Fr.  Stilpon,  st^KpdN',]  an 
eminent  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Megara,  lived  about 
325  or  300  B.C.  He  was  highly  esteemed  for  his  wisdom 
by  the  ancients,  and  attracted  a  large  number  of  dis- 
ciples, among  whom  were  Zeno  the  Stoic  and  Crates 
the  Cynic.  Little  is  known  about  his  life  or  doctrines, 
which  seem  to  have  been  similar  to  those  of  the  Megaric 
school. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius;  Mallet,  "  Histoire  de  I'^cole  de 
Megare." 

Stilpon.    See  Stilpo. 

Stirling,  Earl  of.    See  Alexander,.  (William.) 

Stir'ling,  (James,)  a  Scottish  mathematician,  born  in 
Stirlingshire  about  1690.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  in  1729.  His  chief  work  is  entitled 
"The  Differential  Method,  or  Treatise  on  the  Summing 
Up  and  Interpolation  of  the  Infinite  Series,"  ("  Methodus 
Differentialis,  sive  Tractatus  de  Summatione  et  Inter- 
polatione  Serierum  Infinitarum,"  1730.)  Died  about 
1770. 


S,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  ^,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  ftt;  mfit;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


STIRLING 


2067 


STOFFLER 


Stirling  or  Maxwell,  (William,)  a  Scottish  writer 
and  statesman,  born  near  Glasgow  in  1818.  Having 
graduated  at  Cambridge,  he  visited  Spain,  where  he 
resided  several  years.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  Perthshire  in  1852.  He  has  published  "Annals  of 
the  Artists  of  Spain,"  (1848,)  "The  Cloister-Life  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.,"  (1852,)  and  "Velasquez  and  his 
Works,"  (1855.)  He  assumed  the  name  of  Maxwell  in 
1866. 

Stjernhjelm,  sh§Rn'he-?lm,  (George,)  a  Swedish 
savant  and  poet,  born  in  1598;  died  in  1672. 

Stjernhok  or  Stiernhoek,  sh^Rn'hok,  (Jan,)  a 
Swedish  jurist,  born  in  Dalecarlia  in  1596.  He  pub- 
lished a  work  "On  the  Ancient  Law  of  the  Swedes  and 
Goths,"  ("  De  Jure  Sueonum  et  Gothorum  vetusto," 
1672.)     Died  in  1675. 

Stjernstolpe,  shgRns''stol-peh,  (Jonas  Magnus,)  a 
Swedish  litterateur,  born  in  the  province  of  Soderman- 
land  in  1777.  He  was  the  author  of  tales  in  verse,  and 
made  numerous  translations  from  the  German,  French, 
English,  and  Spanish.  He  was  noted  for  his  wit  and 
conversational  powers.    Died  in  183 1. 

See  Beskow,  "Minnesord  ofver  J.  M.  Stjernstolpe,"  1833. 

Stobaeus,  sto-bee'us,  [Gr.  I,To6aio^ ;  Fr.  Stob^e, 
sto'by,]  (Joannes,)  a  Greek  writer,  born  at  Stobi,  in 
Macedonia,  lived  probably  between  350  and  500  A.D. 
He  made  a  collection  of  extracts  from  about  five  hun- 
dred Greek  authors,  in  prose  and  verse.  This  work  is 
divided  into  "Eclogae  Physicae  et  Ethicae,"  and  "An- 
thologicon,  or  Sermones,"  and  is  of  great  value  as 
preserving  portions  of  authors  which  would  otherwise 
have  been  lost. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grasca  :"  Jacobs,  "  Lectiones  Sto- 
benses,"  1797;  Bering,  "  Remarques  critiques  sur  Stobee,"  1833. 

Stobee.    See  Stor^us. 

Stobee,  sto-bi',  ?  (Kilian,)  a  Swedish  naturalist, 
born  in  Scania  in  1690;  died  in  1742. 

Stober  or  Stoeber,  sto'ber,  (August,)  a  son  of 
Daniel,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1808.  He  published 
(in  German)  in  1852  "The  Tra>ditions  of  Alsace." 

Stober  or  Stoeber,  (Daniel  Ehrenfried,)  born 
at  Strasburg  in  1779,  was  the  author  of  lyric  poems,  a 
"Life  of  Jeremias  J.  Oberlin,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1835. 

Stoccade,  sto'ktd',  (Nicholas  de  Helt  or  van 
Kelt,)  a  Flemish  historical  painter,  born  at  Nymwegen 
in  1614.  He  worked  at  Rome,  Venice,  and  Paris.  His 
pictures  were  highly  prized. 

Stock,  (Simon,)  an  English  Catholic,  who  became 
general  of  the  order  of  Carmelites.  He  is  said  to  have 
founded  the  Brotherhood  of  the  Scapulary,  in  honour  of 
the  Virgin  Mary.    Died  in  1265. 

Stock'dale,  (Percival,)  Rev.,  an  English  writer  on 
various  subjects,  born  in  1736;  died  in  1811. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Percival  Slockdale,"  by  himself;  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  May,  i8oq. 

Stockfleth,  stok'flgt,  (Niels  Joachim  Christian,) 
a  Norwegian  missionary  to  Lapland,  born  at  Christiania 
in  1787.  He  translated  into  Lappish  portions  of  the 
New  Testament,  and  Luther's  "  Small  Catechism."  He 
also  wrote  a  "Lappish  Grammar,"  and  other  works. 

Stockhardt  or  Stoeckhardt,  stok'haRt,  (Julius 
Adolph,)  a  German  chemist,  born  near  Meissen  in  1809. 
He  became  in  1847  professor  of  agricultural  chemistry 
at  the  Academy  for  Agriculture  and  Forest  Science  at 
Tharand. 

Stockmans,  stok'mSns,  (Peter,)  a  Flemish  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1608.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  privy  council  about  1663,  and  held  other 
high  offices  in  Flanders.  He  published  several  legal 
works.    Died  in  1671. 

See  C.  DE  Bavay,  "  P.  Stockmans,  Jurisconsulte  Beige,"  1844. 

Stocks,  (John  E.,)  an  English  physician  and  natural- 
ist, born  in  1822.  He  visited  India,  where  he  made  a 
valuable  collection  of  plants.    Died  in  1854. 

Stocks,  (Lumb,)  an  English  line-engraver,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1812.  He  engraved  plates  for  the  "Art 
Journal,"  and  Frith's  picture  of  Claude  Duval, 

Stock'ton,  (Richard,)  an  American  patriot,  and 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born 


near  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  in  1730.  He  rose  to  distinc- 
tion as  a  lawyer,  and  was  appointed  in  1774  a  judge  of 
the  supreme  court  of  New  Jersey.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Continental  Congress  in  1776.    Died  in  1781. 

His  daughter  Julia  was  the  wife  of  Dr.  Benjamin 
Rush. 

See  Sanderson,  "Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,"  1848. 

Stockton,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  lawyer,  born  at 
Princeton,  New  Jersey,  in  1764,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  from 
1796  to  1799,  and  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives in  1 813.  He  was  at  the  head  of  the  bar  of 
New  Jersey  for  many  years.    Died  at  Princeton  in  1828. 

Stockton,  (Robert  Field,)  an  American  commo- 
dore, born  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  in  1796,  was  a  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  served  in  several  naval  actions 
in  the  war  of  1812-14.  About  1823  he  cruised  on  the 
coast  of  Africa,  and  captured  several  slavers.  He  be- 
came a  post-captain  in  1839.  He  gave  much  attention 
to  naval  architecture,  and  was  one  of  the  first  American 
officers  to  apply  steam  to  vessels  of  war.  The  sloop-of- 
war  Princeton,  which  was  finished  in  1844,  was  built 
according  to  his  plan,  and  was  a  very  successful  experi- 
ment. By  the  explosion  of  one  of  the  guns  of  the 
Princeton,  in  1844,  two  members  of  the  cabinet,  Gilmer 
and  Upshur,  were  killed.  He  obtained  command  of  the 
squadron  on  the  Pacific  coast  about  the  end  of  1845.  In 
1846  he  conquered  California,  in  which  he  established  a 
provisional  government.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States  for  six  years  by  the  legislature  of  New 
Jersey  in  1851.    Died  in  1866. 

Stockton,  (Thomas  Hp:wlings,)  D.D.,  an  eloqueni 
Methodist  divine,  born  at  Mount  Holly,  New  Jersey, 
in  1808,  for  many  years  filled  the  post  of  chaplain  to^ 
Congress.    He  published  a  number  of  religious  works. 
Died  in  1868. 

Stod'art,  (James,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  cutler  and 
metallurgist,  born  about  1760,  lived  in  London.  He 
manufactured  surgical  instruments,  and  was  associated 
with  Faraday  in  experiments  on  the  alloys  of  steel.  He 
also  made  improvements  in  the  art  of  tempering  steei. 
Died  in  1823. 

Stodart,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  in  Westminster  in  1773,  became  in  1812  political 
editor  of  the  "Times."  He  translated  Schiller's  "  Don 
Carlos"  and  "  Fiesco,"  and  wrote  several  works  on  va- 
rious subjects.  He  was  appointed  in  1826  chief  justice 
and  judge  of  the  vice-admiralty  court  at  Malta.  Died 
in  1856. 

Stod'dard,  (Richard  Henrv,)  an  American  poet, 
born  at  Hingham,  Massachusetts,  in  1825.  He  pub- 
lished a  volume  entitled  "  Footprints"  in  1848,  and  a 
second  collection  of  poems  in  1851.  About  1852  he 
married  Elizabeth  D.  Barstow,  a  poetess,  and  obtained 
a  place  in  the  custom-house  of  New  York.  Among  his 
other  poems  is  "  The  Burden  of  Unrest."  "  His  style," 
says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "  is  characterized  by  purity  and 
grace  of  expression.  He  is  a  master  of  rhythmical 
melody,  and  his  mode  of  treating  a  subject  is  sometimes 
exquisitely  subtle." 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Stoddard,  (Solomon,)  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Boston  in  1643.  He  was  minister  at  Northampton 
from  1672  until  his  death,  and  published  numerous 
works  on  theology.  He  was  a  grandfather  of  Jonathan 
Edwards.    Died  in  1729. 

Stod'dart  or  Stod'dard,  Captain,  an  English 
officer,  who  was  sent  as  envoy  to  Bokhara  about  1838. 
It  is  supposed  that  he  was  murdered  by  the  ruler  of 
Bokhara  in  1842  or  1843. 

Stoeber.    See  Stober. 

StoefEler.    See  Stoefler. 

Stoeflerus.    See  Stoefler. 

Stoerk.    See  Stork,  von,  (Anton.) 

Stoffler  or  Stoeffler,  stof  fler,  [Lat.  Stoffleri'nus 
or  S toefle'rus,]  (Johann,)  a  German  astronomer,  born 
in  Suabia  in  1452,  was  professor  of  mathematics,  as- 
tronomy, and  geography  at  Tubingen,  and  numbered 
Melanchthon  and  Miinster  among  his  pupils.  He  pub- 
lished an  account  of  an  astrolabe  of  his  own  construc- 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  H,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STOFFLET 


2068 


STONEMAN 


tion,  and  other  scientific  works.  Died  in  1531.  He 
predicted  that  there  would  be  a  great  deluge  in  1524. 

See  Wahl,  "  De  J.  Stofflerino  Mathematico,"  1743;  Bayle, 
"Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Stofflet,  sto'fii'',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  general  of  the 
royalist  party,  born  at  Luneville  in  1 751.  He  joined  the 
Vendeans  in  the  spring  of  1793,  and  was  appointed 
major-general  in  July  of  that  year.  After  fighting  with 
great  bravery  in  numerous  battles  with  the  republicans, 
he  was  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  and  exe- 
cuted, in  1796. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gen^rale." 

Stokes,  (George  Gabriel,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent 
mathematician  and  physicist,  born  in  Ireland  about 
1820.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  became 
Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics  there  in  1849.  The 
Rumford  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  was  awarded  to 
him  in  1852  for  his  discovery  of  the  change  in  the  re- 
frangibility  of  light. 

Stolberg,  stoKb^RG,  (Christian,)  Count,  a  German 
litterateur,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1748,  was  the  author  of 
several  dramas  and  a  collection  of  poems.  He  also 
published  a  translation  of  Sophocles,  and  other  poems 
from  the  Greek.    Died  in  1821. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Stolberg,  (Friedrich  Leopold,)  Count,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1750.  He  was  sent  in 
1777  by  the  Prince  Bishop  of  Lubeck  as  minister-pleni- 
potentiary to  Copenhagen,  where  he  resided  several 
years,  and  in  1789  was  Danish  ambassador  to  Berlin. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  his  romance  of  "  The 
Island,"  the  classical  drama  of  "Theseus,"  "Travels 
through  Germany,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Sicily,"  (1794,) 
and  a  "  Life  of  Alfred  the  Great,"  (1815.)  He  translated 
into  German  Homer's  "  Iliad,"  four  tragedies  of  /Eschy- 
lus,  some  of  the  works  of  Plato,  and  the  poems  of  Ossian. 
In  1800  he  was  converted  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith, 
soon  after  which  he  brought  out  his  "  History  of  the 
Religion  of  Jesus  Christ,"  (15  vols.,  181 1.)  Died  in  1819. 

See  A.  NicoLovius,  "  F.  L.  Graf  zu  Stolberg,"  1846  ;  Longfel- 
low, "Poets  and  Poetiy  of  Europe;"  J.  H.  Marx,  "DesGrafen 
F.  L.  zu  Stolberg  religioser  Geist,"  1818  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

StoU,  (Maximilian,)  a  German  physician,  born  in 
Suabia  in  1742.  He  practised  in  Vienna,  and  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "Ratio  Medendi,"  (3  vols.,  1777- 
80,)  which  was  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1788. 

See  J.  Pezzl,  "  Denkmal  auf  M.  Stoll,"  1788;  Sprengel,  "  His- 
toire  de  la  Medecine." 

Stolle,  stoKleh,  (Gottlieb,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Liegnitz,  in  Silesia,  in  1673.  He  became  in  1717  pro- 
fessor of  political  sciences  at  Jena.  Among  his  works 
are  an  "  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Erudition," 
(1718,)  and  an  "Account  of  the  Lives  and  Writings  of 
the  Fathers  of  the  Church,"  (1733.)    '^'^^^  in  1744- 

Stolle,  (LuDWiG  Ferdinand,)  a  German  poet  and 
novelist,  born  at  Dresden  in  1806.  He  published 
"  Stolle's  Werke,"  (25  vols.,  1847,)  and  (in  German) 
"Palms  of  Peace,"  (1855.) 

Stolo.    See  Licinius  Stolo. 

Stolze,  stolt'seh,  (Heinrich  August  Wilhelm,)  a 
German  stenographer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1794,  published 
a  "Theoretical-Practical  Manual  of  German  Stenog- 
raphy." 

Stone,  (Charles  P.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Greenfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1826,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1845.  "^^^  appointed  a  brigadier-general 

in  the  summer  of  1861,  and  commanded  a  division  sta- 
tioned on  the  Potomac  River.  A  part  of  his  command 
was  defeated  at  Ball's  Bluff,  October  21,  1861.  He  was 
by  some  suspected  of  treachery  on  that  occasion,  and  was 
imprisoned,  apparently  without  any  just  cause,  in  Fort 
Lafayette  from  February  to  August,  1862. 

Stone,  (Edmund,)  a  British  mathematician,  born 
about  1690.  He  published  a  "  Mathematical  Dictionary," 
(1726,)  and  translated  L'Hopital's  "Analysis  of  Infini- 
tesimals," and  Bion's  "  Treatise  on  Mathematical  In- 
struments," from  the  French.    Died  in  1768. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Stone,  (Frank,)  an  English  artist,  born  at  Manches- 
ter in  1800.  He  settled  in  London,  where  he  contributed 


a  number  of  oil-paintings  to  the  exhibitions  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  in  185 1  was  elected  an  associate  of  that 
institution.  Among  his  most  admired  works  we  may 
name  "Christ  ancl  the  Woman  of  Bethany,"  "The 
Gardener's  Daughter,"  and  a  group  of  French  peasants, 
entitled  "  Bon-Jour,  Messieurs."   Died  in  1859. 

Stone,  (Henry,)  an  English  painter  and  sculptor  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  called  "Old  Stone."  He  made 
numerous  and  good  copies  from  Flemish  and  Italian 
pictures.  Died  in  1653.  He  was  a  son  of  Nicholas 
Stone,  architect,  noticed  below. 

Stone,  (John,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  devoted 
himself  to  sculpture,  and  was  also  the  author  of  a  treat- 
ise on  fortification,  entitled  "Enchiridion."  Died  in  1699. 

Stone,  (John  H.,)  an  American  officer,  born  probably 
in  Maryland.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battles 
of  Long  Island  and  Princeton,  and  was  Governor  of 
Maryland  from  1794  to  1797.    Died  in  1804. 

Stone,  (Lucy,)  a  distinguished  advocate  of"  Women's 
Rights,"  was  born  at  West  Brookfield,  Massachusetts, 
in  1818.  At  an  early  age  she  determined  to  go  to 
college  and  obtain  a  liberal  education.  She  went  to  Ober- 
lin,  then  the  only  college  in  the  United  States  open  to 
her  sex.  By  hard  work  between  the  hours  of  study, 
she  earned  enough  to  pay  both  her  board  and  tuition 
for  nearly  the  whole  of  her  collegiate  course.  In  the 
debating-society  at  Oberlin  her  rare  oratorical  talents 
were  first  manifested  and  developed.  Having  graduated 
with  high  honours,  she  became  an  agent  and  lecturer 
of  the  Massachusetts  Anti-Slavery  Society,  in  which 
capacity  she  often  pleaded  for  the  rights  of  woman  as 
well  as  for  those  of  the  slave.  "  Lucy  Stone,"  says  Mrs. 
E.  C.  Stanton,  "  was  the  first  speaker  who  really  stirred 
the  nation's  heart  on  the  subject  of  woman's  wrongs." 
In  1855  Miss  Stone  was  married  to  Henry  B.  Blackwell, 
(the  brother  of  Elizabeth  Blackwell,  the  first  w,oman  in 
the  United  States  who  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  ;)  but, 
believing  that  her  influence  as  an  individual  would  be 
compromised  by  giving  up  her  name,  it  was  expressly 
agreed  that  she  should  still  retain  the  one  she  had  always 
borne.  As  a  speaker,  Mrs.  Stone's  merits  are  of  a  pe- 
culiar and  rare  order.  Though  possessing  uncommon 
logical  ability,  it  is  not  to  this  that  she  owes  her  remark- 
able influence  over  her  auditors  ;  nor  is  it  due  to  the 
eloquence  of  emotion  or  passion,  in  the  ordinary  signifi- 
cation of  these  words,  but  rather  to  a  magnetic  sympathy, 
which  seems  all  the  more  powerful  from  its  being  united 
with  the  utmost  quietness  and  simplicity  of  manner  in 
the  orator. 

Stone,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  architect  and  sculptor, 
born  near  Exeter  about  1586,  was  appointed  master- 
mason  of  Windsor  Castle  by  Charles  I.  Among  his 
works  are  a  monument  to  Spenser  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  and  statues  of  Edward  V.  and  Henry  VII.  Died 
in  1647. 

Stone,  (Nicholas,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  also  a 
sculptor,  and  made  copies  of  the  "  Laocoon"  and  other 
celebrated  works.    Died  in  1647. 

Stone,  (Thomas,)  an  American  patriot,  and  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  Charles 
county,  Maryland,  in  1743.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Congress  of  1774,  and  was  subsequently  three  times 
re-elected.    Died  in  1787. 

Stone,  (William  Leete,)  an  American  journalist 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Ulster  county.  New 
York,  in  1792.  He  became  in  1821  editor  of  the  "Com- 
mercial Advertiser,"  a  political  and  literary  journal  in 
New  York,  which  he  conducted  with  great  ability.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  "  Letters  on  Masonry 
and  Anti-Masonry,"  (1832,)  "  Border  Wars  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution,"  (1834,)  "  Ups  and  Downs  in  the  Life 
of  a  Distressed  Gentleman,"  (1836,)  which  was  very 
popular,  "The  Life  of  Joseph  Brant,"  (1838,)  and  "The 
Poetry  and  History  of  Wyoming,"  (1841.)  Died  in  1844. 

Stone'man,  (George,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Chautauqua  county,  New  York,  about  1824,  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1846.  He  gained  the  rank  of 
captain  in  1858,  and  became  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers in  August,  1861.  He  commanded  the  cavalry  of 
the  army  of  the  Potomac  at  the  battle  of  Chancellors- 
ville,  May,  1863.    While  serving  under  General  Sher- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


STONHOUSE 


2069 


STORT 


man  near  Atlanta,  he  conducted  a  raid  against  Macon 
with  very  ill  success,  July,  1864.  He  and  a  large  part 
of  his  command  were  captured. 

Ston'house,  (Sir  James,)  an  English  physician  and 
divine,  born  near  Abingdon  in  17 16.  He  graduated  at 
Oxford,  and  subsequently  studied  medicine  in  France. 
Having  practised  his  profession  for  many  years  with 
eminent  success,  he  entered  holy  orders,  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  preacher.  He  was  noted  for  his 
practical  benevolence,  and  published  a  number  of  tracts 
on  moral  and  religious  subjects.    Died  in  1795. 

Stoordza,  Stourdza,  or  Sturdza,  stooRd'zS, 
(Alexander,)  a  Russian  writer  and  diplomatist,  born 
at  Jassy  in  1788.  He  was  privy  councillor  in  the  reign 
of  Nicholas.  He  wrote  several  political  and  religious 
works.    Died  in  1854. 

See"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Stop'fprd,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  able  English  naval  offi- 
cer, born  in  1768.  Having  obtained  the  rank  of  captain, 
he  served  with  distinction  under  Lord  Howe  in  the 
battle  against  the  French,  June  i,  1794.  He  afterwards 
captured  many  French  vessels,  became  a  rear-admiral 
about  1808,  and  full  admiral  in  1825.  He  commanded 
the  naval  force  which  took  Acre  in  November,  1840. 
Died  in  1847. 

Storace,  sto-rd'chi  or  stor'ass,  (Anna,)  a  singer  and 
actress,  born  in  1761,  was  a  sister  of  the  following.  She 
performed  in  England.    Died  in  1814. 

Storace,  (Stephen  or  Stefano,)  a  distinguished 
composer,  of  Italian  extraction,  born  in  London  in  1763, 
Among  his  best  works  are  the  operas  of  "The  Siege  of 
Belgrade,"  "The  Haunted  Tower,"  and  "The  Pirates." 
Died  in  1796.  His  sister,  Anna  Selina,  was  a  highly 
esteemed  vocalist. 

Storch,  stoRK,  [Lat.  Pelar'gus,]  (Christoph,)  a 
German  Lutheran  theologian,  born  at  Schweidnitz  in 
1565.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Epitome  Uni- 
versae  Theologiae,"  (1617.)    Died  in  1633. 

Storch,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  physician  and  chemist, 
born  near  Eisenach  in  1681.  He  wrote  several  profes- 
sional works.    Died  in  1 75 1.  • 

Storch,  (LUDWIG,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  in 
Thuringia  in  1803,  published  a  number  of  lyric  poems 
and  historical  romances. 

Storch,  (Nicholas,)  a  German  Anabaptist  preacher, 
born  at  Stolberg,  in  Saxony,  about  1490,  is  called  the 
founder  of  the  sect  of  Pacificators.  He  taught  that  men 
should  be  guided  by  immediate  revelation  or  inspira- 
tion, and  opposed  infant  baptism.  By  the  agency  of 
Luther  he  was  banished  from  Saxony.  He  gained  many 
proselytes  in  vSuabia,  Thuringia,  etc.    Died  in  1530. 

Storch,  von,  fon  stoRK,  (Heinrich  Friedrich,)  a 
Russian  political  economist,  born  in  1766.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Historical  and  Statistical  View  of  Russia  at 
the  End  of  the  Eighteenth  Century."    Died  in  1835. 

Sto'rer,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  London. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  poem  on  "  The  Life 
and  Death  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,"  (1599.)    Died  in  1604. 

Stork,  stoRk,  (Abraham,)  a  Dutch  marine  painter 
of  the  latter  jjart  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  a 
native  of  Amsterdam.  His  sea-views  are  distinguished 
by  great  spirit  and  fidelity  to  nature.    Died  in  1708. 

Stork  or  Stoerk,  von,  fon  stoRk,  (Anton,)  Baron, 
a  German  medical  writer,  born  in  Suabia  in  1 73 1.  He 
practised  at  Vienna,  and  became  physician  to  the  em- 
press Maria  Theresa.  He  published  several  medical 
works.    Died  in  1803. 

Storks,  (Sir  Henry,)  a  British  general,  born  about 
181 1.  He  was  appointed  lord  high  commissioner  of 
the  Ionian  Islands  in  1859,  and  succeeded  Mr.  Eyre  as 
Governor  of  Jamaica  in  November,  1865. 

Storm,  (Edward,)  a  Norwegian  poet,  born  in  1749, 
was  the  author  of  a  didactic  poem  entitled  "  Infodret- 
ten,"  a  number  of  popular  lyrics,  and  a  collection  of 
*' Fables  and  Tales."    Died  in  1794. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe:"  Howitt, 
"  Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe;"  "Foreign  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  June,  1830,  article  "Danish  and  Norwegian  Lit- 
erature." 

Stor'mont,  (David  Murray,)  Viscount,  and  Earl 
of  Mansfield,  a  British  statesman,  born  about  1728,  was 


a  nephew  of  the  famous  Lord  Mansfield.  He  was  am- 
bassador at  Vienna  and  at  Paris.  In  the  ministry  formed 
by  Fox  and  Lord  North  (1783)  he  was  president  of  the 
council.    Died  in  1796. 

Storr,  (GoTTLOB  Christian,)  a  German  theologian, 
and  professor  of  divinity  at  Tiibingen,  was  born  at  Stutt- 
gart in  1746.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Biblical  Theology" 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1805. 

Storrs,  (Charles  B.,)  an  American  clergyman,  hoxsi 
about  1794,  was  a  son  of  the  Rev.  Richard  Salter  Storrs, 
who  died  in  1819.  He  became  president  of  the  Western 
Reserve  College,  Ohio,  about  1830.  Died  at  Braintree 
in  1833. 

Storrs,  (Henry  Randolph,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  orator,  born  at  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in  1787. 
He  practised  law  at  Utica,  New  York,  and  represented 
the  Oneida  district  in  Congress  from  1819  to  1832,  ex- 
cept one  term.  It  is  stated  that  he  had  a  ready  and 
powerful  elocution,  and  as  a  debater  attained  the  first 
rank.  He  was  an  adherent  of  President  Adams.  He 
died  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1837. 

Storrs,  (Richard  Salter,)  Junior,  an  American 
Congregational  divine,  born  at  Braintree,  Massachusetts, 
in  1821.  He  became  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Pil- 
grims, Brooklyn,  New  York,  in  1846,  and  in  1848  asso- 
ciate editor  of  "The  Independent,"  a  religious  journal 
published  in  that  city.  He  has  published  a  number  of 
sermons  and  orations,  and  "  Lectures  on  the  Wisdom, 
Power,  and  Goodness  of  God,  as  manifested  in  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  Human  Soul." 

Storrs,  (William  Lucius,)  an  American  jurist,  born 
in  Middletown,  Connecticut,  in  1795,  was  a  brother  of 
Henry  R.  Storrs,  noticed  above.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1829,  in  1831,  and  in  1839.  He 
became  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Connecticut 
about  1840,  and  chief  justice  of  the  same  in  1856. 
Died  in  1861. 

Sto'ry,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent  American  jurist,  born 
in  Marblehead,  Massachusetts,  on  the  i8th  of  vSeptem- 
ber,  1779,  was  a  son  of  Elisha  Story,  a  physician.  He 
graduated  in  1798  at  Harvard  College,  where  William 
E.  Channing  was  his  classmate.  He  studied  law  under 
Samuel  Sewall  and  Judge  Putnam,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1801,  and  began  to  practise  at  Salem.  In  1802 
he  produced  a  didactic  poem  called  "  The  Power  of 
Solitude,"  which  was  reprinted  with  several  short  poems 
in  1804.  He  then  ceased  to  cultivate  his  poetical  talents, 
and  devoted  himself  with  great  assiduity  to  legal  sci- 
ence, in  which  he  became  profoundly  versed.  He  was 
elected  to  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  in  1805,  be- 
gan his  political  life  as  a  Democrat,  and  was  chosen  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1808.  He  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  debater.  In  1809  or  1810  he  advocated  the 
repeal  of  the  embargo,  and  became  an  opponent  of  Jef- 
ferson on  that  question.  He  declined  to  be  a  candidate 
for  Congress  in  1810,  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  of  Massachusetts  in  181 1,  and  was  ap- 
pointed  a  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States  by  President  Madison  in  November  of  that  year. 
So  young  a  man  had  never  before,  in  America  or  Eng- 
land, been  appointed  to  so  high  a  judicial  position.  He 
continued  to  occupy  that  office  for  thirty-four  years.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  convention  which  revised  the 
constitution  of  Massachusetts  in  1820.  In  1829  he  ac- 
cepted a  chair  of  law  founded  \\\  Harvard  College  by 
Nathan  Dane.  He  delivered  courses  of  lectures  on  the 
law  of  nature,  the  laws  of  nations,  maritime  and  com- 
mercial law,  federal  equity,  and  the  constitutional  law  of 
the  United  States.  He  acquired  a  European  reputa- 
tion by  the  publication  of  a  series  of  works, — viz.,  "  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States," 
(1833.)  "Commentaries  on  the  Conflict  of  Laws,"  (3 
vols.,  1834,)  regarded  by  some  critics  as  the  most  origi- 
nal and  profound  of  his  writings,  "Commentaries  on 
Equity  Jurisprudence,"  (1836,)  and  a  "  Treatise  on  the 
Law  of  Agency,"  (1839.)  His  judgments  in  the  supreme 
court  may  be  found  in  the  Reports  of  Cranch,  Wheaton, 
Peters,  and  Howard.  His  principal  literary  writings  are 
contained  in  a  collection  of  his  discourses,  reviews,  and 
miscellanies,  published  in  1835.  "I  think  all  the  treatises 
of  Story,"  says  Chancellor  Kent,  "are  on  the  whole  the 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  o,  h,  k, guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z:  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p,  23.) 


STORT 


2070 


STOWE 


aiost  finished  and  perfect  of  their  kind  to  be  met  with  in 
any  language,  foreign  or  domestic ;  and  for  learning,  in- 
dustry, and  talent,  he  is  the  most  extraordinary  jurist  of 
the  age."  The  Earl  of  Carlisle  (formerly  Lord  Morpeth) 
speaks  of  Story  as  one  "whose  reputation  and  authority 
as  a  commentator  and  expounder  of  law  stand  high  wher- 
ever law  is  known  or  honoured,  and  who  was,  what  at 
least  is  more  generally  attractive,  one  of  the  most  gener- 
ous and  single-hearted  of  men."  He  was  endowed  with 
extraordinary  conversational  powers,  which  rendered  him 
a  great  favourite  in  society.  His  constitutional  doctrines 
were  similar  to  those  of  Marshall  and  the  Federalists. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Unitarian  Church.  Died  at 
Cambridge  on  the  loth  of  September,  1845.  He  left  one 
daughter,  who  was  married  to  George  W.  Curtis. 

Judge  Story's  works  are  more  voluminous  than  those 
of  any  other  lawyer  of  great  eminence.  His  commen- 
taries and  his  written  judgments  in  his  own  circuit 
occupy  twenty-seven  volumes,  and  his  judgments  in  the 
supreme  court  form  an  important  part  of  thirty-four 
volumes  more. 

See  a  "Life  of  Joseph  Story,"  by  his  son,  William  W.  Stoky, 
2  vols.,  1851  ;  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America;"  "  National 
Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  iii.  ;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  October,  1852  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  Janu- 
ary, 1853;  Allibone,  " Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Sto^'ry,  (Robert,)  a  British  lyric  poet,  born  in  North- 
umberland about  1790,  was  minister  at  Roseneath  or 
Rosneath.    Died  in  1859. 

See  R.  H.  Story,  "  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  Robert  Story,"  1862. 

Story,  (Thomas,)  born  in  Cumberland  about  1666, 
was  an  eminent  minister  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He 
visited  the  United  States  in  1698.    Died  in  1742. 

See  "Journal  of  the  Life  of  Thomas  Story,"  etc.,  1747;  and  an 
abridgment  of  the  same  in  "  Friends'  Library,"  vol.  x.  ;  J.  Kendall, 
"Life  of  T.  Story,"  1801. 

Story,  (William  Wetmore,)  a  lawyer  and  sculj^tor, 
a  son  of  Chief-Justice  Story,  was  born  at  Salem,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  February,  1 819.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College  in  1838,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  Boston  bar.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  the 
Law  of  Contracts,"  (1844,)  a  volume  of  Poems,  (1847,) 
and  a  "Life  of  Joseph  Story,"  (his  father,)  (1851.)  He 
afterwards  studied  sculpture  at  Rome,  where  he  passed 
many  years.  He  published  a  second  volume  of  Poems 
in  1865. 

Stosch,  von,  fon  stosh,  (Philipp,)  Baron,  a  German 
diplomatist  and  amateur,  born  at  Kustrin  in  1691,  resided 
several  years  in  Rome  and  Florence,  and  made  a  large 
and  choice  collection  of  works  of  art.  He  published 
"Gemmae  antiquae  Sculptorum  imaginibus  insignitse," 
(2  vols.,  1724.)  A  catalogue  was  published  by  Winckel- 
mann  in  1760,  entitled  "Description  of  the  Engraved 
Gems  of  the  Late  Baron  Stosch,"  (in  French.)  Died 
in  1757. 

See  Lenz,  "  Historische  Abhandlung  von  dem  Gen.  von  Stosch," 
1751  ;  Sax,  "  Onomasticon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Stoss,  stos,  (Veit,)  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of 
the  early  German  sculptors,  was  born  at  Nuremberg  in 
1490  ;  died  in  1542. 

Stoth'ard,  (Charles  Alfred,)  an  English  painter 
and  designer,  born  in  London  in  1786,  was  a  son  of 
Thomas  Stothard,  noticed  below.  Having  been  ap- 
pointed historical  draughtsman  to  the  Society  of  An- 
tiquaries in  1815,  he  visited  France,  where  he  made 
drawings  of  the  Bayeux  tapestry.  After  his  return,  he 
published  in  the  "  Archaeologia"  a  treatise  proving  the 
tapestry  to  be  coeval  with  the  Norman  Conquest.  He 
brought  out  in  1820  the  ninth  part  of  his  "Monumental 
Effigies  of  Great  Britain,"  which  was  very  favourably 
received.  He  was  killed  by  a  fall  in  1821,  and  his  last- 
named  work  was  completed  by  his  widow,  afterwards 
Mrs.  Bray. 

See  "  Memoirs  of  C.  A.  Stothard,"  by  Mrs.  Bray. 

Stothard,  (Thomas,)  an  English  artist,  born  at  Long- 
acre  in  1755.  He  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  of 
which  he  was  elected  an  Associate  in  1785,  and  in  1794 
an  Academician.  Among  his  best  works  are  his  designs 
for  Rogers's  "Poems,"  Boydell's  "  Shakspeare,"  and 
"The  Canterbury  Pilgrims."    Died  in  1834. 

See  Mrs.  Bray,  "Life  of  Thomas  Stothard,"  1851;  "Black- 
wood's Magazine"  for  May  and  June,  1836. 


Stouf,  stoof,  (Jean  Bapliste,)  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Paris  in  1742.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Insti- 
tute.   Died  in  1826. 

Stourdza.    See  Stoordza. 

Stow,  (Baron,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist  divine, 
born  in  Sullivan  county.  New  Hampshire,  in  180L  He 
published  "  Daily  Manna  for  Christian  Pilgrims,"  (1848,) 
"Question-Book  of  Christian  Doctrlfie,"  and  other  re- 
ligious works. 

Stow,  (John,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  London 
in  1525.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Summary  of  the 
Chronicles  of  England,"  afterwards  enlarged,  and  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  "  Flores  Historiarum  ;  or.  An- 
nals of  this  Kingdom  from  the  Time  of  the  Ancient 
Britons  to  his  Own,"  (1600,)  and  a  "  Survey  of  London." 
He  died  in  1605,  leaving  materials  for  a  "Chronicle 
of  England,"  subsequently  published,  with  additions,  by 
Edinund  Howes.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Stow 
was  reduced  to  great  indigence,  and  letteis-patent  were 
granted  him  by  James  I.,  permitting  him  to  collect 
gratuities  throughout  the  country  and  in  the  churches. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica  ;"  Strype,  "  Life  of  Stow,"  prefixed 
to  liis  works. 

Stowe,  sto,  (Calvin  Ellis,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine 
and  scholar,  born  at  Natick,  Massachusetts,  in  1812. 
He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1824,  became  pro- 
fessor of  languages  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1830,  and  in 
1833  professor  of  biblical  literature  at  Lane  Seminary, 
Cincinnati,  Ohio.  Having  visited  Europe  in  1836,  he 
published,  after  his  return,  a  report  on  "Elementary 
Education  in  Europe."  He  was  appointed  in  1852 
professor  of  sacred  literature  in  Andover  Theological 
Seminary. 

Stowe,  (Mrs.  Harriet  Beecher,)  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  American  authors,  was  born  at  Litch- 
field, Connecticut,  on  the  14th  of  June,  1812.  She  was 
the  third  daughter  and  sixth  child  of  the  celebrated 
Lyman  Beecher.  Her  mother,  whose  maiden-name 
was  Roxana  Foote,  was  a  granddaughter  of  General 
Ward,  who  served  under  Washington  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary war.  When  Harriet  was  not  yet  four  years  old, 
her  mother  died  ;  but  the  memory  of  her  sj^irit  and  ex- 
ample appears  to  have  had  no  little  influence  in  moulding 
the  character  of  her  gifted  daughter.  After  about  two 
years,  Mr.  Beecher  married,  as  his  second  wife,  Harriet 
Porter,  of  Maine.  The  new  step-mother,  writing  soon 
after  to  her  friends,  said,  "  Harriet  and  Henry  .  ,  .  are 
as  lovely  children  as  T  ever  saw, — amiable,  affectionate, 
and  very  bright."  While  still  a  child,  Harriet  was  pas- 
sionately fond  of  books  ;  among  those  in  which  she 
took  especial  delight  were  Scott's  novels,  the  "  Arabian 
Nights,"  and  "  Don  Quixqte."  When  at  Mr.  Brace's 
school  in  Litchfield,  between  the  ages  of  nine  and  twelve, 
she  was  deeply  interested  in  hearing  him  converse  on  his- 
tory and  moral  philosophy.  Before  she  had  completed 
her  twelfth  year,  she  wrote  a  composition  on  the  ques- 
tion, "Can  the  immortality  of  the  soul  be  proved  by  the 
light  of  nature  ?"  maintaining  the  negative.  At  an  exhi- 
bition in  the  school,  the  compositions  were  read  aloud 
before  "  the  literati  of  Litchfield."  When  hers  came  to 
be  read,  she  noticed  that  her  father,  "who  was  sitting  on 
high  by  Mr.  Brace,  brightened  and  looked  interested." 
To  Mr.  Beecher's  question,  "  Who  wrote  that .'"  the 
reply  was,  "Your  daughter,  sir."  That,  she  tells  us, 
"was  the  proudest  moment  of  her  life."  At  the  age 
of  thirteen  she  became  a  pupil  of  her  sister  Catherine, 
then  principal  of  the  Female  Seminary  at  Hartford,  in 
which  institution  she  remained  several  years.  Her 
father  having  in  1832  been  elected  president  of  Lane 
Seminary  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  she  accompanied  him 
thither.  In  1836  she  was  married  to  Professor  Calvin 
E.  Stowe,  (see  preceding  article.)  A  charming  sketch 
entitled  "Uncle  Tim,"  written  in  1834,  and  afterwards 
published  in  "The  Mayflower,"  first  attracted  public 
attention  to  her  as  a  writer  of  rare  promise.  In  1850  she 
accompanied  her  husband,  who  had  been  appointed  to  a 
professorship  in  Bowdoin  College,  to  Brunswick,  Maine. 
While  here,  she  wrote  her  novel  of  "  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin,"  furnished  to  the  "National  Era"  (published  at 
Washington)  in  weekly  contributions.  The  success  of 
this  work  has  been  without  a  parallel  in  the  history  of 


a.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,-  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


STOW  ELL 


2071 


STRJFFORD 


literature.  It  is  said  that  nearly  half  a  million  have 
been  sold  in  the  United  States,  and  probably  more  than 
that  number  have  been  distributed  in  the  British  do- 
minions, the  work  there  not  being  protected  by  copy- 
right. Add  to  this  that  it  has  been  translated  into  all 
the  principal  European  and  into  several  Asiatic  lan- 
guages, including,  it  is  said,  the  Chinese  and  Japanese. 
Two  different  translations  of  it  have  been  made  into 
Russian,  three  into  the  Magyar  language,  and  thirteen  or 
fourteen  into  German.  In  1853  Mrs.  Stovve  visited  Eng- 
land and  the  European  continent,  and  on  her  return  gave 
to  the  world  her  "  Sunny  Memories  of  Foreign  Lands," 
(2  vols.,  1854.)  "Dred,  a  Tale  of  the  Dismal  Swamp," 
appeared  in  1856;  "The  Minister's  Wooing,"  a  tale  of 
New  England  life,  (i  vol.  i2mo,)  in  1859,  first  published 
in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly,"  in  which  appeared  also  "The 
Pearl  of  Orr's  Island,"  and  "  Agnes  of  Sorrento,"  (gener- 
ally regarded  as  inferior  to  her  other  works  of  fiction.) 
Her  "  Men  of  our  Times,"  a  biographical  work,  came  out 
in  1868.  In  1869  appeared  her  "Oldtown  Folks,"  pre- 
senting, among  other  things,  a  masterly  picture  of  the 
phases  of  religious  thought  and  feeling  in  New  Eng- 
land in  the  last  century.  In  1868  there  was  published 
in  London  a  book  entitled  "  My  Recollections  of  Lord 
Byron,  and  those  of  Eye-Witnesses  of  his  Life,"  (vvith- 
out  a  name,  but  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  the 
Countess  Guiccioli,)  which  contained  some  very  severe 
reflections  on  the  character  of  the  late  Lady  Byron. 
Partly  in  reply  to  these,  Mrs.  Stowe  wrote  the  "  True 
Story  of  Lord  Byron's  Life,"  published  in  September, 
1869,  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly,"  Boston,  and  "  Macmil- 
lan's  Magazine,"  London.  This  was  severely  criticised 
in  several  European  and  American  journals.  "  As  an 
impartial  chronicler,"  says  Dr.  Allibone,  "it  is  proper 
to  state  that  we  know  of  no  instance  of  such  sweeping 
censure — of  such  general,  almost  universal,  condemna- 
tion— as  that  with  which  Mrs.  Stowe's  alleged  offence  was 
visited;  and  this  equally  by  the  few  who  believed  as 
by  the  many  who  disbelieved  her  story."  Mrs.  Stowe 
replied  to  her  critics  in  a  small  volume  entitled  "Lady 
Byron  Vindicated,"  (December,  1869.) 

See  the  interesting  notice  of  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe  in  the  "  Emi- 
nent Women  of  the  Age,"  (by  the  Rev.  E.  P.  Parker  ;)  Allibone, 
"  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  New  American  Cyclopaedia." 

Stow'ell,  (Hugh,)  an  English  theologian  and  writer, 
born  in  the  Isle  of  Man  in  1799.  He  took  orders  in 
the  Anglican  Church,  and  preached  at  Salford.  He 
published  numerous  religious  works.    Died  in  1865. 

See  J.  B.  Marsden,  "Life  of  Hugh  Stowell,"  1866. 

Stowell,  (William  Scott,)  Baron,  an  English 
judge,  born  near  Newcastle  in  1745,  was  a  brother 
of  Lord  Eldon.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he 
became  Camden  reader  of  ancient  history.  He  passed 
about  eighteen  years  at  Oxford,  (1761-79.)  About  1778 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  famous  Literary  Club, 
and  became  a  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson.  He  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1 780,  and  practised  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts 
and  high  court  of  admiralty.  He  was  more  distinguished 
for  learning  than  for  oratorical  talents.  In  1788  he  was 
appointed  a  judge  of  the  consistory  court,  advocate- 
general,  and  privy  councillor.  He  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  Parliament  in  1790,  and  became  judge  of  the  high 
court  of  admiralty  in  1798.  He  represented  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford  in  Parliament  from  1801  till  1821,  and 
constantly  supported  the  Tory  party.  He  was  raised  to 
the  peerage,  as  Baron  Stowell,  in  1821.  Lord  Stowell 
is  regarded  as  a  high  authority  for  ecclesiastical  and 
international  law.    Died  in  1836. 

See  the  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  November,  1849  ;  Lord 
Brough  am,  "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  IIL  ;"  W.  E.  Sur- 
TEF.s,  "  Lives  of  Lords  Stowell  and  Eldon,"  1846. 

Stra'bo,  [Gr.  SrpaSwv;  Fr.  Strabon,  stRfb^w',]  an 
eminent  Greek  geographer,  born  at  Amasia,  in  Pontus, 
about  60  R.c.  He  studied  under  Aristodemus,  Tyran- 
nio,  and  Xenarchus  the  Peripatetic,  and  in  philosophy 
ado|)ted  the  doctrines  of  the  Stoics.  He  also  pursued 
his  education  by  extensive  journeys  in  Egypt,  Greece, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Italy.  He  passed  a  number  of  years  at 
Rome,  and  devoted  much  time  to  the  composition  of  a 
work  on  geography  which  he  designed  to  be  attractive 
in  form  and  adapted  to  general  use.  To  the  descriptions 


of  countries  he  added  notices  of  the  customs  and  former 
history  of  the  people,  enlivened  by  the  anecdotes,  tra- 
ditions, and  comparisons  which  give  interest  to  positive 
geography.  His  work  is  highly  prized  as  an  animated, 
broadly  conceived,  and  skilfully  executed  picture  of  the 
world  as  known  to  the  ancients.  He  is  rather  deficient 
in  the  department  of  physical  geography.  Died  about 
24  A.D. 

See  SiEBELLS,  "  De  Strabonis  Patria,  Genere,  ^Etate,"  etc.,  1828  ; 
Meinecke,  "Vindiciae  Strabonianas,"  1852 ;  Vossius,  "De  His- 
toricis  Graecis;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibllotheca  Graeca;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Stra'bo,  (Caius  Fannius,)  a  Roman  orator,  was 
consul  in  122  B.C.  He  made  a  famous  speech  against 
C.  Gracchus  on  the  subject  of  giving  the  franchise  to 
the  Latins. 

Strabo,  (Caius  Fannius,)  a  Roman  historian,  was 
a  son-in-law  of  Laelius.  He  distinguished  himself  at 
the  capture  of  Carthage,  146  B.C.  He  wrote  a  work  on 
Roman  history,  which  is  lost. 

Strabon.    See  Strabo. 

Strack,  stRak,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German 
architect,  and  professor  in  the  Academy  at  Berlin,  was 
born  at  Blickeburg  in  1806.  Among  his  best  works 
are  the  castle  of  Fredericksborg,  built  for  the  King  of 
Denmark,  and  Peter's  Church  (Petrikirche)  at  Berlin. 

Strada,  stRdMS,  (Famiano,)  [Lat.  Famia'nus,]  an 
Italian  Jesuit  and  historian,  born  at  Rome  in  1572,  was 
professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  Gregorian  College  in  that 
city.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  De  Bello  Belgico 
ab  Excessu  Carli  V.  ad  Annum  1590,"  or  a  history  of 
the  revolt  of  the  Netherlands  against  Spain,  (2  vols., 
1632-47.)  He  also  wrote  Latin  essays,  entitled  "  Pro- 
lusiones,"  (161 7,)  being  commentaries  on  the  classics 
and  ancient  literature.    Died  in  1649. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana." 

Strada  or  Stradano,  stR^-d^'no,  called  also  Stra- 
dan,  [Lat.  Strada'nus  ;  Fr.  Stradan,  stRt'd6N',J(jAN,) 
a  celebrated  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Bruges  in  1536. 
He  studied  in  Italy,  where  he  was  patronized  by  the 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  Cosimo  I.  Among  his  master-pieces 
we  may  name  his  "  Crucifixion,"  in  the  Church  of  the 
Annunciation  at  Bruges.  He  also  excelled  in  painting 
animals,  hunting-scenes,  etc.    Died  in  1605. 

Strada,  di,  de  stR&'dS,  (Jacopo,)  an  Italian  anti- 
quary, born  at  Mantua  about  151 5,  was  an  expert  con- 
noisseur of  art.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Epitome  Thesauri  Antiqnitatum,  hoc  est  Imperatorum 
Romanorum  Iconum,"  etc.,  (1553,)  which  treats  of  the 
medals  of  the  Roman  emperors.    Died  in  1588. 

Stradan  or  Stradano.    See  Strada. 

Stradanus.    See  Strada. 

Stradella,  stRi-deKlS,  (Alessandro,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  composer,  born  at  Naples  in  1645.  His  oratorio 
of  "San  Giovanni  Battista"  is  greatly  admired;  and  he 
produced  a  number  of  cantatas,  duets,  etc.  of  remarkable 
beauty.  He  was  assassinated  about  1678  by  the  lover 
of  a  Venetian  lady  whom  he  had  seduced. 

Stradivarius,  stRl-de-v^'re-ooss,  (Antonio,)  an 
Italian  maker  of  stringed  instruments,  born  at  Cremona 
about  1670  ;  died  about  1735. 

Straeten,  van  der,  vtn  der  stRi'ten,  sometimes 
written  Streten,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  landscape-painter, 
born  about  1665  or  1680.    He  worked  in  England. 

Strafford,  (George  Stevens  Byng,)  Earl  of,  an 
English  peer,  was  born  in  1806.  He  was  a  Liberal 
member  of  the  House  of  Commons  from  1831  to  1852, 
and  held  several  high  civil  offices.  In  i860  he  succeeded 
to  the  earldom. 

Strafford,  (John  Byng,)  Earl  of,  a  British  general, 
born  in  London  about  1775,  was  the  father  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  served  with  distinction  as  major-general 
at  the  battles  of  Vitoria,  Nivelle,  and  Orthez.  He  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  field-marshal.    Died  about  i860. 

Strafford,  (Thomas  Wentworth,)  Earl  of,  an 
English  politician,  born  in  London  in  April,  1593,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Sir  William  Wentworth,  from  whom 
he  inherited  a  large  estate.  He  was  educated  at  Saint 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  married  in  1611  a  Miss 
Clifford,,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Cumberland.  In 
i6i4he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Yorkshire,  which 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  o,  H,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;:    trilled;  s-as  2;  th  as  in  this.    {^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STRAHAN 


2072 


STRATON 


he  also  represented  in  that  which  met  in  1621.  His 
wife  having  died  in  1622,  he  married  Arabella  HoUis,  a 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Clare.  He  was  appointed  sheriff 
of  Yorkshire  in  1625.  In  the  Parliament  which  met  in 
1628,  he  acted  with  the  popular  party,  and  made  able 
speeches  against  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the  court,  in 
order,  perhaps,  to  give  the  king  a  proper  idea  of  the 
value  of  his  services.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  he 
was  created  a  baron,  and  on  the  death  of  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham  (1628)  he  was  appointed  lord  president 
of  the  North,  and  privy  councillor.  He  was  a  political 
and  personal  friend  of  Archbishop  Laud.  He  was  am- 
bitious, energetic,  haughty,  and  unscrupulous.  He  de- 
clared that  he  would  "  lay  any  man  by  the  heels"  who 
should  appeal  from  his  sentence  to  the  courts  at  West- 
minster. In  163 1  or  1632  he  was  appointed  lord  deputy 
of  Ireland,  which  he  governed  in  a  tyrannical  manner. 
His  cruelty  to  Lord  Mountmorris  and  others  excited 
great  indignation.  He  directed  his  highest  energies  to 
the  formation  of  a  standing  army,  and  boasted  that  in 
Ireland  "  the  king  was  as  absolute  as  any  prince  in  the 
whole  world  could  be."  (Letter  to  Laud,  1634.)  He 
was  created  Earl  of  Strafford  in  1639  or  1640. 

"  He  had  been,"  says  Macaulay,  "  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished members  of  the  opposition,  and  felt  towards 
those  whom  he  had  deserted  that  peculiar  malignity 
which  has  in  all  ages  been  characteristic  of  apostates. 
He  perfectly  understood  the  feelings,  the  resources,  and 
the  policy  of  the  party  to  which  he  had  lately  belonged, 
and  had  formed  a  vast  and  deeply-meditated  scheme, 
which  very  nearly  confounded  even  the  able  tactics  of 
the  statesmen  by  whom  the  House  of  Commons  had 
been  directed.  To  this  scheme,  in  his  confidential  cor- 
respondence, he  gave  the  expressive  name  of  Thorough." 
("  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  p.  25.)  His  design  was 
to  make  the  royal  power  as  absolute  in  England  as  it 
was  in  Ireland.  The  revolt  of  the  Scotch,  whom  the 
king  foolishly  provoked  to  fight  for  their  religious  rights, 
interfered  with  the  success  of  Strafford's  scheme.  He 
was  summoned  to  London  by  Charles  I.  in  1639,  and 
appointed  general-in-chief  in  1640;  but  before  he  could 
join  the  army  it  was  driven  from  the  border  by  the 
insurgents,  and  the  war  was  ended  by  a  treaty.  The 
Long  Parliament,  which  met  in  November,  1640,  im- 
peached Strafford  of  high  treason.  He  was  accused  of 
an  attempt  "to  subvert  the  fundamental  laws  of  the 
country."  John  Pym  was  the  principal  speaker  against 
him.  (See  Pym.)  The  Commons  abandoned  the  im- 
peachment and  passed  a  bill  of  attainder  by  a  large 
majority,  of  whom  Falkland  was  one.  He  was  beheaded 
in  May,  1641.  Two  volumes  of  his  "Letters  and  De- 
spatches" have  been  published. 

See  George  Radcliffe,  "  Life  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford  ;"  Hume, 
"History  of  England;"  John  Forstek,  "  Lives  of  Eminent  British 
Statesmen;"  Macaulay,  Review  of  Lord  Nugent's  "Memorials 
of  Hampden;"  Clarendon,  "History  of  the  Great  Rebellion;" 
Lally-Tollendal,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  du  Comte  de  Strafiford," 
179.=;:  GuizoT,  "  Histoire  d«  la  Revolution  d'Angleterre ;"  "  Bio- 
graphia  Britannica." 

Strahan,  strt'an,  (William,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
printer,  born  in  Edinburgh  about  17 15.  He  became 
a  resident  of  London,  and  was  elected  a  member  of 
Parliament  in  1775.    Died  in  1785. 

Strahl,  stRSl,  (Moritz  Hermann,)  a  German  phy- 
sician and  writer,  born  at  Glogau  in  1800.  He  became 
in  1842  Sanitatsrath  in  Berlin.  Among  his  works  is 
"  Der  Mensch  nach  seiner  leiblichen  und  geistigen 
Natur,"  (1835-38.) 

Strange,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  eminent  Scottish  engraver, 
born  in  Pomona,  one  of  the  Orkney  Islands,  in  1721.  He 
studied  under  Le  Bas  in  Paris,  passed  several  years  in 
Italy,  and  settled  in  London,  where  he  worked  with  great 
success.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  Saint  Jerome," 
after  Correggio,  "Saint  Cecilia,"  after  Raphael,  "The 
Death  of  Dido,"  after  Guercino^  and  "  Venus  Reclining," 
after  Titian.    Died  in  1792. 

See  J.  Dennistoun,  Memoirs  of  Sir  R.  Strange  and  of  his 
Brother-in-Law  A.  Lumisden,"  2  vols.,  1854:  Chambers,  "Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  C.  L.  Brightwell, 
"Annals  of  Industry  and  Genius,"  1863;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
June,  i8ss. 

Strang'ford,  (Percy  Clinton  Sydney  Smythe,) 
Viscount,  an  Irish  diplomatist  and  scholar,  born  in 


1780.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
became  successively  British  ambassador  to  Stockholm 
in  1817,  to  Constantinople  in  1820,  and  to  Saint  Peters- 
burg in  1825.  He  was  vice-president  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries,  and  knight  grand  cross  of  the  Hanoverian 
Guelphic  Order.  He  made  a  translation  of  the  poems 
of  Camoens,  which  was  commended  by  Lord  Byron. 
In  1825  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  as  Lord  PenshursL    Died  in  1855. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1805 ;  "  Monthly  Re- 
view" for  September,  1804. 

Strangford,  (Percy  Ellen  Algernon  Frederick 
William  Sydney  Smythe,)  ViscoUNr,  an  Orientalist, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Saint  Petersburg  in 
1825.  His  "Selected  Writings;  Political,  Geographical, 
and  Social,"  were  published  in  2  vols.,  1869.  Died  in  1869. 

Straparola,  stR^-pa-ro'ia,  (Gian  Francesco,)  an 
Italian  writer  of  tales,  was  born  at  Caravaggio  before 
1500.  He  published  "  Piacevole  Notte,"  (2  vols.,  1550- 
54,)  often  reprinted.    Died  after  1557. 

Strat'fprd,  (Nicholas,)  a  learned  English  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1633.  He  became  Dean 
of  Saint  Asaph  in  1673,  and  chaplain  to  the  king.  In 
1689  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Chester.  He  wrote 
several  works  against  popery.    Died  in  1707. 

Strat'fprd  de  Red'cliffe,  (Stratford  Canning,) 
first  Viscount,  a  cousin  of  George  Canning,  was  born 
in  London  in  1788.  He  studied  at  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  in  i8ro  succeeded  Mr.  Robert  Adair  as 
minister-plenipotentiary  at  Constantinople.  He  became 
envoy-extraordinary  and  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the 
Uiiited  States  in  1820,  and  in  1825  was  again  sent  as 
minister  to  Constantinople,  where  he  exerted  himself  to 
procure  from  the  Sultan  some  alleviation  of  the  oppres- 
sion under  which  the  Greeks  were  then  suffering.  His 
appeals  being  unheeded,  the  chief  European  powers 
determined  upon  coercive  measures,  and  the  battle  of 
Navarino,  in  1827,  decided  the  fate  of  Greece.  Mr. 
Canning  was  soon  after  elected  to  Parliament  for  Old 
Sarum,  and  in  1829  was  created  knight  grand  cross  of  the 
Bath.  In  1841  he  was  a  third  time  appointed  ininister 
to  Constantinople,  having  on  a  previous  mission  taken  a 
prominent  part  in  defining  the  boundaries  of  Greece.  In 
this  post  he  continued  till  1858,  when  he  returned  to 
England.  Through  his  influence  with  the  Sultan,  he  pro- 
moted many  reforms,  among  which  are  the  abolition  of 
torture,  and  the  establishment  of  political  and  religious 
freedom  for  the  Protestants  in  Turkey. 

Strathnairn,  Baron.  See  Rose,  (Sir  Hugh  Henry^.) 

Stratico,  stR3.'te-ko,  (Simone,)  Count,  a  celebrated 
mathematician,  born  at  Zara,  in  Dalmatia,  about  1730. 
He  became  professor  of  navigation  and  mathematics  at 
Padua,  and  in  1801  filled  the  chair  of  navigation  at  Pavia. 
In  1803  he  was  made  a  senator  by  Napoleon,  who  also 
bestowed  upon  him  the  orders  of  the  legion  of  honour 
and  the  iron  crown.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Marine 
Vocabulary,"  and  several  works  on  hydraulics,  navi- 
gation, etc.,  which  have  a  high  reputation.  He  also 
prepared,  conjointly  with  Poleni,  a  valuable  edition  of 
Vitruvius,  published  after  the  death  of  Stratico,  which 
took  place  in  1824. 

Strato.    See  Straton. 

Strat'o-cles,  [I^TpaTOKTiri^,]  an  Athenian  orator  and 
demagogue,  lived  about  325  B.C.  He  was  a  violent  op- 
ponent of  Demosthenes. 

Stra'ton  [Gr.  Srparwv]  or  Stra'to,  a  Greek  i)hysi- 
cian  and  medical  writer,  a  pupil  of  Erasistratus,  lived  in 
the  third  century  B.C. 

Straton  (or  Strato)  of  Lampsacus,  [Fr.  Straton 
DE  Lampsaque,  strt't6N'  deh  ISMp'stk',]  a  Greek  Peri- 
patetic philosopher,  born  at  Lampsacus,  succeeded 
Theophrastus  as  chief  of  the  school  about  288  B.C.  He 
was  the  preceptor  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  According 
to  some  authorities,  he  taught  that  each  particle  of 
matter  has  a  principle  of  motion,  or  a  plastic  power. 

See  RiTTER,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  Nauwerck,  "De  Stra- 
tone  Philosopho,"  1836. 

Straton  (or  Strato)  of  Sardis,  a  Greek  epigram- 
matic poet,  who  probably  lived  in  the  second  century 
of  our  era.  Pie  compiled  an  anthology  of  licentious 
epigrams,  many  of  which  he  composed. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  ^,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,o,u,^^  short;  a,e,  i,  q,  odscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


STRATONICE 


2073 


STRICKLAND 


Strat-0-ni'9e,  [Gr.  SrparoviA;;/,]  a  beautiful  queen  of 
Syria,  born  about  316  B.C.,  was  a  daughter  of  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes.  She  was  married  to  Seleucus  I.  of  Syria, 
whose  son,  Antiochus  I.,  became  enamoured  of  her. 
She  had  a  daughter  Stratonice,  who  was  married  to 
Demetrius  II.  of  Macedonia.  Antiochus  I.  was  the 
father  of  the  second  Stratonice. 

Straftis,  [I,TpaTTL^,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet  of  the 
old  comedy,  flourished  about  410-380  B.C.  His  works 
are  lost. 

Strauchius,  stRow'Ke-u-s,  (^gidius,)  a  Gerpnan  Lu- 
theran theologian  and  mathematician,  born  at  Wittenberg 
in  1632,  was  the  authorof  a '*  Breviarium  Chronologicum" 
and  a  number  of  controversial  works.    Died  in  1682. 

Strauss,  stRowss,  (David  Friedrich,)  a  German 
rationalistic  theologian,  the  author  of  what  is  termed  the 
"mythical  theory"  of  interpreting  the  Gospels,  was  born 
at  Ludwigsburg,  in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1808.  He  studied 
theology  at  Tubingen.  In  1832  he  became  assistant 
teacher  (repetent)  in  the  Theological  Institute  of  Tiibin- 
gen.  He  produced  in  1835  his  "Life  of  Jesus  Critically 
Treated,"  in  which  he  attempts  to  prove  that  the  New 
Testament  history  is  substantially  a  tissue  of  fables.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  divinity  at  Zurich  in  1839,  but 
the  hostility  of  the  people  to  his  doctrines  was  so  loudly 
expressed  that  his  position  there  became  untenable. 
He  published  several  other  works,  among  which  are 
"The  Christian  Dogmatics  considered  in  its  Historical 
Development  and  its  Conflict  with  Modern  Science,"  (2 
vols.,  1840-41,)  and  a  "  New  Life  of  Jesus,"  ("  Das  Leben 
Jesu  :  fiir  das  Deutsche  Volk  bearbeitet,"  1864.) 

Strauss's  idea  of  a  God  appears  to  be  similar  to  that 
of  many  other  Hegelians,  who  regard  the  Deity  not  as  a 
conscious  Being,  but  as  an  unconscious  spirit  or  influ- 
ence, or  what  might  be  termed  a  system  of  laws,  mate- 
rial and  spiritual.  This  spirit  first  becomes  conscious 
in  Humanity,  which,  according  to  Strauss  and  his  fol- 
lowers, is  God  manifest  in  the  flesh. 

"Thirty  years  ago,"  says  the  "London  Quarterly 
Review,"  "'The  Life  of  Jesus'  of  Strauss  startled  the 
world  like  a  clap  of  thunder  out  of  a  calm  sky.  ...  In 
the  name  of  criticism,  he  declared  that  the  Gospels  were 
almost  valueless  as  historical  materials  ;  in  the  name  of 
science,  he  pronounced  that  miracles  were  impossible." 
(See  article  on  "The  Life  of  our  Lord,"  October,  1866.) 
"The  supposition  that  the  healthiest,  simplest,  and 
sanest  form  of  religion  the  world  has  ever  seen  should 
have  taken  its  rise  from  such  a  hotbed  of  f;ituity  and 
insanity  as  Strauss  would  have  us  believe,  appears  to 
us  to  make  greater  demands  by  far  upon  our  credulity 
than  the  hypothesis  it  is  invented  to  supersede."  (See 
"Edinburgh  Review,"  article  on  "Strauss,  Renan,  and 
«Ecce  Homo,'"  October,  1866.) 

"  Strauss  declined,"  says  Dorner,  in  his  able  work 
entitled  "  History  of  Protestant  Theology,"  "  the  rude 
method  of  combating  Christianity  in  the  style  of  the 
*  Wolfenbiittel  Fragments  ;'  as  he  likewise  covered  with 
ridicule  the  naturalistic  explanations  of  the  miracles 
by  Dr.  Paulus.  To  the  biblical  supernaturalism  which 
sought  to  found  the  truth  of  Christianity  upon  inspira- 
tion, miracles,  and  prophecy,  he  opposed  the  mythical 
theory  ;  according  to  which,  the  portrait  of  Christ  in 
the  Gospels  was  the  product  of  tradition,  of  which  the 
historic  element  was  obscure,  determined  in  its  unin- 
tentional fabrication  by  Old  Testament  images,  par- 
ticularly the  Messianic.  Christ,  however,  to  whom  the 
Messianic  predictions  were  transferred  by  the  common 
people,  could  not  have  been  a  supernatural  phenomenon, 
since  a  miracle  includes  an  impossibility  ;  so  also  the 
four  Gospels  could  not  have  proceeded  from  apostles  or 
eye-witnesses,  because,  with  their  better  knowledge,  de- 
signed fabrication  must  be  imputed  to  them.  He  then 
seeks  for  internal  contradictions  in  the  Gospels,  in  order 
thereby  to  prove  their  unhistoric  character.  As,  how- 
ever, these  contradictions  do  not  extend  to  what  is  es- 
sential, it  is  clear  that  they  are  not  what  really  decided 
him.  He  demands  a  historical  criticism,  free  from  pre- 
assumptions,*  and  yet  he  makes  (as  we  have  seen)  for 

*  The  expression  in  the  original  is  "  eine  voraussetzungslose  his- 
torische  Ktitik,"  that  is',  "a  historical  critique  without  pre-supposi- 
tions  or  pre- assumptions." 


his  mythical  theory  a  twofold  pre-assumption, — the  one 
dogmatic,*  the  other  historical. "f  (See  Dorner's  "  Ge- 
schichte  der  protestantischen  Theologie,"  p.  787.) 

See  "  Straussiade  in  Zurich,"  1840;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Geni- 
rale;"  "Foreign  Qviarterly  Review"  for  October,  1838;  "British 
Quarterly  Review"  for  February,  1847. 

Strauss,  (Friedrich  Adolf,)  a  Protestant  minister, 
a  son  of  Gerhard  Friedrich,  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Elberfeld  in  1817.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
"Sinai  and  Golgotha:  Travels  in  the  East,"  (1847,) 
which  has  been  translated  into  several  languages, 

Strauss,  (Gerhard  Friedrich,)  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Berlin,  was  born  at  Iserlohn  in  1786.  He 
published  a  number  of  popular  religious  works,  of  which 
we  may  name  "  Helon's  Pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem, "(1820,) 
and  "The  Baptism  in  Jordan,"  (1822.) 

Strauss,  (Johann,)  a  celebrated  German  composer, 
born  at  Vienna  in  1804.  His  works  are  principally 
waltzes  and  other  lively  airs,  in  which  department  of 
music  he  has  never  been  surpassed.  He  was  appointed 
director  of  music  for  the  court  balls  at  Vienna.  Died 
in  1849. 

Streafer,  (Robert,)  an  English  painter,  born  in 
1624.  His  landscapes  and  historical  pictures  were 
highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries.    Died  in  1680. 

Streckfuss,  stR^k^foos,  (Adolf  Friedrich  Karl,) 
a  German  litterateur,  born  at  Gera  in  1779.  He  wrote 
a  number  of  poems  and  tales,  and  translated  into  Ger- 
man Tasso's  "Gerusalemme  Liberata,"  the  "Orlando 
Furioso"  of  Ariosto,  and  Dante's  "  Inferno,"  "  Purga- 
torio,"  and  "  Paradiso."    Died  in  1844. 

Streek,  van,  vtn  stRak,  (Jurian,)  a  Flemish  or 
Dutch  painter  of  still  life,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1632; 
died  in  1678.  His  son  Henry,  born  in  1659,  was  a 
painter  of  interiors  of  churches,  etc.    Died  in  1713. 

Street,  (Alfred  Billings,)  an  American  poet  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Poughkeepsie  in  181 1. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "  Frontenac,"  a  poem, 
"The  Burning  of  Schenectady,  and  other  Poems," 
"  Woods  and  Waters,  or  the  Saranacs  and  Racket,"  an 
account  of  the  forests  of  Northern  New  York,  and  "The 
Council  of  Revision,"  (in  prose.)  He  practised  law  in 
Albany,  to  which  he  removed  in  1839. 

See  R.  W.  Gkiswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Streight,  strat,  (Abel  D.,)  Colonel,  an  American 
officer,  was  a  resident  of  Indiana.  He  commanded  a 
party  of  1800  cavalry  sent  from  Tennessee  on  a  raid 
into  Northern  Georgia  in  April,  1863.  He  was  cap- 
tured near  Rome,  and  confined  in  a  prison  at  Richmond, 
from  which  he  escaped  in  February,  1864.  He  was  killed 
at  Dalton,  Georgia,  in  August,  1864. 

Strein,  stRin,  or  Strin^i-us,  (Richard,)  a  German 
baron  and  antiquary,  born  in  Austria  in  1538,  was  libra- 
rian to  the  Emperor  of  Germany.   Died  in  1600  or  1601. 

Stremoiiius.    See  Austremoine. 

Streten.    See  Straeten. 

Strick  van  Linschoten,  strik  vtn  lins'Ko'ten, 
Baron,  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1769.  He 
was  appointed  in  1795  ambassador  to  the  court  of  Wiir- 
temberg.   Died  in  1819. 

Strick'land,  (Agnes,)  an  English  historical  writer, 
born  in  Suffolk  in  1806.  Among  her  numerous  works 
are  "Lives  of  the  Queens  of  England,  from  the  Nor- 
man Conquest,"  etc.,  (12  vols.,  with  portraits,  1849,) 
"  Lives  of  the  Queens  of  Scotland  and  English  Prin- 
cesses connected  with  the  Regal  Succession  of  Great 
Britain,"  (6  vols.  8vo,  1850,)  both  written  conjointly  with 
her  sister  Elizabeth,  "The  Pilgrims  of  Walsingham,  or 
Tales  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  (1835,)  "Worcester  Field, 
or  the  Cavalier;  a  Poem,  in  Four  Cantos,"  and  "Tales 
and  Stories  from  History,"  (1836.)    She  brought  out  in 


*  In  assuming  that  a  miracle  is  impossible. 

t  In  rejecting  the  historical  cliaracter  of  the  Gospels ;  not  on 
account  of  the  minute  discrepancies  found  in  them, — but  evidently 
from  a  predetermination  to  make  out  his  mythical  theory  at  wliatever 
cost.  For  if  the  minute  discrepancies,  not  essentially  affecting  the 
main  narrative,  destroy  the  historical  character  of  the  Gospels,  simi- 
lar or  greater  discrepancies  would  overthrow  all  history,  ancient  and 
modern.  A  gleat  historical  critic,  who  will  scarcely  be  accused  of 
any  tendency  to  credulity,  took  a  very  different  view  of  the  Gospel 
narratives.  (See  the  article  on  Niebuhr  the  historian,  in  this 
work.) 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STRICKLAND 


2074 


STRONG 


1842  "Letters  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  now  first  pu1j- 
lished  from  the  Originals,"  etc.  Miss  Strickland's 
productions  have  acquired  an  extensive  popularity  both 
in  Great  Britain  and  America. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1849. 

Strickland,  (Catherine  Parr,)  sister  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  married  to  Lieutenant  Trail,  of  the  twenty- 
first  British  Fusileers.  Having  settled  in  Canada,  she 
published  "The  Canadian  Crusoes,  a  Tale  of  the  Rice- 
Lake  Plains,"  and  "  The  Backwoods  of  America,  being 
Letters  from  the  Wife  of  an  Emigrant  Officer,"  etc. 

Strickland,  (Hugh  Edwin,)  an  English  naturalist, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1811.  He  visited  Asia  Minor  in 
1835,  and  published,  after  his  return,  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Geology  of  the  Thracian  Bosphorus,"  and  other  similar 
works.  He  also  wrote  "  Descriptions  of  New  Species 
of  Birds  from  West  Africa,"  and  a  volume  "  On  the 
Dodo  and  its  Kindred,  or  the  History  and  Affinities  of 
the  Dodo,  Solitaire,  and  other  Extinct  Birds,"  (1848.) 
He  was  killed  by  a  railroad-train  in  1853. 

Strickland,  (Samuel,)  a  brother  of  Agnes,  noticed 
above,  was  born  about  1810.  He  published  "Twenty- 
Seven  Years  in  Canada  West,  or  the  Experience  of  an 
Early  Settler,"  (1853.)    Died  in  1867. 

Strickland,  (Susanna,)  sister  of  Agnes  Strickland, 
was  married  to  J.  W.  D.  Moodie,  of  the  British  Fusi- 
leers, and  subsequently  removed  to  Canada.  She  pub- 
lished "Roughing  it  in  the  Bush,  or  Life  in  Canada," 
(1852,)  "Life  in  the  Clearings,"  etc.,  and  novels  entitled 
"Mark  Hurdlestone"  (1852)  and  "  Flora  Lindsay,"  (2 
vols.,  1854.) 

Her  sister,  Jane  Margaret,  has  published  a  work 
entitled  "  Rome,  Regal  and  Republican," 

StrickTand,  (William,)  an  eminent  American  ar- 
chitect, born  in  Philadelphia  in  1787.  He  studied  archi- 
tecture under  Latrobe.  His  first  public  work  of  any 
importance  was  the  old  Masonic  Hall  in  Chestnut 
Street.  This  established  his  reputation  as  an  architect, 
and  he  was  subsequently  employed  to  prepare  the 
designs  and  superintend  the  erection  of  the  United 
States  Bank,  (now  the  Custom-House,)  in  Chestnut 
Street,  above  Fourth,  long  regarded  as  the  most  mag- 
nificent edifice  in  his  native  city.  For  many  years  he 
was  the  architect  of  nearly  all  the  most  remarkable 
public  buildings  in  Philadelphia  or  its  vicinity  :  we  may 
name,  among  others,  the  Merchants'  Exchange,  (near 
Third  and  Dock  Streets,)  the  United  States  Mint,  and 
the  United  States  Naval  Asylum.  In  1825  he  was 
appointed  by  the  Franklin  Institute  commissioner  to 
visit  England  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  canal 
and  railway  systems  of  that  country.  On  his  return,  he 
was  employee!  to  superintend  the  construction  of  the  rail- 
road between  Newcastle  and  Frenchtown,  in  Maryland, 
which  was  one  of  the  first  passenger-railways  made  in 
the  United  States.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  and  also  a  member 
of  the  American  Philosophical  Society.  His  last  and 
perhaps  greatest  work  was  the  Cai)itol  at  Nashville, 
Tennessee,  commenced  in  1845  and  completed  in  1857. 
He  died  at  Nashville,  April  7,  1854  ;  and,  according  to 
a  special  act  of  the  Tennessee  legislature,  his  remains 
were  deposited  in  a  vault  under  that  magnificent  edifice 
which  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  crowning  glory  of 
his  life. 

Strickland,  (William  P.,)  D.D.,  an  American 
MethoJist  divine,  born  at  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  in 
1809.  He  has  published  a  "  History  of  the  American 
Bible  Sjciety,"  "Genius  and  Mission  of  Methodism," 
and  other  works. 

Strigel,  stRee'gel,  [Lat,  Strige'lius,]  (Victorin,)  a 
German  theologian,  born  in  15 14,  was  a  pupil  of  Mel- 
anchthon.  He  was  engaged  in  a  controversy  with 
Flacius,  and  subsequently  became  a  Calvinist.  He 
was  professor  at  Leipsic  and  Heidelberg.    Died  in  1569. 

See  Whissmann,  "  Historia  Vitae  V.  Strigelii,"  1732;  J.  K.  T. 
Qtto,  "  De  V.  Strigeiio  hberioris  mentis  in  Ecclesia  Lutherana  Vin- 
dice,"  1843. 

Strigelius.    See  Strigel, 

Stringham,  string'am,  (Silas  H.,)  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Orange  county,  New  York,  about 
1798.    He  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant  in  1821.  In 


1846  he  commanded  the  ship  Ohio  at  the  bombardment 
of  Vera  Cruz.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war 
he  was  appointed  (about  April,  1861)  flag-officer  of  the 
Atlantic  blockading  squadron.  He  commanded  the 
naval  forces  of  the  armament  which  captured  Fort  Hat- 
teras,  August  29,  1861.  He  was  appointed  a  rear-admiral 
on  the  retired  list,  August  i,  1862. 

See  J.  T.  Headley,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  1867. 

Strinius.    See  Strein. 

Strinnholm,  stRin'holm,  (Anders  Magnus,)  a 
Swedish  historian,  born  in  the  province  of  Westertjot- 
ten  in  1786.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  a  "History 
of  Sweden  from  the  Earliest  to  the  Present  Time," 
("  Svenska  Folkets  Historia  fran  aldsta  till  narvarende 
Tider,"  1834.)  In  1837  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Swedish  Academy,  and  in  1845  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Sciences. 

Stritter,  von,  fon  stRit'ter,  (Johann  Gotthilf,)  a 
German  historian,  born  at  Idstein  in  1740,  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Russia.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Russian 
Empire,"  (in  German,  2  vols.,  1800.)    Died  in  1801. 

Strobel,  stRo'bel,  (Adam  Walther,)  a  German 
historian,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1792.  His  principal 
work  is  a  "History  of  Alsace,"  (6  vols.,  1841,)  which 
was  continued  by  Engelhardt.    Died  in  1850. 

Stroctius.    See  Strozzi,  (Palla.) 

Stroemer.    See  Stromer. 

Strogonof  or  Stroganow,  stRo^gS-nof ,  (Alex- 
ander,) Count,  a  Russian  nobleman,  born  in  1734, 
was  a  distinguished  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts.  He 
was  appointed  a  privy  councillor  of  the  first  class,  and 
president  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Saint  Peters- 
burg.   Died  in  181 1. 

Strogonof,  Stroganov,  or  Stroganow,  (Alex- 
ander,) Count,  second  son  of  Gregory,  noticed  below, 
served  against  the  Turks  and  Poles,  and  rose  to  be 
successively  minister  of  the  interior,  (1839,)  member  of 
the  imperial  council  at  Saint  Petersburg,  and  Governor- 
General  of  New  Russia,  (1855.) 

Strogonof,  (Gregory,)  a  Russian  diplomatist,  born 
at  Moscow  in  1770,  was  successively  employed  in  mis- 
sions to  Madrid,  Stockholm,  and  Constantinople,  (1821.) 
In  1838  he  was  sent  as  ambassador-extraordinary  to 
England  on  the  occasion  of  the  coronation  of  Queen 
Victoria.  He  was  created  high  chamberlain  in  1846. 
Died  in  1850. 

Strogonof,  (Karl  Sergei,)  a  general,  the  eldest 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1800,  filled  several 
high  offices  under  the  government,  and  attained  the 
dignity  of  senator.  He  published  a  number  of  treatises 
on  Russian  antiquities.    Died  in  1857. 

Strogonof,  (Paul,)  Count,  a  Russian  general,  a  son 
of  Alexander,  (1734-1811,)  was  born  about  1774.  He 
was  a  friend  and  adviser  of  the  Czar  Alexander.  Died 
in  181 7.  His  wife,  Sophie  Gallitsin,  was  distinguished 
for  her  talents. 

Strombeck,  von,  fon  stRom'b§k,(FRiEDRiCH  Karl,) 
a  German  jurist  and  litterateur,  born  at  Brunswick  in 
1 771.  He  published  a  number  of  legal  and  miscel- 
laneous works,  and  made  translations  from  Tacitus, 
Sallust,  and  other  classics.    Died  in  1848. 

His  brother,  Friedrich  Heinrich,  was  also  a  distin- 
guished jurist.    Died  in  1832. 

See  F.  K.  von  Strombeck,  "  Darstellnngen  aus  meinem  Leben," 
2  vols.,  1835. 

Stromer  or  Stroemer,  stRo'mer,  (Martin,)  a  Swed- 
ish savant,  born  at  Upsal  in  1707,  succeeded  Celsius 
as  professor  of  astronomy  in  that  city.  He  translated 
Euclid's  "Elements"  into  Swedish.    Died  in  1770. 

Stromeyer,  stRo'mfer,  (Gp:org  Friedrich  Louis,) 
a  German  surgeon,  born  at  Hanover  in  1804,  became 
successively  professor  at  Erlangen,  Munich,  and  Frei- 
burg.   He  published  several  works  on  surgery. 

Strong,  (Caleb,)  an  American  statesman,  born  at 
Northampton,  Massachusetts,  in  1745.  He  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1789  and  in  1793,  and 
became  Governor  of  the  State  in  1800,  which  office  he 
continued  to  fill  for  ten  years.    Died  in  1819. 

Strong,  (James,)  an  American  theologian  and  scholar, 
born  at  New  York  in  1822.  He  published  a  "Har- 
mony and  Exposition  of  the  Gospels,"  (1852,)  a  "Greek 


a,  e,  T,  o,  VL,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


STRONG 


2075 


STRUENSEE 


Harmony  of  the  Gospels,"  (1854,)  and  has  contributed 
numerous  articles  to  the  "Methodist  Quarterly  Review." 
He  was  appointed  in  1858  professor  of  biblical  literature 
and  acting  president  of  the  Troy  University.  In  con- 
junction with  the  late  Dr.  McClintock,  he  published  a 
valuable  work  entitled  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Biblical,  Ecclesi- 
astical, and  Theological  Literature,"  (6  vols.,  \?>6']  et  seq.) 

Strong,  (Nathan,)  an  American  clergyman,  born  in 
Connecticut  in  1748.  He  preached  at  Hartford,  and 
published  numerous  sermons.    Died  in  1816. 

Strong'bow,  the  surname  of  Richard  de  Clare,  Earl 
of  Pembroke,  an  English  warrior,  distinguished  for  his 
victories  over  the  Irish.    Died  in  11 76. 

Stroth,  stRot,  (Friedrich  Andreas,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1750.  He  published 
several  classical  works.    Died  in  1795  or  1785. 

Strozzi,  stRot'see,  (Bernardo,)  surnamed  il  Capuc- 
CIn;),  or  "The  Genoese  Priest,"  an  eminent  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  1581.  His  "Virgin  and  Child" 
is  esteemed  his  master-piece.  He  painted  many  easel- 
pictures,  and  was  an  excellent  colorist.    Died  in  1644. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Soprani,  "Pittoii 
Genovesi." 

Strozzi,  (CiRiACO,  che-ree'i-ko,)  an  Italian  philoso- 
pher, born  near  Florence  in  1504.  He  wrote  a  sup- 
plement to  Aristotle's  work  "  De  Republica,"  (1562.) 
Died  in  1565. 

See  Papire  Masson,  "Vita  Kyriaci  Strozse,"  1604. 

Strozzi,  (Ercole,)  an  Italian  poet,  a  son  of  Tito 
Vespasiano,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Ferrara  in  1471. 
He  was  the  author  (id  Latin  and  Italian  poems,  which 
were  highly  esteemei/'by  his  contemporaries.  He  was 
assassinated  in  1508  by  some  person  unknown. 

See  Paolo  Giovio,  "Elogio;"  Ginguene,  "Histoire  Litteraire 
d'ltalie." 

Strozzi,  (Filippo,)  an  opulent  Florentine  merchant, 
noted  for  his  generosity,  was  born  in  1426.  He  built 
the  magnificent  Palazzo  Strozzi  at  Florence,  which  is 
still  standing.    Died  in  1491. 

Strozzi,  (Filippo,)  a  Florentine  statesman,  born  in 
1488,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  Though  connected 
with  the  Medici  by  his  marriage  with  Clarice,  niece  of 
Leo  X.,  he  exerted  himself  to  deprive  that  family  of  the 
chief  power  in  Florc.ce.  After  the  murder  of  the  duke 
Alexander  de'  Medici,  and  the  election  of  Cosimo  as  his 
successor,  Strozzi  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  an  army 
of  French  and  Italia  i  mercenaries,  and  marched  against 
the  troops  of  Cosimo,  who  was  assisted  by  the  soldiers 
of  Charles  V.  The  insurgents  were  signally  defeated, 
(1537,)  and  Strozzi  ivas  made  prisoner,  and  confined  for 
a  year  in  a  fortress,  where  he  committed  suicide  in  1538. 

See  Lorenzo  Strozzi,  "Vie  de  P.  Strozzi,"  (translated  from  the 
Italian  by  Requier,)  1762;  G.  B.  Nicoi.ini,  "Vita  di  F.  Strozzi," 
1847  ;  "  Vita  di  F.  Strozzi,  scritta  da  Lorenzo  Strozzi  siio  Figlio," 
1851 ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Strozzi,  (Filippo,)  a  commander,  born  at  Venice  in 
1 541,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  a  son  of 
Piero,  noticed  below.  He  served  with  distinction  against 
the  French  Huguenots  in  the  civil  wars  which  began 
about  1562,  and  was  appointed  in  1581  lieutenant-general 
of  the  naval  army  by  Henry  III.  He  was  killed  in  a 
naval  action  against  the  Spaniards  in  1582. 

See  Torzav,  "Vie  de  P.  Strozzi,"  1608;  Davila,  "History  of 
the  Civil  Wars  of  France." 

Strozzi,  (Francesco  di  Soldo — de  soKdo,)  an  Ital- 
ian scholar,  who  translated  Thiicydides,  and  Xenophon's 
"  Plistory  of  Greece,"  into  Italian,  (1550.) 

Strozzi,  (GiAMBATTiSTA,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
writer,  born  at  Florence  in  155 1,  was  a  nephew  of  Piero, 
noticed  below.  He  was  conspicuous  for  his  generous 
patronage  of  learning,  and  was  the  author  of  several 
works,  in  prose  and  verse.    Died  in  1634. 

Strozzi,  (GiULio,)  a  Venetian  poet,  born  about  1583, 
resided  at  Rome,  where  he  became  papal  prothono- 
tary.  He  was  the  author  of  "The  Building  of  Venice," 
("  Venezia  Edificata,")  an  epic  poem,  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1660. 

Strozzi,  (Leone,)  a  naval  officer,  born  at  Florence 
in  1515,  was  a  son  of  Filippo  Strozzi,  (1488-1538.)  He 
obtained  command  of  a  French  fleet  about  1550,  and 


was  opposed  to  Andrew  Doria  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Died  in  1554. 

Strozzi,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  writer,  was  the  author 
of  idyls,  sonnets,  etc.,  and  tragedies  entitled  "  Conradus" 
and  "David  of  Trebizond."    Died  in  1654. 

Strozzi,  [Lat.  Stroc'tius,]  (Palla,)  an  Italian  di- 
plomatist and  scholar,  born  at  Florence  in  1372.  He 
was  a  liberal  patron  of  literature,  and  devoted  his  large 
fortune  to  the  promotion  of  classical  studies,  employing 
in  his  house  many  copyists  to  transcribe  ancient  manu- 
scripts. He  also  founded  several  chairs  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Florence.  Having  opposed  the  Medici,  he  was 
banished  about  1434,  and  settled  at  Padua.  Died  in  1462. 

See  Angelo  Fabkoni,  "P.  Stroctii  Vita,"  1802;  .(Eneas  Syl- 
vius, "  Cominentarii." 

Strozzi,  (Piero,)  an  able  general,  a  son  of  Filippo 
Strozzi,  (1488-1538,)  was  born  in  1500,  and  entered  the 
French  army  after  the  death  of  his  father.  In  1553  he  was 
sent  to  the  defence  of  Sienna,  then  besieged  by  Cosimo 
I. ;  but,  having  imprudently  invaded  Tuscany,  he  was 
defeated  by  the  Marquis  of  Marignano,  near  Lucignano, 
in  1554.  He  was  afterwards  charged  by  the  pope,  Paul 
IV.,  with  the  defence  of  Rome  against  the  Duke  of  Alva. 
In  1558  he  assisted  the  Duke  of  Guise  in  the  capture  of 
Calais,  but  he  was  killed  the  same  year  at  the  siege  of 
Thionville.  He  had  been  created  marshal  of  France  by 
Henry  II.  about  1555. 

See  Brant6me,  "  Vies  des  Capitaines  etrangers ;"  Varchi, 
"  Storia  Fiorentina  ;"  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux 
Frangais  ;"  F.  Trucchi,  "  Vita  e  Geste  di  P.  Strozzi,"  1847;  "Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Strozzi,  (PiETRO,)  an  Italian  scholar,  born  at  Flor- 
ence about  1575,  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Pisa. 
He  published  a  work  on  the  Nestorians,  entitled  "  De 
Origine  et  Dogmatibus  Chaldaeorum,  sive  hodiernorum 
Nestorianorum,"  (16 17.)    Died  about  1640. 

Strozzi,  (Trio  Vespasiano,) ^an  Italian  scholar  and 
poet,  born  at  Ferrara  about  1422.  He  was  the  author 
of  Latin  lyrics,  satires,  and  epigrams.  He  became 
president  of  the  supreme  council  of  Ferrara  in  1485. 
Died  about  1508. 

Strudel  or  Strudell,  stRooMel,  (Peter,)  a  historical 
painter,  born  in  the  Tyrol  in  1680,  or,  as  some  say,  in 
1660.  He  worked  in  Vienna,  and  was  patronized  by 
the  emperor  Leopold.    Died  in  171 7. 

Struensee,  stRoo'en-za',  (Adam,)  a  German  theo- 
logian, born  at  Brandenburg  in  1708.  He  preached  at 
Halle,  and  became  superintendent  or  bishop  of  Sles- 
wick  and  Holstein  in  1761.  He  wrote  several  religious 
works.    Died  in  1791. 

Struensee,  von,  fon  stRoo'en-za',  (Johann  Fried- 
rich,)  Count,  a  minister  of  state,  born  at  Halle  in  1737, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  studied  medicine,  and 
practised  with  success  at  Altona.  His  habits  are  said 
to  have  been  licentious.  In  1768  he  became  physician 
to  Christian  VII.  of  Denmark,  whom  he  attended  in  a 
tour  through  Germany,  France,  and  England.  He  in- 
sinuated himself  into  the  favour  of  Christian  VII.,  and 
of  his  queen,  Caroline  Matilda,  a  sister  of  George  III. 
of  England.  His  talents  and  ambition  enabled  him  to 
gain  an  ascendency  over  the  king,  who  was  a  man  of 
feeble  character.  He  was  aided  in  his  ambitious  projects 
by  his  friend  Brandt,  and  by  the  queen.  He  procured 
the  removal  of  Count  Bernstorfif  in  1770,  and  became 
prime  minister.  He  made  many  innovations  in  political 
affairs,  some  of  which  were  beneficial  ;  but  he  offended 
the  people  by  his  preference  of  the  German  to  the  Danish 
language.  Prince  Frederick  and  others  formed  a  con- 
spiracy against  Struensee,  who  was  arrested,  tried,  and 
put  to  death  in  April,  1772. 

See  Falkenskiold,  "Memoirs  of  Struensee,"  (in  German,)  1788; 
J.  K.  Host,  "Struensee  og  hans  Ministerium,"  3  vols.,  1824;  J. 
GiESsiNG,  "Struensee,"  1848;  Reverdil,  "  Struensee  i  la  Cour  de 
Copenhague,"  1858;  "Authentic  Elucidation  of  the  History  of 
Struensee  and  Brandt  ;"  Dr.  Munter,  "  Narrative  of  the  Conversion 
and  Death  of  Count  Struensee  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;" 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  September,  1826,  article  "  Danish  Revo- 
lutions under  Count  Struensee,"  (by  Sir  James  Mackintosh.) 

Struensee,  von,  (Karl  August,)  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Halle  in  1735.  He  became  in 
1757  professor  of  philosophy  and  mathematics  at  the 
military  academy  of  Liegnitz.  His  "Rudiments  of 
Artillery,"  published  in  1760,  obtained  for  him  the  notice 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2i:^=='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STRUTHERS 


2076 


STUART 


and  patronage  of  Frederick  the  Great.  It  was  followed 
in  1771  by  *'  Elements  of  Military  Architecture,"  esteemed 
the  best  work  on  the  subject  that  had  then  appeared  in 
Germany.  After  the  publication  of  his  "  Description  of 
the  Commerce  of  the  Principal  European  States,"  he 
was  ennobled  and  made  minister  of  state  and  president 
of  the  board  of  excise.    Died  in  1804. 

See  Meusel,  "Gelehrtes  Deutschland ;"  Hirsching,  "  His- 
torisch-Iiterarisches  Handbuch  ;"  Von  Held,  "  Struensee,  Skizze 
fiir  Diejenigen,"  etc.,  1805. 

Struth'ers,  (John,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Lanark- 
shire in  1776,  worked  at  the  trade  of  shoemaker  in  his 
youth.  Among  his  works  is  *'  The  Poor  Man's  Sabbath," 
(1804.)    Died  in  1853. 

Strutt,  (Edward,)  Baron  Belper,  an  English  peer, 
born  in  1801.  He  was  chosen  a  Liberal  member  of 
Parliament  in  1830,  and  was  re-elected  several  times. 

Strutt,  (Joseph,)  an  English  antiquary  and  engraver, 
born  in  Essex  in  1742.  He  was  the  author  of  "The 
Regal  and  Ecclesiastical  Antiquities  of  England,"  etc., 
"Horda  Angel  Cynnan  ;  or.  View  of  the  Manners,  Cus- 
toms, etc.  of  the  Inhabitants  of  England  from  the  Arrival 
of  the  Saxons,"  (3  vols.,  1776,)  a  "Biographical  Diction- 
ary of  Engravers  from  the  Earliest  Period  to  the  Present 
Time,"  (2  vols.,  1786,)  and  "Sports  and  Pastimes  of  the 
People  of  England,"  etc.,  (1801.)  Among  his  engravings 
are  a  series  of  illustrations  of  the  "  Pilgrim's  Progress." 
He  died  in  1802,  leaving  several  works  in  manuscript, 
one  of  which,  a  romance,  entitled  "  Queen-Hoo  Hall," 
was  completed  by  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1775,  and  June,  1802. 

Struve,  stroo'veh,  (Burkhard  Gotthelf,)  a  jurist, 
a  son  of  Georg  Adam,  noticed  below,  was  born  at 
Weimar  in  167 1.  He  studied  law  and  history  at  Jena 
and  Helmstedt,  became  professor  of  history  at  Jena  in 
1704,  and  in  1 730  of  public  and  feudal  law.  Among  his 
voluminous  works  we  may  name  his  "Syntagma  Juris 
Publici,"  (171 1,)  "Body  of  German  History,"  ("Corpus 
Historiae  Germanicse,"  1730,)  and  "Introduction  to  the 
History  of  the  German  Empire,"  (in  German.)  He 
also  published  an  edition  of  the  "  Illustres  Veteres  Scrip- 
tores"  of  Pistorius,  and  of  Freher's  "  Rerum  Germani- 
carum  Scriptores."    Died  in  1738. 

See  Hirsching,"  Historisch-literarisclies  Handbuch ;"  Lipenius, 
"  Bibliotheca  Juridica." 

Struve,  (Friedrich  Georg  Wilhelm,)  an  eminent 
German  astronomer,  born  at  Altoha  in  April,  1793.  He 
was  appointed  director  of  the  Observatory  of  Dorpat 
about  1 81 8.  In  1839  he  became  director  of  a  new  and 
magnificent  observatory  erected  by  the  Russian  govern- 
ment at  Pulkova,  near  Saint  Petersburg.  He  acquired 
distinction  by  his  observations  on  double  and  multiple 
stars,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  "Astronom- 
ical Observations,"  ("  Observationes  Astronomicae,"  8 
vols.,  1820-40,)  "Micrometric  Measurements  of  the 
Double  Stars,"  ("  Stellarum  duplicium  Mensurae  micro- 
metricae,"  1827,)  and  "  Studies  of  Sidereal  Astronomy 
on  the  Milky  Way,"  ("Etudes  d' Astronomic  stellaire 
sur  la  Voie  lactee,"  etc.,  1847.)    Died  in  1864. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  Brockhaus,  "  Conversa- 
tions-Lexikon." 

Struve,  (Georg  Adam,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at 
Magdeburg  in  1619.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Jena 
in  1646,  and  in  1667  was  appointed  privy  councillor  to 
the  Duke  of  Weimar.  Among  his  numerous  legal  works, 
which  had  a  high  reputation  in  his  time,  we  may  name 
his  "  Jurisprudentia  Romano-Germanica  forensis,"  and 
"  Syntagma  Juris  Feudalis."    Died  in  1692. 

See  B.  G.  Struve,  "Vita  G.  A.  Struvii,"  1705. 

Struve,  (GusTAVUs,)  a  German  political  writer  and 
revolutionist,  born  in  Livonia  about  1805.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  insurrection  in  Baden  in  1848,  and 
became  an  exile  in  1849.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  System  of  Political  Science,"  (4  vols.,  1847.) 
Died  in  1870. 

Struve,  (OiTO  Wilhelm,)  an  astronomer,  a  son  of 
Friedrich  Georg  Wilhelm,  was  born  at  Dorpat  in  1819, 
He  obtained  the  position  of  second  astronomer  at  Pul- 
kowa.  He  discovered  many  doulile  stars,  and  computed 
the  movement  of  translation  of  the  solar  system. 


Struve,  von,  fon  stRoo'veh,  (Heinrich  Chris- 
TOPH  Gottfried,)  a  German  diplomatist,  born  at  Ratis- 
bon  in  1772,  was  employed  in  embassies  to  Hamburg, 
Saint  Petersburg,  and  other  European  courts.  Died 
in  1851. 

Struys,  stRois,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  traveller,  who  visited 
several  countries  of  Asia,  and  published  a  narrative  in 
1677.    Died  in  1694. 

Stry,  van,  vtn  stRl,  (Abraham,)  a  skilful  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Dort  in  1753,  imitated  A.  Cuyp.  He 
painted  landscapes,  cattle,  etc.    Died  in  1826. 

Stry,  van,  (Jacob,)  a  skilful  painter  of  landscapes  and 
cattle,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Dort  in 
1756.  "Many  of  his  imitations  of  Albert  Cuyp,"  says 
Bryan,  "have  passed  as  originals  of  that  master."  Died 
in  1815. 

Stryk,  stR^k,  [Lat.  Stryk'ius,]  (Samuel,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Lenzen  in  1640.  He  became  professor 
of  law  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  in  1672,  and  obtained 
a  chair  in  the  University  of  Wittenberg  in  1691.  He 
acquired  a  European  reputation  by  his  writings  on  law. 
Died  in  1710. 

See  Berger,  "  Memoria  Strykii,"  1711. 

Strykius.    See  Stryk. 

Strype,  strip,  (John,)  an  English  divine  and  biogra- 
pher, born  in  London  in  1643.  Among  his  numerous 
works  are  "Memorials  of  the  Most  Renowned  Father 
in  God,  Thomas  Cranmer,"  etc.,  (1694,)  "Historical 
Collections  relating  to  the  Life  and  Acts  of  Bishop 
Aylmer,"  (1701,)  "  Life  and  Acts  of  Archbishop  Parker," 
(171 1,)  "Ecclesiastical  Memorials,  relating  chiefly  to 
Religion  and  the  Reformation  of  it,"  etc.,  and  "Annals 
of  the  Reformation  and  Establishment  of  Religion,"  (4 
vols.,  1731.)    Died  in  1737. 

Stu'art,  (Alexander  H.  H.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  at  Staunton,  Virginia,  in  1807.  He  gained  dis- 
tinction as  a  lawyer,  became  an  orator  of  the  Whig 
party,  and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1841.  He  was 
secretary  of  the' interior  from  September,  1850,  to  March, 
1853.  He  was  loyal  to  the  Union,  until  the  secession 
of  Virginia  induced  him  to  change  sides. 

Stu^'art,  (Arabella,)  born  about  1575,  was  a  daughter 
of  Charles  Stuart,  Duke  of  Lennox,  (a  brother  of  Lord 
Darnley,)  and  was  a  cousin-german  to  James  I.  of  Eng- 
land. She  was  secretly  married  about  1609  to  William 
Seymour,  against  the  will  of  the  king,  who  imprisoned 
her  in  the  Tower.  She  was  so  harshly  treated  that  she 
became  insane,  and  died  in  the  Tower  in  September, 
161 5.  William  Seymour  was  afterwards  made  Marquis 
of  Hertford.  Arabella  Stuart  was  a  woman  of  superior 
talents  and  high  spirit. 

See  "  Life  and  Letters  of  Arabella  Stnart,"  by  Elizabeth  Cooper, 
London,  1866;  Gardiner,  "  History  of  England  from  1603  to  1616," 
vol.  ii.  chap.  x.  ;  "  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen,"  by  Louisa 

S.  COSTELLO. 

Stuart,  (Sir  Charles,)  a  British  general,  born  in 
1753,  a  younger  son  of  Lord  Bute,  the  prime  min- 
ister. He  fought  against  the  American  patriots,  (1776-82,) 
gained  the  rank  of  major-general  in  1793,  and  com- 
manded in  Corsica  in  1794.  He  took  Minorca  in  1 798. 
Died  in  1801. 

Stuart,  (Charles  Edward,)  the  Pretender.  See 
Charles  Edward. 

Stuart,  (Gilbert,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  journalist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Edinburgh  about  1746. 
He  became  in  1773  associate  editor  of  "  The  Edinburgh 
Magazine  and  Review,"  in  which  he  published  criti- 
cisms on  prominent  authors,  displaying  great  ability,  but 
disfigured  by  bitter  personalities.  He  was  afterwards 
a  contributor  to  the  "  Political  Herald"  and  "  English 
Review,"  London.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a 
"Historical  Disquisition  concerning  the  Antiquity  of 
the  British  Constitution,"  (1767,)  "View  of  Society  in 
Europe  in  its  Progress  from  Rudeness  to  Refinement," 
etc.,  (1768,)  "  History  of  the  Establishment  of  the  Re- 
formation of  Religion  in  Scotland,  1517-1561,"  (1780,) 
and  "  History  of  Scotland  from  the  Establishment  of 
the  Reformation  to  the  Death  of  Queen  Mary,"  (1782.) 
Died  in  1786. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
Ai.i.iBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "  iNIonthly  Review"  for  Sep- 
tember and  October,  1782. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  f3lt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


ST  V ART 


2077 


STURE 


Stuart,  (Gilbert  Charles,)  an  eminent  American 
painter,  born  at  Narraganset,  Rhode  Island,  in  1756. 
He  studied  in  London  under  West,  and  subsequently 
executed  a  number  of  portraits,  which  obtained  for  him 
a  high  reputation.  Among  these  may  be  named  that  of 
George  III.,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  and  John  Kemble. 
After  his  return  to  America  he  painted  a  portrait  of 
Washington,  which  is  esteemed  the  best  ever  taken  ; 
also  portraits  of  Mrs.  Washington,  John  Adams,  Jeffer- 
son, Madison,  and  other  distinguished  Americans.  Died 
in  1828. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  i. 

Stuart,  (Henry  Benedict,)  Cardinal  York,  born  in 
1725,  was  a  grandson  of  James  II.  of  England,  and  a 
brother  of  Charles  Edward  the  Pretender.  He  lived 
at  Rome,  and  became  a  cardinal  in  1747.    Died  in  1807. 

Stuart,  (James,)  an  English  antiquary  and  architect, 
commonly  known  as  "Athenian  vStuart,"  was  born  in 
London  in  1713.  He  resided  many  years  at  Rome, 
where  he  studied  antiquities  and  the  ancient  languages, 
and  in  1750  visited  Athens  in  company  with  Nicholas 
Revett,  also  an  artist.  In  1762  he  brought  out  the  first 
volume  of  the  "Antiquities  of  Athens,"  in  which  he 
was  assisted  by  Mr.  Revett.  It  was  received  with  great 
favour,  and  a  second  and  a  third  volume  were  published 
after  his  death,  which  took  place  in  1788.  Among  his 
architectural  works  may  be  named  the  chapel  of  Green- 
wich Hospital. 

Stuart,  (James  E.  B.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Patrick  county,  Virginia,  about  1833,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1854.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  the 
insurgents  in  September,  1861,  and  obtained  command 
of  a  body  of  cavalry.  In  August,  1862,  he  surprised 
General  Pope's  head-quarters  at  Catlett's  Station  and 
captured  some  of  his  private  papers.  In  October  of 
that  year  he  conducted  a  daring  and  successful  raid  to 
Chambersburg,  Pennsylvania.  His  cavalry  covered  the 
retreat  of  General  Lee  after  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  July, 
1863.  He  commanded  the  cavalry  at  the  battle  of  the 
Wilderness,  in  May,  1864,  and  was  mortally  wounded  in  a 
battle  against  General  Sheridan,  at  Yellow  Tavern,  on 
the  I2th  of  May  in  that  year. 

See  a  notice  of  General  Stuart  in  "Southern  Generals,"  1865; 
Tenney's  "Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  779. 

Stuart,  (James  F.  E.,)  the  Pretender.  See  James 
Francis  Edward. 

Stuart,  (John.)    See  Bute,  Lord. 

Stuart,  (John,)  a  Scottish  antiquary,  born  in  1751, 
was  professor  of  Greek  at  Aberdeen.    Died  in  1827. 

Stuart,  (Moses,)  an  American  theologian  and  Con- 
gregational divine,  born  at  Wilton,  Connecticut,  in  1780. 
He  was  appointed  in  1809  professor  of  sacred  literature 
at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  which  post  he  held 
for  more  than  thirty  years.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language,  without  Points," 
(1813,)  "Letters  to  Dr.  Channing  on  Religious  Liberty," 
(1830,)  "Hints  on  the  Prophecies,"  (1842,)  "A  Scrip- 
tural View  of  the  Wine  Question,"  (1848,)  and  a  number 
of  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures.  He  published  in 
1827  a  "  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews," 
which,  says  R.  W.  Griswold,  "continues  in  all  countries 
to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  noblest  examples  of  philo- 
logical theology  and  exegetical  criticism."  ("  Prose 
Writers  of  America.")    Died  in  1852. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "North  American 
Review"  for  January,  1822. 

Stu'art  or  Stew'art  Family,  a  famous  and  unfor- 
tunate royal  family  which  reigned  in  Scotland  several 
centuries  and  in  England  for  more  than  a  century.  The 
first  member  of  this  family  that  became  king  was  Robert 
II.,  whose  father  was  Walter,  high  steward  of  Scotland, 
and  whose  mother  was  a  daughter  of  Robert  Bruce.  (See 
Robert  II.)  The  last  king  of  this  dynasty  was  James  II., 
who  was  deposed  in  1688,  after  which  two  of  his  descend- 
ants, styled  Pretenders,  attempted  to  ascend  the  throne. 
(See  James  Francis  Edward,  and  Charles  Edward.) 

"The  name  of  the  family,"  says  Burton,  "was  Allan 
or  Fitz-Allan  ;  but  it  had  become  habitual  to  call  them 
by  the  name  of  the  feudal  ofiice  held  by  them  in  Scot- 
land, and  hence  Robert  II.  was  the  first  of  the  Steward 


— or,  as  it  came  to  be  written,  the  Stewart — dynasty." 
("  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap,  xxvi.) 

See  C.  D.  Voss,  "  Gescliiclite  der  Stuarts  auf  dem  Englischen 
Throne,"  4  vols.,  1794-97;  R.  Vaughan,  "Memorials  of  the  Stuart 
Dynasty,"  2  vols.,  1831. 

Stu'art  de  Rothe'say,  (roth'sa,)  (Charles  Stu- 
art,) Lord,  a  distinguished  British  diplomatist,  grandson 
of  Lord  Bute,  was  born  in  1779.  He  was  sent  in  1810 
as  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Portugal,  and  for  his  ser- 
vices on  this  occasion  obtained  from  the  prince-regent  the 
grand  cross  of  the  order  of  the  Bath.  The  King  of  Por- 
tugal also  made  him  a  grandee  of  that  kingdom.  He  was 
afterwards  successively  minister  at  Paris,  the  Hague, 
and  Saint  Petersburg.  In  1828  he  was  raised  to  the  peer- 
age, with  the  title  of  Stuart  de  Rothesay.    Died  in  1845. 

Stubbe,  stub,  (Henry,)  an  English  writer  and 
scholar,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  163 1.  He  joined  the 
party  of  Cromwell  during  the  civil  war,  and  wrote  "  A 
Vindication  of  Sir  Harry  Vane,"  "  Light  shining  out 
of  Darkness,  with  an  Apology  for  the  Quakers,"  and 
other  works.  After  the  restoration  he  went  over  to  the 
royalists,  and  published  numerous  attacks  on  his  former 
friends.    He  was  accidentally  drowned  in  1676. 

Stubbe,  (John.)    See  Stubbs,  (John.) 

Stubbs,  (George,)  an  English  painter,  horn  at  Liver- 
pool in  1724,  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of 
anatomy.  He  excelled  in  delineating  animals,  par- 
ticularly horses.  He  published  in  1766  a  treatise  "  On 
the  Anatomy  of  the  Horse."  His  picture  of  "The 
Grosvenor  Hunt"  is  esteemed  one  of  his  master-pieces. 
Died  in  1806. 

Stubbs  or  Stubbe,  (John,)  an  English  lawyer  and 
Puritan,  born  about  1540.  Having  written  a  pamphlet 
against  Queen  Elizabeth's  marriage  with  the  Duke  of 
Anjou,  entitled  "  The  Discovery  of  a  Gaping  Gulph, 
wherein  England  is  like  to  be  swallowed  by  anothei 
French  Marriage,"  his  right  hand  was  amputated  by 
order  of  the  queen.  ^ 

Stuck.    See  Battistin. 

Stuck,  stook,  [Lat.  Stuck'ius,]  (Johann  Wilhelm,) 
a  Swiss  scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Zurich  about 
1550.  He  published  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Feasts  of  the 
Ancients,  and  their  Sacrifices,"  (1591.)    Died  in  1607. 

Studer,  stoo'der,  (Bernhard,)  a  Swiss  savant,  born 
at  Buren-on-the-Aar  in  1794,  became  professor  of  geol- 
ogy at  Berne.    He  published  several  scientific  works. 

Stuerbout,  stu'er-b6wt',(DiERiCK,)  one  of  the  earliest 
Dutch  painters,  sometimes  called  DiRK  van  Haarlem, 
was  born  in  that  town.  He  lived  about  1450-70.  There 
are  two  historical  pictures  by  him  in  the  royal  collection 
at  the  Hague,  representing  incidents  in  the  life  of  the 
emperor  Otho  III.  and  his  empress.  Stuerbout  ranked 
among  the  first  artists  of  his  time. 

See  "  Lives  of  the  Early  Flemish  Painters." 

Stuermer.    See  Sturmer. 

Stuhr,  stooR,  (Peter  Feddersen,)  a  Danish  writer, 
born  at  Flensborg  in  1787,  published  a  number  of  philo- 
sophical and  historical  works.    Died  in  1851. 

StukeTey,  (William,)  M.D.,  an  English  divine,  an- 
tiquary, and  physician,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1687. 
Having  practised  medicine  for  a  time  with  great  reputa- 
tion and  success,  he  took  holy  orders,  and  in  1747 
obtained  the  rectory  of  Saint  George  the  Martyr,  in  Lon- 
don. He  was  the  author^of  "  Itinerarium  Curiosum,  or 
an  Account  of  the  Antiquities,  etc.  observed  in  Travels 
through  Great  Britain,"  (1724,)  "  Palaeographia  Britan- 
nica,  or  Discourses  on  Antiquities  in  Britain,"  (1743-54,) 
"Some  Account  of  the  Medallic  History  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  Valerius  Carausius,  Emperor  of  Britain,'* 
(1757-59,)  and  other  valuable  antiquarian  works;  also 
a  collection  of  sermons,  entitled  "  Palaeographia  Sacra," 
(1760-63.)    Died  in  1765. 

Stiller  or  Stueler,  stii'ler,  (August,)  a  German 
architect,  born  in  Berlin  in  1800,  was  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  pupils  of  Schinkel.  Among  his  greatest 
works  are  the  new  museum  at  Berlin,  and  the  Exchange 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 

Sturdza.    See  Stoordza. 

Sture,  stoo'reh,  (Sten,)  called  the  Elder,  a  Swed- 
ish statesman,  related  to  the  royal  family  of  Sweden. 
On  the  death  of  Charles  VIII.,  in  1470,  he  became  re- 
gent of  the  kingdom,  which  he  defended  with  signal 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


STURE 


2078 


STTX 


ability  against  the  attempts  of  the  Danes  and  the  Rus- 
sians.   l3ied  in  1504. 

See  Geijer,  "  Areminne  ofver  S.  Sture,"  1803. 

Sture,  (Sten,)  the  Younger,  son  of  Svante  Sture, 
noticed  below,  succeeded  his  father  as  regent  in  15 12. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  courage  and  ability,  and 
for  a  time  successfully  resisted  the  encroachments  of 
Denmark,  but  he  was  mortally  wounded  in  the  battle 
near  Jonkoping,  in  1520. 

See  SiLFVERSTOLPE,  "Areminne  bfver  S.  Sture,"  1791. 

Sture,  (Svante,)  became  Regent  of  Sweden  on  the 
death  of  Sten  Sture  the  Elder,  in  1504.    Died  in  1512. 

Sturge,  stiirj,  (Joseph,)  an  English  philanthropist, 
born  at  Elberton,  Gloucestershire,  in  1793,  was  a  member 
of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He  became  a  corn-factor 
at  Bewdley,  from  which  he  removed  to  Birmingham  in 
1822.  By  his  probity,  energy,  and  moral  courage  he 
acquired  much  influence.  He  was  one  of  the  first  in 
England  to  advocate  the  immediate  abolition  of  slavery, 
and  he  became  a  prominent  leader  of  the  anti-slavery 
movement.  In  1836  he  visited  the  West  Indies,  and 
collected  evidence  against  the  slaveholders.  He  per- 
formed an  anti-slavery  mission  to  the  United  States 
in  1841.  After  his  return  he  co-operated  actively  with 
Cobden  and  Bright  in  the  anti-corn-law  movement. 
Died  in  1859. 

See  Henry  Richard,  "Memoir  of  Joseph  Sturge,"  1864. 

Sturgeon,  (William,)  an  English  electrician,  born 
in  Lancashire  in  1783.  He  learned  the  trade  of  shoe- 
maker, and  served  a  number  of  years  in  the  royal  artil- 
lery. He  invented  or  improved  an  electro-magnetic 
machine,  and  wrote  several  treatises  on  electro-magnet- 
ism.   Died  at  Manchester  in  1850. 

Stur'ges,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  was  prebendary 
of  Winchester.  He  published  "Discourses  on  the  Evi- 
dence of^Natural  and  Revealed  Religion,"  and  was  en- 
gaged in  a  controversy  with  Dr.  Milner.    Died  in  1807. 

Stur'gis,  (Samuel  D.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Shippensburg,  Pennsylvania,  in  1822,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1846.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  major  in  May, 
1861,  and  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  army  at 
Wilson's  Creek  when  General  Lyon  was  killed,  August 
ID  of  that  year.  He  commanded  an  army  which  was 
defeated  at  Guntown,  Mississippi,  June  10,  1864. 

Sturleson.    See  Snorro-Sturleson. 

Sturm,  stooRm,  or  Sturme,  first  abbot  of  Fulda, 
was  born  in  Bavaria  about  715  A.D.  He  founded  about 
744  the  monastery  of  Fulda,  which  became  a  famous 
seat  of  learning.    Died  in  780. 

Sturm,  stooRm,  (Christoph  Christian,)  a  Ger- 
man moralist  and  preacher,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1740. 
He  preached  at  Magdeburg  and  Hamburg,  and  wrote 
a  number  of  popular  religious  works,  among  which  was 
*'  Meditations  on  the  Works  of  God  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Nature,"  (2  vols.,  1772-97.)    Died  in  1786. 

See  Feddersen,  "  Leben  und  Charakter  des  Hauptpastors  C. 
C.  Sturm,"  1786;  HiRSCHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Hand- 
bucli." 

Sturm,  stooRm  or  stiiRm,  (Jacques  Charles  Fran- 
cois,) an  excellent  Swiss  mathematician,  born  at  Geneva 
in  September,  1803.  He  was  a  tutor  to  the  son  of 
Madame  de  Stael,  with  whom  he  visited  Paris  in  1823. 
In  1827  Sturm  and  his  friend  Colladon  obtained  the 
grand  prize  of  mathematics  proposed  by  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  Paris  for  the  best  memoir  on  the  compres- 
sion of  liquids.  He  discovered  in  1829  the  celebrated 
theorem  which  completes  the  resolution  of  numerical 
equations  by  determining  the  number  of  real  roots  which 
are  included  between  given  limits.  This  is  known  as 
"  Sturm's  theorem."  He  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  the  College  RoUin  in  1830,  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1836,  and  professor  of  analysis  at  the  Poly- 
technic School  in  1840.    Died  in  1855. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Sturm,  (Jakob,)  an  eminent  German  statesman  and 
Reformer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1489.  He  became  in 
early  life  a  convert  to  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  and  was 
chosen  mayor  or  chief  magistrate  of  Strasburg  in  1526. 
His  learning  and  wisdom  were  such  that  he  was  regarded 
as  an  oracle  by  his  fellow-citizens.    It  is  stated  that  he 


was  sent  ninety-one  times  on  missions  to  various  courts, 
between  1525  and  1552.    Died  in  1553. 
See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Sturm,  [Lat.  Stur'mius,]  (Johann,)  an  eminent 
scholar  and  teacher,  surnamed  "the  German  Cicero," 
was  born  at  Schleiden  in  1507.  He  became  in  1538  rector 
of  the  gymnasium  at  Strasburg,  which,  under  his  direc- 
tion, attained  a  very  high  reputation.  He  published  an 
edition  of  Cicero,  (9  vols.,  1557  et  seq.,)  a  number  of 
translations  from  the  Latin,  and  several  original  works 
in  that  language  :  among  these  we  may  name  "On  the 
Proper  Opening  of  Schools  of  Learning,"  ("De  Litera- 
rum  Ludis  recte  Aperiendis,"  1538,)  and  "On  the  Uni- 
versal Method  of  Rhetorical  Elocution,"  ("De  universa 
Ratione  Elocutionis  Rhetoricse,"  1576.)    Died  in  1589. 

See  Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary ;"  Nic^ron, 
"Memoires;"  M.  Adam,  "VitiE  Germanorum  Philosophorum  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sturm,  (Johann  Christoph,)  a  German  philosopher 
and  mathematician,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1635.  Having 
graduated  at  Jena,  he  became  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Altdorf  in  1669.  He  translated  into  Latin  Bockler's 
"  Hydraulic  Architecture,"  and  published  several  valua- 
ble works  on  mathematics  and  physical  science.  Died 
in  1703. 

Sturm,  (Leonhard  Christoph,)  an  architect,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Altdorf  in  1669.  He 
wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Military  Architecture,"  and  other 
similar  works.    Died  in  1719. 

Stiirmer  or  Stuermer,  stiiR'mer,  (Bartholomaus,) 
Count,  son  of  Ignaz,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Con- 
stantinople in  1787,  and  was  educated  at  Vienna.  He 
was  consul-general  to  the  United  States  in  1818,  and  in 
1834  appointed  internuncio  at  Constantinople. 

Stiirmer  or  Stuermer,  (Tgnaz,)  Baron,  a  German 
diplomatist  and  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Vienna  in  1752. 
He  was  appointed  in  1789  court  interpreter,  and  in  1802 
internuncio  at  the  Porte,  and  magnate  of  Hungary  in 
1820.    Died  in  1829. 

Sturmius.    See  Sturm,  (Johann.) 

Sturt,  (John,)  an  English  engraver,  born  in  London 
in  1658,  was  celebrated  for  his  exquisite  illustrations  of 
the  "Book  of  Common  Prayer."    Died  in  1730. 

Sturtzenbecher,  stooRts'en-bek'er,  (Oscar  Pat- 
rick,) a  Swedish  writer  and  liberal  politician,  born  at 
Stockholm  in  1811. 

Sturz,  stooRts,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  near  Freiberg  in  1762,  published  editions 
of  Empedocles,  the  fragments  of  Hellanicus,  and  of  other 
Greek  writers.    Died  in  1832. 

Sturz,  (Helfreich  Peter,)  a  German  writer,  born  at 
Darmstadt  in  1736,  was  a  friend  of  Klopstock,  and  was 
patronized  by  Count  Bernstorff.  His  principal  works 
are  "Recollections  of  the  Life  of  Bernstorff,"  and  "Let- 
ters of  a  Traveller."    Died  in  1779. 

Stiive  or  Stueve,  stii'veh, (Johann  Karl  Bertram,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  at  Osnabriick  in  1798,  filled  several 
offices  under  the  government,  and  wrote  a  number  of 
political  treatises. 

Stuven,  stoo'ven,  (Ernst,)  a  German  flower-painter, 
born  at  Hamburg  in  1657  ;  died  in  1712. 

Stuyvesant,  sti've-sant,  (Peter,)  the  last  Dutch 
Governor  of  the  New  Netherlands,  (New  York,)  was 
born  about  1602.  He  was  appointed  governor  or  di- 
rector-general about  1645.  He  had  previously  served 
in  the  West  Indies,  and  lost  a  leg  in  battle.  In  1655 
he  conquered  a  Swedish  colony  on  the  Delaware  River. 
His  administration  was  vigorous  and  rather  arbitrary. 
New  Amsterdam  was  attacked  by  an  English  fleet,  to 
which  Governor  Stuyvesant  surrendered  in  September, 
1664.  He  died  at  New  York  in  1682.  Peter  Stuyvesant 
forms  a  conspicuous  character  in  Irving's  humorous 
work  entitled  "History  of  New  York,  by  Diedrich 
Knickerbocker." 

Style,  (William,)  an  English  law-writer,  born  in 
1603.    He  published  "  Reports,"  (1658.)    Died  in  1679. 

Stylites.    See  Simeon  Stylites. 

Styx,  [Gr.  Sti'^,]  a  personage  of  classic  mythology, 
was  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys,  the 
wife  of  Pallas,  and  the  mother  of  Victory,  (Nice,)  Power, 
(Cratos.)  and  Zelus.    She  is  a  personification  of  a  cele- 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f3r,  f^ll,  f^t;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SUABEDISSEN 


2079 


SUE 


brated  river  of  Hades.  The  poets  feigned  that  the  gods 
in  taking  a  solemn  oath  used  to  swear  by  Styx,  and  if 
they  violated  such  an  oath  they  were  deprived  of  nectar 
for  nine  years. 

Suabedissen,  soo'S-beh-dis'sen,  (David  Theodor 
August,)  a  German  philosophical  writer,  born  at  Mel- 
sungen  in  1773  ;  died  in  1835. 

S'ualem,  (Renkin.)    See  Rannequin. 

Suard,  sii'tR',  (Jean  Baptiste  Antoine,)  a  French 
journalist  and  litterateur,  born  at  Besanfon  in  1734. 
He  was  successively  associate  editor  of  the  "Gazette  de 
France,"  and  editor  of  the  political  journals  entitled 
"  Les  Independants"  and  "  Le  Publiciste."  He  trans- 
lated into  French  Robertson's  History  of  Charles  V.," 
and  published,  among  other  works,  "  Literary  Miscel- 
lanies," (5  vols.,  1805,)  and  "Lettres  de  I'Anonyme  de 
Vaugirard,"  a  witty  and  satirical  production,  which  ob- 
tained great  and  deserved  popularity.  He  also  made 
numerous  valuable  contributions  to  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle."  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1 772,  and  afterwards  became  perpetual 
secretary  of  that  institution.    Died  in  1817. 

See  C.  NiSARD,  "Memoires  et  Correspondance  Litt^raire  sur 
Suard,"  1859;  Garat,  "Historical  Memoirs  of  M.  Suard;"  Pe- 
RENNES,  "filoge  de  Suard,"  1841;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Suard,  Madame,  the  wife  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Lille  in  1750,  and  was  a  sister  of  Charles  J.  Panc- 
koucke  the  author.  She  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
*'  Memoirs  of  M.  Suard,"  ("  Essai  de  Memoires  sur  M. 
Suard,"  1820.)    Died  in  1830. 

Suares,  sii't'r^ss',  (Joseph  Marie,)  a  French  anti- 
quary, born  at  Avignon  in  1599,  became  liishop  of 
Vaison  in  1633.  He  wrote  numerous  antiquarian  works. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1677. 

Suaresius.    See  Suarez. 

Suarez,  swl'r^th,  [Lat.  Suarf/sius,]  (Francis,)  a 
learned  and  eloquent  Spanish  Jesuit  and  theologian, 
born  at  Granada  in  1548.  He  l>ecame  successively  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Valladolid,  Rome,  Alcala,  and  Coim- 
bra.  Among  his  principal  works  is  his  "Defensio  Fidei 
Catholicae,"  etc.,  (1613,)  being  designed  as  a  refutation 
of  the  oath  of  allegiance  exacted  by  James  I.  of  England 
from  his  subjects,  and  a  "  Treatise  on  Laws."  Died 
about  1615. 

See  Deschamps,  "Vita  Fr.  Suaresii,"  1671;  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie Generale." 

Suavius,  swi've-us,  or  Suterman,  soo'ter-min', 
(Lambert,)  sometimes  called  Schwab,  a  Flemish  en- 
graver, born  at  Liege,  flourished  about  1550.  He 
engraved  his  own  designs,  and  others.   Died  about  1565. 

Subervie,  sii'bgR^ve',  (Jacques  Gervais — zh^R'vk',) 
Baron,  a  French  general,  born  at  Lectoure  in  1776.  He 
served  as  general  of  brigade  in  Spain,  (1808-11,)  and 
in  Russia  in  1812.  He  became  a  general  of  division 
in  1814,  and  fought  at  Waterloo.  He  was  republican 
minister  of  war  from  February  25  to  March  19,  1848. 
Died  in  1856. 

See  Alexandre  Thierry,  "  Le  General  Subervie,"  1856  ;  "  Nou- 
velle Biographie  Generale." 

Sublet,  sii'biy,  (FRANgoiS,)  a  French  minister  of 
state,  born  about  1580.  He  was  secretary  of  war  from 
1636  till  1643.    Died  in  1645. 

Subleyras,  sii'bli'rSs',  (Pierre,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Uzes  in  1699.  He  resided  many  years  in  Rome, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  "Saint  Basil  celebrating  Mass  in 
the  Presence  of  the  Emperor  Valens,"  and  "  Saint 
Benedict  restoring  a  Child  to  Life."    Died  in  1749. 

Subow.    See  Zoorof. 

Subtermans.    See  Sustermans. 

Suchet,  sii'shi',  (Louis  Gabriel,)  Duke  of  Albufera, 
a  celebrated  French  marshal,  born  at  Lyons  in  March, 
1770.  He  served  in  the  Italian  campaign  of  1796,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade  for  his  distin- 
guished bravery  at  the  battle  of  Neumark,  (1797.)  Ap- 
pointed in  1799  general  of  division  under  Massena,  he 
successfully  opposed  the  Austrians  under  General  Melas, 
and  made  a  diversion  in  favour  of  Massena,  then  besieged 
at  Genoa,  (1800.)  After  the  battle  of  Marengo,  in  which 
he  took  a  prominent  part,  he  was  made  governor  of 


Genoa  and  commander  of  the  centre  of  the  army  of 
Italy.  He  successively  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Poz- 
zolo,  Borghetto,  Verona,  and  Montebello,  and  in  1805 
commanded  the  left  wing  of  Marshal  Lannes's  division 
or  corps  in  the  battle  of  Austerlitz.  Having  been  created 
by  Napoleon  a  count  of  the  empire,  he  was  appointed 
in  1808  to  the  command  of  a  division  of  the  army  of 
Spain.  In  this  post,  by  his  brilliant  successes  at  Lerida, 
Mequinanza,  (1810,)  Tortosa,  (181 1,)  and  Tarragona, 
(1811,)  he  won  the  highest  reputation  as  a  brave  officer 
and  an  able  disciplinarian  and  tactician.  He  was  made 
a  marshal  of  France  in  181 1.  His  subsequent  victories 
at  Murviedro,  Valencia,  and  Albufera  were  rewarded 
by  Napoleon  with  a  large  domain,  and  the  title  of  Duke 
of  Albufera.  After  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he 
was  deprived  of  the  greater  part  of  his  honours  ;  but  the 
title  of  peer  was  restored  to  him  by  Louis  XVIII.  in 
1819.  He  died  in  1826,  leaving  "Memoirs  of  the  War 
in  Spain,"  (1829.)  It  is  stated  that  Napoleon  estimated 
his  ability  higher  than  that  of  any  other  of  his  marshals 
except  Massena. 

See  BoLO,  "Notice  sur  le  Marechal  Suchet,"  1826;  Barrault- 
RouLLON,  "Le  Marechal  Suchet,"  1854;  De  Courceli.e.s,  "  Dic- 
tionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Suchtelen,  suK'teh-lgn',  (Jan  Pieter,)  Count,  a 
Dutch  general  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Oberyssel  in 
1759,  entered  the  Russian  service,  and  distinguished 
himself  at  the  capture  of  Sweaborg,  (1789.)  Died  in  1836. 

Suck'ling,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Middlesex  about  1608.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  and,  after  travelling  on  the  continent,  served 
for  a  time  in  the  army  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of 
Sweden.  He  subsequently  became  celebrated  as  a  wit 
at  the  court  of  Charles  I.  In  1640  he  was  elected  to  the 
Long  Parliament  for  Bramber,  but,  having  joined  in  the 
conspiracy  to  rescue  the  Earl  of  Strafford  from  the 
Tower,  in  1641,  he  was  compelled  to  take  refuge  in 
France,  where  he  died  about  1642.  His  reputation  rests 
chiefly  on  his  lyric  poems ;  but  he  also  wrote  several 
dramas  and  satires,  and  a  treatise  entitled  "  An  Account 
of  Religion  by  Reason."  "  His  style,"  says  Hazlitt,  "is 
almost  entirely  free  from  the  charge  of  pedantry  and 
affectation.  His  compositions  are  almost  all  of  them 
short  and  lively  effusions  of  wit  and  gallantry,  written 
in  a  familiar  but  spirited  style." 

See  Hazlitt,  "Comic  Writers;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol. 
ix.,  (1824.) 

Suckow,  sook'ko,  (Karl  Adolf,)  a  German  novelist, 
born  at  Miinsterberg,  in  Silesia,  in  1802,  has  written 
under  the  pseudonym  of  Posgaru.    Died  in  1847. 

Sucre,  de,  di  soo'kRk,  (Antonio  Jos^,)  a  South 
American  patriot  and  general,  born  at  Cumana  in  1793, 
fought  under  Bolivar,  and  in  1819  was  made  a  brigadier- 
general.  He  defeated  the  Spaniards  at  Pichincha  in 
1822,  and  in  1824,  having  succeeded  Bolivar  as  com- 
mander-in-chief, gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  royal- 
ists at  Ayacucho,  by  which  the  country  was  delivered 
from  the  Spanish  yoke.  He  was  created  grand  marshal 
of  Ayacucho  by  Bolivar,  and  in  1825  chosen  President 
of  Bolivia.  He  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Congress 
from  Quito  in  1830.  He  was  assassinated  soon  after,  at 
the  instigation,  it  is  supposed,  of  General  Ovando. 

Sudhodana,  soo-d'ho'da-na,  a  Hindoo  prince,  the 
father  of  Gautama,  (which  see.) 

Sudra  or  Suder.    See  Soodra. 

Sudre,  siidR,  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  lithographer, 
born  at  Alby  in  1783.  He  produced  lithographs  of 
several  works  of  Raphael  and  Ingres.  He  gained  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  in  1834. 

Sue,  sii,  (Eugene,)  a  popular  French  novelist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1804,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Joseph  Sue,  (1760- 
1830.)  He  was  named  in  honour  of  Eugene  de  Beau- 
harnais,  son  of  the  empress  Josephine,  who  was  his 
sponsor.  Having  studied  medicine,  he  accompanied 
the  French  army  into  Spain  in  1823  as  military  surgeon. 
On  the  death  of  his  father,  from  whom  he  inherited  a 
large  fortune,  he  studied  painting  for  a  time  under 
Gudin  ;  but  he  soon  renounced  this  art  for  literature, 
and  published  several  tales  of  sea-life,  entitled  "  Kernock 
le  Pirate,"  (1830,)  "  Plick  et  Plock,"  (1831,)  "  Atar  Gull," 
"La  Salamandre,"  (1832,)  and  "La  Vigie  de  Koatven," 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hxrd;  g  as /;  o,  h,  y., guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SUE  2080  SUIDJS 


(1833.)  Encouraged  by  the  success  of  these  productions, 
he  brought  out  in  the  Paris  feuilletons  a  series  of  his- 
torical romances,  among  which  we  may  name  "  Latreau- 
monte,"  "Jean  Cavalier,"  "  Le  Vicomte  de  Letorieres," 
and  '*  Le  Commandeur  de  Malte."  He  next  published 
in  rapid  succession  his  "  Mathilde,"  "  Therese  Dunoyer," 
"Mysteres  de  Paris,"  (1842,)  and  "  Le  Juif  errant," 
("TheWandering  Jew,"  1846.)  These  romances,  in  which 
Sue  has  unveiled  the  most  revolting  forms  of  vice,  and 
for  the  most  part  represented  wickedness  triumphant, 
obtained  great  popularity,  and  were  translated  into  the 
principal  European  languages.  He  was  elected  in  1850 
a  member  of  the  Assemblee  Nationale.    Died  in  1857. 

See  G.  Planche,  "Portraits Litteraires  ;"  Querard,  "  La  France 
Litteraire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogravihie  Generale  ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1838,  and  July,  1842. 

Sue,  (Jean,)  a  French  surgeon  and  writer,  born  in 
Var  in  1699.    He  practised  in  Paris.    Died  in  1762. 

Sue,  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  writer  on  anatomy  and 
surgery,  born  in  17 10,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  lectured  on  anatomy  in  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1792. 

See  "Biographic  Medicale." 

Sue,  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  surgeon,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1760.  He  wrote  "Physiological 
Researches  on  Vitality,"  (1798,)  and  other  works.  He 
became  consulting  physician  to  the  king  in  1824,  Died 
in  1830. 

Sue,  (Pierre,)  a  learned  surgeon,  born  in  Paris  in 
1739,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Sue,  noticed  above.  He  pub- 
lished numerous  works  on  surgery  and  medicine,  which 
are  commended.    Died  in  1816. 

See  "  Biographie  Medicale." 

Sueno.    See  Aagesen  and  Sweyn. 
Suenon,  the  French  for  Sweyn,  King  of  Denmark. 
(See  Sweyn.) 
Suetone.    See  Suetonius. 

Sue-to'm-us,  [  Fr.  Su^;tone,  sii-a'ton',]  (Caius 
Tranquillus,)  an  eminent  Latin  historian,  born  about 
70  A.D.,  was  a  son  of  a  military  tribune.  He  was  a  friend 
of  Pliny  the  Younger,  who  wrote  to  .Suetonius  several 
letters,  which  are  extant.  He  practised  law,  and  was 
versed  in  various  departments  of  learning.  In  the  reign 
of  Hadrian  he  obtained  the  office  of  magister  epistolarum, 
or  secretary,  but  he  did  not  keep  it  long.  Pliny  the 
Younger  speaks  in  high  terms  of  his  integrity  and  learn- 
ing. Suetonius  wrote,  besides  numerous  works  which 
are  lost,  "The  Lives  of  the  Twelve  Csesars,"  ("  Vitae 
Caesarum,"  which  is  highly  prized,  and  appears  to  be 
impartial.  The  subjects  of  this  work  are  the  twelve 
emperors  from  Julius  Caesar  to  Domitian  inclusive, 
whose  private  lives  and  vices  he  exposes,  with  copious 
details.  Saint  Jerome  says  pithily  of  Suetonius,  "that 
he  wrote  of  the  emperors  with  the  same  freedom  that 
they  themselves  lived,"  ("  pari  libertate  ac  ipsi  vixerunt.") 
His  work  is  rather  anecdotical  than  historical.  There 
are  extant  two  other  works  ascribed  to  him, — namely, 
"On  Illustrious  Grammarians,"  ("  De  Grammaticis  il- 
lustribus,")  and  "  On  Celebrated  Orators,"  ("  De  claris 
Rhetoribus.") 

See  A.  Krause,  "De  Suetonii  Fontibus,"  etc.,  1831  ;  D.  W. 
MoLi.ER,  "Disputatio  circularis  de  C.  Suetonio,"  16S5  :  Bayle, 
"Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Sue-to'ni-us  Pau-li'nus,  a  Roman  general,  served 
in  Mauritania  in  42  a.d.  He  was  appointed  commander 
of  Nero's  army  in  Britain  in  59,  and  defeated  the  natives 
commanded  by  Boadicea.    Died  after  70  a.d. 

Su'ett,  (Richard,)  a  celebrated  English  comedian, 
born  in  London  ;  died  in  1805. 

Sueur,  Le,  (Eustache.)    See  Le  Sueur. 

Sueur,  Le,  (Hubert.)    See  Sceur. 

Sueur,  Le,  (Jean  FRANgois.)    See  Le  Sueur. 

Suffee,  (King  of  Persia.)    See  Sefee. 

SufTield,  (Henry  Harhord,)  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  1781,  was  elected  in  1820  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment for  Shaftesbury.  He  was  an  advocate  of  the  abo- 
lition of  colonial  slavery,  and  of  other  important  reforms. 
Died  in  1835. 

Suffolk,  Duke  of.    See  Brandon,  (Charles.) 

Suffolk,  suf  fok,  (Michael  de  la  Pole,)  first  Earl 
OF,  an  English  statesman,  who  served  in  the  army  under 


Edward  III.  He  became  lord  chancellor  in  March,  1383, 
was  created  Earl  of  Suffolk  in  August,  13864  and  removed 
in  October  of  that  year.    Died  in  1389. 

Suffolk,  (William  de  la  Pole,)  Duke  of,  was  lord 
high  admiral  of  England.  He  commanded  at  the  siege 
of  Orleans,  in  1429,  and  was  defeated  by  Joan  of  Arc. 
He  was  beheaded,  on  a  charge  of  treason,  in  1450. 

Suffren,  sii''fR6N',  (Jean,)  a  French  Jesuit,  born  in 
Provence  in  1565.  He  was  for  many  years  confessor  to 
the  queen  Marie  de  Medicis.  He  wrote  "  The  Christian 
Year,"  ("  Annee  chretienne,"  1641.)    Died  in  1641. 

Suffren  Saint-Tropez,  de,  deh  su'fR6N's4N  tRo'pa',) 
(Pierre  Andr6,)  a  distinguished  French  naval  com- 
mander, born  in  Provence  in  1726.  Sooti  after  his  en- 
tering the  naval  service  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Maltese  order,  from  which  he  received  the  honorary 
title  of  Bailli.  He  accompanied  Count  d'Estaing  to 
America  in  1778,  and,  being  subsequently  appointed  to 
a  command  under  Don  Luis  de  Cordova,  took  twelve 
merchant-ships  from  the  British,  (1780.)  In  1781  he 
defeated  the  British  commodore  Johnstone  near  the 
Cape  Verd  Islands.  He  was  made  a  vice-admiral  in 
1784.    Died  in  1788. 

See  Trublet,  "  Essai  historique  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Campagnes 
du  Bailli  de  Suffren;"  Hennequin,  "  Essai  historique  sur  la  Vie 
et  les  Campagnes  du  Bailli  de  Suffren,"  1824;  Cunat,  "  Histoire  du 
Bailli  de  Suffren,"  1852;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Sugden.    See  Saint  Leonard's. 

Suger,  sli'zhy,  Abbe  of  Saint- Denis,  an  able  and 
powerful  French  statesman,  born  about  1085.  He  was 
chosen  Abbe  of  Saint-Denis  about  1122,  and  became  the 
favourite  counsellor  and  chief  minister  of  Louis  VI. 
His  influence  was  equally  great  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
VII.,  and  his  administration  was  beneficent  to  the  peo- 
ple.   Died  in  1152. 

See  Baudier,  "  Histoire  de  I'Administration  de  1' Abbe  Suger," 
1645;  Gervaise,  "Histoire  de  Suger."  3  vols.,  1721  ;  A.  Nette- 
MENj,  "Histoire  de  Suger,"  1842:  F.  Combes,  "Suger  et  son 
Ministfere,"  1853  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Sugny.    See  Servan  de  Sugny. 

Sugriva,  soo-gree'va,  \i.e.  "  handsome-necked,"  from 
the  Sanscrit  sii,  "  handsome,"  and  ^rzW,  "neck,"]  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  the  naine  of  a  monkey  chief,  the  son 
of  Surya,  (or  the  Sun,)  and  the  next  in  rank  among  the 
monkeys  to  Hanuman,  and,  like  the  last-named  hero,  a 
great  favourite  with  Rama.    (See  HanumAn.) 

Suhm,  soom,  (Peder  Frederik,)  an  eminent  Danish 
historian  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Copenhagen 
in  1728,  was  a  son  of  Ulrich  Friedrich,  noticed  below. 
He  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  philology.  Northern 
antiquities,  etc.,  and  published  "  On  the  Origin  of  the 
Northern  Nations,"  (2  vols.,  1770,)  "Odin,  or  the  My- 
thology of  Northern  Paganism,"  (1771,)  "  History  of  the 
Migration  of  the  Northern  Nations,"  (2  vols.,  1773,) 
"Critical  History  of  Denmark  in  the  Time  of  the  Pa- 
gans," (4  vols.,  1781,)  and  "  History  of  Denmark  to  the 
Year  13 19,"  (11  vols.,  1812.)  He  was  also  the  author  of 
"  Idyls,"  and  several  tales  and  romances,  which  enjoy  a 
high  reputation.    Died  in  1798. 

See  Rasmus  Nverup,  "Udsigt  over  P.  F.  Suhms  Levnet  og 
Skrifter,"  1798;  R.  Nverup,  "Suhmiana,"  1799:  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Suhm,  von,  fon  soom  or  zoom,  (L[lrich  Friedrich,) 
an  intimate  friend  of  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  was 
born  at  Dresden  in  1691.  His  "Familiar  and  Friendly 
Correspondence  with  Frederick  II."  (in  French)  was 
published  after  the  king's  death.    Died  in  1740. 

Suicer,  swit'ser,  or  Schweitzer,  shv^u'ser,  (Jo- 
hann  Caspar,)  a  Swiss  scholar  and  theologian,  born  at 
Zurich  in  1620,  became  professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew 
in  the  university  of  his  native  city.  His  principal  work 
is  entitled  "  Ecclesiastical  Thesaurus  of  the  Writings 
of  the  Greek  Fathers,"  ("Thesaurus  Ecclesiasticus  e 
Patribus  Graecis,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1682.)    Died  in  1684. 

Suicer,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Zurich  in  1644.  He  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  chair  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  in  1683,  and  published 
a  "  Compendium  of  the  Aristotelico-Cartesian  Philoso- 
phy," and  other  works,  in  Latin.    Died  in  1705. 

Su'i-das,  [Gr.  2ow(5af,]  a  Greek  graminarian  and 
lexicographer,  supposed  to  have  flourished  about  the 
tenth  century.    Nothing  is  known  of  him,  except  that 


a,  e,  T,  0,  \y,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SUIDGER 


2081 


SULLT 


he  compiled  a  Lexicon  or  encyclopaedia  of  biography, 
literature,  geography,  etc.  This  work,  though  defective 
in  plan  and  not  accurately  executed,  is  highly  prized,  as 
a  contribution  to  the  literary  history  of  antiquity,  and 
contains  many  valuable  extracts  from  writers  whose 
works  are  lost.  A  good  edition  of  this  Lexicon  was 
published  by  T.  Gaisford,  Oxford,  {3  vols.,  1834.) 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca ;"  Muller,  "Programma 
de  Siiida,"  1796. 

Suidger.    See  Clement  IL 

Suintila,  swin'ti-la,  became  King  of  the  Visigoths  in 
Spain  in  621  A.D.    Died  about  630. 

Suleau,  sii'lo',  (FRANgois  Louis,)  a  French  royalist 
and  pamphleteer,  born  in  1757.  He  was  massacred  by 
the  mob  of  Paris  in  August,  1792. 

Suleyman.    See  Solyman  and  Soliman. 

SuFi-van,  (Sir  Richard  Joseph,)  an  Irish  writer, 
and  member  of  Parliament  for  Seaford,  published  "A 
View  of  Nature,  in  Letters  to  a  Traveller  among  the 
Alps,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1806. 

Sulkowski,  sool-kov'skee,  (Anton  Paul,)  Prince, 
a  Polish  general,  born  at  Lissa  in  1785,  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  Napoleon's  army,  and  was  made  a  general  of 
division  in  1812.    Died  in  1836. 

Sulkowski,  (Josef,)  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
entered  the  French  service,  and,  having  accompanied 
Napoleon  to  Egypt  as  adjutant,  was  killed  in  the  insur- 
rection at  Cairo  in  1798.  He  wrote  "  Historical,  Political, 
and  Military  Memoirs  of  the  Polish  Revolutions,"  etc. 

Sul'la  or  Syl'la,  (Faustus  Cornelius,)  a  son  of 
the  dictator,  was  born  about  88  B.C.  He  served  under 
Pompey  in  Asia,  and  was  the  first  to  mount  the  wall  of 
the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  in  63.  He  was  a  partisan  of 
the  senate  in  the  civil  war,  fought  at  Pharsalia,  48  B.C., 
and  at  Thapsus,  in  46.  Having  been  taken  prisoner, 
he  was  murdered  by  the  soldiers  of  Caesar  in  46  B.C. 

Sulla  or  Sylla,  [It.  Silla,  s^KlS,]  (Lucius  Cor- 
nelius,) surnamed  Felix,  (the  "  Fortunate,")  a  famous 
Roman  general,  born  in  138  B.C.,  was  of  a  patrician 
family.  Though  addicted  to  pleasure,  and  though  his 
favourite  companions  are  said  to  have  been  actors, 
buffoons,  and  mimics,  he  early  gave  indications  of  un- 
common powers,  and  was  particularly  distinguished  by 
the  art  he  possessed  of  reading  the  various  characters 
of  men.  He  obtained  the  office  of  quaestor  in  107  B.C., 
and  served  under  Marius  against  Jugurtha,  who  was  be- 
trayed by  Bocchus  into  the  power  of  the  Romans.  Sulla 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  capture  of  Jugurtha,  and 
shared  with  Marius  the  credit  of  that  achievement.  In 
104  he  was  employed  as  legate  of  Marius  in  the  war 
against  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones.  He  joined  the  army 
of  L.  Catulus  in  102,  and  gave  proof  of  great  military 
talents.  His  personal  qualities  were  eminently  adapted 
to  render  a  general  popular  with  his  soldiers.  Having 
been  elected  praetor  in  93  B.C.,  he  was  sent  the  next 
year  to  Cilicia,  and  restored  Ariobarzanes  to  the  throne 
of  Cappadocia. 

In  the  year  91  began  the  Social  war,  in  which,  says 
Plutarch,  "Sulla  performed  so  many  memorable  things 
that  the  citizens  looked  upon  him  as  a  great  general, 
his  friends  as  the  greatest  in  the  world,  and  his  enemies 
as  the  most  fortunate."  Sulla  became  the  leader  of  the 
aristocratic  party,  was  elected  consul  for  88  B.C.,  and 
obtained  from  the  senate  the  command  of  the  war 
against  Mithridates,  which  command  was  also  coveted 
by  his  rival  Marius.  A  violent  contest  arose  between 
these  two  leaders,  which  was  the  beginning  of  a  great 
civil  war.  Sulla  marched  with  an  army  against  Rome, 
and  Marius  escaped  to  Africa,  leaving  his  enemy  master 
of  the  capital.  Sulla  departed  from  Rome  early  in  87  B.C., 
and  commenced  the  war  against  Mithridates  by  an  attack 
on  Athens,  which  he  took,  after  a  long  siege,  in  March, 
86  B.C.  The  Athenians  were  treated  with  great  cruelty 
by  the  victor  on  this  occasion.  Sulla  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  Archelaus,  a  general  of  Mithridates,  at  Chae- 
ronea,  and  again  at  Orchomenus,  in  85  B.C.,  after  which 
he  crossed  the  Hellespont.  In  the  mean  time  the  Marian 
party  had  recovered  possession  of  Rome,  and  had  mas- 
sacred many  partisans  of  Sulla.  He  concluded  a  peace 
with  Mithridates, 'extorted  large  sums  of  money  from 
the  Orientals,  and  returned,  with  his  army  of  veterans, 


to  Italy,  where  he  arrived  in  the  spring  of  83,  and  re- 
newed the  civil  war.  The  popular  party:^ad  a  larger 
army  than  that  of  Sulla,  but  had  no  able -generals.  Sulla 
defeated  Norbanus  near  Capua  in  the  year  83,  and  young 
Marius  at  Sacriportus  in  82  B.C.  He  then  became  master 
of  Rome,  massacred  his  opponents  and  prisoners  by 
thousands,  and  gained  a  victory  over  the  Samnites  and 
Lucanians  near  Rome.  He  made  a  list  of  his  enemies, 
whom  he  outlawed,  and  called  this  list  a  Proscriptio. 
This  was  the  first  instance  of  a  proscription  among  the 
Romans.  Sulla  was  appointed  dictator  for  an  unlimited 
time,  and  made  important  changes  in  the  constitution, 
tending  to  increase  the  power  of  the  senate  and  aris- 
tocracy and  to  destroy  the  authority  of  the  tribunes  of 
the  people.  He  also  made  reforms  in  the  criminal  law, 
which  were  more  enduring  than  the  changes  just  men- 
tioned. He  resigned  the  dictatorship  in  79,  and  died 
in  78  B.C.  Byron  apostrophizes  Sulla  in  the  following 
striking  lines  : — 

"  O  thou,  whose  chariot  roll'd  on  fortune's  wheel, 
Triumphant  Syila  !  thou  who  didst  subdue 
Thy  country's  foes  ere  thou  wouldst  pause  to  feel 
The  wrath  of  thy  own  wrongs,  or  reap  the  due 
Of  hoarded  vengeance  till  tiiine  eagles  flew 
O'er  prostrate  Asia ; — thou,  who  with  thy  frown 
Annihilated  Senates, — Roman,  too, 
With  all  thy  vices,  for  thou  didst  lay  down. 
With  an  atonmg  smile,  a  more  than  earthly  crown." 

Childe  Harold,  canto  iv.,  stanza  Ixxxiii. 
See  Plutarch,  *'  Life  of  Sulla  ;"  Dkumann,  "  Geschichte  Roms," 
vol.  ii.  ;  J.  A.  Haktmann,  "Dissertatio  de  Sulla,"  1727  ;  L.  Sachsk, 
"  Leben  des  Dictators  Sulla,"  1791  ;  Zachari^,  "  L.  Cornelius  Sulla 
als  Ordner  des  Romischen  Freistaates,"  1834;  Appian,  "  Beihim 
Civile;"  Plinv,  "Natural  History,"  books  vii.,  xi.,  and  xxvi.  ; 
MoMMSEN,  "  Histoire  Romaine  ;"  A.  Cybulski,  "  De  Bello  Civili 
Sullano,"  1838. 

Sulla,  (PuBLius  Cornelius,)  a  Roman  patrician, 
was  a  great-grandfather  of  the  dictator  Sulla.  He  was 
prastor  urbanus  in  212  B.C.,  and  presided  over  the  Ludi 
Apollinares,  then  first  instituted.  His  son,  of  the  same 
natnes,  was  praetor  in  186  B.C. 

Sulla,  (PuBLius  Cornelius,)  a  nephew  of  the  dic- 
tator Sulla.  He  was  probably  an  accomplice  of  Catiline, 
but  after  a  trial,  in  which  he  was  defended  by  Cicero,  he 
was  acquitted.  He  fought  for  Caesar  in  the  civil  war, 
and  commanded  the  right  wing  at  Pharsalia,  48  B.C. 
Died  in  45  B.C. 

SulTi-van,  (George,)  LL.D.,  son  of  General  Sulli- 
van, noticed  below,  was  born  at  Durham,  New  Hamp- 
shire, in  1774.  He  attained  a  high  reputation  as  a  jurist, 
and  rose  to  be  attorney-general  of  his  native  State  in 
1805.    Died  in  1838. 

Sullivan,  (James,)  a  brother  of  Genera]  Sullivan,  ^-as 
born  at  Berwick,  Maine,  in  1744.  He  became  attorney- 
general  of  Massachusetts  in  1790,  and  was  twice  elected 
Governor  of  that  State.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
District  of  Maine,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1808. 

See  a  "  Life  of  James  Sullivan,"  by  T.  C.  Amorv,  1859. 

Sullivan,  (John,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revo- 
lution, was  Ijorn  at  Berwick,  Maine,  in  1740.  He  was 
present  at  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton,  and  led 
the  right  wing  at  the  battle  of  Brandywine.  He  was  after- 
wards appointed  attorney-general  of  New  Hampshire, 
and  thrice  elected  President  of  that  State.  His  life  is 
included  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography."  Died  in 
1795- 

Sullivan,  (John  L.,)  an  engineer  and  physician,  born 
at  Saco,  in  Maine,  in  1777,  was  a  son  of  James,  noticed 
above.  He  invented  the  steam  tow-boat  about  1814.  It 
is  stated  that  he  made  discoveries  in  medicine  and 
surgery. 

Sullivan,  (William,)  LL.D.,  a  son  of  James  Sullivan, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Saco,  Maine,  in  1774.  He  was 
the  author  of  "Familiar  Letters  on  Public  Characters 
and  Events  from  1783  to  1815,"  "The  Public  Men  of 
the  Revolution,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1839. 

Sully,  suKli,  [Fr.  pron.  sii^e',]  (Maximilien  de  Be- 
thune — deh  bytiin',)  Due  de,  and  Baron  de  Rosny,  a 
French  statesman  of  great  merit  and  celebrity,  was  born 
at  Rosny,  near  Mantes,  in  December,  1560.  He  was  a 
son  of  Fran9ois,  Baron  de  Rosny,  who  was  a  Protestant, 
and  who  presented  Maximilien  to  Henry  of  Navarre  in 
1571.  He  was  a  student  in  Paris  when  the  Massacre  of 
Saint  Bartholomew  occurred.    In  1575  he  entered  the 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  K^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

»3i  ' 


SULLT 


io82 


SUMNER 


service  of  Henry  of  Navarre,  whom  he  accompanied  in 
his  escape  from  Paris  and  his  perilous  enterprises  which 
followed.  By  his  courage,  prudence,  and  immutable 
fidelity  he  gained  the  friendship  of  Henry,  who  appointed 
him  a  councillor  of  Navarre  in  1580.  He  married  Anne 
de  Courtenay  in  1583.  In  1587  he  contributed  to  the 
victory  at  Coutras,  where  he  directed  the  artillery.  He 
received  several  wounds  at  the  battle  of  Ivry,  and  was 
severely  wounded  at  the  siege  of  Chartres,  in  1591.  He 
advised  Henry  IV.  to  adopt  the  Roman  Catholic  reli- 
gion, being  convinced  that  by  this  policy  only  could 
peace  be  restored  on  a  permanent  basis.  Sully  himself, 
however,  constantly  adhered  to  the  Protestant  Church. 
Having  been  appointed  councillor  of  state  and  of 
finances  in  1596,  he  reformed  many  abuses  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  finances,  and  became  superintendent 
of  the  same  in  1599.  By  order  and  economy  he  greatly 
improved  the  financial  condition  of  France  and  the 
prosperity  of  the  people.  He  turned  his  attention  to 
other  departments  of  government,  and  soon  became 
virtually  prime  minister.  He  encouraged  agriculture 
more  than  manufactures  or  commerce,  and  projected  a 
system  of  canals  to  unite  all  the  large  rivers  of  Krance. 
In  1606  he  received  the  title  of  Due  de  Sully.  His 
morals  were  austere,  compared  with  those  of  the  court 
and  the  king,  to  whom  he  acted  in  the  capacity  of  a 
faithful  Mentor.  He  even  ventured  to  tear,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  king,  a  paper  on  which  Henry  had  written  a 
promise  to  marry  the  Marquise  de  Verneuil.  The  death 
of  Henry,  in  1610,  ended  Sully's  polij;ical  power.  He 
resigned  the  direction  of  the  finances,  and  retired  from 
court,  but  retained  the  position  of  grand  master  of  ar- 
tillery, and  some  other  offices.  In  1634  he  received  the 
biton  of  marshal  of  France.  He  employed  his  latter 
years  in  writing  memoirs  of  his  life  and  times,  entitled 
"  Memoires  des  sages  et  royales  CEconomies  d'Estat  de 
Henri  le  Grand,"  (4  vols.,  1634-62.)  He  died  at  Ville- 
bon  in  December,  1641,  leaving  a  son  and  several 
daughters. 

See  Thomas,  "  filoge  de  Sully,"  1763;  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des 
Francais  ;"  Michelet,  "  Histoire  de  France;"  Hoff,  "Biographic 
des  Herzogs  von  Sully,"  1782;  Motley,  "United  Netherlands," 
vol.  iv. ;  Sewrin,  "Les  Amis  de  Henri  IV,"  3  vols.,  1805;  D'Au- 
BiGN^,  "Histoire  universelle ;"  Baumstarck,  "Des  Herzogs  von 
Sully  Verdienste,"  etc.,  182S;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale ;" 
"Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  vi.,  (1822;)  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for 
April  and  May,  1831. 

Sul'ly,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  painter,  born  in  Lin- 
colnshire, England,  in  1783.  Having  emigrated  to  Amer- 
ica in  1792,  he  studied  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
and  afterwards  applied  himself  to  portrait-painting  suc- 
cessively at  Richmond,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia. 
Among  his  best  works  are  full-length  portraits  of  Jeffer- 
son, La  Fayette,  Commodore  Decatur,  George  Frederick 
Cooke  as  "  Richard  III.,"  and  Queen  Victoria.  He  has 
also  produced  several  historical  pictures,  among  which 
we  may  name  "Washington  crossing  the  Delaware." 

See  DuNLAP,  "  History  of  the  Arts  oT  Design  in  America,"  vol. 
ii.  chaps,  vi.,  vii.,  and  viii.  ;  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Sulpice.    See  Sulpicius. 

Sulpice  Severe,    See  Severus,  (Sulpicius.) 

Sulpicia,  sul-pish'e-a,  a  Roman  poetess  under  the 
reign  of  Domitian.  Her  only  extant  work  is  a  satire 
against  that  emperor  on  his  condemnation  of  the  phi- 
losophers to  exile.  It  is  entitled  "De  Edicto  Domitiani 
quo  Philosophos  Urbe  exegit." 

Sulpicia  Gens,  an  ancient  Roman  gens,  originally 
patrician,  produced  many  distinguished  men.  Among 
the  names  of  the  families  into  which  this  gens  was 
divided  were  Galba,  Gallus,  Longus,  and  Rufus. 

Sulpicius.    See  Severus,  (Sulpicius.) 

Sulpicius,  sul-pish'e-us,  [Fr.  Sulpice,  suKp^ss',] 
(Lemonia  Rufus  Servrjs,)  a  celebrated  Roman  jurist 
and  orator,  born  about  106  B.C.  He  was  elected  consul 
in  51  B.C.,  and  filled  other  high  offices.  After  his  death 
a  eulogy  was  pronounced  on  him  by  Cicero,  who  was 
his  intimate  friend.  His  legal  works  were  very  numerous 
and  highly  esteemed,  but  only  fragments  of  them  are 
extant.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Achaia  by  Caesar 
in  46  or  45  B.C.    Died  in  43  B.C. 

Sulpicius  Rufus,  (Publius,)  a  Roman  orator,  born 
in  124  B.C.,  became  tribune  in  88  B.C.,  and  was  an  ad- 


herent of  Marius  in  the  civil  war  with  Sulla.  His  elo- 
quence is  commended  in  the  highest  terms  by  Cicero, 
who  has  introduced  him  into  his  dialogue  "De  Oratore." 
After  the  capture  of  Rome  by  Sulla,  Sulpicius  was  be- 
trayed into  his  hands  and  put  to  death,  87  B.C. 

Sulzer,  soolt'ser,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  Swiss  philoso- 
pher and  aesthetic  writer,  born  at  Winterthur  in  1720. 
He  became  in  1747  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
Joachimsthal  Gymnasium,  Berlin,  where  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Euler  and  Maupertuis,  and  was  elected 
in  1750  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  professor  in  the  Ritter-Academie  at  Berlin. 
His  principal  work  is  entitled  "A  Universal  Theory  of  the 
Fine  Arts,"  ("  Allgemeine  Theorie  der  Schonen-Kiinste," 
1794,)  a  cyclopaedia  of  art  and  literature,  which  has  a 
high  reputation.    Died  in  1779. 

See  Hans  Caspar  Hirzel,  "  Ueber  Sulzer  den  Weltvveisen," 
1780;  "J.  G.  Sulzer's  Lebensbeschreibung,  vonihmselbstaufgesetzt," 
etc.,  1809. 

Sum-ma'nus,  an  ancient  Roman  or  Etruscan  divinity, 
whose  character  is  involved  in  obscurity.  Some  authors 
represent  him  as  equal  in  rank  to  Jupiter.  Nocturnal 
lightnings  were  supposed  to  be  manifestations  of  his 
power. 

Sum'mer-field,  (John,)  a  Methodist  divine  and 
distinguished  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Preston,  England, 
in  1798.  He  emigrated  in  1821  to  America,  where  his 
labours  as  a  preacher  were  eminently  successful.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  Tract  Society. 
Died  in  1825. 

See  J.  Holland,  "  Life  of  J.  Summerfield,"  1829. 

Sum'mers,  (Thomas  Osmond,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
divine,  born  in  Dorsetshire,  England,  in  1812,  emi- 
grated to  the  United  States,  and  became  in  1858  editor 
of  the  "Methodist  Quarterly  Review."  He  has  written 
a  "  Treatise  on  Baptism,"  "  The  Golden  Censer,"  and 
other  religious  works. 

Summonte,  soom-mon'ta,  (Gian  Antonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian historian,  born  at  Naples.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of 
the  City  and  Kingdom  of  Naples,"  ("  Istoria  della  Citta 
e  Regno  di  Napoli,"  (4  vols.,  1601-43.)    Died  in  1602. 

Siim'iier,  (Charles,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
Senator,  distinguished  as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  was 
born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  on  the  6th  of  January, 
i8ir.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1830,  after 
which  he  was  a  pupil  of  Judge  Story  in  the  law-school 
of  Cambridge.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834, 
practised  law  in  Boston,  and  was  appointed  reporter  in 
the  circuit  court  of  the  United  States.  He  published 
three  volumes  entitled  "  Sumner's  Reports,"  edited  the 
"American  Jurist,"  and,  in  the  absence  of  Judge  Story, 
lectured  to  the  students  of  the  law-school  at  Cambridge, 
(1834-37.)  He  passed  about  three  years  in  visits  to 
various  countries  of  Europe,  (1837-40.)  On  the  4th 
of  July,  1845,  pronounced  in  Boston  an  oration  on 
"  The  True  Grandeur  of  Nations,"  which  attracted  much 
attention  in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe.  The  de- 
sign of  this  argument  was  to  promote  the  cai^se  of  peace. 
He  opposed  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  United 
States  in  1845.  About  this  time  he  separated  himself 
from  the  Whig  party  and  joined  that  of  the  Free-Soilers. 
He  supported  Martin  Van  Buren  for  the  Presidency  in 
1848.  He  delivered  numerous  orations  and  lectures  on 
various  subjects,  which  were  published  in  two  volumes, 
(1850.)  By  a  coalition  of  Democrats  and  Free-Soilers 
he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1850 
as  the  successor  of  Daniel  Webster.  He  opposed  the 
Fugitive  Slave  bill  by  a  speech  in  the  Senate,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  debate  on  the  Nebraska- Kansas 
bill  in  1854.  On  the  19th  and  20th  of  May,  1856,  he 
made  in  the  Senate  an  eloquent  speech  on  the  contest 
in  Kansas  and  on  the  aggressions  of  the  slave-power. 
Some  passages  of  this  speech  excited  the  anger  of  Pres- 
ton S.  Brooks,  a  Southern  member  of  Congress,  who,  on 
the  22d  of  May,  1856,  assaulted  Mr.  Sumner  while  he 
was  sitting  in  the  Senate-chamber,  and  beat  him  on  the 
head  with  a  cane  until  he  became  insensible.  Mr.  Sum- 
ner was  so  severely  injured  that  he  was  disabled  for  the 
public  service  for  several  years,  and  he  sailed  to  Europe 
in  March,  1857,  for  the  benefit  of  his  health.  He  was 
re-elected  to  the  Senate  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote  in 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


SUMNER  •  2083 


SUNDERLAND 


January,  1857,  and  returned  home  in  the  autumn  of  that 
year,  but  made  another  voyage  to  Europe  in  the  spring 
of  1858.  He  remained  under  medical  treatment  in  Paris 
for  a  year  or  more,  and  resumed  his  seat  about  the  end 
of  1859.  He  afterwards  denounced  the  peculiar  institu- 
tion of  the  Southern  States  in  a  speech  which  was  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  "The  Barbarism  of  Slavery" 
and  produced  an  immense  effect.  In  i860  he  advocated 
the  election  of  Abraham  Lincoln  to  the  Presidency. 
During  the  session  of  1860-61  he  opposed  the  attempts 
to  propitiate  the  disunionists  by  concessions  which  would 
sacrifice  the  rights  qf  the  oppressed  or  favour  the  in- 
terests of  slavery.  He  was  appointed  chairman  of  the 
conmiittee  on  foreign  relations  in  March,  1861,  and  about 
the  end  of  1862  was  again  elected  a  Senator  for  six 
years,  ending  March  4,  1869.  He  was  the  author  of 
the  admirable  resolutions  on  foreign  mediation  which 
were  passed  March  3,  1863,  by  both  Houses  of  Con- 
gress. In  a  series  of  resolutions  which  he  offered  on  the 
8th  of  February,  1864,  he  affirmed  that  "any  system  of 
reconstruction  must  be  rejected  which  does  not  provide 
by  irreversible  guarantees  against  the  continued  exist- 
ence or  possible  revival  of  slavery."  After  the  close  of 
the  civil  war  he  advocated  the  reconstruction  of  the  se- 
ceded States  on  the  basis  of  impartial  suffrage.  During 
the  rebellion  he  was  a  confidential  adviser  of  President 
Lincoln,  who,  in  April,  1865,  said  to  Mr.  Sumner, 
"  There  is  no  person  with  whom  I  have  more  advised 
throughout  my  administration  than  yourself."  Among 
his  important  services  was  the  production  of  the  Freed- 
man's  Bureau  bill.  He  has  been  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee on  foreign  relations  since  1861,  and  has  lived  to 
witness  the  triumph  of  the  principles  for  which  he  so 
long  and  strenuously  contended.  In  April,  1869,  he 
made  an  elaborate  speech  on  the  Alabama  claims.  His 
complete  works  were  published  in  8  vols.,  1870. 

See  Charles  A.  Phei.ps,  "Life  of  Cliarles  Sumner,"  1870;  D. 
Harsha,  "  Life  of  C.  Sumner,"  1856  ;  Mrs.  Stowe,  *'  Men  of  Our 
Time,"  1868. 

Sttm'ner,  (Charles  Richard,)  an  English  prelate, 
brother  of  Archbishop  Sumner,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Kenil worth  in  1790.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  was  subsequently  appointed  historiographer 
to  George  IV.,  made  Bishop  of  Llandaff  in  1826,  and  of 
"Winchester  in  1827.  He  published  in  1825  a  translation 
from  the  Latin  of  Milton's  "Treatise  on  Christian  Doc- 
trine."   He  is  identified  with  the  evangelical  party. 

Sumner,  (Edwin  V,,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Boston  in  1796.  He  served  as  captain  on  the  Western 
frontier  for  many  years,  obtained  the  rank  of  major  in 
1846,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  Mexican  war, 
which  ended  in  1847.  He  became  a  colonel  in  1855, 
escorted  Abraham  Lincoln  from  Springfield  to  Washing- 
ton in  February,  1861,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  in  the  regular  army  in  March  of  the  same  year. 
He  commanded  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  p'air  Oaks,  "May 
31-June  I,  1862,  at  Malvern  Hill,  July  i,  and  at  the 
battle  of  Antietam,  September  17  of  that  year.  He 
directed  one  of  the  three  grand  divisions  of  Burnside's 
army  at  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg,  December  13, 
1862.    He  died  at  Syracuse,  New  York,  in  March,  1863. 

See  Tennev,  "Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion," 
P-  747- 

Sumner,  (Increase,)  an  American  judge  and  Gov- 
ernor, born  at  Roxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1746.  He 
was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Massa- 
chusetts in  1782,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  that  State 
in  1797  and  in  1798.  His  ability  and  merit  are  highly 
commended.    Died  at  Roxbury  in  1799. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  J.  Sumner,"  by  liis  son  William,  in  the 
"  New  England  Register"  for  April,  1854. 

Sumner,  (John  Bird,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at 
Kenilworth  in  1780.  Having  studied  at  King's  College, 
Canibridge,  he  was  created  Bishop  of  Chester  in  1828, 
and  in  1848  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  published 
"Records  of  Creation,"  (1816,)  "Evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity," (1824,)  an  essay  "On  Apostolical  Preaching," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1862. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1816. 

Sum'ter,  (Thomas,)  an  American  general  of  the 
Revolution,  born  in  South  Carolina  about  1734,  was 


distinguished  for  his  skill  and  success  as  a  partisan 
leader,  and  obtained  several  important  advantages  over 
the  British.  He  was  afterwards  elected  to  Congress, 
was  appointed  minister  to  Brazil  in  1809,  and  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate  in  181 1.    Died  in  1832. 

See  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

Sun'd^r-Iand,  (Charles  Spencer,)  third  Earl  of, 
an  English  statesman,  born  in  1674,  was  a  younger  son 
of  Robert,  the  second  Earl.  At  the  death  of  his  elder 
brother,  in  1690,  he  received  the  title  of  Lord  Spencer. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1695,  succeeded  his 
father  as  earl  in  1702,  and  was  sent  as  envoy  to  Vienna 
in  1705.  He  married  Anne  Churchill,  a  daughter  of  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  about  1700,  and  became  a  leader 
of  the  Whig  party.  He  was  secretary  of  state  from 
1707  to  June,  1 7 10.  On  the  accession  of  George  I., 
September,  1 7 14,  he  became  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland. 
He  entered  the  cabinet  as  lord  privy  seal  in  1 715,  and 
supplanted  his  rival.  Lord  Townshend,  in  the  favour  of 
the  king.  By  his  intrigues  or  influence  the  ministry  was 
changed  in  April,  1717,  when  Sunderland  and  his  friend 
Joseph  Addison  Ijecame  the  two  secretaries  of  state.  In 
1718  he  exchanged  his  office  for  that  of  first  lord  of  the 
treasury, — i.e.  prime  minister.  He  was  accused  in  172 1 
of  having  received  a  bribe  from  the  South  Sea  Com- 
pany, but  was  acquitted  by  a  large  majority  of  his  judges. 
He  resigned  office  in  April,  1721,  although  the  king  de- 
sired to  retain  him  in  power.  He  died  in  1 722,  leaving 
three  sons,  Robert,  Charles,  and  John. 

See  Lord  Stanhope,  (Mahon,)  "  History  of  England." 

Sunderland,  (Henry  Spencer,)  first  Earl  of,  born 
about  1622,  was  a  son  of  Lord  Spencer.  He  married 
Dorothy  Sidney,  a  sister  of  Algernon  Sidney,  a  lady 
whom  Waller  praised  under  the  name  of  "  Saccharissa," 
Although  he  disapproved  the  measures  of  the  court, 
he  joined  the  royal  army  in  the  civil  war,  assigning 
"the  punctilio  of  honour"  as  his  motive.  He  fought  at 
Edgehill,  (1642,)  received  the  title  of  Earl  of  Sunderland 
in  1643,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Newbury,  in  the 
same  year. 

See  Clarendon,  "  History  of  the  Great  Rebellion." 

Sunderland,  (Rorert  Spencer,)  second  Earl  of, 
a  courtier  and  politician,  famous  for  his  talents  and  in- 
trigues, was  born  about  1642,  and  was  the  only  son  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Paris  in  1672, 
and  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  in  1679.  Having 
been  dismissed  in  the  spring  of  1681,  he  was  restored  to 
the  same  office  in  1682.  He  appears  to  have  been  totally 
destitute  of  any  fixed  principles,  and  had  great  facility  in! 
changing  sides  in  the  game  of  politics.  He  insinuated 
himself  into  the  favour  of  the  Duke  of  York,  who,  on  his 
accession  to  the  throne,  in  1685,  retained  Sunderland  in  the 
office  of  secretary  of  state.  About  this  time  he  received 
a  large  bribe  or  pension  from  Louis  XIV.  He  became 
president  of  the  council  in  December,  1685,  and  prime 
minister  in  1686.  "  It  was  only  in  private  conference," 
says  Macaulay,  "that  his  eminent  abilities  displayed 
themselves.  In  the  royal  closet,  or  in  a  very  small  circle, 
he  exercised  great  influence,  but  at  the  council-board  he 
was  taciturn,  and  in  the  House  of  Lords  he  never  opened 
his  lips."  ("  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.)  In  June, 
1688,  he  openly  avowed  his  conversion  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  before  the  end  of  the  year  made 
overtures  to  William  of  Orange,  to  whom  he  revealed 
the  plans  of  James  II.  Sunderland  was  dismissed  from 
power  in  October,  1688,  on  suspicion  of  treason.  A  few 
weeks  later  he  fled  to  Holland  in  disguise,  and  changed 
his  religion.  "  He  had  rendered  to  the  cause  of  liberty 
and  the  Protestant  religion  services  of  which  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  overrate  either  the  wickedness  or  the  ut'Iity." 
("Macaulay's  History,"  vol.  iv.)  He  returned  to  Eng- 
land about  the  end  of  1690,  and  soon  regained  his  influ- 
ence at  court.  It  is  stated  that  he  was  the  chief  adviser 
of  William  III.  for  several  years,  although  he  held  no 
office  until  1695,  when  he  was  appointed  lord  chamber- 
lain. He  resigned  office  in  1697.  His  wife  was  a 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Bristol.  He  died  in  1702,  leaving 
his  title  to  his  son  Charles.  "  His  tact,"  says  Maoaulay, 
"  his  quick  eye  for  the  foibles  of  individuals,  his  caressing 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


SUNDEFJLL 


2084 


SUTHERLAND 


manners,  his  power  of  insinuation,  and,  above  all,  his 
apparent  frankness,  made  him  irresistible  in  private 
conversation."    ("  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.) 

See,  also,  Burnet,  "  History  of  his  Own  Time ;"  Lodge,  "  Por- 
traits." 

Sundevall,  soon'deh-vir,  (Carl  Jakob,)  a  Swedish 
naturalist,  born  at  Hoegestad  in  1801.  He  became  di- 
rector of  the  museum  of  natural  history  at  Lund  in  1835. 

Su'pfr-i,  [i.e.  those  "above"  or  "on  high,"  from 
siiperiis,  "high,"]  a  name  applied  by  the  Romans  to  the 
gods,  particularly  to  the  gods  of  the  celestial  regions. 

Superville,  de,  deh  sii'p^R'v^K,  (Daniel,)  a  French 
Protestant  minister,  born  at  Saumur  in  1657.  He  re- 
moved to  Rotterdam  about  1685,  and  preached  there 
until  his  death.    Died  in  1728. 

Sura.    See  Suradevi  and  Suras. 

Surabhi,  a  name  of  Kamadhenu,  (which  see.) 

Suraddvi,  soo-ra-da'vee,  called  also  simply  Sur^, 
sdo'ra,  [from  the  Sanscrit  Surd.,  "  wine,"  and  Devi, 
"goddess,"]  the  Hindoo  goddess  of  wine,  was  supposed 
to  have  been  produced  from  the  churning  of  the  ocean. 
(See  KOrma.) 

Surajah  Dowlah,  soo-ri'ja  dow'la,  a  Hindoo  prince, 
who  took  Calcutta  in  1756  and  confined  a  number  of 
English  prisoners  in  the  Black  Hole.  His  army  was 
defeated  by  Clive  at  the  famous  battle  of  Plassey,  June 
23i  1757  ;  he  was  taken  a  few  days  after  and  put  to 
death  by  the  order  of  Meer  Jatifier. 

See  Macaulav's  article  on  Lord  Clive,  (in  his  "Essays.") 

Suras  or  Sooras,  soo'ras,  [from  the  Sanscrit  Surd, 
a  "god,"]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  a  class  of  inferior 
deities,  the  children  of  Kasyapa  and  Aditi.  They  appear 
to  be  the  same  as  the  Adityas,  (see  Aditya,)  and  are 
regarded  as  the  natural  enemies  or  opponents  of  the 
Asurs,  (which  see.) 

Surcouf,  siiR'koof,  (Robert,)  a  French  corsair,  born 
at  Saint-Malo  in  1773.  He  captured  many  English 
merchant-vessels.    Died  in  1827. 

See  CuNAT.  "  Histoire  de  R.  Surcouf,"  1847. 

Su-re'na  or  Su-re'nas,  a  Parthian  general  in  the 
service  of  King  Orodes.  He  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  Roman  general  Crassus  near  Carrhae  in  53  B.C. 
According  to  Plutarch,  "  he  was  superior  to  the  Parthians 
of  his  time  in  courage  and  capacity."  ("  Life  of  Crassus.") 
He  was  put  to  death  by  Orodes  about  52  B.C. 

See  Mkrivale,  "History  of  the  Romans;"  "  Noiivelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Surenhuis,  sii'ren-hois',  [Lat.  Surenhu'sius,]  (Wil- 
LEM,)  a  Dutch  Orientalist,  lived  about  1700.  He  was 
professor  of  Hebrew  and  Greek  at  Amsterdam,  and 
published  an  edition  of  the  Mishna,  (3  vols.,  1698-1703.) 

Surenhusius.    See  Surenhuis. 

Surin,  sii'r^N',  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
ascetic  writer,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1600.  He  went  in 
1634  to  Loudun  to  exorcise  some  persons  possessed 
with  demons,  and  becatne  himself,  as  we  are  told,  a  de- 
moniac, or  victim  of  the  demons.  So  much,  at  least,  is 
certain,  that  he  was  insane  for  many  years.  Died  in  1665. 

See  BouDON,  "Vie  de  Surin,"  1689;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Su'ri-us,  (Laurentius,)  a  German  monk,  born  at 
Lubeck  in  1522.  He  wrote  "Lives  of  the  Saints," 
(1570.)    Died  in  1578. 

Surlet  de  Chokier,  suR'Ii'  deh  sho^ke-i',  (Srasme 
Louis,)  Baron,  a  Belgian  statesman,  born  at  Liege  in 
1769.  Having  previously  filled  several  high  offices,  he 
was  elected  Regent  of  Belgium  in  1831.    Died  in  1839. 

Surowiecki,  soo-ro-ve-gt'skee,  (L.  W.,)  a  Polish 
scholar  and  antiquary,  born  near  Gnesen  in  1769,  pub- 
lished a  work  "On  the  Origin  of  the'  Slavic  Nations," 
and  other  treatises.    Died  in  1827, 

Surrejr^  See  Howard,  (Henry,)  Earl  of. 

Surt,  soort,  or  Surtur,  (Surtr,)  soor'ter,  [etymologic- 
ally  related  to  the  Danish  sort,  English  sivart,  -xwA  Ger- 
man schwarz,  "black,"  because  it  is  the  property  of  fire 
to  blacken  what  it  burns,]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the 
god  of  fire,  who  rules  over  Muspellheim,  the  entrance 
to  which  he  guards  with  a  flaming  sword.  At  Ragna- 
rock  he  will  lead  the  formidable  band  of  Muspell's  sons, 
his  fire-sword  flashing  more  brightly  than  the  sun  itself. 
In  the  battle  with  the  ^sir  he  will  slay  Frey ;  and  after 


the  other  gods  have  fallen,  he  will  scatter  his  fire  over 
the  world  and  burn  it  up.  (Compare  Seneca's  descrip- 
tion of  the  destruction  of  the  world,  in  his  "Hercules 
CEtaeus,"  1.  1 102.) 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  Kevser,  "Reli- 
gion of  the  Northmen:"  Mali.et,  "Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii. 
Fables  XXX IL  and  XXXI TL  ;  Petersen,  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Sur'tees,  (Robert,)  an  English  antiquary  and  poet, 
born  at  Durham  in  1779.  He  published  a  "History  of 
Durham,"  (about  1820.)    Died  in  1834. 

Suruswuttee.    See  Saraswati. 

Surville,  sur'v^K,  (Marguerite  £l6onore  Clo- 
TiLDE  DE  Vallon-Chalis,)  a  Fhench  poetess,  born 
about  1405,  was  the  author  of  a  heroic  poem  entitled 
"  Lygdamir."    Died  about  1480. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Surya,  soor'ya,  the  Sanscrit  name  of  the  Sun,  re- 
garded as  an  important  deity  in  the  Hindoo  mythology, 
though  much  more  so  in  the  primeval  ages  than  later, 
when  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva  claimed  nearly  all  the 
devotion  of  mankind.  Li  the  earlier  Sanscrit  writings 
the  Sun  is  often  called  Mitra.  S'^rya  is  represented  in 
a  human  form,  (but  having  four  arms,)  surrounded  by 
radiating  flames  and  riding  in  a  car  drawn  by  seven 
horses. 

Su-sa'ri-on,  yZovaapLc^v,']  a  Greek  poet,  to  whom  the 
origin  of  the  Athenian  comedy  is  attributed,  was  born 
in  Megaj'a,  and  lived  about  575  B.C.  He  was  the  first 
who  employed  metrical  composition  in  comedy. 

Suso,  soo'zo,  (Heinrich,)  a  celebrated  mystic  and 
theologian,  surnamed  Amandus,  was  born  at  Constance, 
Switzerland,  about  1300.  He  entered  the  order  of  Do- 
minicans at  an  early  age,  and  subsequently  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  preacher.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "Book  of  Eternal  Wisdom,"  ("Horolo- 
gium  Sapientiae  Eternae,")  and  a  "Dialogue  on  Truth." 
They  were  translated  into  the  ])rincipal  European  lan- 
guages, and  obtained  extensive  popularity.   Died  in  1365. 

Susruta,  soos'roo-ta,  or  Sushruta,  sd6sh'ro6-ta,  a 
Hindoo  physician,  supposed  to  have  been  one  of  the 
earliest  medical  writers  in  Lidia.  The  date  and  the 
place  of  his  birth  are  unknown.  One  of  his  works  was 
published  in  1836  by  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Calcutta. 

Sussex,  Duke  of.    See  AuCxUSTUs  Frederick, 

Siissmeyer,  slis'mT'er,  (Franz  Xaver,)  a  German 
composer,  born  in  1766,  became  chapel-master  at  the 
court  of  Vienna.  He  completed  the  parts  of  Mozart's 
Requiem  which  the  latter  left  unfinished.    Died  in  1803. 

Sussmilch,  soos'milK,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  German 
Lutheran  minister,  born  about  1706.  He  wrote  on  sta- 
tistics and  population.    Died  in  1767. 

Siiss-Oppenheimer,  slis  op'pen-hT'mer,  a  German 
Jew,  who  rose  to  be  minister  of  finance  to  Karl  Alex- 
ander, Duke  of  Wiirtemberg.  For  his  abuse  of  power 
and  many  acts  of  oppression  he  was  condemned  to  death, 
and  executed  in  1738.  His  history  forms  the  subject  of 
one  of  Hauff  s  popular  novels. 

Sustermans,  siis'ter-mSns,  written  also  Subter- 
mans,  (Justus,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1597.  He  resided  in  Florence,  and  became  court  painter 
to  the  grand  duke  Cosimo  H.  de'  Medici.  His  works, 
which  include  portraits  and  historical  pictures,  are  eulo- 
gized by  Rubens.    Died  in  1681. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Sut'cliffe,  (Matthew,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
Devonshire,  was  the  founder  of  a  college  at  Chelsea,  the 
Fellows  of  which  were  required  to  assail  the  errors  of 
Romanism,  Pelagianism,  etc.    Died  in  1629. 

Sutee  or  Suttee.    See  Sat! 

Suterman.    See  Suavius. 

Suth'er-land,  (Alexander  John,)  F.R.S.,  an  Eng- 
lish physician,  born  about  1810.  He  became  physician 
to  St.  Luke's  Hospital,  London,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  insanity.    Died  in  1867. 

Sutherland,  (George  Granville  Leveson  Govvfr,) 
Duke  of,  an  English  peer  and  Liberal,  born  in  1786, 
was  a  son  of  the  first  Duke  of  Sutherland.  He  married 
a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Carlisle.  He  died  in  1861, 
leaving  his  title  to  his  son. 

Sutherland,  (Georgiana  Howard,)  Duchess  ok, 
the  wife  of  the  preceding,  born  about  1806,  was  a 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  7,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SUTTEE 


2085 


SJVJRTZ 


daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Carlisle.  She  was  distinguished 
for  beauty,  talents,  and  beneficence.  About  1846  she 
became  mistress  of  the  robes  to  the  queen.  She  em- 
ployed her  influence  against  slavery.  Died  in  October, 
1868. 

See  an  article  m  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  February,  1869,  by 
Mrs.  Stowe. 
Suttee.    See  SAxt 

Sut'ton,  (Amos,)  an  English  missionary  to  Orissa, 
India,  was  born  in  Kent  in  1798.  He  translated  the 
Scriptures  into  the  Oriya  language,  and  also  published 
a  dictionary,  grammar,  and  other  works  in  that  tongue. 
He  wrote  a  "Narrative  of  the  Mission  to  Orissa,"  and 
several  religious  treatises.    Died  in  1854. 

Sutton,  (Charles  Manners.)  See  Canterbury, 
Viscount. 

Sut'ton,  (Charles  Manners,)  an  English  prelate, 
born  in  1755.  He  becatne  Bishop  of  Norwich  in  1792, 
and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1805.  Died  in  1828. 
His  son  became  Viscount  Canterbury. 

Sutton,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  lawyer,  noted 
as  one  of  the  founders  and  benefactors  of  Brazennose 
College,  Oxford.    Died  about  1524. 

Sutton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  merchant,  born  in 
Lincolnshire  in  1532,  was  the  founder  of  a  hospital  for 
the  poor,  known  as  the  Charter-House,  and  which  was 
formerly  the  monastery  of  the  Chartreux  in  Suffolk. 
Died  in  1611. 

Sutzos.    See  Soutzo. 

Suvee,  sii'v^i',  (Joseph  BENof  r,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Bruges  in  1743.  He  became  director  of  the 
French  School  of  Art  in  Rome.    Died  in  1807. 

Su-war''6w,  or,  more  properly,  Soo-vo'rof,  written 
also  Souvorof,  Suvorov,  Souvarof,  Suworow,  and 
Suwarrow,  (Alexander  Vasilievitch,)  surnamed 
Rymnikski,  (rim-nik'skee,)  a  famous  Russian  general, 
born  in  Finland  in  1729,  was  of  Swedish  origin.  His 
father  was  a  general  of  high  rank.  He  served  as  lieu- 
tenant in  the  Seven  Years'  war-,  1755-63,  and  became  a 
colonel  in  1763.  Having  obtained  the  rank  of  a  general, 
he  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  against  the  Turks 
in  1774.  He  commanded  in  a  war  against  the  Turks 
which  began  in  1787,  and  gained  a  victory  on  the  river 
Rymnik,  (1789,)  for  which  he  received  the  title  of  Count 
Rymnikski.  In  1794  he  conquered  the  revolted  Poles, 
whom  he  treated  with  great  barbarity,  arid  for  this  ser- 
vice was  raised  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal.  In  1799 
he  was  appointed  coiT»mander-in-chief  of  the  Russian 
and  Austrian  armies  which  opposed  the  French  in  Italy. 
He  defeated  Macdonald  on  the  Trebia  in  June,  and 
gained  a  victory  over  Joubert  at  the  great  battle  of 
Novi,  in  August,  1799.  Soon  after  this  event  the  army 
was  recalled,  and  Suwarow  lost  the  favour  of  Paul  I. 
He  died  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  May,  1800.  He  was  a 
great  favourite  with  the  soldiers,  and  was  probably  the 
ablest  of  all  the  Russian  generals. 

See  Anthing,  "Versuch  einer  Kriegsgeschichte  des  Grafen 
Suwarow,"  3  vols.,  1799,  (English  translation  of  tlie  same;)  De 
Lavekne,  "  Histoire  de  Souvarow,"  1809  ;  Serge  Glinka,  "  Vie  de 
Souvarof,"  1819  ;  F.  von  Schmitt,  "  Suworow's  Leben  uiid  Heer- 
ziige,"  2  vols.,  1834;  Astafief,  "Souvenirs  de  Souvorof,"  1856; 
M  ajor-General  J.  Mitchell,  "  Biographies  of  Eminent  Soldiers 
of  the  Last  Four  Centuries,"  iS'^s  ;  "Sketch  of  Suwarrow  and  his 
Last  Campaign,"  by  E.  Nevil  Macreadv,  1851. 

Suwarrow.    See  Suwarow. 

Suze,  de  la.    See  Coligni,  de,  (Henriette.) 

Svanberg  or  Svansberg.    See  Swanberg. 

Svartalfar,    See  Elves. 

Svartz.    See  Swartz. 

Svedberg.    See  Swedberg. 

Svedenborg.    See  Sweden borg. 

Svetchine  or  Swetchine,  svgtch-6n',  (Sophia 
SoYMONOF,)  Madame,  a  Russian  lady  and  writer,  born 
at  Moscow  in  1782,  became  the  wife  of  General  Svetch- 
ine. She  removed  to  Paris  in  1818,  joined  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  was  distinguished  for  her  piety 
and  talents.    Died  in  Paris  in  1857. 

See  M.  DE  Falloux,  "  Madame  de  Swetcliine,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEu- 
vres,"  2  vols.,  1858 ;  Ernest  Naville,  "  Madame  Svetchine,"  1863. 

Swain,  (Charles,)  an  English  writer  and  engraver, 
known  as  "  the  Manchester  poet,"  was  born  in  that 
city  in  1803.  He  published  "Metrical  Essays,"  (1828,) 
"  Beauties  of  the  Mind,"  etc.,  (1831,)  "  Rhymes  for  Child- 


hood," (1846,)  "English  Melodies,"  (1849,)  and  other 
works,  in  prose  and  verse.  His  "Dryburgh  Abbey,"  an 
elegy  on  Sir  Walter  Scott,  is  particularly  admired. 

See  "Autobiography  of  William  Jerdan,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xx. 

Swain,  (David  Lowry,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in 
Buncombe  county.  North  Carolina,  in  1801.  He  was 
elected  Governor  of  the  State  in  1832,  and  in  1835  be- 
came president  of  the  University  of  North  Carolina. 
Died  in  1868. 

Swain'son,  (William,)  an  English  naturalist  and 
voluminous  writer,  born  at  Liverpool  in  1789.  He  visited 
South  America  and  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  made  valuable  collections  of  objects  in  natural  his- 
tory. Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "  Zoological 
Illustrations,  or  Original  Figures  and  Descriptions  of 
New,  Rare,  or  Interesting  Animals,"  (6  vols.,  1820,) 
"Exotic  Conchology,"  (1821,)  and  a  "Treatise  on 
Malacology,"  (1840.)  He  also  contributed  to  Lardner's 
"Cabinet  Cyclopaedia"  numerous  treatises  on  natural 
history,  of  which  we  may  name  "The  Natural  History 
and  Classification  of  Fishes,  Amphibians,"  etc.,  (2  vols., 
1838-39,)  and  "On  the  Habits  and  Instincts  of  Animals," 
(1840.)  He  was  likewise  a  contributor  to  the  "Fauna 
Boreali-Americana"  of  Sir  John  Richardson.  Mr. 
Swainson  emigrated  in  1841  to  New  Zealand,  where  he 
died  in  1855. 

Swammerdam,  sw§.m'mer-dim',  (Jan,  or  John,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  naturalist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1637.  He  studied  medicine  at  Leyden,  but  not  with 
a  design  to  practise  as  a  physician.  He  also  passed  some 
years  at  Saumur  and  Paris  in  the  study  of  anatomy  and 
entomology.  In  1664  he  discovered  the  valves  of  the 
lymphatic  vessels.  He  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medi- 
cine in  1667,  and  published  in  1669  a  "General  History 
of  Insects,"  a  work  of  great  merit.  He  made  several 
discoveries  in  entomology,  and  was  very  skilful  in  the 
dissection  of  insects.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Natural 
History  of  Bees,"  (1673,)  and  "The  Book  of  Nature,  or 
the  Natural  History  of  Insects,"  etc.,  ("Biblia  Naturae, 
seu  Historia  Insectorum  in  certas  Classes  redacta,"  2 
vols.,  1737-38.)  He  destroyed  his  health  by  intense  ap- 
plication, became  melancholy,  and  diverted  his  attention 
from  science  to  religion.  He  entered  into  religious 
fellowship  with  Antoinette  Bourignon.  Died  at  Am- 
sterdam in  1680. 

See  Boerhaave,  "  Life  of  Swammerdam,"  prefixed  to  the  "  Biblia 
Naturae,"  1737-38;  Cuvier,  "Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles ;" 
"Biographic  Medicale;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Swanberg  or  Svanberg,  svinM)§Rg,  written  also 
Svansberg,  (Jons,)  a  Swedish  mathematician,  born  in 
the  province  of  Westerbotten  in  1771.  In  1801,  in  con- 
junction with  Oefverbom,  he  measured  an  arc  of  the 
meridian  in  Lapland.  Of  this  enterprise  he  published 
an  account  which  obtained  a  prize  from  the  French 
Institute.  He  became  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Upsal  in  181 1,  and  published  a  "Theory  of  the  Planets 
and  Comets,"  and  other  scientific  works.   Died  in  185 1. 

Swanevelt,  van,  vtn  svva'neh-v^lt',  (Herman,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  landscape-painter,  born  at  Woerden  about 
1620,  was  a  pupil  of  Gerard  Dow,  and  subsequen.tly  of 
Claude  Lorrain.  His  pictures  are  few  in  number,  but 
of  great  excellence.  He  died  about  1690,  at  Rome, 
where  he  had  long  resided.  He  also,  executed  many 
admirable  etchings.  He  was  surnamed  the  Heumit, 
from  his  solitary  habits. 

Swar'ga,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  swur'ga  or  swiarg,] 
written  also  Swerga,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the 
name  of  Indra's  heaven  or  paradise,  supposed  to  be 
situated  among  the  clouds  in  the  sky,  and  regarded  as 
the  abode  of  the  inferior  gods  and  deified  mortals.  (See 
Indra.) 

Swartz  or  Svartz,  s'^iRts,  (Olaus  or  Olof,)  a  Swed- 
ish botanist,  born  at  Norrkoping  in  1760.  He  studied  at 
Upsal,  and  subsequently  travelled  in  Finland,  Lapland, 
the  West  Indies,  and  the  western  part  of  America, 
bringing  with  him  on  his  return  a  rich  collection  of  plants. 
He  was  soon  after  apjjointed  professor  of  natural  history 
in  the  Medico-Chirurgical  Institute  at  Stockholm.  He 
was  also  made  a  knight  of  the  Polar  Star,  and  received 
other  distinctions.  Among  his  works  we  may  name  his 
"  Icones  Plantarum  Incognitarum,"  illustrating  the  rare 


€  as  k;  5  as  r;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (jJJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


SWJTAMBHU 


2086 


SWEDENBORG 


plants  of  the  West  Indies,  "  Flora  Indiae  Occidentalis," 
(1806,  3  vols.,  with  plates,)  and  '*  Synopsis  of  the  Ferns," 
("Synopsis  Filicum,"  1806.)  He  also  wrote  the  text  of 
four  volumes  of  the  "Botany  of  Sweden,"  ("  Svensk 
Botanik,")  and  contributed  to  the  "Transactions"  of  the 
Linnaean  Society,  London,  of  which  he  was  a  member. 
He  died  in  1818,  having  acquired  the  reputation  of  one 
of  the  first  botanists  of  his  time.  The  genus  Swartzia, 
of  the  order  Leguminosas,  was  named  in  his  honour. 

See  WiLKSTROEM,  "Biographic  iiber  den  Professor  O.  Swartz," 
1828. 

Swayambhii,  swi'am-b'hoo',  or  Swayambhuva, 

swram-b'hoo'va,  [from  the  Sanscrit  j'7faj/^zw,  "self,"  and 
B  h^,  to  "exist,"]  a  Sanscrit  term,  signifying  "self-exist- 
ent," and  used  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  as  an  epithet 
of  Brahm  (the  infinite  eternal  Being)  and  of  Brahma. 
It  is  also  sometimes  applied  to  the  first  Manu,  (or 
Menu,)  in  which  case  it  may,  perhaps,  mean  "born  (or 
son)  of  the  Self-existent,"  b'hu  signifying  to  "be  born" 
as  well  as  to  "exist."    (See  Manu.) 

Swedberg,  s^^d'bgRg,  written  also  Svedberg,  (Jes- 
PER,)  a  Swedish  theologian,  father  of  the  celebratecl 
Emanuel  Swedenborg,  was  born  near  Fahlun  in  1653. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Upsal  in  1692,  and 
in  1702  was  made  Bishop  of  Skara  by  Charles  XH.  His 
family  was  ennobled  in  1719,  under  the  name  of  Sweden- 
borg. He  died  in  1735,  leaving  a  number  of  religious 
and  miscellaneous  works. 

See  Fahlcrantz,  "Minneskrift  ofver  Biskopen  Dr.  Svedberg," 
1852. 

Swe'den-borg,  [Sw.  pron.  s^n'den-boRg',]  written 
also  Svedeuborg,  (originally  Swed'berg,)  (Ema- 
nuel,) a  celebrated  Swedish  naturalist,  mathematician, 
and  theosophist,  was  born  at  Stockholm  on  the  29th  of 
January,  1688.  His  father,  Jesper  Swedberg,  at  that 
time  a  chaplain  of  the  army,  became  afterwards  Bishop 
of  Skara.  The  family  was  ennobled  by  Queen  Ulrica 
in  1 7 19,  and  the  name  was  changed  to  Swedenborg. 
Even  in  early  childhood  Emanuel  appears  to  have  given 
indications  of  those  peculiar  powers  for  which  he  was 
afterwards  so  distinguished.  He  says,  in  a  letter  to  Dr. 
Beyer,  "From  my  fourth  to  my  tenth  year  my  thoughts 
were  constantly  engrossed  by  reflections  on  God,  on 
salvation,  and  on  the  spiritual  affections  of  man,  I  often 
revealed  things  in  my  discourse  which  filled  my  parents 
with  astonishment,  and  made  them  declare  at  times  that 
certainly  the  angels  spoke  through  my  mouth."  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Upsal,  where,  in  his 
twenty-second  year,  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
philosophy.  On  leaving  the  university  he  set  out  on 
his  travels.  He  passed  about  a  year  in  England  ;  he 
then  visited  the  chief  cities  of  Holland,  spent  subse- 
quently a  year  in  Paris  and  Versailles,  and  returned  by 
Hamburg  and  Greifswalde  to  his  native  country,  after  an 
absence  of  more  than  four  years.  In  early  life  Sweden- 
borg's  favourite  pursuit  was  mathematics.  About  1715- 
16  he  edited  a  scientific  publication  entitled  "  Djedalus 
Hyperboreus."  The  distinction  which  he  had  acquired 
as  a  mathematician  brought  him  to  the  notice  of  Charles 
XII.,  who  employed  him  in  the  construction  of  some  of 
his  military  works.  In  the  siege  of  Fredericshall,  (1718,) 
under  the  direction  of  Swedenborg,  rolling-machines 
were  made  by  means  of  which  two  galleys,  five  large 
boats,  and  a  sloop  were  carried  overland  a  distance  of 
fourteen  miles.  He  had  been  appointed  by  Charles 
XII.,  in  1716,  assessor  of  the  board  of  mines.  In  1717 
he  published  "An  Introduction  to  Algebra,"  and  "At- 
tempts to  find  the  Longitude  of  Places  by  Lunar  Obser- 
vations." Soon  after  he  wrote  several  other  works  on 
kindred  subjects.  Some  of  these  have  not  been  published. 

In  1 721  he  again  visited  Holland,  and  while  in  that 
country  published  (at  Amsterdam)  several  small  works, 
chiefly  on  subjects  connected  with  natural  philosophy. 
The  following  year  he  published  at  Leipsic  "Miscel- 
laneous Observations  connected  with  the  Physical  Sci- 
ences," ("  Miscellanea  Observata  circa  Res  Naturales.") 
All  the  above  works  give  indications  of  a  profound  and 
most  original  intellect.  In  1733  he  published  at  Leipsic 
and  Dresden  his  "  Opera  Philosophica  et  Mineralia," 
in  3  vols,  fol.,  with  numerous  engravings.  This  work, 
as  its  title  indicates,  is  written  in  Latin.    The  first 


volume  in  particular,  entitled  "  Principia,  or  the  First 
Principles  of  Natural  Things,  being  a  New  Attempt 
towards  a  Philosophical  Explanation  of  the  Elementary 
World,"  has  attracted  great  attention.  It  is  claimed  by 
Swedenborg's  admirers  that  this  publication  anticipated 
several  of  the  most  important  discoveries  of  modern 
science.  Gorres,  a  distinguished  German  writer  and 
journalist,  says  of  the  "Principia,"  "It  is  a  production 
indicative  of  profound  thought  in  all  its  parts,  and  not 
unworthy  of  being  placed  by  the  side  of  Newton's  '  Ma- 
thematical Principia  of  Natural  Philosophy.'"  Sweden- 
borg's father  died  in  1735.  The  next  year  he  again  set 
out  on  his  travels,  visiting  Holland  and  France,  and 
afterwards  Italy,  where  he  passed  rather  more  than  a 
year,  five  months  being  spent  at  Rome.  He  appears  to 
have  returned  to  Sweden  in  1740.  In  1740-41  he  pub- 
lished at  Amsterdam  his  "  Economy  of  the  Animal 
Kingdom,"  ("  CEconomia  Regni  Animalis.")  The  "Ani- 
mal Kingdom,"  ("  Regnum  Animale,")  which  may  be 
said  to  be  a  continuation  of  the  preceding  work,  appeared 
in  1744-45,  parts  one  and  two  being  published  at  the 
Hague,  and  part  three  in  London.  Swedenborg,  refer- 
ring to  the  plan  pursued  in  the  foregoing  works,  says, 
"  The  reader  may  see  that  the  end  I  propose  to  myself  in 
the  work  is  a  knowledge  of  the  soul,  since  this  kno7vledge 
tvill  constitute  the  croivn  of  my  studies.'''  In  one  of  his 
manuscripts,  also,  he  observes,  "  I  have  gone  through 
anatomy  with  the  single  end  of  investigating  the  soul." 
Of  the  "Animal  Kingdom,"  Emerson  remarks,  "  It  was 
an  anatomist's  account  of  the  human  body  in  the  highest 
style  of  poetry.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  bold  and  bril- 
liant treatment  of  a  subject  usually  so  dry  and  repulsive." 

When  Swedenborg  reached  the  age  of  fifty-seven,  his 
life  took  a  new  direction.  He  no  longer  occupied  himself 
with  the  pursuit  of  physical  science.  He  had,  it  appears, 
in  1747,  resigned  his  assessorship ;  but,  in  consideration 
of  his  long  and  faithful  services,  his  full  salary  was  con- 
tinued to  him  to  the  end  of  his  life.  Some  time  before 
he  had,  as  he  believed,  been  brought  into  intimate  com- 
munication with  the  spiritual  world,  and  "the  Lord  him- 
self," as  Swedenborg  says  in  one  of  his  letters,  "granted 
me  the  privilege  of  conversing  with  spirits  and  angels 
which  I  enjoy  to  this  day."  No  candid  and  intelligent 
])erson  who  attentively  peruses  the  writings  of  the 
Swedish  sage  can  doubt  the  perfect  sincerity  of  his  own 
belief  in  his  divine  illumination.  Nor  can  the  random 
assertion  that  he  was  a  dreamer,  or  that  he  was  insane, 
be  accepted  as  any  satisfactory  refutation  of  his  claims. 
As  Tennemann  well  observes,  in  his  "History  of  Phi- 
losophy," "  If  he  must  needs  be  mad,  there  is  a  rare 
method  in  his  madness.  In  vain  will  you  ransack  the 
archives  of  his  family  or  his  personal  history  for  any 
trace  of  insanity."  As  probably  few  who  are  compe- 
tent to  form  an  intelligent  and  impartial  opinion  would 
be  disposed  to  deny  that  Swedenborg  was  gifted  with  a 
rare  insight  inio  the  mysteries  of  external  nature,  so 
it  would  seem  almost  impossible  for  any  one,  who  will 
allow  unimpeachable  testimony  to  prevail  against  preju- 
dice or  skepticism,  to  doubt  that  he  was  endowed  with 
an  extraordinary  perception  of  some  things  not  discern- 
ible by  the  senses  or  mental  faculties  of  the  generality 
of  mankind.  On  Saturday,  the  19th  of  July,  1759,  Swe- 
denborg was  at  Gottenburg,  (which  is  about  three  hun- 
dred English  miles  from  Stockholm,)  having  recently 
arrived  from  England.  He  was  at  the  house  of  Mr. 
Castel,  with  a  party  of  fifteen  persons.  "At  about  six 
o'clock  P.M.,"  says  Kant,  the  celebrated  German  phi-> 
losopher,  "  Swedenborg  went  out,  and,  after  a  short 
interval,  returned  to  the  company  quite  pale  and 
alarmed.  He  stated  that  a  dangerous  fire  had  broken 
out  in  Stockholm,  at  Sundermalm,  and  that  it  was 
spreading  very  fast.  He  was  restless,  and  went  out 
often.  He  said  that  the  house  of  one  of  his  friends, 
whom  he  named,  was  already  in  ashes,  and  that  his  owa 
was  in  danger.  At  eight  o'clock,  after  he  had  been  out 
again,  he  joyfully  exclaimed,  'Thank  God!  the  fire  is 
extinguished  the  third  door  from  my  house.'  .  .  .  The 
next  morning  Swedenborg  was  sent  for  by  the  governor, 
who  questioned  him  concerning  the  disaster.  Sweden- 
borg described  the  fire  precisely, — how  it  had  begun,  in 
what  manner  it  had  ceased,  and  how  long  it  had  con- 


4,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f4t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


SWEDENBORG  2087  SWETT 


tinued.  .  .  On  Monday  evening  a  messenger  arrived 
at  Gottent)urg,  who  was  despatched  during  the  time  of 
the  fire.  In  the  letters  brought  by  him  the  fire  was  de- 
scribed precisely  in  the  manner  stated  by  Swedenborg." 
Kant  states  this  on  the  authority  of  a  friend  of  his,  who, 
he  says,  "  has  examined  the  circumstances  of  this  extra- 
ordinary case,  not  only  at  Stockholm,  but  also  at  Gotten- 
burg,  where  he  is  acquainted  with  the  most  respectable 
houses,  and  where  he  could  obtain  the  most  authentic 
and  complete  information,  as  the  greatest  part  of  the 
inhabitants,  who  are  still  alive,  were  witnesses  to  the 
memorable  occurrence."  It  is  proper  to  observe  that 
Kant  was  skeptically  inclined  respecting  the  extra- 
ordinary claims  of  Swedenborg;  those,  indeed,  who  are 
acquainted  with  the  character  of  that  philosopher  need 
not  be  told  that  he,  of  all  men,  was  one  of  the  least  likely 
to  give  credence  to  any  marvellous  statement,  unless  it 
were  supported  by  evidence  of  the  most  unimpeachable 
character.* 

The  first  volume  of  Swedenborg's  first  theological 
work,  entitled  the  "Secrets  or  Mysteries  of  Heaven," 
("Arcana  Ccelestia,")  appeared  in  1749.  It  was  com- 
pleted in  1756,  having  extended  to  eight  quarto  volumes. 
The  work  is  an  exposition  of  the  books  of  Genesis  and 
Exodus,  with  intervening  chapters  describing  the  won- 
ders of  the  future  world.  In  1758  Swedenborg  published 
in  London  the  following  works  :  "An  Account  of  the 
Last  Judgment  and  the  Destruction  of  Babylon  ;  show- 
ing that  all  the  Predictions  in  the  Apocalypse  are  at 
this  day  fulfilled,  being  a  Relation  of  Things  Heard  and 
Seen,"  "  Concerning  Heaven  and  its  Wonders,  and  Con- 
cerning Hell,  being  a  Relation  of  Things  Heard  and  Seen," 
"On  the  White  Horse  mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse," 
"On  the  Planets  in  our  Solar  System,  and  on  those  in 
the  Starry  Heavens,  with  an  Account  of  their  Inhabitants 
and  of  their  Spirits  and  Angels,"  and  "  On  the  New 
Jerusalem  and  its  Heavenly  Doctrine  as  revealed  from 
Heaven."  In  1763  he  published  at  Amsterdam  "The 
Doctrine  of  the  New  Jerusalem-  concerning  the  Lord," 
"The  Sacred  Scripture,"  "  Faith,"  a  "  Continuation  re- 
specting the  Last  Judgment  and  the  Destruction  of 
Babylon,"  and  "Angelic  Wisdom  concerning  the  Divine 
Love  and  Divine  Wisdom."  He  published  at  Amster- 
dam in  1766  an  explanation  of  the  book  of  Revelation, 
entitled  "The  Apocalypse  Revealed,"  ("  Apocalypsis 
Revelata;")  a  much  more  extensive  work  on  the  same 
subject,  written  also  in  Latin,  was  published  after  his 
death,  in  1790;  it  was  translated  into  English,  and  pub- 
lished in  1815  with  the  title  of  "  Apocalypse  Explained." 
In  1768  he  published  at  Amsterdam  his  treatise  on  "  Con- 
jugal (Conjugial)  Love,"  ("  Amor  Conjugialis,")  in  which 
he  teaches  that  the  marriage  relation  exists  in  heaven 
as  well  as  on  earth.  In  1769  appeared  at  Amsterdam  a 
small  work  entitled  a  "Brief  Exposition  of  the  Doctrine 
of  the  New  Church,"  and  in  the  same  year,  at  London, 
another  little  book, — "The  Intercourse  between  the 
Soul  and  the  Body."  He  published  in  1771,  at  Amster- 
dam, the  last  and  one  of  the  most  important  of  his  works, 
— "The  True  Christian  Religion,"  ("Vera  Christiana 
Religio,")  which  is  in  fact  a  system  of  universal  theology 
of  the  "New  Church,"  {i.e.  the  Church  introduced  or 
revealed  by  Swedenborg.) 

Swedenborg  died  in  London,  from  the  effects  of  a 
paralytic  stroke,  the  29th  of  March,  1772,  in  the  eighty- 
fifth  year  of  his  age.  He  was  never  married.  In  person 
he  was  of  a  medium  height ;  his  manners  were  dignified 
and  somewhat  reserved ;  his  countenance  mild  and 
pleasing.  He  had  a  slight  impediment  in  his  speech,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  talked  slowly  but  very  distinctly. 

The  views  entertained  of  the  theological  doctrines  of 
Swedenborg,  and  of  his  ideas  of  a  future  life,  will,  of 
course,  vary  according  to  the  preconceived  opinions  or 
the  habits  of  thought  of  his  readers  ;  but  of  his  merits 
as  a  writer  on  intellectual  and  moral  subjects,  several 
competent  and  (as  we  have  reason  to  believe)  impartial 
critics  have  spoken  in  terms  of  the  highest  praise. 

"  I  have  often  thought,"  says  Coleridge,  "  of  writing  a 
work  to  be  entitled  'Vindication  of  Great  Men  unjustly 
branded  ;'  and  at  such  times  the  names  prominent  to  my 


See  Kant's  letter  on  this  subject  to  the  Frau  von  Knobloch. 


mind's  eye  have  been  Giordano  Bruno,  Bohmen,  Spi- 
noza, and  Swedenborg.  Grant  that  the  origin  of  the 
Swedenborgian  theology  is  a  problem;  yet,  on  which- 
ever of  the  three  possible  hypotheses  (possible,  I  mean,  for 
gentlemen,  scholars,  and  Christians)  it  maybe  solved, — 
I,  Swedenborg's  own  assertion  and  constant  belief  in  the 
hypothesis  of  a  supernatural  illumination  ;  or,  2,  that 
the  great  and  excellent  man  was  led  into  this  belief  by 
becoming  the  subject  of  a  very  rare  but  not  (it  is  said) 
altogether  unique  conjunction  of  the  somniative  faculiy 
with  the  voluntary  and  other  powers  of  the  waking  state  ; 
or,  3,  the  modest  suggestion  that  the  first  and  second  may 
not  be  so  incompatible  as  they  appear, — still  it  is  never 
to  be  forgotten  that  the  merit  and  value  of  Swedenborg's 
•system  do  only  in  a  very  secondary  degree  depend  on  any 
one  of  the  three.  ...  So  much,  even  from  a  very  partial 
acquaintance  with  the  works  of  Swedenborg,  I  may  ven- 
ture to  assert,  that  as  a  moralist  he  is  above  all  praise, 
and  that  as  a  naturalist,  psychologist,  and  theologian  he 
has  strong  claims  on  the  gratitude  and  admiration  of  the 
professional  and  philosophical  student.-"  (See  "  Notes 
on  Noble's  Appeal,"  in  Coleridge's  "Literary  Remains.") 

"  There  is,"  says  Emerson,  "  an  invariable  method  and 
order  in  his  delivery  of  his  truth,  the  habitual  proceed- 
ing of  the  mind  from  inmost  to  outmost.  What  earnest- 
ness and  weightiness  ! — his  eye  never  roving,  without  one 
swell  of  vanity  or  one  look  to  self  in  any  common  form 
of  literary  pride  !  a  theoretic  or  speculative  man,  but 
whom  no  practical  man  in  the  universe  could  affect  to 
scorn."  In  another  place  he  says,  "  Not  every  man 
can  read  them,  [his  books,]  but  they  will  reward  him 
who  can.  .  .  .  The  grandeur  of  the  topics  makes  the 
grandeur  of  the  style.  .  .  ,  His  writings  would  be  a 
sufiicient  library  to  a  lonely  and  athletic  student;  and 
the  '  Economy  of  the  Animal  Kingdom'  is  one  of  those 
books  which,  by  the  sustained  dignity  of  thinking,  is  an 
honour  to  the  human  race."  But  this  high  praise  is 
not  bestowed  without  important  qualifications.  (See 
"  Swedenborg,  or  the  Mystic,"  in  "  Representative  Men.") 

Professor  von  Gorres,  already  referi  ed  to  in  this  article, 
says  of  Swedenborg,  "  He  was  guided  in  his  researches 
by  a  mind  clear,  acutely  analytic,  endowed  with  skill,  and 
well  disciplined  in  mathematics  and  logic." 

Our  limits  will  not  permit  us  to  attempt  even  an  out- 
line of  his  theosophic  system  ;  suffice  it  to  say  that  what 
seems  to  be  the  great  central  idea  in  this  system  is  the 
doctrine  of  correspondences,  according  to  which  every 
thing  in  the  natural  world  is  a  correspondent  or  type 
of  something  existing  in  the  supernatural  or  spiritual 
world. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  Swedenborg's  theosophy  has 
exerted  an  important  influence  upon  niany  gifted  minds 
who  are  far  from  accej^ting  all  the  details  of  his  extra- 
ordinary revelations.  This  need  surprise  us  the  less 
because  "  what  appears  as  Swedenborg's  crudities  and 
fantasies,"  to  adopt  the  words  of  the  Rev.  E.  H.  Sears, 
"are  extraneous  to  his  essential  system."  (See  "  Monthly 
Religious  Magazine"  for  March,  1865.) 

See  "  Emanuel  Swedenborg:  his  Life  and  Writings,"  by  William 
White,  2  vols.  Svo,  London,  1867,  (pronounced  by  Henry  James  "by 
far  tlie  best  life  of  Swedenborg;"  see  "  North  American  Review"  for 
July,  1867  ;)  J.  G.  Wilkinson,  "  E.  Swedenborg  ;  a  Biography,  1849  ; 
GoERRES,  "  E.  Swedenborg,"  1827;  S.  Sandels,  "  Anninnelse-Tal 
ofver  E.  Swedenborg,"  1772;  Carl  F.  Ranz,  "  E.  Swedenborg,  der 
Nordisclie  Seher,"  etc.,  1841;  Edwin  P.  Hood,  "Swedenborg;  a 
Biography  and  Exposition,"  1854;  Ei.iHU  Rich,  "  Biograi^hical 
Sketch  of  E.  Swedenborg,"  1849;  Barrett,  "  Life  of  E.  Sweden- 
borg," 1842;  Tafel,  "  E.  Swedenborg  und  seine  Gegner,"  2  vols., 
1841  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1857,  and  June,  i868. 

Sweerts,  s\^aRts,  (Emmanuel,)  a  Belgian  botanist, 
born  near  Breda  about  1552,  published  "Florilegium 
Amplissimum  et  Selectissinium,"  (1612.) 

Sweerts,  (Pierre  Francois,)  a  Belgian  historian, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1567  ;  died  in  1629. 

Swerga.    See  Swarga. 

Swetchine,  (Madame  Sophia.)    See  Svetchine. 

Swett,  (John  Appleton,)  M.D.,  an  Ainerican  phy- 
sician, born  at  Boston  in  1808.  He  became  in  1840 
associate  editor  of  the  "  New  York  Journal  of  Medicine," 
and  in  1853  professor  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  medi- 
cine in  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York.  He 
published  a  "Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Chest,"  (1852.) 
Died  in  1854. 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


BWETN 


2088  SWINBURNE 


Sweyn,s\van,  [Lat.  Sue'no  ;  Fr.  Su^non,  su-k'n6N',] 
King  of  Denmark,  obtained  the  throne  about  986  A.D. 
He  began  about  994  a  series  of  piratical  expeditions 
against  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  ravaged  the  coasts  of 
England.  King  Ethelred,  unable  to  protect  his  realm 
by  arms,  induced  Sweyn  to  retire  by  paying  him  a  large 
sum  of  money.  Sweyn  soon  returned,  and  obtained 
possession  of  a  great  part  of  England.  He  died  about 
1014,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Canute  the  Great. 

Sweyn  II.,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
about  1025,  and  became  King  of  Denmark  in  1047. 
Died  in  1076. 

Sweynheym,  s^^Tn'him,  (  Conrad,  )  a  German 
printer,  who,  in  conjunction  with  his  friend  Pannartz, 
first  introduced  printing  into  Italy.    Died  about  1476. 

Swieten,  van,  vtn  swee'ten,  (Geraard,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  physician,  born  at  Leyden  in  1700.  He  studied 
medicine  and  chemistry  under  Boerhaave,  and  became 
professor  of  medicine  in  his  native  city.  Having  been 
obliged  to  resign  this  professorship  on  account  of  his 
being  a  Catholic,  he  was  appointed  in  1745  first  phy- 
sician to  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria.  He  was  created  by 
the  empress  a  baron  of  the  empire,  superintendent  of 
the  Imperial  Library,  and  perpetual  president  of  the 
medical  faculty.  His  "Commentaries  on  the  Aphorisms 
of  Hermann  Boerhaave  on  the  Diagnosis  and  Cure  of 
Diseases"  ("  Commentaria  in  H.  Boerhaavii  Aphorismos 
de  Cognoscendis  et  Curandis  Morbis")  is  regarded  as  a 
standard  work. 

Swift,  (Deane,)  a  relative  of  the  celebrated  writer, 
noticed  below,  was  the  author  of  an  "Essay  on  the  Life, 
Character,  and  Writings  of  Dr.  Jonathan  Swift,"  etc., 
(1755.)  He  published  in  1765  an  edition  of  the  works 
of  Swift.    Died  in  1783. 

Swift,  (  Jonathan,  )  a  celebrated  humorist  and 
satirist,  born  in  Dublin  on  the  30th  of  November,  1667, 
was  a  son  of  Jonathan  Swift,  an  English  attorney,  who 
removed  to  Ireland,  and  died  before  the  birth  of  the 
subject  of  this  article.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  (which  he  entered  in  1682,)  at  the  expense 
of  his  uncle,  Godwin  Swift,  for  he  inherited  nothing  from 
his  father.  He  graduated  in  1685,  and  remained  at 
Trinity  College  until  1688.  About  this  date  he  entered 
into  the  service  of  Sir  William  Temple,  (a  distant  relative 
of  Swift's  mother,)  who  employed  him  as  secretary  and 
received  him  as  an  inmate  in  his  family  at  Moor  Park. 
His  salary  was  only  twenty  pounds  a  year.  He  obtained 
the  degree  of  M.A.  at  Oxford  in  1692,  after  which  he 
took  holy  orders.  Aspiring  to  a  more  independent 
position,  he  left  the  service  of  Sir  William  Temple  in 
1694,  and  went  to  Ireland.  He  became  prebendary  of 
Kilroot,  but,  having  received  an  invitation  from  Sir 
William,  with  promise  of  patronage,  he  returned  to  Moor 
Park  in  1695.  treated  as  a  friend  by  Temple, 

■who  died  in  1699  and  left  him  a  legacy.  At  Moor  Park 
he  became  acquainted  with  Esther  Johnson,  to  whom 
he  gave  the  poetical  name  of"  Stella."  In  1699  or  1700 
he  was  appointed  rector  of  Agher  and  vicar  of  Laracor 
in  Ireland.  At  his  invitation,  Miss  Johnson  went  in  1700 
to  reside  at  or  near  Laracor,  expecting  that  Swift  would 
make  her  an  offer  of  marriage.  It  appears  that  he  did 
not  wish  to  marry,  but  was  fond  of  her  society,  and 
generally  conversed  with  her  in  the  presence  of  some 
third  person. 

In  1701  he  published  a  political  tract,  entitled  "A 
Discourse  of  the  Contests  and  Dissensions  between  the 
Nobles  and  Commons  of  Athens  and  Rome,"  which 
procured  for  him  the  friendship  of  the  Whig  leaders, 
Somers,  Halifax,  and  Addison.  He  produced  in  1704 
his  humorous  and  satirical  "  Tale 'of  a  Tub,"  (anony- 
mous,) and  '"The  Battle  of  the  Books."  "The  'Tale  of 
a  Tub,'  "  says  Hallam,  "  is,  in  my  apprehension,  the  mas- 
ter-piece of  Swift :  certainly  Rabelais  has  nothing  superior 
even  in  invention,  nor  anything  so  condensed,  so  pointed, 
so  full  of  real  meaning,  of  biting  satire,  of  felicitous 
analogy."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 

Swift  was  often  disappointed  in  his  hopes  of  prefer- 
ment, and  gradually  turned  from  the  Whig  to  the  Tory 
party.  About  1708  he  published  a  "Project  for  the 
Advancement  of  Religion,"  which  is  said  to  be  the  only 
work  to  which  he  ever  put  his  name.    During  a  visit  to 


London  he  wrote  a  series  of  letters  to  Miss  Johnson, 
entitled  "  Journal  to  Stella."  He  edited  the  "  Examiner." 
a  weekly  Tory  paper,  (from  November,  1710,  to  June 
14,  171 1,)  in  which  he  displayed  great  talents  for  satire 
and  raillery  in  personal  attacks  on  Godolphin,  Sunder- 
land, Marlborough,  and  others.  He  became  very  inti- 
mate with  Harley,  Earl  of  Oxford,  with  Lord  Bolingbroke, 
and  with  Pope,  the  poet.  He  advocated  the  cessation  of 
hostilities  against  Louis  XIV.,  in  an  able  tract  on  "The 
Conduct  of  the  Allies,"  (1712,)  which  had  great  success, 
and  efficiently  promoted  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  (1713.) 
For  this  service  he  was  rewarded  with  the  place  of  Dean 
of  Saint  Patrick's,  Dublin,  in  1713.  He  would  probably 
have  obtained  a  bishopric  if  he  had  not  written  the  "  Tale 
of  a  Tub,"  in  which  he  exposed  religious  abuses,  and 
popery  especially,  with  great  freedom  and  even  levity. 
Though  ill  satisfied  with  his  recent  preferment,  he  went 
to  take  possession  of  the  deanery;  but  he  remained  only 
a  few  weeks  in  Dublin.  He  returned  to  London,  where 
his  presence  was  required  to  reconcile  Oxford  and  Boling- 
broke ;  but  he  failed  in  tliis  attempt. 

About  1713  he  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Esther 
Vanhomrigh,  ("  Vanessa,")  who  became  fondly  attached 
to  him,  and  is  said  to  have  made  him  a  proposal  of  mar- 
riage, which  he  dechned.  On  this  subject  he  wrote  a 
poem  entitled  "Cadenus  and  Vanessa."  In  1716  Swift 
and  Stella  were  privately  married;  but  they  never  lived 
together  or  met  except  when  others  were  present.  She 
presided  at  his  table  on  public  days,  and  attended  him 
during  illness.  She  died  in  1728.  He  produced  in  1726 
or  1727  his  famous  "Travels  of  Lemuel  Gulliver,"  a 
satirical  romance,  displaving  great  originality  and  wit. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  became  morose,  misan- 
thropic, and  solitary.  His  memory  and  other  faculties 
failed  in  1741.    He  died  in  Dublin  in  October,  1745. 

There  was  much  paradox  and  inconsistency  in  Swift's 
character.  He  is  said  to  have  given  a  large  part  of  his 
income  to  the  poor,  and  he  acquired  great  popularity 
among  the  Irish,  although  he  regarded  them  as  aliens 
and  inferiors.  Swift's  style  is  remarkable  for  its  direct- 
ness, simplicity,  and  perspicuity.  In  description,  even 
of  the  most  commonplace  things,  his  power  is  often 
perfectly  marvellous  ;  everything  is  presented  to  the 
mind  with  a  distinctness  and  vividness  which  remind 
one  of  the  wojks  of  the  old  Dutch  painters,  Macaulay 
describes  him  at  Moor  Park  as  a  "  poor  scholar,  under 
whose  plain  garb  and  ungainly  deportment  were  con- 
cealed some  of  the  choicest  gifts  that  have  ever  been 
bestowed  on  any  of  the  children  of  men, — rare  powers  of 
observation,  brilliant  wit,  grotesque  invention,  humour 
of  the  most  austere  flavour,  yet  exquisitely  delicious, 
eloquence  singularly  pure,  manly,  and  perspicuous." 
("History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.) 

See  J.  Havykesworth,  "Life  of  Jonathan  Swift,"  1755;  T. 
Sheridan,  "  Lite  or  Swift,"  1784;  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English 
Poets  ;"  Sir  Wai.tek  Scott,  "  Biographies  of  Eminent  Novelists  ;" 
Thackeray,  "  Enghsh  Humorists  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  Sep- 
tember, 1816;  Deane  Swift,  "  Essay  on  the  Life  and  Character  of 
Swift,"  17SS  ;  QuiNTiN  Craufurd,  "  Essai  historique  sur  le  Docteur 
Swift,"  1808:  Campbell,  " Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  Lord 
Jeffrey,  "Essays;"  "  Swiftiana,"  London,  2  vols.,  1804;  Carl 
Nyren,  "J.  Swift's  Lefverne,"  1760;  W.  Russell,  "Eccentric 
Personages,"  1864;  H.  Reynai.d,  "  Biographie  de  J.  Swift,"  1S60; 
Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Swift,  (Joseph  Gardnkr,)  an  American  general  and 
engineer,  born  in  Nantucket  in  1783.  He  graduated  at 
the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  and  was  sabse- 
quently  made  captain  of  engineers.  He  was  appointed 
in  1829  superintendent  of  the  harbour  improvements  on 
the  lakes.    He  has  published  several  scientific  works. 

Swift,  (Theophilus,)  son  of  Deane  Swift,  noticed 
above,  was  the  author  of  poems  entitled  "  The  Gamblers" 
and  "The  Temple  of  Folly,"  an  "Essay  on  the  Rise  and 
Progress  of  Rhyme,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1815. 

Swift,  (Zephaniah,)  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Wareham,  Massachusetts,  in  1759,  was  secretary  of  the 
embassy  to  France  in  1800,  and  in  1806  chief  justice 
of  Connecticut,  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Bills  of 
Exchange,"  and  other  legal  works.    Died  in  1823. 

Swinburne,  swin'burn,  (Algernon  Charles,)  an 
English  poet,  born  near  Henley-on-Thames  in  1843. 
He  studied  at  Oxford,  which  he  quitted  without  a  de- 
gree.   He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Atalanta 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;    4,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


SWINBURNE 


2089 


STLFIUS 


in  Calydon,"  {1864,)  "  Chastelard,"  a  tragedy,  {1865,) 
"Poems  and  Ballads,"  (1866,)  "Siena,"  a  poem,  (first 
published  in  "  Lippincott's  Magazine,"  1868,)  and  "  Both- 
well,"  a  tragedy,  (1870.) 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1866;  "Eclectic  Maga- 
zine" for  November,  1866;  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Swinburne,  (Henry,)  an  English  civilian  and  jurist, 
born  at  York.    He  wrote  on  wills,  etc.    Died  in  1624. 

Swinburne,  (Henry,)  an  English  traveller,  born  in 
1752.  He  spent  many  years  in  visiting  France,  Spain, 
Italy,  and  Sicily,  and  published  "Travels  through  Spain 
in  1775  1776,"  "  Travels  in  the  Two  Sicilies,"  and  a 
correspondence  entitled  the  "Courts  of  Europe  at  the 
Close  of  the  Last  Century,"  (1841.)    Died  in  1803. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1841. 

Swin'den,  (Tobias,)  an  English  divine,  wrote  a 
work  entitled  "An  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Place 
of  Hell."    Died  in  1720. 

Swinden,  van,  vSn  swin'den,  (Jan  Hendrik,)  a 
Dutch  philosopher  and  mathematician,  born  at  the 
Hague  in  1746.  He  became  in  1785  professor  of  physics 
and  astronomy  at  Amsterdam.  He  was  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  French  Institute  and  of  other  learned 
societies,  and  filled  several  important  offices  under  the 
government.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a  "Dis- 
sertation on  the  Analogy  between  Electricity  and  Mag- 
netism," and  a  "Treatise  on  Weights  and  Measures," 
(1802.)    Died  in  1823. 

See  G.  Moll,  "  Redevoering  over  J.  H.  van  Swinden,"  1824. 

Swin'nock,  (George,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  born  at  Maidstone.  He  wrote  several  religious 
works.    Died  in  1673. 

Swin'tpn,  (John,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born  in 
Cheshire  in  1703.  He  became  keeper  of  the  archives 
at  Oxford,  and  published  several  treatises  on  Roman 
and  Phoenician  antiquities.  He  was  also  a  contributor 
to  the  "Universal  History."    Died  in  1777. 

Swith'in,  Sain  p,  an  'English  prelate,  was  chaplain 
to  King  Egbert,  and  precejitor  to'his  son  Ethelwolf.  He 
was  afterwards  tutor  to  Prince  Alfred,  and  in  852  was 
made  Bishop  of  Winchester.    Died  in  862. 

Swoboda,  svv'o-bo'dd,  (Wenzel  Aloys,)  a  Bohemian 
litterateur,  born  in  1781,  published  tales,  novels,  and 
treatises  on  music.  He  also  translated  Seneca's  dramas 
into  German.    Died  in  1849. 

Swurg  or  Swurga.    See  Swarga. 

Sy-a'gri-us,  Sain f,  an  influential  French  ecclesiastic, 
born  at  Autun  ( Augustodunum)  about  520  a.d.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Autun  about  560.    Died  in  600. 

Sybrecht,  (Jan.)    See  Sibrecht. 

Sydenham,  sid'en-am,  (Charles  Edward  Poulett 
Thompson,)  Lord,  an  English  Whig  statesman,  born 
in  Surrey  in  1799,  was  a  merchant  in  his  youth.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Dover  in  1826,  and  again 
in  1830.  His  superior  talents  for  business  procured  for 
him  a  rapid  promotion.  He  became  president  of  the 
board  of  trade  in  June,  1834,  and  a  member  of  the  cabi- 
net in  1835.  He  represented  Manchester  in  Parliament 
from  1832  till  1839,  was  appointed  Governor-General 
of  Canada  in  1839,  and  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron 
Sydenham,  in  1840.  Died  in  Canada  in  September,  1841. 

See  ScROPE,  "Life  of  Lord  Sydenham,"  184.^;  "Westminster 
Review"  for  December,  1843 ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August, 
1843. 

Sydenham,  (Floyer,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
1710.  He  published  an  excellent  translation  of  the 
principal  part  of  the  works  of  Plato,  but,  having  be- 
come embarrassed,  he  was  imprisoned  for  debt,  and 
died  in  1787.  This  melancholy  event  gave  rise  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Literary  Fund  for  the  relief  of  in- 
digent and  deserving  writers.  Sydenham  also  published 
"Onomasticon  Theologicum;  or.  An  Essay  on  the 
Divine  Names,  according  to  the  Platonic  Philosophy," 
and  a  "  Dissertation  on  the  Doctrine  of  Heraclitus," 
etc.,  (1775-) 

Sydenham,  (Thomas,)  a  celebrated  English  physi- 
cian, sometimes  called  "the  English  Hippocrates,"  was 
born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1624.  He  entered  Magdalene 
Hall,  Oxford,  as  a  commoner  in  1642,  and  took  the 
degree  of  bachelor  of  physic  in  1648.  Having  subse- 
quently graduated  as  doctor  of  medicine  at  Cambridge, 


he  settled  in  London  about  1660.  In  1663  he  was  ad- 
mitted as  a  licentiate  of  the  College  of  Physicians,  the 
majority  of  whom,  it  is  said,  were  hostile  to  him.  He 
rose  rapidly  to  the  foremost  rank  in  his  profession,  and 
enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Locke  and  Boyle.  In  1666 
he  published  a  "Treatise  on  Fevers."  He  discovered 
the  efficacy  of  a  cool  regimen  in  smallpox,  by  which  dis- 
covery  he  saved  many  thousand  lives.  He  wrote  several 
short  medical  treatises,  which  were  published  collectively 
with  the  title  of  "Opera  Omnia  Medica,"  (1685,)  and 
have  been  often  reprinted.  The  best  edition  is  that 
entitled  "Opera  Medica,"  published  at  Geneva,  (2  vols. 
4to,  1716.)  In  the  latter  years  of  his  life  he  suffered 
much  from  the  gout.  Died  in  December,  1689.  "  His 
skill  in  physic,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "was  not  his  highest 
excellence  ;  his  whole  character  was  amiable  :  his  chief 
view  was  the  benefit  of  mankind,  and  the  chief  motive 
of  his  actions,  the  will  of  God,  whom  he  mentions  with 
a  reverence  well  becoming  the  most  enlightened  and 
most  penetrating  mind." 

See  Johnson,  "  Life  of  Sydenham,"  1742  ;  Prunelle,  "  Notice 
siff  la  Vie  de  Sydenham,"  1816;  F.  Jahn,  "Sydenham;  Beitrag 
zur  wissenschaftlichen  Medicin,"  1840;  Goeden,  "  T.  Sydenham," 
1827;  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica ;"  "  Lives  of  the  British  Phy- 
sicians," London,  1857;  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Sydney,  (Sir  Philip.)    See  Sidney.  , 

Sykes,  siks,  (Arthitr  Ashley,)  an  English  divine, 
born  in  London  about  1684,  rose  through  several  prefer- 
ments to  be  prebendary  of  Winchester.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  "Essay  on  the  Truth  of  the  Christian 
Religion,"  etc.,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1756. 

See  Disney,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  A.  A.  Sykes." 

Sykes,  (George,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Delaware  or  Maryland  about  1824.  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1842.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Gaines's 
Mill,  June  27,  1862,  and  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Gettys- 
burg, July  1-3,  1863. 

Sylburg,  .siKbooRG,  [Lat.  Sylbur'gtus,]  (Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  scholar,  born  near  Marburg  in  1536. 
He  studied  Greek  at  Jena,  and  subsequently  entered 
into  a  connection  with  the  printer  Jerome  Commelin, 
at  Heidelberg,  as  director  of  the  printing  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  classics.  He  published  editions  of  Pausa- 
nias,  Aristotle,  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  Zosimus, 
Justin  Martyr,  and  other  ancient  writers.  He  also 
contributed  to  the  "  Thesaurus"  of  Henry  Stephens. 
Sylburg  was  one  of  the  greatest  scholars  of  his  time, 
and  his  editions  of  the  classics  have  perhaps  never  been 
surpassed  in  critical  accuracy.    Died  in  1596. 

See  J.  G.  Jung,  "  Lebensbeschreibung  F.  Sylburg's,"  1745:  M. 
Adam,  "Vitae  Philosophorum ;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Sylburgius.    See  Sylburg. 
Sylla.    See  Sulla. 
Sylvanus.    See  Silvanus. 
Sylverius.    See  Silverius. 

Syl-ves'ter,  [Fr.  Silvestre,  s^KvlstR';  It.  Silves- 
TRO,  s^l-v^s'tRo,]  Saint,  was  elected  Pope  of  Rome 
in  314  A.D.  Under  his  pontificate  the  celeljrated  Coun- 
cil of  Nice  was  assembled  (325)  and  the  Arian  heresy 
was  first  promulgated.    Died  in  335. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  History  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Sylvester  II.  succeeded  Gregory  V.  as  Pope  of 
Rome  in  999  a.d.  His  original  name  was  Gekbert, 
and  he  was  a  native  of  Auvergne.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  attainments  in  mathematics  and  philosophy,  and 
made  several  valuable  discoveries.  He  died  in  1003, 
leaving  a  number  of  scientific  treatises. 

Sylvester  III.,  Anti-Pope,  was  raised  to  the  pon- 
tificate in  1013,  in  opposition  to  Benedict  IX.,  but  after 
a  short  time  he  was  deposed. 

S;^l-ves'ter,  (Joshua,)  an  English  Puritan  writer, 
born  in  1563,  was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "To- 
bacco Battered  and  the  Pipes  Shattered  by  a  Volley  of 
Holy  Shot  Thundered  from  Mount  Helicon."  He  made 
several  translations  from  the  French.    Died  in  1618. 

Sylvester,  (Matthew,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  was  ejected  about  1662,  after  which  he  preached 
in  London.  He  edited  Baxter's  "  History  of  his  Life 
and  Times."    Died  in  1708. 

Sylvius,  the  Latin  of  Dubois,  (which  see.) 

Sylvius,  (^neas.)    See  Pius  H. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  c,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  tiasal;  r,  trilled;  I  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


srinus 


2090 


SZIGLIGETI 


Sylvius,  sil've-tis,  (Franz,)  a  German  physician, 
originally  named  Le  Boe,  born  at  Hanau  in  1614.  He 
became  professor  of  medicine  at  Leyden,  where  he  died 
in  1672.    He  published  several  medical  works,  in  Latin. 

Sylvius,  siKve-iis,  (Lambert,)  or  Van  den  Bosch, 
vtn  den  bosk,  a  Dutch  writer,  born  at  Dort  in  i6io. 
He  wrote  histories,  poems,  etc.    Died  in  1688. 

Syme,  (James,)  an  eminent  Scottish  surgeon  and  phy- 
sician, born  in  Fifeshire  about  1800.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Robert  Liston,  at  Edinburgh.  He  gained  a  high 
reputation  as  an  operator  and  as  a  writer  on  surgery. 
About  1833  he  became  professor  of  clinical  surgery  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.  Among  his  works  are  a 
'  Treatise  on  the  Excision  of  Diseased  Joints,"  (1831,) 
*  Principles  of  Surgery,"  (1832,)  and  a  "Treatise  on 
Uiseases  of  the  Rectum,"  (1838-46.)    Died  in  1870. 

Symes,  simz,  (Michael,)  an  English  officer  and  di- 
plomatist, was  ambassador  to  the  Burmese  court  in  1795, 
and  published,  after  his  return,  his  "  Embassy  to  the 
Kingdom  of  Ava,"    Died  in  1809. 

Sym'ing-ton,  (W.,)  a  Scottish  theologian,  born  in 
1795.  He  was  a  professor  of  theology  of  the  Re- 
formed Presbyterian  Church,  and  lived  in  Glasgow.  He 
published  works  entitled  "The  Atonement  and  Interces- 
sion of  Christ,"  and  "  Mediatorial  Dominion  of  Christ." 
Died  in  Glasgow  in  January,  1862. 

Sym'ma-ehus,  [Gr.  I,v/j.fj.axog ;  Fr.  Symmaque,  se'- 
mtk',]  surnamed  the  Samaritan,  is  supposed  to  have 
flourished  about  200  A.D.  Having  been  converted  to 
Christianity,  he  made  a  translation  of  the  Old  Testament 
into  Greek,  which  has  been  highly  commended  for  the 
grace  and  perspicuity  of  its  style. 

Symmachus,  (Ccelius,)  born  in  Sardinia,  succeeded 
Anastasius  H.  as  Pope  of  Rome  in  498  A.D.  Died  in  514. 

Symmachus,  (Quintus  Aurelius,)  a  Roman  orator 
and  statesman.  He  became  successively  proconsul  of 
Africa,  prefect  of  Rome,  (384,)  and  consul,  (391  A.D.) 
He  was  a  zealous  defender  of  paganism,  and  laboured 
earnestly  to  prevent  its  downfall.  Died  about  410. 
Among  his  extant  works  are  ten  books  of  letters,  which 
contain  a  great  deal  of  interesting  and  valuable  infor- 
mation. He  is  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  great  ability 
and  learning.  Fragments  of  his  orations  have  been  pub- 
lished by  Angelo  Mai. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina  ;"  Angelo  Mai,  "  Com- 
mentarii  Praevii  de  Synimacho  ;"  E.  Morin,  "  Elude  sur  la  Vie  de 
Symmaque,"  1847;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gendrale." 

Symmaque.    See  Symmachus. 

Symmes,  simz,  (John  Clevks,)  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  New  Jersey  about  1780,  is  chiefly  known  as  the 
advocate  of  a  theory  representing  the  earth  as  hollow, 
open  at  the  poles,  and  habitable  within.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  the  subject,  but  made  very  few 
converts.    Died  in  1829. 

Sym'mpns,  (Charles,)  M.D.,  born  at  Cardigan, 
Wales,  in  1749,  was  the  author  of  a  "Life  of  Milton," 
and  dramatic  poems  entitled  "Inez"  and  "  Constantia." 
Died  in  1826. 

Sy'monds,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  rear-admiral 
and  naval  architect,  born  in  1782.  He  made  improve- 
ments in  the  construction  of  ships,  and  was  surveyor  of 
the  navy  from  1832  to  1847.    Died  in  1856. 

Sy'mpns,  (Jelinger  C.,)  an  English  writer  and  phi- 
lanthropist, born  in  1809  or  1810.  He  wrote  on  educa- 
tion and  social  reform.    Died  in  i860. 

Syn,  sin,  or  Synia,  sin'e-a,  [perhaps  from  syn, 
"sight,"  and  so  named  on  account  of  her  watchfulness 
and  sagacity,]  a  goddess  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the 
portress  of  the  hall  or  palace  of  Odin,  and  also  the 
patron  of  those  who  in  a  lawsuit  are  in  danger  of  being 
injured  by  false  testimony. 

Syn-celTus,  [Gr.  Svy/ceAAof;  ;  Fr.  Le  Syncelle,  leh 
siN's^l'.j  (George,)  a  Greek  monk  and  chronicler  of  the 
eighth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  "  Chronography,"  or 
chronological  history  of  the  world  from  the  creation  to 
the  time  of  Diocletian. 

Synesius,  si-nee'she-us,  [Gr.  Ivveglo^,]  a  celebrated 
Neo- Platonic  philosopher,  was  born  at  Cyrene,  in  Africa, 
in  378  A.D.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Hypatia  at  Alexandria  ; 
but  he  was  afterwards  converted  to  Christianity,  and 
became  Bishop  of  Ptolemais  in  410  a.d.    He  was  the 


author  of  a  treatise  "  On  Dreams,"  "  Dion,  or  on  Self- 
Discipline,"  a  large  collection  of  letters,  and  several 
hymns  and  epigrams.  His  works  are  admired  for  the 
style  and  other  merits.    Died  about  430. 

See  Clauskn,  "  De  Synesio  Philosopho,"  1831;  Drouon, 
"  £ Uide  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Qiiivres  de  Synesius,"  1859;  B.  Kolbk, 
"  Der  Bischof  Synesius  von  Cyreue  als  Physiker,"  1850  ;  Tillemont, 
"  Menioires  ecclesiastiques  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Synesius,  a  Greek  writer  on  medicine,  the  date  of 
whose  birth  is  unknown.  His  "Treatise  on  Fevers,"  a 
translation  from  the  Arabic  of  Ibnu'l-Jezzar,  is  his  only- 
extant  work. 

Synge,  sinj,  (Edv^ard,)  born  at  Cork,  in  Ireland,  in 
1659,  rose  to  be  Archbishop  of  Tuam.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  religious  works.    Died  in  1741. 

Syn'ti-pas,  the  Greek  form  of  the  name  of  Sende- 
bad,  s^n'deh-bld',  a  Hindoo  or  Persian  philosopher,  to 
whom  is  ascribed  a  collection  of  tales  and  apologues 
which  were  translated  into  Greek  by  Michael  Andreo- 
poulos.  These  tales  were  published  by  Boissonnade 
in  1828. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Sy'phax,  [Gr.  Su^af,]  a  king  of  Numidia,  made  an 
alliance  with  the  Romans  in  213  B.C.,  after  which  he 
waged  war  against  Masinissa.  About  the  year  204  he 
became  an  ally  of  Carthage  in  the  second  Punic  war. 
He  was  defeated  by  Scipio  in  203  B.C.,  and  was  taken 
as  a  prisoner  to  Rome.    Died  about  201. 

See  LivY,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Syr-i-a'nus,  [Gr.  Ivpiavog,]  a  Greek  philosopher  of 
the  Neo-Platonic  school,  was  born  at  Alexandria  or 
Gaza.  He  succeeded  Plutarchus  as  the  head  of  the 
Neo-Platonic  school  at  Athens.  Among  his  disciples 
was  the  celebrated  Proclus,  who  expressed  a  very  high 
opinion  of  Syrianus.  He  wrote  several  works,  which 
are  lost,  and  a  "  Commentary  on  the  Metaphysics  of 
Aristotle,"  which  is  extant.    Died  about  450  A.D. 

See  RiTTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy ;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca 
Grasca." 

Syr-o-puTus,  (Sylvester,)  an  ecclesiastic  of  the 
Greek  Church,  and  resident  of  Constantinople  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the 
Council  of  Florence." 

Syrus.    See  Publius  Syrus. 

Szabo,  si'bo,  (David,)  a  Transylvanian  poet,  born 
in  1739,  made  a  translation  of  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost" 
and  of  Virgil's  "  i^Lneid,"  and  published  a  poem  entitled 
a  "Description  of  Rural  Life."    Died  in  1819. 

Szalay,  soh'loi,  (Ladislaus,)  a  Hungarian  writer, 
born  at  Buda  in  1813,  succeeded  Kossuth  in  1844  as 
editor  of  the  "  Pesti  Hirlap."  Among  his  principal 
works  are  a  "  History  of  Hungary,"  "  The  Book  of 
Statesmen,"  (1847,)  and  "  Publicistic  Writings,"  (1847.) 
Died  in  1864. 

Szalkai,  soKkl,  (Anthony,)  a  Hungarian  dramatic 
poet  of  the  eighteenth  century.  His  "  Pikko  Hertzeg" 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  regular  drama  in  the  Hun- 
garian language.    Died  in  1804.  / 

Sz^chenyi,  sa'Kgn-ye,  (Stephen,)  Count,  a  Hun- 
garian nobleman,  eminent  for  his  public  spirit,  was  born 
at  Vienna  in  1792.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning 
and  promoter  of  rural  economy.  He  was  a  pioneer  in 
the  navigation  of  the  Danube  by  steam.  In  politics  he 
opposed  the  measures  of  Kossuth  which  produced  or 
preceded  the  revolution  of  1848.    Died  in  i860. 

Szegedi,  sa'g§d-e,  (John  Baptist,)  a  Hungarian 
Jesuit,  born  at  Eisenstadt  in  1699.  He  published  seve- 
ral works  on  Hungarian  history  and  laws.   Died  in  1 760. 

Sze-ma-Kwang.    See  Sse-ma-Kwang. 

Sze-ma-Tsien.    See  Sse-ma-Tsien. 

Szemere,  sa'm§h-ri,  (Bartholomew,)  a  Hungarian 
patriot  and  statesman,  born  in  the  county  of  Borsod  in 
1812.  Having  previously  filled  several  important  otfices 
under  the  government,  he  became  in  1849  president  of 
the  new  ministry.  After  Gorgey  became  dictator,  Sze- 
mere took  up  his  residence  in  Paris,  where  he  published 
a  number  of  political  treatises.    Died  in  1865. 

Szigligeti,  sig'le-gk-te,  (Joseph,)  a  distinguished 
Hungarian  dramatist,  born  at  Grosswardein  in  1814.  He 
has  published,  among  other  plays,  "The  Travelling 
Actor,"  and  "Crown  and  Sword." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /on^;  k,  h,  d,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  ?,  \,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  f!lt;  mfit;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


TABARAUD 


2091 


T A  FUR  I 


T. 


Tabaraud,  tt'bt'ro',  (Mathieu  Mathurin,)  a 
French  Jansenist  priest  and  writer,  born  at  Limoges  in 
1744.  He  wrote  "Histoire  de  Pierre  de  Berulle,"  (2 
vols.,  181 7,)  and  many  controversial  works,  among  which 
is  an  "Essay  on  the  State  of  the  Jesuits  in  France,". 
(1828.)    Died  in  1832. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tabaree  or  Tabari,  (Aboo-  (Abu-)  Jaafar-Mo- 
hammed,  i'boo  ji'a-far  mo-hSm'med,)  an  eminent  Arab 
historian,  born  in  Tabaristan  in  839  a.d.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "  Universal  History  from  the  Creation  to  314 
A.D,,"  a  "Commentary  on  the  Koran,"  and  other  works. 

Tabari.    See  Tabaree. 

Tabarrani,  ti-bir-rj'nee,  (P.,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  near  Lucca  in  1702.  He  was  professor  of  medicine 
at  Rome  and  Padua,  and  published  "  Observationes 
Anatomicae,"  (1753.)    Died  in  1779. 

Tabernaemontanus,  ti-b^R'ni-mon-tl'nus,  (Jaco- 
bus Theodorus,)  a  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at 
Berg-Zabern,  in  Alsace,  about  1520.  His  principal  work 
is  entitled  a  "New  Complete  Herbal,"  ("Neue  volkom- 
men  Krauterbuch,")  which  was  highly  esteemed  in  his 
time.    Died  in  1590. 

Tabor,  ti'bor,  (Johann  Otho,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  at  Bautzen  in  1604;  died  in  1674. 

Tabouet,  ti'boo-i',  [Lat.  Taboe'tius,]  (Julien,)  a 
French  jurist  and  historian,  born  near  Le  Mans  about 
1500.  He  was  banished  in  1556  for  an  alleged  official 
misdemeanour.    Died  in  1562. 

Tabourot,  tt'boo'ro',  (£tienne,)  a  French  lawyer 
and  humorous  writer,  called  the  "  Seigneur  des  Accords," 
was  born  at  Dijon  in  1547.  He  published  a  collection 
of  facetious  poems  entitled  "  Les  Bigarrures  et  Touches 
du  Seigneur  des  Accords,"  etc.,  (1572.)    Died  in  1590. 

See  Abel  Jeandet,  "Tabourot  Seigneur  des  Accords,"  1861. 

Tabreezee  or  Tabrizi,  ti-bree'zee,  (Aboo-  (Abu-) 
Zacharia-Yahia,  i'boo  zS-K^-ree'^  ykh'he-i,)  an  Arab 
grammarian  and  critical  writer,  was  professor  at  Bagdad. 

Tabrizi.    See  Tabreezee. 

Tacca,  tik'ki,  (Pietro  Giacomo,)  an  Italian  sculptor, 
was  a  pupil  of  John  of  Bologna.    Died  in  1640. 

Taccoli,  tSk'ko-lee,  (Niccol6,)  Count,  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Reggicj  in  1690 ;  died  in  1768. 

Tao-fa-ri'nas,  a  Numidian,  who,  during  the  reign  of 
Tiberius,  took  arms  against  the  Romans,  about  18  A.D. 
He  gained  some  victories,  but  was  defeated  and  killed 
in  24  A.D. 

Tachard,  tt'shtR',  (Gui,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  mis- 
sionary to  Siam  in  1685,  published,  after  his  return,  an 
account  of  his  travels,  (2  vols.,  1689.)    Died  in  1711. 

Tacite.    See  Tacitus. 

Tacito.    See  Tacitus. 

Ta9l-tus,  [Fr.  Tacite,  tt's^t';  It.  Tacito,  td'che-to,] 
(Caius  Cornelius,)  a  celebrated  Roman  historian,  was 
born  about  55  A.D.  The  events  of  his  early  life  have 
not  been  recorded.  He  entered  the  public  service  in 
the  reign  of  Vespasian,  and  married  a  daughter  of  C. 
Julius  Agricola,  the  famous  general,  in  78  A.D.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Pliny  the  Younger,  from  whose 
letters  we  derive  a  large  part  of  the  knowledge  which 
we  have  of  his  life.  In  the  year  88  he  obtained  the 
ofifice  of  praetor.  He  was  one  of  the  most  eloquent 
orators  of  his  time.  In  the  reign  of  Nerva  he  became 
consul,  97  A.D.,  and  about  the  same  date  he  wrote  his 
work  on  Germany, — "On  the  Situation,  Customs,  etc. 
of  Germany,"  ("  De  Situ,  Moribus  et  Populis  Germaniae.") 
Tacitus  and  Pliny  conducted  the  prosecution  against 
Marius  Priscus,  who  was  convicted  of  cruelty  and  other 
crimes  in  100  A.D. 

Among  his  earlier  works  is  a  "  Life  of  Agricola," 
which  is  much  admired.  After  the  death  of  Nerva,  he 
wrote  "The  Histories,"  ("  Historiarum  Libri  XIV.,") 
which  treat  of  the  period  from  68  to  96  A.D.  This  work 
is  lost,  except  the  first  five  books.  His  reputation  is 
chiefly  founded  on  his  "  Annals,"  ("  Annales,")  in  sixteen 


books,  which  record  the  history  of  the  Roman  empire  from 
the  death  of  Augustus,  14  A.D.,  to  the  death  of  Nero,  68 
A.D.  This  excellent  work  is  extant,  except  the  seventh, 
eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  books,  and  parts  of  three  other 
books.  His  "  Annals"  were  completed  about  116  A.D. 
The  date  of  his  death  is  not  known.  He  was  a  Stoic  in 
philosophy,  and  probably  knew  nothing  of  Christianity. 
According  to  Gibbon,  "he  was  the  first  historian  who 
applied  the  science  of  philosophy  to  the  study  of  facts." 
("  History,"  vol.  i.  225.)  He  displays  profound  insight 
into  the  motives  of  human  conduct  and  the  dark  recesses 
of  character.  His  style  is  eminently  concise  and  vigorous. 

"Of  the  Latin  historians,"  says  Macaulay,  "Tacitus 
was  certainly  the  greatest.  His  style,  indeed,  is  not  only 
faulty  in  itself,  but  is  in  some  respects  peculiarly  unfit 
for  historical  composition.  .  .  .  He  tells  a  fine  story 
finely,  but  he  cannot  tell  a  plain  story  plainly.  He  stim- 
ulates till  all  stimulants  lose  their  power.  ...  In  the 
delineation  of  character,  Tacitus  is  unrivalled  among 
historians,  and  has  very  few  superiors  among  dramatists 
and  novelists."  (Essay  on  "  History,"  published  in  the 
"Edinburgh  Review,"  1828.) 

"  Tacitus,"  says  F.  W.  Farrar,  "  towered  like  a  giant 
above  all  his  contemporaries,  isolated  and  unapproach- 
able. .  .  .  The  little  we  know  of  his  private  life  is  in 
perfect  accordance  with  the  noble  standard  of  his  re- 
corded sentiments."    ("Encyclopaedia  Britannica.") 

See  BoTTiCHER,  "  De  Vita,  Scriptis  ac  Stilo  Taciti,"  1834;  SiE- 
VERS,  "Tacitus  und  Tiberius,"  1850;  Dubois-Guchan,  "Tacite  et 
son  Siecle,"  2  vols.,  1857;  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dic- 
tionary;" D.  W.  MoLLER,  "  Disputatio  de  C.  C.  Tacito,"  1686; 
Malvezzi,  "Discorsi  sopra  Tacito,"  1622;  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Tacitus,  (Marcus  Claudius,)  Emperor  of  Rome, 
was  elected  to  succeed  Aurelian  in  275  A.D.  He  was 
distinguished  for  the  wisdom  and  energy  of  his  admin- 
istration. He  defeated  the  Scythians,  who  had  invaded 
Pontus,  but  he  soon  after  died  (276)  of  a  fever,  (though 
one  account  says  he  fell  a  victim  to  a  conspiracy  and 
was  assassinated,)  having  reigned  about  eight  months. 

Taconnet,  tt'ko'nk',  (  roussAiNT  Gaspakd,)  a  French 
actor  and  dramatic  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1 730;  died 
in  1774. 

Tacquet,  tt'k^',  (Andrew,)  a  learned  Flemish  Jesuit, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1611,  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  his  native  city.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
mathematical  works,  in  Latin.    Died  in  1660. 

Tadda,  del.    See  Ferrucci,  (Francesco.) 

Tadino,  ta-dee'no,  (Gabriel,)  an  Italian  general, 
born  near  Bergamo  about  1480.  He  fought  for  the  Ve- 
netians against  the  League  of  Cambray,  and  became 
grand  master  of  the  artillery  of  Charles  V.    Died  in  1543. 

Tadolini,  ti-do-lee'nee,  (Adamo,)  an  Italian  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Bologna  in  1789,  was  a  pupil  of  Canova. 
His  statue  of  Saint  Francis  de  Sales  is  highly  praised. 

Tadolini,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  composer,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1793.  He  composed  successful  operas, 
among  which  were  "  II  Tamerlano"  and  "Almanzor." 

Tafel,  ta'fel,  (Gottlieb  Lucas  Friedrich,)  a  German 
scholar  and  antiquary,  born  in  1787;  died  at  Dim  in  i860. 

Tafel,  (Johann  Friedrich  Emmanuel,)  a  distin- 
guished German  Swedenborgian,  was  born  at  Sulzbach, 
in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1796.  He  became  librarian  of  the 
University  at  Tubingen,  translated  several  of  Sweden- 
borg's  works  into  German,  and  wrote,  besides  many 
other  works,  "  Swedenborg  and  his  Opponents,"  ("  Swe- 
denborg  und  seine  Gegner,"  2  vols.,  1841.)  Died  at 
Rogaz,  in  Switzerland,  in  1862. 

See  C.  DuBERG,  "  Leben  und  Wirken  von  Dr.  J.  F.  Immanuel 
Tafel,"  Wismar,  1864. 

Taffi,  tSf'fee,  (Andrea,)  a  Florentine  artist,  born  in 
1213,  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  art  of  painting  in 
mosaic  into  Italy.    Died  in  1294. 

Tafuri,  ti-foo'ree,  (G.  B.,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Nardo  in  1695.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  an 
"  Account  of  the  Writers  born  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples,"  (9  vols.,  1744-70.)    Died  in  1760. 


«  as  ^;  jas  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  k, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TAFURI 


2092 


TALBOT 


Tafuri,  (Matteo,)  called  Matth^us  Soleta'nus,  an 
Italian  philosopher  and  physician,  born  at  Soleto  in 
1492.  He  wrote  on  theology,  medicine,  astronomy,  etc. 
Died  about  1585. 

Ta'ges,  [Fr.  TAofes,  tt'zh^s',]  an  Etrurian  genius  or 
mythical  personage,  who  is  said  to  have  issued  from  a 
clod  of  earth,  and  is  represented  as  a  boy  with  the  wis- 
dom of  an  old  man.  He  is  said  to  have  taught  the  art 
of  predicting  the  future  by  the  inspection  of  the  entrails 
of  victims. 

Tagesen.    See  Taussen. 

Tagliacariie,  tSl-yi-kaR'ni,  (Benedetto,)  called 
Theocre'nus,  [Fr.  Theocrene,  \.Wo'kK^\V,]  an  Italian 
litterateur  and  poet,  born  at  Sarzana  about  1480.  He 
removed  to  France,  obtained  the  favour  of  Francis  I., 
and  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Grasse  in  1533.  Died 
in  1536. 

Tagliacozio.    See  Tagliacozzi. 

Tagliacozzi,  til-yi-kot'see,  or  Tagliacozio,  til-yS- 
kot'se-o,  [Lat.  Taliaco'tius,]  (Gasparo,)  an  eminent 
Italian  surgeon,  born  at  Bologna  in  1546.  He  became 
professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery  in  his  native  city, 
where  he  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  as  a  lecturer  ;  but  his 
fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  skill  in  restoring  lost  features, 
particularly  noses.  He  published  several  surgical  works, 
in  Latin.  His  method  of  forming  the  nose  has  been 
called  the  "Taliacotian  process."    Died  in  1599. 

See  "Biographie  Medicale;"  Fantuzzi,  "  Scrittori  Bolognesi." 

Taglioni,  tSl-yo'nee,  (Marie,)  a  celebrated  opera- 
dancer,  born  in  1804  at  Stockholm,  where  her  father, 
Filippo  Taglioni,  held  the  post  of  ballet-master.  She 
performed  with  brilliant  success  in  Paris,  London,  and 
the  other  principal  cities  of  Europe.  In  1832  she  was 
married  to  Count  Gilbert  de  Voisins,  and  in  1847  retired 
from  the  stage,  having  amassed  a  large  fortune.  Her 
brother,  Paul  Taglioni,  born  at  Vienna  in  1808,  became 
royal  ballet-master  in  London,  and  composed  a  number 
of  ballets. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tahureau,  tt'ii'ro',  (Jacques,)  a'  French  poet,  born 
at  Mans  in  1527  ;  died  in  1555. 

Taillandier,  tt'y6N'de-i',  (Alphonse  Honors,)  a 
French  publicist  and  lawyer,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He 
was  a  Liberal  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in 
the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe.  He  published  several  works 
on  legislation  and  penal  laws,  and  contributed  to  the 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Taillandier,  (Charles  Louis,)  a  learned  French 
Benedictine  monk  and  writer,  was  born  at  Arras  in  1705  ; 
died  in  1786. 

Taillandier,  (Ren6  Gaspard  Ernest,)  a  French 
philosopher  and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  181 7.  He 
studied  in  Paris,  and  subsequently  at  Heidelberg,  and 
was  appointed  in  1843  professor  of  French  literature  at 
Montpellier.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a  treat- 
ise "  On  Erigena  the  Scot,  and  the  Scholastic  Philos- 
ophy," (1843,)  ^  "  History  of  Young  Germany,"  (1848,) 
and  "Maurice  de  Saxe,"  (2  vols.,  1865.)  He  has  been  a 
frequent  contributor  to  the  "Revue  des  Deux  Mondes." 

Taillasson,  tt'yt'siN',  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  skilful 
French  historical  painter  and  litterateur,  born  near  Bor- 
deaux in  1746,  was  a  pupil  of  Vien.  He  was  admitted 
into  the  Academy  of  Painting  in  1784.    Died  in  1809. 

Taillepied,  ttrpe-a'  or  tt'ye-pe-i',  (Noel,)  a  French 
biographer  and  antiquary,  born  near  Rouen  about  1540. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Life  of  Luther," 
(1577,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  State  and  Republic  of  the 
Druids,"  etc.,  (1585.)    Died  in  1589. 

Taine,  tin,  (Hippolyte  Adolphe,)  a  French  litte- 
rateur, born  at  Vouziers  in  1828.  He  has  published, 
besides  other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  Titus  Livius,"  (1854,) 
"The  French  Philosophers  of  the  Nineteenth  Century," 
(1856,)  and  a  "  History  of  English  Literature,"  (4  vols., 
1864.)  In  1864  he  was  chosen  to  teach  aesthetics  and 
the  history  of  art  in  the  New  School  of  Fine  Arts. 

See  "  N/3uvelle  Biographie  G^n^rale  ;"  "  Westminster  Review" 
for  April,  1866. 

Tai-Ping-Wang,    See  Tien-Te. 
Taisand,  iWzh^',  (Pierre,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Dijon  in  1644.   He  wrote  "The  Lives  of  the  Most  Cele- 


brated Jurists  of  all  Nations,"  (in  French,  1721.)  Died 
in  1 71 5. 

Tait,  (Archibald  Campbell,)  a  British  prelate,  born 
in  Edinburgh  in  1811.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
where  he  opposed  the  Tractarian  principles  and  gradu- 
ated about  1836.  He  succeeded  Dr.  Arnold  as  head- 
master of  Rugby  School  in  1842,  was  appointed  Dean  of 
Carlisle  in  1850,  Bishop  of  London  in  1856,  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  November,  1868.  Among  his 
works  is  "The  Dangers  and  Safeguards  of  Theology." 

Talachon.    See  Talochon. 

Talbert,  tSl'baiR',  (Francois  Xavier,)  a  French 
writer  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Besan9on  in  1 728,  pub- 
lished eulogies  on  Bossuet,  Montaigne,  and  other  emi- 
nent men  ;  also  several  poems.    Died  in  1803. 

TkVhot,  (Catherine,)  an  English  writer,  grand- 
daughter  of  the  Bishop  of  Durham,  was  born  in  1720. 
She  was  the  author  of  "  Reflections  on  the  Seven  Days 
of  the  Week,"  "  Letters  to  a  Friend  on  a  Future  State," 
"  Essays  on  Various  Subjects,"  "  Dialogues,"  "  Pas- 
torals," and  "  Poems."  She  is  also  said  to  have  con- 
tributed to  the  "  Athenian  Letters,"  and  to  have  written 
the  thirtieth  number  of  "The  Rambler."  She  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Carter.    Died  in  1770. 

See  Pennington,  "Life  of  C.  Talbot;"  Drake,  "Essays;" 
Mrs.  Ei.wooD,  "Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from 
the  Commencement  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  i. ;  "Monthly  Re- 
view" for  April,  1772. 

Talbot,  (Charles.)    See  Shrewsbury,  Duke  of. 

Talbot,  (Charles,)  an  eminent  English  jurist,  born 
in  1684,  was  a  son  of  W.  Talbot,  Bishop  of  Durham. 
He  practised  law  with  great  success,  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  an  eloquent  debater  in  Parliament. 
In  1733  he  became  lord  chancellor  of  England,  and  was 
created  Baron  Talbot.  According  to  Lord  Campbell, 
"he  was  without  an  accuser,  without  an  enemy,  without 
a  detractor,  without  any  one,  from  malice  or  mistake,  to 
cavil  at  any  part  of  his  character,  conduct,  or  demean- 
our."   Died  in  1737. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,"  vol.  iv. ; 
Foss,  "The  Judges  of  England." 

Talbot,  ttKbo',  (Eugene,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Chartres  in  1814.  He  became  professor  of  rhetoric 
in  the  College  Louis-le-Grand,  Paris.  He  produced  ver- 
sions of  the  works  of  Lucian  and  Xenophon,  (1857-58,) 

Talbot,  (John,)  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  a  celebrated 
military  coinmander,  born  in  Shropshire,  England,  in 
1373.  Appointed  in  1414  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  he 
brought  the  insurgent  chiefs  into  subjection,  and  took 
prisoner  the  famous  Donald  McMurrough.  From  1419 
to  1422  he  served  in  the  French  campaigns  of  Henry 
v.,  and,  after  the  death  of  that  sovereign,  gained  a 
succession  of  signal  victories  over  the  French  armies. 
Having  laid  siege  to  Orleans,  he  was  compelled  to 
retire  before  the  forces  of  the  enemy,  led  on  by  Joan  of 
Arc,  (1429,)  and  after  the  battle  of  Patai,  in  the  same 
year,  was  made  prisoner.  He  was  created  commander- 
in-chief  after  his  release,  and  took  Le  Crotoy,  Harfleur, 
and  several  other  towns.  He  was  subsequently  made 
Earl  of  Shrewsbury  in  England,  Earl  of  Waterford 
and  Wexford  in  Ireland,  and  in  1446  appointed  for  the 
third  time  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland.  While  attempting 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Castellan,  in  France,  in  1453,  he 
was  killed,  together  with  his  son.  Lord  de  ITsle. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale ;"  Monstrelet,  "Chronicle;"  Shakspeare's  "  Henry  VL,' 
part  i.  act  iv. 

Talbot,  (Peter,)  a  learned  Jesuit  and  writer  on  the- 
ology, born  in  Ireland  in  1620.  He  was  appointed  Arch- 
bishop of  Dublin  in  1669.  He  published  a  "Treatise 
on  the  Nature  of  Faith,"  (1657,)  and  several  controver- 
sial works.  Accused  of  complicity  in  the  Popish  Plot, 
he  was  confined  in  prison  from  1678  until  his  death,  in 
1680.    He  was  a  brother  of  Richard,  Earl  of  Tyrconnel. 

Talbot,  (Richard.)    See  Tyrconnel, 

Talbot,  (Robert,)  an  English  divine,  and  prebendary 
of  Wells  Cathedral,  was  a  native  of  Northamptonshire. 
He  published  a  commentary  and  notes  on  the  "  Itine- 
rary" of  Antoninus.    Died  in  1558, 

'ikVhot,  (Silas,)  an  American  Revolutionary  officer, 
born  in  Rhode  Island  about  1750,  distinguished  himself 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  3?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


TALBOT 


2093 


TALLEYRAND 


in  several  important  engagements  both  by  land  and  sea. 
Having  been  made  a  captain  in  the  navy,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  frigate  Constitution  in 
1799.  Died  in  1813.  His  life  has  been  written  by  H.  T. 
Tuckerman. 

Talbot,  (William,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Staffordshire  in  1659.  He  became  Bishop  of  Oxford  in 
1699,  and  of  Salisbury  in  17 15.  He  was  transferred  to 
the  see  of  Durham  in  1722.  Died  in  1 730.  His  son 
Charles  became  lord  chancellor. 

Talbot,  (William  Henry  Fox,)  the  inventor  of 
photography  on  paper,  was  born  in  Wiltshire,  England, 
in  1800.  He  discovered  the  process  of  photography  in 
1833  or  1834,  but  he  did  not  announce  it  to  the  public 
until  1839.  Daguerre  anticipated  him  by  the  publication 
of  a  similar  discovery.  The  process  of  Talbot  was 
called  Calotype,  and  Talbotype.  He  published  "The 
Pencil  of  Nature,"  (1844,)  and  other  works. 

Talfourd,  tawKford,  (Thomas  Noon,)  called  Ser- 
geant Talfourd,  an  English  dramatist,  essayist,  and 
lawyer,  born  at  Doxey,  a  suburb  of  Stafford,  in  1795.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Valpy,  and  studied  law  under  Mr. 
Chitty.  Having  been  called  to  the  bar  in  1821,  he  married 
a  Miss  Rutt,  and  joined  the  Oxford  circuit.  In  1835  he 
became  a  Liberal  member  of  Parliament,  in  which  he 
procured  the  passage  of  an  important  law  of  copy- 
right. He  contributed  to  the  "Edinburgh  Review" 
and  other  periodicals.  In  1835  he  produced  "  Ion,"  a 
tragedy,  which  was  very  successful.  He  wrote  several 
other  dramas,  and  "  Memorials  of  Charles  Lamb,"  (1848.) 
He  was  appointed  a  judge  in  1849.    Died  in  1854. 

See  R.  H.  Horne,  "New  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1844;  Allibone, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1836; 
"  North  British  Review"  for  May,  1856 ;  "  North  American  Review" 
for  January,  1838. 

Talhouet,  de,  deh  ttloo'i',  (Auguste  FR^ni^Rrc 
Bon  Amour,)  Marquis,  a  French  peer,  born  at  Rennes 
in  1788,  was  rich,  and  noted  for  his  liberality.  He 
founded  in  1 819  a  society  for  the  amelioration  of  prisons. 
Died  in  1842. 

Taliacotius.    See  Tagltacozzl 

Taliaferro,  toKe-ver,  (John,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Virginia  in  1768,  was  a  member  of  Congress 
more  than  twenty  years,  and  for  a  time  librarian  of  the 
treasury  department  at  Washington.    Died  in  1853. 

Tal'ie-sin,  a  British  poet  of  the  sixth  century,  said  to 
have  been  the  son  of  Henvvg,  was  surnamed  Chief  of  the 
Bards.  Scarcely  anything  is  positively  known  of  his  life. 

Tallard  or  Tallart,  de,  deh  tt'ltR',  (Camille  d'Hos- 
tun — dos^tuN',)  Due,  a  French  marshal,  born  in  Dau- 
phine  in  1652.  Having  previously  served  under  Conde 
and  Turenne,  he  was  sent  as  ambassador-extraordinary 
to  England  in  1697  to  negotiate  with  respect  to  the  Span- 
ish succession.  In  1703  he  was  made  a  marshal  of  France, 
and  soon  after  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Imperial- 
ists, under  the  Prince  of  Hesse,  at  Spire  ;  but  he  was 
subsequently  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  at 
Blenheim,  (1704,)  and  made  prisoner.  He  was  created 
in  1712  Duke  of  Hostun,  and  afterwards  became  minister 
of  state  under  Louis  XV.    Died  in  1728. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  filoge  du  Mar^chal  de  Tallart;"  Saint- 
Simon,  "Memoires;"  De  Courcei.i.es,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux 
Frangais;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tallart.    See  Tallard. 

Tallemant,  ttl'm6N',  (Franqois,)  a  French  translator, 
born  near  Jonzac  in  1620.  He  translated  Plutarch's 
"Lives"  into  French.    Died  in  1693. 

Tallemant,  (Paul,)  a  French  priest  and  mediocre 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1642,  was  a  cousin  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in 
1666.    Died  in  1712. 

Tallemant  des  Reaux,  ttrmSx'  di  ri'5',  (G^d^on,) 
a  French  litterateur^  born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1619,  was  a 
brother  of  Fran9ois,  noticed  above.  He  was  one  of  the 
wits  that  frequented  the  Hotel  Rambouillet,  and  wrote 
"  Historiettes,"  (6  vols.  1833-35,)  ^  gossiping  record  of 
what  he  had  heard  and  witnessed.  This  work  contains 
much  interesting  matter,  highly  seasoned  with  scandal 
and  anecdotes,  the  truth  of  many  of  which  may  reason- 
ably be  doubted.    Died  in  1692. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  Monmerqu^,  *'  Notice 
«ur  Tallemant  des  Reaux,"  1836. 


Talleyrand,  the  famous  diplomatist.  See  Talley- 
rand-PIrigord,  de,  (Charles  Maurice.) 

Talleyrand,  de,  deh  tt'l^'rSN',  (Auguste  Louis,) 
Com  I  E,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  in  1770,  was  a  nephew 
of  the  cardinal.  He  was  minister  to  Switzerland  from 
1814  to  1823.    Died  in  1832. 

Talleyrand, de,(fiLiE,)  Cardinal  de  Perigord,  a  French 
prelate,  eminent  for  his  learning,  was  born  at  Perigueux 
in  1301.  He  was  a  friend  of  Petrarch,  and  had  much 
influence  both  in  the  church  and  state.    Died  in  1364. 

See  AuBERY,  "  Histoire  des  Cardinaux ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Talleyrand,  de,  (Gabriel  Marie,)  Comte  de  Peri- 
gord, a  French  general,  born  in  1726,  was  an  uncle  of 
Talleyrand  the  famous  diplomatist.  He  served  with 
distinction  at  Hastenbeck  and  Crefeld.    Died  in  1795. 

Talleyrand,  de,  (Henri,)  Comte  de  Chalais,  a 
French  courtier,  born  in  1599,  was  a  friend  of  Gaston, 
Duke  of  Orleans,  with  whom  he  conspired  against  Riche- 
lieu.   He  was  convicted  of  treason  and  executed  in  1626. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  Bassompierre,  "  Me- 
moires." 

Talleyrand-Perigord,  de,  deh  tt'li'rSN'  pi're'goR', 
(Alexandre  Ang^lique,)  a  French  cardinal,  born  in 
Paris  in  1736,  was  a  brother  of  Gabriel  Marie,  noticed 
above.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Rheims  in  1777,  and  a 
member  of  the  States-General  in  1789,  soon  after  which 
he  emigrated.  In  181 7  he  obtained  the  dignity  of  cardi- 
nal.   Died  in  1821. 

^  See  De  B  AussET,  "  Notice  historique  sur  le  Cardinal  de  Talleyrand- 
Perigord,"  1821  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Talleyrand-Perigord,  de,  deh  tt'li^rSw'  p^re^oR', 
(Charles  Maurice,)  Prince  of  Benevento,  (bk-na-vgn'- 
to,)  [Fr.  Prince  de  B6n6vent,  pR^Nss  deh  bi^ii'v6N',] 
commonly  known  as  simply  TaPley-rand,  a  celebrated 
French  diplomatist  and  wit,  born  in  Paris  on  the  13th  of 
February,  1754,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  Daniel, 
Count  de  Talleyrand.  An  accident  which  occurred  in 
his  infancy  made  him  lame  for  lite.  In  consequence  of 
this  lameness,  he  was  required  to  renounce  his  birthright 
and  enter  the  Church,  although  the  clerical  profession 
was  very  distasteful  to  him.  In  his  youth  he  was  styled 
the  Abbe  de  Perigord.  He  was  appointed  general  agent 
of  the  clergy  of  France  in  1780,  and  held  this  important 
office  for  eight  years.  In  1788  he  became  Bishop  of 
Autun,  and  in  1789  a  member  of  the  States-General. 
Enlisting  in  the  service  of  liberty  and  equality,  he  joined 
the  Third  Estate,  and  was  a  member  of  the  committee 
appointed  by  the  National  Assembly  to  form  a  consti- 
tution. Among  the  important  measures  which  he  pro- 
posed was  the  confiscation  of  the  lands  of  the  Church. 
He  also  supported  the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy, 
and  resigned  the  bishopric  of  Autun  about  the  end  of 
1790.  He  was  the  author  of  an  able  and  celebrated 
report  on  public  instruction  read  in  September,  1791. 
Early  in  1792  he  was  sent  to  London,  without  official 
character,  to  dissuade  the  British  ministry  from  joining 
the  allies  in  hostilities  against  France.  He  enjoyed  the 
society  of  his  friend  Madame  de  Stael,  who  was  then 
in  England,  but  was  treated  with  neglect  or  incivility  by 
the  English  aristocrats  and  ministers.  In  1793  he  was 
ordered  by  Pitt  to  quit  the  island  in  twenty-four  hours, 
and,  as  he  had  been  proscribed  by  Robespierre,  he  took 
refuge  in  the  United  States.  By  the  agency  of  Chenier, 
he  obtained  permission  to  return  to  France  in  Septem- 
ber, 1795.  About  this  time  he  wrote  an  able  "Memoir 
on  the  Commercial  Relations  of  the  United  States  with 
England,"  and  was  admitted  into  the  Institute.  In 
July,  1797,  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  partly 
through  the  influence  of  Madame  de  Stael.  He  re- 
signed in  July,  1799,  co-operated  with  Bonaparte  in  the 
revolution  of  the  i8th  Brumaire,  and  was  appointed 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  November,  1799.  He 
was  grand  chamberlain  from  1804  to  1809. 

Talleyrand  was  distinguished  for  his  sarcastic  and 
subtle  wit,  his  exquisite  tact,  his  moderation  and  self- 
restraint,  and  his  finesse  and  dexterity  as  a  negotiator. 
'*  He  was  a  profound  thinker,"  says  the  "  North  British 
Review,"  (November,  1853;)  "he  had  strong  political 
opinions,  if  he  had  no  moral  principles  ;  he  was  at  least 
as  bold,  daring,  and  decided  in  action  as  he  was  saga- 


e  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TALLiEN 


2094 


TALON 


ciouo  in  council  ;  his  political  and  social  tact — which  is 
wisdom  so  quick  and  piercing  as  to  seem  unreasoning — 
had  the  promptitude  and  certainty  of  an  instinct."  His 
coolness,  sobriety,  and  ''masterly  inactivity"  were  well 
adapted  to  temper  the  impetuosity  and  redundant  energy 
or  ambition  of  Napoleon.  He  received  the  title  of  Prince 
of  Benevento  in  1806.  He  offended  the  emperor  by  the 
boldness  with  which  he  opposed  some  of  his  measures. 
In  August,  1807,  he  resigned  his  office.  Napoleon  in- 
vited him  to  resume  the  direction  of  foreign  affairs  in 

1813,  but  he  declined. 

Talleyrand  promoted  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVHI., 
and  insisted  on  the  "Charter,"  by  which  a  constitutional 
government  was  guaranteed.  He  became  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  in  the  first  cabinet  of  Louis  XVHL,  repre- 
sented France  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  which  met  in 

1814,  and  obtained  favourable  terms  for  his  country  by 
sowing  dissension  among  the  allies.  He  resigned  in 
September,  181 5,  because  he  would  not  sign  the  humili- 
ating treaty  which  was  concluded  with  the  allied  powers. 
He  [)ecanie  the  leader  of  the  Liberal  opposition  in  the 
Chamber  of  Peers,  and  opposed  the  reactionary  policy 
of  the  government  in  the  reigns  of  Louis  XVIII.  and 
Charles  X.  In  September,  1830,  he  was  sent  to  London 
as  ambassador  and  minister-plenipotentiary,  and  had  an 
opportunity  to  realize  what  had  long  been  with  him  a 
favourite  object, — the  formation  of  an  alliance  between 
France  and  England.  His  mission  ended  about  the  close 
of  1834.  He  died  in  Paris  in  May,  1838,  leaving  "  Me- 
moires,"  which  he  ordered  should  not  be  published  until 
thirty  years  after  his  death.  Among  his  famous  sayings 
is,  "  Language  is  given  to  man  to  conceal  his  thoughts." 

See  Sall^,"  Vie  politique  du  Prince  de  Talleyrand,"  1834 ;  Mignet, 
"Notices  et  Portraits  ;"  Vili.kmarest,  "  M.  de  Talleyrand,"  1835; 
DuFouK  DE  LA  Thuilerie,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  du  Prince  de  'rai- 
leyrand,"  1838;  L.  de  I^omenie,  "  M.  T%)leyrand,  par  un  Homme 
de  Rien,"  1841 ;  G.  A.  Vogel,  "Talleyrand  der  grosste  Diplomat 
seiner  Zeit,"  1838;  Mignet,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  M. 
le  Prince  de  Talleyrand,"  1839;  L.  G.  Milhaud,  "  Histoire  politique 
et  privee  de  C.  M.  de  Talleyrand,"  1853;  De  Barante,  "  £loge 
de  M.  le  Prince  de  Talleyrand,"  1838  ;  Lamaktine,  "  History  of  the 
Restoration;"  Thiers,  "History  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Em- 
pire:" GuizoT,  "  Menioires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;" 
"Historical  Characters,"  by  H.  L.  Bui.vver,  1868;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  April  and  October,  1805,  (the  former  article  by  Brou- 
gham, the  latter  by  Jeffrey  ;)  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February 
and  March,  1839. 

Tallien,  tS'leJ^N',  (Jean  Lambert,)  a  French  Jacobin, 
born  in  Paris  in  1769.  He  published  in  1792  the  "Citi- 
zen's Friend,"  ("Ami  du  Citoyen,")  gained  distinction 
by  his  audacious  eloquence,  took  an  active  part  in  the 
violent  riot  of  the  loth  of  August,  1792,  and  became 
secretary  of  the  commune  of  Paris.  Having  been  elected 
a  meniber  of  the  National  Convention,  he  voted  for  the 
death  of  the  king,  and  was  an  active  persecutor  of  the 
Girondists.  In  1793  Tallien  and  Isabeau  were  sent  by 
the  Convention  to  Bordeaux,  where  they  estal)lished 
the  reign  of  terror  by  numerous  executions.  He  was 
induced  to  adopt  a  milder  policy  by  the  influence  of  Ma- 
dame de  Fontenay,  7iee  Cabarrus,  who  became  Madame 
Tallien.  He  returned  to  Paris  in  April,  1794,  after  the 
death  of  his  friend  Danton,  and  formed  with  Fouche, 
Barras,  and  others  a  conspiracy  against  Robespierre, 
who  denounced  Tallien  in  the  Convention,  June  12, 
1794.  Tallien  was  the  boldest  or  most  prominent  leader 
of  the  party  or  coalition  of  parties  which  triun^Dhed 
on  the  9th  Thermidor,  July,  1794.  It  is  stated  that  he 
drew  a  dagger  in  the  Ccuivention  and  threatened  the 
life  of  Robespierre.  He  continued  to  oppose  the  reign 
of  terror,  and  used  his  influence  in  favour  of  humanity, 
excepting  in  the  case  of  the  royalists  captured  at  Qui- 
beron.  He  took  ]iart  in  the  expedition  to  Egypt  in  1798, 
with  the  title  of  savant,  and  returned  in  1801,  after  which 
he  fell  into  neglect  and  obscurity.  Died  in  Paris  in  1820. 

See  Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Girondists  ;"  Thiers,  "  History 
of  the  French  Revolution;"  Duval,  "Souvenirs  Thermidoriens ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tallien,  Madame.    See  Chimay,  de. 

Tal'lis,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  composer  of 
church  music,  lived  under  the  reigns  of  Edward  VI., 
Mary,  and  Elizabeth.  He  held  the  office  of  organist  of 
the  chapel  royal.  His  works  are  exclusively  of  a  religious 
character,  and  his  anthems  and  other  compositions  are 
esteemed  master-pieces  of  the  kind.    Died  in  1585. 


Tallmadge,  til'mij,  (Benjamin,)  an  American  officer 
of  the  Revolution,  born  on  Long  Island  in  1754.  He 
obtained  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  was  afterwards  a 
member  of  Congress  from  Connecticut.    Died  in  1835. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

Tallmadge,  (James,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist  and 
statesman,  born  in  Dutchess  county.  New  York,  in  1778. 
He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  181 7,  and  in  1825  became 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  New  York.  He  was  appointed 
president  of  the  American  Institute  in  1833, 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  New  York  University.  While 
in  Congress  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition 
to  the  extension  of  slavery  beyond  the  Mississippi. 
Died  in  1853. 

Talma,  ttKmt',  (Charlotte  Vanhove,)  an  actress, 
the  wife  of  the  following,  was  born  at  the  Hague  in  1771. 
She  was  married  to  Talma  in  1802.  She  excelled  in 
comedy,  and  wrote  "  Studies  on  the  Theatrical  Art," 
(1835.)    Died  in  i860. 

Tal'ma,  [Fr.  pron.  ttKmt',]  (Franqois  Joseph,)  a 
celebrated  French  tragedian,  born  in  Paris  in  1763.  He 
manifested  at  an  early  age  an  extraordinary  predilection 
for  the  drama.  His  father,  who  was  a  dentist,  took 
him  to  London,  where  he  passed  several  years  in  his 
childhood.  Young  Talma  also  practised  dentistry  in 
early  life.  He  made  his  debut  at  the  TheStre  Fran9ais 
in  1787,  in  the  role  of  "  Seide"  in  "  Mahomet."  In  1789 
he  performed  Chenier's  "Charles  IX.,"  with  great  ap- 
plause. He  soon  became  the  most  popular  tragic  actor 
in  France,  and  received  from  Bonaparte  some  tokens  of 
special  favour.  He  excelled  in  the  expression  of  intense 
passion.  A  noble  countenance  and  a  powerful  voice 
contributed  to  his  success.  Among  the  rdles  which  he 
performed  were  those  of  "Sulla,"  "Orestes,"  "  Leoni- 
das,"  "Hamlet,"  and  "Othello."  Died  in  Paris  in  1826. 

See  TissoT,  "  Souvenirs  historiqucs  sur  Talma,"  1826 ;  Moreau, 
"  Meinoires  sur- Talma,"  1826;  N.  Lemercier,  "Notice  sur  Tal- 
ma," 1827;  Regnaui.t-Warin,  "  Memoires  historiqucs  sur  Talma," 
1827;  Alexandre  Dumas,  "Memoires  de  F.  J.  Talma,"  4  vols., 
1849-50;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine" for  September,  1825. 

Tai'ma.sh,  (Thomas,)  an  English  general,  who  was 
second  to  Marlborough  in  command  of  the  English  troops 
in  Flanders  in  1689.  He  served  under  Ginkell  in  Ire- 
land in  1691.  "  Since  the  disgrace  of  Marlborough,"  says 
Macaulay,  "he  [Talmash]  was  universally  allowed  to  be 
the  best  officer  in  the  army."  ("  History  of  England," 
vol.  iv.)  He  commanded  a  force  sent  in  1694  to  surprise 
Brest,  and  was  killed  in  the  attack  on  that  place. 

Talmont,  tSKmoN',  (A.  P.  de  la  Trimoille — deh 
It  tRe'mwaF  or  tRe^mwd'ye,)  a  French  royalist  of  the 
Revolution,  distinguished  himself  in  the  principal  battles 
of  the  Vendean  war,  and  attained  the  rank  of  general  of 
cavalry.  Being  made  prisoner,  he  was  condemned  to 
death  by  the  Convention,  and  executed  in  1793. 

Talochon,  ti'lo'shdw',  (Marie  Vincent,)  a  French 
surgeon,  called  Pere  Elys^e,  born  near  Lagny  in  1753. 
He  served  Louis  XVHI.  as  surgeon,  before  and  after 
his  accession  to  the  throne.    Died  in  181 7. 

See  "  Biographic  Medicale." 

Talon,  tS'l6N',  (Antoine  Omer,)  a  French  lawyer, 
born  in  Paris  in  1760,  was  a  royalist  member  of  the 
National  Assembly  in  1790.    Died  in  1811. 

Talon,  (Denis,)  a  French  judge,  born  in  Paris  in 
1628,  was  a  son  of  Omer,  noticed  below.  He  became 
president  ^  mortier  in  1693.    Died  in  1698. 

Talon,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  Jesuit^  born  at  Moulins 
in  1605.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Histoire  sainte,"  (4 
vols.,  1640.)    Died  in  1691. 

Talon,  (Omer,)  a  French  humanist,  born  at  Amiens 
about  15 10,  published  a  treatise  on  rhetoric,  (in  Latin, 
1544.)    Died  in  1562. 

Talon,  (Omer,)  an  eminent  French  advocate  and 
judge,  born  about  1595.  He  became  advocate-general  to 
the  Parliament  of  Parisin  1631,  and  distinguished  himself 
by  his  brave  and  eloquent  assertion  of  the  rights  of  the 
Parliament  and  the  interests  of  the  people.  He  died  in 
1652,  leaving  "  Memoires,"  which  Voltaire  said  were  the 
productions  of  "  a  good  magistrate  and  good  citizen." 

See  Tali.emant  des  Reaux,  "  Historiettes ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 


S,e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


TALPINO 


2095 


TANEY 


Talpino,  II.    See  Salmeggia. 

Tam^sp.    See  Thamasp. 

Tamasp  Kouli  Khan.    See  Nadir  Shah. 

Tamberlick,  tam-b^R-l^k',  (Enrico,)  a  noted  tenor 
singer,  Ijorn  in  Rome  in  1820. 

Tambroni,  tini-bRo'nee,  (Clotilda,)  sister  of  the 
following,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1758.  She  was  dis- 
tinguished for  her  attainments  in  the  classics,  and  was 
appointed  in  1794  professor  of  Greek  in  the  University 
of  Bologna.  She  also  published  a  number  of  poems  in 
Italian.    Died  in  1817. 

Tambroni,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  litterateur,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1773.  He  filled  several  offices  under  the 
government,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  at  Vienna,  and  foreign  associate  of  the  French 
Institute.  He  published  a  "  Compendium  of  Polish 
History,"  (1807,)  and  a  number  of  poems  and  prose 
treatises.    Died  in  1824. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Tamburini,  tSm-boo-ree'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
singer,  born  at  Faenza  in  1800.  He  retired  from  the 
stage  in  1855. 

Tamburini,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  theologian  and  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Brescia  in  1737.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  divinity  at  Pavia,  (1778,)  and  afterwards 
filled  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy  and  the  law  of  na- 
ture and  of  nations,  in  the  same  university.  He  was 
made  a  chevalier  of  the  iron  crown  by  the  Emperor  of 
Austria,  and  received  other  distinctions.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  an  "  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Moral  Philosophy,"  (1797,)  "  Elements  of  the  Law  of 
Nature,"  (in  Latin,  1815,)  and  an  "Idea  of  the  Holy 
See,"  ("Idea  della  Santa  Sede.")    Died  in  1827. 

See  ZuRADELLi,  "Elogio  del  Professore  P.  Tamburini,"  1827. 

Tam'er-lane',  [Fr.  Tamerlan,  tt'm^R'ldN',]  (a  cor- 
ruption of  Taimoor-leng,  i.e.  "Taimoor  the  Lame,") 
called  also  Taimoor  or  Taimur,  (ti'moor^)  and  Timur 
or  Timour,  (tee  moor',)  Timoor  (Timour  or  Timur) 
Beg  or  Bee,  [i.e.  "Lord  Timoor,")  a  celebrated  Asiatic 
conqueror,  born  at  Kesh,  in  Independent  Tartary,  in 
1336,  was  of  Mongol  extraction,  and  a  descendant  of 
Jengis  Khan.  About  1361  he  supported  the  cause  of 
Husein,  Khan  of  Northern  Khorassan,  against  several 
neighbouring  tribes,  and  in  this  war  received  a  wound 
in  the  thigh,  from  which  he  acquired  the  surname  of 
Leng,  (or  the  "Lame.")  He  afterwards  quarrelled  with 
Husein,  took  Balkh,  his  capital,  by  storm,  (1369,)  and 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  Khan  of  Jagatai.  He 
then  successively  brought  into  subjection  Khorassan, 
the  principal  part  of  Persia,  and  Armenia,  and  in  1387 
turned  his  arms  against  Toktamish-Khan,  in  Western 
Tartary,  whom  he  defeated  at  Bashkiria,  destroying  his 
whole  army.  Tamerlane's  capital  was  Samarcand. 
Having  taken  Bagdad  and  Damascus,  subdued  Georgia, 
and  advanced  as  far  as  Moscow,  he  next  invaded  India, 
where,  in  1398,  he  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  forces 
of  Mahmood,  then  Emperor  of  Delhi,  near  Delhi.  In 
1402  he  met  the  famous  Bayazeed,  (Bajazet,)  Sultan  of 
Turkey,  in  Angora,  and,  after  one  of  the  most  sanguinary 
battles  on  record,  totally  routed  his  army,  and  took  the 
Sultan  prisoner.  He  was  preparing  for  the  invasion  of 
China,  when  he  died  on  his  march,  in  1405.  A  great 
part  of  his  acquisition  was  lost  by  his  successors  soon 
after  his  death. 

"  Timour,"  says  Sir  J.  Malcolm,  "although  one  of  the 
greatest  warriors,  was  one  of  the  worst  monarchs.  He 
was  able,  brave,  and  generous,  but  ambitious,  cruel,  and 
oppressive.  He  considered  the  happiness  of  every  human 
being  as  a  feather  in  the  scale  when  weighed  against  the 
advancement  of  what  he  deemed  his  personal  glory;  and 
that  appears  to  have  been  measured  by  the  number  of 
kingdoms  he  laid  waste  and  the  people  he  destroyed." 
("History  of  Persia,"  vol.  ii.  chap,  xi.)  "The  fame 
of  Timour,"  observes  Gibbon,  "  has  pervaded  the  East 
and  the  West,  and  the  admiration  of  his  subjects,  who 
revered  him  almost  as  a  deity,  may  be  justified  in  some 
degree  by  the  praise  or  confessions  of  his  bitterest  ene- 
mies. He  might  boast  that,  at  his  accession  to  the  throne, 
Asia  was  the  prey  of  anarchy  and  rapine,  whilst,  under 
his  prosperous  monarchy,  a  child,  fearless  and  unhurt. 


might  carry  a  purse  of  gold  from  the  east  to  the  west. 
By  their  rapine,  cruelty,  and  discord,  the  petty  tyrants 
of  Persia  might  afflict  their  subjects,  but  whole  nations 
were  crushed  under  the  footsteps  of  the  reformer.  The 
ground  which  had  been  occupied  by  flourishing  cities  was 
often  marked  by  his  abominable  trophies,  by  columns 
or  pyramids  of  human  heads." 

See  Langl^s,  "Instituts  politiques  et  militaires  de  Tamerlan;" 
Hammer-Purgstall,  "  Gescliichte  des  Osmanischen  Reichs," 
vol.  i.  ;  "  Histoire  de  Timur- Bee,  connu  sous  le  Nom  du  grand 
Tamerlap,"  translated  from  the  Persian  of  Shereef-ed-dehn  Alee 
by  Petis  de  la  Croix;  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,"  chap.  Ixv. ;  Argote  de  Molina,  "Historia  del  gran  Ta- 
merlan," 1582  ;  Samuel  Clarke,  "  Life  of  Tamerlane  the  Great," 
1676;  Al-Hacem,  "History  of  the  Life  of  Tamerlane,"  translated 
from  the  Arabic  by  L.  Vane,  1753. 

Tan'a-quil,  the  wife  of  Tarquinius  Priscus,  King  of 
Rome,  is  described  as  a  woman  of  high  spirit  and  energy. 
The  Latin  poets  used  her  name  to  indicate  an  imperious 
consort. 

Tanaquillus  Faber.    See  LEpfevRE,  (Tannegui.) 

Tancred,  ting'kred,  [Fr.  Tancrede,  tSx'kRid'; 
Ger.  Tancred,  tJng-kRat' ;  It.  Tancredi,  tin-kna'dee  ; 
Lat.  Tancre'dus,]  a  celebrated  hero  of  the  first  crusade, 
was  born  in  Normandy  in  1078,  and  was  a  nephew  ot 
Robert  Guiscard,  Duke  of  Apulia.  In  1096  he  joined 
the  crusading  army  in  company  with  his  cousin  I^ohe- 
mond.  Prince  of  Tarentum.  He  was  conspicuous  for  his 
valour  at  the  battle  of  Dorylasum  and  the  siege  of  An- 
tioch,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to  mount  the  walls  at  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem.  He  subsequently  had  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  battle  of  Ascalon,  took  Tiberias,  on  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  and  received  the  title  of  Prince  of  Tiberias 
or  Galilee.  He  died  in  11 12,  having  previously  defeated 
the  Saracens  and  driven  them  beyond  the  Euphrates. 
Tancred's  achievements  are  highly  extolled  by  Tasso  in 
his  "Gerusalemme  Liberata,"  and  they  are  also  cele- 
brated by  Raoul  de  Caen  in  "  Les  Gestes  de  Tancrede." 

See  MiCHAUD,  "History  of  the  Crusades ;"  Delbare,  "  Histoire 
de  Tancrede,"  1822:  Sch.merbauch,  "Tancred  Fiirst  von  Galilaa," 
1830:  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tancred,  King  of  Sicily,  and  the  last  of  the  Norman 
rulers  in  that  country,  was  a  grandson  of  Roger  II.  He 
died  in  1194,  and  Henry  VI.  of  Germany  took  posses- 
sion of  Sicily. 

Tancrede.    See  Tancred. 

Tancrede  de  Hauteville,  tSN'kR^d'  deh  h6t^•^l^  a 
Norman  baron  of  the  early  part  of  the  eleventh  century, 
was  the  father  of  twelve  sons,  one  of  whom,  Robert 
Guiscard,  became  Duke  of  Apulia  and  Calabria. 

Tancredi,  or  Tancredus.    See  Tancred. 

Tandy.    See  Napper  Tandy. 

Taney,  taw'ne,  (Roger  Brooke,)  a  distinguished 
American  jurist,  born  in  Calvert  county,  Maryland,  in 
March,  1777.  He  graduated  at  Dickinson  College,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  1795,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1799.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  Maryland  in 
1816,  and  became  a  resident  of  Baltimore  about  1822. 
He  was  originally  a  Federalist ;  but  he  became  a  partisan 
of  General  Jackson,  who  appointed  him  attorney-general 
of  the  United  States  in  1831.  About  September,  1833, 
he  was  nominated  secretary  of  the  treasury,  in  place  of 
W^illiam  J.  Duane,  (who  was  dismissed  from  the  cabinet 
because  he  refused  to  remove  the  public  deposits  from 
the  Bank  of  the  United  States,)  but  he  was  rejected 
by  the  Senate.  He  was  nominated  associate  justice  of 
the  supreme  court  by  President  Jackson  in  1835  ;  but  this 
nomination  was  not  confirmed  by  the  Senate.  In  March, 
1836,  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court, 
in  the  place  of  John  Marshall,  deceased.  In  1857,  Judge 
Taney,  yielding  to  the  ever-encroaching  and  aggressive 
spirit  of  slavery,  pronounced  an  important  decision  in 
the  case  of  Dred  Scott,  a  slave,  who  had  been  carried 
by  his  master  from  Missouri  into  Illinois,  thence  to  the 
territory  of  Wisconsin,  and  back  to  Missouri.  Dred 
Scott  brought  a  suit  for  his  freedom.  Judge  Taney 
affirmed  that  for  more  than  a  century  before  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence  the  negroes  "had  been  regarded 
as  beings  of  an  inferior  order,  and  altogether  unfit  to 
associate  with  the  white  race,  either  in  social  or  political 
relations,  and  so  far  inferior  that  they  had  no  rights 
which  the  white  man  was  bound  to  respect,  and  that  the 
negro  might  justly  and  lawfully  be  reduced  to  slavery  for 


€  as^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TANNJHILL  2096  TARDIEU 


his  benefit."  This  strange,  this  monstrous  decision  was 
pronounced  by  one  whose  opinions  on  any  question  not 
connected  with  slavery  would  have  commanded  the  re- 
spect of  all,  as  those  of  an  able  lawyer  and  upright  judge. 
He  further  affirmed  that  the  Missouri  Compromise  was 
unconstitutional,  and  that  the  suit  must  be  dismissed 
for  want  of  jurisdiction.  "The  reader  will  be  puzzled  to 
decide,"  says  Mr.  Greeley,  "  whether  law,  humanity,  or 
history  is  most  flagrantly  defied  in  Chief-Justice  Taney's 
opinion."    He  died  in  October,  1864. 

"Judge  Taney,"  says  Horace  Greeley,  "  had  long  been 
a  main  bulwark  of  slavery,  not  only  in  Maryland,  but 
throughout  the  Union.  The  Dred  Scott  decision  is  in- 
separably linked  with  his  name."  ("American  Conflict," 
vol.  ii.  p.  671.) 

See  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  February,  1865. 

Tan'iia-hill,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at 
Paisley  in  1774  His  songs  and  ballads  are  remarkable 
for  their  grace,  simplicity,  and  pathos,  among  the  most 
admired  may  be  named  his  "  Song  of  the  Battle  of 
Vittoria,"  and  "Jessie  the  Flower  of  Dumblane."  He 
committed  suicide,  in  a  paroxysm  of  insanity,  by  drown- 
ing, in  1810. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Tanneguy.  See  Duchatel,  (Charles  Marie,)  and 
Chai'el,  du. 

Tanner,  t^n'ner,  (Matthias,)  a  German  Jesuit  and 
biographer,  born  at  Pilsen  about  1625.  He  wrote  notices 
of  many  eminent  Jesuits.    Died  about  1705. 

Tan'ner,  (Thomas,)  an  English  prelate  and  antiquary, 
born  in  Wiltshire  in  1674.  He  was  the  author  of  "No- 
titia  Monastica,  or  an  Account  of  the  Religious  Houses 
in  England  and  Wales,"  and  "Bibliotheca  Britannico- 
Hibernica,"  (1748,)  a  biographical  and  bibliographical 
work  of  great  value.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Saint 
Asaph  in  1732.    Died  in  1735. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Tannevot,  ttnVo',  (Alexandre,)  a  French  drama- 
tist, born  at  Versailles  in  1692.  He  wrote  several  me- 
diocre tragedies,  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1773. 

Tansillo,  tin-s^Klo,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Venosa,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  about  15 10.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "The  Tears  of  Saint  Peter," 
("Le  Lagrime  di  San  Pietro,"  1585.)  He  also  wrote  a 
number  of  lyrics,  sonnets,  etc.,  which  had  a  high  repu- 
tation in  his  time.    Died  in  1568. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Tiraboschi, 
"  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  Niceron,  "  Memoires." 

Tanska.    See  Hoffmann,  (Clementina.) 
Tantale.    See  Tantalus. 
Tantalo.    See  Tantalus. 

Tan'ta-lus,  [Gr,  Tavrakog ;  Fr.  Tantale,  tSN'ttK; 
It.  Tantalo,  tSn't^-lo,]  a  fabulous  king  of  Lydia  or 
Phrygia,  said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Jupiter,  and  the 
father  of  Pelops  and  Niobe.  He  was  the  subject  of 
various  legends,  according  to  one  of  which,  having  been 
admitted  to  the  table  of  the  gods,  he  divulged  some 
secrets  which  he  heard  there.  For  this  offence  he  was 
condemned  to  suffer  perpetual  thirst,  standing  in  water 
which  receded  whenever  he  attempted  to  drink  it ;  he 
was,  moreover,  "  tantalized"  by  the  sight  of  fruit  which 
hung  close  to  his  lips,  but  which  he  could  never  taste. 
According  to  some  writers,  this  penalty  was  inflicted  on 
him  because  he  killed  his  son  Pelops  and  offered  his 
flesh  as  food  to  the  gods  whom  he  once  entertained  at 
his  house. 

Tanucci,  di,  de  ti-noot'chejs,  (Bernardo,)  Marquis, 
an  Italian  minister  of  state,  born  in  Tuscany  in  1698. 
He  became  prime  minister  at  Naples  about  1740,  and 
continued  in  power  until  1776.  During  this  period  he 
banished  the  Jesuits  and  resisted  some  papal  encroach- 
ments.   He  patronized  learning  liberally.    Died  in  1783. 

See  Coppi,  "Annali  d'ltalia  dal  1760;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Taparelli.    See  Azeglio,  d',  (Massimo.) 

Tapia,  de,  di  t^'pe-S,  (Don  Eugenio,)  a  Spanish 
litterateur  and  jurist,  born  at  Avila,  in  Old  Castile,  about 
1785,  published  "Poems,  Lyrical,  Satirical,  and  Dra- 
matic," (1821,)  "History  of  Spanish  Civilization,"  (4 
vols.,  1840,)  which  is  highly  commended,  "Elements  of 


Commercial  Law,"  (15  vols.,)  and  other  works.  He  is 
regarded  as  a  Liberal  in  politics. 

Tap'lin,  (William,)  an  English  veterinary  surgeon, 
who  made  improvements  in  his  art,  and  wrote  several 
works  on  farriery  and  the  treatment  of  lame  horses. 
Died  in  1807. 

Tap'pan,  (Arthur,)  an  American  merchant,  dis- 
tinguished as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  was  born  at  North- 
ampton, Massachusetts,  in  1 786.  He  became  a  merchant 
of  New  York  City,  gave  money  liberally  to  the  Anti- 
Slavery  Society,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Oberliii 
College,  Ohio.    Died  in  1865. 

See  "Life  of  Arthur  Tappan,"  by  Lewis  Tappan,  1870. 

Tappan,  (Benjamin,)  a  lawyer,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  in 
1773.  He  became  a  judge  in  Ohio,  and  was  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States  from  1839  to  1845.  Died  at  Steu- 
benville  in  1857. 

Tappan,  (David,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born  at 
Manchester,  Massachusetts,  in  1753.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Harvard  College  in  1792.  Died  in 
1803. 

Tappan,  (Henry  Philip,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
divine  and  theological  writer,  born  at  Rhinebeck,  New 
York,  about  1806.  He  was  appointed  in  1832  pro- 
fessor of  moral  and  intellectual  philosophy  in  the 
University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  subsequently 
became  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Michigan. 
He  published  "The  Doctrine  of  the  Will  applied  to 
Moral  Agency  and  Responsibility,"  (1841,)  and  several 
other  works. 

Tappan,  (William  Bingham,)  an  American  poet, 
born  at  Beverly,  Massachusetts,  in  1794,  became  gen- 
eral agent  of  the  American  Sunday-School  Union.  He 
published  several  volumes  of  poems.    Died  in  1849. 

Taraise.    See  Tarasius. 

Tarakanof.    See  Tarrakanof. 

Tarasius,  ta-ra'she-us,  [Fr.  Taraise,  tt'r^z',]  Saint, 
born  about  745  A.D.,  became  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
in  784.    Died  in  806. 

Taraval,  ti'rt'vtK,  (Hugues,)  a  French  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1728;  died 
in  1785. 

Tarayre,  tt'r^R',  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  general, 
distinguished  as  an  agriculturist,  was  born  at  Solsac 
(Aveyron)  in  1770.  He  commanded  the  Dutch  troops 
that  opposed  the  English  at  Walcheren  in  July,  1809. 
Died  in  1855. 

Tarbe,  ttR'b^',  (Charles,)  a  French  royalist,  born 
at  Sens  in  1756.  He  was  a  prominent  member  of  the 
Legislative  Assembly  in  1791.    Died  in  1804. 

Tarbe,  (Louis  Hardouin,)  a  French  financier,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Sens  in  1753. 
He  was  minister  of  contributions  from  May,  1791,  to 
March,  1792.    Died  in  1806. 

TarlDe,  (Prosper,)  a  French  antiquary,  born  about 
1814.    He  wrote  on  the  antiquities  of  Rheims. 

Tarcagnota.    See  Marullo. 

Tarcagnota,  taR-kln-yo'tS,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Gaeta.  He  published  a  "  History 
of  the  World,"  of  little  merit,  (4  vols.,  1562.)  Died 
in  1566. 

Tarchi,  taR'kee,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian  composer,  born 
at  Naples  in  1759,  produced  several  operas.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1814. 

Tar'ohon,  a  hero  of  the  Etruscan  mythology,  was, 
according  to  some  authors,  a  Pelasgian  chief  who  founded 
a  colony  in  the  north  of  Italy.  Virgil  relates  that  Tar- 
chon  offered  the  crown  of  the  Etruscans  (Tyrrheni)  to 
Evander. 

See  "i^^neid,"  book  viii.,  506. 

Tardieu,  ttR'de-uh',  (Amrrotse,)  a  French  en- 
graver, was  born  in  Paris  in  1788.  He  published  an 
"  Atlas  of  Ancient  Geography,"  and  other  similar  works, 
and  engraved  a  number  of  portraits  and  architectural 
pieces.    Died  in  1841. 

Tardieu,  (Antoine  Francois,)  a  French  map- 
engraver,  born  in  Paris  in  1757,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned  the 
maps  of  Choiseul-Gouffier's  "  Voyage  pittoresque  de  la 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


TARDIEV 


2097 


TJRQUIN 


Grece,"  and  the  great  Chart  of  European  Russia.  Died 
in  1822. 

Tardieu,  (Auguste  Ambroise,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1818. 

Tardieu,  (Jacques  Nicolas,)  a  son  of  Nicolas 
Henri,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1 7 16,  and 
attained  distinction  as  an  engraver.  He  executed 
numerous  portraits  and  landscapes.    Died  about  1792. 

Tardieu,  (Jean  Baptiste  Pierre,)  an  engraver,  a 
nephew  of  Nicolas  Henri,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1746. 
He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  geographical  en- 
graver. Among  his  best  works  are  his  "Charts  of  the 
Netherlands,"  engraved  for  the  empress  Maria  Theresa. 
Died  in  1816. 

Tardieu,  (Jean  Charles,)  an  artist,  a  son  of  Jacques 
Nicolas,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1765.  He 
studied  painting  under  Regnault,  and  executed  a  number 
of  historical  pictures.    Died  in  1837. 

Tardieu,  (Nicolas  Henri,)  a  skilful  French  en- 
graver, born  in  Paris  in  1674,  was  a  pupil  of  Gerard 
Audran.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Painting  in  1720.    Died  in  1 749. 

Tardieu,  (Pierre  Alexandre,)  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1756,  and  studied  en- 
graving under  J.  G.  Wille.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  "The  Communion  of  Saint  Jerome,"  after  Domeni- 
chino,  and  "The  Archangel  Michael,"  after  Raphael. 
Died  in  1843  1844. 

Tardieu,  ^Pierre  Francois,)  a  nephew  and  pupil 
of  Nicolas  Henri,  noticed  above,  was  distinguished  as 
an  engraver,  and  executed,  among  other  works,  "The 
Judgment  of  Paris,"  after  Rubens.    Died  about  1774. 

Tardif,  ttR^d^f,  (Alexandre,)  a  French  poet,  born 
in  1801.  Among  his  works  are  "Dramatic  Essays," 
(1835,)  and  "Varietes  poetiques,"  (1841.) 

Tardif,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  //V/mz/^'wr,  born  about 
1440,  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Rhetoricae  Artis 
Compendium,"  (about  1475.) 

Tareef  or  Tarif,  tS  -reet',  (Aboo-  (or  Abu-)  Zarah, 
S'boo  zSr'ah,)  a  freedman  of  Moosa-Ibn-Noseyr,  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  Mohammedan  officer  who  effected 
a  conquest  in  Spain.  About  the  beginning  of  Septem- 
ber, 710  A.D.,  he  took  possession  of  a  small  island  fifteen 
miles  west-southwest  of  Gibraltar,  since  called  Tarifa, 
from  his  name,  and  made  incursions  into  the  adjacent 
country,  carrying  off  much  booty. 

Tarello,  ti-reKlo,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  writer  on 
agriculture,  published  in  1567  a  work  entitled  "Agri- 
cultural Instruction,"  ("Ricordo  d'Agricoltura,")  which 
is  commended. 

Tarente,  Due  de.    See  Macdonald. 

Targe,  ttRzh,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  historian, 
born  at  Orleans  about  1716.  He  published  a  "History 
of  Italy,"  (4  vols.,  1774,)  and  other  works.   Died  in  1788. 

Target,  itv/zhy,  (Gui  Jean  Baptiste,)  an  eloquent 
French  advocate,  born  in  Paris  in  1733.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  1790,  and 
favoured  the  popular  cause.  In  December,  1792,  Louis 
XVI.  selected  Target  as  one  of  his  defenders  in  his  trial, 
but  the  latter  declined  to  serve.    Died  in  1806. 

See  MuRAiRE,  "£loge  de  G.  J.  B.  Target,"  1807;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Targioni-Tozzetti.taR-jo'neetot-set'tee, (Giovanni,) 
an  Italian  naturalist  and  physician,  born  at  Florence  in 
1 712.  He  wTote,  besides  other  works,  "Travels  in  Tus- 
cany for  the  Exploration  of  its  Natural  Productions,"  (6 
vols.,  1751-54,)  and  an  "Account  of  the  Advancement 
of  Physical  Science  in  Tuscany  during  Sixty  Years,"  (3 
vols.,  1780.)    Died  in  1783. 

See  M.  Lastri,  "  Elogio  storico  di  G.  Targioni-Tozzetti,"  1783; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tarif.    See  Tareef. 

Tarik-Ibn-Zeyad,  tS'rik  !b'n  zi'ytd',  written  also 
Tarik-Ben-Zeiad,  a  famous  Arab  chief,  was  the  leader 
of  the  Moors  who  invaded  Spain,  crossing  the  Straits 
and  landing  at  Gibraltar,  in  711  a.D.  He  defeated  King 
Roderick,  and  conquered  the  southern  part  of  Spain. 
The  name  Gibraltar  is  a  corruption  of  Gibel-Tdrik, 
("mountain  of  Tarik.") 

See  Mariana,  "  Historia  de  Espana  Ai.-Makkari,  "  Moham- 
medan Dynasties  in  Spain,"  (translated  by  Gavangos.) 


Tarin,  tt'riN',  (Pierre,)  a  French  medical  writer, 
born  near  Montargis  about  1700.  He  wrote  articles  on 
anatomy  and  physiology  for  the  "  Encyclopedie"  of 
Diderot,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1761. 

Tarleton,  tarKt^n,  (Colonel  Bannastre,)  an  Eng- 
lish officer,  born  at  Liverpool  in  1754,  served  under 
Lord  Cornwallis  in  the  war  of  the  Ainerican  Revolution.  ^ 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  skill  and  bravery,  and 
gained  several  important  advantages  over  the  American 
troops ;  but  he  was  defeated  by  General  Morgan  at  the 
battle  of  Cowpens,  (1781.)  After  his  return  to  England, 
he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Liverpool  and  made  a 
baronet  and  K.C.B.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Cam- 
paigns of  1780-81  in  the  Southern  Provinces  of  North 
America,"  (1787.)    Died  about  1833. 

Tarleton,  (Richard,)  a  celebrated  English  actor  and 
dramatist,  was  a  native  of  Shropshire.  He  was  noted 
for  his  extempore  wit,  and  was  unrivalled  in  comic  parts. 
He  was  treated  with  distinguished  favour  by  Queen 
Elizabeth,  who  appointed  him  a  groom  of  the  chamber 
at  Barn  Elms.  He  was  the  author  of  a  play  entitled 
"  The  Seven  Deadly  Sins,"  which  is  not  extant.  Died 
in  1588. 

Tarnow,  taR'no,  (Fanny,)  a  German  novelist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  in 
1783.  Among  her  principal  works  are  "Natalie,"  a 
romance,  (1804,)  "Two  Years  in  Saint  Petersburg," 
(1833,)  and  a  collection  of  tales,  (4  vols.,  1840-42.)  Died 
in  1862. 

Tarnowski,  taR-nov'skee,  (John,)  a  famous  Polish 
military  commander,  born  in  1488,  was  appointed  by 
Emanuel,  King  of  Portugal,  leader  of  his  army  against 
the  Moors.  He  afterwards  commanded  in  the  Polish 
wars  with  the  Russians  and  the  Turks,  and  was  charged 
by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  with  the  chief  command  of 
his  forces  against  the  Turks.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
military  treatise  entitled  "  Concilium  Rationis  Bellicae." 
Died  in  1561. 

See  Orzechowski,  "Life  of  Tarnowski,"  (in  Polish,)  1830; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tar-pela  or  Tarpeja,  was  a  daughter  of  Spurius 
Tarpeius,  governor  of  one  of  the  citadels  of  Rome  during 
the  war  with  the  Sabines.  Allured  by  the  gold  orna- 
ments worn  by  the  enemy,  she  opened  to  them  the  gate 
of  the  fortress  ;  but  they,  in  passing,  threw  upon  her 
their  shields,  by  which  she  was  crushed  to  death.  The 
hill  where  she  was  buried  was  called  the  Tarpeian  rock. 

Tar'quin,  [Fr.  pron.  ttR'kiN';  Lat.  Tarquin'ius  ;  It. 
Tarquinio,  taR-kwee'ne-o,]  or,  more  fully,  Lu'cius 
Tarquin'ius  Pris'cus,  fifth  King  of  Ronie,  was  a 
son  of  Demaratus,  a  merchant  of  Corinth.  His  original 
name  was  LucuMO.  Having  removed  to  Rome,  he 
was  patronized  by  Ancus  Martius,  who  appointed  him 
guardian  of  his  sons.  After  the  death  of  Ancus  Martius 
he  caused  himself  to  be  elected  king,  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  rightful  heirs.  He  carried  on  successful  wars  against 
the  Sabines  and  Latins,  built  the  Circus  Maximus,  the 
immense  Cloacae,  or  sewers,  at  Rome,  and  promoted 
various  important  public  works.  He  was  assassinated, 
by  order  of  the  sons  of  Ancus,  in  578  B.C. 

See  NiEBUHR,  "History  of  Rome;"  Purrucker,  "  Program  ma 
de  Vita  Tarqiiinii  Prisci,"  1760;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tarquin  the  Proud,  [Lat.  Lu'cius  Tarquin'ius 
Super'bus;  Fr.  Tarquin  le  Superbe,  t^R'k^N'  leh 
sii'paiRb',]  son  of  Tarquinius  Priscus,  and  seventh  King 
of  Rome.  In  534  B.C.  he  succeeded  Servius  TuUius, 
whom  he  had  caused  to  be  assassinated,  and  whose 
daughter  Tullia  he  had  married.  He  put  to  death  the 
senators  who  had  favoured  the  reforms  of  Servius,  and, 
while  displaying  great  ability,  governed  with  despotic 
power.  He  conquered  several  neighbouring  cities,  built 
the  Capitol  and  other  public  edifices,  and  established 
colonies  at  Signia  and  Circeii. 

The  outrage  committed  by  his  son  Sextus  upon  Lu- 
cretia  roused  the  people,  already  exasperated  by  his 
tyranny,  to  throw  off  the  yoke,  and  Tarquin  was  deposed 
by  an  armed  force  led  by  Junius  Brutus.  After  several 
ineffectual  attempts  to  regain  his  power,  he  formed  an 
alliance  with  Lars  Porsena  of  Clusium,  in  conjunction 
with  whom  he  fought  the  battle  of  Lake  Regillus,  (496 
B.C.)    They  were  totally  defeated  by  the  Romans,  and 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  y:,, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

»32 


TARQUINIO 


2098 


TASSO 


Tarquin  escaped  to  Cumae,  where  he  died  in  495  B.C. 
He  was  the  last  of  the  Roman  kings. 

See  LivY,  "  History  of  Rome,"  books  i.  and  ii. ;  Niebuhr,  '*  His- 
tory of  Rome;"  V.  Malvezzi,  "Tarquinio  Superbo,"  1635;  K.  O. 
MULLER,  "Etrusker;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate ;"  Pur- 
RUCKER,  "Programmata  II.  de  Tarqiiinii  Superbi  Rebus  gestis," 
1764-66. 

Tarquinio.    See  Tarquin. 

Tarquinius.    See  Tarquin. 

Tarquinius  Collatinus.    See  Collatinus. 

Tarrakanof,  Tarakanof,  or  Tarrakanow,  ti-ri- 

ki'nof,  (Anna  Petrowna,)  a  Russian  princess,  born  in 
1755,  was  supposed  to  be  the  daughter  of  the  empress. 
Elizabeth.  Having  been  imprisoned  by  Catherine  H.  at 
Saint  Petersburg,  she  was  drowned  in  prison  by  an  inun- 
dation in  1777. 

Tar-ren-te'nus,  (Paternus,)  a  Roman  jurist  under 
the  reign  of  Commodus,  was  the  author  of  a  work  en- 
titled "  De  Re  militari,"  a  part  of  which  is  extant. 

Tarsia,  di,  de  taR-see'S,  (Galeazzo,)  an  Italian  poet, 
of  noble  family,  born  in  1476.  His  works  are  principally 
sonnets  in  the  style  of  Petrarch.    Died  about  1530. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Tartaglia,  taR-tSKyS,  [Lat.  Tarta'lea,]  (Niccol6,) 
an  Italian  mathematician,  born  at  Brescia  about  1500. 
His  family  name  is  not  known.  He  was  surnamed  Tar- 
taglia, (from  tartagliare,  to  "  stammer,")  because  he 
had  an  impediment  in  his  speech,  caused  by  a  wound 
received  in  15 12.  He  taught  mathematics  at  Verona, 
Brescia,  and  Venice,  edited  the  works  of  Archimedes, 
(1543,)  and  wrote  several  treatises  on  mathematics,  etc. 
He  discovered  a  method  of  resolving  cubic  equations. 
Cardan,  by  a  promise  of  secrecy,  obtained  this  method 
from  him,  but  published  it  in  his  "  Ars  Magna."  Died 
i»  1559- 

See  CosSALi,  '*  Progressi  dell' Algebra,"  1790;  Fantuzzi,  "  Scrit- 
tori  Bolognesi;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tartagni,  taR-tin'yee,  [Lat.  Tartag'nus,]  (Alessan- 
DRO,)  called  Imolen'sis,  from  Imola,  his  native  place, 
was  an  eminent  Italian  jurist,  born  about  1424.  He 
wrote  on  the  Digest,  and  was  professor  of  law  at  Padua 
and  Bologna.    Died  in  1477. 

Tartagnus.    See  Tartagni. 

Tartalea.    See  Tartaglia. 

Tartare.    See  Tartarus. 

Tartaro.    See  Tartarus. 

Tartarotti,  taR-ti-rot'tee,  (Girolamo,)  a  learned 
Italian  litterateur  and  antiquary,  born  at  Roveredo  in 
1706.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  an  "Idea  of 
the  Logic  of  the  Scholastics  and  Moderns,"  (1731,)  and 
"Del  Congresso  notturno  delle  Lammie,"  ("On  the 
Nocturnal  Meeting  of  the  Witches,"  1749,)  which  is 
highly  commended.    Died  in  1761. 

See  C.  LoRENZi,  "  De  Vita  H.  Tartarotti  Libri  III.,"  1805 ; 
"Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tar'ta-rus,  [Gr.  Tuprapog  ;  Ft.  Le  Tartare,  leh  iIr'- 
ttR' ;  It.  Tartaro,  taR'ta-ro,]  in  c]assic  mythology,  was 
a  son  of  ^ther  and  Ge,  and  the  father  of  the  Gigantes, 
or  Giants.  The  name  was  also  applied  to  that  part  of 
the  infernal  regions  in  which  the  wicked  were  confined. 
(See  Pluto.) 

Tartas,  ttR''ta',  (Emile,)  a  French  general,  born  at 
Mezin  in  1796.  He  served  in  Algeria  from  1840  till 
1846.. 

Tartini,  taR-tee'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Pisano  in  1692.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  violinists  of  his  time,  and  presided 
over  a  school  in  Padua,  where  he  numbered  among  his 
pupils  Pugnani  and  Viotti.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Treatise  on  Music  according  to  the  True  Science  of 
Harmony,"  (1754,)  and  was  the  discoverer  of  the  so- 
called  grave  harmonics,  or  third  sounds.    Died  in  1 770. 

See  Fayolle,  "Notices  sur  Corelli,  Tartini,"  etc.,  1810;  Fan- 
ZAGO,  "Orazione  delle  Lodi  di  G.  Tartini,"  1762;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Taruffi,  ta-roof'fee,  (Emtlto,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
history  and  landscapes,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1632  ; 
died  in  1694. 

Taruffi,  (Giuseppe  Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1722  ;  died  in  1786. 

Ta-ru'tius  or  Tarru'tius  (tar-roo'she-us)  Fir-mi- 
a'nus,  (Lucius,)  a  Roman  astrologer,  was  a  friend  of 


Cicero.  He  wrote,  in  Greek,  a  work  on  astronomy,  and, 
at  the  request  of  Varro,  took  the  horoscope  of  Romulus. 

Tar'v^r,  (John  Charles,)  a  distinguished  writer,  of 
English  extraction,  born  at  Di.eppe,  in  Normandy,  in 
1790.  He  published  a  "Phraseological  French-and- 
English  Dictionary,"  (1849,)  a  very  valuable  work,  also 
a  translation  of  Dante's  "  Inferno"  into  French  prose. 
Died  in  1851. 

Tascher  de  la  Pagerie,  tt'shi'  deh  It  ptzh're', 
(Louis  Robert  Pierre  Claude,)  Comte,  a  French 
officer,  born  in  Martinique  in  1787,  was  a  cousin-german 
to  the  empress  Josephine.  He  served  as  aide-de-camp 
to  Eugene  de  Beauharnais  in  many  campaigns.  In  1852 
he  became  a  senator.  Died  in  1861.  His  son,  Robert 
Charles  Emile,  born  in  1822,  received  the  title  of  duke 
in  1859,  and  was  chosen  a  senator  in  1861. 

Tascher  de  la  Pagerie,  Mademoiselle.  See  Jose- 
phine. 

Taschereau,  ttsh'r5',  (Jules  Antoine,)  a  French 
writer  of  biography,  etc.,  was  born  at  Tours  in  1801. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the 
Life  and  Works  of  Moliere,"  (1825,)  a  "History  of  the 
Life  and  Works  of  Corneille,"  (1829,)  and  "Revue 
Retrospective,"  (20  vols.,  1833-37.)  He  was  elected  to 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1837,  and  to  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  in  1848.  About  1858  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  Imperial  Library. 

See  Qli^rard,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Taschifellone.    See  Caffaro. 

Tas'ker,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman  and  poet, 
born  in  Devonshire.  He  produced  translations  of  some 
of  the  odes  of  Pindar  and  Horace.    Died  in  1800. 

Tasman,  tls'mSn,  (Abel  Janssen,)  a  Dutch  navi- 
gator of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  employed  by 
Van  Diemen,  Governor-General  of  Batavia,  in  making 
discoveries  in  the  South  Sea.  In  1642  he  discovered 
the  island  which  he  named  in  honour  of  his  patron, 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  also  Prince  William's  Islands,  and 
others  in  the  vicinity.  Van  Diemen's  Land  has  been 
named,  in  his  honour,  Tasmania. 

Sec  Lauts,  "A.  J.  Tasman,"  1843. 

Tassaert,  tt'stR',  (Nicolas  Franqois  Octave,)  a 
French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1800.  He  painted 
history  and  portraits,  and  gained  a  medal  of  the  first 
class  in  1849. 

Tasse,  Le,  the  French  for  Tasso,  which  see. 

Tassel,  tt'sgl',  (Richard,)  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Langres  about  1580;  died  in  1660. 

Tas'sie,  (James,)  a  Scottish  artist,  born  near  Glasgow 
about  1735.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  his  skil- 
ful imitation  of  engraved  gems  by  means  of  pastes,  or 
coloured  glass.    Died  in  1799. 

Tassin,  tt's^N',  (Ren6  Prosper,)  a  French  Bene- 
dictine monk  and  historian,  born  near  Domfront  in  1697, 
published  "New  Treatise  on  Diplomacy,"  ("  Nouveau 
Traite  de  Diplomatique,"  6  vols.,  1765.)    Died  in  1777. 

Tasso,  tis'so,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Bergamo  in  1493.  He  was  patronized  by  Sanseverino, 
Prince  of  Salerno,  whom  he  accompanied  in  1531  on  the 
expedition  of  Charles  V.  to  Tunis.  In  1537  he  was  sent 
on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Spain.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  heroic  poem,  entitled  "L'Amadigi,"  founded  on  the 
romance  of  Amadis  de  Gaul  ;  also  numerous  sonnets, 
hymns,  eclogues,  lyrics,  etc.  He  died  in  1569,  leaving 
one  son,  the  celebrated  Torquato  Tasso. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale;"  "Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets,"  by  the  Rev. 
Henry  Stebbing. 

Tas'so,  [It.  pron.  tis'so;  Fr.  Le  Tasse,  leh  tiss,] 
(Torquato,)  [Lat.  Torqua'tus  Tas'sus,]  a  celebrated 
Italian  epic  poet,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Sorrento  on  the  nth  of  March,  1544.  He  was  educated 
at  Rome,  Bergamo,  Venice,  and  Padua.  To  the  last 
city  he  was  sent  by  his  father  to  study  law,  which  he 
disliked  and  soon  renounced.  He  produced  in  1562  an 
epic  or  romantic  poem,  entitled  "Rinaldo,"  which  he 
dedicated  to  Cardinal  Luigi  d'Este.  He  was  patronized 
by  the  cardinal  and  his  brother  Alfonso  II.,  Duke  of 
Ferrara,  at  whose  court  he  passed  many  years,  beginning 
with  1565.  The  court  of  the  Dukes  of  Este  was  one  of 
the  most  magnificent  in  Italy,  and  vied  with  that  of  the 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  /ono-;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  filr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon: 


TJSSO 


2099 


TATISHCHEF 


Medici  in  the  patronage  of  literature  and  art.  There 
Tasso  wrote  a  number  of  sonnets  and  amatory  verses, 
and  commenced  his  great  poem  "Jerusalem  Delivered," 
("  Gerusalemme  Liberata.")  In  1571  he  accompanied 
Cardinal  d'Este  on  a  mission  to  Charles  IX.  of  France. 
He  returned  to  Ferrara  in  1572,  and  entered  the  service 
of  Alfonso,  who  gave  him  a  pension  of  sixteen  gold 
crowns  per  month  and  admitted  him  to  his  own  table. 
In  1573  he  produced  his  "  Aminta,"  a  pastoral  drama, 
which  was  received  with  great  favour.  He  completed 
in  1575  his  epic  poem,  entitled  "Gerusalemme  Libe- 
rata," which  is  his  chief  title  to  celebrity.  About  this 
time  his  prosperity  and  peace  were  ruined  by  causes 
which  are  partly  involved  in  mystery.  He  cherished  a 
romantic  passion  for  Leonora,  a  sister  of  the  Duke  of 
Este,  and  addressed  to  her  a  number  of  sonnets  ex- 
pressive of  his  admiration.  It  is  not  known  whether 
she  had  any  feeling  for  him  beyond  that  of  simple 
friendship  ;  but  the  difference  in  their  rank  was  such 
that  he  could  not  hope  to  marry  a  princess  of  the  proud 
and  sovereign  house  of  Este.  Some  writers  ascribe  his 
misfortunes  and  imprisonment  to  this  love  for  Leonora; 
and  others  suppose  that  he  offended  Alfonso  by  his  irri- 
table temper,  or  that  he  was  actually  insane.  He  was 
confined  in  a  convent  in  1577  by  order  of  Alfonso,  who 
directed  that  he  should  be  treated  as  a  madman.  He 
soon  escaped,  and  fled  to  Sorrento,  where  his  sister 
Cornelia  lived,  and  remained  with  her  a  short  time. 
Tasso  solicited  permission  to  return  to  Ferrara  by  a 
letter  to  Alfonso,  who  consented  to  receive  him  on  con- 
dition that  he  should  submit  to  such  treatment  as  the 
physicians  might  prescribe.  He  accordingly  returned  in 
1578,  but  was  not  restored  to  the  favour  of  the  duke  nor 
permitted  to  associate  with  Leonora.  Before  the  end  of 
the  year  he  absconded,  and  began  to  wander  about  from 
city  to  city.  By  some  strange  infatuation,  he  was  again 
attracted  to  Ferrara  in  February,  1579.  and  was  treated 
with  a  coldness  or  neglect  which  i^rovoked  him  to  utter 
offensive  language  against  the  duke.  He  was  then  con- 
fined in  a  hospital  for  lunatics,  where  he  remained  seven 
years,  during  which  he  wrote  several  dialogues  and  philo- 
sophical treatises.  In  1580  an  incomplete  or  incorrect 
edition  of  his  "Jerusalem  Delivered"  was  published  at 
Venice,  without  the  consent  of  the  author.  The  first 
complete  edition  appeared  in  1581.  It  was  censured  by 
many  critics,  in  answer  to  whom  he  wrote  a  "  Defence 
of  the  Gerusalemme  Liberata,"  (1585.)  After  his  release 
from  the  hospital  (1586)  he  passed  some  months  at 
Mantua,  as  the  guest  of  Vincenzo  Gonzaga,  and  wrote 
the  tragedy  of  "  Torrismondo,"  (1587.)  About  1588  he 
removed  to  Naples,  where  he  was  befriended  by  Gio- 
vanni Battista  Manso.  He  published  in  1593  a  poem 
called  "Jerusalem  Conquered,"  ("Gerusalemme  Con- 
quistata.") 

Influenced  by  Cardinal  Aldobrandini,  the  pope  invited 
Tasso  to  Rome,  to  be  crowned  with  laurel,  as  Petrarch 
had  been.  He  accordingly  went  to  Rome,  and  was 
lodged  in  the  pope's  palace,  but  before  the  day  of  coro- 
nation arrived  he  died,  in  April,  1595.  "Many  more 
Italian  poets,"  says  Hallam,  "ought,  possibly,  to  be  com- 
memorated ;  but  we  must  hasten  forward  to  the  greatest 
of  them  all.  .  .  .  The  Jerusalem  is  the  great  ejjic  ])oem, 
in  the  strict  sense,  of  modern  times.  It  was  justly 
observed  by  Voltaire  that,  in  the  choice  of  his  subject, 
Tasso  is  superior  to  Homer,  Whatever  interest  tra- 
dition might  have  attached  among  the  Greeks  to  the 
wrath  of  Achilles  and  the  death  of  Hector,  was  slight 
to  those  genuine  recollections  which  were  associated 
with  the  first  crusade.  It  was  not  the  theme  of  a  single 
people,  but  of  Europe,  ...  In  the  delineation  of  char- 
acter, at  once  natural,  distinct,  and  original,  Tasso  must 
give  way  to  Homer,  perhaps  to  some  other  epic  and 
romantic  poets.  .  .  .  Yet  here,  also,  the  sweetness  and 
nobleness  of  his  mind  and  his  fine  sense  of  moral  beauty 
are  displayed.  .  .  .  The  diction  of  Tasso  excites  per- 
petual admiration ;  it  is  rarely  turgid  or  harsh,  and, 
though  more  figurative  than  that  of  Ariosto,  it  is  so 
much  less  than  that  of  most  of  our  own  or  the  ancient 
poets,  that  it  appears  simple  in  our  eyes.  Virgil,  to 
whom  we  most  readily  compare  him,  is  far  superior  in 
energy,  but  not  in  grace."    ("  Introduction  to  the  I^itera- 


ture  of  Europe.")  The  "Gerusalemme  Liberata"  has 
been  translated  into  English  by  Carew,  Fairfax,  Hoole, 
and  Wiflfen. 

See  G.  Battista  Manso,  "Vita  di  T.  Tasso,"  1619;  Charnes, 
"  Vie  du  Tasse,"  1690  :  Serassi,  "  Vita  del  T.  Tasso,"  2  vols.,  1785; 
Fabroni,  "  Elogio  del  Tasso,"  i8oo  ;  John  Black,  "  Life  of  Tasso," 
1810;  Ebert,  "T.  Tasso's  Leben,"i8i9;  Zuccala,  "Delia  Vita  di 
Tasso,"  1819  ;  R.  Wilde,  "Love  and  Madness  of  Tasso,"  New 
York,  1842;  R.  MiLMAN,  "Life  of  Tasso,"  2  vols.,  1850;  Aug. 
Desplaces,  "  Viedu Tasse  :"  Leigh  Hunt,  "  Italian  Poets ;"  Long- 
fellow, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  "  Lives  of  the  Italian 
Poets,"  by  Rev.  Henry  Stebbing;  Villemain,  "  Cours  de  Lit- 
terature;"  N.  Morelli,  "  Delia  Vita  di  T.  Tasso,"  1834  ;  L.  Cibka- 
Rio,  "Degli  Amori  e  della  Prigione  di  Tasso,"  1862;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale ;"  "Italian  Narrative  Poetry,"  in  the  "North 
American  Review"  for  October,  1824,  (by  Prej^ott;)  "Retro- 
spective Review,"  vol.  ii.,  (1825:)  "Horace  and  Tasso,"  in  tlie 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1850;  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  July,  1821,  and  June,  1826. 

Tassoni,  tis-so'nee,  [Lat.  Tasso'nus,]  ( Alessandro,) 
an  Italian  critic  and  satirist,  born  at  Modena  in  1565, 
became  secretary  to  Cardinal  Ascanio  Colonna  at  Rome. 
He  published  in  1609  "Considerations  on  Petrarch," 
a  rather  severe  criticism  upon  that  poet,  which  gave  rise 
to  a  1')itter  controversy  with  several  of  the  admirers  ot 
the  bard  of  Vaucluse,  Tassoni's  principal  work  is  a 
satirical  poem  entitled  "The  Rape  of  the  Backet,"  ("La 
Secchia  rapita,")  which  is  greatly  admired  for  its  humour. 
It  is  founded  on  an  incident  occurring  in  a  war  between 
Modena  and  Bologna, — the  carrying  off  of  a  wooden 
bucket  from  the  latter  city  by  the  Modenese.  Among 
his  other  productions  may  be  named  his  "  Pensieri 
Diversi,"  (1612,)  or  observations  on  various  subjects, 
literary  and  scientific.    Died  in  1635. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  :"  "  Lives  of  the 
Italian  Poets,"  by  the  Rev.  Henry  Stebbing  ;  "Italian  Narrative 
Poetry,"  in  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  [824,  (by 
Prescott  ;)  MuRATORi,  "  Vita  di  A.  Tassoni,"  1739  ;  J.  C.  Walker, 
"Memoirs  of  A.  Tassoni."  181 5;  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Let- 
teratura  Italiana;"  Dubois- Fontanelle,  "  Vie  de  Pierre  Aretin  et 
d'A.  Tassoni,"  1768;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tassoni,  (Alessandro  Maria,)  an  Italian  theologian, 
born  at  Collalto  in  1749.  He  wrote  an  eloquent  work 
entitled  "La  Religione  dimostrata  e  difeso,"  ("Religion 
Explained  and  Defended,"  3  vols.,  1800-05.)  In  1802 
the  pope  appointed  him  auditor  di  rota.    Died  in  1818. 

See  Luigi  Biondi,  "Vita  di  A.  M.  Tassoni,"  1822. 

Tassonus.    See  Tassoni,  (Alessandro.) 

Tassus,  (Torquatus.)    See  Tasso. 

Tastu,  tts'tii',  (Sabine  Casimfre  Amable  Voiart,) 
a  French  authoress,  born  at  Metz  about  1798,  was  mar- 
ried in  1816  to  M.  Tastu.  She  wrote  a  number  of 
poems  and  educational  works,  which  were  received  with 
great  favour.  "  Her  style,"  says  Longfellow,  "  frequently 
suggests  the  impassioned  manner  and  stately  diction  of 
Mrs.  Hemans," 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  "  Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  January,  1832. 

Tate,  (Francis,)  an  English  lawyer  and  antiquary, 
born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1560.  He  wrote  sever  il 
works  on  British  antiquities.    Died  in  1616. 

Tate,  (Nahum,)  a  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Dublin 
in  1652.  He  succeeded  Shadwell  as  poet-laureate  in 
1690.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Miscellanea  Sacra,  or 
Poems  on  Divine  and  Moral  Subjects,"  (1698,)  "Pana- 
cea, a  Poem  on  Tea,"  (1700,)  a  number  of  original  dramas, 
and  an  alteration  of  Shakspeare's  "  Lear."  He  made 
a  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms,  in  conjunction  with 
Nicholas  Brady,  which  superseded  that  of  Sternhold  and 
Hopkins.  Tate  also  assisted  Dryden  in  the  composition 
of  his  "Absalom  and  Achitophel."    Died  in  1715. 

Tatian,  ta'she-an,  (or  ta'shejin,)  [Lat.  Tatia'nus  ; 
Fr.  Tatien,  tt'seJ^N',]  an  ancient  writer,  born  about 
120  A.D.,  was  a  native  of  Syria,  and  was  converted  to 
Christianity  by  Justin  Martyr.  He  afterwards  adopted 
the  heresy  of  the  Marcionites,  and  founded  a  sect  called 
Tatianists.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Discourse  to  the 
Heathen,"  and  a  "  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels."  The 
former  only  is  extant. 

See  EusEBius,  "Historia  Ecclesiastica  ;"  Ritter,  "History  of 
Christian  Philosophy;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tatien.    See  Tatian, 

Tatishchef  or  Tatichtchef,  ti-t^sh-chif,  written 
also  Tatischtschew  and  Tatischev,  (Dmitri  Pav- 


€  as  ^;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.   (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p,  23.) 


TATISHCHEF 


21 


OO 


TAVERKIER 


LOVITCH,)  a  Russian  statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  in 
1769,  was  successively  ambassador  to  Naples,  Madrid, 
and  Vienna.  He  was  a  member  of  the  imperial  council 
of  Russia.    Died  in  1845. 

Tatishchef,  Tatischtchef,  or  Tatischtschew, 
(Vasilii  Nikititch,)  a  Russian  statesman,  and  Gov- 
ernor of  Orenburg,  born  in  1686,  was  the  author  of  the 
first  History  of  Russia,  published  in  1769.  Died  in  1750. 

Tatius.    See  Achilles  Tatius. 

Tatius,  ta'she-us,  (Titus,)  a  king  of  the  Sabines,  who 
was  provoked  by^he  rape  of  the  Sabine  women  to  lead 
a  large  army  against  the  Romans.  After  a  great  but 
indecisive  battle,  peace  was  restored  through  the  me- 
diation of  tilt  Sabine  women,  and  Romulus  and  Tatius 
reigned  jointly  over  the  united  Romans  and  Sabines 
until  the  death  of  Tatius,  which  occurred  soon  after  the 
union. 

Tat'nall,  (Josiah,)  an  American  naval  ofiScer,  born 
in  Georgia,  entered  the  navy  about  181 2.  He  became 
a  captain  in  1850,  and  commanded  a  squadron  in  the 
East  Indies  from  1856  to  1859.  He  took  arms  against 
the  Union  in  1861,  and  commanded  the  famous  iron-clad 
Merrimac,  (alias  Virginia,)  which  he  destroyed  by  fire 
on  the  nth  of  May,  1862,  near  Norfolk,  to  prevent  the 
Unionists  from  taking  the  vessel.    Died  in  1871. 

Tat'tam,  (Henry,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  archaeologist, 
born  in  1788,  became  Archdeacon  of  Bedford  in  1845. 
He  published,  besides  other  works,  "  Lexicon  Egyptiaco- 
Latinum,"  (1835,)  and  "  Prophetae  Majores  in  Dialecto 
Linguae  ^gyptiacae,"  (1852.) 

Tatti.    See  Sansovino,  (Jacopo.) 

Taube,  tow'beh,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
historical  and  statistical  writer,  born  in  London  about 
1726.    He  practised  law  in  Vienna.    Died  in  1778. 

Taubert,  tow'b^Rt,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  composer 
and  pianist,  born  in  Berlin  about  1812.  Among  his 
works  is  an  opera  called  "  Blue-Beard,"  ("  Blaubart.") 

Taubmann,t6wp'min,  [Lat.TAUBMAN'NUS,]  (Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  scholar  and  poet,  born  near  Baireuth, 
in  Franconia,  in  1565.  He  became  professor  of  poetry 
at  Wittenberg  in  1595,  wrote  elegant  Latin  poems,  and 
was  distinguished  for  his  wit.  Died  in  1613.  A  col- 
lection of  his  bon-mots,  entitled  '*  Taubmanniana,"  was 
published  in  1702.  He  published  editions  of  Virgil 
and  Plautus. 

See  Ebert,  "  Leben  und  Verdienste  Taubmann's,"  1814;  Nice- 
RON,  "Memoires." 

Taubmannus.    See  Taubmann. 

Tauchnitz,  towK'nits,  (Karl  Chrtstoph  Trau- 
GOTT,)  a  celebrated  German  printer  and  bookseller,  born 
near  Grimma  in  1761.  About  1796  he  founded  at  Leip- 
sic  a  printing-establishment,  which  has  since  become  one 
of  the  most  important  in  Germany.  Among  the  mul- 
titudinous works  issued  from  his  press  are  splendid 
editions  of  Homer  and  other  Greek  classics,  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  and  the  Koran  in  the  original  tongue.  Died  in 
1836. 

Tauler  or  Thauler,  tow'ler,  [Lat.  Taulf/rus,]  (Jo- 
HANN,)  an  eminent  German  theologian,  and  founder 
of  the  mystic  theology  in  Germany,  was  born  at  Stras- 
burg  in  1290.  He  entered  at  an  early  age  the  order 
of  Dominicans,  and  subsequently  studied  theology  in 
Paris.  He  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher,  and 
distinguished  himself  as  an  earnest  reformer  of  the 
Church.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Imitation 
of  the  Humble  Life  of  Christ,"  ("Nachfolge  des  armen 
Lebens  Christi.")  As  a  prose  writer,  he  effected  a  great 
improvement  in  the  German  language.  Many  of  his 
writings  have  been  translated  into  Latin  and  other  lan- 
guages.   Died  in  1361. 

See  Hodgson,  "Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867; 
Heupel,  "  Memoria  Taiileri,"  16S8  ;  Aknd,  ".Die  Historic Tauleri." 
16S9;  C.  Schmidt,  "J.  Taiiler  von  Strassbiirg,"  etc.,  1841  :  F.  W. 
Edei.,  "J.  Tauler,  Prediger  zii  Strasburs;,"  etc.,  185,^;  Madame 
V/iNKvvoKTH,  "  Life  of  J.  Tauler,"  London,  1857  >  Siverud, 
"  Taulers  Omvendelses  Historic,"  1772. 

Taulerus.    See  Tauler. 

Taulier,  tole-i',  (M.\rc  Joseph  Fr^d^ric,)  a  French 
jurist,  was  born  at  Grenoble  in  1806.  He  published 
"Theorie  raisonnee  du  Code  civil,"  (6  vols.,  1840-44.) 

Tauiiay,  to'ni',  (Augustf.,)  a  French  statuary,  born 
'n  Paris  in  1769.    He  gained  the  grand  prize  of  Rome 


in  1792,  and  accompanied  his  brother  Nicolas  Antoinc 
to  Brazil  in  1816.    Died  in  1824. 

Taunay,  (Nicolas  Antoine,)  a  skilful  French  his- 
torical painter,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1 755.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Institute  in 
1795,  visited  Brazil  in  1816,  and  returned  to  Paris  in 
1 8 19.    Died  in  1830. 

Taunton,  Lord.    See  Labouchere,  (Henry.) 

Taun'ton,  (Sir  W.  E.,)  an  English  jurist,  born  at 
Oxford,  was  appointed  in  1830  a  judge  of  the  court  of 
king's  bench.    Died  in  1835. 

Taurellius.    See  Torelli. 

Taur'I-on,  [Gr.  Tavp«wv,]  a  Macedonian  general,  who 
had  the  chief  command  of  the  army  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus during  the  minority  of  Philip  V.,  about  220  B.C. 
He  was  an  enemy  of  Aratus. 

Tau-ris'cus  of  Tralles,  a  Greek  sculptor,  who,  with 
his  brother  Apollonius,  executed  a  celebrated  marble 
group,  called  "  Toro  Farnese,"  which  was  found  at 
Rome  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  is  now  in  Naples. 
(See  Apollonius.) 

Tau'rus,  (Statilius,)  a  Roman  general,  who  com- 
manded Mark  Antony's  fleet  in  the  war  against  Sextus 
Pompey.  He  received  the  honour  of  a  triumph  in  34 
B.C.  for  his  success  in  Africa,  and  commanded  the  land- 
army  of  Augustus  at  the  battle  of  Actium,  31  B.C.  In 
the  year  26  he  was  elected  consul.    Died  after  16  B.C. 

Tausan.    See  Taussen. 

Taussen,  tow'sen,  written  also  Tausan  and  Tagesen, 

(Johan,)  a  Danish  theologian  and  Reformer,  born  in  the 
island  of  Fiinen  in  1494.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg 
under  Luther,  and  subsequently  devoted  himself  to  pro- 
mulgating the  Reformed  religion  in  Denmark.  He  was 
appointed  by  Frederick  I.  preacher  to  the  church  of 
Saint  Nicholas  at  Copenhagen  in  1529,  and  in  1 541 
made  Bishop  of  Ripen.  He  published  several  theo- 
logical and  controversial  works.    13ied  in  1561. 

Tauvry,  to'vKe',  (Daniel,)  a  French  anatomist  and 
writer,  born  at  Laval  in  1669;  died  in  1701. 

Tavannes,  de,  deh  tt'vtn',  (Gaspard  de  Saulx — 
deh  so,)  a  French  general,  born  at  Dijon  in  1509.  He 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Pavia  in  1525,  and  contributed  to 
the  victory  of  Cerisoles,  in  1544.  lie  rendered  important 
services  in  the  war  against  Charles  V.,  and  in  the  civil 
war  he  fought  against  the  Huguenots  at  Jarnac  and 
Moncontour.  About  1570  he  obtained  the  rank  of  mar- 
shal of  France.    Died  in  1573. 

Tavannes,  de,  (Guillaume  de  Saulx,)  Seigneur, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1553.  He  was  con- 
stantly loyal  to  Henry  III.  and  Henry  IV.,  and  fought, 
with  the  rank  of  general,  against  the  League.  He  died 
in  1633,  leaving  "Memoirs  of  Events  from  1560  to 
1596." 

Tavannes,  de,  (Jean  de  Saulx,)  Vicom  te,  a  French 
general,  born  in  1555,  was  a  son  of  Gaspard,  noticed 
above.  As  a  partisan  of  the  League,  he  fought  against 
Henry  HI.  and  Henry  IV.    Died  about  1630. 

Tavarone,  ti-vS-ro'ni,  (Lazaro,)  an  Italian  painter 
of  frescos  and  portraits,  was  born  at  Genoa  in  1556.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Luca  Cambiaso,  with  whom  he  went  to 
Madrid.  He  painted  some  works  in  the  Escurial  for 
the  king.    Died  in  1641. 

Tav'er-ner,  (Richard,)  an  English  religious  writer, 
born  in  Norfolk  in  1505,  was  a  lawyer  and  preacher. 
He  wrote  several  works  to  promote  the  Reformation, 
and  published  a  revised  edition  of  the  Bible,  (1539,) 
also  "Postils  on  the  Epistles  and  Gospels."  Died  in 
1575- 

Tavernier,  tt'vgR'ne-4',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  Baron 
d'Aubonne,  a  celebrated^rench  traveller  and  merchant, 
born  in  Paris  in  1605.  At  an  early  age  he  visited  the 
principal  parts  of  Europe,  and,  having  entered  the  Aus- 
trian army,  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Prague,  in  1620. 
He  set  out  about  1630  for  Palestine  and  Persia,  where 
he  applied  himself  to  merchandise  in  jewels,  etc.  After 
having  made  six  journeys  to  the  East,  he  returned  to 
France  with  a  large  fortune,  and  was  ennobled  by  Louis 
XIV.  His  "Six  Voyages  en  Turquie,  en  Perse  et 
aux  Indes"  came  out  in  1677,  (3  vols.  4to.)  This  work 
obtained  a  wide  popularity,  and  was  translated  into 
several  languages.    Tavernier  died  at  Moscow  about 


ft.  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good; 


TAVERNIER 


2\0\ 


TAYLOR 


1688,  while  on  liis  seventh  journey  to  the  East  Indies 
by  way  of  Russia. 

See  Friedlaender,  "J.  B.  Tavernier  Kanimerherr,"«tc.,  1849; 
Bayle,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Tavernier,  tt'v$R'ne-4',  (Melchior,)  a  Flemish  en- 
graver of  maps,  was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1544.  He 
worked  in  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1641. 

Tavernier,  (Melchior,)  an  engraver,  a  nephew  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1594;  died  in  1665. 

Tax'i-les,  [Gr.  Ta^iA7?f,]  sometimes  called  Tax'i-lus, 
an  Indian  king,  who  reigned  over  the  tract  between  the 
Indus  and  Hydaspes  when  Alexander  the  Great  invaded 
India,  327  B.C.  He  was  an  ally  of  that  conqueror  in  the 
war  against  Porus. 

Taadlus.    See  Taxiles. 

Ta-yg'e-te,  [Gr.  "Ydvyhr] ;  Fr.  Taygete,  tt'e-zhit',] 
one  of  the  Pleiades,  was  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Atlas, 
and  the  mother  of  Lacedaemon,  who  was  supposed  to 
be  a  son  of  Jupiter. 

Tay'ler,  (Frederick,)  an  English  painter  in  water- 
colours,  born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1804.  Among  his 
master-pieces  may  be  named  "The  Vicar  of  Wakefield's 
Family  going  to  Church,"  "  Festival  of  the  Popinjay," 
and  "Weighing  the  Stag."  His  pictures  include  nu- 
merous hunting-scenes  and  views  in  the  Highlands,  and 
are  ranked  among  the  best  of  their  kind. 

Tayler  or  Taylor,  (John  William,)  an  English 
mineralogist,  born  about  1822.  He  explored  the  mines 
of  Greenland  about  1850-56. 

Tay'lor,  (Alfred  Swaine,)  an  English  physician 
and  chemist,  born  in  Kent  in  1806.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  medical  jurisprudence  and  chemistry  in  Guy's 
Hospital  about  1832.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
a  lecturer  and  writer  on  medical  jurisprudence  and 
toxicology.  Among  his  works  is  a  **  Manual  of  Medical 
Jurisprudence,"  (1844.) 

Taylor,  (Ann,)  an  English  authoress,  was  the  wife 
of  Isaac  Taylor,  noticed  below'.  She  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "Maternal  Solicitude."    Died  in  1830. 

See  "  Memorials,  Biographical  and  Literary,  of  the  Taylor  Family." 

Tay'lor,  (Bayard,  bi'ard,)  a  distinguished  American 
traveller,  writer,  and  poet,  born  in  Chester  county,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  1825.  Having  made  a  pedestrian  tour  in 
Europe,  he  published,  after  his  return,  "  Views  Afoot; 
or,  Europe  seen  with  Knapsack  and  Staff,"  (1846.) 
In  1849  he  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  New  York 
"Tribune,"  to  which  he  soon  after  contributed  a  series  of 
letters  descriptive  of  his  European  travels.  He  brought 
out  in  1850  "El  Dorado;  or,  Adventures  in  the  Path  of 
Empire,"  being  an  account  of  a  journey  to  California. 
He  spent  the  three  ensuing  years  in  visiting  various 
parts  of  Europe,  Africa,  Syria,  China,  and  Japan,  and 
published  in  1853  his  "Journey  to  Central  Africa," 
"Lands  of  the  Saracen,"  "  VMsit  to  India,  China,  Loo 
Choo,"  etc.  These  were  followed  by  "Summer  and 
Winter  Pictures  of  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Lapland," 
(1857,)  and  "Travels  in  Greece  and  Russia,  with  an 
Excursion  to  Crete."  Among  his  other  works  we  may 
name  "Book  of  Romances,  Lyrics,  and  Songs,"  (1851,) 
"Poems  of  the  Orient,"  (1854,)  "Poems  of  Home  and 
Travel,"  (1855,)  "At  Home  and  Abroad,  a  Sketch-Book 
of  Life,  Scenery,  and  Men,"  (1859,)  and  "  Hannah  Thurs- 
ton," (1864,)  a  novel.  Mr.  Taylor  has  been  a  frequent 
contributor  to  the  "  Atlantic  Monthly"  and  other  literary 
journals. 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1847. 

Taylor,  (Brook,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Edmonton  in  1685.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  and  inherited  a  competent  fc^rtune  from 
his  father.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Treatise  on 
Perspective,"  (1715,)  and  "Method  of  Increments,"  etc., 
("Methodus  Incrementorum  directa  et  inversa,"  1715.) 
In  the  latter  work  he  announced  the  important  discovery 
of  a  theorem  in  the  differential  calculus,  which  is  called 
Taylor's  theorem.    Died  in  1731. 

Taylor,  (Charles,)  a  biblical  writer,  was  a  brother 
of  Isaac  Taylor  of  Ongar.  He  edited  Calmet's  "Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible."    Died  in  1821. 

Taylor,  (Chevalier  John,)  an  English  oculist,  who 
removed  to  the  continent  in  1733.    He  travelled  exten- 


sively, and  published  an  account  of  his  travels.  Died 
after  1767. 

Taylor,  (George,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  was  born  in  Ireland  in  1716.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1 776.  Died 
in  1781. 

Taylor,  (George  W.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Clinton,  Hunterdon  county.  New  Jersey,  in  1808.  He 
commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Gaines's  Mill, 
June  27,  1862,  and  was  mortally  wounded  at  the  batrie 
of  Bull  Run,  and  died  Septeinber  i  of  that  year. 

Taylor,  (Henry,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  about 
1 7 ID,  is  said  to  have  been  an  Arian.  He  wrote  an 
"Essay  on  the  Beauty  of  the  Divine  Economy."  Died 
in  1785. 

Taylor,  (Henry,)  an  English  poet  and  dramatist,  born 
about  1800,  published  "Philip  Van  Artevelde,"  (1834,) 
"Edwin  the  Fair,  an  Historical  Drama,"  (1842,)  "The 
Eve  of  the  Conquest,  and  other  Poems,"  (1847,)  also 
several  prose  works,  among  which  may  be  named  "The 
Statesman,"  (1836,)  and  "  Notes  froin  Life,  in  Six  Essays," 
(1848.)  His  "Philip  Van  Artevelde,"  a  drama,  in  blank 
verse,  has  won  for  him  a  very  high  reputation,  and  has 
been  translated  into  German. 

See  R.  H.  Hokne,  "  Spirit  of  the  Age,"  1844:  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  April,  i84g:  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  November,  1851  ; 
"  North  British  Review"  for  November,  1862,  and  December,  1865. 

Taylor,  (Sir  Herbert,)  an  English  general,  born  in 
1775.  He  was  private  secretary  to  the  Duke  of  York, 
and  to  George  III.    Died  in  1839. 

Taylor,  (Isaac,)  Senior,  of  Ongar,  an  English  artist 
and  writer,  was  originally  an  engraver.  In  1796  he  became 
minister  of  a  dissenting  congregation  at  Colchester.  He 
published  a  number  of  religious  and  educational  works  ; 
among  the  latter  we  may  name  "Beginnings  of  Biogra- 
phy," and  "  Scenes  for  Tarry-at-Honie  Travellers."  He 
preached  at  Ongar  from  1810  to  1829.    Died  in  1829. 

Taylor,  (Isaac,)  Junior,  an  eminent  English  writer,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Suffolk  in  1787.  He 
published  a  number  of  moral,  philosophical,  and  theo- 
logical works  of  a  high  character.  Among  the  most 
important  of  these  are  a  "  History  of  the  Transmission 
of  Ancient  Books  to  Modern  'rimes,"  (1827,)  "The 
Natural  History  of  Enthusiasm,"  (1829,)  "The  Natural 
History  of  Fanaticism,"  "Spiritual  Despotism,"  "The 
Physical  Theory  of  Another  Life,"  (1836,)  "Ancient 
Christianity,"  (2  vols.,  1839-43,)  and  "  Loyola  and  Jesu- 
itism," (1849.)    Died  in  1865. 

See  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1840;  Allibone,  "Dic- 
tionary of  Authors." 

Taylor,  tl'lor,  t  (Isidore  S^verin  Justin,)  a  Belgian 
traveller  and  amateur  artist,  born  at  Brussels  in  1789. 
He  visited  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  etc.,  and  made  a 
valuable  collection  of  works  of  art  for  the  galleries  an(^ 
museums  of  Paris.  He  published  "  Picturesque  and 
Romantic  Journeys  in  Old  France,"  ("  Voyages  pitto- 
resques  et  romantiques  de  I'ancienne  France,"  24  vols., 
1820-63.) 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Taylor,  (James,)  a  Scottish  mechanician,  born  about 
1757.  He  gained  distinction  as  one  of  the  inventors  of 
steam  navigation.    Died  in  1825. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsme'i." 

Taylor,  (Jane,)  a  meritorious  English  writer,  born  in 
London  in  1783,  was  a  sister  of  Isaac  Taylor,  Jr.,  noticed 
above.  In  conjunction  with  her  sister  Ann,  she  composed 
"  Original  Poems,"  which  were  very  popular,  and  "  Hymns 
for  Infant  Minds,"  which  passed  through  many  editions. 
She  also  published  "Display,"  a  tale,  (1814,)  a  series 
of  able  essays  entitled  "  Contributions  of  Q.  Q.,"  and 
"  Essays  in  Rhyme."    Died  in  1824. 

See  "  Memorials,  Biographical  and  Literary,  of  the  Taylor  Family," 
by  the  Rev.  L  Taylor,  London,  1867;  Mks.  Ei.woou,  "Memoirs 
of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commencement  of  the 
Last  Century,"  vol.  ii.,  1843. 

Taylor,  (Jeremy,)  an  English  bishop  and  author  of 
great  eminence,  was  born  at  Cambridge  in  1613,  and  was 
baptized  on  the  15th  of  August.  He  was  a  son  of  a 
barber,  and  was  educated  at  Caius  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  as  M.A.  about  1633.  Having  taken 
holy  orders,  he  obtained  the  patronage  of  Archbishop 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  I  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TAYLOR 


2I02 


TAT LOR 


Laud,  through  whose  influence  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow 
of  All  Souls'  College,  Oxford,  in  1636.  He  became  rec- 
tor of  Uppingham,  in  Rutlandshire,  in  1638,  and  married 
Phebe  Landisdale  (or  Langsdale)  in  1639.  In  the  civil 
war  he  was  a  decided  adherent  of  Charles  I.,  whom  he 
served  as  chaplain.  He  published  in  1642  "Episcopacy 
Asserted  against  the  Acephali  and  Aerians,  New  and 
Old."  His  rectory  of  Uppingham  was  sequestrated  by 
Parliament  in  1642,  after  which  he  supported  himself  by 
teaching  school  in  Carmarthenshire.  In  1647  he  pro- 
duced one  of  his  greatest  works,  "  The  Liberty  of  Pro- 
phesying," which,  says  Hallam,  "  was  the  first  famous 
plea,  in  this  country,  for  tolerance  in  religion  on  a  com- 
prehensive basis  and  on  deep-seated  foundations.  Taylor, 
therefore,  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  sapped 
and  shook  the  foundations  of  dogmatism  and  pretended 
orthodoxy;  the  first  who  taught  men  to  seek  peace  in 
unity  of  spirit  rather  than  of  belief,  and,  instead  of  ex- 
tinguishing dissent,  to  take  away  its  sting  by  charity  and 
by  a  sense  of  human  fallibility."  {"  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe.")  He  afterwards  published  his 
"Holy  Living  and  Dying,"  (1651,)  "The  Great  Exem- 
plar, or  the  Life  of  Christ,"  (3  vols.,  1653,)  and  "The 
Golden  Grove,"  (1654,)  in  which  he  displayed  a  rich 
imagination  and  poetical  genius.  He  was  imprisoned 
several  times  by  the  partisans  of  the  Parliament  during 
the  civil  war.  In  1658,  at  the  invitation  of  Lord  Con- 
way, he  removed  to  Lisburn,  Ireland,  where  he  ofiiciated 
as  a  clergyman.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Down  and 
Connor  in  1660.  Before  this  date  he  had  married  a 
second  wife,  who  was  a  natural  daughter  of  Charles  I. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  a  very  learned  treatise  on 
casuistry,  entitled  "  Ductor  Dubitantium,"  ("  Rule  of 
Conscience,"  1660.)  He  was  intrusted  with  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  small  see  of  Dromore  in  1661.  He  died 
at  Lisburn  in  August,  1667,  leaving  three  daughters. 

"  His  Sermons,"  says  Hallam,  "  are  far  above  any 
that  had  preceded  them  in  the  English  Church.  An 
imagination  essentially  poetical,  and  sparing  none  of 
the  decorations  which  by  critical  rules  are  deemed  almost 
peculiar  to  verse  ;  a  warm  tone  of  piety,  sweetness,  and 
charity  ;  an  accumulation  of  circumstantial  accessories 
whenever  he  reasons,  or  persuades,  or  describes,  .  .  . 
distinguish  Taylor  from  his  contemporaries  by  their 
degree,  as  they  do  from  most  of  his  successors  by  their 
kind.  .  .  .  The  eloquence  of  Taylor  is  great,  but  it  is 
not  eloquence  of  the  highest  class  ;  it  is  far  too  Asiatic, 
too  much  in  the  style  of  Chrysostom  and  other  declaimers 
of  the  fourth  ceiUury,  by  the  study  of  whom  he  had 
probably  vitiated  his  taste  ;  his  learning  is  misplaced, 
and  his  arguments  often  as  much  so  ;  not  to  mention 
that  he  has  the  common  defect  of  alleging  nugatory 
proofs ;  his  vehemence  loses  its  effect  by  the  circuity  of 
his  pleonastic  language."  ("Introduction  to  the  Lite- 
rature of  Europe.") 

See  H.  K.  Bonny,  "Life  of  Jeremy  Taylor,"  1815;  Reginald 
Heber,  "Life  of  Jeremy  Taylor,"  1824;  R.  Willmott,  "  Bishop 
J.  Taylor,  his  Predecessors,"  etc.,  1846;  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of 
Authors." 

Taylor,  (John,)  surnamed  the  Water  Poet,  born 
at  Gloucester,  in  England,  in  1580,  was  originally  a 
waterman  in  London.  His  verses  possess  but  little 
intrinsic  merit,  but  they  are  valuable  as  illustrations 
of  society  and  manners  at  that  time.    Died  in  1654. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Taylor,  (John,)  an  ^^nglish  dissenting  divine,  born 
in  Lancashire  about  16B0.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Sketch  of  Moral  Philosophy,"  " The  Scrijjture  Doc- 
trine of  Original  Sin,"  a  "  Hebrew  Concordance,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1761. 

Taylor,  (John,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  English  jurist  and 
scholar,  born  at  Shrewsbury  about  1703.  He  became  a 
Fellow  of  J>aint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  subse- 
quently was  made  registrar  of  the  university.  He  was 
profoundly  versed  in  Greek  and  Roman  law,  and  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  the  "Orations"  of  Lysias.  He  also 
edited  some  of  the  works  of  Demosthenes,  and  other 
Greek  classics.  He  also  wrote  "  Elements  of  Civil  Law," 
(1755.)  Having  entered  into  holy  orders,  Dr.  Taylor 
was  created  in  1757  canon-residentiary  of  Saint  Paul's. 
Died  in  1766. 


Taylor,  (John,)  an  American  Senator,  born  in  Orange 
county,  Virginia.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  by  the  legislature  of  Virginia  in  1792,  in 
1803,  and  in  1822.  He  was  distinguished  as  an  agricul- 
turist.   Died  in  Caroline  county,  Virginia,  in  1824. 

Taylor,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  was  a  son  of 
Henry,  noticed  above.  He  wrote  songs,  epigrams, 
humorous  tales,  etc.    Died  in  1832. 

Taylor,  (John,)  an  English  political  economist,  born 
in  1 781.  He  wrote  "The  Identity  of  Junius  with  a 
Distinguished  Living  Character  Established,"  (1818,) 
also  "  Essays  on  Currency,"  etc.    Died  in  1864. 

Taylor,  (John  W.,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Saratoga  county,  New  York,  in  1784.  He  studied  law, 
and  represented  a  district  of  New  York  in  Congress 
from  1 81 3  to  1833.  He  made  an  eloquent  speech  against 
the  establishment  of  slavery  in  Missouri,  February,  1819. 
He  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  the 
second  session  of  the  Sixteenth  Congress,  (1820-21,) 
during  the  passage  of  the  Missouri  Comj^romise.  He 
removed  about  1843  to  Cleveland,  Ohio,  where  he  died 
in  1854. 

Taylor,  (Nathaniel  William,)  D.D.,  an  eminent 
American  divine  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  New  Milford, 
Connecticut,  in  1786.  In  1812  he  succeeded  Moses 
Stuart  as  pastor  of  the  First  Congregational  Church  at 
New  Haven,  and  in  1822  became  Dwight  professor  of 
didactic  theology  at  Yale  College.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  theological  essays,  which  favour  the  views  of  Jonathan 
Edwards.    Died  in  1858. 

Taylor,  (Richard,)  an  English  printer  and  journalist, 
born  at  Norwich  in  1 781,  became  associate  editor  of  the 
"  Philosophical  Magazine,"  and  in  1838  founded  the 
"Annals  of  Natural  History."  He  published  editions 
of  Warton's  "  History  of  English  Poetry,"  and  of  other 
standard  works.    Died  in  1858. 

Taylor,  (Richard,)  an  American  general,  was  a  son 
of  President  Za^hary  Taylor.  He  commanded  a  Con- 
federate army  in  Louisiana  in  1863.  His  army  resisted 
General  Banks  with  success  near  Mansfield  and  Pleasant 
Hill,  Louisiana,  in  April,  1864.  He  surrendered  to 
General  Canby  on  the  4th  of  May,  1865,  near  Mobile. 

Taylor,  (Richard  Cowling,)  an  English  geologist, 
born  in  Suffolk  in  1789.  Having  emigrated  to  America 
in  1830,  he  was  employed  in  geological  explorations  in 
Pennsylvania  and  other  parts  of  the  United  States.  He 
published  in  1848  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Statistics 
of  Coal."    Died  in  1851. 

Taylor,  (Sir  Roberf,)  an  English  sculptor  and  archi- 
tect, born  in  17 14.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  after  his 
return  to  London  devoted  himself  principally  to  archi- 
tectural works.  Among  his  most  admired  structures 
we  may  name  Lord  Grimstone's  mansion  at  Gorham- 
bury.  He  died  in  1788,  leaving  a  fortune  of  ;^i8o,ooo, 
a  portion  of  which  he  bequeathed  to  the  University  of 
Oxford  towards  founding  an  institute  for  the  study  of 
modern  languages. 

Taylor,  (Rowland,)  an  English  clergyman,  chaplain 
to  Archbishop  Cranmer,  was  condemned,  under  the 
reign  of  Queen  Mary,  to  be  burnt  at  the  stake.  The 
sentence  was  executed  in  February,  1555. 

Taylor,  (Silas,)  sometimes  called  D'Omville,  an 
English  scholar  and  antiquary,  born  in  Shropshire  in 
1624.  He  was  the  author  of  "The  History  of  Gavel- 
kind," etc.,  and  prepared  a  "  History  of  Harwich,"  pub- 
lished after  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1678. 

Taylor,  (Stephen  William,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
teacher,  born  in  Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  in 
1791.  He  became  in  1838  professor  of  mathematics  and 
natural  philosophy  in  Madison  University,  New  York, 
of  which  he  was  subsequently  president.    Died  in  1856. 

Taylor,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Puritan  minister,  born 
in  Yorkshire  in  1576.  He  preached  in  London,  and 
published  several  volumes  of  sermons.    Died  in  1632. 

Taylor,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  scholar,  sur- 
named rHE  PLATONlsr,  born  in  London  in  1758.  From 
early  youth  he  applied  himself  with  ardour  to  the  study 
of  the  Greek  philosophers,  and  about  1780  began  the 
publication  of  a  series  of  translations  from  the  classics, 
including  the  writings  of  Plato  and  Aristotle.  Besides 
the  above,  Mr.  Taylor  translated  "The  Hymns  of  Or- 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ta,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  f  Jll,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  goo  1;  moon; 


TAYLOR 


2103  TCHING-TCHING  KONG 


pheus,"  (1787,)  "Proclus  on  Euclid,"  {1792,)  Pausa- 
nias's  "Description  of  Greece,"  (1794,)  "  Five  Books  of 
Plotinivi,"  (1794,)  "The  Six  Books  of  Proclus  on  the 
Theology  of  Plato,"  (1816,)  "lamblichus  on  the  Mys- 
teries of  the  Egyptians,  Chaldeans,"  etc.,  (1821,)  "The 
Metamorphoses  and  Philosophical  Works  of  Apuleius," 
(1822,)  "Select  Works  of  Porphyry,"  (1823,)  "Argu- 
ments of  Celsus  relative  to  the  Christians,  taken  from 
Origen,"  etc.,  "Proclus  on  Providence  and  Evil,"  (1833,) 
and  other  classics.  He  also  published,  among  other 
original  treatises,  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Eleusinian  and 
Bacchic  Mysteries."  Died  in  1835.  Mr.  Taylor  was 
distinguished  for  his  great  conversational  powers  and 
attractive  social  qualities,  which  gained  for  him  the 
friendship  of  many  persons  of  wealth  and  influence,  by 
whose  assistance  he  was  enabled  to  publish  his  volumi- 
nous works.  Among  his  patrons  the  Duke  of  Norfolk 
and  Mr.  Meredith  deserve  especial  mention  for  their  mu- 
nificence. As  a  translator  from  the  Greek,  Mr.  Taylor 
does  not  hold  a  high  rank,  but  he  merits  the  gratitude 
of  the  admirers  of  Plato  for  having  done  so  much  to 
attract  attention  to  the  works  of  that  philosopher. 

See  J.  Welsh,  "Notice  of  Thomas  Taylor,"  1831 ;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1809;  Alli- 
BONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Taylor,  (Tom,)  an  English  litterateur,  born  in  Dur- 
ham in  1817.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became  professor  of  the 
English  language  and  literature  at  University  College, 
London.  He  has  published  a  "Biography  of  Benjamin 
Robert  Haydon,"  "The  Unequal  *  Match,"  and  other 
dramas,  and  has  been  a  frequent  contributor  to  "  Punch." 
He  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  board  of  health  in 
1854,  and  secretary  to  a  department  of  the  home  office 
about  1866. 

Taylor,  (William,)  an  accomplished  English  writer 
and  translator,  born  at  Norwich  in  1765.  He  acquired 
a  knowledge  of  the  French,  German,  and  Italian  lan- 
guages during  a  residence  on  the"  continent,  and  pub- 
lished, after  his  return,  an  excellent  translation  of 
Biirger's  "Lenore,"  and  other  German  poems.  His 
version  of  Lessing's  "Nathan  der  Weise"  came  out  in 
1806,  and  a  collection  of  his  translations,  entitled  a 
"  Survey  of  German  Poetry,"  was  published  in  1830. 
He  also  wrote  a  work  on  English  synonyms,  and  essays 
on  the  German  poets.    Died  in  1836. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Writine;s  of  the  Late  William 
Taylor,"  etc.,  by  T.  W.  Robbrrds;  "London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  December,  1843. 

Taylor,  (William  Cooke,)  an  Irish  writer,  born  at 
Youghal  in  1800,  published  a  number  of  biographical 
and  historical  works.  Among  the  principal  we  may 
name  a  "History  of  France  and  Normandy,"  (1830,) 
"History  of  Popery,"  (1837,)  and  "Life  and  Times  of 
Sir  Robert  Peel,"  (3  vols.,  1846-51.)    Died  in  1849. 

Taylor,  (Zachary,)  a  distinguished  American  gene- 
ral, and  the  twelfth  President  of  the  United  States,  was 
born  in  Orange  county,  Virginia,  in  1 784.  He  was  a  son  of 
Colonel  Richard  Taylor.  He  was  educated  in  Kentucky, 
his  father  having  removed  to  Louisville,  in  that  State, 
about  1785.  He  entered  the  army  in  1808,  and  married 
Margaret  Smith  in  1810.  In  the  war  which  began  in 
1812  he  served  as  captain  against  the  Indians.  He  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  colonel  in  1832,  and  was  employed  in 
the  war  against  Black  Hawk  the  same  year.  He  de- 
feated the  Seminoles  at  Okechobee  in  December,  1837, 
and  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in 
Florida  in  April,  1838.  About  1840  he  purchased  an 
estate  near  Baton  Rouge,  on  which  he  settled.  He  com- 
manded an  army  which  was  sent  in  the  summer  of  1845 
to  Corpus  Christi,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Nueces  River. 
"Mr.  Polk  and  his  cabinet  desired  General  Taylor  to 
debark  at,  occupy,  and  hold  the  east  bank  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  though  they  shrank  froin  the  resj^onsibility 
•Df  giving  an  order  to  that  effect,  hoping  that  General 
Taylor  would  take  a  hint.  .  .  .  Official  hints  and  innuen- 
does, that  he  was  expected  to  advance  to  the  Rio  Grande, 
continued  to  reach  him  ;  but  he  disregarded  them  ; 
and  at  length,  about  the  ist  of  March,  1846,  he  received 
positive  orders  from  the  President  to  advance."  (Greeley, 
•'American  Conflict,"  vol.  i.  p.  186.)    On  the  8th  of 


May  he  was  attacked  at  Palo  Alto  by  the  Mexican  army, 
which  he  signally  defeated.  He  gained  another  victory 
at  Resaca  de  la  Palma  on  the  9th  of  May,  soon  after 
which  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general. 
On  the  22d  of  February,  1847,  he  defeated  Santa  Anna  in 
a  hard-fought  battle  at  Buena  Vista.  He  received  from 
his  soldiers  the  familiar  name  of  "  Rough  and  Ready." 
In  June,  1848,  he  was  nominated  as  candidate  for  the 
Presidency  by  the  Whig  National  Convention.  His  com- 
petitors were  Lewis  Cass,  Democrat,  and  Martin  Van 
Buren,  Free-Soil.  General  Taylor  received  one  hundred 
and  sixty-three  electoral  votes,  (cast  by  fifteen  States,  in- 
cluding New  York  and  Pennsylvania,)  and  was  elected. 
In  the  next  Congress,  which  met  in  December,  1849,  ^^^e 
Democrats  had  the  majority.  An  exciting  contest  en- 
sued about  the  organization  of  the  spacious  territories 
recently  ceded  by  Mexico  to  the  United  States,  and  the 
admission  of  California,  which  had  formed  a  constitution 
excluding  slavery.  In  his  message  of  December,  1849, 
the  President  recommended  the  admission  of  California, 
which  was  violently  opposed  by  the  Southern  members 
of  Congress,  who  threatened  to  dissolve  the  Union.  This 
difficulty  was  obviated  or  postponed  by  Mr.  Clay's  Com- 
promise bill,  which  gave  the  pro-slavery  party  some 
compensation  for  the  admission  of  California,  by  more 
effectual  enactments  for  the  rendition  of  fugitive  slaves 
to  their  masters.  According  to  this  bill,  New  Mexico 
and  Utah  were  to  be  organized  without  the  Wilmot 
proviso ;  that  is,  the  people  of  those  territories  were  per- 
mitted to  decide  whether  slavery  should  be  admitted  or 
prohibited.  Before  the  passage  of  this  compromise  bill. 
President  Taylor  died,  on  the  9th  of  July,  1850,  and  the 
executive  power  devolved  on  the  Vice-President,  Millard 
Fillmore.  The  administration  of  President  Taylor  was 
generally  popular,  especially  in  the  Free  States,  but  it 
gave  great  dissatisfaction  to  the  extreme  pro-slavery 
party  of  the  South. 

See  C.  F.  Powell,  "Life  of  General  Taylor,"  1846;  "North 
American  Review"  for  January,  1851 ;  "  New  American  Cyclo- 
paedia." 

Tazewell,  tiz'wel,  (Littleton  W.,)  an  American 
lawyer  and  Senator,  born  at  Williamsburg,  Virginia,  in 
1774.  He  was  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  from 
1824  to  1832,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia  in 
1834.    Died  at  Norfolk  in  i860. 

Tcheou-Kong.    See  Tchevv-Kong. 

Tchernyshef,  ch§R'ne-sh§f',  written  also  Tscher- 
nyschew  and  Tschernytschew,  (Alexander  Ivano- 
vitch,)  a  Russian  general  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1779, 
served  with  distinction  in  several  cam])aigns  against  the 
French,  and  was  ambassador  to  Paris  in  1811.  He  was 
present  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  and  soon  after  the 
accession  of  Nicholas  was  ajipointed  minister  of  war 
and  chief  of  the  imperial  staff  of  generals.  In  1848  he 
became  president  of  the  imperial  council,  having  been 
previously  made  a  prince  of  the  empire. 

Tchernyshef  or  Tschernyschew,  (Gregory,)  a 
Russian  general  in  the  service  of  Peter  the  Great,  was 
born  in  1672.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Livonia 
in  1726,  and  ennobled  by  the  empress  Elizabeth  in  1742. 
Died  in  1745. 

His  sons  Zakhar  (Sachar)  and  Ivan  rose  to  the 
rank  of  field-marshal ;  and  a  third  son,  Count  Peter, 
became  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the  courts  of  Berlin 
and  Paris. 

Tchew-Kong,  choo  kong,  or  Tcheou-Kong,  a  Chi- 
nese legislator,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  eleven  cen- 
turies before  the  Christian  era.  He  filled  several  high 
offices  under  the  government,  and  also  enjoyed  a  high 
reputation  as  an  astronomer,  poet,  and  warrior. 

Tchihatchef,  von,  fon  che'ha  chlf^  (Peter,)  a  Rus- 
sian geologist,  born  near  Saint  Petersburg  in  1812.  He 
spent  about  six  years  in  the  exploration  of  Asia  Minor. 
He  published  in  1846  an  account  of  his  exploration  of 
the  Altai  Mountains,  entitled  "Voyage  scientifique  dans 
I'Altai  et  dans  les  Contrees  adjacentes,"'  and  a  valuable 
work  entitled  "  Asia  Minor,  a  Physical,  Statistical,  and 
Archaeological  Description  of  that  Country,"  (in  French, 
2  vols.,  1853-56.) 

Tching-Tching  Kong,  ching  ching  kong,  a  Chinese 
admiral,,  sometimes  called  Koxinga,  fought  against  the 


«  as ^;  9  as  s;  g hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  \2&z; %h  as  in  this.    CJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TCHITCHAGOF  2104  TEKELI 


Mantchoo  Tartars,  whom  he  besieged  in  the  city  of 
Nanking  about  1656.  He  subsequently  drove  the  Dutch 
from  the  island  of  Formosa,  and  concluded  a  treaty  with 
the  English  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  their  aid  against 
the  Mantchoos.    Died  about  1670. 

Tchitchagof,  Tchitchagov,  or  Tschitschagow, 
chitch'S-gof,  (Paul  Vasilievitch,)  a  Russian  admiral 
and  general,  was  born  in  1766.  He  was  minister  of  the 
marine  in  the  first  years  of  the  reign  of  Alexander  L, 
and  became  an  admiral  in  1807.  In  18 12  he  received 
command  of  an  army  destined  to  intercept  the  retreat 
of  Napoleon  from  Moscow,  but  he  failed  in  that  design. 
He  resigned  soon  after,  and  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in 
foreign  countries.    Died  in  Paris  in  1849. 

Tchitchagof  or  Tschitschagow,  (Vasilii  Yakov- 
LEVITCH,)  a  Russian  admiral,  born  in  1726,  served  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  and  in  1790  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Swedes  near  Viborg.  He  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.    Died  in  1809. 

Tchoung-Ni.    See  Confucius. 

Tebaldeo,  ti-bdlMi-o,  or  Tibaldeo,  te-bSKda-o, 
(Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1456, 
published  numerous  lyrics  and  pastorals,  in  Italian,  also 
Latin  epigrams  and  other  poems,  which  were  esteemed 
by  his  contemporaries.    Died  in  1537. 

Tebaldus.    See  Theohaldus. 

Te-cum'seh,  a  celebrated  Indian  chief  of  the  Shawnee 
tribe,  was  born  near  the  Scioto  River,  Ohio,  about  1770. 
Having  effected  an  alliance  of  the  Western  Indians 
against  the  whites,  a  battle  was  fought  at  Tip])ecanoe 
in  1811,  in  which  the  former  were  defeated  by  General 
Harrison.  Tecumseh  joined  the  English  in  the  war  of 
1812,  obtained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  the  Thames,  in  1813,  where  he 
commanded  the  right  wing. 

Tedaldi-Fores,  ti-dilMee  fo'r^s,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Cremona  in  1793.  Among  his  works  are 
tragedies  entitled  *'  Bondelmonte"  and  "  Beatrice  Ten- 
da,"  which  are  praised  by  Sismondi  in  the  "  Biographie 
Universelle."    Died  in  1829. 

Tedeschi,  tk-d§s'kee,  (Niccolo,)  surnamed  Panor- 
MITANO,  pi-noR-me-ti'no,  [Lat.  Panormita'nus  ;  Fr. 
Le  Panormitain,  leh  pt^noR'me^t^N^  i.e.  "the  Paler- 
mian,"]  an  Italian  canonist,  born  at  Catania  in  1386. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  the  Council  of  Bale,  sup- 
ported the  anti-pope  Felix  V.,  and  became  a  cardinal  in 
1440.    Died  in  1445. 

Tefft,  t^ft,  (Benjamin  Franklin,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  Methodist  divine,  born  in  Oneida  county, 
New  York,  in  1813.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
Greek  and  Hebrew  in  the  Asbury  University,  Indiana, 
and  subsequently  became  president  of  Genesee  Col- 
lege, New  York.  He  has  published  several  theological 
works. 

Tegel,  tn'gel,  (Eric,)  a  Swedish  historian,  was  ap- 
pointed historiographer  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1614. 
He  wrote  a  *'  History  of  Gustavus  I.,"  (1622,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1638. 

Tegethoff,  von,  fon  ta'ggt-hof,  (Wilhelm,)  an  Aus- 
trian vice-admiral,  born  in  Styria  in  1827.  He  became 
a  captain  in  1857,  and  defeated  the  Danish  fleet  near 
Heligoland  in  May,  1864.  Having  obtained  the  chief 
command  of  the  Austrian  fleet,  with  the  rank  of  rear- 
admiral,  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Italians 
at  Lissa,  in  the  Adriatic,  July  19,  1866.     Died  in  1871. 

Tegner,  tgng-naiR'  or  tgng-niiR',  (Esaias,)  the  most 
celebrated  poet  of  Sweden,  was  born  in  Wermland  in 
1782.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  I>und,  and  in 
1812  became  professor  of  Greek  in  that  institution.  He 
had  previously  published  a  number  of  lyrics,  and  several 
larger  poems,  entitled  "  Svea,"  (1811,)  which  obtained 
the  prize  from  the  Swedish  Academy,  "Children  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,"  (1820,)  and  "Axel,"  (1821.)  Having 
graduated  in  theology,  he  was  appointed  in  1824  Bishop 
of  Wexio.  His  "  Frithiofssaga,"  published  in  1825,  is 
esteemed  his  best  production.  It  has  obtained  a  world- 
wide reputation,  and  been  translated  into  the  princijial 
modern  languages,  four  different  versions  of  it  having 
appeared  in  German.  Among  his  other  works  may 
be  named  "  Schulreden'^  and  "Orations,"  which  were 
greatly  admired,  and  were  translated  into  German  by 


Mohnike.  Tegner  died  in  November,  1846,  and  a 
colossal  statue,  admirably  executed  by  Svarnstrom,  was 
raised  to  his  memory  at  Lund  in  1853.  Several  of  his 
poems  have  been  translated  by  Longfellow.  He  had 
married  Anna  Myrhman  in  1806,  and  left  six  children. 

"  E.  Tegner,  the  greatest  poet  of  Sweden,  was  a 
native  of  Wermland.  His  '  Frithiof  Saga,'  though  not 
a  regular  epic, — for  it  is  rather  a  bundle  of  lyrical 
poems  woven  into  one  epic  cycle, — is  yet  a  complete 
and  great  poem.  .  .  .  We  have  had  five  or  six  transla- 
tions of  'Frithiof,'  none  of  which  give  any  conception 
of  the  exquisite  beauty  and  splendour  of  the  original." 
(vSee  article  on  "  Scandinavian  Literature"  in  the  "  En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica.") 

See  Franzen,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  bfver  E.  Tegner,"  1846;  E.  G. 
Geijer,  "Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  E.  Tegner,"  1S46;  Boettigkr,  "  E. 
Tegner's  Levnet,"  1847;  Acharo  Kahi,,  "  Tegner  och  bans  Sonitida 
i  Lund,"  i8si  ;  Hagbkrg,  "  Minnelal  ofver  E.  Tegner,"  1847; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  Howitt,  "  Literature  and  Ro- 
mance of  Northern  Europe;"  Longfeli,ow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of 
Europe;"  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  February,  1828;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1828  ;  "  North  American  Review" 
for  July,  1837. 

Tegoborski,  t4-go-boR'skee,  (Lewis,)  a  Polish  econ- 
omist and  diplomatist,  born  at  Warsaw  in  1793.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  Studies  on  the  Pro- 
ductive Forces  of  Russia,"  (4  vols.,  1852-54.)  He  was 
a  privy  councillor  of  Russia.    Died  in  1857. 

Teia,  tee'ya,  the  last  king  of  the  Ostrogoths  in  Italy, 
began  to  reign  in  552  A.D.,  as  the  successor  of  Totila. 
He  was  killed  near  Vesuvius,  in  a  battle  against  Narses, 
in  553- 

Teiohnieyer,  tlK'ml'er,  (Hermann  Friedrich,)  an 
eminent  German  physician,  born  at  Minden  in  1685. 
He  became  professor  of  anatomy,  etc.  at  Jena  in  1727, 
and  published  several  works.    Died  in  1746. 

Teignmouth,  tin'muth,  (John  Shore,)  Lord,  an 
English  statesman  and  writer,  born  in  Devonshire  in 
1 75 1.  He  was  appointed  in  1773  Persian  translator  and 
secretary  to  the  provincial  council  of  Moorshedabad, 
in  India,  and  subsequently  became  a  member  of  the 
supreme  council  under  Lord  Cornwallis.  He  was  made 
a  baronet  in  1792,  and  in  1793  succeeded  Cornwallis  as 
Governor-General  of  India.  He  resigned  this  office  in 
1797,  and  was  soon  after  made  a  peer  of  Ireland,  with 
the  title  of  Baron  Teignmouth.  He  had  been  elected  in 
1794  president  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  and  in  1804  be- 
caine  first  president  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society.  He  published  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life,  Writings, 
and  Correspondence  of  Sir  William  Jones,"  (1804,) 
afterwards  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  Jones's  works  which 
he  brought  out  in  1807  in  13  vols.  8vo.  Lord  Teignmouth 
also  wrote  "Considerations  on  Communicating  to  the 
Inhabitants  of  India  the  Knowledge  of  Christianity," 
(1811.)  He  died  in  1834,  having  been  previously  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  the  privy  council  of  India. 

See  "  Life  of  Lord  Teignmouth,"  by  Richard  Temple,  1859. 

Teil,  du,  dii  tkl  or  ti'ye,  (Jean  Pierre,)  Baron,  a 
French  general,  born  in  Dauphine  in  1722.  He  was 
commandant  of  the  school  of  artillery  at  Auxonne,  and 
rendered  some  services  to  Bonaparte,  who  was  a  lieuten- 
ant under  him.  Bonaj^arte  left  a  legacy  of  one  hundred 
thousand  francs  to  the  heirs  of  Du  Teil.    Died  in  1794. 

Teiresias.    See  Tiresias. 

Teissereno,  tis'rfiN',  (Pierre  Edmond,)  a  French 
writer  on  railroads,  was  born  at  Chateauroux  in  1814. 

Teis.sier,  ti^se-i',  (Antoine,)  a  French  jurist  and 
writer,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1632.  He  was  patronized 
by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  afterwards  Frederick  I. 
of  Prussia,  who  inade  him  a  councillor  of  state  and  his 
historiographer,  and  also  appointed  him  jireceptor  to  his 
son.  He  made  translations  from  Saint  Chrysostom,  Saint 
Clement,  and  Calvin,  and  wrote  "  Eulogies  of  Learned 
Men,  taken  from  the  History  of  M.  de  Thou,"  (1683,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  171 5. 

See  NiCRKON,  "  Memoires ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Teissier,  (Gitillaume  FERDiNANn.)  a  French  anti- 
quary, born  at  Marly-la- Ville  in  1779.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  "History  of  Thionville,"  (1828.)  Died 
in  1834. 

Teissier,  (Jean  Antoine.)    See  Marguerittes. 
Tekeli.    See  Tokely. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m€t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


TELAMON 


2105 


TELLEZ 


Tel'a-mon,  [Gr.  Telafiuv  ;  Fr.  T^:lamon,  ti'lt'mAN',] 
a  hero  of  classic  mythology,  was  a  king  of  Salamis,  a 
brother  of  Peleus,  and  the  father  of  Ajax  and  Teucer, 
whose  mother  was  Hesione,  a  daughter  of  Laomedon. 
He  took  part  in  the  Argonautic  expedition,  and  fought 
for  Hercules  against  Laomedon  and  against  the  Amazons. 

Tel-e-cli'de§  or  Tel-e-clei'des,  [Tr/Ae/cAetfJ??^,]  an 
Athenian  comic  poet  of  the  old  comedy,  flourished  about 
444  B.C.    His  works  are  lost. 

Te-leg'o-nus,  [Gr.  TrjUyoi^og :  Fr.  T^l6gone, 
gon',]  a  son  of  Ulysses  and  Circe,  was,  according  to 
the  fable,  thrown  by  shipwreck  on  the  island  of  Ithaca. 
Being  urged  by  hunger,  he  began  to  pillage  from  the 
natives,  and  was  attacked  by  Ulysses,  whom  he  killed, 
not  knowing  who  he  was. 

Teleki  or  Teleky,  ta'leh-ke,  (Ladislaus,)  a  Hun- 
garian patriot,  orator,  and  writer,  born  at  Pesth  in  181 1. 
He  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Representatives  by  the 
Liberal  party  in  1848,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
movement  for  the  independence  of  Hungary.  During 
his  absence  on  a  mission  to. France,  he  was  condemned 
to  death  by  the  Austrians.  He  was  elected  in  i860  a 
member  of  the  Diet,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  radical 
party.    He  died,  probably  by  suicide,  in  May,  1861. 

Te-lem'a-ehus,  [Gv.TriTienaxog;  Fr.  Tel^maque,  ik'- 
li'mik',]  son  of  Ulysses  (King  of  Ithaca)  and  Penelope, 
was  induced  by  Minerva,  under  the  form  of  Mentes, 
(called  also  Mentor,)  King  of  the  Taphians,  to  undertake 
a  voyage  in  search  of  his  father,  who  had  engaged  with 
the  other  Grecian  princes  in  the  Trojan  war.  After 
his  return  home,  he  discovered  Ulysses  disguised  as  a 
beggar,  and,  with  his  assistance,  put  to  death  the  suitors 
of  Penelope.  The  fortunes  of  Telemachus  form  the 
subject  of  the  admirable  moral  romance  of  Fenelon. 
After  the  death  of  his  father  he  is  said  to  have  married 
Nausicaa,  or,  as  some  say,  Circe.  (See  the  "Odyssey.") 

Telemann,  ta'leh-mSn',  (Geokg  Philipp,)  a  German 
composer,  born  at  Hildesheim  in  1681,  was  appointed 
director  of  music  at  Hamburg.  His  works  were  prin- 
cipally operas.    Died  in  1767. 

Telemaque.    See  Tei.kmachus. 

Tel-e-phas'sa,  [Gr.  TifkEc^aaaa :  Fr.  T6l6phasse,  ti'- 
li'fts',]  the  wife  of  Agenor,  and  the  mother  of  Cadmus, 
Europa,  and  Phoenix. 

Telephe.    See  Tei.ephus. 

TePe-phus,  [Gr.  T^Ae(/)oc;  Fr.  T^l^phe,  tilif',]  an 
ancient  hero,  the  son  of  Herciiles  and  Auge,  was  King 
of  Mysia,  in  Asia  Minor.  He  passed  many  years  in 
poverty  and  exile.  He  fought  against  the  Greeks  in 
the  beginning  of  the  Trojan  war,  and  was  wounded  by 
Achilles.  An  oracle  which  he  consulted  informed  him 
that  his  wound  could  only  be  cured  by  him  who  inflicted 
it.  Having  persuaded  Achilles  to  heal  his  wound,  he 
became  an  ally  of  the  Greeks.  Euripides  and  Sopho- 
cles each  wrote  a  tragedv  entitled  "Telephus." 

Tel-e-siPla,  [Gr.  Teieailla ;  Fr.  T6l6sille,  ti'li'- 
s6K,[  a  Greek  lyric  poetess,  born  at  Argos,  lived  about 
510  B.C.  She  is  said  to  have  served  in  the  army  against 
Sparta,  and  to  have  been  equally  celebrated  for  her 
courage  and  poetical  genius. 

Teiesio,  ti-la'se-o,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet  and 
scholar,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1482.  He  was  professor  of 
Latin,  etc.  at  Rome  and  Venice.    Died  in  1534. 

Teiesio,  [Lat.  Tele'sius,]  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian 
philosopher,  born  at  Cosenza  in  1508  or  1509,  was  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  distinguished  himself  as 
an  opponent  of  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  and  an 
asserter  of  mental  indepeiidence.  He  published  some 
new  ideas  in  his  book  "  On  the  Nature  of  Things  ac- 
cording to  Proper  Principles,"  ("  De  Natura  Rerum 
juxta  propria  Principia.")  He  was  persecuted  by  the 
clergy  for  his  opinions.    Died  in  1588. 

See  LoTTER,  "De  Vita  et  Plnlosophia  B.  Telesii,"  17;:?;? :  Rixner 
and  SiBER,  "  Bernardii).  Telesius."  1820:  Niceron,  "Memoires;" 
C.  BARTHOLOiufess,  "  Dissertatio  de  B.  Teiesio,"  1849:  Ginguen^, 
"  Histoire  Litt^raire  d'ltalie;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Telesius.    See  Telesio. 

Te-16s'pho-rus,  Bishop  of  Rome,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  elected  in  127.    Died  in  138  a.d. 

Te-16s'ta8  or  Te-lgs'tes,  YVeUarag  or  Te^earr]^,]  an 
Athenian  dithyrambic  poet,  flourished  about  400  B.C. 


Tel'fprd,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  Scottish  engineer, 
born  in  Dumfriesshire  in  1757.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
shepherd,  and  vv^as  apprenticed  at  an  early  age  to  a 
stone-mason.  Having  subsequently  removed  to  London, 
he  was  employed  in  various  architectural  works,  and 
in  1796  completed  an  iron  bridge  over  the  Severn.  In 
1801  he  finished  the  Ellesmere  Canal,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  aqueduct  bridge  over  the  valley  of  the 
Dee,  and  the  Caledonian  Ship-Canal,  esteemed  one  of 
his  greatest  works.  His  improvement  of  the  harbours 
of  Aberdeen  and  Dundee,  the  construction  of  the  Saint 
•Catherine  docks,  London,  and  the  Menai  suspension 
bridge,  are  also  monuments  of  engineering  skill.  Mr. 
Telford  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Societies  of  London 
and  Edinburgh,  and  was  for  many  years  president  of  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  to  which  he  bequeathed 
;^2000  for  a  premium-fund.  He  contributed  a  number 
of  articles  on  architecture,  inland  navigation,  etc.  to  the 
"Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia."    Died  in  1834. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;** 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1839;  "Quarterly  Review"  for 
April,  1839. 

Teligny,  de,  deh  teh-l^n'ye',  (Charles,)  a  French 
Protestant  officer  and  able  negotiator.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  civil  wars,  and  was  employed  in  sev- 
eral treaties  between  his  party  and  the  court.  He  mar- 
ried in  1571  Louise  de  Coligny,  a  daughter  of  Admiral 
de  Coligny,  and  perished  in  the  massacre  of  August, 
1572,  at  Paris.  His  widow  afterwards  was  married  to 
William  the  Silent,  Prince  of  Orange. 

See  Haag,  "La  France  protestante." 

Tell,  t§!,  (Wilhelm,)  a  celebrated  Swiss  hero  and 
patriot,  born  in  the  canton  of  Uri  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  In  1307  he  entered  into  a  league 
with  his  father-in-law,  Walter  Fiirst,  Stauffacher  von 
Schwyz,  and  Arnold  von  Melchthal  to  resist  the  tyranny 
of  the  Austrian  governor,  Hermann  Gessler.  This  officer 
having  insolently  required  the  Swiss  to  make  obeisance 
to  his  hat,  which  was  hung  up  in  public,  Tell  refused  to 
comply,  upon  which  Gessler  commanded  him  to  shoot 
an  apple  from  the  head  of  his  son,  and,  if  he  failed  to 
hit  the  mark,  his  life  should  be  the  penalty.  Tell  struck 
the  apple,  but,  on  being  asked  what  he  intended  to  do 
with  a  second  arrow  which  he  carried,  replied  that  in  case 
he  had  killed  his  son  it  was  destined  for  Gessler.  For 
this  he  was  taken  prisoner  on  the  governor's  vessel  ;  but, 
a  violent  storm  arising,  he  was  required  to  steer  the  boat, 
and,  watching  his  chance,  sprang  on  shore.  Gessler, 
having  landed  soon  after,  was  shot,  by  Tell,  while  on  his 
way  to  KUssnacht.  These  incidents  form  the  subject 
of  Schiller's  most  popular  drama.  In  the  opinion  of 
some  of  the  best  modern  critics,  there  is  a  considerable 
infusion  of  the  mythic  element  in  the  history  of  Tell  as 
it  has  come  down  to  us.  According  to  tradition,  William 
Tell  was  drowned  about  1350,  while  attempting  to  save 
a  child, — an  event  which  Uhland  has  celelDrated  in  one 
of  his  lyrics. 

See  Ideler,  "  Die  Sage  vom  Schusse  des  Tell,"  1836;  G.  E.  von 
Haller,  "Rede  iiber  W.  Tell,"  1772;  "  Les  Origines  de  la  Con- 
federation Suisse,"  by  A.  Rii.i.iet,  Geneva,  i868;  J.  von  Muli.er, 
"  Histoire  de  la  Suisse  ;"  Henning,  "  W.  Tell,"  1836  ;  J.  J.  Hisely, 
"G.  Tell,  Mythe  et  Histoire,"  etc.,  1843;  Baring-Gould,  "  Curious 
Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;" 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1869. 

Teller,  tel'ler,  (Wilhelm  Abraham,)  a  German 
theologian,  and  professor  of  theology  at  Helmstedt,  wa,s 
born  at  Leipsicin  1734.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Manual 
of  Christian  Faith,"  "  Dictionary  of  the  New  Testament," 
and  other  religious  works.    Died  in  1804. 

Tellez.    See  Eleanor  of  Portugal. 

Tellez,  tel-llz',  (Balthazar,)  a  learned  Portuguese 
Jesuit,  born  at  Lisl)on  in  1595.  He  became  professor 
of  theology  in  his  native  city,  having  previously  taught 
belles-lettres,  philosophy,  etc.  in  the  principal  colleges 
of  Portugal.  He  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  "  History 
of  Ethiopia,"  including  an  account  of  the  Jesuit  missions 
in  that  country,  "  History  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  Por- 
tugal," and  "Compendium  of  Universal  Philosophy," 
("  Summa  universae  Philosophiae.")  He  was  apjiointed 
provincial  of  the  order  of  Jesuits  in  Portugal.  Died  in 
1675- 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "  Bibliotheca  Lusitano." 


€  as  i^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2/  %h  as  in  this.    (  J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TELLEZ 


2106 


TEMPLE 


Tellez,  tgl-ygth',  (Gabriel,)  a  celebrated  Spanish 
dramatist,  known  by  his  pseudonym  of  Tiuso  de  Molina, 
(t^R'so  di  mo-Iee'na,)  was  born  at  Madrid  about  1585. 
Having  taken  holy  orders,  he  became  prior  of  the  con- 
vent of  Soria  in  1645.  His  comedies  are  said  to  have 
amounted  to  three  hundred,  only  sixty-eight  of  which 
have  been  preserved.  Among  these  may  be  named  "  El 
Condenado  por  Desconfiado,"  "The  Woman  who -Com- 
mands at  Home,"  ("La  Muger  que  manda  en  Casa,") 
*'  Prudence  in  Woman,"  ("  Prudencia  en  la  Muger,") 
"The  Country-Girl  of  La  Sagra,"  ("La  Villana  de  La 
Sagra,")  "The  Scoffer  of  Seville,"  ("El  Burlador  de 
Sevilla,")  which  was  imitated  by  Moliere  in  his  "  Festin 
de  Pierre,"  and  "  The  Bashful  Man  in  the  Palace,"  ("El 
Vergonzoso  en  Palacio.")  These  dramas  are  ranked 
among  the  master-pieces  of  the  Spanish  theatre,  being 
esteemed  second  only  to  those  of  Lope  de  Vega,  whom 
Tellez  made  his  model.    Died  in  1648. 

See  T;cKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature ;"  article  Tikso 
DE  Molina,  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tellez  da  Sylva,  tgl-lgz'  di  s^Kvi,  (Manoel,)  Mar- 
quis d'Alegrete  and  Count  de  Villamayor,  a  Portuguese 
litterateur^  born  in  Lisbon  in  1682;  died  in  1736. 

Tellier,  Le.    See  Le  Tellier  and  Louvois. 

Telluccini,  tii-loot-chee'nee,  (Mario,)  called  Ber- 
NINO,  an  Italian  poet,  lived  about  1560-90.  Among  his 
works  is  "  Artemidoro,"  a  poem,  (1566.) 

TePlus  or  Ter'ra,  [Gr.  or  Fm,]  the  goddess  of 
the  earth,  in  Roman  mythology,  was  called  the  wife  of 
Uranus  or  Coelus. 

Temanza,  ta-min'zi,  (Tommaso,)  a  Venetian  architect 
and  writer,  born  in  1705.  He  built  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  Maddalena  at  Venice,  the  bridge  of  Dolo  over 
the  Brenta,  and  the  fa9ade  of  Santa  Margarita  at  Padua. 
His  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  Venetian  Architects 
and  Sculptors  of  the  Sixteenth  Century"  (1777)  is 
esteemed  a  standard  work.  He  also  published  several 
treatises  on  architecture  and  antiquities.    Died  in  1789. 

See  Negki,  "  Notizie  intorno  alia  Persona  ed  alie  Opere  di  T. 
Temanza,"  1830. 

Temme,  tem'meh,  (Jodocus,  yo-do'kiis,)  a  German 
jurist  and  liberal  politician,  born  at  Lette,  Westphalia, 
in  1799.  He  was  elected  to  the  Prussian  National 
Assembly  in  1848.  He  wrote  treatises  on  the  Civil  Law 
and  Penal  Law  of  Prussia,  (1846-53,)  and  other  works. 

Temminck,  tem'mink,  (C.  J.,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
naturalist,  born  about  1770.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  in  French,  "  The  Natural  History  of  Pigeons  and 
Gallinaceous  Birds,"  (3  vols.,  1813-15,)  a  "Manual  of 
Ornithology,"  (4  vols.,  1820-39,)  and  a  "Monography 
of  Mammalogy,  or  Descriptions  of  Some  Genera  of 
Mainmifera  of  which  Species  have  been  observed  in  the 
Museums  of  Europe,"  (2  vols.,  1825-41.)    Died  in  1858. 

Tempelhoff,  von,  fon  t^m'pel-hof,  (Georg  Fried- 
rich,)  a  Prussian  general  and  military  writer,  born  at 
Trampe  in  1737.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  and  subsequently  under  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick  in  1792.  He  was  the  author  of  the  "Bom- 
bardier Prussien,"  a  "  History  of  the  Seven  Years'  War," 
and  other  works.  He  was  appointed  teacher  of  military 
science  to  the  sons  of  Frederick  William  H.  Died  in 
1807. 

Tempesta,  tSm-pgs'ti,  or  Tempesti,  tgm-p^s'tee, 
(Antonio,)  an  eminent  Italian  painter  and  engraver, 
Ijorn  at  Florence  in.  1555.  He  studied  under  Strada, 
and  afterwards  resided  at  Rome,  where  he  executed  a 
number  of  admired  works  for  Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  Car- 
dinal Farnese,  and  other  persons  of  rank.  He  painted 
landscapes,  animals,  hunting-scenes,  and  battles  with 
great  spirit  and  fidelity,  and  produced  more  than  fif- 
teen hundred  etchings.  Among  the  best  of  these  we 
may  name  "The  Life  of  Saint  Anthony,"  (in  24  plates,) 
"The  Victory  of  the  Jews  over  the  Amaiekites,"  and 
"Christ,  the  Virgin,  and  the  Apostles."  Died  in  1630. 

Tempesta,  Cavaliere,  a  celebrated  painter,  some- 
times called  PiETRO  Mulier,  was  born  at  Haarlem  in 
1637.  His  original  name  was  Peter  Molvn,  but,  owing 
to  his  skill  in  delineating  storms  at  sea,  it  was  changed 
to  Tempesta.  After  residing  for  some  time  at  Rome, 
where  he  married  and  obtained  extensive  patronage,  he 
visited  Venice  and  Genoa.    He  soon  after  contrived  the 


murder  of  his  wife,  in  order  to  marry  a  Genoese  lady 
and,  being  convicted  of  the  crime,  was  sentenced  to 
perpetual  imprisonment.  He  was  liberated  at  the  end 
of  five  years,  according  to  one  statement,  while  other 
writers  assert  that  he  was  confined  much  longer.  On 
his  release  he  settled  at  Milan,  where  he  acquired  great 
wealth  by  the  sale  of  his  pictures.    Died  in  1701. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Hollandais." 

Tem'ple,  (Frederick,)  an  English  bishop,  born  in 
1821,  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1842.  He  became  chaplain 
to  the  queen,  head-master  of  Rugby  School  in  1858,  and 
Bishop  of  Exeter  in  1869.  He  was  author  of  one  of  the 
well-known  "Essays  and  Reviews,"  (i860.) 

Temple,  (Henry.)    See  Palmerston,  Lord. 

Temple,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  lawyer  and  states- 
man, born  in  London,  became  a  privy  councillor  in  Ire- 
land under  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "  History  of  the  Irish  Rebellion  in  1641."  Died 
in  1677. 

Temple,  (John,)  a  son  of  Sir  William,  (1628-99,) 
became  secretary  of  war  in  1689.  About  a  week  after 
his  appointment  he  committed  suicide.  He  left  a  note 
expressing  regret  for  undertaking  a  task  for  which  he 
was  incompetent. 

Temple,  (Richard  Grenville,)  Earl,  an  English 
politician,  born  about  1710,  was  a  brother-in-law  of 
Lord  Chatham.  He  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in 
1756,  and  became  keeper  of  the  privy  seal  about  1758. 
"  His  talents  for  administration  and  debate,"  says  Mac- 
aulay,  "  were  of  no  high  order.  But  his  great  posses- 
sions, his  turbulent  and  unscrupulous  character,  and  his 
skill  in  the  most  ignoble  tactics  of  faction  made  him 
one  of  the  most  formidable  enemies  that  a  ministry  could 
have."    (Essay  on  "Lord  Chatham.")    Died  in  1777. 

Temple,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  jurist,  was  sec- 
retary to  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  and  subsequently  became  a 
master  of  chancery.  Died  in  1626.  He  was  grandfather 
of  the  famous  Sir  William  Temple. 

Temple,  (Sir  William,)  a  celebrated  English  states- 
man, diplomatist,  and  writer,  born  in  London  in  1628, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  John  Temple,  who  wrote  a 
history  of  the  Irish  rebellion  of  1641.  His  mother  was 
a  sister  of  Henry  Hammond  the  eminent  divine.  His 
early  education  was  directed  by  the  uncle  just  named. 
He  also  studied  at  Cambridge,  where  Cudworth  was  his 
tutor,  but  he  left  college  without  a  degree  about  1647, 
and  then  set  out  upon  his  travels  on  the  continent.  He 
professed  to  be  a  royalist  in  the  civil  war.  After  a  long 
courtship,  in  which  a  variety  of  obstacles  were  encoun- 
tered, he  married,  about  1654,  Dorothy  Osborne,  who 
preferred  him  to  Henry  Cromwell,  a  son  of  the  Pro- 
tector. He  was  a  member  of  the  Irish  Convention  of 
1660,  and  of  the  first  Irish  Parliament  that  met  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  In  1665  he  was  sent  on  a  mission 
to  the  Bishop  of  Miinster,  and  acquitted  himself  so  well 
that  he  was  created  a  baronet  in  1666,  and  appointed  resi- 
dent at  the  vice-regal  court  of  Brussels.  "From  this  ex- 
cellent school,"  says  Macaulay,  "  he  soon  came  forth  the 
most  accomplished  negotiator  of  his  age."  He  formed 
a  friendship  with  De  Witt,  then  chief  minister  of  Hol- 
land. Temple  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  negotiating 
with  the  Dutch  and  Swedes  the  triple  alliance  against 
the  aggressions  of  Louis  XIV.  in  1668.  "This  memo- 
rable negotiation  occupied  only  five  days."  (Macaulay.) 
He  was  appointed  ambassador  at  the  Hague  in  1668. 
In  October,  1670,  he  was  recalled  by  the  "Cabal,"  and 
the  foreign  policy  of  the  English  court  was  reversed. 
During  the  retirement  which  followed  he  wrote  an  "  Ac- 
count of  the  United  Provinces,"  (1672,)  and  other  works. 
The  members  of  the  Cabal  raised  against  themselves 
such  a  storm  of  popular  indignation  by  subservience  to 
the  French  king,  that  the  services  of  Temple  were  re- 
quired by  Charles  II.  in  1674  to  negotiate  a  peace  with 
Holland.  "  The  highest  honours  of  the  state  were  now 
within  Temple's  reach."  (Macaulay.)  He  declined  the 
office  of  secretary  of  state,  and  accepted  the  embassy  to 
the  Hague,  (1674.)  In  1677  he  was  earnestly  pressed 
by  the  king  to  accept  the  office  of  secretary  ;  but  he  was 
unwilling  to  take  the  responsibility,  for  he  perceived 
that  the  signs  of  the  times  were  very  porter.tous  of  evil. 
By  the  advice  of  Temple,  Charles  appointed,  in  April, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  ^,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


TEMPLE 


2  107 


TENNENT 


1679,  a  new  privy  council  of  thirty  members,  fifteen  of 
whom  were  great  officers  of  state.  Sir  William  was  a 
member  of  this  council.  "The  perfidious  levity  of  the 
king,  and  the  ambition  of  the  chiefs  of  parties,  produced 
the  instant,  entire,  and  irremediable  failure  of  this  plan." 
(Macaulay.)  He  took  no  part  in  the  violent  contests 
which  preceded  the  revolution  of  1688,  and  after  that 
event  refused  to  become  secretary  of  state,  in  spite  of  the 
pressing  solicitations  of  William  III.  He  passed  his 
latter  years  at  Moor  Park,  Surrey,  where  Swift,  the  great 
humorist,  acted  as  his  secretary.  He  wrote  in  this  re- 
treat his  "Memoirs  of  Events  from  1672  to  1679,"  and 
several  miscellaneous  treatises.  "  Next  to  Dryden," 
says  Hallam,  "the  second  place  among  the  polite  writers 
of  the  period  from  the  restoration  to  the  end  of  the  cen- 
tury has  commonly  been  given  to  Sir  William  Temple. 
...  If  his  thoughts  are  not  very  striking,  they  are  com- 
monly just.  He  has  the  merit  of  a  comprehensive  and 
candid  mind."  ("Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Eu- 
rope.") He  died  in  January,  1699.  Macaulay  censures 
his  neutrality  in  politics,  and  his  habit  of  shrinking  from 
responsibility,  but  admits  "  that  he  won  the  esteem  of  a 
profligate  court  and  of  a  turbulent  people  without  being 
guilty  of  any  great  subserviency  to  either." 

See  Macaulay,  "  Essay  on  Sir  William  Temple  ;"  Thomas  P. 
CouKTENAY,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  Sir  William  Tem- 
ple," 2  vols.,  1836';  Abel  Boyer,  "Memoir  of  Sir  W.  Temple," 
1714 ;  "  Leven  von  der  Ridder  Temple,"  Leyden,  1736;  "Life 
of  Sir  W.  Temple,"  by  his  sister.  Lady  Gifkard,  1731  ;  H. 
Luden,  "  Sir  W.  Temples  Biographie,"  1808;  Burnet,  "History 
of  his  Own  Times;"  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Temple,  (Sir  William,)  a  diplomatist,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1788,  was  a  brother  of  Lord  Palmerstou.  He 
was  for  many  years  ambassador  at  the  court  of  Naples. 
Died  in  1856. 

Tem'ple-man,  (Peter,)  an  English  physician,  born 
at  Dorchester  in  1711,  translated  Norden's  "Travels  in 
Egypt  and  Nubia"  from  the  Danish,  and  wrote  several 
medical  treatises.    Died  in  1769. 

Tencin,  de,  deh  tdN'siw',  (Claijdine  Alexandrine 
GuM;rin,)  a  French  courtesan,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1681. 
She  became  successively  the  mistress  of  the  Duke 
of  Orleans,  Chancellor  d'Argenson,  Lord  Bolingbroke, 
and  other  distinguished  men  of  the  time.  She  was 
the  mother  of  the  celebrated  D'Alembert,  whom  she 
abandoned  and  exposed.  She  subsequently  attained 
distinction  for  her  literary  tastes  and  acquirements,  and 
was  the  author  of  several  novels.  She  numbered  among 
her  friends  Fontenelle  and  Montesquieu.    Died  in  1749. 

See  L.  Barth^lemy,  "Memoires  secrets  de  Madame  de  Ten- 
cin," 1790;  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Gen^rale." 

Tencin,  de,  (Pierre  Gu^rin,)  a  French  cardinal  and 
politician,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1680,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  a  creature  or  trusted  agent 
of  Dubois,  and  an  adversary  of  the  Jansenists.  In  1739 
he  became  a  cardinal,  and  in  1742  received  the  title  of 
minister  of  state.    Died  in  1758. 

See  "Memoires  pour  servir  i  I'Histoire  du  Cardinal  de  Tencin," 
1758. 

Tenerani,  ti-ni-ri'nee,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  sculp- 
tor, born  near  Carrara  about  1800.  He  studied  under 
Canova  and  Thorwaldsen,  and  subsequently  produced 
a  number  of  admirable  works  illustrating  Greek  and 
Roman  mythology.  Among  the  principal  of  these  we 
may  name  his  "Cupid  extracting  a  Thorn  from  the  Foot 
of  Venus,"  a  "Faun  playing  on  a  Flute,"  and  a  group 
of  "Psyche  and  Venus."  He  has  also  executed,  among 
other  religious  works,  a  "Christ  on  the  Cross,"  and  the 
"Martyrdom  of  Eudorus,"  His  monumental  statues 
and  portrait-busts  are  likewise  highly  esteemed.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  French  Institute  and  of 
other  learned  societies,  and  became  professor  of  sculpture 
in  the  Academy  of  Saint  Luke  at  Rome. 

Te'nes  or  Ten'nes,  [Gr.  Tnvvrjq ;  Fr.  T^n^s,  tk'ngss',] 
a  fabulous  personage,  said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Cycnus. 
His  step-mother,  by  a  calumnious  charge,  induced  Cycnus 
to  throw  him  into  the  sea,  and  he  was  cast  upon  an 
island  which  derived  from  him  the  name  of  Tenedos. 
He  was  killed  by  Achilles. 

Teniers,  tgn'e-erz,  [Fr.  pron.  t^'ne-aiR',]  (David,) 
THE  Elder,  a  celebrated  Flemish  painter,  surnamed 


IL  Bassano,  from  his  admirable  imitations  of  that  artist, 
was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1 582.  He  studied  under  Rubens, 
and  afterwards  resided  many  years  in  Rome.  His 
favourite  subjects  were  tavern-scenes,  and  boors  drink- 
ing and  smoking.    Died  in  1649. 

Teniers,  (David,)  the  Younger,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1610.  He  was  instructed 
by  his  father,  whom  he  surpassed  in  genius,  and  was 
also  a  pupil  of  Rubens.  He  was  appointed  director  of 
the  Academy  at  Antwerp.  He  is  esteemed,  in  his  de- 
partment, one  of  the  greatest  artists  of  the  Flemish 
school.  He  produced  several  historical  pieces  of  supe- 
rior merit ;  but  his  master-pieces  are  delineations  of  low 
life.  He  also  excelled  in  marine  views  and  as  a  painter 
of  animals.    Died  in  1690. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands ;"  Lecarpen- 
TiER,  "  David  Teniers,"  1804;  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler- 
Lexikon." 

Ten'i-son,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  prelate, 
born  at  Cottenham,  in  Cambridgeshire,  in  1636.  He 
studied  at  Cambridge,  and  afterwards  rose  successively 
to  be  Archdeacon  of  London,  (1689,)  Bishop  of  Lincoln, 
(1691,)  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  (1694.)  He  was 
highly  esteemed  for  his  learning  and  piety,  and  made 
numerous  bequests  for  charitable  and  educational  pur- 
poses. He  published  several  religious  and  controversial 
works.    Died  in  1715. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Archbishop  Tenison,"  1716. 

Tenivelli,  ti-ne-veKlee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  biogra- 
pher, born  at  Turin  in  1756.  He  published  "  Pied- 
montese  Biography,"  ("  Biografia  Piemontese,"  5  vols., 
1784-92.)  He  was  condemned  as  a  revolutionist  by  a 
court-martial  and  shot  in  1797. 

Ten  Kate.    See  Kate,  Ten. 

Ten'nant,  (Smithson,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  chemist, 
born  in  1 761,  became  professor  of  chemistry  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1 813.  He  contributed  a  number  of  valuable 
essays  to  the  "  Transactions"  of  the  Philosophical  So- 
ciety.   Died  in  1815. 

Ten'nant,  (William,)  a  Scottish  poet  and  Oriental 
scholar,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1785.  He  was  appointed  in 
1835  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages  in  Saint  Mary's 
College,  Saint  Andrew's.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
dramas,  a  humorous  poem  entitled  "  Anster  Fair,"  and 
other  poetical  pieces.  He  also  made  translations  from 
the  Greek,  Persian,  etc.,  and  compiled  grammars  of  the 
Chaldee  and  Syriac  languages.    Died  in  1848. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men," (Supplement;)  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  November,  1814. 

Tennecker,  von,  fon  ten'n§k-er,  (Christian  Sei- 
fert,)  a  German  veterinary  writer,  born  near  Freiberg 
in  1770,  published  several  works  on  the  diseases  and 
cure  of  horses.    Died  in  1839. 

Tennemann,  ten'neh-mSn',  (Wilhelm  Gottlieb,) 
an  eminent  German  philosopher,  born  near  Erfurt  in 
December,  1761,  was  an  adherent  of  the  doctrines  of 
Kant.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Jena  in 
1798,  and  at  Marburg  in  1804.  He  translated  into  Ger- 
man Locke's  "  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding." 
His  chief  work  is  a  valuable  "  History  of  Philosophy," 
("Geschichte  der  Philosophic,"  11  vols.,  1 798-181 1,) 
of  which  he  also  published  an  abridgment,  entitled 
"Grundriss  der  Geschichte  der  Philosophic,"  (1812.) 
Died  in  1819. 

See  G.  F.  Creuzer,  "Rede  am  Grabe  Tennemann 's,"  1819  ; 
Wagner,  "-Memoria  G.  T.  Tennemanni,"  1819;  Cousin,  "  Cours 
de  Philosophic." 

Ten'nent,  (Gilbert,)  an  eloquent  Presbyterian  di- 
vine, born  in  the  county  of  Armagh,  Ireland,  in  1703, 
emigrated  at  an  early  age  to  America,  and  became  in 
1743  pastor  of  a  church  in  Philadelphia.    Died  in  1764. 

ilis  brother  William,  born  in  1705,  settled  as  pastor 
of  a  church  at  Freehold,  New  Jersey.  During  an  attack 
of  fever,  he  lay  for  three  days  in  a  trance,  and  on  his 
recovery  gave  a  description  of  what  he  saw  in  the  celes- 
tial world.  A  full  account  of  this  extraordinary  event 
was  published  by  Elias  Boudinot.    Died  in  1777. 

See  Rev.  Robert  Stbel,  "  Burning  and  Shining  Lights,"  1864. 

Ten'nent,  (Sir  James  Emerson,)  a  distinguished 
traveller  and  statesman,  born  at  Belfast,  Ireland,  in 
1804.    He  published,  under  the  name  of  Emerson,  (his 


€  as  >fe;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p  23.) 


TENNTSON 


2108 


TERENCE 


original  name,)  "Travels  in  Greece,"  (1825,)  "Letters 
from  the  ^^Lgean,"  (1829,)  and  "A  History  of  Modern 
Greece,"  {1830.)  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Bel- 
fast in  1832,  and  was  several  times  re-elected.  He  was 
appointed  civil  secretary  to  the  colonial  government  of 
Ceylon  in  1845,  having  previously  been  made  a  knight. 
Among  his  other  works  may  be  named  "  Christianity  in 
Ceylon,"  etc.,  (1850,)  "Wine:  its  Use  and  Taxation," 
etc.,  (1855,)  and  "Sketches  of  the  Natural  History  of 
Ceylon,"  etc.,  (1861.)  Died  in  March,  1869. 
See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1859. 

Ten'n^-son,  (Alfred,)  D.C.L.,  a  popular  English 
poet,  the  third  son  of  George  Clayton  Tennyson,  rector 
of  that  parish,  was  born  at  Somerby,  in  Lincolnshire,  in 
1809.  His  mother's  maiden-name  was  Elizabeth  Fytche, 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  obtained  a  prize  for  an  English  poem  in  blank  verse 
on  "  Timbuctoo,"  (1829.)  He  was  still  an  under-gradu- 
ate  of  Trinity  College  when  he  published  a  volume 
entitled  "Poems,  chiefly  Lyrical,"  (1830.)  In  this  col- 
lection were  several  short  poems  which  were  omitted 
from  the  subsequent  editions.  In  1833  there  appeared 
another  volume  of  "  Poems,  by  Alfred  Tennyson,"  in- 
cluding, besides  a  number  of  pieces  reprinted,  "  Mariana 
in  the  South,"  "  The  May  Queen,"  "  The  Palace  of  Art," 
a  "  Dream  of  Fair  Women,"  and  other  new  poems,  which, 
compared  with  his  earliest  efforts,  indicated  great  im- 
provement in  richness  of  thought  and  beauty  of  imagery. 
He  extended  his  reputation  by  his  "  Morte  d'Arthur," 
"  Locksley  Hall,"  "  Godiva,"  "  Dora,"  "  Lady  Clara  Vere 
De  Vere,"  and  other  poems,  in  2  vols.,  (1842.) 

He  afterwards  produced  an  admirable  poem  called 
"The  Princess,  a  Medley,"  (1847;)  a  beautiful  tribute 
to  the  memory  of  his  friend  Arthur  H.  Hallam,  entitled 
"In  Memoriam,"  (1850;)  and  "Maud,"  (1854.)  He  suc- 
ceeded Wordsworth  as  poet-laureate  in  185 1.  Among 
his  later  works  are  "The  Idylls  of  the  King,"  (1859,)  and 
a  volume  entitled  "  Enoch  Arden,  and  other  Pt)ems," 
(1864.)  This  volume  includes  "  Aylmer's  Field"  and 
"Tithonus,"  which  is  greatly  admired. 

"  If  Mr.  Tennyson's  poetry,"  says  the  "Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  January,  1866,  "comes  short  of  the  highest 
standard,  it  is  because  the  conditions  under  which  he 
vi^orks  are  those  which  we  have  just  indicated.  .  .  .  He 
gives  us  symmetry  rather  than  grandeur  of  workman- 
ship, and  his  exploring  temper  is  more  often  exercised 
in  completing  the  web  of  delicate  sensibilities  within  the 
range  of  experience,  than  in  pressing  beyond  the  veil. 
.  .  .  After  the  descripti  ve  beauty  of  the  Laureate's  verse, 
perhaps  no  quality  of  it  is  more  highly  praised  than  its 
measure  ;  and  truly  the  purity  and  delicacy  of  its  move- 
ment is  almost  beyond  praise.  When  we  judge  it  by 
the  highest  standard,  however,  it  still  seems  to  lack  that 
lofty  and  ringing  flight  and  those  unforeseen  vivacities 
of  cadence  which  we  find  in  the  greatest  masters.  .  .  . 
Though  certain  common  excellences  may  make  a 
plausible  resemblance,  yet,  in  truth,  no  contrast  is 
greater  than  that  between  the  jewelled  beauty  of  Mr. 
Tennyson's  style  and  the  crystalline  effulgence — the 
*non  imitabile  fulgur' — of  the  great  ancients."  Tennyson 
has  resided  for  some  years  in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  He 
published  in  1870  a  poem  called  "The  Holy  Grail." 

See  the  "  London  Quarterly"  for  September,  1842,  March,  1848, 
and  October,  1859 :  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1849, 
September,  1855,  and  November,  1859;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for 
July,  1859;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  September,  1855,  and  Sep- 
tember, 1859;  "Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1850,  and  Oc- 
tober, 1859;  "North  British  Review"  for  August,  1859. 

Tenon,  teh-n6N', (Jacques  Ren6,)  a  celebrated  French 
surgeon,  born  near  Joigny  in  1724.  He  studied  anatomy 
in  Paris  under  Winslow,  and  was  appointed  in  1744 
army  surgeon  of  the  first  class.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1759.  Among  his  most 
important  works  are  his  "  Memoirs  on  the  Exfoliation 
of  Bones"  and  "  Researches  on  Capsulary  Cataracts." 
Died  in  1816. 

See  CuviER,  "  filoge  de  Tenon  ;"  "  Biographic  Medicale." 

Tenore,  ti-no'ri,  (Michele,)  an  Italian  botanist,  born 
at  Naples  in  1781.  He  founded  the  botanic  garden  of 
Naples,  of  which  he  was  director  for  many  years.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Flora  Neapolitana," 
(5  vols.)    Died  in  1861. 


Tenot,  ti'no',  (EucfeNE,)  a  French  journalist  of  the 
present  age.  'He  became  editor  of  the  "Siecle,"  a  popu- 
lar and  liberal  daily  journal  of  Paris.  He  published  an 
able  and  impartial  work,  entitled  "  Paris  in  December, 
185 1,  or  the  Coup-d'Etat  of  Napoleon  III.,"  which  has 
been  translated  into  English. 

Ten  Rhyne.    See  Rhyne. 

Tenterden,  Lord.   See  Abbott,  (Charles.) 

Tentori,  t^n-to'ree,  (Cristoforo,)  a  distinguished 
historian,  of  Venetian  extraction,  born  in  Spain  in  1745. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "Civil  and  Political  History  of 
the  Republic  of  Venice,"  etc.,  (12  vols.,  1785,)  which 
was  followed  in  1799  by  an  account  of  the  destruction 
of  the  republic  in  1797.    Died  in  1810. 

Tentzel  or  Tenzel,  tint'sel,  (Wilhelm  Ernst,)  a 
German  antiquary  and  journalist,  born  in  Thuringia 
in  1659.  He  published  a  treatise  entitled  "  Saxonia 
Numismatica,"  a  "  History  of  the  Reformation,"  and 
other  works  on  the  history  and  antiquities  of  Germany. 
In  1688  he  established  a  monthly  literary  review,  which 
was  the  first  journal  of  the  kind  that  had  appeared  in 
Germany.    Died  in  1707. 

Tenzel.    See  Ten  i  zel. 

Teobaldo,  the  Italian  for  Theobald,  which  see. 

Teocrito.    See  Theocritus. 

Teodoro.    See  Theodorus. 

Teodosio.    See  Theodosius. 

Teofilo.    See  Theophilus. 

Teofrasto.    See  Theophrastus. 

Teplof  or  Teplow,  tgp'lof,  written  also  Teplov, 
(Gregory  Nikolaievitch,)  a  Russian  savant  and  sena- 
tor, born  about  1720.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Imperial 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  wrote  various  works.  Died 
in  1779. 

Teramo,  da,  dS.  ta'ri-mo  or  tSr'i-mo,  (Jacopo  Pal- 
ladino,)  an  Italian  prelate  and  writer,  born  at  Teramo 
in  1349.  He  wrote  "  Trial  of  Lucifer  against  Jesus," 
("Processus  Luciferi  contra  Jesum,")  and  the  "Consola- 
tion of  Sinners,"  ("  Consolatio  Peccatorum,"  1472.)  Died 
in  141 7. 

Terburg,  ter'burg  or  t§R'buRH,  (Geraart,)  a  cele- 
brated painter  of  the  Dutch  school,  born  near  Overyssel 
in  1608.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  subsequently  visited 
Madrid,  London,  and  Paris,  his  works  being  everywhere 
received  with  distinguished  favour.  His  most  admired 
productions  are  conversation-pieces,  which  department 
of  the  art  he  is  said  to  have  originated.  His  pictures 
are  to  be  seen  in  the  galleries  of  Dresden,  Amsterdam, 
Paris,  Munich,  and  Vienna,  also  a  number  in  England  ; 
and  many  of  them  have  been  engraved  and  lithographed. 
Among  his  master-|)ieces  are  his  picture  of  the  pleni- 
potentiaries at  the  Congress  of  MUnster,  and  portraits 
of  the  royal  family  of  Spain,    Died  in  1681. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Terceira,  t§R-sa^ra,  Duke  of,  and  Count  of  Villaflor, 
a  Portuguese  statesman  and  military  commander,  born 
about  1790.  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  queen  Maria  da 
Gloria,  and  gained  several  advantages  over  Don  Miguel. 
Having  been  made  a  marshal,  he  was  appointed  in  1829 
to  the  chief  command  of  the  constitutional  army.  He 
became  minister  of  war  in  1842.    Died  in  i860. 

Tercier,  t^R'se-i',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  diplomatist  and 
linguist,  born  inlFaris  in  1704.  He  was  employed  by 
Louis  XV.  to  direct  his  secret  correspondence.  Died 
in  1767. 

See  SoLiGNAC,  "  filoge  de  Tercier,"  1767. 

Terence,  tir'gnss,  or  Teientius,  te-r^n'she-us,  [Fr. 
Terence,  ti'rdNss';  It.  Terenzio,  ti-r§n'ze-o,]  or,  more 
fully,  PubTius  Teren'tius  A'fer,  a  celebrated  Roman 
comic  poet,  born  at  Carthage  about  195  B.C.  At  an  early 
age  he  became  the  slave  of  a  Roman  senator,  nained 
Terentius  Lucanus,  who  gave  him  a  good  education,  to 
which  he  added  the  gift  of  liberty.  Terence  was  on  in- 
timate terms  with  Scipio  Africanus  Minor  and  Laelius, 
who  are  said  to  have  aided  him  in  the  composition  of  his 
plays.  His  first  work,  entitled  "  Andria,"  was  performed 
at  Rome  in  166  B.C.  He  produced  "  Hecyra"  in  165, 
and  "The  Self-Tormentor"  ("  Heauton-timorumenos") 
in  163.  Three  other  of  his  plays  have  come  down  to  us, 
viz.,  "  Adelphi,"  "  Phormio,"  and  "Eunuchus." 

After  he  had  written  these,  he  travelled  in  Greece,  antl 


a,  e, T,  6,  u, y,  long;  ^l, h,  6, same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a, e,  i,  o,  obscure':  fdr,  f^U,  fit;  m^t;  whv,  good;  aiuouj 


TERENTIA 


2109 


TERTULLUN 


translated,  it  is  said,  one  hundred  and  eight  of  Menan- 
der's  comedies.  He  never  returned  to  Rome,  but  died 
in  159  or  158  B.C.  His  works  are  models  of  elegant 
diction  and  pure  Latinity.  They  were  praised  by  Caesar 
and  Cicero,  and  are  said  to  have  escaped  the  censures 
of  the  Church.  He  is  deficient  in  vis  comic  a  ^  ("comic 
power,"  or  "broad  humour,")  but,  according  to  Horace, 
excels  in  art.  (Epistle  H.  1.  59.)  The  kindly  human 
sympathy  manifested  by  Terence  contributed  not  a  little 
to  the  popularity  of  his  dramas.    When  the  words 

"  Homo  sum ;  humani  nihil  a  me  alienum  puto,"* 
were  spoken  on  the  Roman  stage,  they  were  received 
by  all  classes  with  tumultuous  and  reiterated  applause. 
His  plays  have  been  translated  into  English  by  George 
Colman. 

See  L.  ScHOPEN,  "Dissertatio  de  Terentio  et  Donate,"  1821  ;  J. 
B.  LoMAN,  "Specimen  critico-literariuni  in  Plautum  et  Terentiiim," 
1845  ;  N.  Fritsch,  "  Suetonii  Vita  Terentii  emendata  et  illustrata," 
1851;  "Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Terentia,  te-r^n'she-a,  a  Roman  lady,  who  became 
the  wife  of  Cicero  the  orator  about  80  B.C.  She  bore 
him  a  daughter  Tullia  and  a  son  Marcus.  In  the  year 
46  she  was  repudiated  by  her  husband,  for  reasons  that 
have  not  been  satisfactorily  explained  ;  but  this  act  is 
generally  considered  to  have  left  a  stain  on  the  reputation 
of  Cicero.  Terentia  appears  to  have  been  a  woman  of 
good  sense  and  great  firmness  of  character.  She  is  said 
to  have  attained  the  extraordinary  age  of  one  hundred 
and  three  years. 

Terentianus.    See  Maurus  Terentianus. 

Terentius,    See  Terence. 

Terentius  (te-r§n'she-us)  Cle'mens,  a  Roman  jurist, 
the  date  of  whose  birth  is  unknown,  was  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "Ad  Legem  Juliam  et  Papiam,"  in  twenty 
books.    Only  fragments  of  it  are  extant. 

Terentius  Varro.    See  Varro. 

Terenzio.    See  Terence. 

Teresa.    See  Theresa. 

Terme.    See  Terminus. 

Ter'mi-nus,  [Fr.  Terme,  tSnm,]  a  Roman  divinity, 
who  was  supposed  to  preside  over  the  boundaries  of 
nations  and  of  private  landed  property.  The  worship 
of  Terminus  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Numa. 

Ternaux,  t^R'no',  (Guillaume  Louis,)  Baron,  a 
French  statesman  and  manufacturer,  born  at  Sedan  in 
1763.  He  represented  the  department  of  Seine  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1818  to  1823.  He  was  an 
earnest  supporter  of  the  cause  of  the  Bourbons,  but  took 
an  active  part  against  Charles  X.  in  the  revolution  of 
1830.  He  published  several  treatises  on  finance  and 
manufactures,  was  one  of  the  first  to  introduce  spinning- 
machines  for  cotton  and  woollen  fabrics,  and  contributed 
greatly  to  the  improvement  of  the  national  industry. 
Died  in  1833. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale." 
_  Ternaux,  (Henri,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  pub- 
lished "Voyages,  Relations,  and  Memoirs  relating  to 
the  Discovery  and  Conquest  of  America,"  the  "  Biblio- 
theque  Americaine,"  and  other  works. 

Ter-pan'der,  [Gr.  TepTrai^dpof ;  Fr.  Terpandre,  t^R'- 
pfiNdR',]  a  celebrated  Greek  poet  and  musician,  born 
on  the  island  of  Lesbos  about  680  B.C.  He  was  the 
inventor  of  the  heptachord,  or  seven-stringed  lyre,  and  is 
said  to  have  founded  the  first  school  of  music  in  Greece. 
He  was  the  author  of  hymns  and  lyrics,  none  of  which 
are  extant. 

See  K.  O.  Mut.ler,  "  History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient 
Greece;"  Bode,  "  Poeta»  lyrici  Grasci." 

Terpandre.    See  Terpander. 

Terp-si€h'o-re,  [Gr.  TefnpixopV  or  Tepipixopa,  i.e. 
"delighting  in  the  dance,"  from  rfpTrw,  to  " delight,"  and 
Xope'ia,  a  "dance,"]  one  of  the  nine  Muses,  presided  over 
dancing  and  choral  song.  She  was  rej^resented  with 
a  crown  of  laurel,  and  with  a  lyre  in  her  hand. 

Terquem,  t^R'kftN',  (Oi.ry,)  a  French  mathematician, 
born  at  Metz  in  1782,  was  a  Jew.  He  published  several 
mathematical  works.    Died  "in  Paris  in  1862. 

Ter'ra,  [Fr.  Terre,  taiR,]  a  name  given  by  the  Ro- 
mans to  the  goddess  of  the  earth,  and  identified  with 

*  "  I  am  a  man  ;  and  I  have  nn  interest  in  everytliinj;  that  concerns 
humanity."    See  Hemiton-timorumenos,  Act  I.,  Scene  I. 


the  Ge  [Gr.  Via  or  Vfi\  of  the  Greek  mythology.  She 
was  the  mother  of  the  Titans,  Gigantes,  and  Oceanus. 
(See  Tellus.) 

Terrail,  du.    See  Bayard,  (Pierre.) 

Terrasson,  t4'rS's6N',  (Antoine,)  a  French  lawyer 
and  scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1705.  He  wrote  a  "His- 
tory of  Roman  Jurisprudence,"  (1750.)    Died  in  1782. 

Terrasson,  (Gaspard,)  a  French  Jansenist  and  pulpit 
orator,  born  at  Lyons  in  1680.  His  sermons  were  pub- 
lished in  4  vols.,  1749.    Died  in  1752. 

Terrasson,  (Jean,)  a  distinguished  French  scholar 
and  writer,  born  at  Lyons  in  1670,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Critical  Disserta- 
tion on  Homer's  Iliad,"  (171 5,)  "Three  Letters  on  the 
New  System  of  Finance,"  (1720,)  in  defence  of  John 
Law's  projects,  a  philosophical  romance  entitled  "  Se- 
thos,"  on  the  model  of  Fenelon's  "Telemaque,"  and 
other  works.  In  1732  he  succeeded  Morville  in  the 
French  Academy.    Died  in  1750. 

See  D'Alembert,  "  Histoire  des  Membres  de  I'Academie  Fran- 
Qaise  ;"  Grandjean  de  Fouchy,  "  filoge  de  Terrasson  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  iii.,  (1821.) 

Terrasson,  (Mathieu,)  an  eloquent  French  lawyer 
and  jurist,  born  at  Lyons  in  1669,  was  the  father  of 
Antoine,  noticed  above.    Died  in  1734. 

Terray,  tk'ri^lfJosEPH  Marie,)  a  French  financier, 
born  in  Forez  in  1 71 5.  He  becatne  controller-general 
of  the  finances  in  1769,  and  was  removed  in  1774.  Died 
in  1778. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Terreros  y  Pando,  t§r-ra'r6s  e  p^n'do,  (Esteban,) 
a  Spanish  Jesuit  and  grammarian,  born  in  Biscay  in 
1707.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  Spanish 
Language,  with  Definitions  in  Latin,  French,  and  Italian," 
("  Diccionario  Castellano,"  etc.,  4  vols.,  1785-93.)  Died 
at  Forli,  in  Italy,  in  1782. 

Ter'rill,  (William  R.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Virginia  about  1832,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1853. 
He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  (fighting 
for  the  Union,)  April,  1862,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Perryville,  October  8  of  that  year. 

Ter'fy,  (Alfred  H.,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  1827,  was  a  lawyer  before  the 
civil  war.  He  served  as  colonel  in  the  expedition  against 
Port  Royal  in  November,  1861,  became  a  brigadier- 
general  in  March,  1862,  and  took  a  protninent  part  in 
the  capture  of  Fort  Wagner,  in  September,  1863.  He 
commanded  a  division  of  the  army  of  the  James  River 
in  Virginia  in  the  summer  of  1864.  He  was  selected  by 
General  Grant  to  command  an  expedition  against  Fort 
Fisher,  North  Carolina,  with  the  co-operation  of  Admiral 
D.  D.  Porter.  On  the  15th  of  January,  1865,  he  assaulted 
that  fort,  which,  after  a  very  obstinate  defence,  was  cap- 
tured, with  its  entire  garrison  and  armament.  "Thus 
was  secured,"  says  General  Grant,  "by  the  combined 
efforts  of  the  navy  and  army,  one  of  the  most  important 
successes  of  the  war." 

Ter'ry,  (Daniel,)  an  English  comedian,  born  at  Bath 
about  1780.  He  performed  with  success  at  Liverpool 
and  Edinburgh,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  and 
patronage  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  He  was  subsequently 
for  a  time  one  of  the  proprietors  of  the  Adelphi  Theatre, 
London.    Died  in  1828. 

Terry,  (Edw^ard,)  an  English  writer,  born  about 
1590,  accompanied  the  embassy  to  the  Great  Mogul  in 
1615,  and  published,  after  his  return,  his  "Travels  in 
the  East  Indies,"  etc.,  (1655.) 

Tersan,  de,  deh  t^R'sdN',  (Charles  Philippe  Cam- 
pion,) a  French  antiquary,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1736; 
died  in  1819. 

Tertre,  du.    See  Dutertre. 

Ter-tul'li-an,  [Lat.  Tertullia'nus  ;  Fr.  Tertul- 
lien,  t^R^tu'le-^N';  It.  Tertuli.iano,  t§R-tool-le-S'no,] 
(QuiNTUS  Septimius  Florens,)  an  eminent  Latin  Father 
of  the  Church,  born  at  Carthage  about  160  A.D.,  was 
originally  a  heathen.  He  adopted  the  profession  of 
advocate  or  lawyer.  The  date  of  his  conversion  to 
Christianity  is  not  preserved.  Soon  after  this  event  he 
was  ordained  a  presbyter  in  the  Church  of  Carthage. 
About  the  end  of  the  second  century  he  left  the  Catholic 
Church  and  joined  the  Montanists.    He  acquired  great 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal ;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (^i^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TERTULLUNO 


21  lO 


TEUCER 


influence  among  the  Christians  of  his  time.  He  was  a 
man  of  powerful  intellect,  ardent  temper,  austere  char- 
acter, and  great  erudition.  The  date  of  his  death  is 
unknown,  but  he  is  said  to  have  attained  a  great  age. 

Tertullian  wrote  numerous  works,  partly  devotional 
and  partly  controversial,  which  are  still  extant.  The 
following  are  supposed  to  have  been  written  before  he 
became  a  Montanist :  "  Letter  to  the  Martyrs,"  ("  Ad 
Martyres,")  "On  Prayer,"  (*' De  Oratione,")  "On  Bap- 
tism," ("  De  Baptismo,")  "  Advice  to  his  Wife,"  ("  Ad 
Uxorem,")  "On  Public  Games  or  Shows,"  ("  De  Spec- 
taculis,"  about  198,)  and  "  De  Praescriptione  Haereti- 
corum,"  a  treatise  against  heretics.  After  he  joined  the 
Montanists,  he  wrote  (probably)  "Against  Marcion," 
("  Adversus  Marcionem,")  "On  the  Body  of  Christ," 
("  De  Carne  Christi,")  "On  the  Resurrection  of  the 
Body,"  ("  De  Resurrectione  Carnis,")  "On  the  Soldier's 
Crown,"  ("De  Corona  Militis,")  and  several  others. 
Among  his  most  important  works  is  his  "Apology  to 
the  Nations  for  the  Christians,"  ("  Apologeticus  adversus 
Gentes  pro  Christianis,"  dated  198  a.d.)  This  is  an  elo- 
quent and  powerful  vindication  of  the  Christian  Church 
against  false  accusations. 

See  EusEBius,  Historia  Ecclesiastica Allix,  "  Dissertatio 
de  Tertulliani  Vita  et  Scriptis ;"  1680;  Neander,  "  Antignosticiis 
Geist  des  Tertullianiis,"  etc.,  1825:  A.  de  Margerie,  "De  Tertiil- 
liano,"  1853;  P.  Ekerman,  "  Dissertatio  de  Tertiilliano,"  1761  ;  Pho- 
Tius,  "  Hibiiotheca ;"  Hesselbekg,  "Tertuilian's  Lehre  aus  seinem 
Scliriften  entwickelt,"  1848;  Baronius.  "Annales;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Tertulliano.    See  Tertulltan. 

Tertullianus.    See  Teriullian. 

TertuUien.    See  Tertullian. 

Terwesten,  ter-w^s'ten,  or  Terwestyn,  (AuGUS- 
TYN,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1649.  He 
studied  in  Italy,  and  became  about  1690  court  painter 
to  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  afterwards  Frederick 
William  of  Prussia.  He  was  appointed  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Berlin,  of  which  he  was  one 
of  the  principal  founders.    Died  in  171 1. 

Terwesten,  (Elias,)  a  painter  of  flowers  and  fruits, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  165 1,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding.   Died  at  Rome  in  1724. 

Terwesten,  (Matthew,)  a  Dutch  historical  painter, 
born  at  the  Hague  in  1670,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding.   Died  in  1735. 

Terzi.    See  Lana  Terzl 

Tesi,  ta'see,  (Mauro  Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter, 
also  called  II  Maurino,  born  at  Montalbano  in  1730. 
He  was  patronized  by  Algarotti,  who  commends  his 
genius  in  very  high  terms.  He  excelled  particularly  in 
architectural  pictures.    Died  in  1766. 

Tesse,  de,  deh  t^'sV,  (Mans  Jean  Baptiste  Ren^; 
de  Froulay — deh  fRoo'li',)  Com  te,  a  French  general, 
born  in  165 1.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1703, 
and  obtained  command  of  the  army  in  Spain  in  1704. 
Died  in  1725. 

Tessier,  ta'se-i',  (Alexandre  Henri,)  a  French 
writer  on  agriculture,  born  near  Etampes  in  1 741  ;  died 
in  1837. 

Tessin,  tgs-seen',  (Karl  Gustaf,)  Count,  a  Swedish 
diplomatist  and  statesman,  son  of  Nicodemus  Tessin, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Stockholm  in  1695.  He  was 
employed  in  embassies  to  Vienna,  Versailles,  and  Berlin, 
and  was  subsequently* appointed  governor  of  the  crown- 
prince,  afterwards  Gustavus  III.  He  wrote  for  his 
pupil  a  work  entitled  "  Letters  from  an  Old  Man  to  a 
Young  Prince."    Died  in  1770. 

See  HoEPKEN.  "  Aminnelse-Tal  bf%'er  C.  G.  Graf  Tessin,"  1771  : 
Ehrenheim,  "Tessin  och  Tessiniana,"  1819;  Montgomery,  "  C. 
G.  Tessin's  Dagbok  med  historik  Inledning,"  1824. 

Tessin,  (Nicodemus  Valentinson.)  born  at  Stral- 
sund  in  1619,  was  appointed  royal  architect  by  Queen 
Christina  of  Sweden.    Died  about  1688. 

His  son.  Count  Nicodemus,  born  in  1654,  studied 
under  Bernini  at  Rome.  Being  appointed  court  archi- 
tect, he  began  in  1697  the  erection  of  the  royal  palace 
at  Stockholm,  which  ranks  among  his  best  works.  He 
also  constructed  the  cathedral  at  Calmar,  and  Count 
Oxenstiern's  monument.   Died  in  1728. 

Tes'ta,  (Caius  Treratius,)  a  Roman  jurist,  was  a 
correspondent  of  Cicero,  and  a  master  of  Labeo.  He 


wrote  on  civil  law.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Cassar  in  the 
civil  war. 

Testa,  t^s'tl,  (Pietro,)  called  II  Lucchesino,  (M 
look-ki-see'no,)  an  Italian  painter  and  engraver,  born  at 
Lucca  in  1617,  was  a  pupil  of  Domenichino.  He  worked 
in  Rome.  Among  his  best  pictures  are  "The  Death  of 
Beato  Angelo,"  and  "The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents." 
His  etchings  are  highly  prized.    Died  in  1650. 

Teste,  ihsU  (Alphonse,)  a  French  physician,  born 
about  1808.  He  has  written  in  defence  of  the  homoeo- 
pathic system. 

Teste,  (Francois  Antoine,)  a  French  general,  born 
at  Bagnols  in  1775.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Bor  >- 
dino  in  1812,  and  became  a  general  of  division  in  1813. 
Died  in  1862. 

Teste,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  jurist,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Bagnols  in  1780.  After  the 
revolution  of  July,  1830,  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  became  minister  of  justice  in  1839,  and 
president  of  the  court  of  cassation  in  1843.  Being 
convicted  of  corruption  in  1847,  he  was  sentenced  to 
fine  and  imprisonment,  and  deprived  of  his  office.  Died 
in  1852. 

Testelin  or  Tettelin,  t^t'liw',  (Louis,)  an  eminent 
French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1615.  He  studied  under 
Vouet,  and  was  elected  in  1648  one  of  the  first  members 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture.  He 
became  professor  in  the  Academy  in  1650.  Among  his 
master-pieces  we  may  name  "The  Resurrection  of  Ta- 
bitha,  by  Saint  Paul,"  and  "The  Flagellation  of  Saint 
Paul  and  Silas,"  both  in  the  church  of  Notre-Dame, 
at  Paris.    Died  in  1655. 

His  brother  Henri,  born  in  1616,  also  became  pro- 
fessor of  painting  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  and  was 
the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Opinions  of  the  Most 
Skilful  Painters  on  the  Practice  of  Painting  and  Sculp- 
ture," etc.,  (1699.)    Died  in  1695. 

See  FoNTENAY,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Artistes." 

Testi,  t^s'tee,  (Fulvio,)  Count,  an  eminent  Italian 
lyric  poet,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1593.  He  published  a 
volume  of  poems  ("Rime")  in  1613.  He  became  secre- 
tary of  state  under  Francis  I.,  Duke  of  Modena,  who 
employed  him  in  important  missions  to  Pope  Urban 
VIII.  and  to  Venice.  In  1646  he  offended  the  Duke  of 
Modena  by  overtures  to  obtain  office  under  Cardinal 
Mazarin.    Died  in  1646. 

See  TiRABoscHi,  "  Vita  del  Conte  F.  Testi,"  1780;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Testu,  tes'tU',  (Jacques,)  Abb^;,  a  mediocre  French 
writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1626.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy  in  1665.    Died  in  1706. 

Te'thys,  [Gr.  Trjdk  ;  Fr.  Tethys,  ta't^ss',]  in  classic 
mythology,  was  a  daughter  of  Uranus,  the  wife  of  Oceanus, 
and  the  mother  of  the  Oceanides. 

Tet'ri-cus,  (Caius  Pesuvius,)  a  Roman  officer,  some- 
times called  one  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants.  He  assumed 
imperial  power  at  Burdig'ala  (Bordeaux)  in  267  A.D.  He 
was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  at  Chalons  in  274  by 
Aurelian,  who  treated  him  kindly. 

Tettenborn,  tet'ten-boRn',  (Friedrich  Karl,)  Ba- 
ron, a  German  general,  born  in  the  county  of  Hohn- 
stein  in  1778,  served  in  the  Austrian  campaigns  of  1805 
and  1809,  and  subsequently  entered  the  Russian  army. 
In  1819  he  was  appointed  ambassador  from  Baden  to 
Vienna,  where  he  died  in  1845. 

Tetzel  or  Tezel,  tgt'sel,  fLat.  Tetze'ltus,]  origi- 
nally Diez,  deets,  or  Diezel,  deet'sel,  (Johann,)  a 
famous  Dominican  monk,  born  at  Leipsic,  was  appointed 
by  the  pope,  about  1502,  vendor  of  indulgences.  His 
scandalous  deception  of  the  people,  together  with  his 
loose  life,  attracted  the  attention  of  Luther,  and  was 
one  of  the  exciting  causes  of  the  Reformation.  (Sec 
Luther.)    Died  in  15 19. 

See  P.  Ekerman,  "  Dissertatio  de  J.  Tetzelio,"  1761  ;  V.  Grorne, 
"Tetzel  und  Luther,"  1853  ;  Robertson,  "  History  of  Charles  V.," 
vol.  ii.  book  ii. 

Teu'ger,  [Gr.  TevKpoq,']  a  fabulous  king  of  Troy,  from 
whom  the  Trojans  derived  the  name  of  Teucri,  was 
supposed  to  be  a  son  of  the  river  Scamander  and  the 
nymph  Idaea.  His  daughter  Batea  or  Arisbe  was  mar- 
ried to  Dardanus. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  4,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


TEUCER 


21  I  I 


THJLES 


Teucer,  a  Greek  hero,  a  son  of  Telamon  and  He- 
sione,  was  a  half-brother  of  Ajax  the  Great,  and  was 
renowned  for  his  skill  as  an  archer.  Having  been  one 
of  the  suitors  of  Helen,  he  joined  the  expedition  against 
Troy,  and  signalized  his  valour  in  the  siege  of  that  city. 
After  the  capture  of  Troy,  he  was  banished  or  excluded 
from  his  native  country  by  Telamon,  and  emigrated  to 
Cyprus,  in  which  he  reigned,  and  founded  Salamis. 

See  Horace's  "Odes,"  book  i.  ode  vii. 

Texeira,  ti-sha^-rS,  or  Texera,  ti-sha'rS,  (Joz6,)  a 
learned  Portugue^  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1543,  became 
prior  of  the  convent  of  Santarem.  He  was  subsequently 
appointed  chaplain  to  Henry  HI.  of  France,  and  was 
retained  in  the  same  office  by  Henry  IV.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "Genealogy  of  Henry,  Prince  of  Conde," 
"On  the  Origin  of  Portugal,"  etc.,  and  other  historical 
and  genealogical  works,  in  Latin.    Died  in  1604. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Nic^ron, 
"  Memoires." 

Texeira,  (Pedro,)  a  Portuguese  traveller  and  Ori- 
ental scholar,  born  about  1570.  Having  spent  several 
years  in  Persia,  where  he  became  thoroughly  versed  in 
the  language  of  that  country,  he  visited  Italy,  France, 
and  Holland.  His  principal  work,  written  in  Spanish, 
is  entitled  "An  Account  of  the  Kings  of  Persia  and 
Ormuz,"  etc.,  (1610.)  The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

Texera.    See  Texeira. 

Texier,  t^s'se-i',  (Charles  F6lix  Marie,)  a  French 
archaeologist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1802.  Having  re- 
ceived from  the  government  in  1833  a  mission  to  explore 
the  antiquities  of  Asia  Minor,  he  made  four  visits  to 
that  region  in  ten  years.  He  published  a  "  Description 
of  Asia  Minor:  Fine  Arts,  Monuments,"  etc.,  (3  vols., 
1839-48,)  and  a  "Description  of  Armenia,  Persia,"  etc., 
(2  vols.,  1842-45.) 

Texier,  (Edmond,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Ranibouillet  in  1816.  He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
*'Siecle"of  Paris,  and  published  several  political  and 
critical  works. 

Textor.    See  Ravisius  Textor. 

Teyler  van  der  Hulst,  tl'ler  v5n  dir  hiilst,  (Pieter,) 
a  Dutch  Anabaptist,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1702,  left  the 
greater  part  of  a  large  fortune  to  found  in  his  native 
town  a  learned  institution  called  by  his  name.  Died 
in  1778. 

Tezel.    See  Tetzel. 

Thaarup,  taw'rup,  (Thomas,)  a  Danish  poet,  born 
at  Copenhagen  in  1749.  He  was  the  author  of  dramatic 
poems  entitled  "The  Harvest-Home"  and  "Peter's 
Wedding,"  and  of  numerous  lyrics,  which  enjoy  great 
popularity  among  his  countrymen.    Died  in  1821. 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon  ;"  Longfellow,  "Poets  and 
Poetry  of  Europe." 

Thabaud.    See  Latouche. 

Thabet,  thi'bet,  (Ben  Kor'rah  or  Ibn  (ib'n)  Kor'- 
rah,)  a  celebrated  Oriental  physician  and  mathematician, 
born  at  Harran,  in  Mesopotamia,  in  835  a.d.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  caliph  Motadhed  Billah,  who  made 
him  one  of  his  astrologers.  He  was  the  author  of  nu- 
merous works  on  medicine,  mathematics,  and  natural 
history.    Died  in  901. 

Thabet,  (Ben  Sen^n,)  grandson  of  the  preceding,  ob- 
tained a  high  reputation  as  a  physician  and  philosopher, 
and  became  superintendent  of  the  hospital  at  Bagdad  in 
946  A.D.    He  wrote  a  "  History  of  his  Own  Times." 

Thach'er,  (George,)  an  American  judge,  born  at 
Yarmouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1754.  He  was  a  member 
of  Congress  from  1789  to  i8oi,and  was  a  judge  of  the 
supreme  court  of  Massachusetts  from  1800  to  1824. 
He  was  noted  for  his  wit.    Died  in  1824. 

Thacher,  (James,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician  and 
writer,  born  at  Barnstable,  Massachusetts,  in  1754.  He 
was  appointed  in  1778  chief  surgeon  of  the  first  Virginia 
regiment,  and  subsequently  of  a  New  England  regiment. 
He  published  the  "  American  New  Disjiensatory,"  (1810,) 
"A  Military  Journal  during  the  Revolutionary  War," 
(1823,)  "American  Medical  Biography,"  (1828,)  and 
several  other  works.    Died  in  1844. 

Thacher,  (Peter,)  D.D.,  an  American  Calvinistic 
divine  and  celebrated  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Milton, 
Massachusetts,  in  1752.    He  became  in  1785  pastor  of 


the  Brattle  Street  Church,  Boston.  He  was  the  author 
of  an  "Oration  against  Standing  Armies,"  "Observa- 
tions on  the  State  of  the  Clergy  in  New  England,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1802. 

His  son,  Samuel  C.  Thacher,  born  at  Boston  in 
1785,  published  a  "Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Joseph  S. 
Buckminster."  He  was  ordained  a  minister  in  181 1,  and 
died  at  Moulins,  France,  in  1818.  A  memoir  of  his  life 
was  published  in  1824. 

Thackeray,  thak'er-e,  (William  Makepeace,)  a 
popular  English  novelist  and  humorist,  was  born  in 
Calcutta  in  1811.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  which  he  left  without  taking  a  degree.  He 
inherited  from  his  father  a  considerable  fortune.  In 
the  choice  of  a  profession  or  pursuit,  he  first  inclined  to 
be  an  artist,  but  after  he  had  devoted  a  few  years  to  art 
he  adopted  a  literary  career.  He  contributed  to  the 
"Times"  and  other  journals  of  London.  He  displayed 
superior  talent  for  humour  and  irony,  in  a  series  of 
tales,  essays,  and  criticisms  which  appeared  in  "  Eraser's 
Magazine"  under  the  assumed  name  of  Michael  Angelo 
Titmarsh.  The  progress  of  his  reputation  was  not  rapid. 
He  published  about  1840  "The  Paris  Sketch-Book," 
and  "The  Great  Hoggarty  Diamond,"  a  genial  satire, 
which  was  much  admired.  As  a  contributor  to  "  Punch" 
he  gained  popularity. 

In  1846  he  began  to  publish,  under  his  proper  name, 
"  Vanity  Fair,  a  Novel  without  a  Hero,"  which  is  one  of 
his  best  and  most  popular  works.  He  afterwards  pro- 
duced works  of  fiction  entitled  "Pendennis,"  (1849-50,) 
and  "The  History  of  Henry  Esmond,  Esq.,"  (3  vols., 
1852.)  In  1851  he  delivered,  in  London,  a  course  of 
"  Lectures  on  the  English  Humorists  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,"  which  was  published  in  1853.  He  visited  the 
United  States  in  1852,  and  repeated  the  lectures  just 
named  in  several  great  cities  of  the  Union.  Among  his 
other  works  are  "  The  Snob  Papers,"  "  The  Newcomes," 
(3  vols.,  1854,)  "Miscellanies,"  (2  vols,,  1855-56,)  and 
"  The  Virginians," 

About  1856  he  revisited  the  United  States,  where  he 
gave  "  Lectures  on  the  Four  Georges,"  [i.e.  Kings  of 
England,)  which  he  repeated  in  London,  Edinburgh, 
etc.  In  1857  he  offered  himself  as  Liberal  candidate  for 
Parliament  for  the  city  of  Oxford,  but  was  defeated  by 
Mr.  Cardwell.  He  began  to  edit  the  "  Cornhill  Maga- 
zine" in  i860.  He  had  married  a  Miss  Shaw  about  1837. 
He  died  in  December,  1863,  leaving  several  daughters. 

See  Theodore  Taylor,  "Thackeray,  the  Humorist  and  Man 
of  Letters,"  1864;  article  on  "Thackeray,"  in  the  "Westminster  Re- 
view" for  April,  1853,  (reprinted  in  the  "  Living  Age"  for  May  14, 
1853  :)  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1854,  (reprinted  in  the 
"  Living  Age"  for  March  ii,  1854  0  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
December,  1848,  and  January,  1854  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
October,  1853,  and  January,  1855  .  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  Sep- 
tember, 1848,  January,  1851,  December,  1852,  and  April,  1864; 
"  North  British  Review"  for  August,  1850,  and  February,  1864. 

Thaer.    See  Thar. 

Tha'is,  [9aic,]  an  Athenian  courtesan,  mistress  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  whom  she  accompanied  to  Asia. 
She  is  said  to  have  instigated  him  to  burn  the  royal 
palace  at  Persepolis,  She  was  married  after  his  death  to 
Ptoleiny,  King  of  Egypt, 

Thalberg,taKb§KG,  (Sigismund,)  a  celebrated  pianist, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1812,  was  a  pupil  of  Sechter  and  Hum- 
mel at  Vienna,  He  visited  London,  Paris,  and  different 
parts  of  Germany,  his  performances  being  everywhere 
received  with  applause.  Among  his  compositions  are 
Studies  for  the  Piano,  and  the  opera  of  "  Florinda." 
Died  in  1871. 

Thalebee  or  Thalebi,  Al,  SI  thSKe-bee,  an  Arabian 
author,  born  at  Nishapoor,  in  Persia,  in  961  A.D.,  wrote 
a  "History  of  Illustrious  Poets."    Died  about  1038, 

Tha'les,  fGr,  Ga/l^f,]  a  celebrated  Ionian  philosopher, 
and  one  of  the  seven  sages  of  Greece,  was  born  at  Mile- 
tus about  640  B.C.  He  is  styled  the  originator  of  philos- 
ophy. He  travelled  in  Egypt  and  other  foreign  countries. 
According  to  Herodotus,  he  predicted  the  eclipse  of  the 
sun  which  occurred  during  a  battle  between  Cyaxares  the 
Mede,  and  Alyattes,  King  of  Lydia,  about  609  B.C.  He 
was  distinguished  for  political  sagacity  and  sententious 
wisdom,  and  was  employed  in  public  affairs.  He  con- 
sidered water  to  be  the  origin  or  principle  of  all  things, 
fixed  the  length  of  the  year  at  three  hundred  and  sixty- 


e  afi  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,     guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


THALES 


21  12 


THEMIS 


five  days,  and  attributed  the  attractive  power  of  the 
magnet  to  a  soul  or  life  by  which  it  is  animated.  He  is 
said  to  have  invented  several  propositions  or  demon- 
strations of  geometry.  He  died  about  550  B.C.,  aged 
about  ninety. 

See  RiTTER,  "  History  of  Philosophy:"  Buddeus,  "  Dissertatio 
de  Ethica Thaletis,"  1690;  Ploucquet,  "  Dissertatio de  Dogmatibus 
Thaletis,"  1763;  Tiedem  ann,  "  Griechenlands  erste  Philosophen, 
Oder  Lebeii  iind  Systeme  des  Orpheus,  Thales,"  etc.,  1780;  Hakles, 
"Programmata  H  I.  de  Thaletis  Doctrina,"  1780-84. 

Thales  or  Tha-le'tas,  [Gr.  QakTjTag,]  a  Greek  musi- 
cian and  lyric  poet,  born  in  Crete.  He  probably  lived 
about  650  B.C.,  or  earlier.  It  is  said  that  he  instructed 
the  Spartans  in  some  new  principles  of  music,  and  paci- 
fied the  factions  of  Sj^arta  by  his  art,  or  by  the  sacred 
character  of  his  musical  productions.  According  to 
some  writers,  he  was  invited  to  Sparta  by  Lycurgus. 

Thaletas.    See  Thai.es. 

Tha-li'a  or  Tha-lei'a,  [Gr.  Qalia  or  QuXeta ;  Fr. 
Thalie,  tt'le',]  one  of  the  nine  Muses,  presided  over 
comedy,  pastoral  poetry,  and  banquets.  Also,  one  of 
the  Graces. 

Thalie.    See  Thaija. 

Thamasp  (ti'mSsp')  or  T^masp  I.,  King  of  Persia, 
born  in  15 13,  succeeded  his  father,  Ismail,  in  1523. 
Died  in  1576. 

See  Malcolm,  "History  of  Persia." 

Thamer,  tJ'mer,  (Theobald,)  a  German  theologian, 
born  in  Alsace,  became  professor  of  theology  at  Marburg 
in  1545.  He  controverted  some  doctrines  of  Luther, 
and  joined  the  Catholic  Church.    Died  in  1569. 

Tham'muz,  [Fr.  Thammouz,  tt'mooz',]  a  divinity  of 
the  Syrians  or  Assyrians,  identified  with  Adonis.  He 
was  said  to  have  been  put  to  death  by  a  wicked  king. 
The  festival  of  Thammuz  was  celebrated  by  the  idolatrous 
Jews.    (See  Ezekiel  viii.) 

Tham'y-ris  or  Tham'^-ras,  [Qa/Livpi^,]  a  Greek  mu- 
sician or  poet,  who  lived  before  Homer,  was  a  son  of 
Philammon,  and  a  native  of  Thrace.  According  to 
tradition,  he  pretended  to  surpass  the  Muses,  and  was 
punished  for  his  presumption  by  blindness. 

Than'a-tos,  [Gr.  Quvarog ;  Lat.  Mors,]  a  personifica- 
tion of  Death,  in  classic  mythology,  was  represented  by 
Horner  as  the  brother  of  Sleep. 

Thar  or  Thaer,  t^R,  (Albrecht,)  a  German  agricul- 
turist, born  at  Celle  in  1752,  was  the  author  of  an  "  In- 
troduction to  the  Knowledge  of  English  Husbandry," 
(1816,)  and  "Principles  of  Rational  Agriculture."  The 
latter  was  translated  into  several  languages.  In  1807 
he  founded  an  Academy  of  Agriculture  at  Moglin.  Died 
in  1828. 

See  W;  KoRTE,  "A.  Thaer,  sein  Leben  und  Wirken,"  1839. 

Thatch'er,  (Benjamin  Bussey,)  an  American  writer, 
born  at  Warren,  Maine,  in  1809.  He  published  a  "  Biog- 
raphy of  North  American  Indians  who  have  been  Dis- 
tinguished as  Orators,  Statesmen,"  etc.,  (1832,)  "Tales 
of  the  American  Revolution,"  and  several  other  works. 
Died  in  1848. 

Thatcher,  (Henry  Knox,)  an  American  rear-admiral, 
born  in  Maine.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1823.  He 
obtained  the  rank  of  commodore  in  July,  1862,  and  com- 
manded the  Colorado  in  the  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher  in 
December,  1864,  and  January,  1865.  "  His  ship,"  says 
Admiral  Porter,  "was  handled  with  admirable  skill." 
He  commanded  the  fleet  which  co-operated  with  the 
army  in  the  capture  of  Mobile,  April  12,  1865. 

See  Headlev,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  1867. 

Thauler.    See  Tauler. 

Thaumas  de  la  Thaumassi^re,  t5'mt'  deh  It  to'- 
mt'se^iR',  (Gaspard,)  a  French  jurist  and  historian, 
was  born  about  1620;  died  in  1702. 

Thay'er,  (Sylvanus,)  an  American  officer  and  mili- 
tary engineer,  born  at  Braintree,  Massachusetts,  in  1785. 
Having  graduated  at  West  Point,  he  served  in  the  war  of 
1812,  and  attained  the  rank  of  major.  He  was  appointed 
in  181 7  superintendent  of  the  West  Point  Military  Acad- 
emy, and  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  in  1838. 

TheaBtetus,//ze-e-tee'tus,|9ea,'r7/rof,]  an  Athenian  phi- 
losopher, and  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  lived  about  420  B.C. 

The-ag'e-nes,  [Gr.  Qeayevrig ;  Fr.  Tn^AofeNE,  iWt'- 
zhW,]  a  famous  Greek  athlete  of  Thasos,  gained  many 


victories  at  the  Olympian,  Nemean,  and  Isthmian  games. 
He  lived  about  480  B.C. 

The-a'no,  [Gr.  Omvw,]  a  native  of  Crete,  was  the  wife 
of  Pythagoras,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  author 
of  a  number  of  "  Letters"  and  "  Maxims,"  which  have 
been  published  in  Wolfe's  "  Mulierum  Graecarum  Frag- 
menta."    She  was  distinguished  as  a  philosopher. 

Theaulon,  ti'o'ldN',  (Stienne,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Aigues-Mortes  in  1739  ;  died  in  1780. 

Theaulon  de  Lambert,  ti'5'l6N'  deh  ISN'baiR', 
(Marie  Emmanuel  Guillaume,)  a  French  dramatic 
poet,  born  at  Aigues-Mcjrtes  in  1787.  He  produced 
many  successful  comedies,  operas,  and  vaudevilles. 
Died  in  1841. 

See  QuEKARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Theden,  ta'den,  (Johann  Christian  Anton,)  an 
eminent  German  surgeon,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Meck- 
lenburg in  1 7 14.  Owing  to  the  circumstances  of  his 
family,  he  encountered  many  difiiculties  in  obtaining 
an  education  ;  but  he  was  at  length  enabled  to  study  at 
Berlin,  where  he  acquired  the  patronage  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  who  triade  him  his  chief  military  surgeon.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  surgical  works.   Died  in  1797. 

Theil,  tM  or  ti'ye,  (Jean  Franqois  Napoleon,) 
a  French  philologist,  born  at  Langon  (Gironde)  in 
1808.  He  published  a  "  Dictionary  of  Homer  and  the 
Homerides,"  (1842,)  and  a  "Dictionary  of  the  Latin 
Language,"  (3  vols.,  1855-65.) 

Theiner,  tl'ner,  (Augustin,)  a  German  Catholic 
theologian,  and  priest  of  the  Oratory  at  Rome,  was 
born  at  Breslau  in  1804.  He  published  a  "  History  of 
the  Pontificate  of  Clement  XIV.,"  (1833,)  and  other 
works. 

Theiner,  (Johann  Anton,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Breslau  in  1799.  He  published 
"The  Reformatory  Labours  of  the  Catholic  Church," 
(1845,)  ^"d  other  treatises  in  favour  of  the  Reform 
party  in  Gertriany.    Died  in  i860. 

Theis,  ti'^ssV  (Alexandre  Stienne  Guillaume,) 
a  French  novelist,  born  at  Nantes  in  1765.  He  wrote 
"Memoirs  of  a  Spaniard,"  (i8t8,)  "Journey  of  Poly- 
cletes,"  ("  Voyage  de  Polyclete,"  1821,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1842. 

Thek'la,  Saint,  a  saint  in  the  Catholic  Church,  was 
a  native  of  Isauria,  and  was  converted,  it  is  supposed, 
to  Christianity  by  the  Apostle  Paul  about  45  A.D.  The 
cathedral  of  Milan  bears  her  name  and  possesses  her 
relics. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  History  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Thellusson,  tSl'lus-son  or  ti^lii'soN',  (Peter  Isaac,) 
a  wealthy  Swiss  merchant,  born  at  Geneva,  became  a 
resident  of  London,  where  he  died  in  1798.  He  left 
more  than  half  a  million  pounds  to  accumulate  during 
the  lives  of  his  sons  and  grandsons,  and  to  be  invested 
in  land  for  the  benefit  of  his  eldest  lineal  male  descend- 
ant. This  led  to  a  famous  lawsuit;  but  the  will  was 
finally  established  by  the  decision  of  the  House  of  Lords. 

Thel'wall,  (foHM,)  an  English  litteniteiir  ^.nd  teacher 
of  elocution,  born  in  London  in  1764.  He  published  in 
1787  a  collection  of  poems.  Having  afterwards  become 
engaged  in  the  political  agitation  of  that  period,  he  was 
tried  with  Home  Tooke  and  Har*iy  in  1794  for  high 
treason,  and  acquitted.  In  1801  he  began  a  series  of 
lectures  on  elocution,  which  were  highly  successful.  His 
other  principal  works  are  "  Political  Miscellanies,"  a 
"Letter  to  Mr.  Cline  on  Stammering,"  "The  Peripa- 
tetic," and  "The  Daughter  of  Adoption,"  a  novel.  Died 
in  1834. 

Themines,  de,  deh  ti'm^n',  (Pons  de  Lauzieres, 
p6n  deh  lo'ze-aiR',)  Marquis,  a  French  general,  born 
about  1553,  becaine  a  marshal  of  France  in  1616.  He 
afterwards  commanded  against  the  Protestant  insur- 
gents.   Died  in  1627. 

The'mis,  [Gr.  Qefiig;  Fr.  Themis,  tk'm^ss',]  in  classic 
mythology,  the  goddess  of  justice  and  law,  was  called  a 
daughter  of  Uranus  and  Ge,  a  wife  of  Jupiter,  and  the 
mother  of  Astraea,  Eirene,  (Peace,)  the  Parcae,  and  the 
Horae.  She  was  a  personification  of  justice  and  the 
order  of  things  sanctioned  by  custom  or  law.  According 
to  Homer,  she  appeared  among  the  inhabitants  of  Olym- 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lon^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


THEMISEUL 


21  13 


THEOCRITUS 


pus,  and  it  was  her  office  to  convene  the  assembly  of 
the  gods.  She  was  also  represented  as  a  prophetic 
divinity  who  presided  over  the  oracle  of  Delphi  before 
Apollo. 

Themiseul  or  Themiseuil.  See  Saint-Hyacinthe. 

Them'i-son,  [Qefiiauv,]  an  eminent  Greek  physician, 
the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Methodici,  was  born  at  Lao- 
dicea,  in  Syria.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Asclepiades,  and 
probably  lived  about  80-40  B.C.  His  works  are  not 
extant.  Some  critics  think  that  he  is  the  person  men- 
tioned by  Juvenal  in  the  following  line  : 

"  Quot  Themison  segros  autumno  occiderit  uno."* — Sai.  x.  221. 

The-mis'ti-us,  [Gr.Qe/niOTioc,]  a  celebrated  orator  and 
philosopher,  surnamed  Eu'phrades,  (i.e.  "  eloquent,") 
born  in  Paphlagonia  about  315  A.D.  He  enjoyed  the 
favour  of  the  emperors  Constantius,  Julian,  and  Theo- 
dosius  the  Great,  who  appointed  him  tutor  to  his  son 
Arcadius.  In  religion  he  was  a  pagan.  Among  his 
extant  works  are  commentaries  on  portions  of  Aristotle, 
and  thirty-three  orations  in  Greek,  which  were  published 
by  Dindorf  in  1832.    Died  about  390  a.d. 

See  Socrates,  "  Historia  Ecclesiastica  ;"  Fabricius,  "  Biblio- 
theca  Grasca ;"  E.  Baret,  "  De  Themistio  Sophista,"  1853  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Themistocle.    See  Themistocles. 

The-mis'to-cles,  [Gr.  Qe/LiLOTOKAr/g ;  Fr.  Themisto- 
cle, ti'mes'tokl',]  an  Athenian  statesman,  orator,  and 
commander  of  great  celebrity,  born  about  514  B.C.,  was 
a  son  of  Neocles,  a  citizen  of  Athens.  His  mother  was 
a  foreigner.  According  to  Nepos,  in  early  life  he  was 
addicted  to  pleasure,  but,  having  lost  his  patrimonial 
estate,  he  changed  his  entire  course  of  life.  Ambition 
became  his  ruling  passion.  He  is  said  to  have  spent  his 
hours  of  leisure  and  vacation  in  composing  declamations. 
Just  after  the  battle  of  Marathon,  his  friends  observed 
that  he  was  silent,  abstracted,  and  passed  the  night  in 
watching.  Having  been  questioned  as  to  the  cause  of 
this  change  in  his  habits,  he  said  the  "trophies  of  Mil- 
tiades  would  not  suffer  him  to  sleep."  Others  imagined 
that  the  victory  at  Marathon  had  ended  the  war  ;  but 
he  regarded  it  as  the  beginning  of  a  great  conflict,  and 
advised  the  Athenians  to  increase  their  navy.  His 
principal  rival,  Aristides,  was  ostracized  in  4S3  B.C.,  after 
which  Themistocles  became  the  foremost  statesman  of 
Athens.  He  was  elected  archon  eponymus  in  481,  and 
when  Greece  was  invaded  by  Xerxes  he  was  chosen 
commander-in-chief.  The  oracle  of  Delphi  advised  the 
Athenians  to  defend  themselves  by  wooden  walls,  which 
Themistocles  interpreted  to  signify  ships.  He  induced 
the  people  of  Athens  to  abandon  that  city  and  embark 
in  the  fleet.  The  Greeks,  reduced  to  a  desperate 
extremity,  gained  a  decisive  victory  at  the  great  naval 
battle  of  Salamis,  480  B.C.  "This  success,"  says  Plu- 
tarch, "  was  owing  chiefly  to  the  sagacity  and  conduct 
of  Themistocles."  He  overreached  the  Spartans  when 
they  attempted  to  prevent  the  rebuilding  of  the  walls  of 
Athens,  about  476,  and  he  fortified  the  Piraeus  on  a  grand 
scale.  In  471  B.C.  he  was  banished  by  ostracism,  and 
retired  to  Argos.  Having  been  accused  of  treason  as  an 
accomplice  of  Pausanias,  he  sought  refuge  at  the  court 
of  Persia  in  465,  and  was  kindly  treated  by  Artaxerxes, 
over  whom  he  acquired  much  influence.  He  died,  or 
killed  himself,  in  Persia  about  449  B.C.  According  to 
Thucydides,  Themistocles  was  the  strongest  example  of 
the  power  of  natural  talent,  made  the  best  conjectures 
as  to  future  events,  and  had  an  excellent  foresight. 
Plutarch  relates  that  of  two  men  who  courted  his  daugh- 
ter he  preferred  the  less  wealthy,  saying,  "  I  would 
rather  she  should  have  a  man  without  money  than 
money  without  a  man."  When  Simonides  offered  to 
teach  him  the  art  of  memory,  he  said  he  would  rather 
learn  the  art  of  forgetting.  According  to  Mr.  Grote,  he 
was  "alike  vast  in  his  abilities  and  unscrupulous  in  his 
morality." 

See  Pr.uTARCH,  "Life  of  Tliemisiocles ;"  Cornelius  Nepos, 
"  Tliemistocles  ;"  Kirchmaier,  "  Dissertatiode  Themistocle,"  1663  : 
Thkod'ir  Finck,  "  Conimentatio  historico-philologica  de  Themis- 
toclis  /Etate,  Vita,  Ingenig  Rebusque  Gestis,"  1849;  Grote,  "  His- 
tory of  Greece;"  Thirlwall,  "  History  of  Greece." 


*  Literally,  "As  many  patients  as  Themison  has  killed  (or  shall 
have  killed)  in  a  single  autumn." 


Thenard,  ti'ntR',  (Louis  Jacques,)  Baron,  an  emi- 
nent French  chemist,  born  at  Nogent-sur-Seine  in  1777 
He  studied  under  Vauquelin,  in  Paris,  and  became  suc- 
cessively denionstrator  of  chemistry  in  the  Polytechnic 
School,  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  College  of  Francs 
(1804)  and  in  the  University  of  Paris,  and  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1810.  He  was  also  made  a 
peer  of  France,  (1833,)  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honour,  and  chancellor  of  the  university.  His  "  Ele- 
mentary Treatise  on  Theoretical  and  Practical  Chemis- 
try" (4  vols.,  1813)  is  esteemed  a  standard  work,  and 
has  been  translated  into  several  languages.  He  con- 
tributed a  great  number  of  valuable  treatises  to  the 
"  Annales  de  Chimie"  and  other  scientific  journals,  and 
published,  conjointly  with  Gay-Lussac,  "  Physico-Chemi- 
cal  Researches,"  made  with  the  voltaic  pile,  (2  vols., 
i8ir.)  Died  in  1857.  Thenard  and  his  friend  Gay- 
Lussac,  whose  names  are  inseparably  associated  in 
science,  discovered  boron,  and  proved  that  oxymuriatic 
acid  is  a  simple  substance.  Thenard  discovered  the 
peroxide  of  hydrogen. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  a  translation  of  Flou- 
RENs's  "  filoge  on  Thenard"  in  the  "  Smithsonian  Report"  for  1862, 
p.  373;  "Biographie  Universelle." 

Thenot,  tk'no',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  painter 
and  writer  on  art,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1803.  He  painted 
hunting-scenes,  landscapes,  etc.,  and  wrote  several  works 
on  perspective  and  lithography.    Died  in  1857. 

The'o-baid,.  [It.  Teobaldo,  ti-o-bilMo,]  sometimes 
written  Thiebaut,  was  a  brother  of  Ladislaus  II.  of 
Bohemia.  He  served  with  distinction  as  a  general  under 
Frederick  Barbarossa  in  Italy,  about  1158--63. 

The'o-baid,  (Lewis,)  an  English  critic  and  commen- 
tator on  Shakspeare,  was  a  native  of  Kent.  He  wrote 
a  number  of  dramas,  whifh  are  now  forgotten.  Having 
offended  Pope  by  exposing  the  errors  of  his  edition 
of  Shakspeare,  he  was  severely  satirized  by  that  poet 
in  the  "  Dunciad."  In  1733  Theobald  brought  out  an 
edition  of  Shakspeare,  (7  vols.  8vo,)  which  was  received 
with  great  favour,  and  is  still  highly  esteemed  for  the 
judgment  and  accuracy  it  displays.  He  also  wrote  a 
"Life  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh."    Died  in  1744. 

Theobald  of  Canterbury.    See  Thibaud. 

The-o-bal'dus,  written  also  Tibaldus  and  Tebal- 
dus,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  supposed  to  have  flourished 
in  the  twelfth  century.  He  was  the  author  of  a  poem  en- 
titled "  Physiologus  de  Naturis  duodecim  Animalium," 
being  a  description  of  the  habits  of  twelve  animals,  with 
moral  reflections  drawn  from  each. 

Theocrene  and  Theocrenus.    See  Tagliacarne. 

Theocrite.    See  Theocritus. 

The-oc'rI-tus,  [Gr.  QeoKpirog;  Fr.  Theocrite,  tkV- 
kR^t',]  one  of  the  most  celebrated  pastoral  poets  of 
antiquity,  was  a  native  of  Syracuse,  and  flourished  about 
270  B.C.  He  resided  for  a  time  at  Alexandria,  where 
he  enjoyed  the  favour  and  patronage  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus.  Among  the  extant  works  attributed  to  Theoc- 
ritus are  thirty  idyls  and  more  than  twenty  epigrams. 
His  bucolics  are  written  in  the  Doric  dialect,  and  are 
universally  regarded  as  master-pieces  of  their  kind.  He 
is  called  the  creator  of  bucolic  poetry.  His  idyls,  unlike 
most  modern  pastorals,  are  natural  and  free  from  affected 
sentimentality.  The  Eclogues  of  Virgil  are  imitations 
of  the  Bucolics  of  Theocritus,  and  are  genera'riy  re- 
garded as  inferior  to  the  original  works,  which  are 
essentially  dramatic  and  mimetic  and  are  truthful  pic- 
tures of  the  real  life  of  the  common  people.  It  appears 
from  his  sixteenth  idyl  that  he  returned  to  Syracuse 
and  lived  there  in  the  reign  of  Hieron  II.,  who  be- 
came king 'in  270  B.C.  He  was  intimate  with  the  poet 
Aratus.  Few  events  of  the  life  of  Theocritus  have  been 
preserved. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grasca  ;"  Naeke,  "  Dissertatio  de 
Theocrito,"  1828:  E.  Rouz,  "Dissertatio  de  Theocriti  Idylliis," 
1S46;  SuiDAS,  "Theocritus;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;" 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1842 ;  "  Eraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  August  and  October,  1835  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
December,  1S36,  article  "  Epigrams  of  Theocritus." 

The-oc^ri-tus  of  -Chi'os,  a  Greek  orator  and  Sophist, 
famous  for  his  sarcastic  wit,  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great.  He  wrote  an  epigram  against  Aristotle. 
He  was  put  to  death  by  Antigonus  Gonatas. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

133 


THEODAT 


2114 


THEODORUS 


Theodat.    See  Thkodatus. 

The-od'a-tus,  [Fr.  Theodat,  tiVdt',]  King  of  the 
Goths  in  Italy,  was  a  nephew  of  Theodoric.  He  began 
to  reign  aljout  534  A.n.,  was  defeated  by  Belisarius,  and 
was  killed  by  his  own  soldiers  in  536. 

The-od'e'-bert  [Fr.  pron.  ti'o'deh-baiR' ;  Lat.  Theo- 
DEHEr'tus]  I.,  King  of  Austrasia,  born  about  504  A.D., 
was  a  grandson  of  Clovis.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a 
good  and  able  prince.    Died  in  547  a.d. 

Theodecte.    See  Theodectes. 

The-o-dec'tes,  [Gr.  QtodeKT-i/g ;  Fr,  Th^;odecte, 
ti'o'd^kt',]  an  eminent  Greek  rhetorician  and  tragic 
poet,  born  at  Phaselis,  in  Pamphylia,  lived  about  350 
B.C.,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Isocrates.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  a  friend  of  Aristotle,  who  expresses  a  high  opinion 
of  him  in  some  of  his  writings.  His  works  are  lost, 
except  small  fragments. 

See  Makcker,  "  Comineiitatlo  de  Theodect^e  Vita  et  Scriptis," 
183s- 

The-od-e-lin'da,  [Fr.  Th^;odelinde,  tiVdeh-l^Nd' ; 
It.  Teodelinda,  ti-o-di-!^n'da,]  a  Bavarian  princess, 
was  married  in  589  a.d.  to  Autharic,  King  of  the  Lom- 
bards, who  died  in  590.  She  afterwards  exercised  royal 
power.    Died  in  625  a.d. 

See  LisiNi,  "  Memorie  di  Teodelinda,"  1646. 

The-od'e-mir,  the  father  of  Theodoric  the  Great, 
was  chief  ruler  of  the  Ostrogoths.    Died  in  475  a.d. 

Theodemir,  a  chief  of  the  Visigoths,  and  a  native 
of  Spain.  He  served  under  Roderick  against  the  Moors 
in  711.    Died  after  713  a.d. 

Tlieoderic  or  Theoderich.    See  Theodoric. 

Theodericus.    See  Theodoric. 

Tlie-o-do'ra,  Empress  of  the  East,  was  in  her  youth 
an  actress  and  courtesan  of  Constantinople.  She  retired 
from  the  stage,  reformed  her  conduct,  and  gained  the 
affection  of  Justinian,  who  married  her  in  525  A.D.  In 
527  he  proclaimed  her  as  empress  and  his  equal  col- 
league in  the  empire.    Died  in  548  a.d. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;*'  J.  P. 
LuD'vViG,  "Vita  Justiniani  et  Theodorae,"  1731. 

Theodora,  Empress  of  the  East,  born  about  810 
A.D.,  was  married  to  the  emperor  Theophilus  in  830. 
She  became  regent  at  his  death,  842,  and  governed  the 
empire  with  wisdom  for  fifteen  years.    Died  in  867  A.D. 

Theodore.    See  Theodorus. 

Theodore,  (King  of  Corsica.)    See  Neuhof. 

The'o-dore  [Lat.  Theodo'rus]  I.  succeeded  John 
IV.  as  Pope  of  Rome  in  641  a.d.  In  a  council  at  Rome 
he  excommunicated  Paulus,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
who  supported  the  heresy  of  the  Monothelites.  Died 
in  649  a.d. 

Theodore  (Theodorus)  II.  was  elected  pope  as  suc- 
cessor to  Romanus  in  S97  a.d.,  and  died  the  same  year. 

Theodore  or  Theodorus,  a  native  of  Tarsus,  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  669  a.d.,  which 
office  he  filled  with  great  zeal  and  fidelity.  He  founded 
numerous  schools,  and  converted  Saint  Augustine's 
monastery  into  a  college,  where  Latin  and  Greek  were 
taught  with  great  purity.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "The  Penitential."    Died  in  690  A.D. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  i.  chap.  iv. 

Theodore  or  Theodorus,  late  King  of  Abyssinia, 
was  born  about  1820.  His  original  name  was  Kassai. 
Having  raised  himself  from  a  humble  condition  by  his 
talents  and  success  as  a  soldier,  he  began  to  reign  about 
1855.  maltreated  some  subjects  of  Great  Britain, 

the  government  of  which  sent  an  army  to  Abyssinia  in 
1867.  Theodore  was  defeated  and  killed  in  battle  by 
the  British  under  General  Napier  in  April,  1868. 

The'o-dore  An'ge-lus,  [Lat.  Theodo'rus  An'ge- 
LUS;  Fr.  THEODORE  l'Ange,  tkVdoR'  l6Nzh,]  became 
Greek  Emperor  of  Thessalonica  in  1222.  He  waged 
war  against  the  Latins  and  the  Bulgarians,  who  defeated 
him  and  took  him  prisoner  in  1230. 

Theodore  l'Ange.    See  Theodore  Angelus. 

Theodore  of  Mopsuestia.   See  Theodorus  Mop- 

SUKSTENUS. 

The-od'o-ret  or  The-od-o-re'tus,  [Gr.  eeoSupyToc; 
Fr.  Th^odoret,  ti'o'do'ri',]  an  eminent  Christian 
miter  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Antioch  about  390  a.d., 


was  a  ])upil  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia.  He  was  a  per- 
sonal friend  of  Nestorius,  About  422  he  was  ai)i)ointecl 
Bishop  of  Cyrus,  in  Syria.  He  was  moderate  and  liberal, 
and  equally  eminent  for  piety  and  learning.  He  em- 
ployed his  influence  against  the  intolerant  Cyril  of 
Alexandria  and  Dioscurus.  In  449  he  was  deposed  by 
the  Synod  of  Ephesus,  over  which  Dioscurus  presided. 
He  condemned  the  doctrines  of  Nestorius  at  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon,  in  451.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
valuable  "  History  of  the  Church"  from  325  to  429  a.d., 
and  commentaries  on  the  Old  Testament  and  Epistles 
of  Paul.    Died  in  457. 

See  RiCHTER,  "Commentatio  de  Theodoreto,"  1822;  Schui,ze, 
"Dissertatio  de  Vita  B.  Theodoreti,"  1769;  Neander,  "History 
of  the  Church  ;"  Cave,  "  Historia  Literaria." 

Theodoretus.    See  Theodoret. 

The-od'o-ric  or  The-od'e-ric  [Lat.  Theodori'cus] 
I.,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  and  a  son  of  the  famous 
Alaric,  was  elected  king  in  418  or  419  a.d.  He  defeated 
the  Romans  at  Toulouse  in  439,  and,  having  conquered 
a  large  part  of  Gaul,  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
Avitus.  Theodoric  and  the  Roman  general  Aetius  united 
their  forces  against  Attila  the  Hun,  who  invaded  Gaul 
in  450.  The  opposing  armies  met  at  Chalons,  where 
Attila  was  defeated  and  Theodoric  was  killed,  in  451  A.D. 
He  left  two  sons,  Thorismond  and  Theodoric. 

See  JoRNANDES,  "  De  Rebus  Geticis." 

Theodoric  II.,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  He  began  to  reign  at  Tolosa  (Toulouse) 
in  452  A.D.,  and  became  an  ally  of  Avitus,  Emperor  of 
Rome.  He  invaded  Spain,  defeated  the  Suevi,  and 
made  extensive  conquests  in  the  peninsula.  He  was 
assassinated  by  his  brother  Euric  in  466  A.D. 

The-od'o-ric  or  The-od''e-ric  [Lat.  Theodori'cus 
or  Theoderi'cus  ;  Ger.  Theodorich,  tk-oMo-riK,  or 
Theoderich,  ta-o'der-iK,  which  was  afterwards  cor- 
rupted into  Dietrich,  dee'tRiK]  the  Great,  King 
of  the  Ostrogoths,  born  in  455  a.d.,  was  the  son  of 
King  Theodemir.  He  was  educated  at  Constantinople, 
whither  he  had  been  sent  as  a  hostage  at  an  early  age. 
Soon  after  his  accession  to  the  throne  (475)  he  was 
involved  in  a  war  with  Zeno,  Emperor  of  Constantinople, 
and  subsequently  turned  his  arms  against  Odoacer, 
who  had  usurped  the  chief  power  in  Italy.  The  latter, 
after  having  been  defeated  in  three  battles,  was  be- 
sieged in  Ravenna,  which  he  surrendered  at  the  end  of 
three  years.  Being  acknowledged  King  of  Italy  by  the 
emperor  Anastasius,  Theodoric  assumed  the  name  of 
Flavius,  celebrated  a  triumph  at  Rome,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  the  wisdom  and  liberality  of  his  rule.  He 
defeated  the  Gepidae,  assisted  the  Visigoths  against  the 
French  king  Clovis,  and  possessed  himself  of  Provence. 
He  died  in  526  A.D.,  his  death  being  hastened,  it  is  said, 
by  remorse  for  having  unjustly  condemned  to  death 
Symmachus  and  Boethius.  Gibbon  observes  of  Theodo- 
ric, "  His  reputation  may  repose  on  the  visible  peace  and 
prosperity  of  a  reign  of  thirty-three  years,  the  unanimous 
esteem  of  his  own  times,  and  the  memory  of  his  wisdom 
and  courage,  his  justice  and  humanity,  which  was  deeply 
impressed  on  the  minds  of  the  Goths  and  the  Italians." 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  chap, 
xxxix. ;  Ennodius,  "  Panegyricus  Theodorico  dictus ;"  J.  CocHi.i«us, 
"  Vita  Tlieodorici,"  1544  ;  fluRTER,  "  Geschichte  des  Konigs  Theo- 
dorich," 1807  ;  Du  RoiiRE,  "  Histoire  de  Theodoric  le  Grand,"  2 
vols.,  1846:  Tii.LEMONT,  "Histoire  des  Empereurs;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Theodoric,  [It.  Teodorico,  tk-o-do-ree'ko,]  an  Ital- 
ian surgeon  and  ecclesiastic,  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Cer^ia. 
He  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  for  his  skill  in  surgery, 
and  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  treatise  "On  Surgery  according  tcj 
the  System  of  Hugo  de  Lucca."    Died  in  1298. 

Theodorich.    See  Theodoric. 

Theodoricus.    See  Theodoric. 

The-o-do'rus  (or  The'o-dore)  [Gr.  Qeodopog ;  Fr. 
Theodore,  t^'o'doR'']  of  Cyre'ne,  a  Greek  philoso- 
pher, belonged  to  the  Cyrenaic  school.  His  doctrines, 
which  resembled  those  of  Epicurus,  gave  so  much  offence 
that  he  was  banished  from  his  native  city  of  Cyrene. 
He  resided  at  Athens  about  312  B.C.  Cicero  and  Seneca 
admired  his  answer  to  Lysimachus,  who  threatened  to 
crucify  him.  He  professed  that  he  did  not  care  whether 
he  should  rot  on  the  ground  or  in  the  air. 


a.  e,  T,  o,  il  7,     J-;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  flLll,  fit;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


THE  ODOR  us 


2115 


THEOPHANES 


Theodo'rus  of  Heracle'a,  a  learned  bishop  and 
leader  of  the  Arian  party.  He  was  Bishop  of  Heraclea 
on  the  Propontis,  and  was  one  of  the  delegates  who 
presented  the  Confession  of  Antioch  to  Constans  in 
342  A.D.    Died  about  356  A.D. 

Theodo'rus  (or  The'odore)  of  Sa'mos,  an  eminent 
Greek  statuary  and  architect,  who  probably  flourished 
about  600  B.C.  He  was  one  of  the  first  artists  that  cast 
statues  in  bronze.  The  Theodoras  who  made  a  cele- 
brated ring  for  Polycrates  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
nephew  of  the  artist  above  noticed. 

Theodo'rus  of  Tar'sus,  sometimes  called  DroDO- 
RUS,  a  prelate  and  theologian,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a  native  of  Antioch,  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Tar- 
sus in  378  A.D.  He  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  Arian 
heresy,  and  wrote  a  number  of  theological  works,  which 
are  not  extant. 

The-o-do'rus  An-ag-nos'tes,  (or-  Lec'tor,)  {i.e. 
"Theodore  the  Reader,")  [Fr.  Theodore  Lecteur, 
ti'o'doR'  lek'tUR',]  a  historian,  supposed  to  have  lived 
in  the  sixth  century  of  our  era.  He  was  reader  in  the 
church  of  Constantinople,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  the 
Church  to  the  Time  of  Justinian  I." 

The-o-do'rus  As'gi-das,  a  Cappadocian  monk,  who 
gained  the  favour  of  Justinian  I.,  and  was  appointed 
Archbishop  of  Caesarea  about  536  A.D.  He  favoured 
the  Origenists.    Died  about  558  A.D, 

Theodorus  Lascaris.    See  Lascaris, 

The-o-do'rus  Mop-sues-te'nus  or  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia,  [Fr,  Theodore  de  Mopsueste,  ta^o'doR' 
deh  mop'sii'est',]  Bishop  of  Mopsuestia,  born  at  An- 
tioch about  350  A.D.,  was  a  pupil  of  Libanius  and  a 
friend  of  Chrysostom.  His  controversial  and  theological 
writings  were  highly  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries, 
but  very  few  of  them  are  extant.    Died  in  429  a,d. 

See  Neander,  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church  ;"  Fritzsche, 
"De  Theodori  Mopsuesteiii  Vita,"  1837;  Sieffekt,  "Theodorus 
Mopsvestenus,"  1827. 

The-o-do'rus  Pris-ci-a'nus,  a  physician  and  medical 
writer  of  thi  fourth  century,  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
at  Constantinople. 

The-o-do'rus  Prod'ro-mus,  [Fr.  Theodore  Pro- 
drome, ti'o'doR'  pRo'dRom',]  a  learned  monk  and  By- 
zantine writer  of  the  twelfth  century,  was  also  called 

HiLARION. 

The-o-do'rus  Stu-di'ta,  [Fr.  Theodore  Studite, 
ti'o'doR'  stii'd^t',]  a  Greek  monk  and  writer,  born  at 
Constantinople  in  759  A.D.,  was  an  adversary  of  the 
Iconoclasts.  He  incited  the  people  to  sedition  and 
violent  resistance  to  the  decrees  against  the  worship  of 
images.    Died  in  826  A.D. 

Theodose.    See  Theodosius. 

Theodosius,  an  able  Roman  general  under  the  reign 
of  Valentinian  I.,  served  with  distinction  against  the 
barbarians  of  Britain  and  Germany,  and  subsequently 
quelled  an  insurrection  in  Africa  in  373  A.D.  He  was 
beheaded  at  Carthage,  376  A.D.  The  cause  of  his  execu- 
tion is  not  known.    His  son  became  Emperor  of  Rome. 

Theodosius  (the-o-do'she-us)  [Fr.  Th6odose,  ta'o'- 
doz' ;  It.  Teodosio,  ti-o-do'se-o]  I.,  Flavins,  a  Ro- 
man emperor,  surnamed  the  Great,  was  the  son  of 
the  preceding,  and  was  born  in  Spain  in  346  A.D.  He 
accompanied  his  father  in  his  various  campaigns,  and 
acquired  at  an  early  age  great  proficiency  in  the  art  of 
war.  In  379  A.D.  the  emperor  Gratian  conferred  upon 
him  the  title  of  Augustus,  with  the  command  over  tiie 
Eastern  provinces.  Having  been  received  into  the 
Christian  Church,  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal 
against  the  Arians,  and  in  380  appointed  Gregory  Nazi- 
anzen  Archbishop  of  Constantinople.  He  carried  on  a 
successful  war  with  the  Goths,  whom  he  induced  to 
become  the  allies  of  the  Romans.  After  the  death  of 
Gratian,  Maximus,  who  had  usurped  his  empire  and 
invaded  Italy,  was  defeated  by  Theodosius,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  Huns  and  Goths,  in  388.  Theodosius 
reigned  at  Constantinople,  and  Valentinian  II,  was  em- 
peror at  Rome  until  his  death,  in  392.  After  this  event 
Theodosius  became  sole  emperor  of  the  Roman  world. 
Before  his  death  he  divided  his  dominions  between  his 
two  sons  Arcadius  and  Honorius,  to  the  former  of 
whom  he  gave  the  Eastern  empire,  and  to  the  latter  the 


Western.  Died  in  395  a.d.  Although  he  was  guilty  of 
several  acts  of  cruelty,  his  character  is  generally  eulo- 
gized by  historians. 

See  Gibbon,  "  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall ;"  Tii.lemont, 
"  Histoire  des  Empereurs  ;"  Fi.^chier,  "  Histoire  de  Theodose  le 
Grand,"  1679;  Socrates,  "Historia  ecclesiastica ;"  Le  I^eau, 
"  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Theodosius  II.,  called  the  Younger,  born  in  401 
A.D.,  was  the  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  the  son  of 
Arcadius.  Being  but  seven  years  of  age  at  the  death  of 
his  father,  the  government  was  conducted  by  his  sister 
Pulcheria.  Among  the  most  important  events  of  his 
reign  was  the  collection  of  the  code  of  laws  known  as 
the  "Codex  Theodosianus."    Died  in  450  A.D. 

See  Gibbon,  "  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire;"  Gerlach,  "  De  Theodosio  Juniore,"  1751. 

Theodosius  III.,  surnamed  Adramytte'nus,  siii> 
ceeded  Anastasius  II.  as  Emperor  of  Constantinople  in 
715  A.D.  After  a  reign  of  about  a  year,  he  withdrew  to 
a  monastery,  and  was  succeeded  by  Leo  III. 

Theodosius  of  Tripoli,  a  Greek  geometer,  born  in 
Bithynia,  lived  probably  between  roc  B.C.  and  100  A.D. 
He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "Spherics,"  (S^atpt/ca,)  which 
is  extant. 

Theodotion,  the-o-do'she-Qn,  [Gr.  Qeodonoyv,]^  an 
early  Christian  writer  under  the  Roman  emperor  Com- 
modus,  made  a  Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament. 
He  belonged  to  the  sect  of  Ebionites. 

The-od'o-tus,  [Gr.  Qeodorog ;  Fr,  Th^odote,  tiV- 
dot',]  an  able  Greek  general,  commanded  in  Coele-Syria 
for  Ptolemy  Philopator  in  222  B.C.  About  three  years 
later  he  entered  the  service  of  Antiochus  the  Great. 

Theodotus  of  Samos,  a  rhetorician,  was  preceptor 
to  Ptolemy  XII.  of  Egypt.  He  was  responsible  for  the 
murder  of  Pompey  the  Great,  for  which  he  was  put  to 
death,  by  order  of  Brutus,  in  43  B.c, 

Theodulfe,  tiVdiilf,  [Lat.  Theodul'fus,]  a  learned 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  Spain,  was  the  author  of  several 
works.  He  became  Bishop  of  Orleans  about  788.  Died 
about  820  A.D. 

The-og'nis,  [Beoyvi^,']  a  Greek  poet  and  philosopher, 
supposed  to  have  lived  about  540-500  B.C.,  was  a  native 
of  Megara.  His  works  were  principally  elegies  and 
didactic  poems,  of  which  fragments  only  are  extant  He 
was  a  noble  or  aristocrat,  and  was  driven  into  exile  by 
the  democratic  party. 

See  Frere,  "Theognis  Restitutus:  The  Personal  History  of 
the  Poet  Tlieognis,"  etc.,  1842;  K.  O.  Mum.er,  "History  of  the 
Literature  of  Ancient  Greece  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

The'on,  [Oewv,]  a  celebrated  Greek  painter,  born  in 
Samos,  lived  under  the  reign  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
His  works  are  highly  commended  by  Pliny. 

Theon,  (^lius,)  a  rhetorician  of  Alexandria,  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  about  315  A.D.  His  principal  extant 
work  is  entitled  "  Progymnasmata,"  or  rules  on  rhetoric. 

Theon  of  Alexandria,  called  the  Younger,  a 
Platonic  philosopher  and  mathematician,  lived  about 
350-400  A.D.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Almagest 
of  Ptolemy,  and  edited  the  works  of  Euclid.  He  was  the 
father  of  the  celebrated  Hypatia. 

Theon  of  Smyrna,  sometimes  called  the  Elder,  a 
Neo-Platonic  philosopher,  flourished  about  125  A.D.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  astronomy,  mathematics, 
music,  etc.,  the  principal  part  of  which  is  extant.  He  is 
called  a  Pythagorean. 

The-oph'a-ne,  [Gr.  Qeoipavi] ;  Fr.  Th6ophane,  tiV- 
fti/,]  a  beautiful  woman,  who,  according  to  the  fable,  was 
beloved  by  Neptune,  was  changed  by  him  into  a  sheep, 
and  was  the  mother  of  the  golden-fleeced  ram  of  Colchis. 

Theophane.    See  Theophanes. 

The-oph'a-nes,  [Gr.  Qeocpavr]^ ;  Fr,  Theophane, 
ta'o'fSn',]  a  Greek  historian,  born  at  Mitylene,  was 
patronized  by  Pompey  the  Great,  whom  he  accompanied 
in  his  military  expeditions.  His  principal  work  was  a 
history  of  the  achievements  of  Pompey,  of  which  only 
fragments  are  extant. 

Theophanes,  (George  or  Isaurus,)  a  Greek  histo- 
rian, born  in  758  A.D.,  was  a  native  of  Constantinople. 
He  wrote  a  chronicle  of  the  period  from  277  to  811  A.D. 
Died  in  818. 

Theophanes,  (Prokopovitch,)  See  Prokopovitch. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Y.^  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Si^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


THEOPHILE 


2116 


THERAMENES 


Theophile,  the  French  of  Thkophilus,  which  see. 

Theophile  de  Viaud,  xWo'ihV  deh  ve'6',  a  French 
satiric  poet,  born  in  1590.  He  wrote  elegies,  tragedies, 
etc.,  was  accused  of  atheism  and  condemned  to  death 
in  1623,  but  escaped.  The  senteiice  was  afterwards 
annulled.    Died  in  1626. 

The-oph'i-lus,  [Gr,  Qe6(^L7iog;  Fr.  Theophile,  tkV- 
(hV;  It.  Teofilo,  ti-ofe-lo,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet 
of  unknown  period.    His  works  are  lost. 

Theophiliis,  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  was  a  son 
of  Michael  H.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  829  a.d.  He 
waged  a  long  war  against  the  Saracens  with  ill  success. 
He  was  a  zealous  Iconoclast.    Died  in  842  a.d. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Theophilus,  a  theologian,  and  Bishop  of  Antioch, 
wrote  an  "Apology  for  the  Christian  Faith,"  which 
is  extant  and  is  a  work  of  considerable  merit.  Died 
about  182  A.D. 

See  Grabener,  "De  Tlieophilo  Episcopo  Antiocheno,"  1744. 

Theophilus,  a  turbulent  ecclesiastic,  who  became 
Bishop  of  Alexandria  in  385  A.D.  He  condemned  the 
writings  of  Origen  and  persecuted  the  Origenists.  He 
was  the  chief  agent  in  the  banishment  of  Chrysostom, 
(403.)    Died  in  412  a.d. 

Theophilus,  a  distinguished  jurist  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, was  employed  by  the  emperor  Justinian  to  assist 
in  compiling  the  Digest  and  the  Institutes. 

The-oph'i-lus  Prot-o-spa-tha'rI-iTS,  [Fr.  Thi^o- 
PHii.E  Protospathaire,  ta'o'f^K  pRo'to'spt'taR^,]  a 
Greek  medical  writer,  the  place  and  date  of  whose  birth 
are  unknown.  The  most  important  of  his  extant  works 
is  an  anatomical  treatise,  which  has  been  translated  into 
Latin  under  the  title  of  "  De  Corporis  Huniani  Fabrica," 
("  On  the  Structure  of  the  Human  Body.") 

Theophraste.    See  Theophrastus. 

The-o-phras'tus,[Gr.  Oeocppaaro^ ;  Fr.  Theophraste, 
ta'o'fRtst';  It.  Teofrasto,  ta-o-fR^s'to,]  an  eminent 
Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Eresus,  in  Lesbos,  about 
374  B.C.  His  original  name  was  Tyr'tamus.  He  studied 
at  Athens,  where  he  first  attached  himself  to  Plato,  and 
afterwards  became  a  favourite  pupil  of  Aristotle.  In 
accordance  with  the  last  will  of  that  master,  Theophras- 
tus succeeded  him  as  president  of  the  Lyceum  in  322 
B.C.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his  eloquence, 
and  attracted  from  all  parts  of  Greece  a  multitude  of 
disciples,  among  whom  was  Menander  the  poet.  With 
a  design  to  explain  the  system  of  Aristotle  and  sup- 
plement his  works,  he  wrote  numerous  treatises  on 
philosophy  and  natural  history,  the  most  of  which  are 
not  extant.  Several  of  his  works  have  come  down  to 
us,  (though  perhaps  in  an  imperfect  state,)  viz,  :  "  Moral 
Characters,"  {rjdtKol  x^^P'^'^'^VP^C,)  which  was  translated 
into  French  and  imitated  by  La  Bruyere,  a  "  History  of 
Plants,"  (in  ten  books,)  and  a  work  "  On  the  Causes  of 
Plants,"  {Trepl  <l>vTcbv  ahiCjv.)  Died  about  286  B.C.  His 
"  Moral  Characters"  are  admired  for  subtlety  of  thought, 
Attic  wit,  (se/,)  and  elegance  of  style. 

See  Max  Schmidt,  "De  Theophraste  Rhetore,"  iS.^g:  Spe- 
RANZA,  "Teofrasto  primo  Botanico,"  1841;  Haller,  "  Bibliotheca 
Botanica;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

The-oph'y-lact,  [Gr.  Qeo(pv7uiKTOQ ;  Lat.  Theophy- 
LAc'rus ;  Fr.  Th6ophylacte,  ti'o'fe^ltkt',]  a  Greek 
ecclesiastic,  became  Archbishop  of  Achris,  in  Bulgaria, 
about  1070.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "On  the 
Education  of  Princes,"  also  commentaries  on  the  twelve 
minor  prophets,  and  numerous  epistles.    Died  after  11 12. 

Theophylactus.    See  Theophylact. 

The-o-phy-laC'tus  Sim-o-cat'ta,  [Gr,  Geo^vAu/crof 
6  'LijioiidTTriQ  or  Si/zo/currof,]  a  Greek  historian,  born  in 
Locris.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Reign  of  the  Em- 
peror Maurice  from  582  to  602  A.D.,"  also  numerous 
letters.    Died  about  630  a.d. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Histoiicis  Graecis." 

Tlieopompe.    See  Theopompus. 

The-o-pom'pus,  [Gr,  QeoTzofx-Kog;  Fr.  ThEopompe, 
ta'o'p6Mp',]  a  king  of  Sparta,  who  reigned  about  750 
B.C.  The  power  of  the  Ephori  was  established  or  in- 
creased in  his  reign. 

Theopompus,  an  Athenian  comic  poet  of  the  old 
and  of  the  middle  comedy,  flourished  probably  about 
400  B.C.    He  was  a  contemporary  of  Aristophanes. 


Theopompus,  an  eminent  Greek  historian  and  orator, 
born  in  Chios  (Scio)  about  378  B.C.,  was  a  brother  of 
Caucalus  the  rhetorician,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Isocrates. 
He  was  one  of  the  aristocrats  who  were  banished  by  the 
popular  party,  when  he  was  a  young  man.  In  his  exile 
he  composed  a  number  of  orations  and  eulogiums,  which 
were  received  with  applause  in  many  cities  of  Greece. 
In  352  B.C.  he  contended  with  success  against  Isocrates 
and  others  for  a  prize  offered  by  Artemisia  for  an  oration 
in  honour  of  Mausolus.  He  was  restored  to  his  native 
state  at  the  age  of  forty-five,  (333  B.C.)  His  principal 
works  were  a  "  History  of  Greece  from  411  to  394  B.C.," 
{'Y^TJnjviKoi  iaropcai,  in  twelve  books,)  which  is  lost  except 
a  few  fragments,  and  a  "  History  of  Philip  of  Macedon," 
((^ilcTVKtKd,  in  fifty-eight  books,)  of  which  many  fragments 
are  extant.  The  ancient  critics  say  that  he  was  apt  to 
err  by  the  extravagance  of  his  censure  and  his  praise  ; 
but  they  commend  his  accuracy.    He  died  after  305  B.C. 

See  AscHBACH,  "  Dissertatio  de  Theopompo,"  1823  ;  J.  E  Pfi.ugk, 
"  De  Theopompi  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1827;  G.  F.  Koch,  "Dissertatio 
de  Theopompo,"  1790 ;  Plutarch,  "  Vitje  decern  Oratorum  ;"  A  the- 
NMVs,  passim. 

Theorell,tn'o-rll,  (Johan  Peter,)  a  Swedish  journal- 
ist, born  at  Halljunga  in  1 791.  He  edited  a  democratic 
journal,  called  "  Aftonposten,"  and  published  several 
historical  essays, 

Theorell,  (Sven  Lorens,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Halljunga  in  1784,  He  published  a  work 
"  On  the  Influence  of  Manufactures  on  the  Wages  of 
Labourers,"  (1845.) 

Theotooopuli,  ti-o-to-ko-poo'lee,  (Dominico,)  an 
eminent  painter  and  sculptor,  surnamed  el  Greco,  was  a 
pupil  of  Titian,  He  resided  at  Toledo,  in  Spain,  where 
he  produced  a  number  of  his  finest  pictures.  Among 
these  may  be  named  "The  Parting  of  Christ's  Raiment 
before  the  Crucifixion,"  an  altar-piece  in  the  cathedral  of 
Toledo,  and  "The  Entombment  of  Count  Orgaz,"  in  the 
church  of  Santo  Tome.  His  monuments  and  sculptures 
are  highly  esteemed.  He. also  designed  the  church  of  the 
Augnstines  at  Madrid,  and  other  architectural  works. 
Died  in  1625. 

Theotooopuli,  (George  Manuel,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, attained  a^  high  reputation  as  a  sculptor  and 
architect,  and  built  a  considerable  part  of  the  cathedral 
of  Toledo,    Died  in  163 1. 

Theramene,    See  Theramenes. 

The-ram'e-nes,  [Gr.  Qr]paiJ.EvrjQ ;  Fr.  Th^;ramene,  ta'- 
rt'man',]  an  Athenian  politician,  and  one  of  the  famous 
Tliirty  Tyrants.  As  a  leader  of  the  oligarchic  party,  he 
took  an  active  part  in  the  revolution  of  411  B.C.,  and  was 
one  of  the  principal  members  of  the  new  government 
then  formed.  He  served  as  a  subordinate  officer  at 
the  battle  of  Arginusae,  (406.)  Although  the  Athenians 
gained  the  victory  there,  the  six  commanding  generals 
were  put  to  death,,  because  many  of  their  men  were 
drowned  and  they  were  unable  even  to  recover  their 
bodies  for  burial.  Theramenes  was  one  of  the  principal 
accusers,  and  he  appears  to  have  been  chiefly  respon- 
sible for  that  great  injustice.  He  negotiated  the  treaty 
which  opened  Athens  to  the  Spartan  general  Lysander 
in  405  B.C.,  and  was  one  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  who 
subverted  the  old  constitution  and  usurped  power  in  404. 
Having,  it  is  said,  from  motives  of  policy  rather  than 
humanity,  remonstrated  against  the  excessive  cruelty  of 
hisi  colleagues,  he  was  proscribed  by  Critias  and  con- 
deinned  to  death.  .When  he  drank  the  cicuta,  he 
exclaimed,  "This  to  the  health  of  the  lovely  Critias  !" 
He  died  in  404  B.C. 

The  character  of  Theramenes  was  throughout  that  of 
an  intriguing,  unscrupulous  politician  ;  but  the  equa- 
nimity, or  rather  indifference,  which  he  displayed  at  his 
death,  commanded  the  admiration  of  Xenophon.and 
Cicero.  It  might  truly  be  said  of  him,  in  the  words  of 
the  great  dramatist, 

"  Nothing  in  his  life 
Became  him  like  the  leaving  it ;  he  died 
As  one  that  had  been  studied  in  his  death 
To  throw  away  the  dearest  thing  lie  owed  [owned] 
As  'twas  a  careless  trifle." 

Macbeth,  Act  I.  Scene  IV. 
See  Grote,   "History  of  Greece;"  Suidas.  "Theramenes;" 
ScHNEiTHER,  " Dissertatio  de  Theramene,"  1821;  Smith,  "Dic- 
tionary of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc.  ;  Thirlwall,  "His- 
tory of  Greece." 


a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fdt;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon: 


THERJSSE 


2  I  I  7 


THE  F£  NOT 


Therasse,  tints',  (Victor,)  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris  about  1808. 

Theremin,  ta^reh-meen',  (Ludwig  Friedrich 
Franz,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian,  born  in  1783, 
became  in  1815  court  preacher  at  Berlin.  He  published 
several  religious  and  miscellaneous  works,  and  made 
translations  from  Cervantes  and  Byron.    Died  in  1846. 

Theresa,  te-ree'sa  or  ti-ra'si,  [Fr.  ThiSrese,  ti'raz' ; 
It.  and  Sp.  Teresa,  t^-ra'si,]  commonly  called  Saint 
Theresa,  a  Spanish  nun,  celebrated  for  her  talents  and 
piety,  was  born  at  Avila  in  15 15.  She  entered  the  order 
of  Carmelites  at  an  early  age,  and  about  1562  founded, 
in  her  native  town,  a  reformed  society  of  Barefooted 
Carmelites.  She  died  in  1582,  leaving  a  number  of 
religious  works,  which  are  highly  esteemed  and  have 
been  translated  into  the  principal  languages  of  Europe. 
Among  these  we  may  name  "  Thoughts  on  the  Love  of 
God,"  "  The  Road  to  Perfection,"  "  The  Castle  of  the 
Soul,"  "  Life  of  Saint  Theresa,  written  by  Herself,"  and 
"  Letters  of  Saint  Theresa."  She  was  canonized  by  Pope 
Gregory  XV.  in  1621. 

See  RiBKKA,  "Vida  de  la  Madre  Teresa,"  i6or ;  Collombet, 
"Vie  de  Sainte-Ther^se,"  1836;  Ticknor,  "History  of  Spanish 
Literature;"  Alban  Butler,  "  Leben  der  heiligen  Theresia,"  1825; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Thermes,  de,  deh  t^Rm,  (Paul  de  la  Barthe — deh 

It  bikt,)  Seigneur,  a  French  general,  born  at  Couse- 
rans  in  1482.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1557. 
Died  in  1562. 

Theroigne  de  Mericourt,  ti^RwIn'  deh  meh-re'- 
kooR',  (or  Marcourt,  mtR^kooR',)  (Anne  Josephe,)  a 
Frenchwoman,  noted  for  her  courage  and  beauty,  was 
boru'  in  Luxemburg  in  1762.  She  became  a  Girondist, 
and  harangued  the  people  of  Paris  during  the  Revolution. 
Aliout  1793  she  was  maltreated  by  some  viragos  of  the 
Jacobin  party,  and  lost  her  reason.    Died  in  181 7. 

See  Th.  Fuss,  "Theroigne  de  Mericourt  dite  la  belle  Liegoise," 
1854  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

The'ron,  [G^pwv,]  a  Greek,  %vho- became  Tyrant  of 
Agrigentum,  in  Sicily,  about  488'  B.C.  As  an  ally  of 
Gelon  of  Syracuse,  he  fought  against  the  Carthaginians 
in  480.  His  reign  was  prosperous.^  He  obtained  at 
the  Olympic  games  victories  which  were  celebrated  by 
Pindar.    Died  in  472  B.C. 

Ther-san'der,  [Gr.  Qepaavdpoc ;  Fr.  Thersandre, 
t§R's6NdR',]  a  mythical  king  of  Thebes,  and  a  son  of 
Polynices.  He  joined  the  expedition  against  Troy,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  killed  by  Telephus.  He  was  one 
of  the  Epigoni,  (which  see.)  According  to  Virgil,  Ther- 
sander  was  one  of  the  Greeks  who  were  concealed  in  the 
wooden  horse. 

See  "^neid,"  book  ii.  261. 

Thersite.    See  Thersite^. 

Ther-si'tes,  [Gr.  Gepcrm/f  Fr.  Thersite,  t^R^s^t',] 
a  Greek,  noted  for  his  personal  ugliness,  impudence,  and 
ill  nature,  was  publicly  chastised  by  Ulysses  for  having 
Biandered  Agamemnon.  According  to  tradition,  he  was 
Blain  by  Achilles. 

See  "  Iliad,"  book  ii. 

Thery,  ti're',  (Augustin  FRANgois,)  a  French  littera- 
teur^ born  in  Paris  in  1796.  He  was  professor  of  rhetoric 
in  the  College  of  Versailles,  and  afterwards  provisenr. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  La  Renaissance,"  a 
poem,  (1822,)  and  a  "  History  of  Literary  Opinions,",(2 
vols.,  1844.) 

Thesee.    See  Theseus. 

The'seus  or  Mee'se-^is,  [Gr.  Qr/oevc  ;  Fr.  Th6s6e,  tk'- 
■/.y  ;  It.  Teseo,  ta-sa'o,]  the  great  national  hero  of  Attica, 
regarded  by  some  critica  as  a  mythical  personage.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition,  he  was  a  son  of  /Egeus,  King  of 
Athens,  and  a  cousin  of  Hercules,  whose  exploits  he 
emulated  by  the  destruction  of  monsters  and  robbers. 
The  Athenians  were  bound  to  pay  tribute  to  Minos  of 
Crete,  in  the  form  of  seven  young  men  and  seven  maidens, 
who  were  destined  to  be  devoured  by  the  Minotaur  in  the 
Labyrinth.  Theseus  volunteered  to  go  as  one  of  these 
victims.  He  gained  the  affection  of  Ariadne,  a  daughter 
of  Minos,  killed  the  Minotaur,  and  readily  found  his  way 
out  of  the  Labyrinth  by  means  of  a  clue  (ball  of  thread) 
which  Ariadne  gave  him,  one  end  of  which  he  made  fast 
at  the  entrance  and  let  it  trail  after  him.    He  afterwards 


became  King  of  Athens,  defeated  the  Amazons,  who  in- 
vaded Attica,  took  part  in  the  Argonautic  expedition, 
and  abducted  the  famous  Helen  from  Sparta  while  she 
was  a  girl.  He  married  Antiope,  the  Queen  of  the 
Amazons,  who  bore  him  a  son  named  Hippolytus,  and 
after  her  death  he  married  Phaedra,  a  daughter  of  Minos. 
He  was  regarded  by  the  Athenians  as  the  author  of  an 
important  political  reform  in  Attica,  which  before  his 
time  was  divided  into  many  petty  states  or  demt,  claim- 
ing to  be  independent.  These  he  reduced  to  a  state  of 
unity  and  subjection  to  a  central  authority.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Pirithous,  whom  he  aided,  the  legend 
says,  in  an  audacious  attempt  to  abduct  Proserpine  from 
the  palace  of  Pluto.  They  failed,  and  Theseus  was  con- 
fined in  Tartarus,  but  was  finally  released  by  Hercules. 
Tradition  adds  that  he  was  treacherously  killed  by 
Lycomedes,  King  of  Scyros. 

See  Virgil,  "^Eneid,"  book  vi.  393  and  618;  Plutarch,  "L  fe 
of  Theseus." 

Thesiger.    See  Chelmsford. 

Thes'pis,  [QiaTrii-,]  a  Greek  dramatist,  born  at  Icaria, 
in  Attica,  flourished  about  540  B.C.  He  is  called  the 
inventor  of  tragedy.  His  works  have  perished,  the  titles 
only  of  four  dramas  being  preserved. 

See  J.  C.  Cramer,  "  Commentatio  de  Thespide,"  1754;  K.  O. 
MijLLER,  "Literature  of  Ancient  Greece." 

Thes'pi-us,  [Gr.  Qeamog,]  a  son  of  Erechtheus,  and 
a  king  of  Thespiae.  The  poets  feigned  that  he  had 
fifty  daughters,  who  were  the  wives  or  concubines  of 
Hercules,  to  whom  Thespius  gave  them  as  a  reward 
for  killing  a  lion. 

Thes'sa-lus,  [Gr.  Qsaaa'Aog ;  Fr.  Thessale,  ta'stK,] 
a  son  of  Jason  and  Medea,  was  supposed  to  be  the 
ancestor  of  the  Thessalian  people. 

Thcssalus,  a  son  of  the  celebrated  physician  Hip- 
pocrates, lived  about  360  B.C.  He  belonged  to  the  sect 
of  the  Dogmatici. 

Thessalus,  a  physician  who  lived  under  the  reign  of 
Nero,  was  a  native  of  Lydia,  and  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Methodic!. 

Thes'ti-us,  [Gr.  Qeonog,]  a  fabulous  king  of  ^Etolia, 
said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Mars  or  of  Agenor,  and 
the  father  of  Althaea,  Leda,  Iphiclus,  Plexippus,  and 
Eurypylus. 

The'tis,  [Gr.  OeTtg  ;  Fr.  Tn^ns,  ti't^ss',]  a  beautiful 
sea-nymph,  and  one  of  the  Nereids,  was  said  to  be  a 
granddaughter  of  Neptune,  and  a  daughter  of  Nereus  and 
Doris.  The  poets  feigned  that  she  was  courted  by  Ju- 
piter and  Apollo,  who  desisted  from  the  pursuit  because 
Themis  predicted  that  her  son  should  be  greater  than 
his  father  ;  that  she  was  married  to  Peleus,  and  became 
the  mother  of  Achilles;  and  that  their  wedding  was  at- 
tended by  all  the  gods  except  Eris,  (or  Discord,)  who 
threw  aiTiong  the  guests  the  golden  apple,  on  which  was 
written,  "  For  the  most  beautiful,"  and  which  Paris 
awarded  to  Venus  as  the  prize  of  beauty.  (See  Achilles.) 

Theu'dis,  King  of  the  Visigoths  in  Spain,  succeeded 
Amalaric  in  531  or  532  A.D.  He  waged  a  successful  war 
against  the  Franks,  who  invaded  Spain  in  542.  He  was 
an  uncle  of  Totila.    Died  in  548  A.D. 

Theux  de  Meylandt,  de,  deh  tuh  deh  mi'lint,  (or 
raa^lSNt',)  (BarthelExMY  Th^;odore,)  Comte,  a  Belgian 
minister  of  state,  born  at  the  chateau  de  Schabroek  in 
1794.  He  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Catholic 
party.  He  was  minister  of  the  interior  in  1831-32, 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  between  1835  and  1840,  and 
minister  of  the  interior  from  1846  to  1848. 

Thevenard,  tev'ntR',  (Antoine  Jean  Marie,) 
Comte,  a  French  naval  officer,  born  at  Saint-Malo  in 
173^.    He  became  a  vice-admiral  in  1792.  Died  in  1815. 

Theveneau,  t^v'no',  (Charles  Simon,)  a  French  poet 
and  mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  1759;  died  in  1821. 

Thevenin,  tkv'ndN',  (Charles,)  a  French  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  in  Paris  in  1764,  became  a 
member  of  the  Institute  in  1825.  His  master-piece  is 
the  "Passage  of  Mont  Saint  Bernard."    Died  in  1838. 

Thevenin,  (Claude  Noel,)  a  French  historical 
painter,  born  in  Isere  in  1800;  died  in  1849. 

Thevenot.    See  Coulon  de  Th^venot. 

Thevenot,  tWno\  (Melchisedech,)  a  French  com- 
piler and  Oriental  scholar,  born  in  Paris  about  i62(\ 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  zsj;  G,  H,  Vi,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this»   (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


THEFENOT  21 


He  was  sent  in  1652  on  an  important  mission  to  Rome, 
and  in  1684  appointed  librarian  of  the  Royal  Library, 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
His  principal  work  is  a  compilation  of  travels  and 
voyages,  entitled  an  "  Account  of  Many  Curious  Voyages 
hitherto  unpublished,"  etc.,  (2  vols,  fol.,  1672.)  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  scientific  attainments,  as  well  as  his 
profound  knowledge  of  the  Oriental  tongues,  and  was 
the  inventor  of  an  air-level.  He  also  collected  many 
valuable  books  and  manuscripts  for  the  Royal  Library, 
of  which  he  published  a  catalogue,  entitled  "Bibliotheca 
Thevenotiana."    Died  in  1692. 

Thevenot,  de,  deh  iWuo',  (Jean,)  a  traveller,  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1633. 
He  studied  at  the  College  of  Navarre,  and,  having  pre- 
viously visited  England,  Germany,  and  Italy,  set  out  in 
1655  for  the  East.  He  spent  seven  years  in  Egypt  and 
different  parts  of  Asia,  and  in  1664  started  on  a  second 
journey,  during  which  he  visited  Persia  and  India.  He 
died  of  a  fever  in  1667,  while  on  his  way  to  Tabreez, 
(Tabriz.)  His  principal  works,  which  have  a  high  repu- 
tation, are  ''Travels  in  the  Levant,"  (1664,)  to  which 
were  added  a  description  of  Persia,  and  "  An  Account  of 
Hindostan,  the  Modern  Mongols,  and  other  Peoples  and 
Countries  of  India,"  ("Voyage  contenant  la  Relation  de 
I'Hindoustan,  des  nouveaux  Mogols,"  etc.,  1684.)  He 
was  well  versed  in  the  Arabic  and  Persian  languages. 

See  "Biographic  Universelle. " 

Thevet,  teh-vi',  (Andr^,)  a  French  traveller,  born 
at  Angouleme  in  1502.  He  visited  the  Levant,  and 
published  a  "  Universal  Cosmography,"  (15-71,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1 590. 

Thew,  thu,  (Robert,)  an  English  artist,  born  in  York- 
shire in  1758,  was  appointed  engraver  to  the  Prince  of 
Wales.  His  principal  works  are  nineteen  plates  in  Boy- 
dell's  "Shakspeare  Gallery."    Died  in  1802. 

Thialfi.    See  Thor. 

Thiard  or  Tyard,  de,  deh  te'SR',  (Pontus,)  a  French 
poet,  born  in  1521.  He  was  patronized  by  Henry  HI., 
who  appointed  him  Bishop  of  Chalons-sur-Saone  in  1578. 
Died  in  1605. 

See  Martin,  "  Notice  sur  Pontus  de  Thiard,"  1786. 

Thiard  de  Bissy,  de,  deh  te^tR'  deh  be^se',  (Au- 
XONNE  Th^odose  Marie,)  Comte,  a  French  general, 
born  in  Paris  in  1772.  He  was  a  Liberal  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Depaties  from  1820  to  184S.   Died  in  1852. 

Thiassi  or  Thjassi,  te-is'se,  [said  to  signify  "im- 
petuous," "  violent,"]  a  famous  giant,  the  father  of  Skadi, 
mentioned  in  the  Eddaic  legends.  It  is  related  that, 
having  taken  the  form  of  an  eagle,  Thiassi  succeeded  in 
catching  the  subtle  Loki,  and  refused  to  release  him 
unless  he  would  swear  to  bring  Iduna,  with  her  apples 
of  immortality,  from  the  habitation  of  the  ^sir.  There- 
upon Loki  told  Iduna  that  he  had  found  some  beautiful 
apples  in  a  wood  just  without  the  walls  of  Asgard, 
urging  her  to  take  her  own  out  with  her  for  the  pur- 
pose of  comparing  them.  Iduna  fell  into  the  snare. 
No  sooner  had  she  left  the  fortress  of  the  gods  than 
Thiassi  came,  with  his  eagle's  plumage,  caught  her  up, 
and  carried  her  to  Thrymheim,  his  abode  among  the 
mountains.  But  the  gods  fared  ill  in  her  absence  ;  they 
grew  rapidly  old  and  gray.  At  length,  Loki,  terrified 
by  their  menaces,  was  prevailed  on  to  attempt  her 
restoration.  Having  himself  assumed  the  form  of  a 
falcon,  he  flew  to  Thrymheim  in  the  giant's  absence, 
transformed  Iduna  into  a  nut,  and  carried  her  in  his 
talons  to  Asgard.  But  Thiassi  pursued  and  had  nearly 
overtaken  Loki,  when  the  ^sir  came  out  to  his  assist- 
ance, and  Thiassi  was  caught  and  slain.  It  is  said  that 
the  gods,  in  order  to  appease  Skadi  for  the  death  of  her 
father,  cast  his  eyes  up  to  heaven,  where  they  became 
two  stars. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  pp.  43-45. 
Thibaiid.    See  Thibaut. 

Thibaud,  te'bo',  or  The'o-baid,  an  ecclesiastic, 
became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (England)  in  1 139. 
He  quarrelled  with  King  Stephen.    Died  in  1161. 

Thibaud  (te'bo')  or  Thibaut  II.,  called  the  Great, 
Count  of  Champagne  and  Blois,  was  born  about  lOQO. 
His  mother  was  Alice,  a  daughter  of  William  the  , 


18  THIEBJUT 


Conqueror.  He  was  a  brother  of  Stephen,  King  of 
England.    Died  in  11 52. 

Thibaud  or  Thibaut,  sometimes  called  The'o-baid, 
[Lat.  Thkobal'dus,]  Count  of  Champagne  and  King 
of  Navarre,  was  born  in  1201.  He  was  a  son  of  Thi- 
baut, Count  of  Champagne,  and  was  the  most  powerful 
feudatory  of  the  French  king.  On  the  death  of  his 
uncle,  Sancho,  King  of  Navarre,  in  1234,  he  succeeded 
to  the  throne  of  that  country.  In  1239  he  conducted  an 
army  of  crusaders  to  the  Holy  Land;  but  he  proved 
himself  an  incompetent  general,  and  was  defeated  with 
great  loss  at  Ascalon  or  Gaza.  Died  in  1253.  He  was 
celebrated  as  a  troubadour,  and  left  many  songs,  which 
are  extant. 

See  Delbarre,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  de  Thibaut,  Comte  de  Cham- 
pagne," 1S50;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale ;"  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Thibaudeau,  te'bo'do',  (Adolphe  Narcisse,)  a 
French  journalist  and  liberal  politician,  born  at  Poitiers 
in  1795  ;  cl'ed  in  1856. 

Thibaudeau,  (Antoine  Claire,)  Count,  a  French 
revolutionist  and  historical  writer,  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Poitiers  in  1765.  He  was  elected 
to  the  National  Convention  in  1792,  and  voted  for  the 
death  of  the  king  without  the  appeal  to  the  people.  In 
1796  he  became  president  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hun- 
dred, and  a  count  of  the  empire  in  1808.  He  was 
appointed  a  senator  by  Louis  Napoleon  in  1852.  He 
was  the  author  of  "Memoirs  of  the  Convention  and  the 
Directory,"  (1824,)  "General  History  of  Napoleon," 
(1827,)  "  Memoirs  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire," 
(1835,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1854. 

See  TissKRON,  "  Le  Senat  de  I'Empire  Frangais;"  "  Nouvell* 
Biographie  Generale." 

Thibaut,  te^Do',  (Anton  Friedrich  Justus,)  an 
eminent  German  jurist,  born  at  Hameln,  in  Hanover,  in 
1774.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  Konigsberg,  and  Kiel, 
became  professor  of  law  at  Jena  in  1802,  and  obtained 
in  1805  the  same  chair  at  Heidelberg,  where  he  taught 
with  distinguished  success  during  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  His  legal  works  are  very  numerous,  and  are 
ranked  among  the  most  valuable  that  have  appeared. 
Among  these  may  be  named  his  "  Juristic  Encyclopaedia 
and  Methodology,"  (1797,)  "Theory  of  the  Logical 
Interpretation  of  Roman  Law,"  "  On  Possession  and 
Prescription,"  (i8o2',)  "System  des  Pandektenrechts," 
(1803,)  and  "On  the  Necessity  of  a  Common  Code  of 
Laws  for  Germany,"  (1814.)    Died  in  1840. 

Thibaut,  (Jean  Thom.^s,)  a  French  architect,  born 
in  Haute-Marne  in  1757  ;  died  in  1826. 

Thibouville,  de,  deh  te'boo'veK,  (Henri  Lambert 
d'Hkrbignv,)  Marquis,  a  French  litterateur,  born  in 
Paris  in  1710,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Voltaire.  He 
wrote  dramas,  novels,  etc.    Died  in  1784. 

Thick'nesse,  (Mrs.  Anne,)  an  English  lady,  dis- 
tinguished for  her  talents  and  beauty,  was  born  in  1737. 
She  was  the  wife  of  Philip  Thicknesse,  noticed  below. 
She  wrote  "  I^ioL^raphical  Sketches  of  Literary  Females 
of  the  French  Nation,"  "The  School  of  Fashion,"  a 
novel,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1824. 

Thicknesse,  (Philip,)  an  English  traveller,  born 
about  1720.  Among  his  works  are  "Memoirs  and 
Anecdotes  of  Philip  Thicknesse,"  (3  vols.,  1788-91.) 
Died  in  1792, 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  September,  1777. 

Thiebault  or  Thiebaut,  te'a'bo',  (Dieudonne,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  near  Remiremont  in  1 733.  He 
became  professor  of  grammar  in  Berlin  in  1765,  and  was 
intimate  with  Frederick  the  Great.  He  published,  be- 
sides several  works  on  grammar,  "  Souvenirs  of  Twenty 
Years'  Residence  in  Berlin,"  etc.,  (5  vols.,  1804.)  Died 
in  1807. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Thiebault,  (Paul  Charles  Francois,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  Berlin  in  1769,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Austerlitz,  and 
became  a  general  of  division  in  1808.  He  wrote  several 
military  work.s.    Died  in  1846. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Thiebaut.    See  Theobald. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, 


short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


THIEBAUT 


21  19 


THIERS 


Thiebaut  de  Berneaud,  te'a'bo'  deh  bCR^io', 
(Arsene,)  a  French  writer  on  rural  economy  and  biog- 
raphy, born  at  Sedan  in  1777,  was  a  republican.  He 
contributed  to  the  "  Biographic  Universelle."  Died  in 
Paris  in  1850. 

Thiele,  tee'leh,  (Just  Matthias,)  a  Danish  writer, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1795.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  Thorwaldsen's  Youth,"  and 
"Thorwaldsen  and  his  Works,"  (4  vols.,  1831-50.) 

Thielen,  van,  vtn  tee'len,  (Jan  Philip,)  a  Flemish 
flower-painter,  born  at  Mechlin  in  1618.  His  works  are 
esteemed  master-pieces  of  the  kind.    Died  in  1667. 

Thielmann,  von,  fon  teeKmSn,  (Johann  Adolf,) 
Freiherr,  a  German  general,  born  at  Dresden  in  1765. 
He  served  in  the  campaigns  of  1806  and  1809,  was  made 
lieutenant-general  in  1810,  and  fought  for  Napoleon  in 
Russia  in  1812.  He  afterwards  entered  the  Prussian 
service,  and  obtained  command  of  a  corps  or  division 
of  the  army  of  Bliicher.  On  June  18  he  held  in  check 
the  corps  of  Grouchy  at  Wavre,  and  by  his  obstinate 
resistance  contributed  to  the  victory  of  the  allies  at 
Waterloo.    Died  in  1824, 

See  Oberreit,  "  Beitrage  zur  Biographic  des  Generals  von  Thiel- 
mann," 1829;  HoLZENDORFF,  "Beitrage  zur  Biographic  dcs  Gene- 
rals von  Thielmann,"  1830. 

Thieme,  tee'meh,  (Karl  August,)  a  German  philol- 
ogist, was  professor  at  Leipsic.  He  published  an  edition 
of  Xenophon,  (4  vols.,  1763-66.)    Died  in  1795. 

Thiemo,  tee'mo,  [Fr.  Thi^mon,  te'i'm^N',]  some- 
times called  Diethmar,  a  German  prelate,  distinguished 
as  a  sculptor  and  painter,  was  born  in  Bavaria  about 
1045.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Salzburg  about  1088. 
Died  in  Palestine  about  iioo. 

Thienemann,  tee'neh-mSn',  (Friedrich  August 
LuDWiG,)  a  German  ornithologist,  born  near  Freiburg 
in  1793.  Having  graduated  at  Leipsic,  he  visited  North- 
ern Europe  and  Iceland,  of  which  he  published  an 
account  after  his  return.  His  chief  work  is  a  "  History 
of  the  Reproduction  of  Divers  Species  of  Birds,"  with 
one  hundred  coloured  plates,  (1845-53.)    Died  in  1858. 

Thierri.    See  Thierry. 

Thierry  or  Thierri,  te-lr're,  [Fr.  pron.  te'i're',]  or 
Theodoric  II.,  King  of  Austrasia,  born  about  486  a.d., 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Clovis.  He  began  to  reign  in 
511.    Died  in  534. 

Thierry  or  Thierri  II.,  King  of  Austrasia  and  Bur- 
gundy, born  in  587  A.D.,  was  a  son  of  Childebert  H., 
whom  he  succeeded  in  596.    Died  in  613  A.D. 

Thierry  or  Thierri  I.  or  III.,  King  of  Neustria  and 
Burgundy,  (or  France,)  a  son  of  Clovis  IT.,  was  born 
about  654  A.D.  He  received  the  title  of  king,  but  the 
royal  power  was  exercised  by  Pepin,  mayor  of  the  palace. 
Died  in  691  A.D. 

Thierry  or  Thierri  II.  or  IV.,  born  in  713  a.d.,  was 
a  son  of  Dagobert  III.,  King  of  the  Franks,  He  was 
one  of  the  rots  faineants,  or  nominal  kings.  The  king- 
dom was  governed  by  Charles  Martel,  under  the  name 
of  Tiiierri.    Died  in  737  A.D. 

Thierry,  te'i^re',  (Alexandre,)  a  French  physician 
and  surgeon,  born  in  1803,  practised  in  Paris,  and  gained 
distinction  as  an  operator.  He  wrote  for  the  "  National," 
and  actively  promoted  the  revolution  of  1848. 

Thierry,  (Am^dee  Simon  Dominique,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Blois  in  1797.  He  was  appointed 
master  of  requests  in  the  council  of  state  under  Louis 
Philippe,  and  continued  in  the  same  office  by  Louis 
Napoleon.  He  published  a  "  History  of  Gaul  under 
the  Roman  Rule,"  (1826,)  "History  of  Attila  and  of  his 
Sons  and  Successors  in  Europe."  etc.,  (1856,)  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Gauls  from  the  Earliest  Period  to  the 
Subjection  of  Gaul,"  etc.,  (1857.)  He  was  elected  to  the 
Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences  in  1841,  and 
was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  senator  in  i860. 

See  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1832. 

Thierry,  (Edouard,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  in 
Paris  in  1813.  He  contributed  critiques  on  the  drama 
to  severnl  iournals  of  Paris. 

Thierry,  (Jacques  Nicolas  Augustin,)  an  eminent 
French  historian,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Biois  in  1795.  Having  studied  in  the  College  of  Blois, 
he  repaired  to  Paris,  where  he  became  in  1817  associate 


editor  of  the  "Censeur  Europeen."  He  brought  out  in 
1825  his  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  England  by  the 
Normans,"  which  met  with  brilliant  success  and  was 
translated  into  German  and  English.  Soon  after  this, 
his  sight,  which  had  been  gradually  failing,  was  entirely 
lost.  He  still,  however,  pursued  his  historical  researches, 
with  the  assistance  of  a  secretary,  Armand  Carrel,  and 
published,  successively,  "Ten  Years  of  Historical  Stu- 
dies," (1834,)  "Narratives  of  the  Merovingian  Times, 
preceded  by  Considerations  on  the  History  of  France," 
(1840,)  and  an  "  Essay  on  the  History  of  the  Formation 
and  Progress  of  the  Third  Estate,"  (1853.)  He  was 
recognized  as  the  master  of  the  modern  French  school 
of  historians.    Died  in  May,  1856. 

See  GuiGNiAUT,  "Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  d'Aug.  Thierry,'* 
1863;  L.  DE  LoMENiE,  "M.  A.  Thierry,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,' 
1841  ;  Robin,  "  Galerie  des  Gens  de  Lettres  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale  ;"  "Biographic  Universelle;"  "Westminster  Review"  for 
October,  1841. 

Thierry,  (Jean,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1669,  worked  in  Spain  for  Philip  V.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1739. 

Thierry,  (Joseph  Francois  Desir^;,)  a  French 
painter  of  landscapes  and  decorations,  a  brother  of 
fidouard,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  181 2. 

Thierry,  (Julie  de  Querangal — deh  keh''r6N'gtK,) 
a  literary  French  lady,  became  in  183 1  the  wife  of 
Augustin  Thierry  the  historian.  She  aided  him  in  his 
literary  labours,  and  wrote  two  works,  entitled  "  Scenes 
of  Manners  and  Characters,"  (1835,)  and  "Ade'aide; 
Memoirs  of  a  Young  Woman,"  (1839.)    Died  in  1844. 

Thierry  (or  Theodoric)  of  Niem,  a  native  of  West- 
phalia, became  papal  secretary  at  Rome.  He  wrote 
a  "  History  of  the  Schism,"  ("  De  Schismate.")  Died 
in  1417. 

Thiers,  te'aiR',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  theo- 
logian of  great  erudition,  was  born  at  Chartres  in  1636. 
He  published  numerous  religious  and  controversial 
works,  which  were  highly  esteemed.  Among  these  is  a 
"Treatise on  Superstitions  according  to  Holy  Scripture," 
("Traite  des  Superstitions  selon  I'^Ecriture  Sainte," 
1679.)    Died  in  1703. 

Thiers,  (Louis  Adolphe,)  an  eminent  French  his- 
torian and  minister  of  state,  was  born  at  Marseilles  on 
the  i6th  of  April,  1797.  He  studied  law  at  Aix,  where 
M.  Mignet  was  his  fellow-student  and  his  friend.  In 
1818  he  was  received  as  advocate  at  the  bar  of  Aix,  from 
which  he  removed  to  Paris  in  182 1  and  became  an  assist- 
ant editor  of  the  "  Constitutionnel,"  a  liberal  journal.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  his  finesse,  by  his  political  in- 
sight,  and  by  the  vivacity  of  his  style.  In  1823  he  pub- 
lished the  first  volume  of  his  "  History  of  the  French 
Revolution,"  (10  vols.,  1823-27,)  which  enjoyed  much 
popularity,  especially  with  the  Liberal  party.  Thiers, 
Mignet,  and  Armand  Carrel  founded  in  January,  1830,  the 
"  National,"  with  an  agreement  that  each  should  l>e  alter- 
nately editor-in-chief  for  one  year.  Thiers  was  the  editor 
for  the  first  year,  and  contributed  to  the  revolution  of 
July,  1830.  He  is  said  to  be  the  author  of  the  phrase, 
"  The  king  reigns,  and  does  not  govern."  He  employed 
his  influence  to  raise  Louis  Philippe  to  the  throne,  and 
was  rewarded  by  the  office  of  councillor  of  state  in  1830. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies.  He  was  under-secretary  of  state  for  the 
finances  during  the  short  ministry  of  Lafitte,  1830-31, 
and  became  minister  of  the  interior  in  "October,  1832. 
He  acquired  eminence  as  a  parliamentary  debater.  His 
speeches  are  characterized  as  familiar,  amusing,  con- 
versational, and  incisive.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
French  Academy  in  1834.  About  this  time  Thiers  and 
Guizot  became  rivals  and  competitors  for  the  place  of 
chief  minister,  the  former  being  the  leader  of  the  centre 
ganche,  ("left  centre.")  He  was  president  of  the  council 
and  minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  February  to  August, 
1836,  when  he  resigned,  and  was  succeeded  by  Count 
Mole.  In  March,  1840,  he  was  again  appointed  chief 
minister,  with  the  portfolio  of  foreign  affairs.  His  policy 
on  the  Eastern  question  was  counteracted  by  Palmerston, 
who,  by  a  concerted  action  with  Russia  and  Austria, 
isolated  France.  Thiers  resolved  to  support  Mehemet 
Ali,  at  the  risk  of  a  war  against  England  ;  but,  as  the  king 


€  as  A;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  'K.ygi^ttural;,  ii^nasaJ;  Y.Jrilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Jf^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


THIERSCH 


2  I  20 


THISTLEWOOD 


would  not  assent  to  this  course,  he  resigned  in  October, 
1840,  and  was  succeeded  by  Guizot. 

Among  his  chief  works  is  a  '*  History  of  the  Consulate 
and  the  Empire,"  (20  vols.,  1845-63.)  This,  as  well  as  his 
"  History  of  the  Revolution,"  stands  in  the  very  highest 
rank  among  historical  works  in  the  French  language. 
He  was  one  of  the  ofators  of  the  opposition  in  the  last 
years  of  the  reign  of  Louis  Philipjje,  but  did  not  give  a 
hearty  support  to  the  republic  of  1848.  In  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  he  acted  with  the  droite.  He  voted 
for  Louis  Napoleon  as  president  in  December,  1848,  but 
after  that  president  became  emperor  he  ceased  to  oe 
his  partisan.  In  1863  Thiers  was  elected  to  the  legis- 
lative body,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  opposition,  and 
to  which  he  was  re-elected  in  1869.  He  made  in  April, 
1867,  a  speech  against  Napoleon's  foreign  policy,  which 
excited  much  sensation.  He  avowed  his  enmity  to  Ital- 
ian nationality.  "The  whole  drift  of  this  speech,"  says 
the  London  "Spectator,"  "is  that  selfishness  is  the  first 
of  national  duties."  In  July,  1870,  he  boldly  opposed 
the  war  against  Prussia,  in  a  speech  to  the  legislative 
body,  and  declared  that  Napoleon  had  committed  an- 
other blunder.  The  republicans  of  Paris  offered  to 
appoint  him  a  member  of  the  provisional  government 
formed  in  September,  1870,  but  he  declined  to  serve  in 
that  capacity. 

See  Louis  de  Lomenie,  "M.  Thiers,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1841 ;  A.  Laya,  "  Etudes  historiques  sur  la  Vie  privee.  politique  et 
litteraire  de  M.  A.  Thiers,"  2  vols.,  1846;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale;"  Cormenin,  "  Livre  des  Oratears;"L.  Blanc,  "  His- 
toire  de  dix  Ans ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September, 
184s;  "  Blaclwood's  Magazine"  for  March,  1S38;  "Foreign  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  April,  1845;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  April  and 
July,  1858,  and  October,  1861  ;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1845; 
"Westminster  Review"  for  July,  1848;  "North  British  Review" 
for  August,  i860  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1863. 

Thiersch,  tecRsh,  (Bernard,)  a  German  philologist, 
became  director  of  the  College  of  Dortmund.  He  wrote, 
besides  several  works  on  philology,  "  The  Epoch  and 
Native  Land  of  Homer,"  ("Das  Zeitalter  und  Vaterland 
des  Homer.")  He  was  a  brother  of  Friedrich  Wilhelm, 
noticed  below.    Died  in  1855. 

Thiersch,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  near  Freiburg  in  1784.  He  studied  at 
Leipsic  and  Gottingen,  and  was  appointed  in  1809  pro- 
fessor of  ancient  literature  in  the  gymnasium  at  Munich. 
He  soon  after  founded  a  philological  institute,  which  was 
subsequently  united  to  the  university.  He  visited  Greece 
in  1831,  and  published,  after  his  return,  a  treatise  "On 
the  Actual  Condition  of  Greece,  and  the  Means  of  Ac- 
complishing her  Restoration,"  (in  French,  1833.)  Among 
his  other  works  we  may  name  his  "  Greek  Grammar, 
especially  for  the  Homeric  Dialects,"  (1826,)  and  a 
treatise  "On  the  Epochs  of  the  Plastic  Art  among  the 
Greeks,"  (1829.)  He  also  edited  Pindar's  "Odes,"  ac- 
companied with  notes  and  with  a  German  translation 
in  verse,  and  published  several  treatises  on  the  higher 
schools  of  Bavaria,  and  in  favour  of  classical  studies. 
Died  in  i860. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  BIo- 
graphie  Generale." 

Thiersch,  (Heinrich  Wilhelm  Josias,)  a  nephew 
or  son  of  the  preceding,  has  published,  among  other 
works,  a  "  Granmiatical  Manual  for  the  First  Instruc- 
tion in  the  Hebrew  Language,"  (1842.) 

Thiesse,  te'a'sa.',  (LioN,)  a  Freiich  writer,  born  at 
Rouen  in  1793.  He  wrote  political  pamphlets,  several 
poems,  and  "Manuel  des  Braves,"  (7  vols.,  1817  et  seq.) 

Thile,  von,  fon  tee'leh,  (Ludwig  Gustav,)  a  Prussian 
general  and  statesman,  born  in  1787,  served  against  the 
French  in  the  campaigns  of  1806,  1813,  and  1815,  and 
was  appointed  minister  of  state  under  Frederick  William 
IV.  in  1840.    Died  in  1852. 

Thilo,  tee'lo,  (Johann  Karl,)  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Langensalza  in  1794.  He  published 
a  "  Codex  Apocryphus  Novi  Testamenti/'  and  other 
learned  works.    Died  in  1853. 

Thiollet,  teVli',  (Franqots,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Poitiers  in  1782.  Fie  published  several  treatises 
on  Architecture. 

Thion  de  la  Chaume,  te'oN'  deh  It  shorn,  (Claxj,de 
Esprit,)  a  French  physician  and  surgeon,  born  in  Paris 
in  1750.    He  was  appointed  in  1778  physician  to  tl-ke 


military  hospital  at  Ajaccio,  in  Corsica,  and  soon  after 
to  the  army  destined  to  attack  Gibraltar.  While  in  this 
post  he  was  eminently  successful  in  his  treatment  of  an 
epidemic  fever  which  had  made  great  ravages  among 
the  troops.  After  his  return  to  France  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  physicians  of  the  Count  d'Artois,  afterwards 
Charles  X.    Died  in  1786. 

Thirion,  te're'oN',  (Didier,)  a  French  Jacobin,  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Convention  in  1792.  He  opposed 
Robespierre  on  the  9th  Thermidor.    Died  in  1814. 

Thiriot,  te're'o',  a  Frenchman,  born  about  1696,  was 
a  friend  of  Voltaire,  some  of  whose  works  he  edited. 
Died  in  1772. 

ThirFby,  (Styan,)  an  English  scholar  and  critic,  born 
at  Leicester  in  1692,  published  an  edition  of  Justin 
Martyr,  with  notes.    Died  in  1753. 

ThjrFwall,  (Connop,)  an  eminent  English  historian, 
born  in  Middlesex  in  1797.  He  studied  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  where  he  t:)ok  the  degree  of  M.A.  in 
1821.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in  1840. 
He  has  published,  conjointly  with  Julius  Charles  Hare, 
a  translation  from  the  German  of  two  volumes  of  Nie- 
buhr's  "  History  of  Rome."  He  brought  out  in  1852 
his  "  History  of  Greece,"  (8  vols.  8vo,)  which  is  esteemed 
a  standard  work.  "  Having,"  says  Mr.  Grote,  "studied, 
of  course,  the  same  evidence  as  Dr.  Thirlwall,  I  am 
better  enabled  than  others  to  bear  testimony  to  the 
learning,  the  sagacity,  and  the  candour  which  pervade 
his  excellent  work."  (Preface  to  Grote's  "  History  of 
Greece.") 

See  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1835. 

Thiroux  d'Arconville.    See  Arconville,  d'. 

Tliiroux  de  Crosne,  te'roo'  deh  kr6n,  (Louis,)  a 
French  magistrate,  born  in  Paris  in  1736,  became  lieu- 
tenant-general of  the  police  in  1785.  He  was  guillotined 
in  1794. 

Thirty  Tyrants,  The,  [commonly  called  in  Greek 
simply  01  TpLUKovra,  or  "The  Thirty,"]  the  name  of  a 
tyrannical  oligarchy  which  was  established  in  Athens, 
under  the  protectorate  of  Sparta,  continuing  about  a  year, 
at  the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  All  the  Athenian 
citizens  supposed  to  be  favourable  to  liberty  were  espe- 
cially obnoxious  to  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  and  many  of  them 
were  put  to  death  without  regard  to  justice  or  even  the 
forms  of  law  ;  and  great  wealth,  particularly  if  it  belonged 
to  those  who  were  not  citizens  of  Athens,  was  almost  sure 
to  bring  destruction  upon  its  possessor.  Among  the 
Thirty  the  most  conspicuous  were  Critias,  Theramenes, 
and  Eratosthenes.    See  Thrasybulus. 

See  Grote,  "History  of  Greece;"  Thirlwall,  "History  of 
Greece;"  Xenophon,  "Hellenica;"  Lysias,  "Oration  against 
Eratosthenes." 

^f^^  The  name  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  [in  Latin, 
Tri(;in'ta  Tyran'ni]  was  also  sometimes  incorrectly 
ajjplied  to  a  number  of  pretenders  or  usurpers  who 
arose  in  different  parts  of  the  Roman  empire  during  the 
reigns  of  Valerian  and  Gallienus.  Among  their  number 
were  Odenathus  and  the  famous  Zenobia. 

See  Gibbon,  "History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire;"  Trebellius  Pollio,  "  Triginta  Tyranni." 

This'be,  [Gr.  QioSv  :  Fr.  Thisr6,  t^s'bi',]  a  beautiful 
maiden  of  Babylon,  beloved  by  Pyramus.  They  lived 
in  adjoining  houses,  and  conversed  privately  through  a 
chink  of  the  wall.  They  agreed  to  meet  at  the  tomb  of 
Ninus,  under  a  mulberry-tree.  Thisbe,  who  first  came 
to  that  place,  was  driven  away  by  the  sight  of  a  lioness, 
and  dropped  her  veil,  which  the  lioness  stained  with 
blood.  This  veil  was  found  by  Pyramus,  who,  hastily 
concluding  that  Thisbe  had  been  killed,  destroyed  him- 
self. She  soon  returned,  saw  the  dead  body  of  Pyramus, 
and  followed  his  example.  The  poets  feigned  that  the 
mulberries,  in  sympathy  with  their  fate,  changed  colour 
from  white  to  red. 

See  Ovid,  "Metamorphoses." 

Thisted,  tis'ted,  (Waldem.ar  Adolf,)  a  Danish 
poet  and  romance-writer,  known  under  the  pseudonym 
of  Saint  Hermidad,  born  at  Aarhuus  in  1815,  has 
published,  among  other  works,  a  poem  entitled  "The 
Heart  of  the  Wilderness,"  (1850.) 

Thistlewood,  this'sl-wood,  (Arthur,)  an  English 
adventurer,  born  near  Lincoln  in  1772,  was  the  principal 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same«  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y, 


THJJSSI 


2I2I 


THOMAS 


leader  in  the  so-called  Cato  Street  Conspiracy,  designed 
to  excite  an  insurrection  in  London.  Being  arrested, 
with  several  of  his  accomplices,  he  was  condemned  to 
death,  and  executed  in  1820. 

See  "The  Closing  Scene;  or,  Christianity  and  Infidelity  Con- 
trasted," by  the  Rev.  Erskine  Neale. 

Thjassi.    See  Thiassi. 

Thoghrul  Beg.    See  Togrul  Beg. 

Thograi.    See  Tograi. 

Tlioiras.  See  Rapin,  de,  (Paul.) 

Tholuck,  to'luk,  [Ger.  pron.  toHook,]  (Friedrich 
August  Gottreu,)  an  eminent  German  theologian  and 
pulpit  orator,  born  at  Breslau,  March  30,  1799.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Berlin,  where  he  acquired 
much  proficiency  in  the  Oriental  languages,  and  was 
induced  by  Neander  to  devote  himself  to  theology.  In 
1823  he  produced  a  popular  work,  called  "  Wahre  Weihe 
des  Zweifiers,"  which  was  reprinted  under  the  title  of 
"  The  Doctrine  of  the  Sinner  and  of  the  Mediator," 
(1851.)  He  became  extraordinary  professor  of  theology 
at  Berlin  in  1824,  visited  England  and  Holland  in  1825, 
and  obtained  in  1826  the  chair  of  theology  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Halle.  Having  passed  about  two  years  as 
chaplain  to  the  Prussian  embassy  at  Rome,  where  he 
formed  a  friendship  with  Bunsen,  he  returned  to  Halle 
in  1829,  and  resumed  the  duties  of  his  professorship. 
Ht  opposed  the  rationalism  which  was  prevalent  among 
hiv  colleagues  at  Halle,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
influential  teachers  of  the  evangelical  doctrines.  Among 
his  numerous  works,  which  are  highly  esteemed,  are  a 
"Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,"  (4th 
edition,  1842,)  "  Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  John," 
(1826;  7th  edition,  1857,  of  which  an  excellent  English 
translation  has  been  made  by  Dr.  Krauth,  of  Philadelphia, 
1859,)  "Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews," 
(1836,)  "The  Authenticity  of  the  Gospel  History," 
(1837,)  "  Hours  of  Devotion,"  ("  Stunden  der  Andacht," 
1840,)  and  several  volumes  of  sermons.  He  has  been  for 
several  years  engaged  on  a  "  History  of  Rationalism." 
Most  of  his  works  have  been  translated  into  English. 

Thorn,  torn,  (James,)  a  Scottish  sculptor,  born  in 
Ayrshire  in  1799,  was  a  stone-mason  in  his  youth. 
Having  taught  himself  sculpture,  he  produced  sandstone 
statues  of  "Tam  O'Shanter"  and  "  Souter  Johnnie," 
which  obtained  great  popularity,  and  were  reproduced 
by  several  copies.  Among  his  other  works  is  a  group 
of  "Old  Mortality,"  in  sandstone,  which  stands  at  the 
entrance  of  Laurel  Hill  Cemetery,  near  Philadelphia. 
He  came  to  America  in  1836.  Died  at  New  York  in  1850. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supjjlement.) 

Thom,  (William,)  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at  Aber- 
deen in  1799.  His  means  of  instruction  were  very 
scanty,  and  at  an  early  age  he  was  apprenticed  to  a 
weaver.  He  published  in  1841  "  Rhyn^es  and  Recollec- 
tions of  a  Hand-Loom  Weaver."  He  died,  in  great 
destitution,  in  1850. 

See  the  "  Westminster  Review"  for  December,  1843. 

Thomander,  to-min'der,  (Johan  Henrik,)  a  Swed- 
ish theologian  and  distinguished  pulpit  orator,  born  in 
the  province  of  Scania  in  1798,  was  appointed  in  1833 
professor  of  pastoral  theology  in  the  Theological  Semi- 
nary at  Lund.  He  has  published  sermons  and  other 
religious  works,  and  translated  into  Swedish  several  of 
Shakspeare's  works,  the  "  Clouds"  of  Aristophanes, 
and  Byron's  "  Manfred." 

Thom'as,  (tom'as,)  [Fr.  pron.  to'mi';  Gr.  Gw^af; 
It.  ToMMASO,  tom-mi'so  ;  Sp.  Tomas,  to-mis',]  or 
Didymus,  [Gr.  Ai'du/zof,]  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  born  in  Galilee.  He  is  first 
mentioned  in  John  xi.  16.  According  to  tradition,  he 
preached  the  gospel  in  India  and  suffered  martyrdom 
in  that  region. 

See  John  xx.  24-29. 

Thomas,  to'mS',  (Alexandre  Gerard,)  a  French 
litteratetir,  born  in  Paris  in  1818.  He  contributed  many 
able  articles  to  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes."  He 
removed  to  England  in  1852,  and  wrote  for  the  "Edin- 
burgh Review."    Died  at  Brussels  in  1857. 

Thomas,  (Antoine  Leonard,)  a  celebrated  French 
writer,  born  at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1732.    He  studied 


in  Paris,  and  about  1754  obtained  a  professorship  in  the 
College  of  Beauvais.  He  published  in  1756  "Philoso- 
phical and  Literary  Reflections  on  the  Poem  of  Natural 
Religion."  His  "Eulogy  on  Marshal  Saxe"  obtained 
the  prize  from  the  French  Academy  in  1759.  It  was 
followed  by  eulogies  on  Chancellor  d'Aguesseau  and 
Duguay-Trouin,  which  were  also  crowned  by  the  Acad- 
emy. Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  his  "Epis- 
tle to  the  People,"  a  poem,  eulogies  on  Sully,  Descartes, 
and  Marcus  Aurelius,  "Essay  on  the  Character,  Man- 
ners, and  Intellect  of  Women  in  all  Ages,"  (1772,)  and 
an  "Essay  on  Eulogies,  or  the  History  of  Literature 
and  Eloquence  applied  to  this  Kind  of  Writing,"  (1773.) 
In  1767  he  succeeded  Hardion  as  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.    Died  in  1785. 

See  A.  Deleyre,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  de  Thomas,"  1792  ;  Saint- 
SuRiN,  "Notice  sur  Thomas,"  1825;  Villemain,  "Tableau  de  la 
Litterature  au  dix-huiti^me  Siecle ;"  "  Nouvelle  JBiographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Thomas,  (Charles  Louis  Ambroise,)  a  French  mu- 
sical composer,  born  at  Metz  in  1811.  He  gained  the 
grand  prize  for  musical  composition  in  1832,  produced 
successful  comic  operas,  etc.,  and  was  adinittecl  into  the 
Institute  in  1851.  Among  his  works  are  operas  entitled 
"LeCaid"  and  "  Le  Songe  d'une  Nuit  d'£te,"  (1850.) 

Thomas,  (Christian.)    See  Thomasius. 

Thomas,  (Clement,)  a  French  ofiicer,  born  at  Li- 
bourne  in  1812.  He  was  chosen  general-in-chief  of  the 
national  guard  of  Paris  in  May,  1848,  but  was  removed 
in  the  next  month.  He  commanded  the  national  guards 
during  the  siege  of  Paris  in  the  autumn  of  1870. 

Thom'as,  (tom'as,)  (David,)  an  American  i^omologist, 
florist,  and  writer  on  agriculture,  was  born  in  Montgomery 
county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1776.  He  was  educated  by 
his  parents  in  the  religious  principles  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  In  1805  he  removed  to  near  Aurora,  in  Cayuga 
county.  New  York.  In  181 7  he  published  "Travels  in 
the  West,"  a  work  which  attracted  the  notice  of  De  Witt 
Clinton  and  led  to  Mr.  Thomas  being  appointed  chief 
engineer  on  the  Erie  Canal,  west  of  Rochester,  which 
position  he  held  until  the  canal  was  completed.  Subse- 
quently, on  the  recommendation  of  Governor  Clinton, 
he  was  employed  as  one  of  the  principal  engineers  on 
the  Welland  Canal  in  Canada.  As  a  florist  and  pomolo- 
gist  Mr.  Thomas  had  few,  if  any,  superiors  in  the  United 
States.  By  his  contributions  to  "The  Genesee  Farmer" 
he  rendered  an  important  service  to  the  cause  of  agri- 
culture, particularly  in  refuting  an  error,  once  widely 
prevalent,  that  wheat  under  certain  circumstances  was 
liable  to  be  changed  into  "  chess,"  (Brotnus  secalinus,) 
a  plant  of  quite  a  different  genus.  Mr.  Thomas  showed 
that  when  the  seed-wheat  was  perfectly  clean,  and 
when  the  soil  had  been  thoroughly  burnt,  so  as  to 
destroy  the  seeds  of  different  kinds  of  weeds,  including 
chess,  the  alleged  transmutation  never  took  place,  even 
under  the  circumstances  supposed  to  be  most  favour- 
able to  such  a  change.  His  writings,  supported  as  they 
were  by  carefully-conducted  experiments,  led  not  merely 
to  the  diffusion  of  more  enlightened  views,  but  to  a  great 
practical  improvement  in  this  department  of  agriculture. 
Died  in  1859. 

Thom'as,  (tom'as,)  (Elizabeth,)  an  English  writer, 
born  in  1675,  the  author  of  letters  and  poems  which 
were  admired  by  Dryden,  who  gave  her  the  name  of 
Corinna.  Pope,  however,  has  introduced  her  into  his 
"Dunciad."    Died  in  1730, 

Thomas,  (F^;lix,)  a  French  architect,  born  at  Nantes 
in  1815.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in  1845  ^^^"^  ^  design 
for  a  cathedral.  He  performed  an  artistic  mission  to 
Babylonia  about  185 1. 

Thomas,  (Fr6d6ric,)  a  French  advocate  and  littera- 
tetir,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1814.  He  became  a  resident 
of  Paris  in  1835,  wrote  for  the  "  Presse,"  and  published 
several  novels. 

Thomas,  (Frederick  William,)  an  American  novel- 
ist and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode 
Island,  in  1808.  He  published  "Clinton  Bradshaw," 
(1835,)  "East  and  West,"  (1836,)  and  "Howard  Pinck- 
ney,"  also  "  The  Beechen  Tree,  and  other  Poems,"  (1844,) 
"John  Randolph  of  Roanoke,  and  other  Sketches  of 
Character,"  and  "The  Emigrant,"  a  poem. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  o,  H,  v.,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    ( Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


THOMAS 


21 


22 


THOMJSIUS 


Thomas,  (George  H.,)  a  distinguished  American 
general,  born  in  Southampton  county,  Virginia,  on  the 
31st  of  July,  1816.  He  entered  the  Academy  at  West 
Point  in  1836,  and  graduated  twelfth  in  a  class  of  forty- 
five,  in  1840.  Having  become  first  lieutenant  in  1843, 
he  served  with  distinction  in  the  Mexican  war  at  Mon- 
terey and  Buena  Vista,  (1847,)  and  gained  the  rank  of 
captain  in  1853.  ^^^^  employed  in  Texas  from  1856 

to  November,  i860,  and  maintained  his  loyalty  to  the 
Union  amidst  the  general  defection  of  Southern-born 
officers.  In  May,  1861,  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the 
fifth  United  States  cavalry,  and  in  August  became  a 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He  was  ordered  to 
Kentucky  in  September,  obtained  command  of  a  di- 
vision of  the  army  of  Buell,  and  defeated  General  ZoUi- 
koffer  near  Mill  Spring  about  the  i8th  of  January,  1862. 
In  April  of  that  year  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general,  and  in  the  next  month  he  obtained  command 
of  five  divisions,  forming  the  right  wing  of  Halleck's 
army  operating  against  Corinth.  He  became  in  Sep- 
tember, 1862,  second  in  command  of  the  army  of  the 
Ohio,  which  was  opposed  to  General  Bragg  in  Kentucky. 
He  rendered  important  services  at  the  battle  of  Stone 
River,  December  31,  1862,  to  January  2,  1863,  and  took 
part  in  the  movements  by  which  the  Union  army  gained 
possession  of  Chattanooga,  September  9.  His  reputa- 
tion was  increased  by  his  conduct  at  the  battle  of  Chick- 
amauga,  September  19  and  20.  There  his  corps  stood 
firm  after  the  rest  of  the  army  had  been  routed,  and 
repulsed  the  attacks  of  the  enemy  until  darkness  put  an 
end  to  the  battle.  He  succeeded  Rdsecrans  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  of  the  Cumberland  on  the 
19th  of  October,  1863,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  of  the  regular  army  in  the  same  month. 

General  Thomas  contributed  to  the  victory  which 
General  Grant  gained  near  Chattanooga,  November  25, 
1863.  He  served  under  Sherman  in  the  campaign 
against  Atlanta,  which  began  in  May,  1864,  and  took 
part  in  the  battles  at  Dallas  and  Kenesaw  Mountain,  and 
in  several  actions  fought  near  Atlanta  in  July.  When 
Sherman  was  about  to  abandon  Atlanta  and  march 
through  Georgia  to  the  sea,  he  sent  General  Thomas 
with  an  army  to  Middle  Tennessee  to  operate  against 
Hood,  who  invaded  Tennessee  about  the  end  of  Octo- 
ber. As  Hood  moved  north,  General  Thomas  fell  back 
slowly  towards  Nashville,  and  summoned  reinforcements 
to  join  him  at  that  city.  On  the  30th  of  November  the 
Union  army  was  attacked  at  Franklin  by  the  army  of 
Hood,  which  was  repulsed  with  severe  loss,  but  after- 
wards advanced  to  Nashville.  General  Thomas  attacked 
Hood  in  position  at  Nashville  on  the  15th  of  Decem- 
ber, 1864,  and,  in  a  battle  lasting  two  days,  defeated  and 
drove  him  from  the  field  in  the  utmost  confusion.  In 
this  battle  Hood  lost  about  6000  prisoners  and  sixty 
pieces  of  cannon.  Soon  after  this  victory  General 
Thomas  was  appointed  a  major-general  in  the  regular 
army.  After  the  end  of  the  war  he  commanded  the 
department  of  the  Cumberland,  comprising  the  States 
of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky.  He  was  remarkable  for  his 
modesty,  simplicity  of  character,  stability,  discretion,  and 
other  virtues.  President  Johnson  having  ofi"ered  him  the 
brevet  of  lieirtenant-general  and  of  general  in  February, 
1868,  he  declined  the  compliment,  saying  he  had  done 
nothing  since  the  war  to  merit  such  promotion.  Died 
in  1870. 

Thomas,  (Isaiah,)  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  American 
printer  and  journalist,  born  at  Boston  in  1749.  In  1770 
he  published  at  Boston  the  *'  Massachusetts  Spy,"  in 
which  he  denounced  the  measures  of  the  British  gov- 
ernment. He  subsequently  carried  on  an  extensive 
business  as  a  bookseller  ii\  that  city.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "History  of  Printing  in  America,"  (1810.) 
Died  in  1831. 

Thomas,  to'mas,  (Jakob  Ernst,)  a  German  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Hagelstein  in  1588.  He  worked 
in  Rome  and  other  cities  of  Italy.    Died  in  1653. 

Thomas,  (John,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Mas- 
sachusetts. He  served  against  the  French  and  Indians 
in  1756.  He  was  appointed  a  major-general  in  March, 
1776,  and  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  army  in 
Canada  on  the  death  of  General  Montgomery.  He 


raised  the  siege  of  Quebec,  and  began  to  retreat,  but 
died  at  Chambly  in  May,  1776. 

Thomas,  (John,)  an  able  English  sculptor,  born  in 
Gloucestershire  in  1813.  He  executed  or  designed  the 
statues  and  carvings  which  adorn  the  new  Houses  of 
Parliament.    He  was  also  an  architect.    Died  in  1862. 

Thomas,  (John,)  an  English  prelate,  born  at  Carlisle 
in  1 71 2.  He  rose  through  several  preferments  to  be 
Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1774.    Died  in  1793. 

Thomas,  (John  J.,)  an  American  pomologist  and 
writer  on  agriculture,  a  son  of  David  Thomas,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  Cayuga  county,  New  York,  in  1810, 
Among  his  publications  may  be  named  the  "  American 
Fruit-Culturist,"  (ist  edition  in  1846;  last  edition, 
greatly  enlarged  and  improved,  1867,)  "  Farm  Ma- 
chinery," (last  edition,  1868,)  and  a  serial  entitled  *'  Rural 
Aff"airs,"  (6  vols.,  1858-70.)  Mr.  Thomas  has  been  one 
of  the  editors  of  "  The  Country  Gentleman"  (issued 
at  Albany)  from  the  date  of  its  first  publication,  in 
1852. 

Thomas,  (Lorenzo,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Delaware  about  1804,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1823. 
He  became  adjutant-general  in  March,  1861,  and  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  August  of  that 
year.  He  had  a  prominent  i)art  in  President  Johnson's 
coup  d'etat  of  February  21,  1868,  when  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  war  ad  tJiterim  in  place  of  E.  M.  Stanton, 
who,  however,  refused  to  give  up  the  office. 

Thomas,  (Philip  F.,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Talbot  county,  Maryland,  in  1810.  He  was  elected 
Governor  of  Maryland  in  1847,  and  appointed  secretary 
of  the  treasury  about  December  12,  i860.  He  resigned 
January  11,  1861. 

Thomas,  (Pierre  £mile,)  a  French  publicist  and 
civil  engineer,  born  in  Paris  in  1822.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  the  National  Workshops,"  ( Ateliers,)  (1848.) 

Thomas,  (Robert,)  an  able  English  physician,  born 
in  1743,  published  a  popular  work  entitled  "  The  Modern 
Practice  of  Physic,"  and  other  medical  treatises.  Died 
in  1835. 

Thomas,  (William,)  a  historical  writer,  born  in 
Wales,  was  patronized  by  King  Edward  VI.  Under 
the  reign  of  Mary  he  was  executed  on  a  charge  of 
treason,  (1553.)  He  published  a  "History  of  Italy," 
and  other  works. 

Thomas,  (William,)  born  at  Bristol,  in  England,  in 
1613,  was  chaplain  to  the  Duke  of  York  and  preceptor 
to  the  princess  (afterwards  queen)  Anne.  He  was  created 
Bishop  of  Worcester.    Died  in  1689. 

Thomas,  (William,)  a  learned  English  divine,  grand- 
son of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1670.  He  became 
rector  of  Saint  Nicholas,  in  Worcester,  in  1723.  He 
published  a  "  Survey  of  Worcester  Cathedral,"  and 
other  antiquarian  works.    Died  in  1738. 

Thomas  Aquinas.    See  Aquinas. 

Thomas  d'Aquin.    See  Aquinas. 

Thom'as  Can-ti-pra-ten'sis,  [Fr.  Thomas  de  Can- 
timi'r6,  to'm^'  deh  kdN't^N'pRa',]  a  Flemish  monk  and 
biographer,  born  near  Brussels  in  1201  ;  died  in  1263, 

Thomas  Dufosse,  (Pierre.)    See  Foss6,  du. 

Thomas  a  Kempis.    See  Kempis. 

Thomas  the  Rhymer.    See  Rhymer. 

Thomas  de  Villeneuve,  Saint,  or  Thomas  Gar- 
cias,  (gaR7/^ee'Ss,)  a  Spanish  prelate,  born  in  Leon  in 
1488.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Valencia  in  1545. 
Died  in  1555. 

See  Dabert,  "Histoire  de  Saint  Thomas  de  Villeneuve,"  1853. 

Thomasen.    See  Thomasius. 

Thomasin,  tom'a-sin  or  to-ml-zeen',  written  also  To- 
masin,  Zerkler,  or  Tirkelare,  a  poet  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  born  at  Friuli,  in  Italy,  was  the  autlior  of  a 
didactic  poem  in  German,  entitled  "The  Italian  Guest," 
("  Der  Welsche  Gast.")  Of  this  work,  which  is  esteemed 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  productions  of  the  age,  only 
small  portions  have  been  printed. 

Thomasius,  to-mi'ze-us,  or  Thomasen,  to'ma-zen, 
(Christian,)  an  eminent  German  ))hilosopher  and  re- 
former, born  at  Leipsic  in  1655.  Having  studied  law 
and  graduated  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  he  founded  in 
1688  a  monthly  review,  which  soon  became  noted  for  its 
bold  censures  of  prevailing  abuses.    In  1694  he  was 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y, 


short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


THOMASIUS 


2  I  23 


THOMSEN 


appointed  professor  of  jurisprudence  at  the  University 
of  Halle,  where  he  became  rector  in  17 10.  He  was  the 
first  to  introduce  the  practice  of  lecturing  and  writing  in 
German,  and,  by  his  denunciation  of  the  superstitions  of 
the  time,  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  abolishing  trials  for 
witchcraft.  Among  his  principal  works  are  an  "  Intro- 
duction to  the  Doctrine  of  Reason  or  Logic,"  (1691,) 
''Introduction  to  Moral  Philosophy,"  (1692,)  and  "His- 
tory of  Wisdom  and  Folly,"  (1693.)  Thomasius  was 
eulogized  by  Frederick  the  Great  as  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  philosophers  of  Germany.    Died  in  1728. 

See  LuDEN,  "  C.  Tliomasius  nach  seinen  Schicksalen,"  etc.,  1805  ; 
F.  Hoffmann,  "  Programma  in  Obitum  C.  Thomasii,"  1729;  Zed- 
LER,  "  Universal-Lexikon  ;"  Saxe,  "  Onomasticon ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Thomasius  or  Thomasen,  (Jakob,)  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  at  Leipsic  in  1622,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  professor  of  belles-lettres  and  phi- 
losophy at  Leipsic,  and  one  of  the  teachers  of  Leibnitz. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Origins  of  History, 
IMiilosophical  and  Ecclesiastical,"  ("  Origines  Historias 
Philosophicae  et  Ecclesiasticae,"  1665.)    Died  in  1684. 

See  Saxe,  "Onomasticon;"  Zedler,  "  Universal-Lexikon." 

Thomassin,  to^mt'siw',  (Louis,)  a  French  ecclesi- 
astic, born  at  Aix  in  1619,  became  professor  of  theology 
in  the  seminary  of  Sainte-Magloire,  at  Paris.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  treatise  "  On  Ancient  and  Modern  Ecclesi- 
astical Discipline,"  "  Theological  Dogmas,"  and  other 
learned  works.    Died  in  1695. 

Thomassin,  (Philippe,)  an  eminent  French  engraver, 
born  at  Troyes  about  1550.  He  worked  mostly  at  Rome, 
and  engraved  many  antique  statues,  also  numerous  por- 
traits of  eminent  men.    He  died  at  an  advanced  age. 

Thomassin,  (Simon,)  a  French  engraver,  born  at 
Troyes  about  1652,  is  said  to  have  been  a  nephew  of  the 
preceding.    Died  in  1732. 

His  son  Henri  Simon,  born  in  Paris  in  1688,  was  an 
able  engraver.  He  engraved  some  works  of  Rubens 
and  Paul  Veronese.    Died  in  1741. 

Thomassy,  to'mt'se',  (Marie  Joseph  Raymond,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1810.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Morocco  and  its  Caravans," 
(1845.) 

Thomines.    See  Bosc,  du,  (Pierre.) 

Thomond,  to'm^N',  (Thomas,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Nancy  in  1759.  He  removed  to  Saint  Peters- 
burg, where  he  was  employed  by  the  Russian  govern- 
ment to  remodel  the  Great  Theatre  and  build  several 
splendid  public  edifices.  The  Imperial  Exchange,  com- 
pleted in  1810,  is  esteemed  one  of  his  finest  works.  Died 
in  1813. 

Thompson,  tom'son,  (Augustus  Charles,)  D.D., 
an  American  Congregational  divine,  born  at  Goshen, 
Connecticut,  in  1812.  He  has  published  "The  Young 
Martyrs,"  "  Last  Hours,  or  Words  and  Acts  of  the 
Dying,"  (1851,)  and  other  religious  works. 

Thompson,  (Benjamin.)    See  Rumford,  Count. 

Thompson,  (Daniel  Pierce,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  popular  novelist,  born  at  Charlestown,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1795.  His  principal  works  are  entitled 
"May  Martin,  or  the  Money-Diggers,"  (1835,)  "The 
Green  Mountain  Boys,"  (1840,)  "  Locke  Amsden,"  (1847,) 
an  admirable  tale,  descriptive  of  the  experience  of  a 
New  England  school-master,  "The  Rangers,  or  the 
Tory's  Daughter,"  (1851,)  and  "  Gant  Gurley,  or  the 
Trappers  of  Lake  Umbagog,"  (1857.)  Died  in  May  or 
June,  1868. 

See  DuvcKiNCK,  "Cyclopasdia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. 

Thompson,  tom'son,  (Edward,)  an  English  poet, 
born  at  Hull  about  1737.  He  served  in  the  royal  navy 
in  his  youth,  and  wrote  several  licentious  poems,  among 
which  is  "The  Demirep,"  (1766.)  He  also  published  a 
"  Sailor's  Letters,"  (autobiographic,  2  vols.,  1767.)  Died 
in  1786. 

Thompson,  (Henry,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
writer,  born  about  1797.  He  became  vicar  of  Chard,  in 
Somersetshire.  Among  his  works  is  a  "  Life  of  Hannah 
More."    He  contributed  to  several  periodicals. 

Thompson,  (Jacob,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Caswell  county.  North  Carolina,  in  1810.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  from  Mississippi  in  1839,  and  in  1857 


was  appointed  secretary  of  the  interior  under  President 
Buchanan.  He  subsequently  joined  the  secessionists, 
and  in  1861  was  elected  Governor  of  Mississippi. 

Thompson,  (John  R.,)  an  American  litterateur,  born 
at  Richmond,  Virginia,  in  1823,  was  for  many  years 
editor  of  the  "  Southern  Literary  Messenger." 

Thompson,  (Joseph  Parrish,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Congregational  divine,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1819. 
He  became  pastor  of  the  Broadway  Tabernacle  Church, 
New  York,  in  1845.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  "  Independent"  at  Brooklyn,  and  also  of  the  "  New 
Englander,"  to  which  he  made  many  contributions.  He 
has  published  "  Lectures  to  Young  Men,"  "  Egypt,  Past 
and  Present,"  "  The  Christian  Graces,"  and  various 
other  works.  He  has  also  contributed  many  valuable 
articles  to  the  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra,"  Smith's  "  Dictionary 
of  Biblical  Geography  and  Antiquities,"  and  the  "North 
American  Review." 

Thompson,  (Robert  Anchor,)  an  English  divine, 
born  in  Durham  in  1821,  has  published,  among  other 
works,  "Christian  Theism,"  (1855,)  and  "Principles  of 
Natural  Theology,"  (1857.) 

Thompson,  (Smi  th,)  an  American  judge,  born  prob- 
ably in  New  York  State  about  1767.  He  became  chief 
justice  of  New  York  in  1814,  was  secretary  of  the  navy 
from  November,  1818,  to  December,  1823,  and  was  then 
appointed  an  associate  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of 
the  United  States.    Died  at  Poughkeepsie  in  1843. 

Thompson,  (Thomas  Perronet,)  an  English  officer 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Hull  in  1783.  He 
studied  at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  and,  having 
entered  the  army,  served  with  distinction  in  South 
America,  Spain,  and  India,  and  attained  the  rank  of 
major  in  1825.  About  1830  he  became  associate  pro- 
])rietor  of  the  "  Westminster  Review,"  in  which  he  advo- 
cated the  abolition  of  slavery,  free  trade,  and  various 
other  reforms.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  from  Hull 
in  1835,  and  twice  re-elected  for  Bradford,  in  Yorkshire. 
He  was  made  a  major-general  in  1854.  He  published  the 
"  Corn-Law  Catechism,"  (1827,)  "  True  Theory  of  Rent," 
"  Enharmonic  Theory  of  Music,"  etc.,  (1829,)  "Geometry 
without  Axioms,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1869. 

Thompson,  (Waddy,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
politician,  born  at  Pickensville,  South  Carolina,  in  1798. 
He  was  elected  to  Congress  by  the  Whig  party  in  1835, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition  to  Calhoun 
and  the  State-Rights  party.  He  was  appointed  in  1842 
minister  to  Mexico,  and  published,  after  his  return,  "  Re- 
miniscences of  Mexico." 

Thompson,  (William,)  an  eminent  Irish  naturalist, 
born  at  Belfast  in  1805.  Having  previously  made  him- 
self acquainted  with  the  natural  history  of  Ireland,  he 
made  a  voyage  in  1841  to  the  Grecian  Archipelago. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  a  "  Catalogue  of  Birds 
new  to  the  Irish  Fauna,"  "  On  some  Vertebrata  new  to 
the  Irish  Fauna,"  and  "On  the  Natural  History  of  Ire- 
land," etc.,  (4  vols.,  1856.)  He  also  contributed  to  the 
"Annals  of  Natural  History."  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy  and  other  learned  societies. 
Died  in  1852. 

Thompson,  (William,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
Westmoreland,  became  Dean  of  Raphoe,  in  Ireland. 
He  published  a  collection  of  poems.    Died  in  1766. 

Thompson,  (Zadoc,)  an  American  naturalist,  born 
at  Bridgewater,  Vermont,  in  1796.  He  became  about 
1842  professor  of  natural  history  and  chemistry  in  the 
University  of  Vermont,  and  in  1853  was  appointed  State 
naturalist.  He  was  the  author  of  the  "Natural,  Civil, 
and  Political  History  of  Vermont,"  etc.,  a  "Gazetteer 
of  Vermont,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1856. 

Thoms,  tomz,  (William  John,)  an  English  writer 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Westminster  in  1803.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Collection  of  Early  Prose  Romances,"  (1828,) 
"Lays  and  Legends  of  Various  Nations,"  (1834,)  and 
editions  of  Stow's  "  Survey  of  London"  and  Caxton's 
"  Reynard  the  Fox."  He  has  also  been  the  principal 
editor  of  "Notes  and  Queries,"  a  work  first  published 
at  his  suggestion. 

Thonisen,  tom'sen,  (Christian  Jurgensen, )  a 
Danish  antiquary,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1788.  He 
became  director  of  the  royal  cabinet  of  medals  in  1842. 


«  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  Yi,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (^(^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


THOMSON 


21  24 


THOR 


He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Northern  Antiquities,"  (1831,) 
and  other  works. 

Thompson,  (tom'spn,)  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  poet, 
was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "The  British  Par- 
nassus at  the  Close  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1803. 

Thomson,  (Andrew,)  a  Scottish  divine  and  pulpit 
orator,  born  in  Dumfriesshire  in  1779.  He  became  in 
1814  pastor  of  Saint  George's  Church,  Edinburgh,  where 
he  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  his  zeal  and  eloquence. 
Died  in  183 1. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Thomson,  (Anthony  Todd,)  an  eminent  Scottish 
physician,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1778.  He  studied  in 
his  native  city,  attending  the  lectures  of  Munro,  Black, 
and  other  distinguished  men,  and  about  1800  began  the 
practice  of  medicine  in  London.  He  published  the 
"London  Dispensatory,"  (1811,)  which  met  with  great 
success  and  was  translated  into  several  languages,  a 
"Conspectus  of  the  Pharmacopoeias  of  London,  Edin- 
burgh, and  Dublin,"  etc.,  (1816,)  "  Lectures  on  Botany," 
"Elements  of  Materia  Medica,"  (1832,)  and  other  works 
on  various  subjects.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians,  and  in  1828  became  professor 
of  materia  medica  in  the  London  University.  He  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  medical  jurisprudence  in 
1832.    Died  in  1849. 

Mrs.  A.  T.  Thomson,  wife  of  the  preceding,  pub- 
lished "Memoirs  of  Sarah,  Duchess  of  Marlborough," 
etc.,  "Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  Henry  VHI.,"  "Recol- 
lections of  Literary  Characters  and  Celebrated  Places," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1862. 

Thompson,  (tom'son,)  (Charles,)  a  patriot,  born  in 
Ireland  in  1729  or  1730.  He  emigrated  to  America  in 
1741,  and  settled  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  a  friend  of  Dr. 
Franklin,  served  as  secretary  of  Congress  from  1774 
to  1789,  and  was  highly  respected  for  his  virtues  and 
learning.  He  produced  a  translation  of  the  Septuagint, 
which  was  published  in  4  vols.,  (1808.)    Died  in  1824. 

Thompson,  (Edv^ard,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist  divine, 
born  at  Portsea,  England,  in  1810,  emigrated  to  America, 
and  was  elected  in  1843  professor  of  mental  and  moral 
philosophy  in  the  University  of  Michigan.  He  subse- 
quently became  president  of  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  Univer- 
sity. In  1864  he  was  elected  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.    Died  in  1870. 

Thomson,  (James,)  a  celebrated  poet,  born  in  Rox- 
burghshire, Scotland,  in  1700.  He  studied  theology  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  ;  but  he  soon  renounced 
it  for  literary  pursuits,  and  published  in  1726  his  poem 
entitled  "Winter."  Its  success  at  first  was  moderate, 
but  it  subsequently  acquired  great  popularity,  and  was 
followed  in  a  few  years  by  his  "  Spring,"  "  Summer," 
and  "  Autumn,"  all  of  which  appeared  in  1730,  under  the 
title  of  "  The  Seasons."  His  tragedies  of  "  Sophonisba," 
"Agamemnon,"  and  "Edward  and  Eleonora,"  as  well 
as  his  poem  on  "  Liberty,"  were  received  with  little  fa- 
vour. Through  the  influence  of  his  friend  Sir  George — 
afterwards  Lord — Lyttleton,  he  was  appointed  about  1745 
surveyor-general  of  the  Leeward  Islands.  He  pul^lished 
in  1748  his  "Castle  of  Indolence,"  an  allegorical  poem 
in  the  Spenserian  measure,  which  is  generally  esteemed 
his  finest  production.  He  died  in  1 748.  Translations  of 
his  "Seasons"  have  been  made  into  German,  and  both  a 
prose  and  poetical  version  of  it  have  appeared  in  French, 
while  among  all  classes  in  Great  Britain  it  is  still  one 
of  the  most  popular  poems  in  the  language.  Campbell 
observes,  "The  unvaried  pomp  of  Thomson's  diction 
suggests  a  most  unfavourable  comparison  with  the  manly 
and  idiomatic  simplicity  of  Cowper  ;  at  the  same  time, 
the  pervading  spirit  and  feeling  of  his  poetry  is  in  gen- 
eral more  bland  and  delightful  than  that  of  his  great 
rival  in  rural  description." 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  David,  Eari,  of  Buchan, 
"Essays  on  the  Lives  and  Writings  of  Fletcher  of  Saltoun  and  the 
Poet  Thomson,"  1792;  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of 
Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Thomson,  (Rev.  John,)  a  Scottish  landscape-painter, 
born  in  Ayrshire  in  1778.  He  painted  stormy  seas  with 
success.    Died  in  1840. 

Thomson,  (Richard,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  1794,  lived  rrvany  years  in  London,    He  published, 


besides  other  works,  "Chronicles  of  London  Bridge,'* 
(1827.)    Died  in  1865. 

Thomson,  (Robert  Dundas,)  F.R.S.,  a  British  phy- 
sician and  writer,  born  about  1805.  He  resided  in 
London,  and  published  a  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Chemistry, 
Mineralogy,  and  Physiology."    Died  in  1864. 

Thomson,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  Scottish  chemist 
and  physician,  born  in  Perthshire  in  1773.  He  studied 
at  the  University  of  Saint  Andrew's  and  at  Edinburgh, 
where  about  1800  he  began  a  course  of  lectures  on 
chemistry.  In  1796  he  became  associate  editor  of  the 
"  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  to  which  he  contributed 
the  articles  on  chemistry  and  mineralogy.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  to  suggest  the  use  of  chemical  symbols.  In 
1813  he  edited  the  "Annals  of  Philosophy"  in  London, 
and  in  1818  was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  the 
University  of  Glasgow.  He  published  a  "  System  of 
Chemistry,"  (4  vols.,  1802,)  "Elements  of  Chemistry," 
(1810,)  "  Outline  of  the  Sciences  of  Heat  and  Electricity," 
"Travels  in  Sweden,"  (1813,)  "The  History  of  Chemis- 
try," (1830,)  "Outlines  of  Mineralogy,  Geology,"  etc.,  (2 
vols.,  1835,)  and  other  similar  works,  which  enjoy  a  high 
reputation.  Died  in  1852.  His  son,  of  the  same  name, 
has  been  appointed  superintendent  of  the  botanic  gar- 
dens at  Calcutta,  and  has  published  an  account  of  his 
travels  in  Thibet. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

Thomson,  (William,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  in 
Perthshire  in  1746,  was  editor  successively  of  the  "Eng- 
lish Review,"  "  Political  Magazine,"  and  other  journals, 
and  published  "Memoirs  of  the  War  in  Asia,"  and  a 
number  of  compilations.    Died  in  181 7. 

Thomson,  (William,)  an  English  bishop,  born  in 
Cumberland  in  1819.  He  became  preacher  of  Lincoln's 
Inn  in  1858,  Bishop  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol  in  1861, 
and  Archbishop  of  York  in  1862.  He  wrote  a  work  on 
logic,  called  "An  Outline  of  the  Laws  of  Thought." 

Thonissen,  to'ne'sSN',  (Georges  Franqois,)  a  Bel- 
gian economist,  born  at  Hasselt  in  181 7.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  socialism  and  political  economy. 

Thor,  thor,  (or  toR,)  orThonr,  {i.e.  "thunder,")  [Norse, 
Thonar,  of  which  Thor  is,  in  all  probability,  a  con- 
traction ;  in  Anglo-Saxon  he  was  variously  called  Thur, 
Thor,  Thunder,  and  Thuner, — both  the  last-named 
terms  signifying  "  thunder."  Some  writers,  with  less  prob- 
ability, have  supposed  the  name  to  be  allied  to  the  Greek 
dovpoc;,  "impetuous,"  "resistless,"]  in  the  mythology  of 
the  North,  the  god  of  thunder,  and  also  the  god  of 
strength,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Odin.  His  mother  was 
Fjorgyn,  (or  the  Earth.)  He  is  sometimes  called  Oeku- 
Thor,  ("car  Thor,"  or  "driving  Thor,")  and  Hlorridi, 
"fire  rider,")  and  sometimes  Ving-Thor,  ("winged 
Thor.")  As  the  god  of  thunder,  he  is  sometimes  styled 
the  Northern  Jupiter  ;  and  hence  Thursday  (Thc^-'s  day*) 
is  called,  in  the  Latin  of  the  middle  ages,  yovis  dies, 
("Jupiter's  day,")  which  the  French  have  corrupted  into 
Jeiidi.  As  the  god  of  strength,  and  the  great  conqueror 
of  the  giants,  he  resembles  the  Hercules  of  classic  my- 
thology. His  only  daughter  was  named  Thrud,  {i.e. 
"strength,")  and  his  dwelling-place  is  Thrudheim,  (or 
Thrudiieimr,)  the  "home  or  habitation  of  strength,"  or 
Thrudvangr,  the  "field"  or  "realm"  of  strength.  His 
vast  hall,  called  Bilskirnir,  has  five  hundred  and  forty 
floors. 

Thor  appears  to  have  been  regarded  in  Iceland  and 
in  some  portions  of  Norway  as  the  greatest  of  all  the. 
gods,  Odin  not  excepted.  He  had  three  ])ossessions  of 
inestimable  value, — the  hammer  Mjolnir,  (myoKnjr,)  the 
terror  of  the  giants  and  of  all  powers  hostile  to  the 
^sir,  his  Megin-gjorS,  (m§g'in-gyor%h,t)  or  "strength- 
girdle,"  and  his  gloves  of  iron,  with  which  he  grasped 
the  handle  of  Mjolnir.  In  the  legends  of  the  North, 
Thor  is  represented  as  hot-tempered,  but  at  the  same 
time  very  frank  and  good-natured.  He  is  said  to  be  ac- 
companied by  the  light-footed  boy  Thialfi  (te-Sl'fe,  i.e. 
"diligent")  and  the  girl  Roskva,  ("quick,")  expressive 
of  the  rapidity  with  which  a  thunder-storm  flies  over  the 

*  In  Anglo-Saxon.  Thunres  daeg  or  Thimdres  daeg;  i.e.  "  Thun- 
der's day." 

t  Also  written  Megingjardar. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fSll,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


THORBECKE 


2  I  25 


THORN  DIKE 


earth.  His  chariot  is  said  to  be  drawn  by  goats, — proba- 
bly because  these  animals  inhabit  the  highest  mountain- 
tops.  Thor's  wife,  Sif,  (seef,)  with  golden  hair,  is  said 
to  denote  the  autumnal  earth,  with  its  fields  of  ripening 
corn.  The  ripening  of  the  grain  was  supposed  to  be 
promoted  by  the  lightning.  Thor  is  called  in  the  Edda 
"  Midgard's  defender,"  or  the  defender  of  the  habitation 
of  men.  Although  the  most  valiant  of  the  gods,  he  is, 
in  fact,  the  personification  of  defensive  war,*  whose  office 
it  is  to  protect  the  works  of  industry  and  the  arts  of 
peace.  Hence  he  is,  with  great  propriety,  represented 
as  the  husband  and  protector  of  Sif  or  Siva,  (the  "in- 
violate,") the  goddess  of  harvests.  (See  SiF.)  For 
some  curious  and  interesting  legends  respecting  Thor, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Mallet's  "  Northern  Antiquities," 
vol.  ii.  Fable  XL,  also  Fables  XXHI.-XXVH.  At 
Ragrarock  (the  "  twilight  or  evening  of  the  gods")  Thor 
will  slay  the  World- Serpent,  (see  Midgard's  Serpent,) 
but  will  himself  perish  from  the  effects  of  its  venom. 

See  Thorpe,  "  Northem  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Petersen,  "  Nor- 
disk  Mythologi ;"  "Religion  of  the  Northmen,"  by  Rudolph 
Keyser,  translated  by  Barclay  Pennock,  New  York,  1854;  also, 
Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe,"  p.  31  et  seg. 

Thorbecke,  toR^blk'keh,  (Jan  Rudolph,)  a  Dutch 
statesman,  born  at  Zwolle  in  1796.  He  became  professor 
of  law  at  the  University  of  Leyden  about  1830.  He  was 
one  of  seven  persons  charged  in  1844  to  propose  a  new 
constitution,  which  the  king  rejected  as  too  libe|al.  In 
1848  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  commission  to  revise 
the  constitution,  and  procured  the  adoption  of  reforms 
similar  to  those  which  were  rejected  in  1844.  He  was 
prime  minister  from  October,  1849,  to  April,  1853,  and 
was  restored  to  that  position  in  February,  1862.  He 
resigned  in  1866. 

Thor'burn,  (Grant,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  near 
Dalkeith  in  1773.  He  emigrated  to  New  York  in  1794, 
and  became  a  dealer  in  garden-seeds.  He  wrote  for  the 
newspapers  under  the  signature  of  Laurie  Todd.  Died 
at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  i"863. 

See  his  Autobiography,  1834;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  June,  1833. 

Thorburn,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Dumfries  in  1818.  He  settled  about  1836  in 
London,  where  he  has  obtained  extensive  patronage 
and  produced  numerous  miniatures  of  great  merit. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  miniature  portraits  of  the 
queen  and  several  members  of  the  royal  family.  In  1848 
he  was  elected  an  Associate  of  the  Royal  Academy. 

Thordo,  toRMo,  or  Thord  Degen,  toR  da'gen,  a 
Danish  lawyer  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was  chief  judge 
of  the  province  of  Jutland.  He  made  a  collection  of 
Danish  laws,  including  the  earliest.  They  have  been 
translated  into  Latin  by  Ludewig. 

Thordson,  toRd'son,  (Sturla,)  a  Danish  historian, 
born  about  1218,  was  a  nephew  of  Snorri  Sturluson. 
He  filled  several  high  ofiices  under  the  government,  and 
was  the  author  of  a  continuation  of  the  history  of  Snorri 
Sturluson.    Died  in  1288. 

Thore,  to'\V,  (Th^ophii.e,)  a  French  republican, 
journalist,  and  critic,  born  about  1810.  He  founded  in 
Paris,  in  1848,  a  journal  called  "  The  True  Republic," 
and  became  an  exile  in  185 1.  He  wrote  critiques  on  art, 
inserted  in  the  "  Artiste"  and  the  "  Siecle,"  and  edited 
•*  L'Art  moderne." 

Thoreau,  tho-\o'  or  tho'xo,  (Henry  David,)  an 
American  author  and  naturalist,  born  in  Concord,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1 81 7,  was  descended  from  an  ancestor 
who  came  from  the  island  of  Guernsey.  His  father  was  a 
manufacturer  of  lead-pencils.  The  son  was  educated  at 
Harvard  College,  where  he  graduated  in  1837.  Besides 
being  a  classical  scholar,  he  was  well  versed  in  Oriental 
literature.  It  is  asserted  that  he  had  the  best  Oriental 
library  to  be  found  in  the  United  States.  In  his  man- 
ners, dress,  and  way  of  life  he  was  eccentric.  He  was 
bred  to  no  profession  ;  and  it  is  said  that  he  never  went 
to  church,  never  voted,  and  never  paid  a  tax  to  the 
State.  He  lived  in  the  simplest  manner;  he  sometimes 
practised  the  business  of  land-surveyor.    In  1845  he 


*  He  is  nowhere  represented  as  stirring  up  strife  among  men  ; 
on  the  contrary,  all  his  hostility  and  all  his  prowess  are  exerted 
against  the  Jotuns,  who  are  the  aggressive,  irreconcilable  enemies  of 
mankind  and  of  all  thrift  and  improvement. 


built  a  small  frame  house  on  the  shore  of  Walden  Pond, 
near  Concord,  where  he  lived  two  years  as  a  hermit,  in 
studious  retirement.  He  published  an  account  of  this 
portion  of  his  life,  in  a  small  book  entitled  "  Walden." 
He  was  intimate  with  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  and  Na- 
thaniel Hawthorne.  The  former  has  written  a  brief 
memoir  of  Thoreau,  from  which  we  extract  the  follow- 
ing :  "  Mr.  Thoreau  dedicated  his  genius  with  such  entire 
love  to  the  fields,  hills,  and  waters  of  his  native  town, 
that  he  made  them  known  and  interesting  to  all  reading 
Americans  and  to  people  over  the  sea.  .  .  .  He  grew  to 
be  revered  and  admired  by  his  townsmen,  who  had  at 
first  known  him  only  as  an  oddity.  ...  I  have  repeat- 
edly known  young  men  of  sensibility  converted  in  a 
moment  to  the  belief  that  this  was  the  man  they  were 
in  search  of, — the  man  of  men,  who  could  tell  them  all 
they  should  do,  .  .  .  Whilst  he  used  in  his  writings  a 
certain  petulance  of  remark  in  reference  to  churches 
and  churchmen,  he  was  a  person  of  rare,  tender,  and 
absolute  religion, — a  person  incapable  of  any  profana- 
tion." Thoreau  was  never  married.  He  died  in  1862. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  on  "The  Concord  and 
Merrimac  Rivers,"  and  "The  Excursions,"  (1863.)  A 
volume  of  his  letters  was  published  in  1865. 

See  DuYCKiNCK,  "  Cyclopsedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
"North  American  Review"  for  October,  1865  ;  "  Eraser's  Magazine" 
for  April,  1866. 

Thorer,  (Albtn.)    See  Torinus. 

Thoresby,  thorz'be,  }  (Ralph,)  an  English  antiquary 
and  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  born  at  Leeds  in  1658. 
His  principal  works  are  "  The  Topography  of  the  Town 
and  Parish  of  Leeds,"  ("  Ducatus  Leodiensis,")  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Church  of  Leeds,"  ("  Vicaria  Leodien.. 
sis.")  He  possessed  a  very  valuable  collection  of  coins, 
manuscripts,  etc.    Died  in  1725. 

Thorigny.    See  Beaufort  de  Thorigny. 

Thorild,  to'rild,  (Thomas,)  a  Swedish  scholar  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Bohuslan  in  1759.  He 
published,  besides  poems  and  prose  essays  in  Swedish, 
"  Cromwell,"  an  epic  poem,  and  other  works,  in  English. 
Died  in  1819. 

Thorinus.    See  Torinus. 

Thor'is-mond,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Theodoric  I.  He  fought  bravely  against  Attila 
at  Chalons  in  451  A.D.,  and  succeeded  his  father  in 
that  year.  He  was  killed  by  his  brother  Theodoric  in 
452  A.D. 

Tho'ri-us  [Fr.  pron.  to're'iis']  or  Tho'ris,  (Raphael,) 
a  French  physician,  who  practised  ni  England.  Died 
in  1625. 

Thorkelin,toR'keh-leen^  (Grim  Johnsen,)  a  distin- 
guished scholar  and  antiquary,  born  in  Iceland  in  1752. 
In  1786  he  visited  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  pub- 
lished in  1788  "  Fragments  of  English  and  Irish  History 
in  the  Ninth  and  Tenth  Century."  He  also  wrote 
several  works  in  illustration  of  Danish  and  Norwegian 
history.    Died  in  1829. 

See  Erslew,  "  Forfatter- Lexicon." 

Thorlacius,  tor-ia'se-us,  (Skule  Thordsen,)  born  in 
Iceland  in  1741,  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  treatises 
on  Northern  antiquities.    Died  in  181 5. 

His  son  Borge,  born  in  1775,  became  professor  of 
eloquence  at  Copenhagen,  and  published  several  classical 
and  antiquarian  works.    Died  in  1829. 

Thorlaksen,  toR''llk'sen,  or  Thorlaksoii,  (GuD- 
brand,)  an  Icelandic  writer,  born  in  1542,  became  a 
bishop.  Died  in  1629.  According  to  one  authority,  he 
was  born  in  1642,  and  died  in  1729. 

Thorlaksson,  toR'llks-son',  (John,)  an  Icelandic 
poet,  born  in  1744,  was  a  clergyman.  He  made  a 
translation  of  "  Paradise  Lost"  into  Icelandic,  which  is 
highly  commended.    Died  in  181 9. 

Thorn'bur-y,  (George  Walter,)  an  English  writer, 
born  about  1828.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the 
Buccaneers,"  (1855,)  "British  Artists  from  Hogarth  to 
Turner,"  (2  vols.,  1861,)  a  "Life  of  Joseph  M.  W. 
Turner,"  (1862,)  a  novel  called  "True  as  Steel,"  and 
other  works. 

Thorn'dike,  (Herbert,)  an  English  divine  and  able 
controversial  writer.  He  became  rector  of  Barley,  in 
Hertfordshire,  in  1642,  and  obtained  a  prebend  at  West- 
minster after  the  restoration.    He  was  a  learned  Orien- 


€  as  >t;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


THOR NHILL  2 1  26  THO  V 


talist,  and  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  Anglican  Church. 
Among  his  works  are  a  **  Discourse  of  Religious  Assem- 
blies and  the  Public  Service  of  God,"  a  "  Discourse  of 
the  Rights  of  the  Church  in  a  Christian  State,"  and  an 
"Epilogue  to  the  Tragedy  of  the  Church  of  England." 
Died  in  1672. 

Thorn'hill,  (Sir  James,)  a  distinguished  English 
painter,  born  at  Weymouth  in  1676,  was  a  nephew  of 
the  celebrated  physician  Sydenham.  Having  travelled 
in  France,  Holland,  and  other  parts  of  the  continent,  he 
was  employed,  after  his  return,  in  the  decoration  of  the 
cupola  of  Saint  Paul's,  London,  the  ceiling  of  the  hall  at 
Greenwich  Hospital,  the  palace  at  Kensington,  and  other 
edifices.  He  was  appointed  historical  painter  to  Queen 
Anne,  and  was  made  a  knight  by  George  I.  He  opened 
an  academy  for  drawing  in  his  house,  where  he  num- 
bered among  his  pupils  the  celebrated  Hogarth,  who 
subsequently  married  his  daughter.    Died  in  1734. 

Thorn'ton,  (Bonnell,)  an  English  litterateur  and 
humorous  writer,  born  in  London  in  1724.  He  was 
associated  with  George  Colnian  in  the  proprietorship 
of  the  "  Saint  James  Chronicle,"  and  wrote,  conjointly 
with  Colman,  the  periodical  essays  entitled  "The  Con- 
noisseur." He  also  translated  the  comedies  of  Plautus 
into  English  blank  verse,  in  conjunction  with  Colman 
and  Warner,  and  was  the  author  of  burlesque  poems, 
entitled  "  An  Ode  on  Saint  Cecilia's  Day,  adapted  to 
the  Antient  British  Music,"  etc.,  and  "The  Battle  of 
the  Wigs."    Died  in  1768. 

Thornton,  (John  Robert,)  an  English  physician 
and  botanist,  born  about  1758,  was  a  son  of  Thomas 
Thornton,  noticed  below.  He  was  the  author  of  "  The 
Philosophy  of  Medicine,"  etc.,  (5  vols.,)  and  "Temple 
of  Flora,  or  Garden  of  the  Botanist,  Poet,  Painter,  and 
Philosopher."    Died  in  1837. 

Thornton,  (Matthew,)  a  patriot  of  the  American 
Revolution,  born  in  Ireland  in  1714.  He  was  elected  to 
the  General  Congress  by  the  people  of  New  Hampshire 
in  1776,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
Died  in  1803. 

Thornton,  (Samuel,)  of  Clapham  Park,  Surrey,  born 
in  1775,  was  a  director  of  the  Bank  of  England  for  fifty 
years.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament  for  nearly  forty 
years.    Died  in  1838. 

Thornton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer  on  field- 
sports,  published  "A  Sporting  Tour  through  France," 
and  "  A  Sporting  Tour  through  the  North  of  England 
and  the  Highlands  of  Scotland."    Died  in  1823.' 

Thornton,  (Sir  William,)  a  British  general,  served 
in  the  United  States  in  1 814-15.    Died  in  1840. 

Thornton,  (William,)  an  English  political  econo- 
mist, born  at  Burnham,  Bucks,  in  1813.  He  published 
"Over-Population  and  its  Remedy,"  (1846.) 

Tliorn'well,  (James  Henry,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Presbyterian  divine,  born  in  Marlborough  district,  South 
Carolina,  in  i8ri.  He  has  published  several  theological 
works,  and  written  in  defence  of  the  secession  movement 
of  1860. 

Thorn'y.-croft  or  Thorn'ey-croft,  (Mary  Fran- 
ces,) an  English  sculptor,  born  at  Thornham,  Norfolk, 
in  1814.  She  was  married  in  1840  to  Mr,  Thornycroft,  a 
sculptor.  She  was  patronized  by  Queen  Victoria,  for 
whom  she  executed  statues  of  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
Prince  Alfred,  and  Princess  Alice. 

Thorpe,  thorp,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  philologist, 
distinguished  for  his  attainments  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
tongue,  was  born  about  1808.  Among  his  publications 
may  be  named  "The  Anglo-Saxon  Version  of  the  Story 
of  ApoUonius,"  (1834,)  the  collection  entitled  "Ancient 
Laws  and  Institutes  of  England,"  etc.,  "Codex  Exoni- 
ensis,"  (1842,)  and  "Northern  Mythology,"  or  legends 
of  Scandinavia,  Northern  Germany,  and  Holland,  (3 
vols.,  1852.)    Died  in  July,  1870. 

Thorpe,  (John,)  M.D.,  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
Kent  in  1682,  practised  at  Rochester,    Died  in  1750. 

Thorpe,  (John,)  an  English  antiquary,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1713,  wrote  an  account  of  the  city  of 
Rochester,  entitled  "  Registrum  Roffense."  Died  in  1792. 

Thorpe,  thorp,  (Thomas  Bangs,)  an  American  artist 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Westfield,  Massachusetts,  in  181 5. 
Among  his  paintings  are  a  full-length  portrait  of  General 


Zachary  Taylor,  and  the  "  Bold  Dragoon,"  an  illustration 
of  Irving's  story  of  that  name.  He  has  published  "  Tom 
Owen  the  Bee-Hunter,"  being  sketches  of  Western  and 
Southern  life,  and  contributed  numerous  articles  to 
"  Harper's  New  Monthly  Magazine." 

Thortsen,  toRt'sen,  (Carl'Adolph,)  a  Danish  critic 
and  poet,  born  in  Copenhagen  in  1798.  He  wrote  a 
"  Historical  Notice  of  Danish  Literature,"  (3d  edition, 
185 1,)  and  other  works. 

Thorwaldsen,  tor'wald-sen  or  toR'<^3.1-sen,  (Albert 
Bertel,)  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  modern  sculptors, 
was  born  in  November,  1770,  on  the  sea  between  Ice- 
land and  Copenhagen,  and  was  the  son  of  a  Danish 
carver  in  wood.  He  studied  in  the  Academy  of  Arts 
at  Copenhagen,  where  he  obtained  two  gold  medals, 
and  soon  after  set  out  for  Rome.  He  there  employed 
himself  on  a  statue  of  Jason  of  natural  size  ;  but,  as 
it  attracted  no  particular  regard,  he,  in  a  fit  of  despond- 
ency, destroyed  it.  He  next  attempted  a  colossal  statue 
of  the  same  subject,  which  obtained  the  admiration  of 
Canova,  and  being  seen  by  Mr.  Thomas  Hope,  a  wealthy 
English  amateur,  he  ordered  a  copy  of  it  in  marble  for 
eight  hundred  zechins.  From  this  time  Thorwaldsen 
produced  rapidly  works  which  raised  his  reputation  to 
the  highest  point.  Among  these  may  be  named  his 
"  Triumphal  March  of  Alexander,"  executed  for  the 
emperor  Napoleon,  and  the  bas-reliefs  of  "  Night"  and 
"  Day"  and  of  "  Priam  and  Achilles."  In  1819  he  visited 
Denmark,  where  he  was  received  with  enthusiasm,  and 
subsequently  made  a  tour  through  Germany,  and  while 
at  Warsaw  executed  a  portrait-bust  of  Alexander  of 
Russia,  also  the  monuments  of  Copernicus  and  Prince 
Poniatovvski.  One  of  his  most  remarkable  productions 
is  the  image  of  a  wounded  and  dying  lion,  of  colossal 
size,  near  Lucerne,  in  Switzerland,  designed  to  com- 
memorate the  heroic  fidelity  of  the  Swiss  guards  who 
fell  August  10,  1792,  About  1838  he  returned,  after 
many  years'  residence  at  Rome,  to  Denmark,  where  he 
continued  to  reside  till  his  death,  in  March,  1844.  He 
was  never  married.  Among  his  other  works  are  "  Christ 
and  the  Twelve  Apostles,"  a  statue  of  Schiller,  and  a 
colossal  statue  of  Hercules. 

See  Hans  Chkistian  Andersen,  "B.  Thorwaldsen,"  1844;  J. 
M.  Thiele,  "Den  Danske  Billedhiigger  B.  Thorwaldsen,"  etc., 
2  vols.,  1831-32;  L.  DE  LoMRNiE,  "  M.  Thorwaldsen,  pariin  Homme 
de  Rien,"  1841  ;  Ar.FREn  Rrumont,  "Thorwaldsen:  Gedachtniss- 
rede,"  1844;  Hillerup,  "  Tliorwaldsen  og  hans  Vaerker,"  2  vols., 
1841-42;  J.  M.  Thiei.e,  "  Thorwaldsen's  Arbeiten  und  Lebensver- 
haltnisse  im  Zeitraume  1828-1844,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1854;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Gen^rale ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1832. 

Thoth  or  Toth,  an  Egyptian  divinity,  supposed  to  cor- 
respond to  the  Greek  Hermes  and  the  Roman  Mercury. 

Thott,  von,  fon  tot,  (Otto,)  Count,  a  Danish  finan- 
cier, born  in  1703,  became  minister  of  state  in  1772.  He 
owned  a  library  of  121,945  volumes,  of  which  a  cata- 
logue was  published,  in  12  vols.,  (1789-95.)  Died  in  1785. 

Thou,  de,  deh  too,  (Christophe,)  an  eminent  French 
judge,  born  in  Paris  in  1508.  He  became  first  president 
of  the  Parliament  of  Paris  about  1562.  He  pursued  a 
neutral  or  moderate  course  in  relation  to  the  civil  wars 
and  the  League.    Died  in  1582. 

See  MoR^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique  :"  DeThou,  "  Memoires." 

Thou,  de,  (Franqois  Auguste,)  eldest  son  of  the 
celebrated  historian,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  Paris 
about  1607.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  master  of  the 
Royal  Library,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  master  of 
requests  and  councillor  of  state.  Having  been  accused 
of  being  privy  to  the  conspiracy  of  Cinq-Mars,  he  was 
executed  in  1642.    (See  Cinq-Mars.) 

Thou,  de,  [Lat.  Thua'nus,]  (Jacques  Auguste,)  an 
eminent  French  historian  and  statesman,  born  in  Paris 
in  October,  1553,  was  a  son  of  Christophe  de  Thou,  first 
president  of  the  Parliament.  He  studied  in  Paris,  and 
subsequently  under  Cujas  (Cujacius)  at  Valence,  in  Dau- 
phine,  where  he  formed  a  lasting  friendship  with  Joseph 
Scaliger.  Returning  to  Paris  in  1572,  he  was  present 
at  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  and  entered  the 
church  as  canon  of  Notre-Dame.  The  following  year 
he  accompanied  Paul  de  Foix  on  an  important  mission 
to  Italy,  and  after  the  accession  of  Henry  III.  he  was 
appointed  master  of  requests,  (1584,)  and  councillor  of 
state,  (1588.)    He  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  promoting 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  ^l,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e^  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


THOUARS 


2127 


THROCMORTON 


an  alliance  between  Henry  III.  and  Henry  of  Navarre, 
and,  on  the  latter  being  crowned,  under  the  title  of  Henry 
IV.,  became  one  of  his  most  faithful  adherents.  In  1593 
he  was  appointed  by  Henry  grand  master  of  the  Royal 
Library,  and  soon  after  president  ^  tnortier  in  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Paris.  He  had  a  prominent  part  in  framing  the 
edict  of  Nantes,  (1598,)  assisted  at  the  Conference  of  Fon- 
tainebleau,  in  1600,  and  was  employed  in  other  important 
transactions.  He  published  in  1604  the  first  eighteen 
books  of  his  "  History  of  his  Own  Time,"  ("  Historia  sui 
Temporis,")  of  which  a  complete  edition  first  appeared 
in  1620,  in  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  books.  This 
work,  which  was  received  with  great  favour  by  the  public, 
gave  offence  to  the  zealots  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and 
was  formally  condemned  by  being  placed  in  the  "  Index 
Expurgatorius."  It  is  distinguished  for  the  purity  of  its 
style,  as  well  as  its  accuracy  and  impartiality,  and  has 
obtained  the  commendations  of  the  most  eminent  critics. 
De  Thou  also  wrote  an  account  of  his  life,  entitled 
"Thuani  Commentarius  de  Vita  sua,"  and  several  Latin 
poems.  The  edition  of  his  "  History"  published  in  Lon- 
don in  1733  (7  vols,  fol.)  is  esteemed  the  best,  and  a 
French  translation  of  it,  by  Le  Mascrier,  Desfontaines, 
and  others,  appeared  in  1734,  (16  vols.  4to.)  He  died 
in  May,  1617.  "  De  Thou,"  says  Duplessis,  "showed 
himself  a  great  statesman,  with  a  profound  knowledge 
of  men  and  things,  equally  removed  from  the  fanaticism 
of  the  diff"erent  factions  which  divided  France.  A  faithful 
subject  of  the  prince,  but  devoted  also  to  the  interests 
of  his  country,  he  defended  at  the  same  time  the  rights 
of  the  crown  and  the  liberties  of  the  kingdom,  alternately 
menaced  by  enemies  from  within  and  without," 

See  De  Thoi'.  "  Memoires,"  (autobiographic.)  1711 ;  John  Col- 
i.iNSON,  "Life  of  Thuanus,"  1807;  P.  Chasi.es,  "  Discours  sur  la 
Vie  et  les  Ouvrages  de  J.  A.  de  Thou,"  1824;  Henri  Patin,  "Dis- 
cours sur  la  Vie  de  J.  A.  de  Tliou,"  1824  ;  Guekard,  "  Discours  sur 
la  Vie,  etc.  de  J.  A.  de  Thou,"  1824;  Duntzer,  "J.  A.  de  Thou's 
Leben,"  etc.,  1837;  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;" 
Niceron,  "Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Thouars.    See  Dupetit-ThoItars. 

Thonin.    See  Leclf.rc,  (O.scar.) 

Thoiiin,  too'iN',  (Andk6,)  a  French  botanist,  born  in 
Paris  in  1747.  He  was  appointed  chief  gardener  of  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes  about  1765.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "  Lectures  on  the  Culture  and  Naturalization 
of  Plants,"  (3  vols.,  1827.)  "  Few  men,"  says  Cuvier, 
"exercised  a  more  useful  influence."    Died  in  1824. 

.See  De  Silvestre,  "Notice  sur  A.  Thoiiin,"  1S25  :  Cltvier, 
"  filoge  de  M.  A.  Thoiiin,"  1825  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Thouret,  too'ri',  (Antoine,)  a  French  republican 
writer,  born  at  Tarragona  (Spain)  in  1807.  He  was 
imprisoned  nearly  five  years  for  his  political  writings, 
(1831-35,)  wrote,  while  in  prison,  several  political  novels, 
and  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  1848. 
Having  opposed  the  policy  of  Napoleon,  he  was  banished 
in  Jjinuary,  1852.    Died  in  1857. 

Thouret,  (Jacques  Guillaume^)  an  able  French 
legislator  and  political  writer,  born  at  Pont-l'Eveque  in 
1746.  He  was  an  active  member  of  the  States-General 
in  1789,  and  was  a  member  of  the  committee  which 
formed  the  new  constitution  in  1790.  In  his  principles 
he  was  moderate  and  liberal.  He  was  guillotined  in  1794. 

See  Desseaux,  "Notice  sur  Thouret,"  1845;  "Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie Generale." 

Thouret,  (Michel  Augustin,)  a  French  physician,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Pont-l'^veque  in 
1748.  He  studied  medicine  at  Caen  and  in  Paris,  and 
in  1776  became  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Medicine.  He  published  several  valuable 
medical  treatises,  among  which  we  may  name  his  "  Re- 
port on  the  Exhumations  of  the  Cemetery  of  the  Inno- 
cents."   Died  in  1810. 

Thouvenel,  toov'n^K,  (fiDOUARn  Antotne,)  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  at  Verdun  in  November,  1818.  He 
was  minister  at  Athens  in  1849  and  1850,  and  was 
charged  with  the  political  direction  of  the  ministry  of 
foreign  affairs  from  December,  1851,  to  1855.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Constantinople  in  1855,  and  ap- 
pointed minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  January,  i860.  He 
res-gned  office  in  October,  1862.  He  published  in  1840 
•'Hungary  and  Wallachia:  Souvenirs  of  Travel,"  etc. 
Died  about  November,  1866. 


Thouvenel,  (Pierre,)  a  French  physician,  born  in 
Lorraine  in  1745,  practised  in  Paris,  and  wrote  several 
professional  works.    Died  in  181 5. 

Thoynard.    See  Toinard. 

Thoyras.    See  Rapin,  de,  (Paul.) 

Thrale,  Mrs.    See  Piozzl 

Thra'se-a,  (P^tus,)  a  Roman  senator  and  Stoic 
philosopher,  eminent  for  his  virtue  and  integrity,  was  a 
native  of  Padua.  Having  incurred  the  enmity  of  Nero 
by  his  condemnation  of  that  emperor's  crimes,  he  was 
sentenced  to  death,  together  with  several  of  his  friends, 
in  66  a.d. 

Thrasybule.    See  Thrasybulus. 

Thras'y-biiTus,*  [Gr.  Q^aaUovlo^;  Fr.  Thrasybule, 
tRt'ze'biiK,]  an  eminent  Grecian  patriot  and  military 
commander,  was  a  native  of  Attica,  and  flourished  about 
400  B.C.  Being  appointed  general  by  the  democratic 
party  at  Athens,  conjointly  with  his  friend  Thrasyllus, 
he  procured,  by  a  decree,  the  recall  of  Alcibiades  from 
exile.  He  rendered  an  important  service  at  the  battle 
of  Cyzicus,  (410,)  and  was  a  subordinate  officer  at  the 
naval  victory  of  Arginusae,  (406.)  Soon  after  the  Thirty 
Tyrants  obtained  power  (404  B.C.)  he  was  banished,  and 
retired  to  Thebes.  Having  raised  a  small  band  of  sol- 
diers and  exiles,  he  seized  Phyle,  which  he  used  as  a 
base  of  operations  against  the  Thirty  Tyrants.  He 
gained  some  advantages,  and  occupied  the  Piraeus.  Here 
he  was  besieged  by  the  Spartan  Lysander,  but  was  re- 
lieved from  his  perilous  position  by  the  intrigues  of 
Pausanias.  The  Thirty  having  been  deposed  by  their 
own  subjects,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded,  and  the 
exiles  were  restored  to  citizenship.  He  commanded  a 
fleet  sent  to  aid  the  democrats  of  Rhodes  in  390.  He 
was  killed  near  Aspendus  in  389  B.C. 

See  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece;"  Cornelius  Nepos,  "Thra- 
sybulus;" Thirlwall,  "History  of  Greece;"  Xenophon,  "  Hel- 
lenica ;"  Hinrichs,  "  Cominentatio  de  Theramenis,  Critiie  et 
Thrasybuli  Rebus,"  etc.,  1820;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Thrasybulus,  sometimes  called  the  Collytian, 
from  his  birthplace,  Collytus,  in  Attica,  was  contempo- 
rary with  the  preceding,  whom  he  accompanied  in  his 
exile  to  Phyle. 

Thras'y-buTus,  [Gr.  Qpaav^ovkoq^  Tyrant  of  Syracuse, 
succeeded  his  brother,  Hiero  I.,  in  466  B.C.  Having  ex- 
asperated his  subjects  by  his  cruelty  and  oppression,  he 
collected  a  great  number  of  mercenaries,  at  the  head  of 
whom  he  attacked  the  Syracusans,  who  had  solicited  aid 
from  the  Greeks  in  Sicily.  Unable  to  maintain  himself 
against  these  forces,  he  was  compelled  to  go  into  exile, 
having  reigned  less  than  a  year, 

Thrasylle.    See  Thrasyllus. 

Thra-sylTus,  [Gr.  GpaavAXof ;  Fr.  Thrasylle,  tRt'- 
zeK,]  an  Athenian  general  and  democrat,  co-operated 
with  Thrasybulus  against  the  oligarchy  in  411  B.C.  He 
commanded  a  fleet  which,  in  409,  was  defeated  at  Ephe- 
sus,  and  gained  a  victory  over  a  Syracusan  squadron. 
He  was  one  of  the  six  generals  who  commanded  at 
Arginusse  in  406  B.C.  and  was  unjustly  put  to  death. 
(See  Theramenes.) 

Threl'keld,  (Caleb,)  a  British  botanist,  born  in 
Cumberland  in  1676,  He  practised  medicine  in  Dublin, 
and  published  "  Synopsis  of  Irish  Plants,"  ("  Synopsis 
Stirpium  Hibernicarum.")    Died  in  1728. 

Thriverus,  the  Latin  of  Driv^re,  which  see. 

Throc'mor-ton  or  Throg'mor-ton,  (Sir  Nicho- 
las,) an  English  diplomatist,  born  about  1513.  He 
accompanied  Henry  VIII.  to  France  in  1544,  was  present 
at  the  siege  of  Boulogne,  and  subsequently  served  in  the 
Scottish  campaign  of  1547.  Having  been  charged  in 
1554  with  being  implicated  in  Wyatt's  rebellion,  he 
defended  himself  on  his  trial  with  so  much  eloquence 
and  ability  that  he  was  acquitted.  Under  Queen  Eliza- 
beth he  became  chamberlain  of  the  exchequer,  and 
ambassador  to  France,  where  he  resided  four  years. 
He  was  afterwards  sent  on  important  missions  to  Scot- 


*  This  name  is  not  unfrequently  mispronounced  with  the  accent 
on  the  antepenultima.  The  following  couplet  from  Byron  exhibits 
the  true  accentuation : 

"  Spirit  of  Freedom  !  when  on  Phyle's  brow 
Thou  sat'st  with  Thrasybulus  and  his  train." 

Childe  Harold,  canto  ii.  stanza  Ixxiv. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.  (Sl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


THROSBT 


2128 


THUNBERG 


land.  He  was  father-in-law  of  the  celebrated  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh.    Died  in  1571. 

Thros'by,  (John,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  1746, 
published  "Tlie  History  and  Topography  of  Leicester," 
and  other  similar  works.    Died  in  1803. 

Thrud,  a  daughter  of  Thok,  which  see. 

Tlirtidlieim  and  Thrudvaiigr.    See  Thor. 

Thrymheim.    See  Skaui. 

Thuanus.    See  Thou,  de. 

Thncydide.    See  Thucydidks. 

Thu-gyd'I-des,  [Gr.  QovKv6i6i/c ;  Fr.  Thucydide, 
tii'se'd^d'',]  an  Athenian  politician  and  general,  who 
became  the  leader  of  the  aristocratic  party  in  449  B.C. 
"  He  was  a  man  of  great  prudence,"  says  Plutarch,  "  and 
brother-in-law  to  Cimon.  He  had  not,  indeed,  Cimon's 
talents  for  war,  but  was  superior  to  him  in  forensic  and 
political  abilities."  (Plutarch,  "Pericles.")  He  was 
the  chief  adversary  of  Pericles,  and  maintained  a  con- 
test against  him  until  444  B.C.,  when  Thucydides  was 
ostracized. 

Thucydides,  [Gr.  QovKv6i6rjg ;  Fr.  Thucydide,]  an 
illustrious  Greek  historian  and  general,  born  of  a  noble 
family  in  the  demus  Halimus,  in  Attica,  in  471  B.C.,  was 
a  son  of  Olorus.  He  was  related  to  Miltiades  and  to 
Cimon,  and  inherited  an  ample  fortune.  He  informs  his 
readers  that  he  owned  gold-mines  in  Thrace,  near  the 
island  of  Thasos.  According  to  a  current  tradition,  he 
heard  Herodotus  read  his  history  at  Olympia,  when  he 
was  a  boy,  and  was  so  deeply  affected  that  he  shed  tears. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Antiphon  in  oratory, 
and  of  Anaxagoras  in  philosophy.  He  was  one  of  the 
sufferers  attacked  by  the  plague  at  Athens  in  430  B.C., 
(of  which  he  afterwards  wrote  a  masterly  description,) 
which  was  the  second  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 
In  424  he  commanded  a  squadron  of  seven  ships  near 
Thasos,  when  the  Spart^an  general  Brasidas  attacked 
Amphipolis.  He  hastened  to  the  defence  of  that  town, 
but  he  arrived  too  late,  and  found  that  it  had  just 
surrendered  to  the  Spartans.  For  this  failure  he  was 
banished,  or,  as  some  suppose,  went  into  exile  to  avoid 
the  penalty  of  death  to  which  unfortunate  generals  were 
liable.  He  informs  us  that  he  passed  twenty  years  in 
exile  after  this  event.  He  availed  himself  of  the  leisure 
and  opportunities  which  he  enjoyed  in  consequence  of 
his  exile,  to  collect  materials  for  a  history  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian war,  which  lasted  about  twenty-seven  years,  (431 
-404.)  He  used  the  greatest  diligence  and  care  in  ascer- 
taining the  facts  by  visits  to  the  localities  of  the  war 
and  by  interviews  with  the  prominent  actors  of  that 
period.  It  is  supposed  that  he  returned  to  Athens  in 
403,  when  a  general  amnesty  was  granted  to  exiles.  He 
was  a  contemporary  of  Socrates  and  Euripides. 

His  celebrity  is  founded  on  his  '*  History  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War,"  in  eight  books,  which,  however,  he 
did  not  live  to  finish.  It  ends  in  411  B.C.,  seven  years 
before  the  termination  of  the  war.  The  first  book  of 
this  work  consists  of  introductory  observations  on  the 
early  history  of  Greece.  Ancient  and  modern  critics  are 
unanimous  in  commending  the  accuracy,  veracity,  and 
impartiaFity  of  Thucydides.  His  history  combines  the 
merits  of  the  orator,  historian,  philosopher,  and  states- 
man, and  is  one  of  the  most  admirable  monuments  of 
political  wisdom. 

His  style  is  concise,  noble,  and  intensely  energetic. 
It  is  stated  that  Demosthenes  transcribed  the  history 
of  Thucydides  eight  times,  in  order  to  improve  his  own 
style.  Cicero  described  Thucydides  as  "  a  faithful  and 
dignified  narrator  of  facts,"  ("  rerum  gestarum  pro- 
nunciator  sincerus  et  grandis.")  ("Brutus,"  cap.  83.) 
The  same  critic  also  expresses  the  opinion  that  this 
historian  easily  surpasses  all  others  in  the  art  of  com- 
position :  "Thucydides  omnesdicendi  artificio,  mea  sen- 
tentia,  facile  vicit."   ("  De  Oratore,"  ii.) 

"In  spite  of  this  great  fault,"  says  Macaulay,  (refer- 
ring to  his  ficdtious  speeches,)  "it  must  be  allowed  that 
Thucydides  has  surpassed  all  his  rivals  in  the  art  of  his- 
torical narration,  in  the  art  of  producing  an  effect  on  the 
imagination  by  skilful  selection  and  disposition  without 
indulging  in  the  license  of  invention.  .  .  .  His  book  is 
evidently  the  book  of  a  man  and  a  statesman,  and  in  this 
respect  presents  a  remarkable  contrast  to  the  delightful 


childishness  of  Herodotus.  Throughout  it  there  is  an 
air  of  matured  power,  of  grave  and  melancholy  reflection, 
of  impartiality  and  habitual  self-command."  (Macaulay's 
Essay  on  "History,"  1828.)  He  died  about  401  B.C., 
leaving  one  son,  Timotheus.  Several  ancient  writers 
state  that  he  was  assassinated,  but  they  disagree  in 
respect  to  the  place  of  his  death.  His  "  History"  has 
been  translated  into  English  by  Hobbes,  by  William 
Smith,  (1753,)  and  by  S.  T.  Bloomfield,  (1829.) 

See  DoDWKLL,  "  Annales  Thiicydidei,"  1702;  Kruger,  "Unter- 
sucluingeii  iiber  das  Leben  des  Tluicydides,"  1832  ;  Roscher,  "  Le- 
ben  des  Thucydides,"  1842;  Girard,  "Thucydide,"  i860;  Grote, 
"  History  f)f  Greece  ;"  Thirlwall,  "  History  of  Greece;"  F.  Roth, 
"  Vergleicliende  Betraclitungen  iiber  Thucydides  und  Tacitus," 
1812;  BoNNEi.L,  "  De  Tliiicydide  et  Herodoto  Qusestionum  histori- 
caruiii  Specimen,"  1S51  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale  ;"  Ulrich, 
"  Beitrage  zur  Erklarung  des  Tliucydides,"  1846. 

Thuemmel.    See  Thummel. 
Thuermer.    See  Thurmer. 

Thugut,  too'goot,  (Franz  Maria,)  Baron,  an  Aus- 
trian diplomatist,  born  at  Linz  in  1734.  He  was  early 
distinguished  by  the  favour  of  Maria  Theresa,  and 
employed  on  missions  to  Paris,  Naples,  and  other  Euro- 
])ean  courts.  In  1794  he  succeeded  Prince  Kaunitz  as 
prime  minister.  He  was  removed  in  1797,  restored 
in  1799,  and  finally  driven  from  power  in  1801.  Died 
in  1818. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Thuillier,  tii'e'ye-i',  (Pierre,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  was  born  at  Amiens  in  1799.  He  gained  a 
medal  of  the  first  class  in  1839  at  Paris.    Died  in  1858. 

Thviillier,  (Vincent,)  a  P>ench  scholar,  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Laon  in  1685,  was  a  monk  of  Saint-Maur. 
He  published  a  version  of  the  "  History"  of  Polybius, 
(6  vols.,  1727-30.)    Died  in  1736. 

Thulden,  van,  vtn  tiiKden,  (Theodor,)  a  celebrated 
Flemish  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc  in 
1607.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Rubens,  whose  style  his  own 
greatly  resembles,  and  whom  he  assisted  in  the  series 
of  paintings  which  adorn  the  gallery  of  the  Luxembourg. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "  The  Martyrdom  of  Saint 
Andrew,"  in  the  church  of  Saint  Michael  at  Ghent,  and 
"The  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,"  in  the  church  of  the 
Jesuits  at  Bruges.  He  also  excelled  in  delineating  mar- 
kets, fairs,  etc.,  and  produced  a  number  of  admirable 
etchings,  among  which  we  may  name  "The  Life  of  Saint 
John  de  Matha,"  (in  24  plates,)  and  "  The  History  of 
Ulysses,"  (58  plates.)    Died  in  1676. 

See  "  Fiograpliie  Universelle." 

Thulen,  van,  vtn  tii'len,  (John  Philip,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Malines  in  1618,  was  a  pupil  of  Seghers. 
He  painted  flowers,  insects,  etc.    Died  in  1667. 

Thiimmel  or  Thuemmel,  von,  fon  tum'mel,  (Mo- 
RiTZ  August,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  near  Leipsic 
in  1738.  His  principal  work  is  a  romance,  entitled  "A 
Journey  in  the  Southern  Provinces  of  France,"  (9  vols., 
1 791-1805,)  which  is  commended  by  Schiller  and  enjoys 
great  popularity  in  Germany.  His  "  Wilhelmine,"  a 
comic  prose  poem,  is  also  highly  esteemed,  and  has  been 
translated  into  several  languages.  He  was  privy  coun- 
cillor and  minister  under  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg  from 
1768  to  1783.    Died  in  181 7. 

See  J.  E.  VON  Gruner,  "Leben  M.  A.  von  Thummel's,"  1819; 
"  Biographie  Universelle." 

Thummig,  toofn'mic,  (Ludwig  Philipp,)  a  German 
philosopher,  born  at  Culmbach  in  1697,  published  seve- 
ral works.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Wolf.  Died  at  Cassel 
in  1728. 

Thunberg,  toon'b^RG,  (Karl  Peter,)  a  celebrated 
Swedish  botanist  and  physician,  born  in  the  province  of 
Smaland  in  1743.  He  studied  natural  history  at  the 
University  of  Upsal,  under  Linnaeus.  In  1772  he  visited 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in  1775  accompanied,  as 
physician,  the  embassy  of  the  East  India  Company  to 
Japan.  He  succeeded  the  younger  Linnaeus  as  professor 
of  botany  at  Upsal  in  1784.  He  was  instrumental  in 
founding  a  botanic  garden  in  that  city,  and  bestowed 
upon  the  university  his  valuable  collection  of  objects 
in  natural  history.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his 
"Flora  Japonica,"  "Plora  Capensis,"  "Icones  Planta- 
rum  Japonicarum,"  and  "Travels,"  (4  vols.,  1788,)  which 
were  translated  into  English  and  German.    A  genus  of 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


THUNMJNN 


21  29 


TURKS 


beautiful  climbing  plants  has  been  named  in  his  honour, 
also  several  species  in  different  genera  of  insects.  Died 
in  1828. 

See  BiLLBERG,  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  C.  P.  Thunberg,"  1832; 
SCHROEDKR,  "  Vita  C.  P.  Tluinberg,"  1832  ;  Gezelius,  "  Biografiskt- 
Lexicon  ;"  Cuvier,  Histoire  des  Sciences  naturelles  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Thunmann,  toon'mSn,  (John,)  a  Swedish  writer, 
born  in  Sudermania  in  1746.  He  wrote  '*  Researches  on 
the  History  of  the  People  of  Eastern  Europe,"  (1774.) 
Died  in  1778. 

Thura,  too'rS,  (Lawrence,)  a  poet,  born  in  Laaland 
in  1656.  He  became  Bishop  of  Ribe  in  17 14.  Died 
in  1 73 1. 

Thuiiot,  tii're-o',  (Jacques  Alexandre,)  a  French 
Jacobin,  was  an  active  member  of  the  Convention,  in 
which  he  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  As  president 
of  that  body,  he  promoted  the  fall  of  Robespierre  on  the 
9th  Therniidor,  1794.    Died  in  1829. 

Thur'loe,  (John,)  an  English  minister  of  state,  born 
at  Abbot's  Roding,  in  Essex,  in  1616.  He  studied  law, 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1647,  obtained  several 

offices  by  the  favour  of  his  patron,  Oliver  Saint  John.  In 
1652  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  council  of  state. 
He  was  secretary  of  state  from  December,  1653,  until 
the  restoration,  1660.  During  a  part  of  this  period  he 
was  also  postmaster-general,  and  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment, He  rendered  important  services  to  Cromwell  by 
the  detection  of  plots  against  the  Commonwealth.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  talents  for  business,  and  his 
moderation.  After  the  restoration,  Charles  H.  invited 
him  to  take  office,  which  he  declined.  Died  in  1668. 
His  "State  Papers,"  published  by  Dr.  Birch,  (7  vols., 
1742,)  are  considered  very  valuable. 

See  Dr.  Birch,  "Life  of  J.  Thurloe,"  1742;  Burnet,  "History 
of  his  Own  Times." 

Thur'low,  (Edward,)  Lord,  an  eminent  English 
lawyer  and  politician,  born  in  Norfolk  or  near  Stow- 
market,  in  Suffolk,  in  1732,  was  a  son  of  Rev.  Thomas 
Thurlow,  He  was  sent  to  Caius  College,  Cambridge, 
which  he  was  compelled  to  leave  without  a  degree,  on 
account  of  his  turbulent  and  refractory  conduct.  He 
studied  law  in  the  Inner  Temple,  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1754  or  1756,  (Lord  Campbell  says  1754,)  and  joined 
the  Western  circuit.  In  early  life  he  was  a  friend  of 
the  poet  Cowper.  He  rose  rapidly  in  his  profession, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  king's  counsel  in  1761.  He 
distinguished  himself  as  junior  counsel  in  the  great 
Douglas  cause,  tried  in  the  House  of  Lords,  (1769.)  In 
1768  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament,  in  which 
he  supported  Lord  North's  administration.  He  became 
solicitor-general  in  1770,  and  attorney-general  in  1771. 
Having  commended  himself  to  the  favour  of  George 
III.  by  his  zealous  support  of  Lord  North's  American 
policy,  he  was  appointed  lord  chancellor  in  June,  1778, 
and  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron  Thurlow.  In 
1782  the  ministry  was  changed,  but  Thurlow  was  re- 
tained as  chancellor,  although  he  was  opjjosed  to  the 
measures  of  the  new  prime  minister,  Rockingham. 
When  a  new  cabinet  was  formed  by  the  coalition  of 
Lord  North  and  Fox,  in  1783,  Thurlow  lost  his  office, 
but  he  was  again  appointed  lord  chancellor  by  Mr.  Pitt 
in  December,  1783.  He  soon  became  an  enemy  to  Pitt, 
and,  relying  on  the  personal  favour  of  the  king,  thought 
he  could  displace  or  circumvent  that  minister.  "He 
espoused  the  cause  of  Warren  Hastings  with  indecorous 
violence."  (Macaulay.)  He  opposed  the  abolition  of 
the  slave-trade.  In  consequence  of  his  open  hostility 
to  Pitt  and  some  of  his  measures,  he  was  removed  from 
office  in  1792,  after  which  he  became  a  "  flaming  patriot." 
He  ceased  to  be  influential  or  prominent  in  political 
affairs  many  years  before  his  death,  which  occurred  in 
September,  1806. 

"  He  contrived,"  says  Lord  Campbell,  "  to  persuade 
mankind  that  he  was  a  great  judge,  a  great  orator,  and 
a  great  statesman, — although  I  am  afraid  that  in  all 
these  capacities  he  was  considerably  overrated,  and  that 
he  owed  his  temporary  reputation  very  much  to  his  high 
pretensions  and  his  awe-inspiring  maimers." 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  tlie  Lord  Cbancellors,"  vol.  v.  ; 
Brougham,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  IIL  ;"  Foss,  "The 
Judges  of  England;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  September,  1814. 


Thurmann,  tooR'mIn,  (Jules,)  a  Swiss  or  German 
geologist  and  botanist,  born  at  Neufbrisach  in  1804. 
He  published  an  "  Essay  on  the  Jurassic  Upheavals," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1855. 

Thiirmer  or  Thuermer,  tiiR'mer,  (Joseph,)  a  Ger- 
man architect,  born  at  Munich  in  1789.  He  spent  several 
years  at  Rome  and  Athens,  and  became  in  1832  pro- 
fessor in  the  Academy  of  Architecture  at  Dresden.  He 
published  "  Views  of  Athens  and  its  Monuments,"  (1823,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1833. 

Tliurneysser  or  Thurneisser  zum  Thurn,  tooR'- 
nl-ser  tsoom  tooRn,  (Leonard,)  a  Swiss  alchemist  and 
physician,  born  at  Bale  in  1531.  He  was  patronized 
by  the  archduke  Ferdinand,  brother  of  Maximilian  II., 
who  charged  him  with  the  administration  of  the  mines 
of  Tyrol.  In  1571  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg.  He  amassed  a  large  fortune  by 
his  pretended  skill  in  astrology  and  alchemy,  but,  his 
deceptions  being  at  length  discovered,  he  was  obliged  to 
leave  Berlin,  and  died  at  Cologne  in  1596.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  works,  which  are  now  forgotten. 

See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1853. 

Thurot,  tii'ro',  (Francois,)  a  French  seaman,  born 
in  Burgundy  in  1727.  Having  previously  distinguished 
himself  as  captain  of  a  privateer,  he  entered  the  royal 
marine,  and  gained  several  important  victories  over  the 
English,  but  he  was  mortally  wounded  in  an  engagement 
near  the  Isle  of  Man,  (1760.) 

Thurot,  (Jean  FRAwgois,)  a  French  philosopher  and 
Hellenist,  born  at  Issoudun  in  1768.  He  obtained  a 
chair  of  Greek  language  and  philosophy  in  the  College 
de  France  in  1814.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on 
the  Understanding  and  the  Reason,"  ("  De  I'Enteiide. 
ment  et  de  la  Raison,"  1830.)    Died  in  1832. 

See  SiLVESTRE  UE  Sacv,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  M.  Thurot,'* 
1832:  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Thury.    See  Cassini  de  Thury  and  H6ricart. 

Thwaites,  thwats,  (Edward,)  an  English  scholar, 
born  in  1667,  was  professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford.  He 
published  several  Anglo-Saxon  works.    Died  in  171 1. 

Thy-e.s'tes,  [Gr.  Qveottj^  ;  Fr.  Thyeste,  te'gst',]  in 
classic  mythology,  was  a  son  of  Pelops  and  Hippodami^a, 
a  brother  of  Atreus,  and  father  of  .^^^gisthus.  The  enmity 
between  Thyestes  and  Atreus  was  the  subject  of  several 
discordant  legends,  which  ascribe  to  each  a  number  of 
vindictive  crimes  and  atrocities.  (See  Atreus.)  This 
story  was  dramatized  by  Sophocles  and  Euripides  in 
tragedies  which  are  not  extant. 

Thymbraeus,  thim-bree'us,  [Gr.  Qv/x6patog ;  Fr. 
Thymbr^e,  tiw'bRi',]  a  surname  of  Apollo,  derived 
from  the  temple  of  Thymbra,  in  Troas. 

Thynne,  thin,  (Francis,)  an  English  antiquary  and 
writer  on  heraldry.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History 
of  Dover  Castle  and  the  Cinque  Ports,"  (in  manuscript,) 
and  a  "  Discourse  of  the  Duty  and  Office  of  an  Herald 
of  Arms."    Died  in  161 1. 

Thyonee.    See  Thyoneus. 

Thy-o'neus,  [Gr.  Qvuvd'g ;  Fr.  Thyonee,  teV- 
ni' :  supposed  to  be  derived  from  dvo),  to  "  rush,"  to 
"  be  excited,"]  a  surname  of  Bacchus,  whose  mother 
was  called  Thyone  {Ovtjvij)  after  she  was  translated  to 
Olympus. 

Thys,  tiss,  [Lat.  Thy'sius,]  a  Dutch  philologist,  born 
at  Harderwyck  in  1603.  He  was  professor  of  eloquence 
and  law  at  Leyden,  edited  several  Latin  authors,  and 
wrote  a  few  works,  in  prose  and  verse.    Died  in  1665. 

Thysius.    See  Thys. 

Tiarini,  te-S-ree'nee,  (Alessandro,)  an  eminent  Ital- 
ian painter,  born  at  Bologna  in  1577,  was  a  pupil  of 
Fontana  and  Passignano.  Among  his  master-]3ieces  are 
"  Saint  Peter  denying  Christ,"  a  "  Miracle  of  Saint 
Dominic,"  and  the  "  Deposition  from  the  Cross."  His 
works  are  principally  oil-paintings,  and  his  style  resem- 
bles that  of  the  Caracci.    Died  in  1668. 

Tiarks,  tee'^Rks,  (John  Lewis,)  a  German  astron- 
omer, born  at  Jever  in  1789,  removed  to  London,  where 
he  became  assistant  librarian  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks. 
About  1 82 1  he  was  sent  on  an  expedition  to  various 
parts  of  Europe  in  order  to  determine  the  longitude  by 
means  of  chronometers.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society.    Died  in  1837. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as j;  g,  h,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J:^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TIB  AID  EO 


2  I  30 


TICOZZI 


Tibaldeo.    See  Tebaldeo. 

Tibaldeo,  te-b5.lMi-o,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  scholar,  supposed  to  have  been  born  about  1460, 
He  wrote  Latin  and  Italian  poems.    Died  in  1537. 

See  LoNGFKLt.ow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Tibaldi,  (Domknico.)    See  Pkllkgrini. 

Tibell,  tee'bel,  (Gustavus  Wilhelm,)  a  Swedish 
general,  born  in  Sudermania  in  1772.  He  served  under 
Bonaparte  in  Italy,  (1795-1802.)    Died  in  1824. 

Tibere.    S-ce  Tiberius. 

Tib-e-ri'nus,  a  mythical  king  of  Alba,  was  said  to 
have  been  drowned  in  the  river  which  was  afterwards 
called  from  him  the  Tiber,  (Tiberis.) 

Tiberio.    See  TinERius. 

Ti-be'11-us,  [Fr.  TiB^RE,  te'baiR' ;  It.  Tiherio,  te- 
ba're-o,]  or,  more  fully,  Ti-be'ri-us  ClauMi-us  Ne'ro, 

a  celebrated  em[)eror  of  Rome,  born  in  42  B.C.  He  was 
a  son  of  Livia  Drusilla,  the  wife  of  Augustus,  by  her 
first  marriage,  and  belonged  to  the  patrician  gens  Clau- 
dia. His  father  was  T.  Claudius  Nero.  At  an  early 
age  he  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  military  affairs,  and 
served  with  distinction  in  Spain,  Asia  Minor,  and  Ger- 
many. His  talents  were  respectable,  if  not  superior.  He 
was  well  versed  in  Greek  and  Latin  literature.  His  first 
wife  was  Vipsania  Agrippina,  a  daughter  of  Agrippa. 
About  12  B.C.  he  was  compelled  to  divorce  her,  and  to 
marry  Julia,  a  daughter  of  the  emperor  Augustus.  He 
passed  seven  years  at  Rhodes  in  retirement,  and  returned 
to  Rome  in  2  a.d.  After  the  death  of  Caius  C?esar,  in  4 
A.D.,  Augustus  adopted  Tiberius  as  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor. He  became  emperor  in  the  year  14,  and  at  first 
used  his  power  with  moderation.  He  had  a  suspicious 
temper,  and  was  a  most  artful  dissembler.  He  chose 
for  his  favourite  minister  and  adviser  the  infamous 
Sejinus,  to  whom  he  soon  abandoned  the  direction  of 
the  government.  Tiberius  was  suspected  of  being  acces- 
sory to  the  death  of  Germanicus,  (19  A.n.)  His  only 
son,  Drusus,  was  poisoned  by  Sejanus  in  23.  In  the  year 
26  he  left  Rome,  to  which  he  never  returned,  and  retired 
to  the  island  of  Capri,  (Capreae.)  Avoiding  publicity 
and  neglecting  affairs  of  state,  he  abandoned  himself  to 
debauchery.  In  31  a.d.  Sejanus  was  put  to  death  by  the 
order  or  permission  of  Tiberius,  and  Macro  became  the 
powerful  favourite.  Tiberius  died  in  37  A.D.,  without 
appointing  his  successor.  It  is  stated  that  he  was  suf- 
focated by  Macro,  by  whose  aid  Caligula  then  became 
emperor.  "The  historian,"  says  Macaulay,  (referring  to 
Tacitus,)  "undertook  to  make  us  intimately  acquainted 
with  a  man  singularly  dark  and  inscrutable, — with  a 
man  whose  real  disposition  long  remained  swathed  up 
in  intricate  folds  of  factitious  virtues,  and  over  whose 
actions  the  hypocrisy  of  his  youth  and  the  seclusion  of 
his  old  age  threw  a  singular  mystery.  ...  He  was  to 
exhibit  the  old  sovereign  of  the  world  sinking  into  a 
dotage  which,  though  it  rendered  his  appetites  eccentric 
and  his  temper  savage,  never  impaired  the  powers  of 
his  stern  and  penetrating  mind,  conscious  of  failing 
strength,  raging  with  capricious  sensuality,  yet  to  the 
last  thje  keenest  of  observers,  the  most  artful  of  dis- 
semblers, and  the  most  terrible  of  masters.  The  task 
was  one  of  extreme  difficulty.  The  execution  is  almost 
perfect."    (Essay  on  "  History.") 

See  Suetonius,  "Tiberius;"  Tacitus,  "  Annales  ;"  Sievrrs, 
"Tacitus  und  Tiberius,"  iS^jo:  V.  Duruy,  "  De  Tiberio  Imiiera- 
tore,"  1853  ;  Mkrivale,  "  History  of  the  Romans  under  tlie  Em- 
pire ;"  Rose,  "  De  Tiberio  Csesare,"  1661  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie 
Gen^rale." 

Tiberius  (ANig'ius  Fla'vius  Constanti'nus)  II., 
surnamed  Thrax,  (or  the  "Thracian,")  Emperor  of  the 
East,  a  native  of  Thrace,  was  born  in  the  early  part  of 
the  sixth  century.  He  was  treated  with  great  distinction 
by  Justin  II.,  who  bestowed  upon  him  the  dignity  of 
Caesar  in  574,  and  subsequently  abdicated  in  his  favour. 
He  carried  on  a  successful  war  against  the  Persians 
under  Chosroes,  whom  he  signally  defeated  at  Melitene, 
(576  a.d.)  He  died  in  582  a.d.,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son-in-law  Mauritius,  whom  he  had  previously 
created  Caesar. 

See  GiRHON,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

Tiberius,  a  Greek  philosopher  and  grammarian,  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  in  the  fourth  century.  One  of  his 
rhetorical  works  is  extant,  and  a  number  of  fragments.  , 


Ti-be'ri-us  Ab-sim'a-rus,  a  Greek  general  of  the 
seventh  century,  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  Em- 
peror of  Constantinople  in  opposition  to  Leontius,  (698 
a.d.)    He  was  deposed  and  put  to  death  by  Justinian 

H.,  (70s  A.D.) 

Tibe'rius  Alexan'der,  a  native  of  Alexandria,  was 
appointed  by  the  emperor  Nero  governor  of  Judea,  and 
subsequently  prefect  of  Egypt.  He  was  distinguished 
by  the  favour  of  Vespasian  and  Titus,  and  assisted  the 
latter  in  the  siege  of  Jerusalem. 

Tibull,  the  German  for  Tibullus,  which  see. 

Tibulle.    See  Tibullus. 

Tibullo.    See  Tibullus. 

Ti-bul'lus,   [Fr.  Tibulle,  te'buK;  Ger.  Tibull. 

te-bdoK;  It.  TiBULLO,  te-booKlo,]  (Albius,)  a  distin- 
guished Roman  elegiac  poet  of  the  Augustan  age,  was 
l)oi  n  in  Italy  about'55  B.C.  He  was  a  son  of  a  knight, 
( equcs,)  from  whom  he  inherited  an  estate  between  Tibur 
and  Prasneste.  This  estate  was  confiscated  in  the  civil 
war,  but  he  recovered  a  part  of  it,  and  passed  much 
of  his  life  there,  enjoying  the  peaceful  pleasures  of  the 
country,  of  which  he  was  a  warm  admirer.  He  was 
patronized  by  Valerius  Messala,  whom  he  accompanied 
in  a  cainpaign  in  Gaul  in  31  B.C.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Horace,  who  addressed  to  him  an  epistle  and 
an  ode,  ("  Carmina,"  i.  33.)  His  character  is  said  to  have 
been  amiable.  He  wrote  amatory  elegies  addressed  to 
Delia  and  Netnesis.  His  poems  are  models  of  graceful 
simplicity  and  genuine  tenderness.  The  best  editions 
of  Tibullus  are  those  published  by  Lachmann  (1829)  and 
by  Dissenus,  (or  Dissen,)  (1835.)    Died  about  18  B.C. 

See  Ayrmann,  "Vita  Tibulli,"  lyig ;  Degrn,  "A.  Tibull," 
17S0;  Gruppe,  "Die  Romische  Elegie,"  1838;  Hednrr,  "Tibul- 
lus, Pro|)ertius  et  Ovidius,"  1841  ;  Dr  Goi.bery,  "  Dissertatio  de 
Tibulli  Vita,"  etc.,  1825;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tick'ell,  (Richard,)  an  English  writer  and  politician 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  published  a  pamphlet,  entitled 
"Anticipation,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1793. 

Tickell,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet  and  translator, 
born  in  Cumberland  in  1686.  He  studied  at  Queen's 
College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a  Fellow  in  1710. 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Addison,  who  made  him 
under-secretary  of  state  in  1 71 7.  He  subsequently  be- 
came secretary  to  the  lords  justices  of  Ireland.  He  was 
the  author  of  poems  entitled  "The  Prospect  of  Peace" 
and  "  The  Royal  Progress."  The  latter  is  character- 
ized by  Dr.  Johnson  as  "  neither  high  nor  low."  His 
translation  of  the  first  book  of  the  "Iliad"  is  highly 
commended  by  Addison,  but  it  is  regarded  by  other 
critics  as  greatly  inferior  to  Pope's.  Tickell  also  wrote  a 
number  of  prose  essays,  and  an  admired  "  Elegy  on 
the  Death  of  Addison."    Died  in  1740. 

Tick^nor,  (Caleb,)  a  skilful  American  physician, 
born  in  Salisbury,  Connecticut,  about  1804.  He  prac- 
tised in  New  York,  and  wrote  much  for  medical  journals. 
Died  about  1840. 

See  Williams,  "Medical  Biography." 

Ticknor,  (Elisha,)  an  American  teacher,  born  about 
1760,  was  the  father  of  George  Ticknor.  He  taught  in 
Boston,  where  he  died  in  1821. 

Ticknor,  (George,)  a  distinguished  American  scholar 
and  writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1791.  He  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College,  and  subsequently  spent  five  years 
in  visiting  various  parts  of  Europe.  He  was  appointed 
after  his  return  professor  of  the  French  and  Spanish 
languages  and  literature  at  Harvard  College.  He  brought 
out  in  1849  his  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature,"  (3  vols. 
8vo.)  It  immediately  established  the  reputation  of  the 
author,  and  has  obtained  the  highest  eulogy  from  emi- 
nent critics  of  all  countries,  having  been  translated  into 
Spanish  and  German.  In  1863  Mr.  Ticknor  published 
his  "Life  of  William  H.  Prescott,"  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting biographies  in  the  language.    Died  in  1871. 

See  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1850;  "North 
American  Review"  for  January,  1850. 

Ticozzi,  te-kot'see,  (Stefano,)  an  Italian  litteratncr , 
born  in  the  province  of  Como  in  1762.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  his  "  Dictionary  of  Architects,  Sculp- 
tors, Painters,  etc.  of  every  Age  and  Nation,"  (4  vols. 
8vo,  1830,)  "Historical  Memoirs,"  and  translations  of 
Sismondi's  "History  of  the  Italian  Republics"  and  Llo- 


1,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  A7«^;  i,^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,i,6,  u,    short;  a,  e,  i,    obscure;  far,fIll,fSt;  m&t;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


TIDEMAND 


2131 


TIERNET 


rente's  "  History  of  the  Inquisition."  He  was  prefect 
of  the  department  of  the  Piave  under  the  French  empire. 
Died  in  1836. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Tidemand,  tee'deh-mSnd^  (Adolph,)  a  Norwegian 
painter  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Mandal  in  1815.  He 
was  appointed  painter  to  the  king,  and  distinguished 
himself  as  a  painter  of  national  manners.  His  favourite 
subjects  are  scenes  of  Norwegian  domestic  life. 

Tidemann,  tee'deh-min',  (Philipp,)  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1657,  was  a  pupil  of 
Lairesse  at  Amsterdam.  He  painted  mythological  sub- 
jects with  success.    Died  in  171 5. 

Tieck,  teek,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  a  German 
sculptor,  brother  of  the  celebrated  Ludwig  Tieck,  was 
born  at  Berlin  in  1776.  In  1805  he  visited  Rome,  and 
subsequently  repaired  to  Munich,  where  he  executed 
portrait-busts  of  Schelling,  Jacobi,  and  the  crown-prince 
•Ludwig.  Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  a  life- 
size  statue  of  Necker,  and  busts  of  Lessing,  Grotius, 
Wallenstein,  and  William  of  Orange.    Died  in  185 1. 

See  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Tieck,  (Ludwig,)  a  distinguished  German  poet  and 
novelist,  born  in  Berlin  in  May,  1773,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  was  educated  at  Halle,  Gottingen,  and 
Erlangen.  His  favourite  studies  were  history  and  liter- 
ature, ancient  and  modern.  He  produced  "  Abdallah," 
a  novel,  (1795,)  "  William  Lovell,"  (1795,)  "Travels 
of  Sternbald,"  ("  Sternbald's  Wanderungen,"  1798.)  He 
associated  at  Jena  with  the  Schlegels,  Novalis,  and 
Schelling.  About  1800  he  married  a  young  woman 
named  Alberti.  In  literature  he  belonged  to  the  ro- 
mantic school.  His  reputation  was  increased  by  dramas 
entitled  "Genoveva,  or  Genevieve  of  Brabant,"  (1800,) 
and  the  "Emperor  Octavian,"  ("Kaiser  Octavianus," 
1804.)  He  resided  a  few  years  at  Dresden,  (1800-04,) 
and  travelled  in  Italy  in  1805.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  "  Phantasus,"  (3  vols.,  1812-15,)  "The  Revolt 
of  the  Cevennes,"  a  novel,  (1826,)  and  "Poet-Life," 
("  Dichterleben,"  1828.)  He  displayed  great  talent  for 
irony  and  humour  in  his  comedies  or  satires  entitled 
"Puss  in  Boots,"  "The  World  turned  Upside  Down," 
and  "  Prince  Zerbino,  or  Travels  in  Search  of  Good 
Taste,"  (2  vols.,  1 799-1800.)  After  a  visit  to  France 
and  England,  (1817,)  he  settled  at  Dresden  in  1819. 
He  produced  a  good  translation  of  "  Don  Quixote," 
(4  vols.,  1799-1801,)  and  assisted  Schlegel  in  the  trans- 
lation of  Shakspeare.  In  1840  the  King  of  Prussia 
invited  Tieck  to  Berlin,  appointed  him  a  privy  councillor, 
and  granted  him  a  pension.  After  that  date  he  resided 
at  Berlin  and  Potsdam.  Tieck  was  a  very  prolific  writer. 
His  versions  of  Shakspeare's  plays  are  among  the  best 
ever  made.    He  died  in  Berlin  in  April,  1853. 

See  "  L.  Tieck,"  Cassei,  1854  ;  L.  de  Loim^nie,  "  M.  Tieck,  par 
un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1841  ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;" 
"Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1838,  and  July,  1839; 
"Eraser's  Magazine"  for  November,  1831,  and  November,  1847. 

Tiedemann,  tee'deh-mJn'',  (Dietrich,)  a  German 
philosopher,  born  near  Bremen  in  1748.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Marburg,  and  was  an  adversary 
of  Kant.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  which  are 
highly  commended,  "The  Spirit  of  Speculative  Philoso- 
phy, from  Thales  to  Berkeley,"  (6  vols.,  1790-97.)  Died 
in  1803. 

See  G.  F.  Creuzer,  "  Memoria  Tiedemanni,"  1803. 

Tiedemann,  (Friedrich,)  a  distinguished  German 
anatomist  and  physiologist,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Cassei  in  1781.  He  graduated  at  Marburg  in 
1804.  and  in  1805  became  ])rofessor  of  anatomy  and 
zoology  at  Landshut.  In  1812  he  obtained  the  prize 
offered  by  the  French  Institute  for  the  best  work  on  the 
structure  of  the  Radiata,  and  at  the  same  time  was 
elected  a  corresponding  member  of  that  body.  He  was 
called  in  1816  to  fill  the  chair  of  anatomy,  physiology, 
etc.  at  Heidelberg.  Among  his  numerous  works  we 
may  name  the  "  Anatomy  and  Natural  History  of  Am- 
phibious Animals,"  (1817,)  "Arteries  of  the  Human 
Body,"  "  Nerves  of  the  Uterus,"  and  "  Physiology  of 
Man,"  (3  vols.,  1830-36.)    Died  in  1861. 

See  Flourens,  "  Elogeshistoriques  ;"  Cah.isen,  "  Medicinisches 
Schriftsteller-Lexikon  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


Tiedge,  teed'ceh,  (almost  teed'yeh,)  (Christoph  Au- 
gust,) a  German  poet  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at 
Gardelegen  in  1752.  While  filling  the  office  of  private 
tutor  at  Hohenstein,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Gleim 
and  the  Baroness  von  der  Recke,  and  in  1804  visited 
Italy  in  company  with  the  latter.  His  principal  poem, 
entitled  "  Urania,"  was  received  with  great  favour,  and 
was  followed  by  his  "  Mirror  for  Women,"  ("  Frauen- 
spiegel,")  "Wanderings  through  the  Market  of  Life," 
"  Elegies,"  etc.  During  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Tiedge 
resided  with  his  friend  Madame  von  der  Recke,  whom 
he  survived  about  eight  years,  dying  in  1841.  His  poetry 
is  characterized  by  great  moral  beauty  and  devotional 
feeling,  and  has  many  points  of  resemblance  to  that  of 
Cowper. 

See  Falkenstetn,  "C.  A.  Tiedge's  Leben  und  Nachlass,"  4 
vols.,  1841  ;  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe;"  Eber- 
HARD,  "  Blicke  in  Tiedge's  und  in  Elisa's  Leben,"  1844. 

Tieftrunk,  teef tRoonk,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  Ger- 
man philosopher  and  disciple  of  Kant,  born  near  Ros- 
tock in  1759,  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Halle. 
Died  in  1837. 

Tielemans,  tee'leh-mans',  (Jean  Francois,)  a  Bel- 
gian jurist  and  liberal  politician,  born  at  Brussels  in 
1799.  He  was  minister  of  the  interior  about  one  month, 
March,  1831,  was  afterwards  governor  of  Antwerp,  and 
professor  of  law  in  Brussels. 

Tien-Te,  te-§n'  ti,  or  Tien-Tih,  te-gn'  tih,  called 
also  Tai-Ping-Wang,  a  Chinese  leader  of  insurgents, 
born  in  1813.  His  original  name  was  Phuh,  and  his 
literary  name  Hung-Siu-Tshuen.  He  was  educated 
for  the  class  of  literati,  but  at  the  final  examination  in 
Canton  he  failed  to  obtain  a  degree.  About  1833  he 
received  from  an  agent  of  the  London  Bible  Society 
some  tracts  or  a  version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  which 
he  read  with  great  interest.  He  professed  to  have 
received  a  divine  mission,  and  began  to  preach  against 
the  worship  of  idols.  He  was  successful  in  converting 
many  to  the  "foreign  righteousness,"  wrote  religious 
essays  and  poems,  and  became  the  founder  of  a  new 
religion,  similar  to  Christianity  in  some  respects.  Ac- 
cording to  some  authorities,  he  joined  several  secret 
political  societies  formed  to  liberate  China  from  the 
domination  of  the  Mantchoos.  In  1850  he  raised  the 
standard  of  revolt.  His  followers  cut  off  their  pig-tails, 
which  is  accounted  an  act  of  high  treason  in  China. 
Tien-Te  marched  victoriously  through  several  provinces, 
and  captured  Nanking  in  1853,  after  he  had  defeated  the 
imperialist  armies  in  a  number  of  battles.  His  govern- 
ment, of  which  Nanking  was  the  capital,  was  a  military 
theocracy.  In  July,  1864,  Nanking  was  taken  by  the 
imperialists,  the  rebellion  was  suppressed,  and  Tien-Te 
killed  himself. 

See  "Life  of  Tai-Ping-Wang,"  by  J.  Milton  Mackie,  1857; 
"The  Taeping  Rebellion,"  in  the  "  Merchants' Magazine"  for  Jan- 
uary. 1865. 

Tiepolo,  te-gp'o-lo,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  Vene- 
tian painter,  born  in  1693,  was  patronized  by  Charles 
III.  of  Spain,  where  he  executed  several  works  of  great 
merit.  His  pictures  are  chiefly  frescos,  painted  in  the 
style  of  Paul  Veronese.  It  is  stated  that  his  oil-paint- 
ings are  to  be  found  in  all  the  galleries  of  Europe.  Died 
at  Madrid  about  1770. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizio- 
nario." 

Tiepolo,  (Jacopo,)  a  Venetian  jurist,  became  Doge 
of  Venice  in  1229.    Died  in  1249. 

His  son  Lorenzo  became  Doge  in  1268.  Died  in  1275. 

Tiepolo,  (Niccol6,)  a  Venetian  poet  and  senator 
eminent  for  his  talents  and  learning.  He  was  employed 
in  several  diplomatic  missions.    Died  in  1551. 

Tierney,  teer'ne,  (George,)  an  English  statesman, 
born  at  Gibraltar  in  1761.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  South wark  in  1796  by  the  Whig  party,  and  distin- 
guished himself  as  one  of  the  most  zealous  opponents 
of  Mr.  Pitt,  with  whom  he  fought  a  duel.  He  was  ap- 
pointed treasurer  of  the  navy  in  1802,  and  became  mas- 
ter of  the  mint  under  the  Canning  ministry,  (1827.)  He 
was  a  great  master  of  sarcasm  and  irony.  Died  in  1830. 

Tierney,  (Mark,)  an  English  antiquary  and  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  born  in  1785.  He  published  the  "His- 
tory and  Antiquities  of  Arundel."    Died  in  1862. 


€  as  k;  qzss;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (2i^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


T I  FERN  AS  2  1 


32 


TILLOT 


Tiferiias.te-f&u'nis,  (Gregorio,)  an  Italian  Hellenist, 
hi  1  11  at  Citta  di  Castello  about  141 5.  He  taught  Greek 
ill  Venice,  where  he  died  about  1465. 

Tigeliin.    See  Tigellinus. 

Tig-el-li'nus,  [Yr.  Tigeli.in,  te^zhi'l^N',]  (Sopho- 
Nrus,)  a  Roman  courtier,  notorious  for  his  crimes,  was 
born  at  Agrigentum.  In  63  A.D.  he  became  the  favourite 
minister  of  Nero,  with  the  title  of  praetorian  prefect.  He 
aliased  by  cruelty  and  rapacity  the  power  which  he  had 
ol)tained  by  subservience  to  the  worst  passions  of  Nero. 
He  committed  suicide  in  70  A.D, 

Tighe,  ti,  (Mrs.  Mary,)  a  distinguished  poetess,  born 
in  Wicklow  county,  Ireland,  in  1773,  was  a  daughter  of 
the  Rev.  William  }31achford.  She  was  the  author  of  a 
poem  entitled  "Psyche,"  which  is  greatly  admired,  also 
a  number  of  miscellaneous  and  devotional  pieces.  Died 
in  1810. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  October,  181 1. 

Tigny,  de,  deh  t^in'ye',  (Marin  GrostSte,)  a  French 
entomologist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1736.  His  wife  wrote 
a  "  History  of  Insects,"  a  work  of  merit,  which  was  pub- 
jshed  in  his  name,  (10  vols.,  1802.)    He  died  in  1799. 

Tigrane.    See  Tigranes. 

TK-gra'nes,  [Gr.  TtypuvT]^ ;  Fr.  Tigrane,  te'gRtn'; 
Armenian,  Dikran,  de-krSn',]  an  Armenian  prince  or 
hero,  flourished  about  550  B.C.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Cyrus  the  Great,  and,  according  to  some  authorities, 
aided  Cyrus  in  his  war  against  Astyages  the  Mede. 

Tigranes  I.,  King  of  Armenia,  began  to  reign  about 
96  B.C.,  and  married  a  daughter  of  Mithridates  the 
Great.  Having  extended  his  dominions  by  conquest,  he 
assumed  the  title  of  "King  of  kings."  In  the  year  83 
he  invaded  and  conquered  Syria.  He  afterwards  founded 
the  city  of  Tigranocerta,  which  became  his  cajDital.  As 
an  ally  of  his  son-in-law,  Mithridates,  he  declared  war 
against  the  Romans,  whose  army,  under  Lucullus,  in- 
vaded Armenia  in  69  B.C.  and  defeated  Tigranes  ;  but 
the  mutiny  of  the  Roman  soldiers  prevented  Lucullus 
from  terminating  the  war.  After  Pompey  had  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  Mithridates,  (66  B.C.,)  Tigranes 
made  an  abject  submission  to  the  Roman  general,  who 
permitted  him  to  keep  the  kingdom  of  Armenia  proper. 
Died  in  55  B.C.  He  was  noted  for  his  pride  and  tyranny. 
It  is  said  that  he  kept  tributary  kings  in  his  palace  as 
servants. 

See  Plutarch,  "  Lucullus ;"  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome  ;" 
Smith,  "  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Til,  van,  vtn  til,  (Solomon,)  a  Dutch  theolog-ian, 
born  near  Amsterdam  in  1644.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Leyden,  and  published  a  number  of  works 
on  that  subject.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Coccejus.  Died 
in  1713. 

See  MoRi^Ri,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique,"  1759;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Tilborg.    See  Tilburgh. 

Tilburgh,  van,  vtn  tiKbiir'H,  written  also  Tilborg, 
(Giles,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Brussels  about  1625. 
He  p.ainted  fairs,  rustic  dances,  interiors  of  taverns,  etc. 
Died  in  1678. 

Tilbury,  (Gervase  of.)    See  Gervase. 

Tilenus,  te-la'niis,  or  Tilenius,  te-la'ne-us,  (Daniel,) 
a  Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Silesia  in  1563.  He 
was  a]:)pointed  professor  of  theology  at  Sedan,  France, 
in  1602,  and  became  preceptor  of  the  famous  Turenne. 
Having  adopted  Arminian  tenets,  he  was  deprived  of 
his  chair  at  Sedan  in  1619.  He  wrote  numerous  works 
on  theology.    Died  in  Paris  in  1633. 

See  BouiLLOT,  "  Notice  sar  D.  Tilenus,"  1806;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Tilesius.    See  Telesio. 

Tilesius  von  Tilenau,  von,  fon  te-la'ze-tis  fon  tee'- 
leh  -now  ,  (^ViLHELM  Gottlieb,)  a  German  naturalist, 
born  in  Thuringia  in  1769.  He  accompanied  the  Russian 
navigator  Krusenstern  in  his  voyage  around  the  world 
in  1803,  and  published,  in  1813,  "Results  in  Natural 
History  of  the  First  Russian  Voyage  around  the  World, 
under  Captain  Krusenstern."    Died  in  1857. 

Tilghman,  tiKman,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  American 
jurist,  a  relative  of  Chief- Justice  Tilghman,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  \Yye,  in  Maryland,  December  1 1, 1750. 


He  studied  in  Philadelphia,  and  at  the  Middle  Temple, 
in  London.  He  established  himself  in  Philadelphia,  and 
rose  to  the  first  place  at  the  bar  of  that  city,  which  was 
then  noted  for  its  eminent  lawyers.  "  Mr.  Tilghman  was 
an  advocate  of  great  power,"  says  Mr.  Binney,  "a  fault- 
less logician, — a  man  of  the  purest  integrity  and  brightest 
honour, — fluent,  without  the  least  volubility, — concise 
to  a  degree  that  left  every  one's  patience  and  attention 
unimpaired."    Died  in  1815. 

See  a  notice  of  Edward  Tilghman,  by  Horace  Binney,  in  the 
"  Encyclopaedia  Americana,"  (Supplement.) 

Tilghman,  (Lloyd,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Maryland  about  1816,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1836. 
He  commanded  at  Fort  Henry,  in  Tennessee,  which  he 
surrendered  to  the  Union  navy  or  army  in  February 
1862.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Champion  Hill, 
May  16,  1863. 

Tilghman,  (William,)  an  American  jurist  and  schol- 
ar, was  born  in  Talbot  county,  Maryland,  August  12, 
1756.  He  studied  law  in  Philadelphia,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1783.  He  was  repeatedly  elected  to  the 
legislature  of  his  native  State.  In  1793  he  removed  to 
Philadelphia.  In  1801  he  was  appointed  chief  judge  of 
the  United  States  court  for  Pennsylvania.  In  1805  he 
was  made  president  of  the  court  of  common  pleas,  and 
in  1806  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  State,  a 
position  which  he  filled  with  eminent  ability  until  his 
death,  in  1827.  It  has  been  justly  observed  that  Penn- 
sylvania owes  him  a  debt  of  gratitude  for  "the  incorpo- 
ration of  the  principles  of  scientific  equity  with  the  laws 
of  the  State." 

See  "  Encyclopasdia  Americana." 

TiFle-mans,  (Peter,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Ant- 
werp, resided  in  England,  where  he  produced  a  number 
of  admired  works.    Died  in  1734. 

Tillemont,  de,  deh  teI'm6N'  or  te'ye-m6N',  (Sebas- 
TIEN  Lenain — leh-n^N',)  a  French  ecclesiastical  histo- 
rian, born  in  Paris  in  1637.  He  studied  at  Port-Royal, 
under  Nicole  and  other  distinguished  Jansenists,  and 
was  ordained  a  priest  in  1676.  He  published  in  1693 
the  first  volume  of  his  "Memoirs  towards  the  Eccle- 
siastical History  of  the  First  Six  Centuries,"  ("  Memoires 
pour  servir  a  I'Histoire  ecclesiastique,"  etc.,)  which 
first  appeared  complete  in  1 712,  (16  vols.  4to.)  His 
other  principal  work  is  entitled  a  "  History  of  the  Em- 
perors and  other  Princes  who  reigned  during  the  First 
Six  Centuries,"  etc.,  (4  vols.,  1690-97.)  Two  other 
volumes  were  published  in  1701-38.  These  works  are 
highly  esteemed.  Tillemont  was  eminently  modest  and 
humble.    Died  in  Paris  in  1698. 

See  Tronchay,  "  Vie  de  M.  Lenain  de  Tillemont,"  171 1  ;  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "  Histoire  de  Port-Royal ;"  Perraui.t,  "  Memoires  des 
Hommes  illustres ;"  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Tillet,  te'yi',  (Mathieu,)  a  French  writer  on  agri- 
culture, born  at  Bordeaux  aljout  1720.  He  co-operated 
with  Duhamel  du  Monceau.    Died  in  1791. 

Tillet,  du,  du  te'yk',  (Jean,)  a  learned  French  com- 
piler of  historical  documents,  born  in  Paris.  He  was 
secretary  (greffier)  of  the  Parliament.  Among  his  works 
is  "Collection  of  the  Kings  of  France,"  etc.,  ("  Recueil 
des  Rois  de  France,  leur  Couronne  et  Maison,"  1580.) 
Died  in  1570. 

Tilli,  teeKlee,  (Michelangelo,)  an  Italian  botanist, 
born  at  Castel-Fiorentino  in  1655.  He  became  a  pro- 
fessor at  Pisa,  and  published  a  "  Catalogue  of  the  Plants 
in  the  Botanic  Garden  of  Pisa,"  (1723.)    Died  in  1740. 

Tillier,  te'ye-a',  (Johann  Anton,)  a  Swiss  historian, 
born  at  Berne~]n  1792,  published  a  "History  of  the 
Confederation  ( Eidgenosseiischaft)  at  the  Epoch  of  the 
Restoration,"  (1848,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1854. 

TilTo-eh,  (Alexander,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  journalist 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1759. 
Having  settled  in  London,  he  became  editor  of  "  The 
Star"  in  1789,  and  subsequently  of  the  "Philosophical 
Magazine."  He  published  several  theological  essays. 
Died  in  1825. 

Tillot,  du,  dii  te'yo',  (Guillaume  L:^:on,)  Marquis 
de  Felino,  was  born  at  Bayonne  in  1711.  He  became 
about  1755  minister  of  finance  to  the  Duke  of  Parma. 
Died  in  1774. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAort;  a,  e,'  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m6t;  ndt;  good;  moon  • 


TILLOTSON 


2133 


TIMOLEON 


Tiriot-spn,  (John,)  D.D.,  a  celebrated  English  prel- 
ate, born  in  Yorkshire  in  1630;  He  studied  at  Clare 
Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  became  a  Fellow  in  165 1. 
Though  educated  a  Calvinist,  he  subsequently  conformed 
to  the  Church  of  England,  and,  having  taken  holy  orders, 
he  was  appointed  in  1664  preacher  at  Lincoln's' Inn  and 
Saint  Lawrence's  Church  in  the  Jewry,  where  he  ac- 
quired a  very  high  reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator.  Under 
the  reign  of  Charles  H.  he  became  successively  Dean  of 
Canterbury,  (1672,)  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's,  (1675,) 
canon-residentiary  of  that  cathedral,  (1677.)  He  was 
created  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  by  William  HL  in 
1691.  He  had  married  Elizabeth  French,  a  niece  of 
Oliver  Cromwell.  In  theology  he  was  called  a.latitudi- 
narian.  The  nonjurors  lampooned  him  outrageously, 
denouncing  him  as  atheist.  Deist,  Arian,  thief,  etc.  Died 
in  1694.  Addison  considered  his  writings  as  models  of 
language. 

"  Of  all  the  members  of  the  Low-Church  party,"  says 
Macaulay,  "Tillotson  stood  highest  in  the  general  esti- 
mation. As  a  preacher  he  was  thought  by  his  contem- 
poraries to  have  surpassed  all  rivals,  living  or  dead. 
Posterity  has  reversed  this  judgment.  Yet  Tillotson 
still  keeps  his  place  as  a  legitimate  English  classic.  .  .  . 
His  reasoning  was  just  sufficiently  profound  and  suffi- 
ciently refined  to  be  followed  by  a  popular  audience  with 
that  slight  degree  of  intellectual  exertion  which  is  a 
pleasure.  .  .  .  The  greatest  charm  of  his  compositions, 
however,  is  derived  from  the  benignity  and  candour 
which  appear  in  every  line,  and  which  shone  forth  not 
less  conspicuously  in  his  life  than  in  his  writings." 
("  History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.) 

See  Birch,  "Life  of  Tillotson."  prefixed  to  his  works;  Le 
Neve.  "  Lives  of  the  Protestant  Archbishops  of  England ;"  Burnet, 
"  Histoi-y  of  his  Own  Times." 

Tilly,  de,  deh  te'ye',  (Alexandre,)  Comte,  a  French 
royalist  and  political  writer,  born  at  Mans  in  1764.  He 
wrote  "Memoirs  towards  a  History  of  Manners  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  (3  vols.,  1828,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1816. 

Tilly,  de,  (Pierre  Alexandre,)  Count,  a  French 
general  of  the  Revolution,  born  in  Normandy  in  1754, 
gained  several  victories  over  the  Vendeans,  and  became 
governor  of  Brussels  in  1796.    Died  in  1822. 

Tilly  or  Tilli,  von,  fon  tiKlee,  (Johann  Tzerklas,) 
Count,  a  celebrated  military  commander,  born  near 
Gembloux,  in  Brabant,  in  1559.  Having  served  for  a 
time  in  the  Netherlauds  under  Alva,  Don  John  of 
Austria,  and  Alexander  Farnese,  he  entered  the  army  of 
Maximilian,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  in  1609.  Soon  after' the 
breaking  out  of  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  he  was  appointed 
to  the  chief  command  of  the  army  of  the  League,  and  in 
1620  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Protestants,  and 
subsequently  defeated  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  near 
Lutter.  Having  been  made  a  field-marshal,  in  1630  he 
succeeded  Wallenstein  as  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Imperial  troops,  and  in  May,  163 1,  took  Magdeburg  by 
storm.  This  victory,  which  was  followed  hy  the  mos't 
atrocious  cruelty  perpetrated  on  the  inhabitants,  was 
celebrated  by  Marshal  Tilly  by  Te  Deums  sung  in  the 
cathedral.  He  was  soon  after  defeated  by  Gustavus 
Adolphus  near  Leipsic,  and  a  second  time  at  the  battle 
of  the  Lech,  in  1632,  where  he  was  mortally  wounded. 

See  Vii.i.FRMONT,  "Tilly,  on  la  Guerre  de  Trente  Ans,"  2  vols., 
1859  ;  ScHii.i,ER,  "  History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War." 

Til'ton,  (James,)  an  American  physician,  born  in 
Delaware  in  1745.  He  served  as  surgeon  of  the  army 
from  1776  to  1783,  and  was  appointed  physician-  and 
singeon -general  of  the  army  of  the  United  States  in 
1812  or  1813.    Died  in  1822. 

Timaeus,  tl-mee'us,  [Gr.  T/'/iatof  Fr.  Tim6e,  te''mi',] 
a  Pythagorean  philosopher,  born  at  Locri,  in  Italy,  is  said 
to  have  been  a  teacher  of  Plato.  He  flourished  probably 
about  420-380  B.C.  A  work  "  On  the  Soul  of  the  Uni- 
verse," which  is  extant,  has  been  ascribed  to  him  ;  but 
many  critics  doubt  that  he  was  the  author  of  it,  and 
regard  it  as  an  abridgment  of  Plato's  dialogue  of 
"Timaeus." 

Timaeus,  an  eminent  Greek  historian,  born  at  Tau- 
romenium,  in  Sicily,  about  352  B.C.  Having  been 
banished  from  his  native  island  by  Agathocles,  he  re- 


tired to  Athens,  where  he  resided  about  fifty  years. 
Died  about  256  B.C.  His  principal  work  was  a  "  His- 
tory of  Sicily  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  264  B.C.,"  of 
which  fragments  are  extant.  He  is  severely  criticised 
by  Polybius,  but  is  praised  by  Cicero,  who  says,  in  his 
treatise  '*  De  Oratore,"  "  Timaeus,  quantum  judicare 
possim,  longe  eruditissimus,  et  rerum  copia  et  senten- 
tiarum  varietate  abundantissimus  .  .  .  magnam  elo- 
quentiam  ad  scribendum  attulit."* 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Graecis." 

Timaeus,  [Fr.  Tim6e  le  Sophiste,  te'mi'  leh  so'- 
f^st',]  a  Greek  Sophist  and  grammarian,  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  the  third  century  after  Christ.  His  only 
extant  work  is  a  vocabulary  or  glossary  of  the  phrases 
of  Plato,  ("  Lexicon  Vocum  Platonicarum,")  edited, 
with  a  commentary,  by  Ruhnken,  (1754.) 

Timagene.    See  Timagenes. 

Ti-mag'e-nes,  [Gr.  Tifiayevrig;  Fr.  Timagene,  te^mt'- 
zhin',]  a  rhetorician  of  Alexandria,  became  a  resident 
of  Rome  about  55  B.C.  He  wrote  several  works  on  his- 
tory, etc.,  and  gained  the  friendship  of  Augustus.  Some 
critics  identify  him  with  the  Timagenes  who  wrote  a 
"Periplus"  of  the  whole  sea. 

See  Schwab,  "  De  Livio  et  Timagene  Historiarum  Scriptoribus 
aennilis,"  1834. 

Ti-man'thes,  [Gr.  Ttftavdr]^;  Fr.  Timanthe,  te'- 
m6Nt',]  a  celebrated  Greek  painter,  born  at  Sicyon, 
flourished  about  400  B.C.  He  was  a  rival  of  Parrhasius, 
over  whom  he  gained  the  prize  at  Samos  for  his  "  Con- 
test of  Ajax  and  Ulysses  for  the  Arms  of  Achilles." 
Among  his  other  master-pieces  were  "The  Sacrifice 
of  Iphigeni'a"  and  "The  Stoning  of  Palamedes."  He 
excelled  in  the  power  of  expression  and  suggestion. 

Ti-mar'-ehus,  [Tifiapxog,]  a  Greek  grammarian  of 
uncertain  date. 

Timbal,  tiN'bSK,  (Charles,)  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Paris  about  1822.  He  painted  many  scriptural  sub- 
jects. 

Timbs,  t!mz,  (John,)  an  English  writer  and  journalist, 
born  in  London  in  1801.  He  became  editor  of  "  The  Mir- 
ror" in  1827,  and  subsequently  associate  editor  of  "  The 
Illustrated  London  News."  He  has  published,  among 
other  popular  works,  "Laconics,"  (3  vols.,  1825-26,) 
"The  Year-Book  of  Facts,"  "Things  not  generally 
Known  familiarly  Explained,"  (1856,)  "Curiosities  of 
History,"  (1859,)  and  "A  Century  of  Anecdote,  1760 
to  i860,"  (2  vols.,  1864.) 

Timee.    See  Tim^.us. 

Tim'o-cles,  [Ti//o«:A^f,]  an  Athenian  comic  poet  of 
the  middle  comedy,  lived  about  350-320  B.C.  His  style 
is  commended  for  its  purity.    His  works  are  not  extant. 

Ti-mo'cre-on  [TinoKpeuv]  of  Rhodes,  a  Greek  lyric 
poet,  lived  about  500-450  B.C.  He  wrote  bitter  satirical 
verses  against  Themistocles  and  Simonides.  Some  of 
his  verses  are  quoted  by  Plutarch  in  his  "  Life  of  The- 
mistocles." 

Ti-moTe-on,  [TLfioleuv,]  an  illustrious  Greek  states- 
man and  general,  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Corinth 
about  400  B.C.  He  was  so  zealous  for  liberty  that  he 
conspired  against  his  elder  brother  Timophanes,  who 
had  usurped  supreme  power  and  was  killed.  Accord- 
ing to  Plutarch,  Timoleon  became  a  prey  to  sorrow  on 
account  of  the  death  of  his  brother,  and  withdrew 
from  public  affairs  for  many  years.  In  344  B.C.  the 
people  of  Syracuse  sent  ambassadors  to  Corinth  to 
implore  assistance  against  Dionysius  and  other  tyrants. 
The  Corinthians  granted  a  small  army,  and  appointed 
Timoleon  to  command  it.  Three  parties  were  then  con- 
tending for  mastery  in  the  Syracusan  state, — Dionysius, 
Hicetas,  and  the  popular  party.  Before  the  end  of  344 
Timoleon  defeated  Hicetas  and  occupied  part  of  Syra- 
cuse. In  the  next  year  Dionysius  surrendered  the  citadel 
to  Timoleon  and  retired  from  the  contest  Hicetas,  who 
still  held  two  quarters  of  the  capital,  obtained  aid  from 
the  Carthaginians  ;  but  Timoleon  soon  expelled  him  from 
Syracuse,  and  restored  democratic  institv  lions  in  that  city. 


*  The  following  is  a  nearly  literal  translation  :  "Timaeus,  as  well 
as  I  am  able  to  judge,  was  by  far  the  most  learned  of  all,  and  the  most 
rich  in  the  abundance  of  his  facts  and  variety  of  his  opinions;  he  dis- 
played, also,  great  eloquence  in  composition." 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  Aarci;  g  as j;  G,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TIMOMJCHUS  21 


111  339  he  defeated  the  Carthaginian  generals  Hasdrubal 
and  Hamilcar,  who  invaded  the  Syracusan  state  with 
an  army  five  times  larger  than  that  of  Timoleon,  He 
ascribed  all  his  successes  to  fortune,  or  to  the  will  of  the 
gods.  He  restored  peace  and  prosperity  to  the  people 
of  Sicily,  who  honoured  him  as  a  great  benefactor.  Died 
at  Syracuse  in  337  B.C.  Plutarch  says  that  "  he  performed 
greater  things  than  any  Grecian  of  his  time,  and  was  the 
only  man  that  realized  those  glorious  achievements  to 
which  the  orators  of  Greece  were  constantly  exhorting 
their  countrymen." 

See  Plutarch,  "Life  of  Timoleon;"  C.  Nepos,  "Life  of  Timo- 
leon ;"  Gkote,  "History  of  Greece;"  Thirlwall,  "History  of 
Greece  ;''  Arnoldt,  "Timoleon  ;  biographische  Darstellung,"  1850  ; 
"Nonvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ti-mom'a-ehus,  an  eminent  painter,  born  in  Byzan- 
tium, is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  300  B.C.  His 
pictures  of  "Medea  about  to  destroy  her  Children"  and 
"  Ajax  brooding  over  his  Misfortunes"  were  esteemed 
master-pieces  by  the  ancients,  and  were  purchased  by 
Julius  Caesar  for  an  immense  sum. 

Ti'mon  [Ti/iuv]  the  Misanthrope,  a  native  of  At- 
tica, and  contemporary  of  Socrates,  was  notorious  for  his 
hatred  of  mankind,  from  whom  he  lived  secluded.  He 
has  been  introduced  into  the  works  of  Aristophanes, 
Lucian,  and  other  eminent  ancient  writers,  and  forms 
^he  subject  of  one  of  Shakspeare's  dramas. 

See  CooPMAN,  "Dissertatio  historica  de  Timone  Misanthropo," 
1841. 

Timon,  a  Greek  poet  and  skeptical  philosopher  of 
the  third  century  B.C.,  was  a  disciple  of  Pyrrho,  He 
was  the  author  of  a  number  of  dramas,  and  satiric  poems 
entitled  "  Silli."    Fragments  of  the  latter  are  extant. 

Timon,  tee'mon,  (Samuel,)  a  Hungarian  historian, 
born  in  1675,  wrote  on  the  history  of  Hungary.  Died 
in  1736. 

Timoneda,  de,  dh.  te-mo-na'D^,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish 
poet,  born  at  Valencia  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Patraiiuelo," 
("The  Story-Teller,")  and  several  comedies. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Timoteo,  the  Italian  for  Timothy,  which  see. 

Timoteo  da  Urbino,  te-mo-ta'o  dS.  ooii-bee'no, 
called  also  Delia  Vite,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Ur- 
bino about  1475.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Raphael,  whom 
he  assisted  in  some  of  his  works  at  Rome.  Among  his 
master-pieces  may  be  named  an  "  Annunciation  of  the 
Virgin,"  and  a  "  Noli-me-Tangere."    Died  about  1530. 

Timothee.    See  Timothy  and  Timotheus. 

Ti-mo'the-us,  [Gr.  Tiiiodeog;  Fr.  Timothee,  te'mo^- 
ta';  It.  Timoteo,  te-mo-ta'o,]  a  celebrated  Greek  poet 
and  musician  of  Miletus,  was  a  contemporary  of  Eurip- 
ides, and  flourished  about  390  B.C.  His  innovation  of 
the  lyre  with  eleven  strings  was  publicly  condemned  by 
the  Spartans.  His  lyrics  were  highly  esteemed  by  his 
countrymen,  but  a  few  fragments  only  are  extant.  He 
is  said  to  have  died  in  357  B.C.,  aged  about  ninety. 

See  K.  O.  Muller,"  History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece." 

T^imotheus,  a  Greek  statuary  of  high  reputation, 
flourished  about  350  B.C.  He  was  one  of  the  artists  who 
adorned  the  frieze  of  the  Mausoleum  with  bas-reliefs. 
Among  his  works  was  a  statue  of  Artemis,  (Diana.) 

Timotheus,  an  eminent  Athenian  commander,  was 
the  son  of  the  famous  Conon,  and  a  pupil  of  Isocrates. 
He  assisted  the  Thebans  to  repel  an  invasion  of  the 
Spartans,  whose  fleet  he  defeated  near  Leucas  in  376  or 
375  B.C.  He  entered  the  service  of  Artaxerxes,  King 
of  Persia,  in  372,  and  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
Athenian  army  in  Macedonia  in  364  B.C.  He  captured 
several  cities  from  the  Olynthians,  and  all  the  Chalcidian 
towns.  Timotheus,  Iphicrates,  and  Chares  commanded 
the  fleet  in  the  Social  war  which  began  in  357  B.C.,  and 
were  unsuccessful.  Timotheus  was  condemned  to  pay 
a  large  fine.    Died  in  354. 

■  See  Cornelius  Nepos,  "  Timotheus ;"  Grote,  "  Histoiy  of 
Greece;"  Thirlwall,  "History  of  Greece." 

Timotheus,  (of  Scripture.)    See  Timothy. 

Timotheus,  a  Greek  dramatic  poet,  the  date  of  whose 
birth  is  unknown,  was  a  resident  of  Athens.  None  of 
his  works  are  extant.  He  was  a  poet  of  the  middle 
comedy. 


U  TINNE 


Tim'o-thy,  [Gr.  Tt/x6deog ;  Lat.  Timo'theus;  Fr. 
Timoth^:e,  te'mo'tV;  It,  Timoteo,  te-mo  ta'o,]  the 
friend  and  coadjutor  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  was  a  native 
of  Lycaonia,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  was  carefully  educated 
in  the  Christian  faith  by  his  mother  Eunice,  a  converted 
Jewess.  He  was  ordained  at  an  early  age  by  Saint  Paul, 
whom  he  accompanied  on  his  missions  to  Greece  and 
Macedonia.  He  is  believed  to  have  been  the  first  bishop 
of  the  Church  at  Ephesus,  and,  according  to  tradition, 
suffered  martyrdom  under  Domitian. 

See  Acts  xvi.  ;  also  Saint  Paul's  Epistles  to  Timothy, 

Timour.    See  Tamerlane, 
Timour-Beg,  (or  -Bee)    See  Tamerlane. 
Timur.    See  Tamerlane, 

Tinctor,  tink'tor,  or  Tinctoris,  tink-to'ris,  (Jan,)  a 
Flemish  musician,  born  at  Nivelle  about  1434,  or,  as  some 
say,  1450,  He  went  to  Naples,  and  was  patronized  by 
King  Ferdinand  I,  He  produced  a  musical  dictionary, — 
"Terminorum  Musicae  Definitorium,"  (without  date.) 
Died  about  1520. 

Tin'dal,  (Matthew,)  LL.D.,  an  English  jurist  and 
deistical  writer,  born  in  Devonshire  about  1657.  Soon 
after  the  accession  of  James  II.  he  embraced  Roman 
Catholicism,  but  he  subsequently  returned  to  the  Church 
of  England.  He  published  in  1706  a  work  entitled 
"The  Rights  of  the  Christian  Church  Asserted,"  etc., 
being  an  attack  upon  hierarchical  power,  which  involved 
him  in  a  bitter  and  protracted  controversy  with  several 
clergymen  of  the  Church  of  England.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  political  essays;  but  he  is  princi- 
pally known  by  his  "Christianity  as  old  as  the  Creation, 
or  the  Gospel  a  Republication  of  the  Religion  of  Nature," 
(1730.)    Died  in  1733. 

See  "Eiographia  Eritannica  :"  Small,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of 
M.  Tindal,"  1733;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tindal,  (Rev.  Nicholas,)  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1687,  and  rose  through  several  preferments  to 
be  rector  of  Alverstoke,  in  Hampshire.  He  translated 
from  the  French  Rapin's  "  History  of  England,"  of  which 
he  wrote  a  continuation  brought  down  to  the  reign  of 
George  II.    Died  in  1774. 

Tindal,  (Sir  Nicholas  Conyngham,)  an  English 
jurist  and  statesman,  born  in  1777.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1827  represented 
that  university  in  Parliament.  He  was  afterwards  ap- 
pointed lord  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  common  pleas. 
Died  in  1846. 

Tin'dale  or  Tyn'dale,  (William,)  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish Reformer  and  martyr,  was  born  in  Gloucestershire 
about  1480.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  and  subsequently  at 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degree.  Having  been 
converted  to  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  by  which  he 
was  exposed  to  persecution  in  England,  he  repaired  to 
Germany,  and  afterwards  settled  at  Antwerp,  where  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
into  English,  The  first  edition  came  out  about  1525, 
and  met  with  a  rapid  sale  both  in  England  and  on  the 
continent.  He  published  in  1534  a  new  and  improved 
edition.  His  translation  of  the  Pentateuch,  in  which  he 
was  assisted  by  Miles  Coverdale,  had  aj^peared  in  1530. 
In  1534  Tindale,  whose  writings  had  been  previously 
denounced  by  the  English  government,  was  seized  at 
Antwer])  througli  the  interference  of  the  King  of  Eng- 
land, brought  to  trial  for  heresy,  and,  after  an  imprison- 
ment of  nearly  two  years,  strangled  and  burnt  at  the 
stake,  (1536.) 

See  Fox,  "Acts  and  Monuments;"  Wood,  "Athenae  Oxoni- 
enses  ;"  Wordsworth.  "Ecclesiastical  Biography." 

Tin'dall,  (Rev.  William,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  1754.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  Evesham,"  "Plain 
Truth  in  a  Plain  Dress,"  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1804. 

Tinelli,  te-nel'lee,  (Tiberto,)  an  Italian  painter  of 
history  and  portraits,  born  at  Venice  in  1586,  was  a 
pupil  of  L.  Bassano.  His  works  are  highly  praised. 
Died  in  1638. 

Tinne,  tin'neh,  (Alexandrine,)  a  rich  heiress  and 
traveller,  born  in  Holland  about  1844.  In  1863-64  she 
explored  the  sources  of  the  Gazelle  River,  the  west- 
ern branch  of  the  White  Nile,  She  was  murdered  by 
the  Tuariks  in  1869,  between  Moorzook  and  Ghat. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long-;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y, 


sAort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


riNTORET 


TISCHENDORF 


Tintoret,  Le.    See  Tintoretto. 

Tintoretto,  tin-to-ret''to  or  t4ii-to-ret'to,  [Fr.  Le 
TiNTORKT,  leh  tiN^to'rk',]  (Giacomo,)  one  of  the  most 
eminent  painters  of  the  Venetian  school,  was  born  at 
Venice  in  15 12.  His  original  name  was  Robusti,  but 
he  assumed  that  of  Tintoretto  from  the  occupation  of 
his  father,  who  was  a  dyer,  (  Tintore.)  He  made  Titian 
his  model  in  colouring  and  Michael  Angelo  in  design. 
He  painted  with  great  rapidity,  and  his  works,  both  in 
oil  and  fresco,  are  very  numerous.  Among  his  master- 
])ieces  may  be  named  "The  Last  Judgment"  and  "The 
Worship  of  the  Golden  Calf,"  in  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  dell'  Orto,  "The  Miracle  of  the  Slave,"  (some- 
times called  "  The  Miracle  of  Saint  Mark,")  in  the  Acad- 
emy of  Venice,  "The  Marriage  at  Cana,"  the  "Cruci- 
fixion," in  the  Scuola  di  San  Rocco,  and  a  "  Paradise,"  a 
colossal  picture  containing  mcjre  than  a  hundred  figures. 
Died  in  1594.  His  son  l3omenico  and  daughter  Mari- 
etta were  distinguished  as  painters  ;  the  latter  excelled 
in  portraits.  "All  landscape  grandeur,"  says  Ruskin, 
"  vanishes  before  that  of  Titian  and  Tintoret ;  and  this 
is  true  of  whatever  these  two  giants  touched."  ("Mod- 
ern Painters.") 

See  Carlo  Ridolfi,  "Vitadi  G.  Robusti  detto  II  Tintoretto," 
1642;  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Vasari,  "Lives  of 
the  Painters  ;"  Mrs.  Jameson,  "  Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters  ;" 
Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario." 

Tipaldo,  te-pJKdo,  (Emilio  Amedeo,)  an  Italian 
scholar  and  writer,  born  at  Corfu  in  1798.  He  became 
in  1829  professor  of  history,  etc.  in  the  Marine  College 
of  Venice.  He  published  many  important  works,  among 
which  we  may  notice  a  "  History  of  Profane  Greek  Lite- 
rature," (9  vols.,  1824-30,)  and  "  Biography  of  Illustrious 
Italians  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  and  of  the  Present 
Age,"  ("Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri  del  Secolo 
XVIII.  e  de'  Contemporanei,"  10  vols.,  1834-46.) 

Tippoo  Sahib,  tip'poo'sih'Hib,  written  alsoTippoo 
Saib,  Sultan  of  Mysore,  born  in  1749,  was  the  son  of 
Hyder  Alee,  (or  Aly,)  whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne 
in  1782.  He  prosecuted  the  war  which  he  had  pre- 
viously waged  against  the  English  until,  in  1784,  a  treaty 
of  peace  was  concluded  at  Mangalore.  In  1790  he  in- 
vaded the  territory  of  the  Rajah  of  Travancore,  an  ally 
of  the  British,  who  soon  after  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  Mahrattas  and  took  the  fort  of  Bangalore,  (1791.) 
The  forces  of  General  Abercromby,  having  joined  those 
of  Lord  Cornwallis  in  1792,  advanced  against  Seringa- 
patam,  when  Tippoo  consented  to  renounce  one-half  of 
his  dominions  to  the  allies,  give  up  two  of  his  sons  as 
hostages,  and  pay  a  sum  of  more  than  ;^3, 000,000.  He 
nevertheless  endeavoured  in  secret  to  incite  the  native 
princes  against  the  English  government,  and  solicited 
aid  from  France.  In  1799  he  was  besieged  in  Seringa- 
patam  by  the  British  forces  under  General  Harris,  and 
was  killed  in  the  assault. 

See  MiCHAUD,  "  Histoire  de  I'Empire  de  Mysore,"  2  vols.,  1801  ; 
R.  Mackenzie.  "  Sketcli  of  the  War  with  Tippoo  Sultaun,"  1793; 
"  NoLivelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tip'toft,  (John,)  Earl  of  Worcester,  became  lord 
deputy  of  Ireland,  and  filled  other  high  offices.  He 
was  noted  for  his  patronage  of  literature  and  of  learned 
men,  ])articularly  Caxton.  He  was  executed  in  1470, 
on  a  cliarge  of  maladministration. 

Tiraboschi,  te-r^-bos^kee,  (Girolamo,)  a  learned 
Italian  Jesuit  and  bibliographer,  born  at  Bergamo  in 
1 73 1.  He  became  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Milan  in 
1766,  and  in  1770  was  appointed  librarian  to  the  Duke 
of  Modena.  His  principal  work,  entitled  "  History  of 
Italian  Literature,"  ("Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana," 
13  vols.,  1772-83,)  enjoys  the  highest  reputation  for  ac- 
curacy and  impartiality.  Among  his  other  productions 
may  be  named  "  Historical  Memoirs  of  Modena,"  and 
"l-'ifeof  Count  Fulvio  Testi."  Died  in  1794.  An  im- 
proved edition  of  his  great  work  was  published  at  Milan, 
in  16  vols.,  (1822-26.) 

See  A.  G.  LoMBARDi,  "  Elogio  storico  di  G.  Tiraboschi,"  1796; 
Fabkoni,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentiiim  ;"  Beltramelli, 
"Elogio  storico  del  Cavaliere  Tiraboschi,"  181 2:  Ugoni,  "Della 
Letteratura  Italiana;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tiraqueau,  te'rt'ko',  (Andr6,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  Fontenoy-le-Comte  about  1480.    While  he  held  the 


office  of  judge  he  released  Rabelais,  whom  the  monks 
had  put  in  prison.    Died  in  1558. 

Ti-re'si-as  (tl-ree'she-as)  or  Tei-re'si-as,  [Gr.  Tetpe- 
Gtaq;  Fr.  TlR^siAS,  te'ri.'ze'is',]  a  famous  soothsayer 
of  classic  mythology,  lived  at  Thebes,  and  belonged 
to  the  race  of  Udasus.  The  poets  and  mythographers 
relate  that  he  was  deprived  of  sight  by  the  gods,  be- 
cause he  divulged  some  of  their  secrets,  or  because  he 
had  seen  Minerva  bathing,  that  Jupiter  gave  him  the 
gift  of  prophecy  and  extended  his  life  to  seven  genera- 
tions, and  that  he  was  connected  with  many  important 
events  in  the  fabulous  history  of  Greece.  He  was  the 
father  of  Manto. 

Tir-i-ba'zus  or  Ter-i-ba'zus,  [Gr.  TipiSai^og  or  TTjpi- 
6a^oi-,]  a  Persian  satrap  under  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  gov- 
erned Western  Armenia  in  401  B.C.  He  commanded  the 
Persian  fleet  which  defeated  Evagoras  of  Cyprus  in  386 
B.C.,  soon  after  which  he  conspired  with  Darius  against 
the  king.  He  was  killed  in  a  fight  with  officers  who  came 
to  arrest  him. 

Tir-I-da^tes  [Gr.TrjpiSdTTjc ;  Fr.  Tiridate,  te^'re'dtt'] 
I.,  King  of  Armenia,  carried  on  a  war  against  the  Romans, 
who  defeated  him  at  Artaxata,  and  took  his  capital, 
Tigranocerta.     He  finally  became  tributary  to  Nero, 

(63  A.D.) 

Tiridates  III.  of  Armenia  was  a  son  of  Chosroes, 
whom  the  King  of  Persia  conquered  and  dethroned.  Tiri- 
dates was  educated  at  Rome,  and  restored  to  the  throne 
by  Diocletian  in  286  A.D.    Died  about  314  A.D. 

Ti'ro,  [Fr.  Tiron,  te''r6N',]  (Marcus  Tullius,)  a 
Roman  author  and  scholar,  was  a  favourite  freedman  and 
amanuensis  of  Cicero.  He  wrote  a  life  of  his  famous 
patron,  and  other  works.  It  is  supposed  that  he  invented 
or  improved  the  art  of  short-hand  writing,  and  that  we 
are  indebted  to  him  for  the  collection  of  Cicero's  "Let- 
ters" and  other  works. 

Tiron.    See  Tiro. 

Tirso  de  Molina.    See  Tellez,  (Gabriel.) 

Tischbein,  tish^bin,  (Heinrich  Wilhelm,)  sur- 
named  the  Neapolitan,  born  at  Haina,  in  Hesse-Cas- 
sel,  in  1 751.  After  a  residence  of  six  years  at  Rome^ 
he  settled  at  Naples,  where  he  was  appointed  in  1790 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Painting.  He  excelled  in 
classical  subjects  and  in  delineations  of  animals.  Died 
in  1829. 

Tischbein,  (Johann  Friedrich  August,)  a  relative 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Maestricht  in  1750,  rose  to 
distinction  as  a  portrait-painter.    Died  in  1812. 

Tischbein,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  the  Elder,  a  Ger- 
man historical  painter,  born  in  Hesse  in  1722,  became 
]3rofessor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Cassel.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  "The  Dying  Alcestis,"  "  Electra," 
"Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,"  "The  Transfigura- 
tion," "  Resurrection  of  Christ,"  and  sixteen  illustrations 
of  the  life  of  Telemachus.    Died  in  1789. 

See  Engklschall,  "J.  H.  Tischbein,  als  Mensch  und  Kiinstler," 
1797. 

Tischbein,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  the  Younger,  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Haina  in  1751. 
He  visited  Rome  in  1781,  and  afterwards  resided  several 
years  at  Naples,  where  he  was  appointed  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Painting.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"  Conradin  of  Suabia,"  "  Ajax  and  Cassandra,"  "  Christ 
blessing  Little  Children,"  and  the  "  Parting  of  Hector 
and  Andromache."  He  published  in  1804  "Illustra- 
tions of  Homer,"  with  explanations  by  Heyne.  Tisch- 
bein excelled  as  a  painter  of  animals,  and  was  also  a 
skilful  engraver.    Died  in  1829. 

Tischendorf,  tish'en-doRf,  (Lobeoott  Friedrich 
Konstantin,)  an  eininent  German  philologist  and  bibli- 
cal critic,  born  at  Lengenfeld  in  January,  1815.  He 
studied  at  Leipsic,  and  subsequently  visited  England, 
various  parts  of  the  continent,  Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor. 
Having  obtained  some  very  valuable  manuscripts,  he 
was  appointed,  after  his  return,  professor  of  theology  at 
Leipsic,  (1850.)  He  has  published  editions  of  the 
"Codex  Friderico-Augustanus,"  (1846,)  "Evangelium 
Palatinum,"  (1847,)  "  Codex  Amiatianus,"  (1850,)  "  Frag- 
menta  Sacra  Palimpsesta,"  "  Anecdota  Sacra  et  Pro- 
fana,"  "  Monumenta  Sacra  inedita,"  (4  vols.,  1846-60,) 
"Travels  in  the  East,"  (2  vols.,  1846,)  and  "Bibliorum 


€  as  k;  g  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Yi^  gutticral;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this,    (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TISICRATES 


2136 


TITIAN 


Codex  Sinaiticiis,"  (4  vols,  folio,  1862,)  which  he  dis- 
covered at  Mount  Sinai  in  1859.  He  obtained  in  1859 
a  chair  of  biblical  palaeography  at  Leipsic. 

TS-sic'ra-tes,  [T«cT4Kpur??f,]  a  distinguished  Greek 
statuary,  flourished  about  300  B.C.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  pupil  of  Lysippus.  His  works  are  praised 
by  Pliny. 

'Tisio  or  Tisi,  (Benvenuto.)    See  Garofalo. 

Ti-sipli'o-ne,  the  "Avenger  of  Murder,"  [Tiai(t)6vri, 
from  Tio),  to  "estimate,"  to  "judge,"  and,  hence,  to 
"punish"  or  "avenge,"  and  <j>6vo^,  "murder,"]  in  Greek 
mythology,  the  name  of  one  of  the  three  Furies,  or 
Erinnves. 

Tissapheriie.  _  See  Tissaphernes. 

Tis-sa-pher'nes,  [Gr.  TLaaacpepvrjg ;  Fr.  Tissapherne, 
te'sS'f^Rn',]  a  famous  Persian  general  and  crafty  nego- 
tiator, formed  an  alliance  with  the  Spartans  against  the 
Athenians  in  412  B.C.  He  was  an  enemy  of  Cyrus  the 
Persian  prince,  and  was  one  of  the  four  generals  who 
commanded  the  army  of  Artaxerxes  against  Cyrus  at 
Cunaxa,  in  401  B.C.  He  afterwards  married  a  daughter 
of  Artaxerxes,  and  was  appointed  satrap  or  viceroy  of 
the  maritime  part  of  Asia  Minor,  where  he  was  defeated 
by  Agesilaus.  He  was  put  to  death  by  the  King  of  Per- 
sia in  394  B.C. 

See  Xenophon,  "Anabasis;"  Rollin,  "Ancient  History;" 
Grote,  "  History  of  Greece." 

Tissard,  te'stk',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  scholar,  born 
at  Amboise  about  1460,  became  professor  of  Greek  at 
the  University  of  Paris.  He  published  a  Hebrew  gram- 
mar, (1508.)  'Died  in  1508. 

Tissier,  te'se-i^  (Jean  Baptiste  Ange,)  a  French 
painter  of  history' and  portraits,  born  in  Paris  in  1814. 

Tissot,  te'so^  (Alexandre  Pascal,)  a  French  jurist, 
born  in  1782,  published  several  works  on  public  law. 
Died  in  1823. 

Tissot,  (Claude  Joseph,)  a  French  litterateiir^hoxxv 
about  1800.  He  practised  law  in  Paris  in  early  life,  and 
about  1837  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Dijon.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Ethics,  or  the  Science  of 
Morals,"  (1840,)  and  a  "  History  of  Philosophy,"  (1840.) 

Tissot,  (Pierre  FRANgois,)  a  French  journalist, 
litterateur, -a.wd.  politician,  born  at  Versailles  in  1768.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  a  short  time 
before  the  i8th  Brumaire,  and  was  afterwards  appointed 
imperial  censor  by  Napoleon.  In  1814  he  succeeded 
Delille  as  professor  of  Latin  poetry  in  the  College  of 
France,  and  in  1833  became  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  He  translated  Virgil's  "Bucolics"  into 
French,  and  published,  among  other  works,  "  Historical 
Memoirs  of  Carnot,"  (1824,)  "Studies  on  Virgil  com- 
pared with  all  the  Epic  and  Dramatic  Poets,"  (4  vols., 
1825-30,)  which  is  highly  commended,  "Complete 
History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (6  vols.,  1833,)  and 
"  Lessons  and  Models  of  Ancient  and  Modern  French 
Literature,"  (1835.)    Died  in  1854. 

See  QuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Tissot,  (Simon  Andr^,)  a  celebrated  Swiss  physi- 
cian, born  at  Grancy,  in  the  canton  de  Vaud,  in  1728. 
He  studied  at  Geneva  and  Montpellier,  and  subsequently 
resided  at  Lausanne,  where  he  soon  acquired  a  very  high 
reputation.  Plaving  filled  the  chair  of  medicine  in  that 
place  for  niany  years,  he  became  in  1780  professor  of 
clinical  medicine  at  Pavia.  He  i^ublished  a  number  of 
works,  which  are  highly  esteemed  and  have  been  widely 
circulated.  Among  these  may  be  named  his  "  Advice 
to  People  respecting  Health,"  ("  Avis  au  Peuple  sur  sa 
Sante,"  1 761,)  which  was  translated  into  seven  languages, 
"  On  Diseases  caused  by  Masturbation,"  ("Tentamen  de 
Morbis  ex  Manustupratione  Ortis,")  and  "  On  the  Health 
of  Literary  Men,"  ("  De  Valetudine  Literatorum,"  1766.) 
Died  in  1797.  His  son  Clemen  t  Joseph,  born  in  1750, 
was  the  author  of  several  medical  treatises. 

See  Eynard,  "Vie  de  S.  A.  Tissot,"  1S39 ;  Halle,  "Notice  sur 
Tissot,"  prefixed  to  Tissot's  works,  it  vols.,  1809-13;  "  l-iin2,raphie 
Medicale  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Monthly  Review" 
for  July,  1765. 

•K'tan,  [Gr.  Ttrav,]  plural  Titans,  [Gr.  Tirawf ;  Lat. 
Tita'nks,]  the  name  of  mythical  beings  said  to  be  the 
offspring  of  Uranus  and  Ge,  (or  Coelus  and  Terra.)  There 


were  six  sons,  Oceanus,  Coeus,  Crius,  Hyperion,  lapetus, 
and  Cronus,  and  six  daughters,  Theia,  Rheia,  Themis, 
Mnemosyne,  Phoebe,  and  Tethys.  According  to  the 
fable,  the  Titans  rebelled  against  their  father,  who  was 
deposed  and  was  succeeded  by  Cronus,  (Saturn.)  After 
the  accession  of  Jupiter  to  the  sovereignty,  occurred  the 
celebrated  war  of  the  Titans  against  the  Olympian  gods, 
(called  the  "  Titanomachia,")  which  lasted  ten  years. 
The  Titans  were  finally  defeated  and  hurled  down  to 
Tartarus  by  the  thunderbolts  of  Jove. 

See  Virgil,  "^neid,"  book  vi.  580. 

Tite-Live,  the  French  for  Livy,  (which  see.) 

Tite,  (William,)  an  English  architect,  born  in  Lon- 
don about  1802.  His  principal  work  is  the  Royal  Ex- 
change of  London,  completed  in  1844.  He  was  elected 
to  Parliament  for  Bath  in  1854,  and  re-elected  in  1857. 
He  is  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  was  president 
of  the  Listitute  of  British  Architects. 

Tithon.    See  Tithonus. 

Ti-tho'nus,  [Gr.  ^tQuivoq;  Fr.  Tithon,  te't6N',]  a 
mythical  personage,  a  son  of  Laomedon,  was  beloved  by 
Aurora,  (Eos.)  The  poets  feigned  that  she  obtained  for 
him  the  privilege  of  immortality,  but  not  eternal  youth, 
and  that  he  became  a  decrepit  old  man.  He  was  the 
reputed  father  of  Memnon. 

Titi,  di,  de  tee'tee,  (Santi,)  an  Italian  artist,  born  in 
Tuscany  in  1538,  was  distinguished  both  as  a  painter 
and  architect.    Died  in  1603. 

Titi,  di,  (TiHERio,)  a  painter,  born  at  Florence  in 
1578,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1637. 

Titian,  tish'e^n,  [It.  Tiziano,  t^t-se-^'no  ;  Fr.  Le 
TiTiEN,  leh  te'se^N' ;  Ger.  TiziAN,  tit-se-^n',]  or,  more 
fully,  Tiziano  Veoellio,  (vi-cheKle-o,)  the  greatest 
painter  of  the  Venetian  school,  was  born  at  Capo  del 
Cadore,  in  Venetia,  in  1477.  He  studied  for  a  short 
time  with  Sebastiano  Zuccati,  and  afterwards  became 
a  pupil  of  Giovanni  Bellini.  He  was  intimate  with 
Giorgione,  his  fellow-pupil,  to  whose  example  or  influ- 
ence some  critics  ascribe  the  fact  that  Titian  acquired 
a  bolder  and  more  vigorous  style  than  that  of  Bellini 
and  other  Venetian  painters.  In  1512  he  was  em- 
ployed by  the  Venetian  government  to  paint  the  hall 
of  the  grand  council,  in  which  he  represented  the 
"  Homage  of  Frederick  Barbarossa  to  the  Pope." 
About  1514  he  was  invited  to  Ferrara  by  Alphonso  I., 
for  whom  he  painted  a  beautiful  oil-picture  of  "  Bacchus 
and  Ariadne,"  and  another  of  a  "  Pharisee  showing 
Tribute-Money  to  Christ,"  (now  at  Dresden.)  At  Fer- 
rara he  formed  a  friendship  with  the  poet  Ariosto,  whose 
portrait  he  painted.  Having  returned  to  Venice,  he 
painted  in  15 16  a  celebrated  picture  of  the  "  Assumption 
of  the  Virgin,"  which  is  one  of  his  best  works,  and  is 
now  in  the  Academy  of  Venice.  He  married  about 
1524,  and  had  several  children.  He  produced  about 
1528  an  admirable  picture  of  "The  Death  of  Saint 
Peter."  "Titian's  power,"  says  Ruskin,  "culminates 
in  the  *  Assumption,'  the  '  Peter  Martyr,'  and  the  '  Pre- 
sentation of  the  Virgin.'  "  About  1530  he  was  invited 
to  Bologna  by  Charles  V.,  and  painted  a  portrait  of  that 
emperor,  whom  (according  to  some  accounts)  he  accom- 
panied to  Spain  in  1533.  He  visited  Rome  in  1545, 
painted  an  excellent  portrait  of  Paul  III.,  and  returned 
to  Venice  in  1546.  Titian  received  the  title  of  Count- 
Palatine  from  Charles  V.  He  painted  for  Philip  II.  of 
Spain  a  number  of  works,  among  which  are  "The  Last 
Supi^er"  and  a  "Sleeping  Venus."  His  subjects  were 
mostly  religious.  As  a  portrait-painter  he  has  never 
been  surpassed.  In  the  opinion  of  many  critics,  he  was 
the  greatest  colorist  that  ever  lived.  He  also  excelled 
in  landscape.  "  All  landscape  grandeur,"  says  Ruskin, 
"vanishes  before  that  of  Titian  and  Tintoret  ;  and  this 
is  true  of  whatever  these  two  giants  touched.  .  .  ,  The 
religion  of  Titian  is  like  that  of  Shakspeare, — occult 
behind  his  magnificent  equity.  .  .  .  The  Venetian  mind, 
and  Titian's  especially,  as  the  central  type  of  it,  was 
wholly  realist,  universal,  and  manly."  ("  Modern  Paint- 
ers.") He  refused  the  invitations  of  several  sovereigns 
who  wished  to  attract  him  to  their  courts,  and  preferred 
to  reside  at  Venice.  Among  his  intimate  friends  were 
Pietro  Aretino,  and  Sansovino  the  architect.  He  con- 
tinued to  paint  until  he  was  ninety-eight  years  old  ;  but 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;     k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6.,  vi,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q^obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  m§t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


TITIEN 


2137 


TOCQUEFILLE 


his  last  works  are  not  equal  to  those  of  his  prime.  He 
died  at  Venice  in  August,  1576. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Ridoi.fi,  "Pittori  Ve- 
neti ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy ;"  Ticozzi,  "Vite  del 
Pittori  Vecelli,"  1817;  Northcote,  "Life  of  Titian,"  2  vols.,  1830; 
a  notice  of  Titian,  by  Cauorin,  in  Italian,  1833;  Mrs.  Jameson, 
"Memoirs  of  Early  Italian  Painters;"  Zondadella,  "  Elogio  di 
Tiziano  Vecellio,"  1802. 

Titien,  Le.    See  Titian. 

Titius,  tit'se-us,  (Gottlieb  Gerhard,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Nordhausen  in  1661,  wrote  on  the  public 
Jaw  of  Germany.    Died  in  1714. 

Titniarsh.    See  Thackeray. 

Titon  du  Tillet,  te't6N'  dli  tt'yW  (Everard,)  a 
French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1677.  He  served  in 
the  army,  and  became  commissary  of  war.  He  projected 
or  designed  a  monument  to  Louis  XIV.  and  the  great 
men  of  his  reign.  This  monument,  which  he  called  the 
French  Parnassus,  represented  a  mountain,  on  the  sum- 
mit of  which  Louis  XIV.  sat  in  the  form  of  Apollo.  He 
could  not  raise  the  funds  requisite  to  execute  it  on  a 
grand  scale,  but  he  published  a  "Description  of  the 
French  Parnassus,"  ("  Description  du  Parnasse  Fran- 
9ais,"  1727.)    Died  in  1762. 

Titsingh,  tit'sinc,  (Isaac,)  a  Dutch  diplomatist  and 
writer,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1 740.  Having  entered 
the  East  Indian  service,  he  was  sent  as  supercargo  to 
Japan  in  1778.  He  was  appointed  in  1794,  by  the  Ba- 
tavian  government,  ambassador  to  Peking.  He  died  in 
1812,  leaving  several  valuable  works  in  manuscript; 
among  these  we  may  name  "Memoirs  and  Anecdotes 
of  the  Reigning  Dynasty  of  the  Djogouns,  Sovereigns 
of  Japan,"  etc.,  published  in  French  by  Abel  Remusat. 

Tittmann,  tit^nan,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man historical  writer,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1784.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise  "On  Know- 
ledge and  Art  in  PTistory,"  (1817,)  "Exposition  of  the 
Greek  Constitutions,"  (1822,)  "  History  of  Henry  the 
Illustrious,"  (2  vols.,  1845,)  and  "Life  and  Matter,'' 
("Leben  und  Stoff,"  1855.) 

Tittmann,  (Johann  August  Heinrich,)  an  eminent 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Langensalza,  in  Germany, 
in  1773.  studied  at  Leipsic,  where  he  became  first 

professor  of  theology  in  1818.  He  published  a  "  Manual 
of  Homiletics,"  "  Encyclopaedia  of  Theological  Science," 
(1798,)  "Theocles,  a  Conversation  on  Belief  in  God," 
(1799,)  "Pragmatic  History  of  Theology  and  Religion 
in  the  Protestant  Church  during  the  Second  Half  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  (1805,  unfinished,)  "On  Super- 
naturalism,  Rationalism,  and  Atheism,"  (1816,)  and 
other  standard  works  of  the  kind.  He  also  prepared 
editions  of  the  Greek  New  Testament  and  the  "  Libri 
SyiTibolici,"  and  a  Latin  treatise  "On  the  Synonyms 
of  the  New  Testament."    Died  in  1831. 

Tittmann,  (Karl  August,)  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1775.  He  studied  at  Leipsic 
and  Gottingen,  and  rose  to  distinction  as  a  jurist.  He 
published  a  "Manual  of  the  Science  of  Criminal  Law," 
etc.,  (1807,)  and  other  similar  works.    Died  in  1834. 

Ti'tus,  [Gr.  Ti'rof ;  Fr.  Tite,  t^t,]  a  disciple  of  Saint 
Paul,  who  was  converted  by  him  to  Christianity,  and 
subsequently  accompanied  him  to  Corinth,  Ephesus,  and 
other  cities. 

See  Saint  Paul,  "  Epistle  to  Titus." 

Ti'tus,  [Fr.  Tite,  iht;  It.  Tito,  tee'to,]  or,  more 
fully,  Ti'tus  Fla'vi-us  Ves-pa-si-a'nus,  Emperor  of 
Rome,  born  in  40  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Vespasian,  and 
was  educated  at  the  court  of  Nero.  He  early  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  military  talents  in  Britain  and 
Germany,  and  assisted  his  father  in  quelling  an  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Jews,  (67  A.D.)  After  the  death  of  Vitellius, 
Vespasian  was  proclaimed  emperor,  in  69  a.d.,  and  Titus, 
having  been  appointed  commander  of  the  army  of  Judea, 
laid  siege  to  Jerusalem,  which  was  taken  by  storm  in  70 
A.D.  On  the  death  of  Vespasian,  in  79  A.D.,  Titus  be- 
came emperor,  and,  by  the  wisdom  and  benignity  of 
his  rule,  acquired  the  affection  and  reverence  of  his  sub- 
jects, who  gave  him  the  name  of  "The  love  and  delight 
of  the  human  race."  Under  his  reign  a  great  part  of 
Rome  was  destroyed  by  a  conflagration,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  plague,  of  which  many  thousands  perished 
daily.    He  completed  the  Flavian  Amphitheatre,  (Co- 


losseum,) which  had  been  commenced  by  his  father.  It 
is  stated  that  at  the  end  of  a  day  in  which  he  had  per- 
formed no  act  of  beneficence,  he  exclaimed,  "  My  friends, 
I  have  lost  a  day  !"    Died  in  81  A.D. 

See  SuETONiu.s,  "Titus;"  Tacitus,  "History;"  Merivalh, 
"History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire;"  Tili.emont,  "  His- 
toire  des  Empereurs  ;"  J.  H.  Jung,  "  Dissertatio  de  Tito  Impera- 
tore,"  1761;  RoLi.AND,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs  Vespasien  et 
Titus,"  1830;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tit'y-us,  [Gr.  TtTvog;  Fr.  Titye,  te'te',]  a  giant  of 
classic  mythology,  was  called  a  son  of  Terra,  or  of 
Jupiter  and  Elara.  Having  offered  violence  to  Latona, 
he  was  killed  by  Apollo  and  Diana,  and  cast  down  to 
Tartarus.  According  to  Virgil,  his  body  extended  over 
nine  acres  of  ground.    (See  ".^neid,"  book  vi.  595.) 

Tixier,  (John.)    See  Ravisius  Textor. 

Tizian  or  Tiziano.    See  Titian. 

Toaldo,  to-ai'do,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  geographei, 
born  near  Vicenza  in  17 19,  became  professor  of  physical 
geography  and  astronomy  at  Padua  in  1762.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  a  "Treatise  on  Gnomonics," 
"  Meteorological  Essay  on  the  True  Influence  of  the 
Stars,"  (1770,)  and  "Compendium  of  Spherics  and 
Geography,"  (1773.)    Died  in  1798. 

See  TiPALDO,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Tobar,  de,  di  to-baR',  (Alfonso  Miguel,)  a  Span- 
ish painter,  born  near  Aracena  in  1678,  produced  good 
copies  of  some  works  of  Murillo.    Died  in  1758. 

Tobiesen.    See  Duby. 

To'bin,  (George,)  an  English  admiral,  born  at  Salis- 
bury in  1768,  served  against  the  French  in  the  campaigns 
of  1782  and  1804.    Died  in  1838. 

Tobin,  (John,)  an  English  "dramatist,  born  at  Salis- 
bury in  1770,  was  the  author  of  several  comedies,  one 
of  which,  entitled  "The  Honeymoon,"  obtained  great 
popularity.    Died  in  1804. 

See  "Memoirs  of  John  Tobin."  by  Miss  Benger,  1820; 
"Monthly  Review"  for  May,  1820. 

Tobler,  to'bler,  (Titus,)  a  Swiss  traveller  and  lit- 
terateur, born  at  Stein  in  1806,  visited  Palestine,  and 
published,  after  his  return,  "Topography  of  Jerusalem 
and  its  Environs,"  (1853.) 

Tochon  d'Annecy,  to'sh6N'  dtn'se',  (Joseph  Fran- 
cois,) a  French  numismatist,  born  near  Annecy  in  1772. 
Among  his  works  is  "Researches  on  the  Medals  of  the 
Nomes  or  Prefectures  of  Egypt,"  (1822.)    Died  in  1820. 

Tocque,  to'ki',  (Louis,)  a  French  portrait-painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1696;  died  in  1772. 

Tocqueville,  de,  deh  tok'vil  or  toWvhV,  (Alexis 
Charles  Henri  Clerel,)  an  eminent  French  states- 
man and  political  philosopher,  born  in  Paris  on  the  29th 
of  July,  1805.  He  studied  law,  (1823-26,)  and  became 
judge-auditor  at  the  tribunal  of  Versailles  in  1827.  In 
183 1  he  visited  the  United  States  in  company  with  his 
friend  Gustave  de  Beaumont,  having  received  a  mission 
to  examine  the  penitentiary  systems  of  that  republic. 
He  passed  a  year  in  the  United  States,  returned  home, 
resigned  his  office  in  1832,  and  published  in  1835  the  first 
volume  of  his  work  "  On  Deinocracy  in  America,"  ("  De 
la  Democratic  en  Amerique,"  4  vols.,  1835-40,)  the  suc- 
cess of  which  was  prodigious.  Royer-Collard  affirmed 
that  since  Montesquieu  nothing  comparable  to  it  had 
appeared.  De  Tocqueville  predicted  the  progress  and 
predominance  of  democracy  in  the  world,  although  his 
own  predilections  were  in  the  opposite  direction.  He 
married  an  English  lady,  named  Mary  Mottley,  about 
1835,  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and 
Political  Sciences  in  1838,  and  was  elected  to  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  in  1839.  In  1841  he  was  admitted  into 
the  French  Academy.  He  was  elected  in  1848  to  the 
Constituent  Assembly,  in  which  he  supported  the  cause 
of  order,  and  he  voted  for  Cavaignac  in  the  election  of 
president.  He  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  June 
2  to  October  31,  1849,  and  was  driven  from  the  public 
service  by  the  cotip  d'etat  of  December  2,  185 1.  In  1856 
he  published  "The  Old  Regime  and  the  Revolution," 
("  L'ancien  Regime  et  la  Revolution,")  a  work  of  much 
merit.  Died  at  Cannes  in  April,  1859.  Commenting  on 
his  "  Deinocracy  in  America,"  the  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
of  April,  1861,  says,  "  Far  from  having  suffered  from 
the  lapse  of  a  quarter  of  a  century,  it  has  gained  in 
authority  and  interest,  from  the  inexhaustible  depth,  the 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (g^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TOCQUEFILLE 


2138 


TOLEDO 


unflinching  truth,  and  the  extraordinary  foresight  which 
are  its  characteristics." 

See  G.  DE  Beaumont,  notice  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  Works 
and  Letters,  1S60;  Lacokuaike,  "Discours  de  Reception  i  I'Aca- 
deinie  Frangaise,"  i86t  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Nonvelles  Causeries  du 
Lundi;"  Remusat's  article  in  the  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  for 
August  I,  1856;  ''Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  September,  1836,  and  July,  1849  ;  London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  1861 ;  "  North  British  Review"  for  May,  i86i  ; 
"Atlantic  Monthly"  for  November,  i86i. 

Tocqueville,  de,  (Herve  Louis  FRANgois  Joseph 
Clerel,)  CoMi'E,  a  French  peer  and  historical  writer, 
born  in  1772,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
prefect  of  the  departments  of  Moselle,  Somme,  and 
Seine-et-Oise  between  1816  and  1827.  He  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  *'  Philosophic  History  of  the  Reign 
of  Louis  XV.,"  (2  vols.,  1846.)    Died  in  1856. 

Tod,  (Eli,)  M.D.,  an  American  physician,  born  at 
New  Haven,  Connecticut,  about  1768,  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Insane  Retreat  at  Hartford,  of  which  he 
became  president.    Died  in  1833. 

Tod,  (Lieutenant-Coloiiel  James,)  an  English  officer, 
born  in  1782,  entered  the  East  India  service,  and  was 
appointed  in  181 7  political  agent.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Travels  in  Western  India,"  etc.,  and  "Annals  of 
Rajasthan ;"  the  latter  contains  an  excellent  map  of 
Rajpootana.    Died  in  1835. 

Todd,  (Rev.  Henry  John,)  an  English  clergyman 
and  writer,  born  in  1763,  studied  at  Hertford  College, 
Oxford,  and  rose  through  several  preferments  to  be 
Archdeacon  of  Cleveland  in  1832.  He  published  a 
"Life  of  Archbishop  Cranmer,"  (1831,)  "Memoirs  of 
the  Life  and  Writings  of  the  Right  Reverend  Brian 
Walton,"  and  other  works ;  he  also  edited  Milton's 
"Poems"  and  "The  Works  of  Edmund  Spenser."  Died 
in  1845. 

Todd,  (Rev.  Hugh,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Cum- 
berland in  1658,  lived  at  Carlisle.    Died  in  1728. 

Todd,  (James  Henthorne,)  a  clergyman  and  an- 
tiquary, born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1805.  He  became 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  University  of  Dublin,  and 
published  several  works  on  theology,  etc.   Died  in  1869. 

Todd,  (John,)  D.D.,  an  Ainerican  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Rutland,  Vermont,  in  1800,  settled  in 
1842  as  pastor  at  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Mount  Holyoke  Female  Semi- 
nary. Among  his  works  we  may  name  "  Lectures  to 
Children,"  (1834,)  also  translated  into  several  languages, 
"The  Student's  Manual,"  (1835,)  which  had  a  very 
extensive  sale  both  in  America  and  Europe,  and  was 
translated  into  French,  "The  Bible  Companion,"  "The 
Sabbath-School  Teacher,"  (1836,)  and  "The  Lost  Sister 
of  Wyoming,"  (1841.) 

Todd,  (Robert  Bentley,)  a  physician  and  writer  on 
physiology,  a  brother  of  James  H.  Todd,  noticed  above, 
was  born  about  1810.  He  graduated  at  Oxford,  and 
subsequently  settled  in  London.  He  became  associate 
editor  of  the  "Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology" 
in  1836,  and  published,  among  other  works,  a  treatise 
"Qn  the  Anatomy  of  the  Brain,  Spinal  Cord,  and  Gan- 
glions," (1845,)  "Physiological  Anatomy  and  Phy- 
siology of  Man,"  (2  vols.,  1845-56.)  He  was  appointed 
physician  to  King's  College  Plospital.    Died  in  i860. 

Toderini,  to-di-ree'nee,  (Giambattista,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Venice  in  1728,  published  a  work  "On 
Turkish  Literature,"  (3  vols.,  1787.)    Died  in  1799. 

Todleben,  tot'li^ben,  (Francis  Edward,)  a  Russian 
general  and  engineer,  of  German  extraction,  born  at 
Mitau  in  1818.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  Crimean 
war  of  1854,  and  by  his  skilful  defence  of  Sebastopol 
was  chiefly  instrumental  in  prolonging  the  siege  of  that 
place.    He  was  afterwards  created  general  of  engineers. 

See  the  "North  British  Review"  for  August,  1864. 

Todt,  tot,  (Karl  Gottlob,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Auerbach  in  1803.  He  has  published  several  legal 
works. 

Toepfer.    See  Topfer. 

Toepffer.    See  Topffer. 

Tofino  de  San  Miguel,  to-fee'no  di  sin  me-geK,  a 
Spanish  savant  and  naval  officer,  born  at  Cartagena  in 
1740,  published,  among  other  works,  "Astronomical 
Observations  made  at  Cadiz."    Died  in  1806. 


Tograi,  to-gri',  or  Toghrai,  a  celebrated  Persian 
poet,  born  at  Ispahan  about  1060.  He  became  vizier  to 
Masood,  Sultan  of  Mosul,  and,  after  the  defeat  of  that 
prince  by  his  brother  Mahmood  in  1120  A.D.,  was  taken 
prisoner  and  put  to  death.  His  principal  work  is  an 
elegiac  poem,  entitled  "  Lamiato  I'Ajam,"  which  has 
passed  through  several  editions  and  been  translated  into 
Latin,  English,  French,  and  German. 

See  Zenker,  "  Bibliotheca  Orientalis,"  1840;  "Specimens  of 
Persian  Poetry,"  in  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1839. 

Togrul  or  Thogrul-Beg,*  (or  -Bek,)  to'grool  bgg, 
written  also  Tugrol,  the  founder  of  the  Seljookide 
dynasty  in  Persia,  was  a  grandson  of  Seljook,  (Seljuk.) 
He  became  king  or  chief  of  his  tribe  about  1038,  and 
conquered  Persia  by  victories  over  the  Sultan  Mahmood 
and  his  son  Masood.    Died  about  1065. 

Togrul  II.,  the  last  Sultan  of  the  Seljookide  dynasty, 
began  to  reign  in  11 76;  died  in  1194. 
Togrul-Beg,  (or  -Bee.)    See  Togrul. 
ToinardorThoynard,twi'nSR',  (Nicolas,)  a  French 
numismatist,  born  at  Orleans  in  1629;  died  in  1706. 

Toiras,  de,  deh  tw^'ri',  (Jean  de  Saint-Bonnet — 
deh  siN'bo'ni^)  Seigneur,  a  French  general,  born  in 
Languedoc  in  1585.  He  fought  against  the  Huguenots, 
and  in  1625  took  the  Isle  of  Rhe,  which  he  defended 
against  the  English  Duke  of  Buckingham  in  1627.  For 
his  defence  of  Casal  he  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of 

shal  of  France  in 
the  Milanese  in  1636. 

See  Baudier,  "  Histoire  du  Marechal  de  Toiras,"  1644  :  Talle- 
MANT  desReaux,  "  Historiettes ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tokely,  to'kal,  (Emmeric,)  a  Hungarian  patriot, 
born  in  1656.  Having  taken  up  arms  against  the  Aus- 
trian government,  he  solicited  aid  froim  the  Sultan  Ma- 
homet IV.,  who  in  1682  declared  him  King  of  Hungary. 
After  waging  war  many  years,  with  varying  success,  he 
was  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  Turkey,  where  he  died 
in  1705. 

Toktamish-Aglen,  tok'ti-mish  Sg'len,  a  warlike 
Khan  of  Kaptchak,  in  Tartary,  was  a  descendant  of  Jengis 
Khan.  He  began  to  reign  in  1376,  invaded  Russia  in 
1382,  and  took  Moscow.  Soon  after  this  event  he  was 
involved  in  a  war  with  Tamerlane,  who  defeated  and 
deposed  him  about  1395.    Died  in  1406. 

ToTand,  (John,)  a  deistical  and  controversial  writer, 
born  near  Londonderry,  in  Ireland,  in  1669.  He  studied 
at  the  Universities  of  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh,  and  sub- 
sequently at  Leyden,  where  he  became  acquainted  with 
Leibnitz.  His  first  publication,  entitled  "  Christianity 
not  Mysterious,"  (1696,)  caused  a  great  sensation  and 
gave  rise  to  a  protracted  controversy.  He  afterwards 
produced  "A  Life  of  Milton,"  (1698,)  "Amyntor,  or  a 
Defence  of  Milton's  Life,"  (1699,)  "  Anglia  Libera,  or 
the  Limitation  and  Succession  of  the  Crown  of  England 
Explained  and  Asserted,"  (1701,)  "Socinianism  Truly 
Stated,"  etc.,  (1705,)  and  other  works.  He  was  patronized 
by  Harley,  secretary  of  state,  who  in  1707  sent  him  to 
the  continent  as  a  political  agent  or  spy.  Toland  was  a 
pedantic  and  mediocre  writer.    Died  in  1722. 

See  Des  Maizeaux,  "Life  of  John  Toland,"  1726;  Mosheim, 
"De  Vita,  Fatis  et  Scriptis  J.  Tolandi,"  1722;  Leland,  "Deistical 
Writers;"  Niceron,  "  IVIemoires. " 

Toldy,  toi'de,  (almost  tolj,)  (F.  S.,)  a  Hungarian 
critic  and  writer,  born  at  Buda  in  1805.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Hungarian  Lan- 
guage and  Literature,"  (3  vols.,  1851-55.)  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Pesth,  1838-44. 

Toledo,  de,  d^  to-la'oo,  [Lat.  Tole'tus  ;  Fr.  Tolet, 
to'la',]  (Francisco,)  a  learned  Spanish  cardinal,  born 
at  Cordova  in  1532.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy 
and  theology  at  Rome,  and  gained  distinction  as  a 
pulpit  orator.  He  wrote  a  work  on  Casuistry,  (1602.) 
Died  at  Rome  in  1596. 

Toledo,  de,  (Pedro,)  a  Spanish  statesman,  born  near 
Salamanca  in  1484,  was  a  son  of  Frederick  of  Toledo, 
Duke  of  Alba.  He  obtained  the  title  of  Marquis  of 
Villafranca  from  his  marriage  with  a  lady  of  that  house. 
He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  who 
appointed  him  in  1532  Viceroy  of  Naples.  He  died  in 
1553,  after  a  prosperous  rule  of  more  than  twenty  years, 


*  See  Introduction,  p.  9,  §  ib. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fdt;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


TOLEDO 


2139 


TOMMJSI 


during  which  he  greatly  enlarged  and  improved  the  city 
of  Naples  and  adorned  it  with  splendid  edifices. 

See  GiANNONE,  "  Storia  civile  del  Regno  di  Napoli ;"  Botta, 
"  Storia  d'ltalia." 

Toledo,  de,  (Rodrigo,)  [Lat.  Roderi'cus  Toleta'- 
NUS,]  a  distinguished  prelate  and  historian,  born  in 
Navarre  about  1170,  was  originally  named  Rodrigo 
XiMfiNES.  He  became  Bishop  of  Siguenza  in  1192, 
and  subsequently  Archbishop  of  Toledo.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  History  of  Spain,  ("  Rerum  in  Hispania 
Gestarum  Chronicon,"  1545,)  and  History  of  the  Western 
Arabs,  ("Historia  Arabum,"  1603,)  both  of  which  are 
highly  esteemed. 

To'ler,  (John,)  Earl  of  Norbury,  born  in  the  county 
of  Tipperary,  Ireland,  in  1745.  He  was  successively 
appointed  solicitor-general,  (1789,)  attorney-general, 
{1798,)  and  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas,  (1800.) 
He  afterwards  received  the  title  of  Earl  of  Norbury  and 
Viscount  Glandine.  He  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  as  a 
jurist,  but  he  was  still  more  celebrated  for  his  brilliant 
wit  and  repartee.  He  presided  at  the  trial  of  Robert 
Emmet.    Died  in  183 1. 

See  "  Eccentric  Personages,"  by  Wm.  Russell,  1866. 

Tolet  or  Toletus.    See  Toledo,  de,  (Francisco.) 

Toletanus.    See  Toledo,  de,  (Rodrigo.) 

Tolken  or  Toelken,  toKken,  (Ernst  Heinrtch,)  a 
German  archaeologist,  born  at  Bremen  in  1785,  pub- 
lished a  number  of  treatises  on  ancient  art.  He  be- 
came professor  in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1823,  and 
director  of  the  cabinet  of  antiques  in  1832. 

Toll,  to],  (Karl,)  Count,  a  Russian  general,  born 
near  Hapsal,  Esthonia,  in  1778,  served  against  the 
French  in  the  campaign  of  181 2,  and  subsequently  in 
the  Turkish  war  of  1829.    Died  in  1842. 

Tollens,  toKlens,  (Hendrik  Corneliszoon,)  a  dis- 
tinguished Dutch  poet,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1780.  His 
poem  "On  the  Death  of  Egmont  and  Hoorn"  (1806) 
obtained  a  prize  from  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
National  Poetry,  and  was  followed  by  a  collection  of 
lyrics  which  became  widely  i)opular  and  are  esteemed 
master-pieces  of  their  kind  by  his  countrymen.  Among 
the  principal  we  may  name  the  "  Patriotic  War-Songs," 
("  Vaderlandisch  Krijgslied,"  181 5,)  "The  Call  to 
Arms,"  ("  Wapenkreet,")  and  "  The  Wintering  of  the 
Hollanders  in  Nova  Zembla."  In  1850  the  King  of 
Holland  bestowed  upon  him  the  order  of  the  Dutch 
Lion.    Died  in  1856. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  Van  Eich- 
STORFF,  "  H.  Tollens,  biographische  Schets  en  Proeve  en  Kritiken 
van  zijne  Dichtimgen ;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  December,  1854. 

Tol'let,  (Elizabeth,)  an  English  scholar  and  poetess, 
born  in  1694,  was  a  friend  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Died 
in  1754. 

Her  nephew,  George  Tollet,  wrote  notes  on  Shak- 
speare.    Died  in  1779. 

Tollius,  toKle-us,  (Cornelis,)  a  Dutch  philologist, 
born  at  Utrecht  about  1620,  was  a  pupil  of  Vossius,  and 
afterwards  his  private  secretary.  He  published  editions 
of  several  of  the  classics.    Died  about  1652. 

Tollius,  (Hermann,)  a  Dutch  philologist,  born  at 
Breda  in  1742.  He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Ley- 
den,  where  he  died  in  1822. 

Tollius,  (Jacob,)  brother  of  Cornelis,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  Utrecht  about  1630.  He  studied  under 
Vossius,  and  became  professor  of  history  and  eloquence 
at  Duisburg  in  1679.  He  was  the  author  of  several  phi- 
lological and  scientific  treatises.    Died  in  1696. 

Tolniach.    See  Talmash,  (Thomas.) 

Tolomei,  to-lo-ma'ce,  or  Tolommei,  (Claddio,)  an 
Italian  scholar  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Sienna  in  1492. 
He  was  sent  in  1552  on  a  mission  to  the  French  court, 
on  which  occasion  he  delivered  an  eloquent  oration  in 
the  presence  of  Henry  II.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
poems  and  orations,  and  a  collection  of  letters  which 
rank  among  the  best  compositions  of  the  kind  in  the 
language.    Died  in  1554. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana ;"  Longfel- 
low, "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Tolomei,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  learned  Italian 
cardinal,  born  at  Florence  in  1653.  He  was  employed 
by  Clement  XI.  iri  important  affairs.    Died  in  1726. 


Tolomeo,  the  Italian  of  PtolemV,  which  see. 

Tolommei.    See  Tolomel 

Tolstoi.    See  Ostermann-Tolstol 

Tolstoi,  toKstoi,  (Feodor  Petrovitch,)  a  Russian 
sculptor,  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1783,  became 
professor  of  sculpture  in  the  Academy  of  that  city. 

Tolstoi  or  Tolstoy,  (Peter,)  Count,  a  Russian 
diplomatist,  born  about  1650.  He  was  employed  by 
Peter  the  Great  on  missions  to  several  European  courts. 
Died  in  1728. 

Tolstoi,  (Peter  Alexandrovitch,)  a  Russian  diplo- 
matist and  soldier,  born  in  1769,  served  under  Suwarow 
against  the  Turks  and  Poles,  and  after  the  battle  of 
Friedland  was  ambassador-extraordinary  to  Paris.  In 
1 83 1  the  emperor  Nicholas  appointed  him  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  of  reserve.    Died  in  1844. 

Tolstoy.    See  Tolstol 

To-lum'ni-us,  (Lar,)  was  King  of  the  Veientes  in 
438  B.C.,  and  persuaded  the  people  of  Fidense  to  kill  four 
Roman  ambassadors.  He  was  killed  in  single  combat 
by  Cornelius  Cossus. 

Tomacelli.    See  Boniface  IX. 

Tomaschek,  to'mi-sk^k',  (Wenzel  Josef,)  a  Ger- 
man musician  and  composer,  born  in  Bohemia  in  1774; 
died  in  1850. 

Tomaselli,  to-mS-sel'lee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  natu- 
ralist, born  near  Verona  in  1733  ;  died  in  1818. 

Tomasini,  to-mS-see'nee,  or  Tommasiiii,  tom-mS- 
see'nee,  (Jacopo  Filippo,)  an  Italian  antiquary  and 
priest,  born  at  Padua  in  1597.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "Life  of  Livy,"  (1630,)  a  "  Life  of  Pe- 
trarch," ("  Petrarcha  Redivivus,"  1635,)  and  "Eulogies 
of  Illustrious  Men,"  (2  vols.,  1630-44.)    Died  in  1654. 

See  NicERON,  "  Memoires." 

Tombes,  toomz,  (John,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  born  in  Worcestershire  in  1603.  He  became 
a  Baptist,  and  wrote  several  works.    Died  in  1676. 

Tomitano,  to-me-t^'no,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian 
phvsician,  born  at  Padua  in  1506;  died  in  1576. 

Tom'ko  or  Tom'kus,  (John,)  a  learned  Hungarian 
prelate,  born  at  Sebenico  about  1580;  died  at  Rome 
in  1639. 

TomTine,  (George,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Suffolk  in  1750,  was  originally  named  Pretyman,  but 
assumed  that  of  Tomline  in  compliance  with  the  wishes 
of  a  gentleman  who  left  him  a  large  fortune.  He  studied 
at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  was  elected  Fellow  of 
the  college  in  1773,  and  subsequently  became  tutor  to 
Mr.  Pitt.  When  that  statesman  obtained  the  office  of 
first  lord  of  the  treasury,  Tomline  was  appointed  his 
secretary.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Lincoln  and  Dean 
of  Saint  Paul's  in  1787,  and  in  1820  Bishop  of  Win- 
chester. He  was  the  author  of  "  The  Elements  of  Chris- 
tian Theology,"  (1799,)  a  "  Life  of  the  Right  Honourable 
William  Pitt,"  (1821,)  a  "  Refutation  of  Calvinism,"  and 
a  number  of  sermons.    Died  in  1827. 

Tom'lins,  (Elizabeth  Sophia,)  an  English  writer, 
born  in  London  in  1768,  published  a  number  of  poems, 
"The  Victim  of  Fancy,"  and  other  novels,  and  made 
several  translations  from  the  French.    Died  in  1828. 

Tomlins,  (Frederick  Guest,)  an  English  journalist, 
born  about  1804.  He  edited  several  periodicals,  and 
originated  the  Shakspeare  Society,  (1840.)  Died  in  1867. 

Tommaseo,  tom-mi-sa'o,  (Niccol6,)  a  distinguished 
statesman  and  scholar,  born  in  Dalmatia  about  1804. 
He  was  educated  in  Italy,  and  resided  subsequently 
for  a  considerable  time  at  Venice.  After  the  revolution 
of  1848  he  was  appointed  minister  of  instruction  and 
religious  affairs.  After  Venice  had  surrendered  to  the 
Austrians  in  1849,  he  took  refuge  in  Corfu.  He  pub- 
lished a  treatise  "On  Education,"  (1834,)  "New  Dic- 
tionary of  Synonyms,"  (1835,)  "Critical  Studies,"  (1843,) 
and  other  works  of  a  high  character;  also  a  "History 
of  France  in  the  Sixteenth  Century,"  and  a  historical 
romance,  entitled  "The  Duke  of  Athens,"  (1837.) 

Tommasi,  tom-mi'see,  (Giuseppe  Maria,)  a  learned 
Italian  cardinal,  born  in  Sicily  in  1649,  was  the  author 
of  a  number  of  valuable  works  illustrating  ecclesiastical 
history  and  antiquities  and  the  ceremonies  of  the  Roman 
Church.    Died  in  1713. 

See  Beknini,  "  Vita  del  Cardinale  Tommasi,"  1719;  Ughelli, 
"  Italia  Sacra." 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TOMMASINI 


2140 


TOORGENEF 


Tommasini.    See  Tomasini. 

Tommaso,  the  Italian  of  Thomas,  which  see. 

Tommaso  d'Aquino.    See  Aquinas,  (Thomas.) 

Tomori,  to'mo-re,  [Fr.  Tomor^e,  to'mo'r.V,]  (Paul,) 
a  Hungarian  prelate  and  general.  He  commanded  the 
army  of  Lewis  H.  against  the  Turks,  and  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Mohacs,  in  1526. 

Tomp'kins,  (Daniel  D.,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Westchester  county,  New  York,  in  1774.  He 
represented  the  city  of  New  York  in  Congress  in  1804, 
was  elected  Governor  of  the  State  in  1807,  continuing 
in  that  office  till  181 7,  when  he  was  chosen  Vice-Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  He  was  re-elected  Vice- 
President  in  1820.  While  Governor  of  New  York,  he 
was  instrumental  in  having  slavery  abolished  in  that 
State,  and  gave  an  efficient  support  to  the  war  waged 
against  England.    Died  in  New  York  in  June,  1825. 

Tom'y-ris  [Gr.  ToixvpL^]  was  Queen  of  the  Massa- 
getas  (Scythians)  when  Cyrus  the  Great  invaded  Scythia. 
According  to  Herodotus,  she  defeated  him  in  battle  in 
529  B.C. 

Tondi,  ton'dee,  (Matteo,)  an  Italian  mineralogist 
and  geologist,  born  at  San  Severo  in  1762,  published 
several  works.    Died  about  1837. 

Tondu.    See  Lebrun,  (Pierre  Henri  Marie.) 

Tone,  (Theobald  Wolfe,)  an  Irish  politician  and 
revolutionist,  born  at  Dublin  in  1763,  was  the  founder 
of  the  Society  of  United  Irishmen.  In  1796  he  applied 
to  the  French  Directory  to  send  an  expedition  against 
England,  which  soon  after  set  sail,  commanded  by  Gene- 
ral Hoche.  This  fleet  having  been  scattered  by  a  hurri- 
cane, Tone  made  another  attempt  with  a  small  armament, 
but  he  was  taken  prisoner  in  an  engagement  with  the 
English,  tried,  and  condemned  to  death.  He  committed 
suicide  in  prison,  (1798.) 

See  "Memoirs  of  Theobald  Wolfe  Tone,"  by  his  son,  1826; 
"  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1827. 

Ton'na,  (Charlotte  E.  Brown,)  an  English  author- 
ess, known  under  the  ttom  de  plume  of  Charlotte 
Elizabeth,  was  born  in  Norwich  in  1792.  She  was 
married  about  1840  to  a  Mr.  Tonna,  who  was  her  second 
husband.  She  wrote  numerous  works,  among  which 
are  "Judah's  Lion,"  "Judsea  Capta,"  "  Personal  Recol- 
lections," (1841,)  "Chapters  on  Flowers,"  and  "Princi- 
palities and  Powers."    Died  in  London  in  1846. 

Tonnele,  ton^la',  (Louis  Nicolas  Alfred,)  a  French 
litterateur  2i\\^  poet,  born  at  Tours  in  1831  ;  died  in  1858. 

Ton'son,  (Jacob,)  an  English  publisher,  born  in 
London  about  1656.  He  published  the  works  of  Dryden 
and  other  eminent  authors.  In  several  letters  to  Tonson, 
Dryden  complains  that  he  (Tonson)  sent  him  brass  shil- 
lings and  clipped  coins.    Died  in  1736. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iv. 

Tonstall,  pronounced  and  sometimes  written  Tun'- 
stall,  (Cuthbert,)  a  learned  English  prelate  and  states- 
man, born  in  Yorkshire  about  1475.  finished  his 
studies  at  Padua,  and  in  15 16  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
the  King  of  Spain,  afterwards  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
He  became  Bishop  of  London  in  1522,  in  the  following 
year  was  made  lord  privy  seal,  and  in  1530  Bishop  of 
Durham.  Under  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  he  was 
deprived  of  his  office  and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  on  a 
charge  of  favouring  an  insurrection.  On  the  accession  of 
Mary  he  was  restored  to  his  bishopric,  (1553,)  but,  having 
\  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy  after  Elizabeth 
was  proclaimed  queen,  he  was  again  deprived.  He  died 
in  1559,  leaving  several  theological  and  scientific  works, 
which  were  highly  esteemed  in  his  time.  He  was  con- 
spicuous for  his  humanity  and  moderation  in  that  age  of 
intolerance,  and  permitted  no  burning  of  heretics  in  his 
diocese. 

See  Wood,  "  AthenjE  Oxonienses;"  "  Biographia  Britannica  ;" 
Hume,  "  History  of  England." 

Tonti,  ton'tee,  (Lorenzo,)  an  Italian  banker,  who 
settled  in  France,  and  originated  Tontines,  or  loans 
raised  on  life-annuities,  about  1653. 

His'son  served  under  La  Salle,  who,  in  1680,  ordered 
him  to  build  a  fort  on  the  Illinois  River.  He  afterwards 
descended  the  Mississippi  in  search  of  La  Salle,  Died 
after  1700. 


Tooke,  took,  (Andrew,)  an  English  writer  and 
teacher,  born  in  London  in  1673.  He  was  master  of 
the  Charter-House  School,  and  published  a  "Synopsis 
of  the  Greek  Language,"  ("Synopsis  Graecae  Linguae.") 
Died  in  1731. 

Tooke,  (John  Horne,)  a  celebrated  English  philolo- 
gist and  politician,  born  in  London  in  June,  1736,  was  a 
son  of  John  Horne.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  where 
he  took  his  degree  as  B.A.  in  1758,  and,  to  please  his 
father,  was  ordained  a  priest ;  but  he  preferred  the  pro- 
fession of  -the  law.  He  became  an  active  politician,  an 
opponent  of  the  ministry,  and  a  friend  of  John  Wilkes. 
Having  been  adopted  by  William  Tooke,  of  Purley,  as 
his  heir,  he  assumed  the  name  of  Tooke.  He  studied 
law,  and  applied  about  1779  for  admission  to  the  bar, 
but  was  rejected  because  he  had  been  a  priest.  Before 
this  event  he  had  been  fined  ;^200  and  imprisoned  one 
year  for  libel.  His  offence  consisted  in  saying  that  cer- 
tain Americans  were  "  murdered"  by  the  king's  troops 
at  Lexington.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his 
"'Eyrm  TTTepoivra ;  or.  Diversions  of  Purley,"  (1786,) 
which  treats  of  language,  and  displays  much  acuteness 
and  originality  of  thought  and  presents  many  good 
ideas.  He  was  tried  in  1794  on  a  charge  of  treason, 
made  an  able  speech  in  his  own  defence,  and  was 
acquitted.  In  1801  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for 
Old  Sarum.  Died  in  1812.  He  was  distinguished  for 
his  conversational  powers. 

See  W.  Hamilton,  "Life  of  J.  Home  Tooke;"  "Memoirs  of 
John  Horne  Tooke,"  by  J.  A.  Graham,  1828;  "Life  of  J.  Horne 
Tooke,"  by  Ai.kxandek  Stephen,  1813  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine" 
for  August,  1833,  and  April,  1840;  "Monthly  Review"  for  January, 
1787,  and  December,  1806. 

Tooke,  (Thomas,)  a  son  of  Rev.  William,  noticed 
below,  published  in  1838  a  "  History  of  Prices  and  of 
the  State  of  the  Circulation  from  1793  to  1837,"  etc.,  in 
2  vols.,  to  which  were  subsequently  added  four  more 
volumes.    Died  in  1858. 

Tooke,  (Rev.  William,)  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Islington  in  1744,  became  minister  of  the  English  church 
at  Cronstadt.  He  was  appointed  in  1774  chaplain  to 
the  factory  of  the  Russia  Company  at  Saint  Petersburg. 
He  published  a  "Life  of  Catherine  II.,"  (3  vols.,  1797,) 
"  History  of  Russia  from  the  Foundation  of  the  Empire 
to  the  Accession  of  Catherine  II.,"  "  Varieties  of  Lite- 
rature," and  other  works,  and  translated  Zollikofer's 
"  Sermons"  from  the  German.    Died  in  1820. 

Tooke,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  younger  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1777.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of 
Useful  Knowledge.  He  edited  the  poetical  works  of 
Churchill,  and  published  "The  Monarchy  of  France: 
its  Rise,  Progress,  and  Fall,"  (1855.)    Died  in  1863. 

Tooloon  or  Tuluu,  tooHoon',  or,  more  fully,  Ahmed 
Ibn  Tooloon,  in'med  ib'n  too'loon',  the  founder  of 
the  dynasty  of  Tooloonites,  was  born  in  835.  He  had 
been  made  Governor  of  Egypt  in  873,  and  ruled  the 
country  with  great  ability,  when  an  attempt  was  made 
to  dispossess  him  ;  on  which  he  raised  an  army,  defeated 
the  troops  sent  against  him  by  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad, 
and  declared  himself  independent.  He  died  about  883. 
The  dynasty  which  he  founded  lasted  till  905,  when  the 
caliph  Al-Mooktafee  reduced  Egypt  and  put  to  death 
the  last  of  the  Tooloonite  princes. 

Toombs,  (Robert,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Wilkes  count)^  Georgia,  in  1810.  He  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate  in  1853,  and  was  re-elected 
in  1859.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  secession  party  in 
Georgia,  and  resigned  his  seat  in  the  Senate  when  that 
State  withdrew  from  the  Union.  He  was  secretary  of 
state  for  the  Southern  Confederacy  from  February  to 
July,  1861,  was  elected  a  Senator  about  February,  1862, 
and  became  a  brigadier-general  in  the  same  year. 

Toorgenef,  toor'geh-nef  or  toor'neh-nlf ,  Turgenef, 
or  Turgenev,  written  also  Tm'genew,  (Alexander 
Ivanovitch,)  a  Russian  historian,  born  in  1784.  Having 
visited  England  and  various  parts  of  Europe  in  search 
of  documents,  he  published  in  1841  his  "  Historical 
Monuments  of  Russia,"  (in  Latin.)    Died  in  1845. 

Toorgenef  or  Turgenew,  (IvANp  a  Russian  poet 
and  litterateur  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Orel  in 


a,  e,  1,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f3.ll,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


TOORGENEF 


2141  TO  RIB  10 


1818.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a  poem  entitled 
"Parascha"  or  "Panascha,"  (1843,)  and  "Papers  of  a 
Sportsman,"  (1852.)  The  latter  enjoys  great  popularity, 
and  has  been  translated  into  the  principal  European 
languages. 

See  die  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1869;  "  North 
British  Review"  for  March,  1869. 

Toorgenef,  Turgenef,  or  Turgenew,  (Nikolai 
IVANoviTCH,)  a  brother  of  Alexander,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  1790.  He  distinguished  himself  as  an 
earnest  advocate  of  the  abolition  of  serfdom  in  Russia. 
Having  been  connected  with  the  secret  societies  which 
favoured  that  reform,  he  was,  after  the  accession  of 
Nicholas,  condemned  to  death  during  his  absence  on  his 
travels.  He  took  up  his  residence  in  Paris,  where  he 
published  in  1847  his  work  entitled  "Russia  and  the 
Russians,"  (in  French.) 

Topal-Osman,  to'pSl  os-min',  an  able  Turkish 
general  and  minister  of  state.  He  became  grand  vizier 
in  173 1,  and  defeated  Nadir  Shah  in  battle  on  the  Tigris 
in  July,  1733.  He  was  killed  in  battle  by  the  Persians 
in  the  same  year. 

Topete,  to-pa'ti,  (Juan,)  a  Spanish  admiral  of  the 
present  age.  As  commander  of  the  naval  force  at 
Cadiz,  he  gave  an  impulse  to  the  insurrection  against 
Isabella  in  September,  1868.  He  was  minister  of  the 
marine  from  June  to  Noveniber,  1869. 

Topfer  or  Toepfer,  top'fer,  (Karl,)  a  German  drama- 
tist, born  at  Berlin  in  1792,  has  published  several  popu- 
lar comedies,  among  which  we  may  name  "The  King's 
Command"  and  "  Hermann  and  Dorothea." 

Topffer  or  Toepffer,  top'fer,  (Rudolph,)  a  Gene- 
vese  artist  and  writer  of  rare  genius,  was  born  in  1799. 
Among  his  first  publications  was  his  "  Voyages  en 
Zigzag,"  a  series  of  humorous  sketches,  which  attracted 
general  admiration.  These  were  followed  by  the  "  Pres- 
bytere,"  (1839,)  "Genevese  Tales,"  ("Nouveiles  Gene- 
voises,"  1841,)  and  "Rosa  et  Gertrude,"  (1845,)  of 
which  were  received  with  great  favour.  His  other  prin- 
cipal works  are  the  comic  sketches  entitled  "  M.  Vieux- 
Bois"  and  "Reflections  on  Art."  The  former  ap])eared 
in  the  United  States  in  1842,  under  the  title  of  "  Adven- 
tures of  Mr.  Obadiah  Oldbuck,"  etc.    Died  in  1846. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  conteinporaiiis  ;"  Cli^ment  de 
Ris,  "Portraits  i  la  Plume;"  "Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale ;" 
the  "Living  Age"  for  September,  1847;  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for 
November,  1865. 

Topino-Lebrun,  to'pe'no'  leh-bruN',  (FRANgois 
Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Marseilles 
in  1769,  was  a  republican  and  a  friend  of  Ceracchi  the 
sculptor.  He  was  accused  of  conspiring  with  Ceracchi 
against  the  life  of  Bonaparte,  and  was  executed  in  1801, 
although  his  guilt  was  not  proved. 

TopTa-dy,  (Augustus  Montague,)  an  English  Cal- 
vinistic  divine,  born  in  Surrey  in  1740.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  became  vicar  of  Broad 
Henbury,  Devonshire.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
controversial  works,  and  of  a  number  of  beautiful  and 
popular  hymns.    Died  in  1778. 

Toppi.'top'pee,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  compiler,  born 
at  Chieta  about  1603,  published  a  work  on  the  history 
of  Neapolitan  literature,  (1678.)    Died  in  1681. 

Toranus  or  Toranius.    See  Rufinus. 

Torbido,  tok'be-do,  or  Turbido,  tooR'be-do,  (Fran- 
cesco,) called  II  Moro,  a  skilful  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Verona  about  1500.  He  painted  frescos  and  portraits. 
Died  al^out  1581. 

Tor'bert,  (Alfred  T.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Delaware,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1855. 
served  as  an  officer  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  Sep- 
tember 17,  1862,  and  at  Gettysburg,  July  2-3,  1863,  and 
commanded  a  division  of  the  army  of  General  Sheridan 
at  Opequan  Creek,  September  19,  and  Cedar  Creek, 
October  19,  1864.  At  the  end  of  1864  he  was  chief  of 
cavalry  in  the  Middle  military  division.  He  resigned  in 
October,  1866. 

Torcy.    See  Colbert  and  Jean  Baptiste. 

Tordenskjold  or  Tordenskiold,  toR'd^n-ske-old", 
(Peter,)  a  celebrated  admiral  in  the  Danish  service, 
born  at  Drontheim,  in  Norway,  in  1691,  was  originally 
named  Wessel.  As  commander  of  a  privateer  in  the 
war  with  Sweden,  he  captured  numerous  merchant- 


vessels,  and  was  made  lieutenant  in  17 12.  He  obtained 
the  rank  of  commodore  in  1715  for  his  services  in  de- 
stroying a.  number  of  Swedish  ships  on  the  coast  of 
Norway.  In  17 16  he  won  a  signal  victory  over  the 
Swedes,  under  Admiral  Wachtmeister,  for  which  the 
king  bestowed  upon  him  a  gold  medal.  He  was  soon 
after  ennobled  by  Frederick  IV.,  with  the  name  of  Tor- 
denskiold, ("Shield  against  Thunder,")  and  in  1717 
captured  the  .fortified  town  of  Marstrand.  After  the 
peace  of  Fredericksberg  he  visited  Germany,  and  was 
killed  in  a  duel  at  Hanover,  (1720  or  1721.) 

See  RoTHE,  "  Tordenskjold's  Liv  og  Levnet,"  3  vols.,  1747-50; 
Tharu'p,  "P.  Tordenskjold's  Liv  og  Levnet,"  183S ;  Bohr,  "P. 
Tordenskjold,"  etc.,  1838;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tordesillas.    See  Herrera. 

Torelli,  to-rel'lee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  eminent  Italian 
scholar  and  mathematician,  born  at  Verona  in  1721.  He 
studied  at  Padua,  where  he  became  thoroughly  versed 
in  the  ancient  languages.  He  subsequently  prepared 
an  edition  of  all  the  works  of  Archimedes,  (both  in 
Greek  and  Latin,)  which  was  published  in  1792.  He  also 
translated  ^sop's  "Fables"  into  Latin.    Died  in  1781. 

See  SiBiLiATO,  "  De  Vita  J.  Torelli  Commentariiis,"  1782. 

Torelli,  [Lat.  Taure'lius,]  (Lelio,)  an  Italian  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  at  Fano  in  1489,  settled  at  Florence 
about  1528,  and  became  podesta  of  that  city.  He  was 
appointed  chancellor  and  chief  secretary  to  Cosimo  de' 
Medici  about  1546.  He  published  an  excellent  edition 
of  the  important  Florentine  manuscripts  of  the  Pandects, 
(3  vols,  fob,  1553.)    Died  in  1576. 

See  Manni,  "  Vita  di  L.  Torelli,"  1770. 

Torelli,  (Pomponio,)  Count  of  Monte-Chiarugola, 
an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Parma  in  1539.  He  wrote 
tragedies,  etc.    Died  in  1608. 

Toreiio,  to-rin'yo,  (Don  Jos6  Maria  Queypo  de 
Llano  Ruiz  de  Saravia,)  a  Spanish  statesman  and 
historian,  born  at  Oviedo  in  1786.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  insurrection  against  the  French  in  1808,  and 
in  1810  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Cortes.  After  the 
return  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  in  1814,  he  left  Spain,  and 
resided  many  years  in  France,  England,  and  Germany. 
On  the  death  of  Ferdinand  he  returned  to  Madrid,  and 
was  appointed  minister  of  finance  in  1834,  and  in  1835 
succeeded  Martinez  de  la  Rosa  as  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  and  president  of  the  council.  He  was  compelled, 
on  account  of  his  moderate  policy,  to  resign  the  same 
year;  and  he  lived  subsequently  in  Paris  and  London, 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Insurrection, 
War,  and  Revolution  of  Spain,"  (5  vols.,  1835.)  Died 
in  1843. 

See  I^.  DE  LoM^NiE,  "M.  Toreno,  par  tin  Homme  de  Rien," 
1844;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Torenvhit,  to'ren-vif,  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Leyden  in  163 1.  His  works  are  chiefly  his- 
torical pieces  and  portraits.    Died  in  1 719. 

Torfaeus.    See  Torfaus. 

Torfaus,  Torfseus,  tor-fa'us,  or  Tor'fes-en,  [Fr. 

ToRFitE,  toRTi',]  (Thormodr,)  an  Icelandic  scholar  and 
antiquary,  born  in  1740.  He  studied  at  Copenhagen, 
and  in  1682  became  royal  historiographer.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  "  History  of  Norway,"  (in  Latin,  4  vols., 
171 1,)  "History  of  the  Orkney  Islands,"  ("  Historia 
Rerum  Orcadensium,"  1715,)  "  Series  Dynastarum  et 
Regum  Dania,"  etc.,  and  other  works  on  Scandinavian 
history.  His  Latin  style  is  remarkable  for  its  elegance, 
and  his  writings  exhibit  great  learning  and  research. 
Died  in  1719. 

See  J.  Erichsen,  "T.  Torfesens  Levnetsbeskrivelse,"  1788. 

Torfee.    See  Torfaus. 
Torfesen.    See  Torfaus. 

Toribio,  to-ree'Be-o,  (Alfonso  Mongrovejo — mon- 
gRo-va'Ho,)  a  Spanish  prelate,  born  near  Valladolid  in 
1538.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Lima  in  1580.  Died 
in  1606. 

See  Pinelo,  "  Vida  de  Don  Toribio,"  1653. 

Toribio  de  Benavente,  to-re'Ke-o  di  Bi-ni-vgn'ti, 
a  Spanish  missionary  of  the  sixteenth  century,  resided 
many  years  in  Mexico,  and  was  guardian  of  a  convent  at 
Tezcuco.  He  wrote  a  history  of  New  Spain,  which  is 
still  in  manuscript. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  ii. 
book  iii. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TOR  IN  us 


2142 


TORRIGIANO 


Torinus,  to-ree'nAs,  (Albanus,)  a  Swiss  physician, 
originally  named  Alban  Thorer,  born  in  the  canton  of 
Zurich  in  1489,  became  professor  of  practical  medicine 
at  Bale.  He  translated  a  number  of  Greek  medical 
works  into  Latin,  and  published  editions  of  several  Latin 
treatises  on  medicine.    Died  in  1550. 

Torlonia,  toR-lo'ne-i,  (Alessandro,)  Duke  of  Cesi 
and  Marquis  of  Roma-Vecchia,  an  opulent  Italian  banker, 
was  born  in  1800.  He  expended  his  fortune  liberally 
in  collecting  works  of  art  and  erecting  fine  buildings  at 
Rome. 

Torlonia,  (Giovanni,)  a  distinguished  Italian  banker, 
born  in  1754,  in  indigent  circumstances,  was  the  father 
of  the  preceding.  He  acquired  a  large  fortune  by  his 
enterprise  and  financial  talent,  and  was  ennobled,  with 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Bracciano.    Died  in  1829. 

Tornberg,  toRn'b^Rg,  (Carl  Johan,)  a  Swedish  Ori- 
entalist, born  at  Linkoping  in  1807,  became  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  at  Lund  about  1844.  He  has  written 
much  on  Arabic  literature  and  antiquities. 

Tornielli,  toR-ne-eKlee,  (Agostino,)  an  Italian  histo- 
rian, born  near  Novara  in  1543.  He  published  "Annals, 
Sacred  and  Profane,  from  the  Creation  to  the  Time  of 
Christ,"  ("  Annales  sacri  et  profani,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1610.) 
Died  in  1622. 

Tor'por-ley,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  mathema- 
tician and  divine,  born  about  1570,  was  amanuensis  to 
Francis  Vieta.  He  published  a  treatise  on  spherical 
trigonometry,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1632. 

Torquatus.    See  Manlius. 

Torquemada,  toR-ka-mI'DS,  a  Spanish  monk  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  history  of  Mexico, 
entitled  "  Monarchia  Indiana,"  published  at  Seville  in 
161 5  and  at  Madrid  in  1723. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  i. 
book  i. 

Torquemada,  [Lat.  Turrecrema'ta,]  (Juan,)  a 
Spanish  theologian,  born  at  Valladolid  in  1388.  He 
became  a  cardinal  in  1439,  and  wrote  several  works. 
Died  in  1468. 

Torquemada,  de,  di  toR-ki-mi'Di,  (Tomas,)  a  Span- 
ish Dominican  monk,  infamous  for  his  cruelty,  was  born 
in  1420.  He  was  made  first  Inquisitor-General  in  1483, 
and  he  is  said  in  sixteen  years  to  have  condemned 
ninety  thousand  persons  to  perpetual  imprisonment, 
and  more  than  eight  thousand  to  be  burned.  Died  in 
1498. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i.  part 
i. ;  Llorente,  "  Histoire  de  I'lnquisition  d'Espagne  ;"  Mariana, 
"  Historia  de  Espana  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Torre,  tor'ri,  (Flaminio,)  an  Italian  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Bologna  in  1621,  was  a  pupil  of  Guido 
Reni.    Died  in  1661. 

Torre,  del,  del  tor'ri,  (Filippo,)  a  learned  Italian 
antiquary,  born  in  Friuli  in  1657,  was  made  Bishop  of 
Adria  by  Pope  Clement  XI.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  antiquarian  works,  the  most  important  of  which 
is  entitled  "Monuments  of  Ancient  Antium,"  (" Monu- 
menta  veteris  Antii.")    Died  in  1717. 

See  Facciolati,  "Vita  di  P.  Turri,"  1729;  Nic^ron,  "  Me- 
moires." 

Torre,  della,  deKli  tor'ri,  (Filomarino,)  Duke,  an 
Italian  nobleman,  noted  for  his  scientific  attainments, 
was  born  in  Naples.  Having  been  unjustly  charged 
with  favouring  the  designs  of  the  French,  he  fell  a 
victim  to  the  fury  of  the  Neapolitan  mob,  which,  after 
destroying  his  property,  killed  him,  together  with  his 
brother,  (1799.) 

Torre,  della,  (Giovanni  Maria,)  an  Italian  savant, 
born  at  Rome  about  17 12,  became  professor  of  philoso- 
phy and  mathematics  at  Venice  and  other  Italian  cities. 
He  published  a  "  Course  of  Physics,"  (Latin  and  Italian,) 
"The  History  and  Phenomena  of  Vesuvius  Explained," 
(1755,)  and  other  scientific  works.  He  also  made  great 
improvements  in  the  microscope.  He  was  a  correspond- 
ing member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  and  of 
other  learned  institutions.    Died  in  1782. 

Torre,  della,  (Jacopo,)  or  Jacopo  da  Forli,  an 
Italian  medical  writer,  born  at  Forli ;  died  in  1414^ 

Torremuzza,  de,  di  toR-rk-moot'sJ,  (Gabriel  Lan- 
cillotto  Castello — lin-ch^l-lot'to  kis-teKlo,)  Prince, 


an  Italian  numismatist,  born  at  Palermo  in  1727.  He 
published  several  antiquarian  treatises.    Died  in  1792. 

Tor'rens,  (Sir  Henry,)  a  distinguished  Irish  officer, 
born  at  Londonderry  in  1779.  Having  previously  served 
in  the  West  Indies  and  Holland,  he  accompanied  Sir 
Arthur  Wellesley  to  Portugal  as  his  secretary.  He  was 
made  adjutant-general  in  1820.    Died  in  1828. 

Torrens,  (Robert,)  F.R.S.,  M.P.,  an  economist 
and  writer,  born  in  Ireland  in  1780.  He  supported  the 
Reform  bill  of  183 1,  and  wrote  several  works  on  trade 
and  political  economy.    Died  in  1864. 

Torrentinus,  tor-ren-tee'niis,  a  German  grammarian, 
whose  proper  name  was  Hermann  von  Beek,  was  born 
at  Zwolle  about  1450.  He  wrote  "  Elucidarius  Carminum 
et  Historiarum,"  (1510.)    Died  about  1520. 

Tor-ren'ti-us,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Am- 
sterdam in  1589;  died  in  1640. 

Tor-ren'ti-us,  (L^vinus,)  a  Flemish  scholar  and 
prelate,  originally  named  Van  der  Beken,  was  born  at 
Ghent  in  1525.  He  became  Bishop  of  Antwerp,  and  sub- 
sequently was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  (1595.) 
He  died  the  same  year.  He  was  the  author  of  Latin 
poems  of  great  elegance,  and  commentaries  on  several 
Latin  classics,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge 
of  Roman  antiquities. 

Torres,  tor'r^s,  (Domingos  Maximiano,)  a  Portu- 
guese poet,  born  about  1750. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Torres,  (Luis  da  Motta,)  a  Portuguese  admiral, 
born  at  Lisbon  in  1769.  He  was  appointed  Captain- 
General  of  Angola  about  1 81 5.    Died  in  1822. 

Torres,  de,  dk  tor^gs,  (Clemente,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Seville  in  1665.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  one  of  the  best  painters  of  his  time.    Died  in  1730. 

Torres  Naharro.    See  Naharro. 

Tor'rey,  (John,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  American 
botanist,  born  in  New  York  in  1798.  He  published 
in  1819  a  catalogue  of  the  plants  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  New  York,  which  was  succeeded  in  1824  by  the  first 
volume  of  his  "Flora  of  the  Northern  United  vStates." 
In  conjunction  with  Professor  Gray,  he  produced  a 
"Flora  of  North  America,"  (1838.)  He  was  appointed 
in  1827  professor  of  chemistry  and  botany  in  the  College 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New  York.  He  has  also 
prepared  the  botanical  reports  of  the  natural  history 
survey  of  the  State  of  New  York,  (2  vols.  4to,  1844.) 

Torricelli,  tor-re-seKlee  or  tor-re-chel'lee,  (Evange- 
LISTA,)  an  eminent  Italian  natural  philosopher,  born  at 
Piancaldoli,  in  the  Romagna,  in  1608.  He  studied  mathe- 
matics at  Rome  under  Benedetto  Castelli,  discovered 
the  law  which  regulates  the  flowing  of  water  out  of  an 
orifice  of  a  vessel,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  Motion.  This 
commended  him  to  the  favour  of  Galileo,  who  invited 
him  to  Florence.  Torricelli  went  thither  in  1641,  and 
remained  with  Galileo  until  the  death  of  the  latter.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  at  Florence  by 
the  grand  duke  Ferdinand.  He  discovered  a  method  of 
ascertaining  the  area  of  a  cycloid.  His  chief  title  to 
celebrity  is  the  discovery  of  the  Torricellian  vacuum  and 
the  invention  of  the  barometer,  which  occurred  in  1643. 
He  filled  with  mercury  a  glass  tube  about  three  feet  long, 
closed  at  one  end,  and  inserted  the  open  end  in  a  quan- 
tity of  mercury.  He  thus  found  that  a  vacuum  was 
formed  at  the  upper  end  of  the  tube,  and  that  the  column 
of  mercury  supported  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmospheie 
remained  about  twenty-nine  or  thirty  inches  high.  He 
published  "Opera  Geometrica,"  (1644.)  Died  at  Flor- 
ence in  October,  1647. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  TiRA- 
BOSCHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Torrigiano,  tor-re-j<Vno,  (Pietro,)  a  celebrated  Ital- 
ian sculptor,  born  at  Florence  about  1472.  He  was  a 
fellow-student  of  Michael  Angelo,  of  whom  he  was  so 
jealous  that  he  once  assaulted  him  violently,  disfiguring 
his  face  for  life.  He  afterwards  resided  for  a  time  in 
England,  where  he  was  patronized  by  Henry  VIII.,  and 
executed  the  tomb  of  Henry  VII.  in  \Vestmiiister  Abbey, 
and  other  works.  Having  returned  to  Sj^ain  in  1519, 
he  was  condemned  to  death  by  the  Inquisition  for  having 
broken  in  pieces  a  statue  of  the  Virgin  which  he  had 


a,  e,  i,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  hy  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fJt;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


TORRIJOS 


2143 


TOULONGEON 


made  for  a  nobleman,  who  refused  to  pay  the  price 
demanded,  (1522.) 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.;  Ticozzi,  "Dizio- 
viario." 

Torrijos,  tor-ree'H6s,  (Jos6  Maria,)  a  Spanish  gene- 
tal,  born  at  Madrid  in  1791,  was  educated  among  the 
pages  of  Charles  IV.  He  served  in  the  campaigns  of 
1808  and  181 1,  and,  having  been  made  Captain-General 
of  Valencia,  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in  the 
cause  of  the  constitution.  After  the  capture  of  Cadiz 
by  the  French,  he  left  Spain,  but  returned  in  1830,  soon 
after  which  he  was  betrayed,  with  fifty  of  his  companions, 
into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  and  they  were  all  shot, 
by  order  of  King  Ferdinand  VII.,  in  183 1. 

Tor'ring-ton,  (Arthur  Hkrbert,)  Earl  of,  an 
English  admiral,  was  a  brother  of  Chief-Justice  Herbert. 
He  was  dismissed  from  all  his  places  by  James  II.  in 
1687,  because  he  would  not  vote  for  the  repeal  of  the 
Test  Act.  He  commanded  the  Dutch  fleet  of  the  Prince 
of  Orange  during  his  voyage  from  Holland  to  Torbay, 
(1688,)  and  was  appointed  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  by 
William  III.  "  He  was  utterly  inefficient,"  says  Mac- 
aulay.  In  1690  he  was  removed  from  that  office,  and 
obtained  command  of  the  fleet.  He  was  defeated  by  the 
French  at  Beachy  Head,  in  June,  1690.  His  conduct  in 
that  battle  was  so  disgraceful  that  he  was  distriissed  from 
the  service. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  iii. 

Torrington,  Viscount.    See  Byng,  (George.) 

Torsellino.    See  Turselltnus. 

Torstenson,  toR^sten-son,  or  Torstenssoii,  (Len- 
NART,)  Count  of  Ortala,  a  Swedish  commander,  born  at 
Torstena  in  1603.  He  accompanied  Gustavus  Adolphus 
to  Germany  in  1630,  and  after  his  death  served  under 
Baner  in  various  campaigns  of  the  Thirty  Years'  war. 
He  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  the  army  in 
Germany  in  1641,  and  in  May,  1642,  gained  a  victory 
over  the  Imperial  troops  at  Schweidnitz,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  other  successes.  He  defeated  the  Imperialists 
at  Jankowitz  in  February,  1645.  Having  resigned  his 
command  in  1646,  he  was  created  a  count  by  Queen 
Christina,  and  obtained  other  distinctions.   Died  in  165 1. 

See  Geijer,  "  Histoire  de  Suede  ;"  Casstroem,  "Areminne  ofver 
L.  Torstensson,"  1786;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tortelli,toR-teKlee,  [Lat.  Tortei/lius,]  (Giovanni,) 
an  Italian  grammarian,  born  at  Arezzo  about  1400.  He 
wrote  "  On  the  Power  of  Letters,"  ("  De  Potestate  Lite- 
rarum.")    Died  about  1466. 

Tortellius.    See  Tortei.lt. 

Torti,  toR'tee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  physician,  born 
at  Modena  in  1658,  became  professor  of  medicine  at 
Modena  about  1680.  He  composed  several  oratorios  in 
his  youth.  His  chief  work  is  a  Treatise  on  Pernicious 
Fevers,  entitled  "  Therapeutice  specialis  ad  Febres  quas- 
dam  perniciosas,"  etc.,  ( 1 709,)  which  was  highly  esteemed. 
He  died  in  1 741. 

See  MuRATORi,  "Life  of  Torti." 

Tory,  to're',  (Geoffroi,)  a  French  engraver  and 
printer,  born  at  Bourges  about  1480.  He  learned  Greek 
and  Latin,  established  himself  as  a  printer  in  Paris,  and 
translated  several  classical  works.  He  also  illustrated 
numerous  books  with  engravings.    Died  in  1533. 

Toscanella,  di,  de  tos-ki-nel'ia,  (Orazio,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  in  the  Papal  States  about  1510;  died  about 
1580. 

Toscanelli,  tos-ki-neKlee,  (Paolo  del  Pozzo,)  an 
Italian  astronomer,  born  at  Florence  in  1397.  He  formed 
a  project  to  shorten  the  route  to  China  by  navigating 
westward,  and  wrote  a  letter  to  Columbus  on  this  subject 
about  1474.  He  constructed  a  gnomon  on  the  cathedral 
of  Florence.    Died  in  1482. 

Toschi,  tos'kee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  jurist  and 
cardinal,  born  near  Reggio  in  1535  ;  died  in  1620. 

Toschi,  (Paolo,)  a  celebrated  Italian  engraver,  born 
at  Parma  in  1788,  became  director  of  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts  in  his  native  city.  Among  his  best  works 
maybe  named  his  prints  after  Correggio's  "Madonna 
della  Scodella,"  and  the  *'  Venus  and  Adonis"  of  Albano. 
Died  in  1854. 

Tosetti,  to-set'tee,  (Urrano,)  an  Italian  philosopher, 
born  at  Florence  ;  died  in  1768. 


Tostado  orTostatus.  See  Alphonsus  Arulensis. 

Tos^'ti  or  Tos'tig,  F",arl  of  Northumberland,  was  a 
brother  of  King  Harold  II.  In  1066  Tosti  and  the 
King  of  Norway  invaded  England,  and  were  defeated 
by  Harold.  Tosti  was  killed  in  this  battle,  September, 
1066. 

Tot'i-la,  King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  began  to  reign  in 
541  a.d.  He  invaded  Italy  and  captured  Rome  in  546, 
after  Belisarius  had  made  an  effort  to  raise  the  siege  of 
that  capital.  He  was  defeated  in  Tuscany  by  the  army 
of  Justinian,  under  Narses,  and  was  killed  in  the  retreat, 
in  552  a.d. 

Totleben  or  Todleben,  tot'lk'ben,  (Gottlob  Hein- 
RICH,)  a  profligate  German  adventurer,  born  in  Saxony 
about  1710.  Having  been  banished  for  his  crimes,  he 
went  to  Russia  about  1755,  entered  the  army,  and  be- 
came a  general.  He  took  Berlin  in  1760,  and  committed 
great  cruelties  on  the  Prussians.    Died  in  1773. 

Tott,  de,  deh  tot,  (FRANgois,)  Baron,  a  French 
officer,  of  Hungarian  extraction,  born  in  1733,  held  an 
office  in  the  French  embassy  at  Constantinople.  He 
was  appointed,  after  his  return,  consul  to  the  Crimea, 
(1767.)  He  subsequently  resided  many  years  in  Turkey, 
where  he  effected  great  improvements  in  the  artillery 
and  military  fortifications.  He  was  the  author  of 
"Memoirs  of  the  Turks  and  Tartars,"  (1784,)  which 
obtained  great  popularity  and  was  translated  into 
several  languages.    Died  in  1793. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  September  and  October,  1785; 
"  Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1837. 

Tot'ten,  (George  Muirson,)  an  American  civil  en- 
gineer, born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1809.  He 
was  appointed  engineer-in-chief  of  the  Panama  Railroad 
in  1849. 

Totten,  (Joseph  Gilbert,)  an  American  officer,  born 
at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1788,  served  in  the  war 
of  1812,  and  rose  to  be  lieutenant-colonel.  He  was 
made  colonel  and  chief  engineer  in  1838,  and  in  the 
latter  capacity  accompanied  the  army  to  Mexico  in  1847, 
where  he  was  soon  after  appointed  a  brigadier-general. 
He  wrote  a  "  Report  on  the  Subject  of  National  De- 
fence."   Died  in  1864. 

Tottenham,  tot'ten-am,  (Edward,)  an  English 
divine  and  controversialist,  born  in  1810  ;  died  in  1853. 

Toucey,  tow'se,  (Isaac,)  an  American  Democratic 
politician,  born  in  Connecticut  in  1798.  He  was  chosen 
Governor  of  Connecticut  in  1846,  became  attorney 
general  of  the  United  States  in  June,  1848,  and  was  a 
Senator  of  the  United  States  from  1852  to  1857.  In 
March,  1857,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  navy. 
He  has  been  accused  of  dispersing  the  navy  to  remote 
parts  of  the  globe  in  i860,  with  a  design  to  favour  the 
movements  of  the  disunionists.    Died  in  1869. 

Touchard-Lafosse,  too'sh^R'  It'foss',  (G.,)  a  me- 
diocre French  writer,  born  in  1780,  published  many 
historical  works  and  novels.    Died  in  1847. 

Touche-Treville.    See  La  Touche. 

Tougard,  too^gtR',  (J6r6me  FRANgois,)  a  French 
lawyer  and  horticulturist,  born  at  Havre  in  1781.  He 
published  several  treatises  on  law  and  on  horticulture. 

Toullier,  tool e-i',  (Charles  Bonaventu  re  Marie,) 
a  distinguished  French  jurist,  born  about  1760.  He  be- 
came professor  of  law  at  Rennes,  and  published  an  im- 
portant work  entitled  "The  French  Civil  Law  according 
to  the  Order  of  the  Code  Napoleon,"  (14  vols.,  1811-31.) 
Died  in  1835. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  (new  edition ;)  C.  Paulmier, 
"  filoge  de  Toullier,"  1836. 

Toulmin,  (Camilla.)    See  Crossland. 

Toulmin,  tooKmin,  (Joshua,)  an  English  Unitarian 
divine,  born  in  London  in  1740,  became  one  of  the  pas- 
tors of  the  congregation  at  Birmingham.  He  was  the 
author  of  "Memoirs  of  Socinus,"  (1777,)  "Review  of 
the  Life,  Character,  and  Writings  of  John  Biddle," 
(1789,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1815. 

See  the  "Monthly  Review"  for  December,  1816. 

Toulongeon,  de,  deh  too'16N'zh6N',  (Francois 
Emanuel,)  Viscount,  a  French  historian,  born  in 
Franche-Comte  in  1748.  Having  joined  the  popular 
party  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution,  he  was  a 
deputy  to  the  States-General  in  1789.    He  published, 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  h,  y^, guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TOULOUSE 


2144 


TO  US  S  J  IN 


among  other  works,  a  **  History  of  France  from  the 
Revolution  of  1789,"  (4  vols.,  1801-10,)  and  "Revolu- 
tionary Manual,"  etc.  ;  also  a  translation  of  Caesar's 
"Commentaries."    Died  in  1812. 

See  Qu^RARD,  "La  France  Litteraire;"  Dupont  de  Nemours, 
"Notice  sur  M.  de  Toiilongeon,"  1818;  "  Noiivelle  Biograpliie 
Gent^rale." 

Toulouse,  de,  deh  too'looz',  (Louis  Alexandre  de 
Bourbon — deh  booR'b6N',)  Count,  a  French  admiral, 
born  in  1678,  was  a  son  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Madame 
de  Montespan.  He  received  command  of  a  fleet,  and 
opposed  with  success  the  English  and  Dutch  fleets  near 
Malaga  in  1704.    Died  in  1737. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires." 

Toup,  toop,(JoNATHAN,)  an  English  divine  and  scholar, 
born  in  Cornwall  in  1713.  He  studied  at  Exeter  College, 
Oxford,  and  subsequently  became  a  prebendary  of  Exe- 
ter Cathedral.  He  published  several  critical  works  of 
great  merit,  the  most  important  of  which  is  entitled 
"  Emendations  of  Suidas,"  ("  Emendationes  in  Suidam," 
4  vols.,  1760-75.)    Died  in  1785. 

Tour  d'Auvergne,  La.  See  Turenne,  Latour, 
and  Bouillon. 

Tour,  de  la,  (Baillet,)  Count.  See  La  Tour,  von. 

Tour,  La.    See  La  Tour. 

Tourette,  La.    See  Tourrette,  La. 

Tournefort,  de,  deh  tooR'neh'foR'  or  tooRn'foR', 
(Joseph  Pitton,)  an  eminent  French  botanist,  born  at 
Aix,  in  Provence,  in  1656.  He  studied  medicine  at 
Montpellier,  and  subsequently  made  scientific  excursions 
in  Spain  and  the  Pyrenees.  He  was  appointed  in  1683 
assistant  professor  at  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  in  Paris,  where 
his  lectures  won  for  him  a  high  reputation.  He  set  out 
in  1700  on  a  journey  to  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  the 
adjacent  countries,  accompanied  by  Gundelsheimer.  On 
his  return  to  Paris  he  obtained  the  chair  of  medicine 
in  the  College  of  France.  He  died  in  1708.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  his  "  History  of  Plants  in  the  Environs 
of  Paris,"  ("  Histoire  des  Plantes  qui  naissent  aux  Envi- 
rons de  Paris,"  etc.,  1698,)  "Elements  of  Botany,"  ("In- 
stitutiones  Rei  Herbariae,"  3  vols.  4to,  with  476  plates, 
1700,)  and  "Travels  in  the  Levant,"  (2  vols.,  1717.) 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  filoges  ;"  "  Biographie  Medicale  ;"  Maury, 
"Histoire  de  I'Academie  des  Sciences;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Tournely,  tooR'nk'le',  (Honor6,)  a  French  priest  and 
writer  on  theology,  born  at  Antibes  in  1658  ;  died  in  1729. 

Tournemine,  tooR^neh'min'  or  tooRn''men',  (Ren6 
Joseph,)  a  learned  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Rennes  in 
1661.  Having  previously  filled  various  professorships, 
he  became  in  1701  editor  of  the  "Journal  de  Trevoux." 
Among  his  works  we  may  name  "  Reflections  on  Athe- 
ism," and  an  edition  of  Prideaux's  "  History  of  the  Jews." 
Died  in  1739. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  Feller,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Tournemine,  de,  deh  tooR'neh'm^n',  (Charles,)  a 
French  painter,  born  at  Toulon  in  1825. 

Tourneur,  (Charles  Louis  FRANgois.)  See  Le- 
tourneur. 

Tourneur,  Le,  leh  tooR^nuR',  (Pierre,)  a  French 
translator,  born  at  Valognes  in  1736.  He  produced  in 
1770  a  translation  of  Young's  "Night  Thoughts,"  which 
was  praised  by  Diderot,  and  commenced  a  prose  version 
of  Shakspeare's  plays,  the  first  volume  of  which  appeared 
in  1776.  The  admiration  of  Shakspeare  which  he  ex- 
pressed provoked  the  hostility  of  Voltaire.  Le  Tour- 
neur's  version  of  Shakspeare  (20  vols.,  1776-82)  is 
considered  the  best  in  the  French  language.  It  was 
revised  and  republished  by  M.  Guizot  in  1824.  He  also 
translated  "Clarissa  Harlowe,"  "Ossian's  Poems,"  and 
other  English  books.    Died  in  1788. 

See  La  Harpe,  "Cours  de  Litlerature ;"  Desessarts,  "Siecles 
Litteraires." 

Tourneux,  Le,  leh  tooR'nuh',  (Nicolas,)  an  eloquent 
French  preacher,  born  at  Rouen  in  1640.  He  preached 
in  Paris,  was  praised  by  Boileau,  and  received  a  pension 
from  Louis  XIV.  He  wrote  several  devotional  works. 
Died  in  1689. 

Tournon,  de,  deh  tooR^noN',  (Charles  Thomas 
Maillard,)  born  at  Turin  in  1668,  studied  at  the  College 
of  the  Propaganda  at  Rome,  and  was  appointed  by  the 


pope  apostolic  vicar  in  India.  In  1701  he  went  on  a 
mission  to  China,  where  his  indiscreet  zeal  caused  him 
to  be  imprisoned  by  the  emperor  in  1707.  Died  in 
prison  in  17 10. 

See  Cardinal  Passionei,  "Memorie  storiche  della  Legazione  e 
Morte  del  Cardinale  di  Tournon." 

Tournon,  de,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  cardinal  and 
statesman,  born  at  Tournon  in  1489,  was  distinguished 
by  the  favour  of  Francis  I.  In  1526  he  assisted  in  ne- 
gotiating for  the  deliverance  of  the  king,  who  had  been 
made  prisoner  by  Charles  V.,  and  in  1529  concluded  the 
peace  of  Cambray.  He  was  soon  after  made  a  cardinal 
and  Archbishop  of  Bourges.  He  was  instrumental  in 
effecting  the  marriage  of  the  son  of  Francis,  afterwards 
Henry  H.,  with  Catherine  de'  Medici,  and  in  1538  nego- 
tiated with  Charles  V.  the  ten  years'  truce  of  Nice.  He 
was  made  prime  minister  of  state  about  1542,  in  which 
post  he  was  conspicuous  for  his  cruel  persecution  of  the 
Protestants.    Died  in  1562. 

See  Fleury-Ternal,  "  Histoire  du  Cardinal  de  Tournon,"  1728; 
De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Tempoiis;"  Sainte-Marthe,  "Gallia 
Christiana  Nova;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tournon,  de,  (Philippe  Camille  Casimir  Marce- 
LIN,)  Count,  a  French  statesman,  born  at  Apt  in  1778. 
He  was  appointed  prefect  of  Rome  by  Napoleon,  and 
after  the  second  restoration  became  prefect  of  the 
department  of  the  Gironde.  He  wrote  "  Statistical 
Studies  of  Rome,"  etc.,  (1831.)    Died  in  1833. 

Touro,  too'ro,  (Judah,)  a  wealthy  and  benevolent 
American  Jew,  born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1776. 
He  settled  at  New  Orleans,  and  at  his  death  left  ^80,000 
to  found  an  almshouse  in  that  city,  as  well  as  numerous 
munificent  bequests  for  various  charities  in  other  cities 
of  the  United  States,  and  for  the  relief  of  the  Jews  in 
Palestine.    Died  in  1854. 

Touron,  too'r6N',  (Antoine,)  a  French  biographer 
and  monk,  born  near  Casties  in  1686.  He  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  in  French,  a  "Life  of  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas," (1737,)  and  a  "  Life  of  Charles  Borromeo,"  (1761.) 
Died  in  1775. 

Tourreil,  de,  deh  too'rM'  or  too'ri'ye,  (Jacques,)  a 
French  litterateitr,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1656.  He  trans- 
lated some  orations  of  Demosthenes,  and  was  admitted 
into  the  French  Academy  in  1692.    Died  in  171 5. 

Tourret,  too'ri',  (Charles  Gilbert,)  a  French  min- 
ister of  state,  born  at  Montmarault  in  1795.  He  was 
minister  of  agriculture  from  June  to  December,  1848, 
and  founded  agricultural  schools,  (fermes  ecoles.)  Died 
in  1857. 

Tourrette,  de  la,  deh  It  too'r^t',  (Marc  Antoine 
Louis  Claret,)  a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1729,  was  a  friend  of  J.  J.  Rousseau.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Elements  of  Botany,"  (2  vols., 
1766,)  and  "Chloris  Lugdunensis,"  (1785.)  Died  in  1793. 

Tourtelle,  tooR''t^K,  (Etienne,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Besan^on  in  1756.  Among  his  works  is 
a  "  Philosophic  History  of  Medicine,"  (2  vols.,  1804.) 
Died  in  1801. 

Tourville,  de,  deh  tooR^^K,  (Anne  Hilarion  de 
Cotentin — deh  ko'tSN^t^N',)  Count,  a  celebrated 
French  admiral,  born  at  Tourville  in  1642.  He  became 
a  captain  in  1667,  and  served  with  distinction  against 
the  Dutch  and  Spaniards.  In  1682  he  obtained  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-general,  and  in  1689  was  made  a  vice- 
admiral.  "Tourville,"  says  Macaulay,  "was  the  ablest 
maritime  commander  that  his  country  then  possessed." 
("  History  of  England,"  vol.  iii.)  He  defeated  the  Eng- 
lish admiral  Torrington  at  Beachy  Head  in  June,  1690. 
In  1692  he  was  ordered,  with  forty-four  ships,  to  protect 
the  descent  of  an  army  on  England.  The  English  and 
Dutch  fleets  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  him  at  La 
Hogue  the  same  year.  He  was  created  a  marshal  of 
France  in  1693.    Died  in  1701. 

See  "Memoires  de  Tourville,"  3  vols.,  1742;  Richer,  "Vie  de 
Tourville,"  1783;  Sismondi,  "Histoire  des  Frangais ;"  Saint- 
Simon,  "Memoires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Toussain,  too'sdN',  (Daniel,)  a  French  Protestant 
minister,  born  at  Montbelliard  in  1541.  He  taught 
Hebrew  at  Orleans,  and  afterwards  preached  at  Heidel- 
berg, where  he  also  was  professor  of  theology.  He 
wrote  several  works.    Died  in  1602. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


TO  us  S  J  IN 


2145     '  TOWNSHEND 


Toussain,  [Lat.  Tussa'nus,]  (Jacquks,)  a  French 
Hellenist,  born  at  Troyes.  He  was  appointed  professor 
of  Greek  at  the  College  Royal  by  Francis  I.  about  1532. 
Among  his  pupils  were  Turnebe  (Turnebus)  and  Henri 
Estienne.    Died  in  1547. 

Toussaint,  too'sdN',  (Anna  Luise  Gertrude,)  a 
Dutch  novelist,  born  at  Alkmaar  in  1812.  She  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "Almagro,"  {1837,)  "The 
English  in  Rome,"  (1840,)  and  "  Lauernesse  House," 
('*  Het  Huis  Lauernesse,"  1841,)  which  had  a  great 
success;  also  a  popular  historical  novel,  entitled  "  Ley- 
cester  in  Nederland,"  (about  185 1, )  She  was  married 
to  the  painter  Bosboom  in  1851. 

See  the  "Westminster  Review"  for  August,  1843. 

Toussaint,  too's^N',  (FRANgois  Christophe  Ar- 
MAND,)  a  French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris  in  1806,  was  a 
pupil  of  David  of  Angers.  Among  his  works  is  "Two 
Indian  Slaves  bearing  a  Torch."    Died  in  1862. 

Toussaint,  (Franqois  Vincent,)  a  French  writer, 
born  in  Paris  about  1715.  He  published  a  treatise  on 
ethics,  entitled  "  Les  Moeurs  par  Panage,"  (1748.)  Died 
in  Berlin  in  1772. 

Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  too''siN'  loo''vlR'tuR',  a 
celebrated  negro  general  and  liberator,  born  near  Cap 
Francois,  in  Hayti,  in  1743,  was  descended  from  an 
African  prince.  His  parents  were  both  slaves  and  of 
pure  negro  blood.  He  learned  to  read  and  to  write, 
and  by  his  good  conduct  and  intelligence  gained  the 
confidence  of  his  master,  who  appointed  him  steward 
of  the  implements  employed  in  making  sugar.  In 
August,  1 791,  began  a  general  insurrection  of  the  slaves 
of  Hayti,  who  massacred  many  of  the  whites.  Tous- 
saint, however,  was  innocent  of  these  acts  of  cruelty, 
and  saved  the  lives  of  his  master's  family.  After  they 
had  escaped  from  the  island,  Toussaint  joined  the  army 
which  was  fighting  for  liberty.  The  insurgents  espoused 
the  cause  of  Louis  XVI.,  while  their  former  masters 
received  aid  from  the  English. 

The  horrible  confusion  which  prevailed  in  the  island 
was  increased  by  dissensions  among  the  whites  and  by 
the  interference  of  the  Spaniards.  Toussaint  obtained 
the  chief  command  of  the  negroes,  and  after  the  French 
Convention  had  decreed  the  liberation  of  the  slaves 
(February,  1794)  he  fought  against  the  English  and 
Spaniards,  and  aided  the  French  general  Laveaux  to 
expel  those  invaders.  He  gained  a  number  of  victories. 
"His  energy  and  his  prowess,"  says  Beard,  "made  him 
the  idol  of  his  troops.  ...  In  his  deeds  and  warlike 
achievements  he  had  equalled  the  great  captains  of 
ancient  and  modern  times."  He  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief by  the  French  commissioner  in  1796, 
and  confirmed  as  such  by  Bonaparte  about  December, 
1799.  He  was  regarded  as  a  general  benefactor  by  all 
classes  and  colours.  He  restored  order  and  prosperity, 
and  governed  with  moderation  and  humanity.  Under 
his  auspices  a  liberal  constitution  was  formed,  and  he 
was  elected  president  for  life.  Toussaint  sent  this  con- 
stitution to  Bonaparte  for  his  approbation  in  July,  1800, 
but  the  French  Consul  exclaimed,  "  He  is  a  revolted 
slave,  whom  we  must  punish  ;  the  honour  of  France  is 
outraged."  Having  resolved  to  reduce  the  negroes 
again  to  slavery,  Bonaparte  sent  an  army  of  about 
35,000  men,  under  Leclerc,  to  subdue  Toussaint.  This 
army  arrived  at  Hayti  about  the  end  of  1801,  and,  though 
courageously  resisted  by  Toussaint,  occupied  the  sea- 
ports. Retiring  to  the  mountains,  Toussaint  maintained 
the  contest,  and  killed  thousands  of  the  French.  Le- 
clerc resorted  to  negotiation,  and  offered  the  negroes 
their  liberty.  These  conditions  were  accepted  by  Tous- 
saint, who  concluded  a  peace  and  retired  to  his  estate. 
He  was  taken  by  treachery  in  June,  1802,  and  carried  to 
France,  and  confined  in  the  dungeon  in  the  castle  of 
Joux,  near  Besan9on,  where  he  died  in  April,  1803. 
According  to  some  authors,  he  was  starved  to  death. 

See  Saint-Remv,  "Vie  de  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,"  1850;  John 
R.  Beard,  "Life  of  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,"  1853;  J.  Redpath, 
"Toussaint  L'Ouverture;  a  Biography,"  1863;  Dubroca,  "Vie  de 
Toussaint  Louverture,"  1802;  James  Stephen,  "History  of  Tous- 
saint Louverture,"  1814;  "  Lecture  on  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,"  by 
Wendell  Phillips,  Boston,  1863. 

Toussenel,  toos'n^K,  (  Alphonse,)  a  French  naturalist 
and  journalist,  born  at  Montreuil-Bellay  in  1803.  He 


published,  besides  other  works, "  Le  Monde  des  Oiseaux ; 
Ornithologie  passionnelle,"  (1852.) 

Towner,  (Zealous  B.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Massachusetts  about  1822,  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1841.  He  became  a  captain  about  1855,  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  in  1861,  and  commanded  a  brigade 
at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  August  29  and  30, 
1862. 

Tdw'ers,  (Joseph,)  an  English  Unitarian  divine  and 
writer,  born  in  Southwark  in  1737.  He  was  a  con- 
tributor to  the  "  Biographia  Britannica,"  and  wrote  a 
"  Life  of  Frederick  the  Great,  King  of  Prussia,"  (2 
vols.,  1788,)  "  Observations  on  the  Rights  and  Duties 
of  Juries,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1799. 

Tow'good,  (MiCAjAH,)  an  English  dissenter,  born 
in  Devonshire  in  1700,  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  book  entitled  "  High-Flown  Episcopal  and  Priestly 
Claims  freely  Examined."  He  preached  at  Exeter.  Died 
in  1792. 

Towianski,  to-ve-ln'skee,  a  Polish  mystic,  who  pre- 
tended to  have  divine  revelations,  was  born  in  Lithuania 
about  1800.  He  successively  visited  the  principal  cities 
of  Europe,  and  while  in  Paris  made  a  convert  of  the 
Polish  poet  Mickiewicz,  who  wrote  a  treatise  in  favour 
of  his  doctrines,  entitled  "The  Official  Church  and  Mes- 
sianism."  Being  soon  after  banished  from  France,  he 
retired  to  Switzerland. 

Town'ley,  (Charles,)  an  English  amateur,  born  in 
Lancashire  in  1737,  resided  at  Rome,  where  he  made  a 
large  and  choice  collection  of  statuary,  medals,  and  other 
remains  of  ancient  art,  which  are  now  in  the  British 
Museum  and  are  called  the  "Townley  marbles."  His 
collection  was  purchased  for  twenty-eight  thousand  two 
hundred  pounds.    Died  in  1805. 

Townley,  (James,)  an  English  divine  and  dramatic 
writer,  born  in  London  in  1 71 5.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Hogarth,  whom  he  assisted  in  his  "  Analysis  of  Beauty." 
He  was  the  author  of  the  popular  farce  of  "  High  Life 
Below-Stairs,"  (1759,)  and  he  is  said  to  have  assisted 
Garrick  in  the  composition  of  his  dramas.  Died  in 
1778. 

Townley,  (John,)  an  uncle  of  Charles,  noticed  above, 
was  born  in  1697.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
French  army,  and  made  a  good  French  translation  of 
"Hudibras."    Died  in  1782. 

Town'send,  (Eliza,)  an  American  writer,  born  in 
Boston  about  1788,  was  the  author  of  an  admired  poem, 
entitled  "  The  Incomprehensibility  of  God,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1854. 

See  Griswold,  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

TSwn'send,  (John,)  an  English  divine  and  philan- 
thropist, born  in  London  in  1757.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  at 
Bermondsey,  (1792.)  He  wrote  "Hints  on  Sunday- 
Schools,"  etc.,  and  other  works. 

Townsend,  (Joseph,)  an  English  divine  and  physi- 
cian, born  about  1740,  was  chaplain  to  Lady  Huntingdon. 
He  published  "The  Physician's  Vade-Mecum,"  (1794,) 
"The  Character  of  Moses  established  for  Veracity  as  an 
Historian,"  etc.,  (2  vols.  4to,  1813-15,)  which  is  highly 
commended,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1816. 

Townshend,  town'zend,  (Charles,)  Viscount  Town- 
shend,  an  English  statesman,  born  in  1676,  was  the 
son  of  Horatio  Townshend,  the  first  viscount  of  that 
name.  He  succeeded  to  the  peerage  at  the  death  of  his 
father,  about  1686.  In  1709  he  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  the  Dutch  United  Provinces,  and  negotiated  the  Bar- 
rier treaty.  He  married  a  sister  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole. 
On  the  accession  of  George  I.  (1714)  he  became  secre- 
tary of  state  and  prime  minister.  He  and  the  other 
ministers  were  all  Whigs.  By  the  intrigues  or  agency  of 
Sunderland,  he  was  removed  in  1716,  and  was  offered 
the  place  of  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  which  he  indig- 
nantly refused.  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  who  was  his  friend, 
resigned  office,  and  went  with  Townshend  into  the  op- 
position. In  1 72 1  Townshend  was  appointed  secretary 
of  state  in  a  new  ministry,  of  which  Walpole  was  the 
premier,  or  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  He  resigned 
in  1730,  in  consequence  of  a  quarrel  with  Walpole. 
"Townshend  retired,"  says  Macaulay,  "and,  with  rare 
moderation  and  public  spirit,  refused  to  take  any  part  in 


«  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.   (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TOWNSHEND 


2146 


TRAJAN 


politics."  (Review  of  the  "Life  of  Lord  Chatham.") 
He  died  in  1738,  leaving  the  reputation  of  an  honest 
statesman. 

Townshend,  (Charles,)  a  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1725,  and  was  a  younger  son  of  the 
third  Viscount  Townshend.  He  entered  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1747,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  an 
orator.  He  was  appointed  treasurer  of  the  chamber  in 
1756.  In  politics  he  was  a  Whig.  He  became  secretary 
at  war  under  Pitt  in  1 76 1,  and  first  lord  of  trade  and 
plantations  in  1763.  He  supported  the  Stamp  Act,  so 
obnoxious  to  the  American  colonies,  (1765.)  In  the  new 
ministry  formed  by  Lord  Chatham  in  1766,  he  was 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  and  leader  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  He  procured  the  passage  of  the  bill  which 
imposed  a  tax  on  tea  and  other  articles  imported  into 
the  American  colonies,  and  which  provoked  them  to 
revolt.  "  Charles  Townshend,"  says  Macaulay,  "a  man 
of  splendid  talents,  of  lax  principles,  and  of  boundless 
vanity  and  presumption,  would  submit  to  no  control.  .  .  . 
He  had  always  quailed  before  the  genius  and  the  lofty 
character  of  Pitt;  but,  now  that  Pitt  [Lord  Chatham] 
had  quitted  the  House  of  Commons  and  seemed  to  have 
abdicated  the  part  of  chief  minister,  Townshend  broke 
loose  from  all  restraint."  (Essay  on  the  "Earl  of  Cliat- 
ham,"  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1844.) 
He  died  in  September,  1767.  He  had  married  a  daughter 
of  John,  Duke  of  Argyle. 

Townshend,  (  George,  )  Marquis  Townshend,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1724.  He  became 
a  general,  was  sent  to  Canada,  and  succeeded  Wolfe  as 
commander-in-chief  when  the  latter  was  killed,  (1759.) 
He  was  afterwards  employed  in  Germany  and  Portugal. 
Died  in  1807. 

Town'son,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
in  Essex  in  171 5.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church  College, 
Oxford,  and  rose  through  various  preferments  to  be 
Archdeacon  of  Richmond  in  1780.  He  published  several 
theological  works,  one  of  which,  entitled  "Discourses 
on  the  Four  Gospels,"  (1778,)  was  very  favourably  re- 
ceived, and  was  praised  by  Bishop  Lowth.  The  degree 
of  D.D.  was  bestowed  on  the  author  by  the  University 
of  Oxford.    Died  in  1792. 

Tow'son,  (Nathan,)  an  American  general,  born 
near  Baltimore  in  1784.  As  captain  of  the  second  regi- 
ment of  artillery,  under  the  command  of  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  (afterwards  General)  Scott,  he  assisted  in  the 
capture  of  the  brig  Caledonia  from  the  British,  (October, 
1812.)  In  the  campaigns  of  1813  and  1814  he  won  a 
high  reputation  for  skill  and  bravery,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  actions  of  Chippewa,  Niagara,  and  Fort 
Erie.  He  became  successively  lieutenant-colonel,  (1816,) 
paymaster-general,  (1819,)  brigadier-general,  (1834,)  and 
major-general,  (1849.)    Died  in  1854. 

To'zer,  (Henry,)  an  English  Puritan  minister,  born 
in  Devonshire  in  1602.  He  preached  at  Oxford,  and 
afterwards  at  Rotterdam,  where  he  died  in  1650.  He 
had  published  several  sermons. 

Tozzetti.    See  Targioni. 

Tozzi,  tot'see,  (Luca,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  near 
Aversa  in  1638,  succeeded  Malpighi  as  professor  at  Rome 
and  physician  to  the  pope  in  1695.    Died  in  1717. 

Tra^be-a,  (Quintus,)  a  Roman  comic  poet,  who  lived 
about  130  B.C.  His  works  are  lost,  except  small  frag- 
ments. 

Tra'cy,  (Albert  H.,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  at 
Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  1793,  removed  to  the  State  of 
New  York  about  1812.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1819  to  1825.    Died  at  Buffalo  in  1859. 

Tracy,  (Uriah,)  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Franklin,  Connecticut,  in  1755.  He  represented  a  dis- 
trict of  Connecticut  in  Congress  from  1793  to  1796, 
and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  that  State  in  the  latter  year.  He  was 
an  able  speaker,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  wit  and 
humour.  He  remained  in  the  Senate  until  his  death, 
which  occurred  in  1807. 

Tracy,  de,  deh  tR^'se',  (Alexandre  C^sar  Victor 
Charles  Destutt — da'tii',)  Marquis,  a  French  poli- 
tician, born  in  Paris  in  1781.  He  was  a  Liberal  member 
of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1827  to  1848,  and  was 


minister  of  the  marine  from  December,  1848,  to  October, 
1849.    Died  in  1864. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^n^rale." 

Tracy,  de,  (Antoine  Louis  Charles  Destutt,) 
CoMTE,  a  French  philosopher,  born  in  the  Bourbonnais 
in  1754,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He  attained 
the  rank  of  marechal-de-camp  in  the  army  in  1792,  and 
was  imprisoned  for  ten  months  in  the  reign  of  terror. 
About  1800  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  senate. 
Having  acquired  distinction  by  several  works  on  logic, 
granmiar,  etc.,  he  was  admitted  into  the  French  Acad- 
emy in  1808.  His  chief  work  is  "  Elements  of  Ideology," 
("Elements  d'ldeologie,"  4  vols.,  181 7-18.)  His  phi- 
losophy is  the  sensualism  or  sensationalism  of  Condillac 
carried  to  the  extreme  issues.    Died  in  1836. 

See  Damiron,  "  Essai  de  la  Philosophic  cn  France;"  Mignet, 
"Notices  et  Portraits;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tra'cy,  de,  (S\rah  Newton,)  Marquise,  born  at 
Stcjckport,  in  England,  in  1789,  was  married  in  1816  to 
the  Marquis  de  Tracy,  noticed  above.  She  died  in  1850, 
leaving  "  Essais  divers,  Lettres  et  Pensees,"  (3  vols., 
1852-55-) 

See  Sainte-Beuve.  "Causeries  du  Lundi." 

Trad'es-cant,  (John,)  a  distinguished  traveller  and 
naturalist,  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Holland, 
settled  in  England,  and  became  in  1629  gardener  to 
Charles  I.  He  had  previously  visited  Asia  and  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  where  he  made  a  collection 
of  plants.  Died  about  1640.  His  son,  of  the  same 
name,  born  in  1608,  went  on  a  scientific  expedition  to 
Virginia.  He  published  a  descriptive  catalogue  of  his 
father's  Museum,  entitled  "Museum  Tradescantium," 
etc.,  (1656.)  He  died  in  1662,  and  the  collection,  which 
he  greatly  increased,  now  forms  the  principal  part  of  the 
Ashmolean  Museum  at  Oxford.  The  genus  Tradescantia 
was  named  in  honour  of  these  botanists. 

Traetta,  tR^-et'ti,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  composer, 
born  at  Bitonto  in  1727.  He  composed  a  number  of 
operas.    Died  in  1779. 

Tragus.    See  Bock,  (Hieronymus.) 

Traheron,  trih'er-on,  ?  (Bartholomew,)  an  English 
Protestant  minister,  born  after  1500.  He  became  keeper 
of  the  Royal  Library  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  at  whose 
death  (1553)  he  went  into  exile.  He  wrote  several  the- 
ological works. 

Traill,  tral,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  Calvinistic  divine, 
born  in  Fifeshire  in  1642,  was  imprisoned  under  the 
Conventicle  Act  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  religious  works.  His  grandson, 
James  Traill,  went  over  to  the  Church  of  England,  and 
was  made  Bishop  of  Down  and  Connor.    Died  in  1783. 

Traill,  (Thomas  Stewart,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  natural- 
ist and  physician,  born  in  Orkney  in  1781.  He  became 
professor  of  medical  jurisprudence  at  Edinburgh  about 
1832,  and  edited  the  eighth  edition  of  the  "JEncyclo- 
pasdia  Brilannica."    Died  in  1862. 

Tra'jan,  [Lat.  Traja'nus;  It.  Trajano,  tRj-yi'no  ; 
Fr.  Trajan,  tRt'zhSN' ;  Ger.  Trajan,  tRS-yc^i/,]  or, 
more  fully,  Mar'cus  UPpI-us  Ner'va  Tra-ja'nus, 
Emperor  of  Rome,  born  near  Seville,  in  Spain,  about 
52  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Trajan,  an  Iberian  officer,  whom 
he  accompanied  in  his  campaigns  in  Asia  Minor.  He 
was  chosen  consul  in  91  A.D.,  and  was  afterwards  ap- 
pointed to  command  the  legions  on  the  Lower  Rhine, 
His  eminent  virtues  and  ability  obtained  for  him  the 
favour  and  confidence  of  the  emperor  Nerva,  who 
adopted  him  and  made  him  his  successor.  On  the 
death  of  Nerva,  in  98  A.D.,  Trajan  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror, and  soon  after  marched  against  Decebalus,  King 
of  the  Dacians,  whom  he  repeatedly  defeated.  In  \o6 
A.D.  Dacia  became  a  Roman  province,  and  a  column 
(which  is  still  extant)  was  erected  on  the  Forum  Trajani, 
in  commemoration  of  these  victories,  by  Apollodorus  of 
Damascus.  In  the  year  115  he  commanded  in  person  an 
army  which  invaded  Parthia,  and  defeated  the  Parthians 
in  several  battles.  He  took  Ctesiphon,  the  capital  of 
Parthia,  and  deposed  the  king  of  that  country.  In 
116  he  descended  the  Tigris  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  He 
was  returning  to  Rome,  when  he  died,  without  issue,  at 
Selinus,  in  Cilicia,  in  117  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by 


a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fSll,  fit;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


TRAJANO 


2147 


TRELAT 


Hadrian.  Trajan  was  one  of  the  greatest  and  best  em- 
perors of  Rome.  He  is  commended  for  his  moderation, 
sound  judgment,  and  the  simplicity  of  his  mode  of  living. 
Yet  he  persecuted  the  Christians,  and  presided  as  judge 
at  the  tribunal  when  the  martyr  Ignatius  was  sentenced 
to  death.  Among  his  friends  was  Pliny  the  Younger, 
who  wrote  a  "Panegyric  on  Trajan." 

SeeTiLLEMONT,  "  Histoiredes  Empereurs  ;"  Ritter,  "Trajanus 
in  Lucem  reproductus,"  1768;  H.  Francke,  "Zur  Geschichte  Tra- 
•jan's,"  etc.,  1840;  Genersich,  "Trajan;  biographisches  Gemalde," 
181 1  ;  Merivale,  "History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire;" 
Morales,  "  Hechos  y  Dichos  de  Trajano,"  1654;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  G^nerale." 

Trajano  and  Trajanus,    See  Trajan. 

Trajanus,  a  Roman  general  under  the  emperor 
Valens.  In  373  A.D.  he  commanded  an  army  which 
defeated  Sapor,  King  of  Persia.  He  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Adrianople,  in  378  A.D. 

Tr&ll,  (Russell  Thacher,)  M.D.,  an  eminent  Ameri- 
can physician  of  the  hydropathic  school,  born  in  Tolland 
county,  Connecticut,  in  18 12.  Having  removed  to  New 
York,  he  founded  in  1843  a  water-cure  establishment, 
to  which  he  afterwards  joined  a  medical  school,  called 
the  "  New  York  Hygeio-Therapeutic  College,"  designed 
for  both  sexes.  He  has  edited  successively  the  '*  Hydro- 
pathic Review,"  the  "Water-Cure  Journal,"  and  "Life 
Illustrated."  Among  his  principal  works  we  may  name 
the  "Hydropathic  Encyclopaedia,"  (1852,)  "  Hydropathic 
Cook-Book,"  (1854,)  "Prize  Essay  on  Tobacco,"  "The 
Scientific  Basis  of  Vegetarianism,"  and  "  Diseases  of 
the  Throat  and  Lungs." 

Tralles,  tR^Kles,  (Balthasar  Ludwtg,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Breslau  in  1708.  He  practised  in  that 
city,  and  wrote  a  number  of  medical  works,  which  were 
esteemed.    Died  in  1797. 

Trallianus.   See  Alexander  of  Tralles. 

Transtamare,  de,  (Henry.)  See  Henry  II.  of 
Castile. 

Trapp,  (John,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in  1601. 
He  was  vicar  of  Weston-on-Avon,  and  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Bible.    Died  in  1669. 

Trapp,  (Joseph,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
scholar,  born  in  Gloucestershire  in  1679.  He  became 
professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford  in  1708,  and  was  subse- 
quently chaplain  to  Lord  Bolingbroke,  who  bestowed 
upon  him  the  living  of  Harlington,  in  Middlesex.  He 
published  "  Praelectiones  Poeticae,"  (3  vols.,  1711-19,) 
"Notes  upon  the  Gospels,"  (2  vols.,  1748,)  and  several 
political  treatises  ;  also  a  translation  of  the  "  ^neid" 
into  blank  verse,  and  a  Latin  version  of  "  Paradise 
Lost."    Died  in  1747. 

Traun,  von,  fon  tRown,  (Otto  Ferdinand,)  Count, 
an  Austrian  general,  born  in  1677.  He  obtained  the  rank 
of  field-marshal  in  1740,  and  commanded  the  army 
which  under  Charles  of  Lorraine  opposed  Frederick 
the  Great  in  1745.  He  forced  the  Prussians  to  evacuate 
Bohemia.  Died  in  1748.  Frederick  compared  him  to 
Sertorius,  and  ascribed  to  him  the  success  of  the  Aus- 
trians  in  the  campaign  of  1745. 

Trautson,  von,  "fon  tRowt'son,  (Johann  Joseph,) 
Count,  a  liberal  German  prelate,  born  in  1704.  He 
promoted  reform  in  religion  and  morals.  In  1756  he 
became  a  cardinal.    Died  at  Vienna  in  1757. 

Trauttmansdorf,  tRowt'mans-doRf,  (Maximilian,) 
Count,  an  Austrian  diplomatist  and  statesman,  born  at 
Gratz  in  1584.  He  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  in  1619 
between  Ferdinand  II.  and  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  and 
subsequently  negotiated  the  Peace  of  Westphalia.  He 
enjoyed  the  esteem  and  confidence  of  the  em])eror  Fer- 
dinand II.,  and  was  the  first  to  communicate  to  him  the 
treasonable  designs  of  Wallenstein.    Died  in  1650. 

See  Schiller,  "Thirty  Years'  War." 

Travasa,  tRa-v^'sl,  (Gaetano  Maria,)  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Bassano  in  1698.  He  wrote  a  "His- 
tory of  the  Heresiarchs  of  the  First  Four  Centuries," 
(6  vols.,  1752-62,)  and  other  woiks.    Died  in  1774. 

Travers,  tRt'vaiR',  (Gilles  Julien,)  a  French  scholar 
and  poet,  born  at  Valognes  (Marche)  in  1802.  He  was 
professor  of  Latin  at  Caen  from  1844  to  1856.  He  pro- 
duced poems  called  "  Les  Algeriennes,"  (1827,)  and 
"Mourning,"  ("  Deuil,"  1837.) 


Trav'ers,  (John,)  an  English  composer,  was  a  pupil 
of  Dr.  Greene,  and  was  appointed  organist  to  the  cha- 
pels royal  in  1737.    Died  in  1758. 

Travers,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  Jansenist  priest  and 
writer,  born  at  Nantes  in  1674.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "  History  of  Nantes,"  (3  vols.,  1836-41.)  Died 
in  1750. 

Traversari.    See  Ambrosius  of  Camaldoli. 

Travies  de  Villiers,  tRt've-^s'  deh  ve^yi',  (Charles 
Joseph,)  a  Swiss  painter  of  genre,  born  in  the  canton 
of  Zurich  in  1804.  He  painted  grotesque  scenes  with 
success,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "Charivari" 
of  Paris.  Died  in  1859.  His  brother  Edouard  is  a 
skilful  painter  of  animals  and  still  life. 

Trav'is,  (George,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
Lancashire,  became  Archdeacon  of  Chester.  He  wrote 
several  letters  to  Gibbon  on  the  authenticity  of  the  text 
1.  John  V,  7.    Died  in  1797. 

Travot,  tRS'vo'',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  general, 
born  at  Poligny  in  1767  ;  died  in  1836. 

Trayer,  tR^'ya',  (Jean  Baptiste  Jules,)  a  French 
landscape-painter,  born  in  Paris  about  1806. 

Tread'well,  (Daniel,)  an  American  mechanician, 
born  at  Ipswich,  Massachusetts,  in  1791.  He  became 
associate  editor  of  the  "Boston  Journal  of  Philosophy 
and  the  Arts"  in  1822,  and  in  1834  Rumford  professor 
of  technology  in  Harvard  College.  He  has  invented  a 
machine  for  spinning  hemp  for  cordage,  and  a  cannon 
called  by  his  name. 

Trebatius.    See  Testa. 

Trebatti.    See  Ponzio. 

Tre-bePli-us  Max'i-mus,a  Roman  magistrate  under 
the  reign  of  Nero,  was  chosen  consul  with  Lucius  An- 
naeus  Seneca  in  62  A.D. 

Trebellius  Pollio.    See  Pollio,  (Trebellius.) 

Tre-bo'm-us,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  politician,  became 
tribune  of  the  people  in  55  B.C.,  and  one  of  Caesar's  legates 
in  Gaul.  He  was  a  partisan  of  Caesar  in  the  civil  war, 
was  elected  city  praetor  in  48,  and  consul  in  45  B.C.  He 
performed  a  prominent  part  in  the  conspiracy  against 
the  life  of  Caesar.  In  43  B.C.  he  was  killed  at  Smyrna 
by  Dolabella. 

Trebutien,  tRa'bu'seJ,N',  (Guillaume  Stanislas,) 
a  French  antiquary  and  Orientalist,  born  in  Calvados 
in  1800.  He  published  a  work  on  the  "History  and 
Antiquities  of  Caen,"  (1847.) 

Treb'y,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in 
Devonshire  in  1644,  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Plymp- 
ton  in  1678,  and  subsequently  rose  to  be  attorney-gen- 
eral and  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas  in  the  reign 
of  William  III.    Died  in  1702. 

Tred'gold,  (Thomas,)  an  English  civil  engineer,  born 
at  Brandon,  in  Durham,  in  1788.  He  became  a  resident 
of  London,  and  published  in  1820  "Elementary  Prin- 
ciples of  Carpentry,"  which  is  a  valuable  work.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  treatises  on  joinery,  railroads,  the 
steam-engine,  etc.    Died  in  London  in  1829. 

Trediakovsky,  tri-de-i-kov'ske,  (Vasilii  Kirilo- 
viTCH,)  a  Russian  Utterateicr,  born  in  1703,  studied  in 
Paris,  and  after  his  return  became  secretary  to  the  Saint 
Petersburg  Academy  of  Sciences,  (1733.)  translated 
Rollin's  "Ancient  History,"  and  published  numerous 
original  poems.    Died  in  1769. 

Treilhard,  tRaltR',  or  Trelliard,  tRi''le-iR',  (Jean 
Baptiste,)  Count,  a  French  statesman  of  the  Revo- 
lution, born  at  Brives  in  1742.  He  was  a  republican 
member  of  the  Convention  of  1 792-95,  observed  a  cautious 
silence  during  the  reign  of  terror,  and  was  elected  to  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1795.  He  was  one  of  the 
directors  of  the  republic  from  May,  1798,  to  June,  1799. 
In  1802  he  was  appointed  a  councillor  of  state.  He  re- 
ceived the  title  of  minister  of  state  in  1809,  and  that  of 
count  in  1810,  and  died  the  same  year. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generaie." 

Treitschke,  tritsh'keh,  (Karl  Georg,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Dresden  in  1783.  He  published  several 
legal  works. 

Trelat,  tR^'lt',  (Ulysse,)  a  French  physician  and  re- 
publican, born  at  Montargis  in  1795.  He  was  minister 
of  public  works  in  May-June,  1848. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TR  EL  AW  NET 


2148 


TRESCHOW 


Tre-law'iiey,  (Sir  John,)  Bishop  of  Bristol,  was  one 
of  the  seven  bishops  prosecuted  in  1688  for  refusing  to 
publish  King  James's  declaration  of  indulgence.  He  was 
acquitted. 

See  Miss  Strickland,  "Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops,"  London, 
1866. 

Trelliard.    See  Treilhard. 

Trellund,  tr^Kliind,  (Johan  or  Hans,)  a  Danish 
bishop,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1669.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Viborg  about  1726,  and  published  several 
tiieological  works.    Died  in  1735. 

See  TvcHONius,  "  Ligpraediken  over  Biskop  H.  Trellund,"  1735. 

Trembecki,  tr§m-b^ts'skee,  (Stanislas,)  a  Polish 
poet,  born  in  the  district  of  Cracow  about  1 724,  was 
patronized  by  the  king  Stanislas  Augustus.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  descriptive  poem,  entitled  *' Zofijowka," 
which  is  highly  esteemed  by  his  countrymen.  He  died 
in  1812,  leaving  a  "History  of  Poland,"  in  manuscript. 

Tremblay.    See  Joseph,  (FRANgois  Leclerc.) 

Trembley,  tRdN^bli',  (Abraham,)  a  Swiss  naturalist, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1700,  published  "Memoirs  on  Fresh- 
Water  Polypes,"  (1744,)  "Instructions  on  Natural  and 
Revealed  Religion,"  (1775,)  and  other  works.  He  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Died  in  1784. 

See  "Memoire  sur  la  Vie  de  Trembley,"  1787. 

Tremellius,  tR^-mel'le-oos,  (Emmanuel,)  an  Italian 
Orientalist,  born  at  Ferrara  about  1 5 10.  lie  was  con- 
verted to  the  Protestant  faith  by  Peter  Martyr,  ( Vermigli,) 
with  whom  he  retired  for  safety  to  Germany.  In  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI.  he  taught  Hebrew  at  Cambridge. 
He  was  afterwards  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Heidelberg, 
where  he  translated  the  New  Testament  from  Syriac 
into  Latin,  (1569.)  Aided  by  Francis  Junius,  he  pro- 
duced a  Latin  translation  of  the  Bible,  (1575-79,)  which 
was  highly  esteemed.    Died  at  Sedan  in  1580. 

See  M.  Adam,  "  Vitae  Theologorum  exterorum;"  Teissier, 
"  Illoges." 

Tremoille,  de  la,  deh  It  tRi'mwM'  or  tRk^mwi'ye, 
or  Trimouille,  tRe'mooF,  (Louis,)  Prince  de  Talmont, 
a  French  general,  born  in  1460.  He  rendered  an  im- 
portant service  at  the  battle  of  Fornovo,  in  1495, 
commanded  the  army  which  Louis  XII.  sent  into  Italy 
about  1500.  He  conquered  Lombardy,  was  defeated  at 
Novara  in  15 13,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Pavi'a, 
in  1525. 

See  J.  BouCHET,  "  Panegyrique  du  Chevalier  sans  reproche," 
etc.,  1527. 

TremoUiere,  tRk'mo'le-aiR',  (Pierre  Charles,)  a 
French  painter  of  history,  was  born  in  Anjou  in  1703  ;  died 
in  Paris  in  1739.    He  was  an  artist  of  fine  promise. 

Tremouille.    See  Tr^imoille,  de  la. 

Trench,  (Francis,)  an  English  writer,  a  brother  of 
Archbishop  Trench,  was  born  in  1806.  He  became 
rector  of  Islip.  He  published  "Travels  in  France  and 
Spain,"  and  several  religious  works. 

Trench,  (Rev.  Richard  Chenevix,)  an  eminent 
English  ecclesiastic  and  philologist,  born  in  1807.  He 
studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  became 
Hulsean  lecturer  in  1845.  He  was  appointed  theological 
professor  and  examiner  at  King's  College,  London,  in 
1847,  '^'^^  ''"^  1856  created  Dean  of  Westminster.  He 
has  published  "The  Sermon  on  the  Mount  Illustrated 
from  Saint  Augustine,"  (1844,)  "  Notes  on  the  Miracles," 
(1846,)  a  treatise  "On  the  Study  of  Words,"  (1851,) 
often  reprinted,  "  Synonyms  of  the  New  Testament," 
(1854,)  also  a  number  of  poems,  among  which  we  may 
name  "The  Story  of  Justin  Martyr,"  (1835,)  "Poems 
from  Eastern  Sources,"  and  "  Genoveva,"  (1842.)  He 
was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Dublin  in  1863. 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Trench'ard,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  statesman,  born 
in  Dorsetshire  in  1650.  He  represented  Taunton  in 
Parliament  in  1679,  and  distinguished  himself  as  an 
active  member  of  the  opposition.  He  was  an  advocate 
for  the  Exclusion  Bill,  and  was  imprisoned  for  a  time  in 
1683,  on  a  charge  of  being  implicated  in  the  Rye-House 
Plot.  After  the  accession  of  James  II.  he  took  refuge 
in  France,  but  he  returned  to  England  after  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1688,  and  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by 
William  IIL,  (1693.)    Died  in  1695. 


Trenchard,  (John,)  an  English  journalist  and  po- 
litical writer,  born  about  1662.  He  was  the  author  of 
"The  Natural  History  of  Superstition,"  (1709,)  "A 
Comparison  of  the  Proposals  of  the  Bank  and  South 
Sea  Company,"  "  Thoughts  on  the  Peerage  Bill,"  and 
"Cato's  Letters,"  the  last-named  in  conjunction  with 
Mr.  T.  Gordon, — and  was  associated  with  that  gentleman 
as  editor  of  the  "  Independent  Whig."    Died  in  1723. 

Trenck,  von  der,  fon  deR  tRgnk,  (Franz,)  Baron,  a 
celebrated  military  commander,  born  at  Reggio,  in  Cala- 
bria, in  1 714,  was  the  son  of  a  Prussian  officer.  At  an 
early  age  he  entered  the  Russian  service,  where  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  equally  by  his  reckless  courage  and 
his  ferocity.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Austrian  war 
of  succession,  he  offered  his  services  to  Maria  Theresa, 
and  at  the  head  of  his  pandours  made  himself  every- 
where formidable  by  his  barbarities  and  rapacity.  He 
was  at  length  imprisoned  at  Spielberg,  in  Moravia,  where 
he  died  in  1749.  His  autobiography,  called  "  Remarkable 
Life  and  Deeds  of  Baron  Trenck,"  appeared  in  1807. 

See,  also,  Hubner,  "  Franz  von  der  Trenck,"  3  vols.,  1788-89. 

Trenck,  von  der,  (Friedrich,)  Baron,  a  cousin 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1726.  He 
entered  the  Prussian  army  at  an  early  age,  and  for  a 
time  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Frederick  the  Great ;  but, 
having,  as  is  supposed,  offended  the  king  by  an  impru- 
dent attachment  to  his  sister  the  princess  Ameh"a,  he 
was  imprisoned  in  the  fortress  of  Glatz.  Having  escaped 
from  his  prison  in  1747,  he  went  to  Russia,  where  he 
was  patronized  by  the  empress  and  made  a  captain  of 
hussars.  While  on  a  visit  to  his  family,  in  1754,  he  was 
arrested  by  order  of  Frederick,  confined  in  a  narrow  cell 
at  Magdeburg,  and,  after  several  attempts  at  escape, 
loaded  with  heavy  irons.  He  was  released  in  1763,  but 
he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  kingdom.  After  the  death 
of  Frederick,  Baron  Trenck  published  his  autobiographic 
"Memoirs,"  (3  vols.,  1787,)  which  acquired  great  popu- 
larity and  were  translated  into  the  principal  European 
languages.  After  residing  for  a  time  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
and  other  cities  on  the  continent,  he  went  in  1792  to 
Paris,  where  he  joined  the  Jacobin  faction,  by  whom  he 
was  sentenced  to  the  guillotine  in  1794. 

See  Wahrmann,  "  F.  von  der  Trenck,  Leben,"  etc.,  1837: 
Erich,  "  Leben  und  Schicksale  des  Abenteurers  F.  von  der  Trenck," 
1846  ;  "  Nouvelie  Biographic  Generale." 

Trendlenburg,  tR^n'dlen-bdoRG'',  written  also  Tren- 
delenburg, (Frikdrich  Adolf,)  a  German  scholar  and 
philosophical  writer,  born  at  Eutin  in  1802,  published 
"Logical  Researches,"  ("  Logische  Untersuchungen," 
1840,)  and  other  works.  He  became  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  Berlin  in  1833. 

Treneuil,  tReh-nuF  or  tReh-nuh'ye,  (Joseph,)  a 
French  poet,  born  at  Cahors  in  1763.  Among  his  works 
is  "  The  Tombs  of  Saint-Denis,"  ("  Les  Tombeaux  de 
Saint-Denis,"  1806.)    Died  in  Paris  in  1818. 

Tren'holm,  (George  A.,)  of  South  Carolina,  an 
American  financier,  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
treasury  by  Jefferson  Davis  in  June,  1864. 

Trenta,  tR^n'tS,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  tragic  poet,  born 
at  Ascoli  in  1731  ;  died  in  1795. 

Trento,  da,  di  tR^n'to,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  wood- 
engraver,  originally  named  Fantuzzi,  (fSn-toot'see,) 
born  at  Trent.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Parmigiano,  several 
of  whose  works  he  engraved.    Died  about  I545' 

Trentowski,  tR^n-tov'skee,  (Ferdinand  B.,)  an 
eminent  Polish  philosopher,  born  near  Warsaw  in  1808. 
Being  compelled  to  leave  his  country  during  the  rebellion 
of  1830,  he  repaired  to  Germany,  where  he  devoted  him- 
self to  teaching  philosophy.  He  published,  in  German, 
his  "Basis  of  Universal  Philosophy,"  (1837,)  "Prelimi- 
nary Studies  to  the  Science  of  Nature,"  (1840,)  and  a 
Latin  treatise  "On  the  Eternal  Life  of  Man."  Among 
his  other  works,  which  are  written  in  Polish,  we  may 
name  "The  Relation  of  Philosophy  to  the  Science  of 
Government,"  "Education  on  a  System  of  Pedagogics," 
and  "  Logic." 

Treschow,  tR^sh'ov,  (Neils,)  a  Norwegian  scholar 
and  writer,  born  at  Drammen  in  1 75 1.  He  studied  at 
Copenhagen,  and  was  appointed  in  1803  professor  of 
philosophy  in  the  university  of  that  city.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  "Principles  of  Legislation,"  "Spirit 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fitj  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


T RES  HAM 


2149 


TRIGAULT 


of  Christianity,"  "Morality  for  the  State  and  People," 
and  "Philosophical  Testament,"  etc.    Died  in  1833, 

Tresham,  tr^sh'am,  (Henry,)  an  Irish  artist  and 
poet,  studied  at  Rome,  and  was  chosen,  after  his  return, 
a  Royal  Academician.  He  was  the  author  of  "  The  Sea- 
Sick  Minstrel,"  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1814. 

Tressan,  de,  deh  tRi'sSw',  (Louis  Elisabeth  de  la 
Vergne— -deh  It  viRn,)  Count,  a  French  officer  and 
litterateur,  born  at  Mons  in  1705.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  "Treatise  on  Electricity,"  (1749,)  and  other  original 
works,  and  made  translations  of  the  "Orlando  Furioso," 
"Amadis  de  Gaul,"  and  other  works  of  the  kind.  He 
was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1781,  and  was  a 
friend  of  Voltaire.  He  served  as  aide-d  -oamp  to  the 
king  at  Fontenoy  in  1745,  became  lieutenant-general 
in  1747.    Died  in  1783. 

See  CoNDOKCET,  "filoges;"  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Trevigi.    See  Trevisi. 

Treville.    See  La  Touche-Tr^ville. 

Treviranus,  tRi-ve-ri'nus,  (Gottfried  Reinhold,) 
a  German  physiologist,  born  at  Bremen  in  1776,  practised 
medicine  in  that  city.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Biology,  or  the  Philosophy  of  Living  Nature," 
etc.,  (6  vols.,  1802-22,)  which  is  highly  commended. 
Died  in  1837. 

Treviranus,  (Ludolph  Christian,)  a  botanist,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Bremen  in  1779. 
He  became  professor  of  botany  at  Bonn,  and  published 
"  Physiology  of  Plants,"  (1835-39.) 

Trevisani,  tRi-ve-si'nee,  (Angelo,)  a  Venetian 
painter  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  distinguished  for 
the  excellence  of  his  portraits. 

Trevisani,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter,  some- 
times called  Roman  Trevisani,  was  born  near  Trieste 
in  1656.  He  studied  under  Zanchi  at  Venice,  and  after- 
wards visited  Rome,  where  he  executed  several  of  his 
best  works.  Among  these  may  be  named  a  "  Cruci- 
fixion," and  "  The  Slaughter  of  the  Innocents."  Died 
in  1746. 

Tr^vise,  de,  Due.    See  Mortier. 

Trevisi,  da,  dl  tRi-vee'see,  or  Trevigi,  tri-vee'jee, 
(GiROLAMO,)  an  Italian  painter  and  architect,  born  at 
Trevigi  about  1500,  resided  for  a  time  in  England, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  Henry  VII 1.  Among  his 
master-pieces  may  be  named  a  "  Madonna  accompanied 
by  Saints."  His  portraits  also  are  highly  esteemed. 
Died  in  1544. 

Treviso,  (tRa-vee'so,)  Duke  of.    See  Mortier. 

Trev'i-thick,  (Richard,)  an  English  engineer,  born 
in  Cornwall  in  1771,  was  one  of  the  inventors  of  high- 
pressure  steam-engines.  He  obtained  in  1802  a  patent 
for  a  steam-carriage  to  run  on  common  roads.  In  1804 
he  constructed  a  locomotive  for  railways.   Died  in  1833. 

See  William  Walker,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Distinguished  Men 
of  Science  of  Great  Britain,"  etc.,  London,  1864;  "All  the  Year 
Round"  for  August,  i860. 

Tre'vor,  (Sir  John,)  an  able  English  statesman,  born 
in  1626,  was  a  son-in-law  of  the  illustrious  Hamp- 
den. Early  in  1668  he  was  sent  as  an  envoy  to  France, 
and  negotiated  the  provisional  treaty  of  April  15,  1668. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  in  September  of 
that  year.  Having  opposed  without  success  the  foreign 
policy  which  Charles  II.  and  the  Duke  of  York  adopted, 
he  was  turned  out  of  the  cabinet  in  1670  ;  but  he  con- 
tinued to  be  secretary  until  his  death,  in  1672. 

Trevor,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  lawyer,  born  in  1633, 
was  a  cousin  and  parasite  of  the  infamous  Judge  Jef- 
freys. In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  he  was  solicitor- 
general.  He  became  master  of  the  rolls,  and  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  in  1685.  He  was  made  a  privy 
councillor  in  1688,  and  was  subsequently  appointed  first 
commissioner  of  the  great  seal.  Having  been  convicted 
of  bribery,  he  was  expelled  from  the  Speakership  in  1695, 
but  was  allowed  to  retain  the  mastership  of  the  rolls. 
Died  in  1717. 

Trevor,  (Thomas,)  Lord,  an  eminent  English  lawyer, 
was  a  son  of  Sir  John  Trevor,  (1626-72,)  and  a  grandson 
of  John  Hampden.  He  was  appointed  chief  justice  of 
the  common  pleas  in  1701,  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as 
Lord  Trevor,  in  1711,  and  became  lord  privy  seal  in 


1726.  He  was  appointed  president  of  the  council  in 
1730,  and  died  the  same  year,  leaving  a  son,  who  about 
1766  received  the  title  of  Viscount  Hampden. 

Trew,  tRa,  (Christoph  Jakob,)  a  celebrated  German 
botanist  and  anatomist,  born  near  Nuremberg  in  1695. 
He  studied  medicine,  and  became  physician-in-ordinary 
to  the  Margrave  of  Anspach.  In  1746  he  was  made 
president  of  the  "  Academiedes  Curieux  de  la  Nature," 
with  the  titles  of  Count-Palatine  and  physician  to  the 
emperor.  He  published  "  Plantaa  Selectae,"  etc.,  (1570- 
73,)  a  magnificent  publication,  illustrated  by  Ehret,  and 
"  History  and  Botanical  Character  of  the  Cedars  of 
Lebanon,"  ("  Cedrorum  Libani  Historia  et  Character 
Botanicus,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1757-67;)  also  "  Osteological 
Plates  of  the  Human  Body,"  ("  Tabulae  Osteologicae 
Corporis  Humani,"  1767,  with  coloured  plates,)  and 
other  anatomical  works.    Died  in  1769. 

See  Rumpel,  "  Monumentum  Trewio  positum,"  1769;  "  Bit>' 
graphie  Medicale." 

Trezel,  tR^'zhV,  (Camille  Alphonse,)  a  French 
general,  born  in  Paris  in  1780;  died  in  i860. 

Trezel,  (Pierre  F^;lix,)  a  French  painter  of  history 
and  allegory,  born  in  Paris  in  1782;  died  in  1855. 

Trianon,  tRe't'n6N',  (Henri,)  a  French  litterateur 
and  critic,  born  about  1810.  He  wrote  critiques  for  the 
"Artiste"  and  other  periodicals,  and  published  editions 
of  Homer's  Poems. 

Tribolo,  di,  de  tRee'bo-lo,  (Niccol6,)  an  eminent 
Italian  sculptor,  whose  family  name  was  Pericoli,  was 
born  at  Florence  in  1500,  or,  as  some  say,  1485.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Sansovino,  and  was  patronized  by  Pope 
Clement  VII.,  who  employed  him  to  assist  Michael 
Angelo  in  sculptures  for  the  chapel  of  San  Lorenzo  at 
Florence.  Among  his  works  are  a  statue  of  Nature,  at 
Fontainebleau,  and  bas-reliefs,  representing  the  mar- 
riage of  the  Virgin,  at  Loretto.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  he  was  employed  by  Cosimo  de'  Medici  to  adorn 
with  statues  and  fountains  the  gardens  of  the  Pitti  palace. 
Died  in  1550. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters  and  Sculptors  ;"  Cicognaka, 
"  Storia  della  Scultura," 

Tri-bo'ni-an  or  Tri-bo-ni-a'nus,  [Fr.  Tribonien, 
tRe'bo'ne4,N',]  a  celebrated  Roman  jurist,  born  in  Pam- 
phylia  about  475  A.D.,  was  distinguished  by  the  favour 
of  the  emperor  Justinian,  by  whom  he  was  successively 
appointed  quaestor,  master  of  the  imperial  household, 
praetorian  prefect,  and  consul.  He  was  charged  by 
the  emperor,  conjointly  with  nine  other  commissioners, 
to  prepare  the  first  Justinian  Code.    Died  in  545  a.D. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Lude- 
wiG,  "  Vita  Justiniani  et  Triboniani,"  1731. 

Tribonianus.    See  Tribonian. 
Tribonien.    See  Tribonian. 

Tribuno,  tRe-boo'no,  (Pietro,)  was  elected  Doge  of 
Venice  in  888  A.D.,  and  defeated  the  Hungarians  in  906. 
Died  in  912. 

Tri-bu'nus,  [Gr.  Tptgowof,]  an  eminent  physician, 
born  in  Palestine,  lived  about  530  A.D.,  and  was  noted 
for  his  benevolence.  He  attended  Chosroes,  King  of 
Persia,  whom  he  cured. 

Tricaud,  tRe'ko'',  (Anthelme,)  a  French  writer  and 
priest,  born  at  Belley  in  1671.  He  wrote  several  his- 
torical works.    Died  in  Paris  in  1739. 

Tricoupi.    See  Trikupis. 

Triest,  tReest,  (Antoine,)  a  Flemish  prelate,  born 
near  Audenarde  in  1576,  was  noted  for  his  charity.  He 
becaine  Bishop  of  Bruges  in  1616.    Died  in  1657. 

Triewald,  tRee'^ild,  or  Trivald,  (Martin,)  a  Swed- 
ish engineer  and  mechanician,  born  at  Stockholm  in 
1691.  He  visited  England  at  an  early  age,  and  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Having  applied 
himself  for  many  years  to  the  study  of  mechanics  and 
natural  philosophy,  he  returned  to  Sweden,  where  he 
constructed  a  steam-engine  and  made  a  number  of 
improvements  in  machinery.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Academy  of  Stockholm,  and  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London.    Died  in  1741. 

See  Laurel,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  bfver  M.  Trievald,"  1748. 

Trigault,  tRe^o',  (Nicolas,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  at  Douay  in  1577.  He  was  employed 
in  China.    Died  at  Nanking  in  1628. 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  H,  y:.^  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


/ 

TRIG  INT  A 


21  50 


TRITO 


Triginta  Tyranni.    See  Thirty  Tyrants. 

Trigueros,  tRe-ga^r6s,  (Don  Candide  Maria,)  a 
Spanish  poet  and  litierateur,  born  at  Orgaz,  in  Castile, 
in  1736.  Among  his  works  is  a  comedy  called  "Los 
Me.'.cstrales,"  (1784.)    Died  about  1800. 

Trikupis,  tRe-koo'pis,  or  Tricoupi,  tRe-koo'pee, 
(Spiridion,)  a  modern  Greek  historian  and  diplomatist, 
born  at  Missolonghi  in  1791.  He  took  an  active  part 
in  the  Greek  revolution  which  began  in  1821.  He 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  England  in  1838,  in  1842, 
and  in  1850.  He  published,  in  Greek,  a  "  History  of 
the  Greek  Revolution,"  (4  vols.,  1853-57,)  a  work  of 
high  reputation.    He  returned  to  Athens  in  1862. 

Triller,  tRiKler,  (Daniel  Wilhelm,)  a  German  phy- 
fiician,  poet,  and  medical  writer,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1695. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic,  and  became  in  1749  professor  of 
medicine  at  Wittenberg.  He  published  a  great  number 
jf  medical  treatises,  in  Latin,  also  Latin  poems  on  medi- 
cine.   Died  in  1782. 

Trfldchana,  tri-lo'cha-na,  {i.e.  "  three-eyed"  or 
"having  three  eyes,")  [from  the  Sanscrit  trt,  "three," 
and  lochdnd,  an  "eye,"]  an  epithet  of  vSiva,  which  see. 

Trini''ble,  (David,)  an  American  legislator,  born  in 
Frederick  county,  Virginia,  about  1782,  removed  to 
Kentucky  about  1804.  He  represented  a  district  of 
Kentucky  in  Congress  from  181 7  to  1827,  and  was  highly 
esteemed.    Died  in  1842. 

Trimble,  (Isaac  R.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Virginia  about  1800,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1822. 
He  was  a  railroad-engineer  before  the  war.  He  took 
arms  against  the  Union  in  186 1,  and  was  killed  at  Cedar 
Mountain,  Virginia,  in  August,  1862. 

Trimble,  (William  A.,)  an  American  Senator,  born 
in  1786.  He  served  as  an  officer  in  the  war  of  1812, 
and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the 
legislature  of  Ohio  in  1819.    Died  in  December,  1821. 

Trim'mer,  (Sarah,)  an  English  writer,  whose  original 
name  was  Kirby,  born  at  Ipswich  in  1741,  was  the  au- 
thor of  numerous  juvenile  and  educational  works  of 
great  merit,  which  have  acquired  extensive  popularity. 
Among  these  we  may  name  an  "Easy  Introduction  to 
the  Knowledge  of  Nature,"  (1780,)  "Sacred  History 
selected  from  the  Scriptures,"  etc.,  (6  vols.,  1782-85,) 
"The  Economy  of  Charity,"  (1786,)  and  the  "Guardian 
of  Education,"  (5  vols.,  1806.)    Died  in  1810. 

See  Mrs.  Elwood,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England 
from  the  Commencement  of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  i.,  1843;  "Life 
and  Writings  of  Mrs.  Trimmer,"  London,  1816. 

Trimouille.    See  Tkemouille,  de  la,  and  Tal- 

MONT. 

Trimurti,  tri-moor'ti,  {i.e.  "triform,")  [from  the  San- 
scrit tri,  "  three,"  and  mtirti,  "  form,"]  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  name  given  to  the  united  form  of  Brahma, 
Vishnu,  and   Siva,  constituting  what  is  termed  the 
Hindoo  triad."    (See  note  t  under  ViSHNU.) 
See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Trincavella,  tRen-k^-veKli,  written  also  Trincavela 
or  Trincavelli,  [Lat.  Trincavei/lujs,]  (Vicjor,) 
an  eminent  Italian  physician,  born  at  Venice  in  1496, 
succeeded  Montanus  as  professor  of  medicine  at  Padua, 
(1551.)  He  published  a  number  of  medical  works,  in 
Latin.  He  was  an  excellent  Greek  scholar,  and  edited 
the  works  of  several  Greek  authors  which  had  never 
been  printed  in  the  original.  He  greatly  promoted  the 
introduction  of  Greek  writings  into  the  medical  schools 
cf  Italy.    Died  at  Venice  in  1568. 

See  Ai.BERici,  "  Scrittori  Veneti ;"  Ghillini,  "Teatro." 

Trincavelli  or  Trincavellius.    See  Trincavella. 

Trionfetti,  tRe-on-fet'tee,  (Giovanni  Batiista,)  an 
Italian  botanist,  born  at  Bologna  in  1656,  published 
several  works  on  botany.  Died  at  Rome  in  1708.  His 
brother  Lelio,  born  in  1647,  was  also  a  botanist.  Died 
at  Bologna  in  1722. 

Trip,  trip,  (Hkndrik  Rudolph,)  a  Dutch  general, 
born  at  Bois-le-Duc  in  1779.  He  was  appointed  director- 
general  of  war  in  1834,  and  became  a  lieutenant-general 
in  1840. 

Tripier,  tRe'pe-i',  (Nicolas  Jean  Baptiste,)  an  emi- 
nent French  advocate  and  judge,  born  at  Autun  in  1765. 
He  became  a  peer  of  France  about  1832.   Died  in  1840. 

See  JossEAU,  "  Eloge  de  Tripier,"  1841;  "Biographic  Univer- 
telle." 


Trippel,  tRip'pel,  (Alexander,)  a  Swiss  sculptor, 
born  at  Schafifhausen  in  1744.  In  1776  he  visited  Rome, 
where  he  executed  the  monuments  of  Count  Tchernichef 
and  of  Gessner,  busts  of  Goethe  and  Herder,  and  other 
works,  which  gained  for  him  a  very  high  reputation.  His 
bust  of  Goethe  is  esteemed  a  master-piece.  Died  in  1793. 

Triptoleme.    See  Triptolemus. 

Trip-toFe-mus,  [Gr.  TptTrroAf/zof ;  Fr.  Triptoleme, 
tr^p'to'lam',]  a  mythical  person,  said  to  have  been  a  son 
of  King  Eleusis  or  of  Celeus,  King  of  Eleusis.  The 
Greeks  regarded  him  as  a  favourite  of  Ceres,  and  as  the 
inventor  of  the  plough  and  of  agriculture.  It  was  fabled 
that  Ceres  gave  him  a  chariot,  (drawn  by  dragons,)  ia 
which  he  rode  all  over  the  earth,  distributing  corn,  and 
that  he  founded  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries. 

Triqueti,  de,  deh  tRe'keh-te',  (Henri,)  Baron,  a 
French  sculptor,  born  at  Conflans  (Loiret)  in  1802,  was 
also  a  painter  in  his  youth.  He  gained  a  medal  of  the 
first  class  in  1839.  Among  his  works  (in  sculpture)  are 
"  The  Death  of  Charles  the  Bold,"  and  "  Petrarch  Read- 
ing to  Laura." 

Trissin,  Le.    See  Trissino. 

Trissino,  tR^s-see'no,  [Fr.  Le  Trissin,  leh  tRe'siN',] 
(Giovanni  Giorgio,)  an  Italian  litterateur  and  diplo- 
matist, born  at  Vicenza  in  1478.  He  was  patronized  by 
Leo  X.  and  Clement  VII.,  and  employed  by  them  in 
various  embassies.  He  was  the  author  of  a  critical  work 
entitled  "La  Poetica,"  and  a  number  of  poems  in  Italian, 
also  several  Latin  compositions.  Died  in  1550.  His 
tragedy  of  "  Sofonisba"  (1524)  was  much  admired.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  Italian  who  wrote  in  versi 
sciolti. 

See  Castelli,  "VitadiG.  G.  Trissino,"  1753;  Ginguene,  "  His- 
toire  Litteraire  d'ltalie;"  Niceron,  "  Memoires ;"  Tiraboschi, 
"  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana ;"  "Lives  of  the  Italian  Poets," 
by  Rev.  Henry  Stebbing. 

Tristam  (or  Tristao)  da  Cunha.    See  Cunha,  da. 

Tris'tan  or  Tris'tram,  the  hero  of  one  of  the  earliest 
traditions  of  Britain.  His  history  has  been  more  ryx  less 
blended  with  that  of  King  Arthur  and  the  Round  Table. 
His  adventures  have  formed  the  subject  of  numerous 
poems  in  the  principal  European  languages,  and  were 
dratnatized  by  Hans  Sachs. 

See  "  Sir  Tristram,"  published  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  1806. 

Tristan,  tR^s-t^n',  (Luis,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
near  Toledo  in  1594,  or,  as  some  say,  in  1586.  Amt^ng 
his  master-pieces  is  "  Moses  Striking  the  Rock."  Died 
about  1645. 

Tristan  L'Hermite,  tR^s'tSN'  l^R^m^t',  (Franqois,) 
a  French  dramatic  poet,  born  in  La  Marche  in  i6oi,was 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  His  tragedy  of 
"Mariamne"  was  very  successful.    Died  in  1655. 

Tristram.    See  Tristan. 

Trisula,  tri-soo'la,  or  Tri-shu'la,  [from  the  Sanscrit 
tri.,  "three,"  and  shMd  or  siila,  a  "dart"  or  "spear- 
point,"]  the  name  of  Siva's  trident.    (See  Siva.) 

Tritheim,  tRit'him,  [Lat.  TRiTHE:'Mrus ;  Fr.  Tri- 
theme,  tRe''tam',]  (Johannes,)  a  Gerinan  writer  and 
Benedictine  monk,  originally  named  Heidenberg,  was 
born  near  Treves  in  1462.  He  wrote,  besides  several  his- 
torical and  religious  works,  in  Latin,  "  On  the  Illustrious 
Men  of  Germany,"  ("  De  Luminaribus  Germaniae," 
1495.)    Died  in  15 16. 

See  Horn,  "J.  Trithemius :  biographische  Skizze,"  1843;  Nice- 
ron, "Memoires;"  "  Biographic  Universelle." 

Tritheme  or  Trithemius.    See  Tritheim. 

Trithen,  tRee'ten,  (Frkderick  Henry,)  a  distin- 
guished Swiss  linguist,  born  in  1820,  removed  at  an 
early  age  to  Odessa,  in  Russia,  where  he  became  versed 
in  the  modern  European  languages,  and  afterwards 
studied  Sanscrit  at  Berlin.  Having  visited  England  in 
1841,  he  was  appointed  to  an  office  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  in  1848  was  chosen  professor  of  modern  European 
languages  in  the  Taylor  Institution  at  Oxford.  He  made 
a  number  of  valuable  contributions  to  the  "  Biographical 
Dictionary"  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful 
Knowledge.    Died  in  1854. 

Tri'to,  Tri-to'nis,  Trit-o-ge-nei'a,  or  Tri-to'ni-a, 
[Gr.  Tpfrw,  TpiTi^w'f,  or  Tptroyeveta ;  Fr.  Tritog^nie, 
tRe^to'zhi'ne',]  surnames  of  Athena  or  Minerva.  (See 
Minerva.) 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  /on^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


TRITON 


2151 


TROMMEN 


Tri'ton,  [Gr.  Tpi'rwv,]  the  name  of  a  marine  deity, 
supposed  to  be  a  son  of  Neptune,  and  described  as 
having  a  body  of  which  the  upper  part  was  human  and 
the  lower  part  like  a  fish.  Sometimes  the  term  occurs 
as  a  common  noun  and  in  the  plural  number,  (Tritons.) 
They  are  represented  as  blowing  a  trumpet  consisting 
of  a  sea-shell,  ( comha.) 

Tritonia  and  Tritonis.    See  Trito. 

Triv'et  or  Tryv'et,  written  also  Trev'eth,  [Lat. 
Trive''tus  or  Treve'tus,]  (Nicholas,)  an  English 
Dominican  monk,  born  in  Norfolk  about  1258,  was 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time. 
His  principal  work  is  a  chronicle  of  England,  entitled 
"  Annalessex  Regum  Angliae,"  which  has  passed  through 
several  editions.    Died  in  1328. 

Trivetus.    See  Trivet. 

Tri-vik'ra-ma,  {i.e.  the  *'  three-step-taker,"  or  "  he 
who  takes  three  steps,")  [from  the  Sanscrit  trt,  "three," 
and  zikraind,  "  going"  or  "  stepping,"]  a  celebrated  sur- 
name of  Vishnu,    (See  Vamana.) 

Trivulce.    See  Trivulzi  and  Trivulzio. 

Trivulzi,  de',  da  tRe-vool'zee,  [Fr.  Trivulce,  tRe'- 
viilss',]  (Agostino,)  an  Italian  cardinal  and  diplomatist. 
Died  in  1548. 

Trivulzi,  de',  or  Trivulce,  (Teodoro,)  an  Italian 
general,  born  about  1456,  was  a  cousin-german  of  the 
great  Trivulzio.  He  entered  the  French  service  in  1495, 
and  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1526.  Died  in  1532. 

Trivulzio,  tRe-vooFze-o,  surnamed  the  Great,  [Fr. 
Trivulce  le  Grand,  tRe'viilss'  leh  gnSN,]  (Gian  Gia- 
COMO,)  an  Italian  military  commander,  born  in  1441. 
He  served  in  the  army  of  Ferdinand,  King  of  Naples, 
and  in  1495  entered  the  service  of  Charles  VIII.  of 
France.  He  was  made  a  marshal  of  France  in  1499. 
After  the  accession  of  Louis  XII.  he  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  Italian  army,  and  soon  after  de- 
feated the  Milanese  under  Ludovico  Sforza,  (1499,)  and 
again  at  Novara,  (1500.)  In  1513  he  was  compelled  to 
evacuate  Milan  by  Maximilian  Sforza,  and,  having  lost 
the  battle  of  Novara,  in  1514,  the  French  were  again 
driven  from  Italy.  He  contributed  greatly  to  the  vic- 
tory of  the  French  at  Marignano  in  151 5.    Died  in  1518. 

See  RosMiNi,  "Istoria  iiUorno  alle  militari  Impresi  ed  alia  Vita 
di  G.  G.  Trivulzio,"  2  vols.,  1815;  Bkantome,  "  ViesdesCapitaines 
Fran^aises." 

Trochu,  tRo'shii',  (Louis  Jules,)  an  able  French 
general,  born  about  1820.  He  became  a  captain  in  1843, 
served  as  chief  of  the  general  staff  in  the  Crimean  war, 
and  obtained  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade  in  1854. 
He  displayed  a  superior  genius  for  strategy.  In  1864 
he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  general  of  division,  and 
about  1866  was  directed  to  form  a  plan  to  reorganize 
the  army.  On  this  subject  he  wrote  a  very  popular 
work,  entitled  "  L'Armee  Fran^aise,"  (1867.)  In  August, 
1870,  he  was  appointed  major-general  of  the  army  and 
commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in  Paris.  "  He  is  un- 
deniably," says  the  "  Army  and  Navy  Journal"  for  July, 
1870,  "the  best  soldier  of  France."  On  the  formation 
of  the  republic,  September  4,  he  became  president  of 
the  executive  committee,  the  highest  office  in  the  pro- 
visional government.  He  comma\ided  the  forces  which 
defended  Paris  against  the  Germans  during  the  siege  of 
that  capital  in  the  autumn  of  1870.  General  Trochu  is 
stated  to  be  an  adherent  of  the  party  of  Orleans. 

Trogue  Pompee.    See  Trogus  Pompkius. 

Tro'gus  Poni-pe'ius,  [Fr.  Trogue  Pompee,  tRog 
]><iN'pi',)  a  Roman  historian  under  the  reign  of  Augustus, 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Universal  History  from  the  Time 
of  Ninus,  King  of  Assyria,  down  to  5  A.D.,"  which  is 
lost.    An  abridgment  of  it,  by  Justin,  is  extant. 

Troil,  tRo'11,  [Lat.  Tro/lius,]  (Uno,)  a  Swedish 
savant  and  bishop,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1746.  He 
travelled  in  Germany,  France,  and  England.  In  1784  he 
Became  Bishop  of  Linkoping,  and  in  1787  Archbishop 
of  Upsal.  He  published  a  work  on  the  "History  of 
the  Church  and  the  Reformation  in  Sweden,"  (5  vols., 
1790.)    Died  in  1803. 

See  Adlerbeth,  "  Aminnelse-Tal  ofver  U.  von  Troil,"  1804; 
Gezelius,  "  Biographiskt-Lexicon." 

Troile.    See  Troilus. 

Troili,  tRO-ee'lee,  (Pf.acido,)  an  Italian  historian  and 
monk,  born  at  Montalbano  in  1687;  died  in  1757. 


Troilius.    See  Troil. 

Tro'i-lus,  [Gr.  TpwtAof;  Fr.  Troile,  tRo'^K,]  a  son 
of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  was  distinguished  for  his  beauty. 
He  was  slain  in  battle  by  Achilles. 

Trolde.    See  Troll. 

Troll,  [Icelandic  and  Swedish,  Troll;  Danish, 
Trolde,  troKdeh,]  in  Northern  mythology,  a  being  who 
was  supposed  to  possess  magical  or  supernatural 
powers,  and  to  dwell  in  the  interior  of  hills  and  moun- 
tains. The  term  appears  to  be  used  with  some  loose- 
ness of  application  ;  it  is  often  applied  to  the  Dwarfs, 
(Dwergar,)  who  were  generally  believed  to  possess  rare 
skill  or  cunning  in  working  in  metals,  stone,  etc.,  and  to 
be  endowed  with  magic  powers.  (See  Elves.)  One 
class  of  Trolls,  dwelling  in  Norway,  were  called  Thusser 
or  Thurser,  (doubtless  of  the  same  etymology  as  the 
Norse  Thursar,  signifying  "giants.")  They  are  de- 
scribed not  as  dv/arfs,  but  as  large  as  men,  well  formed, 
and  of  a  pale-blue  colour.  It  is  a  popular  belief  in  the 
North  that  when  the  rebellious  angels  were  cast  out  of 
heaven,  some  fell  into  hell,  while  others,  who  had  not 
sinned  so  deeply,  were  scattered  through  the  air,  under 
the  earth,  and  in  the  waters,  and  that  these  iDecame 
elves,  dwarfs,  or  trolls. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  il.  pp.  i  and  2,  also  56 
and  57. 

Troile,  tRoKleh,  (Gustavus,)  a  Swedish  prelate,  was 
a  partisan  of  Christian  II.  of  Denmark,  on  whose  head 
he  placed  the  crown  of  Sweden  in  1510  or  1520.  He  was 
Archbishop  of  Upsal.    He  was  killed  in  battle  in  1535. 

See  Geijer,  "  Histoire  de  SuMe." 

TroUe,  tRoKleh,  (Herluf,)  a  Danish  admiral,  born 
in  1516.  He  gained  a  victory  over  the  Swedes  in  1564, 
but  was  afterwards  mortally  wounded  in  an  engagement 
with  the  Swedish  admiral  Horn,  (1565.) 

See  BoESEN,  "  H.  Trolle's  Levnet,"  1780. 

Trolley,  tRo'li',  (Francois  Alfred,)  a  French  jurist 
born  at  Nederzwallen  in  1808.  He  published  a  "  Treat- 
ise on  the  Administrative  Hierarchy,"  (5  vols.,  1844-54.) 

Trol'lope,  (Anthony,)  an  English  novelist,  a  son  of 
Frances  Trollope,  noticed  below,  was  born  about  181 5. 
He  has  published  a  number  of  popular  novels,  among 
which  are  "The  Warden,"  (1855,)  "Doctor  Thorne,"  (3 
vols.,  1858,)  "Framley  Parsonage,"  (1861,)  "The  Belton 
Estate,"  (3  vols.,  1864,)  and  "  Phineas  Finn,  the  Irish 
Member,"  (1869;)  also  a  descriptive  work,  entitled 
"  North  America,"  (1862.) 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  September,  1862:  "North 
British  Review"  for  May,  1864:  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Au- 
thors." 

Trollope,  (Edward,)  an  English  writer,  born  about 
181 7,  became  rector  of  Leasingham  in  1843,  and  Arch- 
deacon of  Stow  in  1867.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Labyrinths,  Ancient  and  Modern." 

Trollope,  (Frances,)  a  popular  English  novelist, 
born  in  1790.  Having  spent  three  years  in  the  United 
States,  she  published,  in  1832,  "  Domestic  Life  of  the 
Americans."  This  was  followed  in  rapid  succession  by 
a  great  number  of  tales,  sketches,  and  novels,  among 
which  may  be  named  "  Belgium  and  Western  Germany," 
(1833,)  "  Paris  and  the  Parisians  in  1835,"  (1836,)  "The 
Life  and  Adventures  of  Jonathan  Jefferson  Whitlaw," 
etc.,  (1836,)  "Vienna  and  the  Austrians,"  etc.,  (1838,) 
"  The  Vicar  of  Wrexhill,"  and  "  The  Widow  Barnaby," 
(1839.)  She  was  married  in  1809  to  Anthony  Trollope, 
a  barrister.    Died  in  1863. 

See  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  April,  1832;  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  December,  iS^g;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  May, 
1S32,  and  April,  1838;  "North  American  Review"  for  January, 
1833-  (tiy  Edward  Everett  ;)  ALLiBf)NE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Trollope,  (Thomas  Adolphus,)  an  English  writer, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1810.  He  resided 
many  years  at  Florence.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Summer  in  Brittany,"  (1840,)  a  "Decade  of 
Italian  Women,"  and  a  "  Life  of  Filip])o  Strozzi." 

Trombelli,  tRom-beKlee,  (Gian  Crisostomo,)  an 
Italian  ecclesiastical  writer,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Modena 
in  1697  ;  died  at  Bologna  in  1784. 

Trommen,  van  der,  vtn  der  tRom'men,  [Lat.  Trom'- 
Mius,]  a  Dutch  theologian,  born  at  Groningen  in  1633. 
He  preached  at  Groningen  about  forty-eight  years.  He 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TROMMIUS 


21 


52 


TROUP 


published  a  "  Concordance  of  the  Bible"  in  the  Flemish 
language,  (1685-92.)    Died  in  1719. 
Trommius.    See  Trommen. 

Trommsdorff,  tRoms''doRf,  (Johann  Bartholo- 
MAUS,)  a  German  chemist,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1770,  be- 
came professor  of  chemistry  and  physics  in  the  univer- 
sity of  his  native  city.  He  published  several  scientific 
works.    Died  in  1837. 

Tromp,  tRomp,  (Marten  Harpertzoon — haR'pgRt- 
zon',)  a  celebrated  naval  commander,  born  at  Briel,  in 
Holland,  in  1597.  At  an  early  age  he  accompanied  Ad- 
miral Peter  Heijn  in  his  engagements  with  the  Spaniards 
off  Flanders,  and  in  1639  was  made  Admiral  of  Holland. 
In  October  of  the  same  year  he  gained  a  brilliant  victory 
over  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  fleet  under  Ocquendo. 
For  this  action  he  was  ennobled  by  the  King  of  France. 
In  1652  Admiral  Tromp,  having  been  defeated  by  the 
English  under  Blake,  was  for  a  time  superseded  by  De 
Ruyter.  He  was  soon  after  reinstated,  and  in  November, 
1652,  again  encountered  Blake,  taking  two  of  his  ships 
and  sinking  several  others.  In  August,  1653,  the  last 
engagement  took  place  between  the  English  and  Dutch 
admirals,  in  which  the  latter  was  mortally  wounded. 
Tromp  was  one  of  the  ablest  seamen  of  his  time,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  the  victor  in  more  than  thirty  battles. 

See  Richer,  "Vie  de  I'Amiral  Tromp,"  1784;  Oostkamp, 
*  Het  Leven  en  de  Daden  van  M.  H.  Tromp,"  1825. 

Tromp,  van,  vtn  tRomp,  (Cornelis,)  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1629.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  several  engagements  with  the  pirates 
of  the  Mediterranean,  but  in  1665  he  was  defeated  by 
the  English  at  Solebay  under  the  Duke  of  York.  In 
1666,  in  conjunction  with  De  Ruyter,  he  gained  a  victory 
over  the  English,  after  a  contest  of  four  successive  days. 
The  King  of  Denmark  subsequently  bestowed  on  him 
the  title  of  count,  and  other  distinctions,  as  a  reward 
for  services  rendered  him  in  his  war  with  Sweden. 
After  the  death  of  De  Ruyter,  Van  Tromp  succeeded 
him  as  lieutenant-admiral-general  of  the  United  Prov- 
inces.   Died  in  1691. 

See  "Vie  de  C.  Tromp  Amiral  de  Hollande,"  the  Hague,  1694. 

Tronchet,  tRiw'shi',  (Fran(^ois  Denis,)  a  French 
jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1726.  He  was  elected  to  the 
States-General  in  1789,  and  was  a  member  of  the  consti- 
tutional party.  In  December,  1792,  he  was  employed 
by  Louis  XVI.  to  defend  him  in  his  trial.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Elders  from  1795  to  1799, 
became  president  of  the  court  of  cassation  about  1800, 
and  had  a  prominent  part  in  the  redaction  of  the  Code 
Napoleon.    Died  in  1806. 

See  Lavallee,  "Notice  historique  sur  F.  D.  Tronchet,"  1806; 
Andre  Dupin,  "Tronchet,  Ferey,  Pdirier,"  1810;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Tronchin,  tR6N'shiN',  (Jean  Robert,)  a  Swiss  jurist 
of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1710.  He 
became  procureur-general.  Lord  Mansfield  once  said, 
"In  our  country  he  [Tronchin]  would  be  chancellor." 
He  defended  the  action  of  the  Swiss  government  in  re- 
lation to  Rousseau's  "Emile,"  by  "Letters  written  from 
the  Country,"  ("Lettres  ecrites  de  la  Campagne,"  1763.) 
Died  in  1793. 

See  Senebier,  "Histoire  litt^raire  de  Geneve;"  Haag,  "La 
France  protestante." 

Tronchin,  (Theodore,)  a  Genevese  theologian,  born 
in  1582,  was  professor  and  rector  in  the  Academy  of  his 
native  city.  He  was  an  earnest  opponent  of  the  doc- 
trines of  Arminius.    Died  in  1657. 

Tronchin,  (Theodore,)  an  eminent  Swiss  physician, 
born  at  Geneva  in  1709.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  in 
England,  and  subsequently  under  Boerhaave  at  Leyden. 
He  practised  at  Amsterdam  nearly  twenty  years,  became 
honorary  professor  of  medicine  at  Geneva  in  1750,  and 
soon  acquired  a  high  reputation,  particularly  for  his 
efforts  to  promote  the  practice  of  inoculation.  He  was 
appointed  in  1765  physician  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1781.  He  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire  and 
Rousseau. 

See  Voltaire,  "  Correspondance  generale ;"  Condorcet, 
"filoges;"  "Biographie  M^dicale ;"  Haag,  "La  France  protes- 
tante." 

Tronson,  tR6N's6N',  (Louis,)  a  French  ecclesiastic 
and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1622.   He  published,  besides 


other  works,  "  Forma  Cleri,"  (3  vols.,  1669.)  Died  in 
1700. 

Tronson  du  Coudray,  tR6N's6N'  dU  koo'dRi',(GuiL- 

laume  Alexandre,)  a  French  advocate  and  royalist, 
born  at  Rheims  in  1750.  He  volunteered  his  services 
as  counsel  of  Louis  XVI.  in  December,  1792;  but  he 
was  not  permitted  to  speak  in  that  case.  He  made  a 
speech  in  defence  of  the  queen  Marie  Antoinette  in 
1793.  As  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Elders,  he  op- 
posed the  Directory  in  1797,  and  was  transported  td' 
Guiana,  where  he  died  in  1798. 

See  Blondeau,  "  Notice  sur  Tronson  du  Coudray,"  1825  ;  "  Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  April,  1852. 

Troost,  tRost,  (Cornelis,)  an  able  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Amsterdam  in  1697.  He  painted  portraits,  familiar 
scenes,  conversations,  etc.  His  drawings  in  colours  are 
highly  commended.    Died  in  1 750. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Troost,  (Gerard,)  a  distinguished  chemist  and  geol- 
ogist, born  at  Bois-le-Duc,  Holland,  in  1776,  emigrated 
to  the  United  States,  and  was  appointed  in  1828  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and  geology  at  Nash- 
ville, Tennessee.  He  became  State  geologist  in  1831. 
Died  in  1850. 

Tro-pho'ni-us,  [Gr.  Tpo^wvwf,]  a  celebrated  archi- 
tect, called  a  son  of  Erginus,  King  of  Orchomenos,  (or, 
according  to  some,  of  Apollo.)  He  and  his  brother 
Agamedes  built  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  and  the 
treasury  of  King  Hyrieus.  His  name  was  connected 
with  a  cave  and  oracle  at  Lebadea,  in  Boeotia,  which  is 
described  by  Pausanias.  A  visit  to  this  cave  was  sup- 
posed to  render  people  serious  or  melancholy. 

See  Addison's  paper,  entitled  "The  Cave  of  Trophonius,"  in 
the  "Spectator,"  No.  599. 

Troplong,  tRo'16N',  (Raymond  Th^iodore,)  a  French 
jurist  and  statesman,  born  at  Saint-Gaudens  in  1795. 
He  became  in  1835  ^  counsellor  in  the  court  of  cassa- 
tion in  Paris,  first  president  of  the  court  of  appeal  in 
1848,  first  president  of  the  court  of  cassation  in  1852, 
and  first  president  of  the  senate  in  1854.  He  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sci- 
ences in  1840.  His  chief  work  is  "The  Civil  Law  Ex- 
pounded," ("Le  Droit  civil  explique,"  27  vols.  8vo, 
1834-56.)    Died  in  February,  1869. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tros,  [Gr.  Tpof,]  a  fabulous  king  of  Phrygia,  was  a 
grandson  of  Dardanus,  and  a  son  of  Erichthonius.  He 
was  the  father  of  Ilus,  Asaracus,  and  Ganymedes,  (Gany- 
mede.)   The  Trojans  derived  their  name  from  him. 

Troschel,  tRosh'el,  (Johann,)  a  skilful  German  en- 
graver, born  at  Nuremberg  about  1592.  He  worked  at 
Rome.    Died  in  1633. 

Trot'ter,  (Thomas,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  medical 
writer,  born  in  Roxburghshire,  studied  at  Edinburgh, 
and  became  in  1793  physician  to  the  Royal  Hospital 
at  Portsmouth.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a 
"  Review  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  British 
Navy,"  (1790,)  "Medical  and  Chemical  Essays,"  (1795,) 
and  an  "Essay  on  the  Diseases  of  Seamen,"  (3  vols., 
1797-1803.)    Died  in  1832. 

Trotti,  tRot'tee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
painter,  surnamed  IL  Malosso,  was  born  at  Cremona 
in  1555,  and  was  a  pupil  of  B.  Campi.  The  graceful- 
ness of  his  heads  is  praised  by  several  critics.  Died 
after  1607. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Troughton,  trovv'ton,  ?  (Edward,)  F.R.S.,  an  ex- 
cellent English  mechanician  and  maker  of  astronomical 
instruments,  was  born  in  Cumberland  in  1753. 
became  a  resident  of  London,  made  telescopes  for  seve- 
ral observatories,  and  invented  improvements  in  astro- 
nomical instruments,  in  the  fabrication  of  which  he  is 
said  to  have  surpassed  all  of  his  contemporaries.  Died 
in  1835. 

Troup,  troop,  (George  M.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  on  the  Tombigbee  River  in  1780.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress  for  Georgia  from  1807  to  181 5,  was  a 
Senator  of  the  United  States  from  1816  to  1818,  and 
Governor  of  Georgia  from  1823  to  1827  He  also  repre- 
sented Georgia  in  the  Federal  Senate  from  1829  to  1834. 
He  was  a  champion  of  State  sovereignty.   Died  in  1856. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  Vi,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  5?, 


r,  short;  ai,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fSll,  f^t;  mStj  nftt;  good;  moon; 


TROUSSEAU 


21 


53 


TRUMBULL 


Trousseau,  tRoo'so',  (Armand,)  an  eminent  French 
physician,  born  at  Tours  in  1801.  He  publistied  a 
valuable  work  entitled  "Treatise  on  Therapeutics  and 
Materia  Medica,"  ("  Traite  de  Therapeutique  et  de  Ma- 
tiere  medicale,"  3  vols.,  1836-39.)  He  became  professor 
of  therapeutics  at  Paris  in  1839.  He  had  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  professor  and  a  writer.  Died  in  June,  1867. 

See  Sachaile,  '*  Medecins  de  Paris;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Trouvain,  tRoo'v^N',  (Antoine,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  at  Montdidier  in  1656,  was  a  pupil  of  G.  Edelinck. 
Died  in  1708. 

Trouve  -  Chauvel,  tRoo'vi'  sh5'v§K,  (Ariste,)  a 
French  republican  minister  of  state,  born  at  Suze  (Sarthe) 
in  1805.  He  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly 
in  1848,  and  was  minister  of  finance  from  October  to 
December  of  that  year. 

Trow'bridge,  (Edmund,)  an  eminent  American 
jurist,  born  at  Newton,  Massachusetts,  in  1709,  became 
attorney-general  of  the  State  in  1749,  and  was  afterwards 
justice  of  the  supreme  court.    Died  in  1793. 

Trowbridge,  (John  Tow^nsend,)  an  American  novel- 
ist, born  in  Monroe  county,  New  York,  in  1827.  He 
contributed  to  the  *•  Atlantic  Monthly."  Among  his 
works  are  "Neighbour  Jackwood,"  (1857,)  "The  Old 
Battle -Ground,"  (1859,)  "The  Vagabonds,"  (1863,) 
"Cudjo's  Cave,"  (1864,)  "Lucy  Arlyn,"  (1866,)  and 
"Coupon  Bonds,"  (1866.) 

Trow'bridge  or  Troubridge,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an 
English  admiral,  born  in  London,  served  with  great 
distinction  under  Lord  Howe,  and,  as  commander  of 
the  Culloden,  was  sent  to  the  assistance  of  Nelson  in 
the  Mediterranean  in  1798.  He  served  at  the  battle 
of  the  Nile.  He  was  made  a  baronet  in  1799,  and  an 
admiral  in  1804.  As  commander  of  the  Blenheim,  he 
sailed  for  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1807,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  perished  by  shipwreck  off  the  coast  of 
Madagascar. 

Trowbridge,  (Sir  THo>fAS  Saint  Vincent  Hope 
Cochrane,)  an  English  officer,  a  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  181 7.  He  served  as  colonel  in  the 
Crimean  war,  and  lost  a  leg  at  Inkerman,  (1854.)  Died 
in  1867. 

Troxler,  tRoks'ler,  (Ignaz  Paul  Vital,)  a  Swiss 
writer,  born  in  the  canton  of  Lucerne  in  1780,  became 
professor  of  philoso))hy  at  Bale  in  1830.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  philosophical  works. 

Troy,  de,  deh  tuvvS,  (FRANgois,)  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Toulouse  about  1645,  became  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Paris.  He  painted  portraits 
with  success,  and  some  historical  pieces.    Died  in  1730. 

Troy,  de,  (Jean  Francois,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1676.  He  was  appointed  by  Louis 
XIV.  director  of  the  French  Academy  at  Rome  about 
1738.    Died  in  1752. 

Troya,  tRo'yi,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  at 
Naples  in  1785.  He  was  exiled  in  1823  for  his  liberal- 
ism. He  published  an  "  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
the  Middle  Ages,"  ("  Apparato  preliminale  alia  Storia 
dal  medio  Evo,"  1839  et  seq.)    Died  in  1858. 

Troyen,  van,  vtn  tRoi'en,  (Rombout,)  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1600.  He  painted  ruins 
and  other  objects  in  the  vicinity  of  Rome.  Died  in  1650. 

Troyon,  tRwS.'y6N',  (Constant,)  an  eminent  French 
painter  of  animals  and  landscapes,  was  born  at  Sevres 
in  1813.  He  gained  medals  of  the  first  class  in  1846 
and  1848.  His  works  are  admired  for  variety  of  effects, 
fidelity  to  nature,  and  brilliant  colouring.  He  painted 
numerous  pictures  of  French  scenery.    Died  in  1865. 

Trublet,  tKii'bll',  (Nicolas  Charles  Joseph,) 
Abb6,  a  French  essayist,  born  at  Saint-Malo  in  1697. 
He  pul)lished,  besides  other  works,  "  Literary  and 
Moral  Essays,"  (2  vols.,  1735.)  D'Alembert  said  this 
might  be  made  an  excellent  book  by  erasing  some  parts 
of  it.  Trublet  was  admitted  to  the  French  Academy  in 
1761.    Died  in  1770. 

See  D'Alembert,  "  Histoire  de  rAcid^mie  Fran^aise." 

Truchet,  tRli'shi',  (Jean,)  a  French  Carmelite  monk, 
sometimes  called  Father  Sebastian,  born  at  Lyons 
in  1657,  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  mathe- 


matics and  mechanics.  He  invented  several  useful 
machines.    Died  in  1729. 

Truchsess,  (Gebhard.)    See  Gebhard. 

Trudaine  de  Montigny,  tRii'din'  deh  miN't^n'ye', 
(Jean  Charles  Philibert,)  a  French  financier,  born 
at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1733  >  ^777- 

Trueba  y  Cosio,  de,  dk  tRoo-a'Bi  e  ko'se-o,  (Teles- 
foro,)  a  distinguished  writer,  born  at  Santander,  in 
Spain,  in  1805,  was  educated  in  England,  where  he  pub- 
lished a  number  of  romances,  dramas,  and  historical 
works,  in  English.  Among  these  may  be  named  "The 
Castilian,"  "  Salvador  the  Guerrilla,"  and  a  farce  entitled 
"  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Pringle."    Died  in  1835. 

Truguet,  tRii'gi',  (Laurent  Jean  FRANgois.)  a 
French  admiral,  born  at  Toulon  in  1752.  He  was  min- 
ister of  marine  from  November,  1795,  to  July,  1797.  In 
1802  he  took  command  of  the  combined  fleets  of  Fran  >5 
and  Spain.  He  was  disgraced  in  1804,  on  suspicion  of 
his  being  averse  to  Napoleon's  elevation  to  the  imperial 
power.    Died  in  1839. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Tru'man,  (Rev.  Joseph,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
163 1,  was  the  author  of  several  theological  works,  one 
of  which,  entitled  "  A  Discourse  of  Natural  and  Moral 
Impotency,"  obtained  great  popularity.  He  became  a 
nonconformist,  and  was  deprived  of  his  living  in  1662. 
Died  in  1671. 

Trumball.   See  Trumbull,  (Sir  William.) 

Trum'buU,  (Benjamin,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congre- 
gational divine  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Hebron, 
Connecticut,  in  1735.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History 
of  Connecticut,"  (2  vols.,  1797-1818,)  "  History  of  the 
United  States,"  (1810,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1820. 

Trumbull,  (John,)  an  American  satirical  poet  and 
lawyer,  born  at  Waterbury,  Connecticut,  on  the  24th  of 
April,  1750.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1767, 
after  which  he  was  a  tutor  in  that  institution  for  several 
years.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Dr.  Dwight.  In 
1772  he  produced  "The  Progress  of  Dulness,"  a  poem. 
Having  studied  law  under  John  Adams,  at  Boston,  he 
began  to  practise  at  New  Haven.  He  became  a  dis- 
tinguished and  popular  lawyer,  and  in  1781  settled  at 
Hartford.  In  1782  he  published  "  McFingal,"  a  satirical 
poem,  which  passed  through  thirty  editions  and  was 
serviceable  to  the  cause  of  liberty.  "  It  is  much  the 
best  imitation  of  the  great  satire  of  Butler,"  says  R.  W. 
Griswold,  "that  has  been  written."  He  was  a  judge 
of  the  supreme  court  of  errors  (or  superior  court)  from 
1808  to  1819J    Died  at  Detroit  in  May,  1831. 

See  R.  W.  Griswolo,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America,"  p.  41; 
DuYCKiNCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Trumbull,  (John,)  an  eminent  painter,  born  at  Leba- 
non, Connecticut,  in  1756.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Revolution,  he  entered  the  army,  and  was  appointed  in 
1775  aide-de-camp  to  Washington.  In  1780  he  visited 
London,  where  he  became  a  pupil  of  West.  Returning 
to  America,  he  produced,  in  1796,  his  "  Battle  of  Bunker 
Hill,"  a  master-piece  of  its  kind,  which  was  followed  by 
the  "  Death  of  Montgomery,"  and  "  Sortie  of  the  Garri- 
son from  Gibraltar."  His  most  important  works  are  the 
pictures  in  the  rotunda  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington. 
Among  these  we  may  name  "  The  Surrender  of  Corn- 
wallis,"  the  "  Resignation  of  General  Washington  at 
Annapolis,"  "  Declaration  of  Independence,"  and  the 
"Surrender  of  Burgoyne."  He  presented  fifty-five  of 
his  works  to  Yale  College.    Died  in  1843. 

See  his  "Autobiography." 

Trumbull,  (Jonathan,)  an  American  statesman,  born 
at  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  in  1 7 10,  was  the  father  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  the  State  in  1 769, 
continuing  in  that  office  fourteen  years.  He  was  highly 
esteemed  by  Washington  for  his  talents  and  integrity. 
Died  in  1785. 

Trumbull,  (Jonathan,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  in  1740.  On  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  he  was  appointed 
paymaster  to  the  Northern  department  of  the  army,  and 
was  afterwards  secretary  and  first  aide-de-camp  to  Wash- 
ington. He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1789,  was  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  from  1791  to  1793,  and 
became  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1795.  He 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  f  hard;  g  as  /,  G,  H,  Yi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R, 


trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this,  (S^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TRUMBULL 


2154 


TUCKER 


enjoyed  the  friendship  and  confidence  of  General  Wash- 
ington. In  1 798  he  was  chosen  Governor  of  Connecticut. 
He  held  the  office  of  Governor  eleven  years.  Died  in 
1809. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans." 

Ti'umbuU,  (Lyman,)  an  American  judge  and  Senator, 
born  at  Colchester,  Connecticut,  in  1813.  He  removed 
to  Illinois  in  his  youth,  and  became  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  that  State  in  1848.  Having  joined  the  Repub- 
lican party,  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
by  the  legislature  of  Illinois  in  1854,  and  was  re-elected 
in  i860  and  in  1866.  He  served  as  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  the  judiciary  for  many  years. 

Truni'bull  or  Trfim'ball,  (Sir  William,)  an  Eng- 
lish statesman,  born  in  Berkshire  in  1636.  He  studied 
at  Oxford,  and  was  successively  appointed  to  several 
important  offices  under  the  government.  He  was  envoy- 
extraordinary  to  France  in  1685,  and  after  the  accession 
of  James  II.  was  ambassador  to  Constantinojjle.  Having 
returned  to  England  in  1691,  he  was  appointed  in  1695 
secretary  of  state.  He  died  in  1716.  He  was  distin- 
guished for  his  learning  and  his  literary  tastes,  and  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Pope  and  Dryden. 

See  Burnet,  "  History  of  his  Own  Times." 

Tru'ro,  (Thomas  Wilde,)  Lord,  an  English  Whig 
statesman  and  jurist,  born  in  1782.  He  was  elected  to 
Parliament  for  Newark  in  i83i,and  in  1841  represented 
Worcester,  being  made  attorney-general  the  same  year. 
He  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas  in  1846,  and  lord  high  chancellor  in  1850.  He  re- 
signed in  February,  1852.    Died  in  1855. 

Trustier,  (John,)  an  English  bookseller  and  compiler, 
born  in  London  in  1735;  ^'^^  1820. 

Trutzschler,  von,  fon  tRoots'shler,  (Friedricii 
Karl  Adolf,)  a  German  jurist  and  legal  writer,  born 
near  Weida  in  1751  ;  died  in  1831. 

Trux'ton  or  Trux''tiln,  (Thomas,)  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  on  Long  Island  in  1755.  captain  of 
a  privateer,  he  took  several  valuable  prizes  during  the 
Revolution.  He  obtained  tlie  rank  of  captain  in  the  navy 
in  1795,  with  the  command  of  the  frigate  Constellation, 
thirty-eight  guns,  and  captured  in  February,  1799,  the 
French  frigate  LTnsurgente.  He  received  from  Congress 
a  gold  medal  for  his  victory  over  the  French  frigate  La 
Vengeance,  fifty-four  guns,  February,  1800.  Died  in  1822. 

Truxtun.    See  Truxton. 

Tryphiodore.    See  Tryphiodorus. 

Tryph-i-o-do'rus,  [Gr.  Tpv(l>L66iopog ;  Fr.  Tryphio- 
dore, tRe'tVo'doR',]  a  Greek  poet  and  grammarian,  born 
in  Egypt  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth  or  early  part  of 
the  sixth  century,  was  the  author  of  an  epic  poem  on 
the  destruction  of  Troy,  several  editions  of  which  have 
been  published. 

Try'phon,  [Gr.  Tpv^cjv,]  an  eminent  engraver  of 
gems,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  300  B.C.  Among 
his  extant  works  is  a  gem  representing  the  reconciliation 
of  Eros  and  Psyche. 

Try'phon,  (Diod'otus,)  King  of  Syria,  usurped 
the  throne  in  142  B.C.,  after  he  had  murdered  Antiochus, 
the  infant  son  of  Alexander  Balas.  He  was  defeated 
and  put  to  death  by  Antiochus  Sidetes  in  139  B.C. 

Tryph-o-nrnus,  (Claudhts,)  a  Roman  jurist,  who 
flourished  under  the  reign  of  Septimius  Severus,  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  legal  works,  fragments  of  which 
are  extant. 

Tschamer,  tshaR'ner,  (Johann  Baptist,)  a  Swiss 
statesman,  born  in  1751  ;  died  in  1835. 

Tscherning,  tsh^R^ning,  (Andreas,)  a  German  lyric 
poet,  born  at  Bunzlau  in  161 1,  became  professor  of  poetry 
at  Rostock.    Died  in  1659. 

Tscherning,  (Anton  Friedrich,)  a  Danish  states- 
man, born  at  Frederiksvark  in  1795.  He  was  appointed 
minister  of  war  in  1848,  and  in  1854  a  member  of  the 
imperial  council. 

T-schirner,  (Heinrich  Gottlieb.)  See  Tzschirner. 

Tschirnhausen,  von,  fon  tsh^Rn'h6w'zen,  (Ehren- 
FRIED  Walter,)  an  eminent  German  mathematician 
and  philosopher,  born  near  Gorlitz,  in  Upper  Lnsatia, 
in  165 1.  He  travelled  in  variotis  countries  of  Europe, 
and  after  his  return  established  in  Saxony  several  man- 
ufactories of  glass.     He   made  burning   lenses  and 


mirrors  of  enormous  size.  One  of  these  was  three  feet 
in  diameter,  with  a  focal  distance  of  twelve  feet.  About 
1867  he  published  a  philosophical  work  called  "Medicine 
of  the  Mind,"  ("Medicina  Mentis.")    Died  in  1708. 

See  "  Leben  Tschirnhausens,"  1709;  Fontenelle,  "  £ loges 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tschudi,  tshoo'dee,  [Lat.  Tschu'dius,]  (iEoiDius,) 
one  of  the  earliest  Swiss  historians,  was  born  at  Glarus 
in  1505.  He  filled  several  important  offices  under  the 
government,  and  in  1559  was  ambassador  at  the  court 
of  Vienna.  His  voluminous  works  are  chiefly  in  manu- 
script. The  most  important  of  those  published  is 
his  "Chronicle  of  Switzerland  from  1000  a.d.  to  1470," 
(in  German,)  which  is  esteemed  a  standard  authority  in 
Swiss  history.    Died  in  1572. 

See  FucHS,    M.  Tschudi's  Leben  und  Schriften,"  2  vols.,  1805; 

"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Tschudi,  von,  von  tshoo'dee,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a 
Swiss  naturalist,  of  the  same  family  as  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Glarus  in  1818.  Fie  visited  Peru  in  1838,  and 
published,  after  his  return,  "  Sketches  of  Travel  in  Peru," 
"  Antiquities  of  Peru,"  prepared  in  conjunction  with  Don 
Mariano  de  Rivera,  and  other  works. 

Tschudius.    See  Tschudi,  (^Egidius.) 

Tu'bal-Cain,  a  son  of  Lamech,  is  regarded  as  the 
inventor  of  the  art  of  working  in  metals. 

See  Genesis  iv.  22. 

Tu'be-ro,  (Quintus,)  a  Roman  orator  and  jurist,  and 
friend  of  Cicero.  He  was  a  partisan  of  the  senate  and 
of  Pompey  in  the  civil  war. 

Tubi,  too'bee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  [Fr.  Tuby  le 
RoMAiN,  tii'be'  leh  ro'm^N^,]  a  sculptor,  born  at  Rome 
in  1635.  He  worked  at  Versailles  and  Paris.  Died  in 
Paris  in  1700. 

Tuby.  _See  Tubl 

Tuch,  tooK,  (Johann  Christian  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man Orientalist  and  theologian,  born  at  Quedlinburg  in 
1806.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Leipsic  about  1842.  He  published  a  "  Com- 
mentary on  Genesis,"  (1838,)  which  is  commended. 

Tuck'er,  (Abraham,)  an  English  metaphysician,  born 
in  London  in  1705,  was  a  son  of  a  merchant,  who  left 
him  a  large  fortune.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  pur- 
chased Betch worth  Castle,  near  Dorking,  in  1727,  and 
married  a  Miss  Barker  in  1736.  His  principal  work  is 
entitled  "The  Light  of  Nature  Pursued."  by  Edward 
Search,  (4  vols.,  1765.)  "He  was  naturally  endowed," 
says  Sir  J.  Mackintosh,  "not,  indeed,  with  more  than 
ordinary  acuteness  or  sensibility,  nor  with  a  high  degree 
of  reach  and  range  of  mind,  but  with  a  singular  capacity 
for  careful  observation  and  original  reflection,  and  with 
a  fancy  perhaps  unmatched  in  producing  various  and 
happy  illustration.  It  is  in  mixed,  not  in  pure,  philoso- 
phy, that  his  superiority  consists.  In  the  part  of  his 
work  which  relates  to  the  intellect,  he  has  adopted  much 
from  Hartley."  (See  "View  of  the  Progress  of  Ethical 
Philosophy.")  "  I  have  found  in  this  writer,"  says  Paley, 
"  more  original  thinking  and  observation  upon  the  seve- 
ral subjects  that  he  has  taken  in  hand  than  in  any  other, 
not  to  say  than  in  all  others  put  together."  (Preface  to 
"  Moral  and  Political  Philosophy.")    Died  in  1774. 

See  Sir  Henry  Mildmay,  notice  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  the 
"  Lii;Iit  of  Nature  Pursued,"  7  vols.,  1852. 

Tuck'er,  (Beverly,)  son  of  Saint  George  Tucker, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Matoax,  Virginia,  in  1784. 
He  became  in  1834  professor  of  law  in  William  and 
Mary  College.  He  published  legal  works  and  several 
novels,  one  of  which,  entitled  "The  Partisan  Leader," 
dated  in  1837,  foretold  the  secession  of  the  Southern 
States,  which  took  place  in  1861.    Died  in  185 1. 

Tucker,  (George,)  an  American  jurist,  born  in  Vir- 
ginia in  1775.  ^'^^  elected  to  Congress  in  1819, 
1821,  and  1823,  and  became  professor  of  law  in  the 
Universitv  of  Virginia  in  1825.  He  published  a  "  Life 
of  Thomas  Jefferson"  and  a  "  Political  History  of  the 
United  States."    Died  in  1861. 

Tucker,  (Henry  Saint  George,)  an  American  jurist, 
born  in  Virginia  in  1 779,  was  professor  of  law  in  the 
University  of  Virginia.  He  published  "  Lectures  on 
Natural  Law  and  Government,"  and  other  legal  works, 
which  were  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1848. 


a,  g, T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  fit;  mht;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


TUCKER 


2155 


TULLUS 


Tucker,  (Josiah,)  an  English  political  writer  and 
clergyman,  born  in  Carmarthenshire  in  171 1,  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford.  He  became  curate  of  Saint  Stephen's, 
Bristol,  and  obtained  the  friendship  and  patroifage  of 
Bishop  Butler,  who  appointed  him  rector  of  Saint  Ste- 
phen's in  1749.  In  1758  he  became  Dean  of  Gloucester. 
He  wrote  several  treatises  on  commerce,  taxes,  monop- 
olies, etc.,  among  which  we  notice  "  Reflections  on  the 
Present  Matters  in  Dispute  between  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,"  (1785.)  In  this  work  he  advocated  greater  free- 
dom of  trade.  He  also  published  a  "  Treatise  concerning 
Civil  Government,"  (1781.)    Died  in  1799. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Bio.2;raphie  Generale  ;"  "  Monthly  Review"  for 
October  and  November,  17S1. 

Tucker,  (Luther,)  an  American  journalist,  born  at 
Brandon,  Vermont,  in  1802.  He  became  a  printer,  and 
in  1826  established  at  Rochester,  in  New  York,  "The 
Rochester  Daily  Advertiser,"  the  first  daily  paper  west 
of  Albany.  In  January,  183 1,  he  began  to  issue,  at  Roch- 
ester, "The  Genesee  Farmer,"  which  was  afterwards  con- 
solidated with  "The  Albany  Cultivator."  In  1852  he  com- 
menced the  publication  of  "  The  Country  Gentleman,"  an 
agricultural  paper  of  high  character.  To  Mr.  Tucker 
belongs  the  credit  of  having  been  the  pioneer  in  the  suc- 
cessful introduction  of  agricultural  periodical  literature 
among  the  masses  of  the  people  in  the  United  States. 

Tucker,  (Saint  George,)  an  American  jurist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  on  the  island  of  Bermuda  in 
1752.  Having  settled  in  Virginia,  he  married  in  1778 
Mrs.  Randolph,  mother  of  the  celebrated  John  Ran- 
dolph. He  rose  through  several  offices  to  be  judge  of 
the  district  court  of  the  United  States.  He  published 
numerous  works,  in  prose  and  verse.    Died  in  1827. 

Tucker,  (Samuel,)  an  American  commodore,  born 
in  Massachusetts  in  1747.  He  was  appointed  captain 
in  the  navy  by  General  Washington,  and  coinmaiided 
with  success  in  several  actions.    Died  in  1833. 

Tuck'er-man,  (Henry  Theodore,)  an  American 
critic  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1813. 
Having  visited  Italy,  he  published  in  1835  "The  Italian 
Sketch-Book,"  which  was  followed  by  "  Sicily,  a  Pilgrim- 
age," (1839,)  "Thoughts  on  the  Poets,"  (1846,  translated 
into  German,)  "  Artist  Life,  or  Sketches  of  American 
Painters,"  (1847,)  "  Characteristics  of  Literature,"  (1849,) 
"Memorial  of  Horatio  Greenough,"  (1853,)  "  Biographi- 
cal Essays,"  (1857,)  "Book  of  the  Artists,"  (1867,)  and 
a  number  of  poems.  Mr.  Tuckerman  occupied  a  high 
rank  among  the  art  critics  of  America.    Died  in  1871. 

See  DuvcKiNCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Tuckerman,  (Joseph,)  D.D.,  an  American  Unitarian 
divine,  aif  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Boston  in 
1778.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American 
Seamen's  Friend  Society,  and  other  similar  institutions. 
He  afterwards  assisted  in  organizing  the  Benevolent 
Fraternity  of  Churches,  for  the  support  of  a  city  mission 
called  the  Ministry  at  Large,  of  which  he  became  a  min- 
ister.   Died  in  1840. 

See  "Discourse  on  the  Life,  etc.  of  Rev.  Joseph  Tuckerman," 
by  W.  E.  Channing. 

Tuck'ey,  (James  Hingston,)  an  Irish  writer  and 
naval  officer,  born  in  the  county  of  Cork  in  1778,  was 
employed  in  the  survey  of  the  coast  of  New  South 
Wales,  and  published  a  work  entitled  "Maritime  Geog- 
raphy."   Died  in  1816. 

Tiick'ney,  (Anthony,)  a  learned  English  Puritan 
minister,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1599.  He  preached 
at  Boston  and  in  London.  Died  in  1670.  His  Sermons 
were  published  about  1676. 

Tudela.    See  Benjamin  of  Tudela. 

Tu-di-ta'nus,  (P.  Sempronius,)  a  Roman  general, 
who  served  as  tribune  at  Cannae  in  216  B.C.,  became 
praetor  in  213,  and  censor  in  209.  Having  been  elected 
consul  for  the  year  204,  he  obtained  Bruttii  as  his  prov- 
ince, with  the  conduct  of  the  war  against  Hannibal, 
whom  he  defeated. 

Tu'dor,  (Owen,)  a  Welsh  gentleman,  who  married 
Catherine  of  France  after  the  death  of  her  first  husband, 
Henry  V.  of  England.  He  supported  the  Lancastrian 
party  in  the  war  of  the  Roses.  Died  in  1461.  He  had 
a  son,  Edmond  Tudor,  who  was  created  Earl  of  Rich- 


mond about  1452  and  died  in  1456.  Henry,  the  son  of 
Edmond,  became  King  of  England. 

Tu'dor,  (William,)  an  American  litteratetir,  born  at 
Boston  in  1779,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Athe- 
naeum in  that  city.  He  became  in  181 5  the  first  editor 
of  the  "  North  American  Review."  Besides  his  numerous 
contributions  to  this  journal,  he  published  "Letters  on 
the  Eastern  States,"  (1819,)  a  "Life  of  James  Otis," 
(1823,)  and  a  work  entitled  "  Gebel-Teir."  He  was 
appointed  in  1823  United  States  consul  at  Lima.  Died 
in  1830. 

Tudor  Family,  the  name  of  a  royal  family  of  Eng- 
land, which  exercised  power  during  a  period  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty  years,  (1485-1605.)  Henry  VII. 
was  the  first  and  Queen  Elizabeth  the  last  monarch  of 
this  house.  The  father  of  Henry  VII.  was  Edmond 
Tudor,  and  his  mother  was  the  heiress  of  the  Duke  of 
Lancaster. 

Tud'way,.  (Thomas,)  an  English  musician  and  com- 
poser, lived  about  1670-1700,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Dr. 
Blow.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  music  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  organist  to  Queen  Anne.  He  was  a  friend 
of  Lord  Oxford,  whom  he  assisted  in  forming  his  valu- 
able collection  of  books. 

Tuerlinckx,  tii'er-links,  (Joseph,)  a  Belgian  statuary, 
born  at  Malines  in  1820. 

Tuet,  tii'a',  (Jean  Charles  Franqois,)  a  French 
litterateur,  born  at  Ham  in  1742;  died  in  1797. 

Tugrol.    See  Togrul.  ' 

Tulasne,  tii'l^n',  (Louis  Ren^;,)  a  French  botanist, 
born  at  Azay-le-Rideau  in  1815.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Studies  on  Vegetable  Embryogeny," 
(1849,)  and  "  Fungi  hypogaei,"  (1851.)  He  was  admitted 
into  the  Institute  in  1854. 

Tulden.    See  Thulden. 

Tull,  (Jethro,)  an  English  agriculturist,  born  in  Ox- 
fordshire about  1680,  was  the  originator  of  what  is  called 
the  "horse-hoeing  system"  of  husbandry.  He  published 
in  1 73 1  a  number  of  essays  on  this  subject,  which  were 
subsequently  edited  by  Mr.  Cobbett,  with  an  introduc- 
tion.   Died  in  1740. 

TulTi-a,  a  daughter  of  Servius  Tullius,  and  the  wife 
of  Tarquin  the  Proud.  She  was  accessory  to  the  murder 
of  her  father. 

TulTi-a,  [Fr.  Tullie,  tu'le',]  a  Roman  lady,  the 
daughter  of  Cicero  the  orator,  was  born  in  78  B.C. 
She  was  married  to  Calpurnius  Piso  Frugi  in  the  year 
63,  and  to  Furius  Crassipes  about  56.  Having  been 
divorced  from  him,  she  became  the  wife  of  Dolabella  in 
50  B.C.    Died  in  45  B.C. 

See  Sagitt.arius,  "  Historia  Vitae  et  Mortis  Tulliae,"  1679;  Ma- 
D.'\ME  DE  Lassav,  "  Histoire  de  Tullie,"  1726. 

Tullie.    See  Tullia. 

Tullin,  tooKlin,  (Christian  Braunman  or  Brau- 
man,)  a  Danish  poet,  born  at  Christiania,  in  Norway,  in 
1728,  was  also  a  judge.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  poem  on  navigation,  and  another  on  the  creation.  He 
is  called  the  first  classic  Danish  poet.    Died  in  1765. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

TuPli-us,  (Attius,)  was  King  of  the  Volscians  when 
Coriolanus  was  banished  from  Rome.  He  induced  the 
Volscians  to  send  an  army  against  Rome,  and  gave  the 
command  of  it  to  Coriolanus. 

Tullius,  (Servius.)    See  Servius  Tullius. 

TulTo-eh,  (John,)  a  Scottish  theologian  and  minister 
of  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland,  was  born  in  Perth- 
shire in  1823.  He  became  principal  of  Saint  Mary's 
College,  Saint  Andrew's,  in  1854.  He  has  contributed 
to  the  "  North  British  Review."  Among  his  works  are 
"  The  Being  and  Attributes  of  God,"  (1855,)  and  "  The 
Leaders  of  the  Reformation,"  (1859.)  For  the  former 
he  received  a  prize  of  £t)00. 

TulTus  Hos-tiFi-us,  third  King  of  Rome,  succeeded 
Numa  Pompilius  in  673  B.C.  He  carried  on  a  war  against 
the  Albans,  in  which  occurred  the  celebrated  combat 
between  the  Horatii  and  Curiatii,  and  which  ended  in 
the  conquest  of  Alba.  He  was  a  very  warlike  king. 
.A^ccording  to  tradition,  he  was  killed  by  lightning  about 
640  B.C. 

See  Gebauer,  "  Tullus  Hostilius,"  1720  ;  Schoemann,  "  Dis- 
sertatio  critica  de  Tullo  Hostilio,"  1847. 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as     G,  H,  y.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (S^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TULLT  2156  TURCOT 


Tully,  (the  Roman  orator.)    See  Cickro. 

Tul'ly,  (George,)  an  English  divine,  was  the  author 
of  a  "  Discourse  on  the  Government  of  the  Thoughts," 
and  other  religious  works.    Died  in  1697. 

Tully,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Carlisle 
in  1620,  published  several  controversial  works.  Died 
in  1676. 

TulTy,  (William,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished  American 
physician,  born  at  Saybrook,  Connecticut,  in  1785.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  became,  in  1830,  profes- 
sor of  materia  medica  in  the  medical  department  of  that 
institution.  He  published,  conjointly  with  Dr.  Thomas 
Miner,  essays,  entitled  "  Miner  and  Tully  on  Fever." 
Died  in  1859. 

Tulp,  tiilp,  (NiKOLAAS,)  a  Dutch  physician  and  ma- 
gistrate, born  at  Amsterdam  in  1593.  He  was  elected 
burgomaster  of  his  native  city  four  times,  and  gave  proof 
of  courage  and  energy  when  Holland  was  invaded  by  the 
French  in  1672.  He  published  a  medical  treatise,  called 
"  Observationes  Medicae,"  (1641.)    Died  in  1674. 

See  WiTTWER,  "  N.  Tulp,"  1785;  Van  Bochove,  "  Dissertatio 
de  N.  Tulpio,"  1845. 

Tunstall,  (Cuthbert.)    See  Tonstall. 

Tun'stall,  (James,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
writer,  born  about  1710.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  and 
rose  through  several  preferments  to  be  vicar  of  Roch- 
dale, in  Lancashire.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"  Discourses  upon  Natural  and  Revealed  Religion,"  "  A 
Vindication  of  the  Power  of  the  State  to  Prohibit  Clan- 
destine Marriages,"  and  "  Observations  on  the  Present 
Collection  of  Epistles  between  Cicero  and  Brutus." 
Died  in  1772. 

Tup'per,  (Martin  Farquhar,)  a  popular  English 
poet  and  novelist,  born  in  London  in  1810.  He  pub- 
lished in  1839  his  "  Proverbial  Philosophy,"  which  was 
received  with  great  favour  both  in  England  and  America 
and  passed  rapidly  through  numerous  editions.  Among 
his  other  works  we  may  name  the  "Dirge  on  Welling- 
ton," "Ballads  for  the  Times  on  White  Slavery,"  (1852,) 
and  novels  entitled  "The  Twins,"  and  "The  Crock  of 
Gold."  He  has  also  translated  the  poems  of  Alfred  the 
Great  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  into  English  verse. 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  December,  1838. 

Tura,  too'ri,  or  Turra,  toor'rS,  (Cosimo,)  sometimes 
called  Cosimo  da  Ferrara,  (di  fer-r^'ri,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1406.  He  painted  in  the 
dry,  Gothic  style.    Died  in  1469,  or  after  that  date. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Turamini,  too-ri-mee'nee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  at  Sienna  about  1558.  He  lectured  at  Sienna 
and  Ferrara,  and  published  several  legal  works. 

Tur'ber-ville,  (George,)  an  English  poet,  born 
about  1530,  went  to  Russia  as  secretary  to  Randolph,  the 
ambassador  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Songs  and  Sonnets,"  and  translated  Ovid's  '  He- 
roical  Epistles."    Died  after  1594. 

Turbido.    See  Torbido. 

Turchi,  tooR'kee,( Alessandro,)  surnamed  Orbetto, 
f'  R-bef'to,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Verona  in  1582. 
He  worked  at  Verona  and  Rome,  and  attempted  to 
combine  the  Roman  style  of  design  with  the  Venetian 
colouring.  Among  his  best  works  is  "The  Death  of 
Forty  Martyrs."    Died  at  Rome  in  1648. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ticozzi,  "Dizio 
nario." 

Turchin,  toor'chin,  (John  Basil,)  a  general,  born  in 
the  valley  of  the  Don,  in  Russia,  about  1822.  He  served 
as  a  Russian  officer  in  the  Crimean  war,  (1855,)  soon 
after  which  he  emigrated  to  the  United  States.  He 
fought  for  the  Union  in  the  civil  war. 

Turck,  tiiRk,  (Louis,)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Nancy  in  1798.  He  was  a  republican  member  of  the 
National  Assembly  in  1848. 

Turenna.    See  Turenne. 

Tu-renne',  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  tii'rgn';  Lat.  Tu- 
ren'nius;  It.  Turenna,  too-r^n'nS,]  (Henri  de  la 
Tour  d'Auvergne — deh  It  tooR  do^viRn',)  Vicomte, 
a  famous  French  general,  born  at  Sedan,  September  11, 
1611,  was  the  second  son  of  Henri,  Due  de  Bouillon. 
His  mother  was  Elizabeth,  a  daughter  of  William  the 
Silent,  Prince  of  Orange.    His  father  was  an  able  gene- 


ral, and  a  leader  of  the  French  Protestants.  Young 
Turenne  was  educated  in  the  Protestant  religion  by 
Daniel  Tilenus,  a  tolerant  Calvinist.  He  served,  in  his 
early  )^uth,  under  his  uncles  Maurice  of  Nassau  and 
Henry  Frederick,  (1625-30.)  During  this  period  of  five 
or  six  years  he  fought  against  the  Spaniards,  and  acquired 
much  practical  knowledge  of  the  art  of  war.  In  1630 
he  returned  to  France,  and  received  command  of  a  regi- 
ment. He  obtained  the  high  rank  of  marechal-de-camp 
in  1635,  and  was  sent  in  the  same  year,  under  La  Vallette, 
to  defend  Mentz  against  the  Imperialists.  In  1637  he 
took  Landrecies,  and  gained  some  successes  in  Flanders. 
As  second  in  command  under  Harcourt,  he  had  the 
principal  part  in  the  capture  of  Turin  in  1 640.  His 
promotion  was  retarded  by  the  political  course  of  bis 
brother,  the  Due  de  Bouillon.  He  was  raised  to  tlie 
rank  of  marshal  of  France  in  1643,  and  ordered  to  Ger- 
many, where  he  was  second  in  command  under  the 
Prince  of  Conde.  The  success  of  the  French  at  Nord- 
lingen  in  1645  was  attributed  to  Turenne  by  Cond^ 
himself.  In  1646,  by  judicious  plans  and  skilful  man- 
oeuvres, he  gained  important  advantages  without  much 
loss  of  life.  He  effected  a  junction  with  the  Swedish 
army,  invaded  Bavaria,  and  compelled  the  Duke  of 
Bavaria  to  sue  for  peace.  The  long  war  was  terminated 
by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  (1648,)  and  the  civil  war  of 
the  Fronde  began  in  1649,  Turenne,  probably,  felt  little 
zeal  for  either  party  in  this  contest.  He  declined  to 
fight  for  Mazarin,  and  retired  to  Holland  after  he  had 
been  superseded  in  the  command  of  the  army.  The 
Prince  of  Conde  having  been  imprisoned  by  Mazarin,  in 
January,  1650,  Turenne  declared  himself  in  favour  of  the 
captive  prince,  and  took  arms  at  Stenay  against  the 
court.  He  was  defeated  near  Rethel  by  the  royal  army 
in  December,  1650,  soon  after  which  Conde  was  liberated 
from  prison. 

In  165 1  he  went  to  Paris,  and  married  Charlotte  de 
Caumont,  a  daughter  of  Armand,  Due  de  La  Force. 
He  accepted  in  March,  1652,  the  chief  command  of  the 
royal  army,  and  was  opposed  to  the  Prince  of  Conde, 
who,  in  alliance  with  the  Spaniards,  had  renewed  the 
war.  Turenne  defeated  his  adversary  at  Paris  in  1652, 
and  at  Arras  in  1654,  after  which  the  seat  of  war  was 
transferred  to  Flanders.  He  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  Conde  and  the  Spaniards  at  the  battle  of  the 
Dunes,  near  Dunkirk,  in  1658.  Peace  was  concluded  in 
1659.  After  the  death  of  Mazarin,  Turenne  had  much 
influence  in  the  direction  of  the  foreign  policy  of  France. 
He  was  persuaded  to  become  a  Roman  Catholic  in  1668. 
He  commanded  a  large  army  which  invaded  Holland  in 
1672,  and  conquered  several  provinces  of  that  country. 
Unable  to  resist  this  army  in  battle,  the  Dutch  opened 
the  dykes,  flooded  the  country,  and  thus  checked  the  in- 
vaders. In  1674  he  defeated  the  Imperialists  in  several 
actions  near  the  Rhine,  and  ravaged  the  Palatinate  with 
excessive  cruelty, — which  is  perhaps  the  only  stain  on 
his  memory.  He  was  opposed  in  the  next  campaign  to 
Montecuculi,  an  Austrian  general  of  great  skill,  and  was 
killed  at  Salzbach  in  July,  1675.  Turenne  was  distin- 
guished for  his  modesty,  sobriety,  sound  judgment,  and 
impassible  composure  in  action. 

See  BossuET,  "  Oraison  funebre  du  Vicomte  de  Turenne,"  1676; 
Pauletti,  "Vita  di  Turenna,"  1677;  G.  de  Courtilz,  "  Vie  de 
Turenne,"  1685;  Ramsay,  "  Histoire  de  Turenne,"  2  vols.,  1735; 
Raguenet,  "  Histoire  de  Turenne,"  1738;  Fi.echier,  "Oraison 
funebre  de  Turenne,"  1675;  Sismondi,  "Histoire  de  France;" 
MiCHELF.T,  "Histoire  de  France;"  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis 
XIV;"  De  Retz,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Leveii  van  den  Marschalk  van 
'I'urenne,"  Amsterdam,  1676;  "  Lettres  et  Memoires  du  Marechal 
de  Turenne."  edited  by  Comte  de  Grimoard,  2  vols.,  1782  ;  Zan- 
thier,  "  Feldziige  des  Vicomte  de  Turenne, "  1779;  "Lives  of  the 
Warriors  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  France  and  England,"  by  Sir  Ed- 
ward Ci;sT,  London,  1867;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Turennius,    See  Turenne. 

Turgenef,  Turgenev,  or  Turgenew.  See  Toor- 
genef. 

Tur'got,  an  Anglo-Saxon  historian.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Saint  Andrew's  and  Primate  of  Scotland  in 
1107,  and  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Church  of  Durham 
from  635  to  1096."    Died  in  1115. 

Turgot,  tiiR^go',  (Anne  Robert  Jacques,)  Baron  de 
L'Aulne,  (deh  I5n,)  an  eminent  French  economist  and 
financier,  born  in  Paris  in  May,  1727.    He  studied  law, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure,  ftr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


TURGOT 


2157 


TUR  NER 


became  a  counsellor  to  the  Parliament  in  1752,  and  mas- 
ter of  requests  in  1753.  In  1761  he  was  appointed  in- 
tendant  of  Limoges.  Before  the  last  date  he  had  pro- 
duced treatises  on  various  subjects.  He  was  versed  in  the 
ancient  languages  and  many  sciences.  In  the  perform- 
ance of  his  administrative  duties  as  intendant,  he  made 
several  reforms  and  experiments  in  political  economy. 
He  suppressed  the  corvees,  opened  new  roads,  introduced 
the  use  of  potatoes,  and  distributed  the  burden  of  taxation 
more  equitably.  Having  formed  friendly  relations  with 
the  philosophic  party,  of  which  Voltaire  and  D'Alem- 
bert  were  leaders,  he  contributed  to  the  "Encyclopedic" 
articles  on  "Existence,"  " Expansibilite,"  "Fairs  and 
Markets,"  ("Foires  et  Marches,")  etc. 

He  was  appointed  in  August,  1774,  to  the  office  of 
controller-general  of  finance,  then  the  most  important 
office  of  the  government.  Among  his  first  acts  was  the 
restoration  of  free  trade  in  grain  between  the  provinces. 
He  abolished  several  oppressive  laws  and  feudal  privi- 
leges, reformed  abuses,  and  began  to  improve,  by  econ- 
omy, the  public  finances.  His  policy  was  expressed  by 
the  phrase,  "No  bankruptcy,  no  increase  of  taxes,  no 
loans."  The  courtiers,  nobles,  politicians,  and  privileged 
classes  combined  against  him.  He  was  removed  in  May, 
1776.  His  friend  Malesherbes  said  that  Turgot  had 
"the  heart  of  L'Hopital  with  the  head  of  Bacon." 
Voltaire  was  a  warm  admirer  of  Turgot,  whom  he  char- 
acterized as  the  best  minister  that  France  ever  had. 
Turgot  corresponded  with  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  wrote 
a  Memoir  on  the  American  war.    Died  in  March,  1781. 

"There  are  crises,"  says  the  "Fortnightly  Review" 
for  August,  1870,  "when  a  character  tells  far  more  than 
an  idea,  and  is  at  once  a  saving  opportunity  and  a  de- 
cisive force.  Such  a  character  was  Turgot.  The  further 
we  recede  from  the  French  Revolution,  the  more  pre- 
eminent does  this  firm  and  exalted  figure  shine  forth, — 
the  one  legislator  who  might  have  saved  France." 

See  DupoNT  de  Nemours,  "  Meinoires  sur  la  Vie  de  Turgot,"  2 
vols.,  1782;  CoNDORCET,  "Vie  de  Turgot,"  1786  ;  Droz,  "  Histoire 
du  Regiie  de  Louis  XVI ;"  M.  J.  Tissot,  "  Turgot,  sa  Vie,  son 
Administration,"  etc.,  1862;  Marmontel,  "Memoires;"  Dupuy, 
"  fiioge  historique  de  Turgot,"  1781;  Bl.a.nqui,  "Histoire  de 
I'Economie  politique;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Turgot,  (Etienne  FRAwgois,)  Marquis,  a  rural 
economist,  born  in  Paris  in  1721,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.    Died  in  1789. 

Turgot,  de,  deh  tiiR'go',  (Louis  F6lix  Etienne,) 
Marquis,  a  French  diplomatist  and  senator,  born  in 
1796.  He  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  Decem- 
ber, 1 85 1,  to  July,  1852,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Spain  in  1853. 

Turk,td6Rk,  (Daniel  Gottlob,)  a  German  musician, 
born  near  Chemnitz  in  1 75 1,  was  organist  at  Halle.  He 
wrote  several  treatises  on  music.    Died  in  1813. 

Turk,  von,  fon  tooRk,  (Karl  Christian  Wilhelm,) 
a  German  philanthropist,  born  at  Meiningen  in  1774, 
was  active  in  promoting  common-school  education, 
and  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  silk-manufacture  into 
Germany.    Died  in  1846. 

Tiirkheim,  von,  fon  tSRk'hlm',  (Johannes,)  a  po- 
litical and  historical  writer,  born  at  Strasburg  in  1746; 
died  in  1824. 

Turlupin.    See  Belleville. 

Turn'bull,  (Robert,)  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine,  born  in 
Linlithgowshire,  Scotland,  in  1809,  emigrated  to  America, 
and  settled  in  1845  pastor  of  a  church  at  Hartford, 
Cornecticut.  He  has  published  "  Christ  in  History,  or 
the  Central  Power,"  (1856,)  and  several  other  works, 
and  translated  from  the  French  Vinet's  "  Vital  Chris- 
tianity." 

Turn'buU,  (Robert  James,)  an  American  politician, 
born  in  Florida  in  1775,  He  wrote  a  number  of  treatises 
in  defence  of  the  State-Rights  party  in  South  Carolina. 
Died  in  1833. 

Turnebe.    See  Turnebus. 

Tur'ne-bus,  [Fr.  Turnebe,  tuR'nib',]  (Adrien,)  an 
eminent  French  scholar,  originally  named  Tourneboeuf, 
born  in  Normandy  in  1512.  He  studied  in  Paris,  and 
became  professor  of  Greek  in  that  city  in  1547.  He 
acquired  a  European  reputation  as  a  classical  scholar, 
translated  into  Latin  a  number  of  Greek  authors,  among 
whom  were  Plutarch  and  Theophrastus,  and  wrote  com- 


mentaries on  Cicero's  works.  According  to  a  French 
biographer,  he  was  unrivalled  as  a  professor  in  clearness, 
accuracy,  and  profundity.  Among  his  works  is  "Ad- 
versaria," (3  parts,  1564-73,)  in  which  he  corrects  and 
explains  many  passages  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1565.  He  was  eulogized  by  L'Hopital,, 
Scaliger,  and  Montaigne,  the  last  of  whom  called  him 
"  I'ame  la  plus  polie  du  monde,"  ("  the  most  polished 
(or  polite)  soul  in  the  world.")  He  had  a  son  Adrien, 
who  wrote  Latin  verses.    Died  in  1594. 

See  Passerat,  "In  Turnebi  Obitum  Nsenia,"  1651 ;  De  Thou  et 
Teissier,  "  £loges ;"  Nic^ron,  "  Memoires ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Tur'ner,  (Dawson,)  an  English  botanist  and  writer, 
born  at  Great  Yarmouth  in  1775.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  "  Fuci,  or  Coloured  Figures  and  Descrip- 
tions of  the  Plants  of  the  Genus  Fucus,"  (3  vols,  fol., 
1808,)  "A  Tour  in  Normandy,"  (1820,)  and  "The 
Botanist's  Guide  through  England  and  Wales,"  (2  vols., 
1805,)  the  last-named  conjointly  with  Mr.  L.  W.  Dill- 
wyn.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of 
other  learned  institutions.    Died  in  1858. 

Tur'ner,  (Edward,)  a  distinguished  chemist  and 
physician,  born  in  Jamaica  in  1797.  He  studied  at 
Edinburgh  and  Gottingen,  and  in  1828  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  in  the  London  University,  where 
his  lectures  gained  for  him  a  high  reputation.  His 
"Elements  of  Chemistry,"  (1827,)  often  reprinted,  is 
esteemed  a  standard  work.    Died  in  1839. 

Turner,  (Francis,)  Bishop  of  Ely,  was  one  of  the 
seven  English  prelates  who  were  prosecuted  for  resisting 
the  authority  of  James  II.  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  "  Vindication  of  Archbishop  San- 
croft,"  etc.,  and  "Animadversions  on  Naked  Truth." 
Died  in  1700. 

See  Miss  Strickland,  "Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops,"  London, 
1866. 

Turner,  (Sir  James,)  an  English  officer,  who  lived  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  and  was  notorious  for  his  cruel 
treatment  of  the  Scottish  Covenanters.  He  left  an  auto« 
biography. 

Turner,  (Joseph  Mallord  William,)  an  eminent 
English  landscape-painter,  born  in  London  in  April, 
1775,  was  a  son  of  a  hair-dresser.  He  received  only  an 
ordinary  education,  and  passed  his  boyhood  mostly  in 
London.  "  At  last,"  says  Ruskin,  "  fortune  wills  that 
the  lad's  true  life  shall  begin ;  and  one  summer  evening 
he  finds  himself  sitting  alone  among  the  Yorkshire  hills. 
For  the  first  time  the  silence  of  Nature  around  him,  her 
freedom  sealed  to  him,  her  glory  opened  to  hiin."  He 
was  admitted  as  a  student  in  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1789,  "So  taught  and  prepared  for  his  life's  labour, 
sat  the  boy  at  last  alone  among  his  fair  English  hills, 
and  began  to  paint,  with  cautious  toil,  the  rocks  and 
fields,  and  trickling  brooks,  and  soft  white  clouds  of 
heaven."  ("  Modern  Painters,"  vol.  v.)  For  many 
years  he  used  water-colours  almost  exclusively.  He 
exhibited  a  "View  of  Lambeth  Palace"  in  1790.  His 
early  pictures  represented  mostly  English  or  Welsh 
scenery.  In  1799  he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  and  exhibited  an  oil-painting  of  "The 
Battle  of  the  Nile."  He  became  a  Royal  Academician 
in  1802,  after  which  he  travelled  in  France,  Switzerland, 
and  the  valley  of  the  Rhine.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  "The  Fall  of  SchafiTiausen,"  (1805,)  "The  Sun 
Rising  through  Vapour,"  (1806,)  "Narcissus  and  Echo," 
(1814,)  "Apollo  and  Python,"  and  "Childe  Harold's 
Pilgrimage,"  (1832.)  In  1807  or  1808  he  commenced 
the  publication  of  his  famous  "  Liber  Studiorum,"  a 
series  of  prints  or  drawings.  He  visited  Italy  in  1819, 
1829,  and  1840.  According  to  Ruskin,  he  surpassed 
all  former  artists  in  "the  expression  of  the  infinite  re- 
dundance of  natural  landscape.  .  .  .  This  work,  done  by 
Turner  among  the  hills,  joining  the  most  intense  appre- 
ciation of  all  tenderness  with  delight  in  all  magnitude 
and  memory  for  all  detail,  is  never  to  be  rivalled  or 
looked  upon  in  similitude  again."  ("Modern  Painters," 
vol.  iv.  chap,  xvii.)  Turner  was  never  married.  His 
disposition  was  reserved  and  unsociable,  and  he  is  repre- 
sented as  having  been  extremely  parsimonious.  He 
died  in  London  in  December,  1851,  having  bequeathed 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  Yi.guUural:  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TURNER 


TURRETINl 


to  the  nation  a  large  number  of  oil-paintings,  which  are 
exhibited  in  the  National  Gallery. 

See  Burnett,  "Turner  and  his  Works,"  1852;  W.  Thorn- 
bury,  "Life  of  W.  Turner,"  2  vols.,  1862;  Ruskin,  "Modern 
Pointers,"  passim;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "London 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1862;  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
January,  1862. 

Turner,  (Robert,)  an  English  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  born  at  Barnstable,  lived  at  Rome,  Ingolstadt, 
and  Gratz.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Bible.  Died 
in  1599. 

Turner,  (Samuel,)  an  English  diplomatist,  born  in 
Gloucestershire  about  1759,  entered  the  service  of  the 
East  India  Company,  and  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Thibet  in  1783,  and  afterwards  to  the  Sultan  of  Mysore. 
He  published  an  "Account  of  an  Embassy  to  the  Court 
of  the  Teshoo  Lama  in  Tibet,"  (1800.)  He  was  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society.    Died  in  1802. 

Tur^'ner,  (Samuel  Hulbeart,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Episcopalian  divine,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1790.  He 
became  in  1821  professor  of  biblical  learning  in  the 
General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  and  in  1831 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  Columbia  College.  He  pub- 
lished "Thoughts  on  Scriptural  Prophecy,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1861. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Turner,  (Sharon,)  an  English  historian,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1768,  followed  the  profession  of  attorney.  His 
reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his  "  History  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons,"  (4  vols.,  1 799-1 805,)  which  is  highly 
esteemed.  He  also  published  a  "  History  of  England 
from  the  Norman  Conquest  to  the  Death  of  Elizabeth," 
(5  vols.,  1814-29,)  a  "Sacred  History  of  the  World  as 
displayed  in  the  Creation  and  Subsequent  Events  to  the 
Deluge,"  (3  vols.,  1832-39,)  and  several  poems.  Died 
in  1847. 

See  William  Jerdan,  "Men  I  have  known,"  London,  1866; 
"  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  May,  1835  ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  March, 
1803,  February,  1807,  and  November,  1824. 

Turner,  (Rev.  Sydney,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and 
chaplain  of  the  Reformatory  School  at  Red  Hill,  has 
prejjared  a  new  edition  of  his  father's  "  Sacred  History 
of  the  World,"  and  published  a  treatise  on  "Refor- 
matory Schools." 

Turner,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Reading  in  1591.  He  became  Dean  of  Canterbury. 
Died  in  1672. 

Turner,  (Thomas  Hudson,.)  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  London  in  1815.  He  published  in  1851  "Some 
Account  of  Domestic  Architecture  in  England  from 
the  Conquest  to  the  En.d  of  the  Thirteenth  Century," 
(illustrated,)  a  work  which  displays  great  learning  and 
research.    Died  in  1852. 

Turner,  (William,)  an  English  divine  and  physician, 
born  in  Northumberland  about  1520.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became  Dean  of  Wells. 
He  was  the  author  of  treatises  on  medicine,  theology, 
zoology,  and  botany ;  among  the  last-named  we  may  cite 
his  "  Herball,  or  History  of  Plants,"  said  to  have  been 
the  first  work  of  the  kind  published  in  England.  Died 
in  1568. 

Turner,  (William  Wadden,)  born  in  London  in 
1810,  emigrated  at  an  early  age  to  America,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  as  an  Oriental  scholar.  He  be- 
came in  1842  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages  at 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York.  Died  in  1859. 

Tur'nus,  [Gr.  Tvpvog,]  King  of  the  Rutulians,  was  a 
suitor  for  the  hand  of  Lavinia,  and  an  adversary  of 
.^neas,  against  whom  he  waged  war.  He  was  killed  by 
^neas  in  single  combat. 

See  Virgil,  ".^neid,"  books  vii.,  ix.,  x.,  xi.,  xii. 

Tur'nus,  a  Roman  satiric  poet,  who  probably  flour- 
ished in  the  second  half  of  the  first  century.  His  works, 
which  are  praised  by  Martial,  are  not  extant. 

Tur'pin  or  Til'pin,  [Lat  Turpi'nus,]  a  French  Bene- 
dictine n\onk,  was  made  Archbishop  of  Rheitns  by 
Charlemagne.  He  is  supposed  to  have  iDeen  the  author 
of  a  poem  celebrating  the  deeds  of  Charlemagne.  Died 
about  812. 

Turpin,  tiiR'piN',  (Franqois  Henri,)  a  French  litte- 
rateur,  born  at  Caen  in  1709,  wrote  a  "History  of  Ma- 


homet," (2  vols.,  1773,)  "France  Illustrated,  or  the 
French  Plutarch,"  (5  vols.,  1777-90,)  and  other  historical 
and  biographical  works.    Died  in  1799. 
SeeQuERARD,  "La  France  Litteraire." 

Turpin,  (Pierre  Jean  FRANgois,)  a  French  botanist 
and  designer,  born  at  Vire  in  1775.  He  visited  the 
West  Indies  in  his  youth,  returned  to  France  in  1802, 
and  was  employed  to  illustrate  with  his  designs  the 
works  of  Humboldt.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Vegetable  Iconography,"  (1841.)  Died  in  1840. 

See  AcHiLLE  Richard,  "  Notice  sur  M.  Turpin,"  1840. 

Turpin  de  Crisse,  tuR'piN'  deh  kRe'sa',  (Lancelot,) 
Count,  a  French  officer  and  military  writer,  born  in  la 
Beauce  about  1715,  served  with  distinction  in  Italy  and 
Germany,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general. 
His  principal  work,  entitled  "Essay  on  the  Art  of 
War,"  (3  vols.,  1754,)  obtained  extensive  popularity  and 
was  translated  into  English,  Gernian,  and  Russian.  He 
also  published  "Commentaries  on  Caesar,"  and  other 
similar  treatises.  He  was  created  a  commander  of  the 
order  of  Saint  Louis  in  1771,  and  lieutenant-general  in 
1780.    Died  about  1795. 

See  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais." 

Turpin  de  Crisse,  (Lancelot  Theodore,)  Count, 
a  French  artist,  born  in  Paris  in  1782.  He  painted 
landscapes,  published  a  "Voyage  to  Naples,"  and  was 
admitted  into  the  Institute.    Died  in  1859. 

Turquet.    See  Mayerne. 

Turquety,  tilR^keh-te',  (Edouard,)  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Rennes  in  1801,  wrote  "  Poetical  Sketches," 
("  Esquisses  poetiques,"  1829,)  "Love  and  Faith," 
(1833,)  "  Primavera,"  (1840,)  and  other  poems. 

Tiirr,  tiiR,  (Stephen,)  a  Hungarian  patriot  and  gene- 
ral, born  at  Baja  about  1820.  He  joined  the  Italian 
army  in  1849,  ^'""d  fought  against  Austria.  In  the  Cri- 
mean war  he  served  in  the  allied  army  against  Russia. 
He  enlisted,  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  in  the  army 
of  Garibaldi  in  1859,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the 
liberation  of  Sicily  in  i860.  He  became  a  general  of 
division  in  the  Italian  service,  and  married  a  grand- 
daughter of  Lucien  Bonaparte. 

Turranius.    See  Rufinus. 

Turreau,  tii'ro',  (Louis,)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  at 
Orbec  about  1760.  He  was  a  violent  member  of  the 
Convention,  1792-95.    Died  in  1796. 

Turreau  de  Linieres,  tii'rS' deh  le'ne-aiR',  (Louis 
Marie,)  Baron,  a  French  general,  born  "aTfivreux  in 
1756.  He  commanded  an  army  which  defeated  the  Ven- 
dean  insurgents  in  1793,  and  was  ambassador  to  the 
United  States  from  1804  to  181 1.    Died  in  1816. 

Turrecremata,  the  Latin  of  Torquemada,  which 
see. 

Turrell  or  Turrel,  tu'rgK,[LaL  Turel'lus,]  (Pierre,) 
a  French  astrologer,  and  rector  of  the  College  of  Dijon, 
wrote  "  The  Period  of  the  World,"  ("  La  Periode  du 
Monde,"  1531.)    Died  about  1547. 

Turretin.    See  Turretinl 

Turretini,  toor-ra-tee'nee,  [Fr.  Turretin,  tu''reh- 
tS-N'  or  tiiR'tiN,]  (Benedict,)  a  Swiss  theologian,  born 
at  Zurich  in  1588,  was  eminent  for  his  learning  and 
talents.  He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Geneva  in 
1612,  and  published  several  works  on  theology.  Died 
in  163 1. 

Turretini  or  Turretin,  [Lat.  Turreti'nus,]  (I  ran- 
gois,)  an  eminent  Swiss  theologian,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Geneva  in  1623.  He  studied  undei 
Spanheim  and  Diodati,  became  an  eloquent  preacher, 
and  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Geneva  in 
1653.  He  had  great  influence  in  the  Church.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  "Theological  and  Controversial  Institutes," 
("  Institutiones  Theologiae  Elencticas,"  3  vols.,  1679-85,) 
which  was  highly  esteemed.    Died  at  Geneva  in  1687. 

See  PiCTET,  "Memoria  F.  Turretini  celebrata,"  1688. 

Turretini  or  Turretin,  [Lat.  Turreti'nus,]  (Jean 
Alphonse,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and  the  most  cele- 
brated member  of  the  family,  was  born  at  Geneva  in 
167 1.  He  studied  at  Leyden  and  in  England,  gained 
distinction  as  a  preacher,  and  became  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Geneva  in  1705.  He  was  a  liberal  theologian, 
who  endeavoured  to  promote  union  among  the  different 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  4,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \\,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f2.t;  mSt;  not;  good;  moon; 


TURRETINUS 


2159 


TTCHSEN 


Protestant  sects.  He  opposed  with  success  the  regula- 
tion that  candidates  for  the  ministry  should  be  required 
to  sign  the  Consensus.  His  chief  works  are  "Cloud  of 
Witnesses  in  favour  of  Moderate  and  Pacific  Judgment 
concerning  Theological  Affairs,"  ("  Nubes  Testium  pro 
moderato  et  pacifico  de  Rebus  Theologicis  Judicio," 
1719,)  and  "Theological  Cogitations  and  Dissertations," 
("  Cogitationes  et  Uissertationes  theologicae,"  2  vols., 
1737.)    Died  in  1737. 

See  Senebier,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  Geneve;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Turretinus.    See  Turretini. 

Turrian,  toor-re-ln',  [Fr.  Turrien,  tii^'re-iN' ;  Lat. 
Turria'nus,]  or  Torres,  tor'rSs,  (Francisco,)  a  Span- 
ish Jesuit  and  writer,  born  at  Herrera  about  1504.  He 
wrote  many  works  of  little  merit.  In  1562  he  was  sent 
by  the  pope  to  the  Council  of  Trent.    Died  in  1584. 

Turrianus.    See  Turrian. 

Turrien.    See  Turrian. 

Tur-sel-li'nus,  (Horatius,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  ori- 
ginally named  Torsellino,  (toR-s§l-lee'no,)  born  at  Rome 
in  1545,  became  rector  of  the  Jesuits'  Seminary  in  his 
native  city.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  the  use 
of  the  Latin  particles,  "  De  Usu  Particularum  Latini 
Sermonis,"  (1598,)  which  ranks  among  the  most  valuable 
works  of  the  kind  ;  also  an  "  Epitome  of  Universal  His- 
tory," (in  Italian,)  and  "  Life  of  Saint  Francis  Xavier," 
(in  Latin,  1594.)    Died  in  1599. 

See  MoREKi,  "  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Tur'ton,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
about  1780.  He  became  Dean  of  Peterborough  in  1830, 
and  Bishop  of  Ely  in  1845.    Died  in  1864. 

Turton,  (William,)  an  English  ])hysician  and  natu- 
ralist, born  before  1800.  Among  his  principal  works 
we  may  name  a  conchological  dictionary  of  the  British 
Islands,  (1819,)  "Conchylia  Insularum  Britannicarum," 
or  "Shells  of  the  British  Islands,"  systematically  ar- 
ranged, (1822,  illustrated,)  and  "Manual  of  the  Land 
and  Fresh- Water  Shells  of  the  British  Islands,"  (183 1.) 

Tussanus.    See  Toussain. 

Tus'ser,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet  and  writer  on 
agriculture,  was  born  in  Essex  about  1520.  His  principal 
work  is  entitled  "Five  Hundred  Points  of  Good  Hus- 
bandry united  to  as  many  of  Good  Housewifery,"  (1573,) 
and  was  dedicated  to  his  patron.  Lord  Paget.  It  is 
written  in  verse,  and  accompanied  by  an  interesting 
memoir  of  the  author.    Died  about  1580. 

See  Fuller,  "Worthies  of  Essex." 

Tutch'in,  (John,)  an  English  political  writer  under 
the  reign  of  James  II.,  was  a  partisan  of  the  Duke  of 
Monmouth.    Died  in  1707. 

Tuthill,  tut'il,  (Louisa  Caroline  Huggins,)  an 
American  writer,  born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  was 
married  in  1817.  She  has  published  "  James  Somers, 
the  Pilgrim's  Son,"  (1827,)  "My  Wife,"  a  novel,  "The 
History  of  Architecture,"  (1848,)  "The  Nursery  Book," 
(1849,)  and  other  original  works;  also,  a  compilation 
entitled  "  The  Young  Ladies'  Reader." 

Tutilo,  to(/te-lo,  or  Tuotilo,  too-o'te-lo,  a  learned 
Swiss  monk,  was  distinguished  for  his  proficiency  in 
music,  eloquence,  and  the  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture. 
Died  about  896. 

Tut'tle,  (James  M.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Monroe  county,  Ohio,  about  1823.  He  served  as  colonel 
at  Shiloh,  April,  1862,  and  commanded  a  Federal  brigade 
at  the  siege  of  Vicksburg  in  May  and  June,  1863. 

Twed'dell,  (John,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
Northumberland  in  1769.  Having  studied  at  Cambridge, 
he  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College  in  1792,  and 
in  1795  set  out  on  a  tour  to  the  continent.  While  en- 
gaged in  exann'ning  the  remains  of  art  at  Athens,  he 
died,  after  a  few  days'  illness,  (1799,)  leaving  a  collection 
of  manuscripts  and  drawings,  which  were  unfortunately 
lost  on  the  voyage  to  England.  A  selection  from  his 
letters  was  published  in  181 5  by  his  brother  Robert, 
with  a  memoir  of  the  author. 

See  the  "  Erlinbiirg;h  Review"  for  October,  1815 ;  "  London  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  October,  1815. 

Tweed'dale,  (George  Hay.)  Marquis  of,  a  British 
general,  born  in  1787.  He  served  in  the  Peninsular  war, 


(1808-14,)  ^"<^  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  general  in  1854. 
He  was  a  representative  peer  of  Scotland. 

Twells,  (Leonard,)  an  English  clergyman,  graduated 
at  Cambridge  in  1704.  He  preached  in  London,  and 
wrote  on  theology.    Died  in  1742. 

Twes'ten,  (August  Detlev  Christian,)  professor 
of  theology  at  Kiel  in  1819,  was  born  at  Gluckstadt  in 
1789.  He  succeeded  Schleiermacher  in  1835  in  the 
chair  of  theology  at  Berlin.  He  published  several  philo- 
sophical and  religious  works. 

Twigg!3,  twigz,  (David  Emanuel,)  an  American  gene- 
ral, born  in  Georgia  in  1790.  He  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general  in  1847. 
He  joined  the  secession  party  in  1861.  He  was  deprived 
of  his  rank  in  the  United  States  army.  Died  at  Augusta, 
Georgia,  in  September,  1862. 

Twiggs,  (Levi,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  b(.rn 
at  Richmond  City,  Georgia,  in  1793.  He  served  under 
General  Scott  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  was  mortally 
wounded  in  the  assault  upon  Chapultepec,  1847. 

Twinger,  (James.)    See  Konigshoven. 

Twinning,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  1734, 
studied  at  Cambridge,  and  became  rector  of  White  Not- 
ley,  in  Essex,  in  1768.  He  published  an  excellent 
translation  of  Aristotle's  "Poetics,"  accompanied  with 
notes  and  with  two  dissertations  on  poetical  and  musical 
imitation,  (1789.)    Died  m  1804. 

Twining,  (William,)  a  distinguished  physician  and 
surgeon,  born  in  Nova  Scotia,  studied  in  London,  where 
he  afterwards  became  a  member  of  the  College  of  Sur- 
geons. He  was  appointed  in  1830  one  of  the  surgeons 
to  the  Civil  Hospital  at  Calcutta.  He  published  "  Clin- 
ical Illustrations  of  the  More  Important  Diseases  of 
Bengal,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1832.)    Died  in  1835. 

Twiss,  (Horace,)  an  English  politician  and  writer, 
born  in  1786  or  1787.  He  became  a  member  of  Par- 
liament, and  published  a  "Life  of  Lord  Eldon."  Died 
in  1849. 

Twiss,  (Richard,)  an  English  traveller,  born  in  1747, 
published  "Travels  through  Portugal  and  Spain  in  1772 
and  1773-4,"  "  A  Tour  in  Ireland  in  1775-8,"  "Miscel- 
lanies," and  other  works.    Died  in  1821. 

Twiss,  (Travers,)  an  English  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  in  \¥estminster  about  1810.  He  became  professor 
of  political  economy  at  Oxford  about  1842,  and  obtained 
a  chair  of  civil  law  there  in  1855.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  the  law  of  nations,  etc. 

Twiss,  (William,)  a  learned  English  nonconformist 
minister,  born  in  Berkshire  about  1575,  was  a  Calvinist. 
He  was  prolocutor  to  the  Westminster  Assembly  of 
Divines,  in  1643,  and  wrote  several  controversial  works, 
among  which  is  "Defence  of  Grace,"  ("  Vindiciae 
Grati?e,"  1632,)  against  Arminianism.  He  was  curate 
of  Newbury  for  many  years.    Died  in  1646. 

Twyne,  (Brian,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  1579, 
became  keeper  of  the  archives  at  Oxford,  and  wrote  on 
the  antiquities  of  that  place.    Died  in  1644. 

Twyne,  (John,)  an  antiquary,  born  in  Hampshire, 
was  a  grandfather  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  on  British 
antiquities.    Died  in  1581. 

Twys'den,  (Sir  Roger,)  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  Kent  in  1597,  was  the  author  of  "The  Historical 
Defence  of  the  Church  of  England,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1672. 

Ty.    See  Tyr. 

Ty'-ehe,  [Gr.  Tvxr]^  in  Greek  mythology,  the  personi- 
fication of  chance  or  luck,  corresponded  with  the  Roman 
Fortuna.  She  was  represented  sometimes  with  a  ball, 
and  sometimes  with  the  horn  of  Amalthea. 

Tycho  Brahe.    See  Brahe. 

Tychsen,  tiik'sen  or  t!K'sen,  (Olaus  Gerhard,)  an 
eminent  Orientalist,  born  at  Tondern,  in  vSleswick,  in 
1734.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  in  1763  became  profes- 
sor of  the  Oriental  languages  at  Blitzow,  where  he  soon 
acquired  the  highest  reputation  as  a  teacher.  He  died 
in  1815,  leaving  a  very  valuable  library,  which  was  pur- 
chased by  the  University  of  Rostock.  He  was  author 
of  treatises  on  the  Phoenician  and  Arabic  languages, 
and  a  work  entitled  "  Leisure  Hours  of  Biitzow,"  (1769.) 

See  Hartmann,  "O.  Tychsen,"  etc.,  5  vols.,  1818-20;  "Nou- 
velle Biographic  Generale." 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  Y^^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  sas  z;  th  as  in  this,    (S^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TTCHSEN 


2160 


TTNDJLL 


Tychsen,  (Thomas  Christian,)  a  philologist,  born, 
in  Sleswick  in  1758.  Having  studied  at  Gottingen,  he 
visited  Germany  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  after 
his  return  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Jews,"  (1789,)  an 

Arabic  Grammar,"  an  edition  of  Smyrnasus,  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1834. 

Tydee.    See  Tydeus. 

Tydemaii,  tl'deh-min',  (Minard,)  a  Dutch  scholar 
and  writer,  born  at  Zwolle  in  1741.  He  was  professor 
of  law  at  Utrecht,  and  removed  to  Leyden  about  1801. 
Died  in  1825. 

Ty'deiis,  [Gr.  Tvdevq ;  Fr.  Tyd^^e,  te'di',]  a  mythical 
hero,  was  a  son  of  CEneus,  King  of  Calydon,  and  a 
brother  of  Meleager.  He  married  Deipyle,  (sometimes 
written  Deiphyle,)  a  daughter  of  Adrastus,  and  was  the 
father  of  Diomede.  He  was  one  of  the  seven  chiefs  that 
led  the  famous  expedition  against  Thebes,  in  order  to 
restore  Polynices.  In  this  war  he  was  mortally  wounded 
jy  Melanippus. 

Tydide.    See  Tydides. 

Ty-di'des,  [Gr.  Tvdddrjg ;  Fr.  Tydide,  te'd^d',]  a 
patronymic  of  Diomede,  the  son  of  Tydeus. 

Tye,  ti,  (Christopher,)  an  eminent  English  musi* 
cian,  born  in  Westminster,  was  patronized  by  Henry 
Vni.,  who  appointed  him  musical  teacher  to  Prince 
Edward.  He  became  organist  to  the  chapel  royal  under 
the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  His  compositions  are 
chiefly  anthems  and  church  music. 

Tylers,  (Thomas,)  an  English  miscellaneous  writer, 
born  in  1726,  was  one  of  the  proprietors  of  Vauxhall, 
London.  Among  his  works  is  *'  Biographical  Sketches 
of  Dr.  Johnson,"  (1784.)    Died  in  1787. 

Ty'ler,  (Bennet,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Middlebury,  Connecticut,  in  1783,  was 
elected  in  1822  president  of  Dartmouth  College.  He 
wrote  a  "History  of  the  New  Haven  Theology,"  (1837,) 
and  a  number  of  religious  and  controversial  works. 
Died  in  1858. 

Tyler,  (Daniel,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Con- 
necticut in  1799,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1819.  He 
was  a  civil  engineer  before  the  rebellion.  He  com- 
manded a  division  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21, 
1861. 

Tyler,  (Erastus  B.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Ontario  county.  New  York,  about  1822,  became  a 
resident  of  Ohio  in  his  youth.  He  commanded  a 
brigade  of  the  Union  army  at  the  battles  of  Port  Re- 
public (June,  1862)  and  of  Fredericksburg,  December 
13,  1862. 

Tyler,  (John,)  the  tenth  President  of  the  United 
States,  born  in  Charles-City  county,  Virginia,  in  March, 
1790,  was  a  son  of  John  Tyler,  Governor  of  Virginia. 
He  studied  law,  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1816,  and  served  in  that  body  about  five  years,  during 
which  he  opposed  a  protective  tariff  and  the  Bank  of  the 
United  States.  He  was  originally  a  republican  of  the 
Virginia  school,  and  supported  W.  H.  Crawford  for  the 
Presidency  in  1824.  In  1825  he  became  Governor  of 
Virginia,  and  in  March,  1827,  was  elected  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States  in  place  of  John  Randolph  of  Roan- 
oke. He  voted  against  the  tariff  bill  of  1828,  and 
against  all  measures  of  internal  improvement,  and  was  a 
partisan  of  General  Jackson  in  the  election  of  that  year. 
He  sympathized  with  the  nuliifiers  of  South  Carolina  in 
1832,  became  an  opponent  of  Jackson's  administration, 
and  voted  alone  in  the  Senate  against  the  "Force  Bill" 
which  was  passed  against  the  nuliifiers  in  February,  1833. 
He  was  re-elected  for  a  term  of  six  years,  commencing 
December,  1833,  soon  after  which  date  he  opposed  the 
removal  of  the  public  deposits  from  the  Bank  of  the 
United  States,  and  supported  Mr.  Clay's  resolution 
which  censured  the  President  for  the  removal  of  the 
same.  The  legislature  of  Virginia,  about  February, 
1836,  instructed  the  Virginia  Senators  -to  vote  for  ex- 
punging the  resolution  of  censure  just  mentioned,  but 
Mr.  Tyler  preferred  to  resign  his  seat,  and  refused  to 
obey  their  instructions.  He  became  identified  with  the 
Whig  party,  and  in  the  National  Convention  which  met 
in  December,  1839,  he  zealously  supported  Mr.  Clay 
for  the  Presidency.    He  was  then  nominated  for  Vice- 


President,  General  Harrison  being  the  Presidential 
candidate,  and  was  elected  in  November,  1840. 

In  consequence  of  the  death  of  President  Harrison, 
(April  4,  1841,)  Mr.  Tyler  became  President  of  the 
United  States.  He  retained  in  office  the  cabinet  min- 
isters appointed  by  General  Harrison.  He  soon  after 
began  to  quarrel  with  Mr.  Clay  and  the  majority  of  those 
who  had  elected  himself  to  the  Vice-Presidency.  He 
vetoed  a  national  bank  bill  which  was  passed  by  Con- 
gress about  the  6th  of  August,  1841,  although  the  prin- 
cipal provisions  of  that  bill  had  been  suggested  by  Mr. 
Ewing,  secretary  of  the  treasury.  "Congress  having 
passed  another  bank  bill,"  says  Mr.  Greeley,  "based 
entirely  on  his  own  suggestions,  and  conforming  in  all 
points  to  his  requirements,  he  vetoed  that  also,"  (about 
September  10,  1841.)  This  veto  provoked  the  indig- 
nation of  the  Whigs,  who  denounced  the  President  for 
betraying  their  confidence.  It  caused  the  resignation 
of  all  the  members  of  the  cabinet  except  Daniel  Webster, 
who  was  secretary  of  state,  and  who  remained  in  office 
in  order  to  complete  important  negotiations  with  the 
British  government.  Having  concluded  a  treaty  with 
Lord  Ashburton  on  the  subject  of  the  northeastern 
boundary,  Webster  resigned  in  May,  1843.  In  July, 
1843,  the  President  reorganized  his  cabinet,  to  which  he 
appointed  several  Democrats.  The  department  of  state 
was  then  given  to  Abel  P.  Upshur,  who  was  accidentally 
killed  in  February,  1844,  and  was  succeeded  by  John  C. 
Calhoun.  He  concluded  in  April,  1844,  a  treaty  of 
annexation  with  the  republic  of  Texas,  which  was  rejected 
by  the  Senate.  Mr.  Tyler  continued  to  promote  the 
annexation  of  Texas,  which,  by  the  aid  of  the  Democrats, 
he  effected  March  i,  1845.  His  intrigues  to  obtain  a 
nomination  for  the  Presidency  were  not  successful,  and 
he  retired  to  private  life  on  the  4th  of  March,  1845. 

He  was  president  of  the  Peace  Conference  or  Conven- 
tion which  met  in  Washington  in  February,  1861.  Having 
joined  the  disunion  movement,  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Confederate  Congress  about  March,  1861.  Died 
in  Richmond  in  January,  1862. 

See  Greeley,  "American  Conflict,"  vol.  i.  pp.  154-156;  "Demo- 
cratic Review"  for  November,  1842,  (with  a  portrait.) 

Tyler,  (Royall,)  an  American  jurist  and  humorous 
writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1756.  His  comedy  entitled 
"The  Contrast"  was  performed  in  New  York  in  1786 
with  brilliant  success.  His  other  principal  work^are 
"  The  Algerine  Captive,"  a  novel,  and  the  comedies  of 
"May-Day,  or  New  York  in  an  Uproar,"  and  "The 
Georgia  Spec,  or  Land  in  the  Moon."    Died  in  1826. 

See  DuYCKiNCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature." 

Tyler,  (Samuel,)  an  American  lawyer  and  philo- 
sophical writer,  born  in  Prince  George's  county,  Mary- 
land, in  1809.  He  has  published  a  "Discourse  of  the 
Baconian-  Philosophy,"  (1844,)  "The  Progress  of  Phi- 
losophy in  the  Past  and  in  the  Future,"  (1859,)  and  other 
similar  works. 

TyTer,  (Wat,)  an  English  rebel,  was  a  leader  of  a 
large  number  of  men  who  revolted  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  England  in  1381  in  consequence  of  a  capitation 
tax.  They  massacred  several  persons  of  the  higher 
classes,  committed  much  devastation,  and  marched 
towards  London.  Tyler  was  killed  by  the  mayor  of 
London  in  1381. 

Tyler,  (William  Seymour,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Presbyterian  divine  and  scholar,  born  in  Susquehanna 
county,  Pennsylvania,  in  1810.  He  became  professor 
of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages  at  Amherst  College 
about  1836.  He  also  published  editions  of  the  "  Ger- 
mania"  and  "Agricola"  of  Tacitus,  the  "Histories"  of 
Tacitus,  and  Plato's  "Apology"  and  "Crito,"  and  a 
number  of  theological- treatises. 

Tyndale.    See  Tindale. 

Tyn'dall,  (John,)  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  a  distinguished 
physicist,  born  in  Ireland  about  1820,  was  appointed 
professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  Royal  Institution, 
London,  in  1853.  Among  his  works  are  "  Peaks,  Passes, 
and  Glaciers,"  (i860,)  and  a  treatise  entitled  "  Heat  Con- 
sidered as  a  Mode  of  Motion,"  (1862,)  which  enjoys  a 
high  reputation.  Professor  Tyndall  has  probably  done 
more  than  any  other  English  writer  to  make  known  and 
popularize  the  great  scientific  truth  of  the  mutual  con- 


si,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon: 


TTNDARE 


2161 


TTRWHITT 


vertibility  of  heat  and  motion.  "There  is  a  moral  force 
and  vividness  of  intellect  about  all  he  writes  which  fasci- 
nates the  attention  at  once,  and  makes  you  feel  that  you 
are  in  contact  with  a  mind  of  far  more  than  the  ordinary 
intensity."  (London  "  Spectator,"  June  8,  1867.)  He 
contributed  to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  several 
memoirs  on  radiant  heat,  and  published  "  Lectures  on 
Sound,"  (1867.) 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  October,  i86g. 

Tyndare  or  Tyndaree.    See  Tyndarus. 

Tyn'da-rus  or  Tyn-da're-us,  [Gr.  Tw(5upeof  or 
Hvv^apeiaiq,  rarely,  if  ever,  Twdapof;*  Fr.  Tyndar^e, 
tiN'di'ri',  or  Tyndare,  tiN'dtR',]  a  fabulous  king  of 
Sparta,  married  Leda,  and  had  a  number  of  children, 
among  whom  were  Castor,  Pollux,  and  Helen,  The 
poets  relate  that  he  exacted  from  the  numerous  suitors 
of  Helen  an  oath  that  they  would  defend  her  and  the 
husband  whom  she  should  choose  against  all  their  ene- 
mies.   (See  Helen.) 

Tyng,  (Stephen  Higginson,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Episcopalian  divine,  born  at  Newburyport,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1800.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College,  became 
rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Epiphany,  Philadelphia,  in 
1833,  and  in  1845  Saint  George's  Church,  New  York. 
He  has  published  "  Lectures  on  the  Law  and  the  Gos- 
pel," (1848,)  "  Family  Commentary  on  the  Four  Gospels," 
(1849,)  "  The  Child  of  Prayer,"  (a  memoir  of  his  son,  the 
Rev.  Dudley  A.  Tyng,)  and  other  religious  works. 

Typhaon.    See  Typhon. 

Typhee  or  Typhoee.    See  Typhon. 

Ty'phon,  Ty-pha'on,  or  T^-pho'eus,  [Gr.  Tv^awv, 
Tv<pudx,  Tv^ug ;  Fr.  Typhon,  teT6N',  Typhoee,  or  Ty- 
phee, teW,]  in  classic  mythology,  was  a  giant  and  fire- 
breathing  monster,  the  father  of  Chimaera,  Cerberus,  and 
the  Sphinx.  According  to  the  fable,  he  rebelled  against 
the  gods,  some  of  whom  fled  to  Egypt  and  concealed 
themselves  under  the  forms  of  different  animals.  He 
was  finally  vanquished  by  Jupiter  and  buried  under 
Mount  Etna. 

Typot,  te'po',  written  also  Typoest,  [Lat.  Typo'- 
Tius,)  (James,)  a  Flemish  jurist  and  writer,  born  at 
Bruges  about  1550.  At  the  invitation  of  King  John  HL 
he  went  to  Sweden,  where  he  was  imprisoned  from  1582 
to  1594.  Soon  after  the  latter  date  he  went  to  the  court 
of  the  emperor  Rudolph,  who  gave  him  the  title  of 
historiographer.  He  wrote  "  On  Fame,"  ("  De  Fama,") 
"On  Fortune,"  ("De  Fortuna,")  and  a  "History  of 
Sweden,"  (1605.)    Died  at  Prague  in  1601  or  1602. 

Typotius.    See  Typot. 

Tyr,  teer,  (or  t^R,)  or  Ty,  tee,  [supposed  to  be  allied  to 
the  Anglo-Saxon  tir,  signifying  "glorious,"  "  mighty,"t] 
the  most  fearless  of  all  the  gods  of  the  Northmen,  was  a 
son  of  Odin,  but  his  mother  was  of  the  race  of  giants, 
(Jotuns.)  He  is  called  "  the  one-handed,"  an  epithet 
which  is  explained  by  the  following  legend.  The  most 
terrible  of  all  the  enemies  of  the  gods  was  the  wolf 
Fenrir,  destined  by  the  appointment  of  the  Nomas  to  be 
the  destroyer  of  Odin.  When  young,  he  was  brought  up 
among  the  ^sir,  but  Tyr  alone  had  the  courage  to  give 
him  food.  As  he  increased  in  strength,  the  gods,  anx- 
iously calling  to  mind  the  predictions  that  heWas  fated 
to  be  their  destruction,  resolved,  if  possible,  to  bind  him. 
After  various  unsuccessful  attempts,  they  at  last  caused 
to  be  constructed  a  magic  chain,  which,  though  soft  and 
slender  as  a  silken  cord,  was  of  inconceivable  strength. 
But  the  difficulty  was  to  fasten  it  on  him.  He  had  readily 
allowed  the  Ms\r  to  bind  him  with  other  chains,  which 
he  had  broken  without  much  difficulty;  but  now  his  sus- 
picions were  excited  by  the  seeming  frailty  of  the  new- 
made  band.  The  gods  assured  him  that  he  could  easily 
break  it,  but  even  if  he  did  not  they  promised  they  would 
instantly  release  him  after  he  had  once  tried  his  strength 
upon  it.  The  wolf  replied,  "  If  I  cannot  free  myself,  I 
am  well  convinced  I  shall  wait  long  to  be  released  by 
you  ;  but,  rather  than  you  shall  charge  me  with  a  want 


*  See  LiDDELL  and  Scott,  "Greek-English  Lexicon." 

t  It  would  seem  to  be  a  probable  conjecture  that  it  might  be  de- 
rived directly  from  tyr,  a  "bull,"  of  which  the  inconsiderate  reckless 
daring  not  a  little  resembles  that  of  the  god  Tyr,  although  some  of 
the  Norse  writers  say,  strangely  enough,  that  Tyr  was  remarkable 
for  the  union  of  prudence  (or  discretion)  with  courage. 


of  courage,  let  one  of  you  place  his  hand  in  my  mouth 
as  a  pledge  of  your  sincerity,  and  I  will  consent  to  be 
bound."  The  gods  now  looked  at  one  another,  but  no 
one  had  the  hardihood  to  offer  his  hand.  At  length 
Tyr  stretched  forth  his  right  hand  and  placed  it  within 
the  jaws  of  the  wolf.  The  monster  now  began  to  strug- 
gle, but  the  more  he  strove  the  more  tightly  he  was 
bound  by  the  magic  chain.  Hereupon  all  the  gods  be- 
gan to  laugh,  except  Tyr,  who  had  good  reason  to  be 
serious,  since  he  had  through  his  rashness  lost  his  right 
hand.  It  is  a  proverbial  saying  of  a  man  of  surpassing 
courage  that  he  is  as  brave  as  Tyr.  Being  the  bravest 
of  the  gods,  he  was  the  deity  especially  worshipped  by 
brave  men.  On  account  of  his  courage,  Tyr  may  be 
styled  "  the  Northern  Mars  ;"  Tuesday  (that  is,  "  Tyr's- 
day"  or  "Ty'sday")  is  called  in  modern  Latin  dies  Martis, 
("Mars-day,")  whence  the  French  Mardi.  At  the  de- 
struction of  the  world  Tyr  will  be  slain  by  the  dog 
Garm. 

See  Mallet,  "  Northern  Antiquities,"  vol.  ii.  Fable  XIV. ; 
Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology." 

Ty-ran'm-o  or  Ty-ran'ni-on,  [Gr.  Tvpawtwv,]  a 
Greek  grammarian,  born  in  Pontus,  was  made  prisoner 
by  the  Romans,  and  taken  in  72  B.C.  to  Rome,  where  he 
resided  as  a  teacher.  His  learning  and  abilities  are  highly 
commended  by  Cicero,  who  employed  him  to  arrange  his 
library  and  to  instruct  his  nephew  Quintus,  56  B.C. 

Tyrannion.   See  Tyrannic. 

Tyrannius.    See  Rufinus. 

Tyrants,  Thirty.    See  Thirty  Tyrants,  The. 

Tyr-con'nel,  (Richard  Talbot,)  Earl  of,  an  Irish 
royalist,  of  Norman  descent.  "  In  his  youth  he  had 
been  one  of  the  most  noted  sharpers  and  bullies  of 
London.  He  had  been  introduced  to  Charles  and  James 
when  they  were  exiles  in  Flanders,  as  a  man  fit  and 
ready  for  the  infamous  service  of  assassinating  the  Pro- 
tector." (Macaulay,  "  History  of  England.")  In  1687 
he  was  appointed  lord  deputy  of  Ireland,  the  Protestant 
population  of  which  he  resolved  to  exterminate.  He 
commanded  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  against  William 
III.,  and  was  defeated,  (1690.)  In  the  campaign  of  1691 
he  assumed  authority  over  the  army,  and  interfered 
with  Saint  Ruth,  who  had  a  commission  as  commander- 
in-chief.    Died  in  1691. 

"  Under  an  outward  show  of  levity,  profusion,  and 
eccentric  impudence,"  says  Macaulay,  "he  was  in  truth 
one  of  the  most  mercenary  and  crafty  of  mankind." 
("  History  of  England.") 

Tyr'rell,  James,)  an  English  political  writer,  born  in 
London  in  1642,  was  a  grandson,  on  the  mother's  side, 
of  Archbishop  Usher.  After  the  revolution  of  1688  he 
published  a  collection  of  political  dialogues,  entitled 
"  Bibliotheca  Politica,  or  an  Enquiry  into  the  Antient 
Constitution  of  the  English  Government,"  etc.,  (1718.) 
His  most  important  work  is  his  "General  History  of 
England,  both  Ecclesiastical  and  Civil,"  (3  vols,  fob, 
1700.)    Died  in  1718. 

Tyrtaeus,  tir-tee'us,  [Gr.  Tvpratof;  Fr.  Tyrt^e, 
t^R'ti';  Ger.  Tyrtaus,  teeR-ta'ils,]  a  celebrated  Greek 
elegiac  poet  and  musician,  supposed  to  have  been  a 
native  of  Miletus,  flourished  about  685  B.C.  According 
to  tradition,  the  Spartans,  instructed  by  the  Delphic 
oracle,  requested  the  Athenians  to  send  them  a  leader. 
The  Athenians,  in  derision,  sent  Tyrtaeus,  a  lame  school- 
master. He  composed  martial  songs  by  which  the 
Spartans  were  animated  to  victory  in  their  war  against 
the  Messenians.  His  war-songs  had  a  great  and  lasting 
influence  over  the  Spartans,  who  continued  to  sing  them 
for  several  centuries.  To  remove  dissensions  among 
the  Spartans,  he  wrote  a  political  elegy,  called  "  Euno- 
mia,"  some  fragments  of  which  are  extant. 

See  A.  Matthi^,  "  De  Tyrtasi  Carminibus,"  1820;  N.  Bach, 
"Ueber  Tyrtasus,"  1830  ;  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  June,  1835  ;  K. 
O.  MuLLER,  "  History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece;"  Fa- 
BRicius.  "Bibliotheca  Grasca." 

Tyrtaus.    See  Tyrtaus. 
Tyrtee.    See  Tyrtaus. 

Tyrwhitt,  ter'it,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  phi- 
lologist and  antiquary,  born  in  London  in  1730.  He 
studied  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1762  was  ap- 
pointed clerk  of  the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  also 
curator  of  the  British  Museum,  and  a  Fellow  of  the 


c  asi;  9as  s;  |  hard;  g  as/;  g,  h,  Y.,p*ttural;  n,  nasal;  r.  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

136 


rrsoN 


2162 


UDJL 


Royal  Society  and  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  Among 
his  nunaerous  and  valuable  works  we  may  name  his 
"Dissertation  on  Babrius,"  (1776,)  "Conjectures  upon 
Strabo,"  (1783,) — both  in  Latin, — an  excellent  edition 
of  Chaucer's  "Canterbury  Tales,"  "Poems  supposed 
to  have  been  written  at  Bristol  in  the  Tenth  Century 
by  Rowley,"  etc,  in  which  he  exposes  the  fraud  of 
Chatterton,  and  an  edition  of  the  "Poetics"  of  Aristotle. 
He  died  in  1786.  Plis  "Conjectures  upon  ^Eschylus, 
Euripides,  and  Aristophanes"  came  out  in  1822. 

Ty'son,  (Edward,)  an  English  physician  and  anato- 
mist, born  in  Somersetshire  in  1649.  He  took  his  degree 
at  Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became  physician  to  the 
Bridewell  and  Bethlem  Hospitals.  He  was  also  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  College  of  Physicians. 
He  published  several  excellent  treatises  on  comparative 
anatomy,  among  which  we  may  name  "  Orang-Outang, 
sive  Homo  Sylvestris;  or.  The  Anatomy  of  a  Pygmie, 
compared  with  that  of  a  Monkey,"  etc. ;  and  "  Phocoena ; 
or.  The  Anatomy  of  a  Porpesse,"  etc.,  (1680.)  He 
also  contributed  several  valuable  essays  to  the  "  Philo- 
sophical Transactions."    Died  in  1708. 

Tyson,  (Michael,)  an  English  clergyman  and  en- 
graver, born  about  1740.  Pie  etched  several  portraits. 
Died  in  1780. 

Tyssens,  ti'sens,  (Augustin,)  a  Flemish  painter  of 
landscapes  and  animals,  born  about  1662,  was  a  son  of 
Peter,  noticed  below.  He  worked  at  Antwerp.  Died 
about  1722. 

Tyssens,  (Nikolaas,)  an  able  Flemish  painter  of 
birds,  flowers,  etc.,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1660,  was  a 
brother  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1719. 

Tyssens,  (Peter,)  a  distinguished  Flemish  painter, 
was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1625.  He  excelled  both  in 
portraits  and  historical  painting.  Among  his  works  in 
the  latter  department  we  may  name  "The  Assumption 
of  the  Virgin,"  in  the  church  of  Saint  James,  at  Antwerp. 
Died  in  1692.  His  sons  Nicholas  and  Augustine  were 
also  celebrated  artists.  The  former  painted  chiefly  birds 
and  flowers,  and  the  latter  landscapes  of  great  merit. 

See  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc. 

Tyt'ler,  (Alexander  Eraser,)  Lord  Woodhouselee, 
a  distinguished  Scottish  historian  and  jurist,  son  of 
William,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1747. 
He  studied  law  in  his  native  city,  and  was  admitted  an 
advocate  in  1770.  He  became  professor  of  universal 
history  and  Roman  antiquities  at  Edinburgh  in  1 786, 
and  in  1802  was  made  judge  of  the  court  of  session, 
with  the  title  of  Lord  Woodhouselee.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  "Essay  on  the  Principles  of  Translation," 
(1791,)  "Elements  of  General  History,"  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1801,)  "Treatise  upon  Martial  Law,"  and  "Memoirs  of 


the  Life  and  Writings  of  Henry  Home,  Lord  Kames," 
(2  vols.,  1807-10.)  He  died  in  1813,  having  been  pre- 
viously appointed  a  lord  of  justiciary. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Tytler,  (James,)  a  Scottish  writer,  born  at  Brechin 
in  1747.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Geographical,  His- 
torical, and  Commercial  Grammar,"  and  other  works. 
He  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica,"  second  edition.  He  died  at  Salem,  Massachusetts, 
about  1804. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Tytler,  (Patrick  Eraser,)  a  historian,  a  son  of 
Alexander  F.,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in 
1791.  He  was  educated  at  the  High  School  and  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh.  He  published  a  "  Life  of  Admi- 
rable Crichton,"  (1819,)  a  "Life  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh," 
(1833,)  a  "Life  of  Henry  VHL,"  (1837,)  and  other 
biographies.  His  principal  work  is  a  "  History  of  Scot- 
land," (9  vols.,  1828-43,)  which  has  a  high  reputation. 
He  was  an  Episcopalian,  and  not  disposed  to  estimate 
the  Scottish  Reformers  so  favourably  as  some  other 
historians.  He  died  at  Edinburgh  in  December,  1849, 
leaving  several  children. 

See  BuRGON,  "Life  of  P.  F.  Tytler;"  Chambers,  "Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;"  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
March,  1841,  and  July,  1859;  "North  British  Review"  for  August, 
1859. 

Tytler,  (William,)  a  Scottish  lawyer  and  writer, 
born  at  Edinburgh  in  17 11.  He  published  an  "  Inquiry, 
Historical  and  Critical,  into  the  Evidence  against  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,"  (1759,)  "The  Poetical  Remains  of 
James  I.  of  Scotland,"  (1783,)  "A  Dissertation  on 
Scottish  Music,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1792. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Tzetzes,  tsgt'z^z,  (Joannes,)  a  Greek  poet  and 
grammarian  of  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century, 
was  a  native  of  Constantinople.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "  Iliaca,"  comprising  three  poems,  "Ante- 
Homerica,"  "  Homerica,"  and  "  Post-Homerica,"  the 
greater  part  of  which  is  extant,  and  was  published  in 
1793  by  F.  W.  Jacobs.  He  also  wrote  commentaries 
on  several  Greek  classics. 

His  brother  Isaac  was  also  distinguished  for  his 
learning. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Graeca." 

Tzschirner,  tshe^R'ner,  (Heinrich  Gottlieb,)  a 
German  Protestant  theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born 
in  Saxony  in  1778.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  where  he 
became  professor  of  theology  in  1809.  Among  his 
numerous  works  we  may  name  "  Protestantism  and 
Catholicism  regarded  from  the  Stand-Point  of  Politics," 
and  "The  System  of  Reaction."    Died  in  1828. 


U. 


Ubaldi,  (GuiDO.)    See  Guido  Ubaldo. 

Ubaldini,  oo-b^l-dee'nee,  (Petruccio,)  an  Italian 
artist  and  writer,  was  born  at  Florence  about  1524.  He 
became  a  resident  of  London  in  early  life,  and  an  illu- 
minator on  vellum.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
"Life  of  Charlemagne,"  ("  Vita  di  Carlo  Magno,"  1581,) 
"Moral  and  Political  Precepts,"  (1592,)  and  "  IPoems," 
("Riine,"  1596.)    Died  about  1600. 

Uberti,  degli,  dil'yee  oo-b§R'tee,  (Farinata,)  a 
Florentine  leader  of  the  Ghibeline  faction,  was  expelled 
from  Florence  in  1250.  Having  defeated  his  opponents 
in  battle  in  1260,  he  recovered  possession  of  Florence. 
His  magnanimity  is  praised  by  Sismondi,  who  says  he 
saved  Florence  from  being  razed  to  the  ground  by  his 
own  party. 

Uberti,  degli,  (Fazio  or  Bonifacio,)  a  poet,  born 
at  Florence,  was  a  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
driven  into  exile  by  the  Guelphs.  He  wrote  an  unfinished 
descriptive  poem  called  "The  News  of  the  World,"  ("II 
Dittamondo,")  which  is  said  to  be  interesting.  Died 
about  1367. 

Ubicini,  u'be'se'ne',  (Jean  Henri  Abdolonyme,)  a 
French  writer,  born  at  Issoudun  in  1818.    He  published 


"Letters  on  Turkey,"  (2  vols.,  1849-51,)  and  other 
works. 

Uccello,  oot-chel'lo,  (Paolo,)  an  eminent  Florentine 
painter,  born  about  1395.  His  proper  name  was  Paolo 
DI  DoNO.  He  was  noted  for  his  skill  in  perspective,  and 
for  his  admirable  delineations  of  birds,  from  which  he 
received  the  name  of  Uccello,  ("  bird.")  Died  about  1472. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario." 

Uchanski,  oo-Kin'skee,  (James,)  a  Polish  prelate, 
born  in  1505,  became  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Primate 
of  Poland  in  1562.  He  favoured  or  tolerated  the  Prot- 
estant doctrines.    Died  in  1581. 

Uchtritz  or  Uechtritz,  von,  fon  uK'tR!ts,  (Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Gorlitz  in 
1800,  has  published,  among  other  works,  a  tragedy  en- 
titled "Alexander  and  Darius,"  and  "The  Babylonians 
in  Jerusalem,"  a  dramatic  poem. 

U'dal,  (Ephratm,)  an  English  Puritan  minister,  who 
preached  in  London,  became  an  Episcopalian,  and  wrote 
a  "Treatise  on  Sacrilege."    Died  in  1647. 

Udal,  (John,)  an  English  scholar,  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  was  imprisoned  on  account  of  his  Puritan 
principles,  and  died  in  1592.    His  "Key  to  the  Holy 


a,  e,  T,  5,  u,  y,  /on^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  f3.t;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


UDAL 


zi6$ 


ULISSE 


Tongue"  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  Hebrew  grammar 
published  in  England. 

Udal  or  Udall,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  scholar  and 
dramatist,  born  in  Hampshire  in  1506.  Having  studied 
at  Oxford,  he  became  master  of  Eton  School,  and  sub- 
sequently of  Westminster  School.  He  published  a 
selection  from  Terence's  comedies,  with  an  English 
translation,  entitled  "  Flovres  for  Latyne  Spekynge,"  and 
wrote  several  original  comedies,  which  have  been  lost, 
with  the  exception  of  one,  called  "Ralph  Royster  Doys- 
ter,"  It  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  English  play  of 
the  kind  divided  into  acts  and  scenes.    Died  in  1564. 

Uden,  van,  vtn  ii'den,  (Lucas,)  a  Flemish  landscape- 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1596.  He 
executed  the  backgrounds  for  several  of  Rubens's  pic- 
tures, who  in  return  painted  the  figures  in  his.  Among 
his  master-pieces  may  be  named  a  "  Landscape  by 
Moonlight,"  in  the  Lichtenstein  gallery  at  Vienna.  His 
engravings  are  numerous  and  highly  prized.  Died 
about  1662. 

Udine,  da,dioo'de-ni,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  in  1489,  was  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  grotesque 
subjects.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Raphael,  whom  he  assisted 
in  painting  the  Loggie  in  the  Vatican.  He  excelled  as  a 
painter  of  animals,  birds,  etc.    Died  about  1562. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Uffenbach,  von,  fon  oof'fen-biK',  (Johann  Fried- 
rich,)  a  German  poet  and  musician,  born  at  Frankfort 
in  1687,  was  a  brother  of  the  following.    Died  in  1769. 

Uffenbach,  von,  (Zacharias  Conrad,)  a  distin- 
guished German  scholar,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main 
in  1683.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  afterwards  visited 
England.  He  was  made  a  senator  of  his  native  city  in 
1721,  and  subsequently  became  chief  justice.  He  col- 
lected a  very  large  and  valuable  library,  of  which  he 
published  a  catalogue,  entitled  "Bibliotheca  Uffenbach- 
iana,"  etc.  He  was  the  author  of  "  German  Glossary  of 
the  Middle  Ages,"  ("  Glossarium  Germanicum  Medii 
^vi,")  an  autobiography,  entitled  "  Commentarius  de 
Vita  propria,"  and  several  bibliographical  works,  (un- 
finished.)   Died  in  1734. 

See  Hermann,  "  Uffenbach' s  Leben,"  1753. 

Uggione  or  Uglone.    See  Oggione. 

Ughelli,  oo-geKlee,  (Ferdinando,)  an  Italian  eccle- 
siastic, born  at  Florence  about  1595,  was  the  author  of  a 
valuable  work  entitled  "  Italia  Sacra,"  (9  vols.,  1642,) 
being  a  history  of  the  Italian  sees,  etc.,  also  an  account 
of  the  Colonna  family,  called  "  Imagines  Columnensis 
Famiiise  Cardinalium,"  (1650.)    Died  in  1670. 

Ugolino.    See  Gherardesca. 

Ugoni,  00-go'nee,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  writer,  born 
at  Brescia  in  1 784.  He  translated  some  works  of  Horace, 
and  Caesar's  "  Commentaries."  His  reputation  is  founded 
on  his  "  History  of  Italian  Literature  in  the  Second  Half 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  (3  vols.,  1820-22.)  He  was 
exiled  for  liberalism  from  1821  to  1838.    Died  in  1S56. 

Ugoni,  [Lat.  Ugo'nius,]  (Matthias,)  an  Italian  prel- 
ate and  writer  on  councils,  flourished  about  15 10.  He 
became  Bishop  of  Famagosta,  in  Cyprus.  He  asserted 
the  supremacy  of  councils  over  the  pope. 

Ugonius.    See  Ugoni. 

Uhland,  oo'lint,  (Johann  Ludwig,)  a  celebrated 
German  lyric  poet,  born  at  Tubingen  in  1 787.  He  studied 
law  in  his  native  town,  and  took  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
in  1810.  He  was  a  member  for  Tubingen  in  the  repre- 
sentative assembly  of  Wiirtemberg  in  1819,  and  in  1830 
was  appointed  professor-extraordinary  of  the  German 
language  and  literature  at  Tubingen.  Having  been 
chosen  a  deputy  to  the  Diet  in  1833,  conspicuous 
as  an  able  and  earnest  advocate  of  the  constitutional 
opposition.  He  had  published  in  1815  a  collection  of 
patriotic  songs,  which  became  widely  popular.  This  was 
followed  by  an  essay  "  On  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide," 
(1822,)  "  On  the  Myth  of  the  Northern  Legend  of  Thor," 
("  Ueber  den  Mythus  der  Nordische  Sagenlehre  vom 
Thor,"  1836,)  and  "  Ancient  High  and  Low  Dutch  Popu- 
lar Songs,"  ("  Alter  hoch- und  niederdeutscher  Volks- 
lieder,"  1844-45.)  ^'^^  composed  two  tragedies, 

"Duke  Ernest  of  Snabia,"  (1817,)  and  "Louis  the  Bava- 
rian," (1819.)  Died  at  Tubingen  in  November,  1862.  As 


a  poet,  Uhland  is  characterized  by  simplicity  and  ten- 
derness joined  with  deep  religious  feeling. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  February,  1827;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
July,  1837;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1864;  L.  de  Lo- 
Mi^NiE,  "  M.  Uhland,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1841  ;  F.  Notter, 
"  Uhland,  sein  Leben  und'seine  Dichtungen,"  1863  ;  Pfizer,  "  Uhland 
imd  Riickert,"  1837;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gen^rale  ;"  "Jahrbuch 
zum  Conversations-Lexicon,"  1863. 

Uhlefeld  or  Ulefeld,  oo'leh-fgld',  written  also  UI- 
feld  or  Ulfeldt,  (Cornifex,  Corfito,  or  Corfitz,) 
Count,  a  Danish  courtier,  became  the  chief  favourite  of 
Christian  IV.,  who  appointed  him  Viceroy  of  Norway, 
and  sent  him  as  ambassador  to  France  in  1647.  After 
the  death  of  that  king  he  fell  into  disgrace,  and  entered 
the  service  of  Christina  of  Sweden.  He  is  censured 
for  his  hostility  to  his  native  country.  Having  been 
accused  of  a  conspiracy  against  the  King  of  Denmark, 
he  was  condemned  to  death  in  1663,  but  he  was  out  of 
the  reach  of  the  law.    Died  in  1664. 

See  Rousseau  de  la  Valette,  "  Histoire  du  Comte  d'Uhle- 
feld,"  1678;  Hans  Paus,  "C.  Ulfeldt's  Levnet,"  1747. 

Uhlich,  oo'liK,  (Leberecht,)  a  German  theologian 
of  the  rationalistic  school,  was  born  at  Kothen  in  1799. 
He  preached  at  Magdeburg,  and  published,  besides 
other  works,  "Ten  Years  at  Magdeburg,  1845-55," 
(1856.) 

Ullrich,  oo'riK  or  ii'r^k',  (Jean  Jacques  Alexis,)  a 
French  general,  born  at  Phalsbourg  in  1802,  became 
brigadier-general  in  1852,  and  general  of  division  in 
1856.  He  served  in  the  Crimean  war,  and  in  the  Italian 
camjiaign  of  1859.  In  1862  he  received  the  grand  cross 
of  the  legion  of  honour.  About  1867  he  retired  from 
the  service,  but  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Prussia 
he  asked  and  obtained  command  of  Strasbourg,  which 
post  he  held  until  its  surrender,  September  28,  1870. 

Uilkens,  oiKkens,  (Jacoh  Albert,)  a  Dutch  natu- 
ralist and  minister,  born  near  Groningen  in  1732.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Manual  of  Rural 
Economy,"  (1819,)  and  was  professor  of  rural  econ- 
omy at  Groningen.    Died  in  1825. 

tJitenbogaard,  oi'ten-bo^gtRt,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  Re- 
monstrant minister,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1557,  was  a 
chaplain  of  Maurice  the  Stadtholder.  He  became  a 
friend  of  Arminius,  was  persecuted  by  the  Calvinistic 
party,  and  banished  in  1618.    Died  in  1650. 

See  his  "Autobiography,"  1639,  and  his  "Life,"  by  G.  Brandt, 
(in  Latin,)  1720. 

Ukert,  oo'k^Rt,  (Friedrich  August,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Eutin  in  1780,  published  a  valuable  work 
on  '*  The  Geography  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,"  (1816  ;) 
also  a  "  Picture  of  Greece,"  and  "  On  the  Geography  of 
Homer."  He  likewise  assisted  Heeren  in  his  "  History 
of  the  European  States."    Died  in  1851. 

Uladislaus  of  Poland.    See  Vladislaus. 

Ulbach,  iil'bSk',  (Louis,)  a  French  poet  and  political 
writer,  born  at  Troyes  (Aube)  in  1822,  became  editor  of 
the  "  Revue  de  Paris"  in  1853.  He  published  a  volume 
of  poems  entitled  "Gloriana,"  (1844,)  several  tales,  and 
political  letters  remarkable  for  verve  and  causticity. 

Ulfeld  or  Ulfeldt.    See  Uhlefeld. 

Ulfila.    See  Ulfilas. 

Ul'fi-las,  written  also  Ulfila,  Ulpliilas,  and  Viilfila 
or  Wulfila,  a  celebrated  Gothic  scholar  and  writer, 
born  about  318  A.D.,  became  bishop  of  the  Arian  Goths 
living  between  Mount  Hasmus  and  the  Danube.  He 
made  a  Gothic  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  which,  hav- 
ing been  lost  for  a  time,  was  partially  discovered  in  the 
sixteenth  century  in  a  monastery  near  Cologne.  Died 
about  388  A.D.  A  fragment  of  his  version  was  discovered 
by  Angelo  Mai  at  Milan  about  1820.  The  version  of 
Ulfilas  is  regarded  as  a  great  treasure  by  philologists. 

See  Georg  Waits  or  Waiz,  "  Ueber  das  Leben  und  die  Lehre 
des  Ulfilas,"  1840;  Ihre  et  Sotberg,  "  Ulphilas  illustratus,"  1752; 
Bessel,  "Ueber  das  Leben  des  Ulfilas,"  i860;  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Ulft,  van  der,  vtn  der  lilft,  (Jacob,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  painter,  born  at  Gorcum  in  1627.  He  painted 
'views  of  architecture,  ruins,  and  temples,  in  which  he 
introduced  groups  of  figures.  He  was  a  good  colorist. 
Died  after  1688. 

Ulisse.the  French  and  Italian  of  Ulysses,  which  see. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ULLMANN 


2164 


ULTSSES 


UUmann,  ooKmSn,  (Karl,)  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Epfenbach,  in  the  Palatinate,  in  1796.  He 
studied  at  Heidelberg  and  Tiibingen,  and  became  in  1821 
professor-extraordinary  of  theology  in  the  former  uni- 
versity. In  1828  he  associated  with  Umbreit  as  editor 
of  the  journal  entitled  "  Theologischen  Studien  und 
Kritiken,"  and  in  1829  was  appointed  professor  at  Halle. 
Having  returned  to  Heidelberg  in  1836,  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  Upper  Church  Council,  and  an  evan- 
gelical prelate  in  1853.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
"  Reformers  before  the  Reformation^  particularly  in  Ger- 
many and  the  Netherlands,"  (2  vols.,  1841,)  "  On  the 
Future  of  the  Evangelical  Church  in  Germany,"  (1846,) 
'*On  the  Value  of  a  Majority  in  the  Church,"  (1850,) 
and  "On  the  Nature  of  Christianity,"  (1855.)  His 
writings  enjoy  a  very  high  reputation,  and  have  been 
translated  into  several  languages. 

Ulloa,  ool-lo^a,  [Sp.  pron.  ool-yo'l,]  (Alphonso,)  a 
Spanish  historian  and  translator,  settled  at  Venice,  and 
wrote,  in  Italian,  a  "  Life  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.," 
(1560,)  and  other  works.  He  also  translated  into  elegant 
Italian  several  Spanish  histories.    Died  about  1580. 

Ulloa,  ool-lo'a  or  ool-yo'i,  (Don  Antonio,)  a  cele- 
brated mathematician  and  naval  officer,  born  at  Seville, 
in  Spain,  in  1716.  In  1735  he  accompanied  La  Conda- 
mine,  Godin,  and  other  French  savants  to  South  America, 
to  measure  a  degree  of  the  meridian  at  the  equator.  On 
his  voyage  home,  in  1744,  he  was  made  prisoner  by  the 
English,  and,  after  a  detention  of  two  years,  returned  to 
Spain,  where  he  was  created  a  commander  of  the  order 
of  Santiago.  He  published  in  1748  a  "Historical  Ac- 
count of  the  Voyage  to  South  America,"  ("Relacion 
historica  del  Viage  a  la  America  Meridional,")  in  which 
he  was  assisted  by  his  friend  and  fellow-traveller,  Jorge 
Juan,  "  American  Notes  on  Southern  and  Northeastern 
America,"  ("Noticias  Americanas  sobre  la  America 
Meridional  y  la  Septentrional-oriental,"  1772,)  and  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Marine  or  the  Naval  Forces  of  Europe 
and  Africa,"  (1778.)  Soon  after  the  cession  of  Louisiana 
to  Spain,  he  was  made  governor  of  that  province;  but 
he  was  subsequently  superseded  by  O'Reilly,  and  on 
his  return  was  appointed  minister  of  the  fnarine.  Ulloa 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Observatory  at  Cadiz,  and 
contributed  greatly  to  the  advancement  of  learning  and 
the  arts  and  the  improvement  of  domestic  manufactures 
in  Spain.    Died  in  1795. 

See  Francisco  Hoyos,  "  Vida  de  D.  A.  de  Ulloa,"  1847  ;  Madoz, 
"  Diccionario  geografico-historico  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale;"  "Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  ii.,  second  series,  1828. 

Ulloa,  ool-lo'a,  (GiROLAMO,)  an  Italian  general,  born 
at  Naples  in  1810,  distinguished  himself  in  the  defence  of 
Venice  against  the  Austrians  in  1849.  After  that  year  he 
resided  in  Paris.    He  published  several  military  works. 

Ulloa,  de,  di  ool-yo'd,  (Martin,)  a  Spanish  critic, 
born  at  Seville  in  1730,  was  a  nephew  of  Antonio  Ulloa. 
He  published  several  works.    Died  in  1800. 

Ulloa  y  Pereira,  de,  da  ool-yo'S  e  pa-ra^-ri,  (Luis,) 
a  Spanish  poet,  born  at  Toro  about  1590.  He  wrote 
elegant  lyric  poems,  sonnets,  and  a  poem  entitled  "  Ra- 
quel,"  ("  Rachel.")    Died  in  1660. 

Ullur,  ooKliir,  (Ullr,)  or  Ull,  dol,  [signifying  "  wool- 
like" or  "  white,"  (Sw.  ull,  "  wool,")  so  called  because  he 
is  the  god  of  winter  or  snow,]  the  god  who,  according  to 
the  Norse  mythology,  presides  over  winter  and  winter- 
sports,  is  represented  as  the  son  of  Sif  and  step-son  of 
Thor.  In  running  on  snow-shoes  he  has  no  equal ;  he 
is  also  an  excellent  archer.  His  dwelling  is  Ydalir, 
(e-di'lir,)  i.e.  the  "  place  (or  dale)  of  dampness  and  cold." 

Ulphilas.    See  Ulfilas. 

Ul'pi-an,  [Lat.  Ulpia'nus;  Fr.  Ulpien,  uKpe-iN',] 
(DoMinus,)  an  eminent  Roman  jurist,  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Tyre,  was  born  about  170  a.d.  He  was 
distinguished  by  the  favour  of  Alexander  Severus,  who 
made  him  his  secretary,  and  praetorian  prefect.  He  was 
killed  in  a  mutiny  of  the  praetorian  soldiers  in  228  A.D. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Ad  Edictum," 
and  other  legal  treatises,  which  were  highly  esteemed  ; 
but  most  of  them  are  now  lost.  Several  editions  of  the 
fragments  have  been  published. 

See  A.  Steger,  "  Dissertatio  de  D.  Ulpiano,"  1725;  Grotius, 
"Vitae  Jurisconsultoruiii ;"  Clodius,  "Apologia  Ulpiani,"  1811. 


Ulpianus.    See  Ulpian. 

Ul-pi-a'niis  OF  An  ITOCH,  a  rhetorician  in  the  time  of 
Constantine  the  Great,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
author  of  "Commentaries  on  the  Orations  of  Demos- 
thenes called  Symbuleutici,"  also  "  Prolegomena,"  and 
other  works.  Ulpian  of  Emesa  was  the  author  of  an 
"  Art  of  Rhetoric." 

Ulpien.    See  Ulpian. 

Ulric  or  Ulrick,  liKrik,  [Ger.  Ulrich,  ooKriK,] 
(Anton,)  Duke  of  Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel,  a  German 
poet,  born  in  1633.  He  wrote  several  very  successful 
poems,  a  number  of  melodramas,  and  novels  entitled 
"  Aramena,  the  Illustrious  Syrian  Lady,"  (1678,)  and 
"  Octavia,  a  Roman  Story,"  (in  German,  6  vols.,  1685- 
1707.)    Died  in  1714. 

Ulrica  (dol-ree^ki)  El-e-o-no'ra,  [Fr.  Ulrique 
El6onore,  iil'r^k'  a'l^'o'noR^,]  Queen  of  Sweden,  born 
in  1656,  became  the  wife  of  Charles  XI.  and  the  mother 
of  Charles  XII.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Frederick  III. 
of  Denmark.    Died  in  1693. 

See  BoECLER,  "Vita  Ulricas  Eleonoras,"  1697. 

Ulrica  Eleonora,  Queen  of  Sweden,  a  daughter  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1688.  She  married  Prince 
Frederick  of  Hesse-Cassel  about  1715.  She  was  a 
sister  of  Charles  XII.  In  1719  she  was  elected  as  his 
successor ;  but  she  transferred  the  royal  power  to  her 
husband.    Died  in  1744. 

Ulrich,  ooKriK,  (Johann  Kaspar,)  a  Swiss  theologian 
and  Orientalist,  born  in  1705;  died  at  Zurich  in  1768. 

Ulrich,  (Johann  Rudolph,)  a  Swiss  preacher  and 
writer,  born  at  Zurich  in  1728.  He  became  first  pastor 
of  Zurich  in  1 769.    Died  in  1795. 

Ulrich,  ooKriK,  (Philipp  Adam,)  a  German  philan- 
thropist, iDorn  in  1692.  He  was  eminent  for  various 
forms  of  practical  charity. 

See  Obekthur,  "Life  of  P.  A.  Ulrich,"  (in  German,)  1783. 

Ulrich,  (Titus,)  a  German  poet,  born  in  the  county 
of  Glatz,  Prussia,  in  1813.  He  produced  in  1845  "The 
Canticle  of  Canticles,"  ("  Das  Ilohe  Lied,")  which  is 
highly  praised,  and  in  1848  a  poem  called  "  Victor," 
which  was  very  popular. 

Ulrich  von  Lichtenstein.    See  Lichtenstein. 

Ulrici,  dol-reet'see,  (Hermann,)  a  German  scholar 
and  critic,  born  in  Lower  Lusatia  in  1806.  He  studied 
law  at  Halle  and  Berlin,  but  subsequently  devoted  him- 
self to  literature,  and  published  in  1833  his  "Character- 
istics of  Antique  Historiography."  This  was  followed 
by  his  "  History  of  the  Poetic  Art  in  Greece,"  (2  vols., 
1835,)  a  treatise  "On  Shakspeare's  Dramatic  Art," 
(1839,)  which  was  received  with  great  favour.  He  has 
also  written  several  philosophical  works,  among  which 
are  "  On  the  Principle  and  Method  of  the  Philosophy  of 
Hegel,"  (1841,)  and  "  Gott  und  die  Natur,"  (1862.) 

Ulrike.    See  Luise  Ulrike. 

Ulugh  or  Ulug  Beg.    See  Olug  Beg. 

U-lys'ses,  [Gr.  'Odvaaevg,  ( Odysseus;)  Fr.  Ulisse, 
ii^l^ss';  It.  Ulisse,  00-l^s'sa,]  called  also  Ulyx'es  and 
Ith'acus,  King  of  Ithaca,  a  Grecian  chief,  renowned 
for  his  eloquence,  subtlety,  sagacity,  and  wisdom,  was  the 
son  of  Laertes,  (or,  as  some  say,  of  Sisyphus,)  and  hus- 
band of  Penelope.  He  was  one  of  the  suitors  of  Helen. 
He  was  the  most  politic  of  all  the  commanders  who 
conducted  the  siege  of  Troy,  to  the  capture  of  which  he 
greatly  contributed  by  his  stratagems  and  exploits.  The 
invention  of  the  wooden  horse  is  ascribed  to  him  by  some 
writers.  After  the  death  of  Achilles  he  contended  for 
his  armour  with  success  against  Ajax.  His  wanderings, 
navigations,  and  adventures  after  the  destruction  of  Troy 
form  the  subject  of  the  "  Odyssey"  of  Homer,  who  relates 
that  he  sailed  from  Troy  with  twelve  ships,  and  was 
driven  by  the  wind  to  the  coast  of  Africa  ;  that  he  visited 
the  island  of  ^olus,  who  gave  him  a  number  of  winds 
confined  in  a  bag;  that  he  passed  a  year  in  the  island  of 
Circe  the  magician ;  that,  after  many  of  his  companions 
had  been  devoured  by  the  Cyclops  and  Scylla,  he  was 
driven  to  the  island  of  Calypso,  who  gave  him  a  warm 
reception,  detained  him  for  eight  years,  and  tempted  him 
to  marry  her,  with  the  promise  of  immortality,  w^hich  he 
declined,  "vetulam  suam  praetulit  immortalitati ;"  that 
after  an  absence  of  twenty  years  he  returned  to  Ithaca 
alone  and  disguised  as  a  beggar,  and  found  his  palace 


.  a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  \  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


U  MB  RE  IT 


2165 


URBAN 


occupied  by  numerous  suitors,  whom,  with  the  aid  of  his 
son  Telemachus,  he  killed.    Horace  says, 

"  Rursus  quid  Virtus  et  quid  Sapientia  possit 
Utile  proposuit  nobis  exemplar  Ulixen."* 

Epistles,  book  i.,  2. 

Umbreit,  oom'bRit,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm  Karl,)  a 
German  Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Saxe-Gotha  in 
1795.  He  studied  the  Oriental  languages  at  Gottingen, 
and  became  successively  professor  of  philosophy  and 
of  theology  at  Heidelberg.  He  published  several  valu- 
able exegetical  works,  among  which  are  a  "Philological, 
Critical,  and  Philosophical  Cominentary  on  Solomon's 
Proverbs,"  (1826,)  "Christian  Edification  from  the  Psal- 
ter," etc.,  and  "  Practical  Commentary  on  the  Prophets 
of  the  Old  Testament,"  (4  vols.,  1841.)  He  also  wrote 
a  "  Translation  and  Interpretation  of  the  Book  of  Job," 
and  "New  Poetry  from  the  Old  Testament,"  (1847.) 
Died  in  i860. 

Umeau,  ii'mo',  (Jean,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at  Poi- 
tiers in  1598 ;  died  in  1682. 
Umeyade.    See  Omeyyade. 
Umeyyah.    See  Omeyyah. 

Uminski,  00-m^n'skee,  (Jan  Nepomuk,)  a  Polish  gen- 
eral, born  in  Posen  in  1780,  served  in  the  French  cam- 
paigns in  Poland  in  1807  and  1809,  and  in  183 1  defeated 
General  Diebitsch  in  the  battle  of  Grochow.  Died  in  1851. 

Uncas,  ving'kass,  an  Indian  chief  of  the  Mohegans  in 
Connecticut,  lived  in  the  seventeenth  century.  In  1637 
he  joined  the  English  in  their  war  against  the  Pequots. 
Died  about  1680. 

Un'der-wood,  (Joseph  R.,)  an  American  Senator 
and  lawyer,  born  in  Goochland  county,  Virginia,  in  1 791. 
He  removed  to  Bowling  Green,  Kentucky,  about  1823, 
and  represented  a  district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from 
1835  to  1845.  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United 

States  by  the  legislature  of  Kentucky  in  1847. 

Un'der-wood,  (T.  R.,)  an  English  artist  and  writer, 
published  a  "  Narrative  of  Memorable  Events  in  Paris 
during  the  Capitulation  in  1814."    Died  in  1835. 

Unger,  d^>ng'er,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  an  eminent 
German  printer  and  wood-engraver,  born  at  Berlin  in 
1750,  was  a  son  of  Johann  Georg,  noticed  below.  He 
became  professor  of  wood-engraving  in  the  Academy  of 
Plastic  Arts  at  Berlin,  and  was  the  inventor  of  a  kind  of 
types  called  "  Ungerian  Types,"  ("  Ungerische  Schrift.") 
He  died  in  1804.  His  wife,  Frederike  Helene,  born 
at  Berlin  in  1751,  was  distinguished  for  her  talents  and 
accomplishments,  and  published  several  popular  novels, 
one  of  which,  entitled  "Julia  Griinthal,  the  History  of 
a  Boarding-School  Girl,"  ("  Julchen  Griinthal,  eine  Pen- 
sionsgeschichte,"  1784,)  is  particularly  admired.  Her 
"  Confessions  of  a  Beautiful  Soul"  ("  Bekentnisse  einer 
schonen  Seele,"  1806)  also  deserves  especial  mention. 
Died  in  1813. 

Unger,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  German  engraver,  born 
near  Pirna  in  171 5,  was  celebrated  for  his  improvements 
in  wood-cutting  and  typography.  Several  of  his  land- 
scapes engraved  on  wood  are  esteemed  master-pieces 
of  the  kind.    Died  in  1788. 

Union,  de  la,  di  1^  oo-ne-6n',  (Don  Luis  Firmin  de 
Carvajal  y  Vargas — di  kaR-vi-HiK  e  vaR'gis,)  Count, 
a  Spanish  general,  born  at  Lima  in  1752.  He  gained 
the  rank  of  general  by  his  services  against  the  French 
invaders  in  1793,  and  became  commander  of  an  army  in 
Catalonia  in  1794.  He  was  defeated  and  killed  near 
Figueras  the  same  year. 

Unterberger,  don'ter-b^R'ger,  (Ignaz,)  a  Tyrolese 
painter,  born  at  Karales  in  1744,  worked  at  Vienna. 
Among  his  works  are  pictures  of  Bacchus,  Minerva,  and 
Hebe,  which  are  highly  praised.    Died  in  1797. 

Unterholzner,  oon'ter-holts'ner,  (Karl  August  Do- 
MiNicus,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Freising  in  1787, 
wrote  several  treatises  on  Roman  law.    Died  in  1838. 

Unzelmann,  .oont'sel-min'',  (Friedrich  Ludwig,)  a 
German  wood-engraver,  born  about  1798,  was  a  pupil 
of  Gubitz,  and  obtained  the  title  of  royal  professor  at 
the  Academy  of  lierlin.  Among  his  master-pieces  are 
portraits  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Napoleon,  and  a  large  print 
of  the  "Death  of  Franz  von  Sickingen."    Died  in  1854. 

*  "Again  to  show  what  courage  and  what  wisdom  can  accomplish, 
he  [Homer]  has  set  before  us  Ulysses  as  a  useful  example." 


Unzelmann,  (Karl  Wilhelm  Ferdinand,)  a  Ger- 
man comic  actor,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1753;  died  in 
1832.  His  son  Karl  was  also  a  popular  actor  in  the 
same  department, 

Unzer,  dont'ser,  (Johann  August,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, born  at  Halle  in  1727,  was  editor  of  a  medical 
journal  entitled  "  Der  Arzt."  He  was  the  author  of 
"  First  Principles  of  the  Physiology,  etc.  of  Animated 
Bodies,"  (1771,)  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in  1799. 
His  wife,  Joanna  Charlotte,  published  a  number  of 
popular  poems. 

See  "Biographie  Medicale;"  Hirsching,  "  Historisch-litera- 
risches  Handbuch." 

Upamshad,  written  also  Upenished,  [modern  Hin- 
doo pron.  oo-piin'i-shud,]  a  Sanscrit  term,  denoting 
what  is  most  essential  in  the  religious  writings  of  the 
Hindoos,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  theological  and  argu- 
mentative portions  of  the  Vedas,  (which  see.) 

See  Wilson,  "  Sanscrit  Dictionary ;"  Colebrooke,  article  in 
"Asiatic  Researches,"  pp.  472-3. 

Up'cott,  (William,)  an  English  bibliographer  and 
collector  of  autographs,  born  in  London  in  1779;  died 
in  1845. 

Upham,  iap'am,  (Charles  Wentworth,)  a  Unita- 
rian divine  and  writer,  born  at  Saint  John,  New  Bruns- 
wick, in  1802,  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1854.  He 
has  published  "Lectures  on  Witchcraft,"  etc.,  (1831,) 
"  Life  of  Sir  Henry  Vane,"  in  Sparks's  "  American 
Biography,"  and  made  numerous  contributions  to  the 
"North  American  Review,"  "  Christian  Examiner,"  and 
other  periodicals.  He  began  to  preach  at  Salem,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1824,  and  quitted  the  ministry  in  1844. 

Upham,  (Thomas  Cogswell,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Congregational  divine  and  able  writer,  was  born  at 
Deerfield,  New  Hampshire,  in  1799.  He  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College,  and  became  in  1825  professor  of 
mental  and  moral  philosophy  in  Bovvdoin  College. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  Philosophical  and  Practical 
Treatise  on  the  Will,"  (1834,)  "  Life,  Religious  Opinions, 
etc.  of  Madame  Guyon,"  (1847,)  "Principles  of  the  In- 
terior or  Hidden  Life,"  (1848,)  "Life  of  Madame 
Catharine  Adorna,"  (1856,)  and  "Letters,  .Esthetic, 
Social,  and  Moral,  written  from  Europe,  Egypt,  and 
Palestine,"  (1857.)  He  has  likewise  published  a  trans- 
lation of  Jahn's  "Biblical  Archaeology,"  (5th  edition, 
1849.) 

Up'shur,  (Abel  Parker,)  an  American  statesman 
and  jurist,  born  in  Northampton  county,  Virginia.  He 
was  appointed  secretary  of  the  navy  by  President  Tyler 
in  September,  1841,  and  succeeded  Webster  as  secretary 
of  state  in  May,  1843.  He  was  killed  by  the  explo- 
sion of  a  cannon  on  board  the  steamer  Princeton,  in 
February,  1844,  aged  about  fifty-three.  He  belonged  to 
the  extreme  State-Rights  and  pro-slavery  school  of  the 
South. 

Up'ton,  (James,)  an  English  scholar  and  divine, 
born  in  Cheshire  in  1670.  He  published  an  edition  of 
Aristotle's  "Poetics,"  and  other  works.  Died  in  1749. 
His  son,  of  the  same  name,  edited  Spenser's  "  Faerie 
Queene,"  and  was  the  author  of  "  Observations  on  Shak- 
speare."    Died  in  1760. 

U-ra'ni-a,  [Gr.  Ovpavta,  (from  ovpavoc,  "heaven;") 
Fr.  Uranie,  u'rt'ne',]  one  of  the  nine  Muses  of  the 
Greek  mythology,  the  Muse  of  Astronomy,  was  supposed 
to  be  a  daughter  of  Zeus. 

U'ra-nus,  [Gr.  Ovpavog,  i.e.  the  "  sky"  or  "  heaven,"] 
a  divinity  of  classic  mythology,  identified  with  the  Roman 
Coelus,  was  considered  the  most  ancient  of  all  the  gods. 
He  was  represented  as  the  husband  of  Terra,  and  the 
father  of  Oceanus,  Cronus,  (Saturn,)  Themis,  Hyperion, 
and  the  other  Titans,  whom  he  confined  in  Tartarus. 
According  to  the  legend,  he  was  dethroned  by  Cronus. 

Urbain.    See  Urban. 

Ur'ban  [Lat.  Urba'nus;  Fr.  Urbain,  uR'bdN']  I. 
succeeded  Calixtus  I.  as  Bishop  of  Rome  in  224  a.d. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  under  Alex- 
ander Severus,  (230  a.d.) 

Urban  II.,  born  in  France,  succeeded  Victor  III. 
as  Pope  of  Rome  in  1088.  He  excommunicated  Henry 
IV.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  who  supported  Clement  HI. 
as  anti-pope,  having  previously  incited  Conrad,  son  of 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


URBAN 


2  i66 


URSINS 


the  emperor,  to  revolt  against  him.  In  a  council  at 
Piacenza  in  1095  he  proclaimed  the  first  crusade.  His 
successor  was  Paschal  II.    Died  in  1099. 

Urban  III.  succeeded  Lucius  II.  in  1185.  He  died 
in  1 187. 

Urban  IV.,  born  at  Troyes,  in  France,  succeeded 
Alexander  IV.  in  1261.  He  carried  on  a  war  against 
Manfred,  Prince  of  Sicily,  and  made  an  alliance  with 
Charles  of  Anjou,  on  whom  he  bestowed  the  crown  of 
Sicily  and  Apulia  in  fief  of  the  Roman  see,  (1263.)  From 
this  treaty  arose  the  subsequent  wars  between  France 
and  Italy  during  several  centuries.  He  died  in  1264, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Clement  IV. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Urban  V.,  originally  named  Guillaume  de  Gri- 
moard,  (gRe'mo-tR',)  was  a  native  of  France,  and  suc- 
ceeded Innocent  VI.  as  pope  in  1362.  He  was  the  last 
of  the  pontiffs  who  resided  at  Avignon,  and  in  1367  he 
removed  his  court  to  Rome.  He  died  in  1370,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Gregory  XI. 

Urban  [Lat.  Urba'nus  ;  It.  Urbano,  ooR-ba'no]  VI., 
originally  named  Bartolommeo  Prignano,  (pR^n-yS.'- 
no,)  succeeded  Gregory  XL  in  1378.  He  gave  great  offence 
by  his  severity  to  the  cardinals,  who  elected  an  anti-pope 
in  opposition  to  him,  under  the  title  of  Clement  VI. 
In  1385  he  had  six  cardinals  put  to  death  on  a  charge  of 
conspiring  against  him.  He  died  in  1389,  as  some  writers 
assert,  by  poison,  and  was  succeeded  by  Boniface  IX. 

See  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Urban  VII.,  a  native  of  Rome,  originally  named 
Giambattista  Castagna,  (kas-tin'ya,)  was  chosen  suc- 
cessor to  Sixtus  V.  in  1 590.  He  survived  his  election  thir- 
teen days,  and  Gregory  XIV.  was  elected  to  succeed  him. 

Urban  VIII.,  originally  named  Maffeo  Barberini, 
(baR-bi-ree'nee,)  born  at  Florence  in  1568,  succeeded 
Gregory  XV.  in  1623.  He  was  distinguished  for  his 
learning  and  his  liberal  patronage  of  science  and  art. 
He  founded  the  College  de  Propaganda  Fide,  finished 
the  aqueduct  of  Acqua  Felice,  increased  the  Vatican 
Library,  and  improved  the  "Breviarium  Romanum." 
Under  his  rule  Italy  was  disturbed  by  contests  between 
the  French  and  Spaniards  for  supremacy  in  that  country. 
The  duchy  of  Urbino  was  made  a  fief  of  the  Roman  see 
in  1626.  Urban  died  in  1644,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Innocent  X. 

See  SiMONiNi,  "Sylvas  Urbanianas,  sen  Gesta  Urbani  VIII.," 
1657  ;  Artaud  de  Montor,  "  Histoire  des  souverains  Pontifes." 

Urban.    See  Fortia  d'Urban. 

Urban,  de  Saint,  deh  s^Nt  iiR'biN',  (Ferdinand,) 
a  French  architect,  hoxx\  at  Nancy  in  1654.  He  was 
patronized  by  Pope  Innocent  XL,  who  appointed  him 
his  first  architect  and  director  of  riiedals.  Died  in  1738. 

Urbanus.    See  Urban. 

Urbino.    See  Timoteo  da  Urbino. 

Urceo,  ooR^cha-o,  [Lat.  Ur'ceus,]  (Antonio,)  sur- 
named  Codrus,  an  Italian  scholar  and  writer,  born  at 
Rubiera  in  1446.  He  taught  Greek  and  Latin  for  many 
years  at  Bologna,  whither  he  removed  in  1482.  He 
wrote  orations,  letters,  and  poems.    Died  in  1500. 

See  BiANCHiNi,  "Vita  A.  Codri  Urcei ;"  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Urceus.    See  Urceo. 

Ure,  (Andrew,)  an  eminent  Scottish  chemist  and 
physician,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1778.  He  took  his  medi- 
cal degree  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  became  in 
1802  professor  of  chemistry  and  natural  philosophy  in 
the  Andersonian  Institution  in  that  city.  Among  his 
principal  publications  are  his  "New  Experimental  Re- 
searches on  some  of  the  Leading  Doctrines  of  Caloric," 
etc.,  "Dictionary  of  Chemistry,"  (1821,)  "On  the  Ulti- 
m.ite  Analysis  of  Animal  and  Vegetable  Substances," 
(1822,)  "System  of  Geology,"  (1829,)  "Philosophy  of 
Manufactures,"  (1835,)  and  "Dictionary  of  Arts,  Manu- 
factures, and  Mines,"  (1839,) — one  of  the  most  valuable 
works  of  the  kind.  Dr.  Ure  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  and  other  learned  institutions,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Observatory  at  Glasgow.    Died  in  1857. 

Urfe,  d',  duR'f^l',  (Anne,)  a  French  poet,  born  in 
Forez  in  1555.  He  became  a  privy  councillor,  and  after- 
wards a  priest.  He  married  a  rich  heiress,  named  Diane 
de  Chateau-Morand.    Died  in  1621. 

See  Bernard,  "Les  Urfe,  Souvenirs  historiques,"  etc.,  1839. 


Urfe,  d',  (H0NOR6,)  a  French  writer  of  romance, 

born  at  Marseilles  in  1567  or  1568,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  a  soldier  by  profession,  and  fought 
in  the  civil  war  for  the  League.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  romance  called  "  Astree,"  (1610-19,)  which  was 
once  very  celebrated.    Died  in  1625. 

See  N.  Bonafous,  "  fitudes  sur  I'Astree  et  sur  Honor^  d'Urf^," 
1847:  A.  Bernard,  "  Les  Urfe,"  1839;  Niceron,  "Memoires;" 
DuNLOP,  "History  of  Fiction;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Urkhan.    See  Oorkhan. 

Urquhart,  urk'hart,  (David,)  an  able  British  writer 
and  politician,  born  at  Cromarty  in  1805.  He  went  to 
Greece  with  Lord  Cochrane  in  1827,  and  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Turkey  and  its  Resources," 
(1833,)  and  "Travels  in  Spain  and  Morocco,"  (1849.) 
He  maintained  the  opinion  that  the  Ottoman  empire 
has  elements  of  vitality  and  progress.  He  became 
an  uncompromising  adversary  of  Palmerston's  foreign 
policy,  and  was  elected  to  Parliament  as  a  Conservative 
in  1847. 

Urquhart,  (Sir  Thomas,)  a  Scottish  mathematician 
under  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"  Logopandecteision,  or  an  Introduction  to  the  Universal 
Language,"  and  a  treatise  "On  Trigonometry." 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Urquhart,  (William  Pollard,)  a  political  econ- 
omist, born  in  the  county  of  Westmeath,  Ireland,  in 
18..4.    He  published  "Essays  on  Political  Economy." 

Urquijo,  de,  d^  ooR-kee'Ho,  (Mariano  Luis,)  a 
Spanish  statesman,  born  at  Bilbao  in  1768.  He  was 
secretary  for  foreign  affairs  about  two  years,  ( 1 798-1 800,) 
after  which  he  was  imprisoned  through  the  influence  of 
the  Inquisition,  which  he  had  opposed.  He  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  state  by  King  Joseph  about  1809. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1817. 

See  A.  de  Beraza,  "  Elogio  de  M.  L.  de  Urquijo,"  1820;  "Nou- 
velle Biographic  Generale." 

Urquiza,  de,  dk  ooR-kee'sS  or  ooR-kee'thS,  (Don 
Juste  Jos^;,)  a  South  American  statesman  and  military 
commander,  born  in  the  province  of  Entre-Rios  in  1800. 
He  fought  in  his  early  life  for  Rosas,  but  in  185 1  he  took 
arms  against  him  and  formed  an  alliance  with  the  gov- 
ernments of  Brazil  and  Uruguay.  In  February,  1852, 
he  gained  at  Santos  Lugares  a  decisive  victory  over 
Rosas,  who  then  ceased  to  reign.  Urquiza  became 
general-in-chief  and  foreign  secretary  of  the  Argentine 
Republic.    Died  in  1870. 

Urraca,  oor-ri'ki.  Queen  of  Leon  and  Castile,  born 
about  1080,  was  the  only  legitimate  child  of  Alfonso  VI. 
She  was  married  to  Alfonso  I.  of  Aragon,  with  whom 
she  quarrelled,  and  against  whom  she  waged  a  long  civil 
war.    Died  in  11 26. 

Urrea,  de,  di  oor-ra'S,  (Geronimo,)  a  Spanish  writer 
and  commander,  born  in  Aragon  about  151 5.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  the  army  of  Charles  V.  He  trans- 
lated Ariosto's  "Orlando  Furioso"  into  Spanish,  (1556,) 
and  wrote  a  "  Dialogue  on  True  Military  Honour,"  (1566.) 

Ursatus.    See  Orsato. 

Urseolo.    See  Orseolo. 

Ursins,  des,  di  zuR''siN',  or  Orsini,  (Anne  Marie 
de  la  Tremouille — deh  It  tR^^mooF  or  tR^^moo'ye.) 
Princess,  a  French  lady  and  courtier,  famous  for  her 
political  influence  and  insinuating  qualities,  was  born 
about  1642.  She  was  married  in  1659  to  Adrien  de  Tal- 
leyrand, Prince  de  Chalais,  and  in  1675  to  Flavio  Orsini, 
Duke  of  Bracciano.  She  resided  many  years  at  Rome. 
In  1 70 1  she  was  selected  by  the  French  court  for  the 
place  of  first  lady  of  the  bedchamber  to  the  Queen  of 
Spain,  of  whom  she  became  the  chief  favourite.  "She 
aspired,"  says  Macaulay,  "to  play  in  Spain  the  part 
which  Madame  de  Maintenon  had  played  in  France. 
.  .  .  She  became  so  powerful  that  neither  minister  of 
Spain  nor  ambassador  from  France  could  stand  against 
her."  (Review  of  Lord  Mahon's  "  War  of  the  Succes- 
sion.") Her  influence  ceased  on  the  death  of  the  queen, 
in  1 7 14,  and  the  marriage  of  Philip  V.  with  Elizabeth 
Farnese,  who  dismissed  the  Princess  des  Ursins  from 
court.    She  died  at  Rome  in  1722. 

See  her  "Correspondence  with  Madame  de  Maintenon,"  4  vols., 
1826;  F.  Combes,  "La  Princesse  des  Ursins,  Essai,"  1858;  Saint- 
SiMo;<,  "Memoires;"  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fl.ll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


URSINS 


2167 


uz 


Ursins,  des,  (Jean,  Jouvenel,  (zhoov'n^K,)  or  Ju- 
venal,) a  French  prelate,  born  in  Paris  in  1388.  He 
wrote  a  "Chronicle  of  Charles  VI.,"  and  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Rheiras  about  1450.   Died  in  1473. 

Ur-si'nus,  [Ger.  pron.  doR-see'nus,]  (Benjamin,)  a 
German  mathematician,  born  in  Silesia  in  1587.  His 
German  name  was  Behr,  (baiR.)  He  taught  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Oder.    Died  in  1633. 

Ursinus,  (Benjamin,)  a  German  Lutheran  divine, 
was  a  relative  of  Zacharias,  noticed  below.  He  was 
made  a  bishop  and  ennobled  by  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia. 
Died  about  1717. 

Ur-si'nus,  [It.  Orsini,  oR-see'nee,]  (Fulvius,)  a 
celebrated  Italian  scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Rome 
in  1529,  held  the  post  of  librarian  to  Cardinal  Alexander 
Farnese.  He  published  commentaries  on  the  principal 
Roman  historians,  editions  of  several  Greek  classics, 
and  a  number  of  original  works  which  display  profound 
learning.  Among  these  may  be  named  "  Portraits 
and  Eulogies  of  Illustrious  Men  exhibited  by  Marbles, 
Medals,  and  Gems,"  ("  Imagines  et  Elogia  Virorum  illus- 
trium  e  Marmoribus,  Nummis  et  Gemmis  expressae.") 
Died  in  1600. 

See  Castiglione,  "G.  Orsini  Vita,"  1657;  Niceron,  "M^- 
moires  ;"  "  Life  of  Ursinus,"  by  Castalio. 

Ursinus,  (Georg  Heinrich,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Spire  in  1647  ;  died  at  Ratisbon  in  1707. 

Ursinus,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German  divine, 
father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1608.  He  wrote 
a  work  entitled  "  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Churches 
of  Germany,"  (1668,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1667. 

See  "J.  H.  Ursinus  Lebenslauf,"  1666. 

Ursinus,  (Zacharias,)  a  learned  German  divine, 
born  at  Breslau  in  1534,  was  a  friend  and  disciple  of 
Melanchthon.  He  studied  in  Paris,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Heidelberg.  He  was  engaged 
in  controversies  with  the  Lutheran  theologians  of  the 
time,  and  was  the  author  of  several  theological  and  po- 
lemical works,  (1563.)  He  also  prepared  the  Calvinis- 
tic  creed,  entitled  the  **  Heidelberg  Catechism."  Died 
in  1583. 

Ur'su-la,  [Fr.  Ursule,  iiR'siil',]  Saint,  a  legendary 
personage,  of  whom  scarcely  anything  is  positively 
known.  She  is  said  to  have  been  a  daughter  of  a  British 
prince,  and  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  at  Cologne  in 
the  fourth  or  fifth  century. 

See  Mrs.  Jameson,  "History  of  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 

Ursule.   See  Ursula. 

Ur-sus,  doR's^s,  (Nikolaus  Raymarus,)  a  Danish 
mathematician  of  the  sixteenth  century  ;  died  in  1600. 

Urville.    See  Dumont  d'Urville. 

Ush'er  or  Ussh'er,  (Henry,)  a  prelate,  born  in 
Dublin,  was  an  uncle  of  James,  noticed  below.  He 
became  Archbishop  of  Armagh  and  Primate  of  Ireland 
in  1595.    Died  in  1613. 

Usher  or  Ussher,  [Lat.  Usse'rius,]  (James,)  an  emi- 
nent prelate  and  scholar,  born  in  Dublin  on  the  4th  of 
January,  1 580.  His  mother  was  a  sister  of  Richard  Stany- 
hurst  the  poet  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  in  1600.  He  was 
ordained  a  priest  in  1601,  began  to  preach  in  Dublin, 
and  becan\e  professor  of  divinity  in  Trinity  College  in 
1607.  In  1613  he  married  Phebe  Challoner.  He  pub- 
lished in  1614  a  Latin  work  "On  the  Succession  and 
State  of  the  Christian  Churches,"  in  which  he  opposed 
the  pretensions  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  He  made  fre- 
quent visits  to  England,  where  he  formed  an  acquaint- 
ance with  Selden  and  other  eminent  men.  In  doctrine 
he  was  a  Calvinist,  and  a  zealous  opponent  of  popery. 
In  1620  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Meath  by  James  1. 
He  became  Archbishop  of  Armagh  and  Primate  of  Ire- 
land in  1624.  In  1638  he  published  his  "  Emanuel,  or  a 
Treatise  on  the  Incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God,"  which 
is  accounted  one  of  his  greatest  works.  In  1640  he 
quitted  Ireland,  to  which  he  never  returned,  and  came 
to  England.  The  Irish  rebels  attacked  his  house  at 
Armagh  in  1641,  and  seized  or  destroyed  his  property. 
He  was  a  royalist  in  the  civil  war  between  Charles  I. 
and  the  Parliament.  The  king  gave  him  the  bishopric 
of  Carlisle,  to  be  held  m  commendam,  (about  1641,)  but 


he  derived  little  revenue  from  it.  He  officiated  as 
preacher  to  the  Society  of  Lincoln's  Inn  from  1647  to 
1655.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Antiquities  of 
the  British  Churches,"  (in  Latin,  1639,)  "Annals  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament,"  ("  Annales  Veteris  et  Novi 
Testamenti,"  2  vols.,  1650-54,)  in  which  he  displays 
great  learning,  and  "  Sacred  Chronology,"  ("  Chronologia 
Sacra,"  1660,)  a  work  of  high  reputation.  He  died  at 
Reigate  in  March,  1656,  leaving  one  child,  named 
Elizabeth. 

See  Elrington,  "Life  of  Archbishop  James  Usher,"  1848  ;  R. 
Parr,  "  Life  of  James  Usher,"  prefixed  to  a  collection  of  his  Letters, 
1686;  T.  Bernard,  "Life  and  Death  of  James  Usher,"  1656; 
AiKiN,  "Lives  of  J.  Selden  and  J.  Usher,"  1811 ;  Niceron,  "  Me- 
moires  ;"  "  Biographica  Britannica." 

Usserius.    See  Usher. 
Ussher.    See  Usher. 

Ussieux,  d',  dii'se-uh',  (Louis,)  a  French  romance- 
writer  and  rural  economist,  born  at  Angouleme  in  1747  ; 
died  in  1805. 

Ussing,  dos'sing,  (Johan  Ludwig,)  a  Danish  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Copenhagen  in  1820.  He  became  professor 
of  philology  in  that  city  in  1849,  published  several 
works. 

Ussing,  (Tage  Algreen,)  a  Danish  statesman  and 
jurist,  born  in  Seeland  in  1797.  He  became  procurer- 
general  in  1841,  councillor  of  state  in  1846,  and  a  deputy 
to  the  Diet  in  1848.  He  opposed  the  separation  of 
Sleswick  and  Holstein  from  the  Danish  monarchy.  He 
published  a  "  Manual  of  Danish  Penal  Law." 

Ustariz,  oos-ti-r^th',  (Jerome,)  a  Spanish  political 
economist,  born  in  Navarre  about  1695.  He  published 
in  1724  "The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Commerce  and 
of  the  Marine,"  which  was  translated  into  English  and 
French.    Died  about  1750. 

Usteri,  dos'ta-ree,  (Johann  Martin,)  a  Swiss  poet, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1763  ;  died  in  1827. 

Usteri,  (Leonard,)  a  Swiss  educational  writer,  born 
at  Zurich  in  1741  ;  died  in  1789. 

Usteri,  (Paulus,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Zurich  in  1768.  He  studied  medicine  at  Gottingen,  and 
afterwards  filled  several  important  offices  under  the 
government.  He  published  a  number  of  medical  and 
political  treatises.    Died  in  183 1. 

Usuard,  ii'zii'aR',  or  U-su-ar'dus,  a  French  monk, 
who,  under  the  patronage  of  Charles  the  Bald,  composed 
a  "  Martyrology."    Died  about  877  A.D. 

U-ten-ho'vi-us,[Fr.  Uten  HOVE,ii'ti^nov']  (C  harles,) 
a  Flemish  scholar  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Ghent  about 
1536.  He  lived  in  Paris,  and  died  at  Cologne  in  1600. 
He  was  a  Protestant  minister. 

Utgard.    See  Jotun. 

Utrecht.    See  Van  Utrecht. 

Uvedale,  yoov'dil,  (Robert,)  an  English  scholar 
and  botanist,  born  in  London  in  1642,  assisted  Dryden 
in  the  translation  of  Plutarch's  "Lives." 

U'wins,  (David,)  an  English  physician,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1780.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh,  and  in  181 5 
became  physician  to  the  City  Dispensary,  London.  He 
was  subsequently  editor  of  the  "  Medical  Repository," 
and  published,  among  other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  In- 
sanity and  Madhouses,"  which  was  very  well  received. 
Died  in  1837. 

Uwins,  (Thomas,)  an  English  painter,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  London  in  1783.  Having 
studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  he  visited  Italy  in  1826, 
and  produced  a  number  of  pictures  illustrating  peasant- 
life.  Among  these  may  be  named  "  Neapolitan  Peasantry 
Returning  from  a  Festa,"  and  "  Children  Asleep  in  a 
Vineyard."  He  became  a  Royal  Academician  in  1836, 
and  in  1847  keeper  of  the  National  Gallery.  Died  in 
1857. 

Uxelles,  d',  diik's^K,  (Nicolas  de  Ble — deh  h\h,) 
Marquis,  a  French  general,  born  at  Chalons  in  1652.  He 
defended  Mentz  with  ability  against  the  Imperialists  in 
1689,  but  was  forced  by  want  of  powder  to  surrender. 
He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1703,  and  president 
of  the  council  of  foreign  affairs  at  the  death  of  Louis 
XIV.    Died  in  1730. 

Uz,  oots,  (Johann  Peter,)  a  German  lyric  poet,  born 
at  Anspach  in  1720.  He  pulDlished  in  1729  a  collection 
entitled  "  Lyrische  Gedichte,"  which  was  followed  by 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as  j;  o,  h,  k,  °n4ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


UZZANO 


2168 


ILL  ANT 


"■  Theodicea,"  and  "  The  Art  of  being  always  cheerful," 
("Die  Kiinst  stets  frohlich  zu  sein,"  1 760,)  a  didactic 
poem  in  Alexandrines,  which  is  greatly  esteemed.  He 
waS  made  a  counsellor  of  justice  in  1796,  and  died  the 
same  year. 

Uzzano,  oot-sS'no,  (Niccol6,)  a  Florentine  states- 
man of  the  Guelph  party.  He  became  chief  magistrate 
of  the  republic  in  141 7,  and  waged  a  war  against  Vis- 


conti,  Duke  of  Milan,  from  1423  to  1428.  His  prudence 
and  moderation  are  praised  by  Sismondi.   Died  in  1432. 

Uz-zi'ah,  [Heb.  H'?;;,]  King  of  Judah,  a  son  of 
Amaziah,  began  to  reign  about  808  B.C.  He  defeated 
the  Philistines  and  Arabians.  Having  usurped  the 
priest's  office,  he  was  smitten  with  leprosy.  He  reigned 
fifty-two  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jotham. 
(See  II.  Chronicles  xxvi.) 


V. 


Vaart,  van  der,  vtn  der  viRt,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter 
of  landscapes  and  still  life,  was  born  at  Haarlem  in  1647. 
He  removed  to  England  in  1674.  Died  in  London  in 
1721. 

Vaca^  de.    See  Nunez,  (Alvar  CABEgA.) 

Va-ca'ri-us,  a  jurist  of  the  twelfth  century,  born  in 
Lombardy,  was  teacher  of  Roman  law  at  Oxford.  He 
compiled  an  abstract  of  the  Code  and  Digests,  which 
is  still  extant  in  manuscript.  He  was  the  first  teacher 
of  Roman  law  in  England. 

Vacca.    See  Berlinghieri. 

Vacca,  vlk'ki,  (Flaminio,)  an  Italian  sculptor  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  was  patronized  by  Sixtus  V. 

Vaccaro,  vik'ki-ro,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Naples  in  1598.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Holy 
Family."    Died  in  1670. 

Vaccaro,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  engraver  and 
painter,  born  at  Bologna  about  1636 ;  died  about  1687. 

Vacher.    See  Le  Vacher. 

Vacherot,  vtsh'ro',  (Etienne,)  a  French  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Langres  in  1809.  He  was  appointed 
director  of  studies  at  the  Normal  School  about  1838, 
and  acted  as  substitute  of  M.  Cousin  in  the  Sorbonne 
in  1839.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Criti- 
cal History  of  the  Alexandrian  School,"  (3  vols.,  1846- 
50,)  and  "  The  Democracy,"  (1859.)  He  was  imprisoned 
three  months  for  the  latter  work. 

Vachet,  du,  dii  vt'sha^  (Pierre  Joseph,)  a  French 
priest  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Beaune  ;  died  about  1655. 

Vachet,  Le,  leh  vt'sha',  (Jean  Antoine,)  a  benevo- 
lent French  priest  and  writer,  born  in  Dauphine  in  1603  ; 
died  in  1681. 

Vacquerie,  vt'ki're',  (  Auguste,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  in  Paris  about  1818.  He  was  associated  with  Vic- 
tor Hugo  in  the  editorship  of  the  "  Evenement,"  a  journal 
founded  in  1848.  He  also  produced  poems  entitled 
"Demi-Tints,"  (1845,)        other  works. 

Va-cu'na,  a  goddess  worshipped  by  the  Sabines,  and 
afterwards  by  the  Romans,  was  variously  regarded  as 
identical  with  Victoria,  Minerva,  Ceres,  or  Diana. 

Vadder,  de,  deh  vIdMer,  (Louis,)  a  Flemish  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Brussels  in  1560.  His  pictures 
were  highly  prized.    Died  in  1623. 

Vade,  vt'da',  (Jean  Joseph,)  a  French  dramatist,  born 
in  Picardy  in  1 719,  was  the  author  of  comic  operas, 
farces,  and  songs,  which  obtained  great  popularity.  Died 
in  1757. 

Vadian,  vi'de-in,  [Lat.  Vadia'nus,]  (Joachim,)  an 
eminent  Swiss  scholar,  born  at  Saint  Gall  in  1484.  His 
family  name  was  Von  Watt.  He  became  professor  of 
belles-lettres  at  Vienna.  About  1520  he  returned  to 
Saint  Gall,  where  he  practised  medicine  and  became  a 
disciple  of  Zwingle.  He  was  ranked  by  Joseph  Scaliger 
among  the  most  learned  men  of  Germany.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "Commentary  on  Pomponius 
Mela,"  (15 18,)  and  "  Scholia  on  Pliny's  Natural  History," 
(1531.)    Died  in  1551. 

Vadianus.    See  Vadian. 

Vadier,  vt'de4^  (Marc  Guillaume  Alexis,)  a 
French  Jacobin,  born  in  1736,  was  a  violent  member  of 
the  Convention,  (1792-95.)  He  joined  the  enemies  of 
Robespierre  on  the  9th  Thermidor,  1794.  In  1795  he 
was  denounced  as  a  terrorist,  and  condemned  to  de- 
portation, but  he  avoided  that  penalty  by  concealment. 
Died  in  1828. 

Vaenius.    See  Van  Veen. 

Vaga.    See  Perino  del  Vaga. 


Vahan,*  vl'han,  [from  vah,  (written  also  veh,)  to 
"carry,"  cognate  with  the  Latin  veh-o,\  a  Sanscrit  word, 
signifying  almost  the  same  as  the  German  Wagen,  {i.e. 
"vehicle,"  "carriage,")  with  which  it  nearly  corresponds 
in  sound.  In  the  Hindoo  mythology  it  is  applied  to 
those  fabulous  creatures  which  were  supposed  to  bear 
the  gods  in  their  journeys.  Thus,  the  white  bull  Nandi 
is  said  to  be  the  vahan  of  Siva;  Garuda,  the  vahan  of 
Vishnu  ;  and  so  on. 

Vahl,  val,  (Martin,)  a  Norwegian  naturalist,  born  at 
Bergen  in  1749,  studied  at  Copenhagen,  and  subse- 
quently at  Upsal  under  Linnaeus.  Having  visited  Eng- 
land and  various  parts  of  the  continent,  where  he  made 
valuable  collections  of  plants,  he  was  appointed  in  1785 
professor  of  natural  history  in  the  University  of  Copen- 
hagen. He  published  "  Symbolse  Botanicae,"  "  Eclogae 
Americanas,"  and  a  continuation  of  CEder's  "  Flora 
Danica,"  (1810:)  he  also  contributed  to  the  "  Zoologia 
Danica."  He  died  in  1804,  leaving  a  valuable  herbarium, 
library,  and  manuscripts,  which  were  bought  by  the  King 
of  Denmark.  A  genus  of  plants  has  been  named  Vahlia 
in  his  honoui". 

See  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "  Litteraturlexicon." 

Vaillant,  vt'ySN',  (Jean  Baptiste  Philibert,)  a 
French  marshal,  born  at  Dijon  in  1790,  served  in  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1812,  accompanied  the  expedition 
to  Algiers  in  1830,  and  attained  the  rank  of  colonel  in 
1833.  Having  become  a  lieutenant-general  in  1845, 
directed  the  operations  of  the  siege  of  Rome  in  1849, 
and  obtained  the  baton  of  marshal  in  185 1.  He  was 
minister  of  war  from  March,  1854,  to  May,  1859. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vaillant,  (Jean  Foy,)  a  French  antiquary,  celebrated 
for  his  knowledge  of  numismatics,  was  born  at  Beauvais 
in  1632.  Having  been  charged  by  Colbert  to  make  a 
collection  of  ancient  medals  for  the  royal  cabinet,  he 
visited  Italy,  Greece,  and  part  of  Asia,  and  returned  in 
1680  with  a  great  number  of  rare  and  beautiful  coins. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  a  treatise  on  the  coins  of  the 
Roman  emperors,  entitled  "  Numismata  Imperatorum 
Romanorum  prsestantiora,"  etc.,  (1674,)  and  "  Seleuci- 
darum  Imperium,  sen  Historia  Regum  Syriae,"  etc.,  or 
"  History  of  the  Syrian  Kings  derived  from  Coins." 
Vaillant  was  made  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions in  1702.    Died  in  1706. 

See  C.  DE  Lafeuille,  "  D.  J.  F.  Vaillant  Doctoris  Medici  Vita," 
1745;  NiCERON,  "  Memoires  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vaillant,  (Jean  FRANgois  Foy,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Rome  in  1665.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  contributed  to 
the  "  Memoirs"  of  that  institution  several  treatises  on 
numismatics.    Died  in  1708. 

Vaillant,  [Lat.  Vaillan'tius,]  (S^bastien,)  an  emi- 
nent French  botanist,  born  near  Pontoise  in  1669.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  an  early  age  by  his  proficiency 
in  music,  but  subsequently  studied  medicine,  and  was 
appointed  surgeon  to  the  royal  fusileers.  Having  visited 
Paris  in  1691,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Tournefort, 
and  devoted  himself  henceforth  to  botanical  studies. 
In  1708  he  succeeded  Fagon  as  professor  of  botany  and 
sub-demonstrator  of  plants  in  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  and  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1716. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  valuable  works,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  his  '*  Botanicon  Parisiense,"  or 


*  The  more  correct  but  less  common  form  is  Vahana. 


i,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,    i,  q,  obscure;S^Xy  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


F JILL  ANT  2169  VALUES 


history  of  plants  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris,  (1727.)  It  was 
illustrated  by  Aubriet,  and  published  by  Boerhaave  after 
the  death  of  Vaillant,  which  occurred  in  1722.  The  genus 
Vaillantia  was  named  by  De  Candolle  in  his  honour. 

See  Boerhaave,  "  Vita  Vaillantii,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Botanicon 
Parisiense,"  1727;  "  Biographie  Medicale  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Vaillant,  (Wallerant,)  a  Flemish  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Lille  in  1623.  He  was  also  a  mezzotint  engraver, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  artist  who  executed 
works  in  that  department.  His  engraved  portrait  of 
Prince  Rupert  is  one  of  his  best  productions.  Died 
in  1677. 

Vaillant  de  Gueslis,  vt'ySN'  deh  gi'l^ss',  or  Quelle, 
ggl,  (Germain,)  a  French  bishop  and  poet,  born  at  Or- 
leans. He  was  patronized  by  Francis  I.,  and  became 
Bishop  of  Orleans  in  1586.  He  wrote  an  able  com- 
mentary on  Virgil,  (1575,)  and  a  Latin  poem  at  the  age 
of  seventy.    Died  in  1587. 

Vaillant,  Le,  leh  vt'ySN',  (FRAwgois,)  a  celebrated 
traveller  and  naturalist,  born  at  Paramaribo,  in  Dutch 
Guiana,  in  1753.  He  was  taken  to  Europe  about  1764, 
and  passed  many  years  in  France  and  Germany,  where 
he  studied  the  habits  of  birds.  In  1780  he  sailed 
to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  undertook  to  explore 
Southern  Africa,  He  made  excursions  among  the  Caf- 
fres  and  other  tribes,  extended  his  researches  northward 
beyond  the  Orange  River,  and  remained  in  Africa  until 
July,  1784.  He  returned  to  France  with  a  large  collec- 
tion of  birds,  and  published  an  interesting  and  graphic 
narrative  of  his  travels,  "  Journey  in  the  Interior  of 
Africa,"  ("  Voyage  dans  I'lnterieur  de  I'Afrique,"  2 
vols.,  1790-96,)  which  has  a  high  reputation  for  veracity. 
He  was  a  diligent  observer  and  an  enthusiastic  votary 
of  natural  history.  He  was  imprisoned  in  1793,  and 
only  saved  from  death  by  the  fall  of  Robespierre.  He 
published  a  "Natural  History  of  the  Birds  of  Africa," 
(6  vols.,  1 796-1812,)  and  several  minor  works  on  birds. 
Died  near  Sezanne  in  November,  1824.  "His  works 
on  birds,"  says  Eyries,  "are  placed  in  the  first  rank." 
("  Biographie  Universelle.") 

Vair,  du.    See  Du  Vair. 

Vaishnava,  vish'na-va,  (English  plural,  Vaish- 
navas,)  the  name  given  by  the  Hindoos  to  the  worship- 
pers of  Vishnu,  (which  see.) 

Vaissette  or  Vaissete,  vi'sSt',  (Dom  Joseph,)  a 
French  Benedictine  and  historian,  born  at  Gaillac  in 
1685.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of 
Languedoc,"  (5  vols.,  1730-45,)  which  is  said  to  be  very 
exact,  judicious,  and  well  written.    Died  in  1756. 

Vaj'ra,  (pronounced  by  the  modern  Hindoos  viij'ra 
or  buj'ra,)  a  Sanscrit  word,  signifying  "adamant,"  but 
used  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  to  designate  the  "  ada- 
mantine thunderbolt"  of  Indra.    (See  Indra.) 

Vakli'tang  I.,  King  of  Georgia  in  the  fifth  century, 
was  descended  from  the  Persian  king  Sapor  (Shapoor)  I. 
He  was  engaged  in  numerous  wars,  and  greatly  enlarged 
his  dominions. 

Vakhtang  VI.  became  ruler  over  the  province  of 
Kartli,  in  Georgia,  in  1 703.  Having  refused  to  embrace 
Mohammedanism,  he  was  deposed  by  the  Shah  of  Persia, 
but  he  was  afterwards  restored  to  power.  While  out- 
wardly conforming  to  the  religion  of  Mohammed,  he  was 
active  in  promoting  Christianity,  and,  having  established 
a  printing-press,  printed  a  Georgian  version  of  a  portion 
of  the  Bible.  Being  compelled  at  length  to  resign  in 
favour  of  his  brother,  he  took  refuge  in  Russia.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  history  of  his  country,  entitled  the 
"Chroiiicle  of  Vakhtang  the  Sixth,"  (in  manuscript.) 
He  died  in  1734.  His  sons  Bakar  and  Vakhusta  com- 
pleted the  Georgian  Bible  in  1743. 

Val,  du,  dii  vtl,  [Lat.  Val'la,]  (Nicolas,)  a  French 
jurist  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  became  secretary  to 
the  king  about  1542,  and  wrote  a  valuable  work  "  On 
Doubtful  Causes  and  Questions  Disputed  in  Law,"  ("  De 
Rebus  dubiis  et  Quaestionibus  in  Jure  controversis,"  4th 
edition,  1583.) 

Valadares  Gamboa,  de,  di  vi-li-d^^rgs  g2.m-bo'l, 
(Joaquim  Fortunato,)  a  Portuguese  poet,  born  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 


Valadon,  vt'lS'd6N',  (Zacharie,)  a  French  mis- 
sionary, born  at  Auxonne  about  1680.  .  He  laboured  in 
Palestine,  Syria,  etc.    Died  at  Dijon  in  1746. 

Valart,  vt'ltu',  (Joseph,)  a  French  scholar  and  critic, 
born  near  Hesdin,  in  Artois,  in  1698.  He  .became  a 
priest,  and  was  employed  as  a  school-teacher  at  various 
places.  He  wrote  several  works  on  grammar,  and  pub- 
lished editions  of  Horace,  Ovid,  and  other  Latin  authors. 
His  character  is  represented  as  bizarre.    Died  in  1781. 

Valaze,  de,  deh  vt'lS'zi',  (Charles  El^onore  du 
Friche — dii  fR^sh,)  a  French  Girondist,  born  at  Alen9on 
in  1751,  became  an  advocate.  He  published  an  able 
work  "On  Penal  Laws,"  (1784,)  and  was  elected  to  the 
Convention  in  1792.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king 
and  the  appeal  to  the  people.  Having  been  condemned 
to  death  in  October,  1793,  he  killed  himself 

See  Louis  Dubois,  "Notice  sur  Valaz^,"  1802;  Lamartinh 
"  History  of  the  Girondists." 

Valbonnais.    See  Bourchenu,  de. 

Valcarcel,  vil-kaR-thSK,  (Jos:6  Antonio,)  a  Spanish 
agriculturist,  born  at  Valencia  about  1720.  He  rendered 
an  important  service  to  his  countrymen  by  the  publica- 
tion of  his  "General  Agriculture  and  Rural  Economy," 
(7  vols.  4to,  1765-86.)    Died  after  1790. 

Valcarcel,  (Don  Pio  Antonio,)  Count  de  Lunares, 
a  Spanish  antiquary,  born  in  1740,  published  several 
treatises  on  the  inscriptions  of  Saguntum  and  other  cities 
of  Spain.    Died  in  1800. 

Valckenaer,  viKkeh-naR,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  diploma- 
tist and  lawyer,  born  at  Franeker  or  Leyden  in  1759. 
He  became  professor  of  law  at  Utrecht  in  1787,  and 
joined  the  party  of  patriots,  i.e.  those  who  sympathized 
with  the  French  republicans.  He  was  Dutch  ambassa- 
dor at  Madrid  from  1796  till  1801,  and  was  sent  by  King 
Louis  to  Paris  in  1810  to  prevent  the  annexation  of 
Holland  to  France.    Died  in  1821. 

Valckenaer,  (Lodewijck  Caspar,)  an  eminent 
Dutch  philologist,  born  at  Leeuwarden  in  1715,  was  the 
father  of  the  preceding.  He  became  professor  of  Greek 
at  Franeker  in  1741,  and  was  professor  of  Greek  and 
archaeology  at  Leyden  from  1766  until  his  death.  He 
edited,  besides  other  classic  works,  the  "  Phoenissae" 
and  the  "  Hippolytus"  of  Euripides,  and  the  "  Idyls"  of 
Theocritus,  (1773,)  on  which  he  wrote  excellent  com- 
mentaries. Among  his  works  is  "  Observationes  Aca- 
demicas,"  (1790,)  which  is  highly  prized.    Died  in  1785. 

See  Saxe,  "  Onomasticon." 

Valdegamas.    See  Donoso-Cortes. 
Valdemar.    See  Waldemar. 

Valdes,  vil-d^s',  (Don  Antonio,)  a  Spanish  minister 
of  state,  born  in  the  Asturias  about  1735.  He  became 
minister  of  the  marine  in  1781,  and  greatly  increased  the 
naval  force  of  Spain.  His  ability  and  success  were  so 
conspicuous  that  the  king  in  1787  placed  him  at  the  head 
of  the  departments  of  finance,  commerce,  and  war.  In 
1792  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  chief  admiral  or  cap- 
tain-general of  the  navy.  By  the  agency  of  Godoy,  he 
was  removed  in  1795.    Died  about  1811. 

Valdes,  (Caietano,)  a  Spanish  naval  officer,  was  a 
nephew  of  the  preceding.  He  commanded  a  ship  at 
Trafalgar  in  1805,  after  which  he  became  a  lieutenant- 
general.  Having  revolted  against  Ferdinand  VII.,  he 
was  imprisoned  from  181 5  to  1820.    Died  after  1826. 

Valdes,  (Diego  or  Jago,)  a  Spanish  author  and 
professor  of  law,  born  in  the  Asturias  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  published  a  work  "  On  the  Dignity  of 
Spanish  Kings,"  (in  Latin,  1602.) 

Valdes,  [It.  Valdesso,  vil-d^s'so,]  (Juan,)  a  Spanish 
jurist  and  reformer,  born  probably  in  Leon.  He  be- 
came a  chamberlain  of  Pope  Adrian  VI.  in  1522,  and 
returned  to  Spain  soon  after  the  death  of  that  pope. 
He  removed  to  Naples  about  1530,  and,  it  is  said,  was 
employed  there  as  secretary  to  the  Spanish  viceroy. 
He  wrote  several  religious  works,  in  some  of  which  he 
attacked  the  corruptions  of  the  Roman  Church.  He 
died  at  Naples,  about  middle  age,  in  1540.  He  adopted 
the  chief  doctrines  of  the  Protestant  creed,  but  never 
formally  separated  from  the  Church  of  Rome.  Among 
his  works  of  a  religious  character  is  one  entitled  "One 
Hundred  and  Ten  Considerations,"  etc.,  (1550.) 

"  Valdes  as  a  reformer,"  says  Wiffen,  "  entered  less 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FJLDES 


2170 


FJLENTINIAN 


than  almost  any  thoughtful  man  of  his  time  into  the 
battle  of  hierarchies.  He  was  less  a  destroyer  of  error 
and  evil  than  a  builder-up  of  truth  and  goodness." 

See  B.  B.  Wiffen,  "Life  of  Juan  Valdes,"  1865;  Hodgson, 
*'  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867;  Ticknok,  "History 
of  Spanish  Literature  ;"  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova." 

Valdes  Leal,  de,  di  vil-dSs'  li-Sl',  (Juan,)  an  emi- 
nent Spanish  painter,  born  at  Cordova  in  1630.  He 
worked  at  Seville,  and  was  intimate  with  Murillo,  after 
whose  death  he  was  considered  as  the  head  of  his  pro- 
fession. Among  his  works  are  several  pictures  of  the 
history  of  the  prophet  Elijah.  He  died  in  1691.  His 
son  Lucas,  born  in  1661,  was  a  painter  and  engraver. 
Died  in  1724. 

Valdesso.    See  Valdes,  (Juan.) 

Valdez.    See  Melendez  Valdez. 

Valdivia,  de,  di  vil-dee've-i,  (Don  Pedro,)  a  Span- 
ish officer,  who  distinguished  himself  by  the  conquest 
of  Chili,  was  born  about  15 10.  He  accompanied  Pizarro 
in  his  expedition  against  Peru  in  1532.  About  1540, 
under  the  orders  of  Pizarro,  he  invaded  Chili  with  a 
small  force,  founded  Santiago,  and  gained  victories 
over  the  natives.  He  returned  to  Peru  in  1547  or  1548, 
and  fought  under  La  Gasca  against  Gonzalo  Pizarro. 
He  was  captured  by  the  Araucanians,  and  put  to  death, 
in  1559- 

See  Claudio  Gay,  "Historia  de  Chile;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
G^nerale." 

VaPdo  or  WaPdo,  [Fr.  pron.  viKdo',]  (Peter  or 
Pierre,)  a  French  Reformer  of  the  twelfth  century, 
born  at  Vaux,  in  Dauphine,  became  a  chief  of  the  sect 
of  Waldenses,  (or  Vaudois.)  He  maintained  the  equal 
right  of  the  laity  with  the  clergy  to  conduct  the  offices 
of  religion,  and  denounced  the  vices  and  ignorance  of  the 
priests.  His  doctrine  was  condemned  by  the  Roman 
Church  in  11 79,  and  his  followers  cruelly  persecuted. 
He  is  said  to  have  translated  the  Scriptures  into  Vaudois. 
Many  suppose  that  the  name  Waldenses  was  derived 
from  Valdo  or  Waldo ;  but  it  seems  more  probable 
that  he  took  his  name  Valdo  as  a  surname  because  his 
views  corresponded  with  those  of  the  Waldenses,  who, 
it  appears,  were  in  existence  before  his  time,  and  among 
whom  he  afterwards  became  a  leader. 

See  Hodgson,  "Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867; 
L^GER,  "  Histoire  generale  des  Vaudois  ;"  A.  Muston,  "  Histoire 
des  Vaudois,"  4  vols.,  1851. 

Valee,  v^'W,  (Sylvain  Charles,)  Count,  a  French 
marshal,  born  at  Brienne-le-Chateau  in  1773.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  Austria  and  Spain,  and  was  made  gen- 
eral of  division  in  181 1.  He  was  appointed  inspector-gen- 
eral of  artillery  by  Louis  XVHL,  and  made  improvements 
in  the  artillery.  He  succeeded  to  the  chief  command  in 
Algeria  on  the  death  of  Danremont,  and  took  Constan- 
tina  in  October,  1837.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France 
the  same  year.    Died  in  1846. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Valence,  de,  deh  vS^16nss',  (Cyrus  Marie  Alex- 
andre de  Timbrune — deh  t^N'bRiin',)  Count,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Agen  in  1757.  He  was  ap- 
pointed general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Ardennes  in  Oc- 
tober, 1792,  and  gained  some  advantages  over  the  allies 
in  Flanders.  He  followed  Dumouriez  in  his  defection 
and  flight,  (1793.)  Having  returned  to  France  about 
1800,  he  served  as  general  in  Spain,  (1808,)  and  in 
Russia,  (1812.)    Died  in  1822. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Valencia,  Duke  of.   See  Narva?:z. 

Valenciennes,  vS''16N'se-^n',  (Achille,)  a  French 
naturalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1794.  He  became  professor 
of  anatomy  at  the  Normal  School  in  1830,  and  after- 
wards professor  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  "Natural  History  of 
Fishes,"  (II  vols.,  1829-49.) 

Valenciennes,  (Pierre  Henri,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1750.  He  was  the  chief 
of  a  school  to  which  many  eminent  painters  belonged. 
According  to  the  "Biographie  Universelle,"  he  was 
the  ablest  landscape-painter  of  his  time.    Died  in  1819. 

Va'lens,  (Aburnus,)  a  Roman  jurist  of  the  time  of 
Antoninus  Pius.  There  are  only  fragments  of  his 
writings  extant.  | 


Valens,  (Fabius,)  a  Roman  general,  notorious  for 
cruelty  and  other  crimes.  He  revolted  against  Galba, 
became  a  partisan  of  Vitellius,  and  defeated  Otho  at 
Bedriacum  in  69  a.d.  Having  been  captured  by  the  troops 
of  Vespasian,  he  was  put  to  death  the  same  year. 

Valens,  (Flavius,)  Emperor  of  the  East,  born  about 
328  A.D.,  was  a  brother  of  Valentinian  I.,  to  whom  he 
was  indebted  for  the  imperial  power.  He  began  to  reign, 
in  364,  over  Thrace,  Asia,  and  Egypt.  In  366  he  sup- 
pressed a  rebellion  of  Procopius.  He  was  an  Arian,  and 
persecuted  the  orthodox.  He  defeated  the  Goths  in  369, 
after  which  he  waged  war  against  Sapor,  (Shapoor,)  King 
of  Persia.  His  dominions  were  invaded  by  the  Goths, 
by  whom  he  was  defeated  and  killed  in  a  great  battle 
near  Adrianople  in  378  A.D. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Til- 
LEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Valentia,  de,  di  vS-lSn'te-S,  (Gregorio,)  a  Spanish 
Jesuit  and  theologian,  born  at  Medina  del  Campo  about 
1550.  He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Ingolstadt  and 
at  Rome.  He  wrote  several  controversial  works.  Died 
in  1603. 

Valentia,  de,  (Pedro,)  an  eminent  Spanish  jurist, 
born  in  1554.  He  had  a  high  reputation  for  learning. 
He  wrote  an  excellent  commentary  on  the  "Academics" 
of  Cicero,  (1596.)    Died  in  1620. 

Valenti-Gonzaga,  vS,-l§n'tee  gon-zl'gS,  (Silvio,)  an 
Italian  cardinal,  born  at  Mantua  in  1690,  was  a  patron 
of  learning.  He  became  chief  minister  of  Benedict  XIV, 
soon  after  his  election  to  the  papacy.    Died  in  1756. 

Valentin.    See  Valentine  and  Valentinus. 

Valentin,  vd-Ien-teen'  or  fi-len-teen',  (Gabriel  Gus- 
tav,)  a  German  physician,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at 
Breslau  in  1810.  He  became  professor  of  physiology 
at  Berne  in  1846.  He  has  published  a  "Manual  of  the 
History  of  Development,"  (1835,)  and  other  physio- 
logical works. 

Valentin  or  Valentini,  vi-l^n-tee'nee,  (Michael 
Bernard,)  a  German  medical  writer  and  naturalist, 
born  at  Giessen  in  1657.  He  was  professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Giessen,  and  wrote  numerous  works.  Died 
in  1726. 

Valentin,  vt'lfiN't^N',  (MoisE,)  called  also  Valentin 
de  Boulongne,  (vt'lSN'tiN'  deh  boo'l^Nn',)  and  Le 
Valentin,  (leh  vi'ldN'tiN',)  a  distinguished  French 
painter,  born  at  Coulommiers  in  1600.  He  studied  in 
Italy,  and  made  Caravaggio  his  model.  Among  his 
master-pieces  we  may  name  "  The  Death  of  John  the 
Baptist,"  and  "  The  Denial  by  Peter."  His  delineations 
of  common  life  are  also  greatly  admired.    Died  in  1632. 

Valentin  de  Boulongne.  See  Valentin,  (Moise.) 

Valentin-Smith,  vt'lSN^tiw'  sm^t,  (Joannes  Er- 
HARD,)  a  French  lawyer  and  writer  on  political  economy, 
born  at  Trevoux  in  1796.  Among  his  works  are  "  Men- 
dicity and  Labour,"  (1848,)  and  "The  Philosophy  of 
Statistics,"  (1854.) 

VaPen-tine  or  Val-en-ti'nus,  [Fr.  Valentin,  vt'- 
IfiN'tiN',]  a  native  of  Rome,  was  elected  pope  in  Sep- 
tember, 827.    He  died  in  October  of  the  same  year. 

Valentine,  (Basil.)    See  Basil- Valentine. 

VaPen-tine,  Saint,  an  ecclesiastic  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, supposed  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  under  the 
emperor  Claudius,  (270  A.D.) 

Valentine  de  Milan,  vt'lSN't^n'  deh  me'16N',  [It. 
Valentina  da  Milano,  va-l^n-tee'n^  di  me-lj'no,]  a 
daughter  of  Galeazzo  Visconti,  was  married  in  1389  to 
Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  a  brother  of  Charles  VI.  of 
France.  She  is  represented  as  amiable  and  accom- 
plished. She  had  several  sons.  Louis  XII.  and  Francis 
I.  were  her  grandsons.    Died  in  1408. 

See  Froissart,  "  Chronicles ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Valentini,  va-l§n-tee'nee,  (Georg  Wilhelm,) 
Baron,  a  German  general,  born  at  Berlin  in  1775, 
served  against  the  French  in  the  principal  campaigns 
between  1811  and  181 5,  and  was  appointed  in  1828  in- 
spector-general of  military  instruction  in  the  Prussian 
army.    He  wrote  several  military  works.    Died  in  1834. 

Val-en-tin'i-an  [Lat.  Valentinia'nus  ;  Fr.  Valen- 
tinien,  vS''l6N'te''ne-iN'']  I.,  (Flavius,)  born  in  Panno- 
nia  in  321  A.D.,  succeeded  Jovian  as  Emperor  of  Rome 


a,  e,  I,  o,  ia,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  \x,  %  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fSll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


FJLENTINUN  2 171  FJLESIUS 


in  364,  and,  having  made  his  brother  Valens  his  colleague, 
reserved  for  himself  the  western  part  of  the  empire.  He 
carried  on  wars  with  the  Franks,  Allemanni,  and  other 
German  tribes,  over  whom  he  gained  several  important 
victories.  The  Picts  and  Scots  were  also  defeated,  and 
a  rebellion  in  Africa  was  suppressed  by  his  general 
Theodosius.  While  marching  against  the  Quadi  and 
Sarmatae,  who  had  invaded  Pannonia,  Valentinian  died 
suddenly,  (375  a.d.)  He  was  a  Catholic,  but  tolerated 
the  Arians. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Til- 
LEMONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs;"  Baronius,  "Annales;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Valentinian  (Valentinianus)  II.,  (Flavius,)  called 
THE  Younger,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and  was 
made  by  his  brother  Gratian,  who  succeeded  to  the 
throne  in  375  A.D.,  his  colleague,  and  ruler  over  the 
western  part  of  the  empire.  After  the  murder  of  Gra- 
tian by  Maximus,  in  383,  he  sought  the  protection  of 
Theodosius,  who  defeated  Maximus  and  restored  the 
throne  to  Valentinian,  He  was  assassinated  in  392,  by 
order  of  Arbogastes,  one  of  his  generals,  who  aimed  at 
the  supreme  power. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.-' 

Valentinian  (Valentinianus)  III.,  (Placidius,) 
son  of  Constantius,  born  in  419,  was  made  ruler  over  the 
Western.empire  by  his  uncle,  Theodosius  XL,  (425  A.D.,) 
but  the  government  was  conducted  by  his  mother,  Pla- 
cidia.  During  this  period  Africa  was  conquered  from 
the  Romans  by  Genseric,  in  consequence  of  the  discord 
between  the  Roman  generals  Aetius  and  Bonifacius. 
Aetius,  having  previously  defeated  the  Huns  under 
Attila,  was  murdered  by  Valentinian,  who  was  jealous 
of  his  superior  ability,  (454.)  The  emperor  perished 
himself,  in  455,  by  the  hand  of  Petronius  Maximus, 
whose  wife  he  had  dishonoured. 

See  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;"  Tille- 
MONT,  "  Histoire  des  Empereurs." 

Valentinianus.    See  Valentinian. 

Valentinien.    See  Valentinian. 

Val-en-ti'nus,  [Fr.  Valentin,  vS'lSN^t^N',]  a  cele- 
brated Gnostic,  was  a  native  of  Egypt,  and  the  founder 
of  a  sect  called  Valentinians,  He  went  to  Rome  about 
140  A.D.,  and  was  excommunicated  soon  after  that  date. 
He  invented  an  obscure  and  fanciful  system  of  theology, 
in  which  Platonic  ideas  were  mingled  with  the  mystic 
doctrines  of  the  Gospel  of  John,    Died  about  160. 

Valentyn,  vi'len-tin',  (Francis,)  a  Dutch  preacher 
and  traveller,  born  at  Dort  about  1660.  He  preached 
several  years  at  Amboyna,  and  published  a  descriptive 
work  entitled  *'  Ancient  and  Modern  East  Indies,"  (8 
vols.,  1724-26.)    Died  about  1725. 

Valera,  de,  di  vS-la'ra,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  historian, 
born  at  Cuenca  about  1412,  He  was  major-domo  to 
Isabella  of  Castile,  and  received  the  title  of  histo- 
riographer from  Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  He  wrote  an 
"Abridged  History  of  Spain,"  ("Cronica  de  Espana 
abreviada,"  1482.)    Died  after  1481, 

See  Ticknor,  "History  of  Spanish  Literature." 

Valere.    See  Valerius,  (Lucas.) 

Va-le'ri-a  Ga-le'ri-a,  a  Roman  lady,  was  a  daughter 
of  Diocletian  and  Prisca,  She  was  married  in  292  a.d. 
to  the  emperor  Galerius,  after  whose  death  she  was 
persecuted  by  Maximinus  because  she  refused  to  be  his 
wife.    She  was  put  to  death  by  Licinius  in  315  a.d, 

Valeria  Gens,  an  ancient  patrician  tribe  or  family 
of  Rome,  supposed  to  be  descended  from  Volesus,  or 
Volusus,  a  Sabine,  This  gens  was  represented  by  a 
succession  of  eminent  men  for  many  centuries,  and 
enjoyed  peculiar  honours  and  privileges.  Among  the 
names  of  the  families  into  which  it  was  divided  were 
Flaccus,  Maximus,  Messala,  Publicola,  and  Volusus, 

Va-le'ri-an  [Lat,  ValeriaSus,  (Publius  Licinius  ;) 
Fr.  Val^rien,  vt'li're^^N'j  succeeded  ^milianus  as 
Emperor  of  Rome  in  253  a.d.,  and  appointed  his  son 
Gallienus  his  colleague.  The  empire  was  soon  after 
invaded  by  the  Goths  and  other  barbarous  tribes,  and 
by  Sapor,  (Shapoor,)  King  of  Persia,  who  defeated  the 
Romans  near  Edessa  in  260  and  took  Valerian  prisoner. 
He  was  treated  in  the  most  insulting  manner  by  his 
captor,  who  is  said  to  have  placed  his  foot  upon  him 


when  he  mounted  his  horse.  He  died  in  Persia  about 
268  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Gallienus, 

See  AuRELius  Victor,  "De  Caesaribus;"  Tillemont,  "His- 
toire des  Empereurs." 

Valeriani  Molinari,  vi-li-re-i'nee  mo-le-nl.'ree, 
(LuiGi,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  in  1758;  died  in  1828. 

See  Montanari,  "  Biografia  del  Professore  L.  Valeriani  Moli- 
nari," 1835. 

Valerianos  Apostolo-s.    See  Fuca,  de,  (Juan.) 
Valerianus.    See  Valerian. 

Va-le-ri-a'nus,  (Joannes  Pierius,)  or  Valeriano, 

v^-la-re-a'no,  (Giovanni  Pierio,)  an  Italian  author, 
born  at  Belluno  in  1477.  His  family  name  was  BoL- 
ZANi,  He  became  apostolic  prothonotary  and  professor 
of  eloquence  at  Rome,  Among  his  works  are  Latin 
poems,  and  a  "  Treatise  on  Ancient  Symbols,"  ("  Hie- 
roglyphica,  sive  de  Sacris  ^gyptiorum,  aliarumque 
Gentium  Literis,"  1556.)    Died  at  Padua  in  1558, 

See  De  Thou  and  Teissier,  "  £loges ;"  Niceron,  "  Memoires  ;* 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Valerien.    See  Valerian, 

Valerio,  vi-la're-o  or  vt'li're'o',  (Theodore,)  a 
French  painter  and  engraver,  born  near  Longwy  (Mo- 
selle) in  1819,  He  accompanied  the  Turkish  army  about 
1853,  and  took  sketches  of  various  scenes  and  peoples 
in  Hungary,  Bosnia,  and  the  Danubian  principalities, 

Va-le'ri-us,  (Antias  Quintus,)  a  Roman  historian, 
wrote  Annals  of  the  city  from  its  foundation  to  the  time 
of  Sulla, 

Valerius,  (Julius,)  a  translator,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  the  fifth  century.  He  produced  a  Latin 
version  of  a  *'  History  of  Alexander  the  Great,"  by 
^sopus. 

Valerius,  [Fr,  Valere,  vt'laiR',]  (Lucas,)  an  Italian 
mathematician,  was  professor  of  geometry  in  the  College 
of  Rome.  He  published  a  work  "On  the  Centre  of 
Gravity  of  Solids."  Galileo  called  him  the  Archimedes 
of  his  time.    Died  about  1618. 

Valerius,  (Probus  Marcus,)  a  noted  grammarian 
under  the  reign  of  Nero,  was  a  native  of  Syria. 

Valerius,  (PUP.LIUS,)  surnamed  Asiat'icus,  a  Roman, 
who  was  consul  in  46  a.d.  He  was  very  rich.  Messa- 
lina,  who  coveted  his  garden,  induced  Claudius  to  put 
him  to  death  in  47  A.D. 

Valerius  Corvus,  (Marcus.)    See  Corvus. 

Valerius  Flaccus.    See  Flaccus,  (Caius.) 

Va-le'ri-us  Max'i-mus,  [Fr,  Valere  Maxime,  vt'- 
laiR'  mtk's^m',]  a  Roman  historical  writer  under  the 
reign  of  Tiberius.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Fac- 
torum  Dictorumque  Memorabilium  Libri  IX.,"  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  historical  anecdotes.  Numerous  editions 
of  it  have  been  published,  and  it  has  been  translated  into 
the  principal  modern  languages.  This  work  is  very 
defective  in  style  and  other  qualities. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis  ;"  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca 
Latina." 

Valerius  Publicola.    See  Publicola. 

Valesio,  (Francisco,)    See  Valles. 

Valesio,  va-la''se-o,  (Giovanni  Luigi,)  an  Italian 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Bologna  in  1561,  He 
worked  in  Rome. 

Valesius,  the  Latin  of  Valois  and  Valles,  which  see. 

Va-le'si-us,  (Adrianus,)  [Fr.  Adrien  de  Valois, 
t'dReJ.N'  deh  vt'lvvi',]  brother  of  Henri,  noticed  below, 
born  in  Paris  in  1607,  was  the  author  of  a  history  of 
France,  entitled  "Gesta  veterum  Francorum,"  etc.,  (3 
vols.,  1658,)  and"Notitia  Galliarum  Ordine  alphabetico 
digesta,"  being  an  account  of  ancient  Gaul.  In  1660 
he  received  a  pension  from  the  king,  and  the  title  of 
royal  historiographer.  He  also  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Henry 
de  Valois,"  (in  Latin,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1692. 

See  Niceron,  "  Memoires." 

Valesius  or  De  Valois,  (Henri,)  an  eminent  French 
scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1603.  He  studied  in  his  native 
city,  and  subsequently  at  Bourges,  Among  his  principal 
works  are  his  editions  of  Eusebius,  Socrates,  Sozomen, 
and  other  Greek  ecclesiastical  historians,  also  an  edition 
of  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  and  "  Excerpta  Polybii,  Dio- 
dori,  Nicolai  Damasceni,"  etc.  He  was  appointed  royal 
historiographer  in  1660,    Died  in  1676. 

See  Niceron,  "Memoires." 


€  as  i;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VALETTE 


21 


72 


VALLANCE 


Valette,  vt'lSt',  (Auguste,)  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Salins  (Jura)  in  1804.    He  became  professor  of  civil 
law  ifi  the  Ecole  de  Droit,  Paris,  in  1837,  and  occupied 
that  chair  more  than  twenty  years.   He  published  several 
"  legal  works. 

Valette,  de  la,  deh  It  vt'lgt',  (Jean  Parisot— pt'- 
re'zo',)  sometimes  called  Valette-Parisot,  the  founder 
of  Valetta,  and  grand  master  of  Malta,  was  born  of 
French  parents  in  1494.  He  was  elected  grand  master 
in  1557,  having  previously  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  a  general.  In  1565  the  Sultan  Solyman  attacked 
Malta  with  a  powerful  armament,  (one  hundred  and 
fifty-nine  ships  of  war,)  against  which  La  Valette  made 
a  successful  defence.  After  a  siege  of  four  months,  the 
Turks  retired.    Died  in  1568. 

See  Mermet,  "  £loge  de  J.  de  la  Valette-Parisot,"  1S03  ;  Pfaff, 
"Philippe  Villiers  de  J'Isle-Adam  und  J.  de  la  Valette,"  1851; 
Prrscott,  "History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Watson,  "Lite  of 
Philip  II.;"  De  Thou,  "  Historia  sui  Temporis ;"  Vertot, 
"  Histoire  des  Chevaliers  de  Make;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Valette,  de  la,  (Louis  de  Nogaret — deh  no'gt'ri',) 
Cardinal,  a  French  prelate,  born  in  1593,  was  a  son  of 
the  Due  d'fipernon.  He  was  an  adherent  of  Richelieu, 
who  in  1635  gave  him  command  of  an  army  sent  to  aid 
the  German  Protestants  and  fight  against  the  Spaniards. 
Turenne  was  second  in  command  under  him.  In  1638 
he  commanded  the  army  of  Italy.  Died  at  Rivoli  in 
1639. 

See  J.  Talon,  "MemoiredeL.  de  Nogaret,  Cardinal  de  la  Valette," 
etc.,  2  vols.,  1772. 

Valette,  de  la,  (Louis  de  Thomas,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic, born  at  Toulon  in  1678.  He  became  general  of 
the  congregation  of  the  Oratory.    Died  in  1772. 

Valette,  La.    See  La  Valette. 

VaFgi-us  Ru'fus,  a  Roman  poet  and  critic  of  the 
Augustan  age,  favourably  mentioned  by  Horace  in  his 
Tenth  Satire,  book  i.  Little  is  known  respecting  him 
or  his  works. 

Valhalla,  (the  "hall  of  the  fallen  or  slain.")  See 
Odin  and  Valkyria. 

Valhubert,  vt'lii'baiR',  (Jean  Marie  Melon  Ro- 
ger,) a  French  general,  born  at  Avranches  in  1764, 
distinguished  himself  at  Marengo,  and  was  killed  at 
Austerlitz  in  1805. 

Vali,  vi'le,  [etymology  uncertain  ;  possibly  related  to 
the  Sanscrit  hdld^  "strength,"  (which  is  cognate  with  the 
Latin  vdl-eo,  to  "be  strong,")  or  the  Sanscrit  bald,  an 
"infant,"  because  as  an  infant  he  performed  his  greatest 
achievement,]  one  of  the  principal  gods  in  the  Norse 
mythology,  was  the  son  of  Odin  and  Rinda,  When 
only  one  day  old,  he  avenged  Balder's  death  by  slaying 
Hoder.  He  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  archer.  He  and 
Vidar  are  the  only  ones  among  the  principal  gods  who 
will  survive  the  destruction  of  the  world  at  Ragnarock. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Kev.ser,  "Religion 
of  the  Northmen;"  Petersen,  "  Nnrdisk  Mythologi. " 

Valieri,  vi-le-a'ree,  or  Valiero,  vi-le-a'ro,  (Silves- 
TRO,)  became  Doge  of  Venice  in  1694.  He  waged  war 
with  success  against  the  Turks,  and  compelled  them  to 
cede  the  Morea  to  Venice  in  1699.    Died  in  1700. 

Valiero,  vi-le-a'ro,  or  Valerio,  vi-la're-o,  [Lat.  Va- 
LE'rius,]  (Agostino,)  a  learned  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Venice  in  1531.  He  became  Bishop  of  Verona  in  1565, 
and  a  cardinal  in  1583.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Ecclesiastical  Rheitoric,"  ("  Rhetorica  Ecclesiastica," 
1574,)  and  a  "Life  of  Carlo  Borromeo,"  (1586.)  Died 
in  1606. 

See  Ughei.li,  "Italia  Sacra;"  Nio^ron,  "Memoires;"  G. 
Ventura,  "Vita  Cardinalis  A.  Valerii,"  1741. 

Valignani,  vS-l^n-y^'nee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian 
Jesuit  and  missionary,  born  at  Chieti  in  1537.  Having 
been  sent  to  the  East  Indies  in  1573,  he  preached  in 
Japan  and  China.    Died  at  Macao  in  1606. 

Valin,  vt'15,N',  (Rkn6  Josu6,)  a  French  jurist,  born 
at  La  Rochelle  in  1695,  acquired  a  high  reputation  by 
his  works  on  law.    Died  in  1765. 

See  Lepelletier,  "  filoge  de  R.  J.  Valin,"  1844. 

Valincourt  or  Valincour,  de,  deh  vt'l^N'kooR', 
(Jean  Baptiste  Henri  du  Trousset — dii  tRoo''si',) 
SiEUR,  a  French  writer  and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1653. 


He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Fran9ois,  Due  de  Guise,"  (1681,) 
and  other  works.  He  succeeded  his  friend  Racine  as  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy,  in  1699,  and  as  his- 
toriographer to  the  king.    Died  in  1730. 

See  Fontenelle,  "  filoges;"  Niceron,  "  Memoires;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Valkenburgh,  vai'ken-biarg  or  vaKken-buRH,  (Theo- 
DORE  or  DiRCK,)  a  Dutch  painter  of  portraits  and  still 
life,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1675.  He  worked  for  some 
time  at  Vienna,  from  which  he  returned  to  his  native 
city.    Died  in  1721. 

Valkyria,  (or  Valkyrja,)  vai-k!r'e-a  or  vai-klr'yi; 
the  common  English  plural  is  Valkyries,*  val-kir'^z, 
[Norse  plural,  Valkyrjur  or  Valkyriur,  v^l-klr'yui, 
derived  from  valr,  "  fallen"  or  "  slain  in  battle,"  and  kjb*-a, 
cognate  with  the  old  German  kiiren  and  Anglo-Sax  )n 
ceosan,  to  "  choose,"  signifying  the  "  choosers  of  the  slain,  'J 
the  name  applied  in  the  Edda  to  certain  mythical  beings, 
attendants  of  Odin,  by  whom  they  are  sent  to  every 
battle-field  to  select  such  as  are  doomed  to  fall,  and  to 
bring  them  to  Valhalla.  They  are  described  as  white 
maidens  who  ride  through  the  air,  from  the  manes  of 
whose  horses  dew  falls  in  the  valleys  and  hail  on  the 
high  mountains.  Skuld,  the  youngest  of  the  Norns, 
is  numbered  among  the  Valkyries.  They  are  some- 
times called  ValmByar,  ("battle-maids,")  Skialdmeyar  or 
Skjaldmeyar,  ("  shield-maids,")  and  Oskmeyar,  ("  the 
maids  of  Odin,")  Oski  being  one  of  the  names  of  the 
war-god.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  Valkyries,  in  addition 
to  their  other  offices,  to  wait  upon  the  chosen  heroes 
( Einkeriar)  who  are  admitted  to  Valhalla,  to  fill  their 
cups  with  mead,  and  to  have  charge  of  everything  be- 
longing to  the  table. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  Keyser,  "Re- 
ligion of  the  Northmen  ;"  Petersen,  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Valkyries.    See  Valkyria. 

Valla.    See  Val,  du,  (Nicolas.) 

Valla,  viKlS,  (Giorgio,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  phy- 
sician, born  at  Piacenza  about  1430,  was  a  cousin  of 
Lorenzo,  noticed  below.  He  became  professor  of  elo- 
quence at  Venice.  He  wrote  several  medical  treatises, 
and  a  work  entitled  "On  Things  to  be  Sought  and  to 
be  Avoided,"  ("  De  Expetendis  et  Fugiendis  Rebus," 
2  vols.,  1501.)    Died  at  Venice  in  1499. 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Tiraboschi, 
"  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana. " 

Valla,  (Lorenzo,)  an  eminent  classical  scholar,  born 
at  Rome  about  141 5.  He  was  successively  professor 
of  rhetoric  at  Pavi'a,  Milan,  and  Naples,  where  he  ac- 
quired the  friendship  and  patronage  of  King  Alfonso 
I.  He  was,  it  is  said,  persecuted  by  the  Archbishop 
of  Naples,  but  he  effected  his  escape  to  Rome,  where 
he  was  kindly  received  by  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  who 
made  him  his  secretary  and  conferred  on  him  other 
distinctions.  His  principal  works  are  entitled  "Notes 
on  the  New  Testament,"  ("  Annotationes  in  Novum 
Testamentum,"  1505,)  "  Elegantiae  Sermonis  Latini," 
commentaries  on  Livy  and  Sallust,  and  translations  of 
Herodotus  and  Thucydides.  Valla  was  one  of  the  first 
critics  and  scholars  of  his  time;  but  his  controversial 
writings  are  disfigured  by  bitter  invective  and  person- 
alities.   Died  about  1460. 

See  Vossius,  "  De  Historicis  Latinis;"  Bayle,  "  Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary;"  Poggiali,  "  Meninrie  intorno  alia  Vita  di  L. 
Valla;"  Wildschut.  "Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  L.  Vallae," 
1830;  P.  Giovio,  "Elogia;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Valladier,  vt'lt^de-i',  (Andr^,)  a  French  eccle- 
siastic and  writer,  was  born  about  1565.  He  became 
preacher  or  chaplain  to  Henry  IV.  in  1608,  and  abbe  of 
Saint-Arnoul  in  1611.  Among  his  works  is  "The  Royal 
Labyrinth  of  the  Gallic  Hercules,"  ("  Le  Labyrinthe 
royal  de  I'Hercule  Gaulois,"  1600.)    Died  in  1638. 

See  MoR^Ri,  " Dictionnaire  Historique ;"  Niceron,  "Me- 
moires." 

Vallance,  vI'ISnss',  or  Valiancy,  vt'lfiN'se', 
(Charles,)  an  antiquarian  writer,  born  in  1721,  pub- 
lished a  work  entitled  "  Collectanea  de  Rebus  Hiber- 
nicis,"  etc.,  and  a  "Grammar"  and  "Dictionary"  of  the 
Irish  language.    Died  in  1812. 


*  The  English  singular  Valkyry  or  Valkyrie  is  rarely  used. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y. 


short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mfet;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


VALLANDIGHAM 


2173 


VALMORE 


Vallandigham,  va-lan'de-gam,  (Clement  L.,)  an 
American  politician,  born  at  New  Lisbon,  Ohio,  about 
1822.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a  Democrat,  in 
1856,  by  the  voters  of  the  third  district  of  Ohio,  which 
he  continued  to  represent  untiri863.  While  in  Con- 
gress he  opposed  the  efforts  of  the  government  to  sup- 
press the  rebellion,  and  manifested  his  sympathy  with 
the  insurgents  in  many  a  virulent  harangue.  In  May, 
1863,  he  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  having  "declared 
disloyal  sentiments  and  opinions,"  etc.,  and  was  sen- 
tenced by  a  military  court  to  close  confinement  till  the 
end  of  the  war ;  but  the  President  modified  this  sen- 
tence and  directed  that  he  should  be  banished  or  sent 
southward  beyond  our  military  lines.  Mr.  Vallan- 
digham embarked  at  a  Southern  port  and  afterwards 
went  to  Canada.  The  Democratic  Convention  which 
met  in  Ohio  in  June,  1863,  denounced  his  banishment 
as  a  violation  of  the  Constitution,  and  nominated  him 
as  their  candidate  for  Governor.  He  was,  however, 
defeated  in  the  ensuing  election,  (October,  1863,)  his 
opponent,  Mr.  Brough,  having  received  the  unprece- 
dented majority  of  101,099  votes.    Died  in  1871. 

Vallarsi,  vIl-laR'see,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  anti- 
quary, born  at  Verona  in  1702,  was  versed  in  Hebrew 
and  Greek.  He  edited  the  works  of  Saint  Jerome,  (12 
vols.,  1734.)    Died  in  1771. 

Vallart.    See  Valart. 

Vallauri,  vSl-16w'ree,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  scholar 
and  literary  historian,  born  at  Chiusa  di  Cuneo  in  1805. 
He  became  professor  of  Latin  eloquence  at  Turin  in 
1843.  He  published  "  History  of  Poetry  in  Piedmont," 
(1841,)  "History  of  the  Royal  House  and  Monarchy  of 
Savoy,"  (1845,)  "Critical  History  of  Latin  Literature," 
(in  Latin,  1849,)  a  "  Latin-Italian  Dictionary,"  (1852,) 
and  editions  of  several  Latin  classics. 

Vaile,  della,  deKli  vil^i,  (Gugliei.mo,)  an  Italian 
monk  and  writer,  born  at  Sienna  about  1740.  He  wrote 
"Letters  on  the  Fine  Arts,"  (3  yols.,  1782-86.)  Died 
in  1 794. 

Valle,  della,  (Pietro,)  a  celebrated  Italian  traveller, 
born  at  Rome  in  1586,  was  surnamed  TL  Pellegrino, 
("  the  Pilgrim.")  Having  assumed  the  dress  of  a  pilgrim, 
he  set  out  in  1614  for  Palestine  and  the  adjacent  coun- 
tries. He  returned  in  1626,  having  spent  six  years  in 
Persia.  He  died  in  1652.  His  Travels  in  India  and 
Persia  were  published  in  1662,  (4  vols.)  They  have 
been  translated  into  several  languages. 

Vallee,  vt'la',  (Geoffroi,)  a  French  Deist,  born  at 
Orleans,  published  "  The  Beatitude  of  Christians,"  ("  La 
Beatitude  des  Chretiens,")  for  which  he  was  executed 
in  1574. 

Vallee,  (Louis  L6ger,)  a  French  civil  engineer,  born 
in  1794,  was  appointed  inspector-general  in  1848.  He 
published  several  professional  works. 

Vallee,  La.    See  La  Vallee. 

Valleix,  vt'lk',  (Francois  Louis,)  a  French  med- 
ical writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1820,  He  published  a 
"Treatise  on  Neuralgia,"  (1841,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1855. 

Valleraoiit,  de,  deh  vtl'm^N^,  (Pierre  Le  Lorrain 
— leh  lo^riw',)  Abb^;,  a  French  priest,  naturalist,  and 
writer,  born  at  Pont-Audemer  in  1649.  He  compiled 
several  mediocre  works,  among  which  is  "  The  Elements 
of  History,"  (2  vols.,  1696.)    Died  in  1721. 

Valleriole,  vtrre'oK,  (Franqois,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Montpellier  about  1504  ;  died  in  1580. 

Valles,  vSKy^s,  or  Valesio,  vi-la'se-o,  [Lat.  Valle'- 
sius,]  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  medical  writer,  born  in 
Old  Castile,  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was 
physician  to  Philip  II.,  and  aiithor  of  several  esteemed 
works. 

Vallet  or  Valet,  vt'li',  (Guillaume,)  a  French  en- 
graver, born  about  1634.  He  engraved  some  works  of 
Raphael,  Titian,  and  Poussin.    Died  about  1704. 

Vallet  de  Viriville,  vt'la'  deh  ve're'v^l',  (  Auguste,) 
a  French  antiquary  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  181 5. 
He  contributed  to  several  periodicals,  and  published,  be- 
sides other  works,  "  Historical  Iconography  of  France," 
(1853,)  and  "  Researches  on  Jeanne  Dare,"  (1855.) 

Valletta,  vll-let'tS,  (Niccol6,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born 
at  Arienza  (Campania)  in  1738,  (or,  as  some  say,  1750.) 


He  became  professor  of  law  in  the  University  of  Naples, 
and  published  numerous  legal  works.    Died  in  i8;4. 

See  Rosa,  "  Elogio  storico  di  N.  Valletta,"  1815. 

Valli,  vil'lee,  (Eusebio,)  an  Italian  physician,  born  at  - 
Pistoia  in  1 762,  was  the  author  of  treatises  on  the  yellow 
fever,  of  which  disease  he  died  in  1816. 

VaFH-a  or  WalTi-a,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  began 
to  reign  in  415  A.D.,  and  formed  an  alliance  with  Hono- 
rius,  Emperor  of  Rome,  in  416,  after  which  he  gained 
victories  over  the  Vandals  in  Spain.  Toulouse  was  his 
capital.    Died  about  420  a.d. 

Valliere,  de,  deh  vt'le^aiR',  (Jean  Florent,)  a 
French  general  of  artillery,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1667. 
He  reorganized  the  artillery,  and  rendered  jmpcrtant 
services  in  several  campaigns.    Died  in  1759. 

Valliere,  de,  (Joseph  Florent,)  Marqui.?,  an  able 
French  general,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1717.  He  became  director-general  of  the  artil- 
lery and  engineers  in  1755,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
Hastenbeck.    Died  in  1776. 

Valliere,  de  la,  deh  IS  vt'le^iR',  (Louis  C^sar  La 
Baume  Le  Blanc,)  Duke,  a  F'rench  bibliophile,  born 
in  Paris  in  1708,  was  a  grand-nephew  of  the  following. 
His  library  is  stated  to  have  been  the  richest  that  any 
private  person  ever  had  in  France.    Died  in  1780. 

Valliere,  de  la,  (Louise  FRANgoiSE  de  la  Baume 
Le  Blanc,)  a  beautiful  and  fascinating  Frenchwoman, 
born  in  Touraine  in  1644.  She  became  a  maid  of 
honour  to  the  Duchess  of  Orleans,  and  about  1661  the 
mistress  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  gave  her  the  title  of  duchess. 
She  had  by  him  four  children,  one  of  whom,  the  Count 
of  Vermandois,  was  legitimated.  In  1674  she  retired  to 
a  convent.  Her  virtues  and  piety  are  highly  extolled. 
Died  in  17 10. 

See  QuATREMfeRE  DE  Roissv,  "  Histoire  de  Madame  de  la  Val- 
liere," 1823 ;  W.  H.  D.  Adams,  "  Famous  Beauties  and  Historic 
Women,"  vol.  ii.,  1865. 

Vallisneri,  vSl-l^s-na^ree,  or  Vallisnieri,  vSl-l^s-ne- 
a'ree,  (Antonio,)  an  eminent  Italian  naturalist,  born  in 
the  duchy  of  Modena  in  May,  1661,  was  a  pupil  of  Mal- 
pighi  at  Bologna.  He  began  to  practise  medicine  at 
Reggio  about  1688,  and  married  in  1692.  Having  ac- 
quired distinction  by  his  researches  in  entomology  and 
the  generation  of  insects,  he  became  professor  of  practi- 
cal medicine  at  Padua  in  1700.  He  opposed  the  doctrine 
of  spontaneous  generation.  About  17 10  he  obtained  the 
first  chair  of  the  theory  of  medicine  at  Padua.  Among 
his  principal  works  is  a  "Treatise  on  the  Generation  of 
Men  and  Animals,"  ("  Istoria  della  Generazione  dell' 
Uomo  e  degli  Animali,"  etc.,  1721.)  Buffon  regarded  him 
as  an  exact  and  profound  investigator.  Died  at  Padua 
in  1730.  Vallisneria,  a  genus  of  plants,  was  named  in  his 
honour  by  Micheli. 

See  Fabroni,  "Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium,"  vol.  vii.  ; 
NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  Tipai.do,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illus- 
tri ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vallongue.    See  Pascal- Vallongue. 

Vallot,  vt'lo',  (Antoine,)  a  French  physician,  born 
at  Rheims  or  at  Montpellier  in  1594.  He  became  first 
physician  to  Louis  XIV.  in  1652,  and  cured  him  of  a 
serious  illness  in  1658.    Died  in  1671. 

Vallotti,  vIMot'tee,  (Francesco  Antonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian composer  of  sacred  music,  born  at  Vercelli  in  1697; 
died  at  Padua  in  1780. 

Valmiki,  viKmi-ki,  or  V^lmiki,  vSl  -mee'ki,  a  Hindoo 
poet,  of  unknown  date,  to  whom  is  ascribed  the  author- 
ship of  the  "  Ramayana,"  one  of  the  two  great  Hindoo 
epics.    (See  Ramayana.) 

See  Wilson,  "  Sanscrit-and-English  Dictionary ;"  "  New  Ameri- 
can Cyclopedia." 

Valmont  de  Bomare,  vil^m^N'  deh  bo'mtR',  (J.  C.,) 
a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1 73 1.  He  visited 
various  parts  of  Europe,  including  Lapland,  and  returned 
with  a  large  collection  of  objects  in  natural  history.  He 
published  in  1758  his  "  Catalogue  of  a  Cabinet  of  Natural 
History,"  which  was  followed  by  a  "  New  Exposition  of 
the  Mineral  Kingdom,"  (2  vols.,  1762,)  and  "  Universal 
Raisonne  Dictionary  of  Natural  History,"  a  work  of 
great  merit,  which  has  obtained  extensive  popularity. 
Died  in  1807. 

Valmore,  (Marcelline.)    See  Desbordes. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Yi,guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^i^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VALMT 


2174 


VAN  BV REN 


Valmy,  Duke  of.    See  Kf.llermann. 

Valois,  vt'lwa',  (Yves,)  a  French  Jesuit  and  writer 
on  religion,  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1694;  died  after  1760. 

Valois,  de,  (Adrien.)    See  Valesius. 

Valois,  de,  (Charles.)    See  Angouleme. 

Valois,  de,  deh  vt'lwi',  [Lat.  Vale'sius,]  (Charles,) 
a  French  antiquary,  born  in  Paris  in  167 1,  was  a  son  of 
Adrien  de  Valois  or  Valesius.  He  published  a  curious 
work,  entitled  "  Valesiana,"  (1694,)  which  is  composed 
partly  of  his  father's  writings  and  sayings.  Died  in  1747. 

Valori,  vS-lo^ree,  (Francesco,)  an  eminent  Italian 
statesman,  born  at  Florence  in  1439.  He  filled  the 
highest  offices  in  the  Florentine  republic,  and  was  a 
friend  of  Savonarola  and  Macchiavelli.  He  was  killed 
by  the  populace  during  the  excitement  caused  by  the 
reforms  of  Savonarola,  in  1498. 

Valori,  (Niccolo,)  an  Italian  writer,  who  was  prior 
of  the  republic  of  Florence.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  *'  Life 
of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,"  (1492.) 

Valperga  di  Caluso,  vil-plR^g^  de  ki-loo'so,  or 
simply  Valperga-Caluso,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian 
terateur  a.wd  mathematician,  Ijorn  in  Turin  in  1737,  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Alfieri.  He  became  professor  of 
Oriental  literature  in  Turin,  and  director  of  an  observa- 
tory in  that  city.  He  wrote  poems,  and  numerous  treat- 
ises on  mathematics,  astronomy,  etc.  Among  his  works 
is  a  *'  Gallery  of  Italian  Poets,"  (1814.)    Died  in  1815. 

See  L.  DE  Breme,  "  Vita  di  T.  Valperga-Caluso,"  1815  ;  P.  Balbo, 
"  Vita  dell'Abate  Valperga,"  1816  ;  Boucheron,  "  Vita  T.  Valpergae- 
Calusii,"  1836;  Ersch  uiid  Gruber,  "Allgemeine  Encyklopaedie," 
article  "Caluso;"  "  Nouvelle  Biograpbie  Generale." 

Val'py,  (Edward,)  an  English  scholar  and  divine, 
brother  of  Richard,  noticed  below,  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became  vicar  of 
Saint  Mary,  at  Walsham,  Norfolk.  He  was  the  author 
of  "  Elegantiae  Latinse,"  (translated,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1832. 

Valpy,  (Richard,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  scholar 
and  divine,  born  in  the  island  of  Jersey  in  1754.  Having 
previously  studied  at  the  College  of  Valognes,  in  Nor- 
mandy, he  entered  the  University  of  Oxford,  where  he 
took  the  degree  of  B.A.,  and  in  1781  was  chosen  head- 
master of  the  grammar-school  at  Reading,  Berkshire. 
He  became  rector  of  Stradishall,  in  Suffolk,  in  1787.  He 
published  "Elements  of  the  Latin  Language,"  (1784,) 
and  a  "Greek  Grammar,"  (1805,)  which  are  highly 
esteemed.  Died  in  1836.  His  son  Abraham  John, 
born  in  1786,  published  excellent  editions  of  several  of 
the  Latin  classics.    Died  in  1854. 

Valsalva,  vai-slKvS,  (Antonio  Maria,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  physician  and  anatomist,  born  at  Imola  in  1666. 
He  studied  under  Malpighi  at  Bologna,  and  in  1697 
became  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  university  of  that 
city.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London 
and  of  other  similar  institutions.  He  made  improve- 
ments in  practical  surgery,  and  acquired  a  high  reputa- 
tion as  an  anatomist  by  his  discoveries  in  the  structure 
of  the  ear,  on  which  he  wrote  a  work,  "  De  Aure  Hu- 
mana," (1704.)  He  was  a  skilful  physician,  and  invented 
a  method  of  treating  aneurisms.    Died  in  1723. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium  ;"  Tipaldo, 
"  Biografia  degli  Italiani  illustri." 

Valsecchi,  v§,l-sek'kee,  (Virginio,)  an  Italian  anti- 
quary, born  at  Brescia  in  1681  ;  died  in  1739. 
Valstain.    See  Wallenstein. 

Valturio,  vSl-too^re-o,  (Roberto,)  an  Italian  writer 
on  the  military  art,  born  at  Rimini,  was  author  of  a 
work  "  De  Re  militari,"  (1472.)   He  lived  about  1450-80. 

Valvasone,  di,  de  vil-va-so'ni,  (Erasmo,)  an  Italian 
poet,  born  in  Friuli  in  1523,  was  proprietor  of  an  estate 
and  a  castle.  He  wrote  the  *' Angeleida,"  a  poem  on 
the  war  among  the  angels,  (1590,)  and  "The  Chase," 
("  Caccia,")  an  admired  didactic  poem  on  bunting, 
(1591.)    Died  in  1593. 

See  TiRABOscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratara  Italiana." 

Vaman.    See  Vamana. 

Vamana,  v^'ma-na,  called  also  V-mail,  vi'man, 
[i.e.  a  "  dwarf,"]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of 
the  fifth  avatar  of  Vishnu,  when  this  god,  to  humble  the 
arrogance  of  Bali,  (see  Bali,)  took  the  form  of  a  pitiful 
dwarf,  and,  when  the  tyrant  promised  him  as  much  land 


or  space  as  he  could  pass  over  in  three  steps,  revealed 
himself  in  his  real  character,  and  with  the  first  step 
deprived  Bali  of  earth,  with  the  second,  of  heaven,  but 
(in  consideration  of  Bali's  good  qualities)  he  generously 
forbore  to  take  the  third  step,  (which  would  have  left 
that  ruler  no  foothold  in  the  universe,)  and  allowed  him 
the  dominion  of  Patala,  or  the  lower  world.  From 
Vishnu's  exploit  on  that  occasion  he  has  received  one 
of  his  proudest  titles, — that  of  Trivik'rama,  or  the 
"  Three-Step-Taker."    (.See  ViSHNU.) 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Vamuna.    See  Vamana. 

Van  or  Vana.    See  Vanir. 

Van  Achen.    See  Achen. 

Van'a-dis,  [Norse  pron.  vl'nl-d^ss',  i.e.  the  "Vana 
goddess,"  so  called  on  account  of  her  descent  from  the 
Vanir,]  one  of  the  many  names  of  Freyia,  which  see. 

Van  Aelst.    See  Aelst. 

Van  Amburgh,  van  am'burg,  (Isaac,)  called  "the 
Lion-Tamer,"  was  born  at  Fishkill,  New  York,  about 
1815.  He  was  a  partner  of  a  company  that  exhibited  a 
travelling  menagerie,  and  was  very  successful  in  the 
taming  of  lions.    Died  in  Philadelphia  in  1865. 

Van  Beek.    See  Torrentinus. 

Vanbrugh,  van-broo',  (Sir  John,)  a  celebrated  Eng- 
lish dramatist  and  architect,  of  Flemish  extraction,  born 
in  1666,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  London. 
He  was  educated  in  France,  and,  after  his  return,  pub- 
lished, in  1697,  his  comedy  of  "  The  Relapse,"  which  was 
followed  by  "The  Confederacy"  and  "The  Provoked 
Wife."  These  plays  were  highly  popular  at  the  time  ; 
but,  owing  to  their  profanity  and  licentiousness,  they  have 
been  long  banished  from  the  stage.  Among  his  principal 
architectural  works  we  may  name  Castle  Howard,  the 
seat  of  Charles,  Earl  of  Carlisle,  Duncombe  Hall,  Grims- 
thorpe,  in  Yorkshire,  and  Blenheim,  the  magnificent 
residence  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1703  Clarencieux  king-at-arms.    Died  in  1726. 

See  CiBBER,  "Lives  of  the  Poets;"  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dra- 
matica;"  "Lives  of  the  British  Dramatists,"  by  Campbell,  Leigh 
Hunt,  etc. 

Van  Bu'ren,  (John,)  an  American  politician,  born  at 
Hudson,  New  York,  in  1810,  was  a  son  of  Martin,  noticed 
below.  He  was  elected  attorney-general  of  New  York 
early  in  1845,  joined  the  Free-Soil  party,  and  gained  dis- 
tinction as  a  political  orator  in  1848.  After  that  time 
he  practised  law  in  the  city  of  New  York,  and  acted 
with  the  Democratic  party.  He  died  at  sea  during  his 
homeward  passage  from  Europe,  in  October,  1866. 

Van  Buren,  (Martin,)  an  American  statesman,  the 
eighth  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Kin- 
derhook,  Columbia  county,  New  York,  on  the  5th  of 
December,  1782.  He  was  educated  at  the  academy  of 
his  native  village,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1803.  He  began  at  an  early  age  to  take  an  active 
part  in  politics,  as  a  member  of  the  Democratic  party, 
and  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  New  York  in  1812. 
He  advocated  the  war  against  England  in  1812,  became 
attorney-general  of  New  York  in  1815,  and  was  again 
elected  to  the  Senate  in  1816.  About  this  time  he  became 
the  master-spirit  of  the  Albany  Regency,  an  organization 
which  was  formed  to  oppose  De  Witt  Clinton,  and  which 
controlled  the  politics  of  New  York  for  many  years.  He 
was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  in  1821,  sup> 
ported  William  H.  Crawford  for  the  Presidency  of  the 
United  States  in  1824,  and  was  again  elected  a  Senatoi 
in  1827.  He  voted  for  the  protective  tariff  of  1828.  The 
same  year  he  was  chosen  Governor  of  New  York  for  two 
years,  but  before  the  expiration  of  his  term  he  resigned 
and  entered  the  cabinet  of  President  Jackson  as  secre- 
tary of  state.  He  resigned  that  ofiice  in  April,  1831, 
probably  because  General  Jackson  had  expressed  his 
opinion  that  cal)inet  ministers  should  not  be  aspirants 
for  the  Presidency,  or  should  not  obtain  that  office  through 
his  influence.  He  was  nominated  as  minister  to  Eng- 
land, whither  he  went  about  September,  1831,  but  his 
nomination  was  rejected  by  the  Senate,  in  which  the 
Whigs  had  then  a  majority.  To  compensate  him  for 
this  repulse,  the  friends  of  General  Jackson  elected  Mr. 
Van  Buren  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  in  No- 
vember, 1832.  He  was  General  Jackson's  favourite  candi- 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  flr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FAN  CEULEN 


2175 


FJNDER  HELST 


date  for  the  Presidency,  and  was  nominated  as  such  by 
the  Democratic  Convention  at  Baltimore  in  May,  1835. 
His  Whig  competitor  was  General  W.  H.  Harrison. 
Mr.  Van  Buren  was  elected  President  in  November,  1836, 
receiving  one  hundred  and  seventy  electoral  votes  out 
of  two  hundred  and  ninety-four,  which  was  the  whole 
number.  His  election  was  sooii  followed  by  a  great 
financial  panic  and  a  general  prostration,  of  business. 
About  May,  1837,  all  the  banks  suspended  specie  pay- 
ments. In  his  message  to  Congress  he  recommended 
the  establishment  of  an  independent  treasury,  which 
measure  was  rejected  by  the  House  of  Representatives 
in  the  session  of  1837-38,  but  afterwards  passed  both 
houses  of  Congress  and  became  a  law  about  June,  1840. 
In  the  session  of  1838-39  an  attempt  was  made  to  sup- 
press the  agitation  against  slavery,  by  a  resolution  that 
Congress  would  not  receive  or  read  any  petitions  for 
the  abolition  of  slavery.  All  the  political  friends  of  the 
President  voted  for  this  resolution,  which  was  adopted. 

He  was  again  nominated  for  the  Presidency  by  the 
Democratic  Convention  in  May,  1840,  but,  after  a  very 
exciting  canvass,  in  which  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Whigs 
was  stimulated  by  mass-meetings,  processions,  songs, 
etc.,  he  was  defeated  by  General  Harrison,  who  received 
two  hundred  and  thirty-four  electoral  votes  against  sixty 
for  Mr.  Van  Buren.  On  the  4th  of  March,  1841,  he  re- 
tired from  the  public  service  to  his  estate  called  Linden- 
wald,  near  Kinderhook,  New  York.  In  the  Democratic 
National  Convention  which  met  in  May,  1844,  a  majority 
of  the  delegates  were  pledged  or  instructed  to  vote  for 
Mr.  Van  Buren ;  but  the  Southern  politicians  opposed 
his  nomination,  because  he  had  written  a  letter  against 
the  annexation  of  Texas.  They  therefore  insisted  that 
the  Convention  should  adopt  a  rule  under  which  two- 
thirds  of  the  votes  were  necessary  to  a  choice.  Mr. 
Van  Buren  had  only  one  hundred  and  forty-six  votes 
out  of  two  hundred  and  sixty-two,  and  therefore  failed 
to  obtain  the  nomination. 

According  to  Mr.  Greeley,  his  renomination  was 
defeated  by  the  "slave-traders,  and  the  closely  affiliated 
class  of  gamblers  and  blacklegs."  ("  American  Conflict," 
vol.  i.  p.  69.)  He  afterwards  separated  himself  from  the 
Democratic  party  because  it  was  committed  to  the  ex- 
tension of  slavery.  A  convention  of  the  Free-Soil  party 
which  met  at  Buffalo  in  August,  1848,  nominated  Martin 
Van  Buren  and  Charles  Francis  Adams  as  candidates 
for  the  offices  of  President  and  Vice-President.  They 
received  a  popular  vote  of  291,342,  but  not  any  electoral 
vote.  It  is  stated  that  he  voted  for  Mr.  Pierce  and  Mr. 
Buchanan  in  the  Presidential  elections  of  1852  and  1856. 
He  had  married  a  lady  named  Hoes  about  1804,  and  had 
several  sons.    Died  at  or  near  Kinderhook  in  July,  1862. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iii. 

Van  Ceulen.    See  Keulen,  van. 

Van  Cleemputte,  vtn  kla'6N'put',(LuciEN  Tyrt^e,) 
a  French  architect,  born  in  Paris  in  1795.  He  obtained 
the  grand  prize  in  1816. 

Van  Cleve,  vtn  kliv,  (Corneille  or  Joseph,)  a 
French  sculptor,  born  in  1644,  worked  in  Paris.  Died 
in  1733- 

Van  Cleve,  (Horatio  P.,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  about  1810,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1831.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  about  March,  1862,  and  commanded  a  division 
at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  September  19  and  20, 
1863. 

Vancouver,  vin-koo'ver,  (George,)  a  English  navi- 
gator, born  about  1755,  entered  the  navy  at  an  early  age, 
and  accompanied  Captain  Cook,  as  midshipman,  on  his 
second  and  third  voyages.  In  1791  he  sailed  as  com- 
mander of  the  Discovery  to  the  northwest  coast  of 
America,  to  receive  the  surrender  of  Nootka  from  the 
Spaniards,  who  were  instructed  by  their  government  to 
give  up  that  island  to  the  British.  He  was  also  charged 
to  make  a  survey  of  the  coast  northwards  from  latitude 
30°  north.  He  returned  in  1795,  and  applied  himself 
to  the  preparation  of  his  narrative,  which  was  not  quite 
completed  at  his  death,  in  1798.  It  was  published  soon 
after  by  his  brother,  under  the  title  of  "Voyage  of  Dis- 
covery to  the  North  Pacific  Ocean  and  round  the 


World,"  (3  vols.  4to.)  Vancouver  gave  his  name  to  an 
island  off  the  coast  of  America  between  48°  20'  and  51° 
north  latitude. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  January,  1799. 

Van  Dale,  vtn  di'leh,  (Antoon,)  a  Dutch  physician 
and  Mennonite  preacher,  born  in  1638,  was  the  author 
of  several  learned  works  on  theology  and  Greek  and 
Roman  antiquities.  Among  these  we  may  name  his 
treatise  "  On  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Idolatry  and 
Superstition,"  (in  Latin,)  and  "On  the  Oracles  of  the 
Heathen,"  ("  Dissertationes  duse  de  Oraculis,"  etc., 
1700.)    Died  in  1708. 

Van  Dalen.    See  Dalen,  van. 

Vandamme,  vdNMtm',  (Dominique  Ren^:,)  Count 
d'Unebourg,  a  French  general,  born  at  Cassel  in  1770. 
He  became  a  general  of  division  in  1799,  after  he  had 
rendered  important  services  in  Flanders  and  Germany. 
For  his  conduct  at  Austerlitz  he  received  from  Napoleon 
a  gift  of  twenty  thousand  francs.  He  took  part  in  several 
actions  against  the  Prussians  in  1806,  and  commanded 
a  corps  in  the  Austrian  campaign  of  1809.  In  the  spring 
of  1813  he  captured  Hamburg.  He  commanded  a  sepa- 
rate army  which  was  compelled  to  surrender  to  a  superior 
force  near  Kulm,  in  August,  1813.  Having  joined  the 
army  of  Napoleon  in  181 5,  he  had  a  high  command  at 
the  battle  of  Ligny.    Died  in  1830. 

See  Thiers,  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution  ;"  Jomini,  "  Vie 
politique  et  militaire  de  Napoleon ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Vandelli,  vin-del'lee,  (Domenico,)  an  Italian  phy- 
sician and  naturalist,  born  in  the  early  part  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  became  superintendent  of  the  botanic 
garden  at  Lisbon.  He  published  a  treatise  on  marine 
zoophytes,  etc.,  and  several  botanical  works.  He  was  a 
correspondent  of  Linnaeus,  who  named  the  genus  of 
plants  Vandellia  in  his  honour.    Died  in  1815. 

Van  den  Eckhout.    See  Eeckhout. 

Van'den-hoff,  (John,)  an  English  tragic  actor,  bom 
at  Salisbury  in  1790.  He  performed  "King  Lear"  and 
"Coriolanus"  with  success.    Died  in  1861. 

Vanderanus.    See  Aa,  van  der. 

Van'der-bilt,  (Cornelius,)  Commodore,  an  enter- 
prising American  navigator,  born  on  Staten  Island,  New 
York,  in  May,  1794.  He  was  originally  a  poor  boy,  and 
commenced  business  as  master  of  a  small  sail-boat.  He 
became  captain  of  a  steamboat  in  1 81 7,  after  which  he 
made  improvements  in  the  construction  of  steamers. 
He  built  many  steamboats  and  steamships,  and  in  1851 
established  a  line  from  New  York  to  California  by  way 
of  Nicaragua.  In  1855  he  built  several  steamships  to  ply 
between  New  York  and  Havre.  In  1862  he  presented 
as  a  gift  to  the  Federal  government  his  new  steamer 
called  the  Vanderbilt,  which  cost  $800,000,  and  for  which 
Congress  passed  a  resolution  of  thanks.  "  His  enter- 
prise, genius,  and  success,"  says  the  "  Merchants'  Maga- 
zine," "are  known  and  felt  the  world  over."  He  now 
has  the  chief  control  of  the  New  York  Central  Railroad 
and  the  Haarlem  Railroad. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  C.  Vanderbilt,"  in  the  "  Merchants'  Magazine" 
for  January,  1865. 

Vanderbourg,  de,  deh  v5N'd§R'booR',  (Martin 
Marie  Charles  de  Boudens — deh  boo^dSN',)  Vi- 
COMTE,  a  French  litteraietir,  born  at  Saintes  in  1765, 
was  also  a  philologist.  He  was  the  first  editor  of  the 
poems  of  Clotilde  de  Surville,  (1803,)  of  which  some 
critics  suspect  him  to  have  been  the  author.  Died  in  1827. 

Vanderburch,  vSN'd^R'biiRk',  (Emile  Louis,)  a 
French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1794,  wrote  many 
successful  comedies  and  vaudevilles.    13ied  in  1862. 

Vanderburch,  de,  deh  vtnMer-buRK,  (Francis,)  a 
Flemish  prelate,  born  at  Ghent  in  1567.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Cambray.    Died  in  1644. 

Van  der  Cabel.    See  Cab  el,  van  der. 

Van  der  Does.    See  Does,  van  der. 

Vander  Heist,  vtn'der-hglst',  (Bartholomew,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  portrait-painter,  born  at  Haarlem  about 
1610.  Among  his  master-pieces  is  a  picture  in  the  town- 
house  of  Amsterdam,  containing  twenty-four  full-length 
portraits.  It  is  esteemed  one  of  the  finest  productions 
of  the  kind,  and  was  highly  commended  by  Sir  Joshua 
I  Reynolds.    Died  about  1670. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal ;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FAN  DER  HE  r DEN 


2176 


FANE 


Van  der  Heyden,  (or  Heyde.)    See  Heyden,  van 

DER. 

Van  der  Linden.    See  Linden,  van  der. 

Van'der-lyn,  (John,)  a  noted  American  painter,  born 
at  Kingston,  Ulster  county.  New  York,  in  1776.  Having 
studied  law  for  a  time  under  Gilbert  Stuart,  he  visited 
Europe,  where  he  spent  several  years,  and  produced  his 
**  Ariadne"  and  "  Marius  sitting  among  the  Ruins  of  Car- 
thage," which  are  esteemed  his  master-pieces.  Among 
his  portraits  we  may  name  those  of  Washington,  Mon- 
roe, and  Calhoun.    Died  in  1852. 

See  DuNLAP,  "  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  Amer- 
ica," vol.  iii.  ;  "Recollections  of  John  Vanderlyn,"  in  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  for  February,  1867  ;  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Van  der  Maelen,  vtn  der  mi'len,  (Philippe  Marie 
GuiLLAUME,)  a  Belgian  geographer,  born  in  Brussels 
in  1795.  He  published  a  "Universal  Atlas,"  (6  vols., 
1825-27,)  and  other  works. 

Vander  Meer  or  Van  der  Meer,  vtn  der  maiR, 
(Jan,)  the  Elder,  a  celebrated  Dutch  painter  of  marine 
views  and  landscapes,  was  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1627. 
He  was  patronized  by  the  Prince  of  Orange,  who  made 
him  a  councillor  in  1674.    Died  about  1690. 

Vander  Meer,  (Jan,)  the  Younger,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1656.  His  landscapes  with  sheep 
are  greatly  admired;  he  also  produced  a  number  of 
admirable  etchings.  His  works  are  rare  and  highly 
prized.    Died  in  1706. 

Van  der  Mersch.    See  Mersch,  van  der. 

Van  der  Monde,  vtn  d§R  m6Nd  or  vSN'd^R'moNd', 
(Charles  Augustin,)  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Macao,  China,  in  1727.  He  published  a  "Dictionary 
of  Health,"  (Paris,  1759.)    Died  in  1762. 

Vander  Monde  or  Vandermonde,  v6N'diR'm6Nd', 
(N.,)  a  French  mathematician,  born  in  Paris  in  1735.  He 
became  professor  of  political  economy  in  the  ficole  Nor- 
male  in  1795.  He  published  several  scientific  treatises, 
and  two  "Memoires,"  in  which  he  advanced  the  theory 
that  music  might  be  composed  by  mathematical  pro- 
cesses. The  musicians,  it  is  said,  found  in  his'  method 
too  much  mathematics,  and  the  mathematicians  too 
much  music.    Died  in  1796. 

Van  der  Neer,  (Arnold.)    See  Neer,  van  der. 

Van  der  Ulft.    See  Ulft,  van  der. 

Vandervelde,  vtnMer-v^Kdeh,  (Adriaan,)  a  Dutch 
painter  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1639, 
was  a  pupil  of  Wynants,  and  a  son  of  Willem  the  Elder. 
His  favourite  subjects  were  landscapes  with  cattle,  in 
which  he  excelled  ;  he  also  frequently  painted  the  figures 
in  the  pictures  of  Ruysdael,  Van  der  Heyden,  and  others. 
Died  in  1672. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Van  der  Velde,  (Isaiah.)    See  Velde,  van  der. 

Van  der  Velde  or  Vandervelde,  (Willem,)  some- 
times written  also  Vandevelde,  called  the  Elder,  a 
celebrated  marine  painter,  born  at  Leyden  in  1610.  He 
entered  the  naval  service  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1666 
accompanied  Admiral  De  Ruyter  for  the  purpose  of 
making  drawings  of  the  engagements  between  the  Dutch 
and  English  fleets.  Having  acquired  a  very  high  repu- 
tation by  his  designs,  he  was  invited  to  England  by 
Charles  H.,  who  gave  him  the  title  of  painter  of  sea- 
fights  to  the  king,  and  bestowed  on  him  a  pension.  His 
designs  were,  for  the  most  part,  executed  with  a  pen 
upon  paper  or  prepared  canvas,  and  some  of  them  were 
painted  in  oil  by  his  son.    Died  in  1693. 

See  H.  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Van  der  Velde  or  Vandervelde,  (Willem,)  the 
Younger,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Amsterdam 
in  1633.  He  was  instructed  by  his  father,  whom  he  ex- 
celled in  sea-views.  Among  his  master-pieces  we  may 
name  his  "View  of  the  Texel,"  "A  Fresh  Breeze,"  "The 
Rising  of  the  Gale,"  and  "  A  Calm."  He  is  regarded 
by  many  connoisseurs  as  superior  to  any  other  artist  in 
his  department.    Died  in  1707. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Van  der  Werf  or  Vanderwerff,  vtn'der-w§Rf , 
(Adriaan,)  a  celebrated  Dutch  painter  of  portraits  and 
historical  works,  born  near  Rotterdam  in  1659.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  Elector- Palatine  John  William,  who 
conferred  on  him  the  honour  of  knighthood  and  pur-  | 


chased  his  pictures  at  very  high  prices.  Among  his 
master-pieces  are  a  "  Judgment  of  Paris,"  a  "  Magdalene 
in  the  Wilderness,"  and  an  "  Ecce  Homo."  Died  in  1722. 

Van  der  Werf  or  Vanderwerff,  (Pieter,)  a  painter, 
born  near  Rotterdam  in  1665,  was  a  brother  of  Adriaan, 
whom  he  imitated.    Died  in  1718. 

Van  der  Weyde,  vtn'der-wlMeh,  (Roger,)  a  Flem- 
ish painter  of  the  fifteenth  century,  introduced  great 
improvements  into  the  style  of  the  Flemish  school,  both 
in  respect  to  design  and  expression.  Among  his  besx 
works  is  a  "Descent  from  the  Cross."    Died  in  1529, 

See  "  Lives  of  the  Early  Flemish  Painters." 

Van  de  Weyer,  vtn  deh  wi'er,  (Sylvanus  or  Syl- 
VAIN,)  a  Belgian  diplomatist  and  lawyer,  born  at  Lou- 
vain  about  1802.  He  was  a  member  of  the  provisional 
government  formed  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  and 
represented  Belgium  at  the  Conference  of  London, 
(1831.)  On  his  return  he  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs.  He  was  prime  minister  for  a  short  time  "in 
1845-46. 

Van  Diemen.    See  Diemen,  van. 

Van  Dorn,  (Earl,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Mis- 
sissippi about  1823,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842. 
He  became  a  captain  in  1855,  and  resigned  his  commis- 
sion early  in  1861.  He  commanded  the  insurgents  at 
the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  March  7  and  8,  1862.  He  at- 
tacked General  Rosecrans  at  Corinth,  October  3  and  4, 
1862,  and  was  defeated  with  great  loss.  General  Rose- 
crans reported  that  his  army  killed  and  buried  1423,  and 
took  2268  prisoners.  General  Van  Dorn  was  killed  in 
a  private  quarrel  by  Dr.  Peters  in  Maury  county,  Ten- 
nessee, in  May,  1863. 

Vandyok.    See  Vandyke. 

Van  Dyck,  (Philippe.)    See  Dyck. 

Van  Dyk,  v4n  dik,  (Harry  Stoe,)  an  English  writer 
of  prose  and  verse,  born  in  London  in  1798.  He  pub- 
lished  "  The  Gondola,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1828. 

Vandyke,  Van  Dyck,  or  Vandyck,  vtn-dik',  (Sii 
Anthony,)  a  celebrated  Flemish  painter  of  portraits, 
born  at  Antwerp,  March  22,  1599,  was  a  son  of  a  rich 
merchant.  He  began  to  study  painting  under  Van  Balen 
in  1610,  and  afterwards  became  a  pupil  of  Rubens  about 
161 5.  According  to  a  doubtful  report,  Rubens,  incited 
by  jealousy,  advised  Vandyke  to  confine  himself  to 
portraits.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  was  admitted  into 
the  Academy  of  Antwerp.  He  visited  Italy  about  1622, 
passed  several  years  at  Venice,  Genoa,  Rome,  and  Flor- 
ence, and  painted  a  number  of  portraits  in  those  cities. 
Having  returned  to  Antwerp  about  1627,  he  painted  a 
picture  of  "  Saint  Augustine  in  Ecstasy,"  a  picture  of  the 
"  Crucifixion,"  and  other  historical  works.  Comment- 
ing on  his  "  Crucifixion,"  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  said, 
"This  picture,  upon  the  whole,  maybe  considered  as 
one  of  the  finest  (or  first)  pictures  in  the  world,  and  gives 
the  highest  idea  of  Vandyke's  powers."  Having  been 
invited  by  Charles  I.,  he  went  to  England  about  1632, 
and  painted  portraits  of  that  king,  who  gave  him  an  an- 
nual pension  of  two  hundred  pounds  in  1633,  and  the 
title  of  painter  to  his  majesty.  Vandyke  passed  the  rest 
of  his  life  in  England,  and  married  Mary,  a  daughter  of 
Lord  Ruthven,  Earl  of  Gowrie.  His  habits  were  luxu- 
rious, and  his  style  of  living  was  magnificent.  He  painted 
with  such  rapidity  and  facility  that  his  works  are  very 
numerous,  although  his  life  was  short.  He  is  generally 
considered  the  greatest  portrait-painter  of  modern  times 
except  Titian  ;  and  some  critics  prefer  him  even  to  that 
artist.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The  Erection  of 
the  Cross,"  a  portrait  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford  and  his 
secretary,  (at  Wentworth  House,)  and  a  series  of  por- 
traits of  eminent  artists  of  his  time,  which  he  painted 
before  he  left  Antwerp.  Engravings  of  these,  about  one 
hundred  in  number,  have  been  published.  He  died  in 
London  in  December,  1641,  leaving  one  child,  Justiniana, 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting  in  England;"  Descaisips, 
"Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,"  etc.  ;  Carpenter,  "  Memoir  of  Sir 
Anthony  Van  Dyck;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  Augnst,  1847:  G. 
Vallardi,  "  Cenni  storico-artistici  sul  A.  Van  Dyck,"  1844  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vane,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  statesman,  born  in 
Kent  in  1589.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament 
about  1615,  and  was  appointed  coff'erer  to  tjie  Prince 


a,  e,  T,  5, 5,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FJNE 


2177 


VAN LOO 


of  Wales  by  James  I.  At  the  accession  of  Charles  I.  he 
became  a  member  of  the  privy  council.  In  163 1  he  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Denmark  and  Sweden.  He  was 
appointed  principal  secretary  of  state  in  1640  or  1639. 
In  consequence  of  his  hostility  to  the  Earl  of  Strafford, 
he  was  removed,  and  became  an  adherent  of  the  Parlia- 
ment.   Died  in  1654. 

See  Clarendon,  "  History  of  the  Great  Rebellion." 

Vane,  (Sir  Henry,)  the  Younger,  often  called  Sir 
Harry  Vane,  a  republican  statesman,  born  in  1612,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding.  He  studied  fur  a  short 
time  at  Oxford,  from  which  he  went  to  Geneva,  and 
returned  borne  a  zealous  adversary  of  the  liturgy  and 
government  of  the  Church  of  England.  By  the  pro- 
fession of  such  opinions  he  incurred  the  displeasure 
of  his  father.  For  the  sake  of  religious  liberty,  he 
emigrated  in  1635  to  Massachusetts.  He  was  elected 
Governor  of  the  colony  in  1636,  and  "  manifested,"  says 
Forster,  "a  firmness,  energy,  and  wisdom  truly  remark- 
able in  one  of  his  early  age  and  previous  history."  He 
offended  the  majority  of  the  colony  by  his  advocacy 
of  universal  toleration,  and  returned  to  England  in 
1637,  soon  after  which  he  married  Frances  Wray.  In 
November,  1640,  he  became  a  member  of  the  Long 
Parliament,  in  which  he  efficiently  promoted  the  con- 
demnation of  the  Earl  of  Strafford  by  evidence  which 
he  furnished.  He  found  in  his  father's  cabinet  a  memo- 
randum of  a  council  at  which  Strafford  had  proposed  to 
employ  the  Irish  army  to  reduce  England  to  obedience. 

Vane  was  a  leader  of  the  Independents,  and  a  friend 
of  Milton.  On  the  death  of  Pym  (1643)  the  chief  direc- 
tion of  civil  affairs  devolved  on  Vane.  He  disapproved 
the  policy  of  the  execution  of  the  king,  but  expressed 
no  opinion  of  its  abstract  justice.  In  February,  1649, 
he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  council  of  state, 
and  in  the  next  month  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
naval  department.  The  efficiency  and  victories  of  the 
navy  are  ascribed  partly  to  his  administrative  talents. 
He  opposed  the  usurpation  of  Cromwell,  who,  as  his 
soldiers  were  dissolving  the  Parliament,  in  April,  1653, 
exclaimed,  "  The  Lord  deliver  me  from  Sir  Harry  Vane  !" 
Vane  afterwards  passed  several  years  in  retirement,  and 
wrote  works  entitled  "The  Retired  Man's  Meditation," 
(1655,)  and  a  "Healing  Question  Propounded  and  Re- 
solved," (1656.)  At  the  restoration  he  was  excepted 
from  the  indemnity  or  act  of  amnesty.  Having  been 
confined  in  prison  about  two  years,  he  was  tried  for 
treason  in  June,  1662,  and  convicted,  after  an  able  speech 
in  his  own  defence.  Charles  II.  wrote  to  Clarendon 
that  Vane  "was  too  dangerous  a  man  to  let  live."  He 
met  death  with  the  most  intrepid  courage  and  firmness. 
"He  was,"  says  Clarendon,  "a  man  of  extraordinary 
parts,  a  pleasant  wit,  a  great  understanding,  which 
pierced  into  and  discerned  the  purposes  of  other  men 
with  wonderful  sagacity.  ...  If  he  were  not  superior 
to  Mr.  Hampden,  he  was  inferior  to  no  other  man  in  all 
mysterious  artifices." 

See  Clarendon,  "  History  of  the  Rebellion  ;"  John  Forster, 
"Life  of  Sir  Henry  Vane  the  Younger:"  Whitelocke,  "Trial  of 
Sir  H.  Vane;"  Hume,  "  Histoiy  of  England;"  "The  Life  and 
Death  of  Sir  H.  Vane,"  1662. 

Van  Effen.    See  Effen,  van. 

Van  Erpen.    See  Erpenius. 

Vanetti.    See  Vannetti. 

Van  Eyck.    See  Eyck,  (Hubert  and  John.) 

Van  Galen.    See  Galen,  van. 

Vangerow,  von,  fon  f^ng'eh-ro',  (Karl  Adolf,)  a 
German  jurist,  born  near  Marburg  in  1808.  He  suc- 
ceeded Thibaut  as  professor  of  Roman  law  at  Heidel- 
berg in  1840,  and  in  1849  was  made  a  privy  councillor. 
He  published  a  "  Manual  of  the  Pandects,"  and  other 
legal  works.    Died  in  November,  1870. 

Van  Goyen.    See  Goyen,  van. 

Van  Helmont.    See  Helmont,  van. 

Van  Helt-Stoccade.    See  Stoccadf^ 

Van  Hoek.    See  Hoek,  van. 

Van  Huevel,  vtn  hii'vel,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Belgian 
physician,  born  at  Brussels  in  1802.  He  invented  a 
pelvimeter  and  a  forceps  saw. 

Van  Huysum.    See  Huysum,  van. 

Vaniere,  vt'n.e^iR',  [Lat.  Vanie'rus,]  (Jacques,)  a 
French  Jesuit  and  Latin  poet,  born  near  Beziers,  in 


Languedoc,  in  1664.  He  gained  a  high  reputation  by 
his  Latin  poems,  the  most  important  of  which  is  his 
"Rural  Estate,"  ("Praedium  Rusticum,"  1707.)  In  this 
poem  he  imitated  Virgil  with  considerable  success.  He 
was  professor  of  humanities  in  several  colleges.  Died 
at  Toulouse  in  1739. 

See  Pere  Lombard,  "Vie  du  Pere  Vaniere,"  1739;  Moreri, 
"  Dictionnaire  Historique." 

Vanierus.    See  Vaniere. 

Vanini,  va-nee'nee,  [Lat.  Vani'nus,]  (Lucilto,)  an 
Italian  philosopher  and  skeptic,  born  at  Taurisano  in 
1585.  According  to  some  authorities,  he  was  a  priest 
in  his  youth.  He  travelled  in  Germany,  France,  and 
England,  and  taught  philosophy  for  a  short  time  at 
Genoa.  His  enemies  admit  that  he  was  eloquent  and 
learned.  In  1616  he  published  at  Paris  a  pantheistic 
work,  entitled  "On  the  Admirable  Secrets  of  Nature, 
the  Queen  and  Goddess  of  Mortals,"  etc.,  ("  De  admi- 
randis  Naturae  Reginae  Deaeque  Mortalium  Arcanis,") 
which  the  Sorbonne  condemned  to  be  burned.  He 
removed  to  Toulouse  in  1617,  was  accused  of  atheism, 
and  put  to  death  in  1619. 

See  J.  G.  Olearius,  "De  Vita  Vanini,"  170S;  P.  F.  Arpe, 
"  Apologia  pro  Vanino,"  1712:  Durand,  "  La  Vie  et  les  Sentiments 
de  Vanini,"  1717;  "Life  of  Vanini,"  London,  1730;  Fuhrmann, 
"  Leben  des  Vanini,"  1800;  Niceron,  "  Memoires ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biosraphie  GentJrale." 

Vaninus.    See  Vaninl 

Vanir,  v^'nir,  the  plural  of  Van  or  Vana,  [from 
vanr,  "empty,"  cognate  with  the  Latin  vanus,  the  pri- 
mary meaning  of  which  is  the  same,]  in  the  Norse 
mythologv,  a  peculiar  class  of  beings,  whose  habitation 
and  empire  is  "the  empty,  vast,  and  wandering  air." 
They  rule  over  the  atmosphere,  the  weather,  and  the 
sea.  Their  dwelling-place  or  kingdom  is  termed  Vana- 
heim,  [i.e.  the  "home  of  the  Vanir.")  The  principal  per- 
sonage among  them  is  Njord,  the  god  of  the  winds,  who, 
though  born  and  bred  in  Vanaheim,  was  given  by  the 
Vanir  as  a  hostage  to  the  .^sir,  among  whom  he  is  now 
numbered.  The  Vanir  are  said  to  have  been  originally 
hostile  to  the  gods  of  Asgard,  but  were  subsequently 
reconciled  to  them.  This  statement  may  be  thus  ex- 
plained. The  capricious  and  uncertain  movements  of 
the  atmosphere  seem  naturally  hostile  to  the  regularity 
and  order  which  are  the  especial  attributes  of  the  gods 
or  ^sir.  But  when,  inspired  by  the  gods,  men,  by 
superior  skill  in  navigation,  were  enabled  to  take  advan- 
tage of  the  winds,  notwithstanding  their  irregularity,  the 
Vanir,  the  types  of  uncertainty,  were  said  to  be  recon- 
ciled with  the  ^sir,  the  representatives  of  order  and 
skill.  (See  ^SIR  and  Jotuns.)  That  Freyia  (the  goddess 
of  love)  was  the  daughter  of  a  Vana  prince,  would  seem 
to  allude  to  the  aerial  character  of  those  charms  which 
inspire  the  passion  of  love,  as  well  as  to  the  well-known 
caprice  and  inconstancy  of  lovers. 

See  Thorpe,  "Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  ;  Kevser,  "Re- 
ligion of  the  Northmen;"  Petersen,  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Vanlcx),  vin-lo',  (Abraham  Louis,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Amsterdam  about  1641,  was  the  father  of  Charles 
and  Jean  Baptiste,  noticed  below.    Died  at  Aix  in  1 7 13. 

Vanloo,  v6n''1o',  (Charles  Andre,  or  Carle,)  a 
French  painter,  born  at  Nice  in  1705,  was  a  brother  of 
Jean  Baptiste,  noticed  below.  He  studied  at  Rome, 
where  he  painted  his  "Apotheosis  of  Saint  Isidore." 
After  his  return  he  became  director  of  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  (1751,)  and  first  painter  to  the  king,  (1762.) 
Died  in  1765. 

See  Dandre-Bardon,  "Viede  Carle  Vanloo,"  1765;  Fontaine- 
Malherbe,  "filoge  de  C.  Vanloo,"  1767;  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Vanloo,  (Francois,)  a  French  painter,  born  at  Aix 
in  171 1,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Baptiste,  noticed  below.  He 
was  a  promising  artist,  when  he  was  killed  by  accident 
near  Turin  in  1733. 

Vanloo,  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Ecluse  in 
1614,  was  the  father  of  Abraham  Louis,  noticed  above. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1670. 

Vanloo,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  celebrated  French 
painter,  of  Flemish  extraction,  was  born  at  Aix,  in 
Provence,  in  1684.  He  resided  many  years  in  Paris, 
where  he  was  patronized  by  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  He 
acquired  the  highest  reputation  by  his  portraits,  and  was 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  yl,  guttural;  N,  fiasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    (2l^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

137 


FAN  LOO 


2178 


FAN  FEEN 


appointed  in  1735  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts.  In 
1738  he  visited  London,  where,  according  to  Horace 
Walpole,  "he  soon  bore  away  the  chief  business  of 
London  from  every  other  painter."  He  also  executed 
several  historical  pictures  of  great  merit.    Died  in  1746. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
grapliie  Generale." 

Vaiiloo,  (Jules  C^sar  Denis,)  a  landscape-painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1743,  was  a  son  of  Charles  Andre, 
noticed  above.    Died  in  1821. 

Vanloo,  (Louis  Michel,)  a  French  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Toulon  in  1707,  was  a  son  of  Jean  Baptiste, 
noticed  above.  Invited  by  the  king,  Philip  V.,  he  went 
to  Madrid  in  1736,  and  was  appointed  court  painter. 
He  returned  to  Paris  about  1748.    Died  in  1771. 

Van  Loon,  vtn  Ion,  (Gerard,)  a  Dutch  historian 
and  antiquary,  born  at  Leyden  in  1683.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Netherlands  from 
1555  to  1716,"  (4  vols.,  1723,)  which  is  commended. 

Van  Loon,  (Theodore.)    See  Loon. 

Van  Mander.    See  Mander,  van. 

Van  Mil'dert,  (William,)  an  English  prelate,  born 
in  London  in  1765.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  where  he 
afterwards  became  regius  professor  of  theology.  He 
was  made  Bishop  of  Llandafif  in  1819,  and  of  Durham 
in  1826.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "Life  of  Waterland," 
and  several  other  works.    Died  in  1836. 

Van  Moer,  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  Belgian  painter,  born 
at  Brussels  about  181 5. 

Van  Mons.    See  Mons. 

Van  Ness,  (Cornelius  P.,)  LL.D.,  born  in  Vermont 
in  1 781,  was  elected  Governor  of  that  State  in  1822, 
and  was  twice  re-elected.  He  was  minister  to  Spain 
under  President  Jackson  from  1829  to  1838.  Died  in 
Philadelphia  in  1852. 

Van  Ness,  (William  W.,)  an  American  jurist,  born 
at  Claverack,  New  York,  in  1775.  He  was  a  judge  of 
the  supreme  court  of  New  York  from  1807  to  1822. 
Died  in  1823. 

Vannetti,  van-net'tee,  or  Vanetti,  vi-net'tee,  (Cle- 
mentino,)  an  Italian  author,  born  at  Roveredo  in  1754, 
was  a  son  of  a  poet  named  Giuseppe  Valeriano  Van- 
netti.  He  wrote  numerous  works  in  prose  and  verse, 
among  which  are  poetical  epistles  and  biographies.  His 
poetry  was  admired  by  some  critics.    Died  in  1795. 

Van  Neve,  vtn  na'veh,  (Francis,)  a  Flem'ish  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1627,  studied  at  Rome. 
He  painted  history  and  landscapes,  and  produced  good 
etchings  of  his  own  designs. 

Vanni,  vin'nee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Sienna,  flourished  about  1370-1410. 

Vanni,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  painter  and  engraver, 
born  at  Sienna  in  1565.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  imi- 
tated the  style  of  Baroccio  so  successfully  that  his  works 
are  often  mistaken  for  those  of  that  artist.  Among  his 
master-pieces  we  may  name  the  "  Death  of  Saint  Ce- 
cilia," "  Simon  Magus  rebuked  by  Peter,"  and  "  Saint 
Raimond  walking  on  the  Sea."    Died  in  1609. 

See  Lanzi,  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
grapliie  Generale." 

Vanni,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  in  1599,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Flor- 
ence. He  made  admirable  copies  of  the  works  of 
Titian,  Correggio,  and  others,  and  was  also  skilled  in 
engraving.    Died  in  1660. 

Vanni,  (Michael  Angelo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Sienna  in  1583,  was  a  son  of  Francesco,  noticed 
above.    He  was  not  equal  to  his  father.    Died  in  1671. 

Vanni,  (Raphael,)  an  able  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Sienna  in  1596,  was  a  son  of  Francesco,  and  a  pupil  of 
Annibal  Caracci.  He  worked  at  Rome  and  Sienna. 
Died  in  1673. 

Vannucci.    See  Perugino. 

Van  Obstal,  vSn  op'stS.1,  or  Van  Opstal,  (Gerard,) 
a  Flemish  sculptor,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1597;  died  in 
Paris  in  1663. 

Van  Oort.    See  Noort. 

Van  Oost,  (Jacob.)    See  Oost,  van. 

Van  Os,  (Jan.)    See  Os,  van. 

Van  Ostade.    See  Ostade,  van. 

Van  Praet.    See  Praet,  van. 


Van  Rensselaer,  vin  rSn'sel-ler,  (Cort'land,)  D.D., 
an  American  Presbyterian  divine,  born  at  Albany  in  1808, 
was  a  son  of  General  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer,  noticed 
below.  He  died  in  i860,  leaving  a  collection  of"  Essays 
and  Discourses,"  etc.,  (1861.) 

Van  Rensselaer,  (Henry  K.,)  an  American  patriot, 
born  probably  in  New  York  State  about  1744.  He  served 
as  colonel  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  became  general 
of  militia.    Died  at  Albany  in  1816. 

Van  Rensselaer,  (Philip  S.,)  an  American  magis 
trate,  distinguished  for  his  benevolence,  was  born  about 
1766.  He  was  mayor  of  Albany  for  twenty-three  years, 
and  the  principal  founder  of  the  Academy  of  Albany. 
Died  in  1824. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait- Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans.' 

Van  Rensselaer,  (Solomon,)  an  American  officer, 
son  of  Henry  K.,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Albany  in 
1764  or  1774.  He  served  in  the  war  of  1812.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1819.    Died  at  Albany  in  1852. 

Van  Rensselaer,  (Stephen,)  LL.D.,  called  "the 
Patroon,"  a  distinguished  American  statesman  and 
soldier,  born  in  New  York  in  1764.  Having  for  six 
years  filled  the  office  of  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  State, 
he  was  appointed  to  command  the  New  York  militia  in 
the  war  of  1812.  He  co-operated  with  De  Witt  Clinton 
in  the  work  of  the  Erie  Canal,  being  president  of  the 
board  of  commissioners  for  fifteen  years.  He  founded 
in  1824  the  Rensselaer  Institute  (now  the  Polytechnic 
School)  at  Troy,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  zeal  in 
the  cause  of  science.  He  was  also  chancellor  of  the 
State  University.    Died  in  1839. 

See  "  Discourse  on  the  Life,  etc.  of  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer,"  by 
D.  D.  Bernard. 

Van  Santen.    See  Santen,  van. 

Van  Sanfvoord,  (Ge:orge,)  an  American  lawyer 
and  litterateur,  born  at  Belleville,  New  Jersey,  in  1819, 
has  published  a  "Life  of  Algernon  Sidney,"  (1851,) 
"Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices  of  the  United  States," 
(1854,)  and  several  legal  works. 

Van  Schendel,  vh^  sK^nMe!,  (Petrus,)  a  dis- 
tinguished Belgian  painter,  born  at  Breda  in  1806.  His 
market-scenes,  and  interiors  illuminated  with  fire,  moon- 
light, or  lamps,  are  esteemed  master-pieces  of  the  kind. 

Van-sit'tart,  (Nicholas,)  Lord  Bexley,  an  English 
politician,  born  in  London  in  1766,  was  distinguished  as 
a  financier.  He  was  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  from 
1 81 2  to  1823,  and  was  made  a  baron  in  the  latter  year. 
Died  in  1851. 

Vansomer,  vSn'so^mer,  (Paul,)  a  skilful  Flemish 
portrait-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1575,  settled 
in  England,  where  he  was  liberally  patronized  by  the 
nobility.  Among  his  principal  works  are  portraits  of 
James  I.,  Lord  Bacon,  and  William,  Earl  of  Pembroke. 
Died  in  1621. 

Vanstabel,  vSN'stt'biK,  (Pierre  Jean,)  a  French 
admiral,  born  at  Dunkirk  in  1746.  He  rendered  im- 
portant services  in  1793  by  convoying  one  hundred 
and  seventy  merchant-vessels  from  the  United  States  to 
Brest.    Died  in  1797. 

Van  Stork.    See  Stork,  van. 

Van  Swanevelt.    See  Swanevelt,  van. 

Van  Swieten.    See  Swieten,  van. 

Van  Thulden.    See  Thulden,  van. 

Van  Tromp.    See  Tromp,  van. 

Vanucohi.    See  Sarto,  del. 

Vaniicci.    See  Perugino. 

Vanuden,  vt-nii'den,  (Lucas,)  a  Flemish  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1595,  was  sometimes  em- 
ployed by  Rubens  to  paint  the  backgrounds  to  his 
pictures.  He  also  produced  a  number  of  admirable 
etchings.    Died  about  1672. 

Van  Utrecht,  vtn  ii'tR§Kt,  (Adriaan,)  a  Flemish 
painter  of  still  life,  was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1599.  His 
delineations  of  flowers,  fruit,  game,  etc.  were  unsur- 
passed, and  command  very  high  prices.    Died  in  165 1. 

Van  Veen,  (Martin.)    See  Heemskerk. 

Van  Veen,  vtn  van,  [  Lat.  Vae'nius  or  O ttove'nius,] 
(Otho,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  about  1550, 
studied  at  Rome  under  Zucchero.  He  afterwards  founded 
an  Academy  at  Antwerp,  and  numbered  Rubens  among 
his  pupils.    He  painted  several  historical  pieces,  and  a 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


VANVITELLI 


2179 


FAR  ILL  AS 


full-length  portrait  of  Alexander  Farnese,  Duke  of 
Parma,  esteemed  one  of  his  best  works.  He  also  wrote 
a  "  History  of  the  War  of  the  Batavians,"  from  Tacitus, 
illustrated  with  his  own  designs.    Died  about  1630. 

Vanvitelli,  van-ve-teKlee,  (Gasparo,)  the  Italianized 
name  of  Caspar  van  Witel,  (wee'tel,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Utrecht  about  1650.  He  went  to  Italy  in  early 
youth,  worked  many  years  at  Rome  and  Naples,  and 
gained  distinction  as  a  painter  of  landscapes  and  archi- 
tecture.   Died  in  1736. 

See  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Vanvitelli,  (Luigi,)  a  celebrated  architect,  born  at 
Naples  in  1700,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and  a  pupil 
of  Ivara.  He  was  appointed  architect  of  Saint  Peter's, 
at  Rome,  in  1725,  and  encircled  the  dome  of  that  edifice 
with  iron  bands.  He  designed  the  large  convent  of  Sant' 
Agostino  at  Rome.  His  capital  work  is  the  magnificent 
royal  palace  at  Caserta,  which  he  built  for  Charles,  King 
of  Naples,  and  commenced  in  1752.  It  is  about  seven 
hundred  and  thirty  feet  long.  This  palace  is  highly 
praised  by  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  who  says  it  exhibits 
unity  in  every  part,  is  simple,  with  variety,  and  complete 
in  all  respects.    Died  at  Caserta  in  1773. 

See  L.  Vanvitelli,  "Vita  di  Luigi  Vanvitelli,"  1823;  Milizia, 
"Memorie  degli  Architetti ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Van  Wart,  (Isaac,)  an  American  officer,  born  in 
Westchester  county.  New  York,  in  1748,  was  one  of  the 
three  captors  of  Major  Andre.    Died  in  1828. 

Vapereau,  vt'peh-r5'  or  vtp'ro',  (Louis  Gustave,) 
a  French  biographer,  born  at  Orleans  in  1819.  He 
published  in  1844  a  work  "On  the  Liberal,  Moral,  and 
Religious  Character  of  Modern  Philosophy."  Having 
studied  law,  he  was  admitted  as  an  advocate  in  1854. 
He  was  the  chief  editor  of  a  "General  Dictionary  of 
Contemporary  Biography,"  ("  Dictionnaire  universel  des 
Contemporains,"  1858,)  which  has  a  high  reputation  for 
accuracy  and  other  merits. 

Var^ha,  va-rd'ha,  [i.e.  in  Sanscrit,  a  "hog"  or 
"boar,"]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  the 
third  avatar  of  Vishnu.  A  mighty  monster  or  giant 
named  Hiranyaksha  (he-ran-ytk'sha*)  is  said  to  have 
seized  the  earth  and  carried  it  into  the  depths  of  the 
ocean.  Vishnu,  assuming  the  form  of  a  boar,  (the  sym- 
bol of  strength,)  dived  into  the  ocean,  and,  after  a  ter- 
rible contest  of  one  thousand  years,  slew  the  monster 
and  restored  the  earth,  bearing  it  above  the  waters  on 
the  point  of  his  tusks.  This  fable  not  improbal)ly  has 
reference  to  some  geological  change  in  the  earth's  surface. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Varanda,  vt'rSN'dt',  (Jean,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  Nimes,  graduated  at  Montpellier  in  1587. 
He  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Montpellier,  where 
he  died  in  1617. 

Va-ra'nes  [Gr.  Ovapavric]  or  Bahram  I.,  King  of 
Persia,  was  a  son  of  Hormisdas  I.  He  reigned  from 
274  to  277  A.D.,  and  waged  war  against  Queen  Zenobia. 

Varanes  II.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  began  to  reign 
in  277  A.D.  He  was  involved  in  war  with  the  Roman 
emperor  Carus,  who  took  Seleucia  and  Ctesiphon.  Died 
in  294. 

His  son,  Varanes  III.,  reigned  only  eight  months, 
and  died  in  294. 

Varanes  IV.,  a  brother  of  Sapor  III.,  began  to  reign 
in  390  AD.   Died  about  404  A.D. 

Varanes  or  Bahram  (or  Baharam)  V.  was  a  son 
of  Yezdegerd  I.  He  became  King  of  Persia  in  420  or 
421.  He  persecuted  the  Christians,  and  waged  war 
against  Theodosius  II.    Died  in  448  A.D. 

Varano,  di,  de  vi-ri'no,  (Alfonso,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Ferrara  in  1705.  He  contriljuted  to  the  refor- 
mation of  Italian  poetry,  to  which  "  he  restored,"  says 
Ugoni,  "that  manly  accent  and  elevation  which  Dante 
had  given  it."  Among  his  works  are  "Sacred  and  Moral 
Visions,"  ("Visioni  sacre  e  morali.")    Died  in  1788. 

See  Pannelli,  "  Elogio  storico  di  Alfonso  Varano,"  1826. 

Varchi,  vaR'kee,  (Benedetto,)  an  Italian  scholar, 
poet,  and  historian,  born  at  Florence  in  1502.  He  was 
patronized  by  the  grand  duke  Cosimo  I.,  who  made  him 

*  Given  in  a  strangely  corrupted  form  (^Ermaccaseii)  '\\\  Southev's 
"Curse  of  Kehama,"  vol.  i.,  x. 


one  of  the  directors  of  his  New  Florentine  Academy, 
His  principal  work  is  his  "  History  of  Florence  from 
1527  to  1538,"  ("Storia  Fiorentina,"  etc.,  1721.)  He 
also  made  translations  from  Seneca  and  Boethius,  wrote 
a  dialogue  or  treatise  on  the  Tuscan  language,  entitled 
"  L'Ercolano,"  (1570,)  and  composed  "  Sonetti,"  (2  vols., 
1557.)    Died  in  1565. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  Tiraboschi, 
"  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana  ;"  Ginguene,  "  Histoire  litteraire 
d'ltalie;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vardan.    See  Vartan. 

Vardes,  de,  deh  vikd,  (Francois  Ren6  du  Bec- 
Crespin — dii  b^k'kR^s'pdN',)  Marquis,  a  French  cour- 
tier, famous  for  his  intrigues,  was  born  about  1620.  He 
gained  the  favour  of  Louis  XIV.,  but  afterwards  offended 
him,  and  was  exiled  from  court  in  1664.    Died  in  16S8. 

Varela  y  UUoa,  vi-r^ni  e  ool-yo'i,  (Don  Jos6,)  a 
learned  Spanish  naval  officer,  born  in  Galicia  in  1748; 
died  in  1794. 

Varen,  vi'ren,  or  Varenius,  vi-ra'ne-iis,  (Bern- 
hard,)  an  eminent  Dutch  geographer  and  physician, 
born  at  Amsterdam  about  1610.  He  is  called  the 
founder  of  scientific  geography.  In  1642  he  produced 
a  thesis  entitled  "  First-Fruits  of  the  Philosophic  Muses," 
("  Musarum  Philosophicarum  Primitiae,")  and  in  1649  a 
"  Description  of  Japan."  His  chief  work  is  a  systematic 
treatise  on  geography,  "Geographia  generalis,"  (1650,) 
which  effected  a  revolution  in  the  science.  An  improved 
edition  of  it  was  published  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  in  1672, 
and  another  in  1681.  This  work  of  Varen  was  the  first 
or  best  that  had  appeared  on  physical  geography.  His 
death  is  variously  dated  from  1660  to  1680. 

Varenius.    See  Varen. 

Varenius,  fl-ra'ne-iis,  (August,)  a  German  Lutheran 
theologian,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Luneburg  in  1620.  He 
was  a  good  Hebrew  scholar,  and  wrote  a  commentary  on 
Isaiah,  (1708.)    Died  in  1684. 

Varenne  de  Fenille,  vt'rin'  deh  feh-n^K,  (Phili- 
bert  Charles,)  a  French  writer  on  agriculture,  was 
born  at  Dijon.  He  published  several  useful  works.  He 
was  executed  at  Lyons  by  the  terrorists  in  1794. 

Vargas  or  Vargas-Mexia,  vaR'gSs  mk-Hee'S,  (Fran- 
cisco,) a  Spanish  jurist  and  diplomatist  of  high  reputa- 
tion. He  was  sent  to  the  Council  of  Trent  by  Charles 
V.  in  1550  to  congratulate  the  Council  on  its  return  to 
that  place.  After  his  return  to  Spain  he  was  a  coun- 
cillor of  state.    Died  about  1560. 

Vargas,  de,  d^i  vaR'gis,  (Luis,)  an  eminent  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Seville  in  1502.  In  1527  he  visited 
Rome,  where  he  studied  under  Perino  del  Vaga.  His 
works  are  principally  religious  pieces,  and  are  painted 
both  in  oil  and  fresco.  He  ranks  among  the  best  Span- 
ish artists  of  the  time,  and  was  equally  admirable  in 
portrait  and  historical  painting.    Died  in  1568. 

S!ee  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon;"  Quilliet 
"Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnoles." 

Vargas-Macciucca,  vaR'gJs  m3.k-chook'ka,  (Fran- 
cesco,) Marquis  of  Vatolla,  an  Italian  linguist  and  judge, 
born  at  Teramo,  in  Abruzzo,  in  1699.  He  was  a  patron 
of  literary  men,  and  wrote  several  essays.   Died  in  1785. 

Vargas  y  Ponce,  vaR'gSs  e  p5n''thk.  (Jos6,)  a  Span- 
ish geographer  and  naval  officer,  born  at  Cadiz  about 
1 755,  wrote  a  "  Description  of  the  Balearic  Isles,"  ( 1 787.) 

Varignon,  vt'ren^y6N',  (Pierre,)  an  eminent  French 
mathematician,  born  at  Caen  in  1654.  He  became  a 
resident  of  Paris  in  1686,  and  published  in  1687  an  able 
work  on  statics,  called  "  Plan  of  a  New  System  of  Me- 
chanics," ("  Projet  d'une  nouvelle  Mecanique,")  in  which 
for  the  first  time  all  the  science  of  statics  was  deduced 
from  the  elementary  principle  of  the  composition  of 
forces.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in 
the  College  Mazarin  in  1688,  and  obtained  the  chair  of 
philosophy  in  the  College  of  France  in  1704.  Among 
his  works  is  "New  Mechanics  or  Statics,"  ("Nouvelle 
Mecanique  ou  Statique,"  2  vols.,  1725.)    Died  in  1722. 

See  Fontenelle,  "  filoge  de  Varignon ;"  Niceron,  "  M^- 
moires;"  Montucla,  "  Histoire  des  Mathematiques ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Varillas,  vt're'ySs',  (Antoine,)  a  French  historian, 
born  at  Gueret  in  1624,  was  a  prolific  writer.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  France  from 


€  is  n;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VARIN 


21  80 


VARRO 


the  Reign  of  Louis  XJ.  to  that  of  Henry  III.,  inclusive," 
(14  vols.  4to,  16*83-94,)  and  "  History  of  the  Revolutions 
which  have  occurred  in  Europe  on  Account  of  Religion," 
(6  vols.,  1686-89.)  JJ'^  reputation  for  accuracy  and 
veracity  is  not  good.    Died  in  Paris  in  1696. 

See  NiCERON,  "M^moires;"  Moreri,  "  Dictionnaire  Histo- 
rique  ;"  BoscHERON,  "  Varillasiana,"  1734;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Varin,  vfriw',  (Jacques,)  a  French  botanist,  born 
near  Rouen  in  1740;  died  in  1808. 

Varin,  vt'r^N',  or  Warin,  (Jean,)  a  Flemish  en- 
graver and  sculptor,  born  at  Liege  in  1604.  He  was 
a  skilful  engraver  of  medals,  and  worked  mostly  in 
Paris.  Among  his  works  was  the  seal  of  the  French 
Academy,  (1635,)  ^"^^  ^  marble  statue  of  Louis  XIV. 
Died  in  1672. 

See  Felibien,  "  Entretiens  sur  les  Peintres." 

Varin,  (Joseph,)  a  French  engraver,  born  at  Chalons- 
sur-Marne  in  1740,  worked  in  Paris,  He  had  a  high 
reputation  as  an  engraver  of  topography  and  architec- 
ture. He  engraved  illustrations  for  several  books.  Died 
in  1800.  Charles  Nicolas  Varin,  born  in  1745,  was 
a  brother  and  assistant  of  Joseph.    Died  in  1805. 

Va'ri-us,  (Lucius  Rufus,)  an  eminent  Roman  epic 
and  dramatic  poet  of  the  Augustan  age,  of  whose  life 
little  is  known.  Pie  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Maecenas, 
and  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Horace  and  Virgil,  the 
latter  of  whom  appointed  him  one  of  his  literary  ex- 
ecutors. He  was,  consequently,  living  in  19  B.C.,  the 
date  of  Virgil's  death.  He  wrote  an  epic  poem,  "  De 
Morte,"  (probably  on  the  death  of  Caesar,)  and  a  cele- 
brated tragedy  of  "  Thyestes,"  which,  according  to  Quin- 
tilian,  would  bear  a  comparison  with  any  Greek  tragedy. 
None  of  his  works  are  extant. 

See  Weichert,  "  De  Vario  Poeta,"  1829,  and  "De  L.  Varii  e 
Cassii  Parmensis  Vita  et  Scriptis,"  1836. 

Varlet,  vtR'la',  (Dominique  Marie,)  a  French  Jan- 
senist,  born  in  Paris  in  1678.  He  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Babylon  about  1719,  but  on  his  arrival  at  the  Caspian 
Sea  he  learned  that  he  was  deposed  or  suspended  by 
the  pope  for  Jansenism.    He  died  in  Holland  in  1742. 

Var'ley,  (John,)  an  English  painter  in  water-colours, 
born  in  London  about  1777.  His  works  are  chiefly 
landscapes,  which  are  ranked  among  the  finest  produc- 
tions in  that  department  of  the  art.  He  was  a  believer 
in  astrology,  to  which  he  devoted  a  great  deal  of  his 
time.    Died  in  1842. 

Varnhagen  von  Ense,  faRn'hi'gen  fon  gn'seh, 
(Karl  August  Ludwig  Philipp,)  an  eminent  German 
author,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  February,  1785.  He  began 
to  study  medicine  in  Berlin  in  1800,  but  soon  renounced 
that  science,  and  applied  himself  to  philosophy,  etc.  at 
Halle,  Berlin,  and  Tubingen.  He  entered  the  Austrian 
army  in  1809,  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Wagram, 
and  became  aide-de-camp  of  Prince  Bentheim.  In  1813 
he  enlisted  as  captain  in  the  Russian  army.  He  passed 
into  the  Prussian  diplomatic  service  in  1814,, attended 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  with  Prince  Hardenberg,  and 
married  Rahel  Levin  the  same  year.  He  became  in 
1819  a  resident  of  Berlin,  where  he  passed  nearly  all  of 
his  subsequent  life.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
a  writer  of  biography  and  history,  and  excelled  in  the 
art  of  revivifying  the  great  figures  of  the  past.  Among 
his  works  are  "  Biographic  Memorials,"  ("  Biographische 
Denkmale,"  5  vols.,  1824-30,)  "Memoirs  and  Miscel- 
lanies," ("  Denkwiirdigkeiten  und  vermischte  Schrif- 
ten,"  7  vols.,  1837-46,)  a  "  Life  of  Field-Marshal  Keith," 
(1844,)  and  a  "Life  of  Karl  Muller,"  (1847.)  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Alexander  von  Humboldt,  Died 
in  Berlin  in  October,  1858. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  January,  1841. 

Varnhagen  von  Ense,  (Rahel  Antonie  Frte- 
derike  Levin  —  li-veen',)  wife  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  of  Jewish  parents,  in  Berlin,  in  177 1.  She  was 
a  woman  of  superior  intellect,  and  celebrated  for  her 
conversational  powers.  Her  sa/on  was  frequented  by 
the  Schlegels,  the  Humboldts,  Tieck,  and  other  eminent 
authors.  She  became  a  professor  of  Christianity  a  short 
time  before  her  marriage,  which  occurred  in  18 14.  Died 
in  1833.    Her  husband  published  a  work  called  "  Rahel, 


a  Book  of  Remembrance  for  her  Friends,"  (3  vols., 
1834,)  which  contains  some  of  her  writings. 

See  De  Custine,  "Madame  Varnhagen  d'Ense,"  1838 ;  KuNZ, 
"  Rahel :  Geistes-  und  Charakter-Gemalde  dieser  grossen  Frau,"  1835 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1841. 

Varnier,  vtR^ne-i',  a  French  writer  on  medicine  and 
chemistry,  was  borVat  Vitry-on-the-Marne  in  1709.  He 
died  at  an  advanced  age. 

Var'num,  (James  Mitchell,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Dracut,  Massachusetts,  in  1749.  He  was  twice 
elected  to  Congress,  and  in  1787  was  appointed  one  of 
the  judges  of  the  Northwest  territory.    Died  in  1789. 

Varnum,  (Joseph  Bradley,)  an  American  Senator, 
born  in  Massachusetts  about  1755,  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1795 
to  1811,  and  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives from  1807  to  1811.  He  was  a  political  friend  of 
Jefferson,  and  was  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  from 
1811  to  1817.    Died  in  1821. 

Varoli,  vl-ro'lee,  [Lat.  Varo'lius,]  (Constant  or 
Costanzo,)  an  Italian  anatomist  and  surgeon,  born  at 
Bologna  in  1542  or  1543.  He  was  distinguished  as  a 
lithotomist,  and  discovered  a  part  of  the  brain  called 
Pons  Varolii.  About  1572  he  became  physician  to  Pope 
Gregory  XIII.  He  wrote  a  work  on  "The  Optic 
Nerves,"  etc.,  ("  De  Nervis  Opticis,"  1573.)  Died  in  1575. 

Varolius.    See  Varoll 

Varotari,  vi-ro-t^'ree,  (  Alessandro,  )  an  Italian 
painter,  surnamed  Padovanino,  born  at  Padua  in  1590, 
was  a  son  of  Dario,  noticed  below.  He  studied  at 
Venice,  and  adopted  the  style  of  Titian.  He  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  successful  imitators  of  that  master. 
His  "  Marriage  at  Cana"  is  esteemed  one  of  his  master- 
pieces. He  excelled  in  painting  women  and  children. 
Died  in  1650. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Ridolfi,  "  Pittori 
Veneti." 

Varotari,  (Chiara,)  an  Italian  portrait-painter,  born 
in  1582,  was  a  sister  of  the  preceding.    Died  in  1639. 

Varotari,  (Dario,)  surnamed  Padovanino  or  Pa- 
DUANINO,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Verona  in  1539. 
He  worked  at  Padua,  where  he  became  the  chief  of  a 
school.    Died  in  1596. 

See  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Var'ro,  [Fr.  Varron,  vt'rdN',]  (Caius  Terentius,) 
a  Roman  general,  noted  for  his  temerity.  He  was  a 
leader  of  the  plebeians  or  popular  party,  and  was  elected 
consul  for  216  B.C.  Against  the  advice  of  the  other 
consul,  ^milius  Paulus,  Varro  offered  battle  to  Hanni- 
bal, and  was  defeated  with  great  loss  at  Cannae,  (216  B.C.) 
He  was  one  of  the  few  Romans  that  escaped  from  that 
disastrous  battle,  and  he  made  such  resolute  and  vigorous 
efforts  for  the  defence  of  the  capital  that  he  received  the 
thanks  of  the  senate.    Died  after  200  B.C. 

See  Livv,  "History  of  Rome;"  Mommsen,  "History  of  Rome." 

Varro,  [Fr.  Varron,]  (Marcus  Terentius,)  a  cele- 
brated Latin  author,  styled  "  the  most  learned  of  the 
Romans,"  was  born  in  116  B.C.,  probably  in  Rome.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  L.  ^^^lius  Stilo  and  of  Antiochus  of  Asca- 
lon,  an  Academic  philosopher.  He  became  an  intimate 
friend  of  Cicero.  About  the  year  67  B.C.  he  had  a  high 
command  under  Pompey  in  the  war  against  the  pirates. 
He  fought  for  the  senate  against  Cassar  in  the  civil  war 
which  began  in  49  B.C.  Soon  after  the  battle  of  Phar- 
salia,  he  retired  from  public  life  and  devoted  himself  to 
literary  pursuits.  He  was  profoundly  versed  in  nearly 
every  department  of  literature,  and  wrote  a  great  num- 
ber of  works  on  various  subjects.  His  capital  work  was 
"  Antiquitatum  Libri,"  consisting  of  twenty-five  books 
on  Human  Antiquities  and  sixteen  books  on  Divine 
Antiquities,  which  is  not  extant.  Saint  Augustine  de- 
rived from  this  book  materials  for  his  work  "  De  Civi- 
tate  Dei:"  Nearly  all  of  Varro's  works  are  lost,  except 
a  part  of  his  treatise  on  the  Latin  language,  ("  De  Lingua 
Latina,")  and  his  excellent  work  on  agriculture,  "  De  Re 
Rustica  Libri  tres,")  which  is  preserved  entire.  In  43 
B.C.  he  was  proscribed  by  Mark  Antony  ;  but  he  escaped 
death  by  concealment,  and  survived  till  28  or  27  B.C. 

See  E.  Bkrwick,  "Life  of  Pollio,  Varro,  and  C.  Gallus,"  1815; 
Pape,  "  De  Varrone,"  1835  ;  G.  Boissier,  "  Essai  sur  la  Vie  et  les 
Ouvrages  de  Varron,"  1861 ;  Oreli.i,  "  Onomasticon  Tullianum;" 
Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  /on£-;  k,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  n,  y,  sAori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  flr,  f^ll,  at;  m§t;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


VARRO 


2181 


rjsiLi 


Varro,  (Publius  Terentius,)  a  Roman  poet,  sur- 
named  Ataci'nus,  from  Atax,  in  Gallia  Naibonensis, 
where  he  was  born  about  82  B.C.  He  was  the  author 
of  elegies,  epigrams,  and  epic  poems,  which  have  been 
lost,  with  the  exception  of  fragments.    Died  in  37  B.C. 

Varron.    See  Varro. 

Varst  or  Vaerst,  von,  fon  v§Rst,  (Friedrtch  Chris- 
tian EuGEN,)  Baron,  a  German  litterateur,  born  at 
Wesel  in  1792,  published  works  entitled  "Cavalier 
Perspective,"  (1836,)  "The  Pyrenees,"  (4  vols.,  1847,) 
and  "Gastrosophie,"  (1852,)  which  were  received  with 
favour.    He  lived  at  Breslau.    Died  in  1855. 

Vartan,  var^tSn',  an  Armenian  prince,  who  became 
a  professor  of  Christianity.  He  defended  the  liberty  of 
his  country  against  the  King  of  Persia,  who  attempted 
to  impose  the  religion  of  Zoroaster  by  force  on  the  Ar- 
menians. Vartan  was  killed  in  battle  by  the  Persians, 
in  451  A.D. 

Vartan  or  Vardan,  a  learned  Armenian  doctor  and 
author,  lived  in  the  thirteenth  century.  He  wrote,  be- 
sides other  works,  a  "  Plistory  of  Armenia  to  the  Year 
1267,"  and  numerous  Fables.  ^ 

Var-to-ma'nus,  the  Latin  name  of  LuiGi  Barthema 
(baR-ta'mS)  or  Varthema,  (vaR-ta'mi,)  an  Italian  trav- 
eller, born  at  Bologna  about  1480.  He  travelled  through 
Arabia  and  Persia  to  the  East  Indies,  where  he  passed 
several  years.  He  published  in  1508  a  Narrative  of  his 
travels. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Varuna,  [modern  Hindoo  pron,  vur'do-na ;  from  the 
Sanscrit  verb  vri,  to  "enclose"  or  "surround,"  and 
etymologically  related  to  the  Greek  ovpavog,  "heaven,"] 
a  name  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  originally  applied  to 
the  sky  or  heaven,  as  enclosing  or  surrounding  the  earth, 
but  used  by  later  writers  to  designate  both  the  ocean 
(which  also  encompasses  the  earth)  and  the  regent  of 
the  sea,  or  the  deity  who  presides  over  the  waters  of 
the  ocean. 

See  Moor.  "Hindu  Pantheon." 

Va'rus,  a  Roman  of  the  Augustan  age,  of  whom  little 
is  known  except  that  he  was  a  friend  and  j^atron  of  Vir- 
gil, who,  in  his  sixth  eclogue,  offers  a  graceful  homage  to 
his  merit.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Q.  Varus, 
who  fought  with  the  rank  of  general  for  Cassar  in  the 
civil  war. 

Varus,  (Publius  Atius,)  a  Roman  general  and  par- 
tisan of  Pompey  in  the  civil  war.  He  connnanded  in 
Africa  in  49  B.C.,  and,  aided  by  King  Juba,  gained  a  vic- 
tory over  Curio.    He  was  killed  at  the  liattle  of  Munda. 

Varus,  (Publius  Quin  i  ilius,)  a  Roman  general,  who 
became  consul  in  13  B.C.  and  Governor  of  Germany  about 
6  A.D.  He  had  not  the  energy  or  talents  requisite  to  man- 
r  ge  the  warlike  German  tribes,  who  were  provoked  to 
revolt  by  taxation  and  innovations  which  Varus  initiated. 
His  army  was  attacked  and  defeated  in  9  A.D.  by  a  large 
army  of  insurgents,  led  by  the  famous  chief  Arminius. 
Varus,  with  nearly  all  his  men,  perished  in  this  action, 
which  was  fought  near  the  Weser. 

See  Tacitus,  "Annales;"  Suetonius,  "  Aucustus"  and  "Tibe- 
rius;" Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rnnie  ;"  Merivai.e,  "History 
of  tlie  Romans  under  the  Empire  ;"  Essem.en,  "  Nachtrag  zu  der 
Abliandlung,  iiber  den  Ort  der  Niederlage  der  Romer  unter  Varus," 
1853. 

Varus,  (Quintilius,)  of  Cremona,  a  Roman  poet, 
was  a  friend  of  Horace  and  Virgil.  He  died  in  24  B.C. 
His  death  was  lamented  by  Horace  in  an  ode,  book  i.  24. 

Varus  Alfenus.    See  Alfenus. 

Vasa.    See  Gustavus  I. 

Vasanta,  [modern  Hindoo  pron,  vus-un'ta ;  often 
called  biis'unt  in  the  common  dialect,]  the  Sanscrit  word 
for  "spring,"  applied  in  the  Hindoo  mythology  to  a  per- 
sonification of  spring,  said  to  be  an  intimate  friend  of 
the  god  of  love.    (See  Kamadeva.) 

Vasari,  vd-si'ree,  (Giorgio,)  an  Italian  painter,  ar- 
chitect, and  writer  upon  art,  was  born  at  Arezzo  in  15 12. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Michael  Angelo  and  Andrea  del 
Sarto,  and  was  patronized  by  Pope  Clement  VII.,  the 
grand  duke  Cosimo  I.,  and  other  eminent  men.  His 
reputation  rests  on  his  "Lives  of  the  Most  Excellent 
Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects,"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1550,) 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  valuable  works  of  the  kind 


that  has  appeared  in  any  language.  It  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English  and  German.  He  was  a  very  success- 
ful artist,  was  skilful  in  design,  and  painted  many  frescos 
at  Rome  and  Florence.  As  architect,  he  restored  the 
Palazzo  Vecchio  at  Florence,  and  built  other  fine  edifices 
for  the  grand  duke  Cosimo.    Died  in  1574. 

See  Lanzi,  "History of  Painting  in  Italy;"  Bottari,  "Giunte 
al  Vasari ;"  Ticozzi,  "  Dizionario  ;"  Milizia,  "  Memorie  degli  Ar- 
chitetti ;"  Nagler,  "Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Vasco  da  Gama,  (or  de  Gama.)    See  Gama,  da. 

Vasconcellos,  vis-kon-seKl^s,  (Antonio,)  a  Portu- 
guese Jesuit  and  writer,  born  at  Lisbon  about  1555. 

Vasconcellos,  (Simon,)  a  Portuguese  Jesuit,  born  in 
1599,  lived  many  years  in  Brazil.  He  wrote  a  "  History 
of  the  Jesuit  Mission  in  Brazil,  (1663.)    Died  in  1670. 

Vasconcellos,  de,  da  vis-kon-seKlds,  (Agostinho 
Manoel,)  a  Portuguese  historian,  born  at  Evora  in  1583. 
He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Juan  II.  of  Portugal,"  in  Spanish, 
(1639,)  and  other  works.  Having  been  implicated  in  a 
conspiracy  against  John  IV.,  he  was  put  to  death  in  1641. 

See  NiCERON.  "  Memoires."  '  ^ 

Vasconcellos,  de,  (Antonio  Augusto  Texeira — 
ta-sha^-ri,)  a  Portuguese  journalist  and  litterateur,  born 
at  Oporto  in  1816,  has  published  several  political  and 
historical  works. 

Vasconcellos,  de,  (Miguel,)  a  Portuguese  states- 
man, was  a  son  of  the  jurist  Pedro  Barbosa.  He  became, 
about  1635,  secretary  of  state  and  the  most  powerful 
minister  in  Portugal,  which  was  then  subject  to  the  King 
of  Spain.  His  tyranny  and  cruelty  excited  much  odium 
against  him.  In  December,  1640,  he  was  assassinated 
by  the  conspirators  who  raised  the  Duke  of  Braganza  to 
the  throne. 

See  Barbosa  Machado,  "  Bibliotheca  Lusitana  ;"  La  Clede, 
"  Histoire  de  Portugal." 

Vasconcellos-Coutinho,  de,  d^  vas-kon-seKl6s  ko- 
teen'yo,  (Francisco,)  a  Portuguese  poet,  born  at  Funchal, 
in  Madeira,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Vascosan,  de,  deh  vts''ko'z6N',  (Michel,)  an  emi- 
nent and  learned  French  printer,  born  at  Amiens  about 
1500,  becaiTie  a  citizen  of  Paris,  He  was  connected  by  ' 
marriage  with  Robert  Estienne.  He  published  correct 
and  elegant  editions  of  ancient  Greek  and  Latin  authors. 
Died  in  1576. 

Vaseef  or  Vasif,  va-seeF,  written  also  Vassif,* 
(Ahmed,  iH'med,)  a  Turkish  diplomatist,  born  at 
Bagdad  about  1740.  He  collected  the  works  of  several 
Turkish  historians,  and  published  them  under  the  title 
of  "Annals  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,"  (1804.)  He  also 
wrote  a  History  of  the  Reign  of  Selim  III.  Died  in  1806. 

Vasi,  vi'see,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  designer  and  en- 
graver, born  in  Sicily  in  1710,  worked  in  Rome.  He 
published  a  collection  of  engravings  of  the  monuments, 
churches,  etc.  of  that  city.    Died  in  1782. 

Vasian,  vS'se-in',  written  also  Vassian  and  Was- 
sian,  Archbishop  of  Rostow,  a  Russian  prelate,  noted 
for  his  courage  and  patriotism.    Died  in  1481. 

Vasif.    See  Vaseef. 

Vasili,  v3,-see''lee,  or  Vasilii,  vii-seeKyee,  written  also 
VassiliandWasilei,  (or  Basil,)  I.,  Grand  Prince  of  Rus- 
sia, ho\\\  in  1236,  began  to  reign  in  1272.    Died  in  1276. 

Vasili  (or  Basil)  II,,  a  son  of  Dmitri  Donskoi,  was 
born  in  1372,  and  became  grand  prince  in  1389.  He  was  a 
tributary  of  the  grand  horde  of  Tartars.    Died  in  1425. 

Vasili  (or  Basil)  III.,  born  in  141 5,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.  In  his  reign  Russia  was  afflicted  with 
civil  war  and  other  calamities.    Died  in  1462. 

See  Karamzin,  "  Histoire  de  Russia." 

Vasili  (or  Basil)  IV.,  a  son  of  Ivan  III.,  was  born  in 
1479,  and  became  grand  prince  in  1505.  He  obtained 
Smolensk  by  conquest  from  the  Lithuanians  in  15 14, 
and  increased  the  power  of  Russia.  He  died  in  1533, 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  son,  Ivan  IV. 

See  Karamzin.  "  Histoire  de  Russie." 

Vasili  (or  Basil)  V,,  (Ivanovitch  Shooiskoi  or 
SCHUISKOI,)  born  in  1553,  began  to  reign  in  1606.  He 
was  deposed  by  the  boyards,  who  confined  him  in  a 
convent  in  16 10.    Died  in  161 2. 


See  Introduction,  Section  I.,  14,  (p.  9.) 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as /;  c,  H,     guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VASOKT  2182  VAVBAN 


Vasoky.    See  S£sha. 

Vasquez,vis-keth',  orVasques,vas'k&s,  (Alfonso,) 
a  painter,  born  of  Spanish  parents  at  Rome  about  1575, 
removed  to  Seville  in  his  childhood,  and  worked  there 
with  success.    Died  about  1645. 

Vasquez  or  Vasques,  (Gabriel,)  a  Spanish  casuist 
and  Jesuit,  born  in  New  Castile  in  1551  ;  died  in  1604. 

Vasquez  de  Coronado,  vis-k^th'  di  ko-ro-ni'Do, 
(Francisco,)  a  Spanish  explorer,  born  at  Salamanca 
about  1 5 10.  He  emigrated  to  Mexico,  and  in  1540  re- 
ceived the  command  of  a  party  which  the;  viceroy  sent 
to  explore  the  interior,  from  which  expedition  he  safely 
li-iurned.    The  date  of  his  death  is  not  known. 

Vassal,  de,  deh  vt'stK,  (Fortanier,)  a  French  car- 
dinal and  negotiator,  born  at  Vailhac;  died  in  1361. 

Vassal,  de,  (Jacques,)  Marquis  de  Montviel,  a 
French  general,  born  in  1659;  died  in  1744. 

Vassali-Eandi,  v^s-si'lee  a-inMee,  (Antonio  Ma- 
ria,) an  Italian  savant,  born  at  Turin  in  1761.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  Turin  from  1792  to  1809."    Died  in  1825. 

Vas'sar,  (Mati  hew,)  born  in  the  county  of  Norfolk, 
England,  in  1792,  emigrated  to  America,  and  settled  at 
Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  where  he  amassed  a  large 
fortune.  In  1861  he  gave  the  sum  of  $408,000  to  found 
the  Vassar  Female  College,  near  Poughkeepsie.  He 
died  June  23,  1868,  while  reading  an  address  to  the 
trustees  of  the  college.  Besides  the  gift  above  men- 
tioned, he  left  the  college  a  large  sum  m  his  will,  in- 
cluding the  following  bequests  :  $50,000  as  a  Lecture 
Fund,  $50,000  as  a  Library,  Art,  and  Cabinet  Fund,  and 
$50,000  as  an  Auxiliary  Fund  for  aiding  students  unable 
to  pay  the  full  college  expenses. 

Vasselier,  vts'le^.',  (Joseph,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Rocroy  in  1735,  was  a  correspondent  of  Voltaire.  He 
wrote  tales,  songs,  etc.    Died  at  Lyons  in  1798. 

Vasselin,  vts'liw',  (Georges  Victor,)  a  French 
publicist  and  jurist,  born  in  Paris  in  1767  ;  died  in  1801. 

Vasseur,  (Jacques.)    See  Le  Vasseur. 

Vassif.    See  Vaseef. 

Vassor,  Le.    See  Le  Vassor. 

Vasto,  del.    See  Avalos,  (Alfonso  II.) 

Vasuddva,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  viis-do-da'va,]  in 
the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  the  father  of  Krishna, 
and  sometimes  used  as  an  appellation  of  that  god. 

V^suki.    See  Sesha. 

Vatable,  vt'ttbK,  originally  written  Watebled  or 
Gastelbled,  [Lat.  Vata'blus,]  (FRANgois,)  a  French 
priest,  born  in  Picardy.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew 
in  the  College  Royal  at  Paris.  He  translated  Aristotle's 
"  Parva  Naturalia"  into  Latin.    Died  in  1547. 

See  M.  Adam,  "  Vitae  Eruditorum  ;"  Sainte-Marthe,  "  Elogia." 

Vatablus.    See  Vatable. 
Vatace.    See  Vataces. 

Vataces,  (accentuation  doubtful,)  [Fr.  Vatace,  vt'- 
ttss',]  (John  Ducas,)  Emperor  of  Nicaea,  born  in  Thrace 
in  1193,  was  a  son-in-law  of  Theodore  Lascaris,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1222.  He  waged  war  against  the  Latin 
prince  Robert  de  Courtenay,  and  several  other  princes. 
Died  in  1255. 

See  Le  Beau,  "  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire  ;"  "  NouveJle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Vater,  fS'ter,  (Abraham,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  at  Wittenberg  in  1684.  He  was  professor  of  botany 
and  anatomy  at  Wittenberg.    Died  in  1751. 

Vater,  (Johann  Severin,)  a  German  theologian  and 
philologist,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1771.  He  studied  at 
Jena  and  Halle,  and  in  1800  became  professor  of  theology 
and  Oriental  literature  at  the  latter  university.  He  was 
professor  of  history  at  Konigsberg  from.  1810  to  1820, 
and  returned  to  Halle  in  the  latter  year.  He  published 
(1809-17)  two  volumes  to  complete  the  "  Mithridates"  of 
Adelung,  who  had  left  his  work  unfinished.  Among  his 
works  are  a  "Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,"  (3  vols., 
1802,)  and  a  "  Universal  History  of  the  Christian  Church 
since  the  Reformation,"  (3  vols.,  1818-23.)  Died  in  1826. 

See  NiEMEYER,  "Uebersicht  des  Lebens  Vater's,"  in  the  fifth 
edition  of  Vater's  "  Synchionische  Tafeln  der  Kirchengeschichte." 

Vathek.    See  Wathek. 

Vatia,  va'she-a,  (PuHLius  Servilius,)  surnamed  Isau- 
Ricus,  a  Roman  commander,  whose  name  first  appears 


in  TOO  B.C.  He  became  consul  in  79,  and  commanded  a 
fleet  and  army  sent  in  78  B.C.  against  the  pirates,  whom 
he  defeated,  and  also  the  Isauri.    Died  in  44  i  .e. 

Vatimesnil,  de,  deh  vt'te^m^n^l',  (An toine  Fran- 
cois Henri  Lefebvre,)  a  French  advocate  and  politician, 
born  at  Rouen  in  1789,  was  a  moderate  royalist.  He  be- 
came advocate-general  to  the  court  of  cassation  at  Paris 
in  1824,  and  was  minister  of  public  instruction  from  Feb- 
ruary, 1828,  to  August,  1829.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1830  to  1834,  and  was  elected 
to  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1849.    Died  in  i860. 

See  Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Restoration  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale." 

Va-tin'i-us,  (Publius,)  a  Roman  demagogue,  noto- 
rious for  his  vices,  became  tribune  of  the  people  in  59  B.C., 
by  the  aid  of  Caesar,  of  whom  he  was  a  violent  partisan. 
He  was  denounced  by  Cicero  in  a  public  speech  about 
56  B.C.  In  the  year  54  or  55  he  competed  with  Cato  for 
the  office  of  praetor,  and  was  elected  by  bribery.  During 
the  civil  war  he  commanded  one  of  Caesar's  armies,  and 
gained  a  victory  in  Illyricum  in  46  B.C.  Died  after  43  B.C. 

Vatke,  fit'keh,  (Johann  Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  near  Magdeburg  in  1806.  He  became 
professor  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1837, 
and  published  several  works. 

Vatout,  vt^too',  (Jean,)  a  French  litterateur,  born  at 
Villefranche  (Rhone)  in  1792.  He  became  first  libra- 
rian to  Louis  Philippe  in  1832,  and  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1848.  He  published,  besides  several 
novels,  "Historical  Souvenirs  of  the  Royal  Residences 
of  France,"  (7  vols.,  1837-46.)  Died  in  England  in  1848. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Vattel,  von,  fon  vtt't^K  or  vSt'tel,  (Emrich,)  a  cele- 
brated Swiss  jurist  and  writer,  born  in  the  principality 
of  Neufchatel  in  1714.  He  studied  at  the  Universities 
of  Bale  and  Geneva,  and  in  1 741  visited  Berlin,  where 
he  published  his  "Defence  of  the  System  of  Leibnitz," 
(in  French,  1742,)  dedicated  to  Frederick  the  Great.  In 
1 746  he  was  sent  as  Polish  minister  to  Berne  by  Augustus, 
Elector  of  Saxony  and  King  of  Poland.  He  published 
in  1758  his  principal  work,  entitled  "The  Right  of  Na- 
tions, or  the  Principles  of  Natural  Law  applied  to  the 
Conduct  and  Affairs  of  Nations  and  Sovereigns,"  which 
has  passed  through  numerous  editions  and  been  trans- 
lated into  the  principal  European  languages.  He  was 
the  author  of  other  works  on  various  subjects,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  entitled  "  Questions  of  Natural 
Law,  and  Observations  on  Wolff's  Treatise  on  the  Law 
of  Nature,"  (1762.)    Died  in  1767. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "Monthly  Review"  for 
August,  1760. 

Vatteville,  de,  deh  vtt^^K,  (Jean,)  a  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  notorious  for  his  adventures  and  criminal 
intrigues,  was  born  at  Besan9on  about  1613.  He  entered 
the  Turkish  service,  after  he  had  committed  several 
homicides,  and  obtained  the  command  of  an  army,  which 
he  betrayed  to  the  Austrians.  For  this  service  he  was 
rewarded  with  the  rich  abbey  of  Baume,  in  Franche- 
Comte,  in  1659.  He  was  the  chief  agent  in  the  intrigues 
by  which  Franche-Comte  was  annexed  to  France  about 
1666.    Died  in  1702. 

See  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Vattier,  vt''te-^',  (Pierre,)  a  learned  French  physi- 
cian, was  born  n^ai'  Lisieux,  in  Normandy,  in  1623.  He 
translated  several  works  from  the  Arabic,  including 
Avicenna's  "Treatise  on  Mental  Diseases."  Vattier  was 
physician  to  Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans.    Died  in  1667. 

Vauban,  de,  deh  vo'bdN',  (Antoine  le  Prestre— 
leh  piiltK,)  Count,  a  French  general,  born  in  1659,  was 
a  cousin  of  the  famous  Vauban.  He  was  an  engineer, 
and  distinguished  himself  at  several  sieges.    Died  in 

Vauban,  de,  (S^:bastien  le  Prestre,)  Seigneur,  a 
famous  French  military  engiiieer,  born  at  Saint-Leger  de 
Fougeret  (Nievre)  in  May,  1633.  Having  acquired  some 
skill  in  mathematics,  he  entered  in  165 1  the  army  of  the 
Prince  of  Conde,  then  waging  a  civil  war  against  the 
French  court.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  French 
in  1653,  and  persuaded  by  Cardinal  Mazarin  to  join  the 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


FJUBLANC  2183  VAVGHAN 


royal  army.  He  gained  early  distinction  by  his  courage 
and  his  skill  in  conducting  sieges,  and  received  the 
brevet  of  royal  engineer  in  1655.  Under  the  orders  of 
Turenne,  he  directed  the  sieges  of  Landrecies,  Conde, 
and  Saint-Ghislain,  (1655,)  and  rendered  important  ser- 
vices at  Gravelines,  Audenarde,  and  Ypres  in  1658.  He 
married  Jeanne  d'Aulnay  in  1660.  After  several  years 
of  peace,  the  war  was  renewed  in  1667.  Under  Louis 
XIV.,  commanding  in  person,  Vauban  took  Tournay, 
Douai,  and  Lille.  He  was  afterwards  employed  in  con- 
structing fortifications  at  Lille,  Arras,  and  other  places 
in  Flanders,  and  made  important  improvements  in  the 
art  of  fortification.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  mare- 
chal -de-camp  in  1 676,  after  which  he  improved  and 
fortified  the  ports  of  Dunkirk,  Toulon,  etc.  Among  his 
greatest  achievements  was  the  capture  of  the  strong 
fortress  of  Namur,  where,  says  Macaulay,  "the  two  great 
masters  of  the  art  of  fortification  were  opposed  to  each 
other.  Vauban  had,  during  many  years,  been  regarded 
as  the  first  of  engineers  ;  but  a  formidable  rival  had  lately 
arisen,  Menno,  Baron  of  Cohorn,"  ("History  of  Eng- 
land," vol.  iv.)  Namur  was  taken  in  June,  1692.  Vauban 
became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1703.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  the  Attack  of  Places,"  and 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Defence  of  Places,"  (1737.)  He  had 
the  courage  to  advise  the  king  to  re-establish  the  edict 
of  Nantes  in  favour  of  religious  liberty.  He  died  in  1707, 
leaving  a  fair  reputation  for  probity  and  other  virtues. 

See  FoNTENELLE,  "  £loge  de  Vauban;"  Carnot,  " 'filoge  de 
Vauban,"  1784 ;  Amanton,  "  Notice  sur  Vauban,"  i82g  ;  De  Cham- 
bray,  "  Notice  historique  sur  Vauban,"  1845;  Saint  Simon,  "  Me- 
moires;"  Noel,  "  £loge  de  Vauban,"  1790:  D'Antili.y,  "  filoge 
de  Vauban,"  1788;  De  Sauviac,  "  filoge  de  Vauban,"  1790;  Vol- 
taire, "  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  De  Courcelles,  "  Dictionnaire 
des  Generaux  Frangais  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vaublanc,  de,  deh  vo'blSw',  (Vincent  Marie 
Vienot — ve'i'no',)  Count,  a  French  politician,  born 
in  Saint  Domingo  in  1756,  was  a  royalist  in  the  Revo- 
lution. He  was  detected  in  several  plots  against  the 
republic,  was  proscribed  in  1797,' but  saved  himself  by 
flight,  and  held  several  high  offices  under  Napoleon. 
He  was  minister  of  the  interior  from  September,  181 5, 
to  May,  1 816.  He  died  in  1845,  leaving  autobiographic 
"Memoires  et  Souvenirs,"  (2  vols.,  1839.) 

See  Lamartine,  "History  of  the  Restoration;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Vaucanson,  de,  deh  v6'k6N's6N',  (Jacques,)  a  cele- 
brated French  mechanician,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1709. 
His  inventive  genius  and  his  love  for  mechanical  arts 
were  displayed  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1738  he  exhibited 
in  Paris  his  Automaton  Flute-Player,  which  caused  a 
great  sensation.  Among  several  works  of  this  kind,  the 
most  wonderful  and  ingenious,  perhaps,  is  his  Automaton 
Duck,  which  swam,  quacked,  dressed  its  feathers  with 
its  bill,  and  swallowed  barley.  He  was  appointed  in- 
spector of  the  silk-manufactories,  and  invented  some 
machines  which  were  very  useful  in  the  fabrication  of  silk 
stuffs.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Died  in  1782. 

See  CoNDORCET,  "filoges;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vauchelet,  voshli',  (Augusts  Th^;ophile,)  a 
French  painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Passy, 
near  Paris,  in  1802. 

Vaucher,  vo'shaiR',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  French  bota- 
nist and  theologian,  born  at  Geneva  about  1763.  He  was 
professor  of  theology  or  ecclesiastical  history  at  Geneva. 
In  1803  he  published  a  "History  of  Fresh-Water  Con- 
fervae,"  which  was  highly  esteemed.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  is  a  treatise  on  the  Physiology  of  European 
Plants,  "  Histoire  physiologique  des  Plantes  d'Eu- 
rope,"  (4  vols,,  1841,)  on  which  he  expended  the  labour 
of  many  years.  A  genus  of  Algae  was  named  Vaucheria 
in  honour  of  him  by  De  Candolle.    Died  in  1841. 

Vaudemont,  de,  deh  vod''m6N',  Prince,  a  Dutch 
general,  who  commanded  an  army  in  Flanders,  and  was 
opposed  to  Villeroy,  in  1695.  According  to  Macaulay, 
he  was  "one  of  the  ablest  commanders  in  the  Dutch 
service."    ("History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.) 

Vaudemont,  de,  deh  v6d'm6N',  (Antoine  de  Lor- 
raine— deh  lo'rin',)  Count,  was  a  nephew  of  Charles, 
Duke  of  Lorraine,  who  died  in  1431.  The  succession  to 
this  duchy  was  disputed  by  Rene  of  Anjou  and  the 


Count  de  Vaudemont.  The  latter  defeated  Rene  in 
battle,  and  the  contest  was  settled  by  a  marriage  of  a 
son  of  the  Count  de  Vaudemont  with  a  daughter  of 
Rene,  (1444.)    Died  in  1447. 

See  D.  Calmet,  "  Histoire  de  Lorraine." 

Vaudoncourt,  de,  deh  vo'ddN^kooR',  (Fr]^deric 
FRANgois  GuiLLAUME,)  Baron,  a  French  general  and 
writer,  born  at  Vienna,  Austria,  in  1772.  He  obtained 
command  of  the  artillery  of  the  right  wing  of  the  army 
in  Italy  in  1800,  was  employed  to  organize  the  Italian 
artillery  in  1803,  and  became  a  general  of  brigade  in 
1809.  In  18 1 5  he  was  condemned  to  death  by  the 
Bourbons,  and  became  an  exile.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  military  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Campaigns  of 
1814  and  1815  in  France,"  (5  vols.,  1826,)  and  "Fifteen 
Years  of  an  Exile,"  ("Quinze  Annees  d'un  Proscrit," 
4  vols.,  1835.)    Died  in  1845. 

See  F.  Thierry,  "  Le  General  Baron  F.  F.  G.  de  Vaudoncourt," 
etc.,  1846;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vaudoyer,  vo'dwi'ya',  (Leon,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1803.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  in 
1826.  His  plan  for  the  new  cathedral  of  Marseilles  was 
adopted  in  1854. 

Vaudreuil,  de,  deh  vSMruI'  or  vo'druh'ye,  (Louis 
Philippe  de  Rigaud — deh  re'go',)  Comte,'  a  brave 
French  naval  ofiicer,  born  at  Quebec  in  1691  ;  died  in 
1763.  His  son,  of  the  same  name,  born  at  Rochefort  in 
1724,  served  with  distinction  in  the  navy,  and  became  a 
lieutenant-general.    Died  in  1802. 

Vaudrey,  vo'dRa^  (Claude  Nicolas,)  a  French 
general,  born  at  Dijon  in  1784.  He  was  a  colonel  in  the 
army  at  Strasburg  when  Louis  Napoleon  attempted  to 
initiate  an  insurrection  there.  He  aided  and  abetted 
that  attempt,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of  general 
of  brigade  in  1852.    Died  in  1857. 

Vaugelas,  de,  deh  vozh13.',  (Claude  Favre,)  an 
eminent  French  grammarian,  born  nearTrevoux  in  1585, 
was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  French  Academy. 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  compilation  of  the  Dic- 
tionary of  that  Academy,  and  published  "Remarks  on 
the  French  Language,"  (1647.)  He  was  very  fastidious 
in  respect  to  purity  of  language,  and  was  regarded  as  an 
oracle  in  questions  of  grammar  and  style.  He  spent 
many  years  on  a  translation  of  Quintus  Curtius,  (1653.) 
Died  in  1650. 

See  Pellisson,  "  Histoire  de  I'Academie  ;"  Niceron,  "  Me- 
moires  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vaughan,  vau'an,  (almost  vawn,)  (Alfred,),  an  Eng- 
lish poet  and  reviewer,  born  in  1823,  was  a  son  of 
Robert,  noticed  below.  Pie  became  a  dissenting  min- 
ister at  Birmingham,  contributed  to  the  "  British  Quar- 
terly Review,"  and  published  "  Hours  with  the  Mystics." 
Died  in  1857. 

Vaughan,  (Henry,)  a  British  poet,  born  in  Breck- 
nockshire, Wales,  in  1621,  is  sometimes  called  the 
SiLURiST.  He  was  the  author  of  devotional  poems, 
entitled  "  Silex  Scintillans,"  (1650,)  "  Thalia  Rediviva, 
the  Pastimes  and  Diversions  of  a  Country  Muse,"  (1678,) 
"The  Mount  of  Olives,"  (in  prose,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1695.  His  brother  Thomas  wrote  several  treat- 
ises on  alchemy. 

See  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets;"  "Retro- 
spective Review,"  vol.  iii.,  1821. 

Vaughan,  (Sir  John,)  a  distinguished  jurist,  born  in 
Cardiganshire  in  1608.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  and  rose 
to  be  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas  in  1668.  Died 
in  1674. 

Vaughan,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
1772.  He  became  a  judge  of  the  common  pleas  in  1834. 
Died  in  1839. 

Vaughan,  (Robert,)  D.D.,  an  English  Congrega- 
tional divine,  born  in  1795,  became  professor  of  history 
in  London  University,  (University  College,)  and  subse- 
quently president  of  the  Independent  College  at  Man- 
chester. In  1844  he  began  to  edit  the  "  British  Quarterly 
Review,"  of  which  he  was  the  founder.  He  published 
"  Memorials  of  the  Stuart  Dynasty,"  etc.,  "  Causes  of 
the  Corruption  of  Christianity,"  (1834,)  "The  Protector- 
ate of  Oliver  Cromwell,"  (1838,)  "  History  of  England 
under  the  House  of  Stuart,"  (1840,)  "John  de  Wycliffe, 
D.D.,  a  Monograph,  with  some  Account  of  the  Wycliffe 


€  as  r;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FAUGH  AN 


21 


84 


FEDA 


Manuscripts,"  (1853,)  and  various  other  works.  Died  in 
1868. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Vaughan,  (William,)  a  poet,  born  in  Caermarthen- 
shire,  in  Wales,  in  1577,  was  the  author  of  "  The  Golden 
Fleece,"  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1640. 

Vaugiraud,  de,  deh  vo'zhe'r5',  (Pierre  Ren6 
Marie,)  a  French  vice-admiral,  born  at  Sables  d'Olonne 
in  1 741.  He  emigrated  as  a  royalist  about  1790,  and 
became  Governor  of  Martinique  in  1814.    Died  in  1819. 

Vaugondy.    See  Robert  de  Vaugondy. 

Vauguyon,  de  la,  deh  li  v5'ge'6N',  (Antoine  Paul 
Jacques  de  Quelen — deh  kaMdw',)  Due,  a  French 
general,  born  at  Tonneins  in  1706.  He  contributed  to 
the  victory  of  Fontenoy,  (1745.)  Pie  was  afterwards 
governor  of  the  sons  of  the  dauphin,  who  became  Louis 
XVI.,  Louis  XVIIL,  and_ Charles  X.    Died  in  1772. 

Vaulabelle,  de,  deh  vo'lt'b^l',  (AcHiLLETenaille — 
teh-ntr  or  teh-nt'ye,)  a  French  journalist  and  statesman, 
born  in  the  department  of  Yonne  in  1799.  He  became 
in  1838  associate  editor  of  "  Le  National,"  a  repub- 
lican or  advanced  liberal  daily  paper.  He  published 
a  "  History  of  the  Two  Restorations  to  the  Fall  of 
Charles  X,,"  (6  vols.,  1844  et  seq.,)  which  is  commended 
for  accuracy  and  various  research.  He  was  minister  of 
public  instruction  from  July  to  October,  1848. 

Vaulabelle,  de,  (Maihieu  Tenaille,)  called  El^;- 
ONORE,  a  French  dramatist,  born  in  1801,  was  a  brother 
of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  many  vaudevilles.  Died 
in  1859. 

Vauquelin,  vok'liN',  (Jean,)  Sieur  de  La  Fresnaye, 
a  French  poet,  born  near  Falaise  in  1535.  He  became 
president  of  a  court,  called  presidial,  at  Caen,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV.  He  wrote  agreeable  idyls,  and 
other  short  poems.    Died  in  1607. 

His  son  Nicolas  was  a  poet.  (See  Des  Yveteaux.) 

See  V.  Choisy,  "Jean  Vauquelin  de  La  Fresnaye,"  1S41. 

Vauquelin,  (Louis  Nicolas,)  an  eminent  French 
chemist,  born  near  Pont-l'fiveque  (Calvados)  in  May, 
1763.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Fourcroy,  of  whom  he  became 
an  intimate  friend  and  coadjutor.  He  was  appointed 
assistant  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Polytechnic  School 
about  1795,  ^  member  of  the  Institute.  In  180 1  he 
succeeded  Darcet  as  professor  at  the  College  de  France, 
and  in  1804  obtained  the  chair  of  chemistry  applied  to 
the  arts,  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes.  He  improved 
the  methods  of  chemical  analysis,  and  discovered  two 
elementary  substances, — chromium  and  glucina.  He 
wrote  many  "Memoires,"  inserted  in  the  "  Annales  de 
Chimie"  and  other  periodicals.  Died  in  November, 
1829. 

See  CuvrER,  "  filoge  de  Vauquelin;"  Chevallier.  "Inaugura- 
tion d'un  Monument  a  la  Memoire  de  L.  N.  Vauquelin :  Notice 
biographique  de  ce  Chimiste,"  1850;  Dr.  Hoefer,  "  Histoire  de 
la  Chimie;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vauthier-Galle,  vo'te-i'  gil,  (Andr^:,)  a  French 
sculptor  and  medal-engraver,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1818. 

Vauvenargues,  de,  deh  vov^ntRg',  (Luc  de  Cla- 
piers — deh  kll'pe-a',)  Marquis,  a  French  moral  philos- 
opher, born  at  Aix,  in  Provence,  in  171 5,  was  a  friend  of 
Voltaire.  He  entered  the  army  about  1733,  and  left  the 
service  with  ruined  health  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven. 
He  published  in  1746  an  "Introduction  to  the  Know- 
ledge of  the  Human  Mind,  followed  by  Reflections  and 
Maxims,"  which  was  praised  by  Voltaire.  Died  in  Paris 
in  1747.    His  reputation  increased  after  his  death. 

See  SuARD,  "Notice  sur  Vauvenargues ;"  Gilbert,  "  Eloge  de 
Vauvenargues;"  Sainte-Bkuve,  "  Causeries  du  Lundi,"  vols,  iii, 
and  xiv.  ;  Voltaire,  "  Coi  respondance  ;"  Marmontel,  "  Me- 
moires  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vauvilliers,  \o'vh'ye-k',  (Jean  Francois,)  a  French 
scholar,  was  born  at  Noyers  in  1737.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  at  the  College  of  France  in  1766,  and  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "  Essays  on  Pindar,"  (1772.) 
In  1790  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  municipality 
of  Paris,  and  lieutenant  to  the  mayor  of  that  city.  He 
entered  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1797.  Having 
been  proscribed  in  the  same  year,  he  took  refuge  at 
Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  died  in  1801.  He  had  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  Sophocles,  with  notes,  (2  vols.,  1781.) 

See  Qu^RARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 


Vaux,  vawx,  (Nicholas,)  Lord,  an  English  officer, 
was  distinguished  by  the  favour  of  Henry  VIII.,  whom 
he  accompanied  in  his  French  campaign.  Died  in  1530. 

Vaux,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  15 10,  was 
a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  one  of  the  attendants 
of  Henry  VIII.  in  his  expedition  to  France  in  1532. 
Among  his  works  is  "The  Assault  of  Cupid."  Died 
about  1557. 

Vaux,  de,  deh  v5,  (Noel  de  Jourda,  no'lV  deh 
zhooR'da',)  Count,  a  French  general,  born  near  Pu'y- 
en- Velay  in  1705.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battles 
of  Prague  (1743)  and  Fontenoy,  obtained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general  in  1759,  and  displayed  much  ability 
by  the  conquest  of  Corsica  in  1769.  He  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  marshal  of  France  in  1783.    Died  in  1788. 

Vauxcelles.    See  Bourlet. 

Vauzelles,  de,  deh  vo'z^K,  (Jean,)  a  French  priest 
and  writer  on  religion,  was  born  at  Lyons;  died  in  1557. 

Vavasseur,  vt'vt'sUR',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  Jesuit 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Paray  in  1605.  He  produced, 
besides  several  prose  works,  Latin  odes,  elegies,  etc., 
which  are  said  to  be  elegant.    Died  in  Paris  in  1681. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires." 

Vayu,  vi'oo,  or  Vayus,  vi'oos,  [from  the  Sanscrit 
vdy,  to  "  go,"  or  "  move,"]  one  of  the  names  of  the  wind, 
in  the  Hindoo  mythology.   (See  Marut  and  Pavana.) 

Ve,  va  or  v6h,  \i.e.  "holiness  ;"  allied  to  the  German 
weihen,  to  "consecrate,"]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  a  god 
who  was  associated  with  his  brothers  Odin  and  Vili  in 
creating  the  world.  (See  Odin.)  It  appears  to  have  been 
his  office  to  banish  from  the  new  creation  whatever  was 
impure  or  evil.  By  some  he  is  identified  with  LoDUR, 
which  see. 

Vecchi,  de,  da  vek'kee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Borgo  San  Sepolcro  in  1536;  died  in 
1 6 14. 

Vecchia,  vek'ke-S,  (Pietro,)  a  Venetian  painter, 
originally  named  M.viTONi,  born  in  1605,  was  a  pupil 
of  Varotari.  He  imitated  with  great  skill  the  works  of 
Titian  and  Giorgione.    Died  in  1678. 

Vecchietta,  v^k-ke-et'tJ,  (Lorenzo  di  Piero,)  an 
Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Sienna  in  1482.  He  worked  in 
bronze.    Died  in  1540. 

Vecchio  di  San  Bernardo,  II,  ^1  vek'ke-o  de  sin 
bgR-naR'do,  (Francesco  Menzocchi — m§n-zok'kee,) 
an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Forli  about  1510  ;  died  in  1 547. 

Vecellio.    See  Titian. 

Vecellio,  vk-cheKle-o,  (Cesare,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Cadore  about  1530,  was  a  pupil  and  cousin  of 
Titian.  He  published  a  collection  entitled  "On  Ancient 
and  Modern  Costumes,"  ("  Degli  Abiti  antichi  e  mo- 
derni,"  1590.)    Died  in  1606. 

Vecellio,  (Francesco,)  a  brother  of  Titian,  born  at 
Cadore  in  1483,  was  a  painter  of  superior  genius,  but 
renounced  the  profession  for  that  of  merchant  or  soldier. 
Died  in  1590. 

Vecellio,  (Marco,)  or  Marco  di  Tiziano — de  t§t- 

se-3.'no,  an  able  painter,  born  in  Venice  in  1545,  was  a 
nephew  and  pupil  of  Titian,  He  accompanied  Titian 
in  his  journeys,  and  imitated  his  style  with  great  success. 
Among  his  works  are  a  "  Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit" 
and  the  "Marriage  of  the  Virgin  Mary."  Died  in  1611. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Ridolfi,  "  Pittori  Veneti 
Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy." 

Vecellio,  (Orazio,)  a  skilful  portrait-painter,  born  at 
Venice  in  15 15,  was  a  son  and  pupil  of  Titian,  He 
assisted  his  father  in  many  of  his  works.    Died  in  1576. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Vechte  or  Wechte,  v^kt,  (Antoine,)  a  French 
sculptor  and  goldsmith,  born  in  the  department  of  Cote- 
d'Or  about  1820,  He  had  a  high  reputation  as  a  de- 
signer of  ornamental  works  in  gold  and  silver.  Among 
his  works  is  an  allegorical  vase  in  silver  repousse.  Died 
in  October,  1868. 

Vdda,  va'da,  (English  plural  Vedas,)  i.e.  "know- 
ledge," [from  the  Sanscrit  vtd,  to  "know,"  cognate  with 
the  old  English  wit^  having  the  same  signification,  and 
the  Latin  vid-eo,  to  "see"  or  "perceive,"]  the  name  of 
the  sacred  books  or  scriptures  of  the  Brahmans,  sup- 
posed to  contain  the  fountain  and  sum  of  all  essential 
knowledge.    They  consist  of  four  parts,  the  Rig- Veda, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged ;     e,  T,  6,  u^  y, 


short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


FEDJNTA 


FELDE 


Sama-Veda,  Yajur-Veda,  and  Atharva-Veda.  Of  these 
the  Rig- Veda  is  the  most  important.  It  is  composed  of 
religious  lyrics  or  hymns,  and  is  confessedly  the  oldest 
extant  portion  of  Sanscrit  literature,  dating  perhaps 
from  1400  to  1800  years  before  the  Christian  era. 

See  Professor  Wilson's  translations  of  the  "Rig-Veda,"  and 
the  different  Introductions  to  those  translations;  Colebrooke  on 
the  "Vedas,"  in  vol.  viii.  of  the  "Asiatic  Researches;"  article 
"Veda"  in  the  "New  American  Cyclopsedia,"  (by  Professor  W. 
D.  Whitney.) 

Vidanta,  (Philosophy.)    See  Vyasa. 
V§davyasa.    See  Vyasa. 

Vedriani,  vi-dRe-i'nee,  (LoDOVico,)  a  mediocre  Ital- 
iai^  historian,  born  at  Modena  in  1601,  wrote  a  "  History 
of  Modena,"  (1664,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1670. 

Veen.    See  Van  Veen  and  Heemskerk. 

Veenix.    See  Weenix. 

Vega.    See  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega. 

Vega,  de.    See  Lope  de  Vega. 

Vega,  von,  fon  va'gS,  (Georg,)  Baron,  a  German 
officer  and  mathematician,  born  in  Carniola  in  1754,  was 
originally  named  Veha.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
several  campaigns  against  the  French  and  Turks,  at- 
tained the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Imperial  artillery.  He 
was  the  author  of  "Tables  of  Logarithms,"  (Logarith- 
mentafeln,  1783,)  "Lectures  on  Mathematics,"  (4  vols., 
1786-90,)  "Complete  Treasury  of  Logarithms,"  (1794,) 
and  other  valuable  works.  Vega  was  murdered  in  1802 
by  a  miller,  who  despoiled  him  of  his  money  and  watch. 

Vegece.    See  Vegetius. 

Vegetius,  ve-jee'she-us,  [Fr.V^cicE,  vk'zhis',]  (Fla- 
Vius  Renatus,)  a  Roman  military  writer  of  the  fourth 
century,  is  believed  to  have  been  a  Christian.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "Epitome  Institutionum  Rei 
militaris,"  (in  five  books,)  and  is  dedicated  to  Valentinian 
II.  It  treats  of  the  organization  of  armies,  training 
of  soldiers,  etc.,  and  is  written  in  a  clear  and  graceful 
style.  Translations  of  it  have  been  .published  in  English, 
French,  and  German. 

See  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina." 

Vehrli  or  Wehrli,  vaR'lee,  (Jakor,)  a  Swiss  teacher, 
born  in  1790,  was  for  manv  years  an  assistant  of  Fellen- 
berg  at  Hofwyl.  He  became  in  1833  superintendent  of 
the  Normal  School  at  Kruitzlingen,  on  Lake  Constance. 
,  Vehse,  fa'zeh,  (Karl  Eduard,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Freiberg  in  1802,  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Gottin- 
gen,  and  afterwards  visited  the  United  States,  London, 
and  Paris.  He  published  several  works,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  is  his  "  History  of  the  German  Courts 
since  the  Reformation,"  ("Geschichte  der  Ueutschen 
Hofe  seit  der  Reformation,"  34  vols.,  1854.)  It  is  still 
unfinished.    Died  in  1870. 

Veil,  vil,  or  Viel,  (Charles  Marie,)  a  commentator 
on  Scripture,  born  at  Metz,  was  originally  a  Jew.  He  be- 
came a  Protestant,  and  preached  in  England  about  1680. 

Veil,  de,  deh  val,  (Louis  de  Compiegne — deh  kdN^- 
pe-in',)  a  converted  Jew,  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Metz,  went  to  Etigland  about  1680,  and  pub- 
lished Latin  versions  of  some  works  of  Mainionides. 

Veimars.    See  Loeve. 

Veit,  vit  or  fit,  (Philtpp,)  a  celebrated  German 
painter,  born  at  Berlin  in  1793,  was  a  grandson,  on  his 
mother's  side,  of  Moses  Mendelssohn.  He  studied  at 
Rome  in  company  with  Cornelius,  Overbeck,  and  other 
young  artists,  who  aimed  at  reviving  the  mystical  style 
of  the  middle  ages.  Among  his  master-pieces  we  may 
name  his  "Triumph  of  Religion,"  in  the  Vatican  gallery, 
"  Scenes  from  Dante's  Paradiso,"  in  the  Villa  Massimi, 
"Christianity  bringing  the  Fine  Arts  into  Germany,"  a 
large  fresco  in  the  Stadel  Art  Institute  at  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main,  and  the  "Seven  Years  of  Plenty," — one  of 
the  frescos  of  the  history  of  Joseph,  at  the  Villa  Bartholdy, 
Rome.  Veit  was  a  step-son  of  Frederick  Schlegel,  his 
mother  having  married  that  artist.  Died  at  Rome  in  1854. 

Veitch,  veetch,  (John,)  a  Scottish  professor,  born  at 
Peebles  about  1830.  He  translated  several  works  of 
Descartes,  (1850-53.)  About  i860  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the  University  of 
Saint  Andrew's.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Sir  William 
Hamilton,"  (1869.) 


Vela,  va'll,  (Blasco  Nunez,)  a  Spaniard,  was  sent 
by  Charles  V.  to  Peru  in  1543  as  viceroy.  His  authority 
was  resisted  by  the  rebels  under  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  by 
whom  Vela  was  defeated  and  killed  in  1546. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vela,  va'ia,  (Vincent,)  an  Italian  sculptor,  of  Swiss 
origin,  born  in  the  canton  of  Tessin  (Ticino)  in  1822. 
Among  his  works  is  a  statue  of  Spartacus. 

Velasco.    See  Palomino  y  Velasco. 

Velasco,  de,  dk  vi-lSs'ko,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish 
writer  of  sacred  poems,  born  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Velasco,  de,  (Gregorio  Hernandez,)  a  Spanish 
poet,  born  at  Toledo  about  1550.  He  produced  a  good 
version  of  Virgil's  "  .^neid,"  and  other  translations. 

Velasquez,  vi-lSs'k^th,  (Alexandro  Gonzalez,)  a 
Spanish  painter  and  architect,  born  at  Madrid  in  17 19. 
He  designed  the  palace  of  Aranjuez.    Died  in  1772. 

His  brother  Antonio,  born  in  1729,  was  an  able 
painter.  He  became  court  painter  to  Charles  HI.  in 
1757.    He  excelled  in  frescos.    Died  in  1793. 

Velasquez,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  commander,  born  in 
Old  Castile  about  1460.  He  was  sent  by  Diego  Colum- 
bus to  Cuba,  which  he  conquered  in  15 11.  He  was 
afterwards  Governor  of  Cuba,  and  despatched  an  ex- 
ploring party  which  discovered  Mexico.  About  1520 
he  sent  a  small  army  to  Mexico  under  Narvaez  to 
operate  against  Cortez,  who  defeated  Narvaez  and  took 
him  prisoner.    Died  in  1523. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico ;"  Orel- 
LANA,  "  Varones  del  nuevo  Mundo." 

Velasquez  (or  Velazquez)  de  Silva,  va-lis'kgth 
di  s^KvS,  (Don  Diego  Rodriguez,)  a  celebrated  Span- 
ish portrait-painter,  born  at  Seville  in  1599.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Herrera  el  Viejo,  and  afterwards  of  Francisco 
Pacheco,  whose  daughter  Juana  he  married.  He  did 
not  adopt  the  style  of  either  of  these  masters,  but 
formed  for  himself  an  original  style  by  the  study  of 
nature.  Having  removed  to  Madrid  in  1622  and  painted 
a  portrait  of  the  Duke  of  Olivares  in  1623,  he  was  ap- 
pointed court  painter  to  Philip  IV.,  and  rose  rapidly  to 
fame  and  prosperity.  He  was  a  friend  of  Rubens,  whom 
he  met  at  Madrid  in  1628.  He  visited  Italy  in  1629, 
admired  the  works  of  Titian  at  Venice,  and  passed 
about  a  year  at  Rome,  where  he  painted  a  picture  of 
"Jacob  and  the  Bloody  Garment  of  Joseph,"  and 
"Apollo  at  the  Forge  of  Vulcan."  He  returned  to 
Madrid  in  163 1,  after  which  he  produced  an  admirable 
equestrian  portrait  of  Philip  IV.  In  1648  he  was  sent 
to  Italy  by  the  king  to  purchase  pictures  and  models  of 
antique  statues.  He  painted  at  Rome  an  excellent  por- 
trait of  Pope  Innocent  X.,  and  returned  home  in  1615. 
In  1656  he  obtained  the  cross  of  Santiago,  which  is 
rarely  given  to  any  except  men  of  high  rank.  He  was 
also  appointed  to  the  otifice  of  aposentador  mayor,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  provide  lodgings  for  the  king  in  his  journeys. 
Died  in  August,  1660.  Velasquez  is  regarded  by  many 
critics  as  the  greatest  painter  that  Spain  has  produced. 
He  is  considered  to  have  surpassed  other  Spanish  artists 
not  onlv  in  portraits  but  in  history  and  landscapes.  He 
neglected  the  ideal  and  poetical,  and  seems  to  have  been 
deficient  in  invention  ;  but  he  reproduced  the  real  with 
marvellous  fidelity.  His  best  works  are  mostly  at 
Madrid.  Among  his  best  historical  pieces  is  a  "  Cruci- 
fixion," (1639.)  Commenting  on  his  picture  of  "The 
Spinners,"  ("  Las  Hilanderas,")  Mr.  Stanley  says,  "For 
truth  of  character,  perspective  arrangement,  and  delusion 
of  light  and  shadow,  it  is  considered  marvellous." 
(Bryan  and  Stanley's  "  Dictionary.") 

See  William  Stirling,  "Velasquez  and  his  Works,"  1855; 
Cean-Bhrmudez,  "  Diccionario  de  las  bellas  Artes:"  Nagler, 
"  .Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon  ;"  Foru,  "  Hand- Book  for  Travel- 
lers in  Spain  ;"  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1855;  Quilliet,  or 
Quillet,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Peintres  Espagnols  ;"  Charles  Blanc, 
"  Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Velasquez  de  Velasco,  vi-lSs'kSth  di  vi-lis'ko, 
(Luis  Jos^:,)  Marquis  de  Valdeflores,  a  Spanish  anti- 
quary, born  at  Malaga  in  1722.  He  published  several 
works  on  Spanish  antiquities.    Died  in  1772. 

Velde,  van  den,  vtn  dSn  vgKdeh,  or  Vandervelde, 
(ISAIAH,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Leyden  about  1595, 


€  as    9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  o,  h,  k, guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (^i^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VELDE 


was  also  an  etcher.  He  painted  landscapes,  rustic  scenes, 
and  battles.    Died  about  1650. 

Velde,  van  den,  (Jan,)  a  painter  and  skilful  engraver, 
born  at  Leyden  about  1598,  was  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  painted  landscapes  and  rustic  scenes,  and 
engraved  portraits,  etc.    Died  after  1677. 

Velde,  van  der,  (Adriaan  and  Willem.)  See  Van 
DER  Velde. 

Velde,  van  der,  vtn  der  feKdeh  or  veKdeh,  (Franz 
Karl,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Breslau  in  1779,  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  novels,  tales,  and  dramatic  works, 
which  were  very  popular  at  the  time.    Died  in  1824. 

Veldeke,  von,  fon  v^Kdeh-keh,  (Heinrich,)  a  Ger- 
man minnesinger  of  the  twelfth  century,  was  the  author 
of  an  epic  poem  entitled  "Eneit." 

VeFe-da  or  VeFle-da,  a  German  prophetess,  who 
lived  near  the  river  Luppia  (Lippe)  in  the  reign  of  Ves- 
pasian, and  was  regarded  with  great  veneration.  Having 
prophesied  in  favour  of  Civilis,  who  revolted  against  the 
Romans,  she  was  carried  captive  to  Rome  about  85  A.D. 

Velez  de  Guevara.    See  Guevara. 

Vella,  veKll,  (Giuseppe,)  a  literary  impostor,  born  at 
Malta  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  pre- 
tended to  have  discovered  an  Arabic  manuscript  of 
several  of  the  lost  books  of  Livy,  and  other  important 
documents  in  the  Arabic  language.  His  frauds  were 
exposed  by  Tychsen  and  Hager. 

Velleius  Paterculus.    See  Paterculus. 

Vellejus,  vel-la'yus,  (Andreas  Severinus  or  Soe- 
RENSEN,)  a  learned  Danish  historian  and  theologian, 
born  at  Veile,  in  Jutland,  in  1542.  He  became  court 
preacher  at  Copenhagen  about  1568.  He  published 
"The  Lives  of  the  Popes,  in  verse,"  (1571,)  a  "History 
of  Canute,"  several  biographies,  and  other  works.  Died 
in  i6r6. 

Velleron.    See  Cambis-Velleron. 

Velluti,  v^l-loo'tee,  (Donato,)  an  Italian  chronicler, 
born  at  Florence  in  13 13  ;  died  in  1370. 

Velly,  vale',  (Paul  FRANgoLS,)  a  French  historian, 
born  near  Rheims  in  1709.  He  published  a  "  History  of 
France,"  (8  vols.,  1759,)  which  was  favourably  received 
at  the  time.  He  also  translated  Swift's  "  History  of  John 
Bull."    Died  in  1759. 

Velpeau,  v^rpo',  (Alfred  Armand  Louis  Marie,) 
a  celebrated  French  surgeon  and  anatomist,  born  near 
Tours  (Indre-et-Loire)  in  1795.  He  graduated  in  Paris 
in  1823,  became  professor  of  clinical  surgery  to  the 
Faculte  de  Medecine  in  1834  or  1835,  and  chief  surgeon 
of  the  hospital  La  Charite  in  1841.  He  succeeded  Dr. 
Larrey  in  the  Listitute  about  1842.  As  professor  of 
clinic,  he  acquired  a  European  reputation.  Among  his 
numerous  works  we  notice  a  "Treatise  on  Surgical 
Anatomy,"  (2  vols.,  1825-26,)  which  is  said  to  be  very 
complete,  an  excellent  treatise  on  Obstetrics,  entitled 
"Traitede  I'Art  des  Accouchements,"  (1829,)  which  was 
translated  by  Dr.  Charles  Meigs,  of  Philadelphia,  (1831,) 
and  "Traite  des  Maladies  du  Sein,"  (1838.)  An  en- 
larged edition  of  the  latter  was  issued  in  1854.  Died 
in  August,  1867. 

See  Sachaile,  "  Les  Medecins  de  Paris  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale. " 

Velser,  f^Kser,  or  Velserus,  f^l-sa'rus,  (Marcus,)  a 
German  civilian,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1558.  He  became 
a  senator  about  1592.  Among  his  works  is  "  Rerum 
Boicarum  Libri  V.,"  (1602.)    Died  in  1614. 

Veltheim,  f^lt'hlm,  (August  Ferdinand,)  Count, 
a  German  antiquary  and  scientific  writer,  born  near 
Helmstedt  in  1741.  He  published  a  treatise  "On  the 
Formation  of  Basalt,"  (1786,)  "On  the  Statue  of  Mem- 
non,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1801. 

Veltheim  or  Velthem,  written  also  Velten,  a  Ger- 
man actor  of  the  seventeenth  century,  who  was  the  first 
to  introduce  the  plays  of  Moliere  on  the  German  stage. 

Velthusius.    See  Velthuysen. 

Velthuysen,  velt'hoi'zen,  [Lat.  Velthu'sius,]  (Lam- 
bert,) a  Dutch  theologian  and  philosopher,  born  at 
Utrecht  in  1622.  He  wrote  several  works  on  moral 
philosoi)hy  and  religion,  which  were  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  a  strenuous  advocate  of  toleration.  Died  in  1685. 

Venance.    See  Dougados. 

Venantius.    See  Fortunatus. 


86  FENEZUNO 


Vence,  de,  deh  v6nss,  (Henri  Franqois,)  a  French 
ecclesiastic  and  Hebrew  scholar,  born  in  Barrois  about 
1675.  He  wrote  dissertations  or  commentaries  on  the 
Bible,  which  were  inserted  in  the  Bible  of  Calmet,  (1748- 
50.)    Died  at  Nancy  in  1749. 

Vendome,  de,  deh  vdN'dom',  (Alexandre,)  Due, 
a  brother  of  Cesar,  noticed  below,  born  in  1598,  was 
legitimated  the  following  year,  and  created  Duke»of 
Vendome.  He  was  made  grand  prior  of  the  knights  of 
Malta  in  France.  Suspected  of  conspiring  against  Riche- 
lieu, he  was  arrested,  (1626,)  and  died  in  prison  in  1629. 

Vendome,  de,  (C6sar,)  Due,  a  natural  son  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France  and  Gabrielle  d'Estrees,  was  born  in  1594. 
He  was  soon  after  legitimated  and  made  Duke  of  Ven- 
dome. Having  been  charged  with  taking  part  in  the 
conspiracy  against  Richelieu  in  1626,  he  was  imprisoned 
four  years.  He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Burgundy 
in  1650.    Died  in  1665. 

See  Cardinal  Retz,  "Memoires;"  Bazin,  "  Histoire  de  Louis 

XIII.  " 

Venddme,  de,  (Louis,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1612,  served  in  the  campaigns  of  Louis  XIII., 
and  rose  to  be  viceroy  and  commander  of  the  French 
troops  in  Catalonia  in  1649.  He  married  in  165 1  Laura 
Mancini,  niece  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  and  after  her  death, 
having  been  ordained  a  priest,  was  made  a  cardinal  in 
1669.    Died  in  1669. 

Vendome,  de,  (Louis  Joseph,)  Due,  an  able  gene- 
ral, a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1654. 
He  served  under  Turenne,  and  in  the  campaign  of 
Flanders  under  Marshal  de  Crequi,  and  was  appointed 
in  1681  Governor  of  Provence.  He  was  made  lieutenant- 
general  in  1688,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  siege  of 
Namur  and  the  battles  of  Steenkerke  and  Marsaglia. 
Having  succeeded  Noailles  as  commander  of  the  army 
of  Catalonia  in  1695,  he  besieged  Barcelona,  which  he 
compelled  to  surrender,  (1697.)  On  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  he  became  com- 
mander of  the  forces  in  Italy,  and  in  1702  fought  the 
battle  of  Luzzara  with  the  army  of  Prince  Eugene.  He 
was  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  and  Eugene 
at  Oudenarde  in  1708.    Being  sent  in  17 10  by  Louis 

XIV.  to  the  assistance  of  Philip  V.  in  Spain,  he  restored 
that  sovereign  to  his  capital,  and  soon  after  gained  a 
signal  victory  over  the  Austrian  forces  under  Starhem- 
berg  at  Villa  Viciosa.    Died  in  1712. 

See  ViLi-ENEUVE,  "  filoge  du  Due  de  Vend6me,"_i783  ;  Voltaire, 
"Siecle  de  Louis  XIV;"  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  De  Cour- 
CELi.Rs,  "  Dictionuaire  des  Geueraux  Frangais;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Geuerale." 

Vendome,  de,  (Philippe,)  Due,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1655.  He  served  under  his  uncle» 
the  Duke  of  Beaufort,  in  1669,  and  took  part  in  the 
principal  campaigns  of  his  brother.  He  was  grand  prior 
of  the  knights  of  the  order  of  Malta.    Died  in  1727. 

Vendramini,  vSn-dK^-mee'nee,  (Giovanni,)  an  able 
Italian  engraver,  born  near  Bassano  in  1769,  worked 
in  England,  and  engraved  the  works  of  several  Italian 
masters.    Died  in  London  in  1839. 

Venedey,  fa'neh-dl,  (Jakob,)  a  German  jurist  and 
politician,  born  at' Cologne  in  1805.  He  was  arrested 
in  1832  on  a  charge  of  being  connected  with  secret  so- 
cieties, but  effected  his  escape  to  France.  Returning  iu 
1848,  he  was  soon  after  elected  to  the  National  Assem- 
bly. He  subsequently  became  professor  of  history  at 
Zurich.  He  has  published  several  works  on  various 
subjects,  among  which  is  a  "  History  of  the  German 
People,"  (4  vols.,  1854-58.) 

Venel,  veh-nlK,  (Gabriel  Franqois,)  a  French 
chemist  and  physician,  born  at  Combes  in  1723.  He 
became  professor  of  medicine  at  Montpellier,  where  he 
died  in  1775. 

Venerio.    See  Veniero. 

Veneroni,  vi-ni-ro'nee,  a  French  scholar  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  originally  named  Jean  Vigneron, 
(v^n'yeh-r6N',)  published  an  Italian  Grammar  and  Dic- 
tionary. 

Venette,  veh-ngt',  (Nioolas,)  a  French  medical 
writer,  born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1633  ;  died  in  1698. 

Veneziano.    See  Domenico  Veneziano. 

Veneziano,  vi-n^t-se-a'no,  (Agostino,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  engraver,  born  at  Venice,  is  sometimes  called 


a  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y, 


short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


VENEZUNO 


2187 


FENUS 


AUGUSTINUS  DE  MusiS.  He  studied  under  Marcantonio 
Raimondi,  and  executed  a  number  of  prints  after  Ra- 
phael and  Giulio  Romano.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  portraits  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I. 
of  France,  and  '*  The  Skeletons,  or  Burying-Place,"  after 
Baccio  Bandinelli.  Veneziano  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  to  practise  stipple  engraving.  He  lived  about 
1510-40. 

See  Strutt,  "  Dictionary  of  Engravers." 

Veneziano,  (Antonio,)  an  eminent  Venetian  painter, 
born  about  1309,  was  a  pupil  of  Angelo  Gaddi.  His 
frescos  in  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa  are  ranked  among 
his  master-pieces.  He  afterwards  studied  medicine,  and 
died  of  the  plague  at  Florence,  in  1384,  while  attending 
the  sick. 

Veniero,  vk-ne-a'ro,  or  Venier,  vi-ne-aiR',  (Anto- 
nio,) a  Venetian  statesman,  was  elected  doge  in  1382. 
He  extended  the  domain  of  Venice  by  the  acquisition 
of  Corfu,  Argos,  and  Treviso.    Died  in  1400. 

Veniero,  (Domenico,)  a  Venetian  poet  and  trans- 
lator, born  in  15 17,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Venetian  Academy.  He  was  intimate  with  Cardinal 
Bembo  and  other  distinguished  men  of  the  time.  His 
brothers,  Lorenzo  and  Maffeo,  were  also  poets.  Died 
in  1582. 

Veniero  or  Venier,  (Francesco,)  a  Venetian  phi- 
losopher, and  statesman,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  about  1505  ;  died  in  1581. 

Veniero,  (Lorenzo,)  a  poet,  born  at  Venice  about 
15 10,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  sa- 
tirical and  immoral  poems.    Died  in  1550. 

Veniero  or  Venerio,  va-na're-o,  (Sebastiano,)  a 
Venetian  admiral,  commanded  the  fleet  of  the  republic 
at  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  in  1572.  He  was  elected  doge 
in  1576.    Died  in  1578. 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  Philip  II.,"  vol.  iii.  book  v. 

Ve-niFi-a,  fFr.  V^nilie,  vi'neOe',]  a  Roman  divinity 
or  nymph,  was  called  a  sister  of  Amata,  the  wife  of  Fau- 
nus,  and  the  mother  of  Turnus  and  Juturna. 

Venilie.    See  Venilia. 

Venino,  vi-nee'no,  (Ignazio,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born 
at  Como  in  171 1,  is  said  to  have  been  the  greatest 
preacher  of  Italy  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Died  at 
Milan  in  1778. 

Venius.    See  Van  Veen. 

Venn,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  English  theologian,  born 
at  Barnes,  Surrey,  in  1725,  was  a  son  of  Rev.  Richard 
Venn.  He  graduated  as  A.M.  at  Cambridge  in  1749, 
became  vicar  of  Huddersfield  about  1760,  and  rector  of 
Yelling,  in  Huntingdonshire,  in  1770.  He  published, 
besides  Sermons,  "The  Complete  Duty  of  Man,  or  a 
System  of  Doctrinal  and  Practical  Christianity,"  and 
"Mistakes  in  Religion  Exposed."    Died  in  1797. 

See  Henry  Venn,  "Life  and  Letters  of  Rev.  Henry  Venn," 
1849. 

Venn,  (John,)  a  clergyman,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Clapham  in  1759.  He  became  rector  of 
Clapham  in  1792,  and  died  there  in  1813.  Two  volumes 
of  his  sermons  have  been  published. 

Venn,  (Richard,)  an  English  writer  on  theology, 
was  the  father  of  Henry,  noticed  above.  He  was  rector 
of  Saint  Antholin's,  London.    Died  in  1740. 

Ven'ner,  (Tobias,)  an  EngMsh  physician,  born  in 
Somersetshire  in  1577.  He  practised  at  Bath  with  suc- 
cess, and  published  a  treatise  on  diet  and  regimen,  en- 
titled "  The  Right  Way  to  Long  Life,"  ("  Via  recta  ad 
Vitam  longam,"  about  1622,)  which  was  very  popular. 
Died  in  1660. 

Ven'ning,  (Ralph,)  an  English  nonconformist  min- 
ister, born  about  1620,  was  noted  both  for  his  eloquence 
and  his  piety.  He  became  lecturer  or  preacher  at  Saint 
Olave,  Southwark,  from  which  he  was  ejected  for  non- 
conformity in  1662.  He  wrote,  besides  other  religious 
works,  "  Things  Worth  Thinking  on,  or  Helps  to  Piety." 
Died  in  1673. 

Ventenat,  v&Nt^nt',  (Etienne  Pierre,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  at  Limoges  in  1757.  He  published  a 
"Tableau  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom,"  (4  vols.,  1799,) 
"The  Garden  of  Malmaison,"  (2  vols.,  1803,  with  plates 
by  Redoute,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1808. 

See  CuviER,  "  filoges  historiques." 


Ven-tid'i-us  Bas'sus,  (Publius,)  a  Roman  general, 
born  in  Picenum,  was  brought  to  Rome  in  89  B.C.,  being 
then  a  child.  He  became  a  favourite  officer  of  Caesar, 
whom  he  supported  in  the  civil  war  which  began  in  49 
B.C.,  and  was  chosen  consul  in  43.  As  the  legate  of 
Mark  Antony,  he  commanded  in  Syria  in  the  year  39, 
and  defeated  Labienus#ind  the  Parthian  prince  Pacorus. 

See  Dion  Cassius,  "  History  of  Rome." 

Ventignano,  v^n-t^n-yS-'no,  (Cesare  della  Valle — 
deKliviKli,)  Duke  of,  an  Italian  poet  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  at  Naples  in  1777.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  the  tragedies  of  "  The  Siege  of  Corinth"  and 
"  Medea,"  an  "  Essay  on  the  Education  of  the  Aris- 
tocracy and  the  Labouring  Classes,"  (1848,)  and  "Phi- 
losophic View  of  the  History  of  the  Human  Race," 
(1853.) 

Ventimiglia,  vln-te-m^Ky^,  (Giuseppe,)  Prince  of 
Belmont,  a  liberal  Sicilian  statesman,  born  in  1761,  was 
distinguished  for  munificence  and  taste.    Died  in  1814. 

Ventura,  vgn-too'ri,  (GKoacchino  or  Joachim,)  an 
eloquent  Italian  preacher  and  theologian,  born  at  Pa- 
lermo in  1792.  He  gained  such  distinction  as  a  preacher 
of  funeral  orations  that  he  was  called  "the  Italian  Bos- 
suet."  About  1824  he  became  a  resident  of  Rome,  and 
acquired  much  influence  with  the  pope.  He  published 
"On  the  Method  of  Philosophizing,"  ("De  Methodo 
Philosophandi,"  1828,)  and  "  The  Beauties  of  the  Faith," 
(1839.)  He  was  liberal  in  politics,  and,  after  the  election 
of  Pius  IX.,  (1847,)  ^''^d  great  popularity  as  a  leader  of 
the  moderate  party  of  reformers  at  Rome.  He  advised 
the  pope  to  give  his  subjects  a  constitution.  His  eff'orts 
having  been  defeated,  he  quitted  Rome  in  1849,  and  set- 
tled in  Paris  in  1851.  He  preached  at  the  church  of  the 
Madeleine  and  at  the  Tuileries,  (1857,)  and  published, 
in  French,  several  works,  among  which  is  "The  Philo- 
sophic Reason  and  the  Catholic  Reason,"  ("  La  Raison 
philosophique  et  la  Raison  catholique,"  1852.)  Died 
at  Versailles  in  August,  1861. 

See  E.  Vavasseuk,  "Ventura,"  Paris,  1851;  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic  Generale." 

Venturi,  vin-too'ree,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Ital- 
ian natural  philosopher,  born  at  Bibiano  in  1746.  He 
became  professor  of  physics  at  Pavfa  about  1800.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  an  "  Essay  on  the  Phy- 
sico-Mathematical  Works  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,"  (1797,) 
and  a  "Treatise  on  Optics,"  (1814.)    Died  in  1822. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1805. 

Venturi,  (Pompeo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  at  Sienna 
in  1693.  He  wrote  a  commentary  on  Dante,  (3  vols., 
1732.)    Died  in  1752. 

Ve'nus,  [Gr.  'kippodhr],  (Aphrodite ; )  Fr.  V^:nus,  vbS- 
nils';  It.  Venere,  va'na-ra,]  the  goddess  of  love  and 
beauty,  in  classic  mythology,  was  said  to  be  a  daughter 
of  Jupiter  (or  Uranus)  and  Dione,  the  wife  of  Vulcan, 
and  the  mother  of  Cupid,  Harmonia,  Hymen,  the  Graces, 
Priapus,  and  ^neas.  None  of  these,  however,  were  the 
offspring  of  Vulcan.  The  poets  feigned  that  she  origi- 
nated in  the  foam  of  the  sea,  (hence  her  surname  Ana- 
DYOMENE,)  and  landed  first  on  the  island  of  Cythera, 
from  which  she  passed  to  Cyprus,  where  flowers  sprang 
up  under  her  feet;  that  Love  and  Desire  attended  her  to 
the  assembly  of  the  celestial  gods ;  that  Juno,  Minerva, 
and  Venus  were  competitors  for  the  prize  of  beauty,  (the 
apple  of  discord,)  and  that  Paris  decided  in  favour  of 
Venus.  She  thus  became  the  object  of  Juno's  jealousy 
and  lasting  enmity.  In  the  war  between  the  Greeks  and 
the  Trojans  she  was  an  ardent  and  active  partisan  of  the 
latter,  and  was  wounded  by  Diomede.  According  to 
popular  legends,  she  possessed  a  magical  girdle,  which 
had  the  property  to  inspire  love  and  desire  for  the  per- 
son who  wore  it.  Among  her  favoured  paramours  were 
Mars,  Bacchus,  Apollo,  Adonis,  Mercury,  and  Anchises. 
The  principal  places  of  her  worship  were  Cythera,  Cy- 
prus, Paphos,  and  Idalium.  Her  favourite  plants  were 
the  rose  and  myrtle.  The  dove,  sparrow,  and  swan 
were  supposed  to  be  sacred  to  her.  She  was  variously 
styled  Cypria,  (from  Cyprus,)  Cythera  and  Cytheraea, 
(from  the  island  of  Cythera,  where  she  first  appeared, 
and  of  which  she  became  the  principal  deity,)  Venus  Gen- 
etrix,  Venus  Hortensis,  Venus  Victrix,  Venus  Verticordia, 
Venus  Alma,  Venus  Erycina,  (from  Eryx,  in  Sicily, 


€  as  k;  c  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as     G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FENUSTI 


2188 


FERGENNES 


where  she  had  a  temple,)  Aphrodite  Pandemos,  and 
Aphrodite  Urania.  Venus  was  regarded  by  some  ancient 
authors  as  a  personification  of  the  generative  power  of 
nature.  She  does  not  appear  to  have  been  an  original 
deity  of  Rome,  nor  to  have  been  worshipped  by  the 
Romans  while  they  were  ruled  by  kings.  Her  worship 
was  probably  of  Oriental  origin. 

Venusti,  vi-noos'tee,  (Marcello,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Mantua,  was  a  pupil  of  Perino  del  Vaga.  He 
was  employed  by  Michael  Angelo  to  copy  a  number  of 
his  works.  Among  these  we  may  name  his  "  Last  Judg- 
ment," (painted  in  oil,)  in  the  Royal  Museum  at  Naples. 
Died  about  1580. 

See  Vasari,"  Lives  of  the  Painters  ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting 
in  Italy." 

Venuti,  vi-noo'tee,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  at  Cortona  in  1709,  was  a  brother  of  the  following. 
Died^t  Rome  in  1769. 

Venuti,  (Niccol6  Marcello,)  an  Italian  antiquary, 
born  at  Cortona  in  1700.  He  discovered  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  and  the  theatre  of  Herculaneum,  and  wrote  a 
*'  Description  of  the  First  Discoveries  at  Herculaneum," 
(1749.)    Died  in  1755. 

See  CoLTELLiNi,  "Elogium  N.  M.  Venuti,"  1755. 

Venuti,  (Ridolfino,)  an  eminent  antiquary,  born  at 
Cortona  in  1705,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
became  director  of  the  Museum  Albani  at  Rome.  He 
published  a  "Topographical  Description  of  the  Antiqui- 
ties of  Rome,"  (2  vols.,  1763,)  and  other  works  on  Roman 
medals,  inscriptions,  etc.,  which  are  highly  commended. 
Died  at  Rome  in  1763. 

See  PozzETTi,  "  Elogio  di  Ridolfino  Venuti,"  1789. 

Veranzio,  vi-rint'se-o,  (Anton,)  a  Dalmatian  prelate 
and  diplomatist,  born  at  Sebenico  in  1504.  His  name 
in  Dalmatian  was  Wranczy,  (vRint'se.)  He  was  em- 
ployed in  missions  by  Ferdinand  I.  of  Austria.  Died 
in  1573- 

Verard,  vi'rtR',  (  Antoine,)  one  of  the  earliest  French 
printers,  founded  in  1480  an  establishment  in  Paris,  where 
he  published  "The  Prophecies  of  Merlin,"  "The  Chroni- 
cles of  France,"  and  "The  Sea  of  Histories." 

Verbiest,  ver-beest',  (Ferdinand,)  a  Flemish  astron- 
omer and  missionary,  born  at  Pitthem  in  1623.  He  went 
to  China  about  1658,  and  was  employed  as  astronomer 
by  the  emperor  of  that  country.  He  wrote  several  works 
on  astronomy.    Died  at  Peking  in  1688. 

See  Carton,  "Notice  sur  le  Pere  Verbiest,"  1839;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Verboeckhoven,  ver-book'ho\en,  (Eugene  Jo- 
seph,) a  Belgian  painter  of  animals,  born  in  West  Flan- 
ders in  1798.  Among  his  master-pieces  may  be  named 
his  "Horses  Fighting  with  Wolves,"  and  a  "View  in  the 
Campagna  of  Rome  with  a  Herd  of  Cattle."  His  bro- 
ther Louis  has  acquired  distinction  as  a  marine  painter. 

Verci,  v^R'chee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Bassano  in  1739.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  March  of  Treviso,"  (20  vols.,  1786-90,)  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1795. 

Ver-cin-get'o-rix,  an  able  Gaulish  commander  and 
chief  of  the  Arverni.  He  was  general-in-chief  of  the 
tribes  of  Celtic  Gaul  which  waged  war  against  Julius 
Caesar  in  52  B.C.  He  defended  Gergovia  with  success, 
and  compelled  Caesar  to  raise  the  siege.  The  Gauls 
having  been  defeated  at  Alesia,  Vercingetorix,  to  spare 
the  effusion  of  blood,  gave  himself  up  to  the  victor.  He 
was  taken  to  Rome,  and  put  to  death  about  45  B.C. 

See  CyESAR,  "Commentaries,"  book  vii.  ;  Dion  Cassius,  "  His- 
tory of  Rome;"  H.  Martin,  "Vercingetorix,"  1864;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Verdi,  v^R'dee,  (Giuseppe,)  a  celebrated  Italian  com- 
poser, born  in  the  duchy  of  Parma  in  1814.  He  studied 
under  Lavigna  at  La  Scala,  at  Milan,  and  in  1842  brought 
out  his  opera  of  "  Nabucodonosor,"  which  was  very  suc- 
cessful. It  was  followed  by  "  I  Lombardi,"  "  Ernani," 
**  I  due  Foscari,"  "  Giovanna  d'Arco,"  "  Macbeth,"  "  Ri- 
goletto,"  and  other  works,  which  enjoy  great  popularity. 

See  Bermani,  "  Schizzi  sulla  Vita  di  G.  Verdi,"  1846;  A.  Basevi, 
"Studio  sulle  Opere  di  G.  Verdi ;"  F^ris,  "  Biographie  Universelle 
des  Musiciens;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Verdier,  v5R''dej;;i',  (Aymar,)  a  French  architect,  born 
about  1818,  at  Tours.    He  gained  a  first  medal  in  1848. 


Verdier,  (C6sar,)  a  French  anatomist,  born  near 
Avignon  in  1685.  He  lectured  in  Paris  for  many  years, 
and  wrote  on  anatomy.    Died  in  1759. 

Verdier,  (Henri,)  Count  de  Lacoste,  a  French  poli- 
tician,  born  at  Nimes  in  1770,  was  outlawed  as  a  Girond- 
ist in  1793.  He  held  several  offices  under  the  Directory 
and  the  empire,  and  wrote  a  work  entitled  "Alfred  le 
Grand,"  (2  vols.,  1817.)    Died  in  1821. 

Verdier,  (Marcel,)  a  French  historical  painter,  born 
in  Paris  in  1817  ;  died  in  1856. 

Verdier,  du,  (Antoine.)    See  Duverdier. 

Verdugo,  vgR-doo''go,  (Franco,)  a  Spanish  general, 
who  served  in  the  Netherlands  under  Don  John  of 
Austria  and  Alexander  Farnese,  and  became  Governor 
of  Friesland  and  Groningen.    Died  in  1595. 

See  Motley,  "  United  Netherlands,"  chap.  xxxi. 

Vere,  veer,  (Sir  Francis,)  an  English  general,  born  in 
1554.  He  served  with  great  distinction  against  the  Span- 
iards in  Holland  in  the  principal  campaigns  from  1585  to 
1602,  his  last  achievement  being  the  defence  of  Ostend 
against  Albert,  Archduke  of  Austria.  He  died  in  1608, 
leaving,  in  manuscript,  an  account  of  his  life,  entitled 
"The  Commentaries  of  Sir  Francis  Vere,"  etc. 

Vere,  (Horace,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  Essex  in  1565.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  wars 
of  Holland  under  Prince  Maurice,  and,  after  the  death 
of  Sir  Francis,  was  appointed  general  of  the  English 
army  in  the  Netherlands.  In  1620  he  was  sent  by  James 
I.  to  assist  the  Elector-Palatine  Frederick  V.  in  securing 
Bohemia.  He  was  made  a  peer  by  Charles  I.  in  1625, 
with  the  title  of  Baron  Vere  of  Tilbury.    Died  in  1635. 

Vere,  de,  the  name  of  an  ancient  and  noble  family  of 
England,  descended  from  a  Norman  knight  who  had  a 
high  command  at  the  battle  of  Hastings.  His  son  be- 
came Earl  of  Oxford,  and  a  minister  of  King  Henry^  I. 
The  third  earl  was  one  of  the  barons  who  extorted  the 
Magna  Charta  from  King  John.  John  de  Vere,  seventh 
Earl  of  Oxford,  was  a  famous  commander,  and  fought 
at  Cressy  and  Poitiers,  (1356.)  The  thirteenth  earl  w^as 
a  leader  of  the  Lancastrian  party  in  the  war  of  the 
Roses,  and  commanded  the  van  of  the  army  of  Henry 
VH.  at  Bosworth,  (1485.)  Edward  de  Vere,  the  seven- 
teenth earl,  was  an  eminent  poet.  (See  separate  article.) 
The  twentieth  earl  was  Aubrey  de  Vere,  whom  Mac- 
aulay  describes  as  "  the  noblest  subject  in  England." 
He  fought  for  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war,  and  after  the 
restoration  became  lord  lieutenant  of  Essex.  In  1687 
he  was  dismissed  from  office  because  he  refused  to  aid 
James  II.  in  packing  a  Parliament.  He  was  the  last 
earl  of  that  family. 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  ii. 

Vere,  de,  (Edward,)  seventeenth  Earl  of  Oxford,  an 
English  poet  and  courtier,  born  about  1540,  was  one  of 
the  ornaments  of  the  court  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  He 
was  lord  high  chamberlain  in  1588,  and  had  a  command 
in  the  fleet  which  opposed  the  Spanish  Armada.  Died 
in  1604. 

Ve-re'li-us,  [Sw.  pron.  vi-rn^le-iis,]  (Olaus,)  an 
eminent  Swedish  antiquary,  whose  original  name  was 
Olaf  Werl,  (\^§r1,)  was  born  in  the  diocese  of  Lin- 
koping  in  1618.  He  studied  at  Dorpat  and  Upsal,  and 
became  successively  professor  of  Swedish  antiquities  at 
Upsal,  (1662,)  antiquary  to  King  Charles  XI.,  (1666,) 
and  chief  librarian  in  the  library  of  Upsal,  (1679.)  He 
published  several  valuable  works  on  Scandinavian  his- 
tory and  antiquities.    Died  in  1682. 

Verelst,  va'rSlst,  (Simon,)  a  Flemish  flower-  and 
fruit-painter;  died  in  1710. 

Vergara,  v§R-g3.'ra,  (Jos6,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
at  Valencia  in  1726;  died  in  1799. 

Vergara,  de,  di  v^R-ga^ri,  (Nicolas,)  a  Spanish 
painter  and  sculptor,  born  at  Toledo  about  1510;  died 
in  1574. 

Vergara,  de,  (Nicolas,)  a  painter  and  sculptor,  born 
at  Toledo  about  1540,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding ;  died 
in  1606. 

Vergelmer  or  Vergelmir.    See  Nidhogg. 

Vergennes,  de,  deh  v^u'zhSn',  (sometimes  Anglicized 
as  ver-jenz',)  (Charles  Gravier — gR^'ve-i/,)  Count, 
a  French  statesman  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Dijon  in 
1 71 7.    He  was  appointed  minister  to  the  electoral  court 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  long;    4,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  ^,  short;  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fSt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FERGERIO 


2189 


VERME 


•  of  Treves  in  1750,  and  in  1755  was  ambassador  to  Con- 
stantinople. After  his  return  he  was  sent,  in  1771,  on  a 
mission  to  Stockholm,  where  he  assisted  Gustavus  III. 
in  his  revolution  against  the  nobles.  He  became  min- 
ister for  foreign  affairs  under  Louis  XVI.  in  1774,  and 
concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive, 
with  the  United  States,  in  February,  1 778,  which  involved 
France  in  a  war  against  England.  This  war  was  ended 
by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  which  he  signed  in  September, 
1783.  He  remained  in  office  until  his  death,  in  1787.  He 
had  a  fair  reputation  for  integrity  as  well  as  diplomatic 
skill. 

See  Mayer,  "Vie  du  Comte  de  Vergennes,"  1789  ;  Vicq-d'Azyr, 
"filoge  de  M.  le  Comte  de  Vergennes,"  1788;  Droz,  "  Histoire  du 
Regne  de  Louis  XVI ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vergerio,  v^R-ja're-o,  (Pietro  Paolo,)  the  Elder, 
an  Italian  reviver  of  learning,  born  at  Capo  d'lstria  about 
1349.  He  was  professor  of  dialectics  at  Padua  from  1393 
to  1400.  He  published  a  work  "  On  Noble  Manners," 
("De  ingenuis  Moribus,")  and  a  Life  of  Petrarch.  Died 
about  1420, 

See  Bayle,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary;"  Paolo Giovio, 
"  Elogia." 

Vergerio,  (Pietro  Paolo,)  the  Younger,  a  relative 
of.  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Capo  d'lstria  about  1495. 
He  became  papal  nuncio  to  Germany  in  1530,  Bishop 
of  Capo  d'lstria  in  1536,  and  a  convert  to  the  Protestant 
religion  about  1544.  He  took  refuge  in  the  Grisons, 
from  which  he  removed  in  1553  to  Tiibingen,  where  he 
was  employed  as  a  minister.  He  wrote  several  works 
against  popery.    Died  in  1565. 

See  Carli,  "Vita  di  P.P.  Vergerio;"  Bayi.k,  "Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary  ;"  NiCERaN,  "  Memoires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Vergers,  des.    See  Noel  des  Vergers. 

Vergers,  des,  dk  v^R'zhi',  (Marin  Noel,)  a  French 
judge,  born  at  Ervy  in  1759.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1831.    Died  in  1836. 

Vergier,  v§R^zhe-i',  (Jacques,)  a  French  poet,  born 
at  Lyons  in  1655,  wrote  tales  and  songs  which  were  once 
admired.    He  was  killed  by  robbers  at  Paris  in  1720. 

Vergier  de  Hauranne.    See  Duvergier  de  Hau- 

RANNE. 

Ver'gil  Pol'y-dore,  [Lat.  Virgil'ius  (or  Vergil'- 
lus)  Polydo'rus  ;  It.  Vergilio  PoLiDORO,  v§R-jee'le-o 
po-le-do'ro,l  a  celebrated  writer  and  ecclesiastic,  born 
at  Urbino,  in  Italy,  about  1470.  He  was  sent  about 
1502  to  England  by  Pope  Alexander  VI.  to  collect  the 
tax  called  "  Peter's  pence,"  and  continued  to  reside  in 
that  country  for  the  greater  part  of  his  life.  He  was 
successively  created  Archdeacon  of  Wells,  and  preb- 
endary in  the  cathedrals  of  Hereford,  Lincoln,  and 
Saint  Paul's.  His  principal  works  are  his  "  History  of 
Inventions,"  ("De  Rerum  Inventoribus,")  "  Ilistoria 
Anglica,"  a  history  of  England  brought  down  to  the  end 
of  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  and  a  treatise  against  divina- 
tion, entitled  "  De  Prodigiis."    Died  about  1550. 

Vergilio  Polidoro.    See  Vergil  Polydore. 

Vergilius  Polydorus.    See  Vergil  Polydore. 

Vergne,  La.    See  La  Vergne  and  Tressan. 

Vergniaud,  v§Rn'ye-5',  (Pierre  Victurnien,)  a 
celebrated  French  orator  and  Girondist,  was  born  at 
Limoges,  May  31,  1759.  He  was  educated  at  the  Col- 
lege du  Plessis  at  Paris,  studied  law  under  Dupaty,  and 
began  to  practise  as  an  advocate  at  Bordeaux  in  1781. 
His  habits  were  rather  indolent,  meditative,  and  non- 
chalant. "  His  language,"  says  Lamartine,  "  had  the 
images  and  harmony  of  the  most  beautiful  verses."  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  in 
September,  1791.  In  July,  1792,  he  declaimed  against 
the  conduct  of  the  king,  in  a  speech  which  made  a  pro- 
found impression,  and  demanded  that  the  Assembly 
should  declare  that  the  country  was  in  danger.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  National  Convention  which  met  in 
September,  1792.  In  the  trial  of  the  king  he  voted  for 
the  appeal  to  the  people,  but  after  the  defeat  of  that 
measure  he  voted  for  his  death,  and,  as  president  of  the 
Convention,  pronounced  the  sentence,  January,  1793. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  moderate  of  the  Girondists. 
In  April,  1793,  he  defended  himself  against  Robespierre, 
who  had  attacked  him  in  a  speech.    He  was  one  of  the 


twenty-two  Girondists  who  were  arrested  by  the  order 
of  the  Convention,  June  2,  1 793.  According  to  Lamar- 
tine, he  was  the  most  impassible  of  his  companions  in 
prison,  because  he  was  the  greatest.  Arraigned  before 
the  tribunal  in  October,  he  spoke  thus  in  his  defence: 
"  What  ought  to  have  been  done  to  assure  the  triumph 
of  the  republic  ?  I  have  done  it.  What  is  now  requi- 
site to  confirm  the  republic  by  the  example  of  its  devoted 
friends.?  To  die.?  I  will  do  that."  He  was  executed 
in  October,  1793.  He  was  of  middle  stature,  and  was 
physically  well  developed.  In  repose,  his  face  was  not 
very  expressive,  but  in  the  act  of  speaking  it  became 
illumined  and  transfigured  with  genius.  "  Such,"  says 
Lamartine,  "  was  the  man  whom  nature  had  given  to 
the  Girondists  for  their  chief.  He  did  not  condescend 
to  be  that ;  too  indifferent  (insouciant)  for  a  leader  of  a 
party,  too  great  for  a  secondary  position.  He  was  Ver- 
gniaud. Rather  glorious  than  useful  to  his  friends,  he 
was  not  willing  to  lead  them,  but  he  immortalized  them." 

"In  parliamentary  eloquence,"  says  Macaulay,  "no 
Frenchman  of  that  time  can  be  considered  equal  to 
Vergniaud.  In  a  foreign  country,  and  after  the  lapse  of 
half  a  century,  some  parts  of  his  speeches  are  still  read 
with  mournful  admiration.  No  man,  we  are  inclined  to 
believe,  ever  rose  so  rapidly  to  such  a  height  of  ora- 
torical excellence.  His  whole  public  life  lasted  barely 
two  years."  (Review  of  Barere's  "Memoirs,"  1844.) 

See  Lamartine,  "  History  of  the  Girondists ;"  Gknty  de 
LA  HoRDEKiH,  "  filoge  dc  Vergniaud,"  1800;  Thiers,  "  History  of 
the  Revolution  :"  Touchard-Lafosse,  "  Histoire  parlementaire  et 
Vie  intime  de  Vergniaud,"  1848 ;  Madame  Roland,  "  Memoires  ;" 
BucHEZ  et  Roux,  "  Histoire  parlementaire  ;"  Michelet,  "  His- 
toire de  la  Revolution  Franfaise ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale." 

Verhaegen,  ver-hi'gen  or  ver-hl'nen,  (Pierre  Th^:- 
odore,)  a  Belgian  politician,  born  in  Brussels  about 
1800.  He  was  for  many  years  a  member  of  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies,  which  he  entered  in  1837,  and  acted 
with  the  Liberal  party. 

Verheyden,  ver-hl'den,  (Frans  Pieter,)  a  Dutch 
painter  and  sculptor,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1657  ;  died 
in  1711. 

Verheyen,  ver-hl'en,  (Philippe,)  an  eminent  Flemish 
anatomist,  born  in  East  Flanders  in  1648.  He  studied 
medicine,  etc.  at  Louvain,  where  he  obtained  a  chair  of 
anatomy  in  1689,  and  became  highly  distinguished  as  a 
teacher.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  besides  other  professional 
works,  "The  Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body,"  (1693,) 
which  was  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1710. 

See  V.  J.  Francois,  "  filoge  de  Verheyen,"  1847  ;  V.  J.  Francois, 
"Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  P.  Verheyen,"  1842  ;  Niceron,  "  Memoires." 

Verhuell,  ver-hii'^l,  or  Verhuel,  (Carel  Hendrik,) 
Count  de  Sevenaar,  a  Dutch  admiral,  born  in  Gelder- 
land  in  1760,  or,  as  some  say,  in  1764.  As  rear-admiral, 
he  fought  against  the  English,  near  Flushing,  in  1804. 
He  received  the  chief  command  of  the  army  destined  to 
operate  against  the  coasts  of  England,  (1805,)  and  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  marshal  by  King  Louis  in  1806. 
He  entered  the  French  service  in  1810,  and  was  made  a 
peer  of  France  in  1819.    Died  in  1845. 

See  Grandpierre,  "  Notice  sur  le  Vice-Amiral  C.  H.  Verhuel," 
1845  ;  Q-  M.  R.  Verhuell,  "  Het  Leven  en  Karakter  van  C.  H.  Ver- 
huell," 2  vols.,  1847  ;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Verjus,  vlR^zhiis',  (Louis,)  Count  deCrecy,  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1629.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy.    Died  in  1709. 

His  brother  Antoine,  born  in  1632,  was  a  Jesuit,  and 
author  of  several  works  of  biography,  etc.  Died  in  1706. 

Verkolie,  ver-ko'lee,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  painter  and 
engraver,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1650  ;  died  in  1693. 

His  son  Nicholas,  born  in  1673,  was  a  painter  of 
history  and  nocturnal  scenes.    Died  in  1746. 

Verlat,  v&r'IS',  (Charles,)  a  Belgian  painter  of  his- 
tory and  genre,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1824.  He  removed 
to  Paris  in  1847. 

Vermandois,  de,  deh  v^R^mSN^dw^',  (Louis  de 
Bourbon — deh  booR'b6N',)  Count,  born  in  Paris  in 
1667,  was  a  son  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Madame  de  La 
Valliere.  He  was  legitimated,  and  appointed  admiral 
of  France.    Died  in  1683. 

Verme,  del,  d§l  vgR'mk,  (Jacopo,)  an  able  Italian 
general  or  condottiere,  commanded  the  armies  of  Gian 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FERMEULEN 


2190 


VERNT 


Galeazzo  Visconti.  He  passed  into  the  service  of 
Venice  in  1404. 

Vermeulen,  ver-muh'I?n,  (Cornelis,)  a  Flemish 
engraver  and  designer,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1644.  He 
engraved  portraits  with  skill.    Died  in  1702. 

Vermeulen,  [Lat.  Mola'nus,]  (Jan,)  a  Flemish 
writer  on  theology  and  antiquities,  was  born  at  Lille  in 
1533.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  one  "On 
Sacred  Pictures  and  Images,"  ("  De  Picturis  et  Imagi- 
nibus  sacris,"  1570,)  and"  De  Canonicis,"  (1587.)  Died 
at  Lcuvain  in  1585. 

Vermeyen,  von,  fon  ver-ml'en,  or  Vermeyn,  ver- 
min', (JoHANN,)  a  IDutch  historical  painter,  surnamed 
Hans  mit  dem  Barte,  ("  Hans  with  the  Beard,")  was 
born  near  Haarlem  in  1500.  He  was  a  favourite  of 
Charles  V.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  whom  he  accom- 
panied on  his  expeditions.  Among  his  master-pieces 
are  ten  large  cartoons  at  Vienna,  representing  the  march 
of  the  emperor  to  Tunis.    Died  in  1559. 

Vermigli.    See  Peter  Martyr. 

Vermond,  de,  deh  v^R^moN',  (Matthieu  Jacques,) 
L'AuBfi,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  was  French  teacher  of 
Marie  Antoinette  at  Vienna  before  her  marriage.  After 
she  became  Queen  of  France,  he  remained  in  her  ser- 
vice as  reader,  enjoyed  her  confidence,  and  exercised 
great  influence  at  court.  He  is  censured  for  his  political 
intrigues.    Died  after  1789. 

Verniuyden,  ver-moiMen,  (Sir  Cornelius,)  a  Dutch 
engineer,  born  in  Zeeland.  He  ren)oved  to  England 
about  1622,  was  employed  by  Charles  I.,  and  rendered 
valuable  services  by  draining  part  of  the  Bedford  Level. 
Died  about  1665. 

Vernage,  vgR^ntzh',  (Michel  Louis,)  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  in  Paris  in  1697  ;  died  in  1773. 

Vernazza,  vgR-nSt'si,  (Giuseppe,)  Baron  de  Freney, 
an  Italian  antiquary  and  writer,  born  at  Alba,  in  Pied- 
mont, in  1745.  He  resided  at  Turin,  and  held  several 
high  offices.  He  wrote  biographies,  treatises  on  Italian 
antiquities,  etc.    Died  in  1822. 

Vernes,  v^ru,  (Jacob,)  a  Protestant  divine,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1728,  wrote  "Letters  on  the  Christianity  of 
J.  J.  Rousseau,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1791. 

Vernet,  v^R^na',  (Antoine  Charles  Horace,)  some- 
times called  Carle  Vernet,  a  son  of  Claude  Joseph, 
noticed  below,  was  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1758.  He  was 
instructed  by  his  father,  and  afterwards  studied  at  the 
French  Academy  of  Arts,  and  in  1782  gained  the  grand 
prize  offered  by  that  institution.  His  favourite  subjects 
were  battle-scenes  and  animals,  particularly  horses. 
Among  his  master-pieces  are  "The  Bombardment  of 
Madrid,"  "The  Battle  of  Wagram,"  and  "The  Entrance 
of  Napoleon  into  Milan."    Died  in  1836. 

See  DuRANDE,  "Joseph,  Carle  et  Horace  Vernet,"  1865;  L. 
Lagrange,  "  Les  Vernet,  (Carle  et  Horace,")  1864;  C.  Blanc, 
"Histoire  des  Peintres ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vernet,  (Claude  Joseph,)  an  eminent  French 
painter,  born  at  Avignon  in  1 7 14.  He  studied  at  Rome, 
devoting  himself  principally  to  marine  landscapes,  in 
which  department  he  soon  attained  rare  excellence.  He 
resided  nearly  twenty  years  in  Italy,  during  the  early 
part  of  which  time  he  was  so  reduced  as  to  be  obliged 
to  paint  coach-panels,  which  were  afterwards  taken  out 
and  framed.  He  was  invited  to  France  in  1752  by  Louis 
XV.,  who  commissioned  him  to  paint  the  principal  sea- 
ports of  France.  These  views — fifteen  in  number — are 
in  the  Louvre,  where  many  of  his  best  works  are  to  be 
seen.  Among  his  other  master-pieces  we  may  name  the 
pictures  in  the  Borghese  and  Rondanini  palaces  at  Rome, 
and  a  "  Seaport  at  Sunset,"  in  the  Louvre.  He  had  been 
elected  in  1753  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Arts.  Died 
in  1789. 

See  DuRANDE,  "Joseph,  Carle  et  Horace  Vernet,"  1865;  L. 
Lagrange,  "J.  Vernet  et  la  Peinture  au  dix-huitieme  Siecle," 
1864;  C.  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres;"  "Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Vernet,  (Horace,)  a  celebrated  French  painter  of 
battles,  son  of  Antoine  Charles,  noticed  above,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1789.  He  studied  under  his  father,  and  in  1809 
exhibited  his  "Capture  of  a  Redoubt."  This  was  soon 
followed  by  "  The  Trumpeters,"  "  The  Barriere  de 
Clichy,"  "Battle  of  Tolosa,"  "Soldier  of  Waterloo," 
and  other  military  pictures,  which  won  for  him  the 


highest  reputation  in  that  department  of  the  art.  He 
was  created  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honour  by 
Napoleon  in  1814,  an  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour 
by  Charles  X.,  (1825,)  a  member  of  the  Institute,  (1826,) 
and  director  of  the  Academy  at  Rome,  (1828.)  He  was 
also  patronized  by  Louis  Philippe,  for  whom  he  painted 
a  series  of  battles  in  the  Constantine  gallery  at  Versailles. 
His  pictures  are  of  large  dimensions.  He  worked  at 
Rome  about  eight  years, — 1828-35, — and  painted  there  a 
picture  of  a  "Meeting  of  Raphael  with  Michael  Angelo." 
Among  his  chief  works  are  the  "  Siege  of  Constantine" 
and  the  "Battle  of  Isly."  At  the  Exposition  of  1855  a 
jury  of  painters  from  various  nations  awarded  him  the 
grand  medal  of  honour.    Died  in  1863. 

See  A.  DuRANDE,  "Joseph,  Carle  et  Horace  Vernet,"  186^; 
L.  DK  LoMENiE,  "M.  H.  Vernet,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"i84i, 
L.  Lagrange,  "Les  Vernet,  (Carle  et  Horace,")  1864;  C.  Blanc, 
"Histoire  des  Peintres;"  T.  Sylvestre,  "Histoire  des  Aitistes 
vivants,"  1857  ;  De  Mirecoukt,  "  H.  Vernet,"  1855;  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale;"  "Jahrbuch  zum  Conversations- Lexikon," 
1863. 

Vernet,  v^R'na',  (Jacob,)  a  Swiss  theologian,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1698.  He  became  pastor  at  Geneva  in  1734, 
rector  of  the  Academy  in  1737,  and  professor  of  the- 
ology there  in  1756.  He  wrote,  besides  many  other 
works,  "  Socratic  Dialogues  on  Moral  Subjects,"  (1746,) 
and  "Christian  Instruction,"  (4  vols.,  1752.)  Died  in 
1789. 

Verneuil,  de,  deh  v^R'nuF  or  v§R'nuh'ye,  (Philippe 
£douard  Poulletier,)  a  French  naturalist,  distin- 
guished as  a  geologist  and  palaeontologist,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1805.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Institute  in 
1854.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Memoir  on  the  Geology 
of  the  Crimea,"  (1837.) 

Verney,  du,  (Joseph.)    See  Duverney, 

Vernier,  vlR'ne-4',  (Pierre,)  a  French  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Ornans,  in  Franche-Comte,  about  1580, 
invented  a  graduated  scale  or  quadrant.    Died  in  1637. 

Vernier,  (Theodore,)  a  French  advocate  and  mor- 
alist, born  at  Lons-le-Saulnier  in  1 73 1.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Convention,  in  which  he  voted  against  the  death 
of  the  king,  (1793.)  He  wrote  several  works  on  the 
passions,  etc.    Died  in  1818. 

Verniquet,  vhK'vit'V\\  (Edme,)  a  French  architect, 
born  at  Chatillon-sur-Seine  in  1727.  He  built  many 
chateaus  and  bridges  in  the  provinces.  His  chief  work 
was  the  plan  of  Paris  and  its  faubourgs,  at  which  he 
worked  twenty-eight  years.    Died  in  1804. 

Ver'npn,  (Edward,)  a  celebrated  English  admiral, 
born  at  Westminster  in  1684.  He  served  in  the  early 
campaigns  of  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  and  in 
1727  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Penryn,  being  re- 
turned for  Portsmouth  in  1734.  In  1739  he  was  sent, 
with  the  rank  of  vice-admiral  of  the  blue,  to  the  West 
Indies,  to  take  Porto  Bello  from  the  Spaniards',  which 
exploit  he  accomplished  with  only  six  ships.  After  his 
return  he  was  several  times  re-elected  to  Parliament. 
Died  in  1757. 

See  a  "Life  of  Admiral  Vernon,"  London,  1758;  Charnock, 
"  Biographia  Navalis ;"  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  British  Admirals." 

.Vernon,  (Robert,)  an  English  amateur,  born  in 
1774,  devoted  a  large  fortune  to  the  purchase  of  pictures 
by  British  artists.  In  1847  he  presented  this  collection, 
containing  one  hundred  and  fifty-seven  paintings,  to  the 
British  National  Gallery.  The  Vernon  pictures  are, 
with  two  exceptions,  the  work  of  native  artists.  They 
have  been  placed  in  Marlborough  House.  Died  in  1849. 

Vernon,  de.    See  Gay  de  Vernon. 

Ver'non-Har'court,  (William  George,)  an  Eng- 
lish lawyer,  born  in  1827.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge 
in  1851.  He  wrote,  under  the  signature  "  Historicus," 
several  letters  on  international  law,  which  appeared  in 
the  London  "Times." 

Vernon-Smith,  (Robert.)    See  Lyveden. 

Vernulaeus.    See  Vernulz,  de. 

Vernulz,  de,  deh  ver-nillz',  [  Lat.  Vernul^'us,  ] 
(Nicolas,)  a  Flemish  poet  and  orator,  born  at  Robel- 
mont  in  1583,  became  professor  of  eloquence  and  Latin 
at  Louvain.  He  published  numerous  Latin  orations  and 
poems.    Died  in  1649. 

Verny,  v^R'ne',  (Charles,)  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Besan9on  in  1753;  died  in  1811. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  ftt;  mSt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


VEROCCHIO 


2191 


FERTUMNE 


Verocchio,  del,  del  vi-rok'ke-o,  or  Verrocchio, 

(Andrea,)  an  eminent  Italian  statuary  and  painter,  born 
at  Florence  in  1432.  Among  his  works  are  a  bronze 
bust  of  David  the  Psalmist,  and  paintings  of  "The 
Holy  Family"  and  "The  Incredulity  of  Saint  Thomas." 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  was  his  pupil.    Died  in  1488. 

See  Vasari,  *'  Lives  of  the  Painters ;"  Lanzi,  "  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy." 

Veron.    See  Forbonnats,  de. 

Veron,  va'rdw',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
controversial  writer,  born  in  Paris  about  1575.  He  had 
a  public  dispute  with  Samuel  Bochart,  at  Caen,  in  1628. 
Died  in  1649. 

Veron,  (Louis  D6sir6,)  a  French  journalist  and 
physician,  born  in  Paris  in  1798.  He  founded  in  1829 
the  "Revue  de  Paris,"  which  was  very  successful,  and 
became  director  of  the  Opera  in  1831.  He  resigned 
this  position  in  1836,  became  proprietor  of  the  "  Consti- 
tutionnel"  in  1844,  ^"d  supported  Louis  Napoleon  as 
president  and  as  emperor.  He  published  "  Memoirs 
of  a  Citizen  of  Paris,"  ("Memoires  d'un  Bourgeois  de 
Paris,"  (autobiographic,)  (6  vols.,  1854.)    Died  in  1867. 

Veronese,  (Paul.)    See  Cagliarl 

Ver-planck',  (Gulian  Crommelin,)  a  distinguished 
American  scholar  and  writer,  born  in  New  York  in  1786. 
He  published  in  1819,  anonymously,  a  brilliant  satirical 
work,  entitled  "The  State  Triumvirate,  a  Political  Tale." 
He  was  soon  after  appointed  professor  of  the  evidences 
of  Christianity  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Seminary, 
New  York,  and  in  1825  was  elected  to  Congress.  In  1827 
he  published  conjointly  with  W.  C.  Bryant  and  Robert  C. 
Sands  a  miscellany  entitled  "  The  Talisman,"  to  which  he 
contributed  nearly  one-half  of  the  articles.  Among  his 
other  works  we  may  name  his  address  before  the  New 
York  Historical  Society,  entitled  "The  Early  European 
Friends  of  America,"  (1818,)  "Essays  on  the  Nature  and 
Llses  of  the  Various  Evidences  of  Revealed  Religion," 
(1824,)  and  "Discourses  and  Addresses  on  Subjects  of 
American  History,  Art,  and  Literature,"  (1833.)  He 
brought  out  in  1846  his  superb  edition  of  Shakspeare, 
with  notes,  esteemed  one  of  the  best  that  had  ever  ap- 
peared.   Died  in  March,  1870. 

Ver'res,  (Caius,)  a  Roman  governor,  notorious  for 
his  rapacity  and  cruelty,  was  born  about  112  B.C.  He 
was  quaestor  in  82,  and  city  praetor  at  Rome  in  74  B.C. 
When  his  term  of  office  as  praetor  had  ended,  in  73,  he 
became  governor  of  the  rich  and  important  province  of 
Sicily,  which  he  almost  ruined  by  his  extortions,  out- 
rages, and  vexatious  measures.  He  was  accused  by  the 
people  of  Sicily,  who  engaged  Cicero  to  conduct  the 
prosecution  before  the  senate.  Hortensius  was  the 
counsel  for  the  defence  in  this  trial,  which  was  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  in  the  history  of  Rome,  and  was 
one  of  the  great  eras  in  the  life  of  Cicero,  who  gained 
his  cause  ;  but  Verres  had  absconded  before  the  end  of 
the  trial,  and  retired  to  Marseilles.  He  passed  twenty- 
seven  years  in  exile,  and  died  about  42  B.C. 

See  Cicero's  Verrine  Orations,  includin.s;  the  oration  "  In  Q. 
Caecilium;"  Drumann,  "  Geschichte  Roms." 

Verri,  v^r'ree,  (Alessandro,)  Count,  an  Italian 
lawyer  and  eloquent  writer,  was  born  at  Milan  in  1741. 
He  contributed  many  able  essays  to  a  literary  journal 
called  "  The  Coffee-House,"  ("  II  Caffe.")  About  1767 
he  became  a  resident  of  Rome.  He  published  a  suc- 
cessful novel,  "The  Adventures  of  Sappho,"  (1780,)  and 
a  series  of  dialogues  of  the  dead,  entitled  "The  Roman 
Nights,"  ("  Le  Notti  Romane,"  1792,)  which  were  much 
admired.    Died  at  Roine  in  1816. 

See  A.  Levati,  "  Elogio  storico  di  A.  Verri,"  1808  ;  G.  Maggi, 
"Vita  di  A.  Verri,"  1S22;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Verri,  (Carlo,)  an  agriculturist,  born  at  Milan  in  1743, 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  council  of  state  in  1805,  and  a  senator  at  Milan  in 
1809.  He  wrote  on  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  other 
subjects.    Died  in  1823, 

See  RosNATi,  "  Cenni  storici  di  C.  Verri,"  1842. 

Verri,  (Gabriels,)  Count,  an  Italian  jurist,  born  at 
Milan  in  1696,  was  the  father  of  Alessandro,  noticed 
above.  He  published  several  legal  works.  Died  in  1782. 

Verri,  (Pietro,)  an  Italian  author  and  political  econ- 
omist, born  at  Milan  in  1728,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding. 


He  served  in  the  Austrian  army  in  his  youth,  became  a 
member  of  the  council  of  economy  at  Milan  in  1765,  and 
president  of  the  chamber  of  accounts  in  1780.  He  pub- 
lished a  work  on  political  economy,  ("  Meditazioni  suU' 
Economia  politica,"  1771,)  which  has  a  high  reputation, 
a  "History  of  Milan,"  (2  vols.,  1783-98,)  and  other 
works.    Died  at  Milan  in  1797. 

See  IsiDORC  Bianchi,  "Elogio  storico  di  P.  Verri,"  1803;  A. 
Rossi,  "  Orazio  in  Lode  di  P.  Verri,"  i8i8 ;  Custodi,  "  Notizie 
sulla  Vita  di  P.  Verri,"  1843;  Nessi,  "Elogio  di  P.  Verri,"  1844; 
"  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1828. 

Verrio,  vgr're-o,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  painter,  born 
about  1639,  was  invited  to  England  by  Charles  II.,  who 
employed  him  to  paint  a  series  of  frescos  in  Windsor 
Castle.  He  was  also  patronized  by  James  II.  His 
works,  executed  for  Lord  Exeter  at  Burleigh  House,  are 
esteemed  his  best  performances ;  he  is  said  by  Dr. 
Waagen  to  have  received  more  money  for  these  alone 
than  Michael  Angelo  or  Raphael  ever  obtained  for  all 
their  paintings.  His  works  are  chiefly  remarkable  for 
bad  taste  and  absurdity.    Died  in  England  in  1707. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting." 

Ver'ri-us  Flac'cus,  (Marcus,)  a  distinguished  Ro- 
man grammarian,  who  was  appointed  by  Augustus  in- 
structor to  his  grandsons  Caius  and  Lucius.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  valuable  works,  one  of  which  was 
a  Roman  calendar,  entitled  "Fasti  Praenestini,"  frag- 
ments of  which  were  published  by  Foggini  in  1779. 

Verrocchio,  del,  (Andrea.)   See  Verocchio,  del. 

Vers  chaff elt,  de,  deh  ver-sKiffelt,  (Pierre,)  a  Flem- 
ish sculptor,  called  by  the  Italians  Pietro  Fiammingo, 
was  born  at  Ghent  in  1710.  He  worked  in  Rome  and 
Mannheim,  where  he  died  in  1793. 

Verschuring,  ver-sKii'ring,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch 
painter,  whose  works  are  principally  battle-pieces,  was 
born  at  Gorcum  in  1627  ;  died  in  1690. 

Ver-ste'gan,  (Richard,)  an  English  antiquary,  of 
Dutch  extraction,  was  born  in  London.  He  removed 
to  Antwerp,  where  he  published  his  principal  work, 
entitled  "A  Restitution  of  Decayed  Intelligence  con- 
cerning the  Most  Noble  and  Renowned  English  Nation," 
(1605.)    Died  about  1635. 

Verstolk  van  Soelen,  ver-stolk'  vtn  soo'len,  (Jan 
Gijsbert — gTs'b^Rt,)  Baron,  a  Dutch  statesman,  born 
at  Rotterdam  in  1777.  He  was  ambassador  to  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1815,  and  in  1825  was  appointed  minister 
of  foreign  affairs.    Died  in  1845. 

Vert,  de,  deh  vaiR,  (Claude,)  a  French  Benedictine 
and  liturgist,  born  in  Paris  in  1645.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  religious  ceremonies.    Died  in  1708. 

Verteillac.    See  La  Brousse. 

Vertot,  de,  deh  vgR'to',  (Ren^;  Aubert,)  an  eminent 
French  ecclesiastic  and  historian,  born  in  Normandy  in 
1655.  studied  in  the  Jesuits'  College  at  Rouen,  and 
subsequently  entered  the  order  of  the  Premonstrants  at 
Valsery.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Revo- 
lutions of  Portugal,"  (1689,)  "  History  of  the  Revolutions 
of  Sweden,"  (1696,)  "  Complete  History  of  the  Estab- 
lishment of  the  Britons  in  Gaul,"  (1710,)  ,"  History  of 
the  Revolutions  of  the  Roman  Republic,"  (3  vols.,  1719,) 
and  "  History  of  the  Knights  of  Malta,"  (4  vols.,  1726.) 
His  works  were  very  popular,  owing  partly  to  the  style, 
which  is  very  agreeable.    Died  in  Paris  in  1735. 

See  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  I'Abbe  Vertot,"  1795  ;  Moreri,  "  D  c- 
tionnaire  Historique  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Ver'tue,  (George,)  an  eminent  English  engraver, 
born  in  London  in  1684.  He  acquired  the  friendship 
and  patronage  of  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller,  and,  on  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Academy  of  Painting  in  London,  in 
1 7 II,  became  one  of  its  members.  In  171 7  he  was  ap- 
pointed engraver  to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  by  the 
Earl  of  Winchelsea,  president  of  that  body.  He  en- 
graved the  portraits  of  many  eminent  men  of  his  own 
time,  and  illustrated  several  works  for  the  booksellers. 
He  collected  materials  for  a  history  of  painting  and  en- 
graving in  England,  which  he  left  in  manuscript.  These 
were  purchased  by  Horace  Walpole,  and  published  in 
his  "Anecdotes  of  Painting."   Died  in  1756. 

See  Strutt,  "Dictionary  of  Engravers;"  "Monthly  Review" 
for  February  and  March,  1781. 

Vertumne.    See  Vertumnus. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  ;';  G,  H,  Vi,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2!^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FERTUMNUS 


2  192 


FESTA 


Ver-tum'nus  or  Vor-tum'nus,  [Fr,  Vertumnk, 
vSF''tomn',]  an  Etruscan  and  Roman  divinity,  supposed 
to  preside  over  the  changes  of  the  seasons  and  the  trans- 
formation of  plants.  He  was  regarded  by  some  writers 
as  the  god  of  gardens,  of  orchards,  and  of  autumn.  The 
poets  relate  that  he  loved  Pomona,  who  was  so  coy  that 
he  did  not  succeed  until  he  had  metamorphosed  himself 
into  many  forms. 

Verulam,  Lord.    See  Bacon,  (Francis.) 

Ve'rus,  (Lucius  ^lius),  son  of  ^lius  Verus,  who 
had  been  adopted  and  made  Caesar  by  the  emperor 
Hadrian.  In  161  A.D.  he  became  the  colleague  of  Mar- 
cus Aurelius  as  Emperor  of  Rome.  He  was  a  weak  and 
profligate  prince.  Died  in  169  A.D.  His  original  name 
was  L.  Com  MODUS. 

Verville,  de.    See  B6roalde  de  Verville. 

Ver'y,  (Jones,)  an  American  port,  born  at  Salem, 
Massachusetts,  in  1813.  He  published  "Essays  and 
Poems,"  (1839,)  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  '*  Christian 
Register,"  "Monthly  Religious  Magazine,"  and  other 
Journals. 

See  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 
Vesale.    See  Vesalius. 
Vesalio.    See  Vesalius. 

Ve-sa'li-us,  [Fr.  Vesale,  veh-ztK;  It.  Vesalio,  vk- 
si'le-o,]  (Andreas,)  the  most  eminent  anatomist  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  born  at  Brussels  in  December, 
1 5 14.  His  father,  Andrew,  was  apothecary  to  the  Em- 
peror of  Germany.  He  studied  languages  at  Louvain, 
and  medicine  at  Montpellier  and  Paris.  About  1535  he 
served  in  the  Imperial  army,  probably  as  surgeon.  He 
became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Padua  or  Pavia  about 
1538,  and  published  a  Latin  work  in  1539  in  which  he 
taught  that  blood  should  be  drawn  from  the  right  arm. 
In  1543  he  produced  his  great  work  on  anatomy,  "  Seven 
Books  on  the  Structure  of  the  Human  Body,"  ("  De  Cor- 
poris humani  Fabrica  Libri  septem,")  which  operated 
immense  improvements  in  the  science.  Senac  compared 
it  to  the  discovery  of  a  new  world.  Having  in  this  work 
controverted  some  doctrines  of  Galen,  he  was  rewarded 
for  his  services  by  violent  hostility  and  reproaches  from 
several  eminent  anatomists  of  his  time.  About  1544 
he  quitted  Italy,  and  became  physician  to  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  at  whose  court  he  remained  until  the  abdi- 
cation of  the  emperor,  in  1555.  Soon  after  this  event 
he  went  to  Madrid  to  attend  Philip  II.  He  had  a  high 
reputation  as  a  physician.  According  to  a  doubtful  re- 
port, he  incurred  the  censure  of  the  Inquisition.  For 
some  reason  not  well  explained,  he  left  Madrid  in  1563 
or  1564,  and  performed  a  pilgrimage  t(^  Jerusalem.  While 
he  was  at  Jerusalem,  he  was  invited  by  the  senate  of 
Venice  to  occupy  the  chair  of  anatomy  at  Padua.  He 
resolved  to  accept  this  offer  ;  but,  in  his  voyage  to  Italy, 
he  was  wrecked  on  the  island  of  Zante,  where  he  died 
of  exposure  in  October,  1564.  His  collected  works,  with 
his  "  Life,"  were  published  by  Boerhaave  and  Albinus,  (2 
vols.,  1725.) 

See  BuKGGRAEVE,  "  fitudes  snr  Vesale,"  1841,  and  "  filoge  de 
Vesale,"  1848;  Mersseman,  "  filoge  de  Vesale,"  1845;  Haller, 
"  Bibliotlieca  Anatomica;"  L.  Schoonen,  "  Horn  mage  a  Vesale," 
(in  verse,)  1S47  ;  Portal,  "  Histoire  de  I'Anatomie,"  tome  i.  ;  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vesling,  fgs'ling,  (Johann,)  a  German  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Minden  in  1598,  became  professor  of 
anatomy  at  Padua.  He  visited  Egypt  and  Palestine,  and 
published  several  botanical  works.    Died  in  1649. 

Vespasian,  v^s-pa'zhe-an,  [Lat.  VESPASIA^NUS ;  Fr. 
Vespasien,  ygs'pt'zeJ^N' ;  It.  Vespasiano,  v^s-pi-se- 
S'no,]  or,  more  fully,  Ti'tus  Fla'vius  Vespasia'nus, 
Emperor  of  Rome,  was  born  near  Reate  in  9  a,d.  He 
served  as  military  tribune  in  Thrace,  and  held  the  offices 
of  quaestor  of  Crete  and  Cyrene,  under  Caligula,  He 
was  afterwards  made  praetor  ;  and,  having  distinguished 
himself  by  several  important  victories  in  Britain,  he  was 
appointed  proconsul  of  Africa  about  60  a,d.  As  com- 
mander of  the  forces  against  the  revolted  Jews  in  66 
A.D.,  he  subjected  nearly  the  whole  of  Judea  in  less  than 
two  years.  In  69  A.D.  Vespasian  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror by  Tiberius  Alexander,  prefect  of  Egypt,  in  oppo- 
sition to  Vitellius,  who  was  soon  after  put  to  death  by 
the  Roman  soldiers.  The  principal  events  of  the  reign 
of  Vespasian  were  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem 'by  Titus, 


in  70  A.D,,  the  victories  of  Agricola  in  Britain,  and  of 
Petilius  Cerealis  over  the  Batavi,  commanded  byCivilis. 
Under  his  wise  and  beneficent  rule  Rome  enjoyed  a  high 
degree  of  prosperity ;  he  patronized  learning  and  the 
arts,  introduced  important  reforms  into  the  army  and 
courts  of  justice,  and  repaired  the  ravages  caused  by 
civil  war.  He  also  restored  the  Capitol,  built  the  mag- 
nificent Temple  of  Peace,  and  began  the  erection  of  the 
amphitheatre,  afterwards  called  the  Colosseum,  and  also 
the  Flavian  Amphitheatre,  from  his  name  Flavius.  He 
died  in  79  a.d. 

See  Suetonius,  "  Vespasianus  ;"  A.  W.  Cramer,  "  Flavius  Ves- 
pasianus,"  1785;  Tacitus,  "History  of  Rome;"  Bernegger,  "Vita 
Imperatoris  Vespasiani,"  1625;  Heimbrod,  "  Flavii  Vespasiani  Im- 
peratoris  Vita,"  1833;  Tili.emont,  "Histoire  des  Einpereurs ;" 
Merivale,  "  History  of  the  Roij»ans  under  the  Empire  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Vespasiano.    See  Vespasian. 
Vespasianus.    See  Vespasian. 
Vespasien.    See  Vespasian. 

Vespucci,  vgs-poot'chee,  (Amerigo,  S-mi-ree'go,) 
[Latin,  Amer'icus  (or  Ameri'cus)  Vespu'cius  ;  Fr. 
Am6ric  Vespuce,  t'ma'r^k'  vSs'pusM  a  famous  Italian 
navigator,  who  gave  his  name  to  the  New  World,  was 
born  at  Florence  on  the  9th  of  March,  145 1.  He 
was  educated  by  his  uncle,  Giorgio  Antonio  Vespucci, 
an  eminent  scholar,  and  applied  himself  especially  to 
astronomy  and  cosmography.  In  his  early  life  he  was 
engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits.  About  1490  he  removed 
to  Spain,  where,  it  is  said,  he  became  acquainted  with 
Columbus  in  1492.  In  a  letter  dated  February,  1505, 
Columbus  mentions  Vespucci  as  a  person  whom  he 
knew  and  esteemed.  Vespucci  was  employed  as  a  mer- 
chant at  Seville  for  several  years.  He  accompanied  an 
expedition  which  Ojeda  conducted  to  America  in  1499. 
It  is  probable  that  he  served  as  astronomer  in  this 
and  several  subsequent  voyages.  According  to  a  letter 
written  by  Vespucci,  he  took  part  in  an  expedition 
which  was  sent  by  the  King  of  Spain  in  1497,  and  dis- 
covered new  islands  and  lands.  Humboldt  and  others 
argue  that  1499  is  the  true  date  of  his  first  voyage.  It 
is  admitted  that  he  made  four  voyages  to  the  New 
World,  but  he  had  not  the  chief  command  of  any  one 
of  the  expeditions.  The  part  of  the  continent  discov- 
ered by  him  was  near  the  equator.  In  his  letter  dated 
July  18,  1500,  he  says,  "We  discovered  a  very  large 
country  of  Asia."  Having  entered  the  service  of  the 
King  of  Portugal,  he  sailed  in  1501  on  an  exploring  ex- 
pedition to  Brazil,  on  his  return  from  which,  September, 
1502,  he  was  received  at  Lisbon  with  great  honour  and 
rejoicing.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  by  his  astro- 
nomical discoveries.  About  1505  he  returned  to  Spain. 
He  died  poor  at  Seville  in  1512, 

See  A.  M.  Bandini,  "Vitae  Lettere  di  Amerigo  Vespucci,"  1745; 
Canovai,  "  Elogio  di  A.  Vespucci,"  1788 ;  S  antarem,  "  Recherches 
historiques  sur  Americ  Vespuce,"  1842,  (translated  into  English 
by  E.  V.  Childe,  1850  ;)  C.  Edwards  Lester,  "  Life  of  Americas 
Vespucius,"  1846;  Ad.  Varnhagen,  "Vespuce  et  son  premier  Vo- 
yage," 1858 ;  A. Varnhagen,  "  A.  Vespucci,  son  Caractere,  ses  ficrits, 
sa  Vie,"  etc.,  1865  ;  Napione,  "  Esame  critico  del  primo  Viaggio  di 
A.Vespucci,"  181 1;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "North 
American  Review"  for  April,  1821, 

Vespuce  and  Vespucius.    See  Vespucci. 

Ves'ta,  one  of  the  principal  Roman  divinities,  was 
identical  'with  the  Greek  Hestia,  ('Eana,)  and  was  re- 
garded as  the  goddess  of  chastity,  virginity,  fire,  the 
domestic  hearth,  and  domestic  happiness.  She  was, 
according  to  Hesiod,  a  daughter  of  Saturn  (Cronus)  and 
Rhea,  and  was  bound  by  a  vow  of  perpetual  virginity. 
Her  symbol  was  the  eternal  fire  burning  on  the  hearth 
or  altar,  and  vigilantly  kept  alive  by  her  priestesses,  the 
vestal  virgins.  If  this  fire  ever  became  extinguished,  it 
was  renewed  by  friction  or  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  col- 
lected by  a  burning-glass.  Every  repast  in  which  a 
family  joined  was  considered  as  a  sacrifice  to  Vesta  and 
the  Penates.  Each  city  had  its  sacred  hearth  or  sanc- 
tuary of  Vesta,  usually  located  in  a  public  edifice  called 
the  Prytaneum.  She  was  supposed  to  preside  at  all 
sacrifices,  and  had  a  share  of  the  sacrifices  offered  in  all 
the  temples.  The  Romans  celebrated  in  her  honour  an 
annual  festival,  called  Vestalia,  which  occurred  in  the 
month  of  June.  Vesta  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the 
chief  Penates  of  Troy,  and  the  vestal  fire  is  said  to  have 


%f  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


FESTRIS 


2193 


FICO 


been  brought  to  Italy  by  vEneas.  The  vestal  virgins, 
whose  office  is  supposed  to  have  been  instituted  by 
Numa,  were  six  in  number,  and  were  required  to  de- 
vote thirty  years  to  the  service  of  the  goddess.  If  any 
one  of  them  violated  her  vow  of  chastity,  she  was  buried 
alive. 

Vestris,  vSs'tRess,  or  Vestri,  vIs'tRee,  (Angiolo 
Maria  Gasparo,)  an  Italian  dancer,  born  at  Florence 
in  1730,  was  a  brother  of  Gaetano  Apolline,  noticed 
below.    Died  in  1809. 

Vestris  or  Vestri,  (Gaetano  Apolline  Baldas- 
SARE,)  a  famous  Italian  dancer,  born  at  Florence  in 
1729,  He  made  his  debut  in  Paris  in  1748,  and  was 
received  with  enthusiastic  applause.  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  ballet-master  at  the  Grand  Opera.  His  per- 
formances were  unrivalled  in  their  kind,  and  he  was 
popularly  styled  "the  God  of  Dancing."  His  vanity 
was  excessive  and  amusing ;  and  he  once  observed  that 
Frederick,  King  of  Prussia,  M.  Voltaire,  and  himself, 
were  the  only  great  men  of  the  century.    Died  in  1808. 

Vestris  or  Vestris- AUard,  ves'tRess' IISr',  (Marie 
AuGUSTE,)  a  dancer,  born  in  Paris  in  1760,  was  a  son  of 
the  preceding.    Died  in  1842. 

Vestris,(MARiE  Rose  Gourgaud-Dugason — gooR'- 
go'  dU'gt'z6N',)  a  French  actress,  especially  celebrated 
for  her  skill  in  tragic  parts,  a  sister-in-law  of  Gaetano 
Apolline,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1746; 
died  in  1804. 

Vestritius  Spurinna.    See  Spurinna. 

Ve-tra'ni-o,  a  Roman  general,  who  was  persuaded 
by  his  troops  to  assume  the  title  of  emperor  in  350  a.d. 
About  the  end  of  that  year  he  abdicated  in  favour  of 
Constantius.    Died  in  356. 

Vettori,  vgt-to'ree,  or  Vittori,  v^t-to'ree,  (Bene- 
detto,) an  Italian  medical  writer,  born  at  Faenza  in 
1481  ;  died  in  1561. 

Vettori,  [Lat.  Victo'rius,]  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
antiquary,  born  at  Rome  about  17 10."  He  wrote  numer- 
ous dissertations.    Died  in  1778. 

Vettori,  (PiETRO,)  an  accomplished  Italian  scholar, 
born  at  Florence  in  1499,  was  appointed  ])rofessor  of 
Latin  and  Greek  literature  in  that  city.  He  was  the 
author  of  Latin  commentaries  on  the  works  of  Aristotle, 
and  he  published  editions  of  Sallust,  Cicero,  and  other 
Latin  classics;  also  the  "  Electra"  of  Euripides,  and 
various  Greek  works.  He  likewise  wrote  a  number  of 
letters,  poems,  and  orations  in  Italian.    Died  in  1585. 

See  A.  M.  Bandini,  "Vita  di  P.  Vettori,"  1756:  Benivieni, 
"  Vita  di  P.  Vettori,"  1585. 

Ve-tu'ri-a,  [Fr.V^TURfk,  vi'tii're',]  a  Roman  matron, 
the  mother  of  Coriolanus,  (which  see.)  When  Rome 
was  attacked  by  an  army  of  Volscians  commanded  by 
her  son,  she  headed  a  procession  of  women  who  went  to 
his  camp  and  entreated  him  to  spare  the  city.  He  finally 
relented,  and  exclaimed,  "O  mother,  thou  hast  saved 
Rome,  but  destroyed  thy  son  !" 

Veturie.    See  Veturia. 

Veuillot,  vuh'yo',  (Louis,)  a  French  writer  and 
journalist,  born  in  the  department  of  Loiret  in  1815. 
He  became  successively  editor  of  the  "  Charte  de  1830," 
"  La  Paix,"  and  the  "  Univers  Religieux,"  in  Paris,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  zealous  support  of  the  ultra- 
montane party  and  violent  abuse  of  his  opponents.  His 
"  Univers"  was  suppressed  in  i860.  He  has  published 
several  novels. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Veyssiere  de  La  Croze.    See  La  Croze. 

Veytia,  de,  dk  vi-e-tee'S,  ?  (Mariano,)  a  Mexican 
liistorian,  of  Spanish  extraction,  born  at  Puebla  in  1718, 
wrote  an  account  of  the  early  history  of  Mexico,  en- 
titled "Historia  Antigua,"  (Mexico,  1836.) 

See  Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  i. 
bt,ok  i. 

Viani,  ve-^'nee,  (Giorgio,)  an  Italian  numismatist, 
born  in  1762  ;  died  in  1816. 

Viani,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Bo- 
logna in  1636,  is  said  to  have  been  a  skilful  artist.  Died 
in  1700.  His  son  Domenico,  born  in  1668,  was  also  a 
painter.    Died  in  17 11. 

Viardot,  ve'tR'do',  (L^on,)  a  French  portrait-painter, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1804. 


Viardot,  (Louis,)  a  French  litterateur,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Dijon  in  1800.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Museums  of  Italy,"  (1842,) 
and  a  "  History  of  the  Arabs  and  Moors  of  Spain,"  (2 
vols.,  1851.)  He  married  Pauline  Garcia,  the  vocalist,  in 
1840.  He  translated  "Don  Quixote"  and  other  Spanish 
works  into  French. 

Viardot,  (Pauline  Garcia,)  a  popular  French  ac- 
tress and  singer,  a  daughter  of  Manuel  Garcia,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1821.  She  made  her  debut  in  London  in 
1839,  and  was  married  to  L.  Viardot  in  1840.  She 
excels  in  the  roles  of  "  Desdemona,"  "  Valentine,"  (in 
"The  Huguenots,")  and  "Fides,"  (in  "The  Prophet"  of 
Meyerbeer.) 

Vias,  de,  deh  ve'ts',  (Balthasar)  a  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Marseilles  in  1587,  was  a  friend  of  Peiresc.  He  was 
appointed  a  councillor  of  state  by  Louis  XIII.  He 
wrote  numerous  poems.    Died  in  1667. 

Viassolo.    See  Federici,  (Camillo.) 

Viaud  or  Viau,  de,  deh  ve'6',  (Th^:ophile,)  a  French 
poet.    (See  Th^ophile.) 

Viborg,  vee'boRG,  (Erich  Nissen,)  an  eminent  Dan 
ish  naturalist  and  veterinary  surgeon,  born  in  Sleswick 
in  1759.    He  wrote  numerous  works.    Died  in  1822. 

Vibulanus.    See  Fabius  Vibulanus. 

Vic,  de,  deh  v^k,  (Dominique,)  a  French  commander 
and  constant  adherent  of  Henry  IV.  He  rendered 
important  services  at  the  battle  of  Ivry.  In  1602 
he  became  governor  of  Calais  and  vice-admiral.  Died 
in  1610. 

Vicari,  von,  fon  vee'kl-ree,  (Hermann,)  a  German 
Catholic  prelate,  born  at  Aulendorf,  in  Upper  Suabia, 
in  1773,  ^'ose  to  be  Archbishop  of  Freiburg  in  1842. 

Vic'ars,  (John,)  an  English  Puritan  writer  in  the 
time  of  Cromwell,  was  born  in  London  in  1582.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  "  The  Burning  Bush  not 
Consumed,"  and  "  God's  Ark  Overtopping  the  World's 
Waves."    Died  in  1652. 

Vic'a-ry,  (Thomas,)  an  English  anatomist,  born  in 
London,  was  surgeon  to  Henry  VIII.  and  Edward  VI. 
He  published  a  treatise  on  anatomy,  (about  1548.) 

Vicat,  ve'kt',  (Louis  Joseph,)  a  French  civil  engineer, 
born  at  Grenoble  in  1786.  He  distinguished  himself  by 
the  discovery  of  hydraulic  cement,  and  made  an  improve- 
ment in  the  foundation  of  bridges.    Died  in  1861. 

Vicence,  Due  de.    See  Caulaincourt. 

Vicente,  (Gil.)    See  Gil  Vicente. 

Vicenza,  Duke  of.    See  Caulaincourt. 

Vichard.    See  Saint-R6al. 

Vichmann,  viK^mSn,  (Burkhard,)  a  Russian  his* 
torian,  of  German  extraction,  born  at  Riga  in  1786.  He 
wrote  (in  German)  several  works  on  Russian  history. 
Died  in  1822. 

Vichnou.    See  Vishnu. 

Vici,  vee'chee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  architect,  born 
at  Arcevia  in  1744,  was  appointed  in  1787  hydraulic 
architect  and  engineer  for  the  work  of  draining  the  Pon- 
tine marshes.  Among  the  principal  structures  he  has 
built  may  be  named  the  cathedral  of  Camarino,  and  the 
church  of  San  Francesco  at  Foligno.    Died  in  181 7. 

Vico,  vee'ko,  (Enea,)  an  Italian  engraver  and  numis- 
matist, born  at  Parma  about  1520.  He  worked  at  Flor- 
ence and  Ferrara,  and  engraved  some  pictures  of  Michael 
Angelo  and  Raphael.  He  published  several  works  on 
numismatics,  among  which  is  a  "Treatise  on  the  Medals 
of  the  Ancients,"  ("  Discorsi  sopre  le  Medaglie  degli 
Antichi,"  1555.)    Died  about  1570. 

Vico,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  eminent  Italian  phi- 
losopher, called  the  creator  of  the  philosophy  of  history, 
was  born  at  Naples  in  1668.  He  studied  languages, 
philosophy,  and  law,  and,  after  he  left  college,  passed, 
nine  years  as  preceptor  in  the  family  of  the  Bishop  of 
Ischia.  In  1697  he  was  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric 
in  the  University  of  Naples,  with  a  salary  of  one  hun- 
dred scudi  (or  ducats)  per  annum.  He  published  in 
1720  a  work  on  law,  entitled  "On  the  One  Principle  and 
End  of  all  Law,"  ("  De  universi  Juris  uno  Principio  et 
Fine  uno.")  His  principal  work  is  entitled  "  Principles 
of  a  New  Science  of  the  Common  Nature  of  Nations," 
("  Principj  di  una  Scienza  nuova  intorno  alia  commune 
Natura  della  Nazione,"  1725,)  in  which  he  attempts  to 


-e  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  VL^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2i^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

138 


FICO 


2194 


VICTOR 


prove  that  the  events  of  history  are  determined  by  cer- 
tain and  immutable  laws.  It  presents  original  thoughts, 
but  in  some  parts  is  rather  obscure.  In  1735  he  became 
historiographer  to  the  King  of  Naples.  He  was  author 
of  other  works.    Died  at  Naples  in  January,  1 743  or  1 744. 

See  his  Autobiography,  prefixed  to  ins  "  Scienza  miova,"  1821  ; 
M.  Parma,  "Studj  IV.  sopra  Vico,"  1838;  J.  Ferrari,  "Vico  et 
I'ltalie,"  1839;  Rocco,  "  Elogio  storico  di  Vico,"  1844 ;  A.  Mana- 
viT,  "  filoge  dii  Pere  deVico,"  1848;  "  Nouvelle  f^iographie  Gene- 
rale  ,"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1845. 

Vico,  di,  de  vee'ko,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  Jesuit 
and  astronomer,  born  at  Macerata  in  1805,  became  di- 
rector of  the  Observatory  at  Rome.    Died  in  1848. 

Vicq-d'Azyr  or  Vicq-d'Azir,  v^k'dS'z^R',  (F^lix,) 
a  distinguished  French  anatomist,  born  at  Valogne,  in 
Normandy,  in  1748.  He  studied  medicine  in  Paris,  and 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
1774.  He  became  in  1776  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Medicine,  of  which  he  was  appointed 
perpetual  secretary,  and  in  1788  succeeded  lUififon  in 
the  French  Academy.  He  was  made  first  physician  to 
the  queen  in  1789.  His  wife  was  a  niece  of  Daubenton. 
He  died  in  1794.  Among  his  numerous  and  valuable 
works  we  may  name  "Observations  on  the  Means  of 
Preserving  Animals  from  Contagion,"  (1774,)  "  Medicine 
for  Horned  Cattle,"  (1781,)  "Treatise  on  Anatomy  and 
Physiology,"  (with  coloured  plates,  1786,)  and  "Eulogies 
on 'Members  of  the  Royal  Society,"  (1778-88.) 

See  CuviER,  "  filoge  de  Vicq-d'A/.yr :"  Morkau  de  i.a  Sarthe, 
"£loge  de  F.  Vicq-d'Azir,"  1797:  P.  E.  Lkmontey,  "  filoge  his- 
torique  de  Vicq-d'Azir,"  1825;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vicramaditya.    See  Vikramaditya. 

Victoire  de  France,  vek'twiR'  deh  fR6Nss,  (Louise 
Marie  Therese,)  a  daughter  of  Louis  XV.,  was  born 
at  Versailles  in  1733.  ^'^^  emigrated  in  1791,  after  which 
she  lived  at  Rome  and  Naples.    Died  in  1799. 

Victor,  (AuRELius.)    See  Aurelius  Victor. 

Vic^tor  I.,  a  native  of  Africa,  became  Bishop  of  Rome 
about  185  a.d.  He  died  about  198  a.d.,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Zephyrinus. 

Victor  II.,  originally  Gebhard,  Bishop  of  Eichstadt, 
succeeded  Leo  IX.  as  Pope  of  Rome  in  1055.  He  died 
in  1057,  and  was  succeeded  by  Stephen  IX. 

Victor  III.,  (Desiderius,)  Abbot  of  Monte  Casino, 
succeeded  Gregory  VH.  in  1086.  '  After  a  contest  with 
the  adherents  of  the  emperor  Henry  IV.,  he  retired  to 
Beneventum,  where  he  anathematized  the  anti-i^ope 
Guibert.  He  died  in  1087,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Urban  H. 

Victor  IV.  was  supported  as  anti-pope  by  Frederick 
T.  of  Germany,  in  opposition  to  Alexander  III.,  in  1159. 
Died  in  1164. 

Victor,  v^k'toR',  (Claude  Perrin,)  Duke  of  Belluno, 
a  celebrated  French  marshal,  born  in  the  department 
of  the  Vosges  in  1764.  He  served  in  Spain  in  1794,  and 
in  the  principal  engagements  of  the  Italian  campaigns 
from  1795  to  1799,  having  been  tnade  general  of  division 
m  1797.  He  commanded  part  of  the  vanguard  at  the 
battle  of  Marengo,  (1800,)  and  had  a  prominent  share  in 
the  victory  of  that  day.  He  was  ambassador  to  Copen- 
hagen in  1805.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  Prussian 
campaign  of  1806,  and  was  created  marsb-:l  of  France 
after  the  battle  of  Friedland,  (1807,)  for  his  signal  ser- 
vices on  that  occasion.  Appointed  in  1808  commander 
of  the  first  corps  of  the  army  of  Spain,  he  gained  several 
important  victories  over  the  Spaniards,  but  he  was  de- 
feated by  the  Duke  of  Wellington  at  Talavera,  (1809.) 
In  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812  he  was  conspicuous 
for  his  skill  and  bravery,  as  well  as  for  his  humanity  to 
the  wounded  soldiers  during  the  disastrous  retreat.  He 
rendered  important  services  at  Dresden  and  Leipsic, 
(1813.)  Having  entered  the  service  of  Louis  XVHI. 
in  1814,  he  adhered  to  him  in  the  Hundred  Days,  and 
denounced  Napoleon  as  "the  man  who  has  tyrannized 
and  betrayed  France."  He  was  minister  of  war  from 
December,  1821,  to  October,  1823.    Died  in  1841. 

See  De  CotiRCEi.i.ES,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Francais;" 
Thiers,  "History  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Victor,  Saint,  of  Marseilles,  served  in  the  Roman 
army.  During  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  under 
Diocletian,  he  suffered  martyrdom,  in  303  a.d.  I 


Vic'tor  Am-a-de'us  [Fr.  VicroR  Am^d^e,  v^k'. 
toR'  t^m^d^;  It.  ViTTORio  Amedeo,  v^t-to're-o  ^-mk- 
da'o]  I.,  Duke  of  Savoy,  born  at  Turin  in  1587.  In 
1635  he  was  the  ally  of  France  in  the  war  with  Spain. 
He  married  Christine  de  France,  a  sister  of  Louis  XHI. 
Died  in  1637,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles 
Emmanuel  II. 

Victor  Amadeus  II.,  first  King  of  Sa-rdinia,  born  in 
1666,  succeeded  his  father,  Charles  Emmanuel,  in  1675, 
the  government  being  conducted  by  his  mother  as  regent. 
Soon  after  his  accession  to  the  sovereignty,  he  was  urged 
by  Louis  XIV.  to  the  persecution  of  the  Waldenses  ; 
but  in  1690,  having  formed  an  alliance  with  Spain  and 
Austria,  he  restored  them  to  their  homes,  and  declared 
war  against  France.  He  joined  the  Austrians  in  the  war 
of  the  Spanish  succession,  and  in  1706  assisted  his  rela- 
tive Prince  Eugene  in  defeating  the  French,  who  had 
besieged  Turin.  After  the  peace  of  Utrecht  he  obtained 
Lome! Una  and  other  territories,  and  the  island  of  Sicily, 
with  the  title  of  king.  He  subsequently  gave  up  Sicily 
to  the  Austrian  emperor,  receiving  in  exchange  the  island 
of  Sardinia.  He  abdicated  in  1730,  died  in  1732,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles  Emmanuel  HI. 

See  Cakutti,  "  Storia  di  Vittorio  Ainedeo  II.,"  1856 ;  Lamberti, 
"  Histoire  de  I'Abdication  de  Victor  Amedee,"  1734  J  Botta, 
"  Histoire  d'ltalie  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Victor  Amadeus  III.,  son  of  Charles  Emmanuel 
III.,  was  born  in  1726,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  1773. 
He  was  deprived  of  Savoy  and  Nice  by  the  French 
during  the  Revolution.  He  died  in  1796,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Charles  Emmanuel  IV. 

See  J.  DE  Maistre,  "  Eloge  de  Victor  Amedee  III,"  1775. 

Vic'tor  Em-man'u-el  [It.  Vittorio  Emanuele. 
v^t-to're-o  i-md-noo-a'la]  I.,  King  of  Sardinia,  second  son 
of  Victor  Amadeus  III.,  was  born  in  1759,  and  ascended 
the  throne  on  the  abdication  of  his  brother,  Charles  Em- 
manuel IV.,  in  1802.  His  subjects  having  demanded  a 
more  liberal  constitution,  to  which  he  refused  to  accede, 
he  resigned  in  1821  in  favour  of  his  brother,  Charles 
Felix.    Died  in  1824. 

Victor  Emmanuel  II.,  (of  Sardinia,)  and  the  first 
King  of  Italy,  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  Albert  and  Maria 
Theresa  of  Austria,  was  born  at  Turin  in  1820.  He  married 
his  cousin-german,  Maria  Adelaide  of  Austria,  in  1842, 
and  succeeded  his  father,  who  abdicated,  in  March,  1849. 
His  kingdom,  which  then  included  only  Piedmont,  Savoy, 
and  Sardinia,  was  not  in  a  prosperous  condition  ;  but  he 
was  fortunate  in  obtaining  the  services  of  an  able  states- 
man. Count  Cavour,  who  became  prime  minister  in  1852. 
The  wise  and  liberal  policy  of  Cavoiu"  increased  the 
power  of  the  Sardinian  states  and  induced  the  friends 
of  Italian  unity  to  regard  Victor  Emmanuel  with  favour. 
By  joining  the  French  and  English  in  the  Crimean  war, 
(1854,)  he  gained  admission  into  the  conventions  of 
European  powers.  In  April,  1859,  his  dominions  were 
invaded  bv  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  who  was  offended 
by  the  growing  spirit  of  liberty  and  nationality  in  the 
peninsula.  By  an  alliance  vvith  France,  Cavour  was 
pre])ared  for  tlie  contest.  The  Austrians  were  defeated 
at  the  battles  of  Magenta  and  Solferino  in  June,  1859,  soon 
after  which  peace  was  concluded,  and  Lombardy  was 
added  to  the  dominions  of  Victor  Emmanuel.  In  the 
mean  time  the  people  of  Tuscany,  Parma,  and  Modena 
had  deposed  their  petty  sovereigns,  and  had  taken  steps 
to  unite  themselves  with  the  other  Italian  states.  The 
people  of  the  Romagna  were  also  nearly  unanimous  in 
favour  of  annexation  to  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia.  The 
cause  was  rapidly  advanced,  in  i860,  by  the  brilliant 
operations  of  Garibaldi  in  Sicily  and  Naples,  the  libera- 
tion of  which  was  completed  by  the  capture  of  Gaeta 
in  March,  1861.  The  result  of  these  transactions  was 
the  union  of  all  Italy,  except  Venetia  and  a  small  part 
of  the  papal  states  adjacent  to  Rome.  Victor  Emmanuel 
was  proclaimed  King  of  Italy  in  March,  1861,  and  was 
recognized  as  such  by  the  French  government  in  June 
of  that  year.  He  com|)ensated  Napoleon  lit.  for  his 
aid  by  the  cession  of  Savoy  and  Nice.  The  King  of 
Italy  and  his  subjects  ardently  desired  the  possession 
of  Rome,  the  position  and  celebrity  of  which  rendered 
it  the  most  eligible  place  for  the  capital  of  the  kingdom, 
but  it  was  under  the  domination  of  the  pope,  supported 


a.  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long :  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fSll,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


VICTORIA 


2195 


VIDA 


by  a  Frenc'j  army,  which  had  occupied  the  city  since 
1849. 

In  1865  the  seat  of  government  was  transferred  from 
Turin  to  Florence.  Victor  Emmanuel  was  the  ally  of 
Prussia  in  the  short  but  momentous  war  of  1866.  The 
Italian  army,  having,  entered  Venetia,  was  repulsed  at 
Custozza  ;  but  the  victory  of  the  Prussians  at  Sadowa, 
July  3,  compelled  the  Emperor  of  Austria  to  sue  for 
peace  and  to  give  up  Venetia.  This  province,  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  nearly  unanimous  vote  of  its  people, 
was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy  about  the  end  of 
1866, — an  event  which  was  a  source  of  great  exultation 
to  the  Italian  patriots.  In  fulfilment  of  a  treaty  nego- 
tiated in  1864,  Napoleon  withdrew  his  army  from  Rome 
in  December,  1866,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  pope  to 
retain  that  last  bulwark  of  his  temporal  power.  Italy 
was  then  free  from  the  presence  of  foreign  soldiers  for 
the  first  time  probably  in  a  thousand  years.  The  recent 
changes  have  been  most  favourable  to  religious  liberty 
in  Italy,  the  government  of  which  has  adopted  the 
motto  of  "a  free  church  in  a  free  state." 

To  secure  the  neutrality  or  friendship  of  Italy,  Napo- 
leon III.,  in  August,  1870,  withdrew  his  army  from 
Rome.  In  September  of  that  year  Victor  Emmanuel 
sent  an  army  to  occupy  Rome,  and  wrote  to  the  pope 
that  republicanism  was  so  rampant  in  Italy  that  if  he 
had  not  taken  that  course  a  republic  would  have  been 
proclaimed  in  every  Italian  city.  His  army  obtained 
possession  of  Rome,  without  serious  resistance,  Septem- 
ber 20,  1870,  and  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  then 
came  to  an  end. 

See  C.  DE  La  Varenne,  "Le  Roi  Victor  Emmamiel,"  1865; 
Arrivabene,  "  L'ltalie  sous  Victor  Eminanuel,"  1865;  La  Fa- 
rina, "  Storia  d'ltalia  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Generale." 

Vic-to'ri-a,  [Gr.  Nt/c?/,  (Nike  or  Nice;)  It.  Vitto- 
RIA,  v^t-to're"-i  ;  Fr.  Victoire,  v^k'tw^R',]  in  classic 
mythology,  the  goddess  or  personification  of  victory. 

Victoria.    See  Victorina. 

Victoria,  Duke  of.    See  Espartero. 

Victoria,  v^k-to're-S,  or  Vitoria,  (Francisco,)  an 
eminent  Spanish  theologian,  born  in  Navarre.  He  be- 
came a  professor  in  the  University  of  Salamanca,  and 
produ.ced  "Theological  Relections,"  ('*  Relectiones  The- 
ologicae  XIII.,"  1557.)  The  most  important  parts  of 
this  scarce  work  are  those  which  treat  of  the  Indians 
and  of  the  laws  of  war,  ("  De  Indis,"  and  "  De  Jure 
Belli.")  Nicolas  Antonio  and  other  Spanish  writers 
bestow  the  highest  eulogy  on  Victoria.  Commenting  on 
his  "  De  Jure  Belli,"  Hallam  observes,  "The  whole 
relection,  as  well  as  that  on  the  Indians,  displays  an 
intrepid  spirit  of  justice  and  humanity."  ("  Introduction 
to  the  Literature  of  pAirope.")    Died  about  1550. 

Victoria,  (Don  Vincente,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
at  Valencia  in  1658.  He  worked  with  success  at  Rome, 
where  he  died  in  17 12. 

Vic-to'ri-a  Al-ex-an-dri'na,  Queen  of  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  was  born  at 
Kensington  Palace  in  May,  1819.  She  is  the  only  child 
of  Edward,  Duke  of  Kent,  (a  son  of  George  III.,)  and 
Maria  Louisa  Victoria  of  Saxe-Coburg,  who  was  a  sister 
of  Leopold  I.  of  Belgium.  Her  education  was  directed 
by  the  Duchess  of  Northumberland.  She  received  in- 
struction in  political  affairs  and  principles  from  Lord 
Melbourne.  On  the  death  of  her  uncle,  William  IV., 
she  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  20th  of  Jime,  1837, 
and  was  crowned  in  June,  1838.  Lord  Melbourne,  who 
was  prime  minister  when  she  became  queen,  resigned 
in  May,  1839,  and  Victoria  then  requested  Sir  Robert 
Peel  to  form  a  new  ministry.  He  consented  to  take 
office,  but  insisted  that  she  should  dismiss  the  ladies  of 
her  bed-chamber,  (who  were  Whigs,)  which  she  refused 
to  do.  The  result  of  this  affair  was  that  Lord  Melbourne 
returned  to  power.  In  February,  1840,  she  was  married 
to  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  with  whom  she 
lived  happily  and  in  whom  she  found  a  prudent  coun- 
sellor. (See  Albert.)  The  Whig  ministry,  having  been 
defeated  in  Parliament,  resigned  in  August,  1841,  and 
Sir  Robert  Peel  became  prime  minister.  Among  the 
events  of  1841  was  the  birth  of  her  son  Albert  Edward, 
Prince  of  Wales.  Between  1840  and  1843  three  several 
attempts  were  made  to  assassinate  her,  by  persons 


named  Oxford,  Francis,  and  Bean.  Victoria  visited 
Louis  Philippe  in  France  in  1843,  and  travelled  with 
Prince  Albert  in  Germany  in  1845. 

The  year  1846  was  rendered  memorable  by  the  repeal 
of  the  corn  laws  after  a  long  and  exciting  contest.  (See 
CoBDEN,  Richard,  and  Peel,  Sir  Robert.)  Lord  John 
Russell  was  prime  minister  from  July,  1846,  to  February, 
1852,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Derby,  a  conservative. 
Lord  Derby  having  resigned,  a  coalition  ministry  was 
formed  by  the  P^arl  of  Aberdeen  in  December,  1852.  To 
maintain  the  integrity  of  Turkey  against  the  encroach- 
ments of  Russia,  the  British  ministry  formed  an  alliance 
with  France,  and  waged  war  in  the  Crimea  and  Baltic 
against  the  Czar  in  1854  and  1855.  Lord  Palmerston 
became  prime  minister  in  February,  1855,  the  queen 
visited  Napoleon  III.  at  Paris  in  August,  and  the  allies 
took  Sebastopol  in  September  of  that  year.  The  Crimean 
war  was  ended  by  a  treaty  in  the  spring  of  1856.  A 
great  mutiny  of  the  Sepoys  broke  out  in  India  in  1857. 
Lord  Palmerston  resigned  office  in  February,  1858,  to 
the  Earl  of  Derby,  who  remained  in  power  until  June, 
1859,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Palmerston.  In  De- 
cember, 1 861,  occurred  the  death  of  Prince  Albert,  by 
which  she  was  so  deeply  affected  that  for  several  years 
she  absented  herself  from  public  ceremonies  and  lived 
in  seclusion.  She  has  been  much  censured  for  neglect 
of  the  duties  of  sovereignty,  but,  with  this  exception, 
her  conduct  has  been  such  as  to  render  her  popular 
with  nearly  all  classes  and  all  parties. 

The  British  government  has  pursued  the  policy  of 
non-intervention  in  the  great  wars  which  have  occurred 
in  Europe  and  America  since  1856.  Among  the  notable 
recent  events  of  her  reign  are  the  revolutionary  move- 
ments of  the  Fenians  in  Ireland  and  North  America, 
(1865-66,)  and  the  agitation  of  the  question  of  reform  in 
England.  The  House  of  Commons  rejected  the  Reform 
bill  of  Russell  and  Gladstone,  who  consequently  resigned 
in  June,  1866,  and  a  Tory  ministry  was  formed  by  Derby 
and  Disraeli.  In  1867  Disraeli  procured  the  passage  of 
a  Reform  bill  which  greatly  increased  the  number  of 
voters  and  will  probably  reduce  the  power  of  the  aris-  , 
tocracy.  Queen  Victoria  is  the  author  of  "  Leaves  from 
the  Journal  of  our  Life  in  the  Highlands  from  1848  to 
1861,"  (1868,)  edited  by  Arthur  Helps.  In  December, 
1868,  Mr.  Gladstone  became  prime  minister. 

See  "Queen  Victoria  from  her  Birth  to  her  Bridal,"  London,  2 
vols.,  1840;  "Queen  Victoria  in  Scotland,"  London,  1842;  "Men 
of  the  Time"  for  1868. 

Victorin  de  Feltre.    See  Vittortno. 

Vic-to-ri''na  or  Vic-to'ri-a,  [Fr.  Victorine,  v^k'- 
to'r^n',]  a  warlike  Roman  princess,  waged  war  against 
Gallienus  in  Gaul,  and  took  the  title  of  Augusta.  She 
was  the  mother  of  Victorinus,  one  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants. 
Died  in  268  a.d. 

Vic-to-ri'nus,  a  religious  writer,  and  Bishop  of  Peta- 
bium,  in  Styria.    He  suffered  martyrdom  about  303  A.t). 

See  Launoy,  "  De  Victorino  Episcopo,"  Paris,  1664. 

Victorinus,  (Caius  or  Fabius  Marius,)  an  African 
grammarian  and  theologian,  taught  rhetoric  at  Rome, 
was  converted  to  Christianity,  and  wrote  several  works 
on  grammar  and  theology.    Died  about  380  A.D. 

Victorinus,  [Fr.  Victorin,  v^k'to''riN',]  (Marcus 
PiAUVONius,)  a  Roman  general,  called  one  of  the  Thirty 
Tyrants.  He  assumed  the  title  of  emperor  in  Gaul  in 
267  A.D.,  and  was  assassinated  by  one  of  his  officers 
in  268. 

Victorius.    See  Vettort. 

Vida,  veeMI,  (Marco  Girolamo  or  Marcus  Hiero- 
NYMUS.)  one  of  the  most  eminent  Latin  poets  of  modern 
times,  was  born  at  Cremona,  in  Italy,  about  1485.  He 
studied  the  classics  and  theology  at  Mantua,  Padua,  and 
Bologna,  and  afterwards  visited  Rome,  where  he  was 
patronized  by  Leo  X.,  who  made  him  prior  of  San  Sil- 
vestro,  at  Frascati.  Under  Clement  VH.  he  became 
apostolic  prothonotary  and  Bishop  of  Alba,  (1532.)  He 
was  the  author  of  "  Christias,"  (1535,)  a  poem  on  the 
life  of  Christ  and  written  in  the  style  of  Virgil,  "  De 
Arte  Poetica,"  a  didactic  treatise,  (in  verse,)  and  "  Game 
of  Chess,"  ("  Scacchiae  Ludus,")  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Goldsmith,  and  into  German  by 
Hoffmann.  He  also  wrote  several  Latin  orations,  and  the 


€  as     9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jf^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VIDAL 


FIENNET 


dialogues  entitled  "  De  Dignitate  Reipublicoe,"  (1556.) 
Died  in  1566.* 

See  Tadisi,  "Vita  di  Vida,"  1788;  Lancetti,  "Delia  Vita  e 
degli  Scritti  di  Vida,"  1840:  Tiraboschi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura 
Italiana  ;"  F.  Mansueti,  "  Orazione  in  Lode  di  M.  G.  Vida,"  1S46  ; 
Nic^RON,  "  Meinoiies  ;"  Ughei.i.i,  "Italia  Sacra;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie  Generale  ;"  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  August,  1835. 

Vidal,  veMtK,  (FRAwgois,)  a  French  writer  on  social- 
ism and  political  economy,  born  in  the  department 
of  Gironde  in  1814,  has  published  a  treatise  "On  the 
Division  of  Wealth,  or  Distributive  Justice  in  Social 
Economy,"  (1846,)  and  other  works.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  by  the  voters  of 
Paris  in  1850. 

Vidal,  ve-dlK,  (Jago,)  a  Spanish  painter,  born  at 
Valmaseda  in  1602,  worked  at  Seville.    Died  in  1648. 

Vidal,  ( Pierre,)  a  French  troubadour,  born  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century,  accompanied  Richard 
Coeur  de  Lion  in  the  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Vidal  de  Cassis,  ve'dtK  deh  kt's^ss',  (Auguste 
Th^;odore,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Cassis  in  1803. 
tie  became  surgeon  of  the  hospital  du  Midi,  and  acquired 
a  high  reputation  by  his  "Treatise  on  External  Pathol- 
ogy and  Operative  Medicine,"  ("Traite  de  Pathologic 
externe  et  de  Medecine  operatoire,"  5  vols.,  1838-44.) 
Died  in  1856. 

Vidar,  vee'dar,  or  VitJarr,  vee'thar,  [etymology  ex- 
tremely doubtful  ;  Keyser  supposes  it  may  be  changed 
from  vinnar,  the  "conqueror,"  (from  vinna,  to  "over- 
come,")] in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  god  of  silence, 
the  son  of  Odin  and  the  Jotun  woman  Grida.  Next  to 
Thor  he  is  the  strongest  of  all  the  ^sir.  Among  his 
possessions  is  an  iron  shoe  of  prodigious  strength  and 
size,  which  at  Ragnarock  he  will  place  on  the  nether 
jaw  of  Fenrir  ;  then  with  his  hand  he  will  seize  the  upper 
jaw  and  tear  him  asunder.  He,  as  well  as  Vali,  will 
survive  the  destruction  of  the  world.  Vidar  is  supposed 
to  be  a  type  of  the  imperishability  of  the  powers  of 
nature. 

See  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i. ;  Keyser,  "  Religion 
of  the  Northmen;"  Petersen,  "  Nordisk  Mythologi." 

Vidaurri,  ve-dowr^ree,  (Santiago,)  a  Mexican  sol- 
dier and  politician,  born  about  1810.  He  aided  to  drive 
Santa  Anna  from  power  in  1855,  and  proclaimed  himself 
Governor  of  Coahuila  and  New  Leon  in  February,  1856. 
He  was  one  of  the  chief  ministers  of  Maximilian  during 
the  empire,  and  was  shot  as  a  traitor  in  1867. 

Vid'i-us,  [It.  GuiDO,  gwee'do,]  (Guidi,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  at  Florence  about  1500.  He  became  a 
professor  in  the  College  Royal  of  Paris  in  1542,  and 
removed  to  Pisa  about  1547.  He  wrote  several  pro- 
fessional works.    Died  at  Pisa  in  1569. 

Vidocq,  veMok',  (Eugene  FRANgois,)  a  French 
adventurer  and  famous  chief  of  the  detective  police,  was 
born  in  1 775.  He  was  successively  a  thief,  soldier, 
deserter,  and  gambler  before  he  entered  the  public 
service,  and  was  often  imprisoned  for  his  offences. 
About  1810  he  enlisted  in  the  police  at  Paris.  His 
success  as  a  detective  has  scarcely  been  paralleled  in 
history.    Died  in  1850. 

See  his  interesting  "  Autobiographic  Memoirs,"  and  the  "  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1829. 

Vieilh  de  Boisjolin.    See  Boisjolin,  de. 
Vieille,  ve'aF  or  ve-i'ye,  (Jules,)  a  French  mathe- 
matician, entered  the  Normal  School  about  1833.  He 


*  Vida's  fame  appears  to  have  been  much  higher  a  century  or  two 
ago  (when  the  language  in  which  he  wrote  was  far  more  generally 
cultivated)  than  it  is  at  present.  Pope  speaks  of  him  as  the  crown- 
ing glory  of  Leo's  reign  : 

"  But  see  !  each  muse,  in  Leo's  golden  days. 

Starts  from  her  trance,  and  trims  her  wither'd  bays ; 

Rome's  ancient  genius  o'er  its  ruins  spread 

Shakes  off  the  dust,  and  rears  his  reverend  head. 

Then  Sculpture  and  her  sister  arts  revive  ; 

Stones  leap'd  to  form  and  rocks  began  to  live; 

With  sweeter  notes  each  rising  temple  rung  ; 

A  Raphael  painted,  and  a  Vida  sung. 

Immortal  Vida  !  on  whose  honoured  brow 

The  poet's  bays  and  critic's  ivy  grow: 

Cremona  now  shall  ever  boast  thy  name, 

As  next  in  place  to  Mantua,  next  in  fame  !" 

See  "  Essay  on  Criticism,"  Part  IIL 


published  a  "  General  Theory  of  Numerical  Approxi- 
mations," (2d  edition,  1854,)  and  other  works. 

Vieilleville,  de,  deh  ve'aT'v^K  or  ve'a'ye-v^l',  (Fran- 
cois de  Scepaux — deh  si'po',)  Sire,  Count  de  Dure- 
tal,  a  French  general,  born  in  15 10.  He  was  employed 
in  foreign  missions  by  Henry  II.  and  Charles  IX.,  and 
was  a  moderate  opponent  of  the  Huguenots  in  the  civil 
wars.  In  1562  he  became  marshal  of  France.  Died  in 
1571- 

Vieira  or  Vieyra,  ve-a^-rS,  (Antonio,)  an  emi- 
nent Portuguese  missionary  and  writer,  born  at  Lisbon 
in  1608.  He  performed  diplomatic  missions  to  Paris, 
(1646,)  to  London,  and  to  Rome,  (1650.)  He  afterwards 
preached  to  the  Indians  in  Brazil,  and  advocated  the 
cause  of  the  slaves  in  that  country.  He  published  Ser- 
mons, (16  vols.,  1683-1754,)  "History  of  the  Future," 
("  Historia  do  Futuro,"  1 71 8,)  and  "Letters,"  ("Cartas," 
3  vols.,  1735-46.)    Died  at  Bahi'a  in  1697. 

See  F.  DE  FoNSECA,  "Vida  de  Vieira,"  1734;  A.  de  Barros, 
"Vida  do  P.  A.  Vieira,"  1746;  Niceron,  "Memoires;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Viel.    See  Veil. 

Viel,  ve^^K,  (Charles  Francois,)  a  French  architect, 
born  in  Paris  in  1745.  He  designed  several  hospitals  in 
Paris,  and  wrote  books  on  architecture.    Died  in  1819. 

Viel,  (Jean  Marie  Victor,)  a  French  architect,  born 
in  Paris  in  1796.  He  was  the  architect  of  the  Palais  de 
I'lndustrie,  built  for  the  Universal  Exposition  of  1855. 

Viel-Castel,  de,  deh  ve'^K  kts'tIK,  (Horace,) 
Co^.''TE,  a  French  litterateur,  born  about  1797.  He  pub- 
lished several  tales  and  poems. 

Viele,  vee'li,  (Egbert  L.,)  an  American  engineer  and 
general,  born  in  Saratoga  county.  New  York,  about 
1825,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1847.  He  was  ap- 
pointed engineer-in-chief  of  the  Central  Park,  New  York, 
about  1856,  He  served  as  a  brigadier-general  in  1861 
and  1862,  and  resigned  in  October,  1863. 

Vien,  ve'^N',  (Joseph  Marie,)  an  eminent  French 
historical  painter,  born  at  Montpellier  in  1 716.  He 
studied  under  Natoire  in  Paris,  and  in  1743  obtained  the 
grand  prize  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  by  his  picture  of 
"  The  Plague  of  the  Israelites  in  the  Time  of  David." 
He  afterwards  spent  several  years  at  Rome,  where  he 
executed  a  number  of  admirable  works.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Academy  of  Arts  in  1754,  appointed  director  of 
the  French  Academy  at  Rome  in  1775,  and  principal 
painter  to  Louis  XVI.  in  1789.  Under  Napoleon  he 
became  successively  a  senator,  count  of  the  empire,  and 
commander  of  the  legion  of  honour.  Among  his  mas- 
ter-pieces may  be  named  "  Saint  Denis  preaching  to  the 
Gauls,"  "  Saint  Louis  intrusting  the  Regency  to  Blanche 
of  Castile,"  "  The  Parting  of  Hector  and  Andromache," 
"  Julius  Caesar  contemplating  the  Statue  of  Alexander 
at  Cadiz,"  and  the  "Virgin  attended  by  Angels."  He 
excelled  as  a  teacher  of  art,  and  was  the  master  of  David 
and  other  famous  painters.    Died  in  1809. 

See  T-  Lerreton,  "  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  de  J.  M.  Vien," 
1809;  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres;"  "Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphie Generale." 

Vien,  (Joseph  Marie,)  the  Younger,  a  portrait- 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1 761,  was  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding.   He  died  in  1809. 

Vien,  (Marie  Reboul,)  a  French  painter  of  flowers, 
birds,  and  still  life,  born  in  Paris  in  1728,  was  the  wife 
of  Joseph  Marie  the  Elder,  noticed  above.   Died  in  1805. 

Vienne,  de,  deh  ve'^n',  (Jean,)  an  eminent  French 
warrior,  born  about  1342.  He  defended  Calais  against 
Edward  HI,  in  a  long  and  memorable  siege,  (1347.)  He 
afterwards  became  Admiral  of  France,  and  displayed 
courage  and  skill  in  war  against  the  English.  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Nicopolis,  where  he  fought  against 
the  Turks,  in  1396. 

Viennet,  ve^'ni',  (Jean  Pons  (poN)  Guillaume,) 
a  French  litterateur  and  politician,  born  at  Beziers  in 
1777.  He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
from  the  department  of  Herault  in  1827,  voted  with  the 
gauche  or  liberal  party,  and  was  active  in  promoting 
the  revolution  of  1830.  He  was  made  a  peer  by  Louis 
Philippe  in  1839.  He  published  a  number  of  poems, 
dramas,  fables,  and  satires,  in  prose  and  verse  ;  also  an 
"Epistle  to  the  Muses  on  the  Romanticists,"  an  attack 
on  the  romantic  school  in  literature.    He  had  been 


a,  e,  1, 5,  u,  yy.lo7tg;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,    6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,  e,  i,  o, obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


VIERA 


2197 


VIGNY 


elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1830  or  1831,  After 
1848  he  took  no  part  in  politics.    Died  in  July,  1868. 

See  E.  DE  MiRECOURT,  "Viennet,"  1856;  "  Noiivelle  Biogia- 
phie  Generale. " 

Viera  y  Clavijo,  de,  di  ve-a'ri  e  kli-vee'no,  (Jos^:,) 
a  Spanish  historian,  born  in  the  Canaries  about  1738. 
He  published  a  "History  of  the  Canary  Islands,"  (4 
vols.,  1772-83,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1799. 

Vieta,  ve-a'ti,  (Francis,)  [in  French,  FRANgois 
VifeTE,  ve'it'',  or  Viette,  ve'lt',  or  Viet,  ve'a',]  a  cele- 
brated French  mathematician,  born  at  Fontenay,  Poitou, 
in  1540,  was  educated  in  the  Protestant  religion.  He 
obtained  the  office  of  master  of  requests  about  1580,  and 
passed  the  most  of  his  mature  life  in  the  public  service. 
He  was  a  friend  of  De  Thou.  During  the  war  between 
Henry  IV.  and  the  Spaniards,  Vieta  rendered  an  impor- 
tant service  to  the  former  by  explaining  intercepted 
despatches  of  the  enemy,  which  were  written  in  a  cipher 
of  five  hundred  characters.  He  published  several  works 
on  mathematics,  etc.,  and  greatly  contributed  to  the  per- 
fection of  algebra.  He  rendered  algebra  a  purely  sym- 
bolical science  ;  and  he  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who 
represented  the  known  quantities  by  symbols.  He  also 
made  improvements  or  discoveries  in  trigonometry. 
Died  in  Paris  in  1603.  His  works  were  published  by 
F.  van  Schooten  in  1646. 

See  De  Thou,  "Historia  sui  Temporis;"  Montucla,  "  Histoire 
des  Matbematiques ;"  Haag,  "La  France  protestaiite  ;"  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale." 

Viete.    See  Vieta. 

Vieussens,  de,  deh  ve-uh'sSw',  (Raimond,)  a  French 
anatomist,  born  in  Rouergue  in  1641.  He  practised 
medicine  at  Montpellier,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Neurologia  Universalis,"  (1685,)  a  treatise  on 
the  nerves  and  brain.    Died  in  1 715. 

Vieusseux,  ve-uh'suh',  (Jean  Pierre,)  a  learned 
bookseller,  of  a  Genevese  family,  was  born  at  Oneglia,  in 
Italy,  in  1779.  He  settled  at  Florence,  where  he  pub- 
lished a  celebrated  critical  journal,  entitled  "  Antologia 
Italiana,"  (1821-32,)  and  other  periodicals. 

Vieuville,  de  la,  deh  It  ve-uh'veK,  (Charles,) 
Marquis,  a  French  financier,  born  in  Paris  about  1582. 
He  became  minister  of  finance  in  1623,  and  was  removed 
in  1624.    Died  in  1653. 

Vieuxtenips,  ve-uh't6N',  (Henri,)  a  Belgian  mu- 
sician, born  at  Verviers  about  1820,  has  attained  a  very 
high  reputation  as  a  violinist. 

Vieweg,  fee'wac,  (Hans  Friedrich,)  a  German 
bookseller  and  publisher,  born  at  Halle  in  1 761,  founded 
in  1786  an  establishment  at  Berlin,  from  which  he  issued 
superior  editions  of  the  German  classics.  He  numbered 
among  his  friends  Herder,  Goethe,  and  Wieland.  Died 
in  1835. 

Vieyra.    See  Vieira. 

Vigand.    See  Wigand. 

Vigee,  ve'zhi^  (Louis  Jean  Baptiste  Btienne,)  a 
mediocre  French  litterateur,  born  in  Paris  in  1758,  was  a 
brother  of  the  artiste  Madame  Le  Brun.  He  wrote 
numerous  poems  and  dramas.    Died  in  1820. 

Vigee,  Madame.    See  Le  Brun. 

Viger,  ve'zha',  [Lat.  Vige'rius,]  (FRANgois,)  a  French 
Jesuit,  born  at  Rouen.  He  published  an  able  work 
"On  the  Principal  Idioms  of  the  Greek  Language," 
(*'  De  Idiotismis  praecipuis  Linguae  Grsecae,"  1632.) 
"It  contains  many  valuable  criticisms,"  says  Hallam. 
{"  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.")  Died 
in  1647. 

Viger  van  Zuichm.    See  Ayta. 
Vigerius.    See  Viger. 
Vigilance.    See  Vigilantius. 

Vigilantius,  vij-e-Ian'she-us,  [Fr.  Vigilance,  ve'- 
zhe'lSNss',]  a  liberal  Christian  writer  of  Spain  or  Gaul, 
flourished  about  400  a.d.  He  opposed  the  worship  of 
relics,  the  celibacy  of  priests,  and  several  ascetic  prac- 
tices of  the  Catholics.  Saint  Jerome  wrote  a  book  against 
his  doctrines. 

Vigilantius,  vij-e-lan'she-us,  [Fr.  Vigilance,  ve'zhe'- 
16nss',J  (Puhlius,)  a  scholaTand  poet,  was  born  at  Stras- 
burg.  He  became  professor  of  poetry  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder,  where  he  also  taught  Greek.  He  visited 
Italy  and  other  countries  in  search  of  ancient  manu- 


scripts, and  on  his  return  was  murdered  in  Suabia  in 
1 5 12. 

Vi-giFi-us,  [Fr.  Vigile,  ve'zh^l',]  an  orthodox  African 
bishop  of  Thapsus,  was  deprived  of  his  see  in  484  A.D. 
by  Huneric,  the  Vandal  king.  He  afterwards,  lived  in 
Europe,  and  wrote  several  works  which  he  endeavoured 
to  make  pass  for  the  productions  of  Athanasius,  Augus* 
tine,  and  other  eminent  Fathers. 

Vigilius,  [Fr.  Vigile,]  a  native  of  Rome,  became 
pope  in  537  A.D.,  in  opposition  to  Sylverius,  whom  Beli- 
sarius  had  banished.  He  died  in  554  A.D.,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Pelagius  I. 

Vigiu,  da.    See  Lunghi,  (Silla.) 

Viglius.    See  Ayta. 

Vigne,  de,  deh  v^n,  (F6lix,)  a  Belgian  painter,  born 
in  Ghent  in  1806. 

Vigne,  de,  (Pierre,)  a  Belgian  sculptor,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Ghent  in  1812.  He  studied 
in  Rome,  (1837-41.) 

Vigne,  de  la,  deh  Itv^n,  (Andr6,)  a  French  historian 
and  mediocre  poet,  born  about  1450.  He  wrote  an  ac- 
count of  the  expedition  of  Charles  VIII.  to  Naples,  in 
a  work  called  "  Le  Vergier  d'Honneur."  Died  about 
1527. 

Vigne,  delle,  (Pietro.)    See  Vineis. 
Vigne,  La.    See  La  Vigne. 

Vignendre,  de,  deh  v6n'yeh-naiR',  (Blaise,)  a  French 
writer  and  translator,  born  in  Bourbonnais  in  1523,  be- 
came private  secretary  to  Henry  HI.  His  works  have 
fallen  into  oblivion  which  is  said  to  be  merited.  Died 
in  1596. 

Vigneron.    See  Veneronl 

Vigneul-Marville.    See  Argonne,  d'. 

Vignier,  v^n\e-i',  (Jerome,)  a  French  numismatist 
and  scholar,  was  born  at  Blois  in  1606;  died  in  1661. 

Vignier,  (Nicolas,)  a  French  historian  and  physician, 
born  at  Bar-sur-Seine  in  1530.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Historical  Library,"  ("  La  Bibliotheque 
historiale,"  3  vols.,  1588.)    Died  in  1596. 

His  son  Nicolas,  born  about  1575,  was  a  Protestant 
minister,  and  wrote  against  popery.  Died  at  Blois  about 
1645. 

Vignola,  da,  dS  v6n'yo-lS,  [Fr.  Vignole,  ven'yoK,] 
(GiACOMO  Barozzio,  bi-rot'se-o,  or  Baroccio,)  an 
eminent  Italian  architect,  born  at  Vignola  in  1507.  After 
having  studied  at  Rome,  he  visited  France  in  company 
with  Primaticcio,  and  was  employed  after  his  return  in 
various  public  works  at  Bologna,  Piacenza,  and  other 
towns.  He  was  subsequently  patronized  by  Pope  Julius 
II.,  who  made  him  his  architect  and  employed  him  to 
construct  the  Villa  Giulia.  The  palace  at  Caprarola, 
near  Rome,  built  for  the  cardinal  Alexander  Farnese, 
is  regarded  as  his  master-piece.  In  1564  Vignola  suc- 
ceeded Michael  Angelo  as  architect  of  Saint  Peter's. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  the  five  orders  of 
architecture,  entitled  "  Regole  delle  cinque  Ordini 
d'Architettura,"  (1563,)  which  is  esteemed  a  standard 
work,  and  "Rules  of  Practical  Perspective,"  (1583.) 
Died  in  1573. 

See  Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  etc.  ;  Milizia,  "  Vite  degli 
Architetti  ;"  QuATREMfeRE  de  Quincy,  "  Histoire  des  plus  celebres 
Architectes." 

Vignole.    See  Vignola. 

Vignoles.    See  Lahire,  (^tienne.) 

Vignoles,  des,  di  v^n'yoK,  (Alphonse,)  a  French 
Protestant  divine,  born  in  Languedoc  in  1649,  became 
minister  of  the  church  at  Copenick,  near  Berlin,  about 
1702.  His  most  important  work  is  a  "  Chronology  of 
Sacred  History,  and  other  Histories,  from  the  Dej^arture 
out  of  Egypt  to  the  Captivity  of  Babylon,"  (in  French, 
1738.)  He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Berlin.    Died  in  1744. 

Vignoli,  v^n'yo-lee,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  antiquary 
and  numismatist,  born  in  Tuscany  about  i68d.  He 
became  librarian  of  the  Vatican  in  1720.    Died  in  1753. 

VignoUe,  de,  deh  v^n'yoK,  (Martin,)  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  in  Languedoc  in  1763.  He  became  a  general 
of  division  in  1803,  and  chief  of  the  staff  of  the  army  of 
Italy  in  1809.    Died  in  1824. 

Vigny,  de,  deh  v^n'ye',  (Alfred  Victor,)  Comte, 
a  French  writer  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Loches, 
in  the  department  of  Indre-et-Loire,  in  March,  1799. 


-e  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  gutttirat;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.; 


nCO  2198  VILLARET 


He  published  in  1828  his  "Ancient  and  Modern  Poems," 
("  Poemes  antiques  et  modernes,")  a  collection  of  pieces 
which  had  previously  appeared  in  Parisian  periodicals. 
His  other  principal  works  are  a  historical  romance  en- 
titled "  Cinq-Mars,  or  a  Conspiracy  under  Louis  XIII.," 
(1826,)  which  was  received  with  great  favour  and  has 
been  translated  into  several  languages,  "  Stella,  or  the 
Blue  Devils,"  a  prose  narrative,  and  the  tragedy  of 
"  Chatterton,"  (1835,)  which  met  with  brilliant  success. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1845. 
In  early  life  he  married  a  rich  English  lady,  Lydia  Bun- 
bury.    Died  in  1863. 

See  G.  Planche,  "  Portraits  litteraires ;"  L.  de  Lomenie,  "  M. 
A.  de  Vigny,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien,"  1841  ;  Sainte-Beuve, 
''Portraits  contemporains ;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  Generale ;" 
"Westminster  Review"  for  April,  1838. 

Vigo,  di,  dee  vee'go,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  Italian 
surgeon,  born  at  Genoa,  lived  about  1510,  practised  at 
Rome,  and  wrote  on  surgery. 

Vigor,  ve'goR',  (Simon,)  a  French  prelate,  born  at 
Evreux  about  1515.  He  was  court  preacher  to  Charles 
IX.,  and  Archbishop  of  Narbonne.    Died  in  1575. 

Vig^'ors,  (Nicholas  Ayl'^ward,)  a  naturalist,  born 
in  the  county  of  Carlow,  Ireland,  in  1787,  was  the  first 
secretary  of  the  Zoological  Society,  to  the  "Transac- 
tions" of  which  he  contributed  a  number  of  treatises. 
Died  in  1840. 

Viguier,  ve'ge-a',  (Adrien,)  a  French  novelist  and 
dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1793. 

Viguier,  (Pierre  Franqois,)  a  French  Orientalist, 
born  at  Besangon  in  1745  ;  died  in  Paris  in  1821. 

Viguier,  de,  deh  ve'ge-a',  (Paule,)  a  French  lady, 
celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  virtue,  was  born  at  Tou- 
louse in  1 5 18.  She  was  married  to  the  Baron  de  Fonte- 
nille.    Died  in  1610. 

Vikram^ditya  (v!k-ra-m§.'d!t-ya)  I.,  a  celebrated 
Hindoo  sovereign,  who,  about  the  year  56  B.C.,  as  is 
supposed,  defeated  the  Tartar  hordes  who  had  taken 
possession  of  Northern  Hindostan  and  drove  them 
beyond  the  Indus.  There  is  good  ground  to  believe 
that  the  reign  of  this  prince  was  equal  in  splendour  to 
that  of  any  other  monarch  that  ever  lived.  His  dominion 
extended  over  the  whole  of  Northern  Hindostan.  The 
capital  of  his  vast  empire  was  Ujjayini,  (now  Oojein.) 
He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  literature  and  science.  Nine 
illustrious  men  of  genius,  called  in  Oriental  phrase  the 
"nine  gems,"  adorned  his  court  and  were  supported  by 
his  bounty.  Among  these  was  the  immortal  Kalidasa, 
who  has  been  styled  "the  Shakspeare  of  India."  (See 
Kalidasa.)  The  reign  of  Vikramaditya  is  commonly 
considered  to  mark  an  important  era  in  the  history  of 
India;  but  there  is  much  uncertainty  as  to  the  actual 
time  in  which  he  lived. 

See  the  Introduction  to  Professor  Williams's  translation  of 
"  Sakoontala,"  Hertford,  1856. 

Vilain  (ve^liw^  XIIII.,  (Charles  Ghislain  Guil- 
Laume,)  Vicomte,  a  Belgian  politician,  born  at  Brus- 
sels in  1803.  He  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  from 
March,  1855,  to  1857,  having  previously  been  ambassador 
to  different  courts  of  Italy. 

Vilain  XIIII.,  (Jean  Jacques  Philippe,)  Vi- 
COMPE,  a  Belgian  financier,  born  at  Alost  in  1712.  He 
originated  the  penitentiary  system  of  Belgium.  Died 
ini777. 

Vilate,  ve'ltt',  (Joachim.)  a  French  Jacobin,  born  in 
1768,  was  imprisoned  in  1794,  and  executed  in  1795. 

Vili,  viKe,  \i.e.  "  will,"]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  a 
brother  of  Odin,  whom  he  assisted  in  the  creation  of  the 
world.  By  some  he  is  identified  with  Hoenir,  (which 
see.) 

Villa,  v^Kia,  (Angelo  Teodoro,)  an  Italian  Hel- 
lenist, born  near  Pavia  about  1720.  He  was  professor 
of  Greek  at  Pavia,  and  translated  several  Greek  works. 
Died  in  1794. 

Villa,  di,  de  v^Kia,  or  Ville,  v6l,  (G.  Francesco,) 
Marquis,  an  Italian  general,  commancled  the  Venetian 
army  at  the  siege  of  Candia,  (1666.)    Died  about  1668. 

Villalobos,  de,  di  v^l-ya-lo'uds,  (Francisco,)  a 
S])anish  physician  and  poet,  born  at  Toledo  about  1480. 
He  wrote  a  medical  treatise  in  verse,  called  "  Summary 
of  Medicine,"  ("  Sumario  de  la  Medicina,"  1498,)  and 


other  works.  He  was  employed  as  physician  to  Charles 
V.  while  that  monarch  resided  in  Spain.  It  is  stated 
that  he  retired  from  court  a  poor  man  about  1540.  Died 
about  1560. 

Villalpandi,  v^l-ySl-pinMee,  or  Villalpando,  v^l- 
yil-pin'do,  or,  more  fully,  de  Torreblanca  (di  toR-ri- 
blin'ki)  y  Villalpandi,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  jurist, 
born  at  Cordova;  died  about  1645. 

Villalpandi,  (Juan  Bautista,)  a  Spanish  Jesuit  and 
mathematician,  an  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Cordova  in  1552.  He  wrote  a  commentary  on  Ezekiel. 
Died  in  1608. 

Villamediana,  de,  dk  vfel-yi-ma-De-i^nl,  Count,  a 
Spanish  courtier  and  poet,  distinguished  for  his  ac- 
complishments and  wit.  He  was  assassinated  in  the 
street  of  Madrid  in  1621  by  an  unknown  hand.  His 
death  was  ascribed  by  some  to  the  jealousy  of  the  king. 
Villamediana  had  expressed  admiration  of  the  queen, 
Elizabeth  of  France. 

Villamene,  v^l-lS-ma'na,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian 
engraver,  born  at  Assisi  about  1588.  He  died  at  Rome 
at  the  age  of  sixty. 

Villandon.    See  L'H^ritier. 

Villani,  v^l-l^^iee,  (Filippo,)  an  Italian  historian  and 
biographer,  son  of  Matteo,  noticed  below,  was  the  author 
of  lives  of  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  other  eminent  Floren- 
tines, (in  Latin,)  also  a  work  on  the  origin  of  the  French 
kings,  ("De  Origine  Regum  Frawcorum.")  Died  about 
1404. 

Villani,  (Giovanni,)  an  eminent  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Florence  about  1280.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"  History  of  Florence  from  its  Origin  down  to  his  Own 
Time,"  (12  books,  1554,  in  Italian.)  It  is  highly  es- 
teemed for  the  simplicity  and  elegance  of  its  style.  He 
was  elected  to  the  high  office  of  prior  in  13 16  and  in 
1321.    Died  in  1348. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"' for  July,  1813. 

Villani,  (Matteo,)  brother  of  the  preceding,  con- 
tinued the  "  History  of  Florence"  down  to  1363,  in  which 
year  he  died.  His  work  is  commended  for  accuracy  and 
truthfulness. 

Villa  Nova  or  Villanovanus.    See  Arnaldus. 

Villanueva,  de,  da  vel-yi-nwa'vi,  (Joaquin  Lo- 
renzo,) a  Spanish  statesman  and  patriot,  born  in  the 
province  of  Valencia  in  1757.  Having  been  ordained  a 
priest,  he  was  appointed  court  preacher  at  Madrid  and 
confessor  at  the  royal  chapel.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Cortes  in  1810,  and  published,  soon  after,  a  defence  of 
constitutionalism  from  the  philosophy  of  Aquinas,  en- 
titled "Angelicas  Fuentes,  6  el  Tomista  en  las  Cortes." 
After  the  return  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  he  was  confined 
several  years  in  a  monastery.  The  constitutional  gov- 
ernment having  been  overthrown  in  1823,  he  removed 
to  Ireland,  where  he  died  in  1837.  He  was  the  author 
of  the  "Spanish  Christian  Year,"  (19  vols.,)  being  an 
account  of  the  Spanish  church  festivals,  etc.,  a  treatise 
in  favour  of  reading  the  Scriptures  in  the  common  lan- 
guages, entitled  "  De  la  Leccion  de  la  sagrada  Escritura 
en  Lenguas  vulgares,"  and  a  Latin  dissertation  on  the 
Phoenician  colonization  of  Ireland,  etc.  He  also  trans- 
lated Paley's  "Natural  Theology,"  and  other  English 
works,  into  Spanish.  His  brother  Jaime,  born  in  1765, 
was  the  author  of  a  "Literary  Tour  to  the  Churches  of 
Spain,"  (unfinished.)    Jaime  died  in  London  in  1824. 

See  Joaquin  Lorenzo's  Autobiography,  entitled  "Vida  literaria 
de  J.  L.  Villanueva,"  2  vols.,  1825. 

Villar,  vfe^ytR^  (Noel  Gabriel  Luce,)  a  French 
bishop,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1748.  As  a  member  of  the 
Convention,  (1792-95,)  he  promoted  education  and  liter- 
ary interests.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
Died  in  1826. 

Villareal.    See  Fernandez  Villareal. 

Villaret,  v^'yt'ri',  (Claude,)  a  French  liUeratetir, 
born  in  Paris  about  1720,  was  the  author  of  several 
dramas  and  fictitious  works,  and  wrote  a  continuation  of 
Velly's  "History  of  France."  He  treated  of  the  period 
from  1329  to  1469.    Died  in  1766. 

Villaret,  de,  deh  ve'yfr.V,  (Foulques,)  a  French 
commander,  was  chosen  grand  master  of  the  order  of 
Malta  in  1307.  He  captured  Rhodes  in  13 10,  and  re- 
signed his  office  in  1319.    Died  in  1327. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T.  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


VILLARET 


2199 


FILLEGAS 


Villaret  de  Joyeuse,  ve'yt'ri''  deh  zhwcVyuz', 
(Louis  Thomas,)  Count,  a  French  vice-admiral,  born 
at  Auch  in  1750.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1766,  and  be- 
came rear-admiral  in  1 793.  He  gave  jjroof  of  skill  and 
courage  in  a  battle  against  the  British  admiral  Howe, 
which  began  May  29  and  ended  June  i,  1794.  Villaret, 
who  commanded  in  this  action,  lost  about  seven  ships. 
In  June,  1795,  he  was  defeated  by  Lord  Bridport,  who 
had  a  superior  force.  He  commanded  the  naval  forces 
sent  to  conquer  Saint  Domingo  in  1801,  and  was  captain- 
general  of  Martinique  from  1802  to  1809,  when  it  was 
taken  by  the  English.    Died  in  1812. 

See  Thiers,  "History  of  the  French  Revolution;"  Lacroix, 
"Eloge  de  rAmiral  Villaret  de  Joyeuse,"  1824;  Kerguei.en,  "  His- 
toire  des  Guerres  maritimes  entrela  France  et  I'Angleterre ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale." 

Villars,  ve'yta'  or  v^KytR',  (Dominique,)  a  French 
botanist,  born  in  Dauphine  in  1745,  studied  medicine, 
and  took  his  degree  in  1778.  He  was  appointed  in  1805 
professor  of  medicine  and  botany  at  Strasbourg.  He 
published  a  "Natural  History  of  the  Plants  of  Dau- 
phine," (with  65  plates,  4  vols.,  1786,)  and  other  botanical 
works,  also  "  Principles  of  Medicine  and  Surgery," 
The  genus  Villarsia  was  named  in  his  honour.  Died 
in  1814. 

See  Ladoucette,  "  Notice  de  M.  Villars,"  1818. 

Villars,  de,  deh  ve^ytR'  or  v^l'ytR',  (Claude  Louis 
Hector,)  Due,  a  famous  French  general,  born  at  Mou- 
lins  in  1653,  was  a  son  of  General  Pierre  de  Villars, 
noticed  below.  He  had  a  handsome  form,  and  personal 
advantages  which,  with  his  courage  and  high  spirit,  early 
attracted  the  notice  of  Louis  XIV.  For  his  conduct  at 
Senef,  in  1674,  he  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel.  He 
served  in  Flanders  and  Alsace  from  that  year  until  the 
peace  of  1678,  after  which  he  was  employed  in  diplo- 
matic missions  to  Vienna  and  Munich.  Having  returned 
to  Paris  about  1688,  he  obtained  the  favour  of  Madame 
de  Maintenon  and  Louvois,  who  appointed  him  com- 
missary-general of  cavalry,  in  1689.  He  became  a 
lieutenant-general  in  1693,  and  served  several  campaigns 
near  the  Rhine  in  the  war  which  was  ended  by  the  peace 
of  Ryswick,  in  1697.  In  1698  he  was  sent  as  ambassa- 
dor to  Vienna,  where  he  displayed  much  finesse,  and 
adroitly  counteracted  the  intrigues  of  the  Austrian 
court  in  relation  to  the  Spanish  succession.  The  war 
of  the  Spanish  succession  began  in  1701,  and  Villars  re- 
turned to  Paris.  He  married  Mademoiselle  de  Varange- 
ville  in  1702.  Having  been  appointed  commander  of 
an  army  sent  to  aid  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  he  gained  a 
victory  on  the  Rhine  in  October,  1702,  and  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  marshal  of  France  in  the  same  year.  In 
1704  he  subdued  the  Camisards,  Protestants  of  Cevennes, 
who  had  revolted.  For  this  service  he  received  the 
title  of  duke  in  1705.  He  is  praised  by  several  English 
writers  for  his  humanity  to  the  Camisards.  He  obtained 
in  April,  1705,  command  of  the  army  of  the  Moselle, 
with  which  he  took  Lauterburg  and  Haguenau  in  1706, 
and  invaded  Wiirtemberg  in  1707.  In  January,  1709, 
he  took  command  of  the  army -in  Flanders,  where  he 
was  opposed  to  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  and  Prince 
Eugene.  He  was  defeated  by  them  at  the  great  battle 
of  Malplaquet,  (1709,)  having  in  the  early  part  of  the 
action  received  a  wound  which  disabled  him  for  some 
months.  This  victory  was  dearly  bought  to  the  allies, 
who  lost  about  20,000  men.  Villars  was  compelled,  by 
want  of  men  and  money,  to  remain  on  the  defensive 
in  1711.  He  commanded  with  success  against  Prince 
Eugene,  who  invaded  France  in  1712.  The  French 
gained  a  victory  at  Denain,  took  Douai  and  Bouchain, 
and  compelled  the  enemy  to  retreat  to  Brussels.  After 
the  treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713)  ensued  a  long  peace.  Villars 
had  great  influence  at  court  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  council  of  state  in  the  reign 
of  Louis  XV.  He  was  one  of  the  most  fortunate,  as 
well  as  most  able,  French  generals  of  his  time.  Died  at 
Turin  in  1734. 

See  "  M^moires  de  Villars,"  (partly  written  by  himself,)  3 
vols.,  1734;  Peyssonnel,  "£loge  de  Villars,"  1734;  Anquetil, 
"Vie  dii  Marechal  de  Villars,"  4  vols.,  1784  ;  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de 
Louis  XIV  ;"  Saint-Simon,  "  Memoires  ;"  Dangeau,  "Journal 
Sainte-Bruve,  "Causeries  du  Lundi;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio.^t.iphie 
G^n^rale." 


Villars,  de,  (Honors  A rmand,)  Prince  de  Martigues, 
born  in  1702,  was  a  son  of  Marshal  Villars.  He  became 
governor  of  Provence,  and  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1734.  His  talents  were  only  ordinary. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Voltaire.    Died  in  1770. 

Villars,  de,  (Montfaucon,  mdNTo'koN',)  Abbe,  a 
French  ecclesiastic,  born  near  Toulouse  in  1635,  settled 
in  Paris,  where  he  became  celebrated  as  a  pulpit  orator. 
He  published  in  1670  a  satirical  work,  entitled  "  Con- 
versations of  the  Count  de  Gabalis,"  ("Entretiens  du 
Comte  de  Gabalis,")  for  which  he  was  forbidden  the 
pulpit.    He  was  killed  by  robbers  in  1673. 

Villars,  de,  (Pierre,)  a  French  general  and  diplo- 
matist, born  in  1623,  was  the  father  of  Marshal  Villars. 
He  served  in  Italy  under  the  Prince  of  Conti.  On  ac- 
count of  the  enmity  of  Louvois,  he  left  the  army  and 
became  a  diplomatist.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Spain  in  1672,  and  to  Denmark  in  1683.  Died  in  1698. 
His  wife,  Marie  Gigault  de  Bellefonds,  (ge'g5'  deh 
bSrf6N',)  born  in  1624,  was  distinguished  for  intelligence 
and  wit.  She  wrote  Letters,  which  were  published  in 
1759.    Died  in  1706. 

Villars-Brancas.    See  Brancas,  (Andre.) 

Villaviciosa,  de,  dk  v^l-yS-ve-//ie-o'sS,  (Jos]^,)  a 
Spanish  poet  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Siguenza  in  1589, 
was  appointed  in  1628  Inquisitor  of  the  kingdom  of 
Murcia.  His  principal  work  is  the  "  Battle  of  the  Flies," 
("La  Mosquea,")  a  mock-heroic  poem.    Died  in  1658. 

Ville,  de,  deh  v^l,  (Antoine,)  a  French  military  en- 
gineer and  writer  on  fortification,  born  at  Toulouse  in 
1596  ;  died  in  1656. 

Villebrune.    See  Lefebvre,  (Jean  Baptiste.) 

Villedieu,  de,  deh  v^Kde-uh',  (Marie  Catherine 
HoRTENSE  Desjardius — da^zhtiiM^N',)  Madame,  a 
French  authoress,  born  near  Fougeres  in  163 1.  She 
wrote  verses  and  novels  which  were  once  popular.  Died 
in  1683. 

Villefore,  de,  deh  vcITor',  (Joseph  Francois  Bour- 
GOIN,)  a  French  biographer,  born  in  Paris  in  1652.  He 
wrote  a  "Life  of  Saint  Bernard,"  (1704,)  and  lives  of 
other  saints.    Died  in  1737. 

Villefosse.    See  Hi^ron  de  Villefosse. 

Villefroy,  de,  deh  ve^fRvva^  (Guillaume,)  a  French 
Orientalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1690.  He  founded  in  1744 
a  society  of  linguists,  called  Capucins  hebraisants,  who 
sought  to  explain  the  prophecies  of  Scripture  by  a  double 
literal  sense.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Paris 
in  1752.    Died  in  1777. 

Villegagnon,  de,  deh  v^rgtn'y6N',  (Nicolas  Du- 
rand,)  Chevalier,  a  French  admiral,  born  at  or  near 
Provins  in  1 5 10,  was  a  nephew  of  Villiers  de  ITsle  Adam, 
grand  master  of  the  order  of  Malta.  He  commanded 
the  vessel  which  conveyed  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  to 
France  in  1548.  He  proposed  to  found  in  Brazil  a 
French  colony  where  the  Protestants  could  enjoy  re- 
ligious liberty,  and  obtained  the  patronage  of  Admiral 
Coligny  for  that  enterprise.  In  1555  he  conducted  a 
party  of  emigrants  in  two  vessels  to  Brazil.  He  did 
not  succeed  in  forming  a  permanent  colony,  and  he 
returned  to  France,  where  he  was  censured  for  his 
mismanagement.    Died  in  1 57 1. 

See  "  Navigation  de  Villegagnon  en  1555,"  iSS7  :  NiC^RON,"  Me- 
moires ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Villegas,  de,  dk  v^;l-ya'gls,  (Alonso,)  a  Spanish 
writer  of  romance,  born  at  Toledo,  flourished  about 
1550.  He  wrote  "  Selvaggia,"  which  is  an  imitation  of 
the  "  Celestina." 

Villegas,  de,  (Antonio.,)  a  Spanish  poet,  lived  about 
1550.    A  volume  of  his  poems  was  published  in  1565. 

See  Longfellow,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Villegas,  de,  (Estevan  Manuel,)  a  celebrated  lyric 
poet  of  Spain,  born  in  Old  Castile  in  1596,  published  a 
collection  of  poems  entitled  "  Amatorias,"  (1620.)  He 
also  translated  Horace  and  Anacreon  into  Spanish  verse, 
and  made  a  prose  translation  of  Boethius.  Died  in  1669. 

"The  graceful  luxuriance  of  the  poetry  of  Villegas," 
says  Bouterwek,  "  has  no  parallel  in  modern  literature  ; 
and,  generally  speaking,  no  modern  writer  has  so  well 
succeeded  in  blending  the  spirit  of  ancient  poetry  with 
the  modern." 

See  Ti'CKNOR,  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature." 


«  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  H,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in,  tkds^    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VILLEGAS 


2200 


FILLENE  UFE 


Villegas,  de;  (Fernando  Ruiz,)  a  Soanish  writer  of 
Latin  verse,  born  at  Burgos,  lived  about  1 500-1 530.  He 
became  governor  of  Burgos,  and  was  a  friend  of  Erasmus. 
He  left  many  elegant  Latin  poems,  which  remained  in 
manuscript  until  1743. 

See  Vicente  de  los  Rios,  "  Memorias  de  la  Vida  de  F.  Ruiz  de 
Villegas,"  1774. 

Villegas,  de,  (Francisco.)    See  Quevedo. 

Villegas,  de,  (Pero  Fernandez,)  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  in  1453,  became  Archdeacon  of  Burgos.  He  trans- 
lated Dante's  "  Inferno"  into  Spanish  verse,  (15 15.) 
Died  in  1525. 

Villehardouin,  de,  deb  v^l'tR^doo-iN^,  (Geoffroy,) 
a  French  diplomatist  and  historian,  born  at  Arcis-sur- 
Aube  about  1 165.  He  was  sent  in  1201,  by  Thibault, 
Count  of  Champagne,  to  solicit  aid  from  the  Venetians 
in  fitting  out  a  crusade,  in  which  mission  he  was  suc- 
cessful. In  1204  he  assisted  in  the  siege  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  afterwards  wrote  an  interesting  account  of  it, 
entitled  "The  History  of  the  Capture  of  Constantinople 
by  the  French  and  Venetians."  It  is  supposed  to  be 
the  oldest  prose  history  in  the  French  language,  and  is 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  valuable  records  of  the  time. 
Died  about  1213. 

See  MiCHAUD,  "  History  of  the  Crusades." 

Villele,  de,  deh  ve^laK,  (Joseph,)  Count,  a  French 
statesman,  born  at  Toulouse  in  1773.  In  1815  he  repre- 
sented the  department  of  Haute-Garonne  in  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies,  where  he  was  a  prominent  advocate  of 
the  ultra-royalist  party.  After  the  fall  of  the  Decazes 
ministry,  he  became  minister  of  state  in  1820,  and  of 
finance  in  1821.  He  was  appointed  president  of  the 
council  (prime  minister)  in  September,  1822.  His  talents 
for  administration  were  respectable,  but  he  was  not 
capable  of  grand  views  and  genuine  statesmanship.  He 
rendered  himself  unpopular  by  illiberal  and  reactionary 
measures,  and  was  removed  from  office  in  January,  1828. 
Died  in  1854. 

See  De  Neuville,  "Notice  sur  M.  de  Villele,"  1855;  L.  de 
LoMENiE,  "  M.  de  Villele,  par  iin  Homme  de  Rien,"  1841  :  La- 
MARTiNE,  "History  of  the  Restoration;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Villemain,  vJKmiN^  (Abel  Francois,)  a  celebrated 
French  critic,  orator,  and  minister  of  state,  born  in  Paris 
on  the  9th  of  June,  1790.  He  was  educated  at  the  Im- 
perial Lyceum,  (College  Louis-le-Grand,)  and  was  a 
pupil  in  rhetoric  of  Luce  de  Lancival.  About  1810 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  I^ycee 
Charlemagne  by  M.  de  Fontanes.  He  gained  a  prize 
offered  by  the  Institute,  in  1812,  for  his  "  Eloge  de  Mon- 
taigne," in  which  he  displayed  a  great  power  of  general- 
ization and  an  excellent  gift  of  harmonious  language. 
He  produced,  in  1814,  a  "Discourse  on  the  Advantages 
and  Inconveniences  of  Criticism,"  which  was  crowned 
by  the  French  Academy.  In  18 16  he  became  professor 
of  French  eloquence  at  the  University  of  Paris,  and 
wrote  an  "  ^Eloge  de  Montesquieu."  He  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  professor  and  critic.  Blending  in  his 
lectures  literary  analysis,  biography,  spicy  anecdotes, 
ingenious  judgments  in  detail,  and  profound  generalities, 
he  gave  to  them  the  form  of  eloquent  conversation.  As 
a  critic,  he  was  liberal,  impartial,  and  disposed  to  appre- 
ciate merit,  in  whatever  nation  or  school  it  appeared. 
He  was  appointed  master  of  requests  to  the  council  of 
state  in  1818,  published  a  "  History  of  Cromwell,"  (2 
vols.,  1819,)  and  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy 
in  1821.  Having  avowed  liberal  political  opinions,  he 
was  deprived  of  the  office  of  master  of  requests  in  1827. 
Under  the  new  regime  he  became  a  peer  of  France  in 
1832,  president  of  the  royal  council  of  public  instruction 
in  1834,  and  perpetual  secretary  of  the  French  Academy 
in  the  same  year.  He  published  his  "  Lectures  on  French 
Literature,"  ("  Cours  de  Litterature  Fran9aise,"  5  vols., 
1828-38,)  which  is  considered  his  principal  work.  He 
was  minister  of  public  instruction  from  May,  1839,  to 
March,  1840,  and  held  the  same  office  in  the  cabinet  of 
juizot  from  October,  1840,  to  December,  1844.  After 
he  revolution  of  1848  he  took  no  part  in  politics.  He 
:ontributed  many  admirable  articles  to  the  "  Biograi^hie 
Universelle"  and  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 
Among  his  numerous  works  we  notice  "  Discours  et 


Melanges  Htteraires,"  (1823,)  and  "Studies  of  Ancient 
and  Foreign  Literature,"  (1846.)    Died  in  May,  1870. 

M.  Villemain  is  generally  recognized  as  one  of  the 
most  accomplished  writers  of  his  time.  His  style  is 
admirable,  and  his  works  present  a  happy  union  of  mod- 
eration with  independence,  while  they  preserve  a  due 
equilibrium  between  reason  and  imagination. 

See  L.  DE  LoMENiE,  "M.  Villemain,  par  un  Homme  de  Rien," 
1841  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Portraits  contemporains,"  and  "Canseries 
du  Lundi  ;"  F.  Z.  Collombet,  "  M.  Villemain,  de  ses  Opinions 
religieuses,"  etc.,  1844;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale;"  "  Fra- 
ser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1854. 

Villemessant,  v^l'ma^sSN',  (Jean  Hippolyte  Car- 
tier,)  a  French  journalist,  born  at  Rouen  in  1812.  He 
supported  the  Legitimist  party,  and  began  to  publish 
the  "  Figaro"  in  Paris  in  1854. 

Villemot,  v^l'mo',  (Philippe,)  a  French  astronomer 
and  priest,  born  at  Chalons-sur-Saone  in  165 1.  He 
published  in  1707  a  "New  System  or  Explanation  of 
the  Movements  of  the  Planets."    Died  in  1713. 

Villena,  de,  di  v^l-ya'ni,  (Don  Enrique,)  Marquis, 
a  celebrated  Spanish  scholar  and  writer,  born  in  1384, 
was  related  to  the  royal  families  of  Castile  and  Aragon. 
His  extraordinary  attainments  in  science  procured  for 
him  among  his  contemporaries  the  reputation  of  a  necro- 
mancer. He  translated  Virgil's  "^^ineid"  and  Dante's 
poems  into  Spanish,  and  wrote  several  original  works, 
among  which  is  "Gaya  Sciencia."    Died  in  1434. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  i. 
part  i. 

Villena,  de,  (Juan  Pacheco — pS-cha'ko,)  Marquis, 
a  Spanish  courtier,  became  the  favourite  and  chief 
minister  of  Henry  IV.  of  Castile  about  1454.  He  was 
a  man  of  great  abilities  and  ambition,  and  acquired  an 
entire  ascendency  over  the  imbecile  king.  After  the 
malcontent  nobles  formed  a  league  against  Henry  IV., 
(1460,)  Villena  was  supplanted  in  the  royal  favour  by 
Bertrand  de  la  Cueva  ;  but  he  retained  his  power  by 
joining  the  nobles  who  had  revolted,  and  who  deposed 
Henry  in  1464.    Died  in  1474. 

Villenave,  v^l'ntv',  (Mathieu  Guillaume  Th6- 
rese,)  a  French  litterateur  and  journalist,  born  in  Lan- 
guedoc  in  1762.  He  practised  as  an  advocate  during 
the  Revolution,  and  was  imprisoned  in  1793-94  on  sus- 
picion of  moderantisMe.  He  edited  several  journals  of 
Paris  under  the  republic  and  restoration,  wrote  many 
articles  for  the  "Biographie  Universelle,"  and  produced 
a  translation  of  Ovid's  "  Metamorphoses,"  (4  vols.,  1807 
-22,)  which  was  received  with  favour,  and  various  other 
works.    Died  in  Paris  in  1846. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litteraire  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale." 

Villenave,  (Th^:odore,)  a  French  litterateur,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Nantes  in  1798.  He  pro- 
duced, besides  other  works,  a  drama,  called  "  Walstein," 
(1828,)  and  "  Constantine,"  a  poem,  (1837.) 

Villeneuve,  de,  (Arnaud.)  See  Arnaldus  Villa- 
novanus. 

Villeneuve,  de,  deh  veKnuv',  (Christophe,)  a 
French  soldier,  born  in  1541,  served  with  distinction 
under  Henry  III.,  Henry  IV.,  and  Louis  XIII.  Died 
in  1615. 

Villeneuve,  de,  (Gabrielle  Susanne  Barbot — 
btR^bo',)  a  French  novelist,  born  about  1695.  She  died 
in  1755- 

Villeneuve,  de,  (Guillaume,)  a  French  soldier  and 
writer  of  the  fifteenth  century,  accompanied  Charles 
VIII.  in  his  Italian  campaign,  and  was  the  author  of 
"Memoirs  of  the  Conquest  of  Naples,"  (1497.) 

Villeneuve,  de,  (H^;lion  or  £lion,  a''le'AN',)  was 
born  in  1270.  Having  entered  the  order  of  Saint  John 
of  Jerusalem,  he  was  elected  grand  master  of  Rhodes 
in  13 19.    Died  in  1346. 

Villeneuve,  de,  (Huon,  Jm'b^',)  a  French  poet 
under  the  reign  of  Philip  Augustus,  was  the  author  of 
"  Les  quatre  Fils  d'Aymon,"  and  other  works. 

Villeneuve,  de,  (Louis,)  a  French  general,  born 
about  1450,  was  appointed  by  Charles  VIII.  commander 
of  the  army  sent  against  Naples.  He  was  subsequently 
employed  on  important  missions  to  Rome,  and  in  1505 
was  created  a  marquis  by  Louis  XII.,  being  the  first  who 
received  that  title  in  France.    Died  in  1516. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


VILLENEVVE 


220I 


FILLOISON 


Villeneuve,  de,  (Pierre  Charles  Jean  Baptiste 
SiLVESTRE,)  a  French  admiral,  born  at  Valensoles 
(Basses- Alpes)  in  1763.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  American  war,  became  a  rear-admiral  in  1796,  and 
commanded  the  right  wing  of  the  fleet  which  was 
defeated  by  Nelson  at  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  in  1798. 
With  the  rank  of  vice-admiral,  he  fought  an  indecisive 
battle  against  Sir  Robert  Calder,  near  Cape  Finisterre, 
in  July,  1805.  He  commanded  about  thirty-three  ships 
of  the  line  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  where  the  French 
were  defeated  with  great  loss  and  Villeneuve  was  taken 
prisoner,  (October,  1805.)  He  was  blamed  by  Napoleon 
for  this  defeat,  and  committed  suicide  at  Rennes  in 
April,  1806. 

See  J.  J.  Magendie,  "  Memoire  necrologique  sur  le  Vice-Amiral 
de  Villeneuve,"  1814;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Villeneuve,  de,  (Rom^:e,)  an  eminent  French  states- 
man and  general,  born  about  11 70.  He  was  employed 
in  the  service  of  Berenger,  Count  of  Provence,  and  was 
regent  of  Provence  after  the  death  of  Berenger,  in  1245. 
Died  after  1250. 

Villeneuve,  de,  (Rosaline,)  a  French  nun,  noted 
for  her  ascetic  piety,  born  about  1263,  was  canonized. 
Died  in  1329. 

Villeneuve-Bargemon,  de,  deh  v^Knuv'  btRzh'- 
m6N',  (Jean  Paul  Alban — trbSN',)  Vicomte,  a  French 
economist,  born  near  Grasse  (Provence)  in  1784.  He 
received  the  Montyon  prize  for  his  "  Christian  Political 
Economy,  or  Researches  into  the  Causes  of  Pauperism," 
etc.,  (3  vols.,  1834.)    Died  in  1850. 

Villeneuve-Trans,  de,  deh  v^Knuv'  tRdN,  (Louis 
Francois,)  Marquis,  a  historical  writer,  born  in  1784, 
was  a  twin-brother  of  the  preceding.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  History  of  Saint  Louis,  King  of  France,"  (3  vols., 
1836.)    Died  in  1850. 

Villerme,  ve'y^R'my,  (Louis,)  a  son  of  the  following, 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1819.  He  wrote  on  agriculture 
and  economy. 

Villerme,  (Louis  Rene,)  a  French  economist  and 
medical  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1782.  He  advocated 
reform  in  the  treatment  of  prisoners,  founded  the  "  An- 
nales  d'Hygiene,"  (1829,)  and  was  the  first,  it  is  said, 
to  apply  statistics  to  questions  of  hygiene.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "Tableau  of  the  Moral  and  Physical  State 
of  Operatives  employed  in  the  Manufacture  of  Cotton, 
Wool,  and  Silk,"  (2  vols.,  1840.)    Died  in  1863. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Villeroi  or  Villeroy,  de,  deh  v^KrwS',  (Charles 
de  Neufville — deh  nuh'v^l',)  Marquis,  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  about  1560,  was  called  Marquis  d'Alincourt 
in  his  youth.  He  fought  for  the  League,  and  was  a 
rival  of  Sully.    Died  in  1642, 

Villeroi,  de,  (Franqois  de  Neufville,)  Due,  a 
marshal  of  France,  born  in  Paris  in  1644,  was  a  son 
of  Nicolas,  noticed  below.  He  was  better  qualified  to 
Ije  a  courtier  than  a  general.  He  became  marechal- 
de-camp  in  1674,  lieutenant-general  in  1677,  and  mar- 
shal of  France  in  1693.  Through  royal  favouritism 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in 
Flanders  in  1695.  He  failed  to  relieve  Naniur,  which 
was  besieged  and  taken  by  William  HL  of  England. 
He  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Ramillies,  (1706,)  where 
he  was  defeated  by  Marlborough  ;  but  he  retained  the 
favour  of  Louis  XIV,  even  after  this  disaster.  He 
was  noted  for  his  presumption  and  self-esteem.  Died 
in  1730. 

Sec  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  Voltaire,  "  Siecle  de  Louis 
XIV;"  De  CouRCELLES,  "  Dictionnaire  des  Generaux  Frangais  ;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Villeroi,  de,  (Nicolas  de  Neufville,)  Due,  a 
courtier  and  general,  born  in  1 598,  was  a  son  of  Charles, 
noticed  above.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France,  and 
governor  of  the  young  king  Louis  XIV.,  about  1646. 
Died  in  1685. 

Villeroi  or  Villeroy,  de,  (NieoLAS  de  Neufville,) 
Seigneur,  a  French  minister  of  state,  born  in  1542, 
was  the  father  of  Charles,  noticed  above.  He  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  state  in  1567,  after  which  he  was  a 
trusted  counsellor  of  Charles  IX.  and  Henry  III.  He 
became  a  partisan  of  the  Catholic  League,  and  was  the 
agent  of  the  negotiations  opened  in  1589  between  the 


Duke  de  Mayenne  and  Henry  IV.  In  1594  he  entered 
the  service  of  Henry  IV.  as  secretary  of  state.  He  was 
a  rival  or  enemy  of  Sully.    Died  in  161 7. 

See  P.  Mathieu,  "  Remarques  sur  la  Vie  dc  M.  de  Villeroy,"  1618. 

Villeroy.    See  Villeroi. 

Villers,  ve'y^',  (FranqoisToussaint,)  a  French  revo- 
lutionist, born  at  Rennes  in  1749.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Convention  of  1792-95,  and  of  the  Council  of 
Five  Hundred.    Died  in  1807. 

Villers,  de,  deh  ve'yi',  (Charles  FRANgois  Domi- 
nique,) a  French  philosopher  and  miscellaneous  writer, 
born  in  Lorraine  in  1764.  Soon  after  the  breaking  out 
of  the  Revolution,  he  published  a  treatise  "  On  Liberty," 
by  which  he  exposed  himself  to  the  persecution  of  the 
Jacobins,  and  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Germany. 
He  there  made  the  acquaintance  of  Heeren,  Jacobi,  and 
other  eminent  writers,  and  became  thoroughly  versed 
in  German  literature,  which  he  greatly  contributed  to 
render  popular  in  France.  He  was  appointed  in  181 1 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  "Essay  on  the  Spirit  and  Influence  of 
Luther's  Reformation,"  which  was  crowned  by  the 
French  Institute  and  was  translated  into  English,  Ger- 
man, Dutch,  and  Swedish,  "  Report  on  the  State  of 
Ancient  Literature   and    History  in   Germany,"  and 

Philosophy  of  Kant,"  etc.  He  also  translated  a  num- 
ber of  standard  German  works  into  French.  Died  in  1815. 

See  Michel  Berr,  "Notice  sur  M.  C.  Villers,"  1815;  ^milk 
A.  Begin,  "Villers,  Madame  de  Roddc  ct  Madame  de  Stael,"  1840. 

Villeterque,  de,  deh  v^l'tiRk',  (Alexandre  Louis,) 
a  French  writer,  born  at  Ligny  in  1759.  He  was  an 
editor  of  the  "Journal  de  Paris,"  and  published  "Dra- 
matic Essays,"  ( 1 793,)  and  "  Essays  on  Morals  and  Physi- 
cal Science,"  (2  vols.,  1795.)    Died  in  181 1. 

Villette,  de,  deh  ve'l^t',  (Charles,)  Marquis,  a 
French  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1736,  was  a  friend  of 
Voltaire.  He  wrote  verses,  eloges,  etc.  In  1792  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Convention.    Died  in  1793. 

Villiaume,  ve'le-o'mk',  (NieoLAS,)  a  French  historian, 
advocate,  and  political  economist,  born  at  Pont-a-Mous- 
son  in  1814.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  His- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution,"  (4  vols.,  1850,)  and  a 
"Treatise  on  Political  Economy,"  (2  vols.,  1857.) 

Villiers.    See  Buckingham,  Duke  of. 

Villiers.    See  Clarendon. 

Villiers,  viKyerz,  (Charles  Pelham,)  an  English 
politician,  a  brother  of  Lord  Clarendon,  was  born  in 
London  in  1802.  He  became  a  Liberal  member  of 
Parliament  in  1835,  and  made  annually  a  motion  to  re- 
duce or  repeal  the  duty  on  grain.  He  was  appointed 
judge-advocate-general  in  1853,  and  president  of  the 
poor-law  board  in  1859  ;  resigned  in  1866. 

Villier.s,  (Henry  Montague,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1813.  He  became  Bishop  of  Durham 
in  1856.    Died  in  1861. 

Villiers,  de,  deh  ve'ye-i',  (Jean,)  a  French  general, 
born  about  1384.  He  wlis'an  enemy  of  the  Armagnac 
faction,  and  fought  for  the  English  against  the  King  of 
France.    Died  in  1437. 

Villiers,  de,  (Pierre,)  a  French  writer  and  preacher, 
born  at  Cognac  in  1648.  He  published  a  poem  on  the 
"  Art  of  Preaching,"  ("  L'Art  de  precher,"  1682,)  often 
reprinted,  and  several  religious  and  moral  essays.  Died 
in  Paris  in  1728. 

Villiers  de  L'Isle  Adam,  de,  deh  ve'ye-a'  deh  1^1 
t'dSN',  (Philippe,)  a  French  commander,  born  at  Beau- 
vais  in  1464.  He  was  elected  grand  master  of  the  order 
of  Saint  John  at  Rhodes  in  1521.  The  Turks  having 
taken  Rhodes  in  1522,  he  removed  the  order  to  Malta 
in  1530.    Died  in  1534. 

See  Vertot,  "  Histoire  des  Chevaliers  de  Malte." 

Villipigue,  viFle-p^g',  ?  or  Villepigue,  (John  B.,) 
an  American  general,  born  in  South  Carolina  about 
1834,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1854.  He  fought 
against  the  Union  at  Corinth,  October,  1862.  Died  at 
Port  Hudson,  Louisiana,  in  November,  1862. 

Villoison,  de,  deh  ve'lvv^^zdN',  (Jean  Baptiste  Gas- 
pard  d'Ansse — d6Nss,)  an  eminent  French  Hellenist, 
born  at  Corbeil-sur-Seine  about  1750.  He  studied  at 
the  College  of  Beauvais,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen  had 
read  the  greater  part  of  the  Greek  classics.    He  pub- 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  K^^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Sf^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VILLON 


2  202 


FINCHON 


lished  in  1773  the  first  edition  of  Apollonius's  "Lexicon 
of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,"  with  valuable  scholia,  from 
a  manuscript  at  Saint-Germain.  He  was  soon  after 
elected  to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  although  by  the 
rules  of  the  society  too  young  to  receive  that  honour. 
Having  been  sent  by  the  government  in  1778  to  examine 
the  Library  of  Saint  Mark,  Venice,  he  discovered  nu- 
merous fragments  of  Greek  works  hitherto  unpublished, 
which  appeared  in  1781  under  the  title  of  "  Anecdota 
Grasca,"  etc.  He  also  brought  to  light  a  manuscript 
"  Iliad"  of  the  tenth  century,  with  ancient  scholia,  (since 
called  "  Scholia  Veneta,")  published,  with  learned  pro- 
legomena, in  1788.  This  was  considered  an  important 
discovery.  Among  his  other  works  we  may  name  his 
"Epistolas  Vimarienses,"  {1783,)  being  the  result  of  his 
researches  in  the  Library  of  Weimar,  and  an  edition  of 
the  "  Pastoralia"  of  Longus.  He  travelled  in  Greece 
about  three  years,  (1785-88.)  He  died  in  April,  1805, 
just  after  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  in  the 
College  de  France. 

See  Bon  Joseph  Dacier,  "  filoge  de  J.  B.  d'Ansse  de  Villoison," 
1806  ;  article  "  Daiisse"  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Villon,  ve''y6N',  (FRANgois,)  an  early  French  poet, 
whose  original  name  was  Corbueil,  (koR'bul'  or  koR^- 
buh'ye,)  born  in  Paris  in  143 1.  He  was  author  of  a 
humorous  poem  called  "The  Great  Testament,"  ("  Le 
grand  Testament,")  and  is  reckoned  one  of  the  national 
poets.    Died  about  1485. 

See  Profilet,  "  De  la  Vie  at  des  Ouvrages  de  Villon,"  1856; 
Campaux,  "Vilion,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEiivres,"  1859;  Longfellow, 
"Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Villotte,  ve'yot',  (Jacques,)  a  French  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  at  Bar-le-Duc  in  1656.  He  was  em- 
ployed in  Armenia  and  at  Ispahan.  He  published 
"Travels  in  Turkey,  Persia,  Armenia,"  etc.,  (1730.) 
Died  in  1743. 

Vihnar,  fiKmiR,  (August  Friedrich  Christian,) 
a  German  politician  and  writer,  born  at  Solz,  in  Hesse, 
in  1800.  He  became  intendant-general  of  the  affairs  of 
the  Church  at  Cassel  in  1851.  He  wrote  "Lectures  on 
the  History  of  the  National  Literature  of  Germany," 
(1845,)  and  other  works. 

Vimont,  ve^m6N',  (Joseph,)  a  French  physician,  born 
at  Caen  in  1795.  He  published  a  "Treatise  on  Human 
and  Comparative  Phrenology,"  (2  vols.,  1833-36.) 

Vinateya,  one  of  the  names  of  Garuda,  (which 
see.) 

Vince,  (Samuel,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  mathematician 
and  astronomer,  born  in  Suffolk.  He  became  professor 
of  astronomy  and  experimental  philosophy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge  in  1796,  and  contributed  several 
treatises  to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions."  Among 
his  works  is  a  "Complete  System  of  Astronomy,"  (3 
vols.,  1 797-1 808.)  He  was  also  Archdeacon  of  Bedford. 
Died  in  182 1. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  April,  1809. 

Vincent,  v^n'sSn',  (Alexandre  Joseph  Hidulphe 
— he'iWxW,)  a  French  mathematician,  born  at  Hesdin  in 
1797,  published  a  "Course  of  Elementary  Geometry," 
"Treatise  on  the  Solving  of  Numerical  Equations,"  and 
other  works  on  various  subjects.  He  became  in  1831 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  College  of  Louis  le 
Grand. 

Vincent,  (FRANgois  Andr6,)  an  able  French  his- 
torical painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1747,  was  a  pupil  of  Vien. 
He  gained  the  grand  prize  of  Rome  in  1768,  and  became 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1782.  A  picture 
of  "  President  Mole  seized  by  Factious  Persons"  is  called 
his  master-piece.    Died  in  1816. 

See  QuATREMEKE  DE  QuiNCY,  "  Notice  sur  Vincent,"  1817. 

Vincent,  (FRANgois  Nicolas,)  a  violent  French 
Jacobin,  born  in  Paris  in  1 767,  belonged  to  the  faction 
called  Hebertistes.  He  was  executed  with  Hebert  in 
March,  1794. 

Vin'§ent,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  born  at  Hertford,  was  a  brother  of  Thomas, 
noticed  below.  He  was  ejected  in  1662,  after  which  he 
preached  in  London.  He  wrote  several  religious  works. 
Died  in  1697. 

Vincent,  (Thomas,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
who  was  conspicuous  for  his  humanity  to  the  sufferers 


from  the  plague  in  London  in  1665.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  "God's  Terrible  Voice  in  the  City 
by  Plague  and  Fire."    Died  in  1671. 

Vincent,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  English  scholar  and 
divine,  born  in  London  in  1739.  He  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  was  appointed  head-master  of 
Westminster  School  in  1788,  and,  after  several  other  pre- 
ferments in  the  Church,  became  Dean  of  Westminster  in 
1802.  He  published  "The  History  of  the  Commerce 
and  Navigation  of  the  Antients  in  the  Indian  Ocean," 
(2  vols.,  1807,)  a  "Defence  of  Public  Education,  in  a 
Letter  to  the  Lord  Bishop  of  Meath,"  "The  Origination 
of  the  Greek  Verb,  an  Hypothesis,"  and  a  number  of 
sermons.  The  first  named  is  esteemed  a  standard  work. 
He  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "  British  Critic"  and 
"The  Classical  Journal."    Died  in  1815. 

See  the  "  Monthly  Review"  for  July,  1798. 

Vincent  of  Lerins.    See  Vincentius  Lirinensis. 

Vincent  de  Beauvais,  v^^'sh^'  deh  bo'vk',  [Lat. 
Vincen'tius  Bellovacen'sis,]  a  learned  French  Do- 
minican monk,  was  tutor  to  the  sons  of  Louis  IX.  He 
was  the  author  of  an  encyclopaedia,  entitled  "Speculum 
Quadruplex"  or  "Speculum  Majus."    Died  about  1260. 

Vincent  de  Paul,  (or  Depaul,)  vin'sent  (or  vaN'sSN') 
deh  pol,  [Ger.  Vincenz  VON  Paula,  vin-sgnts'  fon  pow'- 
IS,]  Saint,  a  benefactor  and  reformer,  born  near  Dax,  in 
the  southwest  of  France,  in  1576.  He  was  ordained  a 
priest  in  1600,  and  was  captured  in  1605  by  corsairs,  who 
took  him  to  Tunis  and  sold  him  as  a  slave.  Having 
escaped  in  1607,  he  went  to  Paris,  and  became  curate 
of  Clichy  in  161 1.  About  1613  he  was  employed  as  pre- 
ceptor of  the  sons  of  Philippe  Emmanuel  de  Gondi, 
Count  de  Joigny.  One  of  these  pupils  was  the  famous 
Cardinal  de  Retz.  Vincent  distinguished  himself  by  his 
zeal  to  improve  the  moral  and  physical  condition  of  the 
poor  and  the  sick.  About  161 7  he  founded  a  charitable 
institution,  called  Confrerie  de  Charite,  in  which  he 
made  a  successful  innovation  by  employing  the  laic  ele- 
ment. He  afterwards  spent  some  time  in  reforming  and 
relieving  the  prisoners  in  the  galleys  at  Marseilles.  In 
1624  he  began  to  organize  the  Congregation  of  the  Mis- 
sions, designed  to  train  teachers  and  preachers  for  the 
provinces  of  France.  The  priests  of  this  society  were 
called  Lazaristes.  He  established  a  foundling-hospital 
in  Paris  about  1638.  Among  the  most  useful  and  widely- 
extended  institutions  of  Vincent  de  Paul  was  the  Sisters 
of  Charity,  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  sick.  During 
the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde  his  inexhaustible  charity 
was  employed  in  relieving  the  miseries  of  famine.  His 
services  on  this  occasion  procured  for  him  the  title  of 
Pere'de  la  Patrie,  ("  Father  of  the  Country.")  He  died 
in  Paris  in  1660.  He  was  canonized  by  Pope  Clement 
XH.  in  1737. 

See  Abelly,  "Vie  de  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  1664:  P.  Collet, 
"Vie  de  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  2  vols.,  1748;  Galura,  "Vincenz 
von  Paula,"  1807  ;  Leopold  de  Stolberg,  "  Leben  des  Vincenz  von 
Paula,"  1818;  Lemaire,  "Vie  de  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  1825; 
Abbe  Maury,  "  Pane2;yrique  de  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  1827; 
CAPEFiGaE,  "  Vie  de  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  1827;  Th.  Nisard, 
"Vie  de  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,"  1844;  A.  Challamel,  "Saint 
Vincent  de  Paul,"  1841 ;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vincent  Ferrier  or  Vicente  Ferrer,  ve-thln'ti 
f§r-raiR',  a  Spanish  Dominican  monk,  born  at  Valencia 
about  1350.  He  preached  in  Spain,  France,  Italy,  and 
Germany,  the  languages  of  which  he  spoke  with  facility. 
He  was  renowned  as  a  preacher,  and  was  venerated  as  a 
saint.    Died  at  Vannes  in  1419. 

See  CoELHO,  "  Vida  de  V.  Ferrer,"  1713;  Fuesi,  "Life  of  V. 
Ferrier,"  (in  Huna;arian,)  1749;  Heller,  "Vincent  Ferrer  nach 
seinen  Leben  und  Wirken,"  1830. 

Vin-cen'tX-US  (vin-s§n'she-us)  Lir-i-nen'sis,  [Fr. 

Vincent  de  Lerins,  v^n^sOn^ deh  leh-rc^N',]  a  monk 
and  writer,  born  in  Gaul.  He  wrote  a  short  treatise 
entitled  "  Commonitorium"  against  heretics,  which  is  a 
work  of  some  merit.    Died  about  450  a.d. 

Vincenz  von  Paula.    See  Vincent  de  Paul. 

Vinchon,  viN^sh^N',  (Auguste  Jean  Baptiste,)  a 
French  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1789.  He  obtained  the 
grand  prize  from  the  Academy  of  Arts  in  1814,  and  sub- 
sequently studied  at  Rome.  Among  his  works  may  be 
named  "Joan  of  .A-rc  under  the  Walls  of  Orleans,"  and 
the  "Death  of  Coriolanus."    Died  in  1855. 


a,  e,  J,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  vi,  y,  short;  a,    i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f4t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


22> 


03 


FINET 


Vinci,  da,  v^t/chee,  (or  vfi/chee,)  (Leonardo,)  a 
celebrated  Italian  painter,  sculptor,  and  architect,  born 
at  Vinci,  near  Florence,  in  1452,  was  a  natural  son  of 
Pietro  da  Vinci,  a  notary.  He  became  in  early  youth  a 
pupil  of  Andrea  Verocchio,  a  painter  of  Florence,  whom 
he  soon  surpassed.  He  was  well  versed  in  anatomy, 
astronomy,  botany,  mathematics,  engineering,  and  music. 
In  his  youth,  before  he  left  Florence,  he  produced  a 
cartoon  of  Adam  and  Eve,  a  Madonna,  a  picture  of  the 
"Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  and  other  works.  About  1481 
he  removed  to  Milan,  and  entered  the  service  of  Ludovico 
il  Moro,  Duke  of  Milan.  He  was  director  of  an  Academy 
of  sciences  and  arts  founded  by  the  duke  about  1485.  In 
1493  he  made  a  model  for  a  bronze  equestrian  statue  of 
Francesco  Sforza.  The  statue  was  never  cast,  because 
he  could  not  procure  a  sufficient  quantity  of  bronze. 
About  1499  he  completed  at  Milan  his  master-piece, — 
the  picture  of  the  "Last  Supper,"  ("  Cenacolo,")  which 
was  painted  on  a  wall  of  the  convent  of  Santa  Maria 
delle  Grazie.  This  celebrated  work  exists  now  only  in 
copies  made  by  Marco  Oggioni  and  other  painters,  and 
in  the  engraving  of  Raphael  Morghen.  In  consequence 
of  the  expulsion  of  Ludovico  il  Moro  from  Milan  by 
Louis  XII.  of  France,  Leonardo  returned  to  Florence 
in  1500.  He  painted  at  Florence  a  portrait  of  Madonna 
Lisa  del  Giocondo  and  "The  Virgin  on  the  Knees  of 
Saint  Anne."  Having  been  commissioned  to  paint 
one  end  of  the  council-hall  of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  he 
commenced  there  a  picture  of  the  battle  of  Anghiari, 
which  he  left  unfinished.  He  worked  at  Milan  in  1507 
and  1512.  He  visited  Rome  in  1514,  but  soon  came 
away  in  disgust,  which  is  ascribed  to  Pope  Leo's  want 
of  courtesy,  or  to  the  disagreement  of  Da  Vinci  with 
Michael  Angelo,  who  was  then  at  Rome.  Da  Vinci  en- 
tered the  service  of  Francis  I.  of  France,  whom  he  met 
in  Italy,  and  whom  he  accompanied  to  France  in  1516. 
He  received  from  Francis  an  annual  salary  of  seven 
hundred  crowns.  His  health  was  so  infirm  that  he  exe- 
cuted no  great  work  after  he  left.  Italy.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  excellent  treatise  on  painting,  "  Trattato 
della  Pittura,"  which  has  been  translated  into  English, 
and  various  other  treatises,  which  have  not  been  pub- 
lished. The  genuine  paintings  of  Da  Vinci  which  are 
now  extant  are  not  very  numerous.  Among  them  is  a 
portrait  of  himself  in  the  Uffizi  gallery  at  Florence.  He 
surpassed  all  his  predecessors  in  the  art  of  chiaroscuro. 
He  was  never  married.  He  died  near  Amboise,  or  at 
Fontainebleau,  in  May,  1519,  leaving  his  manuscripts, 
library,  and  other  personal  property  to  his  pupil  Fran- 
cesco Melzi.  Among  his  eminent  pupils  were  Bernar- 
dino Luini  and  Marco  Oggioni. 

"  The  discoveries,"  says  Hallam,  "  which  made  Galileo 
and  Kepler  and  Maestlin  and  Maurolicus  and  Castelli 
and  other  names  illustrious,  the  system  of  Copernicus, 
the  very  theories  of  recent  geologers,  are  anticipated 
by  Da  Vinci  within  the  compass  of  a  few  pages, — not 
perhaps  in  the  most  precise  language  or  on  the  most  con- 
clusive reasoning,  but  so  as  to  strike  us  with  some- 
thing like  the  awe  of  preternatural  knowledge.  ...  If 
any  doubt  could  be  harboured,  not  as  to  the  right  of  Leo- 
nardo da  Vinci  to  stand  as  the  first  name  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  which  is  beyond  all  doubt,  but  as  to  his  origi- 
nality in  so  many  discoveries,  which  probably  no  one 
man,  especially  in  such  circumstances,  has  ever  made,  it 
must  be  on  an  hypothesis,  not  very  untenable,  that  some 
parts  of  physical  science  had  already  attained  a  height 
which  mere  books  do  not  record."  ("  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  Europe.") 

See  Amoretti,  "  Memorie  storiche  sulla  Vita  6\  L  da  Vinci," 
1784;  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters;"  Gaui.t  de  Saint  Ger- 
main, "Vie  de  Leonard  de  Vinci."  1803:  G.  Bossi,  "Vita  di  L.  da 
Vinci,"  1814;  Braun,  "  L.  da  Vinci's  Leben,"  1S19;  J.  W.  Brown, 
"Life  of  L.  da  Vinci,"  1828:  A.  Dumksnil,  "Leonard  de  Vinci," 
Paris,  1850;  Gai.lenberg,  "Leon,  da  Vinci,"  1834;  Ch.  Clement, 
"Michel  Ange,  L.  de  Vinci,  Raphael,"  1861  ;  Mrs.  Jameson,  "Me- 
moirs of  Early  Italian  Painters;"  J.  S.  Hawkins,  "Life  of  L.  da 
Vinci,"  1802;  E.  J.  Dei.eci.uzk,  "  Essai  sur  L.  da  Vinci,"  1844: 
Lanzi,  "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy  ;"  F.  Rio,  "  L.  da  Vinci  at 
son  Ecole,"  185=; ;  Ticozzi,  "  Diiionario  ;"  Baldinucci,  "  Notizie  ;" 
"Westminster  Review"  for  July,  1850. 

Vinci,  da,  (Leonardo,)  an  Italian  musical  composer, 
born  at  Naples  in  1690;  died  about  1732. 

Vinciguerra,  v^n-che-gwgr'r^,  (Marco  Antonio,) 
an  Italian  poet,  who  flourished  about  1470-1490.  He 


was  for  a  long  time  secretary  of  the  republic  of  Venice. 
He  is  called  the  creator  of  satire  in  Italy.  His  works 
are  said  to  be  remarkable  for  energy,  originality,  and 
pathos. 

Vincke,  fink'keh,  (Friedrich  Ludwig  Wilhelm 
Philipp,)  a  Prussian  statesman  and  writer,  born  at  Min- 
den  in  1774,  filled  several  important  offices  under  the 
government,  and  published  a  treatise  "  On  the  Admin- 
istration of  Great  Britain."    Died  in  1844. 

Vincke,  von,  fon  fink'keh,  (Ernst  Friedrich 
Georg,)  Baron,  a  distinguished  Prussian  orator  and 
statesman,  son  of  Friedrich,  noticed  above,  was  born 
near  Hagen,  in  the  county  of  Mark,  in  1811.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Diet  in  1847,  and  in  1849  became  a 
member  of  the  second  Prussian  Chamber,  being  several 
times  re-elected.  He  is  one  of  the  principal  leaders  of 
the  constitutional  party,  and  is  conspicuous  as  an  able 
and  brilliant  debater. 

Vinckelbooms,  vink'el-boms^  or  Vinkenbooms, 
v!nk'en-b5ms',  (David,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Mech- 
lin in  1578.  Ilis  favourite  subjects  were  landscapes, 
festivals,  hunting-scenes,  etc.,  which  he  delineated  with 
great  skill  and  fidelity.    Died  in  1629. 

Vin'dex,  (Caius  Julius,)  a  Roman  general,  born  in 
Aquitania.  He  was  governor  or  pro-praetor  of  Gallia 
Celtica  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  In  68  a.d.  he  revolted 
against  Nero,  and  proclaimed  Galba  emperor.  He  was 
killed,  or  killed  himself,  at  Vesontio  (Besan9on)  in  the 
same  year. 

Vindicianus,  vin-dish-e-a'nus,  an  eminent  physician 
and  Christian,  lived  about  370  A.D.  He  was  physician 
to  the  emperor  Valentinian.  His  skill  and  wisdom  are 
highly  commended  by  Saint  Augustine. 

Vinding,  vin'ding,  (Erasmus,)  a  Danish  scholar  and 
jurist,  born  at  Vinding,  in  Zealand,  in  1615.  He  became 
professor  of  Greek  and  assessor  of  the  supreme  court 
of  justice.  He  had  the  principal  part  in  the  reformation 
or  revision  of  the  laws  of  Denmark.    JDied  in  1684. 

Vinding,  (Paul,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
about  1658.  He  was  professor  of  Greek,  and  author  of 
several  works  on  classical  subjects.    Died  in  1712. 

Vineis,  vin'e-is,  (Petrus,)  originally  Pietro  delle 
Vigne,  (deKli  vhiVyh,)  an  Italian  jurist,  rose  to  be  chan- 
cellor to  Frederick  H.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  whose 
cause  he  defended  against  the  popes.    Died  in  1249. 

Vi'ner,  (Charles,)  an  English  lawyer  and  compiler, 
born  about  1680,  published  in  1751  "A  General  and 
Comi^lete  Abridgment  of  Law  and  Equity,"  (24  vols, 
fol.,)  a  work  on  which  he  is  said  to  have  employed  half 
a  century.  He  died  in  1756,  bequeathing  twelve  thou- 
sand pounds  to  establish  a  professorship  of  common  law 
at  Oxford,  which  was  first  filled  by  Blackstone. 

Vines,  vinz,  (Richard,)  an  English  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  in  Leicestershire.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Assembly  of  Divines  in  1644,  minister  of  Saint  Clement 
Dane's,  and  vicar  of  Saint  Lawrence  Jewry,  London. 
Died  in  1655. 

Vinet,  ve'n4',  (Alexandre  Rodolphe,)  an  eminent 
Swiss  author  and  theologian,  born  at  or  near  Lausanne 
in  June,  1797.  He  became  professor  of  the  French  lan- 
guage and  literature  at  Bale  in  1817,  and  retained  that 
chair  twenty  years.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
an  eloquent  preacher,  advocated  liberty  of  conscience, 
and  opposed  the  union  of  church  and  state.  In  1837  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  practical  theology  at  Lau- 
sanne. He  published,  besides  other  works,  "An  Argu- 
ment for  Liberty 'of  Worship,"  (1826,)  "  Chrestomathie 
Frangaise,"  (3  vols.,  1829-30,)  "  Discours  sur  quelques 
Sujets  religieux,"  (1835,)  an  English  version  of  which 
was  entitled  "  Vital  Christianity,"  "  Studies  on  French 
Literature  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  (3  vols.,  1849,) 
and  "  Pastoral  Theology,"  (1850.)  His  works  are  highly 
esteemed,  and  are  remarkable  for  elegance  of  style. 
He  seceded  from  the  national  Church  in  1840.  Died 
in  1847. 

See  E.  Sch^rer,  "  A.  Vinet,  sa  Vie  et  ses  ficrits,"  1853  ;  Sainte- 
Beuve,  "Portraits  contemporains  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gene- 
rale  ;"  "North  British  Review"  for  August,  1854. 

Vinet  or  Vinette,  ve'net',  (Slie,)  a  French  scholar 
and  critic  of  great  learning,  was  born  near  Barbezieux 
(Saintonge)  in  1509.    He  was  for  some  years  professor 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  Aar(i;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Yi,^ttural;  N,  nasal;  R, 


trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FINETTE 


2204 


FIRET 


Viom^nil,  de,  (Charles  Joseph  Hyacinthe  du 
Houx,)  Marquis,  a  general,  born  in  1734,  was  a  brother 
of  the-  preceding.  He  served  in  the  United  States, 
(1780-82,)  emigrated  as  a  royalist  in  1791,  and  fought 
against  France,  under  Conde,  until  1797.  He  returned 
in  1814,  and  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1816.  Died 
in  1827. 

Viotti,  ve-ot'tee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  violinist,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1755.  He  studied 
under  Pugnani,  and  was  appointed,  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
first  violinist  at  the  court  of  Turin.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  French  Revolution,  he  repaired  to  London, 
where  he  wds  for  a  time  leader  of  the  band  at  the  King's 
Theatre.  One  of  his  principal  works  is  entitled  "  Vingt- 
neuf  Concertos  de  Violons."    Died  in  1824. 

See  Batllot,  "Notice  sur  J.  B.  Viotti,"  1825;  Miel,  "Notice 
sur  Viotti,"  1827. 


at  the  College  of  Guienne,  Bordeaux,  of  wliich  he  was 
rector  or  president  from  1558  till  1583.  He  published 
good  editions,  with  notes,  of  Eutropius,  (1553,)  Sueto- 
nius "  De  Rhetoribus,"  (1556,)  Florus,  (1563,)  Ausonius, 
(1575,)  and  other  classics.  He  also  wrote  several  original 
works.    Died  in  1587. 

See  JoANNET,  "£loge  d'filie  Vinet,"  i8i6;  Niceron,  "  Me- 
moires." 

Vinette.    See  Vinet,  (Elie.) 

Vingtrinier,  viN'tRe'ne-i',  (Artus  Barth^lemy,) 
a  French  physician  and  economist,  born  in  1796.  He 
practised  in  Rouen,  and  treated  the  subject  of  prison- 
reform  in  an  able  work,  entitled  '*  Des  Prisons  et  des 
Prisonniers,"  (1840.)    He  wrote  other  works. 

Vinnen.    See  Vinnius. 

Vin'ni-us  orVm'nen,  (Arnold,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
jurist,  born  near  the  Hague  in  1588.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  the  University  of  Leyden  in  1633.  He 
published  "Select  Questions  of  Law,"  "Commentaries 
on  Four  Books  of  the  Imperial  Institutes,"  ("Com- 
mentarius  in  Libros  IV.  Institutionum  Imperialium," 
1642,)  and  other  works.    Died  at  I,eyden  in  1657. 

Vintimille,  de,  deh  viN'te'm^T''  or  viN^te'me'ye, 
(Jacques,)  Comte,  a  scholar  and  translator,  born  about 
1512.  He  lived  mostly  in  France,  and  became  a  coun- 
sellor to  the  parliament  of  Burgundy  in  1549.  He  wrote 
several  Latin  poems,  and  translated  into  French  the 
'*  Cyropasdia"  of  Xenophon  and  the  works  of  Herodian. 
Died  in  1582. 

See  LuDovic  de  Vauzelles,  "Jacques  de  Vintimille,"  1865. 

Vintimille  du  Luc,  de,  deh  viN'te'meF  dii  liik, 
(Charles  Gaspard  Guillaume,)  a  French  prelate, 
born  near  Frejus  in  1655.  He  became  Archbishop  of 
Paris  in  1729,  and  opposed  Jansenism.    Died  in  1746. 

Vin'ton,  (Alexander  Hamilton,)  D.D.,  an  Epis- 
copalian divine,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in 
1807.  He  became  successively  rector  of  Saint  Paul's 
Church  in  BostoA,  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  in 
Philadelphia,  and  Saint  Mark's  Church  in  New  York, 
(1861.) 

Vinton,  (Francis,)  D.D.,  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1809.  He 
graduated  at  the  Military  Academy  of  West  Point,  served 
in  the  Creek  war  in  1836,  and,  having  afterwards  studied 
theology,  was  ordained  in  1839.  He  became  rector  of 
Grace  Church,  Brooklyn,  in  1847,  and  assistant  minister 
of  Trinity  Church,  New  York,  in  1855. 

Vinton,  (Francis  Laurens,)  an  American  general, 
a  nephew  of  the  Rev.  Francis  Vinton,  was  born  at  Port- 
land, Maine,  in  1835.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1856,  and  became  a  brigadier-general  about  September, 
1862. 

Vinton,  (Justus  Hatch,)  an  American  missionary, 
born  at  Willington,  Connecticut,  in  1806,  sailed  in  1834 
for  Burmah,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  instruction 
of  the  Karens.    Died  in  1858. 

Vinton,  (Samuel  F.,)  an  American  legislator,  born  at 
South  Hadley,  Massachusetts,  in  1792.  He  removed  to 
Ohio  about  1816,  practised  law  with  distinction,  and  as  a 
Whig  represented  a  district  of  Ohio  in  Congress  about 
twenty-two  years,  (1823-37  and  1843-51.)  Died  in  1862. 

Vio,  de.    See  Cajetan. 

Violaute  do  Ceo.    See  Ceo,  do. 

VioUet-Leduc,  (or  Le  Duo,)  ve'o'li'  leh  diik,  (Eu- 
G^iNE  Emmanuel,)  an  eminent  French  architect,  born 
in  Paris  in  1814,  was  a  pupil  of  A.  Leclerc.  He  devoted 
himself  to  Gothic  and  mediaeval  architecture,  and  was 
employed  by  the  government  in  the  restoration  of 
several  ancient  churches,  among  which  were  that  of 
Notre-Dame,  in  Paris,  and  the  cathedral  of  Amiens. 
He  began  to  publish  in  1853  a  large  and  valuable  work 
on  French  architecture,  "  Dictionnaire  raisonne  de  I'Ar- 
chitecture  Fran9aise  du  Xle  au  XVIe  Siecle,"  (6  or 
more  vols.) 

Viomenil,  de,  deh  ve'o'mk'n^K,  (Antoine  Charles 
du  Houx — dii  hoo,)  Baron,  a  French  general,  born 
in  Vosges  in  1728.  He  was  second  in  command  of  the 
army  of  Rochambeau  in  the  United  States,  to  which  he 
was  sent  in  1780.  While  defending  the  king  against  the 
populace  of  Paris,  in  August,  1792,  he  received  a  severe 
wound.    Died  in  November,  1792. 


Viperano,  ve-pi-ri'no,  (Giovanni  Antonio,)  an 
Italian  writer  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Messina  in  1535. 
He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Giovenazzo  by  Po])e  Sixtus 
V.  He  wrote  various  works,  among  which  are  "  C>n 
Writing  History,"  ("De  Scribenda  Historia,"  1569,)  and 
"On  the  Chief  Good,"  ("De  Summo  Bono,"  1575.) 
Died  in  1610. 

Vipsanius.    See  Agrippa. 

Virabhadra,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  vee'ra-b'hud'ra,] 
[from  the  Sanscrit  vird,  a  "  strong  or  valiant  person," 
a  "  hero,"  (perhaps  cognate  with  the  Latin  vir,  a  "  man," 
also  a  "  hero,")  and  bhddrd,  "  prosperous,"  "  excellent,"] 
in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of  a  son,  or,  accord- 
ing to  some,  of  an  avatar,  of  Siva. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon,"  p.  177. 

Vir&j,  vi-rlj',  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name  of 
a  mysterious  being,  who  was  said  to  be  the  son  of 
Brahma  and  the  father  of  the  first  Manu.  By  dividing 
himself  into  male  and  female,  he  became  the  parent  of 
many  creatures.  The  fable  of  Viraj  seems  to  have  sug- 
gested the  idea  of  Ardha-nari,  (ar'dha  n^'ree,  from 
drd/id,  "  half,"  and  ndri,  "  woman,"  a  being  combining 
the  two  sexes,)  one  of  the  forms  of  Siva,  and  perhaps 
also  of  the  Hermaphrodite  of  the  Greeks. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon,"  pp.  83-85. 

Virchow,  fdeR^Ko,  (Rudolf,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man pathologist,  born  at  Koslin,  in  Pomerania,  in  1821. 
He  became  in  1846  prosector  at  Berlin,  and  in  1856 
professor  of  pathological  anatomy  in  that  city.  Perhaps 
the  most  important  of  his  professional  works — all  of 
which  enjoy  a  high  reputation — is  his  "Cellular  Pa- 
thology as  based  upon  Physiological  and  Pathological 
Histology,"  (1858;  2d  edition,  1859,)  which  has  been 
translated  into  English,  and  is  regarded  as  the  highest 
authority  on  the  subjects  of  which  it  treats.  He  has  also 
given  especial  attention  to  investigating  the  diseases 
caused  by  trichina.  In  regard  to  political  and  social 
questions  Dr.  Virchow  is  progressive  and  liberal. 

See  PiEREK,  "  Universal- Lexikon." 

Viret,  ve'ri'',  [Lat.  Vire'tus,]  (Pierre,)  an  eminent 
Swiss  Reformer,  born  at  Orbe  in  1511,  was  a  friend  of 
Farel.  He  began  about  1531  to  preach  the  Reformed 
doctrines  at  Orbe  and  Payerne.  In  1536  he  preached 
at  Lausanne,  where  he  made  many  converts,  and  where 
he  was  employed  as  pastor  several  years.  His  health  is 
said  to  have  been  ruined  by  poison  given  to  him  by 
some  priests  at  Geneva.  For  the  benefit  of  his  health, 
he  removed  about  1561  to  the  south  of  France.  Pie 
afterwards  preached  at  Lyons,  from  which  he  was  driven 
by  persecution  in  1565,  and  took  refuge  in  Navarre.  He 
wrote  many  works,  among  which  are  an  "Exposition  of 
the  Doctrines  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  (1543,)  and 
"Papal  Physics,"  ("La  Physique  papale,"  1552.)  Died 
at  Orthez  in  1571. 

See  CHENEvifeHE,  "Farel,  Froment,  Viret,  Reformateurs,"  1835; 
Jaqukmot,  "Viret,  Reformateur  de  Lausanne,"  1836. 

Viretus.    See  Viret. 

Virey,  ve''ra',  (Julien  Joseph,)  a  French  physician, 
born  in  the  department  of  Haute-Marne  in  1775.  He 
was  appointed  in  1812  chief  pharmaceutist  at  the  hos- 
pital of  Val  de  Grace  in  Paris.  He  published  a  "Theo- 
retical and  Practical  Treatise  on  Pharmacy,"  (1811,) 
"  Ephemerides  of  Human  Life,"  (1814,)  "On  Vital 


a,  e,  1,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,    short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


VIRGIL 


2205 


VIRGINIA 


Power,"  {1822,)  "Philosophical  Hygiene,"  (2  vols., 
1828.)  and  other  valuable  works.  He  was  also  one  of 
the  principal  contributors  to  the  "  Dictionnaire  des  Sci- 
ences naturelles"  and  the  "  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences 
medicales."    Died  in  1846. 

Vir'gil,  [Ital.  Virgilio,  v^R-jee'le-o  ;  Fr.  Virgile, 
v^R''zh^]',]  or,  more  fully.  Pub  li-us  Vir-gil'i-us  (or 
Ver-gill-us)  Ma'ro,  the  most  illustrious  of  Latin  poets, 
was  born  of  humble  parents  at  Andes,  a  small  village 
near  Mantua,  on  the  15th  of  October,  70  B.C.,  during  the 
consulship  of  Pompey  and  Crassus.  His  mother's  name 
was  Maia.  He  studied  at  Cremona,  Milan,  and  Neapo- 
lis,  (Naples.)  It  is  evident  from  his  writings  that  he  re- 
ceived a  liberal  education,  and  was  well  versed  in  Greek 
literature,  philosophy,  medicine,  and  mathematics.  He 
inherited  from  his  father,  Maro,  a  small  farm  near  Man- 
tua, which  was  included  in  the  tract  assigned  by  Octavian 
(Augustus)  to  his  soldiers  as  a  reward  for  their  services 
at  Philippi  in  42  B.C.  Virgil  was  thus  deprived  of  his 
patrimony ;  but  he  recovered  it  by  a  personal  appeal  to 
Augustus.  He  expressed  his  gratitude  for  this  favour 
in  his  first  eclogue,  which  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  his 
earliest  productions.  He  became  an  intimate  friend  of 
Pollio  and  Horace,  and  found  a  liberal  patron  in  Maecenas, 
to  whom  he  was  introduced  about  40  B.C.  He  displayed 
a  remarkable  mastery  over  the  Latin  language  in  his 
ten  eclogues,  "  Bucolica,"  or  pastoral  poems,  which  are 
mostly  imitations  of  Theocritus.  \w  these  poems,  de- 
scriptions of  nature  are  admirably  blended  with  human 
feelings  and  sympathies. 

About  the  age  of*thirty-three,  Virgil  became  a  resident 
of  Rome,  and  a  recipient  of  the  bounty  of  Augustus  to 
such  an  extent  that  he  could  devote  himself  entirely  to 
literary  pursuits.  He  owned  a  house  on  the  Esquiline 
Hill.  It  appears  that  after  he  had  remained  a  few  years 
at  Rome  he  removed  to  Naples,  at  that  time  a  favourite 
abode  of  literary  men.  He  expended  seven  years  in  the 
composition  of  a  didactic  poem,  on  rural  economy, 
entitled  "  Georgica,"  in  four  books,  which  is  considered 
his  most  original  and  finished  production.  It  presents  a 
marvellous  union  of  didactic  precept  with  graphic  de- 
scription and  ingenious  illustration,  expressed  with  great 
variety  and  magnificence  of  diction.  "  In  sustained 
majesty,  in  melody  that  ever  satisfies  but  never  cloys 
the  ear,  in  variety  of  modulation,  in  stateliness  but  free- 
dom of  march,  it  stands  unapproached  by  any  other 
Roman  poet."  ("  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.") 

About  30  B.C.  he  began  to  compose  a  great  national 
epic  poem,  which  he  had  long  meditated,  and  which  was 
designed  to  celebrate  the  origin  of  the  Roman  empire. 
He  had  written  or  sketched  the  last  book  of  this  poem, 
the  "  ^neid,"  ("^neis,")  which  constitutes  a  perennial 
monument  of  his  genius,  when  he  departed  on  a  visit  to 
Athens  in  19  B.C.  He  intended  to  pass  several  years  in 
Greece,  in  polishing  and  revising  the  "  ^neid,"  but  his 
health  failed.  During  the  homeward  voyage  he  died 
at  Brundusinm,  in  September,  19  B.C.  According  to  his 
own  request,  he  was  buried  near  Naples.  There  is  a 
current  tradition  that  shortly  before  his  death  he  re- 
quested his  friends  to  burn  the  "  v^neid,"  which  he 
regarded  as  imperfect;  but,  as  they  refused  to  comply, 
he  committed  the  publication  of  it  to  Tucca  and  Varius. 

Virgil  is  represented  as  a  person  of  tall  stature, 
swarthy  complexion,  and  delicate  constitution.  He  was 
generally  beloved  as  well  as  admired  by  his  contempo- 
raries. Among  his  virtues  modesty  was  conspicuous. 
Of  his  more  private  life  nothing  is  known.  It  does  not 
appear  that  he  was  ever  married.  He  had  two  brothers, 
who  died  before  him,  and  a  half-brother,  Valerius  Pro- 
culus.  The  "i^ineid"  has  ever  been  ranked  among  the 
poems  which  are  destined  to  immortality.  Nearly  nine- 
teen hundred  years  of  uninterrupted  popularity  attest 
the  broad  and  elevated  and  diversified  character  of  his 
poetical  merit.  In  comparison  with  Homer,  it  is  usual 
to  represent  Virgil  as  deficient  in  originality  and  sub- 
limity. Some  critics  also  depreciate  the  "  ^neid"as  an 
imitation  of  Homer's  "  Iliad"  and  "  Odyssey."  On  this 
subject  we  cannot,  perhaps,  do  better  than  to  quote  some 
remarks  of  Addison.  "  One  great  genius  often  catches 
the  flame  from  another,  and  writes  in  his  spirit  without 
copying  servilely  after  him.     There  are  a  thousand 


shining  passages  in  Virgil  which  have  been  lighted  up 
by  Homer.  Virgil  falls  infinitely  short  of  Homer  in  the 
characters  of  his  poem,  both  as  to  their  variety  and 
novelty,  ^neas  is  indeed  a  perfect  character,  .  .  .  and 
that  of  Dido  cannot  be  sufficiently  admired.  .  .  .  Virgil 
has  excelled  all  others  in  the  propriety  of  his  sentiments. 
Everything  is  just  and  natural.  His  sentiments  show 
that  he  had  a  perfect  insight  into  human  nature,  and 
that  he  knew  everything  that  was  most  proper  to  affect 
it."  (Critique  on  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost,"  in  the 
"  Spectator.").  He  is  considered  by  good  judges  supe- 
rior to  all  ancient  poets  in  beauty  and  harmony  of 
versification.  Dante  admired  Virgil,  and  adopted  him 
as  his  model. 

Wordsworth  pronounced  Virgil  the  greatest  master 
of  language  that  ever  existed,  and  extolled  his  lofty  moral 
tone  and  frequent  strokes  of  tenderness  and  imagina- 
tion.   ("  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1853.) 

Voltaire  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  "-^^ineid"  "is 
the  most  beautiful  monument  which  remains  to  us  of  all 
antiquity." 

Commenting  on  J.  C.  Scaliger's  preference  of  Virgil 
to  Homer,  Hallam  observes,  "  It  would  be  a  sort  of 
prejudice  almost  as  tasteless  as  that  of  Scaliger,  to  refuse 
the  praise  of  real  superiority  to  many  passages  of  Virgil, 
even  as  compared  with  the  '  Iliad,'  and  far  more  with 
the  'Odyssey.'  If  the  similes  of  the  older  poet  are 
more  picturesque  and  animated,  those  of  his  imitator 
are  more  appropriate  and  parallel  to  the  subject." 

The  best  or  most  popular  English  translation  of  Vir- 
gil is  that  of  Dryden,  which  has  a  high  reputation. 
Sotheby's  version  of  the  "  Georgics"  and  Pitt's  version 
of  the  "^neid"  are  highly  commended.  The  "  Eclogues" 
and  "Georgics"  were  also  translated  into  verse  by  Jo- 
seph Warton.  "  We  may  congratulate  ourselves,"  says 
the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  July,  1861,  "on  the 
possession  of  a  splendid  English  epu:,  in  which  most 
of  the  thoughts  are  Virgil's  and  most  of  the  language 
Dryden's.  He  was  constantly  adding  to  the  original, 
and  that  in  the  most  wilful  and  reckless  manner.  There 
were  elements  in  his  nature  peculiarly  repugnant  to  the 
Virgilian  ideal.  ...  It  is  idle  to  discuss  who  has  corrie 
nearest  to  the  style  and  language  of  Virgil,  when  no  one 
has  come  within  any  appreciable  distance."  His  works 
became  school-books  before  the  end  of  the  Augustan 
age.  Virgil  composed,  says  Donatus,  his  own  epitaph, 
in  these  terms  : 

"  Mantua  me  genuit,  Calabri  rapuere,  tenet  nunc 
Parthenope.    Cecini  pascua,  rura,  duces."* 

See  Donatus,  "P.  Virgilii  Maronis  Vita;"  Laitter,  "  De  Vir- 
gilio Iniitatore  Homeri,"  1796;  TissoT,  "Etudes  sur  Virgile,"  4 
vols.,  1825-30;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Virgile,"  2  vols.,  1857;  Servius, 
"  Commentarius  ad  Virgilium  ;"  J.  W.  Berger,  "  De  Virgilio  Ora- 
tore,"  1703;  O.  Arrhenius,  "  Tal  om  P.  Virgilius  Maro,"  1841  ; 
Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Latina ;"  Carl  G.  Francke,  "  Disser- 
tatio  de  P.  Virgilio  Marone,"  etc.,  1776;  Bahr,  "Geschiclite  der 
Romischen  Literatiir  ;"  Michael  Barth,  "  Vita  P.  Virgilii  Maronis 
Carmine  descripta,"  1676. 

Virgil,  (PoLYDORE.)    See  Vergil,  (Polydore.) 
Virgile.    See  Virgil. 
Virgilio.    See  Virgil. 
Virgilius.    See  Virgil. 

Virgilius,  (Polydorus.)    See  Vergil,  (Polydore.) 

Vir-giPi-us,  Saint,  a  native  of  Ireland,  became 
Bishop  of  Saltzburg,  (Juvavum,)  in  Austria.  He  is  said 
to  have  converted  many  Slavonians  and  Huns  to  Chris- 
tianity.  Died  about  782. 

Virgin,  vir-geen',  ?  (Christian  Adolph,)  a  Swedish 
navigator,  born  at  Gothenburg  in  1797.  He  performed 
a  voyage  round  the  globe  in  1851-53,  after  which  he 
obtained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral. 

Vir-gin^i-a,  fFr.  Virginie,  v^R'zhe'ne',]  a  Roman 
maiden,  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  tragical  fate,  was  a 
daughter  of  Lucius  Virginius,  an  officer  of  the  army.  She 
was  betrothed  to  L.  Icilius,  a  tribune  of  the  people, 
from  whom  the  decemvir  Appius  Claudius  wished  to 
ravish  her.  She  was  seized  Ijy  M.  Claudius,  one  of  his 
agents,  who  pretended  that  she  was  his  slave,  and  who, 
in  order  to  prove  his  claim,  took  her  before  the  tribunal 


*  "  Mantua  bore  me,  Calabria  [next]  received  me,  Naples  now 
holds  me.  I  have  sung  of  pastures,  [or  shepherds,]  of  farms,  and 
of  leaders  in  war." 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


FIRGINIE 


2206 


FlSCONTl 


of  Appius  Claudius.  Virginias  arrived  at  the  forum 
just  after  the  decemvir  had  decided  that  she  was  the 
slave  of  Claudius.  He  immediately  killed  her,  to  deliver 
her  from  slavery  and  dishonour,  (449  B.C.)  The  people 
revolted  against  the  decemvirs,  and  dragged  Appius 
Claudius  to  prison,  where  he  killed  himself. 

See  Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek,  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. ; 
Macaulay,  "  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome." 

Virginie.    See  Virginia. 

Virginius,  (Lucius.)    See  Virginia. 

Vir-gin'i-us  Ro-ma'nus,  a  Latin  comic  poet  of  the 
Augustan  age,  had  a  high  reputation.  He  is  said  to 
have  contributed  to  improve  the  public  taste,  and  to 
have  merited  a  place  beside  Plautus.and  Terence.  His 
style  wi.s  noble  and  elegant.    His  works  are  lost. 

Vir-gin'i-us  (or  Vergin'iu.s)  Ru'fus,  (Lucius,)  a 
Roman  general,  born  at  Como  in  14  a.d.,  was  consul  in 
the  year  63.  After  he  had  defeated  Vindex,  his  army 
proclaimed  him  as  emperor,  (69  a.d.,)  but  he  refused 
the  crown.  He  became  a  third  time  consul  in  97  a.d., 
as  an  associate  of  the  emperor  Nerva.  He  was  eulogized 
by  Tacitus  and  Pliny  the  Younger. 

Viriathe  or  Viriath.    See  Viriathus. 

Vi-ri'a-thus,  [Gr.  Okptadog;  Fr.  Viriathe,  ve're'tt'; 
Ger.  Viriath,  ve-re-St',]  a  brave  Lusitanian  chief,  who 
carried  on  for  many  years  a  successful  war  against  the 
Romans  ;  but  he  was  at  length  betrayed  into  the  hands 
of  the  consul,  L.  Servilius  Caepio,  by  whom  he  was  put 
to  death,  (140  B.C.) 

See  Becker,  "Viriath  und  die  Lusitanier,"  1826. 

Virieu,  de,  deh  ve're-uh',  (FRANgois  Henri,)  Comte, 
a  French  officer,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1754.  He  was 
elected  to  the  States-General  in  1789,  and  was  one  of 
the  members  of  the  noblesse  that  joined  the  Tiers-fitat. 
He  was  a  royalist,  and  a  leader  of  the  insurgents  of 
Lyons  who  revolted  against  the  Convention  in  May, 
1793.  He  was  killed  at  the  capture  of  Lyons,  in  Oc- 
tober, 1793. 

See  "  Notice  sur  le  Comte  de  Virieu,"  1863. 

Virotte.    See  La  Virotte. 

Virues,  de,  da  ve-roo-gs',  (Cristoval,)  a  Spanish 
poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Valencia  about  1550,  was 
the  author  of  five  tragedies,  an  epic  poem,  and  a  number 
of  lyrics.    Died  in  1610. 

Viscaino,  ves-ki-ee'no,  (Sebastian,)  a  Spanish 
navigator,  born  in  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. He  commanded  an  expedition  sent  from  Aca- 
pulco  in  1602,  and  explored  the  coast  of  California,  of 
which  he  made  an  accurate  chart. 

Vis-gel-li'iius,  (Spurfus  Cassius,)  a  Roman  general, 
distinguished  as  "the  author  of  the  first  agrarian  law, 
was  consul  in  502  B.C.  He  defeated  the  Sabines,  was 
chosen  consul  again  in  493,  and  formed  an  important 
league  with  the  Latins.  Having  become  consiU  in  486, 
he  proposed  an  agrarian  law.  He  was  charged  with 
aspiring  to  royal  power,  and  was  put  to  death  in  485  B.C. 

Visch,  de,  deh  visK,  (Charles,)  a  Flemish  monk 
and  biographer,  born  near  Furnes  about  1596;  died  in 
1666. 

Vischer,  (Cornelis.)    See  Visscher. 

Vischer,  fish'er,  (Friedrich  Theodor,)  a  German 
writer,  born  at  Ludwigsburg  in  1807,  became  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Tubingen  in  1844.  Plis  principal  work 
is  entitled  "Esthetics,  or  the  Science  of  the  Beautiful." 

Vischer,  (Peter,)  an  eminent  German  sculptor  and 
founder,  born  at  Nureiiiberg  about  1460.  Among  his 
best  works  may  be  named  the  monument  of  the  Arch- 
bishop Ernst  at  Magdeburg  and  the  tomb  of  Saint  Se- 
bald  at  Nuremberg,  both  in  bronze.  The  latter  is  of 
rare  excellence.  Died  in  1530.  Vischer  had  five  sons 
who  were  sculptors,- and  Hermann,  the  eldest,  was 
esteemed  nearly  equal  to  him  in  genius.    Died  in  1540. 

Vischnou  or  Vischnu.    See  Vishnu. 

Visconti,  v^s-kon'tee,  the  natne  of  a  celebrated 
family  of  Lombardy,  which  acquired  sovereign  power 
at  Milan  in  the  thirteenth  century.  The  fomider  of  their 
grandeur  was  OrroNE  Visconti,  who  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Milan  in  1262.  He  was  violently  opposed  by 
a  party  of  the  Milanese,  the  Torriani,  whom  he  defeated 
in  battle  in  1277,     He  died  in  1295.     His  nephew,  | 


Matteo  Visconti  the  Great,  born  in  1250,  was 
chosen  in  1288  "captain  of  the  people"  for  five  years. 
He  obtained  sovereign  power,  and  waged  war  against 
the  Torriani,  who  drove  him  out  of  Milan  in  1302  ;  but 
he  was  restored  in  13 11.  He  was  the  leader  of  the 
Ghibelines,  and  was  involved  in  a  quarrel  with  Pope 
John  XXH.,  who  excommunicated  hiin  in  1322.  He 
died  in  the  same  year.  According  to  Sismondi,  "  he 
raised  himself  above  all  the  princes  of  his  time  by  his 
political  talents,"  etc.  His  son,  Galeazzo  L,  born  in 
1277,  became  in  1322  lord  of  Milan,  which  was  then 
under  the  papal  interdict.  His  capital  was  attacked  in 
1323  by  an  army  of  crusaders,  who  were  incited  by  the 
pope.  He  was  aided  by  Louis  of  Bavaria,  and  defeated 
the  crusaders  in  1324.  Died  in  1328.  Azzo  Visconti, 
born  in  1302,  was  a  son  of  Galeazzo,  and  became  sove- 
reign of  Milan  and  Lotnbardy  in  1329.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  an  able,  liberal,  and  just  prince.  He  was  the 
first  lord  of  Milan  who  coined  money  in  his  own  name. 
Died  in  1339,  without  issue.  LuccHiNO  (or  Luchino) 
Visconti,  an  uncle  of  Azzo  and  son  of  Matteo,  was  born 
in  1287.  He  became  lord  of  Milan  in  1339,  and  enlarged 
his  dominions  by  the  annexation  of  Parma,  Pavia,  and 
other  towns.  He  died  in  1349,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Giovanni,  who  was  born  in  1290.  He  had 
been  appointed  Archbishop  of  Milan  about  13 1 7.  He 
acquired  Bologna  by  purchase  in  1350,  and  died  in  1354. 
His  power  was  inherited  by  three  nephews,  Matteo, 
Galeazzo,  and  Barnabo,  the  first  of  whom  died  in  1355. 
Barnabo,  born  in  1319,  became  ijiaster  of  Bergaino, 
Brescia,  Crema,  and  Cretnona.  He  also  ruled  Milan 
jointly  with  Galeazzo.  He  was  notorious  for  his  cruelty 
and  audacity,  and  defied  the  power  of  the  pope,  who 
excommunicated  him.  Urban  V.  preached  a  crusade 
against  him,  and  united  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  with 
other  monarchs  in  a  league  against  him  about  1363. 
Barnabo  resisted  them  with  success.  Died  in  1385. 
Galeazzo  H.,  born  about  1320,  became  lord  of  Como, 
Pavia,  Novara,  Vercelli,  Asti,  and  Tortona,  in  1354.  He 
was  cruel  and  tyrannical.  He  died  in  1378,  leaving  a 
son,  GiAN  Galeazzo,  the  first  Duke  of  Milan,  who  was 
born  in  1347.  He  was  ambitious  and  perfidious.  Hav- 
ing deposed  his  uncle  Barnabo  in  1385,  he  obtained  his 
dominions.  By  force  or  fraud  he  made  himself  master 
of  Verona,  Vicenza,  Bologna,  and  Padua.  In  1395  he 
purchased  the  title  of  Duke  of  Milan  from  the  empe- 
ror. He  aspired  to  be  King  of  Italy,  when  he  died  in 
the  midst  of  his  victorious  career,  in  1402.  Giovanni 
Maria,  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1389, 
became  duke  in  1402.  He  was  feeble  and  depraved. 
During  his  reign  the  limits  of  the  duchy  were  greatly 
reduced.  He  was  assassinated  in  1412.  FiLiPPO  Maria 
Visconti,  born  in  1391,  was  a  brother  of  Giovanni 
Maria,  whom  he  succeeded.  His  army,  commanded 
by  the  famous  General  Carmagnola,  reconquered 
Lombardy.  He  was  cruel,  cowardl}^  and  suspicious. 
He  put  to  death  his  own  wife.  About  1426  Venice, 
Florence,  and  Alfonzo  of  Aragon  formed  a  league 
against  him.  He  waged  war  for  many  years  against 
these  powers  and  the  pope  Eugene  IV.  He  died  in 
1447,  ^"d  was  succeeded  by  his  son-in-law,  Francesco 
Sforza. 

See  BoTTA,  "  Storia  d'ltalia;"   Cantu,  "  Storia  miiversale; 
Vekri,  "  Storia  di  Miiano  ;"  Voi.pi,  "  Dell'Istoria  de'  Visconti,"  2 
vols.,  1737-48;  SiCKEL,  "Die  Visconti  von  Milan,"  1859. 

Visconti,  (Ennio  Quirino,)  an  eininent  Italian 
scholar  and  archaeologist,  was  born  at  Rome  on  the  1st  of 
November,  1751.  He  was  instructed  by  his  father,  who 
was  prefect  of  antiquities  at  Rome.  He  displayed  such 
precocity  of  intellect,  that  he  translated  the  "  Hecuba" 
of  Euripides  into  Italian  verse  at  the  age  of  fourteen. 
After  the  death  of  his  father,  whoin  he  assisted  in 
editing  the  first,  he  edited  the  six  remaining  volumes 
of  the  "  Museo  Pio-Clementino,"  (1807.)  He  had  been 
appointed  in  1787  conservator  of  the  Capitoline  Mu- 
seum. On  the  occupation  of  Rome  by  the  French,  in 
1798,  Visconti  was  chosen  a  inember  of  the  provisional 
govern inent,  and  soon  after  became  one  of  the  five  con- 
sids  of  the  republic.  Having  removed  to  France,  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  archaeology  and  overseer  of 
the  Museum  of  the  Louvre,  and  published,  at  the  re- 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,       ;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \x,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f3.ll,  fit;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


F IS  CO  NT  I 


2207 


nSINET 


quest  of  Napoleon,  a  series  of  portraits  of  the  eminent 
men  of  Greece  and  Rome,  entitled  "  Iconographie 
Grecque"  (3  vols.  4to,  1808)  and  "  Iconographie  Ro- 
maine,"  (3  vols.,  1818.)  Besides  this  magnificent  work, 
he  wrote  a  description  of  the  monuments  found  in  the 
ruins  of  Gabii,  and  various  other  treatises  on  ancient 
art.    Died  in  i8r8. 

See  QuATREMERE  DE  QuiNCY,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Ouvrages 
de  Visconti,"  1818  ;  Giovanni  Labus,  "Notizie  biografiche  intorno 
la  Vita  di  E.  Q.  Visconti,"  1818;  Tipaldo,  "  Biografia  degli  Italiani 
illustri :"  Dacier,  "  £loge  d'E.  Q.  Visconti;"  "  Nouvelle  Biogra- 
phie  Generale." 

Visconti,  (Filippo  Aurelio,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, became  superintendent  of  the  antiquities  of 
Rome  after  the  death  of  his  father.  He  published  several 
antiquarian  treatises,  and  edited  the  "  Museo  Chiara- 
nionti,"  a  sequel  to  the  **  Museo  Pio-Clementino."  Died 
in  1830. 

Visconti,  (Gasparo,)  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Milan 
in  1461,  became  a  senator.  He  published  "Rhymes," 
("Rithmi,"  1493,)  ^'""^  a  "Poem  on  the  Lovers  Paul  and 
Daria,"  {"  Poema  di  Paolo  e  Daria  Amanti,"  1495.) 
Died  in  1499. 

Visconti,  (Giovanni  Battista  Antonio,)  an  Ital- 
ian antiquary,  the  father  of  Ennio  Quirino,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Vernazza  in  1722.  He  became  pre- 
fect of  antiquities  at  Rome  in  1768,  and  was  employed 
by  Pope  Clement  XIV.  to  form  a  collection  of  ancient 
marbles,  which  is  called  "Museo  Pio-Clementino." 
Died  in  1784. 

See  "  Biografia  di  G.  B.  Visconti,"  Rome. 

Visconti,  (Louis  Tullius  Joachim,)  an  architect, 
a  son  of  Ennio  Quirino,  was  born  at  Rome  in  1797, 
and  studied  architecture  in  Paris  under  Percier.  He  was 
appointed  in  1825  architect  of  the  Bibliotheque  Royale. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  the  tomb  of  Napoleon  I., 
the  monuments  of  Marshals  Soult  and  Suchet,  and  the 
completion  of  the  Louvre  and  its  junction  with  the 
Tuileries.  The  last,  wliich  was  finished  in  1857,  is  a 
grand  and  admirable  structure.    Died  in  1853. 

See  "  Noiivelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Visconti,  (Marco,)  an  able  Italian  commander,  was 
a  son  of  Matteo  the  Great,  (mentioned  in  the  foregoing 
notice  of  the  Visconti  family,)  and  a  leader  of  the  Ghibe- 
lines.  He  commanded  the  forces  of  his  brother  Gale- 
azzo  I.  when  Milan  was  attacked  by  an  army  of  crusaders, 
whom  he  defeated  in  1322.  He  was  assassinated,  by 
order  of  his  nephew  Azzo,  in  1329. 

Visdelou,  de,  deh  ve'deh-loo'  or  v^d'loo',  (Claude,) 
a  learned  French  missionary,  born  in  Brittany  in  1656. 
He  was  one  of  the  Jesuits  sent  to  China  by  Louis  XIV. 
in  1685.  He  laboured  about  twenty  years  in  China, 
received  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Claudiopolis  in  1708, 
and  wrote  several  works  on  Chinese  history,  etc.  Died 
at  Pondicherry  in  1737. 

Vise  or  Vize.    See  Donneau. 

Vishnu,  vlsh'noo,  written  in  French  Viclinou  or 
Vischnou,  and  in  German  Wischnu  or  Vischnu, 

sometimes  improperly  spelled  in  English  Veeshnoo,* 
i.e.  the  "  Pervader,"  [from  the  Sanscrit  vh/i,  to  "enter" 
or  "pervade,"]  the  name  of  the  preserving  deity,  one 
of  the  great  gods  of  the  Hindoo  Triad,  f  The  Vaishna- 
vas,  (pronounced  vish^na-vaz,)  or  especial  worshipjiers 
of  Vishnu,  claim  that  Brahma  (or  the  Self- Existent) 
sprung  from  Vishnu  in  his  character  of  Narayana,  (or 
the  primeval  spirit  which  moved  upon  the  waters, — see 
NArayana  :)  thus  they  exalt  Vishnu  above  the  Creator 
(Brahma)  and  the  Destroyer,  (Siva.)  The  Saivas,  or 
worshippers  of  Siva,  on  the  other  hand,  place  their 
favourite  deity  far  above  Vishnu  or  Brahma,  (see  Siva,) 
calling  him  Mahadeva,  or  the  "Great  God." 

The  most  striking  peculiarity  of  the  preserving  deity 


*  Improperly,  because  the  ee  in  the  first  syllable  does  notrepres^t 
correctly  the  pronunciation.   (See  Preface,  p.  vi.) 

t  It  may  be  proper  to  observe  that  the  Hindoo  Triad  (unlike  the 
Trinity  of  tlie  Western  nations)  is  not  considered  to  constitute  the 
godhead  of  the  infinite  eternal  Being  ;  for  none  of  the  gods  of  the 
Triad  is  supposed  to  be  eternal  in  the  strictest  sense.  They  are,  in 
fact,  personifications  of  the  powers  of  nature.  They  had  a  beginning, 
and  they  will  come  to  an  end.  Brah.m,  of  whom  they  are  but  tem- 
porary emanations,  is  tlie  only  eternal  Being  in  the  Brahmanical 
system  of  theology. 


are  his  numerous  avatars,  alluding  to  which  Southey 
says, — 

"When  .  .  .  tyrants  in  their  might 
Usurped  dominion  o'er  the  earth, 
['I'iien]  Veeshnoo  took  a  human  birth, 
Deliverer  of  the  sons  of  men." 

Curse  of  Kehama,  vol.  i.,  x. 
On  these  occasions  his  parents  were  usually  Kasyapa 
and  Diti.f 

The  following  are  the  names  of  the  avatars  of  Vishnu  : 
I,  Matsya,  or  the  Fish  ;  2.  Kurma,  the  Tortoise ;  3. 
•Varaha,  the  Boar;  4.  Narasingha,  the  Man-Lion;  5. 
Vamana,  the  Dwarf;  6.  Parasu-Rama;  7.  Rama-Chan- 
dra; 8.  Krishna;  9.  Buddha,  (Booddha  ;)  10.  Kalki,  or 
the  Horse.  For  an  explanation  of  these,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  their  respective  heads.  Vishnu,  as  his  name 
implies,  represents  Spirit,  while  in  the  same  general 
relation  Brahma  represents  Matter,  and  Siva,  Time. 
Again,  as  the  Earth  is  the  type  or  symbol  of  Brahma, 
and  Fire  of  Siva,  so  Water  is  the  symbol  of  Vishnu. 
The  reason  is  sufficiently  obvious:  in  a  country  like 
India,  where  everything  is  exposed  for  the  greater  part 
of  the  year  to  a  burning  sun, — one  of  the  many  forms 
of  Siva, — it  is  the  water,  coming  in  the  periodical  rains, 
which  alone  saves  the  plants  and  animals  (whose  life  is 
dependent  upon  that  of  plants)  from  utter  destruction. 
As  a  personification  of  water,  (or  the  sea,)  Vishnu  is  in 
pictures  usually  represented  of  a  dark-blue  colour.  The 
air,  as  the  symbol  of  spirit,  and  perhaps,  also,  as  the 
vehicle  of  the  preserving  rains,  is  considered  to  belong 
peculiarly  to  Vishnu.  The  sun  likewise,  though  com- 
monly regarded  as  a  type  of  Siva,  is  one  of  the  many 
representations  of  Vishnu.  For  if  cold  is  one  of  the 
numerous  forms  of  Siva,  (the  Destroyer,)  the  warmth 
of  the  sun  may  very  naturally,  in  a  temperate  climate, 
or  in  winter,  be  considered  as  a  manifestation  of  the 
preserving  Power. 

Among  the  possessions  peculiar  to  Vishnu  are  the 
Chakra,  (called  by  the  modern  Hindoos  chiik'ra  or 
chuk'ur,)  a  sort  of  wheel  or  discus,  with  a  hole  in  the 
centre,  which  the  god  hurled  at  his  foes,  and  the  Shankh 
or  Chank,  (modern  pron.  shiinkh,§)  a  kind  of  shell,  having 
allusion,  doubtless,  to  the  sea  as  personified  in  Vishnu. 

Vishnu,  like  Siva,  is  said  to  have  had  a  thousand 
different  names,  among  which  we  may  mention  that  of 
Trivikrama,  or  "three-step-taker,"  (see  Vamana,)  and 
Hari,  (or  Heri,)  i.e.  "Green,"  in  allusion,  in  all  prob- 
ability, to  the  colour  of  the  sea,  (the  type  of  Vishnu  ;) 
so  Krishna,  the  name  of  that  one  of  the  avatars  which 
is  regarded  as  Vishnu  himself,  signifies  "dark  blue," 
and  it  was  doubtless  applied  to  him  for  the  sanrie  reason, 
the  colour  of  the  sea  varying  with  varying  circumstances 
from  green  to  a  deep  blue. 

The  preserving  deity  is  usually  represented  with  four 
arms.  He  is  pictured  in  various  positions,  some- 
times as  Narayana  reclining  on  Sesha, — a  thousand- 
headed  serpent, — meditating  on  the  universe  to  which 
he  is  about  to  give  being;  from  his  navel  proceeds  a 
lotus,  in  the  opening  flower  of  which  Brahma,  known  by 
his  four  heads,  is  seen  sitting ;  while  Lakshmi  (Nara- 
yani)  sits  reverently  at  the  feet  of  her  lord.  At  other 
times  he  is  represented  as  standing  with  the  Shankh  and 
Chakra  in  his  hands.  Sometimes  he  is  pictured  sitting 
with  Lakshmi  by  his  side,  and  holding  a  bow  and  mace, 
as  he  rides  on  his  Vahan  Garuda,  (which  see.)  The 
Shankh  and  Chakra  are  his  usual  insignia,  whether 
he  is  represented  in  his  own  proper  person  or  in  the 
characters  of  his  various  avatars. 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon;''  Guigniaut,  "Religions  de 
I'Antiquite,"  vol.  i.,  book  i.  chap.  iii.  ;  "  Biographie  Universelle," 
(Partie  mythologique ;)  Coleman,  "Mythology  of  the  Hindus." 

Visin.    See  Vizin. 

Visinet,  ve'ze'na',  (Auguste  Th^;odore,)  a  French 
journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1797.  He  edited  the  "Jour- 
nal de  Rouen"  from  1828  to  1848. 

X  In  the  celebrated  drama  of  "  Sakoontala"  (translated  by  Pro- 
fessor Williams,  of  Oxford)  the  following  passage  occurs: 
"That  immortal  pair 
Whom  Vishnu,  greater  than  the  Self-Existent, 
Chose  for  his  parents,  when,  to  save  mankind. 
He  took  upon  himself  the  shape  of  mortals." — Act  vii. 
§  Etymologically  related  to  the  Greek  Ko-yx^J.  (Latin,  concha,) 
having  the  same  signification. 


«  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal ;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (JJll^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


riSSCHER 


2208 


yiTRT 


Visscher  or  Vischer,  vis'Ker,  (Anne  Roemer — 
roo'mer,)  a  Dutch  poetess  and  artist,  born  in  1587,  was 
a  daughter  of  Roemer,  noticed  below.    Died  in  1651. 

Her  sister,  Maria  Tesselschade,  (tes'sel-sKd'deh,) 
born  in  1597,  was  also  a  poetess.  Her  talents  and  beauty 
were  highly  extolled  by  the  historian  Hooft.  Died  in 
1649. 

See  ScHELTEMA,  "  Anna  en  Maria  Tesselschade  Visscher,"  1809 ; 
LoNGKEi.r.ow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  "  Fraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  March,  1854. 

Visscher  or  Vischer,  (Cornelis,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
engraver,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1610,  was  a  pupil  of  Sout- 
man.  He  executed  a  number  of  prints  after  his  own 
designs,  as  well  as  from  other  artists.  His  works  are 
ranked  among  the  finest  specimens  of  the  art,  and  com- 
mand enormous  prices.  He  engraved  many  admirable 
portraits,  among  which  is  that  of  A,  D.  Winius.  His 
death  is  variously  dated  from  1660  to  1670. 

Visscher,  (Jan,)  a  skilful  Dutch  engraver,  born  in 
1636,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  engraved 
after  Berghem  and  Ostade.    Died  after  1692. 

Visscher,  (Roemer  or  Romkrus,)  a  poet,  styled  "the 
Dutch  Martial,"  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1547,  published 
a  book  of  emblems,  entitled  "  Zinnepoppen,"  (1614,)  and 
a  collection  of  Epigrams.    Died  in  1620. 

Viswacarma  or  Viswacarman.     See  Viswa- 

KARMA. 

Viswakarma  or  Vishwakarma,  [modern  Hindoo 
pron.  vis'wa-kvir'ma  ;  from  the  Sanscrit  vtslnvd,  "  all," 
and  karma.  "  work,"]  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  name 
of  the  Artificer  of  the  Universe,  corresponding  in  some 
respects  to  the  Vulcan  of  classic  mythology.  He  was 
married  to  Prithu,  the  goddess  of  the  earth,  which  he  is 
supposed  to  have  moulded  into  its  present  shape. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon." 

Viswamitra,  vis-wi'mi-tra,  or  Vishw^mitra,  [from 
the  Sanscrit  vishwd,  "  all,"  and  ?nitrd,  a  "  friend,"  called 
"the  friend  of  all,"  perhaps  on  account  of  his  being  the 
counsellor  and  friend  of  Rama,  who  was  the  general 
friend  of  mankind,]  a  celebrated  Hindoo  sage,  who, 
though  originally  a  Kshatriya,  became,  by  long  and 
painful  austerities,  a  Brahman,  or  rather  a  13rahmarshi, 
{i.e.  "  Brahman-rishi,''''  or  "  Brahman  saint,^'')  one  of  a 
particular  class  of  rishis,  in  which  character  he  was  the 
preceptor  and  counsellor  of  Rama. 

See  Moor,  "  Hindu  Pantheon  ;"  Wilson,  "  Sanscrit-and-Eng- 
lish  Dictionary." 

Vital,  (Orderic.)    See  Ordericus  Vitalis. 

Vital  de  Blois,  ve'tiK  deh  blwi,  [Lat.  Vita'lis 
Ble'sius,]  a  Latin  poet  of  the  twelfth  century,  com- 
posed in  1 186  a  poem,  "  De  Querulo,"  which  was  printed 
in  1830. 

Vi-ta-le-a'nus,'  [Fr.  VrrALiE;N,  ve'tt'le-iN',]  Pope  of 
Rome,  succeeded  Eugenius  I.  in  657  a.d.  He  died  in  672 
A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  Deodatus  II. 

Vitalis.    See  Sjoberg. 

Vitalis  Ordericus.    See  Ordericus  Vitalis. 

Vite,  della,  deKiS  vee'ti,  (Timoteo,)  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Urbino  about  1470.  He  worked  with 
Raphael  at  Rome.    Died  about  1524. 

Vitelli,  ve-t^Klee,  (Ciapino,  chi-pee'no,)  an  Italian 
general,  born  at  Citta  di  Castello  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. He  entered  the  service  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
and  was  employed  under  the  Duke  of  Alva  in  the  Low 
Countries.    Died  in  1576. 

See  Motlp:v,  "History  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  vol.  ii. 

Vitelli  or  Vi-tel'li-us,  (Cornelio,)  an  Italian  teacher 
of  Greek,  came  to  Oxford  about  1488,  in  order,  as  Hal- 
lam  says,  "  to  give  that  most  barbarous  university  some 
notion  of  what  was  going  forward  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Alps."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.") 
He  returned  to  Paris  in  1489. 

Vi-tel'li-us,  (AuLUS,)  Emperor  of  Rome,  born  about 
15  A.D.  He  was  distinguished  by  the  favour  of  Caligula, 
Claudius,  and  Nero,  and  was  appointed  by  Galba  to 
command  the  German  legions.  He  was  soon  after  pro- 
claimed emperor  by  his  army,  and,  Galba  having  been 
put  to  death  by  the  partisans  of  Otho,  the  empire  was 
now  disi)uted  between  the  latter  and  Vitellius.  Otho 
was  defeated,  and  Vitellius  recognized  as  emperor  ;  but, 
Vespasian  having  been  meanwhile  proclaimed  at  Alex- 


andria, his  general  Antonius  Primus  marched  against 
Rome,  subdued  the  adherents  of  Vitellius,  and  put  him 
to  death,  (69  a.d.) 

See  SuETON'ius,  "  Vitellius  ;"  Tacitus,  "  History  ;"  Tillemont, 
"  Histoire  des  Empereurs  ;"  Franz  Horn,  "  Historische  Genialde- 
Galba,  Otho,  Vitellius,"  1812. 

Vitellius,  (Cornelio.)    See  Vitelll 

Vitello,  ve-teKlo,  or  Vitellio,  ve-teKle-o,  a  Polish 
mathematician  and  philosopher  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, was  the  author  of  several  works,  the  principal  of 
which  is  a  treatise  on  optics  and  geometry,  entitled 
"Vitellionis  Perspectivae  Libri  decem." 

Vitet,  ve'ti',  (Ludovic,)  a  French  litterateur  and 
statesman,  born  in  Paris  in  1802.  He  was  appointed 
in  1830  inspector-general  of  French  antiquities,  and  in 
1834  represented  the  department  of  Seine-Inferieure  in 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  He  published  historical  and 
dramatical  sketches,  entitled  "  Les  Barricades,"  (1826,) 
"Les  Etats  de  Blois,"  (1827,)  and  "La  Mort  de  Henri 
III,"  (1829,)  also  an  essay  on  painting  in  France,  entitled 
"Eustache  Le  Sueur,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Ouvrages,"  (1843.) 
He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1845. 

Vit'i-ges  became  King  of  the  Ostrogoths  in  536  a.d 
He  fought  in  Italy  against  Belisarius,  who  took  him 
prisoner  in  539  and  carried  him  to  Constantinople.  He 
died  about  three  years  later. 

Vitikind.    See  Witikind. 

Vitiza.    See  Witiza. 

Vitre,  ve^tRi',  (Antoine,)  a  French  printer,  born  in 
Paris  about  1595.  He  was  appointed  director  of  the 
royal  printing-office  by  Colbert.  Among  the  works  which 
he  printed  was  the  Polyglot  Bible  of  Le  Jay,  (10  vols., 
1628-45,)  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  the  characters. 
Died  in  1674. 

See  Aug.  Bernard,  "A.  Vitre  et  les  Caractferes  Orientaux," 
etc.,  1850. 

Vitringa,  ve-tRing'gi  or  ve-tRing'H^,  (Campegius,) 
a  learned  Dutch  theologian,  born  at  Leeuwarden  in 
1659,  became  successively  professor  of  Oriental  litera- 
ture, theology,  and  sacred  history  at  Franeker.  He 
was  the  author  of  Latin  coinmentaries  on  various  books 
of  the  Scriptures,  which  are  highly  esteemed.  The 
Commentary  on  Isaiah  ranks  among  the  best  works  of 
the  kind.    Died  in  1722. 

See  NiCERON,  "Meinoires." 

Vitringa,  (Campegius,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Franeker  in  1693.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Franeker  in  1 7 16,  and  had  a  high  reputation. 
He  wrote  several  theological  treatises.    Died  in  1723. 

Vitrolles,  de,  deh  ve'tRoK,  (Eugene  FRANgois 
AuGUSTE  d'Arnaud — dtR'no',)  Baron,  a  French  poli- 
tician, born  near  Aix  in  1774.  He  was  a  royalist,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  intrigues  which  preceded  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  18 14.  He  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  in  January,  1830.    Died  in  1854. 

Vitruve.    See  Vitruvius. 

Vitruvio.    See  Vitruvius. 

Vi-tru'vi-us,  [Fr.  Vitruve,  ve'tRiiv';  It.  Vitruvio, 
ve-tRoo've-o,]  or,  more  fully,  Mar'cus  Vi-tru'vi-us 

PoPli-O,  a  celebrated  Roman  architect  and  writer,  of 
whom  little  is  known.  He  served  as  a  military  engineer 
in  his  youth,  and  was  employed  under  Julius  Caesar  in 
Africa  in  46  B.C.  He  designed  a  basilica  or  temple  at 
Fanum.  In  the  reign  of  Augustus  he  was  inspector  of 
military  engines.  He  wrote  in  old  age  a  work  on  archi- 
tecture, in  ten  books,  ("De  Architectura,")  which  is 
highly  esteemed  as  a  text-book,  and  is  the  only  ancient 
treatise  on  the  subject  that  has  come  down  to  us.  His 
work  has  been  translated  into  English  by  R.  Castell, 
(1730,)  and  by  W.  Newton,  (1771-91.) 

See  B.  Balde,  "  Vita  Vitruvii,"  1612;  Poi.eni,  "  Exercitationes 
Vitruvian^,"  1739-41;  Quatreme:re  de  Quincv,  " Dictionnaire 
des  Architectes  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vitry.    See  James  de  Vitry. 
oVitry,  de,  deh  ve'tRe',  (Sdouard,)  a  French  philolo- 
gist and  numismatist,  born  about  1670.    He  wrote  a 
number  of  dissertations.    He  visited  Rome  in  1724. 

Vitry,  de,  (Louis  de  I'Hospital — deh  IS'pe'tiK,) 
Marquis,  a  French  general,  was  a  partisan  of  the  League 
after  the  death  of  Henry  HI.    Died  in  1611. 

Vitry,  de,  (Nicolas  de  l'Hospital,)  Marquis,  a 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1581.   He  was  one  of 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  A,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fSll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon: 


VITTORELLI 


2209 


VLADIMIR 


those  who  assassinated  Concini  in  161 7,  and  was  re: 
warded  for  that  act  with  the  rank  of  marshal  of  France. 
Died  in  1644. 

Vittorelli,  v^t-to-rel'Iee,  or  Vettorelli,  vlt-to-rel'lee, 
(Andrea,)  an  Italian  author  and  priest,  born  at  Bassano 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  had  a 
high  reputation  as  a  writer.    Died  after  1632. 

Vittoria  Colonna.    vSee  Colonna. 

Vittorino  da  Feltre,  v^t-to-ree'no  dl  f^KtRi,  [Fr. 
ViCTORFN  DE  Feltre,  v^k'to'riN'  deh  feltR,]  a  cele- 
brated Italian  teacher,  born  at  Feltre  in  1379,  became 
professor  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy  at  Padua.  He 
afterwards  presided  over  a  school  at  Mantua,  where  he 
numbered  among  his  pupils  George  of  Trebizond,  Theo- 
dore Gaza,  and  other  eminent  men.  His  system  of 
education,  which  included  gymnastics,  is  highly  com- 
mended by  contemporary  writers.    Died  in  1447. 

See  Rachei.i,  "  Intorno  a  Vittorino  da  Feltre,"  1832;  Benoit, 
"  Victorii)  de  Feltre,"  1853  ;  Carlo  de  Rosmini,  "  Idea  dell'ottimo 
Precettore  nella  Vita  di  Vittorino  da  Feltre,"  1801. 

Vittorio  Amedeo.    See  Victor  Amadeus. 

Vivaldi,  ve-val'dee,  (Antonto,)  an  Italian  composer 
and  eminent  violinist,  born  at  Venice  in  the  seventeenth 
century;  died  in  1743. 

Vivant,  ve'v6N',  (FRANgois,)  a  French  priest,  born 
in  Paris  in  1663,  became  canon  of  Notre-Dame  at  Paris, 
grand  vicar,  and  grand  chorister  or  precentor,  in  1730. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  theology.    Died  in  1739. 

Vivares,  ve'vtn',  (Francois,)  a  French  engraver, 
born  near  Montpellier  in  1712.  He  studied  landscape- 
engraving  in  England,  and  executed  a  number  of  prints, 
after  Claude  Lorrain,  which  are  esteemed  master-pieces 
of  the  kind.    Died  in  1782. 

Vivarini,  ve-vi-ree'nee,(  ANTONio,)an  Italian  painter, 
of  Murano,  near  Venice.  He  was  a  brother  of  Barto- 
lommeo,  and  worked  about  1450.  His  works  are  richly 
coloured. 

Vivarini,  (Bartolommeo,)  a  Venetian  painter  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  was  one  of  (he  first  artists  in  Venice 
who  employed  oil-colours. 

Vivarini,  (Luigi,)  lived  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
attained  a  high  reputation  as  a  painter.  There  are  several 
of  his  works  in  the  Venetian  Academy.  He  worked  as 
late  as  1490. 

Vivens,  de,  deh  ve'v6N'.  (FRANgois,)  a  French  sa- 
vant and  writer,  born  near  Clairac  in  1697.  He  wrote 
on  agriculture,  physics,  etc.    Died  in  1780. 

Vives,  vee'v^s,  (John  Louis,)  [called  in  Latin  Ludo- 
Vl'cus  Vi'vus,]  a  Spanish  scholar,  born  at  Valencia  in 
1492.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Louvain,  where 
he  afterwards  became  professor  of  the  Latin  language. 
He  was  subsequently  invited  to  England  by  Henry  VIII., 
who  appointed  him  tutor  to  the  princess  Mary.  Having 
opposed  the  divorce  of  Catherine  of  Aragon,  he  was 
imprisoned  several  months,  and  on  his  release  settled  at 
Bruges,  in  the  Netherlands.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Erasmus  and  Budaeus,  and  the  three  have  been  called 
a  triumvirate  in  the  republic  of  letters,  equally  eminent 
for  talents  and  learning.  Among  the  principal  works  of 
Vives  are  Latin  treatises  "  On  the  Truth  of  the  Christian 
Faith,"  "On  the  Soul  and  Life,"  and  "On  the  Causes 
of  the  Arts  being  Corrupted,"  ("  De  Causis  Corrupta- 
rum  Artium.")    Died  in  1540. 

See  Bosch-Kemper.^  "J.  L.  Vives  geschetst  als  christelijk  Phi- 
lantroop,"  1851;  Nameche,  "Memoire  sur  la  Vie  et  les  ficrits  de 
J.  L.  Vives  ;"  N.  Antonio,  "  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova  ;"  Niceron, 
"Memoires,"  Dupin,  "  Auteurs  ecclesiastiques;"  "  Nouvelle  Bio- 
graphic Generale." 

Viv'i-an,  (Richard  Hussey  Vivian,)  Lord,  an 
English  general,  born  in  1775.  He  served  under  Moore 
at  Corunna  in  1808,  became  a  colonel  in  181 2,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  Peninsular  war  in  1813.  With 
the  rank  of  major-general,  he  commanded  a  brigade  of 
cavalry  at  Waterloo.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in 
1841.    Died  in  1842. 

Viviani,  ve-ve-i'nee,  (Vincenzo,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
mathematician  and  engineer,  born  at  Florence  in  April, 
1622.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Galileo,  after  whose  death 
{1642)  he  studied  under  Torricelli.  About  1662  he  was 
appointed  chief  engineer  by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tus- 
cany. He  acquired  a  wide  reputation  by  his  atteinpt  to 
restore  the  fifth  book  of  Apollonius  on  Conic  Sections,  in 


his  "Geometrical  Conjectures  concerning  Maximums 
and  Minimums,"  ("  De  Maximis  et  Minimis  geometrica 
Divinatio,"  1659.)  In  1674  he  published  "The  Fifth 
Book  of  the  Elements  of  Euclid,  or  the  Universal  Sci- 
ence of  Proportion  explained  according  to  the  Doctrine 
of  Galileo."    Died  at  Florence  in  1703- 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentium,"  vol.  i. ; 
FoNTENELLE,  "  filogc  de  Viviani ;"  Nicekon,  "Memoiies;"  Tira- 
BoscHi,  "  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Vivien,  ve've4,N',  (Alexandre  Franqois  Auguste,) 
an  able  French  lawyer  and  writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1799. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from 
1833  to  1848,  and  was  minister  of  justice  from  March  to 
October,  1840.  In  1845  he  published  "  Administrative 
Studies,"  which  procured  his  admission  into  the  Acad- 
emy of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences.    Died  in  1854. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vivien,  (Joseph,)  a  French  portrait-painter,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1657.  He  painted  mostly  in  pastel,  (crayon,) 
and  gained  a  high  reputation.  He  received  the  title  of 
first  painter  to  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  at  whose  court 
he  worked  many  years.    Died  at  Bonn  in  1735. 

Vivien  de  Saint-Martin,  vc'v^n'  deh  siN  miR^- 
tiiX',  (Louis,)  a  French  geographer  and  historian,  born 
about  1800.  He  published,  besides  several  works  of 
geography,  a  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (4 
vols.,  1841,)  and  a  "History  of  the  Geographical  Dis- 
coveries of  European  Nations,"  (2  or  3  vols.,  1845-46.) 

Vivonne,  ve'von',  (Louis  Victor  de  Rochechou- 
art — deh  rosh'shoo'^R',)  Due  de  Montemart  et  de  Vi- 
vonne, a  French  general  and  courtier,  born  in  1636, 
was  a  brother  of  Madame  de  Montespan.  He  was  ap. 
pointed  in  1675  Viceroy  of  Sicily,  which  was  then  the 
seat  of  war  between  the  French  and  Spaniards.  He 
gained  a  decisive  naval  victory  near  Palermo  in  1676. 
Died  in  1688. 

SceCoMTE  deRochechouart.  "  Histoire  dc  la  Maison  dc  Roche 
chouart,"  1859  ;  Saint-Simon,  "Memoires;"  Dangeau,  "Journal;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Vizin,  von,  fon  or  von  vee'zin,  written  also  Visin 
and  Wisin,  (and  sometimes  Von-Vezin,)  (Denis 
IVANOvncH,)  a  celebrated  Russian  dramatist,  born  at 
Moscow  in  1745,  was  the  author  of  comedies  entitled 
"The  Brigadier"  and  "The  Spoiled  Youth,"  which 
obtained  great  popularity.  He  also  translated  Voltaire's 
"  Alzire,"  and  made  other  versions  from  the  French  and 
German.    Died  in  1792. 

Vizzani,  v^t-sl'nee,  (Pompeo,)  an  Italian  historian, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1540.  He  wrote  a  "History  of 
Bologna,"  .(1596.)    Died  in  1 607. 

Vlaccus.    See  Vlacq. 

Vlacq,  vlik,  [Lat.  Vlac'cus,]  (Adriaan,)  a  Dutch 
mathematician  and  printer,  flourished  about  1620-40. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  the  computation  of  loga- 
rithms, and  published  "Tables  of  Sines,  Tangents, 
Logarithms,"  etc. 

Vladimir  or  Wladimir,  vlid'e-meer,  [Polish  and 
Russian  pron.  vli-dee'mir,]  surnamed  the  Great,  Grand 
Duke  of  Russia,  was  an  illegitimate  son  of  Svatoslaf, 
who,  on  dividing  his  dominions,  gave  him  Novgorod 
for  his  share,  about  972.  He  afterwards  made  war  on 
his  brother  Yaropolk,  whom  he  defeated  and  put  to 
death,  thus  becoming  sole  monarch  of  the  empire.  He 
was  a  warlike  and  powerful  prince,  and  the  first  Chris- 
tian sovereign  of  Russia.  In  988  he  demanded  in  mar- 
riage the  Greek  princess  Anna,  (a  sister  of  the  emperors 
Basil  and  Constantine,)  and  sent  an  army  to  the  Crimea 
to  support  his  demand.  He  obtained  the  princess,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  adopted  the  religion  of  the  Greek 
Church,  which  he  established  in  Russia.  He  zealously 
opposed  idolatry,  and  built  churches  and  schools.  Died 
in  1015. 

See  Karamzin,  "History  of  Russia." 

Vlad'imir  or  Wladimir,  (Andretowitch,)  a  brave 
Russian  prince,  was  a  nephew  of  Ivan  II.  At  the  death 
of  Ivan,  in  1364,  he  might  have  succeeded,  but  he  yielded 
the  throne  to  Dmitri.  He  gained  a  great  victory  over 
the  Tartars  at  Koolikof  (Kulikow)  in  1380.   Died  in  1410. 

Vladimir  Mo-nom'a-ehos,  [Fr.  Vladimir  Mono- 
MAQUE,  flt'de'm^R'  mo'no'mtk',[  a  celebrated  monarch 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  K^guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VLADISLAS 


2  2IO 


VOGT 


of  Russia,  born  about  1052,  was  a  great-grandson  of 
Vladimir  the  Great.  He  began  to  reign  at  Kief  about 
1 1 12.  His  wife  was  a  daugliter  of  Harold,  King  of 
England.  He  was  renowned  for  liis  martial  exploits  and 
his  wisdom  and  goodness.  His  reign  was  very  pros- 
perous.   Died  in  1126. 

See  Karamzin,  "  History  of  Russia." 

Vladislas  of  Hungary.    See  Ladislaus. 

Vlad'is-laus,  written  also  Vladislas  and  Ladislas 
or  Ladislaus,  [Polish,  W ladislaw,  viaMe-slSf,]  I.,  King 
of  Poland,  born  about  1044,  succeeded  his  brother  Bo- 
leslaus  in  1082.    Died  in  1102  or  1103. 

Vladislaus  or  Ladislaus  IL  was  a  son  of  Boleslaw 
or  Boleslaus  HI.  He  began  to  reign  in  1139,  and  was 
deposed  by  the  Diet  in  1146.    Died  about  1162. 

Vladislaus  or  Ladislaus  IIL  or  IV.,  King  of  Po- 
land, began  to  reign  in  1296,  was  deposed  in  1300,  and 
restored  in  1305.  He  defeated  the  Teutonic  knights.  He 
died  in  1333,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Casimir  the 
Great. 

Vladislaus  or  Ladislaus  IV.  or  V.,  King  of  Po- 
land, was  Jagellon,  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania.  He 
obtained  the  crown  of  Poland  in  1386  by  marriage  with 
Hedwig,  the  heiress  of  the  former  king.  At  the  same 
time  he  renounced  paganism  and  joined  the  Catholic 
Church.  He  waged  war  against  the  Teutonic  knights. 
Died  in  1434. 

Vladislaus  or  Ladislaus  V.  or  VI.,  a  son  of  the 

preceding,  was  born  aI)out  1423,  or,  as  some  say,  1400. 
He  was  a  famous  warrior,  and  became  King  of  Hungary. 
(See  Ladislas  IV.  or  V.) 
Vladislav.    See  Vladislaus. 

Vlaming,  vld'ming,  (Pethr,)  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at 
Amsterdam  in  1686.  He  produced  a  poetical  version 
of  Sannazaro's  *'  Arcadia,"  and  some  original  poems. 
Died  in  1733. 

Vlerick,  vla'rik,  (Pkter,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at 
Courtrai  in  1539.  He  studied  under  Tintoretto  in 
Venice,  and  worked  at  Rome.  In  1569  he  settled  at 
Tournay.    Died  in  1581. 

Vliet,  van,  vtn  vleet,  (Hendrik,)  a  Dutch  painter  of 
history,  landscapes,  and  portraits,  lived  about  1650-1700. 

Vlitius,  vlee'se-us,  or  Van  Vliet,  (John,)  a  Dutch 
philologist  and  poet,  lived  at  the  Hague  and  at  Breda. 
He  was  appointed  recorder  or  registrar  of  Breda  in 
1651.  He  wrote  Latin  poems,  and  other  works,  among 
which  is  "Old  and  New  Hunting  of  J.  Vlitius,"  ("  Jani 
Vlitii  Venatio  novantiqua,"  1645.)    Died  in  1666. 

Vocht,  (Karl.)    See  Vogt. 

Voeroesmarty.    See  Vorosmarty. 

Voet,  voot,  (Daniel,)  a  son  of  Gisbert,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Heusden  in  1629.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Utrecht,  and  wrote  "Meletemata 
Philosophica  et  Physiologica,"  (i66r.)    Died  in  1660. 

Voet,  [Lat.  Voe'tius,]  (Gisbert,)  an  eminent  Dutch 
scholar  and  theologian,  born  at  Heusden  in  1589  or 
1588.  Having  studied  at  Leyden,  he  became  professor 
of  theology  and  Oriental  languages  at  Utrecht  in  1634. 
He  was  engaged  in  frequent  and  violent  controversies 
with  the  Arminians,  the  Catholics,  and  the  Cartesian 
philosophers,  and  advocated  the  doctrines  set  forth  by 
the  Synod  of  Dort.    Died  in  1676. 

See  Bayi.e,  "  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Voet,  (John,)  son  of  Paul,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Utrecht  in  1647.  He  became  professor  of  law  at 
Leyden,  and  was  the  author  of  a  commentary  on  the 
Pandects,  and  other  legal  works,  in  Latin.   Died  in  1 7 14. 

Voet,  (John  Euseb'ius,)  a  Dutch  poet  and  physician, 
resided  at  the  Hague.    Died  in  1778. 

Voet,  (Paul,)  son  of  Gisbert,  noticed  above,  was 
born  at  Heusden  in  1619.  He  became  professor  of 
logic,  Greek,  and  civil  law  at  Utrecht.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  valuable  legal  works,  among  which 
we  may  name  "On  Laws  and  their  Harmony,"  ("  De 
Statutis  eorumque  Concursu.")    Died  in  1677. 

Voetius.    See  Voet. 

Vogel,  vo'zh^K  or  fo'gel,  (Adolphe,)  a  French  mu- 
sical composer,  a  grandson  of  Christoph  Vogel,  was 
born  at  Lille  in  1806.  He  produced  an  opera  entitled 
"  The  Siege  of  Leyden,"  which  was  performed  with 
applause  in  1847. 


Vogel,  fo'gel,  (Christian  Leberecht,)  a  German 
historical  painter,  born  at  Dresden  in  1759,  became  pro- 
fessor in  the  Academy  of  his  native  city.    Died  in  1816. 

Vogel,  (Christoph,)  a  German  composer  of  operatic 
music,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1756.  Among  his  works 
is  "  Demophon."    Died  in  1788. 

Vogel,  (Eduard,)  son  of  Johann  Karl,  noticed  below, 
was  born  at  Crefeld  in  1829.  Being  sent  in  1853  by  the 
English  government  to  assist  Barth,  Richardson,  and 
Overweg  in  their  researches  in  Central  Africa,  he  was 
put  to  death,  by  order  of  the  Sultan  of  Wadai,  in  1856. 

Vogel,  (Johann  Karl  Christoph,)  a  distinguished 
German  teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  in  1795. 
He  became  director  of  the  Burgerschule  at  Leipsic  in 
1832.  He  published  a  "School  Dictionary  of  the  Ger- 
man Language,"  a  "  German  Reader  for  the  Higher 
Classes,"  and  other  works.  His  daughter  Elise,  born 
in  1823,  has  published  "  Musikalischen  Mahrchen," 
(1852,)  and  other  popular  tales. 

Vogel,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  German  mineralogist, 
born  in  the  duchy  of  Coburg  in  1657.  He  published 
"Travels  in  the  East  Indies,"  (1690,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1723. 

Vogel,  (Theodor,)  a  German  botanist,  who  in  1841 
accompanied  the  expedition  sent  out  to  Africa  by  the 
English  government.  He  died  at  Fernando  Po  about 
six  months  after. 

Vogel  von  Vogelstein,  fo'gel  fon  fo'gel-stln',  (Karl 
Christian,)  a  German  painter,  son  of  Christian  Lebe- 
recht Vogel,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Wildenfels  in 
1788.  He  studied  at  Dresden,  and  afterwards  visited 
Rome  and  Florence.  He  became  professor  of  painting 
at  the  Academy  of  Dresden  in  1820,  and  in  1824  court 
painter.  Among  his  principal  works  are  portraits  of 
Thorwaldsen  and  Pope  Pius  VII.,  and  illustrations  of 
Goethe's  "  Faust." 

Vogelin,  fd'geh-leen',  (Ernst,)  a  Swiss  painter,  born 
at  Constance  in  1528,  was  a  son-in-law  of  Valentine 
Papa,  a  noted  publisher  of  Leipsic.  Among  the  publi- 
cations of  Vogelin  were  excellent  editions  of  Isocrates 
and  other  classics.    Died  in  1590. 

Voght,  von,  fon  foGt,  (Kaspar,)  Baron,  a  German 
philanthropist,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1752,  was  the  founder 
of  several  benevolent  and  educational  institutions  for  the 
poor  in  his  native  city.  He  was  the  author  of  treatises 
on  agriculture  and  rural  economy.    Died  in  1839. 

Vogl,  foGi,  (Johann  Nepomuk,)  an  Austrian  lyric 
poet,  born  at  Vienna  in  1802,  has  published  "Ballads 
and  Romances,"  "Soldier  Songs,"  "Lyric  Poems,"  and 
other  works. 

Vogler,  foG'ler,  (Georg  Joseph,)  a  German  musician 
and  com  looser,  born  at  W^iirzburg  in  1749.  He  was 
appointed  chapel-master  at  Stockholm  in  1786.  He 
published  several  musical  treatises,  and  numbered 
among  his  pupils  Meyerbeer  and  Weber.  His  com- 
positions include  masses,  symphonies,  and  operas.  Died 
in  1814. 

Vogler,  (Valentin  Heinrich,)  a  German  medical 
writer,  born  at  Helmstedt  in  1622  :  died  in  1677. 

Vogli,  v6Kyee,  (Giovanni  Giacinto,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  near  Bologna  in  1697.  He  published 
a  work  "On  the  Generation  of  Man,"  ("De  Anthropo- 
gonia,"  1718.)    Died  in  1762. 

Vogt,  foGt,  sometimes  written  Vocht,  (Karl,)  a 
German  naturalist  and  physiologist,  born  at  Giessen  in 
181 7.  He  studied  anatomy  and  medicine,  and  subse- 
quently accompanied  Agassiz  in  his  expedition  to  the 
glaciers.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  geology  at 
Geneva  in  1852.  Among  his  works  we  may  name 
"  Physiological  Letters,"  (1845,)  "  Pictures  from  Animal 
Life,"  (1852,)  "Outlines  of  Geology,"  (i860,)  and  "Lec- 
tures on  Man,  his  Position  in  the  Creation  and  in  the 
History  of  the  Earth,"  (1863.)  He  also  contributed  to 
Agassiz's  "Natural  History  of  Fresh-water  Fish."  He 
favours  the  Darwinian  theory.  "  All  the  German  writers 
we  have  quoted,"  says  the  "  North  American  Revtftw" 
for  April,  1870, — "  Vogt,  Biichner,  Haeckel,  and  others, 
— dwell  with  more  or  less  concealed  elation  on  one  great 
service,  as  they  suppose,  of  the  Darwinian  theory,— 
that  it  has  removed  the  necessity  of  an  intelligent  Creator 
from  the  theory  of  the  universe." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f3.r,  fSU,  fSt;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


vol  ART 


221  I 


FOLNET 


Voiart,  vwi'tR',  (Anne  Elisabeth  Petitpain — 
peh-te'p4N',)  a  French  authoress,  born  at  Nancy  in  1786. 
She  was  married  to  M.  Voiart.  She  wrote  novels  and 
educational  works,  among  which  is  "  Woman,  or  the 
Six  Loves,"  ("La  Femme,  ou  les  Six  Amours,"  6  vols., 
1828.)    This  gained  the  Montyon  prize.    Died  in  1866. 

Voigt,  foiKt,  (Gottfried,)  a  learned  German  writer, 
born  in  Misnia  in  1644.  He  became  rector  of  an  academy 
at  Hamburg  about  1680.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Physical  Curiosities,"  ('*  Curiositates  Physi- 
cae,"  1668,)  and  a  treatise  on  the  altars  of  the  early 
Christians,  called  "  Thysiasteriologia,  sive  de  Altaribus 
veterum,"  etc.,  (1709.)    Died  in  1682. 

Voigt,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  Protestant  minister,  born 
in  Hanover  in  1695.  published  a  *'  Critical  Cata- 

logue of  Rare  Books,"  (1732.)    Died  in  1765. 

Voigt,  (Johannes,)  a  German  historian,  born  in  Saxe- 
Meiningen  in  1786.  He  became  professor  of  historical 
sciences  at  Konigsberg  in  1817,  and  afterwards  filled  the 
chair  of  mediaeval  and  modern  history  in  the  same  uni- 
versity. He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Lombard  Con- 
federacy," ("  Geschichte  des  Lombardenbundes,"  1818,) 
a  *'  History  of  Prussia  from  the  Earliest  Times  down  to 
the  Destruction'of  the  Power  of  the  German  Order,"  (9 
vols.,  1827-39,)  and  other  works..  Died  in  1863. 

Voigt,  von,  fon  foiKt,  (Christian  Gottloh,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist,  born  at  Allstadt  in  1743,  rose  to  be  minister 
of  state  for  Saxe-Weimar.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Schiller,  Herder,  Goethe,  and  Wieland.  Died  in  1819. 

His  son,  of  the  same  name,  born  in  1774,  filled  several 
offices  under  the  government,  and  was  sent  on  a  mission 
to  Saint  Petersburg  in  1801.    Died  in  1813. 

Voisenon,  de,  deh  vwaz'n6N',  (Claude  Henri 
Fus6k,)  Arb^:,  a  French  wit  and  dramatic  writer,  born 
near  Melun  in  1708.  Having  taken  orders,  he  was  ap- 
pointed grand  vicar  of  Boulogne,  and  subsequently 
obtained  the  abbey  of  Jard.  He  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1762.  He  wrote  a  number  of  pop- 
ular comedies ;  also  poems,  tales,  literary  anecdotes, 
and  historical  sketches.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Voltaire.    Died  in  1775. 

See  G.  Desnoirestkrres,  "  Les  Orisrinaux  ;"  "  Noiivelle  Bio- 
grapliie  Generale  ;"  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  January,  1851. 

Voisin,  (Daniel.)    See  Vovsin. 

Voisin,  vwI'zIn',  (F6lix,)  born  at  Mans  in  1794, 
studied  medicine  in  Paris,  and  was  appointed,  in  183 1, 
physician  to  the  Bicetre  Asylum.  He  published  a 
treatise  "  On  the  Moral  and  Physical  Causes  of  Mental 
Maladies,"  (1826,)  "On  Idiocy  in  Children,"  (1843,)  and 
other  similar  works. 

Voisin,  de,  deh  vwi'ziN',  (Joseph,)  a  French  theolo- 
gian and  Hebrew  scholar,  born  at  Bordeaux  about  16 10. 
He  was  chaplain  to  the  Prince  of  Conti.  He  published 
the  "Theology  of  the  Jews,"  ("  Theologia  JudjE(jrum," 
1647,)  a  "Treatise  on  the  Jubilee,"  (1655,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1685. 

Voiture,  vwa'tiiR',  (Vincent,)  a  famous  French  poet 
and  wit,  born  at  Amiens  in  1598,  was  a  son  of  a  rich  wine- 
merchant.  He  was  admitted  about  1625  into  the  Hotel 
Rambouillet,  where  he  acquired  great  favour  and  admira- 
tion by  his  wit,  his  talent  for  raillery,  and  his  agreeable 
manners.  In  his  early  life  he  was  in  the  service  of  Gas- 
ton, Duke  of  Orleans,  who,  having  revolted  against  the 
king,  sent  Voiture  to  Spain  about  1632  to  solicit  the  aid 
of  the  Count  of  Olivares.  He  described  his  travels  in 
Spain  in  letters,  which  are  among  his  best  works.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  French  Academy, 
into  which  he  was  admitted  in  1634.  In  1639  he  became 
mattre-d^hdtel  (steward)  to  the  king.  He  obtained  in 
1642  the  office  of  chief  clerk  to  the  controller-general  of 
finances,  a  lucrative  sinecure.  Died  in  1648.  He  wrote 
many  letters  and  poems,  which  the  critics  of  his  own 
time  extolled  as  models  of  grace,  but  which  are  marred 
by  affectation.  His  style  was  greatly  admired  by  Boileau. 
"If  the  bad  taste  of  others,"  says  Hallam,  "had  not 
perverted  his  own,  Voiture  would  have  been  a  good 
writer.  His  letters,  especially  those  written  from  Spain, 
are  sometimes  truly  witty,  and  always  vivacious.  .  .  . 
Pope,  in  addressing  ladies,  was  nearly  the  ape  of  Voi- 
ture." ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe." 
Two  English  translations  of  Voiture's  letters  were  made, 


one  by  J.  Davies,  (1657,)  and  one  by  Dryden  and  others, 
(3d  edition,  1736.) 

See  Alphen,  "  fitude  sur  Voiture,"  etc.,  1853  ;  Tallemant  des 
R^AUX,  "  Historiettes ;"  A.  Dauphin,  "  Discours  sur  Voiture," 
1847  ;  Peli.isson,  "  Histoire  de  I'Acad^mie  Fran9aise;"  "Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Volanus,  vo-l^'mis,  (Andreas,)  a  Polish  writer  and 
Protestant  theologian,  born  in  the  province  of  Posen  in 
1530,  published  numerous  controversial  works  against 
the  Jesuits  and  Socinians;  also  a  Latin  treatise  "On 
Political  Liberty,"  (1582.)    Died  in  1610. 

Volfius,  vorfe'iis',  (Jean  Baptiste,)  a  French  prelate, 
born  at  Dijon  in  1734.  He  became  constitutional  Bishop 
of  C6te-d'Or  in  1791.    Died  in  1822. 

See  Amanton,  "Notice  sur  J.  B.  Volfius,"  1823. 

Volger,  foKger,  (Wilhelm  Friedrich,)  a  German 
teacher,  born  near  Liineburg  in  1794,  published  several 
geographical  and  historical  works  for  the  use  of  schools. 

Volk,  folk,  (Wilhelm,)  a  Prussian  writer,  born  at 
Berlin  in  1804.  He  published  "The  Ecstatic  Virgins 
of  the  Tyrol,"  and  other  works  on  mysticism  ;  also  a 
"Manual  of  Italian  Literature,"  and  "Sweden,  Ancient 
and  Modern." 

VoI-keTI-us,  [Ger.  pron.  fol-ka'le-us,]  (Johann,)  a 
German  Socinian  minister,  born  in  Misnia,  flourished  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  He  wrote  a  work  "On  True 
Religion,"  ("  De  vera  Religione,"  1630.) 

Volkliardt,  folk'hiRt,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  his- 
torical painter,  born  at  Herdecke,  on  the  Ruhr,  in  181 5. 
He  worked  at  Dusseldorf. 

Volkmann,  folk'min,  (Alfred  Wilhelm,)  a  distin- 
guished German  physiologist,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1801. 
He  studied  medicine  and  natural  history  at  the  univer- 
sity of  his  native  city,  and  in  1837  became  professor  of 
physiology  at  Dorpat.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  physiology  and  anatomy  at  Halle.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  the  "Anatomy  of  Animals," 
("  Anatomia  Animalium,"  1831-33,)  "  New  Contributions 
to  the  Physiology  of  Vision,"  ( Gesichtsinn,)  (1836,)  and 
"The  Doctrine  of  the  Corporeal  Life  of  Man,"  (1837.) 

Volkmann,  (Julius,)  a  jurist,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1804,  is  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  practised  law 
at  Chemnitz,  and  published  several  legal  works. 

Volkof,  Volkov,  or  Wolkow,  vol-kof,  (Feodor 
Grigorievitch,)  born  at  Kostroma,  in  Russia,  in  1729, 
was  the  founder  of  the  first  theatre  in  his  native  country. 
It  was  erected  at  Yaroslaf  about  1750.  He  officiated  as 
architect,  scene-painter,  manager,  actor,  and  poet,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  various  departments.  About 
1756  he  was  ordered  by  the  empress  to  establish  a 
theatre  at  Moscow.    Died  in  1763. 

VoUenhove,  voKlen-ho'veh,  (Jan,)  a  Dutch  poet  and 
Protestant  minister  of  the  seventeenth  century,  preached 
at  the  Hague.  His  chief  work  is  "  The  Triumph  of 
the  Cross." 

Volney,  voKne,  de,  [Fr.  pron.  deh  voKni',]  (Con- 
stantin  Francois,)  Count,  a  distinguished  French 
philosopher,  author,  and  traveller,  was  born  at  Craon 
(Mayenne)  in  February,  1757.  His  family  name  was 
Chasseboeuf,  (shtss'buf,)  for  which  his  father  substi- 
tuted BoiSGiRAis.  The  name  Volney  was  adopted  by  the 
subject  of  this  article,  who  inherited  an  independent 
fortune.  Having  travelled  in  Egypt  and  Syria  (1783- 
85)  and  learned  the  Arabic  language,  he  published  in 
1787  his  "Travels  in  Egypt  and  Syria,"  ("  Voyage  en 
figypte  et  en  Syrie,"  2  vols.,)  which  is  a  work  of  high 
reputation.  It  was  esteemed  the  best  description  of 
those  countries  that  had  yet  appeared.  In  1789  he  was 
elected  a  deputy  to  the  States-General.  He  favoured 
rational  liberty  and  reform,  but  opposed  the  excesses  of 
the  Revolution,  and  was  identified  with  the  Girondists, 
The  weakness  of  his  voice  hindered  his  success  as  an 
orator.  In  1791  he  produced  a  popular  and  eloquent 
work,  entitled  "  Ruins,  or  Meditations  on  the  Revolu- 
tions of  Empires."  He  was  imprisoned  by  the  dominant 
party  in  1793,  and  saved  from  death  by  the  fall  of 
Robespierre,  (July,  1794.)  He  crossed  the  Atlantic  in 
1795,  and  passed  two  years  or  more  in  the  United 
States.  He  complained  that  he  was  ill  treated  by  the 
government  or  by  President  Adams.  In  his  absence  he 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Institute.    He  supported 


€  as  >ir;  9  as  s;  %  hard;  g  as  j;  o,  H,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2!^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


rOLOGESES 


FOLTJIRE 


Bonaparte  on  the  i8th  Brumaire,  1799,  but  declined  the 
place  of  minister  of  the  interior,  which  the  First  Consul 
offered  him,  and  soon  Ijecame  alienated  from  his  service. 
In  1803  he  published  a  "Description  of  the  Climate  and 
Soil  of  the  United  States  of  America,"  ("Tableau  du 
Climat  et  du  Sol  des  fitat-Unis  d'Amerique,"  2  vols. 
Svo,)  which  was  received  with  favour.  He  married  his 
cousin,  Mademoiselle  de  Chasseboeuf,  in  1810.  Among 
his  works  are  "The  Natural  Law,  or  Physical  Principles 
of  Morality,"  (1793,)  and  "Researches  on  Ancient  His- 
tory," (3  vols.,  1814.)  Died  in  April,  1820. 

See  A.  BossANGE,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Volney,"  1821  ;  EucfeNE 
Berge3,  "  fitudes  sur  Volney,"  1852  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries 
du  Lundi,"  vol.  vii. ;  "  Nouvelie  Biographic  Generale." 

Vo-log'e-ses  [Fr.  VoLOcfese,  vo'lo'zhiz']  I.,  King  of 
Parthia,  ascended  the  throne  in  50  A.D.  He  waged  war 
against  the  Romans,  who  in  the  reign  of  Nero  invaded 
Armenia.    Died  about  81  A.D. 

Vologeses  II.  was  a  son  of  Chosroes,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  122  A.D.  His  reign  was  pacific.  He  died 
about  148,  and  left  the  throne  to  his  son,  Vologeses  HI. 
He  attempted  about  162  to  conquer  Armenia  from  the 
Romans,  but  was  defeated. 

Volpato,  vol-pi'to,  (Giovanni,)  an  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Bassano  about  1735.  He  studied  at  Venice  under 
Bartolozzi,  and  afterwards  executed  a  number  of  prints, 
after  the  works  of  Raphael  in  the  Vatican,  and  other 
eminent  artists.  His  engravings  are  numerous,  and  are 
ranked  among  the  master-pieces  of  the  time.  Raphael 
Morghen  was  the  pupil  and  son-in-law  of  Volpato.  Died 
in  1803. 

Volpi,  voKpee,  (Gian  Antonio,)  an  Italian  printer 
and  classical  scholar,  born  at  Padua  in  1686.  In  con- 
junction with  the  printer  Comino,  he  establislied  a  press, 
called  "Libreria  Volpi-Cominiana,"  from  which  were 
issued  excellent  editions  of  the  classics,  including  Ca- 
tullus. Volpi  was  for  many  years  professor  of  rhetoric 
and  philosophy  at  Padua,  and  was  the  author  of  Latin 
poems  and  other  works.    Died  in  1766. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitae  Italorum  doctrina  excellentiiim." 

Volpi,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  historian,  born  near 
Bari  in  1680.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the  Visconti,  (2  vols., 
1737-48.)    Died  in  1756. 

Volta,  vol'ti,  (Alessandro,)  a  celebrated  Italian 
electrician  and  natural  philosopher,  born  at  Como, 
February  19,  1745.  He  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  At- 
tractive Force  of  Electric  Fire,"  ("  De  Vi  attractiva  Ignis 
electrici,"  1769,)  and  invented  an  electrophorus  in  1775. 
About  1776  he  became  professor  of  natural  philosophy 
in  the  University  of  Pavia,  He  travelled  in  Germany, 
France,  and  England  in  1782.  He  invented  an  electrical 
condenser  and  a  eudiometer.  His  celebrity  is  derived 
chiefly  from  the  discovery  of  the  Voltaic  pile,  an  appa- 
ratus which  excites  a  continuous  current  of  electricity  by 
the  contact  of  different  substances.  He  published  this 
discovery  about  1792,  and  received  the  Copley  medal  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  London  in  1794.  He  generalized 
the  phenomena  which  Galvani  had  observed,  and  recti- 
fied an  error  in  the  theory  by  which  that  philosopher 
had  explained  them.  "It  was  thus,"  says  Sir  J.  F.  W. 
Herschel,  "  that  he  arrived  at  the  knowledge  of  a  gene- 
ral fact,  that  of  the  disturbance  of  electrical  equilibrium 
by  the  mere  contact  of  different  bodies,  and  the  circula- 
tion of  a  current  of  electricity  in  one  constant  direction 
through  a  circuit  composed  of  three  different  conductors. 
To  increase  the  intensity  of  the  very  minute  and  delicate 
effect  thus  observed,  became  his  next  aim  ;  nor  did  his 
inquiry  terminate  till  it  had  placed  him  in  possession  of 
that  most  wonderful  of  all  human  inventions,  the  pile 
which  bears  his  name,  through  the  medium  of  a  series 
of  vv'ell-conducted  and  logically-combined  experiments, 
which  has  rarely,  if  ever,  been  surpassed  in  the  annals 
of  physical  research."  ("  Preliminary  Discourse  on  the 
Study  of  Natural  Philosophy.")  Volta  married  Teresa 
de'  Peregrini  in  1794,  and  had  three  sons.  Invited  by 
Bonaparte,  he  went  to  Paris  in  1801,  and  performed  ex- 
periments with  his  pile  before  the  Institute,  of  which  he 
was  chosen  one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates  in  1802. 
He  retained  his  professorship  at  Pavia  about  thirty 
years.  In  1810  he  received  the  title  of  count  from  Na- 
poleon, who  also  appointed  him  a  senator  of  the  king- 


dotn  of  Italy.  He  wrote  a  number  of  treatises  on  elec- 
tricity, etc.,  which  were  collertf  d  and  published  in  5  vols., 
(1816,)  under  the  title  of  "  Opere  di  Volta."  He  died  at 
Como  in  April,  1827. 

See  Arago,  "  Jlloge  de  Volta,"  1834;  Zuccala,  "Elogio  storico 
di  A.  Volta,"  1827  :  Mocchettf,  "Vita  del  Conte  Volta,"  1833;  A. 
Seebeck,  "Gedachtnissrede  auf  A.  Volta,"  1846;  Tipai.do,  "  Bio- 
grafia  degli  Italiani  illustri ;"  "  Nouvelie  Biographic  Generale." 

Voltaire,  de,  deh  vol'tSR',  (FRANgois  Marie 
Arouet — S'roo'i',)  the  most  remarkable  name  in  the 
history  of  French  literature,  was  born  at  Chatenay,  near 
Sceaux,  the  20th  of  February,  1694.  His  father  was 
Fran9ois  Arouet,  formerly  a  notary,  then  a  treasurer  in 
the  chamber  of  accounts  ;  his  mother,  who  belonged  to 
a  noble  family  of  Poitou,  was  Marie  Marguerite  Dau- 
mart.  The  name  Voltaire,  according  to  some  authorities, 
was  derived  from  an  estate  which  belonged  to  his  mother, 
though  others  have  maintained  that  it  was  an  anagram 
of  Arouet  1.  i.,  (i.e.  Arouet  le  tetme,  (Je7ine,)  or  "  Arouet 
the  Younger.")  Madame  Arouet  is  said  to  have  been  an 
intelligent,  witty,  and  attractive  woman.  She  died  before 
her  distinguished  son  had  reached  his  twentieth  year. 
The  godfather  and  first  teacher  of  young  Arouet  was  the 
Abbe  de  ChSteauneuf,  whose  morals,  fike  his  religious 
principles,  were  anything  but  strict :  so  that  it  was  whis- 
pered and  believed  by  many  that  Voltaire  might  justly 
have  claimed  with  him  a  more  direct  relationship  than 
that  of  godson.  So  much,  at  least,  may  be  considered 
certain,  that  the  abbe  early  indoctrinated  his  pupil  in 
the  skeptical  literature  which  was  then  becoming  all  the 
fashion  in  France.  At  the  age  of  eleven  years  Voltaire 
wrote  a  poetical  petition  for  an  invalid  soldier,  which 
excited  the  admiration  of  the  celebrated  beauty  Ninon 
de  Lenclos,  then  far  advanced  in  years  ;  and,  at  her  re- 
quest, he  was  presented  to  her  by  the  Abbe  Chateauneuf, 
who  had  the  reputation  of  being  her  latest  lover.  Her 
death  occurred  shortly  after  this  interview,  and  by  her 
will  she  left  Voltaire  two  thousand  livres  for  the  purpose 
of  purchasing  books.  He  had  been  placed  when  he  was 
ten  years  old  at  the  Jesuit  college  Louis-le-Grand,  where 
one  of  his  instructors,  Pere  Le  Jay,  is  said  to  have  pre- 
dicted that  he  would  some  day  be  the  Coryphasus  of 
deism  in  France.  Even  at  that  early  age  the  wit  and 
genius  of  the  young  Arouet  appear  to  have  excited 
general  admiration.  In  1710  the  poet  Jean  Ba])tiste 
Rousseau,  then  in  the  acme  of  his  fame,  assisted  in  the 
distribution  of  the  honours  at  the  college.  As  one 
prize  after  another  was  awarded  to  Voltaire,  the  atten- 
tion of  Rousseau  was  arrested  ;  he  desired  to  have  the 
boy  presented  to  him,  and  predicted  for  him,  we  are 
told,  a  brilliant  literary  destiny. 

On  leaving  the  college  of  the  Jesuits,  he  was  sent  by 
his  father  to  a  law-school,  where  he  says  he  was  dis- 
gusted with  the  unphilosophical  method  of  pursuing  the 
study  of  jurisprudence,  and  he  therefore  resolved  to 
abandon  the  law  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  his  taste  for  light 
literature  contributed  quite  as  much  towards  leading 
him  to  that  resolution  as  the  philosophical  considera- 
tions to  which  he  refers.  The  Abl)e  Chateauneuf  had 
already  introduced  him  into  a  circle  at  once  brilliant 
and  licentious.  To  withdraw  him  from  this  corrupt  but 
fascinating  influence,  his  father  sent  him  as  secretary  to 
the  Marquis  Chateauneuf,  who  was  setting  out  as  am- 
bassador to  the  United  Provinces.  While  there,  he  se- 
duced the  daughter  of  Madame  du  Noyer,  an  intriguing 
woman,  who  passed  for  being  a  Protestant.  She  was 
even  suspected  by  some  of  conniving  at,  if  not  directly 
encouraging,  the  fault  of  the  youthful  lovers,  in  the 
hope  of  obtaining  money  from  Voltaire's  relations.  She 
complained  loudly  to  the  Marquis  of  Chateauneuf,  from 
whom,  soon  after,  Voltaire  received  an  order  to  quit  the 
Hague  and  return  to  France.  Mademoiselle  du  Noyer's 
father  was  in  Paris,  and  Voltaire  did  not  hesitate  to  ad- 
vise his  inamorata  to  feign  a  conversion  to  the  Catholic 
faith,  in  which  case  she  might  hope  to  have  the  powerful 
assistance  of  the  Church  in  rescuing  her  from  the  tyranny 
of  her  mother.  But  this  ingenious  plot  was  not  success- 
ful, and  the  correspondence  between  the  lovers  soon  after 
ceased,  at  least  for  a  time. 

At  the  house  of  M.  de  Caumartin,  (a  friend  of  the 
family,)  with  whom  Voltaire  sought  refuge  from  the 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  ^r,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fill;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


VOLTAIRE 


2213 


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frowns  and  reproaches  of  his  father,*  he  had  an  oppor- 
tunitv  of  hearing  the  father  of  that  gentleman  talk  of 
the  glorious  days  of  Henry  IV.,  with  some  of  whose 
contemporaries  the  old  man  had  conversed  in  his  youth. 
Young  Arouet's  enthusiasm  was  strongly  excited.  It 
was  then  that  he  formed  the  design  of  his  great  epic,  the 
"  Henriade,"  and  of  his  history  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV. 
About  this  time  Louis  XIV.  died  ;  a  witty  and  satirical 
pamphlet,  in  which  the  decease  of  the  king  was  treated 
as  a  national  deliverance,  and  in  which  the  new  govern- 
ment was  not  spared,  was  suspected  to  have  been  written, 
in  whole  or  in  part,  by  Voltaire.  He  was  accordingly 
arrested,  and  confined  in  the  Bastille.  This,  however, 
proved  a  blessing  to  him,  rather  than  a  calamity.  Freed 
during  his  imprisonment  from  the  seductions  of  pleasure 
and  the  dissipations  of  society,  he  composed  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  "  Henriade,"  and  completed  his  tragedy 
of  "  CEdipe,"  which  attracted  the  favourable  notice  of  the 
regent,  and  procured  his  liberation.  He  was  presented 
soon  after  by  M.  Noce  to  the  regent,  who  gave  him  one 
thousand  crowns.  Voltaire  is  reported  to  have  said  on  that 
occasion,  "  I  thank  your  royal  highness  that  you  are  thus 
careful  for  my  board  ;  but  no  more  of  your  lodgings,  I  be- 
seech you."  He  was  twenty-four  years  of  age  when  he 
was  released  from  the  Bastille,  after  an  imprisonment  of 
almost  a  year.  It  was  soon  after  this  event  that  he  changed 
his  name  from  Arouet  to  Voltaire.  "  I  have  been,"  he  wrote 
to  Mademoiselle  du  Noyer,  "very  unfortunate  under  my 
first  name.  I  wish  to  try  if  this  new  one  will  serve  me 
any  better."  The  brilliant  success  of  his  "  QEdipe"  (which 
was  represented  with  great  applause  for  thirty  successive 
nights)  appears,  however,  to  have  completely  reconciled 
him  to  the  ways  of  the  blind  goddess.  Rank  and  beauty 
were  now  eager  to  pay  him  homage.  He  became  the 
favoured  guest  and  companion  of  the  great.  The  Prince 
of  Conti  addressed  to  him,  as  a  brother  poet,  some  pretty, 
complimentary  verses,  and  he  was  very  graciously  re- 
ceived by  the  beautiful  Marechale  de  Villars,  with  whom, 
it  is  said,  he  fell  desperately  in  \o\e,' ( eperdumeitt  amou- 
reux;)  but  she  does  not  appear  to  have  given  him  the 
slightest  encouragement.  ("  Biographic  Universelle.") 

But  the  cup  of  prosperity  presented  to  his  lips  was 
not  unmixed  with  bitter  ingredients.  The  Abbe  Desfon- 
taines  had  obtained  fraudulently  an  imperfect  copy  of  the 
"  Henriade,"  and  had  it  published,  under  the  name  of 
"The  League,"  ("La  Ligue,"  etc.)  The  poem,  even  in 
this  imperfect  form,  was  very  favourably  received.  Vol- 
taire hastened  to  prepare  for  the  public  a  more  perfect 
edition  ;  but  certain  passages  in  the  work  which  gave 
offence  to  the  priesthood  prevented  him  from  obtaining 
permission  to  publish  it. 

His  vanity  and  self-esteem  were  destined  to  receive 
some  severe  rebuflfs  from  that  haughty  aristocracy  which 
could  never  wholly  divest  itself  of  the  idea  that  rank 
was  something  essentially  superior  even  to  genius  of  the 
highest  order,  which  it  might  indeed  condescend  to 
patronize  and  perhaps  applaud,  but  with  which  it  could 
never  associate  on  equal  terms.  In  December,  1725, 
Voltaire,  while  at  the  table  of  his  friend  the  Duke  of 
Sully,  happened  to  express  himself  on  some  subject  with 
great  animation  and  self-confidence.  One  of  the  guests, 
the  Chevalier  de  Rohan,  son  of  the  Duke  de  Rohan- 
Chabot,  asked,  "Who  is  this  young  man  that  sj^eaks  so 
loud.?"  "He  is,"  replied  Voltaire,  "one  who  does  not 
carry  a  great  name,  but  can  do  credit  to  the  one  he  has." 
A  few  days  after,  the  chevalier  sent  word  to  Voltaire  that 
the  Duke  of  Sully  expected  him  to  dinner.  He  went 
accordingly.  While  he  was  dining,  one  of  the  servants 
announced  that  some  one  wished  particularly  to  see 
him.  He  descended,  and  was  met  by  three  men,  who 
immediately  fell  on  him  and  beat  him  unmercifully 
with  their  canes.  It  was  noticed  as  an  act  of  great  gen^ 
erosity  on  the  part  of  the  Chevalier  de  Rohan  that  he 
directed  his  men  not  to  beat  their  victim  on  his  head. 
When  Voltaire  complained  of  the  outrage  to  the  Duke 
of  Sully,  the  latter  admitted  that  it  was  a  rude  and  "un- 


*  His  father  appears  to  have  been  quite  as  much  displeased  with 
Voltaire's  writing  poetry  as  with  his  more  culpable  irregularities.  He 
was  not  less  disgusted  with  the  conduct  of  his  eldest  son,  because  he 
had  become  a  Jaiisenist.  He  said,  bitterly,  "  I  have  for  sons  two 
fools, — the  one  in  prose,  the  other  in  verse." 


civil"  act  on  the  part  of  Rohan,  but  declined  to  aid  him 
in  any  way  to  obtain  satisfaction.  Thereupon  Voltaire 
practised  fencing  diligently  for  some  weeks,  and  at  the 
end  of  that  time  challenged  Rohan  to  a  duel.  The 
challenge  was  accepted,  but,  before  the  parties  met,  Vol- 
taire was  arrested  and  sent  to  prison.  We  are  not  told 
whether  or  not  the  chevalier  gave  notice  to  the  pcjlice  ; 
but  a  chivalrous  knight  who  could  employ  three  men  to 
attack  another  who  was  unarmed  might  reasonably  be 
supposed  capable  of  such  an  act.  This  proceeding  had, 
in  all  probability,  an  important  influence  on  the  destinies 
of  Europe.  It  seems  for  a  time  to  have  contpletely 
disgusted  Voltaire  with  the  society  and  governtnent  of 
France,  and  it  determined  him  to  accept  an  invitation, 
received  from  Lord  Bolingbroke,  that  he  should  visit 
England.  This  visit,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the 
most  important  event  of  his  life,  dates  from  Aiigii«t, 
1726.  While  in  that  country,  he  was  particularly  struck 
with  the  absolute  freedom  of  thought  enjoyed  by  all  the 
people  ;  his  own  views,  in  the  society  of  Bolingbroke  and 
his  deistical  friends,  appear  to  have  been  developed  and 
matured.  In  England,  also,  he  acquired  some  acquaint- 
ance with  the  Newtonian  philosophy,  the  knowledge  of 
which  he  was  afterwards  among  the  first  to  introduce 
among  his  countrymen  in  France.  After  nearly  three 
years'  absence,  he  returned  to  Paris  in  1729.  At  first  he 
lived  retired,  and  finished  his  tragedy  of  "  Brutus,"  which 
he  had  begun  in  England.  According  to  some  critics, 
the  influence  of  Shakspeare  is  clearly  visible  in  this 
piece,  and  perhaps  still  more  in  his  next  tragedy,  "  Zaire," 
(1730,)  although  Voltaire  afterwards  affected  to  despise 
the  great  English  dramatist,  perhaps  the  better  to  con- 
ceal how  much  he  was  indebted  to  him.  About  this 
time,  also,  he  finished  his  "History  of  Charles  XII.," 
for  which  he  had  procured  some  very  valuable  materials 
during  his  sojourn  in  London. 

His  "  Brutus"  was  by  some  considered  a  complete 
failure,  and  Fontenelle  indeed  advised  him  to  aban- 
don tragedy,  as  unsuited  to  his  genius  ;  but  his  next 
drama,  "Zaire,"  proved  a  brilliant  success.  It  is  re- 
garded by  many  as  the  finest  of  all  Voltaire's  tragedies,  \ 
and  as  fully  equal  to  the  best  in  the  language.  His 
"  Lettres  Philosophiques,"  otherwise  called  "  Lettres  siir 
les  Anglais,"  ("  Letters  on  the  English,")  appeared  about 
1732.  The  freedom  of  some  of  his  ideas  gave  offence  to 
the  clergy.  The  "  Lettres"  were  condemned  to  be  pub- 
licly burned,  the  publisher  was  imprisoned,  and  an  order 
was  issued  to  arrest  the  author,  so  that  to  escape  the 
officers  of  the  law  he  was  fain  to  make  a  speedy  retreat 
to  Cirey,  (on  the  borders  of  Lorraine,)  an  estate  belong- 
ing to  the  celebrated  Madame  Chatelet,  (or  Chastelet,) 
with  whom  he  formed  a  liaison  which  continued  until 
the  death  of  that  lady.  (See  Chastelet,  Gabrielle.) 
While  in  this  retreat  he  wrote  his  "  Siemens  de  la  Phi- 
losophic de  Newton,"  (published  at  Amsterdam  in  1738,) 
designed  to  set  forth  and  elucidate  the  theories  and  dis- 
coveries of  the  great  English  philosopher.  He  also 
composed  his  "Alzire,"  a  tragedy,  which  was  acted  at 
Paris  with  great  applause  in  1736.  His  "Mahomet," 
which  he  dedicated  to  the  pope,  was  first  acted  in  1741. 
His  holiness  accepted  the  dedication  very  graciously, 
unable,  or  perhaps  unwilling,  to  perceive  that  the  shafts 
which  the  author  seemed  to  aim  at  the  false  pretences 
of  the  prophet  were  in  reality  directed  against  those  of 
the  Catholic  Church.  His  "  Merope,"  brought  out  in 
1743,  was  received  with  an  enthusiastic  and  tumultuous 
applause  such  as  had  never  before  been  exhibited  in 
any  theatre  in  Europe. 

Several  years  bef^ore  the  last-named  date,  Frederick, 
the  Prince-Royal  of  Prussia,  had  written  to  Voltaire  and 
expressed  his  admiration  of  the  genius  which  was  then 
dazzling  Europe  :  this  led  to  an  intimacy  between  the 
prince  and  the  poet,  which  was  kept  up  by  a  constant 
exchange  of  letters  and  flattering  compliments  from  both 
the  parties.  When,  in  1 740,  Frederick  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  he  invited  his  friend  to  visit  him  at  Berlin.  But 
Voltaire  was  unwilling  to  separate  himself  from  Madame 
Chatelet.  He  accepted,  however,  in  1743,  ^  mission 
from  the  governmeiU  to  visit  Frederick  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  Prussia's  alliance  with  France,  in  which 
undertaking  he  was  successful.    Through  the  influence 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2!^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VOLTAIRE 


2214 


VOLTAIRE 


of  Madame  Pompadour,  with  whom  Voltaire  was  ac- 
quainted, as  he  tells  us,  before  she  became  the  favourite 
mistress  of  Louis  XV.,  he  was  chosen  (May  9,  1746)  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy  to  succeed  Bouliier, 
and  appointed  historiographer  of  France.  He  had  de- 
clined the  flattering  offers  of  Frederick,  that  he  might 
not  be  deprived  of  the  society  of  Madame  Chatelet. 
But  the  mistress  to  whom  he  was  so  fondly  attached  no 
longer  felt  for  him  the  affection  of  former  years,  but  had 
(about  1748)  given  her  heart  to  another  and  younger 
lover,  Saint- Lambert. 

Madame  Chatelet  died  in  childbed,  in  August,  1749.* 
After  her  death,  although  he  knew  she  had  been  un- 
faithful to  him,  Voltaire  said  of  her,  "  I  have  not  lost  a 
mistress;  I  have  lost  the  half  of  myself.  ...  I  love  to 
find  everywhere  something  that  can  recall  the  thought 
of  her."  A  short  time  afterwards,  as  her  husband,  M. 
du  Chatelet,  was  on  the  point  of  opening  a  locket  which 
had  been  carried  by  Madame  du  Chatelet,  Voltaire  con- 
fidently exj^ected  to  see  his  own  portrait  :  it  proved  to  be 
that  of  Saint-Lambert ;  he  said  to  M.  du  Chatelet,  "Be- 
lieve me,  monsieur,  neither  of  us  has  here  any  cause  to 
boast."  On  a  previous  occasion  he  spoke  to  Saint- 
Lambert  (with  whom,  it  appears,  he  had  at  first  been 
offended)  with  a  kindness  and  magnanimity  which  would 
have  been  sublime,  could  they  have  had  existence  in  a 
pure  and  elevated  mind.  "It  is  I,"  said  he,  "who  have 
been  to  blame ;  you  are  at  the  age  when  one  loves  and 
inspires  love  ;  ...  an  old  man,  infirm  as  I  am,  is  not 
made  for  pleasure." 

Having  nothing  now  to  detain  him  in  France,  he  ac- 
cepted the  invitation,  recently  renewed,  of  the  King  of 
Prussia,  and  arrived  in  Berlin  in  July,  1750.  He  was 
received  by  Frederick  with  the  most  flattering  demon- 
strations of  regard.  No  lovers  in  a  romance  could  have 
met,  after  a  long  absence,  with  greater  transports  of  joy. 
Voltaire  had  at  last  found  an  earthly  paradise.  A  thou- 
sand louis-d'or  had  been  sent  him  for  the  expenses  of 
the  journey.  In  addition  to  the  splendid  apartments 
assigned  him  under  the  royal  roof,  he  was  to  receive  a 
pension  of  twenty  thousand  francs.  He  and  Frederick 
studied  together  two  hours  every  day,  and  in  the  evening 
he  was  entertained  at  the  king's  own  table.  But  this 
charming  life  was  destined  to  be  of  short  duration. 
"  Never,"  says  Macaulay,  "had  there  met  two  persons 
so  exquisitely  fitted  to  plague  each  other.  Each  of  them 
had  exactly  the  fault  of  which  the  other  was  most  impa- 
tient, and  they  were,  in  different  ways,  the  most  impatient 
of  mankind."  (See  Essay  on  "  Frederick  the  Great," 
originally  published  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for 
April,  1842.) 

The  king  wrote  verses,  which  Voltaire  was  to  criticise 
and  correct, — a  delicate  and  perilous  position  for  any 
man,  but  peculiarly  so  for  one  who  was  so  fastidious,  so 
irritable,  and  so  prone  to  ridicule  as  Voltaire.  It  was 
quite  impossible  for  him  to  correct  his  majesty's  verses 
—which  might  well  have  provoked  the  ridicule  of  a  more 
indulgent  critic — without  laughing  at  them.  "  Behold," 
said  he,  "what  a  quantity  of  dirty  linen  the  king  has 
sent  me  to  wash  !"  And,  as  usual  in  such  cases,  there 
was  always  some  well-intentioned  person  ready  to  carry 
such  remarks  to  the  ear  of  the  king.  It  would  be  long 
to  tell  of  the  irritation,  the  increasing  disgust,  the  quar- 
rels, the  ingenious  schemes  devised  by  each  to  annoy  or 
torment  the  other.  Suffice  it  to  say  that,  after  a  stay  of 
about  three  years,  the  poet  parted  from  the  king,  with  a 
promise  to  return,  but  with  a  firm  determination,  as  he 


*"  Every  one  knows,"  says  Carlyle,  "  the  earthly  termination  of 
Madame  la  Marquise,  and  how,  by  a  strange  and  almost  satirical 
Nemesis,  she  was  taken  in  her  own  nets,  and  her  worst  sin  became 
her  final  punishment."  A  few  days  after  her  death,  Voltaire  com- 
posed the  following  quatrain : 

"  L'univers  a  perdu  la  sublime  fimilie. 
Ellc  aima  les  plaisirs,  les  arts,  la  verite : 
Les  dieux,  en  lui  donnant  leur  Sme  et  leur  genie, 
N'avaient  garde  pour  eux  que  rimmortalite." 

("The  universe  has  lost  the  sublime  Emilia. 

She  loved  pleasure,  the  arts,  and  truth;  [knowledge?] 
The  gods,  in  giving  her  their  soul  and  their  genius, 
Had  reserved  for  themselves  immortality  only.") 

"After  which,"  says  Carlyle,  "he,  like  the  bereaved  universe, 
consoled  himself,  and  went  on  his  way." 


tells  us,  never  to  see  him  again.  At  Frankfort  he  was 
arrested  by  an  order  from  Berlin,  and  required  to  give 
up  some  of  the  king's  poetry,  cojjies  of  which  had  been 
printed  for  private  circulation  and  presented  to  Voltaire 
and  other  of  the  royal  favourites.  But  Frederick,  now 
fearing  that  the  arch  wit  and  scoffer  might  perhaps  use 
the  poetry  to  turn  its  author  into  ridicule,  resolved  to 
get  possession  of  it  again.  It  so  happened  that  he  had 
left  the  poetry  behind  at  Leipsic,  and  some  days  elapsed 
before  he  could  send  for  and  receive  it.  Meanwhile  he 
was  kept  in  strict  custody  ;  and  even  after  the  precious 
packet  had  arrived  he  was  still  detained.  "  The  Prus- 
sian agents,"  says  Macaulay,  "had,  no  doubt,  been  in- 
structed not  to  let  Voltaire  off  without  some  gross  indig- 
nity. He  was  confined  twelve  days  in  a  wretched  hovel. 
Sentinels  with  fixed  bayonets  kept  guard  over  him.  His 
niece  was  dragged  through  the  mire  by  the  soldiers. 
Sixteen  hundred  dollars  were  extorted  from  him  by  his 
insolent  jailers.  It  is  absurd  to  say  that  this  outrage 
was  not  to  be  attributed  to  the  king."  (Essay  on  "  Frede- 
rick the  Great.") 

Voltaire  returned  to  France  thoroughly  divested  of 
all  his  illusions  respecting  that  great  prince  whom  he 
had  once  delighted  to  call  the  Solomon  and  Alexander 
of  the  North,  the  Marcus  Aurelius  of  Potsdam,  the 
Trajan  and  Pliny  combined,  etc. 

In  1755  he  established  himself  at  Ferney,  near  Ge- 
neva, in  Switzerland.  Here  he  spent  perhaps  the  most 
tranquil,  as  well  as  the  most  creditable  and  useful, 
portion  of  his  life.  He  is  admitted  to  have  been  a 
benefactor  to  the  inhabitants  of  Ferney  and  the  vicinity. 
The  village  or  town  was  greatly  improved  and  enlarged 
under  his  auspices  ;  new  houses  were  built,  and  a  small 
theatre  established.  He  even  erected  a  church,  in  which 
he  had  the  hardihood  to  preach.  To  silence  the  com- 
plaints of  those  who  were  scandalized  at  his  irregular 
proceedings,  he  went  through,  in  due  form,  the  ceremony 
of  taking  the  communion. 

The  one  aspect  of  Voltaire's  character  which  can  be 
viewed  with  unmingled  approbation  was  the  deep, 
heartfelt  pity  and  indignation  with  which  he  regarded 
every  flagrant  act  of  cruelty  or  oppression,  whether  it 
was  enacted  in  his  own  country  or  in  the  remotest  part 
of  Europe.  He  signalized  his  philanthropy  in  the 
earnest  zeal  with  which  he  took  up  the  cause  of  Jean 
Calas,  who  had  been  condemned  at  Toulouse  and 
broken  on  the  wheel  for  a  crime  of  which  he  was  inno- 
cent, and  his  family  had  been  driven  from  the  country. 
Through  Voltaire's  generous  exertions  and  untiring  zeal, 
the  sentence  was  annulled  and  the  family  partially  indem- 
nified. His  sympathy  in  the  case  of  Admiral  Byng  was  no 
less  real  or  less  earnest;  but  he  exerted  himself  in  vain 
to  prevent  the  consummation  of  that  judicial  murder, 
which  has  left  an  indelible  stain  upon  the  character  of 
the  ministry  under  whose  auspices  it  was  committed.f 
Another  act  of  his,  though  of  a  different  kind,  reflects 
no  less  credit  on  his  character.  Having  learned  that  a 
young  girl,  a  near  relative  of  the  great  Corneille,  (she 
was  then  believed  to  be  the  grand-daughter  of  that 
poet,)  was  living  in  extreme  poverty,  he  .sent  for  her 
and  had  her  brought  to  Ferney,  where  he  gave  her  an 
education,  and  settled  on  her,  out  of  his  own  means,  a 
life-annuity  of  fourteen  hundred  francs. 

During  his  residence  at  Ferney  he  composed  or 
finished  some  of  his  greatest  works,  among  which  the 
most  valuable  and  perhaps  the  most  original  of  all  was 
his  "  Essay  on  the  Manners  of  Nations,"  etc.,  ("  Essai 
sur  les  Moeurs  et  I'Esprit  des  Nations,"  1756,)  which 
might,  says  Brougham,  be  justly  designated  the  "  Phi- 
losophy of  History."  It  has  unquestionably  exerted 
throughout  Europe  a  great  and  beneficent  influence 
upon  the  mode  of  writing  history.  No  inconsiderable 
portion  of  this  work  had  been  composed  during  his 
residence  at  Cirey.  His  "  Candide,"  the  most  remark- 
able of  his  prose  fictions,  appeared  in  1758.  "Dr. 
Johnson,"  says  Brougham,  "never  spoke  of  it  without 


t  However  deeply  his  feelings  might  be  toudied,  he  never  failed  to 
give  free  scope  to  iiis  wit.  He  remarked,  after  the  execution  of 
Byng,  that  it  was  the  policy  of  the  English  now  and  then  to  put  to 
death  an  admiral,  in  order  to  encourage  the  rest,  ("pour  encourager 
les  autres.") 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  ftt;  mdt;  ndt;  good;  mJon; 


VOLTAIRE 


221  5 


VOLTAIRE 


unstinted  admiration,  professing  that  had  he  seen  it  he 
should  not  have  written  '  Rasselas.'  "  Among  his  other 
romances  may  be  named  *' Zadig,"  (about  1758,)  and 
"L'Ingenu,"  (1767.)  Of  his  tragedies,  besides  those 
already  named,  the  most  deserving  of  notice  are  per- 
haps the  following  :  '*  Artemise,"  (about  1721,)  "  Mari- 
amne,"  (1724,)  "  Eriphile,"  (1732,)  "  La  Mort  de  Cesar," 
(1735')  "Semiramis,"  (1748,)  "  Oreste,"  (1750,)  "Rome 
Sauvee,"  otherwise  called  "  Catiline,"  (1752,)  which  Vol- 
taire is  said  to  have  preferred  to  all  his  tragedies,  but 
the  critics  and  the  public  decided  differently,  and 
"  Tancrede,"  (1760,)  which  had  a  brilliant  success.  His 
powers  had  confessedly  begun  to  fail  when,  in  1778,  on 
his  visit  to  Paris,  his  "Irene,"  the  last  of  his  dramatic 
productions,  was  acted  with  great  applause,  which,  how- 
ever, was  bestowed  rather  on  its  illustrious  author  than 
upon  the  piece  itself.  He  also  attempted  comedy,  and 
composed  "  L'Indiscret,"  which  had  but  an  indifferent 
success.  The  "  Enfant  Prodigue,"  another  comedy, 
brought  out  anonymously,  was  much  more  popular,  but 
it  was  not  known  to  be  Voltaire's  until  he  claimed  it 
several  years  afterwards. 

He  wrote  a  satirical  poem,  "  Le  Temple  du  Gout," 
(1733,)  and  a  mock-heroic  poem,  entitled  "  La  Pucelle," 
(1755,)  of  which  the  history  of  Joan  of  Arc  forms  the 
subject.  This,  according  to  Brougham,  (than  whom 
Voltaire  has  probably  no  more  indulgent  critic,)  is  "the 
great  master-piece  of  Voltaire's  poetic  genius."  He 
adds,  however,  "The  'Pucelle'  is  one  continued  sneer 
at  all  that  men  do  hold  and  all  that  they  ought  to  hold 
sacred.  .  .  .  Religion,  virtue,  ...  all  are  made  the 
constant  subjects  of  sneering  contempt  and  ribald 
laughter  ;"*  and  he  might  have  added  that  many  parts 
are  disfigured  by  gross  obscenities.  We  must  not  omit 
to  notice  Voltaire's  connection  with  the  famous  "  Encyclo- 
pedie"  founded  by  Diderot  and  Alembert.  The  success 
of  this  publication  was  due  in  no  small  measure  to 
the  name  and  influence  of  Voltaire,  who  contributed  to 
it  many  articles  on  various  subjects,  among  which  will 
be  found  some  of  his  most  reckless  and  violent  attacks 
upon  Christianity. 

Of  his  histories,  "Charles  XH"  (1731)  is  admitted 
to  be  the  best.  It  is,  indeed,  a  chef-d'ceiivre  of  clear, 
elegant,  animated,  and  rapid  narration.  His  "Siecle 
de  Louis  XIV"  (1752)  holds  the  second  place.  The 
"  Histoire  de  Russie  sous  Pierre  I"  (1759)  is  considered 
to  be  the  least  successful  of  his  productions  in  this 
department. 

In  1778,  being  then  in  his  eighty-fifth  year,  Voltaire 
visited  Paris,  where  his  sojourn  was  one  continued  ova- 
tion. "The  homage  of  every  class,"  says  Brougham, 
"  and  of  every  rank  was  tendered  to  him  ;  and  it  seemed 
as  if  one  universal  feeling  prevailed, — the  desire  of 
having  it  hereafter  to  say,  '  I  saw  Voltaire.'  His  car- 
riage was  drawn  by  the  populace,  who  were  inspired 
with  the  wildest  enthusiasm.  At  the  theatre  his  bust 
was  crowned  with  laurels  and  garlands  of  roses,  amid 
the  shouts  and  tears  of  the  audience.  He  exclaimed, 
'  You  will  make  me  die  with  pleasure  ;  you  will  stifle  me 
with  roses.' " 

The  exhaustion  produced  by  this  great  excitement 
appears  to  have  been  the  cause  of  his  death,  which  took 
place  on  the  30th  of  May,  1778.  Some  time  before  his 
death,  while  he  was  supposed  to  be  very  near  his  end, 
he  was  induced,  from  his  desire  of  obtaining  a  Christian 
burial,  to  subscribe  to  a  confession  and  undergo  absolu- 
tion, which,  says  Condorcet,  gave  less  edification  to  the 
devout  than  scandal  to  the  free-thinkers.t 


*  See  Brougham's  "Lives  of  Men  of  Letters  and  Science," 
London,  1845. 

t  Very  contradictory  accounts  are  given  of  his  last  hours.  It  has 
been  well  observed  tliat  it  is  of  far  more  consequence  how  one  spends 
his  life  tlian  how  he  passes  the  few  fleetinq;  moments  at  its  close.  Cir- 
cumstances which  have  nothing  to  do  with  one's  faith  or  one's  con- 
science may  sometimes  give  the  appearance  of  great  tranquillity,  or 
the  contrary,  to  the  deatli  bed  scene.  But,  as  much  has  been  said 
about  the  death  of  Voltaire,  it  may  not  be  witliout  interest  10  cite 
briefly  the  testimony  of  Tronchin,  who  was  his  friend,  and  who  was 
constantly  with  him  (much  of  the  time  alone)  during  his  last  hours. 
"  If  the  bond  of  my  principles,"  says  he,  "had  needed  to  be  strengtli- 
ened,  the  man  whom  I  have  seen  agonize  and  die  imder  my  eyes 
would  have  made  of  them  a  Gordian  knot  :  and  in  comparing  the 
death  of  a  good  man,  which  is  only  the  close  of  a  beautiful  day,with 


Voltaire  is  confessedly  the  foremost  name,  the  acknow- 
ledged head,  of  European  literature  in  his  time  ;%  whence 
he  was  often  styled  "  King  Voltaire,"  ("  le  Roi  Voltaire.") 
His  writings  contributed  powerfully  to  give  a  fresh 
impulse  to  almost  every  department  of  human  thought. 
There  was,  indeed,  no  branch  of  literature  which  he  him- 
self did  not  cultivate  with  distinguished  success.  His  his- 
torical works  mark  an  era  in  this  department  of  writing. 
If  his  histories  are  inferior  to  those  of  some  other  emi- 
nent writers  in  depth  of  thought  or  in  a  philosophic 
treatment  of  the  subject,  they  are  remarkable  for  the 
clearness,  simplicity,  animation,  and  rapidity  of  the 
narrative.  If  they  are  not  calculated  in  an  especial 
manner  to  make  philosophic  historians,  they  are  pre- 
eminently fitted  to  interest  and  instruct  the  generality 
of  readers  ;  and  they  have  perhaps  done  more  to  make 
history  popular  among  all  classes  than  the  works  of  any 
other  writer  of  modern  times.  Though  not  the  first 
French  author  who  wrote  on  the  wonderful  discoveries 
of  Newton,  he  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
make  them  extensively  known  on  the  continent.  As  a 
wit,  he  probably  never  had  an  equal  either  in  ancient  or 
modern  times.§  As  a  poet,  Voltaire  is  by  some  critics 
ranked  at  the  very  head  of  the  great  masters  of  the  art 
in  France.  His  "  Zaire"  is  called  the  chef-d^ceuvre  of 
French  tragedy,  and  his  "  Henriade"  may  be  said  to  be 
the  only  successful  epic  in  the  French  language. 

But  several  eminent  critics,  while  admitting  that  Vol- 
taire was  a  genius  of  the  rarest  order,  deny  that  he  was 
a  great  poet  in  the  truest  sense  of  the  word.  "  It  is 
certain,"  says  Brougham,  "  that  the  tragedies  of  Voltaire 
are  the  works  of  an  extraordinary  genius,  and  that  only 
a  great  poet  could  have  produced  them  ;  but  it  is  equally 
certain  that  they  are  deficient  for  the  most  part  in  that 
which  makes  the  drama  powerful  over  the  feelings, — 
real  jjathos,  real  passion,  whether  of  tenderness,  of 
terror,  or  of  horror.  The  plots  of  some  are  admirably 
contrived  ;  the  diction  of  all  is  pure  and  animated  ;  in 
most  cases  it  is  pointed,  and  in  many  it  is  striking, 
grand,  impressive  ;  the  characters  are  frequently  well 
imagined  and  portrayed,  though  without  sufficient  dis- 
crimination, and  thus  often  running  one  into  another 
from  the  uniformity  of  the  language,  terse,  epigrammatic, 
powerful,  which  all  alike  speak.  Nor  are  there  wanting 
situations  of  great  effect  and  single  passages  of  thrilling 
force  ;  but,  after  all,  the  heart  is  not  there  ;  the  deep  feel- 
ing which  is  the  parent  of  all  true  eloquence,  as  well  as 
all  true  poetry,  ...  is  rarely  perceived."  (See  "  Lives  of 
Men  of  Letters,"  etc.,  where  also  (pp.  36-42)  will  be 
found  an  elaborate  critique  on  the  "  Henriade.") 

As  a  critic  his  claims,  though  unquestionably  of  a  high 
order,  are  open  to  great  exceptions.  He  appears,  indeed, 
to  have  been  wanting  in  no  natural  gift  necessary  to  rank 
him  with  the  ver.y  greatest  critics  that  ever  lived.  He 
possessed,  in  a  degree  that  has  probably  never  been  sur- 
passed, a  clear,  incisive  intellect,i|  a  vivid  sense  of  pro- 
priety, a  quick  perception  of  the  true  relations  of  things, 
combiiied  with  an  intense  susceptibility  to  all  those  feel- 
ings or  sentiments  which  go  to  make  the  orator  and  the 
poet.  But  he  was  wholly  wanting  in  that  earnest  love 
of  truth  without  which  no  critical  verdict  can  command 
our  respect,  much  less  be  accepted  as  authority.  He 
often  pronounced  judgment  on  books  that  he  had  not 
read,  or  had  read  so  imperfectly  that  he  failed  to  com- 
prehend their  real  scope  and  character.    In  the  desire 


that  of  Voltaire,  I  could  see  clearly  the  difference  there  is  between  a 
beautiful  day  and  a  tempest.  .  .  .  You  remember  the  Furies  of 
Orestes, — Fxtriis  agitatus  obiity  (See  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale,"  vol.  xlvi.  p.  442,  where  Tronchin's  letter  is  given  in  full.) 

+  Goethe  goes  still  further,  and  calls  him  "the  greatest  literary 
man  of  all  time,  the  most  astonishing  creation  of  the  Author  of 
Nature."    (See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale,"  vol.  xlvi.  p.  445.) 

§  Mackintosh  speaks  of  Voltaire  as  one  who  embodied  in  liisown 
person  all  the  wit  and  quickness  and  versatile  ingenuity  of  a  people 
which  surpasses  other  nations  in  these  brilliant  qualities.  (See 
"  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy.")  It  is  related  that  Voltaire  once 
expressed  to  an  Englishman  a  very  high  opinion  of  Haller.  His  com- 
panion, with  more  frankness  than  good  breeding,  informed  him  that 
his  high  regard  for  the  Swiss  philosopher  was  not  reciprocated. 
"  Ah  !"  said  lie,  after  scarcely  a  moment's  pause,  "  no  doubt  both  of 
us  are  very  much  mistaken  in  each  other." 

II  "  He  has,"  says  Carlyle,  "  the  eye  of  a  lynx  ;  sees  deeper  at  the 
fir?t  glance  than  any  other  man ;  but  no  second  glance  is  given." 
("Essays,  vol.  ii.") 


€  as     9  as  s;  |  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  K^guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VOLTAIRE 


2216 


VOLTAIRE 


to  display  his  wit,  he  constantly  lost  sight  of  truth.* 
This  last  fault  was  most  conspicuously  exhibited  when- 
ever he  had  occasion  to  assail  Christianity.  His  ribald 
jests  on  all  sacred  subjects  are  but  too  well  known  ;  but 
it  is  not  so  generally  known  that  he  was  guilty  of  the 
most  reckless,  unblushing  falsehoods,  which  he  uttered 
with  a  confident  assurance  that  often  led  inexperienced 
readers  to  suppose  that  from  his  sentence  there  could  be 
no  appeal.! 

Yet  although  his  talents  were  confessedly  of  the  most 
diversified  and  rarest  order,  and  though,  in  the  words 
of  Macaulay,  "of  all  the  intellectual  weapons  ever  used 
by  man,  the  most  terrible  was  the  mockery  of  Voltaire," 
we  cannot  regard  him  as  a  very  formidable  enemy  of 
Christianity.  In  discussing  such  questions  his  state- 
ments were  so  rash,  and  the  spirit  with  which  he  was 
animated  so  manifest,  that  he  could  deceive  only  the 
ignorant,  or  those  who  were  willing  or  anxious  to  be 
deceived.  Men  much  inferior  to  him  in  genius  (as  Hume, 
Gibbon,  and  Strauss)  have  proved  themselves  far  more 
dangerous  adversaries  to  revealed  religion,  because  their 
positions  have  been  more  cautiously  taken,  and  their 
attacks,  if  less  violent,  have  been  made  with  far  greater 
skill,  so  that  the  fallacy  of  their  arguments,  unlike  those 
of  Voltaire,  can  sometimes  be  detected  by  those  only 
who  are  accustomed  to  think  closely,  and  who  are,  at 
the  same  time,  capable  of  earnest,  impartial,  and  labo- 
rious research. 

It  is  proper  to  observe  that  the  charge  of  atheism 
which  has  often  been  brought  against  Voltaire,  is  wholly 
without  foundation.  On  the  one  point  of  belief  in  a 
God  he  was  consistent  and  unwavering,  though  so  fickle 
in  almost  everything  else.  In  fact,  there  are  to  be  found 
in  his  works  some  of  the  most  beautiful  and  admirable 
arguments  in  favour  of  the  existence  of  a  God  that  have 
ever  been  written.  The  young  wits  of  France,  whom  he 
had  taught  to  ridicule  almost  everything  sacred,  turned 
against  him,  in  his  later  years,  the  same  ridicule,  because 
he  still  adhered  to  that  delusion  of  his  early  education. 

In  inquiring  into  the  causes  of  Voltaire's  extraordinary 
influence  upon  the  mind  of  Europe,  we  ought  not  to  be 
guilty  of  the  mistake  of  supposing  that  his  intellectual 
gifts  constituted  the  whole  or  even  the  principal  part  of 
his  marvellous  power.  However  much  we  may  attribute 
to  his  versatile  and  transcendent  intellect,  we  ought, 
perhaps,  to  ascribe  still  more  to  the  intensity  as  well  as 
extreme  susceptibility  of  his  emotional  nature.  It  has 
been  justly  remarked  that  the  same  general  law  holds 
good  in  the  moral  or  the  social,  as  in  the  material,  world, 
— that  every  body  is  attracted  in  the  same  proportion  that 
it  attracts  others.  If  Voltaire  exercised  a  greater  attract- 
ive influence  on  the  mind  of  Europe  than  any  other  man 
of  his  age,  it  was  because  he  felt  more  than  any  other 
the  influence  of  the  age  upon  himself.  This  explains 
why  he  not  merely  instructed  or  dazzled  the  minds  of 
his  contemporaries,  but  won  their  sympathy  and  affec- 
tion as  no  literary  man  or  poet  had  ever  done  before. 
The  influence  of  his  intellect  and  heart  was  all  the 
more  powerful,  because  in  his  sentiments  and  ideas  he 
was  so  little  elevated  above  the  mass  of  his  readers,  that 
he  could  exert  to  the  fullest  extent  all  that  attractive 
power  which,  as  every  one  knows,  is  greatest  when  near- 


*  or  this  his  reckless  observations  and  slurs  upon  Shakspeare 
furnish  a  striking  illustration  In  one  place  he  says  that  Shakspeare 
"was  but  an  ugly  ape,"  ("  wV/a/i'  qu'un  vilain  sin^e.'")  On  another 
occasion  he  calls  the  English  dramatist  "the  Corneille  of  London, 
but  a  great  fool  anywhere  else,"  ("««  grand fou  d' ailleurs .'"')  But 
perhaps  the  most  extraordinary  of  all  his  absurdities  is  his  complaint 
against  the  indecencies  of  Shakspeare,  (see  his  letter  to  La  Harpe, 
August  15,  1776,) — and  this,  too,  from  the  author  of  "  La  Pucelle"  ! 

t  "  Many  of  his  statements,"  says  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britaimica," 
"astonish  us  for  their  temerity,  whether  we  attribute  them  to  igno- 
rance or  effrontery.  Thus,  he  says,  for  example,  '  It  is  a  decided 
truth,  whatever  Abbadie  may  say  to  the  contrary,  that  none  of  the 
first  Fathers  of  the  Cimrch  down  to  Irenaeus  inclusive  have  quoted 
any  passage  from  the  four  Gospels,  with  which  we  are  acquainted." 
Again  he  says  (in  the  "  Encyclopaedia,"  under  the  head  of  "  Christi- 
anity") that  among  the  early  Christians  "  fifty-four  societies  had  fifty- 
four  different  gospels,  all  secret,  like  their  mysteries."  (!)  He  appears, 
indeed,  to  have  thrown  out  his  falsehoods  with  utter  recklessness 
whenever  lie  thought  they  could  serve  his  turn,  trusting  that  his  great 
name  in  literature,  and  the  confident  assurance  with  whicii  they  were 
uttered,  would  induce  the  vast  majority  of  readers  to  accept  them 
without  examination,  in  whicti  method  of  proceeding  he  has  been 
followed  by  other  assailants  of  Christianity. 


est  the  object  to  be  attracted.  That  marvellous  suscep- 
tibility  of  heart,  of  which  we  have  spoken,  not  only 
prompted  him  to  those  generous  acts  of  benevolence 
which  constitute  his  one  claim  to  true  glory,  but  also 
caused  him  to  adopt  with  facility,  or  rather  to  embrace 
with  eagerness,  the  prevailing  foibles  and  vices  of  his 
age,  which  he  may  be  said  to  have  represented  m  all  its 
strength  and  in  all  its  weakness.  While  the  influence  of 
his  writings  doubtless  contributed  powerfully  to  accel- 
erate the  denouement  of  that  mighty  tragedy  in  France, 
the  first  acts  of  which  may  be  said  to  date  from  the 
commencement  of  the  century,  if  not  earlier,  it  did  not, 
we  believe,  very  materially  modify  the  direction  or 
character  of  the  great  movement  of  which  he  appeared 
to  be  the  leader,  but  of  which  he  was  in  reality  scarcely 
more  than  its  most  striking  manifestation.  He  was,  it 
may  be  said,  but  the  foremost  wave  in  a  mighty  deluge, 
urged  on  by,  as  well  as  leading,  those  behind.  Had  he 
been  as  great  morally  as  he  was  intellectually,  he  might 
probably  have  impressed  a  very  different  character  upon 
the  French  Revolution.  He  might  have  fostered  and 
developed  the  spirit  of  liberty,  without  at  the  same  time 
letting  loose  upon  society  the  demons  of  licentiousness, 
o{ persiflage^  and  of  blasphemy.}:  But,  with  his  vain  and 
fickle  character, §  it  would  have  been  as  impossible  for 
him  to  direct  such  a  movement  steadily,  wisely,  and 
beneficently,  as  it  would  have  been  to  support  the  earth 
upon  his  shoulders.  His  was  no  Atlantean  strength, 
capable  of  sustaining  any  great  cause  steadily  and  firmly  ; 
it  was  rather  the  fitful  and  uncertain  strength  of  the 
wind,  which,  moved  by  forces  not  residing  in  itself,  may 
at  one  moment  refresh  and  revive  the  fainting  traveller, 
and  the  next,  heap  the  burning  sands  of  the  desert  upon 
a  perishing  caravan, — may  at  one  time  carry  prosper- 
ously across  the  main  a  vessel  laden  with  precious 
treasure,  and  at  another,  overwhelm  this  same  vessel  in 
the  depths  of  the  ocean. 

See,  besides  the  works  already  referred  to  In  the  foregoing  article, 
Frederick  the  Great,  "  filoge  de  Voltaire,"  1778;  Condorcrt, 
"Vie  de  Voltaire,  suivie  des  Memoires  de  Voltaire,  ecrits  par  lui- 
meme,"  17S7  ;  Jean  Francois  de  La  Harpe,  "  filoge  de  Voltaire," 
1780;  C.  Palis.sot,  "6loge  de  Voltaire,"  1778;  Louis  Simon  Au-, 
GER,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Voltaire,"  1827  ;  J.  F.  Gili.et,  "  Voltaire 
der  Reformator,"  1772;  Durdent,  "  Histoire  litteraire  et  philoso- 
phique  de  Voltaire,"  1818;  Standish,  "Life  of  Voltaire,"  1819; 
La  Roche  du  Maivk  de  Luchet,  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  Voltaire," 
etc.,  6  vols,  1782:  Mazure,  "Vie  de  Voltaire,"  1821  ;  Saint-Albin 
Bervili-E,  "Notice  historique  sur  Voltaire,"  1827;  Paii.let  de 
Warcv,  "  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  Voltaire,"  2  vols., 
1823;  BuNGENER,  "Voltaire  et  son  Temps."  2  vols.,  1850;  Von 
Zarue.ssnig,  "  Historische  und  kritische  Nachrichten  von  dem 
Leben  und  den  Schriften  des  Herrn  Voltaire,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1777; 
PASTf)RET,  "  Eloge  de  Voltaire,"  1779;  "  Leven  van  F.  M.  Arouet 
van  Voltaire,"  Utrecht,  1779:  Maria  Julia  Young,  "  Voltairiana," 
4  vols.,  1805;  Ellissrn,  "Voltaire  als  politischer  Dichter,"  etc., 
1852  ;  LoNGCHAMP  et  Wagniere,  "  Memoires  sur  Voltaire,"  2  vols., 
1825  ;  J.  Venedey,  "  Friedrich  der  Grosse  und  Voltaire,"  1859;  A. 
HoussAVE,  "  Le  Roi  Voltaire,"  1861 ;  P.  Duprat,  "Voltaire  et 
I'Encyclopedie,"  1865;  F'.  A.  Harel,  "  Discours  sur  Voltaire," 
1844;  Charles  Nisard,  "  Les  Ennemis  de  Voltaire,"  1853;  GabE" 
REL,  "  Voltaire  et  les  Genevois,"  i860;  Sainte  Beuve,  "Causeries 
du  Lundi,"  tomes  ii.  and  xiii.  ;  Lepan,  "Vie  politique,  litteraire  et 
morale  de  Voltaire,"  1817;  Querard.  "  Bibliographie  Voltairienne," 
1844;  O.  HoNORE,  "Voltaire  \  Lausanne,"  1853:  Villemain, 
"  Tableau  de  la  Litterature  du  dix-huiti^me  Siecle:"  Cousin  d'.Aval- 
LON,  "  Voltairiana,"  1801  :  "  Biographie  Universelle :"  and  the  elabo- 
rate article  on  "Voltaire,"  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

X  Lord  Brougham  defends  Voltaire  against  the  charge  of  blasphemy, 
on  the  ground  that  one  cannot  be  guilty  of  blasphemy  against  any 
being  in  whom  the  offender  has  no  belief  One  might  utter  all  hor- 
rible slanders  against  the  character  of  Christ,  and  yet,  according  to 
this  view,  it  would  not  be  blasphemy  if  the  speaker  or  writer  did  not 
believe  in  the  divinity  of  Christ.  lii  reply  to  this  argument,  it  may 
suffice  to  say  that  it  has  no  support  in  the  original  signification  of 
the  verb  to  "blaspheme,"  which  is  simply  to  "slander"  or  "  vilify;" 
and  it  appears  to  have  no  sanction  in  the  usage  of  any  European 
language. 

§  Byron  has  most  aptly  portrayed  the  character  of  Voltaire  when, 
contrasting  him  with  Gibbon,  he  says, — 

"  The  one  was  fire  and  fickleness,  a  child, 
Most  mutable  in  wishes,  but  in  mind 
A  wit  as  various. — gay,  grave,  sage,  or  wild, — 
Historian,  bard,  philosopher  combined  ; 
He  multiplied  himself  among  mankind, 
The  Proteus  of  their  talents;  but  his  own 
Breathed  most  in  ridicule, — which,  as  the  wind, 
Blew  where  it  listed,  laying  all  things  prone, — ■ 
Now  to  o'erthrow  a  fool,  and  now  to  shake  a  throne." 

Childe  Harold,  canto  iii.  stanza  cvi. 
For  some  very  curious  and  interesting  notices  of  the  fickleness, 
as  well  as  intensity,  of  Voltaire's  feelings,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Marmontel's  "M<^mojres." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y,  snort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fdr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nbi;  good;  moon; 


VOLT ERR  A 


2217 


VORSTWS 


Volterra  or  Volterre.    See  Ricciarelli. 
Volterrano.    See  Maffei,  (Raffaello  and  Fran- 

CESCHINI.) 

Voltolina,  vol-to-lee'iiS,  (Giuseppe  Mruo,)  a  writer 
of  Latin  poetry,  born  at  Salo,  on  the  Lake  of  Garda, 
flourished  about  1570.  He  wrote  a  fine  poem  on  Horti- 
culture, (1574.) 

Vo-lum'ni-a,  a  Roman  matron,  was  the  wife  of  Cori- 
olanus.  She,  and  her  mother-in-law,  persuaded  that 
general  to  desist  from  his  purpose  of  attacking  Rome. 
(See  Veturia.) 

Vonck,  vonk,  (Francis,)  a  Flemish  jurist,  born  near 
Brussels  in  1735.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
party  which  attempted  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Austria 
about  1789.    Died  in  1792. 

Vondel,  van  den,  vtn  den  von'del,  [Lat.  Vonde'- 
Lius,]  (JoosT,)  an  eminent  Dutch  poet,  born  at  Cologne 
in  1587,  was  a  son  of  Protestant  parents,  who  fied  from 
Antwerp  to  escape  persecution.  He  resided  mostly  at 
Amsterdam,  where  he  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits, 
and  married  about  1610.  He  produced  in  1620  a  tragedy 
of  the  "Sack  of  Jerusalem,"  and  in  1625  a  more  famous 
drama,  called  *' Palamedes,"  in  which  he  alluded  to  the 
execution  of  Barneveldt  in  such  indignant  terms  that  he 
was  fined.  His  drama  of  "Gisbert  van  Amstel"  (1637) 
was  received  with  great  applause.  It  is  stated  that  he 
joined  the  Catholic  Church  about  1640.  Among  his 
remarkable  works  is  the  tragedy  of  "Lucifer,"  (1654,) 
which  is  said  to  resemble  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost."  He 
was  also  a  great  lyric  poet.  The  choruses  of  his  trage- 
dies are  sublime  lyrical  compositions.  He  was  the 
author  of  satires  and  many  other  poems,  and  is  regarded 
as  the  great  national  poet  of  Holland.    Died  in  1679. 

See  L.  V.  Ollepek,  "  Leven  van  J.  van  den  Vondel,"  1783; 
SljBRANDi,  "  Vondel  and  Shakspeare,"  (in  Dutch, )  1841  ;  P.'eter 
Campek,  "  Dissertatio  de  J.  Voiidelio,  Poeta  tragico,"  i8tg :  Hen- 
DRTK  Zeeman,  "  l.even  van  J.  van  den  Vondel,"  1831  ;  C.  Loots, 
*' Hnlde  aan  de  Nagedaclitenis  van  J.  van  den  Vondel,"  1817 ; 
LoNGFELi.dW,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;"  "  Eraser's  Magazine" 
for  May,  1854. 

Vondeliiis.    See  Vondei,. 

Von  der  Hardt.    See  Hardt,  von  der. 

Vo-no'nes,  King  of  Parthia,  was  a  son  of  Phraates 
IV.  He  passed  some  of  his  early  years  at  Rome  as  a 
hostage,  and  began  to  reign  in  14  a.d.  Having  been 
dej^osed  by  his  subjects,  he  was  killed  in  19  a.d. 

Von-Visin.    See  Vizin,  vox. 

Voorst,  van,  vtn  voKst,  (Adolph,)  a  Dutch  physi- 
cian and  botanist,  born  at  Delft  in  1597.  He  succeeded 
his  father  as  professor  of  botany  at  Leyden.  Died  in 
1663. 

Voorst,  van,  [Lat.  Vor'stius,]  (Everard,)  a  Dutch 
physician,  born  at  Ruremonde  in  1565,  was  the  father 
of  the  preceding.  He  became  professor  at  Leyden 
in  1598.  He  wrote  several  medical  works.  Died  in 
1624. 

Vo-pis'ous,  (Flavius,)  a  Latin  historian,  born  at 
Syracuse,  in  Sicily,  lived  about  300-320  A.D.  He  was 
one  of  the  writers  of  the  "  Historia  Augusta,"  to  which 
he  contributed  the  lives  of  Amelian,  Tacitus,  Florianus, 
Probus,  etc.  He  is  regarded  by  some  critics  as  the  ablest 
of  the  writers  of  the  "  Hjistoria  Augusta." 

See  D.  W.  Moller,  "  Dispiitatio  de  F.  Vopisco,"  1687. 

Vor,  voR,  or  Vo'ra,  written  also  Vara,  [probably 
from  vor  or  for,  (Ger.  vor,)  "  before"  or  "  beforehand," 
so  named  on  account  of  her  prudence  and  foresight,]  a 
goddess  in  the  Norse  mythology,  distinguished  for  her 
wisdom  and  sagacity.  It  is  her  office  to  search  out  and 
punish  broken  oaths  and  promises,  particularly  those 
of  lovers.  Nothing  can  escape  her  penetration,  and  no 
vows,  however  secret,  can  be  hidden  from  her. 

See  Thorpe,  "  Northern  Mythology,"  vol.  i.  pp.  35  and  36. 

Voragine,  (Giacomo.)  See  James  (or  Giacomo)  de 

VORAGINE. 

Vorherr,  foR'h^R,  (Johann  Michael  Christian 
GusTAV,)  a  German  architect,  born  at  Freudenbach  in 
1778,  studied  at  Berlin  and  Paris,  and  was  subsequently 
employed  to  construct  a  number  of  public  buildings  in 
the  vicinity  of  Miuiich,    Died  in  1847. 

Vorouikhin  or  Woronichin,  vo-ro-ne-K^n',  (An- 
drei NiKiFoRoviTCH,)  a  Russian  architect,  born  in  1760, 


was  the  son  of  a  peasant,  and  was  patronized  by  Count 
Alexander  Stroganol.  He  studied  at  Moscow,  and 
subsequently  in  Paris,  and  was  appointed,  after  his  re- 
turn, professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts.  In  181 1  he 
completed  the  superb  cathedral  of  "Our  Lady  of 
Kazan,"  in  the  Nevskii  Prospect,  at  Saint  Petersburg, 
which  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  finest  structures  in  the 
city.    Died  in  1814. 

Vorontsof,  vftr-ftnt-sof,  Vorontzov,  or  Woron- 
zow,  (Alexander,)  Count,  a  Russian  statesman  under 
the  reign  of  Catherine  II.,  was  a  brother  of  the  Princess 
Dashkof,  the  intimate  friend  of  that  empress.  He  was 
appointed  by  the  emperor  Alexander  chancellor  of  the 
empire  in  1802.    Died  in  1806. 

Vorontsof,  Vorontzov,  or  Woronzow,  (Mikhail 
Ilarionovitch,)  Count,  a  Russian  diplomatist  and 
statesman,  born  in  1 7 10,  was  distinguished  by  the  favour 
of  the  empress  Elizabeth,  and  rose  to  be  chancellor  of 
the  empire.  He  negotiated  the  treaty  of  alliance  be- 
tween Russia  and  Sweden  in  1745.    Died  in  1767. 

Vorontsof,  Vorontzov,  or  Woronzow,  (Mikhail 
Semenovitch,)  Prince,  a  Russian  general  and  states- 
man, born  at  Moscow  in  1782.  He  was  educated  in 
England,  where  his  father.  Semen  Woronzow,  resided 
as  Russian  ambassador.  Having  entered  the  Russian 
army,  he  served  against  the  Turks,  and  in  the  principal 
campaigns  against  Napoleon  from  1812  to  1815.  He 
was  afterwards  appointed  governor  of  New  Russia  and 
Bessarabia,  and  in  1844  Caucasian  provinces. 

Died  in  1856. 

Vorontzov  or  Vorontzoff.    See  Vorontsof. 

Vorosmarty  or  Voeroesmarty,  vo'rosh-morty, 
(almost  -moRtch,)  (MihAly,)  a  celebrated  Hungarian 
writer  and  patriot,  born  in  the  county  of  Fejervar  in 
1800.  He  published,  while  a  student  at  Pesth,  his  drama 
of  "King  Solomon,"  (1821,)  which  was  followed  by  a 
poem  entitled  "The  Triutriph  of  Fidelity,"  (1822,)  "  King 
Sigismund,"  (1824,)  a  drama,  "The  Flight  of  Zalan,"  an 
epic  poem,  and  the  tragedy  of  "Kont,"  (1825.)  His 
narrative  poems  entitled  "Cserhalom"  and  "The  En- 
chanted Valley"  ("  Tiindervolgy,"  1827)  established  his 
reputation  as  the  first  Hungarian  poet  of  his  time.  He 
was  a  contributor  to  Kisfaludy's  "Aurora,"  and  was  for 
several  years  editor  of  a  journal  called  "The  Repository 
of  Science."  In  1830  he  published  a  patriotic  lyric  entitled 
"  The  Appeal,"  ("  Szozat,")  which  at  once  became  widely 
popular,  and  the  author  received  from  the  Hungarian 
Academy  a  ducat  for  every  line.  He  took  part  in  the 
revolution  of  1848,  and  was  a  deputy  to  the  National 
Assembly  for  the  county  of  Bacska,  and  after  the  defeat 
of  the  Hungarians  was  imprisoned  a  short  time.  He 
died  in  1856,  while  engaged  on  a  translation  of  Shak- 
speare, 

Vorst,  foRst,  or  Vorstius,  foR'ste-iis,  (Johann,)  a 
German  philologist,  born  at  Wesselburg  in  1623.  He 
settled  in  Berlin  in  1660,  and  became  rector  or  president 
of  the  college  of  that  city.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Sacred  Philology,"  etc.,  ("  Philologia  Sacra,  seu 
de  Hebraismis  Novi  Testament!  Liber,"  1658.)  Died 
in  Berlin  in  1676. 

Vorsterman,  voR'ster-min^  (Lucas,)  a  skilful  Flem- 
ish engraver  and  painter,  born  at  Antwerp  about  1580, 
was  a  pupil  of  Rubens.  He  engraved  some  works  of 
Rubens,  among  which  are  the  "Adoration  of  the  Magi,'* 
and  the  "Descent  from  the  Cross."  He  worked  in 
London  about  nine  years,  (1624-32,)  during  which  he 
engraved  a  number  of  portraits  after  Van  Dyck.  Died 
about  1645.  His  son  Lucas  was  an  engraver,  but  not 
equal  to  the  father. 

See  Nagler,  "  AUgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon." 

Vorstius.    See  VoRsr  and  Voorst. 

Vorstius,  foR'ste-(is,  or  Vorst,  foRst,  (Conrad,)  a 
German  Protestant  divine,  born  at  Cologne  in  1569. 
Having  taken  the  degree  of  D.D.  at  Heidelberg,  he  be- 
came professor  of  theology  at  Geneva,  and  afterwards 
filled  the  same  chair  in  the  school  of  divinity  at  vStein- 
furt.  In  1610  be  succeeded  Arminius  in  the  chair  of 
theology  at  Leyden.  His  appointment  to  this  post  was 
strongly  opposed  by  the  Calvinists  in  Holland,  on  account 
of  the  heresies  contained  in  his  "  Disputations  on  the 
Nature  and  Attributes  of  God,"  ("De  Deo,  seu  Dis- 


<e  as  i;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  t;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ro R  TIGER N 


2218 


FOSSIUS 


putationes  decern  de  Natura  et  Attributis  Dei,"  etc. 
The  book  was  condemned  to  be  publicly  burned  by  James 
I.  of  England,  who  also  wrote  a  tract  against  the  author. 
In  1619  he  was  denounced  by  the  Synod  of  Dort  as  un- 
worthy of  his  office,  and  exiled  from  the  country.  He 
died  at  Tonningen  in  1622.  He  was  the  author  of  sev- 
eral religious  and  controversial  works,  and  was  distin- 
guished for  his  learning  and  piety. 

Vor'ti-gern,  a  British  chief,  who  was  elected  king 
about  445  A.D.  To  defend  Britain  against  the  Picts  and 
Scots,  he  invited  the  aid  of  the  Saxons.  Hengist  and 
Horsa  led  an  army  of  Saxons  into  Britain,  and  soon 
turned  their  arms  against  Vortigern,  who  was  defeated 
and  killed  in  485  A.D. 

Vos,  de,  deh  vos,  (Cornelis,)  a  Flemish  painter, 
born  at  Hulst  about  1 585.  He  excelled  in  portraits,  and 
painted  several  historical  pieces.  Died  at  Antwerp  in 
1651. 

Vos,  de,  (Martin.)    See  Devos. 

Vos,  de,  (Paul,)  a  painter  of  animals  and  hunting- 
scenes,  born  at  Hulst  (or  Aelst)  about  1590,  was  a  bro- 
ther of  Cornelis,  noticed  above.    Died  in  1654. 

Vos,  de,  (Simon,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Antwerp 
in  1603  ;  died  about  1675. 

Vos,  van,  vtn  vos,  (Willem,)  a  Dutch  writer  on 
theology  and  moral  philosophy,  born  about  1740.  He 
was  employed  as  pastor  at  Amsterdam.    Died  in  1823. 

Voss,  (Gerard.)    See  Vossius. 

Voss,  fos,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  scholar,  was  a  son 
of  the  following.  He  became  a  professor  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Heidelberg.  He  translated  ^schylus  into  Ger- 
man, and  aided  his  father  in  a  translation  of  Shakspeare. 
Died  in  1822. 

Voss,  (JoHANN  Heinrich,)  an  eminent  German  poet 
and  critic,  born  at  Sommersdorf,  (Mecklenburg,)  Febru- 
ary 20,  1 75 1,  was  the  son  of  poor  parents.  After  he  left 
the  public  school  of  New  Brandenburg,  he  became  a 
tutor  in  a  family  (1769)  near  Penzlin.  Some  verses  which 
he  contributed  to  the  "  Musenalmanach"  of  Gottingen 
attracted  the  notice  of  Boie,  the  editor,  who  invited  him 
to  Gottingen.  He  went  thither  in  1772,  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  philology  under  Heyne,  with 
whom  he  soon  quarrelled.  He  became  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal members  of  the  literary  society  called  Hainbund, 
formed  an  acquaintance  with  Klopstock,  and  married 
about  1777  a  sister  of  Boie,  above  mentioned.  He  quitted 
Gottingen  in  1775  with  a  profound  knowledge  of  classical 
literature  and  philology,  and  was  apjiointed  rector  of  the 
public  school  at  Ottendorf  in  1778.  In  1781  he  produced 
an  excellent  translation  of  Homer's  "Odyssey,"  in  hex- 
ameter verse,  which  was  received  with  great  favour  by  the 
best  judges.  In  his  version  the  ideas  and  details  of  the 
original  are  reproduced  with  great  fidelity.  He  removed 
in  1782  to  Eutin,  in  the  duchy  of  Oldenburg,  where  he 
was  employed  about  twenty  years  as  rector  of  the  gym- 
nasium. In  1789  he  published  a  translation  of  Virgil's 
"Georgics,"  with  a  commentary.  His  admirable  trans- 
lation of  the  "Iliad"  appeared  in  1793.  As  a  translator 
of  the  classics,  he  is  generally  considered  to  be  un- 
rivalled. He  contributed  much  to  the  improvement  of 
the  German  language  and  metre.  Between  1774  and 
1800  he  composed  eighteen  beautiful  idyls,  which  were 
published  collectively  in  4  vols.,  1802.  His  pastoral  or 
idyllic  poem  "Luise"  (1795)  is  considered  the  most 
charming  poem  of  that  kind  in  the  language. 

Voss  and  Heyne  were  involved  in  several  literary  con- 
troversies, and  indulged  in  violent  personalities.  In  1799 
he  published  a  translation  of  the  complete  works  of  Vir- 
gil. He  removed  from  Eutin  to  Jena  in  1802,  and  was 
called  in  1805  to  Heidelberg  by  the  Elector  of  Baden, 
who  offered  him  a  pension  of  about  one  thousand  florins. 
He  afterwards  published  translations  of  Horace,  (1806,) 
Hesiod,  (1808,)  Theocritus,  Bion  and  Moschus,  (1808,) 
and  Aristophanes,  (1821.)  Voss  manifested  his  devo- 
tion to  the  Protestant  religion  and  liberal  principles  in 
a  work  entitled  "  How  F.  Stolberg  became  illiberal," 
("  Wie  ward  Fritz  Stolberg  ein  Unfreier,"  1819,)  and 
published  in  1823  his  "  Antisynibolik,"  in  answer  to 
Creuzer's  "  Symbolik,"  in  which  the  opinions  of  Heyne 
had  been  maintained.  He  had  two  sons,  Henry  and 
Abraham,  who  were  his  coadjutors  in  a  translation  of 


Shakspeare,  published  in  1818-26.  He  died  at  Heidel- 
berg in  March,  1826. 

See  Paulus,  "  Lebens-  iind  Todeskunden  iiber  J.  H.  Voss,"  1826 ; 
Th.  Schmid,  "Leben  des  Dichters  J.  H.  Voss,"  1835;  J,  H.  Voss, 
"  Abriss  meines  Lebens,"  1818;  Longfeu.ow,  "Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Europe;"  Heinrich  DOuing,  "J.  H.  Voss  nach  seinem  Leben 
und  Wirken  dargestellt,"  1834;  J-  J-  Goerres.  "J.  H.  Voss  und 
seine  Todtenfeier  in  Heidelberg,"  1826;  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale  ;"and  the  article  on  "German  Poetry" in  '*  Fraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  April,  1832. 

Voss,  von,  fon  fos,  (Julius,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  in  Brandenburg  in  1768,  was  the  author  of  a  num- 
ber of  dramas  and  romances.    Died  in  1832. 

Vossius,  vosh'e-us,  (Dionysius,)  a  Dutch  Oriental- 
ist, born  at  Dort  about  1609,  was  a  son  of  the  following. 
He  was  well  versed  in  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  learned 
several  modern  languages.  He  translated  into  Latin 
Maimonides  "  On  Idolatry,"  and  other  works.  Died  at 
Amsterdam  in  1633. 

Vossius,  vosh'e-us,  or  Voss,  vos,  (Gerard,)  a  Ger- 
man or  Flemish  theologian  and  priest,  born  near  Liege, 
lived  at  Rome.  He  edited  some  works  of  Chrysostom, 
Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  and  other  Greek  Fathers,  (1575- 
1604.)    Died  at  Liege  in  1609. 

Vossius,  (Gerard,)  a  classical  scholar,  a  son  of  the 
following,  was  born  at  Leyden  in  1620.  He  edited  Vel- 
leius  Paterculus.  (1639.)  His  death  is  variously  dated 
from  1640  to  1650. 

Vossius,  vosh'e-us  or  fos'se-iis,  or  Voss,  fos,  (Ge- 
rard Jan,)  a  celebrated  German  scholar,  born  near 
Heidelberg  in  1577.  He  removed  to  Dort,  in  Holland, 
studied  theology,  history,  and  antiquities  at  Leyden,  and 
became  master  of  the  public  school  at  Dort  in  1600. 
He  was  appointed,  in  1614,  rector  of  the  theological 
school  at  Leyden,  in  which  he  soon  after  filled  the  chair 
of  eloquence.  He  visited  England  in  1629,  and  was 
installed  as  a  prebendary  of  Canterbury,  through  the 
influence  of  Archbishop  Laud.  About  1632  he  became 
professor  of  history  in  a  new  college  at  Amsterdam.  He 
died  at  Amsterdam  in  1649.  Among  his  principal  works 
may  be  named  "  Aristarchus,  or  Seven  Books  on  the 
Dramatic  Art,"  ("Aristarchus,  sive  de  Arte  Dramatica 
Libri  VH.,")  "  Historia  Pelagiana,"  (1618,)  "The  Rhe- 
torical Art,"  ("Ars  Rhetorica,"  1623,)  "  On  the  Greek 
Historians,"  ("De  Historicis  Grascis  Libri  tres,"  1624,) 
"  On  the  Latin  Historians,"  ("  De  Historicis  Latinis 
Libri  tres,"  1627,)  and  "  Commentariorum  Rhetori- 
corm-n  (sive  Oratoriarum  Institutionum)  Libri  VI." 

He  was  a  friend  of  Grotius,  and  was  a  man  of 
commendable  piety  and  modesty.  "Gerard  Vossius," 
says  Hallam, — "a  far  greater  name  in  general  literature 
than  Scioppius, — contributed  more  essentially  to  these 
grammatical  rules ;  and  to  him  perhaps,  rather  than 
to  any  other  one  man,  we  may  refer  the  establishment 
of  as  much  correctness  of  writing  as  is  attainable  in  a 
dead  language."  ("  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.") 

See  C.  Tot.Lius,  "Oratio  in  Obitum  G.  J.  Vossii."  1649;  Meur- 
sius.  "  Athena;  Hatavje  ;"  Niceron.  "  Memoires  :"  Val^re  Andre, 
"  Bibliotheca  Belgica  ;"  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Vossius,  (Isaac,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Leyden  in  1618.  He  was  instructed  by  his  father, 
and  subsequently  travelled  in  France  and  Italy.  In 
1648  he  was  invited  by  Queen  Christina  to  Sweden, 
where  he  resided  nearly  ten  years.  He  visited  England 
in  1670,  and  was  made  a  canon  of  Windsor  by  Charles 
IL  He  published  editions  of  Scylax,  Pomponius  Mela, 
and  other  classics,  "Dissertations  on  the  Seventy  Inter- 
preters, and  their  Translation  and  Chronology."  ("De 
Septuaginta  Interpretibus,  eorumque  Translatione  et 
Chronologia  Dissertationes,"  1663,)  "On  the  Chanting 
of  Poems  and  the  Power  of  Rhythm,"  ("  De  Poematum 
Cantu  et  Viribus  Rhythmi,"  1673,)  and  "A  Book  of 
Various  Observations,"  ("Variarum  Observationum 
Liber.")  He  died  in  1688,  leaving  a  large  and  very 
valuable  library,  which  was  purchased  by  the  University 
of  Leyden.  His  learning  was  profound,  but  he  was  dis- 
solute in  character  and  skeptical  in  religion,  though  so 
credulous  in  other  things  that  Charles  II.  said  of  him 
"This  learned  divine  will  believe  anything  except  the 
Bible." 

See  FoppKNs,  "Bibliotheca  Belgica;"  Niceron,  "Memoires;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


4.  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


FOSSIUS 


2219 


Vossius,  (Mattheus,)  a  historical  writer,  born  at 
Dort,  was  a  brother  of  Isaac  Vossius.  He  became  li- 
brarian of  the  city  of  Amsterdam,  and  published,  in 
Latin,  "Annals  of  Holland  and  Zealand,"  (1645-46.) 
Died  in  1646. 

Vosterman,  vos'ter-mSn',  (John,)  a  Dutch  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Bommel  in  1643.  He  worked  in  Eng- 
land, and  was  patronized  by  Charles  H.  He  is  said  to 
have  excelled  in  delicacy  of  finish.    Died  in  1699. 

Vouet,  voo'i',  (Simon,)  a  celebrated  French  painter, 
born  in  Paris  in  1582,  (or  1590,  according  to  the  "Nou- 
velle  Biographie  Generale.")  He  studied  at  Venice 
and  Rome,  and,  after  his  return,  was  appointed,  in  1627, 
painter  to  Louis  XHL  He  is  called  the  founder  of  the 
French  school  of  painting,  and  numbered  among  his 
pupils  Mignard,  Le  Brun,  Le  Sueur,  and  other  distin- 
guished artists.  He  adorned  many  churches  of  Paris 
with  his  works,  which  are  defective  in  colour  and  design. 
Died  in  1649,  (or,  as  some  say,  1641.) 

See  Fei.ibien,  "  Les  Artistes  Frangais  ;"  Charles  Blanc,  "  His- 
toire  des  Peintres;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

VouUand,  voo'ISn',  (Henri,)  a  violent  French  Jaco- 
bin, born  at  Uzes  in  1750,  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
vention of  1792-95.    Died  in  1802. 

Voyer.    See  Argenson,  d'. 

Voys,  vois,  (Ary  or  Adriaan,)  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Leyden  in  1641.  He  painted  history  and  land- 
scapes. 

Voysin  or  Voisin,  vw§.'ziN',  (Daniel  FRANgois,) 
a  French  lawyer  and  politician,  born  in  Paris  about  1654. 
He  was  patronized  by  Madame  de  Main  tenon,  through 
whose  influence  he  became  secretary  of  war  in  1709,  and 
chancellor  of  France  in  1714.  He  wrote  the  last  will  of 
Louis  XIV.,  and  a  few  days  after  the  king's  death  pro- 
nounced it  null.    Died  in  1717. 

Vre'tos  or  Vre'to,  (Andrew  Papadopoulos,)  a 
modern  Greek  writer,  born  at  Theaki  (Ithaca)  in  1800. 
He  published  many  works,  among  which  is  a  "  Life  of 
President  Capo  d'Istria,"  (in  French,  2  vols.,  1837-38,) 
and  "The  Literature  of  Modern  Greece,"  (2  vols., 
1854-57-) 

Vriemoet,  vRee'moot,  (Emo  Lucius,)  a  Dutch  phi- 
lologist and  minister,  born  at  Emden  in  1699.  He  be- 
came professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Franeker  in 
1730.    Died  in  1760. 

Vriend.    See  Floris,  (Frans.) 

Vries,  vRees,  (Marimn  Gerritzoon — geR'rit-zon,)  a 
Dutch  navigator,  was  sent  in  1643,  by  Van  Diemen, 
governor  of  the  Dutch  possessions  in  India,  on  a  voyage 
to  explore  the  countries  north  of  Japan.  An  account 
of  the  expedition  appeared  in  1646. 

Vries,  de,  deh  vRees,  (Hans  Fredeman — fua'deh- 
min',)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter  of  perspective  and 
architectural  pieces,  was  born  at  Leeuwarden  in  1527. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "Treatise  on  Perspective,"  and 
produced  a  great  number  of  architectural  designs.  His 
sons  Paul  and  Solomon  distinguished  themselves  in 
the  same  department.    Hans  Fredeman  died  after  1604. 

Vuez,  de.    See  Devuez. 

Vukassovich,  von,  fon  voo-kSs'so-vik,  (Philip,) 
Baron,  a  general,  born  in  Slavonia  in  1755.  He  served 
as  a  general  of  the  Austrian  army  in  Italy  against  the 
French.    Died  in  1809. 

Vulcain.    See  Vulcan. 

Viil'can,  [Gr.  "HcpataTog,  ( Hephaistos ; )  Lat.  Vulca'- 
Nus  ;  Fr.  Vulcain, viiKkiN';  It.  Volcano,  vol-k^'no,]  the 
Roman  god  of  fire,  celebrated  as  a  worker  in  metals  and 


a  fabricator  of  armour,  corresponds  to  the  Hcpl^aestus 
(or  Hephaistos)  of  the  Greek  mythology.  According  to 
Homer,  he  was  a  son  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  and  Hera,  (Juno,) 
and  was  weak  and  deformed  from  his  birth.  Other 
writers  reported  that  he  was  a  son  of  Juno,  and  had  no 
father;  that,  in  a  quarrel  between  Jupiter  and  Juno,  he 
took  the  part  of  his  mother,  and  was  hurled  down  from 
Olympus  by  Jupiter;  that,  after  falling  a  whole  day,  he 
lighted  on  the  island  of  Lemnos  ;  that  his  fall  rendered 
him  lame;  that  he  forged  the  thunderbolts  of  Jupiter, 
and  fabricated  the  shield  of  Hercules,  the  armour  of 
Achilles  and  other  heroes,  and  other  famous  pieces  of 
exquisite  workmanship.  The  island  of  Lemnos  was  his 
favourite  residence  on  the  earth,  and  he  had  also  a  palace 
in  Olympus,  to  which  he  returned  after  his  fall.  He 
married  Venus,  whom  he  once  detected  in  the  embrace 
of  Mars.  The  story  of  this  afi'air  may  be  found  in  the 
"  Odyssey,"  book  viii.  According  to  popular  tradition, 
Mount  Etna  was  a  forge  of  Vulcan,  who  had  also  work- 
shops in  several  volcanic  islands,  and  the  Cyclopes 
worked  in  his  service.  (See  Virgil's  "^neid,"  book 
viii.  370-448.)  The  ancients  ascribed  to  Minerva  and 
Vulcan  jointly  the  invention  or  the  introduction  of  the 
arts  which  embellish  life  and  distinguish  civilized  society 
from  the  savage  state.  He  was  represented  with  ham- 
mer and  tongs  at  the  anvil,  and  with  his  right  arm  bare. 
He  was  also  called  Mulciber,  which  is  perhaps  a  cor- 
ruption of  tmilcifer,  (from  mulceo,  to  "soften"  or  "render 
tractable,"  ?ind  ferrum,  "iron.") 

Vulcanius,  vul-k^'ne-iis,  (Bonaventura,)  a  Flemish 
classical  scholar,  born  at  Bruges  in  1538.  He  became  sec- 
retary to  Cardinal  Francisco  de  Mendoza  in  Spain  about 
1560,  and  obtained  the  chair  of  Greek  at  Leyden  in  1578. 
He  edited  several  ancient  authors,  and  translated  some 
Greek  works  into  Latin.    Died  at  Leyden  in  1614. 

Vul'pl-us,  [Ger.  pron.  fo6Kpe-us,]  (Christian  Au- 
gust,) a  German  writer,  born  at  Weimar  in  1762.  He 
studied  at  Jena  and  Erlangen,  and  afterwards  became 
secretary  of  the  court  theatre  at  Weimar,  under  the 
direction  of  Goethe,  who  was  his  brother-in-law.  He 
published  "  Rinaldo  Rinaldini,"  (1799,)  a  robber  romance, 
which  was  received  with  great  favour  ;  also  "  Romantic 
Histories  of  Former  Times,"  and  a  number  of  dramatic 
works.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  first  librarian 
and  overseer  of  the  cabinet  of  coins  at  Weimar.  Died 
in  1827. 

Vulson,  de,  deh  vUKs6n',  (Marc,)  a  French  writer  on 
heraldry.  He  fought  for  Henry  IV.  in  his  youth,  and 
became  a  gentleman  of  the  chamber  of  the  king.  He 
published  several  works.    Died  in  1658. 

Vy^sa,  ve-§.'sa  or  vyS'sa,  [etymology  doubtful  ;  sup- 
posed by  some  to  signify  "  compiler"  or  "  arranger,"] 
called  also  V6davy4sa,  va'da-vy^'sa,  the  name  of  a 
celebrated  Hindoo  sage  or  saint,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  original  compiler  of  the  Vedas  and  Pura- 
nas,  and  the  founder  of  the  Vedanta  philosophy.* 
Nothing  is  known  of  the  events  of  his  life,  and  by  some 
he  is  regarded  as  a  myth. 


*  The  Vedanta  philosophy,  called  also  simply  the  Vedanta,  {i.e. 
the  "end  or  scope  of  [all]  knowledge,"  from  vSdd,  "knowledge," 
and  Antd,  "end"  or  "scope,")  is  a  sort  of  ideal  system,  which 
has  been  derived  or  developed  from  portions  of  the  Vedas,  called  the 
Upanishaids,  (which  see.)  It  teaches,  among  other  things,  that 
Brahm,  the  infinite  eternal  Spirit,  is  the  only  being  really  existing  in 
the  universe.  All  creatures  are  merely  emanations  (or  we  might  say 
exhalations)  from  Him,  having  an  apparent  rather  than  a  real  exist- 
ence, and  will  at  last  be  absorbed  or  extinguished  in  his  essence. 
(See  Brahm  and  Brahmanism.) 


€  as  ^;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WAAGEN 


2220 


WADE 


Waagen,  M'gen,  (Gustav  Friedrich,)  an  eminent 
German  amateur  and  art-critic,  born  at  Hamburg  in 
1794.  He  studied  at  Breslau,  Dresden,  and  Munich, 
and  in  1823  was  appointed  director  of  the  Royal  Gallery 
of  Paintings  at  Berlin.  He  published  "  Works  of  Art 
and  Artists  in  England  and  France,"  ("  Kunstwerke  und 
Kiinstler  in  England  und  Frankreich,"  3  vols.,  1837,) 
"  Works  of  Art  and  Artists  in  Germany,"  ("  Kunstwerke 
und  Kiinstler  in  Deutschland,"  2  vols.,  1843,)  "The 
Treasures  of  Art  in  Great  Britain,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1854, 
in  English,)  a  "  Life  of  Rubens,"  and  other  works,  which 
enjoy  the  highest  reputation.  He  was  appointed  in  1844 
professor  in  the  Royal  University  for  the  department  of 
art  history.    Died  at  Copenhagen  in  August,  1868. 

See  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  July,  1838. 

Waal.    See  Wael. 
Waast.    See  WAs  r. 

Wace,  vts  or  vis,  (Robert,)  an  Anglo-Norman  poet, 
a  native  of  the  island  of  Jersey,  resided  at  the  court  of 
Henry  H.  at  Caen,  to  whom  he  dedicated  his  '*  Roman 
du  Rou,"  (1160.)  He  was  afterwards  made  a  canon  in 
the  cathedral  of  Bayeux.  His  *'  Roman  du  Rou  [Rollo] 
et  des  Dues  de  Normandie"  is  a  history  (in  verse)  of  the 
Dukes  of  Normandy  from  the  invasion  of  Rollo  to  the 
time  of  Henry  I.,  and  is  highly  valued  as  a  historical 
record.  He  was  the  author  of  other  poems,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  is  entitled  "The  English  Brutus,"  ("  Le 
Brut  d'Angleterre.")    Died  about  1184. 

See  Pluquet,  "  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Merits  de  Robert  Wace," 
1824  ;  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  ;"  "  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  182S;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  tor 
February,  1847,  article  "  Anglo  Norman  Poets  of  the  Twelfth  Cen- 
tury;" "  Nouvelle  Biograpliie  Gen^rale." 

Wach,  Mk,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  painter,  born  at 
Berlin  in  1787,  studied  in  Paris  and  Rome,  and  was 
elected,  after  his  return,  to  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  new  school  of  paint- 
ing at  Berlin,  Among  his  best  works  is  the  altar-piece 
in  the  church  of  Peter  and  Paul  at  Moscow.  Died  in 
1845. 

Wachler,  MK'ler,  (Johann  Friedrich  Ludwig,)  a 
German  writer,  born  at  Gotha  in  1767.  Having  studied 
at  Jena,  he  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Marburg 
in  1801,  and  of  history  at  Breslau  in  1815,  and  was  after- 
wards appointed  chief  librarian  of  the  University  at 
Breslau.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Manual  of  the  Uni- 
versal History  of  Literary  Culture,"  (1804,)  "Manual  of 
History,"  ("  Lehrbuch  der  Geschichte,")  "Lectures  on 
the  History  of  German  National  Literature,"  (1818,)  and 
other  works,  which  have  a  high  reputation.  Died  in  1838. 

Wachsmuth,  <viks'moot,  (Ernst  Wii.hklm  Gorr- 
LIEB,)  a  German  historical  writer,  born  at  Hildesheim 
in  1784,  studied  at  Halle,  and  became  professor  of  his- 
tory at  Leipsic  in  1825.  He  has  published,  among  other 
works,  a  "History  of  European  Manners,"  ( Sitteuge- 
schichte,)  (5  vols.,  1831,)  and  "Universal  History  of 
Culture,"  (1850.) 

Wachsmuth,  vtks'miit',  (Ferdinand,)  a  French 
painter  of  history  and  battles,  born  at  Mulhouse,  near 
the  Rhine,  in  1802.  Among  his  subjects  are  several 
French  victories  in  Algiers. 

Wachter,  MK'ter,  (Ferdinand,)  a  German  writer, 
born  in  1794,  has  published  several  treatises  on  Scandi- 
navian legends  and  antiquities  ;  also  a  number  of  dramatic 
works. 

wachter  or  Waechter,  ■(^^K'ter,  (Georg  Philipp 
Ludwig  Leonhard,)  a  German  litterateur,  born  in  1762, 
was  the  author  of  "  Legends  of  Ancient  Times,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1837. 

Wachter,  (Johann  Georg,)  an  eminent  German 
linguist  and  archaeologist,  born  at  Memmingen  in  1673. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Ber- 
lin, and  became  first  librarian  and  director  of  the  Museimi 
of  Antiquities  at  Leipsic.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Glos-  ' 
sarium  Germanicum,"  etc.,  one  of  the  most  valuable 
works  of  the  kind,  "  Archaeologia  Nummaria,"  (1740,) 


:   and  other  treatises  on  numismatics  and  etymology.  Died 
in  1757. 

Wachter  or  Waechter,  von,  fon  ^^K'ter,  (Karl 
Georg,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Marbach,  on  the 
:  Neckar,  in  1797.  He  studied  at  TUbingen  and  Heidel- 
'■  berg,  and  became  in  1822  professor  of  law  in  the  former 
university,  of  which  he  was  made  chancellor  in  1836.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  civil  law  at  Leipsic  in  1852, 
and  published  several  works  on  German  law. 

Wachtleror  Waechtler,  ^ext'ler,  (Christfried,) 
a  German  jurist,  born  atGrimme  in  1652.  He  published 
numerous  legal  works.    Died  in  173 1. 

Wachtler  or  Waechtler,  Jakob,)  a  German  Prot- 
estant minister  and  writer  on  theology,  born  at  Grimme 
in  1638;  died  at  Beltzig  in  1702. 

Wackenroder,  ^ik'ken-ro'der,  (Wilhelm  Hein- 
RiCH,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1772.  He 
was  a  friend  of  Ludwig  Tieck,  in  conjunction  with  whom 
he  published  "  Herzensergiessungen  eines  Kiinstlieben- 
den  Klosterbruders."    Died  in  1798. 

See  J.  G.  Klein,  "  Erinnerungen  an  Wackenroder,"  1809, 

Wackerbarth,  ^ik'ker-baRt',  (August  Chris 
TOPH,)  Count,  a  German  military  commander,  born  in 
the  duchy  of  Saxe-Lauenburg  in  1662.  He  served  in 
several  campaigns  against  the  French  and  Turks,  and 
was  made  a  field-marshal  in  1712.    Died  in  1 734. 

See  Fkigander,  "  Leben  des  A.  C.  Grafen  von  Wackerbarth," 
2  vols.,  1739. 

Wackernagel,  ^ak'ker-nl'gel,  (Karl  Heinrich 
Wilhelm,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1806, 
became  professor  of  the  German  language  and  literature 
at  Bale  in  1835.  He  published  a  "  German  Reader," 
(1835,)  a  treatise  "On  Dramatic  Poetry,"  (1838,)  "  His- 
tory of  German  Literature,"  (1848,)  and  other  works,  of 
great  merit,  on  similar  subjects. 

wad-dell',  (James,)  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine, 
celebrated  for  his  eloquence,  born  in  Ireland  in  1739, 
came  at  an  early  age  to  America,  and  settled  as  a  pastor 
in  Louisa  county,  Virginia.  He  was  the  original  of 
William  Wirt's  beautiful  sketch  of  the  "  Blind  Preacher." 
Died  in  1805. 

Wadding,  wSd'ding,  or  Wading,  (Luke,)  an  Irish 
scholar  and  Catholic  priest,  born  at  Waterford  in  1588. 
He  studied  at  the  Jesuits'  Seminary  in  Lisbon,  and  in 
1618  accompanied  Anthony  a  Trejcj  on  a  mission  to 
Rome,  where  he  continued  to  reside,  and  founded  in 
1625  the  College  of  Saint  Isidore.  His  principal  work 
is  entitled  "  Annales  Ordinis  Minorum,"  etc.,  (8  vols., 
1628-54,)  being  a  history  of  the  order  of  Franciscans. 
Died  in  1657. 

Waddington,  wSd'ding-tpn,  (George,)  an  English 
writer,  born  about  1793.  He  published  a  "History  of 
the  Church  from  the  Earliest  Ages  to  the  Reformation," 
(3  vols.,  183$,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Reformation  on 
the  Continent,"  (3  vols.,  1841.)  He  became  Dean  of 
Durham  in  1840. 

Waddington  -  Kastus,  vt '  d^N  '  t6N'  kts'tiis', 
(Charles,)  a  French  Protestant  philosopher,  born 
about  1819.  He  published  a  "Life  of  Ramus,"  (1855,) 
and  "Essays  on  Logic,"  (1858.)  He  became  a  professor 
at  Strasburg  in  1856. 

Wade,  (Benjamin  Franklin,)  an  American  Sena- 
tor, distinguished  as  a  zealous  opponent  of  slavery,  born 
at  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  October  27,  1800,  was  a 
son  of  poor  parents.  He  removed  to  Ohio  about  182 1, 
was  employed  as  a  school-teacher  for  several  years,  and 
studied  law.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1828,  since 
which  time  he  has  resided  in  Ashtabula  county,  Ohio, 
In  1837  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Senate  of  Ohio, 
and  in  1847  he  was  chosen  presiding  judge  of  the  third 
judicial  district  of  that  State.  He  was  elected  a  Sena- 
tor of  the  United  States  by  the  Whigs  of  Ohio  in  185 1. 
He  advocated  the  Homestead  bill,  voted  for  the  repeal 
of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  and  opposed  the  Nebraska 
Kansas  bill  of  1854.  He  was  re-elected  a  Senator  tor 
six  years  in  1857,  and  was  appointed  chairman  of  the 


a,  e,  f,  6,  ii,  y,  long;    6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,    i,  q,  obscure;  fSr,  fjLll,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


WADHAM 


2221 


WAGNER 


committee  on  territories.  In  December,  i860,  he  made 
a  speech  in  which  he  opposed  any  new  concessions  to 
the  slave-power,  and  declared  to  the  Southern  Senators, 
"  We  hold  to  no  doctrine  that  can  possibly  work  you 
any  inconvenience,  any  wrong,  any  disaster."  In  the 
session  of  1861-62  he  was  appointed  chairman  of  the 
joint  committee  on  the  conduct  of  the  war.  On  the 
question  of  the  reconstruction  of  the  Southern  States 
after  the  end  of  the  civil  war  he  was  a  decided  radical. 
He  was  elected  President  of  the  Senate  about  March, 
1867,  having  been  selected  for  that  office  on  account  of 
his  resolute  character  and  inflexible  fidelity  to  the  cause 
of  liberty.  At  the  Chicago  National  Convention,  May 
21,  1868,  he  received  on  the  first  four  ballots  more  votes 
than  any  other  candidate  for  the  Vice-Presidency,  but 
failed  to  obtain  the  nomination. 

Wadham,  w6d'am,  (Nicholas,)  born  in  Somerset- 
shire in  1536,  was  the  founder  of  the  college  at  Oxford 
called  by  his  name.    Died  in  1610. 

Wading,  wSd'ing,  (Peter,)  an  Irish  Jesuit,  born  at 
Waterford,  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  Latin  works  in 
prose  and  verse,  and  became  chancellor  of  the  University 
of  Gratz,  in  Styria.    Died  in  1644, 

Wadstrom  or  Wadstroem,  Md'stRom,  (Carl 
Berns,)  a  Swedish  philanthropist,  born  at  Stockholm 
in  1746.  He  visited  Africa  in  1787,  and  published,  after 
his  return,  "Observations  on  the  Slave-Trade,  and  a 
Description  of  Some  Part  of  the  Coast  of  Guinea,"  etc., 
(1789,  in  English.)  This  work  first  suggested  to  the 
British  government  the  establishment  of  the  colonies  of 
Sierra  Leone  and  Bulema.    Died  in  1799. 

Wadsworth,  wSdz'worth,  (Benjamln,)  an  American 
clergyman,  born  at  Milton,  Massachusetts,  about  1670. 
He  preached  in  Boston  for  many  years,  and  became 
president  of  Harvard  College  in  1725.    Died  in  1737. 

Wadsworth,  (James,)  a  wealthy  American  land- 
holder, born  at  I)urham,  Connecticut,  in  1768.  He  re- 
moved at  an  early  age  to  Western  New  York,  where  he 
purchased  a  large  tract  near  the  Genesee  River.  He 
was  instrumental  in  founding  the  State  Normal  School, 
and  was  a  generous  patron  of  the  cause  of  education. 
Died  in  1844. 

Wadsworth,  (James  Samuel,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Geneseo,  Livingston  county.  New  York,  in  Oc- 
tober, 1807,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Harvard  and  Yale  Colleges,  studied  law  under 
Daniel  Webster,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1833. 
He  inherited  an  immense  landed  estate  situated  in 
Western  New  York,  and,  like  his  father,  was  a  liberal 
patron  of  the  cause  of  education.  He  enlisted  as  a 
volunteer  early  in  1861,  was  appointed  a  brigadier-gene- 
ral in  August,  and  became  military  governor  of  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  in  March,  1862.  In  November,  1862, 
he  was  the  Republican  candidate  for  Governor  of  New 
York,  but  was  not  elected.  He  commanded  a  division 
at  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg,  December  13,  1862,  and 
at  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863.  He  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  the  "wilderness.  May  6,  1864. 

"The  country's  salvation,"  says  H.  Greeley,  "claimed 
no  nobler  sacrifice  than  that  of  James  S.  Wadsworth, 
of  New  York.  .  .  .  No  one  surrendered  more  for  his 
country's  sake,  or  gave  his  life  more  joyfully  for  her 
deliverance." 

See  Grerley,  "  American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  568,  569 ;  Tenney, 
Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  777. 

Wadsworth,  (Peleg,)  an  American  general,  born 
at  Duxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1748.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  represented  a 
district  of  Massachusetts  in  Congress  from  1792  to  1806. 
Died  in  Oxford  county,  Maine,  in  1829. 

Waechter,  (Johann  Georg.)    See  Wachter. 

Waechtler.    See  Wachtler. 

Wael  or  Waal,  de,  deh  wSl  or  v5l,  (Cornelius,)  a 
Flemish  battle-painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1594,  was  a 
son  of  John  de  Wael,  noticed  below.  He  resided  many 
years  at  Genoa,  where  he  executed  a  number  of  excel- 
Jen*.  pi».tures,  consisting  chiefly  of  sea-fights  and  other 
battles.    Died  in  1662. 

Wael,  de,  (John,)  a  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Ant- 
werp in  1558,  attained  distinction  in  the  departments  of 
portrait  and  historical  painting.    Died  in  1633. 


Wael,  de,  (Lucas,)  born  at  Antwerp  in  1591,  was  a 
brother  of  Cornelius,  noticed  above,  whom  he  accom- 
panied to  Genoa.  He  painted  landscapes  both  in  oil- 
colours  and  fresco,  which  were  highly  esteemed.  Died 
in  1676. 

Wa'f^r,  (Lionel,)  an  English  surgeon,  who  accom- 
panied Dampier  on  one  of  his  voyages,  and,  having 
quarrelled  with  him,  was  left  on  the  Isthmus  of  Darien. 
He  published  after  his  return  an  account  of  his  adven- 
tures among  the  Indians,  (1690.) 

Wafflard,  vt'fltR',  (Alexis  Jacques  Marie,)  a 
French  dramatist,  born  at  Versailles  in  1787.  Among 
his  works  are  "  A  Moment  of  Imprudence,"  (1819,)  and 
a  "Voyage  to  Dieppe,"  (1821.)    Died  in  1824. 

Waga,  vS'gi,  (Theodore,)  a  Polish  historian,  born 
in  Mazovia  in  1739.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Poland," 
(1770.)    Died  in  1801. 

Wagenaar,  w^'geh-ntr'  or  w^'neh-nir',  (Jan,)  an 
eminent  Dutch  historian,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1709. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  history  of  the  Netherlands, 
entitled  "De  Vaderlandsche  Historic  vervattende  de 
Geschiedenissen  der  vereenigde  Nederlanden,"  etc., 
(21  vols.,  1749-59,)  and  other  historical  works.  Died 
in  1773. 

See  P.  HuisiNGA  Bakker,  "  Het  Leven  van  J.  Wagenaar,"  1776. 

Wagenseil,  -^S'gen-zlK,  [Lat.  W^agenseil'ius,]  (Jo- 
hann Christoph,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at  Nurem- 
berg in  1633.  He  became  professor  of  history  at  Altdorf 
in  1667,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  tutor  to  the 
counts-palatine.  He  published  a  number  of  critical, 
antiquarian,  and  controversial  treatises,  in  Latin,  among 
which  we  may  name  his  "  Tela  Ignea  Satanae,"  in  refu- 
tation of  the  Jewish  writers  against  Christianity.  Died 
in  1705. 

See  F.  RoTH-ScHOLTZ,  "Vita  J.  C.  Wagenseilii,"  1819;  Nice- 
KON,  "  Memoires." 

Wagenseilius.    See  Wagenseil. 

Wa'|;er,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
1666,  served  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession.  In 
1708,  with  four  ships,  he  defeated  seventeen  Spanish 
galleons  near  Carthagena,  South  America.  For  this 
exploit  he  was  made  a  rear-admiral.  He  afterwards 
commanded  a  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean  till  the  peace 
of  1713.  He  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  the  min- 
istry of  Sir  Robert  Walpole  from  1732  to  1742.  About 
1 73 1  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  admiral.  Died  in  1743. 

Wag'horn,  (Lieutenant  Thomas,)  R.N.,  an  English 
naval  officer,  born  in  Kent  in  1800.  He  served  in  India 
in  the  Arracan  war,  and  in  1827  applied  to  the  govern- 
ment for  assistance  in  carrying  out  a  project  he  had 
conceived  of  opening  communication  by  steam  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  East  Indies.  He  expended  much 
time  and  energy  in  this  useful  enterprise,  and  was  at 
length  successful.  The  result  of  his  labours  is  the  Over- 
land mail-route  throjigh  Suez  and  the  Red  Sea.  Died 
in  i8so. 

Wagner,  ^ic'ner,  (Christian,)  a  German  scholar 
and  preacher,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1663.  He  wrote  a 
"Thesis  on  the  Number  of  Worlds,"  ("Thesis  de  Nu- 
mero  Mundorum.")    Died  in  1693. 

Wagner,  (Ernst,)  a  German  novelist  and  poet,  born 
in  1769,  published  "  Wilibald's  Views  of  Life,"  (2  vols., 
1805,)  "The  Travelling  Painter,"  (2  vols.,  1806,)  "  Isi- 
dora,"  (3  vols.,  1812,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1812. 

See  F.  MosENGEiL,  "  Briefe  iiber  E.  Wagner,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1826. 

Wagner,  (Georg  Philipp  Eberhard,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  at  Schonbrunn,  in  Saxony,  in  1794, 
published,  among  other  works,  a  treatise  on  "The 
Greek  Tragedy  and  the  Theatre  at  Athens,"  (1844.) 

Wagner,  (Gottlob  Heinrich  Adolf,)  a  German 
writer  and  translator,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1774.  He  pub- 
lished "Two  Epochs  of  Modern  Poetry,"  etc.,  (1806,) 
and  other  original  works,  and  translated  into  German 
Byron's  "  Manfred,"  and  Coxe's  "  History  of  the  House 
of  Austria,"  the  latter  in  conjunction  with  Dippold. 
Died  in  1835. 

Wagner,  MG'ner,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Swiss  natural- 
ist, born  near  Zurich  in  1641.  He  wrote  (in  Latin)  a 
"Natural  History  of  Switzerland,"  (1680.)   Died  in  1695. 

Wagner,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  German  philosopher, 
born  at  Ulm  in  1775,  became  professor  of  philosophy  at 


€  as  k;  c  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (jJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WAGNER 


2222 


WAKEFIELD 


Wurzburg.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "On 
the  Nature  of  Things,"  (1803,)  a  "System  of  Ideal  Phi- 
losophy," (1804,)  "Theodicee,"  (1809,)  and  "Organon 
der  menschlichen  Erkenntniss,"  (1830.)    Died  in  1841. 

See  P.  L.  Adam  and  A.  Koeli.e,  "J.  J.  Wagner,  Lebensnach- 
richten  und  Briefe,"  1848. 

Wagner,  (Ludwig  Friedrich,)  a  German  antiquary 
and  jurist,  born  at  Tubingen  in  1700;  died  in  1789. 

Wagner,  (Moritz,)  a  German  traveller,  born  at 
Baireuth  in  1813,  published  "Travels  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Algiers,"  etc.,  (1841,)  "The  Caucasus  and  the 
Land  of  the  Cossacks,"  (1848,)  "Journey  to  Persia  and 
Kurdistan,"  (1852,)  and  other  works. 

Wagner,  (Richard,)  a  distinguished  German  com- 
poser, born  at  Leipsic  in  1813.  He  was  appointed  chapel- 
master  at  Dresden  in  1843.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  the  operas  of"  Rienzi,"  (1842,)  "Tanhauser,"  (1845,) 
"  Lohengrin,"  {1851,)  and  "  Rheingold,"  (1869.)  He  has 
written  several  essays  on  music  and  the  dramatic  art, 
which  have  been  the  subject  of  much  controversy. 
Among  these  is  one  called  "Oper  und  Drama,"  (185 1.) 

See  F.  HiNRiCHS,  "  R.  Wagner  und  die  neuere  Musik,"  1854. 

Wagner,  (Rudolf,)  a  German  physician  and  anato- 
mist, brother  of  Moritz,  noticed  above,  was  born  at 
Baireuth  in  1805.  He  succeeded  Blumenbach  as  pro- 
fessor of  physiology  at  Gottingen  in  1840.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  a  treatise  "On  the  Comparative 
Physiology  of  the  Blood,"  (1833,)  a  "Manual  of  Com- 
parative Anatomv,"  (1834,)  and  "  Icones  Physiologicae," 
(1839.)    Died  in '1864. 

Wagner,  (Tobias,)  a  German  theologian  and  writer, 
born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1598.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Tubingen.    Died  in  1680. 

Wagner,  von,  fon  -^aG'ner,  (Johann  Martin,)  a 
German  sculptor,  born  at  Wurzburg  in  1777. 

Wagniere,  vtn'ye-aiR',  (Jean  Louis,)  a  Swiss  litfe- 
ratetir,  born  in  1739.  He  became  secretary  to  Voltaire 
about  1756,  and  gained  his  confidence.  In  conjunction 
with  Longchamp,  he  wrote  "Memoirs  on  Voltaire  and 
his  Works,"  (2  vols.,  1825.)    Died  after  1787. 

Wagram,  Prince  of.    See  Berthier. 

Wag'staff,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  physician 
and  humorous  writer,  born  in  Buckinghamshire  in  1685  ; 
died  in  1725. 

WagstafFe,  wig'stif,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine, 
born  in  Warwickshire  in  1645.  He  published  a  "Vin- 
dication of  King  Charles  I.,"  etc.,  and  a  number  of  ser- 
mons.   Died  in  171 2. 

Wahhab  or  Wahab,  (Abdul.)  See  Abd-el-Wa- 
hab. 

Wahl,  Ml,  (Christian  Albrecht,)  a  German 
theologian,  born  at  Dresden  in  1773.  He  published  a 
"  Historical  and  Practical  Introduction  to  the  Biblical 
Writings,"  ( 1820,)  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in  1855. 

Wahl,  von,  fon  Ml,  (Joachim  Christian,)  Count, 
a  German  general,  distinguished  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
war',  in  which  he  fought  for  the  Catholics  or  Imperialists. 
He  commanded  with  success  in  the  Upper  Palatinate  in 
1634,  after  which  he  took  Baireuth,  Augsburg,  and  other 
places.    Died  in  1644. 

Wahlberg,  MKh^RG,  (Peter  Frederik,)  a  Swedish 
naturalist,  born  at  Gothenburg  in  1800.  He  wrote  on 
botany,  and  succeeded  Berzelius  as  perpetual  secretary 
of  the  Swedish  Academy  of  Sciences. 

Wahlbom,  ^iKbom,  (Johann  Wilhelm  Carl,)  a 
Swedish  painter,  born  at  Calmar  in  1810;  died  in  1858. 

Wahlenberg,  M'len-b^Rc/,  (Georg,)  a  Swedish 
botanist,  born  in  the  province  of  Wermland  in  1780.  He 
visited  Lapland  and  other  northern  regions  of  Europe, 
and  subsequently  became  professor  of  botany  and  medi- 
cine at  Upsal.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his 
"  Flora  Lapponica,"  "  Flora  Carpatorum,"  and  "  Flora 
Suecica."    Died  in  1851. 

Waiblinger,  <^rbfing-er,  (Wilhelm  FRifeoRiCH,)  a 
German  litterateur,  born  at  Reutlingen  in  1804  ;  died 
in  1830. 

Waifer,  wT'fer,  [Fr.  pron.  vi'faiR',]  Duke  of  Aqui- 
taine,  born  about  725  a.d.,  began  to  reign  in  745,  His 
dominions  were  invaded  in  760  by  Pepin  le  Bref,  against 
whom  he  fought  without  success.  He  was  assassinated 
by  order  of  Pepin  le  Bref  in  768  a.d. 


Wailly,  de,  deh  vt'ye',  (Armand  FRANgois  L60N,) 
a  French  litterateur  and  critic,  born  in  Paris  in  1804,  was 
a  grandson  of  Charles,  noticed  below.  He  wrote  a 
novel,  entitled  "  Stella  and  Vanessa,"  (1846,)  and  trans- 
lated the  works  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  other  English 
authors.    Died  in  1863. 

Wailly,  de,  (Charles,)  a  distinguished  French  ar- 
chitect, born  in  Paris  in  1729.  He  gained  the  grand 
prize  of  Rome  in  1752,  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
of  Painting  as  a  designer  in  1 771,  and  was  the  chief 
founder  of  the  Society  of  "  Amis  des  Arts."  Died  in 
1798. 

See  Lavall^e,  "  Notice  sur  Charles  de  Wailly,"  1799. 

Wailly,  de,  (Etienne  Augustin,)  a  French  littera- 
teur, born  in  Paris  in  1770,  was  a  son  of  Noel  Fran9ois, 
noticed  below.  He  became  proviseur  o{  xht.  Lycee  Napo- 
leon.   Died  in  1821. 

His  son,  Alfred  Barth^lemi,  born  in  Paris  in  1800, 
published  a  Latin-French  Dictionary,  (1829,)  and  a 
French-Latin  Dictionary,  (1832.) 

Wailly,  de,  (Joseph  Noel,)  a  French  scholar,  a 
brother  of  Armand  Francois  Leon,  was  born  at  Mezieres 
in  1805.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  "Elements 
of  Palaeography,"  (2  vols.,  1838.) 

Wailly,  de,  (Noel  Franqois,)  a  French  scholar  and 
writer,  the  father  of  Etienne  Augustin,  noticed  above, 
was  born  at  Amiens  in  1724.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  "  General  and  Particular  Principles  of  the 
French  Language,"  "  Abridgment  of  the  Dictionary  of 
the  Academy,"  "Principles  of  the  Latin  Language," 
"  Dictionary  of  Rhymes,"  and  "  Select  Histories  from 
the  New  Testament."    Died  in  1801. 

Wainwright,  wan'rit,  (Jonathan  Mayhew,)  D.D., 
born  at  Liverpool,  England,  in  1792,  emigrated  to 
America,  and  graduated  in  1812  at  Harvard  College. 
He  became  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Boston,  in  1834, 
assistant  minister  of  Trinity  Church,  New  York,  in  1837, 
and  in  1852  provisional  Bishop  of  the  diocese  of  New 
York.    Died  in  1854. 

Waith'man,  an  English  magistrate,  born  near  Wrex- 
ham in  1765,  was  elected  lord  mayor  of  London,  and 
several  times  represented  that  city  in  Parliament.  Died 
in  1833. 

Waitz,  -^its,  (Georg,)  a  German  writer,  born  in  1813, 
published  several  historical  works,  among  which  is  a 
"  History  of  the  German  Constitution,"  (2  vols.,  1843-47.) 

Waitz,  (Theodor,)  a  German  philosophical  writer, 
born  at  Gotha  in  1821.  He  published  a  "Manual  of 
Psychology  as  a  Natural  Science,"  (1849,)  and  other 
works. 

Wake,  (Sir  Isaac,)  an  English  writer  and  diplo- 
matist, born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1575,  wrote  a  work 
entitled  "Rex  Platonicus."    Died  in  1632. 

Wake,  (William,)  an  English  prelate  and  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1657.  He  was  successively 
created  Dean  of  Exeter,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  (1716.)  He  was  the  author  of  an 
"  Exposition  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England," 
"An  English  Version  of  the  Genuine  Epistles  of  the 
Apostolic  Fathers,"  and  a  number  of  sermons  and  con- 
troversial works.    Died  in  1737. 

Wakedi,  Al,  (Mohammed.)    See  Wakidee. 

Wakefield,  wak'f^ld,  (Edward  Gibbon,)  an  Eng- 
lish writer  on  colonization  and  political  economy,  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  "England  and  America:  a 
Comparison  of  the  Social  and  Political  State  of  Both 
Nations,"  (1833,)  and  "  View  of  the  Art  of  Colonization." 
He  became  in  1837  the  founder  of  the  New  Zealand 
Association.    Died  in  1862. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  March,  1849. 

Wakefield,  (Gilbert,)  an  English  scholar  and  theo- 
logian, born  at  Nottingham  in  1756.  He  studied  at 
Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  and  took  the  degree  of  B.A. 
in  1776.  He  became  master  of  the  Dissenting  Academy 
at  Warrington  in  1779,  and  published  soon  after  "A 
Plain  and  Short  Account  of  the  Nature  of  Baptism,"  ana 
a  "  New  Translation  of  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew," 
(1782.)  These  works  were  followed  by  "Remarks  on 
the  Internal  Evidence  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  (1789,) 
and  "  Philological  Commentary  on  the  Sacred  and  Profane 
Authors,"  ("  Silva  Critica,  sive  in  Auctores  sacros  pro- 


a,  e.  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  filr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


WAKEFIELD 


2223 


WALDEMAR 


fanosque  Commentarius  Philologus,")  a  fifth  part  of 
which  appeared  in  1795.  He  published  in  1791  his 
"Translation  of  the  New  Testament,  with  Notes,"  and 
"An  Inquiry  into  the  Expediency  and  Propriety  of 
Public  or  Social  Worship."  The  latter  caused  consid- 
erable sensation,  and  elicited  several  replies.  His  "  Re- 
ply to  Some  Parts  of  the  Bishop  of  Llandaff  s  Address" 
caused  him  to  be  imprisoned  two  years,  during  which 
time  he  wrote  his  critical  essays  entitled  "  Noctes  Car- 
cerariae,"  ("Prison  Nights.")  He  died  in  1801,  leaving 
among  his  numerous  works  an  edition  of  Lucretius, 
which  is  still  esteemed. 

See  his  "  Autobiographic  Memoirs  of  the  First  Thirty-Six  Years 
of  the  Life  of  G.  Wakefield,"  1792  ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  October, 
1805. 

Wakefield,  (Mrs.  Prtscilla,)  an  English  educational 
writer,  born  in  1750.  She  was  the  author  of  an  "  Intro- 
duction to  Botany,"  (1796,)  "Reflections  on  the  Present 
Condition  of  the  Female  Sex,  with  Hints  for  its  Im- 
provement," (1798,)  "Juvenile  Traveller,"  (1801,)  "  Do- 
mestic Recreation,"  (1805,)  "The  Traveller  in  Africa," 
and  various  other  works.    Died  in  1832. 

Wakefield,  (Rober  t,)  an  English  linguist  and  priest, 
was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Oxford.  He  wrote  a  para- 
phrase of  Ecclesiastes,  and  other  works.    Died  in  1537. 

Wakidee  or  Wakidi,  wS'ki-dee',  written  also  Wa- 
qidy,  an  Arabian  writer,  born  at  Medina  in  748  a.d.  ; 
died  at  Bagdad  in  823.  He  made  a  collection  of  the 
traditions  concerning  Moha»nmed  and  those  of  his  fol- 
lowers who  fought  at  Bedr,  called  "  Tabakat-Kebeer,"  (or 
"-Kebir,")  the  "great  series"  or  "order  of  events."  It 
consists  of  biographies  arranged  in  chronological  order. 
His  life  of  the  prophet  has  been  pronounced  by  compe- 
tent critics  to  be  the  best  by  far  that  has  been  written. 

See  Sprenger,  "  Life  of  Mohammad,"  p.  70  et  seq. 

Wakidi.    See  Wakidkr. 

Wak'ley,  (Thomas,)  M.P.,  an  English  surgeon,  born 
in  1795,  was  the  founder  and  editor  of  the  "  Lancet." 
He  represented  Finsbury  in  Parliament  from  1835  to 
1852.    Died  in  1862. 

Walaeus,  vvd-la'ils,  or  Wale,  wi'leh,  (Antoon,)  a 
Dutch  Protestant  minister,  born  at  Ghent  in  1573.  He 
was  a  prominent  member  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  and 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Leyden.    Died  in  1639. 

WalSBUS,  (Jan,)  a  physician,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  al)out  1604.  He  is  said  to  have  made  some 
discoveries  on  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Died  at 
Leyden  in  1649. 

Walafridus,  w6l-a-free'dus  or  -(^ira-free'dCis,  or 
Walafried,  ^v'S'lS-fReet',  written  also  Walhafredus, 
a  learned  German  monk,  surnamed  Stra'hu.s,  or 
"  Squint-eyed,"  was  the  author  of  a  theological  essay, 
entitled  "  l)e  Officiis  Divinis,"  etc.,  "  Hortulus,"  a  ti  eat- 
ise  on  botany,  (in  Latin  verse,)  and  other  works.  Died 
in  849. 

Walbaum,  Ml'bowm,  (Johann  Julius,)  a  German 
physician  and  writer,  born  at  Wolfenbiittel  in  1724; 
died  in  1799. 

Walch,  MlK,  [Lat.  Wal'chius,]  (Christian  Wil- 
HELM  Franz,)  second  son  of  Johann  Georg,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Jena  in  1726.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  valuable  works  on  ecclesiastical  history,  theology, 
and  ancient  literature;  among  the  most  important  of 
these  are  his  "  History  of  the  Jewish  Patriarchs  men- 
tioned in  Books  of  Rotnan  Law,"  "Compendiuin  of  the 
most  Modern  Ecclesiastical  History,"  (both  in  Latin,) 
and  a  "  History  of  Heresies,  Schisms,  and  Religious 
Controversies  down  to  the  Reformation,"  (in  German, 
II  vols.,  1762.)    Died  in  1784. 

See  C.  G.  Heyne,  "  Elogium  C.  G.  F.  Walchii,"  17S4. 

Walch,  (Johann  Ernst  Immanuel,)  son  of  Johann 
Georg,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Jena  in  1725.  He  be- 
came professor  of  theology  in  his  native  city,  and  pub- 
lished a  number  of  critical  and  theological  works,  also 
several  valuable  treatises  on  mineralogy.    Died  in  1778. 

See  Hennings,  "  Leben  des  Professors  J.  E.  I.  Walch,"  1780. 

Walch,  [Lat.  Wal'chius,]  (Johann  Georg,)  a  Ger- 
man scholar  and  theologian,  born  at  Meiningen  in  1693, 
became  successively  professor  of  philosophy,  eloquence, 
and  theology  at  Jena.  He  published  a  "  Philosophical 
Lexicon,"  (1726,)  "Introduction  to  the  Theological  Sci- 


ences," (1747,)  "Theologia  Patristica,"  (1770,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1775. 

His  son  Karl  Friedrich  became  professor  of  law  at 
Jena,  and  was  the  author  of  several  legal  treatises. 

See  "  Leben  und  Charakter  des  J.  G.  Walch,"  Jena,  1777. 

Walcher,  MlK'er,  (Joseph,)  an  Austrian  Jesuit, 
noted  for  his  skill  in  hydraulics  and  mechanics,  was 
born  at  Linz  in  17 18.  He  was  professor  of  mechanics 
in  a  college  of  Vienna,  and  wrote  several  works.  Died 
in  1803. 

Walchius.    See  Walch. 

Walckenaer,  vtl'keh-niR',  (Charles  Athanase — 
t'tt'ntz',)  Baron,  an  eminent  French  writer  and  savant, 
born  in  Paris  in  1771.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Insti- 
tute in  1813,  and  appointed  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1840.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  his  "Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de 
J.  de  La  Fontaine,"  (1820,)  "  Histoire  generale  des  Vo- 
yages," (21  vols.,  1826-31,  unfinished,)  "  Natural  History 
of  Insects,"  (3  vols.,  1836-44,)  "Ancient  Geography, 
Historical  and  Comparative,  of  the  Gauls,"  (3  vols., 
1839,)  which  is  highly  esteemed,  "  History  of  the  Life 
and  Poems  of  Horace,"  (2  vols.,  1840,)  and  "  Memoires 
touchant  la  Vie  et  les  Ecrits  de  Madame  de  Sevigne," 
(5  vols.,  1842-52.)  He  contributed  many  able  articles 
to  the  "  Biographic  Universelle."  In  his  youth  he  had 
inherited  an  ample  fortune.  He  was  appointed  prefect 
of  Nievre  in  1826,  and  held  other  high  offices.  Died 
in  1852. 

See  QuERARD,  "  La  France  Litt^raire  ;"  Naudet,  "  Notice  his- 
toriqiie  sur  Walckenaer,"  1852;  Sainte-Beuve,  "  Causeries  du 
Lundi ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Walckendorf,  ^Slk'en-doRf,  (Christoph,)  a  Dan- 
ish statesman,  born  at  Copenhagen  about  1525.  He 
rendered  important  services  as  minister  of  finance  in 
the  reign  of  Frederick  II.,  (1558-88.)    Died  in  160L 

Waldarfer,  MKdaRTer,  sometimes  written  Valdar- 
fer  or  Baldorfer,  (Christoph,)  a  German  printer,  who 
established  a  press  in  Venice  about  1470,  and  at  Milan  in 
1474.  His  edition  of  Boccaccio  was  greatly  admired  for 
its  correctness  and  elegance. 

Waldau,  (Max.)    See  Hauenschild,  von. 

Waldburg,  Mlt'booRG,  (Friedrich  Ludwig,)  a 
Prussian  general  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Tangermiinde 
in  1776  ;  died  in  1844. 

Waldeck,  MKd^k,  (Christian  August,)  Prince 
OF,  a  German  general,  born  in  1744.  He  entered  the 
service  of  Austria,  and  fought  against  the  French  in 
1792.  He  distinguished  himself  by  directing  the  army 
in  its  passage  of  the  Rhine,  and  afterwards  had  a  high 
command  in  Flanders.    Died  in  1 798. 

Waldeck,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  Prince  of,  a  Ger- 
man general,  born  in  1620.  He  entered  the  Austrian 
army,  and  contributed  to  the  victory  over  the  Turks  at 
Vienna  in  1683.  He  was  defeated  by  the  French  at 
Fleurus  in  1690.    Died  in  1692. 

Waldegrave,  wSld'grav,  (James,)  second  Earl,  an 
English  statesman,  born  in  1715.  He  filled  several  im- 
portant offices  under  George  II.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Memoirs  from  1754  to  1758,"  (published  in  1821.) 
Died  in  1763. 

Waldemar  (w6lMe-mlr)  or  Val'de-mar  I.,  the 

Great,  King  of  Denmark,  born  in  1131,  ascended  the 
throne  in  II57.»  He  subjugated  the  southern  part  of 
Norway,  and  the  territory  of  the  Wends  in  Northern 
Germany.  He  died  in  ii8i,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Canute  VI. 

Waldemar  (or  Valdemar)  II.,  second  son  of  Wil- 
demar  I.,  was  surnamed  Seier,  (the  "Victorious.")  On 
the  death  of  his  brother,  Canute  VI.,  he  became  king,  in 
1203.  He  conquered  Livonia,  Courland,  Esthonia,  and 
other  provinces,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  ability  as 
a  ruler.  He  died  in  1 24 1,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Eric  VI. 

Waldemar  (or  Valdemar)  III.  or  IV.,  called  At- 
TERDAG,  was  the  last  king  of  the  first  Danish  dynasty, 
and  ascended  the  throne  in  1340.  He  sold  Livonia,  and 
other  conquests  of  Waldemar  II.,  to  the  grand  master 
of  the  Teutonic  order  in  Prussia.  He  died  in  1373  or 
1375,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  daughter  Margaret  as 
regent  during  the  minority  of  her  son  Olaus. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


«  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g as /;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  \h  as  in  this.    (2!^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WALDEMAR 


222^ 


WALKER 


Waldemar,  ^ai'deh-maR',  (FRif:DRiCH  Wilhei.m,) 
a  German  prince,  nephew  of  Frederick  William  III., 
King  of  Prussia,  was  born  in  1817;  died  in  1849. 

Wai-den'sis  or  Wol-den'sis,  (  Thomas,)  an  English 
Carmelite  monk,  originally  named  Netter,  was  born  at 
Wolden,  in  Essex,  about  1365.  He  was  patronized  by 
Henry  V.,  whom  he  accompanied  to  France.  Died  in  1430. 

Waldhauser,  Mlt'h6w'z?r,  (Conrad,)  a  German 
reformer  and  Augustinian  monk,  who  began  to  preach 
in  Vienna  about  1345.  He  exposed  the  vices  and  im- 
postures of  the  monks,  and  acquired  much  influence  as 
a  preacher.    Died  about  1368. 

See  Hodgson,  "  Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Waldis,  Ml'dis,  (Burckhard,)  a  German  fabulist, 
born  at  Ailendorf  about  1500.  He  was  a  chaplain  of 
Margaret,  wife  of  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse.  He  imitated 
^sop  with  success.    Died  in  1554. 

Waldkirch,  de,  deh  l^ait'ke^RK,  (Jean  Rodoi.ph,) 
a  Swiss  jurist,  born  at  Bale  in  1678.  He  wrote,  besides 
several  legal  works,  a  "  History  of  Switzerland,"  (2  vols., 
1721.)    Died  in  1757. 

His  daughter  Esther  Elizabeth,  though  blind,  was 
well  versed  in  mathematics. 

Waldmann.Mlt'min,  (Johann,)  a  Swiss  magistrate, 
born  in  the  canton  of  Zug  about  1426.  He  was  one  of 
the  chiefs  of  the  Swiss  army  that  fought  at  Morat,  and 
he  gained  a  victory  at  Nancy  for  the  Duke  of  Lorraine. 
In  1483  he  became  burgomaster  of  Zurich,  where  he  made 
several  reforms.  The  peasants  and  populace  having 
revolted  against  him,  he  was  put  to  death  about  1490. 

See  J.  H.  FuEssLt,  "Vie  de  Waldmann,"  1780;  Coremans, 
"  Waldmann,  le  Vainqueur  du  Temeraire,"  1843. 

Waldo.    See  Valdo. 

Waldo,  w6l'do,  (Daniel,)  an  American  Congrega- 
tional divine,  born  at  Windham,  Connecticut,  in  1762. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  subsequently  became 
pastor  at  Exeter,  Connecticut.  At  the  age  of  ninety-six 
he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Congress,  serving  in  that 
capacity  two  years.    Died  in  1864. 

Waldor,  vil'doR',  (Melanie  Villenave,)  Madame, 
a  French  authoress,  born  at  Nantes  about  1796,  was  a 
sister  of  Theodore  Villenave.  She  published  numerous 
novels,  among  which  are  "The  Chateau  de  Ramsberg," 
(1844,)  and  "Charles  Mandel,"  (1846.) 

Waldiada.    See  Waldrade. 

Waldrade,  viKdRid',  [Lat.  Waldra'da,]  an  am- 
bitious Frenchwoman,  who  became  about  860  a.d.  the 
concubine  of  Lothaire  H.  She  was  excommunicated  by 
the  pope. 

See  Ernouf,  "  Histoire  de  Waldrade,"  1858. 

Waldschmidt,  Mlt'shmit,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  Ger- 
man medical  writer,  born  in  1644.  He  died  at  Marburg 
in  1689. 

Waldseemiiller,  ^ilt'zi-miSKler,  [Lat.  Hylacomi'- 
Lus,]  (Martin,)  a  German  compiler,  born  at  Friburg 
about  1470.  He  published  an  "  Introduction  to  Cos- 
mography, with  the  Four  Voyages  of  Americus  Vespu- 
cius,"  (1507,)  in  which  he  advocated  the  application  of 
the  name  America  to  the  New  World.   Died  after  1522. 

Waldsteinius  or  Waldstein.  See  Wallensi  ein. 

Wale.    See  Wal.^;us. 

Wale,  (Samuel,)  an  English  painter  and  designer, 
lived  in  London,  and  made  designs  fo^  the  booksellers. 
Died  in  1786. 

Waleed  or  Walid.    See  Al  Waleed. 

Waleed  or  Walid  II.,  born  in  703  a.d.,  was  a  son 
of  Yezeed  (Yezid)  IL,  and  became  caliph  in  743.  He 
was  very  licentious.    He  was  assassinated  in  744. 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xv. 

Walef  or  Waleff,  de,  deh  vS'l^f,  (Blaise  Henri 
de  Corte — deh  koRt,)  Baron,  a  Belgian  poet,  born  at 
Liege  in  1652.  He  served  as  an  officer  in  the  armies  of 
F'rance,  England,  and  Spain.  He  wrote  several  French 
poems.    Died  in  1734. 

See  M.  L.  Polain,  "Notice  sur  le  Baron  de  Walef,"  1848. 

Wales,  Prince  of.    See  Albert  Edward. 

Wales,  (William,)  an  English  astronomer  and 
mathematician,  born  about  1734.  He  was  sent  in  1768 
to  Hudson  Bay,  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus,  and 
subsequently  accompanied  Captain  Cook  on  his  second 


and  third  voyages.  He  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1776,  and  was  afterwards  made  secrcr 
tary  to  the  Board  of  Longitude.  He  published  "  General 
Observations  made  at  Hudson's  Bay,"  etc.,  (1772,)  "The 
Method  of  Finding  the  Longitude  by  Time-Keepers," 
(1794,)  "  Observations  on  a  Voyage  with  Captain  Cook," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1 798. 

Walewski,  wa  i^v'skee,  [Fr.  pron.  vt'lgv'ske',] 
(Florian  Alexandre  Joseph  Colonna,)  Count,  an 
able  statesman  and  writer,  a  natural  son  of  Napoleon 
I.  and  the  Countess  Walewska,  a  Polish  lady,  was  born 
in  Walewice  in  1810.  Under  Louis  Napoleon  he  was 
sent  as  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Florence  (1849)  and 
Naples,  and  was  ambassador  to  London  about  1852.  In 
1855  he  succeeded  Drouyn  de  Lhuys  as  minister  of 
foreign  affairs.  He  was  removed  in  January,  i860,  be- 
came minister  of  state  at  that  date,  and  president  of  the 
corps  legislatif  in  August,  1865.    Died  in  1868. 

Walferdin,  vSl'f^R'diN',  (Henri,)  a  French  natural 
philosopher,  born  at  Langres  in  1795.  He  was  as- 
sociated with  Arago  in  some  scientific  labours.  He 
invented  a  hydro-barometer  and  several  kinds  of  ther- 
mometers. 

Walid.    See  Waleed  and  Al  Waleed. 

Walker,  waw'ker,  (Adam,)  an  English  writer  and 
mechanician,  born  in  Westmoreland  in  1731,  was  the 
author  of  a  System  of  Familiar  Philosophy,  in  Lec- 
tures," "Treatise  on  Geography,"  and  other  works.  He 
was  also  the  inventor  of  several  ingenious  instruments. 
Died  in  1821. 

Walker,  (Sir  Baldwin  Wake,)  an  English  naval 
officer,  born  in  1803.  He  was  surveyor-general  of  the 
navy  from  1847  to  i860. 

Walker,  (Clement,)  an  English  Presbyterian  and 
political  writer,  born  in  Dorsetshire.  He  represented 
the  city  of  Wells  in  Parliament  in  1640,  and  wrote  "  The 
History  of  Independence,"  (1648,)  afterwards  enlarged 
and  published  under  the  title  of  "The  High  Court  of 
Justice,  or  Cromwell's  New  Slaughter-House,"  (1651.) 
For  this  offence  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  where 
he  died  in  165 1. 

Walker,  (Sir  Edward,)  an  English  writer,  and  Garter 
king-at-arms,  born  in  Somersetshire.  He  was  appointed 
by  Charles  I.  his  secretary  at  war,  and  clerk-extraor- 
dinary of  the  privy  council.  He  wrote  "  Historical 
Discourses,"  (1705,)  "Military  Discoveries,"  and  "  Iter 
Carolinum,"  an  account  of  the  marches,  etc.  of  Charles 
I.  from  1641  to  the  time  of  his  death.    Died  in  1677. 

Walker,  (Rev.  George,)  a  Protestant  divine,  of 
English  extraction,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Tyrone, 
Ireland.  He  is  celebrated  for  his  brave  defence  of  Lon- 
donderry against  the  forces  of  James  II. ,  (1689.)  He 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  in  1690,  having 
been  previously  created  Bishop  of  Derry  by  William 
III.  He  published  "  A  True  Account  of  the  Siege  of 
Londonderry." 

Walker,  (George,)  an  English  mathematician  and 
dissenting  minister,  born  at  Newcastle  about  1734.  He 
lived  at  Durham,  Nottingham,  and  Manchester,  and  wrote 
several  able  works  on  geometry,  etc.    Died  in  1807. 

Walker,  (James,)  an  English  civil  engineer,  born 
about  1780.  He  obtained  a  high  reputation  as  an  en- 
gineer of  docks,  harbours,  etc.  He  was  president  of  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.    Died  about  1862. 

Walker,  waw'ker,  (James,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished 
Unitarian  divine  and  scholar,  born  at  Burlington,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1794.  He  became  editor  of  the  "Chris- 
tian Examiner"  in  1831,  and  in  1839  Alford  professor  of 
moral  and  intellectual  philosophy  at  Harvard.  He  was 
elected  president  of  Harvard  in  1853,  a  position  which  he 
filled  with  eminent  ability  for  seven  years.  He  resigned 
in  i860,  on  account  of  his  feeble  health.  He  has  delivered 
a  course  of  "Lowell  Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of 
Religion;"  also  "Lectures  on  Natural  Religion."  Dr. 
Walker  is  a  clear  and  profound  thinker  and  a  finished 
writer. 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Walker,  (James  Barr,)  an  American  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1805.  Having  previously 
edited  several  religious  journals  in  the  West,  he  became 
pastor  of  a  church  at  Sandusky,  Ohio.    He  published 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long:  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mil;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


WALKER 


2225 


WALLACE 


"Philosophy  of  the  Plan  of  Salvation,"  (1855,)  vvhicll^ 
has  had  a  wide  popularity  and  been  translated  into 
several  languages,  and  other  religious  works. 

Walker,  (John,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
Devonshire,  became  rector  of  a  parish  at  Exeter.  He 
published  in  1714  an  "Account  of  the  Numbers  and 
Sufferings  of  the  Clergy  who  were  Sequestered  in  the 
Grand  Rebellion."    Died  about  1730. 

Walker,  (John,)  an  English  lexicographer  and  elo- 
cutionist, born  in  Middlesex  in  1732.  He  published 
*'A  Rhyming  Dictionary,"  "Elements  of  Elocution," 
(1781,)  "Rhetorical  Grammar,"  (1785,)  and  "Critical 
Pronouncing  Dictionary  and  Expositor  of  the  English 
Language,"  (1791,)  which  was  received  with  great  favour 
and  has  passed  through  more  than  thirty  editions.  Died 
in  1807. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Monthly  Review" 
for  August  and  September,  1781. 

Walker,  (John,)  an  English  physician  and  writer, 
birn  in  Cumberland  in  1759.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Universal  Gazetteer,"  "Elements  of  Geography,"  and 
several  medical  treatises.    Died  in  1830. 

Walker,  (Joseph  Cooper,)  an  Irish  writer,  born  in 
Dublin  about  1766.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Historical  Memoirs  of  the  Irish  Bards,"  (1786.)  Died 
in  1 8 10. 

Walker,  (Leroy  Pope,)  of  Alabama,  was  secretary 
of  war  in  the  provisional  government  formed  by  the 
secessionists  in  February,  1861.  In  a  speech  at  Mont- 
gomery, A])ril  12,  he  predicted  that  the  Confederate 
flag  would  float  over  Washington  City  before  the  1st  of 
May.    He  resigned  in  September,  1861. 

Walker,  (Obadiah,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  York- 
shire about  1616.  He  studied  at  University  College, 
Oxford,  of  which  he  was  elected  master  in  1676.  Having 
openly  professed  Catholicism,  he  was  deprived  of  his 
office,  and  imprisoned  for  a  time  after  the  revolution  of 
1688.  He  wrote  "A  Brief  Account  of  Ancient  Church 
Government,"  (1662,)  "The  Greek  and  Roman  History 
Illustrated  by  Coins  and  Medals,"  (1692,)  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1692. 

Walker,  (Robert,)  an  English  portrait-painter. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  several  portraits  of 
Cromwell,  one  of  Admiral  Blake,  and  one  of  General 
Monk.    Died  about  1660. 

Walker,  (Robert  J.,)  a  distinguished  American 
writer  on  political  economy,  born  at  Northumberland, 
Pennsylvania,  in  1801,  graduated  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1819.  He  studied  law,  and  removed  in 
1826  to  Natchez,  Mississippi,  where  he  practised  with 
success.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
by  the  legislature  of  Mississippi  in  1835  or  1836,  and 
acted  with  the  Democratic  party.  He  was  a  zealous 
and  efficient  supporter  of  the  project  for  the  annexation 
of  Texas  to  the  United  States.  In  March,  1845,  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury  by  President  Polk. 
He  produced  a  report  in  favour  of  free  trade  which 
attracted  much  attention.  He  retired  to  private  life  in 
March,  1849,  and  was  appointed  by  President  Buchanan 
Governor  of  Kansas  about  April,  1857.  He  resigned 
that  office  in  February,  1858,  on  account  of  dissatisfaction 
with  the  course  or  policy  of  the  national  government. 
Died  in  November,  1869. 

Walker,  (Samuel,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Exeter  in  1 714,  became  curate  of  Truro,  and  published 
several  volumes  of  sermons.    Died  in  1761. 

Walker,  (Sears  Cook,)  an  American  astronomer, 
born  at  Wilmington,  Middlesex  county,  Massachusetts, 
in  1805,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  about  1824. 
Soon  after  that  date  he  removed  to  Philadelphia,  where 
he  taught  school.  He  contributed  many  observations 
to  the  "American  Journal  of  Science"  and  the  "Trans- 
actions of  the  American  Philosophical  Society."  He 
was  attached  to  the  Washington  Observatory  in  1845, 
and  discovered  in  1847  the  identity  of  the  planet  Nep- 
tune with  a  star  observed  by  Lalande  in  1795.  He  ren- 
dered a  service  to  science  by  his  computations  of  the 
orbit  of  Neptune.    Died  in  Cincinnati  in  1853. 

Walker,  (Thomas,)  an  English  lawyer  and  humor- 
ous writer,  born  in  1784.  He  published  a  periodical 
called  "The  Original."    Died  in  1836. 


Walker,  (Thomas,)  an  English  actor,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1698  ;  died  in  1743. 

Walker,  (William,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Lin- 
colnshire in  1623.  He  published,  among  other  works,  a 
"Treatise  on  English  Particles,"  and  "  Idiomatologia 
Anglo-Latina."    Died  in  1684. 

Walker,  (William,)  an  American  filibuster,  born  at 
Nashville,  Tennessee,  in  1824.  He  emigrated  to  Cali- 
fornia about  1850,  and  became  editor  of  a  paper.  In 
1855  he  conducted  a  party  of  about  sixty  adventurers 
to  Nicaragua,  which  he  entered  ostensibly  as  an  ally  of 
one  of  the  factions  then  engaged  in  civil  war.  He  cap- 
tured the  city  of  Granada,  assumed  the  title  of  President 
of  Nicaragua,  and  re-established  slavery,  which  had  been 
abolished.  He  was  driven  from  power  in  May,  1857,  and 
escaped  to  New  Orleans.  In  June,  i860,  he  led  an  ex- 
pedition against  Honduras.  He  was  captured  and  shot 
at  Truxillo  in  September,  i860. 

Walker,  (William  H.  T.,)  of  Georgia,  an  American 
general,  who  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1837.  He  com- 
manded a  division  of  the  army  of  General  Lee  in  the 
early  part  of  1863,  served  at  Chickamauga  in  September 
of  that  year,  and  was  killed  near  Atlanta  in  July,  1864. 

wan,  (John,)  M.D,,  an  English  physician,  born  in 
Worcestershire  in  1708,  was  the  first  who  drew  public 
attention  to  the  virtues  of  the  Malvern  waters.  Died 
in  1776. 

Wall,  (Martin,)  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1744, 
acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  physician,  and  in  1785 
became  clinical  professor  at  Oxford.    Died  in  1824. 

Wall,  (William,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  1646, 
published  a  "  History  of  Infant  Baptism,"  and  "Critical 
Notes  on  the  Old  Testament."    Died  in  1728. 

Wallace,  w6Klis,  (Horace  Binney,)  an  American 
lawyer  and  writer  of  rare  talents,  a  nephew  of  Horace 
Binney,  was  born  at  Philadelphia,  February  26,  1817. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton  College,  and  subsequently 
visited  Europe.  He  committed  suicide  in  Paris,  (1852,) 
— as  is  supposed,  in  a  fit  of  temporary  insanity.  He 
wrote  "Literary  Criticisms,  and  other  Papers,"  "Art 
and  Scenery  in  Europe,"  (1855,)  and  edited  several  legal 
works  conjointly  with  Judge  Hare.  While  in  Paris  he 
became  acquainted  with  Auguste  Comte,  who  said  of 
him,  "  I  do  not  exaggerate  his  merits  in  ranking  him  as 
the  equal  of  the  greatest  American  statesmen." 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Wallace,  w6Klis,  (Sir  John  Alexander  Dunlop 
Agnew,)  an  English  general,  born  in  1775.  He  served 
in  the  Peninsular  war,  (1808-14.)    Died  in  1857. 

Wallace,  (Lewis,)  an  American  general,  a  son  of 
David  Wallace,  formerly  Governor  of  Indiana,  was  bori 
in  Fountain  county,  Indiana,  about  1828.  He  wai 
a  lawyer  before  the  civil  war.  He  commanded  a  di- 
vision at  the  battle  of  Fort  Donelson,  February,  1862, 
and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April 
6  and  7.  He  was  appointed  a  major-general  about 
March,  1862. 

Wallace,  wSKlis,  (Sir  William,)  a  celebrated  Scot- 
tish hero  and  patriot,  supposed  to  have  been  born  about 
1270.  He  was  a  son  of  Sir  Malcolm  Wallace  of  Ellerslie, 
in  Renfrewshire.  While  attending  school  at  Dundee,  he 
killed  the  son  of  the  English  governor  of  Dundee  Castle 
in  revenge  for  an  insult  received,  and  was  compelled  to 
take  refuge  among  the  mountains.  Having  gathered 
around  him  a  band  of  devoted  followers,  he  carried  on 
for  several  years  a  successful  partisan  warfare  against 
the  English  forces.  After  the  capture  of  the  garrisons 
of  Aberdeen,  Forfar,  and  other  towns,  he  was  engaged 
in  the  siege  of  Dundee,  when  news  came  of  the  advance 
of  a  large  English  army  towards  Stirling.  He  immedi- 
ately marched  to  meet  the  enemy,  gained  a  signal  victory 
over  them  at  Stirling  Bridge,  (1297,)  and,  entering  Eng- 
land, ravaged  the  northern  part  of  the  country.  He  was 
soon  after  defeated  with  great  loss  near  Falkirk  by  the 
English,  led  by  Edward  I.  in  person,  (1298.)  The  office  \ 
of  guardian  of  the  kingdom,  which  he  had  held  for  a 
short  time,  was  now  taken  from  him,  and,  after  several 
years  spent  in  border  warfare,  he  was  betrayed  into  the 
hands  of  the  English,  condemned  as  a  traitor,  and  exe- 
cuted, (1305.)  His  achievements  have  been  a  favourite 
theme  with  Scottish  poets  and  writers  of  romance,  and 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y.,gutiural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    ({K^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

140 


WALLACE 


2226 


WALLER 


have  been  especially  celebrated  by  Harry  the  Minstrel, 
sometimes  called  Blind  Harry. 

See  Burton.  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  ii.  chaps,  xx.,  xxi.,  and 
xxii.  ;  J.  S.  Watson,  "The  Story  of  William  Wallace,"  1862; 
Scott,  "Tales  of  a  Grandfather;"  Hume,  "  History  of  England;" 
J.  D.  Carrick,  "Life  of  Sir  William  Wallace,"  2  vols.,  1830; 
Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wallace,  (William,)  LL.D.,  a  Scottish  mathemati- 
cian, born  in  Fifeshire  in  1768.  He  was  appointed  in 
1803  one  of  the  teachers  of  mathematics  in  the  Royal 
Military  College,  Buckinghamshire,  and  in  1819  became 
professor  of  that  science  at  Edinburgh.  Among  his 
principal  works  we  may  name  his  "New  Series  for  the 
Quadrature  of  the  Conic  Sections  and  the  Computation 
of  Logarithms,"  (1808,)  "Account  of  the  Invention  of 
the  Pantograph,  and  Description  of  the  Eidograph," 
(1831,)  and  the  article  on  "  Porism,"  in  the  "Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica."  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  a  member  of  other  learned 
institutions.    Died  in  1843. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wallace,  (William  H.  L.,)  an  American  general, 
born  at  Urbana,  Ohio,  in  1821.  He  practised  law  in 
Illinois  before  the  civil  war.  He  commanded  a  brigade 
at  the  capture  of  Fort  Donelson,  February,  1862,  and  a 
division  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  where  he  was  mortally 
wounded,  April  6  of  that  year.  "  This  day's  work," 
says  Horace  Greeley,  "had  won  for  him  the  admiration 
of  all  beholders."  ("  American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii.) 

Wallace,  (William  Ross,)  an  American  poet,  born 
at  Lexington,  Kentucky,  about  1819.  Among  his  works 
may  be  named  "  Alban  the  Pirate,"  (1848,)  and  "Medita- 
tions in  America,  and  other  Poems,"  (185 1.) 

Wallace,  (William  Vincent,)  a  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Waterford,  in  Ireland,  about  1815.  He 
composed  several  successful  operas,  among  which  are 
"Maritana"  and  "Lurline."    Died  in  1865. 

Wallack,  wSl'lak,  (James  William,)  an  English 
actor,  born  in  London  in  1795,  acquired  a  high  reputa- 
tion in  his  art,  both  in  England  and  America.  Having 
settled  in  New  York  City  in  185 1,  he  founded  the  theatre 
on  Broadway  called  by  his  name.    Died  in  1864. 

His  son,  John  Lv:ster,  is  also  an  actor,  and  has 
published  several  comedies. 

Wallenbourg.    See  Wallenburg. 

Wallenburch,  van,  vtn  wil'len-biiRk',  (Adriaan 
and  Pieter,  )  Roman  Catholic  theologians,  born  at 
Rotterdam,  were  brothers.  They  lived  at  Cologne,  and 
wrote  several  works  against  the  Protestants.  Adriaan 
died  in  1669,  and  Pieter  in  1675. 

Wallenburg,  von,  fon  v^il'len-bdoRc/,  written  also 
Wallenbourg,  (Jacob,)  an  Austrian  Orientalist,  born 
in  Vienna  in  1763.  He  passed  twenty  years  in  Turkey. 
He  translated  the  Persian  poem  "  Mesnevi"  into  French. 
Died  in  1806. 

Wallenstein,  w6Klen-stin^  [Ger.  pron.  -^Sl'len-stin',] 
or  Waldstein,  Mlt'stln,  [Lat.  Wallenstei'nius  or 
Waldstei'nius  ;  It.  Valstain,  viKstTn,]  (Albrecht 
Wenzel  Eusebius,)  Count  of,  and  Duke  of  Meck- 
lenburg, Friedland,  and  Sagau,  a  celebrated  German 
general,  born  at  the  castle  of  Hermanic,  in  Bohemia, 
in  September,  1583,  was  a  son  of  Wilhelm,  Baron  von 
Waldstein.  After  the  death  of  his  parents,  who  were 
Protestants,  he  was  sent  to  the  Jesuit  College  at  Olmiitz, 
and  was  converted  into  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  also 
studied  several  sciences  and  languages  at  Padua  and 
Bologna.  About  1606  he  fought  against  the  Turks  at 
the  siege  of  Gran.  He  married  a  rich  widow  in  1610, 
and  at  her  death,  in  16 14,  inherited  a  large  estate. 
Having  raised  a  troop  of  horse  in  1617,  he  fought  with 
distinction  for  the  Austrian  archduke  Ferdinand  against 
the  Venetians.  In  16 19,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  war,  he  joined  the  Imperial  or  Roman  Catholic 
army,  and  was  appointed  quartermaster-general.  He 
defeated  Bethlen  Gabor,  in  Hungary,  in  1621,  and  was 
created  Duke  of  Friedland  and  a  prince  of  the  Holy 
Empire  in  1624.  In  1625  he  raised,  at  his  own  expense, 
a  large  army,  which  he  resolved  to  support  by  pillage 
and  exactions  from  the  enemy.  His  high  reputation 
attracted  mercenaries  from  various  parts  of  Europe.  He 
defeated  Count  Mansfeld  in  1626,  and  invaded  Denmark, 


in  which  he  encountered  no  effectual  resistance.  To  re- 
ward him  for  his  services,  the  emperor  gave  Wallenstein 
the  duchy  of  Mecklenburg  in  1628,  and  added  the  title 
of  admiral.  His  pride,  rapacity,  and  cruelty  rendered 
him  so  odious  that  Ferdinand  dismissed  him  from  com- 
mand in  1630,  at  the  same  time  that  Gustavus  Adolphus 
entered  Germany  to  fight  for  the  Protestant  cause.  The 
victories  of  Gustavus,  and  the  death  of  General  Tilly, 
reduced  Ferdinand  to  such  a  critical  situation  that  he 
implored  the  aid  of  Wallenstein  as  the  only  man  who 
was  able  to  save  the  empire.  He  consented  to  serve 
him  again,  on  condition  that  he  should  have  exclusive 
control  of  the  army,  and  should  govern  or  reign  over 
the  countries  which  he  might  conquer.  He  displayed 
great  skill  in  defence  of  the  lines  near  Nuremberg,  which 
were  attacked  by  the  Swedes  in  September,  1632.  In 
November  of  that  year  he  was  defeated  by  Gustavus 
Adolphus  at  the  great  battle  of  Lutzen.  He  afterwards 
gained  victories  in  Silesia,  but  refused  to  march  to  the 
relief  of  Bavaria,  which  was  overrun  by  the  Swedes. 
According  to  some  authorities,  he  aspired  to  be  sovereign 
of  Bohemia.  The  Duke  of  Bavaria,  and  other  enemies 
of  Wallenstein,  persuaded  the  emperor  to  distrust  his 
loyalty.  In  January,  1634,  he  was  deprived  of  his  com- 
mand, and  secret  orders  were  given  to  Gallasand  Picco- 
lomini  to  arrest  or  assassinate  him.  He  attempted  to 
secure  himself  by  negotiations  with  the  Swedes,  but  his 
overtures  were  rejected,  and  he  retired  to  the  castle  of 
Eger  or  Egra,  where  he  was  assassinated  in  February, 
1634.  The  story  of  Wallenstein  forms  the  subject  of 
Schiller's  greatest  though  not  his  most  popular  tragedy. 

See  ScHirxER,  "History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War;"  Murr, 
"Die  Ermordung  Herzogs  von  Friedland,"  t8o6  ;  Heller,  "  Leben 
des  Grafen  von  Wallenstein,"  1814;  F.  Forster,  "Wallenstein, 
Herzog  zn  Mecklenburg,"  etc.,  1834;  J.  Mitchell,  "Life  of  Wal- 
lenstein," 1837;  Mebold,  "  Giistav  Adolf  nnd  Wallenstein,"  2  vols., 
1835-40;  Helbig,  "Wallenstein  nnd  Armin,"  1850;  Gualuo-Pri- 
ORATo,  "  Istoria  della  Vita  d' A.  Valstain,"  1643;  Carl  Marla  von 
Aretin,  "Wallenstein,"  1S46;  Sir  Edward  Cust,  "The  Thirty 
Years'  War,"  2  vols.,  1865  ;  Malmstroem,  "  De  Wallensteinio  Com- 
mentarius,"  1815;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  "Blackwood's 
Magazine"  for  Jannary,  1838. 

Wallensteinius.    See  Wallenstein. 

Waller,  wdl'ler,  (Edmund,)  an  eminent  English  poet, 
born  at  Coleshill,  in  Hertfordshire,  in  1605,  was  a  cousin- 
german  of  the  celebrated  John  Hampden.  He  studied 
at  King's  College,  Cambridge,  and  represented  Amers- 
ham  in  the  Long  Parliament  in  1640,  having  been  pre- 
viously several  times  elected  for  that  borough.  He  was 
for  a  time  a  moderate  partisan  of  the  popular  cause  ;  but 
he  subsequently  went  over  to  the  royalists.  He  was 
arrested  in  1643  on  a  charge  by  the  Parliament  of  having 
formed  a  "  popish  plot  for  the  subversion  of  the  Prot- 
estant religion,"  etc.  Several  of  his  accomplices  were 
punished  with  fines  and  imprisonment,  and  two  were  exe- 
cuted, while  Waller,  the  leader  of  the  conspiracy,  saved 
his  life  by  a  most  abject  and  pusillanimous  speech.  He 
was  released,  after  a  year's  confinement,  on  condition  of 
his  leaving  the  country,  and,  after  a  residence  of  about 
ten  years  in  France,  was  permitted  to  return  to  England 
in  1653.  He  died  in  1687.  Waller  was  twice  married, 
and  had  by  his  second  wife  five  sons  and  eight  daughters. 
Among  his  earliest  productions  are  the  verses  addressed 
to  the  Lady  Dorothea  Sidney,  under  the  naine  of  Saccha- 
rissa.  His  other  principal  poems  are  a  "Panegyric  on 
Cromwell,"  "On  a  War  with  Spain,"  "  On  the  Death 
of  tlie  Lord  Protector,"  and  an  ode  to  Charles  II.,  en- 
titled "To  the  King  upon  his  Majesty's  Most  Happy 
Return."  It  is  said  that  when  Charles  remarked  to 
Waller  the  greater  poetical  merit  of  his  panegyric  on 
Cromwell,  he  replied,  "  Poets,  sire,  succeed  better  in  fic- 
tion than  in  truth."  After  the  restoration  he  was  several 
times  returned  to  Parliament,  where,  according  to  Bur- 
net, "he  was  the  delight  of  the  House,  and,  though  old, 
said  the  liveliest  things  of  any  among  them."  Johnson 
observes,  "  The  general  character  of  his  poetry  is  ele- 
gance and  gaiety.  He  is  never  pathetic,  and  very  rarely 
sublime  ;  but  it  cannot  be  denied  that  he  added  some- 
thing to  our  elegance  of  diction  and  something  to  our 
propriety  of  thought." 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets,"  vol.  i.  ;  Wood, 
"Athenae  Oxonienses ;"  Hallam,  "  Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe  ;"  Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets  ;"  Alh- 
BONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y.  '^tg;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


WALLER 


2227 


WALPOLE 


Waller,  \v61'ler,  (John  Lightfoot,)  LL.D.,  an 
American  Baptist  divine  and  journalist,  born  in  Wood- 
ford county,  Kentucky,  in  1809.  Ke  became  editor  in 
1845  of  the  "  Western  Baptist  Review,"  and  published 
several  controversial  works.  Died  at  Louisville  in  1854. 

Waller,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  statesman  and 
general  of  the  Parliamentary  army,  born  in  Kent  in 
1597,  was  a  distant  relative  of  the  poet,  Edmund  Wal- 
ler. Having  served  for  a  time  in  the  Protestant  army 
in  Germany,  he  was  elected  to  the  Long  Parliament 
for  Andover  in  1640,  and  was  soon  after  appointed 
second  in  command  of  the  forces  under  the  Earl  of 
Essex.  He  was  removed  from  the  service  by  the  self- 
denying  ordinance  of  1645,  and  in  1647  he  was  one  of 
the  eleven  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  im- 
peached by  the  army.  He  afterwards  resumed  his  seat 
in  Parliament,  and  was  appointed  one  of  the  council  of 
state  in  1660.  He  died  in  1668,  leaving  a  "  Vindication 
of  Sir  William  Waller,"  etc.,  and  "  Divine  Meditations 
upon  Several  Occasions,"  (1680.) 

See  Clarendon,  "History  of  the  Great  Rebellion;"  Hume, 
"History  of  England." 

Wal-le'ri-us,  [Swedish  pron.  vil-ln're-us,]  (Johann 
GoTTSCHALK,)  a  Swedish  savant,  was  the  author  of 
several  valuable  works  on  chemistry  and  mineralogy. 
Died  in  1785. 

Wallerius,  (Nicholas,)  a  Swedish  philosopher,  born 
at  Nerika  in  1706.  He  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Upsal,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Rational  Psy- 
chology," ("  Psychologia  Rationalis.")    Died  in  1764. 

Wallia.    See  Vallia,  King  of  the  Visigoths. 

Wallich,  vtKliK,  (Nathanikl,)  a  Danish  botanist, 
born  at  Copenhagen  in  1787.  Having  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  the  East  India  Company,  he  was  appointed  in 
1815  superintendent  of  the  botanic  garden  at  Calcutta. 
He  visited  Nepaul  and  other  parts  of  India,  and  made  a 
large  and  valuable  collection  of  plants.  Pie  published 
"A  Description  of  the  Tree  which  produces  the  Ripal 
Camphor- Wood,"  etc.,  (1823,)  "  Tentamen  Floras  Nepa- 
lensis,"  (1824,)  "Plantae  Asiaticre  Rariores,"  (3  vols,  fob, 
1829,  with  300  plates,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1854. 

Wallin,  vdl-leen',  (George,)  a  Swedish  prelate,  born 
in  Nordland  in  1686.  He  published  several  works,  and 
was  appointed  Bishop  of  Gothenburg.    Died  in  1760. 

Wallin,  (Johan  Olof,)  an  enunent  Swedish  prelate 
and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  Dalecarlia  in  1779.  He 
studied  at  Upsal,  and  became  in  18 lo  a  member  of 
the  Swedish  Academy.  He  was  afterwards  appointed 
theological  tutor  to  Prince  Oscar,  and  rose  through 
various  preferments  to  be  Archbishop  of  Upsal  in  1833. 
His  hymns  are  ranked  among  the  finest  productions 
of  the  kind  in  the  language,  and  have  been  adopted 
into  the  authorized  Swedish  Hymn-Book.  He  also  pub- 
lished a  number  of  sermons  of  great  excellence.  Died 
in  1839. 

See  E.  G.  Geijer,  "Minnes-Tal  bfver  Dr.  J.  O.  Wallin,"  1840; 
J.  H.  Schroeder,  "J.  O.  Wallin,  Svea  Rikes  Erkebiskop,"  1846; 
J.  E.  RvDQUiST,  "J.  O.  Wallin;  Minnesteckning,"  1839;  How- 
ITT,  "Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe,"  vol.  ii. 

Wallingford,  \v6Kling-ford,  (Richard,)  an  English 
mechanic  and  astronomer  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
made  a  clock  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first 
that  was  regulated  by  a  fly-wheel. 

Wallis,  w6Klis,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  mathe- 
matician and  theologian,  born  at  Ashford,  Kent,  on  the 
23d  of  November,  1616.  He  entered  Emanuel  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1632,  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1640, 
and  was  ordained  a  priest  the  same  year.  He  favoured 
the  party  of  the  Parliament  in  the  civil  war,  and  ren- 
dered valuable  services  by  deciphering  intercepted 
despatches  written  in  cipher.  In  1644  he  was  one  of 
the  secretaries  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  Westmin- 
ster. He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  became  Savilian  professor  of  geometry  at 
Oxford  in  1649.  In  1655  he  published  an  important 
work,  entitled  "Arithmetic  of  Infinites,"  ("  Arithmetica 
Infinitorum,")  preceded  by  a  treatise  on  conic  sections. 
He  treated  of  the  fundamental  points  of  arithmetic, 
algebra,  and  geometry  in  his  "  Universal  Science  or 
Learning,"  ("  Mathesis  Universalis,"  1657.)  He  made 
important  discoveries  in  mathematical   theories,  and 


distinguished  himself  by  his  sagacity  and  talent  for  ger* 
eralization.  Having  promoted  the  restoration  of  Charles 
II.,  he  retained  his  professorship.  Besides  the  above- 
named  works,  he  wrote  several  books  on  theology,  and 
a  treatise  on  logic,  which  had  a  high  reputation.  He 
edited  Ptolemy's  "  Harmonics,"  (1680,)  and  Aristarchus 
of  Samos.    Died  in  October,  1703. 

See  Thomson,  "  History  of  the  Royal  Society;"  Nic^ron,  "  Me- 
moires  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Wallis,  (Samuel,)  an  English  navigator,  who,  as 
commander  of  the  Dolphin,  made  a  voyage  in  the  Pacific 
and  discovered  Easter  Island  in  1767,  and  Taiiiti,  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  of  King  George's  Island.  The 
latter  is  supposed  to  have  been  previously  discovered  by 
Quiros.    Died  in  1795. 

Wallis,  von,  fon  -^SKliss,  (Georg  Oliver,)  Count, 
an  Austrian  general,  born  in  167 1.  He  obtained  the 
rank  of  field-marshal  and  the  chief  command  of  an  army 
in  Hungary.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Turks  in  1739. 
Died  in  1743. 

Wallis,  von,  (Joseph,)  Count,  an  Austrian  financier, 
born  in  1768.  He  was  minister  of  finance  from  1810 
to  1816.    Died  in  181 8. 

Walliser,  ^IKle-zer,  (Christoph  Thomas,)  a  Ger- 
man composer  and  writer  upon  music,  born  at  Stras- 
burg  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Died 
in  1648. 

Wallius,  wiKle-us,  or  Van  de  Walle,  vtn  deh  wil'- 
leh,  (Jacob,)  a  Flemish  Jesuit  and  Latin  poet,  born  at 
Courtrai  in  1599.  He  wrote  numerous  poems,  printed 
in  1656.    Died  about  1680. 

Wallon,  vt'loN',  (Henri  Alexandre,)  a  French 
historian,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1812.  He  published 
a  "  History  of  Slavery  in  Antiquity,"  (3  vols.,  1848,)  and 
succeeded  Quatremere  de  Quincy  as  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1850. 

Wallot,  ^il'lot  or  vt'lo',  (Jean  Guillaume,)  a  Ger- 
man astronomer,  born  at  Pauers,  in  the  Palatinate,  in 
1743.  He  became  professor  of  astronomy  at  Paris.  He 
was  executed  by  the  Jacobins  in  July,  1794. 

Wallraf,  Ml'rdf,  (Ferdinand  Franz,)  a  German 
physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Cologne  in  1748.  He 
made  a  large  and  valuable  collection  of  objects  in  natu- 
ral history  and  art,  which  he  presented  to  his  native  city. 
Died  in  1824. 

Walmesley,  wSmz'le,  (Charles,)  an  English  mathe- 
matician and  Benedictine  monk,  born  in  1 721,  became 
apostolical  vicar  of  the  western  district  in  England.  He  ^ 
was  the  author  of  an  "Analysis  of  the  Measures  of  Pro- 
portions and  of  Angles,"  etc.,  and  other  works,  in  French 
and  Latin.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Died  in  1797. 

Wain,  wawl,  (Nicholas,)  an  American  lawyer,  born 
about  1740,  practised  with  distinction  in  Philadelphia. 
He  afterwards  became  a  minister  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  He  was  noted  for  his  wit  and  humour. 
Died  in  1813. 

Wain,  (Robert,)  Jr.,  an  American  poet,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1794.  He  wrote  "The  Hermit  in  Phila- 
delphia," a  satire,  (1819,)  "The  American  Bards,"  and 
other  poems,  also  a  "  Life  of  La  Fayette,"  (1824.)  Died 
in  1825. 

Walpole,  wSKpol,  (Horace,)  fourth  Earl  of  Orford, 
a  famous  literary  gossip,  amateur,  and  wit,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  October,  1717,  was  the  youngest  son  of  Sir  Robert 
Walpole  and  Catherine  Shorter,  He  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambridge.  In  1739  he  began 
a  tour  on  the  continent,  in  company  with  his  friend 
Thomas  Gray  the  poet,  from  whom,  in  consequence  of 
a  disagreement,  he  parted  in  1741.  He  returned  home, 
and  entered  the  House  of  Commons  in  the  same  year. 
In  March,  1742,  he  made  a  speech  in  defence  of  his 
father,  which  was  commended  by  William  Pitt.  He 
continued  to  sit  in  the  House  of  Commons  for  many 
years,  but  seldom  spoke  there.  He  called  himself  a 
Whig,  but  cared  little  for  any  political  principle. 

In  1747  he  purchased  the  villa  of  Strawberry  Hill,  at 
Twickenham,  on  the  improvement  and  decoration  of 
which  he  expended  much  time  and  money.  He  collected 
there  many  prints,  pictures,  books,  curiosities,  and 
objects  of  virtu.    He  published  in  1758  a  "Catalogue 


«  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y,, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23. ) 


WALPOLE  2228  WALSH 


of  Royal  and  Noble  Authors,"  and  commenced  in  1761 
his  "Anecdotes  of  Painting  in  England,"  the  last  volume 
of  which  appeared  in  1771.  The  materials  for  this  work 
were  furnis'ied  by  Vertue  the  engraver.  In  1764  he 
produced  .1  novel  entitled  "The  Castle  of  Otranto," 
which  was  very  successful.  Among  his  other  works  are 
"The  Myslerious  Mother,"  a  tragedy,  {1768,)  "Historic 
Doubts  on  the  Life  and  Reign  of  Richard  III.,"  (1768,) 
"  Reminiscences  of  the  Courts  of  George  I.  and  George 
XL,"  "Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of  George  III.  from  1771 
to  1783,"  and  his  "Letters,"  (9  vols.,  1857-59,)  which 
are  greatly  admired.  He  affected  a  great  dislike  to 
be  consideieda  literary  man.  Macaulay  expresses  the 
opinion  that  "he  was  the  most  eccentric,  the  most  arti- 
ficial, the  most  fastidious,  the  most  capricious  of  men. 
.  .  .  Serious  business  was  a  trifle  to  him,  and  trifles 
were  his  scr-ous  business.  .  .  .  What,  then,"  asks  the 
same  critic,  "is  the  irresistible  charm  of  Walpole's 
writings.''  [l  consists,  we  think,  in  the  art  of  amusing 
without  exciting.  .  .  .  His  style  is  one  of  those  peculiar 
styles  by  which  everybody  is  attracted,  and  which  nobody 
can  safely  venture  to  imitate."  (Review  of  Walpole's 
"Letters  to  Sir  Horace  Mann,"  in  Macaulay's  Essay 
published  in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  in  1833.)  His 
Letters  are  considered  his  best  productions.  In  1791 
he  succeeded  his  nephew  George  as  Earl  of  Orford, 
but  he  never  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and 
seldom  used  his  title.   Died  in  March,  1797. 

See  "  Walpoliana,"  by  J.  Pinkerton,  1792;  Lord  Dover, 
"  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Horace  Walpole,"  prefixed  to  "  Letters  to 
Horace  Mann,"'  1833;  Eliot  Wakburton,  "Memoirs  of  Horace 
Walpole  and  his  Contemporaries."  2  vols..  1851  :  "  London  Quar- 
terly Review"  loi  April,  1823;  "Monthly  Review"  for  September, 
October,  and  No\ ember,  1798;  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1843, 
article  "Walpo'e  and  his  Friends." 

Walpole,  (Horatio,)  Lord,  an  English  diplomatist 
and  writer,  b  )i  n  in  1678,  was  a  brother  of  Sir  Robert, 
the  premier.  He  was  ambassador  at  Paris  from  1723  to 
1727,  became  treasurer  of  the  king's  household  in  1730, 
and  ministei  plenipotentiary  to  Holland  about  1733. 
His  talents  and  character  are  praised  by  the  historian 
Coxe.    He  wrote  political  treatises.    Died  in  1757. 

Walpole,  (Sir  Robert,)  Earl  of  Orford,  a  celebrated 
English  statesman,  born  at  Houghton  on  the  26th  of 
August,  1676,  was  a  son  of  Robert  Walpole,  Esq.,  M.P. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge. In  1 700  he  married  Catherine  Shorter,  and 
entered  Parliament  as  member  for  Castle  Rising  and  a 
supporter  of  the  Whig  party.  He  became  an  able 
debater,  a  skilful  parliamentary  tactician,  and  an 
excellent  man  of  business.  In  1708  he  was  appointed 
secretary  at  wai,  and  the  management  of  the  House  of 
Commons  was  committed  to  him  by  his  party.  He 
resigned  with  the  other  Whig  ministers  in  1710,  and 
declined  the  place  which  Harley  offered  him  in  the  new 
cabinet.  The  Tory  majority  expelled  him  from  the 
House  in  1712,  and  imprisoned  him  in  the  Tower  on  a 
charge  of  corruption.  He  was  released  at  the  end  of 
the  session. 

On  the  accession  of  George  I.,  (1714,)  Walpole  ac- 
quired great  influence  at  court,  and  was  appointed  pay- 
master-general (>f  the  forces.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  impeachment  of  the  Earl  of  Oxford  and  Lord 
Bolingbroke.  Ln  October,  1 71 5,  he  became  first  lord  of 
the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  His 
brother-in-law,  I  ord  Townshend,  was  the  chief  minister 
of  this  adminisl ration.  Townshend  having  been  re- 
moved by  the  intrigues  of  Lord  Sutherland,  Sir  Robert 
resigned  in  April,  1717,  although  the  king  urged  him  to 
remain  in  office.  He  opposed  the  South  Sea  act,  and 
was  preserved  b)  his  good  sense  from  the  general  in- 
fatuation during  the  inflation  of  the  South  Sea  Bubble. 
*'  When  the  crash  came, — when  ten  thousand  families 
were  reduced  to  beggary  in  a  day, —  .  .  .  Walpole  was 
the  man  on  whom  all  parties  turned  their  eyes."  (Mac- 
aulay.) He  bi;came  first  lord  of  the  treasury  (prime 
minister)  in  April,  1721,  and  restored  the  public  credit. 
Supported  by  a  large  majority  of  Parliament,  he  en- 
countered at  first  no  serious  opposition,  until  he  created 
an  opposition  by  proscribing  the  eminent  men  of  his 
own  party  and  indulging  his  propensity  to  engross  the 
power.    Pultency,  who  had  strong  claims  to  a  place  in 


the  cabinet,  was  neglected  and  turned  into  a  formidable 
adversary.  The  highly-gifted  Lord  Carteret,  who  was 
secretary  of  state,  was  removed  in  1724,  and  a  few  years 
later  a  violent  quarrel  occurred  between  Walpole  and 
Lord  Townshend,  who  had  long  been  personal  friends. 

At  the  death  of  George  I.,  (1727,)  Queen  Caroline 
exerted  her  influence  in  favour  of  Sir  Robert,  who  was 
reappointed  prime  minister  and  gained  the  confidence 
of  George  II.  According  to  Macaulay,  Walpole  first 
gave  to  the  English  government  that  character  of  lenity 
which  it  has  since  generally  preserved.  The  same 
author  remarks,  that  "though  he  was  at  the  head  of 
affairs  during  more  than  twenty  years,  not  one  great 
measure,  not  one  important  change  for  the  better  or  the 
worse  in  any  part  of  our  institutions,  marks  the  period 
of  his  supremacy.  .  .  .  The  praise  to  which  he  is  fairly 
entitled  is  this,  that  he  understood  the  true  interest 
of  his  country  better  than  any  of  his  contemporaries, 
and  that  he  pursued  that  interest  whenever  it  was  not 
incompatible  with  the  interests  of  his  own  intense  and 
grasping  ambition."  (Review  of  "  Walpole's  Letters  to 
Sir  Horace  Mann.") 

Among  the  errors  of  his  administration  was  the  war 
against  Spain,  (1739,)  into  which  he  was  driven  by  the 
popular  clamour,  while  his  own  judgment  condemned  it 
as  impolitic  and  unjust.  When  he  heard  the  bells  ring- 
ing on  account  of  the  declaration  of  war,  he  muttered, 
"13efore  long  they  will  be  wringing  their  hands."  It  is 
admitted  that  he  practised  corruption  or  bribery  on  a 
large  scale,  for  which  some  writers  apologize  by  the  plea 
that  it  was  impossible  to  govern  without  corruption.  In 
the  latter  part  of  his  official  career  he  was  attacked  by 
a  powerful  combination  of  Tories,  disaffected  Whigs 
called  patriots,  and  wits,  including  Pulteney,  Carteret, 
Chesterfield,  Swift,  Pope,  and  Pitt.  The  Prince  of 
Wales  also,  having  become  estranged  from  the  king, 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  opposition.  After  a  long 
and  spirited  contest,  he  resigned  office,  and  passed  into 
the  House  of  Lords,  with  the  title  of  Earl  of  Orford, 
in  February,  1742.  He  died  in  March,  1745,  leaving 
three  sons. 

"Without  being  a  genius  of  the  first  class,"  says 
Burke,  "he  was  an  intelligent,  prudent,  and  safe  minis- 
ter. .  .  .  The  prudence,  steadiness,  and  vigilance  of 
that  man,  joined  to  the  greatest  possible  lenity  in  his 
character  and  his  politics,  preserved  the  crown  to  this 
royal  family,  and  with  it  their  laws  and  liberties  to  this 
country."  ("  Appeal  from  the  New  to  the  Old  Whigs.") 

See  W.  MusGRAVE,  "  Brief  and  True  History  of  Sir  R.  Walpole 
and  his  Family,"  1738;  "  Histoire  dii  Ministere  du  Chevalier  Wal- 
pole," Amsterdam,  1755:  "Walpoliana,"  London,  1783;  Coxe, 
"Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Administration  of  Sir  R.  Walpole,"  3 
vols.,  1798;  Lord  Mahon,  (Stanhope,)  "History  of  England;" 
Macaulay,  Essay  on  the  "Earl  of  Chatham,"  reprinted  from  the 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  1834  :  "  Historical  Sketches  of  the  Reign 
of  George  11.,"  in  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  April,  1868. 

Walpole,  (Spencer  Horatio,)  an  English  conser- 
vative statesman,  born  in  1806.  He  was  elected  to 
Parliament  for  Midhurst  in  1846,  and  in  March,  1852, 
became  secretary  of  state  for  the  home  department. 
He  resigned  about  December,  1852.  In  1856  he  repre- 
sented the  University  of  Cambridge  in  Parliament.  He 
was  secretary  for  the  home  department  about  a  year, 
(1858-59,)  and  obtained  the  same  office  in  July,  1866. 
He  resigned  in  May,  1867. 

Walsh,  w61sh,  (Benjamin  D.,)  an  eminent  entomol- 
ogist, born  in  Great  Britain  in  1808,  removed  to  America 
when  very  young.  He  enjoyed  a  national  reputation 
among  scientific  men  for  excellence  in  his  special  study. 
Died  at  Rock  Island,  Illinois,  in  1869. 

Walsh,  w6Ish,  (Edward,)  M.D.,  an  Irish  physician, 
born  at  Waterford,  served  as  army  surgeon  in  Holland 
and  America,  He  published  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Expe- 
dition to  Holland."    Died  in  1832. 

Walsh,  vtish,  (Joseph  Alexis,)  Vicomte,  a  French 
litterateur,  born  in  Anjou  in  1782,  was  a  legitimist  in 
politics.  He  wrote  several  novels,  a  book  entitled 
"  Memorable  Days  of  the  French  Revolution,"  (5  vols., 
1840,)  and  other  works. 

Walsh,  (Peter,)  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  born  in  the 
county  of  Kildare,  Ireland,  in  1610.  He  wrote  against 
the  temporal  power  of  the  pope,  (1674.)    Died  in  1688. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  lon^;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e.  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  flr,  f^ll,  ftt;  mSt;  ndt;  good:  moon; 


WALSH 


22 


29 


WALT  HER 


Walsh,  w'61sh,  (Robert,)  an  American  author,  born 
in  Baltimore  in  1784,  was  the  son  of  an  Irishman.  He 
studied  law,  travelled  in  Europe,  returned  home  about 
1808,  and  became  a  resident  of  Philadelphia,  He 
wrote  (December,  1809)  a  "Letter  on  the  Genius  and 
Disposition  of  the  French  Government,"  etc.,  which 
was  highly  commended  by  the  "  Edinburgh  Review." 
"  Perhaps  nothing  from  the  American  press,"  says  R. 
W.  Griswold,  "had  ever  produced  a  greater  sensation." 
In  January,  181 1,  he  began  to  publish  "The  American 
Review  of  History  and  Politics,"  which  was  the  first 
American  quarterly,  and  was  discontinued  about  the 
end  of  1812  for  want  of  patronage.  In  1813  he  produced 
an  "Essay  on  the  Future  State  of  Eurojje."  He  edited 
the  "American  Register"  for  a  short  time,  (1817-18,) 
and  published  in  1819  an  "Appeal  from  the  Judgments 
of  Great  Britain  respecting  the  United  States,"  etc.  He 
founded,  in  1821,  the  "National  Gazette,"  an  able  and 
influential  daily  paper  of  Philadelphia,  which  he  edited 
for  fifteen  years.  He  published  "  Didactics,  Social, 
Literary,  and  Political,"  (2  vols.,  1836.)  In  1845  was 
appointed  American  consul  at  Paris,  where  he  passed 
the  subsequent  part  of  his  life.    Died  in  Paris  in  1858. 

See  R.  W.  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America,"  p.  197; 
"Edinburgh  Review"  for  May,  1820;  "North  American  Review" 
for  April,  1820. 

Walsh,  (William,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Wor- 
cestershire in  1663,  is  chiefly  celebrated  as  the  friend  of 
Dryden  and  the  patron  of  Pope.  He  was  several  times 
elected  to  Parliament  for  his  native  county.  His  poems 
are  principally  amatory.  He  also  published  a  prose 
essay  entitled  "Eugenia,  a  Defence  of  Women,"  for 
which  Dryden  wrote  a  preface.    Died  in  1709. 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets,"  vol.  i. 

Walsingham  or  Walsyngham,  w6Ksing-am,  (Sir 
Francis,)  an  English  statesman  and  dijjlomatist,  born 
in  Kent  in  1536.  He  studied  at  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  at  an  early  age  acquired  the  favour  and 
patronage  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  wlio  appointed  him  her 
representative  at  the  French  court  in  1570.  After  his 
return,  in  1573,  he  became  a  member  of  the  privy  coun- 
cil, and  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state.  He  was  after- 
wards sent  on  important  missions  to  the  Netherlands, 
France,  and  Scotland.  He  had  a  prominent  part  in  the 
detection  of  Babington's  conspiracy,  and  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  in  the  trial  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots. 
As  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  he  rendered  the  greatest 
services  to  England  and  the  Protestant  cause  by  his 
vigilance  and  skilful  diplomacy  ;  he  is  said  to  have  over- 
reached the  Jesuits  in  their  own  game  of  equivocation 
and  mental  reservation,  and  to  have  maintained  fifty- 
three  agents  and  eighteen  spies  in  foreign  courts.  In 
private  life  he  was  highly  esteemed  for  his  integrity.  He 
died  in  1590,  leaving  one  daughter,  who  was  successively 
married  to  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  the  Earl  of  Essex,  and  the 
Earl  of  Clanricarde.  An  account  of  Walsingham's 
French  embassy  appeared  in  Sir  Dudley  Digges's 
"  Complete  Ambassador,"  (1655.) 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England  ;"  Froude,  "  History  of  Eng- 
land:"  "  Biographia  Britannica;"  Lodge,  "Portraits  of  Illustrious 
Personages." 

Walsingham,  [Lat.  Walsingha'mus,]  (Thomas,) 
an  English  historicvi"  3^"^^  Benedictine  monk,  a  native  of 
Norfolk,  lived  about  1430.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"History  of  England  from  the  Time  of  Edward  I.  to 
Henry  V.,"  (in  Latin.) 

Walsyngham.  See  Walsingham. 

Walter,  <vaKter,  (Ferdinand,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Wetzlar  in  1794,  published  a  "Manual  of  Ecclesi- 
astical Law,"  (1822,)  which  has  been  translated  info 
several  languages,  also  other  legal  works. 

Walter,  (Friedrich  August,)  son  of  Johann  Gott- 
lieb, noticed  below,  was  born  in  1764.  He  was  appointed 
first  medical  councillor  at  Berlin.    Died  in  1826. 

Walter,  (Hubert,)  an  English  prelate,  was  a  nephew 
of  Ranulph  de  Glanville.  As  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  he 
accompanied  the  crusaders  to  the  Holy  Land.  He  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1193,  and  afterwards 
became  justiciary  of  England. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  ii.  ch.  xi. 


Walter,  (Johann  Gotixieb,)  a  celebrated  German 
physician  and  anatomist,  born  at  KonigslxTg  about 
1735.  He  finished  his  studies  at  Berlin  under  Meckel, 
whom  in  1774  he  succeeded  as  first  professor  ol  anatomy 
and  midwifery.  His  valuable  anatomical  museum  was 
purchased  by  the  King  of  Prussia  for  ioo,oo>>  dollars. 
Among  his  works  may  be  named  "A  Treatise  on  the 
Bones  of  the  Human  Body"  and  a  "  Manual  of  ^^yology." 
Died  in  1818. 

Wai'ter,  (John,)  an  English  journalist,  aivl  founder 
of  the  London  "Times,"  was  born  in  1739.  The  first 
number  of  "The  Times"  appeared  in  1788.  He  was 
the  inventor  of  logography,  or  the  art  of  printing  with 
entire  words  or  syllables.  He  died  in  1812.  His  son, 
of  the  same  name,  born  in  London  in  1784,  b»xame  in 
1803  exclusive  manager  of  "  The  Times,"  which,  under 
his  direction,  soon  became  the  most  able  and  influential 
journal  of  Europe.  In  1814  "  The  Tiines"  was  printed 
for  the  first  time  by  Konig's  steatn-power  machines. 
(See  KONiG.)  Mr.  Walter  was  elected  to  Pailiament 
for  Berkshire  in  1832,  and  in  1841  was  returned  for  the 
borough  of  Nottingham.  Died  in  1847.  His  son  John, 
born  in  1818,  succeeded  to  the  proprietorship  of  "The 
Times,"  and  represented  Nottingham  in  Pailiament 
from  1847  to  1859. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1848. 

Warter,  (Thomas  U.,)  LL.D.,  an  eminent  American 
architect,  born  in  Philadelphia,  September  4,  18.4.  He 
received  a  good,  though  not  a  collegiate,  education.  He 
studied  architecture  under  Mr.  William  Strickland,  and 
afterwards  mathematics  under  David  McClur^^  (then 
distinguished  as  a  teacher  of  that  science.)  He  applied 
hiiTtself  assiduously  to  study  for  many  years  before  he 
commenced  the  practice  of  his  profession.  He  designed 
in  183 1,  and  superintended  the  erection  of,  the  Philadel- 
phia County  Prison.  His  designs  for  the  Giraril  College 
for  Orphans  were  adopted  by  the  City  Councils  m  1833, 
and  that  magnificent  building,  perhaps  the  finest  speci- 
men of  classic  architecture  on  the  American  continent, 
was  constructed  throughout  from  his  designs  and  under 
his  immediate  supervision.  This  work  occupied  him 
fourteen  years.  In  185 1  his  plans  for  the  extension  of 
the  Capitol  at  Washington  were  adopted,  and  he  was 
appointed  architect  of  the  work  by  President  l^'illmore, 
a  position  which  he  held  for  fourteen  years.  In  addition 
to  the  works  of  the  Capitol  extension,  he  planned  and 
executed  the  new  iron  dome  of  the  Capitol,  the  east 
and  west  wings  of  the  Patent  Office,  and  the  extension 
of  the  General  Post-Office.  He  also  designed  the  new 
Treasury  Building,  and  the  Government  Hos[)ital  for 
the  Insane.  In  1853  he  received  the  title  of  doctor 
of  philosophy  from  the  University  of  Lewisbiug,  and 
in  1857  that  of  doctor  of  laws  from  Harvard  Uni\ersity. 
He  held  for  many  years  a  professorship  of  architecture 
in  the  Franklin  Institute  of  Philadelphia,  Ho  is  a 
member  of  the  American  Philosophical  Socit;lv,  and 
of  many  other  literary  and  scientific  instituti(>ns,  and 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Architects. 

Walther,  ^iKter,  (August  Friedrich,)  a  German 
anatomist,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1688,  was  a  son  of 
Michael,  noticed  below,  (1638-92.)  He  becani'^  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  Leipsic  in  1723,  and  wrote  many 
treatises  on  anatomy.    Died  in  1746. 

Walther,  [Lat.  Gualte'rus  or  Walthe'rus.  |  (Bal- 
thasar,)  a  German  scholar  and  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, was  born  in  Thuringia  before  1600.  He  became 
professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  at  Jena.  He  wrote 
several  learned  works  in  Latin  and  German.  Died  in 
1640. 

Walther,  (Bernard,)  a  German  astronomer,  b'>rn  in 
1430,  was  a  pupil  of  Regiomontanus.  He  is  s.iid  to 
have  first  discovered  the  effect  of  atmospheric  lefrac- 
tion.    Died  in  1504. 

Walther,  (Christian,)  a  German  Protestant  divine. 
He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Wittenberg  edition  of 
Luther's  works,  and  published  a  number  of  contJover- 
sial  treatises.    Died  about  1572. 

Walther,  (Christian,)  a  German  divine,  boin  near 
Konigsberg  in  1655.  He  became  professor  of  theology 
at  that  city  in  1703,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  lector 


€  as  ^;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (JJ^^See  Explanations,  i>.  23.) 


WALT  HER 


of  the  university.  He  wrote  several  theological  and  an- 
tiquarian treatises.    Died  in  1717. 

Walther,  (Christoph  Theodosius,)  a  German  di- 
^ine,  born  in  Brandenburg  in  1699.  He  was  one  of  the 
missionaries  sent  by  the  Danish  government  in  1705  to 
the  coast  of  Coromandel  and  the  other  Danish  posses- 
sions in  India.  He  founded  the  missionary  establishment 
of  Majubaram,  and  published  "  An  Abridgment  of  E!c- 
clesiastical  History,"  and  other  works,  in  the  Tamul 
]  mguage.    He  died  at  Dresden  in  1741. 

Walther,  (Georg  CHRisrorn,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Rothenburg  in  1601,  became  president  of  the  chancery 
of  justice  in  his  native  town.  He  published  several  legal 
works  in  Latin.    Died  in  1656. 

Walther,  (Heinrich  Andreas,)  a  German  Prot- 
estant divine,  born  at  Konigsberg,  in  Hesse,  in  1696, 
■wrote  several  religious  and  theological  works,  in  Latin 
and  German.    Died  in  1748. 

Walther,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German  writer, 
b.)rn  about  1684,  published  a  "Musical  Dictionary,  His- 
t(>rical  and  Biographical."    Died  in  1748. 

Walther,  (Johann  Ludolph,)  a  German,  who  lived 
about  1740,  and  published  "Lexicon  Diplomaticum," 
(1745,1  in  which  he  explained  the  modes  of  writing  and 
the  abbreviations  used  in  the  middle  ages. 

Walther,  (Michael,)  a  German  divine  and  theo- 
logical writer,  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1593.  He  became 
piofessor  of  divinity  at  Helmstedt  in  1622,  and  in  1642 
W  IS  appointed  general  superintendent  of  the  Lutheran 
CJiurch  in  the  duchy  of  Brunswick-Liineberg.  He  wrote 
a  "Treatise  on  Manna,"  ("Tractatus  de  Manna,"  1633,) 
a  learned  treatise,  entitled  "  Officina  Biblica,"  (1636,) 
*'lCxercitationes  Biblicae,"  (1638,)  and  other  works,  in 
Latin;  also  "The  Golden  Key  of  the  Ancients,"  etc., 
ill  German.    Died  in  1662. 

Walther,  (Michael,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1638.  He  was  professor  at  Wittenberg,  and 
published  several  valuable  works  on  theology  and 
mathematics.    Died  in  1692. 

Walther,  [Lat.  Gualte'rus,]  (Rudolph,)  a  Swiss 
Protestant  divine,  born  at  Zurich  in  1 5 19,  was  a  friend 
of  Melanchthon,  Zuinglius,  and  other  eminent  Reformers 
of  the  time.  He  published  an  "  Apology  for  Zuinglius," 
Homilies  on  the  twelve  minor  prophets  and  on  the  New 
I'estament,  and  other  prose  v.'orks,  in  Latin ;  also  sev- 
eial  Latin  poems.    Died  in  1586. 

Walther,  von,  fon  \^al'ter,  (Philip?  Franz,)  an 
eminent  German  surgeon  and  oculist,  born  at  Buxweiler, 
in  Jiavaria,  in  1781,  became  ])rofessor  of  surgery  at  Bonn 
in  1819.  He  published  several  medical  and  surgical 
waiks^  among  which  are  "Human  Physiology,"  ("Phy- 
siologic des  Menschen,"  2  vols.,  1807-08,)  and  a  "Sys- 
tem of  Surgery,"  (4  vols.,  1833-40.)    Died  in  1849. 

See  J.  N.  VON  Ringseis,  "  Rede  zum  Andenkeu  an  den  Dr.  von 
W.ilther,"  1851. 

Walther  von  der  Vogelweide,  v^3.Kter  fon  d^R 
fSvi' eb-^iti'deh,  ("Walter  of  the  Bird-Meadow,")  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  German  minnesingers,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  born  in  Franconia  about  11 70.  He  was  of  a 
noble  family,  and  was  patronized  by  the  duke  Frederick 
of  \'ienna  and  his  brother  Leopold  VH.  His  works  are 
amatory  and  patriotic  songs,  and  display  genius  of  a  high 
order.  Two  editions  of  them  have  been  published  by 
Lachmann,  and  an  account  of  Walther's  life  and  poetry, 
by  Uhland,  appeared  in  1822.    Died  about  1230. 

Soe  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

WaPton,  (Brian,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
in  Y  orkshire  in  1600.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  and 
was  appointed  about  1638  chaplain  to  the  king,  and 
prebendary  of  Saint  Paul's.  When  the  party  of  the 
Pailiament  came  into  power,  he  was  deprived  of  his 
offi«,'e,  and  retired  to  Oxford,  where  he  Ijegan  to  collect 
the  materials  for  his  Polyglot  Bible.  This  great  work 
was  completed  in  1657,  (in  6  vols,  fob)  Walton  died  in 
1661,  having  a  short  time  previously  been  created  Bishop 
of  « 'hester. 

S>.'f'  Todd,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings,  of  the  Right  Rev. 
Brian  Walton,  D.D.,"  etc. 

WM'tpn,  (George,)  an  American  patriot  and  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in  Frederick 
county,  Virginia,  about  1740.    He  was  elected  to  Con- 


30  WAN-LEE 


gress  from  Georgia  in  1776,  being  four  times  re-elected, 
and  was  twice  chosen  Governor  of  Georgia.  He  became 
chief  justice  of  that  State  in  1783,    Died  in  1804. 

Walton,  (IzAAK,)  a  celebrated  English  writer,  born 
at  Stafford  in  1593.  His  first  publication  was  an  elegy 
on  his  friend  Dr.  Donne,  which  was  followed  by  a  Life 
of  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  prefixed  to  a  collection  of  his  let- 
ters, etc.,  and  entitled  "Reliquiae  Wottonianae,"  (1651.) 
In  early  life  he  was  a  hosier  or  linen-draper  in  London. 
His  principal  work,  "The  Complete  Angler,  or  Con- 
templative Man's  Recreation,"  came  out  in  1653.  I' 
was  received  with  great  favour,  and  has  passed  through 
numerous  editions.  Among  his  other  productions  are 
good  biographies  of  Richard  Hooker,  George  Herbert, 
(1670,)  and  Bishop  Sanderson,  (1678.)  Walton  was 
twice  married,  his  first  wife  being  Rachael  Floud,  a 
descendant  of  Archbishop  Cranmer,  and  the  second  a 
half-sister  of  Bishop  Ken.  He  died  in  1683,  leaving  one 
son  and  one  daughter.  Hazlitt  expressed  the  opinion 
that  his  "  Complete  Angler"  is  perhaps  the  best  pastoral 
in  the  English  language. 

See  Sir  J.  Hawklns,  "Life  of  Izaak  Walton,"  1760;  T.  Zouch, 
"Life  of  \.  Walton,"  1823;  "Life  of  Izaak  Walton,"  by  Sir  N. 
Harris  Nicolas,  1836. 

Walworth,  wSKworth,  (Reuben  Hyde,)  LL.D.,  an 
eminent  American  jurist,  born  at  Bozrah,  in  Connecticut, 
in  1789.  He  removed  at  an  early  age  to  Hoosick,  New 
York,  where  he  studied  law,  and  was  appointed  in  1811 
one  of  the  county  judges.  He  served  in  the  war  of 
1812,  and  was  present  in  1814  at  the  siege  of  Platts- 
burg,  as  adjutant-general  of  the  United  States  forces.  In 
1821  he  was  elected  to  Congress,  and  in  1828  appointed 
chancellor,  being  the  last  who  held  that  office  in  this 
country.  He  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  religious 
and  benevolent  associations  of  the  day,  and  was  presi- 
dent for  a  time  of  the  American  Temperance  Union. 
Died  in  1867. 

See  Livingston,  "  Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans." 

Walworth,  wSKworth,  (Sir  William,)  was  lord 
mayor  of  London  when  an  army  of  insurgents  under 
Wat  Tyler  marched  to  that  city  in  1381.  He  killed 
Tyler  while  he  was  speaking  to  the  king.  Died  about 
138s. 

Waman  or  Wamana.    See  Vamana. 

Wamba,  w6m'ba  or  wam'bS,  King  of  the  Visigoths 
of  Spain,  began  to  reign  in  672  a.d.    Died  in  683. 

Wamese,  wi'mk-zeh,  or  Wamesius,  wa-ma'ze-us, 
(John,)  a  Flemish  jurist,  born  near  Liege  in  1524;  died 
in  IS90. 

Wandelaincourt,  vSNd'liN'kooR',  (Antoine  Hu- 
bert,) a  French  ecclesiastic  and  writer,  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Verdun  in  1731.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Convention  of  1792,  and  voted  against  the  death  of  the 
king.    Died  in  1819. 

Wand'el-bert  or  Wand'al-bert,  a  learned  monk 
and  poet,  born  about  813  a.d.',  lived  at  Prum,  in  Flan- 
ders.   He  wrote  a  Martyrologv,  in  verse.  Died  after  870. 

Wandesforde,  wdnMes-ford  or  wSnz'ford,  (Chris- 
topher,) Viscount  Castlecomer,  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1592.  He  entered  Parliament, 
and  was  one  of  the  chief  managers  in  the  impeachment 
of  Buckingham.  He  succeeded  Strafford  as  lord  deputy 
of  Ireland  in  1640.    Died  in  December  of  that  year. 

Wangenheim,  Mng'en-hlm',  (Karl  August,) 
Baron,  a  German  statesman,  born  at  Gotha  in  1773. 
About  1806  he  was  called  to  Stuttgart,  where  he  became 
president  of  the  department  of  finance.  He  was  after- 
wards appointed  president  of  the  superior  court  at  Tii- 
bingen,  and  curator  of  the  university.  He  wrote  several 
works  in  relation  to  government.    Died  in  1850. 

Wang-Mang,  a  Chinese  usurper,  who,  having  put 
to  death  the  infant  heir  to  the  throne,  took  the  title  of 
emperor  about  9  a.d.    He  was  assassinated  in  23  a.d. 

Wan-Koolee,  (or  -Kouli.)  ( Mohammed Ibn  Mus- 
tafa, mo-hinr'med  ib'n  moos'ti  fa,)  a  Turkish  lexicog- 
rapher of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  translated  into 
Turkish  the  Arabic  Dictionary  of  Jevhery. 

Wan-Lee  or  Wan-Ly,  wan-lee,  called  also  Y-Kiun, 
an  emperor  of  China,  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  began  to 
reign  in  1572.  He  waged  war  against  the  Mantchoos 
who  invaded  China.    Died  in  1619  or  1620, 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  ^,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mfit;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WAN LET 


2231 


WARD 


Wanley,  wdn'le,  (Humphrey,)  an  English  antiquary, 
was  born  at  Coventry  in  1672.  He  employed  himself 
in  collecting  Anglo-Saxon  manuscripts  for  Dr.  Hickes's 
"  Thesaurus,"  and  prepared  a  descriptive  catalogue  of 
those  contained  in  the  libraries  of  the  kingdom.  He 
afterwards  became  librarian  to  the  Earl  of  Oxford.  Died 
in  1726. 

Wanley,  (Rev.  Nathaniel,)  an  English  writer  and 
divine,  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Leicester 
in  1633.  He  published  a  treatise  entitled  "Vox  Dei,  or 
the  Great  Duty  of  Self- Reflection  upon  a  Man's  Own 
Ways,"  and  a  popular  compilation  called  "  Wonders  of 
the  Little  World."    Died  in  1680. 

Wansleben,<^ans'li'ben,  (Johann  Michael,)  a  Ger- 
man scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Erfurt  in  1635.  He 
was  sent  in  1670  by  the  French  government  to  Egypt, 
where  he  made  a  collection  of  manuscripts.  He  pub- 
lished, in  Italian,  "An  Account  of  the  Present  State  of 
Egypt,"  and  several  antiquarian  works  in  Latin.  Died 
in  1679. 

See  VocKERODT,  "  Programmade  J.  M.  Wansleben,"  1718;  Nici- 
RON,  "  Memoires." 

Wappers,  wip'pers,  (Gustave,)  Baron,  a  Belgian 
painter  of  high  reputation,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1803. 
He  studied  in  his  native  city  and  in  Paris,  painted  his- 
torical and  religious  pictures,  and  obtained  the  title  of 
first  painter  to  the  King  of  Belgium.  In  1846  he  became 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Antwerp. 

War'beck,  (Perkin,)  an  adventurer,  who  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.  pretended  to  be  the  younger  son 
of  Edward  IV.,  supposed  to  have  been  murdered  by 
order  of  his  uncle,  Richard  III.  At  the  head  of  several 
thousand  insurgents,  he  besieged  Exeter  ;  but  he  re- 
treated on  the  approach  of  the  royal  army,  and,  being 
made  prisoner,  was  executed  in  1499. 

War'bur-ton,  (Eliot  Bartholomew  George,)  a 
distinguished  writer,  born  in  county  Galway,  Ireland,  in 
1810.  He  took  his  degree  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  published  in  1845  l^^**  work  entitled  "The 
Crescent  and  the  Cross,"  which  met  with  great  favour 
and  passed  through  numerous  editions.  It  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  history  of  "Prince  Rupert  and  the  Cava- 
liers," (1849,)  ^i^d  "Memoirs  of  Horace  Walpole  and 
his  Contemporaries."  He  perished  in  the  ship  Amazon, 
lost  off  Land's  End  in  1852.  His  tale  entitled  "  Darien, 
or  the  Merchant  Prince,"  came  out  after  his  death. 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "London  Quarterly 
Review"  tor  March,  1845. 

W^r'bur-tpn,  (John,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
1682,  jjublished  a  work  entitled  "  Vallum  Romanum." 
Died  in  1759. 

Warburton,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  writer 
and  prelate,  born  at  Newark  on  the  24th  of  December, 
1698,  was  a  son  of  George  Warburton,  an  attorney.  He 
was  educated  for  the  profession  of  law,  and  passed  five 
years  in  the  office  of  an  attorney,  (1715-19.)  Having 
resolved  to  enter  the  Church,  he  studied  theology  pri- 
vately, was  ordained  a  deacon  in  1723,  and  published 
"Miscellaneous  Translations,  in  Prose  and  Verse,  from 
Roman  Authors,"  (1723.)  He  obtained  the  vicarage  of 
Gryesley  in  1726,  through  the  patronage  of  Sir  Robert 
Sutton,  by  whom  he  was  pif;sented  to  the  rectory  of 
Brant-Broughton,  near  Newark,  in  1728.  He  resided  at 
this  place  about  eighteen  years.  In  1727  he  published 
a"('ritical  and  Philosophical  Inquiry  into  the  Causes 
of  Prodigies  and  Miracles  as  related  by  Historians." 
His  reputation  was  increased  by  an  able  work  entitled 
"The  Alliance  between  Church  and  State,  or  the  Ne- 
cessity and  Equity  of  an  Established  Religion  a:Kl  a 
Test  Law,"  etc.,  (1736,)  which  was  commended  by  Bishop 
Horsley  as  an  excellent  "specimen  of  scientific  reason- 
ing applied  to  a  political  subject." 

His  principal  work  is  "The  Divine  Legation  of  Moses 
demonstrated,  on  the  Principles  of  a  Religious  Deist, 
from  the  Omission  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  State  of 
Rewards  and  Punishments  in  the  Jewisli  Dispensation," 
(2  vols.,  1738-41,)  in  which  he  displayed  inmiense  erudi- 
tion in  the  support  of  novel  and  paradoxical  opinions. 
This  work  excited  much  controversy.  About  1740  he 
became  intimate  with  Pope,  after  he  had  written  several 
letters  in  defence  of  that  poet's  "  Essay  on  Man."  When 


Pope  died,  (1744,)  he  left  half  of  his  library,  and  other 
valuable  property,  to  Warburton,  who  married,  in  1745, 
Gertrude  Tucker,  a  niece  of  Mr.  Ralph  Allen,  of  Prior 
Park,  near  Bath.  Warburton  resided  mostly  at  Prior 
Park  after  his  marriage.  He  was  elected  preacher  to 
the  society  of  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1746,  edited  Shakspeare's 
works  in  1747,  and  published  a  complete  edition  of 
Pope's  works,  with  notes,  (9  vols.,),  in  1750. 

In  1754  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  king's  chaplains- 
in-ordinary,  and  in  1755  obtained  a  prebend  of  Dur- 
ham. He  became  Dean  of  Bristol  in  1757,  and  Bishop 
of  Gloucester  in  1759.  Among  his  other  works  we 
notice  "  A  View  of  Lord  Bolingbroke's  Philosophy,  in 
Four  Letters  to  a  Friend,"  (1754-55,)  and  two  volumes 
of  Sermons  preached  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  (1754.)  His  dis- 
position was  rather  haughty.  "  Warburton,"  says  Dr. 
Johnson,  "was  a  man  of  vigorous  faculties,  a  mind  fer- 
vid and  vehement,  supplied  by  incessant  and  unlimited 
inquiry,  with  a  wonderful  extent  and  variety  of  know- 
ledge, which  yet  had  not  oppressed  his  imagination  or 
clouded  his  perspicacity.  To  every  work  he  brought  a 
memory  full  fraught,  together  with  a  fancy  fertile  of 
original  combinations,  and  at  once  exerted  the  powers 
of  the  scholar,  the  reasoner,  and  the  wit.  .  .  .  His 
abilities  gave  him  a  haughty  confidence,  which  he  dis- 
dained to  conceal  or  mollify."  ("Life  of  Alexander 
Pope,"  in  the  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets.")  He  died 
at  Gloucester  in  June,  1779.  He  had  only  one  child,  a 
son,  who  died  young. 

See  Bishop  Hurd,  "  Notice  of  Warburton,"  prefixed  to  an  edition 
of  his  works,  1794;  J.  S.  Watson,  "Life  of  Warburton,"  1863; 
Chalmers,  "Biographical  Dictionary;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie 
Generale  ;"  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  January,  1809  ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  Decem- 
ber, 1820. 

ward,  (Artemas,)  an  American  general  of  the  Revo- 
lution, born  at  Shrewsbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1727.  He 
served  under  Abercroinbie  against  the  French  and 
Indians,  and  at  the  commencement  of  the  war  of  the 
Revolution  was  appointed  second  in  command  to 
Washington.  He  resigned  his  commission  in  April, 
1776.  He  was  afterwards  elected  to  Congress,  in  which 
he  served  from  1791  to  1795.    Died  in  1800. 

Ward,  (Artemas,)  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist,  bora 
in  Massachusetts  in  1763.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
Congress  in  1813,  and  became  chief  justice  of  the  court 
of  comiTion  pleas,  in  Massachusetts,  in  1821.  Died  in 
1847. 

ward,  (Edward,)  an  English  humorous  writer,  born 
about  1667.  He  made  a  version  of  "  Don  Quixote" 
into  Hudibrastic  rhymes,  and  was  the  author  of  "The 
London  Spy,"  a  poem.    Died  in  1731. 

Ward,  (Edward  Matthew,)  an  English  painter, 
born  in  London  in  1816.  He  studied  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  afterwards  at  Rome  and  Munich.  He 
was  chosen  a  Royal  Academician  in  1855.  Among  his 
most  admired  works  may  be  named  "The  Last  Sleep 
of  Argyle,"  "The  South -Sea  Bubble,  a  Scene  in  Change 
Alley,"  "  Daniel  Defoe  and  the  Manuscript  of  Robinson 
Crusoe,"  and  "  Izaak  Walton  Angling." 

Ward,  (Sir  Henry  George,)  an  English  statesman, 
a  son  of  Robert  Plumer,  noticed  below,  was  born  about 
1798.  He  was  several  times  elected  to  Parliament  for 
Saint  Alban's  and  Sheffield,  and  in  1846  became  secre- 
tary to  the  admiralty.  In  1849  he  was  appointed  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  in  1856  of  the  island 
of  Ceylon.    Died  in  i860. 

Ward,  (James,)  an  English  painter,  born  in  London 
in  1770,  executed  a  number  of  admirable  works  in  the 
style  of  Morland.  Among  the  best  of  these  may  be 
named  his  "Horse  and  Serpent,"  "Bulls  Fighting 
across  a  Tree,"  and  a  "  Landscape  with  Cattle."  He 
was  appointed  painter  and  engraver  to  the  Prince  of 
Wales  in  1794,  and  in  181 1  was  elected  Royal  Acade- 
mician.   Died  in  1859. 

Ward,  (Captain  James  Harman,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  1806.  He 
published  several  professional  works,  and  "Steam  for 
the  Million,"  (new  edition,  i860.)  He  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  Potomac  flotilla  in  May,  1861,  and 
was  killed  in  a  fight  against  a  battery  at  Matthias  Point, 
Virginia,  in  June  of  that  year. 


«  as  yt;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  Vi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


22 


32 


WARING 


Ward,  (John,)  LL.D.,  an  English  scholar  and  writer, 
born  in  London  in  1679.  He  became  professor  of 
rhetoric  at  Gresham  College  in  1720.  He  published  an 
edition  of  Maximus  Tyrius,  "  Lives  of  the  Professors 
of  Gresham  College,"  (1740,)  "Four  Essays  upon  the 
English  Language,"  (1758,)  and  other  works.  He  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries.    Died  in  1758. 

See  Thomas  Birch,  "Life  of  John  Ward,"  1766. 

Ward,  (John  William.)    See  Dudley,  Earl  of. 

Ward,  (Nathaniel,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  was 
born  at  Haverhill  about  1570.  In  1634  he  visited  New 
England,  where  he  assisted  in  forming  a  settlement  at 
Haverhill.  After  his  return  to  England  he  published 
a  satirical  work  entitled  "  Mercurius  Antimecharius, 
or  the  Simple  Cobbler's  Boy,"  etc.    Died  in  1653. 

Ward,  (Robert  Plumer,)  an  English  statesman  and 
writer,  born  in  1765.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  was  appointed  one  of  the  lords  of  the  admiralty 
in  1807,  and  was  subsequently  a  member  of  Parliament. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the  Law  of  Nations 
in  Europe  from  the  Time  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  to 
the  Age  of  Grotius,"  (1795,)  "  An  Inquiry  into  the  Con- 
duct of  European  Wars,"  (1803,)  three  novels,  entitled 
"Tremaine,"  "  De  Vere,"  and  "  De  Clifford,"  and  other 
works  on  various  subjects.    Died  in  1846. 

See  "Memoirs  of  the  Political  and  Literary  Life  of  Robert  Plumer 
Ward,"  by  Hon.  Edmund  Phipps,  2  vols.,  1850. 

Ward,  (Samuel,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
Durham.  He  became  Archdeacon  of  Taunton  in  161 5, 
and  afterwards  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford. 
Died  in  1643. 

Ward,  (Seth,)  an  English  bishop  and  distinguished 
astronomer,  born  in  Hertfordshire  in  1617.  He  studied 
at  Cambridge,  and  afterwards  became  professor  of 
astronomy  at  Oxford.  He  was  also  chosen  president  of 
Trinity  College  ;  but  he  was  compelled  to  resign  this 
office  at  the  restoration.  Under  Charles  II.  he  was 
created  Bishop  of  Salisbury  in  1662.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  and  first  members  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  "  An  Essay  on  the  Being 
and  Attributes  of  God,"  etc.,  (1652,)  a  treatise  on  the 
nature  of  comets,  entitled  "  Praelectio  de  Cometis,"  etc., 
(1653,)  and  "Astronomia  Geometria,"  (1656.)  Died 
in  1689. 

See  Walter  Pope,  "Life  of  Seth  Ward,"  1698. 

Ward,  (Thomas,)  a  Roman  Catholic  controversialist 
and  poet,  born  in  Yorkshire,  England,  in  1652 ;  died  in 
1708. 

Ward,  (William,)  an  English  missionary,  born  at 
Derby  in  1769.  He  sailed  for  India  in  1799,  and,  having 
settled  at  Serampore,  printed  the  Bengalee  New  Testa- 
ment and  other  translations.  He  also  published  "An 
Account  of  the  Writings,  Religion,  and  Manners  of  the 
Hindoos,"  (1811,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1823. 

W^rd'law,  (Henry,)  a  Scottish  ecclesiastic,  who 
became  Bishop  of  Saint  Andrew's,  and  founded  the 
university  in  that  place.    Died  in  1440. 

SeeCnAMBERs,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wardlaw,  (Ralph,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished  Scottish 
divine  and  theological  writer,  born  at  Dalkeith  in  1779. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  in  1803 
became  pastor  of  a  church  of  the  Scottish  Independents 
in  that  city.  He  was  chosen  professor  of  systematic 
theology  in  the  Academy  of  the  Independents  at  Glas- 
gow in  1811.  Among  his  principal  works  are  an  essay 
"On  the  Assurance  of  Faith,"  (1830,)  "Christian  Ethics, 
or  Moral  Philosophy  on  the  Principles  of  Divine  Reve- 
lation," (1833,)  "The  Divine  Dissuasive  to  the  Young 
against  the  Enticements  of  Sinners,"  and  a  "  Treatise 
on  Miracles,"  (1852.)    Died  in  1853. 

See  W.  L.  Alexander,  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of 
Ralph  Wardlaw,  D  D.  ;"  Ai.libone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;" 
Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,"  (Sup- 
plement.) 

Ware,  (Henry,)  D.D.,  an  American  Unitarian  divine, 
born  at  Sherburne,  Massachusetts,  in  1764.  He  grad- 
uated at  Harvard,  where  he  became  in  1805  Hollis 
professor  of  divinity.  He  published  "  Letters  to  Trini- 
tarians and  Calvinists,"  and  other  controversial  works. 


His  second  wife  was  a  daughter  of  James  Otis.  Died 
in  1845. 

Ware,  (Henry,)  Jr.,  D.D.,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Hingham,  Massachusetts,  in  1794.  He  became 
minister  of  the  Second  Unitarian  Church,  Boston,  in 
181 7,  and  was  appointed  in  1829  professor  of  pulpit  elo- 
quence and  the  pastoral  care  in  the  theological  school, 
Cambridge.  He  was  for  a  time  editor  of  the  "Christian 
Disciple,"  since  become  the  "Christian  Examiner,"  and 
published  a  number  of  religious  essays  and  poems,  one 
of  which,  entitled  "  To  the  Ursa  Major,"  has  been  greatly 
admired.    Died  in  1843. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  Henry  Ware,  Jr.,"  by  his  brother  John,  1846. 

Ware,  (Sir  James,)  an  Irish  antiquary,  born  at  Dublin 
in  1594.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  auditor-general  of 
the  kingdom  in  1632,  and  afterwards  became  a  member 
of  the  Irish  House  of  Commons  and  of  the  privy  council. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  on  the  antiquities  of  Ire- 
land, entitled  "  De  Prassulibus  Hiberniag  Commentarius," 
and  of  other  treatises  on  history  and  antiquities.  Died 
in  1666. 

Ware,  (James,)  an  English  surgeon  and  oculist,  born 
at  Portsmouth  about  1756,  became  demonstrator  of 
anatomy  at  Cambridge.  He  wrote  "  Remarks  on  Fistula 
Lachrymalis,"  (1798,)  and  "Chirurgical  Observations." 
Died  in  1815. 

Ware,  (John,)  M.D.,  brother  of  Henry  Ware,  (1794- 
1843,)  was  born  at  Hingham,  Massachusetts,  in  1795. 
He  was  appointed  in  1832  professor  of  the  theory  and 
practice  of  medicine  in  the  medical  department  of  Har- 
vard College.  He  has  published  treatises  "On  Croup," 
"On  Haemoptysis,"  and  other  medical  works. 

Ware,  (William,)  a  distinguished  American  author, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Hingham,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1797.  He  was  successively  pastor  of 
a  church  in  New  York,  at  Waltham,  Massachusetts, 
and  at  West  Cambridge.  His  "Letters  frotn  Palmyra," 
originally  published  in  the  "  Knickerbocker  Magazine," 
appeared  afterwards  under  the  title  of  "  Zenobia,"  (1836,) 
and  was  succeeded  in  1838  by  "Aurelian,"  otherwise 
called  "  Probus,"  a  continuation  of  the  same  subject. 
These  classical  romances  have  won  for  their  author  a 
high  reputation  both  in  America  and  Europe,  and  have 
been  translated  into  German.  Mr.  Ware  was  for  a  time 
editor  of  the  "Christian  Examiner."  He  also  published 
"  Lectures  on  the  Works  and  Genius  of  Washington 
Allston,"  and  "Sketches  of  European  Capitals,"  (1851.) 
He  died  at  Cambridge  in  February,  1852. 

See  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America;"  Duvckinck, 
"  Cyclopjedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Spragije,  "  Annals  of 
the  American  Pulpit,"  vol.  viii.  ;  "  Westminster  Review"  for  January, 
1838;  "  North  American  Review"  for  October,  1837. 

Wargentin,  vaK'gen-teen',  (Peter  Wilhelm,)  an 
eminent  Swedish  astronomer,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1717. 
He  was  appointed  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy 
of  Stockholm  in  1749;  and  he  subsequently  became  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  a  chevalier 
of  the  Polar  Star.    Died  in  1783. 

See  Franzen,  "  Minne  af  P.  W.  Wargentin,"  1847. 

War'ham,  (William,)  an  English  prelate  and  states- 
man, born  in  Hampshire.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  and 
was  successively  created  by  Henry  VIII.  keeper  of  the 
great  seal,  (1502,)  lord  chancellor,  (1503,)  Bishop  of 
London  the  same  year,  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
(1504.)  He  was  obliged  to  resign  the  chancellorship  in 
1 5 16  in  favour  of  Wolsey,  who  had  become  the  favourite 
of  the  king.  He  died  in  1532,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Cranmer  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Warham  wa.s 
a  patron  of  learning,  and  a  warm  friend  of  Erasmus,  who 
mentions  him  in  his  letters  with  high  commendation. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  "Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury," 
vol.  i.,  new  series,  chap.  ii. 

Warin.    See  Vartn,  (Jean.) 

Wa'ring,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  English  mathema- 
tician, born  near  Shrewsbury  in  1736.  He  studied  at 
Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  became  Lu- 
casian  professor  of  mathematics  in  1760.  He  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1763.  He  published 
"  Analytical  Miscellanies  on  Algebraic  Equations," 
("Miscellanea  analytica  de  /Equationibus  algebraicis," 
etc.,  1762,)  "  Properties  of  Algebraic  Curves,"  ("  Propri- 


ai,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  it,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, 


f,  short;  ai,    i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  ftt;  mSt;  n6t;  g56d;  moon; 


WARMHOLTZ 


2233 


WARREN 


etates  Algebraicarum  Curvarum,"  etc.,  1772,)  and  other 
valuable  works.    Died  in  1798. 

Warmholtz,  -^iRm'holts,  (Carl  Gustaf,)  a  Swedish 
bibliographer,  born  in  1 710.  He  published  a  '*  Swedish- 
Gothic  Historical  Library,"  ("  Bibliotheca  historica 
Sueco-Gothica,"  3  vols.,  1782.)    Died  in  1784. 

Warnachaire,  vtR'nt'shiR',  [Lat.  Warnacha'rius,] 
became  mayor  of  the  palace  under  Thierry  H.  of  Bur- 
gundy about  612  A.D.  He  aided  Clotaire  H.  to  defeat 
Queen  Brunehaut,  and  acquired  great  power.  Died 
in  626. 

Warneford,  warn'ford,  (Rev.  Samuel  Wilson,)  an 
English  clergyman  and  philanthropist,  born  in  Wiltshire 
in  1758.  He  studied  at  University  College,  Oxford,  and 
in  1810  became  rector  of  Bourton-on-the-Hill,  in  Glou- 
cestershire. He  founded  a  hospital  at  Leamington,  and 
a  lunatic-asylum  near  Oxford,  both  called  by  his  name, 
and  made  munificent  donations  to  various  colleges  and 
charitable  institutions  in  the  kingdom.    Died  in  1855. 

War'ner,  (Anna  B.,)  sister  of  Susan  Warner,  noticed 
below,  has  published  "  Dollars  and  Cents,  by  Amy 
Lothrop,"  (1853,)  "My  Brother's  Keeper,"  (1855,)  3"<^' 
in  conjunction  with  her  sister,  "Say  and  Seal,"  (i860,) 
and  other  works. 

War'ner,  (Ferdinando,)  an  English  divine  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  1703,  became  rector  of 
Barnes,  in  Surrey.  Among  his  numerous  publications 
we  may  name  "  The  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  (1756,)  a  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas 
More,"  (1758,)  and  "History  of  the  Rebellion  and  Civil 
War  in  Ireland,"  (1767.)    Died  about  1768. 

Warner,  (John,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Westminster  in  1585,  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Rochester, 
Died  in  1666. 

Warner,  (John,)  D.D.,  son  of  Ferdinando,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  1736.  He  became  rector  of  Stourton, 
in  Wiltshire,  and  wrote  a  political  work,  entitled  "  Me- 
tronariston."    Died  in  1800. 

Warner,  (Joseph,)  F.R.S.,  a  distinguished  surgeon, 
born  in  the  island  of  Antigua  in  1717,  was  a  pupil  of 
Samuel  Sharpe.  He  was  surgeon  to  Guy's  Hospital, 
London,  about  forty-four  years,  and  published  several 
professional  works.    Died  in  1801. 

Warner,  (Richard,)  an  English  botanist,  born  in 
1711,  published  a  work  entitled  "  Plantce  Woodford- 
ienses."  The  genus*  Warneria  was  named  in  his  honour. 
He  died  in  1775,  leaving  his  library  to  Wadham  College, 
Oxford. 

Warner,  (Susan,)  a  popular  American  writer,  born 
in  New  York  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
She  published  in  1850,  under  the  assumed  name  of 
Elfzaheth  Wetherell,  her  novel  of"  The  Wide,  Wide 
World,"  which  had  an  extraordinary  success.  It  was 
followed  in  1852  by  "  Queechy,"  which  likewise  enjoyed 
a  great  popularity.  Both  have  l^een  translated  into 
French.  She  has  also  written  "The  Hills  of  Shate- 
muck,"  (1856,)  "The  Duties  of  American  Women,"  and 
other  works. 

See  the  "  North  American  Review"  for  January,  1853. 

Warner,  (William,)  an  English  poet,  born  in  Ox- 
fordshire about  1558.  ?Ie  was  the  author  of  a  collection 
of  ballads,  entitled  "  All)ion's  England,"  which  acquired 
great  popularity;  also  "Syrinx,  a  Seavenfold  Historie," 
consisting  of  prose  narratives.    Died  in  1609. 

Warnkonig  or  Warnkoenig,  <vaRn'ko^iiG,  (Leo- 
pold August,)  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Bruchsal  in 
1794,  became  successively  professor  of  law  at  Louvain, 
Ghent,  Freiburg,  and  Tiibingen.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  "  History  of  the  Jurisprudence  and  State  of  Flanders," 
(1834,)  and  other  similar  works. 

Warren,  wSr'ren,  (Charles,)  an  English  engraver 
on  steel,  bf)rn  in  London  about  1762,  had  a  high  reputa- 
tion.   Died  in  1823. 

Warren,  vvSr'ren,  (Gouverneur  K.,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  New  York  about  1825,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1850.  He  commanded  a  brigade  of  the 
Union  army  at  Gaines's  Mill,  June  27,  and  at  Malvern 
Hill,  July  I,  1862.  He  served  at  Antietam,  September 
17,  1862,  at  Chancellorsville,  May  3,  1863,  and  at  Gettys- 
burg, July  2  and  3.  He  commanded  the  fifth  corps  of 
the  army  of  the  Potomac  at  the  battle  of  the  Wilder- 


ness, May  5  and  6,  1864,  at  Spottsvlvania  Court-House, 
May  8-12,  and  at  Cold  Harbour,  June  3.  On  the  31st 
of  March,  1865,  his  corps,  advancing  to  seize  the  White 
Oak  Road,  was  attacked  by  the  enemy,  whom  he  re- 
pulsed. He  then  reinforced  General  Sheridan,  under 
whom  he  served  at  the  battle  of  Five  Forks,  April  i. 
He  was  deprived  of  his  command  by  General  Sheridan 
about  the  close  of  this  battle. 

Warren,  (James,)  an  American  patriot  and  revo- 
lutionist, born  at  Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1726, 
was  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  that 
State,  and  a  zealous  defender  of  the  colonists.  Died 
in  1808. 

Warren,  (John,)  M.D.,  brother  of  General  Joseph 
Warren,  was  born  at  Roxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1753. 
He  was  physician  to  the  military  hospitals  of  Boston  in 
the  Revolutionary  war,  and  was  afterwards  appointed 
professor  of  anatomy  in  the  medical  department  of  Har- 
vard College.  He  published  a  number  of  medical  works. 
Died  in  1815. 

Warren,  (Sir  John  Borlase,)  G.C.B.,  an  English 
naval  commander,  born  in  Nottinghamshire  in  1754.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Marlow  in  1774,  and  again 
in  1780.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  with  France 
in  1793,  and,  as  commander  of  the  Canada,  in  1798,  cap- 
tured the  French  squadron,  consisting  of  a  ship  of  the 
line  and  three  frigates,  sent  for  the  invasion  of  Ireland. 
Soon  after  this  service  he  was  made  a  rear-admiral  of 
the  blue.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Notting- 
ham in  1793,  being  re-elected  in  1802,  and  was  subse- 
quently ambassador-extraordinary  to  Saint  Petersburg. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  author  of  "  A  View  of 
the  Naval  Force  of  Great  Britain,"  (i  791.)    Died  in  1822. 

Warren,  (John  Collins,)  M.D.,  a  son  of  John, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Boston  in  1778.  He  studied 
medicine  in  London,  Edinburgh,  and  Paris,  and,  after  his 
return,  succeeded  his  father  as  professor  of  anatomy  at 
Harvard,  (1815.)  He  became  associate  editor  of  the 
"  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,"  and  was  a  fre- 
quent contributor  to  the  leading  scientific  and  medical 
journals.  He  published  "  Surgical  Operations  on  Tu- 
mours," a  treatise  on  "Diseases  of  the  Heart,"  (1809,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1856. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  John  C.  Warren,"  by  his  brother  Edward, 
2  vols.,  1859. 

Warren,  (Joseph,)  a  distinguished  American  general 
and  patriot,  born  at  Roxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1 741, 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1759.  He  studied 
medicine,  which  he  began  to  practise  in  Boston  at  the 
age  of  twenty-three,  and  he  became  in  a  few  years  one 
of  the  most  eminent  physicians  of  that  city.  He  took 
an  active  part  in  political  affairs,  was  a  decided  asserter 
of  liberal  principles,  and  was  eminently  qualified  by 
his  superior  talents  and  ardent  temperament  to  be  a 
popular  leader  in  critical  times.  He  possessed  in  high 
perfection  the  gift  of  eloquence.  In  March,  1772,  he 
delivered  an  oration  on  the  anniversary  of  the  Boston 
Massacre.  According  to  Alexander  H.  Everett,  "the 
commanding  genius  of  Warren  carried  him  at  once  to 
the  helm,  and  rendered  him,  for  the  brief  period  of  his 
subsequent  life,  both  in  civil  and  military  affairs,  the 
most  prominent  man  in  New  England." 

In  1774  he  was  elected'  president  of  the  Provincial 
Congress,  and  chairman  of  the  committee  of  public 
safety,  which  exercised  the  chief  executive  power  in 
Massachusetts.  Having  obtained  information  of  the 
British  expedition  against  Concord,  he  despatched  a 
messenger  on  the  night  of  April  18,  1775,  to  warn  his 
friends,  and  thus  contributed  to  the  success  gained  at 
Lexington  on  the  ensuing  day.  He  was  elected  a  major- 
general  by  Congress  on  the  14th  of  June,  1775.  He 
opposed  the  plan  of  fortifying  the  heights  of  Charles- 
town  ;  but  the  majority  of  the  council  of  war  decided  to 
fortify  those  heights,  and  thus  brought  on  the  battle  of 
Bunker's  Hill  before  the  Americans  were  fully  prepared 
for  it.  While  both  the  armies  were  awaiting  the  signal 
for  action,  on  the  17th  of  June,  General  Warren  joined 
the  ranks  as  a  volunteer,  and  declined  to  take  the  com- 
mand of  the  army,  which  was  offered  to  him  by  General 
Putnam.  He  was  about  to  retire  from  the  redoubt  after 
the  ammunition  of  the  Americans  had  been  exhausted, 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/-  o,  h,  K^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  ({J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WARREN 


2234 


WARWICK 


when  he  was  shot  in  the  forehead,  and  instantly  killed. 
He  left  two  sons,  who  both  died  young,  and  two  daughters. 
His  loss  was  deeply  and  universally  lamented.  "The 
name  of  Joseph  Warren,"  says  A.  H.  Everett,  "is  one  of 
the  most  conspicuous  in  the  annals  of  the  Revolution. 
His  memory  is  cherished  with  even  warmer  regard  than 
that  of  some  others,  who,  from  the  greater  length  of  their 
career,  and  the  wider  sphere  in  which  they  acted,  may 
be  supposed  to  have  rendered  more  important  services 
to  the  country.  This  distinction  in  his  favour  is  owing, 
in  part,  to  the  chivalrous  beauty  of  his  character,  which 
naturally  excites  a  sympathetic  glow  in  every  feeling 
mind,  and  in  part  to  that  untimely  but  glorious  fate 
which  consecrated  him  as  the  first  distinguished  martyr 
in  the  cause  of  independence  and  liberty." 

See  "The  Life  of  Joseph  Warren,"  by  Alexander  H.  Everett, 
in  SrARics's  "  American  15iography,"  vol.  x. ;  "National  Portrait- 
Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  ii. 

Warren,  (Mercy,)  the  wife  of  James  Warren,  and 
sister  of  James  Otis,  was  born  at  Barnstable,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1728.  She  was  the  author  of  a  "History  of  the 
American  Revolution,"  (3  vols.,  1805,)  which  was  highly 
esteemed  at  the  time,  tragedies  entitled  "The  Sack  of 
Rome"  and  "The  Ladies  of  Castile,"  and  a  number  of 
poems.    Died  in  1814. 

See  Gkiswold,  "Female  Poets  of  America." 

Warren,  (Sir  Peter,)  an  Irish  admiral,  born  in  1703. 
As  commander  of  a  squadron,  he  captured  Louisbourg 
from  the  French  in  1745,  and  in  1747  assisted  Anson 
in  defeating  a  French  squadron.  He  was  subsequently 
created  vice-admiral  of  the  red,  and  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment for  Westminster.  He  died  in  1752.  A  monument 
to  him,  by  Roubiliac,  was  placed  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Warren,  (Samuel,)  a  popular  English  novelist  and 
legal  writer,  born  in  Denbighshire  in  1807.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Edinburgh,  but  subsequently  devoted  him- 
self to  the  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1837. 
His  "  Passages  from  the  Diary  of  a  Late  Physician" 
(New  York,  1831)  came  out  in  "  Blackwood's  Magazine," 
and  obtained  an  extensive  popularity;  and  his  novel  of 
"Ten  Thousand  a  Year"  (1841)  appeared  soon  after  in 
the  same  journal.  Both  works  were  afterwards  published 
separately,  and  the  latter  has  been  translated  into  the 
principal  languages  of  Europe.  Mr.  Warren  has  also 
written  "  A  Popular  and  Practical  Introduction  to  Law 
Studies,"  etc.,  (1845,)  "  Now  and  Then,"  (1847,)  '*  Moral, 
Social,  and  Professional  Duties  of  Attorneys  and  So- 
licitors," (1848,)  and  other  valuable  legal  treatises.  He 
was  chosen  to  represent  Midhurst  in  Parliament  in  1856 
and  1857. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Blackwood's  Maga- 
rine"  for  February,  1848;  "British  Quarterly  Review"  for  May, 
1848. 

Warrington,  w6r'ring-ton,  (Lewis,)  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  at  Vv^illiamsburg,  Virginia,  in  1782. 
He  fought  with  distinction  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  com- 
manded the  Peacock,  which  captured  the  British  brig 
Epervier  in  April,  1814.  He  was  appointed  chief  of  the 
bureau  of  ordnance  and  hydrography  in  1842.  He  had 
beei"!  raised  to  the  rank  of  captain  in  1814.  Died  in  1851. 

Wartenberg,  von,  fon  MR^'ten-bluG',  (Franz  Wil- 
HELM,)  Count,  a  German  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1593. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Ratisbon  and  Osnabriick,  and 
cardinal  in  1661.    He  died  the  same  year. 

Wartensleben, MR'tens-li'ben,  (Alexander  Her- 
mann,) a  German  general,  born  in  Westphalia  in  1650. 
He  served  in  the  armies  of  Hesse,  Austria,  and  Prussia, 
with  the  rank  of  field-marshal.    Died  in  1734. 

Warten.sleben,  von,  fon  MR'tens-li'ben,  (WiL- 
helm  Ludwig  Gaston,)  an  Austrian  general,  born 
in  1728.  He  obtained  cominand  in  1796  of  a  corps 
d'armee  under  the  archduke  Charles,  and  was  defeated 
by  Jourdan  at  Friedberg,  from  which  he  retreated  to 
Wiirzburg.  Having  effected  a  junction  with  the  arch- 
duke, he  contributed  to  the  victory  over  the  French  near 
Wiirzburg,  in  September,  1796.    Died  soon  after  1797. 

War'tpn,  (Joseph,)  D.D.,  an  English  critic  and 
scholar,  born  in  Surrey  in  1722.  He  studied  at  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  and,  having  taken  his  degree  of  B.A., 
was  ordained  curate  of  Basingstoke.  He  published  in 
1746  a  collection  of  poems,  entitled  "Odes  on  Various 


Subjects,"  and  in  1753  edition  of  Virgil,  with  a  new 
poetical  version  of  the  "  Eclogues"  and  "  Georgics."  His 
"Essay  on  the  Writings  and  Genius  of  Pope"  appeared 
in  1782,  and,  although  not  favourably  received  at  the 
time,  is  now  generally  regarded  as  one  of  his  best  works. 
Warton  became  head-master  of  Winchester  School  in 
1766,  and  he  was  afterwards  successively  created  preb- 
endary of  Saint  Paul's  and  of  Winchester  Cathedral,  and 
rector  of  Clapham.  In  1797  he  published  an  edition  of 
Pope's  works,  with  notes,  (9  vols.  8vo.)    Died  in  1800. 

See  "Biographical  Memoirs  of  the  Late  Rev.  Joseph  Warton, 
D.D.,"  by  the  Rkv.  John  Wooll  ;  "  Lives  of  the  English  Poets, 
from  Johnson  to  Kirke  White,"  by  Gary. 

Warton,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  critic  and 
poet,  born  at  Basingstoke  in  1728,  was  a  brother  of  the 
preceding.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  of 
which  he  became  a  Fellow  in  1 751.  He  was  elected 
professor  of  poetry  in  1757,  and  subsequently  Camden 
professor  of  history,  at  Oxford.  His  "  History  of  Eng- 
lish Poetry,"  esteemed  one  of  the  most  valuable  works 
of  the  kind,  came  out  in  1781,  in  3  vols.  Among  his 
other  productions  we  may  name  "The  Triumph  of 
Isis,"  a  poem,  written  in  reply  to  Mason's  "  Isis,"  "The 
Progress  of  Discontent,"  and  "  The  Oxford  Sausage, 
or  Select  Pieces  written  by  the  Most  Celebrated  Wits  of 
the  University  of  Oxford,"  all  of  which  display  great 
powers  of  humour  and  satire.  His  "  Observations  on 
the  Faerie  Queene  of  Spenser"  (1754)  was  also  received 
with  great  favour.  Warton  made  several  contributions 
to  Dr.  Johnson's  "  Idler,"  and  published  an  edition  of 
Milton's  minor  jjoems,  and  an  excellent  edition  of  The- 
ocritus, to  which  was  prefixed  a  Latin  dissertation  on 
the  bucolic  poetry  of  the  Greeks.  Li  1785  he  succeeded 
Whitehead  as  poet-laureate.    Died  in  1790. 

See  R.  Manx,  "  Life  of  Warton,"  1802;  Campbell,  "  Specimens 
of  the  British  Poets;"  Carv,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets,  from 
Jolmson  to  Kirke  White  ;"  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October, 
1838  ;  "Monthly  Review"  for  September  and  November,  1778,  etseq. 

Warton,  (Thomas,)  Rev.,  an  English  scholar,  born 
in  1687,  was  the  father  of  Joseph  Warton,  noticed  above. 
He  was  ])rofessor  of  poetry  at  Oxford.    Died  in  1745. 

Warwick,  wSr'rik,  Earls  of.  This  title  was  given 
to  one  of  the  family  of  Newburgh  by  William  the  Con- 
queror, and  was  inherited  by  William  de  Beauchamp  in 
the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  earldom 
remained  in  the  family  of  Beatichamp  until  1449,  when 
Richard  Nevil  became  Earl  of  Warwick.  (See  separate 
article,  given  below.)  The  title  became  extinct  about 
1500,  and  was  revived  in  favour  of  John  Dudley  in  1547. 
Li  1618  it  was  obtained  by  Robert  Rich. 

Warwick,  Earl  of.    See  Dudley,  (John.) 

Warwick,  (Edward,)  Earl  of.  See  Edward 
Plan  I'AdENET. 

Warwick,  (Guy,)  Earl  of,  an  English  hero,  whose 
history  is  involved  in  great  obscurity.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  tenth  century.  The  "Romance  of 
Sir  Guy"  was  probably  written  in  the  early  part  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  was  printed  by  William  Cop- 
land in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Warwick,  (Henry  de  Beauchamp,)  Earl  and 
Duke  of,  was  created  by  Henry  VI.  Premier  Earl  of 
England,  Duke  of  Warwick,  and  King  of  the  Islands 
of  Wight,  Jersey,  and  Guernsey.  He  was  the  son  of 
Richard  de  Beauchamp,  noticed  below.    Died  in  1445. 

Warwick,  (Sir  Philip,)  an  English  writer,  born  at 
Westminster  in  1608.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Long 
Parliament  of  1640,  and  a  partisan  of  the  king  in  the 
civil  war.  He  officiated  as  clerk  to  the  signet  or  as 
secretary  to  Charles  L,  and  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  his  Own 
Time,"  (1701,)  a  work  of  some  interest.    Died  in  1683. 

See  "  Monk's  Contemporaries,"  by  Guizot,  London,  1864. 

Warwick,  (Richard  de  Beauchamp,)  Earl  of,  an 
English  statesman  and  military  commander,  who  served 
in  France  under  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  during  whose 
absence  he  acted  as  regent  of  that  kingdom.  On  his 
return  to  England  he  was  appointed  governor  to  the 
young  prince,  afterwards  Henry  VL  In  1437  he  be- 
came again  Regent  of  France,  wiiere  he  died  in  1439. 

See  Shakspeare,  "  Henry  VL,"  Parts  IL  and  IIL 

Warwick,  (Richard  Nevil,)  Earl  of,  (called 
"  Warwick  the  King-Maker,")  son  of  the  Earl  of  Salis* 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  lou^;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  sAort;  ^,  ?,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  filll,  fit;  mSt;  ndi;  good;  moon; 


WARWICK 


WASHINGTON 


bury,  and  son-in-law  of  Richard,  Earl  of  Warwick,  no- 
ticed above,  was  born  about  1420.  By  his  marriage  with 
Anne,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  he  acquired 
the  immense  estates  of  that  family,  and  assumed  the  title 
of  Earl  of  Warwick.  He  was  also  nephew  of  Richard, 
Duke  of  York,  and  was  first-cousin  to  Edward  IV.,  be- 
sides being  allied  to  other  noble  families  of  the  kingdom. 
Having  joined  the  party  of  the  Duke  oi  York  in  the  civil 
war  of  the  Roses,  in  1455,  ^^'^^  chiefly  instrumental  in 
gaining  the  victory  of  Saint  Alban's,  and  was  soon  after 
made  governor  of  Calais.  After  the  defeat  of  the  York- 
ists at  Ludiford,  Warwick  collected  a  large  army,  and 
gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  enemy  at  Northampton, 
(1460,)  and  took  King  Henry  prisoner.  He  defeated  the 
Lancastrians,  in  146 1,  at  the  battle  of  Towton,  which 
secured  the  throne  to  Edward  IV.  He  was  liberally  re- 
warded for  his  services,  and  became  the  most  powerful 
subject  of  England.  Having  quarrelled  with  the  king, 
Warwick  passed  over  to  France,  (1470,)  formed  an 
alliance  with  Queen  Margaret,  and  returned  with  an 
army  to  England,  where  he  proclaimed  Henry  VI.  as 
king.  Edward  IV.  was  driven  out  of  the  kingdom,  and 
retired  to  Holland,  but  returned  in  March,  1471,  with  a 
body  of  troops,  and  defeated  the  enemy  at  Barnet  in 
April,  1471.  The  Earl  of  Warwick,  who  commanded 
the  Lancastrians,  was  killed  in  this  action.  He  had  two 
daughters, — Isabella,  who  was  married  to  the  Duke  of 
Clarence,  and  Anne,  who  was  married  first  to  Edward, 
Prince  of  Wales,  (a  son  of  Henry  VI.,)  and  again  to 
Richard  IH. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England;"  Comines,  "  Memoires ;" 
Habington,  "History  of  Edward  IV.;"  Lingard,  "  History  of 
England  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Warwick,  (Robert  Rich,)  Eakl  of,  was  a  de- 
scendant of  Lord-Chancellor  Rich.  He  became  Earl  of 
Warwick  in  1618.  In  the  civil  war  he  adhered  to  the 
Parliament,  by  which  he  was  appointed  admiral  of  the 
fleet  in  1642.  He  acquired  great  authority  and  credit 
with  the  popular  party,  and  supported  Cromwell  after 
he  became  Protector.  According  to  Clarendon,  "  he 
lived  in  entire  confidence  and  friendship  with  Cromwell." 
("  History  of  the  Rebellion.")    Died  in  1658. 

Waser,  <^i'zer,  (Anna,)  a  Swiss  miniature-painter, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1679;  died  in  1713. 

Waser,  (Caspar,)  a  Swiss  Orientalist,  born  at  Zurich 
in  1565.  He  became  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Zurich  in 
1596.    Died  in  1625. 

Washburn,  w6sh'burn,  (Cadwalader  C.,)  an  Ameri- 
can general  and  lawyer,  born  at  Livermore,  Maine,  in 
1818.  He  removed  to  Wisconsin,  and  rejjresented  a 
district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from  1855  to  1861. 
He  became  a  brigadier-general  about  July,  1862.  In 
May  or  June,  1863,  he  moved  a  division  from  Memphis 
to  reinforce  General  Grant  at  Vicksburg. 

Washburn,  (Elihu  B.,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Oxford  county,  Maine,  in  1816.  He  studied 
law,  and  settled  at  Galena,  Illinois.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1852,  and  successively  re-elected 
seven  times, — voted  with  the  Republican  party,  and  be- 
came a  personal  friend  of  General  Grant.  He  served  as 
chairman  of  the  committee  on  commerce  for  many  years, 
and  distinguished  himself  as  an  advocate  of  economy 
and  retrenchment.  On  the  4th  of  March,  1869,  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  state  in  the  cabinet  of  General 
Grant ;  but  he  resigned,  on  account  of  his  health,  about  a 
week  later,  and  was  nominated  minister  to  France.  He 
remained  in  Paris  during  the  siege  which  began  about 
September,  1870. 

Washburn,  (Israel,)  an  American  Governor,  a 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Livermore,  Maine, 
in  1813.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1851  to 
i860,  and  was  chosen  Governor  of  Maine  in  the  latter 
year. 

Washington,  wSsh'ing-tpn,  (Bushrod,)  a  judge, 
born  in  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  in  1759,  was  a 
nephew  of  General  George  Washington,  and  a  son  of 
John  Augustine  Washington.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Virginia  Convention  which  ratified  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States  in  1788,  and  was  appointed  a  judge 
of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  in  September, 
1798.    By  the  will  of  his  illustrious  uncle  he  became 


the  possessor  of  the  estate  of  Mount  Vernon,  (1799.) 
He  died  in  Philadelphia  in  November,  1829,  leaving  a 
good  reputation. 

Washington,  (George,)  an  illustrious  American 
general,  statesman,  and  patriot,  the  first  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  on  the  Potomac  River,  in 
Westmoreland  county,  Virginia,  on  the  22d  of  February, 
1 732.  He  was  a  son  of  Augustine  Washington,  a  planter, 
and  his  second  wife,  Mary  Ball.  His  great-grandfather, 
John  Washington,  emigrated  with  his  brother  Lawrence 
from  England  to  Virginia  about  1657,  Augustine  dying 
in  1743  left  a  large  estate  in  land  to  his  widow  and  his 
five  surviving  children.  The  subject  of  this  article  in- 
herited a  large  farm  on  the  Rappahannock  River,  (near 
Fredericksburg,)  on  which  farm  was  the  house  occupied 
by  Augustine  Washington  at  the  time  of  his  death. 
George  attended  several  schools  in  the  vicinity  of  his 
home,  but  was  never  sent  to  college,  and  never  studied 
the  ancient  languages.  His  manuscript  school-books 
are  still  extant,  and  are  models  of  neatness  and  accuracy. 
In  his  early  youth  he  was  distinguished  for  his  probity 
and  veracity.  Favoured  with  superior  physical  strength, 
he  excelled  in  athletic  exercises  and  in  horsemanship. 
His  moral  character  was  moulded  by  the  influence  of 
his  high-spirited  and  intelligent  mother. 

After  he  left  school  (1747)  he  passed  much  time  with 
his  elder  brother  Lawrence,  who  resided  at  Mount 
Vernon,  on  the  Potomac  River.  He  was  also  a  frequent 
guest  at  Greenway  Court,  the  seat  of  Thomas,  Lord 
P'airfax,  an  eccentric  nobleman,  who  owned  an  immense 
tract  of  land  in  that  part  of  Virginia.  Young  Washing- 
ton gained  the  favour  of  Lord  Fairfax  and  of  his  cousin 
Sir  William  Fairfax,  who  lived  at  Belvoir.  In  the  spring 
of  1748  he  was  employed  by  Lord  Fairfax  to  survey  a 
portion  of  his  land  which  was  situated  beyond  the  Blue 
Ridge  and  had  not  yet  been  settled  by  white  people. 
In  the  hardships  and  privations  of  this  enterprise  he 
passed  nearly  three  years,  during  which  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  sleep  in  the  open  air.  He  kept  a  journal  of 
these  surveying  expeditions,  as  well  as  of  the  subsequent 
events  of  his  life.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  was  ap- 
pointed adjutant-general  (with  the  rank  of  major)  of  one 
of  the  districts  into  which  Virginia  was  divided  when 
hostilities  between  the  English  and  French  became  im- 
minent. In  November,  1753,  he  was  sent  by  Governor 
Dinwiddie  on  a  mission  to  the  French  commander,  and 
performed  a  perilous  journey  of  five  hundred  miles  or 
more  through  the  wilderness.  The  prudence,  sagacity, 
resolution,  and  fortitude  which  he  manifested  in  this 
mission  pointed  him  out  as  one  fitted  for  more  impor- 
tant public  services.  "  It  is  an  expedition,"  says  Irving, 
"  that  may  be  considered  the  foundation  of  his  fortunes. 
From  that  moment  he  was  the  rising  hope  of  Virginia." 

Hostilities  between  the  Virginians  and  the  French 
began  in  the  spring  of  1754,  when,  as  lieutenant-colonel, 
Washington  led  a  small  force  to  the  frontier.  He  de- 
feated the  enemy  in  May  of  that  year,  at  the  Great 
Meadows.  In  a  letter  relating  to  this  action,  (which 
was  the  first  of  the  Seven  Years'  war,)  he  wrote,  "  I 
heard  the  bullets  whistle  ;  and,  believe  me,  there  is  some- 
thing charming  in  the  sound."  About  this  time  he  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  served  as  aide-de- 
camp to  General  Braddock  in  his  disastrous  expedition 
against  Fort  Duquesne.  This  imprudent  general,  de- 
spising both  the  Indians  and  the  Virginia  militia,  and 
obstinately  adhering  to  the  tactics  of  regular  war, 
rejected  the  advice  of  Washington,  and  was  defeated 
with  great  loss,  and  mortally  wounded,  by  the  French 
and  their  savage  allies,  who  attacked  him  in  the  forest 
about  seven  miles  from  Fort  Duquesne,  July  9,  1755. 
In  this  battle  four  bullets  passed  through  the  coat  of 
Colonel  Washington,  who  distinguished  himself  by  his 
courage  and  presence  of  mind  amidst  the  general  panic 
and  total  rout  of  the  English  army. 

In  a  letter  written  soon  after  this  battle,  Colonel  Wash- 
ington said,  "We  have  been  most  scandalously  beaten 
by  a  trifling  body  of  men.  .  .  .  The  dastardly  behaviour 
of  those  they  called  regulars  exposed  all  others  to  almost 
certain  death,  and  at  last  they  ran  as  sheep  pursued  by 
dogs."  In  the  summer  of  1755  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  forces  (about  two  thousand  men) 


€  as  k;  5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  sas  z;     as  in  this,    (2!^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


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2236 


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which' the  Assembly  of  Virginia  ordered  to  be  raised 
^  the  defence  of  the  province.    He  commanded  a  part 
'he  army  which,  under  General  Forbes,  took  Fort 
j  iesne  in  November,  1758.     In  January,  1759,  he 
married  Mrs.  Martha  Custis,  whose  maiden  name  was 
Daudridge,  and  whose  first  Iwisband  was  John  Parke 
Custis.    He  now  resigned  "his  commission,  retired  from 
the  service,  and  settled  at  Mount  Vernon  as  a  plan'ter. 
In  1758  he  had  been  elected  to  the  House  of  Burgesses, 
the  Speaker  of  which,  on  the  first  appearance  of  Wash- 
-ington  in  that  body,  tendered  to  him  a  compliment  for 
h"is  military  services.     "  Washington  rose  to  reply," 
says  Irving,  "blilshed,  stammered,  trembled,  and  could 
not  utter  a  word."    "Sit  down,  Mr.  Washington,"  said 
the  Speaker:  "your  modesty  equals  your  valour,  and 
that  surpasses  the  power  of  any  language  I  possess." 

By  his  marriage  he  added  about  one  hundred  thousand 
dollars  to  his  fortune,  which  was  before  considerable. 
He  was  partial  to  the  pursuits  of  agriculture,  and  carried 
into  his  rural  affairs  the  same  methodical  habits  and  dili- 
gent attention  which  distinguished  him  in  military  opera- 
tions. He  kept  his  own  accounts,  posted  his  books  and 
balanced  them  with  mercantile  exactness.  By  the  pur- 
chase of  adjacent  plantations  he  enlarged  the  Mount 
Vernon  estate  until  it  amounted  finally  to  eight  thousand 
acres.  He  continued  for  many  years  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Burgesses,  but  never  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  debates  of  that  or  any  other  public  assembly.  He 
was  a  delegate  to  the  convention  which  met  at  Wil- 
liamsburg on  the  1st  of  August,  1773,  and,  asserting  the 
right  of  the  colonies  to  self-government,  resolved  that 
taxation  and  representation  were  inseparable.  This 
conveiition  chbse  Washington,  Patrick  Henry,  and  five 
others,  to  represent  Virginia  in  the  General  Congress 
which  met  at  Philadelphia  in  September,  1774.  Patrick 
Henry  being  asked,  after  the  end  of  the  first  session, 
whom  he  considered  the  greatest  man  in  Congress, 
replied,  "  If  you  speak  of  solid  information  and  sound 
judgment,  Colonel  Washington  is  unquestionably  the 
greatest  man  on  that  floor." 

Hitherto,  Washington  and  the  other  leading  patriots 
had  not  aimed  at  independence  or  sej^aration  from  the 
mother-country  ;  but  the  battle  or  massacre  of  Lexington, 
April  19,  1775,  became  the  signal  of  a  general  deter- 
mination to  resist  by  arms  the  tyranny  of  the  British 
government. 

On  the  15th  of  June,  1775,  he  was  unanimously  elected 
by  the  Continental  Congress  commander-in-chief  of  all 
the  forces.  Before  he  could  take  command  of  the  army, 
occurred  the  important  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  June  17, 
.1775,  result  of  which  was  that  the  British  remained 
masters  of  the  field,  but  lost  about  1050  men,  while  the 
Americans  lost  only  449  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners. 
On  the  2d  of  July,  General  Washington  assumed  com- 
mand of  the  army  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  amount- 
ing to  about  15,000  men,  and  engaged  in  the  siege  of 
Boston,  which  was  occuj^ied  by  11,000  British  veterans. 
General  Washington  applied  himself  to  the  organization 
of  his  troops,  whom  he  found  undisciplined  and  nearly 
destitute  of  powder  and  other  materials  of  war.  The 
difficulty  of  his  situation  was  increased  by  the  fact  that 
the  Continental  Congress  was  very  deficient  in  all  the 
attributes  of  an  efficient  government,  and  was  almost 
destitute  of  money  and  credit.  While  the  main  army 
was  besieging  Boston,  Generals  Montgomery  and  Arnold, 
about  the  end  of  1775,  invaded  Canada,  and  attacked 
Quebec,  but  were  not  successful.  On  the  17th  or  i8th 
of  March,  1776,  the  British  army  evacuated  Boston,  and 
escaped  on  their  fleet,  which  sailed  thence  to  Halifax. 
Congress  passed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  the  commander-in- 
chief  for  his  services  and  success  in  this  siege.  General 
Washington  moved  his  army  from  Boston  to  New  York, 
where  he  arrived  in  April,  and  awaited  the  approach  of 
the  enemy,  who  were  moving  by  the  sea  towards  that 
objective  point.  In  the  mean  time  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  was  signed  by  Congress,  July  4,  1776. 

The  opposing  forces  next  met  at  the  battle  of  Long 
Island,  where  the  Americans  were  defeated  by  General 
Howe,  August  27,  and  lost  nearly  2000  men.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  victory,  the  British  took  the  city  of  New 
York,  and  General  Washington  was  compelled  to  retreat 


through  New  Jersey  to  the  west  side  of  the  Delaware 
River,  During  this  retreat  his  army  was  reduced  to 
4000  men  or  less,  and  the  cause  for  which  he  fought 
seemed  almost  desperate;  but  General  Howe  was  too 
indolent  or  incapable  to  follow  up  his  successes  with 
vigour.  General  Washington,  having  been  reinforced, 
crossed  the  Delaware  in  open  boats  on  the  night  of 
December  25,  1776,  attacked  a  British  force  at  Trenton, 
and  captured  nearly  1000  prisoners,  (Hessian  merce- 
naries.) On  the  3d  of  January,  1777,  he  gained  another 
victory  at  Princeton,  where  he  took  about  300  prisoners. 
Soon  after  these  successes,  which  greatly  revived  the 
spirits  of  the  Americans,  General  Washington  was  in- 
vested with  almost  dictatorial  powers  by  Congress.  In 
the  summer  of  1777  a  British  army,  under  General  Bur- 
goyne,  moved  from  Canada  towards  Albany,  and  another 
army,  of  about  16,000  men,  under  General  Howe,  sailed 
up  the  Chesapeake  Bay  to  take  Philadelphia.  To  defend 
this  city,  then  the  seat  of  government,  General  Wash- 
ington interposed  his  army  of  about  ir,ooo  men,  and 
encountered  the  enemy  on  the  Brandywine  on  the  nth 
of  September.  Overpowered  by  superior  numbers,  the 
Americans  retreated,  having  lost  about  900  killed  and 
wounded.  Among  the  wounded  of  this  day  was  the 
Marquis  de  La  Fayette.  A  few  days  after  this  battle 
the  British  army  occupied  Philadelphia.  On  the  4th  of 
October  the  Americans  attacked  the  British  army  at 
Germantown,  about  six  miles  from  Philadelphia;  but 
they  were  repulsed,  with  a  loss  of  about  800  killed  and 
wounded.  In  the  mean  time  General  Burgoyne  and 
General  Gates  had  fought  an  indecisive  battle  at  Still- 
water, New  York,  September  19,  and  General  Stark  had 
gained  a  victorv  at  Bennington.  On  the  7th  of  October, 
I777»  General  Gates,  at  the  second  battle  of  Stillwater, 
defeated  General  Burgoyne,  who,  on  the  17th  of  that 
month,  surrendered  his  army  of  about  6000  men,  at 
Saratoga.  This  victory  was  one  of  the  most  important 
events  of  the  war,  as  it  not  only  inspired  the  people 
with  confidence,  but  induced  the  French  government  to 
become  the  ally  of  the  United  States  in  the  war  against 
Great  Britain. 

In  December,  1777,  General  Washington  went  into 
winter  quarters  at  Valley  Forge,  on  the  Schuylkill  River, 
where  his  men  suffered  great  hardships  and  distress 
for  want  of  clothing,  etc.  General  Henry  Clinton,  who 
had  been  appointed  commander-in-chief  in  the  place 
of  General  Howe,  evacuated  Philadelphia  in  June,  and 
moved  his  army  through  New  Jersey  towards  New  York. 
General  Washington  i:)ursued  and  attacked  him  on  the 
28th  of  June,  1778,  at  Monmouth  Court-House.  After  an 
indecisive  battle,  in  which  the  Americans  lost  69  killed 
and  about  160  wounded.  General  Clinton  continued  his 
march  to  New  York.  Congress  expressed  their  satisfac- 
tion with  General  Washington's  conduct  in  this  action 
by  a  unanimous  vote  of  thanks.  Hitherto  the  opera- 
tions of  the  British  armies  had  been  directed  against 
the  Northern  and  Middle  States;  but  in  1779  no  great 
battle  was  fought  in  this  portion  of  the  republic.  About 
the  end  of  1778,  General  Sir  Henry  Clinton  sent  to 
Georgia  a  body  of  troops,  who  captured  Savannah  in 
December  and  made  themselves  masters  of  the  prov- 
ince. The  chief  command  of  the  Southern  American 
army  was  given  to  (General  Lincoln,  who,  aided  bv  the 
French  fleet,  attacked  Savannah  in  September  1779, 
but  was  repulsed. 

The  army  of  General  Washington  passed  the  winter 
of  1779-80  near  Morristown,  New  Jersey.  Early  in 
1780  Sir  Henry  Clinton  transferred  his  main  army,  by 
sea,  from  New  York  to  South  Carolina,  and  besieged 
Charleston,  which  General  Lincoln  defended  for  several 
weeks,  but  was  compelled  to  surrender  in  May.  vSir 
Henry  Clinton,  leaving  Lord  Cornwallis  in  command 
in  the  Carolinas,  returned  to  New  York  in  June,  1780. 
In  the  same  month  Congress  appointed  General  Gates 
commander  of  the  Southern  department.  This  general 
was  signally  defeated  by  Lord  Cornwallis  at  Camden, 
August  16,  and  was  comj^elled  to  retreat  to  North  Caro- 
lina. During  the  year  1780  the  commander-in-chief  was 
obliged  to  remain  on  the  defensive,  in  consequence  of 
the  weakness  and  destitution  of  his  army.  The  exhaus- 
tion of  the  public  treasury,  and  the  depreciation  of  the 


a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  ct,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


WASHINGTON 


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WASHINGTON 


currency,  were  such  that  he  found  great  difficulty  in 
obtaining  food  or  cl  othing  for  his  soldiers.  In  July,  1 780, 
a  French  fleet  arrived  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  with 
an  army  of  6000  men,  which  the  French  government 
had  sent  to  aid  the  Americans.  While  the  people  were 
anticipating  great  advantages  from  the  combined  efforts 
of  the  French  and  American  armies,  treason  was  in  the 
camp  and  plotting  the  ruin  of  the  cause  of  freedom. 
Benedict  Arnold,  who  commanded  the  important  fortress 
of  West  Point,  made  arrangements  to  betray  that  place 
into  the  power  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  In  consequence 
of  the  capture  of  Major  Andre,  in  September,  the  plot 
was  detected  and  frustrated.  (See  Andr6,  John.) 

[n  a  letter  addressed  by  General  Washington  to  Con- 
gress in  August,  1780,  he  urged  the  necessity  of  forming 
an  army  by  drafting  men  for  three  years  or  during  the 
war,  and  added,  "  Had  we  formed  a  permanent  army  in 
the  beginning,  which,  by  the  continuance  of  the  same 
men  in  service,  had  been  capable  of  discipline,  we  never 
should  have  had  to  retreat  with  a  handful  of  men  across 
the  Delaware  in  1776,  trembling  for  the  fate  of  America, 
which  nothing  but  the  infatuation  of  the  enemy  could 
have  saved  ;  ...  we  should  not  have  been  under  the 
necessity  of  fighting  at  Brandywine  with  an  unequal 
number  of  raw  troops,  and  afterwards  of  seeing  Phila- 
delphia fall  a  prey  to  a  victorious  army;  we  should  not 
have  been  at  Valley  Forge  with  less  than  half  the  force 
of  the  enemy, — destitute  of  everything, — in  a  situation 
neither  to  resist  nor  to  retire."  In  November,  1780, 
General  Gates  was  removed  from  the  command  of  the 
Southern  army  by  Congress,  which  requested  Wash- 
ington to  appoint  a  general  in  his  place.  He  selected 
General  Greene,  whom  he  commended  to  Congress 
as  "an  officer  in  whose  abilities,  fortitude,  and  integ- 
rity he  had  the  most  entire  confidence."  The  army 
of  which  Greene  took  command  at  Charlotte,  North 
Carolina,  did  not  much  exceed  2200  men,  more  than 
half  of  whom  were  militia.  In  December,  1780,  the 
army  which  General  Washington  commanded  in  person 
retired  into  winter  quarters,  the  Pennsylvania  troops 
being  stationed  at  Morristown,  and  another  part  of  the 
army  on  the  Hudson  River,  near  West  Point.  In  Jan- 
uary, 1 781,  a  thousand  or  more  of  the  Pennsylvanians 
mutinied,  and  marched  towards  Philadelphia  to  demand 
a  redress  of  their  grievances  from  Congress.  This 
mutiny  was  suppressed  by  mild  measures,  and  by  satis- 
fying the  claims — which  were  not  unreasonable — of  the 
mutineers.  The  Articles  of  Confederation  between  the 
States  were  ratified  in  February,  1781. 

The  principal  military  operations  of  1781  were  con- 
fined to  the  Southern  States.  On  the  17th  of  January 
General  Morgan  gained  at  Cowjiens,  South  Carolina,  a 
complete  victory  over  Colonel  Tarleton,  who  lost  about 
900  kiMed,  wounded,  and  prisoners.  The  whole  loss 
of  the  victors  was  not  more  than  80.  Compelled  to 
retire  before  superior  numbers,  General  Greene  made 
a  rapid  retreat  from  the  Catawba  to  the  Dan  River,  and 
was  closely  pursued  by  Lord  Cornwallis.  His  force 
having  been  increased  to  about  4500  men,  General 
Greene  resolved  to  risk  a  battle,  and  met  the  enemy 
on  the  15th  of  March  at  Guilford  Court-House,  North 
Carolina.  In  this  battle  the  British  gained  some  ad- 
vantage, but  their  loss  was  severe,  and  the  retiring 
Americans  were  not  pursued.  In  April,  1 781,  Lord 
Cornwallis  began  to  march  to  Virginia,  and  General 
Greene  moved  his  force  into  South  Carolina.  On  the 
8th  of  September  General  Greene  defeated  the  enemy  at 
Eutaw  vSprings,  and  took  500  prisoners.  In  the  spring 
of  1 781  a  force  of  about  3000  men,  under  General  La 
Fayette,  was  sent  to  defend  Virginia.  He  conducted  a 
camjiaign  against  Lord  Cornwallis,  but  neither  of  these 
commanders  gained  any  decisive  advantage.  Lord 
Cornwallis  collected  his  troops  at  Yorktown,  Virginia, 
where  he  constructed  fortifications.  Early  in  September 
a  French  fleet  of  twenty-eight  ships,  commanded  by 
Count  De  Grasse,  arrived  in  Chesapeake  l^ay,  and  about 
the  same  time  General  Washington  moved  the  combined 
American  and  French  armies  from  New  York  to  Vir- 
ginia. He  began  the  siege  of  Yorktown  on  the  28th  of 
September,  with  an  army  estimated  at  15,000  men,  and 
Lord  Cornwallis,  on  the  19th  of  October,  surrendered 


his  whole  army  of  7000  men.  This  victory  was  one  o. 
the  most  important  events  of  the  war,  and  \yas  the  sub- 
ject of  enthusiastic  rejoicing  among  the  Americans. 

In  consequence  of  a  general  persuasion  that  peace 
was  at  hand,  there  was  no  vigorous  prosecution  of  the 
war  in  1782.  On  the  3d  o"f  September,  1783,  a  definitive 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  in  Paris,  by  which  the  British 
government  recognized  the  independence  of  the  United 
States.  General  Washington  resigned  his  commission 
to  Congress,  December  23,  1783,  and  retired  to  private 
life,  followed  by  the  enthusiastic  love  and  admiration  of 
his  countrymen.  He  passed  the  ensuing  years  at  Mount 
Vernon,  and  resumed  his  former  pursuits  of  agriculture, 
etc.  Meanwhile,  the  form  of  confederation  which  had 
been  adopted  by  the  States  in  1781  was  found  to  be 
more  and  more  inefiicient  and  impotent.  In  a  letter  to 
James  Warren,  of  Massachusetts,  General  Washington 
wrote,  "The  Confederation  appears  to  me  to  be  little 
more  than  a  shadow  without  the  substance,  and  Con- 
gress a  nugatory  body.  .  .  .  From  the  high  ground  on 
which  we  stood,  we  are  descending  into  the  vale  of  con- 
fusion and  darkness."  To  rescue  the  nation  from  this 
state  of  anarchy  and  degradation,  a  National  Convention 
met  at  Philadelphia  in  May,  1787.  General  Washington 
was  unanimously  elected  president  of  this  Convention, 
which,  after  a  session  of  several  months,  adopted  a  new 
Constitution,  that  greatly  increased  the  power  of  the 
Federal  government.  He  was  elected,  without  opposi- 
tion, President  of  the  United  States  for  four  years  from 
the  4th  of  March,  1789.  Before  the  election  he  wrote 
to  Alexander  Hamilton,  "If  I  should  be  prevailed  upon 
to  accept  it,  [the  Presidency,]  the  acceptance  would  be 
attended  with  more  diffidence  and  reluctance  than  ever 
I  experienced  before  in  my  life."  He  was  inaugurated 
on  the  30th  of  April,  in  New  York,  and  delivered  in  the 
Senate-chamber  an  inaugural  address  to  both  Houses 
of  Congress.  In  this  address  he  affirmed  that  "the 
preservation  of  the  sacred  fire  of  liberty  and  the  destiny 
of  the  republican  model  of  government  are  justly  con- 
sidered as  deeply,  perhaps  as  finally,  staked  on  the 
experiment  intrusted  to  the  hands  of  the  American 
people."  He  appointed  Thomas  Jefferson  secretary  of 
state,  Alexander  Hamilton  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
General  Henry  Knox  secretary  of  war,  and  Edmund 
Randolph  attorney-general.  Among  the  difficulties 
encountered  by  the  President  were  the  deplorable  con- 
dition of  the  finances  and  the  opposition  of  a  powerful 
party  which  disapproved  the  Federal  Constitution  and 
asserted  the  sovereignty  of  the  States.  In  January,  1790, 
Hamilton  presented  to  Congress  an  able  report  on  the 
public  credit  and  a  plan  for  the  support  of  the  same. 
The  results  of  this  financial  policy  were  the  speedy 
restoration  of  the  public  credit  and  the  revival  of  trade 
and  other  departments  of  industry.  The  people  became 
divided  into  two  great  parties,  called  Federalists  and 
Republicans,  (or  Democrats,)  the  latter  of  which  insisted 
on  State  rights  and  wished  to  reduce  the  power  of  the 
Federal  government.  Although  Washington  was  not 
formally  committed  to  either  party,  his  principles  and 
measures  were  such  as  necessarily  connected  him  with 
the  Federalists.  A  great  excitement  was  caused  by  the 
French  Revolution,  in  relation  to  which  the  Federalists 
and  Democrats  differed  widely.  The  latter  party,  of 
which  Jefferson  was  the  leader,  desired  that  the  United 
States  should  aid  the  French  in  the  war  against  Great 
Britain,  while  the  Federalists  advocated  the  policy  of 
strict  neutrality. 

In  1792  Washington  was  again  unanimously  elected 
President,  and  John  Adams,  a  Federalist,  was  re-elected 
Vice-President,  receiving  seventy-seven  electoral  votes, 
while  his  opponent,  George  Clinton,  a  Democrat,  re- 
ceived fifty  votes.  During  his  second  term  of  office 
the  President  resided  at  Philadelphia,  which  was  then 
the  seat  of  government.  In  April,  1793,  he  issued  a 
proclamation  of  neutrality,  (between  the  British  and  the 
French,)  which  gave  great  offence  to  the  Republicans. 
"  The  proclamation,"  says  Irving,  "  was  stigmatized  as  a 
royal  edict  and  a  daring  assumption  of  power." 

M.  Genet,  the  ambassador  of  the  French  republic, 
arrived  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  April,  and 
issued  commissions  for  privateers,  which  captured  seve- 


€  as  k:  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal ;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2!^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WASHINGTON 


2238 


WASHINGTON 


ral  British  vessels.  The  official  communications  of 
Genet  became  so  offensive  and  insulting  to  the  Presi- 
dent that  the  American  minister  to  France  was  in- 
structed to  desire  his  recall.  Jefferson,  having  failed  in 
his  efforts  to  eject  his  rival  Hamilton  from  the  cabinet, 
resigned  the  office  of  secretary  of  state  in  December, 
1793,  and  was  succeeded  by  Edmund  Randolph,  the 
former  attorney-general.  When  the  new  Congress  met, 
in  December,  1793,  it  was  found  that  the  opponents 
of  the  administration  had  a  majority  in  the  House  of 
Representatives.  The  perplexity  of  the  President  was 
increased  by  the  fact  that  American  vessels  had  been 
captured  by  British  cruisers,  which  inflamed  the  popular 
heart  and  reinforced  the  party  which  opposed  neutrality. 
Resolving  to  prevent  a  war,  if  possible,  by  negotia- 
tions, the  President  sent  John  Jay  as  a  special  envoy  to 
England,  {April,  1 794.)  "  Scarcely  has  any  public  act 
of  the  President,"  says  Marshall,  "drawn  upon  his  ad- 
ministration a  greater  degree  of  censure  than  this."  In 
January,  1794,  the  office  of  secretary  of  the  treasury  was 
resigned  by  Mr.  Hamilton,  "  who  had  wasted  in  the  public 
service  a  great  part  of  the  property  acquired  by  his 
previous  labours."  (Marshall.)  General  Knox  having 
also  resigned  his  place  in  the  cabinet,  Timothy  Picker- 
ing was  appointed  secretary  of  war,  and  Oliver  Wolcott 
^cretary  of  the  treasury.  Mr.  Jay  negotiated  a  treaty, 
which  was  signed  November  19,  1794,  and  presented  to 
the  United  States  Senate  for  ratification  in  June,  1795. 
This  treaty  was  vehemently  opposed  and  denounced  by 
the  Democrats  and  those  who  were  most  partial  to  the 
French  revolutionists;  but  it  was  finally  approved  by 
the  Senate,  and  signed  by  the  President,  August  18, 
1795.  After  the  question  had  been  decided,  the  voice 
of  faction  continued  to  assail  the  President.  "  His 
military  and  political  character,"  says  Marshall,  "was 
attacked  with  equal  violence,  and  it  was  averred  that 
he  was  totally  destitute  of  merit  either  as  a  soldier  or 
a  statesman." 

In  1795,  Timothy  Pickering  was  appointed  secretary 
of  state,  in  the  place  of  Edmund  Randolph,  who  had 
resigned.  In  March,  1796,  the  House  of  Representatives 
passed  a  resolution  requesting  the  President  to  lay 
before  that  House  a  copy  of  the  instructions  given  to 
Mr.  Jay,  together  with  the  documents  relative  to  the 
treaty  with  Great  Britain.  He  declined  to  comply  with 
their  request,  affirming  that  it  would  establish  a  dan- 
gerous precedent  to  admit  the  right  of  the  House  to 
demand  the  papers  respecting  a  foreign  negotiation. 
When  La  Fayette  was  confined  in  the  dungeon  of 
Olmiitz,  General  Washington  wrote  a  private  letter  to 
the  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  entreated  him  to  release 
that  captive. 

Although  the  people  generally  wished  to  elect  Gene- 
ral Washington  for  a  third  term,  he  announced  his 
determination  to  retire  from  public  life  at  the  end  of  his 
second  term.  He  also  issued  a  "  Farewell  Address  to 
the  People  of  the  United  States,"  which,  having  been 
revised  by  Alexander  Hamilton,  appeared  in  Septem- 
ber, 1796,  and  produced  a  deep  impression.  In  this 
address  he  insisted  on  the  vast  importance  of  union  as 
"a  main  pillar  in  the  edifice  of  your  real  independence  ; 
the  support  of  your  tranquillity  at  home  ;  your  peace 
abroad;  of  your  safety;  of  your  prosperity;  of  that 
very  liberty  which  you  so  highly  prize.  But,  as  it  is 
easy  to  foresee  that  much  pains  will  be  taken,  many 
artifices  employed,  to  weaken  in  your  minds  the  convic- 
tion of  this  truth  ;  as  this  is  the  point  in  your  political 
fortress  against  which  the  batteries  of  internal  and  ex- 
ternal enemies  will  be  most  constantly  and  actively 
(though  often  covertly  and  insidiously)  directed,  it  is  of 
infinite  moment  that  you  should  properly  estimate  the 
immense  value  of  your  national  union  to  your  collect- 
ive and  individual  happiness."  He  also  advised  the 
people  to  have  as  little  political  connection  as  possible 
with  foreign  nations,  and  to  "  steer  clear  of  permanent 
alliances  with  any  portion  of  the  foreign  world." 

On  the  7th  of  December,  1796,  the  President  met  for 
the  last  time  the  Houses  of  Congress,  to  which  he  made 
a  dignified  address.  His  official  career  terminated  March 
4,  1797,  and  he  then  retired  to  Mount  Vernon,  leaving 
the  nation  in  a  state  of  great  prosperity.    The  capture 


of  American  vessels  by  French  cruisers  led  to  hostilities 
between  the  United  States  and  France,  although  there 
was  no  formal  declaration  of  war.  In  this  emergency, 
the  government  of  the  United  States  raised  an  army  of 
about  10,000  men,  of  which  General  Washington  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief,  July,  1798.  He  accepted 
this  appointment  on  the  condition  that  Colonel  Hamil- 
ton should  be  the  second  in  command.  The  selection 
of  Hamilton  as  second  in  command  was  also  desired  by 
the  public,  but  was  not  in  accordance  with  the  will  of 
President  Adams,  who,  however,  finally  assented.  Be- 
fore the  question  of  war  or  peace  had  been  decided, 
Washington  died,  without  issue,  at  Mount  Vernon,  after 
a  short  illness,  on  the  14th  of  December,  1799.  A  few 
hours  before  his  death,  he  said,  "  I  look  to  the  event  with 
perfect  resignation."    His  disease  was  acute  laryngitis. 

On  learning  the  death  of  Washington,  the  House  of 
Representatives  resolved,  "That  a  committee  be  ap- 
pointed to  consider  the  most  suitable  manner  of  paying 
honour  to  the  memory  of  the  Man  first  in  war,  first  in 
peace,  and  first  in  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen."* 

General  Washington  had  inherited  a  number  of  slaves, 
whom  he  emancipated  by  his  last  will  In  a  letter  to 
Mr.  Morris,  in  1786,  he  said,  "There  is  not  a  man  living 
who  wishes  more  sincerely  than  I  do,  to  see  a  plan 
adopted  for  the  abolition  of  slavery." 

In  stature  General  Washington  was  six  feet  and  two 
inches  high,  with  a  frame  well  proportioned  and  firmly 
knit.  His  hair  was  brown,  his  eyes  blue  and  far  apart. 
He  was  remarkable  from  boyhood  for  his  great  physical 
strength.  It  is  related  that  in  his  youth  he  threw  a 
stone  across  the  Rappahannock  opposite  his  father's 
house, — a  feat  which  has  never,  it  is  said,  been  performed 
by  any  one  since  that  time.  When  young,  he  was  ever 
foremost  among  his  companions  in  all  athletic  sports, 
and  was  especially  distinguished  as  a  skilful  and  fearless 
horseman. t  He  was  scrupulously  attentive  to  his  dress 
and  personal  appearance.  His  manner,  though  gentle 
and  gracious,  was  in  public  characterized  by  a  certain 
military  dignity  and  reserve.  He  was  proverbial  for 
punctuality  as  well  as  for  truthfulness. 

In  the  whole  history  of  mankind,  few,  if  any,  great 
men  will  be  found  more  worthy  of  our  heartfelt  esteem 
and  admiration  than  Washington.  Without  any  of  the 
dazzling  gifts  of  genius,  without  perhaps  possessing 
talents  of  the  very  highest  order,  yet  his  various  powers 
were  so  admirably  proportioned  and  adjusted  to  each 
other,  so  under  the  control  of  lofty  moral  principle  and 
a  high  heroic  will,  which  neither  the  extremity  of  peril 
or  disaster,  the  fiercest  blasts  of  obloquy,  nor  the  seduc- 
tions of  ambition  had  power  to  shake,  that,  though  he 
may  have  been  surpassed  by  many  in  some  single  point, 
if  we  consider  his  character  as  a  whole,  we  shall  scarcely 
find  his  equal,  and  shall  search  in  vain  for  his  superior. 
One  result  of  the  admirable  equipoise  and  harmony  of 
his  powers  was  a  wisdom  of  the  rarest  order.  It  is  well 
known  that  wisdom  is  not  the  product  of  one  or  two 
faculties,  but  the  combined  result  of  many,  including 
the  moral  as  well  as  intellectual.  Napoleon,  with  all 
his  transcendent  genius,  was  in  wisdom  far  inferior  to 
Washington.  No  man  of  his  day  more  clearly  foresaw 
the  future  dangers  to  which  our  country  would  be  ex- 
posed, or  showed  more  distinctly  and  forcibly  how  they 
were  to  be  avoided,  than  Washington.  And  of  all  men 
that  ever  lived,  he  may  be  said  to  have  most  truly  and 
fully  merited  the  glorious  title  of  "  Pater  Patrias,"  the 
"  Father  of  his  Country." 

His  great  rival  Jefferson,  who  differed  from  him  widely 
on  questions  of  state  policy  and  other  points,  bears  the 
following  testimony  to  his  character:  "His  integrity 
was  the  most  pure,  his  justice  the  most  inflexible,  I  have 
ever  known, — no  motives  of  interest  or  consanguinity. 


The  original  form  of  this  celebrated  expression  was,  "  first  in 
war,  first  in  peace,  and  first  in  the  hearts  of  his  fellow-citizens."  In 
the  funeral  oration  pronounced  by  General  Lee,  the  word  "  country- 
men" was  substituted  for  "  fellow-citizens,"  as  being  both  shorter 
and  more  euphonious;  and  with  this  change  the  passage  is  commonly 
quoted. 

t  "His  person,"  says  JefTerson,  "was  fine,  his  stature  exactly 
what  one  would  wish,  his  deportment  easy,  erect,  and  noble :  the 
best  horseman  of  his  age,  and  the  most  graceful  figure  that  could  be 
seen,  on  horseback."    (Tucker's  "  Life  of  Jefferson.") 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mgt;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


WASHINGTON 


2239 


WATHIEZ 


of  friendship  or  hatred,  being  able  to  bias  his  decision. 
He  was  indeed,  in  every  sense  of  the  word,  a  wise, 
a  good,  and  a  great  man.  His  temper  was  naturally 
irritable  and  high-toned  ;  but  reflection  and  resolution 
had  obtained  a  firm  and  habitual  ascendency  over  it." 
(Tucker's  "  Life  of  Jefferson.") 

"  In  him,"  says  Marshall,  "  that  innate  and  unassuming 
modesty  which  adulation  would  have  offended,  which  the 
voluntary  plaudits  of  millions  could  not  betray  into  in- 
discretion, was  happily  blended  with  a  high  and  correct 
sense  of  personal  dignity,  and  with  a  just  consciousness 
of  that  respect  which  is  due  to  station." 

"How  grateful,"  says  Lord  Brougham,  "the  relief 
which  the  friend  of  mankind,  the  lover  of  virtue,  experi- 
ences, when,  turning  from  the  contemplation  of  such  a 
character,  [Napoleon  I.,]  his  eye  rests  upon  the  greatest 
man  of  our  own  or  of  any  age  !  ...  It  will  be  the  duty 
of  the  historian  and  the  sage,  in  all  ages,  to  omit  no 
occasion  of  commemorating  this  illustrious  man  ;  and 
until  time  shall  be  no  more  will  a  test  of  the  progress 
which  our  race  has  made  in  wisdom  and  virtue  be  de- 
rived from  the  veneration  paid  to  the  immortal  name  of 
Washington."  ("  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1838.) 

See  John  Marshall,  "Life  of  George  Washington,"  5  vols., 
1804-07;  Washington  Irving,  "Life  of  George  Washington,"  5 
vols.,  1855-59;  Jared  Sparks,  "The  Life  and  Writings  of  George 
Washington:  being  his  Correspondence,  Messages,"  etc.,  12  vols. 
8vo,  1833-40:  J.  K.  Paulding,  "Life  of  G.  Washington,"  2  vols., 
1835  ;  F.  GuizoT,  "  Essai  stir  la  Vie  dii  General  Washington,"  1839  ; 
Louis  de  Fontanes,  "  £loge  de  Washington,"  1800  ;  A.  Bancroft, 
"Essay  on  the  Life  of  G.  Washington."  iJ^o/ ;  James  Madison, 
"Discourse  on  the  Death  of  General  Washington,"  1800;  Fisher 
Ames,  "Oration  on  the  Sublime  Virtvies  of  Washington."  1800; 
Weems,  "Life  of  G.  Washington,"  1805;  D.  Ramsay,  "Life  ofG. 
Washington,"  1807;  Eduard  Gehe,  "  Leben  Washington's,"  1838: 
F.  GuizoT,  "Washington:  Fondation  de  la  Renublique  des  fitats- 
Unis,"  etc.,  2  vols.,  1850;  J.  T.  Headlev,  'Washington  and  his 
Generals,"  2  vols.,  1847  ;  Peter  Parley.  "  Life  of  Washington," 
1837  ;  Bancroft,  "  Histoiy  of  the  United  States  :"  Gosch,  "  Wash- 
ington und  die  Befreinng  der  Nordamerikanischen  Freistaaten,"  3 
vols.,  1815.  See,  also,  the  interesting  article  on  Washington  in  the 
"New  American  Cyclopaedia,"  (by  Edward  Everett.) 

Washington,  wosh'ing-ton,  (Captain  John,)  R.N., 
an  English  officer  and  hydrographer.  He  served  in 
the  American  war  of  1812,  and  rose  through  several 
promotions  to  the  rank  of  commander  in  1833.  Being 
appointed  in  1841  to  continue  the  survey  of  the  North 
Sea,  he  examined  that  part  of  it  lying  between  lati- 
tude 52°  10'  and  the  coast  of  the  Netherlands.  He  was 
made  post-captain  in  1842,  and  hydrographer  to  the 
admiralty  in  1855.  He  has  also  been  elected  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  published  a  "Geo- 
graphical Notice  of  the  Empire  of  Marocco,"  and  other 
treatises,  in  the  "Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society." 

Washington,  (John  A.,)  proprietor  of  Mount  Ver- 
non, Virginia.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  Captain  John 
Brown  near  Harper's  Ferry,  October  16,  1859.  He 
took  arms  against  the  Union,  became  a  colonel,  and 
was  killed  on  Cheat  Mountain  in  September,  1861. 

Washington,  (William  Augustine,)  an  American 
ofiicer  of  the  Revolution,  born  in  Stafford  county,  Vir- 
ginia, in  1752,  was  a  relative  of  General  Washington, 
He  was  present  at  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton, 
commanded  the  cavalry  at  Cowpens,  and  was  made  a 
brigadier-general  in  1798.    Died  in  1810. 

Wasmuth,  -(^is'moot,  (Matthias,)  a  German  Orien- 
talist, born  at  Kiel  in  1625.  He  became  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  at  Kiel,  and  published,  besides  other 
works,  an  Arabic  Grammar,  (1654.)    Died  in  1688. 

Wasse,  w6ss,  (Joseph,)  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1672,  became  rector  of  Aynhoe.  He  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  Sallust,  (1710,)  and  wrote  several 
essays  on  various  subjects.  Bentley  is  reported  to  have 
said,  "When  I  am  dead,  Wasse  will  be  the  most  learned 
man  in  England."    Died  in  1738. 

Wassenaer,  van,  vtn  w^s'seh-nlR',  (Gerard,)  a 
Dutch  jurist,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1585  ;  died  in  1664. 

Wassenaer,  van,  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  admiral,  born 
about  1610.  He  succeeded  Van  Tromp  as  commander 
of  the  fleet  in  1653,  ^"^^  was  killed  in  a  battle  against 
the  English  in  1665. 

Wassenberg  or  Wassenbergh,  von,  fon  Ms'sen- 
b^RG,  (Everard,)  a  German  historian,  born  at  Emme- 


rich in  1610.     He  published  "  Florus  Germanicus," 
(1640,)  which  treats  of  the  wars  waged  by  Ferdinand  IT. 
and  Ferdinand  HI.  from  1627  to  1640.  Died  after  1672. 
See  Crane,  "Vita  E.  van  Wassenbergh,"  1828. 

Wassian.    See  Vasian. 

Wast  or  Waast,  w6st  or  vist,  [Lat,  Vedas'tus,] 
Saint,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  who  became  Bishop  of 
Arras  about  500  a.d.    Died  in  540. 

See  Alcuin,  "Vita  Vedasti ;"  Gazet,  "Vie  de  Saint-Wast," 
1622. 

Wastelain,  vts'teh-l^N',  ?  (Charles,)  a  Belgian  his- 
torian and  Jesuit,  born  in  Hainault  in  1695.  He  pub- 
lished a  "Description  of  Belgian  Gaul  in  Three  Ages  of 
History,"  (1761.)    Died  in  1782. 

Wateau.    See  Watteau. 

Watelet,  vt'/lk',  (Claude  Henri,)  a  French  ama- 
teur artist  and  writer  upon  art,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1 718.  He  was  the  author  of  a  didactic  poem,  entitled 
"The  Art  of  Painting,"  ("  L'Art  de  Peindre,"  1760,) 
"Essay  on  Gardens,"  (1774,)  and  "Dictionary  of  the 
Arts  of  Painting,  Sculpture,  and  Engraving,"  (5  vols,, 
1792.)  The  last-named  work  was  completed  by  M. 
Levesque.  Watelet  etched  a  number  of  portraits  and 
other  pieces  of  great  excellence.  In  1760  he  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  French  Academy.  He  was  identified 
with  the  philosophic  party,  and  contributed  to  the  "En- 
cyclopedic" of  Diderot.    Died  in  1786. 

See  Marmontel,  "  Memoires;"  Morellet,  "Memoires." 

Watelet,  (Louts  Etienne,)  a  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1780,  He  painted  French, 
Italian,  and  Belgian  scenery.  He  gained  a  first  medal 
in  1819. 

Wa'ter-house,  (Benjamin,)  M.D.,  an  American 
physician,  born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1754, 
studied  at  London  and  Edinburgh,  and  graduated  at 
Leyden.  After  his  return  he  became  professor  of  the 
theory  and  practice  of  physic  in  the  medical  school  of 
Harvard  College,  continuing  to  fill  this  post  for  thirty 
years.    Died  at  Cambridge  in  1846. 

Wa'ter-house,  (Edward,)  an  English  writer,  born 
in  1619.  He  published  "An  Apology  for  Learning  and 
Learned  Men,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1670. 

waiter-land,  (Daniel,)  D.D.,  an  English  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1683.  He  studied  at  Mag 
dalene  College,  Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became 
one  of  the  chaplains-in-ordinary  to  George  I.  He  was 
engaged  in  a  controversy  with  Dr.  Clarke  and  other 
champions  of  the  Arian  party,  and  published  "  A  Vin- 
dication of  Christ's  Divinity,"  "Critical  History  of  the 
Athanasian  Creed,"  "  Scripture  Vindicated,"  etc.,  and 
other  works.  He  became  Archdeacon  of  Middlesex  \x\f 
1730.    Died  in  1740. 

See  Bishop  Van  Mildert,  "Life  of  Waterland,"  prefixed  to  his 
works. 

Waterloo,  waw'ter-loo',  [Dutch  pron.  wS'ter-16',] 
(Antoni,)  an  eminent  Dutch  landscape-painter  and 
engraver,  born  near  Utrecht  about  1618.  His  etchings 
are  numerous,  and  are  ranked  among  the  best  works 
of  the  kind.  .  Died  in  1662. 

See  Charles  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Wa'ter-ton,  (Charles,)  an  English  naturalist  and 
traveller,  born  about  1782.  He  visited  South  America 
in  the  early  part  of  his  life,  and  published  in  1825 
"  Wanderings  in  South  America,  the  Northwest  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  Antilles."  He  also  wrote 
"Essays  on  Natural  History."    Died  in  1865. 

See  "  Charles  Waterton,  his  Home,  Habits,"  etc.,  London,  t866; 
"  Edinburgh  Review"  for  February,  1826,  (by  Sydney  Smith  ;) 
"London  Magazine"  for  March,  1826;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
December,  1857. 

Wathek-Billah,  Al,  ai  wi'thek  bil'iah,  written  also 
Vathek  and  Wathik,  (Aboo  Jaafar  Haroon,  (or 
Harun,)  i'boo  ji'a-far  hi'roon',)  an  Abbasside  Caliph 
of  Bagdad,  was  born  in  811  a.d.  He  succeeded  his 
father,  Motassem,  in  842,  and  endeavoured  to  maintain 
the  literary  splendour  which  had  distinguished  the  reigns 
of  his  predecessors  ;  but  he  is  censured  for  cruelty  and 
intolerance.    Died  in  847  a.d. 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen." 

Wathiez,  vt^te-i',  (FRANgois  Isidore,)  Vicomte,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Versailles  in  1777.    He  served 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Viy guttural;  N,  ncisal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WATKINS 


2240 


WATT 


as  captain  at  Austerlitz  (1805)  and  Jena,  (1806,)  and 
became  a  general  of  brigade  in  1813.    Died  in  1855. 

Watkins,  wSt'kinz,  (Charles  Fredkrick,)  an  Eng- 
lish clergyman,  born  in  Wiltshire  about  1795.  He  pub- 
lished several  poems,  an  "  Introduction  to  Geology," 
and  other  works. 

Watkinson,  wSt'kin-sgn,  (David,)  born  in  Suffolk, 
England,  in  1778,  emigrated  to  America,  and  acquired  a 
large  fortune  by  merchandise  at  Hartford,  Connecticut. 
He  died  in  1857,  leaving  $40,000  to  found  a  juvenile 
asylum  and  farm-school  for  neglected  children,  $100,000 
for  a  library  in  connection  with  the  Historical  Society 
of  Connecticut,  and  other  munificent  bequests. 

Wats,  w6ts,  (Gilbert,)  an  English  translator,  born 
in  Yorkshire  about  1600,  became  a  Fellow  of  Lincoln 
College,  Oxford.  He  translated  Davila's  "History  of 
the  Civil  Wars  of  France"  and  Lord  Bacon's  "  De 
Augmentis  Scientiarum."    Died  in  1657. 

Watson,  wdt'son,  (Caroline,)  a  skilful  English  en- 
graver, born  in  London  about  1760.  She  engraved 
many  portraits.    Died  about  1812. 

Watson,  (Charles,)  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
1714.  He  served  with  distinction  against  the  Spaniards 
in  the  campaigns  of  1744  and  1747,  and  was  made  rear- 
admiral  of  the  blue  in  1748.  He  accompanied  Colonel 
Clive  to  India  in  1754,  and  had  a  prominent  part  in  the 
capture  of  Chandernagore,  in  1757.  Died  the  same  year. 

Watson,  wSt'son,  (David,)  a  Scottish  classical 
scholar,  born  in  17 10.  He  produced  a  prose  transla- 
tion of  Horace.    Died  in  1756. 

Watson,  wSt'sQu,  (Elkanah,)  a  merchant,  born  at 
Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1758.  He  resided  many 
years  at  Albany,  and  distinguished  himself  by  promoting 
various  public  works,  and  by  his  efforts  in  the  cause  of 
education.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  first  agricultural 
society  in  the  State  of  New  York.  He  wrote  memoirs 
entitled  "Men  and  Times  of  the  Revolution,"  (1856.) 
Died  in  1842. 

Watson,  (Henry,)  Colonel,  a  British  military 
engineer  and  mathematician,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in 
1737.  He  accompanied  Lord  Clive  to  India,  and  gained 
distinction  as  chief  engineer  in  Bengal  and  Orissa.  He 
died  in  England  in  1786,  or,  as  some  say,  in  1780. 

Watson,  (Hewett  C,,)  an  English  botanist,  born  in 
Yorkshire  about  1804.  He  gained  distinction  as  a 
writer  on  botany,  etc.  Among  his  works  is  an  able 
treatise  on  the  geographical  distribution  of  plants,  en- 
titled "Cybele  Britannica,"  (3  vols.  8vo,  1847-55.) 

Watson,  (James,)  a  Scottish  printer,  born  at  Aber- 
deen about  1675.  He  published  a  newspaper  in  Edin- 
burgh, a  "History  of  the  Art  of  Printing,"  and  a  Bible, 
(171 5,)  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  the  typography. 
Died  in  1722. 

Watson,  (John,)  Rev.,  an  English  historian,  born  in 
Cheshire  in  1724,  became  rector  of  Stockport.  His  chief 
work  is  a  "  History  of  Halifax,"  (1775.)    I^'^^  '^I'^l- 

Watson,  (John,)  M.D.,  a  distinguished  physician, 
born  at  Londonderry,  Ireland,  in  1807.  Having  emigrated 
to  America,  he  became  in  1833  one  of  the  physicians  of 
the  New  York  Disjiensary.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  American  Medical  Association  and  of  the  New 
York  Academy  of  Medicine,  and  has  published  a  num- 
ber of  medical  works. 

Watson,  (John  Fanning,)  an  American  antiquary 
and  historical  writer,  born  in  Burlington  county.  New 
Jersey,  in  1780.  He  published  "Annals  of  Philadelphia," 
(1830,)  "Historic  Tales  of  the  Olden  Times  in  New 
York,"  (1832,)  and  other  similar  works.  He  resided  for 
many  years  in  Philadelphia.    Died  in  i860. 

Watson,  (Richard,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Westmoreland  in  1737. 
He  entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  as  a  sizar  in 
1754,  and  in  1767  was  appointed  one  of  the  head  tutors. 
Having  taken  his  degree  of  M.  A.,  he  was  chosen  in  1764 
to  succeed  Dr.  Hadley  as  professor  of  chemistry,  and 
in  1 77 1  became  regius  professor  of  theology.  He  rose 
through  various  minor  preferments  to  be  Bishop  of 
Llandaflf  in  1782.  He  had  already  published  several 
works  of  a  political  nature,  one  of  which  was  entitled 
"The  Principles  of  the  Revolution  Vindicated."  His 
"Letter  to  Archbishop  Cornwallis  on  the  Church  Reve-  | 


nues"  came  out  in  1783.  Among  his  other  writings 
may  be  named  his  "  Apology  for  Christianity,  in  a  Series 
of  Letters  addressed  to  Edward  Gibbon,  Esq.,"  (1776,) 
"  An  Apology  for  the  Bible,"  (1796,)  in  answer  to  Thomas 
Paine,  "Chemical  Essays,"  and  "Miscellaneous  Tracts 
on  Religious,  Political,  and  Agricultural  Subjects,"  (1815.) 
Died  in  1816. 

See  "  Anecdotes  of  the  Life  of  Richard  Watson,  Bishop  of 
Llandaff,"  by  himself :  Ai.ijbone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  June,  i8i8  ;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for 
October,  1817  ;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  February  and  March,  1818. 

Watson,  (Richard,)  an  English  Methodist  divine, 
born  at  Barton-upon-Humber  in  1781,  was  appointed  in 
181 7  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  Missionary  Society. 
He  published  "  A  Defence  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Missions  in  the  West  Indies,"  "Theological  Institutes," 
etc.,  "Biblical  and  Theological  Dictionary,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1833. 

See  "  Life  of  Richard  Watson,"  by  T.  Jackson. 

Watson,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  historian,  born  at 
Saint  Andrew's  in  1730.  He  studied  at  Glasgow  and 
Edinburgh,  and  became  in  1777  principal  of  the  united 
colleges  of  Saint  Leonard  and  Saint  Salvador  at  Saint 
Andrew's.  He  published  the  same  year  a  good  "  His- 
tory of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,"  which  enjoyed  considerable 
popularity  for  a  time  ;  but  it  has  been  eclipsed  by  the 
more  elaborate  works  of  Motley  and  Prescott.  He  died 
in  1780,  leaving  an  unfinished  "History  of  Philip  III." 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  ;" 
Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Monthly  Review"  for  April, 
1777- 

Watson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  nonconformist  min- 
ister, became  rector  of  Saint  Stephen's,  Walbrook,  Lon- 
don, in  1646.  He  was  ejected  about  1662,  after  which 
he  preached  occasionally.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Body  of  Divinity,"  (1692.)    Died  about  1690. 

Watson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  bishop  and  Roman 
Catholic.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Lincoln  in  1557, 
but  on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he  was  imprisoned. 
He  died  in  prison  in  1582. 

Watson,  (Sir  William,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  phy- 
sician and  botanist,  born  in  London  in  1715.  He  ob- 
tained the  Copley  medal  in  1745  for  his  discoveries  in 
electricity.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions."  Died  in  1787. 

Watson,  (William,)  an  English  Catholic  priest, 
who  formed  a  conspiracy  against  James  I.  in  the  early 
part  of  his  reign.  He  was  convicted  of  high  treason 
and  executed  in  1603. 

See  Gardiner,  "  History  of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  vol.  i. 
chap.  ii.  J 

Watson,  (William  R.,)  an  American  political  writer, 
born  in  Rhode  Island  in  1799.  He  was  an  active  Whig 
politician.    Died  at  Providence  in  1864. 

Watt,  w6t,  (Gregory,)  a  British  geologist,  born  in 
1777,  was  a  son  of  the  celebrated  James  Watt.  He  be- 
came a  partner  in  the  firm  of  Boulton  &  Watt  in  1794, 
after  which  he  studied  in  the  University  of  Glasgow. 
Having  been  advised  by  a  physician  to  pass  the  winter 
in  the  west  of  England  for  the  benefit  of  his  health, 
he  repaired  in  1797  to  Penzance,  where  he  formed  an 
intimacy  with  Humphry  Davy.  He  wrote,  in  1804, 
"  Observations  on  Basalt,  and  on  the  Transition  from 
the  Vitreous  to  the  Stony  Texture  which  occurs  in 
the  Gradual  Refrigeration  of  Melted  Basalt."  Died  in 
October,  1804. 

Watt,  (James,)  a  Scottish  engineer,  philosopher,  and 
inventor  of  great  merit  and  celebrity,  was  born  at  Green- 
ock, on  the  Clyde,  on  the  19th  of  January,  1736.  He 
was  a  son  of  James  Watt,  merchant,  builder,  and  ship- 
chandler.  His  mother's  name  was  Agnes  Muirhead  or 
Muirheid.  Being  a  child  of  delicate  constitution,  he  was 
educated  mostly  at  home.  His  favourite  studies  and 
pursuits  were  the  experimental  sciences  and  practical 
mechanics.  Having  adopted  the  trade  of  maker  of 
mathematical  instruments,  he  went  to  London  in  1755 
and  served  an  apprenticeship  of  one  year  with  John 
Morgan.  In  1756  he  returned  to  Scotland,  with  the 
intention  to  settle  at  Glasgow  ;  but,  as  he  was  not  a  bur- 
gess, the  corporation  of  arts  and  trades  would  not  permit 
him  to  open  a  workshop  in  that  city.  The  professors  of 
the  University  of  Glasgow  then  offered  him  a  place  of 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long:  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fJt;  m^t;  not;  good;  moon; 


WATT 


2241 


WATT 


business  within  their  precincts,  and  gave  him  the  title 
of  mathematical  instrument  maker  to  the  University. 
He  employed  his  evenings  in  the  profound  study  of 
various  sciences,  learned  most  of  the  modern  languages 
of  Europe,  and  formed  intimate  friendships  with  Robi- 
son,  Black,  and  other  professors  at  Glasgow.  In  1764 
he  married  his  cousin.  Miss  Miller,  and,  as  his  wife  was 
the  daughter  of  a  burgess,  he  was  then  permitted  to  open 
a  shop  in  Glasgow. 

About  1764  he  was  employed  to  repair  a  model  of 
Newcomen's  steam-engine  which  was  used  in  the  class- 
room of  the  university,  and  perceived  defects  in  it  which 
induced  him  to  make  experiments  on  the  application  of 
steam-power.  He  discovered  that  water,  when  converted 
into  steam,  is  expanded  to  eighteen  hundred  times  its 
bulk.  He  ascertained  that  in  the  '*  atmospheric"  engine 
of  Newcomen  there  was  a  great  waste  of  the  steam  which 
was  condensed  by  the  injection  of  cold  water  into  the 
cylinder,  and  that  to  prevent  this  waste  the  cylinder 
must  be  continually  kept  as  hot  as  the  steam  which  enters 
it.  In  1765  the  fortunate  idea  occurred  to  him  of  con- 
densing the  steam  in  a  separate  vessel,  which  should  be 
exhausted  of  air  and  always  kept  cool.  "This  capital 
improvement,"  says  Dr.  Black,  "  flashed  on  his  mind  at 
once,  and  filled  him  with  rapture."  ("  History  of  Mr. 
Watt's  Improvement  of  the  Steam,-Engine.")  Another 
improvement  which  he  invented  about  this  time  was  the 
use  of  the  expansive  force  of  steam  to  depress  the  piston, 
instead  of  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

He  ceased  to  make  mathematical  instruments  in  1768, 
after  which  he  pursued  the  business  of  land-surveyor  and 
civil  engineer.  He  obtained  a  j^atent  for  his  invention  in 
January,  1769,  and  was  supplied  with  some  capital  requi- 
site to  reduce  his  improvements  to  practice,  by  Dr.  John 
Roebuck,  who  had  a  share  in  the  patent.  Before  Watt 
could  realize  any  profit  from  his  new  engine.  Dr.  Roe- 
buck became  insolvent,  or  so  embarrassed  that  he  could 
not  advance  any  more  funds.  In  a  letter  dated  August, 
1772,  Watt  writes,  "I  pursued  my  experiments  till  1 
found  that  the  expense  and  loss  of  time  lying  wholly 
upon  me,  through  the  distress  of  Dr.  Roebuck's  situa- 
tion, turned  out  to  be  a  greater  burthen  than  I  could 
support,  and  I  was  obliged  for  a  time  to  abandon  my 
project.  Notwithstanding  my  nattiral  despondence,  I  am 
convinced  that  the  machine  may  be  made  to  answer  in  a 
very  considerable  degree,  and  in  more  forms  than  one, 
but  that  I  am  by  no  means  the  proper  person  to  carry  it 
into  execution." 

Watt  was  employed  as  surveyor  or  engineer  in  the 
construction  of  several  canals,  bridges,  and  other  works 
in  Scotland  during  the  period  from  1769  to  1773.  Roe- 
buck, who  had  advanced  ;^iooo  to  the  inventor,  trans- 
ferred in  1774  his  share  in  the  patent  {i.e.  two-thirds)  to 
Matthew  Boulton,  of  Soho,  an  enterprising  man  of  busi- 
ness, who  entered  into  partnership  with  Watt  for  the 
manufacture  of  steam-engines  at  Soho,  near  Birmingham. 
Boulton  and  Watt  applied  to  Parliament  for  an  ex- 
tension of  the  term  of  their  patent,  and  obtained  the 
exclusive  right  to  make  and  vend  the  new  engine  for  a 
term  of  twenty-five  years,  (i 775-1 800.)  A  great  saving 
of  fuel  was  effected  by  the  improvements  of  Watt,  whose 
engines  were  soon  extensively  used  to  pump  water  out 
of  the  mines  of  Cornwall.  In  1782  he  took  out  a  patent 
for  the  invention  of  the  double-acting  engine,  in  which 
the  reciprocating  rectilinear  motion  was  converted  into 
rotatory  motion. 

He  afterwards  invented  several  improvements,  among 
which  are  the  governor  or  "regulator  by  centrifugal 
force,"  the  mechanism  of  parallel  motion,  the  throttle- 
valve,  and  the  steam  barometer  or  float.  The  manufac- 
tory of  engines  at  Soho  was  successful,  and  enriched 
both  of  the  partners. 

In  1783  Watt  made  an  important  chemical  discovery, 
— the  composition  of  water  ;  but  the  honour  of  this  dis- 
covery is  claimed  for  Cavendish  by  some  writers.  To 
the  substances  which  unite  to  form  water.  Watt  applied 
the  terms  "phlogiston"  and  "dephlogisticated  air."  Dr. 
'Dalton,  in  his  "New  System  of  Chemical  Philosophy," 
(1810,)  says,  "The  composition  and  decomposition  of 
water  were  ascertained,  the  former  by  Watt  and  Caven- 
dish, and  the  latter  by  Lavoisier  and  Meusnier."  An- 


other eminent  chemist.  Dr.  Henry,  wrote  to  James 
Watt,  Junior,  "  There  is  no  room  for  doubt  as  to  your 
father's  priority."  The  honour  of  this  discovery  was 
also  ascribed  to  Watt  by  Sir  D.  Brewster,  Lord  Jeffrey, 
and  M.  Dumas.  (See  a  review  of  this  controversy  in 
an  article  entitled  "  Watt  or  Cavendish,"  by  Lord  Jeffrey, 
in  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1848.)  Watt 
was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  in 
1785.  He  remained  in  partnership  with  Boulton  until 
1800,  and  then  resigned  his  business  to  his  two  sons.  In 
1814  he  was  elected  one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates 
of  the  French  Institute.  Having  lost  his  first  wife  in 
1773,  he  married  a  Miss  MacGregor  a  few  years  later. 
He  died  at  Heathfield,  near  Birmingham,  in  August, 
1819.  In  the  same  year  Lord  Jeffrey  composed  a  eulogy 
on  Watt,  from  which  we  quote  as  follows:  "By  his 
admirable  contrivances,  it  [the  steam-engine]  has  become 
a  thing  stupendous  alike  for  its  force  and  its  flexibility, 
for  the  prodigious  power  which  it  can  exert,  and  the 
ease  and  precision  and  ductility  with  which  it  can  be 
varied,  distributed,  and  applied.  The  trunk  of  an 
elephant,  that  can  pick  up  a  pin  or  rend  an  oak,  is  as 
nothing  to  it.  It  can  draw  out,  without  breaking,  a 
thread  as  fine  as  gossamer,  and  lift  a  ship  of  war  like  a 
bauble  in  the  air.  .  .  .  He  had  infinite  quickness  of 
apprehension,  a  prodigious  memory,  and  a  certain  recti- 
fying and  methodizing  power  of  understanding,  which 
extracted  something  precious  out  of  all  that  was  pre- 
sented to  it.  His  stores  of  miscellaneous  knowledge 
were  immense,  and  yet  less  astonishing  than  the  com- 
mand he  had  at  all  times  over  them."  "  I  look  upon 
him,"  says  the  poet  Wordsworth,  "considering  both  the 
magnitude  and  the  universality  of  his  genius,  as  per- 
haps the  most  extraordinary  man  that  this  country  ever 
produced."* 

See  J.  P  MuiRHEAD,  "Life  of  James  Watt,"  1858,  and  "Tha 
Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Mechanical  Inventions  of  J.  Watt,  illus- 
trated by  his  Correspondence,"  3  vols.,  1854;  F.  Arago,  "Vie  de 
Watt,"  1838:  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen  ;"  Samukt.  Smzles,  "  P.rief  Biographies ;"  Lord  Jeffrey, 
article  on  Watt  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  1819 ;  Dr.  Hoefer, 
article  in  the  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale  ;"  J.  Forbes,  "  Dis- 
sertation" in  the  Sth  edition  of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  ;" 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1858  ;  "  North  British 
Review"  for  February,  1847,  and  May,  1855. 

Watt,  (James,)  the  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  February,  1769.  He  studied  natural  philosophy, 
chemistry,  and  mineralogy,  and  learned  to  speak  the 
French  language  fluently.  About  1790  he  went  to 
Paris,  became  inflamed  with  enthusiasm  for  liberty  and 
equality,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  Revolution.  "  He 
was  for  some  time,"  says  Muirhead,  "in  company  with 
Thomas  Cooper  and  Wordsworth  the  poet,  in  the  habit 
of  associating  with  many  of  those  men  who  afterwards 
attained  a  dreadful  celebrity,  and,  as  Southey  has  men- 
tioned, was  at  that  time  the  means  of  preventing  a  duel 
between  Danton  and  Robespierre."  ("  Life  of  James 
Watt.")  Robespierre  having  in  1792  insinuated  that 
Watt  was  an  emissary  of  Pitt,  Watt  sprang  on  the 
tribune  of  the  Jacobin  Club  and  defended  himself  in  a 
brief  and  impassioned  speech,  after  which  he  instantly 
quitted  Paris.  In  1800  he  became  a  partner  of  Boulton 
the  younger  in  the  manufacture  of  engines  at  Soho.  He 
rendered  some  services  to  the  cause  of  steam-navigation 
by  experiments  on  marine  engines.  In  181 7  he  made  a 
voyage  to  Holland  in  the  steamboat  Caledonia,  which 
he  owned,  and  which  was  the  first  that  crossed  the 
Channel.    He  died,  unmarried,  at  Aston  Hall,  in  1848. 

Watt,  (James  Henry,)  an  eminent  English  engraver, 
born  in  London  in  1799,  was  a  pupil  of  Charles  Heath. 
Among  his  master-pieces  we  may  name  "The  High- 
land Drover's  Departure"  and  "  Horses  at  the  Fountain," 
after  Landseer,  and  "Christ  Blessing  Little  Children," 
after  Eastlake.    Died  in  1867. 

Watt,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  physician  and  medical 
writer,  born  in  Ayrshire  in  1774.  He  was  president  of 
the  Faculty  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  at  Glasgow, 
and  published,  among  other  works,  a  "Treatise  on  the 
History,  Nature,  and  Treatment  of  Chin-Cough."  He 
also  compiled  the  "  Bibliotheca  Britannica,  or  a  General 


*  Quoted  in  Muirhead's  "  Life  of  Watt." 


€  as     c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WATTEAV 


2242 


WEALE 


Index  to  British  and  Foreign  Literature,"  (4  vols.,  1820.) 
Died  in  1819. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Watteau  or  Wateau,  vt^to',  (Antoine,)  a  French 
painter,  born  at  Valenciennes  in  1684.  He  studied  under 
Gillot  and  Audran,  and  acquired  great  celebrity  in  his 
peculiar  department  of  the  art.  His  favourite  subjects 
were  rural  festivals,  balls,  masquerades,  and  military 
encampments,  and  in  these  he  was  perhaps  unsurpassed. 
Horace  Walpole  observes,  "  Watteau's  shepherdesses 
— nay,  his  very  sheep — are  coquet ;  yet,  though  he  fell 
short  of  the  dignified  grace  of  the  Italians,  there  is  aii 
easy  air  in  his  figures,  and  that  more  familiar  species  of 
the  graceful  which  we  call  genteel."  His  works  are  very 
numerous,  and  the  greater  part  have  been  engraved. 
They  were  greatly  admired  by  Frederick  the  Great  of 
Prussia,  and  many  of  the  best  are  to  be  seen  at  Berlin. 
Died  in  172 1. 

See  Walpole,  "Anecdotes  of  Painting;"  LiioN  Dumont,  "An- 
toine Watteau,"  1866  ;  A.  Dinaux,  "  Notice  sur  A.  Watteau,"  1834  ; 
Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres  ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographic 
Generale." 

Watteville,  de,  deh  vSt'v^K,  {  Adolphe  du  Grabe — 
dii  grtb,)  Baron,  a  French  economist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1799.  He  wrote  several  works  on  charitable  institu- 
tions, etc. 

Wattier,  vt'te-a',  (Charles  Emile,  )  a  French 
painter  of  history  and  genre,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1800. 

Watts,  w6ts,  (Alaric  Alexander,)  an  English 
journalist  and  litteratetir^  born  in  London  in  1799.  He 
edited  successively  the  "Leeds  Intelligencer,"  "Man- 
chester Courier,"  "The  Literary  Souvenir,"  and  " The 
United  Service  Gazette."  He  also  published  "Lyrics 
of  the  Heart,  and  other  Poems,"  (1851.)  His  wife,  the 
sister  of  J.  H.  Wiffen,  has  published  "The  Juvenile 
Poetical  Library,"  and  contributed  the  letter-press  to 
"  Hogarth's  Tableaux,"  and  other  similar  works.  Died 
in  1864. 

See  "  Fraser's  Magazine"  for  June,  1835. 

Watts,  (George  Frederick,)  an  English  painter, 
born  in  London  in  1820.  Among  his  principal  works 
we  may  name  his  "Orlando  pursuing  the  Fata  Mor- 
gana," "Alfred  inciting  the  Saxons  to  Maritime  Enter- 
prise," and  "The  School  of  Legislation,"  a  fresco,  in 
Lincoln's  Inn. 

Watts,  (Isaac,)  an  eminent  English  divine  and  sacred 
poet,  born  at  Southampton  in  1674.  He  was  educated 
at  an  Independent  academy  in  London,  where  he  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  attainments  in  theology,  Hebrew, 
logic,  and  Latin  poetry.  In  1696  he  became  tutor  to  the 
son  of  Sir  John  Hartopp,  at  Stoke  Newington,  and  in 
1702  succeeded  Dr.  Chauncy  as  pastor  of  the  Inde- 
pendent Church  in  Mark  Lane,  London.  Having  been 
attacked  with  a  severe  illness  in  1712,  he  was  compelled 
to  retire  for  a  time  from  his  office,  and,  on  the  invitation 
of  Sir  Thomas  Abney,  went  to  reside  in  his  family  at 
Theobalds,  where  he  remained  till  his  death,  a  period 
of  nearly  forty  years.  He  died  in  1748,  and  a  monument 
was  erected  over  his  grave  by  his  devoted  friends  Sir 
John  Hartopp  and  Lady  Abney.  Among  his  principal 
works  we  may  name  "  Divine  Songs  attempted  in  Easy 
Language  for  the  Use  of  Children,"  (1720,)  "Logic,  or 
the  Right  Use  of  Reason  in  the  Inquiry  after  Truth," 
etc.,"  (1725,)  "The  Improvement  of  the  Mind,"  (1741,) 
"Three  Dissertations  relating  to  the  Christian  Doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,"  "The  Art  of  Reading  and  Writing 
English,"  and  "  Horai  Lyricae." 

See  Robert  Southey,  "  Memoir  of  Isaac  Watts ;"  Thomas 
Gibbons,  "  Memoirs  of  Isaac  Watts  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Eng- 
lish Poets,"  vol.  i. ;  Drake,  "Essays;"  "North  British  Review" 
for  August,  1 85 1. 

Watts,  (Thomas,)  an  Englishman,  born  in  London, 
was  employed  many  years  in  the  British  Museum,  and 
caused  one  hundred  thousand  volumes  of  American 
books  to  be  added  to  the  library.  He  was  appointed 
keeper  of  the  printed  books  of  that  museum  in  1866. 
Died  in  1869. 

Wat  Tyler.    See  Tyler. 

Waugh,  waw,  (Alexander,)  a  Scottish  minister  of 
the  United  Secession  Church,  born  in  Berwickshire  in 
1754.    He  settled  in  London  in  1782,  became  an  elo- 


quent and  popular  minister,  and  preached  in  that  city 
forty-four  years.    Died  in  1827. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wauters,  wow'ters,  ?  (Charles  Augustin,)  a  Bel- 
gian painter  of  high  reputation,  was  born  at  Boom  in 
181 1.  Among  his  works  are  "The  Passage  of  the  Red 
Sea,"  and  "Peter  the  Hermit  preaching  a  Crusade."  He 
became  a  resident  of  Brussels. 

Wawrzecki,  vav-zhgts'kee,  (Thomas,)  Count,  a 
Polish  general,  succeeded  Kosciusko  as  commander  of 
the  army  in  1794.  On  the  capture  of  Warsaw  by  Su- 
warow,  November,  1794,  he  retired  to  Sandomir,  where 
he  was  taken  prisoner.  He  was  liberated  in  1797.  Died 
in  1816. 

WayTand,  (Francis,)  D.D.,  an  eminent  Baptist 
divine,  born  in  New  York  in  March,  1796.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Union  College  in  1813,  and  subsequently  studied 
at  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary.  In  1826  he  was 
chosen  president  of  Brown  University  at  Providence, 
Rhode  Island.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Ele- 
ments of  Moral  Science,"  (1835,)  "Elements  of  Political 
Economy,"  (1837,)  "Limitations  of  Human  Responsi- 
bility," (1840,)  a  correspondence  with  Dr.  Fuller  on  the 
subject  of  slavery,  entitled  "Christianity  and  Slavery," 
(1845,)  "Intellectual  Philosophy,"  (1854.)  Died  in 
1865.  "I  think,"  eays  R.  W.  Griswold,  "that  his 
'Treatise  on  Human  Responsibility'  will  be  looked 
upon  as  one  of  the  great  guiding  monuments  of  human 
thought  in  the  department  to  which  it  refers." 

See  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America,"  p.  364;  Allibone, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Memoirs  of  Francis  Wayland,"  by  his 
sons,  1867. 

Wayne,  (Anthony,)  an  able  American  general,  born 
in  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  January,  1745.  He 
followed  the  business  of  a  surveyor  in  his  youth,  formed 
a  friendship  with  Dr.  Franklin,  and  married  about  1767 
a  Miss  Penrose,  of  Philadelphia.  He  afterwards  lived 
on  a  farm  in  his  native  county,  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  General  Assembly  in  1774,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  committee  of  safety  in  1775.  In  this  year  he  raised 
and  disciplined  a  regiment,  and  entered  the  army  as  a 
colonel.  He  served  at  the  battle  of  Three  Rivers,  Canada, 
in  June,  1776,  soon  after  which  he  took  command  of  Fort 
Ticonderoga,  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general. 
About  May,  1777,  he  joined  the  army  of  Washington  in 
New  Jersey.  He  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle 
of  Brandywine,  where  he  distinguished  himself,  Sep- 
tember, 1777,  and  led  the  right  wing  at  the  battle  of 
Germantown,  in  October  of  that  year.  His  conduct  at 
the  battle  of  Monmouth  (June,  1778)  was  commended 
by  General  Washington.  His  most  brilliant  achieve- 
ment was  the  capture  of  the  strong  fortification  of  Stony 
Point,  on  the  Hudson  River,  which  he  surprised  and  took 
by  assault  on  the  night  of  July  15,  1779,  for  which  exploit 
Congress  gave  him  a  vote  of  thanks.  He  was  wounded 
in  the  head  in  this  action.  He  served  at  the  battle  of 
Green  Springs,  Virginia,  in  July,  1780,  and  took  part  in 
the  capture  of  the  British  army  at  Yorktovvn,  October 
19,  178K  After  this  event  he  commanded  in  Georgia, 
and  defeated  the  Indians.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
convention  which  ratified  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  in  December,  1787.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  major-general,  and  was  appointed  in  1792  commander 
of  the  army  sent  against  the  Indians.  In  August,  1794, 
he  gained  a  complete  victory  over  the  Miamis  in  West- 
ern Ohio.  Although  he  was  sometimes  called  "  Mad 
Anthony,"  on  account  of  his  daring  and  impetuous 
valour,  he  was  not  deficient  in  prudence  and  judgment. 
He  died  at  Presque  Isle,  on  Lake  Erie,  in  December, 
1796,  leaving  a  son  Isaac,  who  became  a  colonel  and 
Senator. 

See  John  Armstrong,  "Life  of  General  Anthony  Wayne,"  in 
Sparks's  "American  Biography,"  vol.  iv.  ;  "National  Portrait- 
Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,"  vol.  i. 

Wayn'flete,  (William,)  was  created  Bishop  of 
Winchester  in  1447,  and  lord  chancellor  in  1456.  He 
founded  Magdalene  College,  Oxford.    Died  in  i486. 

See  "The  Three  Chancellors,  or  Lives  of  William  of  Wykeham, 
William  of  Waytiflete,  and  Tliomas  More." 

Weale,  weel,  (John,)  an  English  publisher,  born 
about  1792,  lived  in  London.  He  edited  several  useful 
scientific  works.    Died  in  December,  1862. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


WEAFER 


2243 


WEBSTER 


Wea'ver  or  Wee'ver,  (John,)  an  English  anti- 
quary, was  born  in  1576,  probably  in  Lancashire.  He 
published  a  work  entitled  "Ancient  Funeral  Monuments 
in  Great  Britain."    Died  in  1632. 

Weaver,  (Thomas,)  an  English  geologist,  born  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  studied  under  the  celebrated 
Werner  at  Freiberg.  He  published  "  Memoirs  on  the 
Geology  of  the  East  and  South  of  Ireland,"  and  other 
works  of  the  kind.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  and  a  member  of  the  Geological  Society.  Died 
in  1855. 

Webb,  (Alexander  S.,)  an  American  general,  a  son 
of  James  Watson  Webb,  was  born  about  1834.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1855,  was  wounded  at  Get- 
tysburg, July  1-3,  1863,  served  at  the  battle  of  the  Wil- 
derness, May  5  and  6,  1864,  and  was  disabled  by  a 
wound  at  the  battle  of  Spottsylvania,  May  8-12. 

Webb,  (Daniel,)  an  Irish  writer,  born  in  the  county 
of  Limerick,  He  published  "  Remarks  on  the  Beauties 
of  Poetry,"  (1762,)  and  other  works,  which  are  com- 
mended.   Died  in  1798. 

Webb,  (James  Watson,)  an  American  journalist, 
born  at  Claverack,  New  York,  in  1802.  He  became  in 
1829  editor  of  the  *'  Morning  Courier  and  New  York 
Enquirer,"  a  leading  journal  of  the  Whig  party.  He 
was  appointed  in  i86r  minister  to  Brazil  by  President 
Lincoln. 

Webb,  (Philip  Barker,)  an  English  botanist  and 
scholar,  was  born  in  Surrey  about  1793.  He  inherited 
an  ample  fortune,  and  travelled  extensively  in  Europe 
and  Asia.  With  M.  Berthelot,  he  published  a  "  Natural 
History  of  the  Canaries,"  with  plates,  (3  vols.)  Among 
his  works  is  "Iter  Hispaniense,  or  a  Synopsis  of  Span- 
ish Plants."   Died  in  Paris  in  1854. 

Webb,  (Philip  Carteret,)  an  English  antiquary 
and  legal  writer,  born  in  1700;  died  in  1770. 

Webbe,  w^b,  (George,)  a  learned  English  theolo- 
gia^i,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1581.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Limerick  in  1634.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Practice  of  Quietness."    Died  in  1641. 

Webbe,  (Samuel,)  an  English  composer,  born  in 
1740.  His  works  include  anthems,  masses,  songs,  and 
glees.  The  last-named  compositions  are  esteemed  mas- 
ter-pieces of  the  kind.    Died  in  181 7. 

Web'ber,  (Charles  WiLKiNS,)  an  American  writer, 
born  at  Russellville,  Kentucky,  in  1819.  He  published 
"  The  Hunter  Naturalist,"  (1851,)  "Tales  of  the  Southern 
Border,"  (1853,)  and  "Gold-Mines  of  the  Gila."  He 
was  also  a  contributor  to  the  "  American  Review"  and 
the  "  Democratic  Review."  He  was  killed  in  Nicaragua 
in  1856,  while  serving  under  the  filibuster  Walker. 

See  DuYCKiNCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii. 

Web'ber,  (John,)  an  English  artist,  born  in  London 
in  1751,  accompanied  Captain  Cook's  last  expedition  as 
draughtsman.    Died  in  1793. 

Webber,  (Samuel,)  an  American  mathematician, 
born  at  Byfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1759.  He  became 
professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  at 
Harvard  College  in  1789,  and  in  1804  succeeded  Wil- 
lard  as  president  of  that  institution.  He  published  a 
"System  of  Mathematics,"  (1801.) 

Weber,  ■(^a'ber,  (Beda,)  a  Tyrolese  writer,  born  in 
1798,  has  published  "Songs  from  the  Tyrol,"  (1842,) 
"Andrew  Hofer  and  the  Year  1809,"  and  other  works. 

Weber,  <\'a''ber,  (Bernhard  Anselm,)  a  German 
composer,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1766,  became  chapel- 
master  at  Berlin.    Died  in  1821. 

Weber,  (Ernst  Heinrich,)  a  German  anatomist 
and  physiologist,  son  of  Michael  Weber,  noticed  below, 
was  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1795.  He  became  professor 
of  human  anatomy  and  of  physiology  at  Leipsic  in 
1840.  Among  his  principal  works  are  his  "Comparative 
Anatomy  of  the  Sympathetic  Nerve,"  (1817,)  and  "Ana- 
tomical and  Physiological  Annotations,"  (in  Latin.)  His 
brother  Eduard  Friedrich  has  published  several 
physiological  treatises. 

Weber,  <va'ber  or  vi'baiR',  (Fr6d^;ric,)  a  Swiss  en- 
graver, born  at  Bale  in  1813.  He  became  a  resident 
of  Paris,  and  engraved  numerous  portraits. 

Weber,  (Gottfried,)  a  German  composer  and  writer 
upon  music,  born  at  Freinsheim  in  1779;  died  in  1839. 


Weber,  (Henry  William,)  an  antiquarian  writer,  of 
German  extraction,  was  born  at  Saint  Petersburg  in  1783. 
He  settled  -in  Scotland,  where  he  published  a  poem 
entitled  "  The  Battle  of  Flodden  Field,"  and  "  Metrical 
Romances  of  the  Thirteenth,  Fourteenth,  and  Fifteenth 
Centuries."    Died  in  1818. 

Weber,  (Karl  Julius,)  a  German  writer,  born  at 
Langenburg  in  1767.  His  chief  work  is  entitled  "  Letters 
of  Germans  Travelling  in  Germany."    Died  in  1832. 

Weber,  (Michael,)  a  German  Protestant  theologian, 
born  near  Weissenfels  in  1754,  became  professor  of 
divinity  at  Wittenberg.  He  wrote  several  exegetical  and 
theological  works.    Died  in  1833. 

Web'?r,  [Ger.  pron.  '^a'ber,]  (Paul,)  a  distinguished 
landscape-painter,  born  in  Germany  about  1820.  In 
early  life  he  came  to  the  United  States,  and  practised 
his  art  for  many  years  in  Philadelphia.  Mr.  Weber's 
landscapes  are  remarkable  for  a  certain  aerial  softness 
which  imparts  to  them  an  indescribable  charm.  Several 
years  since  he  returned  to  Germany  and  established 
himself  at  Darmstadt. 

Weber,  (Veit,)  a  German  poet  of  the  latter  part 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
battle-songs,  one  of  which  is  entitled  "The  Battle  of 
Murten." 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Weber,  (Wilhelm  Eduard,)  a  German  physiologist 
and  scientific  writer,  brother  of  Ernst  Heinrich,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1804.  He  studied  at 
Halle,  and  was  appointed,  in  183 1,  professor  of  physics 
at  Gottingen.  He  published,  conjointly  with  his  brother 
Ernst,  a  treatise  entitled  "The  Wave  Theory  grounded 
on  Experinients,"  etc.,  (1825,)  "On  the  Magnetism  of 
the  Earth,"  in  conjunction  with  Gauss,  and  several  other 
works. 

Weber,  (Wilhelm  Ernst,)  a  German  scholar  and 
teacher,  born  at  Weimar  in  1790.  He  published  editions 
of  Herodian  and  other  classics,  and  several  original 
works.    Died  in  1850. 

Weber,  von,  fon  <^a'ber,  (Emmanuel,)  Count,  a 
German  jurist,  born  near  Leipsic  in  1659.  He  became 
professor  of  history  at  Giessen  in  1698,  and  published 
many  legal  works.    Died  in  1726. 

Weber,  von,  (Karl  Maria  Friedrich  Ernst,) 
Baron,  an  eminent  German  composer  and  musician,  born 
at  Eutin,  in  Holstein,  in  1786.  He  was  successively  in- 
structed in  music  by  Michael  Haydn,  Valesi,  and  Kalcher, 
and,  after  the  composition  of  several  works  of  minor  im- 
portance, he  brought  out,  in  1800,  his  opera  of  "The 
Forest  Girl,"  ("  Das  Waldmadchen.")  He  soon  after 
visited  Vienna,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Joseph  Haydn  and  the  Abbe.  Vogler.  In  1807  he  made 
a  professional  tour  through  Germany,  taking  up  his 
residence  for  a  time  with  Duke  Lewis  of  Wurtemberg, 
where  he  remodelled  his  opera  of  "  Das  Waldmadchen," 
under  the  title  of  "Sylvana;"  it  was  performed  with 
brilliant  success  in  1810.  He  was  appointed,  in  1813, 
director  of  the  Opera  at  Prague,  and  in  1817  became 
chapel-master  and  manager  of  the  German  Opera  at 
Dresden.  He  married  the  same  year  the  celebrated 
actress  Lina  Brandt.  His  opera  of  "  Der  Freischiitz," 
which  is  esteemed  his  master-piece,  came  out  in  1822, 
and  was  received  with  the  greatest  applause  at  Berlin 
and  London.  His  "  Euryanthe,"  performed  at  Vienna 
in  1823,  was  less  generally  admired.  Having  been  com- 
missioned to  compose  an  opera  for  the  Covent  Garden 
Theatre,  London,  he  brought  out,  in  1826,  his  "  Oberon," 
which  was  eminently  successful,  being  represented 
twenty-seven  times.  He  died  the  same  year,  of  pulmo- 
nary disease.  His  remains  were  removed  in  1844 
from  the  Catholic  chapel  at  Moorfields  to  the  family 
vault  at  Dresden. 

See  Victor  Magnien,  "  fitude  biographique  siir  C.  M.  Baron 
de  Weber,"  1848:  Barbedette,  "Weber.  Essai  de  Critique  musi- 
cale,"  1862;  F^Tis,  "Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens;" 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale  ;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for 
January,  1831. 

Web'ster,  (Alexander,)  a  popular  and  eloquent 
Scottish  minister,  born  in  Edinburgh  about  1707.  He 
preached  at  the  Tolbooth  Church  of  that  city,  and  be- 
came an  influential  citizen.    He  founded  a  useful  insti- 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  Yi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WEBSTER 


22 


44 


WEBSTER 


tution  to  grant  annuities  to  the  widows  of  the  Scottish 
clergy.    Died  in  1784. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Web'st^r,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  comedian,  born 
at  Bath  in  1800,  became  manager  of  the  Hay  market 
Theatre  in  1837,  and  subsequently  of  the  Adelphi. 

Web'ster,  (Daniel,)  a  celebrated  American  states- 
man, jurist,  and  orator,  was  born  at  Salisbury,  New 
Hampshire,  January  i8,  1782.  He  was  a  younger  son 
of  Ebenezer  Webster,  a  farmer,  and  Abigail  Eastman, 
both  persons  of  vigorous  intellect  and  high-toned  mo- 
rality. On  account  of  the  delicacy  of  his  constitution, 
he  was  permitted  to  pass  a  large  part  of  his  childhood 
in  play,  which  he  dearly  loved.  He  also  loved  books, 
among  which  Addison's  Spectator"  was  an  especial 
favourite  with  him.  Having  learned  the  rudiments  of 
education  at  home,  and  in  the  common  schools  of  the 
vicinity,  he  was  sent,  in  May,  1796,  to  Phillips  Exeter 
Academy,  of  which  Benjamin  Abbot  was  the  principal. 
Young  Webster  was  at  that  time  so  diffident,  as  he  him- 
self tells  us,  that  he  could  not  be  induced  to  declaim 
before  the  school.  "The  kind  and  excellent  Buck- 
minster,"  says  he,  in  his  autobiography,  "  sought  to 
persuade  me  to  perform  the  exercise  of  declamation  like 
other  boys,  but  I  could  not  do  it."  In  February,  1797, 
he  quitted  the  academy  of  Exeter,  and  pursued  his 
studies  under  the  tuition  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Wood, 
of  Boscawen.  His  father,  although  burdened  with  a 
large  family  and  hardly  able  to  defray  the  expense,  had 
resolved  to  send  Daniel  to  college.  Having  read  six 
books  of  Virgil's  "  ^neid"  and  some  of  Cicero's  ora- 
tions, and  obtained  a  little  knowledge  of  Greek  grammar, 
he  entered  Dartmouth  College  as  a  freshman  in  August, 
1797.  According  to  his  own  statement,  he  was  "misera- 
bly prepared  both  in  Latin  and  Greek,"  and  he  had  little 
taste  or  genius  for  mathematics.  His  habits  at  college 
were  studious  and  regular.  "  By  the  close  of  his  first 
year,"  says  Edward  Everett,  "young  Webster  had  shown 
himself  decidedly  the  foremost  man  of  his  class  ;  and  that 
position  he  held  through  his  whole  college  course."  He 
was  also  the  best  writer  and  public  speaker  in  the  college. 
By  teaching  school  during  vacations  he  earned  money, 
which  he  gave  to  aid  his  elder  brother  Ezekiel,  whom 
the  family  sent  to  college,  not  without  great  sacrifices 
and  privations.  This  brother,  who  was  called  by  some 
the  handsomest  man  in  the  United  States,  became  a 
prominent  lawyer,  and  died  in  1829.  Daniel  graduated 
in  August,  1801,  and  began  to  study  law  in  the  office  of 
Thomas  W.  Thompson,  of  Salisbury,  who  was  elected  to 
the  Senate  of  the  United  States  in  1814.  In  order  to 
earn  a  supply  of  money  for  his  brother  who  was  at 
college,  he  took  charge  of  an  academy  at  Fryeburg,  in 
Maine,  with  a  salary  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  dollars 
per  annum.  Here  he  remained  about  eight  months,  and 
returned  to  Mr.  Thompson's  oftice  in  the  autumn  of 
1802.  Upon  coining  of  age  he  joined  the  Congrega- 
tional (Orthodox)  Church.  In  politics  he  was  a  zealous 
Federalist.  He  was  passionately  fond  of  hunting  and 
fishing,  both  in  his  youth  and  his  mature  life. 

To  perfect  his  legal  education,  he  went  to  Boston  in 
July,  1804,  and  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  received  as  a 
clerk  in  the  office  of  Christopher  Gore,  an  eminent  law- 
yer and  statesman.  Here  he  read  Vattel  and  PufTendorf, 
but  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  study  of  the  common 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  March,  1805.  He 
practised  nearly  two  years  at  Boscawen,  and  in  1807 
removed  to  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  Before  this 
date  he  had  delivered  several  Fourth-of-July  orations. 
In  June,  1808,  he  married  Grace  Fletcher,  of  Hopkinton, 
New  Hampshire.  He  rose  rapidly  in  his  profession, 
and  was  soon  regarded  as  a  fit  antagonist  for  Jeremiah 
Mason,  who  was  the  greatest  lawyer  in  the  State,  and 
was  many  years  older  than  Webster.  In  November, 
1812,  he  was  elected  as  a  Federalist  to  the  National 
House  of  Representatives,  in  which  he  took  his  seat  in 
May,  1813.  He  opposed  the  war  against  Great  Britain, 
took  an  active  part  in  the  debates  which  that  war  oc- 
casioned, and  advocated  an  increase  of  the  navy.  His 
speeches  on  these  subjects  placed  him  in  the  first  rank 
as  a  debater.  He  was  re-elected  to  the  fourteenth  Con- 
gress, which  met  in  December,  1815,  when  the  violence 


of  party  spirit  had  greatly  abated,  and  the  return  of 
|)eace  had  directed  the  attention  of  the  national  legis- 
Jature  to  new  and  important  questions.  Among  these 
was  a  charter  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  to  which 
he  moved  an  amendment  requiring  the  bank  to  pay  de- 
posits in  specie.  He  also  rendered  an  important  service 
by  a  resolution  presented  April  26,  1816,  requiring  that 
all  payments  to  the  public  treasury  must  be  made  in 
specie  or  its  equivalents, — which  resolution  was  adopted, 
and  greatly  improved  the  currency  of  the  country. 

Having  resolved  to  retire  from  public  life  and  devote 
himself  to  his  profession,  he  removed,  in  1816,  from 
Portsmouth  to  Boston.  On  this  wider  arena  his  profes- 
sional reputation  was  greatly  increased,  and  he  became 
in  a  few  years  the  foremost  lawyer  in  New  England. 
His  argument  before  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States  in  the  Dartmouth  College  case,  in  1818,  raised 
him  to  the  highest  rank  as  a  constitutional  lawyer.  The 
case  was  decided  in  favour  of  his  clients,  and  by  this 
decision  the  law  of  the  land  in  reference  to  collegiate 
cnarters  was  firmly  established.  Thenceforth  he  was 
retained  in  nearly  all  important  cases  that  were  argued 
before  the  supreme  court^  at  Washington.  He  also 
exhibited  great  skill  as  a  criminal  lawyer,  in  cross-exam- 
ining witnesses,  and  in  baffling  the  deepest  plans  of  per- 
jury and  fraud.  The  effect  of  his  arguments  was  enhanced 
by  a  deep-toned,  musical,  and  powerful  voice,  and  by 
the  magnetism  of  his  imposing  presence  and  personal 
qualities.  "His  influence  over  juries,"  says  "  Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  August,  1870,  "was  due  chiefly  to  the 
combination  of  a  power  of  lucid  statement  with  his 
extraordinary  oratorical  force.  .  .  .  His  power  of  setting 
forth  truth  was  magnificent." 

Mr.  Webster  was  a  member  of  the  Convention  which 
met  in  1820  to  revise  the  Constitution  of  Massachusetts. 
Of  his  services  in  this  Convention,  Judge  Story  expressed 
a  high  opinion  in  a  letter  to  a  friend,  saying,  "  The  whole 
force  of  his  great  mind  was  brought  out,  and  in  several 
speeches  he  commanded  universal  admiration."  In  De- 
cember, 1820,  he  pronounced  at  Plymouth  a  celebrated 
oration  on  the  anniversary  of  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrim 
fathers.  "  This,"  says  Everett,  "  was  the  first  of  a  series 
of  performances,  aside  from  the  efforts  of  the  senate  and 
the  bar,  by  which  Mr.  Webster  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  American  orators."  In  1822  he  was  elected  by 
the  voters  of  Boston  a  member  of  the  Congress  which 
met  in  December,  1823.  On  the  subject  of  the  Greek 
Revolution  he  made  (January,  1824)  a  famous  speech,  in 
which  he  denounced  the  principles  of  the  Holy  Alliance 
with  powerful  effect. 

As  chairman  of  the  judiciary  committee,  he  reported 
a  complete  revision  of  the  criminal  law  of  the  United 
States,  which  was  approved  by  the  House.  He  was  re- 
elected, in  the  autumn  of  1824,  by  a  nearly  unanimous 
vote,  and  supported  John  Q.  Adams  in  the  ensuing  elec- 
tion of  President.  In  June.  1825,  he  delivered  an  oration 
on  laying  the  corner-stone  of  the  Bunker  Hill  Monu- 
ment. To  the  same  class  of  orations  belongs  his  admi- 
rable eulogy  on  Adams  and  Jefferson,  pronounced  in 
Faneuil  Hall,  Boston,  in  August,  1826.  "  His  consum- 
mate skill  of  composition  and  delivery,"  says  Mr.  G.  T. 
Curtis,  "gave  to  a  supix>sititious  speech  of  John  Adams 
all  the  effect  of  a  real  utterance  of  that  patriot."  George 
Ticknor,  who  heard  this  eulogy,  says,  "  His  bearing,  as 
he  stood  before  the  vast  multitude,  was  that  of  absolute 
dignity  and  power."  He  continued  to  serve  in  the  House 
of  Representatives  until  1828,  when  he  was  transferred 
to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States.  As  a  Senator  he 
voted  for  the  Tariff  bill  of  1828.  Though  not  deeply 
interested  in  the  Presidential  election  of  1828,  he  sup- 
ported John  Q.  Adams  in  preference  to  General  Jackson. 
Having  lost  his  first  wife,  (who  died  in  January,  1828,', 
he  married  Caroline  Le  Roy,  of  New  York  City,  in  De 
cember,  1829. 

His  most  memorable  parliamentary  effort  was  his  tri- 
umphant reply  to  Hayne,  of  South  Carolina,  who  had 
affirmed  the  right  of  a  State  to  nullify  the  acts  of  Con- 
gress, had  assailed  New  England,  and  had  provoked 
Mr.  Webster  by  caustic  personalities.  It  was  on  the 
26th  of  January,  1830,  that  Webster  began  this  great 
argument  in  defence  of  the  Union  and  the  Constitution, 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y 


', short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^U,  f^t;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moor.: 


WEBSTER 


2245 


WEBSTER 


which  was  probably  the  most  remarkable  speech  ever 
made  in  the  American  Congress.  His  peroration  ends 
with  the  following  magnificent  passage  :  "  When  my 
eyes  shall  be  turned  to  behold  for  the  last  time  the  sun 
in  heaven,  may  I  not  see  him  shining  on  the  broken  and 
dishonoured  fragments  of  a  once  glorious  Union  ;  on 
States  dissevered,  discordant,  belligerent;  on  a  land 
rent  with  civil  feuds,  or  drenched,  it  may  be,  in  fraternal 
blood  !  Let  their  last  feeble  and  lingering  glance  rather 
behold  the  gorgeous  ensign  of  the  republic,  now  known 
and  honoured  throughout  the  earth,  still  full  high  ad- 
vanced, its  arms  and  trophies  streaming  in  their  original 
lustre,  not  a  stripe  erased  or  polluted,  nor  a  single  star 
obscured — bearing  for  its  motto  no  such  miserable  in- 
terrogatory as  What  is  all  this  worth  ?  nor  those  other 
words  of  delusion  and  folly.  Liberty  firsthand  Union  after- 
wards—hviX  everywhere,  spread  all  over  in  characters  of 
living  light,  blazing  on  all  its  ample  folds,  as  they  float 
over  the  sea  and  over  the  land,  that  other  sentiment, 
dear  to  every  true  American  heart — Liberty  and  Union, 
now  and  forever,  one  and  inseparable  !"  "  Webster 
had,"  says  Mr.  Curtis,  "but  a  single  night  in  which  to 
make  preparation  to  answer  the  really  important  parts 
of  the  preceding  speech  of  his  opponent." 

In  May,  1832,  he  made  an  important  speech  for  the 
renewal  of  the  charter  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  vStates. 
This  bill  passed  both  houses  of  Congress,  but  was 
vetoed  by  President  Jackson.  About  this  date  he  pur- 
chased an  estate  at  Marshfield,  on  the  sea-shore,  which 
was  his  usual  summer  residence.  He  supported  Mr. 
Clay  for  President  in  the  election  of  1832,  but  in  the 
great  crisis  of  the  Nullification  question,  in  1833,  he  op- 
posed Clay's  Compromise  Tariff  bill,  and  voted  for  the 
*'  Force  Bill"  of  the  Administration.  On  these  subjects 
Webster  and  Calhoun  were  adversaries  in  debate.  Mr. 
Webster  became  one  of  the  most  popular  leaders  of 
the  Whig  party,  which  was  organized  about  1834,  and 
he  was  nominated  for  the  Presidency  by  the  Whigs  of 
Massachusetts. 

In  September,  1837,  as  a  member  of  the  Senate,  he 
opposed  the  Sub-Treasury  bill  in  an  elaborate  speech, 
said  to  have  been  the  most  effective  of  all  his  arguments 
on  the  subjects  of  currency  and  finance.  He  visited 
England,  Scotland,  and  France  in  1839,  attracting  the 
admiration  of  Carlyle,  who  met  him  at  table,  and  thus 
estimated  him  :  "He  is  a  magnificent  specimen.  As  a 
logic-fencer,  advocate,  or  parliamentary  Hercules,  one 
would  incline  to  back  him,  at  first  sight,  against  all  the 
extant  world."  He  was  re-elected  to  the  Senate  in 
January,  1839,  and  actively  promoted  the  election  of 
General  Harrison  to  the  Presidency  in  1840,  by  public 
speeches  at  Saratoga,  Richmond,  Virginia,  etc.  In 
March,  1841,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by 
President  Harrison,  after  whose  death  he  was  retained 
in  that  office  by  Tyler.  He  negotiated  with  the  English 
ambassador,  Lord  Ashburton,  a  treaty  which  settled 
the  long  and  serious  dispute  about  the  Northeastern 
boundary  of  the  United  States.  This  important  treaty 
was  signed  August  9,  1842.  In  compliance  with  the 
general  desire  of  the  Whigs,  (whose  interests  President 
Tyler  had  betrayed,)  he  resigned  ofiice  in  May,  1843. 
He  was  urged  to  return  to  the  national  Senate  ;  but  his 
private  interest  and  duties  dissuaded  him.  In  a  letter 
dated  February  5,  1844,  he  says,  "  I  am  now  earning 
and  receiving  fifteen  thousand  dollars  a  year  from  my 
profession,  which  must  be  almost  entirely  sacrificed  by 
a  return  to  the  Senate." 

In  the  campaign  of  1844  he  earnestly  advocated  the 
election  of  Mr.  Clay,  who  was  his  chief  rival  in  the  favour 
and  leadership  of  the  Whig  party.  He  opposed  the 
innexation  of  Texas,  for  the  reason  that  it  would  involve 
the  extension  of  slavery. 

He  was  again  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States 
n  the  winter  of  1844-45,  the  successor  of  Mr.  Choate. 
[n  December,  1845,  he  made  a  speech  in  the  Senate 
igainst  the  admission  of  Texas  as  a  slave  State,  and  in 
February,  1847,  he  declared  that  he  opposed  the  prose- 
cution of  the  Mexican  war  for  the  conquest  of  territory 
.0  form  new  States  of  our  Union.  Although  Mr.  Web- 
ster and  his  friends  were  disappointed  by  the  nomination 
of  General  Taylor  in  1848,  he  voted  for  him  in  prefer- 


ence to  General  Cass.  In  consequence  of  the  acquisition 
of  Mexican  territory  by  conquest,  the  sectional  conflict 
relative  to  slavery  became  more  and  more  violent  and 
irrepressible,  with  an  alarming  proclivity  towards  dis- 
union. The  houses  of  Congress  became  in  1850  the 
scene  of  intense  excitement  about  the  admission  of 
California  and  the  organization  of  the  new  territories. 
The  imminent  danger  of  this  crisis  was  averted  or  post- 
poned by  Mr.  Clay's  "Compromise  Measures,"  which 
Mr.  Webster  supported  in  an  elaborate  speech  on  the 
7th  of  March,  1850.  This  compromise  consisted  of  a 
number  of  resolutions,  one  of  which  declared  that  the 
new  territories  should  be  organized  without  the  adoption 
of  any  restriction  or  condition  on  the  subject  of  slavery  ; 
and  another,  that  more  eff"ectual  provision  ought  to  be 
made  by  law  for  the  restitution  of  fugitive  slaves.  On 
the  first  of  these  points  he  argued  that  he  would  not  re- 
enact  by  human  law  what  was  already  settled  by  a  law 
of  God  ;  that  slavery  could  not  be  introduced  into  those 
territories,  by  reason  of  their  natural  unfitness  for  slave 
labour.  His  support  of  these  measures  gave  great 
offence  to  many  of  his  admirers,  and  to  the  opponents 
of  slavery,  who  accused  him  of  sacrificing  an  important 
principle  to  a  supposed  political  expediency.* 

In  July,  1850,  before  the  final  vote  on  the  Compromise 
bill.  President  Taylor  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Vice- 
President  Fillmore,  who  appointed  Mr.  Webster  secre- 
tary of  state.  On  the  17th  of  July  he  addressed  the 
Senate  on  the  subjects  connected  with  the  Compromise 
bill  and  Wilmot  proviso.  This  was  his  last  speech  in 
the  Senate.  He  delivered  an  eloquent  address  on  the 
4th  of  July,  1851,  at  the  laying  of  the  corner-stone  of 
the  extension  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington.  His  last 
important  forensic  argument  was  on  the  Indian  Rubber 
Patent  cause,  at  Trenton,  in  January,  1852.  Among  his 
later  official  acts  was  a  celebrated  despatch  to  Hiilse- 
mann,  the  Austrian  charge-d'affaires,  occasioned  by  the 
revolt  of  the  Hungarian  patriots.  This  document  was 
dated  in  December,  185 1.  In  May,  1852,  he  was  thrown 
from  his  carriage,  and  seriously  injured,  near  Plymouth, 
Massachusetts ;  but  he  was  afterwards  able  to  revisit 
Washington.  After  all  his  sacrifices  and  concessions  to 
the  pro-slavery  party,  he  received  in  the  National  Whig 
Convention  of  1852  only  thirty-two  votes,  and  those 
from  Northern  men,  although  it  was  known  that  he 
wished  to  be  nominated  for  the  Presidency.  He  died 
at  Marshfield,  October  24,  1852,  leaving  one  son, 
Fletcher,  noticed  below.  His  other  sons  and  daughters 
died  before  their  father. 

In  stature  he  was  tall,  his  head  and  brain  of  great 
size,  his  eyes  large,  black,  and  lustrous.  He  was 
greatly  distinguished  for  his  conversational  powers  and 
genial  temper  in  society.  "To  those,"  says  Curtis, 
"who  have  known  Mr.  Webster  only  in  public,  it  is 
difficult  to  give  an  idea  of  the  genial  affections  which 
at  every  period  of  his  life  flowed  out  from  him  in  the 
domestic  circle,  and  still  more  difficult  to  paint  the 
abounding  gayety  and  humour  and  fascination  of  his 
early  days."  "He  was,"  says  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for 
August,  1870,  "the  greatest  orator  that  has  ever  lived 
in  the  Western  hemisphere.  Less  vehement  than  Cal- 
houn, less  persuasive  than  Clay,  he  was  yet  more  grand 
and  powerful  than  either." 

"  Mr.  Webster,"  says  Hallam,  the  great  historian, 
"approaches  as  nearly  to  the  beau-ideal  of  a  republican 
senator  as  any  man  that  I  have  ever  seen  in  the  course 
of  my  life ;  worthy  of  Rome  or  Venice,  rather  than  of 
our  noisy  and  wrangling  generation."  (Letter  to  Mrs. 
Ticknor,  dated  January  21,  1840.) 

See  George  T.  Curtis,  "  Life  of  Daniel  Webster,"  2  vols.,  1870  ; 
Chari.es  Lanman,  "Private  Life  of  Daniel  Webster,"  1853;  S.  L. 
Knapp,  "Life  ofD.  Webster,"  1851  ;  Makcker,  "D.  Webster,  der 
ATiierikanische  Staatsmaiin,"  Berlin,  1853;  Edward  Everett, 
"  Memoir  of  D.  Webster,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  Webster's 
Collective  Works,  6  vols.  8vo,  1851  ;  and  his  article  on  Daniel 
Webster  in  the  "  New  American  Cyclopaedia." 


*  It  was  not  the  ultra  abolitionists  only  that  condemned  his  course. 
Mr.  Seward  in  1858  spoke  of  Webster  as  "a  great  statesman,  who 
for  a  large  portion  of  his  life  led  the  vanguard  of  the  army  of  freedom, 
.  .  .  and  who,  on  the  great  day  when  the  contest  came  to  a  decisive 
issue,  surrendered  that  great  cause  then  in  his  place,  and  derided  th 
proviso  of  freedom,  the  principle  of  the  ordinance  of  1787." 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jj^T^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WEBSTER 


2246 


WEDDERBURN 


Webster,  (Ebenezer,)  an  American  patriot  of  the 
Revolution,  born  at  Kingston,  New  Hampshire,  in  1739, 
was  the  father  of  Daniel  Webster.  He  served  in  the 
war  against  the  French,  and  in  the  subsequent  cam- 
paigns of  the  Revolutionary  war.    Died  in  1806. 

Webster,  (Ezekiel,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1780,  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College,  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  lawyer.    Died  in  1829. 

Webster,  (Fletcher,)  an  American  officer,  born  at 
Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  in  1812,  was  a  son  of  the 
celebrated  Daniel  Webster.  He  served  as  assistant 
secretary  of  state  in  1841  and  1842.  He  enlisted  as 
colonel  in  the  Union  army  in  1861,  and  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Gainesville,  or  Bull  Run,  in  August,  1862. 

Webster,  (John,)  an  English  dramatist  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  His  principal  works  are  "The  White 
Devil,"  "The  Duchess  of  Malfi,"  (1623,)  and  "Appius 
and  Virginia,"  (1624.)  He  occupies  a  high  rank  among 
the  immediate  successors  of  Shakspeare. 

See  "  Retrospective  Review,"  vol.  vii.,  (1823 ;)  Campbell,  "  Speci- 
mens of  the  British  Poets." 

Webster,  (Joseph  D.,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  New  Hampshire  about  181 1,  became  a  civil  engineer. 
He  served  as  colonel  at  the  capture  of  Fort  Donelson, 
February,  1862,  and  was  chief  of  staff  to  General  Grant 
at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6  and  7.  He  directed  the 
artillery  with  skill  in  this  action,  and  was  promoted  to 
be  a  brigadier-general. 

Webster,  (Noah,)  a  distinguished  American  phi- 
lologist and  lexicographer,  born  at  West  Hartford, 
Connecticut,  in  October,  1758.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1778,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1781,  soon  after  which  he  became  a  school- 
teacher. He  published  "  Sketches  of  American  Policy," 
(1785,)  and  "Dissertations  on  the  English  Language," 
(1789.)  In  1793  he  began  to  issue,  in  New  York,  a 
daily  paper  called  "The  Minerva,"  the  name  of  which 
was  soon  changed  to  "Commercial  Advertiser."  In  this 
journal  he  defended  the  policy  of  the  Federal  adminis- 
tration. About  1798  he  removed  to  New  Haven.  He 
expended  the  labour  of  many  years  on  a  "  Dictionary 
of  the  English  Language,"  which  was  published  in  1828 
and  was  highly  esteemed.  An  enlarged  edition  of  this 
dictionary  was  published  in  1840,  and  a  quarto  edition, 
revised  by  C.  A.  Goodrich,  appeared  in  1859.  Another 
and  greatly  improved  edition  of  Webster's  Dictionary, 
with  numerous  pictorial  illustrations  incorporated  in  the 
body  of  the  work,  appeared  in  1864.  He  died  at  New 
Haven  in  May,  1843. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  ii. ;  DuYCKiNCK,  "  Cyclopsedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. ; 
"  North  American  Review"  for  April,  1829. 

Webster,  (Thomas,)  a  British  geologist,  born  in  the 
Orkney  Islands  about  1773.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on 
"Fresh- Water  Beds  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,"  and  became 
professor  of  geology  in  the  London  University.  Died 
in  1844. 

Webster,  (Thomas,)  an  English  painter,  born  in 
London  in  1800,  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  of  which 
he  was  elected  an  associate  in  1841.  His  favourite  sub- 
jects are  children,  and  his  best  works  represent  school- 
boys and  their  sports.  Among  these  we  may  name  "  The 
Slide,"  "A  Farm-House  Kitchen,"  "A  See-Saw,"  "A 
School  Play-Ground,"  "The  Internal  Economy  of  Do- 
theboys  Hall,"  "Peasant  Children,"  and  "Hide  and 
Seek."    He  was  chosen  a  Royal  Academician  in  1846. 

Webster,  (William,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
polemical  writer,  born  in  1689.  He  became  curate  of 
Saint  Dunstan,  in  West  London,  in  1715,  and  rector  of 
Depden  in  1733.    Died  in  1758. 

"Webster,  (William,)  an  English  mathematician, 
born  about  1684,  published  a  "Treatise  on  Arithmetic." 
Died  in  1744. 

Wechel,  v^sh^K  or  '^gK'el,  (Andrew,)  an  eminent 
printer,  born  in  Paris  about  1 5 10,  was  a  son  of  Christian, 
and  was  a  Protestant.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1554, 
and  purchased  the  stock  of  Henri  Estienne  in  1560.  He 
carried  on  business  in  Paris  until  the  massacre  of  1572, 
and  then  removed  his  i^resses  to  Frankfort.  Died  in  1581. 

Wechel,  -(^SK'el,  (Christian,)  a  celebrated  German 
printer,  established  a  printing-office  in  Paris  about  1527, 


from  which  he  issued  many  excellent  editions  of  the 
classics.  He  afterwards  settled  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  where  his  business  was  carried  on  with  equaf 
reputation  and  success  by  his  son  Andrew.  Died  in 
1554 

Weckerlin,  von,  fon  ^gk'ker-leen',  (August,)  a 
German  agriculturist,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1794,  has 
published  a  treatise  "  On  English  Agriculture,"  and 
other  similar  works. 

Weckherlin,  v^gk'ker-leen',  (Georg  Rudolf,)  a  Ger- 
man poet,  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1584.  Having  travelled 
in  various  parts  of  Europe,  he  settled  eventually  in 
London,  and  was  employed  by  James  I.  and  Charles  I. 
in  several  important  missions.  He  was  one  of  the 
earliest  reformers  of  German  poetry,  and  he  is  said  to 
have  first  introduced  into  the  language  the  ode,  sonnet, 
and  epigram.  Among  his  principal  works  we  may  name 
his  heroic  poem  on  the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus. 
Died  about  1651. 

See  Carl  P.  Conz,  "  Nachrichten  von  dam  Leben  G.  R.  Weck- 
herlin's,"  1803. 

Weckherlin,  (  Wilhelm  Ludwig,)  a  German  writer, 
born  near  Wiirtemberg  in  1739,  was  the  author  of  seve- 
ral satirical  and  political  works.    Died  in  1792. 

Wed'der-burn,  (Alexander,)  Lord  Loughborough 
and  Earl  of  Rosslyn,  an  eminent  British  jurist  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  East  Lothian  in  1733.  He  was  in  early 
life  an  advocate  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  eloquence  and  the  fierceness  of  his  in- 
vective. Having  quarrelled  with  the  court,  he  removed 
to  London  in  1753,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  a  few  years 
later.  He  took  great  pains  to  eradicate  his  Northern 
accent.  He  became  king's  counsel  in  1763,  was  elected 
a  member  of  Parliament  about  the  same  time,  and  joined 
the  Northern  circuit.  "  He  was  far  from  being  a  pro- 
found lawyer,"  says  Lord  Brougham.  "  His  strength 
lay  in  dealing  with  facts  ;  and  here  all  his  contemporaries 
represent  his  powers  to  have  been  unrivalled.  It  was 
probably  this  genius  for  narrative,  for  arguing  upon 
probabilities,  for  marshalling  and  sifting  evidence,  that 
shone  so  brilliantly  in  his  great  speech  at  the  bar  of  the 
House  of  Lords  upon  the  celebrated  Douglas  cause,  and 
which  no  less  a  judge  than  Mr.  Fox  pronounced  to  be 
the  very  finest  he  ever  heard  on  any  subject."  ("  His- 
torical Sketches  of  the  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George 
HI.")  He  was  appointed  solicitor-general  by  Lord 
North  in  1 77 1,  soon  after  which  he  and  Thurlow  became 
the  two  main  supporters  of  the  prime  minister  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  In  a  famous  speech  against  the 
Americans  before  the  privy  council,  he  indulged  in  offen- 
sive personalities  against  Franklin,  calling  him  a  man 
of  three  letters, — the  old  Roman  joke  for  a  thief,  (fur.) 
In  1778  he  was  appointed  attorney-general,  and  in  1780 
obtained  the  office  of  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Loughborough.  On  the 
bench  he  continued  to  be  an  unscrupulous  partisan,  and 
during  the  short  ministry  formed  by  a  coalition  of  Fox 
and  Lord  North  (1783)  he  was  chief  commissioner  of 
the  great  seal.  In  the  first  years  of  Pitt's  administration 
Wedderburn  was  the  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the 
House  of  Lords.  When  the  king  became  deranged, 
(1789,)  he  advised  the  Prince  of  Wales  to  proclaim 
himself  regent;  but  his  desperate  counsels  were  not 
followed.  He  was  one  of  the  members  that  seceded  from 
the  Whig  or  o])position  party  on  questions  connected 
with  the  French  Revolution,  and  was  appointed  lord 
chancellor  in  1793.  He  retained  this  office  until  the  for- 
mation of  a  new  ministry,  April,  1801,  and  was  then 
created  Earl  of  Rosslyn.  He  died,  without-  issue,  in 
1805.  According  to  Lord  Brougham,  "his  prosperous 
career,  supported  by  no  fixed  principles,  illustrated  by 
no  sacrifices  to  public  virtue,  ...  at  length  closed  in 
the  disappointment  of  mean,  unworthy  desires^  and  ended 
amidst  universal  neglect." 

See  "  Historical  Sketches  of  the  Statesmen  of  the  Tifne  of  George 
IIL,"  vol.  i.  ;  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors;'* 
Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionaiy  of  Eminent  Scofsmen." 

Wedderburn,  (David,)  a  Scottish  scholar  and  Latin 
poet,  born  about  1570.  He  taught  school  at  Aberdeen, 
and  wrote  numerous  poems.    Died  about  1650. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  sho7't;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  go«d;  moon; 


WEDDERKOPF 


2247 


WEICKARD 


Wedderkopf,  von,  fon  -^ed'der-kopf,  (Magnus,)  a 
statesman  and  jurist,  born  at  Husum,  in  Holstein,  in 
1638.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Kiel,  and  prime 
minister  of  the  Duke  of  Holstein  in  1705.  He  published 
several  legal  works.  Died  in  1721.  His  brother  Ga- 
briel, born  in  1644,  was  a  writer  on  theology,  pastor  at 
Kiel,  and  court  preacher.    Died  in  1696. 

Wedekind,  ^a'deh-kint',  (Anton  Christian,)  a 
German  historical  writer,  born  in  the  duchy  of  Verden 
in  1763.  He  published  a  "Chronological  Manual  of 
Modern  History,"  (1816,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1845, 

Wedekind,  (Georg  Christian  Gottlieb,)  Baron, 
a  German  physician,  born  at  Gottingen  in  1761,  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Mentz.  He  published  a  num- 
ber of  medical  and  miscellaneous  works.    Died  in  1831. 

Wedekind,  (Georg  Wilhelm,)  Baron,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Strasburg  in  1796.  He 
published  an  "  Encyclopaedia  of  Forest  Science,"  (1847,) 
and  other  similar  works. 

Wedel,  -^a'del,  (Ernst  Heinrich,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, born  at  Gotha  in  1671,  was  a  son  of  Georg  Wolf- 
gang, noticed  below.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "On  the  Diseases  of  Public  Speakers,"  ("De 
Morbis  Concionatorum.")  His  brother  Johann  Adolf 
published  several  medical  treatises.    Died  in  1709. 

Wedel,  (Georg  Wolfgang,)  a  learned  German 
physician,  born  at  Golzen,  in  Lusatia,  in  1645.  He 
studied  at  Jena,  where  he  became  professor  of  medicine 
in  1673.  He  was  also  first  physician  to  the  Duke  of 
Saxe-Weimar,  and  was  created  in  1694  a  count-palatine 
and  imperial  councillor.  He  was  distinguished  as  a 
mathematician  and  Orientalist,  as  well  as  for  his  know- 
ledge of  medical  science,  and  was  one  of  the  most  vo- 
luminous writers  of  his  time.  Among  his  principal  works 
we  may  name  "  Opiologia,"  etc.,  (1674,)  "  Exercitationes 
Pathologicee,"  (1675,)  and  "Pharmacy  reduced  to  the 
Form  of  an  Art,"  (in  Latin.)    Died  in  1721. 

Wedel,  (Johann  Adolf,)  a  medical  writer,  a  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Jena  in  1675,  became  professor 
in  the  University  of  Jena  in  1709.    Died  after  1746. 

Wedel,  (Johann  Wolfgang,)  a  German  botanist, 
Dorn  in  1708,  practised  medicine  at  Jena.  He  wrote 
"Botanical  Essay,"  ("Tentamen  Botanicum,"  1747.) 
•Died  in  1757. 

Wedel,  von,  fon  ^a'del,  (Karl  Heinrich,)  a  Prus- 
sian general,  born  in  the  Uckermark  in  1712.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  The  victory 
of  the  Prussians  at  Leuthen  (1757)  was  attributed  to 
Wedel  by  Frederick  the  Great.    Died  in  1782. 

Wedel-Jarlsberg,  \^a'del  yaRls'bCRG,  (Johann  Kas- 
par  Hermann,)  a  Danish  statesman,  was  born  at  Mont- 
pellier,  in  France,  in  1779.  He  studied  at  Copenhagen, 
and  rose  through  several  offices  to  be  minister  of  finance 
in  1822.    Died  in  1840. 

Wedg'wood,  (Josiah,)  a  celebrated  English  artisan, 
Dorn  in  Burslem,  in  Staffordshire,  in  1730.  His  oppor- 
tunities for  education  were  very  limited,  and  in  his  early 
youth  he  worked  in  the  pottery  of  an  elder  brother  at 
Burslem.  In  1759  he  established  in  that  place  a  manu- 
factory of  ornamental  pottery,  where  he  soon  after  pro- 
duced the  beautiful  cream-coloured  ware  since  called  by 
his  name.  A  table-service  of  this  kind  was  ordered  by 
Queen  Charlotte,  who  appointed  Wedgwood  her  potter. 
He  subsequently  opened  a  warehouse  in  London,  where 
he  executed  copies  of  antique  vases,  cameos,  and  sculp- 
ture, remarkable  for  their  accuracy  and  exquisite  work- 
manship. Among  his  works  in  this  department  were 
fifty  copies  of  the  celebrated  Portland  vase,  which  were 
sold  for  fifty  guineas  each.  Some  of  his  compositions 
were  of  such  hardness  and  indestructibility  as  to  render 
them  invaluable  for  chemical  vessels.  His  works  were 
not  only  of  the  greatest  benefit  to  the  manufactures  and 
commercial  prosperity  of  his  country,  but  exerted  a 
powerful  influence  in  refining  the  national  taste.  Wedg- 
wood was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  contributed 
several  treatises  to  the  "Transactions"  of  that  body. 
Died  in  1795. 

See  Ellza  Metevard,  "Life  of  J.  Wedgwood,  from  his  Private 
Correspondence,"  1864;  L.  Jewett.  "The  Wedgwoods,"  1865;  J. 
Marryatt,  "  Collection  towards  a  History  of  Pottery,"  etc.,  1850; 
"  Nouvelle  Biographic  Gen^rale  ;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  July 
and  October,  1867. 


Weed,  (Stephen  H.,)  an  American  brigadier-general, 
born  in  New  York,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1854.  He 
was  a  skilful  officer  of  artillery.  He  was  killed  at  Gettys- 
burg, July  2,  1863,  aged  about  thirty. 

Weed,  (Thurlow,)  an  American  journalist  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  Greene  county,  New  York,  in  1797.  He 
learned  the  trade  of  printer,  and  edited  several  news- 
papers. He  was  an  active  member  of  the  Anti-Masonic 
party,  and  in  1830  became  the  editor  of  the  "Albany 
Evening  Journal,"  which  opposed  the  Albany  Regency 
and  was  an  able  organ  of  the  Whig  party.  He  acquired 
distinction  and  great  influence  as  a  party  manager  for 
the  Whigs  and  the  Republicans.  He  was  an  intimate 
associate  and  adherent  of  William  H.  Seward.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  civil  war  he  ceased  to  be  in  unity 
with  the  Republican  party.  He  favoured  the  policy  of 
President  Johnson  in  relation  to  reconstruction  in  1866- 
67,  but  supported  General  Grant  for  the  Presidency 
in  1868. 

Weekes,  weeks,  (Henry,)  an  English  sculptor,  born 
at  Canterbury  in  1807,  was  a  pupil  of  Chantrey,  whom 
he  assisted  for  several  years.  Among  his  works  are 
statues  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  and  Lord  Bacon,  at 
Cambridge,  and  a  monument  to  Shelley,  in  Hampshire. 

Weems,  (Mason  L.,)  an  American  biographical 
writer,  was  rector  of  Mount  Vernon  parish,  Virginia. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  A  History  of  the  Life  and  Death, 
Virtues  and  Exploits,  of  General  George  Washington," 
etc.,  (1800,)  "Life  of  General  Francis  Marion,"  (4th 
edition,  1816,)  and  biographies  of  Franklin  (1817)  and  of 
William  Penn,  (1829.)  They  are  written  in  a  lively, 
entertaining  style,  but  are  not  to  be  relied  upon  as 
biographies  or  histories.    Died  in  1825. 

See  DuYCKiNCK,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

Weeninx,  wa'ninks,  or  Weenix,  wa'niks,  (Jan  Bap- 
tist,) the  Old,  an  eminent  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Am- 
sterdam in  1621.  He  studied  under  Abraham  Bloemaert, 
and  afterwards  spent  several  years  at  Rome,  where  he 
was  extensively  patronized.  His  works  include  portraits, 
historical  pictures,  animals,  and  marine  views,  in  all  of 
which  he  acquired  a  very  high  reputation.  Died  in  1660. 

His  son  Jan,  surnamed  the  Young,  was  born  at 
Amsterdam  in  1644.  He  was  instructed  in  painting 
by  his  father,  whose  style  and  favourite  subjects  he 
adopted.  As  a  colorist,  he  was  esteemed  superior  to  his 
father,  and  his  hunting-scenes  and  birds  are  regarded 
as  master-pieces.    Died  in  17 19. 

See  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Hollandais,"  etc.  ; 
Charles  Blanc,  "Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Weerdt,  de,  deh  waiRt,  (Adrian,)  a  Flemish  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Brussels,  lived  about  1550. 

Weert.    See  Werth. 

Weever.    See  Weaver,  (John.) 

Wegelin,  ^a'geh-leen',  (Jacques,)  a  Swiss  historian, 
born  at  Saint  Gall  in  1721.  He  became  professor  of 
history  at  Berlin  in  1765,  and  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "Memoirs  on  the  Philosophy  of  History,"  (4 
vols.,  1772-79,)  and  "Universal  History,"  (6  vols.,  1776 
-80.)    Died  in  Berlin  in  1 791. 

See  Fels,  "  Biographie  Wegelins,"  1792. 

Wegener,  ^a'geh-ner,  (Caspar  Frederik,)  a  Danish 
historian  and  publicist,  born  in  Fiinen  in  1802.  He 
acquired  a  high  reputation  by  several  works  on  Danish 
history.  He  became  director  of  the  national  archives 
in  1848. 

Wegner,  l^lo'ner,  (Gottfried,)  a  German  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Silesia  in  1644.  He  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Konigsberg,  and  court  preacher.  Died 
in  1709. 

Wegscheider,  ^ao'shi'der,  (Julius  August  Lud- 
WIG,)  a  German  theologian  of  the  rationalistic  school, 
was  born  at  Kubbelingen,  in  Brunswick,  in  1 771.  He 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Halle  in  1810.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "  Institutes  of  Dogmatic  Chris- 
tian Theology,"  (in  Latin,  1818.)    Died  in  1849. 

Wehrli.    See  Vehrll 

Weichert,  ^A^I'Kert,  (Jonathan  August,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  Saxony  in  1 788,  published  editions  of 
Pomponius  Mela  and  other  classics.    Died  in  1844. 

Weickard,  ^i'k^Rt,  (Melchior  Adam,)  a  German 
physician,  was  a  warm  advocate  of   the  Brunonian 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  o,  h,  yl, guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WEIDEN 


2248 


WEISS 


system,  and  published,  among  other  works,  "The  Philo- 
sophical Physician."    Died  in  1803. 

Weiden,  von,  fon  ^I'den,  Weda,  M'di,  or  Wied, 
■^eet,  (Hermann,)  Count,  a  German  prelate,  born 
in  Nassau  in  1472.  He  was  elected  Archbishop  and 
Elector  of  Cologne  in  15 15,  and  persecuted  the  Prot- 
estants for  a  number  of  years.  About  1540  he  changed 
his  course,  and  patronized  Bucer  and  other  Reformers. 
Having  been  excommunicated  by  the  pope  in  1546,  he 
resigned  in  1547,  and  died  in  1552. 

Weidler,  v^i'dler,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German 
astronomer  and  mathematician,  born  in  Thuringia  in 
1691.  He  became  in  1721  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Wittenberg.  He  published  a  number  of  valuable  works, 
in  Latin,  among  which  we  may  name  his  "  Mathematical 
Institutes,"  "History  of  Astronomy,"  "Astronomical 
Bibliography,"  and  "Treatise  on  Hydraulic  Machines." 
He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Died 
in  1755- 

Weigel,  ^iG'el  or  <^i'gel,  (Erhard,)  a  German  mathe- 
matician and  astronomer,  born  at  Weida  in  1625,  became 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Jena.  He  was  the  inventor 
of  several  astronomical  instruments,  and  published, 
among  other  works,  one  entitled  "The  Mirror  of  the 
Heavens,"  ("  Himmels-spiegel.")    Died  in  1699. 

Weigel,  (Johann  August  Gottlob,)  a  German 
bookseller,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1773  ;  died  in  1846. 

Weigel,  (Karl  Christian  Leberecht — la'beh- 
r^Kt,)  a  German  physician  and  scholar,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1769.  He  published  a 
"Modern  Greek-German-Italian  Dictionary,"  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1845. 

Weigel,  (Valentin,)  a  German  theologian,  founder 
of  a  sect  of  mystics  called  by  his  name,  was  born  at 
Grossenhain,  in  Saxony,  in  1 533.  His  leading  doctrines 
are  said  to  resemble  those  of  Tauler ;  and  Jacob  Bohme 
was  one  of  his  most  noted  disciples.  His  works  were 
published  after  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1588. 

See  HiLLiGER,  "Vita  V.  Weigelii,"  1721. 

Weigel,  von,  fon  ^lo'el  or  ^I'gel,  (Christian 
Ehrenfried — a'ren-fReet,)  a  German  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Stralsund  in  1748,  wrote  "  Observa- 
tiones  Botanicae,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  183 1. 

Weigl,  "^lol,  (Joseph,)  a  musical  composer,  born  at 
Eisenstadt,  in  Hungary,  in  1766,  became  chapel-master 
of  the  Italian  Opera  at  Vienna.  His  opera  of  "The 
Swiss  Family"  is  esteemed  one  of  his  best  works.  Died 
in  1846. 

Weil,  -^1,  (Gustav,)  a  distinguished  German  Orien- 
talist, of  Jewish  extraction,  was  born  at  Sulzburg  in  1808. 
He  studied  at  Heidelberg,  visited  Egypt  about  1830,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Arabic,  Persic,  and 
Turkish  languages.  He  was  appointed,  after  his  return, 
assistant  librarian,  and  professor  of  Oriental  languages, 
in  the  University  of  Heidelberg,  in  1845.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  "The  Poetical  Literature  of  the 
Arabs,"  (1837,)  "Mohammed  the  Prophet,"  (1843,)  and 
"  History  of  the  Caliphs,"  ("  Geschichte  der  Chalifen," 
5  vols.,  1846.) 

Weill,  wil,  [Fr.  pron.  vil,]  (Alexandre,)  a  litterateur 
and  journalist,  of  Jewish  extraction,  was  born  in  Alsace 
in  1813.  He  was  editor  for  a  time  of  the  "Gazette  de 
France,"  and  published  a  work  entitled  "  Republic  and 
Monarchy,"  an  "  Essay  on  Schiller,"  and  several  political 
treatises. 

Weiller,  von,  fon  ^iKler,  (Kajetan,)  a  German 
teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  at  Munich  in  1762. 
He  became  secretary-general  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  1823.    Died  in  1826. 

Weimar,  Duchess  of.    See  Amelia. 

Weimar,  (Bernard,)  Duke  of.  See  Bernhard 
OF  Saxk- Weimar. 

Weinbrenner,  '<^Tn'bR§n''ner,  (Friedrich,)  a  cele- 
brated German  architect,  born  at  Carlsruhe  in  1766.  He 
visited  Rome  in  1791,  and  spent  several  years  in  study- 
ing the  remains  of  ancient  art.  On  his  return,  in  1798, 
he  was  appointed  inspector  of  buildings  at  Carlsruhe. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  the  theatre  at  Leipsic, 
and  the  Standeshaus  theatre,  the  Lutheran  and  Roman 
Catholic  churches,  and  Hocliberg  palace,  at  Carlsruhe. 
He  also  founded  in  the  latter  place  an  institution  for  the  I 


study  of  architecture  and  the  kindred  arts.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  "Manual  of  Architecture,"  (1810,)  a  treatise 
"On  Form  and  Beauty,"  (1819,)  and  other  similar 
works.    Died  in  1826. 

See  his  Autobiography,  entitled  "  Denkwiirdigkeiten  aus  Wein- 
brenner's  Leben,"  1829;  A.  W.  Schkeiber,  "  F.  Weinbrenner, 
Denkmal,"  etc.,  1826. 

Weinlig,  <^in'liG,  (Christian  Theodor,)  a  German 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Dresden  in  1780;  died 
in  1842. 

His  son,  Christian  Albrecht,  born  in  1812,  became 
professor  of  national  economy  at  Erlangen,  and  pub- 
lished a  "Manual  of  Theoretical  Chemistry,"  (1840,) 
and  other  works, 

Weinreich,  \^in'rTK,  or  Weinrioh,  <^in'riK,  (Valen- 
tin,) a  German  philologist  and  poet,  born  near  Hartz 
in  1553,  became  rector  at  Eisenach.    Died  in  1622. 

Weinrioh,  vi'In'riK,  (Georg,)  a  learned  theolo- 
gian, born  in  Silesia  in  1554.  He  preached  at  Leipsic, 
and  published  a  number  of  works  on  theology.  Died 
in  1617. 

Weinrioh,  (Johann  Michael,)  a  German  writer 
and  Lutheran  minister,  born  in  1683,  lived  at  Mei- 
nungen.    Died  in  1727. 

Weir,  weer,  (Robert  W.,)  an  American  painter,  born 
at  New  Rochelle,  in  New  York,  in  1803.  Among  his 
best  works  are  "  The  Landing  of  Henry  Hudson,"  "The 
Embarkation  of  the  Pilgrims,"  and  "The  Antiquary 
introducing  Lovell  to  his  Womankind." 

See  DuNT,AP,  "Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in 
America  ;"  Tuckerman,  "  Book  of  the  Artists." 

Weir,  weer,  (William,)  a  Scottish  journalist,  born 
in  Edinburgh  about  1802.  He  edited  successively  the 
Edinburgh  "Literary  Journal,"  the  Glasgow  "Argus,'* 
and  the  "Daily  News,"  a  Liberal  paper  of  London. 
Died  in  1858. 

Weisbach,  wTs'baK,  (Julius,)  a  German  savant, 
born  near  Annaberg  in  1806,  published  a  "Manual  for 
the  Engineer  and  Machinist,"  and  several  treatises 
on  hydraulics. 

V/eise,  <\/i'zeh,  [Lat.  Wei'sius,]  (Christian,)  a  Ger- 
man writer,  born  at  Zittau  in  1642,  became  rector  of  the 
gymnasium  in  his  native  town.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
satirical  romance,  entitled  "Die  drei  Hauptverderber," 
and  a  number  of  dramas,  also  several  educational  works. 
Died  in  1708. 

See  Hermann  Palm,  "  C.  Weise,  eine  literar-historische  Ab- 
handlung,"  1854;  S.  Grosser,  "  Vita  C.  Weisii,"  1710. 

Weisflog,  -^^Iss'floG,  (Karl,)  a  German  litterateur, 
born  at  Sagan  in  1770,  published  a  number  of  humorous 
tales.    Died  in  1828. 

Weishaupt,  wTss'howpt,  (Adam,)  a  German  jurist 
and  philosopher,  born  at  Ingolstadt  in  1748,  is  chiefly 
celebrated  as  the  founder  of  the  order  of  the  Illuminati. 
He  became  professor  of  canon  and  natural  law  in  his 
native  city  in  1775.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  an 
"Apology  for  the  Illuminati,"  (1786,)  and  "Pythagoras; 
or,  The  Secret  Art  of  Governing  the  World,"  (1790.) 
Died  in  1830. 

See  GoTTscHLiNG,  "Weishaupt's  Schicksale,"  1789;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographic  Generale." 

Weisius.    See  Weise. 

Weiss.  See  Albinus,  (Bernard,)  Albinus,  (Pe- 
trus,)  and  Albinus,  (Johannes  Georgius.) 

Weiss,  wTss,  [Fr.  pron.  viss,]  (Charles,)  a  French 
litterateur^  born  at  Besan9on  in  1779.  He  contributed  a 
great  number  of  articles  to  the  "  Biographie  Universelle," 
of  which  he  was  one  of  the  editors. 

Weiss,  (Charles,)  a  French  historian,  born  at  Stras- 
burg  in  1812,  became  professor  of  history  at  the  Lycee 
Bonaparte.  He  published  "Spain  from  Philip  II.  to 
the  Accession  of  the  Bourbons,"  (2  vols.,  1844,)  a 
"  History  of  the  French  Protestant  Refugees  since  the 
Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,"  (2  vols.,  1853.) 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  July,  1853. 

Weiss,  ■(^Tss,  (Christian  Samuel,)  a  German  min- 
eralogist, born  at  Leipsic  in  1780.  He  studied  under 
Werner  at  Freiberg,  and  in  1810  became  professor  of 
mineralogy  at  Berlin.  His  principal  work  is  a  treatise 
"On  the  Natural  Divisions  of  the  System  of  Crystalliza- 
tion," (1813.)    Died  in  1856. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    b,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  0,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  flr,  fill,  ftt;  mSt;  n5t;  good;  moon; 


WEISS 


2249 


WELLER 


Weiss,  (Siegfried,)  a  German  publicist,  born  at 
Dantzic  in  1822.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "  Code 
of  Maritime  International  Law,"  (2  vols.,  1858.) 

Weisse,  '^I'seh,  (Christian  Ernst,)  a  German 
jurist,  son  of  Christian  Felix,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  Leipsic  in  1766.  He  became  in  1813  professor  of 
criminal  law  in  that  city,  and  was  the  author  of  a 
"Manual  of  Saxon  Civil  Law,"  which  is  esteemed  a 
standard  work.    Died  in  1832. 

Weisse,  (Christian  Felix,)  a  popular  German 
writer,  born  at  Annaberg  in  1726.  He  studied  at  Leip- 
sic, where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Lessing,  and 
soon  after  produced  several  tragedies,  which,  however, 
met  with  little  favour.  His  "Merry  Songs,"  ("Scherz- 
haften  Lieder,")  which  appeared  in  1758,  were  very 
successful,  and  were  followed  by  a  number  of  comedies, 
which  were  also  well  received.  In  1775  he  became 
editor  of  a  juvenile  periodical  called  "  The  Children's 
Friend,"  ("Der  Kinderfreund,")  which  obtained  almost 
unprecedented  popularity,  and  was  afterwards  imitated 
by  Berquin  in  his  "Ami  des  Enfans."  His  "Songs  for 
Children,"  "ABC  Book,"  and  "Dramas  for  Chil- 
dren" were  received  with  equal  favour,  and  they  have 
been  translated  into  the  principal  European  languages. 
Besides  these  juvenile  productions,  on  which  his  reputa- 
tion mainly  rests,  Weisse  published  "  Lyric  Poems"  and 
"  Comic  Operas."  He  was  for  several  years  editor  of 
a  literary  journal  of  high  character,  entitled  "Bibliothek 
der  Schonen-Wissenschaften  und  Freien-Kiinste."  He 
died  in  1804. 

See  C.  G.  Bauer,  "  Ueber  C.  F.  Weisse,"  1805  ;  Weisse,  "Auto- 
biography," 1806;  H.  C.  Iphofen,  "  Lebensgeschichte  C.  F. 
Weisse's,"  etc.,  1806;  Gervinus,  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen 
Dichtung." 

Weisse,  (Christian  Hermann,)  a  son  of  Christian 
Ernst,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Lei.psic  in  1801,  and 
became  professor  of  philosophy  in  his  native  city.  He 
published  a  treatise  "On  the  Present  Stand-Point  of 
Philosophical  Science,"  (1829,)  "System  of  ^Esthetics, 
or  Science  of  the  Idea  of  Beauty,"  (1830,)  and  essays, 
which  have  a  high  reputation. 

Weissenthurn,  von,  fon  -^T'sen-tooRn^  (Johanna 
Franul  Veronica,)  a  German  actress  and  dramatic 
writer,  originally  named  Grunberg,  was  born  atCoblentz 
in  1773.  Her  vvoiks  are  numerous,  and  once  enjoyed 
considerable  popularity.    Died  in  1847. 

Weitenaver,  -^I'ten-^'ver,  (Ignatius,)  a  German 
linguist  and  Jesuit,  born  at  Ingolstadt  in  1705.  He 
published  several  works  on  language.    Died  in  1783. 

Weitling,  '(x'lt'ling,  (Wilhelm,)  a  German  commun- 
ist, born  at  Magdeburg  in  1808,  published  "Guarantees 
of  Harmony  and  Freedom,"  "  Humanity  as  it  is  and  as 
it  should  be,"  (1845,)  and  other  similar  works. 

Weitzel,  wit'sel,  (Godfrey,)  an  American  major- 
general  and  engineer,  born  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  about 
1835,  graduated  at  West  Point,  second  in  his  class,  in 
1855.  He  served  on  the  staff  of  General  Butler  in  the 
expedition  to  New  Orleans,  April,  1862,  and  rendered 
important  services  as  chief  engineer  of  Butler's  army. 
He  commanded  a  brigade  under  General  Banks  in 
Louisiana  in  1863,  and  a  division  in  the  operations 
against  Petersburg,  Virginia,  in  the  summer  of  1864. 
He  was  designated  by  General  Grant  to  command  the 
land-forces  of  an  expedition  against  Wilmington  in 
December,  1864,  but  he  actually  served  as  second  in 
command  under  General  Butler,  and  decided  that  it 
would  be  a  rash  sacrifice  of  life  to  assault  the  fort  with 
6000  men.  His  command  was  foremost  in  the  occupa- 
tion of  Richmond,  April  3,  1865.  He  is  a  major  of 
engineers  in  the  regular  army. 

See  Reid,  "  Ohio  in  the  War,"  1868,  p.  789. 

Weitzel,  wit'sel,  (Johannes,)  a  German  writer  and 
journalist,  born  at  Johannisberg  in  1771.  He  published 
a  "History  of  Political  Science,"  "Letters  from  the 
Rhine,"  and  other  works,  on  various  subjects.  Died  in 
1837- 

Wel'by,  (Amelia  B.,)  an  American  poetess,  born  at 
Saint  Michael's,  Maryland,  in  1821.  She  subsequently 
removed  to  Louisville,  Kentucky,  where  she  contributed 
numerous  poems  to  the  "  Louisville  Journal,"  under  the 
signature  of  "Amelia."    Died  in  1852. 

See  Griswold,  "Female  Poets  of  America." 


Welch,  (John,)  a  Scottish  minister,  born  about  1570, 
married  a  daughter  of  John  Knox.  He  preached  at 
Ayr,  was  banished  in  1606  or  1616,  and  went  to  France. 
Died  about  1622. 

Welcli'man,  (Edward,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
at  Banbury  about  1665.  He  became  Archdeacon  of 
Cardigan,  and  published  "The  Thirty-Nine  Articles 
illustrated  with  Notes."    Died  in  1739. 

Welcker,  -Cv^^Kker,  (Friedrich  Gottlieb,)  an  emi- 
nent philologist  and  antiquary,  born  at  Grunberg  in  1784. 
Having  studied  at  Giessen,  he  resided  two  years  at 
Rome,  and,  after  his  return,  became  successively  pro- 
fessor of  archaeology  and  Greek  literature  at  Giessen 
and  Gottingen,  and  professor  of  philology  at  Bonn, 
being  also  appointed  chief  librarian  in  the  last-named 
university.  Among  his  numerous  and  valuable  works 
we  may  name  "Die  Aeschyleische  Trilogie  Prometheus," 
etc.,  "  On  a  Cretan  Colony  in  Thebes,  the  Goddess 
Europa  and  Cadmus,"  (1824,)  "The  Epic  Cyclus;  or, 
The  Homeric  Poets,"  (1835,)  and  "Short  Essays  on 
Grecian  Literary  History,"  (1844.)  He  also  wrote  "The 
Life  of  Zoega,  with  a  Collection  of  his  Letters,"  etc. 
Died  in  1868. 

See  Brockhaus,  "  Conversations-Lexlkon." 

Welcker,  (Karl  Theodor,)  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  Upper  Hesse  in  1790.  He  studied 
at  Giessen  and  Heidelberg,  and  subsequently  became 
professor  of  law  at  Kiel.  He  was  elected  to  the  Upper 
Chamber  of  Baden  in  1831,  and  soon  after  assisted  in 
founding  the  Liberal  journal  entitled  "Der  Freisinnige." 
For  the  political  opinions  expressed  in  this  gazette  he 
was  arrested,  but  released  after  a  short  imprisonment. 
He  was  a  deputy  to  the  German  National  Assembly  in 
1848.  He  wrote  several  able  political  treatises,  and 
assisted  Rotteck  in  the  "  Staatslexikon."    Died  in  1869. 

Weld,  (Charles  Richard,)  an  English  writer,  born 
at  Windsor  in  1818.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Royal 
Society,"  (1847,)  and  other  works. 

Weld,  (Rev.  Lewis,)  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Hampton,  Connecticut,  about  1796.  He  was  principal 
of  the  Asylum  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  at  Hartford. 
Died  in  1853. 

His  brother,  Theodore  D.,  was  distinguished  as  an 
opponent  of  slavery. 

Weld,  (Thomas,)  an  English  cardinal,  born  in  Dor- 
setshire in  1773;  died  in  1837. 

Welden,  von,  fon  ^SKden,  (Ludwig,)  Baron,  a 
German  officer,  born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1782.  He 
served  against  the  French  in  the  campaigns  of  1813-15, 
and  was  made  lieutenant-field-marshal  in  1836.  He  died 
in  1852,  having  been  previously  appointed  master  of 
the  ordnance. 

WeFdpn,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  composer  of 
church  music,  was  born  at  Chichester  about  1670.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Henry  Purcell,  and  in  1708  became 
organist  of  the  chapel  royal.  His  anthems  are  regarded 
as  master-pieces  ;  he  also  produced  several  songs,  and 
other  works  of  great  merit.    Died  in  1736. 

Welee-ed-Deen  or  Weli-Eddin,  w^Kee  ed-deen', 
(Ahmed,  ^H'med,)  a  famous  Turkish  poet,  born  about 
1438.  He  obtained  the  office  of  vizier  under  Mahomet 
II.    Died  in  1495. 

Welhaven,  ^l\'\\l!v&w,  (Johann  Sebastian,)  a 
Norwegian  poet,  born  at  Bergen  in  1807,  has  published 
"Half  a  Hundred  Poems,"  ("  Halvhundret  Digte," 
1848,)  "Pictures  of  Travel  and  Poems,"  ("  Reisebilleder 
og  Digte,"  1851,)  and  a  criticism  on  the  poet  Wergeland, 
entitled  "Henrik  Wergeland's  Poetry  and  Polemics." 
He  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Christiania  in 
1846. 

Wellekens,  weKleh-kens,  (John  Baptist,)  a  Dutch 
pastoral  poet,  born  at  Alost  in  1658,  passed  eleven  years 
in  Italy,  whither  he  went  about  1676.  His  idyls  are 
praised  as  natural  and  true.  Died  at  Amsterdam  in  1726. 

Wellens,  weKlen.s,  (Jacques  Thomas  Joseph,)  a 
learned  and  benevolent  Flemish  ecclesiastic,  born  at 
Antwerp  in  1726,  became  bishop  of  his  native  city. 
Died  in  1784. 

Weller,  v^eKler,  [Lat.  Welle'rus,]  (Jakob,)  a  Ger- 
man scholar  and  theologian,  born  in  1602,  became 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Wittenberg,  and  in 


€ask;c  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as j;  o,  H,  Yi^ guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (J^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WELLER 


2250 


WELLINGTON 


1646  first  court  preacher  at  Dresden.    His  "New  Greek 
Grammar"  ("Grammatica  Graeca  Nova")  was  highly 
esteemed  by  his  contemporaries.    Died  in  1664. 
See  Reichmann,  "Memoria  J.  Welleri,"  1664. 

Weller,  ■^el'ler,  [Lat.  Weli.e'rus,]  (Jerome  or 
HiERONYMUS,)  a  German  theologian,  born  at  Freyberg, 
in  Misnia,  in  1499.  He  was  in  early  youth  a  favourite 
disciple  of  Luther,  in  whose  house  he  lived  eight  years. 
He  became  professor  of  theology  at  Freyberg,  and 
propagated  the  doctrines  of  Luther  by  his  sermons  and 
writings,  which  had  a  high  reputation.    Died  in  1572. 

See  Lemmel,  "  Wellerus  redivivus ;"  Hempel,  "  Life  of  Weller," 
in  Latin  verse. 

Wellerus.    See  Weller. 

Welles,  w§lz,  (Gideon,)  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Hartford  county,  Connecticut,  in  1802.  He  studied 
law,  and  became  about  1826  editor  of  the  "Hartford 
Times,"  a  Democratic  journal.  He  was  elected  to  the 
legislature  of  Connecticut  in  1827,  and  was  appointed 
chief  of  one  of  the  bureaus  of  the  navy  department  in 
1846.  About  1854  he  separated  from  the  Democratic 
party  in  regard  to  the  extension  of  slavery,  and  joined 
the  Republicans.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
navy  in  March,  1861,  and,  after  the  death  of  President 
Lincoln,  was  retained  in  office  by  Johnson  until  the  close 
of  his  administration  in  March,  1869. 

Wellesley,  (Sir  Arthur.)    See  Wellington. 

Wellesley,  w^lz'le,  (Lord  Charles,)  the  second  son 
of  the  first  Duke  of  Wellington,  was  born  in  Dublin  in 
1808.  He  entered  the  army,  and  became  a  colonel  about 
1851.  He  was  elected  in  1842  a  member  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  in  which  he  voted  with  the  Conservatives. 
Died  in  1858. 

Wellesley,  (Richard  Colley,)  Marquis  Wellesley, 
an  able  statesman,  born  in  Dublin  in  1760,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Garret,  first  Earl  of  Mornington,  and  was  a 
brother  of  the  famous  Duke  of  Wellington.  He  studied 
at  Eton,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  classical  scholar. 
At  the  death  of  his  father,  in  178 1,  he  became  Earl  of 
Mornington,  and  entered  the  Irish  House  of  Lords.  He 
gained  the  favour  of  George  HI.  by  his  course  on  the 
subject  of  the  regency  in  1789,  and  at  the  next  general 
election  was  returned  to  the  English  House  of  Commons 
for  Windsor.  In  1793  he  was  sworn  in  a  member  of  the 
British  privy  council.  He  was  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  India  in  October,  1797,  and  raised  to  the 
British  peerage,  as  Baron  Mornington.  In  1798  he 
declared  war  against  Tippoo  Sahib,  Sultan  of  Mysore, 
who  had  given  offence  by  intrigues  or  negotiations  with 
the  French.  The  British  army  gained  victories  at  Mal- 
lavelly  and  Seringapatam,  and  Tippoo  was  killed  in 
battle  in  1799.  Lord  Mornington  was  created  Marquis 
Wellesley  in  December,  1799.  About  1803  he  waged 
war  against  the  Mahrattas,  from  whom  he  conquered 
the  region  between  the  Ganges  and  Jumna.  He  resigned 
in  1805,  became  secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs  in 
December,  1809,  and  retired  from  that  office  in  January, 
1812.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Perceval,  (1812,)  the  Marquis 
Wellesley,  at  the  request  of  the  prince-regent,  made  an 
unsuccessful  effort  to  form  a  coalition  ministry.  He  was 
appointed  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  December,  1821. 
Being  a  zealous  friend  of  Catholic  emancipation,  he 
resigned  when  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
became  prime  minister,  in  1828,  because  the  duke 
opposed  the  Catholic  claims.  He  served  as  lord  lieu- 
tenant of  Ireland  for  a  short  time  in  1833-34.  He  died 
in  September,  1842,  leaving  no  children,  although  he 
was  twice  married. 

See  R.  R.  Pearce,  "  Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of  Marquis 
Wellesley,"  3  vols.,  1846. 

WelTing-ton,  (Arthur  Wellesley,)  first  Duke 
OF,  a  celebrated  British  general  and  statesman,  born  in 
Dublin  or  at  Dangan  Castle,  in  the  county  of  Meath, 
Ireland,  on  the  ist  of  May,  1769.  He  was  the  third  son 
of  Garret  Wesley,  first  Earl  of  Mornington,  and  Anne 
Hill  Trevor,  a  daughter  of  Viscount  Dungannon.  The 
original  name  of  the  family  was  exchanged  for  Wellesley 
about  1797  by  the  subject  of  this  article  or  by  his  eldest 
bi other.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  a  military 
academy  of  Angers,  in  France.  He  received  in  March, 
1787,  a  commission  as  eiisign  in  the  seventy-third  regi- 


ment of  foot,  became  a  lieutenant  in  December  of  that 
year,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  June,  1 791. 
Having  been  raised  to  the  rank  of  major  in  April,  1793, 
he  acquired  by  purchase  that  of  lieutenant-colonel  of 
the  thirty-third  regiment  of  foot  in  September  of  the 
same  year.  In  1794  he  served  in  the  Low  Countries 
under  the  Duke  of  York,  whom  the  French  general 
Pichegru  compelled  to  retreat  to  Bremen.  During  this 
disastrous  retreat  Colonel  Wesley  commanded  a  brigade, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  skill  and  intrepidity. 

Having  been  promoted  to  the  rank  of  colonel  in  1796, 
he  was  ordered  to  India,  where  he  arrived  in  February, 
1797.  In  1798  his  eldest  brother,  Lord  Mornington, 
became  Governor-General  of  India,  and  declared  war 
against  Tippoo  Sahib.  Colonel  Wellesley  contributed 
to  the  victory  of  Mallavelly  and  the  capture  of  Seringa- 
patam, of  which  he  was  appointed  governor  in  July, 
1799.  "During  several  years  that  he  held  the  command 
in  Mysore,"  says  C.  MacFarland,  "he  was  fully  occupied 
in  organizing  the  civil  and  military  administration  of 
the  country  ;  and  in  the  execution  of  this  task  he  im- 
proved his  natural  talents  for  business,  and  displayed 
that  quickness  of  perception  and  that  sagacity  and  self- 
command  which  have  characterized  him  throughout  the 
whole  course  of  his  military  career." 

He  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general  in  April,  1802, 
was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  all  the  British 
and  allied  troops  serving  in  the  territories  of  the  Peishwa 
and  the  Nizam  in  1803,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  Mahrattas  at  Assaye  in  September  of  that  year. 
In  this  battle  he  had  two  horses  killed  under  him. 
Having  obtained  in  February,  1805,  leave  to  return  to 
England,  he  arrived  there  in  the  ensuing  September. 
In  the  next  November  he  was  sent  to  Holland  with 
an  army  which  was  commanded  by  Lord  Cathcart,  and 
which  returned  to  England  in  February,  1806,  without 
having  encountered  the  enemy. 

In  April,  1806,  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  married  Lady 
Catherine  Pakenhani,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Long- 
ford. He  was  returned  to  the  House  of  Commons  for 
the  borough  of  Rye  in  1806,  and  was  appointed  chief 
secretary  for  Ireland  in  April,  1807.  In  August  of  that 
year  he  commanded  a  division  of  the  army  which  in- 
vaded Denmark,  and  defeated  the  Danes  at  Kioge.  He 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  April, 
1808,  and  in  the  ensuing  June  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  an  army  of  about  10,000  men  which 
was  sent  to  Spain  to  fight  against  the  French.  He 
reached  Corunna  in  July ;  but,  as  the  Spanish  Junta 
declined  the  assistance  of  a  British  auxiliary  force,  he 
landed  at  Mondego  Bay,  in  Portugal,  which  country  was 
then  occupied  by  a  French  army  under  Junot.  The 
British  forces,  marching  towards  Lisbon,  defeated  a  divi- 
sion of  the  French  army  at  Roli9a  in  August,  1808.  A 
few  days  after  this  affair  his  army  was  largely  reinforced, 
but  he  was  superseded  in  the  command.  The  ministers 
appointed  Sir  Hew  Dalrymple  commander-in-chief.  Sir 
Harry  Burrard  second  in  command,  and  Sir  John  Moore 
third.  Sir  Arthur  was  thus  reduced  from  first  to  fourth 
in  command.  He  repulsed  the  French  who  attacked 
him  at  Vimeira,  August  21.  The  French  having  evacu- 
ated Portugal,  in  accordance  with  the  Convention  of 
Cintra,  in  September,  1808,  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  re- 
turned to  England,  and  resumed  the  place  of  chief 
secretary  for  Ireland.  In  January,  1809,  he  received 
the  thanks  of  Parliament  for  his  services  in  Portugal. 

The  victorious  march  of  Napoleon  to  Madrid  and  the 
defeat  of  Sir  John  Moore  at  Corunna  induced  the  British 
government  to  increase  their  forces  in  the  Peninsula 
and  to  aid  both  the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards.  General 
Wellesley,  having  been  appointed  commander-in-chief, 
arrived  at  Lisbon  in  April,  1809,  and  found  himself  at 
the  head  of  an  army  of  about  25,000  men.  On  the  12th 
of  May  he  defeated  Soult  at  Oporto.  The  passage  of 
the  river  Douro  at  this  time,  in  the  presence  of  10.000 
Frenchmen,  is  considered  one  of  his  most  brilliant 
achievements.  About  the  end  of  June,  1809,  he  marched 
into  Spain,  which  was  occupied  by  several  French 
armies,  widely  separated,  and  commanded  by  Soult, 
Victor,  Suchet,  and  others.  A  Spanish  army  under 
General  Cuesta  took  the  field  against  the  French  and 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  \x,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  nflt;  good;  moon; 


WELLINGTON 


2251 


WELLINGTON 


joined  the  army  of  General  Wellesley,  who  encountered 
Marshal  Victor  on  the  22d  of  July  at  Talavera.  In  the 
battle  which  ensued  at  this  place,  the  British  claimed 
the  victory,  but  they  did  not  pursue  the  retiring  enemy. 
Sir  Arthur  wrote,  on  the  24th  of  July,  '*  I  am  not  able 
to  follow  the  enemy  as  I  could  wish,  .  .  .  owing  to  my 
having  found  it  impossible  to  procure  even  one  mule  or 
cart  in  Spain.  My  troops  have  been  in  actual  want  of 
provisions  for  the  last  two  days."  Victor,  having  been 
reinforced,  attacked  the  British  at  Talavera  on  the  27th 
of  July,  renewed  the  fight  on  the  28th,  and  was  repulsed 
with  heavy  loss.  The  approach  of  several  French  armies, 
superior  in  number  to  his  own,  induced  Sir  Arthur  to 
retreat  by  way  of  Badajoz  towards  Portugal.  He  after- 
wards pursued  a  cautious  Fabian  policy.  In  September, 
1809,  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the  titles  of 
Baron  Douro  of  Wellesley  and  Viscount  Wellington  of 
Talavera. 

The  battle  of  Talavera  was  the  last  action  of  the 
British  army  in  the  campaign  of  1809.  A  large  Spanish 
army  was  routed,  with  great  loss,  at  Ocana  in  Novem- 
ber, and  about  the  same  time  the  French  defeated 
another  army  of  20,000  Spaniards.  On  learning  these 
events.  Lord  Wellington  wrote,  "  I  lament  that  a  cause 
which  promised  so  well  a  few  weeks  ago  should  have 
been  so  completely  lost  by  the  ignorance,  presumption, 
and  mismanagement  of  those  to  whose  direction  it  was 
intrusted."  He  prepared  for  the  campaign  of  1810 
by  the  construction  of  the  celebrated  lines  of  Torres 
Vedras,  near  Lisbon,  and  fixed  his  head-quarters  at 
Viseu  in  January.  His  army,  including  the  Portuguese, 
amounted  to  about  54,000  men.  A  large  French  army, 
commanded  by  Massena,  approached  Portugal  from  the 
northeast  in  the  summer  of  1810.  The  French  having 
taken  Almeida  in  August,  after  a  short  siege,  Lord  Wel- 
lington fell  back  to  the  valley  of  the  Mondego,  and  took 
a  strong  position  near  Coimbra,  along  the  ridge  of 
Busaco.  Here  he  was  attacked  on  the  27th  of  Septem- 
ber by  the  French,  who  were  repulsed,  with  a  loss  which 
the  English  writers  estimate  at  4000  killed  and  wounded. 
A  few  days  after  this  battle,  Lord  Wellington  was  com- 
pelled to  retreat  towards  Lisbon.  His  army  entered 
the  strong  defences  of  Torres  Vedras  about  the  8th  of 
October.  Massena  made  several  unsuccessful  attacks 
on  these  lines,  lost  many  men  by  disease,  and  retired  in 
November  to  Santarem,  where  he  passed  the  winter. 
Thus  ended  the  campaign  of  1810.  Lord  Wellington 
complained  that  he  was  not  efficiently  supported  by  the 
Portuguese  regency,  some  members  of  which  perversely 
endeavoured  to  thwart  his  plans.  In  a  letter  dated 
October  6,  addressed  to  Mr.  Stuart,  he  says,  "  As  for 
Principal  Souza,  I  beg  you  to  tell  him,  from  me,  that  I 
have  had  no  satisfaction  in  transacting  the  business  of 
his  country  since  he  has  been  a  member  of  the  govern- 
ment. .  .  .  Either  he  must  quit  the  country,  or  I  will." 

During  the  months  of  January  and  February  the 
hostile  armies  in  Portugal  remained  stationary.  'Mar- 
shal Soult,  who  commanded  in  Andalusia,  was  ordered 
to  act  in  concert  with  Massena  by  attacking  Portugal 
south  of  the  Tagus.  Massena,  whose  position  was  ren- 
dered untenable  by  want  of  provisions,  began  about  the 
4th  of  March  to  move  his  army  northward,  and  was 
followed  by  the  British.  On  the  nth  of  March  the 
strong  fortress  of  Badajoz  was  taken  by  Marshal  Soult. 
The  British  army  defeated  that  of  Massena  on  the  3d 
of  April,  at  the  battle  of  Sabugal,  which  Lord  Welling- 
ton described  as  "  one  of  the  most  glorious  actions  that 
British  troops  were  ever  engaged  in."  On  the  6th  the 
French  crossed  the  Agueda  into  Spain,  and  thus  ter- 
minated their  invasion  of  Portugal.  They  left  a  garrison 
in  Almeida,  which  was  blockaded  by  the  British.  In 
order  to  relieve  this  garrison,  Massena  marched  back 
from  Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  attacked  the  enemy  at  Fuentes 
de  Onoro.  After  a  pitched  battle,  which  ended  on  the 
5th  of  May,  the  French  were  repulsed,  and  abandoned 
Almeida. 

In  the  mean  time  an  allied  army  under  General 
Beresford  invested  Badajoz  about  the  4th  of  May,  and 
Marshal  Soult  moved,  with  inferior  numbers,  to  relieve 
that  place.  The  armies  met  at  Albuera  on  the  i6lh  of 
May,  and  a  severe  battle  ensued,  in  which  the  allies 


claimed  the  victory,  but  admitted  that  they  lost  about 
7000  men  killed  and  wounded.  Soult  retired  to  Seville 
and  Lord  Wellington,  who  arrived  at  Albuera  about  the 
20th  of  May,  ordered  the  siege  of  Badajoz  to  be  re- 
sumed. Having  failed  in  several  attempts  to  take  that 
place  by  assault  in  June,  he  retired  towards  the  north 
of  Portugal,  and  remained  on  the  defensive,  in  a  position 
on  the  Coa,  during  the  autumn  of  181 1.  "Wellington 
was  aware,"  says  Jules  Maurel,  "  that  Fortune  could  not 
change  sides  at  a  leap,  and  that  it  was  only  after  repeated 
trials  that  you  could  win  her  favours  ;  .  .  .  and  that 
before  acquiring  the  art  of  gaining  great  victories  it  was 
necessary  to  begin  by  learning  to  avoid  defeats,  and  for  a 
time  to  decline  all  engagements."  Having  gained  the 
confidence  of  his  troops  by  his  extraordinary  success 
while  acting  on  the  defensive,  he  at  length  assumed 
the  offensive,  and  showed,  when  those  qualities  were 
demanded,  that  his  enterprise  and  promptitude  were 
not  inferior  to  his  prudence. 

In  January,  1812,  he  made  a  rapid  march  to  Ciudad 
Rodrigo,  which  he  took  by  storm  on  the  19th  of  that 
month.  He  also  took  Badajoz  in  April,  before  the 
French  army  could  come  to  relieve  that  place.  In  the 
assault  of  Badajoz  the  allies  lost  1000  killed  and  3786 
wounded.  On  the  22d  of  July  Lord  Wellington  gained 
an  important  victory  over  Marshal  Marmont  at  Sala- 
manca. He  entered  Madrid  in  triumph  on  the  12th  of 
August,  soon  after  which  Soult  raised  the  blockade  of 
Cadiz  and  concentrated  his  forces  at  Granada.  Leaving 
two  divisions  at  Madrid,  Wellington  moved  his  army 
northward,  entered  Valladolid  on  the  7th  of  September, 
and  marched  thence  to  Burgos,  the  castle  of  which  was 
defended  by  a  garrison  of  2000  Frenchmen.  He  spent 
nearly  five  weeks  in  the  siege  of  this  place,  which  he 
could  not  take,  and  about  the  2 1st  of  October  he  began 
to  retreat  towards  Portugal  through  Salamanca,  closely 
pursued  by  General  Souham.  The  campaign  of  1812 
closed  without  any  other  battles.  The  British  general 
was  rewarded  for  his  victory  at  Salamanca  by  the  title  of 
Marquis  of  Wellington.  About  the  end  of  1812  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  Spanish  armies  by 
the  regency  of  Spain. 

The  campaign  of  1813  opened  in  May,  by  the  march 
of  the  allies  across  the  Douro  to  Valladolid.  The 
French  army,  abandoning  Burgos  on  the  12th  of  June, 
retired  across  the  Ebro,  and  were  overtaken  at  Vitoria, 
where  Wellington  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Mar- 
shal Jourdan  on  the  21st  of  June.  The  allies  took  here 
an  immense  quantity  of  booty. 

When  Napoleon  received  tidings  of  the  disaster  at 
Vitoria,  he  sent  Soult  to  Spain  as  commander-in-chiefl 
Soult  attacked  the  allies  near  Pampeluna  on  the  28th 
and  30th  of  July,  but  was  repulsed.  These  actions  are 
sometimes  called  "The  Battles  of  the  Pyrenees."  Thus 
was  terminated  the  French  occupation  of  Spain. 

Wellington's  success  in  the  wars  of  the  peninsula 
must  be  ascribed  in  no  small  measure  to  the  character 
which  he  established  for  probity  and  truthfulness.  With 
true  moral  heroism,  he  refused  to  indulge  in  the  slightest 
misrepresentation,  even  to  save  his  own  fame.  In  this 
respect  his  character  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  that 
of  his  great  antagonist.  Napoleon.  In  one  of  his  de- 
spatches he  says,  "  I  see  a  disposition  exists  to  blame 
the  government  for  the  failure  of  the  siege  of  Burgos. 
The  government  had  nothing  to  say  to  the  siege  ;  it 
was  entirely  my  own  act."  When  his  allies  in  Portugal 
and  Spain  became  at  length  acquainted  with  his  charac- 
ter, they  believed  with  implicit  confidence  whatever  he 
told  them,  and  he  thus  acquired  a  moral  power  equal  to 
the  force  of  mighty  armies.  Afterwards,  in  carrying  out 
a  policy  as  wise  as  it  was  humane,  he  refused  even  in  an 
enemy's  country  (in  France)  to  allow  his  own  troops,  or 
those  of  his  Spanish  allies,  to  support  themselves  by 
plunder,  for  his  object  was  not  merely  to  maintain  his 
army,  but  to  conciliate  the  people.  He  had  been  among 
the  first  to  perceive  how  an  opposite  policy  towards  the 
nations  he  had  conquered  was  gradually,  but  surely,  un- 
dermining the  colossal  power  of  Napoleon;  the  plainest 
dictates  of  common  sense,  as  well  as  motives  of  a  higher 
character,  preserved  Wellington  from  the  commission  of 
a  similar  error. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  H,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  \\\  as  in  this.    (2:^=^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WELLINGTON 


2252 


WELLS 


About  the  loth  of  November  Lord  Wellington  marched 
across  the  frontier  into  France.  He  fought  with  success 
several  battles  near  Bayonne  between  the  9th  and  13th 
of  December,  1813.  On  the  27th  of  February,  1814,  he 
defeated  Soult  at  Orthez,  from  which  the  French  retreated 
to  Toulouse.  The  allies  gained  another  victory  at  Tou- 
louse on  the  loth  of  April,  but  they  lost  in  this  battle 
about  4600  men.  The  report  of  the  abdication  of  Na- 
poleon arrived  at  Toulouse  on  the  12th,  and  hostilities 
were  suspended  on  the  i8th  of  April.  Wellington  was 
rewarded  with  the  title  of  duke  on  the  3d  of  May,  and, 
after  visits  to  Paris  and  Madrid,  took  leave  of  his  army 
on  the  14th  of  June.  Having  returned  to  England,  he 
took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords  on  the  28th  of  June. 
The  House  of  Commons  voted  ;i^400,ooo  for  the  su|)port 
of  his  dignity.  In  August,  1814,  he  was  sent  as  ambas- 
sador-extraordinary to  the  court  of  France.  With  sev- 
eral colleagues,  he  represented  England  at  the  Congress 
of  Vienna,  which  assembled  in  January,  1815.  He  was 
at  Vienna  when  he  received  intelligence  that  Napoleon 
had  returned  to  France. 

Li  April  Wellington  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  in  Flanders,  consisting  of  about  76,000 
men,  mostly  British  and  Dutch.  A  Prussian  army  under 
General  Bliicher,  who  had  about  80,000  men,  was  ready  to 
act  in  concert  with  Wellington.  To  oppose  these  armies 
Napoleon  raised  about  115,000  men.  On  the  nth  of 
June  the  French  emperor  quitted  Paris  to  open  the  cam- 
paign, and  exclaimed,  "  I  go  to  measure  myself  with  this 
Wellington,"  ("Je  vais  me  mesurer  avec  ce  Villainton.") 
Wellington  attended  a  ball  at  Brussels  on  the  evening  of 
the  15th  of  June,  and  his  army  began  to  march  on  the 
morning  of  the  i6th.  The  Prussians  were  defeated  with 
severe  loss  at  Ligny  on  the  afternoon  of  the  i6th,  and 
about  the  same  time  an  indecisive  battle  was  fought 
between  Marshal  Ney  and  the  allies  at  Quatre-Bras.  Blii- 
cher is  said  to  have  lost  about  12,000  killed  and  wounded 
at  Ligny.  On  the  morning  of  the  17th,  Wellington  made 
a  retrograde  movement  on  Waterloo,  where  he  was  at- 
tacked by  the  French  about  ten  a.m.  on  the  i8th  of  June. 
According  to  J.  Maurel,  Wellington  had  then  70,000 
men,  of  whom  37,890  were  British;  and  Napoleon  had 
75,000,  excluding  the  detachment  of  Grouchy.  It  was 
the  object  of  Napoleon  to  drive  the  enemy  from  his 
position  before  the  arrival  of  the  Prussian  army.  He 
had  made  several  obstinate  attacks,  without  success,  when 
General  Biilow  reached  the  field  with  16,000  Prussians, 
at  four  P.M.,  and  decided  the  victory.  Bliicher  arrived 
about  seven  o'clock,  and  pursued  the  retreating  French. 
The  loss  of  the  victors  on  this  day  was  immense.  The 
British  and  Hanoverians  alone  lost  2432  killed  and 
9528  wounded. 

Wellington  and  the  allied  armies  entered  Paris  with- 
out resistance  about  the  7th  of  July.  He  restrained  the 
excesses  of  Bliicher,  who  was  about  to  blow  up  the  bridge 
of  Jena  and  to  commit  other  acts  of  vengeance.  His 
first  thought  after  the  victory  of  June  18  was  to  favour 
the  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.  and  to  oppose  the  dis- 
memberment of  France.  The  allied  powers  resolved  to 
maintain  an  army  of  occupation  in  France  for  five  years, 
and  gave  the  command  of  that  army  to  the  Duke  of 
Wellington.  By  his  advice,  the  period  was  shortened, 
and  the  allied  army  evacuated  France  about  the  end  of 
1818.  He  became  master-general  of  the  ordnance  and 
a  member  of  the  cabinet  in  January,  1819,  represented 
England  at  the  Congress  of  Verona  in  1822,  and  was 
sent  on  a  mission  to  Russia  in  1826.  He  succeeded  the 
Duke  of  York  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in 
January,  1827. 

In  politics  Wellington  was  a  staunch  Tory.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  the  long  contest  which  he  maintained  in 
order  to  preserve  Europe  from  the  revolutionary  or  in- 
novating spirit  of  the  French  may  have  contributed  to 
strengthen  those  principles  of  rigid  conservatism  by 
which  his  political  career  was  distinguished.  When 
Canning  became  premier,  in  April,  1827,  Wellington 
resigned  his  place  in  the  cabinet,  and  succeeded  Lord 
Goderich  as  prime  minister  in  January,  1828.  The  new 
ministry  opposed  the  motion  of  Lord  John  Russell  to 
repeal  the  test  and  corporation  acts,  but  were  defeated 
by  a  majority  of  forty-four  in  the  House  of  Commons. 


Wellington  then  yielded,  and  procured  its  passage  in  the 
House  of  Lords.  He  was  an  opponent  of  free  trade 
and  electoral  reform,  both  of  which  were  demanded  by 
an  ever-growing  majority  of  the  nation.  He  at  first 
resisted  the  effort  to  emancipate  the  Roman  Catholics 
from  civil  and  political  disabilities,  but  at  length  deemed 
it  expedient  to  yield  to  the  popular  will.  The  bill  for 
the  relief  of  Roman  Catholics  was  passed  by  large 
majorities  in  both  houses  in  March  and  April,  1829. 

The  strength  of  the  Tory  party  was  impaired  by  the 
death  of  George  IV.,  June,  1830,  and  the  French  revo- 
lution of  the  ensuing  month  gave  an  impetus  to  the  cause 
of  reform  in  England.  In  the  new  Parliament,  which 
met  in  October,  1830,  the  friends  of  reform  had  a 
majority,  but  the  duke  assumed  an  attitude  of  obstinate 
resistance  to  the  movement.  He  declared  that  "  the 
country  already  possessed  a  legislature  which  answered 
all  the  good  purposes  of  legislation  ;  that  the  system  of 
representation  possessed  the  full  and  entire  confidence 
of  the  country."  Having  provoked  a  violent  excitement  ^ 
by  such  language,  and  rendered  himself  extremely 
unpoi)ular,  he  resigned  in  November,  1830.  He  was 
hooted  by  the  populace  of  London  on  the  i8th  of  June, 
1832.  In  December,  1834,  Sir  Robert  Peel  became 
prime  minister,  and  the  Duke  of  Wellington  secretary 
for  foreign  affairs.  They  resigned  in  April,  1835.  He 
had  a  seat  in  the  cabinet  formed  by  Peel  in  1841,  but 
was  not  charged  with  official  functions.  Although  he 
had  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws,  his  influence 
decided  the  House  of  I^ords  to  consent  to  the  repeal 
after  it  had  passed  the  House  of  Commons  in  May,  1846. 
He  died  at  Walmer  Castle  on  the  14th  of  September, 
1852,  leaving  his  title  to  his  eldest  son,  Arthur,  who  is 
the  present  Duke  of  Wellington.  He  also  had  a  son 
Charles. 

Comparing  the  Duke  of  Wellington  with  Napoleon, 
General  William  F.  P.  Napier  says,  "  Firm,  tranquil, 
and  stubborn  in  resistance,  vehement  and  obstinate  in 
attack  ;  bold,  when  there  was  a  call  for  daring  ;  more 
inclined  to  operate  by  a  flank  than  by  a  front  attack — in 
all  these  things  they  resembled  and  matched  each  other  ; 
but  in  the  art  of  following  up  his  point  and  of  making 
the  most  of  victory,  the  English  general  was  far  behind 
Napoleon.  The  battle  of  Wellington  was  like  the  heavy 
blow  of  the  battering-ram,  that  strikes  straight  and  hard 
and  makes  a  great  hole  in  the  wall.  The  battle  of  Na- 
poleon was  like  the  rush  and  irruption  of  a  gigantic  sea, 
which,  descending  from  a  mighty  height,  bursts  through 
all  obstacles  and  inundates  the  whole  country  to  a  great 
distance." 

See  Jules  Maurel,  "Wellington:  his  Character,  his  Actions, 
and  his  Writings,"  1853;  W.  H.  Maxwell,  "Life  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,"  3  vois.,  1839;  Charles  MacFarlane,  "  Life  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,"  1851  ;  Shuthey,  "  Life  of  Wellington,"  1821  ; 
Sherer,  "  Military  Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,"  2  vols., 
1S32  :  Wilson,  "  Life  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,"  2  vols.,  1853-55  I 
De  Hrialmont,  "Viedu  Due  de  Wellington,"  3  vols.,  1858;  Gleig, 
"Life  of  Wellington,"  1S62;  Charles  D.  Yonge,  "  Life  of  Welling- 
ton," i860;  L.  i)E  Lomenie,  "  Lord  Wellington,  parun  Homme  de 
Rien,"  1842;  George  Elliot,  "Life  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington," 
1814;  George  Soane,  "Life  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,"  2  vols., 
1839-40:  A.  Cooper,  "Life  of  Arthur.  Duke  of  Wellington."  1850; 
W.  F.  P.  Napier,  "History  of  the  War  in  the  Peninsula;"  "De- 
spatches and  Correspondence  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,"  publislied 
by  Colonel  Gurwood,  12  vols.,  1852  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  April  and  July,  1815,  and  July,  1S66. 

Wells,  (Charles  William,)  a  distinguished  physi* 
cian,  of  Scottish  extraction,  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  in  1757.  Having  studied  at  Edinburgh,  he 
settled  in  London,  and  was  appointed  in  1800  physician 
to  Saint  Thomas's  Hospital.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  contributed  to  their  "Transactions" 
"  Experiments  on  the  Colour  of  the  Blood,"  and  other 
treatises.  His  principal  work  is  an  "  Essay  upon  Dew," 
(1814,)  which  is  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1817. 

See  his  Autobiography,  1821. 

Wells,  (Edward,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Wilt- 
shire about  1665,  published  "The  Geography  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1727. 

Wells,  (Horace,)  M.D.,  born  at  Hartford,  Vermont, 
January  21,  181 5,  studied  and  practis'ed  dentistry  in 
Boston.  He  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  employ 
anaesthetics  successfully,  by  means  of  inhalation,  for  the 
purpose  of  destroying  pain  intlental  operations.  On 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  cl,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6, 11,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fiLll,  ftt;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


IVELLS 


22 


53 


WENTZEL 


the  nth  of  December,  1844,  Dr.  Wells,  then  residing  at 
Hartford,  Connecticut,  was  placed,  at  his  own  request, 
under  the  influence  of  nitrous  oxide  gas,  and  a  large 
molar  tooth  was  extracted  by  Mr.  Riggs,  causing  scarcely 
any  perceptible  pain.  After  that  date.  Dr.  Wells,  and 
other  dentists  of  Hartford,  continued  with  great  success 
to  employ  the  nitrous  oxide  gas  as  an  anaesthetic  for 
nearly  two  years,  when,  attention  having  been  directed — 
chiefly  through  the  influence  of  Dr.  William  T.  G. 
Morton,  of  Boston — to  the  anaesthetic  properties  of  sul- 
pnuric  ether,  this  agent,  as  being  more  easily  procured 
or  applied,  was  generally  substituted  for  the  nicrous 
oxide  gas.  Dr.  Wells,  while  investigating  with  his 
usual  ardour  the  relative  value  of  these  different  anaes- 
thetics, seriously  injured  himself,  as  it  would  appear,  by 
the  inhalation  of  chloroform,  so  that,  his  reason  being 
unhinged,  he  committed  suicide  in  New  York  in  January, 
1848.  In  weighing  the  respective  claims  of  Dr.  Wells 
and  Dr.  Morton,  we  feel  bound,  after  a  careful  examina- 
tion, to  award  to  the  former  the  credit  of  having  been 
the  first  to  conceive  of,  and  to  carry  to  a  successful  issue, 
the  use  of  anaesthetic  inhalation  in  surgical  operations, 
while  to  the  latter  belongs  the  distinguished  merit  of 
having  done  more  than  any  other,  or  all  others,  to  make 
this  invaluable  discovery  known  to  people  of  all  classes 
and  in  both  hemispheres. 

See  "  Testimonial  of  the  Members  of  the  Medical  Profession  of 
Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  Boston  in  behalf  of  W.  T.  G.  Morton, 
M.D.,"  i860;  and  an  "Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  Modern  Anes- 
thesia," by  the  Hon.  Truman  Smith,  1867,  including  a  "Life  of 
Horace  Wells,  M.D.,"  by  Dr.  P.  W.  Ellsworth. 

Wells,  (John  Doane,)  an  American  physician,  emi- 
nent as  a  lecturer  on  anatomy,  was  born  in  Boston  in 
1799.  He  was  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  medical 
school  of  Maine.    Died  in  Boston  in  1830. 

Wellwood,  (Sir  Henry  Moncrieff.)  See  Mon- 
CRiEFF,  (Henry.) 

Well'wood,  (James  or  Thomas,)  a  Scottish  phy- 
sician and  writer,  born  near  Edinburgh  in  1652,  pub- 
lished "Memoirs  of  English  Affairs  from  1588  to  the 
Revolution  of  1688."    Died  in  1716. 

Welschow,  vgl'sho,  (Johann  Matthias,)  a  Danish 
historian,  born  in  Copenhagen  in  1796.  He  has  written 
on  Danish  history. 

Welser,  -^^Kser,  or  Velser,  (Bartholomaus,)  a 
German  nobleman  of  great  wealth,  was  a  native  of 
Augsburg.  He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Charles 
v.,  who  made  him  a  privy  councillor. 

Welser,  [Lat.  Velse'rus,]  (Marcus,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1558.  He  wrote  several 
historical  and  philological  treatises,  in  Latin,  and  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Galileo,  who  dedicated  to  him  one  of 
his  works.    Died  in  1614. 

See  C.  Arnoi,d,  "Vita  M.  Velseri,"  1682. 

Welser,  (Philippine,)  a  niece  of  Bartholomaus,  no- 
ticed above,  was  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  talents, 
and  was  privately  married  in  1550  to  the  archduke 
Ferdinand,  son  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  I.  After  her 
father-in-law  became  reconciled  to  the  marriage,  he 
created  her  Margravine  of  Burgau.-.   Died  in  1580. 

Wel'sted,  (Leonard,)  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1689.  His  principal  poem  is  en- 
titled "The  Triumvirate,"  {1718,)  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  intended  for  a  satire  on  Pope,  who  retaliated 
by  his  allusions  to  Welsted  in  the  second  and  third 
books  of  the  "Dunciad."    Died  in  1749. 

Wenceslaus,  w§n'ses-laus  or  \v§nt'ses-16wss^  [Fr. 
We  nceslas,  v&n's^s'I^s',]  or  Wenzel,  -^Int'sel,  son  of 
the  emperor  Charles  IV.  of  Germany,  was  born  in  1361. 
He  was  proclaimed  King  of  the  Romans  in  1376,  and 
succeeded  his  father  in  1378.  He  displayed  the  weakness 
and  cruelty  of  his  character  by  cancelling  the  debts  owed 
by  the  nobles  to  the  Jews,  and  confiscating  the  property 
of  three  thousand  of  that  sect  who  had  been  murdered 
by  a  mob  at  Prague.  He  also  caused  John  Nepomuk 
to  be  drowned  in  the  Moldau.  Having  made  many 
powerful  enemies  by  forsaking  the  cause  of  Pope  Boni- 
face IX.,  whom  he  had  formerly  supported  against  the 
anti-pope  Benedict  XIII.,  he  was  deposed  in  a  Diet  at 
Frankfort,  (1400,)  and  the  Elector-Palatine  Rupert  was 
chosen  in  his  stead.   He  died  in  1419,  having  previously 


abdicated  in  favour  of  his  brother  Sigismund,  who  had 
been  chosen  emperor  on  the  death  of  Rupert. 

See  F.  M.  Pelzel,  "  Lebensgeschichte  des  Rbmischen  und 
Bbhmischen  Kbnigs  Wenceslaus,"  1788-90. 

Wen'ges-laus  or  Wen'g^s-las  I.,  King  of  Bohemia, 
born  in  1205,  began  to  reign  in  1230.  He  was  a  patron 
of  arts  and  learning,  and  exerted  much  influence  in  the 
affairs  of  Germany.    Died  in  1253. 

Wenceslaus  or  Wenceslas  II.,  King  of  Bohemia 
and  Poland,  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1271.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1278,  and  was  chosen 
King  of  Poland  in  1300.    Died  in  1305. 

Wenceslaus  or  Wenceslas  III.,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1289.  He  died,  without  issue,  in 
1306. 

Wenceslaus  or  Wenceslas  IV.  of  Bohemia.  See 

Wenceslaus,  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Wenceslaus, ^§nt'ses-16wss^  [Fr.  Wenceslas,  v5n'- 
sSs'lSs',]  or  Wenzel,  <v§nt'sel.  Saint,  Duke  of  Bohemia, 
born  about  908,  was  converted  to  Christianity  by  his 
paternal  grandmother  Ludmila.  He  was  distinguished 
for  the  sanctity  of  his  life,  and  refused  the  crown  of 
Bohemia,  which  was  offered  him  by  the  emperor  Otho  I. 
He  was  assassinated  in  936,  at  the  instigation  of  his 
mother  Drahomira  and  his  brother  Boleslaw. 

See  F.  X.  Schuldes,  "  Der  heilige  Wenzel  dargestellt,"  etc., 
1848. 

Wendelin,  wSn'de-leen',  [Fr.  Vendelin,  vSN^deh- 
14n',]  (Godefroi,)  a  Flemish  astronomer  and  scholar, 
born  at  La  Lampine  in  1580,  He  became  canon  of 
Tournay,  and  published  various  works,  among  which  is 
"Lunar  Eclipses  observed  from  1573  to  1640."  It  is 
stated  that  he  determined  the  parallax  of  the  sun.  Died 
in  1660.  « 

Wendover.    See  Roger  de  Wendover. 

Wendt,  \^ent,  (Johann  Amadeus,)  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1783,  became  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Gottingen.  He  published  "  Rossini's  Life  and 
Works,"  (1824,)  and  was  a  contributor  to  various  lit- 
erary periodicals  of  the  time.    Died  in  1836. 

Wengierski,  wlng-ge-^R'skee,  (Andrew,)  a  So- 
cinian  minister,  born  in  Silesia  in  1600.  He  wrote  a 
"  History  of  the  Slavonian  Churches,"  (1652.)  Died 
in  1649. 

Wens'ley-dale,  (James  Parke,)  Baron,  an  English 
jurist,  born  near  Liverpool  in  1782.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  appointed  a  baron 
of  the  court  of  exchequer  in  1834.  On  retiring  from  the 
bench,  in  1856,  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  as  Baron 
Wensleydale. 

Went'worth,  (Benning,)  son  of  John  Wentworth, 
was  born  at  Portsmouth  in  1696.  He  was  Governor  of 
New  Hampshire  for  more  than  twenty  years.  The  town 
of  Bennington,  in  Vermont,  was  named  in  his  honour. 
Died  in  1770. 

Wentworth,  (Charles  W.)    See  Rockingham. 

Wentworth,  (Sir  John,)  a  nephew  of  Benning  Went- 
worth, noticed  above,  was  born  at  Portsmouth  in  1736. 
He  became  Governor  of  New  Hampshire  in  1768,  and 
gave  its  charter  to  Dartmouth  College.    Died  in  1820. 

Wentworth,  (Colonel  John,)  born  at  Dover,  New 
Hampshire,  in  1 7 19,  was  appointed  in  1776  one  of  the 
superior  judges  of  New  Hampshire.  Died  in  1781.  His 
son,  of  the  same  name,  born  in  1745,  was  elected  to  the 
Continental  Congress  in  1778,  and  twice  re-elected. 
Died  in  1787. 

Wentworth,  (John,)  an  American  journalist,  born 
at  Sandwich,  New  Hampshire,  in  1815,  removed  to  Illi- 
nois, and  became  editor  of  the  "Chicago  Democrat." 
He  was  several  times  elected  to  Congress,  and  in  1857 
became  mayor  of  Chicago,  and  again  in  i860. 

Wentworth,  (Thomas.)  See  Strafford,  Earl  of. 

Wentworth,  (William,)  born  in  England  about 
1610,  was  one  of  the  early  settlers  of  New  Hampshire. 
Died  in  1697.  His  grandson  John,  born  in  1671,  be- 
came Lieutenant-Governor  of  New  Hampshire  in  171 7. 
Died  in  1730. 

Wentzel  or  Wenzel,  S^lnt'sel,  (Johann  Chris- 
toph,)  a  German  poet  and  physician,  born  in  Eisenach 
in  1659.  He  became  principal  of  the  Academy  of  Zittau 
in  1713,  and  published  several  poems.    Died  in  1723. 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R, 


trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2!:^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WEN- WANG 


2254 


WERNER 


Wen-Wang,  the  founder  of  the  Chinese  dynasty  of 
Chow  or  Cheou,  was  born  about  1230  B.C.  He  gained 
great  distinction  as  a  general  and  as  a  writer,  and  was 
governor  of  Chow  (Cheou)  for  many  years.  He  died 
aged  ninety-seven.  His  son  Woo-  (or  Wou-)  Wang 
became  Emperor  of  China. 

Wenzel,  (Emperor  of  Germany.)  See  Wenceslaus. 

Wenzel,  Saint.    See  Wenceslaus. 

Wepfer,  ^^^^p'ler,  (John  James,)  a  Swiss  physician 
and  anatomist,  born  at  Schafifhausen  in  1620,  was  the 
author  of  several  medical  works.    Died  in  1695. 

Weppen,  vv^ep'pen,  (Johann  August,)  a  German 
poet,  born  at  Nordlieim  in  1742.  He  published  between 
1778  and  1796  a  number  of  poems,  which  are  com- 
mended. 

Werdenhagen,  -^^R'den-hi'gen,  (Johann  Ange,)  a 
learned  German  jurist  and  diplomatist,  born  at  Helm- 
stedt  in  1581,  published  several  works.    Died  in  1652. 

Werder,  -^SaMer,  (Karl,)  a  German  philosophical 
writer,  of  the  school  of  Hegel,  was  born  at  Berlin  in 
1806.  He  became  assistant  professor  of  philosophy  in 
the  University  of  Berlin  in  1838. 

Werder,  von,  fon  Ma'der,  (Dietrich,)  a  German 
poet,  born  at  Werdershausen,  in  Hesse,  in  1584.  He 
became  a  privy  councillor  at  the  court  of  Cassel.  In 
1626  he  produced  a  German  version  of  Tasso's  "Je- 
rusalem Delivered."  He  also  translated  Ariosto's 
"Orlando  Furioso,"  (1632.)  These  translations  are 
praised  by  several  writers.    Died  in  1657. 

Werdin  or  Weredin.  See  Paulinus,  (Johann 
Philtpp.) 

Werdmuller,  -^gRt'mdoKler,  (Johann  Rudolph,)  a 
Swiss  painter,  born  at  Zurich  in  1639.  He  painted 
mostly  landscapes  and  portraits.  Having  commenced 
a  journey  to  Paris,  he  was  drowned  in  the  Silh  in  1668. 

Werdum,  van,  vtn  w^RMum,  (Ulrich,)  a  Dutch 
historian,  born  at  Werdum,  in  Friesland,  in  1632.  He 
was  privy  councillor  of  East  Friesland.  He  wrote  sev- 
ral  useful  works  on  the  history  of  Friesland.  Died 
in  1681. 

Wer'em-bert  or  Werimbert,  [Lat.  Weremrer'- 
TUS,]  a  learned  German  monk,  born  at  Curia,  (Coire,) 
was  a  brother  of  Adalbert,  a  famous  general  of  Charle- 
magne. He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  books  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  other  works,  and  taught  at  Saint  Gall.  Died 
in  884  A.D. 

Werenfels,  '^a'ren-fils^  (Peter,)  a  Swiss  Protestant 
minister,  born  in  1627,  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Bale  about  1675.  He  wrote  several  theological  works. 
Died  in  1703. 

Werenfels,  [Lat.  Werenfei/sius,]  (Samuel,)  a 
Swiss  scholar  and  theologian,  born  at  Bale  in  1657, 
was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  obtained  the  chair 
of  eloquence  in  1687  at  Bale,  where  he  afterwards 
became  professor  of  theology.  He  published,  besides 
other  able  works,  "On  the  Controversies  of  Learned 
Men,"  ("De  Logomachiis  Eruditorum,"  1692.)  Died 
in  1740. 

See  P.  Ryhiner,  "Vita  S.  Werenfelsii,"  1741. 

Werenfelsius.    See  Werenfels. 

Werf  or  WerfF,  van  der,  vtn  der  w§Rf,  (Peter,)  a 
Dutch  patriot,  born  at  Leyden  in  1529.  He  was  em- 
ployed by  William  the  Silent  in  confidential  missions. 
As  burgomaster  of  Leyden,  he  displayed  great  firmness 
and  constancy  when  that  city  was  besieged  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1573-74. 

Werff  or  Werf,  (Adrtaan.)    See  Van  der  Werf. 

Wergeland,  wlR''geh-lint',  (Henrik  Arnold,)  a 
celebrated  Norwegian  poet,  born  at  Christiansand  in 
1808.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Christiania,  where 
he  was  appointed,  in  1836,  keeper  of  the  library,  and,  in 
1840,  archivist  of  the  kingdom,  flis  first  publication 
was  a  satirical  farce,  entitled  "  Ah  !"  which  appeared 
under  the  pseudonym  of  Siful  Sifadda.  It  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  number  of  similar  works,  distinguished  by 
their  intensely  sectional  spirit  and  political  personalities. 
Among  his  most  admired  productions  are  the  opera 
of  "The  Campbells,"  (1838,)  tragedies  entitled  "The 
Venetians"  (1840)  and  "The  Child-Murderess,"  and 
poems  entitled  "  Jan  van  Huysum's  Flower-Piece,"  and 
"The  Spaniards."    Died  in  1845. 


Werkmeister,  -(^^Rk'niTs'ter,  (Andreas,)  a  German 
composer  and  writer,  born  in  1645,  was  author  of  "  Har- 
monologia  Musica,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1706. 

Werl,  (Olaf.)    See  Veuelius. 

Werlauff,  <'i'iR'16wf,  (Erik  Christian,)  a  Danish 
antiquary  and  historian,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1781, 
was  appointed  first  librarian  in  the  Royal  Library  of 
that  city  about  1828.  He  made  numerous  contributions 
to  the  "  Antiquariske  Annaler"  and  other  literary  peri- 
odicals, assisted  Thorlacius  in  editing  the  history  of 
the  kings  of  Norway,  and  published  various  learned 
works  on  Scandinavian  antiquities. 

Werlhof,  MRKhof,  (Johann,)  a  German  jurist,  born 
at  Helmstedt  in  1660.  He  became  aulic  councillor  to 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  and  wrote  several  legal  works. 
Died  in  1711. 

Werlhof,  (Paul  Gottlieb,)  a  skilful  German  phy- 
sician, born  at  Helmstedt  in  1699.  He  settled  at  Han- 
over in  1725,  and  became  first  physician  to  George  II. 
of  England.  He  wrote  a  "Treatise  on  Fevers,"  (1745,) 
and  other  medical  works,  (3  vols.,  1775.)    Died  in  1767. 

Werloschnid,  von,  fon  'w^^R'lo-shnit',  (Johann  Bap- 
tist,) a  German  physician,  lived  about  17 10.  He  pub- 
lished an  "  Account  of  the  Plague  which  prevailed  in 
Austria,  Hungary,  etc.  in  1708-1710." 

Werneck,  von,  fon  \^gR'n§k,  (Franz,)  Baron,  an 
eminent  Austrian  general,  born  at  Ludwigsberg,  in  Wiir- 
temberg,  in  1748.  He  entered  the  Austrian  service 
about  1765,  became  general-major  in  1789,  and  com- 
manded a  corps  d'armee  in  the  campaign  of  1793  against 
the  French.  He  contributed  to  the  victory  at  Wiirz- 
burg  in  September,  1796,  and  commanded  the  army  of 
the  Lower  Rhine  in  1797,  but  was  soon  removed  for  his 
ill  success.  He  was  captured,  with  a  division,  in  1805. 
Died  in  1806. 

Wer'ner,  [Ger.  pron.-^lR'ner,]  (Abraham  Gottlob,) 
an  eminent  German  geologist  and  mineralogist,  was  born 
at  Wehrau,  on  the  Queiss,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  September 
25,  1750-  He  was  educated  in  the  school  of  mines  at  Frey- 
berg,  in  Saxony,  and  studied  law  for  three  years  at  Leipsic, 
In  1774  he  published  a  short  "Treatise  on  the  Charac- 
ters of  Minerals,"  in  which  he  proposed  a  methodical 
and  precise  language,  the  varied  terms  of  which  suffice 
to  express  all  the  sensible  qualities  of  minerals.  "This 
little  essay,"  says  Cuvier,  "  has  made  a  revolution  in 
mineralogy,  to  which  the  author  rendered  a  service  analo- 
gous to  that  which  Linnaeus  had  rendered  to  botanical 
science  by  the  terminology  explained  in  his  '  Philosophia 
Botanica.'"  ("  Biographic  Universelle.")  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1775  professor  of  mineralogy  at  Freyberg,  and 
inspector  of  the  cabinet  of  minerals  belonging  to  that 
school.  In  1 780  he  produced  a  translation  of  Cronstedt's 
"Mineralogy."  His  doctrines  were  propagated  by  sev- 
eral of  his  pupils,  among  whom  were  Karsten,  Wiede- 
mann, Jameson,  and  Napione.  He  applied  the  term 
Geognosy  to  the  science  which  treats  of  the  respective 
positions  of  minerals  in  the  crust  of  the  globe,  and  of 
the  epochs  of  their  origin.  He  presented  the  bases  of 
this  science  in  his  "Classification  artd  Description  of 
Mountains,"  (1787.)  '  "  He  was  the  first,"  says  Cuvier, 
"  that  raised  the  theory  of  the  earth  to  the  rank  of  a 
positive  science  by  divesting  it  of  the  fantastic  systems 
of  which  it  was  for  a  long  time  composed."  He  classi- 
fied rocks,  according  to  their  relative  antiquity,  into  four 
classes  or  formations  :  I,  the  primitive,  which  contain  no 
organic  remains  ;  2,  the  transition  ;  3,  the  stratified;  and 
4,  the  alluvial  beds  formed  recently.  He  divined  the  order 
of  superposition  which  has  been  found  almost  general 
all  over  the  earth,  although  his  sphere  of  observation 
was  quite  limited.  In  1791  he  published  a  "New  Theory 
of  the  Formation  of  Veins."  Werner  was  the  author 
of  the  theory  known  as  the  Neptunian  or  Wernerian, 
that  the  primitive  and  other  rocks  were  formed  by 
precipitation  from  water  or  some  liquid.  This  theory 
was  controverted  by  Hutton  and  others,  who  attributed 
to  the  primitive  rocks  an  igneous  origin,  and  were  called 
Vulcanians.  He  passed  nearly  all  of  his  mature  life  at 
Freyberg.  In  1802  he  visited  Paris,  and  was  chosen 
one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences.  He  was  a  very  accomplished  and  popular 
lecturer  ;  but  he  was  not  a  voluminous  writer,  having  a 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


WERNER 


2255 


WES  LET 


peculiar  aversion  to  the  act  of  writing.  He  was  never 
married.    Died  at  Dresden  in  June,  181 7. 

See  CuviER,  "  filoge  de  Werner  ;"  Frisch,  "  Lebensbeschreibung 
A.  G.  Werners,"  1825  ;  Hasse,  "  Denkschrift  zur  Erinnerung  an  A. 
G.  Werner,"  1848;  Configliachi,  "  Memorie  intorno  alia  Vita  dei 
due  Naturalisti  Werner  e  Haiiy,"  1827. 

Werner,  (Friedrich  Ludwig  Zacharias,)  an  emi- 
nent German  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Konigsberg  in 
1768.  He  studied  law  and  finance  in  the  university  of 
his  native  town,  where  he  also  attended  the  lectures  of 
Kant.  His  first  drama,  entitled  "The  Sons  of  the  Valley," 
came  out  in  1800,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  "Twenty- 
fourth  of  February,"  ("  Der  Vierundzwanzigster  Fe- 
bruar,")  a  tragedy  of  great  power,  and  esteemed  one  of 
his  best  works.  His  other  principal  productions  are  the 
dramas  entitled  "The  Cross  on  the  Baltic,"  "Martin 
Luther,  or  the  Consecration  of  Strength,"  "  Kunegunde," 
*'  The  Mother  of  the  Maccabees,"  and  "  Attila,  King  of 
the  Huns."  In  181 1  Werner  became  a  Catholic,  and, 
having  been  ordained  a  priest  in  18 14,  settled  as  a  preacher 
at  Vienna,  where  he  died  in  January,  1823. 

See  J.  E.  HiTZiG,  "  F.  L.  Z.  Werner's  Lebensabriss,"  1823; 
ScHUTZ,  "Z.  Werner's  Biographic  und  Charakteristik,"  2  vols., 
1841;  Madame  de  Stael,  "Germany,"  vol.  ii. ;  Gervinus,  "  Ge- 
schichte  der  Deutschen  Dichtung;"  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for 
April,  1827;  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale." 

Werner  or  Wer-ne'rus,  (Joannes,)  a  German  as- 
tronomer, born  at  Nuremberg  in  1468.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  "The  Movement  of  the  Eighth  Sphere,"  and 
"Annotations  on  the  First  Book  of  Ptolemy's  Geog- 
raphy," also  several  mathematical  works.  Died  in  1528. 

Werner,  <v§R'ner,  (Joseph,)  a  Swiss  painter,  of  great 
merit,  born  at  Berne  in  1637.  He  studied  at  Rome, 
and  was  subsequently  patronized  at  the  court  of  Louis 
XIV.  He  excelled  in  miniatures  and  in  historical  pieces 
of  small  size.  Among  the  latter  may  be  named  "  The 
Muses  on  Parnassus"  and  "The  Death  of  Dido."  Died 
in  1 710. 

Werner,  von,  fon  ^§R'ner,  .(Paul,)  a  celebrated 
general,  born  at  Raab,  in  Hungary,  in  1707,  served  with 
distinction  in  Austria,  and  subsequently  in  the  Prussian 
army  during  the  principal  campaigns  of  the  Seven  Years' 
war.  In  1760  he  delivered  Coburg,  which  was  besieged 
by  the  Russians,  for  which  he  was  made  lieutenant- 
general  by  Frederick  II.,  who  also  caused  a  medal  to  be 
struck  in  his  honour.    Died  in  1785. 

Wernher,  -^gRn'her,  (Johann  Balthasar,)  a  Ger- 
man publicist  and  jurist,  born  at  Rothenburg  ;  died  at 
Vienna  in  1742. 

Wernike,  \^§R'ne-keh,  or  Wernigk,  <^'gR'nik,  written 
also  Wernack  or  Warneck,  (Chrisiian,)  a  German 
epigrammatic  poet,  born  in  Prussia  about  1670.  He  was 
appointed  by  the  King  of  Denmark  his  resident  minister 
at  the  French  court,  and  died  in  Paris  about  1720.  His 
works  were  highly  esteemed  in  his  time,  and  he  is 
ranked  among  the  reformers  of  German  pcjetry. 

Wernsdorf,  <\eRns'doRf,  [Lat.  Wernsdor'fius,] 
(Gottlieb,)  a  German  theologian  and  philologist,  born 
in  Saxony  in  1668.  He  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Wittenberg  in  1698,  and  superintendent  or  Bishop  of 
the  Lutheran  Church  in  1719.    Died  in  1729. 

See  CoLER,  "De  Wernsdorfii  Vita." 

Wernsdorf,  (Gottlieb,)  a  philologist,  born  at  Wit- 
tenberg in  1 710,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
professor  of  eloquence  and  history  at  Dantzic,  and 
published  several  learned  works.    Died  in  1774. 

His  brother,  Ernst  Friedrich,  born  at  Wittenberg 
in  1718,  was  a  learned  writer.  He  became  a  preacher  and 
professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg.  Among  his  works 
is  a  "  History  of  Queen  Zenobia,"  (1742.)  Died  in  1782. 

Wernsdorf,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1723.  He  obtained  the  chair  of 
eloquence  at  Helmstedt  in  1752,  and  jmblished  a  good 
edition  of  "  Poetae  Latini  minores,"  (6  vols.,  1780-99.) 
Died  in  1793. 

Wernsdorfius.    See  Wernsdorf. 

Werp,  <\'gRp,  (Charles,)  a  benevolent  Flemish  priest 
and  Latin  poet,  born  near  Huy  in  1592  ;  died  in  1666. 

Werth,  von,  fon  <^aiRt,  Wert,  or  Werdt,  (Johann,) 
sometimes  called  Jean  de  Weert,  a  celebrated  general, 
born  at  Weert,  in  Brabant,  in  1594.  He  served  under 
Maximilian  of  Bavaria  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  and 


distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Nordlingen  ;  but 
he  was  defeated  in  1638  and  made  prisoner  by  Bernard, 
Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar,  near  Rheinfelden.  After  his 
release  he  entered  the  Austrian  service.    Died  in  1652. 

See  Barthold,  "Johann  von  Werth  in  Zusammenhange  mit 
seiner Zeit;"  Bayi.e,  "Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary." 

Wesenbeck,  wa'zen-b^k",  (Matthew,)  a  Flemish 
jurist,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1531.  He  became  professor 
of  law  at  Jena,  and  removed  thence  to  Wittenberg  in 
1569.  He  wrote  several  legal  works,  which  were  highly 
esteemed.    Died  in  1586. 

See  A.  Rauchbar,  "  Wesenbeck's  Leben." 

Wesenbeck,  (Peter,)  a  jurist,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1546,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  lectured  on 
law  at  Jena  and  Wittenberg,  and  died  at  Coburg  in  1603. 

WesTey,  (Charles,)  an  English  preacher  and  writer 
of  hymns,  born  at  Epworth  in  December,  1708,  was  a 
son  of  Samuel,  and  a  brother  of  the  celebrated  John 
Wesley.  He  was  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxfcrd, 
where  his  strictness  in  religion  procured  for  him  the 
name  of  Methodist  and  other  names  given  in  derision. 
Having  taken  orders,  he  sailed  for  Georgia  with  his 
brother  John  in  I/I35,  ^"cl  served  as  secretary  to  General 
Oglethorpe.  They  returned  to  England  about  the  end 
of  1736.  Charles  became  an  able  preacher,  and  co- 
operated with  John  in  many  of  his  religious  enterprises. 
He  married  Sarah  Gwynne  in  1749,  after  which  he 
preached  in  London,  Bristol,  and  other  places,  and 
propagated  the  Methodist  doctrines.  He  also  gained 
great  distinction  as  a  writer  of  hymns,  and  composed 
many  of  those  used  in  the  Methodist  Church.  Died 
in  1788. 

See  Jackson,  "  Life  of  the  Rev.  Charles  Wesley  ;"  "Journal  of 
the  Rev.  Charles  Wesley,"  2  vols.,  1849. 

Wesley,  (Charles,)  a  distinguished  musician,  born 
in  1757,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  a  skilful 
performer  on  the  organ  and  harpsichord.    Died  in  1815. 

Wesley,  (Rev.  John,)  an  English  nonconformist 
minister,  born  about  1636,  was  the  father  of  Samuel 
Wesley,  noticed  below.  He  was  ejected  in  1662,  after 
which  he  preached  at  Preston  and  other  places,  and 
was  persecuted  by  imprisonment.    Died  about  1670. 

Wesley,  (John,)  a  distinguished  religious  reformer, 
the  founder  of  the  Society  of  Methodists,  was  born  at 
Epworth,  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  on  the  17th  of  June, 
1703.  He  was  the  second  son  of  Samuel  Wesley,  noticed 
below,  and  Susannah  Annesley,  At  an  early  age  he 
was  sent  to  the  Charter- House,  from  which  he  passed 
in  1720  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  was  distinguished 
at  college  for  his  attainments,  and  especially  for  his  skill 
in  logic.  His  mother,  who  was  a  very  intelligent  woman, 
and  urrderstood  Greek  and  Latin,  advised  him  to  make 
religion  the  business  of  his  life.  He  applied  himself  to 
the  study  of  religion,  began  to  change  the  form  of  his 
conversation,  and  was  deeply  impressed  by  the  perusal 
of  Jeremy  Taylor's  "  Holy  Living  and  Dying."  He  was 
ordained  a  deacon  in  1725,  graduated  as  M.A.  in  1726, 
and  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  Lincoln  College  about  that 
date.  He  began  about  1726  to  record  his  actions, 
thoughts,  and  experience  in  a  diary,  which  he  continued 
to  the  end  of  his  life.  Eight  months  after  his  election 
to  a  fellowship  he  was  appointed  Greek  lecturer  and 
moderator  of  the  classes.  He  was  employed  as  curate 
of  his  father  at  Wroote  about  two  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  he  was  summoned  to  return  to  Lincoln  College. 
While  he  held  the  curacy  at  Wroote,  he  was  ordained  a 
priest  of  the  established  Church,  (1728.)  On  his  return 
to  Oxford  he  found  that  his  brother  Charles  and  several 
other  students  had  associated  together  for  religious 
improvement,  and  by  their  strict  and  methodical  habits 
had  obtained  the  name  of  Methodists.  They  were  also 
called,  in  derision,  Bible  Moths,  the  Godly  Club,  and 
Bible  Bigots.  James  Hervey,  author  of  the  "Medi- 
tations," and  George  Whitefield  were  members  of  this 
society,  which  recognized  John  Wesley  as  its  directing 
head.  "The  good  intentions  of  W^esley  and  his  asso* 
ciates,"  says  Southey,  "could  not  be  questioned;  but 
they  were  now  running  fast  into  fanaticism."  By  hard 
study,  fasting,  and  habits  of  austerity,  he  had  reduced 
himself  to  an  alarming  physical  condition  ;  but,  having 
put  himself  under  the  direction  of  medical  men,  he  soon 
recovered  his  health. 


€  as  ki  c  as     g  hard;  g  as     G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23  ) 


WES  LET 


22 


56 


WESSELENTI 


In  October,  1735,  John  and  Charles  Wesley  accepted 
an  invitation  to  go  to  Georgia,  to  preach  to  the  Indians 
and  the  settlers  of  a  colony  which  General  Oglethorpe 
had  planted  there.  Among  their  fellow-passengers  in 
the  voyage  to  Georgia  were  twenty-six  Moravians,  whose 
simplicity  and  piety  made  a  favourable  impression  on 
Wesley.  They  arrived  at  Savannah  in  February,  1736. 
As  a  preacher,  John  Wesley  was  not  very  popular 
at  Savannah.  He  drenched  his  parishioners,"  says 
Southey,  "with  the  physic  of  an  intolerant  discipline." 
He  became  intimate  at  Savannah  with  Sophia  Causton, 
the  daughter  of  a  magistrate  at  that  place,  and  was  in- 
clined to  marry  her,  but  he  was  dissuaded  by  the  elders 
of  the  Moravian  Church,  with  whom  he  was  on  intimate 
terms.  She  afterwards  married  a  Mr.  Williamson,  and 
Wesley  excluded  her  from  the  communion.  For  this  act 
her  husband  prosecuted  him,  and  numerous  persons 
conspired  to  drive  him  from  the  colony.  He  departed 
from  Savannah  in  December,  1737,  and  arrived  in  Eng- 
land in  February,  1738.  About  this  date  he  recorded 
his  conviction  that  "  I,  who  went  to  America  to  convert 
others,  was  never  myself  converted  to  God." 

Soon  after  his  return  he  met  with  Peter  Boehler,  a 
Moravian,  who,  according  to  Southey,  "  became  Wes- 
ley's teacher."  '*  By  him,"  says  Wesley,  "  in  the  hands 
of  the  great  God,  I  was  clearly  convinced  of  unbelief, — 
of  the  want  of  that  faith  whereby  alone  we  are  saved." 
He  dated  his  conversion  on  the  24th  of  May,  1738.  In 
the  summer  of  that  year  he  visited  the  Moravian  brethren 
at  Herrnhut,  and  became  acquainted  with  Count  Zinzen- 
dorf.  Having  returned  to  England,  he  followed  the  ex- 
ample of  Whitefield  (who  was  then  his  fellow-labourer) 
by  preaching  in  the  open  air  at  Bristol,  where  the  foun- 
dations of  the  society  of  Methodists,  as  an  independent 
sect,  were  laid.  He  continued  to  profess  the  doctrines 
of  the  Church  of  England  after  he  ceased  to  conform  to 
its  discipline.  A  difference  between  Wesley  and  the 
Moravians  resulted  in  a  formal  separation  in  1740. 
About  1741  he  ceased  to  have  fellowship  with  White- 
field,  in  consequence  of  a  disagreement  on  the  doctrine 
of  predestination,  which  Wesley  rejected  with  great 
earnestness.  They  exchanged  a  number  of  letters  on 
this  fertile  topic  of  dispute.  The  respective  followers 
of  Wesley  and  Whitefield  then  formed  themselves  into 
separate  organizations.  "  No  founder  of  a  sect  or  order, 
no  legislator,  ever  understood  the  art  of  preserving  his 
authority  more  perfectly  than  Wesley."  (Southey,  "Life 
of  Wesley.")  "  His  restless  spirit,"  says  Southey,  "had 
now  found  its  proper  sphere,  where  it  might  move  un- 
controlled and  enjoy  a  prospect  boundless  as  his  desire 
of  doing  good,  the  ambition  which  possessed  hin^."  He 
became  an  itinerant  preacher,  and  adopted  the  system 
of  itinerancy.  By  this  practice,  combined  with  that  of 
field-preaching,  he  and  his  fellow-workers  obtained  free 
access  to  the  lower  classes.  Another  innovation  of 
Wesley  was  the  employment  of  laymen  as  preachers. 
Applicants  for  membership  were  not  required  to  sub- 
scribe any  creed  or  formula. 

Wesley  performed  his  mission  with  the  greatest  zeal, 
and  with  entire  devotion  to  the  cause  which  formed  the 
great  object  of  his  life.  He  usually  travelled  on  horse- 
back, and  very  often  preached  several  sermons  in  a  day. 
His  biographers.  Coke  and  Moore,  express  the  belief 
that  "there  could  not  be  an  instance  found,  during  the 
space  of  fifty  years,  wherein  the  severest  weather  hin- 
dered him  even  for  one  day."  Field-preaching  was  at 
that  time  a  dangerous  service,  and,  in  certain  districts, 
was  frequently  interrupted  by  mobs,  which  some  of 
the  clergy  encouraged  and  the  magistrates  did  not 
restrain.  In  a  few  instances  Wesley  himself  barely 
escaped  being  killed.  But  these  persecutions,  far  from 
daunting  his  courage  or  abating  his  zeal,  seemed  only 
to  confirm  him  in  the  great  work  to  which  he  had  con- 
secrated his  life. 

About  1750  he  married  a  widow  named  Vizelle,  who 
possessed  an  independent  fortune,  but  he  took  care  that 
it  should  be  settled  on  herself.  But  the  marriage  was 
not  happy.  She  annoyed  him  by  her  jealousy,  opened 
his  letters,  revealed  his  secrets,  and  ran  away  from  him 
several  times.  A  final  separation  between  him  and  his 
wife  took  place  in  1771.  ' 


Wesley  published,  besides  many  religious  tracts,  a 
work  called  "  Primitive  Physic,  or  an  Easy  and  Natural 
Method  of  Curing  most  Diseases,"  and  a  "  History  of 
England."  His  collected  works  were  published,  in  32 
vols.  8vo,  in  1774.  He  was  favoured  with  a  vigorous 
constitution  and  a  rare  activity  of  spirit,  which  was  not 
impaired  by  old  age.  "Ten  thousand  cares,"  he  said, 
"were  no  more  burden  to  his  mind  than  ten  thousand 
hairs  were  to  his  head."  He  had  no  children.  He  died 
in  London  in  March,  1791. 

Since  the  days  of  the  apostles  to  the  present  time, 
probably  few,  if  any,  religious  teachers  have  been  instru- 
mental in  effecting  more  good  than  John  Wesley.  As 
no  hardships  or  dangers  were  too  great  for  him  to  under- 
take in  the  cause  of  Christ,  so  no  portion  of  humanity, 
from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  was  beyond  the  scope  of 
his  all-embracing  Christian  zeal  and  sympathy.  He  not 
only  sought  with  particular  care  to  gather  into  the  fold 
of  Christ  the  lowest  classes  of  the  poor,  but  he  was 
among  the  first  to  see  and  feel  the  iniquity  of  African 
slavery  and  to  labour  for  its  overthrow.  The  society 
which  he  founded,  and  which  owes  in  a  great  measure 
its  efficiency  and  its  influence  to  the  system  which  he 
organized,  embraces  at  present,  in  Europe  and  America, 
nearly  three  millions  of  souls. 

See  Dr.  Coke  and  Mr.  Moore,  "  Life  of  John  Wesley,"  1792; 
J.  Hampson,  "  Memoirs  of  J.  Wesley,"  1791  ;  John  Whitehead, 
"Life  of  John  Wesley,"  2  vols.,  1805  ;  Robert  Southey,  "Life 
of  Wesley,  and  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  Methodism,"  1820;  Adam 
Clarke,  "Memoirs  of  the  Wesley  Family;"  Schmidt,  "  Des  J. 
Wesley  Leben,"  1849.  For  an  interesting  notice  of  Wesley  as  a 
"Reformer,"  see  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  October,  1868. 

Wesley,  (Rev.  Samuel,)  an  English  clergyman  and 
poet,  born  at  Preston  about  1664,  was  the  father  of  John 
Wesley,  the  founder  of  Methodism.  He  was  educated  at 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  became  a  curate  in  London. 
In  1688  he  preached  a  sermon  against  King  James's 
Declaration  of  Indulgence.  According  to  some  writers, 
he  wrote  a  book  in  defence  of  the  revolution  of  1688,  and 
was  rewarded  with  the  living  of  Epworth,  in  Lincoln- 
shire. He  published,  besides  other  poems,  "  Elegies  on 
Queen  Mary  and  Archbishop  Tillotson,"  (1695,)  and 
"The  History  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  Verse,"  (1704.) 
He  also  wrote  a  "Commentary  on  Job,"  (1735.)  Died 
in  1735- 

See  Clarke,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Wesley  Family,"  1823. 

Wesley,  (Samuel,)  a  teacher  and  poet,  born  about 
1692,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  took  holy  orders,  and  was  usher  of  Westminster 
School  for  many  years.  His  preferment  in  the  Church 
was  probably  hindered  by  his  zealous  support  of  the 
Tory  party,  or  his  intimacy  with  Atterbury  and  other 
Jacobites.  He  became  head-master  of  Tiverton  School 
in  1732.  He  wrote  a  number  of  poems,  which  have 
some  merit.    Died  in  1739. 

See  Clarke,  "Memoirs  of  the  Wesley  Family,"  1823. 

Wesley,  (Samuel,)  a  composer  of  music,  born  in 
1766,  was  a  son  of  the  Rev.  Charles  Wesley,  noticed 
above.  He  began  to  compose  when  he  was  about  eight 
years  old,  and  was  considered  a  great  prodigy.  He 
acquired  celebrity  as  an  extemporaneous  perfonner  on 
the  organ,  and  composed  sacred  music,  oratorios,  etc 
Died  in  1837. 

Wessel,  A^gs'sel,  or  Wesselus,  ^gs-sa'lus,  (John,) 
sometimes  called  Gansefort  or  Goesevort,  a  Dutch 
theologian  and  Reformer,  born  at  Groningen  about  1420, 
He  studied  at  Louvain,  Heidelberg,  and  Paris,  where 
he  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  his  knowledge  of 
philosophy  and  divinity.  He  was  also  surnamed  Ma- 
GiSTER  Contradictionum,  ("  Master  of  Contradic- 
tion,") from  his  skill  in  dialectics.  He  attacked  with 
great  boldness  the  prevailing  abuses  in  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  was  one  of  the  principal  Reformers  before 
the  time  of  Luther.  He  died  in  1489,  leaving  a  number 
of  treatises  in  Latin,  some  of  which  were  burnt  as 
heretical. 

See  Carl  Ullmann,  "  Johann  Wessel,  ein  Vorjranger  Luthers,' 
1834;  Hodgson,  "Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867; 
MuuRLiNG,  "Commentatio  de  J.  Wesseli  Gansfortii  Vita,"  1831; 
B.  Bahring,  "J.  Wessel,"  1850. 

Wesselenyi,  wesh'sh§-lan''yee,  (Miklos,)  a  Hunga- 
rian patriot  and  statesman,  born  about  1795  ;  died  in  1850. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ij,  y, 


short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


WESSELING 


2257 


WESTERMANN 


Wesseling.-^es'seh-ling',  (Peter,)  a  German  scholar, 
born  at  Steinfurt  in  1692.  He  became  professor  of  elo- 
quence at  Franeker,  (1723,)  and  of  ancient  literature  at 
Utrecht,  (1735.)  He  published  several  critical  treatises 
on  the  classics,  and  valuable  editions  of  Herodotus,  Dio- 
dorus  Siculus,  and  "Vetera  Romanorum  Itineraria." 
He  was  esteemed  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his 
time.    Died  in  1764. 

See  HiRscHiNG,  "  Historisch-literarisches  Handbuch ;"  Saxe, 
"  Onomasticon." 

Wes'sells,  (Henry  W,,)  an  American  general,  born 
in  Litchfield,  Connecticut,  about  1809,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1833.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  about 
April,  1862.  He  commanded  at  Plymouth,  North  Caro- 
lina, which  was  taken  by  the  Confederates,  after  a  brave 
defence,  April  20,  1864. 

Wesselus.    See  W  ess  el. 

Wessely,  wes'seh-le,  (Naphtali  H  artwig,)  a  Jewish 
writer  and  Hebrew  scholar,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1723. 
His  most  important  work  is  a  poem,  the  subject  of  which 
is  the  vocation  or  mission  of  Moses.    Died  in  1805. 

See  Meisel,  "  Leben  und  Wirken  N.  H.  Wessely's,"  1841 ;  E. 
Car.moly,  "Wessely  et  ses  ficrits,"  1829. 

Wessenberg,  <^gs'sen-blRG^  (Ignaz  Heinrich 
Karl,)  Baron,  a  German  Catholic  theologian,  born  at 
Dresden  in  1 774.  He  was  appointed  in  1802  vicar- 
general  of  the  diocese  of  Constance,  and  was  active  in 
promoting  the  use  of  the  German  language  at  mass, 
and  various  other  reforms  in  the  Church,  Having  been 
nominated  in  1814  by  Archbishop  Dalberg  his  coad- 
jutor in  the  see  of  Constance,  he  was  rejected  by  the 
pope,  who  also  wished  him  to  resign  his  office  of  vicar- 
general.  This,  however,  he  declined,  being  supported 
by  his  sovereign,  the  Grand  Duke  of  Baden.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  treatise  "  On  the  Elementary  Education 
of  the  People,"  and  other  prose  works  ;  also  a  number 
of  poems.    Died  in  i860. 

See  "  L  H.  von  Wessenburg.  sein  Leben  und  "Wirken,"  by  Dr.  J. 
Beck  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  December,  1848. 

Wessenberg-Ampringen,  <^^s'sen-b^RG'  Sm'pRing- 
en,  (JoHANN  Philtpp,)  a  German  statesman,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1773.  He  was  employed  on 
missions  to  Munich,  Paris,  and  the  Hague. 

"West,  (Benjamin,)  an  eminent  American  painter, 
born  at  Springfield,  Delaware  county,  Pennsylvania,  on 
the  loth  of  October,  1738,  was  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  Friends.  His  talent  and  predilection  for  the  art  were 
manifested  at  an  early  age,  and,  when  seventeen,  he  began 
portrait-painting  at  Philadelphia.  He  visited  Rome  in 
1760,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Raphael  Mengs. 
He  sogn  after  took  up  his  residence  in  London,  and,  some 
of  his  works  having  attracted  the  notice  of  George  HL, 
he  was  thenceforth  liberally  patronized  by  that  monarch. 
His  "  Death  of  Wolfe,"  in  which  he  had  the  courage  and 
good  taste  to  depart  from  the  custom  of  clothing  the 
figures  in  classical  costume,  was  greatly  admired.  His 
next  important  work  was  "Christ  Healing  the  Sick," 
now  in  the  British  National- Gallery  :  a  copy  of  it  was 
presented  by  the  artist  to  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital, 
Philadelphia.  He  succeeded  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as 
president  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1792.  Among  his 
other  pictures  may  be  named  the  "  Departure  of  Regu- 
lus,"  the  "  Battle  of  La  Hogue,"  and  "  Death  on  the 
Pale  Horse,"  now  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  Phila- 
delphia.   Died  in  London  in  1820. 

See  TucKERMAN,  "  Book  of  the  Artists  ;"  Dunlap,  "  History  of 
the  Arts  of  Design  in  America;"  Cunningham,  "Lives  of  Painters 
and  Sculptors." 

West,  (Gilbert,)  an  English  writer,  born  about 
1705.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  subse- 
quently held  several  otifices  under  the  government.  He 
was  the  author  of  "Observations  on  the  Resurrection," 
which  won  for  him  a  high  reputation,  also  a  poetical 
version  of  the  Odes  of  Pindar,  and  several  other 
translations  from  the  Greek.  He  was  a  relative  of  Pitt, 
Earl  of  Chatham,  and  of  Lord  George  Lyttleton,  who 
dedicated  to  him  his  "Dissertation  on  the  Conversion 
of  Saint  Paul."    Died  in  1756. 

West,  (James,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  probably 
in  W'arwickshire.  He  took  his  degree  at  Oxford  in 
1726.    He  was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society 


in  1738.  He  made  a  rich  collection  of  manuscripts, 
prints,  medals,  etc.    Died  in  1772. 

West,  (Richard,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  became  chancellor  of  Ireland  in 
1 7 15.  He  published  several  legal  and  miscellaneous 
works.    Died  in  1726. 

West,  (Samuel,)  an  American  theologian,  born  in 
Yarmouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1730.  He  preached  at 
New  Bedford,  was  an  active  Whig  politician,  and  wrote 
on  theology  and  politics.    Died  in  1807. 

West,  (Stephen,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congregational 
divine,  born  at  Tolland,  Connecticut,  in  1735,  became 
pastor  of  a  church  at  Stockbridge  in  1759.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  "Essay  on  Moral  Agency,"  "An  Essay  on 
the  Scripture  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement,"  (1785,)  "Life 
of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Hopkins,"  and  other  theological 
works.    Died  at  Stockbridge  in  1819. 

West,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer,  born  in  Lan- 
cashire, published  "A  Guide  to  the  Lakes,"  and  other 
topographical  works.    Died  in  1779. 

West,  (W.  E.,)  an  American  painter,  distinguished 
for  the  excellence  of  his  portraits.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Washington  Irving,  and  made  illustrations  of  his  "  Pride 
of  the  Village"  and  "Annette  Delarbre."  Died  in  1857. 

See  Tuckerman,  "Book  of  the  Artists;"  Dunlap,  "Rise  and 
Progress  of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  America." 

West'all,  (Richard,)  a  celebrated  English  painter 
in  water-colours,  was  born  at  Hertford  in  1765.  He 
was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1794.  Among  his 
works,  which  are  esteemed  master-pieces  of  the  kind, 
may  be  named  "The  Storm  in  Harvest,"  "Sappho  in 
the  Lesbian  Shades,"  and  "Jubal,  the  First  Voice  of 
the  Lyre."  He  also  illustrated  Moore's  "Loves  of  the 
Angels,"  and  furnished  designs  for  Boydell's  "  Shak- 
speare  Gallery."  He  was  appointed,  in  the  latter  part  of 
his  life,  teacher  of  drawing  and  painting  to  the  Princess 
Victoria.    Died  in  1836. 

Westall,  (William,)  a  landscape-painter,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Hertford  in  1781.  He 
studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  and  subsequently  visited 
India,  China,  and  Australia.  He  was  elected  an  Asso- 
ciate of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1812.  Among  his  most 
admired  works  are  a  "  View  of  Seaforth's  Isle,  in  the 
Gulf  of  Carpentaria,"  and  a  series  of  engraved  designs 
representing  the  lakes  of  Cumberland  and  Westmore- 
land. He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Wordsworth  and 
Southey.    Died  in  1850. 

See  "  Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  April,  1850. 

Westbury,  Lord.    See  Bethell,  (Richard.) 

Westenrieder,  von,  fon  '(^gs'ten-reeMer,  (Lorenz,) 
a  German  educational  writer,  born  at  Munich  in  1748, 
became  professor  of  rhetoric  in  his  native  city.  He 
published  a  "  History  of  Bavaria  for  Youth  and  the 
People,"  and  other  historical  and  geographical  works. 
Died  in  1829. 

Westerbaen,  w§s'ter-ban',  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  poet, 
of  a  noble  family,  was  born  in  1599.  He  was  the  author 
of  songs  and  other  poems,  and  made  translations  from 
Virgil  and  other  Latin  classics.    Died  in  1670. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Westergaard,  vgs'ter-goRd',  (Niels  Ludwig,)  a 
distinguished  Danish  Orientalist,  born  at  Copenhagen 
in  1815.  Having  studied  at  Bonn  and  visited  London 
and  Paris,  he  made  a  tour  to  India  and  Persia.  After 
his  return  he  was  appointed,  in  1845,  professor  of  Ori- 
ental philology  at  Copenhagen.  His  principal  works 
are  his  "  Radices  Sanscritae,"  (1841,)  and  a  critical  edition 
of  the  "  Zendavesta,"  (1852.) 

Westerhof,  -^es'ter-hof,  (Arnold  Heinrich,)  a 
German  scholar,  who  gained  distinction  by  a  good  edi- 
tion of  Terence,  (2  vols.,  1729.) 

Westermann,  wes'ter-min^,  (Anton,)  a-  German 
scholar,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1806,  became  professor  of 
antiquities  in  his  native  city  in  1834.  He  published  a 
"  History  of  Eloquence  in  Greece  and  Rome,"  (2  vols., 
1833-35,)  ^^so  editions  of  the  Orations  of  Lysias,  the 
works  of  Philostratus,  and  other  classics.  Died  in  1870. 

Wes'ter-mann,  [Fr.  pron.  vgs'tlR'mtn',]  (FRANgois 
Joseph,)  a  French  Jacobin  and  general,  born  in  Alsace 
about  1760.    He  became  a  violent  revolutionist,  and  a 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as o,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    ( ^[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

142 


WESTFIELD 


2258 


WETTE 


friend  of  Danton.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  riot 
in  Paris  of  the  loth  of  August,  1792.  In  September  of 
that  year  he  was  appointed  adjutant-general,  and  sent  to 
the  army  of  Dumouriez.  He  became  a  general  of  brigade 
in  May,  1793,  obtained  command  of  the  vanguard  of  the 
army  in  Vendee,  and  defeated  the  royalists  near  Chatil- 
lon.  He  attacked  and  routed  the  Vendeans  at  Mans  and 
Savenay  in  December,  1793.  He  was  executed  with 
Danton  in  April,  1794. 

See  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale ;"  Thiers,  "  History  of  the 
Frencli  Revolution." 

West'field,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
at  Ely.  He  became  Bishop  of  Bristol  in  the  reign  of 
James  L,  and  was  noted  as  a  pathetic  preacher.  Died 
in  1644.    Two  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  published. 

West'ma-cott,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  eminent  English 
sculptor,  born  in  London  in  1775.  He  studied  at  Rome 
under  Canova,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Florence  in  1795.  After  his  return  he 
executed  a  number  of  works  which  established  his 
reputation  as  one  of  the  first  English  sculptors  of  the 
time.  Among  his  master-pieces  we  may  name  his  "  Eu- 
phrosyne,"  "Psyche,"  "Nymph  Unclasping  her  Zone," 
a  "  Peasant  Maiden,"  and  "The  Distressed  Mother;" 
statues  of  Pitt  and  Addison,  monuments  of  Sir  Ralph 
Abercromby  in  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral,  and  of  the  Duke 
of  York  on  the  column  at  Waterloo  Place,  and  the  bronze 
statue  of  George  HI.  at  Windsor.  In  1816  he  was 
elected  a  Royal  Academician,  and  in  1827  succeeded 
Flaxman  as  professor  of  sculpture  at  the  Royal 
Academy.    Died  in  1856. 

See  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  October,  1856. 

Westmacott,  (Richard,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  London  in  1799.  He  was  instructed  by  his 
father,  and  afterwards  spent  six  years  in  Italy.  He  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1837,  a  Royal 
Academician  in  1849,  in  1857  became  professor  of 
sculpture  in  the  Royal  Academy.  His  works  are  prin- 
cipally of  a  devotional  and  classical  character.  Among 
these  are  "  Prayer  and  Resignation,"  "  David  as  the 
Slayer  of  Goliath,"  the  "  Angel  Watching,"  the  statue 
of  "The  Cymbal-Player,"  "Venus  Instructing  Cupid," 
and  "  Paolo  and  Francesca."  He  also  executed  a  number 
of  portrait-busts  of  great  merit.  He  acquired  distinction 
as  a  writer  of  works  on  art,  among  which  is  a  "  Hand- 
Book  on  the  Schools  of  Sculpture." 

West'more-land,  (John  Fane,)  eleventh  Earl  of, 
an  English  general  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1784.  He 
served  in  Egypt  and  Sicily,  and  was  aide-de-camp  to 
the  Duke  of  Wellington  in  the  Peninsular  war.  He 
was  sent  as  ambassador  in  1841  to  the  court  of  Berlin, 
where  he  remained  till  185 1,  and  was  then  sent  on  an 
important  mission  to  Vienna.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  privy  council,  knight  grand  cross  of  the  Bath,  and 
obtained  the  order  of  Maria  Theresa.  He  was  noted 
as  a  musician  and  composer,  and  published  several 
military  treatises.    Died  in  1859. 

Westmoreland,  (Mildmay  Fane,)  second  Earl 
OF,  an  English  statesman  and  poet,  born  about  1600. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  collection  of  poems,  entitled 
"Otia  Sacra."    Died  in  1665. 

Wes'ton,  (Elizabeth  Jane,)  a  learned  English  lady, 
born  about  1586,  removed  in  early  life  to  Prague.  She 
wrote  several  elegant  Latin  poems.  She  was  married  to 
John  Leon.    Died  after  1605. 

Weston,  (Richard,)  Earl  of  Portland,  an  English 
politician,  who  became  grand  treasurer  of  the  kingdom 
about  1625,  and  was  created  Earl  of  Portland  in  1633. 
Died  in  1635. 

Weston,  (Stephen,)  an  English  divine  and  scholar, 
born  at  Exeter  in  1747.  He  publy^^hed  a  number  of 
translations  from  the  Persian  and  Ch)n€se,  and  several 
philological  and  antiquarian  essays.    Died  in  1830. 

Weston,  (Thomas,)  a  popular  English  comedian. 
Died  in  1776. 

Weston,  (William,)  an  English  divine,  and  resident 
of  Gloucestershire,  was  the  author  of  "  Dissertations  on 
some  of  the  Most  Remarkable  Wonders  of  Antiquity." 
Died  in  1760. 

Westphal,  <^§st'fai,  (Ernst  Christian,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Quedlinburg  in  1737,  became  professor 


of  law  at  Halle.  He  published  several  works  on  Roman 
law,  and  a  treatise  "  On  the  Law  of  the  German  Em- 
pire," (1784.)    Died  in  1792. 

Westreenen  van  Tiellandt,  wSs'tRa'ngn  vtn  teel'- 
lint,  (Willem  Hendrik  Jacob,)  Baron,  a  Dutch  his- 
torical and  antiquarian  writer,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1783. 
He  published  "  Researches  concerning  the  Ancient 
Forum  of  Hadrian  and  its  Vestiges  near  the  Hague," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1848. 

West'wood,  (John  Obadiah,)  an  English  entomolo- 
gist, born  at  Sheffield  about  1805.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  zoology  at  Oxford  in  1861. 

Wetherell.    See  Warner,  (Susan.) 

Weth'er-ell,  (Sir  Charles,)  an  English  lawyer,  born 
in  1770,  was  a  son  of  the  Dean  of  Hereford.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1794,  and  acquired  extensive  prac- 
tice in  the  court  of  chancery.  Though  he  was  an  ultra 
Tory  and  was  king's  counsel,  he  defended  the  Spafield 
rioters,  who  were  tried  for  treason  in  181 7.  In  1820 
he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Oxford.  He  became 
solicitor-general  in  1824,  and  attorney-general  in  1826. 
Having  resigned  in  1827,  he  was  reappointed  in  1828, 
but  retired  from  office  in  1829,  because  he  was  opposed 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  emancipation.  By  his  hostility 
to  the  Reform  bill  he  rendered  himself  so  unpopular 
that  he  was  attacked  by  a  mob  at  Bristol  in  183 1,  and 
narrowly  escaped  death.    Died  in  1846. 

Wetstein,  wgt'stin  or  -^gt'stin,  (John  Henry,)  a 
distinguished  printer,  born  at  Bale  in  1649,  founded  at 
Amsterdam  a  publishing-house,  which  became  celebrated 
for  the  excellent  editions  of  the  classics  issued  from  it. 
Died  in  1726. 

Wetstein,  (John  James,)  an  eminent  Swiss  scholar 
and  theologian,  born  at  Bale  in  1693,  was  a  son  of  John 
Rudolph,  (1647-1711,)  noticed  below.  He  studied  He- 
brew and  theology  in  the  university  of  his  native  town, 
and,  having  visited  England  and  various  parts  of  the 
continent  for  the  purpose  of  examining  manuscripts,  he 
published  in  1730  his  "Prolegomena  ad  Novi  Testa- 
menti  Graeci  Editionem  accuratissimam."  His  liberal 
doctrines  having  excited  great  opposition  among  the 
clergy,  he  was  deposed  from  his  office,  and  about  1733 
removed  to  Amsterdam,  where  he  was  appointed  by 
the  Arminians  professor  of  philosophy  and  ecclesiastical 
history.  He  brought  out  in  1752  his  edition  of  the 
Greek  New  Testament,  (2  vols,  fol.)    Died  in  1754. 

Wetstein  or  Wettstein,  ^It'stin,  (John  Rudolph,) 
a  Swiss  diplomatist,  born  at  Bale  in  1594.  He  rendered 
important  services  to  his  country  at  the  congress  which 
negotiated  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  (1647,)  and  received 
the  surname  of  THE  Pacificator.    Died  in  1666. 

Wetstein,  (John  Rudolph,)  son  of  John  James, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Bale  in  1614.  He  becaine  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  his  native  town,  and  assisted  Suicer 
in  his  "Thesaurus  Ecclesiasticus."    Died  in  16S3. 

Wetstein,  (John  Rudolph,)  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Bale  in  1647.  He  was  professor  of  theology 
in  that  town,  and  edited  some  of  the  works  of  Origen. 
Died  in  1711. 

Wetstein,  wSt'stin,  (Karel  Anton,)  a  Dutch  scholar 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1743,  was  a  lawyer 
in  his  early  life.  He  translated  Hesiod  and  Theocritus 
into  Latin  verse,  and  wrote  several  original  Latin  poems, 
which  were  admired.    Died  in  1797. 

Wette,  de,  deh  wet'teh  or  <^et'teh,  (Wilhelm  Mar- 
tin Lebrecht,)  an  eminent  German  scholar,  theologian, 
and  biblical  critic,  born  near  Weimar  in  1780.  He  be- 
came professor  of  divinity  at  the  University  of  Berlin  in 
1810,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation  both  as  a  preacher 
and  writer.  Among  his  most  important  works  are  the 
following:  "Contributions  to  an  Introduction  to  the 
Old  Testament,"  (2  vols.,  1806-7,)  "A  Commentary  on 
the  Psalms,"  (1811,)  "Manual  of  Jewish  Archseology," 
(1814,)  "Christian  Dogmatics,"  (2  vols.,  1813-16,)  "On 
Religion  and  Theology,"  (1815,)  and  "Critical  and  His" 
torical  Introduction  to  the  Old  and  New  Testaments," 
(1817-26.)  The  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament  was 
translated  and  enlarged  by  Theodore  Parker,  (1843,) 
and  that  to  the  New  by  Frederick  Frothingham,  (1858.) 
He  produced,  in  conjunction  with  Augusti,  a  new  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible.    In  1819  he  was  dismissed  from  his 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  ftt;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


WETZEL  2259  WHARTON 


professorship  because  he  wrote  a  letter  of  consolation 
to  the  mother  of  Sand,  who  killed  Kotzebue.  He  ob- 
tained a  chair  of  divinity  at  Bale  in  1821.  Among  his 
works  are  "  Lessons  on  Morality,"  (3  vols.,  1824.)  Died 
at  Bale  in  1849. 

See  ScHENKEL,  "  De  Wette  und  die  Bedeutung  seiner  Theologie 
fiir  unsere  Zeit,"  1849;  Lucke,  "Dr.  W.  M.  L.  de  Wette,"  1850; 
Hagenbach,  "W.  M.  L.  de  Wette,"  1849;  "North  British  Re- 
view" for  August,  1847. 

Wetzel,  ^^t'sel,  (Friedrich  Gottlob,)  a  German 
litterateur,  born  at  Bautzen  in  1780,  was  the  author  of 
dramas,  war-lyrics,  and  other  poems  and  prose  essays. 
Died  in  1819. 

Wetzel  or  Wezel,  (Johann  Caspar,)  a  German 
writer  and  preacher,  born  at  Meiningen  in  1691.  He 
published,  besides  other  works,  "  Sacred  Hymnology," 
("  Hymnologia  Sacra,"  1728.)    Died  in  1755. 

Wetzel  or  Wezel,  (Johann  Christian  Friedrich,) 
a  German  philologist,  born  in  1762;  died  in  1810. 

Wewitzer,  wa'wit-ser,  ?  (Ralph,)  an  English  come- 
dian, born  in  London  before  1800  ;  died  in  1824. 

Wey,  vi,  (Francois  Alphonse,)  a  French  litte- 
rateur, born  at  Besan9on  in  181 2.  He  was  appointed 
inspector-general  of  the  national  archives  in  1852.  He 
wrote  several  novels.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly 
on  two  works,  entitled  "  Remarks  on  the  French  Lan- 
guage of  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  (1845,)  ^^'^^  ^  "His- 
tory of  the  Revolutions  of  Language  in  France,"  (1848.) 

Weyde,  van  der.    See  Van  der  Weyde. 

Weyden,  van  der,  vtn  der  wiMen,  (Roger,)  a  cele- 
brated Flemish  painter,  called  Roger  of  Bruges,  was 
born  at  Brussels  about  1390,  and  was  a  pupil  of  John 
van  Eyck.  He  went  to  Italy  about  1450,  and  worked 
several  years  at  Rome.  He  painted  in  oil.  Having 
returned  to  Brussels,  he  died  there  in  1464. 

See  A.  Wauters,  "  Notice  sur  R.  van  der  Weyden,"  1846,  and 
"Roger  van  der  Weyden,  ses  CEuvres,"  etc.,  1855. 

Weyer.    See  Van  de  Weyer. 

Weyerman,  wl'er-mln^  (Jacob-  Kampo,)  a  Dutch 
painter  of  fruit-  and  flower-pieces,  was  born  at  Breda 
in  1679.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Lives  of  the  Dutch 
Painters,"  a  work  characterized  by  Descamps  and  others 
as  full  of  calumnies.  He  was  condemned  to  perpetual 
imprisonment  for  a  libel  on  the  Dutch  East  India  Com- 
pany, and  died  in  prison  in  1747. 

Weyse,  -^T'zeh,  (Chrispian  Ernst  Friedrich,)  a 
Danish  musician  and  composer,  born  at  Altona  in  1774; 
died  in  1842. 

Wezel.    See  Wetzet„ 

Wezel,  ^gt'sel,  (Johann  Karl,)  a  German  littera- 
teur, born  at  Sondershausen  in  1747,  wrote  a  number 
of  romances,  comedies,  and  prose  essays.  Died  in 
1819.  f 

Whalley,  hw6Kle,  (Peter,)  an  English  writer  and 
divine,  born  in  Warwickshire  in  1722,  was  the  author 
of  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Learning  of  Shakspeare."  Died 
in  1791. 

Whalley,  (Thomas  Sedgwick,)  D.D.,  an  English 
divine  and  writer,  born  at  Cambridge  in  1746.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  and  correspondent  of  Mrs.  Siddons 
and  Miss  Seward,  and  published  a  poetic  tale  entitled 
"  Edwy  and  Eldild."    Died  about  1826. 

See  "Journal  and  Correspondence  of  T.  S.  Whalley,"  London, 
1863. 

Wharton,  hwar'ton,  (Francis,)  an  American  jurist, 
born  at  Philadelphia  in  1820.  He  became  in  1856  pro- 
fessor of  logic  and  rhetoric  at  Kenyon  College,  Ohio. 
He  has  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Criminal  Law  of 
the  United  States,"  a  "Treatise  on  Medical  Jurispru- 
dence," and  other  works. 

Wharton,  hwar'ton,  (Sir  George,)  an  English  as- 
tronomer and  astrologer,  born  at  Kirby-Kendal  in  161 7. 
He  fought  for  the  king  in  the  civil  war,  and  afterwards 
compiled  almanacs,  in  which  he  inserted  predictions 
against  the  dominant  party.    Died  in  1681. 

Wharton,  (Henry,)  an  eminent  English  antiquary 
and  divine,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1664.  He  studied  at 
Caius  College,  Cambridge,  and  took  his  degree  of  M.A. 
in  1687,  being  ordained  a  priest  in  1688.  Among  his 
numerous  works  the  most  important  is  his  "  Anglia 
Sacra,"  (2  vols,  fob,  1691,)  being  a  collection  of  biogra- 


phies of  English  bishops  and  archbishops  from  the  in- 
troduction of  Christianity  to  1540.  He  also  published 
"A  Treatise  of  the  Celibacy  of  the  Clergy,"  etc.,  and 
"The  History  of  the  Troubles  and  Trials  of  Archbishop 
Laud,"  and  assisted  Dr.  William  Cave  in  his  "  Scriptorum 
Ecclesiasticorum  Historia  Literaria."    Died  in  1695. 

Wharton,  (Philip,)  Lord,  an  English  peer,  who 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  civil  war  which  began  in 
1642,  and  commanded  a  regiment  for  Parliament  at  the 
battle  of  Edgehill.  He  was  a  zealous  Presbyterian.  He 
died  in  1696.  He  was  the  father  of  Thomas,  Marquis 
of  Wharton. 

Wharton,  (Philip,)  Duke  of  Wharton,  an  eloquent 
and  profligate  English  peer,  born  in  1698,  was  the  son 
of  Thomas,  Marquis  of  Wharton,  noticed  below.  About 
the  age  of  sixteen  he  married  privately  a  daughter  of 
General  Holmes.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1715,  he 
became  heir  to  an  estate  of  16,000  a  year,  and  entered 
upon  a  course  of  reckless  dissipation  and  vice.  In  1716 
he  began  a  tour  on  the  continent.  Having  arrived  at 
Lyons,  he  wrote  a  letter  to  the  Pretender,  who  then 
resided  at  Avignon,  and  who  received  Wharton  in  a 
flattering  manner  when  he  came  to  that  city.  He  took 
his  seat  in  the  Irish  House  of  Lords  about  171 7,  sup- 
ported the  ministry  with  zeal,  and  was  raised  to  the 
English  peerage,  as  Duke  of  Wharton,  in  1718.  He 
entered  the  English  House  of  Peers  in  1719  or  1720,  and 
denounced  the  South  Sea  bill  in  a  speech  remarkable 
for  bitter  invective.  On  other  questions  also  he  opposed 
the  ministers  with  great  eloquence. 

He  involved  himself  in  debt  by  his  boundless  prodi- 
gality, retired  to  the  continent  in  1724,  avowed  himself 
an  adherent  of  the  Pretender,  and  joined  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  In  1726  he  married  a  Miss  O'Byrne, 
a  daughter  of  an  Irish  colonel.  He  served  as  a  volun- 
teer in  the  Spanish  army  at  the  siege  of  Gibraltar,  in 
1727.  For  this  offence  he  was  indicted  for  treason,  and 
convicted.  He  lost  his  peerage  and  his  estate,  and  was 
reduced  to  poverty.  He  died  at  Tarragona,  Spain,  in 
1 73 1.  His  character  is  portrayed  by  Pope  in  his  "Moral 
Essays." 

See  "The  Life  and  Writings  of  Philip,  Duke  of  Wharton,"  2 
vols.,  1732;  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Wharton,  (Thomas,)  Marquis  of,  an  English  Whig 
politician,  born  about  1645,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Philip, 
Lord  Wharton.  He  entered  Parliament  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  II.,  constantly  opposed  the  court,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  dexterity  and  turbulence  as 
a  politician.  In  November,  1688,  he  joined  William, 
Prince  of  Orange,  who  appointed  him  comptroller  of 
the  household  in  1689.  He  received  the  title  of  Earl 
of  Wharton  in  1706,  and  was  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland 
from  1708  to  1 710.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Lillibullero," 
a  famous  satirical  ballad.  In  September,  1714,  he  was 
appointed  lord  privy  seal  by  George  I.,  and  in  1715  he 
was  created  Marquis  of  Wharton.  He  died  in  1715, 
leaving  a  son,  Philip.  He  was  characterized  by  Swift  as 
"the  most  universal  villain  that  I  ever  knew."  "Those 
who  hated  him  most  heartily,"  says  Macaulay,  "admitted 
that  his  natural  parts  were  excellent,  and  that  he  was 
equally  qualified  for  debate  and  for  action.  .  .  .  He  early 
acquired,  and  retained  to  the  last,  the  reputation  of  being 
the  greatest  rake  in  England.  .  .  .  His  mendacity  and 
his  effrontery  passed  into  proverbs.  .  .  .  As  a  canvasser 
he  was  irresistible.  .  .  .  Had  he  not  been  a  man  of  im- 
perturbable temper,  dauntless  courage,  and  consummate 
skill  in  fence,  his  life  would  have  been  a  short  one.  But 
neither  anger  nor  danger  ever  deprived  him  of  his 
presence  of  mind  ;  and  he  had  a  peculiar  way  of  dis- 
arming his  opponents  that  moved  the  envy  of  all  the 
duellists  of  his  time."  (Macaulay's  "  History  of  England," 
vol.  iv.  pp.  136-37.) 

See,  also.  Swift's  satire  on  Wharton  in  his  "  Four  Last  Years 
of  Queen  Anne ;"  and  (anonymous)  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Thomas, 
Marquis  of  Wharton,"  1715. 

Wharton,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  physician 
and  anatomist,  born  at  Winston,  in  Durham,  about 
1610.  He  took  his  degree  as  M.D.  at  Oxford  in  1647, 
after  which  he  removed  to  London,  and  became  a  Fellow 
of  the  College  of  Physicians  in  1650.  He  published  a 
valuable  work  on  glands,  entitled  "Adenography,  or 


€  as 9  as  s;  |  hat;^;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal ;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Sl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WHATELY 


2260 


WHEELER 


Description  of  the  Glands,"  ("  Adenographia,  sive  Glan- 
dularum  Descriptio,"  1656.)  He  first  discovered  the 
excretory  duct  in  the  submaxillary  gland,  which  bears 
his  name.    Died  in  1673. 

Whately,  hwat'le,  (Richard,)  Archbishop  of  Dub- 
lin, an  eminent  English  thinker  and  writer,  born  in 
London  in  1787,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  Whately,  prebendary 
of  Bristol.  As  a  child,  he  was  nervous  and  shy,  and,  like 
De  Quincey,  appears  to  have  preferred  the  society  of  his 
sisters  to  that  of  his  brothers.  He  delighted  in  arith- 
metical calculations,  which  he  carried  on  in  his  mind. 
In  childhood,  as  well  as  in  after-life,  whatever  occupied 
his  thoughts  appears  to  have  completely  absorbed  him 
for  the  time.  The  passion  for  arithmetic  soon  left  him  ; 
he  then  devoted  himself  to  "castle-building,"  which, 
however,  took  a  philosophical  or  metaphysical,  rather 
than  a  romantic,  direction.  In  1805  he  entered  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a  Fellow  in  181 1, 
and  in  which  he  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1812. 
While  at  Oxford,  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with 
Dr.  Arnold,  which  continued  unchanged  till  the  death 
of  the  latter.  In  1810  he  gained  the  prize  for  the  English 
Essay,  the  subject  being  "The  Comparative  Excellence 
of  the  Ancients  and  Moderns."  In  1819  he  published 
"  Historic  Doubts  relative  to  Napoleon  Bonaparte,"  an 
ingenious  attempt  to  show  the  absurdity  of  skeptical 
criticism.  He  married  a  lady  named  Pope  in  1821. 
He  was  appointed  Bampton  lecturer  at  Oxford  in  1822, 
and  the  same  year  obtained  the  rectory  of  Halesworth, 
in  Sussex,  His  Bampton  lectures  "On  the  Use  and 
Abuse  of  Party  Feeling  in  Religion"  were  published  in 
1822.  In  1825  he  was  chosen  principal  of  Saint  Alban's 
Hall,  Oxford.  He  extended  his  reputation  by  his 
"  Essays  on  some  of  the  Peculiarities  of  the  Christian 
Religion,"  (1825,)  his  "Elements  of  Logic,"  (1826,) 
often  reprinted,  and  highly  esteemed,  his  "  Essays  on 
some  of  the  Difficulties  in  the  Writings  of  the  Apostle 
Paul,"  and  his  "  Errors  of  Romanism  traced  to  their 
Origin  in  Human  Nature,"  {1830.)  He  was  elected 
professor  of  political  economy  at  Oxford  in  1830,  and 
was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Dublin  in  1831.  He  took 
a  prominent  part  in  organizing  the  national  system  of 
education  in  Ireland.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
"  Elements  of  Rhetoric,"  (1828,)  "  Introduction  to  Politi- 
cal Economy,"  (1831,)  "Sermons  on  Various  Subjects," 
(1835,)  "Essays  on  some  of  the  Dangers  to  Christian 
Faith  which  may  arise  from  the  Teaching  or  the  Conduct 
of  its  Professors,"  (1839,)  and  "  The  Kingdom  of  Christ 
Delineated,  in  Two  Essays  on  our  Lord's  Own  Account 
of  His  Person,"  etc.,  (1841.)  He  also  wrote  several 
valuable  articles  for  the  leading  reviews.  His  style  is 
luminous  and  aphoristic.  As  a  theologian,  he  was  char- 
acterized by  the  liberality  of  his  views  and  by  the  free- 
dom and  independence  of  his  thoughts.  He  is  justly 
considered  to  have  been  one  of  the  most  profound  and 
original  thinkers  of  his  time.  As  a  man,  he  was  distin- 
guished for  moral  courage,  and  was  singularly  sincere, 
generous,  and  disinterested.    Died  in  October,  1863. 

See  "Life  and  Correspondence  of  Richard  Whately,  D.D.,  Late 
Archbishop  of  Dublin,"  by  his  daughter,  E.  Jane  Whately,  2 
vols.,  London,  1866;  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October, 
1822;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1864;  "British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  January,  1867.  For  some  strictures  on  Whately's 
"Logic,"  see  Sir  William  Hamilton's  "Logic." 

Whately,  (William,)  an  English  Puritan  divine, 
born  at  Banbury,  in  Oxfordshire,  in  1583.  He  became 
vicar  of  Banbury  about  1610,  and  published,  besides 
other  works,  "  Prototypes,  or  the  Primary  Precedent 
out  of  the  Book  of  Genesis."    Died  in  1639. 

Wheare,  hwair,  ?  (Degory,)  an  English  historian, 
born  in  Cornwall  in  1573.  He  was  the  first  reader  of 
the  lecture  which  Camden  founded  at  Oxford,  and  wrote 
several  works.    Died  in  1647. 

V/heatTey,  (Charles,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
1686,  published  a  "  Rational  Illustration  of  the  Com- 
mon Prayer."    Died  in  1742. 

Wheatley,  (Francis,)  an  English  landscape-painter 
in  oil- and  water-colours,  born  in  London  in  1747.  He 
became  a  Royal  Academician  in  1791.    Died  in  1801. 

WheatTey,  (Phillts,)  a  negro  poetess,  born  in  Africa 
about  1753,  was  brought  to  America  in  1761.  She  was 
instructed  by  her  mistress,  Mrs.  Wheatley,  a  resident 


of  Boston,  and  published,  at  an  early  age,  "  Poems  on 
Various  Subjects,  Religious  and  Moral."  She  was 
afterwards  married  to  a  man  named  Peters,  and  died  in 
Boston  in  1794. 

See  DuYCKiNCK,  "  Cj'clopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i.  ; 
Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Wheat'on,  (Henry,)  an  American  jurist,  civilian, 
and  diplomatist,  born  in  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in 
November,  1785.  He  graduated  at  Brown  University 
in  1802,  after  which  he  pursued  the  study  of  law  at 
Poitiers,  France,  and  in  London.  On  his  return  he 
became  a  resident  of  the  city  of  New  York,  and  in  1812 
began  to  edit  the  "  National  Advocate,"  a  daily  jour- 
nal. He  published  in  1815  a  "  Digest  of  the  Law  of 
Maritime  Captures  and  Prizes,"  which  was  received 
with  favour.  In  1816  he  became  a  reporter  of  the 
decisions  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States. 
He  contributed  many  articles  to  the  "  North  American 
Review."  He  was  appointed  charge-d'affaires  to  the 
court  of  Denmark  in  1826  or  1827,  and  minister  resident 
at  Berlin  in  1835.  He  published  in  1836  his  most  im- 
portant work,  "Elements  of  International  Law,"  which 
is  highly  esteemed  as  a  standard  authority.  In  1837  he 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  minister-plenipotentiary 
at  Berlin,  where  he  remained  until  1846.  He  wrote  an 
able  work  entitled  a  "  History  of  the  Law  of  Nations 
in  Europe  and  America,  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the 
Treaty  of  Washington,"  which  originally  appeared  in 
French  at  Leipsic  in  1841.  It  was  enlarged  and  pub- 
lished in  English  in  1845.  great  merit,"  says 
R.  W.  Griswold,  "  all  competent  critics  have  given  the 
same  testimony."  Among  his  other  works  is  a  "  History 
of  the  Northmen,  or  Danes  and  Normans,"  (1831.)  He 
published  "  Reports  of  Cases  argued  and  determined  in 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,"  (12  vols., 
1827.)  He  was  elected  a  corresponding  member  of  the 
French  Institute  about  1843.  Died  near  Boston,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  March,  1848. 

See  Griswold,  "Prose  Writers  of  America,"  p.  i6g;  Allibone, 
"  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "  North  American  Review"  for  October, 
1832,  and  January,  1837;  "Westminster  Review"  for  July,  1847. 

Wheaton,  (Robert,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  New  York  in  1826.  He  wrote  historical  and 
literary  articles  for  several  reviews,  and  acquired  dis- 
tinction as  a  writer.    Died  in  October,  1 85 1. 

See  a  "  Memoir  of  Robert  Wheaton,"  1854. 

Wheat'stone,  (Charles,)  F.R.S.,  professor  of  ex- 
perimental philosophy  in  King's  College,  London,  was 
born  at  Gloucester  in  1802.  In  early  life  he  was  a  manu- 
facturer of  musical  instruments,  and  made  researches 
on  the  science  of  acoustics.  He  displayed  much  me- 
chanical ingenuity  in  the  construction  of  instruments 
and  apparatus.  He  published  in  1834  an  "Account  of 
Experiments  to  Measure  the  Velocity  of  Electricity  and 
the  Duration  of  Electric  Light."  In  the  same  year  he 
became  professor  of  philosophy  in  King's  College,  Lon- 
don. He  invented  the  stereoscope,  which  he  described 
in  his  "  Contributions  to  the  Physiology  of  Vision,"  (1838.) 
He  was  one  of  several  persons  who,  in  1837,  claimed 
the  honour  of  the  invention  of  the  electric  telegraph. 
Wheatstone  and  his  partner  Cooke  obtained  in  1837  a 
patent  for  apparatus  which  they  invented  for  conveying 
signals  by  means  of  electric  currents.  They  were  suc- 
cessful in  the  practical  application  of  their  invention, 
which  soon  came  into  extensive  use.  Professor  Wheat- 
stone  afterwards  invented  several  improvements,  among 
which  is  the  magneto-alphabetical  telegraph. 

Whe'don,  (Daniel  Denison,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Methodist  divine,  born  in  Onondaga  county.  New  York, 
in  1808.  He  became  in  1856  editor  of  the  "Methodist 
Quarterly  Review."  He  has  published  a  "  Commentary 
on  the  Gospels,"  and  other  works. 

WheeTer,  (Daniel,)  an  able  minister  of  the  Society 
of  Friends,  was  born  in  London  in  1771.  He  enlisted 
in  the  British  army  about  1791,  and  served  in  Holland 
in  1794.  Before  this  time  his  moral  character  had  be- 
come, it  is  said,  very  depraved.  Having  passed  through 
much  suffering  and  danger,  and  repented  of  his  sins,  he 
quitted  the  army  in  1796,  and  was  approved  as  a  minis- 
ter by  the  Friends  in  1816.  He  vvas  employed  by  the 
Russian  government  to  superintend  agricultural  improve- 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \  4, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o,  obscure;  far,  fill,  f2lt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon ; 


WHEELER 


2261 


WHISTON 


ments  near  Saint  Petersburg,  for  many  years,  (1817-32.) 
About  the  end  of  1833  he  sailed  on  a  religious  mission 
to  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  which  he  spent 
nearly  four  years.  He  visited  the  United  States  in  1839 
as  a  minister  of  the  gospel,  and  died  in  the  city  of  New 
York  in  1840. 

See  "Memoirs  of  Daniel  Wheeler,"  (partly  autobiographic,)  1842. 

Wheeler  or  Wheler,  (Sir  George,)  an  English 
divine,  born  in  Kent  or  Holland  in  1650,  became  rector 
of  Houghton-le-Spring.  He  published  a  "Journey  into 
Greece,"  and  "An  Account  of  the  Churches  of  the 
Primitive  Christians."    Died  about  1723. 

Whee'ler,  (William  A.,)  an  American  editor  and 
author,  born  at  Leicester,  Massachusetts,  November  14, 
1833,  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1853.  In  1856 
he  went  to  Cambridge  to  assist  Dr.  Worcester  in  the 
preparation  of  his  quarto  Dictionary,  on  which  he  was 
engaged  several  years.  In  1861  he  was  employed  by 
Messrs.  G.  &  C.  Merriam  as  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
new  edition  of  Webster's  quarto  Dictionary,  which  passed 
through  the  press  under  his  supervision.  Among  his 
various  publications  we  may  name  a  "Dictionary  of 
the  Noted  Names  of  Fiction,"  (i  vol.  i2mo,  1865,)  a 
work  original  in  its  conception,  as  well  as  of  great 
practical  value  as  a  book  of  reference.  In  1867  he  was 
appointed  assistant  superintendent,  and  head  of  the 
cataloguing  department,  in  the  Boston  Public  Library. 

Whee'lock,  (Eleazar,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congre- 
gational divine,  born  at  Windham,  Connecticut,  in  1711. 
He  was  the  founder  and  first  president  of  Dartmouth 
College,  which  grew  originally  out  of  an  Indian  mission- 
ary school.    Died  in  1779. 

Wheelock,  (John,)  LL.D.,  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  in  1754.  He  served 
for  a  time  in  the  Continental  army,  and  was  made  a  lieu- 
tenant-colonel. On  the  death  of  his  father  he  became 
president  of  Dartmouth  College.    Died  in  181 7. 

WheePwright,  (John,)  a  Puritan  divine,  born  in 
Lincolnshire,  England,  in  1594,  was  a  classmate  and 
friend  of  Oliver  Cromwell.  He  emigrated  in  1636  to 
New  England,  where  he  soon  after  founded  the  town  of 
Exeter,  in  Massachusetts.  He  was  a  brother-in-law  of 
Mrs.  Ann  Hutchinson,  whose  religious  views  he  shared. 
Died  in  1679. 

Wheth'am-stede,  (John,)  an  English  monk  and 
chronicler,  was  Abbot  of  Saint  Alban's,  and  was  ordained 
a  priest  in  1382.  He  wrote  a  chronicle  of  the  period 
from  1441  to  1461.    Died  in  1464. 

"Whet'stone,  (George,)  an  English  miscellaneous 
writer,  who  lived  about  1575.  His  principal  work  is  a 
comedy,  entitled  "Promos  and  Cassandra,"  (1578.) 

Whewell,  hii'el,  (William,)  F.R.S.,  a  distinguished 
English  philosopher  and  scholar,  born  at  Lancaster  in 
1795.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he  gradu- 
ated in  1816,  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  College, 
and  became  an  eminent  tutor  in  the  same.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  mineralogy  in  1828,  obtained  the 
chair  of  moral  philosophy  or  moral  theology  in  1838, 
and  became  master  of  Trinity  College  in  1841.  Before 
the  last  date  he  had  gained  distinction  as  a  writer  by  the 
production  of  his  "  Astronomy  and  Physics  considered 
with  Reference  to  Natural  Theology,"  (1833,)  which  is 
one  of  the  Bridgewater  Treatises,  "  The  History  of  the 
Inductive  Sciences,"  (3  vols.,  1837,)  and  "The  Phi- 
losophy of  the  Inductive  Sciences  founded  upon  their 
History,"  (2  vols.,  1840.)  Referring  to  these  two  works. 
Professor  James  D.  Forbes  says,  "One  attempt — a  bold 
and  successful  one — has  been  made,  in  our  own  day,  to 
unite  two  of  the  three  departments  :  I  mean  the  His- 
tory and  Philosophy  of  the  Inductive  Sciences.  An 
English  philosopher,  of  wonderful  versatility,  industry, 
and  power,  has  erected  a  permanent  monument  to  his 
reputation,  in  a  voluminous  work  bearing  the  preceding 
titte."  ("  Preliminary  Dissertation"  in  the  eighth  edition 
of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.")  An  anonymous 
work  called  "The  Plurality  of  Worlds"  (1853)  is  gen- 
erally understood  to  be  the  production  of  Dr.  Whewell. 
The  author  of  this  work  doubts  or  denies  the  existence 
of  a  plurality  of  worlds.  He  became  vice-chancellor 
of  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  1855.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  "  Elements  of  Morality,"  (1855,) 


and  several  valuable  treatises  on  tides,  published  in  the 
"  Philosophical  Transactions."    Died  in  1866. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "  Edinburgh  Review" 
for  January,  1834,  and  October,  1837  ;  "  London  Quarterly  Review" 
for  June,  1841  ;  "Westminster  Review"  for  October,  1852. 

Which'cote,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  divine,  born  in 
Shropshire  in  1610,  studied  at  Emanuel  College,  Cam- 
bridge, was  appointed  one  of  the  university  preachers 
about  1636,  took  the  degree  of  D.D.  in  1649,  and  after- 
wards became  rector  of  Milton,  in  Cambridgeshire. 
After  the  restoration  he  was  appointed  vicar  of  Saint 
Lawrence,  Jewry.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Observations 
and  Apophthegms,"  "  Moral  and  Religious  Aphorisms," 
and  numerous  sermons.  He  has  been  called  one  of  the 
principal  founders  of  the  latitudinarian  school  of  divines 
in  England.    Died  in  1683. 

Whip'ple,  (hwip'p'l,)  (Abraham,)  an  American  com- 
modore of  the  Revolution,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode 
Island,  in  1733.  He  captured  many  rich  prizes  and  per- 
formed several  daring  exploits  between  1775  and  1781. 
Died  at  Marietta,  Ohio,  in  1819. 

See  HiLDRETH,  "Life  of  A.  Whipple." 

Whipple,  (Amiel  W.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Massachusetts,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841.  He 
became  a  captain  of  topographical  engineers  in  1855, 
and  chief  engineer  on  the  staff  of  General  McDowell  in 
the  spring  of  1861.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Chan- 
cel lorsville.  May,  1863,  aged  about  forty-six. 

Whipple,  (Edwin  Percy,)  a  distinguished  American 
critic  and  essayist,  born  at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  in 
1819.    He  published  in  1843  "  Boston  Miscellany" 

an  "  Essay  on  the  Genius  and  Writings  of  Macaulay," 
which  attracted  much  attention.  He  has  been  a  contrib- 
utor to  the  "American  Review,"  "  Christian  Examiner," 
"  Methodist  Quarterly  Review,"  "  North  American 
Review,"  and  the  "Atlantic  Monthly."  A  collection 
of  his  writings,  entitled  "  Essays  and  Reviews,"  was 
published  in  2  vols,  in  1849.  He  is  also  the  author 
of  "  Lectures  on  Subjects  connected  with  Literature  and 
Life,"  (1849,)  and  "Character  and  Characteristic  Men," 
(1867.)  Mr.  Whipple  has  acquired  a  high  reputation 
as  a  lecturer.  In  1859  he  delivered  before  the  Lowell 
Institute,  Boston,  a  course  of  lectures  on  the  "  Literature 
of  the  Age  of  Elizabeth,"  which  were  published  in  a 
small  volume  in  1869. 

See  Griswold,  "  Prose  Writers  of  America  ;"  "  North  American 
Review"  for  January,  1850. 

Whipple,  (William,)  an  American  general  of  the 
Revolution,  born  at  Kittery,  Maine,  in  1730,  was  one 
of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
was  elected  to  Congress  in  1776,  was  appointed  briga- 
dier-general in  1777,  and  took  part  in  the  battles  of 
Stillwater  and  Saratoga  and  in  the  siege  of  Newport. 
Died  in  1785. 

See  Sanderson,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence." 

WhistTer,  (hwiss'ler,)  (George  Washington,)  an 
American  engineer,  born  at  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana,  in 
1800,  graduated  at  the  West  Point  Military  Academy 
in  1819.  Having  been  previously  employed  in  the 
construction  of  several  railroads  in  the  United  States,  he 
was  invited  to  Russia  in  1842  by  the  emperor  Nicholas 
to  superintend  the  internal  improvements  in  that  country. 
Died  in  1849. 

Whis'ton,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  philoso- 
pher and  theologian,  born  at  Norton,  in  Leicestershire, 
on  the  9th  of  December,  1667.  He  was  educated  at 
Clare  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  gave  special  attention 
to  mathematics  and  the  Cartesian  philosophy,  and  took 
his  degree  in  1690.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  his 
college  in  the  same  year,  and  was  ordained  a  priest  in 
1693.  About  this  time  he  became  acquainted  with  Sir 
Isaac  Newton.  In  1696  he  published  a  "  New  Theory 
of  the  Earth,  from  its  Original  to  the  Consummation  of 
all  Things,"  in  which  he  attributed  the  great  Deluge  to 
the  collision  of  a  comet  with  the  earth.  This  work  ran 
through  six  editions.  He  obtained  the  living  of  Lowes- 
toft, in  Suffolk,  in  1698,  soon  after  which  he  married  a 
Miss  Antrobus.  In  1701  Newton  nominated  him  as 
his  deputy  in  the  Lucasian  professorship  at  Cambridge. 
Through  the  influence  of  Newton,  Whiston  obtained 
the  chair  of  mathematics,  which  the  former  resigned  in 


€  as  /«;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  v^^guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WHITAKER 


2262 


WHITE 


1703.  He  then  gave  up  his  living  at  Lowestoft,  and 
removed  to  Cambridge,  where  he  also  officiated  as  a 
clergyman,  having  been  appointed  lecturer  of  Saint  Clem- 
ent's. In  1707  he  was  appointed  preacher  of  the  Boyle 
lecture,  and  published  "  Praelectiones  Astronomicae." 
He  was  gradually  converted  to  Arian  doctrines,  which 
he  advocated  in  a  volume  of  sermons  and  essays  pub- 
lished in  1709,  and  in  other  writings.  In  1710  he  was 
deprived  of  his  professorship  and  expelled  from  the 
university.  He  then  settled  in  London,  and  published 
a  *'  Historical  Preface  to  Primitive  Christianity,"  (1710,) 
which  was  followed  by  "  Primitive  Christianity  Revived," 
(4  vols.,  171 1.)  The  clergy  prosecuted  him  for  heresy  in 
the  spiritual  courts  ;  but,  after  many  evasive  delays,  the 
prosecution  was  ended  in  17 15,  by  an  act  of  grace  by 
which  all  heretics  were  pardoned.  Whiston  was  an 
unflinching  and  courageous  asserter  of  religious  liberty, 
and  was  distinguished  for  his  shrewd  and  pithy  retorts 
in  conversation.  He  was  once  in  company  with  Addison, 
Pope,  Walpole,  and  Secretary  Craggs,  who  raised  the 
question  whether  a  secretary  of  state  could  be  an  honest 
man.  Whiston  having  expressed  his  opinion  in  the  af- 
firmative, Craggs  said,  "It  might  answer  for  a  fortnight, 
but  no  longer."  Whiston  then  asked,  "  Mr.  Secretary, 
did  you  ever  try  it  for  a  fortnight?"  to  which  Craggs 
made  no  answer.  He  published  in  1737  a  translation 
of  Josephus,  often  reprinted,  and  in  1749-50  his  enter- 
taining "Memoirs  of  his  own  Life,"  (3  vols.)  Died  in 
1752. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Whit'a-ker,  (Edv^^ard,)  an  English  divine  and  writer, 
born  in  1750,  published  "An  Abridgment  of  Universal 
History,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1818. 

Whitaker,  (John,)  an  English  divine,  born  at  Man- 
chester about  1735.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  and  became 
rector  of  Ruan-Langhorne,  in  Cornwall,  in  1778.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "  History  of  Man- 
chester," (1771-75,)  "Genuine  History  of  the  Britons 
Asserted,"  "Mary  Queen  of  Scots  Vindicated,"  (1788,) 
"  The  Origin  of  Arianism  Disclosed,"  and  "  Sermons 
upon  Death,  Judgment,  Heaven,  and  Hell."  Died  in 
1808. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Monthly  Review" 
for  April,  1783,  and  October,  1795. 

Whitaker,  (Thomas  Dunham,)  LL.D.,  an  English 
divine  and  writer,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1759.  He  studied 
law  at  Cambridge,  but  subsequently  entered  holy  orders, 
and  became  vicar  of  Blackburn  in  1818.  He  published 
"The  Life  and  Original  Correspondence  of  Sir  George 
Radcliffe,"  "  History  of  the  Deanery  of  Craven,"  and 
other  antiquarian  works.    Died  in  1821. 

Whitaker,  (William,)  a  learned  English  theologian, 
born  at  Holme,  in  Lancashire,  in  1547.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Cambridge  in  1579,  and  master  of 
Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge.  He  translated  the 
Liturgy  of  the  Church  and  Nowell's  Catechisms  into 
Greek,  and  wrote  numerous  controversial  works  against 
popery.    Died  in  1595. 

Whit'bread,  (Samuel,)  an  English  statesman,  born 
in  London  in  1758,  was  the  son  of  an  opulent  brewer  of 
that  city.  He  studied  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, was  elected  to  Parliament  for  the  borough  of 
Steyning  in  1790,  and  was  afterwards  returned  for  the 
town  of  Bedford.  He  was  a  zealous  supporter  of  the 
Whig  party,  and  a  warm  personal  friend  of  Mr.  Fox. 
He  conducted  the  impeachment  of  Lord  Melville,  and 
was  one  of  the  most  influential  members  of  the  oppo- 
sition after  the  death  of  Fox.  His  wife  was  a  daughter 
of  the  first  Earl  Grey.  He  committed  suicide  in  1815, 
during  an  attack  of  temporary  insanity. 

Whit'by,  (Daniel,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1638.  He  studied  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  and  rose  through  several  preferments  to 
be  rector  of  Saint  Edmund's,  Salisbury,  having  been 
previously  created  D.D.  His  controversial  works  are 
numerous,  and  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  in  his  time  ; 
among  the  most  important  of  these  may  be  named  "A 
Discourse  concerning  the  Idolatry  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,"  (1674,)  "The  Absurdity  and  Idolatry  of  Host- 
Worship  Proven,"  (1679,)  and  "The  Fallibility  of  the 
Roman  Church  Demonstrated,"  (1687.)     In  1683  he 


published  a  plea  for  the  toleration  of  dissenters,  entitled 
"  The  Protestant  Reconciler,"  etc.,  which  encountered 
violent  opposition  and  was  condemned  to  be  burned.  His 
"  Paraphrase  and  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament," 
(1703,)  a  defence  of  Arminianism,  is  regarded  as  his 
best  production,  and  was  followed  by  several  other 
works  of  a  similar  nature.  Dr.  Whitby  subsequently 
professed  Arianism,  in  defence  of  which  he  wrote  a 
number  of  tracts,  and  also  defended  Bishop  Hoadly  in 
the  Bangorian  controversy.    Died  in  1726. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

White,  (Charles,)  an  English  officer  and  writer, 
born  in  Shropshire  in  1793,  served  under  Wellington 
in  the  Peninsular  war,  and  afterwards  in  Hanover  as 
adjutant  of  the  Duke  of  Cambridge.  He  published 
"  Almacks  Revisited,"  "The  King's  Page,"  "Arthur 
Beverly,"  and  other  popular  romances;  also,  "The 
Belgic  Revolution  in  1830,"  (1835,)  and  "Three  Years 
in  Constantinople,"  (1846.) 

White,  (Daniel  Appleton,)  a  distinguished  jurist 
and  scholar,  was  born  in  Massachusetts,  in  what  is  now 
the  city  of  Lawrence,  June  7,  1776.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1797,  sharing  the  highest  honours  of  the 
class  with  Horace  Binney,  of  Philadelphia.  In  1799  he 
accepted  the  position  of  Latin  tutor  at  Harvard,  where 
he  remained  nearly  four  years.  He  began  the  study  of 
law  at  Cambridge,  and  was  there  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1804.  His  success  in  his  profession  was  remarkable. 
From  1810  to  181 5  he  was  a  member  of  the  State  Senate. 
In  November,  1814,  he  was  elected  to  Congress  from  the 
Essex  district  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote  ;  but  before 
taking  his  seat  in  the  national  legislature  he  resigned 
his  position  as  representative  and  accepted  that  of  judge 
of  probate  for  the  county  of  Essex,  which  in  the  mean 
time  had  been  tendered  to  him.  He  filled  this  office, 
with  the  highest  credit  to  himself  and  advantage  to  the 
Commonwealth,  for  thirty-eight  years. 

Judge  White  was  distinguished  for  his  generosity  and 
public  spirit,  and  gave  liberally  of  his  time  and  means 
to  promote  the  cause  of  education  and  other  important 
public  interests.  He  was  an  active  member  of  many 
philanthropic  and  literary  associations,  and  took  a  deep 
interest  in  the  cause  of  temperance.  Besides  frequent 
smaller  gifts,  he  gave  in  all  to  the  Essex  Institute  at 
Salem  more  than  8000  volumes,  including  the  3000  left 
in  his  will.  He  closed  his  long  and  useful  life  on  the 
30th  of  March,  1861. 

See  the  interesting  "  Memoir  of  Daniel  Appleton  White,"  by  G. 
W.  Briggs,  Salem,  1864;  and  the  "Memoir  of  Judge  White,"  by 
Dr.  Walker,  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Massachusetts 
Historical  Society. 

White,  (George,)  an  English  mezzotint  engraver, 
son  of  Robert,  noticed  below,  executed  a  number  of 
excellent  portraits,  among  which  we  may  name  those 
of  Lord  Clarendon  and  Sir  Richard  Blackmore.  Died 
about  1735. 

White,  (Gilbert,)  an  eminent  English  naturalist  and 
divine,  born  at  Selborne,  in  Hampshire,  in  1720.  He 
studied  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  and  took  the  degree 
of  M.A.  in  1746.  His  principal  work,  entitled  "Natural 
History  of  Selborne,"  appeared  in  1789.  Its  graceful 
and  attractive  style,  as  well  as  its  other  merits,  have 
given  it  a  high  rank  among  English  classics.  After  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  1793,  a  selection  from  his  jour- 
nal was  published  by  Dr.  Aikin,  under  the  title  of  "  A 
Naturalist's  Calendar,"  etc.  His  "  Antiquities  of  Sel- 
borne" was  published  in  1813,  in  the  same  volume  with 
the  two  above-named  works. 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

White,  (Henry,)  an  English  clergyman,  of  consider- 
able literary  attainments,  was  a  resident  of  Lichfield, 
and  a  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson  and  other  celebrated  writers 
of  the  time.    Died  in  1836. 

White,  (Henry  Kirke,)  often  called  Kirke  White, 
an  English  poet,  born  at  Nottingham  in  1785.  As  a 
child,  he  was  remarkable  for  precocity  of  intellect,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  attainments  in  the  ancient 
and  modern  languages,  music,  and  natural  science. 
Having  previously  made  several  contributions  to  the 
"  Monthly  Mirror"  and  other  literary  journals,  he  pub- 
lished about  1803  a  collection  of  poems,  which  were 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fir.  fill,  fit;  mfet;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WHITE 


2263 


WHITEFIELD 


severely  criticised  by  the  reviewers.  The  volume,  how- 
ever, attracted  the  notice  of  Southey,  who  subsequently 
became  his  warm  friend  and  generous  patron.  Having 
about  this  time  experienced  deep  religious  impressions, 
it  became  his  earnest  desire  to  educate  himself  for  the 
ministry.  Through  the  assistance  of  several  friends,  he 
was  enabled  to  enter  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
in  1804.  His  severe  application  to  study  and  the  excite- 
ment of  preparing  for  examination  were  too  much  for 
his  originally  frail  constitution,  and  he  fell  into  a  rapid 
decline,  dying  in  October,  1806.  His  works,  in  prose 
and  verse,  were  published  in  1807  by  Southey,  with  a 
very  interesting  biography. 

See,  also,  Sommermeyer,  '*  Essay  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of 
H,  Kirke  White,"  1847;  Cary,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets,  from 
Johnson  to  Kirke  White;"  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;" 
"Monthly  Review"  for  January,  i8io. 

White,  (Hugh  Lawson,)  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Iredell  county.  North  Carolina,  in  October, 
1773.  He  removed  to  Knox  county,  Tennessee,  in  1786, 
and  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  that 
State  in  1801.  In  1825  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  for  Tennessee.  He  received  twenty-six 
electoral  votes  as  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency  in  1836, 
and  was  re-elected  a  Senator  in  the  same  year,  but  he 
resigned  his  seat  in  1839.    Died  at  Knoxville  in  1840. 

See  the  "  National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  iv. 

White,  (James,)  an  Irish  novelist  and  poet,  wrote 
romances  entitled  "Adventures  of  John  of  Gaunt," 
"Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,"  and  "Conway  Castle,  and 
other  Poems."    Died  in  1799. 

White,  (Rev.  James,)  an  English  dramatist  and  his- 
torian, born  in  1785.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Eighteen  Christian  Centuries,"  (1858,)  "Land- 
marks of  the  History  of  Greece,"  and  a  "  History  of 
England,"  (1861.)    Died  in  1862. 

White,  (Jeremy,)  an  English  nonconformist  divine, 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Restoration  of  All  Things,"  in 
support  of  the  doctrine  of  universal  salvation.  Died 
in  1707. 

White  or  Whyte,  (John,)  an  English  ecclesiastic, 
born  in  Surrey  in  151 1,  was  made  Bishop  of  Winchester 
under  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary.    Died  in  1560. 

White,  (John,)  an  English  divine  and  popular 
preacher,  sometimes  called  "the  Patriarch  of  Dorches- 
ter," was  born  in  1574;  died  in  1648. 

White,  (John,)  called  Century  White,  an  English 
lawyer  and  nonconformist,  born  in  Pembrokeshire  in 
1590.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  in  1640, 
and  sat  as  a  lay  assessor  in  the  Assembly  of  Divines 
at  Westminster.  He  published  "The  First  Century  of 
Scandalous  Malignant  Priests  made  and  admitted  into 
Benefices  by  the  Prelates,"  etc.    Died  in  1645. 

White,  (John,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  in  1805. 
He  represented  a  district  of  Kentucky  in  Congress 
from  1835  to  1845,  and  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  from  December,  1841,  to  March,  1843. 
Died  in  1845. 

White,  (Joseph,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and  Orien- 
talist, born  in  Gloucestershire  about  1746.  He  studied 
at  Wadham  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1775  became  Laudian 
professor  of  Arabic  in  the  university.  In  1783  he  de- 
livered the  Bampton  lectures,  which  were  afterwards 
published  under  the  title  of  "  A  View  of  Christianity  and 
Mahometanism,  in  their  History,  their  Evidence,  and 
their  Effects."  They  won  for  him  a  high  reputation  and 
the  office  of  prebendary  in  the  cathedral  of  Gloucester. 
It  was  soon  after  discovered,  however,  that  they  were  in 
great  part  the  composition  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Badcock 
and  Dr.  Samuel  Parr,  who  had  been  emjiloyed  by  Dr. 
White  to  assist  him.  He  published,  in  1800,  his  "  Dia- 
tessaron,"  which  was  followed  by  his  "  y^lgyptiaca,  or 
Observations  on  Certain  Antiquities  of  Egypt,"  and 
a  critical  edition  of  the  Greek  New  Testament.  Died 
in  1814. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

White,  (Joseph  Blanco,)  often  called  Blanco 
White,  a  distinguished  writer,  born  at  Seville,  in  Spain, 
in  1775,  was  descended  from  an  Irish  Catholic  family 
settled  in  that  country.    In  Spain  he  was  called  Blanco, 


which  he  afterwards  exchanged  for  its  English  equiva- 
lent. He  was  educated  for  the  Church,  but  he  soon 
abandoned  that  profession,  and,  having  settled  in  Eng- 
land, devoted  himself  to  literature.  He  had  been  for 
several  years  editor  of  a  Spanish  journal,  entitled  "  El 
Espanol,"  and,  in  1822,  edited  "  Las  Variedades,"  an- 
other Spanish  periodical.  He  was  also  a  contributor 
to  the  "  Quarterly"  and  "  Westminster"  Reviews,  the 
"  Dublin  University  Review,"  and  other  literary  journals. 
Among  his  principal  works  may  be  named  "  The  Poor 
Man's  Preservative  against  Popery,"  (1825,)  "  Second 
Travels  of  an  Irish  Gentleman  in  Search  of  a  Religion," 
(1833,)  and  a  sonnet  entitled  "  Night,"  which  is  highly 
commended  by  Coleridge.    Died  in  1841. 

See  "The  Life  of  the  Rev.  Joseph  Blanco  White,  written  by  Him- 
self," London,  1845;  J.  H.  Thom,  "Life  of  J.  B.  White,"  3  vols., 
1845 ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  July,  1825  ;  "  London  Quarterly 
Review"  for  June,  1845;  "Westminster  Review"  for  December, 
1845  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1846. 

White,  (Julius,)  an  American  general,  born  in  Madi- 
son county.  New  York,  about  1816.  Pie  served  at  the 
battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  March,  1862,  and  was  second  in 
command  at  Harper's  Ferry  when  Stonewall  Jackson 
captured  that  place,  September  15  of  the  same  year. 

White  or  Vi'tus,  (Richard,)  an  English  historian 
and  Roman  Catholic  priest,  born  in  Hampshire,  became 
a  Fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford,  in  1557.  He  taught 
law  at  Douai.    Died  in  1612. 

White,  (Richard  Grant,)  an  American  litterateur^ 
born  in  New  York  in  1822,  was  for  a  time  associate 
editor  of  the  "Courier  and  Enquirer."  He  has  been  a 
contributor  to  the  leading  literary  periodicals,  and  has 
published  a  volume  of  critical  essays,  entitled  "  Shake- 
speare's Scholar,"  (1854,)  an  "Essay  on  the  Authorship 
of  Henry  VI.,"  and  a  "Life  of  William  Shakespeare," 
prefixed  to  his  edition  of  Shakespeare's  collected  works 
in  12  vols.,  (1865  et  seq.) 

White,  (Robert,)  an  English  engraver,  born  in 
London  in  1645.  His  portraits  in  mezzotint  and  line- 
engraving  are  very  numerous.    Died  in  1704. 

White,  (Sir  Thomas,)  a  wealthy  citizen  of  London, 
born  in  1492,  became  lord  mayor  of  that  city  in  1553. 
He  was  the  founder  of  Saint  John's  College,  Oxford. 
Died  in  1566. 

White,  (Thomas,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Bristol.  He  became  vicar  of  Saint  Dunstan's,  Fleet 
Street,  London,  in  1575.  He  founded  Sion  College,  in 
London,  and  a  hospital.    Died  in  1623. 

White,  (Thomas,)  [in  Latin,  Thomas  Al'bus  or 
An'glus,]  an  English  philosopher  and  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  born  in  1582.  He  lived  mostly  on  the  continent, 
and  published  several  works  on  philosophy,  etc.  Died 
in  1676. 

White,  (Thomas,)  an  English  philosopher,  was  a 
friend  and  correspondent  of  Descartes.    Died  in  1696. 

White,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  Kent 
in  1630,  was  made  Bishop  of  Peterborough  in  1685.  He 
was  one  of  the  seven  bishops  imprisoned  in  the  Tower 
in  1688.    Died  in  1698. 

See  Miss  Strickland,  "Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops,"  London, 
1866. 

White,  (William,)  D.D.,  a  distinguished  American 
bishop,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1748.  He  was  ordained 
priest  in  1772,  and  subsequently  became  rector  of  Christ 
Church  and  Saint  Peter's  Church,  Philadelphia.  He 
was  elected  Bishop  of  Pennsylvania  in  1786.  He  pub- 
lished "Comparative  Views  of  the  Controversy  between 
the  Calvinists  and  Arminians,"  and  other  theological 
works.    Died  in  1836. 

See  Bird  Wilson,  "Life  of  Bi.shop  White,"  1839;  Duvckinck, 
"Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i. 

White'field,  (hwlt'f^ld,)  (George,)  an  eminent  and 
eloquent  English  preacher,  and  the  founder  of  the  sect 
of  Calvinistic  Methodists,  was  born  at  Gloucester  in 
December,  1714.  He  was  a  son  of  an  inn-keeper,  from 
whom  he  inherited  little  or  nothing.  His  mother,  who 
became  a  widow  about  1716,  sent  him  to  a  grammar- 
school.  In  1733  ^6  entered  Pembroke  College,  Oxford, 
as  a  servitor.  He  had  received  from  nature  a  good  voice 
and  remarkable  rhetorical  talents.  At  college  he  became 
an  intimate  friend  of  John  and  Charles  Wesley,  with 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Yiy guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WHITEHEAD 


2264 


WHITGIFT 


whom  he  entered  into  religious  fellowship.  He  was  or- 
dained a  deacon  in  1736,  and  began  soon  after  to  preach 
with  great  eloquence  and  power.  In  1737  he  preached 
in  London,  and  other  places,  to  crowded  congregations, 
who  listened  to  him  with  enthusiastic  admiration.  He 
performed  a  voyage  to  Georgia  in  the  early  part  of  1738, 
instituted  an  orphan-house  at  Savannah,  and  returned 
to  England  in  September  of  that  year.  In  1739  he 
was  ordained  a  priest  by  Bishop  Benson.  Having  been 
excluded  from  the  churches  of  Bristol,  he  adopted  the 
practice  of  preaching  in  the  open  air,  for  which  his 
powerful  voice  was  well  adapted.  He  propagated  the 
Methodist  religion  at  various  places  with  great  success. 
In  the  autumn  of  1739  he  again  crossed  the  Atlantic  to 
America,  where  he  spent  more  th^n  a  year  in  zealous 
ministerial  labours.  Having  traversed  the  provinces 
from  New  York  to  Georgia,  he  returned  to  England 
in  1741.  Soon  after  this  date  Whitefield  and  Wesley 
ceased  to  co-operate,  in  consequence  of  their  disagree- 
ment in  doctrines.  They  differed  especially  in  the  doc- 
trine of  predestination,  which  Whitefield  accepted,  as  a 
disciple  of  Calvin.  (See  Wesley,  John.)  About  1742 
he  married  a  Welsh  widow  named  Mrs.  James.  They 
had  one  child,  who  died  in  infancy.  He  revisited  the 
American  colonies  in  1744,  and  laboured  among  them 
several  years.  In  1748  he  became  acquainted  with 
Selina,  Countess  of  Huntingdon,  who  appointed  him 
her  chaplain.  Among  the  persons  who  are  said  to  have 
heard  and  admired  his  sermons  were  Hume,  Lord 
Chesterfield,  and  Benjamin  Franklin.  He  published  a 
journal  of  his  life,  {2d  edition,  1756.)  He  sailed  from 
England  in  1769  on  his  seventh  visit  to  America,  and 
died  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  in  September,  1770. 
A  collection  of  his  letters,  sermons,  etc.  was  published 
in  six  volumes,  (1771.) 

"  Hume  pronounced  him,"  says  Robert  Southey,  "the 
most  ingenious  preacher  he  had  ever  heard,  and  said  it 
was  worth  while  to  go  twenty  miles  to  hear  him.  But 
perhaps  the  greatest  proof  of  his  persuasive  powers  was 
when  he  drew  from  Benjamin  Franklin's  pocket  the 
money  which  that  clear,  cool  reasoner  had  determined 
not  to  give."*  {"Life  of  John  Wesley.") 

See  J.  Gillies,  "Life  of  George  Whitefield,"  1772;  "Genuine 
and  Secret  Memoirs  relating  to  that  Arch-Methodist,  G.  Whitefield," 
Oxford,  1742;  ScHAFFSHAUSEN,  "  Historia  Methodistarum  et  Vita 
Whitefield,"  1743;  Robert  Philip,  "The  Life  and  Times  of  the 
Rev.  George  Whitefield,"  1838;  R.  Southey,  "Life  of  John  Wes- 
ley;" "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1838. 

White'head,  {David,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Hampshire,  became  chaplain  to  Queen  Anne  Boleyn. 
He  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Armagh  in  1552,  went 
into  exile  on  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary,  and  preached 
at  Frankfort.  In  1558  he  returned  to  England.  Died 
in  1571. 

Whitehead,  (George,)  an  English  Quaker  preacher, 
born  in  Westmoreland  in  1636,  procured  for  the  society 
of  which  he  was  a  member  the  allowance  of  an  affirm- 
ation in  the  courts  of  law,  instead  of  the  customary  oath. 
He  was  a  personal  friend  of  George  Fox.  Died  in  1725. 

Whitehead,  (John,)  a  Methodist  divine  and  phy- 
sician, who  preached  John  Wesley's  funeral  sermon, 
and  afterwards  published  Memoirs  of  his  life.  Died 
in  1804. 

Whitehead,  (Paul,)  an  English  satiric  poet,  born 
in  London  in  17 10.  His  political  satire  entitled  "The 
State  Dunces"  was  dedicated  to  Pope,  and  was  followed 
by  "Manners,"  (1739,)  "The  Gymnasiad,"  {1744,)  and 
"  Honour,"  all  of  which  were  conspicuous  for  their 
virulence  and  daring  personalities.  He  was  an  associate 
of  Wilkes,  Sir  Francis  Dashwood,  and  other  profligate 
wits  of  the  time.    Died  in  1774. 

Whitehead,  (William,)  an  English  poet  and  drama- 
tist, born  at  Cambridge  in  17 15.  He  studied  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  in  1757  succeeded  Colley  Cibber  as  poet- 
laureate.  He  published  tragedies  entitled  "  The  Roman 
Father"  and  "Creusa,  Queen  of  Athens,"  "The  School 
for  Lovers,"  a  comedy,  and  numerous  odes,  epistles, 
etc.    Died  in  1788. 

White'hurst,  (John,)  an  English  mechanician  of  dis- 
tinguished talents,  born  in  Cheshire  in  1713  ;  died  in  1788. 


See  Franklin's  own  account  of  this,  in  his  "  Autobiography." 


White'locke,  (hwit'lok,)  (Bulstrode,)  an  eminent 
English  statesman  and  lawyer,  born  in  London  in  1605, 
was  a  son  of  Sir  James,  noticed  below.  His  mother 
was  Elizabeth  Bulstrode.  About  1620  he  entered  Saint 
John's  College,  Oxford,  which  he  quitted,  without  a 
degree,  to  study  law  in  the  Middle  Temple.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Long  Parliament  for  Great 
Marlow  in  November,  1640,  and  opposed  the  arbitrary 
measures  of  Charles  I.  He  was  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee which  managed  the  impeachment  of  the  Earl  of 
Strafford,  but  was  more  moderate  and  conservative  than 
most  of  the  leaders  of  the  popular  party.  During  the 
civil  war  he  preferred  the  part  of  mediator  to  that  of  a 
zealous  partisan.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
appointed  to  treat  with  the  king  at  Oxford  in  January, 
1642-43.  About  1648  he  was  nominated  one  of  the 
commissioners  of  the  great  seal.  He  declined  to  take 
any  part  in  the  trial  of  Charles  I.,  which  he  character- 
ized as  a  "bad  business;"  but  he  accepted  office  under 
Cromwell,  who  had  much  confidence  in  his  integrity 
and  judgment.  In  1653  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Sweden,  negotiated  a  treaty  with  that  power,  and  re- 
turned in  1654.  He  was  a  member  of  Cromwell's 
second  Parliament,  and  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1656,  soon  after  which  he  urged 
Cromwell  to  assume  the  title  of  king,  and  obtained  a 
seat  in  the  new  House  of  Peers  created  by  the  Pro- 
tector. He  was  created  a  viscount  in  August,  1658,  but 
he  would  not  accept  the  title.  After  the  death  of  Oliver 
he  became  president  of  the  council  of  state,  in  1659, 
and  keeper  of  the  great  seal,  which  he  resigned  about 
December,  1659.  At  the  restoration  of  1660  his  name 
was  included  in  the  Act  of  Oblivion.  He  died  in  1676, 
leaving  a  valuable  contribution  to  history,  entitled  "Me- 
morials of  English  Affairs  from  the  Beginning  of  the 
Reign  of  Charles  I.  to  the  Restoration  of  Charles  II.," 
(1682,)  also  "Memorials  of  English  Affairs  from  the 
Supposed  Expedition  of  Brute  to  this  Island  to  the  End 
of  the  Reign  of  James  I.,"  which  was  published  in  1709 
by  William  Penn,  who  prefixed  a  notice  of  the  author's 
life.  An  Account  of  his  Swedish  Embassy  was  pub- 
lished in  1772. 

See  GuizoT,  "HIstoire  de  la  Revolution  d'Angleterre  ;"  Hume, 
"  History  of  England  ;"  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors ;"  "  Nou- 
velle  Biographic  Generale." 

Whitelocke,  (Sir  James,)  an  lEnglish  judge,  born  in 
London  in  1570,  was  the  father  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1620,  and  afterwards  be- 
came a  judge  of  the  common  pleas.  He  had  a  good 
reputation  for  fidelity  to  the  duties  of  his  office.  Died 
in  1632. 

White'side,  (James,)  LL.D.,  an  Irish  jurist  and 
conservative  statesman,  born  in  the  county  of  Wicklow 
about  1806.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
subsequently  obtained  a  high  reputation  as  a  lawyer 
and  orator.  He  was  one  of  the  leading  counsel  in  the 
defence  of  O'Connell  in  1843,  and  also  defended  Meagher 
and  Smith  O'Brien  in  the  trials  of  1848.  He  was  elected 
to  Parliament  for  Enniskillen  in  1851,  and  in  1859  was 
returned  for  the  University  of  Dublin.  He  became 
about  1866  lord  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  queen's 
bench  in  Ireland.  He  has  published  a  work  entitled 
"Italy  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  (1849.) 

Whit' gift,  (John,)  an  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and 
learned  Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Great  Grimsby, 
Lincolnshire,  in  1530.  He  entered  Queen's  College, 
Cambridge,  about  1548,  and  afterwards  removed  to 
Pembroke  Hall.  In  1554  he  took  the  degree  of 
bachelor  of  arts.  He  adopted  the  Protestant  doctrines 
at  an  early  age,  and,  after  the  accession  of  Queen 
Mary,  he  was  protected  from  persecution  by  his  friend 
Andrew  Perne.  Having  entered  into  holy  orders  in 
1560,  he  gained  distinction  as  a  preacher  at  Cambridge, 
where  he  resided  many  years  after  the  date  just  named. 
He  became  Lady  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  in  1563, 
master  of  Pembroke  Hall  in  1567,  and  chaplain  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  in  the  same  year.  About  1568  he  was 
aj^pointed  master  of  Trinity  College  and  regius  pro- 
fessor of  divinity.  He  appeared  as  a  champion  of  the 
Established  Church  and  its  liturgy  in  a  controversy 
against  Cartwright,  who  was  a  Puritan.  In  1571  he  was 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;    6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f3,r,  fill,  fit;  m€t;  nSt;  good;  moon; 


WHITING 


2265 


WHITTEMORE 


appointed  Dean  of  Lincoln.  The  constitution  and  lit- 
urgy of  the  Church  of  England  having  been  attacked 
in  a  Puritan  work  called  "An  Admonition  to  Parlia- 
ment," Whitgift  defended  the  Church  with  much  ability 
in  his  "  Answer  to  the  Admonition  to  Parliament," 
(1572.)  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Worcester  in 
1576,  and  gained  the  favour  of  the  queen  by  his  zeal  and 
severity  against  the  Roman  Catholics  and  Puritans.  He 
succeeded  Grindal  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1583, 
and  initiated  vigorous  measures  to  enforce  conformity  to 
all  the  doctrines,  forms,  and  discipline  of  the  Church. 
He  required  all  clergymen  to  subscribe  to  the  Thirty- 
Nine  Articles,  and  to  recognize  the  queen  as  the 
supreme  head  of  the  Church.  His  intolerance  and  per- 
secuting spirit  are  said  to  have  driven  many  persons 
into  dissent.  "  Honest  and  well-intentioned,"  says  Gar- 
diner, "but  narrow-minded  to  an  almost  incredible 
degree,  the  one  thought  which  filled  his  mind  was  the 
hope  of  bringing  the  ministers  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land at  least  to  an  outward  conformity."  Lord  Burghley 
remonstrated  against  his  intolerant  conduct,  without 
effect.  Whitgift  declined  the  office  of  lord  chancellor 
in  1587.  He  founded  a  hospital  at  Croydon.  On  the 
death  of  Elizabeth  (1602)  he  sent  Dr.  Nevil  to  Scotland 
to  court  the  favour  of  James  L  He  took  part  in  the 
conference  at  Hampton  Court  in  January,  1604.  Died 
in  February,  1604. 

See  Strvpe,  "  Life  and  Acts  of  John  Whitgift,"  1718  :  Sir 
George  Paule,  "Life  of  Whitgift,"  1699:  Gardiner,  "History 
of  England  from  1603  to  1616,"  vol.  i.  ch.  iii.  ;  "Retrospective  Re- 
view," vol.  xiii.,  (1826.) 

Whiting,  (Henry,)  an  American  general  of  the 
United  States  army,  was  born  at  Lancaster,  in  Massa- 
chusetts. He  wrote  various  articles  for  the  "  North 
American  Review."  Died  at  an  advanced  age  in  Saint 
Louis,  Missouri,  in  185 1. 

Whiting,  (William  H.  C.,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Massachusetts  about  1825,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1845.  He  took  arms  against  the  Union  in  1861, 
and  became  a  major-general  in  1863.  He  commanded 
at  Fort  Fisher  in  December,  1864,  and  was  taken  pris- 
oner at  the  capture  of  that  fort,  in  January,  1865.  He 
died  in  prison,  March,  1865. 

Whit'lock,  (Elizai!ETH,)  an  English  actress,  born 
in  1 76 1,  was  a  sister  of  the  celebrated  Mrs.  Siddons. 
She  was  married  in  1785  to  Mr.  Whitlock,  manager  of 
the  Newcastle  Theatre.    Died  in  1836. 

Whifman,  (Sarah  Hllen  Power,)  an  American 
poetess,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1813,  pub- 
lished "  Hours  of  Life,  and  other  Poeins,"  (1853,)  and 
a  work  entitled  "Edgar  Poe  and  his  Critics,"  (i860.) 

See  DuvcKiNCK,  "Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ; 
Griswold,  "  Female  Poets  of  America." 

Whit'ney,  (Adeline  D.  Train,)  a  popular  American 
writer,  born  in  Boston  in  1824.  Among  her  works  are 
"Mother  Goose  for  Grown  Folks,"  (i860,)  "Faith  Gart- 
ney's  Girlhood,"  (1863,)  "The  Gayworthys,"  (1865,) 
"Patience  Strong's  Outings,"  (1868,)  and  "Hitherto:  a 
Story  of  Yesterday,"  (1869.) 

"Whitney,  (Eli,)  the  inventor  of  the  cotton-gin,  was 
born  at  Westborough,  Worcester  county,  Massachusetts, 
December  8,  1765.  He  displayed  great  mechanical  in- 
genuity in  his  early  youth,  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1792,  and  went  to  Georgia  to  teach  school.  He  became 
an  inmate  in  the  household  of  General  Greene's  widow, 
near  Savannah,  where,  about  the  end  of  1792,  he  invented 
the  cotton-gin  for  separating  the  cotton  frotri  the  seed. 
In  May,  1793,  he  formed  with  Phineas  Miller  a  partner- 
ship for  the  manufacture  of  the  gins.  Before  he  had 
obtained  a  patent  for  his  invention,  some  persons  broke 
open  his  premises  by  night  and  carried  off  his  model 
machine.  He  was  thus  defrauded  of  his  just  reward, 
and  was  involved  in  much  trouble  by  the  infringements 
of  his  patent.  "The  South,"  says  Horace  Greeley, 
"fairly  swarmed  with  pirates  on  the  invention,  of  all 
kinds  and  degrees."  When  he  prosecuted  those  who 
infringed  his  patent,  the  juries  of  Georgia  decided  for 
the  defendants.  The  legislature  of  South  Carolina  paid 
him  fifty  thousand  dollars  for  his  patent-right  about 
1804.  Despairing  of  gaining  a  competence  by  this  in- 
vention, he  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  fire-arms  near 
New  Haven  in  1798.    He  made  great  improvements  in 


the  construction  of  fire-arms,  and  acquired  an  inde- 
pendent fortune  in  that  business.  He  married  in  181 7 
a  daughter  of  Judge  Pierpont  Edwards.  "  We  cannot 
express,"  says  Judge  Johnson,  (in  1807,)  "the  weight  of 
the  obligation  which  the  country  owes  to  this  invention," 
(the  cotton-gin.)  Robert  Fulton  expressed  the  opinion 
that  "  Arkwright,  Watt,  and  Whitney  were  the  three 
men  that  did  most  for  mankind  of  any  of  their  contem- 
poraries."   He  died  at  New  Haven  in  January,  1825. 

See  a  "Memoir  of  Eli  Whitney,"  in  "  Silliman's  Journal,"  Jan- 
uary, 1832,  by  Professor  Olmsted;  Henry  Howe,  "Lives  of 
Eminent  American  Mechanics,"  1847  ;  Greeley,  "  American  Con- 
flict," vol.  ii.  pp.  58-66. 

Whitney,  (Josiah  Dwight,)  an  American  scientist, 
was  born  at  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  November 
23,  1819.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1839.  In 
1842-3,  and  1846,  he  studied  in  Europe  under  Elie  de 
Beaumont,  Rammelsberg,  Heinrich  Rose,  Liebig,  and 
others.  He  was  employed,  as  assistant,  on  the  geo- 
logical survey  of  New  Hampshire  in  1840 ;  in  1847-50, 
on  that  of  the  Lake  Superior  region,  as  assistant  and 
principal;  in  1855-60,  partly  on  that  of  Iowa  and  Wis- 
consin; and  in  i860  he  was  appointed  State  geologist 
of  California,  which  office  he  still  holds  :  being  at  the 
same  time  (since  1865)  professor  of  practical  geology  in 
Harvard  College  and  head  of  its  mining  school.  Apart 
from  the  reports  of  the  surveys  in  which  he  has  been 
engaged,  he  has  published  a  translation  of  "Berzelius 
on  the  Blowpipe,"  (Boston,  1845,)  a  work  "On  the 
Metallic  Wealth  of  the  United  States,  described  and 
compared  with  that  of  other  Countries,"  (Philadelphia, 
1854,)  and  many  scientific  papers  in  "Silliman's  Jour- 
nal," the  "  North  American  Review,"  etc.  He  is  one 
of  the  original  members  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences,  established  by  Congress  in  1863.  He  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Yale  College  in  1870. 

Whitney,  (William  Dwight,)  a  distinguished  phi- 
lologist and  Oriental  scholar,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  February  9,  1827.  He  graduated  at  Williams 
College  in  1845.  He  studied  at  Berlin  and  Tubingen 
in  1850-53,  and  published,  (Berlin,  1856,)  in  conjunction 
with  Professor  R.  Roth,  the  Sanscrit  text  of  the  Atharva- 
Veda,  from  a  collation  of  all  the  known  manuscripts  in 
Europe.  In  1854  he  was  appointed  professor  of  San- 
scrit and  comparative  philology  at  Yale  College.  Since 
1857  he  has  been  corresponding  secretary  of  the  Ameri- 
can Oriental  Society,  and  a  principal  editor  of  its  Journal, 
to  which  his  most  important  contributions  have  been  a 
translation,  with  notes,  of  the  "  Surya-Siddhanta,"  fully 
illustrated  editions  of  two  of  the  "  Prati5akhyas,"  criti- 
cisms on  the  Standard  Alphabet  of  Lepsius,  and  on 
the  views  of  Biot,  Weber,  and  Miiller  on  the  Hindoo 
and  Chinese  Asterisms,  etc.  He  has  also  furnished 
many  articles  to  other  periodicals,  as  the  "  North  Amer- 
ican Review,"  "New  Englander,"  "Nation,"  and  to  the 
"New  American  Cyclopaedia."  He  has  contributed 
valuable  material  to  the  great  Sanckrit  Dictionary  of 
Bohtlingk  and  Roth,  now  in  course  of  publication  at 
Saint  Petersburg.  His  other  published  works  have 
been  a  volume  of  "  Lectures  on  Language  and  the  Study 
of  Language,"  (1867,)  a  "Compendious  German  Gram- 
mar," (1869,)  and  a  "German  Reader,"  (1870.)  He  re- 
ceived the  honorary  degree  of  Ph.D.  from  the  Univer- 
sity of  Breslau  in  1861,  and  that  of  LL.D.  from  Williams 
College  in  1868,  and  from  William  and  Mary  College, 
Virginia,  in  1869.  In  1869  he  was  chosen  first  president 
of  thg  American  Philological  Association.  In  1870  his 
"  Taittiriya-Prati  akhya"  received  the  Bopp  prize  from 
the  Berlin  Academy.  As  a  critic  and  writer  on  subjects 
connected  with  philology.  Professor  Whitney  is  no  less 
distinguished  for  his  clear  insight  and  sound  judgment 
than  for  his  accurate,  profound,  and  varied  learning. 

Whittemore,  hwit'mdr,  (Amos,)  a  mechanician, 
born  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1 759,  was  the  in- 
ventor of  a  machine  for  sticking  cards.    Died  in  1828. 

Whittemore,  (Thomas,)  D.D.,  an  American  Uni- 
versalist  divine,  born  at  Boston  in  1800,  was  for  many 
years  editor  of  "  The  Trumpet,"  a  religious  journal. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  Universalism,"  "  Songs  of 
Zion,"  and  a  "Life  of  Hosea  Ballou,"  (3  vols.,  1854-55.) 
Died  in  1861. 


€  as  /S;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  Yi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (2!^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WHITTIER 


Whittier,  hwit'te-er,  (John  Greenleaf,)  a  distin- 
guished American  poet  and  philanthropist,  born  at 
Haverhill,  Massachusetts,  in  1808.  He  was  educated  by 
his  parents  in  the  principles  of  the  Friends  or  Quakers, 
with  which  denomination  he  has  always  remained  in 
connection.  He  had  not  the  advantage  of  a  classical 
education.  In  1830  he  became  editor  of  the  "New  Eng- 
land Weekly  Review,"  and  in  1 831  published  his  "Le- 
gends of  New  England,"  a  collection  of  Indian  traditions. 
Having  early  identified  himself  with  the  anti-slavery 
party,  he  assumed  about  1838  the  editorship  of  the 
"  Pennsylvania  Freeman,"  one  of  the  organs  of  the 
American  Anti-Slavery  Society,  and  in  which  many  of 
his  finest  lyrics  first  appeared.  He  was  for  a  time  cor- 
responding editor  of  the  *'  National  Era,"  published  at 
Washington.  In  addition  to  the  above-named  works,  he 
has  published  "Songs  of  Labour,  and  other  Poems," 
(1851,)  "The  Chapel  of  the  Hermits,"  etc.,  {1853,) 
"Home  Ballads  and  Poems,"  (1859,)  "In  War-Time, 
and  other  Poems,"  (1863,)  "National  Lyrics,"  (1865,) 
"Snow-Bound;  a  Winter  Idyl,"  (1866,)  "The  Tent  on 
the  Beach,"  (1867,)  "Among  the  Hills,  and  other 
Poems,"  (1868,)  and  "Ballads  of  New  England,"  (1869.) 
Nearly  all  the  productions  of  Whittier  in  his  happier 
hours  are  characterized  by  intense  feeling,  and,  we  may 
add,  by  all  the  spirit  of  the  true  lyric  poet.  (For  some 
excellent  remarks  on  the  characteristics  of  Whittier  as 
a  poet,  see  the  "  Fable  for  Critics,"  (pp.  42-44,)  by  Pro- 
fessor Lowell,  whose  sketch,  though  "drawn  from  a 
Mephistophelian  stand-point,"  is  none  the  less  just  nor 
the  less  complimentary  on  that  account.) 

See,  also,  Duyckinck,  "  Cyclopjedia  of  American  Literature," 
vol.  ii.  ;  Griswold,  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America;"  Allibone, 
"Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "North  British  Review"  for  1867; 
"North  American  Review"  for  April,  1837,  and  July,  1854;  "Demo- 
cratic Review"  for  August,  1845. 

Whittingham,  hwit'ing-am,  (Sir  Samuel  Ford,)  a 
British  general,  who  served  in  the  Peninsular  war, 
(1809-13.)  He  became  in  1839  commander-in-chief  at 
Madras,  where  he  died  in  1840  or  1841. 

Whittingham,  (William,)  an  English  Puritan  min- 
ister, born  at  Chester  in  1524.  He  visited  France  in 
1550,  married  a  sister  of  Calvin  at  Orleans,  and  returned 
home  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  After  the  accession 
of  Mary  he  went  into  exile,  and  succeeded  John  Knox 
as  pastor  at  Geneva,  where  he  assisted  in  an  English 
translation  of  the  Bible.  He  became  Dean  of  Durham 
in  1563.  Dr.  Sandys,  Archbishop  of  York,  in  1577 
brought  against  him  a  charge  of  thirty-five  articles,  one 
of  which  was  that  he  was  ordained  at  Geneva  only. 
Whittingham  appealed  to  the  queen,  who  appointed  a 
commission  to  try  the  case.  Before  the  case  was  decided, 
he  died,  in  1589. 

Whittingham,  hwit'ing-am,  (William  Rollinson,) 
D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born  in  New  York  in  1805, 
was  elected  in  1840  Bishop  of  Maryland.  He  has  pub- 
lished a  number  of  sermons,  and  other  works. 

Whit'ting-ton,  (Sir  Richard,)  a  famous  citizen  of 
London,  was  thrice  elected  lord  mayor  of  the  city.  He 
was  distinguished  as  a  benefactor  to  the  public.  Died 
after  1419. 

See  "  Life  of  Sir  R.  Whittington,"  London,  181 1. 

Whittington,  (Robert,)  an  English  grammarian 
an,*  Latin  poet,  born  at  Lichfield  about  1480.  He  was 
the  author  of  "  Epigrammata,"  and  other  Latin  verses 
of  great  elegance,  and  of  several  grammatical  works. 

W liit'tle-.sey,  (Frederick,)  an  American  jurist, 
born  in  Washington,  Connecticut,  in  1799.  He  settled 
at  Rochester,  New  York,  in  1822,  was  elected  a  member 
of  Congress  in  1831,  and  became  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  New  York.    Died  at  Rochester  in  185 1. 

Whit'ty,  (Edward  Michael,)  an  English  journalist, 
born  at  Liverpool  in  1827,  has  been  associate  editor  of 
"The  Times,"  the  "Daily  News,"  and  other  prominent 
journals. 

Whit'worth,  (Charles,)  an  English  diplomatist, 
born  in  Staffordshire  in  1670.  He  was  ambassador  to 
Russia  in  1 7 10,  and  was  afterwards  employed  in  im- 
portant missions  to  Prussia  and  the  Hague.  He  was 
minister-plenipotentiary  to  the  Congress  of  Cambray  in 
1722.  He  died  in  1725,  having  been  created  Baron 
Whitworth  of  Gal  way  in  1721.    His  "  Account  of  Russia 


WICQUEFORT 


as  it  was  in  the  Year  1 710"  was  published  after  his 
death,  by  Horace  Walpole. 

Whitworth,  (Charles,)  a  relative  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Kent  in  1754.  He  was  sent  in  1788  as  envoy- 
extraordinary  and  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Russia, 
remaining  in  that  country  until  1800,  when  he  was  sent 
on  a  mission  to  Copenhagen.  He  was  ambassador-extra- 
ordinary to  the  French  court  in  1802,  appointed  Viceroy 
of  Ireland  in  1813,  and  in  181 5  created  Baron  Aldbaston 
and  Earl  Whitworth.    Died  in  1825. 

Whitworth,  (Joseph,)  an  English  engineer  and 
mechanician,  born  at  Manchester  about  1805,  invented 
the  rifle  called  by  his  name.  He  also  made  great 
improvements  in  cannon  and  other  ordnance. 

Whytt,  (Robert,)  an  eminent  Scottish  physician, 
born  in  Edinburgh  in  1 7 14.  He  became  professor  of 
medicine  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1746,  first 
physician  to  the  king  in  Scotland  in  1 761,  and  president 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  in  1764.  He  pub- 
lished several  medical  works  and  Physiological  Essays. 
Died  in  1766. 

Wiarda,  we-aR'dl,  (Tilemann  Dothias,)  a  Dutch 
historical  writer,  born  at  Emden  in  1746,  was  the  author 
of  a  "  History  of  East  Friesland,"  and  other  similar 
works.    Died  in  1826. 

Wibald,  \^ee'bS.lt,  or  Wibold,  \^'ee'bolt,  written  also 
Guibald,  [in  Latin,  Wibol'dus,  Wibal'dus,  or  Gui- 
bal'dus,]  a  celebrated  monk,  born  at  or  near  Liege 
about  1097.  He  was  employed  in  important  affairs  by 
the  emperor  Lothaire  and  his  successor  Conrad.  He 
was  elected  Abbot  of  Corvey  or  Corbie,  in  Westphalia, 
in  1 147.    Died  in  11 58. 

Wibaldus.    See  Wibald. 

Wiberg,  vee'b^Rg,  (  Andreas,)D.D.,  a  Swedish  divine, 
born  in  Helsingland  in  1816,  was  originally  a  Lutheran, 
but  joined  the  Baptists  in  1852.  Having  resided  three 
years  in  the  United  States  of  America,  he  became,  after 
his  return,  pastor  of  the  Baptist  church  in  Stockholm, 
and  editor  of  "The  Evangelist." 

Wibold  or  Wiboldus.    See  Wibald. 

Wicar,  ve''ktR',  (Jean  Baptiste  Joseph,)  a  French 
historical  painter,  born  at  Lille  in  1762,  was  a  pupil  of 
David.  He  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  mature  life 
in  Italy,  and  made  a  valuable  collection  of  the  designs 
of  Italian  masters.  These  are  now  in  the  Museum  of 
Lille.    He  died  at  Rome  hi  1834. 

See  DuFAY,  "  Notice  de  Wicar,"  1844. 

Wicherly.    See  Wycherly. 

Wichern,  MK'eRn,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  D.D.,  an 
eminent  German  philanthropist  and  divine,  born  at 
Hamburg  in  1808.  He  founded  near  that  city,  in  1833, 
a  Rauhes-Haus,  or  reformatory  school  for  destitute  and 
vagrant  children,  and  soon  after  established  the  Insti- 
tute of  Brothers,  for  the  gratuitous  training  of  teachers 
for  such  schools.  He  was  also  chiefly  instrumental  in 
organizing  the  association  known  as  the  Inner  Mission 
of  the  German  Evangelical  Church,  of  which  he  published 
an  account  in  1849. 

Wichmann,  MK'mSn,  (Johann  Ernst,)  a  German 
physician,  born  at  Hanover  in  1740.  He  studied  at  Got- 
tingen,  and,  after  having  visited  London  and  Paris,  was 
appointed  court  physician  at  Hanover.  He  wrote  a 
valuable  work,  entitled  "  Ideas  on  Diagnosis,"  and  other 
medical  treatises.    Died  in  1804. 

Wichmann,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  German  sculptor, 
born  at  Potsdam  in  1775,  was  a  pupil  of  Schadow,  and 
afterwards  studied  in  Italy.  He  executed  a  number  of 
portrait-busts  and  statues ;  among  the  latter,  that  of  the 
Russian  empress  Alexandra  is  especially  admired.  Died 
in  1836. 

Wichmann,  (Ludwig  Wilhelm,)  a  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1785.  He  acquired  a  high 
reputation  in  the  same  department  of  sculpture.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  busts  of  Korner,  Schleiermacher, 
Hegel,  and  Henrietta  Sontag.  Wichmann  became  pro- 
fessor in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Berlin.    Died  in  1859. 

Wickham.    See  Wykeham. 

Wickliffe.    See  Wycliffe. 

Wiclef.    See  Wycliffe. 

Wicquefort,  de,  deh  wik'fort,  (or  v^k'foR',)  (Abra- 
ham,) a  Dutch  diplomatist,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1598. 


2266 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fSt;  mSt;  n3:;  good;  moon; 


WICQUEFORT 


2267 


WIELAND 


He  was  appointed  by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  his 
resident  at  the  French  court,  which  post  he  occupied 
for  upwards  of  thirty  years.  He  was  arrested  in  1658 
by  order  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  and  imprisoned  in  the 
Bastille  on  a  charge  of  conveying  secret  intelligence 
to  the  States-General.  Being  released  after  a  year's 
confinement,  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  country,  and 
on  his  return  to  Holland  was  made  historiographer  to 
the  States,  and  appointed  minister  to  the  Hague  by 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick-Liineburg.  In  1676  he  was 
sentenced  to  perpetual  imprisonment  on  a  charge  of 
unlawful  correspondence  with  the  enemies  of  his  country. 
He  effected  his  escape  in  1679,  and  died  about  1682. 
He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  The  Ambassador  and  his 
Functions,"  (1681,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  United  Prov- 
inces," etc.,  (both  in  French.) 

See  NiCERON,  "Memoires;"  Paquot,  '*  Memoires." 

Wicquefort,  de,  (Joachim,)  a  Dutch  diplomatist, 
born  at  Amsterdam,  was  a  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  employed  in  divers  negotiations  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  war  by  Bernard,  Duke  of  Saxe- Weimar. 
Died  in  1670. 

Wida.    See  Weiden. 

Widmanstadt,  wit^nin-stit',  (Johann  Albrecht,) 
a  German  Orientalist,  born  at  Nellingen,  near  Ulm,  in 
the  fifteenth  century.  He  studied  languages  in  Italy 
and  Spain,  and  returned  to  Germany  in  1541.  He  was 
appointed  a  member  of  the  council  of  the  Emperor  of 
Germany  in  1552.  He  produced  a  New  Testament  in 
Syriac,  (1555.)    Died  before  1559. 

See  Waldau,  "J.  A.  Widmanstadt,"  1796. 

Widmer,  ^it'mer,  (Samuel,)  a  Swiss  inventor  and 
manufacturer,  born  in  the  canton  of  Aargau  in  1767, 
was  a  nephew  of  Oberkampf.  He  had  a  manufactory  of 
calico  or  painted  muslins  at  Jouy,  and  invented  the  art 
of  printing  muslins  with  engraved  cylinders  of  copper. 
He  also  invented  a  machine  to  engrave  the  cylinders. 
Died  in  1821. 

Widnmann,  ^idn'mdn,  (Max,)  a  Bavarian  sculptor, 
born  at  Eichstadt  in  1812,  studied  at  Munich  under 
Schwanthaler.  He  afterwards  visited  Rome,  where  he 
executed  his  "  Shield  of  Hercules,"  which  is  ranked 
among  his  master-pieces.  Among  his  other  works  may 
be  named  statues  of  Ranch  and  of  Orlando  di  Lasso, 
and  the  group  of  "A  Hunter  Defending  his  Family  from 
a  Panther."  In  1848  he  succeeded  Schwanthaler  as 
professor  of  sculpture  in  the  Academy  of  Art  at  Munich. 

Widukind.    See  Wittekind. 

Wiebeking,  <Vee'beh-king',  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a 
celebrated  German  engineer  and  scientific  writer,  born 
at  Wollin,  in  Pomerania,  in  1762.  He  rose  through 
several  offices  to  be  general  inspector  of  roads  and 
canals  in  Bavaria  in  1805.  He  published  several  works 
of  great  merit,  among  which  we  may  name  his  "  Theo- 
retical and  Practical  Naval  Architecture,"  ( Wasser- 
baiikunst,)  (5  vols.,  1805,)  "Theoretical  and  Practical 
Civil  Architecture,"  (4  vols.,  1821,  with  109  plates,)  and 
"  Historical  Analysis  of  the  Monuments  of  Antiquity," 
etc.,  (1840,)  the  last-named  in  French.    Died  in  1842. 

Wiedemann,  A^ee'deh-m^n',  (Ludwig,)  a  German 
statuary  and  founder,  born  at  Nordlingen  in  1690 ;  died 
in  1754. 

Wieden  or  Wida.    See  Weiden. 

Wiegleb,  <veeG'lgp,  (Johann  Christian,)  a  Ger- 
man chemist,  born  at  Langensalza  in  1732.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Progress  and 
Discoveries  in  Chemistry  among  the  Ancients,"  (1791.) 
Died  in  1800. 

Wiegmann,  ^^eeo'mSn,  (Arend  Friedrich  Au- 
gust,) a  German  naturalist,  born  at  Brunswick  in  1802, 
published,  conjointly  with  Ruthe,  a  "  Manual  of  Zoology," 
(1832,)  and  founded  in  1835  a  journal  entitled  "Archives 
for  Natural  History."    Died  in  1841. 

Wieland,  wee'land,  [Ger.  pron.  v^ee'lint ;  Lat.  Wie- 
lan'dius,]  (Christoph  Martin,)  a  celebrated  German 
poet,  born  at  Oberholzheim,  near  Biberach,  in  Wiir- 
temberg,  September  5,  1733,  was  a  son  of  a  Protestant 
clergyman.  About  the  age  of  twelve  he  began  to 
write  verses  in  German  and  in  Latin.  He  was  sent  to 
the  Academy  of  Klosterbergen,  near  Magdeburg,  in  his 
fourteenth  year,  and  became  a  good  classical  scholar. 


Having  returned  to  his  father's  house  at  Biberach  in 
1750,  he  fell  in  love  with  his  cousin,  Sophia  von  Guter- 
mann,  who  was  afterwards  known  as  an  authoress  under 
the  name  of  Madame  de  Laroche.  Inspired  by  this 
passion,  he  wrote  a  didactic  poem  "  On  the  Nature 
of  Things,  or  the  Most  Perfect  World,"  (1751.)  He 
entered  the  University  of  Tubingen  as  a  student  of  law 
about  the  end  of  1 750;  but  he  gave  his  attention  more 
to  classical  literature  and  philosophy.  He  produced  in 
1752  "Ten  Moral  Epistles"  in  verse,  which  present  the 
first  indication  of  that  Socratic  and  Horatian  irony  in 
which  he  afterwards  excelled.  His  poem  "  Arminius" 
or  "Hermann"  (1752)  procured  for  him  the  friendship 
of  Bodmer,  who  invited  him  to  Zurich.  He  accepted 
the  invitation,  and  passed  several  years  in  the  house  of 
Bodmer,  who  exercised  a  temporary  influence  over  his 
literary  character.  Under  this  influence  Wieland  wrote 
"  The  Trial  of  Abraham,"  ("  Der  gepriifte  Abraham," 
1753,)  and  "Letters  from  the  Dead  to  their  Living 
Friends,"  (i753-) 

The  religious  enthusiasm  of  his  youth  was  followed 
by  a  reaction,  and  his  imagination  became  more  sober 
as  his  reason  was  more  developed.  In  1754  he  ceased 
to  reside  in  the  house  of  Bodmer ;  but  he  remained  at 
Zurich  about  four  years  longer,  as  tutor  in  private 
families.  In  1757  he  produced  five  cantos  of  "Cyrus," 
an  epic  poem,  which  he  never  finished.  He  afterwards 
wrote  a  beautiful  poem  entitled  "  Araspesand  Panthea," 
(1758.)  He  resided  a  short  time  at  Berne,  from  which 
he  removed  in  1760  to  Biberach,  where  he  became  inti- 
mate with  Count  Stadion,  and  renewed  his  intimacy  with 
his  cousin  Sophie,  who  had  been  married  to  M.  de  La- 
roche. Wieland  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  council 
of  Biberach,  or  director  of  the  chancery.  He  produced 
a  translation  of  Shakspeare's  dramas,  (8  vols.,  1762-66.) 
This  was  the  first  version  of  Shakspeare  that  had 
appeared  in  the  German  language.  Wieland  was  not 
specially  qualified  for  this  task,  his  genius  being  by  no 
means  Shakspearian. 

In  1765  he  married  a  lady  of  Augsburg,  with  whom 
he  lived  happily  for  many  years.  His  works  written 
after  1760  are,  unhappily,  tainted  with  sensuality  and 
epicureanism.  He  published  in  1766  his  best  novel, 
"  Agathon,"  which,  said  Lessing,  "  is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  books  of  our  age."  His  poem  entitled 
"  Musarion"  (1768)  was  admired  for  its  graceful  style 
and  ingenious  irony.  In  1769  he  became  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Erfurt.  He  produced  numerous  works  in 
rapid  succession,  and  was  much  censured  by  the  critics 
because  the  tone  of  his  later  works  was  not  so  religious 
as  that  of  his  first.  He  defended  himself  with  the 
weapons  of  satire  and  humorous  invective,  in  "  Love 
Accused,"  ("  Der  verklagte  Amor,")  and  "  The  Manu- 
script of  Diogenes  of  Sinope,"  (1770.)  On  account  ^ 
of  his  wit,  combined  with  a  certain  levity,  Wieland  has 
often  been  called  "the  German  Voltaire." 

Having  been  invited  by  the  Duchess  Amelia  of  Saxe- 
Weimar  to  direct  the  education  of  her  sons,  he  removed 
to  Weimar  in  1772.  He  produced,  in  1773,  "Alceste," 
an  opera,  which  had  great  success.  About  the  same 
date  he  founded  the  "  Deutscher  Mercur,"  a  monthly 
literary  periodical,  of  which  he  was  the  chief  or  sole 
editor  until  1790,  after  which  it  was  edited  by  Wieland 
and  Bottiger  about  fifteen  years.  He  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  Goethe  about  1775.  I"  ^773  published  a 
humorous  work  called  "The  People  of  Abdera,"  ("  Die 
Abderiten,")  and  in  1780  the  romantic  poem  of  "  Obe- 
ron,"  which  is  his  most  celebrated  poetical  production, 
and  which  was  praised  by  Goethe  as  a  master-piece.  It 
combines  a  variety  of  merits, — originality  of  personages, 
purity  of  language,  refinement  of  irony,  and  profound- 
ness of  sentiment. 

He  afterwards  produced  a  free  translation  of  the 
Epistles  and  Satires  of  Horace,  (1782-86,)  to  which  he 
added  valuable  commentaries.  He  also  translated  Lu- 
cian,  (1788-91.)  Among  his  later  works  is  "  Peregrinus 
Proteus,"  (1791.)  He  published  an  edition  of  his  com- 
plete works,  (36  vols.  4to,  1794-1802.)  Wieland  was 
the  father  of  fourteen  children.  In  1798  he  purchased  a 
farm  or  country-seat  at  Osmanstadt,  near  Weimar.  He 
enjoyed  in  his  later  years  a  competent  fortune,  and  the 


€  as  /t;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2l^==See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WIELING 


2268 


JVILBERFORCE 


society  of  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Herder.  Died  near 
Weimar  in  January,  1813. 

See  Gruber,  "  C.  M.  Wielaiid,"  4  vols.,  1818;  H.  Doring,  "C. 
M.  Wieland  :  biographisches  Denkmal,"  1840;  Cant6,  "  ^yieland 
ed  i  suoi  Contemporanei,"  1844:  H.  Doring,  "  C.  M.  Wielaiid's 
Biographie,"  1853  ;  Carl  P.  Conz,  "  Laiidatio  Wielandii,"  1820 ; 
Gervinus,  "  Geschichte  der  Deiitschen  Dichtung  ;"  Ladoucktte, 
"Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Wieland,"  1820;  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  Gene- 
rale;"  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  June,  1828. 

Wieling,  -^ee'ling,  (Abraham,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  in  Westphalia  in  1693.  He  became  professor  of 
law  at  Utrecht  in  1739.    Died  in  1746. 

Wienbarg,  v^een'blRO,  (Ludolf,)  a  German  litte- 
rateur and  journalist,  born  in  1803,  was  successively 
associate  editor  of  the  "  Deutschen  Revue,"  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  the  "  Hamburger  Neue  Zeitung,"  and 
other  periodicals.  He  has  also  published  "  Holland  in 
the  Year  1831  and  1832,"  and  other  works,  on  various 
subjects. 

Wier,  van,  vtn  weeR,  written  also  Weier,  (John,) 
a  distinguished  physician,  born  in  North  Brabant  in  15 15, 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  oppose  the  belief  in 
witchcraft,  in  condemnation  of  which  he  published  a 
work  entitled  "  De  Praestigiis  Daemonum  et  Incanta- 
tionibus  ac  Veneficiis,"  (1563.)    Died  in  1558. 

See  FoppENS,  "  Bibliotheca  Belgica." 

Wiertz,  weerts  or  veeRts,  (Antotne,)  an  eminent 
Belgian  painter,  born  at  Dinant  in  1806,  was  a  pupil  of 
Van  Bree.  He  painted  large  historical  and  religious 
pictures,  among  which  are  "The  Revolt  of  the  Angels" 
and  "  The  Triumph  of  Christ."  The  government  built 
for  him  a  large  atelier,  always  open  to  the  public.  He 
invented  a  new  and  secret  method  of  painting,  which,  it 
is  said,  unites  the  advantages  of  fresco-  and  oil-painting. 
Died  in  1865. 

Wieselgren,  vee'sel-gRin',  (Peter,)  a  distinguished 
Swedish  writer  and  philanthropist,  born  near  Wexio  in 
1800.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Lund,  and  in 
1834  settled  as  pastor  at  Westerstad,  in  Scania.  He 
became  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  temperance  reform 
and  of  the  Inner  Mission,  and  published,  besides  several 
religious  works,  a  history  of  Swedish  literature,  entitled 
*'Sveriges  Skona  Litteratur,"  (3  vols.,  1833.)  He  has 
also  been  a  principal  contributor  to  Palmblad's  "  Bio- 
graphical I^exicon  of  Celebrated  Swedes." 

Wietersheim,  von,  fon  ^ee'teRs-hlm'',  (Eduard,)  a 
German  statesman,  born  in  1789,  filled  several  offices 
under  the  Saxon  government,  and  was  appointed  in  1840 
minister  of  public  instruction. 

Wif'fen,  (Jeremiah  Holme,)  an  English  writer  and 
translator,  born  near  Woburn  in  1792.  Among  his 
original  works  are  poems  entitled  "  Aonian  Hours," 
"The  Luck  of  Eden  Hall,"  a  ballad,  "Julia  Alpinula, 
the  Captive  of  Stamboul,"  and  other  poems,  and  "  His- 
torical Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Russell,"  etc.  His 
translation  in  the  Spenserian  stanza  of  Tasso's  "Jeru- 
salem Delivered"  came  out  in  1830.  He  also  translated 
the  poems  of  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega  from  the  Spanish. 
He  held  for  many  years  the  office  of  private  secretary 
and  librarian  to  the  Duke  of  Bedford.    Died  in  1856. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Westminster  Re- 
view" for  1827;  "  Monthly  Review"  for  June,  1821. 

Wig'an,  (Alfred,)  a  popular  English  actor,  born  in 
Kent  in  1818. 

Wigand,  ^^ee'g^nt,  written  also  Vigand,  (Johann,) 
a  German  Lutheran  minister,  born  at  Mansfeld  in  1523. 
He  wrote  several  religious  works.    Died  in  1587. 

Wigand,  (Justus  Heinrich,)  a  German  physician, 
but  more  particularly  distinguished  as  an  accoucheur 
and  writer  on  obstetrics,  was  born  in  1769;  died  at 
Mannheim  in  1817. 

Wigand,  (Otto  Friedrich,)  a  German  publisher, 
born  at  Gottingen  in  1795.  Among  his  publications 
was  a  "  Conversations-Lexikon"  for  the  people,  begun 
in  1845. 

Wigand,  (Paul.)  a  German  jurist  and  historian,  born 
at  Cassel  in  1786/  He  published  a  treatise  "  On  the 
Secret  Tribunal  of  Westphalia,"  and  various  other  works 
on  German  history,  law,  and  antiquities. 

Wigard,  ■(^ee'gSRt,  (Franz,)  born  at  Mannheim,  in 
Germany,  in  1807,  studied  law  and  forest-science,  and 
various   other  branches,  at  Munich,  and  afterwards 


became  principal  of  the  Stenographic  Institute  at  Dres- 
den. In  1848  he  was  a  member  of  the  National  As- 
sembly at  Frankfort,  where  he  sat  on  the  left.  He 
published  a  "Manual  of  Stenography,"  (1852,)  and 
other  works. 

Wigbode,  '^ic'bo-deh,  a  German  poet  of  the  eighth 
century,  enjoyed  great  consideration  at  the  court  of 
Charlemagne. 

Wight,  wit,  (Orlando  Williams,)  an  American  lit- 
terateur, born  in  Alleghany  county.  New  York,  in  1824. 
He  translated  from  the  French  Cousin's  "  History  of 
Modern  Philosophy,"  (2  vols,,  1852,)  and  Pascal's 
"Thoughts,"  (1859,)  and  has  written  several  original 
works,  among  which  is  a  "  Life  of  Abelard  and  Heloise," 
(1853-) 

Wight,  wit,  (Robert,)  M.D.,  a  Scottish  botanist,  born 
about  1796.  He  went  to  India  about  1820  as  a  surgeon 
in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company.  He  pub- 
lished "  Illustrations'of  Indian  Botany,"  (2  vols.,  1838- 
50,)  and  "  Figures  of  East  Indian  Plants,"  ("  Icones 
Plantarum  Indiae  Orientalis,"  6  vols.,  1838-56.) 

Wightman,  wll'man,  (Sir  WiLLiAM,)'a  British  judge, 
born  in  Scotland  about  1784.  He  practised  law  with 
some  distinction,  and  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  court 
of  queen's  bench  in  1841.    Died  in  1863. 

Wignerod  or  Vignerod,  de,  deh  vfen'yeh-rod', 
(Francois,)  a  French  general,  a  nephew  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  defeated  a  Spanish  fleet  near  Genoa  in  1638. 
He  died  in  1646,  aged  thirty-seven.  He  was  grand- 
father of  Marshal  Richelieu. 

Wikstrbm  or  Wikstroem,  vik'stRom,  (Johan 
Emanuel,)  a  Swedish  botanist,  born  at  Wenersborg  in 
1789.  He  became  professor  of  botany  at  Stockholm  in 
1822,  and  wrote  several  botanical  works.    Died  in  1856. 

Wil'ber-force,  (Edward,)  a  writer,  a  son  of  the 
following,  was  born  about  1836.  He  published  "Brazil 
viewed  through  a  Naval  Telescope,"  and  contributed  to 
several  periodicals. 

Wilberforce,  (Robert  Isaac,)  an  English  divine 
and  writer,  son  of  the  celebrated  William  Wilberforce, 
was  born  at  Clapham  Common  in  1802.  He  studied  at 
Oriel  College,  Oxford,  and  was  made  Archdeacon  of  the 
East  Riding  of  Yorkshire  in  1840.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  a  historical  compendium,  entitled  "  The  Five 
Empires,"  (1840,)  "  Doctrine  of  the  Incarnation,"  (1848,) 
and  a  "History  of  Erastianism,"  (1851.)  In  1854  he 
resigned  his  office,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.    Died  in  Italy  in  1857. 

Wilberforce,  (Samuel,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1805,  studied  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  and 
subsequently  rose  through  various  preferments  to  be 
Bishop  of  Oxford,  (1845,)  'ord  high  almoner  of  the  queen, 
(1847,)  and  Bishop  of  Winchester,  (1869.)  He  published 
"Sermons  at  Oxford,"  (1839,)  "  Eucharistica,"  (1839,) 
"  Rocky  Island,  and  other  Parables,"  (1840,)  "History 
of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  America,"  (1844,)  and,  in 
conjunction  with  his  brother,  the  "  IJfe  and  Correspond- 
ence of  William  Wilberforce,"  (1838.) 

Wilberforce,  (William,)  an  illustrious  English  phi- 
lanthropist and  statesman,  born  at  Hull  on  the  24th  of 
August,  1759,  was  a  son  of  Robert  Wilberforce,  a  mer- 
chant, who  died  in  1768.  When  he  was  about  twelve 
years  old,  he  felt  deep  religious  impressions,  which, 
according  to  his  own  account,  his  friends  spared  no  pains 
to  stifle.  He  entered  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
in  October,  1776,  and  became  a  general  favourite  among 
the  students.  "  There  was  no  one,"  says  T.  Gisborne, 
"at  all  like  him  for  powers  of  entertainment."  Wil- 
berforce informs  us  that  he  was  a  good  classic,  but  he 
neglected  mathematics  almost  entirely.  Before  he  was 
twenty  years  old  he  inherited  an  ample  fortune.  He 
formed  at  Cambridge  a  slight  acquaintance  with  William 
Pitt,  of  whom  he  became  an  intimate  friend  soon  after 
he  left  college.  Having  resolved  to  enter  public  life,  he 
offered  himself  as  a  candidate  and  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  Parliament  for  Hull  in  1780.  This  election  cost 
him  over  ;^8ooo.  He  entered  Parliament  as  an  o])ponent 
of  the  American  war  and  of  Lord  North's  administra- 
tion ;  but  he  was  rather  an  independent  member  than  a 
partisan.  After  Pitt  became  a  cabinet  minister,  in  1782, 
he  often  lodged  in  Wilberforce's  villa  at  Wimbledon. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,    short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  f^ll,  f^t;  m§t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


WILBERFORCE 


2269 


WILCOX 


"  With  talents  of  the  highest  order,  and  eloquence  sur- 
passed by  few,  he  entered  upon  public  life  possessed  of 
the  best  personal  connections  in  his  intimate  friendship 
with  Mr.  Pitt."  ("Life  of  Wilberforce,"  by  his  sons.) 
In  1783  he  visited  France,  in  company  with  Mr.  Pitt. 
He  made  a  famous  speech  against  the  coalition  of  Lord 
North  and  Mr.  Fox,  at  York,  in  March,  1784,  and,  as  a 
supporter  of  Pitt,  was  elected  a  member  for  Yorkshire. 
He  passed  part  of  the  years  1784  and  1785  in  a  conti- 
nental tour  with  Isaac  Milner,  during  which  he  became 
deeply  interested  in  vital  religion.  On  his  return  he 
commenced,  in  November,  1785,  a  private  journal,  in 
which  he  kept  a  record  of  his  spiritual  conflicts  and 
devotional  exercises.  '*  He  now  began,"  say  his  sons, 
"to  open  to  his  friends  the  change  which  had  passed 
upon  him."  In  a  letter  to  Mr.  Pitt,  he  wrote,  "I  can  no 
more  be  so  much  of  a  party  man  as  I  have  been  before." 

Pitt's  answer  was  full  of  kindness,"  but  "  he  tried  to 
reason  me  out  of  my  convictions." 

Among  the  results  of  his  conversion  was  the  devotion 
of  his  life  to  the  arduous  enterprise  of  the  abolition  of 
the  slave-trade.  In  1787  Thomas  Clarkson,  Granville 
Sharp,  and  ten  others  formed  a  committee  to  promote 
the  suppression  of  the  trade,  in  co-operation  with  Wil- 
berforce, who  also  received  from  Mr.  Pitt  a  promise 
of  assistance.  In  May,  1788,  Pitt  moved  a  resolution 
binding  the  House  to  consider  the  subject  of  the  slave- 
trade  early  in  the  ensuing  session.  Wilberforce  made  a 
long  and  able  speech  on  the  subject  in  May,  1789.  "  He 
was  supported  in  the  noblest  manner  by  Mr.  Pitt,  Mr. 
Burke,  and  Mr.  Fox."  The  movement,  however,  en- 
countered long  and  bitter  opposition.  He  opened  the 
campaign  in  1790  by  a  motion,  which  was  carried  on  the 
27th  of  January,  for  referring  to  a  special  committee  the 
examination  of  witnesses.  After  the  end  of  the  session 
he  made  himself  master  of  the  vast  mass  of  evidence 
which  had  been  collected  on  the  subject.  In  April, 
1 791,  the  motion  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  was 
rejected,  eighty-eight  members  voting  for  it,  and  one 
hundred  and  sixty-three  against  it. 

The  war  against  France,  which  he  opposed,  in  1792, 
caused  the  first  decided  political  separation  between  him 
and  Pitt.  He  had  the  courage  to  withstand  the  popular 
current,  and  offended  many  of  his  friends  by  moving 
an  amendment  to  the  address  on  the  war  about  the  end 
of  1794.  In  February,  1796,  he  again  brought  in  an 
abolition  bill,  which  was  defeated  by  a  small  majority, 
seventy-four  to  seventy. 

He  was  re-elected  a  member  for  the  county  of  York 
in  1796.  In  1797  he  married  Barbara  Ann  Spooner, 
and  published  a  work  entitled  a  "Practical  View  of  the 
Prevailing  Religious  System  of  Professed  Christians 
contrasted  with  Real  Christianity,"  which  was  received 
with  great  favour.  It  ran  through  five  editions  before 
the  end  of  the  year.  In  1826  fifteen  editions  had  been 
issued  in  England,  besides  twenty-five  editions  in  the 
United  States.  In  April,  1798,  he  renewed  his  motion 
for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  and  was  defeated  by 
a  majority  of  four  votes.  In  March,  1799,  he  made  a 
speech  in  favour  of  immediate  abolition,  which  was 
rejected  by  a  vote  of  eighty-four  against  fifty-four.  He 
was  a  liberal  contributor  to  various  charitable  institu- 
tions, and  gave  privately  much  money  to  the  poor.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  foundation  of  the  Bible 
Society  in  1803.  In  1804  he  procured  the  assent  of  the 
House  of  Commons  to  the  first  reading  of  his  abolition 
bill.  Pitt  pressed  earnestly  for  a  postponement  of  the 
abolition  question,  but  Wilberforce  said  he  would  never 
"make  that  holy  cause  subservient  to  the  interests  of 
party."  On  the  second  re*ading  he  was  defeated  by 
seventy-seven  to  seventy.  The  royal  family  opposed 
abolition,  but  the  ministers  Fox  and  Grenville,  who  came 
into  power  in  1806,  cordially  supported  the  measure, 
which  triumphed  at  last  in  February,  1807.  On  the 
final  passage  of  the  bill  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
two  hundred  and  eighty-three  voted  for  it,  and  sixteen 
against  it.  "The  whole  House,  surprised  into  a  for- 
getfulness  of  its  ordinary  habits,  burst  forth  into 
acclamations  of  applause." 

He  continued  to  represent  Yorkshire  until  1812, 
having  been  elected  five  times  without  a  contest,  and 


he  was  chosen  a  member  for  Bramber  in  that  year.  He 
supported  the  motion  for  the  emancipation  of  Roman 
Catholics  in  1813,  though  "all  the  religious  people  were 
on  the  other  side."  In  1814  he  dined  in  London  with 
Madame  de  Stael,  who  afterwards  said,  "  Mr.  Wilber- 
force is  the  best  converser  I  have  met  with  in  this 
country.  I  have  always  heard  that  he  was  the  most 
religious,  but  I  now  find  that  he  is  the  wittiest,  man  in 
England."  About  1818  he  began  to  agitate  the  eman- 
cipation of  the  West  Indian  slaves,  on  which  he  wrote 
an  Appeal  to  the  Nation  in  1823.  On  account  of  his 
declining  health,  he  intrusted  the  management  of  the 
cause  in  the  House  of  Commons  to  T.  Fowell  Buxton. 
He  retired  from  Parliament  in  1825,  and  survived  until 
the  bill  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  was  read  a  second 
time.  Three  days  after  this  event,  he  died,  in  London, 
in  July,  1833. 

Wilberforce  was,  according  to  Sir  James  Mackintosh, 
"the  very  model  of  a  reformer.  Ardent  without  turbu- 
lence, mild  without  timidity  or  coldness  ;  neither  yielding 
to  difficulties,  nor  disturbed  or  exasperated  by  them  ; 
.  .  .  just  and  charitable  even  to  his  most  malignant 
enemies,  unwearied  in  every  experiment  to  disarm  the 
prejudices  of  his  more  rational  and  disinterested  oppo- 
nents, and  supporting  the  zeal  without  dangerously  ex- 
citing the  passions  of  his  adherents,"  Again  he  says, 
alluding  to  Wilberforce's  universal  sympathies,  "I  never 
saw  one  who  touched  life  at  so  many  points."  "  The 
basis  of  Mr.  Wilberforce's  natural  character,"  says  Sir 
James  Stephen,  "  was  an  intense  fellow-feeling  with  other 
men.  No  one  more  readily  adopted  the  interests,  sym- 
pathized with  the  affections,  or  caught  even  the  transient 
emotions  of  those  with  whom  he  associated.  .  .  .  The 
most  somnolent  company  was  aroused  and  gladdened 
by  his  presence."  "Contemporary  with  Lord  Grenville 
and  Mr.  Pitt,"  says  Lord  Brougham,  "appeared  a  man 
in  some  respects  more  illustrious  than  either, — one  who, 
among  the  greatest  benefactors  of  the  human  race,  holds 
an  exalted  station, — one  whose  genius  was  elevated  by 
his  virtues  and  exalted  by  his  piety.  .  .  .  His  eloquence 
was  of  a  very  high  order.  It  was  persuasive  and  pathetic 
in  an  eminent  degree  ;  but  it  was  occasionally  bold  and 
impassioned,  animated  with  the  inspiration  which  deep 
feeling  alone  can  breathe  into  spoken  thought."  ("  States- 
men of  the  Time  of  George  III.") 

See  "The  Life  of  William  Wilberforce,"  by  his  sons,  Robert  I. 
and  Samuel  Wilberforce,  1838;  "Correspondence  of  William 
Wilberforce,"  2  vols.,  1840:  J.  Colquhoun,  "W.  Wilberforce,"  1866; 
Brougham,  "  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.,"  vol.  ii.  ;  J.  S. 
Harford,  "  Recollections  of  William  Wilberforce,"  1865  ;  "  Edm- 
bnrgh  Review"  for  April,  1807,  and  April,  1838;  "Fraser's  Maga- 
zine" for  September,  1838  ;  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Wilbord.    See  Willehrod. 

WiPbur,  (Hervey  Backus,)  M.D.,  an  American 
physician  and  philanthropist,  born  at  Wendell,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1820,  was  the  founder  of  schools  for  idiots 
in  the  United  States.  On  the  establishment  in  1854  of 
the  New  York  State  Asylum  for  Idiots  at  Syracuse,  he 
was  appointed  its  t-uperintendent. 

Wilbur,  (John,)  a  minister  of  the  society  of  Friends, 
or  Quakers,  born  in  Hopkinton,  Rhode  Island,  in  1774. 
He  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition  to  Joseph 
John  Gurney,  a  celebrated  minister  of  the  same  society, 
who  visited  New  England  in  1838,  and  whom  he  charged 
with  unsound  doctrines.  He  attached  a  party  to  him- 
self, but,  being  in  a  small  mmority,  he  was  disowned  or 
excommunicated  by  the  New  England  Yearly  Meeting 
in  1843.  fl's  adherents  in  New  England,  and  in  other 
parts  of  the  United  States,  are  popularly  designated  as 
"  Wilburites."    Died  in  1846. 

See  "Journal,  etc.  of  John  Wilbur,"  Providence,  1859. 

Wilbye,  wiKbe,  ?  (John,)  an  eminent  English  com- 
poser, lived  about  1570.  His  works  are  principally 
madrigals,  which  are  ranked  among  the  most  exquisite 
coinpositions  of  the  kind. 

WiPcocks,  (Joseph,)  an  English  writer,  born  in 
1723,  was  a  son  of  the  Bishop  of  Rochester.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  Roman  Conversations." 
Died  in  1791. 

WiPcox,  (Carlos,)  an  American  poet,  born  at  New- 
port, New  Hampshire,  in  October,  1794.  He  studied 
theology  at  Andover,  began  to  preach  in  1819,  and  pub- 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (^[^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WILCOX 


2270 


WILKES 


lished  in  1822  the  first  book  of  a  poem  called  "The 
Age  of  Benevolence."  He  was  ordained  minister  at 
Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  1824,  and  soon  obtained  a 
high  reputation  for  eloquence.  He  produced  in  1824 
"The  Religion  of  Taste,"  a  poem.    Died  in  1827. 

See  "Remaius  of  Carlos  Wilcox,"  1828 ;  R.  W.  Griswoi.d, 
''Poets  and  Poetry  of  America." 

Wilcox  or  Willcox,  (Orlando  B.,)  an  American 
general,  born  at  Detroit  about  1824,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1847.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Bull  Run, 
JuJy  21,  1861,  was  taken  prisoner  in  that  battle,  and 
detained  a  year  or  more.  He  afterwards  served  at 
South  Mountain,  September,  1862. 

Wild,  Mlt,  (Franz,)  a  German  opera-singer  of  high 
reputation,  born  at  Hollabrunn,  in  Lower  Austria,  in 
1792  ;  died  January  i,  i860. 

Wild,  (Henry,)  sometimes  called  "the  Learned 
Tailor,"  was  born  in  Norwich,  England,  about  1684. 
He  studied  Latin  and  Greek  at  the  grammar-school  of 
his  native  town^  and  afterwards,  while  working  at  his 
trade,  mastered  the  Hebrew,  Arabic,  Syriac,  and  other 
Oriental  tongues.  He  subsequently  obtained  an  office 
in  the  Bodleian  Library,  Oxford.  He  translated  from 
the  Arabic  the  legend  entitled  "Mohammed's  Journey 
to  Heaven."    Died  about  1730. 

See  "  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  vol.  i.,  1839. 

Wild,  [Lat.  Fe'rus,]  (Johann,)  a  German  monk  and 
writer,  born  near  Mentz  about  1485.  He  published 
"  Commentaries  on  Scripture,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  I  5c;4. 

Wild,  (Robert,)  an  English  poet  and  dissenting  min- 
ister, born  in  1609.  He  became  rector  of  Aynhoe  about 
1648,  and  was  ejected  in  1662.  Among  his  works  is  a 
"Northern  Tour,"  ("Iter  Boreale.")    Died  in  1679. 

Wilda,  -^iKda,  (Wilhelm  Eduard,)  a  distinguished 
German  jurist,  born  at  Altona  in  1800,  became  in  1854 
professor  of  German  law  at  Kiel.  He  published  sev- 
eral legal  works.    Died  in  1856. 

Wiid'bore,  (Charles,)  an  ingenious  English  mathe- 
matician, born  in  Nottinghamshire,  became  curate  of 
Sulney.    He  died  at  an  advanced  age  in  1802  or  1803. 

Wilde,  vil'deh,  (Jakob,)  a  Swedish  historian,  born  in 
Courland  in  1679.  He  published,  besides  other  useful 
works,  "  Pragmatic  History  of  Sweden,"  ("  Sueciae  His- 
toria  pragmatica,"  1731.)    Died  in  1755. 

Wilde,  wild,  (Richard  Henry,)  an  author  and  law- 
yer, born  in  Dublin  in  1789,  was  a  child  when  his  parents 
emigrated  to  the  United  States.  He  studied  law,  was 
admitted  to  the  Georgia  bar  in  1809,  and  elected  to  Con- 
gress in  1815.  He  also  represented  a  district  of  Georgia 
in  Congress  from  1828  to  1835,  and  acquired  distinction 
as  an  orator.  In  1835  he  visited  Europe,  where  he 
passed  about  five  years.  He  published  in  1842  "Con- 
jectures and  Researches  concerning  the  Love,  Madness, 
and  Imprisonment  of  Torquato  Tasso,"  which,  says  R. 
W.  Griswold,  "  is  a  work  of  extraordinary  merit  and  of 
great  interest  to  all  lovers  of  literary  history,"  He  also 
wrote  a  number  of  popular  lyrics.  He  became  professor 
of  common  law  in  the  University  of  Louisiana  in  1844. 
Died  in  New  Orleans  in  1847. 

See  Griswoi.d's  "Prose  Writers  of  America"  and  "Poets  and 
Poetry  of  America." 

Wilde,  (Thomas.)    See  Truro,  Lord. 

Wildenow.    See  Willdenow. 

Wildens,  wlKdens,  (Jan,)  a  Flemish  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp.  He  was  employed  by  Rubens 
to  paint  backgrounds  for  his  pictures.    Died  in  1644. 

Wild'er,  (Marshall  Pinckney,)  an  American  mer- 
chant and  eminent  horticulturist,  born  at  Rindge,  New 
Hampshire,  in  1798,  became  in  1825  a  re.-ident  of  Bos- 
ton. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Massachusetts 
Horticultural  Society,  of  which  he  was  for  many  years 
president.  He  was  the  first  president  of  the  United 
States  Agricultural  Society,  and  also  for  many  years 
president  of  the  American  Pomological  Society. 

See  Livingston,  "  Portraits  of  Eminent  Americans." 

Wil'ford,  (Francis,)  a  distinguished  officer  and 
Oriental  scholar,  born  in  Hanover,  was  sent  in  1781  as 
lieutenant  of  reinforcements  to  the  British  troops  in 
India,  where  he  acquired  the  language  of  the  country, 


and  became  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Asiatic  So- 
ciety. He  was  the  author  of  numerous  contributions  to 
the  "  Asiatic  Researches."    Died  in  1822. 

Wil'fred,  [Lat.  Wilfre'dus,]  Saint,  a  celebrated 
Saxon  prelate,  of  noble  birth,  was  born  in  Bernicia  in 
634  a.d.  He  visited  Rome  at  an  early  age  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  information  on  disputed  theological 
points,  and,  after  his  return,  received  from  the  King  of 
Northumbria  a  grant  of  land  and  a  monastery  at  Ripon. 
Having  been  ordained  a  priest  in  664,  he  attended  the 
conference  at  Whitby  the  same  year,  when  the  con- 
troversy between  the  Scottish  clergy  and  the  rest  of 
Christendom  on  the  observance  of  Easter  was  decided 
against  the  former.  He  was  soon  after  appointed  Bishop 
of  York  by  Alchfred,  King  of  Northumbria,  whose  suc- 
cessor, Egfred,  fearing  the  ambition  of  Wilfred,  divided 
the  bishopric  into  three.  He  was  involved  in  a  pro- 
tracted contest  for  the  see  of  York,  but  eventually 
retired  to  a  monastery,  where  he  died  in  709  A.D. 

See  Mabilt.on,  "Acta  Sanctorum,"  etc. 

Wilfredus.    See  Wilfred. 

Wilhelm,  the  German  of  William,  (which  see.) 

Wilhelm,  MKhSlm,  (Janus,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Lubeck  in  1554.  He  published  a  work  "On 
the  Magistrates  of  the  Roman  Republic,"  (1577,)  "  Veri- 
similium  Libri  tres,"  (1582,)  and  other  works,  which 
evince  much  critical  sagacity.    Died  at  Bourges  in  1584. 

Wilhem,  vS'lem',  (Guillaume  Louis  Bocquillon 
— bo'ke'y6N',)  a  French  composer,  born  in  Paris  in 
1781.  He  became  professor  of  harmony  at  the  Lycee' 
Napoleon  in  1810,  and  applied  Lancaster's  method  of 
mutual  instruction  to  teach  singing  in  schools.  He  com- 
posed music  for  some  songs  of  Beranger.    Died  in  1842. 

See  JoMARD,  "  Discours  snr  ia  Vie  de  G.  L.  B.  Wilhem,"  1842; 
A.  DE  Lafage,  "Notice  sur  Wilhem,"  1844. 

Wilken,  MKken,  (Friedrich,)  a  German  historian 
and  Oriental  scholar,  born  at  Natzeburg  in  1 777.  He 
studied  at  Gottingen,  became  professor  of  history  at 
Heidelberg  in  1805,  and  was  appointed  chief  librarian 
and  professor  in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  181 7.  He 
published  a  "History  of  the  Crusades  according  to 
Oriental  and  Western  Accounts,"  (7  vols.,  1807-32,)  and 
several  other  works.    Died  in  1840. 

Wilkes,  wflks,  (Chari,es,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1801,  entered  the  navy 
in  1816,  and  became  a  lieutenant  in  1826.  He  com- 
manded an  exploring  expedition  which  was  sent  out  by 
the  United  States  government  to  the  Antarctic  regions 
in  1838.  He  discovered  the  Antarctic  Continent,  ex- 
plored many  islands  and  coasts,  completed  a  voyage 
round  the  world,  and  returned  in  June,  1842.  He  pub- 
lished a  narrative  of  this  expedition,  in  5  vols.,  (1845.) 
He  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1855.  I"  November, 
1861,  he  captured  J,  M.  Mason  and  J.  Slidell  from  the 
British  steam-packet  Trent.  For  this  act  he  received 
the  thanks  of  Congress  ;  but  his  conduct  was  not  ap- 
proved by  the  President.  He  was  promoted  to  be  a 
commodore  in  1862,  after  which  he  commanded  a  squad- 
ron in  the  West  Indies.  In  July,  1866,  he  was  made  a 
rear-admiral. 

Wilkes,  w!lks,  (John,)  a  celebrated  English  politician, 
born  in  London  in  1727,  was  educated  at  Leyden,  and 
became  a  good  classical  scholar.  His  manners  were 
fascinating,  and  his  habits  dissolute.  In  1749  he  married 
a  Miss  Mead,  a  rich  heiress,  ten  years  older  than  himself. 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  Parliament  for  Aylesbury  in 
1757,  and  re-elected  in  1761.  In  1762  he  founded  the 
"North  Briton,"  a  journal  which  assailed  Lord  Bute's 
administration  with  great  animosity  and  rendered  Bute 
so  unpopular  that  he  resigned  office.  "  Wilkes  had," 
says  Macaulay,  "the  requisites  for  the  character  of 
demagogue.  He  was  clever,  courageous,  unscrupulous. 
He  was  a  good  scholar,  expert  in  resource,  humorous, 
witty,  and  a  ready  master  of  the  arts  of  conversation. 
He  could  'abate  and  dissolve  a  pompous  gentleman' 
with  singular  felicity."  (Review  of  the  "  Works  of  Charles 
Churchill,"  1845.)  In  No.  xlv.  of  the  "North  Briton," 
published  in  April,  1763,  he  accused  the  king  of  an 
"infamous  fallacy"  which  appeared  in  the  speech  from 
the  throne.  For  this  offence  he  was  committed  to  the 
Tower  on  a  general  warrant  issued  by  Lord  Halifax, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long-;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fSt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


IflLKIE 


2271 


WILKINSON 


secretary  of  state.  Having  been  brought  into  the  court 
of  common  pleas  by  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  he  was 
discharged  in  May,  1763.  He  was  convicted  of  libel  by 
the  House  of  Commons,  expelled  in  January,  1764,  and, 
having  absented  himself  from  the  island,  was  outlawed. 
He  returned  in  1768,  and  was  elected  member  for  Mid- 
dlesex, but  was  arrested,  and  punished  by  fines  and 
imprisonment.  This  persecution  rendered  him  a  great 
favourite  with  the  people.  He  was  re-elected  by  the 
voters  of  Middlesex  in  February,  1769;  but  the  House 
of  Commons  declared  that  he  was  incapable  of  sitting 
in  that  Parliament.  In  1769  he  obtained  a  verdict  of  four 
thousand  pounds  against  Lord  Halifax  for  false  imprison- 
ment. Great  excitement  was  produced  by  the  repeated 
expulsion  or  exclusion  of  the  popular  champion  from 
the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  chosen  lord  mayor 
of  London  in  1774,  and  a  member  for  Middlesex  in  the 
same  year.  The  ministry  then  ceased  to  defy  the  people, 
and  permitted  him  to  take  his  seat.  He  was  afterwards 
a  member  of  Parliament  for  many  years,  and  was  a 
strenuous  opponent  of  the  American  war.  Died  in  1797. 

"His  name,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "has  been  sounded 
from  pole  to  pole  as  the  phoenix  of  convivial  felicity." 
Among  the  anecdotes  related  of  him  is  the  following  : 
George  IH.  once  inquired  of  him,  "  How  is  your  friend 
Serjeant  Glynn  ?"  and  received  this  answer  :  "  He  is  not 
my  friend;  he  is  a  Wilkesite,  which  I  never  was." 

See  Cradock,  "Life  of  John  Wilkes,"  1773  ;  J.  Almon,  "  Life  of 
John  Wilkes,"  1805;  "Wilkes's  Correspondence  with  his  Friends," 
2  vols.,  1805;  "Monthly  Review"  for  November,  1777;  "Edinburgh 
Review"  for  January,  1805. 

Wilkie,  wiKke,  (vSir  David,)  a  celebrated  Scottish 
painter,  born  in  Fifeshire  in  1805.  He  studied  for  a  time 
in  the  Trustees'  Academy  at  Edinburgh,  and  in  1805 
entered  the  Royal  Academy,  London,  having  previously 
executed  several  works  of  great  merit.  His  "  Village 
Politicians,"  exhibited  in  1806,  met  with  enthusiastic  ad- 
miration, and  at  once  established  the  reputation  of  the 
artist.  This  picture,  which  was  sold  to  the  Earl  of  Mans- 
field, was  succeeded  by  "The  Blind  Fiddler,"  "The 
Rent-Day,"  "The  Card-Player,"  "The  Cut  Finger," 
"The  Jews-Harp,"  "The  Village  Festival,"  (which 
brought  eight  hundred  guineas,  and  is  now  in  the  Na- 
tional Gallery,)  "The  Wardrobe  Ransacked,"  and  other 
works  of  a  similar  character.  He  was  elected  a  Royal 
Academician  in  1811,  and  in  1813  exhibited  his  "Blind- 
man's  Buff,"  painted  for  the  prince-regent.  In  1814  he 
visited  Paris,  and  after  his  return  produced  his  "  Dis- 
training for  Rent,"  "  The  Sheep-Washing,"  "  The  Penny 
Wedding,"  "The  Reading  of  the  Will,"  (for  the  King  of 
Bavaria,)  "  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  his  Family,"  and  "  Chel- 
sea Pensioners  listening  to  the  News  of  Waterloo," 
which  ranks  among  his  master-pieces.  In  1825  he  visited 
the  continent,  and  spent  three  years  in  studying  the 
works  of  the  Italian,  Spanish,  and  German  artists.  He 
succeeded  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence  as  painter-in-ordinary 
to  the  king,  in  1830,  and  in  1832  produced  his  "John 
Knox  preaching  the  Reformation  in  Saint  Andrew's," 
"  Benvenuto  Cellini  presenting  a  Silver  Vase  of  his  Own 
Workmanship  to  Pope  Paul  HI.,"  and  various  other 
pictures,  showing  the  results  of  his  foreign  studies,  but 
which  are  esteemed  much  inferior  to  his  earlier  works. 
In  1840  he  set  out  on  a  tour  to  Egypt  and  Palestine  ; 
but  his  health,  which  had  been  long  declining,  grew 
worse,  and  he  died  on  the  voyage  home,  off  Gibraltar,  in 
June,  1 841. 

See  Allan  Cunningham,  "Life  of  Sir  David  Wilkie,"  3  vols., 
1843;  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement;)  William  Jerdan,  "Men  I  have  known,"  London, 
1866;  "  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1843  ;  "Eraser's 
Magazine"  for  October,  1841,  and  September,  1842. 

Wilkie,  (William,)  D.D.,  a  Scottish  poet  and 
divine,  born  in  Linlithgowshire  in  1721,  became  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy  at  Saint  Andrew's.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled  "  The  Epigoniad," 
(on  the  sacking  of  Thebes  by  the  Epigoni,)  which  en- 
joyed for  a  time  great  popularity  among  some  of  the 
Scottish  literati,  who,  somewhat  absurdly,  styled  Wilkie 
"the  Scottish  Homer."  It  has  since  fallen  into  utter 
neglect.    Died  in  1772. 

Wil'kins,  (Sir  Charles,)  a  distinguished  English 
Orientalist,  born  at  Frome,  in  Somersetshire,  in  1749. 
He  went  to  India  in  1770  as  a  writer  on  the  Bengal 


establishment,  and  learned  Arabic,  Persian,  and  other 
languages  used  in  the  East  Indies.  He  applied  himself 
to  the  study  of  Sanscrit  with  great  silccess.  In  1784, 
in  conjunction  with  Sir  William  Jones,  he  founded  the 
Literary  Society  of  Calcutta.  He  appears  to  have  been 
the  first  European  who  made  translations  from  the 
original  Sanscrit.*  He  published  in  1785  an  English 
translation  of  the  "  Bhagavat  Gita,"  perhaps  the  most 
interesting  part  of  the  great  Hindoo  epic  entitled 
"  Mahabharata,"  and  two  years  afterwards  gave  to  the 
world  a  translation  of  the  "  Hitopadesa."  He  returned, 
to  England  about  1786,  became  librarian  to  the  East 
India  Company  in  1801,  and  published  a  "Sanscrit 
Grammar,"  (1808.)    Died  in  1836. 

Wilkins,  (David,)  an  English  divine,  born  in  i68'5, 
became  Archdeacon  of  Suffolk.  He  published  "  Leges 
Saxonicse,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1745. 

Wilkins,  (John,)  a  learned  English  bishop,  born  in 
Northamptonshire  in  1614.  He  studied  at  Magdalene 
Hall,  Oxford,  and,  having  taken  orders,-  was  chosen  in 
1648  warden  of  Wadham  College..  He  married  about 
1656  Robina,  a  sister  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  ahd  was  ap- 
pointed in  1659  master  of  Trinity  College^  Cambridge. 
He  lost  this  office  at  the  restoration,  but  he  was  naade 
rector  of  Saint  Lawrence,  Jewry,  by  Charles  II.  ,in  1662. 
He  soon  after  became  one  of  the-council  of  the  Royal 
Society,  then  lately  formed,  and  of  which'  he  had  been 
one  of  the  originators.  He  was  created  Bishop  of 
Chester  in  166S.  He  published,  among  other  "works,  a 
"Discourse  concerning  a  New  Planet,"  etc.,  (1640,) 
"  Mercury,  or  the  Secret  and  Swift  Messenger,"  "Mathe- 
matical Magic,"  etc.,  (1648,)  and  "Discourse  concerning 
the  Beauty  of  Providence  in  All  the  Rugged  Passages 
of  it,"  (1649.)  He  died  in  1672.  A  collection  of  his 
sermons  was  published  in  1682  by  Archbishop  Tillotson, 
who  had  married  his  step-daughter. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica;"  Niceron,  "Memoires." 

Wilkins,  (William,)  a  distinguished  English  archi- 
tect, born  at  Norwich  in  1778.  He  visited  Italy  and 
Greece  in  1801,  and  published,  after  his  return,  his 
"  Antiquities  of  Magna  Graecia."  Among  his  best  works 
are  the  fa9ade  of  London  University,  now  called  Uni- 
versity £ollege.  Saint  George's  Hospital,  Hyde  Park 
Corner,  and  the  alterations  of  Corpus  Christi,  Trinity, 
and  King's  Colleges,  Cambridge.  He  also  published 
"  Atheniensia,  or  Remarks  on  the  Buildings  and  An- 
tiquities of  Athens."    Died  in  1839. 

Wil'kins,  (William,)  an  American  Senator,  born 
in  Pennsylvania  in  1 779.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States  in  183 1,  was  sent  as  minister  to 
Russia  in  1834,  and  was  secretary  of  war  from  February, 
1844,  to  March,  1845.  resided  in  or  near  Pittsburg, 
where  he  died,  June,  1865. 

WiFkin-son,  (James,)  an  American  general  of  the 
Revolution,  was  born  in  Maryland  in  1757.  He  enlisted 
in  the  army  as  captaiti  in  1775,  ^'"'d  served  under  Gates 
in  1777.  In  1792  he  obtained  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general,  and  in  1796  he  became  general-in-chief.  He 
afterwards  commanded  at  New  Orleans,  and  opposed 
the  designs  of  Aaron  Burr.  In  the  summer  of  1813  he 
commanded  on  the  Northern  frontier  with  ill  success. 
He  was  removed  from  the  command  about  February, 
1814.  Died  in  Mexico  in  1825.  He  published  "Me- 
moirs of  My  Own  Time,"  (3  vols.,  1816.) 

WiFkin-son,  (James  John  Garth,)  an  English 
writer  on  law,  medicine,  etc.,  was  born  in  London  about 
1812.  He  edited  several  works  of  Swedenborg,  and 
wrote,  besides  treatises  on  law,  "Emanuel  Swedenborg: 
a  Biography,"  (1849,)  which  was  long  regarded  as  the 
best  memoir  of  Swedenborg  that  had  appeared,  and 
"The  Human  Body  and  its  Connection  with  Man," 
(185L) 

Wilkinson,  (Jemima,)  an  American  fanatic  and  re- 
ligious impostor,  born  at  Cumberland,  Rhode  Island,  in 
1753,  removed  to  Western  New  York  early  in  the  present 
century.  She  professed  to  be  endowed  with  the  power 
of  Christ,  and  attempted  to  work  miracles.  She  died  in 
1819,  and  her  sect  was  soon  dispersed. 

*  Sir  William  Jones,  in  a  letter  to  him,  said,  "You  are  the  first 
European  who  ever  understood  Sanscrit."  (See  Knight's  "Cyclo- 
paedia of  Biography.") 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  y., guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WILKINSON 


2272 


WILLERJM 


Wilkinson,  (Sir  John  Gardner,)  a  learned  Eng- 
lish archaeologist,  born  in  1 798.  He  studied  at  Exeter 
College,  Oxford,  and  subsequently  spent  twelve  years  in 
Egypt  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  language,  cus- 
toms, and  antiquities  of  that  country.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  "Materia  Hieroglyphica,"  (1828,) 
the  "Topography  of  Thebes,"  etc.,  (1835,)  "The  Man- 
ners and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,  including 
their  Private  Life,  Government,  Laws,"  etc.,  (5  vols.  8vo, 
1840,)  which  is  esteemed  a  standard  work,  "Modern 
Egypt  and  Thebes,"  (1843,)  intended  as  a  hand-book 
for  travellers,  "The  Architecture  of  Ancient  Egypt," 
etc.,  (1850,)  and  "The  Egyptians  in  the  Time  of  the 
Pharaohs,"  (1857,)  which  rank  among  the  most  valu- 
able and  interesting  compositions  of  the  kind.  He  was 
made  a  knight  in  1840,  and  soon  after  elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  member  of  other  learned 
institutions. 

See  the  *'  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January,  1839;  "  North 
British  Review"  for  February,  i860. 

Willaert,  wiKliRt,  (Adriano,)  a  Flemish  composer, 
born  about  1490,  was  a  native  of  Bruges.  He  became 
chapel-master  of  Saint  Mark's,  at  Venice,  and  numbered 
among  his  pupils  Zarlino  and  Costanza  Porta.  Died  in 
1563. 

Willamov,  ^irii-mof,  (Johann  Gottlieb,)  a  Prus- 
sian poet,  born  at  Morungen  in  1736,  was  the  author 
of  a  collection  of  poems  entitled  "  Dithyrambics,"  and 
"  Fables  in  Dialogues."    Died  in  1777. 

WilTan,  (Robert,)  a  distinguished  English  physician, 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1757.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh, 
where  he  took  his  medical  degree  in  1780,  and  in  1783 
became  physician  to  the  Public  Dispensary  in  Carey 
Street,  London.  He  published  in  1801  his  "Description 
and  Treatment  of  Cutaneous  Diseases,"  (unfinished,) 
esteemed  the  most  valuable  work  that  had  appeared  on 
the  subject  at  that  time.  Dr.  Willan  was  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  and  Antiquarian  Societies.    Died  in  1812. 

See  "Memoir  of  Dr.  Willan,"  by  Dr.  Bateman,  in  the  "Edin- 
burgh Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,"  No.  xxxii. 

Wil'lard,  (Emma  Hart,)  an  American  teacher  and 
educational  writer,  born  at  Berlin,  Connecticut,  in  1787, 
became  in  1821  principal  of  a  female  seminary^t  Troy, 
New  York.  She  published  a  "  History  of  the  United 
States,"  (1828,)  "Universal  History  in  Perspective," 
(1837,)  "  Chronographer  of  English  History,"  (1845,) 
"  Astronography,  or  Astronomical  Geography,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1870. 

Willard,  (Joseph,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  di- 
vine, born  at  Biddeford,  Maine,  in  1738,  was  chosen 
president  of  Harvard  College  in  1781.  Died  in  1804. 
His  son  Sidney,  born  in  1780,  was  for  more  than  twenty 
years  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Harvard.  Died 
in  1856. 

Willard,  (Jostah,)  born  in  Massacl>usetts  about  1680, 
was  a  son  of  Samuel  Willard,  noticed  below.  He  was 
secretary  of  that  colony  thirty-nine  years.  Died  in  1756. 

Willard,  (Samuel,)  an  American  clergyman,  born  at 
Concord  in  1640.  He  preached  in  Boston,  and  published 
several  works  on  theology.    Died  in  1707. 

Willard,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born 
at  Petersham,  Massachusetts,  in  1775.  He  preached  at 
Deerfield,  Massachusetts.    Died  in  1859. 

Willaumez,  ve'yo'mi',  (Jean  Baptiste  Philibert,) 
Count,  a  French  naval  officer,  born  at  Belle-Ile-en- 
Mer  in  1763.  He  served  with  distinction  against  the 
English,  became  rear-admiral  in  1804,  and  vice-admiral 
in  1819.  He  published  a  "Dictionary  of  the  Marine," 
(1820.)    Died  in  1845. 

WilFde-now,  [Ger.  pron.  '(^Il'deh-no',]  (Karl  Lud- 
WIG,)  a  celebrated  German  njituralist,  born  at  Berlin  in 
1765.  He  studied  medicine  at  Halle,  and  settled  as  a 
physician  in  his  native  city,  where  he  became  in  1798 
professor  of  natural  history  and  superintendent  of  the 
Botanic  Garden.  His  most  important  publication  is  his 
new  edition  of  the  "  Species  Plantarum"  of  Linnasus, 
with  descriptions  of  all  the  species  discovered  since  the 
original  work  appeared,  and  arranged  according  to  the 
Linnasan  system.  This  work,  owing  to  his  Hilling  health, 
he  left  unfinished  ;  but  it  was  completed  by  Link  and 
Schvvagricher  after  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1812. 


He  also  published  "  Elements  of  Botany,"  ("  Grundriss 
der  Krauter-Kunde,"  1792,)  "  Prodromus  Flora  Beroli- 
nensis,"  "Catalogue  of  Butterflies  in  the  Mark  of  Bran- 
denburg," and  other  treatises. 

See  SCHLECHTENDAHL,  "  Leben  Willdenow's ;"  "  Edinburgh  Re- 
view" for  October  and  July,  1807. 

Wille,  ^iKleh,  (Johann  Georg,)  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man engraver,  born  near  Giessen  in  17 15.  He  studied 
in  Paris,  where  he  acquired  the  highest  reputation  for 
his  prints  after  the  Dutch  and  Flemish  painters.  He 
was  made  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honour  by  Napo- 
leon, and  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in 
Paris,  where  he  died  in  August,  1806.  Among  his  mas- 
ter-pieces may  be  named  Schalken's  "  Family  Concert," 
"The  Satin  Gown,"  after  Terburg,  and  portraits  of  the 
Marquis  de  Marigny  and  Marshal  Saxe.  He  nuinbered 
among  his  pupils  Bervic  and  J.  G.  von  Muller.  His  son 
Peter  Alexander  rose  to  be  a  general  in  the  Parisian 
national  guard. 

See  "Memoires  et  Journal  de  J.  G.  Wille,"  Paris,  2  vols.,  1857. 

Wil'le-brod  or  WiPle-brord,  sometimes  written 
Willibrod  and  Wilbrord,  [Lat.  Willebror'dus,] 
Saint,  the  apostle  of  the  Frisians,  was  born  in  the  Saxon 
kingdom  of  Northumbria  about  657.  Having  spent 
many  years  in  Ireland  in  preaching  the  gospel,  he  visited 
Friesland,  where  he  was  successful  in  making  many  con- 
verts to  Christianity.  He  was  made  a  bishop  by  Pope 
Sergius  L,  under  the  name  of  Clemens,  and  founded  a 
number  of  churches  in  that  country,  and  a  monastery  at 
Echternach,  near  Treves,  where  he  was  buried,  having 
died  in  738  A.D. 

See  Lux,  "  Levensschets  van  den  H.  Willebrordus,  Apostel  der 
Nederlanden,"  1839. 

Willebrord.    See  Bosschaert. 

WiPle-had,  an  Anglo-Saxon  missionary,  who  con- 
verted many  Frieslanders  and  Saxons,  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Bremen  in  787  a.d.    Died  in  789. 

Willeraet,  v^Kmi',  (Pierre  R6mi,)  a  French  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Norroy-sur-Moselle  in  1735.  He  resided 
at  Nancy,  and  published,  besides  other  works,  a  "  Flora 
of  Lorraine,"  (3  vols.,  1805.)    Died  in  1807. 

See  J.  Lamoureux,  "Notice  sur  Willemet,"  180S. 

Willemet,  (Pierre  R6mi  FRANgois  de  Paule — 
deh  pol,)  a  French  physician,  born  at  Nancy  in  1762; 
died  at  Seringapatam  in  1790. 

See  MiLLiN,  "  Notice  sur  Willemet  fils,"  1790. 

Willemin,  v^Km^N',  (Nicolas  Xavier,)  a  French 
antiquary  and  engraver,  born  at  Nancy  in  1763.  He 
rendered  a  useful  service  to  the  arts  by  a  large  illus- 
trated work  called  "  Unpublished  French  Monuments 
illustrating  the  History  of  Arts,  Costumes,"  etc., 
("  Monuments  Fran9ais  inedits  pour  servir  a  I'Histoire 
des  Arts,  des  Costumes,"  etc.,  1806-39.)  Died  in  Paris 
in  1833. 

Willems,  wil'lems  or  ve'lSms',  (Florent,)  a  Belgian 
painter,  born  at  Liege  about  1812.  He  settled  in  Paris 
about  1839,  and  gained  a  medal  of  the  first  class  in  1855. 
He  excels  as  a  painter  of  costume,  especially  of  silk 
gowns.  Among  his  works  are  a  "Musical  Party,"  and 
"  The  Coquette." 

Willems,  (Jan  Frans,)  a  distinguished  Belgian 
writer  and  philologist,  born  near  Antwerp  in  1793.  In 
181 1  he  won  the  prize  offered  for  the  best  poem  on  the 
battle  of  Friedland  and  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  and  in  1818 
published  a  poetic  address  to  the  Belgians,  entitled 
"  Aen  de  Belgen,"  calling  on  his  countrymen  to  main- 
tain the  Flemish  language  and  nationality.  Among  his 
other  works  we  may  name  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Dutch 
Language  and  Literature  in  Connection  with  the  South- 
ern Provinces  of  the  Netherlands,"  (2  vols.,  1819-24,) 
and  a  Flemish  version  of  the  poem  entitled  "  Reynard 
the  Fox.",  He  was  also  editor  of  the  "  Belgisch  Mu- 
seum," the  organ  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Flemish  Literature.    Died  in  1846. 

See  P.  DE  Decker,  "Notice  sur  J.  F.  Willems,"  1847;  Snel- 
LAERT,  "  Korte  Levensschets  van  J.  F.  Willems,"  1847. 

Willeram,  <^iKieh-rim,  or  Walram,  wll'rim,  a 
German  monk,  born  in  Franconia,  became  Abbot  of 
Ebersberg.  He  wrote  a  paraphrase  of  Solomon's  Song, 
in  Latin  verse.    Died  in  1085. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  lottg;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  \.\,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mhx.;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WILLET 


2273 


WILLIAM 


Wil'let,  (Andrew,)  a  learned  English  divine,  born 
at  Ely  in  1562.  He  obtained  a  prebend  at  Ely  about 
159S.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Synopsis  of 
Popery,"  ("  Synopsis  Papismi,")  which  was  reputed  the 
most  able  re/utation  of  popery  which  had  then  appeared. 
Died  in  1621. 

William  (w!Kyam)  I.,  surnamed  the  Conqueror, 
[Lat.  Guliel'mus  Conques'tor  ;  Fr,  Guillaume  le 
CoNQUERANT,  ge''y5m'  leh  koN'kk'rSN',]  King  of  Eng- 
land, born  at  Falaise  in  1025,  was  an  illegitimate  son  of 
Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy.  He  succeeded  his  father 
in  1035,  as  William  H.  of  Normandy,  and  during  his 
minority  gave  proof  of  his  energy  and  courage  by  re- 
ducing to  submission  the  rebellious  Norman  barons.  He 
gained  the  favour  of  his  kinsman  Edward  the  Confessor, 
King  of  England,  who,  having  no  issue,  formed  a  secret 
intention  to  adopt  William  as  his  heir.  His  chief  com- 
petitor was  Harold,  a  Saxon  prince,  whom  a  majority 
of  the  people  of  England  preferred  to  the  Duke  of 
Normandy.  On  the  death  of  Edward  (January,  1066) 
Harold  ascended  the  throne,  without  opposition.  (See 
Harold.) 

"  William,"  says  Hume,  "by  his  power,  his  courage, 
and  his  abilities,  had  long  maintained  a  ])re-eininence 
among  the  haughty  chieftains"  of  Western  Europe. 
Having  resolved  to  invade  England,  he  soon  assembled 
a  fleet  of  3000  vessels  and  an  army  of  60,000  men. 
Several  powerful  barons  of  adjoining  countries,  with 
their  retainers,  were  attracted  to  his  standard  by  the 
grandeur  and  audacity  of  the  enterprise.  The  Norman 
army  landed  at  Pevensey,  in  Sussex,  about  the  28th  of 
September,  and  defeated  the  English,  commanded  by 
Harold,  at  Senlac,  near  Hastings,  on  the  14th  of  October, 
1066.  Harold  was  killed  in  this  battle,  which  was  one 
of  the  most  decisive  and  important  tiiat  occurred  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  According  to  Hume,  William  lost  nearly 
15,000  men.  He  followed  up  his  victory  with  celerity 
and  vigour,  encountered  little  opposition  in  his  march 
to  London,  and  was  crowned  in  Westminster  Abbey  on 
the  25th  of  December,  Edgar  Atheling,  who  had  been 
proclaimed  king  at  the  death  of  Harold,  renounced 
his  claim  and  submitted  to  William. 

The  Conqueror  appeared  at  first  willing  to  conciliate 
his  new  subjects  by  mildness  ;  but  he  confiscated  the 
estates  of  those  partisans  of  Harold  who  had  been  killed 
at  Hastings,  and  took  care  to  place  all  real  power  in  the 
hands  of  the  Normans.  While  he  was  absent  on  a 
visit  to  Normandy,  in  1067,  conspiracies  were  formed 
against  him,  and  hostilities  began  in  many  ])laces.  Hume 
expresses  a  suspicion  that  he  left  England  in  order  that 
the  revolts  provoked  by  his  licentious  soldiery  might 
furnish  him  with  a  pretext  for  severe  and  tyrannical 
measures.  According  to  the  same  writer,  "  this  measure 
was  the  immediate  cause  of  all  the  calamities  which 
England  endured  during  this  and  the  subsequent  reigns." 
William  returned  about  the  end  of  1067,  and  maintained 
his  power  by  acts  of  excessive  cruelty.  He  ordered  his 
army  to  lay  waste  by  fire  the  extensive  tract  between  the 
Humber  and  the  Tees.  The  majority  of  the  proprietors 
of  land  were  deprived  of  their  estates  by  confiscation, 
and  all  the  natives  were  reduced  to  a  state  not  nmch 
better  than  slavery.  During  a  visit  of  William  to  the 
continent,  in  1074,  several  Norman  barons  revolted 
against  him,  and  were  defeated. 

He  had  become  the  most  powerful  sovereign  of  Europe, 
when  Pope  Gregory  VII,  wrote  him  a  letter,  requiring 
hin;  to  do  homage  for  the  kingdom  of  England  to  the 
see  of  Rome,  and  to  send  the  tribute  vhich  his  prede- 
cessors had  been  accustomed  to  pay  to  the  pope.  By 
the  tribute  he  meant  Peter's  pence,  William  re])lied 
that  the  money  should  be  remitted  as  usual,  but  he 
refused  to  pay  homage.  About  1078  his  son  Robert 
levied  war  against  William  in  Normandy.  During  this 
wai  Robert  happened  to  encounter  the  king,  whom  he 
wounded  and  unhorsed.  Struck  with  remorse  on  dis- 
covering that  he  had  wounded  his  father,  Robert  asked 
his  pardon,  and  made  peace  with  him.  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  reign  he  ordered  a  general  survey  of  all  the 
lands  in  the  kingdom,  their  extent  in  each  district,  their 
proprietors,  tenure,  and  value.  "This  monument,  called 
'Domesday  Book,'"  says  Hume,  "is  the  most  valuable 


piece  of  antiquity  possessed  by  any  nation."  He  had 
married  Matilda,  a  daughter  of  Baldwin,  Earl  of  Flan- 
ders. On  the  approach  of  death,  he  discovered  the 
vanity  of  all  human  grandeur,  and  was  filled  with  re- 
morse for  his  cruelties.  He  died  at  Rouen  in  1087, 
leaving  three  sons,  Robert,  William,  and  Henry. 

See  Hume,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chaps,  iii.  and  iv.  ; 
Aug.  Thiekry,  "  Histoire  de  la  Conqiiete  de  I'Angleterre  ;"  John 
Hayward,  "  Lives  of  the  Three  Norman  Kings  of  England,  William 
I.,"  etc.,  7613  ;  Freeman,  "  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest," 
vol.  iii.  chaps,  xii.-xvi.  ;  Samuel  Clarke,  "Life  and  Death  of 
William  the  Conqueror,"  i66o;  Thomas  Roscoe,  "Life  of  William 
the  Conqueror,"  1848;  Andrew  Henderson,  "Life  of  William  the 
Conqueror,"  1764;  P.  M.  Saunier,  "Vie  de  Guillaume,  Due  de 
Normandie,"  1804. 

William  II.,  King  of  England,  surnamed  Ru'fus, 
[Fr.  Guillaume  le  Roux,  ge'ySm'  leh  roo,]  from  the 
colour  of  his  hair,  was  born  in  Normandy  in  1056.  He 
was  the  second  of  the  surviving  sons  of  William  the 
Conqueror.  His  education  was  directed  by  the  famous 
Lanfranc.  According  to  some  historians,  William  I., 
just  before  his  death,  wrote  a  letter  to  Lanfranc,  desiring 
him  to  crown  his  son  William  as  King  of  England,  and 
at  the  same  time  he  left  Normandy  and  Maine  to  Robert. 
William  was  crowned  in  September,  1087.  The  Anglo- 
Norman  barons,  who  owned  estates  both  in  England 
and  Normandy  and  would  be  required  to  pay  allegiance 
to  two  masters,  favoured  the  claim  of  Robert  to  both 
thrones.  They  took  arms  against  William,  but  were 
soon  reduced  to  submission.  In  1091  he  invaded  Nor- 
mandy with  an  army  to  wage  war  against  Robert,  who 
])revented  hostilities  by  a  treaty,  according  to  which 
William  obtained  the  towns  of  Aumale,  Fescamp,  etc. 
He  afterwards  instigated  the  Norman  barons  to  rebel 
against  Robert,  and  passed  over  to  Normandy  in  1094 
to  support  his  partisans.  He  was  prevented  from  push- 
ing his  advantages  by  an  incursion  of  the  Welsh,  which 
obliged  him  to  return  to  England.  Robert,  having 
enlisted  in  the  first  crusade,  sold  or  mortgaged  his 
dominions  to  William  for  the  small  sum  of  10,000  marks, 
(1096.)  William  did  not  partake  of  the  general  enthu- 
siasm for  the  crusade.  "  It  is  likely,"  says  Hume,  "  that 
he  made  the  romantic  chivalry  of  the  crusaders  the  object 
of  his  perpetual  raillery."  He  was  found  dead  in  the 
New  Forest  in  August,  iioo.  Hume  adopts  the  popular 
account  that  Walter  Tyrrel,  while  hunting  with  the 
king,  discharged  an  arrow  which  glanced  from  a  tree 
and  killed  William.  He  had  never  married,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Henry.  "He  seems,"  says 
Hume,  "to  have  been  a  violent  and  tyrannical  prince  ; 
a  perfidious,  encroaching,  and  dangerous  neighbor  ;  an 
unkind  and  ungenerous  relation. "^ 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England,"  vol.  i.  chap.  v. ;  Miss  Strick- 
land, "  Lives  of  the  Bachelor  Kings  of  England,"  1861 ;  John 
Hayward,  "Life  of  William  IL,"  1613. 

William  III.,  or  William  Henry,  King  of  England 
and  Stadtholder  of  Holland,  was  born  at  the  Hague  on 
the  14th  of  November,  1650.  He  was  the  eldest  or 
only  son  of  William  H.,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  Mary 
Stuart,  a  daughter  of  Charles  T.  of  England,  and  was 
styled  Prince  of  Orange  before  his  accession  to  the 
throne  of  Great  Britain.  At  the  death  of  his  father 
(1650)  the  party  opposed  to  the  house  of  Orange  deter- 
mined that  there  should  never  be  another  Stadtholder. 
On  the  death  of  De  Witt,  in  1672,  the  young  prince 
became  the  chief  of  the  government,  and  took  strenuous 
measures  to  defend  the  state  against  the  French  armies 
which  had  invaded  it.  He  opened  the  dikes  and  inun- 
dated the  seat  of  war,  exclaiming  that  he  would  die  in  the 
last  ditch  rather  than  witness  the  ruin  of  the  republic. 
The  invaders  were  forced  to  save  themselves  by  a  hasty 
retreat.  In  1674  he  was  defeated  at  Senef  by  the  Prince 
of  Conde.  The  war  was  ended  by  the  peace  of  Nymwe- 
gen,  in  1678.  He  married  in  1677  Mary,  a  daughter  of 
James,  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.  of  England. 
J3esides  his  native  Dutch,  he  spoke  and  wrote  the 
French,  English,  and  German  languages  fluently,  though 
not  elegantly  nor  exactly.  "The  tenet  of  predestina- 
tion," says  Macaulay,  "  was  the  keystone  of  his  religion." 
From  a  child  he  had  been  weak  and  sickly,  and  in  man- 
hood he  was  subject  to  painful  and  depressing  maladies. 

Before  he  had  reached  the  age  of  twenty-five,  he  was 
renowmed  throughout  Europe  as  a  soldier  and  diplo- 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R.  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

»43 


WILLIAM 


2274 


WILLIAM 


matist,  and  was  the  master-spirit  of  a  powerful  coalition 
against  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  He  became  about  1686 
the  head  of  the  English  opposition  which  the  perverse 
and  infatuated  course  of  James  II.  had  provoked.  In  the 
summer  of  1688  he  was  invited  by  Russell,  Sidney,  and 
other  conspirators  to  come  with  an  army  for  the  defence 
of  liberty  and  the  Protestant  religion  in  England. 
William  issued  a  declaration,  in  which  he  abjured  all 
thought  of  conquest,  and  pledged  himself  to  leave  all 
questions  to  the  decision  of  a  free  Parliament.  In 
November,  1688,  he  landed  at  Torbay  with  an  army  of 
about  14,000  men.  He  was  joined  by  numerous  peers, 
and  was  favoured  by  a  general  defection  in  the  army 
of  King  James,  who  threw  the  great  seal  into  the 
Thames  and  absconded  on  the  nth  of  December,  1688. 
The  revolution  was  thus  accomplished  without  much 
bloodshed.  He  called  a  convention,  composed  of  peers 
and  the  surviving  members  of  the  former  House  of 
Commons,  which  in  February,  1689,  voted  that  James 
had  abdicated,  and  that  William  and  Mary  should  be 
declared  King  and  Quee-n  of  England.  Amidst  the  gen- 
eral joy,  the  ill  humour  of  the  clergy  and  the  army  was 
very  conspicuous.  The  position  of  William  was  beset 
with  great  difficulties.  The  deposed  king  had  many 
adherents  in  Ireland  and  Scotland,  who  supported  his 
cause  by  arms,  and  he  was  assisted  by  Louis  XIV. 
William  selected  for  his  ministers  members  of  both  the 
great  parties,  the  Whigs  and  Tories,  and  reserved  to 
himself  the  direction  of  foreign  affairs.  He  was  not 
popular  with  his  new  subjects.  His  cold  manners, 
which  presented  a  great  contrast  to  the  strength  of  his 
emotions,  gave  almost  universal  offence. 

In  May,  1689,  he  declared  war  against  the  King  of 
France,  by  whose  aid  James  II.  was  enabled  to  take 
the  field  in  Ireland  with  a  considerable  army.  William 
passed  over  to  Ireland  in  June,  1690,  and  took  command 
of  his  land-forces.  About  this  time  his  fleet  was  defeated 
by  the  French  near  Beachy  Head.  On  the  1st  of  July, 
1690,  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  French  and 
Irish  at  the  famous  battle  of  the  Boyne,  after  which 
James  gave  up  the  contest  and  fled  to  France.  The 
allied  English  and  Dutch  fleets  defeated  the  French  at 
La  Hogue  in  May,  1692.  The  war  between  the  allies 
and  the  French  continued  in  Flanders,  where  William 
commanded  in  person.  He  was  defeated  at  Steenkerke, 
by  Marshal  Luxemburg,  in  August,  1692.  Hostilities 
were  suspended  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  in  1697. 

The  reign  of  William  III.  was  much  disturbed  by  fac- 
tious intrigues  and  Jacobite  conspiracies.  He  removed 
from  command  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  who  was  sus- 
pected of  being  in  a  plot  to  restore  one  of  the  Stuarts 
to  the  throne,  in  1692.  Soon  after  the  peace  of  Rys- 
wick, William  III.  and  Louis  XIV.  became  parties  to  a 
treaty  to  partition  the  Spanish  dominions,  and  stipulated 
that  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  should  succeed  to  Spain  and 
the  Indies,  while  the  French  dauphin  should  reign  over 
the  two  Sicilies.  In  November,  1700,  Charles  II.  of  Spain 
died,  and  bequeathed  the  throne  to  Philip  of  Anjou.  Re- 
gardless of  the  obligations  of  the  partition  treaty,  Louis 
XIV.  accepted  for  his  grandson  the  splendid  legacy. 
William  then  formed  with  the  Emperor  of  Germany 
and  other  powers  a  coalition  against  the  Bourbons,  and 
took  the  first  steps  towards  the  great  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession.  Before  hostilities  commenced,  he  died,  with- 
out issue,  in  London,  in  March,  1702,  in  consequence  of 
a  fall  from  his  horse.  He  was  succeeded  by  Queen 
Anne. 

"  His  name,"  says  Macaulay,  "  at  once  calls  up  before 
us  a  slender  and  feeble  frame,  a  lofty  and  ample  fore- 
head, a  nose  curved  like  the  beak  of  an  eagle,  an  eye 
rivalling  that  of  an  eagle  in  brightness  and  keenness.  ... 
Nature  had  largely  endowed  William  with  the  qualities 
of  a  great  ruler,  and  education  had  developed  those 
qualities  in  no  common  degree.  ...  If  his  battles  were 
not  those  of  a  great  tactician,  they  entitled  him  to  be 
called  a  great  man.  .  ,  .  Plis  defeats  were  repaired  with 
such  marvellous  celerity  that  before  his  enemies  had 
sung  the  *  Te  Deum'  he  was  again  ready  for  conflict. 
.  .  .  He  was  born  with  violent  passions  and  quick 
sensibilities,  but  the  strength  of  his  emotions  was  not 
suspected  by  the  world.    From  the  multitude  his  joy 


and  his  grief,  his  affection  and  his  resentment,  were 
hidden  by  a  phlegmatic  serenity  which  made  him  pass 
for  the  most  cold-blooded  of  mankind." 

See  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England;"  Burnet,  "History  of 
his  Own  Times;"  A.  Montanus,  "  Leven  van  Willem  III.,"  1703; 
W.  Harris,  "  History  of  the  Life  and  Reign  of  William  Henry," 
etc.,  1749;  Trevor,  "  Life  and  Times  of  William  HL,"  1839;  Abel 
BoYER,  "  Histoire  de  Guillaiime  IH,"  3  vols.,  1702;  Sir  James 
Mackintosh,  "History  of  the  Revolution  in  England  in  1688;" 
F.  DE  Bruine,  "Leven  en  Dood  van  Willem  IIL,"  1702;  James 
Vernon,  "  Court  and  Times  of  William  IIL,"  3  vols.,  1841 ;  Vol- 
taire, "Siecle  de  Louis  XIV." 

William  IV.,  King  of  England,  the  third  son  of 
George  HI.,  was  born  in  London  on  the  21st  of  Au- 
gust, 1765.  He  entered  the  royal  navy  as  midshipman 
in  1779,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1786. 
Having  in  several  cases  disobeyed  the  orders  of  his 
superiors  or  violated  the  rules  of  discipline,  he  was  not 
permitted  to  command  in  active  service;  but  he  was 
promoted  by  successive  steps  until  he  received  the  title  of 
admiral  of  the  fleet,  in  1801.  He  had  been  created  Duke 
of  Clarence  and  Saint  Andrew's  and  Earl  of  Munster  in 
1789.  In  the  House  of  Lords  he  generally  acted  with 
the  Whig  party;  but  he  supported  Pitt  after  1793.  He 
married  in  July,  1818,  Adelaide,  a  daughter  of  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Meiningen.  They  had  two  children,  who  died 
in  infancy.  On  the  death  of  his  brother,  the  Duke  of 
York,  in  1827,  William  became  heir-presumptive  to  the 
throne.  Fie  succeeded  George  IV.  on  the  26th  of  June, 
1830,  which  was  a  critical  time  in  the  politics  of  Europe. 
The  French  revolution  of  July,  1830,  had  great  influence 
in  England.  The  friends  of  electoral  reform  had  a  ma- 
jority in  the  new  Parliament  which  met  in  October,  but 
the  Duke  of  Wellington,  who  was  prime  minister,  op- 
posed reform,  in  terms  which  produced  a  violent  excite- 
ment. The  ministry,  having  been  outvoted  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  resigned  in  November,  1830,  and  were 
succeeded  by  a  Liberal  ministry,  of  which  Earl  Grey 
and  Lord  John  Russell  were  the  chiefs.  The  Reform 
bill  passed  the  House  of  Commons  by  a  large  majority 
in  September,  but  was  rejected  by  the  Lords  on  the 
3d  of  October,  183 1.  A  long  and  violent  crisis  fol- 
lowed. In  May,  1832,  Earl  Grey  and  his  colleagues 
resigned,  and  the  king  requested  Wellington  and  Lynd- 
hurst  to  form  a  ministry;  but  they  failed,  or  quailed 
before  the  storm,  for  the  people  were  determined  to 
have  reform,  if  they  had  to  fight  for  it.  Earl  Grey 
resumed  the  office  of  premier  about  the  i8th  of  May, 
and,  the  king  having  induced  many  of  the  Tory  peers  to 
absent  themselves  and  refrain  from  voting,  the  Reform 
bill  finally  became  a  law  in  June,  1832.  The  king  him- 
self was  no  friend  to  reform,  and  was  partial  to  the  Con- 
servatives, or  Tories.  After  Earl  Grey  and  several  other 
ministers  had  resigned,  William  IV.,  in  November,  1834, 
sent  for  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  who  constructed  a 
new  ministry,  in  which  Sir  Robert  Peel  was  premier. 
Peel  and  Wellington,  however,  could  not  command  a 
majority  in  the  new  Parliament  which  met  in  February, 
1835.  They  resigned  in  April,  and  gave  place  to  the 
Whig  ministry  of  Lord  Melbourne.  William  died  on 
the  20th  of  June,  1837,  leaving  no  lawful  issue,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  niece,  Victoria. 

WilTiam,  [Dutch,  Willem,  wiKlem  ;  Ger.  Wilhelm, 
vv^iKhglm,]  (Frederick,)  I.,  King  of  the  Netherlands, 
Grand  Duke  of  Luxemburg,  and  Prince  of  Orange 
Nassau,  was  born  at  the  Hague  in  August,  1772.  He 
was  a  son  of  William  V.,  Prince  of  Orange  Nassau 
and  hereditary  Stadtholder.  He  married,  in  1791,  Fre- 
derica  Louisa,  a  daughter  of  Frederick  William,  King 
of  Prussia.  He  commanded  the  Dutch  army  which 
resisted  the  French  invaders  in  1793  and  1794.  Hol- 
land was  conquered  in  1795,  and  William  Frederick 
retired  to  Germany.  He  served  with  the  rank  of  gene- 
ral in  the  Prussian  and  Austrian  armies  between  1806 
and  1813.  A  revolution  restored  him  to  royal  power  in 
Holland  about  the  end  of  1813,  after  which  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  decided  that  Belgium  should  be  annexed  to 
the  United  Provinces,  and  that  he  should  reign  over  the 
whole.  He  was  proclaimed  King  of  the  Netherlands  in 
March,  181 5.  The  Belgians,  who  regarded  the  Dutch 
with  invincible  antipathy,  revolted  in  September,  1830, 
and,  after  several  battles,  by  the  aid  of  France  and  Eng- 


a,  c,  T,  5,  u,  y,  long;  i,  k,  6,  same^  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  ftt;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


WILLIAM 


2275 


WILLIAM 


land,  became  a  separate  nation.  In  October,  1840,  he 
abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son  William,  and  died  in 
Berlin  in  1843. 

William  (or  Willem)  II.,  King  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  Grand  Duke  of  Luxemburg,  a  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  December,  1792.  As  aide-de-camp  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  he  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Peninsula.  He  commanded  the  Dutch  troops  at  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  where  he  was  wounded.  About 
1816  he  married  Anna  Paulowna,  a  sister  of  Alexander, 
Czar  of  Russia.  He  gained  some  victories  over  the 
Belgian  insurgents  in  183 1  ;  but  the  intervention  of  a 
French  army  compelled  him  to  retire  from  that  contest. 
He  began  to  reign  in  October,  1840.  He  died  in  March, 
1849,  leaving  two  sons,  William  and  Henry. 

William  (or  Willem)  III.,  King  of  Holland,  a  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  February,  181 7.  He  mar- 
ried Sophia,  a  daughter  of  the  King  of  Wiirtemberg,  in 
1839,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  March,  1849.  It  is 
stated  that  he  has  shown  himself  friendly  to  liberal 
measures. 

William  (or  Wilhelm,  MKh^lm)  I.,  King  of  Prus- 
sia, born  on  the  22d  of  March,  1797,  was  a  younger  son 
of  Frederick  William  HI.  He  married,  in  1829,  Maria 
I>ouisa  Augusta,  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe- Weimar. 
During  the  violent  commotions  of  1848  he  retired  for 
safety  to  England,  from  which  he  soon  returned.  He 
commanded  the  army  which  suppressed  the  insurrection 
in  Baden  in  1849.  He  ascended  the  throne  on  the  death 
of  his  brother,  Frederick  William  IV.,  January,  1861, 
and,  soon  after  his  accession,  appointed  Count  von  Bis- 
mark  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  To  the  superior  states- 
manship of  this  minister  is  chiefly  attributed  the  great 
and  sudden  increase  of  Prussia  in  extent  and  power. 
(See  BiSMARK,  von,  Karl  Otto.) 

In  1864  he  united  with  the  Emperor  of  Austria  in  an 
aggressive  war  against  Denmark,  who  was  compelled  to 
cede  to  the  victors  Sleswick  and  Holstein. 

The  fundamental  idea  of  the  Prussian  policy  seems  to 
be  the  union  of  all  the  German  peoples  into  one  nation 
or  federation,  and  the  exclusion  of  the  empire  of 
Austria  from  the  same.  Invoking  the  potent  and  in- 
vincible spirit  of  nationality  and  devotion  to  the  Father- 
land, he  declared  war  against  Austria  about  the  i8th  of 
June,  1866,  having  previously  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  King  of  Italy.  The  reigning  princes  of  Bavaria, 
Saxony,  Hanover,  Hesse,  (Electoral,)  and  some  other 
states,  took  side  with  Austria,  which  had  controlled  a 
majority  of  votes  in  the  Diet.  The  Prussian  armies, 
whose  movements  were  planned  by  General  von  Moltke, 
advanced  rapidly  into  Bohemia,  and,  after  several  minor 
victories,  defeated  the  Austrians  at  the  great  and  de- 
cisive battle  of  Sadowa,  near  Koniggratz,  on  the  3d  of 
July,  1866.  The  victors  are  said  to  have  taken  at  Sadowa 
21,471  prisoners,  (including  about  7400  wounded.)  This 
campaign  is  called  the  Seven  W^eeks'  war.  Peace  was 
restored  by  a  treaty  signed  at  Prague  in  August,  1866, 
in  accordance  with  which  the  Emperor  of  Austria  re- 
nounced his  claim  to  be  the  head,  or  even  a  member,  of 
the  new  German  Bund,  called  the  North  German  Con- 
federation, which  was  composed  of  all  the  states  situated 
north  of  the  river  Main.  The  area  and  population  of 
Prussia  were  considerably  increased  by  the  annexation 
of  several  conquered  states,  among  which  were  Hanover. 
Holstein,  and  Electoral  Hesse.  By  the  terms  of  the 
new  Bund  the  King  of  Prussia  directs  the  foreign  policy 
and  controls  the  military  power  of  the  states  which 
compose  it.  A  secret  treaty  of  alliance,  offensive  and 
defensive,  was  negotiated  by  Prussia  with  Bavaria  and 
Baden  in  August,  1866,  and  made  public  in  April,  1867. 

On  a  frivolous  pretext,  the  emperor  Napoleon  HI.  de- 
clared war  against  Prussia,  July  16,  1870.  The  German 
armies,  commanded  by  King  William  in  person,  and  by 
his  son,  Frederick  William,  having  crossed  the  frontier 
early  in  August,  defeated  Marshal  McMahon  at  Worth 
(August  6)  and  Marshal  Bazaine  in  a  great  battle  near 
Metz,  (August  14-18.)  Bazaine,  having  shut  himself  up  in 
Metz,  was  besieged  by  Prince  Frederick  Charles  of  Prus- 
sia, while  the  king  and  his  son,  the  crown-prince,  pur- 
sued Marshal  McMahon,  who  had  retreated  to  Chalons, 
and,  after  he  had  collected  there  a  large  army,  moved 


northward  to  the  valley  of  the  Meuse.  The  German 
army,  amounting  to  about  240,000  men,  attacked  Mar- 
shal McMahon  near  Sedan,  and  a  great  battle  ensued, 
which  lasted  several  days,  and  resulted  in  one  of  the 
most  decisive  and  momentous  victories  in  universal  his- 
tory. On  the  2d  of  September  the  emperor  Napoleon, 
and  his  army  of  100,000  men,  or  more,  surrendered  at 
Sedan  as  prisoners  of  war.  A  few  days  later.  King  Wil- 
liam and  the  crown-prince  marched  against  Paris,  which 
by  strenuous  exertions  had  been  prepared  for  a  siege, 
and  was  now  controlled  by  the  republicans  under  a  new 
regime.  The  siege  or  investment  of  Paris  began  about 
September  15.  Marshal  Bazaine  surrendered  Metz  and 
his  army,  the  number  of  which  was  stated  at  150,000 
men,  or  more,  to  Prince  Frederick  Charles,  on  the  27th 
of  October,  1870.  In  the  great  battles  of  this  war  the 
French  were  outnumbered,  as  well  as  outgeneralled,  by 
the  Germans,  whose  movements  were  directed  by  Gen- 
eral von  Moltke.  Count  von  Bismark  was  present  with 
the  army  at  Sedan  and  at  Paris,  and,  soon  after  the  sur- 
render of  Napoleon,  had  an  interview  with  Jules  Favre, 
the  French  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  who  made  over- 
tures of  peace.  Bismark  demanded  the  cession  of  Alsace 
and  part  of  Lorraine,  which  the  French  ministers  refused 
to  give  up.  In  October,  1870,  the  princes  Frederick 
William  and  Frederick  Charles  were  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  field-marshal. 

The  civilized  world  was  kept  in  painful  suspense  by  a 
fear  that  the  most  beautiful  and  polished  city  on  the 
globe  would  be  bombarded  and  destroyed ;  but  the 
Germans  delayed  their  assault,  in  the  confident  hope 
that  famine  would  soon  reduce  Paris  to  submission. 
They  also  expected  that  the  French  forces  within  the  city 
would  be  paralyzed  by  riots  and  the  violent  contests  be- 
tween opposing  factions.  This  hope  proved  to  be  delu- 
sive. The  citizens  of  Paris  maintained  good  order,  and 
defended  their  cause  with  heroic  constancy.  On  the  9th 
of  November  the  army  of  the  I^oire,  commanded  by  Gen- 
eral Palladines,  defeated  the  Bavarian  general  Von  der 
Tann  near  Orleans,  and  took  about  2000  prisoners.  But 
the  army  of  the  Loire  was  afterwards  defeated  in  several 
actions.  After  a  long  and  obstinate  resistance,  Paris 
was  forced  to  capitulate,  about  February  i,  1871,  and  to 
accept  such  terms  as  the  victors  chose  to  impose.  As 
one  of  the  results  of  this  war,  Prussia  now  holds,  instead 
of  France,  the  military  primacy  among  the  nations  of 
Europe.  King  William  is  a  zealous  asserter  of  the 
divine  right  of  kings.  He  took  the  title  of  Emperor 
of  Germany  in  December,  1870. 

William  (Willem  or  Wilhelm)  of  Holland,  son 
of  Count  Florent  of  Holland,  was  made  Emperor  of 
Germany  in  1247,  through  the  influence  of  Pope  Inno- 
cent IV.,  in  opposition  to  Frederick  II.  He  was  unable, 
however,  to  assert  his  authority  until  after  the  death  of 
Conrad  IV.,  the  son  of  Frederick,  in  1254.  He  was 
killed  in  a  war  against  the  West  Frisians  in  1256. 

William  the" Lion,  King  of  Scotland,  was  a  brother 
of  Malcolm  IV.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1165.  He  in- 
vaded England  in  1174,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  could 
not  obtain  his  liberty  until  he  promised  to  be  the  vassal 
or  liegeman  of  Henry  II.  About  1190,  Richard  I.,  for  a 
pecuniary  consideration,  released  Scotland  from  alle- 
giance to  himself  and  his  successors.  .  William  died  in 
1 2 14,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Alexander  II. 

See  Burton,  "  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  xiii. 

William  (or  Wilhelm)  I.,  King  of  Wiirtemberg, 
born  in  1781,  was  a  son  of  Frederick  I.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  October,  1816.  He  granted  a  new  constitu- 
tion in  1819.  In  1848  he  made  further  concessions  to 
the  growing  desire  of  reform.  He  opposed  the  attempts 
of  the  King  of  Prussia  to  acquire  supremacy  in  Ger- 
many in  1850.    Died  in  1864. 

William  II.,  (Stadtholder.)  See  Orange,  (William, 
Prince  of.) 

William  III.,  (Stadtholder.)  See  William  IIL, 
(King  of  England.) 

William,  an  Anglo-Norman  prince,  born  in  1102,  was 
the  only  legitimate  son  of  Henry  I.  of  England.  He 
was  drowned,  with  his  sister  Adele,  in  the  passage  from 
Normandy  to  England,  in  1120. 

William  of  Champeaux.    See  Champeaux,  de. 


€  as  k:  ?  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this.    O^T'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WILLIAM 


WILLIAMS 


William  of  Hesse-Cassel.  See  Hesse,  Land- 
grave OF. 

William  of  Malmesbury,    See  Malmesbury. 
William  de  Nangis.    See  Nangis,  d?:. 
William  of  Nassau.    See  Orange,  (William, 
Prince  of.) 

William  of  Newburg  or  Newbury.  See  New- 
burgh. 

William  the  Silent.    See  Orange,  (William  of.) 

William  of  Tyre,  a  prelate  and  historian,  born 
about  1130.  He  became  Archbishop  of  Tyre  in  11 74. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  "History  of  Palestine  or  the 
Crusaders  from  1095  to  1184."    Died  before  1193. 

William  of  Wykeham.    See  Wykeham. 

WiPliams,  (wiKyamz,)  (Alpheus  S.,)  an  American 
general,  born  at  Saybrook,  Connecticut,  about  1810, 
was  a  lawyer  before  the  civil  war.  He  commanded  a 
division  at  Chancellorsville,  May  3,  1863,  and  at  Gettys- 
burg, July  1-3  of  that  year.  He  served  under  General 
Sherman  in  the  campaign  against  Atlanta,  May-August, 
1864,  and  commanded  a  corps  of  the  army  that  marched 
from  Atlanta  to  the  sea. 

WiPliams,  (Anna,)  an  English  writer,  who,  having 
become  blind,  was  taken  by  Dr.  Johnson  into  his  house 
and  supported  for  the  remainder  of  her  life.  She  died 
in  1783. 

See  BoswELL,  "  Life  of  Johnson." 

Williams,  (Sir  Charles  Hanbury,)  a  distinguished 
English  writer  and  diplomatist,  born  in  1709,  was  the 
son  of  John  Hanbury,  Esq.,  and  assumed  the  name  of 
Williams  in  compliance  with  the  wishes  of  his  godfather, 
Charles  Williams.  Having  travelled  on  the  continent, 
he  was  elected,  after  his  return,  member  of  Parliament 
for  the  county  of  Monmouth,  (1733,)  and  in  1749  was 
minister-plenipotentiary  to  Berlin,  having  been  previ- 
ously made  a  knight  of  the  Bath.  He  was  afterwards 
employed  on  an  important  embassy  to  Russia.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  collection  of  odes,  also  political  ballads 
and  satires  in  verse,  which  enjoyed  great  popularity. 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Horace  Walpole,  and  a 
supporter  of  the  measures  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  to 
whom  he  rendered  effective  service  by  his  satirical  verses. 
Died  in  1759. 

See  "George  Selwyn  and  his  Contemporaries,"  by  J.  H.  Jesse; 
"  London  Quarterly  Review"  for  October,  1822. 

Williams,  (Charles  Kilborn,)  an  American  jurist, 
born  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1782,  was  a  son 
of  Samuel  Williams,  noticed  below.  He  was  elected 
Governor  of  Vermont  in  185 1.    Died  in  1853. 

Williams,  (Daniel,)  D.D.,  an  English  Presbyterian 
divine,  born  at  Wrexham,  in  Denbighshire,  in  1644.  He 
wrote  "Gospel  Truth  Stated  and  Vindicated,"  and  a 
number  of  religious  and  controversial  treatises.  He 
died  in  1716,  leaving  numerous  bequests  for  chari- 
table and  educational  purposes.  Among  the  rnost  im- 
portant of  these  was  one  for  the  establishment  of  a 
public  library  in  Red-Cross  Street,  London,  opened 
in  1729. 

Williams,  (David,)  a  British  writer,  born  in  Cardi- 
ganshire, Wales,  in  1738,  was  the  founder  of  the  Literary 
Fund  Society.  He  published  "  Lectures  on  Political 
Principles,"  (1789,)  a  "History  of  Monmouthshire," 
(1796,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1816. 

Williams,  (Edward,)  a  Welsh  poet,  also  called  Iolo 
MoRGANWG,  (mor-gl'noog,)  born  in  Glamorganshire 
about  1747,  was  a  stone-mason  by  trade.  He  published 
a  collection  of  hymns  in  Welsh,  and  two  volumes  of 
lyric  and  pastoral  poems  in  English,  (1794.)  He  was 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Myvyrian  Archaiology." 
Died  in  1826. 

Williams,  (Eleazar,)  born  at  Caughnawaga,  New 
York,  about  1787,  resided  as  a  missionary  among  the 
Indians  in  the  vicinity  of  Green  Bay,  Wisconsin.  He 
pretended  to  be  the  dauphin,  son  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  his 
claims  were  supported  by  J.  H.  Hanson,  of  New  York, 
in  a  work  entitled  "The  Lost  Prince."  A  series  of 
articles  also  appeared  in  "Putnam's  Magazine"  for  Feb- 
ruary, April,  and  July,  1853,  and  February,  1854,  main- 
taining with  much  ability  and  zeal  his  title  to  be  regarded 
as  the  heir  of  the  Bourbons.    Died  in  1858. 


Williams,  (Ephraim,)  an  American  officer,  born  at 
Newton,  Massachusetts,  in  171 5,  was  mortally  wounded 
in  an  engagement  near  Lake  George  with  the  French 
and  Indians  in  1755.  He  had  bequeathed  the  princi- 
pal part  of  his  property  towards  founding  a  free  school 
in  Massachusetts,  which  afterwards  became  Williams 
College. 

Williams,  (Frederick  Sims,)  an  English  barrister, 
born  in  181 2.  He  published  several  legal  works,  and 
"The  Wonders  of  the  Heavens,"  (1861.)   Died  in  1863. 

Williams,  (Griffith,)  born  in  Wales  in  1589,  rose 
through  several  preferments  to  be  Bishop  of  Ossory  in 
1641.  He  published,  among  other  works,  one  entitled 
"  Seven  Golden  Candlesticks,  holding  the  Seven  Lights 
of  Christian  Religion."    Died  in  1672. 

Williams,  (Helen  Maria,)  a  writer  and  translator, 
born  in  London  in  1762.  While  residing  in  Paris,  in 
1790,  she  published  her  "  Letters  from  France,"  favouring 
the  doctrines  of  the  Girondists,  in  consequence  of  which 
she  was  imprisoned  for  a  time.  Among  her  other  works 
are  two  poems,  entitled  "Peru"  (1784)  and  "The  Slave- 
Trade,"  (1788,)  "Julia,  a  Romance,"  (1790,)  "Narrative 
of  Events  in  France,"  (1815,)  and  a  translation  of  the 
"  Personal  Narrative"  of  Humboldt  and  Bonpland.  Died 
in  1827. 

Williams,  (John,)  a  distinguished  prelate  and  states- 
man, born  in  Carnarvonshire,  Wales,  in  1 582.  He  studied 
at  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and,  having  taken 
orders,  became  in  161 1  chaplain  to  the  lord  chancellor 
Egerton.  He  soon  after  acquired  the  favour  of  King 
James  L,  who  made  him  successively  one  of  his  chap- 
lains-in-ordinary, Dean  of  Salisbury,  Bishop  of  Lincoln, 
and  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal,  (1621.)  He  was  de- 
prived of  the  last-named  office  on  the  accession  of 
Charles,  and,  having  been  charged  by  his  enemy  Laud 
with  betraying  the  king's  secrets,  was  condemned  to 
several  years'  imprisonment  and  a  fine  of  10,000.  He 
was  released  in  1640,  and  soon  after  created  Archbishop 
of  York.    Died  in  1650. 

See  Phillips,  "Life  of  John  Williams,"  and  "Memorial  offered 
to  the  Great  Deservings  of  John  Williams,"  by  John  Hacket. 

Williams,  (John,)  an  English  clergyman,  born  in 
1634,  became  successively  chaplain  to  William  and 
Mary,  prebendary  of  Canterbury,  and  Bishop  of  Chi- 
chester, (1696.)    Died  in  1709. 

Williams,  (John,)  an  American  divine,  born  at 
Roxbury,  Massachusetts,  in  1644,  was  made  prisoner, 
together  with  his  wife  and  six  children,  by  a  party  of 
French  and  Indians  in  1704.  He  was  afterwards  re- 
deemed, and  published  an  account  of  his  adventures, 
entitled  "The  Redeemed  Captive."    Died  in  1729. 

Williams,  (Rev.  John,)  a  Welsh  dissenter,  born  at 
Lampeter  about  1726.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  a  "Concordance  to  the  Greek  Testament."  Died 
in  1798. 

Williams,  (Rev.  John,)  a  Welsh  scholar  and  archas- 
ologist,  born  in  Denbighshire  in  1811.  He  wrote  on 
Welsh  antiquities,  etc.    Died  in  1862. 

Williams,  (Rev.  John,)  a  celebrated  English  mis- 
sionary and  dissenter,  sometimes  called  "the  Apostle  of 
Polynesia,"  was  born  at  Tottenham  in  1796.  Being  sent 
in  1816  by  the  London  Missionary  Society  to  the  Society 
Islands,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  acquisition  of  the 
Tahitian  language,  and  to  the  instruction  of  the  natives 
in  the  arts  of  civilized  life,  as  well  as  in  the  duties  of 
religion.  In  1823  he  visited  the  Hervey  Islands,  and 
discovered  Rarotonga,  an  island  of  that  group,  in  which 
he  established  a  mission.  To  convey  himself  from 
Rarotonga  to  Raiatea  and  Tahiti,  he  built  a  vessel  about 
1828,  although  he  was  destitute  of  proper  tools.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1834,  and  published  a  "Narra- 
tive of  Missionary  Enterprises  in  the  South  Sea  Islands," 
(1837.)  In  1838  he  sailed  on  another  voyage  to  the 
South  Sea,  with  many  other  missionaries.  He  was  killed 
by  the  natives  of  Erromanga,  one  of  the  New  Hebrides, 
in  November,  1839. 

See  Prout,  "Memoirs  of  John  Williams,"  1843;  J.  Campbell, 
"The  Martyr  of  Erromanga,"  1842. 

Williams,  (Monier,)  an  Oriental  scholar,  born  at 
Bombay,  of  English  parentage,  in  1819.  He  studied 
in  England,  and,  having  taken  his  degree  at  University 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  f^t;  m6t;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


WILLIAMS 


2277 


WILLIS 


College,  Oxford,  became  in  1844  professor  of  Sanscrit 
at  Haileybury  College,  and  in  i860  Boden  Sanscrit  pro- 
fessor at  Oxford,  as  successor  to  H.  H.  Wilson.  He 
published,  among  other  works,  a  "Practical  Grammar 
of  the  Sanscrit  Language,"  etc.,  (1846,)  an  "English- 
and-Sanscrit  Dictionary,"  (1851,)  an  English  translation 
of  "Sakoontala,"  (1855,)  and  "Indian  Epic  Poetry," 
(1862.) 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Williams,  (Otho  Holland,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Prince  George's  county,  Maryland,  in  1748,  was 
adjutant-general  to  General  Gates  in  1780,  and  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  battle  of  Camden.    Died  in  1794. 

See  the  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  ii. 

Williams,  (Roger,)  an  English  officer  and  writer, 
born  in  Monmouthshire.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
Flanders,  and  WTote  works  entitled  "  Actions  of  the 
Low  Countries,"  and  "Advice  from  France."  Died 
in  1595- 

See  Motley,  "United  Netherlands,"  vol.  i. 

Williams,  (Roger,)  a  Puritan  reformer,  the  founder 
of  Rhode  Island,  was  born  in  Wales  in  1606.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  became  master  of  several  ancient 
languages,  and  was  ordained  a  minister  of  the  Church 
of  England.  In  1631  he  emigrated  to  Massachusetts  in 
search  of  religious  liberty,  and  preached  for  a  short  time 
at  Salem  ;  but  he  was  banished  from  the  colony  in  1635 
on  account  of  his  doctrines.  He  was  censured  by  the 
court  because  he  taught  that  magistrates  should  not 
punish  the  breach  of  the  Sabbath  or  dictate  on  the  sub- 
ject of  worship.  He  founded  the  city  of  Providence, 
(1636,)  and  there  opened  an  asylum  in  which  men  of  all 
creeds  might  enjoy  full  religious  liberty.  It  is  stated 
that  he  became  a  Baptist  in  1639,  but  that  he  soon 
began  to  doubt  the  validity  of  baptism,  and  that  he 
continued  to  "neglect  the  ordinances  of  the  gospel."  I 
He  made  a  voyage  to  England  in  1643,  obtained  a 
charter  for  the  new  colony,  and  returned  in  1644.  After 
a  second  voyage  to  England,  he  was  elected  President 
of  Rhode  Island  in  1654.  He  lived  in  peace  and  amity 
with  the  Indians,  over  whom  he  acquired  much  in- 
fluence. In  1657  he  ceased  to  be  president  of  the 
colony.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  a  treatise 
against  persecution,  (1644,)  "The  Hireling  Ministry 
none  of  Christ's,"  and  "Experiments  of  Spiritual  Life 
and  Health  and  their  Preservatives,"  (1652.)  Died  at 
Providence  in  1683. 

See  James  D.  Kwowr.ES.  "  Life  of  Roger  Williams,"  1833  ;  Wil- 
liam Gammell,  "Life  of  Roger  Willin.ms,"  1846;  RoMEO  Elton, 
"  Life  of  Roger  Williams,"  London,  1852. 

Williams,  (Rowland,)  a  Welsh  clergyman,  born  in 
Flintshire  about  1817.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "  Christianity  and  Hinduism,"  and  a  "  Review 
of  Bunsen."    Died  in  1870. 

Williams,  (Samuel,)  LL.D.,  a  New  England  divine, 
born  at  Waltham,  Massachusetts,  in  1743,  was  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Harvard  College,  and  the  author  of  a 
"  Natural  and  Civil  History  of  Vermont,"  (1794.)  Died 
in  181 7. 

Williams,  (Samuel,)  an  English  designer  and  wood- 
engraver,  born  at  Colchester  in  1788.  Among  his  best 
works  are  his  illustrations  of  Thomson's  "Seasons"  and 
of  Scrope's  "  Days  of  Salmon-Fishing."    Died  in  1853. 

Williams,  (Samuel  Wells,)  LL.D.,  an  American 
philologist,  born  at  Utica,  New  York,  in  1812.  Having 
visited  China  in  1833,  he  applied  himself  to  the  study 
of  the  Chinese  language,  and  in  1841  published  "Easy 
Lessons  in  Chinese,"  followed  by  an  "  English-and- 
Chinese  Vocabulary,"  (1843.)  In  1848  he  became  editor 
of  the  "Chinese  Repository,"  at  Canton,  and  in  1856 
brought  out  his  "Tonic  Dictionary  of  the  Chinese  Lan- 
guage." 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Williams,  (Seth,)  an  American  general,  born  at 
Augusta,  Maine,  about  1822.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1842.  He  served  as  adjutant-general  of  the 
army  of  the  Potomac  in  1862,  and  as  acting  inspector- 
general  of  the  same  in  1864  and  1865.  He  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  July,  1863,  and  in  many  actions 
in  Virginia.    Died  in  March,  1866. 


Williams,  (Thomas,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  at 
Greensburg,  Pennsylvania,  in  1806.  He  settled  in  Pitts- 
burg, and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1862. 
He  also  represented  the  twenty-third  district  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  Congress  for  two  subsequent  terms,  and  was 
one  of  the  managers  to  conduct  the  impeachment  of 
President  Johnson,  March,  1868. 

Williams,  (Thomas,)  an  able  American  general, 
born  in  the  State  of  New  York  in  181 8,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1837.  He  attacked  Vicksburg  in  June, 
1862,  and  commanded  a  small  force  which  was  attacked 
by  General  Breckinridge  at  Baton  Rouge,  August  5  of 
that  year.  He  was  killed  in  this  action,  but  his  army 
gained  the  victory. 

See  Tenney,  "  Military  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  732. 

Williams,  (Thomas  Scott,)  an  American  jurist, 
born  at  Wethersfield,  Connecticut,  in  1777,  was  noted 
for  his  beneficence.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1817  to  1819,  and  was  chief  justice  of  Connecticut 
from  1834  to  1847.  He  resided  at  Hartford,  where  he 
died  in  December,  1861. 

Williams,  (William,)  an  American  patriot  and 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in 
Windham  county,  Connecticut,  in  1731.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1 775.    Died  in  1811. 

See  Sanderson,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of 
Lidependence,"  1848. 

Williams  of  Kars,  ( Sir  William  Fenwick,) 
K.C.B.,  a  distinguished  general,  born  at  Halifax,  Nova 
Scotia,  in  1800.  He  was  educated  at  the  Woolwicli 
Military  Academy,  in  England,  and  afterwards  served 
in  Ceylon  and  Turkey,  attaining  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
ant-colonel in  1847.  He  was  appointed  in  1854  British 
commissioner  with  the  Turkish  army  in  the  East,  and 
soon  after  was  created  a  brigadier-general,  having  his 
head-quarters  at  Kars.  In  September,  1855,  he  severely 
repulsed  the  Russian  general  Mooravief,  (Mouravieff,) 
who  had  besieged  that  city,  but,  owing  to  the  suffering 
of  his  troops  by  famine,  was  obliged  to  capitulate  in 
November  of  that  year.  After  his  return  to  England 
he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Calne,  was  made  a 
baronet,  and  obtained  other  distinctions.  In  i860  he 
became  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in  British 
America. 

Williams,  (William  R.,)  D.D.,  an  American  Baptist 
divine,  born  in  New  York  in  1804.  He  published  "Mis- 
cellaneous Addresses,"  (1850,)  "Lectures  on  the  Lord's 
Prayer,"  (1851,)  and  other  religious  works. 

WiFliam-spn,  (Hugh,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
physician,'  born  at  West  Nottingham,  Pennsylvania,  in 
1735,  studied  at  Edinburgh  and  in  Holland,  and  was 
appointed  after  his  return  a  surgeon  in  the  Revolutionary 
army.  He  was  several  times  elected  to  Congress  from 
Edenton,  North  Carolina.  He  published  "Observations 
on  the  Climate  of  America,"  (1811,)  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1819. 

WiFliam-son,  (Sir  Joseph,)  an  English  statesman, 
who  held  several  important  offices  under  the  govern- 
ment, and  in  1674  succeeded  Lord  Arlington  as  secretary 
of  state.  He  died  in  1 701,  leaving  ;i^6ooo  and  a  large 
collection  of  manuscripts  to  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  had  been  educated  ;  also  a  bequest  for  founding 
a  mathematical  school  at  Rochester.  He  had  been  chosen 
in  1678  president  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Willibrod.    See  Willekrod. 

Wil'lis,  (Browne,)  LL.D.,  an  English  archaeologist, 
born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1682,  was  a  grandson  of  Dr. 
Thomas  Willis,  noticed  below.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries,  and  the  author  of  a  "  Survey  of 
the  Cathedrals  of  England,"  (3  vols.  4to,  with  plates, 
1733,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1760. 

Willis,  (Francis,)  an  eminent  English  physician, 
born  in  Ijncolnshire  about  1720.  He  studied  at  Brazen- 
nose  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1740  entered  holy  orders  ; 
but  he  subsequently  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
medicine, — particularly  mental  diseases.  He  attended 
King  George  III.  during  his  attack  of  insanity,  and 
his  successful  treatment  of  his  case  procured  for  him  a 
high  reputation.  He  founded  an  establishment  for  the 
insane  at  Greatford,  in  Lincolnshire,  where  his  labours 
were  attended  with  extraordinary  success.   His  personal 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  v., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled ;  s  as  2;  th  ^  in  this.    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WILLIS 


2278 


WILSON 


influence  over  his  patients  is  said  to  have  been  wonder- 
ful.   Died  in  1807. 

Wil'lis,  (Nathaniel  Parker,)  a  distinguished 
American  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Port- 
land, Maine,  in  1807.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1827,  and  was  soon  after  employed  by  S.  C,  Goodrich, 
since  widely  known  as  Peter  Parley,  to  edit  "  The  Le- 
gendary" and  "The  Token."  He  founded  in  1828  the 
"American  Monthly  Magazine,"  subsequently  merged 
in  the  "New  York  Mirror."  About  1831  he  visited 
various  parts  of  Europe,  as  one  of  the  attaches  of  Mr. 
Rives,  American  minister  at  Paris.  He  published  in 
England  "  Pencillings  by  the  Way,"  (1835,)  "Ink- 
lings of  Adventure,"  (1836,)  both  republisiied  in  Amer- 
ica. These  works  were  followed  by  "  Loiterings  of 
Travel,"  (1839,)  "Letters  from  under  a  Bridge,"  (1840,) 
"  Dashes  at  Life  with  a  Free  Pencil,"  (1845,)  "  People  I 
have  met,"  (1850,)  "  A  Health  Trip  to  the  Tropics," 
(1853,)  "Famous  Persons  and  Places,"  (1854,)  and  "Out- 
Doors  at  Idlewild,"  (1854.)  Mr.  Willis  became  in  1846 
associated  with  G.  P.  Morris  as  editor  of  the  "  Home 
Journal,"  a  literary  periodical,  published  in  New  York. 
Died  in  January,  1867. 

See  Alli  BONE,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  Duyckinck,  "Cyclo- 
paedia of  American  Literature,"  vol.  ii.  ;  Gkiswold,  "  Poets  and 
Poetry  of  America;"  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  January,  1836; 
"Eraser's  Magazine"  for  February,  1836;  "North  American  Re- 
view" for  October,  1836,  and  July,  1840,  (by  C.  C  Felton.) 

Willis,  (Robert,)  F.R.S.,  an  English  experimental 
philosopher  and  mechanician,  born  in  London  in  1800, 
was  educated  at  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1826.  He  became  Jack- 
sonian  professor  of  natural  and  experimental  philosophy 
at  Cambridge  in  1837,  and  lectured  on  dynamics,  statics, 
applied  mechanics,  etc.  He  applied  himself  to  acoustics, 
the  philosophy  of  mechanism,  the  history  and  philosophy 
of  architecture,  etc.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
"  Remarks  on  the  Architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages  and 
of  Italy,"  (1835,)  and  "The  Principles  of  Mechanism," 
(1841.) 

Willis,  (Thomas,)  F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English  anato- 
mist and  physician,  born  at  Great  Bedwin,  in  Wiltshire, 
in  1621,  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  began  to  prac- 
tise medicine  at  Oxford  about  1646,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  natural  philosophy  there  in  1660.  He  pub- 
lished in  1664  an  able  work  on  the  "Anatomy  of  the 
Brain,"  ("  Cerebri  Anatome,")  in  which  he  suggested  or 
affirmed  that  the  several  portions  of  the  brain  are  organs 
of  different  faculties.  In  1666  he  removed  to  London, 
and  became  physician  to  the  king.    Died  in  1675. 

See  Wood,  "Athens  Oxonienses;"  "  Biographie  Medicate." 

Willisen,  von,  fon  A^iKle-zen,  (Wilhelm,)  a  Prus- 
sian general  and  military  writer,  born  near  Magdeburg 
in  1790,  served  against  the  French  in  the  campaigns  of 
1814  and  1815.  He  became  a  general  in  1835,  '^'^d 
commanded  the  army  of  Sleswick-Holstein  against 
Denmark  in  1849. 

WiPlis-toii,  (Samuel,)  a  wealthy  American  manu- 
facturer, born  at  Easthampton,  Massachusetts,  in  1793. 
He  founded  in  his  native  town  the  Williston  Seminary, 
endowed  two  professorships  at  Amherst  College,  and 
gave  large  sums  for  other  educational  and  charitable 
purposes. 

Willmar,  wiKmIr  or  vel'mtR',  (Jean  Pierre  Chris- 
tine,) Baron,  a  Belgian  general,  born  at  Luxemburg 
in  1790,  was  minister  of  war  from  1836  to  1840,  and 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  the  Hague  in  1845.  Died 
in  1858. 

WilPmore,  (James  Tibbits,)  an  English  engraver, 
born  in  London  in  1800.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation 
for  his  admirable  landscapes,  particularly  his  prints, 
after  Turner.  Among  these  we  may  name  "  The  Golden 
Bough,"  "  Ancient  Italy,"  and  "liellini's  Picture  con- 
veyed to  the  Church  of  the  Redentore."  His  "  Harvest 
in  the  Highlands,"  after  Landseer,  and  "  Wind  against 
Tide,"  after  Stanfield,  are  also  esteemed  master-pieces. 
Lie  became,  in  1843,  associate  engraver  in  the  Royal 
Academy.    Died  in  1863. 

WilP'mott,  (Rev.  Robert  Aris,)  of  Bearwood,  an 
English  writer  and  man  of  science,  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "Life  of  Jeremy  Taylor."   Died  in  1863. 


WiPlpck,  WiPlox,  or  WiPlpcks,  (John,)  a  Scot- 
tish  Protestant  reformer,  was  a  native  of  Ayrshire.  He 
was  in  England  in  1541.    Died  after  1568. 

Willot,  ve'yo',  (Am^dee,)  a  French  general,  born  ai 
Saint-Germain-en-Laye  in  1757.  He  became  a  general 
of  brigade  in  1793,  and  gained  some  successes  in  the 
north  of  Spain  in  1795.  Having  joined  the  royalist 
party,  he  was  transported  to  Guiana  in  September,  1797, 
as  an  accomplice  of  Pichegru  in  the  Clichian  conspiracy. 
He  returned  to  France  about  1814.    Died  in  1823. 

Willoughby,  wiKlo-be,  (Francis,)  an  English  natu- 
ralist, born  in  1635.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  John 
Ray,  in  company  with  whom  he  afterwards  made  a  sci- 
entific tour  on  the  continent.  He  died  in  1672,  leaving 
his  valuable  works,  entitled  "  Ornithologiae  Libri.tres" 
and  "  Historiae  Piscium  Libri  quatuor,"  to  be  published 
by  Ray,  who  also  translated  the  former  into  English. 
His  merits  as  a  naturalist  are  highly  commended  by 
Cuvier. 

See  J.  F.  Denham,  "Memoir  of  F.  Willoughby,"  1846. 
Willoughby,  (Sir  Hugh,)  an  English  navigator,  was 
commander  of  an  expedition  fitted  out  by  the  merchants 
of  London  in  1553  for  the  purpose  of  making  dis- 
coveries in  the  Arctic  seas.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
perished,  with  nearly  all  his  company,  in  1554. 

Wills,  (William  Henry,)  an  English  litterateur^ 
born  at  Plymouth  in  1810,  became  successively  asso- 
ciate editor  of  "  Chambers's  Journal,"  "  Punch,"  the 
"  Daily  News,"  "  Household  Words,"  and  "  All  the 
Year  Round." 

WilPsliire,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  general,  born 
at  Halifax,  North  America,  about  1790.  He  served  in 
the  Afghan  war.    Died  in  1862. 

WiPmpt,  (David,)  an  American  legislator,  distin- 
guished as  an  opponent  of  slavery,  was  born  at  Bethany, 
Wayne  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  January,  1814.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834,  and  practised  law  at 
Towanda.  He  began  his  political  life  as  a  Democrat, 
and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1844.  While 
a  bill  was  pending  to  appropriate  ^2,000,000  for  the 
purchase  of  a  part  of  Mexico,  in  August,  1846,  he  moved 
to  add  an  amendment,  "  That,  as  an  express  and  fun- 
damental condition  to  the  acquisition  of  any  territory 
from  the  republic  of  Mexico  by  the  United  States,  .  .  . 
neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude  shall  ever 
exist  in  any  part  of  said  territory."  This  amendment, 
known  as  the  "  Wilmot  Proviso,"  produced  a  great  ex- 
citement, both  in  Congress  and  in  the  country  at  large. 
It  was  adopted  by  the  House  of  Representatives,  but 
failed  in  the  Senate.  Mr.  Wilmot  was  re-elected  in  1846 
and  1848,  and  in  the  latter  year  supported  Martin  Van 
Buren  for  the  Presidency.  In  1851  he  was  elected 
president  judge  of  the  thirteenth  judicial  district  of 
Pennsylvania.  Having  joined  the  Republican  party, 
he  advocated  the  election  of  John  C.  Fremont  to  the 
Presidency,  in  1856.  He  was  temporary  chairman  of  the 
National-  Convention  which  nominated  Mr.  Lincoln  in 
i860,  and  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States 
in  March,  1861,  to  fill  a  vacancy  for  two  years.  Died  at 
Towanda  in  March,  1868. 

Wilmot,  (John.)    See  Rochester,  Earl  of. 

WiPmpt,  (John  Eardley,)  an  English  jurist,  born 
at  Derby  in  1709,  rose  to  be  chief  justice  of  the  common 
pleas  in  1776,  and  published  a  work  entitled  "Notes  of 
Opinions."    Died  in  1792. 

Wilmot,  (John  Eardley,)  a  lawyer,  born  at  Derby 
in  1748,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Laws  and  Customs  of  England,"  and 
"Memoirs  of  his  Father."    Died  in  1815. 

Wilmsen,  \Virn/zen,  (Friedrich  Philipp,)  a  Ger- 
man writer,  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1770.  He  published 
the  "  Deutscher  Kinderfreund,"  "  Manual  of  Natural 
History,"  and  other  educational  works.    Died  in  1831. 

WiPspn,  (Alexander,)  a  distinguished  ornithologist, 
born  at  Paisley,  Scotland,  in  1766.  He  emigrated  in 
1794  to  America,  where  he  employed  himself  for  a  time 
at  his  trade  of  weaving,  and  subsequently  taught  a  school 
at  Kingsessing,  Pennsylvania.  Having  acquired  some 
knowledge  of  birds  from  William  Bartram  the  naturalist, 
he  resolved  to  make  a  collection  of  American  birds,  and 


i,e,  T,  6j  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  m§t;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


WILSON 


2279 


WILSON 


in  1804  set  out  on  a  pedestrian  tour  through  Western 
New  V'ork,  then  a  wilderness.  He  gave  a  lively  and 
graphic  account  of  this  excursion,  in  a  poem  entitled 
"The  Foresters."  He  brought  out  in  1808  the  first 
volume  of  his  "  Ornithology,"  and  in  1813  had  completed 
seven  volumes.  For  this  admirable  work  he  had  himself 
drawn  with  great  care  and  exactness  the  pictures  of  the 
birds  from  original  specimens;  and  his  publication  may 
be  said  to  mark  an  era  in  ornithological  science.  It 
was,  in  fact,  the  pioneer  of  the  magnificent  works  of 
Charles  Bonaparte  and  Audubon,  which  have  left  nothing 
to  be  desired  in  this  department  of  ornithology.  Wilson 
died  in  1813,  worn  out  with  his  excessive  labour  in  pre- 
paring his  work  for  publication.  Two  more  volumes 
were  edited  after  his  death,  and  a  continuation  by  C.  L. 
Bonaparte  came  out  in  1833,  (4  vols.  4to.) 

See  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  June  and  August,  1826  ;  "  North 
American  Review"  for  January,  1827;  Duyckinck,  "  Cyclopjedia 
of  American  Literature,"  vol.  i.  ;  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Au- 
thors." 

Wil'son,  (Sir  Archdale,)  an  English  general,  born 
in  1803.  He  was  chief  in  command  at  the  siege  of 
Delhi,  which  he  took  from  the  mutineers  in  September, 
1857.    For  this  service  he  was  made  a  baronet. 

Wilson,  (Arthur,)  an  English  writer,  was  secre- 
tary to  Robert,  Earl  of  Essex.  He  was  the  author  of 
the  "  Life  and  Reign  of  James  I."    Died  in  1642. 

Wilson,  (Daniel,)  an  English  theologian,  born  in 
London  in  1778.  He  studied  at  Saint  Edmund's  Hall, 
Oxford,  and  rose  through  various  preferments  to  be 
Bishop  of  Calcutta  and  metropolitan  of  India  in  1832. 
He  published  "Sermons  on  Christian  Doctrine,"  (1818,) 
"Lectures  on  the  Evidences  of  Christianity,"  (2  vols., 
1828-30,)  "The  Christian's  Struggle  against  Sin  and 
Death,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  Calcutta  in  1858. 

See  the  "Life  of  Daniel  Wilson,"  by  the  Rev.  Josiah  Bate- 
man,  i860. 

Wil'spn,  (Daniel,)  a  Scottish  writer  and  antiquary, 
born  in  Edinburgh  in  1816.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "The  Archaeology  and  Prehistoric  Annals  of 
Scotland,"  (1851,)  and  "Prehistoric  Man:  Researches 
into  the  Origin  of  Civilization  in  the  Old  and  the  New 
World,"  (2  vols.,  1863.)  He  became  professor  of  history 
at  Toronto,  in  Canada,  about  1853. 

Wilson,  (Erasmus,)  an  English  surgeon,  born  about 
1808.  He  practised  in  London,  and  published  a  "Sys- 
tem of  Human  Anatomy,"  (1842,)  which  has  passed 
through  many  editions,  and  other  professional  works. 

Wilson,  (Florence,)  [Lat.  Floren'tius  Voluse'- 
NUS,]  a  Scottish  philosopher  and  scholar,  born  in  the 
county  of  Moray,  studied  in  Paris,  and  afterwards  be- 
came teacher  of  a  grammar-school  at  Carpentras.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  "Dialogue  on  Tranquillity  of 
Mind,"  ("De  Animi  Tranquillitate  Dialogus.")  Died 
in  1547. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wilson,  (George,)  a  Scottish  chemist  and  physician, 
a  brother  of  Daniel,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1818.  He  was  successively  appointed  chemical 
lecturer  in  the  School  of  Arts,  director  of  the  Industrial 
Museum  of  Scotland,  and  regius  professor  of  technology 
in  the  university  of  his  native  city,  (1855.)  He  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  an  "  Elementary  Treatise 
on  Chemistry,"  (1850,)  "Researches  on  Colour-Klind- 
ness,"  (1855,)  and  "The  Five  Gateways  of  Knowledge," 
(1856.)    Died  in  1859. 

See  "Memoirs  of  George  Wilson,"  by  his  sister,  Jessie  A.  Wil- 
son, i860;  "North  British  Review"  for  February,  i860. 

Wilson,  (Henry,)  an  English  mariner,  was  captain 
of  a  vessel  which  was  wrecked  on  one  of  the  Pelevv 
Islands  in  1783.  He  was  kindly  treated  by  the  chief 
of  the  island,  Abba  Thulle,  whose  son  Le  Boo  went  to 
England  with  Wilson.    Died  in  1810. 

Wilson,  (Henry,)  a  distinguished  American  Senator, 
born  at  Farmington,  New  Hampshire,  February  16, 
1812,  was  a  son  of  poor  parents.  His  education  was 
very  defective.  After  he  had  worked  on  a  farm  many 
years,  he  removed  to  Natick,  Massachusetts,  about  1832, 
and  learned  the  trade  of  shoemaker.  In  1840  he  was 
elected  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  Massachu- 
setts by  the  Whigs.    He  afterwards  served  four  years  in 


the  Massachusetts  Senate,  of  which  he  was  twice  elected 
president,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  zealous  and 
resolute  opponent  of  slavery.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  organization  of  the  Free-Soil  party  in  1848, 
and  in  that  year  began  to  edit  the  "Boston  Republican." 
He  was  president  of  the  Free-Soil  National  Convention 
at  Pittsburg  in  1852,  was  a  member  of  the  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1853,  and  was  the  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  Governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1853  and  1854.  In 
1855  he  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  to 
succeed  Edward  Everett.  He  advocated  the  repeal  of 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  and  the  abolition  of  slavery  in 
the  District  of  Columbia,  and  became  in  1855  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Republican  party,  then  just  organized. 
In  May,  1856,  he  was  challenged  by  Preston  S.  Brooks 
because  he  denounced  his  assault  on  Mr.  Sumner  as 
"murderous,  brutal,  and  cowardly."  He  declined  to 
accept  the  challenge,  on  the  ground  that  duelling  was 
forbidden  by  the  laws  of  his  country ;  at  the  same  time 
he  notified  his  challenger  that,  if  attacked,  his  conscien- 
tious scruples  would  not  prevent  him  from  defending 
himself.  He  was  re-elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  about  January,  1859,  and  in  March  of  that  year 
made  a  speech  in  defence  of  free  labour,  which  attracted 
much  attention.  He  rendered  great  service  to  the 
country  during  the  civil  war,  as  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee on  military  affairs.  General  Scott  declared  that 
he  performed  in  one  session  more  work  than  all  the 
chairmen  of  the  military  committees  had  done  in  twenty 
years.  In  1861  he  raised  a  regiment,  and  received  a 
commission  as  colonel ;  but  his  duties  in  the  Senate 
prevented  him  from  remaining  long  in  the  field.  He  was 
the  author  of  the  bill  by  which  slavery  was  abolished  in 
the  District  of  Columbia,  April,  1862.  During  the  civil 
war  he  introduced  many  important  measures  to  organize 
and  develop  the  military  resources  of  the  nation,  and 
delivered  about  one  hundred  speeches  at  various  places 
in  support  of  the  cause  of  liberty  and  union.  "No 
public  man,"  says  Headley,  "ever  brought  to  the  high 
duties  of  a  great  occasion  more  sympathy  for  the  toiling 
and  the  oppressed,  or  more  faith  in  the  people  and  the 
democratic  institutions  of  his  country."  He  was  again 
elected  to  the  Senate  for  six  years,  1865-71. 

See  P.  C.  Headley,  "  Massachusetts  in  the  Rebellion,"  pp. 
45-56. 

Wilson,  (Horace  Hayman,)  an  eminent  English 
Orientalist,  born  in  London  in  1786.  He  studied  medi- 
cine, and  went  to  Bengal  as  a  surgeon  in  the  service  of 
the  East  India  Company  about  1808.  Having  learned 
Sanscrit,  he  published  in  1819  a  valuable  "  Sanscrit  Dic- 
tionary." He  translated  several  ancient  Sanscrit  dramas 
into  English,  (3  vols.,  1826-27,)  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  an  Orientalist.  In  1833  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  Sanscrit  at  Oxford.  Among  his  works  are  a 
"  History  of  Cashmere,"  printed  in  the  "  Asiatic  Re- 
searches," (1825,)  "  Ancient  Ariana,"  ("  Ariana  Antiqua," 
1841,)  a  "History  of  British  India  from  1805  to  1835," 
(2  vols.,  1846,)  and  a  translation  of  the  "Rigveda,"  (vol. 
i.,  1850.)    Died  in  May,  i860. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "Foreign  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1845. 

Wilson,  (James,)  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  was  born  near  Saint  Andrew's, 
Scotland,  in  1742.  He  emigrated  to  the  United  States, 
and  was  elected  in  1775  to  the  Continental  Congress, 
He  was  afterwards  appointed  by  Washington  one  of  the 
first  judges  of  the  United  States  supreme  court.  Died 
in  1798. 

See  Sanderson,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,"  1848. 

Wilson,  (James,)  a  Scottish  naturalist  and  scientific 
writer  of  great  merit,  born  at  Paisley  in  1795,  was  a 
brother  of  Professor  John  Wilson,  noticed  below.  He 
was  the  author  of  "A  Voyage  round  the  Coasts  of 
Scotland  and  the  Isles,"  and  contributed  to  the  "En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica"  the  articles  on  natural  history. 
Died  in  1856. 

See  "Memoirs  of  James  Wilson,"  by  James  Hamilton,  1859; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  June,  1828. 

Wilson,  (James,)  a  journalist  and  statesman,  born  in 
Roxburghshire,  Scotland,  in  1805.    He  became  in  1843 


€  as  /e;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  G,  H,  Y^, guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WILSON 


2280 


WILSON 


editor  of  "The  Economist,"  an  organ  of  free  trade,  was 
chosen  to  represent  Westbury  in  Parliament  in  1847, 
was  re-elected  in  1852,  and  was  soon  after  appointed 
financial  secretary  to  the  treasury.  He  wrote  a  treat- 
ise "On  the  Influences  of  the  Corn-Laws  as  affecting 
all  Classes  of  the  Community,"  etc.,  (1839,)  and  "  Fluc- 
tuations of  Currency,  Commerce,  and  Manufactures, 
referable  to  the  Corn-Laws,"  (1840.)    Died  in  i860. 

Wilson,  (James  F.,)  an  American  lawyer,  born  at 
Newark,  Ohio,  in  1828,  removed  to  Iowa  about  1853. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  Iowa  in  1859,  and  was 
chosen  a  member  of  Congress  in  1861.  He  represented 
the  first  district  of  Iowa  in  three  subsequent  terms, 
(1863-69,)  and  served  as  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  the  judiciary.  He  was  elected  one  of  the  managers 
to  conduct  the  impeachment  of  President  Johnson,  in 
March,  1868. 

Wilson,  (James  H.,)  an  American  general,  born  in 
Illinois,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  i860.  He  com- 
manded a  corps  of  cavalry  at  the  great  battle  of  Nash- 
ville, December  15  and  16,  1864,  before  which  event  he 
had  served  under  General  Grant  in  Mississippi,  and 
under  Sheridan  in  Virginia.  In  March,  1865,  he  led  an 
army  of  about  15,000  men,  mostly  cavalry,  on  an  expe- 
dition against  Alabama,  which  he  entered  from  the  north. 
He  defeated  General  Forrest,  and  captured  Selma, 
Montgomery,  Columbus,  and  Macon,  in  April,  1865. 
Jefferson  Davis  was  taken  prisoner  by  a  detachment 
of  his  men.  He  became  a  lieutenant-colonel  of  the 
regular  army  in  1866. 

Wilson,  (John,)  an  Englis|\  clergyman,  born  at 
Windsor  in  1 588.  He  emigrated  to  Massachusetts  in 
1629,  and  was  the  first  minister  of  Boston.  Died  in  1667. 

Wilson,  (John,)  an  English  musician  and  composer, 
born  in  Kent  in  1 594,  was  celebrated  for  his  perform- 
ance on  the  lute,  and  was  a  great  favourite  of  Charles  I. 
He  became  professor  of  music  at  Oxford  in  1656,  and 
after  the  restoration  was  patronized  by  Charles  II. 
Died  in  1673. 

Wilson,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  general,  born  in 
1782.  He  served  in  the  Peninsular  war,  (1808-14.) 
Died  in  1856. 

Wilson,  (John,)  otherwise  known  as  Christopher 
North,  a  celebrated  Scottish  writer,  critic,  and  poet, 
was  born  at  Paisley  on  the  19th  of  May,  1785.  His 
father  was  a  manufacturer.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Glasgow,  which  he  entered  about  the  age 
of  thirteen,  and  at  Magdalene  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
gained  distinction  as  a  scholar  and  as  an  athlete.  He 
won  the  Newdigate  prize  for  English  poetry,  and  ex- 
celled in  the  knowledge  of  Greek.  He  was  remarkable 
for  ])hysical  strength,  beauty,  and  agility.  He  graduated 
as  B.  A.  in  1807.  Having  inherited  an  easy  fortune,  (about 
;!^30,ooo,)  he  purchased  a  beautiful  place,  called  Elleray, 
which  is  situated  on  Lake  Windermere.  Here  he  enjoyed 
the  society  of  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  and  Southey.  In 
1810  or  181 1  he  married  an  English  lady  named  Jane 
Penny.  He  published  in  1812  a  poeni  entitled  "The 
Isle  of  Palms."  About  1815  he  lost  part  of  his  fortune, 
which  had  been  unsafely  invested,  and,  having  adopted 
the  profession  of  law,  he  removed  to  Edinburgh.  He 
produced  in  1816  "The  City  of  the  Plague,"  a  poem. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  contributors  to  "  Blackwood's 
Magazine,"  which  was  founded  in  181 7,  and  derived  its 
popularity  chiefly  from  the  brilliant  articles  which  he 
continued  to  furnish  for  many  years  under  the  name  of 
"  Christopher  North." 

Commenting  on  "The  City  of  the  Plague,"  the  "Edin- 
burgh Review"  for  June,  1816,  says,  "  We  take  our 
leave  of  it  with  unfeigned  regret  and  very  sincere  ad- 
miration of  the  author's  talents.  He  has,  undoubtedly, 
the  heart  and  fancy  of  a  poet,  and,  with  these  great 
requisites,  is  almost  sure  of  attaining  the  higher  honours 
of  his  art,  if  he  continues  to  cultivate  it  with  the  docility 
and  diligence  of  which  he  has  already  given  proof" 

In  1820,  Wilson  and  Sir  William  Hamilton  were 
competitors  for  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  which  the  former  obtained. 
His  success  is  attributed  partly  to  his  political  principles, 
which  were  Tory.  His  lectures  are  said  to  have  been 
attractive  as  well  as  suggestive.    He  published  a  series 


of  tales  in  prose,  entitled  "  Lights  and  Shadows  of 
Scottish  Life,"  (1822,)  and  "The  Foresters,"  which 
were  highly  popular.  Among  his  most  celebrated  pro- 
ductions are  the  "  Noctes  Ambrosian?i,"  contributed  to 
"  Blackwood's  Magc^zine"  between  1S22  and  1835,  and 
consisting  of  familiar  dialogues  on  men,  books,  and  the 
principal  topics  of  the  day.  "They  contain,"  says  R. 
Caruthers,  "passages  of  'admirable  fooling,'  shrewd 
observation,  description,  and  criticism.  .  .  .  There  was 
originality  with  fervour  and  boldness  in  all  he  wrote.  It 
was  mixed  with  baser  matter,  in  the  shape  of  invitations 
to  coarse  jollity,  and  fierce  political  and  personal  satire  ; 
but  the  frank,  genial,  literary  spirit  predominated." 
("  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.")  In  1842  he  published  a 
selection  of  his  contributions  to  "  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine," under  the  title  of  "  Recreations  of  Christopher 
North."  He  continued  to  occupy  the  chair  of  moral 
philosophy  for  thirty  years  or  more.  He  died  in  Edin- 
burgh in  April,  1854. 

See  a  "Life  of  John  Wilson,"  by  Mrs.  Gordon,  his  daughter, 
1862  ;  Lord  Jeffrey,  critique  in  the  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for 
February,  1812,  vol.  xix. ;  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  February,  1843, 
vol.  Ixxvii.  ;  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men," (Supplement;)  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  January, 
1863 ;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  May,  1854,  and  December, 
1862;  "Eraser's  Magazine"  for  October,  1855;  "British  Quarterly 
Review"  for  April,  1863;  "North  British  Review"  for  February, 
1863. 

Wilson,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  English  landscape- 
painter,  born  in  Montgomeryshire  in  17 13.  He  devoted 
himself  at  first  to  portrait-painting ;  but,  having  visited 
Rome,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Joseph 
Vernet  and  other  celebrated  artists,  he  was  induced  to 
relinquish  that  branch  of  the  art  for  landscape-painting. 
Having  spent  six  years  in  Italy,  where  he  executed 
several  admirable  works,  he  returned  in  1755  to  London. 
He  exhibited  in  1760  a  celebrated  picture  of  the  "De- 
struction of  Niobe's  Children."  He  was  one  of  the 
original  members  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Among  his 
works  are  "The  Villa  of  Maecenas  at  Tivoli,"  a  "View 
of  Baiae,"  "The  Temple  of  Bacchus  near  Rome,"  "  Car- 
narvon Castle,"  and  "Pembroke  Castle."  Died  in  1782. 

See  Thomas  Wright,  "Account  of  the  Life  of  R.  Wilson," 
1824  ;  Charles  Blanc,  "  Histoire  des  Peintres." 

Wilson,  (Sir  Robert  Thomas,)  an  English  general 
and  military  writer,  born  in  1777.  He  served  in  Flanders 
and  Holland,  and  subsequently  under  Sir  Arthur  Wel- 
lesley  in  Spain.  In  1816  he  aided  Lavallette  to  escape 
from  Paris.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  South- 
wark  in  1818.  In  1841  he  was  made  a  general,  and  in 
1842  governor  and  commander-in-chief  of  Gibraltar. 
He  published  an  "  Historical  Account  of  the  British 
Expedition  to  Egypt,"  (1802,)  a  "Narrative  of  Events 
which  occurred  in  181 2  during  the  Invasion  of  Russia," 
(i860,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1849. 

Wilson,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  statesman  and 
writer,  left  his  country  on  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary, 
was  arrested  at  Rome,  and  imprisoned  for  a  time  in 
the  Inquisition.  After  his  return  to  England  he  became 
private  secretary  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  was  sent  on  a 
mission  to  the  Netherlands  in  1576.  He  was  appointed 
in  1577  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state.  He  wrote  two 
critical  works  of  great  merit,  entitled  "  The  Rule  of 
Reason,  containing  the  Art  of  Logic,"  (1551,)  and  "The 
Art  of  Rhetoric,"  (1553.)    Died  in  1581. 

Wilson,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Puritan  minister, 
born  in  Kent.  He  preached  at  Canterbury,  and  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  "  Complete  Christian  Dictionary." 
Died  in  1621. 

Wilson,  (Thomas,)  a  pious  English  theologian,  born 
at  Burton,  in  Cheshire,  in  1663.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Sodor  and  Man  in  1697,  and  many  years  later  declined 
the  more  lucrative  place  of  Bishop  of  Exeter,  which  the 
king  offered  him.  He  published  "  Religious  Tracts"  and 
Sermons.    Died  in  1755. 

See  Crutwell,  "  Life  of  Thomas  Wilson,"  1780;  Hugh  Stow- 
ELL,  "  Life  of  Bishop  Wilson,"  1819. 

Wilson,  (Thomas,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  1703.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "The  Ornaments 
of  Churches  Considered."    Died  in  1784. 

Wilson,  (William  Dexter,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Episcopalian  divine,  born  at  Stoddard,  New  Hampshire, 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  s/iort;  a,    j,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  m^t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WILSON 


2281 


WINDHAM 


in  1816.  He  became  in  1850  professor  of  history  and 
of  moral  and  intellectual  philosophy  at  Geneva  Col- 
lege, New  York.  He  has  published  a  "  History  of  the 
Reformation  in  England,"  and  other  works. 

Wilson,  (William  Rae,)  a  British  traveller,  born  at 
Paisley  about  1773.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,"  and  '*  Travels  in  Russia." 
Died  in  1849. 

See  CffAMHEKS,  *'  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen," 
(Supplement.) 

WiFton,  (Joseph,)  an  English  sculptor,  and  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Royal  Academy,  was  born  in  London 
in  1722.  He  studied  in  Paris  and  at  Rome,  where  he 
resided  many  years.  Among  his  best  works  are  the 
monument  to  General  Wolfe,  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
and  busts  of  Newton,  Bacon,  Chatham,  and  Swift.  Died 
in  1803. 

See  Allan  Cunningham,  "Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  British 
Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects." 

Wimpfeling,  ^imp'feh-ling',  or  Wimpheling,  [Lat. 
Wimphelin'gius,]  (Jakob,)  an  eminent  German  scholar 
and  writer,  born  in  Alsace  in  1450.  He  became  a  priest, 
preached  for  some  time  at  Spire,  and  afterwards  lived 
at  Strasburg,  Bale,  and  other  towns.  It  appears  that  he 
never  remained  long  at  one  place.  He  wrote  many  and 
various  works,  among  which  are  "  Youth,"  ("  Adoles- 
centia,"  1492,)  and  one  "On  Integrity,"  ("De  Integri- 
tate,"  1505.)    Died  in  1528. 

See  NiCERON,  "  Memoires ;"  Schwalb,  "Notice  sur  Wimphe- 
ling," 1851. 

Wimpffen,  von,  fon  Mmp'fen,  (Franz  Emil  Lo- 
RENZ  Hermann,)  a  German  military  commander,  born 
at  Prague  in  1797,  served  against  the  French  in  the 
campaigns  of  1813-14,  and  in  the  revolution  of  1848. 
He  was  made  feldzeugmeister  (master  of  ordnance)  in 
1849,  and  was  appointed  governor  of  Trieste. 

Wimpffen-Berneburg,  <\'imp'fen  b^R'neh-booRo', 
(Felix,)  B.aron,  a  distinguished  general,  born  at  Zwei- 
briicken,  (Deux-Ponts,)  in  Germany,  in  1745.  Having 
entered  the  French  service,  he  fought  in  1769  against 
Paoli  in  Corsica,  and  in  1789  was  a  deputy  from  Nor- 
mandy to  the  States-General.  He  defended  Thionville 
against  the  Prussians  in  1792;  but  he  was  afterwards 
defeated  by  the  royalists  near  Vernon,  and  was  forced 
to  take  refuge  in  England.  He  was  made  a  general  of 
division  by  Napoleon  in  1799.    Died  in  1814. 

Wimpffen-Berneburg,  (Franz  Ludwig,)  Baron, 
born  at  Zweibriicken  (Deux-Ponts)  in  1732,  served  with 
distinction  in  the  French  army  during  the  Seven  Years' 
war,  and  rose  to  be  a  general  of  division.  He  published 
"Memoirs  of  his  Life,"  (1788.)    Died  in  1800. 

Wimpina,  ^im'pe-nS,  (Conrad,)  was  born  in  Fran- 
conia,  in  Germany,  in  1460.  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  about  1506.  In  1530 
he  was  one  of  three  Catholic  theologians  appointed  to 
dispute  with  the  Lutherans  at  Augsburg.    Died  in  1531. 

Winch'ell,  (James  Manning,)  an  American  Baptist 
divine,  born  in  Dutchess  county.  New  York,  in  1791, 
became  in  1814  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church  in 
Boston.  He  published  a  compilation  of  psalms  and 
hymns,  and  several  original  works.    Died  in  1820. 

Win'ches-ter,  (Elhanan,)  an  American  divine,  born 
at  Brookline,  Massachusetts,  in  1751,  was  originally  a 
Baptist,  but  was  afterwards  converted  to  the  doctrines 
of  the  Restorationists.  He  published  "Four  Dialogues 
on  Universal  Restoration,"  and  numerous  other  theo- 
logical works.    Died  in  1797. 

See  ViDLER,  "Life  of  E.  Winchester;"  E.  M.  Stone,  "  Life  of 
E.  Winchester,"  1836. 

Win'ches-ter,  (Thomas,)  an  English  writer  on 
theology,  born  in  Berkshire.  He  became  rector  of  Ap- 
pleton'in  1761.    Died  in  1780. 

Winckell,  <^!nk'kel,  (Georg  Franz  Dietrich,)  a 
German  writer,  born  in  1762,  published  a  "Manual  for 
Sportsmen  and  Amateurs,"  (1820.)    Died  in  1839. 

Winckelmann,  wink'el-man,  [Ger.  pron,  ^^-fnk'Uel- 
min',]  (JoHANN  Joachim,)  an  eminent  German  critic 
and  writer  on  art,  was  born  at  Stendal,  in  Prussia,  in 
1717.  His  father  was  a  i)oor  mechanic,  unable  to  afford 
him  any  opportunities  of  instruction  ;  but  his  eager  de- 
sire for  knowledge  procured  for  him  the  friendship  and 


patronage  of  several  gentlemen  of  rank  and  fortune, 
and  in  1738  he  entered  the  University  of  Halle.  He 
became  in  1748  private  librarian  to  Count  Biinau,  near 
Dresden.  Here  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Archinto, 
the  pope's  nuncio,  who  offered  him  a  situation  at  Rome 
on  condition  of  his  becoming  a  Catholic.  He  accepted 
this  offer,  after  some  hesitation,  and  in  1755  set  out  for 
Rome,  having  previously  published  his  "  Reflections 
upon  the  Imitation  of  the  Antique."  He  soon  acquired 
the  friendship  of  the  principal  artists  and  literati  of 
Rome,  particularly  of  Raphael  Mengs,  whose  counsels 
exercised  great  influence  over  him.  He  was  appointed 
in  1759,  by  Cardinal  Albani,  librarian  and  keeper  of  his 
gallery  of  antiquities,  and  became  in  1763  antiquary  of 
the  apostolic  chamber.  His  great  work  entitled  "  His- 
tory of  Ancient  Art"  ("Geschichte  der  Kunst  des  Alter- 
thums")  came  out  in  1764,  and  was  soon  followed  by  his 
"  Account  of  the  Latest  Discoveries  at  Herculaneum." 
In  Jane,  1768,  while  returning  from  a  visit  to  Vienna, 
— where  he  had  been  received  with  great  distinction, — 
he  was  assassinated  at  Trieste  by  Arcangeli,  an  Italian, 
who  had  gained  his  confidence,  and  whose  cupidity  was 
excited  by  some  gold  coins  which  Winckelmann  had 
shown  him. 

See  C.  G.  Hevne,  "  Lobschrift  auf  Winckelmann,"  1778; 
Goethe,  "Winckehnann  and  sein  Jalirhundert,"  1805;  jNIorgen- 
STERN,  "J.  Winckelmann;  Rede,"  1805;  D.  de  Rossetti,  "J.  J. 
Winckelmann's  letzte  Lebensepoche,"  1818;  Otto  Jahn,  "J.  J. 
Winckehnann;  eine  Rede,"  1844;  C.  Petersen,  "  Eriinierung  an 
J.J.  Winckehnann's  Einfluss,"  etc.,  1842;  Madame  de  Stael, 
"Germany;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Winckelmann,  (Johann  Justus,)  a  German  his- 
torian, born  at  Giessen  in  1620.  He  published  several 
works  in  Latin,    Died  in  1697. 

Winckler.Mnk'ler,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German 
philosopher,  born  in  Upper  Lusatia  in  1703,  became 
professor  of  physics  at  Leipsic.  He  published  "  Thoughts 
on  the  Properties  and  Effects  of  Electricity,"  and  other 
similar  works.  Franklin  is  supposed  to  have  been  bene- 
fited by  his  suggestions.    Died  in  1770. 

Win'der,  (William  H.,)  an  American  lawyer  and 
officer,  born  in  Somerset  county,  Maryland,  in  1775, 
served  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  was  appointed  inspector- 
general  in  1814.    Died  in  1824. 

Windham,  wind'am,  (Charles  Ash,)  an  English 
general,  born  in  the  county  of  Norfolk  in  1810,  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Crimean  war,  and  in  1S55  suc- 
ceeded General  Barnard  as  chief  of  the  staff  of  the 
Eastern  army.  He  was  made  commander  of  the  Bath 
the  same  year.  In  1857  he  fought  against  the  mutineers 
in  India.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  nephew  of  the 
celebrated  William  Windham.    Died  in  1870. 

Windham,  (Joseph,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at 
Twickenham  in  1739.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Observa- 
tions on  a  Passage  in  Pliny's  Natural  History  relative 
to  the  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,"  and  wrote  the 
principal  part  of  the  "  Ionian  Antiquities."  Died  in  1810. 

Windham,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  orator 
and  statesman,  born  in  London  in  May,  1750,  was  the 
only  son  of  Colonel  William  Windham,  of  Norfolk. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton,  Glasgow,  and  University 
College,  Oxford,  which  he  quitted  in  1771.  In  1778  he 
censured  the  policy  of  the  government  on  the  subject 
of  the  American  war,  in  a  public  speech.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  Parliament  for  Norwich  in  1783,  and  was 
appointed  one  of  the  managers  of  the  impeachment  of 
Warren  Hastings.  He  began  public  life  as  a  Whig 
and  political  friend  and  follower  of  Burke,  Ut  whom  he 
adhered  after  the  Whig  party  had  been  divided  by  the 
issues  of  the  French  Revolution.  In  1790  he  was  again 
elected  a  member  for  Norwich.  He  was  secretary  at 
war  in  the  cabinet  of  Pitt  from  1794  until  1801,  and  he 
then  resigned  with  his  colleagues.  About  1798  he 
married  a  daughter  of  Admiral  Forrest.  He  made  a 
celebrated  speech  against  the  treaty  of  Amiens  in  1802, 
and  moved  an  address  to  the  king,  which  was  rejected. 
He  opposed  the  administration  of  Addington  and  that 
of  Pitt,  (1804-06.)  On  the  death  of  Pitt,  in  1806,  Lord 
Grenville  and  Fox  came  into  power  at  the  head  of  the 
"ministry  of  all  the  talents,"  in  which  Mr.  Windham 
was  secretary  at  war  and  for  the  colonies.  He  procured 
the  passage  of  acts  to  increase  the  pay  and  pensions  of 


€  as  ^;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2l^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WINDHEIM 


2282 


WINS  LOW 


soldiers  and  to  limit  their  term  of  service.  He  and  his 
colleagues  ceased  to  hold  office  in  March,  1807.  He  was 
regarded  as  the  model  of  an  English  gentleman.  Died 
jn  June,  1810.  Respecting  his  style  of  speaking,  Lord 
Brougham  says,  "  It  was  in  the  easy  tone  of  familiar 
conversation  ;  but  it  was  full  of  nice  observation  and 
profound  remark  ;  it  was  instinct  with  classical  allusion  ; 
it  was  even  over-informed  with  philosophic  and  with 
learned  reflection  ;  it  sparkled  with  the  finest  wit." 

See  Brougham,  "Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.,"  vol. 
ii.  :  Thomas  Amyot,  "Life  of  Windham;"  "Diary  of  Williain 
Windham,"  1866;  E.  Malone,  "Biographical  Memoir  of  William 
Windham,"  1810  ;  "Edinburgh  Review"  for  February,  1811. 

Wilidheim,  -^int'hlm,  (Christian  Ernst,)  a  Ger- 
man philosopher  and  writer,  born  at  Wernigerode  in 
1722.  He  was  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Er- 
langen.    Died  in  1766. 

Windisch,  l^in'dish,  (Karl  Gottlieb,)  a  Hungarian 
historian,  born  at  Presburg  in  1725.  He  wrote  on  the 
history  and  geography  of  Hungary.    Died  in  1793. 

Windischgratz,  -(^in'dish  -  grits',  (  Alfrkd  zu,  ) 
Prince,  a  distinguished  field-marshal,  born  at  Brussels 
in  1787,  Having  entered  the  Austrian  army,  he  served 
in  the  campaign  of  1814,  and  was  made  general  of  di- 
vision in  1833.  In  the  revolution  of  1848  he  defeated 
the  Hungarian  insurgents,  and  took  Vienna  by  storm, 
(October  31.)  He  afterwards  led  a  large  army  into 
Hungary,  where  he  remained  inactive,  and  was  censured 
for  hesitation  or  dilatory  conduct.  He  was  removed  in 
April,  1849.    Died  in  1862. 

Windischmann,  -(^in' dish  -  min',  (Karl  Joseph 
HiERONYMUS,)  a  German  physician  and  philosopher, 
born  at  Mentz  in  1775.  He  became  Catholic  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Bonn  in  181 8,  and  published  a  number 
of  treatises  on  medicine  and  animal  magnetism,  also 
**  Philosophy  in  the  Progress  of  the  History  of  the 
World,"  (1827-34,)  and  other  similar  works.  Died  in 
1839.  His  son  Friedrich  has  published  several  works 
on  theology  and  Oriental  literature. 

Wine'bren-ner,  (John,)  founder  of  a  sect  called  by 
his  name,  became  in  1821  pastor  of  a  German  Reformed 
church  at  Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania.  He  afterwards 
founded  a  religious  society,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  the  "Church  of  God."  Among  its  tenets  are  oppo- 
sition to  slavery  and  to  the  use  of  ardent  spirits. 

Winer,  \^ee'ner,  (Georg  Benedict,)  a  German  Prot- 
estant theologian  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1789.  He  studied  at  the  university  of  his  native  city, 
and  in  1823  became  i?rofessor  of  theology  at  Erlangen. 
In  1832  he  filled  the  saiiie  chair  at  Leipsic.  He 
published  a  "Biblical  Dictionary,"  ("  Biblische  Real- 
worterbuch,"  1820,)  "Greek  Testament  Grammar," 
("Grammatik  des  Neutestamentlichen  Sprachidioms," 
1822,)  which  is  regarded  as  a  standard  work,  and 
"Chaldean  Reader,"  (1825,)  also  a  "  Manual  of  Theo- 
logical Literature,  principally  that  of  Protestant  Ger- 
many," (1825,)  and  other  critical  and  theological  essays 
of  great  merit.    Died  in  1858. 

See  the  "Westminster  Review"  for  December,  1845,  article 
"German  Theology;"  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1870. 

Wines,  (Enoch  Cobb,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine 
and  educational  writer,  born  at  Hanover,  New  Jersey, 
in  1806,  became  professor  of  languages  in  the  Central 
High  School  of  Philadelphia  in  1838.  He  published 
"Hints  on  a  System  of  Popular  Education,"  (1837,) 
"  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews," 
(1852,)  and  other  works. 

Wing,  (Vincent,)  an  English  astronomer,  was  the 
author  of  "  Harmonicon  Celeste,  or  the  Harmony  of 
the  Visible  World,"  (1651,)  "  Astronomia  Britannica," 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1668. 

Win'gate,  (Edmund,)  an  English  mathematician  and 
statesman,  liorn  in  Yorkshire  in  1593.  He  studied  law, 
and  subsequently  resided  for  a  time  in  France,  where 
he  instructed  the  Princess  Henrietta  Maria  in  English. 
After  his  return  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  the 
county  of  Bedford.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Natural 
and  Artificial  Arithmetic,"  "  Ludus  Mathematicus,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1656. 

Winghen,  van,  vtn  wing'gen  or  wing'Hen,  (Joseph,) 
a  Flemish  historical  painter,  born  at  Brussels  in  1544; 
died  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1603. 


Winkelried,  von.  See  Arnold  von  Winkelried. 

Winkler,  <vink'ler,  (Karl  Gottfried  Theodor,)  a 
German  litterateur,  known  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Theodor  Hell,  born  in  1775.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
number  of  poems  and  dramatic  works,  and  made  trans- 
lations from  the  French,  English,  and  Portuguese.  Died 
in  1856. 

Win'ram,  (John,)  a  Scottish  ecclesiastic,  was  sub- 
prior  of  the  monastery  of  Saint  Andrew's.  He  afterwards 
professed  the  Reformed  religion.    Died  in  1582. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Winsem,  win'sem,  or  Winsemius,  win-sa'me-us, 
(Menelaus,)  a  Dutch  physician,  born  at  Leeuwarden 
about  1590.  He  was  professor  of  medicine  and  botany 
at  Franeker.    Died  in  1639. 

Winsem  or  Winsemius,  (Pieter,)  a  historian  and 
poet,  born  at  Leeuwarden  about  1586,  was  a  brother  of 
the  preceding.  He  published,  in  Latin,  a  "History  of 
the  Netherlands  in  the  Reign  of  Philip  IL,"  (2  vols., 
1629-33,)  which  was  esteemed  by  the  Protestants;  also 
other  works.    Died  in  1644. 

Winsemius.    See  Winsem. 

WinsTow,  (Edward,)  born  in  Worcestershire,  Eng- 
land, in  1595,  catne  in  the  Mayflower  to  New  England 
in  1620.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Plymouth  colony 
in  1633,  1636,  and  1644.  He  was  the  author  of  "  A  Brief 
Narrative  of  the  True  Grounds  or  Cause  of  the  First 
Planting  of  New  England,"  "  Hypocrisie  Unmasked," 
and  other  works.    Died  at  sea  in  1655. 

Winslow,  (Forbes,)  an  English  physician,  born  in 
London  in  1810.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  in  1835,  and  president  of  the  Lon- 
don Medical  Society  in  1853.  In  1848  he  became  editor 
of  the  "  Quarterly  Journal  of  Psychological  Medicine  and 
Mental  Pathology."  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  Manual  of  Osteology,"  "  Anatomy  of  Suicide,"  (1840,) 
and  "  On  Obscure  Diseases  of  the  Brain  and  Disorders 
of  the  Mind,"  (.i860.) 

WinsTow,  (Hubbard,)  D.D.,  an  American  Congre- 
gational divine,  born  at  Williston,  Vermont,  in  1800. 
He  published  "Christianity  applied  to  our  Civil  and 
Social  Relations,"  (1835,)  and  other  religious  works. 
Died  in  1864. 

Winslow,  vins'lo,  (Jakob  Benig'nus,)  an  emi- 
nent anatomist  and  physician,  born  at  Odense,  in  the 
island  of  Fiinen,  in  1669.  He  studied  in  Holland,  and 
subsequently  in  Paris  under  Duverney.  He  soon  after 
entered  the  Catholic  Church,  having  been  converted 
by  the  eloquence  and  the  arguments  of  Bossuet.  In 
1743  he  succeeded  Hunault  as  professor  of  anatomy 
and  physiology  in  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  in  Paris.  His 
"  Anatomical  Exposition  of  the  Structure  of  the  Human 
Body"  (in  French,  1732)  is  esteemed  a  standard  work, 
and  has  been  translated  into  several  languages.  Died 
in  1760. 

See  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "  Litteraturlexicon  ;"  "  Biographie 
Medicale." 

Winslow,  (John  A.,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
descended  from  a  brother  of  Governor  Edward  Wins- 
low, of  Massachusetts,  was  born  at  Wilmington,  North 
Carolina,  in  1811.  He  entered  the  navy  about  1827, 
became  a  lieutenant  in  1839,  and  commander  in  1855. 
In  1862  he  served  under  Captain  Fo  )te  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi River.  He  obtained  command  of  the  steamer 
Kearsarge,  of  seven  guns,  and  was  ordered  to  the  coast 
of  Europe,  to  watch  rebel  cruisers,  in  the  early  part  of 
1863.  On  the  19th  of  June,  1864,  he  met  the  Alabama, 
Captain  Semmes,  near  Cherbourg.  When  the  vessels 
\yere  about  one  mile  apart,  the  Alabama  began  to  fire 
rapidly  and  wildly,  but  the  guns  of  the  Kearsarge  were 
directed  with  coolness  and  precision.  "The  two  ves- 
sels," says  Headley,  "  were  now  steaming  at  the  rate  of 
seven  or  eight  miles  an  hour, — and  every  few  minutes 
sheering,  so  as  to  bring  their  broadsides  to  bear,  they 
were  forced  to  fight  in  circles,  swinging  steadily  around 
an  ever-changing  centre."  After  they  had  described 
seven  circles  and  had  diminished  their  distance  to  about 
a  quarter  of  a  mile,  the  Alabama  began  to  sink,  and 
raised  a  white  flag.  Captain  Winslow  lost  only  three 
killed  and  wounded  out  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-three 
officers  and  men.    He  took  sixty-five  prisoners.  He 


a,  e,  1,  o,  ii,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  short;  a,  9,  i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


W  INFLOW 


2283 


WINTRINGHAM 


was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  commodore  in  July,  1866, 
and  to  that  of  rear-admiral  in  1870. 

See  J.  T.  Headlev,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders," 
pp.  2S8-319 :  Greeley,  "American  Conflict,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  647-648 ; 
Te.n-ney,  "  Military  and  Naval  History  of  the  Rebellion,"  p.  648. 

Wiiislow,  (JosiAH,)  a  son  of  Governor  Winslow, 
noticed  above,  was  born  in  1629.  He  was  Governor  of 
Plymouth  colony  from  1673  until  1680.    Died  in  1680. 

Winslow,  (MiRON,)  D.D.,  a  brother  of  the  Rev. 
Hubbard  Winslow,  noticed  above,  was  born  at  Willis- 
tcn,  Vermont,  in  1789.  He  sailed  in  1819  as  a  missionary 
to  India,  became  president  of  the  college  connected  with 
the  mission  at  Madras,  and  published  in  1862  a  "  Com- 
prehensive Tamil-and-English  Dictionary,"  which  enjoys 
a  high  reputation.  He  died  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
in  October,  1864. 

Windsor,  (Frederick  Albert,)  an  English  projector, 
who  first  introduced  gas-light  into  London.  He  began 
his  experiments  on  gas-light  in  1803.    Died  in  1830. 

Wiu'stan-ley,  (William,)  an  English  biographical 
writer,  published  "  Lives  of  the  Poets,"  "  Historical 
Rarities,"  and  other  works.    Died  about  1690, 

Win'ston,  (Thomas,)  an  English  i^hysician,  born  in 
1575.  He  studied  medicine  in  Switzerland,  and  at 
Padua,  where  he  took  his  degree.  He  became  a  Fellow 
of  the  College  of  Physicians  in  1613,  and  in  161 5  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  Gresham  College.  His  "  Lectures 
on  Anatomy"  were  highly  esteemed  in  his  time.  Died 
in  1655. 

Wint,  de,  (Peter,)  an  English  painter  in  water- 
colours,  was  born  in  Staffordshire  in  1784.  His  works 
are  chiefly  English  landscapes,  views  in  Cumberland, 
Westmoreland,  Wales,  etc.    Died  in  1849. 

Winter,  v^in'ter,  (Georg  Ludvvig,)  a  German  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  in  Baden  in  1778  ;  died  in  1838. 

Winter,  van,  vtn  win'ter,  (Jan  Willem,)  a  Dutch 
naval  com.mander  and  diplomatist,  bprn  in  Kampen  in 
1761.'  He  served  for  a  time  in  France  under  Diimouriez 
and  Pichegru,  and  rose  to  be  general  of  brigade.  He 
was  created  vice-admiral  after  his  return,  with  the  com- 
mand of  the  Texel  fleet,  and  in  1797  was  defeated  by 
the  English  fleet  under  Admiral  Duncan.  He  was  sent 
as  minister-plenipotentiary  to  France  in  1798,  and  was 
afterwards  made  a  marshal  of  the  kingdom  of  Holland 
by  Louis  Bonaparte.  After  the  union  of  Holland  with 
France,  he  was  created  by  Napoleon  grand  officer  of  the 
legion  of  honour.    Died  in  1812. 

Winter,  von,  fon  -(v'in'ter,  (Peter,)  a  German  mu- 
sician and  composer,  born  at  Mannheim  in  1754.  "  He 
studied  at  Vienna  under  Salieri,  and  in  1782  brought 
out  at  Munich  his  opera  of  "  Helena  and  Paris."  His 
compositions  are  very  numerous,  including  masses, 
symphonies,  cantatas,  and  operas.  Among  the  most 
admired  of  the  last-named  are  his  "Calypso,"  "  Zaira," 
"Tamerlane,"  "  The  Interrupted  Sacrifice,"  and  "The 
Rape  of  Proserpine."    Died  in  1825. 

Winterburger,  \\  in'ter-bd6R''ger  or^^in'ter-booRo'er, 
(JoHANN,)  a  German  printer,  born  in  the  Palatinate 
abont  1450,  settled  at  Vienna  about  1492.   Died  in  1519. 

Winterfeld,  win'ter-telt',  (Karl  Georg  August 
Virigens,)  a  German  writer  on  music,  born  at  Berlin 
in  1794  ;  died  in  1852. 

Winterfeld,  von,  fon  \^in'ter-f§It',  (Hans  Karl,) 
a  celebrated  Prussian  general  and  favourite  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  was  born  at  Vanselovv  in  1709.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  was 
mortally  wounded  in  an  engagement  in  Silesia  in  1757. 
A  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory  in  Berlin  by 
Frederick. 

See  V.ARN'HAGEN  VON  Ense,  "  Lebcn  des  Winterfeld,"  1836;  M. 
A.  DE  Winterfeld,     Leben  des  Generals  von  Winterfeld,"  1809. 

Winterhalter,  \^in'ter-harter,  (Franz  Xaver,)  a 
German  painter,  born  in  Baden  in  1803.  He  was  pa- 
tronized by  the  royal  families  of  England  and  France, 
and  executed  numerous  portraits  of  Queen  Victoria 
and  Prince  Albert,  also  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  and 
other  English  noblemen.  Among  his  best  works  we 
may  name  "The  Empress  Eugenie  and  the  Ladies  of 
her  Court,"  and  a  fancy  piece  entitled  "  II  Decamerone." 

Win'tei'-tpn,  (Ralph,)  an  English  philologist,  born 
in  Leicestershire,  was  noted  as  a  Hellenist.    He  pub- 


lished "  Minor  Greek  Poets,"  ("  Poetae  Graeci  minores," 
1635.)    Died  in  1636. 

Winther,  vin'ter,  (Rasmus  Villads  Christian 
FERDIN.A.ND,)  a  Celebrated  Danish  poet,  born  in  the 
island  of  Seeland  in  1796.  He  visited  Italy  in  1830, 
and  published,  after  his  return,  several  volumes  of 
poems,  which  established  his  reputation  as  one  of  the  first 
lyric  poets  of  his  country.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of 
popular  novels,  and  "  Five-and-Twenty  Fables,"  ("  Fem 
og  tyve  Fabler,"  1845,)  and  other  juvenile  works. 

Win^'throp,  (John,)  born  in  Suffolk,  England,  in 
1588,  was  elected  in  1629  Governor  of  the  colony  of 
Massachusetts,  and  set  sail  in  1630  for  New  England. 
He  was  re-elected  nine  or  ten  times.  His  journal, 
giving  an  account  of  the  transactions  in  the  colony,  was 
published  in  1825.  He  is  said  to  have  been  eminent  for 
wisdom,  magnanimity,  and  other  virtues.    Died  in  1649. 

See  "Life  of  John  Winthrop,"  by  Robert  C.  Winthrop. 

Winthrop,  (John,)  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  England  in  1606,  and  sailed  for  America  in  1631. 
He  was  twice  elected  Governor  of  Connecticut,  and  was 
sent  to  England  in  1661  to  procure  a  charter  for  that 
colony.  He  was  the  author  of  several  scientific  treatises, 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London.    Died  in  Boston  in  1676. 

Win'thrpp,  (John,)  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Massa- 
chusetts in  1 71 5.  He  was  appointed  in  1738  Hollis 
professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  in 
Harvard  College.  He  published  several  astronomical 
works.    Died  in  1779. 

Winthrop,  (Robert  C.,)  an  American  statesman 
and  orator,  a  descendant  of  Governor  Winthrop,  was 
born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  May  12,  1809.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1828,  studied  law  in 
the  office  of  Daniel  Webster,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  183 1.  He  served  in  the  House  of  Rejjresenta- 
tives  of  Massachusetts  from  1835  to  1840,  and  in  the 
latter  year  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress,  in  which 
he  acted  with  the  Whig  party.  Having  been  re-elected, 
he  continued  in  Congress  for  ten  years,  and  was  chosen 
SjDeaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  December, 
1847.  He  was  the  Whig  candidate  for  Speaker  in  1849 ; 
but  his  opponent,  Mr.  Cobb,  was  elected  by  a  plurality 
of  two  or  three  votes,  after  a  contest  which  lasted  three 
weeks.  In  1850  he  was  appointed  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  for  a  part  of  the  unexpired  term  of  Mr. 
Webster,  who  resigned  his  seat.  He  was  the  Whig 
candidate  for  the  office  of  Senator  in  185 1,  but  was 
defeated  by  Charles  Sumner.  A  volun,e  of  his  "Ad- 
dresses and  Speeches"  was  published  in  1852. 

Winthrop,  (Theodore,)  an  American  writer  and 
soldier,  born  at  New  Haven  in  1828.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1848,  and  subsequently  visited  Europe. 
Soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  war  in  1861,  he 
joined  the  volunteers  of  the  New  York  Seventh  Regi- 
ment, gained  the  rank  of  major,  and,  having  accom- 
panied General  Butler's  expedition  to  Great  Bethel,  was 
killed  in  that  engagement,  (June,  1861.)  He  was  the 
author  of  novels  entitled  "  Cecil  Dreeme,"  (1861,)  "  John 
Brent,"  (1861,)  and  "Edwin  Brothertoft,"  (1862.) 

See  "Atlantic  Monthly"  for  August,  1S61,  and  August,  1S63. 

Wintoun  or  Wyntoun,  win'ton,  (Andrew,)  a  Scot- 
tish chronicler,  who  lived  about  1410-20,  was  prior  of 
the  monastery  of  Saint  Serf's  Island,  on  Loch  Lomond. 
He  was  the  author  of  "  The  Orygynale  Cronykil  of 
Scotland,"  in  verse,  containing  valuable  historical  in- 
formation of  those  times. 

See  Ch.^vmbers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wintoun,  (George  Seton,)  Earl  of,  a  Scottish 
Jacobite,  born  in  1690.  He  fought  for  the  Pretender  in 
171 5.    Died  in  1749. 

Win'trlng-ham,  (Clifton,)  the  Elder,  an  English 
surgeon  and  ])hysiologist,  born  before  1695,  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  Endemic  Diseases,"  (1718,)  and  other 
medical  works,  in  Latin  and  English,  which  have  a 
high  reputation.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Died  in  1748. 

Wintringham,  (Clifton,)  the  Younger,  born  at 
York  in  1710,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  became 
physician  to  George  III.  in  1762,  and  subsequently  phy- 


«  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  o,  H,    guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;     as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WINTZINGERODE  22 


84 


WIS  HART 


sician-general  to  the  army.  He  published  several 
medical  treatises.    Died  in  1794. 

Wintzingerode,  von,  fon  ^int'sing-eh-roMeh,  (Fer- 
dinand,) Baron,  a  German  officer,  born  at  Bodenstein 
in  1770.  He  entered  the  Russian  army,  served  in  the 
campaigns  of  1809  and  1812,  and  greatly  distinguished 
himself  in  the  battles  of  Lutzen,  Leipsic,  and  Saint- 
Dizier.  He  was  made  general  of  cavalry  by  the  emperor 
Alexander  in  1812.    Died  in  1818. 

Wintzingerode,  von,  (Georg  Ernst  Levin,) 
Count,  a  German  statesman,  born  in  1752.  He  was 
appointed  in  1801  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  the  king- 
dom of  Wiirtemberg.    Died  in  1834. 

Wintzingerode,  von,  (Heinrich  Karl  Friedrich 
Levin,)  Count,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1778. 
He  was  ambassador  from  Wiirtemberg  to  Paris,  Saint 
Petersburg,  and  Vienna.    Died  in  1856. 

Win'wood,  (Sir  Ralph,)  an  English  diplomatist 
and  statesman,  born  in  Northamptonshire  about  1564. 
He  was  employed  on  several  important  missions  to 
Holland,  and  became  secretary  of  state  in  1614.  He 
died  in  161 7,  leaving  a  valuable  work,  published  in 
1725  under  the  title  of  "Memorials  of  Affairs  o^  State 
in  the  Reigns  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  King  James  L," 
(3  vols.) 

Win'zet  or  Winget,  (Ninian,)  a  Scottish  ecclesi- 
astic, born  in  Renfrewshire  in  15 18.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  controversial  works  in  opposition  to  the  Prot- 
estant reformers.    Died  in  1592. 

Wion,  ve'6N',  (Arnould,)  a  learned  French  monk, 
born  at  Douai  in  1554;  died  about  1610. 

Wirsung,  \^eeR'sdong,  (Christoph,)  a  German  phy- 
sician, born  at  Augsburg  in  1500.  He  wrote  a  "New 
Book  of  Medicine,"  (1568.)    Died  in  1571. 

Wirsung  or  Wirsungus,  -^eeR-soong'us,  (Johann 
Georg,)  a  German  anatomist,  born  at  Augsburg,  was 
the  discoverer  of  the  pancreatic  duct.    Died  in  1643. 

Wirt,  (William,)  an  eloquent  American  lawyer  and 
author,  born  at  Bladensburg,  Maryland,  in  November, 
1772,  was  of  Swiss  extraction.  He  studied  law,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1792,  and  married  a  Miss  Gilmer, 
of  Virginia,  about  1795.  He  practised  law  at  Richmond 
and  Norfolk,  and  published  in  1803  "  Letters  of  a  British 
Spy,"  which  obtained  a  great  popularity.  About  1806 
he  settled  at  Richmond,  Virginia.  He  distinguished 
hirnself  at  the  trial  of  Aaron  Burr  as  one  of  the  counsel 
for  the  prosecution,  (1807.)  In  1817  he  published  a 
"  Life  of  Patrick  Henry,"  which  was  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  attorney-general  of  the  United  States  from  181 7 
to  March,  1829,  having  been  appointed  first  by  President 
Monroe  and  retained  by  President  Adams.  He  removed 
to  Baltimore  in  1829  or  1830,  and  was  nominated  for 
the  Presidency  in  1832  by  the  Anti-Masonic  party.  He 
died  in  Washington  in  February,  1834. 

"  He  was  master,"  says  Griswold,  "of  all  the  arts  by 
which  attention  is  secured  and  retained.  ...  It  is  agreed 
on  all  hands  that  he  was  a  very  ready,  pleasing,  and 
effective  speaker,  inferior  perhaps  to  no  one  among  his 
contemporaries  at  the  bar  in  this  country." 

See  J.  P.  Kennedy,  "Life  of  William  Wirt,"  1849:  R.  W.  Gris- 
wold, "Prose  Writers  of  America;"  Duyckinck,  "Cyclopaedia  of 
American  Literature,"  vol.  i. ;  "National  Portrait-Gallery  of  Distin- 
guished Americans,"  vol.  i. 

Wirth,  ^d^Rt,  (Johann  Georg  August,)  a  German 
journalist  and  political  writer,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1799; 
died  in  1848. 

Wirth,  (Johann  Ulrich,)  a  German  divine  and 
philosophical  writer,  born  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1810. 
He  became  in  1852  associate  editor  of  the  "Journal  of 
Philosophy  and  Philosophic  Criticism,"  ("  Zeitschrift 
fiir  Philosophie  und  philosophische  Kritik.")  He  pub- 
lished a  "Theory  of  Somnambulism,"  (1836,)  "System 
of  Speculative  Ethics,"  (1841,)  and  other  works. 

Wirtz  or  Wirz,  ■^d^Rts,  (Johann,)  a  Swiss  painter 
and  engraver,  born  at  Zurich  in  1640 ;  died  in  1 709. 

Wischnu.    See  Vishnu. 

Wise,  (Daniel,)  D.D.,  a  Methodist  divine,  born  at 
Portsmouth,  England,  in  1813,  emigrated  to  America, 
where  he  edited  successively  several  religious  journals. 
He  has  published  "The  Young  Man's  Counsellor," 
"Life  of  Ulric  Zwingli,"  and  other  works. 


Wise,  (Francis,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  at 
Oxford  in  1695.  He  wrote  several  works  on  English 
antiquities.    Died  in  1762. 

Wise,  (Henry  A.,)  a  distinguished  American  poli- 
tician, born  in  Accomac  county,  Virginia,  in  December 
1806.  He  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1828.  He  represented  a  district  of  Virginia  in  Congress 
from  1833  to  1843,  having  been  elected  as  an  adherent 
of  General  Jackson,  but  he  soon  joined  the  opposition. 
He  became  a  partisan  of  President  Tyler,  who  appointed 
him  minister  to  Brazil  in  1844.  In  1855  he  was  elected 
by  the  Democrats  Governor  of  Virginia  for  three  years. 
A  convention  of  Southern  Governors  was  held  at 
Raleigh,  North  Carolina,  in  October,  1856,  at  the  invi- 
tation of  Governor  Wise,  who  afterwards  declared  that 
if  Fremont  had  been  elected  President  he  would  have 
marched  with  20,000  men  and  taken  Washington.  In 
1861  he  joined  the  insurgent  army  as  brigadier-general, 
and  commanded  a  force  in  the  Kanawha  Valley  with  ill 
success. 

Wise,  (Henry  Augustus,)  an  American  naval  officer, 
a  relative  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Brooklyn,  New 
York,  in  1819.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Edward 
Everett,  of  Boston.  In  1862  he  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  commander,  and  appointed  assistant  chief  of 
the  bureau  of  ordnance  and  hydrography.  He  published 
"Los  Gringos,"  (1849,)  ^  series  of  sketches  of  Mexico, 
California,  Peru,  etc.,  "Tales  for  the  Marines,"  (1855,) 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1869. 

Wise,  (Michael,)  an  eminent  English  composer  of 
church  music,  was  born  in  Wiltshire.  He  was  patron- 
ized by  Charles  II.,  and  became  in  1686  almoner  of 
Saint  Paul's  Cathedral  and  master  of  the  choristers.  He 
was  killed  in  a  quarrel  with  a  watchman,  in  1687. 

Wiselius,  we-sa'le-us,  (Samuel  Iperuszoon,)  a 
Dutch  poet,  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1769,  studied  in  his 
native  city  and  in  Germany,  and  subsequently  filled 
several  high  offices  in  Holland.  He  published  tragedies 
entitled  "  Polydorus"  and  "Ion,"  also  a  collection  of 
odes  and  other  poems.    Died  in  1845. 

Wiseman,  wiz'man,  (Nicholas,)  a  distinguished 
scholar,  of  English  extraction,  was  born  at  Seville,  in 
Spain,  in  1802.  He  finished  his  studies  at  the  Eng- 
lish College  in  Roine,  where  he  subsequently  became 
professor  of  the  Oriental  languages,  and  in  1829  was 
appointed  rector.  After  his  return  to  England  he  rose 
through  various  promotions  in  the  Catholic  Church  to 
be  Archbishop  of  Westminster,  (1850,)  and  cardinal. 
The  assumjjtion  of  the  title  of  archbishop  met  with 
great  opposition  from  the  Protestants  in  England,  and 
an  act  was  passed  making  such  titles  penal.  It  appears, 
however,  that  his  learning,  talents,  and  general  popu- 
larity did  much  to  allay  the  hostility  of  his  opponents. 
Cardinal  Wiseman  was  the  author  of  "  Lectures  on  the 
Connection  between  Science  and  Revealed  Religion," 
(2  vols.,  1836,)  a  "Treatise  on  the  Holy  Eucharist," 
(1836,)  "Letters  on  Catholic  Unity,"  (1842,)  and  other 
works.  He  was  for  many  years  associate  editor  of  the 
"Dublin  (Catholic)  Review."    Died  in  February,  1865. 

See  "Nouvelle  Biographic  Generale;"  Brockhaus,  "  Conversa- 
tions-Lexikon  ;"  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors  ;"  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  October,  1858. 

Wiseman,  (Richard,)  an  English  surgeon  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  patronized  by  King  Charles 
II.  His  treatises  on  surgery  were  highly  esteemed  in 
his  time. 

Wish'art,  written  also  Wysshart,  Wischart,  and 

in  other  modes,  (George,)  the  Martyr,  a  Scottish 
Protestant  reformer  of  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  After  preaching  the  Reformed  doctrines  in 
several  Scottish  towns,  he  was  arrested  and  tried  before 
Cardinal  Beatoun,  who  condemned  him  to  the  stake 
in  1546. 

See  Burton,  "History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  iii.  chap,  xxxvi.  ; 
Froude,  "History  of  England,"  vol.  iv.  chap.  xxii.  ;  Cunningham, 
"  Church  History  of  Scotland,"  vol.  i.  ;  "  Biographie  Universelle  ;" 
Chamber.s,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen  " 

Wishart,  written  also  Wiseheart,  (George,)  a  Scot- 
tish divine  and  historical  writer,  born  in  Haddington' 
shire  in  1609.  He  was  chaplain  to  the  Marquis  of 
Montrose,  and  subsequently  to  Elizabeth,  daughter  of 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, 


s/iort;  a,    i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


WIS  HART 


2285 


WITTEKIND 


James  I.    He  was  made  Bishop  of  Edinburgh  in  1662. 
He  wrote  a  history  of  the  wars  of  Montrose,  in  Latin. 
It  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  elegance.    Died  in  1671. 
See  Chambers,  "Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Wishart  or  Wischart,  (William,)  a  Scottish  divin^e, 
born  at  Dalkeith  about  1657,  preached  in  Edinburgh, 
and  wrote  a  Calvinistic  work  entitled  "Theology," 
("Theologia.")    Died  in  1727. 

Wislicenus,  ^is-lit-sa'nus,  (Gustav  Adolf,)  a  Ger- 
man rationalistic  theologian,  was  born  near  Eilenburg, 
in  Prussia,  in  1803.  He  became  minister  at  Halle  in 
1 84 1,  but  was  soon  after  deposed  on  account  of  his 
opinions. 

Wissenbach,  ^is'sen-b^K'',  (Johann  Jakob,)  an 
eminent  German  jurist,  born  in  Nassau  in  1607.  He 
became  professor  of  law  at  Franeker,  and  published 
several  legal  works.    Died  in  1665. 

Wissing,  wis'sing,  (William,)  a  Dutch  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1656.  He  worked  in 
England,  and  painted  Charles  H.  and  James  H.  Died 
in  1687. 

Wissowatzi,  1^is-so--(^at'see,  [Lat.  Wissowa'tius,] 
(Andrew,)  a  Socinian  writer,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1608, 
was  a  grandson  of  Faustus  Socinus.  He  was  persecuted, 
and,  after  several  removals,  found  refuge  in  Holland, 
where  he  died  in  1678. 

Wis'tar,  (Caspar,)  a  distinguished  American  phy- 
sician, born  at  Philadelphia  in  1761.  He  graduated  at 
Edinburgh,  and,  after  his  return,  was  appointed  professor 
of  chemistry  and  physiology  in  the  College  of  Philadel- 
phia, and  subsequently  succeeded  Dr.  Shippen  in  the 
chair  of  anatomy  and  surgery.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"System  of  Anatomy,"  (1812.)    Died  in  1818. 

Wiszniewski,  vish-ne-§v'skee,  (Michael,)  a  Polish 
writer,  born  in  Galicia  in  1794.  He  became  in  1830 
professor  of  history  at  Cracow.  He  has  published 
several  critical  and  philosophical  works. 

Wit,  Mt,  (Ferdinand  Johannes,)  a  German  poli- 
tician, born  at  Altona  in  1800.  Having  joined  a  secret 
society,  he  was  banished  in  1819.  He  afterwards  joined 
the  ultramontane  party,  and  published  "  Fragments  of 
my  Life  and  my  Epoch,"  (4  vols.,  1827-30.)  Died  in 
1863. 

Witch'ell,  (George,)  an  English  astronomer  and 
mathematician,  born  in  1728;  died  in  1785. 
Wither.    See  Withers. 

With'er-ing,  (William,)  an  English  physician  and 
botanist,  born  in  Shropshire  in  1741.  He  published  "  A 
Systematic  Arrangement  of  British  Plants,"  (1776  ;)  also 
a  number  of  treatises  on  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and 
medicine.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Died 
in  1799. 

With'er-ing-ton,  (William  Frederick,)  an  Eng- 
lish painter,  born  in  London  in  1786.  He  was  elected 
a  Royal  Academician  in  1840.  Among  his  works,  which 
are  principally  landscapes,  we  may  name  "The  Hop 
Garland,"  "  The  Stepping-Stones,"  "  Making  Hay,"  and 
"Returning  from  the  Village."    Died  in  1865. 

Withers,with''erz,  written  also  Wither  and  Wyther, 
(George,)  an  English  poet,  satirist,  and  political  writer, 
born  in  Hampshire  in  1588.  He  published  in  1613  a 
collection  of  satires  in  verse,  entitled  "Abuses  Stript 
and  Whipt,"  for  which  he  was  sentenced  to  several 
months'  imprisonment.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war,  he  served  in  the  royalist  army,  in  1639;  but 
he  afterwards  went  over  to  the  party  of  the  Parliament, 
and  attained  the  rank  of  major-general.  Soon  after 
the  restoration  he  was  imprisoned  several  years  in  the 
Tower  for  having  published  a  seditious  libel,  entitled 
"Vox  Vulgi."  He  died  in  1667.  His  works  are  very 
numerous,  and  consist  chiefly  of  lyrics  and  devotional 
pieces.  His  poems  were  little  esteemed  by  his  con- 
temporaries, and  he  is  mentioned  with  contempt  by 
Pope  and  Swift;  but  eminent  critics  of  later  times  have 
assigned  him  a  high  rank  among  English  poets. 

See  Campbell,  "Specimens  of  the  British  Poets  ;"  Sir  Egerton 
Brydghs,  "  Censura  Liteiaria;"  Hazlitt,  "Lectures  on  Englisli 
Poetry;"  Ei.lis,  "Specimens  of  Early  English  Poetry;"  "Retro- 
spective Review,"  vol.  vii.,  (1823.) 

With'er-spoon,  (John,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  distin- 
guished divine,  and  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration 


of  Independence,  was  born  in  Haddingtonshire,  Scot- 
land, in  1722.  In  1766  he  was  offered  the  presidency 
of  Princeton  College,  New  Jersey,  which  in  1768  he 
accepted,  and  also  filled  the  chair  of  divinity  in  that 
institution.  He  was  elected  in  1776  to  the  Continental 
Congress,  and  was  active  in  promoting  the  cause  of 
independence.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Ecclesiastical 
Characteristics,  or  the  Arcana  of  Church  Policy,"  (1753,) 
a  "  Serious  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Effects  of  the 
Stage,"  (1757,)  and  other  works.  Died  in  1794. 
See  Cleveland,  "  Compendium  of  American  Literature." 

Withof,  v^it'hof,  (Johann  Philipp  Lorenz,)  a  Ger- 
man physician  and  writer,  born  at  Duisburg  in  1725. 
He  studied  at  Utrecht  and  Leyden,  and  in  1770  became 
professor  of  eloquence  and  Greek  literature  at  Duisburg. 
He  published  in  1782  a  collection  of  didactic  poems, 
entitled  "Academische  Gedichte,"  which  have  a  high 
reputation.    Died  in  1789. 

Witikind.    See  Wittekind. 

Wit'i-kind  or  Wit'e-kind,  a  Saxon  historian  and 
monk,  lived  at  the  abbey  of  Corvey,  (Corbeia  nova.) 
He  wrote  "Annales  de  Gestis  Othonum."  Died  after 
973- 

Witiza,  we-tee'zi,  [Sp.  pron.  ve-tee'thS,]  King  of  the 
Visigoths  in  Spain,  began  to  reign  about  701  a.d.  He 
was  deposed  in  708,  and  was  succeeded  by  Roderick, 
who  had  revolted  against  him.    Died  about  709. 

Wit'old  or  Wit'wald,  (Alexander,)  Grand  Duke 
of  Lithuania,  was  a  warlike  and  powerful  prince.  He 
waged  war  against  the  Tartars.  Died  at  an  advanced 
age  in  1430. 

Wits,  wits,  Witsen,  wit'sen,  or  Witsius,  wit'se-us, 
(Herman,)  a  learned  Dutch  theologian,  born  in  North 
Holland  in  1636.  He  was  professor  of  theology  at 
Utrecht  from  1680  to  1698,  and  succeeded  F.  Spanheim 
at  Leyden  in  the  latter  year.  He  published  several  works 
on  theology.    Died  in  1708. 

Witsen,  (Nicholas,)  a  patriotic  Dutch  magistrate, 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1640,  was  noted  for  his  liberal 
public  spirit.  He  wrote  a  work  "On  the  Construction 
of  Ships,"  (167 1.)  He  was  employed  to  negotiate  a 
treaty  with  England  in  1689. 

See  BoDEL,  "  Notice  of  N.  Witsen,"  1855. 

Witt,  de.    See  De  Witt. 

Witte,  <^it'teh,  or  Witten,  <^it'ten,  (Henning,)  a 
German  divine  and  biographer,  born  at  Riga  in  1634. 
He  wrote,  in  Latin,  biographies  of  eminent  men  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  in  5  vols.    Died  in  1696. 

"V^itte,  (Karl,)  a  German  jurist,  born  near  Halle  in 
1800.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Heidelberg,  and  be- 
came professor  of  law  at  Halle  in  1834.  He  published 
a  number  of  legal  works,  and  made  translations  from  the 
Italian  of  Dante  and  Boccaccio. 

Witte,  de,  (Emanuel.)    See  De  Witte. 

Witte,  de,  deh  wit'teh,  (Gaspard,)  a  Flemish  land- 
scape-painter, born  at  Antwerp  in  1621.  He  worked  in 
Italy  and  France. 

Witte,  de,  (Giles,)  an  eminent  Jansenist  theologian, 
born  at  Ghent  in  1648.  He  preached  at  Mechlin  (Ma- 
lines)  from  1684  to  1691,  wrote  several  controversial 
works  in  defence  of  Jansenism,  and  produced  a  Flemish 
version  of  the  Bible.    Died  in  1721. 

Witte,  de,  (Lievin,)  a  Flemish  painter  and  archi- 
tect, born  at  Ghent  about  15 10.  He  excelled  in  painting 
persjiective  and  architecture.    Died  at  Munich. 

Witte,  de,  (Pieter.)    See  Candido,  (Pietro.) 

Wit'te-kind  or  Wit'i-kind,  written  also  Witti- 
chind,  [Lat.  Wittekin'dus,]  surnamed  the  Great, 
a  celebrated  warrior,  was  the  principal  commander  of 
the  Saxons  against  Charlemagne.  The  latter  having  in- 
vaded the  Saxon  territory,  Wittekind  sought  the  alliance 
of  the  King  of  Denmark,  whose  sister  he  had  married. 
After  several  battles,  fought  with  varying  success,  the 
Saxons  were  defeated  near  the  Hase  in  783,  and  the 
leaders,  Wittekind  and  Alboin,  were  reinstated  in  their 
possessions,  on  condition  of  their  embracing  Christianity 
and  submitting  to  fhe  authority  of  Charlemagne.  Wit- 
tekind died  in  807. 

See  J.  A.  Crusius,  "  Wittekindus  Magnns,"  1679;  Dreux  db 
Radier,  "Vie  de  Wittekind  le  Grand,"  1757;  Genssler,  "Witte- 
kind," etc.,  1817;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 


€  as  ^;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Y., guttural ;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WITTEKIND 


:86 


WOLF 


Wittekind,<^it'teh-k!nt,  or  Widukind,  \^id'o6-k?nt, 
a  German  chronicler  and  monk  of  the  tenth  century, 
was  a  native  of  Saxony.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Res 
gestae  Saxonicas,"  being  a  history  of  King  Henry  I.  and 
of  the  emperor  Otho  I. 

Wittekindus.    See  Wittekind. 

Wittgenstein,  von,  fon  -(^it'gen-stTn,  (Ludwig 
Adolf,)  Count,  a  German  military  commander,  some- 
times called  Sayn- Wittgenstein,  was  born  in  1769. 
Having  entered  the  Russian  army,  he  served  in  the 
campaigns  of  1807  and  1812,  and  was  appointed  in  1813 
to  the  chief  command  of  the  Russian  and  Prussian  forces, 
which,  however,  he  retained  but  a  short  time.  He  was 
defeated  by  Napoleon  near  Paris  in  1814.  Having  been 
created  a  field-marshal  in  1826,  he  fought  against  the 
Turks  in  1828.    Died  in  1843. 

Wittichius,  -^it-tiK'e-us,  (Christoph,)  a  German 
Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Silesia  in  1625.  He  was 
professor  of  theology  at  Nymwegen  for  sixteen  years, 
and  removed  to  Leyden  in  1671.  He  wrote  several 
works.    Died  at  Leyden  in  1687. 

Witzleben,  von,  fon  ^its'la'ben,  (Job  Wilhelm 
Karl  Ernst,)  a  Prussian  general  and  statesman,  born 
at  Halberstadt  in  1783.  He  served  in  the  principal 
campaigns  against  the  French  from  1806  to  1813,  and 
was  made  lieutenant-general  in  183 1,  and  minister  of  war 
in  1833.    Died  in  1837. 

Witzleben,  von,  (Karl  August  Frtedrich,)  a 
popular  German  novelist,  known  under  the  pseudonym 
of  Von  Tromlitz,  was  born  near  Weimar  in  1773.  He 
served  against  the  French  in  the  Prussian  and  subse- 
quently in  the  Russian  army,  where  he  attained  the 
rank  of  colonel.  He  produced  historical  romances, 
entitled  "  Franz  von  Sickingen,"  "  Die  Pappenheimer," 
and  other  similar  works.    Died  in  1839. 

WiVell,  (Abraham,)  an  English  portrait-painter, 
born  in  1786.  He  invented  the  fire-escape.  Died  in  1849, 

Wladimir.    See  Vladimir. 

Wladislas.    See  Vladislaus  and  Ladislaus. 

Wodehouse.    See  Kimberley. 

Woden.    See  Odin. 

Wodhull,  wood'ul,  ?  (Michael,)  an  English  poet, 
born  in  Northamptonshire  ia  1740.  He  translated 
Euripides  into  English,  and  wrote  some  original  poems. 
Died  in  1816. 

Wod'row,  (Robert,)  a  Scottish  Presbyterian  divine 
and  historical  writer,  born  at  Glasgow  in  1679,  became 
minister  of  Eastwood,  in  Renfrewshire.  His  principal 
work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Sufferings  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland  from  the  Restoration  to  the  Revolution,"  (2 
vols.,  1722.)  He  also  wrote  a  diary  and  collection  of 
anecdotes,  entitled  "  Wodrow's  Analecta."  Died  in  1734. 

See  Chambers,  "  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen." 

Woehler.    See  Wohler. 
Woehner.    See  Wohner. 
Woelffl.    See  Wolffl. 
Woellner.    See  Wollner. 
Woepcke.    See  Wopcke. 

Woeriot,  vo'a're-o',  or  Woeiriot,  (Pierre,)  an  able 
engraver,  born  in  Lorraine  about  1532.  He  settled  at 
Lyons  about  1555.    Died  after  1576. 

Worfing-ton,  (Margaret,)  a  celebrated  L  ish  actress, 
born  at  Dublin  about  1718;  died  in  1760. 

Wohler  or  Woehler,  ^oMer,  (Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man chemist  of  high  reputation,  was  born  near  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main  in  1800.  He  studied  medicine  and 
chemistry  at  Marburg  and  Heidelberg,  and  subsequently 
became  professor  of  technology  and  chemistry  in  the 
Polytechnic  School  at  Cassel.  He  also  assisted  in  found- 
ing a  nickel-manufactory  in  that  town.  In  1836  he  be- 
came professor  of  medicine  and  director  of  the  Chemical 
Institute  at  Gottingen.  He  was  associated  in  1838  with 
his  friend  Liebig  as  editor  of  the  "  Annalen  der  Chemie 
und  Pharmacie."  Among  his  most  important  works  are 
his  "Principles  of  Chemistry,"  (1840,)  and  "Practical 
Exercises  of  Chemical  Analysis,"  (1854.)  He  has  been 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  and 
of  other  similar  institutions. 

Wohlgemuth, <^oKgeh-moot',  (Michael,)  an  eminent 
German  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Nuremberg  in 
1434.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  "  Last  Judgment," 


in  the  Town-House  of  Nuremberg,  and  a  "Votive  Offer- 
ing with  Saint  Jerome,"  in  the  Belvedere  galiery  at 
Vienna.  His  engravings  on  copper  and  wood  are  very 
rare,  and  are  highly  esteemed.  He  numbered  among 
his  pupils  Albert  Durer,  who  painted  his  portrait.  Died 
in  1 5 19. 

See  MAKf7GRAFF,  "  Erinnerungeti  an  Albrecht  Diirer  und  seinen 
Lelirer  M.  Wohlgemuth,"  1840;  Nagler,  "  Allgemeines  Kunstler- 
Lexikon." 

Wohner  or  Woehner,  ^o'ner,  (Andreas  Georg,) 
a  German  Orientalist,  born  in  Hoya  (Hanover)  in  1693. 
He  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Gottin- 
gen in  1739.  He  published  a  Hebrew  grammar,  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1762. 

Woide,  woid,  ?  (Charles  Godfrey,)  an  eminent 
Orientalist  and  divine,  born  in  1725,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  Poland.  Having  been  invited  to  Eng- 
land in  1770,  he  became  preacher  of  the  German  Royal 
Chapel,  and  assistant  librarian  in  the  British  Museum. 
He  published  La  Croze's  "Dictionary  of  the  Coptic 
Language,"  with  additions  and  an  index,  and  other 
learned  works.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
Died  in  1790. 

Woirol,  vwl'roK,  (Th^ophile,)  a  Swiss  officer,  born 
at  Tavanne,  in  the  canton  of  Berne,  in  1781.  He  served 
in  the  French  army,  and  especially  distinguished  him- 
self during  the  Hundred  Days.  In  1819  he  was  made 
marechal-de-camp,  and  in  1836  became  a  peer  of  France. 
Died  in  1853. 

Wolcott,  wooKkot,  (Erastus,)  a  son  of  Roger  Wol- 
cott,  noticed  below,  was  born  about  1723.  He  joined 
the  army  in  1776,  became  a  brigadier-general  in  1777, 
and  afterwards  a  member  of  Congress  and  a  judge  of 
the  superior  court  of  Connecticut.    Died  in  1 793. 

Wolcott,  wooKkot,  (John,)  an  English  physiciati 
and  satiric  poet,  known  under  the  pseudonym  of  Peter 
Pindar,  was  born  in  Devonshire  in  1738.  Having 
taken  his  medical  degree  at  Aberdeen,  he  accompanied 
Sir  William  Trelawney,  Governor  of  Jamaica,  to  that 
island  in  1767,  but,  failing  to  obtain  extensive  practice, 
returned  to  England,  where  he  published  in  1782  his 
"  Lyric  Odes  to  the  Royal  Academicians  for  1782,  by 
Peter  Pindar,  Esq.,"  etc.  This  satire  was  very  suc- 
cessful, and  was  soon  followed  by  similar  attacks  on  the 
king,  ministers,  and  prominent  writers  of  the  time. 
Wolcott's  satires  are  remarkable  for  coarseness  and 
vulgarity,  as  well  as  for  wit ;  and  his  character  as  a 
man  appears  not  to  have  been  a  whit  more  elevated  than 
his  writings.    Died  in  1819. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "Autobiography  of 
William  Jerdan,"  vol.  ii.  ch.  xix. 

Wolcott,  (Oliver,)  an  American  patriot  and  states- 
man, son  of  Roger  Wolcott,  noticed  below,  was  born 
in  Connecticut  in  1726.  He  was  elected  to  Congress 
in  1776,  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and 
became  Governor  of  Connecticut  in  1796.  Died  in  1797. 

See  Sanderson,  "  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence." 

Wolcott,  (Oliver,)  a  statesman,  born  at  Litchfield, 
Connecticut,  in  1760,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  the  cabinets  of  Wash- 
ington and  Adams,  from  February,  1795,  to  December, 
1800.  After  1800  he  was  engaged  for  about  fourteen 
years  in  trade  in  the  city  of  New  York.  He  was  Gov- 
ernor of  Connecticut  from  181 7  to  1827.  Died  in  New 
York  in  1833. 

Wolcott,  (Roger,)  an  American  statesman  and 
soldier,  born  at  Windsor,  Connecticut,  in  1679,  served 
against  the  French  in  Canada,  and  attained  the  rank  of 
major-general.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Connecticut 
in  1 75 1.  He  wrote  an  account  of  the  Pequot  war,  in 
verse.    Died  in  1767. 

Wolf,  (Christian.)    See  Lupus. 

Wolf,  'C^olf,  (Ernst  Wilhelm,)  a  German  musician 
and  composer,  born  at  Gross  Behringen  in  1735.  He 
lived  many  years  at  Weimar.    Died  in  1792, 

Wolf,  (Ferdinand,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Vienna 
in  1796.  He  was  appointed  librarian  of  the  Imperial 
Library,  and  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
his  native  city.  He  published  "Contributions  to  the 
History  of  the  National  Literature  of  Castile,"  (1832,) 


a,  e,  K  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


WOLF 


2287 


WOLFE 


a  work  "  On  the  Romantic  Poetry  of  the  Spaniards," 
(1847,)  and  other  similar  works. 

Wolf,  wdolf,  [Ger.  pron.  ^olf ;  Lat.  Wol'fius,] 
(Friedrich  August,)  a  celebrated  German  scholar 
and  critic,  was  born  at  Hainrode,  near  Nordhausen,  in 
Prussia,  on  the  15th  of  February,  1759.  He  studied  at 
Nordhausen,  and  had  become  a  good  classical  scholar 
when  he  entered  the  University  of  Gottingen,  in  1777. 
He  acquired  in  early  life  a  habit  of  independent  judg- 
ment, and  devoted  himself  at  Gottingen  to  the  study 
of  philology.  He  incurred  the  ill  will  of  Heyne,  who 
refused  to  admit  him  to  one  of  his  lectures.  In  1779  he 
was  employed  as  teacher  at  Ilfeld.  He  published  an 
edition  of  Plato's  "Symposium"  in  1782,  enriched  with 
notes  and  an  introduction,  in  which  he  gave  proof  of 
critical  sagacity.  Having  married  about  1782,  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  Halle  in  1783,  and 
director  of  the  Pedagogic  Institute,  which  he  trans- 
formed into  a  philological  seminary  or  normal  school. 
He  had  formed  an  exalted  idea  of  the  vocation  of 
teacher,  which  he  pursued  with  much  zeal  and  success. 
During  the  twenty-three  years  in  which  he  occupied 
the  chair  at  Halle,  he  gave  more  than  fifty  courses  of 
lectures  on  different  authors  and  subjects,  besides  his 
labours  in  the  philological  seminary.  He  published  an 
edition  of  Homer's  poems  in  1784  and  1785,  and  an 
edition  of  Demosthenes'  oration  against  Leptines,  about 
1790.  The  latter  opened  a  new  era  in  the  study  of 
the  Greek  orators.  His  celebrity  was  increased  by  his 
"Prolegomena  ad  Homerum,"  (1795,)  in  which  he  sup- 
ported with  much  ingenuity  the  novel  and  paradoxical 
theory  that  the  "  Iliad"  and  "  Odyssey"  were  not  written 
by  Homer  or  any  single  poet,  but  that  they  were 
formed  by  the  junction  of  several  poems,  composed  by 
different  rhapsodists.  This  work  produced  a  great 
sensation  among  the  learned  throughout  Europe  ;  but 
his  theory  was  accepted  in  full  by  a  very  few  only. 
Wolf's  claim  to  priority  in  this  discovery  was  disputed 
by  Heyne,  and  was  defended  by  the  former  in  "  Letters 
to  Heyne,"  (1797,)  which  are  regarded  as  models  of 
controversy  and  refined  irony.  He  published  an  edition 
of  Suetonius,  (1802,)  and  an  editien  of  Homer,  ("  Ho- 
meri  et  Homeridarum  Opera,"  4  vols.,  1804-07.) 

In  consequence  of  the  war,  the  University  of  Halle 
was  closed  in  1806,  soon  after  which  Wolf  removed  to 
Berlin,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  organizing  the 
university  of  that  city.  He  received  the  title  of  privy 
councillor  at  Berlin.  Wolf  and  Buttmann  published 
the  "Museum  der  Alterthumswissenschaft,"  (1807-10.) 
In  a  remarkable  treatise,  entitled  "Exhibition  of  Archae- 
ology," ("  Darstellung  der  Alterthumswissenschaft,")  he 
gave  a  programme  of  the  studies  of  antiquity  and  phi- 
lology which  he  wished  to  be  pursued.  He  published 
an  excellent  philological  journal,  called  "  Literarische 
Analekten,"  (1817-20.)  To  improve  his  health,  he  visited 
the  south  of  France  in  the  spring  of  1824.  He  died  at 
Marseilles  in  August  of  that  year. 

See  Hanhart,  "  Erinnerungen  an  F.  A.  Wolf,"  1825;  W. 
KoERTE,  "  Leben  und  Stiidien  Wolfs,"  2  vols.,  1833;  "  Nouvelle 
Biographie  Generale ;"  "North  British  Review"  for  June,  1S65. 

Wolf,  [Lat.  WoL'Fnis,]  (FIieronymus,)  a  German 
scholar,  born  at  Dettingen  in  1 5 16.  He  studied  at  Wit- 
tenberg, and  became  in  1557  professor  of  Greek,  and 
rector  of  the  gymnasium  at  Augsburg.  He  was  one 
of  the  best  Greek  scholars  of  his  time,  and  published 
editions  of  the  works  of  Isocrates,  of  Nicephorus  Grego- 
ras,  of  .iEschines  and  Demosthenes,  and  other  classics. 
Died  in  1580. 

See  Geri.ach,  "  Dissertatio  de  Vita  H.  Wolfii,"  1743  ;  M.  Adam, 
"  Vitne  Germanorum  Philosophoriim." 

Wolf,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  medical  writer,  born  in 
Zweibriicken  (Deux-Ponts)  in  1537,  was  professor  at 
Marburg.    Died  in  1616. 

Wolf,  (JoHANN,)  a  German  jurist,  said  to  have  been 
a  twin  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  published  "A 
Key  to  History,"  ("Clavis  Historiarum,")  and  other 
works.    Died  in  1606. 

Wolf,  (JoHANN  Christian,)  a  German  philologist, 
born  at  Wernigerode  in  1689.  He  became  professor  of 
physics  and  poetry  at  Hamburg  in  1725,  and  edited  the 
extant  fragments  of  Sappho  and  other  Greek  poetesses. 
Died  in  1770. 


Wolf,  [Lat.  Wol'fius,]  (Johann  Christoph,)  a 
German  divine  and  scholar,  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Wernigerode  in  1683.  He  became  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  and  rector  at  the  gymnasium  in 
Hamburg.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the  Hebrew 
Lexicons,"  (in  Latin,)  "Bibliotheca  Hebraica,"  and  other 
learned  works,  also  editions  of  the  Letters  of  Libanius, 
and  other  classics.    Died  in  1739. 

See  J.  H.  VON  Seelen,  "Commentatio  de  Vita  J.  C.  Wolfii," 
1717;  "Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Wolf,  (Kaspar,)  a  German  medical  writer,  born  at 
Zurich  about  1525,  was  a  friend  of  C.  Gesner.  He  was 
professor  of  physics  and  Greek  at  Zurich.   Died  in  1601. 

Wolf,  (Kaspar  Friedrich,)  a  German  anatomist, 
born  in  Berlin  in  1735  ;  died  in  1794. 

Wolf  or  Wolff,  von,  fon  ^olf,  [Lat.  Wol'fius,] 
(Johann  Christian,)  Freiherr,  a  celebrated  German 
philosopher  and  mathematician,  born  at  Breslau,  January 
24,  1679,  (or,  according  to  some  authorities,  1674.)  After 
he  had  studied  for  some  years  in  the  College  of  I3reslau, 
he  entered  the  University  of  Jena  in  1699.  He  devoted 
himself  to  the  exact  sciences,  and  began  at  an  early  age 
to  meditate  the  reform  of  practical  philosophy  by  the 
application  of  mathematical  methods.  About  1701  he 
passed  from  Jena  to  Leipsic,  where  he  took  his  degree 
in  philosophy,  and  delivered  lectures.  He  became  ac- 
quainted with  Leibnitz,  who  exercised  considerable 
influence  over  him.  In  1707  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  mathematics  and  philosophy  at  Halle.  He  published 
"Thoughts  on  the  Powers  of  the  Human  Mind,"  (1712,) 
and  "Elements  of  Universal  Science,"  ("  Elementa 
Matheseos  universae,"  1713-15.) 

His  peace  was  disturbed  by  the  intrigues  of  the 
professors  of  theology,  who  censured  his  doctrines  as 
dangerous  to  religion  and  morality.  Instigated  by  these 
adversaries,  among  whom  Joachim  Lange  was  especially 
violent,  the  King  of  Prussia  removed  Wolf  from  his  chair 
in  1723,  and  banished  him  from  the  kingdom.  Before 
that  year  he  had  published  "  Rational  Thoughts  on  God, 
the  World,  and  the  Human  Soul,"  (1720,)  "Thoughts 
on  the  Search  after  Happiness,"  (1720,)  and  other  works 
He  was  professor  of  mathematics  and  philosophy  at 
Marburg  for  eighteen  years,  (1723-41.)  During  this 
period  he  published  a  number  of  works,  among  which 
are  a  celebrated  "Treatise  on  Logic,"  ("  Philosophia 
Rationalis,  sive  Logica  methodo  Scientifica  pertractata," 
1728,)  "Primitive  Philosophy,  or  Ontology,"  ("Philoso- 
phia prima,  sive  Ontologia,"  1730,)  "Moral  Philosophy, 
or  Ethics,"  ("Philosophia  moralis,  sive  Ethica,"  1732,) 
"  Rational  Psychology,"  ("  Psychologia  rationalis,"  1734,) 
and  "Universal  Practical  Philosophy,"  ("Philosophia 
practica  universalis,"  2  vols.,  1738-39.)  About  1733 
he  was  invited  by  the  king  to  return  to  Halle.  He 
declined  to  change  his  position  until  the  accession  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  (1740,)  when  he  resumed  his  pro- 
fessorship at  Halle.  He  was  appointed  privy  councillor 
and  professor  of  international  law.  Among  his  later 
works  were  "The  Law  of  Nature,"  ("Jus  Naturae,"  8 
vols.,  1740-49,)  and  "The  Law  of  Nations,"  ("Jus 
Gentium,"  1749.)  He  had  married  Catherine  Marie 
Brandisin  in  1716,  and  had  several  children.  As  a  phi- 
losopher, he  developed  and  popularized  the  doctrines 
of  Leibnitz,  his  mind  being  methodizing  rather  than 
creative.    Died  in  April,  1754. 

See  Stiebritz,  "  Nachrichtvon  Wolf  s  Leben  und  Ende,"  1754; 
GoTTSCHED,  "  Historische  Lobschrift  auf  C.  Wolf,"  1755  ;  Wuttke, 
"C.  Wolfs  eigene  Lebensbeschreibung,"  1841  ;  C.  F.  Baumeister, 
"Vita,  Fata  et  Scripta  C.  Wolfii,"  1739;  Fontenelle,  "  Eloges ;" 
"Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Wolfart,  -^ol'fiRt,  (Peter,)  a  German  medical  writer, 
born  at  Hanau  in  1675  ;  died  in  1726. 

Wolfe,  wdolf,  (Charles,)  an  Irish  clergyman  and 
poet,  born  at  Dublin  in  1791.  He  studied  in  the  uni- 
versity of  his  native  city,  took  the  degree  of  B.  A.  in 
1814,  and  in  181 7  was  ordained.  He  died  in  1823,  of 
consumption,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-one.  His  works 
were  published  in  1825,  under  the  title  of  "Remains 
of  the  Late  Rev.  Charles  Wolfe,"  etc. :  they  consist  of 
sermons,  prose  sketches,  and  lyric  poems  of  great 
beauty.  Among  the  last-named  is  his  "  Burial  of  Sir 
John  Moore,"  which  is  esteemed  one  of  the  finest 
productions  of  the  kind  in  the  language. 


e  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal ;  r,  trilled ;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WOLFE 


2288 


WOLMJR 


Wolfe,  (James;)  a  celebrated  English  officer,  born  in 
Kent  in  1726.  He  served  with  great  distinction  in  Ger- 
many in  the  early  campaigns  of  the  Seven  Years'  war, 
and  had  a  prominent  part  in  the  capture  of  Louisburg 
from  the  French  in  1758.  He  was  appointed  in  1759  to 
command  the  land-forces  in  the  expedition  against  the 
French  in  Canada,. having  been  previously  made  major- 
general.  After  several  ineffectual  attempts  to  drive  the 
French  army  from  their  jjosition  near  Quebec,  he  at 
length  succeeded  in  ascending  the  Heights  of  Abraham, 
commanding  that  city,  and,  in  the  battle  which  ensued, 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  enemy.  He  was, 
however,  mortally^wounded  in  the  action,  dying  on  the 
field  of  battla  immediately  after  he  was  informed  of  the 
result.  .His  opponent,  General  Montcalm,  also  fell  in 
this,engagement,  and  the  French  lost  their  possessions 
in  Canada. 

See  "The  Life  of  Major-General  James  Wolfe,"  by  Robert 
Wriqht. 

Wolff.    See  Wolf. 

Wolff,  ^olf,  (Emil,)  a  German  sculptor  of  high  repu- 
tation, born  in  Berlin  in  1802,  resided  many  years  in 
Rome.  He  executed  a  number  of  portrait-busts  and 
mythological  subjects.  Among  the  former,  those  of 
Niebuhr  and  Prince  Albert  are  especially  admired. 

Wolff,  woolf,  (Joseph,)  a  converted  Jew  and  traveller, 
born  about  1795.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  of  the 
Anglican  Church  about  1838.  He  performed  a  journey 
to  Bokhara,  of  which  he  published  a  narrative.  He 
wrote  other  works.    Died  in  1862. 

See  "Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1861. 

Wolff,  (OsKAR  LuDWiG  Bernhard,)  a  popular 
German  writer,  born  at  Altona  in  1799,  was  the  author 
of  numerous  tales,  romances,  and  satirical  sketches. 
Among  these  we  may  name  "The  Natural  History  of 
German  Students,"  and  "Poetical  Home  Treasure  of 
the  German  People."    Died  in  185 1. 

Wolff,  (Pius  Alexander,)  a  celebrated  German  actor 
and  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Augsburg  in  1782.  He 
excelled  particularly  as  a  tragedian,  and  his  representa- 
tions of  Hamlet,  Orestes,  Max  Piccolomini,  and  Tasso 
were  unsurpassed.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Caesareo," 
and  other  comedies,  and  a  drama  entitled  "  Preciosa," 
which  forms  the  text  of  one  of  Von  Weber's  operas. 
Died  in  1828. 

Wolff  hart.    See  Lycosthenes. 

Wolffl  or  Woelffl,  <^olf'l,  (Joseph,)  an  eminent 
German  composer  and  pianist,  born  at  Salzburg  in  1772, 
was  a  pupil  of  Michael  Haydn  and  Leopold  Mozart. 
In  1795  he  visited  Vienna,  where  he  was  received  with 
enthusiasm,  and  subsequently  resided  for  a  time  in  Paris 
as  music-teacher  to  the  empress  Josephine.  He  died 
in  London  about  1812.  His  compositions  are  chiefly 
operas,  and  pieces  for  the  piano.  As  a  pianist,  he  was 
regarded  as  scarcely  inferior  to  Beethoven. 

Wolfgang,  woolf 'gang,  [Ger.  pron. -(^olf'glng,  |  Prince 
of  Anhalt,  a  German  Reformer  and  adherent  of  Luther, 
was  born  in  1492.  Having  taken  up  arms  against  the 
Imperialists,  he  was  outlawed  by  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
in  1547.    Died  in  1566. 

Wolfius.    See  Wolf. 

Wolfram  von  Eschenbaoh.    See  Eschenbach, 

VON. 

Wolfter,  ^olf'ter,  (Peter,)  a  German  historian,  born 
at  Mannheim  in  1758.  He  wrote  on  the  history  of  the 
German  empire.    Died  in  1805. 

Wolgemuth.    See  Wohlgemuth. 

Wolke,  ^oKkeh,  (Christian  Heinrich,)  a  German 
teacher  and  educational  writer,  born  at  Jever  in  1741  ; 
died  in  1825. 

WoUaston,  wdoKlas-ton,  (William,)  an  English 
writer  on  ethics  and  theology,  was  born  in  Staffordshire 
in  1659.  He  studied  at  Sidney  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  A.M.  in  i68i.  His  principal 
work,  entitled  "The  Religion  of  Nature  Delineated," 
(1724,)  obtained  extensive  i)0]Dularity,  and  was  translated 
into  French.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  critical,  philo- 
sophical, and  theological  treatises.    Died  in  1724. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica :''  Clarke,  "  Life  of  Wollaston," 
prefixed  to  his  edition  of  "The  Religion  of  Nature." 


Wollaston,  (William  Hyde,)  an  eminent  English 
chemist  and  natural  ])hi]osopher,  born  in  London  in  1766. 
He  was  a  son  of  Francis  Wollaston,  an  astronomer, 
who  was  a  grandson  of  William,  noticed  above.  Having 
been  educated  at  Cambridge,  he  studied  medicine,  and 
took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1793;  but  he  soon  re- 
nounced the  practice  of  medicine,  and  devoted  himself 
to  scientific  researches.  He  was  chosen  secretary  of 
the  Royal  Society  in  1806,  and  president  of  the  same 
in  1820.  He  invented  the  reflecting  goijiometer,  by 
which  the  aingles  of  crystals  are  measured,  and  the 
camera  lucida,  (1812.)  About  1802  he  verified  the  laws 
of  double  refraction  in  Iceland  spar,  announced  by 
Huyghens,  and  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Oblique  Re- 
fraction of  Iceland  Crystal."  He  acquired  wealth  by 
the  manufacture  of  platinum  by  an  improved  method, 
having  been  the  first  who  reduced  that  metal  into  ingots 
in  a  state  of  purity.  About  1805  he  discovered  the 
metals  palladium  and  rhodium.  He  contributed  thirty- 
eight  memoirs  to  the  "Philosophical  Transactions." 
The  identity  of  galvanism  with  common  electricity  was 
first  demonstrated  by  Dr.  Wollaston.  He  was  a  very 
skilful  experimenter  and  accurate  observer.  Among  his 
valuable  inventions  is  a  chemical  sliding-rule,  by  which 
the  equivalents  of  substances  are  readily  ascertained, 
and  an  ingenious  method  of  rendering  platinum  malle- 
able. The  latter  was  published  just  before  his  death. 
Died  in  December,  1828. 

See  G.  Moll,  "  De  Dood  van  Dr.  W.  H.  Wollaston ;"  Thomson, 
"History  of  Chemistry;"  "  Noavelle  Biographie  Generale;" 
"British  Quarterly  Review"  for  August,  1846. 

WoUe,  -(^oKleh,  (Christoph,)  a  German  writer  on 
theology,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1700,  was  well  versed  in  the 
Oriental  languages.    Died  in  1761. 

WoUeb,  woKlgp,  [Lat.  Wolle'bius,]  (Johann,)  a 
Swiss  divine,  born  at  Bale  in  1536.  He  was  professor 
in  the  University  of  Bale,  and  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"Summary  of  Tlieology,"  ("Compendium  Theologiae,") 
which  is  highly  commended.    Died  in  1626. 

V/oUebius.    See  Wolleb. 

WoUner  or  Woellner,  von,  fon  ^oKner,  (Johann 
Christian,)  a  Prussian  statesman,  born  at  Dovritz  about 
1730.  He  was  ennobled  by  Frederick  William  II.  in 
1786,  and  was  appointed  minister  of  state  and  justice, 
and  director  of  ecclesiastic  affairs,  in  1788.  He  insisted 
on  rigid  orthodoxy  in  the  clergy.    Died  in  1800. 

Wollstonecraft,wo6Kston-krift,  (Mary,)  afterwards 
Mrs.  Godwin,  a  celebrated  English  authoress,  born  in 
1759.  There  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  place  of  her  birth  ; 
but  her  parents  removed  to  the  vicinity  of  London  when 
she  was  about  sixteen  years  old.  Owing  to  the  poverty 
of  her  family,  and  the  violent  temper  of  her  father,  her 
early  training,  both  moral  and  intellectual,  was  very 
defective.  Having  by  her  own  exertions  fitted  herself  to 
be  a  teacher,  she  opened  a  school  at  Islington  in  1783, 
in  which  she  was  assisted  by  two  sisters  and  an  intimate 
friend.  In  1786  she  published  her  first  work,  entitled 
"Thoughts  on  the  Education  of  Daughters."  She  next 
translated  into  English  Salzmann's  "Elements  of  Mo- 
rality," and  Lavater's  "Physiognomy."  In  1791  she 
wrote  an  answer  to  Burke's  "  Reflections  on  the  French 
Revolution,"  which  was  soon  followed  by  her  "  Vindi- 
cation of  the  Rights  of  Woman."  In  1792  she  visited 
Paris,  where  she  wrote  "  A  Moral  and  Historical  View  of 
the  French  Revolution."  About  this  time  she  formed  an 
unfortunate  attachtnent  to  an  American  named  Imlay, 
and,  in  consequence  of  his  desertion,  twice  attempted  to 
destroy  herself.  In  1795,  having  business  in  Norway, 
she  travelled  in  that  coimtry  and  in  Sweden,  and,  on 
her  return,  published  "  Letters  from  Norway."  This 
work  shows  great  shrewdness  and  powers  of  observation, 
and  contains  many  fine  descriptive  passages.  Mary 
Wollstonecraft  was  married  to  Godwin,  the  celebrated 
novelist,  in  1796,  and  died  in  1797,  after  giving  birth 
to  a  daughter,  who  became  the  wife  of  the  poet  Shelley. 

See  William  Godwin,  "Life  of  Mary  Godwin  ;"  Mrs.  Elwood, 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  Ladies  of  England  from  the  Commence- 
ment of  the  Last  Century,"  vol.  ii.,  (i<S43;)  "  Monthly  Review"  for 
June,  1792,  April,  179s,  and  July,  1796. 

Wolmar,  ^^ol'm^R,  or  Volkmar,  volk'm^R,  (Mel- 
CHiOR,)  a  Swiss  jurist  and  Hellenist,  born  at  Rothweil 


si,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  ^,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  f^t;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


WOLOWSKI 


2289 


WOOD 


about  1497.  He  was  professor  of  law  at  Tubingen,  and 
taught  Greek  to  Calvin.    Died  in  1561. 

Wolowski,  vo-lov'skee,  (Lewis  Francis  Michael 
Raymond,)  a  political  economist,  born  at  Warsaw  in 
1810,  is  a  member  of  the  Institute  of  France. 

Wolsey,  wooKze,  (Thomas,)  a  celebrated  English 
courtier  and  cardinal,  born  at  Ipswich  in  147 1.  His 
origin  was  rather  obscure.  According  to  a  doubtful 
tradition,  he  was  the  son  of  a  butcher.  He  was  educated 
at  Magdalene  College,  Oxford,  where  he  obtained  the 
degree  of  B.A.  at  the  early  age  of  fifteen.  He  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  his  college,  was  ordained  a  priest,  and  was 
presented  to  the  living  of  Lymington  in  1500.  Soon 
after  that  date  he  became  chaplain  to  Henry  VII.,  and 
was  sent  on  a  delicate  mission  to  the  emperor  Maxi- 
milian, which  he  performed  with  great  celerity  and  suc- 
cess. He  obtained  in  1508  the  lucrative  place  of  Dean 
of  Lincoln.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  Henry  VHI., 
Wolsey's  patron  Bishop  Fox  procured  his  appointment 
as  royal  almoner.  Having  excellent  qualifications  for  a 
courtier,  he  gained  the  special  favour  of  the  young  king, 
and  was  rapidly  promoted.  He  became  Canon  of  Wind- 
sor in  1511,  Dean  of  York  and  Bishop  of  Tournay  in 
1 5 15,  Bishop  of  Lincoln  in  March,  15 14,  Archbishop  of 
York  in  September,  1514,  and  cardinal  in  1515.  About 
the  end  of  the  last-named  year  he  was  appointed  chan- 
cellor. He  was  now  the  prime  favourite  and  chief 
minister  of  Henry  VIII.  In  his  style  of  living  he  dis- 
played a  princely  magnificence.  He  had  superior  talents 
for  business,  and  understood  the  public  interests,  which 
he  seems  to  have  promoted  except  when  they  interfered 
with  his  ambition.  His  favour  and  influence  were  courted 
by  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.  when  they  became  (1519) 
competitors  for  the  imperial  crown.  Wolsey  aspired  to 
the  papacy,  and  was  a  candidate  for  it  at  the  death  of  Leo 
X.,  in  1522.  When  he  was  defeated,  he  showed  his  re- 
sentment against  Charles  V.  because  that  monarch  failed 
to  support  his  pretensions.  He  built  a  grand  palace  at 
Hampton  Court,  which  he  presented  to  Henry  VIH. 

"The  numerous  enemies,"  says  Hume,  "  whom  Wol- 
sey's sudden  elevation,  his  aspiring  character,  and  his 
haughty  deportment  had  raised  him,  served  only  to 
rivet  him  faster  in  Henry's  confidence.  .  .  .  That  artful 
prelate  likewise,  well  acquainted  with  the  king's  impe- 
rious temper,  concealed  from  him  the  absolute  ascendant 
which  he  had  acquired,  and,  while  he  secretly  directed 
all  public  councils,  he  ever  pretended  a  blind  submission 
to  the  will  and  authority  of  his  master."  ('*  History  of 
England,"  vol.  iii.)  In  1523  he  was  appointed  legate  of 
the  pope  for  life.  Wolsey  fortified  the  king's  scruples 
in  relation  to  his  marriage  with  Queen  Catherine,  partly 
with  a  view  of  promoting  a  breach  with  Charles  V.  ;  but 
he  lost  the  favour  of  Henry,  probably  because  he  failed 
to  gain  the  pope's  consent  to  the  divorce  of  Catherine. 
The  enmity  of  Anne  Boleyn  also  contributed  to  his  fall. 
In  October,  1529,  the  great  seal  was  taken  from  him. 
An  indictment  was  laid  against  him  that  he  had  pro- 
cured bulls  from  Rome,  contrary  to  a  statute  of  Richard 
II.  The  court  pronounced  against  him  a  sentence  by 
which  his  lands  and  goods  were  forfeited  ;  but  Henry 
granted  him  a  pardon  for  all  offences.  He  was  soon  after 
again  arrested  on  a  charge  of  treason  ;  but  before  his  trial 
began  he  died,  at  Leicester  Abbey,  in  November,  1530. 

See  T.  Stoker,  "Life  of  Thomas  Wolsey,"  1599:  G.  Cavpn- 
DiSH,  "  Life  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,"  1641 ;  Fiddes,  "  Life  of  Cardinal 
Wolsey,"  1724;  J.  Grove,  "  History  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,"  4  vols., 
1742-44;  J.  Galt,  "Life  and  Administration  of  Wolsey,"  1812; 
Fkouoh,  "  History  of  England  ;"  Burton,  "  History  of  Scotland," 
vol.  iii.,  particularly  pp.  279,  280:  "Lives  of  Eminent  British  States- 
men," in  Lardner's  "Cyclopedia  ;"  Shak.speare,  "  Henry  VIIL" 

Woltmann,  von,  fon  <^olt'man,  (K.arl  Ludwig,)  a 
Gertnan  historian,  born  at  Oldenburg  in  1770.  He  pub- 
lished a  "History  of  Great  Britain,"  (1799,)  a  "History 
of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,"  (1809,)  a  continuation  of 
Schiller's  "Thirty  Years'  War,"  and  other  works.  Died 
in  1817, 

His  wife,  Caroline  von  Woltmann,  originally 
narned  Stosch,  (stosh,)  was  the  author  of  several  his- 
torical and  fictitious  compositions.    Died  in  1847. 

Wolzogen,  ^olt-so'gen,  (Johann  Ludwig,)  a  Ger- 
man Socinian  writer,  born  in  Austria  in  1596;  died  near 
Breslau  in  1658. 


Wolzogen,  van,  vtn  wol-zo'gen   or   wol  zo'hch, 

(Louis,)  a  Dutch  theologian,  born  at  Amersfort  in  1632, 
He  preached  at  Amsterdam  in  the  Walloon  church,  and 
wrote  several  theological  works.    Died  in  1690. 

Wolzogen,  von,"fon  <^o1t-so'gen,  (Justus  Ludwig,) 
Baron,  a  Prussian  general,  bor-n  at  Meiningen  in  1773, 
was  a  step-son  of  Karoline  von  Wolzogen,  noticed 
below.  He  served  against  the  French  fn  the  principal 
campaigns  from  1807  to  1815,  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
general  of  infantry.    Died  in  1845. 

Wolzogen,  von,  (Karoline,)  a  German  writer,  born 
at  Rudolstadt  in  1763.  Her  original  name  was  Lengs- 
FELD,  and  she  was  a  sister-in-law  of  the  celebrated 
Schiller.  She  published  in  1798  a  romance  entitled 
"  Agnes  von  Lilien,"  which  was  received  with  great 
favour.  Her  "  Life  of  Schiller,  drawn  from  the  Recol- 
lections of  his  Family,"  etc.,  came  out  in  1830,  in  2 
vols.  It  gives  a  highly  interesting  and  truthful  delinea- 
tion of  the  life  and  character  of  that  great  poet.  Died 
in  1847. 

Womock,  woo'mok,  or  Wo'maok,  (Lawrence,) 
an  English  theologian,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1612.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  controversies  of  the  time, 
and  wrote  against  the  Puritans  and  the  nonconformists. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Saint  David's  in  1683.  Died  in 
1685. 

Wood,  (Sir  Andrew,)  an  able  Scottish  adiniral, 
born  about  1455.  He  fought  against  the  English.  Died 
about  1540. 

See  Chambers,"  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,' 
(Supplement.) 

Wood,  (Anthony  A,)  an  English  antiquarian  writer, 
born  at  Oxford  in  1632.  He  studied  at  Merton  College, 
and  attained  great  proficiency  in  music  and  the  science 
of  heraldry.  He  was  the  author  of  the  "  History  and 
Antiquities  of  Oxford,"  translated  into  Latin  by  Dr. 
Fell,  (1674,)  and  "Athenee  Oxonienses,  an  Exact  His- 
tory of  all  the  Writers  and  Bishops  who  have  had  their 
Education  in  the  University  of  Oxford  from  1500  to 
1695,"  etc.    Died  in  1695. 

See  R.  Rawlin.son,  "Life  of  Anthony  k  Wood,"  1711;  Alli- 
bone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Wood,  (Sir  Charles,)  G.C.B.,  an  English  states- 
man, born  at  Pontefract  in  1800.  He  studied  at  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Great 
Grimsby  in  1826,  and  returned  for  Wareham  in  1831. 
He  was  afterwards  successively  secretary  to  the  treasury 
and  to  the  admiralty,  and  in  1846  became  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer.  He  resigned  in  1852.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state  for  India  in  1859,  which  position  he 
resigned  in  1866,  or  before  that  date. 

Wood,  (Fernando,)  an  Amerfcan  po-Titician,  born  in 
Philadelphia  about  1812.  He  became  a  merchant  of 
New  York  City,  was  elected  to  Congress  by  the  Demo- 
crats in  1841,  and  was  chosen  mayor  of  New  York  in 
1854.  He  was  re-elected  mayor,  and  in  January,  1861, 
recommended  that  New  York  should  secede  and  become 
a  free  city.  He  was  re-elected  to  Congress  in  1868 
and  1870. 

Wood,  (George  B.,)  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an  eminent 
American  physician  and  medical  writer,  was  born  in 
Greenwich,  Cumberland  county.  New  Jersey,  in  1797. 
His  parents  were  Friends  ;  his  great-grandfather,  Richard 
Wood,  was  a  county  judge  in  1748.  The  education  of 
Dr.  Wood  was  begun  in  the  city  of  New  York.  In 
1815  he  graduated  with  the  first  honours  in  the  aca- 
demical department  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
He  studied  medicine  in  the  office  of  Dr.  Joseph  Parrish, 
and  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1818.  He  delivered  in  1820  a  course  of  lec- 
tures on  chemistry,  and  was  appointed  in  1822  to  the 
chair  of  chemistry,  and  in  1831  to  that  of  materia  medica, 
in  the  Philadelphia  College  of  Pharmacy.  In  1835  he 
was  elected  professor  of  materia  medica  and  pharmacy 
in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  a  position  which  he 
filled  with  great  distinction  for  fifteen  years.  In  1850 
he  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  medicine  in  the  same  institution.  He  resigned 
this  position  in  i860.  As  a  lecturer.  Dr.  Wood  was 
eininently  successful.  While  filling  the  chair  of  materia 
medica  at  the  university,  he  procured  and  exhibited  to 


€  as  ^;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  VL^guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.   (2i^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

144 


WOOD 


2290 


WOODDESON 


the  students,  at  great  expense,  many  living  specimens 
of  rare  tropical  and  other  exotic  plants  which  he  had 
occasion  to  treat  of  in  his  lectures  ;  and  he  has  doulDt- 
less  done  more  than  any  other  individual  of  his  time  to 
advance  the  interests  and  reputations  of  the  institution 
with  which  he  was  connected.  In  1865  he  endowed  an 
auxiliary  faculty  of  medicine  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, composed  of  five  chairs  :  namely, — i.  Zoology 
and  Comparative  Anatomy ;  2.  Botany  ;  3.  Mineralogy 
and  Geology;  4.  Hygiene  ;  5.  Medical  Jurisprudence  and 
Toxicology  ;  the  incumbent  of  each  chair  being  required 
to  deliver,  during  the  months  of  April,  May,  and  June, 
not  less  than  thirty-four  lectures  every  year. 

Among  Dr.  Wood's  various  publications  we  may  name 
a  "History  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,"  (1827,) 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Practice  of  Medicine,"  (2  vols.,  1847,) 
which  has  passed  through  numerous  editions,  and  has 
been  adopted  as  a  text-book  in  the  medical  department 
of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  a  "Treatise  on 
Therapeutics  and  Pharmacology,"  etc.,  (2  vols.,  1856.) 
In  addition  to  the  above,  he  prepared,  conjointly  with 
Dr.  Franklin  Bache,  in  1830,  a  "  Pharmacopoeia,"  which 
was  adopted,  with  slight  alterations  made  under  the 
superintendence  of  its  authors,  by  the  national  convention 
of  physicians  assembled  for  that  purpose,  and  which 
became  the  basis  of  the  present  "  United  States  Phar- 
macopoeia ;"  and  the  "  United  States  Dispensatory,"  (first 
published  in  1833.)  Of  this  admirable  work  the  first 
idea  was  suggested  by  Dr.  Wood,  who  also  wrote  about 
two-thirds  of  the  original  work,  and  he  had  the  entire 
superintendence  of  the  preparation  of  the  last  edition, 
(published  since  the  death  of  Dr.  Bache,)  thoroughly 
revised  and  brought  down  to  near  the  present  time. 
More  than  120,000  copies  of  this  work  have  been  (1870) 
sold  since  its  first  publication. 

In  1859  Dr.  Wood  was  elected  president  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society,  which  position  he  still 
holds. 

Wood,  (Isaac,)  an  English  painter  and  humorist, 
born  in  1689  ;  died  in  1752. 

Wood,  (James,)  an  English  millionaire  and  miser, 
born  at  Gloucester  in  1756,  became  proprietor  of  the 
Old  Gloucester  Bank.  He  also  at  the  same  time  kept 
a  small  shop,  which  he  attended  diligently.  He  died  in 
1836,  leaving  his  fortune  to  his  four  executors. 

Wood,  (Jethro,)  distinguished  as  the  inventor  of  a 
greatly-improved  form  of  the  cast-iron  plough,  was  born 
in  Washington  county.  New  York,  in  1774.  He  is  said 
to  have  commenced  forming  models  of  ploughs  when 
he  was  a  boy.  In  1819  he  completed  his  great  inven- 
tion, which,  by  its  simple  construction,  its  cheapness,  and 
its  efficiency,  soon  superseded  the  old  style  of  ploughs 
throughout  the  United  States.  Mr.  Wood  resided  in 
Cayuga  county.  New  York,  where  he  died  in  1834. 

"Wood,  (John,)  an  English  architect,  commonly  called 
Wood  of  I3ath.  He  published  a  work  entitled  "Origin 
of  Building,"  etc.,  and  an  "  Essay  towards  a  Description  of 
Bath,"  which  city  he  greatly  improved  and  embellished. 
Died  in  1754. 

Wood,  (Rev.  John  George,)  an  English  naturalist, 
born  in  London  in  1827.  He  published,  besides  other 
works,  "Common  Objects  of  the  Sea-Shore,"  (1857,) 
"The  Illustrated  Natural  History,"  (3  vols.,  1859-63,) 
which  is  said  to  be  a  work  of  great  value,  and  a  "  Pop- 
ular Natural  History,"  (1866.) 

Wood,  (Sir  Matthew,)  M.P.,  an  English  magistrate, 
born  at  Tiverton  in  1768.  He  became  lord  mayor  of 
London  in  1815,  and  again  in  1816.  He  saved  the  lives 
of  three  men  unjustly  condemned  on  false  evidence. 
Died  in  1843. 

Wood,  (Robert,)  an  eminent  archaeologist,  known 
also  as  Palmyra  Wood,  was  born  in  the  county  of 
Meath,  Ireland,  in  17 16.  Having  studied  at  Oxford,  he 
visited  Italy,  Greece,  and  Asia  Minor,  and  published, 
after  his  return,  the  "Ruins  of  Palmyra,"  (1753,  with  57 
plates,)  and  "Ruins  of  Balbeck,"  (1757,  with  47  plates.) 
He  also  wrote  "  An  Essay  on  the  Original  Genius  and 
Writings  of  Homer,"  etc.,  which  was  translated  into 
several  languages.    Died  in  1771. 

Wood,  (Thomas  Jefeerson,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Kentucky  about  1825,  graduated  at  West  Point 


in  1845.  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  Union 
volunteers  about  October,  1861.  He  commanded  a  di- 
vision at  the  battle  of  Stone  River,  which  ended  January 
2,  1863,  and  at  Chickamauga,  September  19  and  20  of 
the  same  year.  He  served  under  General  Sherman  in  the 
campaign  against  Atlanta,  May-August,  and  commanded 
a  corps  at  the  great  battle  of  Nashville,  December  15 
and  16,  1864. 

Wood,  (Sir  William  Page,)  Lord  Hatherley,  an 
English  lawyer,  born  probably  in  London  in  1801.  He 
graduated  with  honour  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1827.  About  1847  was 
returned  to  Parliament  for  the  city  of  Oxford  as  a  Lib- 
eral. He  was  appointed  solicitor-general  in  185 1,  and 
a  vice-chancellor  in  December,  1852.  He  had  been  for 
some  time  lord  justice  of  appeal  when  he  was  appointed 
lord  chancellor  by  Mr.  Gladstone,  in  December,  1868, 
and  then  received  the  title  of  Lord  Hatherley. 

Wood''all,  (wdod'al,)  (John,)  an  English  surgeon, 
born  about  1556,  wrote  a  treatise  "On  the  Plague," 
"The  Surgeon^'s  Mate,"  a  description  of  the  diseases  of 
sailors,  and  other  works.  He  became  surgeon  to  Saint 
Bartholomew's  Hospital. 

Wood'bridge,  (Benjamin,)  an  English  theologian, 
born  in  1622,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1642. 
He  preached  at  Newbury,  (England,)  from  which  he 
was  ejected  in  1662.  He  wrote  several  works.  Died 
in  1684. 

Wood 'bridge,  (Timothy,)  a  blind  American 
preacher,  born  at  Stockbridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1784, 
was  a  grandson  of  Jonathan  Edwards.  He  was  minister 
of  the  Presbyterian  church  of  Spencertown,  Columbia 
county.  New  York,  from  1818  to  1851.  Died  in  Decem- 
ber, 1862. 

Woodbridge,  (William  Channing,)  an  American 
educational  writer,  born  at  Medford,  Massachusetts,  in 
1794.  He  published,  conjointly  with  Mrs.  Willard,  a 
"Universal  Geography,"  "Letters  from  Hofwyl,"  de- 
scribing Pestalozzi's  system  of  school  instruction,  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1845. 

Woodbury,  wood'ber-e,  (Daniel  P.,)  an  American 
general  and  engineer,  born  in  New  Hampshire,  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1836.  He  became  a  captain  of 
engineers  in  1853,  and  commanded  the  engineer  brigade 
of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  in  1862.  He  died  of  fever, 
at  Key  West,  in  August,  1864,  aged  fifty-one. 

Woodbury,  (Levi,)  an  American  jurist  and  states- 
man, born  at  Francestown,  New  Hampshire,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1789.  Pie  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1809, 
studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1812.  He 
was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  superior  court  in  1817, 
settled  at  Portsmouth  in  1819,  and  was  elected  Governor 
of  New  Hampshire  in  1823.  He  was  a  Senator  of  the 
United  States  from  1825  to  183 1,  and  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  navy  about  April  of  that  year.  In  June 
or  July,  1834,  he  became  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  the 
cabinet  of  President  Jackson.  He  continued  to  fill  that 
office  under  Mr.  Van  Buten  until  March,  1841  ;  he  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  United  States  for  New  Hamp- 
shire in  that  year.  He  voted  against  the  repeal  of  the 
Sub-Treasury  act,  and  for  the  annexation  of  Texas  to 
the  Union,  (1844.)  About  the  end  of  1845  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States,  in  place  of  Joseph  Story.  He  died  at  Ports- 
mouth in  September,  1851.  A  collection  of  his  "Po- 
litical, Judicial,  and  Literary  Writings"  was  published 
in  3  vols.,  (1852.) 

See  the  "  National  Portrait- Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans," 
vol.  ii. 

Woodd,  wood,  (Basil,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Surrey  in  1760,  was  rector  of  Saint  Peter's,  Corn  hill. 
He  published  "Advice  to  Youth,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1831. 

Wood''de-son,  (Richard,)  an  eminent  English  jurist 
and  legal  writer,  born  in  Surrey  in  1745.  He  studied  at 
Oxford,  where  he  succeeded  Sir  Robert  Chambers  as 
Vinerian  professor  of  law.  He  published  "Elements  of 
Jurisprudence,"  etc.,  (1783,)  "A  Systematical  View  of 
the  Laws  of  England,"  etc.,  (1792,)  and  a  "Brief  Vin- 
dication of  the  Rights  of  the  British  Legislature,"  (1799,) 
which  are  esteemed  standard  works.    Died  in  1822. 


a,  e.,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  tl,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fS.ll,  f*lt;  mStj  nSt;  good;  moon; 


WOODFALL 


2291 


WOOLSET 


Wood'fail,  (Henry  Sampson,)  an  English  journalist, 
was  editor  of  the  "  Public  Advertiser"  at  the  time  the 
"Letters  of  Junius"  appeared  in  its  columns.  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  retentive  memory  and  his  extra- 
ordinary talents  as  a  reporter,  and  he  is  said  to  have 
written  "sixteen  columns  after  having  sat  in  a  crowded 
gallery  for  as  many  hours  without  an  interval  of  rest." 
Died  in  1803.  His  brother  William  was  editor  suc- 
cessively of  "The  London  Packet,"  "The  Morning 
Chronicle,"  and  "The  Diary," 

Wood'fprd,  (Samuel.)  an  English  clergyman  and 
poet,  born  in  London  in  1636.  He  obtained  a  prebend 
at  Winchester  in  1680.    Died  in  1700. 

Wood'head,  (Abraham,)  an  English  Catholic  priest, 
born  in  Yorkshire  about  1608.  Pie  wrote  several  con- 
troversial w^orks  against  the  Protestants.    Died  in  1678. 

Wood'house,  (Robert,)  an  English  astronomer  and 
mathematician,  born  at  Norwich  in  1773.  He  became 
Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics  at  Cambridge  in  1820, 
and  Plumian  professor  of  astronomy  in  1822.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  "The  Principles  of  Analytical 
Calculation,"  (1803,)  a  "Treatise  on  Isoperimetrical 
Problems,"  (1810,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Physical  As- 
tronomy," (2  vols.,  1812-18,)  which  is  highly  esteemed. 
He  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  Observatory 
in  1824.    Died  in  1827. 

Woodhouselee,  Lord.  See  Tytler,  •  (Alexan- 
der F.) 

Woods,  (Leonard,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  born 
at  Princeton,  Massachusetts,  in  1774.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  College,  and  was  appointed  in  1808  professor 
of  theology  in  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  which 
post  he  occupied  for  nearly  forty  years.  He  was  an 
active  me'mber  of  the  American  Tract  Society,  the 
Temperance  Society,  and  other  similar  institutions. 
Died  in  1854. 

His  son,  of  the  same  name,  became  in  1839  presi- 
dent of  Bowdoin  College,  and  has  translated  from  the 
German  Knapp's  "Lectures  on  Christian  Theology." 

Woodville,  (Anthony.)    See  Rivers,  Earl  of. 

Woodville  or  Wydeville,  (  Elizabeth.  )  See 
Elizabeth  Woodville. 

Woodville,  wdod'vil,  (William,)  an  English  physi- 
cian, born  at  Cockermouth  in  1752.  He  took  his  degree 
at  Edinburgh,  and  afterwards  settled  in  London,  where 
he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  Smallpox  Hospital. 
He  published  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Medical  Botany," 
(4  vols.  4to,  1790.)  He  also  wrote  a  "History  of  the 
Smallpox  in  Great  Britain,"  (unfinished.)  Died  in  1805. 

Wood'ward,  (Bernard  Bolingbroke,)  an  English 
historian,  born  at  Norwich  in  1816.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  Wales,"  (1851,)  a  "History  of  America,"  and 
other  works.  In  1816  be  became  librarian  to  the  queen 
at  Windsor. 

Woodward,  (Henry,)  an  English  comedian,  born  in 
London  in  171 7.  He  published  several  dramatic  pieces. 
Died  in  1777. 

Woodward.  (John,)  an  English  geologist,  physician, 
and  antiquary,  born  in  Derbyshire  in  1665.  He  pub- 
lished in  1695  "A  Natural  History  of  the  liarth,"  con- 
taining the  results  of  his  observations  during  a  scientific 
tour  in  England.  This  work,  which  presented  new  and 
im])ortant  truths  in  relation  to  geology,  was  received 
with  great  favour,  though  the  errors  it  contains  excited 
considerable  opposition.  Dr.  Woodward  became  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Gresham  College.  He  was  also  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  of  the  College  of 
Physicians.  His  other  principal  works  are  "  An  Account 
of  Roman  Urns  and  other  Antiquities  lately  dug  up 
near  Bishopsgate,"  (1707,)  and  an  "Attempt  towards 
a  Natural  History  of  the  Fossils  of  England."  The 
latter  came  out  after  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1728. 

Wood'ward,  (Samuel  Bayard,)  M.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can physician,  born  at  Torrington,  Connecticut,  in  1787, 
became  in  1832  superintendent  of  the  State  Lunatic 
Asvlnm  at  Worcester,  Massachusetts.    Died  in  1850. 

Woodward,  (Samuel  P.,)  an  English  geologist,  a 
brother  of  Bernard  B.  Woodward,  noticed  al:>ove,  born 
at  Norwich  in  1821,  was  a  son  of  Samuel  Woodward, 
author.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  botany  and 
geology  in  the  Royal  Agricultural  College  in  1845.  He 


contributed  to  several  scientific  periodicals,  and  pub- 
lished a  "Manual  of  Recent  and  Fossil  Shells,"  (1851- 
56.)    Died  in  1865. 

Wood'worth,  (Samuel,)  an  American  journalist 
and  poet,  born  at  Scituate,  Massachusetts,  in  1785.  In 
1823  he  founded,  conjointly  with  George  P.  Morris,  the 
"  New  York  Mirror."  He  was  the  author  of  a  number 
of  lyrics,  one  of  which,  entitled  "  The  Old  Oaken 
Bucket,"  has  been  very  popular.    Died  in  1842. 

Wool,  (John  E.,)  an  American  general,  born  at  New- 
burg,  New  York,  in  1789.  He  entered  the  army  in 
April,  1812,  and  served  as  captain  at  Queenstown  in  Oc- 
tober of  that  year.  He  became  inspector-general  of  the 
army  in  1821,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general 
in  1841.  He  served  with  distinction  at  the  battle  of 
Buena  Vista,  February,  1847.  In  1854  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  department  of  the  Pacific.  He  took 
command  of  Fortress  Monroe  and  the  department  of 
Virginia,  August  16,  i86r,  and  occupied  Norfolk,  May 
10,  1862.  He  was  promoted  to  be  a  major-general  of 
the  regular  army,  May  16,  1862.    Died  in  1869. 

WooPhouse,  (John  T  HOMAS,)  an  English  surgeon 
and  oculist.  He  resided  for  a  time  in  Paris,  where  he 
published,  in  French,  several  treatises  on  diseases  of 
the  eye.    Died  in  1730. 

WooPlett,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  engraver, 
born  in  Kent  in  1735.  His  landscapes,  both  etched  and 
engraved,  are  ranked  among  the  most  exquisite  works 
of  the  kind  ;  his  engravings  of  the  "  Death  of  General 
Wolfe"  and  the  "  Battle  of  the  Hogue,"  after  West,  are 
also  esteemed  master-pieces.  Among  his  best  land- 
scapes we  may  name  "Jacob  and  Laban"  and  "  Roman 
Ruins,"  after  Claude  Lorrain,  and  "Cicero  at  his  Villa," 
"  Apollo  and  the  Seasons,"  and  "  Phaeton,"  after  Wilson. 
He  died  in  1785,  and  a  monument  was  erected  to  him  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

See  Strutt,  "  Dictionary  of  Engravers." 

WooPman,  (John,)  an  American  Quaker  preacher 
and  eminent  philanthropist,  born  in  Northampton,  near 
Burlington,  New  Jersey,  in  1720.  The  cruelties  insepa- 
rable from  negro  slavery  early  made  a  deep  impression 
on  his  mind,  and  he  laboured  long  and  zealously  to 
convince  the  people  of  the  colonies,  and  especially 
those  of  his  own  religious  persuasion,  of  the  iniquity  of 
holding  their  fellow-beings  in  bondage  ;  and  his  influ- 
ence doubtless  contributed  far  more  than  that  of  any 
other  individual  towards  inducing  the  Society  of  Friends 
to  pass  regulations  forbidding  their  members  either  to 
hold  slaves  themselves  or  in  any  way  to  encourage  that 
iniquitous  practice  in  others.  Woolman  worked  at  the 
trade  of  a  tailor,  and  was  a  rare  example  of  conscien- 
tiousness, self-denial,  humility,  and  benevolence.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  "Some  Considerations  on  the 
Keeping  of  Negroes,"  (1754,)  "Considerations  on  the 
True  Harmony  of  Mankind,"  (1770,)  "The  Journal  of 
the  Life  and  Travels  of  John  Woolman  in  the  Service 
of  the  Gospel,"  (1774-75,)  and  "A  Word  of  Remem- 
brance and  Caution  to  the  Rich,"  (Dublin,  1793.)  Died 
at  York,  in  England,  in  1773.  The  sensibility,  the 
loving  spirit,  and  the  beautiful  simplicity  of  character 
evinced  in  the  writings  of  Woolman  have  often  attracted 
the  admiration  of  those  who  were  far  from  endorsing 
the  peculiar  views  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  Charles 
Lamb  says,  "  Get  the  writings  of  John  Woolman  by 
heart,  and  love  the  early  Quakers."  ("Essays  of  Elia.") 

See,  also,  "  H.  C.  Robinson's  Diary,"  vol.  ii. 

Woolsey,  wooKse,  (Melancthon  Taylor,)  a  naval 
officer,  born  in  the  State  of  New  York  in  1782,  became 
commander  of  the  Constellation  in  1825.    Died  in  1838. 

Woolsey,  (Theodore  Dwight,)  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
eminent  American  scholar,  a  nephew  of  President 
Dwight,  was  born  in  the  city  of  New  York  the  31st  of 
October,  1801.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1820. 
He  afterwards  studied  theology  at  Princeton,  and  the 
Greek  language  in  Germany.  He  was  appointed  in 
1 83 1  professor  of  Greek  in  Yale  College,  of  which 
he  was  elected  president  in  1846,  as  successor  to 
Dr.  Day,  and  filled  this  high  position  with  distinguished 
ability  until  his  resignation  in  1871.  He  prepared  as 
text-books  the  following  Greek  classics,  to  which  he 
aaded  valuable  notes:   "The  Alcestis  of  Euripides," 


€  as  k;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,     guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.    ( l^^See.  Explanations,  p.  2; 


WOOLSTON 


2292 


WORDSWORTH 


(first  published  in  1833,)  "The  Antigone  of  Sophocles," 
(1835,)  "The  Electra  of  Sophocles,"  (1837,)  "The  Pro- 
metheus of  ^schylus,"  (1837,)  and  "The  Gorgias  of 
Plato,"  (1842.)  He  has  also  published  an  excellent  "In- 
troduction to  the  Study  of  International  Law,"  and  a 
volume  entitled  "Essays  on  Divorce,"  etc.,  (1869,)  and 
has  made  important  contributions  to  the  "  New  Eng- 
lander"  and  other  literary  journals. 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

WooPston,  (Thomas,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
at  Northampton  in  1669.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  and 
subsequently  entered  into  holy  orders.  He  published  in 
1705  "The  Old  Apology  for  the  Truth  of  the  Christian 
Religion  against  the  Jews  and  Gentiles  Revived,"  which 
was  followed  by  several  other  works  in  favour  of  an  alle- 
gorical interpretation  of  the  Scriptures.  For  his  "Six 
Discourses  on  the  Miracles  of  Christ,"  he  was  sentenced 
to  a  year's  imprisonment.    Died  in  1733. 

Woos'ter,  (woos'ter,)  (David,)  an  American  general 
of  the  Revolution,  born  at  Stratford,  Connecticut,  in 
1 710.  He  served  against  the  French,  and  subsequently 
rose  to  be  major-general  in  the  Continental  army.  He 
was  mortally  wounded  in  battle  near  Ridgefield  in  1777. 

Woot'ton  or  Wooton,  (John,)  an  English  painter 
of  animals,  landscapes,  etc.,  born  about  1720  or  earlier. 
He  painted  horses  and  sporting-scenes.    Died  in  1765. 

WdO-WangorWou-Wang,  woo'wSng',  the  founder 
of  the  Chinese  dynasty  of  Chow,  (or  Tcheou,)  was  born 
about  1 169  B.C.  He  obtained  the  throne  about  1122  by 
a  victory  over  the  army  of  the  reigning  emperor.  He  is 
represented  as  a  great  reformer  and  lawgiver.  Died  in 
1116  B.C. 

See  "  Biographie  Universelle." 

Wopcke  or  Woepcke,  <^op'keh,  (Franz,)  a  Ger- 
man mathematician  and  Orientalist,  born  at  Dessau  in 
1826.  He  devoted  much  attention  to  the  subject  of 
mathematics  among  the  Orientals,  and  wrote  several 
treatises  on  the  same.    He  died  in  Paris  in  1864. 

See  Narducci,  "  Intorno  alia  Vita  di  Fr.  Woepcke,"  Rome,  1864 ; 
"  Noiivelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Worcester,  woos'ter,  (Edv^ard  Somerset,)  Mar- 
quis OF,  an  English  peer,  distinguished  as  one  of  the 
inventors  of  the  steam-engine,  was  born  in  1601.  He 
was  styled  Lord  Herbert  during  the  life  of  his  father. 
He  was  an  active  partisan  of  Charles  I,  in  the  civil 
war,  raised  troops  at  his  own  expense,  and  spent  in  the 
cause  a  great  sum  of  money,  which  was  never  repaid.  He 
had  an  inventive  genius  and  superior  mechanical  talents. 
He  resided  at  Raglan  Castle,  in  Monmouthshire.  After 
the  restoration  of  1660  he  impoverished  himself  by  the 
expenditure  of  large  sums  in  scientific  experiments.  In 
1663  Parliament  passed  an  act  to  enable  the  marquis  to 
receive  the  benefit  and  profit  of  "a  water-commanding 
engine"  invented  by  him.  '  Soon  after  this  event  he 
published  a  curious  work,  entitled  a  "Century  of  the 
Names  and  Scantlings  of  Inventions,"  and  constructed 
at  Vauxhall  a  machine  which  he  called  a  water-engine. 
This  appears  to  have  been  the  first  steam-engine  ever 
made.  He  was  regarded  as  a  visionary  projector  by  his 
contemporaries.    Died  in  1667. 

See  Henry  Dircks,  "  Life,  Times,  and  Scientific  Labours  of  the 
Marquis  of  Worcester,"  1865. 

Worcester,  woos'ter,  (Joseph  Emerson,)  a  distin- 
guished American  lexicographer,  born  at  Bedford,  New 
Hampshire,  in  1784.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College 
in  181 1.  He  published  a  "Universal  Gazetteer,"  (2 
vols.,  1817,)  a  "Gazetteer  of  the  United  States,"  (1818,) 
"  Elements  of  Geography,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  {1819,) 
and  other  works  on  geography.  He  removed  to  Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts,  about  1820.  In  1830  he  pro- 
duced a  "Comprehensive  Pronouncing  and  Ex])lanatory 
Dictionary,"  and  in  1846  a  "Universal  and  Critical 
Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,"  (i  vol.  4to,) 
which  ranks  with  the  very  best  works  of  the  kind  in 
our  language.    Died  in  1865. 

See  Ai.MBONE,  "Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "North  American 
Review"  for  January,  1^547. 

Worcester,  (Noah,)  D.D.,  a  learned  American  Con- 
gregational divine,  and  one  of  the  most  prominent  of 
the  early  advocates  of  Unitarianism  in  New  England, 
was  born  at  HoLlis,  New  Hampshire,  in  1758.    One  of 


his  first  publications,  entitled  "  Bible  News  of  the  Father, 
Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,"  was  strongly  condemned  by  the 
orthodox  clergy.  Among  his  other  works  we  may  name 
"A  Solemn  Review  of  the  Custom  of  War,"  which  had 
a  great  popularity  and  was  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages, "The  Causes  and  Evils  of  Contention  among 
Christians,"  (1831,)  and  "Last  Thoughts  on  Important 
Subjects,"  (1833.)  He  was  for  many  years  editor  of  the 
"Friend  of  Peace."    Died  in  1837. 

Worcester,  (Samuel,)  D.D.,  a  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  HoUis,  New  Hampshire,  in  1770.  He 
became  pastor  of  the  Tabernacle  Church,  Salem,  Massa- 
chusetts. Died  in  1821.  His  son  Samuel  Melanc- 
THON  became  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Amherst  College. 

Worde,  de,  deh  waurd,  ?  (Wynkin,)  an  eminent 
printer,  who  assisted  Caxton  in  London,  printed  many 
works  after  the  death  of  Caxton.    Died  about  1534. 

Wor'den,  (John  Lorimer,)  an  American  naval 
officer,  was  born  in  Westchester  county,  New  York, 
March  12,  1818.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1834,  and  be- 
came a  lieutenant  in  1840.  In  April,  1861,  he  was  sent 
as  a  bearer  of  despatches  to  Fort  Pickens  or  Pensacola. 
He  was  arrested  as  he  was  returning  by  land,  and  kept 
in  prison  seven  months.  He  commanded  the  floating 
battery  Monitor,  which  was  armed  with  two  11 -inch 
smooth-bore  Dahlgren  guns,  carrying  a  shot  of  one 
hinidred'  and  sixty-eight  pounds,  and  which  left  New 
York  March  6,  1862.  He  arrived  at  Hampton  Roads 
on  the  evening  of  the  8th,  after  the  iron-clad  Merrimac 
had  destroyed  the  wooden  frigates  Cumberland  and 
Congress.  On  the  morning  of  the  9th  a  memorable 
and  indecisive  battle  was  fought  by  the  Merrimac  and 
Monitor,  the  former  of  which  was  partly  disabled  and 
abandoned  the  fight,  after  several  violent  collisions  with 
the  Monitor.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  commander 
in  the  summer  of  1862,  became  a  captain  in  February, 
1863,  and  commanded  the  iron-clad  Montauk  in  the 
operations  against  Fort  Sumter  in  April  of  that  year. 
In  June,  1868,  he  was  appointed  a  commodore. 

See  Headlev,  "  Farragut  and  our  Naval  Commanders,"  1867. 

Wordsworth,  wiirdz'worth,  (Charles,)  an  English 
bishop,  a  nephew  of  the  poet  William  Wordsworth,  was 
born  in  1806.  He  published  a  "  Greek  Grammar," 
(1839,)  "Christian  Boyhood  at  a  Public  School,"  and 
other  works,  mostly  religious.  He  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Saint  Andrew's,  Dunkeld,  and  Dunblane,  in  1852. 

Wordsworth,  (Christopher,)  D.D.,  born  at  Cock- 
ermouth,  in  Cumberland,  in  1774,  was  father  of  the 
preceding,  and  a  brother  of  the  celebrated  poet,  noticed 
below.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1799.  He  was 
successively  appointed  chaplain  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, master  of  Trinity  College,  and  rector  of  Buxted 
and  Uckfield.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Ecclesiastical 
Biography,  or  the  Lives  of  Eminent  Men  connected  with 
the  History  of  Religion  in  England,"  (6  vols.  8vo,  1809,) 
"Christian  Institutes,"  (4  vols.  8vo,  1837,)  a  collection 
of  sermons,  and  two  works  on  the  authorship  of  "  Icon 
Basilike."    Died  in  1846. 

Wordsworth,  (Christopher,)  D.D.,  youngest  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1808.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the  degree 
of  M.A.,  and  soon  after  entered  into  holy  orders.  He 
became  head-master  of  Harrow  School  in  1835,  and  in 
1850  vicar  of  Stanford-in-the-Vale,  and  Bishop  of  Lincoln 
in  1869.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "Athens  and 
Attica:  Journal  of  a  Residence  there,"  (1836,)  "Theo- 
philus  Anglicanus,  or  Instruction  for  the  Young  Student 
concerning  the  Church,"  etc.,  (1843,)  "On  the  Canon  of 
the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  and  on  the 
Apocryi:)ha,"  (1848,)  and  "Memoirs  of  William  Words- 
worth, Poet-Laureate,"  (2  vols.,  185 1.) 

Wordsworth,  (William,)  an  illustrious  English 
poet,  born  at  Cockermouth,  in  Cumberland,  on  the  7th 
of  April,  1770,  was  a  son  of  John  Wordsworth,  atforney- 
at-law,  and  Anne  Cookson.  About  1778  he  was  sent 
with  his  elder  brother  to  the  school  of  Hawkshead,  Lan- 
cashire, where  he  remained  until  his  eighteenth  year. 
Here,  about  the  age  of  fifteen,  he  wrote,  as  a  task  or 
school-exercise,  "The  Summer  Vacation,"  in  verse.  In 
October,  1787,  he  entered  Saint  John's  College,  Cam- 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f2Lll,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


WORDSWORTH 


2293 


WORM 


bridge.  He  was  impatient  of  control,  and,  like  Milton, 
was  averse  to  the  studies  and  discipline  of  his  college. 
According  to  his  own  account,  he  "got  into  rather  an 
idle  way,  reading  nothing  but  classic  authcjrs  according 
to  my  fancy,  and  Italian  poetry."  "  He  did  not  tread 
in  the  beaten  path  prescribed  by  academic  authority 
and  leading  to  academic  distinctions."  ("Memoirs  of 
Wordsworth,"  by  his  nephew.)  In  the  summer  and 
autumn  of  1790  he  spent  his  vacation  in  a  pedestrian  tour 
through  France  and  among  the  Alps.  "At  the  Lake  of 
Como,"  he  writes,  "my  mind  ran  through  a  thousand 
dreams  of  happiness  which  might  be  enjoyed  upon  its 
banks,  if  heightened  by  conversation  and  the  exercise 
of  the  social  affections."  He  took  his  degree  of  B.A. 
in  January,  1 791. 

Wordsworth  hailed  the  French  Revolution,  at  first, 
with  enthusiasm,  and  felt  a  strong  impulse  to  take  an 
active  part  in  it.  He  went  to  Paris  in  the  autumn  of 
1791,  and  afterwards  passed  several  months  at  Orleans, 
where  he  learned  to  speak  French.  In  October,  1792, 
he  was  again  in  Paris,  and  was  intimately  connected 
with  the  Girondists.  "He  longed  to  remain  at  Paris," 
says  his  nephew,  "but,  happily  for  him,  circumstances 
obliged  him  to  return  to  England,"  where  he  arrived 
about  the  end  of  1792.  Although  he  was  disappointed 
by  the  course  of  events  in  France,  he  still  clung  with 
tenacity  to  his  republican  principles,  which  he  avowed 
in  letters  written  after  his  return  from  France.  Some 
of  his  friends  advised  him  to  take  holy  orders;  but  he 
had  insuperable  objections  to  the  clerical  profession. 
"As  for  the  law,"  said  he,  "I  have  neither  strength  of 
mind,  purse,  nor  constitution  to  engage  in  that  pursuit." 

He  opened  his  literary  career  by  the  publication  of 
two  poems,  "The  Evening  Walk,  addressed  to  a  Young 
Lady,"  (1793,)  and  "Descriptive  Sketches  taken  during 
a  Pedestrian  Tour  among  the  Alps,"  (1793.)  His  i>ecu- 
niary  circumstances  at  this  period  were  distressing.  In 
November,  1794,  he  requested  a  friend  to  procure  him 
employment  as  a  contributor  to  a  London  paper,  and 
insisted  that  it  must  be  an  organ  of  the  opposition. 
He  was  relieved  from  the  pressure  of  poverty,  in  1795, 
by  a  legacy  of  £goo  from  his  friend  R.  Calvert.  In 
1795  '796  he  settled  at  Racedown,  Dorsetshire,  with 
his  sister  Dorothy,  who  exercised  a  great  and  salu- 
tary influence  over  him.  She  cheered  his  spirits,  and 
counteracted  his  morbid  tendencies.  He  tells  us  in 
his  "Prelude"  that  she  "maintained  for  me  a  saving 
intercourse  with  my  true  self."  His  next  production 
was  "Salisbury  Plain;  or.  Guilt  and  Sorrow,"  (1796.) 
In  June,  1797,  S.  T.  Coleridge  visited  Wordsworth  at 
Racedown.  To  enjoy  the  society  of  Coleridge,  Words- 
worth and  his  sister  removed  to  Alfoxden  in  August, 
1797.  He  wrote  there  a  number  of  short  poems,  which 
were  published  under  the  title  of  "Lyrical  Hallads," 
(1798,)  and  were  but  coldly  received.  Pie  passed  the 
winter  of  1798-99  in  Germany,  whither  he  went  in 
company  with  Coleridge.  On  his  return  he  settled  at 
Grasmere,  where  he  resided  until  1808.  He  married 
Mary  Hutchinson  in  1802,  and  about  the  same  time 
inherited  nearly  ;i^i8oo  of  his  father's  estate. 

In  1805  he  finished  a  long  autobiographical  poem, 
called  "The  Prelude,"  containing  an  account  of  the 
cultivation  and  development  of  his  own  mind,  in  four- 
teen books,  which  remained  in  manuscript  until  his 
death.  "  I  began  this  work,"  says  the  author,  "  because 
I  was  unprepared  to  treat  any  more  arduous  subjects." 
Henceforth  he  resolved  to  devote  his  energies  to  a  phi- 
losophical poem,  entitled  "The  Recluse." 

He  published  in  1807  two  volumes  of  poetry,  contain- 
ing numerous  odes,  sonnets,  etc.  His  poetical  reputa- 
tion was  not  of  rapid  growth.  He  had  some  ardent 
admirers,  but  he  was  severely  criticised  by  Lord  Jeffrey 
and  other  critics,  who  designated  Wordsworth,  Cole- 
ridge, and  Southey  as  the  Lake  .School  of  poets,  because 
they  lived  in  the  lake  district  of  Cumberland  and  West- 
moreland and  described  the  scenery  of  that  beautiful 
region.  Wordsworth  resided  several  years  at  Allan 
Bank,  near  Grasmere.  He  wrote  the  letter-press  of  an 
illustrated  work,  entitled  "Select  Views  in  Cumberland, 
Westmoreland,  and  Lancashire,"  published  in  1810  by 
J.  Wilkinson. 


In  1813  he  removed,  with  his  wife,  sister,  and  three 
surviving  children,  to  Rydal  Mount,  on  Lake  Winder- 
mere, and  about  two  miles  distant  from  Grasmere.  Here 
he  continued  to  reside  until  his  death.  He  published  in 
1814  a  didactic  poem  entitled  "The  Excursion,"  which 
is  a  portion  of  "The  Recluse,"  and  contains  episodes 
of  great  beauty,  pathos,  and  grandeur.  It  was  con- 
demned by  the  reviewers,  and  not  appreciated  by  the 
public,  who  purchased  only  five  hundred  copies  in  six 
years.  His  literary  efforts  brought  him  no  remunera- 
tion ;  but  his  appointment  to  the  office  of  distributor  of 
stamps,  in  1813,  raised  his  income  to  an  easy  compe- 
tence. It  was  worth  about  five  hundred  pounds  a  year. 
In  1815  he  produced  "The  White  Doe  of  Rylstone." 
Among  his  other  works  are  "Peter  Bell,"  (1819,)  "Ec- 
clesiastical Sonnets,"  and  "  Yarrow  Revisited,  and  other 
Poems,"  (1835.) 

His  poetry  is  remarkable  as  evincing  an  exquisite  sen- 
sibility to  the  beauties  of  nature  under  every  form  ;  and 
one  result  of  this  mental  peculiarity  was  that  nearly  all 
his  poems  were,  as  he  tells  us,  composed  in  the  open  air. 

He  received  a  pension  of  ;^300  per  annum  in  1842,  and 
was  recognized  as  the  greatest  living  poet  of  England 
when  he  succeeded  Southey  as  poet-laureate,  in  1843. 
In  his  mature  age  he  was  conservative  in  politics,  and 
a  devout  member  of  the  Anglican  Church.  He  died 
at  Rydal  Mount  on  the  23d  of  April,  1850. 

"  Wordsworth,"  says  Robert  Caruthers,  "  was  more 
original  and  philosophical  than  any  of  his  great  con- 
temporaries, and  he  has  sent  forth  strains  that  recall  the 
divine  genius  of  Milton.  .  .  .  His  taste  was  not  equal  to 
his  genius  ;  the  power  or  will  to  discriminate,  reject, 
and  condense  was  wanting.  .  .  .  Some  of  his  odes  and 
minor  poems  have  never  been  excelled."  (See  "  Ency- 
clojjasdia  Britannica,"  article  "  Wordsworth,")  Robert 
Southey,  who  was  his  intimate  friend,  wrote  in  a  letter 
to  B.  Barton,  December  19,  1814,  "  His  life  does  not 
belie  his  writings;  for  in  every  relation  of  life  and  every 
point  of  view  he  is  a  truly  exemplary  and  admirable 
man.  In  conversation  he  is  powerful  beyond  any  of 
his  contemporaries,  and  as  a  poet  ...  I  declare  my 
full  conviction  that  posterity  will  rank  him  with  Milton." 

"The  fame  of  Wordsworth,"  says  Ralph  W.  Emer- 
son, "is  a  leading  fact  in  modern  literature,  when  it  is 
considered  how  hostile  his  genius  at  first  seemed  to 
the  reigning  taste,  and  with  what  feeble  talent  his  great 
and  growing  dominion  has  been  established.  .  .  .  '  The 
Excursion'  awakened  in  every  lover  of  Nature  the  right 
feeling."    (See  "  Eraser's  Magazine"  for  July,  1868.) 

"  Whatever  influence,"  says  the  "Quarterly  Review," 
"  Wordsworth  may  have  exercised  on  poetic  style,  be  it 
great  or  small,  was  by  deviating  in  practice  from  the 
principles  of  composition  for  which  he  contended.  .  .  . 
In  spite  of  the  cloudy  and  unsubstantial  philosophy,  and 
its  unsuitability  to  the  condition  of  the  principal  speaker, 
in  spite,  too,  of  long  and  frequent  paragraphs  of  dreary 
prosing,  '  The  Excursion'  was  yet  a  noble  addition  to 
the  English  library.  It  owes  its  now  universal  recogni- 
tion, as  such,  to  the  beauty  of  the  pictures  of  rustic  life 
and  rural  scenes,  with  their  exquisite  accompaniment  of 
natural  feeling.  .  .  .  He  has  some  of  the  most  magical 
lines  and  stanzas  which  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  whole 
body  of  literature  ;  and  ideas  which  seemed  almost  to 
defy  expression  are  not  unfrequently  conveyed  in  the 
simplest,  clearest,  and  happiest  phrases."  • 

See  "Memoirs  of  William  Wordsworth,"  by  his  nephew.  Chris- 
topher Wordsworth,  2  vols.,  1S51  ;  article  in  the  "Quarterly 
Review"  for  January,  1853,  entitled  "  Memoirs  of  William  Words- 
worth ;"  January  Searle,  "Memoirs  of  William  Wordsworth," 
1852;  De  Quincey,  "Literary  Reminiscences,"  vols.  i.  and  ii.  ; 
Lord  Jeffrey,  "Miscellanies;"  "Quarterly  Review"  for  October, 
1814,  and  October,  1815  ;  "  British  Quarterly  Review"  for  January, 
i860;  "North  British  Review"  for  August,  1S64. 

Worlidge,  wiirKij,  (Thomas,)  an  English  painter 
and  engraver,  born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1700.  He 
executed  a  great  number  of  etchings  in  the  style  of 
Rembrandt,  which  are  particularly  admired.  His  draw- 
ings in  Indian  ink  are  also  highly  esteemed.  Died  in  1766. 

Worm,  voRm,  [Lat.  Wor'mius,]  (Olaus,)  a  Danish 
physician,  antiquary,  and  historian,  born  in  Jutland 
in  1588.  He  studied  medicine  at  Padua  and  several 
German  universities,  and  became  in  1613  professor  of 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as 7;  G,  H,  K,^Uura/;  n,  nasa/;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WORM 


2294 


WOVVERMAN 


humanities  at  the  University  of.  Copenhagen,  where  he 
also  held  the  office  of  reactor.  He  was  likewise  physician 
to  Christian  IV.  and  his  successor  Frederick  III.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  his  "Fasti  Danici,"  (1626,) 
"The  Most  Ancient  Danish  Literature,"  ("Literatura 
Danica  antiquissima,"  etc.,  1636,)  "  Runic  Lexicon  and 
Appendix  to  the  Danish  Monuments,"  ("  Lexicon  Ru- 
nicum  et  Appendix  ad  Monumenta  Danica,"  1650,)  and 
a  "History  of  Norway,"- (in  Latin.)  He  also  wrote 
valuable  treatises  on  medicjne  and  natural  history.  ,  He 
was  the  first  to  describe  minutely  the  bones  of  the  skull 
called  Ossa  Wormiana.    Died  in  1654. 

See  NicEKON,  "  Memoires  ;"  Kraft  og  Nyerup,  "  Litteratur- 
lexicon. " 

Worm  or  Wormius,  (Wilhelm,)  a  Danish  physi- 
cian, a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Copenhagen  in 
1633.  He  described  the  specimens  of  his  father's  cabinet 
in  a  work  called  "Musaeum  Wortnianum,"  (1655.)  Died 
in  1704. 

Wormius.    See  Worm. 

Wor'num,  (Ralph  Nicholson,)  an  English  painter 
and  art-critic,  born  in  North  Durham  in  181 2.  Among 
his  numerous  and  valuable  works  may  be  named  his 
"  History  of  Painting,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  a  "  De- 
scriptive and  Historical  Catalogue  of  the  National 
Pictures  of  the  British  School,"  (1857,)  and  a  "  Life  of 
Holbein,"  (1866.)  He  also  contributed  the  article  on 
"  Painting"  to  Smith's  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Antiquities."  He  was  appointed  keeper  and  secretary 
to  the  National  Gallery,  London,  in  1857. 

Woronichin.    See  Voronikhin. 

Woronicz,  vo-ro'nitch,  (John  Paul,)  an  eminent 
Polish  writer  and  pulpit  orator,  born  in  Volhynia  in 
1757.  He  studied  in  the  Jesuits'  Seminary  at  Ostrog, 
and  was  created  Bishop  of  Cracow  by  the  emperor 
Alexander  in  1815.  He  subsequently  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Warsaw  and  Primate  of  Poland.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  historical  poem  entitled  "  Sibylla,"  esteemed 
the  finest  production  of  the  kind  in  the  language.  His 
sermons  are  also  greatly  admired  :  the  one  on  the  death 
of  the  emperor  Alexander  is  regarded  as  a  master-piece 
of  pulpit  eloquence.    Died  in  '1829. 

Worring,  \^or'ring,  (Andreas,)  a  German  mechani- 
cian, born  at  Vienna  about  1806,  became  manager  of  the 
imperial  printing-office  in  that  city.  He  was  the  first 
to  apply  the  lately  discovered  art  of  nature-printing  to 
botanical  uses,  by  the  transfer  of  leaves  and  flowers. 

Worsaae,  voR'saw'eh,  (Jens  Jacob  Asmussen,)  a 
Danish  antiquary  of  great  merit,  born  in  Jutland  in 
1821.  He  visited  England,  Sweden,  and  various  parts 
of  the  continent,  and  was  appointed  in  1847  inspector 
of  antiquarian  monuments  in  the  Danish  States.  Among 
his  principal  works  may  be  named  his  "  Denmark's  Old 
Time  illustrated  by  Old  Things,"  ("  Danniark's  Oldtid," 
etc.,  1843,)  "  Blekingske  Mindesmarker  fra  Hedenold," 
and  "An  Account  of  the  Danes  and  Norwegians  in 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,"  ("Minder  om  de 
Danske  og  Nordmande  i  England,  Skotland  og  Irland," 
1852.) 

Wors'dale,  (James,)  an  English  painter  and  drama- 
tist, was  a  pupil  of  .Sir  Godfrey  Kneller,  and  married  his 
niece.    Died  in  1767. 

WorsTey,  (Sir  Richard,)  an  English  statesman  and 
antiquary,  born  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  in  1 75 1.  He  was 
tor  many  years  a  member  of  Parliament  for  the  borough 
of  Newport,  and  was  appointed  Governor  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight.  He  published  "  Musaeum  Worsleianum  ;  or, 
A  Collection  of  Antique  Basso-Relievos,"  etc.,  (2  vols, 
fol.,  1794,)  also  a  "History  of  the  Isle  of  Wight." 
Died  in  1805. 

Worth,  (William  Jenkins,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Cohuiibia  county.  New  York,  in  1794.  He 
served  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  subsequently  in  the 
Florida  campaigns  of  1841  and  1842,  and  was  made  a 
brigadier-general.  For  his  services  in  the  Mexican  war 
(1846-47)  he  obtained  the  rank  or  brevet  of  major- 
general.  Died  in  Texas  in  1849.  A  monument  was 
erected  to  his  memory  in  New  York. 

Wor'thing-ton,  (John,)  an  English  theologian,  born 
at  Manchester  in  161 8,  preached  in  London  and  at  Hack- 
ney, and  wrote  several  religious  works.    Died  in  167 1. 


Wor^thing-tpn,  (Thomas,)  born  in  Jefferson  county 
Virginia,  in  1773.  He  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate  from  Ohio  in  1803  and  1810,  and  became  Gov- 
ernor of  that  State  in  1815.    Died  in  1827. 

Worthington,  (William,)  a  British  divine,  born  in 
Merionethshire  in  1703,  wrote  an  "Essay  on  the  Scheme 
of  Redemption,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1778. 

Wot'tpn,  (Edward,)  an  English  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Oxford  in  1492.  He  studied  at  Ox- 
ford, where  he  took  his  medical  degree  in  1525.  He 
wrote  a  work  entitled  "  On  the  Differences  among  Ani- 
mals," ("De  Differentiis  Animalium,")  which  was  highly 
esteemed  at  the  time.  He  became  physician  to  Henry 
VIII.,  and  a  Fellow  of  the  College  of  Physicians.  Died 
i'l  1555- 

Wotton,  [Lat.  Wotto'nus,]  (Sir  Henry,)  an  Eng- 
lish diplomatist  and  writer,  born  in  Kent  in  1568.  He 
studied"  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  where  he  greatly 
distinguished  himself  by  his  proficiency  in  law,  mathe- 
matics, languages,  and  the  natural  sciences.  He  subse- 
quently travelled  in  France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  residing 
abroad  nearly  nine  years,  during  which  time  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Isaac  Casaubon  and  other  learned 
men  of  the  time.  After  his  return  to  England  he  be- 
came secretary  to  the  Earl  of  Essex,  whom  he  accom- 
panied on  his  expeditions  to  Spain  and  Ireland.  When 
Essex  was  arrested,  in  1601,  Wotton  fled  to  the  conti- 
nent. Having  learned  at  Florence  that  some  persons 
had  conspired  to  assassinate  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  he 
carried  information  of  the  plot  to  that  king,  and  thus 
gained  his  favour.  In  1604  Sir  Henry  was  sent  as  Eng- 
lish ambassador  to  Venice,  where  he  remained  several 
years.  He  performed  missions  to  other  foreign  courts, 
and  became  provost  of  Eton  about  1625.  He  wrote 
several  short  and  beautiful  poems,  and  prose  works, 
among  which  are  "  The  State  of  Christendom,"  "  The 
Elements  of  Architecture,"  and  "Characters  of  some 
of  the  English  Kings."    Died  in  1639. 

Sei.^^.AAK  Walton,  "Life  of  Sir  Henry  Wotton,"  prefixed  to 
"  Relicj>..je  Wottonianje,"  1651. 

Wotton,  (Nicholas,)  an  English  statesman,  born  in 
Kent  about  1497,  was  an  uncle  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  employed  in  several  embassies,  and  was  secretary 
of  state  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.    Died  in  1566. 

Wotton,  (William,)  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
scholar,  born  in  'Suffolk  in  1666.  He  possessed  extra- 
ordinary powers  of  memory,  and,  having  entered  Cathe- 
rine Hall,  Cambridge,  before  the  age  of  ten,  distinguished 
himself  by  his  attainments  in  the  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Oriental  languages.  He  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in 
1683,  and  subsequently  became  rector  of  Middleton 
Keynes,  in  Buckinghamshire.  His  principal  works  are 
entitled  "  Reflections  on  Ancient  and  Modern  Learning," 
in  reply  to  Sir  William  Temple's  essay  in  defence  of 
modern  literature,  and  "View  of  Hickes's  Archaeo- 
logical Ti  easure  of  the  Ancient  Northern  Languages," 
(1708.)  The  former  treatise  gave  rise  to  the  famous 
controversy  between  Bentley  and  Sir  William  Temple 
concerning  the  "Epistles  of  Phalaris."    Died  in  1726. 

See  "  Biographia  Britannica." 

Wottonus.    See  Wotton. 

Woulfe,  woolf,  (Peter,)  an  English  chemist,  was  a 
resident  of  London  and  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  contributed  to  the  "Transactions"  of  that  body 
"  Experiments  on  the  Distillation  of  Acids,"  etc.,  and 
other  chemical  treatises.    Died  in  1806. 

Wouters,  wow'ters,  (Francis,)  a  Flemish  painter 
of  history  and  landscapes,  was  born  at  Lierre  in  1614, 
and  was  a  pupil  of  Rubens.  He  went  to  England  iii 
1637,  and  afterwards  worked  at  Antwerp.  He  was 
killed  by  an  unknown  hand  in  1659. 

Wouverman,  wow'ver-min',  or  Wouvermans, 
wow'ver-m^ns'',  (Peter,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Haarlem  about  1625,  was  a  pupil  of  his  brother  Philip, 
whose  style  he  imitated.  He  painted  horses,  hunting- 
scenes,  etc.    Died  in  1683. 

His  younger  brother  joHN  was  a  skilful  landscape- 
painter.    Died  in  1666. 

Wouverman,  Wouvermans,  or  Wowerman, 
(Philip,)  an  eminent  Dutch  painter,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Haarlem  in  1620,  and  was  a  pupil 


a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  met;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


WOV-WANG  2295  WRE}^ 


of  Wynants.  His  works  are  chiefly  landscapes,  battle- 
pieces,  hunting-scenes,  and  horse-markets,  all  of  which 
he  represented  with  admirable  skill  and  fidelity, — his 
horses,  particularly,  being  unsurpassed.  The  galleries 
of  Dresden  and  Paris  possess  numerous  master-pieces 
by  this  artist.  He  is  said  to  have  lived  in  poverty, 
though  his  pictures  were  sold  for  high  prices  by  his 
patrons.  His  designs  and  etchings  are  also  highly 
esteemed  and  very  rare.    Died  i->  1668. 

See  Kammerer's  treatise  "  I^eDei  die  Composition  in  Philipp 
Wowerman's  Gemalden,"  etc.  ;  Descamps,  "Vies  des  Peintres." 

Wou-Wang.    See  Woo-Wang. 
Woveren.    See  Wower. 

Wower,  -^o'v^er,  sometimes  called  De  Woweren, 
deh  wo'\^eh-ren,  (John,)  a  learned  German  writer,  born 
at  Hamburg  in  1574.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"  De  Polymathia  Tractatio  integri  Operis  de  Studiis 
veterum,"  (1603,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1612. 

Wower,  wow'er,  or  Wo'ver-en,  (John,)  a  Flemish 
jurist,  born  at  Antwerp  in  1576,  was  a  friend  of  Justus 
Lipsius.  He  edited  Tacitus  and  Seneca,  and  wrote 
several  works.    Died  in  1635. 

Wrangel,  vRing'gel,  (Hermann,)  a  Swedish  gen- 
eral, born  in  1587,  was  the  father  of  Karl  Gustaf, 
noticed  below.  He  obtained  from  Gustavus  Adolphus 
the  rank  of  field-marshal  in  1621,  and  commanded 
against  the  Poles.  In  1636  he  took  several  places  in 
Pomerania.    Died  in  1644. 

Wrangel,  von,  fon  vR^ng'gel,  (Karl  Gustaf,) 
Count,  an  eminent  Swedish  admiral  and  general,  born 
at  Skokloster  in  1613.  He  served  under  Gustavus 
Adolphus  in  Germany,  and  had  a  prominent  part  in 
the  victory  of  Lutzen,  after  the  death  of  that  illustrious 
commander.  Appointed  subsequently  to  the  command 
of  the  Swedish  forces  in  Germany,  he  carried  on  the 
war  with  energy  and  success,  until  it  was  concluded  by 
the  peace  of  Westphalia.  He  afterwards  gained  several 
decisive  victories  over  the  Danes  and  their  Dutch  allies, 
and  in  1660  was  made  grand  marshal  of  Sweden.  Died 
in  1675. 

See  Geijer,  "Histoire  de  Suede." 

Wrangel,  von,  fon  -^Rang'gel,  (Frikdrich  Hein- 
RiCH  Ernst,)  Baron,  a  Prussian  general,  born  at 
Stettin  in  1784.  He  served  against  the  French  in  the 
campaigns  from  181 1  to  181 5,  and  had  a  high  command 
in  the  Danish  war  of  1848.  He  was  made  general  of 
cavalry  in  1849.    Died  in  1869. 

See  "Leben  F.  von  Wrangel's,"  Berlin,  1849. 

Wrangell  or  Wrangel,  von,  fon  vR^ng'gel,  (Fer- 
dinand Petrovitch,)  Baron,  a  Russian  admiral  and 
celebrated  navigator,  of  Swedish  extraction,  was  born 
in  Esthonia  in  1795.  Appointed  in  1820  commander  of 
an  exploring  expedition  to  the  Arctic  Sea,  he  travelled 
on  the  ice  in  sledges  as  far  north  as  72°  2'.  After  his 
return  he  became  in  1829  governor  of  the  Russian  pos- 
sessions in  the  northwestern  part  of  America.  In  1847 
he  was  created  vice-admiral.  His  principal  works  are 
a  "  Sketch  of  a  Journey  from  Sitka  to  Saint  Petersburg," 
(1836,)  "Statistical  and  Ethnographical  Notices  on  the 
Russian  Possessions  in  America,"  (1839,)  and  "Journey 
on  the  Northern  Coasts  of  Siberia  and  the  Icy  Sea," 
(1841,)  which  was  translated  into  French  and  German. 

See  the  "London  Quarterly  Review"  for  September,  1840. 

Wranitzki,  -(^Ri-nlts'kee,  (Paul,)  a  German  opera- 
composer,  born  in  1756,  became  director  of  the  orchestra 
at  the  Imperial  Theatre  at  Vienna.    Died  in  1808. 

Wratislaus,  vRl'tis-lowss',  or  Wratislaw,  vK^'tis- 
lif,  the  first  King  of  Bohemia,  inherited  the  title  of  duke 
in  1 06 1.  He  afterwards  assumed  the  title  of  king,  and 
was  an  ally  of  the  emperor  Henry  IV.    Died  in  1092. 

Wraxall,  r^k'sal,  (Frederick  Charles  Lascelles,) 
an  English  writer,  born  at  Boulogne  in  1828.  He  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "Wild  Oats,"  (1857,)  and 

Armies  of  the  Great  Powers,"  (1859.)  Died  in  London 
in  1865. 

Wraxall,  (Sir  Nathaniel  William,)  an  English 
statesman  and  historical  writer,  born  at  Bristol  in  1751. 
He  travelled  over  the  greater  jiart  of  Europe,  and 
published  in  1775  "Cursory  Remarks  made  in  a  Tour 
through  some  of  the  Northern  Parts  of  Europe,"  etc.. 


which  was  very  w^ell  received.  He  was  elected  to  Par- 
liament in  1780.  Among  his  other  works  may  be  named 
"The  History  of  France  from  the  Accession  of  Henry 
III.  to  the  Death  of  Louis  XIV.,"  etc.,  (3  vols.,  1795,) 
and  "Historical  Memoirs  of  My  Own  Time,"  (1815.) 
The  laMer  publication  contained  a  libel  on  the  Russian 
ambassador.  Count  Woronzow,  for  which  Wraxall  was 
fined  and  imprisoned  for  a  short  time.    Died  in  1831. 

Seethe  "  Edinburgh  Review"  for  October,  1815  ;  "  London  Quar- 
terly Review"  for  April,  1S15,  and  December,  1836;  Allibons, 
"  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Wray,  ra,  (Daniel,)  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
London  in  1 701,  was  one  of  the  authors  of  the  "Athenian 
Letters."    (See  YoRKE,  Charles.)    Died  in  1783. 

Wray,  (John.)    See  Ray. 

Wray,  (Robert  Bateman,)  an  eminent  English 
gem-engraver,  born  in  Wiltshire  in  1715.  Among  his 
best  works  are  heads  of  Milton,  Shakspeare,  Pope, 
Cicero,  a  Madonna,  Dying  Cleopatra,  and  Antinous. 
Died  in  1770. 

Wrbna  und  Freudenthal,  uRb'nS  oont  froiMen- 
tlr,  (Rudolf,)  Count,  an  Austrian  statesman,  born  at 
Vienna  in  1761  ;  died  in  1823. 

Wrede,  vRa'deh, (Fabian  Jakob  Fabianson,)  Baron, 
a  Swedish  general  and  writer  on  physical  science,  was 
born  in  1802. 

Wrede,  ^Ra'deh,  (Karl  Philipp,)  Prince,  a  cele- 
brated German  field-marshal,  born  at  Heidelberg  in  1767. 
He  served  in  the  Austrian  army  in  the  campaigns  of  1799 
and  1800,  was  made  lieutenant-general  in  1804,  and  in 
1805  succeeded  General  Deroy  as  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Bavarian  forces,  then  forming  a  part  of  Napoleon's 
"grand  army."  He  soon  after  obtained  a  series  of  bril- 
liant successes  over  the  Austrians,  including  the  capture 
of  Innspruck,  and  in  1809  was  created  a  field-marshal 
and  count  of  the  French  empire  for  his  distinguished 
bravery  at  the  battle  of  Wagram.  As  commander  of 
the  Bavarian  cavalry  in  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812, 
he  was  defeated  by  Wittgenstein  at  Polotsk;  but  he 
skilfully  covered  the  retreat  of  the  scattered  army  on  that 
disastrous  day.  By  the  treaty  of  Reid,  in  1813,  Bavaria 
joined  the  allies,  and  Wrede  was  appointed  to  the  chief 
command  of  the  united  forces  of  Austria  and  Bavaria. 
On  the  30th  of  October,  1813,  he  endeavoured  to  inter- 
cept the  army  of  Napoleon,  then  retreating  after  the 
defeat  of  Leipsic  ;  but,  after  a  fiercely-contested  battle 
at  Hainan,  the  French  troops  forced  a  passage,  and  the 
allies  withdrew.  Marshal  Wrede  having  been  severely 
wounded.    Died  in  December,  1838. 

See  W.  RiEDEi,,  "  C.  P.  von  Wrede  nach  seinem  Leben  und 
Wirken,"  1839;  "  Nouvel'e  Biographie  Generale." 

Wree,  de,  deh  vRa,  (Olivier,)  a  Belgian  historian, 
born  at  Bruges  in  1 596.  He  wrr^te  "  History  of  the 
Counts  of  Flanders,"  ("  Historia  Comitum  Flandriae," 
1650,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1652. 

Wren,  rgn,  (Sir  Christopher,)  a  celebrated  English 
architect,  born  at  East  Knovle,  in  Wiltshire,  on  the 
20th  of  October,  1632,  was  a  nephew  of  Bishop  Mat- 
thew Wren.  His  father  was  Dean  of  Windsor  and 
chaplain  to  Charles  I.  He  invented  several  ingenious 
instruments  about  the  age  of  fourteen.  In  1646  he 
entered  Wadham  College,  Oxford,  as  a  gentleman  com- 
moner. He  was  early  distinguished  for  his  proficiency 
in  mathematics  and  anatomy,  and  was  regarded  as  a 
prodigy  at  college.  In  1653  he  was  elected  Fellow  of 
All  Souls'  College,  Oxford.  He  became  professor  of 
astronomy  at  Gresham  College,  London,  in  1657,  and 
was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal  Society.  In 
i66r  he  was  appointed  assistant  to  Sir  John  Denham, 
surveyor-general,  and  began  to  turn  his  attention  to 
architecture.  To  extend  his  knowledge  of  that  art,  he 
visited  Paris  in  1665.  The  great  fire  in  London  in  1666 
afforded  him  a  favourable  opportunity  and  ample  space 
for  the  exercise  of  his  talents.  He  ])roposed  to  rebuild 
the  city  on  a  more  regular  and  commodious  plan,  which, 
however,  was  not  adopted.  About  1667  he  succeeded 
Denham  as  surveyor-general  and  chief  architect.  He 
erected  in  London  a  number  of  churches,  the  Royal 
Exchange,  the  Monument,  Temple  Bai  ,  the  Observatory 
at  Greeriwich,  and  other  fine  public  edifices.  His  master- 
piece is  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral,  which  was  commenced 


ndis  k;  c  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  g,  h,  Yi,  guttural;  N,  nasat;  R,  trilled;  %zs,z;%\i  as  in  ihis^    (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WREN 


2296 


WRIGHT 


in  1675  and  finished  in  1710.  It  is  about  four  hundred 
and  seventy-five  feet  long,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  noble 
cupola,  which  is  greatly  admired.  Saint  Paul's  is  prob- 
ably the  most  beautiful  cathedral  ever  built  in  England 
for  Protestant  worship.  The  original  and  favourite  plan 
which  Wren  formed  for  this  work,  and  which  was  re- 
jected by  the  authorities,  differed  greatly  from  fhe  plan 
that  was  adopted. 

He  married  a  daughter  of  Sir  John  Coghill  in  1674. 
He  was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1680. 
About  1690  he  built  an  addition  to  Hampton  Court  for 
William  IH.  Among  his  other  works  were  additions 
to  Windsor  Castle,  and  two  towers  added  to  the  west 
end  of  Westminster  Abbey.  He  is  generally  regarded 
as  the  greatest  of  English  architects.  He  contributed 
several  treatises  on  astronomy  and  other  sciences  to  the 
"  Piiilosophical  Transactions."  He  died  in  London  in 
February,  1723,  aged  about  ninety-one,  and  was  buried 
in  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral. 

"  The  austere  beauty  of  the  Athenian  portico,  the 
gloomy  sublimity  of  the  Gothic  arcade,  he  was,  like 
almost  all  his  contemporaries,  incapable  of  emulating  ; 
.  .  .  but  no  man  born  on  our  side  of  the  Alps  has 
imitated  with  so  much  success  the  magnificence  of  the 
palace-like  churches  of  Italy."  (Macaulay,  "  History  of 
England,"  vol.  i.) 

See  "  Parentalia,  or  Memoirs  of  the  Family  of  the  Wiens,"  by 
his  son  Christopher  and  his  grandson  Stephen,  1750;  James 
Ei-MES,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Sir  C.  Wren,"  182;^,  and  "  Sir  C. 
Wren  and  his  Times,"  1852;  Quatkemere  de  Quincy,  "  Histoire 
des  Archilectes  ceiebres." 

Wren,  (Christopher,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1675.  He  was  distinguished  as  an  antiquary, 
and  wrote  memoirs  of  his  family,  entitled  "  Parentalia," 
(1750.)    Died  in  1747. 

Wren,  (Matthew,)  an  English  prelate,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1585.  He  became  chaplain  to  the  prince,  after- 
wards Charles  I.,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Spain  in 
1623,  and  was  successively  created  Bishop  of  Hereford, 
Norwich,  and  Ely.  He  was  one  of  the  judges  of  the 
Star  Chamber,  and  assisted  in  drawing  up  the  Scottish 
Liturgy,  which  gave  rise  to  the  riots  in  Edinburgh  in 
1637.  He  was  impeached  by  the  Commons  in  1640, 
and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  nearly  twenty  years.  Sir 
Christopher  Wren  was  his  nephew.    Died  in  1667. 

Wren,  (Matthew,)  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Cambridge  in  1629.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament, 
and  became  successively  secretary  to  the  Earl  of  Clar- 
endon and  the  Duke  of  York.  He  published  a  treatise 
"  On  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Revolutions  in  Eng- 
land," and  other  works.    Died  in  1672. 

Wright,  rit,  (Abraham,)  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  London  in  161 1.  He  became  vicar  of  Okeham,  in 
Rutlandshire.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"Parnassus  with  Two  Tops,"  ("Parnassus  biceps," 
1656.)    Died  in  1690. 

Wright,  (Edward,)  an  English  mathematician,  born 
at  Garveston,  in  Norfolk.  He  became  a  Fellow  of 
Caius  College,  Cambridge.  He  constructed  for  Prince 
Henry  a  large  sphere  which  represented  the  motions  of 
the  planets,  moon,  etc.,  and  predicted  the  eclipses  for 
17,100  years.  About  1590  he  accompanied  the  Earl  of 
Cumberland  in  a  sea-voyage.  He  published  in  1599  a 
valuable  "Treatise  on  Navigation."  He  is  said  to  have 
discovered  the  mode  of  constructing  the  chart  which  is 
known  by  the  name  of  Mercator's  Projection.  Died  in 
161 5,  or,  as  some  say,  1618. 

Wright,  rit,  (Elizur,)  an  American  journalist  and 
philanthropist,  born  in  Litchfield  county,  Connecticut, 
in  1804.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  in  1829 
became  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  phi- 
losophy in  Western  Reserve  College,  Ohio.  He  was 
successively  editor  of  the  "Quarterly  Anti-Slavery 
Magazine,"  the  "Massachusetts  Abolitic^nist,"  and  the 
"  Chronotype."  He  has  also  translated  La  Fontaine's 
"  Fables"  into  verse. 

Wright,  rit,  afterwards  Darusmont,  dt'ru'm6N', 
(Fanny,)  a  social  reformer  or  inn<nMtor,  born  at  Dun- 
dee, Scotland,  about  1796.  She  visited  the  United  States 
about  1818,  and  wrote  "  Views  on  Society  and  Manners 
in  America."  Her  opinions  were  similar  to  those  of 
the  atheistical  French  philosophers.    She  lectured  in 


the  Northern  United  States,  and  attacked  .slavery  and 
other  social  institutions.  About  1838  she  was  married 
to  M.  Darusmont,  a  Frenchman.  Died  in  Cincinnati 
in  1853. 

Wright,  (Horatio  Gates,)  an  American  general, 
born  in  Connecticut  about  1822,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1841,  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers about  September,  i86r,  and  took  command  of 
the  department  of  Ohio  in  August,  1862.  He  com- 
manded a  division  at  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May 
5  and  6,  1864,  and  a  corps  at  Spottsylvania  Court- House, 
May  9-12,  and  Cold  Harbour,  June  3.  He  served  as 
major-general  at  the  battle  of  Opequan  Creek,  Septem- 
ber 19,  1864,  and  contributed  to  the  decisive  victory  at 
Cedar  Creek,  October  19  of  that  year.  He  received 
the  brevet  of  major-general  in  the  United  States  army 
for  his  services  at  the  capture  of  Petersburg,  April,  1865. 

Wright,  rit,  (John  Wesley,)  an  Irish  naval  officer, 
born  at  Cork  in  1769.  He  became  a  captain  in  the 
navy,  was  taken  prisoner  on  the  French  coast  in  1804, 
and  was  confined  in  the  Temple  at  Paris.  In  1805  he 
was  found  dead  in  prison,  and  it  was  suspected  that  he 
had  been  murdered. 

Wright,  (Joseph,)  a  celebrated  English  painter,  com- 
monly known  as  Wright  of  Derby,  was  born  in  that 
town  in  1734.  He  studied  portrait-painting  in  London, 
under  Hudson,  and  subsequently  visited  Rome.  His 
works  are  chiefly  landscapes  and  historical  pictures ; 
among  the  most  admired  we  may  name  "The  Lady  in 
Comus,"  "  Belshazzar's  Feast,"  "  View  of  UUswater,  in 
Westmoreland,"  "  Eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius,"  and 
"Cicero's  Villa."    Died  in  1797. 

Wright,  (Sir  Nathan,)  an  English  judge,  born  in 
1653,  was  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  from  1700  to 
1705.  In  politics  he  was  a  Tory.  "  To  his  obscurity," 
says  Lord  Campbell,  "he  owed  his  promotion."  Died 
in  1721. 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,"  vol.  fv. 

Wright,  (Sir  Robert,)  an  English  judge,  was  chief 
justice  of  the  king's  bench  in  1687.  "  He  was  ignorant 
to  a  proverb,"  says  Macaulay  :  "  yet  ignorance  was  not 
his  worst  fault.  His  vices  had  ruined  him."  ("  History 
of  England.")  He  and  two  others  were  appointed  to 
exercise  visitorial  jurisdiction  over  Magdalene  College, 
from  which  they  removed  President  Hough,  (1687.) 

Wright,  (Samuel,)  an  Englisli '  dissenting  minister, 
born  at  Retford  in  1683.  He  preached  in  London,  and 
published  a  "  Treatise  on  the  New  Birth."  Died  in  1746. 

Wright,  (Silas,)  an  American  statesman,  born  at 
Amherst,  Massachusetts,  May  24,  1795.  He  graduated 
at  Middlebury  College  in  1815,  studied  law,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1819,  and  settled  at  Canton,  Saint  Lawrence 
county,  New  York.  He  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of 
New  York  in  1823,  became  a  political  opponent  of  De 
Witt  Clinton,  and  served  in  the  Senate  until  1827.  In 
1826  he  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress,  in  which 
he  acted  with  the  Democrats.  He  was  comptroller 
of  New  York  for  about  four  years,  (1829-32,)  and  was 
elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  in  January, 
1833.  He  opposed  the  United  States  Bank,  and  sup- 
ported Mr.  Clay's  Compromise  bill  of  1833.  In  1837  he 
was  re-elected  a  Senator  for  six  years.  He  voted  for 
the  tariff  of  1842,  and  opposed  the  annexation  of  Texas 
to  the  Union,  (1844.)  He  was  nominated  as  candidate 
for  the  Vice-Presidency  by  the  National  Democratic 
Convention  in  May,  1844;  '^ut  declined  the  honour. 
He  had  been  again  elected  a  Senator  of  the  United 
States  in  February,  1843,  and  was  chosen  Governor  of 
New  York  in  November,  1844.  He  declined  to  serve 
under  President  Polk  as  secretary  of  the  treasury  in 
1845,  and  is  said  to  have  refused  the  offer  of  a  foreign 
mission.  In  1846  he  was  a  candidate  for  Governor,  but 
was  not  elected.  He  died  at  Canton  in  August,  1847, 
leaving  a  fair  reputation  for  ability  and  integrity. 

See  J.  D.  Hammond.  "Life  and  Times  of  Silas  Wright,"  184S. 

Wright,  (Thomas,)  an  eminent  English  antiquary, 
born  in  1810,  took  his  degree  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge. He  published  numerous  works  on  early  English 
history  and  literature,  among  which  we  may  name  his 
"  Biographia  Britannica  Literaria,"  (1846,)  "Essays  on 
the  Literature,  Superstitions,  and-  History  of  England  in 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6<  u,  y^  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fSU,  fSt;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


WRIGHT 


2297 


WURTZ 


the  Middle  Ages,"  (2  vols.,  1846,)  "  Narratives  of  Sorcery 
and  Magic,"  (1851,)  "The  Celt,  the  Roman,  and  the 
Saxon,"  (1852,)  "Wanderings  of  an  Antiquary,"  etc., 
(1854,)  and  "History  of  Ireland,"  (3  vols.,  1857.)  He 
also  edited  Chaucer's  "Canterbury  Tales,"  (1855,)  "Po- 
litical Songs  of  England  from  the  Reign  of  John  to 
that  of  Edward  H.,"  "The  Chester  Miracle  Plays,"  and 
other  productions  of  the  middle  ages.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Camden  Society  and  of  the  British 
Archaeological  Association,  and  has  been  elected  a  cor- 
responding member  of  the  French  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions, and  other  learned  societies  in  Europe. 

See  Allibone,  "  Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Wright,  (Thomas,)  "  the  Prison  Philanthropist,"  an 
English  reformer,  born  in  1788,  devoted  himself  to  visit- 
ing prisons  and  to  the  reformation  of  criminals. 

Wright,  (Walter  Rodwell,)  an  English  lawyer, 
who  wrote  a  description  of  the  isles  of  Greece,  entitled 
"  Horas  lonicas."    He  died  at  Malta  in  1826. 

Wriothesley,  (Henry.)    See  Southampton. 

Wriothesley,  rots'le  or  rot'es-le,  (Thomas,)  fourth 
Earl  of  Southampton,  an  English  statesman,  became  a 
member  of  the  privy  council  under  Charles  II.,  and 
subsequently  lord  high  treasurer.  He  had  superior 
abilities,  and  was  conspicuous  for  his  integrity  and  virtue 
in  a  time  of  general  corruption.    Died  in  1667. 

Wrisberg,  '^Ris'b^RG,  (Heinrich  August,)  a  Ger- 
man anatomist,  born  in  the  Harz  in  1739.  He  became 
professor  of  anatomy  at  Gottingen,  and  wrote  numerous 
professional  works.    Died  in  1808. 

Wroniecki,  vRo-ne-^ts'kee,  (Antony,)  a  Polish 
officer  and  military  writer,  born  at  Posen  in  1790.  He 
served  against  the  Russians  in  1830,  and  rose  to  be 
general  of  brigade.    Died  in  1838. 

Wrottesley,  rots'le,  (John,)  Lord,  an  English 
astronomer,  born  in  1798.  He  received  in  1839  a  gold 
medal  from  the  Astronomical  Society  for  his  catalogue 
of  stars.  He  entered  the  House  of  Lords  at  the  death 
of  his  father,  in  1841,  and  was  elected  president  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1855.  About  1842  he  erected  an  obser- 
vatory near  his  residence,  Wrottesley  Hall.  Died  in  1867. 

Wuk.    See  Karajitch. 

Wulfen,  \^d6Kten,  (Franz  Xaver,)  a  German  natu- 
ralist and  mathematician,  born  at  Belgrade  in  1728.  He 
wrote  on  botany,  zoology,  etc.  Died  at  Klagenfurth  in 
1805. 

.  Wulffer,  <vo61f  fer,  (Johann,)  a  German  Orientalist, 
born  at  Nuremberg  in  1651.  He  was  employed  as  min- 
ister of  the  gospel  in  his  native  city.    Died  in  1724. 

Wulfhelm,  <^d61f  hglm,  an  Anglo-Saxon  prelate,  be- 
came Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  923  a.d.  Died  in  942. 

Wulfstan.    See  Wulstan. 

WuUenweber,  vvdoKlen-wk^ber,  written  also  Wul- 
lenwever,  (Georg  or  Jurgen,)  a  German  statesman 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  native  of  LubecU,  where 
he  was  elected  burgomaster  about  1534.  He  was  con- 
demned to  death  on  a  charge  of  Anabaptism  and  politi- 
cal offences,  and  executed  in  1537. 

Wiillerstorf  or  Wuellerstorf,  von,  fon  <vul'lers- 
lorf,  (Bern HARD,)  Baron,  an  Austrian  admiral  and 
minister  of  state,  born  at  Trieste  in  1816.  He  conducted 
an  exploring  expedition  sent  out  by  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment in  1857,  and  returned  in  1859.  An  account  of  this 
expedition  appeared  in  3  vols.,  in  1861.  About  1865  he 
became  minister  of  commerce.  He  published  several 
scientific  works. 

Wulstan,  an  English  monk,  born  about  1008,  be- 
came in  1062  Bishop  of  Worcester.  He  was  patronized 
by  William  the  Conqueror  and  his  successor  William 
Rufus.    Died  in  1095. 

See  tlie  "  Life  of  Wulstan,"  in  Wharton's  "  Anglia  Sacra." 

Wulstan,  written  also  Wolstan  and  Wulfstan,  an 
English  monk  of  the  tenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a 
Latin  poem  on  the  miracles  of  Saint  Swithin,  and  a 
"  Life  of  Bishop  Ethelwold,"  (in  Latin.) 

Wunder,  <vd6r/der,  (Eduard,)  a  German  critic  and 
scholar,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1800.  He  became 
direct(jr  of  the  College  of  Grimma  in  1842.  His  chief 
publication  is  a  good  edition  of  Sophocles,  (7  vols.,  1831.) 

Wunderlich,  -^oon'der-liK',  (Johann,)  a  German 
jurist,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1708.    He  became  professor 


of  ph.ilosophy  in  that  city  in  1 761,  and  published  several 
legal  works.    Died  in  1778. 

"Wunderlich,  (Karl  August,)  a  German  physician, 
born,  at  Sulz,  on  the  Neckar,  in  1815,  became  professor 
of  clinics  at  Leipsic  in  1850.  He  published  a  "  Manual 
of  Pathology  and  Therapeutics,"  (1846,)  and  other  works. 

Wundt,  woont,  (Daniel  Ludwig,)  a  German  his- 
torian, born  at  Kreutznach  in  1741,  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Heidelberg.  He  wrote  on  the  history  of  the 
Palatinate.    Died  in  1805. 

His  brother,  Friedrich  Peter,  born  in  1748,  pub- 
lished several  works  on  the  history  and  topography  of 
the  Palatinate.    Died  in  1808. 

Wunsch,  '^oonsh,  (Christian  Ernst,)  a  German 
scientific  writer,  born  at  Hohenstein  about  1730.  He 
died  after  1800. 

Wuusch,  von,  fon  '(voonsh,  (Johann  Jakotj,)  a 
Prussian  general,  born  in  1717.  He  served  with  distinc- 
tion in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  gained  a  victory  over 
General  Brentano  in  October,  1 759.    Died  in  1788. 

Wuotan.    See  Odin. 

Wiirdtwein  or  Wuerdtwein,  MRt'^In,  (Stephan 
Alexander,)  a  German  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Amerbach 
in  1 7 19,  became  Bishop  of  Worms.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  treatises  on  diplomacy  and  ecclesiastical  law, 
(in  Latin.)    Died  in  1796. 

Wurm,  ^doRm,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  German 
divine  and  astronomer,  born  at  Niirtingen  in  1760, 
published  a  "History  of  the  New  Planet  Uranus,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1833. 

His  son  Julius  Friedrich  wrote  several  treatises  on 
theology,  mathematics,  and  philology.    Died  in  1839. 

Another  son.  Christian  Friedrich,  born  in  1803, 
published  a  number  of  commercial  and  political  works. 
He  became  professor  in  a  college  at  Hamburg  in  1833. 
Died  in  1859. 

Wurm'ser,  von,  [Ger.  pron.  fon  ^ooRm'zer,]  (Dago- 
rert  Sigismond,)  Count,  an  eminent  Austrian  general, 
born  in  Alsace  in  1724.  He  entered  the  Austrian  service 
in  1750,  and  fought  against  the  Prussians  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war,  (1755-62.)  Having  obtained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general  in  1778,  he  defeated  the  Prussians 
at  Kubelschwerd  in  1779.  In  1793  he  commanded  an 
army  which  operated  against  the  French,  and  drove 
them  across  the  frontier  into  Alsace  ;  but  he  was  defeated 
in  December,  at  Frischweiler.  He  gained  a  victory  on 
the  banks  of  the  Neckar  in  October,  1794,  and  occupied 
Mannheim.  In  the  summer  of  1796  he  was  sent  as 
commander-in-chief  to  Italy,  where  the  Austrian  general 
Beaulieu  had  been  defeated  by  Bonaparte.  Advancing 
towards  Mantua,  Wurmser  was  attacked  and  defeated 
by  Bonaparte,  at  Lonato,  on  the  3d  of  August.  The 
Corsican  general  also  gained  victories  over  Wurmser 
at  Castiglione  on  the  5th  of  August,  and  at  Roveredo. 
Wurmser  retreated  to  Mantua,  which  he  defended  with 
vigour,  but  he  was  forced  to  surrender  in  February,  1797. 
He  died  at  Vienna  in  June  the  same  year. 

See  Schiller,  "Gallerie  interessanter  Personen." 

Wursteisen,  wooii'sti'zen,  [Lat.  WuRSTig'ius  or 
URSTig'ius,]  a  mathematician,  born  at  Bale  in  1544, 
was  also  a  historian.  He  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Bale,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  history 
called  "Chronicon  Majus,"  (1580.)    Died  in  1588. 

Wursticius.    See  Wursteisen. 

Wiirteiiiberg,  wur'tem-berg,  [Ger.  pron.  ^uR'tem- 
bgRG^l  (Ilberhard,)  Duke  of,  a  son  of  Louis  II.,  was 
born  in  1445,  ^'^^  began  to  reign  in  1459.  He  was 
a  just  and  beneficent  ruler,  patronized  learning,  and 
founded  the  University  of  Tubingen.    Died  in  1496. 

Wiirtemberg,  von,  fon  wiir'tetn-berg,  (or  xX'uR'tem- 
b^RG'',)  (Christian  Friedrich  Alexander,)  Count, 
son  of  Duke  William  of  Wiirtemberg,  was  born  at 
Copenhagen  in  1801.  He  published  a  collection  of  lyric 
poems,  (1837,)  and  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Musen- 
almanach"  of  Chamisso  and  Schwab.    Died  in  1844. 

Wiirtemberg,  von,  (Ulric,)  an  able  commander, 
born  in  161 7,  was  a  younger  son  of  Frederick  I.  of 
Wiirtemberg.  He  commanded  the  Imperial  army  which 
opposed  Turenne  in  Hesse  in  1648.    Died  in  167 1. 

Wurtz,  ^doRts,  (Felix,)  a  skilful  Swiss  surgeon, 
born  at  Zurich,  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Y.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (Jl^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WURTZ 


2298 


WrCLIFFE 


Wurtz,  von,  fon  voorts  or  -^doRts,  (Paul,)  Baron, 
a  Danish  or  German  general,  born  in  Husuni.  He 
served  under  Gustavus  Adolphus  until  his  death,  (1632,) 
and  afterwards  had  a  high  command  in  the  army  of  the 
United  Provinces.    Died  in  1676. 

Wurtzburg   or   Wurzburg.    See   Conrad  of 

WURTZBURG. 

Wurzbach,  wooRts'bSK,  (Constant,)  a  German 
poet  and  savant,  born  at  Laybach  in  1818.  Among 
his  writings  is  a  humorous  work  entitled  "  Parallels," 
("  Parallelen,"  1849.)  ^ 

Wurzelbau,  von,  fon  ^ooRt'sel-bow',  (Johann 
PiiiLiPP,)  a  German  astronomer,  born  at  Nuremberg  in 
1651.  He  invented  or  improved  several  astronomical 
instruments,  and  made  a  series  of  observations  in  his 
observatory  at  Spitzenberg.  He  corresponded  with 
Leibnitz  and  other  astronomers.    Died  in  1725. 

Wutgenau,  von,  fon  ^oot'geh-novv',  (Gottfried 
Ernst,)  Baron,  an  Austrian  general,  born  in  Silesia  in 
1673  ;  died  in  1736. 

Wy'att,  (James,)  an  English  architect,  of  high  repu- 
tation, was  born  in  Staffordshire  about  1745.  He 
studied  several  years  at  Rome  and  Venice,  and  after 
his  return  built  the  Pantheon,  in  Oxford  Street,  London, 
(1772.)  He  was  appointed  surveyor-general  to  the  board 
of  works  in  1796.  Among  his  other  structures  we  may 
name  Fonthill  Abbey,  the  Military  Academy  at  Wool- 
wich, and  the  Library  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford.  Died 
in  1813. 

Wyatt,  (Matthew  Cotes,)  an  English  sculptor, 
born  in  1778.  He  was  patronized  by  George  HL,  and 
adorned  Windsor  Castle  with  his  works,  among  which 
was  an  equestrian  statue  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington. 
Died  in  London  in  January,  1862. 

Wyatt,  (Matthew  Digby,)  an  English  architect 
and  writer  on  art,  born  in  Wilts  in  1820.  He  studied  at 
the  Royal  Academy,  and  subsequently  visited  Germany, 
France,  and  Italy.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"The  Industrial  Arts  of  the  Nineteenth  Century," 
(1852.) 

Wyatt,  (Richard  J.,)  an  English  sculptor,  born  in 
London  in  1795.  He  studied  in-  Paris,  and  subsequently 
under  Canova  at  Rome,  where  he  resided  till  his  death, 
in  1850.  His  works  are  principally  classical  subjects, 
and  are  remarkable  for  their  elegance  and  exquisite 
finish.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  his  "  Penelope," 
"  Nymph  entering  the  Bath,"  "  Shepherd  Boy,"  "  Nymph 
Eucharis  and  Cupid,"  and  "Bacchus." 

Wyatt,  (Sir  Thomas,)  the  Elder,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish statesman  and  poet,  born  in  Kent  in  1503.  He 
studied  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1520,  He  was  a  favourite 
at  the  court  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  made  him  a  gentleman 
of  the  bed-chamber  and  conferred  on  him  the  honour 
of  knighthood,  (1536.)  He  was  afterwards  employed  on 
important  missions  to  Spain  and  the  Netherlands.  He 
died  in  1542,  with  the  reputation  of  an  able  diplomatist 
and  one  of  the  most  accomplished  gentlemen  of  his  time. 
His  poems  are  chiefly  amatory  and  satirical  ;  he  also 
published  letters  and  other  prose  works  of  superior 
merit. 

See  Johnson,  "Lives  of  the  English  Poets;"  Campbell,  "Spe- 
cimens of  the  British  Poets." 

Wyatt,  (Sir  Thomas,)  the  Younger,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1520  or  1521.  He  inherited  his 
father's  estate  in  1542,  and  served  with  distinction  in 
the  war  against  the  French  between  1544  and  1550. 
Wyatt  and  the  Duke  of  Suffolk  became  in  1554  the 
leaders  of  an  insurrection,  the  design  of  which  was  to 
dethrone  Queen  Mary  or  to  prevent  her  marriage  with 
Phih'p  II.  Wyatt  gained  some  successes  over  the 
royalist  forces,  and  entered  Southwark.  He  was  cap- 
tured in  London  and  executed  in  April,  1554. 

See  Hume,  "  History  of  England J.  Proctor,  "  History  of 
Wyatt's  Rebellion,"  1555. 

Wy'at-ville,  (Sir  Jeffry,)  an  English  architect, 
originally  named  Wyatt,  was  a  nephew  of  James 
Wyatt,  noticed  above.  He  was  born  in  Staffordshire  in 
1766,  and  was  instructed  by  his  uncle  in  architecture. 
In  1824  he  was  employed  by  George  IV.  to  remodel 
Windsor  Castle,  in  which  work  he  was  occupied  for  the 


greater  part  of  his  life.  He  died  in  1840.  His  designs 
for  Windsor  Castle  were  published  in  1841,  in  2  folio  vols. 

Wybioki,  vi-b^ts'kee  or  ve-bit'skee,  (Joseph,)  a 
Polish  patriot  and  political  writer,  born  in  1747;  died 
in  1822. 

Wych'er-1^  or  Wych'er-ley,  (William,)  a  pop- 
ular English  dramatist,  was  born  in  Shropshire  about 
1640.  He  was  sent  at  an  early  age  to  France,  where  he 
spent  considerable  time  at  the  court  of  the  Duke  of 
Montausier,  Governor  of  Angouleme.  After  his  return 
he  studied  for  a  time  at  Oxford,  and  again  made  pro- 
fession of  the  Protestant  faith,  which  he  had  abjured  in 
France.  He  subsequently  acquired  great  favour  with 
Charles  II.,  and  lived  on  intimate  terms  with  the  Duke 
of  Buckingham  and  other  profligate  wits,  of  the  time. 
He  produced  in  1669  his  comedy  entitled  "Love  in  a 
Wood,  or  Saint  James's  Park,"  which  was  followed  by 
"The  Gentleman  Dancing-Master,"  (1671,)  "The  Plain 
Dealer,"  (1674,)  and  "The  Country  Wife,"  (1675.)  He 
married  the  Countess  of  Drogheda  about  1680.  Died 
in  1715. 

See  Major  Pack,  "Memoirs  of  William  Wycherly;"  Mac- 
AULAY,  Essay  on  the  "Comic  Dramatists  of  the  Restoration;" 
Leigh  Hunt,  "The  Dramatic  Works  of  Wycherley,  Coiigreve,  etc., 
with  Biographical  Notices,"  1810 ;  Baker,  "  Biographia  Dramatica ;" 
"Lives  of  British  Dramatists,"  by  Campbell,  Leigh  Hunt,  etc.; 
Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Wyck,  wik,  (John,)  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Utrecht 
about  1645,  worked  in  London.  He  painted  hunting- 
scenes,  landscapes,  and  horses.  Died  in  London  in  1702. 

Wyck,  (Thomas,)  a  skilful  Dutch  painter  and  en- 
graver, the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Haarlem 
in  1616.  He  painted  sea-ports,  public  places,  interiors, 
etc.    His  etchings  were  highly  prized.    Died  in  1686. 

WycTiffe,  WicTif,  or  WickTiff,  written  also  Wic- 
lef,  de,  (John,)  an  eminent  English  Reformer,  born  in 
Yorkshire,  near  Richmond,  about  1324.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford,  where  he  was  distinguished  for  his  proficiency 
in  divinity  and  scholastic  philosophy.  According  to 
several  biographers,  he  began  to  write  against  the  men- 
dicant monks  in  1360.  He  became  master  or  warder 
of  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  in  1361,  and  rector  of  Fyling- 
ham,  in  Lincolnshire,  in  the  same  year.  In  1365  he 
(or,  according  to  some  writers,  another  of  the  same 
natne)  was  appointed  master  of  Canterbury  Hall,  from 
which  he  was  ejected  in  1366.  He  exchanged  the  rec- 
tory of  Fylingham  for  that  of  Ludgershall  in  1368.  It  is 
commonly  stated  that  he  took  his  degree  of  D.D.  in 
1372,  and  then  began  to  read  lectures  on  divinity  at 
Oxford  with  great  applause.  This  date  is  questioned 
by'some  writers.  About  this  time  he  began  to  censure 
openly  the  doctrines  and  corruptions  of  the  Romish 
Church  and  to  advocate  religious  liberty. 

Wycliffe  was  a  member  of  a  legation  sent  by  Edward 
III.  to  Pope  Gregory  XI.  in  1374,  to  treat  with  him 
about  the  practice  of  papal  provision  or  reservation  of 
benefices,  and  other  abuses.  Soon  after  his  return  to 
England  he  denounced  the  pope  as  "Antichrist,  the 
proud  worldly  priest  of  Rome."  In  1375  the  king  gave 
him  the  prebend  of  Aust  in  the  church  of  Westbury. 
He  was  prosecuted  for  heresy  before  the  Bishop  of 
London  in  1377,  but  was  protected  by  his  friend,  John  of 
Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  whose  favour  he  had  gained, 
probably  by  defending  the  royal  authority  against  papal 
encroachments.  In  May,  1377,  Pope  Gregory  addressed 
a  bull  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  directing 
him  to  summon  Wycliffe  before  him.  The  Reformer 
appeared  before  a  synod  assembled  at  Lambeth  in  1378, 
but,  before  the  case  was  decided,  the  Londoners,  who 
sympathized  with  him,  broke  into  the  court  and  fright- 
ened the  bishops,  who  were  also  checked  by  a  message 
from  the  queen,  or  the  mother  of  Richard  II.  The 
schism  caused  by  the  election  of  two  popes  in  1378 
tended  to  weaken  the  papal  domination,  and  promoted 
the  safety  of  Wycliffe,  who  wrote  a  tract  "  On  the  Pope 
of  Rome,  or  the  Papal  Schism,"  ("  De  Papa  Romano," 
or  "Schisma  Papae.") 

He  attacked  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  in  a 
series  of  lectures  read  at  Oxford  in  1381.  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  summoned  a  council  or  synod, 
which  met  in  1382,  declared  his  opinions  to  be  heretical, 
and  ordered  vigorous  measures  to  be  employed  for  their 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  v,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  ftt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


WTDEVILLE 


2299 


WYTHE 


suppression.  Before  this  period  the  principles  of  Wyc- 
liffe  had  been  adopted  by  numerous  disciples,  some  of 
whonn  propagated  them  by  preaching.  His  disciples 
were  called  Lollards.  He  was  summoned  to  appear  at 
a  convocation  of  clergy  at  Oxford,  and,  according  to 
some  authorities,  made  a  confession  or  concession  to 
his  adversaries,  and  admitted  the  doctrine  of  the  real 
presence.  It  appears  that  the  only  penalty  inflicted  on 
him  was  expulsion  from  the  University  of  Oxford.  In 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  produced  an  English  version 
of  the  Bible  from  the  Latin  Vulgate.  This  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  first  complete  English  translation  that 
was  ever  made.  It  became  an  engine  of  wonderful 
power  against  Romanism.  To  translate  the  Bible  was 
regarded  as  an  act  of  heresy;  and  his  version  continued 
to  be  a  proscribed  book  until  the  Reformation  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Wycliffe,  who  may  be  considered  the 
father  of  English  prose,  wrote  a  number  of  religious 
works,  some  of  which  remain  in  manuscript. 

"  He  clearly  anticipated,"  says  David  Irving,  "  the 
most  distinguishing  doctrines  of  the  Protestants,  and 
his  opinions  on  certain  points  present  an  obvious  co- 
incidence with  those  of  Calvin,  Of  the  simplicity  of 
primitive  times  he  was  too  devoted  an  admirer  to 
secure  the  approbation  of  modern  churchmen."  ("En-, 
cyclopaedia  Britannica.")  He  opposed  episcopacy,  or  at 
least  did  not  consider  the  episcopal  order  essential  to 
the  legitimate  constitution  of  the  Church.  He  died  at 
Lutterworth  in  December,  1384. 

See  Rev.  John  Lewis,  "Life  of  John  Wycliffe,"  1719;  Dr. 
Robert  Vaughan,  "  Life  of  John  Wycliffe,"  1828,  (revised  edition, 
1S5.1;)  Webb  Le  Bas,  "Life  of  John  Wycliffe,"  1832;  Hodgson, 
"Reformers  and  Martyrs,"  Philadelphia,  1867;  William  Gilpin, 
"  Lives  of  J.  Wiclef  and  of  the  Most  Eminent  of  his  Disciples,"  etc., 
176-5;  TiscHER,  "J.  Wiclefs  Leben,"  1800;  F".  Vincrns,  "Wiclef: 
These  historique,"  1848;  Maimbourg,  "Histoiredu  Wiclefianisme," 
1683  ;  Wordsworth,  "  Biographia  Ecclesiastica  ;"  "  Four  Ecclesi- 
astical Biographies,"  by  J.  H.  Gurney  ;  "London  Quarterly  Re- 
view" for  July,  1858;  Allibone,  "  Dictionaiy  of  Authors." 

Wydeville,  (Anthony.)    See  Rivers,  Earl  of. 
Wyerman.    See  Weyerman. 

Wykeham,  de,  de  wik'am,  (William,)  an  eminent 
English  ecclesiastic  and  statesman,  born  in  Hampshire 
in  1324.  His  talents  early  gained  for  him  the  notice 
and  patronage  of  Edward  III.,  who  appointed  him  in 
1356  surveyor  of  the  works  at  Windsor.  He  afterwards 
became  successively  keeper  of  the  privy  seal,  secretary 
to  the  king,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  and  lord  high  chan- 
cellor of  England,  (1367.)  Among  his  numerous  and 
munificent  works  were  the  erection  of  the  New  College, 
Oxford,  finished  in  1386,  and  the  college  at  Winchester. 
He  also  rebuilt  a  great  part  of  the  cathedral  of  Win- 
chester.   Died  in  1404. 

See  Bishop  Lowth,  "  Life  of  William  de  Wykeham,"  1758  ;  Lord 
Campbell,  "  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors." 

WyTie,  (Andrew,)  D.D.,  an  American  divine  of  the 
Episcopal  Church,  born  in  Washington  county,  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  1789.  He  became  president  of  the  University 
of  Indiana  in  1829.  He  published  an  English  Grammar, 
and  other  works.    Died  in  1851. 

Wy'man,  (Jeffries,)  an  American  anatomist,  born 
at  Chelmsford,  Massachusetts,  in  1814.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1847  Hersey  professor  of  anatomy  at  Har- 
vard, and  professor  of  comparative  anatomy  in  the 
Lawrence  Scientific  School.  He  has  published  "Twelve 
Lectures  on  Comparative  Physiology,"  and  been  a  con- 
tributor to  the  "  American  Journal  of  Science"  and  other 
periodicals. 

Wy^nants  or  Wy'nantz,  (Jan,)  a  celebrated  Dutch 
landscape-painter,  born  at  Haarlem  in  1600.  His  pic- 
tures are  generally  of  small  size  and  great  excellence. 
He  numbered  among  his  pupils  Wouvverman  and 
Adriaan  van  der  Velde,  who  frequently  painted,  it  is 
said,  the  figures  in  his  landscapes.    Died  about  1678. 

Wyndham,  wind'am,  (Sir  Charles,)  Earl  of  Egre- 
mont,  an  English  politician,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir 
William  Wyndham.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  the 
Duke  of  Somerset.  He  died  in  1763,  and  left  his  title 
to  his  son  George.    (See  Egremont.) 

Wyndham,  (George  O'Brien.)  See  Egremont, 
Ear  I,  OF. 

Wyndham,  (Sir  William,)  an  able  English  states- 
man, born  in  1687,  belonged  to  an  ancient  family  of 


Somersetshire.  He  married  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Somerset,  joined  the  Tory  party,  and  became  a  powerful 
debater  in  Parliament.  He  was  appointed  secretary  at 
war  in  17 10  or  171 1,  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in 
1713.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Lord  Bolingbroke, 
to  whose  interest  he  adhered  after  the  quarrel  between 
that  leader  and  the  Earl  of  Oxford.  On  the  death  of 
Queen  Anne  he  was  removed  from  office,  (1714.)  He 
was  committed  to  the  Tower  in  1715,  on  susj^icion  of 
complicity  in  a  Jacobite  conspiracy;  but  he  was  soon 
liberated,  without  a  trial.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  opposition  to  the  administration  of  Sir  Robert  Wal- 
pole,  and  had  great  influence  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
In  1734  he  made  a  celebrated  speech  for  the  repeal  of 
the  Septennial  act.  "  His  eloquence,"  says  Speaker 
Onslow,  "improved  by  use,  was  strong,  full,  and  with- 
out affectation,  arising  chiefly  from  his  clearness,  pro- 
priety, and  argumentation  ;  in  the  method  of  which  last, 
by  a  sort  of  induction  almost  peculiar  to  himself,  he 
had  a  force  beyond  any  man  I  ever  heard  in  public 
debates."    Died  in  1740. 

Wynn,  (Charles  Watkins  William,)  M.P.,  an 
English  politician,  born  in  1775.  He  was  secretary 
at  war  from  November,  1830,  to  April,  1831.  Died  in 
1850. 

Wynne,  win,  (Edward,)  an  English  lawyer,  born 
in  1734.  He  published  several  legal  works,  which  are 
commended.    Died  in  1784. 

Wynne,  (John  Huddlestone,)  a  British  writer, 
born  in  Wales  in  1743,  published  "Fables  for  the 
Female  Sex,"  "  A  General  History  of  Ireland,"  and 
other  works.    Died  in  1788. 

Wyntoun.    See  Wintoun. 

Wy'pn,  (William,)  an  English  engraver  of  coins 
and  medals,  born  at  Binningham  in  1795.  He  became 
second  engraver  at  the  Mint  in  London,  and  in  1838  a 
Royal  Academician,  being  the  first  artist  in  his  depart- 
inent  who  had  won  that  distinction.  His  works  com- 
prise a  great  variety  of  subjects,  scientific,  artistic,  and 
war  medals,  and  are  ranked  among  the  most  admirable 
productions  of  the  kind.    Died  in  1851. 

Wyrsch,  \^eeRsh,  (Johann  Melchior,)  a  Swiss 
painter  of  history  and  portraits,  born  in  Unterwalden  in 
1732.  He  worked  for  many  years  at  Besangon.  Died 
in  1798. 

See  Y.  Wey,  "Wyrsch  et  les  Peintres  bisontins,"  i86i. 

Wyse,  (Sir  Thomas,)  an  English  writer  and  diplo- 
matist, born  about  1800.  In  1821  he  married  Letitia 
Bonaparte,  a  niece  of  Napoleon  I.  He  was  ininister 
at  Athens  from- 1849  to  1862.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  "Walks  in  Rome,"  and  an  "Excursion  in  the 
Peloponnesus  in  1858,"  (2  vols.,  1865,)  which  is  praised 
by  the  "Edinburgh  Review"  in  an  article  entitled  "  Sir 
Thomas  Wyse's  Peloponnesus,"  (October,  1865.)  Died 
in  1862. 

Wyshart.    See  Wishart. 

Wy.socki,  vi-sots'kee,  (Joseph,)  a  Polish  patriot  and 
soldier,  born  in  Podolia  in  1809.  He  fought  in  the 
revolution  of  1830,  and  in  1848  entered  the  Hungarian 
service.  After  the  defeat  at  Temesvar  he  took  refuge  in 
France.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  "  The  Art 
of  War." 

Wysocki,  (Peter,)  a  Polish  patriot,  and  prominent 
leader  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  was  born  at  Warsaw  in 
1799.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Russians  in  1831, 
aiuPexiled  to  Siberia,  where  he  died  in  1837. 

Wy.9s,  -'^iss,  (Johann  Rudolf,)  a  Swiss  writer,  born 
at  Berne  in  1781,  became  professor  of  philosophy  in  his 
native  town.  He  published,  among  other  works,  "  Idyls, 
Traditions,  Legends,  and  Tales  of  Switzerland,"  (1815.) 
Died  in  1830. 

Wysshart.    See  Wishart. 

Wythe,  wiM,  (George,)  an  American  jurist  and 
patriot,  was  born  in  Elizabeth  City  county,  Virginia,  in 
1726.  He  was  an  ardent  promoter  of  the  independence 
of  the  colonies,  was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress 
in  1775,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence  in 
July,  1776.  In  this  year  Wythe,  Jeff"erson,  and  Pendleton 
were  appointed  a  committee  to  revise  the  laws  of  Vir- 
ginia. He  became  in  1777  a  judge  of  the  high  court 
of  chancery,  and  served  as  chancellor  of  Virginia  for 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Jl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


WTTHER 


2300 


XENOCRATES 


twenty  years.  He  emancipated  his  slaves.  Died  at 
Richmond  in  1806. 

See  Sanderson,  *'  Biography  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence." 

Wyther.    See  Withers. 

Wyttenbach,^it'ten-baK^  [Lat.  Wyttenba'chius,] 
(Daniel,)  an  eminent  Swiss  critic  and  scholar,  born  at 
Berne  in  1746.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  subse- 
quently at  Leyden  under  Professor  Ruhnken,  and  be- 
came in  1 771  professor  of  Greek  and  philosophy  in  the 
Athenaeum  at  Amsterdam.  He  was  appointed  in  1779 
professor  of  eloquence  at  Leyden.    He  was  one  of  the 


greatest  scholars  of  his  time,  and  his  compositions, 
which  are  all  written  in  Latin,  are  esteemed  standard 
works.  Among  these  his  "Life  of  Ruhnken"  (1799)  is 
particularly  admired  for  the  elegance  of  its  style.  He 
was  editor  for  a  time  of  the  "Bibliotheca  Critica,"  and 
published  editions  of  the  "Opera  Moralia"  of  Plutarch, 
the  "Phaedon"  of  Plato,  (1810,)  and  other  classics.  Died 
in  1820.  His  wife,  Johanna  Gallien,  was  distinguished 
for  her  learning,  and  was  made  doctor  of  philosophy  by 
the  University  of  Marburg. 

See  W.  L.  Mahne,  "  Vita  D.  Wyttenbachii,"  1823. 

Wyttenbachius.    See  Wyttenbach. 


X. 


Xaintrailles,  de.    See  Saintrailles,  de. 

Xanthippe.    See  Xantippe  and  Xanthippus. 

Xanthippus,  zan-thip'pus,  [Gr.  'EuvdLTTnog Fr.  Xan- 
thippe, gzdN'tep',]  an  Athenian  general,  was  the  father 
of  Pericles.  He  succeeded  Themistocles  as  commander 
of  the  fleet  in  479  B.C.,  and  acted  a  prominent  part  in 
the  naval  victory  over  the  Persians  at  Mycale,  (479.)  He 
captured  Sestos  in  478. 

Xanthippus,  a  Spartan  general,  an  ally  of  the  Car- 
thaginians in  the  first  Punic  war,  defeated  the  Romans 
under  Kegulus,  whom  he  took  prisoner,  (B.C.  255.) 

Xanthus,  zan'thus,  [^avdo^,]  a  Greek  lyric  poet,  who 
flourished  probably  about  650  B.C.  No  fragments  of  his 
poetry  are  extant. 

Xanthus,  a  Greek  historian  and  native  of  Lydia, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  contemporary  with  Herod- 
otus. He  was  the  author  of  a  description  of  Lydia, 
entitled  "  Lydiaca,"  which  is  highly  commended  by 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus.  There  are  only  fragments 
of  it  extant. 

Xantippe,  zan-tip'pe,  or,  more  correctly,  Xan- 
thip'pe,  [Gr.  BavdiTTTTTj ;  Fr.  Xantippe  or  Xanthippe, 
gzSN^tep',]  the  wife  of  Socrates,  was  notorious  for  her 
ill  temper.  Being  asked  by  Alcibiades  how  he  could 
live  with  such  a  woman,  he  is  said  to  have  replied,  "She 
exercises  my  patience,  and  enables  me  to  bear  with  all 
the  injustice  I  experience  from  others."  It  is,  however, 
probable  that  Xantippe's  faults  have  been  much  exag- 
gerated. Socrates  evidently  entertained  a  sincere  regard 
for  her,  and  gave  her  credit  for  many  domestic  virtues. 
(See  Socrates.) 

Xaupi,  gz5'pe',  (Joseph,)  a  French  antiquary  and 
priest,  born  at  Perpignan  in  1688;  died  in  1778. 

Xaverius.    See  Xavier. 

Xav'i-er,  [Ger.  Xaver,  ksl-vaiR',]  (Francis,)  second 
son  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  (who  was  afterwards 
Augustus  HL,  King  of  Poland,)  was  born  in  1730.  He 
was  appointed  in  1763  administrator  of  Saxony  during 
the  minority  of  his  nephew.    Died  in  1806. 

Xavier,  zav'e-er,  [Sp.  pron.  H^-ve-aiR';  Fr.  pron, 
gzS've-a';  Lat.  XaVe'rius;  Ger.  Xaver,  ks^-vaiR';  It. 
SAVpiRR),  sS-va're-o,]  (Francis,)  Saint,  a  celebrated 
Jesuit  missionary,  called  "the  Apostle  of  the  Indies," 
was  born  in  the  kingdom  of  Navarre,  near  the  foot  of 
the  Pyrenees,  in  April,  1506.  He  was  educated  in  Paris, 
and  there  formed  a  friendship  with  his  fellow-student 
Ignatius  Loyola.  He  was  one  of  those  who  associated 
themselves  with  Loyola  in  the  formation  of  the  order 
of  Jesuits,  about  1534.  In  1538  he  went  to  Rome,  and 
began  to  preach  in  the  church  of  San  Lorenzo  in  Da- 
maso.  Under  the  auspices  of  John,  King  of  Portugal, 
Xavier  visited  the  East  Indies  as  a  missionary  in  1541, 
arriving  at  Goa  in  May,  1542.  Ringing  a  bell  through 
the  streets  of  Goa,  he  summoned  parents  to  send  tlieir 
children  and  slaves  to  him  in  order  to  be  instructed  in 
the  catechism.  He  endeavoured  to  reform  the  vicious 
professors  of  religion  as  well  as  to  convert  the  heathen, 
whose  temples  he  caused  to  be  destroyed  and  replaced 
by  churches.  Having  laboured  among  the  ignorant 
population  employed  in  the  pearl-fishery  on  the  coast, 
he  afterwards  passed  to  Travancore,  where,  it  is  said,  he 
baptized  ten  thousand  idolaters  in  nine  months.  In  1545 
he  visited  Malacca,  and  converted  numerous  idolaters, 
Jews,  and  Mohammedans.    With  several  other  mission- 


aries, whom  Loyola  sent  to  aid  him,  he  pursued  his 
course  to  the  Banda  Isles  in  1546.  He  baptized  many 
in  Amboyna,  founded  a  mission  at  Ternate,  and  returned 
to  Malacca  in  1547.  Having  converted  a  Japanese  exile, 
named  Auger,  he  resolved  to  extend  his  labours  to 
Japan.  He  took  Auger  with  him,  and  in  1549  reached 
Canguxima,  where  he  studied  the  Japanese  language, 
and  was  kindly  received  by  the  King  of  Saxuma.  He 
went  thence  to  Firanda,  in  which  he  was  permitted  to 
preach,  and  made  many  converts.  Encouraged  by  this 
success,  he  proceeded  to  Meaco,  the  capital  of  the  em- 
pire, where  he  arrived  in  1551.  He  obtained  from  the 
king  permission  to  preach,  and  converted  about  three 
thousand  there.  His  success  was  hindered  by  his  im- 
perfect knowledge  of  the  language.  He  ardently  desired 
to  carry  the  gospel  to  China,  and  was  not  deterred  by 
the  severe  penalty  under  which  foreigners  were  forbid- 
den to  enter  that  country.  Before  he  could  reach  this 
new  scene  of  labour,  he  died,  on  the  isle  of  Sancian, 
near  the  Chinese  coast,  in  December,  1552.  He  was 
canonized  in.  1622. 

See  TuRSELLiNUs,  "Vita  F.  Xaverii,"  1594;  Bartoli,  "  Vita  F. 
Xaverii,"  1666;  Sandoval,  "  Vida  de  S.  Francisco  Xavier,"  1619; 
I.  ToscANo,  "Vita  di  F.  Saverio,"  1658;  H.  Venn,  "Missionary 
Life  of  Francis  Xavier  ;"  Bouhouks,  "Vie  de  S.  Frangois  Xavier," 
16^2,  (Dryden's  English  translation  of  the  same,  1688  ;)  Raybois, 
"Vie  de  S.  F.  Xavier,"  183S;  Reithmeier,  "Leben  des  heiligen 
Franz  Xaver,"  1846. 

Xavier,  (Jerome,  or  Geronimo,)  a  Jesuit  missionary, 
born  in  Navarre,  was  a  relative  of  the  preceding.  He 
went  to  Goa  in  1571,  after  which  he  preached  at  the  court 
of  the  Mogul  emperor,  where  he  is  said  to  have  made 
many  converts.  He  wrote  several  religious  treatises,  in 
Latin  and  in  Persian.    Died  at  Goa  in  161 7. 

Xenarchus,  ze-nar'kus,  ['Esi'apxo^,]  an  Athenian 
comic  poet  of  the  middle  comedy,  flourished  about  350- 
330  B.C.    Fragments  of  his  wc^rks  are  extant. 

Xenocles,  zei/o-kliz,  [Bei^oKAT/g,]  an  Athenian  tragic 
poet,  was  a  son  of  Carcinus  the  Elder,  and  flourished 
about  420  B.C.  He  gained  a  victory  over  Euripides  in 
415  B.C.  He  had  a  son  Carcinus,  and  a  grandson 
Xenocles,  who  were  likewise  tragic  poets. 

Xenocles,  an  Athenian  architect,  lived  in  the  age 
of  Pericles. 

Xenocrate.    See  Xenocrates. 

Xenocrates,  ze-nok'ra-t^z,  [Gr.  'ZevoKpurrig ;  Fr.  Xe- 
nocrate, gzk'no'kRtt',]  an  eminent  Greek  philosopher, 
born  at  Chalcedon  in  396  B.C.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Plato 
and  a  fellow-student  of  Aristotle.  He  accompanied 
Plato  to  Syracuse,  and  after  the  death  of  his  master  was 
sent  on  embassies  to  Philip  of  Macedon.  About  339 
B.C.  he  became  the  head  of  the  Platonic  Academy  at 
Athens,  over  which  he  presided  twenty-five  years.  He 
had  a  high  reputation  for  probity,  modesty,  and  moral 
purity.  He  wrote  numerous  works  on  philosophy,  which 
are  not  extant,  taught  that  the  soul  is  a  self-moving 
number,  and  regarded  unity  and  duality  as  two  deities, 
the  former  of  which  rules  in  heaven  and  the  latter  in  the 
mutable  world.  In  his  philosophy  the  doctrines  of  Plato 
are  modified  by  the  Pythagorean  doctrines  of  number. 
His  eloquence  converted  the  dissolute  Polemon  into 
a  temperate  man  and  an  eminent  philosopher.  Died  in 
314  B.C. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius;  Van  de  Wijnpersse,  "Diatribe  de 
Xenocrate  Chalcedonio,"  1822. 


a,  e,  1,  6,  %  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,    j,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


XENOCRJTES 


2301 


XERXES 


Xenocrates,  a  Greek  statuary  of  the  school  of  Ly- 
sippiis,  flourished  about  260  B.C. 

Xenocrates,  a  Greek  physician,  who  resided  at 
Aphrodisias,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  37  a.d. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  "On  the  Nutriment  de- 
rived from  Animals,"  part  of  which  is  extant. 

Xenomedes,  zen-o-mee'd^z,  [Asvon'ridrj^,]  of  Chios, 
a  Greek  historian,  lived  before  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
(which  began  431  B.C.) 

Xenon,  zee'non,  or  Xe'no,  [Hevcjv,]  a  Greek  painter 
of  Sicyon,  was  a  pupil  of  Neocles. 

Xehophane.    See  Xenophanes. 

Xenophanes,  ze-nofa-nez,  [Gr.  Zevo^avrig ;  Fr.  X6- 
NOPHANE,  gzi''no' ftn',]  a  celebrated  Greek  philosopher 
and  poet,  born  at  Colophon,  in  Ionia,  about  600  B.C. 
Diogenes  states  that  he  flourished  in  the  60th  Olympiad, 
(about  538  B.C.)  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Eleatic 
school,  and  probably  lived  for  some  time  at  Elea,  in 
Italy.  He  wrote  a  poem  on  the  foundation  of  Elea,  and 
a  number  of  elegiac  poems  of  much  merit.  "The  work 
which  contained  his  philosophic  system,"  says  Victor 
Cousin,  "and  which  has  immortalized  his  name,  was  a 
poem  on  Nature,  in  hexameter  verse."  Several  frag- 
ments of  this  poem  have  been  preserved.  He  was  con- 
sidered by  the  ancients  as  the  originator  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  oneness  of  the  universe.  He  censured  Hesiod 
and  Homer  because  they  attributed  to  the  gods  human 
vices  and  defects,  and  is  said  to  have  maintained  the 
doctrine  of  the  unity  of  the  Deity.  According  to  Aris- 
totle, Xenophanes,  directing  his  view  over  the  universe, 
declared,  "  God  is  the  One."  Saint  Clement  also  affirms 
that  he  taught  pure  monotheism.  Victor  Cousin  de- 
fends him  from  the  charge  of  pantheism  which  some 
writers  had  brought  against  him.  ("Biographie  Uni- 
verselle.")  Xenophanes  also  insisted  on  the  antagonism 
between  sensuous  appearances  and  the  pure  truth  or 
reality.  He  was  about  one  hundred  years  old  when  he 
died. 

See  RiTTRR,  "History  of  Philosophy;"  G.  H.  Lewes,  "Bio- 
graphical History  of  Philosopliy  ;"  Akistotle,  "  De  Xenophane, 
Georgia  et  Melisso  ;"  Simon  Karsthn,  "  Xeiiophanis  Carminuin 
Reliqiiia;  de  Vita  ejus,"  etc.,  1830;  Diogenes  Laertius,  "Xeno- 
phanes;" FOlleborn,  "Beitrage  ziir  Geschichte  der  Philosophic. " 

Xenophile.    See  Xenophilus. 

Xenophilus,  ze-nofe-lus,  [Gr.  "^evo^i^jn^ ;  Fr.  X^;no- 
PHILE,  gzi'no'f^K,]  a  Greek  sculptor,  who,  aided  by 
Straton,  made  a  statue  of  ^Flsculapius  at  Argos. 

Xenophon,  zin'o-fon,  [Gr.  "Eevo^Cov;  Fr.  X^:nopiion, 
gzk'no'fAN';  It.  Zenofonte,  dz&-no-fon'ti,]  a  celebrated 
Athenian  historian  and  general,  was  a  son  of  Gryllus, 
and  a  native  of  the  demus  Ercheia.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  born  about  445  B.C.  According  to  Diogenes 
Laertius,  from  whose  writings  we  derive  nearly  all  that 
is  known  of  his  life,  Xenophon  fell  from  his  horse  at  the 
battle  of  Delium,  in  424  B.C.,  and  would  probably  have 
been  killed,  if  he  had  not  been  rescued  by  Socrates. 
He  became  a  pupil  of  Socrates  at  an  early  age,  and, 
according  to  Photius,  was  also  a  pupil  of  Isocrates. 
Little  is  known  of  the  events  of  his  life  which  occurred 
between  the  battle  of  Delium  and  the  year  401  B.C. 
Diogenes  Laertius  states  that  "Xenophon  edited  or 
made  known  the  History  of  Thucydides,  although  it 
was  in  his  power  to  pass  it  off  as  his  own  work  ;"  but 
the  truth  of  this  statement  is  doubted  by  some  critics. 
In  401  B.C.  he  went  to  Sardis,  and  entered  the  service 
of  the  Persian  prince  Cyrus  the  Youiiger,  whom  he  ac- 
companied in  an  expedition  against  Artaxerxes  Mnemon, 
King  of  Persia.  Xenophon  and  the  other  Greeks  who 
engaged  in  this  expedition  were  deceived  as  to  its  real 
object.  Cyrus  was  defeated  and  killed  at  Cunaxa,  near 
Babylon,  and  the  Greek  general  Clearchus  was  treach- 
erously slain.  Xenophon  was  one  of  the  generals  who 
conducted  the  Greek  army  of  10,000  in  its  memorable 
retreat  from  the  Tigris  to  the  Black  Sea.  He  displayed 
great  firmness,  courage,  and  military  skill  in  this  opera- 
tion. This  expedition  and  retreat  form  the  subject  of 
his  most  celebrated  work,  the  "  Anabasis,  or  History 
of  the  Expedition  of  Cyrus  the  Younger,"  which  is  a 
very  interesting  narrative  and  is  written  in  a  natural, 
agreeable  style. 

According  to  some  authorities,  he  was  banished  from 
Athens  about  399  B.C.,  perhaps  because  he  was  a  friend 


of  Socrates.  Diogenes  Laertius  says  he  was  banished 
for  Laconism.  He  took  part  in  an  expedition  which 
the  Spartan  king  Agesilaus  conducted  against  the  Per- 
sians in  396,  and  he  fought  in  the  Spartan  army  against 
the  Athenians  at  the  battle  of  Coroneia,  (394  B.C.)  Soon 
after  this  date  he  settled,  with  his  wife  Philesia  and  his 
children,  at  Scillus,  near  Olympia,  where  he  resided 
many  years  and  employed  his  time  in  hunting  and 
writing.  During  his  residence  at  Scillus  he  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  Hunting,"  his  "Anabasis,"  and  perhaps 
other  works.  The  decree  by  which  he  was  banished 
from  Athens  was  repealed  a  few  years  before  his  death, 
which  occurred  about  355  B.C.  He  had  two  sons,  named 
Gryllus  and  Diodorus.  It  is  supposed  that  all  of  his 
writings  have  come  down  to  us.  Under  the  title  of 
"  Hellenica,"  he  wrote  a  history  of  Greece  from  411  to 
362  B.C.  His  "  Cyropaedia"  [KvpoTxaLdeia)  is  commonly 
regarded  as  a  political  romance  founded  on  the  exploits 
of  Cyrus  the  Great,  and  has  no  authority  as  a  history. 
Among  his  other  works  are  a  "  Life  of  Agesilaus,"  "The 
Symposium,  or  Banquet,"  in  which  he  explains  the 
ideas  of  Socrates  in  relation  to  love  and  friendship, 
and  delineates  the  character  of  Socrates,  a  Dialogue 
between  Socrates  and  Critobulus,  entitled  OlKovojiLKog, 
which  treats  of  domestic  and  moral  economy,  and  is 
highly  esteemed,  and  a  philosophic  work  called  "The 
Memorabilia  of  Socrates,"  ('ATro/j.v7)fioveviiaTa  HoKpurovg,) 
which  purports  to  be  an  exposition  of  the  doctrines  and 
character  of  his  illustrious  master.  It  is  highly  prized 
as  a  memorial  of  the  practical  part  of  the  Socratic  phi- 
losophy. "Xenophon,"  says  Macaulay,  "is  commonly 
placed,  but,  we  think,  without  much  reason,  in  the  same 
rank  with  Herodotus  and  Thucydides.  He  resembles 
them,  indeed,  in  the  purity  and  sweetness  of  his  style  ; 
but  in  spirit  he  rather  resembles  that  later  school  of 
historians,  whose  works  seem  to  be  fables  composed 
for  a  moral,  and  who  in  their  eagerness  to  give  us  warn- 
ings and  example  forget  to  give  us  men  and  women." 
(Essay  on  "History,"  1828.)  Xenophon 's  "Memora- 
bilia" has  been  translated  into  English  by  Sarah  Fielding, 
his  "Symposium"  by  J.  Wellwood,  his  "Cyropaedia" 
by  M.  A.  Cowper,  and  his  "  CEconomicus"  by  Robert 
Bradley. 

See  FoRTiA  d'Urban,  "Vie  de  Xenophon,"  1795;  Creuzer, 
"  De  Xenophonte  historico,"  1799;  Hacken,  "Xenophon,"  1805; 
Kruger,  "  De  Xenophontis  Vita,"  1823;  Nobbe,  "Vita  Xeno- 
phontis,"  1825;  Fabricius,  "  Bibliotheca  Grjeca ;"  Hoffmann, 
"  Lexicon  Bibliographicuin  ;"  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece  ;"  Thirl- 
wai.i,,  •'  History  of  Greece;"  "  Noiivelle  Biographie  G^nerale." 

Xenophon,  an  Athenian  sculptor,  who  lived  about 
300  B.C.  In  conjunction  with  Cephisodotus,  he  made  a 
statue  of  Jupiter. 

Xenophon,  a  Greek  physician,  a  native  of  Cos,  lived 
at  Rome,  and  gained  the  favour  of  the  emperor  Claudius. 
At  the  instigation  of  Agrippina,  he  poisoned  Claudius, 
by  introducing  a  poisoned  feather  into  his  mouth  under 
pretence  of  making  him  vomit. 

Xenophon  of  Ephesus,  a  Greek  writer  of  unknown 
period,  was  the  author  of  a  romance  called  "  Ephesiaca, 
or  the  Loves  of  Anthia  and  Abrocomas,"  the  style  of 
which  is  simple  and  elegant.  He  probably  lived  in 
the  second  or  third  century  after  Christ.  His  romance 
has  been  translated  into  German  by  Burger,  and  into 
English  by  Rooke. 

Xerces.    See  Xerxes. 

Xeres,  de,  da  Ha'rgs,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  histo- 
rian, was  secretary  to  Pizarro,  whom  he  accompanied  to 
Peru  about  1530.  He  published  in  1547  a  history  of  the 
expedition,  entitled  "  A  True  Account  of  the  Conquest 
of  Peru,"  etc. 

Xerxes,  zerk'sez,  [Gr.  Sep^w;  Fr.  Xerces,  gz^R'sIs',] 
I.,  sometimes  called  Xerxes  the  Great,  a  famous  king 
of  Persia,  and  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  his  time, 
was  a  son  of  Darius  Hy^taspis.  His  mother  was  Atossa, 
a  daughter  of  Cyrus  the  Great.  He  succeeded  Darius 
in  485  B.C.,  and  began  to  raise  an  immense  army  for  the 
invasion  of  Greece.  Several  years  were  expended  in 
cutting  a  canal  through  the  isthmus  of  Mount  Athos, 
and  in  building  a  bridge  of  boats  or  ships  across  the 
Hellespont,  over  which  Xerxes  and  his  army  passed  in 
the  spring  of  480  B.C.  His  army  was  composed  of  many 
nations  tributary  to  the  Persian  empire,  and,  according 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (Ji^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23  ) 


XERXES 


2302 


XIMENES 


to  Herodotus,  amounted  to  2,317,610  men,  besides  slaves 
and  non-combatants.  Niebuhr  and  Grote  consider 
this  number  incredible  and  impossible.  The  number 
of  slaves  and  other  camp-followers  was  equal  to  that 
of  the  soldiers.  He  is  said  to  have  shed  tears  when 
he  reflected  that  in  a  century,  or  less,  none  of  these 
myriads  of  men  would  survive.  Having  reviewed  his 
army  at  Doriscus,  he  marched  through  Thrace  and 
Thessaiy.  The  Greeks  attempted  to  defend  the  pass 
of  Thermopylae,  but  the  Persians  turned  that  position, 
(see  Leonidas,)  and  captured  Athens,  from  which  the 
whole  population  had  been  removed.  The  Athenians, 
who  were  directed  by  Themistocles,  relied  chiefly  on 
their  naval  power  for  defence  against  the  invaders.  An 
indecisive  naval  action  was  fought  by  the  two  fleets  at 
Artemisium,  where  the  Persian  fleet  was  much  damaged 
by  a  storm.  Xerxes  was  still  able  after  this  loss  to 
muster  a  fleet  of  twelve  hundred  vessels,  which  in  the 
autumn  of  480  B.C.  was  defeated  at  the  decisive  battle 
of  Salamis.  (See  Themistocles.)  Xerxes,  placed  on  a 
lofty  position  on  the  adjacent  shore,  witnessed  this  dis- 
astrous defeat  of  his  vainglorious  project.  He  retreated 
hastily  by  land  to  the  Hellespont,  and  crossed  over  to 
Asia,  leaving  an  army  under  Mardonius,  who  was  de- 
feated at  Plataea  in  479  B.C.  Xerxes  was  murdered  in 
465  by  Artabanus,  an  officer  of  his  court.  He  appears 
to  have  been  by  nature  not  without  amiable  and  noble 
qualities;  but  his  heart  was  corrupted  by  the  posses- 
sion of  unlimited  power,  and  by  the  abject  adulation 
commonly  bestowed  on  Eastern  sovereigns.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Artaxerxes  Longimanus. 

See  Herodotus,  "  History  of  Greece;"  Grote,  "History  of 
Greece;"  Rollin,  "Ancient  "History;"  Rosenberg,  "  De  Cam- 
byse,  Dario  Hystaspe  et  Xerxe,"  i6go;  Hussel,  "  Xerxes  des  Gros- 
sen  Leben,  Thaten  und  Ende."  i8i6. 

Xerxes  II.,  King  of  Persia,  was  a  son  of  Artaxerxes 
I.,  (Longimanus,)  whom  he  succeeded  in  425  B.C.  After 
a  reign  of  a  few  months,  he  was  assassinated  by  Sog- 
dianus,  his  half-brother. 

Ximenes  or  Jimenes,  He-ma'n§s,  (Francisco,)  a 
Spanish  friar,  who  was  employed  as  a  missionary  in 
Mexico.  He  translated  into  >Spanish  a  Latin  work  on 
the  plants  of  Mexico,  by  Hernandez.    Died  about  1620. 

Ximenes  or  Jimenes,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish 
painter,  born  at  Saragossa  in  1598.  He  studied  in 
Rome,  adopted  an  Italian  style,  and  returned  to  Sara- 
gossa.   His  works  are  highly  praised.    Died  in  1666. 

Ximenes,  He-ma'ngs,  (Leonardo,)  a  Sicilian  astron- 
omer and  geometer,  born  at  Trapani  in  1716,  became 
a  Jesuit.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  geography  at 
Florence,  and  by  his  skill  in  hydraulics  rendered  im- 
portant services  in  averting  the  damages  caused  by 
overflowing  rivers.  He  wrote  a  number  of  able  works 
on  astronomy  and  hydraulics,  among  which  is  "Collec- 
tion of  Hydraulic  Pamphlets,"  etc.,  ("  Raccolta  di  Peri- 
zie  ed  Opuscoli  idraulici,"2  vols.,  1781-86.)  He  founded 
an  observatory  at  Florence,  where  he  died  in  1786. 

Ximenes,  she-ma'n^s,  (Peter,)  a  theologian,  born 
of  Portuguese  parents  at  Middelburg,  in  Holland,  in 
15 14.  He  wrote,  in  Latin,  a  work  called  "  Demonstration 
of  the  Catholic  Truth."    Died  in  1595. 

Ximenes,  (Rodrigo,)  a  Spanish  prelate  and  his- 
torian, became  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  cardinal. 
He  rendered  important  military  services  in  the  war 
against  the  Moors,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  Spain." 
Died  in  1247. 

Ximenes,  de,  deh  ze'ma^ngs',  (Augustin  Louis,) 
Marquis,  a  French  poet,  of  Spanish  extraction,  born  in 
Paris  in  1726,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Voltaire.  He 
was  the  author  of  *'  Don  Carlos,"  and  other  tragedies,  a 
poem  entitled  "  Caesar  in  the  Senate,"  and  seve'ral  criti- 
cal essays,  which  were  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  181 5. 

Ximenes  (or  Jimenes)  de  Carmona,  He-ma'ngs 
di  kiR-mo'ni,  (Francisco,)  a  Spanish  medical  writer, 
born  at  Cordova  near  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Ximenes,  [English  pron.  ze-mee'n^z,]  or,  more  fully, 
Jimenes  (or  Ximenes)  de  Cisneros,  He-ma'ngs  di 
//^^s-na'r6s,  (Francisco,)  called  Cardinal  Ximenes,  a 
celebrated  Spanish  statesman  and  patron  of  literature, 
was  born  at  Torrelaguna,  in  New  Castile,  in  1436.  He 
was  educated  at  Salamanca  and  at  Rome,  where  he 


studied  theology,  philosophy,  and  Oriental  languages. 
He  became  grand  vicar  of  Cardinal  Mendoza  at  Siguenza. 
About  1482  he  entered  the  Franciscan  order  at  Toledo, 
where  he  acquired  distinction  as  a  preacher.  He  was 
appointed  confessor  to  Queen  Isabella  in  1492,  and 
Archbishop  of  Toledo  in  1495.  His  modesty  prompted 
him  to  decline  this  honour  ;  but  he  submitted  to  the 
positive  command  of  the  pope.  He  was  distinguished 
by  his  simplicity  of  life,  his  charity  to  the  poor,  and  his 
aversion  to  luxury  and  pomp.  About  1498  he  founded 
the  University  of  Alcala  de  Henares.  He  exerted  his 
influence  to  reform  the  Franciscan  order  of  monks. 
Under  his  auspices  a  number  of  eminent  scholars  began 
in  1502  to  prepare  a  Polyglot  Bible,  called  the  Complu- 
tensian,  which  became  the  model  of  all  the  subsequent 
versions  of  the  Bible  in  divers  languages,  and  was  the 
greatest  literary  enterprise  of  that  age.  On  the  death 
of  Queen  Isabella  (1504)  he  acted  as  mediator  between 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic  and  the  archduke  Philip,  each 
of  whom  claimed  the  regency  of  Castile.  After  the 
death  of  Philip  (1506)  Ximenes  was  appointed  regent 
or  guardian  of  Queen  Joanna,  who  was  disqualified  by 
mental  imbecility.  He  authorized  the  citizens  of  the 
towns  to  form  themselves  into  a  militia,  and  bythis 
bold  and  politic  measure  promoted  the  power  of  the 
crown,  while  he  reduced  the  importance  of  the  unruly 
nobles. 

In  1507  he  received  the  title  of  cardinal.  He  fitted 
out  at  his  own  expense  a  fleet  and  an  army,  which  he 
conducted  in  person  to  Africa  in  1509,  and  captured  the 
city  of  Oran  by  storm.  "  His  talents,  energy,  and  re- 
puted sanctity  of  character,"  says  Prescott,  "  combined 
with  the  authority  of  his  station,  gave  him  unbounded 
influence  with  all  classes  of  the  Castilians."  During  his 
expedition  against  Oran,  King  Ferdinand  wrote  a  letter 
to  Count  Navarro  and  requested  him  to  find  some 
pretence  for  detaining  Ximenes  in  Africa.  The  car- 
dinal was  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  this  letter,  and 
naturally  put  the  worst  construction  on  the  same.  On 
one  occasion  the  king,  who  wished  the  archbishopric  of 
Toledo  for  his  natural  son  Alfonso,  importuned  Ximenes 
to  resign  his  see  and  take  another  in  exchange ;  but  he 
replied,  with  indignation,  "that  he  would  never  consent 
to  barter  away  the  dignities  of  the  Church."  In  1517 
his  "  Polyglot  Bible"  was  completed.  According  to 
Prescott,  this  was  "a  noble  monument  of  piety,  learn- 
ing, and  munificence,  which  entitles  its  author  to  the 
gratitude  of  the  whole  Christian  world."  ("  History  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella.") 

By  the  testament  of  Ferdinand,  who  died  in  January, 
15 16,  Cardinal  Ximenes  was  appointed  sole  regent  of 
Castile  during  the  absence  of  the  young  king  Charles. 
His  right  to  this  office  was  disputed  by  Adrian,  Dean 
of  Louvain,  who  produced  powers  of  similar  purport 
from  Charles.  Ximenes  and  Adrian  administered  the 
government  jointly  for  some  time,  but  the  former  soon 
assumed  sole  power.  In  September,  1517,  Charles  V. 
arrived  in  Spain,  and  wrote  a  letter  to  Ximenes,  which 
"is  unmatched,  even  in  court  annals,  for  cool  and  base 
ingratitude."  (Prescott.)  It  announced  his  dismissal 
from  office.    He  died  on  the  8th  of  November,  15 17. 

"  Such,"  says  Prescott,  "  was  the  end  of  this  remark- 
able man, — the  most  remarkable,  in  many  respects,  of 
his  time.  His  character  was  of  that  stern  and  lofty 
cast  which  seems  to  rise  above  the  ordinary  wants  and 
weaknesses  of  humanity.  His  genius,  of  the  severest 
order,  like  Dante's  or  Michael  Angelo's  in  the  regions 
of  fancy,  impresses  us  with  ideas  of  power  that  excite 
admiration  akin  to  terror.  .  .  .  His  regency  was  con-, 
ducted  on  the  principles  of  a  military  despotism.  His 
whole  policy,  indeed,  was  to  exalt  the  royal  prerogative 
at  the  expense  of  the  inferior  orders  of  the  state.  .  .  . 
He  had  a  full  measure  of  the  religious  bigotry  which 
belonged  to  the  age."  ("History  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,"  vol.  iii.) 

See  RoBLEs,  "  Vida  del  Cardinal  Ximenes,"  1604:  Fl^chier, 
"Histoire  du  Cardinal  Ximenes,"  1693:  Castro,  "De  Vita  F. 
Ximenii,"  1581;  Mendoza,  "Vida  de  Ximenes,"  1653;  Marsol- 
i.iER,  "Histoire  du  Ministere  de  Ximenes,"  1694;  "  Don  F.  Xime- 
nes," Leipsic,  1796;  Barret,  "Life  of  Cardinal  Ximenes,"  1813; 
Hefei.e,  "  Der  Cardinal  Ximenes,"  1844  ;  Havemann,  "  F.  Xime- 
nes," 1848;  Robertson,  "History  of  Charles  V. ;"  Prescott, 
"  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,"  vol.  iii.  part  ii. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  lons^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  flt;  m§t;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


XIMENES 


2303 


TJO 


Ximenes  de  Quesada,  (di  ki-sl'Di,)  (Gonzalo,)  a 
Spanish  explorer  and  captain,  born  at  Granada  about 
1495.  He  commanded  a  party  which  about  1532  began 
to  explore  the  region  since  called  New  Granada,  and 
founded  in  1538  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota.    Died  in  1546. 

Xiraeno  or  Jimeno,  He-ma'no,  (Vincente,)  a 
Spanish  biographer,  born  at  Valencia  about  1700.  He 
published  a  literary  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Valencia, 
"Escritores  del  Regno  de  Valencia,"  (2  vols.,  1747-49.) 

Xiphilin.    See  Xiphilinus. 

Xiphilinus,  zif-e-li'nus,  [Gr.  ^KpiXlvog ;  Fr.  Xiphilin, 
gze'fe'liN',]  (Joannes,)  became  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople in  1066.  He  was  the  author  of  several  religious 
and  ecclesiastical  works.    Died  in  1075. 

Xiphilinus,  (Joannes,)  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
wrote  an  epitome  of  the  "  History"  of  Dion  Cassius, 
which  was  first  published  in  155 1. 

Xuares  or  Juares,  Hoo-i'rSs,  (Gaspar,)  a  Jesuit  and 
botanist,  born  in  Paraguay  in  1731  ;  died  at  Rome  in  1804. 

Xuares  or  Juares,  Hoo-i'ris,  written  also  Suares, 
(Roderick,)  a  Spanish  jurist,  born  at  Salamanca,  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 


Xuthus,  zu'thus,  [Gr.  ^ovdog,]  a  mythical  king  of 
Peloponnesus,  was  called  a  son  of  Helen,  a  brother  of 
Dorus  and  /Eolus,  and  the  father  of  Achaeus  and  Ion. 

Xylander,  kse-lSn'der,  (Gultelmus,  or  William,) 
a  German  scholar,  originally  named  Holzmann,  {ie. 
"  wood-man,"  of  which  Xylander  is  the  Greek  ecjuivalent,) 
was  born  at  Augsburg  in  1532.  He  studied  in  his  native 
town  and  at  Tiibingen,  and  in  1558  became  professor 
of  Greek  at  Heidelberg.  He  made  numerous  transla- 
tions from  the  Greek  and  Latin,  among  which  we  may 
name  the  works  of  Strabo  and  Plutarch,  the  "  History" 
of  Dion  Cassius,  and  the  mathematical  works  of  Dio- 
phantus.  He  also  edited  some  of  the  works  of  Marcus 
Antoninus,  Phlegon  Trallianus,  and  Antigonus  Carys- 
tius.  His  learning  was  profound,  and  his  translations 
are  highly  esteemed.    Died  in  1576. 

Xylander,  von,  fon  kse-lSn'der,  (Joseph  Karl 
August,)  a  German  officer  and  military  writer,  born  at 
Munich  in  1794,  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  entitled 
"  Strategy  and  its  Application,"  (1818,)  a  "Manual  of 
Tactics,"  and  rfemerous  other  works,  on  various  sub- 
jects.   Died  in  1854. 


Y. 


Yahya,*  (or  Yahia,)  y^'ne-S,  a  Moorish  captain, 
called  by  the  Spaniards  Ben-Gama  or  Ben-Gamia.  He 
was  commander  of  the  armies  of  the  Almoravides  in 
Spain,  whose  power  was  opposed  by  the  Almohades. 
He  was  killed  in  1148. 

Yahya-  (or  Yahia-)  al-Barmekee,  (or  -Barmaki,) 
yS'He-a  II  bar'ma-kee',  (Aboo-Alee  or  Abu-Ali, 
i'boo  i'lee,)  a  Persian  minister  of  state,  belonged  to  the 
family  of  Barmecides,  (or  Barmekides.)  He  became 
vizier  of  Haroun-al-Raschid  in  786  A.D.  He  was  a 
man  of  superior  talents,  and  had  great  influence  for 
many  years.  He  was  disgraced  about  803,  and  died 
in  807  A.D. 

Yakoobt-al-Mansoor-Billah,  Yakoub-al-Man- 
sour-Billah,  or  Yakub-  (or  Jakub-)  al-Man.sur- 
Billah,  yd'kool/  II  mln'soor'  biKlah,  a  king  of  Morocco, 
born  about  1210,  was  an  able  and  powerful  monarch. 
He  began  to  reign  in  1258.  In  1275  he  invaded  Spain, 
and  waged  war  against  the  Christians  with  some  suc- 
cess.   Died  in  1286. 

Yakoob-  (Yakoub-  or  Yakub-)  Ibn-Lais  or 
-Laith.t  yl'koob'  ib'n  lis,  surnamed  Al-Soffar  or  Al- 
SuFFAR,  was  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Soffarides 
in  Persia.  By  conquest  he  made  himself  master  of  Seis- 
tan  about  862  A.D.,  and  of  Farsistan  a  few  years  later. 
Died  about  878  A.D. 

Yai'den,  (Thomas,)  an  English  poet  and  divine, 
born  at  Exeter  in  167 1.  He  studied  at  Magdalene 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  acquired  the  friendship  of 
Addison  and  Sacheverell.  He  succeeded  Atterbury  as 
lecturer  at  Bridewell  Hospital  in  1698,  and  became 
professor  or  reader  of  moral  philosophy  at  Oxford  about 
1702.  He  was  also  rector  of  Chalton  and  Cleanville,  in 
Hertfordshire.  Pie  wrote,  besides  other  poems,  "  The 
Temple  of  Fame,"  (1700,)  "^sop  at  Court,"  (1702,)  a 
"  Hymn  to  Light,"  and  a  "  Hymn  to  Darkness,"  which 
was  praised  by  Dr.  Johnson.    Died  in  1736. 

See  Johnson,  "  Lives  of  the  Poets." 

Yale,  (Elihu,)  born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in 
1648,  was  the  principal  patron  of  the  college  called  by 
his  name.  He  became  in  1687  governor  of  Fort  vSaint 
George  at  Madras.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety.   Died  in  1721. 

Yam'a  or  Yam'a-na,  [modern  Hindoo  pron.  yum'a 
or  yun/a-na,]  called  also  Yam'an  or  Yam'en,  in  the 
Hindoo  mythology,  the  god  of  Patala,  (or  Naraka,§)  or 

*  It  may  be  remarked  that  Va/tjya.  is  the  Arabic  form  of  John. 
There  have  been  many  princes,  leaders,  and  writers  of  this  name, 
both  in  Asia  and  Africa,  but  none  of  any  great  note. 

t  Vakood  (in  German,  Jakub)  is  the  Arabic  of  Jacob  and  James. 

X  See  "  Introduction,"  p.  viii.  section  i.,  4. 

§  The  words  Naraka  and  Patala  appear  to  be  sometimes  used  as 
nearly  synonymous;  but  Patala  is  more  correctly  applied  to  the 
whole  extent  of  the  lower  world,  while  Naraka  properly  denotes  a 
place  of  torment. 


the  lower  world,  and  the  god  of  death  and  the  judge  of 
departed  spirits.  His  residence  or  capital  is  called  Yama- 
pura,  or  "  city  of  Yama."  After  having  inquired  into  and 
pronounced  upon  the  merits  of  those  who  are  brought 
iaefore  his  judgment-seat,  he  sends  the  good  to  Swarga, 
(Indra's  paradise,)  and  the  wicked  to  appropriate  places 
of  punishment,  corresponding  to  the  Tartarus  of  classic 
mythology.  Yama  is  known  by  a  great  multitude  of 
names,  as  Dharma-Raja,  ("King  of  Justice,")  Mrityu, 
{i.e.  "Death,")  etc.  He  is  said  to  have  a  servant, 
named  Karmala,  (or  Carmala,)  who  brings  before  him 
the  righteous  on  celestial  self-moving  cars.  He  has  two 
faces, — the  one  full  of  mildness  and  benevolence,  seen 
only  by  the  virtuous  ;  the  other  is  hideous,  exhibiting 
great  and  terrible  teeth  :  this  only  is  visible  to  the 
wicked.  Yama  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  same 
as  Bali,  (or  Baly,)  to  whom,  as  we  are  informed  in  the 
legend  of  Vamana,  (which  see,)  Vishnu  conceded  the 
kingdom  of  Patala  ;  but  Southey  makes  them  two  dis- 
tinct personages,||  Yamen  being  the  king,  and  "  Baly" 
(Bali)  the  judge,  of  "  Padalon,"  (a  corruption  of  Patala.) 

See  "The  Curse  of  Kehama,"  vol.  ii.,  v.,  also  ix.-xii,  ;  Moor, 
"  Hindu  Pantheon.'! 

Yamana.    See  Yama. 
Yamen.    See  Yama. 
Yanaka.    See  Nanek. 

Yan'cey,  (William  L.,)  an  American  politician, 
born  at  Columbia,  South  Carolina,  about  181 5.  He 
studied  law,  and  settled  in  Alabama  about  1837.  He 
represented  a  district  of  that  State  in  Congress  from 
1844  to  1847  inclusive.  He  became  a  leader  of  the  most 
extreme  partisans  of  State  sovereignty  and  disunion, 
(called  fire-eaters,)  and  was  the  reputed  author  of  the 
phrase  "  fire  the  Southern  heart."  In  the  Convention 
of  Alabama  he  reported  the  ordinance  of  secession, 
which  was  passed  in  January,  1 861.  He  was  sent  early 
in  1 861  to  Europe  as  a  commissioner  to  obtain  the 
recognition  of  the  new  confederacy.  Having  returned 
in  February,  1862,  he  entered  the  Congress  at  Richmond 
as  Senator  for  Alabama.    Died  in  August,  1863. 

Yang-Tee  or  Yang-Ti,  ying'tee'.  Emperor  of  China, 
began  to  reign  in  605  A.D.  He  caused  several  great 
canals  to  be  made  for  navigation.    Died  in  617.  • 

Yao,  yS'o,  or  Yaou,  yi'oo,  almost  yow,  an  ancient 
Chinese  sage  and  ruler,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about 
two  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era.  According 
to  Pauthier,  he  ascended  the  imperial  throne  2357  B.C., 
and  reigned  seventy-two  years,  after  which  Shun  was 
associated  with  him  in  the  government.    His  reign  is 


II  "  He  [Yamen]  sat  upon  a  marble  sepulchre, 

Massive  and  huge,  where  at  the  monarch's  feet 
The  righteous  Baly  had  his  judgment-seat." 

Curse  of  Kehama,  vol.  ii.,  xi. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Yi,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (21^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


TAROSLAF 


2304 


TEN-HOEI 


considered  by  some  to  mark  the  commencement  of  au- 
thentic history  among  the  Chinese.  The  most  ancient 
historical  books  of  China,  if  we  may  trust  the  statements 
of  the  Chinese  critics,  date  from  the  time  of  Yao  ;  in 
other  words,  the  events  of  his  reign  were  chronicled  by 
contemporary  historians,  and  not  written  afterwards 
from  tradition,  as  is  the  case  with  the  early  history  of 
nearly  all  other  nations.  Be  this  as  it  may,  there  is 
reason  to  believe  the  early  history  of  China  to  be  more 
trustworthy  than  that  of  most  other  countries.  Yao  is 
represented  as  having  been  one  of  the  most  enlightened, 
virtuous,  and  prosperous  of  rulers.  He  introduced 
into  the  state  many  important  regulations.  He  gave 
especial  encouragement  to  the  study  of  astronomy  and  to 
works  of  public  improvement.  "  Great  indeed,"  says 
Confucius,  "was  Yaou  as  a  sovereign.  How  majestic 
was  he  !  It  is  only  Heaven  that  is  grand,  and  only  Yaou 
corresponded  to  it.  How  vast  was  his  virtue  !  The 
people  could  find  no  name  for  it.  How  majestic  was  he 
in  the  works  which  he  accomplished  !  how  glorious  in 
the  admirable  regulations  which  he  ins^uted  !"  (See  the 
"Confucian  Analects,"  book  viii.  chap,  xix.)  Yao  was 
succeeded  by  Shun,  who  was  scarcely,  if  at  all,  inferior 
to  him  in  wisdom  and  virtue. 
See  Pauthier,  "Chine,"  pp.  31-37- 

Yaroslaf  or  Yaroslav,  Jaroslaw  or  Jaroslav, 

yS-'ro-slif,  Grand  Duke  of  Russia,  a  son  of  Vladimir  I., 
was  born  towards  the  close  of  the  tenth  century.  In 
1016  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  his  brother, 
Sviatopok,  and  was  crowned  sovereign  of  all  the  Russias. 
His  reign  is  distinguished  by  the  wise  laws  which  he 
enacted  for  the  benefit  of  his  subjects,  the  liberal  encou- 
ragement which  he  gave  to  learning,  and  the  introduction 
of  painting  from  Greece.  His  sister  Mary  was  married 
to  Casimir,  King  of  Poland,  and  one  of  his  daughters 
became  the  queen  of  Henry  I.  of  France.    Died  in  1054. 

Yaroslaf  (or  Jaroslaw)  IL  became  Grand  Duke  of 
Russia  in  1238.  During  his  reign  the  Mongol  Tartars 
overran  his  dominions  and  reduced  him  to  vassalage. 
Died  in  1246. 

Yar'ran-ton,  (Andrew,)  an  English  soldier  and 
mechanician,  born  in  Worcestershire  in  1616,  served  for 
a  time  in  the  Parliamentary  army.  He  devoted  himself 
to  the  improvement  of  inland  navigation  and  agricul- 
ture, and  wrote  a  valuable  work,  entitled  "  England's 
Improvement  by  Sea  and  Land,"  (1677.) 

See  Samuel  Smiles,  "  Industrial  Biography." 

Yar'rell,  (William,)  an  eminent  English  naturalist, 
born  at  Westminster  in  1784.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Linnasan  and  Zoological  Societies,  artd  contributed  a 
number  of  valuable  treatises  to  the  Journal  and  Trans- 
actions of  those  institutions.  He  published  in  1836  his 
"  History  of  British  Fishes,"  (2  vols.  8vo,)  which  was 
followed  in  1843  by  his  "  History  of  British  Birds,"  (2 
vols.)  They  are  beautifully  illustrated  with  wood-cuts, 
and  are  ranked  among  the  most  admirable  works  of 
their  kind.  Yarrell  was  the  first  to  prove  that  the  white 
bait  is  a  distinct  species  of  fish,  and  not  the  young  of  other 
species,  as  was  previously  supposed.    Died  in  1856. 

See  the  "Quarterly  Review"  for  March,  1837. 

Yart,  ytR  or  e-|.R,  (Antoine,)  a  French  litterateur, 
born  at  Rouen  in  17 10,  became  a  priest  and  curate  of 
Saussay,  in  Vexin.  He  published,  under  the  title  of 
"Idee  de  la  Poesie  Anglaise,"  (8  vols.,  1749-56,)  prose 
translations  of  several  English  poems.    Died  in  1791. 

Yates,  (Anna  Maria,)  a  celebrated  English  actress, 
excelled  particularly  in  tragic  parts.  She  was  the  wife 
of  Richard  Yates.   Died  in  1787. 

Yates,  (Edmund  Hodgson,)  an  English  novelist,  a 
son  of  the  following,  was  born  in  1831.  He  was  editor 
of  the  "  Temple  Bar  Magazine"  for  some  years  ending 
in  1867.  Among  his  works  are  "Broken  to  Harness," 
(3  vols.,  1864,)  "The  Business  of  Pleasure,"  (2  vols., 
1865,)  "Land  at  Last:  a  Novel,"  (3  vols.,  1866,)  and 
"The  Rock  Ahead,"  (3  vols.,  1868.) 

Yates,  (Frederick  Henry,)  a  popular  English  actor, 
born  about  1795,  became  manager  of  the  Adelphi  The- 
atre.   Died  in  1842. 

Yates,  (James,)  an  English  antiquary  and  economist, 
born  at  Highgate,  near  London,  in  1789,  became  a  dis- 


senting minister.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
"  Textrinum  Opus,  or  an  Inquiry  into  the  Art  of  Weav- 
ing among  the  Ancients,"  (1845.) 

Yates,  (Robert,)  an  American  jurist  and  statesman, 
born  at  Schenectady,  New  York,  in  1738,  became  chief 
justice  of  the  State  of  New  York  in  1790.    Died  in  1801. 

Yates,  (William,)  an  English  Baptist  divine  and 
Orientalist,  born  in  1792.  In  1815  he  went  as  a  mission- 
ary to  Calcutta,  where  he  translated  the  Bible  into 
Bengalee,  and  the  New  Testament,  Pentateuch,  Psalms, 
Proverbs,  Isaiah,  and  Daniel  into  Sanscrit.  He  also  pub- 
lished a  Sanscrit  grannnar,  and  a  Sanscrit-and-English 
dictionary.   He  died  on  the  voyage  to  England,  in  1845. 

Yazeed  or  Yazid.    See  Yrzeed. 

Yazikof  or  Jasikow,  yS^ze-kof,  a  Russian  lyric 
poet,  distinguished  for  the  exquisite  sweetness  and  melody 
of  his  verse,  was  born  at  Simbirsk  in  1805.  From  the 
character  of  his  early  songs,  he  was  called  "the  Russian 
Anacreon,"  but  his  later  productions  were  of  a  more 
serious  character.    Died  in  1846. 

Yberville.    See  Iberville. 

Yeames,  yeemz,  (William  Frederick,)  an  English 
painter,  born  at  Taganrog,  in  Russia,  in  1835.  Among 
his  works  is  "  Sir  Thomas  More  taken  to  the  Tower," 
(1863.)  He  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy of  London  in  1866. 

Yearsley,  yeerz'le,  (Mrs.  Anne,)  an  English  writer, 
born  at  Bristol  about  1 756,  was  originally  a  milkwoman. 
She  was  patronized  by  Hannah  More,  under  whose  aus- 
pices she  published  "The  Royal  Captives,"  a  romawce, 
and  a  collection  of  poems. 

Yeates,  yats,  ?  (Thomas,)  an  English  Orientalist, 
born  in  1768.  He  produced,  besides  other  works,  a 
Hebrew  Grammar  and  a  Syriac  Grammar,  both  of  which 
are  commended.    Died  in  1839. 

Yeats,  (Thomas  Pattinson,)  F.R.S.,  an  English 
naturalist  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  the  author  of 
an  elementary  work  on  entomology.    Died  in  1782. 

Yefremof  or  Jefremow,  ylh-fra'mof,  a  Russian 
traveller,  born  about  1744,  published  "Travels  in  Persia 
and  India,"  (1786.)    Died  after  1809. 

Yelin,  von,  fon  yeh-leen',  (Julius  Conrad,)  a  Ger- 
man mathematician,  born  in  Bavaria  in  1771,  wrote 
several  scientific  works.    Died  in  1826. 

Yeliu-Thsoo-Thsai,  ygKle-oo'  tsoo  tsi,  a  celebrated 
Chinese  or  Tartar  minister,  born  in  1190.  He  was  a 
councillor  of  Jengis  Khan  and  of  his  son  Ogodai.  He 
was  noted  for  his  wisdom  and  virtue.  Died  in  1244. 
According  to  Abel  Remusat,  "  Millions  of  men  owed 
their  lives  and  liberty  to  this  great  minister,  who  spent 
his  life  in  pleading  the  cause  of  law,  order,  and  hu- 
manity." 

YePver-ton,  (Sir  Henry,)  an  English  statesman 
and  jurist,  born  in  1566,  was  the  author  of  "  Reports  of 
Special  Cases."    Died  in  1630. 

Yendis  or  Yendys.    See  Dobell. 

Yen-Hoei,  ygn-ho-a'  or  -ho-T',  or  Yen-Hwuy,  called 
also  Yen- Yuen,  (yoo^en',)  the  favourite  and  most  gifted 
disciple  of  Confucius,  was  born  towards  the  latter  part 
of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  Not  only  his  master  but  his 
fellow-pupils  admitted  his  decided  superiority  over  all 
the  rest.  Confucius  asked  one  of  them,  (Tsze-Kung,) 
"Which  do  you  consider  superior,  yourself  or  Hvvuy?" 
He  replied,  "How  dare  T  compare  myself  with  Hwuy? 
Hwuy  hears  one  point  and  knows  all  about  a  subject,  I 
hear  one  point  and  know  a  second  [only]."  (See  "Ana- 
lects of  Confucius,"  book  v.)  Confucius  said  of  him, 
"There  was  Yen-Hwuy;  he  loved  to  learn;  ...  he 
did  not  repeat  a  fault.  Unfortunately,  his  appointed 
time  was  short :  he  died,  and  now  there  is  not  such 
another."  ("  Analects,"  book  vi.)  Even  Mencius  was 
considered  to  be  inferior  to  Yen-Hwuy,  who  was  "all 
round  and  complete."  (See  Legge's  "Chinese  Classics," 
vol.  ii.  p.  43.)  When  Yen-Hwuy  died,  Confucius  was 
inconsolable,  both  for  his  own  loss  and  the  loss  of  man- 
kind. (See  Confucius.)  His  disciples  said  to  the  sage, 
"Your  grief  is  excessive  !"  "Is  it  excessive.''"  said  he. 
"If  I  am  not  to  mourn  bitterly  for  this  man.  for  whom 
should  I  mourn?"  ("  Analects,"  book  xr.)  On  another 
occasion  he  said,  "Admirable  indeed  is  the  virtue  of 
Hwuy."    And  again,  "He  has  nearly  attained  to  perfect 


a,  e,  1,  0,  u,  y, long;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  o, obscure;  fir,  fill,  flit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon. 


rEN-ruEN 


2305 


roosuF 


virtue."  The  following  may  serve  to  show  Yen-Hoei's 
devotion  to  his  master.  Once,  while  travelling,  they 
were  in  danger  from  the  hostility  of  the  people  of  the 
place  through  which  they  were  passing.  Yen-Hoei 
happened  to  fall  behind  the  rest.  When  he  came  up, 
Confucius  said,  "I  thought  you  had  died."  Yen-Hoei 
replied,  "While  you  were  alive,  how  should  I  presume 
to  die  r 

See  Legge,  "  Analects  of  Confucius," also  the  notice  of 
Confucius  in  Pauthier's  "Chine,"  pp.  145,  146,  and  176. 

Yen- Yuen.    See  Yen-Hoei. 

Yepez,  de,  dk  y^-p§th',  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish  Bene- 
dictine monk,  born  in  the  sixteenth  century,  lived  at 
Valladolid.  He  wrote  "Chronicles  of  the  Benedictine 
Order,"  (7  vols.,  1609-15.)    Died  in  1621. 

Yepez,  de,  (Diego,)  a  Spanish  monk  and  historical 
writer,  born  near  Toledo  in  1559.  He  became  prior  of 
the  monastery  of  the  Escurial.  Philip  II.  is  said  to  have 
intrusted  to  him  the  direction  of  his  conscience.  Yepez 
wrote  a  "  History  of  the  Persecution  in  England  since 
1570."    Died  in  1613. 

Yeregui,  de,  di  yi'ra-gee,  (Jos6,)  a  pious  and  liberal 
Spanish  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Vergara  in  1734.  He 
founded  several  schools,  and  became  preceptor  of  the 
children  of  Charles  III.    Died  in  1805. 

Yermak  or  lermak,  ylr'mSk,  a  Cossack  chief,  who 
conquered  Siberia,  was  born  near  the  banks  of  the  Don. 
He  invaded  Siberia  with  5000  men,  and,  after  several 
victories  over  the  native  tribes,  took  Siber,  the  cajiital, 
in  1580,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Russian  dominion 
in  that  region.    Died  in  1583. 

See  Miller,  "Opisanie  Sibirskago  tzarstra,"  1750. 

Yezdejerd  or  lezdedjerd  (yezMe-jerd')  I.,  King  of 
Persia,  of  the  dynasty  of  Sassanidae,  succeeded  his  brother 
Varanes  (Bahram)  IV.  in  399  a.d.  He  maintained  peace 
and  friendship  with  the  Roman  empire, .and  gave  tolera- 
tion to  the  Christians,  who  became  numerous  in  Persia. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  however,  a  persecution 
was  provoked  by  the  rash  zeal  of  Abdas,  Bishop  of  Susa, 
who  destroyed  a  temple  of  the  fire-worshippers.  Died 
in  419. 

Yezdejerd  or  lezdedjerd  II.,  surnamed  the 
Gentle,  was  the  son  of  Varanes  (Bahram)  V.,  whom 
he  succeeded  on  the  throne  of  Persia  in  439  a.d.  He 
was  attached  to  the  doctrine  of  Zoroaster,  and  wished 
his  subjects  to  conform.  His  chief  minister  urged  him 
to  use  severe  measures  against  the  Christians,  who  were 
numerous,  especially  in  Armenia,  and  in  442  an  army 
was  sent  to  enforce  the  worship  of  fire  in  that  province. 
An  Armenian  prince  named  Vartan  raised  a  large  army 
and  defeated  that  of  Persia;  but  finally,  through  the 
treachery  of  several  Armenian  leaders,  Vartan  was  de- 
feated and  killed,  and  the  province  was  subdued  in 
451,  He  died  in  457,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Hormisdas. 

Yezdejerd  or  lezdedjerd  III.,  King  of  Persia,  was 
the  son  of  Sheheriar,  and  the  last  of  the  race  of  Sas- 
sanidae. He  began  to  reign  on  the  death  of  his  uncle 
Ferrookh-zad,  in  632  A.D.,  and  found  the  empire  weak- 
ened by  intestine  dissensions  and  verging  to  dissolution. 
He  reformed  the  calendar,  changed  the  old  names  of 
months  and  days  for  others  representing  physical  objects 
or  properties,  and  ordained  that  time  should  be  com- 
puted from  a  new  era,  (June  16,  632,)  which  is  still  ob- 
served by  the  followers  of  Zoroaster.  In  634  Irak  was 
invaded  by  a  Moslem  army,  against  which  he  sent  a 
general  named  Roostam,  who  addressed  the  invaders 
in  terms  like  these:  "Retire  from  the  Persian  soil,  if 
you  would  avoid  the  wrath  of  the  king  of  kings.  Who 
is  your  sovereign  ?  what  are  his  antecedents,  his  titles, 
and  his  dominions?  Why  do  you  quit  your  deserts, 
and  what  do  you  seek  in  Persia?"  To  this  the  un- 
terrified  zealots  replied,  "  We  covet  nothing  that  Persia 
contains.  The  vicegerent  of  God  has  charged  us  to 
announce  his  law  to  the  nations  of  the  earth.  If  the 
Persians  and  their  king  will  receive  these  sublime  truths, 
they  shall  be  our  brothers  ;  if  not,  our  swords  shall  sub- 
vert the  throne  of  Yezdejerd."  In  the  battle  that  en- 
sued, the  Arabs  fought  with  all  the  courage  of  fanaticism, 
and  appeared  invincible  until  they  were  broken  and 
routed  by  the  charge  of  the  Persian  elephants.  The 


caliph  Omar  raised  another  army,  and  in  636  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  Roostam,  who  was  killed  in  the 
retreat.  This  was  the  first  of  a  series  of  victories  which 
about  645  had  effected  the  conquest  of  all  Persia,  except 
a  part  of  Khorassan,  in  which  the  Persian  king  took 
refuge.    He  was  killed  in  652  a.d, 

Yezeed,  Yezid,  or  Jesid  (ygh-zeed')  I,,  written 
also  Yazid  and  Yazeed,  the  second  of  the  Omeyyade 
caliphs,  was  a  son  of  Moaweeyah,  (whence  his  Arab 
surname,  Ibn-Moaweeyah,)  and  began  to  reign  at 
Damascus  in  680  a.d.  He  was  recognized  in  Persia, 
Syria,  and  Egypt.  Mecca  and  Medina,  having  revolted 
against  him,  were  pillaged  and  almost  destroyed  by 
his  armies.    Died  in  683  a,d,,  aged  thirty-nine. 

See  Weil,  "  Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol,  i.  chap.  vi. 

Yezeed,  Yezid,  or  Jesid  II.,  a  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  and  a  son  of  Abd-el-Malek,  became  caliph  in 
720  A.D.    He  persecuted  the  Christians.    Died  in  724. 

See  Weil,  "Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  vol.  i.  chap.  xiii. 

Yezeed  or  Yazid,  (Ibn-Mahleb,  ib'n  m^h'leb,)  an 
able  Persian  warrior,  who  gained  several  victories  for 
the  caliph  Soliman.  Having  revolted  against  Yezeed 
II.,  he  was  killed  in  battle  about  720  A.D. 

Yggdrasil.    See  Odin. 

Y  Kiun.    See  Wan -Lee. 

Ymir,  ee'mir,  or  Ymer,  [supposed  to  be  derived 
from  the  Norse jj/w/a,  to  "rush,"  to  "roar,"  expressive 
of  confusion,]  in  the  Norse  mythology,  the  first  of  the 
giants  produced  from  Ginnunga-gap  (the  "abyss  of 
abysses")  by  the  union  of  heat  and  frost,  and  the  pro- 
genitor of  the  Frost-Giants.  He  was  also  called  Aur- 
gelmir,  (the  "  primeval  mass,"  or  chaos.)  He  was  slain 
by  Odin  and  his  brothers,  who  made  the  earth  of  his 
flesh  and  bones,  the  sea  of  his  blood,  and  the  heavens 
of  his  skull.    He  was  a  personification  of  Chaos. 

Yonge,  yung,  (Charles  Duke,)  an  English  writer, 
born  about  1812.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "History  of  England,"  (1857,)  a  "Life  of  the  Duke 
of  Wellington,"  (i860,)  a  "  History  of  the  British  Navy," 
(2  vols.,  1863,)  and  "The  History  of  France  under  the 
Bourbons,"  (4  vols.,  1867.) 

Yonge,  (Charlotte  Mary,)  an  English  novelist, 
born  in  Hampshire  about  1823,  published  a  number 
of  tales,  among  the  most  popular  of  which  are  "  The 
Heir  of  Redclyffe,"  (1853,)  and  "The  Daisy  Chain,"  (2 
vols.,  1856.)  She  has  also  written  "Landmarks  of  His- 
tory," (1852-57,)  and  other  educational  works,  and  a 
"  History  of  Christian  Names,"  (2  vols.,  1863,) 

See  Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Yoni,  yo'ni,  in  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the  symbol 
of  Parvati  and  of  femineity  in  general,  and,  as  such, 
associated  with  the  worship  of  Siva.  (See  Siva,  and 
also  Juno.) 

See  Moor,  "Hindu  Pantheon,"  pp.  382-398. 

Yoong-Shing  or  Young-Ching,  yoong-shing,  an 
emperor  of  China,  began  to  reign  in  1723,  He  died  in 
1735,  aged  fifty-eight. 

Yoosuf,  Yousouf,  Yusuf,  or  Jusuf  (yoo'sdof)  I.,  a 
Moorish  king  of  Granada,  began  to  reign  in  1333  ;  died 
in  1354. 

Yoosuf-  (or  Yusuf-)  Aboo-Amroo-Ibn-Abdi-1- 
Barr,  (i'boo  im'roo  ib'n  Ibd-il  b^R,)  written  also  You- 
souf-Amrou-Ben-Abd-Alberr,  a  learned  Moorish 
writer,  born  at  Cordova,  Spain,  in  979  ;  died  in  1070. 
Amon?^  his  works  may  be  mentioned  a  treatise  on  Mo- 
hammed2in  history  and  traditions,  and  a  "  History  of  the 
Opinions  of  the  Mussulman  Doctors,"  etc.  A  history 
entitled  the  "  Pearls  of  Sacred  Wars"  is  also  attributed 
to  him. 

Yoosuf-  (or  Yusuf-)  Ibn-Abdi-r-Rahman-al-Feh- 
ree,  (or-Fehri,)  (ib'n  ibd-!r  riH'man  al  fgh'r'ee,)  a  Sara- 
cen or  Moor,  who  was  chosen  Emir  or  Governor  of 
Spain  in  746  a.d.  He  was  defeated  by  Abd-er-Rahman, 
near  Cordova,  in  756,  and  was  killed  in  759  A.D. 

Yoosuf-Ibn-Ta.shefeen,  (or -Tashefin,)  (ib'n  t^'- 
sheh-feen',)  written  also  Ben-Taschefyn,  an  Almo- 
ravide  prince  of  Northern  Africa,  distinguished  for  his 
bravery  and  skill  in  war.  He  made  extensive  conquests, 
and  in  1072  founded  the  city  of  Morocco  as  the  capital 
of  his  dominions.     Invited  in   1086  by  the  Moslem 


«  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  h,  k, guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled ;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (Sl^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

H5 


rORCK 


2306 


rOUNG 


princes  of  Spain  to  assist  them  against  the  Christians, 
he  equipped  a  powerful  armament,  landed  in  Spain,  and 
gained  a  decisive  victory,  near  Badajoz,  over  Alfonso, 
King  of  Castile.  He  afterwards  reduced  nearly  all  of 
the  Moorish  princes  of  that  country  to  vassalage.  Died 
in  1 1 06. 

Yorck  (or  York)  von  Wartenburg,  yoRk  fon 
MR'ten-bdoRG',  (Hans  David  Ludwig,)  Count,  a 
Prussian  general,  born  at  Konigsberg  in  1759.  Having 
served  for  a  time  against  the  French,  under  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Weimar,  he  entered  Napoleon's  army,  and  com- 
manded the  Prussian  corps  in  the  campaign  of  1812. 
After  the  reorganization  of  the  Prussian  army,  and  their 
withdrawal  from  the  French  cause,  he  successively  de- 
feated Eugene,  Viceroy  of  Italy,  at  Dannekow,  Sebastiani 
at  Weissig,  and  General  Bertrand  at  Wartenburg,  (1813.) 
He  gained  a  victory  over  Marmont,  at  Mockern,  in 
October  the  same  year,  and  in  1814  was  made  general 
of  infantry.  After  the  surrender  of  Paris,  he  was  created 
a  count,  commander  of  the  forces  in  Silesia  and  Posen, 
and  in  1821  a  field-marshal.    He  died  in  1830. 

York,  Cardinal.  See  Stuart,  (Henry  Benedict.) 

York,  Duke  of.  This  title  is  appropriated  exclu- 
sively to  members  of  the  royal  family  of  England,  and 
has  often  been  given  to  a  younger  son  of  the  king.  The 
first  Duke  of  York  was  Edmund  of  Langley,  the  fifth 
son  of  Edward  HL  He  was  born  in  1341,  and  obtained 
the  title  about  1385.  He  had  superior  abilities,  and  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  reign  of  Richard  H.  Died  in 
1402.  His  son  Edward,  second  Duke  of  York,  was 
distinguished  as  a  warrior.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Agincourt,  in  141 5,  and  left  no  issue.  The  dukedom 
then  passed  to  his  nephew,  Richard  PLANrAGENET,  a 
son  of  Richard,  Earl  of  Cambridge,  who  was  a  younger 
son  of  the  first  Duke  of  Yt)rk.  Richard,  the  third  duke, 
became  a  claimant  of  the  throne,  the  right  to  which 
descended  through  his  mother,  Anne  Mortimer,  who 
was  a  great-granddaughter  of  Lionel,  the  third  son  of 
Edward  HI.  He  was  appointed  Regent  of  France  in 
1435,  ^'"'^  recalled  in  1447.  In  1454  he  received  the 
title  of  Protector  of  the  Kingdom  during  the  illness  of 
Henry  VI.  In  1455  he  took  arms  to  enforce  his  claim 
to  the  throne.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  long  civil 
war  of  the  Roses.  His  party  gained  a  victory  at  Saint 
Alban's  in  1455,  ^^^^  another  at  Northampton  in  1459  or 
1460.  The  Duke  of  York  was  defeated  and  killed  at 
Wakefield  in  December,  1460.  His  son  became  King 
Edward  IV.  Richard,  the  second  son  of  Edward  IV., 
became  Duke  of  York  in  1474.  He  was  murdered  in 
the  Tower  by  Richard  III.  in  1483.  Henry  Tudor, 
the  second  son  of  Henry  VII.,  was  created  Duke  of 
York  in  1491.  He  ascended  the  throne,  as  Henry  VIII., 
in  1509.  The  title  was  also  borne  by  Charles  I.  and 
James  II.  before  their  accession  to  the  throne.  Ernest 
AuGUs  rus,  a  brother  of  George  I.,  was  created  Duke  of 
York  and  Albany  in  17 16.  He  died,  without  issue,  in 
1728.  Edw^ard  Augustus,  a  brother  of  George  III., 
was  created  Duke  of  York  and  Albany  in  1760,  and  died, 
without  issue,  in  1767. 

See  Miss  Roberts,  "Memoirs  of  the  Rival  Houses  of  York 
and  Lancaster,"  1827. 

York,  (Frederick,)  Duke  of,  born  in  1763,  was  the 
second  son  of  George  HI.  He  served  for  a  time  in  the 
Prussian  army,  and  was  created  in  1784  Duke  of  York 
and  Albany.  He  married  in  1791  Frederica,  daughter 
of  Frederick  William  II.  of  Prussia.  He  commanded 
a  British  corps  in  the  French  campaigns  of  1793-94,  was 
made  a  field-marshal  in  1795,  and  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army  in  1798.  He  was  defeated  near  Bergen,  in 
Holland,  in  1799,  and  compelled  to  sign  the  disadvan- 
tageous convention  of  Alkmaar.    Died  in  1827. 

Yorke,  (Charles,)  Lord  Morden,  an  English  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  in  London  in  December,  1722,  was 
a  younger  son  of  the  first  Lord  Hardwicke.  He  was 
educated  at  Bene't  College,  Cambridge.  He  and  his 
brother  Philip  were,  while  at  college,  the  principal 
authors  of  the  "Athenian  Letters  ;  or.^The  Correspond- 
ence of  an  Agent  of  the  King  of  Persia  residing  at 
Athens,"  (1741,)  a  work  of  considerable  merit.  He  pub- 
lished an  ingenious  "Treatise  on  Forfeiture  for  Treason," 
(1744.)    In  1747  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Rye- 


gate.  He  became  solicitor-general  in  1756,  and  attorney- 
general  in  1762.  He  was  attached  to  the  Whig  parry. 
Having  resigned  in  December,  1763,  he  w  is  reappointed 
in  August,  1765,  on  the  formation  of  the  ministry  of 
Rockingham.  He  refused  the  offer  of  the  great  seal 
several  times,  but,  at  the  earnest  request  of  the  king,  he 
accepted  the  same  in  January,  1770,  and  succeeded  Lord 
Camden.  By  this  act  he  deserted  his  Vv^hig  friends  and 
destroyed  his  own  peace.  He  died  a  few  days  after  he 
became  chancellor,  probably  by  suicide.  He  left  several 
children,  one  of  whom  was  Sir  Joseph  Yorke,  a  naval 
ofiicer.  Charles  Yorke  was  a  friend  and  correspondent 
of  Montesquieu. 

"He  was  possessed,"  says  Lord  Campbell,  "of  the 
finest  talents,  of  the  most  varied  accomplishments,  of 
every  virtue  in  public  and  private  life  ;  but  when  he 
seemed  to  have  reached  the  summit  of  his  lofty  am- 
bition, he  committed  a  fatal  error.  .  .  .  His  acceptance 
of  the  great  seal  was  wrong,  but  did  not  proceed  from 
sordid  motives.  He  was  overpowered  by  royal  blandish- 
ments, and  a  momentary  mistake  as  to  the  duty  of  a  good 
subject." 

See  Lord  Campbell,  "Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,"  vol.  v. 

Yorke,  (Charles  Philip.)    See  Hardwicke. 

Yorke,  (Sir  Joseph  Sidney,)  K.C.B.,  an  English 
admiral,  entered  the  navy  in  1780.  He  served  under 
Lord  Rodney  in  1782,  and  rose  through  various  promo- 
tions to  be  admiral  of  the  blue  in  1830.  He  perished 
by  shipwreck  in  Stokes  Bay  in  1831. 

Yorke,  (Philfp.)    See  Hardwicke,  Earl  of. 

Youatt,  yoo'at,  (William,)  an  English  veterinary 
surgeon,  born  in  1777,  was  the  author  of  a  "Treatise 
on  Cattle,"  a  "Treatise  on  the  Horse,"  "The  Com- 
plete Grazier,"  and  other  similar  works.  He  was  also 
editor  of  a  journal  entitled  "The  Veterinarian."  Died 
in  1847. 

Youman.s,  yoo'manz,  (Edward  Livingston,)  an 
American  chemist  and  scientific  writer,  born  in  Albany 
county,  New  York,  in  1821.  He  has  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "Class-Book  of  Chemistry,"  (1852,) 
and  "  Hand-Book  of  Household  Science,"  (1857.)  He 
edited  "The  Correlation  and  Conservation  of  Forces: 
a  Series  of  Expositions  by  Grove,  Helmholtz,"  etc., 
(1864.) 

Young,  yung,  (Alexander,)  D.D.,  an  American 
Congregational  divine,  born  at  Boston  in  1800,  was  the 
author  of  "Chronicles  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  of  the 
Colony  of  Plymouth,"  (1841,)  "  Library  of  Old  English 
Prose  Writers,"  and  other  works.    Died  in  1854. 

Young,  yung,  (Sir  Aretas  William,)  an  English 
officer,  served  successively  against  the  French  in  Egypt, 
Sicily,  and  Spain,  and  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  in 
1813.  He  became  lieutenant-governor  of  Prince  Ed- 
ward's Island  in  1831,  and  was  knighted  in  1834.  Died 
in  1835. 

Young,  (Arthur,)  an  eminent  English  agriculturist 
and  writer  on  economy,  was  born  in  Suffolk  in  1741. 
He  was  a  merchant's  clerk  in  his  youth  at  Lynn.  Having 
an  aversion  to  mercantile  business,  he  began  to  make 
experiments  in  agriculture,  which  at  first  were  not  suc- 
cessful. He  leased  a  farm  of  three  hundred  acres  at 
Samford  Hall,  Essex,  about  1765,  and  cultivated  it  for 
five  years.  He  published  a  "Tour  through  the  Southern 
Counties  of  England  and  Wales,"  (1768,)  which  was 
successful,  and  a  "  Course  of  Experimental  Agriculture,'* 
(1770.)  He  performed  several  exploring  tours  in  different 
parts  of  England,  and  published  the  results  of  his  inves- 
tigations in  works  which  contributed  much  to  improve 
the  methods  of  cultivation.  His  "  Farmer's  Calendar" 
(1771)  was  a  very  popular  work.  In  1774  he  published 
his  "  Political  Arithmetic."  He  acquired  a  European 
reputation  by  his  writings  on  agriculture.  In  1784  he 
began  to  publish  the  "  Annals  of  Agriculture,"  (45  vols.,) 
which  was  highly  esteemed.  He  travelled  in  France  in 
1787  and  1789,  to  explore  the  agricultural  resources  of 
that  country,  on  which  subject  he  published,  about  1791, 
an  interesting  work.  In  1793  he  was  appointed  secre- 
tary to  the  board  of  agriculture,  with  a  salary  of  four 
hundred  pounds  or  more.  He  had  married  in  early  life, 
and  had  several  children.  Died  in  1820.  By  his  experi- 
ments and  writings  he  rendered  an  important  service  to 


a,  e,  T,  o,  ia,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i.  o.  objure;  fir,  fill,  ftt;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


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British  agriculture;  and  even  the  French  acknowledge 
that  France  rests  under  obligations  to  him.  His  works 
on  agriculture  were  translated  into  French  by  order  of 
the  Directory,  and  published  under  the  title  of  "Cultiva- 
teur  Anglais,"  (i8  vols,,  1801.) 

See  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine"  for  May,  1820;  "Monthly 
Review"  for  July,  August,  and  September,  1780,  et  seq.  ;  Allibone, 
**  Dictionary  of  Authors;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Young,  (Augustus,)  an  American  naturalist  and 
geologist,  born  at  Arlington,  Vermont,  in  1785.  He 
studied  law,  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1841, 
and  after  the  end  of  his  term  (1843)  devoted  himself  to 
scientific  pursuits.  He  wrote  several  scientific  treatises, 
and  was  appointed  State  naturalist  (for  Vermont)  in 
1856.    Died  in  1857. 

Young,  (Brigham,)  high-priest  of  the  Mormons, 
was  born  at  Whitingham,  Vermont,  in  June,  1801.  He 
joined  the  Mormons  in  1832  at  Kirtland,  Ohio,  and 
soon  acquired  much  influence  by  his  shrewdness  and 
energy.  He  was  one  of  the  twelve  apostles  sent  out 
in  1835  to  make  proselytes.  On  the  death  of  Joseph 
Smith,  June,  1844,  he  was  chosen  president  and  prophet. 
As  the  people  of  Illinois  seemed  determined  to  expel 
the  Mormons  from  the  State,  Young  resolved  to  remove 
to  some  region  in  the  far  West,  and,  accompanied  by 
a  large  majority  of  the  Mormons,  abandoned  Nauvoo 
early  in  1846.  He  persuaded  his  followers  that  the  valley 
of  Great  Salt  Lake  was  the  Promised  Land,  and,  having 
arrived  at  that  lake  about  July,  1847,  he  founded  Salt 
Lake  City.  The  Mormons  increased  rapidly  by  emi- 
gration. In  the  spring  of  1849  ^^''^y  held  a  convention 
at  Salt  Lake  City,  and  organized  a  State,  which  they 
called  Deseret ;  but  Congress  refused  to  admit  it  into 
the  Union,  and  organized'  the  Territory  of  Utah,  of 
which  Brigham  Young  was  appointed  Governor,  (1850.) 
The  Mormons  afterwards  defied  the  laws  and  officers  of 
the  federal  government,  and  Brigham  Young  ruled  over 
Utah  with  absolute  authority.  In  1857  President  Buch- 
anan appointed  Alfred  Cumming  Governor  of  Utah,  and 
sent  an  army  of  about  2500  men  to  enforce  his  authority. 
Governor  Cumming  proclaimed,  about  November,  1857, 
that  the  Mormons  were  in  a  state  of  rebellion  ;  but  in 
1858  hostilities  were  suspended  by  a  compromise.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Dixon,  there  were  20,000  "saints"  in 
Salt  Lake  City  in  1866,  and  150,000  in  Utah,  which  is 
probably  a  great  exaggeration,  as  the  population  of  Salt 
Lake  City,  according  to  the  recent  census,  does  not  ex- 
ceed 14,000.  Brigham  Young  keeps  about  twelve  actual 
wives,  besides  many  women  who  have  been  "sealed  to 
him"  as  his  spiritual  wives. 

See  "  Mormonism,"  in  the  "  New  American  Cyclopaedia  ;"  "  New 
America,"  by  Hhpworth  Dixon,  1S67;  "Mormonism:  its  Leaders 
and  Designs,"  by  John  Hydk,  Jr.,  1857;  "The  Mormons,  or 
Latter-Day  Saints,"  by  Likutenant  J.  \V.  Gunnison,  1852  ;  B. 
G.  Ferris,  "  Utah  and  the  Mormons,"  1856. 

Young,  (Edward,)  an  eminent  English  poet,  born  at 
Upham,  in  Hampshire,  in  1684,  was  a  son  of  Edward 
Young,  rector  of  that  p.irish,  and  subsequently  Dean 
of  Salisbury.  He  studied  at  Winchester,  entered  New 
College,  Oxford,  in  1703,  and  a  few  months  later  removed 
to  Corpus  Christi  College.  In  1708  he  was  elected  a 
Fellow  of  All  Souls'  College.  He  published  in  17 13 
poems  entitled  "The  Last  Day,"  and  "The  Force  oT 
Religion,  or  Vanquished  Love."  In  1719  he  took  the 
degree  of  D.C.L.,  and  produced  the  same  year  the 
tragedy  of  "Busiris."  He  was  patronized  by  the  Duke 
of  Wharton,  who  granted  him  an  annuity.  His  next  work 
was  "The  Revenge,"  a  tragedy,  (1721,)  which,  like  most 
of  his  writings,  is  marred  by  false  taste  and  bombastic 
style.  About  1725  he  began  to  publish,  under  the  title 
of  "The  Love  of  Fame,  the  Universal  Passion,"  a  col- 
lection of  satires,  which  was  very  successful.  It  is  stated 
that  he  received  ,^^3000  for  this  work.  His  several 
works  were  dedicated  to  various  patrons,  in  terms  of 
fulsome  adulation.  Having  taken  holy  orders  in  1727, 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  royal  chaplains,  and  ob- 
tained in  1730  the  rectory  of  Welwyn,  in  Hertfordshire 
where  he  resided  many  years.  In  1731  he  married 
Lady  Elizabeth  Lee,  widow  of  Colonel  Lee,  and  a 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Lichfield.  They  had  a  son 
Frederick.  Colonel  Lee  and  Lady  Lee  had  a  daughter, 
who  was  married  to  a  Mr.  Temple,  and  who  died  at 


Lyons  in  1736.  This  Mr.  Temple  and  his  wife  are  the 
"  Philander"  and  "  Narcissa"  of  the  "Night  Thoughts," 
(1742-46,)  the  poem  on  which  the  reputation  of  Young 
is  chiefly  founded.  It  enjoyed  great  popularity,  and 
found  admirers  and  imitators  in  Germany  and  France. 
The  form  and  conception  of  this  poem  are  somewhat 
original  and  bold  ;  it  is  profusely  adorned  with  brilliant 
imagery,  pompous  hyperbole,  and  striking  antithesis  ; 
but  he  seldom  attains  the  true  sublimity.  "  In  his 
'  Night  Thoughts,' "  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "  he  has  ex- 
hibited a  very  wide  display  of  original  poetry,  varie- 
gated with  deep  reflections  and  striking  allusions, — a 
wilderness  of  thought,  in  which  the  fertility  of  fancy 
scatters  flowers  of  every  hue  and  every  odour. "  ("  Lives 
of  the  English  Poets.")  "Young,"  says  Villemain,  "  is 
not  a  good  model  ;  he  has  too  much  artifice.  .  .  .  He 
fatigues  the  imagination  more  than  he  touches  the 
heart;  he  fills  the  reader  with  a  sort  of  satiety  of  sym- 
pathy for  his  sorrow."  ("  Biographie  Universelle.") 
Among  his  later  works  is  Resignation,"  a  poem, 
(1762.)  In  1761  he  was  appointed  clerk  of  the  closet 
to  the  Princess-Dowager  of  Wales.  After  he  was 
seventy  years  old  he  continued  to  solicit  preferment,  but 
without  success.    He  died  at  Welwyn  in  April,  1765. 

See  H.  Croft,  "  Life  of  Edward  Young,"  in  Johnson's  "  Lives 
of  the  English  Poets;"  "  Biographica  Britannica  ;"  J.  Mitford, 
"  Life  of  Young  ;"  Campbell,  "  Specimens  of  the  English  Poets  ;" 
Drake,  "Essays;"  "Westminster  Review"  for  January,  1857; 
Allibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors." 

Young,  (Sir  John,)  an  English  civil  officer,  born  in 
1807.  He  was  secretary  of  the  treasury  from  1844  to 
1846,  chief  secretary  for  Ireland  from  1852  to  1855,  and 
Governor  of  New  South  Wales  from  i860  to  1868.  - 

Young,  (John  Clark,)  D.D.,  an  American  Presby- 
terian divine,  born  at  Greencastle,  Pennsylvania,  in  1803, 
became  president  of  Centre  College,  Danville,  Kentucky, 
in  1830.    Died  in  1857. 

Young,  (John  Radford,)  an  English  mathema- 
tician, born  in  London  about  1800.  Among  his  works 
are  "The  General  Theory  and  Solution  of  Algebraic 
Equations,"  (1842,)  and  a  "Treatise  on  Navigation  and 
Nautical  Astronomy,"  (1856.) 

Young,  (Matthew,)  an  eminent  Irish  mathematician 
and  writer,  born  in  the  county  of  Roscommon  in  1750. 
He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  of  which  he  be- 
came a  Fellow  in  1775,  and  in  1786  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  natural  philosophy.  He  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers and  first  members  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  to 
the  "Transactions"  of  which  he  contributed  several 
valuable  articles.  Among  his  principal  works  are  "  An 
Essay  on  the  Phenomena  of  Sounds  and  Musical  Strings," 
(1784,)  "Method  of  Prinie  and  Ultimate  Ratios,"  and 
"Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  (1800.)  He  died 
in  1800,  having  been  previously  created  Bishop  of  Clon- 
fert  and  Kilmr.cduach. 

Young,  (Patrick,)  [Lat.  PATRig'ius  Ju'nius,]  a 
distinguished  classical  scholar,  born  in  East  Lothian, 
Scotland,  in  1 584,  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  royal 
library  in  London.  He  translated  into  Latin  some  of 
the  works  of  King  James  I.,  and  edited  the  epistles  of 
Clemens  Romanus.    Died  in  1652. 

Young,  (Sir  Peter,)  [Lat.  Pe'trus  Ju'nius,]  a  Scot- 
tish diplomatist,  born  in  1544.  He  was  associated  with 
Buchanan  as  tutor  of  the  young  prince,  afterwards  James 
I.  of  England,  and  subsequently  became  a  member  of  the 
privy  council,  and  was  employed  in  various  missions. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  vindication  of  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots.    Died  in  1628. 

Young,  (Samuel,)  an  American  politician,  born  in 
Lenox,  Massachusetts,  about  1780,  removed  to  the  State 
of  New  York  in  his  youth.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  board  of  canal  commissioners  in  181 7,  was  for  many 
years  a  Senator  of  New  York,  and  held  other  high 
offices  in  that  State.  He  acted  with  the  Democratic 
party,  and  was  the  leader  of  the  delegation  of  Free- 
Soilers,  ah'as  "  Barnburners,"  which  went  from  New  York 
to  the  Baltimore  Convention  in  1848.  He  died  at  Ball- 
ston,  New  York,  in  1850. 

Young,  (Thomas,)  an  English  Puritan  divine,  born 
about  1587.  He  became  master  of  Jesus  College, 
Cambridge,  and  was  a  tutor  of  the  poet  Milton.  Died 
in  1655. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2[^^See  Explanations,  p.  23 


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ru 


Young,  (Thomas,)  an  English  philosopher  and  scholar 
of  great  eminence,  was  born  at  Milverton,  in  Somer- 
setshire, on  the  13th  of  June,  1773.  His  parents  were 
members  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  He  studied  for 
several  years  at  Compton  School,  Dorsetshire,  and  after- 
wards at  home.  He  was  well  versed  in  the  Greek,  Latfn, 
French,  and  Italian  languages,  and  in  mathematics.  He 
also  studied  Hebrew,  Arabic,  etc.  From  1787  to  1792 
he  was  employed  as  tutor  to  Hudson  Gurney,  in  the 
family  of  David  Barclay  of  Youngsbury,  in  Hertford- 
shire. During  this  period  he  studied  natural  philosophy, 
and  the  "Principia"  of  Newton,  He  became  a  student 
of  medicine  in  London  in  1792,  attended  the  lectures  of 
John  Hunter,  and  continued  his  studies  in  Edinburgh, 
whither  he  went  in  1794.  About  this  date  he  was  chosen 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  In  the  autumn  of  1795 
he  went  to  Gottingen,  where  he  studied  several  months 
and  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  He  visited  various  cities 
of  Germany  in  1796,  and  entered  Emanuel  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1797.  His  uncle,  Dr.  Brocklesby,  who 
died  in  1797,  left  him  a  legacy  of  about  ;i^io,ooo. 

He  began  to  practise  medicine  in  London  in  1800,  and 
was  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  Royal  Insti- 
tution from  1801  to  1804.  Between  1800  and  1804  he 
contributed  to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  several 
memoirs  "On  the  Theory  of  Light  and  Colours,"  in 
which  he  advocated  the  undulatory  theory  of  light.  He 
married  Miss  Eliza  Maxwell  in  1804.  In  1807  he  pub- 
lished an  excellent  work  entitled  a  Course  of  Lectures 
on  Natural  Philosophy  and  Mechanical  Arts,"  (2  vols. 
4to,)  which  presents  a  comj^lete  system  of  elementary 
physics  and  mechanical  philosophy.  Among  his  chief 
discoveries  was  the  interference  of  the  ravs  of  light,  on 
which  subject  we  quote  the  comments  of  Sir  John  F.  W. 
Herschel :  "The  first  year  of  the  present  century,  our 
illustrious  countryman,  the  late  Dr.  Thomas  Young,  had 
established  a  principle  in  optics  which,  regarded  as  a 
physical  law,  has  hardly  its  equal,  for  beauty,  simplicity, 
and  extent  of  application,  in  the  whole  circle  of  science. 
.  .  ,  Nothing  was  now  wanting  to  a  rational  theory  of 
double  refraction,  but  to  frame  an  hypothesis  of  some 
mode  in  which  light  might  be  conceived  to  be  jjropagated, 
through  the  elastic  medium  supposed  to  convey  it,  in 
such  a  way  as  not  to  be  contradictory  to  any  of  the  facts 
nor  to  the  general  laws  of  dynamics.  This  essential 
idea,  without  which  everything  that  had  been  done  be- 
fore would  have  been  incomplete,  was  also  furnished  by 
Dr.  Young,  who,  with  a  sagacity  which  would  have  done 
honour  to  Newton  himself,  had  declared  that  to  accom- 
modate the  doctrine  of  Huygens  to  the  phenomena  of 
polarized  light  it  is  necessary  to  conceive  the  mode  of 
propagation  of  a  luminous  impulse  through  the  ether, 
differently  from  that  of  a  sonorous  one  through  the  air. 
In  the  latter,  the  particles  of  the  air  advance  and  recede ; 
in  the  former,  those  of  the  ether  must  be  supposed  to 
tremble  laterally.''''  ("Preliminary  Discourse  on  the 
Study  of  Natural  Philosophy.") 

In  181 1  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  physicians  of 
Saint  George's  Hospital.  He  contributed  to  the  "  Quar- 
terlv  Review"  numerous  articles,  mostly  scientific.  He 
published  in  1813  "  An  Introduction  to  Medical  Litera- 
ture, including  a  System  of  Practical  Nosology."  In 
1818  he  became  secretary  to  the  board  of  longitude.  He 
was  afterwards  the  editor  or  conductor  of  the  "  Nautical 
Almanac."  He  devoted  much  attention  to  the  subject 
of  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  in  which  he  made  some  dis- 
coveries, that  he  published  in  1819.  He  was  more  suc- 
cessful in  explaining  the  symbols  of  ancient  Egypt  than 
any  person  except  Chamjiollion.  He  wrote  about  sixty 
articles  for  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  including 
the  article  "Egypt"  and  more  than  forty  biogra])hical 
notices.  In  1827  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  eight  foreign 
associates  of  the  French  Institute.  He  died,  without 
issue,  in  London,  in  May,  1829. 

See  Grorge  Peacock,  D.D.,  "Life  of  Dr.  Thomas  Young," 
1*^5^^ :  Gurney,  "Memoir  of  Thomas  Yotma;,"  1S31  ;  Arago, 
"  Eloiie  de  Thomas  Young;"  Ai.i.ibone,  "Dictionary  of  Authors  ;" 
"  Nortli  Biitish  Review"  for  August,  1855. 

Young,  (Thomas  John,)  an  American  Episcopalian 
divine,  born  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1803,  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College,  and  in  1847  became  assistant  rector 
v/f  Saint  Michael's  Church,  Charleston.    Died  in  1852. 


Young,  (Sir  William,)  an  English  writer,  born  near 
Canterbury  in  1750.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  for 
Saint  Mawes  in  1783,  and  wis  afterwards  Governor  of 
Tobago.  He  published  "  The  West  India  Common- 
place Book,"  "The  History  of  Athens,"  and  other  works. 
Died  in  1815. 

Young-Ching.    See  Yoong-Shing. 

Yousouf-Ben-Taschefin.  See  Yoosuf-Ibn-Tashe- 

FEEN. 

Ypey,  I'pi,  ?  (Ann^us,)  a  Dutch  theologian,  born 
in  Friesland  in  1760,  became  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history  at  Groningen  in  1813.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church  in 
the  Eighteenth  Century,"  and  a  "Compendious  History 
of  the  Reformation,"  ("Beknopte  Geschiedenis  de  Her- 
vorming,"  181 7.)    Died  about  1834. 

Ypres,  d',  d6pR,  (Charles,)  a  Flemish  painter  and 
designer,  born  at  Ypres  about  1 5 10,  studied  in  Italy. 
Among  his  works  is  "The  Last  Judgment."  He  died 
in  1563  or  1564. 

Ypsilanti,  ip-se-lin'tee,  or  Ypsilan'tis,  (Alexan- 
der,) a  Greek  statesman  and  soldier,  was  appointed 
Hospodar  of  Wallachia  in  1774.  He  was  condemned  to 
death  by  the  Turks  on  a  charge  of  treason,  and  executed 
in  1792.  His  son  Constani'INE  became  interpreter  to 
the  Porte,  and  was  afterwards  successively  Hospodar 
of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia.  He  died  in  1816,  having 
made  several  ineffectual  attempts  to  achieve  the  inde- 
pendence of  his  country. 

Ypsilanti,  (Alexander,)  a  celebrated  Greek  patriot, 
a  son  of  Constantine,  and  grandson  of  Alexander,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Constantinople  in  1792.  He  entered 
the  Russian  service  at  an  early  age,  fought  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  campaigns  of  1812-13,  and  was  made 
a  major-general  in  181 7.  He  became  leader  in  1820  of 
the  Hetaeria,  (Hetairia,)  an  association  for  the  promotion 
of  Grecian  independence  ;  but  after  the  defeat  of  the 
Greeks  at  Dragashan,  in  1821,  he  gave  himself  up  to  the 
Austrians,  by  whom  he  was  imprisoned  six  years.  He 
was  released  in  1827,  on  the  intercession  of  the  Czar 
Nicholas,  but  he  died  the  following  year. 

Ypsilanti,  (Dimitrius,)  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Constantinople  in  1793.  Soon  after  the 
breaking  out  of  the  insurrection  in  1821,  he  took  Tripo- 
litza  by  storm,  and  subsequently  distinguished  himself 
by  his  bold  defence  of  the  citadel  of  Argos,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  Turkish  army  was  destroyed  in  its 
passage  between  Argos  and  Corinth.  He  was  made 
commander  of  the  forces  in  Eastern  Greece  by  the  presi- 
dent, Capodistria,  in  1828,  and  after  the  assassination  of 
that  magistrate,  in  1832,  became  one  of  the  members  of 
the  executive  commission.    He  died  the  same  year. 

Ypsilantis.    See  Ypsilanti. 

Yrala  or  Irala,  de,  da  e-ri'li,  (Domingo  Martinez 
— maR-tee'n^th,)  a  Spanish  captain  and  explorer,  born 
at  Vergara  about  i486.  He  explored  the  region  near 
the  Paraguay  River,  and  was  chosen  governor  of  the 
colony  at  Assumption  about  1538.    Died  in  1 557. 

Yriarte.    See  Iriarte. 

Ysabeau,  e'zt'bo',  (Cl^:ment  Alexandre,)  a 
French  Jacoljin,  born  at  Gien  in  1754.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Convention,  (1792-95,)  voted  for  the  death  of 
the  king,  and  acted  with  the  enemies  of  Robespierre  on 
the  9th  Thermidor.  He  was  elected  to  the  Council 
of  Elders  in  1795.  Died  in  1823,  (or,  according  to  some 
authorities,  in  1831.) 

Ysabeau,  (Victor  FR^:DiRic  Alexandre,)  a  French 
writer  on  rural  economy,  born  at  Rouen  in  1793,  was 
a  son  of  the  preceding.  He  published  a  number  of 
works. 

Yu,  yoo,  the  last  of  the  three  ancient  Chinese  em- 
perors* who  stand  pre-eminent  for  their  wisdom  and 
virtue  among  all  the  rulers  of  the  Celestial  empire, 
began  to  reign,  according  to  Pauthier,  in  2205  B.C.  He 
constructed  extensive  dikes  along  the  banks  of  such  of 
the  great  rivers  as  were  subject  to  inundations,  and 
executed  other  important  public  works.  He  is  said 
to  have  introduced  great  improvements  in  agriculture. 
Some  writers  date  the  commencement  of  authentic  his- 


*  Yao,  Shun,  Yu. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;       6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon; 


2309 


ZACH  ARIAS 


tory  in  China  (see  Yao)  from  the  reign  of  Vu,  who  was 
the  founder  of  the  first  dynasty — commonly  called  the 
Hia  (hee'i)  dynasty — of  Chinese  emperors. 
See  Pauthier,  "Chine,"  pp.  39-54. 

Yusuf.    See  YoosuF. 

Yvan,  (Melchior,)  Baron,  a  French  phy- 

sician and  writer,  born  in  Basses-Alpes  in  1803.  He 
went  to  China  in  1843  as  physician  to  a  mission  or 
embassy  conducted  by  M.  Lagrenee,  and  he  published, 
besides  other  works,  "  Travels  in  China  and  the  Malay 
Peninsula,"  (1850.) 

Yver,  ^'vaiR',  (Jacques,)  a  French  author,  born  at  Ni- 
ort  in  1520,  wrote  "  Le  Printemps  d'Yver."  Died  in  1572. 

Yvernois.    See  Ivernois. 

Yves,  Saint.    See  Ives. 

Yves,  Saint,    See  Saint-Ives. 

Yves,  Saint,  or  Yves  de  Ker-Martin,  deh  k§R'- 
mtR'tiN',  a  learned  French  monk  and  jurist,  born  in 


Bretagne  in  1253,  was  sometimes  called  Yves-H6lori, 
(^v  k'lo're'.)    Died  in  1303. 

See  I.  Fave,  "  Histoire  de  Saint  Yves,"  1851. 

Yves  de  Ker-Martin.    See  Yves,  Saint. 

Yveteaux,  Des.    See  Des  Yveteaux. 

Yvon,  eS-6N',  Abb6,  a  mediocre  French  writer,  born 
in  Normandy  about  1720.  He  aided  Diderot  in  the 
redaction  of  the  "  Encyclopedie,"  and  published  other 
works.    Died  about  1790. 

Yvon,  (Adolphe,)  a  French  historical  painter,  born 
in  the  department  of  Moselle  in  1817,  was  a  pupil  of 
Paul  Delaroche.  Among  his  principal  works  may  be 
named  "  Marshal  Ney  supporting  the  Rear-Guard  in 
Russia,"  "The  Seven  Deadly  Sins,"  and  "The  Capture 
of  the  Malakoff." 

Yvon,  (Pierre  Christophe,)  born  near  Mans  in 
1 7 19,  was  for  many  years  physician  of  the  Abbey  Royal 
of  Poissi,  near  Paris.    Died  in  1814. 


Zabaglia,  dzl-bSl'yS,  (Niccolo,)  an  Italian  archi- 
tect and  mechanician,  born  at  Rome  in  1674,  was  the 
inventor  of  several  ingenious  machines,  among  which 
was  one  for  transferring  frescos  from  the  plaster.  He 
was  appointed  architect  of  the  basilicon  of  Saint  Peter's. 
Died  in  1750. 

Zabarella,  dzi-bi-reKlS,  (Francesco,)  a  celebrated 
Italian  ecclesiastic,  sometimes  called  the  Cardinal  of 
Florence,  was  born  at  Padua  in  1339.  He  was  pro- 
foundly versed  in  canon  law,  and  rose  through  several 
preferments  to  be  Archbishop  of  Florence  in  1410,  and 
a  cardinal  in  141 1.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  was  the  author 
of  numerous  treatises  relating  to  theology  and  ecclesias- 
tical matters.    Died  in  1417. 

See  Vedova,  "  Memorie  intorno  alia  Vita  di  Francesco  Zaba- 
rella," 1829. 

Zabarella,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  philosopher,  born 
at  Padua  in  1533,  published  "  Commentaries  on  the 
Physics  of  Aristotle,"  and  several  treatises  on  logic  and 
philosophy.    Died  in  1589. 

Zaborowa,  zi-bi-ro'va,  (James,)  a  Polish  publicist, 
flourished  about  1500.  He  published  a  collection  of  the 
laws  and  constitutions  of  Poland,  (1506.) 

Zaborowski,  zi-bi-rov'skee,  (Stanislas,)  a  Poli.sh 
jurist,  became  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  1506.  He 
wrote  on  law  and  grammar.    Died  in  1549. 

Zabulon,  the  French  for  Zebulun,  which  see. 

Zacagni,  dzJ-kSn'yee,  or  Zaccagni,  (Lorenzo  Ales- 
Sandro,)  an  Italian  scholar  and  antiquary,  became  keeper 
of  the  library  of  the  Vatican.  He  published  an  impor- 
tant work  entitled  "A  Collection  of  Ancient  Memorials 
of  the  Church,"  ("Collectanea  Monumentorum  veterum 
Ecclesiae,"  etc.,  1698.)    Died  at  Rome  in  1712. 

Zaocai'ia,  dzi-kd-ree'i,  (Francesco  Antonio,)  an 
Italian  Jesuit  and  scholar,  born  at  Venice  in  1714,  be- 
came professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at  the  College 
of  Wisdom,  Rome.  Among  his  principal  works  are 
his  "Literary  History  of  Italy,"  (14  vols.  8vo,  1751,) 
"  Literary  Annals  of  Italy,"  (3  vols.,  1762,)  and  "Numis- 
matic Institutes."    Died  in  1795. 

Zac'-ehe-us,  [Fr.  Zach6e,  zt'shi',]  a  rich  publican 
of  Jericho,  who  became  a  disciple  of  Christ. 

See  Luke  xix. 

Zacchias,  dzJk-kee'Ss,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  physician 
and  medical  writer,  born  at  Rome  in  1584,  became 
physician  to  Pope  Innocent  X.  He  published  a  number 
of  works  on  medical  jurisprudence,  which  were  highly 
esteemed  at  the  time.    Died  in  1659. 

Zaccone,  zt'kon',  (Pierre,)  a  French  litterateur,  born 
at  Douai  in  1817.  He  published  several  novels,  and  a 
"History  of  Secret  .Societies,"  (1847.) 

Zach,'  von,  fon  zak,  [Ger.  pron.  ts^K.]  (Anton,) 
Baron,  an  Austrian  general,  born  at  Pesth  in  1747.  He 
became  a  colonel  in  1795,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
Marengo,  where  he  was  made  prisoner,  (i8oo.)  He 
obtained  the  rank  of  field-marshal-lieutenant.   He  wrote 


several  works  on  the  military  art  and  on  mathematics. 
Died  in  1826. 

Zach,  von,  fon  zak  or  tsiK,  (Franz  Xaver,)  Baron, 
an  eminent  astronomer,  born  at  Presburg  in  June,  1754^ 
was  a  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  passed  several 
of  his  early  years  in  England  after  he  had  left  college. 
About  1786  he  entered  the  service  of  Ernest,  Duke 
of  Saxe-Gotha,  and  was  appointed  director  of  an  obser- 
vatory which  that  prince  had  erected  at  Seeberg.  He 
gained  a  high  reputation  as  an  observer  and  a  writer  on 
astronomy.  He  published  a  valuable  periodical,  entitled 
"  Monatliche  Correspondenz,"  (28  vols.,  1800-13,)  a 
"Catalogue  of  Fixed  Stars,"  (1804,)  "Tables  of  Aberra- 
tion and  Nutation  for  1404  Stars,"  (1812,)  and  a  work 
called  "The  Attraction  of  Mountains  and  its  Effects  on 
a  Plumb-Line,"  (2  vols.,  1814.)  He  passed  several  of  his 
latter  years  in  Italy,  whither  he  went  as  an  attendant  or 
grand  marshal  of  the  Duchess  of  Saxe-Gotha.  He  died 
of  cholera  in  Paris  in  1832. 

Zacharia  or  Zaohariae,  tslK-S-ree'i,  (Gotthilf 
Traugott,)  a  German  theologian,  born  in  Thuringia  in 
1729;  died  at  Kiel  in  1777. 

Zacharia,  (Just  Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  German 
poet  and  satirist,  born  at  Frankenhausen  in  1726.  He 
studied  at  Leipsic,  and  became  in  1761  professor  of 
belles-lettres  in  the  Carolinum  at  Brunswick.  His 
burlesque  heroic  poem  entitled  "The  Brawler"  ("Der 
Renommist,"  1744)  was  the  first  work  of  the  kind  that 
had  appeared  in  German,  and  was  received  with  great 
favour.  It  was  followed  by  other  similar  poems, 
titled  "Phaeton,"  "The  Handkerchief,"  ("  Das  Schnupf- 
tuch,")  and  "  Murner  in  Hell,"  ("Murner  in  der  Holle,") 
which  were  also  very  successful.  He  likewise  published 
"  Fables  and  Tales,"  which  are  highly  esteemed,  and 
translated  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost"  into  German  hex- 
ameter verse.    Died  in  1777. 

See  EscHENBURG,  "  Leben  F.  W.  Zachariae's,"  1781  ;  Gervinus, 
"Geschiclite  der  Deutschen  Dichtung." 

Zacharia  von  Lingenthal,  tsiK-S-ree'i  fon  ling'- 
en-thal,  (Karl  Salomo,)  an  eminent  German  jurist  and 
writer,  born  at  Meissen  in  1769.  Having  studied  at 
Leipsic,  he  became  in  1802  professor  of  law  at  Witten- 
berg, and  in  1807  filled  the  same  chair  at  Heidelberg. 
He  was  ennobled  in  1842,  with  the  title  of  Baron  von 
Lingenthal.  He  published  a  number  of  valuable  legal 
and  philosophical  works,  among  which  may  be  named  a 
"Manual  of  French  Civil  Law,"  and  "The  Unity  of 
State  and  Church."    Died  in  1843. 

See  C.  E.  Zachariae,  "  Karl  S.  Zachariae's  Biographie,"  1843. 

Zach-a-ri'ah,  [Fr.  Zacharie,  zt^kfre';  Heb.  HnjT,] 
King  of  Israel,  was  the  son  of  Jeroboam  II.,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  793  B.C.    Died  about  770  B.C. 

See  II  Kings  xv. 

Za-eh-a-ri'as,  [Fr.  Zacharie,  zt'kt're',]  a  Jewish 
priest,  who  was  the  father  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  to 
whom  the  angel  Gabriel  predicted  the  birth  of  that  son. 

See  Luke  i. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  Vi, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (^[JP^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


Z A CHAR  I  AS 


Zacharias,  [Gr.  Xaxapiaq  ;  Fr.  Zacharie,]  surnamed 
SciiOLAS'ncus,  a  Christian  writer,  who  was  Bishop  of 
Milylene  and  lived  about  530  a.D.  He  wrote,  in  Greek, 
a  work  entitled  "  Ammonius,"  designed  to  refute  the 
doctrine  of  the  eternity  of  the  universe. 

Zacharias,  [Fr,  Zacharie,]  a  Greek  ecclesiastic, 
succeeded  Gregory  III.  as  Pope  of  Rome  in  741  a.d. 
He  compelled  Luitprand,  King  of  the  Longobards,  to 
restore  the  territories  which  he  had  taken  from  the 
exa/chate  of  Ravenna,  and  supported  Pepin  in  his  claim 
t.3  the  throne  of  France  in  opposition  to  Childeric,  (750.) 
He  wrote  a  "Life  of  Saint  Benedict,"  and  other  works, 
and  founded  numerous  churches.    Died  in  752. 

Zacharie.    See  Zachariah  and  Zacharias. 

Zacharie  de  Lisieux,  zt'kS'ie'  deh  le'ze-uh',  a 
French  monk,  born  at  Lisieux  in  1582.  He  produced, 
besides  other  books,  a  fanciful  work  called  "  Gyges  the 
Gaul,"  ("Gyges  Gallus,"  1659.)  He  wrote  under  the 
assumed  name  of  Petrus  Firmianus,  or  Firmian. 
Died  in  1660. 

Zachau,  tsiK'ow,  written  also  Zachaw,  (Fried- 
rich  WiLHELM,)  a  German  musician  and  composer, 
born  at  Leipsic  in  1663.  He  was  a  skilful  performer  on 
the  organ,  lived  at  Halle,  and  was  one  of  the  masters  of 
Handel.    Died  in  172 1. 

Zachee.    See  Zaccheus. 

Zachtleven  or  Zachtleevin.    See  Sachtleven. 

Zacuth,  (Abraham.)    See  Abraham  Zacuth. 

Zacuto  Lusitano,  zi-koo'to  loo-se-ti'no,  [Lat.  Za- 
CU'tus  Lusita'nus,]  a  Portuguese  physician  and  phi- 
losopher, of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1575. 
He  spent  the  latter  part  of  his  life  in  Amsterdam,  where 
he  published  several  medical  works.    Died  in  1642. 

Zacutus.    See  Zacuto. 

Za'dok  or  Za'doc,  [Heb.  pH};,]  a  Jewish  chief 
priest,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  David.  Zadok  and  the 
prophet  Nathan  anointed  Solomon  as  king. 

See  I.  Kings  i.  45,  ii.  35  ;  II.  Samuel  xv.  29,  35. 

Zahn,  tsan,  (Johann,)  a  German  philosopher,  born 
in  Franconia  in  1641,  published  "  Physico-Mathematico- 
Historical  Mirrors  of  Remarkable  and  Wonderful 
Things  to  be  Known,"  ("Specula  Physico-Mathematico 
Historica  Notabilium  ac  Mirabilium  sciendorum,"  1696.) 
Died  in  1707. 

Zahn,  (Johann  Karl  Wilhelm,)  a  German  artist, 
born  at  Rodenberg  in  1800,  spent  many  years  in  Italy, 
and  published  in  1828  a  work  entitled  "The  Finest 
Ornaments  and  Most  Remarkable  Pictures  from  Pom- 
peii, Herculaneum,  and  Stabiae."  He  was  appointed 
professor  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Berlin  in  1829. 

Zahrtmann,  ts^Rl'min,  (Christian  Christopher,) 
a  Danish  officer  and  hydrographer,  born  before  1800. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  the  campaign  of  181 5, 
and  subsequently  examined  the  coasts  of  Denmark,  of 
which  he  published  valuable  charts.  One  of  these, 
entitled  "The  Danish  Pilot,"  has  been  translated  into 
English  and  French.  He  was  appointed  hydrographer 
to  the  Danish  admiralty,  created  knight  grand  cross  of 
the  order  of  Dannebrog,  and  obtained  various  other 
distinctions.    Died  in  1853. 

Zaidoon,  Zaidoun,  or  Zaidun,  Ibn,  ib'n  zT'doon', 
(Abool-Waleed-  (or  Walid-)  Ahmed,  S^bool  w^-leed 
3.H'nied,)  an  Arabian  poet,  born  at  Cordova  in  1003. 
He  lived  at  Seville,  and  was  vizier  to  King  Motadhed. 
Died  in  1070. 

Zainer  or  Zeiner,  tsi'ner,  written  also  Tzainer, 
(GuN  iHER,)  a  celebrated  German  printer,  born  at  Reut- 
Imgen  about  1430,  was  the  first  to  establish  a  press 
at  Augsburg.  He  also  introduced  the  Roman  type 
into  Germany.  Died  in  1478.  His  brother  Johann 
founded  a  printing-establishment  at  Ulm. 

Zajonczek,  zS-yon'chgk,  (Joseph,)  a  Polish  general, 
born  at  Kamieniec  in  1752.  He  served  under  Kos- 
ciusko against  the  Russians,  and  afterwards  entered  the 
French  army,  fought  in  Italy  and  Egypt,  and  became 
a  general  of  division  in  1802.  He  lost  a  leg  in  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1812,  and  was  soon  after  made 
prisoner.  In  1815  he  was  appointed  Viceroy  of  Poland 
by  the  emperor  Alexander,  who  made  him  a  prince  in 
1818.  He  published,  in  French,  a  "  History  of  the  Polish 
Revolution  in  1794,"  (1797.)    Died  in  1826. 


ZAMAGNA 


Zakrzewski,  zSkR-zh&v'skee,  a  Polish  patriot,  born 
about  1744,  became  president  of  the  National  Council 
at  Warsaw  in  1794.  After  the  capture  of  that  city  by 
Suwarow,  he  was  arrested,  by  order  of  the  Russian 
government,  with  Potocki  and  others,  and  imprisoned 
at  Saint  Petersburg  till  the  accession  of  the  emperor 
Paul.    Died  in  1802. 

Zai,  zal,or  Zalzer, zSl'zar,  [i.e.  "golden-haired,"]  the 
name  of  an  ancient  Persian  warrior,  who  was  distin- 
guished for  his  heroic  achievements,  and  still  more  as 
the  father  of  the  famous  Roosi'am,  (which  see.)  He  is 
said  to  have  greatly  aided  Kai-Kobad  (the  first  of  the 
Kaianian  kings)  in  repelling  the  invasion  of  the  Tartars 
and  in  establishing  that  king  securely  on  the  throne  of 
Persia. 

See  "A  Short  History  of  Persia,"  in  vol.  v.  of  Sik  William 
JoNKs's  Works;  Atkinson's  "Abridgment  of  the  ShSh  NSmeh  of 

Firdausi." 

Zaleski,  zi-lSs'skee,  (Bohdan,)  a  Polish  poet,  born 
in  the  Ukraine  in  1802.  His  principal  works  are  entitled 
"The  Si^irit  of  the  Steppes,"  and  "The  Holy  Family." 

Za-leu'cus,  [Zu/l£i;/cof,]  an  eminent  Greek  legislator, 
supposed  to  have  been  born  about  700  B.C.  According 
to  tradition,  he  was  the  first  of  the  Greeks  who  pre- 
pared a  code  of  written  laws.  This  code — which,  he 
declared,  was  revealed  to  him  by  Minerva — was  made 
for  the  Epizephyrian  Locrians,  in  Southern  Italy.  He 
is  said  by  some  writers  to  have  been  killed  in  battle ; 
while  others  assert  that  he  committed  suicide  for  having 
thoughtlessly  violated  one  of  his  own  laws. 

See  RiTTERSHU.sius,  "  Oratio  de  Zaleuco  et  Charonda,"  etc., 
1591  ;  B.  PoRTOGHESE,  "  Frammenti  della  Legislazione  de  Zaleuco," 
etc.,  1842. 

Zallinger,  tsaKling-er,  (Franz  Seraphin,)  aTyrolese 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Botzen  in  1743,  published 
several  works.    Died  after  1800. 

Zallinger,  (Jakob  Anton,)  a  learned  Jesuit,  born  at 
Botzen,  in  the  Tyrol,  in  1735.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  in  Latin,  "The  Interpretation  of  Nature, 
or  the  Newtonian  Philosophy  Expounded,"  (3  vols., 
1773-75.)    Died  about  1802. 

Zailwein,  tsSKwin,  (Georg,)  a  German  canonist, 
born  in  the  Upper  Palatinate  in  1712.  He  was  professor 
of  canon  law  at  Salzburg,  and  wrote  on  that  subject. 
Died  in  1766. 

Zalmoxis.    See  Zamolxis. 

Zaluski,  zi-loos'skee,  (Andrew  Chrysostom,)  a 
Polish  statesman  and  pulpit  orator,  born  about  1650, 
rose  to  be  Bishoj)  of  Ermeland  and  grand  chancellor  of 
Poland  under  Augustus  II.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
valuable  and  interesting  work  entitled  "Historical  Epis- 
tles," ("Epistolae  historico-familiares.")    Died  in  171 1. 

Zaluski,  (Andrew  Stanislas,)  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  created  Bishop  of  Plock  by  Augustus  II., 
and  appointed  grand  chancellor  of  the  kingdom,  (1735.) 
He  became  Bishop  of  Cracow  in  1746.  He  was  distin- 
guished for  his  learning  and  his  patronage  of  literature. 
Died  in  1758. 

Zaluski,  (Joseph  Andrew,)  a  bibliophile,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1701.  Having  visited 
France,  Italy,  and  Germany,  he  became  after  his  return 
Bishop  of  Kief.  In  conjunction  with  his  brother  the 
Bishop  of  Cracow,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  task  of 
forming  a  library,  which  in  1748  amounted  to  230,000 
volumes  and  was  opened  to  the  public  at  Warsaw  the 
same  year.  In  1766  he  was  imprisoned,  by  order  of 
the  Russian  government,  for  having  denounced  the  Dis- 
sidents protected  by  that  country,  and  was  not  released  till 

1773.  While  in  prison  he  wrote  an  account,  in  verse,  of 
the  Polish  histories  contained  in  his  library.    He  died  in 

1774,  and  his  magnificent  collection  was,  on  the  partition 
of  Poland,  in  1795,  seized  by  the  Russian  government 
and  carried  to  Saint  Petersburg,  where  it  formed  the 
nucleus  of  the  Imi)erial  Library.  Many  books  were 
lost  on  the  way,  but  the  number  which  arrived  safely 
amounted  to  262,640  volumes,  of  which  the  greater  part 
were  French,  German,  and  English.  It  also  contained 
about  25,000  engravings. 

Zamagua,  dzS-mdn^yi,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian  Jesuit 
and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Ragusa  in  1 735.  He  translated 
the  poems  of  Hesiod  and  Theocritus,  and  the  "  Odyssey" 
of  Homer,  into  Latin  verse.    Died  in  1820. 


23  10 


a,  e,  T,  6,  ia,  y, long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  g56d;  moon; 


ZAMBECCARI  231 1  ZAT^E 


Zambeccari,  dzSm-bgk-ka'ree,(FRANCESCO,)  Count, 
a  distinguished  Italian  aeronaut,  born  at  Bologna  in 
1756.  He  maintained  the  theory  that  a  balloon  could 
be  managed  by  the  use  of  oars  and  by  increasing  or 
diminishing  the  gas,  and,  while  making  the  experiment, 
perished  by  his  balloon  being  caught  in  a  tree  and 
taking  fire,  (l8l2.) 

Zambeccari,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  physician  and 
medical  writer  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  a  native 
of  Florence,  and  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Pisa. 

Zani-be'li-os,  (John,)  a  Greek  poet,  born  in  one 
of  the  Ionian  Isles  in  1787.  He  wrote  lyric  poems, 
and  several  tragedies,  which  were  successful.  Died 
in  1856. 

Zambelli,  dzim-beKlee,  (Andrea,)  an  Italian  his- 
torian, born  at  Lonato  in  1794.  He  became  professor 
of  history  at  Pavi'a  in  1825,  and  president  of  the  Institute 
of  Milan  in  1845.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Treatise  on 
War." 

Zamboni,  dzim-bo'nee,  (Baldassare,)  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Brescia  about  1730;  died  in  1797. 

Zamet,  it'mW  (Jean,)  a  distinguished  military  officer, 
born  in  France,  was  a  son  of  the  following.  He  fought 
for  the  King  of  France  against  the  Huguenots,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  marechal-de-camp.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  a  model  Christian  soldier.  He  was  killed  at 
the  siege  of  Montpellier,  about  1621. 

Zamet,  dzl-met'  or  zt'mi',  (Sebastian,)  an  Italian 
financier  and  courtier,  born  at  Lucca  about  1549,  came 
to  Paris  in  his  youth.  He  became  a  confidential  agent 
of  Henry  IV.,  who  borrowed  money  of  him  and  em- 
ployed him  in  negotiations  and  intrigues.   Died  in  1614. 

Zamet,  (S6bastien,)  a  French  ecclesiastic,  was  a 
son  of  the  preceding.  He  became  Bishop  of  Langres 
in  161 5.  About  1630  he  founded  an  order  of  nuns  for 
the  adoration  of  the  Holy  Sacrament,  which  was  gov- 
erned by  Angelique  Arnauld.    Died  in  1655. 

Za-mol'xis  [Gr.  ZufioX^ig]  or  Zal-mox'is  [Gr.  ZaX- 
fio^i(;]  was  regarded  as  a  deity  by  the  ancient  Getae  or 
Thracians.  According  to  a  Greek  tradition,  he  was  a 
slave  and  pupil  of  Pythagoras,  and  he  taught  the  doc- 
trine of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  to  the  Getae. 

See  Rhousopoulos,  "  Dissertatio  de  Zamolxide,"  1852. 

Zamora,  thi-mo'rl,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish  physician, 
born  at  Salamanca  about  1570;  died  about  1640. 

Zamora,  (Lorenzo,)  a  Spanish  theologian  and  poet, 
born  at  Ocana  about  1550.  He  wrote  a  poem  ("La 
Saguntina")  on  the  siege  of  Saguntum.    Died  in  1614. 

Zamora,  de,  di  thi-mo'rl,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish 
dramatist,  who  lived  about  1710-50,  was  patronized  by 
Philip  V.  His  tragedy  entitled  "  Mazariegos  y  Mon- 
salves"  is  esteemed  one  of  his  best  works. 

Zamora,  de,  (Bernardo,)  a  learned  Spanish  monk, 
born  in  Leon  about  1720.  He  was  professor  of  Greek 
at  Salamanca,  and  wrote  several  works.    Died  in  1785. 

Zamori,  dzS-mo'ree,  or  Zamoreo,  dz3.-mo'rk-o,  (Ga- 
brio,)  an  Italian  jurist  and  Latin  poet,  born  at  Parma 
about  1320,  He  was  highly  praised  by  Petrarch,  who 
wa«  his  friend.    Died  about  1400. 

Zamosc.    See  Zamoyski. 

Zamoscius.    See  Zamoyski. 

Zamoyski,  zi-moi'skee,  written  also  Zamojski  and 
Zamosc,  (Andrew,)  a  Polish  statesman  and  philan- 
thropist, born  in  1716.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  Saxon  army,  attained  the  rank  of  major-general,  and 
in  1764  became  grand  chancellor  under  Stanislas  Au- 
gustus. He  published  in  1778  a  code  of  laws,  prepared 
at  the  request  of  the  Diet,  which,  on  account  of  its  pro- 
vision for  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs,  encountered 
general  opposition,  and  was  not  even  permitted  to  be 
read.  It  was,  however,  adopted  by  the  Diet  of  1791. 
He  died  in  1792.  His  wife,  originally  a  j^rincess  Czar- 
toryska,  was  also  distinguished  for  the  benevolence  of 
her  character  and  her  numerous  charities. 

Zamoyski,  (John,)  grandson  of  the  following,  was 
born  in  1626.  He  fought  against  the  Cossacks  in  1651, 
and  was  afterwards  appointed  Palatine  of  Sandomir  by 
John  Casimir.  He  also  distinguished  himself  in  the 
subsequent  wars  with  Sweden  and  Russia.  Died  in 
1665.  His  widow  was  afterwards  married  to  the  cele- 
brated Sobieski. 


Zamoyski  or  Zamosc,  [Lat.  Zamos'cius,]  (John 
Sarius,)  an  eminent  Polish  statesman,  general,  and 
scholar,  born  in  1541.  He  was  educated  at  Paris  and 
at  Padua,  where  he  studied  law.  In  1563  he  published 
at  Padua  or  Venice  an  able  treatise  "On  the  Roman 
Senate,"  ("  De  Senatu  Romano,")  which  Graevius  praised 
and  inserted  in  his  "Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Roma- 
narum."  He  returned  to  Poland  about  1565,  and  found 
a  bountiful  patron  in  King  Sigismund  Augustus,  who 
died  in  1572.  In  the  election  of  a  new  king,  Zamoyski, 
who  was  recognized  as  chief  of  the  equestrian  order, 
supported  Henry  of  Anjou,  who  was  elected,  and  ap- 
pointed Zamoyski  grand  chamberlain.  After  the  flight 
or  abdication  of  Henry,  (1574,)  Zamoyski  favoured  the 
election  of  Stephen  Bathori,  and  was  rewarded  with  the 
office  of  grand  chancellor.  He  was  the  most  influential 
Polish  statesman  in  the  reign  of  Bathori.  During  the  war 
against  the  Muscovites  he  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  in  1580,  and  he  negotiated  a  treaty  of  peace  in  1582, 
by  which  Livonia  and  Novogorod  were  ceded  to  Poland. 
He  married  a  niece  of  the  king  about  1582.  The  Swedish 
prince  Sigismund,  who  succeeded  Bathori  in  1586,  owed 
his  election  to  Zamoyski.  Maximilian  of  Austria,  who 
was  a  candidate  for  the  Polish  throne,  having  invaded 
Poland  with  an  army,  Zamoyski  defeated  him  and  took 
him  prisoner  about  the  end  of  1586,  He  commanded 
the  army  in  a  successful  campaign  against  the  Turks  in 
1595,  and  gained  some  victories  over  Charles,  Duke  of 
Sudermania,  in  Courland,  about  1597.  Among  his  works 
is  "  Logica  Stoica,  seu  Dialectica  Chrysippea."  Died 
in  1605. 

See  BuRSius,  "Vita  J.  Zamoscii,"  1619;  T.  Mostowski,  "Life 
of  J.  Zamoyski,"  (in  Polish,  1805;)  Bentkowski,  "Defense  de  J. 
Zamoyski,"  181 1. 

Zamoyski,  (Stanislas  Kostka  Francis  Rein- 
hold,)  a  Polish  politician,  born  at  Warsaw  in  1775,  was 
a  son  of  Andrew,  noticed  above.  He  became  a  privy 
councillor  at  Vienna  in  1795,  a  senator-palatine  about 
1809,  and  president  of  the  senate  of  Poland  in  1822. 
Died  in  1856. 

Zamoyski,  (Thomas,)  a  son  of  John  Sarius  Zamoy- 
ski, was  born  in  1595.  He  inherited  in  some  degree 
the  qualities  of  his  father,  and  was  appointed  grand 
chancellor  in  1635.    Died  in  1638. 

Zampi,  dzim'pee,  (Felice  Maria,)  a  famous  Italian 
preacher  and  poet,  born  at  Ascoli  about  1700.  His 
sermons  were  sometimes  rather  facetious,  or  deficient 
in  gravity.    Died  in  1774. 

Zampieri.    See  Domenichino. 

Zampieri,  dzSm-pe-a'ree,  (Camillo,)  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Imola  in  1701,  was  a  good  classical  scholar.  He 
became  a  senator  at  Bologna,  where  he  lived  many  years. 
He  produced  several  Latin  and  Italian  poems,  which  are 
commended.    Died  in  1784. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vits  Italorum  doctrina  excellentinm." 

Zanchi,  dzan'kee,  [Lat.  Zan'chius,]  (Basilic,)  an 
Italian  scholar  and  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Bergamo  about 
1 501,  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  elegant  Latin  poems, 
one  of  which  was  entitled  "  On  the  Garden  of  Wisdom," 
("  De  Horto  Sophiae.")  He  was  imprisoned  in  1558 
for  some  act  of  disobedience  to  the  pope,  and  died  the 
same  year. 

Zanchi,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  writer  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  was  the  author  of  a  history,  in  Latin,  of  one  of 
the  wars  of  the  Venetians  against  Maximilian,  King  of 
the  Romans. 

Zanchi,  (Gian  Crisostomo,)  brother  of  Basilio, 
noticed  above,  published  a  historical  work,  entitled 
"  On  the  Origin  of  the  Orobii  or  Cenomani,"  ("  De  Oro- 
biorum,  sive  Cenomanorum  Origine.")    Died  in  1566. 

Zanchi,  (Girolamo,)  a  son  of  Francesco,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  1516.  He  studied  divinity,  and  at  an 
early  age  became  one  of  the  canons  of  the  Lateran.  While 
at  Rome,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  the  Protestant 
reformer  Peter  Martyr,  and,  having  been  converted  to 
his  doctrines,  rejiaired  to  Heidelberg,  in  Germany,  where 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  controversial  and  theological 
works.    Died  in  1590. 

Zane,  dzi'ni,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  lyric  poet  of  high 
reputation,  born  at  Venice  in  1529;  died  in  1560. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  Yiy guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (J^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZANETTI 


23 1 2 


ZARATE 


Zanetti,  dzi-net'tee,  (Antonio  Maria,)  Count,  a 
Veiii^tian  engraver  and  amateur,  born  about  1680,  made 
a  choice  collection  of  anticjue  gems  and  other  works 
of  art.  He  also  published  several  treatises  on  art  and 
antiquities.    Died  in  1766. 

Zanetti,  (Antonio  Maria,)  a  relative  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Venice  in  1716.  He  became  libra- 
rian of  Saint  Mark,  and  was  the  author  of  a  valuable 
work  on  Venetian  painting,  (*'  Delia  Pittura  Veneziana.") 
Died  in  1778. 

Zanetti,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  historian,  born 
near  Treviso  in  1690.  He  published  a  "  History  of  the 
Lombards,"  ("  Del  Regno  de'  Longobardi  in  Italia,"  2 
vols.,  1753.)    Died  in  1762. 

Zanetti,  (Girolamo  Francesco,)  brother  of  Antonio 
Maria,  (the  second  of  the  name,)  was  born  at  Venice  in 
1 713.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Padua,  and  wrote 
several  antiquarian  works.    Died  in  1782, 

Zanetti,  (GuiDO,)  an  eminent  Italian  numismatist, 
born  in  the  province  of  Bologna  in  1 741.  He  published 
a  work  on  Italian  coins,  entitled  "Nuova  Raccolta  delle 
Monete  e  Zecche  d'ltalia,"  (5  vols.,  1775-89.)  Died  in 
1791. 

Zangiacomi,  zSw'zht'ko'me',  (Joseph,)  Baron,  a 
French  judge,  born  at  Nancy  in  1766.  He  was  a  mod- 
erate member  of  the  Convention,  (1792-95,)  and  became 
a  judge  in  1800.  In  1831  he  was  appointed  president  of 
the  chamber  of  requests.    Died  in  1846. 

See  Paillart,  "  filoge  de  Zangiacomi,"  1854. 

Zanichelli,  dzJ-ne-keKlee,  or  Zannichelli,  (Gian 
Girolamo,)  an  Italian  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at 
Modena  in  1662,  was  the  author  of  several  scientific 
treatises.  A  genus  of  plants  has  been  named  Zaiini- 
(hellia  in  his  honour.    Died  in  1729. 

Zannichelli.    See  Zanichelli. 

Zannini,  dzJ-nee^nee,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  physician, 
born  in  1781,  lived  at  Venice.    Died  in  1843. 

Zannoni,  dzS-no^nee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an 
Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Florence  in  1774,  was  a  pupil 
of  Lanzi,  and  became  in  181 7  secretary  of  the  Academy 
della  Crusca.  He  published  a  history  of  that  academy, 
and  several  treatises  on  numismatics  and  ancient  art. 
Died  in  1832. 

See  C.  Cavedoni,  "  Bi'ografia  del  Cavaliere  G.  T5.  Zannoni," 
1835:  F.  Becchi,  "  Elogio  del  Cavaliere  G.  B.  Zannoni,"  1838. 

Zanobi  da  Strata,  dzS-no'bee  dJ  stR^'tS,  an  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Strata,  near  Florence,  in  13 12.  He  was 
crowned  with  laurel  by  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  in  1355. 
Died  in  1361. 

Zanolini,  dzS-no-lee'nee,  (  Antonio,  )  an  eminent 
Italian  Orientalist,  born  at  Padua  in  1693.  He  became 
professor  of  Hebrew  and  Syriac  at  Padua,  and  published 
lexicons  and  grammars  of  the  Hebrew  and  Syriac  lan- 
guages.   Died  in  1762. 

Zanoni,  dzS-no'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian  agricul- 
turist, born  at  Udine  in  1696.  He  made  experiments  in 
rural  economy,  and  published  several  works  on  that 
subject.    Died  in  1770. 

Zanoni,  (Giacomo,)  an  Italian  botanist,  born  in 
Lombardy  in  161 5.  He  was  keeper  of  the  botanic  gar- 
den of  Bologna,  and  published  a  botanical  work  entitled 
"Botanical  History  of  Rare  Plants,"  etc.,  ("  Storia  bo- 
tanica  delle  Piante  piu  rare,"  etc.,  1675.)    Died  in  1682. 

Zanotti,  dzS-not'tee,  (Eustachio,)  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician and  astronomer,  son  of  Giampietro,  noticed 
below,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1709.  He  became  ])ro- 
fessor  of  astronomy  in  his  native  city,  and  published 
several  scientific  works  in  Latin  and  Italian.  Died  in 
1782. 

See  Vannetti,  "  Commentarius  de  Vita  E.  Zanotti,"  1786. 

Zanotti,  (Francesco  Maria,)  an  Italian  scholar  and 
philosopher,  born  at  Bologna  in  1692.  He  became  suc- 
cessively professor  of  philosophy,  librarian,  and  president 
of  the  university  in  his  native  city.  He  was  the  author 
of  poems  in  Latin  and  Italian,  and  several  treatises  on 
physics,  mathematics,  and  art.    Died  in  1777. 

Zanotti,  (Giampietro  Cavazzoni,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  art-critic,  born  in  1674,  was  a  jMipil  of  Lorenzo 
Pasinelli  at  Bologna.  He  published  "  Hints  to  a  Young 
Painter,"  a  "  Life  of  Pasinelli,"  "  History  of  the  Clemen- 


tine Academy  of  Bologna,"  and  other  works.  Died  in 
1765. 

Zanten,  van,  vSn  zin'ten,  (Jacob,)  a  Dutch  physician 
and  translator,  born  about  1650.  He  became  minister 
of  the  Mennonite  church  at  Haarlem  in  1707.  He 
translated  into  Dutch  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost."  Died 
after  1729. 

Zanzalus.    See  Barad^us. 

Zapata,  th^-pi'ta,  (Antonio,)  a  Spanish  cardinal, 
born  at  Madrid  about  1550.  He  was  appointed  Viceroy 
of  Naples  in  1620,  but  was  soon  removed.    Died  in  1635. 

Zapata,  (Antonio  or  Lupian,)  a  Spanish  historian, 
born  at  Segorbe  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Zapata,  dzi-pi't^,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
physician,  born  probably  at  Rome  about  1520.  He 
published  a  work  called  "Wonderful  Secrets  of  Medi- 
cine," ("  Maravigliosi  Secreti  di  Medicina,"  2d  edition, 
1586.)    Died  after  1586. 

Zapf,  tsipf,  (Georg  Wilhelm,)  a  learned  German 
antiquary,  born  at  Nordlingen  in  1747.  He  published 
numerous  works,  among  which  are  a  "Bibliography 
of  Ancient  and  Modern  History,"  (1781,)  "History  of 
Printing  at  Augsburg,"  (2  vols.,  1788-91,)  and  "Lives 
of  Celebrated  Savants  and  Artists  of  All  Time,"  (1806.) 
Died  in  1810. 

Zapf,  (NiKOLAUS,)  a  German  Lutheran  writer  on 
theology,  born  at  Milwitz  in  1600,  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Erfurt  in  1633,  and  court  preacher  to 
the  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar  in  1642.  He  was  eminent 
for  learning  and  other  merits.    Died  in  1672. 

Zapolya,  zi-poKyi,  or  Zapoly,  zi'pol,  (John,)  son 
of  Stephen,  noticed  below,  was  born  in  1487,  and  was 
proclaimed  King  of  Hungary  in  1526,  in  opposition 
to  Ferdinand  of  Austria.  After  a  protracted  contest, 
Zapolya  was  forced  to  give  up  his  claim  to  all  except 
Transylvania  and  a  few  other  territories.    Died  in  1540. 

Zapolya  or  Zapoly,  (John  II.,)  a  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1540.  He  inherited  the  principality 
of  Transylvania.    Died  in  1570  or  157 1. 

Zapolya,  (Stephen,)  a  distinguished  military  com- 
mander under  Matthias  Corvinus,  King  of  Hungary, 
was  appointed  by  that  sovereign  Governor  of  Austria. 
His  daughter  Barbara  was  married  to  Sigismund  I., 
King  of  Poland.    Died  in  1499. 

Zappi,  dzap'pee,  (Giovanni  Battista,)  an  Italian 
moralist,  born  at  Imola  about  1540.  He  published  a 
work  entitled  "The  Field  of  Spiritual  Philosophy," 
("  Prato  della  Filosofia  spirituale,"  1577.)  Died  after 
1585- 

Zappi,  (Giovanni  Battista  Felice,)  an  Italian 
poet  and  jurist,  born  at  Imola  in  1667.  He  was  the 
author  of  sonnets,  eclogues,  and  other  poems,  which 
are  greatly  admired  for  the  grace  and  purity  of  their 
style.  Died  in  1719.  His  wife  Faustina,  daughter  of 
Carlo  Maratta,  was  also  distinguished  for  her  accom- 
plishments and  poetic  talents. 

Zara,  dzi'rS,  (Anionio,)  Bishop  of  Pedena,  was 
born  at  Aquileia  in  1574.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled 
"  Anatomy  of  Inventions  and  Sciences,"  ("  Anatomia 
Ingeniorum  et  Scientiarum,"  1615.) 

Zarate,  (Antonio.)    See  Gil  y  Zarate. 

Zarate  or  Qarate,  de,  d^  thS-ri'ti,  (Augustin,)  a 
Spanish  historian,  who  in  1543  accompanied  Blasco 
Nunez  de  Vela,  Viceroy  of  Peru,  to  South  America.  Pie 
held  the  office  of  master-general  of  accounts  in  Peru 
and  Terra  Firma,  and,  after  the  deposition  of  Vela, 
was  sent  on  an  important  embassy  to  Gonzalo  Pizarro. 
He  published  in  1555  his  "History  of  the  Discovery 
and  Conquest  of  Peru,"  which  has  been  translated 
into  French  and  Italian.  It  is  esteemed  a  judicious  and 
reliable  work.    Died  about  i!;6o. 

See  Prescott,  "History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  ii. 

book  V. 

Zarate,  de,  (Fernando,)  a  Spanish  dramatist  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  the  author  of  "El  Maestro  de 
Alejandro,"  and  several  other  comedies,  also  a  collection 
of  poems. 

Zarate,  de,  (Francisco  Lopez,)  a  Spanish  poet,  born 
at  Logrono  about  1580.  He  was  the  author  of  lyric 
poems  entitled  "Silvas"  and  "Eclogues,"  which  have  a 
iiigh  reputation.    Died  in  1658. 


a,  e,  T,  o,  li,  y,  loig;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1,  6,  li,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  ftr,  fill,  f<lt;  m§t;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ZARATHUSTRA 


2313 


ZEISBERGER 


Zarathustra.    See  Zoroaster. 

Zai'co,  (JoAO  Gonzalez,)  a  Portuguese  navigator, 
discovered  in  141 7  the  island  of  Porto  Santo,  near  the 
C(>;ist  of  Africa,  and  in  1419  the  island  of  Madeira,  to 
which  he  gave  this  name  on  account  of  the  dense  forests 
with  which  it  was  covered.  Zarco  founded  the  town  of 
Funchal,  and  was  made  governor  of  the  island  con- 
jointly with  his  companion,  Tristao  Vaz. 

Zaremba,  tsi-rgm'bl,  (Michael  Constantine,)  a 
Prussian  general,  born  in  Lithuania  in  1711;  died  in 
1786.  . 

Zarlino,  dzSR-lee'no,  (Giuseppe,)  an  eminent  Italian 
musician  and  composer,  born  at  Chioggia  about  1520, 
was  chapel-master  at  Saint  Mark's,  Venice.  He  com- 
posed music  for  churches,  and  published  "  Instituzione 
armoniche,"  (1558.)    Died  in  1590. 

See  Ravagnan,  "Elogiodi  G.  Zarlino,"  1819  ;  F.  Caffi,  "  Nar- 
razior.e  ciella  Vita  di  G.  Zarlino,"  1836. 

Za^'si-us,  [Ger.  pron.  tsi'ze-vis,]  written  also  Zazius, 
[Fr.  Zase,  zaz,]  (Ulric,)  an  eminent  Swiss  or  German 
jurist,  born  at  Constance  in  1461,  was  a  friend  of  Eras- 
mus. He  became  professor  of  law  at  Friburg,  and  was 
regarded  as  an  oracle  in  that  science.  He  published  a 
number  of  legal  works,  among  which  is  "Method  of 
Law,"  ("Methodus  Juris.")    Died  in  1535. 

See  RiEGGER,  "  Life  of  Zasius,"  Ulm,  1774. 

Zauner,  tsow'ner,  (Franz,)  a  German  sculptor,  born 
in  1746,  was  patronized  by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa. 
Am(;ng  his  best  works  may  be  named  the  monument  of 
Leopold  H.,  and  the  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Joseph 
II.  He  was  director  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Vienna, 
Died  in  1822. 

Zavarroni,  dzl-var-ro'nee,  (Angelo,)  an  Italian 
antiquary  and  biographer,  born  at  Montalto  in  17 10. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  "Calabrian  Library," 
("  Bibliotheca  Calabra,"  1753,)  which  consists  of  the 
lives  of  Calabrian  authors.    Died  in  1767. 

Zawadowski,  zJ-vi-dov'skee,  (Peter,)  Count,  a 
Russian  minister  of  state,  born  in  1738.  He  rendered 
important  services  by  promoting  order  and  education  in 
Russia,  and  became  minister  of  public  instruction  in 
1802.    Died  in  1812. 

Zawisza,  zi-vee'shi,  surnamed  THE  Black,  a  Polish 
soldier,  served  under  the  emperor  vSigismund,  and  was 
killed  in  the  Turkish  canq)ai>in  of  1420. 

Zayas  y  Sotomayor,  de,  d^  thi'yS.s  e  so-to-ml- 
y6R',  (Dona  Maria,)  a  Spanish  poetess,  born  of  a  noble 
family  at  Madrid.  She  published  "Moral  and  Amorous 
Tales,"  ("  Novelas  exemplares  y  amorosas,"  1634,)  which 
are  commended. 

Zbarawski.    See  Zhorowski. 

Zborowski,  zbo-rov'skee,  written  also  Zbarawski, 
(John,)  Prince  of,  a  Polish  general,  who  distinguished 
himself  in  war  against  the  Muscovites  and  Tartars  in 
the  reigns  of  Stephen  Bathori  and  Sigismund  III. 
Died  in  1608. 

Zea,  sa'd  or  tha'^,  (Don  Francisco  Antonio,)  a 
distinguished  South  American  statesman  and  naturalist, 
born  at  Medellin,  in  New  Granada,  in  1770.  Having 
incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  Spanish  government  by 
his  liberal  sentiments,  he  was  imprisoned  two  years  in 
Spain.  He  was  appointed  in  1805  professor  of  natural 
sciences  and  director  of  the  Royal  Botanical  Garden  at 
Madrid.  Under  Joseph  Bonaparte  he  became  minister 
of  the  interior  and  Governor  of  Malaga.  He  sailed  in 
1814  for  South  America,  where  he  joined  Bolivar  against 
the  Spaniards,  was  made  intendant-general  of  the  armies 
of  the  republic  of  Colombia,  and  elected  Vice-President 
in  1819.  He  was  sent  as  minister  to  England  in  1820, 
and  died  at  Bath  in  1822: 

See  "  Kiographie  Universelle,"  (new  edition.) 

Zea-Bermudez,  tha'S  b§R-moo'D§th,  (Don  Fran- 
cisco,) a  Spanish  diplomatist,  born  at  Malaga  in  1772, 
was  employed  on  embassies  to  Saint  Petersburg,  Con- 
stantinople, and  London,  and  in  1824  succeeded  Count 
de  Ofalia  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  Died  in  Paris 
in  18^0.  , 

Zeb'u-lun,  [Heb.  par  or  p13T ;  Fr.  Zabulon,  zt'bu'- 
16n',]  a  son  of  the  Hebrew  patriarch  Jacob,  was  the  head 
of  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel. 

See  Genesis  xxx.  20,  xlix.  13. 


Zecchi,  dzgk'kee,  [Lat.  Zec'chius,]  (Giovanni,)  an 
Italian  physician,  born  at  Bologna  in  1533.  He  prac« 
tised  in  Rome,  and  was  employed  by  several  popes. 
He  published  a  number  of  professional  works.  Died 
in  1601. 

Zecchini,  dz§k-kee'nee,  (Petronio,)  an  Italian  medi- 
cal writer,  born  at  Bologna  in  1739 ;  died  in  1793. 
Zecchius.    See  Zecchl 

Zech,  ts^K,  (Franz  Xaver,)  a  German  Jesuit,  dis- 
tinguished as  a  canonist,  was  born  in  Franconia  in  1692. 
He  published  four  works  which  form  a  complete  course 
of  canon  law.    Died  at  Munich  in  1772. 

Ze-eh-a-ri'ah,  [Heb.  nnjT ;  Fr.  Zacharie,  zt'kt're^j 
one  of  the  twelve  minor  Hebrew  prophets,  was  the  son 
of  Berechiah,  and  began  to  prophesy  about  520  B.C. 

Zed-e-ki'ah,  [Heb.  H'pl^f  or  IH^piy,]  son  of  Josiah, 
King  of  Judah,  began  to  reign  about  600  B.C.  Having 
joined  Pharaoh-Hophra,  King  of  Egypt,  in  a  rebellion 
against  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  latter  laid  siege  to  Jeru- 
salem, which  he  took  after  nineteen  months,  (586  B.C.) 
Zedekiah's  sons  were  slain  before  his  eyes,  by  order  of 
the  king,  and  he  himself  imprisoned  for  life  at  Babylon, 
having  previously  been  made  blind. 

See  n.  Chronicles  xxxvi.  10;  Jeremiah  xxxii. 

Zedler,  ts^d'ler,  (Johann  Heinrich,)  a  German 
bookseller,  born  at  Breslau  in  1706,  was  the  publisher 
of  the  "Universal  Lexicon  of  Science  and  Arts,"  (6^ 
vols.,  1731-50.)    Died  in  1760. 

Zedlitz,  ts^d'lits,  (Joseph  Christian,)  Baron,  a 
German  poet,  born  at  Johannesberg  in  1790,  published 
a  number  of  lyrics  and  tragedies,  and  translated  Byron's 
"Childe  Harold"  into  German.    Died  in  1862. 

See  Longfellow,  "  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe." 

Zedlitz,  von,  fon  tsgd'lits,  (Karl  Abraham,)  Baron, 
a  Prussian  statesman,  born  near  Landshut,  in  Silesia,  in 
1 73 1.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  justice  in  1770, 
and  the  next  year  the  king  confided  to  him  the  de- 
partment of  ecclesiastic  affairs  and  public  instruction. 
He  promoted  the  liberty  of  the  press,  and  reform  in  the 
prisons.    He  resigned  office  in  1789.    Died  in  1793. 

Zeeinan,za'man,(REMiGius,)  a  Dutch  marine  painter, 
whose  original  name  was  NoOMS,  born  at  Amsterdam  in 
1612. 

Zegabene.    See  Zegabenus. 

Zeg-a-be'nus,  [Fr.  Zegabene,  z^'gi^bin',]  (Geor- 
Gius,)  a  Byzantine  writer  of  unknown  period.  He  wrote, 
in  verse,  a  work  on  the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 

Zeg'e'din',  (Stephen  ok,)  a  Hungarian  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Zegedin  in  1505,  was  a  pupil  of 
Luther  at  Wittenberg.  He  was  often  persecuted  and 
driven  from  place  to  place.    Died  in  1572. 

Zegers  or  Segers,  za'gers  or  za'ners,  (Hercules,)  a 
Dutch  landscape-painter  and  engraver  of  great  merit, 
was  born  about  1625.  Notwithstanding  the  excellence 
of  his  works,  he  was  very  unsuccessful  in  disposing  of 
them,  and,  discouraged  by  his  bad  fortune,  gave  himself 
up  to  intemperance.  He  died  in  consequence  of  a  fall 
when  intoxicated.  His  prints,  after  his  death,  were  sold 
for  very  high  prices. 

Zegers,  za'gers  or  zi'zhaiR',  (Tacite  Nicolas,)  a 
Flemish  theologian,  born  at  Brussels  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  an  edition 
of  the  New  Testament  in  Latin,  (1559.)  According  to 
the  "  Biographic  Universelle,"  he  was  one  of  t^g  best 
critics  of  his  time.    Died  in  1559. 

Zeiad.    See  Zeyad. 

Zeibich,  tsi'biK,  (Karl  Heinrich,)  a  German  writer 
on  theology,  born  at  Edemburg  in  171 7,  was  professor 
at  Wittenberg.    Died  in  1763. 

Zeid.    See  Zeyd. 

Zeidoun  or  Zeidun.    See  Zaidoon. 

Zeiler,  tsi'ler,  or  Zeiller,  (Martin,)  a  German  geog- 
rapher and  writer  on  various  subjects,  was  born  in 
Styria  in  1589.  He  published  some  useful  works  on  the 
geograj^hy  and  topography  of  Germany.    Died  in  1661. 

Zeisberger,  tsTs'WRG  er,  (David,)  a  German  mission- 
ary among  the  American  Indians,  was  born  in  Moravia 
in  1 721.  Having  been  educated  by  the  Society  of  Mo- 
ravians, he  emigrated  to  Pennsylvania,  where  he  assisted 
in  founding  the  town  of  Bethlehem.  He  afterwards 
established  missions  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Michigan, 


€  as  r;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2!^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZELADA 


2314 


ZENO 


and  Canada.  He  published  several  religious  and  educa- 
tional works  in  the  Delaware  language.    Died  in  1808. 

See  Edmund  de  ScHWEiNrrz,  "  Tlie  Life  and  Times  of  David 
^eisberger;"  "Weekly  New  York  Tribune"  for  November  23,  1870. 

Zelada,  dzi-13,Ma,  (Francksco  Saverio,)  an  Italian 
cardinal,  and  liberal  patron  of  learning,  was  born  about 
1 71 7.  He  became  keeper  of  the  library  of  the  Vatican. 
Died  in  1801. 

Zelich,  za'lik  or  dza'lik,  (G.,)  a  Dalmatian  scholar 
and  ecclesiastic,  born  in  1752,  visited  Germany  and 
Russia,  and  wrote  an  account  of  his  travels,  entitled 
"Life,  Adventures,  etc.  of  G.  Zelich,"  (Buda,  1823,)  said 
to  have  been  the  first  prose  work  in  the  Servian  language. 
Died  about  1822. 

See  L.  Brightwell,  "  By- Paths  of  Biography." 

Zell,  ts§I,  (Karl,)  a  German  scholar  and  critic,  born 
at  Mannheim  in  1793,  studied  at  Heidelberg  under 
Creuzer.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  an  edition 
of  Aristotle's  "Ethica  Nicomachea,"  "  Ferienschriften," 
(3  vols.,  1826-33,)  a  series  of  treatises  highly  commended 
by  Goethe,  and  a  "Manual  of  Roman  Epigraphy," 
(1850.)    He  became  professor  at  Heidelberg  in  1847. 

Zell,  tsgl  or  zl\,  (Ulrich,)  the  first  printer'of  Cologne, 
established  a  press  in  that  city  about  1462,  and  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  "  Augustinus  de  Vita  Chris- 
tiana," and  "  Biblia  Latina." 

Zeller,  ts^Kler,  (Eduard,)  a  German  theologian,  born 
in  WUrtemberg  in  1814,  ]Dublished,  among  other  works, 
"  Platonic  Studies,"  (1839,)  and  "The  Theological  Sys- 
tem of  Zvvingle,"  (1853.) 

Zeller,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  learned  German  phy- 
sician, born  in  WUrtemberg  in  1656.  He  was  professor 
of  medicine  at  Tubingen,  where  he  died  in  1734. 

Zelotti,  dzk-lot'tee,  (Battista,)  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Verona  in  1532,  was  contemporary  with  Paul 
Veronese,  to  whom  in  some  respects  he  is  esteemed 
superior.  Among  his  master-pieces  are  a  series  of 
frescos  at  Cataio,  representing  the  achievements  of  the 
Obizzi  family.    Died  in  1592. 

Zelter,  tsgl'ter,  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  distinguished 
German  composer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1758.  He  was 
instructed  in  music  by  Fasch,.whom  he  succeeded  in 
1800  as  teacher  of  the  Academy  of  Singing,  called  by 
his  name.  In  1809  he  was  appointed,  by  the  King  of 
Prussia,  professor  of  music  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences  at  Berlin.  He  numbered  among  his  pupils  the 
celebrated  Mendelssohn,  and  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Goethe.  He  died  in  1832,  leaving  his  "  Correspondence 
with  Goethe,"  which  appeared  in  1833. 

Zeltner,  ts^lt'ner,  (Gustav  Georg,)  a  learned  Ger- 
man philologist  and  writer,  born  near  Nuremberg  in  1672. 
He  was  professor  of  theology  and  Oriental  languages 
at  Altdorf  for  twenty-four  years.    Died  in  1738. 

Zenale,  dz^-nS'l^,  (Bernardino,)  an  Italian  painter 
and  architect,  born  about  1450.  He  worked  at  Milan, 
where  he  was  often  consulted  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci. 

Zend  Avesta.    See  Zoroaster. 

Zendrini,  dz§n-dree'nee,  (Bernardo,)  an  Italian 
natural  philosopher,  born  in  1679,  resided  at  Venice, 
where  he  was  appointed  chief  engineer  to  the  republic. 
He  was  also  employed  in  various  important  works  by 
the  Austrian  government,  and  published  several  valuable 
treatises  on  hvdraulics,  astronomy,  etc.    Died  in  1747. 

Zeiiner,  tsgn'ner,  (Gottfried^)  a  German  philologist 
and  jurist,  born  at  Altenburg.  He  was  for  twenty  years 
secretary  to  the  Prince  of  Anhalt.  According  to  the 
"  Biograjihie  Universelle,"  he  was  born  in  1596  and 
died  in  1721. 

Ze'no  or  Ze'non,  [Gr.  Z']vuv ;  Fr.  Z^non,  zi'niw'; 
It.  Zknone,  dzk-no'nk,]  a  celebrated  Greek  philosopher, 
the  founder  of  the  school  of  Stoics,  was  born  at  Citium, 
in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  about  355  1}.C.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Crates  the  Cynic,  and  afterwards  received  instruction 
from  Stilpo  and  Polemon  at  Athens.  He  settled  at 
Athens  at  an  early  age,  and,  having  formed  a  new  sys- 
tem by  selections  from  different  philosojihers,  he  opened 
a  school  in  the  Athenian  porch,  called  aroa  TtoLKiki],  ( Stoa 
Poicite,)  "painted  Porch,  (or  Portico.")  His  disciples 
were  at  first  called  Zenonians,  but  afterwards  they  were 
styled  the  i^hilosophers  of  the  Porch,  (or  Portico,)  or, 
more  briefly,  "those  of  the  Porch,"  oi  ek  rfig  arouq,  or  oi 


OTioiKoi,  (in  Latin,  Stolid,  English  "  Stoics.")  He  is  said  to 
have  taught  philosophy  at  Athens  for  fifty-eight  years. 
His  discipline  was  severe.  He  was  distinguished  by 
his  gravity,  modesty,  austere  morality,  and  firmness  of 
character.  In  the  use  of  words  he  aimed  at  sententious 
brevity.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works,  which  are  not  ex- 
tant. Our  information  about  the  principles  of  his  system 
is  very  scanty.  He  is  said  to  have  taught,  among  other 
things,  that  virtue  is  the  summum  bonum,  and  that  the 
accordance  of  individual  reason  with  the  universal  Reason 
{i.e.  the  Divine  Law)  is  virtue  ;  and  to  have  originated 
the  fourfold  division  of  the  affections,  desire  and  fear, 
pleasure  and  pain.  The  doctrine  of  the  Stoics  that  pain 
is  not  an  evil  has  excited  much  wonder  and  some  ridi- 
cule, both  in  ancient  and  modern  times  ;  but  essentially 
the  same  doctrine  has  been  held  by  great  and  heroic 
men  in  all  ages.  Zeno  meant  nothing  more  than  that 
pain,  (including  sickness,  toil,  grief  for  the  loss  of  one's 
property,  etc.,)  causing  a  mere  temporary  inconvenience 
to  the  body,*  was  not  to  be  classed  in  the  same  category 
with  such  evils  as  crime,  cowardice,  or  dishonour, — evils 
which  stamp  themselves  indelibly  upon  the  soul.  In 
comparing  the  doctrines  of  the  Stoics  with  those  of 
Epicurus,  it  is  a  triumphant  recommendation  of  the 
former  that,  after  the  introduction  of  Grecian  letters  and 
philosophy  among  the  Romans,  those  who  were  the  most 
eminent  of  all  for  public  and  private  virtue — such  as 
Cato  the  Younger,  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  many  others — • 
were  among  the  disciples  of  the  Porch,  while  scarcely 
one  man  of  distinguished  virtue  can  be  pointed  to  in  the 
ranks  of  the  Epicureans.!  It  was  a  glorious  testimony 
to  the  character  of  Zeno  both  as  a  man  and  as  a  teacher 
of  virtue  that,  though  a  stranger,  the  Athenians  reposed 
in  him  the  most  unbounded  confidence  while  he  was 
alive,  and  after  his  death  they  decreed  him  a  golden 
crown  and  a  public  burial,  because,  during  his  long 
residence  at  Athens,  he  had,  both  by  precept  and  by  a 
consistent  example,  led  the  young  men  who  attended  his 
school  to  the  practice  of  wisdom  and  virtue.  Zeno  died 
about  the  age  of  ninety-eight,  and  was  succeeded  by  Cle- 
anthes  as  the  head  of  the  school.  The  Stoic  philosophy 
appears  to  have  been  somewhat  modified  by  several  of 
the  disciples  and  successors  of  Zeno.  Some  of  the  Stoics 
maintained  that  the  wise  man  is  perfect ;  that  he  only  is 
rich,  free,  noble,  and  beautiful  :  "  Solos  sapientes  esse, 
si  distortissimi  sint,  formosos  ;  si  mendicissimi,  divites  ; 
si  servitutem  serviant,  reges."  (Cicero,  "  Pro  Murena.") 
According  to  Cicero,  they  taught  that  all  sins  were 
equal,  that  a  wise  man  is  never  mistaken,  never  changes 
his  mind,  and  is  never  moved  by  compassion. 

See  Dkigenhs  Laertius,  "Life  of  Zeno:"  Ritter,  "  History 
of  Philosophy;"  G.  H.  Lewes,  "Biographical  History  of  Piiiloso- 
phy  ;"  CiCKRO,  "  De  Finibus"  and  "  Academica  ;"  P'okemus,  "  Zeno 
Phiiosophus,"  1700;  Jenichen,  "  De  Zenone  Cittico,"  1724:  Tiede- 
MANM,  "System  der  Stoischen  Philnsophie,"  3  vols.,  1776;  Smith, 
"  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography,"  etc. 

Ze'no  or  Ze'non  [Gr.  Z^vwv]  of  Elea,  [Lat.  Ze'no 
Elea'tes  ;  Fr.  Z6non  d'El^:e,  /.a'n6.N"'clk'ii',  |  an  eminent 
Greek  piiilosopher,  born  at  Ele.i,  in  Southern  Italy,  about 
495  B.C.  He  was  the  fav(jurite  disciple  of  Parmenides, 
in  company  with  whom  he  visited  Athens  when  vSocrates 
was  very  young.  Plato,  in  his  dialogue  entitled  "  Par- 
menides," states  that  Zeno  was  about  forty  years  old 
when  he  came  to  Athens.  According  to  Plutarch,  Zeno 
was  one  of  the  masters  of  Pericles.  It  is  probable  that 
he  remained  at  Athens  for  several  years  ;  but  the  events 
of  his  life  are  mostly  involved  in  obscurity.  According 
to  a  tradition  current  among  the  ancients,  Zeno  took  an 
active  part  in  the  public  affairs  of  Elea,  and  lost  his  life 
in  an  attempt  to  liberate  that  city  from  a  tyrant.  His 
doctrines  were  the  same  as  those  of  Parmenides.  Their 


*  The  same  general  idea  was  carried  still  farther  by  the  early 
Christians.  Thus,  Saint  Paul  says,  "  We  glorv  in  tribulations," 
(Romans  v.  3,)  and  James.  "  My  brethren,  count  it  all  joy  when  ye 
fall  into  various  trials,"  (n-eipao-juoi?  Trot/ct'Aois.)  (Epistle  of  James,  i. 
2.)  Nor  is  this  view  limited  to  the  early  Christians.  "  I  am  fully  con- 
vinced," says  Zschokke,  "that  there  ls  no  evil  in  the  world 
BUT  SIN."  In  another  place  he  savs,  "Thousih  some  mav  shake 
their  heads  incredulously,  it  is  a  fact  that  world'y  suff-rins;  has 

OFTEN  NOT  BEEN  DI.SAGREE A BLE  TO  ME."     (See  Zschokke's  "  AutO" 

biosraohy.") 

t  The  only  exception  that  we  can  call  to  mind  is  Pomponius  At- 
ticus,  an  amiable  and  most  estimable  man  in  private  life,  but  without 
any  just  claims  to  public  virtue. 


e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n&t;  good;  moon; 


ZENO 


2315 


ZENOBU 


doctrine  of  absolute  unity  produced  a  great  effect  at 
Athens.  Zeno  was  distinguished  by  his  subtle  and  bold 
dialectic.  "What  is,"  says  Victor  Cousin,  "the  most 
original  and  prominent  trait  of  Zeno  as  a  philosopher.'' 
It  is  evidently  the  invention  of  dialectic,  considered  as 
a  system  and  an  art."  Diogenes  Laertius  reports,  on  the 
authority  of  Aristotle,  "  that  Zeno  was  the  inventor  of  dia- 
lectic." He  was  the  first  Eleatic  philosopher  that  wrote 
in  prose.  His  works,  which  were  mostly  ])olemical  and 
refutations  of  attacks  on  the  system  of  Parmenides,  have 
not  come  down  to  us.  He  attempted  to  disprove  the 
possibility  or  reality  of  absolute  motion  by  several  argu- 
ments founded  on  the  infinite  divisibility  of  space  and 
time.  He  also  showed  the  absurd  consequences  which 
result  from  the  hypothesis  of  those  who  deny  the  prin- 
ciple of  absolute  unity  and  maintain  the  plurality  of  the 
existent. 

See  Diogenes  Laertius,  "Life  of  Zeno  of  Elea  ;"  Lundbi.ad, 
"  Dissertalio  de  Zcnone  Eleate,"  1805;  Ritter,  "History  of  Plii- 
losophy;"  G.  H.  Lewes,  "  Biograpliical  History  of  Philosophy;" 
TiEDEMANN,  "  Geist  der  speculative  Philosophic  ;"  Victor  Cousin, 
article  "Zenon"  in  the  "  Biographie  Universelle ;"  Ckell,  "  De 
Zenone,"  1724;  V.  Cousin,  "  Nouveaux  Fragmens  philosophiques. " 

Zeno  OF  SiDON,  a  Greek  philosopher,  mentioned  by 
Suidas  as  a  disciple  of  Diodorus  Cronus  and  a  teacher 
of  Zeno  the  celebrated  Stoic.  He  wrote  a  defence  of 
Socrates. 

Zeno  OF  Tarsus,  a  Stoic  philosopher,  was  a  son 
of  Dioscorides,  and  a  pu])il  of  Chrysippus,  whom  he 
succeeded  as  the  head  of  the  school  of  the  Portico. 

Zeno,  a  Greek  physician,  mentioned  by  Galen,  was 
an  eminent  disciple  of  Herophilus.  He  lived  probably 
about  200  B.C. 

Zeno,  a  Greek  historian,  born  at  Rhodes,  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Polybius.  He  wrote  on  the  history  of 
Rhodes. 

Zeno,  an  eminent  Greek  E])icurean  philosopher,  born 
at  Sidon,  flourished  about  60  B.C.  Cicero,  who  heard 
him  at  Athens,  speaks  favourably  of  his  abilities. 

Zeno,  a  Greek  sculptor,  born  at  Aphrodisias,  in 
Caria,  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  in  some  part  of 
the  period  between  50  and  150  A.D.  Several  of  his  works 
are  extant. 

Zeno,  [Fr.  Z6non,  zi'n6N',]  Emperor  of  the  East,  was 
a  native  of  Isauria,  and  a  son-in-law  of  Leo  I.,  upon 
whose  death,  in  474  A.D.,  he  usurped  the  throne.  Leo 
[.  had  appointed  as  his  successor  his  infant  grandson 
Leo,  who  was  a  son  of  Zeno,  and  who  died  a  few  months 
after  the  death  of  Leo  L  Zeno  is  represented  as  de- 
praved, cruel,  and  incapable.  His  reign  was  disturbed 
by  revolts  and  foreign  wars.  He  was  driven  out  of  his 
capital  by  Basiliscus  in  475,  but  was  restored  in  477 
A.D.  Theodoric  the  Great  invaded  the  dominions  of 
Zeno,  and  was  about  to  take  his  capital,  when  Zeno  per- 
suaded him  to  conquer  Italy,  and  thus  saved  himself 
Died,  without  issue,  in  491  A.D. 

See  Tillemont,  "  Histoire  des  Empereui  s ;"  Le  Beau,  "His- 
toire  du  Bas-Empire." 

Zeno,  dza'no,  (Antonio,)  a  Venetian  navigator,  born 
between  1330  and  1340,  belonged  to  the  noble  family  of 
Zeni  or  Zena,  and  was  a  brother  of  Niccolo,  noticed 
below.  About  1391  he  performed  a  voyage  to  Frisland, 
and  joined  Niccolo.  (See  Zeno,  Niccol6.)  Died  about 
1405. 

Zeno,  (Antonio,)  a  Venetian  scholar,  a  relative  of 
the  preceding,  lived  about  1570-90. 

Zeno,  (Apostolo,)  an  Italian  litterateur  and  drama- 
tist, born  at  Venice  in  December,  1668.  He  became 
editor  in  1710  of  the  "Giornale  de'  Letterati  d'ltalia,"  a 
literary  periodical  of  a  high  character,  and  about  171 7 
repaired  to  Vienna  on  the  invitation  of  the  emperor 
Charles  VI.,  by  whom  he  was  appointed  court  poet  and 
historiographer.  He  published  numerous  oj^eras  or 
melodramas  of  superior  merit,  and  contributed  greatly 
to  the  improvement  of  that  species  of  composition. 
Among  his  other  principal  works  are  his  "  Historical, 
Critical,  and  Literary  Dissertations  on  the  Italian  His- 
torians," biographies  of  Davila  and  Guarini,  and  a 
collection  of  Letters.  In  1729  he  quitted  Vienna,  and 
returned  to  Venice,  where  he  passed  the  rest  of  his  life. 
He  published  twenty  volumes  of  the  "Giornale  de'  Let- 
terati," (1710-18.)    He  was  eminent  as  a  critic,  and  was 


well  versed  in  antiquities.  "Zeno  was  regarded,"  says 
the  "  Biographie  Universelle,"  "as  the  greatest  lyric  poet 
that  Italy  had  produced  when  Metastasio  appeared  on 
the  scene.  ...  He  delights  us  by  his  invention,  by  his 
fecundity,  by  the  truth  of  his  pictures,  and  by  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  dramatic  art."  His  treatises  on  antiquities, 
entitled  "  Dissertazioni  Vossiani,"  (2  vols.,  1752,)  are 
highly  esteemed.    Died  in  November,  1750. 

See  Fabroni,  "  Vitae  Italoium  doctrina  excellentium,"  vol.  ix. ; 
Francesco  Negri,  "Vita  di  Apostolo  Zeno,"  1816;  Tipaldo, 
"  Biografia  degli  Italiani  ilkistri." 

Zeno,  (Carlo,)  an  able  Venetian  admiral,  born  about 
1334*  was  a  brother  of  Niccolo,  noticed  below.  He 
conducted  at  Constantinople  the  negotiations  by  which 
Venice  acquired  Tenedos  in  1376.  About  that  date  the 
Venetians  were  involved  in  the  war  of  Chiozza  against 
the  Genoese  and  their  allies.  Zeno  served  on  land  until 
1379,  when  he  obtained  command  of  a  fleet,  captured 
several  vessels,  and  sailed  to  Beyroot  to  convoy  some 
rich  cargoes  from  the  Levant  to  Venice.  When  he 
returned,  in  January,  1380,  he  fouXd  the  republic  in  a 
critical  position,  the  Genoese  having, taken  Chiozza  and 
entered  the  lagoons.  He  was  received  as  the  liberator 
of  his  country,  was  appointed  commander  of  the  land- 
army,  and  retook  Chiozza.  On  the  death  of  Pisani, 
August,  1380,  he  became  grand  admiral.  Several  years 
later  he  was  procurator  of  Saint  Mark.  In  1403  he 
defeated  the  penoese  admiral  Boucicaut  near  Modon. 
He  is  represented  by  Sismondi  as  "the  most  virtuous 
citizen  and  greatest  man  of  Venice"  of  that  age.  ("  Bio- 
graphic Universelle.")    Died  in  1418. 

See  "Life  of  Carlo  Zeno,"  (in  Latin,)  by  his  grandson,  Jacofo 
Zeno,  1544;  Diviaco,  "Compendio  della  Vita  di  C.  Zeno,"  isgi  ; 
Daru,  "  Histoire  de  Venise  ;"  Sismondi,  "  Histoire  des  Republiquet 
Italiennes." 

Zeno,  (Caterino,)  grandson  of  Antonio,  (the  first  of 
the  name,)  was  Venetian  ambassador  to  the  Persian 
court  in  1472.  He  published  after  his  return  an  account 
of  his  travels,  which  is  no  longer  extant. 

Zeno,  (Jacopo,)  grandson  of  Carlo,  noticed  above,  was 
born  in  1417.  He  rose  through  various  preferments  to 
be  Bishop  of  Padua  iu  1459.  He  wrote  a  life  of  his 
grandfather.  Carlo  Zeno,  in  Latin,  and  "Lives  of  the 
Pontiffs,"  ("  Vitae  Summorum  Pontificum.")  He  enjoyed 
a  high  reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator.    Died  in  1481. 

Zeno,  (Niccoi.6,)  a  Venetian  navigator,  born  about 
1330,  was  a  brother  of  the  great  admiral  Carlo  Zeno. 
He  commanded  a  galley  in  the  war  against  the  Genoese 
in  1379,  and  was  re])uted  to  be  one  of  the  richest  pa- 
tricians of  Venice  in  1381.  About  1388  he  fitted  out  a 
ship  at  his  own  expense  and  sailed  towards  England  on 
a  voyage  of  exploration.  Before  he  had  reached  Eng- 
land he  was  driven  by  a  storm  and  wrecked  on  an  island 
which  he  calls  Frisland.  He  then  entered  the  service 
of  a  prince  named  Zichmini,  who  employed  him  in  mari- 
time and  warlike  enterprises,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
discovered  the  islands  of  Estland,  Grisland,  and  Engrone- 
land.  After  he  had  lived  four  years  in  Frisland,  he 
invited  his  brother  Antonio  to  join  him.  Antonio  went 
tl-.ere  and  i^assed  many  years  in  the  service  of  Zichmini. 
Niccolo  died  about  1396.  Geograj^hers  disagree  about 
the  position  or  identity  of  the  islands  which  he  dis- 
covered. Walckenaer  thinks  that  one  of  them  was 
Iceland.  The  narrative  of  the  voyages  of  the  Zeni  (the 
plural  of  Zeno)  was  j^rinted  at  Venice  in  155S. 

Zeno,  (Niccol6,)  a  Venetian  writer,  born  in  15 15. 
He  published  in  1558  an  account  of  the  travels  of 
Caterino  Zeno  in  Persia  and  the  East,  compiled  from 
his  letters  to  his  friends.    Died  in  1565. 

Zeno,  (PiETRO  Caterino,)  a  brother  of  Apostolo, 
noticed  above,  was  born  at  Venice  in  1666.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  in  his  native  city,  and  was  asso- 
ciated with  his  brother  as  editor  of  the  "Giornale  de' 
Letterati,"  which  he  continued  to  edit  alone  from  1718 
to  1728.    Died  in  1732. 

Ze'no,  I  Fr.  Z6non,  zi'n^N',]  Saint,  a  native  of  Africa, 
became  Bishop  of  Verona  about  362  A.D.  He  is  com- 
mended for  his  charity  to  the  poor.  He  died  in  380, 
leaving  many  sermons,  which  were  printed  in  1508^ 

Ze-no'bi-a,  [Gr.  Zevo6ia  or  ZrjvoS'ia;  Fr.  Z^nopie, 
zi'no'be',]  (Septimia,)  a  famous  and  ambitious  queen 
of  Palmyra,  was  a  daughter  of  Amroo,  an  Arab  chief. 


€  as     5  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  §  as  2;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZENOBIJ 


2316 


ZESCHAU 


She  was  renowned  for  her  beauty,  learning,  and  martial 
and  political  abilities.  She  was  mistress  of  the  Greek, 
Latin,  Syrinc,  and  Egyptian  languages.  Her  husband, 
Odenathus,  King  of  Palmyra,  died  about  266  a.d., 
leaving  two  minor  sons,  Herennius  and  Timolaus. 
She  assumed  the  royal  diadem,  with  the  title  of  Queen 
of  the  East,  performed  the  active  duties  of  sovereign, 
and  continued  the  conquests  which  Odenathus  had 
begun.  Palmyra  was  then  a  magnificent  city,  adorned 
with  Grecian  porticos  of  marble  and  porphyry  and 
enriched  by  an  extensive  commerce.  Her  dominion 
extended  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Mediterranean,  and 
over  a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  was  acknowledged 
by  subjects  of  various  races.  The  eminent  Greek  critic 
and  writer  Longinus  served  her  as  secretary  and  coun- 
sellor. She  is  said  to  have  been  a  prudent  and  liberal 
ruler.  She  sometimes  marched  on  foot  at  the  head  of 
her  army,  the  toils  of  which  she  shared.  Soon  after  the 
accession  of  the  emperor  Aurelian,  in  270  A.D.,  she 
wrote  a  letter  to  him,  asserting  her  independence  and 
refusing  allegiance  to  the  Roman  empire. 

Aurelian  conducted  in  person  an  army  against  the 
Queen  of  Palmyra,  and  defeated  her  forces  in  two  battles, 
near  Antioch  and  near  Emesa.  He  then  besieged  Pal- 
myra, which  she  defended  for  along  time  with  heroic 
courage,  but  it  was  taken  in  272  or  273,  and  she  was 
carried  to  Rome  fettered  with  golden  chains.  She  was 
paraded  as  a  captive  before  the  imperial  chariot  in  the 
triumphal  procession  of  AuVelian,  who  in  other  respects 
treated  her  with  clemency,  and  gave  her  a  villa  at  Tibur, 
where  she  passed  the  rest  of  her  life  with  her  children. 

See  Trebellius  Poi.lio,  "Triginta  Tyramii ;"  Zosimus,  "His- 
tory of  tlie  Roman  Empire;"  Gibbon,  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire;"  E.  F.  Wernsdokf,  "  De  Seiitiniia  Zenobia," 
1742;  JouvE  IDE  Hautevii.i.e,  "  Histoire  de  Zenobie,"  1758;  Cap- 
PEi.i.E,  '"De  Zenf)bia,"  1817.  See,  also,  "Letters  from  Palmyra," 
by  William  Ware,  1836-3S. 

Zenobia,  the  wife  of  Rhadamistus,  King  of  Ar- 
menia, lived  about  50  a.d.  Her  husband,  pursued  by 
his  victorious  enemies,  threw  her  into  a  river,  intending 
to  save  her  from  capture  by  death,  but  she  was  found  by 
some  shejiherds,  and  restored  to  life. 

Zenobie.    See  Zenohia. 

Ze-no'bi-us,  [Z7]v66Log,\  a  Greek  writer,  who  lived  at 
Rome  about  100-130  a.d.  He  compiled  a  collection  of 
proverbs,  which  was  printed  at  Florence  in  1487  or  1497. 

Ze-no'bi-us,  [F'r.  Zenohe,  za'nob',]  Saini",  an  Italian 
prelate,  born  at  Florence  about  334  a.d.,  was  a  zealous 
opponent  of  Arianism.  He  became  Bishop  of  Florence. 
Died  about  405. 

Zenodore.    See  Zenodorus. 

Zen-o-do'rus,  [Gr.  ZrjvoSopog ;  Fr.  Zenodore,  zi^no'- 
doR',j  an  eminent  Greek  statuary,  flourished  about  50 
A.d.  After  he  had  worked  ten  years  in  Gaul  on  a  statue 
of  Mercury,  he  went  to  Rome,  whither  he  was  invited 
by  the  emperor  Nero.  He  made  a  colossal  bronze  statue 
of  Nero,  one  hundred  and  ten  feet  in  height.  He  was 
also  a  skilful  silver-chaser. 

Zenodorus,  a  tyrant,  who  reigned  over  Trachonitis 
and  some  adjoining  territory.  He  annoyed  neighbouring 
people  by  predatory  practices,  or  connivance  at  robbery. 
For  this  reason  Augustus  deprived  him  of  nearly  all  his 
possessions,  in  24  K.C    Died  in  20  B.C. 

Zenodote.    See  Zenodotus. 

Ze-nod'o-tus  of  Alexandria,  a  grammarian,  lived 
after  the  time  of  Aristarchus,  whom  he  criticised  for 
his  recension  of  the  Homeric  poems. 

Zenodotus  [ZT^vodorog]  of  Ephesus,  [Fr.  Zeno- 
dote D'EpHfesE,  zi'no'dot'  dkffkz',]  a  celebrated  Greek 
graminarian,  flourished  about  280  H.c.  He  was  a  dis- 
ciple of  Philetas,  and  was  the  first  librarian  of  the  great 
library  of  Alexandria.  He  and  two  other  critics  were 
employed  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  to  revise  or  edit 
all  the  Greek  poets.  Zenodotus  devoted  his  attention 
chiefly  to  the  works  of  Homer,  in  which  he  made  con- 
siderable changes  and  inserted  various  readings.  His 
edition  or  recension  of  Homer  was  highly  esteemed  by 
ancient  critics.  He  was  the  author  of  a  Glossary,  and  a 
"  Dictionary  of  Foreign  Phrases." 

See  Heffter,  "Programma  de  Zenodoto,"  etc.,  1S39. 

Zenofonte.    See  Xenophon. 


Zenon.    See  Zeno. 
Zenone.    See  Zeno. 

Zentner,  ts^nt'ner,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  Baron,  a 
German  statesman  and  jurist,  born  at  Strassenheim  in 
1752,  became  professor  of  civil  law  at  Heidelberg  in  1779, 
and  in  1823  minister  of  justice  in  Bavaria.  Died  in  1835. 

Zepernic.    See  Copernicus. 

Zepernick,  tsa'pcR-nik',  (Karl  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man jurist,  born  at  Halle  in  1751,  published  several 
legal  works.    Died  in  1801. 

Zeph-a-ni'ah  [Heb.  ri'JDV  ;  Fr.  Sophonie,  so'fo'ne', 
called  Sophoni'as  in  the  Septuagint]  was  one  of  the 
twelve  minor  prophets,  and  flourished  under  the  reign 
of  Josiah,  King  of  Judah.  He  foretold  the  fall  of  Nin- 
eveh, the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  subsequent 
captivity  of  the  Jews. 

Zephirin.    See  Zephtrinus. 

Zeph'yr,  [Gr.  Ze^vpo^- ;  Lat.  Zeph'yrus  ;  Fr.  Z6- 
phyre,  zi'f^R';  Sp.  Zefiro  or  Cefiro,  tha'fe-ro  or 
thef'e-ro  ;  It.  Zeffiro,  dz^f  fe-ro,]  in  classic  mythology, 
was  a  personification  of  the  west  wind,  and  was  called  a 
son  of  Astrasus  and  Aurora.  The  poets  feigned  that 
he  married  Chloris  or  Flora,  and  had  a  son  named 
Car):)us,  (fruit.) 

Zephyre  and  Zephyrus.    See  Zephyr. 

Zeph-y-ri'nus,  [Fr.  Zephirin,  zi'fe'r^N',]  Saint,  a 
native  of  Rome,  was  elected  pope  about  202  a.d.  During 
his  pontificate  the  fifth  persecution  of  the  Christians 
took  place,  under  Septimius  Severus.  He  died  about 
217  A.D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  Calixtus  I. 

Zeplichal,  tsgp'liK-il,  (Anton  Michael,)  a  German 
Jesuit  and  writer,  born  in  Moravia  in  1737.  He  pub- 
lished many  scientific  works,  which  were  extensively 
used  in  schools.    Died  at  an  advanced  age. 

Zerbi,  dz^R^bee,  [Lat.  de  Zer''bis,]  (Gabriel,)  an 
eminent  Italian  anatomist,  born  at  Verona,  He  had 
lectured  several  years  at  Rome,  when  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Padua  about  1495.  His  chief  work 
is  "  Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body,"  ("  Liber  Anatomiie 
Corporis  humani,"  about  1490,)  which  contains  the 
germ  of  several  discoveries  in  anatomy.    Died  in  1505. 

Zerbis,  de.    See  Zerbi. 

Zeiboni  di  Sposetti,  ts^R-bo'nee  de  spo-zet'tee, 
(Joseph,)  a  German,  of  Italian  extraction,  born  at 
Breslau  in  1766.  Having  written,  in  1796,  a  letter  to 
the  Governor  of  Silesia,  showing  the  unreasonableness 
of  attaching  an  unlimited  importance  to  the  right  of 
birth  in  the  nobility,  he  was,  on  a  charge  of  high  treason, 
imprisoned  three  years  by  order  of  Frederick  William 
III.  His  case  having  at  last  been  brought  to  trial,  he 
was  liberated,  and  subsequently  employed  in  several 
public  offices.    Died  in  1831. 

See  PiERER,  "  Universal- Lexikon." 

Zerdusht.    See  Zoroaster. 

Zernitz,  tsSk'nits,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man didactic  poet,  born  at  Tangermiinde  in  1 71 7.  His 
"  Didactic  Essays"  are  highly  commended.  All  of  his 
works  are  posthumous.    Died  in  1744. 

Zerola,  dzi-ro'lS,  (Tommaso,)  an  Italian  canonist, 
born  at  l^enevento  in  1548,  became  Bishop  of  Minori  in 
1597.  He  published  "  Episcopal  Duties  or  Business," 
("  I'raxis  Episcopalis,"  1597.)    Died  in  1603. 

Zerrenner,  tser-ren'ner,  (Heinrich  Gottlieb,)  a 
German  educational  writer,  born  at  Wernigerode  in 
1750,  published,  among  other  works,  the  "  Deutscher 
Schulfreund,"  (46  vols.,  1791,)  and  "Manual  of  the 
Christian  Religion,'"  (1799.)    Died  in  1811. 

His  son,  Karl  Chrisicjph  Goitlieb,  was  the  author 
of  several  works  for  the  use  of  children  and  of  schools. 

Ze-rub'ba-bel  or  Zo-rob'a-bel,  [Heb.  S:!Hr.l  a 
Jewish  chief  or  prince,  wfis  a  son  of  Salathiel.  He 
conducted  from  Babylon  to  Judea  the  Jewish  captives 
who  were  liberated  by  Cyrus,  King  of  Persia,  about  536 
B.C.  To  him,  also,  was  confided  the  mission  to  rebuild 
the  Temple  at  Jerusalem. 

See  Ezra  ii.  2,  iv.  2,  and  v.  2  ;  Zechariah  iv.  6;  Matthew  i.  12. 

Zeschau,  von,  fon  ts§sh'6w,  (Heinrich  Anton,)  a 
Saxon  statesman,  born  in  1789,  rose  through  various 
offices  to  be  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1835.  He  was 
removed  in  1848. 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  lon^;  k,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  li,  y,  skort;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nfit;  good;  moon; 


ZESCHAU 


2317 


ZHOOKOFSKT 


Zeschau,  von,  (Heinrich  Wilhelm,)  a  Saxon 
officer,  born  in  1760,  served  against  the  French  in  the 
principal  campaigns  from  1793  to  1813,  and  attained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general.  lie  was  appointed  governor 
of  Dresden  in  1823.    Died  in  1832. 

Zese.    See  Zesen,  von. 

Zesen,  von,  fon  tsa^zen,  or  Zese,  tsa'zeh,  [Lat.  Cje^- 
Sius,]  (Philipp,)  a  German  writer,  was  born  near  Dessau 
in  1619.  He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  poems  and 
prose  works  having  for  their  object  the  improvement  of 
the  German  language.    Died  in  1689. 

Ze'tes  or  Ze'thes,  [Gr.  Zrjrrig ;  Fr.  Z^:thes,  zi'tis',] 
in  the  Greek  mythology,  a  son  of  Boreas,  King  of  Thrace, 
and  a  twin  brother  of  Calais.  He  is  mentioned  among 
the  Argonauts.  The  poets  feigned  that  Zetes  and  Calais 
had  wings,  and  that  they  delivered  Phineus  from  the 
Harpies  that  plagued  him. 

Ze'thus  [Gr.  Z/;9of]  was  a  reputed  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Antio]je,  and  a  twin  brother  of  Amphion,  King  of 
Thebes.  These  brothers,  sometimes  called  Dioscuri, 
("  sons  of  Jove,")  were  exposed  together  in  infancy,  and 
eventually  reigned  together  at  Thebes. 

Zetterstedt,  zgt'ter-st§t',  (Johan  Wilhelm,)  a 
Swedish  naturalist,  born  in  the  province  of  East  Goth- 
land in  1785.  He  studied  at  Lund,  and  subsequently 
made  a  scientific  tour  in  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Southern 
Lapland.  He  became  in  1839  professor  of  botany  and 
agriculture  at  Lund,  and  in  1846  rector  of  that  university. 
Among  his  princi])al  works  may  be  named  his  "  Orthop- 
tera  Sueciae,"  (1821,)  "Fauna  Insectorum  Lapponica," 
(1828,)  and  "Diptera  Scandinaviae,"  (40  vols.,  1842-52.) 
The  last  work  obtained  the  great  Linnaean  medal  from 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Stockholm. 

Zeune,  tsoi'neh,  (August,)  a  German  teacher  and 
writer,  born  at  Wittenberg  in  1778,  published  several 
geographical  works  and  treatises  on  the  education  of  the 
blind.    Died  in  1853. 

Zeune,  [Lat.  Zeu'nius,]  (Johann  Karl,)  a  German 
philologist,  born  in  Saxony  in  1736.  He  edited  several 
works  of  Xenophon,  and  was  professor  at  Wittenberg. 
Died  in  1788. 

Zeus,  [Gr.  Zei'f,  genitive  Zrjvog,  and  Awf,]  the  chief 
divinity  of  the  Greek  mythology,  corresponding  to  the 
Jupiter  of  the  Romans.  He  was  represented  as  the  son 
of  Cronos  ai)d  Rhea,  and  the  father  of  Mars,  Minerva, 
Mercury,  Venus,  Apollo,  and  other  gods.  According 
to  Homer,  he  held  his  court  on  Mount  Olympus,  was 
styled  the  father  of  gods  and  men,  and  was  the  most 
powerful  among  the  immortals,  so  that  even  Fate  was 
subordinate  to  his  will.  He  married  his  sister  Hera, 
(Juno.)  His  attributes  and  symbols  were  the  sceptre, 
the  eagle,  and  the  thunderbolt.  (See  Jupiter.)  The 
poets  feigned  that  he  and  the  other  gods  occupied  a 
palace  or  city  built  by  Vulcan  on  the  summit  of  Mount 
Olympus,  (in  Thessaly,)  which  rises  above  the  clouds. 
The  actual  height  of  Olympus  is  about  six  thousand 
feet.  The  Greeks  erected  to  Zeus  a  magnificent  temple 
at  01ym])ia,  near  Elis,  where  the  Olympic  games  were 
celebrated.  This  place  was  profusely  adorned  with  the 
most  splendid  monuments  of  architecture  and  sculpture, 
among  which  was  a  colossal  statue  of  Zeus,  executed  by 
Phidias,  and  generally  regarded  as  the  most  admirable 
as  well  as  greatest  of  all  his  works. 

Zeuss,  tsoiss,  (Johann  Kaspar,)  a  German  philolo- 
gist and  historical  writer,  born  in  IJpper  Franconia  in 
1806,  became  professor  of  history  at  Bamberg  in  1847. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Grammatica  Celtica,"  (2  vols.,  1853.) 

Zeux-i'a-des,  [Zev^M-qg,]  a  Greek  statuary  of  the 
school  of  Lysippus,  flourished  about  350  B.C. 

Zeux'is,  [Zet'^if,]  a  Greek  painter  of  great  celebrity 
and  almost  unrivalled  skill,  was  born  at  Heraclea  about 
450  B.C.  It  is  not  known  which  of  the  cities  named 
Heraclea  was  his  birthplace.  According  to  several 
ancient  authorities,  he  lived  about  425-400  B.C.  Plutarch 
states  that  he  flourished  when  Pericles  erected  the  great 
monuments  of  Athens,  and  Pliny  tells  us  that  "the  doors 
of  the  art,  which  were  opened  by  Apollodorus,  were 
entered  by  Zeuxis  in  the  95th  Olympiad,"  (about  400  B.C.) 
The  name  of  his  master  is  not  certainly  known.  Accord- 
ing to  Pliny,  he  was  a  pupil  of  Demophilus  of  Himera 
or  of  Neseas  of  Thasos.    He  belonged  to  the  Asiatic 


or  Ionian  school  of  art,  which  excelled  in  the  reproduc- 
tion of  sensual  charms.  He  appears  to  have  studied  or 
worked  at  Athens  during  the  life  of  Apollodorus,  who 
was  older  than  Zeuxis,  and  who  complained  that  Zeuxis 
had  robbed  him  of  his  art.  This  is  understood  to  signify 
that  Zeuxis  surpassed  him  in  light  and  shade  or  in 
colouring,  the  parts  of  the  art  in  which  Apollodorus 
especially  excelled.  Zeuxis  was  renowned  for  his  accu- 
rate imitation  of  the  human  form,  and  for  the  noble  style 
of  his  design,  in  which  he  combined  energy  with  gran- 
deur. He  succeeded  better  in  the  imitation  of  form  than 
in  the  expression  of  character.  He  executed  an  exten- 
sive work  in  the  palace  of  Archelaus,  King  of  Macedonia, 
who  reigned  from  413  to  399  B.C.  He  also  worked  in 
Southern  Italy,  and  probably  at  Ephesus.  After  he  had 
amassed  a  fortune  by  his  art,  he  often  gave  his  pictures 
as  presents.  Pliny  relates  a  story  of  a  trial  of  skill  be- 
tween Zeuxis  and  Parrhasius,  the  former  of  whom  painted 
a  bunch  of  grapes  so  naturally  that  a  bird  flew  at  the 
picture  to  eat  the  fruit.  (See  Parrhasius.)  Among  his 
master-pieces  were  a  "Female  Centaur,"  "The  Infant 
Hercules  strangling  the  Serpent,"  "Penelope  lamenting 
the  Absence  of  Ulysses,"  and  "Jupiter  in  the  Assembly 
of  Gods."  His  most  celebrated  work  was  a  picture  of 
Helen,  which  he  painted  for  the  city  of  Croton,  on  which 
he  inscribed  several  lines  of  Homer's  "Iliad,"  (iii.  156:) 

"  No  wonder  such  celestial  charms 
For  nine  long  years  have  set  the  world  in  arms." — Pope. 

Cicero  informs  us  that  Zeuxis  selected  five  of  the  most 
beautiful  virgins  of  Croton  as  models  for  this  picture. 
"He  deserves,"  says  Eineric-David,  "by  the  choice  of 
his  models  and  the  grandeur  of  his  style,  to  be  compared 
to  the  prince  of  sculptors,  (Phidias  ;)  and  if  he  was 
defective  in  some  quality,  Greece  pardoned  him  for  the 
sake  of  the  merit  which  constitutes  the  basis  of  the  art,— 
that  is,  precision  of  design  and  nobleness  of  form." 
("  Biographic  Universelle.") 

See  Pliny,  "  Natural  History,"  xxxv.  ;  Cicero,  "De  Inventis;" 
LuciAN,  "Zeuxis;"  Carlo  Dati,  "Vitede'  Pittori  antichi,"  1667; 
QuiNTiLiAN,  xii.  10. 

Zeuxis,  a  Greek  physician,  often  quoted  by  Galen, 
lived  probably  about  250  B.C.  He  belonged  to  the  school 
of  Empirici,  and  wrote  commentaries  on  Hippocrates. 

Zevallos  or  Cevallos,  thi-viKyds,  (Pedro  Or- 
DONES,)  a  Spanish  voyager,  born  in  Andalusia  between 
1550  and  1590.  He  wrote  an  "Account  of  his  Travels 
in  America,  East  India,"  etc.,  (1614.) 

Zevecot,  za'veh-kot'',  (James,)  a  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Ghent  in  1604.  He  became  professor  of  history  at 
Harderwyck.  He  wrote  elegies,  epigrams,  tragedies, 
etc..  which  were  admired.    Died  in  1646. 

Zey^d  or  Zei^d,  za'ySd',  a  famous  Arabian  warrior, 
born  about  625  A.D.,  was  a  brother  of  the  caliph 
Moaweeyah  I.  He  was  highly  distinguished  by  his 
eloquence.  He  became  governor  of  Bassorah  and  of 
the  eastern  prgvinces  of  the  empire.    Died  in  673  a.d. 

Zeyd  or  Zeid,  zad  or  zid,  a  servant  of  Mohammed, 
distinguished  for  his  fidelity  and  devotion  to  the  prophet. 
(See  Mohammed.) 

Zhookofsky,  Zhukofsky,  or  Joukovski,  zhoo- 
kof'skee  or  zhoo-kov'skee,  written  also  Shukowski, 
(Vasilii  Andreevitch,)  a  celebrated  Russian  poet, 
born  near  Bielev,  in  the  government  of  Penza,  in  1783, 
began  his  literary  career  at  an  early  age  by  several 
contributions  of  great  merit  to  a  journal  of  Moscow.  In 
1802  he  published  a  translation  of  Gray's  "Elegy  in  a 
Country  Church-Yard,"  which  established  his  reputation 
and  ranks  among  the  best  of  the  numerous  versions  of 
that  popular  poem.  He  succeeded  "Karamzin  in  1808 
as  editor  of  the  literary  periodical  entitled  "Viestnik 
Evropui."  In  the  campaign  of  1812  he  joined  the  Mos- 
cow volunteers,  and.  rendered  most  efi"ective  service  to 
his  country's  cause  by  his  spirited  ballads  entitled  "The 
Minstrel  in  the  Russian  Camp."  These  songs,  which 
obtained  the  greatest  popularity  with  all  classes  and 
won  for  him  the  especial  favour  of  the  emperor  and 
empress,  were  followed  by  his  "Ziudmilla,"  an  imitation 
of  Burger's  "Lenore,"  and  "  Svietlana,"  a  poem,  which 
is  esteemed  his  finest  production.  On  the  marriage  of 
the  grand  duke  Nicholas,  Zhookofsky  was  appointed 
teacher  of  the  Russian  language  to  his  wife,  and  after- 


€  as  iC,-  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  J;  g,  h,  k,  guttural;  n,  nasal ;  R,  trilled ;  s  as  2;  %h  as  in  this.  (2[^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZlANI 


ZIMMERMANN 


wards  became  preceptor  of  the  young  prince,  since 
Alexander  II.  Besides  the  above-named  works,  he  pub- 
lished a  number  of  prose  essays  and  tales,  one  of  which, 
entitled  **  Mary's  Grove,"  is  especially  admired.  He  also 
made  numerous  excellent  translations  from  the  English, 
German,  and  other  languages.  He  died  in  1852,  and  a 
monument  was  erected  to  his  memory  by  the  emperor 
Nicholas. 

Ziani,  dze-^'nee,  (Skrastiano,)  was  elected  Doge  of 
Venice  in  1 1 72.  He  instituted  the  annual  ceremony  of 
the  marriage  of  Venice  with  the  sea.  In  his  reign  the 
church  of  Saint  Mark  was  built.-    Died  in  1 179. 

His  son  PiETRO  succeeded  the  famous  Dandolo  as  doge 
in  1205.  During  his  reign  the  Venetians  completed  the 
conquest  of  the  Greek  empire.    Died  in  1229. 

Ziebland,  tseep'lint,  (Georg  Friedrich,)  an  emi- 
nent German  architect,  born  at  Ratisbon  in  1800,  was  a 
pupil  of  Quaglio.  He  was  patronized  by  King  Louis  of 
Bavaria,  at  whose  expense  he  visited  Italy.  He  de- 
signed several  public  edifices  of  Munich.  His  capital 
work  is  the  large  and  splendid  basilica  or  church  of 
Saint  Boniface,  at  Munich,  completed  about  1848. 

Ziegelbauer,  tsee'gel-bow'er,  (M.,)  a  learned  German 
Benedictine  monk,  born  at  Elwangen,  in  Suabia,  in  1696. 
He  wrote  a  "  Literary  History  of  the  Benedictine  Order," 
(4  vols.,  1754,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1750. 

Ziegenbalg,  tsee^'gen-bilc/,  (Bartholomew,)  a  Ger- 
man theologian  and  missionary,  born  in  Lusatia  in  1683, 
was  sent  out  by  the  King  of  Denmark  to  India  in  1706, 
remaining  in  that  country  till  1714.  He  sailed  a  second 
time  in  1716,  and  died  at  Tranquebar  in  1719.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  Tamul  Grammar,"  ("  Grammatica  Damulica,") 
a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  Tamul  language, 
("Biblia  Damulica,")  and  other  works. 

Ziegler,  tseec'ler,  (Bernard,)  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  born  in  Misnia  in  1496.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  at  Leipsic,  and  published  several 
sermons.  He  was  acquainted  with  Luther,  who  highly 
esteemed  him.    Died  in  1566. 

Ziegler,  [Lat.  Ziegle'rus,]  (Caspar,)  an  able  Ger- 
man jurist  and  Protestant  canonist,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
162 1.  He  became  professor  of  law  at  Wittenberg  in 
1654.  Besides  several  treatises  on  civil  law,  he  pub- 
lished a  work  "On  Bishops  and  their  Laws  or  Rights," 
("  De  Episcopis  eorumque  Juribus,"  1685.)  Died  in 
1690. 

Ziegler,  ze'a''glaiR',  (Claude  Lours,)  a  skilful  French 
painter  of  history  and  portraits,  was  born  at  Langres  in 
1804,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Ingres.  He  was  employed  by 
Louis  Philippe  to  decorate  the  cupola  of  the  church 
of  Madeleine,  in  which  he  painted  religious  allegorical 
scenes.  Among  his  works  are  "  The  Death  of  Foscari," 
"  Jacob's  Dream,"  and  "  Daniel  in  the  Den  of  Lions." 
Died  in  December,  1856. 

Ziegler,  (Friedrich  Wilhelm,)  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  Bruns^vick  in  1760. 
He  was  patronized  by  the  emperor  Joseph  II.,  and 
performed  at  the  court  theatre  for  nearly  forty  years 
with  great  reputation  and  success.  His  tragedies  and 
comedies  were  also  highly  popular :  one  of  the  latter, 
entitled  "The  Four  Temperaments,"  ("  Die  vier  Tem- 
peramente,")  still  keeps  its  place  on  the  stage.  He 
likewise  wrote  several  critical  treatises  on  the  drama. 
Died  in  1827. 

Ziegler,  (Hieronymus,)  a  German  poet  and  biog- 
rapher, born  at  Rotenburg  about  1520.  Among  his 
works  is  "  Cyrus  Major,"  ("  Cyrus  the  Great,")  a  drama, 
(1547.)    Died  after  1562. 

Ziegler,  [Lat.  Ziegle'rus,]  (Jakob,)  an  eminent 
German  theologian  and  mathematician,  born  in  Bavaria 
about  1480.  In  pursuit  of  knowledge  he  visited  Italy, 
became  secretary  of  General  George  Frondsberg,  and 
witnessed  the  sack  of  Rome  in  1526.  He  afterwards 
passed  many  years  at  Passau,  the  bishop  of  which 
furnished  him  with  means  to  pursue  literature.  He 
published,  besides  other  books,  a  work  (in  Latin)  on 
the  geography  of  Palestine,  Arabia,  etc.,  (1532.)  Died 
in  1549. 

Ziegler,  (Werner  Karl  Ludwig,)  a  German  writer 
on  theology,  etc.,  was  born  near  Liineburg  in  1763.  He 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Rostock.    Died  in  1809. 


Ziegler,  von,  fon  tseec'ler,  (Franz,)  a  Swiss  medical 
writer,  born  at  Schaffhausen  before  1700.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Rinteln,  and  published  several 
treatises.    Died  in  1761. 

Ziegler  und  Klipphausen,  von,  fon  tseeG'ler  oont 
klip'how'zen,  (Heinkich  Anselm,)  a  German  writer,, 
born  in  Upper  Lusatia  in  1653,  produced,  conjointly  with 
J.  G.  Hamann,  a  romance  entitled  "The  Asiatic  Banise," 
(1688,)  which  enjoyed  great  popularity.    Died  in  1697. 

Zieglerus.    See  Ziegler. 

Ziem,  ze^^m',  (F^;lix,)  an  eminent  French  landscape- 
painter,  born  at  Beaune  about  1822.  He  visited  Italy 
and  the  East  in  1845-48,  and  obtained  a  medal  of  the 
first  class  in  1852.  Among  his  works  are  "  The  Grand 
Canal  of  Venice,"  a  "  View  of  Antwerp,"  "Constanti- 
nople," and  "  Evening  at  Venice." 

Ziethen,  von,  fon  tsee'ten,  (Hans  Ernst  Karl,) 
Count,  a  Prussian  general,  born  in  1770,  served  in 
the  campaigns  of  1813  and  1815,  and  had  a  prominent 
part  in  the  victory  of  Waterloo.  He  was  afterwards 
appointed  commander  of  the  army  of  occupation  in 
France,  and  in  1835  was  made  a  field-marshal.  Died 
in  1848. 

Ziethen,  von,  (Hans  Joachim,)  a  Prussian  general 
and  distinguished  favourite  of  Frederick  the  Great,  was 
born  in  1699.  He  served  in  the  Silesian  campaigns  of 
1742  and  1745,  and  subsequently  in  the  Seven  Years' 
war,  being  conspicuous  for  his  skill  and  bravery  at 
Reichenberg,  Prague,  Kolin,  and  Torgau.  He  was 
soon  after  made  a  general  of  cavalry  by  the  king,  who 
also  loaded  him  with  other  distinctions.  He  died  in 
1786,  and  a  statue,  by  Schadow,  was  erected  to  his 
memory,  by  order  of  Frederick  William  II.,  in  the 
Wilhelmsplatz,  Berlin,  (1794.) 

See  LuisE  J.  L.  VON  Bi.umf.nthal,  "  Leben  des  Generals  von 
Ziethen,"  1797,  (and  English  translation  of  the  same,  London,  1802;) 
Werner  Hahn,  "  H.  J.  von  Ziethen,  Preussischer  General,"  etc., 
1850. 

Zilioli,  dze-le-o'lee,  (Alessandro,)  an  Italian  his- 
torian and  lawyer,  born  at  Venice  before  1600.  He 
published  in  1642  a  history  of  the  period  from  1600  to 
1640,  entitled  "  Storie  memorabili  de'  nostri  Tempi." 
Died  in  1650. 

Zille,  tsiKleh,  (Moritz  Alexander,)  a  German  theo- 
logian, born  near  Zittau  in  1814.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  "  The  Kingdom  of  God,"  ("  Das  Reich 
Gottes,"  1850.) 

Zimara,  dze-mi'ra,  (Marcantonio,)  an  Italian  physi- 
cian, born  at  Galatina  about  1460  ;  died  at  Padua  in  1532. 

Zimisces.    See  John  I.,  Emperor  of  the  East. 

Zimmerl,  von,  fon  tsim'mSRl,  (Johann  Michael,) 
an  Austrian,  born  at  Ernstbrunn  in  1757,  became  a 
member  of  the  imperial  commission  for  commerce,  and 
published  several  works  relating  to  the  laws  of  trade 
and  exchange. 

Zimmermann,  tsim'mer-min',  (Ernst,)  a  German 
theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Darmstadt  in  1786. 
He  studied  at  Giessen,  and  was  appointed  in  1816  court 
preacher  in  his  native  city.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
"  Allgemeine  Kirchenzeitung,"  and  other  religious  and 
literary  journals,  and  published,  among  other  works,  a 
"  Homiletic  Hand-Book  for  Thinking  Preachers,"  (1812.) 
Died  in  1832. 

Zimmermann,  (Franz  Joseph,)  a  German  writer  on 
logic  and  philosophy,  born  near  Freiburg  in  1795  ;  died 
in  1833. 

Zimmermann,  (Heinrich,)  a  German  voyager,  born 
in  the  Palatinate.  He  served  as  a  sailor  in  the  third 
voyage  of  Captain  Cook,  (1776,)  and  published  "A 
Voyage  around  the  World  with  Captain  Cook,"  (1782.) 

Zimmermann,  (Johann  Jakob,)  a  German  enthu- 
siast, called  by  some  a  fanatic,  was  born  in  Wiirtemberg 
in  1644.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  superior 
talents,  and  to  have  adopted  the  opinions  of  Jacob 
Bohme.  He  preached  at  various  places  in  Germany. 
Died  in  1693. 

,  Zimmermann,  tsim'meR-min^  (Johann  Jakob,)  a 
Swiss  writer,  born  at  Zurich  in  1685.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  natural  law  at  Zurich  in  1731,  and  professor  of 
theology  in  1737.  He  wrote  a  "Life  of  J.  B.  Cramer," 
and  several  works  on  theology.    Died  in  1756. 


a,  e,  7,  6,  u,  y,  long;    h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 


ZIMMERMJNN  2319 


Zimmermann,  (Johann  Karl,)  distinguished  as  a 
writer  on  surgery,  was  born  in  Silesia  in  1803.  He 
practised  surgery  in  Leipsic. 

Zimmermann,  (Karl,)  a  German  divine  and  pulpit 
orator,  brother  of  Ernst,  noticed  above,  was  born  in 
1803.  He  became  court  preacher  at  Darmstadt,  and 
published  a  number  of  sermons  and  religious  works, 
and  a  life  of  his  brother  Ernst. 

Zimmermann,  (Karl  Ferdinand,)  a  German 
painter  of  history,  portraits,  and  genre,  was  born  in 
Berlin  in  1796. 

Zimmermann,  (Matthias,)  a  Protestant  theologian, 
born  at  Eperies,  in  Hungary,  in  1625.  He  preached  at 
Eperies  from  1652  to  1660,  after  which  he  became  minister 
and  superintendent  at  Meiss.en.  He  was  skilful  in  the 
exposition  of  Scripture,  and  was  author  of  several  works. 
Died  in  1689. 

Zimmermann,  von,  fon  tsim'mer-min',  (Clemens,) 
a  German  painter,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1 789.  He  studied 
at  Munich,  and,  having  visited  Italy,  was  appointed,  after 
his  return,  professor  of  painting  in  the  Academy  of  that 
city,  (1825.)  Among  his  best  works  may  be  named  a 
series  of  illustrations  of  Anacrcon  in  the  dining-hall  of 
the  royal  palace  at  Munich,  and  a  colossal  "Ascension 
of  the  Virgin,"  in  a  church  in  Australia. 

Zimmermann,  von,  (Ebekhard  August  Wil- 
helm,)  a  German  writer,  born  at  Uelzen,  in  Hanover, 
in  1743,  became  professor  of  physics  in  the  Caroline 
College  at  Brunswick  in  1766.  He  published  a  number 
of  geographical,  political,  and  scientific  works,  among 
which  we  may  name  a  treatise  "On  the  Compressi- 
bility and  Elasticity  of  Water,"  (1779,)  "France  and 
the  Republics  of  North  America,"  (1795,)  and  "The 
Geographical  Pocket-Book."  An  aljridgment  of  the 
last  work,  entitled  "The  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants," 
came  out  in  1810,  in  5  vols.    Died  in  181 5. 

Zim'mer-mann,  von,  [Ger.  pron.  fon  tsim'mer- 
min',]  (Johann  Georg,)  an  eminent  Swiss  philosopher 
and  physician,  born  at  Brugg,  near  Berne,  December  8, 
1728.  He  was  liberally  educated,  and  studied  medicine 
under  Haller  at  Gottingen,  where  he  graduated  as  M.D. 
in  1 75 1.  On  this  occasion  he  wrote  an  able  thesis  on 
Irritability.  He  began  to  practise  medicine  at  Berne 
about  1752,  and  married  a  relative  of  the  celebrated  Hal- 
ler, who  was  his  friend.  About  1754  he  became  public 
physician  ( Stadt-physicus )  at  Brugg,  where  he  acquired 
a  wide  reputation  as  a  practitioner  and  as  a  writer,  but 
he  suffered  from  ill  health,  hypochondria,  and  the  want 
of  congenial  society.  He  published  a  "Life  of  Haller," 
(1755,)  and  a  work  "On  National  Pride,"  ("  Vom  Na- 
tionalstolze,"  1758,)  which  had  great  popularity  and  was 
translated  into  various  languages.  His  next  important 
work  was  "On  Experience  in  Medicine,"  ("Von  der 
Erfahrung  in  der  Arzneikunst,"  2  vols.,  1763,)  which  was 
highly  esteemed,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  some  critics,  is 
his  chief  title  to  celebrity. 

In  1768  he  obtained  the  place  of  physician  to  his 
Britannic  majesty  at  Hanover,  with  the  title  of  aulic 
councillor.  He  had  a  very  extensive  practice  at  Hano- 
ver, but  he  continued  to  be  a  victim  of  melancholy,  and 
regretted  his  separation  from  the  Swiss  mountains.  He 
also  lost  his  wife  in  1770,  and  his  son  became  insane. 
His  spirits  were  somewhat  revived  by  a  second  marriage 
in  1782.  He  published  in  1784  and  1785  his  celebrated 
work  "  On  Solitude,"  ("  Von  der  Einsamkeit,"  4  vols.,) 
which  was  translated  into  all  the  languages  of  Europe. 
Catherine  II.  of  Russia  expressed  her  approbation  of 
this  work  by  the  present  of  a  diamond  ring,  and  an 
invitation  to  come  to  Saint  Petersburg  and  serve  her  as 
physician,  but  he  declined  that  honour.  He  went  to 
Potsdam  to  attend  Frederick  the  Great  in  his  last  illness 
in  1786,  and  published  a  book  entitled  "Fragments  on 
Frederick  the  Great,"  (3  vols.,  1790,)  which,  by  intem- 
perate attacks  on  several  eminent  German  savants,  gave 
much  offence  and  impaired  the  author's  popularity.  He 
was  a  zealous  adversary  of  the  French  Revolution,  and 
became  involved  in  political  controversy  to  an  extent 
that  was  fatal  to  his  peace  of  mind.  A  victim  to  painful 
hallucinations,  he  imagined  that  the  French  army  was 
marching  to  Hanover  on  purpose  to  kill  or  persecute 
him.    He  died  at  Hanover  in  October,  1795. 


ZINZENDORF 


"His  conversation,"  says  Goethe,  "was  varied  and 
highly  instructive,  and,  for  one  who  could  pardon  his 
active  sense  of  his  own  personality  and  merits,  no  more 
desirable  companion  could  be  found.  .  .  .  Every  one 
who  reads  his  writings,  especially  his  excellent  work 
on  Experience,  will  perceive  more  definitely  what  was 
discussed  between  him  and  me.  His  influence  was  the 
more  powerful  over  me  from  the  twenty  years  that  he 
was  my  senior.  .  .  .  His  severity  towards  his  children 
was  a  hypochondria,  a  partial  insanity,  a  continuous 
moral  homicide,  which,  after  having  sacrificed  his  chil- 
dren, he  at  last  directed  against  himself."  ("Truth  and 
Poetry  from  my  Own  Life,"  book  xv.) 

See  TissoT,  "Vie  de  Zimmermann,"  1797;  Wichmann,  "Zim- 
mermann," (in  German,)  1796;  Marcard,  "  Biographie  des  J.  C. 
von  Zinnnermann,"  1796 ;  "  Zimmermanns  eigene  Lebensbeschrei- 
bung,"  (autobiographic,)  1791  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  "Causeries  du 
Lundi ;"  "  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale." 

Zim'ri,  [Heb.  "'lOf,]  King  of  Israel,  assassinated  King 
Elah,  and  usurped  the  throne,  in  929  B.C.  He  was  at- 
tacked by  Omri,  and,  unable  to  resist  him,  committed 
suicide  in  the  same  year. 

See  I.  Kings  xvi.  16. 

Zincgreff.    See  Zinkgref. 

Zincke,  tslnk'keh,  (Christian  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man painter  in  enamel,  born  at  Dresden  about  1684. 
He  resided  many  years  in  England,  where  he  obtained 
the  patronage  of  the  royal  family.    Died  in  1767. 

Zingarelii,  dz^n-gi-rel'lee,  (Niccol6,)  an  eminent 
Italian  composer,  born  at  Naples  in  1752.  He  studied 
at  the  Conservatory  of  Loretto,  and  in  1806  succeeded 
Guglielmi  as  chapel-master  of  the  Vatican  at  Rome. 
He  was  successively  appointed  by  Napoleon  director 
of  the  Conservatory  at  Rome,  chapel-master  of  Saint 
Peter's,  and  director  of  the  new  Conservatory  at  Naples. 
He  produced  a  number  of  operas,  which  enjoyed  a  tem- 
porary popularity;  but  his  reputation  rests  principally 
on  his  sacred  music,  including  the  grand  oratorios  of 
"  La  Gerusalemme  liberata"  and  "IlTrionfodi  Davide." 
Died  in  1837. 

See  R.  GtiARiNi,  "Cenni  storici  di  N.  Zingarelii,"  1837;  Mar- 
chess Di  ViLi.ARoSA,  "  Elogio  storico  di  N.  Zingarelii,"  1837. 

Zingaro,  II.    See  Solar  10,  da. 

Zingg,  tslng  or  tsink,  (Adrian,)  a  Swiss  engraver 
and  designer,  born  at  Saint  Gall  in  1734,  studied  under 
Aberli  and  Wille.  He  was  appointed  in  1766  professor 
of  engraving  in  the  Academy  of  Arts,  Dresden.  Among 
his  master-pieces  are  prints  after  Ruysdael,  Dietrich, 
and  Van  der  Neer.    Died  in  1816. 

Zingis.    See  Jengis  Khan. 

Zini,  dzee'nee,  (Pietro  Francesco,)  an  Italian  Hel- 
lenist, born  at  Verona  about  1520,  translated  into  Latin 
the  works  of  several  Greek  Fathers.    Died  after  1575. 

Zink,  von,  fon  tsInk,  (Friedrich,)  Baron,  a  German 
poet,  born  in  Thuringia  in  1753.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  short  poems,  which  are  highly  commended.  He  lived 
at  Emmendingen.    Died  in  1802. 

Zinkeisen,  tslnk'i'zen,  (Johann  Wilhelm,)  a  Ger- 
man historian,  born  at  Altenburg  in  1803.  He  edited 
at  Berlin  the  "  Ofiicial  Gazette"  ("  Staats-Zeitung") 
from  1840  to  1 85 1.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  "  History  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  in  Europe,"  (7  vols., 
1840-62,)  and  a  "  History  of  the  Greek  Revolution,"  (2 
vols.,  1840.)    Died  in  1863. 

Zinken,  tsink'en,  (Georg  Heinrich,)  a  German 
financier  and  writer,  born  near  Naumburg  in  1692.  He 
published,  besides  other  works  on  political  economy 
and  finance,  "  Cameralistenbibliothek,"  (1751.)  Died 
in  1769. 

Zinkgref  or  Zincgreff,  tsfnk'grgf,  (Julius  Wil- 
helm,) a  German  lyric  poet,  born  at  Heidelberg  in  1591. 
His  principal  work  is  "Deutschen  Apophthegmata," 
(2  vols.,  1626-31,)  a  collection  of  epigrams,  anecdotes, 
etc.    Died  in  1635. 

Zinn,  tsin,  (Johann  Gottfried,)  a  German  physician 
and  anatomist,  born  near  Anspach  in  1727.  He  became 
professor  of  medicine  at  Gottingen  in  1753,  '^"^  wrote 
several  able  treatises  on  anatomy.    Died  in  1759. 

Zin'zen-dorf,  von,  [Ger.  pron.  fon  ts!nt'sen-doRf,] 
(NicoLAUS  Ludwig,)  Count,  a  German  theologian,  dis- 
tinguished as  the  founder  or  restorer  of  the  sect  of  Mora- 
vians or  Herrnhuters,  was  born  at  Dresden  on  the  26th 


€  as  -t;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K, guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this.  {l^^Set  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZINZENDORF 


2320 


ZOBEL 


of  May,  1700.  He  was  a  son  of  Georg  Ludwig,  cham- 
berlain and  minister  of  Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony, 
who  died  while  this  son  was  an  infant.  He  was  educated 
under  the  care  of  his  grandmother,  the  Baroness  von 
Gersdorf,  a  friend  of  Jakob  Spener.  In  1710  he  was 
sent  to  the  Seminary  of  Halle,  where  he  became  a  pupil 
of  Francke  and  a  convert  to  pietism.  He  devoted  him- 
self to  religious  studies  and  duties,  and  formed  at  Halle 
a  mystical  society  called  the  "  Order  of  the  Grain  of 
Mustard."  About  1716  he  removed  from  Halle  to  the 
University  of  Wittenberg,  where  he  studied  law  and 
remained  three  years.  He  had  received  from  nature  a 
lively  imagination,  the  faculty  of  eloquence,  and  great 
personal  beauty  and  dignity.  His  religious  tenets  were 
similar  to  those  of  the  Lutherans. 

In  1719  he  travelled  in  Holland  and  France,  to  obtain 
information  about  the  state  of  the  churches,  and  perhaps 
to  exchange  ideas  with  persons  eminent  for  piety.  During 
this  tour  he  preached  at  various  places,  and  was  in  the 
habit  of  advocating  the  truths  of  the  gospel  in  private 
houses  and  in  worldly  society.  He  would  have  entered 
into  holy  orders  if  his  relatives  had  not  interposed.  In 
1722  he  married  the  countess  Erdmuth  Dorothea  Reuss, 
and  went  to  reside  at  Bertholdsdorf,  in  Lusatia.  A  few 
members  of  the  Moravian  Church,  driven  by  persecution 
from  their  native  country,  sought  refuge  with  him  in  1722, 
and  were  permitted  to  form  a  settlement  on  his  estate. 
This  settlement  received  the  name  of  Herrnhut,  the 
"  Lord's  guard,"  or  the  "  Watch  of  the  Lord,"  and  was 
joined  by  many  other  emigrants.  Zinzendorf  entered 
into  fellowship  with  them,  became  their  patron,  and 
acquired  great  influence  over  them.  They  professed  a 
conformity  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Lutheran  Church. 
To  propagate  his  principles,  he  published  a  religious 
periodical,  called  the  "  German  Socrates,"  and  numerous 
other  works.  Missionaries  were  sent  out  from  Herrnhut 
to  America  in  1732,  and  colonies  were  planted  in  various 
parts  of  Europe. 

"Although  his  own  conduct,"  says  Southey,  "was 
more  uniformly  discreet  than  that  of  any  other  founder 
of  a  Christian  community,  (it  would  be  wronging  the 
Moravian  Brethren  to  designate  them  as  a  sect,)  he  was 
involved  in  difficulties  by  the  indiscretion  of  others  and 
the  jealousy  of  the  government  under  which  he  lived. 
He  was  therefore  ordered  to  sell  his  estates,  and  after- 
wards banished."  ("  Life  of  John  Wesley,"  vol.  i.)  About 
1734  he  became  a  tutor  in  a  family  at  Stralsund,  that 
he  might  pass  through  the  regular  examination  as  a 
candidate  in  divinity,  and  was  ordained  at  Tubingen  as 
a  minister  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  He  was  banished 
from  Saxony  in  1736,  after  which  he  travelled  exten- 
sively. He  gained  the  favour  of  Frederick  William  I. 
of  Prussia,  who  caused  him  to  be  ordained  a  bishop  in 
1737  by  his  own  chaplain.  In  1738  he  met  John  Wesley 
in  Germany.  "They  parted,"  says  Southey,  "with  a 
less  favourable  opinion  of  each  other  than  each  had 
entertained  before  the  meeting." 

Zinzendorf  visited  Pennsylvania  in  1742,  preached  for 
some  time  at  Germantown,  and  established  congrega- 
tions of  his  disciples  at  Bethlehem  and  Nazareth.  He 
returned  to  Europe  in  1743,  and  was  permitted  in  1747 
to  become  a  resident  of  Herrnhut.  In  1749  he  visited 
England,  and  obtained  an  act  of  Parliament  authorizing 
the  establishment  of  Moravian  missions  in  North  Amer- 
ica. Pie  wrote  numerous  hymns,  which  are  used  in  the 
Moravian  churches.  In  his  early  writings  he  gave  offence 
by  expressions  which  seemed  to  border  on  indecency, 
and  which  he  afterwards  condemned.  On  this  subject 
Southey  remarks,  "  Seeing  the  offensiveness,  if  not  the 
danger,  of  the  loathsome  and  impious  extravagances 
into  which  they  had  been  betrayed,  they  corrected  their 
books  and  their  language  ;  and  from  that  time  they  have 
continued  to  live  without  reproach." 

"  The  Moravian  doctrine,"  says  Goethe,  "  had  some- 
thing magical,  in  that  it  appeared  to  continue,  or  rather 
to  perpetuate,  the  condition  of  those  first  times,  [i.e.  the 
apostolic  times.]  It  connected  its  origin  with  them,  and 
had  never  perished,  but  had  only  wound  its  way  through 
the  world  by  unnoticed  shoots  and  tendrils,  until  a  single 
germ  took  root  under  the  protection  of  a  pious  and 
eminent  man,  once  more  to  expand  wide  over  the  world." 


("  Autobiography,"  book  xv.)  Zinzendorf  died  at  Herrn- 
hut in  May,  1760.  Among  his  works  is  an  account  of  his 
early  travels,  entitled  "  The  Journey  of  Atticus  through 
the  World."    He  had  several  children. 

See  Vaknhagen  von  Ense,  "  Leben  des  Grafen  von  Zinzendorf," 
in  his  "  Deiikmale,"  vol.  v.  ;  Spanoknherg,  "  Leben  des  Grafen  von 
Zinzendorf,"  1775  :  (S.  Jackson's  English  version  of the  same,"  1838;) 
J.  G.  Mui.LEK,  "Leben  des  N.  von  Zinzendorf ;"  Verbeck,  "Leben 
des  Grafen  von  Zinzendorf,"  1845  ;  F.  Bovet,  "  Le  Comte  de  Zinzen- 
dorf." 1865. 

Zinzendorf,  von,  (Philipp  Ludwfg,)  Count,  an 
Austrian  diplomatist  and  minister  of  state,  born  in  167 1. 
He  obtained  the  title  of  first  chancellor  of  the  court 
in  1705,  and  represented  Austria  at  the  conference  of 
Utrecht,  (1712.)  A  few  years  later  he  succeeded  Prince 
Eugene  as  chief  minister.  He  is  said  to  have  been  re- 
sponsible for  the  war  against  France  and  the  quadruple 
alliance.    He  resigned  in  1740,  and  died  in  1742. 

His  son,  of  the  same  name,  born  in  Paris  in  1699,  be- 
came a  cardinal  in  1727,  and  Bishop  of  Breslau  in  1732. 
Died  in  1747. 

Zinzerling,  tsfnt'seR-ling',  (Johann,)  [called  in  Latin 
JoDo'CLJS  Since'rus,]  a  German  philologist,  born  in 
Thuringia  about  1590.  He  settled  at  Lyons,  and  pub- 
lished, besides  other  works,  "A  Guide  to  Travellers 
in  France,"  {"  Itinerarium  Galliae,"  1612.)  Died  about 
1618. 

Zirardini,  dze-raR-dee'nee,  (Antonio,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  at  Ravenna  in  1725  ;  died  in  1 784. 

Ziska,  zis'ki,  or  Zizka  of  Trocznow,  (tRotch'nov,) 
(John,)  a  famous  Bohemian  general  and  leader  of  the 
Hussites,  was  born  near  Trocznow  about  1360,  (or,  as 
some  say,  about  1380.)  He  fought  in  the  Polish  army 
against  the  Teutonic  knights,  and  against  the  Turks 
in  Hungary.  Having  entered  the  English  service,  he 
greatly  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Agincourt, 
in  141 5.  Soon  after  this  event  he  was  appointed  cham- 
berlain to  Wenceslaus,  King  of  Bohemia.  Ziska  was  a 
disciple  of  John  Huss,  who  was  burned  at  the  stake  at 
Constance  in  141 5.  He  urged  the  king  to  revenge  "the 
bloody  affront  that  the  Bohemians  had  suffered  at  Con- 
stance," and  is  said  to  have  received  permission  from 
Wenceslaus  to  vindicate  the  rights  of  the  Hussites  by 
arms.  Ziska  raised  an  army  in  1419,  and  took  the  chief 
command.  Just  after  the  war  began,  Wenceslaus  died, 
and  the  throne  was  claimed  by  Sigismund,  Emperor 
of  Germany ;  but  the  Hussites  refused  to  recognize  him. 
In  August,  1420,  Ziska  defeated  the  Imperial  army  near 
Prague.  In  142 1  he  lost  his  only  remaining  eye  at  a 
siege  ;  but  he  continued  to  command  the  army  in  person. 
Sigismund  raised  a  new  army,  and  invaded  Bohemia, 
but  was  routed  by  the  Hussites  tu  January,  1422.  Ziska 
also  defeated  in  the  same  year  an  army  of  Saxons,  who 
were  allies  of  Sigismund.  He  is  said  to  have  been  vic- 
torious in  thirteen  pitched  battles.  The  Hussites  having 
been  divided  into  two  parties,  Ziska  became  the  leader 
of  that  party  which  was  called  Taborites.  Sigismund 
at  last  made  overtures  for  peace,  but,  before  the  treaty 
was  concluded,  Ziska  died,  in  October,  1424,  after  which 
the  war  was  continued  for  many  years.  He  left  a  high 
reputation  as  a  patriot  and  champion  of  liberty  and 
equality. 

See  G.  Gilpin,  "Life  of  J.  Ziska,"  in  "The  Lives  of  John 
Wickliffe  and  the  Most  Eminent  of  his  Discinles,"  etc.,  1764: 
Lenfant,  "  Histoire  de  la  Guerre  des  Hussites;"  Palackv, 
"  History  of  Bohemia  ;"  Arnold,  "  History  of  the  Hussites,"  (in 
Bohemian,)  1848;  Major  General  J.  Mitchell,  "Biographies  of 
Eminent  Soldiers  of  the  Last  Four  Centuries,"  1865. 

Zizim.   See  Jem. 
Zizka.   See  Ziska. 

Zobaidah  or  Zobaydah.    See  Zobeidah. 

Zobeidah,  zo-baMah  or  zo-bi'dah,  written  also  Zo- 
beydah,  Zobaidah,  and  Zobaydah,  [Fr.  Zoh^ide, 
zo'bk'W,]  a  celebrated  Persian  princess,  distinguished 
by  her  wisdom,  virtue,  and  beneficence,  born  about  765 
A.T).,  was  the  cousin-german  and  wife  of  Haroun-al- 
Raschid.  She  had  a  son  Ameen,  (Amin,)  who  became 
caliph.  After  the  death  of  Haroun-al-Raschid  she  resided 
at  Bagdad.    Died  in  831  a.d. 

Zobeide.  See  Zobeidah. 

Zobel,  tso'bel,  (Benjamin,)  a  German  artist,  born  at 
Memmingen,  in  Bavaria,  in  1762,  resided  many  years  in 
England,  where  he  was  patronized  by  George  HI.  He 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  v,  long:  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short:  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fSr,  fill,  f^t:  mSt;  ndt;  good:  moon. 


ZOBETDJH 


2321 


ZOO  IS  K I 


was  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  painting  on  gold  and 
silver  grounds,  and  was  the  inventor  of  a  method  of 
painting  called  marmotinto.    Died  in  1831. 
Zobeydah.    See  Zobeidah. 

Zoboli,  dzo'bo-lee,  (Alfonso,)  an  Italian  astronomer, 
born  at  Reggio  in  the  sixteenth  century ;  died  about 
1640. 

Zoccoli,  dzok'ko-lee,  (Carlo,)  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Naples  in  1718  ;  died  in  1771. 

Zo'e  [Gr.  Zw^]  I.,  called  Carbonopsina,  Empress  of 
the  East,  was  the  wife  of  Leo  VI.,  whom  she  survived. 
She  had  a  son,  Constantine  VII.,  (Porphyrogenitus.)  She 
died  about  919  a.d. 

Zoe  IL,  Empress  of  the  East,  a  daughter  of  Constan- 
tine IX.,  was  married  to  Romanus  Argyrus,  who  became 
emperor  in  1028.  She  caused  him  to  be  murdered  in 
1034,  and  took  in  his  place  Michael  IV.  After  his 
death,  in  1041,  she  was  married  twice, — to  Michael  V. 
and  Constantine  X.    Died  in  1050. 

Zoega,  tso-a'gi,  (Georg,)  an  eminent  Danish  archae- 
ologist, of  Italian  extraction,  was  born  in  the  county 
of  Schackenburg,  Jutland,  in  1755.  He  studied  at  Got- 
tingen,  and  in  1776  made  the  tour  of  Switzerland  and 
Italy.  In  1782  he  made  his  third  visit  to  Rome,  where 
he  continued  to  reside  for  the  greater  part  of  his  life. 
He  was  patronized  by  Pope  Pius  VI.  and  Cardinal 
Borgia,  and  was  appointed,  through  the  influence 
of  the  latter,  interpreter  of  modern  languages  to  the 
Propaganda  College.  He  published  in  1787  his  "  Numi 
/Egyptii  Imperatorii  prostantes  in  Museo  Borgiano 
Velitris,"  etc.,  being  a  catalogue  of  the  Egyptian  coins 
Btruck  by  the  Roman  emperors,  contained  in  the  Borgian 
Museum.  This  work  was  received  with  great  Savour, 
and  was  followed  by  his  treatise  on  obelisks,  entitled 
"  De  Origine  et  Usu  Obeliscorum,"  (1797,)  which  is 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  valuable  productions  of  the 
kind.  Besides  the  above  works,  he  published  a  cata- 
logue of  the  Coptic  manuscripts  in  the  library  of  Car- 
dinal Borgia,  ("Catalogus  Codicum  Copticorum,"  etc.,) 
and  an  account  of  the  antique  bas-reliefs  at  Rome, 
entitled  "  Bassi-Rilievi  antichi  di  Roma,"  (2  vols.,  1808.) 
The  latter,  written  conjointly  with  Piranesi,  was  left 
unfinished.  Zoega  was  appointed  in  1802  professor  in 
the  University  of  Kiel  ;  but  he  was  exempted  from  the 
duties  of  the  office,  and  permitted  to  remain  at  Rome, 
where  he  died  in  1809. 

See  Welcker,  "Zoega's  Leben,  Sammlung  seiner  Briefe,"  etc., 
2  vols.,  1819;  "  Nouvelle  Biographic  G^nerale." 

Zoellner.    See  Zollner. 

Zoes,  zoos,  [Lat.  Zoe'sius,]  (Henry,)  a  Flemish  jurist, 
born  at  Amersfort  in  1571.  He  became  professor  of  law 
at  Lou  vain  about  1607,  and  wrote  several  works  on  law. 
Died  in  1627. 

Zoest.    See  Sost. 

Zoffani  or  Zofifany,  zof'fa-ne  or  tsof'f^-nee,  (Johann,) 
a  German  painter,  born  in  1735,  settled  in  England,  where 
he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  and 
was  patronized  by  the  royal  family.  He  became  one  of  the 
first  members  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1768.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  an  "Indian  Tiger-Hunt"  and 
"The  Embassy  of  Hyder  Alee  to  Calcutta."  Died  in 
1810. 

See  PiLKiNGTON,  "Dictionary  of  Painters." 

Zogoskin  or  Zagoskin,  zS-gos'k^n  or  zo-gos'kin, 
(Mikhail  Nikolaivitch,)  written  also  Zogoskine, 
a  Russian  novelist  and  dramatic  writer,  of  Tartar  ex- 
traction, was  born  in  the  government  of  Penza  in  1789. 
Having  published  several  popular  comedies,  he  brought 
out  in  1829  his  romance  entitled  "George  Miloslavsky, 
or  the  Russians  in  1612,"  which  met  with  enthusiastic 
favour  from  all  classes  in  Russia,  as  a  faithful  picture 
of  the  national  character  and  manners.  Besides  the 
above,  he  wrote  several  other  novels,  and  a  number  of 
prose  essays.    Died  in  1852. 

See  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1833. 

Zo'gra-phos,  (Constantine,)  a  Greek  orator  and 
politician,  born  in  the  Morea  about  1798.  He  became  the 
head  of  the  ministry  in  1837,  and  ambassador  to  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1850.    Died  in  1856. 

Zoheir,  zo'hSr',  an  Arabian  poet,  contemporary  with 
Mohammed.  He  was  the  author  of  one  of  the  seven  poems 


of  the  "  Moallakat,"  which  Sir  W.  Jones  published,  with 
an  English  version,  in  1782.    He  was  the  father  of  the 
poet  Kaab. 
Zoile.    See  Zoilus. 

Zo'Mus,  [Gr.  ZoUoq;  Fr.  Zoile,  zo'^1',]  a  Greek 
critic  and  grammarian  of  uncertain  period.  According 
to  Vitruvius,  he  was  a  contemporary  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus,  (285-247  B.C.  ;)  others  think  that  he  flourished 
about  360-330  B.C.  He  was  notorious  for  the  malignity 
of  his  criticism  of  Homer,  whom  he  censured  for  intro- 
ducing fabulous  and  incredible  stories  into  his  poems. 

Zoilus,  a  Greek  physician  and  oculist,  mentioned  by 
Galen. 

Zola,  dzo'lS,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  theologian,  born 
near  Brescia  in  1739.  He  was  professor  of  history  at 
Pavia,  and  favoured  the  reforms  of  the  emperor  Joseph 
II.    Died  in  1806. 

Zolkiewski,  zol-ke-ev'skee,  (Stanislas,)  a  Polish 
general,  born  in  1547.  He  became  general-in-chief  of 
the  army  of  Sigismund  III.  about  1609.  He  invaded 
Russia  and  captured  Moscow  in  1610.  In  1620  he 
conducted  an  army  against  the  Turks.  Having  been 
deserted  by  some  mutinous  officers  and  men,  he  was 
overpowered  by  the  Turks  and  killed  the  same  year. 

ZoU,  tsol,  (Hermann,)  a  German  jurist,  born  in  1643. 
He  became  professor  of  law  at  Marburg  in  1674,  and 
published  a  number  of  able  legal  works.    Died  in  1725. 

ZolTi-coffer  or  Zollikoflfer,  (Felix,)  an  American 
general,  born  in  Maury  county,  Tennessee,  in  1812.  He 
became  editor  of  the  "  Nashville  Banner,"  a  Whig  paper, 
and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1852.  Having  taken 
arms  against  the  Union,  he  commanded  the  force  which 
was  defeated  at  Mill  Spring,  where  he  was  killed  on  the 
19th  of  January,  1862. 

Zollikofer,  tsol'le-ko'fer,  (Georg  Joachim,)  an  emi- 
nent Swiss  theologian  and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  Saint 
Gall  in  1730.  He  finished  his  studies  at  Utrecht,  and 
in  1758  became  pastor  of  the  Calvinistic  congregation  at 
Leipsic,  where  he  exercised  a  most  beneficial  influence 
by  his  eloquence  and  the  excellence  of  his  character. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  religious  treatises  and 
hymns  of  great  merit,  and  numerous  sermons,  a  com- 
plete collection  of  which  appeared,  in  15  vols.,  in  1789. 
Died  in  1788. 

See  Garve,  "Ueber  den  Charakter  Zollikofer's,"  1788;  Scheit- 
LiN,  "  Ueber  G.  J.  Zollikofer,"  1832. 

Zollner  or  Zoellner,  tsol'ner,  (Johann  Friedrich,) 
a  German  writer,  born  at  Neudamm  in  1753.  He  was 
minister  of  the  church  of  Saint  Nicholas,  in  Berlin. 
Died  in  1804. 

ZoUogoob  or  ZoUogub,  zoKlo-goob,  written  also 
SoUogub  and  ZoUohub,  (Vladimir  Alexandro- 
viTCH,)  a  popular  Russian  writer,  born  at  Saint  Peters- 
burg aljout  1815,  published  a  novel  entitled  "Tarantas," 
which  has  been  translated  into  English  and  German, 
also  poems,  essays,  and  dramas. 

Zon'a-ras,  [Gr.  Zuvapdg,]  (Joannes,)  a  Byzantine 
theologian  and  historian  of  the  twelfth  century,  lived 
under  the  reign  of  Alexius  Comnenus,  by  whom  he  was 
appointed  to  several  high  offices.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  "Chronicon,"  or  annals  from  the  creation  down  to 
1 118,  which  was  continued  by  Nicetas  Acominatus,  also 
"Commentaries  on  the  Sacred  Canons,"  etc. 

Zonca,  dzon'kS,  (Victor,)  an  Italian  mathematician 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  "  New  Theatre  of  Machines,"  giving  an  account 
of  various  mechanical  inventions. 

Zoobof  or  Zoubof,  zoo'bof,  written  also  Zoubov 
and  Subow,  (Platon,)  a  Russian  courtier,  born  in 
1767.  He  became  in  1791  the  favourite  of  the  empress 
Catherine  II.,  who  appointed  him  grand  master  of  the 
artillery.  He  was  the  most  powerful  Russian  subject 
until  the  death  of  Catherine,  (1796,)  after  which  he  was 
disgraced.  He  was  one  of  the  conspirators  that  killed 
Paul  I.,  in  1801.    Died  in  1822. 

See  "  M^moires  secrets  sur  la  Russie,"  1800. 

Zooiski,  Zuiski,  or  Zouiski,  (pronounced  almost 
zwis'kee,)  (Vasilii,)  a  Russian  prince  and  general,  was 
a  descendant  of  Vladimir  the  Great.  He  was  the  head 
of  the  government  during  the  minority  of  Ivan  IV.,  by 
whose  order  he  was  executed  in  1544. 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as j;  g,  h,  Vi.guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this.  (2l^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

146 


zoo  IS  K I 


2322 


ZRINTI 


Zooiski,  Zuiski,  or  Zouiski,  (Vasilti,)  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  distinguished  himself  by  his  successful  de- 
fence of  Pleskow  against  the  Polish  general  Zamoyski 
in  1582.    He  was  murdered  by  Boris  Godoonof  in  1587. 

Zopelli,  dzo-pel'lee,  (Giacomo,)  a  mediocre  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Venice  in  1639  ;  died  in  1718. 

Zopf,  tsopf,  (JoHANN  Heinrich,)  a  German  historian, 
born  at  Gera  in  1691.  He  published  in  1729  a  '*  Uni- 
versal History."   Died  in  1774. 

Zopfl,  tsopfl,  (Hkinrich  Matthaus,)  a  German 
jurist,  and  professor  of  civil  law  at  Heidelberg,  was  born 
at  Bamberg  in  1807.  He  published  a  number  of  legal 
and  political  works. 

Zoppio,  dzop'pe-o,  (Girolamo,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Bologna  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  translated 
the  first  four  books  of  Virgil's  "^neid"  into  verse,  and 
wrote  original  poems,  "Rime,"  (1567.)    Died  in  1591. 

His  son  Melchior,  born  at  Bologna  about  1544,  was 
professor  of  philosophy  at  that  city  about  fifty  years. 
He  wrote  four  tragedies  and  two  comedies.  Died  in 
1634. 

Zoppo,  dzop'po,  (Marco,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Bologna  in  145 1,  was  a  pupil  of  Andrea  Mantegna. 
Died  in  1517. 

Zoppo,  (Paolo,)  an  Italian  painter,  noted  for  the 
fineness  of  his  touch,  was  born  at  Brescia;  died  in  15 15. 
Zoppo  di  Lugano.    See  Discepoli. 
Zopyre.    See  Zopyrus. 

Zop'y-rus,  [Gr.  ZuTzvpog ;  Fr.  Zopyre,  zo'p^r',]  a 
Persian  officer  of  Darius  Hystaspis.  When  that  king  was 
besieging  the  revolted  city  of  Babylon,  Zopyrus  gained 
admission  into  the  city  by  the  following  stratagem.  He 
cut  off  his  nose  and  ears,  and  presented  himself  to  the 
enemy  as  a  deserter  who  wished  to  revenge  the  cruel 
treatment  he  had  received  from  Darius.  His  story  was 
credited,  and  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the  troops 
in  Babylon,  which  he  delivered  to  Darius. 

Zopyrus,  a  Greek  physician  or  surgeon  of  Alexan- 
dria, flourished  about  100  B.C.  or  80  B.C.  He  invented 
an  antidote  for  Ptolemy  Auletes,  and  also  one  for  Mith- 
ridates.  Galen  mentions  a  letter  from  Zopyrus  to  Mith- 
ridates  on  the  subject  of  his  antidote. 

Zorgh,  zoRG,  written  also  Sorgh,  (Hendrik,)  a 
Dutch  painter  of  fairs,  markets,  etc.,  born  at  Rotterdam 
in  1621,  was  a  pupil  of  Teniers.    Died  in  1684. 

Zorn,  tsoRn,  (Peter,)  a  learned  German  theologian 
and  philologist,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1682.  He  was  well 
versed  in  the  Greek  language  and  antiquities,  on  which 
he  wrote  several  treatises.  He  often  changed  his  place 
of  residence.  From  171 5  to  1720  he  was  rector  at  Plon. 
He  became  professor  of  history  and  eloquence  at  Stettin 
in  1725.    Died  at  Thorn  in  1746. 

Zor-o-as'ter,  [Gr.  ZupoaaTprjg;  Lat.  Zoroas'tres  ; 
Persian,  Zerdoosht  or  Zerdusht,  zerMoosht ;  Fr. 
Zoroastre,  zo'ro^tstR',]  a  Bactrian  or  Persian  philos- 
opher, celebrated  as  the  founder  or  reformer  of  the 
Magian  religion.  The  time  in  which  he  lived  is  not 
ascertained.  According  to  the  "  Zendavesta,"  (in  which 
his  name  is  written  Zarathustra,)  he  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Vita9pa,  whom  the  Persians  call  Gusht^sp,  and 
whom  some  writers  identify  with  Hystaspes,  the  father 
of  Darius  I.  Firdousee,  (Firdausi,)  in  his  great  poem 
the  "  Shah  Namah,"  likewise  makes  him  contemporary 
with  Gushtasp.  Some  authors  conjecture  that  he  lived 
more  than  1500  years  before  the  Christian  era.  The 
first  Greek  writer  that  mentions  him  is  Plato.  Ac- 
cording to  Aristotle,  Eudoxus,  Hermippus,  and  other 
ancients,  Zoroaster  lived  5000  years  or  more  before 
the  time  of  Plato.  Niebuhr  regards  him  as  a  mythical 
personage.  Tradition  presents  him  in  the  characters 
of  legislator,  prophet,  pontiff,  and  philosopher.  The 
doctrines  usually  ascribed  to  him  are  contained  in  the 
"Zend  Avesta,"  which  may  be  termed  the  Zoroastrian 
Scriptures.  These  are  written  in  the  language  of  ancient 
Persia,  and  profess  to  give  the  revelations  made  by  Or- 
muzd  to  his  servant  and  prophet  Zarathustra,  (Zoroaster.) 

The  Zoroastrian  system  of  religion  teaches  that  the 
world  or  universe  is  the  scene  of  a  conflict  between  two 
principles, — the  good,  called  Ormuzd,  and  the  evil,  called 
Ahriman  ;  that  each  of  these  possesses  creative  power, 
but  that  the  good  principle  is  eternal,  and  will  finally 


prevail  over  Ahriman,  who  will  sink  with  his  followers 
into  darkness,  which  is  their  native  element.  According 
to  some  authorities,  he  also  believed  in  an  infinite  Deity 
or  Being,  called  "Time  without  bounds."  His  religion 
gradually  degenerated  into  an  idolatrous  worship  of  fire 
and  the  sun.  (See  Ormuzd.) 

See  Anquetil-Duphrron,  "  Zendavesta,"  3  vols.,  1771  ;  Hyde, 
"  Vetenim  Persarum  at  Magorum  Religionis  Historia,"  1760 ; 
Rhode,  "  Der  heilige  Sage  der  alten  Baktren,  Meden  und  Persen 
De  Pastoret,  "Zoroastre,  Confucius  et  Mahomet,"  1787;  H.  G. 
Schneider,  "  De  Nomine  et  Vita  Zoroastris,"  1708;  De  Bock, 
"  M^rnoires  sur  Zoroastre  et  Confucius,"  1787  ;  Holty,  "Zoroaster 
und  sein  Zeitalter,"  1836;  Menant,  "Zoroastre,  Essai  sur  la  Phi- 
losophie  religieuse  de  la  Perse,"  1848;  Milman,  "  History  of  Chris- 
tianity;" Rev.  J.  Wilson,  "Religion  of  the  Parsees."  See,  also, 
the  article  on  "Zend  Avesta,"  in  the  "  New  American  Cyclopasdiai" 
by  Professor  Whitney. 

Zoroastre  or  Zoroastres.    See  Zoroaster. 

Zorobabel.    See  Zerubbabel. 

Zorrilla  y  Moral,  thor-r^Kyi  e  mo-rl\\  (Don  Jost,) 
an  eminent  Spanish  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Valla- 
dolid  in  1817.  Being  destined  by  his  father  for  the  legal 
profession,  he  was  sent  to  the  Seminario  de  los  Nobles 
at  Madrid  in  1827,  but,  instead  of  the  study  of  law,  he 
devoted  himself  to  poetry  and  literary  pursuits,  and 
became  a  contributor  to  the  journal  "El  Artista."  His 
elegy  on  the  death  of  the  poet  Larra(i837)  was  received 
with  enthusiastic  admiration,  and  raised  the  highest 
hopes  of  his  future  excellence.  In  1841  he  published 
his  "  Songs  of  the  Troubadour,"  ("  Cantos  del  Trova- 
dor,")  which  were  equally  successful.  His  other  prin- 
cipal works  are  the  comedies  of  "The  Shoemaker  and 
the  King"  ("  El  Zapatero  y  el  Rey,"  1840)  and  "  Don 
Juan  Tenario,"  a  "Collection  of  Historical  Legends  and 
Traditions,"  (1840,)  and  "Granada,  an  Oriental  Poem, 
with  the  Legend  of  Al-Hamar,"  (1853.) 

Zor'tan,  (Petratsch,)  a  Hungarian  peasant,  born 
near  Temesvar  in  1537;  died  in  1724,  at  the  age  of  one 
hundred  and  eighty-five  years. 

See  Sir  John  Sinclair,  "  Code  of  Health  and  Longevity,"  vol 
ii.,  Edinburgh,  1807. 

Zorzi,  dzoRt'see,  [Lat.  Geor'gius,]  (Alessandro,)  an 
Italian  Jesuit  and  metaphysician,  born  at  Venice  in  1747. 
He  published  a  "  Prospectus  of  a  New  Italian  Ency- 
clopaedia," (1775,)  but  only  lived  long  enough  to  give 
a  small  specimen  of  it.    Died  in  1779. 

See  Vanetti,  "  Vita  Alex.  Georgii,"  1779. 

Zosime.    See  Zosimus. 

Zos'i-mus,  [Gr.  Zuatfiog ;  Fr.  Zosime,  zo'z^m',]  a 
Greek  historian  of  the  fifth  century,  lived  under  Theo- 
dosius  II.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the 
Roman  Empire  down  to  410  A.D.,"  in  six  books,  all  of 
which  is  extant.  He  was  a  pagan,  and  is  accused  of 
partiality  by  some  orthodox  writers.  His  style  is  neat 
and  pure. 

Zosimus,  a  Greek  ecclesiastic,  succeeded  Innocent 
I.  as  Bishop  of  Rome  in  417  a.d.  He  confirmed  the 
sentence  of  heresy  pronounced  against  the  Pelagians, 
and  was  the  author  of  letters  and  controversial  treatises. 
Died  in  December,  418. 

Zoubof  or  Zoobov.    See  Zoobof. 

Zouch,  zootch,  (Richard,)  an  English  jurist,  born  in 
Wiltshire  about  1590,  became  regius  professor  of  law  at 
Oxford  in  1620.  He  afterwards  rose  through  several 
offices  to  be  judge  of  the  high  court  of  admiralty.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  number  of  legal  works,  in  Latin. 
Died  about  1660. 

Zouch,  (Thomas,)  an  English  divine  and  writer,  born 
in  Yorkshire  in  1737,  became  rector  of  Scrayingham 
in  1793,  and  subsequently  a  prebendary  of  Durham. 
He  published  "An  Attempt  to  illustrate  some  of  the 
Prophecies  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,"  (1800,) 
"  Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Sir  Philip  Sid- 
ney," (1808,)  and  other  works.    Died  in  1815. 

Zouiski.    See  Zooiski. 

Zoust.    See  S5st. 

Zrinyi,  zR^n'yee,  written  also  Zriny,  (Nicholas,)  a 
celebrated  Hungarian  general,  born  in  1518,  was  Ban 
of  Croatia,  which  he  defended  twelve  years  against  the 
Turks.  In  1566  he  was  besieged  in  the  town  of  Szigeth 
by  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  at  the  head  of  65,000  men, 
while  his  own  forces  were  but  3000.  After  a  resistance 
of  a  month,  the  city  was  taken,  and  Zrinyi,  with  his  few 


z,  e,  1,  5,  u,  y,  /on^;  i,  k,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 


ZRINTI 


2323 


ZUMBO 


remaining  followers,  defended  themselves  for  a  time  in 
the  citadel,  and,  in  the  final  assault,  rushed  forth  and 
fell  fighting.  His  heroic  achievements  have  been  immor- 
talized in  one  of  Korner's  dramas. 

Zrinyi,  (Nicholas,)  a  Hungarian  warrior  and  poet, 
a  great-grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1616,  became 
Ban  of  Croatia,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  war 
against  the  Turks.    Died  in  1664. 

Zschackwitz,  tshSk'^its,  (  Johann,)  a  German  jurist, 
born  near  Naumburg  in  1669,  lectured  on  law  at  Halle, 
and  wrote  on  history  and  public  law.    Died  in  1744. 

Zschokke,  tshok'keh,  (Johann  Heinrich  Daniel,) 
a  popular  German  writer,  born  at  Magdeburg  on  the  22d 
of  March,  1771.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  He  produced  in  1793  a  drama 
called  "  Aballino  the  Bandit,"  which  was  successful.  His 
next  work  was  "Julius  von  Sassen,"  a  drama,  (1796.) 
About  1796  he  left  Frankfort,  and  travelled  through 
Germany  and  France.  He  settled  in  Switzerland,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  political  affairs  of  that  country 
(between  1798  and  1803)  as  a  civil  officer  of  the  republic. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  Swiss  history,  among  which 
is  a  "History  of  the  Combats  and  Fall  of  the  Swiss 
Mountain  and  Forest-Cantons,"  (1801.)  In  1803  or 
1804  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  council  of  mines 
and  forests.  He  resided  many  years  at  Aarau,  whither 
he  removed  about  1808.  From  1807  to  1813  he  edited 
a  popular  periodical  called  "Miscellany  of  the  Most  Re- 
cent Events,"  ("Miscellen  fiir  die  neueste  Weltkunde,") 
He  was  a  prolific  writer  of  novels,  tales,  poems,  and 
histories.  His  novels  are  commended  for  their  good 
moral  tone,  and  are  remarkable  for  humour.  He  wrote 
a  "History  of  Bavaria,"  (4  vols.,  1813-18,)  and  a  "His- 
tory of  Switzerland  for  the  Swiss  People,"  (1822,)  which 
is  highly  esteemed.  Among  his  most  popular  works  are 
"Hours  of  Devotion,"  ("Stunden  der  Andacht,")  an 
eloquent  exposition  of  modern  rationalism,  and  "The 
Goldmaker's  Village,"  a  tale.  He  died  in  January,  1848. 

See  his  autobiography,  entitled  "  Selbstschau,"  1841  ;  E.  Frens- 
DORF,  "Notice  sur  la  Vie  de  Zschokke,"  1844;  Baer,  "Zschokke, 
sein  Leben  und  sein  Werken,"  1849;  Muench,  "Zschokke  geschil- 
dert  nach  seinen  vorziiglichsten  Lebensmomenten,"  1830;  "Foreign 
Quarterly  Review"  for  April,  1844. 

Zuallart,  zu't'ltR',  (Jean,)  a  Belgian  traveller,  visited 
the  Holy  Land  in  1586,  and  published  a  "Journey  to 
Jerusalem,"  (1587.)    Died  after  1632. 

ZuazOj  thoo-iltho,  almost  thyi\'tho,  (Alfonso,)  a 
Spanish  jurist,  born  at  Olmedo  about  1466.  He  was 
sent  by  Cardinal  Ximenes  to  America  in  i5i6to  protect 
the  natives  from  the  cruelty  of  the  Spaniards.  He  re- 
ceived from  Ximenes  full  power  to  govern  the  colonies, 
and  he  used  his  power  in  favour  of  justice  and  humanity. 
In  1522  he  became  Governor  of  Cuba,  where  he  reformed 
the  courts  of  justice.    Died  in  Saint  Domingo  in  1527. 

Zuber,  tsoo'ber,  (Matthaus,)  a  German  writer  of 
Latin  poetry,  born  at  Neuburg,  on  the  Danube,  in  1570. 
He  published  "  Various  Poems,"  ("  Poemata  varia," 
1598,)  and  "  Epigrammata,"  (1605.)    Died  in  1623. 

Zuccardi,  dzook-kaR'dee,  (Ubertino,)  an  Italian 
jurist,  born  at  Correggio  about  1480  ;  died  in  1541. 

Zuccarelli,  dzook-kl-reKlee,  or  Zuccherelli,  dzook- 
ki-reKlee,  (Francesco,)  an  Italian  landscape-painter, 
born  near  Florence  in  1702.  He  visited  England  in 
1752,  and  became  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  After  a  residence  of  more  than  twenty  years 
in  England,  where  he  was  extensively  patronized,  he 
returned  to  Florence,  and  died  in  1788. 

Zuccarini,  tso6k-ki-ree'nee,  (Joseph  Gerard,)  an 
eminent  German  botanist,  born  at  Munich  in  1798.  He 
was  professor  of  botany  at  that  city,  and  described  the 
plants  collected  by  Siebold,  in  the  "  Flora  Japonica," 
(1835.)  Among  his  works  is  "Instruction  in  Botany," 
(1834.)    Died  in  1848. 

Zuccaro,  dzook'ki  -ro,  or  ZuccIlBro,  dzook'ki-ro, 
(Federigo,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Sant'  Angelo,  in 
the  duchy  of  Urbino,  in  1543.  He  was  instructed  by  his 
elder  brother  Taddeo,  several  of  whose  unfinished  pic- 
tures he  completed.  Having  executed  some  important 
works  at  Florence  and  Rome,  he  visited  the  Netherlands 
and  England,  where  he  painted  portraits  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  Sir  Francis  Walsingham, 
and  other  eminent  persons.    After  his  return  to  Rome 


he  completed  the  frescos  of  the  Pauline  Chapel,  in  the 
Vatican,  which  he  had  previously  begun  at  the  request 
of  Gregory  XIII.  On  the  invitation  of  Philip  11.,  he 
repaired  to  Spain  about  1585,  and  was  employed  to  paint 
the  Escurial.  In  1595  he  became  the  founder  and  the 
first  president  of  the  Academy  of  Saint  Luke,  at  Rome. 
He  was  also  skilled  in  sculpture  and  architecture,  and 
published  a  work  entitled  "  L'Idea  de'  Pittori,  Scultori 
ed  Architetti."  Zuccaro  was  one  of  the  most  admired 
artists  of  his  time ;  but  later  critics  have  not  assigned 
him  so  high  a  rank.    Died  in  1609. 

See  Walpolk,  "  Anecdotes  of  Painting Vasari,  "  Lives  of  the 
Painters." 

Zuccaro,  (Mario,)  an  Italian  medical  writer,  born 
in  the  sixteenth  century  at  Naples,  where  he  became 
professor  of  medicine.    Died  in  1634. 

Zuccaro,  (Taddeo,)  a  brother  of  Federigo,  noticed 
above,  was  born  in  1529.  At  an  early  age  he  visited 
Rome,  where  he  lived  for  a  time  in  great  destitution  and 
was  employed  as  a  colour-grinder.  He  was  afterwards 
patronized  by  the  popes  Julius  III.  and  Paul  IV.,  and 
Cardinal  Alexander  Farnese,  for  whom  he  painted  a 
series  of  frescos  in  the  palace  at  Caprarola,  illustrating 
the  glories  of  the  Farnese  family,  since  engraved  by 
Prenner.    Died  in  1566. 

See  Vasari,  "Lives  of  the  Painters." 

Zucchelli,  dzook-kel'lee,  (Antonio,)  of  Gradisca,  a 
Capuchin  monk,  who  went  as  a  missionary  to  Congo  in 
1697.  In  1 712  he  published  an  interesting  "Account  of 
his  Travels,  with  a  Description  of  Angola  and  Congo." 

Zuccherelli.    See  Zuccarelll 

Zucchero.    See  Zuccaro,  (Federigo.) 

Zucchi,  dzook'kee,  (Antonio,)  a  Venetian  painter, 
born  in  1726,  resided  several  years  in  England,  where 
he  executed  a  number  of  frescos,  and  became  an  asso- 
ciate of  the  Royal  Academy.    Died  at  Rome  in  1795. 

Zucchi,  (Bartolommeo,)  an  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Monza  about  1560,  became  a  priest.  He  wrote  several 
biographies  and  historical  works.    Died  in  163 1. 

Zucchi,  (GiACOMO,)  an  Italian  painter,  born  at  Flor- 
ence, was  a  pupil  of  Vasari.  He  went  to  Rome  about 
1572,  and  worked  there  with  success.    Died  about  1590. 

Zucchi,  (Marco  Antonio,)  a  famous  Italian  im- 
provisatore,  born  at  Verona.  He  composed  verses 
extempore  in  public.    Died  in  1764. 

Zuccolo,  dzook'ko-lo,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  writer, 
born  at  Faenza  about  1570.  He  published  several  works 
on  moral  philosophy  and  other  subjects. 

Zuccolo,  (Luigi,)  an  Italian  jurist,  born  in  1599. 
He  wrote  "  De  Ratione  Status,"  (1663.)    Died  in  1668. 

Zucconi,  dzook-ko'nee,  (Giuseppe,)  an  Italian  poet 
and  bibliographer,  born  at  Venice  in  1721,  was  appointed 
censor  of  books.    He  died  prematurely  in  1754. 

Zuckert,  tsook'keRt,  (Johann  Friedrich,)  a  Ger- 
man medical  writer,  born  at  Berlin  in  1737.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  diet  and  regimen,  which  are  com- 
mended.   Died  in  1778. 

Zuichem  or  Zuichemus,  (Viglius.)    See  Ayta. 

Zuingli.    See  Zwingle. 

Zuinglius.    See  Zwingle. 

Zumala-Carreguy,  thoo-m§,'li  kSr-ra'gee,  (Don  To- 
MAS,)  a  celebrated  Spanish  commander  in  the  service 
of  Don  Carlos,  was  born  near  Villareal  in  1788.  He 
served  under  General  Mina  in  1813,  and  attained  the 
rank  of  colonel  in  1825,  being  appointed  at  the  same 
time  governor  of  Ferrol.  After  the  death  of  Ferdinand 
VII.  he  became  leader  of  a  band  of  insurgents  in  the 
Basque  provinces,  with  whom  he  defeated  General  Rodil 
in  the  valley  of  Amescoas  in  1834,  which  was  followed 
by  several  other  signal  victories  over  the  forces  of  Queen 
Christina.  He  was  mortally  wounded  while  preparing 
to  besiege  Bilbao,  in  1835. 

See  Henningsen,  "  Twelve  Months  of  Campaign  with  Zumala- 
Carreguy,"  2  vols.,  1836;  Madrazo,  "Historia  militar  y  politica  de 
Zumalacarreguy,"  1844;  "Foreign  Quarterly  Review"  for  July, 
1837;  "  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1845,  and  July,  1846. 

Zumbo,  dzoom'bo,  or  Zummo,  dzoom'mo,  (Gae- 
tano  GiULTO,)  a  Sicilian  artist,  born  at  Syracuse  in 
1656,  was  celebrated  as  a  modeller  of  figures  in  coloured 
wax.  He  was  a  skilful  anatomist,  and  his  anatomical 
preparations  in  wax  were  greatly  admired.  Died  in  1701. 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  G,  H,  Vi,^itural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  *h  as  in  this.    (ffi^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


ZUMPT 


2324 


Zir INGLE 


Zumpt,  tsoompt,  (August  Wilhelm,)  nephew  of  Karl 
Gottlob,  noticed  below,  was  born  at  Konigsberg  in  181 5. 
He  published,  among  other  works,  '*  Commentationes 
epigraphicae  ad  Antiquitates  Romanas  pertinentes,"  (2 
vols.,  1850-54.) 

Zumpt,  (Karl  Gottlob,)  a  German  scholar,  born  at 
Berlin  in  1792.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg  under  Creu- 
zer,  and  in  1828  became  professor  of  Roman  literature 
in  the  University  of  Berlin.  His  "Latin  Grammar," 
published  in  181 8,  enjoys  a  very  high  reputation,  and 
has  been  translated  into  English.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  several  valuable  essays  on  Roman  customs 
and  antiquities,  among  which  we  may  name  "  On  the 
Architecture  of  the  Roman  Dwelling-House,"  (1844,) 
and  "On  the  Religion  of  the  Romans,"  (1845.)  He 
likewise  prepared  editions  of  Quintilian's  "  Institutiones 
Oratoriae,"  and  other  Latin  classics.    Died  in  1849. 

Zumsteeg,  tsoom'stao,  (Johann  Rudolf,)  a  German 
composer,  born  in  1760.  His  songs  and  ballads  are 
particularly  admired.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Schiller,  several  of  whose  lyrics  he  set  to  music.  Died 
in  1802. 

Zuniga,  de,  di  thoon-ye'gS,  (Don  Diego  Ortiz,)  a 
Spanish  historian,  born  at  Seville.  He  wrote  a  "  His- 
tory of  Seville,"  (1677.)    Died  in  1680. 

Zunz,  tsoonts,  (Leopold,)  a  learned  German  Jew, 
born  at  Detmold  in  1794,  became  principal  of  the  Jewish 
Seminary  at  Berlin.  He  published  "The  Synagogal 
Poetry  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  and  other  works. 

Zurbano,  thooR-bS'no,  (Martin,)  a  Spanish  general, 
born  about  1780,  served  in  the  army  of  Queen  Christina, 
and,  when  she  was  compelled  to  leave  Spain,  attached 
himself  to  Espartero.  He  was  betrayed  into  the  hands 
of  the  enemy  in  1845,  and  shot. 

Zurbaran,  thooR-ba-rSn',  (Francisco,)  an  eminent 
Spanish  painter,  born  in  Estremadura  in  1598.  He 
studied  under  Juan  de  Roelas  at  Seville,  where  he 
produced  a  great  number  of  his  best  works.  Among 
these  may  be  named  his  "  Saint  Thomas  Aquinas,"  an 
altar-piece  in  the  church  of  the  College  of  Saint  Thomas 
Aquinas,  esteemed  one  of  the  most  admirable  pictures 
ever  executed  in  Spain,  and  the  altar-pieces  in  the 
churches  of  San  Lorenzo  and  Sant'  Antonio  Abad.  A 
few  of  his  works  are  to  be  seen  in  the  galleries  of  Paris, 
Berlin,  and  Dresden  ;  and  at  Munich,  a  "  Virgin  and. 
Saint  John  returning  from  the  Sepulchre  of  Christ." 
Zurbaran  received  the  title  of  painter  to  King  Philip  HL, 
and  was  patronized  by  his  successor,  Philip  IV.  He  is 
sometimes  called  "  the  Spanish  Caravaggio,"  from  the 
resemblance  of  his  style  to  that  of  the  Italian  master  ; 
but  he  is  thought  in  some  respects  to  have  surpassed 
him.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  fidelity  to  nature, 
richness  of  colouring,  chiaroscuro,  and  exquisite  repre- 
sentation of  velvets,  brocades,  and  white  draperies. 
The  Spanish  friar  was  a  favourite  subject,  in  the  treat- 
ment of  which  he  was  eminently  successful.  Diecf  in  1662. 

Zurita,  thoo-ree'ta,  (Geronimo,)  a  Spanish  historian, 
born  at  Saragossa  in  1512.  He  studied  at  Alcala,  and 
rose  through  several  important  offices  to  be  a  member 
of  the  supreme  council  of  Castile,  in  1543.  He  was 
afterwards  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Germany,  and  in  1549 
appointed  historiographer  of  the  kingdom.  His  prin- 
cipal work,  entitled  "  Annals  of  the  Crown  of  Aragon," 
("Anales  de  la  Corona  de  Aragon,"  4  vols.,  1580,) 
enjoys  a  high  reputation.  His  candour  and  impartiality 
are  praised  by  Prescott  in  his  "  History  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,"  (vol.  ii.  part  ii.)    Died^in  1581. 

Zurla,  dzooR'ia,  (Placido,)  a  learned  Italian  cardinal, 
born  in  the  Venetian  States  in  1769,  became  vicar-general 
to  Pope  Leo  XII.  He  published  a  treatise  "  On  Marco 
Polo  and  other  Venetian  Travellers,"  and  "  On  the 
Voyages  and  Discoveries  of  Cadamosto."  Died  in  1834. 

Zurlauben,  zuRn6''b6N'  or  tsooR'low'ben,  (B6at 
Jacques,)  a  Swiss  general  in  the  service  of  France,  com- 
manded a  brigade  at  Steenkerke,  (1692,)  and  at  Neerwin- 
den.    He  died  of  wounds  received  at  Blenheim,  in  1704. 

Zurlauben,  de,  deh  ziiR'lo'bftN',  (B6at  Fid^ile  An- 
toine  Jean  Dominique,)  Baron  de  la  Tour-Chatillon, 
a  Swiss  general  and  writer,  born  at  Zug  in  1720,  served 
in  the  French  army  many  years.  He  wrote,  besides 
many  historical  and  antiquarian  treatises,  "A  Military 


History  of  the  Swiss  in  the  French  Service,"  (8 
vols,,  1751-53,)  and  a  "Description  of  Switzerland," 
("  Tableaux  topographiques,  pittoresques,  physiques," 
etc.,  4  vols.,  1780-86.)    Died  in  1795. 

Zurlo,  dzooR'lo,  (Giuseppe,)  Count,  an  able  Italian 
minister  of  state,  born  at  Naples  in  1759.  He  became 
minister  of  finance  in  1798.  He  followed  the  court  to 
Palermo  in  1806,  when  the  French  regime  was  es- 
tablished at  Naples ;  but  he  returned  in  1809,  and  was 
appointed  minister  of  justice  and  of  the  interior  by 
Murat.  He  reformed  the  administration,  and  protected 
learning,  commerce,  and  agriculture.  In  1815  he  retired 
from  office.    Died  in  1828. 

Zurner,  tsooR'ner,  (Adam  Friedrich,)  a  German 
geographer,  born  near  Oelsnitz  about  1680,  produced 
several  maps  of  Saxony  and  other  parts  of  Germany. 
Died  in  1742. 

Zuylichem.    See  Huygens. 

Zuzzeri,  dzoot-sa'ree,  (Giovanni  Luca,)  an  Italian 
antiquary  and  numisrhatist,  born  at  Ragusa  in  1716; 
died  at  Rome  in  1746. 

Zwanziger,  ts^in'sic-er,  (Joseph  Christian,)  a 
German  writer,  born  in  Hungary  in  1732.  He  was 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Leipsic,  and  wrote  against 
the  philosophy  of  Kant.    Died  in  1808. 

Zweers,'  zwairs,  (Philip,)  a  Dutch  poet,  lived  at 
Amsterdam.  He  wrote  "  Semiramis,"  a  tragedy,  and 
other  poems,  which  were  admired.    Died  in  1774. 

Zwelfer,  ts^^^Kfer,  (Johann,)  a  German  chemist  and 
physician,  born  in  the  Palatinate  in  1618.  He  practised 
in  Vienna,  and  wrote  several  works.    Died  in  1668. 

Zwicker,  ts-^ik'ker,  (Daniel,)  a  German  religionist, 
born  at  Dantzic  in  1612.  He  was  once  a  Socinian,  and 
afterwards  an  Arminian.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
"Irenicon  Irenicorum,"  (1658,)  the  aim  of  which  was  to 
promote  union  among  Christian  sects.    Died  in  1678. 

Zwinger,  ts^inc/er,  (Jakob,)  a  Swiss  physician  and 
philologist,  born  at  Bale  in  1569,  was  a  son  of  Theodore. 
He  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Bale,  and  wrote  a 
"  Life  of  Lucian,"  (1602,)  and  "  Examination  of  Chemi- 
cal Principles,"  ("  Principiorum  Chymicorum  Examen," 
1606.)    Died  in  1610. 

Zwinger,  [Lat.  Zv^tinge'rus,]  (Johann  Rudolph,) 
a  Swiss  physician,  born  at  B^le  in  1692,  was  a  son  of 
Theodore  the  Younger.  He  was  professor  of  medicine 
at  Bale  for  fifty-two  years.  Among  his  pupils  was  the 
famous  Haller.    Died  in  1777. 

See  BuxTORF,  "Vita  J.  R.  Zwingeri,"  1778. 

Zwinger,  [Lat.  Zv^inge'rus,]  (Theodore,)  the 
Elder,  an  eminent  Swiss  physician  and  scholar,  born 
at  Bale  in  1533,  was  the  father  of  Jakob.  He  studied 
at  Paris  and  Padua.  In  1565  he  obtained  the  chair  of 
Greek  at  Bale.  He  published,  besides  other  works, 
a  collection  of  anecdotes,  etc.,  entitled  "Theatre  of 
Human  Life,"  ("Theatrum  Vita  humanae,"  1565,)  and 
"  On  the  Rural  or  Agricultural  Method  of  Cato  and 
Varro,"  ("  Methodus  Rustica  Catonis  et  Varronis," 
1576.)    Died  at  Bale  in  1588. 

See  a  "  Life  of  Zwinger"  in  "  Athense  Rauricae." 

Zwinger,  (Theodore,)  a  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Bale  in  1597,  was  a  son  of  Jakob.  He  became 
first  pastor  and  superintendent  of  the  churches  of  Bile 
in  1630.  He  was  also  professor  of  divinity  in  that  city 
for  twenty-four  years.    Died  in  1654. 

Zwinger,  (Theodore,)  a  Swiss  physician  and  bot- 
anist, born  at  Bale  in  1658,  was  a  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  was  a  son  of  Johann  Zwinger,  (1634-96,) 
professor  of  Greek  and  theology  at  Bale.  He  became 
in  1687  professor  of  physics  in  his  native  city,  where  he 
also  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  practitioner  of  medi- 
cine. In  1703  he  exchanged  the  chair  of  physics  for 
that  of  anatomy.  He  wrote  several  works  on  medicine 
and  botany.    Died  in  1724. 

See  "Athenae  Raiiricas." 

Zwingerus.    See  Zwinger. 

Zwingle,  zwing'g'l,  Zwingli,  or  Zuingli,  zw?ng'- 
glee,  [Lat.  Zwin'glius  or  Zuin'glius;  Fr.  Zwingle. 
zviNg'l ;  Ger,  ULRiCHor  Huldreich  Zwingli,  hoolt'riK 
ts^ing'lee,]  a  Swiss  Reformer  of  great  eminence,  was 
born  at  Wildhaus,  in  the  canton  or  valley  of  Toggen- 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  \  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  ^,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  ftt;  mSt;  ndt;  g^od;  moon; 


ZWINGLE  2325 


ZYPE 


burg,  on  the  ist  of  January,  1484.  He  was  liberally 
educated  at  Bale  and  Vienna,  at  the  former  of  which 
places  he  studied  theology  under  Thomas  Wyttenbach. 
He  was  a  diligent  reader  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  Horace, 
and  Seneca.  In  1506  he  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  at 
Bale,  and  was  appointed  priest  of  Glarus.  About  this 
time  he  acquired  a  profound  knowledge  of  the  original 
text  of  the  New  Testament,  and  began  to  test  the  sound- 
ness of  the  doctrines  of  the  Roman  Church  by  the 
standard  of  the  gospel.  "  The  Holy  Scriptures,"  says 
Hottinger,  "had  been  his  daily  and  nightly  study,  and 
he  knew  the  greater  part  of  them  literally  by  heart." 
He  performed  a  journey  to  Bale  to  become  personally 
acquainted  with  Erasmus,  whose  writings  he  admired. 
He  served  as  chaplain  to  a  body  of  Swiss  troops  em- 
ployed in  Lombardy  in  1515,  and  witnessed  the  great 
battle  of  Marignano.  He  afterwards  raised  his  voice  to 
dissuade  the  Swiss  from  the  practice  of  enlisting  as 
mercenaries  in  foreign  armies. 

In  1 5 16  he  removed  from  Glarus  to  Einsiedeln,  the 
monastery  of  which  was  in  high  repute  as  a  sanctuary 
and  was  visited  by  numerous  pilgrims  and  devotees,  who 
came  to  buy  indulgences  for  their  sins.  Zvvingle  was 
employed  there  as  preacher  to  the  monastery.  He  had 
previously  been  convinced  that  several  doctrines  and 
practices  of  the  Roman  Church  were  not  consistent  with 
the  pure  religion  of  the  gospel ;  but  he  had  hitherto 
refrained  from  the  public  avowal  of  his  convictions. 
Zwingle  and  Luther  began  about  the  same  time  to  con- 
demn the  sale  of  indulgences,  and  other  corruptions  of 
the  Church  of  Rome.  He  was  supported  by  Theobald 
of  Geroldseck,  administrator  of  the  abbey,  and  found  at 
Einsiedeln  another  coadjutor,  Leo  Juda.  In  his  sermons 
he  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  practical  virtue  and  new- 
ness of  life,  instead  of  exterior  observances,  ceremonies, 
and  superstitious  practices.  He  also  urged  the  bishops 
and  other  high  functionaries  to  undertake  the  refor- 
mation of  the  Church  by  removing  the  impostures 
and  ignorance  and  depravity  of  the  priests.  He  corre- 
sponded with  Erasmus,  Capito,  and  Beatus  Rhenanus. 
In  December,  15 18,  he  was  appointed  preacher  to  the 
collegiate  church  or  great  Miinster  of  Zurich,  where  he 
found  the  priests  and  the  people  in  a  benighted  spiritual 
condition.  He  insisted  that  the  people  should  read  and 
understand  the  Holy  Scriptures.  His  bold  and  novel 
mode  of  preaching  produced,  of  course,  much  agitation. 

In  1523  the  Great  Council  of  Zurich,  at  the  request 
of  Zwingle,  summoned  the  clergy  of  that  diocese  to 
attend  a  conference  for  the  discussion  of  the  new  doc- 
trines, and  proposed  that  the  Holy  Scripture  should  be 
recognized  as  the  standard  by  which  doctrines  must  be 
judged.  To  this  conference  the  Bishop  of  Constance 
sent  John  Faber,  his  vicar-general.  Zwingle  defended 
his  course,  having  previously  published  a  list  of  articles 
to  be  discussed,  among  which  were  the  following :  the 
power  arrogated  to  themselves  by  the  pope  and  bishops 
is  not  sanctioned  by  Scripture  ;  the  marriage  of  priests 
ought  not  to  be  forbidden ;  and  no  one  ought  to  be  mo- 
lested for  his  opinions.  The  result  of  the  conference  was 
a  decision  of  the  council  that  Zwingle  should  continue 
to  preach  the  gospel  as  he  had  done  heretofore.  "  His 
simplicity,  firmness,  and  gentleness,"  says  Hess,  "in- 
spired his  audience  with  great  veneration  ;  his  eloquence 
and  knowledge  carried  away  those  who  were  hesitating 
between  the  two  parties."  ("Life  of  Zwingle.")  In  1524 
he  married  Anna  Reinhart.  He  published  in  1525  a 
work  entitled  "  A  Discourse  on  True  and  False  Religion." 
The  mass  was  abolished  at  Zurich  in  1525.    About  the 


same  time  the  monasteries  were  suppressed,  and  their 
property  was  appropriated  to  the  purposes  of  education 
and  charity. 

Zwingle  took  part  in  a  conference  (between  the  Re- 
formers and  the  Roman  Catholics)  which  met  at  Berne 
in  1528,  soon  after  which  the  Reformed  religion  was 
established  in  the  canton  of  Berne.  In  1529  he  met 
Luther  and  Melanchthon  in  conference  at  Marburg.  He 
agreed  with  them  in  relation  to  fourteen  articles  of  faith, 
to  which  they  all  subscribed,  but  he  differed  from  them 
on  the  subject  of  the  Eucharist,  and  rejected  the  doctrine 
of  the  real  presence.  For  this  reason  Luther  refused 
to  give  him  the  right  hand  of  fellowship.  The  Swiss 
Reformer  was  the  less  dogmatical  of  the  two,  and  was 
disposed  to  tolerate  a  difference  of  opinion  on  that  point. 
The  Roman  Catholic  party  continued  to  predominate  in 
most  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  except  Zurich,  Glarus,  and 
Berne,  and  they  persecuted  those  Protestants  who  lived 
in  Lucerne,  Uri,  Schwyz,  etc.  Zwingle  had  acquired  a 
high  reputation  for  wisdom,  and  was  often  consulted  by 
the  council  of  Zurich  in  relation  to  public  affairs.  His 
adversaries  having  accused  him  of  being  the  chief  cause 
of  the  dissensions  which  destroyed  the  peace  of  the 
country,  he  offered  to  resign ;  but  the  senate  refused  to 
accept  his  resignation.  In  1531  the  five  cantons  of  Lu- 
cerne, Zug,  Uri,  Schwyz,  and  Unterwalden  declared  war 
against  Berne  and  Zurich,  which  were  not  well  prepared 
for  the  conflict.  Zwingle  was  one  of  a  small  band  that 
marched  out  to  meet  the  enemy,  and  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Cappel,  in  October,  1531.  He  left,  besides 
other  works,  an  "Exposition  of  the  Christian  Faith,"  in 
Latin,  (1536.)  His  followers  were  called  "  Evangelicals." 

See  Myconius,  "De  Vita  et  Obitu  Zwinglii,"  1536;  Ziegler, 
"Zwiiigli's  Leben,"  1719;  Tischer,  "Zwingli's  Leben,"  1800;  J.  G. 
Hess,  "Vie  de  Zwingle,"  1810,  which  was  translated  into  English 
by  Lucy  AiKiN,  1812;  Pestalozzi,  "Bilder  aus  dem  Leben  Zwin- 
gli's," 1819;  M.  Richard,  "Zwingli  biographisch  geschildert," 
1819;  RoTERMUNDT,  "Leben  des  Reformator  U.  Zwingli,"  1819; 
MuLLER,  "  Ulrich  Zwingli,"  1819 ;  Roeder,  "  Erzahlungen  aus 
Zwingli's  Leben,"  1834 ;  J.  J.  Hottinger,  "Zwingli  und  seine 
Zeit,"  1842  ;  an  English  version  of  Hottinger's  work,  by  Professor 
T.  C.  Porter,  1856  ;  N.  Christoffel,  "Zwingli's  Leben,"  1847; 
"  Blackwood's  Magazine"  for  August,  1828. 

Zwingli  or  Zwinglius.    See  Zwingle. 

Zwirner,  ts^^R'ner,  (Ernst  Friedrich,)  an  emi- 
nent German  architect,  born  at  Jacobswald,  in  Silesia, 
in  February,  1802.  He  completed  his  studies  at  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Architecture  and  the  University  of 
Berlin.  In  1833  he  was  appointed  architect  of  the  ancient 
Cologne  Cathedral,  and  undertook  the  completion  and 
restoration  of  that  grand  Gothic  or  mediaeval  edifice, 
which  had  never  been  finished.  He  expended  many 
years  on  this  work,  which  is  considered  one  of  the 
most  successful  and  admirable  specimens  of  restoration 
which  have  ever  appeared.  Zwirner  designed  the  castle 
of  Count  von  Furstenberg  at  Herdringen,  and  several 
castles  on  the  Rhine.    Died  in  1861. 

Zylius.    See  Zyll. 

Zyll,  van,  vtn  zll,  [Lat.  Zy'lius,]  (Otho,)  a  Dutch 
Jesuit,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1588.  He  gained  some  dis- 
tinction as  a  Latin  poet.    Died  in  1656. 

Zypaeus,  zl-pa'us,  or  Van  den  Zype,  vtn  den  zi'peh, 
(Francis,)  a  Flemish  jurist  and  canonist,  born  at  Ma- 
lines  in  1578.  He  published  several  legal  works.  Died 
in  1650. 

His  brother  Henry,  born  in  1577,  was  abbot  of  Saint- 
Andre,  and  wrote  several  works.    Died  in  1659. 

See  Hendrik  Feye,  "  Discours  sur  la  Vie  de  F.  Zypaeus,"  1853 ; 
P.  VAN  DEN  Broeck,  "  Dc  F.  Zypaei  Vita,"  etc.,  1852. 

Zype,  van  den.   See  Zyp^us. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  y:.^ guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2l^='See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


It  is  perhaps  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  the  following  Vocabulary  of  Christian  (or  first)  Names  is  not  intended 
to  be  exhaustive,  having  been  prepared  simply  to  meet  the  most  obvious  demands  of  a  work  like  the  present,  in 
the  body  of  which  the  pronunciation  of  names  of  the  class  referred  to  has  rarely  been  given.  In  numerous 
instances  names  which  are  properly  surnames  (such,  for  example,  as  Fisher  Ames,  Washington  Irving,  etc.) 
are  used  as  Christian  names.  These  are  not  included  in  the  present  Vocabulary,  as  they  can  readily  be  found  in 
their  alphabetical  place  in  the  body  of  the  work. 

The  order  of  arrangement  in  the  Vocabulary  is  as  follows  :  first  the  English,  then  the  other  names  according 
to  the  alphabetical  order  of  the  languages  to  which  they  belong,  as,  Arabic,  Danish,  Dutch,  French,  etc.  To 
avoid  multiplying  the  references,  (which  must  in  any  case  be  pretty  numerous,)  we  have  generally  given  them 
only  when  the  name  would  be  separated  by  some  other  name  or  names  from  the  alphabetical  place  of  the  English 
name  under  which  it  is  noticed.  The  only  exception  to  this  rule  occurs  when  the  name  referred  from  is  so 
diflferent  from  the  one  referred  to,  that  ordinary  readers  would  not  be  likely  to  suspect  the  identity,  as  in  the  case  of 
Alonzo  and  Alphonso,  etc 


Aaron,  a'rpn  ;  Arabic,  Haroon  or  HarOn,  hi-roon'; 
Fr.  Aaron,  §,'r6N';  Ger.  Aaron  or  Aron,  i'ron  ;  Heb. 
pinx ;  It.  Aronne,  i-ron'ni ;  Lat.  Aa'ron,  (genitive, 
Aaro'nis  ;)  Port.  Aarao,  i-rowN';  Sp..  Aron,  a-r6n'. 

Abel,  a'bel;  Arabic,  Habeel  or  HABtL,  hi'beeK; 
Fr.  Abel,  t'bSK;  Heb.  SdD  ;  Lat.  A'bel,  (genitive, 
Abe'lis.) 

Abraham,  a'bra-ham ;  Arabic,  Ibraheem  or  Ibra- 
hIm,  ib-r5-heem';  Danish,  Abraham,  tb'Ri-htm ; 
Dutch,  Abraham,  i^bRi-hSm;  Fr.  Abraham,  t'bRt'- 
him';  Ger.  Abraham,  a'bR^-ham ;  Heb.  Dni3N ;  It. 
Abramo,  i-bRi'mo ;  Lat.  Abraha'mus,  (genitive  in  -i  ;*) 
Russ.  AvRAAM,  i-vRi-im',  or  Abramii,  i-vRi'mee ; 
Sp.  Abrahan,  a-bRi-in' ;  Sw.  Abraham,  a'bRS-him. 

Absalom,  ab'sa-lom  ;  Fr.  Absalon,  tb'st'16N';  Heb. 

Achilles,  a-kil'l^z ;  Fr.  Achille,  t'sh^K;  Gr.  'k-xik- 
?^V,  ( Achillctis ; )  It,  AcHiLLE,  i-k^Kli  ;  Lat.  Achil'les, 
(genitive,  Achil'lis  ;)  Sp.  Aquiles,  S-kee'lls. 

Adalbert.    See  Ethelbert. 

Adam,  ad'am  ;  Arabic,  Adam,  ^d'im  ;  Danish,  Adam, 
i'dtm  ;  Dutch,  Adam,  iMim  ;  Fr.  Adam,  t'dSs';  Ger. 
Adam,  i'dim ;  Heb.  DIX ;  It,  Adamo,  i-di'mo ;  Lat, 
Ada'mus,  (genitive  in  -i  ;*)  Port.  Adao,  ^-dovvN';  Sp. 
Adan,  i-din'. 

Adeline,  ad'e-line  ;  Danish,  Adeline,  l-deh-lee'neh  ; 
Dutch,  Adelina,  i-deh-lee'nS ;  Fr.  Adeline,  td'l^n'; 
Ger,  Adeline,  S-deh-lee'neh  ;  It.  Adelina,  3,-dk-lee'na ; 
Lat,  Adeli'na,  (genitive  in  -^.*) 

A-dol'phus,  ("noble  wolf:"  see  note  under  Ralph;) 
Danish,  Adolf,  i'dolf;  Dutch,  Adolf,  a'dolf ;  Fr, 
Adolphe,  t'dolf;  Ger.  Adolf  or  Adolph,  IMolf;  It, 
Adolfo,  S-dol'fo ;  Lat,  Adol'phus  ;  Sp.  Adolfo, 
i-doKfo;  Sw.  Adolf,  SMolf. 

*  Latin  names  ending  in  us  usually  have  the  genitive  in  i;  those 
ending  in  a  or  take  the  genitive  in  cb  :  of  those  names  in  this  table 
not  included  under  the  foregoing  rules,  the  genitive  will  always  be 
added. 


Adrian,  a'dre-an,  or  Hadrian,  ha'dre-an;  Danish, 
Adrian,  i'dRe-Sn ;  Dutch,  Adriaan,  S'dRe-ln;  Fr. 
Adrien,  t'dRe-iN';  It.  Adriano,  i-dRe-i'no ;  Lat. 
Adria'nus  or  Hadria'nus;  Port.  Adriano,  i-dRe- 
i'no,  or  Adriao,  i-dRe-6wN';  Sp.  Adrian,  S-dRe-Sn'. 

^GiDius.    See  Giles. 

^LiAN,  ee'le-an ;  Fr.  Elien,  i'le'^N';  Lat.  ^lia'nus, 

(genitive  in  -l) 
Affonso.    See  Alphonso.  .jijt^.cA 
Agatha,  ag'a-tha,  ("good;")  Danish,  Agathe,  S-gl'- 

teh  ;  Dutch,  Agatha,  i-gl't^ ;  Fr.  Agathe,  t'gtt';  Ger. 

Agathe,  i-gi'teh;  Gr.  'AyaOf/,  (Agathe;)  It.  Agata, 

a'gi-ti;  Lat.  Ag'atha;  Sp,  Agata,  S'gi-ti;  Sw.  Agata, 

i-gi'tl 

Agnes,  ag'niz,  ("  chaste  ;")  Danish,  Agnes,  tg'n§s,  or 
Agnete,  ig-na'teh  ;  Dutch,  Agnes,  Sg'nSs ;  Fr.  Agnes, 
tn'ygs';  Ger.  Agnes,  Sg'ngs;  It.  Agnese,  in-ya'si; 
Lat.  Ag'nes,  (genitive,  Agne'tis,) 

Agostinho.    See  Augustine. 

Aim^:k    See  Amy. 

Alaric,  zV^.-x\k,  ("  noble  ruler ;")  Danish,  Alarick, 
a'li-rik  ;  Fr.  Alaric,  t'lt'r^k';  Ger.  Alarich,  i'lS-riK ; 
It.  Alarico,  i-li-ree'ko ;  Lat.  Alari'cus  ;  Sp.  Alarico, 
d-li-ree'ko. 

Alban,  awKban,  ("white  ;")  Danish,  Albanus,  tl-bi'- 
nils  ;  Dutch,  Albanus,  il-bi'niis  ;  It.  Albano,  ^l-bl'no ; 
Lat.  Alba'nus. 

Alberic,  al'ber-ic,  ("elf-king"?)  Danish,  Alberik, 
tl'beh-rik  ;  Fr.  Alb^ric,  tl'bi'r^k';  Ger.  Alberich,  iK- 
beh-riK";  It.  Alberico,  Sl-bi-ree'ko ;  Lat.  Alberi'cus. 

Al'bert,  ("  all  bright ;")  Danish,  AlbrecHT,  tl'bR^kt ; 
Dutch,  Albertus,  ai-bgR'tiis,  or  Albert,  iKb§Rt;  Fr. 
Albert,  tl'baiR';  Ger.  Albrecht,  IKbR§Kt;  It.  Al- 
berto, Jl-bgR'to ;  Lat,  Alber'tus;  Sp.  Alberto,  Sl- 
blR'to;  Sw.  Albert,  il'b^Rt, 

Alcibiades,  il-se-bl'a-d^z,  ("strong  compeller;")  Fr. 
Alcibiades,  trse'be''td';  Gr,  'MKL6Ld6r]g,  ( Alkibiades.) 


€  as  -c;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  H,  Vi,  guttural;  n,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

2327 


FOCJBULART  OF  CHRISTIAN  NJMES. 


Alexander,  al-ex-an'der,(a"helperof  men  ;")  Dutch, 
Alexander,  a-lgk-sSnMer ;  Fr.  Alexandre,  t'lgk'- 
sfiNdR';  Ger.  Alexander,  S-l&k'sSn'der ;  Gr.  'AM^av- 
dpog,  (Alexandros ;)  It.  Alessandro,  i-l^s-sSnMRo ; 
Lat.  Alexan'der,  (gen.  Alexan'dri  ;)  Sp.  Alejandro 
or  Alexandro,  i-]i-Han'dRo. 

Alewijn.    See  Alvin. 

A-LEx'is,  ("help,"  "defence      Fr.  Alexis,  t'l^k'se'; 
Gr.  "A/le^ff,  (Alexis;)  Russian,  Alexei,  §.-l§k-sa^. 
Alfonso.    See  Alphonso. 

Al'fred,  C'all  peace;")  Danish,  Alfred,  tl'fRld; 
Datch,  Alfred,  ai'fRgt;  Fr.  Alfred,  trfR^d';  Ger. 
Alfred,  ai'fRit ;  It  Alfredo,  il-fRa'do ;  Lat.  Alfre'- 
Dus;  Sp.  Alfredo,  ^1-fRa'Do. 

Alice,  il'iss,  ("noble ;")  Danish,  Else,  Sl'seh  ;  Dutch, 
Elsje,  gls'yeh  ;  Fr.  Alice,  t'l^ss';  Lat.  Ang'iA,  (a-lish'- 
e-a ;)  Sw.  Elsa,  IVsl. 

Alonzo  or  Alonso.    See  Alphonso. 

Al-Phon'so  or  A-lon'zo;  Danish,  Alfons,  tKfons; 
Fr.  Alphonse,  Srf6Ns';  It.  Alfonso,  Sl-fon'so;  Lat. 
Alphon'sus  ;  Port.  Affonso,  Sf-fon'so ;  Sp.  Alfonso, 
il-fon'so,  or  Alonso,  S-lon'so. 

Alvin,  iKvin,  or  Al'win,  ("winning  all;")  Dutch, 
Alewijn,  i'leh-win';  Fr.  Aluin,  t'lii-iN';  Ger.  Alwin, 
^Vyt'm ;  It.  Alvino,  il-vee'no ;  Lat.  Alwi'nus  ;  Sp. 
Aluino,  i-Ioo-ee'no. 

Amadeus,  am-a-de'us,  (a  "lover  of  God;")  Fr.  Am6- 
d^:e,  t'mi'di'j  Ger.  Amadeus,  ^-mi-da'us ;  It.  Amedeo, 
S-mi-da'o,  or  Amadeo,  i-mi-da'o;  Lat.  Amade'us  ; 
Sp.  Amadeo,  l-mi-Da'o. 

Amalie.    See  Amelia. 

Amata.    See  Amy. 

Am'brose,  ("immortal ;")  Danish,  Ambrosius,  tm- 
bRo'se-tis ;  Dutch,  Ambrosius,  Sm-bRo'se-us ;  Fr. 
Ambroise,  SN^bRw^z';  Ger.  Ambrosius,  Im-bRo'ze-us, 
or  Ambros,  am'bR5s  ;  It.  Ambrogio,  Sm-bRo'jo ;  Lat. 
Ambro'sius;  Sp.  Ambrosio,  dm-bRo'se-o. 

Am^dAe  or  Amedeo.    See  Amadeus. 

Amelia,  a-mee'le-a;  Danish,  Amalie,  ^-mS'le-eh; 
Fr.  Am6lie,  t'mWW'y  Ger.  Amalie,  i-mi'le-eh ;  Sp. 
Amelia,  l-maTe-i. 

Amos,  a'mos,  (a  "burden;")  Fr.  Amos,  fmos';  Heb. 

did;;. 

Amy,  a'me,  (a  "  beloved  ;")  Danish,  Amalie,  S-mi'- 
le-eh ;  Fr.  Aim6e,  I'mi';  It.  Amata,  a-mi'tl 

Anastasius,  ah-a-sta'she-us,  ("rising  up  ;")  Fr.  Ana- 
STASE,  fnt'sttz';  Gr.  'kvaaraaix)^,  ( Anastasios  ; )  It.  Ana- 
STASio,  a-ni-sti'se-o  ;  Lat.  Anasta'sius. 

An'drew,  ("manly,"  "courageous;")  Danish,  An- 
dreas, tn-dRas' ;  Dutch,  Andries,  ^N-dRees';  Fr.  An- 
drei, SN'dRi';  Ger.  Andreas,  Sn-dRa'is  ;  Gr.  'Avdpeag, 
(Andreas;)  It.  Andrea,  Sn-dRa'^;  Lat.  An'dreas  ; 
Port.  Andr6,  in-dRa';  Sp.  Andres,  Sn-dRgs'. 

Andronicus,  an-dro-m'kus,*(a  "  conqueror  of  men  ;") 
Fr.  Andronic  or  Andronique,  ftN'dRo'nfek';  Gr.  'Av- 
dpovLKoq,  ( Andronikos ; )  It.  Andronico,  in-dRO-nee^co ; 
Lat.  Androni'cus. 

Angelica,  an-jgl'e-ka,  ("angelic;'')  Fr.  Ang6lique, 
SN'zhi'lfek';  Ger.  Angelica,  an-ga'le-kS ;  It.  Angelica, 
in-ja'le-kl 

*  Pronounced  A  ndron'icus  in  Shakspeare. 


Angeluccio,  (It.)  an-ji-loot'cho,  (a  derivative  from 
Angelo.) 

Anna,  in'na,  or  Anne,  in,  ("grace"  or  "gracious," 
the  same  as  the  Hebrew  Hannah,  which  see ;)  Danish, 
Anna,  tn'nS ;  Dutch,  Anna,  Sn'ni ;  Fr.  Anne,  tn  ;  Ger. 
Anne,  In'neh ;  It.  Anna,  Sn'na ;  Lat.  An'na. 

Annibale.    See  Hannibal. 

Anselm,  in'sSlm,  (a  "defender;")  Dutch,  Anselmus, 
in-sSKmus;  Fr.  Anselme,  dN'sglm';  Ger.  Anselm, 
Sn's^lm;  It.  Anselmo,  in-s^I'mo;  Lat.  Ansel'mus; 
Sp.  Anselmo,  in-s^Kmo. 

Antony  or  Anthony,  pronounced  alike  dn'to-ne ; 
Danish,  Anton,  tn'ton  ;  Dutch,  Anton,  in'ton,  or  An- 
TOON,  In't5n,  or  Antonius,  in-to'ne-us ;  Fr.  Antoine, 
dN^twSn';  Ger,  Anton,  Sn'ton ;  It.  Antonio,  in-to'ne-o  ; 
Lat.  Anto'niUs;  Port.  Antonio,  Sn-to'ne-o;  Sp.  An- 
tonio, Sn-to'ne-o ;  Sw.  Anton,  Sn'ton. 

Aquiles.    See  Achilles. 

Arabel'la,  (a  "fair  altar"?)  Dutch,  Arabella,  S-rS- 
bel'li ;  Fr.  Arabelle,  t'xt'hhV;  Ger.  Arabelle,  l-ri- 
beKleh  ;  It.  Arabella,  i-ra-beKlS. ;  Lat.  Arabel'la. 

Archibald,  ar'che-bauld ;  Fr.  Archambaud,  Ir'- 
shfiN^bo';  Lat.  Archibal'dus. 

Aristarchus,  ir-is-tar'kus,  ("  best  prince ;")  Fr. 
Aristarque,  t'r^s'ttRk';  Ger.  Aristarchus,  i-ris-taR'- 
Kus  ;  Gr,  'ApiaTapxoc,  ( Aristarchos  ;)  Lat.  Aristar'chus. 

A-ris-to-bu'lus,  ("  excellent  counsellor  ;")  Fr.  Aris- 
tobule,  t^r^s^to'biil';  Gr.  'kpiajo^ovkoq^  (Aristoboulos ;) 
It.  Aristobulo,  a.-r6s-to-boo'lo  ;  Lat.  Aristobu'lus. 

Armand  or*ARMANT.    See  Hermann. 

Arnold,  ar'nold  ;  Fr.  Arnaud,  tR'n5';  Ger.  Arnold, 
aR'nolt;  It.  Arnaldo,  aR-nil'do;  Lat.  Arnol'dus  or 
Arnal'dus. 

Ar'thur  ;  Fr.  Arthur,  tR'tuR',  or  Artus,  tR'tiis'; 
It.  Arturo,  aR-too'ro ;  Lat.  Arthu'rus. 

Athanasius,  ^th-a-na'she^s,  ("  immortal ;")  Fr. 
Athanase,  i'ti^ntz';  Gr.  'Adavaaioc,  (Athanasios;)  It. 
Atanasio,  i-ti-ni'se-o  ;  Lat.  Athana'sius. 

Au-gus'ta,  ("  venerable ;")  Danish,  Auguste,  ow- 
goos'teh ;  Dutch,  Auguste,  6w-Gus'teh ;  Fr.  Auguste, 
o^giist';  Ger.  AuGUSTE,  6w-go6s'teh,  or  Augusta,  6w- 
goos'tS ;  It.  Augusta,  6w-goos'tl ;  Lat.  Augus'ta. 

Augustine,  aw'gus-tin,  or  aw-gus'tin,t  ("  venerable;") 
Dutch,  Augustinus,  ow-Gus-tee'niis,  or  AuGUSTijN, 
6w'Gus-tin';  Fr.  Augustin,  o'giis'tiN';  It.  Augustino, 
6w-goos-tee'no  ;  Lat.  Augusti'nus  ;  Port.  Agostinho, 
i-gos-tin'yo ;  Sp.  Augustin,  6w-goos-tfen'. 

Au-gus'tus  ;  Danish,  August,  ow'gilst ;  Dutch,  Au- 
gustus, 6w-Gus'tiis;  Fr.  Auguste,  o'giist';  Ger.  Au- 
gust, ow'gCist ;  It.  AuGUSTO,  6w-goos'to  ;  Lat.  AuGUs'- 
Tus ;  Sw.  August,  ow'gflst. 

AuRELius,  aw-ree'le-us ;  Fr.  Aur^le,  ©"riK;  Ger.  Au- 
relius,  6w-ra'le-<is ;  It.  Aurelio,  6w-ra'le-o. 

Avraam.    See  Abraham. 

Baldassare.    See  Balthasar. 

Baldwin,  (a  "bold  winner ;")  Danish,  BALDUiN,baid'- 
6o-een^  or  bSld'ween  ;  Dutch,  Boudewijn,  bow'deh-win'; 
Fr.  Baudouin,  bo'doo-^N';  Ger.  Balduin,  bSl'doo-een'; 
It  Baldovino,  bil-<3o-vee'no ;  Lat  Baldui'nus. 

*  See  Disputed  or  Doubtful  Pronunciations,  p.  2344. 


a,  e,  T,  0,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  J?,  short;    §,  j,  9.  obscure;  fir,  fill,  ftt;  mgt;  nflt;  good;  moon; 
2328 


FOCABULART  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


Balthasar,  bil'tiz-ar,  ("without  treasure"?)  Dutch, 
Balthasar,  bai'ta'sar ;  Fr.  Balthazar  or  Balthasar, 
bSKtt  zSR';  It.  Baldassare,  bai-dis-sa'ri ;  Lat.  Bal- 
tha'sar,  (genitive,  Balthas'aris  ;)  Sp.  Baltasar,  bSl- 
tS-saR'. 

Bap'tist,  (a  "  baptizer ;")  Fr.  Baptiste,  btp't^st'; 
Ger.  Baptist,  bSp'tist ;  It.  Battista,  bit-t^s'ta ;  Lat. 
Baptis' ta  ;  Port.  Baptista,  bSp-t^s'ti ;  Sp.  Bautista, 
bow-t^s'ta. 

Barbara,  bar'ba-ra,  ("foreign,"  "stranger;")  Dutch, 
Barbara,  baR'bi-ri ;  Fr.  Barbe,  blRb ;  Ger.  Barbara, 
baR'ba-i-a ;  It.  Barbara,  baR'bi-ri ;  Lat.  Bar'bara. 

Bar'dulph,  (a  "famous  helper"?)  Fr.  Bardolphe, 
btR'dolf ;  It.  Bardolfo,  baR-dol'fo ;  Lat.  Bardul'phus. 

Barend.    See  Bernard. 

Barnabas,  bar'na-bas,  or  Barnaby,  bar'na-be,  (a 
«*son  of  consolation  ;")  Danish,  Barnabas,  baR'ni-bts  ; 
Dutch,  Barnabas,  baR'ni-bis ;  Fr.  Barnab6,  btR'- 
nt'bi';  Ger.  Barnabas,  baR'ni-bSs ;  It.  Barnaba,  baR'- 
ni-ba ;  Lat.  Bar'nabas,  (genitive,  Bar'nab^  ;)  Sp.  Ber- 
NAb6,  biR-ni-ba'. 

Bar-thol'o-mewt,  ("  warlike  son"  ?)  Danish,  Bar- 
THOLOM^US,  baR-to-lo-ma'iis  ;  Dutch,  Bartholomeus, 
baR-tol-o-ma'us ;  Fr.  Barth6lemi,  btR'til'me';  Ger. 
Bartholomaus,  baR-to-lo-ma'as ;  It.  Bartolommeo, 
baR-to-lom-ma'o  ;  Lat.  Bartholom/e'us  ;  Port.  Bar- 
tholomeu,  baR-to-lo-m&'oo ;  Russ.  Varfolomei,  vaR- 
fol-o-nia'e  ;  Sp.  Bartolom6,  baR-to-lo-ma';  Sw.  Bar- 
tholomaus, baR-to-lo-ma'us. 

Basil,  ba'zil,  ("kingly;")  Danish,  Basilius,  bi-see'- 
le-us;  Dutch,  Basilius,  bi-see'le-us ;  Fr.  Basile,  bt'- 
zhV;  Ger.  Basilius,  bS-zee'le-as ;  Gr.  BaaiXeLoc,  ( Bast- 
leios,)  or  BoCTiAto?,  (Basilios;)  It.  Basilio,  bS-see'le-o ; 
Lat.  Basil'ius  ;  Russ.  Vasilii,  vi-see'lee  or  vd-sfeKye  ; 
Sw.  Basilius,  bS-su'le-us. 

Baudouin.    See  Baldwin. 

Beatrice,  bee'a-tnss,  ("making  happy;")  Danish, 
Beatrix,  bi-i'tRiks  ;  Dutch,  Beatrix,  bi-i'tRiks  ;  Fr. 
Beatrice,  bi'S'tR^ss';  Ger.  Beatrix,  bi-i'tRiks,  or 
Beatrice,  bk-i-tReet'seh ;  It.  Beatrice,  bi-S-tree'chi  ; 
Lat.  Bea'trix,  (genitive,  Beatri'cis  ;)  Sp.  Beatriz, 
bi-a-tr^//^';  Sw.  Beatrix,  bk-i'tRiks. 

Benedetta.    See  Benedicta. 

Ben'e-dict  or  Ben'net,  ("blessed  ;")  Danish,  Bene- 
dict, ba'neh-dikt';  Dutch,  Benedictus,  bk-neh-dik'tus ; 
Fr.  BENotr,  beh-nwS';  Ger.  Benedict,  ba'neh-dikf; 
It.  Benedetto,  bi-nk-det'to ;  Lat.  Benedic'tus  ;  Sp. 
Benito,  bi-nee'to,  or  Benedicto,  bi-ni-dfek'to ;  Sw. 
Bengt,  b^ngt. 

Benedicta,  ben-e-dik'ta,  ("blessed,"  feminine;)  Fr. 
BENoh'E,  beh-nwdt';  It.  Benedetta,  bi-nk-det'ti ;  Lat. 
Benedic'ta;  Sp.  Benita,  bi-nee'ti 

Bengt.    See  Benedict. 

Benjamin,  (the  "son  of  a  right  hand  ;")  Danish,  Ben- 
jamin, b^n'ya-meen';  Fr.  Benjamin,  bSN^zhfrn^N'; 
Ger.  Benjamin,  bSn'yi-meen';  It.  Beniamino,  bgn-y^- 
mee'no ;  Lat.  Benjami'nus. 

Bennet.    See  Benedict. 

BENotT.    See  Benedict. 

BENotxE.    See  Benedicta. 

Berenice,  b§r-e-nI'se,or  Bernice,  ber'nfss,  ("bringing 
victory;")  Fr.  B6r6nice, bi'ri'n^ss'; Gr,  BepevUrj,  ( Bere- 


nice;) It.  Berenice,  bi-ri-nee'chi ;  Lat.  Bereni'CE, 
(genitive,  Bereni'ces.) 
Bernab6.    See  Barnabas. 

Bernard,  ber'nard,  ("  strong  or  hardy  bear  ;"*)  Da- 
nish, Bernhard,  b^Rn'hlRi/;  Dutch,  Bern-har'dus  or 
Barend,  bi'rgnt;  Fr.  Bernard,  b^R'ntR';  Ger.  Bern- 
hard,  b^Rn'hiRt;  It.  Bernardo,  bSR-naR'do;  Lat. 
Bernar'dus  ;  Sw.  Bernhard,  bgRn'h^Rd. 

Bernice.    See  Berenice. 

Bertha,  ber'tha,  ("bright"  or  "famous;")  Dutch, 
Bertha,  b^R'ti;  Fr.  Berthe,  bgRt;  Ger.  Bertha, 
hhR^tl ;  It.  Berta,  bSR'ta ;  Lat.  Ber'tha  j  Sw.  Bertha,  , 
bgR'tl 

Bertram,  ber'tram,  ("  fair,"  "  illustrious  ;")  Fr.  Ber- 
TRAND,  b^R^tRdN';  Ger.  Bertram,  b^R'tRim. 
Biagio.    See  Blase. 
BiANCA.    See  Blanch. 
BiRGiTTE.    See  Bridget. 

Blanch,  blintch,  ("  white  ;")  Danish,  Blanca,  bltng'- 
ki ;  Dutch,  Blanca,  bling'kS ;  Fr.  Blanche,  bl6Nsh  ; 
Ger.  Blanca  or  Blanka,  bling'k^l;  It.  Bianca,  be-Sn'- 
ki;  Lat.  Blan'cha;  Sp.  Blanca,  bl^ng'k^;  Sw. 
Blanka,  blSng'kl 

Blase,  blaz,  ("sprouting  forth;")  Danish,  Blasius, 
bli'se-iis  ;  Dutch,  Blasius,  bli'se-us ;  Fr.  Blaise,  bliz ; 
Ger.  Blasius,  bli'ze-us ;  It.  Biagio,  be-i'jo ;  Lat.  Bla'- 
sius,  (bla'she-us ;)  Sp.  Blas,  blSs ;  Sw.  Blasius,  bli'- 
se-iis. 

Bona,  bo'na,  ("good;")  Fr.  Bonne,  bon ;  Lat.  Bo'na. 

Bonaventure,  bon'a-ven'tur,  ("  good  fortune ;")  Fr. 
Bonaventure,  bo^nt'vSN'tilR';  It.  Bonaventura,  bo- 
na-v^n-too'ri ;  Lat.  Bonaventu'ra. 

Boniface,  bon'e-fiss,  (a  "  well-doer  ;")  Danish,  Boni- 
FACius,  bo-ne-fa'se-us ;  Dutch,  Bonifacius,  bo-ne-fi'- 
se-us;  Fr.  Boniface,  bo'ne''ftss';  Ger.  Bonifaz,  bo-ne- 
fSts',  or  BoNiFACijJS,  bo-ne -flt'se-tis ;  It.  Bonifacio, 
bo-ne-fl'cho ;  Lat.  Bonifa'cius,  (bon-e-f a'she-us ;)  Sw. 
Bonifacius,  bo-ne-fi'se-us. 

Bonne.    See  Bona. 

BouDEWijN.    See  Baldwin. 

Bridget  or  Brigit,  brij'it,  ("shining  bright;")  Da- 
nish, BiRGiTTE,  b^R-git'teh  ;  Dutch,  Brigitta,  bRe-Hit'- 
ti;  Fr.  Brigitte,  bRe'zh^t';  Ger.  Brigitte,  bRe-git'teh  ; 
It.  Brigida,  bRee'je-di,  or  Brigita,  bRee'je-ti;  Lat. 
Brig'ida  ;  Sp.  Brigida,  bRee'He-Dl 

C/ecilia.  See  Cecilia. 
Ci5;ciLius.    See  Cecil. 

C^SAR,  see'zar,  ("adorned  with  hair;")  Danish, 
C^SAR,  sa'sar;  Fr.  CisAR,  si'ztR';  Ger.  Casar  ot 
Caesar,  tsa'ziR ;  It.  Cesare,  cha'sS-ri;  Lat.  C^^i'sar, 
(genitive,  Ctes'aris  ;)  Sp.  Cesar,  tha'saR. 

Camilla,  ka-mil'la;  Fr.  Camille,  kt'mM'  or  ki'- 
me'ye ;  It.  Camilla,  k^-mhVli ;  Lat.  Camil'la. 

*  A  name  naturally  applied,  in  rude  times,  to  a  hero  in  a  country 
where  the  bear  was  the  most  remarkable  type  of  strength,  courage, 
and  endurance.  In  the  case  of  Alp-Arslan  {i.e.  "strong  lion")  we 
have  a  similar  epithet  appropriate  to  an  Oriental  country  where  lions 
abound,  but  applied  to  a  single  individual,  and  not,  like  Bernard,  em- 
ployed as  a  common  name.  Some  writers  give  "  bear's  heart"  as  the 
true  signification  of  Bernard,  (Bemhart,)  an  expression  similar  to 
the  surname  (Cceur  de  Lion)  by  which  Richard  I.  of  England  waa 
so  widely  known. 


«  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  Aard;  g  as/;  G,  H,  K,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.   (2l^=*See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

2329 


VOCABVLART  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


Ca-mil'lus  ;  Fr.  Camille,  kt'mhV  or  kt'me'ye. 

Carl.    See  Charles. 

Carlo.    See  Charles. 

Carlotta  or  Carlota.    See  Charlotte. 

Caroline,  Mr^o-lin ;  Danish,  Caroline,  k^-ro-lee'- 
neh ;  Dutch,  Carolina,  kJ-ro-lee'til ;  Fr.  Caroline, 
kt'ro''l^n';  Ger.  Caroline  or  Karoline,  kS-ro-lee'neh ; 
It.  Carolina,  kS-ro-Iee'na  j  Lat.  Caroli'na  ;  Sw. 
Karolina,  ki-ro-lee'ni. 

Caspar.    See  Jasper. 

Cassandra,  kas-san'dra  ;  Fr.  Cassandre,  kt'sSNdR'; 
It.  Cassandra,  kas-sln'dR^ ;  Lat.  Cassan'dra. 
Catalina.    See  Catherine. 

Catherine  or  Catharine,  kith'a-rin,  ("pure;") 
Danish,  Catharine,  kS-tS-ree'neh ;  Dutch,  Catha- 
rina,  k^-ta-ree'iii ;  Fr.  Catherine,  ktt'r^n';  Ger. 
Katharine,  ki-ti-ree'neh ;  Gr.  Kadafjivrj,  (Katharine ;) 
It.  Caterina,  k^-ti-ree'na ;  Lat.  Cathari'nA;  Russ. 
Ekaterina,  i-k^-ti-ree'na,  or  Yekaterina,  yi-kS-ti- 
ree'ni;  Sp.  Catalina,  ki-ta-lee'na ;  Sw.  Katarina, 
k^-tl-ree'ni. 

CEg'iL,  ("dim-sighted;")  Dutch,  Cecilius,  si-see'- 
le-iis ;  Fr.  C^:cile,  si'sfel',  (rare  ;)  Lat.  Cecil'ius. 

Cecilia,  se-siKe-a;  Dutch,  Cecilia,  si-see'le-i ;  Fr. 
C^ciLE,  si''sfeK;  It.  Cecilia,  chi-chee'Je-3.;  Lat.  C^- 

CtL'lA. 

C^SAR.    See  C^sar. 
Cesare.    See  Caesar. 

Charles,  charlz,  ("manly"  or  "noble-spirited;")  Da- 
nish, Carl,  kaRl ;  Dutch,  Karel,  ki'rel ;  Fr.  Charles, 
shtRl;  Ger.  Karl,  kaRl;  It.  Carlo,  kaR'lo;  Lat. 
Car'olus  ;  Sp.  Carlos,  kaR'16s  ;  Sw.  Karl,  kaRl. 

Charlotte,  shar'lgt,  ("noble-spirited;")  Danish, 
Charlotte,  shaR-lot'teh  j  Dutch,  Charlotta,  shaR- 
lot'ti;  Fr.  Charlotte,  shtR'lot';  Ger.  Charlotte, 
shaR-lot'teh  ;  It.  Carlotta,  kaR-lot'ti ;  Lat.  Carolet'- 
TA;  Sp.  Carlota,  kaR-lo'tS;  Sw.  Charlotta,  shaR- 
lot'tl 

Chloe,  klo'e,  (a  "young  shoot,"  a  "green  herb;") 
Fr.  Chlo6,  klo'i';  Gr.  XAo?;,  (Chloe;)  Lat.  Chlo'e, 
(genitive,  Chlo'es.) 

Christina,  kris-ti'na  or  kris-tee'na;  Dutch,  Chris- 
Tina,  kRis-tee'ni;  Fr.  Christine,  kR^s^t^n';  Ger. 
Christiana,  kRis-te-S'ni ;  It.  Cristina,  kR^s-tee'nl 

Christopher,  kris'to-fer,  ("bearing  Christ;"*)  Da- 
nish, Christoffer,  kRis'tof-fer ;  Dutch,  Christopho- 
RUS,  kRis-to'fo-rus ;  Fr.  Christophe,  kR^s^tof;  Ger. 
Christoph,  kRis'tof ;  Gr.  XpiaTO(p6pog,(  Christophoros  ;* ) 
It.  Cristoforo,  kR^s-tof  o-ro  ;  Lat.  Christoph'orus  ; 
Port.  Christovao,  kR^s-to-v6wN';  Sp.  Cristoval, 
kR^s-to'vil ;  Sw.  Kristofer,  kRis'to-fer. 

Chrysostom,  kris'gs-tom,  (  "golden -mouthed ;") 
Dutch,  Chrysostomus,  kRe-sos'to-mus ;  Fr.  Chryso- 
stome,  kRe'zo'stom';  Gr.  Xpyadarofioc,  ( Chrysostomos ; ) 
It.  Crisostomo,  kRe-sos'to-mo ;  Lat.  Chrysos'tomus. 

Cipriano.    See  Cyprian. 

CiRiLLO.    See  Cyril. 

*  According  to  an  old  legend,  he  was  called  Christophoros  (from 
Xpto-To?,  "  Christ,"  and  <|>epw,  to  "bear")  because  he  bore  the  infant 
Saviour  across  a  raging  stream.  (See  Mrs.  Jameson's  "  Sacred  and 
Legendary  Art.") 


CiRO.   See  Cyrus. 

Clara,  klar'a,  or  Claire,  kl5r,  ("  clear,"  "  bright," 
"illustrious;")  Danish,  Clara,  kl^'ri;  Dutch,  Clara, 
kia'rij  Fr.  Clara,  klfrt';  Ger.  Klara,  kli^rS;  It. 
Clara,  kli'ri;  Lat.  Cla'ra;  Sw.  Klara,  km'rl 

Claudia,  klaw'de-a;  Dutch,  Claudia,  kl6w'de-a ; 
Fr.  Claudie,  klo'de';  It.  Claudia,  klow'de-i;  Lat. 
Clau'dia  ;  Sw.  Klaudia,  kl6w'de-L 

Claudius,  klaw'de-us ;  Danish,  Claudius,  klow'de- 
lis ;  Dutch,  Claudius,  klow'de-us  ;  Fr.  Claude,  klod ; 
It.  Claudio,  kl6w'de-o ;  Lat.  Clau'dius  ;  Sw.  Klau- 
Dius,  klow'de-us. 

Clem'ent,  ("  mild-tempered ;")  Danish,  Clemens, 
kla'mSns ;  Fr.  Cl^:ment,  kli'mSN';  Ger.  Clemens, 
klgm'ens ;  It.  Clemente,  kli-mSn'ti;  Lat.  Cle'mens, 
(genitive,  Clemen'tis  ;)  Sp.  Clemente,  W\-mlw'\k. 

Con'rad,  ("able  counsel;")  Danish,  Conrad,  kon'- 
xM ;  Dutch,  Koenraad,  koon'rtt ;  Fr.  Conrad,  k6N'- 
rtd';  Ger.  Conrad,  kon'rSt ;  It.  Corrado,  kor-ri'do, 
or  CuRADO,  koo-rS'do ;  Lat.  Conra'dus  ;  Sw.  Konrad, 
kon'rid. 

Constance,  kon'stanss,  ("constant;")  Dutch,  Con- 
STANTIA,  kon-stSn'se-S,  (almost  kon-stln'she-i ;)  Fr. 
Constance,  kdN'stSNss';  It.  Costanza,  ko-stSn'zl ; 
Lat.  Constan'tia,  (kon-stan'she-a ;)  Sp.  Constancia, 
kon-stin'//i:e-i. 

Constantine,  kon'stan-tin,  ("  resolute ;")  Danish, 
CoNSTANTiN,  kon'sttn-tcen';  Dutch,  Konstantijn, 
kon'stin-tin ■ ;  Fr.  Constantin,  kiN'stSN^t^N';  Gr. 
Kwrnravnt'of,  ( Konstantinos ; )  It.  Constantino,  kon- 
stan-tee'no ;  Lat.  Const anti'nus. 

Cordelia,  kor-dee'le-a ;  Fr.  Cord^lie,  koRMk'le'. 

Cornelius,  kor-nee'le-us ;  Danish,  Cornelius,  koR« 
na'le-us;  Dutch,  Kornelis  or  Cornelis,  koR-na'lis ; 
Fr,  Corneille,  koR^niF  or  koR'nk'ye ;  It.  Cornelio, 
koR-na'le-o ;  Lat.  Corne'lius  ;  Sp.  Cornelio,  koR-na'- 
le-o. 

Corrado.    See  Conrad. 

Costanza.    See  Constance. 

Crisostomo.    See  Chrysostom. 

Cris'pin  ;  Dutch,  Krispijn,  kRis'pin;  Fr.  Cr^pin, 
kR^piN';  It.  Crispino,  kR^s-pee'no;  Sw.  Krispin, 
kRis-peen'. 

Cristina.    See  Christina. 

Cristoforo.    See  Christopher. 

Cristoval.    See  Christopher. 

Curado.    See  Conrad. 

Cyprian,  sip're-an  ;  Dutch,  Cypriaan,  see'pRe  tn; 
Fr.  Cyprien,  se^pRe'^N';  Ger.  Cyprian,  tsee'pRe-Sn ; 
It.  Cipriano,  che-pRe-i'no ;  Lat.  Cypria'nus;  Port. 
Cypriano,  se-pRe-i'no;  Sp.  Cipriano, //^e-pRe-^'no. 

Cyril,  sir'il,  ("little  Cyrus;")  Danish,  Cyrillus, 
se-ril'lCis;  Dutch,  Cyrillus,  se-ril'liis;  Fr.  Cyrille, 
se'r^K;  It.  CiRiLLO,  che-rM'lo;  Lat.  Cyril'lus. 

Cyrus,  sT'rus;  Fr.  Cyrus,  se'riis';  Ger.  Cyrus, 
tsee'riis;  Gr.  Kvpof,  (Kuros;)  It.  CiRO,  chee'ro  ;  Lat. 
Cy'rus  ;  Sp.  CiRO,  th^t'xo. 

Daniel,  din'y^l,  ("  God  is  judge  ;")  Danish,  Daniel, 
di'ne-ll ;  Dutch,  Daniel,  di'ne-gl  ;  Fr.  Daniel,  dt' 


a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  ^,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  ail,  fit;  mfit;  nSt;  good;  moon; 
2330 


VOCABULARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


ne'SK;  Ger.  Daniel,  da'ne-gl ;  Heb.  ^X'JI;  It.  Daniele, 
di-ne-a'Ii;  Lat.  Dan'iel,  (genitive,  Danie'lis;)  Sp. 
Daniel,  di-ne-SK. 

David,  da'vid,  ("beloved;")  Danish,  David,  dlfv\d; 
Dutch,  David,  di'vit ;  Fr.  David,  dS'v^d';  Ger.  David, 
dA'vit;  Heb.  nn  or  TH ;  It.  Davide,  dt've-dk,  or 
Davidde,  di-vWdi ;  Lat.  Da'vid,  (genitive,  Dav'idis.) 

Deborah,  dSb'o-ra,  (a  "bee;")  Dutch,  Debora,  di- 
bo'ri ;  Fr.  D6bora,  di'bo'ri';  Heb.  m^T  ;  It.  Debora, 
da'bo-ra;  Lat.  Deb'ora. 

Demetrius,  de-mee'tre-us,  ("sprung  from  the  earth" 
or  *•  from  Ceres ;")  Fr.  D6m6trius,  di'mi'tRe'iis';  Gr. 
Aijfi^TpLog,  ( Demetrios ; )  It.  Demetrio,  di-ma'tRe-o  ; 
Lat.  Deme'trius  ;  Russ.  Dmitri,  dmee'tree. 

Den'is  or  DiONYSius,  dl-o-nish'e^us ;  Danish,  Dio- 
NYSius,  de-o-nee'se-us ;  Dutch,  Dionysius,  de-o-nee'- 
&e-us ;  Fr.  Denis  or  Denys,  deh-ne';  Ger.  Dionys, 
de-o-nees';  Gr.  Aiovvatog,  (Dionusios;)  It.  DiONiGio, 
de-o-nee'jo ;  Lat.  Dionys'ius,  (di-o-nish'e-us  ;)  Sp.  Dio- 
Nisio,  de-o-nee'se-o. 

De'o-date,  ("given  by  God;")  Fr.  Dieudonn6, 
de-uh'do'ni';  It.  Deodato,  di-o-di'to;  Lat.  Deod'- 
ATUS. 

Derrik  or  Diederik.    See  Theoderick. 

Diana,  dl-an'a,  or  Dian,  di'an  ;  Danish,  Diana,  de- 
a'ni;  Fr.  Diane,  de'tn';  Ger.  Diana,  de-l'ni ;  Gr. 
'Aprefug,  (Artemis;)  It.  Diana,  de-i'ni;  Lat.  Dia'na. 

Dido,  di'do;  Fr.  Didon,  de'd^N';  It.  Didone,  de- 
do'ni;  Lat.  Di'do,  (genitive,  Dido'nis.) 

DiDYMUS,  did'e-mus,  (a  "  twin  ;")  Fr.  Didyme,  de^- 
dfem';  Gr.  Atdu/iOf,  (Didumos ;)  Lat.  Did'ymus. 

Diego.   See  James. 

Dietrich.    See  Theoderick. 

Dieudonn6.    See  Deodate. 

DiOGO.    See  James. 

DiONiGio  or  DioNisio.    See  Denis. 

Dirk  or  Dirck,  (the  same  as  Diederick.)  See 
Theoderick. 

Dmitri.    See  Demetrius. 

Dominic,  dom'e-nik ;  Danish,  Dominicus,  do-mee'- 
ne-kiis ;  Dutch,  Dominicus,  do-mee'ne-kus ;  Fr.  Do- 
minique, do'me''nfek';  It.  Domenico,  do-mi'ne-ko; 
Lat.  Domin'icus  ;  Port.  Domingos,  do-m^ng'g6s ;  Sp. 
Domingo,  do-mfeng'go;  Sw.  Dominicus,  do-mee'ne- 
kas. 

Dorothy,  dor'o-//ie,  (the  "gift  of  God;")  Danish, 
Dorothea,  do-ro-ta'i;  Dutch,  Dorothea,  do-ro-ta'i; 
Fr.  Doroth6e,  do''ro'ti';  Ger.  Dorothea,  do-ro-ta'3. ; 
Gr.  Aupodea,  ( Dorothea  ;)  It.  Dorotea,  do-ro-ta'S ;  Lat. 
Dorothe'a  ;  Sp.  Dorotea,  do-ro-ta'i ;  Sw.  Dorothea, 
do-ro-tu'S- 

Drusilla,  dru-sil'la,  ("dewy  eyes;")  Fr.  Drusille, 
dRii'zfeK;  Ger.  Drusille,  dRoo-zil'leh ;  Gr.  ApovaiXkn, 
( Drousille;)  It.  Drusilla,  dRoo-s^Kli ;  Lat.  Drusil'la. 

Duarte.    See  Edward. 

Eberhard.    See  Everard. 
Ed'gar,  ("  happy  honour"  ?)  Lat.  Edga'rus. 
Ed'mund,  ("happy  protection"  or  "happy  peace;") 
Danish,  Edmund,  gd'moon^/;   Fr.  Edmond,  gd'm6N'; 


Ger.  Edmund,  gt'mdont;  It.  Edmondo,  Id-mon'do ; 
Lat.  Edmun'dus;  Sp.  Edmondo,  Sd-mon'do,  or  Ed- 
MUNDO,  ed-moon'do. 

Edward,  Sd'ward, ("happy  keeper;")  Danish,EDUARD, 
a'doo-aR^;  Dutch,  Eduard,  a'doo-aRt ;  Fr.  Edouard, 
i'doo'iR' ;  Ger.  Eduard,  a'doo-^Rt ;  It.  Eduardo, 
i-doo-aR'do,  or  Edoardo,  i-do-aR'do  ;  Lat.  Edvar'dus 
or  Edoar'dus  ;  Port.  Duarte,  doo-aR'ti ;  Sp.  Eduar- 
do, ^-Doo-aR'do ;  Sw.  Eduard,  a'doo-aRd. 

Ed'win,  (a  "happy  conqueror;")  Danish,  Edwin, 
gd'vin;  Lat.  Edwi'nus. 

Eg'bert,  ("  ever  bright"  ?)  Lat.  Egber'tus. 

Ehrenfried,  (Ger.)  E'ren-freet'. 

EiRENE.    See  Irene. 

Ekaterina.    See  Catherine. 

Eleanor,  el'e-nor ;  Danish,  Eleonore,  i-li-o-no'reh ; 
Dutch,  Leonora,  li-o-no'rS;  Fr.  Eleonore,  k'l^V- 
noR';  Ger.  Eleonore,  i-li-o-no'reh ;  It.  Eleonora, 
i-li-o-no'ri ;  Lat.  Eleano'ra  ;  Sp.  Leanor,  li-i-noR'. 

El'dred,  {i.e.  "all  dread,"  hence  "terrible;")  Lat, 
Eldre'dus. 

El-e-a'zar,  (the  "help  of  God ;")  Lat.  Elea'zar,  (gen- 
itive, Eleaz'aris.)  • 
Elena.    See  Helen. 

Elias,  e-li'as,  or  Elijah,  e-li'ja,  ("  God  the  Lord ;") 
Danish,  Elias,  k-lee'is ;  Fr.  Elie,  i'le';  Ger.  Elias, 
i-lee'Ss;  Heb.  IH^^X  or  H^^X;  It.  Elia,  i-lee'i;  Lat. 
Eli'as. 

Elijah.    See  Elias. 

Elisa  or  £lise.    See  Eliza. 

Elisabeth.    See  Elizabeth. 

Elisabetta.    See  Elizabeth. 

Elisha,  e-li'sha,  (the  "  salvation  of  God ;")  Fr.  £lis6e, 
i'leW;  Heb.  JTl^^^X ;  It.  Eliseo,  i-le-sa'o;  Lat. 
ELiSi*:'us ;  Port.  Eliseu,  k-le-sa'oo  ?  Sp.  Eliseo,  i-le- 
sa'o. 

Eliza,  e-li'za ;  Danish,  Elisa,  i-lee'si ;  Dutch,  Elisa, 
i-lee'si;  Fr.  Elise,  i'lfez';  Ger.  Elisa,  i-lee'z^;  Lat. 
Eli'za  or  Eli'sa. 

Elizabeth,  e-liz'a-beth,  (the  "  oath  of  God ;")  Danish, 
Elisabeth,  i-lee'si-bet ;  Dutch,  Elizabeth,  i-lee'zS- 
bgt;  Fr.  Elisabeth,  4^1  e''zt'bgt';  Ger.  Elisabeth,  i-lee'- 
zi-bgt';  It.  Elisabetta,  i-le-si-bet'ti ;  Lat.  Elizabe'- 
THA ;  Sp.  Isabel,  e-si-b^K. 

Ellen.    See  Helen. 

Else  or  Elsa.    See  Alice. 

Elsje.    See  Alice. 

Emanuel.    See  Emmanuel. 

Em'er-ic  or  Emery,  em'er-e,  ("  always  rich;")  Danish, 
Almerik,  tKmeh-rik';  Dutch,  Almerik,  Sl'meh-rik; 
Fr.  Emeric,  im'r^k',  or  Emeri,  im're';  Lat.  Almeri'- 
cus;  Sw.  Em'mer-ik. 

Emilia,  e-mlKe-a,  or  Emily,  em'e-le;  Fr.  Emilie 
i'me'le';  Ger.  Emilie,  i-mee'le-eh,  or  Emilia,  i-mee' 
le-l;  It.  Emilia,  i-mee'le-L 

Em'ma,  (a  "nurse;")  Fr.  Emma,  4'mt';  It.  Emma 
Sm'ml ;  Lat.  Em'ma. 

Em-man'u-el  or  E-man'u-el,  ("God  with  us  ;")  Fr 
Emmanuel,  i'mfnii'gK;  Ger.  Emanuel,  i-m^'noo-Sl; 


€  as  k;  9  as    g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  H,  Y,,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.> 

2331 


FOCJBULART  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


or  Immanuel,  im-ml'noo-&l ;  It.  Emanuele,  i-mi-noo- 
a'lil ;  Lat.  Emman'uel  ;  Port.  Manoel,  m^-no-hV;  Sp. 
Manuel,  mi-noo-^1'. 

Emmerik.   See  Emeric. 

Enoch,  ee'ngk,  ("  instructed ;'")  Fr.  Enoch  or  He- 
noch, i'nok';  Heb.  "JUH ;  Lat.  Eno'chus  or  Heno'- 

CHUS. 

Enrichetta  or  Enriqueta.    See  Harriet. 
Enrico.    See  Henry. 

E'phra-im,  ("fruitful;")  Fr.  Ephraim,  i'fRt'^m' ; 
Heb.  OnSK ;  Lat.  Ephrai'mus. 

E-ras'mus,  ("lovely;")  Danish,  Erasmus,  i-rts'miis; 
Fr.  Erasme,  i'rtsm'";  Ger.  Erasmus,  i-ris'mus ;  Gr. 
'Epaa^of,  ( Erasmos  ;)  It.  Erasmo,  i-ris'mo ;  Lat.  Eras'- 
Mus ;  Sp.  Erasmo,  i-rSs'mo. 

E-ras'tus,  ("beloved;")  Fr.  Eraste,  i'rtst';  Gr. 
'E/ocffTOf,  (Erastos;)  Lat.  Eras'tus. 

Ercole.    See  Hercules. 

Er'nest,  ("  earnest ;")  Danish,  Ernst,  gRnst ;  Dutch, 
Ernestus,  gR-nSs'tus ;  Fr.  Ernest,  gR'nSst';  Ger. 
Ernst,  ^Rnst ;  It.  Ernesto,  gR-ngs'to ;  Lat.  Ernes'- 
Tus ;  Sw.  Ernst,  gRnst. 

Errico.   See  Henry. 

Esaias.   See  Isaiah. 

E'sau,  ("completed;")  Fr.  £sau,  MV;  Heb.  W^p ; 
Lat.  £sa'vus. 
EsDRAS.    See  Ezra. 

Esther,  gs'ter,  ("  secret ;")  Dutch,  Hester,  hSs'ter  ; 
Fr.  Esther,  Ss'taiR';  Ger.  Esther,  gs'ter ;  Heb.  *inDN  ; 
It.  Ester,  §s-taiR';  Lat.  Esthe'ra  ;  Sp.  Ester,  gs-taiR'. 

EsT^BAN.  See  Stephen. 
Estevao.  See  Stephen. 
Estienne.    See  Stephen. 

Eth'el-bAld,  ("  nobly  bold  ;")  Lat.  Ethelbal'dus. 

Ethelbert,  eth'el-bert,  ("  nobly  bright ;")  Danish, 
Adelbert,  a'del-b^Rt';  Dutch,  Adelbert,  i'del-b^Rt'; 
Fr.  Adalbert,  i'dtrbaiR',  or  Adelbert,  t'd^l'baiR'; 
Ger.  Adelbert,  §,'d§l-bSRt';  Lat.  Ethelber'tus  or 
Adalber'tus. 

Etienne.    See  Stephen. 

Ettore.    See  Hector. 

Eugene,  u-jeen',  ("  nobly  descended  ;")  Dutch,  Euge- 
Nius,  uh-Ha'ne-us  ;  Fr.  Eugene,  uh'zhin';  Ger.  Eugen, 
oi-gan';  Gr.  Eu/evwf,  (Eugenics  ;)  It.  Eugenio,  §-oo-ja'- 
ne-o ,  Lat.  Euge'nius  ;  Sp.  Eugenio,  |-oo-Ha'ne-o  ;  Sw. 
Eugenius,  S-oo-gu'ne-Cis. 

EuGF-NiA,  u-jee'ne-a ;  Fr.  Eugenie,  uh'zhi'ne';  Gr. 
'EvjEvia,  (Eugenia.) 

Eugenio  or  Eugenius.    See  Eugene. 

Eunice,  u'niss,  ("fair  victory;")  Gr.  EvvUtj,  (Eu- 
nice;) Lat.  EuNi'cE. 

Eusebius, u-see'be-us,  ("religious;")  Fr.  EusfeBE,  uh'- 
zib';  Gr.  Evae^iog,  ( Eusebios  ;)  It.  Eusebio,  |-oo-sa'be-o ; 
Lat.  Euse'bius  ;  Sp.  Eusebio,  §-oo-sa'Be-o. 

Eustace,  u'stass,  ("standing  firm  ;")  Dutch,  Eusta- 
tius,  uh-stl'se-us,  (almost  uh-stS'she-us ;)  Fr.  Eu- 
STACHE,  uh'sttsh' ;  It.  EuSTACHio,  S-oo-st^'ke-o  ;  Lat, 
Eusta'chius  ;  Sp.  EusTAQUio,  S-oo-sti'ke-0. 


Eve,  eev,  ("life"  or  "causing  life ;")  Arabic,  Hawa, 
H^'wi  or  HS'vt,  or  Heva,  ulv'l ;  Danish,  Eva,  a'vi ; 
Dutch,  Eva,  a'vi ;  Fr.  J:ve,  ^v  ;  Ger.  Eva,  a'vi ;  Gr.. 
YA)a,(Eua  or  Eva;)  Heb.  mn  ;  It.  Eva,  a'vi;  Lat. 
E'VA ;  Sp.  Eva,  a'vi ;  Sw.  Eva,  u'vL 

EvERARD,  ev'er-ard  ;  Danish,  Eberhard,  a'ber-har^/; 
Dutch,  Everard,  a'veh-raRt';  Ger.  Eberhard,  a'b?r-i 
haRt'. 

EzECHiAS  or  Ez6chias.    See  Hezekiah. 

EzEKiEL,  e-zee'ke-el,  (the  "strength  of  God;")  Dutch, 
Ezechiel,  i-za'Ke-gK;  Fr.  Ez6chiel,  i'zi'she-gl'. 

Ezra,  gz'ra,  or  Esdras,  ez'dras,  (a  "helper;")  Fr. 
EsDRAS,  gs'dRis';  Lat.  Ez'ra  or  Es'dras. 

Fabian,  fa'be-an ;  Danish,  Fabian,  f^'be-tn  ;  Dutch, 
Fabiaan,  fi'be-Sn';  Fr.  Fabien,  ft'be'iN';  It.  Fabiano, 
fS-be-i'no;  Lat.  Fabia'nus. 

Febe.    See  Phcebe. 
Federigo.    See  Frederick. 
Felice.    See  Felix. 
Felipe.    See  Philip. 

Fe'lix,  ("  happy ;")  Danish,  Felix,  fa'liks  ;  Dutch,, 
Felix,  fa'liks;  Fr.  F6lix,  fi^^ks';  Ger.  Felix,  fa'liks  ; 
It.  Felice,  fi-lee'chi ;  Lat.  Fe'lix,  (genitive,  Feli'ciS  j) 
Sp.  Felix,  fi-l^ks'.  ^ 

Feodor.    See  Theodore. 

Ferdinand,  fer'de-nand,  ("  pure  peace ;")  Dutch, 
Ferdinand,  f^R'de-n§nt';  Fr.  Ferdinand,  fSR'de'nftN'; 
Ger.  Ferdinand,  fgRMe-nint' ;  It.  Ferdinando,  f^R- 
de-nSn'do  ;  Lat.  Ferdinan'dus  ;  Port.  Fernando,  FSr* 
nin'do,  or  Fernao,  f§R-n6wN';  Sp.  Fernando,  f^R- 
nin'do. 

Filiberto.    See  Philibert. 

FiLiDE.    See  Phyllis, 

FiLiPPA  or  FiLiPPiNA.    See  Philippa. 

FiLiPPO.    See  Philip. 

FiNEO.    See  Phineas. 

Fiorenza.    See  Florence. 

Flora,  flo'ra,  (the  "  goddess  of  flowers ;")  Dutch, 
Flora,  flo'ri;  Fr.  Flore,  Aor;,  It.  Flora,  flo'ri;  Ljit. 
Flo'ra. 

Flor'ence,  ("flourishing;")  Danish,  Florenz,  flo- 
rents';  Dutch,  Florentia,  flo-rgn'se-i;  Fr.  Florence, 
flo'rSNss';  Ger.  Florenz,  flo-rSnts';  It.  Fiorenza, 
fe-o-r§n'zi ;  Lat.  Floren'tia,  (flo-r^n'she-a  ;)  Sp.  Flo- 
RENCiA,  flo-rgn'//^e-a ;  Sw.  Florenz,  flo-rSns'. 

For-tu-nX'tus,  ("happy,"  "fortunate;")  Fr.  For- 
tune, foR'tii'nS,';  Ger.  Fortunatus,  foR-too-ni'tils;  It. 
FoRTUNATO,  for-too-ni'to  ;  Lat.  Fortuna'tus. 

Frances,  fran'sis,  (the  feminine  of  Francis  ;)  Danish, 
Francisca,  fRSn-sis'kl;  Dutch,  Francisca,  fRSn-sis'- 
k?L ;  Fr.  Fran^oise,  frSN^swiz' ;  Ger.  Francisca,  fRint- 
sis'kJ;  It.  Francesca,  fRSn-chgs'kl ;  Lat.  Frances'ca 
or  Francis'ca  ;  Sw.  Franciska,  fkin-sis'kl 

Fran'cis,  ("  free ;")  Danish,  Frants,  frtnts,  or  Fran- 
Ciscus,  fRtn-sis'kiis ;  Dutch,  Franciscus,  fRin-sis'kus ; 
Fr.  Francois,  fRdN'swi';  Ger.  Franz,  fRSnts ;  It. 
Francesco,  fRln-ch^s'ko ;  Lat.  Francis'cus  ;  Port. 
Francisco,  fRin-sfes'ko ;  Sp.  Francisco,  {^Ixi-thh^'Vo ; 
Sw.  Frans,  frSnss. 


a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  S,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  short;       i,  9,  obscure;  fSr,  f^ll,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  mom; 
2332 


FOCABULART  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


Fred'er-ick,  ("  rich  in  peace  ;")  Danish,  Frederik, 
fRa'der-ik  ;  Dutch,  Frederik,  fRa'deh-rik  ;  Fr.  Fr6d6- 
RiC,  fRi'di'r^k';  Ger.  Friedrich,  fReed'riK ;  It.  Frede- 
Rico,  fRi-di-ree'ko,  or  Federigo,  fi-di-ree'go ;  Lat. 
Frederi'cus  ;  Port.  Frederico,  fRk-di-ree'ko ;  Sp. 
Frederico,  fRi-Di-ree'ko  ;  Sw.  Fredrick,  fR^d'rik. 

Gabriel,  ga'bre-el,  (the  "strength  of  God,"  or,  ac- 
cording to  some,  the  "hero  of  God;")  Arabic,  Jabreel 
or  jABRtL,  ji-breeK;*  Fr.  Gabriel,  gfbRe'gl';  Ger. 
Gabriel,  gd'bRe-^l ;  It.  Gabriele,  gi-bRe-a'lk;  Lat. 
Ga'briel,  (genitive,  Gabrie'lis  ;)  Sw.  Gabriel,  glf- 
bRe-gl. 

Galfred  and  Galfridus.    See  Geoffrey. 
Gaspard  or  Gaspar.    See  Jasper. 
Gautier.    See  Walter. 
G^d^on.    See  Gideon. 

Geoffrey,  jSffre,  or  Gef'frey,  ("  joyful  peace"  ?t) 
Danish,  Galfred,  gtKfR§^/;  Dutch,  Godfried,  got'- 
fReet  or  Hot'fReet ;  Fr.  Geoffroy,  zho^fRwl';  It.  GiOF- 
Freddo,  jof-fRjgd'do  ;  Lat.  Galfri'dus. 

George,  jorj,  (a  "farmer  ;")  Danish,  Georg,  ga'oRG  ; 
Dutch,  Georg,  ga'oRH,  (sometimes  pronounced  nearly 
like  the  French  zhorzh  or  shorsh;)  Fr.  George  or 
Georges,  zhoRzh ;  Ger.  Georg,  ga'oRG ;  Gr.  Ytdpyioq, 
( Georgios  ;)  It.  Giorgio,  joR'jo;  Lat.  Geor'gius  ;  Port. 
Jorge,  zhop/zhi;  Sp.  Jorge,  hor^h^  ;  Sw.  Georg, 
ga'org. 

Gerard,  je-rard',  sometimes  corrupted  to  Gar'ret 
and  Ger'rit,  (i.e.  "  firm  spear  ;"J)  Danish,  Gerhard, 
g^R'har^;  Dutch,  Gerard,  Ha'rtRt ;  Fr.  G^irard, 
thi'rtR';  Ger.  Gerhard,  g^R'h^Rt ;  It.  Gerardo,  ji- 
raR'do;  Lat.  Gerar'dus;  Sw.  Gerhard,  g^R'hlRd. 

Geremia.    See  Jeremiah. 

Geronimo.    See  Jerome. 

Gertrude,  ger'trud  or  jer'trud,  (perhaps  "true 
spear  ;"§)  Dutch,  Geertruida,  HaR-tRoi'di ;  Fr.  Ger- 
trude, zh^R'tRiid';  Ger.  Gertraud,  g^R'tRowt,  or 
Gertrud,  g^R'tRoot';  It.  Gertruda,  j§R-tRoo'di  ;  Lat. 
Gertru'da;  Sw.  Gertrud,  gSR'tRood. 

Gervase,  jer'vas,  or  Jer'vis  ;  Dutch,  Gervaas,  HSr'- 
vis ;  Fr.  Gervais,  zhgR'vi' ;  Lat.  Gerva'sius. 

Giacomina  or  Giacobba.    See  Jacqueline. 

Giacomo.    See  James. 

Gideon,  gid'e-on,  (a  "breaker;")  Fr.  G6d6on,  zhi'- 
di'dN';  It.  Gedeone,  jk-di-o'ni ;  Lat.  Gid'eon. 
Gil.    See  Giles. 


*  Pronounced  in  some  Arabic  dialects  g3-breel'. 

t  Some  suppose  that  Geoffrey  has  the  same  origin  as  Godfrey, 
signifying  "  God's  peace  ;"  but,  if  this  be  so,  it  seems  strange  that  in 
the  English,  French,  Italian,  and  Danish  there  should  be  two  forms 
so  entirely  different.  In  the  Danish,  Geoffrey  is  Galfred,  which  can 
scarcely  by  any  possibility  come  from  "God's  peace,"  {Guds/red.) 
It  would  rather  seem  to  be  "joyful  peace,"  from  a  root  cognate  with 
the  Anglo-Saxon  gal,  "wanton,"  "merry,"  and  allied  to  the  Danish 
and  Swedish  gala,  to  "crow"  or  "sing  for  joy,"  and  also  to 
the  prefix in  our  "gala-day." 

X  From  a  root  cognate  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  gar,  a  "dart"  or 
"javelin,"  and  hard,  "  firm." 

§  And  hence  "true,"  "faithful,"  because  one  who  was  true  in 
war  was  true  in  the  most  important  sense.  Miss  C.  M.  Yonge,  in 
her  "History  of  Christian  Names,"  gives  "spear-maid"  as  the 
etymological  signification  of  Gertrude. 


Gilbert,  giKbert,  ("  bright  as  gold" .?)  Danish,  Gil- 
BERT,  giKb^Rt ;  Dutch,  Gilbert,  HiKb^Rt ;  Fr.  Gilbert 
zh^KbaiR';  Ger.  Gilbert,  giKb^Rt ;  Lat.  Gilber'tus, 
Sw.  Gilbertus,  gil-bgR'tHs. 

Giles,  jllz,  (a  "little  goat"?)  Fr.  Gilles,  zhfel ; 
Ger.  Aegidius,  i-gee'de-i'is ;  It.  Egidio,  i-jee'de-o; 
Lat.  ^Egid'ius  ;  Sp.  Gil,  h^I. 

Giobbe.    See  Job. 

Giorgio.    See  George. 

GiosiADE.    See  Josiah. 

Giosue.    See  Joshua. 

GiovANNA.    See  Jane. 

Giovannl    See  John. 

Girolamo.    See  Jerome. 

GiUDA.    See  Judah. 

Giuditta.    See  Judith. 

GiULiA.    See  Julia. 

GiULiANA.    See  Juliana. 

Giuliano.    See  Julian. 

GiusEPPA  or  GiusEPPiNA.    See  Josephine. 

Giuseppe.    See  Joseph. 

Godard,  god'ard,  {"  firm  or  true  to  God ;")  Ger.  GoTT- 
hard,  got'h^Rt ;  Lat.  Godar'dus. 
Godefroi.    See  Godfrey. 
Godewijn.    See  Godwin. 

God'frey,  ("  God's  peace ;")  Danish,  Gottfried, 
got'free^/;  Dutch,  Godfried,  Hot'fReet ;  Fr.  Godefroi, 
go'deh-fRwS'  or  god'fRwi';  Ger.  Gottfried,  got'fReet ; 
It.  Goffredo,  gof-fRa'do  ;  Lat.  Godfri'dus. 

God'win,  ("  victorious  in  God  ;")  Dutch,  GoDEWlJN, 
Ho'deh-win';  Lat.  Godwi'nus. 

Goffredo.    See  Godfrey. 

Gottfried.    See  Godfrey. 

Gotthard.    See  Godard. 

Gottlieb.    See  Theophilus. 

Grace,  ("favour;")  Dutch,  Gratia,  gri'se-S;  Fr. 
Grace,  gRtss ;  It.  Grazia,  gRit'se-i ;  Lat.  Gra'tia. 

Gregory,  grig'o-re,  ("  watchful ;")  Danish,  Gregor, 
gRi-goR';  Dutch,  Gregorius,  gRi-Go're-us ;  Fr.  Gri^- 
goire,  gRk^gwiR' ;  Ger.  Gregor,  gRi-goR';  Gr.  Tpriyo- 
()Log,  (  Gregorios ; )  It.  Gregorio,  gRi-go're-o  ;  Lat.  Gre- 
go'rius  ;  Sp.  Gregorio,  gRi-go're-o ;  Sw.  Gregorius, 
gRi-go're-;ls. 

Grif'fith  ;  Danish,  Griffith,  gRif'fit ;  Dutch,  Ru- 
finus,  rii-fee'nus;  Lat.  Griffith'ius  ;  Sw.  Rufin, 
roo-feen'. 

Gualterus.    See  Walter. 

Guglielmo.    See  William. 

GuiDo.    See  Guy. 

Guillaume.    See  William. 

Gulielmus.    See  William. 

Gus-ta'vus  ;  Dutch,  Gustavus,  Hiis-tS'vus ;  Fr.  Gus- 
TAVE,  gvis'ttv';  Ger.  GusTAV,  gdos'tSf ;  Lat.  Gusta'vus  ; 
Sw.  Gustaf,  goos'tif. 

Guy,  gT,  ("wit,"  "sense"  ?)  Danish,  GuiDo,  gwee'do  ; 
Dutch,  GuiDO,  gwee'do  or  Hwee'do  ;  Fr.  GuY,  ge ;  Ger 
Veit,  fit ;  It.  GuiDO,  gwee'do ;  Lat.  Gui'do  ;  Sw. 
GuiDO,  gwee'do. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as G,  H,  Vi,guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (2i:^="See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

2333 


rOCABULART  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


Hadrian.    See  Adrian. 

Hagar,  ha'gar,  (a  "stranger Arabic,  HAjAR,  hi'- 
jar,  or  HXgar;  Fr.  Agar,  t'g^R';  Heb.  "UH;  Lat. 
Ha'gar,  (genitive,  Ha'garis.) 

Hannah,  ("gracious;")  Danish,  Hanne,  htn'neh,  or 
Hanna,  htn'na ;  Dutch,  Hanna,  hin'ni  •  Fr.  Anna, 
S'nt';  Heb.  Hjn ;  Lat.  Han'na  ;  Sw.  Hanna,  Mn^nL 

Hannibal,  han'ne-bal,  (a  "gracious  lord;")  Fr. 
Hannibal,  t'ne'bSK;  It.  Annibale,  Sn-ne-bi'li;  Lat. 
Han'nibal,  (genitive,  Han'nibalis.) 

Hans.    See  John. 

Harman.    See  Herman. 

Harold,  hir'Qld,  (a  "champion  ;")  Danish,  Harald, 
hi'rtld ;  Dutch,  Herold,  ha'rolt ;  Fr.  Harold,  ht^rold'; 
It.  Araldo,  a-rJl'do  ;  Lat.  IJarol'dus. 

Harriet,  hir're-etj  Danish,  Henriette,  hgn-re-et'- 
teh ;  Dutch,  Henrietta,  h^n-re-et't^ ;  Fr.  Henriette, 
/%6N're-§t';  Ger.  Henriette,  hgn-re-et'teh  ;  It.  Enri- 
CHETTA,  gn-re-ket'ti ;  Sp.  Enriqueta,  gn-re-ka'ti;  Sw. 
Henrietta,  hSn-re-et'ti, 

Hector,  (a  "defender;")  Fr.  Hector,  ^k'toR';  Gr. 
'EicTup,  (Hektor;)  It.  Ettore,  §t-to'ri ;  Lat.  Hec'tor, 
(genitive,  Hec'toris.) 

Heinrich.    See  Henry. 

Hel'en  or  Helena,  h§l'e-na,  ("brightness;")  Da- 
nish, Helena,  heh-la'ni ;  Dutch,  Helena,  heh-la'nl ; 
Fr.  H^LfeNE,  Ger.  Helene,  heh-la'neh ;  Gr. 

"E/levT/,  (Helene;)  It.  Elena,  i-la'n§, ;  Lat.  Hel'ena; 
Sp.  Elena,  k-la'nl 

Hendrik.    See  Henry. 

Henri.    See  Henry. 

Henricus.    See  Henry. 

Henrietta.    See  Harriet. 

Hen'ry,  ("  rich  lord  ;")  Danish,  Hendrik,  hSn'dRik  ; 
Dutch,  Hendrik,  h^n'dRik ;  Fr.  Henri,  h5N're';  Ger. 
Heinrich,  hIn'riK ;  It.  Enrico,  §n-ree'ko,  or  Errico, 
6r-ree'ko ;  Lat.  Henri'cus  ;  Port.  Henrique,  §n-ree'k^  ; 
Sp.  Enrique,  gn-ree'ki ;  Sw.  Hen'rik. 

Herbert,  her'bert,  ("  bright  lord ;")  Lat.  Herber'- 
Tus ;  Sw.  Herbert,  h&R'bgRt. 

Hercules,  her'ku-J^z,  (the  "glory  of  Hera;")  Fr. 
Hercule,  gR'kiiK;  Ger.  Hercules,  hgR'koo-lgs;  Gr. 
'Hpa/cAvc,  (H'erakles;)  It.  Ercole,  §R'ko-li;  Lat.  Her'- 
cules,  (genitive,  Her'culis.) 

Herman,  her'man,  (the  "leader  of  an  army;")  Da- 
nish, Hermann,  h§R'mtn  ;  Dutch,  Herman,  h^R'min  ; 
Fr.  Armand  or  Armant,  tR^mSw';  Ger.  Hermann, 
h§R'm3.n ;  Lat.  Herman'nus  or  Harman'nus  ;  Sw. 
Herman,  h^R'min. 

Hermogenes,  her-moj'e-n^z,  ("  descended  from  Her- 
mes ;")  Fr.  HERMOGfeNE,  ^R'mo'zhkn';  Gr.  'Epfxoyevjjg, 
( Hermogenes  ;)  Lat.  Hermog'enes,  (genitive,  Hermog'- 

ENIS.) 

Herold.    See  Harold. 
Hester.    See  Esther. 

Hezekiah,  hez-e-ki'a,  ("cleaving  to  the  Lord;") 
Dutch,  Hiskia,  his-kee'a ;  Fr.  :£z6chias,  i'zi'she'ts'; 
Heb.  iri'pm  or  H'prn  ;  Lat.  Hezeki'as. 

Hierom.    See  Jerome. 

HiERONYMUS.    See  Jerome. 


Hilary,  hiKa-re,  ("merry,"  "cheerful;")  Danish, 
HiLARius,  he-ia're-ds  ;  Dutch,  Hilarius^  he-lS're-us ; 
Fr.  HiLAiRE,  e'lSR';  It.  Ilario,  e-li're-o;  Lat.  Hila'- 
Rius  ;  Sw.  HiLARius,  he-ia're-iis. 

HioB."  See  Job. 

Hiskia.    See  Hezekiah. 

HoMFROL    See  Humphrey. 

Hor'ace  or  Horatio,  ho-ra'she-o,  ("  worthy  to  be 
beheld".?)  Danish,  Horats,  ho-rtts';  Dutch,  Horatius, 
ho-ri'se-us  ;  Fr.  Horace,  o'rtss';  Ger.  Horaz,  ho-rits'; 
It.  Orazio,  o-rit'se-o;  Lat.  Hora'tius;  Port.  Horacio, 
o-rS'se-o  ;  Sp.  Horacio,  o-r3.'i*/5e-o. 

Horatio.    See  Horace. 

Horatius.    See  Horace. 

Horats  or  Horaz.    See  Horace. 

Hu'bert,  ("bright  in  mind"?)  Danish,  Hubertus, 
hoo-b§R'tus ;  Dutch,  Hubertus,  hii-bgR'tus ;  Fr.  Hu- 
bert, /^u^baiR';  Lat.  Huber'tus;  Sw.  Hubertus, 
hoo-b^R'tus. 

Hugh  ;  Danish,  Hugo,  hoo'go ;  Dutch,  Hugo,  hii'go ; 
Fr.  HUGUES,  hug ;  It.  Ugo,  oo'go ;  Lat.  Hu'go,  (geni- 
tive, Hugo'nis  ;)  Sw.  Hugo,  hoo'go. 

Hum'phrey,  ("support  of  peace".?)  Dutch,  Hum- 
fried,  hum'fReet;  Fr.  Homfroi,  ^dN^fRwi';  It  Om* 
fredo,  om-fRa'do ;  Lat.  Humphre'dus  or  Onu'phrius  ; 
Sw.  Humfrid,  hoom'fRid. 

IbrAheem.    See  Abraham. 

Igna'tius,  (ig-na'she3s ;)  Dutch,  Ignatius,  ig-na'- 
se-us;  Fr.  Ignace,  ^n'ytss';  Ger.  Ignaz,  ig-nits',  or 
Ignatius,  ig-nit'se-ils ;  Gr.  'Ijvanoc,  (Ignatios;)  It. 
Ignacio,  ^n-ya'cho  ;  Lat.  Igna'tius  ;  Sp.  Ignacio,  feg- 
ni'//5e-o,  or  Inigo,  ^n-yee'go. 

Ilario.    See  Hilary. 

Inigo.    See  Ignatius. 

In'no-cent  ;  Dutch,  Innocentius,  in-no-s§n'se-us  ; 
Fr.  Innocent,  e'no'sSN';  Ger.  Innocenz,  in-not-s§nts', 
or  Innocentius,  in-not-sSnt'se-fts ;  It.  Innocente, 
^n-no-ch§n't4  ;  Lat.  Innocen'tius,  (in-no-sen'she-us  ;) 
Sp.  Inocencio,  t.-xvQ>-thhn' th^-o. 

I-re'ne,  ("  peace ;")  Fr.  Ir^ne,  e'rin';  Ger.  Irene, 
e-ra'neh ;  Gr.  EipTjvij,  (Eirene;)  It.  Irenea,  e-ri-na'i. 

Isaac,  T'zak,  ("  laughter ;")  Arabic,  IshAk,  is-hik'; 
Danish,  IsAK,  ee'slk  ;  Dutch,  Izaak,  ee'ztk  ;  Fr.  Isaac, 
e'zt'tk';  Ger.  Isaak,  ee'zik;  Heb.  pH^f^  or  pHl^^; 
Hungarian,  IzsAk,  ee'sSk ;  It.  Isacco,  e-sik'ko ;  Lat. 
Isa'acus  ;  Polish,  Izaak,  ee'zik  ;  Sw.  Isak,  ee'sik. 

Isabel,  iz'a-bel,  or  Isabella,  iz-a-beKla,  (originally 
the  same  as  Elizabeth,  which  see  ;)  Dutch,  Isabelle, 
e-sl-beKleh;  Fr.  Isabelle,  t'zi.%l\';  Ger.  Isabelle, 
e-zS-bel'leh  ;  It.  Isabella,  e-si-bel'll ;  Lat.  Isabel'la; 
Sp.  Isabel,  e-sS-bSK;  Sw.  Isabella,  e-si-bel'll 

Isacco.    See  Isaac. 

Isaiah,  i-za'ya  or  I-zi'e-ya ;  Danish,  Esaias,  i-si'ts  ; 
Dutch,  Jezajas,  yi-zi'ySs ;  Fr.  Isaie,  e'zt'e';  Ger. 
Esaias,  k-z^'e-is,  or  i-zi'Ss ;  Heb.  in^>'jy' ;  'it.  Isaia, 
e-si'a ;  Lat.  Esai'as  ;  Port.  Isaias,  e-sl-ee'is ;  Sp. 
IsAiAS,  e-sS-ee'Js. 

IsAK.    See  Isaac. 

IshAk.    See  Isaac. 

Ish'ma-el,  ("  God  hath  heard  ;")  Arabic,  Ismaeel 


sL,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  6, 6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  5?,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  f^r,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 
2334 


FOCABULART  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


or  Ismail,  is'mi-eeK;  Fr.  Ismael,  hs'miHV;  Heb. 
'?X>':DJ2'';  It.  IsMAELE,^s-ma-a'lk ;  Lat.  Ish'mael. 

Isidore,  iz'e-dor;  Dutch,  Isidorus,  e-se-do'rus ; 
Fr.  Isidore,  e'ze'doR';  Gr.  'Iffi^cjpof,  (Isoddros;)  It.  Isi- 
DORO,  e-se-do'ro  ;  Lat.  Isido'rus. 

Ismael,  Ismaele,  or  IsMAtL.    See  Ishmael. 

Israel,  iz'ri-el,  ("  prevailing  with  God  ;")  Fr.  Israel, 
fes'rt-H';  Ger.  Israel,  is'ri-aK;  Heb.  h^-yW" ;  Lat.  Is'- 
rael,  (genitive,  Israe'lis.) 

IstvAn.    See  Stephen. 

Ivan.    See  John. 

Izaak,  Izak,  or  IzsAk.    See  Isaac. 

Jabreel.    See  Gabriel. 

Jacob,  ja'kob,  (a  "  supplanter ;")  Arabic,  Yakoob  or 
YakOb,  yi'koob';  Danish,  Jakob,  yl'kob  ;  Dutch,  Jacob 
or  Jakob,  yl'kob  ;  Fr.  Jacob,  zht'kob';  Ger.  Jakob, 
yS'kop  ;  Heb.  ^S;?' ;  Hungarian,  JAkob,  yi'kob ;  It. 
Jacob,  yi'kob,  or  Jacopo,  yi'ko-po ;  Lat.  Jaco'bus  or 
Ja'cob  ;  Polish,  Jakob,  yi'kob  ;  Sw.  Jakob,  yl'kob. 

Jacqueline,  jak'keh-leen',  (the  feminine  of  James  ;) 
Fr.  Jacqueline,  zhtk'keh-l^n';  Ger.  Jakobine,  yS.-ko- 
bee'neh ;  It.  Giacomina,  ji-ko-mee'ni,  or  Giacobba, 
ja-kolD'bl. 

James,  jamz,  (in  its  origin  the  same  as  Jacob  ;)  Da- 
nish, Jakob,  yl'kob ;  Dutch,  Jacobus,  yS-ko'bus ;  Fr. 
Jacques,  zhtk ;  Ger.  Jakob,  y§,'kop ;  Hungarian,  Ja- 
XAB,  yok'ob;  It.  Giacomo,  ji'ko-mo;'  Lat.  Jaco'bus  ; 
Polish,  Jakub,  yi'koob ;  Port.  DiOGO,  de-o'go,  or 
Jacobo,  zhi-ko'bo  ;  Russ.  Yakof,  yi'kof ;  Sp.  Jaime, 
Hi'mi,  (Saint  James  is  called  Santiago,  sSn-te-i'go  ;) 
Sw.  Jakob,  yS'kob. 

Jan.    See  John. 

JXNE  and  Joan,  or  Joanna,  jo-an'na,  (the  feminine  of 
John  ;)  Danish,  Johanne,  yo-htn'neh  ;  Dutch,  Hanna, 
han'ni  ;  Fr.  Jeanne,  zhtn  ;  Ger.  Johanna,  yo-han'nS; 
It.  Giovanna,  jo-vSn'na ;  Lat.  Ja'na  or  Jo-han'na  ; 
Sp.  JuANA,  Hoo-ln'yS;  Sw.  Johanna,  yo-h5n'nl 

JAnos.    See  John. 

Jas'per,  ("treasure-master"?)  Danish,  Jesper,  y?s'- 
per ;  Dutch,  Jasper,  yis'per,  or  Kasper,  kis'per ;  Fr. 
Gaspard,  gts'ptR';  Ger.  Caspar  or  Kaspar,  kSs'p^R ; 
It.  Gasparo,  gSs'p^-ro  ;  Lat.  Gas'par,  (genitive,  Gas'- 
PARIS  ;)  Port.  Gaspar,  gis-pSR' ;  Sp.  Gaspar,  gIs-pSR'; 
Sw.  Kasper,  kis'per. 

Jean.    See  John. 

Jeanne.    See  Jane. 

Jeannette.    See  Jenet. 

Jeffrey  or  Jeffery.    See  Geoffrey. 

Jen'et,  (the  diminutive  of  Jane  ;)  Fr.  Jeannette, 
zht'nit';  It.  Giovannetta,  jo-vSn-net'ta ;  Lat.  JoA- 
net'ta. 

Jeph'thah,  (a  "discoverer;")  Fr.  Jepht^,  zhgfW; 
Heb.  nn*]'' ;  Lat.  Jeph'tha. 

Jeremiah,  j§r-e-mi'a,  or  Jeremy,  jgr'e-me ;  Danish, 
Jeremias,  yi-reh-mee'ts;  Dutch,  Jeremias,  yi-reh- 
mee'is ;  Fr.  J6r6mie,  zhi'ri'me';  Ger.  Jeremias,  yi- 
reh-mee'Ss;  Heb.  n'OI"  ;  It.  Geremia,  ji-ri-mee'J; 
Lat.  Jeremi'as  ;  Sw.  Jeremias,  yi-reh-mee'^s. 

Jerome,  j^r'om  or  je-rom',  or  Hierom,  hee'er-om, 
("  sacred  name  ;")  Danish,  Jeronymus,  yi-ro'ne-mfts ; 


Dutch,  Hieronymus,  he-eh-ro'ne-mus ;  Fr.  JiSrSme, 
zhi'rSm';  Ger.  Hieronymus,  he-eh-ro'ne-mus;  It.  Ge- 
ronimo,  ji-ron'e-mo,  or  Girolamo,  je-roKS-mo;  Lat. 
Hieron'ymus  ;  Port.  Hieronimo,  e-k-ro'ne-mo ;  Sp. 
Geronimo,  Hk-ro'ne-mo ;  Sw.  Hieronymus,  he-eh-ro'- 
ne-mus. 

Jesper.    See  Jasper. 

Jezajas.    See  Isaiah. 

Joan,  (the  same  in  its  origin  as  Jane,  which  see.) 
JoANETTA.    See  Jenet. 
Joanna.    See  Jane. 
Joannes.    See  John. 
JoAO.    See  John. 

Job,  job,  ("sorrowing;")  Arabic,  Aiyoob  or  AyyOb, 
T'yoob';   Fr.  Job,  zhob;  Ger.  Hiob,  hee'op;  Gr. 
(lob;)  Heb.  3VX;  It.  Giobbe,  job'bi  or  j6b'bi;  Lat 
Job  (genitive,  Jo'bis)  or  Jo'bus  ;  Sw.  Job,  yob. 

Jo'el,  ("  acquiescing ;")  Fr.  Joel,  zho'^l';  Heb.  SnV  J 
Lat.  Jo'el,  (genitive,  Joe'lis.) 

Johanna.    See  Jane. 

John,  (the  "grace  of  the  Lord;")  Danish,  Johann, 
yo'htn,  or  Hans,  htns ;  Dutch,  Jan,  ySn ;  Fr.  Jean, 
zh5N ;  Ger.  Johann,  yo'hin,  (familiarly  Hans,  hinss,  a 
contraction  of  Johannes;)  Gr.  'JwavvT/f,  "(Joannes;) 
Heb.  njnr  ;  Hungarian,  JAnos,  yi'nosh  ;  It.  Giovan- 
ni, jo-vin'nee  ;  Lat.  Joan'nes  or  Johan'nes  ;  Polish, 
Jan,  y^n ;  Port.  JoAO,  zho-owN';  Russ.  Ivan,  fe-vSn'; 
Sp.  Juan,  Hoo-Sn';  Sw.  Johan,  yo'hSn,  or  Hans,  hins. 

Jo'nah  or  Jo'nas,  (a  "  dove  ;")  Fr.  Jonas,  zho'nSs'; 
Ger.  Jonas,  yo'nas  ;  Heb.  Hjr  ;  Lat.  Jo'nas. 

Jonathan,  jon'a-than,  (the  "  gift  of  the  Lord  ;")  Fr. 
Jonathan,  zho'nt'tfiN';  Heb.  jnjin"' ;  Lat.  Jon'athan, 
(genitive  in  -is.) 

JoosT.    See  Joscelin. 

Jorge.    See  George. 

Jos'cE-LiN  or  Jog'E-LiN,  ("just ;")  Dutch,  JoosT, 
yost ;  Lat.  Josceli'nus. 

Joseph,  jo'zef,  ("addition;")  Fr.  Joseph,  zho'zlf ; 
Ger.  Joseph,  yo'zSf ;  Heb.  ^Dr  ;  Hungarian,  Jozsef, 
yo'sSf ;  It.  Giuseppe,  joo-sep'pi ;  Lat.  Jose'phus  or 
Jo'seph;  Polish,  Jozef,  yo'zSf;  Port.  Joz6,  zho-za'j 
Sp.  Jos6,  Ho-sa'. 

Josephine,*  jo'zeh-feen',  (the  feminine  of  Joseph  ;) 
Fr.  JosfePHE,  zho'zgf,  or  Jos^iphine,  zho'zk^f^n';  Ger. 
Josephe,  yo'z§f-eh,  or  Josephine,  yo-zeh-fee'neh  ;  It. 
Giuseppa,  joo-sep'pi,  or  Giuseppina,  joo-s^p-pee'nS; 
Lat.  Jose'pha. 

Joshua,  josh'u-a,  (a  "saviour;")  Dutch,  J^sua,  yo'- 
sii-^;  Fr.  Josu6,  zho'zii'i';  Ger.  JosUA,  yo'zoo-i ;  Heb. 
jriyiH"' ;  It.  Giosufe,  jo-soo-a';  Lat.  Jos'ua  ;  Sw.  JosuA, 
yo'soo-S. 

Jo-si'ah  (jo-sl'a,)  or  Jo-si'as  ;  Danish,  Josias,  yo- 
see'ts ;  Dutch,  JoziAS,  yo-zee'Ss ;  Fr.  JosiAS,  zho'- 
ze'as',*  Heb.  "IH^SyX^ ;  It.  Giosiade,  jo-see'S-dk;  Lat. 
Josi'as. 

Josua.    See  Joshua. 

Joz^;.    See  Joseph. 

Jozsef.    See  Joseph. 

*  Josephine  (or  Josephine)  and  Giuseppina  are,  strictly  speak- 
ing, diminutives  from  JosfePHE  (or  Josepha)  and  Giuseppa. 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  H,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  R,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (JJ^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

2335 


VOCABVLART  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


Juan.    See  John.  . 
JuANA.    See  Jane. 

Ju'dah,  Ju'das,  Jude,  jud,  ("  confession ;")  Fr.  Juda, 
zhii'dt'  -^r  Jude,  zhiid ;  Ger.  Judas,  yoo'dSs ;  Heb. 
"tXViTV  ;  Hungarian,  Juda,  yod'di ;  It.  GiUDA,  joo'di ; 
Lat.  Ju'das  ;  Polish,  Judas,  yoo'dis ;  Swi  Judas,  yoo'- 
dis. 

Ju'dith,  ("praising;")  Heb.  nniH'' ;  It.  Giuditta, 
joo-d6t'ta ;  Lat.  Jhjdi'tha.  * 
.  Julia,  ju'le-a,  (the  feniinine  of  Julius  ;)  Dutch,  Julia, 
yii'le-a;  Fr.  JuLiE,  zhii'le';  Ger.  JuLiE,  yoo'le-eh;  It. 
GiuLiA,  joo'le-i;  Lat.  Ju'lia  ;  Sp.  Julia,  HooQe-S  j  Sw. 
Julia,  ybo'le-S. 

Julian,  ju'le-an,  ("  related  to  Julius ;")  Dutch,  Ju- 
LIANUS,  yii-le-d'nus ;  Fr.  Julien,  zhii'le-^N' ;  Ger. 
Julian,  yoo'le-Sn ;  It.  Giulianq,  joo-le-i'no ;  Lat, 
Julia'nus  ;  Port.  JuLiAo,  zhoo-le-6wN';  Sp.  Julian, 
Hoo-le-Sn',  or  Juliano,  Hoo-le-i'no ;  Sw.  Julian,  yoo^- 
le-an. 

Juliana,  ju-le-tn'a,  (the  feminine  of  Julian,;)  Dutch, 
Juliana,  yii-le-i'ni ;  Fr.  Julienne,  zhii'le-§n';  Ger. 
Juliane,  yoo-le-i'neh  ;  It.  Giuliana,  joo-le-k'ni  ;  Lat. 
Julia'na  ;  Port.  Juliana,  zhoo-Ie-^'ni ;  Sp.  Juliana, 
Hoo-le-^'ni;  Sw.  Juliana,  yoo-le-a'ni. 

Juliano.    See  Julian. 

Julie.    See  Julia. 

Julien.    See  Julian. 

Julienne.    See  Julia. 

Julius,  ju'le-us,  ('*  sprung  from  lulus  ;")  Dutch,  Ju- 
lius, yii'le-iis  ;  Fr.  Jules,  zhiil ;  Ger.  Julius;  yoo'le-us  ; 
It.  GiuLio,  joo'le-o ;  Lat.  Ju'lius  ;  Port.  Julio,  zhoo'- 
le-o  ;  Sp.  Julio,  Hoo'le-o. 

Karl  or  Karel.    See  Charles. 
Kaspar.    See  Jasper. 

Katharine  or  Katarina.    See  Catherine. 

Klaas.    See  Nicholas. 

Klara.    See  Clara. 

Klaudia.    See  Claudia. 

Klaudius.    See  Claudius. 

Koenraad.   See  Conrad. 

Konrad.    See  Conrad. 

KoNSTANTijN.    See  Constantine. 

Kornelis.    See  Cornelius. 

Krispin  or  Krispijn.    See  Crispin. 

Kristofer.    See  Christopher. 

Ly^;TiTiA.    See  Lettice. 

Lam'bert,  (**  brightness  or  glory  of  the  country" }) 
Dutch,  Lambert,  llm'b^Rt,  or  Lambertus,  lim-bgR'- 
tus  ;  Fr.  Lambert,  ISN'baiR';  Ger.  Lambert,  lam'b^Rt ; 
Lat.  Lamber'tus. 

Lan'ce-lot,  (a  "  little  lance  ;")  Fr.  Lancelot,  16nss'- 
lo';  Lat.  Lancelot'tus. 

Laura,  law'ra,  ("laurel;")  Fr.  Laure,  16r  ;  Ger. 
Laura,  low'ra ;  It.  Laura,  low'ri. 

Lau'rence,  ("crowned  with  laurel ;")  Danish,  Lo- 
RENZ,  lo'rSnts  ;  Dutch,  Laurens,  low'r^ns  ;  Fr.  Lau- 
rent, lo'rfiN';  Ger.  Laurenz,  low'rSnts,  Lorenz,  lo'- 
rSnts,  and  Laurentius,  16w-r§nt'se-6s ;  It.  Lorenzo, 


lo-rSn'zo ;  Lat.  Lauren'tius  ;  Sp.  Lorenzo,  lo-r^n'- 
tho ',  Sw.  Lars,  laRs. 

Lazarus,  laz'a-rus,  ("  destitute  of  help  ;")  Fr.  Lazare, 
iS'ztr';  Gr.  Aa^apog,  ( Lazaros ;)  It.  Lazzaro,  l^t'si-ro ; 
Lat.  .Laz'arus. 

Le'o  or  Le'on,  (a  "  lion ;")  Fr.  L^ON,  li'^N'j  It. 
Leone,  li-o'ni ;  Lat.  Le'o,  (genitive,  Leo'nis.) 

Leolinus.    See  Lewellin. 

Leonard,  l^n'ard,  ("  strong  as  a  lion  ;")  Dutch,  Le- 
onard, la'o-naRt';  Fr.  Leonard,  IkVntR';  Ger.  Leon- 
hard,  la'on-haRt';  It.  Leonardo,  li-o-naR'do,  or  Lio- 
nArdo,  le-o-naR'do ;  Lat.  Leonar'dus. 

Leonellus.    See  Lionel.  ' 

Leonora.    See  Eleanor. 

Le'o-pold,  ("bold  for  the  people,"  and,  hence,  "de- 
fending the  people ;")  Fr.  Leopold,  liVpold';  Ger. 
Leopold,  la'o-polt";  It.  Leopoldo,  li-o-pol'do;  Lat. 
Leopol'dus. 

Lettice,  let'tiss,  or  Letitia,  le-tish'e-a,  ("joy ;") 
Danish,  L^TiTiA,  li-tee'te-2i ;  Dutch,  Laetitia,  li-tee'- 
se-l,  (almost  li-tee'she-i ;)  Old  Fr.  L^TICE,  li'tfess';  Lat. 
L.*:tit'ia,  (le-tish'e-a.) 

Le-wel'lin,  ("  like  a  Ifon  ;")  Lat.  Leoli'nus. 

Lewis,  lu'iss,  or  Louis,  loo'is,  (the  "  fortress  or  de- 
fence of  the  people ;")  Dutch,  Lodewijk,  lo'deh-wik' ; 
Fr.  Louis,  loo'e';  Ger.  Ludwig,  lood'^io;  It.  LuiGi, 
loo-ee'jee,  or  LoDOVico,  lo-do-vee'ko,  or  Ludovico, 
loo-do-vee'ko ;  Lat.  LuDOVi'cus ;  Sp.  Luis,  loo-fess'; 
Sw.  LuDWiG,  lood'vig. 

LiDiA.    See  Lydia. 

LioNARDO.    See  Leonard. 

Lionel,  (a  "  little  lion ;")  Lat.  Leonel'lus. 

LiviA,  liv'e-a ;  Fr.  LiviE,  le've';  It.  Livia,  lee've-i ; 
Lat.  Liv'iA. 

Lodewijk.    See  Lewis. 

LoDovico  or  LoDOVic.    See  Lewis. 

Lorenz  or  Lorenzo.    See  Laurence. 

Louis.    See  Lewis. 

Louisa,  loo-ee'za,  (the  feminine  of  Lewis  or  Louis  ;) 
Fr.  Louise,  \oo'kz';  Ger.  Luise,  loo-ee'zeh ;  It.  Lui- 
GIA,  loo-ee'ji ;  Lat.  Lui'sA;  Sp.  LuiSA,  loo-ee's3. ;  Sw. 
LuDoviKA,  loo-do-vee'kl 

Luc  or  LucA.    See  Luke. 

Lu'can  ;  Fr.  Lucain,  lii'kiN';  Lat.  Luca'nus. 

Lucas.    See  Luke. 

Luce.    See  Lucius. 

Lucian,  lu'she-an;  Fr.  Lucien,  lii'se-iN';  It.  Lu- 
ciano, loo-chi'no ;  Lat.  Lucia'nus. 
Lucie.    See  Lucy. 

Lucius,  lu'shejis,  ("shining;")  Fr.  Luce,  liiss,  or 
Lucius,  lii'se-iis';  Ger.  Lucius,  loot'se-iis ;  It.  Lucio, 
loo'cho ;  Lat.  Lu'cius. 

Lucretia,  lu-kree'she-a,  or  Lu'crece  ;  Fr.  Lucr£:ce, 
lu^kRis';  Ger.  LucRETiA,  loo-krat'se-S ;  It.  Lucrezia, 
loo-krlt'se-i;  Lat.  Lucre'tia  ;  Sp.  Lucrecia,  loo-kRa'- 
Me-a. 

Lucy  or  Lucie,  lu'se,  (the  feminine  of  Lucius ;) 
Dutch,  LuciE,  lii'se-eh  ;  Fr.  Lucie,  lu'se';  Ger.  Lucie, 
loot'se-eh ;  It.  LuciA,  loo-chee'i ;  Lat.  Lu'ciA ;  Sp. 
Lucia,  loo-Z/zee'l 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,    6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  I,  o,  ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  j,  9,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nflt;  good;  moon: 
2336 


FOCJBULART  OF  CHRISTUM  NAMES. 


LuDOViKA.    See  Louisa. 

LuDOVico  or  LuDOVicus.    See  Lewis. 

LuDWiG.    See  Lewis. 

LuiGi.    See  Lewis. 

Luigia.    See  Louisa. 

Luisa.    See  Louisa. 

LuisE.    See  Louisa. 

Luke,  (a  •*  light"  ?)  Danish,  Lucas,  loo'kts ;  Dutch, 
Lucas,  lu'kis ;  Fr.  Luc,  lUk;  Gar.  Lucas,  loo'kis 
Hungarian,  LucAts,  loo'kltch ;  It.  Luca,  loo'ki;  Lat. 
Lu'cas  ;  Sw.  Lu'cas. 

Lydia,  lid'e-a;  Danish,  Lydia,  lee'de-S;  Dutch, 
Lydia,  lee'de-i ;  Fr.  Lydie,  le'de';  Gr.  Av6La,  ( Ludia;) 
It.  LiDiA,  lee'de-i ;  Lat.  Lyd'ia. 

MX'bel,  (a  corruption  of  the  French  aimable,  (origi- 
nally amabel,)  "lovely;")  Lat.  Mabil'ia  or  Amab'ilis. 

Magdalen,  mag'da-len,  or  Magdalene,  ("  of  Mag- 
dala,"  a  place  in  Palestine ;)  Dutch,  Magdalena,  n\&G- 
dS-la'ni  ;  Fr.  Madeleine  or  Madelene,  mtd'lin';  Gef. 
Magdalena,  mag-di-la'ni ;  It.  Maddalena,  mSd-di- 
la'nS,  or  Madalena,  ml-di-la'na  ;  Lat.  Magdale'na  ; 
Sp.  Magdalena,  mlg-dl-ln'n^. 

Marc.    See  Mark. 

Mar-cel'lus  ;  Fr.  Marcellus,  maR'si'llis';  It.  Mar- 
cello,  maR-chel'lo ;  Lat.  Marcel'lus. 
Marcus.    See  Mark. 

Margaret,  mar'ga-ret,  (a  "pearl;")  Dutch,  Mar- 
garetha,  maR-gi-ra'ti,  or  maR-H^-ra'ta ;  Fr.  Mar- 
guerite, mtR^gR^t';  Ger.  Margarethe,  maR-gl-ra'- 
teh;  Gr.  lAapyapiTriq,  ( Margarites ;)  It.  Margarita, 
maR-gi-ree'ta ;  Lat.  Margari'ta  or  Margare'ta. 

Maria.    See  Mary. 

Marie.    See  Mary. 

Mark,'  (a  *'  hammer"  ?)  Danish,  Marcus,  maR'kiis ; 
Dutch,  Marcus,  maR'kus  ;  Fr.  Marc,  mtkk  ;  Ger,  Mar- 
cus, maR'kus  ;  Gr.  Mup/cof,  ( Markos  ;)  Hungarian,  MArk, 
maRk  ;  It.  Marco,  maR'ko  ;  Lat.  Mar'cus  ;  Sp.  Mar- 
cos, maR'k6s ;  Sw.  Markus,  maR'kus. 

Martha,  mar'tha,  ("bitterness"  .^')  Dutch,  Martha, 
maR'ti ;  Fr.  Marthe,  mtat ;  Ger.  Martha,  maR'ti ; 
Gr.  Mapda,  (Martha;)  It.  Marta,  maR'ti ;  Lat.  Mar'- 
THA;  Sp.  Marta,  maR'tl;  Sw.  Martha,  maR'ti. 

Mar'tin,  ("martial;")  Dutch,  Martinus,  maR-tee'- 
nus ;  Fr.  Martin,  mtR'tiw';  Ger.  Martin,  maR'tin ; 
It.  Martino,  maR-tee'no  ;  Lat.  Marti'nus  ;  Sp.  Mar- 
tin, maR-t^n';  Sw.  Martin,  maR-teen'. 

Martinez,  (Sp.,)  maR-tee'n^th,  (the  "son  of  Martin.") 

Mary,  ma're,  ("  bitter  ;")  Danish,  Marie,  mi-ree'eh ; 
Dutch,  Maria,  mi-ree'a;  Fr.  Marie,  mt're';  Ger. 
Maria,  ml-ree'i,  or  Marie,  ml-ree'eh ;  Gr,  Mapia, 
( Maria  ;)  Hungarian,  MAria,  ml're-i ;  It,  Maria,  m^- 
ree'i;  Lat.  MAri'a;  Polish,  Marya,  miR'yi;  Port, 
Maria,  mS-ree'i;  Sp.  Maria,  mi-ree'i;  Sw.  Maria, 
mS-ree'i. 

Massimiliano.    See  Maximilian. 

Massimino.    See  Maximin. 

Massimo.    See  Maximus. 

Mateo.    See  Matthew. 

Mathieu.    See  Matthew. 


Mathusalem.    See  Methuselah. 
Matias.    See  Mathias. 

Matilda,  ma-tilMa,  or  Maud;  Danish,  Mathilde, 
mi-til'deh ;  Dutch,  Mathilda,  mi-til'dd ;  f  r.  Ma- 
thilde, mt't^ld';  It.  Matilda,  ra^-ihVdl;  Lat.  Ma- 
thil'da;  Sp.  Matilde,  mi-t^Kdi;  Sw.  Matilda, 
ma-til'da. 

Matthew,  ma///\i,  (a  "gift"  or  "present"?)  Danish, 
Matth/eus,  m^t-ta'us  ;  Dutch,  Mattheus,  mSt-ta'us  ; 
Fr.  Mathieu,  mt'te-uh';  Gr.  Mardaioc,  ( Mattkaios ';) 
Hungarian,  MAt6,  mi'ti;  It.  Matteo,  mit-ta'o;  Lat.' 
Matth^'us  ;  Polish,  Mateusz,  ma'tcj^osW;  Sp.  Mateo, 
m^-ta'o  ;  Sw.  Matthaus,  mSt-ta'us. 

Matthias,  ma-thl'as,  (originally  the  same  as  Matth- 
ew;) Dutch,  Matthijs,  mIt-tTs';  Fr.  Matthias,  mt'- 
te'Ss';  Ger.  Mathias,  mi-tee'is ;  It.  Mattia,  mSt-tee'i ; 
Lat.  Matthi'as  ;  Sp.  Matias,  mi-tee'Ss. 

Maud.    See  Matilda. 

MAURigE,  maw'riss ;  Danish,  Moritz,  moMts ; 
Dutch,  Mai^rits,  mowMts,  or  Mauritius,  mow-ree'- 
se-us,  (almost  mow-ree'she-iis  ;)  Fr.  Maurice,  mo'r^ss'; 
Ger.  Moritz,  mo'rits ;  It.  Maurizio,  mow-r^t'se-o,  or 
Maurisio,  mow-ree'se-o ;  Lat.  Maurit'ius  or  Mau- 
Rig'ius,  (maw-rish'^s ;)  Sp.  Mauricio,  mow-reeV/^e-o ; 
Sw.  Moritz,  mo'rits. 

Maximilian,  mik-se-miKe-an ;  Dutch,  Maximili- 
anus,  mSk-se-me-le-S'nus ;  Fr.  Maximilien,  mtk'se'- 
me'le'iN';  Ger.  Maximilian,  mSk-se-mee'le-in  ;*  It. 
Massimiliano,  mSs-se-me-le-l'no ;  Lat,  Maximilia'- 
Nus  ;  Sp.  Maximiliano,  mSk-se-me-le-i'no ;  Sw.  Max- 
imilian, mSk-se-mlKe-in. 

Maximin,  mik'se-min  ;  Fr.  Maximin,  mtk^se^m^N'; 
It.  Massimino,  mis-se-mee'no ;  Lat.  Maximi'nus. 

Maximus,  mak'se-mus,  ("greatest;")  Fr.  Maxime, 
mtk's^m';  It.  Massimo,  mSs'se-mo ;  Lat.  Max'imus  ; 
Sp.  Maximo,  mSk'se-mo. 

Me-thu'se-lah,  ("driving  away  death".?)  Fr.  Ma- 
thusalem, mi-tu^zt'lgm';    Lat.   Methu'sela  ;  Heb. 

Michael,  mi'kk-gl,  ("who  is  like  God ;")  Fr.  Michel, 
me'sh^K;  Ger.  Michael,  miK'l-Sl,  (almost  mlH'S-gl ;) 
Heb.  SXD^D  ;  Hungarian,  MihAly,  mee'hIT;  It.  Mi- 
CHELE,  me-ka'li ;  Lat.  Mi'cHAEL,(genitive,  Michae'lis;) 
Polish,  MiCHAL,  mee'Kll ;  Port.  Miguel,  me-g^K;  Russ. 
Mikhail,  me-Ki-^K,  (almost  me-nl-el',)  or  me-Ki'el  j 
Sp.  Miguel,  me-glK. 

MiKLOS.    See  Nicholas. 

Mil'dred,  ("speaking  mildly ;")  Lat.  Mildre'da. 
MoisE.    See  Moses. 
MoosA.    See  Moses. 
Moritz.    See  Maurice. 

Moses,  mo'z^z  or  mo'ziz,  ("  drawn  out ;")  Arabic, 
MoosA  or  MOsA,  moo'si;  Dutch,  Mozes,  mo'zSs ;  Fr. 
Moise,  mo'^z';  Heb.  ni^D ;  Gr.  Muarjg,  (Moses;)  Hun- 
garian, Mozes,  mo'zesh ;  It.  Moisi:,  mo-e-sa';  Lat. 
Mo'ses,  (genitive,  Mo'sis ;)  Polish,  Moyzesz,  moi'zh^sh ; 
Sp.  MoYSES,  mo-e-s§s';  Sw.  Moses,  mo's^s. 

NAR-gis'sus,  (a  "  daffodil ;")  Fr.  Narcisse,  ntR's^ss'; 
It.  Narcisso,  niR-ch^s'so ;  Lat.  Narcis'sus. 

*  Generally  abbreviated,  except  in  formal  discourse,  as  Max, 
(maks.) 


<  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  Y., guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  %h  as  in  this,    (^^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

147  2337 


FOCABULART  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES, 


Natalis.   See  Noel. 

Natanael.    See  Nathanael. 

Nathan,  na'/^an,  (a  "gift;")  Fr.  Nathan,  nt'tSN'; 
Ger.  Nathan,  ni'tSn ;  Heb.  |nj ;  Lat.  Na'than  ;  Sp. 
Natan,  ni-tin'. 

Nathanael  or  Nathaniel,  na-i'/^an'yel,  (the  "gift  of 
God Dutch,  Nathaniel,  na-t^'ne-^l ;  Fr.  Nathaniel, 
nS'tt'ne-61';  Ger.  Nathaniel,  na-ti'ne-^1 ;  Lat.  Na- 
than'ael,  (genitive,  Nathanae'lis  ;)  Sp.  Natanael, 
nl-ta-ni-gK. 

Nehfmiah,  ne-he-mi'a,  (the  "rest  of  the  Lord;") 
Danish,  Nehemias,  ni-heh-mee'is ;  Dutch,  Nehemia, 
ni-heh-mee'i ;  Fr.  N6h6mie,  ni'i'me';  Ger.  Nehe- 
mias, ni-heh-mee'is ;  Heb.  rT'DHJ  ;  It.  Neemia,  ni 
mee'i;  Lat.  Nehemi'as  ;  Sp.  Nehemias,  ni-k-mee'is. 

Nicholas,  n!k'o-las,  (the  "  people's  victory  ;")  Dutch, 
Nicolaas,  nee'ko-lSs',  (more  frequently  Klaas,  kits  ;) 
Fr.  Nicolas,  ne'ko'll';  Ger.  Nicolaus,  nee'ko-lowss'; 
Gr.  'SiKoXaoc,  (Nikolaos;)  Hungarian,  MiKLOS,  mee'- 
klosh ;  It.  Niccol6  or  Nicol6,  n^k-ko-lo';  Lat.  Nico- 
la'us;  Port.  NicoLAO,  ne-ko-ia'o ;  Russ.  Nikolai, 
ne-ko-ll'e,  or  Nikolas,  ne-ko-lis';  Sp.  Nicolas,  ne- 
ko-ias';  Sw.  Nils,  nils. 

Nic-o-de'mus,  ("  victory  of  the  people"  or  the  "  con- 
queror of  the  people  ;")  Fr.  Nicodeme,  ne'ko'dim';  Gr. 
i^LKoSrjfiog,  ( Nikodemos  ; )  Lat.  Nicode'mus. 

Nicolas.    See  Nicholas. 

Nils.    See  Nicholas. 

No'ah,  (no'a  ;)  Arabic,  NooH  or  NOh,  nooH  ;  Dutch, 
Noach,  no'dH  or  no'iK ;  Fr.  No^;,  no'k';  Ger.  Noah, 
no'i;  Gr.  Nwe,  (Noe;)  Heb.  HJ;  Sw.  Noa,  no'i. 

No'el,  ("  Christmas  ;"*)  Fr.  Noel,  no'gl';  Lat.  Na- 
ta'lis  or  Noe'lius. 

NooH.    See  Noah. 

Norman,  nor'man,  ("born  in  Normandy"  or  "of 
Norman  extraction  ;")  Lat.  Norman'nus. 
NouH  or  NOh.    See  Noah. 

Obadiah,  ob-a-di'a,  (the  "servant  of  the  Lord;") 
Heb.  nn3;r;  Lat.  Obadi'as. 
Octave.    See  Octavius. 

OcTAViA,  ok-ta've-a ;  Fr.  Octavie,  ok'tt've';  It.  Ot- 
TAVIA,  ot-ti've-i ;  Lat.  Octa'via. 

Octavius,  ok-ta've-us ;  Fr.  Octave,  ok'ttv';  It.  Ot- 
TAVio,  ot-t^'ve-o ;  Lat.  Octa'vius  ;  Sp.  Octavio,  ok- 
ti've-o. 

Odusseus  or  Odysseus.    See  Ulysses. 

Oliver,  ol'e-ver,  ("  an  olive,"  or  "bearing  the  olive;") 
Dutch,  Olivier,  o-le-veeR';t  Fr.  Olivier,  o^e've-i'; 
It.  Oliviere,  o-le-ve-^ri,  or  Uliviere,  oo-le-ve-a'rk ; 
Lat.  Oliva'rus  or  Oliva'rius;  Sp.  Oliverio,  o-le-va'- 
re-o;  Sw.  Olivier,  o-le-veeR'. 

Olivia,  o-liv'e-a,  (the  feminine  of  Oliver  ;)  Danish, 

*  Given  as  a  name  to  children  born  on  Christmas-day. 
t  Olivier  (pronounced  ol-e-veer')  appears  also  to  have  been  an 
old  English  form.    Scott  says, 

"  When  Roland  brave,  and  Olivier, 
And  every  paladin  and  peer, 
On  Roncesvalles  died." — 

Marmion,  canto  vi.  stanza  33. 


Olivia,  o-lee've-i ;  Dutch,  Olivia,  o-lee've-a ;  Fr.  Oli- 
VIE,  o'le've';  Ger.  Olivia,  o-lee've-d;  Sw.  Olivia, 
o-liv'e-a. 
Olivier.    See  Oliver. 

Olympia,  o-lim'pe-a,  or  Olympias,  o-lim'pe-as,  ("be- 
longing to  Olympus,"  "divine  ;")  Fr.  Olympe,  o'liMp'; 
Gr.  'OXvfimag,  ( Olumpias;)  Lat.  Olym'pias  or  Olym'- 

PIA. 

Omfredo.    See  Humphrey. 

Onesimus,  o-ngs'e-mus,  ("  profitable ;")  Fr.  On^sime, 
o'n^'z^m';  Gr.  'Ovrioifiog,  (  Onesimos;)  It.  Onesimo,  o-na'- 
se-mo ;  Lat.  Ones'imos. 

Onuphrius.    See  Humphrey. 

Ophelia,  o-fee'le-a,  ("help,"  "usefulness;")  Fr. 
Oph^lie,  o'fyie';  Gr.  '^l(j)e?ua,  (Ophelia;)  Lat.  Ophe'- 

LIA. 

Orazio.    See  Horace. 

Origen,  or'e-jen,  ("descended  from  Horus,"an  Egyp- 
tian deity  ;J)  Fr.  Orig^ne,  o're'zhkn' ;  Gr.  'QpiyevijCt 
( Origen'es;)  Lat.  Orig'enes,  (genitive,  Orig'enis.) 

Orlando,  (a  form  of  Roland,  which  see ;)  It.  Or- 
lando, oR-lin'do ;  Lat.  Orlan'dus. 

O'tho,  ("  spirited"  ?§)  Dutch,  Ot'to  ;  Fr.  Othon, 
o''t6N' ;  Ger.  Ot'to  ;  It.  Ottone,  ot-to'ni ;  Lat.  O'tho  ; 
Sp.  Otonio,  o-to'ne-o  ;  Sw.  Ot'to. 

Ottavia.    See  Octavia. 

Ottavio.    See  Octavius. 

Otto.    See  Otho. 

Ottone.    See  Otho. 

Ov'iD ;  Dutch,  Ovidius,  o-vee'de-tis ;  Fr.  Ovide, 
o'v^d';  Ger.  Ovidius,  o-vee'de-us ;  It.  OviDio,  o-vee'- 
de-o ;  Lat.  Ovid'ius. 

Pablo.    See  Paul. 
PAl.    See  Paul. 
Paolina.    See  Paulina. 
Paolo.    See  Paul. 

Paschal,  pis'kal,  ("belonging  to  Easter,"  or  "born 
at  Easter  ;"||)  Fr.  PASCAL,  pts''kiK;  It.  Pasquale,  pSs- 
kwini  ;  Lat.  Pascha'lis  ;  Sp.  Pascual,  pis-kwiK. 

Pat'rick,  ("  patrician,"  "  noble  ;")  Dutch,  Patri- 
cius,  pa-tRee'se-us ;  Fr.  Patrice,  pt'tRess';  It.  Patri- 
zio,  pi-tR^t'se-o ;  Lat.  PATRig'ius ;  Sp.  Patricio,  pS- 
tRee'//5e-o. 

Paul,  ("  little ;")  Danish,  Paul,  powl,  or  Paulus, 
pow'lus  ;  Dutch,  Paulus,  pow'lias  ;  Fr.  Paul,  pol ;  Ger. 
Paul,  powl;  Gr.  TiavKoq,  (Paulos;)  Hungarian,  Pal, 
pSl ;  It.  Paolo,  pS'o-lo  or  pow'lo ;  Lat.  Pau'lus  ;  Polish, 
Pawel,  pi'vSl ;  Port.  Paulo,  pow'lo ;  Russ.  Pa  vex, 
pi'vll ;  Sp.  Pablo,  pi'Blo  ;  Sw.  Paul,  powl. 

Paulina,  paw-li'na,  (the  feminine  of  Paul  ;)  Fr.  Pau- 
line,  po'l^n';  Ger.  Pauline,  pow-lee'neh  ;  It.  Paolina, 
pi-o-lee'ni  or  pow-lee'na ;  Lat.  Pauli'na. 

Pavel.    See  Paul. 

Pawel.    See  Paul. 

Peder.    See  Peter. 

Pedro.    See  Peter. 

X  Called  Orus  COpo?)  by  the  Greeks. 
§  See  Odin  in  the  body  of  this  work. 
II  From  Pascha,  the  "passover,"  or  "Easter." 


a,  e,  T,  o,  u,  y,  long;  i,  fe,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  1, 6,  u,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  q,  obscure;  ftr,  fSll,  ftt;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 
2338 


VOCABVLARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


Pe-nel'o-pe,  (a  "weaver"?)  Fr.  P^n^lope,  pi'ni'- 
lop';  Gr.  TirjveUTTn,  (Penelope;)  Lat.  Penel'ope,  (geni- 
tive, Penel'opes.) 

Peregrine,  pgr'e-gr!n,  ("  foreign,"  "  pilgrim  ;")  Da- 
nish, Peregrinus,  pi-reh-gRee'nus ;  Dutch,  Peregri- 
NUS,  pk-reh-gree'nus ;  It.  Peregrino,  pa-ri-gRee'no ; 
Lat.  Peregri'nus  ;  Sw.  Peregrinus,  pgr-eh-gRee'niis. 

Pe'ter,  (a  "  rock"  or  "  stone  ;")  Danish,  Peder,  pa'- 
Der  ;  Dutch,  Pieter,  pee'ter  ;  Fr.  Pierre,  pe^a^iR';  Ger. 
Peter,  pa'ter ;  Gr.  TLhpog,  ( Petros ;)  Hungarian,  P6ter, 
pa'tir;  It.  Pietro,  pe-a'tRO ;  Lat.  Pe'trus  ;  Polish, 
PiOTR,  pyot'r  ;  Port.  Pedro,  pa'dRo ;  Russ.  Piotr,  pyot'r 
or  pe-ot'r';  Sp.  Pedro,  pa'oRo ;  Sw.  Peter,  pn'ter. 

Phebe.    See  Phcebe. 

Philemon,  phi-le'mon,  ("saluting;")  Fr.  Philemon, 
fe'li'm6N';  Gr.  ^dif/iov,  (Phileindn;)  It.  Filemone, 
fe-li-mo'ni;  Lat.  Phile'mon,  (genitive,  Philemo'nis.) 

PhI-le'tus,  ("beloved;")  Gr.  ^tki]Tbq,  (Philetos;) 
It.  FiLETO,  fe-la'to ;  Lat.  Phile'tus. 

Philibert,  fil'e-bert,  or  Philebert,  ("famously 
bright"?)  Danish,  Philibert,  fiKe-b^Rt';  Fr.  Philibert, 
fe'le'baiR';  It.  Filiberto,  fe-le-b^R^to ;  Lat.  Phileber'- 

TUS. 

Phil'ip,  ("loving  horses;")  Dutch,  Philippus,  fe- 
lip'pus;  Fr.  Philippe,  fe'lfep';  Ger.  Philipp,  f iKip ; 
Gr.  ^LlmTToc,  (Philippos;)  Hungarian,  Filep,  fee'lSp  ;  It. 
FiLiPPO,  fe-l^p'po;  Lat.  Philip'pus  ;  Polish,  Filip, 
fee'lip ;  Port.  Felippe,  f4-lip'pi ;  Russ.  Philipp  or 
Filip,  fe-lfep';  Sp.  Felipe,  fi-lee'pi ;  Sw.  Filip,  fiKip. 

Philippa,  fe-lip'pa,  (the  feminine  of  Philip  ;)  Dutch, 
Philippa,  fe-lip'pa ;  Ger.  Philippine,  fe-lip-pee'neh  ; 
Gr.  '^'iknz'Ka,  (Philippa;)  It.  Filippa,  fe-l^p'p^ ;  Lat. 
Philip'pa  ;  Sp.  Felipa,  fi-lee'pi ;  Sw.  Filippina,  fil- 
ip-pee'ni. 

Phin'e-as  ;  Fr.  Phin^as,  fe'ni'ts';  It.  Fineo,  fe-na'o  ; 
Lat.  Phin'eas  ;  Sp.  Phinees,  fe-ni-5s'. 

Phcebe,  fee'be,  ("bright,"  "shining;")  Fr.  Ph^;b6, 
Gr.  *oi§77,  (Phoibe;)  It.  Febe,  fa'b^;  Lat. 
Phce'be,  (genitive,  Phce'bes.) 

PHYL'Lisor  Phil'lis,  (a  "green  bough  ;")  Gr.  ^vKkoq, 
(Phullos;)  It.  FiLiDE,  fee'le-di ;  Lat.  Phyl'lis,  (geni- 
tive, Phyl'lidis.) 

Pie.    See  Pius. 

Pierre.    See  Peter. 

Pieter.    See  Peter. 

Pietro.    See  Peter. 

Pio.    See  Pius. 

Piotr.   See  Peter. 

Pi'us,  ("  pious  ;")  Fr.  Pie,  pee  ;  Ger.  Pius,  pee'iis  ; 
It.  Pio,  pee'o ;  Lat.  Pi'us. 

Pliny,  plin'e ;  Fr.  Pline,  pl^n  ;  Ger.  Plinius,  plee'- 
ne-iis  ;  It.  Plinio,  plee'ne-o  ;  Lat.  Plin'ius. 

Polycarp,  pol'e-kSrp,  ("abounding  in  fruit;")  Fr. 
Polycarpe,  po'le'ktRp';  Gr.  HoAvycapTrof,  ( Polukarpos  ;) 
It.  Policarpo,  po-le-kaR'po  ;  Lat.  Polycar'pus. 

Pom'pey  ;  Danish,  Pompejus,  pom-pa'yus  ;  Dutch, 
POMPEJUS,  pom-pa'yiis  ;  Fr.  PoMP^E,  p6N^p^i';  It.  PoM- 
PEO,  pom-pa'o  ;  Lat.  Pompe'ius. 

Priscilla,  pris-sil'la,  ("  ancient ;")  Dutch,  Priscilla, 


pRis-sil'ia ;  Fr.  Priscille,  pRe's^K;  It.  Priscilla,  pRe- 
sh^Kia ;  Lat.  Priscil'la. 

Ptolemy,  tol'e-me,  ("  warlike"  or  "  mighty  in  war  ;") 
Dutch,  Ptolemeus,  pto-leh-ma'us ;  Fr.  Ptol^:m^:e, 
pto'lk'mk';  Ger.  Ptol"emaus,  pto-leh-ma'tis  ;  Gr.  JirolU- 
fiaXog,  (Ptolemaios ;)  It.  Tolomeo,  to-lo-ma'o;  Lat, 
Ptolem.«;'us. 

RA'chel,  (a  "  sheep"  or  "  lamb ;")  Fr.  Rachel,  rt'- 
shgK;  Ger.  Rahel,  ri'hgl,  or  Rachel,  x'kvJlX ;  Heb. 

;  It.  Rachele,  ri-ka'li ;  Lat.  Ra'chel,  (genitive, 
Rache'lis;)  Sp.  Raquel,  ri-k^K;  Sw.  Rachel,  r^'k^l. 

Radulphus.    See  Ralph. 

Rafael.   See  Raphael. 

Rafaele  or  Raffaelle.    See  Raphael. 

Rahel.   See  Rachel. 

Raimond.    See  Raymond. 

Raimundo.    See  Raymund. 

Ralph,  rilf,  ("  warrior-wolf  "  ?*)  Dutch,  Rudolf,  rii'- 
dolf ;  Fr.  Raoul,  rt'ool';  It.  Raolfo,  ri-oKfo ;  Lat. 
Radul'phus  ;  Sp.  RoDOLFo,  ro-dol'fo ;  Sw.  Rudolf, 
roo'dolf. 

Ramon.    See  Raymond. 

Randal,  rin'dal,  or  Ran'ulph,  (perhaps  the  same 
as  Ralph  ;)  Fr.  Randolphe,  rSN^olf;  Lat.  Ranul'- 
PHUS  ;  Sp.  Randolfo,  rSn-dol'fo. 

Raolfo.    See  Ralph. 

Raoul.    See  Ralph. 

Raphael,  ra'fi-el  or  rS'fl-el,  (the  "  healing  or  medi- 
cine of  God ;")  Fr.  Raphael,  rt'ft'Sl';  Ger.  Raphael, 
rS'fi-gl ;  It.  Rafaele,  ra-fS-a'li,  or  Raffaelle,  rlf-fS- 
el'li;  Lat.  Ra'phael,  (genitive,  Raphae'lis;)  Sp. 
Rafael,  ra-fS-^K. 

Raquel.   See  Rachel. 

Ray'mond,  ("  wise  protection"  ?)  Fr.  Raymond,  x\'- 
m6N';  It.  Raimondo,  rl-mon'do ;  Lat.  Raymun'dus  ; 
Sp.  Raymundo,  ri-moon'do,  or  Ramon,  ri-m6n'. 

Rebecca  or  Rebekah,  re-bek'ka ;  Fr.  Rebecca,  reh'- 
bi'kt';  It.  Rebecca,  r^-bek'k^;  Lat.  Rebec'ca;  Sp. 
Rebeca,  rk-Ba'ki. 

Reginaldus.    See  Reynold. 

Reichard.    See  Richard. 

Rein  hold.    See  Reynold. 

Reinold.    See  Reynold. 

Renaud.    See  Reynold. 

Ren6,  (not  used  in  English,)  ("born  again,"  "regen- 
erate;") Fr.  Ren6,  reh-ni';  It.  Renato,  ri-nS'to  ;  Lat. 
Rena'tus. 


*  If,  as  seems  to  be  generally  assumed,  Ralph  in  its  origin  is  the 
same  as  Rudolph  or  Rodolf,  it  probably  signifies  "red  wolf,"  (com- 
pare the  Saxon  rud  and  our  ruddy  with  the  Danish  and  Swedish 
rod,  Dutch  rood,  and  the  German  roth,  all  signifying  "red,")  having 
been  applied  in  the  first  place,  perhaps,  to  some  red-haired  warrior, 
for  it  is  common  among  all  rude  nations  to  compare  a  warrior  to  some 
animal  distinguished  for  strength,  courage,  or  fierceness.  But  Ralph 
may  not  improbably — as  its  English  spelling  and  still  more  that  of 
its  Latin  equivalent  (Radulphns)  might  seem  to  indicate — be  derived 
from  Radulf  or  Radulph,  meaning  "warrior-wolf:"  the  prefix  ra 
(cognate  with  the  English  ride  or  rode)  being  applied  to  the  better 
class  of  warriors,  who  were  usually  on  horseback :  thus,  rad-cniht,  in 
Anglo-Saxon, — literally,  a  "riding  youth," — signifies  a  "  soldier"  or 
"  warrior-knight." 


€  as  ^;  9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  j;  g,  h,  y.^ guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.  (S^^'See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

233^ 


VOCABULART  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


Ren6e,  sometimes  Anglicized  in  pronunciation  as 
rgn'ne,  (the  feminine  of  Ren6  ;)  Fr.  Ren^; e,  reh-nV ; 
It.  Renata,  rk-n^'ta  ;  Lat.  Rena'ta. 

Reuben,  ru'ben,  ("behold  a  son;")  Fr.  Ruben,  rii'- 
Mn';  Heb.  pMi^ ;  Lat.  Reube'nus. 
•  Reynold,  rSn'gld;  Danish,  Reinhold,  rin'hol^/; 
Dutch,  Reinold,  rl'nolt ;  Fr.  Renaud,  reh-no';  Ger. 
Reinhold,  rm'holt ;  Lat.  Reynal'dus  or  Reginal'dus  ; 
Sp.  Reynaldo,  ra-nil'do ;  Sw.  Reinhold,  rin'hold. 

Rhoda,  ro'da,  or  Rho'de,  (a  "  rose ;")  Gr.  Todrf, 
(Rhode;)  Lat.  Rho'da. 

Rich'ard,  ("  firm  or  strong  king  ;")  Dutch,  Richard^ 
ree'shiRt ;  Fr.  Richard,  re'shtR';  Ger.  Richard,  riK'- 
^Rt,  or  Reichard,  rl'KiRt ;  It.  Ricardo,  re-kaR'do ; 
Lat.  Richar'dus  ;  Port.  Ricardo,  re-kaR'do ;  Sp.  Ri- 
cardo, re-kaR'do. 

Ridolfo.    See  Rudolph. 

Rob'ert,  ("  bright  fame"  t)  Danish,  Robert,  ro'bgRt ; 
Dutch,  Robert,  rSb'^Rt;  Fr.  Robert,  ro^baiR';  Ger. 
Robert,  ro'bSRt ;  It.  Roberto,  ro-b^R'to ;  Lat.  Ro- 
ber'tus;  Sp.  Roberto,  ro-b§R'to;  Sw.  Robert,  rob'- 

gRt. 

Rod'er-ick,  ("rich  in  fame".?)  Fr.  Rodrigue,  ro'- 
dR^g';  Ger.  Roderich,  ro'deh-riK';  It.  Rodrigo,  ro- 
dRee'go;  Lat.  Roderi'cus  ;  Russ.  Ru'rik  ;  Sp.  Ro- 
drigo, ro-DRee'go,  Roderigo,  ro-D^-ree'go,  or  Ruy, 
roo-ee'  or  Rwee. 

RoDOLFO.    See  Rudolph. 

RoDOLPHE.    See  Rudolph. 

Rodrigo.    See  Roderick. 

Rodrigue.    See  Roderick. 

Rodriguez,  (Sp.,)  ro-DRee'gSth,  (the  "son  of  Rode- 
rick.") 

Roeland.    See  Roland. 

Roger,  roj'er,  ("  famous  spear" .?)  Dutch,  Rutger, 
rut'ger  or  rut'ner ;  Fr.  Roger,  ro'zhi' ;  It.  Rugiero, 
roo-ja'ro;  Lat.  Roge'rus;  Sp.  Rogerio,  ro-na're-o. 

Roland  or  Rowland,  ro'land,  (the  "  fame  or  glory 
of  the  land"  ?)  Danish,  Roland,  ro'ltn^/;  Dutch,  Roe- 
land,  roo'lint;  Fr.  Roland,  toOSn';  Ger.  Roland, 
ro'lint ;  It.  Orlan'do,  oR-lin'do,  or  Rolando,  ro-lin'- 
do ;  Lat.  Rolan'dus  ;  Port.  Rolando,  ro-lJn'do ;  Sp. 
Rolando,  ro-lSn'do. 

Rosa.    See  Rose. 

Rosamond,  roz'a-mond,  ("rose  of  peace;")  Dutch, 
RozAMOND,  ro'zi-m6nt';  Fr.  Rosemonde,  ro'zeh-m6Nd' 
or  roz'm6Nd';  It.  Rosmonda,  ros-mon'dS  ;  Lat.  Rosa- 
MUn'da. 

Rose,  r5z;  Danish,  Rosa,  ro'zi ;  Dutch,  Rosa,  ro'- 
fei ;  Fr.  Rose,  roz ;  Ger.  Rose,  ro'zeh  ;  It.  Rosa,  ro'sd ; 
^at.  Ro'sA ;  Sp.  Rosa,  ro'si ;  Sw.  Rosa,  roo'si,  or 
Rosina,  roo-see'ni. 

Rowland.    See  Roland. 

RozAMOND.    See  Rosamond. 

Ruben.    See  Reuben. 

Ru'dolph,  (see  note  under  Ralph  ;)  Dutch,  Rudolf, 
rii'dolf ;  Fr.  Rodolphe,  ro'dolf;  Ger.  Rudolf,  roo'- 
dolf ;  It.  Ro-dol'fo  or  Ridolfo,  re-dol'fo ;  Lat.  Ru- 
dol'phus. 

RuFiN  or  RuFiNUS.    See  Griffith. 


Ru'fus,  ("  reddish,"  "  having  red  hair ;")  Lat.  Ru'fus. 
Rugiero.    See  Roger. 

Ru'PERT,  ("bright  fame"?)  Ger.  Ruprecht,  roo*- 
pR§Kt ;  Lat.  Ruper'tus. 
RuRiK.    See  Roderick. 
RuTGE^i.    See  Roger. 
Ruth,  rooth ;  Fr.  Ruth,  riit ;  Lat.  Ruth. 
Ruy.    See  Roderick. 

Sabina,  sa-bl'na;  Dutch,  Sabine,  sS-bee'neh ;  Fr. 
Sabine,  st'b^n';  It.  Sabina,  si-bee'ni ;  Lat.  Sabi'na  ; 
Sp.  Sabina,  sS-Bee^ni ;  Sw.  Sabina,  si-bee'nS. 

Salamon.    See  Solomon. 

Salomao.    See  Solomon. 

Salomon.    See  Solomon. 

Samson,  sim'spn  ;  Danish,  Samson,  sini'son  ;  Dutch, 
Samson,  sim'son  ;  Fr.  Samson,  s6n's6n';  Heb.  pt^Dty ; 
Lat.  Sam'son,  (genitive,  Samso'nis  ;)  Port.  Sansao, 
s^n-sowN';  Sp.  Sanson,  san-s6n';  Sw.  Sim'son. 

Sam'u-el,  ("  heard  by  God ;")  Danish,  Samuel,  si'- 
moo-^l ;  Dutch,  Samuel,  si'mii-^l,  (almost  si'moo-Sl ;) 
Fr.  Samuel,  st'mu'gK;  Heb.  SxiDiy ;  Hungarian,  SAm- 
UEL,  shi'moo-§l ;  It.  Samuele,  sS-moo-i'li ;  Lat.  Sam'- 
UEL,  (genitive,  Samue'lis;)  Sp.  Samuel,  si-moo-gK. 

Sanson  or  Sansao.    See  Samson. 

Sarah  or  Sara,  sa'ra,  (a  "  princess ;")  Dutch,  Sara, 
sa'rl ;  Fr.  Sara,  sfrt';  Ger.  Sara,  si'ri ;  Heb.  Hliy ; 
It.  Sara,  si'ri ;  Lat.  Sa'ra  ;  Port.  Sara,  si'rS ;  Sp. 
Sara,  s^'ri ;  Sw.  Sarah,  s^'rl 

Saul,  ("desired;")  Fr.  Saul,  sfuK;  Heb.  h\m 
Lat.  Sau'lus. 

SczEPAN.    See  Stephen. 

Sebastian,  se-b^st'yan,  (perhaps  "inclined  to 
reverence  ;  ")  Dutch,  Sebastiaan,  si-bls'te-ln  ;  Fr. 
S^;bastien,  sS,'bSs't^N';  It.  Sebastiano,  si-bis-te- 
i'no ;  Lat.  Sebastia'nus  ;  Port.  Sebastiao,  si-bSs-te- 
own';  Russ.  Sevastian,  si-vis-te-in';  Sp.  Sebastian, 
sk-B5s-te-in';  Sw.  Sebastian,  sa-bis'te-in. 

Sibyl,  sib'il ;  Dutch,  Sibylla,  se-bil'li;  Fr.  Sibylle, 
se'bM';  Gr.  l.L^vk'ka,  (Sibulla;)  Lat.  Sibyl'la. 

Sigismund,  sij'is-mund,  ("victorious  protection,"  or 
"  he  who  affords  protection  by  victory  ;")  Dutch,  SiGis- 
MUNDUS,  se-gis-mun'dus  or  se-His-mun'dus ;  Fr.  Sigis- 
mond,  se''zh^ss''m6N';  Ger.  Sigismund,  see'gis-moont', 
or  Sigmund,  seeG'moont ;  Lat.  Sigismun'dus  ;  Sp. 
Sigismundo,  se-H^s-moonMo ;  Sw.  Sigismund,  sig'is- 
moond. 

Sil-va'nus,  ("belonging  to  the  woods,"  or  "inhabit- 
ing the  woods ;")  Dutch,  Silvanus,  sil-vi'nus ;  Fr. 
Sylvain  or  SiLVAiN,  s^rviN';  It.  Silvano,  sfel-v^'no ; 
Lat.  Silva'nus  ;  Sp.  Silvano,  s^l-vi'no. 

Silvester  or  Sylvester,  sil-ves'ter,  ("belonging  to 
the  woods  ;")  Fr.  Silvestre,  s^Kv^sIr';  It.  Silvestro, 
s^l-vSs'tRO ;  Lat.  Silves'ter,  (genitive,  Silves'tris  ;) 
Sp.  Silvestre,  sfel-vSs'tRl 

Silvia.    See  Sylvia. 

Sim'e-on,  ("  hearing  with  acceptance;")  Fr.  Simeon, 
se'mi'dN';  Ger.  Simeon,  see'mk-on  ;  Heb.  jU'Oty ;  It. 
Simeone,  se-mk-o'ni;  Lat.  Sim'eon,  (genitive,  Simeo'- 
Nis ;)  Port.  SiMEAO,  se-mi-6wN';  Sp.  Simeon,  se-niii-6n'. 


a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  ^,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  y,  short;  ?i,  ?,  j,  q,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  n6t;  good;  moon; 
2340 


FOCABULART  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES, 


Simon,  si'mpn,  (originally  the  same  as  Simeon  ;) 
Dutch,  Simon,  see'mon ;  Fr.  Simon,  se'm6N' ;  Ger. 
Simon,  see'mon ;  Hungarian,  Simon,  shee'mon ;  It. 
SiMONE,  se-mo'ni ;  Lat,  Si'mon,  (genitive,  Simo'nis  ;) 
Sp.  Simon,  se-m6n';  Svv.  Simon,  see'mon. 

Simson.    See  Samson. 

Sofia.    See  Sophia. 

Sol'o-mon,  (''peaceable;")  Arabic,  vSoliman,  so-le- 
mtn',  or  Suleyman,  soo'la-min';  Dutch,  Salomo,  sI'- 
lo-mo  ;  Fr.  Salomon,  si'lo'moN';  Ger.  Salomon,  si'lo- 
mon  ;  Gr.  'Loko^iCiv ,( Solomon  ;)  Heb.  HD^iy  ;  Hungarian, 
Salamon,  shoKo-mon  ;  It.  Salomone,  sS-lo-mo'ni ;  Lat. 
Sai/omon,  (genitive,  Salomo'nis;)  Polish,  Salomon, 
sS-lo'mon ;  Port.  Salomao,  si-lo-mowN';  Sp.  Salo- 
mon, si-lo-m6n'. 

Sophia,  so-f  i'a,  ("  wisdom ;")  Danish,  Sophie,  so- 
fee'eh ;  Dutch,  Sophie,  so-fee'eh ;  Fr.  Sophie,  so'fe'; 
Ger.  Sophie,  so-fee'eh  ;  Gr.  2o0ta,  ( Sophia  ;)  It.  Sofia, 
so-fee'i ;  Lat.  So'phia  ;  Russ.  Sofia,  so-fee'd  or  so'- 
fe-i  ;  Sp.  Sofia,  so-fee'i ;  Sw.  Sofia,  so-fee'S. 

SoPHRONiA,  so-fro'ne-i,  ("of  a  sound  mind;")  Fr. 
SoPHRONiE,  so'fRo'ne';  Lat.  Sophro'nia. 

SosTHENES,  s>os' tht-nhz,  ("of  sound  strength;")  Fr. 
Sosthene,  sos''tin';  Gr.  I,uad£V7jg,  ( Sosthenes ;)  Lat. 
Sos'thenes. 

Stephen,  stee'ven,  (a  "  crown"  or  "  garland  ;")  Da- 
nish, Stephan,  st^f'in ;  Dutch,  Steven,  sta'ven,  or 
Stephanus,  sta'fi-nus ;  Fr.  £tienne,  a'te'^n';  Ger. 
Stephan,  stSf'in ;  Gr.  IiTe(j)auog,( Stephanos : )  Hungarian, 
IstvAn,  ^sht'vln  ;  Lat.  Steph'anus  ;  Polish,  Sczepan, 
s'cha'pdn ;  Port.  Estevao,  §s-ti-v6wN';  Russ.  Stefan, 
sti-pin',  or  Stefan,  sti-fin';  Sp.  Est^ban,  gs-ta'Bin, 
(almost  gs-ta'vin  ;)  Sw.  Stefan,  stef  in. 

SuleymAn.    See  Solomon. 

Susan,  soo'zan,  or  Susanna,  soo-zan'na,  (a  "lily;") 
Danish,  Susanna,  soo-sin'ni;  Dutch,  Susanna,  sii- 
fein'ni;  Fr.  Susanne,  sii'ztn';  Ger.  Susanne,  soo-zin'- 
neh;  It.  Susanna,  soo-sin'nl;  Lat.  Susan'na;  Sp. 
SuSANA,  soo-si'ni ;  Sw.  Susanna,  soo-sin'ni. 

Sylvain.    See  Silvanus. 

Sylvanus.    See  Silvanus. 

Sylvester.    See  Silvester. 

Sylvia  or  Silvia,  siKve-a,"  ("of  the  woods,"  or 
"  delighting  in  the  woods ;")  Fr.  Silvie,  s^l've';  It. 
Silvia,  s^Kve-i ;  Sp.  Silvia,  s^l've-i. 

Tabitha,   tab'e-tha,  (often  incorrectly  pronounced 
ta-bl'tha,)  (a  "roe;")  Lat.  Tab'itha. 
Taddeo  or  Tadeo.    See  Thaddeus. 
TamAs.    See  Thomas. 
Teobaldo.    See  Theobald. 
Teodorico.    See  Theodoric. 
Teodoro.    See  Theodore. 
Teodosio.    See  Theodosius. 
Teofilo.    See  Theophilus. 
Teresa.    See  Theresa. 

Thaddeus,  thad'de-us  or  thad-dee'us,  ("praise"?) 
It.  Taddeo,  tJd-da'o ;  Lat.  Thadde'us;  Sp.  Tadeo, 
ti-Da'o. 

The'o-bAld,  ("  bold  for  the  people" .?)  Danish,  Theo- 


bald, ta'o-btii/;  Dutch,  Tikhout,  lee'bowt;  Fr.  Thi- 
baut,  te'bo';  Ger.  Theobald,  taVbiiit';  It.  Teobaldo, 
tk-o-biKdo  ;  Lat.  Theobal'dus  ;  Sp.  Teobaldo,  ti-o- 
BiKdo  ;  Sw,  Theobald,  tii'o-bild'. 

The-od'er-ick  or  The-od'o-ric  ;  Dutch,  Dieder- 
ICK,  dee'der-ik,  commonly  contracted  to  Dirk  or  Dirck, 
d^Rk  ;  Fr.  Th^odoric,  tk'o'do'r^k';  Ger.  Theodorich, 
ti-od'o-riK',  or  Dietrich,  dee'tRiK ;  It.  Teodorico,  ti- 
o-do-ree'ko  ;  Lat.  Theodori'cus  ;  Sp.  Teodorico,  ti- 
o-Do're-ko. 

Theodore,  //^ee'o-d5r,  (the  "gift  of  God;")  Danish, 
Theodor,  ta'o-doR  ;  Dutch,  Theodorus,  ta-o-do'riis  ; 
Fr.  Th^:odore,  ta'o'doR';  Gr.  Geodwfjof,  ( Theoddros ;) 
It.  Teodoro,  ti-o-do'ro  ;  Lat.  Theodo'rus  ;  Port.  Theo- 
DORO,  ti-o-do'ro ;  Russ.  Feodor,  fi-o-doR';  Sp.  Tko- 
dorio,  ti-o-Do're-o ;  Sw.  Theodor,  tn'o-doR. 

Theodosia,  //^e-o-do'she-a,  (the  feminine  of  Theo- 
dosius ;)  Fr.  Th^;odosie,  ti'oMo'ze';  It.  Teodosia,  ti- 
o-do'se-i ;  Lat.  Theodo'sia. 

Theodosius,  //ze-o-do'she-us,  ("  given  by  God  ;")  Fr. 
Th^odose,  ti'oMoz';  It.  Teodosio,  ta-o-do'se-o ;  Lat. 
Theodo'sius  ;  Sp.  Teodosio,  tk-o-Do'se-o. 

Theophilus,  /y^e-of'e-lus,  (a  "  lover  of  God ;")  Da- 
nish, Gottlieb,  got'leep ;  Dutch,  Theophilus,  ti-o'- 
fe-liis  ;  Fr.  Th^:ophile,  tiVf^K;  Ger.  Gottlieb,  got'/- 
leep  ;  Gr.  Geo^fAof,  (  Theophilos  :)  It.  Teofilo,  ti-of'e-Io ; 
Lat.  Theoph'ilus  ;  Port.  Theophilo,  ti-o'fe-lo ;  Sp. 
Teofilo,  ti-o'fe-lo. 

Theresa,  te-ree'sa ;  Dutch,  Theresia,  ti-ra'se-i ; 
Fr.  Th^rese,  ti'riz';  Ger.  Therese,  ti-ra'zeh ;  It. 
Teresa,  ti-ra'si  ;  Lat.  There'sa  ;  Sp.  Teresa,  ti-ra'si  ; 
Sw.  Theresa,  ti-rii'si. 

Thibacjt.    See  Theobald. 

Thomas,  tom'ass  or  tom'us,  (a  "  twin  ;")  Danish, 
Thomas,  tom'ts  ;  Dutch,  Thomas,  to'mis ;  Fr.  Tho- 
mas, to'mi' ;  Ger.  Thomas,  to'mis  ;  Gr.  Qufiug,  (  Tho- 
mas ;)  Hungarian,  TamAs,  tom'Ish ;  It.  Tommaso, 
tom-mi'so  ;  Lat.  Tho'mas  ;  Polish,  Tomasz,  to'mish  ; 
Port.  Thomas,  to-mis',  or  Thomar,  to-m^R';  Sp. 
Tomas,  to-mis';  Sw.  Thomas,  tom'is. 

Tiberius,  ti-bee're-us ;  Fr.  Tibere,  te'baiR';  It.  Ti- 
berio,  te-ba're-o  ;  Lat.  Tibe'rius. 
Tiebout.    See  Theobald. 

Timothy,  ixm'o-tht,  ("fearing  God;")  Danish, 
TiMOTHEUS,  te-mo '  ti-iis ;  Dutch,  Timotheus,  te- 
mo't^-iis ;  Fr.  Timoth6e,  te'mo'ti';  Ger.  Timotheus, 
te-mo'tk-Tis  ;  Gr.  TLnodeog,  ( Timotheos ;)  It.  TiMOTEO, 
te-mo-ta'o ;  Lat.  Timo'theus  ;  Port.  Timotheo,  te- 
mo-ta'o ;  Sp.  TiMOTEO,  te-mo-ta'o ;  Sw.  Timotheus, 
te-mo'te-iis. 

Titus,  tl'tus  ;  Fr.  Tite,  ihi ;  Ger.  Titus,  tee'tvis  ;  It. 
Tito,  tee'to ;  Lat.  Ti'tus  ;  Sp.  Tito,  tee'to. 

Tobias,  to-bi'ass,  or  Toby,  to'be,  (the  "goodness  of 
the  Lord  ;")  Danish,  Tobias,  to-bee'ts  ;  Dutch,  Tobias, 
to-bee'is  ;  Fr.  Tobie,  to'be';  Ger.  ToBr.\s,  to-bee'Ss  ; 
It.  ToBiA,  to-bee'i;  Lat.  Tobi'as;  Sp.  Tobias,  to« 
bee'is. 

Tolomeo.    See  Ptolemy. 
Tomas.    See  Thomas. 
Tomasz.    See  Thomas. 
Tommaso.    See  Thomas. 


€  as     9  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as/;  g,  H,  k,  guttural;  N,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  #h  as  in  this.    (Jl^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

2341 


VOCABVLART  OF  CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 


Tristram,  tris'tram,  (**  sorrowful ;")  Lat.  Tristra'- 
Mus  ;  Port.  Tristao,  tR^S-tOWN'. 

Ugo.    See  Hugh. 
Uliviere.    See  Oliver. 

Ulysses,  yoo-lis's^z ;  Fr.  Ulysse,  ii'l^ss';  Gr.  'Odva- 
aevg,  (Odusseus ;)  It.  Ulisse,  oo-lfes'si;  Lat.  Ulys'ses 
^  or  Ulyx'es,  (genitive,  Ulys'sis.) 

Urban,  ur'ban,  ("  courteous  ;")  Danish,  Urban,  oor'- 
otn  ;  Dutch,  Urbanus,  uR-M'nus,  or  Urbaan,  uR'bIn  ; 
Fr.  Urbain,  ur'Mn';  Ger.  Urban,  doR'bin ;  It.  Ur- 
bano,  ooR-ba'no ;  Lat.  Urba'nus;  Sp.  Urbano,  oor- 
b^l'no  ;  Sw.  Urban,  ooR'bSn. 

Uriah,  yoo-ri'a,  (the  "fire  of  the  Lord;")  Fr.  Urie, 
ii're';  Ger.  Urias,  oo-ree'is ;  It.  Uria,  oo-ree'S ;  Lat. 
Uri'as. 

Ursula,  ur'su-la,  (a  "female  bear ;")  Dutch,  Ursula, 
uR'sii-ld;  Fr.  Ursule,  iiR^siiK;  Ger.  Ursula,  oor'- 
soo-ii;  It.  Ursula,  oor'soo-IS;  Lat.  Ur'sula;  Sp. 
Ursula,  ooR'soo-li;  Sw.  Ursula,  oor'soo-II. 

UzziAH,  uz-zi'a,  (the  "  strength  of  the  Lord  ;")  Heb. 
nn;r ;  Lat.  Uzzi'as. 

Valentine,  val'en-tin,  ("strong"  or  "healthy;") 
Danish,  Valentin,  fl'len-teen';  Dutch,  Valentijn, 
vi'len-tin';  Fr.  Valentin,  vt'lSN'tiN';  Ger.  Valentin, 
fi'len-teen'  or  vS'len-teen';  It.  Valentino,  vi-l§n-tee'- 
no ;  Lat.  Valenti'nus  ;  Port.  Valentim,  vi-lgn-t^N'; 
Sp.  Valentin,  v^-lgn-t^n';  Sw.  Valentin,  vS'len-teen'. 

VALfeRE.    See  Valerius. 

Valeria,  va-lee're-a,  (the  feminine  of  Valerius  ;) 
Fr.  Valerie,  vt'li're';  It.  Valeria,  vi-la're-i;  Lat. 
Vale'ria. 

Valerian,  va-lee're-an  ;  Dutch,  Valerianus,  v§,-]i- 
re-S'niis ;  Fr.  Val^rien,  vt'lk're4.N';  It.  Valeriano, 
vi-li-re-S'no ;  Lat.  Valeria'nus. 

Valerie.    See  Valeria. 

Valerius,  va-lee're-us ;  Fr.  VALi:RE,  vt'laiR';  It. 
Valerio,  v^-la're-o ;  Lat.  Vale'rius. 
Varfolomel    See  Bartholomew. 
Vasili  or  Vasilil    See  Basil. 
Veit.    See  Guy. 

Veronica,  vSr-o-ni'ka ;  Fr.  ViRONiQUE,  vi'ro'n^k'; 
It.  Veronica,  vk-ro-nee'kl 
Vicente.    See  Vincent. 

Victoria,  vik-to're-a,  ("victory;")  Fr.  Victoire, 
v^k'tw^R';  It.  Vittoria,  v^t-to're-S ;  Lat.  Victo'ria  ; 
Sp.  Vitoria,  ve-to're-1 

Vin'cent,  (an  "  overcomer ;")  Dutch,  Vincentius, 
v!n-s^n'se-us ;  Fr.  Vincent,  v^n^sSn';  It.  Vincente, 
v6n-chgn'ti;  Lat.  Vincen'tius;  Port.  Vicente,  ve- 
s?n'ti;  Sp.  Vicente,  ve-Men'ti,  or  Vincente,  vfen- 
Mgn'tJL 


Virginia,  vir-jin'e-a ;  Dutch,  Virginie,  viR-Hee'« 
ne-eh ;  Fr.  Virginie,  v^R'zhfe'ne';  Ger.  Virginia,  f^R- 
gee'ne-i;  It.  Virginia,  v^r-jee'ne-^;  Lat.  Virgin'ia. 

Vittoria  or  Vitoria.    See  Victoria. 

Vivian,  viv'e-an,  ("living;")  Fr.  Vivien,  veV^N'; 
Lat.  Vivia'nus. 

Walter,  waul'ter,  (a  "  wood-master ;")  Dutch,  Wou- 
ter,  wow'ter ;  Fr.  Gautier,  go'te-i';  Ger.  Walter, 
MKter;  It.  Gualterio,  gwil-ta're-o ;  Lat,  Gualte'- 
RUS;  Port.  Gualter,  gwll-taiR';  Sp.  Gualterio, 
gwil-ta're-o ;  Sw.  Walter,  vil'ter. 

WiLHELM.    See  William. 

Wilhelmine,  wiKhgl-meen',  (the  feminine  of  Wil- 
liam ;)  Ger.  Wilhelmine,  ^il-hgl-mee'neh ;  It.  Gu- 
glielma,  gool-y§l'mL 

William,  wil'yam ;  Danish,  Wilhelm,  viKhglm ; 
Dutch,  Willem,  wil'lem;  Fr.  Guillaume,  ge'yom'; 
Ger.  Wilhelm,  <^!l'hglm  ;  It.  Guglielmo,  gool-ygl'mo ; 
Lat.  Guliel'mus,  Wilhel'mus,  or  Williel'mus  ;  Sp. 
Guillermo,  ge-y^R'mo ;  Sw.  Wilhelm,  vil'hglm. 

Winifred,  win'e-fred,  or  Win'ifrid,  ("winning 
peace  ;")  Dutch,  Winfried,  win'fReet ;  Fr.  Winifred, 
ve'ne'fRgd';  Lat.  Winfre'da  ;  Sw.  Winfrid,  vln'fRid. 

Wouter.    See  Walter. 

Yakof.    See  James. 
Yekaterina.    See  Catherine. 

Zabulon.    See  Zebulon. 
Zacarias.    See  Zachariah. 
Zaccaria.    See  Zachariah. 

Zaccheus, zak-kee'us,  ("pure,"  "just;")  Fr. Zach^E, 
zt'shi';  It.  Zacheo,  dzi-ka'o ;  Lat.  Zacche'us. 

Zachariah,  zak-a-ri'a,  ("  remembering  the  Lord ;") 
Danish,  Zacharias,  zS-kl-ree'Ss  ;  Dutch,  Zacharias, 
za-Ka-ree'is  ;  Fr.  Zacharie,  zt'kt're';  Ger.  Zacharias, 
-ree'Ss ;  Heb.  n^^DT ;  It.  Zaccaria,  dz3.k-kS-ree'^  j 
Lat.  Zachari'as;  Sp.  Zacarias,  ///i-ka-ree'is ;  Sw. 
Zacharias,  z^-ka-ree'Ss. 

Zadok,  za'dok,  ("righteous;")  Fr.  Zadoc,  zt'dok', 
Heb.  pn2f ;  Lat.  Zado'cus. 

Zeb'u-lon  or  Zeb'u-lun  ;  Fr.  Zabulon,  zt'bu'16N'; 
Heb.  jlS^r  or  j^UI;  Lat.  Zab'ulon,  (genitive,  Zabu- 
lo'nis.) 

Zedekiah,  zed-e-kT'a,  (the  "justice  of  the  Lord;") 
Heb.  n^ptV  or  in^pl^. 

Ze'no;  Fr.  Zenon,  z^^u^n';  Gr.  Z^rwv,  (Zenon  ;)  It. 
Zenone,  dzi-no'nL 

Zenobia,  ze-no'be-i;  Fr.  Z^nobie,  zi'no'be';  Gr. 
Zrjvo^La,  (Zenobia;)  It.  Zenobia,  dzi-no'be-S ;  Lat.  Ze- 
no'bia. 


a, e, T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  \    d,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e, 1, 6, ii,  y,  short;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  fill,  fit;  mSt;  nftt;  good;  moon; 
2342 


DISPUTED  OR  DOUBTFUL  PRONUNCIATIONS. 


Preliminary  Remarks. 

Language  may  be  said  to  be  a  mixed  product  of  cer- 
tain accidental  elements  and  the  generalizing  faculty  of 
the  human  mind.  Each  nation,  from  some  peculiarity, 
as  it  would  seem,  in  its  original  or  acquired  character, 
tends  to  develop  its  language  in  a  particular  manner, 
and  while  this  tendency  operates  without  the  interfer- 
ence of  foreign  influence,  a  language  will  generally  be 
found  to  grow  more  and  more  regular  so  long  as  the 
nation  speaking  it  exists.  But  if  foreign  words,  or  new 
habits  of  thought,  be  introduced  by  the  prevalence  of 
some  new  philosophical  or  religious  system,  irregularity 
in  language,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  is  the  inevitable 
result.  Accordingly,  we  occasionally  see  even  among 
the  Germans  (who,  of  all  the  nations  of  Europe,  appear 
to  have  been  most  successful  in  preserving  their  lary- 
guage  pure  from  the  admixture  of  foreign  elements) 
such  irregularities  as  the  following,  ''Das  Leiden  Chrisfi,"" 
("  the  suffering  of  Christ,")  with  a  Latin  genitive,  instead 
of  the  more  regular  form,  ''Das  Leiden  des  Christies.'''' 

But  the  most  common,  as  well  as  most  powerful, 
cause  of  irregularity  in  language,  is  military  conquest 
and  occupation,  as  in  this  case  the  conquerors  invariably 
introduce  new  words  and  phrases,  which  often  form  a 
most  incongruous  mixture  with  the  native  dialects.  If 
the  conquest  be  religious  as  well  as  military,  the  effect  is 
still  more  striking.  This  was  remarkably  exemplified  in 
the  conquest  of  Persia*  and  Hindostan  by  the  followers 
of  Mohammed.  The  ail-but  unparalleled  irregularity  of 
the  English  language  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  succes- 
sive conquests  of  Britain  (originally  inhabited  by  Celtsf) 
by  the  Romans,  the  Saxons,  the  Danes,  and  the  Nor- 
mans, the  conquest  in  each  instance  being  not  a  mere 
overrunning  of  the  country,  but  followed  by  a  permanent 
military  occupation. 

To  the  same  cause,  though  operating  in  a  less  degree, 
must  likewise  be  ascribed  the  irregularity  of  the  French 
tongue;  though  other  influences  have  also  contributed 
to  the  same  result.  The  central  situation  of  France,  and 
the  various  attractions  which  the  country  and  people 
present  to  strangers,  have  induced  multitudes  of  almost 
every  nation  to  make  it  their  residence ;  so  that  proba- 
bly no  European  country  in  recent  times  has  had  so 
mixed  and  multifarious  a  population.  To  this  cause, 
more  than  to  any  other,  must  be  attributed  the  exceeding 
irregularity  which  prevails  in  the  pronunciation  of  French 
proper  names. 


*  See,  in  connection  with  this  subject,  our  remarks  on  the  Persian 
language,  with  accompanying  note,  in  the  Introduction,  p.  19. 

t  At  least,  the  Celts  were  the  first  inhabitants  of  the  island  known 
to  history. 


The  comparative  regularity  of  the  Italian  language  is 
to  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  though  Italy  has 
often  been  overrun  by  foreign  armies  it  has  seldom 
been  subjected  to  permanent  military  occupation.J  And 
in  the  comparatively  few  instances  in  which  this  has 
occurred,  the  great  and  acknowledged  superiority  of  the 
Italians  in  literature  and  the  arts  has  led  the  conquerors 
rather  to  adopt  the  customs  and  language  of  the  con- 
quered than  attempt  to  introduce  their  own.  In  the 
sound  of  the  Italian  letters,  whether  simple  or  in  com- 
bination, there  is  scarcely  any  difficulty,  when  the  rules 
of  pronunciation  are  once  known.  The  only  irregu- 
larities that  occur  in  the  language  may  be  said  to  be 
limited  to  diversity  of  spelling  and  variation  of  accent  ; 
so  that,  if  the  orthography  of  the  word  or  name  and 
the  proper  accentuation  are  ascertained,  one  cannot 
easily  err  in  the  pronunciation. 

In  Spain  we  find  a  language  of  the  most  heterogeneous 
elements,  because  in  early  times  it  was  often  overrun 
and  some  portions  permanently  occupied  by  nations  of 
the  most  diverse  and  even  opposite  characters, — Car- 
thaginians, Romans,  Goths,  Arabs,  etc. ;  but,  having 
been  for  nearly  six  hundred  years  unsubjected,  except 
for  a  short  time  only,  to  any  foreign  power,  it  has  so 
assimilated  its  originally  heterogeneous  and  incongruous 
elements,  and  been  so  successful  (if  we  may  use  the 
expression)  in  bringing  light  and  order  out  of  the  chaos  ' 
of  its  rude  and  multifarious  dialects,  that  it  may  now 
justly  boast  of  being,  on  the  whole,  one  of  the  most 
regular  as  well  as  one  of  the  finest  among  all  the  lan- 
guages of  Europe.  As  regards  pronunciation,  the  most 
striking  irregularities  in  the  Spanish  tongue  will  be 
found  in  words  or  names  of  Moorish  origin,  such  as 
Alcacer,  (Arabic,  al-Kasr,  "  the  castle"  or  "  palace,") 
Alcala,  {al-qild,  "  the  fort,)  Almodovar,  (al-Modhafer, 
"  the  victorious,")  and  so  on. 

Below  will  be  given  some  of  the  most  remarkable 
discrepancies  in  the  pronunciation  and  spelling  of  the 
principal  European  languages. 

I. 

English. 

Notwithstanding  the  extreme  irregularity  of  our  lan- 
guage, we  find  comparatively  few  instances  of  discrep- 
ancy in  the  pronunciation  of  celebrated  names,  whether 
these  be  of  English  origin  or  the  Anglicized  forms  of 
foreign  names. 


X  It  should  be  home  distinctly  in  mind  that  when  this  phrase  is 
used  it  always  has  reference  to  military  occupation  by  the  troops  of 
a  nation  essentially  differing  in  language  from  the  conquered  people. 


€  as  k;  9  as  j;  g  hard;  g  as /;  G,  H,  K,guttural;  n,  nasal;  r,  trilled;  s  as  z;  th  as  in  this.    (S^=°See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

2343 


DISPUTED  OR  DOUBTFUL  PRONUNCIATIONS. 


The  following  are  among  the  most  important : 

Augustine,  aw'gus-tin  or  aw-gus'tin.* 
Bellarmin,  bel'iar-min  or  bel-lar'^min.t 
Cowper,  kow'per  or  koo'per.l 
Derby,  der'be  or  dar'be.§ 
Gifford,  gif'ford  or  jif'ford.|| 
Raphael,  ra'fi-gl  or  x¥{^-B. 

Variations  in  spelling  are  still  more  rare. 

II. 

Noted  French  Names  of  Doubtful  Spelling.  1[ 

Angeli,  Angeli. 

Cecille,  Cecille, 

Chateaubriand,  Chateaubriand. 

Fenelon,  Fenelon. 

Niceron,  Niceron. 

Petion,  Petion. 

Remusat,  Remusat. 
It  might  be  supposed  that  diversities  in  spelling  like 
the  above  would  necessarily  be  followed  by  diversity  of 
pronunciation.  But  this  is  not  always  the  case.  For 
example,  Vice- Admiral  Cecille  informs  us  that  although 
he  never  writes  the  first  syllable  of  his  name  with  an 
accent,  it  is  always  pronounced  as  if  it  had  an  accent. 
Petion,  the  famous  mayor  of  Paris  in  the  early  part  of 
t^e  French  Revolution,  always  omitted  the  accent  on  the 
e  in  his  name,  which  was  nevertheless  always  pronounced 
Petion.  But  though  the  unaccented  letter  may  in  many 
cases  still  be  pronounced  as  if  it  had  the  accent,  the 
omission  can  scarcely  fail,  sooner  or  later,  to  produce  a 
permanent  change  in  the  pronunciation  itself. 

Noted  French  Names  of  Doubtful  or  Disputed 
Pronunciation. 

Barras,  bt'rts'  or  bt'rS'. 
Biot,  be'o'  or  be'ot'.** 

*  In  favour  of  the  first  we  have  not  only  the  analogy  of  other 
languages,  cognate  with  ours,  e.g.  the  German  Augustin'  or 
Au'gustin,  and  the  Dutch  Au'gustijn,  but  also  the  authority  of  some 
of  our  best  poets,  including  Scott  and  Longfellow.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  best  modem  usage,  at  least  in 
this  country,  is  in  favour  of  Augus'tine. 

t  The  first  pronunciation  of  this  name  appears  to  have  been  for- 
merly very  general  among  the  best  speakers ;  but  modern  usage  seems 
to  have  decided  for  the  second. 

X  The  first  pronunciation  is  pure  Saxon  ;  the  other  (a  more  aris- 
tocratic pronunciation)  is  intended  to  give  the  Norman  sound  of  014, 
(or  ow,)  u  and  w  being  formerly  often  interchanged.  (See  note  to 
Gifford.) 

§  The  chief  reason  for  adopting  the  second  pronunciation  of  this 
name,  so  contrary  to  the  general  usage  of  our  language,  would  seem 
to  be  the  consideration  that  an  antiquated  pronunciation  is  appro- 
priate to  the  name  of  a  very  ancient  family. 

H  Properly  speaking,  these  may  be  regarded  as  two  different 
names :  the  one  aristocratic,  taking  the  soft  sound  of  g  from  the 
Norman  French ;  the  other  plebeian,  adopting  the  common  Saxon 
pronunciation  of  that  letter. 

^  The  French  language  at  the  present  time  would  appear  to  be 
m  a  transition  state  in  regard  to  placing  the  accent,  which  is  now 
omitted  from  many  names  on  which  it  was  formerly  invariably 
placed.  The  omission  was  probably  due  in  the  first  place  to  haste  or 
carelessness ;  but  what  was  originally  an  error  resulting  from  sheer 
negligence,  if  committed  by  some  eminent  author  in  regard  to  his 
own  name,  gradually  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  preferable  mode  of 
writing  such  name. 

**  We  have  been  assured,  on  respectable  authority,  that  in  the 
name  of  the  celebrated  Bossuet  the  final  t  was  pronounced  in  the 
early  part  of  the  last  century. 


Chateaubriand  or  Chateaubriand,  shS'to^bRe'SN' 
or  sht'to^bRe'SN'. 

Dumas,  dii^mi'  or  dli'mts'. 

Genlis,  zh6N'l6ss'  or  zhSN'le'. 

Guise,  gw^z  (gii-^z')  or  g^z. 

Guizot,tt  gwe'zo'  (gii-e'zo')  or  ge'zo'. 

Laennec,  It'n^k'Jt  or  li'ngk'. 

Sieyes,  se'a^y^ss'  or  se'^ss'. 
This  list  might  be  much  extended,  including  a  multi- 
tude of  names  in  which  the  pronunciation  of  the  final 
consonant  is  undetermined,  as  Audoul,  b'dooV  or  oMoo', 
Bastoul,  bts'tooK  or  bts'too',  Destutt,  variously  pro- 
nounced dk^tiit',  di'tii',  and  d^s'tiit',  etc.  etc.,  and  many 
others,  such  as  Remilly,  Silly,  Villers,  Villette,  Wailly, 
Willot,  etc.,  in  which  it  is  somewhat  uncertain  whether 
the  //  should  or  should  not  be  made  liquid.  To  which 
maybe  added  almost  every  name  of  recent  introduction 
from  foreign  countries,  as  Bianchi,  Brown-Sequard, 
Weiss,  Wilhem,  Zurlauben,  etc.  In  regard  to  such 
names  many  French  speakers  will  seek  to  approximate 
the  foreign  pronunciation,  while  others  will  try  to  make 
them  conform  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  orthoepical 
principles  of  their  own  language.  The  best  usage  ap- 
pears to  make  a  marked  difference  in  the  pronunciation 
of  names  of  foreign  and  those  of  French  origin.  (See 
Section  V.,  30,  Obs.  2,  in  the  Introduction.) 

III. 

German. 

There  are  among  the  educated  classes  of  Germany 
no  diversities  in  German  pronunciation  of  any  great 
importance.  It  may,  however,  be  observed  that  the 
names  of  families  of  French  extraction  are  usually  pro- 
nounced according  to  the  principles  of  the  French  lan- 
guage. 

IV. 

Italian  Names  of  Doubtful  or  Disputed 
Pronunciation. 
In  tne  pronunciation  of  Italian  names,  almost  the 
only  discrepancy  of  any  importance,  as  already  inti- 
mated, relates  to  the  accentuation.    But  doubtful  names 
of  the  last-named  class  are  pretty  numerous. 

Alcamo,  ^KkS-mo  or  il-ki'mo. 

Argoli,  aR-go'lee  or  aR'go-lee. 

Bagnolo,  bSn'yo-lo  or  bin-yo'lo. 

Baila,  bina  or  ba-ee'll 

Benoli,  bi-no'lee  or  ba'no-lee. 

Bertola,  bSR'to-ia  or  b^R-to'lS. 

Caffaro,  klffi-ro  or  kSf-fl'ro. 

Calici,  ki'le-chee  or  ki-lee'chee. 

Campolo,  kim'po-lo  or  kim-po'lo. 

Caracciolo,  ki-rSt-cho'lo  or  kS-rit'cho-lo. 

Cerasola,  chk-ri-so'li  or  chk-ri'so-ll 

Clarici,  kli-ree'chee  or  khVre-chee. 

Guiccioli,  gw^t-cho'lee  or  gw^t'cho-lee.§§ 


tt  See  the  pronunciation  of  this  name  in  the  body  of  the  work. 

%t  This  pronunciation,  which  has  been  given  in  the  body  of  the 
work,  has  the  sanction  of  M.  Bescherelle  himself,  than  whom  there 
is  no  higher  authority. 

§§  We  gave  in  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  on  what  we  consid- 
ered good  authority,  the  antepenultimate  accentuation  of  this  name 
under  the  article  Guiccioli  ;  but  we  have  since  met  with  an  educated 
and  highly  intelligent  Italian  gentleman,  Signor  Ponti,  who  assures 
us  that  he  was  personally  acquainted  with  several  Italians  named 
Guiccioli,  and  that  the  name  was  invariably  accentuated  on  the  penul- 
tima.    We  have  now  no  doubt  that  this  is  the  correct  pronunciation. 


a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y,  long;  i,  h,  6,  same,  less  prolonged;  a,  e,  T,  6,  u,  y, 
2344 


skori;  a,  e,  i,  o,  obscure;  fir,  f?Lll,  ftt;  mSt;  ndt;  good;  moon ; 


DISPUTED  OR  DOUBTFUL  PRONUNCIATIONS 


Maroli,  mi'ro-lee  or  ml-ro'lee. 
Ongaro,  on-gi'ro  or  on'gi-ro. 
Vaccaro,  vSk'kl-ro  or  vik-kl'ro. 

It  may  be  proper  to  state  that  in  the  attempt  to  ascer- 
tain the  correct  pronunciation  of  the  foregoing  names 
we  have  had  the  assistance  of  several  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished professors  of  the  Italian  language  in  Italy. 
No  doubt  the  same  name  is  often  pronounced  differently 
in  different  sections  :  we  have  therefore  generally  pre- 
ferred to  adopt  the  opinion  of  that  professor  who  lived 
nearest  to  the  birthplace  of  the  person  whose  name  was 
the  subject  of  dispute. 

The  diversity  in  the  spelling  of  Italian  names  appears 
to  be  for  the  most  part  limited  to  such  comparatively 
unimportant  variations  as  the  doubling  of  a  consonant, 
or  the  interchange  of  the  vowels  a  and  e  in  an  unaccented 
syllable.  The  following  are  among  the  most  important 
exceptions  to  the  foregoing  remark : 

Caliari  or  Cagliari,  (pronounced  alike  kil'yi-ree.) 

Leonardo  (or  Lionardo)  da  Vinci. 


Michelangelo,  (Michael  Angelo,)  me-kll-Sn'ji-lo,  cr 
Michelagnolo,*  me-k§l-3,n'yo-lo. 

V. 

Spanish, 

The  rules  for  writing  and  printing  Spanish  are  so 
admirablet  that  among  the  educated  classes  there  is 
scarcely  any  considerable  diversity  either  in  spelling  or 
pronunciation.  The  chief  exceptions  to  this  remark 
occur  in  proper  names,  some  writers  adopting  the  mod- 
ern spelling  of /for  x,  (in  Ximenes,  for  example,)  while 
others  prefer  the  old  form. 


*  Tliis  spelling  seems  like  a  strange  anomaly  when  we  consider 
that  the  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin  Michael  Angelus  ;  but  the 
name  of  the  great  artist  is  so  spelled  on  the  base  o-f  his  statue  at  the 
Palazzo  Vecchio  in  Florence,  and  the  name  of  the  street  in  which  he 
lived  is  spelled  in  the  same  manner:  so,  likewise,  Roscoe  always 
gives  the  name  in  his  "  Pontificate  of  Leo  X." 

t  See  Section  XIX.,  20,  Obs.  1,  in  the  Introduction. 


€  as  k;  c  as  s;  g  hard;  g  as  /;  G,  h,  K,  guttural:  N^  nasa/;  R,  trilled:  s  as  2;  th  as  in  this,    (Ji^^See  Explanations,  p.  23.) 

23,4; 


THE  END 


